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II 


f 


THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


FIRST 

•dltiOOy 

pabUahad  la  thrw             voIwdm, 

2768— X77I. 

SECOND 

»» 

I* 

m                    „ 

X777— 1784. 

THIRD 

t» 

»» 

tlgh«.« 

178S— 1797- 

FOURTH 

tf 

If 

tmnty                 „ 

xSoi^xSzo. 

FIFTH 

w 

M 

tmnty                 „ 

xSxs— 1817. 

SIXTH 

H 

ff 

tiftnty                 „ 

xSaj— 1824. 

SEVENTH 

»» 

ff 

tptntj^iM           fp 

xS^o— 1849. 

EIGHTH 

fft 

ff 

twcntj-two           ff 

X853— x86o. 

NINTH 

tt 

ff 

tncntj-fiva           ^ 

x87S— X889. 

TENTH 

If 

ninth  tdltion  and  aleftn 

•n 

pplMMntiffj  toliifliM, 

XQoa— 19^3, 

ELEVENTH 

M 

pubUilud  Id  tmaty-tiim  toIhoim, 

19x0— X91X. 

THE 


ENCYGLOPiEDIA  BRITANNICA 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS.    SCIENCES,    LITERATURE    AND    GENERAL 

INFORMATION 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME  XII 

GICHTEL  to  HARMONIUM 


NEW  YORK 

THE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA  BRITANNICA  COMPANY 

1910 


Copyright,  ta  the  United  States  of  America,  1910, 

by 

The  Eacydopoedia  Britaanica  Company. 


INITIALS  USED  IN  VOLUME  XH.  TO  IDENTIFY  INDIVIDUAL 

CONTRIBUTORS,  WITH  THE  HEADINGS  OF  THE 

ARTICLES  IN  THE  VOLUME  SO  SIGNED. 


A.  A.  B.*         Aximrk  Aloock  Rambaut,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A^.  f       ^  .  ^  _^ 

lUdcliffe  OtMcrver,  Oxford.    ProfeMoi  of  Artraiiomy  in  the  Univcntty  of  DttbUn-l  GfUl,  Boblflp 
aad  Ro^  Afltronooier  oC  IreUnd,  1892-1897.  I 

A.  G.  8i.  AiBiXT  Cbaklis  Sswabd,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  f 

Vwdtmor  of  Bouny  in  the  Univenity  of  Cambridge.    Hon.  Fellow  of  Emmaaud  i  GyiDIIOfpttllll^ 
College,  Cambridge.    President  of  the  Yorlnhire  NetunUiU'  Unioa,  1910.  I 

A.  F.  P*  AuEST  Fkeoeucx  Pollasd,  M.A..  F.R.Hist.S.  f 

Fetlov  of  All  SouU  Collie,  Oxfoni.    ProfeMor  of  EngUah  Hlitory  in  the  UDivetwty  J  n^w^ 
of  London.    AmisUnt  Editor  of  the  DieUomary  «f  HaHonal  Biography,  1803-1901.  {  v™"*!, 
Aathor  of  Bn^ami  mmdtr  tkt  Proketor  Somersd\  L^t  0/  Thamu  Lramma;  ok.  I 

A.  G«.*  Rev.  AuzAMinn  Gokdok,  M  JL  /  Onrn^n^  «■«; 

Lecturer  on  Church  History  in  the  Univenity  of  Mancherter.  I  BMtlir. 

A.  0.  B.*  How.  Akcbxbald  Gsaekb  Bell,  MJnst.CE.  f  ^  . 

Director  of  Public  Worics  andlnspector  of  Mines.  Trinidad.   Member  of  EiMCUtive  \  GolaiM. 
and  Legislative  Councils,  |nst.C.£.  I 

A.  K^  Sot  A.  HouTUM-ScBXMDLER,  CLE.  /  GIBn;  PfTf^f"i 

General  in  the  Persian  Army.   Author  of  BasUm  Ptrsiau  Irak,  \ 

A.Bft.  AftTRUS  Heevey.  f 

Fonneriy  Musical  Critic  to  Morning  PoU  and  VanUy  Foir.    Author  of  MoiUrs  \  GoOBOd. 
of  Fnntk  Uusic;  P^tneh  Musie  im  Iko  XIX,  CtHlkr]i^  (. 

A.  H.  Si  Rev.  A.  H.  Sayce,  D.D.  f  nnnmMr*  Ovim. 

See  the  biognphical  article.  Saycb.  A.  H.  -J^UIMUMT,  Ofpfc 

A.  X.  O.  Rev.  Alexandee  James  Gueve,  M.A.,  B.D.  f 

Professorof  New  Testament  and  Church  History  at  the  United  Independent  College.  J  •ummwmt  Cm.  amA 
Bradford.    Sometime  Registrar  of  Madias  Univtfsity  and  Member  of  Mysore]  "R^  ^^  f^t* 
Educational  Service.  '  I 

A.  J.  &  AiVEED  Jakes  Hipeuis. 

Formeriy  Member  of  Council  and  Hon.  Curator  of  Royal  College  of  Music.  Member 
of  Committee  of  the  Inventions  and  Music  Exhibition,  1885:  of  the  Vienna 
Exhibitbn.  1892 ;  and  of  the  Paris  Exhibition,  190OB  Authgr  pf  MuiitgL  Juttntmeutii 
A  Doocripiiom  and  Hitlory  of  tko  Pianoforlo;  &c 

A. Ik  AWEEW  Lano.  /Gnmiv.  «*Mmi*- 

Sce  the  biognphical  article.  Lamo,  Andeew.  -j^  uurail,  ■uniuia. 

A.K.C*  Acmes  Maby  Clebxe.  /nalkv  HaimiL 

See  the  biographical  aiticle.  Cleexb,  A.  M.  -j^nauty,  niORii. 

Oofttioekir;  Godwit; 
Golden-syo; 
Goldflnch;  Goom; 
Goi-Hawk;  Gnekls; 
Gnbe;  GiMiillneh; 
GrMBshank;  GroibMk; 
Grouse;  Gnaehsro;  Gnaa; 
Gnllkmot;  GqIbse-FowI; 
Gull,  Hunmsr-Kop. 

A.Ra,  AlSZANDES  NESBITT,  F.S.A.  f  aim..    l7^Mr«  -^ 

Kothor  oi  the  Introdnctitm  to  A  DeompHMCakiiogHO  if  tko  OauVetsoh  in  South  i  ^~'  ^  ^    . 

Konstng^  Muuum.  r-  •      *  |     Manujactwo  (mi  par(^ 

A.  L  C»  Alan  Summebly  Cole,  C.B.  r 

AssisUnt  Secretary  for  Art.  Board  of  Education.  1900-1908.    Author  of  Ancient  \  GoM  and  SttVW  ThlMA 
NoedloPointandPiUowlMoiEmbroideryandLocoiOmomoMtimEtiropoanSiUUidu:,  I 

A.1^.  AsxHim  Symoms.  /Goneoiirt,  Ds; 

See  the  biographical  article.  Symons.  A.  \  Hardy,  Th^Oiay. 

*  A  oonplcte  Urt,  sbowiag  all  individual  cootributon.  appcan  in  the  final  volume. 


Harmonlam  O'ji  part)* 


A.  S.  Aubed  Newton,  F.R.S. 

See  the  biographical  article,  Nbwton,  ALrasa 


Ti  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

A.W. H.*        Artrus  Wiluam  Holland.  /Godfrey  of  Vltnbo; 

Fonnerly  Scholar  of  Sc  John's  College.  Oxford.   Bacon  Scholar  of  Gny*s  Inn,  1900. 1  GoUoil  Bull;  HatetUf  » 

A.  W.  R  Alsxandek  Wood  Renton,  M.A.,  LL.B.  ffSMiiiMi  bm4. 

Puisne  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Ceylon.    Editor  of  Etuyclopaedia  of  the  \  „  ^  .!;*°^' 
LawsofEnglamL  (^  HtndwriUllg. 

A.  W.  W.  Adolphus  William  Wabd,  LL.D.,  Litt.D.  J  iip-*«Av  n^i^^ 

See  the  biographical  article,  Ward  A.  W.  I  OWeili^  KODort. 

a  r.  A.  Ckaxles  Francis  Atkinson.  f  Grand  AlUanoe,  War  of  tiM; 

Formerly  Scholar  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.   Capuin.  lit  City  of  London  (Royal  S  Grant,  Ulysses  S.  (m  part); 
Fusiliers).   Author  xAThe  Wilderness  and  Celd  Haihowr,  I  Great  RebeUlOlt* 

C  Gr.  Cbailes  Gross,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.  (i  857-1 909).  f 

Professor  of  History  at  Harvard  University,.  168^-1909.     Author  of  The  Ciid\  GlldS. 
Merchant ;  Sources  and  Literature  of  English  History;  &c  L 

C.H.*  Sir  C.  Holroyd.  /ii.^.«  si*  v  r 

See  the  biogfaphical  article,  Holroyd.  Sir  C.  \  «»«n»  BIT  r.  U 

C.  H.Ci.  Cbarlbs  H.  Coote.  /ii.w«^  /•    ^-a 

Formerly  of  Map  Department,  British  Museum.  \  "»"ny»  vw  part). 

C.  H.  Ha.  Carlton  Huntley  Hayes,  A.M.,  Ph.D.  f  Gmmrv*  Pnh^^  vn L  Ia 

Assistant  Professor  of  History  in  Columbia  Univenity,  New  York  City. .  Member  \     ^7  «5i22' 
of  the  American  Historical  AssociaUon.  {     XIL;  Guttert 

G.  J.  L.  Sn  Charles  Tames  Lyall,  K.C.S.I.,  C.I.E.,  Lt.D  (Edin.) 

Secretary,  Judicial  and  Public  Department.  India  Office.    Fellow  of  King's  College, 


V*  H*  ^r  • 


London.    Secretary  to  Government  of  India  in  Home*  Department,  1839-1894. ' 
Chief  Commissioner,  Central  Provinces,  India,  1895-1898.   Author  of  Translations 
ef  Ancient  Arabic  Poetry;  &c. 


Himlia 


C.  L.*  Cbarles  Lapworth,  M.Sc,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S. 

Professor  0 
of  Monogre 

'Glendower,  Owen; 


Professor  of  Geology  and  Physiography  in  the  University  of  Birmingham.    Editor  •{  GraptoDtei. 
raph  on  British  Craptol*tes,  Palaeontographical  Society,  1900-1908.  (, 


G.  L.  K*  Charles  Letrbridge  Kingsforo,  M.A.,  F.R.Hist.S.,  F.S.A. 

Assistant  Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education.     Author  of  Life  of  Henry  V. 
Editor  of  Chronicles  of  London,  and  Stow's  Survey  of  London. 


Gloocester,  Humphrey* 

Dako  of; 
HaUam,  Bishop; 
Hardyng,  John. 


C.  H.  Carl  Treodor  Mirbt,  D.TB.  r 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  University  of  Marburg.    Author  of  Publisistih  \  Gregory  VIL 
im  Zeitalter  Cregor  VIL;  Quellen  zur  Geschichte  des  PapsUhums;  &c.  [ 

C.  ML  ChedouiiTle  Mijatovicb.  r 

Senator  of  the  Kingdom  of  Servia.     Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Pleni-J  GlUtdulioh* 


potcntiary  of  the  King  of  Servia  to  the  Court  of  St  James',  1895-1900  and  1902-  l 
1903.  I 

Sir  Charles  Moore  Watson,  K.C.M.G.,  C.B.  r 

Colonel,  Royal  Engineers.    Deputy-Inspector-General  of  Fortifications,  1896-I902.  ■<  Gordon,  GeneraL 
Served  under  General  Gordon  in  tne  Soudan,  1874-1 87s*  I. 


jC.  Pf.  ChrISTUN  PfiSTER,  D.-is-L.  fnraffftrv    SL  of  Tonn- 

Professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris.*  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  pf  Honour.    Author  •(  SI?,;!.  Tr  e!.k».i:.!.« 
of  Etudes  sur  le  rigne  de  Robert  te  fieux.  \  Ounther  of  SchwanblffS. 


Gomes;'  HaUuyt 
(in  part). 


C.  R.  B,  Charles.  Rayhond  Beazley,  M.A..  D.Lirr.,  F.R.G:S.,  F.R.Hist.S. 

Professor  of  Modem  History  in  tlie  University  of  Birmingham.  Formerly  Fellow 
of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  University  L<x:turer  in  the  History  of  Geography. 
Lothian  Prixeman,  Oxford,  1889.  Lowell  Lecturer,  Boston,  1908.  Author  of 
Henry  the  Navigator;  The  Dawn  of  Modem  Geography;  &c. 

CWa.  CEaL  Weatherly.  rr.--iii#- 

Formerly  Scholar  of  Queen'«CoUege,Oxfofd.   Barrister-at-Law.  ^cramto, 

C.W.I.  Charles  William  EuoT.  fr—   a.. 

See  the  biographical  artide,  Eliot,  C,  W.  \ ^"9>  ^^ 

D.  C.  To.  Rev.  Duncan  Cr6okes  Tovey,  M. A.  J  crnv  Thomaa. 

Editor  of  The  Letters  of  Thomas  Gray;  &c.  \  ^^''  *™™* 

<ald  Franhs  Tovey. 

Author  of  Essays  in  Musical  Analysis:  comprising  The  Classi 
Gctdberg  Variations,  and  analysis  of  many  other  classical  works. 

w 

Hallcamasins. 


D.  F.  T.  Donald  FRAitas  Tovey.  f 

Author  of^  Essays  in  Musical  Analysis:  comprising^  The  Classical  Concerto,  The  <  GlttCk;  HfTdfL 


D.  G.  H.  David  George  Hogarth,  M.A. 

Keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford.     Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford. 
Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.    Excavated  at  Paphos,  1888:  Naucratis,  1899  and  ' 
1903:  Ephesus.  1904-IQ05:  Assiut.  1906-1907;  Director.  British  School  at  Athens, 
1897-1900;  Director,  Creun  Exploration  Fund,  1899. 


1I.B.  David  HannaV. 

Formeriy  British  Vice-ConsuT  at  Barcelona.  Author  of  Short  History  of  Royal  Navy, ' 
jaJ7'j688:LifeofEmUioCastelar;&c. 


Gondomar,  Oonnt; 
Grand  Alllanee,  War  ol 
the:   Naval  Operations; 
IQidfihen;  HamiIU»ii»  Bninii. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES  vB 

DL  El.  T.  Damkl  Lleuteb  Thomas.  f 

Barrister-at-Law,  Lincola's  Inn.     Stipeodiuy  Magistxate  at  Pootypridd  and  -{  GbunoigBOSllin;  GOUtT* 
Rhondda.  t 

D.  Kb.  R£v.  Ducald  BfACFADYEN,  M.A.  rGlaa.  John: 

Minister  of  South  Grove  Congregational  Church,  Highgate.  Author  of  Constructive  i  chuii^. 
fiompegatioHal  Ideals ;  &c.  L  uinmnTi 

D.  ■.  W.  Snt  Donald  Mackenzie  Wallace,  K.C.I.E.,  K.C.V.O. 

Extra  Groom-in; Waiting  to  H.M.  King  George  V.    Director  of  the  Foreign  Depart 


ment  of  The  Times,  1 891-1899.  Member  of  In<titut  de  Droit  Intemationarand 
Officicr  de  I'lnstruction  Publique  of  France.  Joint-editor  of  new  volumes  (loth 
edition)  of  the  Encyclopaedia  BriUumica,  Author  of  Russia ;  Egypt  atid  the  Egyptian 
Question;  The  Web  of  Empire;  &XU 


Gton;  GorelHitayf* 


B.A.F.  Edwasp  Augustus  Freeman,  I.L.D.  S  hmum  t£^  jl..^ 

See  the  biographical  article.  Fkebman,  E.  A.  -J^Oailll  ^Ml  paH). 


Golden  Ron  (mi  p»(^ 


B.  A«  X*  E.  Alpsed  Jones. 

Author  of  Old  Entlish  Gold  PlaU;  Old  Church  Plate  of  the  Isle  of  Man;  Old  Siher 
Sacramental  Vessds  of  Foretgn  Protestant  Churches  in  England;  Illustrated  Catalogue* 
of  Leopold  de  Rothschild's  CoUeaian  of  Old  PlaU;  A  Private  Catalogue  of  The  Royal 
Plate  at  Windsor  Castle;  &c 

B.  Bl*      Ernest  Charles  Francois  Babelon. 

I*rofe8sor  at  the  College  de  France.    Keeper  of  the  department  of  Medals  and 
Antiquities  at  the  Bibhothique  Nationale.    Member  of  the  Acad^mie  des  Inacrip- , 
tions  et  Belles  Lcttres,  Pans.    Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Author  of 
Descriptions  historiques  des  monnaies  de  la  ripubliqne  romaine;  TraUis  des  monnaies 
gjrecques  et  romaines;  Catalogue  des  camies  de  ia  biuiothigue  nqtionale. 

B.  Br.  Ernest  Barker,  M.A.  r 

Fdlow  and  Lecturer  in  Modern  History  at  St  John's  College,  Oxford.    Formerly  \  Oodfrqf  Ot  BooIDoilt 
FdJow  and  Tutor  of  Merton  College-   Craven  Scholar,  1 895.  ^ 

B.G.  B.  Rt.  Rev.  Edward  Cuthbert  Butler,  O.S.B.,  M.A,,  D.Litt.  (Dublin).  f  Gilbert  of  Semprlnglianb 

Abbot  of  Downside  Abbey.  Bath.    Author  of  "  The  Lausaic  History  of  Palladius  "i      8t; 
in  Cambridge  Texts  and  Studies,  vol.  vL  [  GnuidmOlltllMS;  GrOOU 


E.C.8P. 

E.F.G. 

E.F.S.a 

E.G. 

B.H.P. 

B.I.P. 

Edwin  Francis  Gay,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Economics  and  Dean  of  the  Graduate  School  of  Business  Admimstxation,  •{  HuueftUo 
Harvard  University. 


Rev.  Edward  Clarke  SpiceR,  M.A.  J 

New  College,  Oxford.    Geographical  Scholar,  190a  \  Giaeler. 

tion.-j  ] 

Lady  Dilke.  /flmm. 

See  the  biographical  article,  DaKB.  Sir  C.  W.,  Bait.  \  '"•"■* 

Edmund  Gosse,  LL.D.  /#. 

See  the  biographical  article,  GossB,  E.  \  vBOIM. 

Edward  Henry  Palmer,  M.A.  f  _.« 

See  the  biographical  article.  Palmer,  E.  H.  \  BU!* 


Edward  John  Payne,  M.A.  (1844-1904).  r 

Formerly  Fellow  of  yniversit^.  College,  ^Oxford.    Editor  of  the  Select  Werhs  of] 

Teal 


ronncriy  rciiow  01    universuy  VA^iicge,  wxiora.     caicor  01  ine  ocfecv    worms  oj  j  ^ ^^^.  «._• 

Burke.    Author  of  History  of  European  Colonies;  History  of  the  New  World  called  |  Giej,  ZOtt  MIL 
America;  The  Colonies,  in  the  "  British  Citizen  "  Scries;  &c. 


El  ■.  Eduard  Meyer,  Ph.D.,  D.Litt.  (Oxon),  LL.D.  (Chicago).  f 

Pnrfessor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  University  of  Berlin.    Author  of  Ceschichte<  GotineS. 
des  Alterthums ;  Ceschichte  des  alten  A egyptens ;  Die  Israeliten  und  ihre  Nachbarstamme,  L 

B.  ■.  W«  Rev.  Edward  Mewbitrn  Walker,  M.A.  r  Greece:  History,.  AtidmL 

Fellow,  Senior  Tutor  and  Librarian  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.  i      ^  jj^  3C,  ' 

B.  0-*  Edmund  Owen,  M.B.,  F.R.C.S.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.  f 

Consulting  Sureeon  to  St  Mary's  Hospital,  London,  and  to  the  Children's  Hospital. 
Great   Ormond  Street,   Loncfon.     Chevalier  of   the   Lqzion  of   Honour.      Late . 
Examiner  in  Surgery  at  the  Universities  of  Cambridge,  Lonifon  and  Durham.  Author 
of  A  Manual  of  A  natomy  for  Senior  Students,  • 

BLPlr*  Edgar  Prestace. 

Special   Lecturer  in   Portuguese    Literature  in  the  University  of  Manchester. 
Examiner  in  Portuguese  in  the  Universities  of  London.  Manchester,  &c.     Commen- 
dador.  Portuguese  Order  of  S.  Thiago.    Correspondine  Member  of  Lisbon  Royal ' 
Academy  of  sciences,  Lisbon  Geographical  Society,  &c.    Editor  of  Letters  of  a 
Portuguese  Nun;  Aturara's  Chronicle  of  Guinea;  &c 

B.  B.  Lord  Lochee  or  Gowrie  (Edmund  Robertson),  P.C.,  LL.D.,  K.C.  f  

Civil  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  1802-1895.    Secretary  to  the  Admiralty,  1905-1908.  -j  HallRin,  Hoiqr* 
M.P.  for  Dundee,  1885-19018.    Fellow  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford.  L 

B.  8. 0.  Edwin  Stephen  Goodrich,  M. A.,  F.R.S.  r 

Fellow  and  Librarian  of  Merton  College,  Oxford.    Aldrichian  Demonstrator  of-|  HftpIodrfU. 
Comparative  Anatomy,  University  Museum,  Oxford.  [ 

7.  C  C.  Frederick  Cornwallis  Conybeare,  M.A.,  D.Th.  (Giessen).  r 

Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.      Formerly  Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford.  J  Gregory  the  THwinTPltftf» 
Author  of  The  Ancient  Armenian  Texts  of  Aristotle;  Myth,  Magic  and  Morals;  &c.  [ 

V.  6.  ■•  Bl       Frederick  George  Meeson  Beck.  M.A.  /  Goths  (in  parti. 

Fellow  and  Lecturer  in  Classics,  Clare  College,  Cambridge.  \ 


Goitre;  HMmorrbolik 


Goes,  DgmiSo  Do; 
Gonzaga. 


r.w.s.* 


p.  H.  D«  Rev.  Fuokiick  Homes  Dudden,  D.D. 


vm  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

P«  0.  Si  F.  G.  Stephens.  f 

Formerly  Art  Critic  of  the  Alkenaeum.  Author  of  Artists  at  Hams;  Ceorte  Cmik^  J  nntimtr*  «• 
skanki  Memorials  sf  W.  iiutrsadyi  French  and  FUmisk  Pieiwesi  Sir  E.  lamdsterA  ^^l^""^  "^ 
T.C.Ho0k,RA,;8au  I 

r.  FftEOEiiCK  Homes  Dudden,  D.D.  f   

Fellow,  Tutor  and  Lecturer  in  Theology.  Lincoln  GiUcse,  Oxfocd.  Author  of  i  OnffUf  L 
Gregory  tke  Great,  his  Place  in  History  and  Thought ;  &c  I 

V.H.H.  FbANKUN  HenbY  HoOPEK.  /ii,«,«.w   iirt.iL.tj  m^^ 

ABautMntEditoroitht Century DidionaryK  \aaa§oat  WUIMft  8eoll» 

V,  J.  H.  Francis  Torn  Haveuielo,  M.A..  LL.D.,  F.S.A.  f 

Camden  IVofcnor  of  Ancient  Hbtory  in  the  Univcrrity  of  Oxford.    Fellow  of  J  fiMkMMU  fw%» 
Draienote  College.    Fellow  of  the  Bntish  Academy.    Author  of  Monographs  on  |  •v^ 

Roman  History,  c^wcially  Roman  Britain;  &c  t> 

f,M»  FUDTjor  Nansen.  f  nrmmHi^ 

See  the  hiographical  article,  Nansen,  FbxotjOp.  1  wwwmw. 

P.  ILOi  Feank  R.  Cana.  J«  «  *,^  ^ 

Author  of  South  Africa  from  the  Great  TYeh  to  the  Vuion.  \  ^^^'^  ^^^*^ 

f,  8.  P.  FkANas  Samuel  Phxlbiick.  A.M.,  Pb.D.  r 

Formerly  Scholar  and  Reudent  Fellow  of  Harvard  Univcrrity.    Member  of  •{  Bgmntftii    AlninWtor 
American  Historical  Association.  [  ^  r—i—rf 

Frsderxcx  Wiluam  Rodlex,  I.S.O.,  F.G.S.  f 

Curator  and  Librarian  of  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  London,  1879-1902.  ■{  Oypmm;  BMIBEllli. 
President  of  the  GeologisU'  Association,  1887-1889.  L 


Gajftnfl  and  Kajitthtnl. 


G.  A.  Oft  Gbobce  Abraham  Gbiebson,  C.I.E.,  Pr.D.,  l>.LiTr.  (Dublin). 

Member  of  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  1873-190A.   In  charge  of  Linguistic  Survey  of 
India.  i898>iQ02.    Gold  Medallist,  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  1909.    Vice-President ' 
of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.    Formeriy  Fdlow  of  Cakutu  University.    Author 
of  The  Languages  of  Indiai  &c. 

G.  C IL  Geobce  Campbexx  Macaulay,  M.A.  f 

Lecturer  in  English  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.   Formeriy  Professor  of  English  J  Otiww  ItAn 


Language  and  Literature  in  the  University  of  Wales.    Editor  of  the  Worhs  of 
Gom»';&c 


G.  C  W*           Geobce  Charles  Williamson,  Litt.D.  f 

Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Author  of  Portrait  Miniatures;  Life  of  Richard  J  GnOOb  WL 

C«JiMy.  R.A.;  George  Engleheart:  Portrait  Drawings;  &c  Editor  oil  new  edition  of  1 

Bryan  s  Dictionary  of  PauUers  and  Engraters,  I 

G.  P.  Z.            Geobce  Freoericx  Zimmeb.  A.M.Inst.C.E.  /  n^Mtk* 

Author  of  Mechanical  Handling  of  Material.  \  "«■»■"•■• 

0. 0*  Sib  Alfred  George  Greenrill,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 


Formerly  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  Ordnance  College.  Woolwich.    Examiner 
University  of  Wales.     Member  of  the  Aeronautical  Committee. 


Gyroseops  and  Gfnslit 


in  the  University  of  Wales.     Member  of  the  Aeronautical  Committee.    Author' 
of  Notes  on  Dynamics;  Hydrostatics;  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus,  with  Apptica- 
tions;  &c 

6.  So.  Grant  Srowerman.  A.M.,  Ph.D.  f 

Professor  of  Latin  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin.    Member  of  the  Archaeological  J  Qi^t  Hothtr  of  fhs  Gsds. 

Institute  of  America.    Member  of  American  Philological  Association.    Author  of  1 
With  the  Professor ;  The  Great  Mother  of  the  Cods ;  &c.  I 

0. 8. 0.  Snt  George  Sydenham  Clarke,  G.C.M.G.,  G.C.I.E.,  F.R.S.  f 

Governor  of  Bombay.    Author  of  Imperial  Defence;  Russia's  Great  5m  Power ;'{  GTMO-TOrkUl  War,  1897, 
The  Last  Great  Naoal  War;  &c  I 

G.  W.  B.  R       Rt.  Hon.  George  William  Erskine  Russell,  P.C,  M.A.,  LL.D.  f 

Under-Secretary  of  Sute  for  the  Home  Departmlcnt.  1894-1895:  for  India.  1892-  J  ffliditom,  W.  & 
1894.    M.P.  for  Aylesbury,  1880-1885;  for  North  Beds.,  1891-1895.    Author  of  I 
Life  of  W.  E.  Gladstone;  Collections  and  Recollections;  Ac  ^ 

0.  W,  T.  Rev.  Griffiths  Wheeler  Thatcher,  M.A..  B.D.  f  ?!5 /?^5  HimadMal; 

Warden  of  Camden  College.  Sydney.  N.S.W.    Formeriy  Tutor  in  HcbKw  and  Old  1  HandStiT;  Hammad 
Tcsument  History  at  Mailsfield  College,  Oxford.  [  ar-RIwIya;  Bai&L 

E.A.daC       Henry  Anselm  de  Colyar,  K.C.  S  nn»wmnimm 

Author  of  Tho  Law  of  Guarantees  and  of  Principal  and  Surety;  Ac.  \  onaianiea. 

B.  B.  Wfc         Horace  Bouncbroxe  Woodward,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.  f  „  ,^.         «-  « 

Formeriy  Assistant  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  England  and  Wales.   pRsi-  -{  HaMlllcar,  W.  K. 
dent.  Geologists'  Association,  1893-1894.    Wollaston  Medallist,  1908.  { 

IGoselMB,  Isl  TlMonat; 
GraDYl]lt»  and  Bui; 
Hamilton,  Akauidtr 
{in  part); 
Hareonrt,  flUr  wmiam* 

'H.  Da.  RiPPOLYTE  Deleraye,  S.  J.  .     r 

Assistant  in  the  compilation  of  the  BoUandist  publications:  Analeda  Bottandiana  J  Qfj^  s|.  H^«tolo|f. 
and  Ada  sanctorum.  I    ^^ 

B.  G.  E»  Horatio  Gordon  Hutchinson.  f .  ^ 

Amateur  Golf  Champion.  1886-1887.    Author  of  HinU  on  Golf)  Golf  (Badminton  <  GoK, 
Ubrary) ;  Booh  1/  Golf  and  Goifersi  Ac  \ 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


ILI.P. 


H.U. 


H.L.H. 
H.H.Wa. 

B.B. 
H.SV. 

B.&-K. 
H.W.CD. 

H.W.B.* 

LA, 

I.  A.  P.  H. 

hA.1L 
LA,B, 

JLBt 
JLILB. 

JL9L 
I.O.C.A. 

1.&R 
I.H.P. 


HiUttY  Tames  Powell,  F.CS. 

Of  McMis  jAinet  PowcU  Sc  Sons,  Whitefrian  GUum  Works,  London.     Member  of  . 
Committee  of  six  Appointed  by  Board  of  Educatbn  to  prepare  the  scheme  for  the  re- '  GlUk 
amngement  of  the  Art  Collection  of  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.    Author 
of  Oaitt  Uakiug;  9oci 

HoiACt  Lamb,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  P.R.S. 

Frofessor  of  Mathematics,  Univerutv  of  Manchester.     Formerly  Fellow  and 

Asastant  Tutor  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.    Member  of  Council  of  Roval  i  HifmODle  Alll|nll» 

Society,  1894-189&    Royal  Medallist,  1902.    President  of  London  Mathematical  I 

Society,  1902-1904.    Author  of /f>^atfyMMtM;&c.  t 

Hakbzet  L.  HiMifEsay,  L.R.C.SJ.,  L.R.C.PJ.,  M.D.  (Bniz.) 

HiCTOK  Mumto  Craowicx,  M.A. 

Librarian  and  Fellow  of  Clare  College,  Cambridge.    Author  of  Studies  9m  Aui^ 


\  I 


Haiold  Muxok  Woodcock,  D.Sc. 

Assistant  to  the  Professor  of  Proto-Zoology,  London  University.  Fellow  of 
Univerrity  CoHne,  London  Author  of  Haemojlatdiales  in  Sir  £.  Ray  Lanhct- 
ter*s  TnaHu  of  Zotiogy,  and  of  various  sdentiSc  papers 

Hemky  Reeve,  D.CL. 

See  the  biographical  article,  Reeve,  Henit. 

Hemxy  Sweet,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

University  Reader  in  Phonetics,  Oxford.  Member  of  the  Academies  of  Munich, 
Bnlin.  Copenhagen  and  HclsinRfors.  Author  of  A  HisUry  of  Emgtisk  Sounds  since 
Ok  EarUesi  Ptriod;  A  Handbook  of  PkoneUcs;  &c 

Sb  Hehiy  Seton-Kaix,  C.M.G.,  M.A. 

M.P.  for  Sc  Helen's,  1885-1906.   Author  of  My  Sporting  Holidays;  Ac. 

Heney  Wiluam  Casless  Davis,  M.A. 

Fdlow  and  Tutor  of  Balliol  College.  Oxford.  Fellow  of  All  Soub  College.  Oxford. 
1895-1902.   Author  of  Engfand  uider  tko  Normans  and  Angepins ;  Ckarttmagno. 

Rev.  Hehiy  Wreelee  Robinson,  M.A. 

Profeisui  of  Church  History  in  Rawdoa  College,  Leeds.  Senior  Kennicott  Scholar, 
Oxford  University.  1901.  Author  of  Hebrew  Psychology  in  Relation  to  Pontine 
Anthropology  (in  Mansfield  CoUeg/e  Essays);  Ac 

ISBAEL  AbEABAMB,  M.A. 

Reader  in  Talmudic  and  Rabbinic  Literature,  University  of  Cambridge.  President, 
Jewish  Historical  Society  of  England.  Author  of  A  Short  History  of  Jewish  Utera- 
tnrei  Jewish  Ufe  in  the  Middle  Aits. 

OBN  Alexandee  Fuixee  Maxiland,  M.A.,  F.S.A. 

Musical  Critic  of  The  Times.  Author  of  Life  of  Schimann ;  The  Musician's  Pilgrim- 
air;  Masters  ef  Qerman  Music;  En^ish  Musk  in  the  Ntneteenlh  Century,  The  Age 
eg  Bach  and  HamdeL   Editor  of  new  edition  of  Grove's  Dictionary  0/  Music;  &c 

ohn  Allen  Howe,  B.Sc. 

Corator  and  Librarian  of  the  Museum  of  Pkactical  Geology,  London.  Author  of 
The  Geology  of  Building  Stones, 

bmr  AnmNGTON  Symonds,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article,  Symonds,  J.  A. 

AMES  Blytb,  M.A.,LL.D. 

Formeriy  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Technical 
College.   Editor  of  Feiguaoa's  fJcdrwtly. 

AMES  Babtlett. 

Lecturer  on  Constructionj  Architecture,  Sanitation,  Quantities,  Ac,  King's  College, 
London.  Member  of  Soaety  of  Architects,  Institute  of  Junior  Engineers,  Quantity 
Surveyors'  Assodatioo.   Author  of  Quantities, 

AMES  David  Boubcbiek,  M.A^  F.R.G.S. 

King's  College,  Cambridge.  Correspondent  of  The  Times  in  South-Eastern  Europe. 
Commander  of  the  Orders  of  Prince  Danilo  of  Montenegro  and  of  the  Saviour  of 
Greece,  and  Oflker  of  the  Order  of  St  Alexander  of  Bulgaria. 

CBN  Edwin  Sandys.  M.A.,  Lttt.D.,  LL.D. 

Public  Orator  in  tne  University  of  Cambridge.  Fellow  of  St  John's  College.  Cam- 
bridge. Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.  Author  of  History  of  Classical  Scholar- 
ship; Ac 


See  the  biogiBphkal  article.  Fisse,  J. 

OBN  Geobce  Clabk  Andebson,  M.A. 

Censor  and  Tutor  of  Christ  Church.  Oxford.  Formerly  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College. 
Ciaven  Fellow  (Oxford),  18961.   Conington  Priseman,  1893. 

cma  Geobce  Robebtson,  M.A.,  Pr.D. 

Professor  of  German  Language  and  Literature:  University  of  London.  Author  of 
History  ef  German  Literature;  Schiller  after  a  Centnry;  Ac  Editor  of  the  Modem 
Loj^uafs  JonmaL 

OBN  Henby  Fbeese.  M.A. 

Formerly  Fellow  of  St  John's  CoHcfe,  Cambridge. 


Cymtoolbcy. 

Goihs:  Colhie  Lattptaff, 


GngailiMs;  BMmospodiltau 

Gulsot  (ffi  part). 

Gitamiv  J.  L  G.;- 
GriBun,  Wllhilm  Gut. 

Gob, 

Gilbsrl,'PoUot; 
GloiioMtsr,  ftohtr^  Bui  ol; 
Gfosseteitt* 

Batakknk. 


Gusts;  HBbdsla] 
HshUdiB;  Hahft; 
Haptsn;  ilarfiL 


GiOYSb  SirGcoiiB. 


GIsdBl  Psrfod; 
GnsosBBd. 

GuariaL 


GradaattoB. 


Glaxiag. 

Gnees:  Geography  and 
History:  Modan; 

Greek  Lilenture:  IIL 
Modem, 

Greek  Lew. 


Gnmt,  Ulysiet  &• 
GordlOBk 

Goethe;  GrlOpiner. 

GrBoehns;  GntlaB; 
HBdriBB  {in  part). 


X  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


j.H.a 


I 


John  Henry  Hessels,  M.A.  /ri««.  r»teni.«P» 

Author  of  CuUnberg:  an  Historical  ImeUiiatum.  \  «"«»  Utt»I««t. 


J.  H.  P.  John  Hensy  PoYNnNC,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S. 


Profesior  of  Physics  and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Science  in  the  University  of  Bir-  J  A««vi«*MAn  f /•  a<i»a 
mingham.    Formeriy  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.   Joint-author  of  Ttxl- 1  '«»«»w'n  \m  panu 
Book  of  Physics,  I 

J.  HL  It  John  Holland  Rose,  M.A.,  Lrrr.D.  f 

Lecturer  on  Modem  Histocy  to  the  Cambridge  University  Local  Lectures  Syndicate.  J  HMwr^nA   Uamm 
Author  of  Ufe  of  NapoUon  L ;  NapoUonic  Studies;  Tko  DtoetopmttU  oj  the  European  |  W»WB»»»»  MWMI. 
Nationsi  The  Ufe  ofFiU;&c  I 

J.  L.  W.  Bfxss  Jessie  Laidlay  Weston.  fGnll,  TIm  Holy; 

Author  of  Arthurian  Romances  unrepresented  in  Malory,  \  Gueoevtre. 

J.  ILM.  John  Malcolm  Mitchell.  fCrote; 

Sometime  Scholar  of  Queen's  Collcgjc.  Oxford.    Lecturer  in  Classics.  East  London  <  HamiltOll,  Sir  WUUftm, 
College  (Universit/orLoBdoo).   Joint<ditor  of  Grote's //ulory  0/ Grrrc«.  I      Bart,  (in  ^Oi  HaniD. 

J.  S.  P.  John  Suth  Flett,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.  rGlattconlte;  GimIb: 

Petrograoher  to  the  Geological  Survey.  Formerly  Lecturer  on  Petrology  in  Edin-  J  t^^^uM.  nMnniu^. 
burgh  University.  Neill  Medallist  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  Bigsby  1  5™"?'*?  .  ^' 
Medallist  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London.  »  •    7  j^  g^y,,.  Crttoen;  GnyWMkt. 

J.  T.  B«.  John  T.  Bealby.  f 

Joint  author  of  Stanford's  Europe.    Formerly  Editor  of  the  Scottish  Ceographicai  <  GoU. 
Manuine,    Translator  of  Sven  Hcdin's  Through  Asia,  Central  Asia  and  Tibet-,  &c.  L 

t«*«  T         o^  P  «,N  f  Gofcten  Rqs*  (m  ^irO; 

J.  T.  S.*  Jakes  Thomson  Shotwell,  Ph.D.  J  coUad* 

Professor  of  History  in  Columbia  University,  New  York  City.  |  Qgi^Q/  (.'n  a^*/) 

K.  G.  J.  KiNCSLEY  Garland  Jayne.  f 

Sometime  Scholar  of  Wadham  College,  Oxford.    Matthew  Arnold  Prizeman,  1903.  A  GoR. 
Author  of  Vasco  da  Cama  and  his  Successors.  l 

K.  Kr.  Karl  Krumbacrer.  ( Greek  Literstiut: 

See  the  biographical  article.  Krumbacuer.  Carl.  \        n.  Bytantint, 


K.  S.  Miss  Kathleen  Schlesincer. 

Editor  of  the  Portfolio  of  Musical  Archaeoloty,    Author  of  The  Instruments  of  the  < 
Orchestra ;  &c. 

L.  D.*  Louis  Duchesne. 


Glockenspiel;  Gong; 
Guitar;  Guitar  Fiddle; 
Gttsla;  Harmoiiiea; 
Harmonlchord; 
HarmonluiD  {in  paH), 


IS  DUCHESNE.  f 

See  the  biographical  article,  Duchesne,  L.  M.  O.  •[  Cregwy:  Popes,  ILpVL 

L.  P.  D.  Lewis  Foreman  Day,  F.S.A.  (1845-1909).  r 

Formerly  Vice-President    f  the  Society  of  Arts.    Past  Master  of  the  Art  Workers'  J  GlaSI,  Stained. 
Gild.   Author  of  Windows,  a  booh  about  Stained  Class;  &c  [ 

L.  P.  Vd-H.        Leveson  FRANas  Vernon-Harcourt,  M.A.,  M.Inst.C.E.  (1839-1907). 

Formerly  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  at  University  College,  London.    Author . 
of  Rivers  and  Canals;  Harbours  and  Docks;  CtPtt  Engineering  as  applied  in  Con 
struction;iDC 

L.  J.  S.  Leonard  James  Spencer,  M.A.  f  Goniometer;  Gftthlte;, 

Assistant  in  the  Department  of  Mineralogy,  British  Museum.    Formerly  Scholar  J  Graphite  (in  Part)i 
of  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  and  Harkness  Scholar.     Editor  of  the  ]  /i.^.««i,i«« 
Mineralogical  Magaaine.  *  *  t  CieenocUte. 

L.  R.  P.  Lewis  Richard  Farnell,  M.A.,  Lirr.D.  f 

FellowandSeniorTutorof  Exeter  College,  Oxford;    University  Lecturer  in  Classical  J  Greek  PeTJglOIlT 
Archaeology;  Wilde  Lecturer  in  Comparative  Religion.    Author  of  CuUs  of  tke\  ^*^ 

Creek  States ;  Evolution  of  Religion,  I 

IL  Lord  Macaulay.  /coldamlth.  Ollrar 

See  the  biographical  article,  Macaulay,  T.  B.  M.,  Baron.  ^wwimiin,  uaw. 

IL  0.  Moses  Gaster,  Ph.D. 

Chief  Rabbi  of  the  Sephardic  Communities  of  England.    Vice-President,  Zionist 
Congress,  1898, 1890. 1900.   Ilchcster  Lecturer  at  Oxford  on  Slavonic  and  Byzantine  •{  Glpdes. 
Literature,  I886anai89i.   President,  Folk-lore  Society  of  England.  Vice-President, 
Anglo-Jewish  Association.   Author  of  History  of  Rumanian  Popular  Literature;  Ac. 

IL  H.  S.  Marion  H.  Spielmann.  F.S.A. 

Formeriy  Editor  of  ttie  Magatine  of  Art.    Member  of  Fine  Art  Committee  of  Inter- 
national Exhibitions  of  Brussels,  Paris,  Buenos  Aires,  Rome  and  the  Franco- 
British  Exhibition,  London.     Author  of  History  of  "Punch":    British  Portrait '^ 
Painting  to  the  opening  of  the  Nineteenth  Century;  Works  of  C.  P.  Watts,  RJl.; 
Britisk  Sculpture  and  Sculptors  of  To-day;  HenrieUe  RonHer;  &c 

M.  Ja.  Morris  Jastrow,  JuN.,  Ph.D.  f  i»ii«.«»—i.  «.i.  ^kt. 

Professor  of  Semitic  Unguages.  University  of  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.    Author  of  \  C»**™»«»  ■f«  «» 
Religion  of  the  Babylonians  and  Auyrians;  &c  [  Gttla. 

IL  IL  Max  Arthur  Macaulttte.  r 

Formerly  Divisional  Judge  in  the  Punjab.  Author  of  TTie  Sikh  Rdigion,  its  Gurus.  J  nnntli. 
Sacred  Writings  and  Authors;  &c.  Editor  of  L^e  of  Cum  Nanak,  m  the  Punjabi  1  ^■*°^ 
language.  L 


Gilbert,  AUred; 
Greenawaj,  Kate. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES  m 

IL  I.  T.  liAtcos  NiEBUHS  Too.  M.A.  f 

Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Oriel  Colkse,  Oxfoid.    Univenity  Lecturer  in  ppigrtphy.  i  0|flbiabJm. 
Joant-autlior  of  CaUUogtte  oj  tiu  Sparia  Museum  I 

{Giwm:  Hishrr- 
146  BjC.  iSoo  diJD.; 

ILP.  ICakk  Tattison.  /nrotim. 

See  the  biographical  article,  Pattison,  Marx.  \  w«vuu.. 

IL  P.*  Leoh  Jacques  Maxdix  Pkinet.  f  ^    —      «         .. 

Fomeriy  Arehivist  to  the  French  Natiooal  Archives.    Auxiliary  of  the  Institute  \  Gooffler;  Uveoort 
of  France  (Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences).  I 

0.11k  Oswald  Baxson,  F.S.A.  f^k^ 

Editor  of  The  Anctslor,  1909-1905.      Hon.  Genealogist  to  Sunding  Council  of  the  i  uMto. 
Honourable  Society  of  the  Baronetage.  L 

P.  A.  Paul  Dakixl  ALPHANDtxY.  f*,       .    ^   «. 

Professor  of  the  History  of  Dogma,  Ecole  Pratk|ue  des  Hautes  Etudes,  Sorbonne,  "j  GODsalO  ds  BSfOSO. 


>ry  0 
XdUs 


Paris.  Author  of  L€S  IdUs  morales  chet  Us  kUtrodoxes  talines  au  dibut  du  XllU  stick. 

P.  A.  A.  Pmup  A.  AsHwoxTB,  M.A.,  Doc.  Juxis.  f 

New  Collcce.  Oxford.    Barrister-at-Law.    Translator  of  H.  R.  von  Gneist's  History  i  GiMift 
0/  ih*  Euifisk  CousiituHou,  L 

P.  C  T.  PmiiP  Chxskxy  Yoxxx,  M.A.  f  S^,??J^' 'S!^^^  ,.. 

Magdalen  CoU^,  Oxfoid.  1  Halifax,  1st  Hamoen  ol; 

I  Hamilton,  1st  Dtiks  of. 

P.O.  PexCY  Gakdnek,  M.A.  /nraak  Art 

See  the  biographical  article,  Gaxonbx,  Percy.  \ 

P.  GL  Petex  Giles,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  LnT.D.  r 

Fellow  and  Classical  Lecturer  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and  University  J  Greek  LaogliaKo; 
Reader  in  Comparative  Philology.    Formerly  Secretary  of  the  Cambridge  Philo-  |  H. 
logical  Society.    Author  of  Manuial  of  ComparaUoe  Fhtiaogy,  I 

P.  6.  K  Paul  Geoxce  Konody.  f 

Art  Critic  of  the  Observer  and  the  DaUy  MaU.      Formerly  Editor  of  The  Artist,  i  Hab,  FhUS. 
Author  o(  The  Art  of  Walter  Crane;  Velasquez,  Life  and  Work;  &c.  L 

P.  G.  T.  PxTEx  Guthxie  Tait,  LL.D.  /  HamUton,  Sir  WUUain 

See  the  biographical  article.  Tajt,  Petbk  Guthxie.  \    Rowan. 

P.  La.  PBnip  Lake,  M.A.,  F.G.S.  r 

Lecturer  on  Physical  and  Regional  Geography  in  Cambridge  University.  Formerly  J  ^ r,^^^. 

of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India.     Author  of  Monograph  of  BrUtsk  Cambrian  1  ^^^^^'  Ocotofy, 
Trilobites.   Translator  aoid  Editor  of  Kayscr's  Comparattoe  CeoMgy.  t 

P.  HML  PxncxosE  McCoknell,  F.G.S.  r  -_^  _  _ .  p^^u«* 

MeroberoftheRoyalAgriculturalSociety.  AuthorofZ>«ify«/olKw«iifFonii«r: Ac. ■['•""  •™  CiaiSlilld. 

B.  A.  W«  Colonel  Robext  Alexandex  Wahab,  C.B.,  C.M.G.,  CLE.  r 

Forraeriy  H.  M.  Conmiissioner,  Aden  Boundary  Delimitation.    Served  with  Tirah  J  aa<ip««nn* 
Expeditionary  Focce,  1897-1898,  and  on  the  Anglo-Russian  Boundary  Commission,  |  <>aanmiii. 
P^unin,  1895.  L 

B.A.8.M.        Robext  Alexandex  Stewaxt  Macalzstex,  M.A.,  F.S.A.  fcfiaad*  fSIltai* 

St  John's  College,  Cambridge.    Director  of  Excavations  for  the  Palestine  Explora-  <  ^^Hl  ""•"'• 
tionFund.  j^COSlien. 

S.C.  J.  Six  Ricraxd  Clavexhousb  Jebb,  L.L.D.,D.CX.  f  Greek  Utentnn: 

See  the  biographical  article,  Jbbb,  Si KR.C.  '^     1^  AncienL 


S.  J.  ■•  Ronald  John  McNeill,  M.A. 

Christ  Church.  Oxford.    Barrister-at-Law.    Formeriy  Editor  of  the  51  James's 
Colette,  London. 


'Gowrle,  8rd  Earl  of* 

GrattOD,  Henry; 

Green  Ribbon  Oob; 

Gymnastics; 

Hareourt,  1st  Vlscoiint; 

Hardwlcke,  1st  Earl  of. 

R.U^  RiCBAXD  Lydekkex.  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  FXS.  f  Giraffe*  Glotton* 

Member  of  the  Staff  of  the  Gedogical  Survey  of  India,  i874«i882.    Author  of  I  ri«»«A^An.  /««•«'. 
Cdtalofues  of  FossU  Mammals,  Reptdes  and  Birds  in  Britisk  ifuseum;  Tke  Deer  ofi  r'??„    **?,'  *^*'    „ 
att  Lands;  Tke  Came  Animals  of  Africa;  &c.  [  GoriJU;  Hamster;  Halt. 

GoUtsuln,  Boris,  Dmitry, 

and  VasUy; 
Golovln,  Count; 
Golo?kln,  Coont; 
Gfirtx,  Baron  von; 
Griflenfeldt,  Connt; 
GnstavuB  I.,  and  IV. 
GyllenstJeniJi; 
iHall,  C.  G. 

L  g.  T*  Ralph  Stockman  Taxk.  f  Grand  CanvoB. 

ProfcsMv  of  Physical  Geography.  Cornell  University.  I  »-^*- 


R.  I.  B»  Robext  Nisbet  Bain  (d.  1900). 

Assistant  Librarian.   British   Museum.   1883-1909.     Author  of  Scandinaeia,  tke 
Political  History  of  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  tKij-tgoo;  Tke  First  Romanovs,  -> 
l6i3-J72y,  Slaeonic  Europe,  tke  Folitical  History  of  Poland  and  Russia  from  1469 
lo  J76Q;  oc. 


'•A 

Zll 


R.W*. 

s.A.a 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


8.BL 
S.O. 

S.I. 
T.As. 


T.A.J. 
T.Ba. 

T.I.H. 


T.F.a 

T.K. 
T.86. 


V.H.8. 


W.A.B.a 


W.A.P. 

W.Bo. 
W.BiL 

w.F.a 
w.aM. 


RiCBABO  Webster,  A.M.  (Princeton). 

Formerly  Fdlow  ia  Classica,  Prmoeton  Univcnity. 
Maximittmus;  Ac. 


Editor  of  The  EleiUs  «/-{  Gnftt  Awikaoloc* 


«r/|( 


Hebrcv  and  Syriac.  and 


Stanley  Arthur  Cook,  M^  ' 

Editor  for  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  Lecturer  ia  ticDicv  ana  2>yi 
formerly  Fellow,  Gonville  and  Caios  College,  Cambridge.  Examiner  in  Hebrew  and . 
Aramaic,  London  University,  I904'-I908.  Author  of  Glossary  of  Aramaic  InscriP' 
lions :  The  Laws  oj  Moses  ana  the  Code  of  Uammurabi\  Critisal  Notes  on  (Hd  Testament 
History;  Rdiiion  of  Ancient  FaiesHne;  &c 

Sicrus  BlAndal. 

Librarian  of  the  Univeruty  of  O^nhagen. 

Sdvey  Colvin,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article,  Colvin,  Sidney. 

VxscouNT  St.  Cyres. 

See  the  biographical  article,  Iodeslbich.  1ST  Earl  OP. 

Simon  Newcoub,  LL.D.,  D.Sc. 

See  the  biographical  article,  Nbwcomb,  Suion.. 

TBomas  Ashby,  M.A.,  D.Lxtt.,  F.S.A. 

Director  of  the  British  School  of  Archaeology  at  Rome.    Corresponding  Member 
of  the  Imperial  German  Archaeological  Institute.     Formerly  Scholar  of  Christ' 
Church,  Oxford.    Craven  Fellow,  Oxford.  1897.    Author  of  The  Classical  Topo- 
paphy  of  the  Roman  Campagna;  ac. 


GMmil 


J  HBOcrimnon. 
|GloifloiM;  Gtotto. 
/cnyoB,  Madanw. 
/GnvitBtfon  Un  paH^. 


GlrsBBtl;  GBBtift; 
Grottafenrnta; 
Gramentum;  GuhMo; 
Hadria;  Halaesa. 


{ 


Thomas  Athol  Joyce,  M.A. 

Assistant  in  Department  of  Ethnography,  British  Museum.    Hon.  Sec.,  Royal  A  Hamltle  Racas  (L)« 
Anthropological  Institute. 

Sot  Thomas  Barclay,  M.P.  r 

Member  of  the  Institute  of  International  Law.    Member  of  the  Supreme  Council  j  ^    .^„  ■ 
of  the  Congo  Free  State.    Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Author  of  Problems  1  voenuia. 
0/  International  PraOke  and  Diplomacy i  Ac    M.P.  for  Blackburn,  1910.  I 

Teouas  Erskine  Holland,  K.C.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D. 

Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.    Fellow  of  All  Souls  ColIcge,_OxT(>rd.    Professor 


of  International  Law  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  1874-1910.    Bencher  of  Lincoln's . 
Inn.    Author  of  Studies  mi  International  Law;  The  Etenu 


Elements  of  Jurisprudence; 
Alherici  Centals  dejure  bellii  The  Laws  of  War  on  Land;  Neutral  Unties  in  a  Maritime 
War;  Ac 


Ban.  WlffiamBi 


Theodore  Freyunghuysen  Collier,  Ph.D.  /  Gragory:  P»pe9, 

Assisunt  Professor  of  History,  Williams  College,  WilUamstown,  Mass.,  U.SJL        \     XIIL— XV. 

Sn  Thomas  Hitmcertoro  Holdich,  K.C.M.G.,  K.C.I.E..  D.Sc.,  F.R.G.S. 

Colonel  in  the  Royal  Engineers.    Superintendent  Frontier  Surveys,  India,  1892- J  GQglt; 
1898.    Gold  Medallist.  R.G.S.  (London).  1887.    H.M.  Commissioner  for  the  Persa- ]  Harf-Rud. 
.Beluch  Boundary,  1896.   Author  of  The  Indian  Borderland;  The  CaUs  of  India;  &c.  I 

TBomas  Kxrkup,  M.A.,  LL.D. 

Author  of  An  Inquiry  into  Socialism;  Primer  of  Socialism ;  8k. 

Tte>MAS  Seocombe,  M.A. 

Lecturer  in  History,  East  London  and  Birkbeck  Colleges,  University  of  London. 
Stanhope  Priseman,  Oxford.  1887.    Formerly  Assistant  Editor  of  Dictionary  of* 
National  Biography,  1891-1901.    Author  of  Tke  Age  of  Johnson;  Sec.;  Joint-author 
of  The  Boohman  History  of  English  Literature, 


{Hadrtan  (n»  parO* 


GIOMct  Sir  W.  I. 


Rev.  Vincent  Henry  Stanton,  M.A.,  D.D. 

ElyPrc^essor  of  Divinity  in  the  University  of  CamBridge. 


■Mir  s  (vtoOTJi  wi  k^iviiutjr  i<i  t.iiv  wuitcimijt  wi  v-aiiiviiUKv.   Canon  of  Ely  and  Fellow  J  «sjt«««Ai 
of  Trinity  College.  Cambridge.      Author  of  The  Gospels  as  Historical  Documents;  |  *"•*••• 
The  Jemsh  and  the  Christian  Messiahs;  Slc  ' 


V 


Rev.  William  Augustus  Brevoort  Coolidge,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S.,  Pr.D.  (Bern). 
Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  Professor  of  English  History,  St  David's 
College,  Lampeter,  1880-1881.  Author  of  Guide  dm  Haut  Dauphini;  The  Range  of 
the  fidi;  Guide  toGrindehfold;  Guide  to  Switserland;  The  Alps  in  Nature  and  m 
History;  Ac.   Editor  of  The  Alpine  Journal,  1880-1889:  &c 

Walter  Alison  Phillips,  M.A. 

Forroeriy  Exhibitioner  of  Merton  College  and  Senior  Scholar  of  St  John's  College 
Oxford.   Author  of  Modem  Europe;  &c. 

Wilhelm  Boxtsset,  D.Th, 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Ex^esis  In  the  University  of  G^tingen.  Author  of 
Das  Wesen  der  Religion;  The  Antichrist  Legend;  8tc 

WiLUAM  BuRNSiDE,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

Professor  of  Mathematks,  Royal  Naval  College.  Greenwich.  Hon.  Fellow  of 
Pembroke  CoOcge,  Cambridge.   Author  of  The  Tktery  of  Groups  of  Finite  Order. 

William  FBoden  Craies,  M.A. 

Barrister-at-Law,  Inner  Temple.  Lecturer  on  Criminal  Law,  King's  Cdlcge, 
London.  Author  of  Craies  on  Statute  Law.  Editor  of  Archbold's  Criminal  Pleadmg 
{^ycd  editioo). 

Walter  George  McMillan,  F.C.S.,  M.I.M.E.  (d.  1904). 

Formeriy  Secretary  of  the  institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  and  Lecturer  on  Metal 


Glarus;  Ooldast  Ak 

Halminsfeld; 
Grasse;  Grenobla; 
GrindelwaM;  Griaons; 
GnuMT,  G.  S.;  Gnqrfcts 

{Girondisls;  GoatliK 
Descendontf  of; 
Greek  IndapendtMib  War  oC 


GDOsttdsm. 
Gronpiy  TkMiy  qC» 


BaofUif. 


^  ^  JGiaphttaClii  fort). 

lurgy,  Mason  College,  Birmingham.    Author  of  A  Treatise  on  ElectrO'Mdallurgy,  t 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


xia 


W.Bl 

W.J.  P. 
W.MdH 

W.H.IL 

W.ILR. 
W.F.A 

W.F.B. 

W.B. 
W.IL 


W.B.D. 
W.B.S.H. 

W.B.I. 
W.A.8.a. 

W.W.B.^ 


Rev.  William  Hunt,  M.A.,  Litt.D. 

Pkoident  of  Royal  Hbtorical  Society.  1905-1909.  Author  of  History  of  Emtfisk 
Ckmrtk,  59ir-'9o6i  The  Church  of  EH^aud  m  Uu  Mid/dk  i4f«<;  PoiiHcal  History  tf 
Emffami  1760-1801. 

William  Huntv  Bennett,  M.A^  D.D.,  D.Litt.  (Cantab.). 

Pitilenor  of  Old  TcsUineAt  Exmsu  in  New  and  Hackney  Collcget.  London. 
Formerly  Fellow  of  St  John's  Coflcge,  Cambridge.  Lecturer  in  Hebrew  at  Firth 
Colkse,  Sheffield.    Author  of  Religion  of  the  Post-ExUic  Prophets ;  &c 

WkuiAM  Henry  Faiebsotrer,  M.A., 

Formerly  Fellow  and  Lecturer,  Lincoln  College,  Oxford.  Author  of  Philosophy 
ef  Tkomas  Hitt  Green, 

William  Jusncs  Foro  (d.  xooiA). 

Formerly  Scholar  of  St  John  •  CoH^e,  Cambridge.  Headmaster  of  Leamington 
College. 

William  McDougall,  M.A. 

Reader  in  Mental  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Oxford.  Author  of  A  Prsmer 
of  Physido^aU  Psyehdogy;  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology;  &c 

W.  Max  MOller,  Pb.D. 

Profemor  of  Exegesis  in  the  R.E.  Seminary.  Philadelphia.  Author  of  Asien  und 
Europu  nach  den  Aegptischen  Denhmdlem ;  Ac 

William  Michael  Rossetti. 

See  the  biographical  artidr.  Rossetti.  Dante  G. 

LiEUT.-COLONEL  WiLUAM  Patrice  Anderson,  M.Inst-CE.,  F.R.G.S. 

Chief  Engineer,  Department  of  Marine  and  Fisheries  of  Canada.  Member  of  the 
Geographic  Board  of  Canada.  Put  Picaident  of  Canadian  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

Hon.  Wiluam  Pember  Reeves. 

Director  of  London  Sdiool  of  Economics.  Afent-General  and  H^h  Commissioner 
for  New  Zealand,  189^1909.  Minister  of  Education,  Labour  and  Justice,  New 
Zealand,  1891-1896.  Author  of  771*  long  While  Cloud:  a  History  ef  Nem Zealand; 
Ac 

WviELAW  Red,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article.  Rbio,  Wbitelaw. 

WnUAM  RiDGEWAY,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 

Ptafesadf^of  Archaeology,  Cambridge  Udversity,  and  Brereton  Reader  In  Classics. 
Fellow  of  Gonyille  ana  Caius  CoHege,  Cambridge.  Fellow  of  the  British  Academy. 
PKrident  of  Royal  Anthropological  Institute,  15108.  President  of  Anthropological 
Section,  BriUsh  Assodataon,  1908.   Author  of  lie  Early  Ag/s  ^  Greece-,  &c 

W.  R08ENBAIN,  D-Sc. 

Superintendent  of  the  Metalluigical  Department,  National  Physical  Laboratory 

Wyndham  Rowland  Dunstan.  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F  R.S.,  F  C.S. 

Director  of  the  Imperial  Institute.  J*Tairfent  of  ifhe  International  Asmdatioo  of  Tropical 
Agriculture.   Meoihcr  of  the  Advisory  CommiUce  for  Tropical  Agriculture,  Qdonial  Office. 

WnLiAM  RiCBARD  Eaton  Hodceinson,  PbJ).,  F.R.S.  (Edin.),  F.CS. 

Ptafessor  of  Chemistry  and  Physics,  Ortlnance  College,  Woolwich.  Formerly 
Ptafesnr  of  Chemistry  and  Physics.  R.M.A.,  Woolwich.  Pkrt-author  of  Valentin- 
Hodgldttsoa's  PraOieal  Chemistry;  Ac 

WkLUAM  Robertson  Smith,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article.  Smith,  William  Robertson. 

Wiluam  Ralston  Sbeoden-Ralston,  M.A. 

Asiistant  in  the  Department  of  Printed  Books,  British  Museum.  Author  of  Russsan 
Fetk  Tales;  Ac 

WnuAM  Walser  Rocewell,  Lic.Thbol. 

Aasistaot  Ptofcssor  of  Chuordi  History,  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York. 


GiMii.  J.  R. 


Gonnr;  Habl 


{ 

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/Qlnllo  RoBuuio;  OoboB; 
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GlBtH, 


GiMS,  W.  0. 


HaDosiiiBtloB. 


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GlWtUlM. 


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J  Ontitift  HfliMiu 


JGlMi  On  part), 
Gntte-Fintai. 


Oan  Cotton; 
Gviipovte. 


/Higitf  (smport). 

Oogd. 
/ongoiy  ZVL 


{ 


PRINCIPAL  UNSIGNED  ARTICLES 


OOEt 

GriquataDd  But  and 

Gwallor. 

Gold. 

West 

Haddlngtonshlra. 

GoMbotttng. 

Guancbes. 

Hair. 

GotlROd. 

Guards. 

HaltL 

Gourd. 

Guatemala. 

Halo. 

GovsreiDOiita 

Godphs  and  GhlbdIiMt. 

Hambnfg. 

Gfiln  IVidt. 

Gniaenm. 

Hamlet. 

Onuiadi. 

Guillotine. 

Hampshire. 

OnsMt. 

Guise,  HOoso  o( 

Hampton  Rotdi, 

GiMtadtUki. 

Gom. 

Hanover, 

ENCYCLOPEDIA   BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH   EDITION 


VOLUME  XII 


6ICHTBI*i  JOHANN  6B0R0  (1638-1710),  German  mystic, 
wxs  bom  at  Regensburg,  where  his  father  was  a  member  of 
senate,  on  the  X4th  of  March  1638.  Having  acquired  at  school 
an  acquaintance  with  Greek,  Hebrew,  Syriac  and  even  Arabic^ 
be  proceeded  to  Strassburg  to  study  theology;  but  finding 
the  theological  prelections  of  J.  S.  Schmidt  and  P.  J.  Spcner 
distasteful,  he  entered  the  faculty  of  law.  He  was  admitted 
an  advocate,  first  at  Spires,  and  then  at  Regensburg;  but 
having  become  acquainted  with  the  baron  Justinianus  von 
Wdtx  (1621-1668),  a  Hungarian  nobleman  who  cherished 
schemes  f<»  the  reunion  of  Christendom  and  the  conversion 
of  the  world,  and  having  himself  become  acquainted  with 
aootber  world  in  dreams  and  visions,  he  abandoned  all  interest 
in  Ids  profession,  and  became  an  energetic  promoter  of  the 
"  Ckrisierbaalkhe  JtsusgeseUschaJi"  or  Christian  Edification 
Society  of  Jesus.  The  movement  in  its  beginnings  provoked  at 
feast  no  active  hostility;  but  when  Gichtel  began  to  attack  the 
teaching  of  the  Lutheran  clergy  and  church,  especially  upon  the 
faDdatncntal  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  he  exposed  him- 
sdf  to  a  prosecution  which  resulted  in  sentence  of  banishment 
and  confiscation  (1665).  After  many  months  of  wandering  and 
oaasionally  romantic  adventure,  he  reached  Holland  in  January 
1667,  and  settled  at  Zwolle,  where  he  co-operated  with  Friedrich 
Breckllng  (1629^1711),  who  shared  his  views  and  aspirations. 
Having  become  involved  in  the  troubles  of  this  friend,  Gichtel, 
after  a  period  of  imprisonment,  was  banished  for  a  term  of  years 
frooi  Zwolle,  but  finally  in  1668  found  a  home  in  Amsterdam, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Antoinette  Bourignon 
(161 6-1680),  aiul  in  a  state  of  poverty  (which,  however,  never 
became  destitution)  lived  out  his  strange  life  of  visions  and 
day-dreams,  of  prophecy  and  prayer.  He  became  an  ardent 
discifrfe  of  Jakob  Boehme,  whose  works  he  published  in  1682 
(Amsterdam,  a  vols.) ;  but  before  the  time  of  his  death,  on  the 
2ist  of  January  1710,  he  had  attracted  to  himself  a  small  band 
kA  followers  known  as  Gichtelians  or  Brethren  of  the  Angels,  who 
propagated  certain  views  at  which  he  had  arrived  independently 
of  Boehme.  Seeking  ever  to  hear  the  authoritative  voice  of 
God  within  them,  ai^  endeavouring  to  attain  to  a  life  altogether 
free  from  carnal  desires,  like  that  of "  the  angels  in  heaven,  who 
neither  marry  nor  are  given  in  marriage,"  they  claimed  to 
exercise  a  priesthood  "  after  the  order  of  Melchizedek,"  appeasing 
the  wrath  of  God,  and  ransoming  the  souls  of  the  lost  by  sufferings 
endured  vicarioudy  after  the  example  of  Christ.  While,  however, 
desired  to  remain  a  faithful  son  of  the  Church,"  the 


t« 


Gichtelians  became  Separatists  (cf.  J.  A.  Dottier,  History  cf 
ProUstanl  Theology ^  ii.  p.  185). 

GichtePs  correspondence  was  published  without  his  knowledge 
by  Gottfried  Arnold,  a  disciple,  in  1701  (3  vob.),  and  again  in  1708 
(3  vols.).  It  has  been  frequently  reprinted  under  the  title  Thwsopkia 
practUa.  The  seventh  volume  of  tne  Berlin  edition  (1768)  contains 
a  notice  of  Cichtel's  life.  See  also  G.  C.  A.  von  Harless,  Jakob 
B6hme  und  die  AUhtmisten'  (1870,  and  ed.  1882) ;  article  in  Alt' 
gemeine  deutscke  Biograpkie, 

6IDDIN6S,  JOSHUA  REED  (1795-1864),  American  statesman, 
prominent  in  the  anti-slavery  conflict,  was  bom  at  Tioga  Point, 
now  Athens,  Bradford  county,  Pennsylvania,  on  tbe  6th  of 
October  1795.  ^^  iS<^  ^i^  parents  removed  to  Ashtabula 
county,  Ohio,  then  sparsely  settled  and  almost  a  wilderness. 
The  son  worked  on  his  father's  farm,  and,  though  he  received 
no  systematic  education,  devoted  much  time  to  study  and 
reading.  For  several  years  after  1814  he  was  a  school  teacher, 
but  in  February  182 1  he  was  admitted  to  the  Ohio  bar  and  soon 
obtained  a  large  practice,  particularly  in  criminal  cases.  From 
1831  to  1837  he  was  in  partnership  with  Benjamin  F.  Wade. 
He  served  in  the  lower  house  of  the  state  legislature  in  1826-1828, 
and  from  December  1838  until  March  1859  was  a  member  of 
the  national  House  of  Representatives,  first  as  a  Whig,  then 
as  a  Free-soiler,  and  finally  as  a  Republican.  Recognizing  that 
slavery  was  a  state  institution,  with  which  the  Federal  govern- 
ment  had  no  authority  tq  interfere,  he  contended  that  slavery 
could  only  exist  by  a  specific  state  enactment,  that  therefore 
slavery  in  the  District  of  Colunibia  and  in  the  Territories  was  un- 
lawful and  should  be  abolished,  that  the  coastwise  slave-trade  in 
vessels  flying  the  national  flag,  like  the  international  slave-trade, 
should  be  rigidly  suppressed,  and  that  Congress  had  no  power  to 
pass  any  act  which  in  any  way  could  be  construed  as  a  recognition 
of  slavery  as  a  national  institution.  His  attitude  in  the  so-called 
"  Creole  Case  "  attracted  particular  attention.  In  1841  some 
slaves  who  were  being  carried  in  the  brig  "  Creole  "  from 
Hampton  Roads,  Virginia,  to  New  Orleans,  revolted,  killed  the 
captain,  gained  possession  of  the  vessel,  and  soon  afterwards 
entered  the  British  port  of  Nassau.  Thereupon,  according  to 
British  law,  they  became  free.  The  minority  who  had  taken  an 
active  part  in  the  revolt  were  arrested  on  a  charge  of  murder, 
and  the  others  were  liberated.  Efforts  were  made  by  the  United 
States  government  to  recover  the  slaves,  Daniel  Webster,  then 
secretary  of  state,  asserting  that  on  an  American  ship  they  were 
under  the  jurisdiction  of«the  United  States  and  that  they  were 
legally  property.    On  the  21st  of  March  1842,  before  ♦*"•  ""-- 


GIDEON— GIERS 


was  settled,  Giddings  introduced  in  the  House  of  Representatives 
a  series  of  resolutions,  in  which  he  asserted  that  "  in  resuming 
thdr  natural  rights  of  personal  liberty  "  the  slaves  *'  vidated  no  law 
of  the  United  States."  For  offering  these  resolutions  Giddugs 
was  attacked  with  rancour,  and  was  formally  censured  by  the 
House.  Thereupon  he  resigned,  appealed  to  his  constituents, 
and  was  immediately  re-elected  by  a  large  majority.  In 
1859  he  was  not  renominated,  and  retired  from  Congress  after 
a  continuous  service  of  more  than  twenty  years.  From  1861 
until  his  death,  at  Montreal,  on  the  27th  of  May  1864,  he 
was  U.S.  consul-general  in  Canada.  Giddings  published  a  series 
of  political  essays  signed  "Pacificus"  (1843);  Speeches  in 
Congress  (1853);  The  Exiles  of  Florida  (1858);  and  a  History 

of  the  Rebellion:  Its  Authors  and  Causes  (1864). 

See  The  Life  of  Joshua  R.  Giddings  (Chicago.  1892),  bv  hb  ion-in- 
law,  George  Washington  Julian  (1817-1899).  a  Free-soil  leader  and  a 
repmcntative  in  Congress  in  1849-1851,  a  Reipublican  representative 
in  Congress  in  1861-1871,  a  UtJeral  Republican  in  the  campaign  of 
1873,  and  afterwards  a  Democrat. 

GIDEON  (in  Hebrew,  perhaps  "hewer"  or  "warrior"), 
liberator,  reformer  and  "  judge  "  of  Israel,  was  the  son  of  Joash, 
of  the  Manassite  clan  of  Abiezer,  and  had  his  home  al  C^hrah 
near  Shechem.  His  name  occurs  in  Hcb.  xi.  32,  in  a  list  of  those 
who  became  heroes  by  faith;  but,  except  in  Judg^  vi.-viii., 
is  not  to  be  met  with  elsewhere  in  the  Old  Testament.  He  lived 
at  a  time  when  the  nomad  tribes  of  the  south  and  east  made 
inroads  upon  Israel,  destroying  all  that  they  could  not  carry 
away.  Two  accounts  of  his  deeds  are  preserved  (see  Jinx»ES). 
According  to  one  (Judges  vL  11-34)  Yahweh  appeared  under 
the  holy  tree  which  was  in  the  possession  of  Joash  and  summoned 
Gideon  to  undertake,  in  dependence  6n  supernatural  direction 
and  help,  the  work  of  liberating  his  country  from  its  long  oppres- 
sion, and,  in  token  that  he  accepted  the  mission,  he  erected  in 
Ophrah  an  altar  which  he  called  "  Yahweh-Shalom  "  (Yahweh 
is  peace).  According  to  another  account  (vi.  25-32)  Gideon  was 
a  great  reformer  who  was  conunanded  by  Yahweh  to  destroy 
the  altar  of  Baal  belonging  to  his  father  and  the  ashirah  or 
sacred  post  by  its  side.  The  townsmen  discovered  the  sacrilege 
and  demanded  his  death.  His  father,  who,  as  guardian  of  the 
sacred  place,  was  priest  of  Baal,  enjoined  the  men  not  to  take 
up  Baal's  quarrel,  for  "  if  Baal  be  a  god,  let  him  contend  (rib)  for 
himself."  Hence  Gideon  received  the  name  JehibbaaL^  From 
this  latter  name  appearing  regularly  in  the  older  narrative 
(cf.  iz.),  and  from  the  varying  usage  in  vi.-viii.,  it  has  been  held 
that  stories  of  two  distinct  heroes  (Gideon  and  Jerubbaal)  have 
been  fused  in  the  complicated  account  which  follows.* 

The  great  gathering  of  the  Midianites  and  their  allies  on  the 
north  side  of  the  plain  of  Jesed;  the  general  muster  first  of 
Abiezer,  then  of  aU  Manasseh,  and  lastly  of  the  neighbouring 
tribes  of  Asher,  Zebulun  and  Naphtali;  the  signs  by  which  the 
wavering  faith  of  Gideon  was  steadied;  the  methods  by  which 
an  unwieldy  mob  was  reduced  to  a  small  but  trusty  band  of 
energetic  and  determined  men;  and  the  stratagem  by  which 
the  vast  army  of  Midian  was  surprised  and  routed  by  the  handful 
of  Israelites  descending  from  "  aboVe  Endor,"  are  indicated 
fully  in  the  narratives,  and  need  not  be  detailed  here.  The 
difficulties  in  the  account  of  the  subsequent  flight  of  the  Midian- 
ites appear  to  have  arisen  from  the  composite  character  of 
the  narratives,  and  there  are  agns  that  in  one  of  them  Gideon 
was  accompanied  only  by  his  own  clansmen  (vi.  34).  So,  when 
the  Midianites  are  put  to  flight,  according  to  one  representation, 
the  Ephraimites  are  called  out  to  intercept  them,  and  the  two 
chiefs,  Oreb  ("  raven  ")  and  Zeeb  ("  wolf "),  in  making  for  the 
fords  of  the  Jordan,  are  slain  at  "  the  raven's  rock"  and  "  the 
wolf's  press  "  respectively.  As  the  sequel  of  this  we  are  told 
that  the  Ephraimites  quarrelled  with  Gideon  because  their 
assistance  had  not  been  invoked  earlier,  and  their  anger  was 

*"  Baal  contends  "  for  Jeni-baal.  "Baal  founds,"  cf.  Jeru-el). 
but  artificially  explained  in  the  narrative  to  mean  "  let  Baal  contend 
against  him,  or  "  let  Baal  contend  for  himself,"  v.  31.  In  2  Sam. 
XI.  31  he  is  called  Jerubbesheth,  in  accordance  with  the  custom 
explained  in  the  article  Baal. 

'Sec,  on  thu,  Cheyne,  Eney,  Bib.  col.  1719  seq.;  Ed.  Meyer,  Die 
Israeliten,  pp.  482  seq. 


only  appeased  by  his  tactful  reply  (vfi!.  1-3;  contrast  xiL  i-^. 
The  other  narrative  speaks  of  the  pursuit  of  the  Midianite  ^eb 
Zebah  and  Zalmunna'  acrott  the  northern  end  of  Jordan,  post 
Succoth  and  Penuel  to  the  unidentified  place  ISLar(or.  Having 
taken  relentless  vengeance  on  the  men  of  Penuel  and  Succoth, 
who  had  shown  a  timid  neutrality  when  the  patriotic  struggle 
was  at  its  crisis,  Gideon  puts  the  two  chiefs  to  death  to  avenge 
his  brothers  whom  they  had  killed  at  Tabor.*  The  overthrow 
of  Midian  (cf.  Is.  iz.  4,  z.  26;  Fs.  IzzxiiL  9-13)  induced  "  Is.  ^i" 
to  offer  Gideon  the  kingdom.  It  was  refused — out  of  rdig.  is 
scruples  (viiL  23  seq.;  cf.  i  Sam.  viii.  7,  z.  19,  zii.  13, 17, 19),  a  * 
the  ephod  idol  which  he  set  upi  at  Ophrah  in  commemoratio 
of  the  victory  was  regarded  by  a  later  editor  (».  37)  as  a  cause 
of  apostasy  to  the  people  and  a  snare  to  Gideon  and  his  house; 
see,  however,  Ephod.  Gideon's  achievements  would  naturally 
give  him  a  more  than  merelylocal  authority,  and  after  his  death 
'the  attempt  was  made  by  one  of  his  sons  to  set  himself  up  as 
cl)icf  (see  Abikexxch). 

See  further  Jaws,  section  i ;  and  the  literatuce  to  the  book  of 
Judges.  (S.  A.  C) 

GIBBBU  CHRISTOra  GOTTPRIRD  ANDREAS  (1830-1881), 
German  soologist  and  palaeontologist,  was  bom  on  the  13th  of 
September  1830  at  Quedlinburg  in  Sazony,  and  educated  at 
the  university  of  Halle,  where  he  graduated  Ph.  D.  in  1845.  la 
1858  he  became  professor  of  zoology  and  director  of  the  museum 
in  the  university  of  Halle.  He  died  at  Halle  on  the  14th  of 
November  i38i.  His  chief  publications  were  PaldoaMdogie 
(1846);  Fauna  der  Vorwdt  (1847-1856);  DeutscUands  Petrc 
faeten  (1853);  Odontographie  (1855);  Lehrbuck  der  Zoohgie 
(iSS7)»  Thesaurus  omithidogiae  (187*3-1877). 

6IBN.  a  town  of  central  France,  capital  of  an  arrondissement 
in  the  department  of  Loiret,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Loire,  39  m.  E.S.E.  of  Orleans  by  rail.  Pop.  (1906)  6335.  Giea 
is  a  picturesque  and  interesting  town  and  has  many  curious  old 
houses.  The  Loire  is  here  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge  oi  twelve 
arches,  built  by  Anne  de  Beaujeu,  daughter  of  Louis  XI.,  about 
the  end  of  the  15th  century.  Near  it  stands  a  statue  of  Ver- 
dngetoriz.  The  principal  building  is  the  old  castle  used  as  a 
law-court,  constructed  of  brick  and  stone  arranged  in  geometrical 
patterns,  and  built  in  1494  by  Anne  de  Beaujeu.  The  church 
of  St  Pierre  possesses  a  square  tower  dating  from  the  end  of  the 
15th  century.    Porcelain  is  manufactured. 

6IBR8,  NICHOLAS  KARLOVICH  DB  (1820-1895)*  Russian 
statesman,  was  bom  on  the  21st  of  May  1830.  Like  his  pre- 
decessor. Prince  Gorchakov,  he  was  educated  at  the  lyceum  of 
Tsarskoye  Selo,  near  St  Petersburg,  but  his  career  was  much  less 
rapid,  because  be  had  no  influential  protectors,  and  was  handi- 
capped by  being  a  Protestant  of  Teutonic  origin.  At  the  age 
of  eighteen  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Eastern  dquutment 
of  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and  tptat  more  than  twenty 
years  in  subordinate  posts,  chiefly  in  south-eastern  Europe, 
until  he  was  promoted  in  1863  to  the  post  of  minister  pleni- 
potentiary in  Persia.  Here  he  remained  for  siz  years,  and, 
after  serving  as  a  minister  in  Swhaeriand  and  Sweden,  he  was 
appointed  in  1875  director  of  the  Eastem  department  and 
assistant  minister  for  foreign  affairs  under  Prince  Gorchakov, 
whose  niece  he  had  married.  No  sooner  had  he  entered  on  his 
new  duties  than  his  great  capacity  for  arduous  worit  was  put 
to  a  severe  test.  Besides  events  in  central  Asia,  to  which  he 
had  to  devote  much  attention,  the  Herzegovinian  insurrection 
had  broken  out,  and  he  could  perceive  from  secret  official  papers 
that  the  incident  had  far-reaching  ramifications  unknown  to 
the  general  public  Soon  this  became  apparent  to  all  the  world. 
While  the  Austrian  officials  in  Dalmatia,  with  hardly  a  pretence 
of  concealment,  were  assisting  the  insurgents,  Russian  volunteers 
were  flocking  to  Servia  with  the  connivance  of  the  Russian  and 
Austrian  governments,  and  General  Ignatiev,  as  ambassador  in 

*  The  names  are  vocalized  to  suggest  the  fanciful  interpretations 
"  victim  "  and  "  protection  withheld." 

*  ^  the  account  of  this  has  been  lost  and  the  narrative  is  concerned 
not  with  the  plain  of  Jezred  but  rather  with  Shechem.  it  has  been 
inferred  that  the  episode  implies  the  existence  of  a  distinct  stocy 
wherein  Gideon's  puruiit  is  such  an  act  of  vengeance 


GIESEBRECHT— GIESELER 


GxttUBttiiople,  was  urgiag  hit  government  to  take  advantage 
of  the  palpable  weakness  of  Turkey  for  bringing  about  a  radical 
solution  of  the  Eastern  question.    Prince  Goichakov  did  not  want 
a  radical  solution  involving  a  great  European  war,  but  he  was  too 
fond  of  ephemeral  popularity  to  stem  the  current  of  popular 
esdtencnt.    Alexander  II.,  personally  averse  from  war,  was 
ooc  iasensible  to  the  patriotic  enthusiasm,  and  halted  between 
two  opinions.    M.  de  Giers  was  one  of  the  few  who  gauged  the 
sitaatioo  accuratdy.    As  an  official  and  a  man  of  non-Russian 
atnction  he  had  to  be  extremely  reticent,  but  to  his  intimate 
friends  he  condemned  severely  the  ignorance  and  h'ght-hearted 
recklessness  of  those  around  him.    Tlw  event  justified  his  sombre 
previsions,  but  did  not  pire  the  recklessness  of  the  so-called 
pttriots.    They  wished  to  defy  Europe  in  order  to  maintain 
intact  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  and  a^in  M.  de  Giers  found 
ktnsclf  in  an  unpopular  minority.    He  had  to  remain  in  the  back- 
groand,  but  all  the  influence  he  possessed  was  thrown  into  the 
scale  <i  peace.    His  vkws,  energetically  supported  by  Count 
Shovalov,  finally  prevailed,  and  the  European  congress  assembled 
at  BeiUn.    He  was  not  present  at  the  congress,  and  consequently 
tstxptd  the  popular  odium  for  the  concessions  which  Russia 
bad  to  make  to  Great  Briuin  and  Austria.    From  that  time  he 
was  practioaDy  minister  of  foreign  affaiis,  for  Prince  Gorchakov 
was  no  tonger  capable  of  continued  intellectual  exertion,  and' 
lived  mostly  d[>road.    On  the  death  of  Alexander  II.  in  1881  it 
was  generally  expected  that  M.  de  Giers  would  be  dismissed 
as  deficient  ia  Russian  nationalist  feeling,  for  Alexander  III. 
WIS  credited  with  strong  anti-German  Slavophil  tendencies. 
In  reality  the  young  tsar  had  no  intention  of  embariung  on  wild 
political  adventures,  and  was  fully  determined  not  to  let  his  hand 
be  forced  1^  men  less  cautious  than  himself.    What  he  wanted 
was  a  minister  of  foreign  affairs  who  would  be  at  once  vigilant 
and  prudent,  active  and  obedient,  and  who  would  relieve  him 
bom  the  trouble  and  worry  of  routine  woric  while  allowing  him 
to  control  the  aaain  lines,  and  occasionally  the  details,  df  the 
national  policy.    M.  de  Gien  was  eicactly  what  he  wanted, 
and  according  the  tsar  not  only  appointed  him  minister  of 
forriga  affairs  00  the  retirement  of  Prince  Gorchakov  in  188a, 
\nt  retained  him  to  the  end  of  his  reign  in  1894.    In  accordance 
with  the  desire  of  his  august  master,  M.  de  Giers  followed  system- 
atically a  pacific  policy.  Accepting  as  a/ad  occMR^f  the  existence 
of  the  triple  aUiianoe,  created  by  Bismarck  for  the  purpose  of 
resisting  any  agpesaive  action  on  the  part  of  Russia  and  France, 
he  sought  to  establish  more  friendly  rehttions  with  the  cabinets 
of  Beriia,  Vieniia  and  Rome.    To  the  advances  of  the  French 
fBterament  be  at  first  turned  a  deaf  ear,  but  when  the  rap^oekt- 
9ttat  between  the  two  countries  was  effected  vrith  little  or  no 
OHJperation  on  his  part,  he  utilized  it  for  restraining  France  and 
pTMnodng  Rnasian  interests.    He  died  on  the  afith  of  January 
189s.  won  after  the  accession  of  Nlchohs  IL         (D.  M.  W.) 

CUBBRBCHT.  WILHRUI  VON  (1814-1889),  German 
historian,  was  a  son  of  Karl  Giesebrecht  (d.  183a),  and  a  nephew 
of  the  poet  Ludwig  Giesebrecht  (i793-'z873)*  Bom  in  Beriin 
OS  the  5th  of  Karcfa  1814,  he  studied  under  Leopold  von  Ranke, 
aad  his  first  important  work,  CtsckkkU  OUosIT.,  was  contributed 
to  Raake's  Jakrhtkker  da  dnHeken  Racks  unUr  dem  sdcksisckeu 
Haujt  (Beriin,  1837-1840).  In  1841  he  published  his  JakrhiUker 
ia  Ki&Oas  Altaieh,  a  reconstruction  of  the  lost  AmnaUs  Alta- 
Inier,  a  medieval  source  of  whidi  fragments  only  were  known 
to  be  extant,  and  these  were  obscured  in  other  chronicles.  The 
bnliance  of  this  performance  was  shown  ift  1867,  when  a  copy 
<f  the  original  chronicle  was  found,  and  it  was  seen  that  Giese- 
bndit's  text  was  substantially  torrect.  In  the  meantime  he  had 
been  appointed  ObtrUkrtr  in  the  Joachimsthaler  Gymnasium 
n  Berlin;  had  ftaid  a  visit  to  Italy,  and  as  a  result  of  his  re- 
aches there  bad  published  ZXs  iitlerarum  stitdiis  cpud  Ilahs 
P'ims  medii  oen  teeidis  (Berlin,  1845),  a  study  upon  the  survival 
d  nltvc  ia  Italian  cities  during  the  middle  ages,  and  also 
>ntral  critkal  essays  upon  the  sources  for  the  early  history  of 
the  popes.  In  1851  appeared  his  translation  of  the  Hislariae 
of  Ceegory  of  Tours,  which  is  the  standard  German  translation. 
Fnr  years  Ittcr  nppeared  the  first  volume  of  his  great  worit, 


GuckkkU  der  daOsckem  Katseneit,  the  fifth  volume  of  which 

was  published  in  1888.    This  work  was  the  first  in  which  the 

results  of  the  scientific  methods  of  research  were  thrown  open  to 

the  worid  at  large.    Largeness  of  style  and  brilliance  of  portrayal 

were  joined  to  an  absolute  mastery  of  the  sources  in  a  way 

hitherto  unachieved   by  any   German   historian.    Yet   later 

German  historians  have  severely  criticized  his  glorification  of 

the  imperial  era  with  its  Italian  entanglements,  in  which  the 

interests  of  Germany  were  sacrificed  for  idle  glory.  Giesebrecht's 

history,  however,  appeared  when  the  new  German  empire  was 

in  the  making,  and  became  popular  owing  both  to  its  patriotic 

tone  and  its  intrinsic  merits.    In  1857  he  went  to  Kdnigsberg  as 

professor  ordinarius,  and  in  i86s  succeeded  H.  von  Sybd  as 

professor  of  history  in  the  university  of  Munich.    The  Bavarian 

government  honoiured  him  in  various  ways,  and  he  died  at  Munich 

on  the  1 7th  of  December  1889.    In  addition  to  the  works  already 

mentioned,  Giesebrecht  published  a  good  monograph  on  Arnold 

of  Brescia  (Munich,  1873),  a  collection  of  essays  under  the  title 

DeutsdU  Reden  (Munich,  187 1),  and  was  an  active  member 

of  the  group  of  scholars  who  took  over  the  direction  of  the 

Mcuummla  Cermamiae  kisUnca  m   1875.    In   2895  B.  von 

SImson  added  a  sixth  volume  to  the  GuckUkU  der  deuisckem 

Kaiseneil,  thus  bringing  the  work  down  to  the  death  of  the 

emperor  Frederick  I.  in  1190. 

See  S  Ricsler.  CtdidUmisndg  qmS  WUhdm  9on  Ciesebnckt  (Munich. 
1891);  and  Lord  Acton  in  the  En^k  Hisi&rical  Rauw,  vol.  v. 
(London,  1890). 

GIBELBR,  JOHAim  KARL  LUDWIG  (1793-1854),  German 
writer  OB  church  history,  was  bom  on  the  3id  of  Mandi  1792  at 
Petershagen,  near  Minden,  where  his  father,  Geois  Christof 
Friedrich,  was  preacher.  In  his  tenth  year  he  entered  the 
orphanage  atHalle,  whence  he  duly  passed  to  the  univeraity, 
his  studies  being  interrupted,  however,  from  October  18x3  till 
the  peace  of  181 5  by  a  period  of  military  service,  during  which 
he  was  enrolled  as  a  volunteer  in  a  regiment  of  chasseurs.  On 
the  conclusion  of  peace  (18x5)  he  returned  to  HaUe,  and,  having 
in  18x7  taken  his  degree  in  philosophy,  he  in  the  same  year 
became  assistant  head  master  (Conrector)  in  the  Minden  gym- 
nasium, and  in  x8i8  was  ai^x>iiited  director  of  the  gymnasium 
at  Qeves.  Here  he  published  his  earliest  work  (Historisck- 
kriiiscker  Versuck  Uber  die  EMtstekung  u.  die  frUkesten  Sckicksale 
der  sckrifUieken  Boangeliem),  a  treatise  whidi  had  considerable 
influence  on  subsequent  investigations  as  to  the  origih  of  the 
gospels.  In  x8x9  Gieseler  was  appointed  a  professor  ordinarius 
in  theology  in  the  newly  founded  university  of  Bonn,  where, 
besides  lecturing  on  church  history,  he  made  important  con- 
tributions to  the  literature  of  that  subjea  in  Ernst  RosenmOUer's 
JUpertorium,  K.  F.  StAudlin  and  H.  G.  Tschlmer's  Arckiv, 
and  in  various  university  "  programs."  The  first  part  of  the 
first  volume  of  his  well-known  Ckurck  History  appeared  in  1824. 
In  r63x  he  accepted  a  call  to  Gdttingen  as  successor  to  J.  G. 
Planck.  He  lectured  on  church  history,  the  history  of  dogma,  and 
dogmatic  theology.  In  1837  he  was  appointed  a  Consistorial- 
ratk,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  created  a  knight  of  the  Guelphic 
order.  He  died  on  the  8th  of  July  X8J4.  The  fourth  and  fifth 
volumes  of  the  KirckengesckUkte,  embracing  the  period  sub- 
sequent to  x8x4,  were  published  posthumously  in  1855  by  E.  R. 
Redepenning(x8x»-i883);  and  they  were  followed  in  1856  by 
a  Dogmengesckickie,  which  is  sometimes  reckoned  as  the  sixth 
volume  of  the  Ckurck  History.  Among  church  historians 
Gieseler  continues  to  hold  a  high  pbce.  Lesa  vivid  and  pictur- 
esque in  style  than  Kari  Hase,  conspicuously  deficient  in 
Neander's  deep  and  sympathetic  insight  into  the  more  spiritual 
forces  by  which  church  life  is  pervaded,  he  excels  these  and  all 
other  contemporaries  in  the  fulness  and  accuracy  of  his  informs- 
tk>n.  His  Lekrkuck  der  Kirckengackickte,  with  its  copious 
references  to  original  authorities,  is  of  great  value  to  the  student: 
"  Gieseler  wished  that  each  age  should  speak  for  itself,  since 
only  by  this  means  can  the  peculiarity  of  its  Ideas  be  fully 
appreciated  "  (Otto  Pfleiderer,  Devdopment  of  Tkeology,  p.  284). 
llie  work,  which  lias  passed  through  several  editfons  in  Germany, 
has  partially  appeared  also  in  two  English  translations.    That 


GIESSEN— GIFFORD,  R.  S. 


published  in  New  York  {Text  Book  of  Ecclesiastical  History, 
5  vols.)  brings  the  work  down  to  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  while 
that  published  in  "  Clark's  Theological  Library  "  {Compendium 
of  Eulesiastical  History,  Edinburgh,  5  vols.)  doses  with  the 
beginning  of  the  Reformation.  Gieselcr  was  not  only  a  devoted 
student  but  also  an  energetic  man  of  business.  He  frequently 
held  the  office  of  pro-rector  of  the  university,  and  did  much 
useful  work  as  a  member  of  several  of  its  committees. 

GIESSEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Upper  Hesse,  in  the  grand-duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  is  situated 
in  a  beautiful  and  fruitful  valley  at  the  confluence  of  the  Wieseck 
with  the  Laho,  41  m.  N.N.W.  of  Frankfort-on-Main  on  the 
railway  to  Cassel,  and  at  the  junction  of  important  lines  to 
Cologne  and  Coblenz.  Pop.  (188s)  181836;  (1905)  29,149.  In 
the  old  part  of  the  town  the  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular. 
Besides  the  university,  the  principal  buildings  are  the  Stadt- 
kirche,  the  provincial  government  offices,  comprising  a  portion 
of  the  old  castle  dating  from  the  lath  century,  the  arsenal  (now 
barracks)  and  the  town-hall  (containing  an  historical  collection). 
The  university,  founded  in  1607  by  Louis  V  ,  landgrave  of  Hesse, 
has  a  large  and  valuable  library,a  botanic  garden,  an  observatory, 
medical  schools,  a  museum  of  natural  history,  a  chemical 
laboratory  which  was  directed  by  Justus  von  Liebig,  professor 
here  from  1824  to  1852,  and  an  agricultural  college.  The 
industries  include  the  manufacture  of  woollen  and  cotton  cloth 
of  various  kinds,  machines,  leather,  candles,  tobacco  and  beer. 

Giesaen,  the  name  of  which  is  probably  derived  from  the  streams 
which  pour  (giessen)  their  waters  here  into  the  Lahn,  was  formed 
in  the  12th  century  out  of  the  villages  Selters,  Aster  and 
Rroppach,  for  whose  protection  Count  William  of  Gleiberg  built 
the  castle  of  Giessen.  Through  marriage  the  town  came,  in  x  203, 
into  the  possession  of  the  count  palatine;  Rudolph  of  Tttbingen, 
who  sold  it  in  1265  to  the  landgrave  Henry  of  Hesse.  It  was 
surrounded  with  fortifications  in  1530,  which  were  demolished 
in  1547,  but  rebuilt  in  1560.  In  1805  they  were  finally  pulled 
down,  and  their  site  converted  into  promenades. 

See  O.  Buchncr,  Fakrer  far  Giessen  und  das  Lakntal  (1891);  and 
Ans  Ciessens  Vergangepkeit  (1885). 

OIFFARO,  0OOFRE7  (c.  1 235-1302),  chancellor  of  England 
and  bishop  of  Worcester,  was  a  son  of  Hugh  Giffard  of  Boyton, 
Wiltshire.  Having  entered  the  church  he  speedily  obtained 
valuable  preferments  owing  to  the  influence  of  his  brother 
Walter,  who*  became  chancellor  of  England  in  1265.  In  1266 
Godfrey  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,. succeeding  Walter 
as  chancellor  of  England  when,  in  the  same  year,  the  latter  was 
made  archbishop  of  York.  In  1268  he  was  chosen  bishop  of 
Worcester,  resigning  the  chancellorship  shortly  afterwards; 
and  both  before  and  after  1279,  when  he  inl^erited  the  valuable 
property  of  his  brother  the  archbishop,  he  was  employed  on 
public  business  by  Edward  I.  His  main  energies,  however, 
were  devoted  to  the  affairs  of  his  see.  He  had  pne  long  dispute 
with  the  monks  of  Worcester,  another  with  the  abbot  of  West- 
minster, and  was  vigilant  in  guarding  his  material  interests. 
The  bishop  died  on  the  26th  of  January  1302,  and  was  buried 
in  his  cathedral.  Giffard,  although  inclined  to  nepotism,  was 
a  benefactor  to  his  cathedral,  and  completed  and  fortified  the 
episcopal  castle  at  Hartlebury. 

See  W.  Thomas,  Survey  of  Worcester  Catkedrai;  Episcopal  Registers : 
Register  of  Bishop  Godfrey  Giffard,  edited  by  J.  W.  WtUi&-Bund 
(Oxford.  1898-1899):  and  the  Annals  of  Worcester  in  the  Annales 
mcnastici,  vol.  iv.,  edited  by  H.  R.  Luard  (London,  1869). 

GIFFARD,  WALTER  (d.  1279),  chancellor  of  England  and, 
archbishop  of  York,  was  a  son  of  Hugh  Giffard  of  Boyton, 
Wiltshire,  and  after  serving  as  canon  and  archdeacon  of  Wells, 
was  chosen  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  May  1264.  In  August 
1265  Henry  UL  appointed  him  chancellor  of  England,  and  he 
was  one  of  the  arbitrators  who  drew  up  the  dictum  de  Kenilworth 
in  1266.  Later  in  this  year  Pope  Clement  IV.  Tiamed  him  arch- 
bishop of  York,  and  having  resigned  the  chancellorship  he  was 
an  able  and  diligent  ruler  of  his  see,  although  in  spite  of  his 
great  wealth  he  was  frequently  in  pecuniary  difficulties.    When 


Henry  III.  died  in  November  1272  the  archbishopric  of  Canter> 
bury  was  vacant,  i^nd  consequently  the  great  seal  was  delivered 
to  the  archbishop  of  York,  who  was  the  chief  of  the  three  regents 
who  successfully  governed  the  kingdom  until  the  return  of 
Edward  I.  in  August  1274.  Having  again  acted  in  this  capacity 
during  the  king's  absence  in  1275,  Giffard  died  in  April  1279, 
and  was  buried  in.  his  cathedral. 

See  Fasti  Eboracenses,  edited  by  J.  Ratne  (London,  1 863).  Giffard's 
Register  from  1266  to  1279  has  been  edited  lor  the  Surtees  Society  by 
W.  Brown. 

GIFFARD,  WILUAM  (d.  1x29),  bishop  of  Winchester,  was 
chancellor  of  William  II.  and  received  his  see,  in  succession  to 
Bishop  Walkelin,  from  Henry  I.  (x  loq).  He  was  one  of  the  bishops 
elect  whom  Anselm  refused  to  consecrate  (iiox)  as  having  been 
nominated  and  invested  by  the  lay  power.  During  the  investi* 
tures  dispute  Giffard  was  on  friendly  terms  with  Anselm,  and 
drew  upon  himself  a  sentence  of  banishment  through  decUning 
to  accept  consecration  from  the  archbishop  of  York  (i  103).  He 
was,  however,  one  of  the  bishops  who  pressed  Anselm,  in  x  106, 
to  give  way  to  the  king.  He  was  consecrated  after  the  settle- 
ment of  X 107.  He  became  a  close  friend  of  Anselm,  aided  the 
first  Cistercians  to  settle  in  England,  and  restored  Winchester 
cathedral  with  great  magnificence. 

-  See  Eadmer,  Historia  novorum,  edited  by  M.  Rule  (London, 
1884);  and  S.  H.  Cass,  Bishops  of  Winchester  (London,  1827). 

GIFFEN,  SIR  ROBERT  (1837-19x0),  British  statistician  and 
economist,  was  born  at  Slrathaven,  Lanarkshire.  He  entered 
a  solicitor's  office  in  Glasgow,  and  while  in  that  city  Attended 
courses  at  the  university.  He  drifted  into  journalism,  and  after 
working  for  the  Stirling  Journal  he  went  to  London  in  1862  and 
joined  thestaff  of  the  Globe.  He  alsoassistcd  Mr  John  (afterwards 
Lord)  Morley,  when  the  latter  edited  the  Fortnightly  Review. 
In  x868  he  became  Walter  Bagehot's  assistant-editor  on  the 
Economist;  and  his  services  were  also  secured  in  1873  as  city- 
editor  of  the  Daily  News,  and  later  of  The  Times,  His  high 
reputation  as  a  financial  journalist  and  statistician,  gained  in 
these  years,  led  to  his  appointment  in  1876  as  head  of  the 
statistical  department  in  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  subsequently 
he  became  assistant  secretary  (1882)  and  finally  controller- 
general  (1892),  retiring  in  1897.  In  connexion  with  his  position 
as  chief  statistical  adviser  to  the  government,  he  was  constantly 
employed  in  drawing  up  reports,  giving  evidence  before  commis- 
sions of  inquiry,  and  acting  as  a  government  auditor,  besides 
publishing  a  number  of  important  essays  on  financial  subjects. 
His  principal  publications  were  Essays  on  Finance  (1879  and 
1884),  The  Progress  of  the  Working  Classes  (X884),  The  Growth 
of  Capital  (X890),  The  Case  against  Bimetallism  (X892),  and 
Economic  Inquiries  and  Studies  (1904).  He  was  president  of  the 
Statistical  Society  (1882-1884);  and  after  being  made  a  C.B. 
in  189X  was  created  K.C.B.  in  1895.  ^n  X892  he  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Sir  Robert  Giffen  continued  in 
later  yeafs  to  take  a  leading  part  in  all  public  controversies 
connected  with  finance  and  taxation,  and  his  high  authority 
and  practical  experience  were  universally  recognized.  He  died 
somewhat  suddenly  in  Scotland  on  the  X2th  of  April  X910. 

GIFFORD,  ROBERT  SWAIN  (X840-X905),  American  marine 
and  landscape  painter,  was  bom  on  Naushon  IsUnd,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  23rd  of  December  1840.  He  studied  art  with 
the  Dutch  marine  painter  Albert  van  Beest,  who  had  a  studio 
in  New  Bedford,  and  in  1864  he  opened  a  studio  for  himself  in 
Boston,  subsequently  settling  in  New  York,  where  he  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1867  and  an 
academician  in  1878*  He  was  also  a  charter  member  of  the 
American  Water  Color  Sodety  and  the  Society  of  American 
Artists.  From  X878  until  1896  he  was  teacher  of  painting 
and .  chief  master  of  the  Woman's  Art  School  of  Cooper 
Union,  New  York,  and  from  1896  until  his  death  he  was  director. 
Gifford  painted  longshore-  views,  sand  dunes  and  Undscapes 
generally,  with  charm  andpoetry.  He  was  an  etcher  of  con^der- 
able  reputation,  a  member  of  the  Sodety  of  American  Etchers, 
and  an  honorary  member  of  the  Society  of  Painter-Etchers  ol 
London.    He  died  in  New  York  on  the  13th  of  January  X905. 


GIFFORD,  &  R.— GIGLIO 


GIFTDBD,  8A1IDF0RD  ROBUBON  (1821-1880),  Amerioiii 
landscape  painter,  was  born  at  Greenfield,  New  York,  on  the  xoth 
o(  July  1823.  He  studied  (1842-1845)  at  Brown  University,  then 
vent  to  New  Yorlc,  and  entered  the  art  schools  o£  the  National 
Academy  of  Design,  of  which  organization  he  was  elected  an 
associate  in  x8sx,  and  an  academician  in  1854.  Subsequently 
he  studied  in  Paris  and  Rome.  He  was  one  of  the  best  known 
of  the  Hudson  River  school  group,  though  it  was  at  Lake  George 
that  he  found  most  of  his  themes.  In  his  day  he  enjoyed  an 
cBormous  popularity,  and  his  canvases  are  in  many  well-known 
American  collections.  He  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  29th  of 
August  x88o. 

OlFPORD.  WILLIAM  (X756-X826),  English  publicist  and  man 
of  letters,  was  bom  at  Ashburton,  Devon,  in  April  X756.  His 
father  was  a  glazier  of  indifferent  character,  and  before  he 
was  thirteen  William  had  lost  both  parents.  The  business  was 
seized  by  his  godfather,  on  whom  William  and  his  brother,  a 
child  of  two,  became  entirely  dependent.  For  about  three 
months  William  was  allowed  to  remain  at  the  free  school  of  the 
town.  He  was  then  put  to  follow  the  plough,  but  after  a  day's 
trial  he  proved  unequal  to  the  task,  and  was  sent  to  sea  with  the 
Brixh^m  fishermen.  After  a  year  at  sea  his  godfather,  driven 
by  the  opinion  of  the  townsfolk,  put  the  boy  to  school  once  more. 
He  nude  rapid  progress,  especially  in  mathematics,  and  began 
to  assist  the  master.  In  x  77  2  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker, 
and  when  he  wished  to  pursiic  his  mathematical  studies,  he  was 
obliged  to  work  his  problems  with  an  awl  on  beaten  leather. 
By  the  ^i****"^**  of  an  Ashburton  surgeon,  William  Cooksley, 
a  subscription  was  raised  to  enable  him  to  return  to  school. 
Ultimately  he  proceeded  in  his  twenty-third  year  to  Oiford, 
where  he  was  appointed  a  Bible  clerk  in  Exeter  College.  Leaving 
the  university  shortly  after  graduation  in  x  78a,  he  found  a  generous 
patron  in  the  first  Earl  Grosvenor,  who  undertook  to  provide 
for  him,  and  sent  him  on  two  prolonged  continental  tours  in  the 
capacity  of  tutor  to  his  son,  Lord  Belgrave..  Settling  in  London, 
GL^ord  published  in  X794  his  first  work,  a  clever  satirical  piece, 
after  Persitts,  entitled  the  Baviad,  aimed  at  a  coterie  of  second- 
rale  writers  at  Florence,  then  popularly  known  as  the  Delia 
Cnacans,  of  which  Mrs  Piozzi  was  the  leader.  A  second  satire 
of  a  similar  description,  the  iiatviad,  directed  against  the  corrup- 
tioQs  of  the  drama,  appeared  in  X795.  About  this  time  Gifford 
became  acquainted  with  Canning,  with  whose  help  he  In  August 
I7Q7  originated  a  weekly  newq>aper  of  Conservative  politics 
CQtitied  the  AnU- Jacobin,  which,  however,  in  the  following 
year  ceased  to  be  published.  An  English  version  of  Juvenal, 
en  which  he  had  been  for  many  years  engaged,  appeared  in  x8o2 ; 
to  this  an  autobiographical  iK>tice  of  the  translator,  reproduced 
in  Nichol's  lUustralicns  of  Uttratyre,  was  prefixed.  Two  years 
afterwards  Gifford  published  an  aimotated  edition  of  the  plays 
of  Massinfer;  and  In  X809,  when  the  Quarioriy  Review  was 
projected,  he  was  made  editor.  The  success  which  attended  the 
{•acrUriy  from  the  outset  was  due  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
abUity  and  tact  with  which  Gifford  discharged  his  editorial 
duties.  He  took,  however,  considerable  liberties  with  the 
aniclcs  he  inserted,  and  Southey,  who  was  one  of  his  regular 
contributors,  said  that  Gifford  looked  on  authors  as  Izaak 
Walton  did  on  worms.  His  bitter  opposition  to  Radicals  and 
Us  onslao^ta  on  new  writers,  conspicuous  among  which  was 
the  article  on  Keats's  Endymton,  called  forth  Hazlitt's  Letter 
to  W.  Giford  in  1819.  His  connesdon  with  the  Review  continued 
utH  within  about  two  years  of  his  death,  which  took  place  in 
Locdoo  on  the  jtst  of  December  X826.  Besides  numerous 
ccntribotions  to  the  Quarterly  during  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his 
ti/er  he  wrote  a  metrkal  translation  of  Persius,  which  appeared 
is  182X.  Giffoed  also  edited  the  dramas  of  Ben  Jonson  in  1816, 
aad  his  edition  of  Ford  appeared  posthumously  in  X827.  His 
nctes  on  Shirley  were  incorporated  in  Dyce*s  edition  in  1833. 
Hb  pofiLical  services  were  acknowledged  by  the  appointments 
of  coouniasioncr  of  the  lottery  and  paymaster  of  the  gentle- 
caa  pensioners.  He  left  a  considerable  fortune,  the  bulk 
of  which  went  to  the  son  of  his  first  benefactor,  William 
Cooksley. 


GIFT  (a  common  Teutonic  word,  cf.  Ger.  die  Gift,  gift,  das 
Gift,  poison,  formed  from  the  Teut  stem  gab-,  to  give,  cf.  Dutch 
geoeu,  Ger.  g^en;  in  O.  Eng.  the  word  appears  with  initial  y, 
the  guttural  of  later  English  is  due  to  Scandinavian  influence),  a 
general  English  term  for  a  present  or  thing  bestowed,  i.e.  an 
alienation  of  property  otherwise  than  for  a  legal  consideration, 
althoui^  in  law  it  is  often  used  to  signify  alienation  with  or 
without  consideration.  By  analogy  the  terms  "gift"  and 
"  gifted  "  are  also  used  to  signify  the  natural  endowment  of 
some  special  ability,  or  a  miraculous  power,  in  a  person,  as  being 
not  acquired  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  legal  effect  of  a  gratuit- 
ous gift  only  need  be  considered  here.  Formerly  in  English 
law  property  in  land  could  be  conveyed  by  one  person  to  another 
by  a  verbal  gift  of  the  estate  accompanied  by  delivery  of  posses- 
sion. The  Statute  of  Frauds  required  all  such  conveyances  to 
be  in  writing,  and  a  later  statute  (8  &  9  Vict.  c.  xo6)  requires 
them  to  be  by  deed.  Personal  property  may  be  effectually 
transferred  from  one  person  to  another  by  a  simple  verbal  gift 
accompanied  by  delivery.  If  A  delivers  a  chattel  to  B,  saying 
or  signifying  that  he  does  so  by  way  of  gift,  the  property  passes, 
and  the  chattel  belongs  to  B.  But  ui^less  the  actual  thing  is 
bodily  handed  over  to  the  donee,  the  mere  verbal  expression  o^ 
the  donor's  desire  or  intention  has  no  legal  effect  whatever. 
The  persons  are  in  the  position  of  parties  to  an  agreement  which 
is  void  as  being  without  consideration.  When  the  nature  of 
the  thing  is  such  that  it  cannot  be  bodily  handed  over,  it  will 
be  sufficient  to  put  the  donee  in  such  a  position  as  to  enable  him 
to  deal  with  it  as  the  owner.  For  example,  when  goods  are  in  a 
warehouse,  the  delivery  of  the  key  will  make  a  verbal  gift  of 
them  effectual;  but  it  seems  that  part  delivery  of  goods  which 
are  capable  of  actual  delivery  will  not  validate  a  verbal  gift  of 
the  pajt  undelivered.  So  when  goods  are  in  the  possession  of  a 
warehouseman,  the  handing  over  of  a  delivery  order  might,  by 
special  custom  (but  not  otherwise,  it  appears),  be  sufficient  to 
pass  the  property  in  the  goods,  although  delivery  of  a  bill  of 
lading  for  goods  at  sea  is  equivalent  to  an  actual  delivery  of  the 
goods  themselves. 

OIFU  (IiCAlzum),  a  city  of  Japan,  capital  of  the  ken  (govern- 
ment) of  Central  Nippon,  which  comprises  the  two  provinces 
of  Mino  and  Hida.  Pop.  about  41,000.  It  lies  E.  by  N.  of  Lako 
Biwa,  on  the  Central  railway,  on  a  tributary  of  the  river  Riso, 
which  flows  to  the  Bay  of  Miya  Uro.  Manufactures  of  silk  and 
paper  goods  are  carried  on.  The  ken  has  an  area  of  about 
4000  sq.  m.  and  is  thickly  peopled,  the  population  exceeding 
X  ,000,000.    The  whole  district  is  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes. 

QIO,  apparently  an  onomatopoeic  word  for  any  light  whirling 
object,  and  so  used  of  a  top,  as  in  Shakespeare's  Love*s  Labour*s 
Lost,  V.  i.  70  ("  Goe  whip  thy  gigge  "),  or  of  a  revolving  lure 
madis  of  feathers  for  snaring  birds.  The  word  is  now  chiefly 
used  of  a  light  two-wheeled  cart  or  carriage  for  one  horse,  and 
of  a  narrow,  light,  ship's  boat  for  oars  or  sails,  and  also  of  a 
clinker-built  rowing-boat  used  for  rowing  on  the  Thames. 
"  Gig  "  is  further  applied,  in  mining,  to  a  wooden  chamber  or 
box  divided  in  the  centre  and  used  to  draw  miners  up  and  down 
a  pit  or  shaft,  and  to  a  textile  machine,  the  "  gig-mill "  or 
"gigging  machine,"  which  raises  the  nap  on  cloth  by  means 
of  teazels.  A  "  gig  "  or  "  fish-gig  "  (properly  "  fiz-gig,"  possibly 
an  adaptation  of  Span,  fisga,  harpoon)  is  an  instrument 
used  for  spearing  fish. 

OIGUO  (anc.  Igilium),  an  island  of  Italy,  off  the  S.W.  coast 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Grosscto,  xx  m.  to  the  W.  of  Monte 
Argentario,  the  nearest  point  on  the  coast.  It  measures  about 
5  m.  by  3  and  its  highest  point  is  1634  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop. 
(x9ot)  2062.  It  is  partly  composed  of  granite,  which  was 
quarried  here  by  the  Romans,  and  is  still  used;  the  island  is 
fertile,  and  produces  wine  and  fruit,  the  cultivation  of  which  has 
taken  the  place  of  the  forests  of  which  Rutilius  spoke  (Ilin.  i. 
325,  "  eminus  Igilii  silvosa  cacumina  miror  ").  Julius  Caesar 
mentions  its  sailors  in  the  fleet  of  Domitius  Abenobarbus.  In 
Rutilius's  time  it  served  as  a  place  of  Tefuge  from  the  barbarian 
invaders.  Charlemagne  gave  it  to  the  abbey  of  Tre  Fontane  at 
Rome.    In  the  14th  century  it  belonged  to  Pisa,  then  to  Florence, 


GIJON— GILBART 


then,  after  being'  seised  by  the  Spanish  fleet,  it  was  ceded  to 
Antonio  Piccolomini,  nephew  of  Pius  II.  In  1558  it  was 
sold  to  the  wife  of  Cosimo  I.  of  Florence. 

See  Archduke  Ludwig  Salvator.  Die  Insd  Cigfio  (Prague,  1900). 

GUON,  a  seaport  of  northern  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Oviedo; 
on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  at  the  terminus  of  railways  from 
Avil£s,  Oviedo  and  Langreo.  Pop.  (1900)  47,544.  The  older 
parts  of  Gijdn,  which  axe  partly  enclosed  by  andent  walls, 
occupy  the  upper  slopes  of  a  peninsular  headland,  Santa  Catallna 
Point;  while  its  more  modem  suburbs  extend  along  the  shore 
to  Cape  Torres,  on  the  west,  and  Cape  San  Lorenzo,  on  the  east. 
These  suburbs  contain  the  town-hall,  theatre,  markets,  and  a 
bull-ring  with  seats  for  12,000  spectators.  Few  of  the  buildings 
of  Gij6n  axe  noteworthy  for  any  architectural  merit,  except 
perhaps  the  isth-centuiy  parish  church  of  San  Pedro,  which 
has  a  triple  row  of  aisles  on  each  side,  the  palace  of  the  mar- 
quesses of  Revillajigedo  (or  Revilla  Gigedo),  and  the  Asturian 
Institute  or  Jovellanos  Institute.  The  last  named  has  a  veiy 
fine  collection  of  drawings  by  Spanish  and  other  artists,  a  good 
library  and  classes  for  instruction  in  seamanship,  mathematics 
and  languages.  It  was  founded  in  1797  by  the  poet  and  states- 
man Gaspar  Mdchor  de  Jovellanos  (1744-2811).  Jovellanos, 
a  native  of  Gij6n,  is  buried  in  San  Pedro. 
I  The  Bay  of  Gij^n  is  the  most  important  roadstead  on  the 
Spanish  coast  between  Ferrol  and  Santander.  Its  first  quay 
was  constructed  by  means  of  a  grant  from  Charles  V.  in  1553- 
1554;  and  its  arsenal,  added  in  the  reign  of  Philip  II.  (1556- 
1598),  was  used  in  1588  as  a  repairing  station  for  the  surviving 
ships  of  the  Invincible  Armada.  A  new  quay  was  built  in 
X  766-1 768,  and  extended  in  1859;  the  hacbour  was  further 
improved  in  1864,  and  after  1893,  when  the  Musel  harbour  of 
refuge  was  created  at  the  extremity  of  the  bay.  It  was,  how- 
ever, the  establishment  of  railway  communication  in  1884  which 
brought  the  town  its  modem  prosperity,  by  rendering  it  the  chief 
port  of  shipment  fw  the  products  of  Langreo  and  other  mining 
centres  in  Oviedo.  A  rapid  commercial  development  followed. 
Besides  large  tobacco,  glass  and  porcelain  factories,  Gij6n 
possesses  iron  foundries  and  petroleum  refineries;  while  its, 
minor  industries  include  fisheries,  and  the  manufacture  of  pre- 
served foods,  soap,  chocolate,  candles  and  liqueurs.  In  1903 
the  harbour  accommodated  2189  vessels  of  358,375  tons.  In 
the  same  year  the  imports,  consisting  chiefly  of  macl^ery,  iron, 
wood  and  food-stuffs,  were  valued  at  £660,889;  while  the 
exports,  comprising  zinc,  copper,  iron  and  other  minerals,  with 
fidi,  nuts  and  farm  produce,  were  valued  at  £100,941. 
I  Gij6n  is  usually  identified  with  the  Gipa  oi  the  Romans,  which, 
however,  occupied  the  site  of  the  adjoining  suburb  of  Cima 
de  ViUa.  Eariy  in  the  8th  century  Gij6n  was  captured  and 
strengthened  by  the  Moors,  who  used  the  stones  of  the  Roman 
city  for  their  fortifications,  but  were  expelled  by  King  Pelayo 
(720-737).  In  844  Gij6n  successfully  resisted  a  Norman  raid ;  in 
X39S  it  was  bum^  down;  but  thenceforward  it  gradually  rose 
to  commercial  importance. 

•  GlIJlN  (Ghilan,  Guilan),  one  of  the  three  small  but  important 
Caspian  provinces  of  Persia,  lying  along  the  south-westem  shore 
of  the  Caspian  Sea  between  48*  50'  and  50"  30'  E.  with  a  breadth 
varying  from  15  to  50  m.  It  has  an  area  of  about  5000 
sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  about  250,00a  It  is  separated  from 
Russia  by  the  little  river  Astara,  which  flows  into  the  Caspian, 
and  bounded  W.  by  AzerbAIj&n,  S.  by  Kazvin  and  E.  by  Mazan- 
daran.  The  greater  portion  of  the  province  is  a  lowland  region 
extending  inland  from  the  sea  to  the  base  of  the  mountains  of  the 
Elburz  range  and,  though  the  Seftd  Rod  (White  river),  which  is 
called  KizO  Uzain  in  its  upper  course  and  has  its  principal 
sources  in  the  hills  of  Persian  Kurdistan,  is  the  only  river  of  any 
size,  the  province  is  abundantly  watered  by  many  streams 
and  an  exceptionally  great  rainfall  (in  some  years  50  in.). 
t  The  vegetation  is  very  much  likie  that  of  southern  Europe, 
but  in  consequence  of  the  great  humidity  and  the  mild  climate 
almost  tropically  luxuriant,  and  thjB  forests  from  the  shore  of 
the  sea  up  to  an  altitude  of  nearly  5000  ft.  on  the  mountain 
dopes  facing  the  sea  are  as  dense  as  an  Indian  jungle.  ^The. 


prevailing  types  of  trees  are  the  oak,  maple,  hornbeam,  beech, 
ash  and  elm.  The  box  tree  comes  to  rare  perfection,  but  in 
consequence  of  indiscriminate  cutting  for  export  during  many 
years,  is  now  becoming  scarce.  Of  fruit  trees  the  apple,  pear, 
plum,  cherry,  medlar,  pomegranate,  fig,  quince,  as  well  as  two 
kinds  of  vine,  grow  wild;  oranges,  sweet  and  bitter,  and  other 
Aurantiaceae  thrive  weU  in  gardens  and  plantations.  The  fauna 
also  is  well  represented,  but  tigers  which  once  were  frequently 
seen  are  now  very  scarce;  panther,  hyena,  jackal,  wild  boiar, 
deer  {C^rvtu  moral)  are  common;  pheasant,  woodcock,  ducks, 
teal,  geese  and  various  waterfowl  abound;  the  fisheries  are  very 
productive  and  axe  leased  to  a  Russian  firm.  The  ordinary 
cattle  of  the  province  is  the  small  humped  kind.  Bos  indicus, 
and  forms  ai^  article  of  export  to  Russia,  the  humps,  smoked, 
being  much  in  demand  as  a  delicacy.  Rice  of  a  kind  not  much 
appreciated  in  Persia,  but  much  esteemed  in  GlUn  and  Russia, 
is  largely  cultivated  and  a  quantity  valued  at  about  £120,000 
was  exported  to  Russia  during  1904-1905.  Tea  planUtions, 
with  seeds  and  plants  from  Assam,  Ceylon  and  the  Himalayas, 
were  started  in  the  early  part  of  1900  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills 
south  of  Resht  at  an  altitude  of  about  1000  ft.  llie  results  were 
excellent  and  very  good  tea  was  produced  in  1904  and  1905, 
but  the  Persian  government  gave  no  support  and  the  enterprise 
was  neglected.  The  olive  thrives  well  at  R6db&r  and  ManjQ 
in  the  Sefid  Rfid  valley  and  the  oil  extracted  from  it  by  a  Pro- 
vencal for  some  years  until  1896,  when  he  was  murdered,  was  of 
very  good  quality  and  found  a  ready  market  at  Baku.  Since 
then  the  oil  has  been,  as  before,  only  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
soap.  Tobacco  from  Turkish  seed,  cultivated  since  1875,  grows 
well,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  it  is  exported.  The  most 
valuable  produce  of  the  province  is  silk.  In  1866  it  was  valued 
At  £743,000  and  about  two-thirds  of  it  was  exported.  The  silk- 
worm disease  appeared  in  1864  and  the  crops  decreased  in  con- 
sequence until  1893  when  the  value  of  the  silk  exported  was  no 
more  than  £6500.  Since  then  there  has  been  a  steady  improve- 
ment, and  in  1905-1906  the  value.of  the  produce  was  estimated 
at  £300,000  and  that  of  the  quantity  exported  at  £300,000. 
The  eggs  of  the  silk-worms,  formeriy  obtained  from  Japan,  are 
now  imported  principally  from  Brusa  by  Greeks  under  French 
protection  and  from  France. 

There  is  only  one  good  road  in  the  province,  that  from  Enzdi 
to  Kazvin  by  way  of  Resht;  in  other  parts  communication  is 
by  narrow  and  frequently  impassable  lanes  through  the  thick 
forest,  or  by  intricate  pathways  through  the  dense  undergrowth. 

The  province  is  divided  into  the  following  administrative 
districts:  Resht  (with  the  capital  and  its  imm«liate  neighbour- 
hood), Fumen  (with  Tulam  and  Mcsula,  where  are  iron  mines), 
Gesker,  Talish  (with  Shan'darman,  Kerganmd,  Asalim,  Gil- 
Dulab,  Talish-Dulab),  Enzeli  (the  port  of  Resht),  Sheft,  Manjfl 
(with  Rahmetabad  and  Amarlu),  Lahijan  (with  Langarad, 
Riidsar  and  Ranehkuh),  Dilman  and  Lashtnisha.  The  revenue 
derived  from  taxes  and  customs  is  about  £80,000.  The  crown 
lands  have  been  much  neglected  and  the  revenue  from  them 
amoimts  to  hardly  £3000  per  annum;  The  value  of  the  exports 
and  imports  from  and  into  GlUn,  much  of  them  in  transit,  is 
close  upon  £2,000,000. 

Gllin  was  an  independent  khanate  until  1567  when  Khan 
Ahmed,  the  last  of  the  Kargia  dynasty,  which  had  reigned 
205  years,  was  deposed  by  Tahmasp  I.,  the  second  Safawid  shah 
of  Persia  (1524-2576).  It  was  occupied  by  a  Russian  force  in 
the  eariy  psrt  of  x  723 ;  and  Tahma^  III.,  tlw  tenth  Safawid  shah 
(X722-X731),  then  without  a  throne  and  hb  country  occupied 
by  the  Afghans,  ceded  it,  together  with  Mazandaran  and  Astara'« 
bad,  to  Peter  the  Great  by  a  treaty  of  the  X2th  of  September  of 
the  same  year.  Russian  troops  remained  in  GlUn  until  X734, 
when  they  were  compelled  to  evacuate  it. 

The  derivation  of  the  name  Gllin  from  the  modem  Peruan 
word  gU  meaning  mud  (hence  "  land  of  mud  ")  is  incorrect. 
It  probably  means  "  land  of  the  (Sd,"  an  ancient  tribe  which 
rls^sifal  writers  mention  as  the  Gdae.  (A.  H.-S.) 

GILBART.  JAMEB  WILUAM  (t794'ia63)>  English  writer  on 
banking,  was  bom  in  London  On  the  2ist  of  March  X7fi4.p  From 


GILBERT,  ALFRED— GILBERT,  SIR  H. 


iSzj'to  xSas  be  wu  derk  in  a  London  bank.    After  a  two  years' 

foideace  in  Birmingham,  he  was  appointed  manager  of  the 

Kilkenny  branch  of  the  Provincial  Bank  of  Ireland,  and  in  1829 

be  was  promoted  to  the  Waterford  branch.    In  1834  he  became 

nanager  of  the  London  and  Westminster  Bank;  and  he  did  much 

to  develop  the  system  of  joint-stock  banking.    On  more  than 

one  occasion  he  rendered  valuable  services  to  the  joint-stock 

basks  by  his  evidence  before  committees  of  the  House  of 

CoouDons;  and,  on  the  renewal  of  the  bank  charter  in  1844, 

be  procured  the  insertion  of  a  clause  granting  to  joint-stodi 

banks  the  power  of  suing  by  their  public  officer,  and  also  the 

tig^t  of  accepting  bOIs  at  less  than  six  months'  date.    In  x  846  he 

waselected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.    He  died  in  London  on 

tbe  8th  of  August  1863.    The  Gilbart  lectures  on  banking  at 

King's  CoUc^  axe  called  after  him. 

The  fdloviog  are  his  principal  works  on  banking,  moat  of  which 
have  paaaed  through  more  than  one  edition:  Practical  TrtaHs9  <m 


Baukmi  (1837):  Tlu  History  and  PrincipUs  ef  Banking  (1834)! 
n*  History  of  Banking  in  America  (1837;;  Lectmres  on  Ike  History 
•mi  Primcsiies  «/  AnctaU  Commeru  (1847);  Logk  jor  tke  Million 


Tht  History  of  Banking  in  America  (i8t7j;  Lechtres  on 
•mi  PrimcspUs  ef  AnctetU  Commerce  '-*— *     •   -*-  '- 
(1851}:  sad  Lope  ^Banking  (1857). 

fiOBIRT,  ALPRBD  (1854-  ),  British  sculptor  and 
goldsmith,  bom  in  London,  was  the  son  of  Alfred  Gilbert, 
musidaB.  He  received  his  education  mainly  in  Paris  (£cole 
des  Beaux-Arts,  under  Cavelier),  and  studied  in  Rome  and 
Fknenoe  where  the  significance  of  the  Renaissance  made  a 
lasting  impicsston  upon  him  and  his  art.  He  also  worked  in 
ibe  studio  ol  Sir  J.  Edgar  Boehm,  R.A.  His  first  woric  of 
importance  was  the  charming  group  of  the  "  Mother  and  Child," 
then  "The  Kiss  of  Victory,''  followed  by  "  Perseus  Arming " 
(1883),  produced  directly  under  the  influence  of  the  Florentine 
masterpieoes  be  had  studied.  Its  success  was  great,  and  Lord 
Leighton  forthwith  commissicmed  "  Icarus,"  which  was  ex- 
hibited at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1884,  along  with  a  remarkable 
"  Study  of  n  Head,"  and  was  received  with  general  applause. 
Then  followed  "  The  Enchanted  Chair,"  which,  along  with  many 
other  works  deemed  by  the  artist  incomplete  or  unworthy  of 
Us  powers,  was  ultimately  bxok«i  by  the  sculptor's  own  hand. 
The  vest  year  Mr  Gilbat  was  occupied  with  the  Shaftesbury 
Uenx>rial  Fountain,  in  Piccadilly,  London,  a  work  of  great 
origioality  and  beauty,  yet  shorn  of  some  of  the  intended  effect 
through  restrictions  put  upon  the  artist.  In  x888  was  produced 
tbe  sutue  of  H.M.  Queen  Victoria,  set  up  at  Winchester,  in  its 
main  design  and  in  the  details  of  its  ornamentation  the  most 
leaarkaUe  work  of  its  kind  produced  in  Great  Britain,  and 
perhaps,  it  may  be  added,  in  any  other  country  in  modem  times. 
Other  statues  of  great  beauty,  at  once  novel  in  treatment  and 
&ae  in  design,  are  those  set  up  to  Lord  Reay  in  Bombay,  and 
Joba  Howard  at  Bedford  (1898),  the  highly  original  pedestal 
of  which  did  much  to  direct  into  a  better  channel  what  are 
apt  to  be  the  eccentricities  of  what  is  called  the  "New  Art" 
Scfaod.  The  sculptor  rose  to  the  full  height  of  his  powers  in  his 
"  Memorial  to  the  Duke  of  Clarence,"  and  his  fast  devdofMng 
iiLcy  and  imagination,  which  are  the  main  characteristics  of  all 
ka  vurk,  are  seen  in  his  "Memorial  Candelabrum  to  Lord  Arthur 
RoBcU  "  and  **  Memorial  Font  to  the  son  of  the  4th  Marquess  of 
Bath."  Gilbert's  sense  of  decoration  is  paramount  in  all  he  does, 
aad  although  in  addition  to  the  work  klready  dted  he  pro- 
duced busts  of  extraordinary  excellence  of  Cyril  Flower,  John 
k-  Clayton  Csixice  broken  up  by  the  artist — the  fate  of  much  of 
kis  admirable  work),  G.  F.  Watts,  Sir  Henry  Tate,  Sir  George 
Bitdvood,  Sir  Richard  Owen,  Sir  George  Grove  and  various 
othen,  it  IS  <m  bis  goldsmithcry  that  the  artist  would  rest  his 
Rptttation;  od  bis  mayoral  chain  for  Preston,  the  epergne  for 
Qoeen  Victoria,  tbe  figurines  of  "  Victory  "  (a  statuette  designed 
(or  the  orb  in  the  hand  of  the  Winchester  statue), "  St  Michael  " 
lad  "St  Geox^,"  as  well  as  smaller  objects  such  as  seals,  keys 
utd  the  like.  Mr  Gilbert  was  chosen  associate  of  the  Royal 
Aodemy  in  1887,  full  member  in  189a  t^siSi*^  1909)1  and 
pnfessor  of  sculpture  (afterwards  resigned)  in  1900.  In  1889  he 
von  the  Grand  Prix  at  the  Paris  International  Exhibition.  He 
*3s  created  a  member  of  the  Victorian  Order  in  1897.  (See 
SccvmtsJ 


See  The  Life  and  Work  of  Alfred  GHhert,  RJi.,  M.V.O.,D.CX.,  by 
Joseph  Hatton  {Art  Journal  Office,  1903).  (M.  H.  S.) 

GILBERT,  ANN  (x8ax-x904),  American  actress,  was  bom  at 
Rochdale,  Lancashire,  on  the  aist  of  October  x8ax,  her  maiden 
name  being  Hartley.  At  fifteen  she  was  a  pupil  at  the 
ballet  school  connected  with  the  Haymarket  theatre,  conducted 
by  Paul  Taglioni,  and  became  a  dancer  on  the  stage.  In  1846 
she  married  George  H.  Gilbert  (d.  x866),  a  performer  m  the 
company  of  which  she  was  a  member.  Together  they  filled 
many  engagements  in  English  theatres,  moving  to  America  in 
1849.  Mrs  Gilbert's  first  success  in  a  q^eaking  part  was  in  x8s7 
as  Wiehavenda  in  Brougham's  Pocakonku.  In  1869  she  joined 
Daly's  company,  playing  for  many  years  wives  to  James  Lewis's 
husbands,  and  old  women's  parts,  in  whidk  she  had  no  equal. 
Mrs.  Gilbert  held  a  unique  position  on  the  American  stage,  on 
account  of  the  admiration,  esteem  and  affection  which  she 
enjoyed  both  in  front  and  behind  the  footlights.  She  died  at 
Chicago  on  the  and  of  December  X904. 

See  Mrs  CUberfs  Slags  Reminiscences  (1901). 

GILBERT,  GROVE  KARL  (1843-  ),  American  geologist, 
was  bora  at  Rochester,  N.Y.,  on  the  6th  of  May  X843.  In  x86q 
he  was  attached  to  the  deological  Survey  of  Ohio  and  in 
1879  he  became  a  member  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  being  engaged  on  parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in 
Nevada,  Utah,  California  and  Arizona.  He  is  distinguidied 
for  his  researches  on  mountain-structure  aiuion  the  Great  Lakes, 
as  well  as  on  glacial  phenomena,  recent  earth  movements,  and 
on  topographic  features  generally.  His  report  on  the  Geology 
of  the  Henry  Mountains  (1877),  in  which  the  volcanic  structure 
known  as  a  laccolite  was  first  described;  his  History  of  lh$ 
Niagara  River  (1890)  and  Lake  Bonneville  (1891 — the  fiist  of 
the  Monographs  issued  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey) 
are  specially  important.  He  was  awarded  the  Wollaston  medid 
by  the  Geologiod  Society  of  London  in  X900. 

GILBERT,  SIR  HUMPHREY  (c.  X539-XS83),  English  soldier,' 
nkvigator  and  pioneer  colonist  in  America,  was  the  second  son  of 
Otho  Gilbert,  of  Compton,  near  Dartmouth,  Devon,  and  step- 
brother of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Oxford;  intended  for  the  law;  introduced  at  court  by  Raleigh's 
aunt,  Catherine  Ashley,  and  appointed  (J^X  ^S^)  captain  in 
the  army  of  Ireland  under  Sir  Henry  Sidney.  In  April  1566 
he  had  already  joined  with  Antony  Jenkinson  in  a  petition 
to  Elisabeth  for  the  discovery  of  the  North-East  Passage;  in 
November  following  he  presented  an  independent  petition  for 
the  "discovering  of  a  passage  by  the  north  to  goto  Cataia."  In 
October  1569  he  became  governor  of  Munster;  on  the  xst  of 
January  1570  he  was  luu^ted;  in  xs7x  he  was  returned  M.P. 
for  Plymouth;  in  1572  he  campaigned  in  the  Netherlands 
against  Spain  without  much  success;  from  1573  to  1578  he 
lived  in  retirement  at  Limehouse,  devoting  himself  especially 
to  the  advocacy  of  a  North- West  Passage  (his  famous  Discourse 
on  this  subject  was  published  in  1576).  Gilbert's  arguments, 
widely  circulated  even  before  XS75,  were  apparently  of  weight 
in  promoting  the  Frobisher  enterprises  of  x  576-1 578.  On  the 
xith  of  June  1578,  Sir  Humphrey  obtained  his  long-coveted 
charter  for  North-Westem  discovery  and  colonization,  authoxiz- 
ing  him,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  discover,  occupy  and  possess 
such  remote  "heathen  lands  not  actually  possessed  of  any 
Christian  prince  or  people,  as  should  seem  good  to  him  or  them." 
Disposing  not  only  of  his  patrimony  but  also  of  the  estates  in 
Kent  which  he  had  through  his  wife,  daughter  of  John  Aucher 
of  OUerden,  be  fitted  out  an  expedition  which  left  Dartmouth 
on  the  a3rd  of  September  1578,  and  returned  in  May  iS79» 
having  accomplished  nothing.  In  1579  Gilbert  aided  the 
government  in  Ireland;  and  in  XS83,  after  many  struggles— 
illustrated  by  ifis  appeal  to  Walsingham  on  the  xxth  of  July 
Z582,  for  the  payment  of  moneys  due  to  him  from  government, 
and  by  bis  agreement  with  the  Southampton  venturers— he 
succeeded  in  equipping  another  fleet  for  "  Western  Planting." 
On  the  xxth  of  June  1583,  he  sailed  from  Plymouth  with  five 
ships  and  the  queen's  blessing;  on  the  13th  of  July  the  "  Ark 
Raleigh,"  buHt  and  manned  at  his  brother's  expense^  .deserted 


8 


GILBERT,  J.— GILBERT,  MARIE 


the  fleet;  on  the  30th  of  July  he  wis  off  the  north  coast  of 
Newfoundland;  on  the  3rd  of  August  he  arrived  off  the  present 
St  John's,  and  selected  this  site  as  the  centre  of  his  operations; 
on  the  5th  of  August  he  began  the  plantation  of  the  first  En^ish 
colony  in  North  America.  Proceeding  southwards  with  three 
vessels,  exploring  and  prospecting,  he  lost  the  largest  near  Cape 
Breton  (29th  of  August);  immediately  after  (31st  of  August) 
he  started  to  return  to  England  with  the  "  <yolden  Hind  "  and 
the  "  Squirrel,"  of  forty  and  ten  tons  respectively.  Obstinately 
refusing  to  leave  the  "  frigate  "  and  sail  in  his  "  great  ship," 
he  shared  the  former's  fate  in  a  tempest  off  the  Azores. "  Monday 
the  Qth  of  September,"  reports  Hayes,  the  captain  of  the  "  Hind," 
"  the  frigate  was  near  cast  away, . . .  .yet  at  that  time  recovered; 
and,  giving  forth  signs  of  joy,  the  general,  sitting  abaft  with  a 
book  in  his  hand,  cried  out  unto  us  in  the'  Hind,' '  We  are  as  near 
to  heaven  by  sea  as  by  land.'. . . .  The  same  Monday  night,  about 
twelve,  the  frigate  being  ahead  of  us  in  the  'Golden  Hind/ 

suddenly  her  lights  were  out in  that  moment  the  frigate 

was  devoured  and  swallowed  up  of  the  sea." 

See  Hakluyt,  Principal  NmigaHens  (iS99)t  vol.  liL  pp.~  1^-181; 
Gilbert's  Discourse  of  a  Discovery  Jor  a  New  Paesato  to  Catata,  pub- 
Ibhed  by  Georae  Gascoigne  in  1576,  with  adoitions,  tnrobably 
without  Gilbert^  authority;  Hooker's  Supplement  to  Holinshed^ 
Irish  Chronicle;  Roger  Williams,  The  Actions  0/  the  Low  Countries 
(1618);  State  Papers,  Domestic  (1577-1583);  Wood's  Athenae 
Oxoniensesi  Nor  A  British  Reoiewt  No.  45;  Fox  Bourne's  Entlish 
Seamen  under  the  Tudors;  Carlos  Slafter,  Sir  H.  CylberU  ana  his 
Enterprise  (Boston,  190^),  with  all  important  documents.  Gilbert's 
interesting  writings  on  the  need  of  a  univcndty  for  LQndon.anticipat- 
ing  in  many  ways  not  only  the  modem  London  University  but  also 
the  British  Museum  library  and  its  compulsory  sustenance  thronigh 
the  provisions  of  the  Copyright  Act,  have  been  printed  by  FumivaU 
(Queen  Elizabeth's  Achademy)  in  the. Early  English  Text  Society 
Publications,  extra  series,  No.  viiL 

GILBERT,  JOHN  (18x0-1889),  American  actor,^hose"real 
name  was  Gibbs,  was  born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
a7th  of  February  x8io,  and  made  his  first  appearance  there 
as  Jaffier  in  Venice  Preserve. .  He  soon  found  that  his  true  vein 
was  in  comedy,  particularly  in  old-men  parts,  i  When  in  London 
in  1847  he  was  well  received  both  by  press  and  public,  and  played 
with  Macready.  He  was  the  leading  actor  at  Wallack's  from 
X861-1888.    He  died  on  the  x  7th  of  June  1889. ' 

See  WUliam  Winter's  Life  of  John  Gilbert  (New  York,  1890). 

GILBERT,  SIR  JOHN  (X817-X897),'  Engh'sh  painter  and 
illustrator,  one  of  the  eight  children  of  George  Felix  Gilbert, 
a  member  of  a  Derbyshire  family,  was  bom  at  Blackheath  on 
the  3xst  of  July  1817.  He  went  to  school  there,  and  even  in 
childhood  displayed  an  extraordinary  fondness  for  drawing  and 
painting.  Nevertheless,  his  father's  lack  of  means  compelled 
him  to  accept  employment  for  the  boy  in  the  office  of  Messrs 
Dickson  &  Bell,  estate  agents,  in  Charlotte  Row,  London. 
Yielding,  hbwtvcr,  to  his  natural  bent,  his  parents  agreed  that 
he  should  take  up  art  in  his  own  way,  which  included  but  little 
advice  from  others,  his  only  teacher  being  Haydon's  pupil,  George 
Lance,  the  fruit  painter.  This  artist  gave  him  brief  instructions 
in  the  use  of  colour.  In  1836  Gilbert  appeared  in  public  for 
the  first  time.  This  was  at  the  gallery  of  the  Sodety  of  British 
Artists,  where  he  sent  drawings,  the  subjects  of  which  were 
characteristic,  being  *'  The  Arrest  of  Lord  Hastings,"^  from 
Shakespeare,  and  "Abbot  Boniface,",  from  The  Monastery  of 
Scott.  "Inez  de  Castro*'  was  in  the  same  gallery  in  the  next 
year;  it  was  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  works  in  the  same 
medium,  representing  similar  themes,  and  was  accompanied, 
from  X837,  by  a  still  greater  number  of  works  in  oil  which  were 
exhibited  at  the  British  Institution.  *  These  included  "  Don 
Quixote  giving  advice  to  Sancho  Panza,"  1841;  "Brunette 
and  Phillis,"  from  The  Spectator,  1844;  "  The  King's  Artillery 
at  Marston  Moor,"  x86o;  and  "  Don  (^ixote  comes  back  for 
the  last  time  to  his  Home  and  Family,"  1867.  In  that  year  the 
Institution  was  finally  closed.  Gilbert  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy  from  1838,  beginning  with  the  "  Portrait  of  a  Gentle- 
man," and  continuing,  except  between  1851  and  1867,  till  his 
death  to  exhibit  there  many  of  his  best  and  more  ambitious 
voiks. '  These  -  included -such  •  capital  instanrrs  as  "  Holbein 


painting  the  Portrait  of  Anne  Boleyn,"  "Don  Quixote's  first 
Interview  with  the  Duke  and  Duchess,".  184a,  "Charlemagne 
visiting  the  Schools,"  1846.  "Touchstone  and  the  Shepherd," 
and  "  Rembrandt,"  a  very  fine  piece,  were  both  there  in  X867; 
and  in  1873  "  Naseby,"  one  of  his  finest  and  most  picturesque 
designs,  was  also  at  the  Royal  Academy.  Gilbert  was  elected 
A.R.A.  39th  January  X873,  and  R.A.  39th  June  1876.  Besides 
these  mostly  large  and  powerful  works,  the  artist's  true  arena 
of  display  was  undoubtedly  the  gallery  of  the  Old  Water  O>lour 
Sodety,  to  which  from  x8s3,  when  he  was  elected  an  Assodate 
exhibitor,  till  he  died  forty-five  years  later,  he  contributed  not 
fewer  thaii  270  drawings,  most  of  them  admirable  because  of  the 
hugeness  of  their  style,  massive  coloration,  broad  chiaroscuro, 
and  the  surpassing  vigour  of  thdr  designs.  These  qualities 
induced  the  leading  critics  to  daim  for  him  opportunities  for 
painting  mural  pictures  of  great  historic  themes  as  decorations  of 
national  buildings.  "  TheTtumpeter,"  "  TheStandard-Bearer," 
"  Richard  II.  resigning  his  Crown  ^'  (now  at  Liverpool), "  The 
Drug  Bazaar  at  ConstantinopIe,V  "  The  Merchant  of  Venice  " 
and  "  The  Turkish  Water-Carricr  "  are  but  examples  of  that 
wealth  of  art  which  added  to  the  attractions  of  the  gallery  in 
Pall  Mali.!  There  Gilbert  was  dected  a  full  Member  in  1855, 
and  president  of  the  Society  in  1871,  shortly  after  which  he  was 
knighted.  •  As  an  illustrator  of  books,  magazines  and  periodicals 
of  every  kind  he  was  most  prolific  To  the  success  of  the 
Illustrated  London  News  his  designs  lent  powerful  aid,  and  he 
was  eminently  serviceable  in  illustrating  the  Shakespeare  of  Mr 
Howard  Suunton. .  He  died  on  the  6th  of  October  X897. 

(F.G.S.) 

GILBERT^  SIR;  JOSEPH  :HENR7  (X817-X901),  English 
chemist,  was  bom  at  Hull  on  the  xst  of  August  1817.  He 
studied  chemistry  first  at  Glasgow  under  Thomas  Thomson^ 
then  at  University  College,  London,  in  the  laboratory  of  A.  T. 
Thomson  (1778-1849),  the  professor  of  medical  jurisprudence, 
also  attending  Thomas  Graham's  lectures;  and  finally  at  Giessen 
under  Liebig.  On  his  return  to  England  from  (Germany  he 
aaed  for  a  year  or  so  as  assistant  to  his  old  master  A.  T.  Thomson 
at  University  College,  and  in  1843,  after  spending  a  short  time  in 
the  study  of  calico  dyeing  and  printing  near  Manchester,  accepted 
the  directorship  of  the  chemical  laboratory  at  the  famous 
experimental  station  established  by  Sir  J.  B.  LaWes  at 
Rothamsted,  near  St  Albans,  for  the  sjrstematic  and  sdentific 
study  of  agriculture. .  Tliis  position  he  held  for  fifty-dght  years, 
until  his  death  on  the  33rd  of  December  X90X.  ■  The  work  which 
he  carried  out  during  that  long  period  nn  collaboration  with 
Lawes  was  of  a  most  comprehensive  character,  involving  the 
application  of  many  branches  of  sdence,  such  as  chemistry, 
meteorology,  botany,  animal  and  vegetable  physiology,  and 
geology;  and  its  influence  in  improving  the  methods  of  practical 
agriculture  extended  all  over  the  dvilized  world.  Gilbert  was 
chosen  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Sodety  in  x86d,  and  in  1867  was 
awarded  a  royal  medal  jointly  with  Lawes.  In  x88o  he  presided 
over  the  Chemical  Section  of  the  British  Association  at  its 
meeting  at  Swansea,  and  in  1883  he  was  president  of  the  London 
Chemical  Sodety,  of  which  he  had  been  a  member  almost  from 
its  foundation  in  x 84^.1^  For  six  years  from  1884  he  filled  the 
Sibthorpian  chair  of  rural  economy  at  Oxford,  and  he  was  also 
an  honorary  professor  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  College,  Ciren- 
cester. '  He  was  knighted  in  1893,  the  year  in  which  the  jubilee 
of  the  Rothamsted  experiments  was  Celebrated. 

GILBERT,  MARIE  DOLORES  EUZA  ROSANNA  T"Lola 
MoNTEZ  "]  (x8x8-i86i),  dancer  and  adventuress,  the  daughter 
of  a  British  army  officer,  was  born  at  Limerick,  Ireland,  in  1818. 
Her  father  dying  in  India  when  she  was  seven  years  old,  and  her 
mother  marrying  again,  the  child  was  sent  to  Europe  to  be 
educated,  subsequently  joining  her  mother  at  Bath.  In  1837 
she  made  a  runaway  match  with  a  Captain  James  of  the  Indian 
army,  and  accompanied  him  to  India.  In  1843  she  returned 
to  England,  and  shortly  afterwards  her  husband  obtained  a 
decree  nisi  for  divorce.  She  then  studied  dancing,  making  an 
unsuccessful  first  appearance  at  Her  Majesty's  theatre,  London, 
in  1843,  billed  as  "  Lola  Montcz,  Spanish  dancer."  Subsequently 


GILBERT,  N.  J.  L.-^ILBERT,  SIR  W.  S. 


she  tppetred  with  considenible  success  in  Germany,  Poland  and 
Russia.  Thence  she  went  to  Paris,  and  in  1847  appeared  at 
Munich,  where  she  became  the  mistress  of  the  old  king  of  Bavaria, 
Lading  I.;  she  was  naturalized,  created  comtesse  de  Landsfeld, 
snd  given  an  income  of  £2000  a  year.  She  soon  proved  herself 
the  real  ruler  of  Bavaria,  adopting  a  liberal  and  anti-Jesuit 
policy.  Her  political  opponents  proved,  however,  too  strong 
for  her,  and  in  1848  she  was  banished.  In  1849  she  came  to 
England,  and  in  the  same  year  was  married  to  George  Heald,  a 
young  officer  in  the  Guards.  Her  husband's  guardian  instituted 
a  prosecution  for  bigamy  against  her  on  the  ground  that  her 
tiivoKt  from  Captain  James  had  not  been  made  absolute,  and 
she  fled  with  Heald  to  Spain.  In  1851  she  appeared  at  the 
Broadway  theatre,  New  York,  and  in  the  following  year  at 
the  Wahiut  Street  theatre,  Philadelphia.  In  1853  Heald  was 
drowned  at  Lisbon,  and  in  the  same  year  she  married  the 
proprietor  of  a  San  Francisco  newspaper,  but  did  not  live  long 
with  him.  Subsequently  she  appeared  in  Australia,  but  returned, 
in  1857,  to  act  in  America,  and  to  lecture  on  gallantry.  Her 
health  having  broken  down,  she  devoted  the  rest  of  her  life  to 
visiting  the  outcasts  of  her  own  sex  in  New  York,  where, 
itricken  with  paralysis,  she  died  on  the  X7th  of  January  x86i. 

See  E.  B.  D'Aovergne,  Lola  MmUea  (New  York,  1909). 

GILBERT,  MIOOLAS  JOSEPH  LAURENT  (175X-X780),  F^nch 
poet,  was  bom  at  Fontenay-le-Ch&teau  in  Lorraine  in  X75i. 
Having  completed  his  education  at  the  college  of  D61e,  he 
dr/oted  himKlf  for  a  time  to  a  half-schdastic,  half>literary  life 
ii  Nancy,  but  in  X774  he  found  his  way  to  the  capitaL  As  an 
opponent  of  the  Encyclopaedists  and  a  panegyrist  of  Louis 
XV.,  he  received  considerable  pensions.  He  died  in  Paris  on 
the  i3th  of  November  X780  from  the  results  of  a  fall  from  his 
lorw.  The  satixic  force  of  one  or  two  of  his  pieces,  as*  Mon 
ApdoiU  (X778)  and  Le  Di»4tuUiime  SiieU  (X775),  would  alone 
be  sufficient  to  preserve  his  reputation,  which  has  been  further 
icoeased  by  modem  writers,  who,  like  Alfred  de  Vigny  in  his 
SuUo  (cha^M.  7>X3),  considered  him  a  victim  to  the  spite  of  his 
phiiosophic  opponents.  His  bestoknown  verses  are  the  Ode 
imiiig  d€  phuUurs  psaumes,  usuaDy  entitled  Adieux  A  la  vie, 

Acnong  hia  other  works  may  be  mentioned  Les  Families  de  Darius 
tt  d'Endame,  kistmre  persane  (1770),  Le  Camaval  des  auteurs 
(i::3),  Odes  moueelles  et  patriotiques  {ijJS)-  Gilbert's  CEuvres 
fvpiites  were  first  published  in  1788,  and  they  have  since  been 
cl  tfd  by  MastreUa  (Paris,  1823).  by  Charles  Nodier  (18x7  or .1835), 
acd  b]r  M.  de  Lescme  (X882). 

eiLBEBT  (or  GvLBnos),  WILLIAM  (X544-Z603),  the  most 
distinguished  man  of  science  in  England  during  the  reign  of 
Qsettt  FHirabfth,  and  the  father  of  electric  and  magnetic  science, 
«3s  a  member  of  an  ancient  Suffolk  family,  long  resident  in 
Clare,  and  was  bom  on  the  34th  of  May  x  544  at  Colchester, 
•here  his  father,  Hwrome  Gilbert,  became  recorder.  Educated 
It  C^ilchester  school,  he  entered  St  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
ic  I S58,  and  after  taking  the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  M.A.  in  due 
courx,  graduated  M.D.  in  X569,  in  which  year  he  was  elected 
a  senior  fellow  of  hb  college.  Soon  af  terwardi  he  left  Cambridge, 
v>i  after  qxading  three  years  in  Italy  and  other  parts  of  Europe, 
settled  in  1 573  in  London,  where  he  practised  as  a  phyudan  with 
'*  treat  soocess  and  appluise."  He  was  admitted  to  the  College 
c:  Physidass  probably  about  1576,  and  from  X58X  to  x$90  was 
cze  of  the  censors.  In  1587  he  became  treasurer,  holding  the 
o6ce  till  X  592,  and  in  x  589  he  was  one  of  the  committee  appointed 
ici  sopciintcnd  the  preparation  of  the  Pkarmacepoeia  Londinensis 
«Ldi  the  coDege  in  that  year  decided  to  issue,  but  which  did  not 
«.*: Daily  appear  tillx6x8.  In  1597  he  was  again  chosen  treasurer, 
becoming  at  the  same  time  consiliarius,  and  in  X599  he  succeeded 
to  the  presidency.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed  physician 
to  Qotcn  Elizabeth,  with  the  usual  emolument  of  £xoo  a  year. 
After  this  time  he  seems  to  have  removed  to  the  court,  vacating 
ks  nesidenoe,  Wingfield  House,  which  was  on  Peter's  Hill, 
between  Upper  Thames  Street  and  Little  Knightrider  Street, 
i:id  dose  to  Uk  house  of  the  College  o£  Physicians.  Onthedeath 
«<  the  qaeen  in  X603  he  was  reappointed  by  her  successor;  but 
be  did  not  long  enjoy  the  honour,  for  he  died,  probably  of  the 
pbgue,  on  the  30th  of  November  (xoth  of  December,  N.S.) 


X603,  either  In  London  or  in  Colchester.  He  fras  buried  in  the 
latter  town,  in  the  chancel  of  Holy  Trinity  -  church,  where  a 
monument  was  erected  to  his  memory.  To  the  College  of 
Physicians  he  left  his  books,  globes,  instruments  and  minerals, 
but  they  were  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  London. 

Gilbot's  principal  work  is  his  treatise  on  magnetism,  entitled 
De  magnele,  mapuHcisque  corporibtu,  d  de  magno  magnete 
tetture  (London,  x6oo;  later  editions — Stettin,  1628,  1633; 
Frankfort,  X639,  X638).  This  work,  which  embodied  the  restilts 
of  many  years'  research,  was  distinguished  by  its  strict  adherence 
to  the  scientific  method  of  investigation  by  experiment,  and  by 
the  originality  of  its  m^ter,  containing,  as  it  does,  an  account 
of  the  author's  experiments  on  magnets  and  magnetical  bodies 
and  on  electrical  attractions,  and  also  his  great  conception  that 
the  earth  is  nothing  but  a  large  magnet,  and  that  it  is  this  which 
explains,  not  only  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  needle  north  and 
south,  but  also  the  variation  and  dipping  or  inclination  of  the 
needle.  Gilbert's  is  therefore  not  merely  the  first,  but  the  most 
important,  systematic  contribution  to  the  sciences  of  electricity 
and  magnetism.  A  posthumous  work  of  Gilbert's  was  edited 
by  his  brother,  also  called  William,  from  two  MSS.  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Sir  WilUani  Boswell ;  its  title  is  De  mundo  nostra 
suhlunari  phUosopkia  tuna  (Amsterdam,  x6si).  He  is  the 
reputed  inventor  besides  of  two  instruments  to  enable  sailors 
"  to  find  out  the  latitude  without  seeing  of  sun,  moon  or  stars," 
an  account  of  which  is  given  in  Thomas  Blondeville's  Theoruptes 
oj  the  Planets  (London,  x6o3).  He  was  also  the  first  advocate 
of  Copemican  views  in  England,  and  he  concluded  that  the  fixed 
stars  are  not  all  at  the  same  distance  from  the  earth. 

It  is  a  matter  of  great  regret  for  the  historian  of  chemistry 
that  Gilbert  left  nothing  on  that  branch  of  science,  to  which  lie 
was  deeply  devoted,"  attaining  to  great  ekactness  therein."  So 
at  least  says  Thomas  Fuller,  ifho  in  his  Worthies  oj  England  pro- 
phesied truly  how  he  would  be  afterwards  known:" Mahomet's 
tomb  at  Mecca,"  he  says,  "is  said  strangely  to  hang  up, 
attracted  by  some  invisible  loadstone;  but  the  memory  of  this 
doctor  will  never  fall  to  the  ground,  which  his  incomparable 
book  De  magnete  will  support  to  eternity." 

An  Eogliah  translation  of  the  De  magnete  was  published  by  P.  F. 
Mottelay  in  i8^3«  and  another,  with  notes  by  S.  r.  Thompson,  was 
issued  by  the  (Hubert  Club  of  London  in  1900. 

GILBERT,  SIR  WILUAM  8CHWENK  (1836-  ).  English 
playwright  and  humorist,  son  of  William  Gilbert  (a  descendant 
of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert),  was  bom  in  London  on  the  i8th  of 
November  1836.  His  father  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  novels, 
the  best-known  of  which  were  Shirley  Hall  Asylum  (1863)  and 
Dr  Austin's  Guests  (x866).  Several  of  these  novels — which  were 
characterized  by  a  singiilar  acuteness  and  lucidity  of  style,  by 
a  dry,  subacid  humour,  by  a  fund  of  humanitarian  feeling  and  by 
a  considerable  medical  knowledge,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
psychology  of  lunatics  and  monomaniacs— were  illustrated  by 
his  son,  who  developed  a  talent  for  whimsical  draughtsmanship. 
W.  S.  Gilbert  was  educated  at  Boulogne,  at  Ealing  and  at  King's 
College,  graduating  B.A.  from  the  university  of  London  in  1856. 
The  termination  of  the  Crimean  War  was  fatal  to  his  project  of 
competing  for  a  commission  in  the  Royal  Artillery,  but  he 
obtained  a  post  in  the  education  department  of  the  privy  council 
office  (1857-X86X).  Disliking  the  routine  work,  he  left  the  Civil 
Service,  entered  the  Inner  Temple,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
November  1864,  and  joined  the  northern  circuit.  His  practice 
was  inconsiderable,  and  his  military  and  legal  ambitions  were 
eventually  satisfied  by  a  captaincy  in  the  volunteers  and  appoint- 
ment as  a  magistrate  for  Middlesex  (June  1891).  In  186 1  the 
comic  journal  Pun  was  started  by  H.  J.  Byron,  and  Gilbert 
became  from  the  first  a  valued  contributor.  Failing  to  obtain  an 
entrie  to  Punchf  he  continued  sending  excellent  comic  verse 
to  PuUf  with  humorous  illustrations,  the  work  of  his  own  pen, 
over  the  signature  of  "  Bab."  A  collection  of  these  lyrics,  in 
which  deft  craftsmanship  unites  a  titillating  satire  on  the 
dec^tiveness  of  appearances  with  the  irrepressible  nonsense 
of  a  Lewis  Carroll,  was  issued  separately  in  1869  under  the  title 
of  Bab  Ballads,  and  was  followed  by  More  Bab  Ballads,    The 


lO 


GILBERT  DE  LA  PORREE 


two  collections  and  Songs  of  a  Savoyard  were  united  in  a  volume 
issued  in  1898,  with  many  new  illustrations.  The  best  of  the 
old  cuts,  such  as  those  depicting  the  "  Bishop  of  Rum-ti-Foo  " 
and  the  "  Discontented  Sugar  Broker,"  were  preserved  intact. 

While  remaining  a  staunch  supporter  of  Fun,  Gilbert  was  soon 
immersed  in  other  journalistic  wwk,  and  his  position  as  dramatic 
critic  to  the  lUuslraUd  Times  turned  his  attention  to  the  stage. 
He  had  not  to  wait  long  for  an  opportunity.  Eariy  in  December 
x866  T.  W.  Robertson  wss  asked  by  Miss  Herbert,  lessee  of  the  St 
James's  theatre,  to  find  some  one  who  could  turn  out  a  bright 
Christmas  piece  in  a  fortnight,  and  suggested  Gilbert;  the  latter 
promptly  produced  Dulcamarat  a  burlesque  of  LElisire  d^amme^ 
written  in  ten  days,  rehearsed  in  a  week,  and  duly  performed  at 
Christmas.  He  sold  the  piece  outright  for  £30,  a  piece  of  rashness 
which  he  had  cause  to  regret,  for  it  turned  out  a  commercial 
success.  In  1870  he  was  commissioned  by  Buckstone  to  write  a 
blank  verse  fairy  comedy,  based  upon  Lt  Palais  it  la  vtritt^ 
the  novel  by  Madame  de  Genlis.  The  result  was  The  Palace 
of  TnUkf  a  fairy  drama,  poor  in  structure  but  clever  in  workman- 
ship, which  served  the  purpose  ci  Mr  and  Mrs  Kendal  in  1870 
at  the  Haymarket.  This  was  followed  in  1871  by  Pygmalion 
omJ Ga/a/«a,  another  three-act  "mythological  comedy,"  a  clever 
and  effective  but  artificial  piece.  Another  fairy  oom'edy.  The 
Wicked  World,  written  for  Buckstone  and  the  Kendals,  was 
followed  in  March  1873  by  a  burlesque  version,  in  collaboration 
with  Gilbert  i  Beckett,  entitled  The  Hap^  Land,  GUbert's 
next  dramatic  ventures  inclined  more  to  the  oonventiooal 
pattern,  o>mbining  sentiment  and  a  cynical  humour  in  a  manner 
strongly  reminiscent  of  his  father's  style.  Of  these  pieces, 
Swedkearls  was  given  at  th^  Prince  of  Wales's  theatre,  7th 
November  1874;  Tom  Cobb  at  the  St  James's,  34th  April 
X875;  Broken  Hearts  at  the  Court,  9th  December  1875;  Dan'l 
Druce  (a  drama  in  darker  vein,  suggested  to  some  extent  by 
Silas  Mamer)  at  the  Haymarket,  itth  September  1876;  and 
Engaged  at  the  Haynuirket,  3rd  October  1877.  The  first  and 
last  of  these  proved  decidedly  popular.  GreUken,  a  verse  drama 
fn  four  acts,  appeared  in  1879.  A  one-act  piece,  called  Comedy 
and  Tragedy,  was  produced  at  the  Lyceum,  a6th  January,  1884. 
Two  dramatic  trifles  of  later  date  were  Foggertys  Fairy  and 
RotenkranH  and  Guildenstem,  a  travesty  of  Hamlet,  performed 
at  the  Vaudeville  in  June  1891.  Several  of  these  dramas  were 
based  upon  short  stories  by  Gilbert,  a  number  of  which  had 
appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  Christmas  numbers  of  various 
periodicals.  The  best  of  them  have  been  collected  in  the  volume 
entitled  Foggertys  Fairy,  and  other  Stories.  In  the  autumn  of 
1871  Gilbert  commenced  his  memorable  collaboration  (which 
lasted  over  twenty  years)  with  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan.  The  first 
two  comic  operas,  Thespis;  or  The  Gods  grown  Old  (26th 
September  187 1)  and  Trial  by  Jury  (Royalty,  35th  March  1875) 
were  merely  essays.  Like  one  or  two  of  their  successors,  they 
were,  as  regards  plot,  little  more  than  extended  "  Bab  Ballads." 
Later  (especially  in  the  Yeomen  of  the  Guard),  much  more  elabora- 
tion was  attempted.  The  next  piece  was  produced  at  the  Opera 
Comique  (x7th  November  1877)  ^  7'Atf  Sorcerer.  At  the  same 
theatre  were  successfully  given  H.M.S.  Pinafore  (ssth  May 
1878),  The  Pirates  of  Penzance;  or  The  Slave  of  Duty  Grd  April 
1880),  and  Patience;  or  BunUtome*s  Bride  (33rd  April  x88x).  In 
October  x88x  the  successful  Patience  was  removed  to  a  new 
theatre,  the  Savoy,  specially  built  for  the  Gilbert  and  Sullivan 
operas  by  Richard  D'Oyly  Carte.  Patience  was  followed,  on 
35th  November  1882,  by  lolanthe;  or  The  Peer  and  the  Peri; 
and  then  came,  on  5th  January  1884,  Princess  Ida;  or 
Castle  Adamant,  a  re-cast  of  a  charming  and  witty  fantaaa 
which  Gilbert  had  written  some  years  previously,  and  had  then 
described  as  a  "  respectful  perversion  of  Mr.  Texmyson'sexquisite 
poem."  The  impulse  reached  its  fullest  development  in  the 
operas  that  followed  next  in  order — The  Mikado;  or  The  Town 
of  Titipu  (X4th  March  1885) ;  Ruddigpre  (22nd  January  1887); 
The  Yeomen  of  the  Guard  (3rd  October  x888) ;  and  The  Gondoliers 
(7th  December  X889).  After  the  appearance  of  The  Gondoliers 
a  coolness  occurred  between  the  composer  and  librettist,  owing 
to  Gilbert's  considering  that  Sullivan  had  not  supported  him  in 


a  business  disagreement  with  D'Oyly  Carte.  But  the  estrange- 
ment was  only  temporary.  Gilbert  wrote  several  more  librettos, 
and  of  these  Utopia  Limited  (1893)  and  the  exceptionally  witty 
Grand  Duke  {liilb)  were  written  in  conjunction  with  Sullivan. 
As  a  master  of  metre  Gilbert  had  shown  himself  consummate, 
as  a  dealer  in  quips  and  paradoxes  and  ludicrous  dilemmas, 
unrivalled.  Even  for  the  music  of  the  operas  he  deserves  some 
credit,  for  the  rhythms  were  frequently  his  own  (as  in  "  I  have  a 
Song  to  Sing,  0  "),  and  the  metres  were  in  many  cases  invented 
by  himself.  One  or  two  of  his  librettos,  such  as  that  of  Patience, 
are  virtually  flawless.  Enthusiasts  are  divided  only  as  to  the 
comparative  merit  of  the  operas.  Princess  Ida  and  Patience 
are  in  some  respects  the  daintiest.  There  is  a  genuine  vein  of 
poetry  in  The  Yeomen  of  the  Guard.  Some  of  the  drollest  songs 
are  in  Pinafore  and  Ruddigore.  The  Gondoliers  shows  the  most 
charming  lightness  of  touch,  while  with  the  general  public  The 
Mikado  proved  the  favourite.  The  enduring  popularity  of  the 
Gilbert  and  Sullivan  operas  was  abundantly  proved  by  later 
revivals.  Among  the  birthday  honours  in  June  X907  Gilbert  was 
given  a  knighthood.  In  X909  his  Fallen  Fairies  (music  by 
Edward  German)  was  produced  at  the  Savoy.  (T.  Sb.) 

GILBERT  DE  LA  PORR^  frequently  known  as  Gilbertus 
Porretanus  or  PicUviensis  (1070-1x54),  scholastic  logician  and 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Poitiers.  He  was  educated  under 
Bernard  of  Chartres  and  Ansehn  of  Laon.  After  teadiing  for 
about  twenty  years  in  Charties,  he  lectured  on  dialectics  and 
theology  in  Puis  (from  1x37)  and  in  X14X  returned  to  Poitiers, 
being  elected  bishop  in  the  following  year.  His  heterodox 
opinions  regarding  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  drew  upon  bis 
works  the  condemnation  of  the  church.  The  synod  of  Reims 
in  XX48  procured  papal  sanction  for  four  propositions  opposed 
to  certain  of  Gilbert's  tenets,  and  his'  works  were  oondenmed 
until  they  should  be  corrected  in  accordance  with  the  principles 
of  the  church.  Gilbert  seems  to  have  submitted  quietly  to  this 
judgment;  he  yielded  assent  to  the  four  propositions,  and 
remained  on  friendly  terms  with  his  antagonists  till  his  death 
on  the  4th  of  September  X154.  Gilbert  is  almost  the  only 
logician  of  the  X3th  century  who  is  quoted  by  the  greater 
scholastics  of  the  succeeding  age.  His  chief  lo^cal  work,  the 
treatise  De  sex  prindpiis,  was  regarded  with  a  reverence  almost 
eqtial  to  that  paid  to  Aristotle,  and  furnished  matter  for  numerous 
commentators,  amongst  them  Albertus  Magnus.  Owing  to  the 
fame  of  this  work,  he  is  mentioned  by  Dante  as  the  Magister 
sex  principiorum.  The  treatise  itself  is  a  discusuon  of  the 
Aristotelian  categories,  specially  of  the  six  subordinate  modes. 
Gilbert  distinguishes  in  the  ten  categories  two  classes,  one 
essential,  the  other  derivative.  Essential  or*  inhering  {format 
inhaerentes)  in  the  objects  themselves  are  only  substance,  quantity, 
quality  and  rdation  in  the  stricter  sense  of  that  term.  The 
remuning  six,  when,  where,  action,  passion,  position  and  habit, 
are  relative  and  subordinate  (Jormae  assistentes).  This  suggestion 
has  some  interest,  but  is  of  no  great  value,  either  in  logic  or  in 
the  theory  of  knowledge.  More  important  in  the  history  of 
scholasticism  are  the  theological  consequences  to  which  Gilbert's 
realism  led  him.  In  the  commentary  on  the  treatise  De  TrinUaie 
(erroneously  attributed  to  BoJStius)  he  proceeds  from  the 
metaphysical  notion  that  pure  or  abstract  being  is  prior  in  nature 
to  that  which  is.  This  pure  being  is  God;  and  must  be  distln« 
guished  from  the  triune  God  as  known  to  us.  God  is  incompre- 
hensible, and  the  categories  cannot  be  applied  to  determine  his 
existence.  In  God  there  is  no  distinction  or  difference,  whereas 
in  all  sul»tances  or  things  there  is  duality,  arising  from  the 
element  of  matter.  Between  pure  being  and  substances  stand 
the  ideas  or  forms,  which  subsist,  though  they  are  not  substances. 
These  forms,  when  materialized,  are  called  formae  substantialez 
ox  formae  nativae\  they  are  the  essences  of  things,  and  in  them- 
selves have  no  relation  to  the  accidents  of  things.  Things  are 
temporal,  the  ideas  perpetual,  God  eternal.  The  pure  form 
of  existence,  that  by  which  God  is  God,  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  three  persons  who  are  (}od  by  participation 
in  this  form.  The  form  or  essence  is  one,  the  persons  or 
substances  three.    It  was  this  distinction  between  Deltas  or 


GILBERT  OF  SEMPRINGHAM— GILBEY 


II 


Diviiiitas  and  Deus  that  led  to  the  condemnatioii  of  Gilbert's 
doctrine. 

D*  sex  primeipUs  and  commentary  on  the  De  TrimUaU  in  Migne. 
Palnlcgia  iMma,  bdv.  1255  and  dxxxviiL  1257;  see  also  Adm 
Bcfthaud,  GitUrt  de  la  Forrie  (Poitien,  1893);  B.  Hauriau, 
De  la  pkiUsopkit  stoUuUque.  pp.  294-318;  _R.   Schmid't  article 

Gilbeit   Porretanits"  in   " 


He,  pp.  204-318;  K.   bcnmidt  article 

HenoK-nauck.  ReaUncyk.  /.   proUst, 

It!,  GtukickU  d,  Latik,  li.  315;  Bach, 


ThnL  (voL  6,  x8j{9);  Prantl 
D9ffaengtsckiekl€,  u.  133;  article  Scholasticism. 

GILBERT  OF  SBMPRDIOHiJI,  8T,  founder  of  the  Gilbertiiies, 
the  4Mi]y  religioiis  order  of  En^h  origin,  was  bom  at  Sempring- 
bam  in  Lincolnshire,  e,  1083-X089.  He  was  educated  in  France, 
sad  wdained  in  x  123,  being  presented  by  his  father  to  the  living 
of  Sempringham  About  x  135  he  established  there  a  convent  for 
duos;  and  to  perform  the  heavy  work  and  cultivate  the  fields 
be  formed  a  number  of  labourers  into  a  society  of  lay  brothers 
attadied  to  the  convent.  Similar  establishments  were  founded 
dsewheie,  and  in  1x47  Gilbert  tried  to  get  them  incorporated  in 
the  Osterdan  order.  Failing  in  this,  he  proceeded  to  form 
comfflunities  of  priests  and  clerics  to  perform  the  spiritual 
minittratioos  needed  by  the  nuns.  The  women  lived  according 
to  the  Benedictine  rule  as  interpreted  by  the  Cistercians;  the 
mtea  a<xording  to  the  rule  of  St  Augustine,  and  were  canons, 
regular.  The  special  constitutions  of  the  order  were  largely 
taken  from  those  oi  the  Premonstratensian  canons  and  of  the 
Cisterdana.  Like  Fontevrault  (q.v.)  it  was  a  double  order,  the 
communities  of  men  and  women  living  nde  by  side;  but,  though 
the  property  all  belonged  to  the  nuns,  the  superior  of  the  canons 
vas  the  head  of  the  wlx)le  establishment,  and  the  general  superior 
was  a  canon,  called  "  Master  of  Sempringham  "  The  general 
chapter  was  a  mixed  assembly  composed  of  two  canons  and  two 
nuns  from  each  bouse;  the  nuns  had  to  travel  to  the  chapter 
m  dosed  carts.  The  office  was  celebrated  together  in  the  church, 
a  hi^  stone  screen  separating  the  two  choirs  of  canons  and  nuns. 
The  order  received  papal  approbation  in  XX48.  By  Gilbert's 
death  (xxSg)  there  were  nine  double  monasteries  and  four  of 
canons  only,  containing  about  700  canons  and  xooo  nuns  in  all. 
At  the  diasoltttion  thore  were  some  35  monasteries,  whereof  4 
naked  among  the  greater  monasteries  (see  list  in  F.  A.  Gasquet^s 
Ea^isk Monadic  Uft).    The  order  never  q>read  beyond  Enf^d 

The  habit  of  the  Gilbertines  was  black,  with  a  white  doak. 

See  BoUaadists'  Acta  Sanctorum  (4th  of  Feb.);  William  Dugdale. 
MaaoM^cam  (1846);  Hclyot,  Hisi.  da  ordr€S  rdinna  (1714). 
iL  c  39.  The  best  modern  account  b  51  Gilbert  of  SemftrinMam, 
•»ifhrCAfr«ifics,bv  Rose  Graham  (1901).  Tht  axu  in  Dictwnary 
tf  Kaiiamat  Biapafmy  gives  abundant  information  on  St  Gilbert, 
hot  it  onaatiiCactory  on  the  order,  as  it  might  ea«ly  convey  the 
iimiw  ■inn  that  the  canons  and  nuns  lived  together,  whereas  they 
vac  most  carefully  separated;  and  altogether  undue  prominence  is 
psm  to  a  sing^  scandal.  Miss  Graham  dedaxes  that  the  reputation 
o(  tlK  orto  was  good  until  the  end.  (E.  C.  B.) 

GIUBBT  lOUOT  (d.  1x87),  bishop  of  Hereford,  and  of 
London,  is  first  mentioned  as  a  monk  oif  Quny,  whence  he  was 
called  in  1x36  to  plead  the  cause  of  the  empress  Matilda  against 
Stq>hea  at  the  Roman  court.  Shortly  afterwards  he  beicame 
prior  of  Oany ;  then  prior  of  Abbeville,  a  house  <fependent  upon 
Qany.  In  1x39  he  was  elected  abbot  of  Gloucester.  The 
ippointment  was  confirmed  by  Stephen,  and  from  the  ecdesi- 
aatical  point  of  view  was  unexceptionable.  But  the  new  abbot 
proved  himself  a  valuable  ally  of  the  empress,  and  her  ablest 
coQtToveisialist.  Gilbert's  reputation  grew  rspidly.  He  was 
iHpectcd  at  Rome;  and  he  acted  as  the  representative  of  the 
priiaate,  Theobald,  in  the  supervision  of  the  Welsh  church.  In 
xt48t  on  bcii^  nominated  by  the  pope  to  the  see  of  Hereford, 
CiQwrt  with  characteristic  wariness  sought  confirmation  both 
from  Henry  of  Anjou  and  from  StepheiL  But  he  was  an 
Angevin  at  heart,  and  after  1x54  was  treated  by  Henry  II.  with 
rvciy  mark  of  consideratioiL  He  was  Becket's  rival  for  the 
primacy,  and  the  only  bishop  who  protested  against  the  king's 
choice.  Becket,  with  rare  forbearance,  endeavoured  to  win  his 
friendship  by  procuring  for  him  the  see  of  London  (i  163).  But 
Gilbert  evadeid  the  customary  profession  of  obedience  to  the 
prinate,  and  apparently  aspired  to  make  his  see  independent 
cf  Cantcrbixry.  On  the  questions  raised  by  the  Constitutions  I 
of  QafeBiioB  be  sided  with  the  king,  whose  confessor  he  had  now  | 


become.  He  urged  Becket  to  jrield,  and,  when  this  advice  was 
rejected,  encouraged  his  fellow-bishops  to  repudiate  the  authority 
of  the  archbishop.  In  the  years  of  controversy  which  followed 
Becket's  flight  the  king  depended  much  upon  the  bishop's 
skill  as  a  disputant  and  diplomatist.  Gilbert  was  twice  ex- 
communicated by  Becket,  but  both  on  these  and  on  other  occasions 
he  showed  great  deiterity  in  detaching  the  pope  from  the  cause 
of  the  exile.  To  him  it  was  chiefly  due  that  Hemy  avoided  an 
open  conflict  with  Rome  of  the  kind  which  John  afterwards 
provoked.  Gilbert  was  one  of  the  bishops  whose  excommunica- 
tion in  XX70  provoked  the  king's  knights  to  murder  Becket; 
but  he  caimot  be  reproached  with  any  share  in  the  crime.  His 
later  years  were  uneventful,  though  he  enjoyed  great  influence 
with  the  king  and  among  his  fdlow-bishops.  Scholarly,  dignified, 
ascetic  in  his  private  life,  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  Church, 
he  was  neverthdess  more  respected  than  loved.  His  nature  was 
cold;  he  made  few  friends;  and  the  taint  of  a  calculating 
ambition  runs  through  his  whole  career.  He  died  in  the  spring 
of  1x87^ 

See  Gilbert's  Litters,  ed.  J.  A.  Giles  (Oxfoid.  1845);  Uateriats 
for  ike  History  of  Tkomas  Becket,  ed.  J.  C.  Robertson  (Rdls  series, 
1875-1885);  and  Miss  K.  Nofgate's  Entland  under  tke  Anterin 
Kmis  (1M7),  (H.W.C.D.) 

GILBERT  (KiMOsmu.)  I8LARD8,  an  extensive  archipelago 
belonging  to  Great  Britain  in  the  mid-western  Pacific  Ocean, 
Ijring  N.  and  S.  of  the  equator,  and  between  170*  and  x8o*  £. 
There  are  sixteen  islands,  all  coral  reefs  or  atolls,  extending  in 
crescent  form  over  about  five  degrees  of  latitude.  The  principal 
is  Taputenea  or  Drummond  Island.  The  soil,  mostly  of  coral 
sand,  is  productive  of  little  dse  than  the  coco-nut  palm,  and  the 
chief  source  of  food  supply  is  the  sea.  The  population  of  these 
islands  presents  a  remarkable  phenomenon;  in  spite  of  adverse 
conditions  of  environment  and  complete  barbarism  it  is  exceed- 
ingly dense,  in  strong  contradistinction  to  that  of  many  other 
more  favoured  islands.  The  land  area  of  the  group  is  only  x66m., 
yet  the  population  is  about  30,00a  The  Gilbert  islanders  are 
a  dark  and  coarse  type  of  the  Polynesian  race,  and  show  signs 
of  much  crossing.  "Diey  are  tall  and  stout,  with  an  average  height 
of  .5  ft.  8  in.,  and  are  of  a  vigorous,  energetic  temperament. 
They  are  neariy  always  naked,  but  wear  a  conical  hat  of  pandanus 
leaf.  In  war  they  have  an  armour  of  plaited  coco-nut  fibres. 
They  are  fierce  fighters,  their  chief  mtapon  being  a  sword  armed 
with  sharks'  teeth.  Their  canoes  are  well  made  of  coco-nut  wood 
boards  sewn  neatly  together  and  fastened  on  frames.  British 
and  American  missionary  work  has  been  prosecuted  with  some 
success.  The  large  population  led  to  the  introduction  of  natives 
from  these  islands  into  Hawaii  as  labourers  in  1878^x884,  but 
they  were  not  found  satisfactory.  The  islands  were  discovered 
by  John  Byron  in  1765  (one  of  them  bearing  his  name) ;  Captains 
Gilbert  and  Marshall  visited  them  in  1788;  and  they  were 
annexed  by  Great  Britain  in  1893. 

OILBEY,  SIR  WALTER,  xst  Bakt.  (x83x-  ),  En^ish 
wine-merchant,  was  bom  at  Bishop  Stortford,  Hertfordshire, 
in  X83X.  His  father,  the  owner  and  frequently  the  driver  of  the 
daily  coach  between  Bishop  Stortford  and  London,  died  when 
he  was  deven  years  old,  and  young  Gilbey  was  shortly  afterwards 
placed  in  the  office  of  an  estate  agent  at  Tring,  subsequently 
obtaining  a  derkship  in  a  firm  of  parliamentary  agents  in  London. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  War,  Walter  Gilbey  and  his 
younger  brother,  Alfred,  volunteered  for  dvilian  service  at  the 
front,  and  were  employed  at  a  convalescent  hospital  on  the 
Dardanelles.  Returning  to  London  on  the  declaration  of  peace, 
Walter  and  Alfred  Gilb^r,  on  the  advice  of  their  eldest  brother, 
Henry  Gilbey,  a  wholesale  wine-merchant,  started  in  the  retail 
wine  and  spirit  trade.  The  heavy  duty  then  levied  by  the 
British  govenmient  on  French,  Portuguese  and  Spanish  wines 
was  prohibitive  of  a  sale  among  the  English  middle  classes,  and 
especially  lower  nxiddle  classes,  whose  usual  alcoholic  beverage 
was  accordingly  beer.  Henry  Gilbey  was  of  opinion  that  these 
dasses  would  g^ly  drink  wine  if  they  could  get  it  at  a  moderate 
price,  and  by  his  advice  Walter  and  Alfred  determined  to  push 
the  sales  of  colonial,  and  particulariy  of  Cape,  wines,  on  which 


GILDAS— GILDERSLEEVE 


vcly  light.    Bicktd  by  capital  oblaiacd 


IhfQiigh  HtDty  Giibffy,  Ihty  accordingly  optned  in  iSj? 
rctiiJ  busiatsi  in  a  bucKeni  in  Oifoid  StfMt.  London.  iDC 
Cape  wines  proved  popular,  and  wiihin  three  yeare  ilie  brolhert 
liad  10,000  customer!  on  their  boolis.  The  ereaiion  ol  the 
off-lic^ce  lystem  by  Mr  Gladstone,  then  chancellor  of  the 
eichequrr,  in  1S60,  lollowed  by  the  large  reduction  In  the  duty 
on  Fnnch  vines  eBecied  by  the  comnierdal  irsity  between 
England  and  France  In  1AA1,  revolutioniaed  their  trade  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  their  fortunes.  Three  provincial  grocers, 
who  bad  been  granted  the  new  oH-licence,  applied  10  be  appointed 
the  Gilbeya'  (gents  in  their  respective  district*,  and  many 
aJmilar  applications  followed.  These  were  granted,  and  befoit 
very  long  a  leading  local  grocer  was  acting  a*  the  firm's  agents 
In  every  district  in  England.  Tlie  grocer  who  dealt  in  the 
Gilbeys'  wina  and  spirits  was  not  allowed  to  sell  those  of  any 
other  firm,  and  the  Gilbeya  in  return  handed  over  to  him  all 
Ihdr  existing  customers  in  bis  district.  Tins  arrangement  was 
of  tnutual  advantage,  and  the  Gilbeys'  business  increased  so 
rapidly  that  in  1&64  Henry  Gilbcy  abandoned  his  own  under- 
taking  to  join  his  brothera.  In  1&57  the  three  brothers  secured 
(he  old  Pantheon  theatre  and  concert  hall  in  Oxford  Street  for 
their  hcadquarten.  In  rB?^  the  firm  purehased  a  large  clarcL- 
prodncing  estate  in  Mtdbc,  on  the  biuiks  of  the  Gironde,  and 
became  also  the  proprietors  of  two  large  whisky-distilleries  in 
Scotland.  In  189J  the  business  was  converted,  for  family 
reasons,  into  a  private  limited  liability  company,  of  which  Waller 
Gilbey,  who  in  the  same  year  was  created  a  baronet,  was  cbair- 
muL  Sir  Walter  Gilbey  also  became  well  known  as  a  breeder 
of  ^re  horses,  and  he  did  much  to  improve  the  breed  of  English 
horses  (other  than  race-hones)  geoerally,  and  wrote  extensively 
on  the  subject.  He  became  president  of  the  Sbire  Hone  Society, 
of  the  Hackney  Hone  Society,  and  of  the  Hunlen'  Imptove- 


it  Societ) 


3  the  f( 


e,  peisona  that  had  borne  t! 
mark  of  bis  own,  namely,  th 
don— one  of  the  battles  loug 


London  Cart  Hone  Parade  Society.    He  was  also  a  ptsctit 

a^culturist,  and  preaident  of  the  Royal  Agricultutal  Society. 

OILDAS,  or  Cucus   (c.   516-570),   the   earliest   of  Brili 

hislarians  (see  Celt:  Uteraliire,  "  Welsh"),  sumamed  by  sol 

the  year  516.  Regarding  him  little  certain  is  known,  beyo: 
lome  Isolated  particulars  that  may  be  gathtfed  from  hii 
dropped  in  the  course  of  his  work.    Two  short  treatises  eii 

have  confounded  two,  if  not 

the  year  of  the  siege  of  Mouc 
between  the  Saions  and  the 
own  nativity,  that  the  date 
place,  however,  [9  not  mentibned.  His  assertion  that  he  was 
moved  toundeitakehis  task  mainly  by  "xcal  for  God's  house  and 
for  His  holy  law,"  and  the  very  free  use  he  has  made  of  quotalions 
from  the  Bible,  leave  scarcely  a  doubt  that  he  was  an  ecclesiastic 
of  some  order  or  other.  In  addition,  we  team  that  he  went 
■broad,  probably  to  France,  in  his  thirty-fourth  year,  where, 
after  loyean  of  hesitation  and  pieparation,  he  composed,  about 
5iSa,  the  work  bearing  bis  name.  His  materials,  he  tells  us, 
were  collected  from  foreign  mlfaer  than  native  aources,  the 
latter  of  which  had  been  put  beyond  his  reach  by  circumstances. 
TheCamMjn  .1I  rim'i  give  570  as  the  year  of  bis  death. 

The  writings  of  Gildas  have  come  down  to  us  uoder  the  title 
of  Giidtu  SapitMii  de  excidio  BrUannue  titer  qturtdui.  Though 
at  first  written  consecutively,  the  work  is  now  usually  divided 
into  three  portions, — s  preface,  the  history  proper,  and  an 
epistle,— the  lut,  whicb  is  largely  made  up  of  passages  and 
texts  of  Scripture  brought  together  for  the  puipase  of  condemning 
the  vices  of  his  countrymen  and  their  rulen,  being  the  least 
Important,  though  by  far  the  longest  of  the  three.    In  the  second 


till  his  01 


Arian  bereiyi  the  election  of  Maiimus  as  emperor  by  the  legloni 

of  the  Ficu  and  Scots  into  the  louibem  part  of  the  island;  the 
temporary  aisistaDCe  rendered  to  the  harassed  Britons  by  the 
Romania  the  final  abandooment  of  tbe  island  by  the  latter; 
the  coming  of  the  Saioni  and  tbeir  reception  by  Cuortigem 
(Vortigem);  and,  finally,  the  conflicts  between  the  Britons,  led 
by  a  noble  Roman,  Ambrosius  Aurelianus,  and  the  new  Invaden. 
Unfortunately,  on  almost  every  point  on  which  he  touches,  the 
statements  of  Gildas  are  vague  and  obscure.  With  one  excep- 
tion already  alluded  to,  no  data  are  given,  and  events  are  not 
always  taken  up  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence,  Theae  faulta 
are  of  less  importance  during  the  period  when  Greek  and  Roman 
writen  notice  the  affain  of  Britahi;  but  they  become  matt 
serious  when,  as  is  tbe  case  from  nearly  the  beginning  ol  the  sth 
century  to  the  date  of  his  death,  Gildas')  brief  narrative  it  out 
only  authority  for  meat  of  what  paasa  current  as  the  history  of 
our  island  during  those  years.  Thus  it  is  on  his  sole,  though  in 
"    '    ■  perhaps  trustworthy,  testimony  tint  the  famous 

lii'     ■ 


.ullifciiy^  aL„  „ 
.jed  at  Okford  by 
the  Continent  duriiuf 
The  next  Engli^  nfiii 


>ubl!die<t  by  tb« 
IPC  Rev,  J.  Slrveiv- 
ItioB  eoUiied  witb 
loDs,  i>  laduded  in  Om 
by  Petrie  and  Shsjpa 
V.  W.  Haddan  mat  W. 
:\it<ai  Id  Great  Britain 


OILDBB.  BICHARD  WATSOX  (1844-1909),  American  editor 
and  poet,  was  bom  in  Botdentown,  New  Jersey,  on  lie  Sti  of 
February  1844.  a  brother  of  William  Henry  Gilder  C183S-1900), 
the  Arctic  explorer.  He  was  educated  at  Bellevue  Seminary, 
an  institution  conducted  by  his  father,  the  Rev,  William  Henry 
Gilder  (1811-1864).  In  Flushing,  Long  Island.  After  three  yean 
(iS«j-i8e8)  on  the  Newark,  New  Jersey,  Daily  Adttrtiso,  he 
founded;  with  Newton  Crane,  the  Newark  jV omtHi  RitiOtr.  Id 
iS6g  he  became  editor  of  Bbhts  at  Bmt,  and  in  1870  assistant 
editor  of  Sa^tno't  UmuUy  (eleven  yean  later  re-named  Tkt 
Cenlary  UagatiiH),  of  which  he  became  editor  In  iSSi,  He  waa 
oae  of  the  fouuden  of  the  Free  Art  League, of  the  International 
Copyright  League,  and  of  the  Authon'  Club;  was  chairman  of 
the  New  York  Tenement  House  Commission  in  1894;  and  was  a 

of  tbe  Council  of  the  National  CivQ  Service  Reform  League,  and 
.of  the  executive  committee  of  the  Citizens'  Union  of  New  York 
City.  Hispoenu,whichareeuentIiiUytycicil,hBvebecncolIecied 
In  various  volumes,  including  Pm  Brwir  ef  Smt  (1S94),  /■ 
Palalint  and  alhcr  Ftenu  (tigS),  Pocmi  atid  rmcriptiimit.igoi'), 
and  In  Ike  ReighU  (190J),  A  complete  edition  of  his  poems  was 
published  In  1908,  He  also  edited  "  Sannelifiiim  Uu  Porlutncic  " 
and  ilktr  Poems  by  Biateth  Barren  Brnminf,  "Oat  Wi^d 
Utre-ata  elker  Potna  by  Rebtrf  Breamini  (1905),  He  died  in 
NewYork  on  the  iSth  of  November  1909-  His  wife,  Helena 
de  Kay.  a  grand-daughter  of  Joseph  Rodman  Drake,  assisted, 
with  Saint  Gaudcns  «nd  olhcn,  in  founding  the  Society  o[ 
American  Artists,  now  merged  In  the  Natitmal  Academy, 
and  the  Art  Students'  League  of  ^.'ew  York,  She  translated 
Sensier's  biography  of  Millet,  and  painted,  before  her  marriacc 
in  1S74,  studies  in  flowcn  and  ideal  heads,  much  admired  lor 
their  feeling  and  delicate  colouring, 

OILDBRSLEEVB,  BASIL  LAHHSAU  (1831-  ).  American 
classical  scholar,  was  bom  In  Chuieiton,  South  Carotlna,  on  the 
ijrdof  October  iSji,  Ion  of  Benjamin  Cildenleeve  ( 1791-18 7 s,) 
a  Presbyterian  evangellsli  and  editor  ol  the  Charleston  CArsiluii 
(Aumr  in  1S16-184],  of  (he  Richnumd  (Va,)  Walttman  tot 


miBta  in  1E4S-1S56,  lod  ol  The  Cntrol  Pmiytiriaii  in  1856- 
iS6a  The  loo  piduited  at  PHnccian  in  1S49,  siudicd  under 
Fniu  ID  BciUn,  undM  Ftiidrich  Riuchl  it  Bonn  and  under 
Schneidiwin  at  Gi«tingtn,  wlierc  he  received  his  doctor's  degree 
in  iSsj.  FrDm  1856  to  1S76  he  wu  prolcsier  oi  Gmk  in  the 
Univenily  of  Virpnia,  holding  the  chiii  ol  Lilin  alio  in  iMi- 
litib.  ud  in  1S76  be  becime  profeuoi  <i(  Cieek  in  the  neviy 
lounded  Johns  Hopkins  University.  In  1880  Tki  Atnirkan 
Jtvuali/  Fkiitlta,  ■  qunrteily  publiihnl  by  IhF  John!  Hopkins 
I'nivmity,  wu  esUblisbed  under  hii  inlitorial  charge,  and  his 
Urongperymality  wasejEpreuedinthedepanmenlof  (heyvHriw/ 
hudcd  "  Biief  Report  "  or  "  Lani  Satun,"  and  in  the  earliest 
years  of  its  publication  every  petty  detail  was  in  his  hands. 

lypicil  daiiical  scholar,  and  accords  wilb  bis  convicUon  that  the 
Uue  aim  ol  icboUrship  is  "  Ifcil  which  a."  He  puliliihed  ■ 
Lai*  Crammar  (1(67;  reviud  witb  Ibe  coniperalion  of  Gonialu 
E.  Lodge,  1S94  and  1S99)  and  a  Latin  Serin  loi  use  in  secondary 
uhBi^(ig7j),  both  maikedby  lucidity  of  order  and  mastery  ol 
grammatical  theory  and  methodi.  His  edition  ol  Ptntus  (i  S7;) 
is  ol  great  value.  But  his  bent  wu  rather  toward  Greek  Ilian 
Ulin-  Hii  ipccial  interest  in  Christian  Creek  was  partly  Ihe 
cauie  ol  bs  editing  in  1877  TIk  Apclatkt  aj  JhiHh  Uarlyr, 
-  which  "  (to  use  hit  own  words)  "  I  used  unbluihingly  >s  ■ 
rqjoiitoiy  tor  my  syniactiCal  (otmulae."  Gddereleeve'j  itudie* 
lender  Fcaai  had  no  doubt  quickened  his  inlereit  in  Creeit 
«)nilai,  and  his  logic,  untrammelled  by  previous  categories,  and 
bis  niarvdious  sympathy  with  the  language  were  djspbyed 


GILDING 

and  the  thi 


"3 


.SfS.    1 


rolpl 
E.Mi 

_    *.«: 

at  and  valuable 

it  Saearck  delivered  t 


His5yitliia/ai;iiKCr«t(FartI.. 


••ul  PylkKi 
iclion.  His 
n  a  paper  01 
L  Bryn  Mav 


M«i  0/  ftWor.  with 

Tilt  Spirilual  Kiikli 
on  theifilhofjune 
periodicals  appeared 


title  Eiuyi  and  Sladi 

eiUnS,  tlie  art  <d  ipiEading  gold,  nther  by  mechanii 
QrbydKcnicalmeuis,  over  the  surface  of  a  body  (or  thepurpi 

According  to  Herodotus,  the  Egyptians  were  accustomed  to  g 
wood  and  metals^  and  gilding  by  means  of  gold  plates  is  frcquen' 
CMOIioDed  in  the  Old  Tesument.  Pliny  informs  us  that  the  li 
tildiag  seen  al  Korae  was  after  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  uni 
1^  censonhip  ol  Lucius  Mummius.  when  the  Romans  began 
gild  the  ceilings  of  Ibeir  temples  and  palaces,  the  Capitol  being  I 
6i«  pUcc  on  which  tbit  enrichment  was  bestowed.  But  he  ad 
Ihal  I uiuiy  advanced  on  themsorapidly  that  in  a  little  time  y 
alight  see  alt.  even  private  and  poor  persons,  gild  the  walls,  vaul 
lad  other  parts  of  their  dwellings.  Owing  to  the  comparali 
>e  grdd-leaf  used  in  ancient  gilding,  the  traces  ol 


A  yet  re 


kably  bi 


important  place  io  Ihe  ornamenlal 
ir.i  of  Oriental  countries;  and  the  miive  processes -puraued  in 
India  al  Ibe  present  diy  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  ails  as 
prjttiied  Irom  the  earliest  periods.  For  the  gilding  ol  copper, 
tmployed  in  tbe  decoration  of  temple  domia  and  other  large 
•orki.  tbe  following  is  an  outline  of  the  processes  employed. 
T>it  metal  surface  is  thoroughly  scraped,  cleaned  and  polished,  and 
<K«  healed  in  ■  6re  sufficiently  10  remove  any  traces  of  grease  or 
o'-lvTimpuritywhidi  may  remain  from  the  operation  of  polishing. 
It  11  then  dipiwd  in  an  acid  solution  prepared  from  dried  unripe 

^Tulgui  with  the  copper,  after  which  it  is left«ome  hours  in  clean 
•iicT,  again  washed  with  the  add  solution,  and  dried.  It  is 
rakready  for  receiving  the  gold,  which  is  laid  on  in  leaf,  and,  on 
tfUming,  asaomes  a  grey  appearance  from  combining  with  tbe 
■urcury, but  on  tbe  appllcilionol  heat  the  latter  metal  volatilises, 
kivioglbe  gold  a  dull  greyish  hue.     The  colour  is  brought  up 

■ticiiry  tttd  in  this  process  is  double  that  o(  the  gold  laid  on. 


gilding  is  regulated  by  the  drcumitiiKa 
neceunies  01  me  case.    For  the  gilding  of  iron  or  itceli  the 

irface  is  first  scratched  over  witb  chequered  lines,  then  washed 
a  hot  solution  of  green  apricots,  dried  and  healed  just  short 
red-heat.     The  gold-leaf  is  then  laid  on,  and  rubbed  in  with 

Btebumishen,  whenit  adheres  by  catchbig  into  Ibe  prepared 

Modem  gilding  i> 


laiing  baser  meti 
ro-gilt  repro 


surface* 

net  processes,  >o  that  the  art  is  p 

s  part  of  widely  different  omam 

mat  and 

s  an.important  and  esBenliarpait 

C  »NO  Gm..«o);   it   is  largely 

binel-work,  decorative  painting 

ndbouM 

it  also  bjiks  largely  in  bookbin 

ding  and 

work.    Further,  gUding  is  much 

mployed 

in  the  g 
ro-plali 


for 

alsoacharncleriiticfealure  in  Ibe  decoration  of  pottery,  p 
beatis— mechanical  gilding  and  3^ding  by  chemical  agenc; 


il  DIhen.     Polished 


gilt  mechaoicallx  t^  applying  gold-luf  to 
I  temperature  iun  under  red^ifat.  pressin 

nisher  and  rcbeatiof,  when  addiiional  lea 

The  process  is  completeJ  by  cold  burnishing. 


e  leaf  on  with  a 


"rj'tfi?  '" 


slate  of  chernical 

'CMGiidSit—ti^S^ma*  Ihe  gold  is  obtained 
'xirccncly  £dc  division,  and  applied  l>y  mechanical 
[ilding  on  silver  is  performed  O^  a  solution  of  g^d 
LpjdiM  by  dipping  a  linen  rag  mto  the  solution;  b 
Tibbinj  the  black  and  heavy  ashes  on  tbe  silver  » 
■r  ■  piece  of  leather  or  cork.  Wtt  vJding  is  effected  uj  mmq 
I  dilute  lalullan  of  chloride  of  gold  with  twice  its  quantity  of  ef  hi 

Hie  liquids  are  agilated  and  aUowedID  rest,  when  the  r 

1.    The  whole 


rbich  the  gold 
:i9n.  .Ofiheae 

"old 

a 


r 


"ts¥E 


Ith  the  Aniet 
by  means  of 

'  ether  separates 

'tran,''tC"w" 


.,._.       mrnllyv 


A 


"ge^erull? 


)M  is  applied  10  rneEallic  surfaces,  the  mercury 
:ili]ircd,  leaving  a  film  ol  gold  or  an  ania^am 


,  it  ought"' iD^t 


^'^"'^'''orcba, 

l^m  is  applied.  ll 

CI.  When  no  such  pie[HratiDi>  js  applied,  tliei 
gilded  is  simply  bitten  and  cleaned  with  nitric  acid, 
meltury  is  oblained  on  a  melailic  sarfaize  by  meacts  of 

metal  10  which  it  is  appllB),  and 

is'""""'"' 


gold,  with  aboui  twice 
ming  a  yellowish  silvery 

ed  wi™h  mercury  Eefore 


run  iDgethcr  aiu  lca« 

I  the  mercury  hat  evar 

II  entirely  become  oi 


ira^'pl  bn 
1*0  the' lire 


m  called  "gilding  wai, 
>aa  it  burnt  oH.  Thii 
te  of  the  lollawint  tubil 


14 


GILDS 


vis.  red  ochre,  verdigrit,  copper  mica,  alum,  vitriol,  bormx.  By 
this  operation  the  colour  of  the  cildin^  b  heightened:  and  the 
effect  icemt  to  be  produced  by  a  perfect  dumpation  of  aome  mercurv 
remaining  after  the  former  operation.  The  diasipation  Is  well 
effected  by  this  equable  application  of  heat.  The  gilt  surface  b  then 
covered  over  with  ni^re,  alum  or  other  salts,  ground  together,  and 
mixed  up  into  a  paste  with  water  or  weak  ammonia.  The  piece  of 
metal  thus  covered  is  exposed  to  a  certain  degree  of  heat,  and  then 
quenched  in  water.  By  this  method  its  colour  b  further  improved 
and  brought  nearer  to  that  of  gold,  probably  by  removing  anv 
particles  of  copper  that  may  have  been  on  the  gilt  surface.  This 
process,  when  skilfully  carried  out.  produces  gilding  of  great  solidity 
and  beauty:  but  owing  to  the  exposure  of  the  workmen  to  mercurial 
fumes,  it  b  very  unhealthy,  and  further  there  is  much  loss  of  mercury. 
Numerouscontrivanccs  have  been  introduced  toobviate  these  serious 
evils.  Gilt  brass  buttons  used  for  uniforms  are  gilt  by  this  process, 
and  there  b  an  act  of  parliament  (1796)  yet  unrepealed  which  pre- 
scribes s  grains  of  gold  as  the  smallest  quantity  that  may  be  used, 
for  the  gilciinK  of  12  dozen  of  buttons  1  in.  in  diameter. 

ending  of  Pottery  and  /*«rcctotfi.>-The  quantity  of  gold  consumed 
for  these  purposes  is  very  laige.  The  gold  used  b  dissolved  in  aqua- 
regla.  and  the  acid  is  dnven  off  by  heat,  or  the  gold  may  be  precipi- 
tated by  means  of  sulphate  of  iron.  In  this  pulverulent  stale  tne 
gold  b  mixed  with  Ath  of  its  weight  of  oxide  of  bismuth,  together 
with  a  small  quantity  of  borax  and  gum  water.  The  mixture  is 
applied  to  the  articles  with  a  camel's  hair  pencil,  and  after  passing 
through  the  fire  the  gold  is  of  a  dingy  colour,  but  the  lustre  is  brought 
out  by  burnishing  with  agate  and  bloodstone,  and  afterwards 
cleaning  with  vinegar  or  white-lead. 

0IL08,  or  Guilds.  Medieval  gilds  were  voluntary  associations 
formed  for  the  mutual  aid  and  protection  of  their  members. 
Among  the  gildsmen  there  was  a  strong  spirit  of  fraternal  co- 
operation or  Christian  brotherhood,  with  a  mixture  of  worldly 
and  religious  ideals^the  support  of  the  body  and  the  salvation  of 
the  soul.  Early  meanings  of  the  root  gUd  or  geld  were  expiation, 
penally,  sacrifice  or  worship,  feast  or  banquet,  and  contribution 
or  payment;  it  is  difficult  to  determine  which  b  the  earliest' 
meaning,  and  we  are  not  certain  whether  the  gildsmen  were 
origintiTy  those  who  contributed  to  a  common  fund  or  those  who 
worshipped  or  feasted  together.  Their  fraternities  or  societies 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  religious  or  benevolent, 
merchant  and  craft  gilds.  The  last  two  categories,  which  do  not 
become  prominent  anywhere  in  Europe  until  the  12th  century, 
had.  like  all  gilds,  a  religious  tinge,  but  their  aims  were  primarily 
worldly,  and  their  functions  were  mainly  of  an  economic  character. 

I.  Of  If  tii.~  Various  theories  have  been  advanced  concerning 
the  origin  of  gilds.  Some  writers  regard  them  as  a  continuation  of 
the  Roman  collegia  and  sodalitales,  but  there  b  little  evidence  to 
prove  the  unbroken  continuity  of  existence  of  the  Roman  and 
Germanic  fraternities.  A  more  widely  accepted  theory  derives 
gilds  wholly  or  in  part  from  the  eariy  Germanic  or  Scandinavian 
sacrificial  banquets.  Much  influence  b  ascribed  to  this  heathen 
element  by  Lujo  Brentano.  Karl  Hegel,  W.  E.  Wilda  and  other 
writers.  This  view  docs  not  seem  to  be  tenable,  for  the  old- 
sacrificial  carousals  lack  two  of  the  essential  elements  of  the  gilds, 
namely  corporative  solidarity  or  permanent  association  and  the 
spirit  of  Christian  brotherhood.  Dr  Max  Pappenheim  has 
aKribed  the  origin  of  Germanic  gilds  to  the  northern  **  foster- 
brotherhood  "  or  "  sworn>brotherhood,"  which  was  an  artificial 
bond  of  union  between  two  or  more  persons.  After  intermingling 
their  blood  in  the  earth  and  performing  other  peculiar  ceremonies, 
the  two  contracting  parties  with  grasped  hands  swore  to  avenge 
any  injury  done  to  either  of  them.  The  objections  to  this 
theory  are  fully  stated  by  Hegel  {StOdU  uud  Cilden,  I  Qso-isi). 
The  foster-brotherhood  seems  to  have  been  unknown  to  the 
Franks  and  the  Anglo-Saxons,  the  nations  In  which  medieval 
gilds  first  appear;  and  hence  Dr  Pappenheim's  conclusions, 
if  tenable  at  all,  apply  only  to  Denmark  or  Scandinavia. 

No  theory  on  thb  subject  can  be  satisfactory  which  wholly 
ignores  the  influence  of  the  Christian  church.  Imbued  with  the 
idea  of  the  brotherhood  of  man,  the  church  naturally  fostered 
the  eariy  growth  of  gilds  and  tried  to  make  them  displace  the 
old  heathen  banqueu.  The  work  of  the  church  was,  however, 
directive  rather  than  creative.  Gilds  were  a  natural  manifesU- 
tion  of  the  associative  spirit  which  is  inherent  in  mankind.  The 
same  needs  produce  in  different  ages  associations  which  have 
striking  resemblances,  but  those  of  each  age  have  pectiliarities 


which  Indicate  a  spontaneous  growtli.  It  b  not  necesaaiy  to 
seek  the  germ  of  gilds  in  any  antecedent  age  or  instittttion. 
When  the  old  kin-bond  or  maegtk  was  beginning  to  weaken  or 
dissolve,  and  the  state  did  not  yet  afford  adequate  protection  to 
its  citixens,  individuab  naturally  united  for  mutual  help. 

Gilds  are  first  mentioned  in  the  CaroUngian  capitularies  of 
779  and  789,  and  in  the  enactments  made  by  the  synod  of  Nantes 
early  in  the  9th  century,  the  text  of  which  has  been  preserved 
in  the  ecclesiastical  ordinances  of  Hincmar  of  Rheims  (aj>.852). 
The  capitularies  of  805  and  821  also  contain  vague  references 
to  sworn  unions  of  some  sort,  and  a  capitulary  of  884  prohibits 
villeins  from  forming  associations  *'  vulgarly  called  gOds  '* 
against  those  who  have  despoiled  them.  The  Carolingians 
evidently  regarded  such  ''conjurations*'  as  ** conspirations *' 
dangerous  to  the  state.  The  gilds  of  Norway,  Denmark  and 
Sweden  are  first  mentioned  in  the  nth,  12th  and  X4th  centuries 
respectively;  those  of  France  and  the  Netherlands  In  the 
nth. 

Many  writers  bdieve  that  the  eariiest  references  to  gilds  come 
from  England.  The  laws  of  Ine  speak  of  gegitdan  who  hdp  each 
other  pay  the  wergdd,  but  it  b  not  entirely  certain  that  they 
were  members  of  gild  fratonities  in  the  later  sense.  These  are 
more  dearly  referred  to  in  England  in  the  second  half  of  the 
9th  century,  though  wre  have  little  information  concerning 
them  before  the  nth  century.  To  the  first  half  of  that  century 
belong  the  statutes  of  the  fraternities  of  Cambridge,  Abbotsbury 
and  Exeter.  They  arc  important  because  they  form  the  oldest 
body  of  gild  ordinances  exunt  in  Europe.  The  thanes'  gUd  at 
Cambridlge  afforded  help  in  blood-feuds,  and  provided  for  the 
payment  of  the  TBcrgdd  in  case  a  member  killed  aify  <me.  The 
religious  element  was  more  prominent  in  Orcy's  gild  at  Abbots- 
bury  and  in  the  fraternity  at  ^eter;  their  ordinances  exhibit 
much  solicitude  for  the  salvation  of  the  brethren's  souls.  The 
Exeter  gild  also  gave  assbtance  when  property  was  destroyed 
by  fire.  Prayers  for  the  dead,  attendance  at  funerab  of  gildsmen, 
periodical  banquets,  the  solemn  entrance  oath,  fines  for  neglect 
of  duty  and  for  improper  conduct,  contributions  to  a  common 
purse,  mutual  assbtance  in  distress,  -periodical  meetings  in  the 
gildhall, — in  short,  all  the  characteristic  features  of  the  later 
gilds  already  appear  in  the  statutes  <rf  these  Anglo-Saxoa 
fraternities.  Some  continental  writer,  in  dealing  with  the 
origin  of  municipal  government  throughout  western  Europe, 
have,  however,  ascribed  too  much  importance  to  the  Anglo-SaxoQ 
gilds,  exaggerating  their  prevalence  and  contending  that  they 
form  the  germ  of  medieval  municipal  government.  Thb  view 
rests  almost  entirely  on  conjecture;  there  b  no  good  evidence 
to  show  that  there  was  any  organic  connexion  between  gilda 
and  municipal  government  in  England  before  the  coming  of  the 
Normans.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  there  b  no  trace  of  the 
existence  of  either  craft  or  merchant  gilds  in  En^and  before 
the  Norman  Conquest.  Commerce  and  Industry  were  not  yet 
sufficiently  developed  to  call  for  the  creation  of  such  associations. 

2.  Rdigious  Gilds  ajttr  the  Norman  Conquest, — Though  we 
have  not  much  information  concerning  the  reli^ous  gilds  in 
the  xath  centtxry,  they  doubtless  flourislied  under  the  Anglo- 
Norman  kings,  and  we  know  that  they  were  numerous,  especially 
in  the  boroughs,  from  the  13th  century  onward.  In  1388 
pariiamcnt  ordered  that  every  sheriff  in  England  should  call 
upon  the  masters  and  wardens  of  all  gilds  and  brotherhoods 
to  send  to  the  king's  council  in  Chancery,  before  the  2nd  of 
February  1389,  full  returns  regarding  their  foundation,  ordin- 
ances and  property.  Many  of  these  returns  were  edited  by 
J.  Toulmin  Smith  (1816-1869),  and  they  throw  much  light  on  the 
functions  of  the  gilds.  Their  ordinances  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  above-mentioned  An^o-Saxon  fraternities.  Each  member 
took  an  oath  of  admission,  paid  an  entrance-fee,  and  made  a 
small  annual  contribution  to  the  common  fund.  The  brethreu 
were  aided  in  old  age.  sickness  and  poverty,  often  also  in  cases 
of  loss  by  robbery,  shipwreck  and  conflagration;  for  example, 
any  member  of  the  gild  of  St  Catherine,  Aldersgate,  was  to  be 
assbted  if  he  "  fall  into  poverty  or  be  injured  thnragh  age,  or 
through  hit  or  water,  thieves  or  atcknesa."   Alms  wen  often 


GILDS 


«5 


liven  even  to  non-gfldsmen;  lights  were  supported  at  certain 
iltan;  feasts  and  processions  were  held  periodically;  the 
fuAcrab  of  brethtai  were  attended;  and  masses  for  the  dead 
vere  provided  from  the  common  purse  or  from  special  contribu- 
tioDS  made  by  the  gUdsmen.  Some  of  the  religious  gilds 
supported  scboob,  or  helped  to  maintain  roads,  bridges  and 
town-walls,  or  e\'en  came,  in  course  of  time,  to  be  closely  con- 
nected with  the  government  of  the  borough;  but,  as  a  rule, 
they  were  simply  private  societies  with  a  limited  sphere  of 
activfty.  They  are  important  because  they  played  a  prominent 
r61e  in  the  social  life  of  England,  cspedally  as  eleemosynary 
institatiotts,  down  to  the  time  of  their  suppression  in  2547. 
Rd^otts  gflds,  closely  resembling  those  of  England,  also 
lloaxisbed  on  the  continent  during  the  middle  ages. 

1.  The  Gild  MerchatU. — ^The  merchant  and  craft  fraternities 
tie  particularly  interesting  to  students  of  economic  and  municipal 
hbtory.  The  gild  merchant  came  into  existence  in  England 
soon  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  as  a  result  of  the  increasing 
importance  of  trade,  and  it  may  have  been  transplanted  from 
Koroundy.  Until  dearer  evidence  of  foreign  influence  is  found, 
it  may,  however,  be  safer  to  regard  it  simply  as  a  new  application 
of  the  old  gild  principle,  though  this  new  application  may  have 
been  stimulated  by  continental  example.  Tht  evidence  seems 
to  indicate  the  pre-existencc  of  the  gild  merchant  in  Normandy, 
but  it  b  not  mentioned  anywhere  on  the  continent  before  the 
nth  century.  It  spread  rapidly  in  England,  and  from  the 
reign  of  John  onward  we  have  evidence  of  its  existence  in  many 
English  hofoughs.  But  in  some  prominent  towns,  notably 
London,  Colchester,  Norwich  and  the  Cinque  Ports,  it  seems 
never  to  have  been  adopted.  In  fact  it  played  a  more  conspicuous 
rtk  in  the  smaU  boroughs  than  in  the  Urge  ones.  It  was  regarded 
by  the  townsmen  as  one  of  their  most  important  privileges, 
lis  chief  function  was  to  regulate  the  trade  monopoly  conveyed 
to  tbe  borough  by  the  royal  grant  of  gilda  mercaloria.  A  grant 
of  this  sort  implied  that  the  gildsmen  had  the  right  to  trade 
frcdy  in  the  town,  and  to  impose  payments  and  restrictions 
upon  others  who  desired  to  exercise  that  privilege.  The  ordin- 
toces  of  a  gild  merchant  thus  aim  to  protect  the  brethren  from 
tbe  comnnercial  competition  of  strangers  or  i^on-gildsmen. 
More  freedom  of  trade  was  allowed  at  all  times  in  the  selling  of 
vires  by  wholesale,  and  also  in  retail  dealings  during  the  time 
of  markkts  and  fairs.  The  ordinances  were  enforced  by  an 
ilderraan  with  the  assistance  of  two  or  more  deputies,  or  by  one 
or  two  masters,  wardens  or  keepers.  The  Monoenspcchcs  were 
periodical  meetings  at  which  tbie  brethren  feasted,  revised  their 
ordinances,  admitted  new  members,  elected  officers  and  trans- 
acted other  business. 

It  has  often  been  asserted  that  the  gild  merchant  and  the 
borough  were  identical,  and  that  the  former  was  the  basis  of  the 
vbde  munidpal  constitution.  But  recent  research  has  dis- 
credited this  theoiy  both  in  En^and  and  on  the  continent. 
Much  evidence  has  been  produced  to  show  that  gild  and  borough, 
fikbinen  and  burgesses,  were  originally  distinct  conceptions, 
tad  that  they  continued  to  be  discriminated  in  most  towns 
tbrou^Mut  the  middle  ages.  Admission  to  the  gild  was  not 
itttrictcd  to  burgesses;  nor  did  the  brethren  form  an  aristocratic 
body  having  control  over  the  whole  municipal  polity.  No  good 
mdence  has,  moreover,  been  advanced  to  prove  that  this  or 
Wf  other  kind  of  gild  was  the  germ  of  the  municipal  constitution. 
Ob  the  other  hand,  the  gild  merchant  was  certainly  an  official 
orpa  or  department  of  the  borough  administration,  and  it 
nened  oonsidcrable  influence  upon  the  economic  and  corporative 
rowth  of  the  Ea^Usli  municipalities. 

Historians  have  expressed  divergent  views  regarding  the 
ttriy  relations  of  tbe  craftsmen  and  their  fraternities  to  the  gild 
■erchaat.  One  of  the  main  questions  in  dispute  is  whether 
srtisans  were  excluded  from  the  gild  merchant.  Many  of  them 
tttio  to  have  been  admitted  to  membership.  They  were  regarded 
as  flierchaats,  for  they  bought  raw  material  and  sold  the  manu- 
laaured  commodity;  no  sharp  line  of  demarcation  was  drawn 
bn«een  the  two  dsMcs  in  the  1 2th  and  xjth  centuries.  Separate 
Hoeties  of  daftsmea  were  formed  in  £n|^d  soon  after  the 


gild  merchant  came  into  existence;  but  at  first  they  were  few 
in, number.  The  gild  merchant  did  not  give  birth  to  craft 
fraternities  or  have  anything  to  do  with  their  origin;  nor  did 
it  delegate  its  authority  to  them.  In  fact,  there  seems  to  have 
been  little  or  no  organic  connexion  between  the  two  classes  of 
gilds.  As  has  already  been  intimated,  however,  many  artisans 
probably  belonged  both  to  their  own  craft  fraternity  and  to  the  gild 
merchant,  and  tlft  latter,  owing  to  its  great  power  in  the  town, 
may  have  exercised  some  sort  of  supervision  over  the  craftsmen 
and  their  societies.  When  the  king  bestowed  upon  the  tanners 
or  weavers  or  any  other  body  of  artisans  the  right  to  h^vc  a 
gild,  they  secured  the  monopoly  of  working  and  trading  in  their 
branch  of  Industry.  Thus  with  every  creation  of  a  craft  fraternity 
the  gild  merchant  was  weakened  and  its  sphere  of  activity  was 
diminished,  though  the  new  bodies  were  subsidiary  to  the  older 
and  larger  fraternity.  The  greater  the  commercial  and  industrial 
prosperity  of  a  town,  the  more  rapid  was  the  multiplication  of 
craft  gilds,  which  was  a  natural  result  of  the  ever-increasing 
division  of  labour.  The  old  gild  merchant  remained  longest 
intact  and  powerful  in  the  smaller  boroughs,  in  which,  owing 
to  the  predominance  of  agriculture,  few  or  no  craft  gilds  were 
formed.  In  some  of  the  larger  towns  the  crafts  were  prominent 
already  in  the  13th  century,  but  they  became  much  more  pro- 
minent in  the  first  half  of  the  14th  century.  Their  increase  in 
number  and  power  was  particularly  rapid  in  the  time  of  Edward 
III.,  whose  reign  marks  an  era  of  industrial  progress.  .  Many 
master  craftsmen  now  became  wealthy  employers  of  labour, 
dealing  extensively  in  the  wares  which  they  produced.  The.class 
of  dealers  or  merchants,  as  distingubhed  from  trading  artisans, 
also  greatly  increased  and  establbhed  separate  fraternities. 
When  these  various  unions  of  dealers  and  of  craftsmen  embraced 
all  the  trades  and  branches  of  production  irt  the  town,  little  or 
no  vitality  remained  in  the  old  gild  merchant;  it  ceased  to  have 
an  independent  sphere  of  activity.  The  tendency  was  for  the 
single  organixation,  with  a  general  monopoly  of  trade,  to  be 
replaced  by  a  number  of  separate  organizations  representing 
the  various  trades  and  handicrafts.  In  short,  the  function  of 
guarding  and  supervising  the  trade  monopoly  split  up  into 
various  fragments,  the  aggregate  of  the  crafts  superseding  the 
old  general  gild  merchant.  Thb  transference  of  the  authority 
of  the  latter  to  a  number  of  dbtinct  bodies  and  the  consequent 
disintegration  of  the  old  organization  was  a  gradual  spontaneous 
movement, — a  process  of  slow  displacement,  or  natural  growth 
and  decay,  due  to  the  play  of  economic  forces, — which,  generally 
speaking,  may  be  assigned  to  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  the 
very  period  in  which  the  craft  gilds  attained  the  zenith  of  their 
power.  While  in  most  towns  the  name  and  the  old  organization 
of  the  gild  merchant  thus  disappeared  and  the  institution  was 
dbplaced  by  the  aggregate  of  the  crafts  towards  the  close  of  the 
middle  ages,  in  some  places  it  survived  long  after  the  isth 
century  either  as  a  religious  fraternity,  shorn  of  its  old  functions, 
or  as  a  periodical  feast,  or  as  a  vague  term  applied  to  the  whole 
municipal  corporation. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe  the  medieval  gild  merchant  played 
a  less  important  r6le  than  in  England.  In  Germany,  France 
and  the  Netherlands  it  occupies  a  less  prominent  place  in  the 
town  charters  and  in  the  municipal  polity,  and  often  corresponds 
to  the  later  fraternities  of  Englbh  dealers  establbhed  either  to 
carry  on  foreign  commerce  or  to  regulate  a  particular  part  of  the 
local  trade  monopoly. 

4.  Craft  Gilds. — A  craft  gild  usually  comprised  all  the  artisans 
in  a  single  branch  of  industry  in  a  particular  town.  Such  a 
fratermty  was  commonly  called  a  "  mbtery  "  or  "  company  '* 
in  the  isth  and  x6th  centuries,  though  the  old  term  "gild" 
was  not  yet  obsolete.  "  Gild  "  was  also  a  common  designation 
in  north  Germany,  while  the  corresponding  term  in  south 
Germany  was  Zunft,  and  in  France  mitier.  These  societies  are 
not  clearly  vbible  in  England  or  on  the  continent  before  the  eariy 
part  of  the  X2th  century.  With  the  expansion  of  trade  and 
industry  the  number  of  artisans  increased,  and  they  banded 
together  lor  mutual  protection.  Some  German  writers  have 
maintained  that   these  crafl  organizations  emanated    from 


i6 


GILDS 


manorial  groups  of  workmen,  but  strong  arguments  have  been 
advanced  against  the  validity  of  this  theory  (notably  by  F. 
Kcutgen).  It  is  unnecessary  to  elaborate  any  profound  theory 
regarding  the  origin  of  the  craft  gilds.  The  union  of  men  of  the 
same  occupation  was  a  natural  tendency  of  the  age.  In  the 
xjth  century  the  trade  of  England  continued  to  expand  and 
the  number  of  craft  gilds  increased.  In  the  14th  century  they 
were  fully  developed  and  in  a  flourishing  condition;  by  that  lime 
each  branch  of  industry  in  every  large  town  had  its  gild.  The 
development* of  these  societies  was  even  more  rapid  on  the  con- 
tinent than  in  England. 

Their  organization  and  aims  were  in  general  the  same  through- 
out western  Europe.  Officers,  commonly  called  wardens  in 
England,  were  elected  by  the  members,  and  their  chief  function 
was  to  supervise  the  quality  of  the  wares  produced,  so  as  to 
secure  good  and  honest  workmanship.  Therefore,  ordinances 
were  made  regulating  the  hours  of  labour  and  tne  terms  of 
admission  to  the  gild,  including  apprenticeship.  Other  ordin- 
ances required  members  to  make  periodical  payments  to  a 
common  fund,  and  to  participate  in  certain  common  religious 
observances,  festivities  and  pageants.  But  the  regulation  of 
industry  was  always  paramount  to  social  and  religious  aims; 
the  chief  object  of  the  craft  gild  was  to  supervise  the  processes 
of  manufacture  and  to  control  the  monopoly  of  working  and 
dealing  in  a  particular  branch  of  industry. 

We  have  already  called  attention  to'  the  gradual  displacement 
of  the  gild  merchant  by  the  craft  organizations.  The  relations 
of  the  former  to  the  latter  must  now  be  considered  more  in 
detail.  There  was  at  no  time  a  general  struggle  in  England 
between  the  gild  merchant  and  the  craft  gilds,  though  in  a  few 
towns  there  seems  to  have  been  some  friction  between  merchants 
and  artisans.  There  is  no  exact  parallel  in  England  to  the  conflict 
between  these  two  classes  in  Scotland  in  the  i6th  century,  or  to 
the  great  continental  revolution  of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries, 
by  which  the  crafts  threw  off  the  yoke  of  patrician. government 
and  secured  more  independence  in  the  management  of  their  own 
affairs  and  more  participation  in  the  civic  administration.  The 
main  causes  of  these  conflicts  on  the  continent  were  the  monopoly 
of  power  by  the  patricians,  acts  of  violence  committed  by  them, 
their  bad  management  of  the  finances  and  their  partisan  admini- 
stration of  justice.  In  some  towns  the  victory  of  the  artisans 
in  the  14th  century  was  so  complete  that  the  whole  civic  con- 
stitution was  remodelled  with  the  craft  fra^lernities  as  a  basis. 
A  widespread  movement  of  this  sort  would  scarcely  be  found  in 
England,  where  trade  and  industry  were  less  developed  than  on 
the  continent,  and  where  the  motives  of  a  class  conflict  between 
merchants  and  craftsmen  were  less  potent.  Moreover,  borough 
government  in  England  seems  to  have  been  mainly  democratic 
until  the  14th  or  15th  century;  there  was  no  oligarchy  to  be 
depressed  or  suppressed.  Even  if  there  had  been  motives  for 
uprisings  of  artisans  such  as  took  platt  in  Germany  and  the 
Netherlands,  the  English  kings  would  probably  have  intervened 
True,  there  were  popular  uprisings  in  England,  but  they  were 
usually  conflicts  between  the  poor  and  the  rich;  the  crafts  as 
such  seldom  took  part  in  these  tumults.  While  many  continental 
municipalities  were  becoming  more  democratic  in  the  14th 
century,  those  of  England  were  drifting  towards  oligarchy, 
towards  government  by  a  close  "  select  body."  As  a  rule  the 
craft  gilds  secured  no  dominant  influence  in  the  boroughs  of 
England,  but  remained  subordinate  to  the  town  government. 
Whatever  power  ihcy  did  secure,  whether  as  potent  subsidiary 
organs  of  the  municipal  polity  for  the  regulation  of  trade,  or  as 
the  chief  or  sole  medium  for  the  acquisition  of  citizenship,  or  as 
integral  parts  of  the  common  council,  was,  generally  speaking, 
the  logical  sequence  of  a  gradual  economic  development,  and 
not  the  outgrowth  of  a  revolutionary  movement  by  which 
oppressed  craftsmen  endeavoured  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  an 
arrogant  patrician  gild  merctu^nt. 

Two  new  kinds  of  craft  fraternities  appear  in  the  14th  century 
and  become  more  prominent  in  the  15th,  namely,  the  merchants' 
and  the  journeymen's  companies.  The  misteries  or  companies 
ol  merchants  traded  in  one  or  more  kinds  of  wares.  They  were 


pre-eminently  dealers,  who  sold  what  otheis  pcodaoti  Be^ 
they  should  not  be  confused  with  the  cdd  gild  ramhsBt,  wUd 
originally  comprised  both  merchants  and  artisans,  and  bi  tke 
whole  monopoly  of  the  trade  of  the  town.  In  most  osts,  4e 
company  of  merchants  was  merely  one  of  the  craft  ngifliabflB 
which  superseded  the  gild  merchanL 

In  the  14th  century  the  journeymen  or  yeomen  been  to  «t 
up  fraternities  in  defence  of  Ibdr  rights.   Tbe  f ormatioa  cf  tboe 
societies  marks  a  cleft  within  the  ranks  of  some  paiticskr  dsa 
of  artisans— a  conflict  between  empIo3Rers,  or  master  aitisia, 
and  workmen.     The  journeymen  combined  to  pratea  ikir 
special  interests,  notably  as  regards  hours  of  work  and  rate  at 
wages,  and  they  fought  with  the  masters  over  the  labour  qcti^ 
in  all  its  aspects.    The  resulting  struggle  of  organiaed  beus 
of  masters  and  journeymen  was  widcs|Mead  tfafoughovt  «eitcni 
Europe,i>ut  it  was  more  prominent  in  Germany  than  in  Fnaacc 
England.   This  conflict  «ras  indeed  one  of  tbe  main  fcateiad 
German  industrial  life  in  the  15th  century.     In  Engbad  tbe 
fraternities  of  journeymen,  after  struggling  a  while  for  compJea 
independence,  seem  to  have  fallen  under  the  supervisioD  asd 
control  of  the  masters'  gilds;  in  othef  words,  they  becKa 
subsidiary  or  affiliated  organs  of  the  older  craft  fralersitics. 

An  interesting  phenomenon  in  connexion  with  the  orpaza- 
tion  of  crafts  is  their  tendency  to  amalgamate,  which  is  occ2sk» 
ally  visible  in  England  in  the  isth  century,  and  more  freqao^y 
in  the  i6th  and  17th.  A  similar  tendency  is  visible  in  i>e 
Netherlands  and  in  some  other  parts  of  the  continent  alrciiy 
in  the  '14th  century.  Several  fraternities — old  gilds  or  oev 
companies,  with  their  respective  cognate  or  beterogeBCOos 
branches  of  industry  and  trade— were  fused  into  one  body.  I* 
some  towns  all  the  crafts  were  thus  consolidated  into  a  siock 
fraternity,  in  this  case  a  body  was  reproduced  which  regulated 
the  whole  trade  monopoly  of  the  borough,  and  bence  bore  sooe 
resemblance  to  the  old  gild  merchant. 

In  dealing  briefly  with  the  modern  history  of  cra/t  s;ilds,  we  i»y 
confine  our  attention  to  England.  In  the  Tudor  period  iIk 
policy  of  the  crown  was  to  bring  them  under  public  or  oauoe«l 
control.  Laws  were  passed,  for  example  in  1505,  requiring  that 
new  ordinances  of  "  fellowships  of  crafts  or  misteries  '*  should  be 
approved'  by  the  royal  justices  or  by  other  crown  oflicen;  asi 
the  authority  of  the  companies  to  fix  the  price  of  wares  was  th« 
restricted.  The  statute  of  5  Elizabeth,  b.  4,  also  curtailed  thdr 
jurisdiction  over  journeymen  and  apprentices  (see  AppmsvticI' 
ship). 

The  craft  fraternities  were  not  suppressed  by  the  statute  of 
1547  (i  Edward  VI.).  They  were  indeed  expressly  exempted 
from  its  general  operation.  Such  portions  of  their  revenues  as 
were  devoted  to  definite  religious  observances  were,  however, 
appropriated  by  the  crown.  The  revenues  confiscated  were  those 
used  for  "  the  finding,  maintaining  or  sustentation  of  any  priest 
or  of  any  anniversary,  or  obit,  lamp,  light  or  other  such  thin^" 
This  has  been  aptly  called  '*  the  disendowment  of  the  religioo 
of  the  misteries."  Edward  VI.'s  statute  marks  no  break  of 
continuity  in  the  life  of  the  craft  organisations.  Even  before  the 
Reformation,  however,  signs  of  decay  had  already  begun  to 
appear,  and  these  multiplied  in  the  i6th  and  I7ih  centuries.  The 
old  gild  system  was  breaking  down  under  the  action  of  sew 
economic  forces.  Its  dissolution  was  due  especially  to  the 
introduction  of  new  industries,  organized  on  a  more  modern 
basis,  and  to  the  extension  of  the  domestic  system  of  manufacture. 
Thus  the  companies  gradually  lost  control  over  the  regulation  of 
industry,  though  th^y  still  retained  their  old  monopoly  in  the 
17th  century,  and  in  many  cases  even  in  the  tSth.  In  fact,  many 
craft  fraternities  still  survived  in  the  second  half  of  the  iSih 
century,  but  their  usefulness  had  disappeared.  The  medieval 
form  of  association  was  incompatible  with  the  new  ideas  of  io* 
dividual  liberty  and  free  competition,  with  the  greater  separatioo 
of  capital  and  industry,  employers  and  workmen,  and  with  the 
introduction  of  the  factory  system.  Intent  only  on  promotiog 
their  own  Interests  and  disregarding  the  welfare  of  the  community! 
the  old  companies  had  become  an  unmitigated  eviL  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  find  in  them  the  progenitors  of  the  trades 


GILEAD— GILES,  ST 


uoioais,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  immediate  connexion  between 
tbe  latter  and  the  craft  gilds.  The  privilege  of  the  old  frater- 
nities were  not  formally  abolished  until  1835;  and  the  sub- 
stantial remains  or  spectod  forms  of  some  are  still  visible  in  other 
towns  besides  London. 

Bibliography.— W.  £.  Wilda,  Das  CUiewmesen  im  MiUdcUer 
(Halte,  1S31):  E.  Levasseur.  Histoire  des  classes  omriires  en  France 
(a  vols..  I^rts,  i8«),  new  ed.  1900):  Gustav  von  Schdnbcrg,  "  Zur 
wirthschaftlichen  Bedeutunc  dea  dcutschen  Zunftwcscns  im  MttteU 
alter/*  in  JahrbOeher  far  Nationalikonomie  und  Statistik.  cd.  B. 
Hildebrand,  vol.  uc.  pp.  1-72. 97-169  (Jena<  1867);  Joshua  Toulmin 
Smith,  English  CildSt  with  Lmo  Brentano's  introductory  essay  on 
the  History  and  Development  of  Gilds  (London,  1870};  Max  Pappen- 
heam.  Die  altddnischen  Sckuttgilden  (Breslau,  1885);  W.  J.  Ashley, 
Introdmctien  to  En^isk  Economic  History  (a  vols.,  London,  1888- 
1893;  3rd  ed.  of  voL  i..  1894) ;  C.  Gross,  The  Gild  Merchant  (3  vols., 
Oxford,  X890);  Karl  Hcgcl,  Stadte  und  Gilden  der  germanischen 
VUker  {2  vols.,  Lcipzie.  1891);  J.  Malct  Lambert,  Two  Thousand 
Years  of  GUd  Lift  (Hull,  1891}:  Alfred  Dorcn,  Untersuchungen  tur 
Ceschickte  der  Kaufmannsgilden  (Leipzig,  1893);  H.  Vander  Linden, 
Les  GUdes  marchandes  dans  tes  Pays-Bas  au  moyen  Age  (Ghent, 
1896);  E.  Martin  Saint-L6>n,  Histoire  des  corporations  de  mitiers 
(Paris,  1897);  C.  Nyrop,  Danmarks  Gilde-  ogLavsskraaer  fra  middel- 
elderen  (a  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1899-1904);  F.  Keutgcn,  Amter  und 
Zunfte  CJena,  1903):  George  Unwm,  Industrial  Organisation  in  the 
Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries  (Oxford,  1904).  For  biblio- 
graphies of  ^Ids,  see  H.  Blanc.  Biblio^rapkie  des  corporations 
ouerikres  (Pans,  1885):  G.  Gonctta,  Bibliografia  delle  corporauoni 
d"  arti  e  mestieri  (Rome.  1891);  C.  Gross.  Bibliography  of  British 
Municipal  History,  including  Gilds  (New  York,  1897):  W.  Stieda, 
in  HandwMerbuch  der  Staatswissenschaften,  ed.  J.  Conrad  (2nd  ed., 
Jena,  1901,  under  "  Zunftwesen  ").  (C.  Gr.) 

GILEAD  (s.e.  "  hard  "  or  "  rugged,"  a  name  sometimes  used, 
both  in  earlier  and  in  later  writers,  to  denote  the  whole  of  the 
territory  occupied  by  the  Israelites  eastward  of  Jordan,  extending 
from  the  Amon  to  the  southern  base  of  Hermon  (Deut.  xxxiv.  i; 
Judg.  zx.  x;  Jos.  Ant.  xiL  8.  3,  4).  More  precisely,  however, 
it  was  the  usual  name  of  that  picturesque  hill  country  which  is 
bounded  on  the  N  by  the  Hieromax  (Yarmuk),  on  the  W.  by 
the  Jordan,  on  the  S-  by  the  Amon,  and  on  the  E.  by  a  line  which 
may  be  said  to  follow  the  meridian  of  Amm&n  (Philadelphia  or 
Rabbath-Ammon).  It  thus  lies  wholly  within  31'  25'  and  32' 
42'  N.  lat.  and  35*  34'  and  36*  £.  long.,  and  is  cut  in  two  by  the 
Jabbok.  Excluding  the  narrow  strip  of  low-lying  plain  along 
tbe  Jordan,  it  has  an  average  elevation  of  2500  ft.  above  the 
Mediterranean;  but,  as  .seen  from  the  west,  the  relative  height 
is  very  much  increased  by  the  depression  of  the  Jordan  valley. 
The  range  from  the  same  point  of  view  presents  a  singularly  uni- 
form outline,  having  the  appearance  of  an  unbroken  wall;  in 
reality,  however,  it  is  traversed  by  a  number  of  deep  ravines 
(wadis),  of  whid^  the  most  important  are  the  Yflbis,  the  Ajlfln, 
the  Rijib,  the  Zerka  (Jabbok),  the  Hesban,  and  the  Zerka  Ma'In. 
The  great  mats  of  tbe  Gilead  range  is  fonned  of  Jura  limestone, 
the  iMse  slopes  being  sandstone  partly  covered  by  white  marls. 
Tbe  eastern  slopes  are  comparatively  bare  of  trees;  but  the 
western  are  well  supplied  witb  oak,  terebinth  and  pine.  The 
pastures  are  everywhere  luxuriant,  and  the  wooded  heights  and 
winding  i^ns,  in  wbidi  the  tanked  shrubbery  is  here  and  there 
broken  up  by  open  glades  and  flat  meadows  of  green  turf,  exhibit 
a  beauty  of  vegetation  such  as  is  hardly  to  be  seen  in  any  other 
district  of  Palntine. 

The  first  biblical  mention  of  "  Mount  Gilead "  occurs  in 
connexion  with  the  reconcilement  of  Jacob  and  Laban  ((Genesis 
xxxi.).  The  composite  nature  of  the  story  makes  an  identifies- 
tbn  of  the  exact  site  difiicult,  but  one  of  the  narrators  (E)  seems 
to  have  in  mind  tbe  ridge  of  what  is  now  known  as  Jebel  AjlQn, 
probably  not  far  from  Mabneh  (Mahanaim),  near  the  head  of  the 
wadi  Yibis.  Some  investigators  incline  to  SOf ,  or  to  the  Jebd 
Kafkafa.  At  tbe  period  of  the  Israelite  conquest  the  portion  of 
Gilead  northward  of  the  Jabbok  (Zerka)  belong  to  the  dominions 
of  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  while  the  southern  half  was  ruled  by  Sihon; 
king  of  the  Amorites,  having  been  at  an  earlier  date  wrested  from 
Moab  (Numb.  xd.  24;  Deut.  iii.  x2-x6).  These  two  sections 
were  aUotted  reflectively  to  Manasseh  and  to  Reuben  and  Gad, 
both  districts  being  peculiarly  suited  to  the  pastoral  and  nomadic 
character  of  these  tribes.  A  somewhat  wild  Bedouin  disposition, 
fostered  by  that  surroundings,  was  retained  by  the  Israelite  in- 


17 

habitants  of  Gilead  to  a  late  period  of  their  history,  and  seems 
to  be  to  some  extent  discernible  in  what  we  read  alike  of  Jephthah, 
of  David's  Gadites,  and  of  the  prophet  Elijah.  As  the  eastern 
frontier  of  Palestine,  Gilead  bore  the  first  jbrixnt  of  Syrian  and 
Assyrian  attacks. 

After  the  dose  of  the  Old  Testament  history  the  word  Gilead 
seldom  occurs.  It  seems  to  have  soon  passed  out  of  use  as  a 
precise  geographical  designation;  for  though  occasionally 
mentioned  by  Apocryphal  writers,  by  Josephus,  and  by  Eusebius, 
the  allusions  are  all  vague,  and  show  that  those  who  made  them 
had  no  definite  knowledge  of  Gilead  proper.  In  Josephus  and 
the  New  Testament  the  name  Peraea  or  vipoM  rov  'lopi&vov  is 
most  frequently  used;  and  the  country  is  sometimes  spoken 
of  by  Josephus  as  divided  into  small  provinces  called  after  the 
capitals  in  which  Greek  colonists  had  established  themselves 
during  the  reign  of  the  Sdeuddae.  At  present  Gilead  south  of 
the  Jabbok  alone  is  known  by  the  name  of  Jebel  Jilad  (Mount 
Gilead),  the  northern  portion  between  the  Jabbok  and  the 
Yarmuk  being  called  Jebd  AjlQn.  Jebel  Jilad  includes  Jebd 
Osha,  and  has  for  its  capital  the  town  of  Es-Salt.  The 
dlics  of  Gilead  expressly  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  are 
Ramoth,  Jabesh  and  Jazer.  The  first  of  these  has  been  variously 
identified  with  E&»Salt,  with  Reimun,  with  Jerash  or  Gerasa, 
with  er-Remtha,  and  with  §albad.  (Opinions  are  also  divided 
on  the  question  of  its  identity  with  Mizpch-Gilead  (see  Encyc. 
Biblica,  art.  "  Ramoth-Gilead  ").  Jabesh  is  perhaps  to  be 
found  at  Meriamin,  less  probably  at  ed-Ddr;  Jazer,  at  Yajuz 
near  Jogbehah,  rather  than  at  Sar.  The  dty  named  Gilead  (Judg. 
X.  17,  xii.  7;  Hos.  vi.  8,  xxi.  11)  has  hardly  been  satisfactorily 
explained;  perhaps  the  text  has  suffered. 

The  "  balm  "  (Heb.  {ori)  for  which  Gilead  was  so  noted 
(Gen.  xlvii.  11;  Jcr.  viiL  22,  dvi.  xi;  Ezek.  xxvii,  17),  is  probably 
to  be  identified  with  mastic  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  R.V.  marg.)  ix, 
the  resin  yielded  by  the  Pistachia  LenHscus,  '  The  modem 
"balm  of  Gilead"  or  "Mecca  balsam,"  an>aronuLtic  gum 
produced  by  the  Balsamodendron  opobalsamumt  is  more  likely 
the  Hebrew  mdr,  which  the  English  Bible  wrongly  renders 
"  myrrh." 

See  G.  A.  Smith,  Hist.  Geog.  xxiv.  foU.  (R.  A.  S.  M.) 

GILES  (Gil,  Gilles),  ST.  the  name  given  to  an  abbot  whose 
festival Js  celebrated  on  the  xst  of  September.  According  to 
the  legend,  he  was  an  Athenian  (AtTlSiof,  Aegidius)  of  royal 
descent.  After  the  death  of  his  parents  he  distributed  his 
possessions  among  the  poor,  iotk  ship,  and  landed  at  Marseilles. 
Thence  he  went  to  Aries,  where  he  remained  tat  two  years  with 
St  Caesarius.  He  then  retired  into  a  neighbouring  desert, 
where  he  lived  upon  herbs  and  upon  the  milk  of  a  hind  whicb 
came  to  him  at  stated  hours.  He  was  discovered  there  one  day 
by  Flavins,  the  king  of  the  Goths,  who  built  a  monastery  on  the 
place,  of  which  he  was  the  first  abboL  Scholars  are  very  much 
divided  as  to  the.  date  of  his  life,  some  holding  that  he  lived  in 
the  6th  century,  others  in  the  7th  or  8th.  It  may  be  regarded 
as  certain  that  St  Giles  was  buried  in  the  hermitage  which  be 
had  founded  in  a  spot  whidi  was  afterwards  the  town  of  St- 
Gilles  (diocese  of  NImes,  department  of  Card).  His  reputation 
for  sanctity  attracted  many  pilgrims.  Important  i^ts  were 
made  to  the  church  which  contained  his  body,  and  a  monastery 
grew  up  hard  by.  It  is  probable  that  the  Visigothic  princes  who 
were  in  possession  of  the  country  protected  and  enriched  this 
monastery,  and  that  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  at  tbe 
time  of  their  invasion  in  72X.  But  there  are  no  authentic  data 
before  the  9th  century  concerning  his  history.  In  808  Charle- 
magne took  the  abbey  of  St-Gilles  under  his  protection,  and 
it  b  mentioned  among  the  monasteries  from  which  only  i»ayers 
for  the  prince  and  the  state  were  due.  In  the  12th  century  the 
pilgrimages  to  St-Gilles  are  dted  as  among  the  most  cdebrated 
of  the  time.  The  cult  of  the  saint,  who  came  to  be  regarded  as 
the  special  patron  of  lepers,  beggars  and  cripples,  spread  very 
extensively  over  Europe,  espedally  in  England,  Scotland, 
France,  Belgiuni  and  Germany.  The  church  of  St  Giles, 
Cripplegate,  London,  was  built  about  xoqo,  while  the  hospital  for 
lepm  at  St  Giks>in-the-Fidds  (near  New  Oxford  Street)  was 


f. 


i8 


GILFILLAN— GILGAMESH 


founded  by  Queen  Matilda  in  1x17.  tn  England  alone  there 
are  about  150  churches  dedicated  to  this  saint.  In  Edinburgh 
the  church  of  St  Giles  could  boast  the  possession  of  an  arm-bone 
of  its  patron.  Representations  of  St  Giles  are  very  frequently 
net  with  in  early  French  and  German  art,  but  are  much  less 
common  in  Italy  and  Spain. 

See  Ada  Sanctorum  (September).  L  284-299:  Devk  and  Vaiasete, 
Histoire  tJbUraU  de  Languedoc,  pp.  514-5^3  (Toubuae.  1876): 
E.  Rembry,  Saint  GilUs,  savie,sts  rdi^ues,  son  cuUe  en  Belgique  et 
dans  U  nord  de  la  France  (Bruses,  1881):  F.  Amold-FofBter.  Studies 
in  Church  Dedications,  or  Eniland's  Patron  SainU,  ii.  46-51.  iti.  15. 
363-365  (1899);  A.  Jameson.  Saertd  and  Legendary  Art,  768-770 
T1896) :  A.  Bell.  Lives  and  Uiends  of  the  English  Bishops  and  Kings, 
Medieoal  Monks,  and  other  later  Saints,  pp.  61,  70,  74-78.  84.  i97 
(1904).  (H.  Db.) 

GILFILLAN,  GBOEGB  (1813-1878),  Scottish  author,  was 
bom  on  the  30th  of  January  1813,  at  Comrie,  Perthshire,  where 
his  father,  the  Rev.  Samuel  Gilfillan,  the  author  of  some  theo- 
logical works,  was  for  many  yean  minister  of  a  Secession  con- 
gregation. After  an  education  at  Glasgow  University,  in  March 
1836  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  a  Secession  congregation  in 
Dundee.  He  published  a  volume  of  his  discourses  in  1839, 
and  shortly  afterwards  another  sermon  on  "  Hades,"  which 
brought  him  under  the  scrutiny  of  his  co-presbyters,  and  was 
ultimately  withdrawn  from  circulation.  Gilfillan  next  contri- 
buted a  series  of  sketches  of  celebrated  contemporary  authors 
to  the  Dumfries  Herald ,  then  edited  by  Thomas  Aird;  and  these, 
withseveral  new  ones,  formed  his  first  Gallery  of  Literary  Portraits, 
which  appeared  in  1846,  and  had  a  wide  circulation.  It  was 
quickly  followed  by  a  Second  and  a  Third  Gallery.  In  1851  his 
most  successful  work,  the  Bards  of  the  BiUe,  appeared.  His 
aim  was  that  it  should  be  "  a  poem  on  the  Bible  ";  and  it  .was 
far  more  rhapsodical  than  critical.  Bis  Martyrs  and  Heroes  of 
the  Scottish  Covenant  appeared  in  1832,  and  in  1856  he  produced 
a  partly  autobiographical,  partly  fabulous,  History  of  a  Man. 
For  thirty  years  he  was  engaged  upon  a  long  poem,  on  Night, 
which  was  published  in  1867,  but  its  theme  was  too  vast,  vague 
and  unmanageable,  and  the  result  was  a  failure.  He.  also 
edited  an  edition  of  the  British  Poets.  As  a  lecturer  and  as  a 
preacher  he  drew  large  crowds,  but  his  literary  reputation  has 
not  proved  permanent.  He  died  on  the  X3th  of  August  1878. 
He  had  just  finished  a  new  life  of  Bums  designed  to  accompany 
a  new  edition  of  the  works  of  that  poet. 

GILGAL  (Heb.  for  "  drde  "  of  sacred  stones),  the  name  of 
several  places  in  Palestine,  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament. 
The  name  is  not  found  east  of  the  Jordan. 

X.  The  first  and  most  important  was  «tuated  "  in  the  east 
border  of  Jericho"  (Josh.  iv.  19),  on  the  border  between 
Judah  and  Benjamin  (Josh.  zv.  7).  Josephus  {Ant.  v.  x.  4) 
places  it  50  stadia  from  Jordan  and  xo  from  Jericho  (the 
New  Tesument  site).  Jerome  (Onomasticon,  s.v.  "  Galgal ") 
places  Gilgal  a  Roman  miles  from  Jericho,  and  tpeaka  of  it 
as  a  deserted  place  held  in  wonderful  veneration  {**  miro  cultu  " ) 
by  the  natives.  This  site,  which  in  the  middle  ages  appears  to 
have  been  lost— Gilgal  being  shown  farther  north — was  in 
x86s  recovered  by  a  German  traveller  (Hermann  Zschokke), 
and  fixed  by  the  English  survey  party,  though  not  beyond 
dispute.  It  is  about  2  m.  east  of  the  site  of  Byzantine 
Jericho,  and  x  m.  from  modern  er-Riha.  A  fine  tamarisk, 
traces  of  a  church  (which  is  mentioned  in  the  8th  century),  and 
a  large  reservoir,  now  filled  up  with  mud,  remain.  The  place  is 
called  JiljOlieh,  and  its  position  north  of  the  valley  of  Achor 
(Wadi  Kelt)  and  east  of  Jericho  agrees  well  with  (he  biblical 
indications  above  mentioned.  A  tradition  connected  with  the 
fall  of  Jericho  is  attached  to  the  site  (see  C.  R.  Conder,  Tent 
Worh,  203  ff.).  This  sanctuary  and  camp  of  Israel  held  a  high 
place  in  the  national  regard,  and  is  often  mentioned  in  Judges 
and  SamueL  But  whether  this  is  the  Gilgal  H>oken  of  by  Amos 
and  Hosea  in  connexion  with  Bethel  is  by  no  means  certain 
(see  (3)  below]. 

3.  Gilgal,  mentioned  in  Josh.  xii.  33  in  connexion  with  Dor, 
appears  to  have  been  situated  in  the  maritime  plain.  Jerome 
{Onomatticonf  s.v.  "  Gelgel ")  speaks  of  a  town  of  the  name 


6  Roman  miles  north  of  Antipatris  (Ras  el  *Ain).  This  is 
apparently  the  modem  Kalkilia,  but  about  4  m.  north  of  Anti- 
patris is  a  large  village  called  JiljOlieh,  which  is  more  probably 
the  biblical  town. 

3.  The  third  Gilgal  (a  Kings  iv.  38)  was  in  the  mountains 
(compare  x  Sam.  vii.  x6,  a  Kings  ii.  x-3)  near  Bethel.  Jerome 
mentions  this  place  also  {Onomasticonf  s.v.  "  Galgala ").  It 
appears  to  be  the  present  village  of  Jiljilia,  about  7  English 
miles  north  of  Beitin  (Bethel).  It  may  have  absorbed  the  old 
shrine  of  Shiloh  and  been  the  sanctuary  famous  in  the  days  of 
Amos  and  Hosea. 

4.  Dcut.  xi.  30  seems  to  imply  a  Gilgal  near  Gerizim,  and  there 
is  still  a  place  called  Juleijil  on  the  plain  of  Makhna,  2|  m.  S.  E. 
of  Shechem.  This  may  have  been  Amos's  Gilgal  and  was 
almost  certainly  that  of  x  Mace.  ix.  a. 

5.  The  Gilgal  described  in  Josh.  xv.  7  is  the  same  as  the 
Beth-Gilgal  of  Neh.  xii.  29;  its  site  is  not  known.  (R.  A.  S.  M.) 

GILpAMESH,  EPIC  OF,  the  title  given  to  one  of  the  most 
important  literary  products  of  Babylonia,  from  the  name  of  the 
chief  personage  in  the  series  of  tales  of  which  it  is  composed. 
-  Thotigh  the  Gilgamesh  Epic  is  known  to  us  chiefly  from  the 
fragments  found  in  the  royal  collection  of  tablets  made  by 
Assur-bani-pal,  the  king  of  Assyria  (668-626  B.C.)  for  his  palace 
at  Nineveh,  internal  evidence  points  to  the  high  antiquity  of  at 
least  some  portions  of  it,  and  the  discovery  of  a  fragment  of  the 
epic  in  the  older  form  of  the  Babylonian  script,  which  can  be 
dated  as  aooo  b.c,  confirms  this  view.  Equally  certain  is  a 
second  observation  of  a  general  character  that  the  epic  originating 
as  the  greater  portion  of  the  literature  in  Assur-bani-pal's  collec- 
tion in  Babylonia  is  a  composite  product,  that  is  to  say,  it  consists 
of  a  number  of  independent  stories  or  myths  originating  at 
different  times,  and  united  to  fonn  a  continuous  xuirrative  with 
Gilgamesh  as  the  central  figure.  This  view  naturally  raises  the 
question  whether  the  independent  stories  were  all  told  of 
Gilgamesh  or,  as  almost  always  happens  in  the  case  of  ancient 
tales,  were  transferred  to  Gilgamesh  as  a  favourite  popular 
hero.  Internal  evidence  again  comes  to  our  aid  to  lend  its 
weight  to  the  latter  theory. 

While  the  existence  of  such  a  personage  as  Gilgamesh  may 
be  admitted,  he  belongs  to  an  age  that  could  only  have  preserved 
a  dim  recollection  of  his  achievements  and  adventures  through 
oral  traditions.  The  name*  is  not  Babylonian,  and  what 
evidence  as  to  his  origin  there  is  points  to  his  having  come  from 
Elam,  to  the  east  of  Babylonia.  He  may  have  belonged  to  the 
people  known  as  the  Kassitcs  who  at  the  be^nning  of  the  x8th 
century  B.C.  entered  Babylonia  from  Elam,  and  obtained  control 
of  the  Euphrates  valley.  Why  and  how  he  came  to  be  a  popular 
hero  in  Babylonia  cannot  with  our  present  material  be  deter> 
mined,  but  the  epic  indicates  that  he  came  as  a  conqueror  and 
establ^ed  himself  at  Erech.  In  so  far  we  have  embodied  in 
the  first  part  of  the  epic  dim  recollections  of  actual  events,  but 
we  soon  leave  the  solid  ground  of  fact  and  find  ourselves  soaring 
to  the  heights  of  genuine  myth.  Gilgamesh  becomes  a  god,  and 
in  certain  portions  of  the  epic  clearly  plays  the  part  of  the  sun- 
god  of  the  spring-time,  taking  the  place  apparently  of  Tammux 
or  Adonis,  the  youthful  sun-god,  though  the  story  shows  traits 
that  differentiate  it  from  the  ordinary  Tammuz  myths.  A 
separate  stratum  in  the  Gilgamesh  epic  is  formed  by  the  story  of 
Eabani — introduced  as  the  friend  of  Gilgamesh,  who  joins  him 
in  his  adventures.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Eabani,  who 
83rmbolizes  primeval  man,  was  a  figure  originally  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  Gilgamesh,  but  his  story  was  inoirporatcd  into  the 
epic  by  that  natural  process  to  be  observed  in  the  national  epics 
of  other  peoples,  which  tends  to  connect  the  favourite  hero  with 
all  kinds  of  tales  that  for  one  reason  or  the  other  become  em- 
bedded in  the  popular  mind.  Another  stratum  is  represented 
by  the  story  of  a  favourite  of  the  gods  known  as  Ut-Napishtim, 
who  is  saved  from  a  destractive  storm  and  flood  that  destroys 

>  The  name  of  the  hero,  written  alwavt  ideographically,  was  for  a 
lonff  time  provisionally  read  ladubar;  but  a  tablet  discovered  by 
T.  G.  Pinches  Kave  the  equivalent  Giliomesh  (see  Jaatrow,  RgUgton  0/ 
Babylonia  and  Assyria,  p.  468)^ 


GILGIT 


19 


bis  feUotr-dtizens  of  Shurippak.  Gilgamesh  is  artificially 
brought  into  contact  with  Ut-Napishtim,  to  whom  he  pays  a 
visit  for  the  purpose  of  learning  the  secret  of  immortal  Ufe  and 
perpetual  youth  which  he  enjoys.  During  the  visit  Ut-Napishtim 
tdls  Gilgamesh  the  story  of  the  flood  and  of  his  miraculous 
escape.  Nature  myths  have  been  entwined  with  other  episode^ 
in  the  epic  and  fiiudly  the  theologians  took  up  the  combined 
stories  and  made  them  the  medium  for  illustrating  the  truth 
and  force  of  certain  doctrines  of  the  Babylonian  religion.  In 
its  final  form,  the  outcome  of  an  extended  and  complicated 
literary  process,  the  Gilgamesh  Epic  covered  twelve  tablets, 
each  tablet  devoted  to  one  adventure  in  which  the  hero  plays 
a  direct  or  indirect  part,  and  the  whole  covering  according  to  the 
most  plausible  estimate  about  3000  lines.  Of  all  twelve  tablets 
portions  have  been  found  among  the  remains  of  Assur-bani-pal's 
Ebrary,  but  some  of  the  tablets  are  so  incomplete  as  to  leave 
even  thetr  general  contents  in  some  doubt.  Tlie  fragments  do 
sot  aO  bdcog  to  one  copyl  Of  some  tablets  portions  of  two, 
and  of  some  taUets  portions  of  as  many  as  four,  copies  have 
toracd  up,  pointing  therefore  to  the  great  popularity  of  the 
prodnction.  The  best  preserved  are  Tablets  VI.  and  XI.,  and 
d  the  total  about  1500  lines  are  now  known,  wholly  or  in  part, 
v^iile  of  those  partially  preserved  quite  a  number  can  be  restored. 
A.brie{  summary  of  the  contents  of  the  twelve  may  be  indicated 
as  follows: 

In  the  xst  tablet,  after  a  general  survey  of  the  adventures  of 
Gilgamesh,  his  rule  at  Erech  is  described,  where  he  enlists  the 
services  of  all  the  young  able-bodied  men  in  the  building  of  the 
peat  wall  of  the  city.  The  people  sigh  under  the  burden  im- 
posed, and  call  upon  the  goddess  Aruru  to  create  a  being  who 
migbt  act  as  a  rival  to  Gilgamesh,  curb  his  strength,  and  dispute 
his  tyrannous  controL  The  goddess  consents,  and  creates 
Eabani,  who  is  described  as  a  wild  man,  living  with  the  gazelles 
and  the  beasts  of  the  field.  Eabani,  whose  name^  si^iifying 
"  Ea  creates,"  points  to  tl^e  tradition  which  made  £a  {q.v.)  the 
creator  of  humanity,  symbolizes  primeval  man.  Through  a 
Innter,  Eabani  and  Gilgamesh  are  brought  together,  but 
iiatead  of  becoming  rivals,  they  are  joined  in  friendship.  Eabani 
is  induced  by  the  snares  ctf  a  maiden  to  abandon  his  life  with  the 
animab  and  to  proceed  to  Erech,  where  GOgamesh,  who  has 
been  told  in  several  dreams  of  the  coming  of  Eabani,  awaits  him. 
Together  they  proceed  upon  several  adventures,  which  are 
related  in  the  foUowing  four  tablets.  At  first,  indeed,  Eabani 
cnnes  the  fate  which  led  him  away  fh>m  his  former  life,  and 
Gi^amesh  is  represented  as  bewailing  Eabani's  dissat^action. 
The  sun-god  Shamash  calls  upon  Eabani  to  remain  with  Gilga- 
nesh,  who  pays  him  all  honours  in  his  palace  at  Erech.  With 
tbe  deciskm  -oi  the  two  friends  to  proceed  to  the  forest  of  cedars 
in  which  the  goddess  Iraina — a  form  of  Ishtar — dwells,  and 
yrhkh  is  guarded  by  Khumbaba,  the  :ind  tablet  ends.  In  the 
3rd  tabl^,  very  imperfectly  preserved,  Gilgamesh  appeals 
through  a  Siataiash  priestess  Rimat-Belit  to  the  sun-god  Shamash 
for  his  aid  in  the  proposed  undertaking.  The  4th  tablet  contains 
a  descripticm  of  the  formidable  Khumbaba,  the  guardian  of 
the  cedar  forest.  In  the  5th  tablet  Gilgamesh  and  Eabani  reach 
t!w  foresL  Encouraged  by  dreams,  they  proceed  against 
Urambaha,  and  de^Mtch  him  near  a  specially  high  cedar  over 
«  hich  be  hdd  guard.  This  adventure  against  Khimibaba  belongs 
to  the  Eabani  stratum  of  the  que,  into  which  Gilgamesh  is 
vt  ifidaBy  introduced.  The  basis  of  the  6th  tablet  is  the  familiar 
'^ture-myth  of  the  diange  of  seasons,  in  which  Gilgamesh 
puys  the  part  of  the  youthful  solar  god  of  the  springtime,  who 
a  wooed  by  the  goddess  of  fertility,  Ishtar.  Gilgamesh,  recalling 
to  'M  goddess  the  sad  fate  of  those  who  fall  a  victim  to  her 
chinas,  rejects  the  offer.  In  the  course  of  his  recital  snatches 
d  other  myths  are  referred  to,  including  he  famous  Tammuz- 
Aioius  tale,  in  which  Tammuz,  the  youthful  bridegroom,  is 
daia  by  his  consort  Ishtar.  The  goddess,  enraged  at  the  insult, 
oks  ber  father  Anu  to  avenge  her.  A  divine  bull  is  sent  to  wage 
2  n?ntest  against  Gilgamesh,  who  is  assisted  by  his  friend  Eabani. 
This  scene  of  the  fi^t  with  the  bull  is  often  depicted  on  seal 
CT^aden.    The  two  friends  by  their  united  force  succeed  in 


killing  the  bull,  and  then  after  performing  certain  votive  and 
purification  rites  return  to  Erech,  where  they  are  hailed  with  joy 
In  this  adventure  it  is  clearly  Eabani  who  is  artificially  intro- 
duced in  order  to  maintain  the  association  with  Gilgamesh. 
The  7th  tablet  continues  the  Eabani  stratum.  The  hero  is 
smitten  with  sore  disease,  but  the  fragmentary  condition  of 
this  and  the  succeeding  tablet  is  such  as  to  envelop  in  doubt  the 
accompanying  circumstances,  including  the  cause  and  nature 
of  his  disease.  The  8th  tablet  record  the  death  oi  Eabani. 
The  Qth  and  xoth  tablets,  exdtisively  devoted  to  Gilgamesh, 
describe  his  wanderings  in  quest  of  Ut-Napishtim,  from  whom 
he  hopes  to  learn  how  he  may  escape  the  fate  that  has  overtaken 
his  friend  Eabani.  He  goes  through  motmtain  passes  and 
encounters  lions.  At  the  entrance  to  the  mountain  Mashu, 
scorpion-men  stand  guard,  from  one  of  whom  he  receives  advice 
as  to  how  to  pass  through  the  Mashu  district.  He  succeeds  in 
doing  so,  and  finds  himself  in  a  wonderful  park,  which  lies  along 
the  sea  coast.  In  the  loth  tablet  the  goddess  Sabitu,  who,  as 
guardian  of  the  sea,  first  bolts  her  gate  against  Gilgamesh,  after 
learning  of  his  quest,  helps  him  to  pass  in  a  ship  across  the  sea 
to  the  "waters  of  death."  The  ferry-man  of  Ut-Napishtim 
brings  him  safely  through  these  waters,  despite  the  difficulties 
and  dangers  of  the  voyage,  and  at  last  the  hero  finds  himself 
face  to  face  with  Ut-Napishtim.  In  the  i  ith  tablet,  Ut-Napish- 
tlm  tells  the  famous  story  of  the  Babylonian  flood,  which  is 
so  patently  attached  to  Gilgamesh  in  a  most  artifidal  manner. 
Ut-Napishtim  and  his  wife  are  anxious  to  help  Gilgamesh  to  new 
life.  He  is  sent  to  a  place  where  he  washes  himself  clean  from 
impurity.  He  is  told  of  a  weed  which  restores  youth  to  the  one 
grown  old.  Scarcely  has  he  obtained  the  weed  when  it  is  snatched 
away  from  him,  and  the  tablet  closes  somewhat  obscurely  with 
the  prediction  of  the  destruction  of  Erech.  In  the  X2th  tablet 
Gilgamesh  succeeds  in  obtaining  a  view  of  Eabani's  shade,  and 
learns  through  him  of  the  sad  fate  endured  by  the  dead.  With 
this  description,  in  which  care  of  the  dead  is  inculcated  as  the 
only  means  of  making  their  existence  in  Aralu,  where  the  dead 
are  gathered,  bearable,  the  epic,  so  far  as  we  have  it,  closes. 

The  reason  why  the  flood  episode  and  the  interview  with  the 
dead  Eabani  are  introduced  is  quite  clear.  Both  are  intended 
as  illustrations  of  doctrines  taught  in  the  schools  of  Babylonia; 
the  former  to  explain  that  only  the  favourites  of  the  gods  can 
hope  under  exceptional  circumstances  to  enjoy  life  everlasting; 
the  latter  to  emphasize  the  impossibility  for  ordinary  mortals 
to  escape  from  the  inactive  shadowy  existence  led  by  the  dead, 
andlo  inculcate  the  dutyof  proper  care  for  the  dead.  That  the 
astro-theological  system  is  also  introduced  into  the  epic  is  dear 
from  the  division  into  twelve  tablets,  which  correspond  to  the 
yearly  course  of  the  stm,  while  throughout  there  are  mdications 
that  all  the  adventures  of  Gilgamesh  and  Eabani,  induding 
those  which  have  an  historical  backgroujid,  have  been  submitted 
to  the  influence  of  this  system  and  projected  on  to  the  heavens. 
This  mterpretation  of  the  popular  tales,  according  to  which  the 
career  of  the  hero  can  be  followed  in  its  entirety  and  in  detail 
in  the  movements  in  the  heavens,  in  time,  with  the  growing 
predominance  of  the  astral-mythological  system,  overshadowed 
the  other  factors  involved,  and  it  is  in  this  form,  as  an  astral 
myth,  that  it  passes  through  the  ancient  world  and  leaves  its 
traces  in  the  folk-tales  and  myths  of  Hebrews,  Phoenidans, 
Syrians,  Greeks  and  Romans  throughout  Asia  Minor  and  even 
in  India. 

Bibliography.— The  complete  edition  of  the  GOgamesh  Epic  by 
Paul  Haupt  under  the  title  Das  bab^cnische  Nimrodepos  (Leipzig, 
I884>i89i),  with  the  12th  tablet  in  the  Beitrdge  sur  Assyridogte, 
i.  48-79;  German  transUtion  by  Peter  Jensen  in  vof.  vi.  of 
Schrader'B  KeUinsckrifUiehe  Bibliothek  (Berlin,  1900),  pp.  116-373. 
See  also  the  same  author's  comprehensive  work,  Das  Gilgamtsck' 
Epos  in  der  WelUiteratur  (vol.  i.  1906,  vol.  iL  to  follow). '  An 
English  translation  of  the  chief  portions  in  Jastrow,  Rdigion  0/ 
BaSyUmia  and  Assyria  (Boston,  1898),  ch.  xxiiL  (M.  Ja.) 

OIUIIT,  an  outlying  province  in  the  extreme  north-west  of 
India,  over  which  Ka^mir  has  reasserted  her  sovereignty. 
Only  a  part  of  the  basin  of  the  river  Gilgit  is  included  within 
its  political  boundaries.    There  is  an  intervening  width  of 


20  OIL 

naunlalDamrounuy,  repraentalcliicdy  hy  tfuim  ud  kc-Gddi, 

vid  inteiKCIBd  by  euttow  sterile  viUeya,  me«BuriDg  some  ido  ta 
ijs  m.  in  widlh.  to  Ifae  Doitli  uid  norlh-eul,  wtiicb  leputei 
the  piovmce  of  Gilgtl  from  tbe  Chinese  fiontier  beyond  the 
Muitagb  ud  K^nJEOrun,  This  put  of  tbe  Kashmir  borderiuid 
tedudcs  Kunjut  (or  Uunu)  ud  Lidikh.  To  the  oorlfa-wcsl, 
beyood  tbe  aoiuces  of  the  Yuin  and  daar  in  tbe  Shindur 
mogc  (Ibe  two  moil  westerly  thbatuies  of  the  Cil^il  river) 
b  the  deep  viDey  of  the  Yirkhun  or  ChitnL  Since  the  tormatioB 
of  tbe  Noith- West  FionUei  Province  in  1901,  the  political  cbaige 
at  Cbilul,  Dir  ind  Swat,  which  wBi  formeily  included  within 
tbe  Cilgit  sgeney.his  been  tnnsferred  to  Ihe  chief  com  cnii^DDer 
of  ibe  new  province,  with  his  capital  it  Peshiwu.  Gilgit  proper 
DOW  forms  a  vwrai  of  Ihe  Kisbmir  state,  sdmiDistered  by  a 
MBtr.  Cilgit  i>  also  Ifae  beadquarten  of  a  British  pohticd 
a^ent,  who  eirerdKs  some  supervision  over  the  weiir,  and  is 
directly  tesponsible  to  the  govemnient  of  India  for  the  admuiis- 
tration  of  the  outlying  districts  or  petty  stales  ol  Hunia,  Nigai, 
Ashkuman,  Yasin  ud  Ghiiar,  the  little  republic  of  Chilas,  &c, 
lliese  states  acknowledge  tbe  auKiajnty  of  Kosbmir,  paying  an 
annual  tribute  in  gold  or  gnin,  Init  they  form  no  put  of  its 


usually  daucd  logelber  UDdct  the  name  D*nL  The 
however,  is  unkDOWD  beyond  tbe  limits  of  tbe  Kobistan  district 
ol  the  Indus  valley  10  the  south  of  tbe  Hindu  Koh,  tbe  rest  of 
tbe  Inhabitanu  of  tbe  Indus  valley  belonging  to  Shin  npublics. 
ot  Chilas.  Tbe  great  mass  of  the  Chitial  population  are  Kho 
(•peaking  Kbowar),  and  they  may  be  aocpted  as  icprtsenling 
tbe  aboriginal  popululian  of  tbe  Chitral  valley.  (See  KlHDU 
KlISH.)  Between  ChiLral  and  the  Indus  the  "  Dards "  ol 
Daidistan  ate  chiefly  Yesbkuns  and  Shins,  and  it  would  appeal 
from  tbe  proportions  in-wbich  these  people  occupy  tfie  countiy 
that  they  must  have  primarily  moved  up  from  the  valley  of  Ibe 
Indus  in  successive  waves  of  conquest,  fiist  tbe  Yeihkuns,  and 
then  ihe  Siins.  Xo  one  cu  put  a.  date  to  tbeM  invulons,  but 
Biddulph  is  inclined  to  class  the  Yeshkunt  with  the  Yuecbi 
who  conquered  Ibe  Baaiian  kingdom  about  no  b^  Tbe 
Shins  are  obviously  a  Hindu  race  (as  is  testified  by  their 
veneration  for  the  cow)^  who  spread  themselves  northwards 
and  eastwards  t»  far.  as  Baltistan,  where  they  coUided  with  tbe 
aboriginal  Tatar  oi  the  Asiatic  highUnds.  But  the  ethnogiapby 
of  "  Dudiitan,"  or  Ibe  Cilgit  agency  (for  tbe  two  are,  roughly 
qieaking,  synonymous),  requires  further  invettigalion,  and  it 
would  be  premature  to  atlempl  10  frame  anything  like  an  ethno- 
graphical history  of  these  regions  until  tbe  neighbouring  pro- 
vinces of  Tangir  and  Dare]  have  been  more  fully  examined.  The 
■Hioriil  ol  Gilgit  contains  a  population  (1901)  of  60,885,  all 
Mabommedans,  mostly  ol  tbe  Sbiab  sect,  but  not  fanatical. 
Tbe  dominant  race  is  that  of  tbe  Shins,  whose  language  is  uni- 
versally spoken.  This  is  one  ol  tbe  so-called  Pisacha  languages, 
between  tbe  Iranian  and 


In  general  appearance  and  dn 
aiending  tbtough  these  nonl 
Thick  felt  coats  teaching  belo 


being  the  felt  cap  w 
edges.  Tb^  are  o 
people,  ■       ■■  ■ 


a  oU  the  moimtain-bred  peopir 
an  districts  are  very  simila. 

a  of  English  make)  are 


tinguishing  ft 


e  in 


ofc  a  Ugbt-hcarted,  cheerful  race  of 
rved  that  their  icwperament  varies 
their  halHlat— those  wbo  live  00  the  ihadoved  sides 
ol  mountains  being  distinctly  more  morose  and  more  serious  in 
disposition  than  the  dwellers  in  valleys  whicfa  catch  the  irinter 
aunlight.  They  are,  at  the  same  time,  bloodthinty  and  treacher- 
ous to  a  degree  which  would  appear  Incredible  to  a  casual 
observer  of  their  happy  and  genial  maimers,  exhibiting  a  It 
comlunation  (as  has  been  otoerved  by  a  cartful  student  ol 
ways)  of  "the  monkey  and  the  tiger,"    Addicted  to  sp< 

tml  ibcy  are  euxUent  ■grlcolliuists,  and  show  great  ingenuity 


in  their  local  In^gation  works  and  In  their  eSoitt  to  bring  tmf 
available  acre  of  cultivable  soil  within  the  irrigated  area.  Cold 
washing  is  more  or  Itia  carried  on  b  most  of  tbe  valleys  north  of 
the  river  Gilgit,  and  gold  dust  (contained  In  aman  packeu 
formed  with  the  petals  of  a  cup-shaped  flower)  Is  an  invaxiabla 
Item  in  their  officdal  prcsenu  and  oBeringi.  Cold  duM  still 
constitutes  part  of  tbe  annual  tribute  which,  strangdy  fitAtlflh, 
is  paid  by  Hunsa  to  China,  as  well  as  In  Kashmir. 


ffeiilei  in  lie  Ctlfiil  Ainej. 
through  this  country  is  uat  hi 
valley  with  Gilnt.  pan ' 


whitbet 


itbeShaadurtangeai^nt.  Itncn 
Gilgit  and  Chitral,  awTtiM  bHi 


I  On  Cbitnl 


le  Dotthwatds.     (1)  The  Yi 

tmrse  from  north  to  south  (or  about  40  n.  from  the 

H  the  Shandur  range  USAOO)  to  its 

dav  to  the  little  Ion  of  Cupii,  on  tbe 

■■-■-  -allEyU cultivated  and  otremely 

a  grand  group  of  glacien,  one 

town  pui  of  Darlioi,     (1)  15 

helnw  Cupi)  ibe  Clint  tecetvea  the 
-  —     T&  little  Lalei^" 


n.  is  Dcariy  twice  the 

"  risencDDiUBod 

Lin  and  daRculI. 

.... Jon.  and   nearly 

r  Gilpl,  Idc  tii ,  r  I     .  ive.  certiin  further 

■  ^-    These  buini  include  a  >'.         .of  slacien  of  such 

'iioTlions  that  they  are  p^Jbab]^'  '.  .  ivaUed  in  any  pact 

ThegtacialhcadofilieHun.'     .  »t  far  from  thai  of 

i.tr,  and,  lila  the  Karumban  ih<:  ii  <  -  comineiicefl  with  a 

Wf.  ],  L.idiward9,fDlla4[ngaGOUrKi'jiL..'  '-  parallel  10  the  creat 

t"    ■    ..'■.'    P  ■"...",..  ':    .'',.v'."  i"aniwo?^lm 

an  pper  folda  oTnoun- 

again  to  the  *em  Eur  jq  m.,  beforr  a  final  change  of  dirtclioa  to  the 
■ouih  It  Ihe  hittoricai  pobiion  of  Chali  and  a  comparatively  straight 
run  of  IS  tn.  10  a  junciion  with  the  Cilgil.    The  valley  of  HunnTica 

ma)  fn^'  C™t.    iK'cl.  has  b^  wriiteu  of 'ie  magSkce^™ 

cultivation  adds  ID  thoe  mountain  valLcya;  but  v^ch  Kenery  muct 
Ik  regarded  ai  excepcJoaal  in  thcae  oorthern  regiona. 

Oatiiri  and  ifnpUafiu.— Coaway  and  Godwin  Austen  haw 
deaeribed  the  glaciera  of  Nogar  which,  endosed  betaeen  the  Munagh 
■pun  on  the  nonb-tast  andtbe  Irontler  peakaof  Kashmir  (nmioat- 
ing  with  Rakapuslii)  on  the  south-west,  and  nasdng  tbenuelvea  in 
an  almost  unintemipted  series  from  Ihe  Kunia  valley  to  tbe  base  of 
thoee  gigantic  peoka  which  stand  about  Mount  Godwin  AuKea, 
■erin  to  be  wl  like  an  ice-ica  to  deline  the  fartbeil  bounds  of  Ibe 
HLi.i  il  1.  J.  From  ilt  uttermoal  head  to  the  fool  of  Ihe  HiiiiBr, 
ov     .  he  valley  above  Nagar,  the  length  of  the  gjaeia'  ice- 

Tl  r        ■  I  'le  mountain  region  of  Kanjut  (or  Hunia)  and  Nagar 

th  e  deeply  sunk  between  nountain  ranges,  which  are 

at  It.     Aa  a  rule,  fhwe  valleys  are  bare  of  vegetation. 

W  .           ' -imiliof  iheloftierrangesarenDt buriedberieathsnow 

an    Tbire.blEikandiplintered,aiid  Ihenakedneaoilhe 

ro-  ■    ^tendi  down  their  rugged  apuia  to  tbe  very  base  of 


yearly  inellinE  of  the  11 


■fields,  or 


;<  i-acd  together,  till  the  pressure  of  accuinulaliiM  forT:ca 

pliins.  This  (ormstion  Is  especially  marked  througbaut 
>  ]  valleys  of  the  Gilgit  lutin. 

[  ich  of  these  northern  affluents  of  Ihe  main  itrFam  la 
-J  L^<*.  or  a  group  of  passes,  leading  cither  to  the  Pamir 

r.  or  inio  the  upper  Yarkhun  valley  Iron  which  a  Pumir 

l''-i.  The  Vasin  valley  is  headed  by  Ihe  E>ark0(  pasa 
I,  It  hicb  drops  into  the  Vaikhun  not  far  from  the  foot  of 


GILL,  J.— GILL 

Oi  Bmdul  innp  am  tbc  mtn  Hindu  Kuih  nL«nh«d.  Ttw 
AiUhibui  ■•  EsdKl  by  the  Giui  ind  Kon  Botact  cuKt,  leadini 
■yaliiK  Ab-i-Punja:  ind  the  Hunu  by  [he  Kilik  u3 
■diin  link!  b«w«D  tbc  TiiMtimbuli  Pimir 


21 


Mookk,  Ibe  caaMdiin  linki  b«w«D  tbc  Tiihatimbuh 

ind  [kcCOfil  buin.    Tbey  aniUabmuibeiainebri^l— tj,i 

AM  in  patHbk  ftt  certain  lima  of  dK  year  ta  ■mall  pvtia.  and  lU 
iR  ■acctlua.  In  no  cue  do  Atf  pmcnl  iuupenble  diHculiiB 
if  Ibcmrivco,  ibcien  uid  eiiov^chk  and  inotmtun  kUlnaiH 
bedH  covmoa  to  iQ;  but  the  foffn  And  pncipicea  which  diitln- 
rut  the  appraocko  lo  Ikcm  (ron  the  loutb.  the  il^wery  rida  of 
tMvintipunwhaKfcManvaebKlbyi^inttonnti.tbc  perpetui 

muLuplyiBy  itt  (nifint  inddnilcly — line  lonn  tin  nal  obaucla 

COrii  Sltlim, — The  tieuy  BllleBaliDd  of  Cildl  [4toori.ibove  ■<) 
ifRidi  itiett  ii  Icmcea  above  the  ri(hE  banE  et  tM  riw  nearly 
opUHce  Ike  oficBiiic  leadina  to  Huoia.  aJnoac  ncvtDiw  ur-""  '"^^ 
cUiof  the  HmdaRoh.  winch  •epanln  it  on  Ibe  nutti  (i 
laiuc  oHMntiiD  wiUerneee  ol  Dmnl  and  KohBUiL  It  i 
1  Rvdencr  lor  thr  Britiik  poliiical  officer,  with  about  half 

buuEon  si  KBikmir  Imoph  and  a  hoipiul.     Evideoca  o(  BuddbiH 
ocnipalim  an  not  wanting  in  Cilfit.  Ikcwfh  they  an  few  '     ' 
Bapcwtant.     Sucb  ai  tkcy  an,  (hey  appear  to  prove  tha 

aril  ajid  the  Pnhawir  plain  paned  throufli  (be  ih^ci  «j 
(be  aDenilond  Datd  valley  lo  Thakol  ander  the  nonhe 
the  BtodTHountain. 
CtmMnim  wilk  /adia.— The  Cilail  river  jolni  the  Indu 


SK 


CdcitBadlkcpUnaoflhePui 


.    The  vitl^  u  low  and  hot.  a 


rwdl7iiDn 
if  the  pHojab 


<taCi 


AMor,  -I.T.  h 


iiBofded 


ifdedbytb 
lUinvolvei 


art .,.., 

■  a  cUv  nmle  l> 
Like  the  Kaahmixi 


■      ■  Klependent  lerrilofy  (In- 

^ir  paia  to  Chilat.  renden 

w  dehoed  by  a  good  military 
HiJ^y.—Tit  Dttit  are  localed  by  Ptoleiny  with  lurpriaing 
imnty  {Daradac)  on  ibe  welt  ol  Ihe  Upper  Isdui,  beyond  t[ 
held-  waltci  of  the  Swat  river  (Smulii/I,  and  north  of  ihc  Gandari 
ii.  the  CiuHlhaiii.  who  occupied  Pnhawar  and  Ihe  cvuntry  non 
ef  it-  Tlie  Dvdat  and  C/dmai  also  appear  in  many  of  Ihe  o 
Paaraiuc  liala  of  peoples,  the  latter  probably  reprt^entitig  the 
Hia  branch  of  the  Danb-  Thii  region  waa  Iravened  by  twc 
"*  '  "    '  ns  (rf  the  early 


klttB 


I.  Fabia 


Dortb, 


>,  and  UtUan  Tung,  a>cendin( 
hiut  aaya:  "  Peiiknu  were  the  roadi,  ai>d  dark  the  (disci, 
Soanima  the  pilfrim  bad  to  pan  by  looae  (oidj,  umelimes  by 
tifht  atfvlcbcd  inn  chaina-  Here  there  were  tedgea  banging  in 
Bud-air;  Ibcn  flyint  biidEca  aciw  abyiici;  ebcwheie  paiht 
CM  ariih  the  dAd,  ai  fooiiogt  to  climb  by."  Yet  even  in 
■  'f  regkuu  HUB  found  great  cooveoti,  and 
a  of  Buddha.  How  old  the  name  of  Gil[il 
niting)  ol  Ihe  great 


I    al-Biru 


1    hii    I 


I   of    Ind 


.  -  .  . '  Spoking  of  Kashmir,  he  layi:  "  Leaving  the 
nviae  by  which  you  enter  Kaahtnit  and  entering  Ihe  plateau, 
thea  yoB  have  Ibr  a  nurth  of  two  more  dayi  on  youi  left  the 
ttovacaiaa  ol  Bokv  and  Shamilan,  Turkith  tribes  who  ai« 
oBnl  gtofawyw.  Thifc  hing  has  the  title  Bhaita-Shah. 
Their  UWM  are  GUpi,  Aswin  and  ShDtaih,  and  their  language 
■  the  Tnkleb.  Xaslmiir  auflen  much  from  tbdr  innads  " 
CTrv  SKhau,  L  107).  There  an  difficult  raalten  tor  diacuWDO 
Wre.  It  is  irapoatible  to  uy  what  gmtnd  the  writer  had  for 
oSiag  the  people  Tarkt.  But  It  is  cutkni*  that  the  Skiia  aay 
Ikry  are  all  of  the  lame  race  as  Ihe  Uoful)  of  India,  whatever 
Iky  may  mean  by  that.  GOgit,  as  far  back  ai  tiadilicin  goes, 
waii^bynjasofafainilycalledTtakane.  When  ibia  family 
kec*Ba  otiBCt  the  valley  was  desolated  by  sucseMive  invasloBs 


of  neighbouring  nju,  and  In  the  M  et  jo  yean  ending  with  ilft 
there  bad  been  five  dynaitic  revotutioni.  He  maai  promineni 
character  in  the  history  wai  a  cenain  Giut  Rahman  or  Caubir 
Aman,  chief  of  yasin,  a  cruel  asvage  and  man-idler,  of  whom 
many  eva  deeds  are  told.  Being  remonstrated  with  lor  aellilig 
a  iH0a.t.  he  said,  "  Why  not  1  The  Koran,  the  word  of  CM.  ii 
■oM;  why  not  sell  Ibe  eipoundei  tbcrcol  ?"  The  Sikhaentered 
Cilgit  about  i34i.  and  kept  a  garrison  there.  Wbco  Eashuii 
was  made  over  to  Maharaja  Culatr  Singh  of  Junmu  in  1146, 
by  Lord  Hardiuge,  the  Gilgit  claims  were  transferred  with  it. 
And  when  a  commliaion  was  sent  to  lay  down  boundaries  of  the 
tracu  made  over,  Mr  Vans  Agnew  (afterward*  murdered  at 
Multan)  and  Lieut.  Ralph  Young  of  Ibc  Engineer!  visiled  Cilgit, 
the  first  Englishmen  who  did  so.  The  Dogras  (Gulab  Singh') 
lace)  had  much  ado  to  hold  their  ground,  Ind  in  tSs>  a  cata- 
strophe occurred,  parallel  on  a  smaller  scale  to  Ibal  of  the  English 
(coops  at  Kabul.  Nearly  looD  men  of  theirs  were  encrminaled 
by  Giur  Rabnua  and  a  combination  of  the  Dsrdi;  only  one 
peison,  a  soldier's  wife,  escaped,  and  the  Dogras  were  driven 
away  for  eight  years.  Gulab  Singh  would  not  agsin  cross  the 
Indus,  but  adei  his  deaLb  (in  1857)  Maharaja  Ranbir  Singh 
longed  to  recover  lost  prestige.  In  186a  he  lent  a  force  into 
Gilgit,  Gaur  Rahman  Just  then  died,  snd  (hen  was  Utile  re- 
sistance. The  Dogras  after  that  took  Yasin  twice,  but  dtd  not 
hold  it.  They  also,  in  iM«,  Invaded  Duel,  one  of  the  mou 
sccJuded  Dsrd  states,  to  the  toutb  of  the  Cil^t  basin,  but  witb- 
dicw  again.  In  iggig,  In  order  to  guard  against  the  advance  of 
Runia,  the  British  govenmient,  acting  as  the  suserain  power  ol 
Kaitamir,  esUblished  the  Gilgit  acracy;  b  1901,00  the  focma- 
tioa  of  the  North-We>t  Frontier  provinci,  the  rearnngEiiient 
wai  made  as  stated  above. 
AmBoaiTiD.— Kddulph.  n.  Tribti  tfUHHiiiJ^  Kail  (Calcott*. 


;)iT«« 


iS4(|  Durand,  Un 
Pamin   and  ^jl 


ent  Knowledge  of  the  Himalaya.  Prac.  R.G.S.  voL  liiL, 
■nd,  MaUf  a  frnlitr  (London,  1S99);  "*!*»  * 
Uunm  ICAuttt.  iMft):  t  F.  Knight,  IVkm  TluZ 
«l  (London,  i»9i)!  F.  Tounjliurtond,^' journeys  in  tha 


7(6  1 


-.-:Tc"s.v'r 

r,  t.C.S.  vol.  viiL,  1896:  Leitnir,  DariiiUt 

CT-  H.  H.*J 
-irji),   English   NonconformlM   divfne, 
g,  Northamptonshire.     Mis  parenu  were 
slucitian  chiefly  to  his  own  pctieverancft 
:  was  baptised  and  began  to  preach  at 

*■--■--  tinta  If-  -  -•-  ■      • 


(1877). 
Qim  JOHR   (] 

poor  and  be  owed 

In  No       ■ 

Wig""' 

when  he  became  pastor  of  the  Baptist  congregation  i 

down  in  Soulhwark.    Then  be  continued  till  17J7 

removed  to  a  chapel  near  London  Bridge.     From  17 

he  was  Wednesday  evening  lecturer  in  Great  Eastcbeaf 

i  ^^jj  iji^  degree  ol  D.D.  from  the  university  of  AI 

I  at  Camberwelt  on  the  14th  of  October  17^1.     Gill  wss 
Hebrew  scholar,  and  in  hii  theology  a  sturdy  Calvinisl. 

i74fr->7»j,  in 


'ExfVTUUH   I 


fSS.:     T. 
aidy  a/  j 


ki  mss. 


n,  which  tiaj  also  appeand  leparately. 

L.  (0  One  of  the  brancliiat  which  form  Ihe  breathing 
. .  Itus  of  fisha  and  other  animals  that  live  in  the  wuet. 
The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  traHdiiat  ol  some  kinds  of  worn 
snd  arachnids,  and  by  Innsfennce  10  objects  resembling  the 
bmndnat  at  fi^ies.  such  as  the  wattles  of  a  fowl,  or  the  radiating 
films  on  the  under  side  of  fungi.  The  word  is  of  obscure  origin. 
Danish  has  ffddJt,  and  Swedish  gU  with  the  tame  meaning. 

wt  which  aroean  in"  yawn," '■  chasm."  has  betn  (Uggotted. 


s  "  gUi," 


ten  vvDcd  "  ^yll,"  meaning  a  glen  or 

iribem  English  dlatecu  and  also  bi  Kent  and  Surrey.     The  g 
in  both  these  words  is  hard.     (1)  AUquldmeasureuiually  holding 


22 

onc-lounb  of  a  pint  Ttie  word  aHna  through  the  O.  Fr.  {<a>, 
Itoin  Low  Lit.  leile  or  (iUs,  i  mcuurc  lor  wine.  It  a  thus  can- 
neclcd  with  "  gilton."  Thcf  iiult,  (s)  An  ibbreviilioD  of  ihe 
kniinine  nime  Gillian,  alaa  often  tpelkd  Jill,  u  11  bpronouiKMl. 
Like  Jack  [or  a  boy,  wilh  which  li  ii  ollen  coupled,  *>  in  the 


GILLES  DE  ROYE— GILLIE 


y  rhyme,  ft  ii  used 
GILLES  DE  ROTE,  c 

CiMercian' monk.     He 
Faria  and  abbot  of  Ihe 


<E  Rova  (rl.  M;g),  Flcmi 


tbably  i 
innutcty  of  RDyaum 


ig  about  145S  10  the  co 


at  of  Noti 


■role  Ihe  CireaicoH  Dunaut  or  Amiala  Bdfiti, 

141B),  which  dcali  with  the  hiitory  of  Flanden, 
events  in  Cetmany,  Italy  and  Enidind  from  in>  1 

Tbc  Chronicle  waipubllibed  by  FTf  ~ 
■snw  uuJa  (Fraaklon.  1610) :  a- ' - 
Keryyn  6t  Letlenhoye  in  the  Ckr 


w(Bcui 


QILLBS  U  KltUU,  o 


'Tr.  Sween  in  the  AriM  Bdti- 

■   ■  olilbyC.B. 

fhiiltirt  it  la 

:JS>).  French 


bom  probably  at  Toumai,  and  in 

the  Benedictine  abbey  of  St  Mania  b  bis  native  city,  bccomiD 

prior  of  Ibis  bouse  in  IJJ7,  and  abbot  four  yean  later.     He  onJ 

but  he  appears  to  have  been  a  wise  ruler  of  the  abbey.  GIII4 
wiote  two  Latin  chronicles,  Chnnkim  majia  and  Cirmiki 
mima,  dealing  wilb  Ihe  hiitory  of  the  world  from  Ibe  creaLic 
until  1340-  lliis  work,  which  woa  continued  by  another  writ! 
to  ijsi,  is  valuable  for  Ibe  history  ol  northern  Fiance,  an 


le  Piiliui  it  COa  ft  Uvii 


GtUBSPlB.  QBORQE  (j 

at  Kirkcaldy,  where  hia 
nlnisttr,  on  the  list  of  Jai 
ot  St  Andrews  ai  a  "  pi 
completion  oI  a  brilliant 
chapUia  to  John  Gordoi 
and  afterwards 


ling  him 


:  have  been  published  by  Baron 
juvain,  .88.). 
^  ill  riiutein  ifa  fuaa,  teiuiu.  (Paris. 

Si  J-164S),  Scollish  divine,  was  born 
father,  John  Gilteapie,  was  parish 
airy  1613,  and  entered  the  university 
sbylery  bursat  "  b  i6>q.  On  the 
iiudcnt  career,  he  became  dameillc 
,  ist  Viscount  Kcmnure  (d.  1634), 
nedy,  eariofCi 


iccept  tl 


which 


0  Smllaiid  an  indispen 
Induction  16  a  parish.  While  with  (he  eail  of  Casillis  be  wrote 
bis  first  work,  A  DiifuU  ataina  Uie  Enilii/i  Pepiik  Cpemmies 
MruM  ufBK  Ike  Ckiuch  0/  SceliaM,  which,  opportunely  pub- 
lished shortly  after  the"  Jenny  Geddei "  incident  (but  without 
the  author's  name)  in  the  summer  of  i6j;,  attracted  coniidenble 
attention,  and  within  a  few  months  bad  been  found  by  the 
privy  coundl  to  be  so  damaging  that  by  their  orders  all  available 
coplea  were  called  in  and  burnt.  In  April  ib^i,  soon  after  Ihe 
authority  of  the  bishops  had  been  set  aside  by  ibe  nation, 
CiUeipie  was  ordained  minister  of  Wemyis  (Fife)  by  Ihe 
presbytery  of  Kirkcaldy,  and  In  Ihe  same  year  was  a  member 
'    *      '         IS  Glsigow  Assembly,  before  which  be  preached 


(Novel 


list)  1 


rnagaim 


royal  in 


11  for 


10  Edinburgh;  t 


.    .  ct  of  publit 

in  London.  Already,  in  1640,  he  had  accompanied  the  conimis- 
sionen  of  tbe  peace  to  England  as  one  of  tbeii  chaplains;  and 
in  itm  be  was  appointed  by  the  Scoitisb  Church  one  of  Ihe  fouT 
commiiaionen  to  the  Westmio)  er  Assembly.  Here,  though 
tbe  youngot  member  of  Ihe  Assembly,  hi 


part  in 


It  aU  tl 


auppottinj 


lesbyteri 


especially  of  his 
I5-IT.  In  t64j  I 
drawn  tbe  act  ol 


ss  elected  modei 


ncounter,  with  Jobn  SeldeB  on  Uatt.  irlH, 

assembly  (anclioning  Ihe  directory  of  public 
'ctum  to  London  be  had  a  hand  in  drafting 
nfesalon  of  faith,  especially  chap.  i.  Giilespi« 
.lorof  the  Assembly  in  1648,  bul  Ihe  laborious 

of  July  to  the  nth  ot  Auguii)  told  fatally  on  an  ovcclaied 
constitution;  he  fell  Into  consumption,  and,  after  many  areda 
of  great  weakness,  be  died  at  Kirkcaldy  on  the  1 71b  of  December 
164S-  In  acknowledgment  of  his  great  public  services,  1  luot 
of  £teao  Scots  was  voted,  though  destined  never  to  be  paid,  to 
bis  widow  and  children  by  the  commillec  of  eslales.  A  simple 
tombstone,  which  bad  been  erected  (0  his  memory  in  Kirkcaldy 
■b,  was  in  1661  publicly  broken  11  the  cross  by  the 


1708-    H 

'"wis'^Qcat^' 

studied  d 

vinily  first  al  a 

and  after 

wards  for  a  bri 

Northam 

pton.  where  he 

lo  Sepler 

aber  of  Ihe  sam 

parish  of 

not  only 

England. 

but  also  to  alio 

toihech 

rch'adoclrinals- 

Ioredin>7*e. 

ai  and  chiel^y  a^intt 

ii,r(  ;;;.  i.  jv/wfi*- 

,    .-,  ilv  DitiMt 


nn  in  Ihe  church:  0*1  Hutdnt  aiK 
■t  Ihc  SlimiOry  awi  Cmnmtiu  if  Ikt 
The  follDWine   werr   posthirnoinly 

(  (3  v.,]*.,  iSdi-iw.?!;  -Vo(j,  a! Mala 


t  presbytery  of  Dunferm 


lnbol,SI 


it  had  rcfereni 
religion. 


to  the 


lied  himself  from  Ihe 
Enlee,  aa  minister  of 


on  conscientious  grounds  persistently! 

Andrew  Richardson,  an  unacceptable  presentee, 
Invericcilhing,  be  was,  after  an  unobtrusive  but 
of  ten  years,  deposed  by  Ihe  Assembly  of  17^1  tar  maintaining 
(fall  the  letussl  ol  Ihe  local  presbytery  lo  act  in  Ibis  case  was 
justified.  He  continued,  however,  to  preach,  fiisl  al  Camock. 
and  afterwards  in  Dunfermline,  where  a  large  congregation 
gathered  round  him.  His  conduct  under  the  sentence  of  deposit 
lion  produced  a  reaction  in  bis  favour,  and  an  effort  was  nude 
to  have  him  reinsialed;  this  he  declined  uoless  the  policy  of  Ihe 
church  were  revened.  In  1761,  in  ttinjunciion  with  Thomas 
Boilan  of  Jedburgh  and  Collier  of  Colinsburgh,  he  formed  a  dia- 
linct  communion  under  Ihe  name  of "  The  Presbytery  of  Relief," 
— relief,  that  ia  to  siy,  "  from  Ihe  yoke  of  patronage  and  Ihe 
lyranny  of  Ihe  church  courts."  Tbe  Relief  Church  eventually 
became  one  of  Ihe  communions  combining  10  form  Ihe  United 
Presbyterian  Church.  -He  died  on  the  191b  of  January  1774, 
His  only  literary  eflorls  were  an  Eijoy  m  lie  ConHima&m  o] 
ImmtiiaU  Radalimi  in  Iht  Ckurtk,  and  a  Prailieal  TrtoHa  im 
TemtlaiUt.  Both  works  appeared  poslhumoualy  (1774].  In 
tbe  former  he  argues  that  immediate  revdaliona  are  no  longer 
vouchsafed  to  the  church,  in  the  biter  be  traces  lemplation  to 
Ihe  work  of  a  pergonal  devil. 
S«  Lind«y'i  Li/i  awl  Timri  ^  Ii,  Kt^  Dknui  CillHpit: 
— ■-  "." '  ■^- Srlie!  Cimrci;  In  tbt  Relief  Chunfa  tee 


Umiai 


OILUB  (from  Ihe  Gael.  {iUi.  Irish  giSt  or  guJJa,  a  servant 
or  boy),  an  allendant  on  a  Gaelic  cbieftaini  in  ibis  sense  its  use. 
save  historically,  is  rare.  The  nime  n  now  applied  in  the 
Hi^ands  of  Scolland  to  the  mao^servanl  who  attends  a  q»rts- 
man  in  shooting  or  lishing.  A  pUie-trel/oel,  a  lem  now  obsolete 
(a  tianslitioD  ol  pUie-tatfiiuti,  from  the  Gaelic  cai,  fool,  and 


GILLIES— GILLRAY 


23 


/Mcft,  wet),  wu  tlie  gillie  whose  duty  it  was  to  cany  his  master 
over  stieams.  It  became  a  term  of  contempt  among  the  Low- 
lasdecs  for  the  "tail"  (as  his  attendanU  were  called)  of  a 
HIgSdand  chief. 

eiliUEi.  JOHN  (i  747-1836),  Scottish  historian  and  classical 
acholitf,  was  bora  at  Brechin,  in  Forfarshire,  on  the  x8th  of 
January  1747.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  University,  where, 
at  the  age  of  twenty,  he  acted  for  a  short  time  as  substitute  for 
the  professor  of  Greek.  In  1784  he  completed  his  History  of 
AudeKt  Cruu,  Us  Colonus  and  Conquests  (published  1786). 
This  wmfc,  valuable  at  a  time  when  the  study  of  Greek  history 
was  in  its  infancy,  and  translated  into  French  and  (German, 
was  written  from  a  strong  Whig  bias,  and  is  now  entirely  super- 
seded (see  G&eece:  Ancient  History,  "  Authorities  ").  On  the 
death  of  William  Robertson  (1721-1793),  Gillies  was  appointed 
historiographer-royal  for  Scotland.  In  his  old  age  he  retired  to 
dapham,  where  he  died  on  the  X5th  of  February  1836. 

Of  hia  other  works,  none  of  whkh  are  much  roui,  the  principal 
are:  Yiem  0/  the  Reiin  of  Frederic  II.  rf  Prussia,  with  a  Parallel 
behoeeu  Ikat  Prince  and  Philip  II.  of  Uacedon  (1789).  rather  a  pane- 
gyric than  a  critical  histocy;  translations  of  Aristotle's  Rhetoric 
(i8a3)  and  Ethics  and  Polaics  (1796-1797)'.  of  the  Orations  of 
Lysiasand  Isocrates  (1778);  and  History  M  the  World  from  Alexander 
to  Augus^is  (1807),  which,  althoueh  deficient  in  style,  was  com- 
mmded  for  its  learning  and  research. 

OIUJMOHAlf,  a  market  town  in  the  northern  parliamentary 
division  of  Dorsetshire,  England,  105  m.  W.S.W.  from  London 
by  the  London  &  South- Western  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  3380. 
The  church  of  St  Mary  the  Virgin  has  a  Decorated  chancel. 
There  is  a  large  agricultural  trade,  and  manufactures  of  bricks 
and  tiles,  cord,  sacking  and  silk,  brewing  and  bacon-curing  are 
carried  on.  The  rich  undulating  district  in  which  Gillingham 
is  situated  was  a  forest  preserved  by  King  John  and  his  successors, 
and  the  site  of  their  lodge  is  traceable  near  the  town. 

OILLDfOHAM,  a  municipal  borough  of  Kent,  England,  in 
the  parliamentary  borough  of  Chatham  and  the  mid-division 
of  the  county,  on  the  Med  way  immediately  east  of  Chatham, 
on  the  Sottth-Eastera  &  Chatham  railway.  Pop.  (1891)  37>8o9; 
(1901)  43.530.  Its  population  is  htrgely  industrial,  employed 
in  the  Chatham  dockyards,  and  in  cement  and  brick  works  in  the 
ndghbonrhood.  The  church  of  St  Mary  Magdalene  ranges  in  date 
from  Early  English  to  Perpendicular,  retaining  also  traces  oi 
Norman  iroriL  and  some  early  brasses.  A  great  battle  between 
Edmund  Ironside  and  Omute,  c.  1016,  is  placed  here;  and  there 
was  formerly  a  palace  of  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury.  Gilling- 
ham was  incorporated  in  1903,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  6 
aldermen  and  18  councillors.  The  borough  includes  the  populous 
districts  of  Brompton  and  New  Brompton.    Area,  4355  acres. 

OILLOT,  CLAUDE  (1673-1722),  French  painter,  b^  known 
as  the  master  of  Watteau  and  Lancret,  was  bom  at  Langres. 
His  sportive  mythological  landscape  pieces,  with  such  titles 
as  "  Feast  of  Pan  "  and  "Feast  of  Bacchus,"  opened  the  Academy 
of  Painting  at  Paris  to  him  in  1715;  and  he  then  adapted  his 
art  to  the  fashionable  tastes  of  the  day,  and  introduced  the 
decorative/Sto  dtamphres,  in  which  he  was  afterwards  surpassed 
by  his  pupils.  He  was  lUso  closely  connected  with  the  opera 
and  theatre  as  a  designer  of  scenery  and  costumes. 

GILLOrr.  JOSEPH  (i  799-1873),  English  pen-maker,  was  bora 
at  Sheffield  00  the  x  ith  of  October  1799.  For  some  time  he  was 
a  working  cutler  there,  but  in  1821  removed  to  Birmingham, 
where  he  found  employment  in  the  "steel  toy"  trade,  the 
technical  name  for  the  manufacture  of  steel  buckles,  chains  and 
light  ornamental  steel-work  generally.  About  1830  he  turaed 
hb  attention  to  the  manufacture  of  steel  pens  by  machinery, 
and  in  1831  patented  a  process  for  placing  elongated  points  on 
the  nibs  of  pens.  Subsequently  he  invented  other  improvements, 
getting  rid  of  the  hardness  and  lack  of  flexibility,  which  had  been 
a  serious  defect  in  nibs,  by  cutting,  in  addition  to  the  centre  slit, 
side  slits,  and  cross  griniding  the  points.  By  1859  he  had  built  up 
a  very  large  business.  Giltott  was  a  liberal  art-patron,  and 
one  of  the  first  to  recognise  the  merits  of  J.  M.  W.  Turaier.  He 
died  at  Birmingham  on  the  sth  of  January  1873.  His  collection 
of  pictures,  sold  after  his  death,  realized  £170,000. 


GILLOWf  ROBERT  (d.  1773),  the  founder  at  Lancaster 
of  a  distinguished  firm  of  Eoglu^  cabinet-makers  and  furniture 
designers  whose  books  begin  in  1731.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  son  Richard  (1734-181 1),  who  after  being  educated  at  the 
Roman  Catholic  seminary  at  Douai  was  taken  into  partnership 
about  1757,  when  the  firm  became  Gillow  &  Barton,  and  his 
younger  sons  Robert  and  Thomas,  and  the  business  was  continued 
by  his  grandson  Richard  ( x  7  78-1 866) .  In  its  early  days  the  firm 
of  Gillow  were  architects  as  well  as  cabinet-makers,  and  the  first 
Richard  Gillow  designed  the  classical  Custom  House  at  Lancaster. 
In  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  the  business  was  extended  to 
London,  and  about  1761  premises  were  opened  in  Oxford  Street 
on  a  site  which  was  continuously  occupied  until  1906.  For  a 
long  period  the  Gillows  were  the  best-known  makers  of  English 
furaiture — Sheraton  and  Heppelwhite- both  designed  for  them, 
and  replicas  are  still  made  of  pieces  from  the  drawings  of  Robert 
Adam.  Between  1760  and  1770  they  invented  the  original 
form  of  the  billiard-table;  they  were  the  patentees  (about 
x8oo)  of  the  telescopic  dining-table  which  has  long  been  universal 
in  English  houses;  for  a  Captain  Davenport  they  made,  if  they 
did  not  invent,  the  first  writing-table  of  that  name.  Their  vogue 
is  indicated  by  references  to  them  in  the  works  of  Jane  Austen, 
Thackeray  and  the  first  Lord  Lytton,  and  more  recently  in  one 
of  Gilbert  and  Sullivan's  comic  operas. 

GILIAAT,  JAMES  (i  757-1815),  English  caricaturist,  was  bora 
at  Chelsea  in  1757.  His  father,  a  native  of  Lanark,  had  served 
as  a  soldier,  losing  an  arm  at  Fontenoy,  and  was  admitted  firrt 
as  an  inmate,  and  afterwards  as  an  outdoor  pensioner,  at  Chelsea 
hospital.  Gillray  commenced  life  by  learning  letter-engraving, 
in  which  he  soon  became  an  adept.  This  employment,  however, 
proving  irksome,  he  wandered  about  for  a  time  with  a  company 
of  strolling  players.  After  a  very  checkered  experience  he 
leturaed  to  London,  and  was  admitted  a  student  in  the  Royal 
Academy,  supporting  himself  by  engraving,  and  probably  issuing 
a  considerable  number  of  caricattires  under  fictitious  names. 
Hogarth's  works  were  the  delight  and  study  of  his  early  years. 
"  Paddy  on  Horseback,"  which  appeared  in  1779,  is  the  first 
caricature  which  is  certainly  his.  Two  caricatures  on  Rodney's 
naval  victory,  issued  in  1782,  were  among  the  first  of  the  memor- 
able series  of  his  political  sketches.  The  name  of  Gillray's 
publisher  and  printseUcr,  Miss  Himiphrey — whose  shop  was  first 
at  227  Strand,  then  in  New  Bond  Street,  then  in  Old  Bond  Street, 
and  finally  in.  St  James's  Street — is  inextricably  associated  with 
that  of  the  caricaturist.  Gillary  lived  with  Miss  (often  called 
Mrs)  Humphrey  during  all  the  period  of  his  fame.  It  is  believed 
that  he  several  times  thought  of  marrying  her,  and  that  on  one 
occasion  the  pair  were  on  their  way  to  the  church,  when  Gillray 
said:  "This  is  a  foolish  affair,  methinks,  Miss  Humphrey. 
We  live  very  comfortably  together;  we  had  better  let  well 
alone."  Thete  is  no  evidence,  however,  to  support  the  stories 
which  scandalmongers  invented  about  their  relations.  Gillray's 
plates  were  exposed  in  Humphrey's  shop  window,  where  eager 
crowds  examined  them.  A  number  of  his  most  trenchant  satires 
are  directed  against  George  III.,  who,  after  examining  some  of 
Gillray's  sketches,  said,  with  characteristic  ignorance  and  blind- 
ness to  merit,  "  I  don't  understand  these  caricatures."  Gillray 
revenged  himself  for  this  utterance  by  his  splendid  caricature 
entitlMl,  "  A  (Connoisseur  Examining  a  Cooper,"  which  he  is 
doing  by  means  of  a  candle  on  a  "  save-all ";  so  that  the  sketch 
satirizes  at  once  the  king's  pretensions  to  knowledge  of  art  and 
hif  miserly  habits. 

The  excesses  of  the  French  Revolution  made  Gillray  conserva- 
tive; and  he  issued  caricature  after  caricature,  ridiculing  the 
French  and  Napoleon,  and  glorifying  John  Bull.  He  is  not, 
however,  to  be  thought  of  as  a  keen  political  adherent  of  either 
the  Whig  or  the  Tory  party;  he  dealt  his  blows  pretty  freely 
all  round.  His  h&st  work,  from  a. design  by  Bunbury,  is 
entitled  "  Interior  of  a  Barber's  Shop  in  Assize  Time,"  and 
is  dated  1811.  While  he  was  engaged  on  it  he  became 
mad,  although  he  had  occasional  intervals  of  sanity,  which  he 
employed  on  his  Ust  work.  The  approach  of  madness  must 
1  have  been  hastened  by  his  intemperate  habits.    GiUray  died  on 


GILLYFLOWER— OILMAN 


I't  cbuicbrud, 


Iheiilof  Jiue  iBij,  and  wu  buriEd  in  St  J 
PicckdiUy. 

Hie  lima  In  whicfa  Cillny  lived  were  pe 
to  Ibt  (TDWth  o!  &  gml  Khool  ol  cmiicalun. 
euricd  on  vith  great  vigoiu  and  Dot  ■  lit 
pcnonalitn  were  freely  indulged  is  on  bo 
incompual^  wit  and  humour,  knowlHjge 
reuuicc,  keen  kuc  of  tbc  ludioouSj  and  t> 
al  onte  gave  hJm  the  fint  place  aD»ng 
bonounUy  dininguiibed  in  the  hiiloiy  of  caricitun  by  the  fact 
tbu  hii  iketclMi  aic  teal  woriu  of  an.  The  ideaa  onbodied  In 
Mnw  of  then  are  niblimc  tod  poeticaJy  mafnificent  In  Lbeir 
intensity  ol  sieaningi  whUe  tbc  CMitcneu  by  which  othen  an 
di«ficiired  ia  to  be  nplalnrd  by  the  genen]  [iMdom  of  Ireatmenl 
commdn  In  all  intdlectual  deparimenta  in  the  itlth  conlury- 
Tlie  hittoiicai  value  of  Cilliay'a  woili  hai  been  rccognlud  by 
accuate  itudenCi  of  history.  Aa  liai  been  well  remailced: 
"  Loid  Stanhope  h»  turned  Gilliay  to  account  u  a  vcradoua 
reponerof  ipeechc*,  a>  weU  u  a  luggcsdve  illuUiilor  of  eventi." 
Hii  cDctempoiary  political  inBuena  h  hatac  wit  ncn  to  in  a  letter 
from  Lord  Bateman,  dated  NovembCT  j,  t?}*.  "  The  Oppoii- 
tion,"  he  writea  to  GiUray,  "  an  a*  low  as  we  can  with  them. 
You  have  been  of  infinite  acrvice  in  lowering  tbejn,  and  tnaiing 
them  ridiadoiu."  Gillray'a  eatraordinary  induauy  may  be 
inlerred  Inm  the  fact  that  neatly  looo  caricaiurei  have  Ixen 
atttibuled  to  him;  while  wme  conaider  him  the  autboi  of  1600 
DC  i;oo.  He  ii  invaluable  to  the  itudenl  ol  EngUih  mannera 
ai  well  aa  to  the  poUlical  atudenu  He  atlackl  the  lodal  foUiea 
of  tbc  lime  with  acathing  utln^  and  nothing  eiQ^^  hit  tttllce, 
not  even  a  trifling  change  of  faihion  in  dnea.  The  great  tact 
CiUiay  diqilayi  in  hitting  on  the  ludicroua  aide  of  any  nbject 
b  only  equalled  by  the  eiquiiite  Gniih  of  hit  iketchei — the  Gncat 
of  wUch  reach  an  eiric  gnndeut  and  Miltonk  Hbllmity  i^  con- 

CiUny'i  caricalnna  an  dliridcd  inn  Iwq  iTimi.  the  potiikal 
ieriei  and  the  aociaL  The  poUlical  caricatum  tunii  leally  the  beB 
tiitaiy  otant  of  tb*  latter  pan  of  the  nfaa  of  Genve  III.  Tbey 
VCR  dreulated  not  only  over  Britain  but  IhrnuBhout  Europe. 
•ad  caerted  a  powofai  iafluence.  la  lUi  iBiei.  CeonE  III.,  the 
qifccBt  the  priDca  of  Wale^  Foa.  Fhti  Burite  and  NapoleaA  are  tlic 
■HMt  ptonfnfH  fifuna.  In  tTW  appeued  two  fine  caricatura  Inr 
GUItav.  "  Blood  on  Thunder  loiduf  the  Red  Sea  "  lepceanta 
Loid  Tiaibw  canyiig  Warm  HaiHiiga  thcongh  a  ■•  ef  gon; 
flail  ia|i  look!  VHy  comloitabla,  and  it  canyini  two  laiie  baga  of 
■oaay.    "  MaikM-Day  "  pictom  the  nlniftHldiita  of  the  tlae  aa 

■■ '  — "'-  '—  -Hie.    AntDng  Cillny'i  ben  •atirei  on  the  idog 

le  uid  hb  Wbe,-',twi>coo^uioa  plato.  in  ooe  of 


"  PanDerGeoiie  an 


the  queen  u  fiyJiuBpnli ;  "The  And-! 

Umily:  ^A  QiaiHiHeur  Eiamliunff  a  Cooper 
(djiiniv  a  Frugal  Mai  ":  "  Rd^  ASability  '  ,      ..  .. 
Apple  OuMpUagi ";  and  "  The  Wgi  PjMened.      Amoni 


Tempei 


and  Charybdb.' 

oSTof  Hocber"wiiUi"a 
Revohukw  bi  one  vbwj  " 
Peace  "  1  "  The  Fint  Kw 
oo  the  peace,  whicfa  b  uul 
Handwriting  upon  Ihe  W^ 

"M.lcing'l5«enl.''?!f^l 


(two   platei);    "Twopenny    Wjii.t    ",     "  OM  !    Ili.il    >>-i-    1  lid 

aeihwsukli>iell":"£andwEh!   ,r,.,r.  ■:■  th.-'.i.... -.   ■-     ■   Dit 
to  the  Carol":  "  Befone  Dull  1  ..rr  "-  "1  t.r  I  .l»  I'..  ^         '  ich 

"  DiDetuli  Tbeatrkab";  and   "  Ha'rm.inv   ti.(..ri-  '.^ii-         i'' 
and  "  Matrunonia]  Karmonlct '' — i<^o  (Lth.<.-vnjlotl^  >:i.-"l    ■.<       '    in 

A  ideclion  of  GiUny'i  worka  appeared  id  pant  En  iBiB;  but 
the  6iit  lood  idiliiia  wu  ThomH  M'Leui'a.  which  wu  pulilitfaed, 
with  a  key,  bi  1830.  A  lonewhat  bitter  aiUck,  nM  only  on  Cillny't 
chancter,  but  evea  oo  hia  geniua,  appeared  ia  ibc  drtwtniiw  lor 


iliuitrauna.     M 
B^i^NuniRi! 


hKh  wai  iucceiifutiy  refuted  by  I.  Landieer 
iDctnight  bier.  In  iBsi  Hriuy  C,  Bohn  put 
q  the  orifioal  j>latet,  in  a  tiaudiDiDe  folio,  the 

apublithed  in  a  iepaiau  volume-    For  Ihb 
_  I  and  R.  K.  Evau  wrote  a  valuable  com- 
-^  a  good  faiitorv  of  the  timet  embraced  by  the 
e  nnt  edition,  entitled  Tin  WtrkiifJtma  ciutn, 
milk  Am  ^«yj  lia  Lifmi  Tmt  (Chatto  S 
raiilvwottiolThanai  Wtighl.and,byiu  popubr 
'  re.  introduced  CiUray  to  a  very  large  cinrie 
im.    Tlut  edilion.  which  b  complete  in  one 
of  Gillray,  and  upwarda  of 


^  introduced  CiUrav 
a.    -flHtBir-         ' 

J.  Cartwiight, 


iRIet  to  the  Aadtmj  (Feb, 


:le  in  the  Owrlcfy  Xniiv  for  / 
'eb.  II  and  May  16,  1S74, 
ticre  b  a  good  accouol  0)  Gill 
r€  and  Grtitit**  it  LUtrUun 


(■Ms).    See 


<  Y  <:•>''• 


OILLTFLOWBB.  a  popular  name  applied  to  varioua  flowen, 
but  principally  to  the  dove,  Dianiliui  CaryepkyUiu,  ol  which 
the  (Moation  b  a  cultivated  variety,  and  to  tlie  atock,  Uautifla 
iJKdiu,  a  weii-knowD  garden  favouritt  The  word  b  aometimet 
will  ten  giiliflowtr  or  giiloRower,  and  b  reputedly  a  comption 
of  July-flower, "  to  called  from  the  month  they  blow  in."  Henry 
Phillipi<i775-iSj8),  in  hb  nwB  jtiiftwita,  nmarkuhM  Turner 
{ij68}  "calli  it  gelouer,  lo  which  he  adda  the  word  tlock,  u 
we  would  tay  gelouera  that  grow  on  a  stem  or  atock,  to  dutin- 
gulththemrttamiheclove-gelouenandthcwiill-gelouen.  Gerard, 
who  succeeded  Turner,  and  after  him  ParklntoD.  calla  it  gillo- 
flower,  and  thus  it  travelled  from  its  original  orthography  lulil 
it  was  called  Ju!y-flower  by  those  who  knew  not  whence  it  wa* 
derived."  Dr  Prior,  in  hu  useful  volume  on  the  Ftpalat  JViUKt 
^  Briliik  Plcnli,  very  dutinctly  showi  the  nigin  of  the  name. 
He  temarki  that  [I  was  "  faimerly  qjctt  gyliofer  and  ^lofn 
with  the  s  king,  from  Ihe  Fnneb  [ircflU,  Ililian  farofalt  (M.  Lat. 
(flfiqWiBit),  coiTupled  liom  the  Latin  Caryefkyllum,  and  referring 
to  the  spicy  odour  of  the  Bower,  which  seems  to  have  been  lued 
in  flavouring  wine  and  other  h'quora  to  replace  the  mon  costly 
dove  of  India-  The  name  was  originally  ^ven  in  Italy  to  plants 
of  the  pink  tribe,  etpcdally  the  carnation,  but  has  in  England 
been  trantferced  of  late  yean  lo  teveral  cnidferout. plants." 
The  gillyflawei  of  Chaucer  and  Spenser  and  Shakcqxue  was, 
at  In  Italy,  Dtanlkui  Caryefkyllui;  that  of  later  writen  and  of 
gardenera,  ilaUbida.  Mudi  ol  the  confusion  in  the  names  ol 
plants  has  doubtless  arisen  from  the  vague  uu  of  the  French 
terms  ginJtSe,  aUUl  and  nsUtU,  which  wen  all  applied  to 
flowen  ol  the  [nnk  tribe,  but  in  England  wen  subsequently 
extended  and  finally  restricted  to  very  different  planta.  The 
use  made  ol  the  Aowers  lo  tnipsit  a  spicy  flavour  to  ale  and  wine 
is  alluded  to  by  Chaucer,  who  writes: 

*'  And  many  a  clove  Biiofre 
Teputinsle": 
also  by  SpensCT,  who  refer*  lo  them  by  the  name  of  topi  b  wltw, 
which  was  applied  in  consequence  of  their  bdng  tidped  in  the 
liquor.    In  both  these  cases,  however,  !t  is  the  dovo-^yflower 
which  is  intended,  as  it  is  also  in  the  passage  from  Gerard,  in 

"  u  acceding  cordiall,  and  wonderfully  above  meaaiue  doth 
comfort  Ihe  heart,  being  eaten  now  and  tbcri."  The  prindpal 
other  plants  which  bear  the  name  are  the  wallflower,  Cjleirmlihiu 
C*ari,  called  will-gillyflawer  in  old  books;  the  dune's  violet, 
Jitifav  autratialii,  called  variouily  the  qutcn't,  the  rogue'i 
and  Ihe  winter  giiiyijower;  the  ragged-robin,  ZjtjbiijWoi-amiif, 
called  niarsh-gill3rBawer  and  cuckoo-gillyflower;  the  water- 
violel,  Heileaia  ^tsltii,  called  waler-^ly Sower;  and  the 
thrift.  Anuria  mliarii,  called  sca-gillyflower.  As  ■  teparatg 
designation  it  b  nowadays  usually  applied  Co  the  wallflower, 

QILMAH.  DAHIBL  COIT  (1831-1908),  American  educatioa- 
ist,  was  bom  in  Norwich,  Connecticut,  nn  the  6th  of  July  iBji. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1851,  atudied  in  Berlin,  was  assistant 
librarian  ol  Yale  in  i8j6-iSjS  and  Uhrarian  in  iBsS-iUj,  and 
was  profesaor  of  physical  and  political  geography  in  (he  SheSdd 
Sdcnlific  School  of  Yals  tlnivarity  and  a  nonbec  of  the 


GILMORE— GILPIN 


25 


Govoning  Board  of  this  Scliool  in  1865-1879.  From  2856  to 
18^  he  was  a  member  of  the  school  board  of  New  Haven,  and 
from  August  1865  to  January  1867  secretary  of  the  Connecticut 
Board  of  Education.  In  1873  he  became  president  of  the 
University  of  Cah'fornia  at  Berkeley.  On  the  30th  of  December 
1874  be  .was  elected  first  president  of  Johns  Hopkins  University 
(f  .9.)  at  Baltimore.  He  entered  upon  his  duties  on  the  xst  of 
if  ay'i875»and  was  formally  inaugurated  on  the  22nd of  February  > 
1876.  This  post  he  filled  until  1901.  From  igox  to  1904  he 
was  the  first  president  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  at  Washington, 
D.C.  He  died  at  Norwich,  .Conn.,  on  the  X3th  of  October  1908. 
He  received  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Harvard,  St 
John's,  Columbia,  Yale,  North  Carolina,  Princeton,  Toronto, 
Wisconsin  and  Clark  Univer^tics,  and  William  and.  Mary  College. 
His  influence  upon  higher  education  in  America  was  great, 
cspedally  at  Johns  Hopkins,  where  many  wise  details  of  ad- 
ministration, the  plan  of  bringing  to  the  university  as  lecturers 
for  a  part  of  the  year  scholars  from  other  colleges,  the  choice  of 
a  singularly  briUiant  and  aUe  faculty,  and  the  marked  willing- 
ness to  recognize  workers  in  new  branches  of  science  were  all 
largely  due  to  him.  To  the  organization  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 
b<»pital,  of  which  he  was  made  director  in  1889,  he  contributed 
greatly.  He  was  a  singularly  good  judge  of  men  and  an  able 
administrator,  and  under  him  Johns  Hopklkis  had  an*  immense 
influence,  especially  in  the  promotion  of  original  and  productive 
research.  He  was  always  deeply  interestdl  in  the  researches 
of  the  professors  at  Johns  Hopkins,  and  it  has  been  said  of  him 
that  his  attention  as  president  was  turned  inside  and  not  outside 
the  university.  He  was  instrumental  in  determining  the  policy 
of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  University  while  he 
was  a  member  of  its  governing  board;  on  the  28th  of  October 
1897  be  delivered 'at  New  Haven  a  semi-centennial  discourse 
on  the  school,  which  appears  in  his  University  Problems.  He  was 
a  prominent  member  of  the  American  Archaeological  Society 
and  of  the  American  Oriental  Society;  was  one  of  the  original 
trustees  of  the  John  F.  Slater  Fund  (for  a  tjme  he  was  secretary, 
and  from  1893  until  his  death  was  president  of  the  board); 
from  1891  until  his  death  was  a  trustee  of  the  Peabody  Educa- 
tional Fund  (being  the  .vice-president  of  the  board);  and  was 
an  original  member  of  the  General  Education  Board  (1902) 
and  a  trustee  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  for  Social  Better- 
ment (1907).  In  1896-1897  he  served  on  the  Venezuela  Boundary 
Commission  appointed  by  President  Cleveland.  In  1901  he 
sncceeded  Cart  Schurz  as  president  of  the  National  Civil  Service 
Reform  League  and  served  until  1907.  Some  of  his  papers 
and  addresses  are  collected  in  a  volume  entitled  University 
ProbUtns  in  the  UniUd  States  (1888).  He  wrote,  besides,  James 
Monroe  (1883),  in  the  American  Statesmen  Series;  a  Life  of 
James  D.  Dana^  the  geologist  (1899);  Science  and  Letters  at 
Yale  (1901),  and  The  Launcking  of  a  University  (1906),  an 
account  of  the  early  years  of  Johns  Hopkins. 

OIUI0RB»  PATRICK  SARSHELD  (182^1892),  American 
bandmaster,  was  bom  in  Ireland,  and  settled  in  America  about 
xSsa  He  had  been  in  the  band  of  an  Irish  regiment,  and  he  bad 
great  success  as  leader  of  a  military  band  at  Salem,  Massachu- 
setts, and  subsequently  (2859)  in  Boston.  He  increased  his 
reputation  during  the  Civil  War,  particularly  by  organizing  a 
iMHistcr  orchestra  of  massed  bands  for  a  festi>^  at  New  Orleans 
in  1864;  and  at  Boston  in  z869-  and  1872  he  gave  similar  per- 
formances. He  was  enormously  popular  as  a  bandmaster,  and 
composed  or  arranged  a  Urge  variety  of  pieces  for  orchestra. 
He  died  at  St  Louis  on  the  24th  of  September  1892 

GllPni,  BERNARD  (15x7-1 583)^  the  "  AposUe  of  the  North," 
was  descended  from  a  Westmorland  family,  and  was  bom  at 
Kentmere  in  15x7.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  graduating  B.A.  in  x54o»  M.A.  in  X542  and  B.D.  in  X549. 
He  was  elected  fdUow  of  (^een's  and  ordained  in  x  542;  subse- 
quently he  was  elected  student  of  Christ  Church.  At  Oxford  he 
first  adhered  to  the  conserlrative  side,  and  defended  the  doctrines 
of  the  church  against  Hooper;  but  his  confidence  was  somewhat 
shaken  by  aiwther  public  disputation  which  he  had  with  Peter 
Martyr*   la  i$$2  be  preached  before  King  Edward  VL  a  sermon 


on  sacrilege,  which  was  duly  published,  and  displays  the  high 
ideal  which  even  then  he  had  formed  of  the  clerical  office;  and 
about  the  same  time  he  was  presented  to  the  vicarage  of  Norton, 
in  the  diocese  of  Durham,  and  obtained  a  licence,  through 
William  Cedl,  as  a  general  preacher  throughout  the  kingdom 
as  long  as  the  king  lived.  On  Mary's  accession  he  went  abroad 
to  pursue  his  theological  investigations  at  Louvain,  Antwerp 
and  Pans;  and  from  a  letter  of  his  own,  dated  Louvain,  1554, 
we  get  a  i^mpse  of  the  quiet  student  rejoicing  in  an  "  excellent 
library  betonging  to  a  monastery  of  Minorites."  Returning  to 
England  towards  the  close  of  Qaten  Mary's  reign,  he  was  invested 
by  his  mother's  uncle,  Tunstall,  bishop  of  Durham,  with  the 
archdeaconry  of  Durham,  to  which  the  rectory  of  Easington 
was  annexed.  The  freedom  of  his  attacks  jon  the  vices,  and 
especially  the  clerical  vices,  of  his  times  excited  hostility  against 
him,  and  he  was  formally  brotight  before  the  bishop  on  a  charge 
consisting  of  thirteen  articles.  Tunstall,  however,  not  only 
dismissed  the  case,  but  presented  the  offender  with  the  rich 
living  of  Houghlon-le-Spring;  and  when  the  accusation  was 
again  brought  forward,  he  again  protected  him.  Enraged  at 
this  defeat,  Gilpin's  enenueslaid  their  complaint  before  Bonner, 
bishop  of  London,  who  secured  a  royal  warrant  for  his  apprehen< 
sion.  Upon  this  Gilpin  prepared  for  martyrdom;  and,  having 
ordered  his  house-steward  to  provide  him  with  a  long  garment, 
that  he  might  "  goe  the  more  comely  to  the  stake,"  he  set  out 
|or  London.  Fortunately,  however,  for  him,  he  broke  his  leg 
on  the  journey,  and  his  arrival  was  thus  delayed  till  the  new&. 
of  Qiietn  Mary's  death  freed  him  from  further  danger.  He  at 
once  returned  to  Houghton,  and  there  he  continued  to  labour 
till  his  death  on  the  4th  of  March  X583.  When  the  Roman 
Catholic  bishops  were  deprived  he  was  offered  the  see  of  Carlisle; 
but  he  declined  this  honour  and  also  the  provostshipof  (^een's, 
which  was  offered  him  in  X560.  At  Houghton  his  course  of  life 
was  a  ceaseless  round  of  benevolent  activity.  In  June  X560  he 
entertained  Cecil  and  Dr  Nicholas  Wotton  on  their  way  to 
Edinburgh.  His  hospitable  manner  of  living  was  the  admiration 
of  all.  His  living  was  a  comparatively  rich  one,  his  house  was 
better  than  many  bishops'  palaces,  and  his  position  was  that 
of  a  clerical  magnate.  In  his  household  he  spent  "every 
fortnight  40  bushels  of  corn,  20  bushels  of  malt  and  an  ox, 
besides  a  proportional  quantity  of  other  kinds  of  provisions." 
Strangers  and  travellers  found  a  ready  reception;  and  even 
their  horses  were  treated  with  so  much  care  that  it  was  humor- 
ously said  that,  if  one  were  turned  loose  in  any  part  of  the  cbuntry, 
it  would  immediately  make  its  way  to  the  rector  of  Houghton. 
Every  Sunday  from  Michaelmas  till  Easter  was  a  public  day 
with  Gilpin.  For  the  reception  of  his  parishioners  he  had  three 
tables  well  covered— one  for  gentlemen,  the  second  for  husband- 
men, the  third  for  day-labourers;  and  this  piece  of  hospitality 
he  never  omitted,  even  when  losses  or  scarcity  made  its  continu- 
ance^'difficult.'  .He  built  and  endowed  a  grammar-school  at  a 
cost  of  upwards  of  £500,  educated  and  maintained  a  large  number 
of  poor  children  at  his  own  charge,  and  provided  the  more 
promising  pupib  with  means  of  studying  at  the  universities. 
So  many  young  people,  indeed,  flocked  to  his  school  that  there 
was  not  accommodation  for  them  in  Houghton,  and  he  had  to  fit 
up  part  of  his  house  as  a  boarding  establishment.  Grieved  at 
the  ignorance  and  superstition  idiich  the  remissness  of  the  clergy 
permitted  to  flourish  in  the  neighbouring  parishes,  he  used 
every  year  to  visit  the  most  neglected  parts  of  Northumberland, 
Yorkshire,  Cheshire,  WestmorUnd  anid  Cumberland;  and  that 
his  own  flock  might  not  suffer,  he  was  at  the  expense  of  a  constant 
assistauL  Among  his  parishioners  he  was  looked  up  to  as  a 
judge,  and  did  great  service  in  preventing  law-suits  amongst 
them.  If  an  industrious  man  suffered  a  Toss,  he  delighted  to 
make  it  good;  if  the  harvest  was  bad.  he  was  liberal  in  the 
remission  of  tithes.  The  boldness  which  he  could  display  at 
need  is  well  illustrated  by  his  action  in  regard  to  duelling.  Find- 
ing one  day  a  challenge-glove  stuck  up  on  the  door  of  a  church 
where  he  was  to  preach,  he  took  it  down  with  his  own  hand,  and 
proceeded  to  the  pulpit  to  inveigh  against  the  unchristif 
custom.    His  theological  position  was  not  in  accord  with  ar 


26 


GILSONITE— GIN 


the  religious  parties  of  bis  age,  and  Gladstone  thought  that 
the  catholicity  of  the  Anglican  Church  was  better  exemplified 
in  his  career  than  in  those  of  more  prominent  ecclesiastics 
(pref.  to  A.  W.  Hutton's  edition  of  S.  R.  Maitland's  Essays 
Ml  the  Reformation).  He  was  not  satisfied  with  the  Elizabethan 
settlement,  had  great  respect  for  the  Fathers,  and  was  with 
difficulty  induced  to  subscribe.  Archbishop  Sandys'  views  on 
the  Eucharist  horrified  him;  but  on  the  other  hand  he  main- 
tained friendly  relations  yiiih.  Bishop  Pilkington  and  Thomas 
Lever,  and  the  Puritans  had  some  hope  of  his  support. 

A  life  of  Bernard  Gilpin,  written  by  George  Caneton,  bishop  of 
Chichester,  who  had  been  a  pupil  of  Gilpin's  at  Houffhton,  will  be 
found  in  Bates's  VUtu  sdeitorum  aliquot  worum,  &c.  (London, 
1681).  A  translation  of  this  sketch  by  William  Freake,  minister, 
was  published  at  London,  1629;  and  in  185a  it  was  reprinted  in 
Glasgow,  with  an  introductory  essay  by  Edward  Irving.  It  forms 
one  of  the  lives  in  Chnstopher  YioTdswonh*aEccUsiastiaUBioiraphy 
(vol.  iii..  4th  ed.),  having  been  compared  with  Carleton's  Latin 
text.  Another  biography  of  Gilpin,  whiclu  however,  adds  little  to 
Bishop  Carleton's.  was  written  by  WUItam  (iilpin,  M  J\.,  prebendary 
of  Ailsbury  (London,  1753  and  1854).    See  also  Diet.  NaL  Biog. 

GILSONITE  (so  named  after  S.  H.  Gilson  of  Salt  Lake  City)^ 
or  UiNTAHiTE,  or  UiNTAXTE,  a  description  of  asphalt  occurring  in 
masses  several  inches  in  diameter  in  the  Uinta  (or  Uintah) 
valley,  near  Fort  Duchesne,  Utah.  It  is  of  black  colour;  its 
fracture  is  conchoidal,  and  it  has  a  lustrous  surface.  When 
warmed  it  becomes  plastic,  and  on  further  beating  fuses  perfectly. 
It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1*065  to  1*070.  It  dissolves  freely 
in  hot  oil  of  turpentine.  The  output  amounted  to  10,916  short 
tons  for  the  year  1905,  and  the  value  was  $4*31  per  ton. 

OILYAKS,  a  hybrid  people,  originally  widespread  throughout 
the  Lower  Amur  district,  but  now  confined  to  the  Amur  delta 
and  the  north  of  Sakhalin.  They  have  been  afiiliated  by  some 
authorities  to  the  Ainu  of  Sakhalin  and  Yezo;  but  they  arc  more 
probably  a  mongrel  people,  and  Dr  A.  Anuchin  states  that 
there  are  two  types,  a  Mongoloid  with  sparse  beard,  high  cheek- 
bones and  flat  face,  and  a  Caucasic  with  bushy  beard  and  more 
regular  features.  The  Chinese  call  them  YupUatse,  "  Fish-skin- 
clad  people,"  from  their  wearing  a  peculiar  dress  made  from 

salmon  skin. 

See  E.  G.  Ravenstein,  The  Russians  on  the  Amur  (1861);  Dr  A. 
Anuchin,  Mem.  Imp.  Soc.  Nat.  Sc.  xx..  Supplement  (Moscow,  1877): 
H.  von  Stebold.  Oher  die  Aino  (Berlin,  1881):  J.  Dcniker  in  Revue 
d'ethnoirapkie  (Paris,  1884};  L.  Schxenck.  Dte  V&lker  des  Amur- 
landes  (St  Petersburg,  1891). 

OIMBAL,  a  mechanical  device  for  hanging  some  object  so 
that  it  should  keep  a  horizontal  and  constant  position,  while 
the  body  from  which  it  is  suspended  is  in  free  motion,  so  that 
the  motion  of  the  supporting  body  is.  not  communicated  to  it. 
It  is  thus  used  particularly  for  the  suspension  of  compasses  or 
chronometers  and  lamps  at  sea,  and  usually  consists  of  a  ring 
freely  moving  on  an  axis,  within  which  the  object  swings  on  an 
axis  at  right  angles  to  the  ring. 

The  word  is  derived  from  the  O.  Fr.  gand^  from  Lat.  gemellus^ 
diminutive  of  geminust  a  twin,  and  appears  also  in  gimmel  or 
iimbd  and  as  gemel,  especially  as  a  term  for  a  ring  formed  of  two 
hoops  linked  together  and  capable  of  separation,  tised  in  the 
1 6th  and  17th  centuries  as  betrothal  and  keepsake  rings.  They 
sometimes  were  made  of  three  or  more  hoops  linked  together. 

GIMLET  (from  the  O.  Fr.  guimbelet,,  probably  a  diminutive 
of  the  O.E.  wimble,  and  the  Scandinavian  vammUf  to  bore  or 
twbt;  the  modem  French  is  gibeUt),  a  tool  used  for  boring  small 
holes.  It  is  made  of  steel,  with  a  shaft  having  a  hollow  side, 
and  a  screw  at  the  end  for  boring  the  wood;  the  handle  of  wood 
is  fixed  transversely  to  the  shaft.  A  gimlet  is  always  a  small 
tool.  A  similar  tool  of  large  size  is  called  an  "  auger  "  (see 
Tool). 

QIlILI,.in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  great  hall  of  heaven 
whither  the  righteous  will  go  to  spend  eternity. 

GIMP,  or  Gymp.  (i)  (Of  somewhat  doubtful  origin,  but  prob- 
ably a  nasal  form  of  the  Fr.  guipure,  from  guiper,  to  cover  or 
*'  whip  "  a  cord,  over  with  silk),  a  stiff  trimming  made  of  silk 
or  cotton  woven  around  a  firm  cord,  often  further  ornamented 
by  a  metal  cord  running  through  it.  It  is  also  sometimes 
covered  with  bugles,  beads  or  other  glistening  ornaments.    The 


trimming  employed  by  upholsterers  to  edge  curtains,  draperies, 
the  seals  of  chairs,  &c.,  b  also  called  gimp;  and  in  lace  work 
it  is  the  firmer  or  coarser  thread  which  outlines  the  pattern  and 
strengthens  the  material  (2)  A  shortened  form  of  gimple  (the 
O.E.  wimple),  the  kerchief  worn  by  a  nun  around  her  throat, 
sometimes  abo  applied  to  a  nun's  stomacher. 

GIN,  an  aromatized  or  compounded  potable  spirit,  the  char- 
acterbtic  flavour  of  which  b  derived  from  the  juniper  berry. 
The  word  "  gin  "  b  an  abbreviation  of  Geneva,  both  being 
primarily  derived  from  the  Fr.  geniktre  (juniper).  Tlie  use  of 
the  juniper  for  flavouring  alcoholic  beverages  may  be  traced  to 
the  invention,  or  perfecting,  by  Count  de  Morret,  son  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  of  juniper  wine.  It  was  the  custom  in  the  early 
days  of  the  spirit  industry,  in  distilling  spirit  from  fermented 
liquors,  to  add  in  the  working  some  aromatic  ingredients,  such 
as  ginger,  grains  of  paradise,  &c.,  to  take  off  the  nauseous 
flavour  of  the  crude  spirits  then  made.  The  invention  of  juniper 
wine,  no  doubt,  led  some  one  to  try  the  juniper  berry  for  this 
purpose,  and  as  thb  flavouring  agent  was  found  not  only  to 
yield  an  agreeable  beverage,  but  also  to  impart  a  valuable 
medic-inal  quality  to  the  spirit,  it  was  generally  made  use  of  by 
makers  of  aromatized  spirits  thereafter.  It  b  probable  that  the 
use  of  grains  of  paradise,  pQ>per  and  so  on,  in  the  eariy  days  of 
^irit  manufacture,  for  the  object  mentioned  above,  indirectly 
gave  rise  to  the  statements  which  are  still  found  in  current  tdct- 
books  and  works  of  reference  as  to  the  use  of  Cayenne  pepper, 
cocculus  indicus,  sulphuric  add  and  so  on,  for  the  purpose  of 
adulterating  spirits.  It  b  quite  certain  that  such  mateiiab  are 
not  used  nowadays,  and  it  would  indeed,  in  view  of  modem 
conditions  of  manufacture  and  of  public  taste,  be  hard  to  find  a 
reason  for  their  use.  The  same  applies  to  the  suggestions  that 
such  substances  as  acetate  of  lead,  alum  or  sulphate  of  zinc  are 
employed  for  the  fining  of  gin. 

There  are  two  dbtinct  types  of  gin,  namely,  the  Dutch  gen^a 
or  koUauds  aiid  the  British  gin.  Each  of  these  types  exbts  in 
the  shape  of  numerous  sub-varieties.  Broadly  speaking,  British 
gin  b  prepared  with  a  highly  rectified  spirit,  whereas  in  the 
manufacture  of  Dutch  gin  a  preliminary  rectification  b  not  an 
integral  part  of  the  process.  The  old-fashioned  Hollands  b 
prepared  much  after  the  following  fashion.  A  mash,  consbting 
of  about  one-third  of  malted  barley  or  here  and  two-thirds  rye- 
meal  is  prepared,  and  infused  at  a  somewhat  high  temperature. 
After  cooling,  the  whole  b  set  to  ferment  with  a  small  quantity 
of  yeast.  After  two  to  three  days  the  attenuation  b  complete, 
and  the  wash  so  obtained  b  dbtilled,  and  the  resulting  dbtillate 
(the  low  wines)  b  redbtilled,  with  the  addition  of  the  flavouring 
matter  Quniper  berries,  &c.)  and  a  little  salt.  Originally  the 
juniper  berries  were  ground  with  the  malt,  but  thb  practice  no 
longer  obtains,  but  some  dbtillers,  it  b  believed,  still  mix  the 
juniper  berries  with  the  wort  and  subject  the  whole  to  fermenta- 
tion.  When  the  redbtillalion  over  juniper  b  repeated,  the 
product  b  termed  double  (f^fieva,  &c.).  There  are  numerous 
variations  in  the  process  described,  wheat  being  frequently, 
employed  in  lieu  of  rye.  In  the  manufacture  of  Britbh  gin,^ 
a  highly  rectified  Spirit  (see  Spiiuts)  b  redbtilled  in  the  presence 
of  the  flavouring  matter  (principally  juniper  and  coriander), 
and  frequently  thb  operation  b  repeated  several  times.  The 
product  so  obtained  constitutes  the  "  dry  "  gin  of  commerce. 
Sweetened  or  cordialized  gin  b  obtained  by  adding  sugar  and 

'  The  precise  origin  of  the  term  "  Old  Tom,"  as  applied  to  un- 
sweetened  gin,  appears  to  be  somewhat  obscure.  In  the  Englbh 
case  of  Board  ^  Son  v.  Huddart  (1903),  in  which  the  plaintiffs  estab- 
lished their  right  to  the  "  Cat  Brand  "  trade-mark,  it  was  proved 
before  Mr  Justice  Swinfen  Eady  that  this  firm  had  first  adopted 
about  184Q  the  punning  association  of  the  picture  of  a  Tom  cat 
on  a  barrel  with  the  name  of  "  Old  Tom  " ;  and  it  was  at  one  time 
supposed  that  this  was  due  to  a  tradition  that  ^  cat  had  fallen  into 
one  of  the  vats,  the  gin  from  which  was  highly  esteemed.  But  the 
term  "  Old  Tom  "  had  been  known  before  that.and  Messrs  Boord  & 
Son  inform  us  that  previously  "  Old  Tom  "  had  been  a  man,  namely 
"  old  Thomas  Chamberlain  of  Hodge's  di&tiUcry  " ;  an  old  label 
book  in  their  possession  (1909)  shows  a  label  and  bill-head  with  a 
picture  of  "  C^d  Tom  **  the  man  on  it.  and  another  label  shows  a 
picture  of  a  sailor  lad  on  ^ipboard  described  as  "  Young  Tom." 


GINDELY— GINGER 


27 


fitvDuring  rnittcT  juniper,  coriandtr,  ingclict,  &c.)  to  Ihe  dry 
viriety.  Inferior  qiulitia  of  fio  ve  mkdc'by  umply  Jtddjng 
fueatimloils  lopLun  ipiril,  the  daLilLalkiD  process  bdn^omitlcd. 
Hie  eBcnlial  oil  ol  juniper  is  >  powerful  diuitlic,  ud  gin  is 
fiequently  piescribed  in  iScctions  of  the  ucinuy  oiflUM. 

CIKDBLT,  iUmiM  (iSi^-iSgi),  Ctnoin  hisloriin,  wu  Ihc 
son  o(  (  Gamin  fitbor  lad  >  ^vodIi;  mother,  uid  vas  bom  it 
Pngue  on  the  jcd  o(  Seplerabei  tSag.  He  iiudied  ai  Prigue 
and  at  OlmUIi,  and,  ailer  ttavdJing  extensively  in  leirch  ot 
iiisioncal  maierial,  becuoe  pmfeuor  of  hisloiy  at  the  univniity 
ol  Pngue  and  aichiviit  for  Bolieinii  in  1861.  He  died  al 
Pia^ue  on  [lie  i^h  of  October  1S91.  Gindely's  chiel  woik  ia 
his  Cackicka  da  drtiintjllkriten  Kne^i  [Pngui,  1969-iBBo), 
which  has  been  Iranslaled  into  English  (New  York,  1SS4)', 
and  his  historical  work  a  mainly  concerned  wilh  the  period  oT  the 
TMny  Yean'  Wu.  Fnfaaps  the  most  important  ol  his  numerous 
olhci  woriu  are:  Cttdndiit  itr  bcMmiKlicit.  Briidcr  (Fragut, 
1857-1S5S):  XnM/  //.  >>k(  mi'm  Ziil  (ig«i-iX6S).  and  1  crili- 
dsm  of  Wallemtdn,  WaUiitin  vikraid  stinu  trUcn  Ccnrralmi 
(18M).  He  wrote  1  hiiioty  o(  Beihlen  Cabot  in  Hungarian, 
and  edited  the  Uimamaila  kiileriai  BttiMua.  Gindely's 
posihunuus  work,  CtickidiU  da  Getmrijemaliim  in  Bihmtn, 
ns  edited  by  T.  Tupeti  (1804). 

Srr  the  Alltimriiit  itxliJit  Bmpapkit.  Band  49  (l^ipiif,  1904). 

SnOiUJa  or  JIHCAL  (Hindoslani  janjal),  a  gun  used  by  the 
nalives  thiougbout  Ibe  East,  usually  ■  light  piece  mounted  on 
■  iwivel;  it  sometima  Ukci  the  lotin  of  a  heavy  musket  Bred 

GUI6BB  (Fr,  fin[imbre.  Cer.  fnfxr),  the  rhlHime  01  under- 
ground stem  of  Zirtiibir  affia'iwit  (nat.  ordr  Zingibcraceae),  a 
peicnniil  reed-like  pbnt  growing  fnm  j  to  4  It.  high.  The 
Bowers  and  leaves  are  borne  on  separate  alems,  those  of  the 
former  being  shorter  than  those  of  the  latter,  and  averaging  from 
6  to  1 1  in.  The  flowers  theraselvn  are  borne  at  the  apei  of  the 
stems  in  dense  ovate-oblong  cone-like  spikes  ftoin  1  lo  3  in.  long, 
composed  of  obtuse  strongly-imbricated  bracts  wit  b  membranous 
marvBS,  each  braft  enclosing  a  single  small  sessile  flower.  The 
lava  are  alteniale  and  arranged  in  two  rows,  bright  gr«n, 
BDOOth.  tapering  it  both  ends,  with  very  shoil  stilks  and  long 
tbcKhi  which  stand  away  from  the  tiem  and  end  in  two  small 
rounded  autidca.  The  pUnt  nrdy  flower*  and  the  fiuil  is 
unknown^  '  Though  not  found  in  a  wild  tlile,  it  is  conudered 
with  very  good  nason  10  be  a  riati  ve  of  the  warmer  pans  of  Asia, 
over  which  il  has  been  cultivated  from  an  early  period  and  Ihe 
rhiiome  imported  Into  England.  From  Asia  the  plant  has  spread 
inio  ihe  West  Indict,  South  America,  western  ttoincal  Africa, 
■nd  AuiUilia.    Il  Is  comnwDly  grown  in  botanic  gardeiu  in 

The  use  o(  ^nger  «*  ■  spies  has  b«n  known  from  very  early 
limes;  it  was  supposed  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  la  be  a 
product  of  Miilhem  Arabia,'  and  was  received  by  them  by  way. 
of  the  Red  Sea;  in  India  it  has  also  been  known  liDm  a  very 
remote  period,  the  Greek  and  Latin  names  being  derived  from 
the  Sanskrit.  FlUckiger  and  Hanbury,  in  (heir  Pkarmatapafkia, 
give  the  following  notes  on  the  history  of  ginger.  On  the 
authority  ol  Vincent's  Ctmmine  and  Natigalwa  0/  llu  Anriinli, 


Hable  11 


Kondcf 


!ury  ol  0 


e  Roman  Asc^  duly,  gingti 

■s.  So  frequent  is  the  meniion  of  ginger  in  similar 
lisu  during  the  middle  ages,  that  it  evidently  constituted  an 
imponant  item  in  the  commerce  between  Europe  and  the  East. 
Il  ihus  ippcan  In  the  tariff  of  duties  levied  al  Acre  in  Palctline 
about  I17J,  in  that  of  Barcelona  in  iiii,  Marscillcl  in  iIiS 
and  Paris  in  1796.  Giii|er  seenis  10  have  been  well  known  in 
England  even  before  the  Nonnan  Conquest,  being  often  referred 
io  in  the  Anglo-Saion  leech-books  of  the  mh  century.    It  was 


value  to  pepper,  wl 


irh  wai  then  Ibe  commonesi  of  all  spices 
cragc  about  l>.  7d.  per  lb.  Three  kinds  0 
among  the  merchants  of  Inly  about  ih 
cenlurv:  (1)  Bdkdi  or  Baladi.  an  Arabi 


to  Columbura,  Kolam  or  (Juilon,  a  port  in  Tiavancore,  fi 
quenily  mentioned  In  the  middle  ages;  and  (j)  UicMtu, 
rmme  which  denoted  that  the  spice  had  been  brought  from 
by  way  of  Mecca.    Marco  Polo  seems  10  have  seen  the  ginger 
plant  both  in  India  and  China  between  i  iBo  and  1 190.    John  of 

Montecotvino,  a  missionary  fria      '      " 

^v«  a  desoipiioo  of  the  plant,  a 

being  dug  up  and  transported.     Nicolo  di  Conlo,  1  Venetian 

merchant  in  the  early  part  of  the  ijtb  cenluiy,  also  describes 

the  plant  and  the  collection  of  Ihe  root,  as  seen  by  him  in  India. 

Though  Ihe  Venetians  received  ginger  by  way  o(  EgypI, 

the  superior  kinds  were  taken  from  India  overlai 


Sea.    The  i 


is  said  to  have  be«a  lottoduci 


^%f> 


4.     nece   ol   leafy  stem.    1-3    i.  Tip  of   iiyle   bearing   the 

enlargetL  itlgma. 

t.     Sepals.  t.  Style. 

t,     Petals.  gJ,  Haney.«ileliilg  glands. 

by  Francisco  de  Mendoci,  who  took  it  from  the  East  Indies  to 
New  Spain.  It  seems  to  have  been  shipped  for  commercial  pur- 
poses from  Sin  Domingo  as  early  as  1585,  and  from  Barbados 


the  Wait  Im 

ies  to  Spain. 

Ginger  is 

distin 

I  forms 

termed 

respectively 

coated  and 

ancoaled  ginger 

ash 

vingof 

wanliiw 

theepidermi 

For  the fi 

icha 

caUed 

or  "  hands,' 

from  their 

are  washed  and 

simply  dried 

in  Ihe  sun. 

In  this  form  gi 

gerp 

brown. 

irregularly 

edsu 

d  when 

broken  show 

s  a  dark  br 

ownish  Iraclure 

hard 

and  so 

homy  and  n 

sinous.     T 

d^n 

ger  the 

are  washed. 

scraped  an 

d^unXid,  " 

i  lie 

^bjtcted 

ol  bleachi 

g,  either  from 

the  1 

ii^uCby  immersion 

lor  1  short  time 

aasolallono 

ated  lime. 

TTie  whitewashed  appcann 

t  much 

ol   the 

ginger  has,  a 

s  seen  in  ih 

shops,  is  due  I 

Ihe 

act  ol 

s  being 

wished  in  w 

hiving  and  water,  or  even  coated 

>»iLh  sui 

haleo' 

28 


GINGHAM— GINKEL 


lime.  This  artificial  coating  is  supposed  by  some  to  give  the 
gingei"  a  better  appearance;  it  often,  however,  covers  an  inferior 
quality,  and  can  readily  be  detected  by  the  ease  with  which  it 
rubs  off,  or  by  its  leaving  a  white  powdery  substance  at  the  bottom 
of  the  jar  in  which  it  is  contained.  Uncoaled  ginger,  as  seen 
in  trade,  varies  from  single  joints  an  inch  or  leu  in  length  to 
flattish  irregularly  branched  pieces  of  several  joints,  the  "  races  " 
or  "  hands,"  and  from  3  to  4  in.  long;  each  branch  has  a  depres- 
sion at  its  summit  showing  the  former  attachment  of  a  leafy 
stem.  The  colour,  when  not  whitewashed,  is  a  pale  buff;  it  is 
somewhat  rough  or  fibrous,  breaking  with  a  short  mealy  fracture, 
and  presenting  on  the  surfaces  of  the  broken  parts  numerous  short 
bristly  fibres. 

The  principal  constituents  of  ginser  are  starch,  volatile  oil  (to 
which  the  characteristic  odour  01  the  spice  is  due)  and  resin  (to 
which  is  attributed  its  pungency).  Its  chief  use  is  as  a  condiment 
OT  spke,  but  as  an  aromatic  and  stomachic  medicine  it  is  alio  used 
internally.  "  The  stimulant,  aromatic  and  carminative  properties 
render  it  of  much  value  in  atonic  dyspepsia,  especially  if  accom- 
panied with  much  flatulence,  and  as  an  adjunct  to  purgative  medtr 
cincs  to  correct  griping."  Externally  applied  as  a  rubefacient,  it 
has  been  found  to  relieve  headache  and  toothache.  The  rhizomes, 
collected  in  a  young  green  state,  washed,  scraped  and  preserved  in 
syrup,  form  a  delicious  preserve,  which  b  largely  expoitcd  both 
from  the  West  Indies  and  from  China.  *  Cut  up  into  pieces  like 
losenges  and  preserved  in  sugar,  ginger  also  forms  a  very  agreeable 
sweetmeat. 

OINOHAM*  a  cotton  or  linen  doth,  for  the  name  of  which 
several  origins  are  suggested.  It  is  said  to  have  been  made  at 
Guingamp,  a  town  in  Brittany;  the  New  Emglisk  Diciwnary 
derives  the  word  from  Malay  ging-gangf  meaning  "striped." 
The  cloth  is  now  of  a  light  or  medium  wei^^t,  and  woven  of  dyed 
or  white  yams  either  in  a  single  colour  or  different  colours,  and 
in  stripes,  checks  or  plaids. '  It  is  made  in  Lancashire  and 
in  Glasgow,  and  also  to  a  large  extent  in  the  United  States. 
Imitations  of  it  are  obtained  by  calico-printing  It  is  used  for 
dresses,  &c 

OIMQI,  or  GiNCEE,  a  rock  fortress  of  southern  India,  in  the 
South  Arcot  district  of  Madras.  It  consists  of  three  hills,  con- 
nected by  walls  enclosing  an  area  of  7  sq.  m.,  and  practically 
impregnable  to  assault.  The  origin  of  the  fortress  is  shrouded 
in  legend.  When  occupied  by  the  Mahrattas  at  the  end  of  the 
17th  century,  it  withstood  a  siege  of  eight  years  against  the  armies 
of  Aurangxeb.  In  1 750  it  was  captured  by  the  French,  who  held 
it  with  a  strong  force  for  eleven  years.  It  surrendered  to  the 
English  in  1761,  in  the  words  of  Orme,  "  terminated  the  k>ng 
hostilities  between  the  two  rival  European  powers  in  Coromandel, 
and  left  not  a  sin^e  ensign  of  the  French  nation  avowed  by  the 
authority  of  its  government  in  any  part  of  India." 

OIHGUBint  PIERRE  LOUU  (174S-181S),  French  author, 
was  bom  on  the  27th  of  April  1748  at  Rennes,  in  Brittany.  He 
was  educated  at  a  Jesuit  college  in  his  native  town,  and  came 
to  Paris  in  1773.  He  wrote  criticisms  for  the  Mercmre  de  Fratue^ 
and  composed  a  comic  opera,  Pomponiu  (1777). .  The  Satire  ies 
spires  (1778)  and  the  ConjfessioH  de  Zulmi  (1779)  followed. 
The  Cenfessum  was  claimed  by  six  or  seven  different  authors,  and 
though  the  value  of  the  piece  is  not  very  great,  it  obtained  great 
success.  Hb  defence  of  IMcdni  against  the  partisans  of  Gluck 
made  him  still  more  widely  known.  He  hailed  the  first  symptoms 
of  the  Revolution,  joined  Giuseppe  Cenitti,  the  author  of  the 
Mimoirt  pour  U  peupU  fraHfois  (1788),  and  others  in  producing 
the  PeuiUe  viUageoise,  a  weekly  paper  addressed  to  the  villages 
of  France.  He  also  celebrated  in  an  indifferent  ode  the  opening 
of  the  states-general.  In  hb  Lettres  sttr  Us  confessions  de  J.-J. 
Rousseau  (i79r)  he  defended  the  life  and  prindples4>f  hb  author. 
He  was  imprisoned  during  the  Terror,  and  only  escaped  with 
life  by  the  downfall  of  Robespierre.  Some  time  after  hb  release 
he  assisted,  as  director-general  of  the  "  commission  executive 
de  I'instroction  publique,"  in  reorganizing  the  system  of  public 
instruction,  and  he  was  an  ori^nal  member  of  the  Institute  of 
France..  In  ^797  the  directory  appointed  him  minuter  pleni- 
potentiary to  the  king  of  Sardinia.  After  fulfilling  hb  duties 
for  seven  months,  very  little  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  employers, 
Ginguen£  retired  for  a  time  to  hb  country  house  of  St  Prix,  in 


nii\ 


the  valley  of  Montmorency.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  tribunate,  but  Napoleon,  finding  that  he  was  not  suffictently 
tractable,  had  him  expelled  at  the  first  "  purge,"  tnd  Gingueni 
returned  to  hb  literary  pursuits.  He  was  one  of  the  conunissioo 
charged  to  continue  the  Hisioire  lUUraire  de  la  Pramee,  and  be 
contributed  to  the  volumes  of  thb  series  which  appeared  in  18x4. 
18 1 7  and  1830.  Gingueni's  most  important  work  b  the  Hisioire 
littiraire  d*Italie  (14  vols.,  x8xx-x83s).  He  was  putting  the 
finishing  touches  to  the  eighth  and  ninth  volumes  when  he  died 
on  the.  xxth  of  November  18x5.  The  last  five  volumes  were 
written  by  Francesco  Salfi  and  revised  by  Pierre  Daunou. 

In  the  composition  of  hb  hbtory  of  Italian  literature  he  was 
guided  for  the  most  part  by  the  great  work  of  Girolamo  Tirsbosdil, 
but  he  avoids  the  prejudices  and  party  views  of  hb  model 

GinguenA  edited  tli^  Dicade  pkitosofk^ue^  politique  et  liUirasre 
till  it  was  suppressed  by  Napoleon  in  I807.  He  contributed  laigdy 
to  the  BiograPkie  unioerselle,  the  Mercure  de  France  and  the.  £«- 
cydopUie  mUkodique;  and  he  edited  the  works  of  Chamfort  and  of 
Lebnin.  Among  nb  minor  productions  are  an  opera,  Pomponin 
on  le  tuteur  mystiJU  (1777);  l^  Satire  des  sattres  (1778):  De 
fautoriU  de  Raodais  dans  Us  riotdulion  prisente  {it^i)'^  De  M. 

torn. 

_      ^   . of  the 

Hist.  litt.  d'llalie:  |D.  J.  Garat.  N<^ice  sur  la  vie  et  Us  omfrages  de 
P.  L.  Cnsngeni,  prefixed  to  a  catalogue  of  hb  library  (Paris,  181 7). 

GINKBU  OODART  VAN  (1630-1703),  xst  eari  of  Athlone, 
Dutch  general  in  the  service  of  En|^and,  was  bora  at  Utrecht 
in  1630.  He  came  of  a  noble  family,  and  bore  the  title  of  Baron 
van  Reede,  being  the  eldest  son  of  Godart  Adrian  van  Reedc, 
Baron  GinkeL  In  his  youth  he  entered,  the  Dutch  army,  and  in 
x688  he  followed  William,  prince  of  Orange,  in  hb  expedition  to 
England.  In  the  following  year  he  dbtingubhed  himself  by 
a  memorable  exploit — the  pursuit,  defeat  and  capture  of  a  Scottish 
regiment  which  had  mutinied  at  Ipswich,  and  was  marching 
northward  across  the  fens.  It  was  the  alarm  excited  by  thb 
mutiny  that  facilitated  the  passing  of  the  first  Mutiny  Act.  In 
1690  Ginkel  accompanied  William  III.  to  Ireland,  and  com- 
manded a  body  of  Dutch  cavalry  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne. 
On  the  king's  retum  to  England  General  Ginkel  was  entrusted 
with  the  conduct  of  the  war.  He  took  the  field  in  the  4>ring  of 
XJ691,  and  established  hb  headquarters  at  Mullingar.  Among 
those  who  held  a  command  under  him  was  the  marqmsof 
Ruvigny,  the  reoognixed  chief  of  the  Huguenot  refugees.  Early  in 
June  Giiikel  took  the  fortress  of  Ballymore,  capturing  the  whole 
garrison  of  xooo  men.  The  English  lost  only  8  men.  After 
rcconstracting  the  fortifications  of  Ballymore  the  army  marched 
to  Athlone,  thtn  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  fortified  towns 
of  Ireland.  The  Irish  defenders  of  the  place  were  commanded 
by  a  dbtinguished  French  general,  Saint-Ruth.  The  firing 
began  on  June  X9th,  and  on.  the  30th  the  town  was  stormed, 
the  Irish  army  retreating  towards  Galwsy,  and  taking  up  their 
position  at  Aughrim.  Having  strengthened  the  fortifications 
of  Athlone  and  left  a  garrison  there,  Ginkel  led  the  English, 
on  July  X2th,  to  Aughrim.  An  immediate  attack  was  resolved 
on,  and,  after  a  severe  and  at  one  time  doubtful  contest,  the 
criiis  was  precipitated  by  the  fall  of  Saint-Ruth,  and  the 
disorganized  Irish  were  defeated  and  fled.  A  horrible  slsiighter 
of  the  Irish  followed  the  struggle,  and  4000  corpses  were  left 
unburied  on  the  field,  besides  a  multitude  of  others  that  lay 
along  the  Ifne  of  the  retreat.  Galway  next  capitulated,  its 
garrison  being  permitted  to  retire  to  Limerick.  There  the  viceroy 
Tyrconnel  was  in  command  of  a  large  force,  but  hb  sudden  death 
early  in  August  left  the  command  in  the  hands  of  General  Sars- 
field  and  the  Frenchman  D'Usson.  The  English  came  in  sight  of 
the  town  on  the  day  oLTyrconnel's  death,  and  the  bombardment 
was  immediately  begun.  Ginkel,  by  a  bold  device,  crossed  the 
Shannon  and  captured  the  camp  of  the  Irish  cavalry.  A  few  days 
later  he  stormed  the  fort  on  Thomond  Bridge,  and  after  difficult 
negotiations  a  capitulation  was  signed,  the  terms  of  which  were 
divided  into  a  dvil  and  a  military  treaty.  Thus  was  completed 
the  conquest  or  padfication  of  Ireland,  and  the  services  of  the 
Dutch  general  were  amply  recognized  and  rewarded.  He  re-' 
ceived.the  formal  thanks  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  wa« 


GINSBURG— GIOBERTI 


29 


ocated  by  die  king  ist  earl  of  Athlone  and  baron  of  Aughrim. 
The  immenac  forfeited  catales  of  the  earl  of  Limerick  were  given 
to  him,  but  the  grant  wu  a  few  years  later  revoked  by  the  English 
parliament.  Tlie  earl  continued  to  serve  in  the  Eng^Ush  army, 
and  accompanied  the  king  to  the  continent  in  1693.  He  fought 
at  the  sieges  of  Namur  and  the  battle  of  Neerwinden,  and 
assisted  in  destroying  the  French  magazine  at  Givet.  In  1703, 
waiving  his  own  claims  to  the  position  of  commander-in-chief, 
he  commanded  the  Dutchservtng  under  the  duke  of  Mariboxough. 
He  died  at  Utrecht  on  the  nth  of  February  1703,  and  was 
socceeded  by  his  son  the  and  eari  (1668-1719),  a  distinguished 
soldier  in  the  reigns  of  William  III.  and  Anne.  On  the  death 
ol,the  9th  earl  without  issue  in  1844,  the  title  became  extinct. 

6mBUaO.  christian  DAVID  (1831-  ),  Hebrew  scholar, 
was  bom  at  Warsaw  on  the  asth  of  December  1831 .  Coming  to 
England  shortly  after  the  completion  of  his  education  in  the 
Rabbinic  College  at  Warsaw,  Dr  Ginsburg  continued  his  study 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  with  H>ecial  attention  to  the  Megilloth. 
The  first  result  of  these  studies  was  a  transbttion  of  the  Song 
of  Songs,  with  a  commentary  historical  and  critical,  published 
in  1857.  A  similar  translation  of  Ecdeaiaates,  followed  by 
treatises  on  the  Karaites,  on  the  Essenes  and  on  the  Kabbala, 
kept  the  author  prominently  before  biblical  students  while  be 
was  preparing  the  first  sections  of  his  magnum  opus,  the  critical 
study  of  the  Massorah.  Beginning  in  1867  with  the  publication 
ot  Jacob  ben  Chajim's  Introduction  to  the  Rabbinic  Bible, 
Hebrew  and  Eni^ish,  with  notices,  and  the  Massoretb  Ha- 
Masaoreth  of  Elias  Levita,  in  Hebrew,  with  translation  and 
comoaentary,  Dr  Ginsburg  took  rank  as  an  eminent  Hebrew 
scholar.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  first  members 
of  the  committee  for  the  revision  of  the  English  version  of  the 
Old  Testament.  His  life-work  culminated  in  the  publication 
of  the  Massorah,  in  three  volumes  Jolio  (1880-1886),  followed 
1^  the  Masoretico-critical  edition  of  the  Het^reF  Bible  (1894), 
and  tlie«elaborate  introduction  to  it  (1897).  Dr  Ginsburg  had 
one  predecessor  in  the  field,  the  learned  Jacob  ben  Chajim,  who 
in  1514-1525  published  the  second  Rabbinic  Bible,  containing 
what  has  ever  since  been  known  as  the  Massorah;  but  neither 
were  the  materials  available  nor  was  criticism  sufficiently 
advanced  for  a  complete  edition.  Dr  Ginsburg  took  up  the 
subject  almost  where  it  was  left  by  those  eariy  pioneers/  and 
collected  portions  of  the  Massorah  from  the  countless  MSS. 
scattered  throughout  Europe  and  the  East.  More  recently 
Dr  Ginsburg  has  published  PacsimUts  of  Manuscripts  of  tiU 
Hebrtm  BibU  (1897  and  1898),  and  Tko  Text  oftko  Bebrm  BibU 
HI  AbbreouUious  (1903),  in  addition  to  a  critical  treatise  "  on  the 
relationship  of  the  so-called  Codez  Babylonicua  of  a.d.  916  to 
tbe  Eastern  Recension  of  the  Hebrew  Teit "  (1899,  for  private 
circulation).  In  the  last-mentioned  work  he  seeks  to  prove  that 
the  St  Petersburg  Codez,  for  so  many  years  accepted  as  the 
genuine  test  of  the  Babylonian  school,  is  in  reality  a  Palestinian 
test  carefully  altered  so  as  to  render  it  conformable  to  the 
Babylonian  recension.  He  subsequently  undertook  thfc  prepara- 
tion of  a  new  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  for  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society.  He  also  contributed  many  articles  to 
J.  Kitto's  Encyclopaedia,  W.  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Christian 
Biegropky  and  the  Ettcydopaedia  Britannica. 

ttlNSBNO,  the  root  of  a  apedes  of  Panax  (PjGinseng),  native  of 
Manchuria  and  Korea,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Araliaceae, 
used  in  China  as  a  medidne.  Other  roots  are  substituted  for  it, 
notably  that  oiPanax  quinquefdium,  distinguished  as  American 
ginseng,  and  imported  from  the  United  States.  At  one  time 
the  ginseng  obtained  from  Manchuria  was  considered  to  be  the 
finest  quality,  and  in  consequence  became  so  scarce  that  an 
imperial  edict  was  issued  |»ohibittng  its  collection.  That 
{wepared  in  Korea  is  no w  t  he  most  esteemed  variety.  The  root  of 
the  wild  plant  is  preferred  to  that  of  cultivated  ginseng,  and  the 
older  the  plant  the  better  is  the  quality  of  the  root  considered  to 
be.  Great  care  is  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the  drug.  The 
account  given  by  Koempfer  of  the  preparation  of  nindsin,  the 
root  <^  Sium  ninsif  in  Korea,  will  give  a  good  idea  of  the  prepara- 
two  of  ginseng,  ninsi  being  a  similar  drug  of  supposed  weaker 


virtue,  obtained  from  a  different  plant,  and  often  confounded 
with  ginseng.  "In  the  beginning  of  winter  nearly  all  the 
population  of  Sjansai  turn  out  to  collect  the  root,  and  make 
preparations  for  sleeping  in  the  fields.  The  root,  when  collected, 
is  macerated  for  three  days  in  fresh  water,  or  water  in  which 
rice  has  been  boiled  twice;  it  is  then  suspended  in  a  dosed 
vessd  over  th^fire,  and  afterwards  dried,  until  from  the  base  to 
the  middle  it  asaumes  a  hard,  rennoua  and  translucent  appear- 
ance, which  is  considered  a  proof  o'f  its  good  quality." 

Ginseng  of  good  quality  generally  occurs-  in  hard,  rather 
brittle,  translucent  pieces,  about  the  size  of  the  little  finger, 
and  varying  in  length  from  a  to  4  in.  The  taste  is  mudlaginous, 
sweetish  and  liightly  bitter  and  aromatic  The  root  is  frequently 
forked,  and  it  Is  probably  owing  to  this  circumstance  that 
medicinal  properties  were  in  the  first  place  attributed  to  it, 
its  resemblance  to  the  body  of  a  man  being  supposed  to  indicate 
that  it  could  restore  virile  power  to  the  aged  and  impotent. 
In  price  it  varies  from  6  or  xs  dollars  to  the  enormous  sum  of 
300  or  400  dollars  an  ounce. 

Lockhart  gives  a  graphic  description  of  a  visit  to  a  ginseng  mer- 
chant. Opening  the  outer  box,  the  merchant  removed  severafpaper 
Kneels  which  appeared  to  fill  the  box,  but  under  them  was  a  second 
X,  or  perhaps  two  small  boxes,  which,  when  taken  out,  showed 
the  bottom  of  the  lane  box  and  all  the  Intervening  apace  filled  with 
more  paper  parcels.  These  parcels,  be  said,  "  contained  quicklime, 
for  the  purpose  of  absorbiiw  any  moiscure  and  keeping  the  boxes 
quite  dcy,  the  lime  being  packed  in  paper  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness. 
The  smaller  box,  which  neld  the  ainseng,  was  lined  with  sheet-lead ; 
the  ginseng  further  enclosed  in  silk  wrsppen  was  kept  in  little  silken- 
covered  boxes.  Taking  up  a  piece,  he  would  request  his  visitor  not 
to  breathe  upon  it,  nor  handle  it;  he  would  dilate  upon  the  many 
merits  of  the  drug  and  the  cures  it  had  effected.  The  cover  of  tbie 
root,  aococding  to  its  quality,  was  silk,  dther  embroidered  or  plain, 
cotton  ckHh  or  paper."  In  China  the  ginseng  is  often  sent  to 
friends  as  a  valuable  present;  in  such  cases,  "accompanying  the 
medidne  is  usually  given  a  small,  beautifully-finished  doubw  kettle, 
in  which  the  ginseng  is  prepared  as  follows.  The  inner  kettle  is 
made  of  silver,  and  between  this  and  the  outnde  vessel,  whidi  is  a 
copper  Jacket,  is  a  small  space  for  holding  water.  The  Mver  kettle, 
which  nts  on  a  ring  near  the  top  of  the  outer  covering,  has  a  cup-like 
cover  in  which  rice  is  irfaced  with  a  little  water;  the  ginseng  is  put 
in  the  inner  vessd  with  water,  a  cover  is  placed  over  the  whole,  and 
the  apparatus  is  put  on  the  fire.  When  the  rice  in  the  cover  is  suffi- 
ciently cooked,  the  medidne  is  ready,  and  is  then  eaten  by  the 
patient,  who  drinks  the  ginseng  tea  at  the  same  time.'*  The  dose 
of  the  root  b  from  60  to  90  grains.  During  the  use  of  the  drug  tea- 
drinking  is  forbidden  for  at  least  a  month,  but  no  other  chaiwe  is 
made  in  the  diet.  It  is  taken  in  the  morning  bdore  breakfast,  iiora 
three  to  dght  days  together,  and  sometimes  it  is  taken  in  the  evening 
before  going  to  bed. 

The  action  of  the  drug  appears  to  be  entirely  psychic,  and  com- 
paiaUe  to  that  of  the  mandrake  of  the  HetMtnrs.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  it  pnssessci  any  pharmacological  or  therapeutic 
properties. 

see  Porter  Smith,  Chinese  Materia  Medica,  p.  103;  Reports  on 
Trade  at  the  Treaty  Ports  of  China  (1868).  p.  6y,  Lockhart.  Med, 
Missionary  in  China  (and  ed.),  p.  107;  BuU.  de  b  SeciiU  ImUriaU 
de  Nat.  de  Moscou  (1865),  Na  i,  pp.  70-76;  Pharmaceutical  Journal 
(2),  vol.  iii.  pp.  is|7,  333,  (a),  vol.  ix.  p.  77;  Lewb,  Materia  Medica, 
p.  334;  Geoffroy,  Tract,  de  matihre  wntaiuue,  t.  ii.  p.  iia;  Kaempfer, 

OIOBBRTI,  VINCBNZO  (1801-1852),  Italian  philosopher, 
publidst  and  politician,  was  bom  in  Turin  on  the  5th  of  April 
1801.  He  was  educated  by  the  fathers  of  the  Oratory  with  a 
view  to  the  priesthood  and  ordained  in  1825.  At  first  he  led  a 
^ery  retired  life;  but  gradually  took  more'  and  more  interest 
in  the  affairs  of  his  country  and  the  new  political  ideas  as  well 
as  in  the  b'terature  of  the  day.  Partly  under  the  influence  of 
Mazzini,  the  freedom  of  Italy  became  his  ruling  motive  in  life,— 
its  emandpatlon,  not  only  from  foreign  masters,  but  from  modes 
of  thought  aliei^  to  its  genius,  and  detrimental  to  its  European 
authority.  This  authority  was  in  his  mind  connected  with 
papal  supremacy,  though  in  a  way  quite  novel — ^intellectual 
rather  than  politicaL  "nila  must  be  remembered  in  considering 
nearly  all  his  writings,  and  also  In  estimating  his  position,  both 
in  relation  to  the  niling  clerical  party — the  Jesuits— and  also 
to  the  politics  of  the  court  oi  Piedmont  after  the  accession  of 
Charles  Albert  in  1831.  He  was  now  noticed  by  the  king  and 
nuule  one  of  his  chaplains.  His  popularity  and  private  influence, 
however,  were  reasons  enough  for  the  court  party  to  mark  him 


30 

for  elite;  he  warn  not  one  of  tbem,  and  cddd  nol  be  depe&ded  on, 
Kmwing  Oum,  be  resigDed  hii  office  io  iBa,  but  wu  luddenly 
amued  oq  A  dUT^  of  conqNncy,  ud,  Aflcrui  unprisoDmenl  of 
[our  moDthi,  «u  buUbcd  *it)vut  ■  tikL  Ciobcrti  bit  went 
Io  Fuu,  ud,  ■  yeu  totei,  U  Biotwli,  wben  be  rnniioed  till 
1S4J,  tfjcliing  philiMophy,  utd  ewiwirn  ■  (ikod  in  Ibe  wmk 
ol  A  privKtc  Kbool.  He  nevertbelai  Found  time  to  wiite  nuby 
woikl  d  philiMBphial  imiiaRuce,  with  ipecul  rcleima  10  his 
COttUtiy  utd  itft  poaitioii.  An  unnesty  having  been  declared 
by  Cbaria  Albert  in  iM.  Gioboti  (who  wu  igiin  in  Paris) 
was  at  liberty  to  letnm  to  luly,  but  nJused  to  do  » till  (he  end 
ol  1847.  On  hit  entiance  into  Turia  on  [be  iqtb  of  April  ia4S 
be  wai  received  jrith  the  greatest  eothuaiaain.  He  nlused  tbe 
dignity  of  Kutor  oBered  him  by  Chartea  Albett,  prefeningto 
nfmseol  bit  Dative  town  in  tbe  Chaaber  ol  Deputies,  of  which 
be  WIS  soDD  elected  pisident.  At  the  dose  ol  tbe  lame  year, 
a  new  ministry  was  fanned,  headed  by  Ciobcrti;  but  with  the 
acceasioQ  of  Victor  Emmanuel  in  U^ch  i&49i  bii  active  Lite 
am  Io  an  end.  For  a  short  lime  indeed  he  held  a  leal  ia  tbe 
obuKt,  Iboufb  without  a  portfolio;  but  an  irreconciiable 
o  fDlloired,  and  his  removal  bom  Turin  was 
his  appoiDtmeat  on  a  uiMion  to  Paris,  whence 
Be  never  reinmed.  There,  refusini  tbe  petuiaa  which  bad  been 
oBered  him  and  all  ecdeaiaatical  pteftrnKM.  be  lived  frugally, 
and  ^MBt  hb  dayi  and  oigbti  a*  at  Bruseb  in  literary  labour. 
He  died  raddcnly,  of  apoplexy,  on  the  i6tb  ol  October  1851. 

Ciobeni'a  wrhiBp  are  dbcc  ■*t*'****  Ihaa  hb  poStical  career. 
In  Che  fenccal  history  of  Earwcan  pUioaophy  rhn  ^mbA  aput.  A* 
till  UMiilKiiiaa  of  Boinini-Stditi.  aiaiBK  whiA  he  vnee.  have 
ba  olfcd  Ibe  laa  Bak  added  to  medieval  thuifai.  BO  (he  lynem  ol 
Cinbefri,  tnowK  as ,"  ftftcioniii"  mocc  especially  In  hn  pieaia* 
aad  taiSer  wvfci,  it  nanlated  to  otber  Bodcn  icbools  ef  Ibuhl. 
It  ihnn  a  hanuy  with  the  ReoaB  Catholic  bith  lAich  obmI 
Caaila  ts  dedan  that  "IlaUam  phOonifar  waa  still  in  the  bands  of 
thcolafii,"  and  thatCiabeftl  was  ao  phOuMphu.    Method  a  with 


bnia  (Bu);  all  other  lUwi  arc  m.'rlv  nisiirivT^  i~ 
ornBafallhaBwkivwled«(citMI>Jij.  Lh.uthr^  ^. 
tmi  (B  to  By  idmticil  wiib  Ccti  himtclf.  Ii  L*  eIif.- 
Caeutted)  Irr  nuoa.  but  ia  nds  :»  t.- cl  u-^  Kh^H'.: 

rttptOM  a  Platooiit.  ~  He  ■Jtnifia  leliiwa  with  dvilLalior 

coadaiJMi  that  the  diiBch  k  the  axis  od  wbidi  i>-  —11. 
bnu  Dfa  mlvo.    In  it  he  a&nn  tbe  idea  ol 

ntbytheieu 

.oanlifiaDaadi— .^._,.. 

lisHsaaniw  and  the  ftsMbtia,  he  ii  tbsucht  bv  tooae  tc 
d  his  fiouDd  uodce  the  **"■'**■■*  ol  evvnta.    [lis  finX 

*ie  was  thiny-atTea.  had  a  peninal  nuoo  lor  iii 

'-" ' -■  frieaj;  pMitu  Pillii.  having 

K  reality  of  irvrtaina  and  a 

-joa  (ISlS).     ATls  IhiL  phUo- 

..^tir.1  tiaiiKi  ir" — '  ■-  — ■■•  — 1— c;    i-i-  T-.Ti^.rrr. 

fuftewcd  by  /Mrsji 


GIOIOSA-IONICA— OIOJA 


!^3^^  »  tenainolacy 

t^  nli^oa  is  the  direct  enjnt^.y  u,  uk  ■■«  u,  uia«  1 
oae  with  true  dviUiatiaa  ia  hisHrT.  Cvili^tjoa  ii  a  f 
mediate  readenn'  to  pcrfeclioo,  to  wluch  rcUpoa  is  (be 
"*-■'—'  '*  earned o"*  ■  ■•  -  •^— J  J  ,1.- -.«-j  __j- _ 


dnwi^  Ibe  liberal  cteriy 

ed  round  tbepoiiemonhrniiy  afta■L^.«.^.. 
-  -  '  Giolicni'B  wririnn  were  [4>«d  oo  the 

rnnlqH,livehi.2^ 


iii  nmt  in  the  Bni&aiiHi  ol  Itity.    The 


IB67),    The  III 


Clnifiss  UrUpkwn..  ,._, , , , 

(Naples,  lES4)i  A.  Miiin.  DtOa  Vila  i  JiOi  Men  ii  V,  Cutfrll 
(CeBos.  i«u);C.  Prisoa.C>aln«<i'iMUiii>nu(Naiiiei,l867); 
P.  Luciani.  (!w»Mi  ( fa  jlteqU  BMM  ilabua  INapIn,  iU6-i«7i) : 
D.  Berti,  Di  ^.Ciaieni  (FkifeDce.  iHi):iK«lnl-Fcni.L'fliilnrs 
■■-'-  "-'—*S(«/(aji(B.jr/X'.aj.  (Puis,  1669):  C.W«ner. 
/"hidui^t^to /p.  Jahr*nJcFll.ii.(lUs);  appendix 
Hio.  ^  PkHiu^  (Em.  a.):  an.  in  Briiium; 
m  IBouon.  MwyjoD.;  R.  Mariano.  Ls  PUlmtliU 


i;  R.  Seydd'i  ei 


Tbe  o 


ia  Italy. 

GlOIOU-IOnU.  a  town  of  Calabria,  Italy,  io  tbe  province 
of  Reggio  Calabria,  from  which  it i)6s  m.  N.E.  by  nil,  and  j8  m. 
direct,  4g>  ft.  above seS'leveL  Fop.  Cjgoi)Iawn, 9071;  commune, 
it.ioo.  Near  the  Nation,  which  ison  IheE.  cosit  (d  Calabtia 
3  in.  below  tbe  town  Io  tbe  S.E.,  tbe  remains  ol  a  thcalre 
belonging  Io  Ihe  Ronun  period  were  discovered  in  iSSj;  tbe 
uchestia  wu  46  ll.  in  diameter  (Ksficie  ^ffi  soTi,  i33j,p.  41]). 
Tbe  ruins  of  an  ancicat  building  called  the  Naviglio,  Ibe  fialure 
of  which  does  nol  seem  dear,  are  described  (ii.  i8£4,  p.  ij>). 

GKUA,  MEUniOBBB  (1767-181(1),  Italian  writer  on  philo- 
Mphy  and  polilical  economy,  was  bcni  al  Fiaccnia,  on  tbe  10th 
of  Seplembei  1767,  Originijly  inlcoded  (or  the  cburcb,  he  took 
orders,  hut  renounced  them  in  1796  and  went  to  Milan,  where  be 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  ol  polilical  economy,  Hsving 
obtained  the  priic  for  an  essay  on  "  the  kind  of  free  government 
best  adapted  to  Italy  "  he  dcdded  upon  the  career  of  a  publicist. 
The  (nival  ol  Napoleon  in  Italy  drew  him  into  public  life. 
He  advocated  a  tepublic  under  tbe  dominion  of  tlie  French  in 
■  pamphlet  /  Ttdacki,  i  Francai,  (d  i  Xaui  in  Latibtuiui,  and 
under  the  Cisalpine  Republic  he  was  named  historiogrspher 
and  director  ol  atatiilia.  He  was  sercral  times  imprisoned, 
once  for  eight  nHUIbs  in  i8ro  on  a  charge  of  bdng  implicated 
in  a  contpiiacy  wiib  tbe  Caibonaii.  Alter  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
be  retired  into  private  life,  and  does  nol  appear  to  have  held 
office  again.  He  died  on  tbe  rnd  of  January  litg,  Gioja*s 
fundaoxntal  idea  is  the  value  of  statistics  or  the  collection  ol 
facts.  Fh  ikoophy  itsetf  is  wii  h  him  dassi^ca  tion  and  consideralion 
of  ideas.  Logic  heregardedasapracticalail,  and  his  Ex^nrwn 
Ifffui  has  the  further  title.  An  tf  dfrrriwi  brmrfil  Jrtm  Ui-tpm- 
ilnulid  bocli.  In  elhics  GiOfs  follows  Benlbam  Eenetally.  and 
his  large  tieitise  Dd  mcriU  t  iilU  ttamfntsc  (1S18)  is  a  deal 
and  systematic  view  of  sodalelhics  from  [be  uLilitarianprindple. 
In  poUlicalecoDomylhi^  avidity  (or  facts  produced  better  fruits. 
The  ATiuw  PnafrUo  Jdii  ickne  unmule  (iSis-1817), 
although  long  to  excess,  and  overburdened  with  dasaihcationa 
and  Ixhles,  contains  much  valuable  material.  The  aulhor 
prelers  large  properties  and  large  commerdal  Dndertakingi  to 
SDvall  ones,  and  slrongiy  lavouis  assodation  as  a  menu  of  pro- 
duction. -He  defends  a  restrictive  policy  and  insists  on  the 

industrial  world.  He  was  an  opponent  of  ecdesiastical  domina- 
tion. He  must  be  credited  with  the  hnesl  and  moat  original 
trealment  ol  division  ol  labour  lion  the  WalU  ef  StUitnt. 
Much  of  what  Babbage  taught  Ixlet  on  tite  subject  of  combined 
work  »  anticipated  by  Gioja.  His  theory  ol  production  a  also 
deserving  of  allenlion  from  the  fact  that  it  takes  into  account 
and  gives  due  prominence  10  immaterial  goods.  Tbrougboul 
the  work  Ihere  is  continuonsopposition  10  Adam  Smith.  Cioja'i 
work  Fiitiojit}  deilt  iSaiuiita  {3  \   ' 


i8io)co 


ceofhisi 


See  noniwraphs  by  C.  D.  RomanHs  (Ibo),  f.  Fakn  (lUe); 
C.  Pecchio.  SUria  ^  rcimmu  pmbSua  a  /UUi  (lan).  Indanicie 
in  Ench  and  Cniber's  Mlffuitt  EmtydnfUU;  for  Gia^'s  philo- 


!?F5^' 


U  Fcri.  e^ai  • 


ou's  philo- 
■  JlaUiaa 


J»  (1869);  Uebeiwtg'.  HiiL  ^  PMmpty  (En*,  tr.. 
iL);  A.  R«mini.Se^li  Ofm^i  fUufa.  ni.  71844: 
C  sa  attack  ob  Giii>a'>  ••  ■mwitLma  ");  f«  hit  political 


GIOLITTI— GIORGIONE 


3« 


wppowy,  list  of  works  In  J.  Conrad's  HandwdrUrbuch  der  Stools- 
wissensckafim  (1893);  L.  Cossa,  liUrod.  to  Pol.  Econ.  (Eng.  trans., 
p.  488).  oioja  s  complete  works  were  published  at  Lugano  (1832- 
1849).  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Annaii  universalt  di 
iftiiirffifg- 

610UTTI,  OIOVAMlil  (1842-  h  lUUan  statesman,  was 
bom  at  Mondovi  on  the  27th  of  October  1842.  After  a  rapid 
career  in  the  financial  administration  he  was,  in  1882,  appointed 
coondUor  of  sut^  and  elected  to  parliament.  As  deputy  he 
chiefly  acquired  prominence  by  attacks  on  Magliani,  treasury 
minister  in  the  Depretis  cabinet,  and  on  the  9th  of  March  1889 
was  himself  selected  as  treasury  minister  by  Crispi.  On  the  fall 
of  the  Rodin)  cabinet  in  May  1892,  Giolitti,  with  the  help  of  a 
court  clique,  succeeded  to  the  premiership.  His  term  of  office 
was  marked  by  misfortune  and  misgovemment.  The  building 
crisis  and  the  oommerdal  rupture  with  France  had  impaired  the 
situation  of  the  state  banks,  of  which  one,  the  Banca  Romana, 
had  been  further  undermined  by  maladministration.  A  bank 
law,  passed  by  Giolitti  failed  to  effect  an  improvement.  More- 
over, be  irritated  public  opinion  by  raising  |o  senatorial  rank  the 
director-general  of  the  Banca  Romana,  Signor  Tanlongo,  whose 
irregular  practices  had  become  a  byword.  The  senate  declined 
to  admit  Tanlongo,  whom  Giolitti,  in  consequence  of  an  inter- 
pellation in  parliunent  upon  the  condition  of  the  Banca  Romana, 
was  obliged  to  arrest  and  prosecute.  During  the  prosecution 
Giolitti  abused  his  position  as  premier  to  abstract  documents 
bearing  on  the  case.  Simultaneously  a  parliamentary  commission 
of  inquiry  investigated  the  condition  of  the  state  banks.  Its 
report,  though  acquitting  Giolitti  of  personal  dishonesty,  proved 
disastrous  to  his  political  position,  and  obliged  him  to  resign. 
His  fall  left  the  finances  t>f  the  state  disorganised,  the  pensions 
fund  depleted,  diplomatic  relations  with  France  strained  in 
consequence  of  the  massacre  of  Italian  workmen  at  Aigucs- 
Mortcs,  and  Sidly  and  the  Lunigiana  in  a  state  of  revolt,  which 
he  had  proved  impotent  to  suppress.  After  his  resignation  he 
was  impeached  for  abuse  of  power  as  minister,  but  tht  supreme 
court  quashed  the  impeachment  by  denying  the  competence  of 
the  ordinary  tribunals  to  judge  ministerial  acts.  For  several 
years  be  was  compelled  to  play  a  passive  part,  having  lost  all 
credit.  But  by  keeping  in  the  background  and  giving  public 
(pinion  time  to  forget  his  past,  as  irtH  as  by  parliamentary 
intrigue,  he  gradually  regained  much  of  his  former  influence. 
He  made  capital  of  the  Socialist  agitation  and  of  the  repression 
to  which  other  statesmen  resorted,  and  gave  the  agitators  to 
understand  that  were  he  premier  they  would  be  allowed  a  free 
hand.  Thus  he  gained  their  favour,  and  on  the  fall  of  the 
Pdlouz  cabinet  he  became  minister  of  the  Interior  in  Zanardelli's 
administration,  of  which  he  was  the  real  head.  His  policy  of 
never  interfering  in  strikes  and  leaving  even  violent  demonstra- 
tions undisturbed  at  first  proved  successful,  but  indisdpline 
and  disorder  grew  to  such  a  pitch  that  Zanardclli,  already  in 
bad  health,  resigned,  and  Giolitti  succeeded  him asprime  minister 
(November  1903).  But  during  his  tenure  of  office  he,  too,  had  to 
resort  to  strong  jneasures  in  repressing  some  serious  disorders  in 
various  parts  of  Italy,  and  thus  he  lost  the  favour  of  the  Socialists. 
In  March  1905,  feeling  himself  no  longer  secure,  he  resigned, 
Indicating  Forlis  as  his  successor.  When  Sonnino  became 
premier  in  February  1906,  Giolitti  did  not  openly  oppose  him, 
but  his  followers  did,  and  Sonnino  was  defeated  in  May,  Giolitti 
becoming  prime  minister  once  more. 

GIORDANO,  LUCA  (1632-1705),  Italian  painter,  was  born  in 
Naples,  son  of  a  very  indifferent  painter,  Antonio,  who  imparted 
to  him  the  first  rudiments  of  drawing.  Nature  predestined  him 
for  the  art,  and  at  the  age  of  eight  he  painted  a  cherub  into  one 
of  his  father's  pictures,  a  feat  which  was  at  once  noised  abroad, 
and  induced  the  viceroy  of  Naples  to  recommend  the  child  to 
Ribera.  His  father  afterwards  took  him  to  Rome,  to  study  under 
Pietro  da  Cortona.  He  acquired  the  nickname  of  Luca  Fa-presto 
(Luke  Work-fast).  One  might  suppose  this  nickname  to  be 
derived  merely  from  the  almost  miraculous  celerity  with  which 
from  an  early  age  and  throughout  his  life  he  handled  the  brush; 
but  it  is  said  to  have  had  a  more  express  origin.  The  father, 
we  are  told,  poverty-stricken  and  greedy  of  gain,  was  perpetually 


urging  his  boy  to  eiertion  with  the  phrase,  "  Luca,  fi  presto." 
The  youth  obeyed  his  parent  to  the  letter,  and  would  actually 
not  so  much  as  pause  to  snatch  a  hasty  meal,  but  received  into 
his  mouth,  while  he  still  worked  on,  the  food  which  hb  father's 
hand  supplied.  He  copied  nearly  twenty  times  the  "  Battle  of 
Constantine"  by  Julio  Romano,  and  with  proportionate  frequency 
several  of  the  great  woriis  of  Raphael  and  Michekngelo.  His 
rapidity,  which  betonged  as  much  to  invention  as  to  mere  handi- 
work, and  his  versatility,  which  enabled  him  to  imitate  other 
painters  deceptively,  earned  for  him  two  other  epithets,  "  The 
Thunderbolt "  (Fulmine),  and  "  The  Proteus,"  of  Painting.  He 
shortly  visited  all  the  main  seats  of  the  Italian  school  of  art, 
and  formed  for  himself  a  style  combining  in  a  certain  measure 
the  ornamental  pomp  of  Paul  Veronese  and  the  contrasting  com- 
positions and  large  schemes  of  chiaroscuro  of  Pietro  da  Cortona. 
He  was  noted  also  for  livdy  and  showy  colour.  Returning  to 
Naples,  and  accepting  every  sort  of  commission  by  which  money 
was  to  be  made,  he  practised  his  art  with  so  much  applause  that 
Charles  II.  of  Spain  towards  1687  invited  him  over  to  Madrid, 
where  he  remained  thirteen  years.  Giordano  was  very  popular 
at  the  Spanish  court,  being  a  sprightly  talker  along  with  his  other 
marvellously  facile  gifts,  and  the  king  created  him  a  cavaliere. 
One  anecdote  of  his  rapidity  of  work  is  that  the  queen  of  Spain 
having  one  day  made  some  inquiry  about  his  wijfe,  he  at  once 
showed  Her  Majesty  what  the  lady  was  like  by  painting  her 
portrait  into  the  picture  on  which  he  was  engaged.  Soon  after 
the  death,  of  Charles  in  1700  Giordano,  gorged  with  wnlth, 
returned  to  Naples.  He  spent  large  sums  in  acts  of  munificence, 
and  was  particularly  liberal  to  his  poorer  brethren  of  the  art.  He 
again  visited  various  parts  of  Italy,  and  died  in  Naples  on  the 
1 2th  of  January  1705,  his  last  words  being  "  O  Napoli,  sospiro 
mio  "  (O  Naples,  my  heart's  lovel).  One  of  his  maxims  was  that 
the  good  painter  is  the  one  whom  the  public  like,  and  that  the 
public  are  attracted  more  by  colour  than  by  design. 

Giordano  had  an  astonishing  readiness  and  fadlity,  in  spite 
of  the  general  commonness  and  superficiality  of  his  performances. 
He  left  many  works  in  Rome,  and  far  more  in  Naples.  Of  the 
latter  one  of  the  most  renowned  is  "  Christ  expelling  th^  Traders 
from  the  Temple,"  in  the  church  of  the  Padri  Girolamini,  a 
colossal  work,  full  of  expressive  laszaroni;  also  the  frescoes 
of  S.  Martino,  and  those  in  the  Tesoro  della  Certosaj  induding 
the  subject  of  "  Moses  and  the  Brazen  Serpent";  and  the  cupola- 
paintings  in  the  Church  of  S.  Brigida,  which  contains  the  artist's 
own  tomb.  In  Spain  he  executed  a  surprising  number  of  works, 
— continuing  in  the  Escorial  the  series  commenced  by  Cambiasi, 
and  painting  frescoes  of  the  "  Triumphs  of  the  Church,"  the 
"  Genealogy  and  Life  of  the  Madonna,"  the  stories  of  Moses, 
Gideon,  David  and  Solomon,  and  the  "  Celebrated  Women  of 
Scripture,"  all  works  of  large  dimensions.  His  pupils,  Aniello 
Rossi  and  Matteo  Pacelli,  assisted  him  in  Spain.  In  Madrid  he 
worked  more  in  oil-colour,  a  Nativity  there  being  one  of  his  best 
productions.  Other  superior  examples  are  the  "  Judgment  of 
Paris  "  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  and  "  Christ  with  the  Docton  in 
the  Temple,"  in  the  Corsini  Gallery  of  Rome.  In  Florence,  in 
his  closing  days,  ke  painted  the  Cappella  Corsini,  the  Galleria 
Riccardi  and  other  works.  In  youth  he  etched  with  considerable 
skill  some  of  his  own  paintings,  such  as  the  "  Slaughter  of  the 
Priests  of  Baal."  He  also  painted  much  on  the  crystal  borderings 
of  looking-glasses,  cabinets,  &c.,  seen  in  many  Italian  palaces,  and 
was,  in  this  form  of  art,  the  master  of  Pietro  Garofolo.  His  best 
pupil,  in  painting  of  the  ordinary  kind,  was  Paolo  de  Mattds. 

Bdlori,  in  his  Vite  de*  piUori-  modemi,  is  a  leadinj^  authority 
regardini^  Luca  Giordano.  P.  Benvenuto  (1882)  has  written  a  work 
on  the  Riccardi  paintings. 

GIORGIONE  (1477-1510),  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at  Castel- 
franco  in  1477.  In  contemporary  documents  he  is  always  called 
(accorditig  to  the  Venetian  manner  of  pronunciation  and  spelling) 
Zorzi,  Zorzo  or  Zorzon  of  Castelfranco.  A  tradition,  having 
its  origin  in  the  17th  century,  represented  him  as  the  natural 
son  of  some  member  of  the  great  local  family  of  the  Barbarelli, 
by  a  peasant  girl  of  the  neighbouring  village  of  Vedelago; 
consequently  he  is  conunonly  referred  to  in  histories  "*^ 


32 


GIORGIONE 


catalogues  under  the  name  of  Giorgio  Barbarelli  or  BaibareOa. 
This  tradition  has,  however,  on  dose  examination  been  proved 
baseless.  On  the  other  haind  mention  has  been  found  in  a 
contemporary  document  of  an  eaiiier  Zorson,  a  native  of 
Vedela^,  living  in  Castelfranco  in  1460.  Vasari,  who  wrote 
before  the  Barbarella  legend  had  sprung  up,  says  that  Gioigione 
was  of  very  humble  origin.  It  seems  probable  that  he  was 
simply  the  son  or  grandson  of  the  afore-mentioned  Zorzon  the 
elder;  that  the  after-claim  of  the  Barbarelli  to  kindred  with  him 
was  a  mere  piece  of  family  vanity,  very  likely  suggested  by  the 
analogous  case  of  Leonardo  da  Vind;  and  that,  this  daim  once 
put  abroad,  the  peasant-mother  of  Vedebgo  was  invented  on 
the  ground  of  some  dim  knowledge  that  his  real  progenitors 
came  from  that  village. 

Of  the  facts  of  his  life  we  are  almost  as  meagrely  informed  as 
of  the  drcumstances  of  his  birth.  The  little  dty,  or  large 
fortified  village,  for  it  is  scarcdy  more,  of  Castelfranco  in  the 
Trevison  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  and  broken  plain  at  some 
Stance  from  the  last  spurs  of  the  Venetian  Alps.  From  the 
natural  surroundings  of  Giorgione's  childhood  was  no  doubt 
derived  his  ideal  of  pastoral  scenery,  the  country  of  pleasant 
copses,  glades,  brooks  and  hills  amid  which  his  personages  love 
to  wander  or  redine  with  lute  and  pipe.  How  early  in  boyhood 
he  went  to  Venice  we  do  not  know,  but  internal  evidence 
supports  the  statement  of  Ridolfi  that  he  served  his  apprentice- 
ship there  under  Giovanni  Bdlini;  and  there  he  made  his  fame 
and  had  his  home.  That  his  gifts  were  early  recognized  we 
know  from  the  facts,  recorded  in  contemporary  documents, 
that  in  1500,  when  he  was  only  twenty-three  (that  is  if  Vasari 
gives  rightly  the  a|re  at  which  he  died),  be  was  chosen  to  paint 
portraits  of  the  Doge  Agostino  Barberigo  and  the  condottiere 
Consalvo  Ferrante;  that  in  1504  be  was  commissioned  to  paint 
an  altarpiece  in  memory  of  Matleo  Costanzo  in  the 'cathedral 
of  his  native  town,  Castelfranco;  that  in  1507  he  recdved  at  the 
order  of  the  Council  of  Ten  port  payment  for  a  picture  (subject 
not  mientioned)  on  which  he  was  engaged  for  the 'Hall  of  the 
Atidience  in  the  ducal  palace;  and  that  in  1507-1508  he  was 
employed,  with  other  artists  oif  his  own  generation,  to  decorate 
with  frescoes  the  exterior  of  the  newly  rebuilt  Fondaco  dd 
Tedeschi  or  German  merchants'  haU  at  Venice>  having  already 
done  similar  work,  on  the  exterior  of  the  Casa  Soranzo,  the  Casa 
Grimani  alii  Servi  and  other  Venetian  palaces.  Vasari  gives 
also  as  an  important  event  in  Giorgione's  Ufe,  and  one  which  had 
influence  on  his  work,  his  meeting  with  Leonardo  da  ^^nci  on 
the  occasion  of  the  Tuscan  master's  visit  to  Venice  in  1500.  In 
September  or  October  15x0  he  died  of  the  plague  then  raging 
in  the  dty,  and  within  a  few  days  of  his  death  we  find  the  great 
art-patroness  and  amateur,  Isabella  d'Este,  writing  from  Mantua 
and  trying  in  vain  to  secure  for  her  collection  a  night-piece  by 
his  hand  of  which  the  fame  had  reached  her. 

All  accounts  agree  in  representing  Giorgione  as  a  personage 
of  distinguished  and  romantic  charm,  a  great  lover,  a  great 
musician,  made  to  enjoy  in  life  and  to  express  in  art  to  the 
uttermost  the  delight,  the  splendour,  the  sensuous  and  imaginative 
grace  and  fulness,  not  untinged  with  poetic  melancholy,  of  the 
Venetian  existence  of  hb  time.  They  represent  him  further  as 
having  made  in  Venetian  painting  an  advance  analogous  to  that 
made  m  Tuscan  painting  by  Leonardo  more  than  twenty  years 
before*;  that  is  as  having  released  the  art  from  the  last  shackles 
of  archaic  rigidity  and  placed  it  in  possession  of  full  freedom 
and  the  full  mastery  of  its  means.  He  also  introduced  a  new 
range  of  subjects.  Besides  altarpieces  and  portraits  he  painted 
pictures  that  told  no  story,  whether  biblical  or  classical,  or  if 
they  professed  to  tell  such,  neglected  the  action  and  simply 
embodied  in  form  and  colour  moods  of  lyrical  or  romantic 
feeling,  much  as  a  musidan  might  embody  them  in  sounds. 
Innovating  with  the  courage  and  felidty  of  genius,  he  had  for 
a  time  an  overwhelming  influence  on  his  contemporaries  and 
immediate  successors  in  the  Venetian  school,  induding  Titian, 
Sebastian  dd  Piombo.  the  elder  Palma,  Cariani  and  the  two 
CampagnoUs,  and  not  a  little  even  on  seniors  of  long-standing 
fame-  such  as  Giovanni  BdlinL    His  name  and  work  have 


exerdsed,  and  continue  to  exerdse,  no  less  a  spell  on  posterity. 
But  to  idientify  and  define,  among  the  relics  of  his  age  and  school, 
predsdy  what  that  work  is,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
kindred  work  oil  other  men  whom  his  influence  inspired,  is  a 
very  difficult  matter.  Tlwre  are  indusive  critics  who  still 
claim  for  Giorgione  neariy  every  painting  of  the  time  that  at 
all  resembles  his  manner,  imd  there  are  exclu»ve  critics  who  pare 
down  to  some  ten  or  a  dozen  the  list  of  extant  pictures  which 
they  will  admit  to  be  actually  his. 

To  name  first  those  whidi  are  dther  certain  or  command 
the  most  general  acceptance,  placing  them  in  something  like 
an  approximate  and  probable  order  <rf  date.  In  the  UflSzi  at 
Florence  are  two  companion  pieces  of  the  "  Trial  of  Moses  " 
and  the  "Judgment  of  Solomon,"  the  latter  the  finer  and 
b^ter  preserved  of  the  two,  which  pass,  no  doubt  justly,  as 
typical  works  of  Giorgione's  youth,  and  exhibit,  thou^  not  yet 
ripely,  his  q)ecial  qualities  of  colour-richness  and  landscape 
romance,  the  peculiar  fadal  types  of  his  predilection,  with  the 
pure  form  of  forehead,  fine  oval  of  cheek,  and  somewhat  dose-set 
eyes  and  eyebrows,  and  the  intensity  df  that  still  and  brooding 
sentiment  with  which,  rather  than  with  dramatic  life  and 
movement,  he  instinctivdy  invests  his  figures.  Probably  the 
earliest  of  the  pmtraits  by  common  consent  called  his  is  the 
beautiful  one  of  a  young  man  at  Berlin.  His  earliest  devotional 
picture  would  seem  to  be  the  highly  finished  "  Christ  bearing 
his  Cross"  (the  head  and  shouldm  only,  with  a  peadiarly 
serene  and  high-bred  cast  of  features)  formerly  at  Vicenza  and 
now  in  the  collection  of  Mrs  Gardner  at  Boston.  -  Other  versions 
of  this  picture  exist,  and  it  has  been  claimed  that  one  in  private 
possession  at  Vienna  is  the  true  qriginal:  erroneously  in  the 
judgment  of  the  present  writer.  Another  "  Christ  bearing  the 
Cross,"  with  a  Jew  dragging  at  the  rope  round  his  neck,  in  the 
church  of  San  Rocco  at  Venice,  is  a  ruined  but  genuine  work, 
quoted  by  Vasari  and  Ridolfi,  and  copied  with  the  name  of 
Giorgione  appended,  by  Van  Dyck  in  that  master's  Chatsworth 
sketch-book.  (Vasari  gives  it  to  Giorgione  in  his  first  and  to 
Titian  in  his  second  edition.)  Tfie  composition  of  a  lost  early 
picture  of  the  birth  of  Paris  is  preserved  in  an  engraving-  of  the 
'  Teniers  Gallery  "  series,  and  an  old  copy  of  part  of  the  same 
picture  b  at  Budapest.  In  the  Giovanelli  Palace 'at  Venice 
is  that  fascinating  and  enigmatical  mythology  or  allegory, 
known  to  the  Anonimo  Mordliano,  who  saw  it  in  1550  in  the  house 
of  Gabrid  Vcndramin,  simply  as  "  the  small  landscape  with 
the  storm,  the  gipsy  woman  and  the  soldier  ";  the  picture  is 
conjecturally  interpreted  by  modern  authorities  as  illustrating 
a  passage  in  Statins  which  describes  the  meeting  of  Adrastus 
with  Hypsipyle  when  she  was  serving  as  nurse  with  the  king  of 
Nemea.  Still  belonging  to  the  earitcr  part  of  the  painter's 
brief  career  is  a  beautiful,  virglnally  pensive  Judith  at  St  Peters- 
burg, which  passed  under  various  alien  names,  as  Raphael, 
Moretto,  &c.,  until  its  kindred  with  the  unquestioned  work  of 
Giorgione  was  in  late  years  firmly  established.  The  great 
Castelfranco  altarpiece,  still,  in  spite  of  many  restorations, 
one  of  the  most  classically  pure  and  radiantly  impressive  works 
of  Renaissance  painting,  may  be  taken  as  closing  the  earlier 
phase  of  the  young  master's  work  (1504).  It  shows  the  Virgin 
loftily  enthroned  on  a  plain,  sparely  draped  stone  structure  with 
St  Francis  and  a  warrior  saint  (St  Liberaje)  standing  in  attitudes 
of  great  simplidty  on  dther  side  of  the  foot  of  the  throne,  a 
high  parapet  behind  them,  and  a  beautiful  landscape  of  the 
master's  usual  type  seen  above  it.  Neariy  akin  to  this  master- 
piece, not  in  shape  or  composition  but  by  the  type  of  the  Virgin 
and  the  very  Bellinesque  St  Francis,  is  the  altarpiece  of  the 
Madonna  with  St  Francis  and  St  Roch  at  Madrid.  Of  the 
master's  fully  ripened  time  is  the  fine  and  again  enigmatical 
picture  formerly  in  the  house  of  Taddeo  Contarini  at  Venice, 
described  by  contemporary  witnesses  as  the  'Three  Philosophers," 
and  now,  on  slender  enou{^  grounds,  supposed  to  represent 
Evander  showing  Aeneas  the  site  of  Troy  as  narrated  in  the 
dghth  Aendd.  The  portrait  of  a  knight  of  Malta  in  the  Ufiizi  at 
Florence  has  more  power  and  authority,  if  less  sentiment,  than 
the  earlier  example  at  Berlin,  and  may  be  taken  to  be  of  the 


GIOTTINO 


33 


fluster's  middle  ttmaL  Most  entirely  central  and  typical  of  all 
Giorgione's  extant  works  is  the  Sleeping  Venus  at  Dresden, 
first  recognized  by  Morellt,  and  now  universally  accepted,  as 
being  the  same  as  the  picture  seen  by  the  Anonimo  and  later 
by  Ridolfi  in  the  Casa  Marcello  at  Venice.  An  exquisitely  pure 
and  severe  rhythm  of  line  and  contour  chastens  the  sensuous 
richness  of  the  presentment:  the  sweep  of  white  drapery  on 
which  the  goddess  lies,  and  of  glowing  landscape  that  fills  the 
space  behind  her,  most  harmoniously  frame  her  divinity.  It  is 
recorded  that  the  master  left  this  piece  unfinished  and  that 
the  lajKlscape,  with  a  Cupid  which  subsequent  restoration  has 
removed,  were  completed  after  his  death  by  Titian.  The  picture 
IS  the  prototype  of  Titian's  own  Venus  at  the  Ufiizi  and  of  many 
more  by  other  painters  of  the  school;  but  none  of  them  attained 
the  quality  of  the  first  exemplar.  Of  such  small  scenes  of  mixed 
classical  mythology  and  landscape  as  early  writers  attribute  in 
considerable  number  to  Giorgione,  there  have  survived  at  least 
two  which  bear  strong  evidences  of  his  handiwork,  though  the 
action  is  in  both  of  unwonted  liveliness,  namely  the  Apollo  and 
Daphne  of  the  Seminario  at  Venice  and  the  Orpheus  and  Eurydice 
of  Bergamo.  The  portrait  of  Antonio  Grocardo  at  Budapest 
represents  his  fullest  and  roost  penetrating  power  in  that  branch 
of  art.  In  his  last  years  the  purity  and  relative  slcndcrness  of 
form  which  mark  his  earlier  female  nudes,  including  the  Dresden 
Venus,  gave  way  to  ideals  of  ampler  mould,  more  nearly  approach- 
ing those  of  Titian  and  his  successors  in  Venetian  art;  as  is 
proved  by  lliose  last  remaining  fragments  of  the  frescoes  on  the 
Grand  Canal  front  of  the  Fondaco  dei  Tedeschi  which  were  seen 
and  engraved  by  Zanetti  in  ^760,  but  have  now  totally  dis- 
appeared. Such  change  of  ideal  is  apparent  enough  in  the 
famous  "Concert"  or." Pastoral  Symphony"  of  the  Louvre, 
probably  the  latest,  and  certainly  one  of  the  most  characteristic 
and  harmoniously  splendid,  of  Giorgione's  creations  that  has 
come  down  to  us,  and  has  caused  some  critics  too  hastily  to 
doubt  its  authenticity. 

We  pass  now  to  pictures  for  which  some  affirm  and  others 
deny  the  right  to  bear  Giorgione's  name.  As  youthful  in  style 
as  the  two  early  pictures  in  the  Uffizi,  and  closely  allied  to  them 
in  feeling,  though  less  so  in  colour,  is  an  unexplained  subject 
in  the  National  Gallery,  sometimes  called  for  want  of  a  better 
title  the  "  Golden  Age  ";  this  is  officially  and  by  many  critics 
gi  venonly  to  the  "  school  of "  Giorgione,  but  may  not  unreasonably 
be  claimed  for  hisown  work  (No.  1 173).  There  isalso  in  England 
a  group  of  three  paintings  which  are  certainly  by  one  hand, 
ami  that  a  hand  very  closely  related  to  Giorgione  if  not  actually 
his  own,  namely  the  small  oblong  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi " 
in  the  National  Gallery  (No.  1160),  the  "Adoration  of  the 
Shepherds"  belonging  to  Lord  Allendale  (with  its  somewhat 
inferior  but  still  attractive  replica  at  Vienna),  and  the  small 
**  Holy  Family  "  in  the  collection  of  Mr  R.  H.  Benson.  The 
type  of  the  Madonna  in  all  these  three  pieces  is  different  from 
that  customary  with  the  master,  but  there  seems  no  reason  why 
he  should  not  at  some  particular  moment  have'  changed  his 
modeL  The  sentiment  and  gestures  of  the  figures,  the  cast  of 
draperies,  the  technical  handling,  and  especially,  in  Lord  Allen- 
dale's picture,  the  romantic  richness  of  the  landscape,  all  incline 
OS  to  accept  the  group  as  original,  notwithstanding  the  deviation 
of  type  already  mentioned  and  certain  weaknesses  of  drawing* 
and  proportion  which  we  should  have  hardly  looked  for.  Better 
known  to  European  students  in  general  are  the  two  fine  pictures 
commonly  given  to  the  master  at  the  Pitti  gallery  in  Florence, 
namely  the  "  Three  Ages  "  and  the  "  Concert."  Both  are  very 
Giorgionesquc,  the  "  Three  Ages  "  leaning  rather  towards  the 
early  manner  of  Lorenzo  Lotto,  to  whom  by  some  critics  it  is 
actually  given.  The  "  Concert  "  is  held  on  technical  grounds 
by  some  of  the  best  judges  rather  to  bear  the  character  of  Titian 
at  the  moment  when  the  inspiration  of  Giorgione  was  strongest 
on  him,  at  least  so  far  as  concerns  the  extremely  beautiful  and 
expressive  central  figure  of  the  monk  playing  on  the  clavichord 
with  reverted  head,  a  very*  incarnation  of  musical  rapture  and 
yearning — the  other  figures  are  too  much  injured  to  judge. 

There  arc  at  least  two  famous  single  portraits  as  to  which 


critics  will  probably  never  agree  whether  they  are  among  the 
later  works  of  Giorgione  or  among  the  earliest  of  Titian  under 
his  influence:  these  are  the  jovial  and  splendid  half-length  of 
Catherine  Cornaro  (or  a  stout  lady  much  resembling  her)  with 
a  bas-relief,  in  the  collection  of  Signor  Crespi  at  Milan,  and  the 
so-called  "  Ariosto  "  from  Lord  Darnley's  collection  acquired 
for  the  National  Gallery  in  1904.  Ancient  and  half-effaced 
inscriptions,  of  which  there  is  no  cause  to  doubt  the  genuineness, 
ascribe  them  both  to  Titian;  both,  to  the  mind  of  the  present 
writer  at  least,  are  more  nearly  akin  to  such  undoubted  early 
Tltians  as  the  "  Man  with  the  Book  "  at  Hampton  Court  and 
the  "  Man  with  the  Glove  "  at  the  Louvre  than  to  any  authen- 
ticated work  of  Giorgione.  At  the  same  time  it  should  be 
remembered  that  Giorgione  is  known  to  have  actually  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  Catherine  Cornaro  and  to  have  painted  her 
portrait.  The  Giorgionesque  influence  and  feeling,  to  a  degree 
almost  of  sentimental  exaggeration,  encounter  us  again  in  another 
beautiful  Venetian  portrait  at  the  National  Gallery  which  has 
sometimes  been  claimed  for  him,  that  of  a  man  in  crimson  velvet 
with  white  pleated  shirt  and  a  background  of  bays,  long  attributed 
to  the  elder  Palma  (No.  636).  The  same  qualities  are  present 
with  more  virility  in  a  very  striking  portrait  of  a  young  man 
at  Temple  Newsam,  which  stands  indeed  nearer  than  any  other 
extant  example  ta  the  Brocardo  portrait  at  Budapest.  '  The 
full-face  portrait  of  a  woman  in  the  Borghese  gallery  at  Rome 
has  the  marks  of  the  master's  design  and  inspiration,  but  in  its 
present  sadly  damaged  condition  can  hardly  be  claimed  for  his 
handiwork.  Tlie  head  of  a  boy  with  a  pipe  at  Hampton  Court, 
a  little  over  life  size,  has  been  enthusiastically  claimed  as  Gior- 
gione's workmlnsliip,  but  is  surely  too  slack  and  soft  in  handling 
to  be  anything  more  than  an  early  copy  of  a  lost  work,  analogous 
to,  though  better  than,  the  simibr  copy  at  Vienna  of  a  young 
man  with  an  ^rrow,  a  subject  he  b  Icnown  to  have  painted. 
The  early  records  prove  indeed  that  not  a  few  such  copies  of 
Giorgione's  more  admired  works  were  produced  in  his  own  time 
or  shortly  afterwards.  One  of  the  most  interesting  and  un- 
mistakable such  copies  still  extant  is  the  picture  formerly  in  the 
Manfrin  collection  at  Venice,  afterwards  in  that  of  Mr  Barker  in 
London,  and  now  at  Dresden,  which  is  commonly  called  "  The 
Horoscope,"  and  represents  a  woman  seated  near  a  clas^c  ruin 
with  a  young  child  at  her  feet,  an  armed  youth  standing  looking 
down  at  them,  and  a  turbaned  sage  seated  near  with  compasses, 
disk  and  book.  Of  important  subject  pictures  belonging  to  the 
debatable  borderland  between  Giorgione  and  his  imitators  arc  the 
large  and  interesting  unfinished  "  Judgment  of  Solomon  "  at 
Kingston  Lacy,  which  must  certainly  be  the  same  that  Ridolfi 
saw  and  attributed  to  him  in  the  Casa  Grimani  at  Venice,  but 
has  weaknesses  of  design  and  drawing  sufficiently  baffling  to 
criticism;  and  the  "  Woman  taken  in  Adultery  "  in  the  public 
gallery  at  Glasgow,  a  picture  truly  Giorgionesque  in  richness  of 
colour,  but  betraying  in  its  awkward  composition,  the  relative 
coarseness  of  its  types  and  the. insincere,  mechanical  animation 
ot  its  movements,  the  hand  of  some  lesser  master  of  the  school, 
almost  certainly  (by  comparison  with  his  existing  engravings 
and  woodcuts)  that  of  Domenico  Campagnola.  It  seems  un- 
necessary to  refer,  in  the  present  notice,  to  any  of  the  numerous 
other  and  inferior  works  which  have  been  claimed  for  Giorgione 
by  a  criticism  unable  to  distinguish  between  a  living  voice  and  its 
echoes. 

Bibliography.— 'Morelli,  Notitie,  &c.  (ed.  t^rizzoni.  1884) :  Vasari 
(ed.  Milancsi),  vol.  iv.;  Ridolfi,  Le  Marmndie  deW  arte,  vol.  i.; 
Zancttc.  Varie  Pitture  (1760) ;  Crowe-Cavalcasellc,  History  of  Painting 
in  North  Italy;  Morelli,  Kunstkritische  Studien;  Gronau,  Zoncn  da 
Castelfraneo,  la  sua  origintt  &c.  (1894):  Herbert  Cook,  Ciorjtione  (in 
"  Great  Masters  "  series,  IQOO) ;  Ugo  Monncret  de  Villard,  Ciorfione 
da  Castelfranco  (1905).  The  two  last-named  works  are  critically 
far  too  inclusive,  but  useful  as  going  over  the  whole  ground  cm 
discussion,  with  full  references  to  earlier  authorities!  &c.       (S.  C.) 

GIOTTINO  (1324-1357),  an  eariy  Florentine  painter.  Vasari 
Is  the  principal  authority  in  regard  to  this  artist;  but  it  is  not  by 
any  means  easy  to  bring  the  details  of  his  narrative  into  harmony 
with  such  facts  as  can  now  be  verified.  It  would  appear  that  there 
was  a  painter  of  the  name  of  Tommaso  (or  Maso)  di  Stcfano 


3+ 


GIOTTO 


termed  Gioltino;  and  the  Giottino  of  Vasari  Ls  said  to  have  been 
born  in  1324,  and  to  have  died  early,  of  consumption,  in  1357. — 
dates  which  must  be  regarded  as  open  to  considerable  doubt. 
Stefano,  the  father  of  Tommaso,  was  himself  a  celebrated  painter 
in  the  early  revival  of  art;  his  naturalism  was  indeed  so  highly 
appreciated  by  contemporaries  as  to  earn  him  the  appellation  of 
"  Scimia  della  Natura  "  (ape  of  nature).  He,  it  seems,  instructed 
his  son,  who,  however,  applied  himself  with  greater  predilection 
to  studying  the  works  of  the  great  Giotto,  formed  his  style  on 
these,  and  hence  was  called  Giottino.  It  is  even  said  that 
Gioltino  was  really  the  son  (others  say  the  great-grandson)  of 
Giot  to.  To  this  statement  little  or  no  importance  can  be  attached. 
To  Maso  di  Stefano,  or  Giottino,  Vasari  and  Ghiberti  attribute 
the  frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  S.  Silvestro  (or  of  the  Bardi  family) 
in  the  Florentine  church  of  S.  Croce;  these  represent  the  miracles 
of  Pope  S.  Silvestro  as  narrated  in  the  "  Golden  Legend,"  one 
conspicuous  subject  being  the  scaling  of  the  lips  of  a  malignant 
dragon.  These  works  are  animated  and  firm  in  drawing,  with 
naturalism  carried  further  than  by  Giotto.  From  the  evidence 
of  style,  some  modern  connoisseurs  assign  to  the  same  hand  the 
paintings  in  the  funeral  vault  of  the  Strozzi  family,  below  the 
Cappella  degli  Spagnuoli  in  the  church  of  S.  Maria  Novella, 
representing  the  crucifixion  and  other  subjects.  Vasari  ascribes 
also  to  his  Giottino  the  frescoes  of  the  life  of  St  Nicholas  in  the 
lower  church  of  Assisi.  This  scries,  however,  is  not  really  in  that 
part  of  the  church  which  Vasari  designates,  but  is  in  the  chapel  of 
the  Sacrament;  and  the  works  in  that  chapel  are  understood 
to  be  by  Giotto  di  Stefano,  who  worked  in  the  second  half  of 
the  14th  century — very  excellent  productions  of  their  period. 
They  are  much  damaged,  and  the  style  is  hardly  similar  to  that  of 
the  Sylvester  frescoes.  It  might  hence  be  inferred  that  two 
different  men  produced  the  works  which  are  unitedly  fathered 
upon  the  half-legendary  "  Giottino,"  the  consumptive  youth, 
solitary  and  melancholic,  but  passionately  devoted  to  his  art. 
A  large  number  of  other  works  have  been  attributed  to  the  same 
hand;  we  need  only  mention  an  "  Apparition  of  the  Virgin  to 
St  Bernard,"  in  the  Florentine  Academy;  a  lost  painting,  very 
popular  in  its  day,  commemorating  the  expubion,  which  took 
place  in  1343,  of  the  duke  of  Athens  from  Florence;  and  a 
marble  statue  erected  on  the  Florentine  cam|>anile.  Vasari 
particularly  praises  Giottino  for  well-blended  chiaroscuro. 

OIOTTO  [Giotto  di  Bondone*]  (1267  ?-i337),  Italian  painter, 
was  born  at  Vespignano  in  the  Mugello,  a  few  miles  north  of 
Florence,  according  to  one  account  in  1276,  and  according  to 
another,  which  from  the  few  known  circumstances  of  his  life  seems 
more  likely  to  be  correct,  in  1 266  or  1 267.  His  father  was  a  land- 
owner at  Colle  in  the  commune  of  Vespignano,  described  in  a 
contemporary  document  as  vir  pratclarus,  but  by  biographers 
both  early  and  late  as  a  poor  peasant;  probably  therefore  a 
peasant  proprietor  of  no  large  possessions  but  of  reputable  slock 
and  descent.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  whether  there  is  any  truth 
in  the  legend  of  Giotto's  boyhood  which  relates  how  he  first 
showed  his  disposition  for  art,  and  attracted  the  attention  of, 
Cimabue,  by  being  found  drawing  one  of  his  father's  sheep  with 
a  sharp  stone  on  the  face  of  a  smooth  stone  or  slate.  With  his 
father's  consent,  the  story  goes  on,  Cimabue  carried  off  the  boy 
to  be  his  apprentice,  and  it  was  under  Cimabue's  tuition  that 
Giotto  took  his  first  steps  in  the  art  of  which  he  was  aflerwards 
to  be  the' great  emancipator  and  renovator.  The  place  where 
these  early  steps  can  still,  according  to  tradition,  be  traced,  is 
in  the  first  and  second,  reckoning  downwards,  of  the  three 
courses  of  frescoes  which  adorn  the  walls  of  the  nave  in  the  Upper 
Church  of  St  Francis  at  Assisi^  These  frescoes  represent  subjects 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  great  .labour,  too  probably 
futile,  has  been  spent  in  trying  to  pick  out  those  in  which  the 
youthful  handiwork  of  Giotto  can  be  discerned,  as  it  is  imagined, 
among  that  of  Cimabue  and  his  other  pupib.  But  the  truth 
b  that  the  figure  of  Cimabue  himself,  in  spite  of  Dante's  testimony 
to  hb  having  been  the  foremost  painter  of  Italy  until  Giotto 
arose,  has  under  the  search-light  of  modem  criticism  melted  into 

'  Not  to  b»  confused  with  Giotto  di  Buondonc,  a  contemporary 
citizen  and  potiticbn  of  Siena. 


almost  mythical  vagueness.  Kb  accepted  position  as  Giotto's 
instructor  and  the  pioneer  of  reform  in  his  art  has  been  attacked 
from  several  sides  as  a  mere  invention  of  Florentine  *vriters  for 
the  glorification  of  their  own  city.  One  group  of  critics  maintain 
that  the  real  advance  in  Tuscan  painting  before  Giotto  was  the 
work  of  the  Sienese  school  and  not  of  the  Florentine.  Another 
group  contend  that  the  best  painting  done  in  Italy  down  to  the 
last  decade  of  the  13th  century  was  not  done  by  Tuscan  hands  at 
all,  but  by  Roman  craftsmen  trained  in  the  inherited  principles 
of  Italo-Byzantine  decoration  in  mosaic  and  fresco,  and  that 
from  such  Roman  craftsmen  alone  could  Giotto  have  learnt 
anything  worth  hb  learning.  The  debate  thus  opened  is  far 
from  closed,  and  considering  how  scanty,  ambiguous  and  oftea 
defaced  are  the  materiab  ezbting  for  discussion,  it  b  perhaps 
never  likely  to  be  closed.  But  there  b  no  debate  as  to  the  general 
nature  of  the  reform  effected  by  the  genius  of  Giotto  Umself. 
He  was  the  great  humanizer  of  painting;  it  b  his  glory  to  have 
been  the  first  among  hb  countrymen  to  breathe  life  into  wall- 
pictures  and  altar-pieces,  and  to  quicken  the  dead  conventional- 
ism of  inherited  practice  with  the  fire  of  natural  action  and 
natural  feeling.  Upon  yet  another  point  there  b  no  question; 
and  that  b  that  the  reform  thus  effected  by  Giotto  in  painting 
had  been  anticipated  in  the  sbter  art  of  sculpture  by  nearly 
a  whole  generation.  About  the  middle  of  the  13th  century 
Nicola  Pisano  had  renewed  that  art,  first  by  strict  imitation  of 
classical  modeb,  and  later  by  infusing  into  his  work  a  fresh 
spirit  of  nature  and  humanity,  perhaps  partly  caught  from  the 
Gothic  schoob  of  France.  His  son  Giovanni  had  carried  the  same 
re-vitalbing  of  sculpture  a  great  deal  further;  and  hence  to  some 
critics  it  would  seem  that  the  real  inspirer  and  precursor  of  Giotto 
was  Giovanni  Pisano  the  sculptor,  and  not  any  painter  or  wall- 
decorator,  whether  of  Florence,  Siena  or  Rome. 

In  this  division  of  opinion  it  is  safer  to  regard  the  revival  ol 
painting  in  Giotto's  hands  simply  as  part  of  the  general  awaken- 
ing of  the  time,  and  to  remember  that,  as  of  all  Italian  com- 
munities Florence  was  the  keenest  in  every  form  of  activity 
both  intellectual  and  practical,  so  it  was  natural  that  a  son  of 
Florence  should  be  the  chief  agent  in  such  an  awakening.  And 
in  considering  his  career  the  question  of  his  possible  participation 
in  the  primitive  frescoes  of  the  upper  courses  at  Assisi  is  b«>t  left 
out  of  account,  the  more  so  because  of  the  deplorable  condition 
in  which  they  now  exbt.  But  with  reference  to  the  lowest 
course  of  paintings  on  the  same  walls,  those  illustrating  the  life 
of  St  Francb  according  to  the  narrative  of  St  Bonaventura, 
no  one  has  any  doubt,  at  least  in  regard  to  nineteen  or  twenty 
of  the  twenty-eight  subjects  which  compose  the  series,  that  Giotto 
himself  was  their  designer  and  chief  executant.  In  these,  sadly 
as  they  too  have  suffered  from  time  and  wholesale  repair,  there 
can  nevertheless  be  discerned  the  unmistakable  spirit  of  the 
young  Florentine  master  as  we  know  him  in  his  other  works — 
his  shrewd  realbtic  and  dramatic  vigour,  the  deep  sincerity  and 
humanity  of  feeling  which  he  knows  how  to  express  in  every 
gesture  of  hb  figures  without  breaking  up  the  harmony  of  their 
grouping  or  the  grandeur  of  their  linear  design,  qualities  in- 
herited from  the  earlier  schoob  of  impressive  but  lifcjess hieratic 
decoration.  The  "  Renunciation  of  the  Saint  by  hb  Father," 
the  "  P<^'s  Dream  of  the  Saint  upholding  the  tottering  Church," 
the  "  Saint  before  the  Sultan,"  the  "  Miracle  of  the  Spring  of 
Water,"  the  "  Death  of  the  Nobleman  of  Celano,"  the  "  Saint 
preaching  before  Pope  Honorius  " — these  are  some  of  the  most 
noted  and  best  preserved  examples  of  the  painter's  power  in  this 
series.  Where  doubt  begins  again  b  as  to  the  relations  of  date 
and  sequence  which  the  scries  bears  to  other  works  by  the  master 
exccut(Mi  at  Assisi  and  at  Rome  in  the  same  early  period  of  hb 
career,  that  b,  probably  between  1295  and  1300.  Giotto's 
remaining  undisputed  works  at  Assisi  are  the  four  celebrated 
allegorical  compositions  in  honour  of  St  Francis  in  the  vaulting 
of  the  Lower  Church,— the  "  Marriage  of  St  Francb  to  Poverty," 
the  "Allegory  of  Chastity,"  the  "Allegory  of  Obedience" 
and  the  "  Vbion  of  St  Francb  in  Glory."  These  works  are 
scarcely  at  all  retouched,  and  relatively  little  dimmed  by  time; 
they  are  of  a  singular  beauty,  at  once  severe  and  tender,  both 


GIOTTO 


35 


in  colour  and  design;  the  compositions,  especially  the  first  three, 
fitted  with  admirable  art  intojthe  cramped  spaces  of  the  vaulting, 
the  subjects,  no  doubt  in  the  main  dictated  to  the  artist  by  his 
Franciscan  employers,  treated  in  no  cold  or  mechanical  spirit 
but  with  a  full  measure  of  vital  humanity  and  original  feeling. 
Had  the  career  and  influence  of  St  Francis  had  no  other  of  their 
vast  and  far>reaching  effecCs  in  the  worid  than  that  of  inspiring 
these  noble  works  of  art,  they  would^still  have  been  entitled 
to  no  small  gratitude  from  mankind.    Other  vorks  at  Assisi 
which  most  modem  critics,  but  not  aU,  attribute  to  Giotto  him- 
self are  three  miracles  of  St  Francis  and  portions  of  a  group  of 
frescoes  illustrating  the  histoiy  of  Maiy  Magdalene,  both  in  the 
Lower  Church;  and  again,  in  one  of  the  transepts  of  the  same 
Lower  Church,  a  series  of  ten  frescoes  of  the  Life  of  the  Virgin 
and  Christ,  concluding  with  the  Crucifixion.    It  b  to  be  remarked 
as  to  this  transept  series  that  several  of  the  frescoes  present  not 
only  the  same  subjects,  but  with  a  certain  degree  of  variation 
the  same  compositions,  as  are  found  in  the  master's  great  series 
executed  in  the  Arena  chapel  at  Padua  in  the  fullness  of  his 
powers  about  1306;  and  that  the  versions  in  the  Assisi  transept 
show  a  rebtively  greater  degree  of  technical  accomplishment 
than  the  Paduan  versions,  with  a  more  attractive  charm  and 
more  abundance  of  accessory  ornament,  but  a  proportionately 
kss  degree  of  that  simple  grandeur  in  composition  and  direct 
strength  of  human  motive  which  are  the  special  notes  of  Giotto's 
style.    Therefore  a  minority  of  critics  refuse  to  accept  the 
modem  attribution  of  this  transept  scries  to  Giotto  himself, 
and  see  in  it  later  work  by  an  accomplished  pupil  softening  and 
refining  upon  his  master's  original  creations  at  Padua.    Others, 
insisting  that  these  unquestionably  beautiful  works  must  be 
by  the  hand  of  Giotto  and  none  but  Giotto,  maintain  that  in 
comparison  with  the  Paduan  examples  they  illustrate  a  gradual 
progress,  which  can  be  traced  in  other  of  his  extant  works,  from 
the  relatively  ornate  and  soft  to  the  austerely  grand  and  simple. 
This  argument  is  enforced  by  comparison  with  early  work  of  the 
master's  at  Rome  as  to  the  date  of  which  we  have  positive 
evidence.    In  1298  Giotto  completed  for  Cardinal  Stefaneschi 
for  the  price  of  2200  gold  ducats  a  mosaic  of  Christ  saving  St 
Peter  from  the  waves  (the  celebrated  "  Navicella  ") ;  this  is 
still  to  be  seen,  but  in  a  completely  restored  and  transformed 
state,  in  the  vestibule  of  St  Peter's.    For  the  same  patron  he 
executed,  probably  just  before  the  "  Navicella,"  an  elaborate 
dborium  or  altar-piece  for  the  high  altar  of  St  Peter's ,  for  which 
he  received  800  ducats.    It  represents  on  the  principal  face  a 
colossal  Christ  enthroned  with  adoring  angels  beside  him  and 
a  kneeling  donor  at  his  feet,  and  the  martyrdoms  of  St  Peter  and 
St  Paul  on  separate  panels  to  right  and  left;  on  the  reverse  is 
St  Peter  attended  by  St  George  and  other  saints,  receiving  from 
the  donor  a  model  of  his  gift,  with  stately  fuU-lcngth  figures  of 
two  apostles  to  right  and  two  to  left,  besides  various  accessory 
scenes  and  figures  in  the  predcUas  and  the  margins.    The 
separated  parts  of  this  altar-piece  are  still  to  be  seen,  in  a  quite 
genuine  though  somewhat  tamishecl  condition,  in  the  sacristy 
of  St  Peter's.    A  t bird  work  by  the  master  at  Rome  is  a  repainted 
fragment  at  the  Lateran  of  a  fresco  of  Pope  Boniface  VIII. 
proclaiming  the  jubilee  of  X300.    The  "  Navicella  "  and  the 
Lateran  fragment  are  too  much  ruined  to  argue  from;  but  the 
ciborium  panels,  it  is  contended,  combine  with  the  aspects  of 
majesty  and  strength  a  quality,  of  ornate  charm  and  suavity 
such  as  is  remarked  in  the  transept  frescoes  of  Assisi.    The 
sequence  proposed  for  these  several  works  is  accordingly,  first 
the  St  Peter's  dborium,  next  the  allegories  in  the  vaulting  of  the 
Lower  Church,  next  the  three  frescoes  of  St  Francis'  miracles 
in  the  north  transept,   next  the  St  Frands  series  in  the  Upper 
Church;  and  last,  perhaps  after  an  interval  and  with  the  help 
of  pupils,  the  scenes  from  the  life  of  Mary  Magdalene  in  her 
chapel  in  the  Lower  Church.    This  involves  a  complete  reversal 
of  the  prevailing  view,  which  regards  the  unequal  and  sometimes 
clumsy  compositions  of  this  St  Francis  series  as  the  earliest 
independent  work  of  the  master.    It  must  be  admitted  that 
there  is  something  paradoxical  in  the  idea  of  a  progress  from 
the  manner  of  the  Lower  Church  transept  series  of  the  life  of 


Christ  to  the  much  ruder  manner  of  the  Upper  Church  series 
of  St  Francis. 

A  kindred  obscurity  and  little  less  conflict  of  opinion  await 
the  inquirer  at  almost  all  stages  of  Giotto's  career.  In  X84X 
there  were  fkartially  recovered  from  the  whitewash  that  had 
overlain  them  a  series  of  frescoes  executed  in  the  chapel  of  the 
Magdalene,  in  the  Bargello  or  Palace  of  the  Podestd  at  Florence, 
to  celebrate  (as  was  supposed)  a  pacification  between  the  Black 
and  White  parties  in  the  state  effected  by  the  Cardinal  d'Acqua- 
Sparta  as  delegate  of  the  pope  in  130a.  In  them  are  depicted  a 
series  of  Bible  scenes,  besides  great  compositions  of  Hell  arid 
Paradise,  and  in  the  Paradise  are  introduced  portraits  of  Dante, 
Brunet to  Latini  and  Corso  Donato.  These  recovered  fragments, 
freely  "  restored  "  as  soon  as  they  were  discJoscd,  were  acclaimed 
as  the  work  of  Giotto  and  long  held  in  especial  regard  for  the 
sake  of  the  portrait  of  Dante.  Latterly  it  has  been  shown  that 
if  Giotto  ever  executed  them  at  all,  which  is  doubtful,  it  must 
have  been  at  a  later  date  than  the  supposed  pacification,  and 
that  they  must  have  suffered  grievous  injury  in  the  fire  which 
destroyed  a  great  part  of  the  building  in  1332,  and  been  after- 
wards repainted  by  some  well-trained  follower  of  the  school. 
To  about  1302  or  1303  would  belong,  if  there  is  truth  in  it,  the 
familiar  story  of  Giotto's  O.  Pope  Benedict  XL,  the  successor 
of  Boniface  VIIL,  sent,  as  the  tale  runs,  a  messenger  to  bring 
him  proofs  of  the  painter's  powers.  Giotto  would  give  no  other 
sample  of  his  talent  than  an  O  drawn  with  a  free  sweep  of  the 
bru^  from  the  elbow;  but  the  pope  was  satisfied  and  engaged 
him  at  a  great  salary  to  go  and  adorn  with  frescoes  the  papal 
residence  at  Avignon.  Benedict,  however,  dying  at  this  time 
(i3<>5)f  nothing  came  of  this  commission;  and  the  remains  of 
Italian  14th-century  frescoes  still  to  be  seen  at  Avignon  are  now 
recognized  as  the  work,  not,  as  was  long  supposed,  of  Giotto, 
but  of  the  Sienese  Simone  Martini  and  his  school. 
.  At  this  point  in  Giotto's  life  we  come  to  the  greatest  by  far  of 
his  undestroyed  and  undisputed  enterprises,  and  one  which  can 
with  some  certainty  be  dated.  This  is  the  scries  of  frescoes 
with  which  he  decorated  the  entire  internal  walls  of  the  chapel 
built  at  Padua  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  of  the  Annunciation  by  a 
rich  citizen  of  the  town,  Enrico  Scrovegni,  perhaps  in  order  to 
atone  for  the  sins  of  his  father,  a  notorious  usurer  whom  Dante 
places  in  the  seventh  circle  of  hell.  The  building  is  on  the  site 
of  an  ancient  amphitheatre,  and  is  therefore  generally  called 
the  chapel  of  the  Arena.  Since  it  is  recorded  that  Dante  was 
Giotto's  guest  at  Padua,  and  since  we  know  that  it  was  in  1306 
that  the  poet  came  from  Bologna  to  that  city,  we  may  conclude 
that  to  the  same  year,  1306,  belongs  the  beginning  of  Giotto's 
great  undertaking  in  the  Arena  chapel.  The  scheme  includes  a 
Saviour  in  Glory  over  the  altar,  a  Last  Judgment,  full  of  various 
and  impressive  incident,  occupying  the  whole  of  the  entrance  wall, 
with  a  scries  of  subjects  from  the  CMd  and  New  Testament  and 
the  apocryphal  Life  of  Christ  painted  in  three  tiers  on  either  side 
wall,  and  lowest  of  all  a  fourth  tier  with  emblematic  Virtues  and 
Vices  in  monochrome;  the  Virtues  being  on  the  side  of  the  chapel 
next  the  incidents  of  redemption  in  the  entrance  fresco  of  the 
Last  Judgment,  the  Vices  on  the  side  next  the  incidents  of  perdi- 
tion. A  not  improbable  tradition  asserts  that  Giotto  was  helped 
by  Dante  in  the  choice  and  disposition  oif  the  subjects.  The 
frescoes,  though  not  free  from  injury  and  retouching,  are  upon 
the  whole  in  good  condition,  and  nowhere  else  can  the  highest 
powers  of  the  Italian  mind  and  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  14th 
century  be  so  well  studied  as  here.  At  the  close  of  the  middle 
ages  we  find  Giotto  laying  the  foundation  upon  which  all  the 
progress  of  the  Renaissance  was  afterwards  securely  based. 
In  his  day  the  knowledge  possessed  by  painters  of  the  human 
frame  and  its  structure  rested  only  upon  general  observation 
and  not  upon  detailed  or  scientific  study;  while  to  facts  other 
than  those  of  humanity  their  observation  had  never  been  closely 
directed.  Of  linear  perspective  they  possessed  but  elementary 
and  empirical  ideas,  and  their  endeavours  to  express  aerial  per- 
spective and  deal  with  the  problems  of  light  and  shade  were  rare 
and  partial.  As  far  as  painting  could  possibly  be  carried  under 
these  conditions,  it  was  carried  by  Giotto.    In  its  choice  of 


36 


GIOTTO 


subjects,  his  art  is  entirely  subservient  to  tfae  religious  spirit  of 
his  age.  Even  in  its  mode  of  conceiving  and  arranging  those 
subjects  it  is  in  part  still  trammelled  by  the  rules  and  consecrated 
traditions  of  the  past.  Many  of  those  truths  of  nature  to  which 
the  painters  of  succeeding  generations  learned  to  give  accurate 
and  complete  expression,  Giotto  was  only  able  to  express  by  way 
of  imperfect  symbol  and  suggestion.  But  among  the  elements  of 
art  over  which  he  has  control  he  maintains  so  just  a  balance  that 
his  work  produces  in  the  spectator  less  sense  of  imperfection 
than  that  of  many  later  and  more  accomplished  masters.  In 
some  particulars  his  mature  painting,  as  we  see  it  in  the  Arena 
chapel,  has  never  been  surpassed — in  mastery  of  concise  and 
expressive  generalized  line  and  of  inventive  and  harmonious 
decorative  tint;  in  the  judicious  division  of  the  field  and  massing, 
and  scattering  of  groups;  in  the  combination  of  high  gravity 
with  complete  frankness  in  conception,  and  the  union  of  noble 
dignity  in  the  types  with  direct  and  vital  truth  in  the  gestures 
of  the  personages. 

The  frescoes  of  the  Arena  chapel  must  have  been  a  labour 
of  years,  and  of  the  date  of  their  termination  we  have  no  proof. 
Of  many  other  works  said  to  have  been  executed  by  Giotto  at 
Padua,  all  that  remains  consists  of  some  scarce  recognizable  traces 
in  the  chapter-house  of  the  great  Franciscan  church  of  St  Antonio. 
For  twenty  years  or  more  we  lose  all  authentic  data  as  to  Giotto's 
doings  and  movements.  Vasari,  indeed,  sends  him  on  a  giddy 
but  in  the  main  evidently  fabulous  round  of  travels,  including  a 
sojourn  in  France,  which  it  is  certain  he  never  made.  Besides 
Padua,  he  is  said  to  have  resided  and  left  great  works  at  Fcrrara, 
Ravenna,  Urbino,  Rimini,  Faenza,  Lucca  and  other  cities;  in 
some  of  them  paintings  of  his  school  are  still  shown,  but  nothing 
which  can  fairly  be  claimed  to  be  by  his  hand.  It  is  recorded 
also  that  he  was  much  employed  in  his  native  city  of  Florence; 
but  the  vandalism  of  later  generations  has  effaced  nearly  all  that 
he  did  there.  Among  works  whitewashed  over  by  posterity 
were  the  frescoes  with  which  he  covered  no  less  than  five  chapels 
in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce.  Two  of  these,  the  chapels  of  the 
Bardi  and  the  Peruzzi  families,  were  scraped  in  the  early  part 
of  the  iglh  century,  and  very  important  remains  were  uncovered 
and  immediately  subjected  to  a  process  of  restoration  which 
has  robbed  thein  of  half  their  authenticity.  But  through  the 
ruins  of  time  we  can  trace  in  some  of  these  Santa  Croce  frescoes 
all  the  qualities  of  Giotto's  work  at  an  even  higher  and  more 
mature  development  than  in  the  best  examples  at  Assisi  or  Padua. 
The  frescoes  of  the  Bardi  chapel  tell  again  the  story  of  St  Francis, 
to  which  so  much  of  his  best  power  had  already  been  devoted; 
those  of  the  Peruzzi  chapel  deal  with  the  lives  of  St  John  the 
Baptist  and  St  John  the  Evangelist.  Such  scenes  as  the  Funeral 
of  St  Francis,  the  Dance  of  Herodias's  Daughter,  and  the  Re- 
surrection of  St  John  the  Evangelist,  which  have  to  some  extent 
escaped  the  disfigurements  of  the  restorer,  arc  among  acknow- 
ledged classics  of  the  world's  art.  The  only  dues  to  the  dates 
of  any  of  these  woiks  are  to  be  found  in  the  facts  that  among  the 
figures  in  the  Bardi  chapel  occurs  that  of  St  Louis  of  Toulouse, 
who  was  not  canonized  tiU  1317,  therefore  the  painting  must  be 
subsequent  to  that  year,  and  that  the  "  Dance  of  Salome  "  must 
have  been  painted  before  1331,  when  it  was  copied  by  the  Loren- 
zetti  at  Siena.  The  only  other  extant  works  of  Giotto  at  Florence 
are  a  fine  "  Crucifiz,"  not  undisputed,  at  San  Marco,  and  the 
majestic  but  somewhat  heavy  altar-piece  of  the  Madonna,  prob- 
ably an  early  work,  which  is  placed  in  the  Academy  beside  a 
more  primitive  Madonna  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  Cimabue. 

Towards  the  end  of  Giotto's  life  we  escape  again  from  confused 
legend,  and  from  the  tantalizing  record  of  works  which  have 
not  survived  for  us  to  verify,  into  the  region  of  authentic  docu- 
ment and  fact.  It  appears  that  Giotto  had  come  under  the  notice 
of  Duke  Charles  of  Calabria,  son  of  King  Robert  of  Naples,  during 
the  visits  of  the  duke  to  Florence  which  took  place  between 
1326  and  1328,  in  which  year  he  died.  Soon  afterwards  Giotto 
must  have  gone  to  King  Robert's  court  at  Naples,  where  he  was 
enrolled  as  an  honoured  guest  and  member  of  the  household  by 
a  royal  decree  dated  the  20th  of  January  1330.  Another  docu- 
ment shows  him  to  have  been  still  at  Naples  two  years  later. 


Tradition  says  much  about  the  friendship  of  the  king  for  the 
painter  and  the  freedom  of  speech  and  jest  allowed  him;  much 
also  of  the  works  he  carried  out  at  Naples  in  the  Castel  Nuovo, 
the  Castel  dell'  Uovo,  and  the  church  and  convent  of  Sta  Chiara. 
Not  a  trace  of  these  works  remains;  and  others  which  later 
criticism  have  claimed  for  him  in  a  hall  which  formerly  bclon^d 
to  the  convent  of  Sta  Chiara  have  been  proved  not  to  be  his. 

Meantime  Giotto  had  been  advancing,  not  only  in  years  and 
worldly  fame,  but  in  prosperity.  He  was  married  young,  and 
had,  so  far  as  is  recorded,  three  sons,  Francesco,  Niccola  and 
Donato,  and  three  daughters,  Bice,  Caterina  and  Lucia.  He 
had  added  by  successive  purchases  to  the  plot  of  land  inherited 
from  his  father  at  Vespignano.  His  fellow-citizens  of  all  occupa- 
tions and  degrees  delighted  to  honour  him.  And  now,  in  his  sixty- 
eighth  year  (if  we  accept  the  birth-date  1266/7),  on  his  return 
from  Naples  by  way  of  Gaeta,  he  received  the  final  and  official 
testimony  to  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  at  Florence.  By 
a  solemn  decree  of  the  Priori  on  the  X2th  of  April  1334,  he  was 
appointed  master  of  the  works  of  the  cathedral  of  Sta  Reparata 
(later  and  better  known  as  Sta  Maria  del  Fiore)  and  official 
architect  of  the  dty  walls  and  the  towns  within  her  territory. 
What  training  as  a  practical  architect  his  earlier  tktttx  had 
afforded  him  we  do  not  know,  but  his  interest  in  the  art  from 
the  beginning  is  made  clear  by  the  carefully  studied  architectural 
backgrounds  of  many  of  his  frescoes.  Dying  on  the  8th  of 
January  1336  (old  style  1337),  Giotto  only  enjoyed  his  new 
dignities  for  two  years.  But  in  the  course  of  them  he  had  found 
time  not  only  to  make  an  excursion  to  Milan,  on  the  invitation 
of  Azzo  Visconti  and  with  the  sanction  of  his  own  government, 
but  to  plan  two  great  architectural  works  at  Horence  and 
superintend  the  beginning  of  their  execution,  namely  the  west 
front  of  the  cathedral  and  its  detached  campanile  or  bell-tower. 
The  unfinished  enrichments  of  the  cathedral  front  were  stripped 
away  in  a  later  age.  The  foundation-stone  of  the  Campanile  was 
laid  with  solchin  ceremony  in  the  presence  of  a  great  concourse 
of  magistrates  and  people  on  the  x8th  of  July  1334.  Its  lower 
courses  seem  to  have  been  completed  from  Giotto's  design,  and 
the  first  course  of  its  sculptured  ornaments  (the  famous  series  of 
primitive  Arts  and  Industries)  actually  by  his  own  hand,  before 
his  death.  It  is  not  clear  what  modifications  of  his  design  were 
made  by  Andrea  Pisano,  who  was  appointed  to  succeed  him, 
or  again  by  Francesco  Talenti,  to  whom  the  work  was  next 
entrusted;  but  the  incomparable  structure  as  we  now  see  it 
stands  justly  in  the  world's  esteem  as  the  most  fitting  monument 
to  the  genius  who  first  conceived  and  directed  it. 

The  art  of  painting,  as  re-created  by  Giotto,  was  carried 
on  throughout  Italy  by  his  pupils  and  successors  with  L'ttle 
change  or  development  for  nearly  a  hundred  years,  until  a  new 
impulse  was  given  to  art  by  the  combined  influences  of  naturalism 
and  classicism  in  the  hands  of  men  like  Donatello  and  Masaccio. 
Most  of  the  anecdotes  related  of  the  master  are  probably  in- 
accurate in  detail,  but  the  general  character  both  as  artist  and 
man  which  tradition  has  agreed  in  giving  him  can  never  be 
assailed.  He  was  from  the  first  a  kind  of  popular  hero.  He  is 
celebrated  by  the  poet  Petrarch  and  by  the  historian  Villani. 
He  is  made  the  subject  of  tales  and  anecdotes  by  Boccaccio 
and  by  Franco  Sacchetti.  From  these  notices,  as  well  as  from 
Vasari,  we  gain  a  distinct  picture  of  the  man,  as  one  whose 
nature  was  in  keeping  with  his  country  origin;  whose  sturdy 
frame  and  plain  features  corresponded  to  a  character  rather 
distinguished  for  shrewd  and  genial  strength  than  for  sublimer 
or  more  ascetic  qualities;  a  master  craftsman,  to  whose  strong 
combining  and  inventing  powers  nothing  came  amiss;  conscious 
of  his  own  deserts,  never  at  a  loss  either  in  the  things  of  art  or  in 
the  things  of  life,  and  equally  ready  and  efficient  whether  he  has 
to  design  the  scheme  of  some  great  spiritual  allegory  in  colour 
or  imperishable  monument  in  stone,  or  whether  he  has  to  show 
his  wit  in  the  encounter  of  practical  jest  and  repartee.  From  his 
own  hand  we  have  a  contribution  to  literature  which  helps  to 
substantiate  this  conception  of  his  character.  A  large  part  of 
Giot  to's  fame  as  painter  was  won  in  the  service  of  the  Franciscans, 
and  in  the  pictorial  celebration  of  the  life  and  ordinances  of 


GIPSIES 


37 


tbdr  fomider.  As  is  wdl  known,  it  wns  a  part  of  tlie  oidinances 
of  Frands  that  his  disdples  should  follow  his  own  example  in 
wocsiiipping  and  being  wedded  to  poverty, — poverty  idealised 
and  personified  as  a  spirilual  bride  and  mistress.  Giotto,  having 
on  the  commission  of  the  order  given  the  noblest  pictorial 
embodiment  to  this  and  other  aspects  of  the  Franciscan  doctrine, 
presently  wrote  an  ode  in  which  his  own  views  on  poverty  are 
expressed;  and  in  this  he  shows  that,  if  on  the  one  hand  his 
genius  was  at  the  service  of  the  ideals  of  his  time,  and  his  imagina- 
tion open  to  their  significance,  on  the  other  hand  his  judgment 
was  shrewdly  and  humorously  awake  to  their  practic^  dangers 
and  exaggerations. 

AvTHORiTiBS.— Chtberti,  Cammentari;  Vaiari,  Le  ViU,  vol.  L: 


Floreuiimt  Painters  «f  the  Renaissance:  F.  Mason  Perlein,  CioUo 
(in  "Great  Masters^'  scries)  (1909};  Basil  dc  S^lincourt,  Ciollo 

(1905).  (S.  C.) 

GIPSIBS,  or  Gypsies,  a  wandering  folk  scattered  through 
every  European  land,  over  the  greater  part  of  western  Asia 
and  Siberia;  found  also  in  Egypt  and  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa,  in  America  and  even  in  Australia.  No  correct  estimate 
of  their  numbers  outside  of  Europe  can  be  given,  and  even  in 
Europe  the  information  derived  from  official  statbtics  is  often 
contradictory  and  unreliable.  The  only  country  in  which  the 
figures  have  been  given  correctly  is  Hungary.  In  1893  there 
were  374,940  in  Transleithania,  of  whom  343,453  were  settled, 
30,406  only  partly  settled  and  8938  nomads.  Of  these  91,603 
spoke  the  Gipsy  language  in  1890,  but  the  rest  had  already  been 
assimilated.  Next  in  numbers  stands  Rumania,  the  number 
varying  between  350,000  and  300,000  (1895).  Turkey  in  Europe 
counted  117,000  (1903),  of  whom  51,000  were  in  Bulgaria  and 
Eastern  Rumelia,  33,000  in  the  vilayet  of  Adrianople  and  3500  in 
the  vilayet  of  Kossovo.  In  Asiatic  Turkey  the  estimates  vary 
between  67,000  and  300,000.  Servia  has  4i/x»;  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina,  18,000;  Greece,  10,000;  Austria  (Cislcithania), 
s6,ooo,  of  whom  13,500  are  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia;  Germany, 
sooo;  France,  3000  (5000?);  Basque  Provinces,  500  to  700; 
Italy,  33,000;  Spain,  40,000;  Russia,  58,000;  Poland,  15.000; 
Sweden  and  Norway,  1500;  Denmark  and  Holland,  5000; 
Persia,  1 5,000;  Transcaucasia,  3000.  The  rest  is  mere  guesswork. 
For  Africa,  America  and  Australia  the  numbers  are  estimated 
bctwem  135,000  and  t66,ooo.  The  estimate  given  by  Mildosich 
(1878)  of  7oo/x»  fairly  agrees  with  the  above  statistics.  No 
statistics  are  jforthcoming  fyr  the  number  in  the  British  Isles. 
Some  estimate  their  number  at  1 3,000. 
>  The  Gipsies  are  known  principally  by  two  names,  which 
have  been  modified  by  the  nations  with  whom  they  came  in 
contact,  but  which  can  easily  be  traced  to  either  the  one  or  the 
other  <^  these  two  distinct  stems.  The  one  group,  embracing 
the  majority  of  Gipsies  in  Europe,  the  compact  masses  living 
io  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  Rumania  and  Transylvania  and 
extending  also  as  far  as  Germany  and  Italy,  are  known  by  the 
name  Alxigan  or  Atsigan,  which  becomes  in  time  Tshingian 
(Torkey  and  Greece),  Tsigan  (Bulgarian,  Servian,  Rumanian), 
Czigany  (Hungarian),  Zigeuner  (Germany),  Zingari  (Italian), 
and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  English  word  Tinker  or  Tinkler 
(the  latter  no  doubt  due  to  a  popular  etymology  connecting  the 
gaody  gipsy  with  the  tinkling  coins  or  the  metal  wares  which 
be  carried  on  his  back  as  a  smith  and  tinker)  may  be  a  local 
transformation  of  the  German  Zigeuner,  The  second  name, 
partly  known  in  the  East,  where  the  word,  however,  is  used  as  an 
expression  of  contempt,  whilst  Zigan  is  not  felt  by  the  gipsies 
as  an  insult,  is  £fyf/ia»;  in  En^and,  Gipsy;  in  some  German 
documents  of  the  x6th  century  AegyfUr\  Spanish  CUano\ 
modem  Greek  Gypklos.  They  are  also  known  by  the  parallel 
cxprcasions  Paraon  (Rumanian)  and  Pkdrao  Nephka  (Hungarian) 
or  Pharaoh's  people,  which  are  only  variations  connected  with 
the  Egyptian  origin.  In  France  they  are,  known  as  BphimienSf 
a  word  the  importance  of  which  will  appear  later.  To  the  same 
category  belong  other  names  bestowed  upon  them,  such  as 
Wakchi,  Saraceni,  Agarfcni,  Nubiani,  &c.  They  were  also  known 


by  the  name  of  Tartars,  given  to  them  in  Germany,  or  as 
"  Heathen,"  Heydens.  All  these  latter  must  be  considered  a^ 
nicknames  without  thereby  denoting  their  probable  origin. 
The  same  may  have  now  been  the  case  with  the  first  name 
with  which  they  appear  in  history,  Aitigan.  Much  ingenuity 
has  Jieen  displayed  in  attempts  to  explain  the  name,  for  it  was 
felt  that  a  true  explanation  might  help  to  settle  the  question  of 
their  origin  and  the  date  of  their  arrival  in  Europe.  Here 
again  two  extreme  theories  have  been  propounded;  the  one 
supported  by  Bataillard,  who  connected  them  vith  the  Sigynnoi 
of  Herodotus  and  identified  them  with  the  Komodromoi  of  the 
later  Byzantine  writers,  known  already  in  the  6th  century. 
Others  bring  them  to  Europe  as  late  as  the  14th  century;  and 
the  name  has  also  been  explained  by  de  Goeje  from  the  Persian 
Change  a  kind  of  harp  or  zither,  or  the  Persian  Zaug,  black, 
swarthy.  Rienzi  (1832)  and  Trumpp  (1873)  have  connected 
the  name  with  the  Changars  of  North-East  India,  but  all  have 
omitted  to  notice  that  the  real  form  was  Alzigan  or  (more  correct) 
Atzingan  and  not  Tsigan.  The  best  explanation  remains  that  sug- 
gested by  Miklosich,  who  derives  the  word  from  the  Athinganol, 
a  name  originally  belonging  to  a  peculiar  heretical  sect  living 
in  Asia  Minor  near  Phrygia  and  Lycaonia,  known  also  as  the 
Melki-Zedekites.  The  members  of  this  sect  observed  very  strict 
rules  of  purity,  as  they  were  afraid  to  be  defiled  by  the  touch 
of  other  people  whom  they  considered  unclean.  They  therefore 
acquired  the  name  of  Athinganoi  (i.e.  "  Touch-me-nots  "). 

Miklosich  has  collected  seven  passages  where  the  Byzantine 
historians  of  the  9th  century  describe  the  Athinganoi  as  sooth- 
sayers, ma^cians  and  serpent-charmers.  From  these  descrip- 
tions nothing  definite  can  be  proved  as  to  the  identity  of  the 
Athinganoi  with  the  Gipsies,  or  the  reason  why  this  name  was 
given  to  soothsayers,  charmers,  &c  But  the  inner  history  of  the 
Byzantine  empire  of  that  period  may  easily  give  a  clue  to  it 
and  explain  how  it  came  about  that  such  a  nickname  was  given 
to  a  new  sect  or  to  a  new  race  which  suddenly  appeared  in  the 
Creek  Empire  at  that  period.  In  the  history  of  the  Church  we 
find  them  mentioned  in  one  breath  with  the  Paulidans  and  other 
heretical  sects  which  were  transplanted  in  their  tens  o(  thousands 
from  Asia  Minor  to  the  Greek  empire  and  settled  especially  in 
Rumelia,  near  Adrianople  and  Philippopolis.  The  Greeks  adled 
these  heretical  sects  by  all  kinds  of  names,  derived  from  ancient 
Church  traditions,  and  gave  to  each  sect  such  names  as  first  struck 
them,  on  the  scantiest  of  imaginary  similarities.  One  sect  was 
called  Paulician,  another  Melki-Zedtfkite;  so  also  these  were 
called  Athinganoi,  probably  being  considered  the  descendants 
of  the  outcast  Samcr,  who,  according  to  andent  tradition,  was 
a  goldsmith  and  the  maker  of  the  Golden  Calf  in  the  desert. 
For  this  sin  Samer  was  banished  and  compelled  to  live  apart 
from  human  beings  and  even  to  avoid  their  touch  (Athinganos: 
"  Touch-me-not ").  Travelling  from  East  to  West  these  heretical 
sects  obtained  different  names  in  different  countries,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  local  traditions  or  to  imaginary  origins.  The 
Bogomils  and  Patarcnes  became  Bulgarians  in  France,  and  so 
the  gypsies  Bob^miens,  a  name  which  was  also  connected  with 
the  heretical  sect  <rf  the  Bohemian  brothers  (Bdhmiscke  BrOder), 
Curiously  enough  the  Kutxo-Vlachs  living  in  Macedonia  iq.v.) 
and  Rumelia  are  also  known  by  the  nickname  Tsintsari,  a  word 
that  has  not  yet  been  expbined.  Very  likely  it  stands  in  close 
connexion  with  Zingari,  the  name  having  been  transferred  from 
one  people  to  the  other  without  the  justification  of  any  common 
ethnical  origin,  except  that  the  Kutzo-Vlachs,  like  the  Zingari, 
differed  from  their  Greek  neighbours  in  race,  as  in  language, 
habits  and  customs;  while  they  probably  followed  similar 
pursuits  to  those  of  the  Zingari,  as  smiths,  &c.  As  to  the  other 
name,  Egyptians,. this  is  derived  from  a  peculiar  tale  which  the 
gipsies  spread  when  appearing  in  the  west  of  Europe.  They 
alleged  that  they  had  come  from  a  country  of  their  own  called 
Little  Egypt,  either  a  confusion  between  Little  Armenia  and 
Egypt  or  the  Peloponnesus. 

Attention  may  be  drawn  to  a  remarkable  passage  in  the  Sytiap 
version  of  the  apocryphal  Book  of  Adam,  known  as  the  Com  of 
Treasura  and  compiled  probably  in  the  6th  century:    "And 


38 


GIPSIES 


of  the  seed  of  Canaan  were  as  I  said  the  Aegyptians;  and,  lo, 
they,  were  scattered  all  over  the  earth  and  served  as  slaves  of 
slaves  "  (ed.  Bezold,  German  translation,  p.  35).  No  reference 
to  such  a  scattering  and  serfdom  of  the  Egyptians  is  mentioned 
anywhere  else.  This  must  have  been  a  legend,  current  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  hence  probably  transferred  to  the  swarthy  Gipsies. 

A  new  explanation  may  now  be  ventured  upon  as  to  the  name 
which  the  Gipsies  of  Europe  give  to  themselves,  which,  it  must 
be  emphasized,  is  not  known  to  the  Gipsies  outside  of  Europe. 
Only  those  who  starting  from  the  ancient  Byzantine  empire 
have  travelled  westwards  and  4>read  over  Europe,  America  and 
Australia  call  themselves  by  the  name  of  Rom,  the  woman  being 
Rpmni  and  a  stranger  Gaii.  Many  etymologies  have  been  sug- 
gested for  the  word  Rom.  Paspati  derived  it  from  the  word 
Droma  (Indian),  and  Miklosich  had  identified  it  with  poma  or 
pomba,  a  "  low  caste  musician,"  rather  an  extraordinary  name 
for  a  nation  to  call  itself  by.  Having  no  home  and  no  country 
of  their  own  and  no  political  traditions  and.no  literature,  they 
would  naturally  try  to  identify  themselves  with  the  people  in 
whose  midst  they  lived,  and  would  call  themselves  by  the  same 
name  as  other  inhabitants  of  the  Greek  empire,  known  also  as 
the  Empire  of  New  Rom,  or  of  the  Romaioi,  Romeliots,  Romanoi, 
as  the  Byzantines  used  to  call  themselves  before  they  assumed 
the  prouder  name  of  Hellenes.  The  Gipsies  would  therefore 
call  themselves  also  Rom,  a  much  more  natural  name,  more 
flattering  to  their  vanity,  and  geographically  and  politically 
more  correct  than  if  they  called  themselves  "low  caste 
musicians."  This  Greek  origin  of  the  name  would  explain  why 
it  is  limited  to  the  European  Gipsies,  and  why  it  is  not  found 
among  that  stock  of  Gipsies  which  has  migrated  from  Asia 
Minor  southwards  and  taken  a  different  route  to  reach  Egypt 
and  North  Africa. 

Appearance  in  Europe. — Leaving  aside  the  doubtful  passages 
in  the  Byzantine  writers  where  the  Athinganoi  are  mentioned, 
the  first  appearance  of  Gipsies  in  Europe  cannot  be  traced 
positively  further  back  than  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century. 
Some  have  hitherto  believed  that  a  passage  in  what  was  errone- 
ously called  the  Rhymed  Version  of  Genesis  of  Vienna,  but  which 
turns  out  to  be  the  work  of  a  writer  before  the  year  im, 
and  found  only  in  the  Klagenfurt  manuscript  (edited  by  Ditmar, 
1862),  referred  to  the  Gipsies.  It  runs  as  follows:  Gen.  xiii,  1 5 — 
"  Hagar  had  a  son  from  whom  were  bom  the  Chaltsmide.  When 
Hagar  had  that  child,  she  named  it  Isnuiel,  from  whom  the 
Ismaclites  descend  who  journey  through  the  land,  and  we  call 
them  Chaltsmide,  may  evil  befall  themi  They  sell  only  things 
with  blemishes,  and  for  whatever  they  sell  they  always  ask  more 
than  its  real  value.  They  cheat  the  people  to  whom  they  sell. 
They  have  no  home,  no  country,  they  are  satisfied  to  live  in 
tents,  they  wander  over  the  country,  they  deceive  the  people,- 
they  cheat  men  but  rob  no  one  noisily." 

This  reference  to  the  Chaltsmide  (not  goldsmiths,  but  very 
likely  ironworkers,  smiths)  has  wrongly  been  applied  to  the 
Gipsies.  For  it  is  important  to  note  that  at  least  three  centuries 
before  historical  evidence  proves  the  immigration  of  the  genuine 
Gipsy,  there  had  been  wayfaring  smiths,  travelling  from  country 
to  country,  and  practically  paving  the  way  for  their  successors, 
the  Gipsies,  who  not  only  took  up  their  crafts  but  who  probably 
have  also  assimilated  a  good  proportion  of  these  vagrants  of 
the  west  of  Europe.  The  name  given  to  the  former,  who  pro- 
bably were  Oriental  or  Greek  smiths  and  pedlars,  was  then 
transferred  to  the  new-comers.  The  Komodromoi  mentioned 
by  Thcophancs  (75S-818),  who  speaks  under  the  date  554  of  one 
hailing  from  Italy,  and  by  other  Byzantine  writers,  are  no 
doubt  the  same  as  the  Chaltsmide  of  the  German  writer  of  the 
1 3th  century  translated  by  Ducange  as  Chaudroneurs.  We 
are  on  surer  ground  in  the  14th  century.  Hopf  has  proved  the 
existence  of  Gipsies  in  Corfu  before  1326.  Before  1346  the 
empress  Catherine  de  Valois  granted  to  the  governor  of  Corfu 
authority  to  reduce  to  vassalage  certain  vagrants  who  came 
from  the  mainland;  and  in  1386,  under  the  Venetians,  they 
formed  the  Feudum  Acindanorum,  which  lasted  for  many 
centuries.    About    1378  the  Venetian  governor  of   Nauplia 


confirmed  to  the  "  Acingani "  of  that  colony  the  privileges 
granted  by  his  predecessor  to  their  leader  John.  It  is  even 
possible  to  identify  the  people  described  by  Friar  Simon  in  his 
Itiiurarium,  who,  speaking  of  his  stay  in  Crete  in  1322,  says: 
"  We  saw  there  a  people  outside  the  dty  who  declare  themselves 
to  be  of  the  race  of  Ham  and  who  worship  according  to  the  Greek, 
rite.  They  wander  like  a  cursed  people  from  place  to  place,  not 
stopping  at  all  or  rarely  in  one  place  longer  than  thirty  days; 
they  live  in  tents  like  the  Arabs,  a  little  oblong  black  tent." 
But  their  name  is  not  mentioned,  and  although  the  similarity 
is  great  between  these  "  children  of  Ham  "  and  the  Gipsies, 
the  identification  has  only  the  value  of  an  hypothesis.  By  the 
end  of  the  15th  century  they  must  have  been  settled  for  a 
sufficiently  long  time  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and  the  countries 
north  of  the  Danube,  such  as  Transylvania  and  Walachia,  to  have 
been  reduced  to  the  same  state  of  serfdom  as  they  evidently 
occupied  in  Corfu  in  the  second  half  of  the  14th  century.  The 
voivode  Mircea  I.  of  Walachia  confirms  the  grant  made  by  his 
uncle  Vladislav  Voivode  to  the  monastery  of  St  Anthony  of 
Voditsa  as  to  forty  families  of  "  Atsigane,"  for  whom  no  taxes 
should  be  paid  to  the  prince.  They  were  considered  crown 
property.  The  same  gift  is  renewed  in  the  year  1424  by  the 
voivode  Dan,  who  repeats  the  very  same  words  (i  Acigine,  m, 
£eliudi.  da  su  slobodni  ot  vstkih  rabot  i  dankov)  (Hftjdiu, 
Arhiva^  i.  30).  At  that  time  there  must  already  have  been 
in  Walachia  settled  Gipsies  treated  as  serfs,  and  migrating 
Gipsies  plying  their  trade  as  smiths,  musicians,  dancers,  sooth« 
sayers,  horse-dealers,  &c.,  for  we  find  the  voivode  Alexander  of 
Moldavia  granting  these  Gipsies  in  the  year  1478  "  freedom  of 
air  and  soil  to  wander  about  and  free  fire  and  iron  for  their 
smithy.  "  But  a  certain  portion,  probably  the  largest,  became 
serfs,  who  could  be  sold,  exchanged,  bartered  and  inherited. 
It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  in  tJie  17th  century  a  family 
when  sold  fetched  forty  Hungarian  florins,  and  in  the  i8th 
century  the  price  was  sometimes  as  high  as  700  Rumanian 
piastres,  about  £8,  xos.  As  bte  as  1845  an  auction  of  aoo 
families  of  Gipsies  took  place  in  Bucharest,  where  they  were  sold 
in  batches  of  no  less  than  5  families  and  offered  at  a  "  ducat  " 
cheaper  per  head  than  elsewhere.  The  Gipsies  followed  at  least 
four  distinct  pursuits  in  Rumania  and  Transylvania,  where  they 
lived  in  large  masses.  A  goodly  proportion  of  them  were  tied, 
to  the  soil;  in  consequence  their  position  was  different  from  that 
of  the  Gipsies  who  had  started  westwards  and  who  are  nowhere 
found  to  have  obtained  a  permanent  abode  for  any  length  oC 
time,  or  to  have  been  treated,  except  for  a  very  short  period, 
with  any  consideration  of  humanity. 

Their  appearance, in  the  West  is  first  noted  by  chroniclers 
early  in  the  i  sth  century.  In  1414  they  are  said  to  have  already 
arrived  in  Hesse.  This  date  is  contested,  but  for  14 17  the  reports 
are  unanimous  of  their  appearance  in  Germany.  Some  count 
their  number  to  have  been  as  high  as  1400,  which  of  course  is 
exaggeration.  In  14x8  they  reached  Hamburg,  1419  Augsburg, 
1428  Switzerland.  In  1427  they  had  already  entered  France 
(Provence).  A  troupe  is  said  to  have  reached  Bologna  in  1433, 
whence  they  are  said  to  have  gone  to  Rome,  on  a  pilgrimage 
alleged  to  have  been  undertaken  for  some  act  of  apostasy.  After 
this  first  immigration  a  second  and  larger  one  seems  to  have 
followed  in  its  wake,  led  by  ZumbcL  The  Gipsies  spread  over- 
Germany,  Italy  and  France  between  the  years  1438  and  151 3. 
About  1500  they  must  have  reached  En^nd.  On  the  5th  of 
July  1505  James  IV.  of  Scotland  gave  to  "  Antonius  Gaginae," 
count  of  Little  Egypt,  letters  of  recommendation  to  the  king  of 
Denmark;  and  special  privileges  were  granted  by  James  V. 
on  the  xsth  of  February  1540  to  "  oure  louit  johnne  Faw  Lord 
and  Erie  of  Litill  Egypt,"  to  whose  son  and  successor  he  granted 
authority  to  hang  and  punish  all  Egyptiuis  within  the  realm 
(May  36,  1540). 

It  is  interesting  to  hear  what  the  first  writers  who  witnessed 
their  appearance  have  to  tell  us;  for  ever  since  the  Gipsies 
have  remained  the  same.  Albert  Krantzius  (Krantx),  in  his 
Saxonia  (xi.  2),  was  the  first  to  give  a  full  description,  which  was 
afterwards  repeated  by  Munstcr  in  his  Ccsmograpkia  (iii.  5). 


GIPSIES 


39 


He  ttys  that  in  the  year  1417  there  appeared  for  the  first  time 
in  Germany  a  people  uncouth,  black,  dirty,  barbarous,  called 
in  Italian  "  Ciani,"  who  indulge  specially  in  thieving  and  cheat- 
ing. They  had  among  them  a  count  and  a  few  knights  well 
dressed,  others  followed  afoot.  The  women  and  children 
travelled  in  carts.  They  also  carried  with  them  letters  of  safe- 
conduct  from  the  emperor  Sigismund  and  other  princes,  and  Ihey 
professed  that  they  were  engaged  on  a  pilgrimage  of  expiation 
for  some  act  of  apostasy. 

The  guilt  of  the  Gipsies  varies  in  the  different  versions  of  the 
story,  but  all  agree  that  the  Gipsies  asserted  that  they  came  from 
their  own  countiy  called  "  Litill  Egypt,"  and  they  had  to  go 
to  Rome,  to  obtain  pardon  for  that  alleged  sin  ol  their  fore- 
fat  hen.  According  to  one  account  it  was  because  they  had  not 
shown  mercy  to  Joseph  and  Mary  when  they  had  sought  refuge 
in  Egypt  from  the  persecution  of  Herod  {Basel  Chronicle). 
According  to  another,  because  they  had  forsaken  the  Christian 
faith  for  a  while  {RkaeHa^  1656),  &&  But  these  were  fables, 
so  doubt  connected  with  the  Icgiqpd  of  Cartaphylus  or.  the 
Wandering  Jew. 

Krantx's  narrative  continues  as  follows:  This  people  have 
no  country  and  travel  through  the  land.  They  live  Uke  dogs  and 
have  no  religion  although  they  alk>w  themselves  to  be  baptized 
in  the  Christian  faith.  They  live  without  care  and  gather  unto 
themselves  also  other  vagrants,  men  and  women.  Their  old 
women  practise  fortune-telling,  and  whilst  they  are  telling  men 
of  their  future  they  pick  their  pockets.  Thus  far  Krantz.  It 
is  curious  that  he  should  use  the  name  by  which  these  people 
were  called  in  Italy, "  Ciani."  Similarly  Crusius,  the  author  of  the 
AumaUs  Sucnci^  knows  their  Italian  name  Zigani  and  the  French 
B^fkimieus.  Not  one  of  these  oldest  writers  mentions  them 
as  coppersmiths  or  farriers  or  musicians.  The  immunity  which 
they  enjoyed  during  their  first  appearance  in  western  Europe 
is  due  to  the  letter  0/  safe-conduct  of  the  emperor.  As  it  is  of 
extreme  importance  for  the  history  of  civilization  as  well  as  the 
history  of  the  Gipsies,  it  may  find  a  place  here.  It  is  taken  from 
the  compilation  of  Felix  Oefelius,  Rcrum  Boicarum  scriptores 
(Augsbuiig,  1763),  ii.  IS,  who  reproduces  the  "  Diarium 
sexennale "  of  "  Andreas  Presbyter,"  the  contemporary  of  the 
first  appearance  of  the  Gipsies  in  Germany. 

*'  Sigismundus  Dei  gratia  Romanorum  Rex  semper  Augustus, 
ac  Hungariae,  Bobemiae,  Dahnatiae,  Croatiae,  &c.  Rex 
Fidelibus  nostris  univcrsis  Nobilibus,  Militibus,  Caslcllanis, 
Oflidalibus,  Tributariis,  dvitatibus  liberis,  opidis  et  eorum 
iodicibus  in  Regno  et  sub  domino  nostro  constitutis  ex  existcnti- 
bus  salutem  cum  dilcctione.  Fideles  nostri  adierunt  in  prac- 
scntiam  personaliter  Ladislaus  WayuodaCiganorum  cum  aliisad 
ipsum  spectantibuS;  nobis  humilimas  porrexerunt  supplicationes, 
hue  in  sepus  in  nostra  pracsentia  supplicationum  prccum  cum 
instantii,  ut  ipsis.  gratiA  nostra  uberiori  providere  dignaremur. 
Unde  nos  illorum  supplicationc  illccti  eisdcm  banc  libertatcm 
duzimus-  concedendam,  qua  re  quandocunque  idem  Ladislaus 
Wayuoda  et  sua  gens  ad  dicta  nostra  dominia  videlicet  dvitates 
vel  oppida  pervenerint,  ex  tunc  vestris  fidelitatibus  pracsentibus 
firmiter  oommittimus  et  mandamus  ut  eosdem  Ladislaum 
.Wayuodam  et  Ciganos  sibi  subiectos  oihnl  sine  impcdimento  ac 
perturbatione  aliquali  fovcre  ac  conscrvare  debeatis,  immo 
ab  omnibus  impetitionibus  sen  offcnsionibus  tueri  velitis:  Si 
autem  inter  ipsos  aliqua  Zizania  seu  perturbatio  evencrit  ex 
parte,  quorumcunque  ex  tunc  non  vos  ncc  aliquis  alter  vcstrum, 
sed  idem  Ladislaus  Wayuoda  iudicandi  et  liberandl  habeat 
facultatem.  Pracscntcs  autem  post  eanim  Iccturam  semper 
reddi  iubemus  pracsentanti. 

"Datum  in  Sepus  Dominica  die  ante  festum  St  Georgii  Bf  artyris 
Anno  Domini  MCCCCXXIII.,  Rcgnorum  noslrorum  anno 
Hungar.  XXXVI.,  Romanorum  vcro  XII.,  Bohemiae  tcrtio." 
'  Freely  translated  this  reads:  "  We  Sigismund  by  the  grace 
of  God  emperor  of  Rome,  king  of  Hungdry,  Bohemia,  &c.  unto 
an  true  and  loyal  subjects,  noble  soldiers,  commanders,  castellans, 
open  districts,  fret  towns  and  their  judges  in  our  kingdom 
established  and  under  our  sovereignty,  kind  greetings.  Our 
faithful  voiVode  of  the  Tsigani  with  others  belonging  to  him  has 


humbly  requested  us  that  we  might  graciously  grant  them  our 
abundant  favour. .  We  grant  them  their  supplication,  we  have 
vouchsafed  tmto  them  this  liberty.  Whenever  therefore  this 
voivode  Ladislaus  and  his  people  should  come  to  any  part  of  our 
realm  in  any  town,  village  or  place,  we  commit  them  by  these 
presents,  strongly  to  your  loyalty  and  we  cominand  you  to  pro- 
tect in  every  way  the  same  voivode  Ladislaus  and  the  Tsigani 
his  subjects  without  hindrance,  and  you  should  show  kindness 
unto  them  and  you  should  protect  them  from  every  trouble  and 
persecution.  But  should  any  trouble  or  discord  happen  among 
them  from  whichever  side  it  may  be,  then  none  of  you  nor  any- 
one else  belonging  to  you  should  interfere,  but  this  voivode 
Ladislaus  alone  should  have  the  right  of  punishing  and  pardoning. 
And  we  moreover  command  you  to  return  these  presents  always 
after  having  read  them.  Given  in  our  court  on  Sunday  the  day 
before  the  Feast  of  St  George  in  the  year  of  oui^  Lord  1423.  The 
36th  year  of  our  kingdom  of  Hungary,  the  xsth  of  our  being 
emperor  of  Rome  and  the  3rd  of  our  being  king  of  Bohemia." 

There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  authenticity  of  this  document, 
which  is  in  no  way  remarkable  considering  that  at  that  time  the 
Gipsies  must  have  formed  a  very  oonsiderable  portion  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Hungary,  whose  king  Sigismund  was.  They  may 
have  presented  the  emperor's  grant  of  favours  to  Alexander 
prince  of  Moldavia  in  1472,  and  obtained  from  him  safe-conduct 
and  protection,  as  mentioned  above. 

No  one  has  yet  attempted  to  explain  the  reason  why  the  Gipsies 
shoiild  have  started  in  the  X4th  and  especially  in  the  first  half 
of  the  15th  century  on  their  march  westwards.  But  if,  as  has 
been  assumed  above,  the  Gipsies  had  lived  for  some  length  of 
time  in  Rumclia,  and  afterwards  spread  thence  across  the  Danube 
and  the  plains  of  Transylvania,  the  incursion  of  the  Turks  inl'o 
Europe,  their  successive  occupation  of  those  very  provinces, 
the  overthrow  of  the  Servian  and  Bulgarian  kingdoms  and  the 
dislocation  of  the  native  population,  would  account  to  a  remark- 
able degree  for  the  movement  of  the  Gipsies:  and  this  movement 
increases  in  volume  wiih  the  greater  successes  of  the  Turks  and 
with  the  peopling  of  the  country  by  immigrants  from  Asia  Minor. 
The  first  to  be  driven  from  their  homes  would  no  doubt  be  the 
nomadic  element,  which  felt  itself  ill  at  ease  in  its  new  surround- 
ings, and  found  it  more  profitable  first  to  settle  in  larger  numbers 
in  NVlLlachia  and  Transylvania  and  thence  to  spread  to  the  western 
countries  of  Europe.  But  thei^  immunity  from  persecution  did' 
not  last  long. 

Later  History. — Less  than  fifty  years  from  the  time  that  they 
emerge  out  of  Hungary,  or  even  from  the  date  of  the  Charter  of 
the  emperor  Sigismund,  they  found  themselves  exposed  to  the 
fury  and  the  prejudices  of  the  people  whose  good  faith  they  had 
abused,  whose  purses  they  had  lightened,  whose  bams  they  bad 
emptied,  and  on  whose  credulity  they  had  lived  with  ease  and 
comfort.  Their  inborn  tendency  to  roaming  made  them  the 
terror  of  the  peasantry  and  the  despair  of  every  legislator  who 
tried  to  settle  them  on  the  land.  Their  foreign  appearance,  their 
unknown  tongue  and  their  unscrupulous  habits  forced  the  legis- 
lators of  many  countries  to  class  them  with  rogues  and  vagabonds, 
to  declare  them  outlaws  and  felons  and  to  treat  them  with 
extreme  severity.  More  than  one  judicial  murder  has  been  com- 
mitted against  them.  In  some  places  they  were  suspected  as 
Turkish  spies  and  treated  accordingly,  and  the  murderer  of  a 
Gipsy  was  often  regarded  as  innocent  of  any  crime. 

Weissenbruch  describes  the  wholesale  murder  of  a  group  of 
Gipsies,  of  whom  five  men  were  broken  on  the  wheel,  nine  perished 
on  the  gallows,  and  three  men  and  eight  women  were  decapitated. 
This  took  pbce  on  the  14th  and  15th  of  November  1726.  Acts 
and  edicts  were  issued  in  many  countries  from  the  end  of  the 
1 5th  century  onwards  sentencing  the  "  £g>'ptians  "  to  exile  under 
pain  of  death.  Nor  was  this  an  empty  threat.  In  Edinburgh 
four  "Faas"  were  hanged  in  161 1  "for  abyding  within  the 
kingdome,  they  being  Egiptienis,"  and  in  1636  at  Haddington 
the  Egyptians  were  ordered  "  the  men  to  be  hangied  and  the 
weomen  to  be  drowned,  and  suche  of  the  weomen  as  hes  children 
to  be  scourgit  throw  the  burg  and  burnt  in  the  checks."  The 
burning  on  the  cheek  or  on  the  back  was  a  common  penaltv 


40 


GIPSIES 


In  1692  four  Estremadtira  Gipsies  caught  by  the  Inquisition  were 
charged  with  cannibalism  and  made  to  own  that  they  had  eaten 
a  friar,  a  pilgrim  and  even  a  woman  of  their  own  tribe,  for  which 
they  suffered  the  penalty  of  death.  And  as  late%as  1782,  45 
Hungarian  Gipsies  were  charged  with  a  similar  monstrous  crime, 
and  when  the  supposed  victims  of  a  supposed  murder  could  not  be 
found  on  the  spot  indicated  by  the  Gipsies,  they  owned  under 
torture  and  said  on  the  rack,  "  We  ate  them."  Of  course  they 
were  forthwith  beheaded  or  hanged.    The  emperor  Joseph  II., 

2 ho  was  also  the  author  of  one  of  the  first  edicts  in  favour  of  the 
ipsies,  and  who  abolished  serfdom  throughout  the  Empire, 
ordered  an  inquiry  into  the  incident;  it  was  then  discovered  that 
no  murder  had  been  committed,  except  that  of  the  victims  of 
this  monstrous  accxisation. 

The  history  of  the  legal  status  of  the  Gipsies,  of  their  treatment 
in  various  countries  and  of  the  penalties  and  inflictions  to  which 
they  have  been  subjected,  would  form  a  remarkable  chapter  in 
the  history  of  modern  civilization.  The  materials  are  slowly 
accumulating,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  as  one  of  the  latest 
instances,  that  not  further  back  than  the  year  1907  a  "  drive  " 
was  undertaken  in  Germany  against  the  Gipsies,  which  fact  may 
account  for  the  appearance  of  some  German  Gipsies  in  England 
in  that  year,  and  that  in  1904  the  Prussian  Landtag  adopted 
unanimously  a  proposition  to  examine  anew  the  question  of 
granting  peddling  licences  to  German  Gipsies;  that  on  the  X7th 
of  February  1906  the  Prussian  minister  issued  special  instructions 
to  combat  the  Gipsy  nuisance;  and  that  in  various  parts  of 
Germany  and  Austria  a  special  register  is  kept  for  the  tracing  of 
the  genealogy  of  vagrant  and  sedentary  Gipsy  families. 

Different  has  been  the  history  of  the  Gipsies  in  what  originally 
formed  the  Turkish  empire  of  Europe,  notably  in  Rtmiania, 
f .«.  Walachia  and  Moldavia,  and  a  careful  search  in  the  archives 
of  Rumania  would  offer  rich  materials  for  the  history  of  the 
Gipsies  in  a  country  where  they  enjoyed  exceptional  treatment 
almost  from  the  beginning  of  their  settlement.  They  were 
divided  mainly  into  two  classes,  (i)  Robi  or  Serfs,  who  were 
settled  on  the  land  and  deprived  of  all  individual  liberty,  being 
the  property  of  the  nobles  and  of  churches  or  monastic  establish- 
ments, and  (3)  the  Nomadic  vagrants.  They  were  subdivided 
into  four  classes  according  to  their  occupation,  such  as  the 
Lingurari  (woodcarvers;  lit.  "spoonmakers"),  Caldarari  (tinkers, 
coppersmiths  and  ironworkers),  Ursari  (lit.  "  bear  drivers  ") 
and  Rudari  (miners),  also  called  Aurari  (gold-washers),  who  used 
formerly  to  wash  the  gold  out  of  the  auriferous  river-sands 
of  Walachia.  A  separate  and  smaller  class  consisted  of  the 
Gipsy  L&eski  or  Vdtraski  (settled  on  a  homestead  or  "  having 
a  fireplace  "  of  their  own).  Each  shaSra  or  Gipsy  community 
was  placed  under  the  authority  of  a  judge  or  leader,  known  in 
Rumania  as  jude,  in  Hungary  as  ago;  these  officials  were 
subordinate  to  the  bulubaska  or  voived,  who  was  himself  under 
the  direct  control  of  the  yuzbasha  (or  governor  appointed  by  the 
prince  from  among  his  nobles).  The  yuxbasha  was  responsible 
for  the  regular  income  to  be  derived  from  the  vagrant  Gipsies, 
who  were  considered  and  treated  as  the  prince's  property. 
These  voivodi  or  yuzbashi  who  were  not  Gipsies  by  origin  often 
treated  the  Gipsies  with  great  tyranny.  In  Hungary  down  to 
1648  they  belonged  to  the  aristocracy.  The  last  Polish  Krolestvo 
cyganskie  or  Gipsy  king  died  in  1790.  The  Robi  could  be  bought 
and  sold,  freely  exchanged  and  inherited,  and  were  treated 
as  the  negroes  in  America  down  to  1856,  when  their  final  freedom 
in  Moldavia  was  proclaimed.  In  Hungary  and  in  Transylvania 
the  abolition  of  servitude  in  1781-1783  carried  with  it  the 
freedom  of  the  Gipsies.  In  the  i8th  and  19th  centuries  many 
attempts  were  made  to  settle  and  to  educate  the  roaming  Gipsies; 
in  Austria  this  was  undertaken  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa 
and  the  emperor  Francis  II.  (1761-1783),  in  Spain  by  Charles  III. 
(1788).  In  Poland  (1791)  the  attempt  succeeded.  In  England 
(1837)-  and  in  Germany  (1830)  societies  were  formed  for  the 
reclamation  of  the  Gipsies,  but  nothing  was  accomplished  in 
either  case.  In  other  countries,  however,  definite  progress  was 
made.  Since  1866  thb  Gipsies  have  become  Rumanian  cilixens, 
Aod  the  latest  oflicial  statistics  no  longer  distinguish  between 


the  Rumanians  and  the  Gipsies,  who  are  becoming  tborou^y 
assimilated,  forgetting  their  hmguage,  and  being  slowly  absorbed 
by  the  native  population.  In  Bulgaria  the  Gipsies  were  declared 
dtizens,  enjoying  equal  political  rights  in  accordance  with  the 
treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878,  but  through  an  arbitrary  interpretation 
they  were  deprived  of  that  right,  and  on  the  6th  of  January  1906 
the  first  Gipsy  Congress  was  held  in  Sofia,  for  the  purpose  of 
claiming  political  rights  for  the  Turkish  Gipsies  or  Gopti  as  they 
call  themselves.  Ramadan  Alief,  the  ttari-baski  ($.e.  the  head 
of  the  Gipsies  in  Sofia),  addressed  the  Gipsies  assembled;  they 
decided  to  protest  and  subsequently  sent  a  petition  to  the 
Sobranye,  demanding  the  recognition  of  thdr  political  rights. 
A  curious  reawakening,  and  an  interesting  chapter  in  the 
history  of  this  peculiar  race. 

OrigiH  and  Language  of  the  Gspnes.-^tht  real  key  to  their 
origin  is,  however,  the  Gipsy  language.  The  scientific  study 
of  that  language  began  in  the  middle  of  the  X9th  century  with 
the  work  of  Pott,  and  was  brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection 
by  Miklosich.  From  thatvtime  on  naonographs  have  multii;^ed 
and  minute  researches  have  been  carried  on  in  many  parts  of 
the  worid,  all  tending  to  elucidate  the  true  origin  of  the  Gipsy 
language.  It  must  remain  for  the  time  being  an  open  question 
whether  the  Gipsies  were  originally  a  pure  race.  Mafty  a  strange 
element  has  contributed  to  swell  their  ranks  and  to  introduce 
discordant  dements  into  their  vocabulary.  Ruediger  (1783), 
Grellmann  (1783)  and  Marsden  (1783)  ahnost  simultaneously 
and  independently  of  one  another  came  to  the  same  conclusion, 
that  the  language  of  the  Gipsies,  until  then  considered  a  thieves* 
jargon,  was  in  reality  a  language  closely  allied  with  some  Indian, 
speech.  Sin<;e  then  the  two  principal  problems  to  be  solved 
hiave  been,  firstly,  to  which  of  the  languages  of  India  the 
original  Gipsy  speech  was  most  closely  allied,  and  secondly,  by 
which  route  the  people  speaking  that  language  had  reached 
Europe  and  then  spread  westwards.  De^ite  the  rapid  increase 
in  our  knowledge  of  Indian  languages,  no  solution  has  yet  been 
found  to  the  first  problem,  nor  a  it  likely  to  be  found.  For  the 
langiiage  of  the  Gipsies,  as  shown  now  by  recent  studies  of  the 
Armenian  Gipsies,  has  undergone  such  a  profound  change  and 
involves  so  many  difficulties,  that  it  is  impossible  to  compare 
the  modem  Gipsy  with  any  modem  Indian  dialed  owing  to  the 
inner  developments  which  the  Gipsy  language  has  undergone 
in  the  course  of  centuries.  All  that  is  known,  moreover,  of  the 
Gipsy  language,  and  all  that  rests  on  reliable  texts,  is  quite 
modem,  scarcely  earlier  than  the  middle  of  the  X9th  century. 
Followed  up  in  the  various  dialects  into  which  that  language 
has  split,  it  shows  such  a  thorough  change  from  dialect  to  dialect, 
that  except  as  regards  general  outlines  and  principles  of  inflexion, 
nothing  would  be  more  misleading  than  to  draw  conclusions 
from  apparent  similarities  between  Gipsy,  or  any  Gipsy  dialect, 
and  any  Indian  language;  especially  as  the  Gipsies  must  have 
been  separated  from  the  Indian  races  for  a  much  longer  period 
than  has  elapsed  since  their  arrival  in  Europe  and  since  the  forma- 
tion  of  their  European  dialects.  It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  Indian  languages  have  also  undergone  profound  changes 
of  their  own,  under  influences  totally  different  from  those  to 
which  the  Gipsy  language  has  been  subjected.  The  problem 
would  stand  differently  if  by  any  chance  an  ancient  vocabulary 
were  discovered  representing  the  oldest  form  of  the  common 
stock  from  which  the  European  dialects  have  sprung;  for  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  the  unity  of  the  language  of  the  European 
Gipsies.  The  question  whether  Gipsy  stands  close  to  Sanskrit 
or  Prakrit,  or  shows  forms  more  akin  to  Hindi  dialects,  specially 
those  of  the  North-West  frontier,  or  Dardcstan  and  Kafiristan, 
to  which  may  be  added  now  the  dialects  of  the  Pis2ca  language, 
(Gricrson,  1906),  is  affected  by  the  fact  established  by  Fink  that 
the  dialect  of  the  Armenian  Gipsies  shows  much  closer  resem- 
blance to  Prakrit  than  the  language  of  the  European  Gipsies, 
and  that  the  dialects  of  Gipsy  spoken  throughout  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor  differ  profoundly  in  every  respect  from  the  European 
Gipsy,  taken  as  a  whole  spoken.  The  only  explanation  possible 
is  that  the  European  Gipsy  represents  the  first  wave  of  the 
Westward  movement  of  an  Indian  tribe  or  caste  which,  dislocated 


GIPSIES 


4' 


at  a  oextaia  period  by  political  disturbances,  had  txavelled 
throu^  Persia,  making  a  very  short  stay  there,  thence  to  Armenia 
stasring  there  a  little  longer,  and  then  possibly  to  the  Byzantine 
Empire  at  an  indefinite  period  between  xxoo  and  xaoo;  and  that 
another  clan  had  followed  in  their  wake,  passing  through  Persia, 
settling  in  Armenia  and  then  going  farther  down  to  Sjfria,  Egypt 
and  North  Africa.  These  two  tribes  though  of  a  common 
remote  Indian  origin  must,  however,  be  kept  strictly  apart 
from  one  another  in  our  investigation,  for  they  stand  to  each 
other  in  the  same  relation  as  they  stand  to  the  various  dialects 
in  India.  The  linguistic  proof  <k  origin  can  therefore  now  not 
go  further  than  to  cataUkh  the  fact  that  the  Gipsy  language 
is  in  its  very  essence  an  originally  Indian  dialect,  enriched  in  its 
vocabulary  from  the  languages  of  the  peoples  among  whom 
the  Gipsies  had  sojourned,  whilst  in  its  grammatical  inflection 
it  has  sloiriy  been  modified,  to  such  an  extent  that  in  some 
like  the  En^ish  or  the  Servian,  barely  a  skeleton  has 


Notwithstanding  the  statements  to  the  contrary,  a  Gipsy 
from  Greece  or  Rumania  could  no  longer  understand  a  Gipsy 
of  Eni^bnd  or  Germany,  so  profound  is  the  difference.  But  the 
words  which  have  entmd  into  the  Gipsy  language,  borrowed  as 
th^  were  from  the  Greeks,  Hungarians,  Rumanians,  &c.,  are  not 
only  an  indication  of  the  route  taken — and  this  is  the  only  use 
that  has  hitherto  been  made  of  the  vocabulary^— but  they  are 
of  the  highest  importance  for  fixing  the  time  when  the  Gipsies 
had  come  in  contact  with  these  languages.  The  absence  of  Arabic 
is  n  positive  proof  that  not  oxdy  did  the  Gipsies  not  come  via 
Arabia  (as  maintained  by  De  Goe je)  before  they  reached  Europe, 
but  that  they  could  not  even  have  been  living  for  any  length  of 
time  in  Persia  after  the  Mahommedan  conquest,  or  at  any  rate 
that  they  could  not  have  come  in  contact  with  such  elements  of 
the  population  as  had  ahready  adopted  Arabic  in  addition  to 
Persian.  But  the  form  of  the  Persian  words  found  among 
European  Gipsies,  and  similarly  the  form  of  the  Armenian  words 
found  in  that  language,  are  a  dear  indication  that  the  Gipsies 
ooold  not  have  come  in.  contact  with  these  languages  before 
Pcfsian  had  assumed  its  modem  form  and  before  Armenian  had 
been  changed  from  the  old  to  the  modem  form  of  language. 
Still  more  strong  and  clear  is  the  evidence  in  the  case  of  the  Greek 
and  Rumanian  words.  If  the  Gipsies  had  livedin  Greece,  assome 
contend,  from  very  ancient  times,  some  at  least  of  the  old  Greek 
words  would  be  found  in  their  language,  and  similarly  the  Slavonic 
words  would  be  of  an  archaic  character,  whilst  on  the  contrary 
we  find  medieval  Byzantine  forma,  nay,  modem  Greek  forms, 
am(»g  the  Gipsy  vocabulary  collected  from  Gipsies  in  Germany 
or  Italy,  England  or  France;  a  proof  positive  that  they  could  not 
have  been  in  Europe  much  earlier  than  the  approximate  date 
given  above  of  the  nth  or  xath  century.  We  then  find  from  a 
gmnunatical  point  of  view  the  same  deterioration,  say  among  the 
v.w|^A  or  Spanish  Gipsies,  as  has  been  noticed  in  the  Gipsy 
dialect  of  Armenia.  It  is  no  longer  Gipsy,  but  a  conrupt  English 
or  Spanish  adapted  to  some  remnants  of  Gipsy  inflections.  The 
ptncat  form  has  been  preserved  among  the  Greek  Gipsies  and 
to  m  certain  extent  among  the  Rumanian.  Notably  through 
Hikloaich's  researches  aiui  comparative  studies,  it  is  possible 
to  foOow  the  slow  change  step  by  step  and  to  prove,  at  any  rate, 
that,  as  far  as  Europe  is  concerned,  the  language  of  these  Gipsies 
was  one  and  the  same,  and  that  it  was  slowly  split  up  into  a 
Bomber  d  dialects  (13  Miklosich,  14  Colocd)  which  diade  off 
into  one  another,  and  which  by  their  transitional  forms  mark 
the  way  in  whidi  the  GipiJes  have  travelled,  as  also  proved  by 
historical  evidence.  The  Welsh  dialect,  known  by  few,  has 
retained,  through  its  isolation,  some  of  the  andent  forms. 

MtUpoHf  BabUs  amd  CttflMU.— Those  who  have  lived  among 
tfie  G^scies  wfll  readily  testify  that  their  religious  views  are  a 
strange  medley  of  the  local  faith,  which  they  everywhere  embrace, 
and  some  old-worid  superstitions  which  they  have  in  common 
with  many  nations.  Among  the  Greeks  they  belong  to  the  Greek 
Qnuch,  among  the  Mahommedans  they  are  Mahommedans,  in 
Rmnania  they  belong  to  the  National  Church.  In  Hungary  they 
aiv  most^  Catholics,  according  to  the  faith  of  the  inhahitanU  of 


that  country.  They  have  no  ethical  prindples  and  they  do  not 
recognize  the  obligations  of  the  Ten  Commandments.  There  is 
extreme  moral  laxity  in  the  relation  of  the  two  sexes,  and  on  the 
whole  th^  take  life  easily,  and  are  complete  fatalists.  At  the 
same  time  they  are  great  cowards,  and  they  play  the  r&le  of  the 
fool  or  the  jester  in  the  popular  anecdotes  of  eastern  Europe. 
There  the  poltroon  is  always  a  Gipsy,  but  he  is  good-humoured 
and  not  so  malidous  as  those  Gipsies  who  had  endured  the 
hardships  of  outlawry  in  the  west  of  Europe. 

There  is  nothing  spedfically  of  an  Oriental  ori|^n  in  their 
religious  vocabulary,  and  the  words  Deda  (God),  Bang  (devil) 
or  TntsktA  (Cross),  in  spite  of  some  remote  simUarity,  must  be 
taken  as  later  adaptations,  and  not  as  remnants  of  an  old  Sky- 
worship  or  Serpent-worship.  In  general  their  beliefs,  customs, 
tales,  &c.  belong  to  the  common  stock  of  general  folklore,  and 
niany  of  their  symbolical  expressions  find  their  exact  counterpart 
in  Rumanian  and.  modem  Gredc,  and  often  read  as  if  they  were 
direct  translations  from  these  languages.  Although  they  love 
their  children,  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  Gipsy  mother  will  hold 
her  child  by  the  legs  and  beat  the  father  with  it.  In  Rumania 
and  Turkey  among  the  settled  Gipsies  a  good  number  are  carriers 
and  bricklayers;  and  the  women  take  their  full  share  in  every 
kind  of  work,  no  matter  how  hard  it  may  be.  The  nomadic 
Gipsies  carry  on  the  andent  craft  of  coppersmiths,  or  workers  in 
metal;  they  also  make  sieves  and  traps,  but  in  the  East  they  are 
sddom  farriers  or  horse-dealers.  They  are  far-famed  for  their 
music,  in  which  art  they  are  unsurpassed.  The  Gipsy  musicians 
belong  mostly  tothe  dass  who  originally  were  serfs.  They  were 
retained  at  Uie  courts  of  the  boyars  for  thdr  special  talent  in 
redting  old  ballads  and  love  songs  and  their  deftness  in  pbtying, 
notably  the  guitar  and  the  fiddle.  The  former  was  used  as  an 
accompaniment  to  the  singing  of  dther  love  ditties  and  popular 
songs  or  more  especially  in  redtal  or  heroic  ballads  and  epic 
songs;  the  latter  for  dances  and  other  amusements.  They 
were  the  troubadoius  and  minstrels  of  eastem  Europe;  the 
lar^^st  collection  of  Rumanian  popular  ballads  and  songs  was 
gathered  by  G.  Dem.  Teodorescu  from  a  Gipsy  minstrel,  Petre 
Sholkan;  and  not  a  few  of  the  songs  of  the  guslars  among  the 
Servians  and  other  Slavonic  nations  in  the  Balkans  come  also 
from  the  Gipsies.  They  have  also  retained  the  andent  tunes 
and  airs,  from  the  dreamy  "  doina  "  of  the  Rumanian  to  the 
fiery  "  czardas  "  of  the  Hungarian  or  the  stately  "  hora  "  of  the 
Bulgarian.  Liszt  went  so  far  as  to  ascribe  to  the  Gipsies  the  origin 
of  the  Himgarian  national  music.  This  is  an  exaggeration,  as 
seen  by  the  comparison  of  the  Gipsy  music  in  other  parts  of  south- 
east Europe;  but  they  undoubtedly  have  given  the  most 
faithful  expression  to  the  national  temperamenL  Equally  famous 
is  the  Gipsy  woman  for  her  knowledge  of  occult  practices.  She 
is  the  real  witch;  she  knows  charms  to  injure  the  enemy  or  to 
hdp  a  friend.  She  can  break  the  charm  if  made  by  dthers. 
But  ndther  in  the  one  case  iK>r  in  the  other,  and  in  fact  as  little 
as  in  their  songs,  do  they  use  the  Gipsy  language.  It  is  either 
the  local  language  of  the  natives  as  in  the  case  of  charms,  or  a 
slif^tly  Romanized  form  of  Greek,  Rumanian  or  Slavonic.  The 
old  Gipsy  woman  is  also  known  for  her  skill  in  palmistry  and 
fortune-telling  by  means  of  a  spMJal  set  of  cards,  the  well-luM>wn 
Tarokof  the  Gipsies.  They  have  also  a  large  stock  of  fairy  tales 
resembling  in  esch  country  the  local  fairy  tales,  in  Greece  agreeing 
with  the  Gredc,  and  in  Rumaiua  with  the  Rumanian  fairy  tales. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  they  have  contributed  to  the 
dissemination  of  these  tales  throughout  Europe,  for  a  large 
number  of  Gipsy  tales  can  be  shown  to  have  been  known  in 
Europe  long  before  the  appearance  of  the  Gipsies,  aiui  others  are 
so  much  like  those  of  otha"  nations  that  the  borrowing  may  be 
by  the  Gipsy  from  the  Greek,  Slav  or  Rumanian.  It  is,  however, 
possible  that  pbtying-cards  mi^t  have  been  introduced  to 
Europe  through  the  Gipsies.  The  oldest  reference  to  cards  is 
found  in  the  Chronide  of  NiColaus  of  CaveOazzo,  who  says  that 
the  cards  were  first  brou^t  into  Viterbo  in  1379  fran  the  land 
of  the  Saracens,  probably  from  Asia  Iffinor  or  the  Balkans. 
They  q»ead  very  quickly,  but  no  one  has  been  sble  as  yet  to  trace 
definitdy  the  source  whence  they  were  first  brought.    Withe' 


+2  GIF! 

enterioc  facn  inlo  tbe  bbtory  of  tbc  pUyine-caidi  uid  bI  Ibc 
diflcRDi  forau  of  Uk  faco  ud  of  the  >ymbal>cil  muoiaf  ol  Uk 
different  daigitt,  one  nuy  usume  ufcly  that  Uk  cudi,  before 
they  were  uied  for  mere  pulitae  or  for  B-mhlii.g  may  origiully 
have  tad  a  myitical  meajiing  md  bccQ  vvd  as  joria  in  various 
combLQatioTis-  To  thia  very  day  the  olde&t  fom  a  known  by  the 
hitherto  uouplained  umi  of  Tarock,  played  in  Bologna  at  the 
begiiming  of  the  15th  century  and  retained  by  the  French  under 
Ihe  form  Tarot,  tonnccled  direct  with  the  Gipsiei, "  Le  Tarol  dea 
Bohimieni."  It  waa  noted  above  that  the  oldejl  chronicler 
(Pretbyter)  who  dociibei  the  appeannce  of  tbe  Gipiica  in  1416 
in  Germany  knowi  tbcm  by  their  Italian  n^mr  "  Chains," 
w  evidently  be  muat  have  known  of  their  eiblence  in  Italy 
previous  to  any  date  recorded  bitbcrto  anywhere,  and  It  is  thert- 
foie  not  Impouible  that  auning  from  Italy  tfaey  brought  with 
(hem  alio  their  book  of  diviiutioo. 

Fkyiital  Cka/aOiriilici. — A>  ■  nee  tbcy  are  of  imall  itatun, 
varying  in  colour  from  tbe  dark  tan  of  tbe  Anb  to  (be  wbitish 
bue  of  tbe  Servian  and  tbe  Pole.  In  fact  (bete  are  sonae  while- 
coloured  Cipiiei,  opecuUy  in  Servia  and  Dalmada,  and  (hoe 
are  of(en  not  eaaily  diilinguiahable  from  the  native  peoples, 
eicepl  (hat  Ibcy  are  more  lithe  and  linewy,  belter  propcHrtioned 

they  are  easily  distinguishable  and  teojgnlzc  one  anotber.  via. 
bylheluitreoltheircyfsandlhewbiteneiaof  tbeiileith.  Some 
are  well  built ;  others  have  (be  fca(ura  of  a  mongrel  rm,  due 
no  doubt  (o  intermarria^  with  oulcasta  of  other  races.  The 
women  a^  very  quickly  and  Ibe  mortality  among  the  Gipaien 
is  great,  specially  among  children;  among  adulli  il  is  chiefly 
due  to  pulmonaiy  diieaies.  They  tove  display  and  Oriental 
ahowineii.  bright^nlouied  dmes,  ornaments,  bangles.  He; 
red  and  green  are  the  colours  moedy  favoured  by  the  Gipsies 
in  tlie  £a3t.  Along  with  a  showy  handkerchief  or  some  &hining 
gold  coin!  round  their  necka,  tbey  wiU  wear  toni  petticoats  and 
no  coveting  on  Iheii  feet.  And  even  after  (bey  have  been 
luimilated  and  have  forgotten  Ibeir  own  language  tbey  slill 

H  the  love  id  tnotdinale  display  and  gorgeous  dressi  and  tbeir 
moral  defecta  not  only  remain  for  a  long  time  is  glaring  aa  among 
those  who  live  (he  life  of  vagranta,  but  even  become  more  pro- 
nounced. The  Gipsy  of  to-day  is  no  longer  what  his  fore- 
'    '        '         '  ~  '  nilalion  with  tbe  nations  in  tbe 

for  Ibe  suppression  ol  vagnuuy 
ID  me  west,  mmome  to  oenaiionaliie  (he  Cipty  and  (o  make 
"  Romani  Cbib  "  a  thing  of  Ihe  pai(. 

BlBLIOCBAPH'r.^The  icieDlitic  atudy  of  (he  Gipsy  language  and 
Its  ociBio,  as  well  as  tbe  triticai  history  of  the  Cipsv  Rce.  dales 

(with  tbe  ootaUe  acepei '  '"— " '     '- 

Polt't  TfWiiTC*ia  in  1814. 

1.  CoUKliinu  of  DscrmcTiiJi,  .' 
aptnied  in  the  books  irf  Fnit,  MiLI 
I\iltaddsacritit»lappreciitii>n  ii 

■ittrHtCadikMltinisiriiilud"'/., 
lU6y,J.  Tlfiiny, "  Adafekok  a  c-ij 
ifapae  jnajmmfe  (BiKlapi'>;,  1-. 
■/  aataitf  ..  .  rrfnlnif  la  !■■■■? 
Onto  (be  British  Museum.  b<i  ,^ 
«d.  MtWer  (BoUd,  iM?  S.j. 

ILBiifcniTM")  The  first  ijpi-  ■ 
Sooro*:  A.T.Ocfeliu>.Kfn>nc  I'.- 
tJ6j)!  M.  Frebis,  -trnt™  P',-  . 
Soimwa  .  .  .  {(602)-,  S.  Miin-i'r, 

l&is'OiigrfMad,  1554);  M.  1-ni  1  1 

ed.  I.  NaWh  [Camhi^ee.'  I  7-'  ' 
GtpiH:H.M.G.G(d]ni>i.n.  / 
Lel^.  I7>Ji  nd  ed.,  Gi>ii'. 
(Liiiidaa,  17B7:  lod  ed..  Law!  >.  . 
CUnte,  »c;  Carl  von  Hci>t,  r 
MZ^BWifKanigriiin.  io,j 

(845).  Che  Srn  scholarly  ■ 
gra^y.  detailed  graoiinar, 


IT  East  and  tbe  sti 


:^rsSi 


.  etc.  (BaK 
hed.T.  Zi 


,  ,  ,  (Fnuldun.  ,i7ij); 

OriEin  and  spread  t4  the 

f.»c(TK<^..  [leMuaiid 
■):  EoBKih  by  M.  Roper 

ipkiiilu  .  .  .  NMtn  iUb- 
\n\i         '    rA  and  greatly  improved 

'iMcpo  «-id  Attn  (I  v<^,  HsUe.  lAu- 
LHk  wiilt  Loiaplete  and  critical  biblio- 


(Tc.  fVienns.  II 
D.  MacRJichie. 
F.  A.  Coelbo.  " 


wsiJrnm  der  Zitnarr  in  Emnpa  (Gotba, 

h.  "  Balrtge  cui  Kenntnii  der  ZiininR. 

IsiSttBottiicr.i.  WuimAk<li.i.  WsuniicliaJUm 

,   ..  n.._  ....  ..  ._■ J  ^■_  WukIbu™™ 

.     __..^_-.     .   .it%«Aluiri. 

afua   (iB7J-l8ao);  M,  J.  de  C«]c,  flijjnip  Ua  it  f 
dtr  ZifTMHtri  (Annlendam,  1875I.  Engliih  traniUtioo  by 
iUo/ii<C.(iMiof;*Ju  (London.  i»S6);  Zedler, 
yoL  lili..  11.    ■Zieti.oer,"  pp.   uo■544,.coIv- 
.1l]l.^.':  i|iVy:   many  puMmlioos  of  p.   Buadlanl 
t  .ilocci.  .5^1™  if'  III  pipilt  trmmla.  wilH 
y-11aL  and  ItaL-Gipay  glowajies  [Turin. 
<  le  Gypws."  in  E.  Mngnussoo,  NUttnal 
and  >it.     ■'  Gipsies  "  in  fwpKlgpoedw 

.'  Kogalniltchan.'Sigiiuir  na  [IdiUm,  la 

,  irre  for  (he  historical  part  than  lor  t^ 
,.-,,,/'  .-ii.vol.  iiL(l844-lSjSi— fo'hiMo^ic'l." 
L'''  .]i'l,  1.  Kopemicki  and  J.  Mayer,  Ckdnl 
:d:iiiii  ialicyjA^  (i^T^l — (or  tbe  hisiaiy 
<  lin  K\p<i<%l    VnganuJit  tUiHftivkr  MdirifiB 
-.  1^1;),  containing  the  best  suiistical  iDlomik,.^.^ 
\      I  rmrich.   X    nflfy  iJai   mdityek    (Budspnt. 

'J'l>it    VUkrr  %kFTKk-r)£^' (Vienna. 

I  le'  Zigeuner  der  Bukowina."   in  SUtliil. 
...  ...^..^j-J  Jaiui  irK-iSjt:  Zitfwttr  IB  i-  Bnko- 

ai  (Condon,  iMjl; 
(EdinbutgK.taa4): 


17s),  Dii  VilteiUt 
M:  V.  S.  Morwof 


111.  Ldnemiaic. — lArmeiua],  F.  N.  Finck,  "  Die  Spcacbe  der ai^ne- 
nischea  Zseuner."  in  Mtmvaa  it  tAaid.  JinrS.  iti  Sdntctt,  viiL 

e[  I*eter*burg.  1907).  (AuAria-HunRary],  k_  von  Sowa,  Dit 
BnAirl  lUr  Unaniadirm  Zitamrr  (CACtuigcn.  1S87),  and  Dit 
mijkrutjki  if aiK(«mff  J£mii.fr«*<  (Vienna,  ifcj) ;  A.  J  .  Puchmayer. 
RDmiiti  til,  (Plague.  iSlI):  P.  Jo>l  Jeiina,  AkkIXi  Ci&  (in  Cssch. 
isaol  la  Gciinaii,  ieS6)i  G.  Ihniiko.  Ctiginy  nythUm  (Loanncaa. 
1S7;):  A.  Kalina.  la  Lnatiti  Tsitanui  thtaatiti  (Povn,  iMa): 
tbe  aiebduke  Joseph,  Catlny  fljeMas  (Budapest,  iBM):  H.  vw 
Wliilocld.  Die  SpiwJka  der  tnmailKaiudm  ZifnHier  (Leipng.  iShl. 
[BraaUjlA.  T.  de  Mello  Mones,  OsciHiifl  H  Broad  tRki  delaoeiiii, 
iSW).  IFiBBce,  the  Bu()ued,  A.  Baudrtannt,  Vtatmlm  di  la 
faariu  da  Bakhmem  koNtaaf  lt$  pttyi  bvquti-fnnfvi  '" 
iJsS).    [GerjnsnyJ,  R.  ■«-'-■   '-■-• •- — ■-'- 


Zi'((^n(r'(H^le,  l>^):  R-  von^ 


Igt  Btr  KtHnJmil  aer  itnticken 

'  F.  N.   Finck.  ^^^Tilk 


...  liip.-~ .^... 

Ch.  G.  Uland.  Ttt  Em^itt  Ctpiia  s*d  Uiir 
nd  Nei. York,  1873: jnded.,iB74),rh<(;ipifti 

Eaflaml.  Anurica.  in.  (London,  iftS3j---<iic 
.__..      ---ijoficndoubtluli  B.  1;.  Smart  and 


II  ].  I  I  -il  ■■:.  ikt  Diaiiaaflki  Entliik  Cypsiii  (Ind  ed 
Ls-:.  I  ,  h.,rr.,.jr,  ftamamt  taeo-lil  (London,  1^74,  lor^j, 
.  I  r.  M.  I  .1  -"iiF  (Lnndon.  1S99}.  IRumanial.  B.  Const 
J'-.  '.'  ,;V  r  ." '1  fi  lilrralMra  flpuatar  din  Kvmdnia  (1 
I'  Bei^l^bial,  O.  BoelMinik.  t>«iT  dw  S 


il,  b.  BoelMinik. 
Petersburg,  iSui 


Gtiancj,  y  diainarit  dt  > 
le  C-,  Ditcitntrit  id  iitUu 
_:  Saks  y  Guindiie.  Biaifv.. 
(Madrid,  1B70I:  M-  <le.5aich 


,_.  _ ipmJu  in 

•I,  ki  ^ado^^  Cna>iy'^^iMi£>^^  <  wmS i^ 

^ li  cypiiJ  (St  Peteisbuig,  iSto) ;  Istooiin,  Cimi*!^ 

Jatyki  (1900).     (Srainl,  G.  H.  Bomnr,  Tkt  Znrolj,  or  «  Ataunl 
1^ at  CitBticf  Spain  {}uoiidoa.liil,Aoi 
R.  Cunpunno,  Oriren  .   .  .  it  iai  Giia 
ia^ltOM  Tlnd  ed..  Madrid,  1SS7):  A.   '     " 
tilana,  &c.  (Banzkma,  iSsil:  M.  1 

— , — 1 j^-i—.  i,  jp,  Cllaim  (Madrid,  1870); 

, ,  i«70);  J.  Tineo  Reboiloio,  '■  A  CkipiiaUi 

la  Itnpia  tilana:  itaiaurit  plano-upahal  (Granada.  T900). 
ITurk^l.  A.  G.  Paasti.  StnAti  lur  lei  TckinManiz,  w  BtUmitnt 
it  Vtmpin  gUnsn  (Coostaniinople.  iBn>),  wfth  grammar,  voabu- 
lary,  (ales  sod  Fnnch  glcwwyi  very  important.  (General],  John 
Sampson, "  Gypsy  tanguage  ud  Orialn."ia  Jtmn.  Cjftj  Lurt  Sat. 
vU.  L  {jnd  ser»  LivecTODl,  1407):  J.  A.  Decourdemanche,  &aiit- 
auin  i%  nUnipni,  »i.  (Paris.  looS)— fantastic  In  aooie  ol  i» 
phlkikcy:  F.  KlugE.  RMssluke  ^•Otm  (Sttubuig.  1901):  L. 
GOndier,  itai  JtuSisiJiik  du  dealidkns  Csntri  (Leipiig,  1903),  loe 

the  influenc  of  Gipsy  aa  anoti  L,  Besses,  Dk '-  ■'- ■ 

(iMIUl  (Bomlons):  G.  A.  Ciierson,  Tin  Pi's 
^srlt-H'iilini  India  (London,  iwjfil.for  IsnlMs  I 
G.  Bcnow,  CriiaU  I  majari  Ltett  .  ,  .  El  m 
LncBi. . .  (Loadoa.  1837:  inded^  1S71)— this  is  1 
trandadon  of  aay  oae  oTtbe  gospds  into  Gipsy-  Ft 
of  such  translatioos.  see  Pntt  ii,  464.511. 

IV.  FMItre,  rofcl,  Stntt,  £n.— Many  songs  ai 


GIRAFFE— GIRALDI,  G.  G. 

iFed  ahart,  wlieR  they  on  pnitly  an 

OUj):  Ch.G-1.'     ■ 


(Loodon,  I8JS);     _     . 

..    .      Ro*eBldd,  J.ifti«i»7i -     -     . 

Cjptia  lhiij.[on,  Mda..  iMl).  Gytlw  Sunny  and  A^/.'i.k- 
■f  jLoodon.  iHqi):  K.  von  WIoIkU.  ItiHlmi  uif  ^(c/^  Jo- 
~  Brriik,     IBM)— mnluiliili    6i    t.iiEL 

■r._*.-_i^. — __    j^    ^--.  —  Li — 'i^Sfn    :j1«d 


wy  Iredy  trvn^laled 


a  fWmna.    1890)— «I1E«.   balUa..   rh,i 

,  ^ ,  .  ._  ..  >jhuictfrn»j  der  Zaubtrfntttn  bti  dtn  lii 

iiir(urAnZwn.iv'(iSgi)i  '  AuBdcminDcrea  Lebeo  dtr  Zigvunci 

ia  £lfciKA>ii«*c  UiMaiata  (BaUo,  lB9i)i     R.  Fuichtl,  S(r^ 

Mv  WMttU  toM  nud^nAa  Zi>nni^HU<  (Ccniqicn, - 

•maic  criudiBi  of  Wlnkicki'ii  iMhod,  ftc.;  F.  H.  Gnni 
FMrTtlaOjctkiiia,  i&nl.airhhuii.riullnlroduniDnandi 
and  mwwctlr     .1  '   '-    -^        '''"■-  ifm  many 

KhuU.    OMa  M.    Guur, 


55£S 


T' 


Ltt^  Slutti.^ 


Uch  Ihe  legal  Kali 


fun  *ad  Lapn(.  1777}^  A.  Ch,  Thoiru 
tBgthmwda,  Arc  (LaiHig.  1731^  P-  Ch.  d.  avt 
rinlidki  CnHrlUM,  £».  (Uipflc,  ISsS-lMa);  V. 
ParM  it  Frwa  a  i-Ejpat<u  {Pint.  iSt^I;  P 
Kamlfl  ttin  LandUitUkir  luid  BtUIrr  (KuhL,  iMi 
DU  Zitn'^  •Md  !'«'  itMtsdit  Slaal  (WLInbuis.  I 
haiaett,  CcviUcjUf  Jrr  dnUci#K  KnUmr  (Lapxt|  an 


eiKAFTK  ■  coiniptioD  of  ZnrafiA.  tbc  Aialni:  nunc  for  Ihc 
UBal  of  ill  "■■"■■"■'■.  ud  the  l]rpical  reptesCDUtivc  of  the 
famil)'  CiriJUoc.  the  diitinclive  cbancleii  o(  vhich  in  tfven 
in  tbc  anide  Picou,  Hhete  tin  (yiumalic  pcaitioD  ol  Ibc 
pmp  13  incbated.  The  daavc  term  "  camelopard,"  probably 
inttodnad  when  Ihat  animali  were  broughi  from  Nonh 
Afria  to  the  Roman  amphithcalie,  hai  fatlen  into  OHnplete 

In  cnnmoa  vith  Ibo  o^pJ,  prafla  have  ikin-er>Tav]  horns 
on  the  bead*  but  in  iheie  animals,  which  form  the  geniB  Giraffa, 
that  appendages  are  present  in  both  scta^  and  there  b  often 
ne  unpaired  <me  in  advance  of  the  pair  on  the  forebead-  Among 
other  i^ancterislici  of  tboe  animals  may  be  noticed  tbe  great 
lengih  of  Ibe  ncdt  and  limb*,  the  complete  absence  of  Uieral 
loes  and  the  long  and  tufted  tail.  The  tongue  is  remarkable 
for  its  great  length,  measuring  about  17  in.  in  the  dead  animal, 
and  for  in  great  clastidty  and  power  of  musoilar  contncCion 
while  living.  Tt  Is  covered  with  nuinen>us  Large  pafuDac,  and 
forms,  like  the  trunk  of  the  elephant,  an  admirable  or^an  for 
the  esuninmion  and  prehension  of  food.  Cirafles  aie  iofaabil- 
anls  of  opes  country,  and  owing  to  their  length  of  neck  and  Inog 

being  favourites.    To  drink  nr  graze  they  are  obliged  to  straddle 
the  fore4egi  apait;  but  they  leldom  feed  on  grass  and  are 


mber  and  lei 


Although  in  late  Tertiary 
them  Europe  and  India,  giraffes  are 
I  of  the  Sahara. 
Somali  giraae  {Oraga 


times  widdy  spread  1 
now  confined  to  Afri 
Apait  from  the  1 
chancleriud  by  its  deep  liver-red  colour  marked  with  a  very 
(Dane  nelworfc  of  Bne  white  lines,  (here  are  numerous  local  formi 
of  the  ordinary  giraffe  {Ciraft  camdifardiilii).  The  northern 
races,  sach  as  the  Nubian  C.  c.  lypica  and  the  Kordolan  C.  i. 
tmH^atrum,  aie  diacactetiad  by  the  large  frontal  bom  ol  the 
bulk,  tbc  while  Ic^.  the  lutwotk  type  of  coloration  and  the  pslc 
lint.  The  Utter  feature  is  specially  developed  in  the  Nigeriac 
C.  I.  ftr^la,  which  ii  likewise  of  the  nanhem  type.  Tbe  Baringo 
C.  (.  ntludiMi  also  hu  a  Urge  frontal  bom  and  white  legs,  but 
the  spots  in  the  bulla  are  very  dark  and  those  of  the  female) 
jaoed.    In  tbe  Kilimanjaro  G-  c-  tippdiiinhi  the  frontal  horn 


iftcn  developed  in  the  hulls,  but  tbe  left  ue 
the  fetlocks.    Farther  (outb  the  frontal  horn 
Dear  more  or  less  completely,  as  in  the  A 
■unf  j  and  the  Cape  C. 
fully  ^rotted  and  the  cotour-pattem 


Mfofaani, 
'the  body 


in  GtraSe  (Cnnyfo  c 


A.po,Uui. 


is  to  say.  coraitts  ol  dark  blotches  on  a  fawn  ground,  Instead  of 
a  nctwo4  of  ligbl  lines  on  ■  dark  grountL 

For  dtuih.  kc  a  piper  on  Ihe  nibipcciei  of  Cirafft  amdetarislu, 
by  R.  Lydekker  in  tbc  Pnuedinii  nfllu  Zinict^ Sxiilj  of  Lnicn 
fm-  .904.  (R.  I-*) 

QIRAtDI.  GiaUO  QRBSOBIO  [Ltuns  Gucouirs  GyuL- 
pusl  (1479-IJ51),  Italian  scholar  and  poet,  was  born  on  the 
14th  of  June  1470,  at  Ferraja,  where  he  early  distlnguisfacd 
himself  by  his  talents  and  acquirements.  On  the  otmpletion 
of  his  literary  course  he  removed  to  NsF^ea,  where  he  lived  on 
familiar  terms  with  Jovianus  Pontanus  and  Saimaxaro;  and 
ibscqucnlly  to  Lomtordy,  where  be  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the 
lirandoU  family.  At  Milan  in  1507  he  studied  Gredt  under 
Chalcondylaii  and  shortly  afterwards,  at  Modena,  he  became 
utor  to  Ermle  (afleiwaids  CatdiDal)  Bangone.  About  the  year 
514  be  removed  to  Rome,  when,  under  Clement  VII.,  he  hdd 
he  office  of  apostolic  ptDInnotary;  but  having  in  the  sadEOlthat 
ity  (1517),  which  almost  coincided  with  the  death  of  bis  patron 
Cardinal  Rangone,  lost  all  his  property,  he  relumed  in  poverty 


n  by  If 


SJJ.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  one 
poverty  and  neglect;  and  he  is  allu 
by  Moniaigne  in  one  ol  his  Eaait  (i. 
Castalio,  ended  bis  days  in  utter  des 
February  iss';  and  his  epitaph  1 


ng  struggle  with  ill-bt 


44 

exteuive  eruditioo;  and  numeroos  testimonies  to  his  profundity 

nnd  accuracy  have  been  given  hoth  by  contemporary  and  by 

Utcr  scholars.    His  Hisi^ria  de  diis  gmtium  marked  a  distinctly 

forward  step  in  the  systematic  study  of  rlantical  mythology; 

and  by  his  treatises  Ve  atmis  et  wiauibus,  and  on  the  Calen^ 

darinm  Rfimamtm  et  Croecumt  he  contributed  to  bring  about  the 

reform  of  the  calendar,  which  was  ultimately  eflfected  by  Pope 

Gregory  XIII.    His  Progymnasma  adpersus  lUeras  d  lUeratas 

deserves  mention  at  least  among  the  curiosities  of  literature; 

and  among  his  other  works  to  which  reference  is  still  occasionally 

made  are  Hisloriae  poHarum  Gratcarum  ac  LaUnontm;  De 

poUit  moruM  lempontm\  and  De  sepuUura  oc  vario  sepdiendi 

rilu,     Giraldi  was  also  an  elegant  Lalin  poet. 
Hb  Opera  omnia  were  pubtithed  at  Leiden  in  1696. 

GIRALDI,  OIOVAmn  BATnSTA  (1504-1573)1  sumamed 
CvNTmus,  CzNTmo  or  CiNno,  Italian  novelist  uid  poet,  bom 
at  Ferrara  in  November  1504,  was  educated  at  the  university 
of  hb  native  town,  where  in  1525  he  became  professor  of  natural 
philosophy,  and,  twelve  yean  afterwards,  succeeded  Celio 
CaJCTgnini  in  the  chair  of  belles-lettres.  Between  x 54^  and  1 560 
he  acted  as  private  secretary,  first  to  Ercole  II.  and  afterwards 
to  Alphonso  II.  of  Este;  but  having,  in  connexion  with  a  literary 
quarrel  in  whidi  he  had  got  involved,  lost  the  favour  of  hb 
patron  in  the  latter  year,  he  removed  to  Mondovi,  where  he 
renudned  as  a  teacher  of  literature  till  1568.  Subsequently, 
on  the  invitation  of  the  senate  of  Blilan,  he  occupied  the  ch^ 
of  rhetoric  at  Pavia  till  1573,  when,  in  search  of  health,  he 
returned  to  hb  native  town,  where  on  the  30th  of  Decembo-  he 
died.  Beddes  an  epic  entitled  EnaU  (1557)1  in  twenty-six 
cantos,  Giraldi  wrote  nine  tragedies,  the  bnt  known  of  which, 
OrAsMAf,  was  produced  in  1 54X.  The  sanguinary  and  disgusting 
character  of  the  plot  of  thb  play,  and  the  general  poverty  of 
its  style,  are,  in  the  opinion  of  many  of  its  critics,  almost  fully 
redeemed  by  occasional  bursts  of  genuine  and  impassioned 
poetry;  of  one  scene  in  the  third  act  in  particular  it  has  even 
been  aflirmed  that,  if  it  alone  were  sufficient  to  decide  the 
question,  the  Orbeuke  would  be  the  finest  play  in  the  world. 
Of  the  prose  works  of  Giraldi  the  most  important  b  the  Hecatom- 
wiitki  or  EcalomiHf  a  collection  of  tales  told  somewhat  after  the 
manner  of  Boccacdo,  but  still  more  closely  resembling  the  noveb 
of  Giraldi's  contemporary  Banddlo,  only  much  inferior  in  work- 
manship to  the  productions  of  dther  author  in  vigour,  liveliness 
and  lottl  odour.  Something,  but  not  much,  however,  may  be 
said  in  favour  of  their  professed  daim  to  represent  a  higher 
standard  of  morality.  Originally  published  at  Montcrefpsle, 
Sicily,  in  1565,  they  were  frequently  reprinted  in  Italy,  while  a 
French  translation  by  Chappuys  appeared  in  1583  and  one  in 
Spanish  in  1590.  They  have  a  peculiar  interest  to  students  of 
EngUsh  literature,  as  having  furnisbed,  whether  directly  or  in- 
directly, the  ptou  of  Measwre  Jar  Measure  and  Olketta.  That 
of  the  latter,  which  b  to  be  found  in  the  HecaiawumUd  (iiL  7), 
b  conjectured  to  have  reached  Shakespearo  through  the  French 
translation;  while  that  of  the  former  {HecaL  viii.  5)  b  probably 
to  be  traced  to  Whetstone's  Promos  and  Cassandra  (1578)1  an 
adaptation  of  Cinthio*s  story,  and  to  hb  Heptamerone  (158a), 
which  contains  a  <iirect  English  translatioB.  To  Giraldi  also 
must  be  attributed  the  plot  of  Beaumont  and  Fletdier's  Custom 
ei  the  Country. 

OIRALDUS  CAMBRBISn  (iX46?-x22o),  medieval  hbtorian, 
abo  called  Gbbaio  db  Bauki,  was  bora  in  Pembrokeshire.  He 
was  the  son  of  William  de  Barn  and  An^arat,  a  daughter  of 
Gerald,  the  ancestors  of  the  Fitxgerakb  and  the  Webh  princess, 
Ncsta,  formerly  mistress  of  King  Henry  L  Falling  under  the 
influence  of  hb  uncle,  David  Fitagerald,  bishop  of  St  David's, 
he  determined  to  enter  the  churdi.  He  studied  at  Paris,  and  hb 
works  show  that  he  had  applied  himself  dosdy  to  the  study  of 
the  Latin  poets.  In  117a  he  was  ai^Mtnted  to  collect  tithe  in 
Wales,  and  showed  such  vigour  that  he  was  made  archdeacon. 
In  tiTiS  an  attempt  was  made  to  elect  him  bishop  of  St  David's, 
but  Henry  IL  was  unwilling  to  see  any  one  with  powerful  native 
conneiiom  a  bishop  in  Wales.  In  ii8o»  after  another  visit  to 
ftriSfe  be  was  appointed  oommiaaiaiy  to  Ihe  bishop  of  St  David's* 


GIRALDI,  G.  B.— GIRARD,  J.  B. 


idio  had  ceased  to  reside.  But  Girsldns  threw  up  hb  post, 
indignant  at  the  indifference  of  the  bishop  to  the  welfare  of  hm 
see.  In  1x84  he  was  made  one  of  the  king's  chaplains,  and  was 
elected  to  accompany  Prince  J<dm  on  Mb  voyage  to  Irdand. 
While  there  he  wrote  a  Topogr^phia  Hibemiea,  which  b  full  of 
information,  and  a  stronj^y  prejudiced  hbtory  of  the  oonqoestv 
the  BxpugnaUo  Hibemiea,  In  xx86  he  read  hb  wotk  with  great 
applause  before  the  masters  and  scholars  of  Oxford.  In  1x88 
he  wa»  sent  into  Wales  with  the  primate  Baldwin  to  preach 
the  Third  Crusade.  Giraldus  decLsres  that  the  mission  was 
highly  successful;  in  any  case  it  gave  him  the  material  for  hb 
Itinerarium  Cambreuse,  which  is,  after  the  Expugnaiio,  hb  best 
known  work.  Ht  accompanied  the  archbishq;>,  who  intended 
him  to  be  the  historian  of  the  Crusade,  to  the  continent,  with  the 
intention  of  going  to  the  Holy  Land.  But  in  XX89  he  was  sent 
back  to  Wales  by  the  king,  who  knew  hb  influence  was  great, 
to  keep  order  among  hb  countrymen.  Soon  after  he  was  absolved 
from  hb  crusading  vow.  According  to  hb  own  statements, 
which  often  tend  to  exaggeration,  he  was  offered  both  the  sees  of 
Bangor  and  Llandaff,  but  refysed  them.  From  xxQa  to  XX98 
he  lived  in  retirement  at  Lincoln  and  devoted  himsdf  to  literature. 
It  b  probaUy  during  thb  period  that  he  wrote  the  Cemma 
eccksiastica  (discussing  diqmted  points  of  doctrine,  ritual,  ftc) 
and  the  Vita  S.  RemigU.  In  XX98  he  was  elected  b^op  of  St 
David's.  But  Hubert  Walter,  the  archbishop  of.  Canterbury, 
was  determined  to  have  in  that  position  no  Welshman  who 
would  dbpute  the  metropolitan  pretensions  of  the  F.nj«*K 
primates.  The  king,  for  political  reasons,  supported  Hubert 
Walter.  For  four  3rears  Giraldus  exerted  himself  to  get  his 
election  confirmed,  and  to  vindicate  the  independence  of  St 
David's  from  Canterbury.  He  went  three  times  to  Rome. 
He  wrote  the  De  jure  Meuenensis  «etestue  in  suj^rt  of  the 
claims  of  hb  diocese.  He  made  allismrs  with  the  princes  of 
North  and  South  Wales.  He  called  a  general  synod  of  his  diocese. 
He  was  accused  of  stirring  up  rebellion  among  the  Welsh,  and 
the  justiciar  proceeded  against  him.  At  length  in  1202  the  pope 
annulled  all  previous  elections,  and  ordered  a  new  one.  The 
prior  of  Llanthony  was  finally  elected.  Gerald  was  immediatdy 
reconciled  to  the  king  and  archbishop;  the  utmost  favour  was 
shown  to  him;  even  the  expenses  of  hb  ttnsucoessful  election 
were  paid.  He  spent  the  rest  of  hb  life  in  retirement,  though 
there  was  some  talk  of  hb  being  made  a  cardinal  Hit  certainly 
survived  JohiL 

The  works  of  Giraldus  are  partly  polemical  and  partly  historicaL 
Hb  value  as  a  historian  b  marred  by  hb  vident  party  spirit; 
some  of  hb  historical  tracts,  such  as  the  Liber  de  iustrueiiaue 
principum  and  the  Vita  Calfridi  Arekiepiscopi  Eboreceusis, 
seem  to  have  been  designed  as  political  pamphlets.  Henry  IL, 
Hubert  Walter  and  William  Longchamp,  the  diancdlor  of 
Richard  L,  are  the  objects  of  hb  worst  invectives.  Hb  own 
pretensions  to  the  see  of  St  David  are  the  motive  of  many  of  hb 
misrepresentations.  But  he  b  one  of  the  most  vivid  and  witty 
of  our  medieval  hbtorians. 

See  the  Rolls  edition  of  hb  works,  cd.  J.  &  Brewer,  J.  F.  Dimock 
and  G.  F.  Warner  in  8  vols.  (London,  1861-1891),  some  of  which 
have  valuable  introductioos.  ^ 

QIRAMDOU  (from  the  Ital.  gframdeia),  an  ornamental 
branched  candlestick  of  several  Ughts.  It  came  into  use  about 
the  second  half  of  the  17th  century,  aiui  was  commonly  made 
and  used  in  pain.  It  has  always  been,  comparatively  speaking, 
a  luxurious  appliance  for  lighting,  and  in  the  great  18th-century 
period  of  French  house  decoration  the  famous  dseieurs  designed 
some  exceedin^y  beautiful  examples.  A  great  variety  of  metals 
has  been  used  for  the  purpose — sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
candlestick,  girandoles  have  been  made  in  hard  woods.  Gilded 
bronse  has  been  a  very  frequent  medium,  but  for  table  purposes 
silver  b  still  the  favourite  mattfiaL 

CIRARD,  JRAN  RAPIISTB  [known  as  "Le*  P^  Girard" 
or"  LePireGrefotre  'i(i 765-1850), French-Swiaseducationatist, 
was  bora  at  Fribourg  and  educated  for  the  priesthood  at  Lucerne. 
He  was  the  fifth  child  in  a  family  of  fourteen,  and  hb  gift  for 
tfsrhing  was  cariy  shown  at  home  in  hdping  hb  mother  irith  the 


GIRARD,  P.  H.  DE— GIRARD,  S. 


45 


yoiufer  children;  and  after  paising  through  his  noviciate  he 
spent  tome  time  as  an  instructor  in  convents,  notably  at  WUrz- 
tnus  (i78S'X788).  Then  for  ten  years  he  was  busy  with 
rehgioas  duty.  In  1798,  full  t>f  Kantian  ideas,  he  published  an 
casay  outlining  a  icheme  of  national  Swiss  education;  and  in 
1804  be  began  his  career  as  a  public  teacher,  first  in  the  elementary 
school  at  Fribourg  (1805-1823),  then  (being  driven  away  by 
Jesuit  hostility)  in  the  gymnasium  at  Lucerne  till  1834,  when 
be  retired  to  Fribourg  and  devoted  himself  with  the  production 
of  his  books- on  education,  Dt  VenseipiemaU  rtgidier  dt  la 
Umgme  maUnuUe  (1834,  9th  ed.  1894;  Eng.  trans,  by  Lord 
Ebrington,  Tkt  Mother  Tonpu,  1847),  and  Cows  UucatiJ  (1844- 
1846).  Father  Girard's  reputation  and  influence  as  an  enthusiast 
in  the  cause  of  education  became  potent  not  only  in  Switserland, 
where  he  was  hailed  as  a  second  Pestalotzirhut  in  other  countries. 
He  had  a  genius  for  teaching,  his  method  of  stimulating  the 
inullifence  of  the  children  at  Fribourg  and  interesting  them 
actively  in  learning,  and  not  merely  cramming  them  with  rules 
and  facts,  being  warmly  praised  by  the  Swiss  educationalist 
Francois  Naville  (i 784-1 846)  in  his  treatise  on  public  education 
(1832).  His  undogmatic  method  and  his  Liberal  Christianity 
bfoofj^t  him  into  conflict  with  the  Jesuits,  but  his  aim  was, 
in  all  his  teaching,  to  introduce  the  moral  idea  into  the  minds  of 
his  pupib  by  familiarizing  them  with  the  right  or  wrong  working 
of  the  facts  he  brought  to  their  attention,  and  thus  to  elevate 
character  all  through  the  educational  curriculum. 

OIRARD,  PHIUPPB  BSNRI  DB  (1775-1845),  French 
mechanician,  was  bom  at  Lourmarin,  Vauduse,  on  the  ist  of 
February  177s.  He  is  chiefly  known  in  connexion  with  flax- 
spinning  machinery.  Napoleon  having  in  18x0  decreed  a  reward 
of  one  million  francs  to  the  inventor  of  the  best  machine  for 
spinning  flax,  Girard  succeeded  in  producing  what  was  required. 
But  be  never  received  the  promised  reward,  although  in  1853, 
after  his  death,  a  comparatively  small  pension  was  voted  to  his 
heixs,  and  having  relied  on  the  money  to  pay  the  expenses  of 
has  invention  he  got  into  serious  financial  difficulties^  He  was 
obUged,  in  1815,  to  abandon  the  flax  mills  he  had  established 
BB  France,  and  at  the  invitation  of  the  emperor  of  Austria 
founded  a  flax  mill  and  a  factory  for  his  machines  at  Hirtenberg. 
In  1835,  at  the  invitation  of  the  emperor  Alexander  L  of  Russia, 
be  went  to  Poland,  and  erected  near  Warsaw  a  flax  manufactory, 
round  which  grew  up  a  village  which  received  the  name  of 
Girardow.  In  18x8  be  built  a  steamer  to  run  on  the  Danube. 
He  did  not  return  to  Paris  till  X844,  where  he  still  found  some 
of  his  old  creditors  ready  to  press  their  claims,  and  he  died  in 
that  dty  on  the  a6th  of  August  1845.  He  was  also  the  Author 
<rf  auxncrous  minor  inventions. 

OIRARDt  fTBPHIIf  (1750-1831),  American  financier  and 
philanthropist,  fouiider  of  Girard  College  in  Philadelphia,  was 
bom  an  a  suburb  of  Bordeaux,  France,  on  the  soth  of  May  x7sa 
He  lost  the  sight  of  his  right  eye  at  the  afe  of  eight  and  had  little 
edncaiioB.  His  father  was  a  sea  captain,  and  the  son  cruised 
to  the  West  Indies  aiKi  back  during  X764>x  773,  was  licensed 
captain  in  1773,  visited  New  York  in  1774,  and  thence  with  the 
ftt****"^  of  a  New  York  merchant  b^an  to  trade  to  and  from 
New  Orleans  and  Port  au  Prince.  In  May  1776  he  was  driven, 
into  tbe  port  of  Philadelphia  by  a  British  fleet  and  settled  there  as 
a  merchant;  in  June  of  th^  next  year  he  married  Mary  (Polly) 
Lam,  daughter  of  a  shipbuilder,  who,  two  years  later,  after 
Guard's  becoming  a  dtixen  of  Pennsylvania  (1778),  built  for  him 
the  "  Water  Witch/'  the  fint  of  a  fleet  trading  with  New  Orleans 
and  the  West  Indie»~most  of  Girard's  ships  being  luimed  after 
his  favourite  French  authors,  such  as  "  Rousseau,"  "  Voltaire," 
"  Helvftios  "  and  "  Montesquieu."  His  beautiful  young  wife 
brrtr**  insane  and  spent  the  years  from  1790  to  her  death  in 
18x5  in  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital.  In  18x0  Girard  used  about 
a  million  d<rflars  deposited  by  him  with  the  Barings  of  London 
for  tbe  purchase  of  shnes  of  the  much  depreciated  stock  of 
the  Bank  of  the  United  States — a  purchase  of  great  assistance 
to  the  United  States  goVenmient  in  bolstering  European  confi- 
dence in  its  securities.  When  the  Bank  was  not  rechartered  the 
^a^iwig  aiMi  the  cashier's  house  in  Philadelphia  were  purchased 


at  a  third  of  the  original  cost  by  Girard,  who  in  May  x8i2 
established  the  Bank  of  Stephen  Girard.  He  subscribed  in 
x8i4  for  about  95%  of  the  government's  war  loan  of  $5,000,000^ 
of  which  only  $20,000  besides  had  been  taken,  aiKl  he  generously 
offered  at  par  shares  which  upon  his  purchase  had  gone  to  a 
premium.  He  pursued  his  business  vigorously  in  person  untfl 
the  13th  of  February  1830,  when  he  was  injured  in  the  street 
by  a  truck;  he  died  on  the  26th  of  December  183 1.  His  public 
spirit  had  been  shown  during  his  life  not  only  financially  but 
personally;  ixi  X793,  during  the  plague  of  yellow  fever  in  Phil- 
adelphia, he  volunteered  to  act  as  manager  of  the  wretched 
hospital  a^  Bush  Hill,  and  with  the  assistance  of  Peter  Helm 
had  the  hospital  cleansed  and  its  work  systematized;  again 
during  the  yellow  fever  epidemic  of  X797-X798  he  took  the  lead 
in  relieving  the  poor  and  caring  for  the  sick.  Even  more  was  his 
philanthropy  shown  in  his  disposition  by  will  of  his  estate, 
which  was  valued  at  about  $7,500,000,  and  doubtless  the  greatest 
fortune  accumulated  by  any  individual  in  America  up  to  that 
time.  Of  his  fortune  he  bequeathed  $xx6,ooo  to  various 
Philadelphia  charities,  $500,000  to  the  same  dty  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  Delaware  water  front,  $300,000  to  Pennsyl- 
vania for  internal  improvements,  and  the  bulk  of  his  estate  to 
Philaddphia,  to  be  used  in  founding  a  school  or  college,  in 
providing  a  better  police  system,  and  in  nudung  munidpal 
improvements  and  lessening  taxation.  Most  of  his  bequest 
to  the  dty  was  to  be  used  for  building  and  maintaining  a  school 
"  to  provide  for  such  a  number  of  poor  male  white  orphan 
children  ...  a  better  editcation  as  well  as  a  more  comfortable 
maintenance  than  they  usually  recdve  from  the  ^plication  of 
the  public  funds."  His  will  planned  most  minutely  for  the 
erection  of  this  school,  giving  details  as  to  the  windows,  doors, 
walls,  &c.;  and  it  contained  the  following  phrase:  "I  enjoin 
and  require  that  no  ecdesiastic,  missionary  or  minister  of  any 
sect  whatsoever,  shall  ever  hold  or  exercise  any  duty  whatsoever 
in  the  said  college;  nor  shall  any  such  person  ever  be  admitted 
for  any  purpose,  or  as  a  visitor,  within  the  premises  appropriated 
to  the  purposes  of  the  said  college.  ...  I  desire,  to  keep  the 
tender  minds  of  orphans  .  .  .  free  from  the  exdtements  which 
clashing  doctrines  and.  sectarian  controversy  are  so  apt  to 
produce."  Girard's  hdrs-at-law  contested  the  will  in  1836,  and 
they  were  greatly  hdped  by  a  public  prejudice  aroused  by  the 
clause  dted;  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1844 
Danid  Webster,  appearing  for  the  heirs,  made  a  famous  plea 
for  the  Christian  rdigion,  but  Justice  Joseph  Story  handed  down 
an  opinion  adverse  to  the  hdrs  {.Vidais  v.  Cirard*s  Executors), 
Webster  was  opposed  in  this  suit  by  John  Sergeant  and  Horace 
Binney.  Girard  q)ecified  that  those  admitted  to  the  odlege 
must  be  white  male  orphans,  of  legitipiate  birth  and  good 
character,  between  the  ages  of  six  and  ten;  that  no  boy  was 
to  be  permitted  to  stay  after  his  eighteenth  year;  and  that  as 
regards  admissions  preference  wss  to  be  shown,  first  to  orphans 
bom  in  Philaddphia,  second  to  orphans  bom  in  any  other  part  of 
Pennsylvania,  third  to  orphans  bora  in  New  York  Qty,  and 
fourth  to  orphans  bom  in  New  Orleans.  Work  upon  the  build- 
ings was  begun  in  1833,  and  the  college  was  opened  on  the  xst 
of  January  1848,  a  technical  point  of  law  making  instruction 
conditioned  upon  the  completion  of  the  five  buildings,  of  which 
the  prindpal  one,  planned  by  Thomas  ystick  Walter  (1804-X887), 
has  been  called  "  the  most  perfect  Gredk  temple  in  existence." 
To  a  sarcophagus  in  this  main  building  the  remains  of  Stephen 
Girard  were- removed  in  1851.  In  the  40  acres  of  the  college 
grounds  there  were  in  1909  x8  buOdings  (valued  at  $3,350,000), 
15x3  pupils,  and  a  total  "  population,"  induding  students, 
teachers  and  all  employes,  of  1907.  The  vahie  of  the  (Girard 
estate  in  the  year  X907  was  $35,000,000,  of  which  $550,000 
was  devoted  to  other  charities  than  Girard  College.  The  contrql 
of  the  coU^e  was  und€r  a  board  chosen  by  the  dty  councils 
until  X869,  when  by  act  of  the  legislature  it  was  transferred  to 
trustees  appointed  by  the  Common  Pleas  judges  of  the  dty  of 
Philadelphia.  The  course  of  training  is  partly  industrial--for 
a  k>ng  time  graduates  were*indentured  till  th^  CUM  of 
but  it  is  also  preparatory  to  college  entrance. 


46 


GIRARDIN,  D.  DE— GIRART  DE  ROUSSILLON 


See  H.  A.  Ingram.  The  Life  and  Character  of  Stephen  Cirard 
(Philadelphia.  1884).  and  GeorKc  P.  Rupp.  "Stephen  Girard— 
Merchant  and  Mariner."  in  1848-1898:  Semi-Centennial  of  Cirard 
CoUege  (Philadelphia.  1898). 

OIRARDIN.   DELPHINE  DB   (1804-1855),   French   author, 

was  bom  at  Aix-la-Chapellc  on  the  26th  of  January  1804.    Her 

mother,  the  wcU-known  Madame  Sophie  Gay,  brought  her  up 

in  the  midst  of  a  brilliant  literary  society.    She  published  two 

volumes  of  miscellaneous  pieces,  Essais  poHiques  (1824)  and 

Nauveaux  Essais  poHiqtus  (1825).    A  visit  to  Italy  iri  1827, 

during  which  she  was  enthusiastically  welcomed  by  the  literati 

of  Rome  and  even  crowned  in  the  capitol,  was  productive  of 

various  poems,  of  which  the  most  ambitious  was  Napollnc  (1833). 

Her  marriage  in  1831  to  £mile  de  Girardin  (see  below)  opened 

up  a  new  literary  career.    The  contemporary  sketches  which 

she  contributed  from  1836  to  1839  to  the  feuilleton  of  La  Presse, 

under  the  nam  de  plume  of  Charles  de  Launay,  were  collected 

under  the  title  of  Lettrcs  parisiennes  (1843),  and  obtained  a 

brilliant  success.    Conies  d'une  vieille  fill^  d  ses  neveux  (1832), 

La  Canne  de  Monsieur  de  Balxac  (1836)  and  II  nefaul  pasjouer 

avec  la  douleur  (1853)  are  aniong  the  best-known  of  her  rpniances; 

and  her  dramatic  pieces  in  prose  and  verse  include  L'£cole  des 

journalistes  (1840),  JudUk  (1843),  Cliopdtre  (1847),  Lady  Tartufc 

(1853),  and  the  one-act  comedies,  Cestlafaute  du  mart  (1851), 

La  Joiefait  peur  (1854)}  Le  Ckapeau  d'un  korloger  (1854)  and  One 

Pemme  qui  ditesle  son  mart,  which  did  not  appear  tiU  after  the 

author's  death.    In  the  literary  society  of  her  time  Madame 

Girardin  exercised  no  small  personal  influence,  and  among  the 

frequenters  of  her  drawing-room  were  Th6ophile  Gautier  and 

Balzac,  Alfred  de  Musset  and  Victor  Hugo.    She  died  on  the 

29th  of  June  1855.    Her  collected  works  were  published  in  six 

volumes  (i86o-i86x). 

See  Sainte-Beuve.  Causeries  du  lundi^  t.  iiL;  G.  de  MoUnes, 
"Lea  Femmes  pontes,"  in  Rente  Jes  deux  mondes  (July  1842); 
Taxile  Dclord,  Les  Matinies  littiraires  (i860);  V Esprit  de  Madame 
Girardin^  avee  une  priface  par  M.  Lamarline  (i86a);  G.  d'Heilly. 
Madame  de  Girardtnt  savieet  ses  ctuares  (1868};  Imbcrt  de  Saint 
Amand,  Mme  de  Girardin  (1875). 

GIRARDIN,  telLB  DB  (]Jba-x88x),  Fi«Dch  pubUcist,  was 
bom,. not  in  Switzerland  in  x8o6  of  unknown  parents,  but  (as 
was  recognized  in  1837)  in  Paris  in  x8oa,  the  son  of  General 
Alexandre  de  Girardin  and  of  Madame  Dupuy,  wife  of  a  Parisian 
advocate.  His  first  publication  was  a  novel,  ^mti^,>  dealing 
with  his  birth  and  early  life,  and  appeared  under  the  name  of 
Girardin  in  1827.  He  became  inspector  of  fine  arts  under  the 
Martignac  ministry  just  before  the  revolution  of  1830,  and 
was  an  energetic  and  passionate  journalist.  Besides  his  work 
on  the  daily  piess  he  issued  miscellaneous  publications  which 
attained  an  enormous  dzculation.  His  Journal  des  connais- 
sances  utiles  had  120,000  subscribers,  and,  the  initial  edition  of 
his  Almanack  de  France  (1834)  ran  to  a  million  copies.  In  1836 
he  inaugurated  cheap  journalism  in  a  popular  Conservative 
organ,  La  Presse,  the  subscription  to  which  was  only  forty 
francs  a  year.  This  undertaking  involved  him  in  a  duel  with 
Armand  Carrel,  the  fatal  result  of  which  made  him  refuse  satis- 
iaurtion  to  later  opponents.  In  1839  he  was  excluded  from  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  to  which  he  had  been  four  times  elected, 
on  the  plea  of  his  foreign  birth,  but  was  admitted  in  1842.  He 
resigned  early  in  February  1847,  and  on  the  24th  of  February 
1848  sent  a  note  to  Louis  Philippe  demanding  his  resignation  and 
the  regency  of  the  duchess  of  Orleans.  In  the  Legislative 
Afloembly  he  voted  with  the  Mountain.  He  pressed  eageriy  in 
his  paper  for  the  election  of  Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  of  whom  he 
afterwards  became  one  of  the  most  violent  opponents.  In  1856 
he  sold  La  Presse,  only  to  resume  it  in  1862,  but  its  vogue  was 
over,  and  Girardin  started  a  new  journal,  La  LiberU,  the  sale 
of  which  was  forbidden  in  the  public  streets.  He  supported 
£mile  Ollivier  and  the  Liberal  Empire,  but  plunged  into  vehement 
journalism  again  to  advocate  war  against  Prussia.  Of  his 
many  subsequent  enterprises  the  most  successful  was  the  purchase 
of  Le  Petit  Journal,  which  served  to  advocate  the  policy  of  Thiers, 
thou^  he  himself  did  not  contribute. .  The  crisis  of  the  i6th 
^  M...  .a.^^  when  Jules  Simon  fell  from  power,  made  him 


resume  his  pen  to  attack  MacMahon  and  the  party  of  reaction 
in  La  Prance  and  in  Le  Petit  Journal,  £mile  de  Girardin  married 
in  183  z  Delphine  Gay  (see  above),  and  after  her  death  in  1855 
Guillemette  Josephine  Brunold,  countess  von  Tieffenbach, 
widow  of  Prince  Frederick  of  Nassau.  He  was  divorced  from 
his  second  wife  in  1872. 

The  long  list  of  his  social  and  political  writings  includes:  De  la 
presse  pinodiqueau  XIX*  sikcle  (1837);  De  I'iuslrHction  pmblicue 
(1838):  Etudes  pclitiques  ^1838);  De  la  liberU  de  la  presse  ei  du 
journolisme  (18^2) ;  Le  Drottau  travail  au  Luxembourg  eta  I' A  ssemhUa 

series 
uni* 
^  . .  -  mars 

(1867),  an  account  of  his  own  differences  with  the  ffovcrnment  in 
1867  when  he  was  fined  5000  fr.  for  an  article  in  La  Liberti;  Le 
Dossier  de  la  guerre  (1877),  a  collection  of  official  documents;  Ques' 
tions  de  mon  temps,  1836  d  1856,  articles  extracted  from  the  daily 
and  weekly  press  (12  vols.,  1858). 

QIRARDON,  FRANCOIS  (1628-17x5),  French  sculptor,  was 
born  at  Troyes  on  the  X7th  of  March  1628.  As  a  boy  he  had  for 
master  a  joiner  and  wood-carver  of  his  native  town,  named 
Baudesson,  under  whom  he  is  said  to  have  worked  at  the  ch&teau 
of  Liibault,  where  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Chancellor  Siguier: 
By  the  chancellor's  influence  Girardon  was  first  removed  to 
Paris  and  placed  in  the  studio  of  Francois  Anguier,  and  afterwards 
sent  to  Rome.  In  X652  he  was  back  in  France,  and  seems  at 
once  to  have  addressed  himself  with  something  like  ignoble 
subserviency  to  the  task  of  conciliating  the  court  painter  Charles 
Le  Brun.  Girardon  is  reported  to  have  declared  himself  incap- 
able of  composing  a  group,  whether  with  truth  or  from  motives  of 
policy  it  is  impossible  to  say.  This  much  is  certain,  that  a  very 
large  proportion  of  his  work  was  carried  out  from  designs  by 
Le  Brun,  and  shows  the  merits  and  defects  of  Le  Bmn's  manner — 
a  great  command  of  ceremonial  pomp  in  presenting  his  subject, 
coupled  with  a  large  treatment  of  forms  which  if  it  were  more 
expressive  might  be  imposing.  The  court  which  Girardon  paid 
to  the  "  premier  peintre  du  roi "  was  rewarded.  An  immense 
quantity  of  work  at  Versailles  was  entrusted  to  him,  and  in 
recognition  of  the  successful  execution  of  four  figures  for  the 
Bains  d'Apollon,  Le  Bmn  induced  the  king  to  present  his  prot^6 
personally  with  a  purse  of  300  louis,  as  a  distinguishing  mark 
of  royal  favour.  Jn  X650  Girardon  was  made  member  of  the 
Academy,  in  X659  professor,  in  X674  "adjoint  au  recteur," 
and  finally  in  1695  chancellor.  Five  years  before  (1690),  on  the 
death  of  Le  Bran,  he  had  also  been  appointed  "inspecteur 
g£n6ral  des  ouvrages  de  sculpture  " — a  place  of  power  and  profit. 
In  X699  he  completed -the  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Louis 
XIV.,  erected  by  the  town  of  Paris  on  the  Place  Louis  le  Grand. 
This  statue  was  melted  down  during  the  Revolution,  and  is 
known  to  us  only  by  a  small  bronze  model  (Louvre)  finished 
by  Girardon  himself.  His  Tomb  of  Richelieu  (church  of  the 
Sorbonne)  was  saved  from  destraction  by  Alexandre.  Lenoir, 
who  received  a  bayonet  thrust  in  protecting  the  head  of  the 
cardinal  from  mutilation.  It  is  a  capital  example  of  Girardon*s 
work,  and  the  theatrical  pomp  of  its  style  is  typical  of  the  funeral 
sculpture  of  the  reigns  of  Louis  XI  Vi  and  LouisX  V. ;  but  amongst 
other  important  ^>ecimens  yet  remaining  may  also  be  dted  the 
Tomb  of  Louvois  (St  Eustache),  that  of  Bignon,  the  king's 
librarian,  executed  in  X656  (St  Nicolas  du  Chardonneret),  and 
decorative  sculptures  in  the  Galerie  d'Apollon  and  Chambre  du 
roi  in  the  Louvre.  Mention  should  not  be  omitted  of  the  group, 
signed  and  dated  1699,  "  The  Rape  of  Proserpine  "  at  Versailles, 
which  also  contains  the  "  Bull  of  Apollo."  Although  chiefly 
occupied  at  Paris  Girardon  never  forgot  his  native  TVoyes,  the 
museum  of  which  town  contains  some  of  his  best  works,  including 
the  marble  busts  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Maria  Theresa.  In  the 
hAtel  de  ville  is  still  shown  a  medallion  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  in  the 
church  of  St  R6my  a  brbnze  cradfix  of  some  importance — ^both 
works  by  his  hand.    He  died  in  Paris  in  X7X5. 

See  Corrard  de  Breban,  Notice  surlavieales  enteres  de  Girardon 
(1850). 

OIRART  DB  ROUSSILLON,  an  epic  figure  of  the  Carolingian 
cycle  of  romance.  In  the  genealogy  of  romance  he  is  a  son  of 
Doon  de  Mayence,  and  he  appears  in  different  and  irreconcilable 


GIRAUD— GIRDLE 


47 


I 


orauBsUaces  in  many  of  the  cka$uoHS  ie  geste.  The  legend  of 
Girmrt  de  RoussiUon  is  contained  in  a  Vita  Girardi  de  RoussiUcn 
(cd.  P.  ICeyer,  in  Romania,  1878),  dating  from  the  beginning 
of  the  xath  century  and  written  probably  by  a  monk  of  the  abbey 
of  Pothi^res  or  of  Vezelai,  both  of  which  were  founded  in  860  by 
Gizart;  in  Cwart  de  RoussUlon,  a  chanson  de  geste  written  early 
in  the  lath  centuxy  in  a  dialect  midway  between  French  and 
Ptoven^al,  and  apparently  based  on  an  earlier  Burgundian 
poem;  in  a  X4th  century  romance  in  alexandrines  (ed.  T.  J.  A.  P. 
Mignard,  Paris  and  Dijon,  1878);  and  in  a  pnMe  romance  by 
Jehan  Wauqnelin  in  1447  (ed.  L.  de  Montille,  Paris,  1880).  The 
historical  Girard,  son  of  Leuthard  and  Grimildis,  was  a 
Burgundian  chief  who  was  count  of  Paris  in  837^  and  embraced 
the  cause  of  Lothair  against  Charies  the  Bald.  He  fou^t  at 
Fontenay  in  841,  and  doubtless  followed  Lothair  to  Aiz.  In 
855  be  became  governor  of  Provence  for  Lothair's  son  Charles, 
king  of  Provence  (d.  863).  His  wife  Bertha  defended  Vienne 
unsuccessfully  against  Charles  the  Bald  in  870,  and  Girard, 
who  had  perhaps  aspired  to  be  the  titular  ruler  of  the  northern 
part  of  Provence,  which  he  had  continued  to  administer  under 
Lothair  U.  imtil  that  prince's  death  in  869,  retired  with  his  wife 
to  Avignon,  where  he  died  probably  in  877,  certainly  before  879. 
The  tradition  of  his  piety,  of  the  heroism  of  his  wife  Bertha, 
and  of  his  wars  with  Charies  parsed  into  romance;  but  the 
historical  facts  are  so  distorted  that  in  Girart  de  RoussiUon  the 
trvuotrt  makes  him  the  opfwnent  of  Charies  Martd,  to  whom 
he  Stands  in  the  relation  of  brother-in-law.  He  is  nowhere 
described  in  authentic  historic  sources  as  of  RoussiUon.  The 
title  is  derived  from  hi»  castle  built  on  Mount  Lassois,  near 
ChltiOon-sur-Seine.  Southern  traditions  concerning  Count 
Girart,  in  which  he  is  made  the  son  of  Garin  de  Monglane,  are 
embodied  in  Gvart  de  Viane  (13th  century)  by  Bert  rand  de 
Bar-sur-i'Aube,  and  in  the  Aspramonle  of  Andrea  da  Barberino, 
based  on  the  French  chanson  of  Aspremont ,  where  he  figures  as 
Girart  de  Frete  or  de  Fratte.*  Girart  de  Viane  is  the  recital  of 
a  siege  of  Vienne  by  Charlemagne,  and  in  Aspramonte  Girart  de 
Fratte  leads  an  army  of  infideb  against  Chariemagne.  Girart  de 
RoussiUon  was  long  held  to  be  of  Provencal  origin,  and  to  be 
a  proof  of  the  existence  of  an  independent  Provencal  epic, 
but  its  Buri^ndian  origin  may  be  taken  as  proved. 

Sec  F.  Michel,  Gerard  de  RossiUon  .  .  .  piMti  en  francais  et  en 
prwmen^  d'aprks  Us  MSS.  de  Paris  et  de  Londres  (Pans,  1856); 
P.  Meyer,  Girart  de  RoussiUon  (1884),  a  translation  in  modern  French 
vith  a  comprehensive  introduction.  For  Girart  de  Viane  (ed.  P. 
XarM.  Reims,  1850)  tee  L.  Gautier,  BpopUs  franfaisest  vol.  iv.; 
F.  A.  Wulff,  Notice  sur  les  sagas  de  Magus  et  de  Geirard  (Lund,  1874). 

QIRAUD,  OIOVAmri,  Count  (i 776-1834),  Italian  dramatist, 
of  French  origin,  was  bom  at  Rome,  and  showed  a  precocious 
passion  for  the  theatre.  His  first  play,  VOnestd  non  si  vince, 
was  successfully  produced  in  1798.  He  took  part  in  politics 
as  an  active  supporter  of  Pius  VI.,  but  was  mainly  occupied  with 
the  production  of  his  plays,  and  in  1809  became  director-general 
of  the  Italian  theatres.  He  died  at  Naples  in  1834.  Count 
Giraud's  comedies,  the  best  of  which  are  Gelosie  per  equitoco 
(1S07)  and  VAjondt*  imbaraao  (1824),  were  bright  and  amusing 
<m  the  suge,  but  of  no  particular  literary  qttality. 

His  codected  comedies  were  published  in  1823  and  hb  Teatro 
damaiuo  in  1825. 

GIRDLE  (0.  Eng.  ty^dei^  from  gyrdan,  to  gird;  cf.  Ger.  GUrtel, 

Dutch  gordel,  from  giirten  and  garden ;  "  gird  "  and  its  doublet 

"  girth  "  together  with  the  other  Teutonic  cognates  have  been 

Inferred  by  some  to  the  root  gkar—io  seize,  enclose,  seen  in 

Gr.  x^py  hand,  Lat.  hortus,  garden,  and  also  English  yard, 

garden,  garth,  &c.),  a  band  of  leather  or  other  material  worn 

round  the  waist,  either  to  confine  the  loose  and  flowing  outer 

robes  so  as  to  allow  freedom  of  movement,  or  to  fasten  and 

support  the  garments  of  the  wearer.    Among  the  Romans  it 

was  used  to  confine  the  tunica,  and  it  formed  part  of  the  dress 

of  the  soldier;  when  a  man  quitted  military  service  he  was  said, 

■  It  k  of  intemt  to  note  that  Freta  was  the  old  name  for  the 
town  of  Saint  Remy,  and  that  it  is  close  to  the  site  of  the  ancient 
town  of  Glanum,  the  name  of  which  is  possibly  preserved  in  Garin 
dc  Monglane,  the  ancestor  of  the  heroes  of  the  cycle  of  Guillaume 


cingulum  deponere,  to  (ay  aside  the  girdle.  Money  being  carried 
in  the  girdle,  zonani  perdere  signified  to  lose  one's  purse,  and| 
among  the  Greeks,  to  cut  the  girdle  was  to  rob  a  man  of  his 
money. 

Girdles  and  girdle^buckles  are  not  often  found  in  Gallo-Roman 
graves,  but  in  the  graves  of  Franks  and  Burgundians  they  are 
constantly  present,  4ften  ornamented  with  bosses  of  sflver  or 
bronze,  diased  or  inlaid.  Sidonius  Apollinaris  speaks  of  the 
Franks  as  belted  round  the  waist,  and  Gregory  of  Tours  in  the 
6th  century  says  that  a  dagger  was  carried  in  the  Fiankish 
girdle. 

In  the  Anglo-Saxon  dress  the  girdle  makes  an  unimportant 
figure,  and  the  Norman  knights,  as  a  rule,  wore  their  belts  under 
their  hauberks.  After  the  Conquest,  however,  the  artificers 
gave  more  attention  to  a  piece  whose  buckle  and  tongue  invited 
the  work  of  the  goldsmith.  Girdles  of  varying  richness  are  seen 
on  most  of  the  western  medieval  effigies.  That  of  Queen  Beren- 
garia  lets  the  long  pendant  hang  below  the  knee,  following  a 
fashion  which  frequently  reappears. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  X3th  century  the  knight's  surcoat 
is  girdled  with  a  narrow  cord  at  the  waist,  while  the  great  belt, 
which  had  become  the  pride  of  the  wdl-equipped  cavalier, 
loops  across  the  hips  carrying  the  heavy  sword  aslant  over  the 
thighs  or  somewhat  to  the  left  of  the  wearer. 

But  it  is  in  the  second  half  of  the  following  century  that  the 
knightly  belt  takes  its  most  splendid  form.  Under  the  year 
1356  the  continuator  of  the  chronicle  of  Nangis  notes  that  the 
increase  of  jewelled  belts  had  mightily  enhanced  the  price  of 
pearls.  The  belt  is  then  worn,  as  a  rule,  girdling  the  hips  at 
some  dbtance  below  the  waist,  being  probably  supported  by 
hooks  as  is  the  belt  of  a  modern  infantry  soldier.  The  end  of  the 
belt,  after  being  drawn  through  the  buckle,  is  knotted  or  caught 
up  after  the  fashion  of  the  tang  of  the  Garter.  The  waist  girdle 
either  disappears  from  sight  or  as  a  narrow  and  ornamented 
strap  is  worn  diagonally  to  help  in  the  support  of  the  belt.  A 
mass  of  beautiful  ornament  covers  the  whole  belt,  commonly 
seen  as  an  unbroken  line  of  bosses  enriched  with  curiously 
worked  roundels  or  lozenges  which,  when  the  loose  strap-end 
is  abandoned,  meet  in  a  splendid  morse  or  clasp  on  which  the 
enameller  and  jeweller  had  wrought  their  best.  About  1420 
this  fa^ion.  tends  to  disi^pear,  the  loose  tabards  worn  over 
armour  in  the  jousting-yard  hindering  its  display.  The  belt 
-  never  regains  its  importance  as  an  ornament,  and,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  i6th  century,  sword  and  dagger  are  sometimes  seen  hanging 
at  the  knight's  sides  without  visible  support. 

In  dvil  dress  the  magnificent  belt  of  the  14th  century  is 
worn  by  men  of  rank  over  the  hips  of  the  tight  short-skirted 
coat,  and  in  that  century  and  in  the  15th  and  i6th  there  are 
sumptuary  laws  to  check  the  extravagance  of  rich  girdles  worn 
by  men  and  women  whose  humble  station  made  them  unseemly. 
Even  priests  must  be  rebuked  for  their  silver  girdles  with  baselards 
hanging  from  t  hem.  Purses,  daggers,  keys,  penners  and  inkhoms, 
beads  and  even  books,  dangled  from  girdles  in  the  15th  and 
early  i6th  centuries.  Afterwards  the  girdle  goes  on  as  a  mere 
strap  for  holding  up  the  clothing  or  as  a  Sword-belt.  At  the 
Restoration  men  contrasted  the  fashion  of  the  court,  a  light 
n^ier  hung  from  a  broad  shoulder-belt,  with  the  fashion  of  the 
countryside,  where  a  heavy  weapon  was  supported  by  a  narrow 
waistbelt.  Soon  afterwards  both  fashions  disappeared.  Sword- 
hangers  were  concealed  by  the  skirt,  and  the  belt,  save  in  certain 
military  and  sporting  costumes,  has  no  more  been  in  sight  in 
England.  Even  as  a  support  for  breeches  or  trousers,  the  use 
of  braces  has  gradually  supplanted  the  girdle  during  the  past 
century. 

In  roost  of  those  parts  of  the  Continent — Brittany,  for  example 
— where  the  peasantry  maintains  old  fashions  in  clothing,  the 
belt  or  girdle  is  still  an  important  part  of  the  clothing.  Italian 
non-commissioned  officers  find  that  the  Sicilian  recruit's  main 
objection  to  the  first  bath  of  his  life-time  lies  in  the  fact  that  he 
must  lay  down  the  cherished  belt  which  carries  his  few  valuables. 
With  the  Circassian  the  belt  still  buckles  on  an  arsenal  of  pist' 
and  knives. 


48 


GIRGA— GIRONDE 


Folklore  and  andent  custom  are  mndi  ooocemed  with  the 
girdle.  Bankrupts  at  one  time  put  it  off  in  open  court;  French 
Uw  refused  courtesans  the  ri|^C  to  wear  it;  Saint  Guthlac 
casts  out  devils  by  buckling  his  girdle  round  a  poMesscd  man; 
an  earl  is  "  a  belted  earl "  since  the  days  when  the  putting  on 
of  a  girdle  was  part  of  the  ceremony  of  his  creation;  and  fairy 
tales  of  half  the  nations  deal  with  girdles  which  give  invisibility 
to  the  wearer.  (O.  Ba.) 

:  QIROA,  or  Gixgeb,  a  town  of  Upper  Egypt  on  the  W.  bank 
of  the  Nile,  313  m.  S.S.E.  of  Cairo  by  rail  and  about  10  m.  N.N.E. 
of  the  ruins  of  Abydos.  Pop.  (1907)  19,893^  of  whom  about 
one-third  are  Copts.  The  town  presents  a  picturesque  appearance 
from  the  Nile,  which  at  this  point  makes  a  sharp  bend.  A 
ruined  mosque  with  a  tall  minaret  stands  1^  the  river-brink. 
Many  of  the  houses  are  of  brick  decorated  with  gland  tiles. 
The  town  is  noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  pottery.  Girga  is 
the  seat  of  a  Coptic  bishop.  It  also  possesses  a  Roman  Catholic 
monastery,  considered  tlie  most  ancient  in  the  country.  As 
lately  as  Uie  middle  of  the  i8th  century  the  town  stood  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  from  the  river,  but  is  now  on  the  bank,  the  intervening 
^Mtce  having  been  washed  away,  together  with  a  Urge  part  of 
the  town,  by  the  stream  continually  encroaching  on  its  left 
bank. 

OIROBNTI  (anc.  AgrigeiUuM;  q,v.),  a  town  of  Sicily,  capital 
of  the  province  which  beus  its  name,  and  an  episcopal  see,  on 
the  south  coast,  58  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Palermo  direct  and  84I  m.  by 
raiL  Population  (1901)  25,024.  The  town  is  built  on  the 
western  summit  of  the  ridge  which  formed  the  northern  portion 
of  the  andent  site;  the  main  street  runs  from  E.  to  W.  on 
the  level,  but  the  side  streets  are  steep  and  narrow.  The  cathedral 
occupies  the  highest  point  in  the  town;  it  was  not  founded  till 
the  i3lh  century,  taking  the  place  of  the  so-called  temple  of 
Concord.  The  campanile  still  preserves  portions  of  its  original 
architecture,  but  the  interior  has  been  modernised.  In  the 
chapter-house  a  famous  sarcophagus,  with  scenes  illustrating 
the  myth  of  Hippolytus,  is  preserved.  There  are  other  scattered 
remains  of  13th-century  architecture  in  the  town,  while,  in  the 
centre  of  the  andent  dty,  ckMe  to  the  so-called  oratory  of 
PhaUtris,  is  the  Norman  church  of  S.  Nicolo.  A  small  museum 
in  the  town  contains  vases,  terra-cottas,  a  few  sculptures,  &c. 
The  port  of  Girgenti,  5)  m.  S.W.  by  rail,  now  known  as  Porto 
Empedode  (population  in  190X,  11,529),  as  the  prindpal  place 
of  shipment  for  sulphur,  the  mining  district  beginning  immedi- 
ately north  of  GirgentL  (T.  As.) 

6IRISHK,  a  village  and  fort  of  Afghanistan.  It  stands  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Helmund  78  m.  W.  of  Kandahar  on  the 
road  to  Herat;  3641  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  fort,  which  is 
garrisoned  from  Kandahar  and  is  the  residence  of  the  governor 
of  the  district  (Pusht-i-Rud),  has  little  miliUry  value.  It 
commands  the  fords  of  the  Hdmund  and  the  road  to  Seistan, 
from  which  it  is  about  190  m.  distant;  and  it  is  the  centre  of  a 
rich  agricultural  district.  Girishk  was  occupied  by  the  British 
during  the  first  Afghan  War;  and  a  small  garrison  of  sepoys, 
under  a  native  officer,  successfully,  withstood  a  siege  of  nine 
months  by  an  overwhelming  Afghan  force.  The  Dasht-i-Bakwa 
stretches  beyond  Giridk  towards  Farah,  a  level  plain  of  consider- 
able width,  which  tradition  assigns  as  the  field  of  the  final 
contest  for  supremacy  between  Russia  and  EngUnd. 

OIANAR,  a  sacred  hill  in  Western  India,  in  the  peninsula 
of  Kathiawar,  xo  m.  E.  of  Junagarh  town.  It  consists  of 
five  peaks,  rising  about  3500  ft.  above  the  sea,  on  which  are 
numerous  old  Jain  temples,  much  frequented  by.  pilgrims. 
At  the  foot  of  the  hill  is  a  rock,  with  an  inscription  of  Asoka 
(2nd  century  b.c.),  and  also  two  other  inscriptions  (dated  150 
and  455  A.D.)  of  great  historical  importance. 

OIRODBT  DB  R0U88T,  ANNE  L0UI3  (i 767-1824),  French 
painter,  better  known  as  Girodet-Trioson,  was  bom  at  Montargis 
on  the  5th  of  January  1 767.  He  lost  his  parenU  in  early  youth, 
and  the  care  of  his  fortune  and  education  fdl  to  the  lot  of  his 
guardian,  M.Trioson,"  mfdedn  de  mesdames,"  by  whom  he  was 
in  later  Ufc  adopted.  After  some  preliminary  studies  under  a 
painter  named  Luquin,  Girodet  entered  the  school  of  David, 


and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  successfully  competed  for  the 
Prix  de  Rome.  At  Rome  he  executed  his  "  Hippocrate  refusant 
les presents d'Artaxerxis  "and"  Endymion dormant "  (Louvre), 
a  work  whieh  was  hailed  with  acclamation  at  the  Salon  of  1792. 
The  peculiarities  whidi  mark  Girodet's  position  as  the  herald 
of  the  romantic  movement  are  already  evident  in  his"  Endymion." 
The  firm-set  forms,  the  grey  cold  colour,  the  hardness  of  the 
execution  are  proper  to  one  trained  in  the  school  of  David,  but 
these  characteristics  harmonize  ill  with  the  literary,  sentimental 
and  picturesque  suggestions  which  the  painter  has  sought  to 
render.  The  same  incongruity  marks  Girodet's  "  Danai  "  and  his 
"  Quatre  Saisons,"  executed  for  the  king  of  Spain  (repeated  for 
Compiigne) ,  and  shows  itself  to  a  ludicrous  extent  in  his  "  Fingal " 
(St  Petersburg,  Leuchtenberg  collection),  executed  for  Ni^leon 
I.  in  1802.  This  work  unites  the  defects  of  the  classic  and 
romantic  schools,  for  Girodet's  imagination  ardently  and  ex- 
dusivdy  pursued  the  ideas  exdted  by  varied  reading  both  of 
classic  and  of  modem  literature,  and  the  impressions  which  be 
recdved  from  the  external  world  afforded  him  little  stimulus  or 
check;  he  consequently  retained  the  mannerisms  of  his  master's 
practice  whilst  rejecting  all  restraint  on  choice  of  subject.  The 
creditlost  by  "Fingal"  Girodet  regained  in  x8o6,whenheexhibited 
"  Seine  de  Deluge  "  (Louvre),  to  which  (in  competition  with  the 
"Sabincs"  of  David)  was  awarded  the  decennial  prize.  This  success 
was  followed  up  in  i8oft  by  the  production  of  the  "  Reddition  de 
Vienne  "  and  "  Atala  au  Tombeau  "—a  work  which  went  far  to 
deserve  its  immense  popularity,  by  a  happy  dioice  of  subject, 
and  remarkable  freedom  from  the  theatricality  of  Girodet'a 
usual  manner,  which,  however,  soon  came  to  the  front  again  in 
his  "  Revoke  de  Caire  "  (1810).  His  powers  now  began  to  fail, 
and  his  habit  of  working  at  night  and  other  excesses  told  upon 
his  constitution;  in  the  Salon  of  18x2  he  exhibited  only  a 
"  Tite  de  Vierge  ";  in  1 819  "  Pygnialion  et  Galat«e  "  showed  a  still 
further  decline  of  strength;  and  in  1824 — the  year  in  which  he 
produced  his  portraits  of  Cathelineau  and  Bonchamps — Girodet 
died  on  the '9th  of  December. 

He  executed  a  vast  quantity  of  illustrations,  amongst  which  may 
be  cited  those  to  the  Didot  Virgil  (1798)  and  to  the  Louvre  Racine 
(1801-1805).  FiftV'four  of  hit  designs  for  Anacretm  were  engraved 
by  M.  ChatUlon.  Girodet  wasted  much  time  on  literary  composition, 
his  poem  Le  Peintre  (a  string  of  commonplaces),  together  with  poor 
imitations  of  classical  fioets,  and  essays  on  Lt  Ginu  and  La  Cr&u^ 
were  published  after  his  death  (1829;,  with  a  biographical  notice 
by  his  friend  M.  Coupin  de  U  Coupcrie;  and  M.  t3el6duxe,  in  his 
Louis  Dand  tt  sen  temps,  has  also  a  brief  life  of.Girodet. 

OIRONDB,  a  maritime  department  of  south-western  Frsnce, 
formed  from  four  divisions  of  the  old  province  of  Guyenne,  viz. 
Bordelais,  Bazadais,  and  parts  of  P6rigord  and  Agenais.  Area, 
4140  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1906)  823,925.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the 
department  of  Charente-Infirieure,  E.  by  those  of  Dordogne 
and  Lot-et-Garonne,  S.  by  that  of  Landcs,  and  W.  by  the  Bay 
of  Biscay.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  river  or  estuary  of  the 
Gironde  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Garonne  and  Dordogne. 
The  department  divides  itself  naturally  into  a  western  and  an 
eastern  portion.  The  former,  which  is  termed  the  Latides  (q.9.), 
occupies  more  than  a  third  of  the  department,  and  consists 
chiefly  of  morass  or  sandy  plain,  thickly  planted  with  pines  and 
divided  from  the  sea  by  a  long  line  of  dunes.  These  dunes  are 
planted  with  pines,  which,  by  binding  the  sand  together  with 
their  roots,  prevent  it  from  drifting  inland  and  afford  a  barrier 
against  the  sea.  On  the  east  the  dunes  are  fringed  for  some 
distance  by  two  extensive  lakes,  Carcans  and  Lacanau,  communi- 
cating with  each  other  and  with  the  Bay  of  Arcachon,  near  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  department.  The  Bay  of  Arcachon 
contains  numerous  islands,  and  on  the  land  side  forms  a  vast 
shallow  lagoon,  a  considerable  iiortion  of  which,  however,  has 
been  drained  and  converted  into  arable  land.  The  eastern 
portion  of  the  department  consists  chiefly  of  a  succession  of  hill 
and  dale,  and,  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Gironde,  is  very 
fertile.  The  estuary  of  the  Gironde  is  about  45  m.  in  length, 
and  varies  in  breadth  from  2  to  6  m.  It  presents  a  succession  of 
islands  and  mud  banks  which  divide  it  into  two  channels  and 
render  navigation  somewhat   difficult.    It  is,  however,  well 


GIRONDISTS 


49 


hooytA  and  lighted,  and  has  a  mean  depth  of  ai  ft.  There  are 
extensive  manhcs  on  the  right  bank  to  the  north  of  Blaye,  and 
the  shores  on  the  left  are  characterized,  especially  towards  the 
nouth,  by  low-lying  polders  protected  by  dikes  and  composed 
of  fertUe  salt  marshes.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Gironde  stands  the 
famous  tower  of  Cordouan,  one  of  the  finest  lighthouses  of  the 
French  coast.  It  was  built  between  the  years  1585  and  161  z 
by  the  architect  and  engineer  Louis  de  Foix,  and  added  to 
towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century.  Tht  principal  affluent  of 
the  Dwdogne  in  this  department  is  the  Isle.  The  feeders  of  the 
Garonne  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  Dropt,  all  small.  West 
of  the  Garonne  the  only  river  of  importance  is  the  Leyre,  which 
flows  into  the  Bay  of  Arcachon.  The  climate  is  humid  and 
mild  and  very  hot  in  summer.  Wheat,  rye,  maize,  oats  and 
tobacco  are  grown  10  a  considerable  extent.  The  corn  produced, 
however,  does  not  meet  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
culture  of  the  vine  is  by  far  the  most  important  branch  of  industry 
carried  on  (see  Wine)  ,  the  vineyards  occupying  about  one-seventh 
of  the  surface  of  the  department.  The  wine-growing  districts 
are  the  MMoc,  Graves,  C6tes,  Palus,  Entre-deux-Mers  and 
Sautemes.  The  MMoc  is  a  region  of  50  m.  in  length  by  about 
6  m.  in  breadth,  bordering  the  left  banks  of  the  Garonne  and  the 
Gironde  between  Bordeaux  and  the  sea.  The  Graves  country 
forms  a  zone  30  m.  in  extent,  stretching  along  the  left  bank  of 
the  Garonne  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Bordeaux  to  Barsac. 
The  Sautemes  country  lies  to  the  S.E.  of  the  Graves.  The 
C6tes  lie  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dordogne  and  Gironde, 
between  it  and  the  Garonne,  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Garonne. 
The  produce  of  the  Palus,  the  alluvial  land  of  the  valleys,  and  of 
the  Entre-deux-Mers,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dordogne, 
is  inferior.  Fruits  and  vegetables  are  extensively  cultivated, 
the  peaches  and  pears  being  especially  fine.  Cattle  are  exten- 
sively raised,  the  Bazadais  breed  of  oxen  and  the  Bordelais  breed 
oi  milch-cows  being  well  known.  Oyster-breeding  is  carried  on 
on  a  large  scale  in  the  Bay  of  Arcachon.  Large  supplies  of  resin, 
pitch  and  turpentine  are  obtained  from  the  pine  woods,  which 
also  supply  vine-props,  and  there  are  well-known  quarries  of 
limesUme.  The  manufactures  are  various,  and,  with  the  general 
trade,  are  chiefly  carried  on  at  Bordeaux  iq.v.),  the  chief  town 
azul  third  port  in  France.  PauiUac,  Blaye,  Liboume  and  Arcachon 
are  minor  ports.  Gironde  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of 
Bordeaux,  Blaye,  Lesparre,  Liboume,  Bazas  and  La  R6ole, 
with  49  cantons  and  554  communes.  The  department  is  served 
by  five  railways,  the  chief  of  which  are  those  of  the  Orleans  and 
Sotttbem  companies.  It  forms  part  of  the  circumscription  of 
the  archbishopric,  the  appeal-court  and  the  acadimie  (educational 
division)  of  Bordeaux,  and  of  the  region  of  the  XVIII.  army 
corps,  the  headquarters  of  which  are  at  that  dty.  Besides 
Bordeaux,  Liboume,  La  Riole,  3azas,  Blaye,  Arcachon,  St 
Emilion  and  St  Macaire  are  the  most  noteworthy  towns  and 
receive  separate  treatment.  Among  the  other  places  of  interest 
the  chief  are  Cadillac,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Garonne,  where 
there  is  a  castle  of  the  x6lh  century,  surrounded  by  fortifications 
of  the  14th  century;  Labrcde,  with  a  feudal  chiteau  in  which 
Mootesquieu  was  bom  and  lived;  Villandraut,  where  there  is  a 
ruined  castle  of  the  13th  century;  Uzcste,  which  has  a  church 
beguqi  in  1310  by  Pope  Clement  V.;  Maz^res  with  an  imposing 
castle  of  the  X4th  century;  La  Sauve,  which  has  a  church 
(nth  and  i3th  centuries)' and  other  remains  of  a  Benedictine 
abbey;  and  Ste  Foy-la-Grande,  a  bastide  created  in  1255  and 
afterwards  a  centre  of  Protestantism,  which  is  still  strong  there. 
La  Teste  (pop.  in  1906, 5699)  was  the  capital  in  the  mid^e  ages 
of  the  famous  lords  of  Buch. 

6IBOMDIST8  (Fr.  Cirondins),  the  name  given  to  a  political 
party  ia  the  Lc^gislative  Assembly  and  National  Convention 
duiiag  the  French  Revolution  (1791-1793).  The  Girondists 
were,  indeed,  rather  a  group  of  individuals  holding  certain 
opinioos  and  principles  in  common  than  an  organized  political 
party,  and  the  name  was  at  first  somewhat  loosely  applied  to 
them  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  most  brilliant  exponents  of  their 
point  of  view  were  deputies  from  the  Gironde.  These  deputies 
re/e  twelve  in  pumber,  six  of  whom — the  lawyers  Vergniaud, 

■xn.a 


Guadet,  Gensonne,  Grangeneuve  and  Jay,  and  the  tradesman 
Jean  Francois  Ducos— sat  both  in  the  Legislative  Assembly 
and  the  National  Convention.  In  the  LegisUtive  Assembly  these 
represented  a  compact  body  of  opinion  which,  though  not  as  yet 
definitely  republican,  -was  considerably  more  advanced  than  the 
moderate  royalism  of  the  majority  of  the  Parisian  deputies. 
Associated  with  these  views  was  a  group  of  deputies  from  other 
parts  of  France,  of  whom  the  most  notable  were  (^ndorcet, 
Fauchet,  Lasouroe,  Isnard,  Kevsaint,  Henri  Larividre,  and, 
above  all,  Jacques  Pierre  Brissot,  Roland  and  Potion,  elected 
mayor  of  Paris  in  succession  to  Bailly  on  the  x6th  of  November 
1 791.  On  the  spirit  and  policy  of  the  Girondists  Madame  Roland, 
whose  salon  became  their  gathering-place,  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  (see  Rolamd);  but  such  party  cohesion  as  they 
possessed  they  owed  to  the  energy  of  Brissot  (q.v.),  who  came 
to  be  regarded  as  their  mouthpiece  in  the  Assembly  and  the 
Jacobin  Club.  Hence  the  name  BrissoHns^  coined  by  Camille 
Desmoulins,  which  was  sometimes  substituted  for  that  of 
Cirondins,  sometimes  closely  coupled  with  it.  As  strictly  party 
designations  these  first  came  into  use  after  the  assembling  .of  the 
National  Convention  (September  3oth,  1792),  to  which  a  large 
proportion  of  the  deputies  from  the  Gironde  who  had  sat  in  the 
Legislative  Assembly  were  retumed.  Both  were  used  as  terms 
of  opprobrium  by  the  orators  of  the  Jacobin  Club,  who  freely 
denounced  "  the  RoyalisU,  the  FederalisU,  the  Brissotins,  the 
Girondins  and  all  the  enemies  of  the  democracy  "  (F..  Aulard, 
Soc.  des  JacobinSf  vi.  531). 

In  the  LegisUtive  Assembly  the  Girondists' represented  the 
principle  of  democratic  revolution  within  and  of  patriotic 
defiance  to  the  European  powers  without.  They  were  all- 
powerful  in  the  Jacobin  Qub  (see  Jacobins),  where  Brissotli 
influence  had  not  yet  been  ousted  by  Robespierre,  and  th^ 
did  not  hesitate  to  use  this  advantage  to  stir  up  popular  passion 
and  intimidate  those  who  sought  to  stay  the  progress  of  the 
Revolution.  They  compelled  the  king  in  1 79a  to  choose  a  ministry 
composed  of  their  partisans — among  them  Roland,  Dumouriez, 
Clavidrc  and  Servan;  and  it  was  they  who  forced  the  declaration 
of  war  against  Austria.  In  all  this  there  was  no  apparent 
line  of  cleavage  between  "  La  Gironde  "  and  the  Mountain. 
Montagnards  and  Girondists  alike  were  fundamentally  opposed 
to  the  monarchy;  both  were  democrats  as  well  as  republicans; 
both  were  prepared  to  app«d  to  force  in  order  to  rmlize  their 
ideals;  in  spite  of  the  accusation  of  "  federalism  "  freely  brought 
against  them,  the  Girondists  desired  as  little  as  the  Montagnards 
to  break*  up  the  unity  of  France.  Yet  from  the  first  the  leaders 
of  the  two  parties  stood  in  avowed  opposition,  in  the  J|MX>bin 
Qub  as  in  the  Assembly.  It  was  largdy  a  question  of  tempera- 
ment. The  Girondists  were  idealists,  doctrinaires  and  theorists 
rather  than  men  of  action;  th^  encouraged,  it  is  true,  the 
"  armed  petitions "  which  resulted,  to  their  dismay,  in  the 
imeuU  of  the  20th  of  June;  but  Rohind,  turning  the  ministry  of 
the  interior  into  a  publishing  office  for  tracts  on  the  civic  virtues, 
while  in  the  provinces  riotous  mobs  were  burning  the  chiteaux 
unchecked,  is  more  typical  of  their  spirit.  With  the  ferocious 
fanaticism  or  the  ruthless  opportunism  of  the  future  organizers 
of  the  Terror  they  had  nothing  in  common.  As  the  Revolution 
developed  they  trembled  at  the  anarchic  forces  they  had  helped 
to  unchain,  and  tried  in  vain  to  curb  them.  The  overthrow 
of  the  monarchy  on  the  loth  of  August  and  the  massacres  of 
September  were  not  their  work,  though  they  claimed  credit 
for  the  results  achieved. 

The  crisis  of  their  fate  was  not  slow  in  coming.  It  was  they 
who  proposed  the  suspension  of  the  king  and  the  summoning 
of  the  National  Convention;  but  they  had  only  consented  to 
overthrow  the  kingship  when  they  found  that  Louis  XVI.  was 
impervious  to  their  counsels,  and,  the  republic  once  established, 
they  were  anxious  to  arrest  the  revolutionary  movement  which 
they  had  helped  to  set  in  motion.  As  Daunou  shrewdly  observes 
in  bis  Mimoires,  they  were  too  cultivated  and  too  polished  to 
retain  their  popularity  long  in  times  of  disturbance,  and  were 
therefore  the  more  inclined  to  work  for  the  establishment 
of  order,  which* would  mean  the  guarantee  of  their  ov 

lA 


5° 


GIRONDISTS 


power.'  Thus  the  Girondists,  who  had  bttn  the  Radicals  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  became  the  Conservatives  of  the  Conven- 
tion. But  they  were  soon  to  have  practical  experience  of  the  fate 
that  overtakes  those  who  attempt  to  arrest  in  mid-career  a  revolu- 
tion they  themselves  have  set  in  motion.  The  ignorant  populace, 
for  whom  the  promised  social  millennium  had  by  no  means 
dawned,  saw  in  an  attitude  seemingly  so  inconsistent  obvious 
proof  of  corrupt  motives,  and  there  were  plenty  of  prophets 
of  misrule  to  encourage  the  delusion — orators  of  the  clubs  and 
the  street  corners,  for  whom  the  restoration  of  order  would  have 
meant  well-deserved  obscurity.  Moreover,  the  Sepietnbriseurs — 
Robespierre,  Danton,  Marat  and  their  lesser  satellites — realized 
that  not  only  their  influence  but  their  safety  depended  on  keeping 
the  Revolution  alive.  Robespierre,  who  hated  the  Girondists, 
whose  lustre  had  so  long  obscured  his  own,  had  proposed  to 
include  them  in  the  proscription  lists  of  September;  the  Mountain 
to  a  man  desired  their  overthrow. 

The  crisis  came  in  March  1795.  The  Girondists,  who  had 
a  majority  in  the  Convention,  controlled  the  executive  council 
and  filled  the  ministry,  believed  themselves  invincible.  Their 
orators  had  no  serious  rivals  in  the  hostile  camp;  their  system 
was  established  in  the  purest  reason.  But  the  Montagnards 
made  up  by  their  fanatical,  or  desperate,  energy  and  boldness 
for  what  they  lacked  in  talent  or  in  numbers.  They  had  behind 
them  the  revolutionary  Commune,  the  Sections  and  the  National 
Guard  of  Paris,  and  they  had  gained  control  of  the  Jacobin  club, 
where  Brissot,  absorbed  in  departmental  work,  hald  been  super- 
seded by  Robespierre.  And  as  the  motive  power  of  this  formid- 
able mechanism  of  force  they  could  rely  on  the  native  suspicious* 
ness  of  the  Parisian  populace,  exaggerated  now  into  madness  by 
famine  and  the  menace  of  foreign  invasion.  The  Girondists 
played  into  their  hands.  At  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI.  the  bulk 
of  them  had  voted  for  the  "  appeal  to  the  people,"  and  so  laid 
themselves  open  to  the  charge  of  "  royalism  ";  they  denounced 
the  domination  of  Paris  and  summoned  provincial  levies  to  their 
aid,  and  so  fell  under  suspicion  of  "federalism,"  though  they 
rejected  Buzot's  pro()Osal  to  transfer  the  Convention  to  Versailles. 
They  strengthened  the  revolutionary  Commune  by  decreeing 
its  abolition,  and  then  withdrawing  the  decree  at  the  first  sign 
of  popular  opposition;  they  increased  the  prestige  of  Marat  by 
prosecuting  him  before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  where  his 
acquittal  was  a  foregone  conclusion.  In  the  suspicious  temper 
of  the  times  this  vacillating  policy  was  doubly  fatal.  Marat 
never  ceased  his  denunciations  of  the  "faction  des  kommes 
d^&UU"  by  which  France  was  being  betrayed  to  her  ruin,  and 
his  parrot  cry  of  "Nous  sommes  Irakis t"  was  re-echoed  from 
group  to  group  in  the  streets  of  Paris.  The  Girondists,  for 
all  their  fine  phrases,  were  sold  to  the  enemy,  as  Lafayette, 
Dumouriez  and  a  hundred  others — once  popular  favourites — 
had  been  sold. 

The  hostility  of  Paris  to  the  Girondists  received  a  fateful 
advertisement  by  the  election,  on  the  X5th  of  February  1793, 
of  the  ex-Girondist  Jean  Nicolas  Pache  (i 746-1823)  to  the 
mayoralty.'  Pache  had  twice  been  minister  of  war  in  the 
Girondist  government;  but  his  incompetence  had  laid  him  open 
to  strong  criticism,  and  on  the  4th  of  February  he  had  been 
superseded  by  a  vote  of  the  Convention.  This  was  enough  to 
secure  him  the  suffrages  of  the  Paris  electors  ten  days  later, 
and  the  Mountain  was  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  an  ally 
whose  one  idea  was  to  use  his  new  power  to  revenge  himself 
on  his  former  colleagues.  Pache,  with  Chaumette,  procureur  of 
the  Commune,  and  Hubert,  deputy  procureur^  controlled  the 
armed  organization  of  the  Paris  Sections,  and  prepared  to 
turn  this  against  the  Convention.  The  abortive  tmeuU  of  the 
loth  of  March  warned  the  Girondists  of  their  danger,  but  the 
Commiuion  of  Twelve  appointed  on  the  i8th  of  May,  the  arrest 
of  Marat  and  Hubert,  and  other  precautionary  measures,. were 
defeated  by  the  popular  risings  of  the  27th  and  31st  of  May, 
and,  finally,  on  the  and  of  June,  Hanriot  with  the  National 

*  Daunou,  "  Mdmoires  pour  aervir  k  I'hist.  de  la  Convention 
Nationale,"  p.  409,  vol.  xii.  of  M.  Fr.  Barriire,  Bihi.  des  mim.  rel  d 
Vkist.  de  la  France,  &c.  (Paris,  1863).  ^ 


Guards  purged  the  Convention  of  the  Girondists.  Isnard's 
threat,  uttered  on  the  asth  of  May,  to  march  France  upon  Paris 
had  been  met  by  Paris  marching  upon  the  Convention. 

The  list  drawn  up  by  Hanriot,  and  endorsed  by  a  decree 
of  the  intimidated  Convention,  included  twenty-two  Girondist 
deputies  and  ten  members  of  the  Commission  of  Twelve,  who 
were  ordered  to  be  detained  at  their  lodgings  "  under  the  safe- 
guard of  the  people."  Some  submitted,  among  them  Gensonn^, 
Guadet,  Vergniaud,  Potion,  Birotteau  and  Boyer-Fonfrede. 
Others,  including  Brissot,  Louvet,  Buzot,  Lasource,  Grangeneuve, 
Lariyidre  and  Bergoing,  escaped  from  Paris  and,  joined  later 
by  Guadet,  Potion  and  Birotteau,  set  to  work  to  organize  a 
movement  of  the  provinces  against  the  capital.  This  attempt 
to  stir  up  civil  war  determined  the  wavering  and  frightened 
Convention.  On  the  13th  of  June  it  voted  that  the  city  of 
Paris  had  deserved  well  of  the  country,  and  ordered  the  imprison- 
ment of  the  detained  deputies,  the  filling  up  of  their  places  in 
the  Assembly  by  their  suppliants,  and  the  initiation  of  vigorous 
measures  against  the  movement  in  the  provinces.  The  excuse 
for  the  Terror  that  followed  was  the  imminent  peril  of  France, 
menaced  on  the  east  by  the  advance  of  the  armies  of  the  Coalition, 
on  the  west  by  the  Royalist  insurrection  of  La  Vendue,  and  the 
need  for  preventing  at  all  costs  the  outbreak  of  another  civil 
war.  The  assassination  of  Marat  by  Charlotte  Corday  (9.V.) 
only  served  to  increase  the  unpopularity  of  the  Girondists 
and  to  seal  their  fate.  On  the  28th  of  July  a  decree  of  'the 
Convention  proscribed,  as  traitors  and  enemies  of  their  country, 
twenty-one  deputies,  the  final  list  of  those  sent  for  trial  comprising 
■the  names  of  Antiboul,  Boilleau  the  younger,  Boyer-Fonfr^de, 
Brissot,  Carra,  Duchastel,  the  younger  Ducos,  Dufriche  de 
Valaz^,  Duprat,  Fauchet,  Gardien,  Gensonni,  Lacaze,  Lasource, 
Lauze-Dcperret,  Lehardi,  Lesterpt-Beauvais,  the  elder  Minvielle, 
Sillery,  Vergniaud  and  Vigcr,  of  whom  five  were  deputies  from 
the  Gironde.  The  names  of  thirty-nine  others  were  included  in 
the  final  actc  d'accusation,  accepted  by  the  Convention  on  the 
34th  of  October,  which  stated  the  crimes  for  which  they  were 
to  be  tried  as  their  perfidious  ambition,  their  hatred  of  Paris, 
their  "  federalism  "  and,  above  all,  their  responsibih'ly  for  the 
attempt  of  their  escaped  colleagues  to  provoke  civil  war. 

Tlie  trial  of  the  twenty-one,  which  began  before  the  Revolu- 
tionary  Tribunal  on  the  24th  of  October,  was  a  mere  farce,  the 
verdict  a  foregone  conclusion.  On  the  31st  they  were  borne 
to  the  guillotine  in  five  tumbrils,  the  corpse  of  Dufriche  de 
Valaz£ — who  bad  killed  himself — being  carried  with  them. 
They  met  death  with  great  courage,  singing  the  refrain  "  PlutM 
la  mart  que  Vesclavagel "  Of  those  who  escaped  to  the  provinces 
the  greater  number,  after  wandering  about  singly  or  in  groups, 
were  either  captured  and  executed  or  committed  suicide,  among 
them  Barbarpux,  Buzot,  Condorcet,  Grangeneuve,  Guadet, 
Kersaint,  Potion,  Rabaut  de  Saint-£tienne  and  Rebecqui. 
Roland  had  killed  himself  at  Rouen  on  the  15th  of  November, 
a  week  after  the  execution  of  his  wife.  Among  the  very  few 
who  finally  escaped  was  Jean  Baptiste  Louvet,  whose  Mimoires 
give  a  thrilling  picture  of  the  sufferings  of  the  fugitives.  In- 
cidentally they  prove,  too,  that  the  sentiment  of  France  was 
for  the  time  against  the  Girondists,  who  were  proscribed  even 
in  their  chief  centre,  the  dty  of  Bordeaux.  The  survivors  of 
the  party  made  an  effort  to  re-enter  the  Convention  after  the 
fall  of  Robespierre,  but  it  was  not  until  the  5th  of  March  1795 
that  they  were  formally  reinstated.  On  the  3rd  of  October 
of  the  same  year  (11  Vend^miaire,  year  III.)  a  solemn  (Hi  in 
honour  of  the  Girondist  "  martyrs  of  liberty  "  was  celebrated 
in  the  Convention.    See  also  the  article  Fkemch  Revolutxon 

and  separate  biographies. 

Of  tne  special  works  on  the  Girondists  Lamartinc*8  Hisloire  des 
Girondins  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1847,  new  ed.  1902,  in  6  vols.)  is  rhetoric 
rather  than  history  and  is  untrustworthy ;  the  Histoire  des  drondins, 
bv  A.  Gramicr  dc  Cassagnac  (Paris,  i860)  led  to  the  publicaton  of  a 
Protestation  by  J.  Guadet,  a  nephew  of  the  Girondist  orator,  which 
was  followed  by  his  Les  Cirondins,  lew  vie  privie,  lew  vie  fmUique, 
lew  proscription  et  leur  mort  (3  vols.,  Paris,  t86l,  new  ed.  1896); 
with  which  cf.  Alary,  Les  Cirondins  par  Guadet  (Bordeaux,  1863); 
also  Charles  Vatel,  Charlotte  de  Corday  et  les  Girondins:  piices 
classies  et  annoties  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1 864-1 873) ;  JUckerches  historiptes 


GIRTIN— GISBORNE 


51 


swr  Us  Cinmdins  (3  volt.,  ib.  1873) ;  Duco*.  Les  Trots  Cirondines 
(Madame  Roland,  Charlotte  Coroay,  Madame  Bouquey)  et  Us 
Cirondins  {ib.  1896) ;  Edmond  Bir6,  La  Ligende  its  Girondins  (Parb, 
1 88 1,  new  ed.  1896):  alto -Helen  Maria  Williamt,  State  of  Manners 
cad  Opinions,  in  the  French  Republic  towards  the  close  of  the  18th 
Century  (2  volt.,  London,  1801).  Memoita  or  fr^roents  01  memoirs 
abo  exist  by  particular  Girondittt,  e.g.  Barbaroux,  P6tion,  Louvet. 
Madame  Roland.  Scet  furtheri  the  bibliography  to  the  article 
Fe£9ich  Revolution.  (W.  A.  P.) 

OIRTI]f,*TH0HA8  (z775-x8o2)y  EngUsh  painter  and  etcher, 
was  the  son  of  a  well-to-do  cordage  maker  in  Southwark,  London. 
His  father  died  while  Thomas  was  a  child,  and  his  widow  married 
Mr  Vaughan,  a  pattern-draughtsman.  Girtin  learnt  drawing 
as  a  boy,  and  was  apprenticed  to  Edward  Doyes  (1763-1804), 
the  mezaolint  engraver,  and  he  soon  made  J.  M.  W.  Turner's 
acquaintance.  His  architectural  and  topographical  sketches 
and  drawings  soon  established  his  reputation,  his  use  of  water- 
colour  for  landscapes  being  such  as  to  give  him  the  credit  of 
having  created  modem  water-colour  painting,  as  opposed  to 
mere  *'  tinting."  His  etchings  also  were  characteristic  of  his 
artistic  genius.  His  early  death  from  consumption  (9th  of 
November  1802)  led  indeed  to  Turner  saying  that  "  had  Tom 
Girtin  lived  I  should  have  starved."  From  1794  to  his  death 
he  was  an  exhibitor  at  the  Royal  Academy;  and  some  fine 
examples  of  his  work  have  been  bequeathed  by  private  owners 
to  the  British  Museum  and  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum. 

OIRVAN,  a  police  burgh,  market  and  fishing  town  of  Ayrshire, 
Scotland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Girvan,  21  m.  S.W.  of  Ayr,  and 
63  m.  S.W.  of  Glasgow  by  the  Glasgow  &  South-Westem  railway. 
Pop.  (1901)  4024.  The  principal  industry  was  weaving,  but  the 
substitution  of  the  power-loom  for  the  hand-loom  nearly  put 
an  end  to  it.  The  herring  fishery  has  developed  to  considerable 
proportions,  the  harbour  having  been  enlarged  and  protected 
by  piers  and  a  breakwater.  Moreover,  the  town  has  grown  in 
repute  as  a  health  and  holiday  resort,  its  situation  being  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  west  of  Scotland.  There  is  excellent  sea- 
bathing, and  a  good  golf-course.  The  vale  of  Girvan,  one  of 
the  most  fertile  tracts  in  the  shire,  is  made  so  by  the  Water  of 
Girvan,  which  rises  in  the  loch  of  Girvan  Eye,  pursues  a  very 
tortuous  course  of  36  m.  and  empties  into  the  sea.  Girvan  is 
the  point  of  communication  with  Ailsa  Craig.  About  13  m. 
SJVi.  at  the  mouth  of  the  Stincbar  is  the  fishing  village  of 
Ballantrae  (pop.  5x1). 

QIKT  (Jean  Makie  Joseph),  ARTHUR  (1848-1899),  French 
historian,  was  bom  at  Trcvoux  (Ain)  on  the  29th  of  February 
1848.  After  rapidly  completing  his  classical  studies  at  the  lycie 
at  Chartres,  he  spent  some  time  in  the  administrative  service 
and  IB  journalism.  He  then  entered  the  £cole  des  Qiartes, 
wfaere^  under  the  influence  of  J.  Quicherat,  he  developed  a  strong 
inclination  to  the  study  of  the  middle  ages.  The  lectures  at  the 
Ccole  des  Hautes  £tudcs,  which  he  attended  from  its  foundation 
in  1 868,  revealed  his  tme  bent;  and  hcncefo/th  he  devoted 
himself  almost  entirely  to  scholarship.  He  began  modestly  by 
the  study  of  the  municipal  charters  of  St  Omer.  Having  been 
appointed  assistant  leaurer  and  afterwards  full  lecturer  at  the 
Ecole  des  Hautes  £tudcs,  it  was  to  the  town  of  St  Omer  that  he 
devoted  his  first  lectures  and  his  first  important  work,  Histoxre 
ie  la  vilU  de  Saint-Omer  et  de  ses  institutums  jusgu'au  XI V* 
stick  (1877).  He,  however,  soon  realized  that  the  charters  of 
one  town  can  only  be  understood  by  comparing  them  with  those 
cf  other  towns,  and  he  was  graduailly  led  to  continue  the  work 
which  Augnstin  Thierry  had  broadly  outlined  in  his  studies  on 
the  Tien  £tat.  A  minute  knowledge  of  printed  books  and  a 
methodical  examination  of  departmental  and  communal  archives 
furnished  him  with  material  for  a  long  course  of  successful 
lectures,  which  gave  rise  to  some  important  works  on  munidpal 
history  and  led  to  a  great  revival  of  interest  in  the  origins  and 
sii^ificance  of  the  urban  communities  in  France.  Giry  himself 
published  Les  £iablissementsde  Rouen  (iSSs-iSSs),  a  study,  based 
on  very  minute  researriies,  of  the  charter  granted  to  the  capital 
of  Normandy  by  Henry  II.,  king  of  England,  and  of  the  diffusion 
of  similar  charters  throughout  the  French  dominions  of  the 
ntBta|ai«ts;  a  Qollcction  of  Documents  sht  k9  r^ations  dc  1 


ia  royauti  aoec  Us  viUes  de  Prance  de  1280  A  IJ14  (1885);  and 
£tude  sur  les  origines  de  la  commune  de  Saint-Queniin  (1887). 

About  this  time  personal  considerations  induced  Giry  to 
devote  the  greater  part  of  his  activity  to  the  study  of  dipfomatic, 
which  had  been  much  neglected  at  the  £cole  des  Chartes,  but 
had  made  great  strides  in  Germany.  As  assistant  (1683)  and 
successor  (1885)  to  Louis  de  Mas  Latrie,  Giry  restored  the  study 
of  diplomatic,  which  had  been  founded  in  France  by  Dom  Jean 
Mabillon,  to  its  legitimate  importance.  In  1894  he  published 
his  Manuel  de  diplomatique^  a  monument  of  lucid  and  well- 
arranged  erudition,  wliich  contained  the  fruits  of  his  long 
experience  of  archives,  original  documents  and  textual  criticism; 
and  his  pupils,  especially  those  at  the  £cole  des  Hautes  Etudes, 
soon  caught  hk  enthusiasm.  With  their  collaboration  he  under- 
took the  preparation  of  an  inventory  and,  subsequently,  of  a 
critical  edition  of  the  Carolingian  diplomas.  By  arrangement 
with  E.  Milhlbacher  and  the  editors  of  the  Monumenta  Gtrmaniae 
historica,  this  part  of  the  joint  work  was  reserved  for  Giry. 
Simultaneously  with  this  work  he  carried  on  the  publication 
of  the  annals  of  the  Carolingian  epoch  on  the  model  of  the  German 
JakrbUcher,  reserving  for  himself  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald. 
Of  this  series  his  pupils  produced  in  his  lifetime  Les  Demiers 
Carolingiens  (by  F.  Lot,  1891),  Eudes,  comte  de  Paris  et  roi  de 
France  (by  E.  Favre,  1893),  and  CharUs  U  SimpU  (by  Eckel, 
1899).  The  biographies  of  Louis  IV.  and  Hugh  Capet  and  the 
history  of  the  kingdom  of  Provence  were  not  published  until 
after  his  death,  and  his  own  unfinished  history  of  Charles  the 
Bald  was  left  to  be  completed  by  his  pupils.  The  preliminary 
work  on  the  Carolingian  diplomas  involved  such  lengthy  and 
costly  researches  that  the  Acad^mie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles- 
Lettres  took  over  the  expenses  after  Giry's  death. 

In  the  midst  of  these  multifarious  labours  Giry  found  time 
for  extensive  archaeological  researches,  and  made  a  special 
study  of  the  medieval  treatise^  dealing  with  the  technical 
processes  employed  in  the  arts  and  industries.  He  prepared 
a  new  edition  of  the  monk  Theophilus's  celebrated  treatise, 
Diversarum  artium  schedula,  and  for  several  years  devoted  his 
Saturday  mornings  to  laboratory  research  with  the  chemist 
Aim£  Girard  at  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  M6tiers,  the  results 
of  which  were  utilized  by  Marcellin  Bcrthelot  in  the  first  volume 
(1894)  of  his  Chimic  au  moyen  dgc.  Giry  took  an  energetic  part  in 
the  ColUction  de  Uxtes  rdatijs  A  Vhisloire  du  moyen  dge,  which 
was  due  in  great  measure  to  his  initiative.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  the  section  of  French  history  in  La  Grande  Encydo' 
pidie,  and  contributed  more  than  a  hundred  articles,  many  of 
which,  e.g.  "  Archives  "  and  "  Diplomatique,"  were  original 
works.  In  collaboration  with  his  pupil  Andr6  R£ville,  he  wrote 
the  chapters  on  "  L'Emancipation  des  villes,  les  communes  et  les 
bourgeoisies  "  and  "  Le  Commerce  et  rindustric  au  moyen  &gc  " 
for  the  HisUnre  gtnirale  of  Lavisse  and  Rambaud.  Giry  took 
a  keen  interest  in  politics,  joining  the  republican  party  and 
writing  numerous  articles  in  the  republican  newspapers,  mainly 
on  historical  subjects.  He  was  intensely  interested  in  the  Dreyfus 
case,  but  his  robust  constitution  was  undermined  by  the  anxieties, 
and  disappointments  occasioned  by  the  Zola  trial  and  the  Rcnncs 
court-martial,  and  he  died  in  Paris  on  the  13th  of  November  1899. 

For  details  of  Giry's  life  and  works  sec  the  funeral  orations  pub- 
lished in  the  Bibliotnhque  de  Vl^ole  des  Chartes,  and  afterwards  in  a 
pamphlet  (1899).  Sec  also  the  biography  by  Ferdinand  Lot  in  the 
A  nnuaire  de  V Ecole  des  Hautes  J^udes  for  1901 ;  and  the  bibliography 
of  his  works  by  Henry  Maistre  in  the  Correspondance  historiq^ue  et 
archiologique  (1899  and  1900)^ 

GISBORNE,  a  seaport  of  New  Zealand,  in  Cook  county, 
provincial  district  of  Auckland,  on  Poverty  Bay  of  the  east 
coast  of  North  Island.  Pop.  (1901)  2733;  (1906)5664.  Wool, 
frozen  mutton  and  agricultural  produce  are  exported  from  the 
rich  district  surrounding.  Petroleum  has  been  discovered  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  about  40  m.  from  the  town  there  are 
warm  medicinal  springs.  Near  the  site  of  Gisboroe  Captain 
Cook  landed  in  1769,  and  gave  Poverty  Bay  its  name  from  his 
inability  to  obtain  supplies  owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  natives. 
Young  Nick's  Head,  the  southern  hom  of  the  bay,  was  named 
from  Nicholas  Young,  his  ship's  boy,  who  first  observed  it. 


GISLEBERT— GIULIO  ROMANO 


IT  (or  Ciumt)  OP  KOm  (c.  ii5»-i»5},  Flmith 

cbnMikler,  becune  A  derit,BDd  obiuned  ihe  poftitiona  of  provost 
of  ibe  churcbaU  Si  Gcrmuiu  aL  Modi  and  Sl  Alban  at  Nunur, 
in  iddltioD  to  icvenl  other  ccclciiuticml  i^^Lnlments.  la 
officui  docuEDcnli  he  b  deKtibed  u  duphuD^  chinceUor  or 
DDtu7,oF  Bildwin  V.,  coimiol  Hiiiiiut  (d.  ii«5),  oho  employed 
him  on  itoponinl  biuinoL  Alter  ikxi  Giilebert  wiolt  tbe 
Clnviikini  HaiuHiciui.  i  hiitoiy  of  Hiiuut  and  tbe  befgbbDuring 
-  Undi  from  «boat  1050  to  tigs,  which  ia  ipecioUy  viJuibie-  for 
tbe  Ulter  ptft  of  tbe  iiih  ceaiiuy,  md  for  the  life  ud  tima  ol 
BildwinV. 


ra  O^iov^ri 


See  W.  MiW,  Oai — — 

aBftiniitmidMfUlttt  QuIU  (Ktaigtben,  IBSS);  K.  Huyniu. 
S*r  fa  hIw  tfifongxr  3c  h  'Irairifu  CuMf"  ir  M<mi  (GfienI, 
IW9k  ind  W.  WiIICRbach,  I>(iiUcWaiNli  CfiiAuAligurf/cii.  Bud  iL 
[Etriin,  lUMJ. 

aUOBl.  t  town  of  Fniia,  to  tbe  deput  menl  of  Eure,  (itiuted 
in  the  piciuni  viUey  of  (he  Epie,  44  n.  N.W.  of  Pirii  on  the 
nJlmy  to  Di.ppe.  Pop.  (1906)  434S-  Giaon  is  dominated  by 
a  feudal  »tronfhold  built  chiefly  by  the  kingi  of  England  in  the 


tbis  ipice  [itet  an  oMcr  donjon, 


Theov 


,d  Ihe: 


St  Gerviii  dsie>  in  its  oldeit  pani— the  central  lower,  the  choir 
tnd  parts  of  the  liales— fiom  the  middle  of  tbe  ijth  century, 
when  ii  wai  founded  by  Blanche  of  Castile.  Tbe  rest  of  Ihe 
church  belongs  to  the  Renaissance  pciinl.  The  Gothic  and 
Renaissance  ilylei  mingle  in  Ihe  weM  laciile,  *hicli,  Uke  the 
inlerior  ol  Ihe  building,  i>  adorned  with  1  ptoFution  of  sculptures; 
Ihe  fine  carving  on  the  vooden  doon  of  the  nonh  and  west 
portals  is  particuhrly  noticeable.  The  less  imeresiing  buildings 
of  the  town  include  a  wooden  house  of  the  Renaissance  era, 

Diodecn  boapiul.  There  is  a  statue  of  General  de  Blanmont, 
bom  »t  Gison  in  1770.  Among  the  industries  of  Cisora  are 
fell  DUDuFacture.  bleaching,  dyeing  and  teather-diesiing. 

Id  the  middle  ages  Gison  was  copllal  of  the  Venn.  Its 
position  on  Ihe  frontier  ol  Normandy  caused  its  possession  lo 
be  holly  contested  by  the  kings  of  England       '  " 


nib  o 


end  of  whicb 


>i  Neaufles  und  Dingu  w 
de  Lion  lo  Philip  Augustus.  Durin 
tOth  cenlury  il  was  occupied  by  Ihe 
of  tbe  League,  and  in  the  ijlh  cent 
tbe  duke  of  Longueville.     Cisors  wi 


d  the  < 
e  ceded  by  Rich 


Mayenne  on  behalf 
ing  the  Fronde,  by 
:o  Chvles  Auguste 


n  1J4J. 


nt  ol  Eu  I 


dthed 


'enthijv 


Olhel 


aiSSIHO,  OEOHOE  ROBERT  (1BS7-190]),  English  novelisl, 
was  bom  *I  Wakefield  on  Ihe  jind  of  November  1857.  He  was 
educaled  el  the  Quaker  boarding-school  of  Alderley  Edge  and 
al  Owens  College.  Manchester.  His  life,  eipccially  ila  earlier 
period,  was  spent  in  great  poverty,  mainly  in  London,  though 
he  was  for  a  time  alio  in  the  United  States,  supporting  him- 
•elF  chiefly  by  private  teaching.  He  published  his  SrsI  novel, 
Weittri  in  Uit  Daan.  in  iSSo.  Thi  Undasied  (1B84)  and  Isabtl 
Clartuden  It«S6)  Followed.  Dtmos  (iSM),  a  novel  dealing  with 
■ocialislic  ideas,  was,  however,  Ihe  lirsl  10  attract  itlenlion.  Il 
was  followed  by  a  series  ol  novels  remarkable  for  their  pictures 
tii  lower  middle  class  life.  Gissing's  own  eiperiencea  had  pre- 
occupied him  with  poverty 


He  I 


II  populi 


ng,  and  lor 
1  only  by.  1 


lime  the  sincerily  of  his  work  was 

public.    Among  his  more  characteristic  novels  were: 

(iSa?),  A  U/t'l  Magmt  (18&S],  Tki  NOlia  World  {iSl 


niled 


Gruh SIrid  (1S91).  Bm  in  Bzik  (1891),  Tki Odd  WnmaiUiiu), 
iH  Uu  Viar  tf  Jubila  (1S94),  »•  WUrlUtt  (1897).  Olben, 
<.f.  Tke  Tnm  TratdUr  (1901),  indicaie  a  humorou  bculty, 
but  the  prevailing  note  of  his  novels  is  that  of  the  struflcliQC 
Ufa-  of  the  shabby-genteel  and  lower  dassea  and  tbe  conflict 
between  education  and  drcumstancei.  The  quaai-autoblo.- 
gnphicol  Priialt  Fapiri.cf  Henry  Rytcrtft  (190})  reflect* 
throughout  Gissing't  studious  and  retiring  Itstea.  He  was  a 
good  classical  scholu  and  had  a  minute  acquainunce  with  llie 
late  Latin  historians,  and  with  Italian  aniiquilies;  and  bia 
poalhumous  feraMlda  (11)04),  a  historical  romance  of  Italy  in 
tbe  time  of  Theodoiic  Ihe  Goth,  was  the  outcome  of  his  favourite 

Bdmjrable  study  on  Charles  Dickens  (iSoS).  A  book  of  travel. 
By  Me  /onton  5ia,  anwared  in  itioi.  He  died  at  St  Jean  im 
Lui  in  Ihe  Pyrenees  on  the  iStb  of  December  igcj. 

See  alto  the  inlrsductoty  esny  by  T.  Secnnabe  10  Tin  Rout  tj 
CabMbi  (i»o6),  a  poUhuiDOui  votuiue  j(  Giuiiig'i  ihoR  iiarieh 

OITSCHIH  [Czech  JiiiH),  a  town  of  Bohemia,  Austilt,  6s  m. 
N.E.  of  Prague  by  rail  Pop.  (igoo)  9790,  mostly  Cxech.  The 
parish  church  was  begun  by  Wallenstdn  after  the  model  of 
the  pilgrims*  church  ^  Santiago  de  Compostela  in  Spain,  but 

~  It  lo  Che 

i.    Itwaa 

treaty  of 

eh  he  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Allies  agaiutl  Napoleon. 

was  intened  at  the  neighbouring  CanhuuaatDon- 

in  1&30  Ihe  head  and  right  hand  were  taken  by 


■d  till  .6ss. 
built  by  Wallenst 


»ac,  w 

in  end  finished  in 


:o[Zi 


It  MUnchcngrili.    Citschin 


raised  lo  the  dignity  of  a  town  by  Wenceslaus  II.  in  1  joi.  The 
place  belonged  to  various  Doble  Bohemian  families,  and  In  the 
ijib  cenlury  cune  into  the  hands  ol  WaUensieiD,  who  made  it 
the  capital  of  ihe  duchy  of  Fricdiand  and  did  much  lo  improve 
and  extend  it.  His  murder,  and  the  miseries  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  brought  il  very  low;  and  il  passed  through  seveni] 
bands  belore  it  was  bou^t  by  Prince  Traullmaniiadorl,  to 
whose  family  it  still  belongi.  On  tbe  99th  of  June  iBM  the 
Prussiais  gained  here  a  great  victory  over  the  Austrians.   This 

Prussian  army  corps,  tnd  bad  as  an  ultimate  result  the  Austrian 
defeat  at  KaniggrttE. 

□IDDICl,  PAOLO  BMlUAItO  (>Si>-iS7>),  Italian  writer, 
was  bom  in  Sicily.  His  Hitltry  oj  lialian  Liltralm  (1S44) 
brougbl  bim  to  Ihe  front,  and  in  (£48  he  became  professor  of 
lulian  Itlerttuie  it  Pisa,  but  after  a  few  months  was  deprived 
of  the  chair  on  account  of  his  liberal  vicwa  in  politics.  On  the 
re-establishment  of  Ihe  Italian  kingdom  he  became  prolessoi  of 
ligning  li^i)  and  secrelary  of  the  Academ 


le  Arts  at  Florenci 


He  held  a  proi 


1  1S67  w 


itplac 


:o  the  c 


rs  (iS&o),  and  Slaria 


died  at  Tonbridge  in  England,  on  Ihe  gth  of 
lift  appeared  al  Floreace  la  1S74. 
inUO  ROXAIta  or  Gmuo  Pipn  (e.  1491-1S46),  tbe  head 
he  Roman  icbool  of  painting  in  succession  to  Raphael. 
This  prolific  painter,  modeller,  architect  and  engineer  receives 
his  common  appellalioti  from  the  place  of  his  birtb — Rome, 
in  the  MaccUo  de'  CotU.  Hil  name  In  fuU  wu  Giulia  di  Pieiro 
de  Filippo  de'  Giannuid— Giannuiii  being  the  true  family  name, 
ind  Pippi  (which  has  practically  superseded  Giannuzii)  being 
in  abbreviation  from  the  name  of  his  grandfather  Filippo. 
The  date  of  Ciulio'i  birth  Is  ■  Utile  unceriaiD,  Vssatl  (wbo 
personally)  speaks  ol  bim  as  Sliy-fout  yevs  old  at 
the  dale  of  bis  death,  ist  November  tS4A;  thus  be  would  have 
assign  1498  as  th?  dale  ol 


irth. 


id  make  Ciulio  young  indeed  in  the  et 
u.  pttcodoiu  stages  of  his  snialic  can 


GIULIO  ROMANO 


53 


woold  show  him  as  dying,  after  an  infinity  of  hard  work,  at  the 
comparatively  early  age  of  forty-eight. 

Qiulk>  must  at  all  events  have  been  quite  youthful  when  he 
fint  became  tlu  pupil  of  Raphael,  and  at  Raphael's  death  in 
iSio  he  was  at  the  utmost  twenty-eight  years  of  age.  Raphael 
had  loved  him  as  a  son,  and  had  employed  him  in  some  leading 
worics,  especially  in  the  Loggie  of  the  Vatican';  the  series  there 
popularly  termed  "  Raphael's  Bible  "  is  done  in  large  measure 
by  Gtulio, — as  for  instance  the  subjects  of  the  "  Creation  of  Adam 
and  Eve/'  "  Noah's  Ark/'  and  "  Moses  in  the  Bulrushes."  In 
the  saloon  of  the  "Incendio  del  Borgo/'  also,  the  figures  of 
"  Benefactors  of  the  Church  "  (Charlemagne,  &c.)  are  Giulio's 
handiwork.  It  would  appear  that  in  subjects  of  this  kind 
Raphael  simply  furnished  the  design,  and  committed  the  execu- 
tion of  it  to  some  assistant,  such  as  Giulio, — taking  heed,  however, 
to  bring  it  up,  by  final  retouching,  to  his  own  standard  of  style 
and  type.  Giulio  at  a  later  date  followed  out  exactly  the  same 
plan;  so  that  in  both  instances  inferiorities  of  method,  in  the 
general  blocking-out  and  even  in  the  details  of  the  work,  are  not 
to  be  precisely  charged  upon  the  capcscuoia.  Amid  the  multitude 
of  Raphael's  pupils,  Giulio  was  eminent  in  pursuing  his  style,  and 
showed  universal  aptitude;  he  did,  among  other  things,  a  Large 
amount  of  architectural  planning  for  his  chief.  Raphael  be- 
queathed to  Giulio,  and  to  his  fellow-pupil  Gianfrancesco  Penni 
C'  II  Fattore  "),  his  implements  and  works  of  art;  and  upon 
them  it  devolved  to  bring  to  completion  the  vast  fresco-work  of 
the  "  Hall  of  Constantine  "  in  the  Vatican — consisting,  along 
with  much  minor  nutter,  of  the  four  large  subjects,  the  "  Battle  of 
Constantine,"  the  "  Apparition  of  the  Cross,"  the  "  Baptism  of 
Constantine  "  and  the  "  Donation  of  Rome  to  the  Pope."  The 
two  former  compositions  were  executed  by  Pippi,  the  two  latter 
by  PennL  The  whole  of  this  onerous  undertaking  was  com- 
pleted within  a  period  of  only  three  years, — which  is  the  more 
remarkable  as,  during  some  part  of  the  interval  since  Raphael's 
decease,  the  Fleming,  Adrian  VI.,  had  been  pope,  and  his  anti- 
aesthetic  pontificate  had  left  art  and  artists  almost  in  a  state  of 
Inanition.  Clement  VII.  had  now,  however,  succeeded  to  the 
popedom.  By  this  time  Giulio  was  regarded  as  the  first  painter 
in  Rome;  but  his  Roman  career  was  fated  to  have  no  further 
aequd. 

Towards  the  end  of  1524  his  friend  the  celebrated  writer 
Baldassar  Castiglione  seconded  with  success  the  urgent  request 
of  the  duke  of  Mantua,  Federigo  Gonxaga,  that  Giulio  should 
migrate  to  that  city,  and  enter  the  duke's  service  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  out  his  projects  in  architecture  and  pictorial  decora- 
tion. These  projects  were  already  considerable,  and  under 
Gitttio's  management  they  became  far  more  extensive  still. 
The  duke  treated  his  painter  mtmificently  as  to  house,  table, 
horses  and  whatever  was  in  request;  and  soon  a  very  cordial 
attachment  sprang  up  between  them.  In  Pippi's  multifarious 
work  in  Mantua  three  principal  undertakings  should  be  noted, 
(i)  In  the  Castello  he  painted  the  "  History  of  Troy,"  along  with 
other  subjects.  (2)  In  the  suburban  ducal  residence  named 
the  Palazso  del  Te  (this  designation  being  apparently  derived 
from  the  form  of  the  roads  which  led  towatds  the  edifice)  he 
rapidly  carried  out  a  rebuilding  on  a  vastly  enlarged  scale, — 
the  materials  being  brick  and  terra-cotta,  as  there  is  no  local 
stone, — and  decorated  the  rooms  with  his  most  celebrated 
wofks  in  on  and  fresco  painting— the  story  of  Psyche,  Icarus, 
the  fall  of  the  Titans,  and  the  portraits  of  the  ducal  horses  and 
bounds.  The  foreground  figures  of  Titans  are  from  12  to  14  ft. 
high;  the  room,  even  in  its  structural  details,  is  made  to  subserve 
the  general  artistic  purpose,  and  many  of  its  architectural 
featnres  are  distorted  accordingly.  Greatly  admired  though  these 
pre-eminent  works  have  always  been,  and  at  most  times  even 
more  than  can  now  be  fully  ratified,  they  have  suffered  severely 
at  the  hands  of  restorers,  and  modern  eyes  see  them  only  through 
a  doll  and  deadening  fog  of  renovation.  The  whole  of  the  work 
on  the  Pabxao  del  Te,  which  is  of  the  Doric  order  of  architecture, 
occupied  about  five  3rears.  (5)  Pippi  recast  and  almost  rebuilt  the 
cathedral  of  Mantua;  erected  his  own  mansion,  replete  with 
aumeroas  antiques  and  other  articles  of  vertu;  reconstructed 


the  street  architecture  to  a  very  large  extent,  and  made  the  city, 
sapped  as  it  is  by  the  shallows  of  the  Mincio,  comparatively 
healthy;  and  at  Marmiruolo,  some  5  m..  distant  from  Mantua, 
he  worked  out  other  important  buildings  and  paintings.  He 
was  in  fact,  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  a  sort  of  Demiurgus 
of  the  arts  of  design  in  the  Mantuan  territory. 

Giulio's  activity  was  interrupted  but  not  terminated  by  the 
death  of  Duke  Federigo.  The  duke's  brother,  a  cardinal  who 
became  regent,  retained  him  in  full  employment.  For  a  while  he 
went  to  Bologna,  and  constructed  the  facade  of  the  church  of 
S.  Petronio  in  that  city.  Hewas  afterwards  invited  to  succeed 
Antonio  Sangallo  as  architect  of  St  Peter's  in  Rome, — a  splendid 
apfM>intment,  which,  notwithstanding  the  strenuous  opposition 
of  his  wife  and  of  the  cardinal  regent,  he  had  almost  resolved 
to  accept,  when  a  fever  overtook  him,  and,  acting  upon  a  con- 
stitution somewhat  enfeebled  by  worry  and  labour,  caused  his 
death  on  the  ist  of  November  1 546.  He  was  buried  in  the  church 
of  S.  Barnaba  in  Mantua.  At  the  time  of  his  death  Giulio 
enjoyed  an  annual  income  of  more  than  xooo  ducats,  accruing 
from  the  liberalities  of  his  patrons.  He  left  a  widow,  and  a  son 
and  daughter.  The  son,  named  Raffaello,  studied  painting, 
but  died  before  he  cotild  produce  any  work  of  importance;  the 
daughter,  Virginia,  married  Ercole  Malatesta. 

Wide  and  solid  knowledge  of  design,  combined  with  a  prompti- 
tude  of  composition  that  was  never  at  fault,  formed  the  chief 
motive  power  and  merit  of  Giuh'o  Romano's  art.  Whatever 
was  wanted,  he  produced  it  at  once,  throwing  off,  as  Vasari  says, 
a  large  design  in  an  hour;  and  he  may  in  that  sense,  though  not 
equally  so  when  an  imaginative  or  ideal  test  is  applied,  be  called 
a  great  inventor.  It  would  be  difficult  to  name  any  other  artist 
who,  working  as  an  architect,  and  as  the  plastic  and  pictorial 
embellisher  of  his  architecture,  produced  a  totalx>f  work  so  fuUy 
and  homogeneously  his  own;  hence  he  has  been  named  "  the 
prince  of  decorators."  He  had  great  knowledge  of  the  human 
frame,  and  represented  it  with  force  and  truth,  though  some- 
times with  an  excess  of  movement;  he  was  also  learned  in  other 
matters,especially  in  medals,  and  in  the  plans  of  ancient  buildings. 
In  design  he  was  more  strong  and  emphatic  than  graceful,  and 
worked  a  great  deal  from  his  accumulated  stores  of  knowledge, 
without  consulting  nature  direct.  As  a  general,  rule,  his  designs 
are  finer  and  freer  than  his  paintings,  whether  in  fresco  or  in  oil 
— his  easel  pictures  being  comparatively  few,  and  some  of  them 
the  reverse  of  decent;  his  colouring  is  marked  by  an  excess  of 
blackish  and  heavy  tints. 

Giulio  Romano  introduced  the  style  of  Raphael  into  Mantua, 
and  established  there  a  considerable  school  of  art,  which  surpassed 
in  development  that  of  his  predecessor  Mantegna,  and  almost 
rivalled  that  of  Rome.  Very  many  engravings — more  than 
three  hundred  are  mentioned — were  made  contemporaneously 
from  his  works;  and  this  not  only  in  Italy,  but  in  France  and 
Flanders  as  well.  His  plan  of  entrusting  principally  to  assistants 
the  pictorial  execution  of  his  cartoons  has  already  been  referred 
to;  Primaticcio  was  one  of  the  leading  coadjutors.  Rinaldo 
Mantovano,  a  man  of  great  ability  who  died  young,  was  the 
chief  executant  of  the  "  Fall  of  the  Giants  ";  he  also  co-operated 
with  Benedetto  Pagni  da  Pescia  in  painting  the  remarkable 
series  of  horses  and  hounds,  and  the  story  of  Psyche.  Another 
pupil  was  Fermo  Guisoni,  who  remained  settled  in  Mantua. 
The  oil  pictures  of  Giulio  Romano  are  not  generally  of  high 
importance;  two  leading  ones  are  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Stephen," 
in  the  church  of  that  saint  in  Genoa,  and  a  "Holy  Family" 
in  the  Dresden  Gallery.  Among  his  architectural  works  not 
already  mentioned  is  the  Villa  Madama  in  Rome,  with  a  fresco 
of  Polyphemus,  and  bo3rs  and  satyrs;  the  Ionic  facade  of  this 
building  may  have  been  sketched  out  by  Raphael. 

Vasari  gives  a  pleasing  impression  of  the  character  of  Giulio. 
He  was  very  loving  to  his  friends,  genial,  affable,  well-bred, 
temperate  in  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  but  liking  fine  apparel 
and  a  handsome  scale  of  living.  He  was  good-looking,  of 
middle  height,  with  black  curly  hair  and  dark  eyes,  and  an 
ample  beard;  his  portrait,  painted  by  himself,  is  in  the 
Louvre. 


54 


GIUNTA  PISANO— GIUSTINIANI 


Besides  Vasart.  Laiui  and  other  historians  of  art,  the  following 
works  may  be  mentioned:  C.  D.  Arco,  Vila  di  G.  Pippi  (1828); 
G.  C.  von  Alurr,  Notice  sur  Us  estampes  gravies  aprks  dessins  de  JuUs 
Romain  (1865);  R.  Sanzio,  two  works  on  Etchings  and  Paintings 
(1800,  1836).  (W.  M.  R.) 

GIUNTA  PISANO,  the  earliest  Italian  painter  whose  name  is 
found  inscribed  on  an  extant  work.  He  is  said  to  have  exercised 
his  art  from  z2oa  to  1236.  He  may  perhaps  have  been  bom 
towards  xi8o  in  Pisa,  and  died  in  or  soon  after  1236;  but  other 
accounts  give  1202  as  the  date  of  his  birth,  and  1258  or  there> 
abouts  for  his  death.  There  is  some  ground  for  thinking  that 
bis  family  name  was  Capiteno.  The  inscribed  work  above 
referred  to,  one  of  his  earliest,  is  a  "  Crucifix,"  long  in  the  kitchen 
of  the  convent  of  St  Anne  in  Pisa.  Other  Pisan  works  of  like 
date  are  very  barbarous,  and  some  of  them  may  be  also  from 
the  band  of  Giunta.  It  is  said  that  he  painted  in  the  upper 
church  of  Assisi, — in  especial  a  "Crucifixion  "  dated  X236,with  a 
figure  of  Father  Elias,  the  general  of  the  Franciscans,  embracing 
the  foot  of  the  cross.  In  the  sacristy  is  a  portrait  of  ^t  Francis, 
also  ascribed  to  Giunta;  but  it  more  probably  belongs  to  the 
close  of  the  13th  century.  He  was  in  the  practice  of  painting 
upon  doth  stretched  on  wood,  and  prepared  with  plaster. 

GIURGEVO  (,Ciurgiu)t  the  capital  of  the  department  of 
Vlashca,  Rumania;  situated  amid  mud-flats  and  marshes  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  Pop.  (1900)  13,977.  Three  small 
islands  face  the  town,  and  a  larger  one  shelters  its  port,  Smarda, 
2)  m.  E.  The  rich  corn-lands  on  the  north  are  traversed  by  a 
railway  to  Bucharest,  the  first  line  opened  in  Rumania,  which 
was  built  in  1 869  and  afterwards  extended  to  Smarda.  Steamers 
ply  to  Rustchuk,  2)  m.  S.W.  on  the  Bulgarian  shore,  linking 
the  Rumanian  railway  system  to  the  chief  Bulgarian  line  north 
of  the  Balkans  (Rustchuk-Vama).  Thus  Giurgevo,  besides 
having  a  considerable  trade  with  the  home  ports  lower  down 
the  Danube,  is  the  headquarters  of  commerce  between  Bulgaria 
and  Rumania.  It  exports  timber,  grain,  salt  and  petroleum; 
importing  coal,  iron  and  textiles.  There  are  also  large  saw-mills. 

Giurgevo  occupies  the  site  of  Tbeodorapolis,  a  city  built 
by  the  Roman  emperor  Justinian  (a.d.  483-565).  It  was 
founded  in  the  14th  century  by  Genoese  merchant  adventurers, 
who  established  a  bank,  and  a  trade  in  silks  and  velvets.  They 
called  the  town,  after  the  patron  saint  of  Genoa,  San  Giorgio 
(St  George) ;  and  hence  comes  its  present  name.  As  a  fortified 
town,  Giurgevo  figured  often  in  the  wars  for  the  conquest  of  the 
lower  Danube;  especially  in  the  struggle  of  Michael  the  Brave 
(1593-1601)  against  the  Turks,  and  in  the  later  Russo-Turkish 
Wars.  It  was  burned  in  1659.  In  1829,  its  fortifications  were 
finally  razed,  the  only  defence  left  being  a  castle  on  the  island  of 
Slobosia,  united  to  the  shore  by  a  bridge. 

OIUSTI,  GIUSEPPE  (180^1850),  Tuscan  satirical  poet,  was 
born  at  Monsummano,  a  small  viUage  of  the  Valdinicvole,  on 
the  X2th  of  May  1809.  His  father,  a  cultivated  and  rich  man, 
accustomed  his  son  from  childhood  to  study,  and  himself  taught 
him,  among  other  subjects,  the  first  rudiments  of  music.  After- 
wards, in  order  to  curb  his  too  vivacious  disposition,  he  placed 
the  boy  under  the  charge  of  a  priest  near  the  village,  whose 
severity  did  perhaps  more  evil  than  good.  At  twelve  Giusti 
was  sent  to  school  at  Florence,  and  afterwards  to  Pistoia  and  to 
Lucca;  and  during  those  years  he  wrote  his  first  verses.  In 
1826  he  went  to  study  law  at  Pisa;  but,  disliking  the  study, 
he  spent  eight  years  in  the  course,  instead  of  the  customary  four. 
He  lived  gaily,  however,  though  his  father  kept  him  short  of 
money,  and  learned  to  know  the  world,  seeing  the  vices  of 
society,  and  the  folly  of  certain  laws  and  customs  from  which 
his  country  was  suffering.  The  experience  thus  gained  he  turned 
to  good  account  in  the  use  he  made  of  it  in  his  satire. 

His  father  had  in  the  meantime  changed  his  place  of  abode 
to  Pescia;  but  Giuseppe  did  worse  there,  and  in  November 
1832,  his  father  having  paid  his  debts,  he  returned  to  study  at 
Pisa,  seriously  enamoured  of  a  woman  whom  he  could  not  marry, 
but  now  commencing  to  write  in  real  earnest  in  behalf  of  his 
country.  With  the  poem  called  La  Ghigliotlina  (the  guillotine), 
Giusti  began  to  strike  out  a  path  for  himself,  and  thus  revealed 
his  great  genius.    From  this  time  he  showed  himself  the  Italian 


Stranger,  and  even  surpassed  the  Frenchman  in  richness  of 
language,  refinement  of  humour  and  depth  of  satirical  conception. 
In  B^ranger  there  is  more  feeling  for  what  is  needed  for  popular 
poetry.  His  poetry  is  less  studied,  its  vivacity  perhaps  more 
boisterous,  more  spontaneous;  but  Giusti,  in  both  manner  and 
conception,  is  perhaps  more  elegant,  more  refined,  more  pene- 
trating. In  1834  Giusti,  having  at  last  entered  the  legal  profes- 
sion, left  Pisa  to  go  to  Florence,  nominally  to  practise  with  the 
advocate  Capoquadri,  but  really  to  enjoy  life  in  the  capital  of 
Tuscany.  He  fell  seriously  in  love  a  second  time,  and  as  before 
was  abandoned  by  his  love.  It  was  then  he  wrote  his  finest 
verses,  by  means  of  which,  although  his  poetry  was  not  yet 
collected  in  a  volume,  but  for  some  years  passed  from  hand  to 
hand,  his  name  gradually  became  famous.  The  greater  part 
of  his  poems  were  published  clandestinely  at  Lugano,  at  no 
little  risk,  as  the  work  was  destined  to  undermine  the  Austrian 
rule  in  Italy.  After  the  publication  of  a  volume  of  verses  at 
Bastia,  Giusti  thoroughly  established  his  fame  by  his  GingUlino, 
the  best  in  moral  tone  as  well  as  the  most  vigorous  and  effective 
of  his  poems.  The  poet  sets  himself  to  represent  the  vileness 
of  the  treasury  officials,  and  the  base  means  they  used  to  conceal 
the  necessities  of  the  state.  The  Cingillino  has  all  the  character 
of  a  classic  satire.  When  first  issued  in  Tuscany,  it  struck  all 
as  too  impassioned  and  personal.  Giusti  entered  heart  and  soul 
into  the  FM>litical  movements  of  1847  and  1848,  served  in  the 
national  guard,  sat  in  the  parliament  for  Tuscany;  but  finding 
that  there  was  more  talk  than  action,  that  to  the  tjrranny  of 
princes  had  succeeded  the  tyranny  of  demagogues,  he  began  to 
fear,  and  to  express  the  fear,  that  for  Italy  evil  rather  than 
good  had  resulted.  He  fell,  in  consequence,  from  the  high 
position  he  had  held  in  public  estimation,  and  in  1848  was 
regarded  as  a  reactionary.  His  friendship  for  the  marquis 
Gino  Capponi,  who  had  taken  him  into  his  house  during  the  last 
years  of  his  life,  and  who  published  after  Giusti's  death  a  volume 
of  illustrated  proverbs,  was  enough  to  compromise  him  in  the 
eyes  of  such  men  as  Guerrazzi,  Montanelli  and  Niccolini.  On 
the  31st  of  May  1850  he  died  at  Florence  in  the  palace  of  his 
friend. 

The  poetry  of  Giusti,  under  a  light  trivial  aspect,  has  a  lofty 
civilizing  significance.  The  tjrpe  of  his  satire  is  entirely  original, 
and  it  had  also  the  great  merit  of  appearing  at  the  right  moment, 
of  wounding  judiciously,  of  sustaining  the  part  of  the  comedy 
that  "  castigat  ridendo  mores."  Hence  his  verse,  apparently 
jovial,  was  received  by  the  scholars  and  politicians  olf  Italy  in 
all  seriousne^.  Alexander  Manzoni  in  some  of  his  letters  showed 
a  hearty  admiration  of  the  genius  of  Giusti;  and  the  weak 
Austrian  and  Bourbon  governments  regarded  them  as  of  the 
gravest  importance.  ' 

His  poems  have  often  been  reprinted,  the  best  editions  being  those 
of  Lc  Monntcr,  Carducci  (1859:  3rd  ed.,  1879),  Fioretti  (1876)  and 
Bragi  (1890).  Besides  the  poems  and  the  proverbs  already  men- 
tioned, we  have  a  volume  of  select  letters,  full  of  vigour  and  written 
in  the  best  Tuscan  language,  and  a  fine  critical  discourse  on  Giuseppe 
Parini,  the  satirical  poet.  In  some  of  his  compositions  the  elegiac 
rather  than  the  satirical  poet  is  seen.  Many  of  his  verses  have  bocn 
excellently  translated  into  German  by  Paul  Heyse.  Good  English 
translations  were  published  in  the  Athenaeum  by  Mrs  T.  A.  Trollope, 
and  some  by  W.  D.  HowcUs  are  in  his  Modem  Italian  Poets  (1887). 

GIUSTINIANI,  the  name  of  a  prominent  Italian  family  which 
originally  belonged  to  Venice,  but  established  itself  subsequently 
in  Genoa  also,  and  at  various  times  had  representatives  in 
Naples,  Corsica  and  several  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago. 
In  the  Venetian  line  the  following  are  most  worthy  of  mention : — 
I.  Lorenzo  (1380-1465),  the  Laurentius  Justinianus  of  the 
Roman  calendar,  at  an  early  age  entered  the  congregation  of 
the  canons  of  St  George  in  Alga,  and  in  1433  became  general 
of  that  order.  About  the  same  time  he  was  made  by  Eugenius 
IV.  bishop  of  Venice;  and  his  episcopate  was  marked  by  con- 
siderable activity  in  church  extension  and  reform.  On  the 
removal  of  the  patriarchate  from  Grado  to  Venice  by  Nicholas  V^ 
in  X451,  Giustiniani  was  promoted  to  that  dignity,  which  he 
held  for  fourteen  years.  He  died  on  January  8,  1465,  was 
canonized  by  Pope  Alexander  VIIL,  his  festival  (semi-duplex). 


GIUSTO  DA  GUANTO 


55 


beiiig  fixed  by  Innocent  XII.  for  September  sth,  the  anni- 
vtrsary  of  his  elevation  to  the  bishopric  His  works,  conusting 
of  sermoDS,  letters  and  ascetic  treatises,  have  been  frequently 
reprinted,— -the  best'  edition  being  that  of  the  Benedictine 
P.  N.  A.  Giustiniani,  published  at  Venice  in  s  vob.  folio,  1751. 
They  are  wholly  devoid  of  literary  merit.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  Bernard  Giustiniani,  by  Maffei  and  also  by  the 
BoUandists. 

2.  Leonasoo  (1588-X446),  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  for 
some  years  a  senator  of  Venice,  and  in  1443  was  chosen  procurator 
c(  St  Mark.  He  translated  into  Italian  Plutarch's  Lhes  of 
Cinna  amd  LacuUta,  and  was  the  author  of  some  poetical  pieces, 
amatory  and  religious— j/ram^atfi  and  canMonetti — ^as  well  as 
of  rhetorical  prose  compositions.  Some  of  the  popular  songs 
set  to  music  by  him  became  known  as  Giustiniani, 

3.  Bexnabdo  (Z40S-Z489),  son  of  Leonardo,  was  a  pupil  of 
Giiaiino  and  of  George  of  Trebiaond,  and  entered  the  Venetian 
senate  at  an  early  age.  He  served  on  several  important  diplo- 
matic missions  both  to  France  and  Rome,  and  about  1485 
became  one  of  the  council  of  ten.  His  orations  and  letters 
vere  published  in  1492;  but  his  title  to  any  measure  of  fame 
he  possesses  rests  upon  his  history  of  Venice,  De  origine  urbis 
Vemdiarum  rebusque  ab  ipsa  gestis  hisUfria  (1492),  which  was 
translated  into  Italian  by  Domenichi  in  1545,  and  which  at  the 
time  of  its  appearance  was  undoubtedly  the  best  work  upon  the 
subject  of  which  it  treated.  It  is  to  be  found  in  voL  i.  of  the 
Thesaurus  of  Graevius. 

4.  Px£Txo,  also  a  senator,  lived  in  the  x6th  century,  and 
wrote  on  Historia  rerum  Venelarum  in  continuation  of  that  of 
Bernardo.  He  was  also  the  author  of  chronicles  Dc  gestis  Petri 
Macenigi  and  De  bdlo  Venctorum  cum  Caraio  VIH,  The  latter 
has  been  reprinted  in  the  Script,  rer.  Ital.  vol.  zxi. 

Of  the  Genoese  branch  of  the  family  the  most  prominent 
members  were  the  following: — 

5.  Paoix),  di  MoNiGUA  (1444-1503),  a  member  of  the  order 
of  Dominicans,  was,  from  a  comparatively  early  age,  prior  of 
their  convent  at  Genoa.  As  a  preacher  he  was  very  successful, 
sad  his  talents  were  fully  recognized  by  successive  popes,  by 
whom  he  was  made  master  of  the  sacred  palace,  inquisitor- 
general  lor  all  the  Genoese  dominions,  and  ultimately  bishop 
of  Sdo  and  Hungaria  n  legate.  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of 
Biblical  commentaries  (no  longer  extant),  which  are  said  to 
have  been  characterized  by  great  erudition. 

6.  AcosTiNO  (1470-1536)  was  bom  at  Genoa,  and  spent 
some  wild  years  in  Valencia,  Spain.  Having  in  1487  joined  the 
Dominican  order,  he  gave  himself  with  great  energy  to  the 
study  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  Chaldee  and  Arabic,  and  in  1514 
began  the  preparation  of  a  polyglot  edition  of  the  Bible.  As 
l-ishop  of  Kebbio  in  Corsica,  he  took  part  in  some  of  the  earlier 
iitiuagi  of  the  Latcran  council  (1516-1517),  but,  in  consequence 
of  party  oomf^cations,  withdrew  to  his  diocese,  and  ultimately 
to  France*  where  he  became  a  pensioner  of  Francis  I.,  and  was 
the  first  to  occupy  a  chair  of  Hebrew  and  Arabic  in  the  university 
of  Paris.  After  an  absence  from  Corsica  for  a  period  of  five 
)-ears,  during  which  he  visited  England  and  the  Low  Countries, 
aod  became  acquainted  with  Erasmus  and  More,  he  returned 
to  Xebbio,  about  1522,  and  there  remained,  with  comparatively 
lit  lie  intennission,  till  in  1536,  when,  while  returning  from  a 
ii-isit  to  Genoa,  be  perished  in  a  storm  at  sea.  He  was  the 
pcasessor  of  a  very  fine  library,  which  he  bequeathed  to  the 
re;wbUc  of  Genoa.  Of  his  projected  polyglot  only  the  Psalter 
«as  published  (Psalterium  Hcbracum,  Craecum^  Arabicum^  et 
Ckddaicum,  Genoa,  1616).  Besides  the  Hebrew  text,  the  LXX. 
tnnsiation,  the  Chaldee  paraphrase,  and  an  Arabic  version,  it 
contains  the  Vulgate  translation,  a  new  Latin  translation  by 
the  editor,  a  Latin  translation  of  the  Chaldee,  and  a  collection 
of  schc^ia.  Giustiniani  printed  2000  copies  at  his  own  expense, 
iacltuiing  fifty  in  vellum  for  presentation  to  the  sovereigns  of 
Eorope  and  Asia;  but  the  sale  of  the  work  did  not  encourage 
han  to  proceed  with  the  New  Testament,  which  he  had  also 
pKpared  for  the  press.  Besides  an  edition  of  the  book  of  Job, 
Containing  the  original  text,  the  Vulgate,  and  a  new  translation, 


he  published  a  Latin  version  of  the  Jiorek  Nevochim  of  Maimonides 
{Director  dtMtantium  out  perpkxorum^  1520),  and  also  edited  in 
Latin  the  Aureus  libeUus  of  Aeneas  Platonicus,  and  the  Timaeus 
of  Chalcidius.  His  annals  of  Genoa  {Castigalissimi  annali  di 
Genova)  were  published  posthumously  in  1537. 
The  following  are  also  noteworthy: — 

7.  PoupEio  (1569-16x6),  a  native  of  Corsica,  who  served  under 
Alessandro  Famese  and  the  marquis  of  Spinola  in  the  Low 
Countries,  where  he  lost  an  arm,  and,  from  the  artificial  substitute 
which  he  wore,  came  to  be  known  by  the  sobriquet  Bras  de  Fer. 
He  also  defended  Crete  against  the  Turks;  and  subsequently  was 
killed  in  a  reconnaissance  at  Friuli.  He  left  in  Italian  a  personal 
narrative  of  the  war  in  Flanders,  which  has  been  repeatedly 
published  in  a  Latin  translation  {Belium  Bdgicum,  Antwerp, 
1609). 

8.  Giovanni  (t5i3-x556),  bom  in  Candia,  translator  of 
Terence's  Andria  and  Eunuchus,  of  Cicero's  In  Verrem,  and  of 
Virgil's  Aeneid,  viii. 

9.  Orsatto  (X538-X603),  Venetian  senator,  translator  of  the 
Oedipus  Tyrannus  of  Sophocles  and  author  of  a  collection  of 
RinUf  in  imitation  of  Petrarch.  He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
hitcst  representatives  of  the  classic  Italian  school. 

xo.  Geronimo,  a  Genoese,  flourished  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  x6th  century.  He  translated  the  Akestis  cf  Euripides 
and  three  of  the.  play's  of  Sophocles;  and  wrote  two  original 
tragedies,  Jephte  and  Christo  in  Passione. 

XX.  ViNCENZo,  who  in  the  beginning  of  the  X7th  century 
built  the  Roman  palace  and  made  the  art  collection  which  are 
still  associated  with  his  name  (see  Calleria  Giustiniana,  Rome, 
X63X).  The  collection  was  removed  in  1807  to  Paris,  where  it 
was  to  some  extent  broken  up.  In  1815  all  that  remained  of  it, 
about  X70  pictures,  was  purchased  by  the  king  of  Prussia  and 
removed  to  Berlin,  where  it  forms  a  portion  of  the  royal  museum. 

QIUSTO  DA  GUANTO  Ijooocus,  or  Justus,  of  Ghent] 
(fl.  1465-1475),  Flemish  painter.  TTie  public  records  of  the  city 
of  Ghent  have  been  diligently  searched,  but  in  vain,  for  a  clue 
to  the  history  of  Justus  or  Jodocus,  whom  Vasari  and  Guicciardini 
called  Giusto  da  Guanto.  Flemish  annalists  of  the  x6th  century 
have  enlarged  upon  the  scanty  statements  of  Vasari,  and  described 
Jodocus  as  a  pupil  of  Hubert  Van  Eyck.  But  there  is  no  source 
to  which  this  fable  can  be  traced.  The  registers  of  St  Luke's 
gild  at  Ghent  comprise  six  masters  of  the  name  of  Joos  or 
Jodocus  who  practised  at  Ghent  in  the  15th  century.  But  none 
of  the  works  of  these  masters  has  been  preserved,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  compare  their  style  with  that  of  Giusto.  It  was 
between  X465  and  1474  that  this  artist  executod  the  "  Communion 
of  the  Apostles  "  which  Vasari  has  described,  and  modem  critics 
now  see  to  the  best  advantage  in  the  museum  of  Urbino.  It 
was  painted  for  the  brotherhood  of  Corpus  Christi  at  the  bidding 
of  Frederick  of  Montcfeltro,  who  was  introduced  into  the  picture 
as  the  companion  of  Caterino  Zeno,  a  Persian  envoy  at  that 
time  on  a  mission  to  the  court  of  Urbino.  From  this  curious 
production  it  may  be  seen  that  Giusto,  far  from  being  a  pupil  of 
Hubert  Van  Eyck,  was  merely  a  disciple  of  a  later  and  less 
gifted  master,  who  took  to  Italy  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  his 
native  schools,  and  forthwith  commingled  them  with  those  of 
his  adopted  country.  As  a  composer  and  draughtsman  Giusto 
compares  unfavourably  with  the  better-known  paintera  of 
Flanders;  though  his  portraits  are  good,  his  ideal  figures  are 
not  remarkable  for  elevation  of  type  or  for  subtlety  of  character 
and  expression.  His  work  is  technically  on  a  level  with  that  of 
Gerard  of  St  John,  whose  pictures  are  preserved  in  the  Belvedere 
at  Vienna.  Vespasian,  a  Florentine  bookseller  who  contributed 
much  to  form  the  antiquarian  taste  of  Frederick  of  Montefeltro, 
states  that  this  duke  sent  to  the  Netherlands  for  a  capable  artist 
to  paint  a  series  of  "  ancient  worthies  "  for  a  library  recently 
erected  in  the  palace  of  Urbino.  It  has  been  conjectured  that 
the  author  of  these  "  worthies,"  which  are  still  in  existence 
at  the  Louvre  and  in  the  Barbcrini  palace  at  Rome,  was  Giusto. 
Yet  there  are  notable  divergences  betwceen  these  pictures  and  the 
"  Communion  of  the  Apostles."  Still,  it  is  not  beyond  the  range 
of  probabiUty  that  Giusto  should  have  been  able,  after  a  ccrtaia 


S6 


GIVET— GLACIAL  PERIOD 


time,  to  tempo:  his  Flemish  style  by  studying  the  masterpieces 
of  Santi  and  Melozco,  and  so  to  acquire  the  mixed  manner  of  the 
Flemings  and  Italians  which  these  portraits  of  worthies  display. 
Such  an  assimilation,  if  it  really  took  place,  might  justify  the 
Flemings  in  the  indulgence  of  a  certain  pride,  considering  that 
Raphael  not  only  admired  these  worthies,  but  copied  them  in. 
the  sketch-book  which  is  now  the  ornament  of  the  Venetian 
Academy.  There  is  no  ground  for  presuming  that  Giusto  ad 
Guanto  is  identical  with  Justixs  d'AUamagna  who  painted  the 
"  Annunciation  "  (1451)  in  the  cloisters  of  Santa  Maria  di  Castello 
at  Genoa.  The  drawing  and  colouring  of  this  waU  painting 
shows  that  Justus  d'AUamagna  was  as  surely  a  native  of  south 
Germany  as  his  homonym  at  Urbino  was  a  bom  Netherlander. 

OIVET,  a  town  of  northern  France,  in  the  department  of 
Ardennes,  40  m.  N.  by  £.  of  M£zidres  on  the  Eastern  railway 
between  the  town  and  Namur.  Pop.  (1906)  town,  51x0; 
commune,  7468.-  Givet  lies  on  the  Meuse  about  x  m.  from  the 
Belgian  frontier,  and  was  formerly  a  fortress  of  considerable 
importance.  It  is  divided  into  three  portions — the  citadel 
called  Charlemont  and  Grand  Givet  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
and  on  the  opposite  bank  Petit  Givet,  connected  with  Grand 
Givet  by  a  stone  bridge  of  five  arches.  The  fortress  of  Charle- 
mont, situated  at  the  top  of  a  precipitoixs  rock  705  ft.  high,  was 
founded  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  the  x6th  century,  and 
further  fortified  by  Vauban  at  the  end  of  the  X7th  century;  it 
is  the  only  survival  of  the  fortifications  of  the  town,  the  rest 
of  which  were  destroyed  in  189a.  In  Grand  Givet  there  are  a 
church  and  a  town-hall  built  by  Vauban,  and  a  statue  of  the 
composer  £tienne  M6hul  stands  in  the  fine  square  named  after 
him.  Petit  Givet,  the  industrial  quarter,  is  traversed  by  a 
small  tributary  of  the  Meuse,  the  Houille,  which  is  bordered  by 
tanneries  and  glue  factories.  Pencils  and  tobacco-pipes  are 
also  manufactured.  The  town  has  considerable  river  traffic, 
consisting  chiefly  of  coal,  copper  and  stone.  There  is  a  chamber 
of  arts  and  manufactures. 

6IV0RS,  a  manufacturing  town  of  south-eastern  France,  in 
the  department  of  Rh6ne,  on  the  railway  between  Lyons  and 
St  £tienne,  14  m.  S.  of  Lyon.  Pop.  (1906)  ix,444.  It  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhone,  here  crossed  by  a  sixspension 
bridge,  at  its  confluence  with  the  Gier  and  the  canal  of  Givors, 
which  starts  at  Grand  Croix  on  the  Gier,  some  1$  m.  distant. 
The  chief  industries  are  metal-working,  engineering-construction 
and  glass-working.  There  are  coal  mines  in  the  vicinity.  On  the 
hill  overlooking  the  town  are  the  ruins  of  the  ch&teau  of  St 
Gerald  and  of  the  convent  of  St  Ferr6ol,  remains  of  the  old 
town  destroyed  in  X594. 

OJALLAR,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  horn  of  Heimdall, 
the  guardian  of  the  rainbow  bridge  by  which  the  gods  pass  and 
repass  between  earth  and  heaven.  This  horn  had  to  be  blown 
whenever  a  stranger  approached  the  bridge.   . 

OLABRIO.  I.  Mamius  Aauus  Glabrio,  Roman  statesman 
and  general,  member  of  a  plebeian  family.  When  consul  in 
XQi  B.C.  he  defeated  Antiochus  the  Great  of  Syria  at  Thermopylae, 
and  compelled  him  to  leave  Greece.  He  then  turned  his  attention 
to  the  Aetolians,  who  had  persuaded  Antiochus  to  declare  war 
against  Rome,  and  was  only  prevented  from  crushing  them  by 
the  intercession  of  T.  Quinctius  Flamininus.  In  189  Glabrio 
was  a  candidate  for  the  censorship,  but  was  bitterly  opposed 
by  the  nobles.  He  was  accused  by  the  tribunes  of  having 
concealed  a  portion  of  the  Syrian  spoils  in.  his  own  house;  his 
legate  gave  evidence  against  him,  and  he  withdrew  his  candi- 
dature. It  is  probable  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  law  which 
left  it  to  the  discretion  of  the  pontiffs  to  insert  or  omit  the 
intercalary  month  of  the  year. 

Censortnus,  De  die  naiali,  xx.;  Macroblus,  Saturnalia,  t.  13: 
index  to  Livy;  Appian,  Syr.  17-21. 

2.  Mamius  Acxlius  Glabkio,  Roman  statesman  and  general, 
grandson  of  the  famous  jurist  P.  Mucius  Scaevola.  When 
praetor  urbanus  (70  B.C.)  he  presided  at  the  trial  of  Verres. 
According  to  Dio  Cassius  (xxxvi.  38),  in  conjunction  with 
L.  Calpumius  Piso,  his  colleague  in  the  consulship  (67),  he 
brought  forward  a  severe  law  (Lex  Adlia  Calpumia)  ai^lnst 


illegal  canvassing  at  elections.    In  the  same  year  be  was  ^>- 

pointed  to  supersede  L.  LucuUus  in  the  goverimsent  of  QlidA 

and  the  command  of  the  war  against  Mithradates,  but  as  he  did 

absolutely  nothing  and  was  unable  to  control  the  soldiery, 

he  was  in  turn  superseded  by  Pompey  accordixig  to  the  provisions 

of  the  Manilian  law.    Little  else  is  known  o!  him  except  that 

he  declared  in  favour  of  the  death  punishment  for  the  Catilinarian 

con^irators. 

Dio  Cassius  xxxvi.  14,  16.  34;  Cicero,  Pro  lege  IfaiMKa,  a.  9; 
Appian,  Mithrid.  90. 

OLACE  BAY,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Cape  Breton  county, 
Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  14  m.  £.  of  Sydney, 
with  which  it  is  connected  both  by  steam  and  electric  railway. 
It  is  the  centre  of  the  properties  of  the  Dominion  Coal  Company 
(founded  1893),  which  produce  most  of  the  coal  of  llova  Scotia. 
Though  it  has  a  fair  harbour,  most  of  the  shipping  is  done  from 
Sydney  in  summer  and  from  Louisburg  in  winter.  Pop.  (1892) 
2000;  (X901)  694s;  (X906)  X3,ooa 

GLACIAL  PERIOD,  in  geology,  the  name  usually  given,  by 
English  and  American  writers,  to  that  comparatively  recent 
time  when  all  parts  of  the  world  suffered  a  marked  lowering 
of  temperature,  accompanied  in  northern  Europe  and  North 
America  by  glacial  conditions,  not  unlike  those  which  now 
characterize  the  Polar  regions.  This  period,  which  is  also 
known  as  the  "  Great  Ice  Age "  (German  Die  EisMeit),  is 
synchronous  with  the  Pleistocene  period,  the  earlier  of  the  Post- 
Tertiary  or  Quaternary  divisions  of  geological  time.  Although 
"  Glacial  period  "  and  "  Pleistocene  "  {q.v.)  are  often  used 
synonymously  it  is  convenient  to  consider  them  separately, 
inasmuch  as  xK>t  a  few  Pleistocene  formations  have  no  causal 
relationship  with  conditions  of  glaciation.  Not  until  the  bc^- 
ning  of  the  19th  century  did  the  deposits  now  generally  recog- 
nized as  the  result  of  ice  action  receive  serious  attention;  the 
tendency  was  to  regard  such  superficial  and  irregular  material 
as  mere  rubbish.  Early  ideas  upon  the  subject  usually  assigned 
floods  as  the  formative  agency,  and  this  view  is  still  not  without 
its  supporters  (see  Sir  H.  H.  Howorth,  The  Glacial  Nigklmarc 
and  the  Flood).  Doubtless  this  attitude  was  in  part  due  to  the 
comparative  rarity  of  glaciers  and  ice-fields  where  the  work  of 
ice  could  be  directly  observed.  It  was  natural  therefore  that  the 
first  scientific  references  to  glacial  action  should  have  been 
stimulated  by  the  Alpine  regions  of  Switzerland,  which  called 
forth  the  vrritings  of  J.  J.  Scheuchzer,  B.  F.  Kuhn,  H.  B.  de 
Saussure,  F.  G.  Hugi,  and  parucularly  those  of  J.  Venetz,  J.  G. 
von  Chaxpentier  and  L.  Aggasiz.  Canon  Rendu,  J.  Fra-bes 
and  others  had  studied  the  cause  of  motion  of  glaciers,  while 
keen  observers,  notably  Sir  James  Hall,  A.  Brongniart  and 
J.  Playfair,  had  noted  the  occurrence  of  travelled  and  scratched 
stones. 

The  result  of  these  efforts  was  the  conception  of  great  ice-sheets 
flowing  over  the  land,  grinding  the  rock  surfaces  and  tranqrarting 
rock  debris  in  the  manner  to  be  observed  in  the  existing  gladers. 
However,  before  this  view  had  become  established  Sir  C.  Lyell 
evolved  the  "  drift  theory  "  to  explain  the  widely  spread  pheno- 
menon of  transported  blocks,  boulder  clay  and  the  allied  depoats; 
in  this  he  was  supported  by  Sir  H.  de  la  Beche,  Charies  Darwin, 
Sir  R.  I.  Murchison  and  many  others.  According  to  the  drift 
theory,  the  transport  and  distribution  of  "  erratic  blocks,"  &c., 
had  been  effected  by  floating  icebergs;  this  view  naturally 
involved  a  considerable  and  widespread  submergence  of  the 
land,  an  assumption  which  appeared  to  receive  support  from 
the  occasional  presence  of  marine  shells  at  high  levels  in  the 
"  drift "  deposits.  So  great  was  the  influence  of  those  who 
favoured  the  drift  theory  that  even  to-day  it  caimot  be  said  to 
have  lost  complete  hold;  we  still  speak  of  "  drift  "  depcttits  in 
England  and  America,  and  the  belief  in  one  or  more  great  sub> 
mergences  during  the  Glacial  period  is  still  held  more  firmly 
by  cestain  geologists  than  the  evidence  would  seem  to  warrant. 
The  case  against  the  drift  theory  was  most  clearly  expressed 
by  Sir  A.  C.  Ramsay  for  England  and  Scotland,  and  by  the 
Swedish  scientist  Otto  Toreli.  Since  then  the  labours  of  Professor 
James  Gdkie,  Sir  Archibald  Geikie,  Professor  P.  Kendall  and 


GLAOAL  PERIOD 


Hkn  ta  En^and;  tcd  Vtnadl,  H.  CicdiKT,  de  Gccr,  E. 
CnniU,  A.  HcUuid,  Jcntach,  K.  KdUuct,  A.  PcDck,  H. 
SduSder,  T.  Wihiuchific  in  ScudiuvU  mi  Cumanyi  T.  C. 
dumbcriia,  W.  Uphim.  C.  F.  Wrfght  in  North  America,  have 
■U  tended  10  cotiSrm  the  view  thai  it  ii  to  the  movcmenl  o( 
^Mxa  sad  ice-thetli  that  we  must  look  at  the  prcdomiiuuit 
a^ent  ol  timasport  and  abraaoD  in  thii  period  The  three  stapes 
IhEDUgh  irhicfa  out  knowled^  of  gtadol  work  lus  advanced 
may  thua  be  summarized:  (i)  the  diiuviat  hypothesis,  deposits 
formed  by  floods;  (i)  the  drift  hypothesis,  deposits  formed 
mainly  by  Icebeip  and  floating  ice;  (3}  the  ice-sheet  hypothesis, 
drpoaiti  fonned  diTCCtly  or  indirectly  through  the  agency  of 

EttdniHs. — The  evidence  relied  upon  by  geoloi^jts  for  the 
farmer  adslente  of  the  great  ice-«heeti  which  tiaverjed  the 
Dorthem  regions  of  Europe  and  America  is  miiniy  of  two  kinds; 
(1)  the  petuliii  eroaion  of  the  older  rock*  by  ice  and  ice-borne 
Uoaa,  and  (1)  the  nature  and  diqiosiilon  of  ice-bome  rock 
djbrtt.  After  having  esublisbed  the  crileria  by  which  the  work 
of  moving  ice  is  to  be  recogniud  in  refponi  of  active  glidation, 
the  talk  of  ideniilying  the  results  of  earlier  gladaiion  elsewhere 
ha*  been  carried  on  urilh  unabated  energy. 

I.  l€t  Eronoti. — Although  there  are  certain  points  of  diflerence 
betBcea  the  work  of  gbcien  and.  bioad  ict^heeis,  the  former 


.;  or  less  restricted  laterally  by  the  vallcyi  in  which 

they  ttov,  the  general  results  lA  their  passage  over  the  rocky 
luir  arc  essoitiaDy  similar.  Smooth  rounded  outlines  are 
imparted  to  the  rocks,  markedly  eootruling  with  the  pinoaded 
and  irregular  suifuei  piodvced  by  oidinuy  weithering;  where 
these  rounded  luiface*  have  been  formed  on  a  minor  scale  the 
well-known  features  of  rodus  mmttonnUt  (Goman  FstndkSdter) 
are  created;  on  a  larger  scale  we  have  the  eroaioD-form  known 
as  "  crag  and  tail,"  when  the  ice-sheet  has  overridden  ground 
with  Qiore  promunced  contours,  the  side  of  the  hill  facing  the 
advancing  ice  being  rounded  and  gently  curved  (German 
StntHile),  atul  the  <^>poste  side  {Leatiie)  steep,,  abrupt  and 
mucb  b*a  smooth.  Such  features  ate  never  associated  with  the 
eroaoD  of  water.  The  loupdiiig  of  rock  autiacei  is  regularly 
accoo^ianied  by  gtoovicg  and  ttriation  (German  5dra)iiaKii, 
SiUiJc)  caused  by  the  grinding  action  of  itonei  and  boulden 
BDbcdded  in  the  moving  ice.  Tbeie  "glidal  itiiie  "  are  of 
trai  value  in  detemuaing  the  latest  path  of  the  vanished  Ice- 
ibccU  (see  map).  Severtd  other  erotian.featuret  ate  feooally 
tModateil  with  ice  action;  luch  ue  the  drcular-beided  valleys, 
~  dniiie*  "  a  "  corries  "  (Censaa  Zirinu)  of  moontain  dittiicti; 
lhe|iot-boie>,giaBts'kettles(5Irwrf<IUiJuT,^Kia>U)>/e), familiarly 
csemiriified  ia  the  HHctscbergaitea  near  Lucerne;  the  "lock- 
baaos"  Ifdatibtdm)  of  mountainous  regions  are  alas  believed 
to  be  mii"pM>  to  this  canas  on  account  of  thdi  fteciucnt 


57 

influenced  no  doubt  by  the  dispoaftlon  of  the  tee— has  had  much 
to  do  with  these  forms  of  erosion.  As  regards  mck.basiu,' 
geologists  are  still  divided  in  iqiinion:  Sir  A.  C.  Ramsay,  J. 
Geikie,  Tyndall,  Helland,  B.  Hess,  A.  Pcnck,  and  others  have 
expressed  tbenuelves  in  favour  of  a  glacial  origin;  while  A. 
Heim,  F.  Stapff,  T.  Kjerulf,  L.  Satlmeyer  and  many  otheit 
have  strongly  0[^»std  this  view. 

3.  Glacial  deposits  may  be  roughly  classified  in  two  groups: 
those  that  have  been  formed  directly  by  the  action  of  the  ice, 
and  those  formed  through  the  agency  of  water  flowing  under, 
upon,  and  from  the  ice-sheets,  or  in  stteuns  and  lakes  modified 
by  the  presence  of  the  ice.  To  differentiate  in  practice  between 
the  results  of  these  two  agtnde*  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty 
in  the  case  of  unstratifled  deposits;  but  the  boulder  day  may 
be  taken  as  the  typical  fbtmatioo  of  the  glacier  or  ice-sbeel, 
whether  it  has  been  left  as  a  terminal  moraiiu  at  the  limit  of 
gladation  or  as  a  tttnoid  mariitu  beneath  the  ice.  A  stratified 
foim  of  boulder  day,  which  not  infrequently  rests  upon,  and  is 
therefore  younger  than,  the'  more  typical  variety,  is  usually 
regarded  as  a  deposit  formed  by  water  from  the  mateiial 
{milaeial,  iRiKniiHirdn)  held  in  suspension  within  the  ice,  and 
set  free  during  the  process  of  mdting.  Besides  the  innumerable 
boulders,  large  and  small,  embedded  in  the  boulder  dsy,  isolated 
masses  of  rock,  often 'of  enormous  si«,  have  been  borne  by  ice- 
sheets  far  from  thdr  original  home  and  slratided  when  the  ice 
melted.  These  "erratic  blocks,"  "perched  blocks"  [German 
Fixdiingt)  are  familiar  objects  In  the  Alpine  glacier  districts, 
where  they  have  frequently  received  individual  names,  but  they 
are  Just  as  easily  recognized  in  regions  from  which  the  gtadeis 
that  brought  them  there  have  long  since  been  banished.  Not 
only  did  the  ice-transport  blocks  of  hard  rock,  graoile  and  the 
hke,  but  huge  masses  of  strstified  rock  were  lom  from  their 
bed  by  the  same  agency;  the  masses  of  chalk  in  the  clifls  near 
Cromer  are  well  known;  near  BerIin,-aC  Firkenwald,  there  is  a 
traniporled  mass  of  chalk  estimated  to  be  at  least  1,000,000 
cubic  metres  in  bulk,  which  has  travelled  probably  15  kilomettes 
from  its  original  site;  a  block  of  Lincolnshire  oolite  is  recorded 
by  C.  Fox-Slrungwaya  rwar  Mdton  in  Ldcestetahire,  which  Is 
300  yds.  loog  and  too  yds.  broad  if  no  more;  and  ttintsnrrs  of  a 
similar  kind  might  be  multiplied. 


When 


id  partially  bedded  deposits 
ing  sepaiatdy  or  in  every 
n.    Some  of  these  depoaiu 


bewildering  variety  of  stratit 
of  giavd,  sand  and  day,  1 
concdvable  condition  of  assi 
have  received  distinctive  na 
Scotland,  which  are  represented  in  Ireland  fay  *'  Eskers,"  and  in 
Scandinavia  by  '^  Asar."  Another  type  of  hillocky  deposit  is 
exemplified  by  the  "drums"  or  "  drumlins."  Everywhere 
beyond  the  margin  of  the  idvandng  or  retreating  ice-sbcets 
these  deposits  were  being  formed;  streams  bore  away  coarse  and 
fine  materials  and  spread  them  oat  upon  alluvial  plains  or  upon 
the  floors  of  irmumerable  lakes,  many  of  which  were  directly 
caused  by  the  /tMTnming  of  the  ordinary  water-courses  by  the  ice. 
As  the  levd  ol  such  lakes  was  changed  new  beaeh-linea  were 
produced,  such  as  are  still  evident  in  the  great  lake  region  of 
North  America,  In  the  paralld  roads  of  Glen  Roy,  and  the 
"  Strandlinien  "  of  many  parts  of  northern  Europe. 

Viewed  in  relation  to  man's  position  on  the  earth,  do  gerrioglcil 
changes  have  had  a  more  profound  importance  than  those  of  the 
Glada]  perfod.  The  wibole  of  the  gladated  region  bears  evidencs 
of  remarkable  modification  of  topographic  leaturea;  in  parts 
of  Scotland  or  Norway  or  Canada  the  old  rocks  are  bared  ol 
saD,  rounded  and  smoothed  as  fat  as  the  eye  can  see.  The  old 
soil  and  subsoil,  the  product  of  ages  of  ordinary  weathering, 
were  removed  from  vast  areas  to  be  deposited  and  concentrate 
in  otheri  Old  vaDeys  were  JHed— often  to  a  great  depth, 
300-400  ft.;  rivers  were  diverted  from  their  ohl  courses,  never 
to  return;  lakes  of  vast  siie  were  caused  by  the  damming  of  old 
outlets  (Lake  Lahontaa,  Lake  AgassU,  &c.,  in  North  Anuria), 
while  an  infinite  number  of  ihifTfof  lakelets — with  their  depodts 
— {dayed  an  lavMItut  part  aking  the  ice-front  at  all  stipa 
of  Its  CBtKT.    The  influence  of  this  period  upon,  the  present 


S8 


GLACIAL  PERIOD 


distribution  of  plant  and  animal  life  in  northern  latitudes  can 
hardly  be  overestimated. 

Much  stress  has  been  laid  upon  supposed  great  changes  in 
the  level  of  the  land  in  northern  regions  during  the  Gladal 
period.  The  occurrence  of  marine  shells  at  an  elevation  of 
13  50  ft.  at  Moel  Tryfaen  in  north  Wales,  and  at  xaoo  ft.  near 
Macclesfield  in  Cheshire,  has  been  cited  as  evidence  of  profound 
submergence  by  some  geologists,  though  others  see  in  these 
and  siniilar  occurrences  only  the  transporting  action  of  ice-sheets 
that  have  traversed  the  floor  of  the  adjoining  seas.  Marine 
shells  in  stratified  materials  have  been  found  on  the  coast  of 
Scotland  at  xoo  ft.  and  over,  in  S.  Scandinavia  at  600  to  800  ft., 
and  in  the  "  Champlain  "  deposits  of  North  America  at  various 
heights.  The  dead  shells  of  the  "  Yoldia  clay  "  cover  wide  areas 
at  the  bottom  of  the  North  Atlantic  at  depths  from  500  to  1300 
fathoms,  though  the  same  mollusc  is  now  found  living  in  Arctic 
seas  at  the  depth  of  5  to  x  5  fathoms.  .This  has  been  Iboked  upon 
as  a  proof  that  in  the  N.W.  European  region  the  lithosphere 
stood  about  3600  ft.  higher  than  it  does  now  (Brdgger,  Nansen, 
&c.),  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  a  union  of  the  mainland  of 
Europe  with  that  of  North  America — forming  a  northern  con- 
tinental mass,  "  Prosarctis  " — may  have  been  achieved  by  way 
of  Iceland,  Jan  Mayen  I^and  tod  Greenland^  The  pre-glacid 
valleys  and  fjords  of  Norway  and  Scotland,  with  their  deeply 
submerged  seaward  ends,  jut  regarded  as  proofs  of  former 
elevation.  The  great  depth  of  aUuvium  in  some  places  (236 
metres  at  Bremen)  points  in  the  same  direction.  Evidences  of 
changes  of  level  occur  in  early,  middle  and  late  Pleistocene 
formations,  and  the  nature  of  the  evidence  is  such  that  it  is  on 
the  whole  safer  to  assume  the  existence  only  of  the  more  moderate 
degree  of  change. 

The  Cause  of  the  Glacial  Period. — Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  formulate  a  satisfactory  hypothesis  that  shall  conform 
with  the  known  facts  and  explain  the  great  change  in  climatic 
conditions  which  set  in  towards  the  close  of  the  Tertiary  era, 
and  culminated  during  the  Glacial  period.  Some  of  the  more 
prominent  hypotheses  may  be  mentioned,  but  space  will  not 
permit  of  a  detailed  analysis  of  theories,  most  of  which  rest 
upon  somewhat  unsubstantial  ground.  The  prindpal  facts 
to  be  taken  into  consideration  are  (i)  the  great  lowering  of 
temperature  over  the  whole  earth;  (2)  the  localization  of 
extreme  gladation  in  north-west  Europe  and  north-east  America; 
and  (3)  the  local  retrogression  of  the  ice-sheets,  once  or  more 
times  repeated. 

Some  have  suggested  the  simple  solution  of  a  diange  in  the 
earth's  axis,  and  have  indicated  Uiat  the  pole  may  have  travelled 
through  some  15°  to  20**  of  latitude;  thus,  the  polar  glaciation, 
as  it  now  ejcists,might  have  been  in  this  way  transferred  to  include 
north-west  Europe  and  North  America;  but  modem  views  on 
the  rigidity  of  the  earth's  body,  together  with  the  lack  of  any 
evidence  of  the  correlative  movement  of  climatic  zones  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  render  this  hypothesis  quite  untenable. 
On  similar  grounds  a  change  in  the  earth's  centre  of  gravity  is 
unthinkable.  Theories  based  upon  the  variations  in  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic  or  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit,  or  on  the 
passage  of  the  solar  system  through  cold  regions  of  ^ace,  or 
upon  the  known  variations  in  the  heat  emitted  by  the  sun,  are 
aU  insectire  and  unsaUsfactory.  The  hypothesis  elaborated  by 
James  Croll  (Phil.  Hag.,  1864,  28,  p.  i2x;  Climate  and  Time, 
187$;  and  Discussion  on  Climaie  and  Cosmology,  1889)  was 
founded  upon  the  assumption  that  with  the  earth's  eccentricity 
at  its  maximum  and  winter  in  the  north  at  aphelion,  there  would 
be  a  tendency  in  northern  latitudes  for  the  accumulation  of  snow 
and  ice,  whidb  would  be  accentuated  indirectly  by  the  formation 
of  fogs  and  a  modification  of  the  trade  winds.  The  shifting  of 
the  thermal  equator,  and  with  it  the  direction  of  the  trade  winds, 
would  divert  some  of  the  warm  ocean  currents  from  the  cold 
regions,  and  this  effect  was  greatly  enhanced,  he  considered, 
by  the  configuration  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  C^oU's  hypothesis 
was  supported  by  Sir  R.  BaU  {The  Cause  of  the  Great  Ice  Age, 
1893),  and  it  met  with  very  general  acceptance;  but  itluis 
been  destructively  criticized  by  Professor  S.  Newcomb  (Phil, 


Mag.,  1876,  X883,  1884)  and  by  E.  P.  Culverwell  {Phil.  Mng., 
1894,  p.  541,  and  Geol.  Mag.,  1895,  pp.  3  and  55).  The  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  Croll's  theory  are:  (i)  the  fundamental  assump- 
tion, that  midwinter  and  midsummer  temperatures  are  directly 
proportional  to  the  sun's  heat  at  those  periods,  is  not  in  accord- 
ance with  observed  facts;  (a)  the  glacial  periods  would  be 
limited  in  duration  to  an  appropriate  fraction  of  the  precessional 
period  (31,000  years),  which  appears  to  be  too  short  a  time  for 
the  work  that  vrafi  actually  done  by  ice  agency;  and  (3)  Croll's 
glacial  periods  would  alternate   between   the   northern   and 
southern  hemispheres,  affecting  first  one  then  the  other.    Sir 
C.  Lyell  and  others  have  advocated  the  view  that  great  elevation 
of  the  land  in  polar  regions  would  be  conducive  to  glacial  condi- 
tions; this  is  doubtless  true,  but  the  evidence  that  the  Gladal 
period  was  primarily  due  to  this  cause  is  not  well  established. 
Other  writers  have  endeavoured  to  support  the  elevation  theory 
by  combining  with  it  various  astronomical  and  meteorological 
agendes.    More  recently  several  hypotheses  have  been  advanced 
to  expUin  the  glacial  period  as  the  result  of  changes  in  the 
atmosphere;  F.  W.  Harmer  ("  The  Influence  of  Winds  upon  the 
Climate  during  the  Pleistocene  Epoch,"  Q.J.G.S.,  X90X,  57, 
p.  405)  has  shown  the  importance  of  the  inifluence  of  winds  in 
certain  drcumstances;  Marsden  Manson  ("The  Evolution  of 
Climate,"  American  Geologist,  1899,  24,  p.  93)  has  laid  stress 
upon  the  influence  of  douds;  but  ndther  of  these  theories 
grapples  successfully  with  the  fundamental  difficulties.    Others 
again  have  requisitioned  the  variability  in  the  amount  of  the 
carbon  dioxide  in  the  atmosphere — ^hypotheses  which  depend 
upon  the  efficiency  of  this  gas  as  a  thermal  absorbent.    The 
supply  of  carbon  dioxide  may  be  increased  from  time  to  time, 
as  by  the  emanations  from  volcanoes  (S.  Arrhenius  and  A.  G. 
Hogbdm),  or  it  may  be  decreased  by  absorption  into  sea- water, 
and  by  the  carbonation  of  rocks.     Professor  T.  C.  Chamberlin 
based  a  theory  of  glaciation  on  the  depletion  of  the  carbon 
dioxide  of  the  air  ("  An  Attempt  to  frame  a  Working  Hypothesis 
of  the  cause  of  Gladal  Periods  on  an  Atmospheric  Basis,"  //. 
Geol.,  1899,  vii.  752-771;  see  also  Chamberlin  and  Salisbury, 
Geology,  1906,    ii.    674  and  iii.   432).    The  outline  of   this 
hypothesis  is  as  follows:   The  general  conditions  for  gladation 
were  (i)  that  the  oceanic  circulation  was  interrupted  by  the 
existence  of  land;  (2)  that  vertical  circulation  of  the  atmosphere 
was  accelerated  by  continental  and  other  influences;  (3)  that 
the  thermal  blanketing  of  the  earth  was  reduced  by  a  depletion 
of  the  moisture  and  carbon  dioxide  in  the  atmosphere,  and  that 
hence  the  average  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  and 
of  the  body  of  the  ocean  was  reduced,  and  diversity  in  the 
distribution  of  heat  and  moisture  introduced.    The  localization 
of  glaciation  is  assignable  to  the  two  great  areas  of  permanent 
atmospheric  depression  that  have  their  present  centres  near 
Greenland  and  the  Aleutian  Islands  respectivdy.  The  periodidty 
of  glacial  advances  and  retreats,  demanded  by  those  who  believe 
in  the  validity  of  so-called  "  intergladal "  epochs,  is  explained 
by  a  series  of  complicated  processes  involving  the  alternate 
depletion  and  completion  of  the  normal  charge  of  carbpn  dioxide 
in  the  air. 

Whatever  may  be  the  ultimate  verdict  upon  this  difficult 
subject,  it  is  tolerably  clear  that  no  simple  cause  of  gladal 
conditions  is  likely  to  be  discovered,  but  rather  it  will  appear 
that  these  conditions  resulted  from  the  interaction  of  a  compli- 
cated series  of  factors;  and  further,  untO  a  greater  degree  of 
unanimity  can  be  approached  in  the  interpretation  of  observed 
facts,  particularly  as  regards  the  substantiality  of  intergjlacial 
epochs,  the  very  foundations  of  a  sound  working  hypothesis 
are  wanting. 

Classification  ef  Glacial  Deposits— InlergUcial  Epochs. — ^Had 
the  deposits  of  gladated  regions  consisted  solely  of  boulder 
day  little  difficulty  might  have  been  experienced  in  dealing 
with  their  dassification.  But  there  are  intercalated  in  the  boulder 
days  those  irregular  stratified  and  partially  stratified  masses 
of  sand,  gravel  and  loam,  frequently  containing  marine  or 
freshwater  shells  and  layers  of  peat  with  plant  remains,  which 
have  given  rise  to  the  conception  of  "  intergladal  epochs  "— 


GLACIAL  PERIOD 


pauses  in  tbe  ligorous  condit^ms  of  gladation,  when  the  ice- 
sheets  dwindled  ahnost  entirely  aWay;  while  plants  and  animals 
re-established  themselves  on  the  newly  eiposed  soil.  Gladalists 
may  be  ranged  in  two  schools:  those  who  believ«  that  one  or 
more  phases  of  milder  climatic  conditions  broke  Up  the  whole 
Gladal  period  into  alternating  epochs  of  gladation  and  "de- 
gUdation ";  and  those  who  believe  that  the  intercalated 
deposits  represent  rather  the  localiud  recessional  movements 
of  the  ice-sheets  within  one  single  period  of  gladation.  In 
addition  to  the  stl-atified  deposits  and  their  contents,  important 
evidence  in  favour  of  interglacial  epochs  occurs  in  the  presence 
of  weathered  surfaces  on  the  top  of  older  boulder  days,  which 
arc  tbemsdves  covered  by  younger  glacial  deposits. 

Hie  canae  of  the  intergfadal  hypothcsb  has  been  most  ardently 
champiooed  in  England  by  Professor  James  Geilde;  who  has  en- 
deavwimi  to  show  that  there  were  in  Europe  six  distinct  gladal 
epochs  within  the  Gladalpcriod,  separated  uy  five  epochs  oi  more 
xBoderate  temperature.    These  are  enumerated  below: 

6th  Gfactal  epoch.  Upper  Turbarian,  indicated  by  the  deports  of 
peat  which  nncMriie  the  lower  laised  beaches. 
Sch  Imler^acial  epoch.  Upper  Foreslian, 

Sth  Glaaa]  epocn.  Lower  Turbarian,  indicated  by  peat  depoeita 
overlying  the  lower  forest-bed,  by  the  raised  beaches  and  carse- 
days  of  Scotland,  and  in  part  by  tne  Li/toniMKlays  of  Scandinavia. 
4th  Jmler^aeial  epockf  Lower  Forestiam,  the  lower  forests  under 
peat  beds,  tne  AiUytus-beds  of  the  great  freshwater  Baltic  lake  and 
the  Lttfofiiia-days  of  Scandinavia. 

4th  Glacial  epoch»  Mecklenbureian,  represented  by  the  moraines 
of  the  last  great  Baltic  glacier,  which  reach  their  southern  limit  in 
Mecklenburg;  the  loo-ft.  terrace  (A  Scotland  and  the  yoUia-beds  of 
Scandinavia. 

3id  InterHocial  epoch,  Neudechian,  intercalations  of  marine  and 

freshwater  deposits  m  the  boulder  clays  of  the  southern  Baltic  coasts. 

3rd  Gladal  epoch,  Potandian,  glacial  and  fluvio-glacial  formations 

of  the  minor  Somdinavian  ice-sheet;  and  the  "  upper  boulder  clay" 

of  northern  and  western  Europe.  ^ 

Tud  Iniert^ial  epoch,  HdvetioM,  interglacial  beds  of  Britain  and 
Ggnites  of  Switacrland. 

2iid  Glacis  epoch,  Saxonian.  deposits  of  the  period  of  maximum 
daciatioo  when  the  northern  ke-aheet  reached  the  knr  ground  of 
Saxony,  and  the  Alpine  riaders  formed  the  outermost  moraines. 
1st  Imterdacial  epoch,  liorfolhian,  the  forest-bed  series  of  Norfolk. 
1st  Gboal  epoch,  Scanian,  represented  only  in  the  south  of  Sweden, 
whidi  was  overridden  by  a  large  Baltic  giader.  The  Chillesford 
day  and  Weyboume  crag  of  Norfolk  and  the  oldest  moraines  and 
fl ttvio-glacial  gravels  oif  the  Arctic  lands  may  bdong  to  this  epoch. 

In  a  similar  manner  Piofesaor  Chamberiin  and  other  American 
|eolo«:isu  have  recognised  the  following  stages  in  the  gladation  of 
Tlorth  America: 

The  Champlain,  marine  substagc. 

The  Glado-lacustrine  substage. 

The  later  Wisconsin  (6th  glacial). 

The  fifth  interttacial. 

The  earlier  wiscon«n  (5th  giadal). 

The  Peorian  Uih  interglacial). 

The  lowan  (4th  glacial). 

The  SangamoH  (3rd  interdacial). 

The  Illinoian  (3rd  Kladal). 

The  Yarmouth  or  Buchanan  {2nd  interttacial). 

The  Kansan  (and  glacial). 

The  AfUmian  (rst  inter  glacial). 

The  sub-Aftonian  or  Jcrscyan  (ist  gladal). 

Although  it  is  admitted  that  no  strict  correlation  of  the  European 
and  Nortn  American  stages  is  possible^  it  has  been  suggested  that 
the  Aftonian  may  be  the  equivalent  of  the  Helvetian :  the  Kansan 
nay  represent  the  Saxonian;  the  lowan,  the  Polandian;  the 
jcfseyan,  the  Scanian;  the  early  Wisconsin,  the  Mecklenburgian. 
But  coowlering  bow  fragmentary  is  much  of  the  evidence  in  favour 
of  these  stages  both  in  Europe  and  America,  the  value  of  such 
attempts  at  correlation  must  be  infinitesiinaL  This  is  the  more 
evident  when  it  is  observed  that  there  are  other  geologists  of  equal 
eminence  who  are  unable  to  accept  so  large  a  number  of  epochs 
after  a  dose  study  of  the  local  arcumstanccs;  thus,  in  the  sub- 
joined scheme  for  north  Germany,  after  H.  W.  Munthe,  there  are 
titfee  dadal  and  two  interglacial  epochs. 

{The  Mya  time     -beech-tim& 
The  Liltorina  time  •oak-time. 
The  Ancjius  time  •  pine- and  birch-time, 
r  Including     the     upper     boulder    day, 

,  -  /•i.^.i        »      J     "  younger  Baltk  moraine  '*  with  the 
3id  Glaaal  -j    y^^  ^  j^^y^  ph^,^  i„  ^1^  „gjro. 

t    gressivc  stage. 
3nd  Interdaciai  epoch  including  the  C/prina<hy, 
2od  Glacial  epoch,  the  maximum  glacution. 
iBt  Jnierajiacial  epoch. 
tst  Glacial  epoch,  "  older  boulder  clay." 


59 

Again,  in  the  Alps  four  inteighurial  epochs  have  been  recognised; 
while  in  England  there  are  many  who  are  willing  to  conceoe  one 
such  epoch,  though  even  for  this  the  evidence  is  not  enough  to  satisfy 
all  glacialists  (C>.  W.  Lamplugh,  Address,  Section  C,  Bril.  Assoc., 
Yorkj  1906). 

This  great  diversity  of  opinion  is  eloquent  of  the  difficulties  of  the 
subject:  it  is  tmpoasible  not  to  see  that  the  discovery  of  interglacial 
epochs  bears  a  dose  relationship  to  the  origin  of  certain  hypotheses 
of  the  cause  of  gladation;  while  it  is  significant  that  those  who 
have  had  to  do  the  actual  mappii^  of  glacial  deposits  have  usually 
greater  difficulty  in  finding  good  evidence  of  such  definite  ameliora- 
tions of  climate,  than  those  who  have  founded  their  views  upon  the 
examination  of  numerous  but  isolated  areas. 

Extent  (^Glacial  Deposits. — ^From  evidence  of  the  kind  dted  above, 
it  appears  that  during  the  glacial  period  a  series  of  great  ioe-^eets 
covered  enormous  areas  in  North  America  and  lUMtn-west  Eun^ie. 
The  area  covered  during  the  maximum  extension  of  the  ice  l&s  been 
reckoned  at  so  million  square  kilometres  (neariy  8  million  sq.  m.) 
in  North  America  and  6i  million  square  kilometrea  (about  si  million 
sq.  mO  in  Eun^ie. 

In  Europe  three  great  centres  existed  from  which  the  ioe-streama 
radiated;  foremost  in  importance  was  the  region  of  Fennoscandia 
(the  name  for  Scandinavia  with  Finland  as  a  single  geological  region) : 
from  thb  centre  the  ice  spread  out  far  into  Germany  and  Russia  and 
westward,  across  the  north  Sea,  to  the  shores  of  Britain.  The 
southern  boundary  of  the  ice  extended  from  the  estuary  of  the  Rhine 
in  an  irr^uhur  series  of  lobes  along  the  Schiefergetnrge,  Hars, 
ThOringerwald,  Engebirge  and  Riesengebirge,  and  the  northern 
flanks  of  the  Carpathians  towards  Cracow.  IX>wn  the  valley  of 
the  Dnieper  a  lobe  <^  the  ice-sheet  projected  as  far  as  40^  50'  N.; 
another  lobe  extended  down  the  Don  valley  as  far  as  48^  N.;  thence 
the  boundary  runs  north-easteri^  towards  the  Urals  and  the  Kara 
Sea.  The  British  Islands  constituted  the  centre  second  in  import- 
ance; Scotland,  Ireland  and  all  but  the  southern  part  <^  England 
were  covered  by  a  moving  ice-cap.  On  the  west  the  ice-sheets  reached 
out  to  sea;  on  the  east  they  were  conterminous  with  those  from 
Scandinavia.  The  third  European  centre  was  the  Alpine  region: 
it  is  abundantly  clear  from  the  masses  of  morainic  detritus  and 
perched  blocks  that  here,  in  the  time  of  maximum  gladation,  the 
ice-covered  area  was  enormously  in  excessof  the  shrivelled  remnants, 
which  still  remain  in  the  exbting  gladers.  All  the  valleys  were  fillM 
with  moving  ice;  thus  the  Rhone  giader  at  its  maximum  filled  Lake 
Geneva  and  the  plain  between  the  Bernese  Obwland  and  the  Jura*; 
it  even  overrode  the  latter  and  advanced  towards  Bcsan9)n.  Ex- 
teuHve  gladation  was  not  limited  to  the  aforesaid  r^ons,  for  all 
the  areas  of  high  ground  had  their  independent  glaciers  strongly 
developed;  the  Pyrenees,  the  central  highlands  of  France,  the 
Vosges.  Black  Forest,  Apennines  and  Caucasus  were  centres  of 
minor  but  still  important  gladation. 

The  greatest  expansion  of  ke-sheets  was  located  on  thfe  North 
American  continent;  here,  too,  there  were  three  prindpal  centres 
of  outflow:  the  "  CordUleran ''  ice-sheet  in  the  N.W.,  the  "  Kee- 
watin  "  sheet,  radiating  from  the  central  Canadian  plains,  and  the 
eastern  "  Labrador  "  or  "  Laurentide  "  sheet.  From  each  <^  these 
centres  the  ice  poured  outwards  in  every  direction,  but  the  prindpal 
flow  in  each  case  was  towiards  the  south-west.  The  southern 
boundary  of  the  g^iated  area  runs  as  an  irregular  line  aloitt  the 
40^  parallel  in  the  western  part  of  the  continent,  tlfence  it  follows 
tne  Mississippi  valley  down  to  its  junction  with  the  Ohio  (southern 
limit  37^  W  N.),  eastward  it  follows  the  direction  of  that  river  and 
turns  nortn-eastward  in  the  direction  of  New  Jersey.  As  in  Europe, 
the  mountainous  regions  of  North  America  produced  their  own  local 
ffladers;  in  the  Rockies,  the  Olympics  and  Sierras,  the  Bighom 
Mountains  of  Wyoming,  the  Uinta  Mountainsof  Utah,  &c.  Although 
it  was  in  the  northern  hemisphere  that  the  most  extensive  gladation 
took  place,  the  effects  of  a  general  lowering  of  temperature  seem  to 
have  been  felt  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  all  parts;  thus  in  South 
America,  New  Zealand,  Australia  and  Tasmania  gladen  reached 
down  the  valleys  far  below  the  existing  limits,  and  even  where  none 
are  now  to  be  found.  In  Ana  the  evidences  of  a  former  extension 
of  glaciation  are  traceable  in  the  Himalayas,  and  northward  in  the 
h  ign  ranges  of  China  and  Eastern  Siboia.  The  same  is  true  of  parts  of 
Turkestanand  Lebanon.  In>^ricaalflO,in  British  East  Africa  moraines 
are  discovered  5400  ft.  below  their  modem  limit.  In  Iceland  and 
Greenland,  and  even  in  the  Antarctic,  there  appears  to  be  evidence 
of  a  former  greater  extension  of  the  ice.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that 
Alaska  seems  to  be  free  from  excessive  glaciation,  and  that  a  remark- 
able "  driftless  "  area  lies  in  Wisconsin.  The  maximum  glaciation  of 
the  Glacial  period  was  clearly  centred  around  the  North  Atlantic. 

Glacial  Epochs  in  (he  (Hder  Geological  Periods. — ^Smce  Ramsay 
drew  attention  to  the  subject  in  18M  ('''  On  the  occurrence  of  angular, 
subangular,  polished  and  striateo  fragments  and  bouldera  in  the 
Permian  Breccia  of  Shro(»hire,  Worcestershire,  Ac,  and  on  the 
probable  existence  of  glaciera  and  icebergs  in  the  Permian  epoch," 
Q.J.G.S.,  1855,  pp.  185-205),  a  good  deal  of  attention  has  been  paid 
to  such  formations.  It  is  now  generally  acknowledged  that  the 
Permo-carboniferous  conglomerates  with  striated  bouldera  and 
polished  rock  surfaces,  such  as  are  found  in  the  Karoo  formation  of 
South  Africa,  the  Talkir  conglomerate  of  the  Salt  Range  in  India, 
and  the  corre^x>nding  formations  in  Australia,  represent  undeniable 


6o  GLA< 

gUdal  coodiliaiu  it  Iliai  »ris<]  on  ttie  ^i^st  Indo-AiutnUu 

caniilDmeiaiic  Einnilions  iui:h  >•  iKc  Prv-C^mbrun  rcHridaaiu  of 
ScBlUnd.  and  "C«»™hichMn''o(  Norway:  iK  I. !=.il,C»Aonif«wi. 
«niloiIienlFD[  parti  <ilEnibiid;Ihc  PrmiLin  l,r^^>  lU  of  EnfUlul 
■adTpam  of  Eumpt;  the  Tiiat  o(  Dtvoniliirc;  ilie  coanc  coo- 
(liii«mtta  in  Iht  Ttniaiy  Flyich  in  raniral  Europ-  :  ..«H1kM™™ 
eiia(IaucnUa ol  iht  Llgunan  ApHuunM.  in  r  ,; s rJ  to  at  glacial 
natiua  of  ali  tlwae  rDnnacioni  there  ia,  bawi^vur,  ^ri  .ir  diveraence  ol 
Mdokn (Ke  A.  Hrim,  " Zur Fnge der emiiKhcn  IH>»lie in Flyach," 
&|g«f  iniiiifii  HdaeAu.  vol,  fit.  No.  3,  iii<i7.  I'C  ly-W)' ,  ,  , 
ADTKOmiia.— The  Hteranire  deling  dir„tlv  >illi  the  Glaoal 
period  haa  racbtd  enomoua  dimmaion.^  in  jddir W.I  10  the  ■otka 
already  mEniiannl  the  [allowing  may  be  ukm  js  3  gtude  10  tlie 
«kJ  outline  ot  the  «biect :  I  Griiac.  r*<  ft™( /<;  a«  (Ed  •d- 
Am  fx  N^k„ana  (ith  ed.,  New  York,  i.,n^1  ^inJ  Ifa  ai^  fb 
CEui^  Period  (iSoal;  F.  E.  Cnniti,  Pit  /.; "(  rBraunaehwBg, 
I9a&);A.I'enckandE.  Btackntr.Dii^l^i  :-':  uiltr  {Lajatt. 

1001-1006,  unconipleledl.    Many  refeienci .  1  eiJlLte  wili  be 

f^i>d  inSi.  A.  Getlde-.  TaUmt  ofGrd^iy.  '■■   .      llh  ed.,  1903); 
Chambeiihi  and  SalirtHity,  Cofacr.  vol.  u\.  1 1  .  ^  an  mmple 

□I  ilarial  thtoriet  cairiedljcyand  the  uiu^l  I M.  Cugenhan, 

D£Eft!tlK)uf<i»iittEiii«inPMiuPi^\\-     .:       io6|.    S«al» 
ZrillckrMfir  CUUcirrkumdt  (Berlin,  IiJOO  :i!i.l     r,.  .fdl  quarterly); 

W.t)u-M«o«rfI*f  ftoiSTi.,  5.  (London,  ido;!,  I.<  .i«J  Welf.  1.,  iL 
(London.  190s),  Tie  UammM  tui  Ut  fhnil  (L(,:„lun,  iMr), 

OUCtEB  (adapted  fiom  the  Fccncb;  fiom  {lace,  ice,  Lat. 
flofui),  a  mau  of  compacted  kc  oiiginituig  in  a  mow-Geld, 
Gladen  an  fonncd  on  any  ponioti  of  the  eailh'a  luifacc  that 
ia  pamancntly  above  tbe  taow-liDe.  Thia  line  vaiica  locally 
in  Ibe  hoc  latituda,  bong  in  aome  plana  higher  thin  in  olhen,, 
but  In  the  main  11  ma,y  be  dcariibed  aa  an  elliptical  shell  aurround- 
iDg  the  eatth  with  Iti  longest  diameter  in  the  tropica  and  it5 
ihotteat  in  the  polar  icgions,  wheie  it  toucha  >ea-leveL  From 
the  eilreme  region!  o[  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  ciids  thii  cold 
■hell  swelli  upwarda  into  a  broad  dome,  from  is/wolo  18,000  ft. 
high  over  the  tiopio,  tnincitint,  aa  It  lisea,  a  number  of  peaki 
and  mountab  nnges  wbOM  upper  poRkmi  like  all  regions 
above  this  themul  shell  receive  all  theiT  tnoistute  in  tbe  lonn  of 
anow.  Since  the  leniperaiure  above  the  toow-line  ia  below 
freeiini  point  evipaiaiion  is  very  slight,  and  as  the  anow  is 
aolid  it  (ends  to  accumulate  in  inow-Gelds,  where  the  anow  of 
one  year  is  covered  by  that  of  the  next,  and  these  are  wrapped 
over  many  deeper  layers  that  have  fallen  in  previous  years, 
Jf  these  piles  of  snow,  were  rigid  and  immovable  they  would 
incnaie  in  height  until  the  whole  field  rose  above  the  aone  of 
ordinary  atmospheric  precipitation,  and  the  polar  ite-caps  would 
add  a  load  to  these  regions  thai  would  produce  far-reaching 
results.  The  mountain  ttgions  also  would  rise  some  miles  in 
hdght,  and  all  Ibeir  features  would  be  buried  in  domes  of  snow 
some  mile*  in  ihicknes*.  When,  however,  there  is  sufEcienl 
weight  the  raasa  yields  to  pressure  and  flows  outwards  and 
downwards.  Thuaabalanceof  weight  and  height  is  established, 
and  the  ice-Beld  is  diuntegrated  principally  at  the  edges,  the 
aurplus  in  polar  regions  being  carried  off  in  the  form  of  icebergs, 
and  in  mountain  regions  by  slreims  that  flow  (lom  the  melting 
ends  of  tbe  ^adeit. 

fummlum.— The  formation  of  gladcrs  is  in  all  cases  di 
vmilar  causes,  namely,  to  periodical  and  intermittent  fal 
snow.  After  a  snow-fall  there  is  a  period  of  rest  during  ■ 
the  snow  becomes  compacted  by  pressure  and  assumes 
well-known  granular  eharacter  seen  in  banks  and  patchi 
ordinary  snow  that  lie  longest  upon  the  ground  when  the  1 
b  melting.  This  is  thcfirn  or  nM.  The  neil  fall  of  snow  a 
and  conceals  the  ntvf.  but  theUght  fresh  crystals  of  this  new 
snow  in  run)  become  compacted  to  the  coaraely  crystalliue 
giaoular  form  of  the  underlying  layi  .... 


rerjayers 


rebccom 


ir  c;7stalline  leiture  throughout.  The  upper  laye 
of  n(vi  are  usually  stratified,  awing  to  someuidividual  pcculiaril_ 
in  the  fall,  or  to  ihe  accumulation  of  duM  or  dfbris  upon  tlie 
•urface  before  il  is  covered  by  fresh  snow.    TUs  stratiScalioQ 


often  visible  on  Ibe  emerglBg  Racier,  thmi^  ft  Is  ta  be  (tirtla- 
guiibed  from  tbe  foliation  planes  aused  by  shearing  niovaiieiit 
in  the  body  of  the  glacier  ice. 

Ty^.— The  anow.field  upon  which   a  ^ader  dependi   ia 

always  formed  when  snow-fall  is  greater  Iban  snow-waste.  Tliis 
occurs  under  varying  conditions  with  a  differently  resulting 
type  of  glacier.  Tbere  are  limited  fields  of  anow  in  many 
mountain  regions  giving  rise  to  long  tongues  oS  ice  moving 
shiwly  down  the  valleys  and  therefore  called  "  valley  glaciera." 
The  greater  part  of  Greenlatid  it  covered  by  an  ice-cap  eitendiiis 
over  nearly  400,000  sg.  dl,  forming  a  lilndof  enannous  caotinuous 
glader  on  ill  lower  dopes.  The  Antarctic  ice  repon  is  bdieved 
to  extend  over  more  Iban  3,000,000  sq.  m.  Each  of  these 
continental  fields,  besides  producing  block  as  dislinguisfaed 
from  tongue  ^aden,  sends  into  the  sea  a  great  number  of  toe- 
bergs  during  the  summer  season.  These  ice-caps  cavering 
great  regions  are  by  far  the  moat  important  lypes.  Between 
th«e  "polar"  or  "  csniinental  gladen"  and  the  "alpine" 
type  ibere  are  many  grades.  Smaller  detached  ice-caps  may 
rest  upon  high  plateaus  as  in  Iceland,  or  aevcEal  tongues  of  ice 
coming  down  neighbouring  valleys  may  splay  out  into  convergent 
lobes  on  lower  ground  and  form  a  "  piedmont  ^ader  "  such  aa 
the  Ualaspina  Glacier  in  Alaska.  When  the  anow-Geld  lies  in  k 
small  depression  the  glader  may  remain  suspended  il 


:  of  the  I 


w-fidd. 


This  is  called  a  "cli£f-^ader,"( 

regions.  Tbe  end  of  a  huger  glader,  or  the  edge  of  an  ice-sheet, 
may  reach  a  predpitoua  difl,  where  the  ice  will  break  from  the 
edge  of  the  advancing  mass  and  fall  in  blocks  to  the  lower  ground, 
where  a  "  reconstructed  glader  "  will  be  formed  from  the  frag- 
ments and  advance  farther  down  the  slope. 

When  a  glader  originates  upon  a  dome-shaped  or  a  levd 
■urface  the  ice  will  deploy  radially  in  all  directions.  When  a 
snow-hdd  is  formed  above  sleep  vuUeya  leparated  by  high 
ridges  the  ice  will  flow  downwards  in  long  slresms.  If  the 
valleys  under  the  snow-fields  ate  wide  and  shallow  Ihe  resultant 
gladen  will  broaden  out  and  partially  fill  them,  and  in  all  cases, 
»nce  the  tondilions  of  glader  formal  Ion  are  similar,  the  resultant 

of  ice  and  the  form  of  Ihe  surface  over  which  the  glacier  Bovra. 
A  glader  flowing  down  a  narrow  gorge  in  an  open  valley,  or  on 
to  a  plain,  will  spread  al  its  foot  into  a  fan-shaped  lobe  as  the 
ice  spreads  outwards  while  moving  downwarda.     An  ice-cap 


A  valley  glader  is  thickest  at  son 

e  point  between  its  source 

and  its  end,  but  nearer  to  it.  sou 

but  its  thickness  al  various  portions  wilt  depend  upon  tbe 

contour  of  the  vaUey  floor  over  « 

hidi  the  gbder  rides,  and 

may  reach  many  hundreds  of  feel. 

At  its  centre  the  Greenland 

ce-cap  is  esiimated  to  be  over  5000  fl-  ihick.    In  all  cases  the 

glader  ends  where  the  wajle  of  ice 

and  since  the  rcbtionship  varies  in 

diflercnl  yean,  or  cycles  of 

yean,  the  end  of  a  glacier  may  ad 

-ance  or  retreal  in  harmony 

with  greater  or  less  snow-fall  or  wi 

h  cooler  or  holler  sum  men 

There  seems  to  be  a  cyde  of  induslv 

■e  conlraction  and  eapanlioo 

of  from  35  Id  40  or  50  yean.    At  p 

glarieit  are  cradled  in  a  mass  o( 

notaine-aiuff  due  to  former 

exiension  of  the  gladen,  and  invettigaiians  in  India  show  that 
in  some  parts  of  the  Himaliyai  tbe  glader*  are  retreating  as 
they  arejn  North  America  and  even  in  the  sonihem  hemisphere 
(A'aiarr,  January  5,  ifoB,  p.  so.). 

Unemnl. — Tie  fact  that  a  glacier  moves  is  easily  demon- 
strated; the  cause  of  the  movement  is  pressure  upon  a  yielding 

Rows  of  stakes  or  stones  placed  in  line  across  a  glader  are  found 
to  change  their  position  with  re^wct  to  objects  on  the  bank  and 
also  with  regard  to  each  other.  The  posts  in  the  centre  ol  (he 
ice-stream  gradually  move  away  from  thoae  at  the  side,  proving 

proved  that  the  surface  portiorj  move  more  rapidly  than  the 
deeper  layen  and  that  the  motion  is  slowest  at  Ibe  vdea  and 
bottom  when  friction  is  greatest. 


GLACIER 


6i 


The  nue  td  motion  past  the  same  spot  is  not  uniform.  Heat 
acoekimtes  it,  cold  arrests  it,  and  the  pressure  of  a  large  amount 
of  water  stimuUtes  the  flow.  The  rate  of  flow  under  the  same 
cooditioDs  varies  at  different  parts  of  the  glader  directly  as  the 
thjckness  of  ice,  the  steepness  o£  slope  and  the  smoothness  of 
ntky  floor.  Generally  speaking,  the  rate  of  motion  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  ice  that  forms  the  "  bead  "  pressure,  the 
ilope  of  the  under  nirface  and  of  the  upper  surface,  the  nature 
of  the  floor,  the  temperature  and  the  amount  of  water  present 
in  the  ice.  The  ordinary  rate  of  motion  is  very  slow.  In  Switzer- 
land it  is  from  x  or  a  in.  to  4  ft.  per  day,  in  Alaska  7  ft.,  in  Green- 
land 50  to  60  ft.,  and  occasionaily  xoo  ft.  per  day  in  the  height 
of  summfT  under  exceptional  conditions  of  quantity  of  ice  and 
of  water  and  slope.  Measurements  of  Swiss  glaciers  show  that 
near  the  ice  foot  where  wastage  is  great  there  is  very  little 
movement,  and  observations  upon  the  inland  border  of  Greenland 
ice  show  that  it  is  almost  stationary  over  long  distances.  In 
many  aqxcts  the  motion  of  a  body  of  ice  resembles  that  of  a 
body  of  water,  and  an  alpine  glader  is  often  called  an  ice-river, 
since  like  a  river  it  moves  faster  in  the  centre  than  at  the  sides 
and  at  the  t(^  faster  than  at  the  bottom.  A  ^Uider  follows  a 
curve  in  the  same  way  as  a  river,  and  there  appear  to  be  ice 
swirls  and  eddies  as  well  as  an  upward  creep  on  shelving  curves 
recalling  many  features  of  stream  action.  The  rate  of  motion 
of  both  ice-stream  and  river  is  accelerated  by  quantity  and 
steepness  of  slope  and  retarded  by  roughness  of  bied,  but  here 
the  comparison  ends,  for  temperature  does  not  affect  the  rate 
of  water  motion,  nor  wiU  a  liquid  crack  into  crevasses  as  a  glacier 
does,  or  move  upwards  over  an  adverse  slope  as  a  glacier  always 
does  when  there  is  sufl^dent  **  head  "  of  ice  above  it.  So  that 
althou^  in  many  req>ects  ice  behaves  as  a  viscous  fluid  the 
comparison  with  such  a  fluid  is  not  perfect.  The  cause  of  glader 
motion  must  be  based  upon  some  more  or  less  complex  considera- 
tioiis.  The  flakes  of  snow  are  gradually  transformed  into 
granules  became  the  points  and  angks  of  the  original  flakes 
melt  and  evaporate  more  readily  than  the  more  solid  central 
portions,  which  become  aggregated  round  some  master  flake 
that  cxmtlnues  to  grow  in  the  ntv€  at  the  expense  of  its  smaller 
neighbours,  and  increases  in  size  until  finally  the  glader  ice  is 
composed  of  a  mass  of  interlocked  crystalline  granules,  some  as 
large  as  a  walnut,  dosely  compacted  under  pressure  with  the 
principal  crystalline  axes  in  various  directions.  In  the  upper 
portions  of  the  glader  movement  due  to  pressure  probably 
takes  place  by  the  gliding  of  one  granule  over  another.  In  this 
connnrion  it  must  be  noted  that  pressure  lowers  the  melting 
point  of  ice  while  tenuon  raises  it,  and  at  all  points  of  pressure 
there  is  therefore  a  tendency  to  momentary  melting,  and  also 
to  some  evaporation  due  to  the  heat  caused  by  pressure,  and  at 
the  intermediate  tension  spaces  between  the  points  of  pressure 
this  rmiltant  liquid  and  vapour  will  be  at  once  re-frozen  and 
become  solid.  The  granular  movement  is  thus  greatly  facilitated, 
while  the  body  of  ice  remains  in  a  crystalline  solid  condition. 
In  this  connexion  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  pressure  of 
the  glader  upon  its  floor  will  have  the  same  result,  but  the 
effect  here  is  a  mass-effect  and  facilitates  the  gliding  of  the  ice 
over  obstades,  since  the  friction  produces  heat  and  the  pressure 
fewers  the  mdting  point,  so  that  the  two  causes  tend  to  liquefy 
the  portion  where  pressure  is  greatest  and  so  to  "  lubricate  " 
the  prominences  and  enable  the  glader  to  slide  more  e^y  over 
them,  while  .the  liquid  thus  produced  is  re-frozen  when  the 
pceasufc  is  removed. 

In  polar  regions  of  very  low  temperature  a  very  considerable 
anumnt  of  pressure  must  be  necessary  before  the  ice  granules 
yield  to  momentary  Uquefaction  at  the  points  of  pressure,  and 
this  probably  accounts  for  the  extreme  thickness  of  the  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  ice-caps  where  the  slopes  are  moderate,  for  although 
equally  low  temperatures  are  found  in  high  Alpine  snow-fields 
the  slopes  there  are  exceedingly  steep  and  motion  is  therefore 
BDie  easfly  produced. 

Observations  made  upon  the  Greenland  gladers  indicate 
a  considerable  amount  of  "  shearing  "  movement  in  the  lower 
pottioBS  of  a  glacier.    Where  obstacles  in  the  bed  of  the  ^ader 


arrest  the  movement  of  the  ice  immediatdy  above  it,  or  where 
the  lower  portion  of  the  glader  is  choked  by  d6bris,  the  upper 
ice  glides  over  the  lower  in  shearing  planes  that  are  sometimes 
strongly  marked  by  debris  caught  and  pushed  forwards  along 
these  planes  of  foliation.  It  must  be  remembered  that  there 
is  a  solid  push  from  behind  upon  the  lower  portion  of  a  glader, 
quite  different  from  the  pressure  of  a  body  of  water  upon  any 
point,  for  the  pressure  of  a  fluid  is  equal  in  all  directions,  and 
also  that  this  push  will  tend  to  set  the  crystalline  granules  in 
positions  in  which  their  crystalline  axes  are  paralld  along  the 
gliding  planes.  The  production  of  gliding  planes  is  in  some 
cases  facilitated  by  the  descent  into  the  glader  of  water  mdted 
during  summer,  where  it  expands  in  freezing  and  pushes  the 
adjacent  ice  away  from  it,  forming  a  surface  along  which  move- 
ment is  readily  established. 

If- under  all  drctunstances  the  glader  mdted  under  pressure 
at  I  he  bottom,  glacial  abrasion  would  be  neariy  impossible,  since 
every  small  stone  and  fragment  of  rock  would  rotate  in  a  liquid 
shell  as  the  ice  moved  forward,  but  since  the  pressure  is  not 
always  suflldent  to  produce  mdting,  the  glader  sometimes 
remains  dry  at  its  base;  rock  fragments  are  hdd  firmly;  and 
a  dry  glader  may  thus  become  a  graving  tool  of  enormous 
power.  Whatever  views  may  be  adopted  as  to  the  causes  of 
glader  motion,  the  peculiar  character  of  glader  ice  as  distinct 
from  homogeneous  river  or  pond  ice  must  be  kq>t  in  view,  as 
well  as  the  diaracteristic  tendency  of  water  to  expand  infreering, 
the  lowering  of  the  mdting  point  of  ice  under  pressure,  the 
raising  of  the  melting  point  under  tension,  the  production  of 
gliding  or  shearing  planes  under  pressure  from  above,  the 
presence  in  summer  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  in  the 
lower  portions  of  the  glader  w;hich  are  thus  loosened,  the  cracking 
of  ice  (as  into  crevasses),  under  sudden  strain,  and  the  rcgdation 
of  ice  in  contact.  A  result  of  this  last  process  is  that  fissures 
are  not  permanent,  but  having  been  produced  by  the  passage 
of  ice  over  an  obstruction,  they  subsequently  become  healeid 
when  the  ice  proceeds  over  a  flatter  bed.  Finally  it  must  be 
remembered  that  although  glader  ice  behaves  in  some  sense 
like  a  viscous  fluid  its  condition  is  totally  different,  since  "  a 
gUder  is  a  ciystalline  rock  of  the  purest  and  simplest  type,  and 
it  never  has  other  than  the  ciystalUne  state." 

Characteristics. — The  general  appearance  of  a  glader  varies 
according  to  its  environment  of  position  and  temperature. 
The  upper  portion  is  hidden  by  ntv€  and  often  by  freshly  fallen 
snow,  and  is  smooth  and  unbroken.  During  the  summer,  when 
little  snow  faUs,  the  body  of  the  ^Uider  moves  away  foim  the 
snow-field  and  a  gaping  crevasse  of  great  depth  is  usually 
established  called  the  bergsckrund,  which  is  sometimes  taken 
as  the  upper  limit  of  the  ^kder.  The  glader  as  it  moves  down 
the  valley  may  become  "  loaded  "  in  various  ways.  Rock-falls 
send  periodical  showers  of  stones  upon  it  from  the  heights,  and 
these  are  spread  out  into  long  Unes  at  the  glader  sides  as  the  ice 
moves  downwards  carrying  the  rock  fragments  with  it.  These 
are  the  "  lateral  moraines."  When  two  or  more  gladers  descend- 
ing adjacent  valleys  converge  into  one  glacier  one  or  more  sides 
of  the  higher  valleys  disappear,  and  the  ice  that  was  contained 
in  several  valleys  is  now  carried  by  one.  In  the  simplest  case 
where  two  valleys  converge  into  one  the  two  inner  lateral 
moraines  meet  and  continue  to  stream  down  the  larger  valley 
as  one  "  median  moraine."  Where  several  valleys  meet  there 
are  several  such  paralld  median  moraines,  and  so  long  as  the  ice 
remains  unbroken  these  will  be  carried  upon  the  surface  of  the 
glader  and  finaOy  tipped  over  the  end.  There  is,  however, 
differential  heating  of  rock  and  ice,  and  if  the  stones  carried 
are  thin  they  tend  to  sink  into  the  ice  because  they  absorb 
heat  readily  and  melt  the  ice  under  them.  Dust  has  the 
same  effect  and  produces  "dust  wells"  that  honeycomb  the 
upper  surface  of  the  ice  with  holes  into  which  the  dust  sinks. 
If  the  moraine  rocks  are  thick  they  prevent  the  ice  under 
them  from  mdting  in  sunlight,  and  isoUted  blocks  often 
remain  supported  upon  ice-pillais  in  the  form  of  ice  tables, 
which  finadly  collapse,  so  that  such  rocks  may  be  scattered 
out  of  the  line  of  the  moraine.    As  the  glader  descends  into 


62 


GLACIER 


the  lower  valleys  it  is  more  strongly  heated,  and  surface 
streams  are  established  in  consequence  that  flow  into  channels 
caused  by  unequal  melting  of  the  ice  and  finally  plunge  into 
crevasses.  These  crevasses  are  formed  by  strains  established 
as  the  central  parts  drag  away  from  the  sides  of  the  glacier  and 
the  upper  siuiace  from  the  lower,  and  more  markedly  by  the 
tension  due  to  a  sydden  bend  in  the  glacier  caused  by  an  in- 
equality in  its  bed  which  must  be  over-ridden.  These  crevasses 
are  developed  at  right  angles  to  the  strain  and  often  produce 
intersecting  fissures  in  several  directions.  The  morainic  material 
is  gradually  dispersed  by  the  inequalities  produced,  and  is 
further  distributed  by  the  action  of  superficial  streams  until  the 
whole  surface  is  strewn  with  stones  and  debris,  and  presents, 
as  in  the  lower  portions  of  the  Mer  de  Glace,  an  exceedingly 
dirty  appearance.  Many  blocks  of  stone  fall  into  the  gaping 
crevasses  and  much  loose  rock  is  carried  down  as  "  englacial 
material  **  in  the  body  of  the  glacier.  Some  of  it  reaches  the 
bottom  and  becomes  part  of  the  "ground  moraine"  which 
underlies  the  glader,  at  least  from  the  bngscknaid  to  the  "  snout," 
wh^remuchof  it  is  carried  away  by  the  issuing  stream  and 
spread  finally  on  to  the  plains  below.  It  appears  that  a  very 
considerable  amount  of  degradation  is  caused  under  the  berg- 
schrund  by  the  mass  Of  ice  "plucking"  and  dragging  great 
blocks  of  rock  from  the  side  of  the  mountain  valley  where  the 
great  head  of  ice  rests  in  winter  and  whence  it  begins  to  move 
in  sununer.  These  blocks  and  many  smaller  fragments  are 
carried  downwards  wedged  in  the  ice  and  cause  powerful  abrasion 
upon  the  rocky  floor,  rasping  and  scoring  the  channel,  producing 
conspicuous  striae,  polishing  and  rounding  the  rock  surfaces, 
and  grinding  the  contained  fragments  as  well  as  the  surface 
over  which  it  passes  into  small  fragments  and  fine  powder, 
from  which  "  boulder  clay "  or  "  till "  is  finally  pzoduced. 
Emerging,  then,  from  the  snow-field  as  pure  granular  ice  the 
glacier  gradually  becomes  strewn  and  filled  with  foreign  material, 
not  only  from  above  but  also,  as  is  very  evident  in  some  Greenland 
glaciers,  occasionally  from  below  by  masses  of  fragments  that 
move  upwards  along  gliding  planeS)  or  are  forced  upwards  by 
slow  swirls  in  the  ice  Itself. 

As  a  glader  is  a  very  brittle  body  any  abrupt  change  in  gradient 
will  produce  a  number  of  crevasses,  and  these,  together  with 
those  produced  by  dragging  strains,  will  frequently  wedge  the 
glader  into  a  mass  of  pinnacles  or  siracs  that  may  be  partially 
healed  but  are  usually  evident  when  the  mdting  end  of  the 
glader  emerges  suddenly  from  a  steep  valley.  Here  the  streams 
widen  the  weaker  portions  and  the  moraine  rocks  fall  from  the 
end  to  produce  the  '*  terminal "  moraine,  which  usually  lies  in 
a  4:rescentic  heap  encircling  the  glader  snout,  whence  it  can 
only  be  moved  by  a  further  advance  of  the  glader  or  by  the 
ordinary  slow  process  of  atmospheric  denudation. 

In  cases  where  no  rock  falls  upon  the  surface  there  is  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  englacial  material  due  to  upturning  either 
over  accumulated  ground  d6bris  or  over  structural  inequalities 
in  the  rock  floor.  This  is  well  seen  at  the  steep  sides  and  ends 
of  Greenland  gladers,  where  material  frequently  comes  to  the 
surface  of  the  melting  ice  and  produces  median  and  lateral 
moraines,  besides  appearing  in  enormous  "  eyes  "  surroimded 
in  the  gladal  body  by  contorted  and  foliated  ice  and  sometimes 
producing  heaps  and  embankments  as  it  is  pushed  out  at  the 
end  of  the  mdting  ice. 

The  environment  of  temperature  requires  consideration. 
At  the  upper  or  dorsal  portion  of  the  glader  there  is  a  zone 
of  variable  (winter  and  summer)  temperature,  beneath  which, 
if  the  ice  is  thick  enough,  there  is  a  zone  of  constant  temperature 
which  will  be  about  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  region 
of  the  snow-field.  Underlying  this  there  is  a  more  or  less  constant 
ventral  or  ground  temperature,  depending  mainly  upon  the 
internal  heat  of  the  earth,  which  is  conducted  to  the  under 
surface  of  the  glader  where  it  slowly  melts  the  ice,  the  more 
readily  because  the  pressure  lowera  the  mdting  point  consider- 
ably, so  that  streams  of  water  run  constantly  from  beneath  many 
gladen,  adding  their  volume  to  the  springs  which  issue  from  the 
lock.    The  naiddlesone  of  constant  temperature  is  wedgft-sbaped 


in  "  aliHne  i*  gladen,  the  apex  pointing  downwards  to  the  aone 
of  waste.  The  upper  zone  of  variable  temperature  b  thinnest 
in  the  snow-field  where  the  mean  temperature  is  lowest,  and 
entirdy  dominant  in  the  snout  end  of  the  glacier  where  the  zone 
of  constant  temperature  disappears.  Two  temperature  wedges 
are  thus  superposed  base  to  point,  the  one  being  thickest  where 
the  other  is  thinnest,  and  both  these  lie  upon  the  basal  film  of 
temperature  where  the  escaping  earth-heat  is  strengthened 
by  that  due  to  friction  and  pressure.  The  cold  wave  of  winter 
may  pass  right  through  a  thin  glader,  or  the  constant  temperature 
may  be  too  low  to  permit  of  the  ice  mdting  at  the  base,  in  which 
cases  the  glacier  is  "  dry  "  and  has  great  eroding  power.  But 
in  the  lower  warmer  portions  water  running  through  crevasses 
will  raise  the  temperature,  and  increase  the  strength  of  the 
downward  heat  wave,  while  the  mean  annual  temperature 
bdng  there  higher,  the  combined  result  will  be  that  the  gladcf 
will  gradually  become  "  wet "  at  the  base  and  have  little  eroding 
power,  and  it  will  become  more  and  more  wet  as  it  moves  down 
the  lower  valley  zone  of  ice-waste,  until  at  last  the  balance 
is  reached  between  waste  and  supply  and  the  glader  finally 
disappears. 

If  the  mean  annual  temperature  be  20^  F.,  and  the  mean 
winter  temperature  be  -  12^  F.,  as  in  parts  of  Greenland,  all 
the  ice  must  be  considerably  bdow  the  mdting  point,  since  the 
pressure  of  ice  a  mile  in  depth  lowers  the  mdting  point  only 
to  30°  F.,  and  the  earth-heat  is  only  suffident  to  mdt  i  in.  of 
ice  in  a  year.  Therefore  in  these  regions,  and  in  snow-fidds  and 
high  gladen  with  an  equal  or  lower  mean  temperature  than 
20**  F.,  the  glader  will  be  "  dry  "  throughout,  which  may  account 
for  the  great  eroding  power  stated  to  exist  near  the  bergsehntnd 
in  gladen  of  an  alpine  type,  which  usually  have  their  origin  on 
predpitous  slopes. 

A  considerable  amount  of  ice-waste  takes  place  by  water- 
drainage,  though  much  is  the  result  of  consUnt  evaporation 
from  the  ice  surface.  The  lower  end  of  a  glader  is  in  summer 
flooded  by  streams  of  water  that  pour  along  cracks  and  plunge 
into  crevasses,  often  forming  "pot-holes"  or  tnouiins  where 
stones  are  swirled  round  in  a  glacial  "  mill "  and  wear  holes 
in  the  solid  rock  below.  Some  of  these  streams  Issue  in  a  spout 
half  way  up  the  glader's  end  wall,  but  the  majority  find  their 
way  through  it  and  join  the  water  running  along  the  grader 
floor  and  emerging  where  the  glader  ends  in  a  large  gladal 
stream. 

Residls  of  Glacial  Action. — ^A  s^der  is  a  degrading  and  an 
aggrading  agent.  Much  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the 
potency  of  a  glacier  to  alter  surface  features,  some  maintaining 
that  it  is  extraordinarily  effective,  and  considering  that  a  valley 
glacier  forms  a  pronounced  cirque  at  the  region  of  its  origin 
and  that  the  cirque  is  gradually  cut  backward  until  a  long  and 
deep  valley  is  formed  (which  becomes  evident,  as  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  an  upper  valley  with  "  reversed  grade  "  when 
the  glader  disappeara),  and  also  that  the  end  of  a  glacier  plunging 
into  a  valley  or  a  fjord  vrill  gouge  a  deep  basin  at  its  region  <S 
impact.  The  Alaskan  and  Norwegian  fjords  and  the  rock  basins 
of  the  Scottish  lochs  are  adduced  as  examples.  Other  writera 
maintain  that  a  glader  is  only  a  modifying  and  not  a  dominant 
agent  in  its  effects  upon  the  land-surface,  considering,  for  example, 
that  a  glader  coming  down  a  lateral  valley  will  preserve  the 
valley  from  the  atmospheric  denudation  which  has  produced 
the  main  valley  over  which  the  lateral  valley  "  hangs,"  a  result 
which  the  believera  in  strong  glacial  action  hold  to  be  due  to  the 
more  powerful  action  of  the  main  glader  as  contrasted  with  the 
weaker  action  of  that  in  the  lateral  valley.  Both  the  advocates 
and  the  opponents  of  strenuous  ice  action  agree  that  a  V-shaped 
valley  of  stream  erosion  is  converted  to  a  U-shaped  valley  of 
^adal  modification,  and  that  rock  siuiaces  are  rounded  into 
roches  mouionnies,  and  are  grooved  and  striated  by  the  passage 
of  ice  shod  with  fragments  of  rock,  while  the  sub^adal  material 
is  ground  into  finer  and  finer  fragments  until  it  becomes  mud 
and  "  rock-flour  "  as  the  glader  proceeds.  In  any  case  striking 
results  are  manifest  in  any  formerly  glaciated  region.  The  high 
peaks  rise  into  pinnacles,  and  ridges  with  "  house-roof  "  struaure. 


GLACIS— GLADIATORS 


63 


above  the  former  glacier,  while  below  it  the  contours  are  all 
Rraaded  and  typicaBy  subdued.  A  landscape  that  was  formerly 
completdy  covered  by  a  moving  ice-cap  has  none  but  these 
rouiMled  features  of  dome-shaped  hills  and  U-shaped  vallejrs 
that  at  least  bear  evidence  to  the  great  modifying  power  that 
a  glader  has  upon  a  landscape. 

There  is  no  conflict  of  opinion  with  regard  to  glacial  aggradation 
and  the  distribution  of  superglacial,  englacial  and  subglacial 
material,  which  during  the  active  existence  of  a  glacier  is  finally 
distributed  by  s^dal  streams  that  produce  very  considerable 
alluviation.  In  many  regions  which  were  covered,  by  the 
Pletatocene  ice-sheet  the  work  of  the  glader  was  arrested  by 
mdtiBg  before  it  was  half  done.  Great  deposits  of  till  and  boulder 
day  that  lay  beneath  the  glaciers  were  abandoned  in  sUu,  and 
remain  as  an  unsorted  mixture  of  large  boulders,  pebbles  and 
mingled  fragments,  embedded  in  day  or  sand.  The  lateral, 
"*H^«"  and  terminal  moraines  were  stranded  where  they  sank 
as  the  ice  disa{H>eared,  and  together  with  perched  blocks  {rockes 
penMes)  remain  as  a  permanent  record  of  former  conditions 
which  are  now  found  to  bzve  existed  temporarily  in  much  earlier 
geological  times.  In  gladated  North  America  lateral  moraines 
are  found  that  are  500  to  1000  ft.  high  and  in  northern  Italy 
1500  to  aooo  ft.  high.  The  surface  of  the  groimd  in.  all  these 
places  is  modified  into  the  characteristic  gladated  landscape, 
and  naany  formeriy  deep  valleys  are  choked  with  gladal  debris 
either  completdy  changing  the  local  drainage  systems,  or  compd- 
ling  the  reai^>earing  streams  to  cut  new  channels  in  a  superposed 
drainage  system.  Rames  also  and  eskers  (q.v.)  are  left  under 
certain  conditions,  with  many  puzzling  deposits  that  are  dearly 
doe  to  some  features  of  ice-work  not  thoroughly  understood. 

See  L.  Aganiz,  £luies  sur  Us  glaciers  (NeuchAtel,  1840)  and 
N^tmeOts  Stmdes  . . .  (Paris.  1847);  N.  S.  Shaler  and  W.  M.  Davis. 
CUdgrs  (Boston,  1881);  A.  Pcnck,  Die  BegleUckeruHg  der  detUscken 


AJpem  (Leipiiff.  1883) ;  j.  TyndaU,  Tke  Glaciers  of  the  Alps  (London. 
1896):  T.  G.  Bonney.  Ice-Work,  Past  and  Present  (London.  1896); 
I.  C.  RuaseU,  Glaciers  of  North  America  (Boston,  1897):  E.  Richter, 


Neue  Brgebmsse  und  Probleme  der  Gletsekerforsckung  (Vienna,  1899) ; 
F.  Ford.  Essai  smr  Us  wariaHonsptriediques  des  glaciers  (Geneva.  1 88 1 
and  1900};  H.  Hess,  Die  Gletscker  (Brunswick,  1904}.   (E.  C.  Sr.) 

GLACB,  in  military  engineering  (see  FoRnncATiON  and 
SncxcxArr),  an  artifidal  slope  of  earth  in  the  front  of  works, 
so  omstructed  as  to  keep  an  assailant  under  the  fire  of  the 
defenders  to  the  last  possible  moment.  On  the  natural  ground- 
levd,  troops  attacking  any  high  work  would  be  sheltered  from 
its  fire  when  dose  up  to  it;  the  ground  therefore  is  raised  to 
form  a  glads,  which  is  swept  by  the  fire  of  the  parapet.  More 
generally,  the  term  is  used  to  denote  any  slope,  natural  or 
artificial,  which  fvdfils  the  above  requirements. 

OUU>BACH,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  CSermany  distinguished 
as  Bergtsch-Gladbach  and  Miinchen-GIadbach. 

1.  Bercisch-Gladbach  is  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  8  m.  N.E.  of 
Cologne  by  raH.  Pop.  (1905)  13,410.  It  possesses  four  large^ 
paper  miUs  and  among  its  other  industries  are  paste-board, 
powder,  percussion  caps,  nets  and  machinery..  Ironstone, 
peat  and  lime  are  found  in  the  vidnity.  The  town  has  four 
Roman  Catholic  churches  and  one  Protestant.  The  Stunden- 
thabbOhe,  a  popular  resort,  is  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  near 
Gladbach  is  Altenberg,  with  a  remarkably  fine  church,  built 
for  the  Ctsterdan  abbey  at  this  place. 

2.  MOnchen-Gladbach,  also  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  16  m, 
W.S.W.  of  Dflasddorf  on  the  main  line  of  railway  to  Aix-la* 
Chapdle.  Pop.  (1885)  44,230;  (1905)  60,714.  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
manufacturing  places  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  its  principal  industries 
being  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton,  the  manufacture 
of  silks,  vdvet,  ribbon  and  damasks,  and  dyeing  and  bleaching. 
There  are  also  tanneries,  tobacco  manufactories,  machine  works 
and  foundries.  The  town  posse^es  a  fine  park  and  has  statues 
of  tlie  emperor  William  I.  and  of  Prince  Bismarck.  There  are 
tea  Roman  Catholic  churches  here,  among  them  being  the 
beaatiful  minster,  with  a  Gothic  choir  dating  from  1250.  a  nave 
dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century  and  a  crypt  of 
the  Stb  dentury.  The  town  has  two  hospitals,  several  schools,' 
and  is  the  headquarters  of  important  insurance  sodeties. 


Gladbach  existed  before  the  timte  of  Charlemagne,  and  a  Bene- 
dictine monastery  was  founded  near  it  in  793.  It  was  thus 
called  Miinchen-GIadbach  or  Monks'  Gladbach,  to  distinguish 
it  from  another  town  of  the  same  name.  The  monastery  was 
suppressed  in  1802.  It  became  a  town  in  1336;  weaving  was 
introduced  here  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  -  century,  and 
having  bdonged  for  a  long  time  to  the  duchy  of  Juliers  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  Prussiai  in  18x5. 

See  Strauss.  Gesckichte  der  Sladt  MUncken-Gladbach  (i8as>;  and 
G.  Eckertz,  Das  VerbrOderungs-  und  TodUnbuch  der  Abtei  Gladbach 
(x88x). 

GLADDBH.  WASHINGTON  (1836-  ),  American  Congrega- 
tional divine,  was  bom  in  Pottsgrove,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  nth 
of  Febrxiary  1836.  He  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1859, 
preached  in  churches  in  Brooklyn,  Morrisania  (New  Yori^  City), 
North  Adams,  Massachusetts,  and  Springfidd,  Massachusetts, 
and  in  1882  became  pastor  of  the  First  (Congregational  Church 
of  Columbus,  Ohio.  He'^was  an  editor  of  the  Independent  in 
1871-1875,  and  a  frequent  contributor  to  it  and  other  periodicals. 
He  consistently  and  earnestly  urged  in  pulpit  and  press  the 
need  of  personal,  dvil  and,  particularly,  social  righteousness, 
and  in  1900-1902  was  a  member  of  the  dty  council  of  Columbus. 
Among  his  many  publications,  which  indude  sermons,  occasional 
addresses,  &c,  are:  Plain  Thoughts  on  the  Art  of  Living  (1868); 
Worhingmen  and  their  Employers  (1876);  The  Christian  Way 
(1877);  Things  New  and  Old  (1884);  Applied  Christianity 
(1887);  Toob  and  the  Man — Property  and  Industry  under  the 
Christian  Zaw  (1893);  The  Church  and  the  Kingdom  (1894), 
arguing  against  a  confusion  and  misuse  of  these  two  terms; 
Seven  Puxxling  BibU  Books  (1897);  Haw  much  is  Left  of  the  Old 
Doctrines  (1899);  Social  Salvation  (1901);  Witnesses  of  the 
Light  (1903);  the  William  Bdden  Noble  Lectures  (Harvard), 
being  addrc^es  on  Dante,  Michelangelo,  Fichte,  Hugo,  Wagner 
and  Ruskin;  Tke  New  Idolatry  (1905);  Christianity  and  Social- 
ism (1906),  and  The  Church  and  Modem  Life  (1908).  In  1909  he 
published  his  Recollections. 

GLADIATORS  (from  Lat.  glddius,  sword),  professional  com- 
batants who  fought  to  the  death  in  Roman  public  shows.  That 
this  form  of  spectade,  which  is  almost  peculiar  to  Rome  and 
the  Roman  provinces,  was  originally  borrowed  from  Etruria 
IS  shown  by  various  indications.  On  an  Etruscan  tomb  dis- 
covered at  Tarquinii  there  is  a  representation  of 'gladiatorial 
games;  the  slaves  employed  to  cany  off  the  dead  bodies  from 
the  arena  wore  masks  representing  the  Etruscan  Charon;  and 
we  learn  from  Isidore  of  Seville  {OrigineSf  x.)  that  the  name  for 
a  trainer  of  gladiators  {lanista)  is  an  Etruscan  word  meaning 
butcher  or  executioner.  These  gladiatorial  games  are  evidently 
a  survival  of  the  practice  of  immolating  skives  and  prisoners 
on  the-  tombs  of  illustrious  chieftains,  a  practice  recorded  in 
Greek,  Roman  and  Scandinavian  legends,  and  traceable  even  as 
late  as  the  X9th  century  as  the  Indian  suttee.  Even  at  Rome 
they  were  for  a  long  time  confined  to  funerals,  and  hence  the  older 
name  for  gladiators  was  bustuarii;  but  in  the  later  days  of  the 
republic  their  original  significance  was  forgotten,  and  they 
formed  as  indispensable  a  part  of  the  public  amusements  as  the 
theatre  and  the  drcus. 

The  first  gladiators  are  said,  on  the  authority  of  Valerius 
Maximus  (ii.  4. 7),  to  have  been  exhibited  at  Rome  in  the  Forum 
Boarium  in  264  B.C.  by  Marcus  and  Decimus  Brutus  at  the 
funeral  of  their  father.  On  this  occasion  only  three  pairs  fought, 
but  the  taste  for  these  games  spread  rapidly,  and  the  number 
of  combatants  grew  apace.  In  174  Titus  Flamininus  cdebratcd 
l)is  father's  obsequies  by  a  three-days'  fight,  in  which  74  gladiators 
took  part.  Julius  Caesar  engaged  such  extravagant  numbers 
for  his  aedilcship  that  his  pob'tical  opponents  took  fright  and 
carried  a  decrecof  the  senate  imposing  a  certain  limit  of  numbers, 
but  notwithstanding  this  restriction  he  was  able  to  exhibit  no 
less  than  300  pairs.  During  the  later  days  of  the  republic  the 
gladiators  were  a  constant  element  of  danger  to  the  public 
peace.  The  more  turbulent  spirits  among  the  nobility  had 
each  his  band  of  gladiators  to  act  as  a  bodyguard,  and  the 
armed  troops  o(  Clodius,  Milo  and  Catiline  played  the  same  part 


64 


GLADIATORS 


in  Roman  histocy  u  the  trmed  letainen  of  the  feudtl  barons 
or  the  condottieri  of  the  Italian  republics.  Under  the  empire, 
notwithstanding  sumptuary  enactments,  the  passion  for  the 
arena  steadily  increased.  Augustus,  indeed,  limited  the  shows 
to  two  a  year,  and  forbade  a  praetor  to  exhibit  more  than  lao 
gladiators,  yet  allusions  in  Horace  {Sat,  IL  .3.  85)  and  Persius 
(vL  48)  show  that  xoo  pairs  was  the  faahioilable  number  for 
private  entertainments;  and. in  the  Marmor  Ancjrranum  the 
emperor  sUCtes  that  more  than  xo,ooo  men  had  fought  during 
his  reign.  The  imbecile  Claudius  was  devoted  to  this  pastime; 
and  would  sit  from  morning  tiU  night  in  his  chair  of  state,  descend- 
ing now  and  then  to  the  arena  to  coax  or  force  the  reluctant 
glaidiators  to  resume  their  bloody  work.  Under  Nero  senators 
and  even  wdl-bom  women  appeared  as  combatants;  and 
Juvenal .  (viii.  199)  has  handed  down  to  eternal  infamy  the 
desceivdamt  of  the  Gracchi  who  appeared  without  disguise  as  a 
reiiaritu,  and  begged  his  life  from  the  tecutor,  who  blushed  to 
conqua  one  so  noble  and  so  vile.'  Titus,  whom  his  countrymen 
sumamed  the  Qement,  ordered  a  show  which  lasted  100  days; 
and  Trajan,  in  celebration  of  his  triumph  over  Decebalus, 
exhibited  5000  pairs  of  gladiators.  Domitian  at  the  Saturnalia 
of  AJ>.  90  arranged  a  battle  between  dwarfs  and  women.  Even 
women  of  high  birth  fought  in  the  arena,  and  it  was  not  till 
A.D.  aoo  that  the  practice  was  forbidden  by  edict.  How  widely 
the  taste  for  these  sanguinary  spectacles  extended  throughout 
the  Roman  provinces  is  attested  by  monuments,  inscriptions 
and  the  remains  of  vast  amphitheatres.  From  Britain  to  Syria 
there  was  not  a  town  of  any  sise  that  could  not  boast  its  arena 
and  annual  games.  After  Italy,  Gaul,  North  Africa  and  Spain 
were  most  famous  for  their  amphitheatres;  and  Greece  was  the 
only  Roman  province  where  the  institution  never  thoroughly 
took  root. 

Gladlatoxs  were  commonly  drawn  either  from  prisoners  of 
war,  or  slaves  or  criminals  condemned  to  death.  Thus  in  the 
first  class  we  read  of  tattooed  Britons  In  their  war  chariots, 
lliradans  with  their  peculiar  bucklers  and  scimitars,  Moors 
from  the  villages  round  Atlas  and  negroes  from  central  Africa, 
exhibited  in  the  Colosseum.  Down  to  the  time  of  the  empire 
only  greater  malefactors,  such  as  brigands  and  incendiaries, 
were  condemned  to  the  arena;  but  by  Caligula,  Claudius  and 
Nero  this  punishment  was  extended  to  minor  offences,  such  as 
fraud  and  peculation,  in  order  to  supply  the  growing  demand 
for  victims.  For  the  first  century  of  the  empire  it  was  lawful 
for  masters  to  sell  their  slaves  as  gladiators,  but  this  was  forbidden 
by  Hadrian  and  Marcus  Aurclius.  Besides  these  three  regular 
classes,  the  ranks  were  recniited  by  a  considerable  number  of 
f  reedmen  and  Roman  citizens  who  had  squandered  their  estates 
and  voluntarily  took  the  aucUframentuM  ^adiatorium,  by  which 
for  a  stated  time  they  bound  themselves  to  the  lanista.  Even 
men  of  birth  and  fortune  not  seldom  entered  the  lists,  either  for 
the  pure  love  of  fighting  or  to  gratify  the  whim  of  some  dissolute 
emperor;  and  one  emperor,  Commodus,  actually  appeared  in 
person  in  the  arena. 

Gladiators  were  trained  In  schools  (/tfi«)  owned  either  by 
the  state  or  by  private  dtizens,  and  though  the  trade  of  a 
lanista  was  considered  disgraceful,  to  own  gladiators  and  let 
them  out  for  hire  was  reckoned  a  legitimate  branch  of  commerce. 
Thus  Cicero,  in  his  letters  to  Atticus,  congratulates  his  friend 
on  the  good  bargain  he  had.  made  in  purchasing  a  band,  and 
urges  that  he  might  easily  recoup  himself  by  consenting  to  let 
them  out  twice.  Men  recruited  miainly  f  rom  slaves  and  criminals, 
whose  lives  hung  on  a  thread,  must  have  been  more  dangerous 
characters  than  modem  galley  slaves  or  convicts;  and,  though 
highly  fed  and  carefully  tended,  they  were  of  necessity  subject 
to  an  iron  discipline.  Ini  the  school  of  s^diators  discovered  at 
Pompeii,  of  the  sixty-three  skeletons  buried  in  the  cells  many 
were. in  irons.  But  hard  as  was  the  gladiators'  lot,— so  hard 
that  special  precautionB  had  to  be  taken  to  prevent  suicide, — 
It  had  iu  consolations.  .  A  successful  gladiator  enjoyed  far 
greater  fame  than  any  moidem  prize-fighter  or  athlete.    He  was 

<  See  A.  E.  Housmanod  the  passage  in  OankalRtmtw  (November 


presented  with  broad  pieces,  chains  and  jewelled  helmcta,  such 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  museum  at  Naples;  poets  like  Martial 
sang  his  prowess;  his  portrait  was  multiplied  on  vases,  lamps 
and  gems;  and  high-bom  ladies  contended  for  his  favours. 
Mixed,  too,  with  the  lowest  dregs  of  the  dty,  there  must  have 
been  many  noble  barbarians  condemned  to  the  vOe  trade  by  the 
hard  fate  of  war.  There  are  few  finer  characters  in  Roman 
history  than  the  Thradan  Spartacus,  who,  escaping  with  seventy 
of  his  comrades  from  the  sdiool  of  Lentjilus  at  Capua,  for  three 
years  defied  the  legions  of  Rome;  and  after  Antony's  defeat  at 
Actium,  the  only  part  of  his  army  that  remained  faithful  to 
his  cause  were  the  gladiators  whom  he  had  enrolled  at  Cyxicus 
to  grace  his  anticipated  victory. 

There  were  various  classes  of  gladiators,  distingnishrd  by 
their  arms  or  modes  of  fighting.  The  Samnites  fou^t  with  the 
national  weapons — a  la^  oblong  shidd,  a  vizor,  a  plumed 
helmet  and  a  short  sword.  The  Thraces  had  a  small  loond 
buckler  and  a  dagger  curved  like  a.scythe;  they  were  generally 
pitted  against  the  Mirmilloncs,  who  were  anned  in  Gallic  fashion 
with  helmet,  sword  and  shidd,  and  were  so  called  from  the  fish 
Oiopfi^Xof  or  tuoptiifpos)  which  served  as  the  crest  of  their  hdmet. 
In  like  maimer  the  Retiarius  was  matched  with  the  Secutor.: 
the  former  had  nothing  on  but  a  short  tunic  or  apron,  and  sought 
to  entangle  his  pursuer,  who  was  fully  armed,  with  the  cast-net 
(jaculum)  that  he  carried  in  his  right  hand;  and  if  successful, 
he  despatched  him  with  the  trident  {tridens,  fusfina)  .that  he 
carried  in  his  left.  We  may  also  mention  the  Andabstae  who 
are  generally  bdieved  to  have  fought  on  horseback  and  wore 
helmets  with  dosed  vizors;  the  Dimachaeri  of  the  later  empire, 
who  carried  a  short  sword  in  each  hand;  the  Essedarii,  who 
fought  from  chariots  like  the  andent  Britons;  the  Hoplomachi, 
who  wore  a  complete  suit  of  armour;  and  the  Laquearii,  who 
tried  to  lasso  their  antagonists. 

Gladiators  also  received  special  names  acoordhig  to  the 
time  or  circumstances  in  which  they  exercised  their  calling. 
The  Bustuarii  have  already  been  mentioned;  the  Catervarii 
fought,  not  in  pairs,  but  in  bands;  the  Meridiani  came  forward 
in  the  middle  of  the  day  for  the  entertainment  of  those  qiectatois 
who  had  not  left  their  seats;  the  Ordinarii  fought  only  in  pairs, 
in  the  regular  way;  the  FIscales  were  trained  and  supported 
at  the  expense  of  the  imperial  treasury;  the  Paegniarii  used 
harmless  weapons,  and  their  exhibition  was  a  sham  one;  the 
Pdstulaticii  were  those  whose  appearance  was  asked  as  a  favour 
from  the  giver  of  the  show,  in  addition  to  those  already  exhibited. 

The  shows  were  announced  some  days  before  they  took 
place  by  bills  affixed  to  the  walls  of  houses  and  public  buildings, 
copies  of  which  were  also  sold  in  the  streets. .  These  bills  gave 
the  names  of  the  chief  pairs  of  competitors,  the  date  of  the  ^ow, 
the  name  of  the  giver  and  the  different  kinds  of  combats.  The 
spectade  began  with  a  procession  of  the  s^diators  through  the 
arena,  after  which'  their  swords,  were  examined  by  the  giver  of 
the  show.  The  proceedings  opened  with  a  sham  fight  {pradusio, 
prolusio)  with  wooden  swords  and  javeCns.  The  signal  for  real 
fighting  was  given  by  the  sound  of  the. trumpet,  those  who 
showed  fear  being  driven  on  to  the  arena  with  whips  and  red-hot 
irons.  Wheii  a  Radiator  was  wounded,  the  spectators  shouted 
Habet  (he  is  wounded) ;  if  he  was  at  the  mercy  of  his  adversary, 
he  lifted  up  his  forefinger  to  implore  the  demency  of  the  people, 
with  whom  (in  the  later  times  of  the  republic)  the  giver  left  the 
decision  as  to  his  life  or  death.  If  the  spectators  were  in  favour 
of  mercy,  they  waved  their  handkerchiefs;  if  they  desired  the 
death  of  the  conquered  gUdiator,  they  turned  their  thuinbs 
downwards.*  The  reward  of  victory,  consisted  of  -branches  of 
palm,  sometimes  of  money.  Gladiators  who  had  exercised 
their  calling  for  a  long  time,  or  such  as  diq)la;^ed  q>ecial  skill 
and  bravery,  were  presented  vrath  a  wooden  sword  imdis),  and 
discharged  from  further  service. 

*  A  different  account  la  given  by  Mayor  on  Juvenal  vl  ^,  who 
nys:  "Those  who  wished  the  death  of  the  conquered  gbdiator 
tuned  their  thumb*  towards  their  breasts,  asangnal  tohboppooesta 
to  stab  him;  those  who  wished  him  to  be  qiared,  turned  their  Unimba 
downwards,  as  a  signal  for  dropping  the  sword." 


GLADIOLUS 


65 


Both  the  estination  in  which  ghdiatorial  sames  were  held  by 
Roman  moralists,  and  the  influence  tliat  they  exercised  upon  the 
mofaJs  and  genius  of  the  nation,  deserve  notice.  The  Rofnan  was 
essentiaUy  cnid,  not  so  much  from  spite  or  vindictiveneas  as  from 
callousness  and  defective  sympathies.  This  element  of  inhumanity 
and  brutality  must  have  been  deeply  ingrained  in  the  national 
character  to  nave  allowed  the  games  to  become  popular,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  fed  and  fostered  by  the  avage  form 
ikfaich  tbeiramusemcnts  took.  That  the  sightof  bloodshed  provokes 
a  love  of  bloodshed  and  cruelty  is  a  commonplace  of  morals.  To 
the  horrors  of  the  arena  we  may  attribute  in  part,  not  only  the 
brutal  treatment  of  their  sbves  and  prisoners,  but  the  frequency 
of  suicide  among  the  Romans.  On  the  other  hand,  we  should  be 
careful  not  to  exaggerate  the  effects  or  draw  too  sweeping  infer- 
ences from  the  prevalence  of  this  degrading  amusement.  Human 
n:ktiire  is  happily  illogical ;  and  we  know  that  many  of  the  Roman 
statesmen  woo  f^ve  these  games,  and  themselves  enjoyed  these  sights 
of  blood,  were  m  every  other  department  of  life  irreproachable — 
indulgent  fathers,  humane  generals  and  mild  rulers  of  provinces. 
In  the  present  state  of  society  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  a  man 
of  taste  can  have  endured  to  g^ze  upon  a  scene  of  human  butchery. 
Yet  we  should  remember  that  tt  is  not  so  long  since  bear-baiting  was 
prehibited  in  Engbnd,  and  we  are  only  now  attaining  that  stage  of 
molality  in  respect  of  cruelty  to  animals  that  was  reached  in  the  5th 
century,  by  the  help  of  Christianity,  in  respect  of  cruelty  to  men. 
We  ihaU  not  then  be  greatly  surpnsed  if  hardly  one  of  the  Roman 
moralists  is  found  to  raise  his  voice  against  this  amusement,  except 
on  the  score  of  extravagance.  Cicero  in  a  well-known  [Mssage  com- 
mends the  gladiatorial  games  as  the  best  discipline  against  the  fear 
of  death  and  suffering  that  can  be  presented  to  the  eye.  The 
vounger  Pliny,  who  perhaps  of  all  Romans  approaches  nearest  to  our 
ideal  of  a  cultured  gentleman,  speaks  approvingly  of  them.  Marcus 
Aurdius.  though  he  did  much  to  mitigate  their  horrors,  yet  in  his 
writings  condemns  the  monotony  rather  than  the  cruelty.  Seneca 
is  indeed  a  splendid  exception,  and  hb  letter  to  Lentulus  u  an 
eloquent  protest  against  this  inhuman  sport.  But  it  b  without 
a  parallel  till  we  come  to  the  writings  of  the  Christbn  fathers, 
TertulUan,  Lactantius,  Cyprian  and  Augustine.  In  the  Confessions 
of  the  last  there  occurs  a  narrative  which  b  worth  quoting  as  a  proof 
of  the  strange  fascination  which  the  games  exercised  even  on  a 
retigious  man  and  a  Christbn.  He  telb  us  how  his  friend  Alipius 
«as  dragged  against  hb  will  to  the  amphitheatre,  how  he  strove 
to  quiet  nw  conscience  by  cbstng  his  eyes,  how  at  some  exciting 
crisis  the  shouts  of  the  whole  assembly  aroused  his  curiosity,  how 
he  loQJted  and  was  lost,  grew  drunk  with  the  sight  of  blood,  and 
retumed  asain  and  again,  knowing  hb  guilt  yet  unable  to  abstain. 
The  first  Christian  emperor  was  persuaded  to  issue  an  edict  abolishing 
gbdiatoriaJ  games  (525).  yet  in  404  we  read  of  an  exhibition  of 
gUdiatora  to  celebrate  the  triumph  of  Honorius  over  the  Goths, 
and  it  n  said  that  they  were  not  totally  extinct  in  the  West  till  the 
time  of  Thcodoric 

Gladiators  fwrned  admirable  models  for  the  sculptor.  One  of 
the  finest  pieces  of  ancient  sculpture  that  has  come  down  to  us  is 
the  "  Wounded  Gladbtor"  of  the  National  Museum  at  Naples.  The 
so-called  **  Fighting.Gladiator"  of  the  Borehcse  collection,  now  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Louvre,  and  the  "  Dying  GladbtOT  "  of  the  Capitoline 
Museum,  which  inspired  the  famous  stanza  qf  Childe  Harold,  have 
been  pronounced  by  modem  antiquaries  to  represent,  not  gladiators, 
but  warriors.  In  thb  connexion  we  may  mention  the  admirable 
picture  of  G^fome  which  bears  the  title,  Ave,  Caesar,  raorituri  te 
saluunt." 

The  attention  of  archaeologists  has  been  recently  directed  to  the 
tesserae  of  gladbtors.  These  tesserae,  of  which  about  sixty  exist  in 
various  museums,  are  small  obk>ng  tablets  of  ivory  or  bone,  with 
an  inscripcion  on  each  of  the  four  sides.  The  first  tine  contains 
a  name  in  the  nominative  case,  presumably  that  of  the  gbdbtor; 
the  second  line  a  name  in  the  genitive,  that  of  the  patronus  or 
dffmimMSi  the  third  line  begins  with  the  letters  SP  (for  stecUUus 
» approved),  whkh  shows  that  the  gladbtor  had  passed  nb  pre- 
limuiary  triab;  thb  is  folk>wed  by  a  day  of  a  Roman  month;  and 
ia  the  fourth  line  are  the  names  of  the  consuls  of  a  particuUr  3rear. 

.AumoaxTiES. — ^All  needful  information  on  the  subject  will  be 
found  in  L.  FriedUlnder's  DarsieUungen  aus  der  SilUngesaiichU  Roms, 
(fart  ii.,  6th  ed.,  1889),  and  in  the  section  by  him  on  The  Games  " 
m  Marqoardt's  Romische  StaatstferwaUuHg,  iii.  (1885)  p.  554;  see 
also  article  by  G.  Lafaye  in  Darembere  and  Saglio,  uictionnaire 
its  cnluntiUs.  See  also  F.  W.  Ritschl,  Tesserae  gladiatoriae  (i86a) 
and  P.  J.  Meier,  De  fladiatura  Romana  auaestiones  seleetae  (1881). 
The  articles  by  Lipsius  on  the  Saturnalia  and  ampkitkeatrum  in 
Graevius,  Thesaurus  antifuUatmu  Romanarum,  iz.,  may  still  be 
oonwltcdirith  advantage. 

GLADIOLUS,  a  genus  of  monocotylcdonous  plants,  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Iridaceae.  Tbey  are  herbaceous  plants 
growing  from  a  solid  fibrous-coated  btdb  (or  conn),  with  long 
narrow  plaited  leaves  and  a  terminal  one-sided  spike  of  generally 
bright-coloured  intgular  flowers.  The  segments  of  the  limb  of 
the  pcriMtb  are  very  unequal,  the  perianth  tube  is  curved,  funnel- 


shaped  and  widening  upwards,  the  segments  eqtudling  or 
exceeding  the  tube  in  length.  There  are  about  150  known 
species,  a  large  number  of  which  are  South  African,  but  the 
genus  extends  into  tropical  Africa,  forming  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  mountain  vegetation,  and  as  far  north  as  central 
Europe  and  western  Asia.  One  species  G.  iUyrieus  (sometimes 
regarded  as  a  variety  of  G.  communis)  is  found  wild  in  England, 
in  the  New  Forest  and  the  Isle  of  Wight.  Some  of  the  species 
have  been  cultivated  for  a  long  period  in  English  flower-gardens, 
where  both  the  introduced  species  and  the  modem  varieties 
bred  from  them  are  very  ornamental  and  popular.  G.  segetum 
has  been  cultivated  since  1596,  and  G.  bytanlinus  since  1629, 
while  many  additional  species  were  introduced  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  x8th  century.  One  of  the  earlier  of  the  hybrids 
originated  in  gardens  was  the  beautiful  G.  Cohillei,  raised  in  the 
nursery  of  Mr  Colville  of  Chelsea  in  1823  from  G.  trisiis  fertilized 
by  G.  cardinalis.  In  the  first  decade  of  the  X9th  century,  however, 
the  Hon.  and  Rev.  W.  Herbert  had  successfully  crossed  the 
showy  G.  cardinalis  with  the  smaller  but  more  free-flowering 
G.  blandtis^  and  the  result  was  the  production  of  a  race  of  great 
beauty  and  fertility.  Other  crosses  were  made  with  G.  tristis, 
G.  opposilifloruSt  G.  hirsutus^  G.  alatus  and  G.  psiUacinus;  but 
it  was  not  till  after  the  production  of  G.  gandavensis  that  the 
gladi<4us  really  became  a  general  favourite  in  gardens.  Thb 
fine  hybrid  was  raised  in  1837  by  M.  Bcdinghaus,  gardener  to 
the  due  d'Aremberg,  at  Enghien,  crossing  G.  psiUacinus  and 
G.  cardinalis.  There  can,  however,  be  little  doubt  that  before 
the  gandavensis  type  had  become  fairly  fixed  the  services  of 
other  spedes  were  brought  Into  force,  and  the  most  likely  of 
these  were  G.  oppositifiorus  (which  shows  in  the  white  forms), 
G.  Uandus  and  G.  ramosus.  Other  species  may  also  have  been 
used,  but  in  any  case  the  gandavensis  gladiolus,  as  we  now  know 
it,  is  the  result  of  much  crossing  and  inter-crossing  between 
the  best  forms  as  they  developed  (J.  Weathers,  Practical  Guide 
to  Garden  Plants),  Since  that  time  innumerable  varieties  have 
appeared  only  to  sink  into  oblivion  upon  being  replaced  by 
still  finer  productions. 

The  modem  varieties  of  gladioli  have  almost  completely 
driven  the  natural  species  out  of  gardens,  except  In  botanical 
collections.  The  most  gorgeous  groups — in  addition  to  the 
gandavensis  type — ^are  those  known  under  the  names  of  Lcmointi, 
Ckildsi,  nanceianus  and  brenckleyensis..  The  last-named  was 
raised  by  a  Mr  Hooker  at  Brenchley  in  1848,  and  although  quite 
distinct  in  appearance  from  gandavensis^  it  undoubtedly  had 
that  variety^  as  one  of  its  parents.  Owing  to  the  brilliant  scarlet 
colour  of  the  flowers,  this  b  always  a  great  favourite  for  planting 
in  beds.  The  Lemoinei  forms  originated  at  Nancy,  in  France, 
by  fertilizing  G.  purpureo-curatus  with  pollen  from  G.  gandavensis, 
the  first  flower  appearing  in  1877,  and  the  plants  being  put  into 
commerce  in  1880.  The  Childsi  gladioli  first  appeared  in  1882, 
having  been  raised  at  Baden-Baden  by  Herr  Max  Leichtlin 
from  the  best  forms  of  G.  gandavensis  and  G.  Saundersi,  The 
flowers  of  the  best  varieties  are  of  great  sue  and  substance,  often 
measuring  7  to  9  in.  across,  while  the  range  of  colour  b  marvellous, 
with  shades  of  grey,  purple,  scarlet,  salmon,  crimson,  rose,  white, 
pink,  yellow,  &c.,  often  beautifully  mottled  and  blotched  in  the 
throat.  The  plants  are  vigorous  In  growth,  often  reaching  a 
height  of  4  to  5  ft.  G.  nanceianus  was  raised  at  Nancy  by 
MM>  Lemoine  and  were  first  put  Into  commerce  in  1889.  Next 
to  the  Childsi  group  they  are  the  most  beautiful,  and  have  the 
blood  of  the  best  forms  of  G.  Saundersi  and  G.  Lemoinei  in  their 
veins.  The  plants  are  quite  as  hardy  as  the  gandavensis  hybrids, 
and  the  colours  of  the  flowers  are  almost  as  brilliant  and  varied 
In  hue  as  those  of  the  Childsi  section. 

A  deep  and  rather  stiff  sandy  loam  b  the  best  soil  for  the  gbdiolus, 
and  thb  should  be  trenched  up  in  October  and  enriched  with  well- 
decomposed  manure,  consisting  partly  of  cow  dung,  the  manure  being 
disposed  altogether  below  the  corms,  a  layer  at  the  bottom  of  the 
upper  trench,  say  9  in.  from  the  surface,  and  another  layer  at  double 
that  depth.  The  corms  should  be  planted  in  succession  at  intervab 
of  two  or  three  weeks  through  the  months  of  March,  April  and  May ; 
about  3  to  5  in.  deep  and  at  least  i  ft.  apart,  a  little  pure  soil  or  sand 
being  bid  over  each  before  the  earth  b  closed  in  about  them,  an 


GLADSHEIM— GLADSTONE 


illy.     In  I 


■Et  produced,  liquid  nunL 

TliciEu^ui 

Minh  or  April  in  poti  of  ikh  hU  pland 
bclni  kept  «>(  the  kIu  afUr  they  bcfin  I 


uily  niMJ^fRKn  Kcdi^ 
fy  lunkiKd  li 


rbich  ihould  be  iiiwii  i 
.n  flight  bat.  tlic  pal 
o  [row,  and  thr  plinl 


[>l[at 


Ktda  in  the  open  In  April  on  a  nicely  pnpind  bed  in  driua  ibout 
6  in.  ipirl  wut  i  in.  deep,  coveripf  them  wilb  finely  illled  cridy 
nugld.  TIk  teed  bed  a  then  pm«d  down  cvenTy  ind  Ecmly. 
nlcied  oceuiooally  ind  kept  fnc  from  weedi  during  the  fummer. 
tn  Ocuber  (hey  niil  have  ripened  off,  ud  aiial  be  ulen  out  o[  the 
isil.  ud  itoted  in  paper  bin  In  ■  dry  mom  tecure  Irom  [ml.  They 
*iU  have  made  little  nilba  Iron  Ihe  die  of  ■  haiel  nnt  downward*, 
accordina  to  their  vitDUr,  In  the  iprinE  (hey  should  be  pUfitrd 
Kke  the  old  bulb«,»nathelaf(erono  will  !!"■>""  ----'■-  --in, 
while  Ihe  wna"-' ""•■""*•►>•■"'■"  *■""  '■ 


BOH  of  butbleti  s 
prinelpal  bulb  or  cc 
fumlilUnc  abundani 
olhen  peniuently 
rich  ilovinE  coloun 
valuable  ai  dccanti^ 


tsrcl: 


cnph  ii  Ir 


leluae  tn'vieu  o 
of  the  modem  |L 

IcKiiblc  and*!!* 


eLADSBElM  {Old  None 
nythology,  the  region  of  jt 
the  paradise  whither  the  hero 


le  of  Odin.    Valhalla 


Chi 


OLADSTOHB,  JOHH  HAU     (iSiT-iqeil,  Engliib  chemitl 
uborc  at  Hackney.  London,  on  Ihe  ;thof  March  1R17.     Fton 
1  great  aptitude  for  science;  geology  wi! 


his  [avi 


lublecl 


in  his  father' 


devoted  hi 

i^icb  he  lludied  under  Thomas  Graham  at  University  College, 
London,  and  Liebig  at  Giessen,  where  he  graduated  is  Ph.D. 
in  1847.  In  1S50  he  became  chemical  lecturer  at  St  Thomit'i 
hospital,  and  three  years  later  was  elected  a  felloH  of  the  Royal 
Society  at  the  unusually  early  age  of  Iwentysii.     From  1858 

from  iSfit  to  1S6B  was  a  member  of  the  war  office  commitlee 
on  gun^^tton.  From  1874  to  li^^  he  was  FuUerian  professor 
of  cbemisiry  at  (he  Royal  Institution,  in  1874  he  wai  chosen 
first  president  ol  the  Physical  Society,  and  in  1877-1875  be  was 
president  ol  the  Chemical  Society.  In  1897  Ihe  Ri^al  Sodely 
tecogniied  his  fifty  yean  ol  scientific  work  by  awarding  him  the 
Davy  medal.     **'^''-       ■       .  .    1    .  ■         .■-_      i.- 


c,  dealing  tc 


e  beiwe 


niitry. 


e  object  ofdiscovf 
ore  than  one  atom 
neiion  between  t' 
I  position  oi  elhert 


earth's 


the  Fraunhoter  ipecimm  at  sun 
at  midday,  his  conclusion  beir 

indeed  were  subsequently  tIsclH]  10  the  oiygen  and  water-vapour 
intheaii.  Another  portion  o(  his  work  was  of  an  elect  rn-c  he  mi  cal 
cbancter.  Kia  studies,  with  Alfred  Tribe  [1840-1885)  and  W. 
Hibbcrl,  in  the  chemistry  ol  the  storage  balleiy,  have  added 
largely  to  our  knowledge,  while  tfae  "  copper-iinc  couple,"  with 
iriiich  his  name  it  associated  logrLhir  with  that  of  Tribe,  among 
other  things,  afforded  a  simple  means  ol  preparing  certain 


organo-metallic  compounds,  and  thui  promoted  nscarch  [a 
branches  of  organic  chemistry  where  those  bodies  are  especially 
useful.  Mention  may  alio  b«  made  ol  hit  work  on  pha>|ibonis, 
on  explosive  substances,  such  as  iodide  of  oitrogen,  gua.«ollon 
and  the  fulminates,  on  the  influence  of  mist  in  Ihe  process  ol 
chemical  reactions,  and  on  the  effect  of  carbonic  add  od  the 
germination  of  plants.  Dr  Gladstone  always  took  a  great 
interest  is  educational  questions,  and  from  187J  to  1894  he  was 
a  memberof  the  London  School  Board.  He  was  alto  1  member 
of  the  Christian  Evidence  Sodely,  and  aa  eaily  lupporter  ol 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associaiion.  His  denth  occurred 
suddenly  in  London  on  the  6th  of  October  1901. 

OLADSTOHK  WILUAM  SWAHT  ( 1809-1 8«8),  Britisb 
statesman,  was  bom  on  the  99th  ol  December  iSo)  at  No,  61 
Rodney  Street,  Liverpool.  His  forefathers  were  GledsUnes 
of  Glediianet,  in  the  upper  ward  ol  Lanarkshire;  ot  in  Scottish 
phrase,  Gledsianes  ol  that  Ilk.  As  years  went  on  tbeir  estate* 
dwindled,  and  by  the  beginning  of  the  I7lh  century  Gledstancs 
was  sold.  The  adjacent  property  of  Acthunhiel  remained  in 
the  hands  ol  the  family  for  nearly  a  hundred  years  longer.  Then 
the  son  of  the  last  Gleditanei  of  Arthurshiel  removed  to  Biggar, 
where  he  opened  the  business  of  a  maltster.  His  grandson. 
Thomas  Gladstone  (for  so  the  name  was  modified),  became  a 

John,  to  Liverpool  to  sell  a  cargo  ol  grain  there,  and  the  energy 
and  aptitude  ot  the  young  man  attracted  the  favourable  notice 
of  a  leading  corn-merchant  of  Liverpool,  who  recommended  hint 


clerk  in  his  patron's  house,  John  Gladstone  lived  to  become 
one  of  the  merchant-princes  of  Liverpool,  a  baranet  and  a 
member  of  parliament.  He  died  In  iSji  at  the  age  of  dghty. 
seven.  Sir  John  Gladstone  was  a  pure  Scotsman,  a  Lowlandei 
by  birth  and  descent.  He  married  Anne,  daughter  of  Andrew 
Robertson  of  Stoinoway.  tomctimc  provost  of  Dingwall.  Frovost 
RobetUon  belonged  to  the  Clan  Dooachie.  and  by  Ihb  marriage 
the  robust  and  business-like  qualities  of  the  Lowlandei  were 
■      ■    I,  the  sensibility  and  fire 


f  the  Gael. 

John  and  Anne  Gladstone  had  ui  chitdrei 


Tcrt 

irka 

ly  good  child,  and 

much  beloved  at  home. 

cadHtox 

818 

r  [819  Mrs  Gladsto 

ne,  who  belonged  to  the 

iv 

ngel 

cat  school,  said  in  a 
ed  hei  ton  William  h 

letter  to  a  friend,  that 
dbeeo"trilyconverted 

to  God." 

'\i 

r  some  tuition  at  the  via 

rageo[Seaforth,*wite 

erpool,  the  boy  wen 

he 

Rev 

Henry  Harlopp  K 

app.     His  brothers,  Th 

mas  and 

Ro 

>nQaditoi.e,weretl 

■as  in  the 

.  and  William,  who 

wat  placed  in  the  midd 

e  remove 

of 

helo 

rth  form,  became  hi 

eldest  brother's  fsg.     He  worked 

ha 
bus 

t^ 

of  the  school  by  itudying  mathematics  in  the 

ordinary 
holidays, 

s  beadmaster, 
and  "  sent  him  up  [or  good  ";  and  this  tx- 
the  young  student  to  associate  inteUectual 
•ji  of  ambition  and  success.     He  was  not  a 


:  of  hit 


when  there  wcr 


passages  ol  Virgil  or  Home 

Crarci,  to  translate,  be  or  j4ra  /irxnur  netvey  was  generally 
called  up  to  edify  the  class  with  quotation  or  translation."  By 
common  consent  be  was  pre-eminently  God.fearing,  orderly 
and  consdentious.  "  At  Eton."  said  Bishop  Hamilton  b( 
Stiltbury.  "  I  was  a  thoroughly  idle  boy,  but  I  was  saved  from 
some  worse  things  by  getting  to  know  Cladtlone."  His  most 
intimate  friend  was  Arthur  Hallam.  by  universal  acknowledg- 
ment the  most  remarkable  Etonian  of  hit  day;  but  he  was  not 


GLADSTONE 


67 


genenUy  popular  or  even  widely  known.  He  was  seen  to  the 
greatest  advantage,  and  was  most  thoroughly  at  home,  in  the 
debates  of  the  Eton  Society,  learnedly  called  "  The  Literati,"  and 
vulgarly  "  Pop,"  and  in  the  editon^p  of  the  Eton  Miscdlany. 
He  left  Eton  at  Christmas  1827.  He  read  for  six  months  with 
private  tutors,  and  in  October  i8a8  went  up  to  Christ  Church, 
where,  in  the  following  year,  he  was  nominated  to  a  studentship. 
At  Oxford  Gladstone  read  steadily,  but  not  laboriously, 
till  he  nearod  his  final  schools.  During  the  latter  part  of  his 
undergraduate  career  he  took  a  brief  but  brilliant  share  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  Union,  of  which  he  was  successively  secretary 
and  presidenL  He  made  his  first  speech  on  the  i  ith  of  February 
1830.  Brought  up  in  the  nurture  and  admonition  of  Canning,  he 
defended  Roman  Catholic  emancipation,  and  thought  the  duke 
of  Wellington's  government  unworthy  of  national  confidence. 
He  opposed  the  removal  of  Jewish  disabilities,  arguing,  we  are 
told  by  a  contemporary,  "on  the  part  of  the  Evangelicals," 
and  pleaded  for  the  graidual  extinction,  in  preference  to  the 
immediate  abolition,  of  slavery.  But  his  great  achievement 
was  a  speech  against  the  Whig  Reform  Bill.  One  who  heard 
this  famous  discourse  says:  "  Most  of  the  speakers  rose,  more 
or  less,  above  their  usual  level,  but  when  Mr  Gladstone  sat 
down  we  all  of  us  felt  that  an  epoch  in  our  lives  had  occurred. 
It  certainly  was  the  finest  speech  of  his  that  I  ever  heard." 
Bishop  Charles  Wordsworth  said  that  his  experience  of  Gladstone 
at  this  time  "  made  me  (and  I  doubt  not  others  also)  feci  no  less 
sure  than  of  my  own  existence  that  Gladstone,  our  then  Christ 
Church  undergraduate,  would  one  day  rise  to  be  prime  minister 
of  England."  In  December  1831  Gladstone  crowned  his  career 
by  taking  a  double  first-class.  Lord  Halifax  (1800-1885)  used 
to  say,  with  reference  to  the  increase  in  the  amount  of  reading 
requisite  for  the  highest  honours:  "  My  double-first  must  have 
been  a  better  thing  than  Peel's;  Gladstone's  must  have  been 
better  than  mine." 

Now  came  the  choice  of  a  profession.  Deeply  anxious  to  make 
the  best  use  of  his  life,  Gladstone  turned  his  thoughts  to  holy 
orders.  But  his  father  had  determined  to  make  him 
^  a  pditician.  Quitting  Oxford  in  the  spring  of  1832, 
Gladstone  vptnX.  six  months  in  Italy,  learning  the 
language  aiid  studying  art.  In  the  following  September 
he  was  suddenly  recalled  to  England,  to  undertake  his  first 
pariiamentary  campaign.  The  fifth  duke  of  Newcastle  was  one 
of  the  chief  potentates  of  the  High  Tory  party.  His  frank 
claim  to  "  <k>  what  he  liked  with  his  own  "  in  the  representation 
of  Newark  has  given  him  a  place  in  political  history.  But  that 
claim  bad  been  rudely  disputed  by  the  return  of  a  Radical 
lawyer  at  the  election  of  1831.  The  Duke  was  anxious  to  obtain 
a  capable  candidate  to  aid  him  in  regaining  his  ascendancy  over 
the  rebellious  borough.  His  son,  Lord  Lincoln,  had  heard 
Gladstone's  speech  against  the  Reform  Bill  delivered  in  the 
Oxford  Union,  and  had  written  home  that  "  a  man  had  uprisen 
in  Israel."  At  his  suggestion  the  duke  invited  Gladstone  to 
stand  for  Newark  in  the  Tory  interest  against  Mr  Serjeant 
Wilde,  afterwards  Lord  Chancellor  Truro.  The  last  of  the 
Unreformed  parliaments  was  dissolved  on  the  3rd  of  December 

1832.  Gladstone,  addressing  the  electors  of  Newark,  said  that 
he  was  bound  by  the  opinions  of  no  man  and  no  party,  but  felt 
it  a  duty  to  watch  and  resist  that  growing  desire  for  change 
which  threatened  to  produce  "  along  with  partial  good  a  mclan* 
choly  preponderance  of  mischief."  The  first  principle  to  which 
be  looked  tor  national  salvation  was,  that  the"duticsof  governors 
are  strictly  and  peculiarly  religious,  and  that  legislatures,  like 
individuals,  are  bound  to  carry  throughout  their  acts  the  spirit 
of  the  high  truths  they  have  acknowledged."  The  condition  of 
the  poor  demanded  special  attention;  labour  should  receive 
adequate  remuneration;  and  he  thought  favourably  of  the 
"allotment  of  cottage  grounds."  He  regarded  slavery  as 
sanctioned  by  Holy  Scripture,  but  the  slaves  ought  to  be  educated 
and  gradually  emancipated.  The  contest  resulted  in  his  return 
at  the  head  of  the  poll 

The  first  Reformed  parliament  met  on  the  aQth  of  January 

1833,  amI  the  young  member  for  Newark  took  bis  seat  for  the  first 


time  in  an  assembly  which  he  was  destined  to  adorn,  delight 
and  astonish  for  more  than  half  a  century.  His  maiden  speech 
was  delivered  on  the  3rd  of  June  in  reply  to  what  was 
almost  a  personal  challenge.  The  colonial  secretary,  JJ*  JJ*** 
Mr  Stanley,  afterwards  Lord  Derby,  brought  forward  SJJv- 
a  series  of  resolutions  in  favour  of  the  extinction  of 
slavery  in  the  British  colonies.  On  the  first  night  of  the  debate 
Lord  Howick,  afterwards  Lord  Gre^,  who  had  been  under- 
secretary for  the  Colonies,  and  who  opposed  the  resolutions 
as  proceeding  too  gradually  towards  abolition,  cited  certain 
occurrences  on  Sir  John  Gladstone's  plantation  in  Demerara 
to  illustrate  his  contention  that  the  system  of  slave-labour  in 
the  West  Indies  was  attended  by  great  mortality  among  the 
slaves.  Gladstone  in  his  reply — hb  first  speech  in  the  House — 
avowed  that  he  had  a  pecuniary  interest  in  the  question,  "  and, 
if  he  might  say  so  much  without  exciting  suspicion,  a  still  deeper 
interest  in  it  as  a  question  of  justice,  of  humanity  and  of  religion." 
If  there  had  recently  been  a  high  mort^ity  on  his  father's  planta* 
tion,  it  was  due  to  the  age  of  the  slaves  rather  than  to  any 
peculiar  hardship  in  their  lot.  It  was  true  that  the  particular 
system  of  cultivation  practised  in  Demerara  was  more  trying 
than  some  others;  but  then  it  might  be  said  that  no  two  trades 
were  equally  conducive  to  health.  Steel-grinding  was  notoriously 
unhealthy,  and  manufacturing  processes  generally  were  less 
favourable  to  life  than  agricultural.  While  strongly  condemning 
cruelty,  he  declared  himself  an  advocate  of  emancipation,  but 
held  that  it  should  be  effected  gradually,  and  after  due  prepara- 
tion. The  slaves  must  be  religiously  educated,  and  stimulated 
to  profitable  industry.  The  owners  of  emancipated  slaves  were 
entitled  to  receive  compensation  from  parliament,  because  it 
was  parliament  that  had  established  this  description  of  property. 
**  I  do  not,"  said  Gladstone,  "  view  property  as  an  abstract 
thing;  it  is  the  creature  of  civil  society.  By  the  legislature  it  is 
granted,  and  by  the  legislature  it  is  destroyed. "  On  the  following 
day  King  WiUiam  IV.  wrote  to  Lord  Althorp:  "  The  king 
rejoices  that  a  young  member  has  come  forward  in  so  promis- 
ing a  manner  as  Viscount  Althorp  states  Mr  W.  E.  Gladstone 
to  have  done."  In  the  same  session  Gladstone  spoke  on 
the  question  of  bribery  and  corruption  at  Liverpool,  and 
on  the  temporalities  of  the  Irish  Church.  In  the  session 
of  1834  his  most  important  performance  was  a  speech  in 
opposition  to  Hume's  proposal  to  throw  the  universities  open 
to  Dissenters. 

On  the  loth  of  November  1834  Lord  Althorp  succeeded  to 
his  father's  peerage,  and  thereby  vacated  the  leadership  of 
the  House  of  Commons.  The  prime  minister.  Lord  Melbourne, 
submitted  to  the  king  a  choice  of  names  for  the  chancellorship 
of  the  exchequer  and  leadership  of  the  House  of  Commons; 
but  his  majesty  announced  that,  having  lost  the  services  of 
Xord  Althorp  as  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons,  he  could  feel 
no  confidence  in  the  stability  of  Lord  Melbourne's  government, 
and  that  it  was  his  intention  to  send  for  the  duke  of  Wellington. 
The  duke  took  temporary  charge  of  affairs,  but  Peel  was  felt  to 
be  indispensable.  He  had  gone  abroad  after  the  session,  and 
was  now  in  Rome.  As  soon  as  he  could  be  brought  back  he 
formed  an  administration,  and  appointed  Gladstone  to  a  junior 
lordship  of  the  treasury.  Parliament  was  dissolved  on  the  29th 
of  December.  Gladstone  was  returned  unopposed,  this  time  in 
conjunction  with  the  Liberal  lawyer  whom  he  had  beaten  at  the 
last  election.  The  new  parliament  met  on  the  19th  of  February 
1835.  The  elections  had  given  the  Liberals  a  considerable 
majority.  Immediately  after  the  meeting  of  parliament  Glad- 
stone was  promoted  to  the  undcr-secrctaryship  for  the  colonies, 
where  his  official  chief  was  Lord  Aberdeen.  The  administration 
was  not  long-lived.  On  the  30th  of  March  Lord  John  Russell 
moved  a  resolution  in  favour  of  an  inquiry  into  the  temporalities 
of  the  Irish  Church,  with  the  intention  of  applying  the  surplus 
to  general  education  without  distinction  of  religious  creed 
This  was  carried  against  ministers  by  a  majority  of  thirty-three. 
On  the  8th  of  April  Sir  Robert  Peel  resigned,  and  the  under- 
secretary for  the  colom'es  of  course  followed  his  chief  into  private 
Ufe. 


68 


GLADSTONE 


Released  from  the  labours  of  office,  Gladstone,  living  in 
chambers  in  the  Albany,  practically  divided  his  time  between 
his  parliamentary  duties  and  study.  Then,  as  always, 
his  constant  companions  were  Homer  and  Dante,  and 
it  is  recorded  that  he  read  the  whole  of  St  Augustine, 
in  ttrenty-two  octavo  volumes.  He  used  to  frequent  the  services 
at  St  James's,  Piccadilly,  and  Margaret  chapel,  since  better 
known  as  All  Saints',  Margaret  Street.  On  the  aoth  of  June 
1837  King  William  IV.  died,  and  Parliament,  having  been 
prorogued  by  the  young  queen  in  person,  was  dissolved  on  the 
17th  of  the  following  month.  Simply  on  the  strength  of  his 
parliamentary  reputation  Gladstone  was  nominated,  without 
his  consent,  for  Manchester,  and  was  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  poll;  but,  having  been  at  the  same  time  nominated  at 
Newark,  was  again  returned.  The  year  1838  claims  special  note 
in  a  record  of  Gladstone's  life,  because  it  witnessed  the  appearance 
of  his  famous  work  on  The  Slate  in  Us  Relaiions  with  the  Church. 
He  had  left  Oxford  just  before  the  beginning  of  that  Catholic 
revival  which  has  transfigured  both  the  inner  spirit  and  the 
outward  aspect  of  the  Church  of  En^nd.  But  the  revival  was 
now  in  full  strength.  The  Trads  iw  the  Times  were  saturating 
England  with  new  influences.  The  movement  counted  no  more 
enthusiastic  or  more  valuable  disciple  than  Gladstone.  Its 
influence  had  reached  him  through  his  friendships,  notably  with 
two  FeUows  of  Mcrton — Mr  James  Hope,  who  became  Mr  Hope- 
Scott  of  Abbotsford,  and  the  Rev.  H.  E.  Manning,  afterwards 
cardinal  archbishop.  The  State  in  its  Relations  wUh  the  Church 
was  his  practical  contribution  to  a  controversy  in  which  his 
deepest  convictions  were  involved.  He  contended  that  the 
Church,  as  established  by  law,  was  to  be  **  maintained  for  its 
truth,"  and  that  this  principle,  if  good  for  England,  was  good 
also  for  Ireland. 

On  the  25th  of  July  1839  Gladstone  was  married  at  Hawarden 
to  Miss  Catherine  Glynne,  sister,  and  in  her  issue  heir,  of  Sir 
Stephen  Glynne,  ninth  and  last  baronet  of  that  name.  In 
1840  he  published  Church  Principles  considered  in  their  Results. 

Parliament  was  dissolved  in  June  1841.  Gladstone  was 
again  returned  for  Newark.  The  general  election  resulted  in 
a  Tory  majority  of  eighty.  Sir  Robert  Peel  became 
prime  minister,  and  made  the  member  for  Newark 
vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  An  inevitable 
change  is  from  this  time  to  be  traced  in  the  topics  of  Gladstone's 
parliamentary  speaking.  Instead  of  discoursing  on  the  corporate 
conscience  of  the  state  and  the  endowments  of  the  Church,  the 
importance  of  Christian  education,  and  the  theological  unfitness 
of  the  Jews  to  sit  in  parliament,  he  is  solving  business-like 
problems  about  foreign  tariffs  and  the  exportation  of  machinery; 
waxing  eloquent  over  the  regulation  of  railways,  and  a  graduated 
tax  on  com;  subtle  on  the  monetary  merits  of  half-farthings, 
and  great  in  the  mysterious  lore  of  quassia  and  cocculus  indicus. 
In  1842  he  had  a  principal  hand  in  the  preparation  of  the  revised 
tariff,  by  which  duties  were  abolished  or  sensibly  diminished 
in  the  case  of  1200  duty-paying  articles.  In  defending  the  new 
scheme  he  spoke  incessantly,  and  amazed  the  House  by  his 
mastery  of  detail,  his  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  commercial 
needs  of  the  country,  and  his  inexhaustible  power  of  expofiitk>n. 
In  1843  Gladstone,  succeeding  Lord  Ripon  as  president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  became  a  member  of  the  cabinet  at  the  age  of 
thirty-three.  He  has  recorded  the  fact  that  "  the  very  first 
opinion  which  he  ever  was  called  upon  to  give  in  cabinet "  was 
an  opinion  in  favour  of  withdrawing  the  bill  providing  education 
for  children  in  factories,  to  which  vehement  opposition  was 
offered  by  the  Dissenters,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  too  favourable 
to  the  EsUblishcd  Church. 

At  the  opening  of  the  tession  of  1845  the  government,  in 
pursuance  of  a  promise  made  to  Irish  members  that  they  would 
MaymooiM  ^tsX  with  the  question  of  academical  education  in 
Ireland,  proposed  to  establish  non-sectarian  colleges 
in  that  country  and  to  make  a  large  addition  to  the 
grant  to  the  Roman  Catholic  College  of  Maynooth. 
Gladstone  resigned  office,  in  order,  as  he  announced  in  the  debate 
on  the  address,  to  form  "  not  only  an  honest,  but  likewise  an 


Bmttntbo 


independent  and  an  unsuspected  judgment,"  on  the  plan  to  be 
submitted  by  the  government  with  respect  to  Maynooth.  His 
subsequent  defence  of  the  proposed  grant,  on  the  ground  that 
it  would  be  improper  and  unjust  to  exdude  the  Roman  Cathie 
Church  in  Ireland  from  a  "  more  indiscriminating  sun>ort " 
which  the  state  might  give  to  various  religious  beUefs,  was 
regarded  by  men  of  less  sensitive  conscience  as  only  proving  that 
there  had  been  no  adequate  cause  for  his  resignation.  Before 
he  resigned  he  completed  a  second  revised  tariff,  carrying 
considerably  further  the  principles  on  which  he  had  acted  in 
the  earlier  revision  of  1842. 

In  the  autumn  of  1845  tlie  failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland 
threatened  a  famine,  and  convinced  Sir  Robert  Peel  that  all 
restrictions  on  the  importation  of  food  must  be  at 
once  suspended.  He  was  supported  by  only  three 
members  of  the  cabinet,  and  resigned  on  the  sth  of 
December.  Lord  John  Russell,  who  had  just  announced  h» 
conversion  to  total  and  immediate  repeal  of  the  Com  Uaws, 
declined  the  task  of  forming  an  administration,  and  on  Che  20th 
of  December  Sir  Robert  Peel  resumed  6ffice.  Loxd  Stanley 
refused  to  re-enter  the  govemment,  and  his  place  as  secretary 
of  state  for  the  colonies  was  offered  to  and  accepted  by  Ghdstone. 
He  did  not  offer  himself  for  re-election  at  Newark,  and  remained 
outside  the  House  of  Commons  during  the  great  struggle  of  the 
coming  year.  It  was  a  curious  irony  of  fate  which  excluded 
him  from  parliament  at  this  crisis,  for  it  seemft  unquestionable 
that  he  was  the  most  advanced  Free  Trader  in  Sir  Robert  Ped's 
Cabinet.  The  Corn  Bill  passed  the  House  of  Lords  on  the  28th 
of  June  1846,  and  on  the  same  day  the  government  were  beaten 
in  the  House  of  Commons  on  an  Irish  Coercion  BiU.  Lord  John 
Russell  became  prime  minister,  and  Gladstone  retired  for  a  season 
into  private  life.  Early  in  1847  it  was  announced  that  one  of  the 
two  members  for  the  university  of  Oxford  intended  to  retire  at 
the  general  election,  and  Gladstone  was  proposed  for  the  vacant 
scat.  The  representation  of  the  university  had  been  pronounced 
by  Canning  to  be  the  most  coveted  prize  of  public  life,  an^ 
Gladstone  himself  confessed  that  he  "  desired  it  with  an  almost 
passionate  fondness."  Parliament  was  dissolved  on  the  33rd 
of  July  1847.  The  nomination  at  Oxford  took  place  on  the  39th 
of  July,  and  at  the  close  of  the  poll  Sir  Robert  Inglis  stood  at 
the  head,  with  Gladstone  as  his  colleague. 

The  three  years  1847, 1848, 1849  were  for  Ghdstone  a  period 
of  mental  growth,  of  transition,  of  development.  A  change 
was  silently  proceMing,  which  was  not  completed  for 
twenty  years.  "  There  have  been,"  he  wrote  in  later 
days  to  Bishop  Wilberforcc,  "  two  great  deaths,  or 
transmigrations  of  spirit,  in  my  political  existence— one,  very 
slow,  the  breaking  of  ties  with  my  original  party."  This  was 
now  in  progress.  In  the  winter  of  Z850-X85X  Gladstone  spent 
between  three  and  four  months  at  Naples,  where  he  learned 
that  more  than  half  the  chamber  of  deputies,  who  had  followed 
the  party  of  Opposition,  had  been  banished  or  imprisoned;  that 
a  large  number,  probably  not  less  than  20,000,  of  the  citizens 
had  been  imprisoned  on  diargcs  of  political  disaffection,  and  that 
in  prison  they  were  subject^  to  the  grossest  cmdtics.  Having 
made  careful  investigations,  Ghidstone,  on  the  7th  of  April  1851, 
addressed  an  open  letter  to  Lord  Aberdeen,'bringing  an  ehborate, 
detailed  and  horrible  indictment  against  the  rulers  of  Naples, 
especially  as  regards  the  arrangements  of  their  prisons  and  the 
treatment  of  persons  confined  in  them  for  political  offences. 
The  publication  of  this  letter  caused  a  wide  sensation  in  England 
and  abroad,  and  profoundly  agitated  the  court  of  Naples.  In 
reply  to  a  question  in  the  House  of  Commons,  Lord  Palmerston 
accepted  and  adopted  Gladstone's  statement,  expressed  keen 
sympathy  with  the  cause  which  he  had  espoused,  and  sent  a 
copy  of  his  letter  to  the  queen's  representative  at  every  court  of 
Europe.  A  second  letter  and  a  third  followed,  and  their  effect, 
though  for  a  while  retarded,  was  unmistakably  felt  m  the 
subs«:]uent  revolution  which  created  a  free  and  united  Italy. 

In  February  1852  the  Whig  government  was  defeated  on  a 
Militia  Bill,  and  Lord  John  Russell  was  succeeded  by  Lord 
Derby,  formerly  Lord  Stanley,  with  Mr  Disraeli,  wboi  aoi^ 


GLADSTONE 


69 


CBtcted  o£ke  for  the  fifst  time,  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
and  leader  of  the  House  oC  Commons.  Mr  Disraeli  introduced 
and  carried  a  makeshift  budget,  and  the  government 
tided  over  the  session,  and  dissolved  parliament  on  the 
ist  of  July  1852.  There  was  some  talk  of  inducing  Glad- 
stone to  join  the  Tory  government,  and  on  the  29th  of 
November  Lord  Malmesbury  dubiously  remarked,  "  I  cannot 
make  out  Gladstone,  who  seems  to  me  a  dark  horse."  In  the 
following  month  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  produced  his 
second  budgeL  The  government  redeemed  their  pledge  to  do 
something  for  the  relief  of  the  agricultural  interest  by  reducing 
the  duty  on  malt.  This  created  a  deficit,  which  they  repaired  by 
doubling  the  duty  on  inhabited  houses.  The  voices  of  criticism 
were  heard  simultaneously  on  every  side.  l*he  debate  waxed 
fast  and  furious.  In  defending  his  proposals  Mr  Disraeli  gave  full 
scope  to  his  most  characteristic  gifts;  he  pelted  his  opponents 
ri^t  and  left  with  sarcasms,  taunts  and  epigrams.  Gladstone 
delivered  an  unpremeditated  reply,  which  has  ever  since  been 
celebrated.  Tradition  says  that  he  "  foamed  at  the  mouth." 
Tbe  H)eech  of  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  he  said,  must  be 
answered  "  on  the  moment."  It  must  be  '*  tried  by  the  laws 
of  decency  and  propriety."  He  indignantly  rebuked  his  rival's 
language  and  demeanour.  He  tore  his  financial  scheme  to 
ribbons.  It  was  the  beginning  of  a  duel  which  lasted  till 
death  removed  one  of  the  combatants  from  the  political  arena. 
"  Those  who  had  thought  it  impossible  that  any  impression 
could  be  made  upon  the  House  after  the  speech  of  Mr  Disraeli 
had  to  acknowledge  that  a  yet  greater  impression  was  produced 
by  tbe  unprepared  reply  of  Mr  Gladstone."  The  House  divided, 
and  the  government  were  left  in  a  minority  of  nineteen.  Lord 
Derby  resigned. 

Tbe  new  government  was  a  coalition  of  Whigs  and  Peelites. 
Lord  Aberdeen  became  prime  minister,  and  Gladstone  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer.  Having  been  returned  again  for 
the  university  of  Oxford,  he  entered  on  the  active 
duties  of  a  great  office  for  which  he  was  pre-eminently 
fitted  by  an  unique  combination  of  financial,  adminis- 
trative and  rhetorical  gifts.  His  first  budget  was  introduced  on 
the  xSth  of  April  1853.  It  tended  to  make  life  easier  and  cheaper 
for  large  and  numerous  classes;  it  promised  wholesale  remissions 
of  taxation;  it  lessened  the  charges  on  common  processes  of 
business,  on  locomotion,  on  postal  communication,  and  on 
several  articles  of  general  consumption.  The  deficiency  thus 
created  was  to  be  met'  by  a  "  succession-duty,"  or  application 
of  the  legacy-duty  to  real  property;  by  an  increase  of  the  duty 

00  spirits;  and  by  the  extension  of  the  income-tax,  at  sd.  in 
the  pound,  to  all  incomes  between  £100  and  £150.  The  speech 
in  which  these  proposals  were  introduced  held  the  House  spell- 
bouxid.  .  Here  was  an  orator  who  could  apply  all  the  resources 
of  a  burnished  rhetoric  to  the  elucidation  of  figures;  who  could 
sweep  the  widest  horizon  of  the  financial  future,  and  yet  stoop 
to  bestow  tbe  minutest  attention  on  the  microcosm  of  penny 
stamps  and  post-hones.  Above  all,  the  chancellor's  mode  of 
handling  the  income-tax  attracted  interest  and  admiration.  It 
was  a  searching  analysis  of  the  financial  and  moral  grounds  on 
which  tbe  impost  rested,  and  a  historical  justification  and  eulogy 

01  it.  Yet,  great  as  had  been  the  services  of  the  tax  at  a  time 
of  national  danger,.  Gladstone  could  not  consent  to  retain  it  as 
a  part  of  tbe  permanent  and. ordinary  finances  of  the  country. 
It  was  objectionable  on  account  of  Its  unequal  incidence,  of  the 
iiai-a€«gnjr  investigation  into  private  affairs  which  it  entailed^ 
and  of  the  frauds  to  which  it  inevitably  led.  Therefore,  having 
served  its  turn,  it  was  to  be  extinguished  in  i860.  The  scheme 
astontsbed,  interestM  and  attracted  the  country.  The  queen 
and  Prtnoe  Albert  wrote  to  congratulate  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer:  Public  authorities  and  private  friends  joined  in 
the  cboftts  of  eulogy.  The  budget  demonstrated  at  once  its 
author's  absolute  mastery  over  figures  and  the  persuasive  force 
ef  his  expository  gift.  It  established  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  as  the  paramount  financier  of  his  day,  and  it  was  only 
the  first  of  a  long  series  of  similar  performances,  different,  of 
course,  in  detail,  but  alike  in  their  bold  outlines  and  brilliant 


handling.  Looking  back  on. a  long  life  of  strenuous  exertion, 
Gladstone  declared  that  the  woric  of  preparing  his  proposals 
about  the  succession-duty  and  carrying  them  through  Parlia- 
ment was  by  far  the  most  Uborious  task  which  he  ever  performed. 

War  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia  was  declared  on  the 
37  th  of  March  1854,  and  it  thus  fell  to  th^  lot  of  the  most  pacific 
of  ministers,  the  devotee  of  retrenchment,  and  the  anxious 
cultivator  of  all  industrial  arts,  to  prepare  a  war  budget,  and  to 
meet  as  well  as  he  might  the  exigencies  of  a  conflict  which  had  so 
cruelly  dislocated  all  the  ingenious  devices  of  financial  optimism. 
No  amount  of  skill  in  the  manipulation  of  figures,  no  ingenuity 
in  shifting  fiscal  burdens,  could  prevent  the  addition  of  forty-one 
millions  to  the  national  debt,  or  could  countervail  the  appalling 
mismanagement  at  the  seat  of  war.  Gladstone  declared  that 
the  state  of  the  army  in  the  Crimea  was  a  "  matter  for  weeping 
all  day  and  praying  all  night."  As  soon  as  parliament  met  in 
January  1855  J.  A.  Roebuck,  the  Radical  member  for  Sheffield, 
gave  notice  that  he  would  move  for  a  select  committee  "  to 
inquire  into  the  condition  of  our  army  before  Sevastopol,  and 
into  the  conduct  of  those  departments  of  the  government  whose 
duty  it  has  been  to  minister  to  the  wants  of  that  army."  On 
the  same  day  Lord  John  Russell,  without  announcing  his  inten- 
tion to  his  colleagues,  resigned  his  office  as  president  of  the 
council  sooner  than  attempt  the  defence  of  the  government. 
Gladstone,  in  defending  the  government  against  Roebuck-, 
rebuked  in  dignified  and  significant  terms  the  conduct  of  men 
who, "  hoping  to  escape  from  punishment,  ran  away  from  duty." 
On  the  division  on  Mr  Roebuck's  motion  the  government  was 
beaten  by  the  unexpected  majority  of  157. 

Lord  Palmerston  became  prime  minister.  The  Peelites 
joined  him,  and  Gladstone  resimied  office  as  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer.  A  shrew^  observer  at  the  time  pronounced  him 
indispensable.  **  Any  other  chancelbr  of  the  exchequer  would 
be  torn  in  bits  by  him."  The  government  was  formed  on  the 
understanding  that  Mr  Roebuck's  proposed  committee  was  to 
be  resisted.  Lord  Palmerston  soon  saw  that  further  resistance 
was  useless;  his  Peelite  colleagues  stuck  to  their  text,  and, 
within  three  weeks  after  resuming  office,  Gladstone,  Sir  James 
Graham  and  Mr  Sidney  Herbert  resigned.  Gladstone  once  said 
of  himself  and  his  Peelite  colleagues,  during  the  period  of  political 
isolation,  that  they  were  like  roving  icebergs  on  which  men 
could  not  land  with  safety,  but  with  which  ships  might  come 
into  perilous  collision.  He  now  applied  himself  specially  to 
financial  criticism,  and  was  perpetually  in  conflict  with  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  Sir  George  Comewall  Lewis. 

In  1858  Lord  Palmerston  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Derby  at 
the  head  of  a  Conservative  administration,  and  Gladstone 
accepted  the  temporary  office  of  high  commissioner  extraordinary 
to  the  Ionian  Islands.  Returning  to  En^Umd  for  the  session  of 
1859,  he  found  himself  involved  in  the  controversy  which  arose 
over  a  mild  Reform  Bill  introduced  by  the  government.  They 
were  defeated  on  the  second  reading  of  the  bill,  Gladstone  voting 
with  them.  A  dissolution  immediately  followed,  and  Gladstone 
was  again  returned  unopposed  for  the  university  of  Oxford. 
As  soon  as  the  new  parliament  met  a  vote  of  want  of  confidence 
in  the  minbtry  was  moved  in  the  House  of  Commons.  In  the 
critical  division  which  ensued  Gladstone  voted  with  the  govern- 
ment, who  were  left  in  a  minority.  Lord  Derby  resigned.  Lord 
Palmerston  became  prime  minister,  and  asked  Gladstone  to 
join  him  as  chancellor  <A  the  exchequer.  To  vote  confidence 
in  an  imperilled  ministry,  and  on  its  defeat  to  take  office  with 
the  rivals  who  have  defeated  it,  is  a  manceuvre  which  invites 
the  reproach  ol  tergiversation.  But  Gladstone  risked  the  re- 
proach, accepted  the  office  and  had  a  sharp  tussle  for  his  seat. 
He  emerged  from  the  struggle  victorious,  and  entered  on  his 
duties  with  characteristic  zeal.  The  prince  consort  wrote: 
"  Gladstone  is  now  the  real  leader  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  works  with  an  energy  and  vigour  altogether  incredible." 

The  budget  of  i860  was  marked  by  two  distinctive  features. 
It  asked  the  sanction  of  parliament  for  the  commercial  treaty 
which  Cobden  had  privately  arranged  with  the  emperor  Napoleon, 
and  it  proposed  to  abolish  the  duty  on  paper.  The  French  treaty 


70 


GLADSTONE 


«//MOIi 


was  carried,  but  the  abolition  of  the  paper-duty  was  defeated  in 
the  House  of  Lords.  Gladstone  justly  regarded  the  refusal  to* 
remit  a  duty  as  being  in  effect  an  act  of  taxation,  and 
therefore  as  an  infringement  of  the  rights  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  The  proposal  to  abolish  the  paper- 
duty  was  revived  in  the  budget  of  x86i,  the  chief  proposals 
of  which,  instead  of  being  divided,  as  in  previous  years,  into 
several  bills,  were  included  in  one.  By  this  device  theLordswere 
obliged  to  acquiesce  in  the  repeal  of  the  paper-duty. 

During  Lord  Palmerston's  last  administration,  which  lasted 
from  Z859  to  1865,  Gladstone  was  by  far  the  most  brilliant  and 
most  conspicuous  figure  in  the  cabinet.  Except  in  finance,  he 
was  not  able  to  accomplish  much,  for  he  was  met  and  thwarted 
at  every  turn  by  his  chief's  invincible  hostility  to  change;  but 
the  more  advanced  section  of  the  Liberal  party  began  to  look 
upon  him  as  their  predestined  leader.  Jn  1864,  in  a  debate  on  a 
private  member's  bill  for  extending  the  suffrage,  he  declared  that 
the  burden  of  proof  lay  on  those  "  who  would  exclude  forty-nine 
fiftieths  of  the  working-classes  from  the  franchise."  In  1865, 
in  a  debate  on  the  condition  of  the  Irish  Church  Establishment, 
he  declared  that  the  Irish  Church,  as  it  then  stood,  was  in  a  false 
position,  inasmuch  as  it  mim*stered  only  to  one-eighth  or  one- 
ninth  of  the  whole  community.  But  just  in  proportion  as  Glad- 
stone advanced  in  favour  with  the  Radical  party  he  lost  the 
confidence  of  his  own  constituents.  Parliament  was  dissolved 
in  July  1865,  and  the  university  elected  Mr  Gathome  Hardy 
in  kis  place. 

Gladstone  at  once  turned  his  steps  towards  South  Lancashire, 
where  he  was  returned  with  two  Tories  above  him.  The  result 
of  the  general  election  was  to  retain  Lord  Palmerston's 
n!mtit  Rovemment  in  power,  but  on  the  i8th  of  October  the 
Common,  old  prime  minister  died.  He  was  succeeded  by  Lord 
Russell,  and  Gladstone,  retaining  the  chancellorship 
of  the  exchequer,  became  for  the  first  time  leader  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  Lord  Russell,  backed  by  Gladstone,  persuaded 
his  colleagues  to  consent  to  a  moderate  Reform  Bill,  and  the 
task  of  piloting  this  measure  through  the  House  of  Commons 
fell  to  Gladstone.  The  speech  in  which  he  wound  up  the  debate 
on  the  second  reading  was  one  of  the  finest,  if  not  indeed  the  very 
finest,  which  he  ever  delivered.  But  it  was  of  no  practical  avail: 
The  government  were  defeated  on  an  amendment  in  committee, 
and  thereupon  resigned.  Lord  Derby  became  prime  minister, 
with  Disraeli  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  On  the  i8th  of  iff  arch  1867  the  Tory 
Reform  Bill,  which  ended  in  establishing  Household  Suffrage 
in  the  boroughs,  was  introduced,  and  was  read  a  second  time 
without  a  division.  After  undergoing  extensive  alterations  in 
committee  at  the  hands  of  the  Liberals  and  Radicals,  the  bill 
became  law  in  August. 

At  Christmas  1867  Lord  Russell  announced  his  final  retirement 
from  active  politics,  and  Gladstone  was  recognized  by  accbma- 
tion  as  leader  of  the  Liberal  party.  Nominally  he  was 
Jjjjj*'  Jn  Opposition;  but  his  party  formed  the  majority 
party,  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  could  beat  the  govern- 
ment whenever  they-  chose  to  mass  their  forces. 
Gladstone  seized  the  opportunity  to  give  effect  to  convictions 
which  had  long  been  forming  in  his  mind.  Early  in  the  session 
he  brought  in  a  bill  abolishing  compulsory  church-rates,  and 
this  passed  into  law.  On  the  i6th  of  March,  in  a  debate  raised 
by  an  Irish  member,  he  declared  that  in  his  judgment  the  Irish 
Church,  as  a  State  Church,  must  cease  to  exist.  Immediately 
afterwards  he  embodied  this  opinion  in  a  series  of  resolutions 
concerning  the  Irish  Church  Establishment,  and  carried  them 
against  the  government.  Encouraged  by  this  triumph,  he 
brought  in  a  B.ill  to  prevent  any  fresh  appointments  in  the  Irish 
Church,  and  this  also  passed  the  Commons,  though  it  was 
defeated  in  the  Lords.  Parliament  was  dissolved  on  the  nth  of 
November.  A  single  issue  was  placed  before  the  country — Was 
the  Irish  Church  to  be,  or  not  to  be,  disestablished?  The 
response  was  an  overwhelming  affirmative.  Gladstone,  who  had 
)i>een  doubly  nominated,  was  defeated  in  Lancashire,  but  was 
returned  for  Greenwich.    He  chose  this  moment  for  publishing 


a  Chapter  of  Autobiograpky,  in  which  he  explained  and  justified 
his  change  of  opinion  with  regard  to  the  Irish  Church. 

On  the  and  of  December  Disraeli,  who  had  succeeded  Lord 
Derby  as  premier  in  the  preceding  February,  announced  that 
he  and  his  colleagues,  recognizing  their  defeat,  had 
resigned  without  waiting  for  a  formal  vote  of  the  new  mtaitUr! 
parliament.  On  the  following  day  Gladstone  was  mm 
summoned  to  Windsor,  and  commanded  by  the 
queen  to  form  an  administration.  The  great  task  to 
which  the  new  prime  minister  immediately  addressed 
himself  was  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church.  The 
queen  wrote  to  Archbishop  Tait  that  the  subject  of  the  Irish 
Church  "  made  her  very  anxious,"  but  that  Mr  Gladstone 
"  showed  the  most  conciliatory  disposition."  "  The  government 
can  do  nothing  that  would  tend  to  raise  a  suspicion  of  their 
sincerity  in  proposing  to  disestablish  the  Irish  Church,  and  to 
withdraw  all  state  endowments  from  all  religious  communions 
in  Ireland;  but,  were  thesd  conditions  accepted,  all  other 
matters  connected  with  the  question  might,  the  queen  thinks, 
become  the  subject  of  discussion  and  negotiation."  The  bill 
was  drawn  and  piloted  on  the  lines  thus  indicated,  and  became 
law  on  the  36th  of  July.  In  the  session  of  1870  Gladstone's 
principal  work  was  the  Irish  Land  Act,  of  which  the  object  was 
to  protect  the  tenant  against  eviction  as  long  as  he  paid  his  rent, 
and  to  secure  to  him  the  value  of  any  improvements  which  his 
own  industry  had  made.  In  the  following  session  Religious 
Tests  in  the  universities  were  abolished,  and  a  bill  to  establish 
secret  voting  was  carried  through  the  House  of  Commons. 
This  was  thrown  out  by  the  Lords,  but  became  law  a  year  later. 
The  House  of  Lords  threw  out  a  bill  to  abolish  the  purchase  of 
commissions  in  the  army.  Gladstone  found  that  purchase 
existed  only  by  royal  sanction,  and  advised  the  queen  to  issue 
a  royal  warrant  cancelling,  on  and  after  the  ist  of  November 
following,  all  regulations  authorizing  the  purchase  of  commissions. 

In  1875  Gbdstone  set  his  hand  to  the  third  of  three  great 
Irish  reforms  to  which  he  had  pledged  himself.  His  scheme 
for  the  establishment  of  a  university  which  should  satisfy  both 
Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants  met  with  general  disapproval. 
The  bill  was  thrown  out  by  three  votes,  and  Gkulstone  resigned. 
The  queen  sent  for  DisraeU,  who  declined  to  take  oflBce  in  a 
minority  of  the  House  of  Commons,  so  Gladstone  was  compelled 
to  resume.  But  hfe  and  his  colleagues  were  now,  in  Disraditish 
phrase,  "  exhausted  volcanoes."  Election  after  election  went 
wrong.  The  government  had  lost  favour  with  the  public,  ^nd 
was  divided  against  itself.  There  were  resignations  and  rumours 
of  resignations.  When  the  session  of  1875  had  come  to  an  end 
Gladstone  took  the  chancellorship  of  the  exchequer,  and,  as 
high  authorities  contended,  vacated  his  seat  by  doing  so.  The 
point  was  obviously  one  of  vital  importance;  and  we  learn  from 
Lord  Selbome,  who  was  lord  chancellor  at  the  time,  that  Glad- 
stone "  was  sensible  of  the  difficulty  of  either  taking  his  seat 
in  the  usual  manner  at  the  opening  of  the  session,  or  letting  .... 
the  necessary  arrangements  for  business  in  the  House  of  Commons 
be  made  in  the  prime  minister's  absence.  A  dissolution  was  the 
only  escape."  On  the  ajrd  of  January  1874  Gladstone  announced 
the  dissolution  in  an  address  to  his  constituents,  . 
declaring  that  the  authority  of  the  government  had  ^/gf^ 
now  *'  sunk  below  the  point  necessary  for  the  due  de- 
fence and  prosecution  of  the  public  interest."  He  promised  that, 
if  he  were  returned  to  power,  he  would  repeal  the  inoune-tax. 
This  bid  for  popularity  failed,  the  general  election  resulting,  in  a 
Tory  majority  of  forty-six.  Gladstone  kept  hisseat  for  Greenwich, 
but  was  only  second  on  the  poll.  Following  the  example  of 
Disraeli  in  1868,  he  resigned  without  meeting  parliament.  ■ 

For  some  years  he  had  alluded  to  his  impending  retirement 
from  public  life,  saying  that  he  was  "strong  against  going  on  in 
politics  to  the  end."  He  was  now  sixty-four,  and  his 
life  had  been  a  continuous  experience  of  emanating 
labour.  On  the  12th  of  March  1874  he  informed 
Lord  Granville  that  he  could  give  only  occasional  attendance 
in  the  House  of  Commons  during  the  current  session,  and  that 
he  must  "  reserve  his  entire  freedom  to  divest  himself  of  all  the 


GLADSTONE 


71 


icspoBflibilitics  of  kadenhip  at  no  disUat  date."  Hit  most 
impoitant  intervcDlioo  in  the  debates  of  1874  was  when  he 
opposed  Archbishop  Tait's  Public  Worship  Bill.  This  was  read 
a  second  time  without  a  division,  but  in  committee  Gladstone 
enjoyed  some  signal  triumphs  over  his  late  soUdtor-general, 
Sir  William  Haroourt,  who  had  warmly  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  government  and  the  bill.  At  the  beginning  of  187  s  Gladstone 
carried  into  effect  the  resolution  which  he  had  announced  a  year 
before,  and  formally  resigned  the  leadership  of  the  Liberal 
party.  He  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Hartington,  afterwards 
duke  <rf  Devonshire.  The  learned  leisure  which  Gladstone  had 
promised  himself  when  released  from  official  responsibility 
was  not  of  long  duration.  In  the  autumn  of  1875  an  insurrection 
brake  out  in  Bulgaria,  and  the  suppression  of  it  by  the  Turks 
was  mariced  by  massacres  and  outrages.  Public  indignation 
was  aroused  by  what  were  known  as  the  "  Bulgarian  atrodties," 
and  Gladstone  flung  himself  into  the  agitation  against  Turkey 
with  characteristic  seal.  At  public  meetings,  in  the  press,  and 
in  parliament  he  denounttd  the  Turkish  government  and  its 
chaimpion,  Disraeli,  who  had  now  become  Lord  Beaoonsfield. 
Lord  Hartington  soon  found  himself  pushed  aside  from  his 
position  of  titular  leadership.  For  four  years,  from  1876  to  x88o, 
Gladstone  maintained  the  strife  with  a  courage,  a  persistence 
and  a  versatility  which  raised  the  enthusiasm  of  his  followers 
to  the  highest  pitch.  The  county  of  Edinburgh,  or  Midlothian, 
which  he  contested  against  the  dominant  influence  of 
the  duke  of  Bucdeuch,  was  the  scene  of  the  most 
Astonishing  exertions.  As  the  general  dection  ap- 
proached the  only  question  submitted  to  the  electors  was — Do 
>'ou  approve  or  condemn  Lord  Beaconsfield's  fordgn  policy? 
The  answer  was  given  at  Easter  x88o,  when  the  Liberals  were 
returned  by  an  overwhelming  majority  over  Tories  and  Home 
Rulen  combined.  Gladstone  was  now  member  for  Midlothian, 
having  retired  from  Greenwich  at  the  dissolution. 

When  Lord  Beaconsfield  resigned,  the  queen  sent  for  Lord 
Hartington,  the  titular  leader  of  the  Liberals,  but  he  and  Lord 
Granville  assured  her  that  no  other  chief  than  Gladstone  would 
satisfy  the  party.  Accordingly,  on  the  aard  of  April  he  became 
prime  minister  for  the  second  time.  His  second  administration, 
of  which  the  main  achievement  was  the  extension  of  the  suffrage 
to  the  agricultural  labourers,  was  harassed  by  two  controversies, 
relating  to  Ireland  and  Egypt,  which  proved  disastrous  to  the 
Liberal  party.  Gladstone  alienated  considerable  masses  of 
English  opinion  by  his  efforts  to  reform  the  tenure  of  Irish  land, 
and  provoked  the  Irish  people  by  his  attempts  to  establish 
social  order  and  to  repress  crime.  A  bill  to  provide  compensation 
for  tenants  who  had  been  evicted  by  Irish  landlords  passed  the 
Commons,  but  was  shipwrecked  in  the  Lords,  and  a  ghastly 
record  of  outrage  and  murder  stained  the  following  winter.  A 
Coerdon  Bill  and  a  Land  Bill  passed  in  188 1  proved  unsuccessful. 
On  the  6th  of  May  x88a  the  newly  appointed  chief  secretary 
for  Ireland,  Lord  Frederick  Cavendish,  and  his  under-secretary, 
Mr  Burke,  were  stabbed  to  death  in  the  Phoenix  Park  at  Dublin. 
A  new  Crimes  Act,  courageously  administered  by  Lord  Spencer 
and  Sir  George  Trevdyan,  abolished  exceptional  crime  in  Ireland, 
but  completed  the  breach  between  the  British  government  and 
the  Irish  party  in  parliament. 

The  bombardment  of  the  forts  at  Alexandria  and  the  occupa- 
tion of  Egypt  in  i88a  were  viewed  with  great  dbfavour  by  the 
bulk  of  the  Liberal  party,  and  were  but  little  congenial  to 
Gladstone  himself.  The  drcumstances  of  General  Gordon's 
nntimely  death  awoke  an  outburst  of  indignation  against  those 
who  were,  or  seemed  to  be,  responsible  for  it.  Frequent  votes  of 
censure  were  proposed  by  the  Opposition,  and  on  the  8th  of  June 
1885  the  government  were  beaten  on  the  budget.  Gladstone 
resigned.  The  queen  offered  him  the  dignity  of  an  earldom^ 
which  he  declined.  He  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Salisbury. 

The  general  election  took  place  in  the  following  November. 
When  it  wasover  the  Liberal  party  was  just  short  of  the  numerical 
strength  which  was  requisite  to  defeat  the  combination  of  Tories 
and  PameUites.  A  startling  surprise  was  at  hand.  Gladstone 
bad  for  some  time  been  convinced  of  the  expediency  of  conceding 


Home  Rule  to  Ireland  in  the  event  of  the  Irish  constituendes 
giving  unequivocal  proof  that  they  desired  it.  His  intentions 
were  made  known  only  to  a  privileged  few,  and 
these,  curiously,  were  not  his  colleagues.  The  general 
election  of  1885  showed  that  Ireland,  outside  Ulster. 
was  practically  unanimous  for  Home  Rule.  On  the 
X7th  of  December  an  anonymous  paragraph  was  published, 
stating  that  if  Mr  Gladstone  returned  to  office  he  was  prepared 
to  "  deal  in  a  liberal  spirit  with  the  demand  for  Home  Rule." 
It  was  dear  that  if  Gladstone  meant  what  he  appeared  to  mean, 
the  PameUites  would  support  him,  and  the  Tories  must  leave 
office.  The  government  seemed  to  accept  the  situation.  When 
parliament  met  they  executed,  for  form's  sake,  some  confused 
manoeuvres,  and  then  they  were  beaten  on  an  amendment 
to  the  address  in  favour  of  Munidpal  Allotments.  On  the  ist 
of  Februaxy  x886  Gladstone  became,  for  the  third  time,  prime 
minister.  Several  of  his  former  colleagues  declined  to  join 
him,  on  the  ground  of  thdr  absolute  hostility  to  the  policy  of 
Home  Rule;  others  joined  on  the  express  understanding  that 
they  were  only  pledged  to  consider  the  policy,  and  did  not  fetter 
thdr  further  liberty  of  action.  On  the  8th  of  April  Gladstone 
brought  in  his  bill  for  establishing  Home  Rule,  and  eight  days 
later  the  bill  for  buying  out  the  Irish  landlords.  Meanwhile 
two  members  of  his  cabinet,  feeling  themsdves  unable  to  support 
these  measures,  resigned.  Hostility  to  the  bills  grew  apace. 
Gladstone  was  Implored  to  withdraw  them,  or  substitute  a 
resolution  in  favour  of  Irish  autonomy;  but  he  resolved  to  press 
at  least  the  Home  Rule  Bill  to  a  second  reading.  In  the  early 
morning  of  the  8th  of  June  the  bill  was  thrown  out  by  thirty. 
Gladstone  immediately  advised  the  queen  to  dissolve  parliament. 
Her  Majesty  strongly  demurred  to  a  second  general  election 
within  seven  months;  but  Gladstone  persisted,  and  she  yielded. 
Parliament  was  dissolved  on  the  a6th  of  June.  In  spite  of 
Gladstone's  skilful  appeal  to  the  constituendes  to  sanction 
the  prindple  of  Home  Rule,  as  distinct  from  the  practical 
provisions  of  his  late  bill,  the  general  election  resulted  in  a 
majority  of  considerably  over  100  against  his  policy,  and  Lord 
Salisbury  resumed  office.  Throughout  the  existence  of  the  new 
parliament  Gladstone  never  relaxed  his  extraordinary  efforts, 
though  now  nearer  eighty  than  seventy,  on  behalf  of  the  cause 
of  sdf-govemment  for  Ireland.  The  fertility  of  argumentative 
resource,  the  copiousness  of  rhetoric,  and  the  physical  energy 
which  he  threw  into  the  enterprise,  would  have  been  remarkable 
at  any  stage  of  hb  public  life;  continued  into  his  eighty-fifth 
year  they  were  little  less  than  miraculous.  Two  inddents  of 
domestic  interest,  one  haj^y  and  the  other  sad,  belong  to  that 
period  of  political  storm  and  stress.  On  the  asth  of  July  1889 
Gladstone  celebrated  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  marriage, 
and  on  the  4th  of  July  1891  his  ddest  son,  William  Henry,  a 
man  of  fine  character  and  accomplishments,  died,  after  a  lingering 
illness,  in  his  fifty-second  year. 

The  crowning  struggle  of  GUdstone's  political  career  was 
now  approaching  its  dimax.  Parliament  was  dissolved  on  the 
a8th  of  June  189a.  The  general  election  resulted 
in  a  majority  of  forty  for  Home  Rule,  heterogeneously 
composed  of  Liberals,  Labour  members  and  Irish. 
As  soon  as  the  new  parliament  met  a  vote  of  want  of 
confidence  in  Lord  Salisbury's  government  was  moved  and 
carried.  Lord  Salisbury  resigned,  and  on  the  isth  of  August 
189a  Gladstone  kissed  hands  as  first  brd  of  the  treasury.  He 
was  the  first  English  statesman  that  had  been  four  times  prime 
minister.  Parliament  reassembled  in  January  1893.  Gladstone 
brought  in  hb  new  Home  Rule  Bill  on  the  13th  of  February. 
It  passed  the  House  of  Commons,  but  was  thrown  out  by  the 
House  of  Lords  on  the  second  reading  on  the  8th  of  September 
1893.  Gladstone's  political  work  was  now,  in  hb  own  judgment, 
ended.  He  made  his  last  speech  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  the 
ist  of  March  1894,  acquiescing  in  some  amendments  introduced 
by  the  Lords  into  the  Parish  Coundb  Bill;  and  on  the  3rd  of 
March  he  placed  hb  resignation  in  the  queen's  hands.  He 
never  set  foot  again  in  the  House  of  Commons,  though  he  re- 
mained a  member  of  it  till  the  dissolution  of  1895.    He  paid 


72 


GLADSTONE— GLAGOLITIC 


occasional  visits  to  friends  in  London,  Scotland  and  the  south 
of  France;  but  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  for  the  most 
part  at  Hawarden.  He  occupied  his  leisure  by  writing  a  rhymed 
translation  of  the  Odes  of  Horace,  and  preparing  an  elaborately 
annotated  edition  of  Butler's  Analogy  and  Sermons.  He  had 
also  contemplated  some  addition  to  the  Homeric  studies  which 
he  had  always  loved,  but  this  design  was  never  carried  into  effect, 
for  he  was  summoned  Once  again  from  his  quiet  life  of  study 
and  devotion  to  the  field  of  public  controversy.  The  Armenian 
massacres  in  1894  and  1895  revived  all  his  ancient  hostility  to 
"  the  governing  Turk."  He  denounced  the  massacres  and  their 
perpetrators  at  public  meetings  held  at  Chester  on  the  6th  of 
August  1895,  and  at  Liverpod  on  the  34th  of  September  x8q6. 
In  March  1897  he  recapitulated  the  hideous  history  in  an  open 
letter  to  the  duke  of  Westminster. 

But  the  end,  though  not  yet  apprehended,  was  at  hand. 
Since  his  retirement  from  office  Gladstone's  physical  vigour, 
up  to  that  time  unequalled,  had  shown  signs  of  impairment. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  summer  of  1897  he  began  to  suffer  from 
an  acute  pain,  which  was  attributed  to  facial  neuralgia,  and 
in  November  he  went  to  Cannes.  In  February  1898  he  returned 
to  England  and  went  to  Bournemouth.  There  he  was  informed 
that  the  pain  had  its  origin  in  a  disease  which  must  soon  prove 
fatal.  He  received  the  information  with  simple  thankfulness, 
and  only  asked  that  he  might  die  at  home.  On  the  a  and  of 
^^^  March  he  returned  to  Hawarden,  and  there  he  died 
^'^  on  the  19th  of  May  1898.  During  the  night  of  the 
asth  of  May  his  body  was  conveyed  from  Hawarden  to  London 
and  the  coffin  was  placed  on  a  bier  in  Westminster  Hall.  Through- 
out the  a6th  and  27th  a  vast  train  of  people,  officially  estimated 
at  350,000,  and  drawn  from  every  rank  and  class,  moved  in 
unbroken  procession  past  the  bier.  On  the  aSth  of  May  the 
coffin,  preceded  by  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament  and  escorted 
by  the  chief  magnates  of  the  realm,  was  carried  from  Westminster 
Hall  to  Westminster  Abbey.  The  heir-apparent  and  his  son, 
the  prime  minister  and  the  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
were  among  those  who  bore  the  pall.  The  body  was  buried 
in  the  north  transept  of  the  abbey,  where,  on  the  19th  of  June 
X900,  Mrs  Gladstone's  body  was  laid  beside  it. 

Mr  and  Mrs  Gladstone  had  four  sons  and  four  daughters,  of 
whom  one  died  in  infancy.  The  eldest  son,  W.  H.  Gladstone 
(1840-X891),  was  a  member  of  parliament  for  many 
years,  and  married  the  daughter  of  Lord  Blantyre,  his 
son  William  (b.  1885)  inheriting  the  family  estates.  The  fourth 
son,  Herbert  John  (b.  1854),  sat  in  parliament  for  Leeds  from 
x88o  to  1 910,  and  filled  various  offices,  being  home  secretary 
X905-1910;  in  19x0  he  was  created  Viscount  Gladstone,  on  being 
appointed  governor-general  of  united  South  Africa.  The  eldest 
daughter,  Agnes,  married  the  Rev.  £.  C.  Wickham,  headmaster  of 
Wellington,  1873-1893,  and  later  Dean  of  Lincoln.  Another 
daughter  married  the  Rev.  Harry  Drew,  rector  of  Hawarden. 
The  youngest,  Helen,  was  for  some  years  vice-principal  of 
Newnham  College,  Cambridge. 

After  a  careful  survey  of  Mr  Gladstone's  life,  enlightened 
by  personal  observation,  it  is  inevitable  to  attempt  some  analysis 
char^^r  ^^  ^  character.  First  among  his  moral  attributes 
'  must  be  placed  his  religiousness.  From  those  early 
days  when  a  fond  mother  wTote  of  him  as  having  been  "  truly 
converted  to  God,"  down  to  the  verge  of  ninety  years,  he  lived 
in  the  habitual  contemplation  of  the  unseen  world,  and  regulated 
his  private  and  public  action  by  reference  to  a  code  higher 
than  that  of  mere  prudence  or  worldly  wisdom.  A  second 
characteristic,  scarcely  less  prominent  than  ttie  first,  was  his 
love  of  power.  His  ambition  had  nothing  in  common  with  the 
vulgar  eagerness  for  place  and  pay  and  social  standing.  Rather 
it  was  a  resolute  determination  to  possess  that  control  over  the 
machine  of  state  which  should  enable  him  to  fulfil  without  let 
or  hindrance  the  political  mission  with  which  he  believed  that 
Providence  had  charged  him.  The  love  of  power  was  supported 
by  a  splendid  fearlessness.  No  dangers  were  too  threatening 
for  him  to  face,  no  obstacles  tooformidable,no  tasks  too  laborious, 
00  heights  too  steep.    The  love  of  power  and  the  supporting 


courage  were  allied  with  a  marked  imperiousnen.  Of  this 
quality  there  was  no  trace  in  his  manner,  which  was  courteous, 
conciliatory  and  even  deferential;  nor  in  his  speech,  which 
breathed  an  almost  exaggerated  humility.  But  the  imperioua» 
ness  showed  itself  in  the  more  effectual  form  of  action;  in  his 
sudden  resolves,  hb  invincible  insistence,  his  recklessness,  of 
consequences  to  himself  and  his  friends,  his  habitual  assumption 
that  the  civilized  world  and  all  its  units  must  agree  with  him, 
his  indignant  astonishment  at  the  bare  thought  of  dissent  or 
resistance,  his  incapacity  to  believe  that  an  overruling  Provide 
ence  would  permit  him  to  be  frustrated  or  defeated.  He  had 
by  nature  what  be  himself  called  a  *'  vulnerable  temper  and 
impetuous  moods."  But  so  absolute  was  his  lifelong  lelf-mastcry 
that  he  was  hardly  ever  betrayed  into  saying  t£it  which,  on 
cooler  reflection,  needed  to  be  recalled.  It  was  eaqr  enou^ 
to  see  the  "  vulnerable  temper  "  as  it  worked  within,  bat  it 
was  never  suffered  to  find  audible  egression.  It  may  seem 
paradoxical,  but  it  is  true,  to  say  that  Mr  Gladstone  was  by 
nature  conservative.  His  natural  bias  was  to  TtapeA  things  as 
they  were.  In  his  eyes,  institutions,  customs,  systems,  so  long 
as  they  had  not  become  actively  mischievous,  were  good  because 
they  were  old.  It  is  true  that  he  was  sometimes  forced  by 
conviction  or  fate  or  political  necessity  to  be  a  revolutionist 
on  a  large  scale;  to  destroy  an  established  Church;  to  add  two 
millions  of  voters  to  the  electorate;  to' attack  the  parliamentary 
union  of  the  kingdoms.  But  these  changes  were,  in  their  in- 
ception, distasteful  to  their  author.  His  whde  tiJfe  was  spent 
in  unlearning  the  prejudices  in  which  he  was  educated.  His 
love  of  freedom  steadily  developed,  and  he  applied  its  principles 
more  and  more  'courageously  to  the  problems  of  government. 
But  it  makes  some  difference  to  the  future  of  a  democratic 
state  whether  its  leading  men  are  eageriy  on  the  look-out  for 
something  to  revolutionize,  or  approach  a  constitutional  change 
by  the  gradual  processes  of  conviction  and  conversion. 

Great  as  were  his  eloquence,  his  knowledge  and  his  financial 
skill,  Gladstone  was  accustomed  to  say  of  himself  that  the  only 
quality  in  which,  so  far  as  he  knew,  he  was  distinguished  from 
his  fellow-men  was  his  faculty  of  concentration.  Whatever  were 
the  matter  in  hand,  he  so  concentrated  himself  on  it,  and  absorbed 
himself  in  it,  that  nothing  else  seemed  to  fexist  for  him. 

A  word  must  be  said  about  physical  charaOeristics.  In 
his  prime  Gladstone  was  just  six  feet  high,  but  his  inches 
diminished  as  his  years  increased,  and  in  old  age  the  unusual 
size  of  his  head  and  breadth  of  his  shoulders  gave  him  a  slightly 
top-heavy  appearance.  His  features  were  strongly  marked; 
the  nose  trenchant  and  hawk-like,  and  the  mouth  severely 
lined.  His  flashing  eyes  were  deep-set,  and  in  colour  resembled 
the  .onyx  with  its  double  band  of  brown  and  grey.  His  com- 
plexion was  of  an  extreme  pallor,  and,  combined  with  his  jet-black 
hair,  gave  in  earlier  life  something  of  an  Italian  aspect  to  his 
face.  His  dark  eyebrows  were  singularly  flexible,  and  they  per- 
petually expanded  and  contracted  in  harmony  with  what  he 
was  saying.  He  held  himself  remarkably  upright,  and  even 
from  his  school-days  at  Eton  had  been  remarked  for  the  rapid 
pace  at  which  he  habitually  walked.  His  voice  was  a  baritone, 
singularly  clear  and  far-reaching.  In  the  Waverley  Market 
at  Edinburgh,  which  is  said  to  hold  ao,ooo  people,  he  could  be 
heard  without  difficulty;  and  as  late  as  1895  he  said  to  the 
present  writer:  "  What  difference  does  it  make  to  me  whether 
I  speak  to  400  or  4000  people  ? "  His  physical  vigour  in  old 
age  earned  him  the  popular  nickname  of  the  Grand  Old  Man. 

Lord  Morley  of  Blackburn's  Life  of  Gladstone  was  pubttshed  in 
1903.  (G.  W.  E.  R.) 

GLADSTONB.  a  seaport  of  Clinton  county,  Queensland, 
Australia,  3a8  m.  by  rail  N.E.  of  Brisbane.  Pop.  (1901)  X566. 
It  possesses  a  fine,  well-sheltered  harbour  reputed  one  of  the 
best  in  Queensland,  at  the  mouth  of  .the  river  Boync.  Gold; 
manganese,  copper  and  coal  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Gladstone,  founded  in  X847,  became  a  munidpality  in  1863. 

See  J.  F.  Hosan,  The  Gladstone  Colony  (London,  1898). 

GLAGOUnC,  an  early  Slavonic  alphabet:  also  the  liturgy 
written  therein,  and  the  people  (Dalmatians  and  Roman  Catholic 


GLAIR—GLAMORGANSHIRE 


73 


Montenfgrias)  among  whom  it  has  survived  by  qpedal  licence 
of  the  Pope  (see  Slavs  for  table  of  letters). 

GLAIR  (from  Fr.  ffairc,  probably  from  Lat.  darus,  clear, 
bdgbt),  the  white  of  an  egg,  and  hence  a  term  used  for  a  prepara- 
tioo  made  of  this  and  used,  in  bookbiading  and  in  gildizig,  to 
retain  the  gold  and  as  a  varnish.  The  adjeaive  "  glairy  "  is 
osed  of  substances  having  the  viscous  and  transparent  consistency 
of  the  white  of  an  egg. 

ftLAUHBR.  JAMBS  (180^x903),  English  meteorologist  and 
aoooaut,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  7th  of  April  1809.  After 
serving  for  a  few  jrears  on  the  Ordnance  Survey  of  Ireland, 
be  acted  as  an  assistant  at  the  Cambridge  and  Greenwich  ob- 
servatories succ»sively ,  and  when  the  department  of  meteorology 
and  magnetism  was  formed  at  the  latter,  he  was  entrusted  with 
its  siq)eiintendence, which  he  continued  to  exercise  for  thirty-four 
years,  until  his  retirement  from  the  public  service.  In  1845  he 
pnWishfd  his  well-known  dew-point  tables,' which  have  gone 
throu^  many  editions.  In  1850  he  establish^  the  Meteoro- 
logicsl  Society,  acting  as  its  seoretAry  for  many  years,  and  in 
1866  he  assi^ed  in  the  foundation  of  the  Aeronautical  Sodety 
of  Gfeat  Britain.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  royal 
commisBion  00  the  warming  and  ventilation  of  dwellings  in  1875, 
and  for  twdve  years  from  x88o  acted  as  chairman  of  the  executive 
cotomittee  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  But  his  name 
is  ixst  known  in  connexion  with  the  series  of  baUoon  ascents 
wUch  be  made  between  1862  and  1866,  mostly  in  company 
with  Henry  Tracey  C^oxwcIL  Many  of  these  ascents  were 
arranged  by  a  committee  of  the  BritLh  Association,  of  which 
he  was  a  member,  and  were  strictly  scientific  in  character,  thei 
object  being  to  carry  out  observations  on  the  temperature, 
humidity,  fro.,  of  the  atmoq>here  at  high  elevations.  In  one  of 
them,  that  which  took  |dace  at  Wolverhampton  on  the  5th  of 
September  1863,  Glaisher  and  his  companion  attained  the 
greatest  height  that  had  been  reached  by  a  balloon  carrying 
passengers.  As  no  automatically  recording  instruments  were 
availaUe,  and  Glaisher  was  unable  to  read  the  barometer  at 
the  hi^iest  point  owing  to  loss  of  consciousness,  the  precise 
altitude  can  never  be  known,  but  it  is  estimated  at  about 
7  m.  from  the  earth.  He  died  on  the  7th  of  Februaiy  1903  at 
Ciojrdon. 

6LAMIS.  a  village  and  parish  of  Forfarshire,  Scotland,  5}  m. 
W.  by  S.  of  Forfar  by  the  C^edonian  railway.  Pop.  of  parish 
(igox)  1351.  The  name  is  sometimes  spelled  Glammis  and  the 
t  is  mate:  it  is  derived  from  the  Gaelic,  gfamkus,  "  a  wide  gap," 
"  a  vak."  Tlie  chief  object  in  the  village  is  the  sculptured  stone, 
traditionally  supposed  to  be  a  memorial  of  Malcolm  II.,  although 
Fordun's  statement  that  the  king  was  slain  in  the  castle  is  now 
rejected.  About  a  mile  from  the  station  stands  Glamis  C^tle, 
the  seat  of  the  earl  of  Strathmore  and  Kinghome,  a  fine  example 
of  the  Scottish  Baronial  style,  enriched  with  certain  features 
of  the  French  chAteau.  In  its  present  form  it  dates  mostly 
from  the  17th  century,  but  the  original  structure  was  as  old  as 
the  ixth  century,  for  Macbeth  was  Thane  of  Glamu.  Several 
of  the  eariy  Soots  kings,  especially  Alexander  HI.,  used  it 
occasionally  as  a  residence.  Robert  II.  bestowed  the  thanedom 
00  John  Lyon,  who  had  married  the  king's  second  daughter 
fay  Elliabeth  Mure  and  was  thus  the  founder  of  the  existing 
family.  Patrick  Lyon  became  hostage  to  England  for  James  X. 
in  X424.  When,  in  1537,  Janet  Douglas,  widow  of  the  6th  Lord 
Glamis,  was  burned  at  Edinburgh  as  a  witch,  for  oon^iring  to 
procure  James  V.'s  death,  Clamis  was  forfeited  to  the  crown,  but 
it  was  restored  to  her  son  six  years  later  when  her  innocence  had 
been  fstaWinhfrf.  The  3rd  earl  of  Strathmore  entertained  the 
Old  Chevalier  and  eighty  of  his  immediate  foDoweis  in  171 5. 
After  discharging  the  duties  of  hospitality  the  earl  joined  the 
JacoUtes  at  Shieriffmuir  and  fell  on  the  battlefield.  Sir  Walter 
Scott  spent  a  night  in  the  "  hoary  old  pile  "  when  he  was  about 
twenty  years  old,  and  gives  a  striking  relation  of  his  experiences 
in  his  Demonchgy  and  Witchcraft,  The  hall  has  an  ardied 
ceiling  and  several  historical  portraits,  including  those  of  Qaver- 
bouae,  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  of  England.  At  Gossans,  in 
the  partth  of*  Glamis.  there  is  a  remarkable  sculptured  monolith. 


and  other  examples  occur  at  the  Hunters'  Hill  and  in  'the  old 
kirkyard  of  Eassie. 

GLAMORGANSHIRE  (Welsh  Morganwg),  a  maritime  county 
occupying  the  south-east  comer  of  Wales,  and  bounded  N.W. 
by  Carmarthenshire,  N.  by  (Carmarthenshire  and  Breconshire, 
E.  by  Monmouthshire  and  S.  and  S.W.  by  the  Bristol  Channel 
and  (Carmarthen  Bay.  The  contour  oi  the  county  is  largely 
determined  by  the  fact  that  it  lies  between  the  mountains  of 
Breconshire  and  the  Bristol  Channel.  Its  extreme  breadth  from 
the  sea  inland  is  29  m.,' while  its  greatest  length  from  east  to 
west  is  53  m.  Its  chief  rivers,  the  Rhymney,  Taff,  Neath  (or 
N£dd)  and  Tawe  or  Tawy,  have  their  sources  in  the  Breconshire 
mountains,  the  two  first  trending  towards  the  south-east,  while 
the  two  last  trend  to  the  south-west,  so  that  the  main  body  of  the 
county  forms  a  sort  of  quarter-cirde  between  the  Taif  and  the 
Neath.  Near  the  apex  <^  the  angle  formed  by  these  two  rivers 
is  the  loftiest  peak  in  the  county,  the  great  Pennant  scarp  of 
(Craig  y.Llyn  or  Cam  Moesyn,  1970  ft.  high,  which  in  the  Glacial 
period  diverted  the  ice-flow  from  the  Beacons  into  the  valley 
on  either  side  of  it.  .To  the  south  and  south-cast  of  this  peak 
extend  the  great  coal-fields  of  mid-Glamorgan,  their  surface 
forming  an  irregular  plateau  with  an  average  elevation  of  600  to 
1200  ft.  above  sea-level,  but  with  numerous  peaks  about  1500  ft. 
high,  or  more;  Mynydd  y  (Caerau,  the  second  highest  being 
1823  ft.  Out  of  this  plateau  have  been  carved,  to  the  depth 
of  500  to  800  ft.  below  its  gener^  level,  three  distinct  series 
of  narrow  valleys,  those  in  each  series  being  more  or  less  parallel. 
The  rivers  which  give  their  names  to  these  valle)^  include  the 
(C3mon,  the  Great  and  Lesser  Rhondda  (tributaries  of  the  Taff) 
and  the  Ely  flowing  to  the  S.E.,  the  Ogwr  or  Ogmore  (with  its 
tributaries  the  Garw  and  Llynfi)  flowing  south  through  Bridgend, 
and  the  Avan  bringing  the  waters  of  the  (Corwg  and  Gwynfi  to 
the  south-west  into  Swansea  Bay  at  Aberavon.  To  the  south 
of  this  central  hill  country,  which  is  wet,  cold  and  sterile,  and 
whose  steep  slopes  form  the  southern  edge  of  the  coal-field,  there 
stretches  out  to  the  sea  a  gently  undulating  plain,  compendiously 
known  as  the  "  Vale  of  Glamorgan,"  but  in  fact  consisting  of  a 
succession  of  small  vales  of  such  fertile  land  and  with  such  a 
mild  climate  that  it  has  been  styled,  not  inaptly,  the  "  Garden 
of  Wales."  To  the  east  of  the  central  area  referred  to  and 
divided  from  it  by  a  spur  of  the  Brecknock  mountains  culminating 
in  Cam  Bugail,  1570  ft.  high,  is  the  Rhymney,  which  forms  the 
county's  eastern  boundary.  On  the  west  other  spurs  of  the 
Beacons  divide  the  Neath  from  the  Tawe  (which  enters  the 
sea  at  Swansea),  and  the  Tawe  from  the  Loughor,  which,  with 
its  tributary  the  AmmaUj  separates  the  county  on  the  N.W. 
from  Carmarthenshire,  in  which  it  rises,  and  falling  into  (Car- 
marthen Bay  forms  what  is  knOwn  as  the  Burry  estuary,  so 
called  from  a  small  stream  of  that  name  in  the  (jower  peninsiila. 
Tlie  rivers  are  all  comparatively  short,  the  Taff,  in  every  respect 
the  chief  river,  being  only  33  m.  long. 

Down  to  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  most  of  the  Glamorgan 
valleys  were  famous  for  their  beautiful  scenery,  but  industrial 
operations  have  since  destroyed  most  of  this  bnuty,  except  in 
the  so-called  "  Vale  of  Glamorgan,"  the  Vale  of  Neath,  the 
**  combes  "  and  limestone  gorges  of  Gower  and  the  upper  reaches 
of  the  Taff  and  the  Tawe.  The  Vale  of  Neath  is  par  exceUence 
the  waterfall  district  of  South  Wales,  the  finest  falls  being  the 
Cilhepste  fall,  the  Sychnant  and  the  three  Qungwyns  on  the 
Mellte  and  its  tributaries  near  the  Val^  of  Neath  railway  from 
Neath' to  Hirwaun,  Scwd  Einon  (}am  and  Scwd  Gladys  on  the 
Pyrddin  on  the  west  side  of  the  valley  dose  by,  with  Melin  Court 
and  Abergarwed  still  nearer  Neath.  There  are  also  several 
cascades  on  the  Dulais,  and  in  the  same  district,  though  in 
Breconshire,  is  Scwd  Henrhyd  on  the  Llech  near  (Colbren  Junction. 
Almost  the  only  part  of  the  county  which  is  now  well  timbered 
is  the  Vale  of  Neath.  There  are  three  small  lakes,  Uyn  Fawr 
and  Uyn  Fach  near  Craig  y  Llyn  and  Kenfig  Pool  amid  the 
sand-dunes  <rf  Margam.  The  rainfall  of  the  county  varies  from 
an  average  of  about  25  in.  at  Porthcawl  and  other  parts  of  the 
Vale  of  Glamorgan  to  about  37  in.  at  Cardiff,  40  in.  at  Swansea 
and  to  upwards  <rf  70  in.  in  the  northern  part  dt  the  county. 


74 


GLAMORGANSHIRE 


the  fall  being  still  higher  in  the  adjoining  parts  of  Breconshire 
whence  Cardiff,  Swansea,  Merthyr  and  a  large  area  near  Neath 
draw  their  main  supplies  of  water. 

The  county  has  a  coast-line  of  about  83  m.  Its  two  chief  bays 
are  the  Burry  estuary  and  Swansea,  one  on  either  side  of  the 
Gower  Peninsula,  which  has  also  a  number  of  smaller  inlets  with 
magnificent  cliff  scenery.  The  rest  of  the  coast  a  fairly  regular, 
the  chief  openings  being  at  the  mouths  of  the  Ogmore  and  the 
Taff  respectively.  The  most  conspicuous  headlands  are  Whiteford 
Point,  Worms  Head  and  Miunbles  Head  in  Gower,  Nash  Point 
and  Lavemock  Point  on  the  eastern  half  of  the  coast. 

Ceclon. — ^The  Silurian  rocks,  the  oldest  in  the  county,  form  a 
•mall  infier  about  2  aq.  m.  in  area  at  Rumnev  and  IVn«v-lan,  north 
of  Caxdiff ,  and  consist  of  mud^ones  and  andstones  of  Wenlock  and 
Ludlow  age;  a  feeble  representative  of  the  Wenlock  Limestone  also 
is  present.  They  are  conformably  succeeded  by  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone which  extends  westwards  as  far  as  Cowbridse  as  a  deeply- 
eroded  anticline  larp^ly  concealed  by  Trias  and  Lias.  The  Old 
Red  Sandstone  consists  in  the  lower  parts  of  red  marls  and  sand- 
stones, while  the  upper  beds  are  quartzitic  and  pebbly,  and  form 
bold  scarps  which  dominate  the  low  ^und  formed  by  the  softer 
beds  below.  Cef n-y-tnyn,  another  antxline  of  Old  Rod  Sandstone 
(including  small  eimoeurcs  of  Silurian  rocks),  forma  the  prominent 
backbone  of  the  Cower  peninsula.  The  next  formation  is  the 
Carboniferous  Limestone  which  enctrdcs  and  underiies  the  STcat 
South  Wales  coal-field,  on  the  south  of  which,  west  of  Cardm,  it 
forms  a  bold  escarpment  of  steeply-dipping  beds  surrounding  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone  anticline.  It  snows  up  through  the  Trias  and 
Lias  in  extensive  inliers  near  Bridgend,  while  in  Gower  it  dips  away 
from  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  of  Cef n-y-bryn.  On  the  north  of  the 
coal-field  it  u  just  reached  near  Merthyr  TydfiL  The  Millstone  Grit, 
which  consists  of  grits,  sandstones  and  shales,  crops  out  above  the 
limestone  and  serves  to  introduce  the  Coal  Measures,  which  lie  in  the 
form  of  a  great  trough  extending  east  and  west  across  the  county  and 
occupying  most  of  its  surface.  The  coal  scams  are  most  numerous 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  series;  the  Penn^t  Sandstone  succeeds 
and  occupies  the  inner  parts  of  the  basin,  forming  an  devated 
moorland  region  deeply  trenched  by  the  teeming  vaUeys  («.f.  the 
Rhondda)  which  cross  the  coal-field  from  north  to  south.  Above 
the  Pennant  Sandstone  still  hidier  coab  come  in.  Taken  £;enerally, 
the  coals  are  bituminous  in  the  south-east  and  anthradtic  in  the 
north-west. 

After  the  Coal  Measures  had  been  deposited,  the  southern  i>art  of 
the  res^on  was  subiected  to  powerful  folding:  the  resulting  anticlines 
were  worn  down  during  a  long  period  of  detrition,  ankfthen  sub- 
merged slowly  beneath  a  Triassic  lake  in  which  accumulated  the 
Keuper  congfomerates  and  maris  which  spread  over  the  district 
west  of  Cardiff  and  are  traceable  on  the  coast  of  Gower.  The 
succeeding  Rhaetic  and  Lias  which  form  most  of  tlw  coastal  plain 
(the  fertiw  Vale  of  Glamorgan)  from  Penarth  to  near  Bridgend  were 
laid  down  by  the  Jurassic  sea.  A  wdl-marked  raised  beach  is 
traceabk  in  Cower.  Sand-dunes  are  present  locally  around  Swansea 
Bay.  Moraines,  chiefly  formed  of  gravel  and  day,  occupy  many 
of  the  Glamocgan  valleys;  and  these,  together  with  the  striated 
surfaces  which  may  be  observed  at  higher  levels,- are'  deariy  glacial 
in  origin.  In  the  Coal  Measures  and  the  newer  Limestones  and 
Triassic,  Rhaetic  and  Liassic  coifglomccates,  maris  and  shaka,  many 
interesting  fossils  have  been  disinterred:  these  include  the  remains 
of  an  air-OTeathing  reptile  {A  ntkracespdom).  Bones  of  the  cave-bear, 
lion,  mammoth,  reindeer,  rhinoceros,  along  with  flint  weapons  and 
tools,  have  been  discovered  in  some  caves  of  the  Gower  peninsula. 

AgncnUmre, — ^The  kyw-lyixqr  land  on  the  south  from  Caernhilly  to 
Manam  u  very  fertile,  the  son  being  a  deep  rich  loam;  and  nere  the 
stanoard  of  agriculture  is  fairiy  lugh,  and  there  prevails  a  well- 
'defined  tenant-right  custom,  supposed  to  be  of  andent  origin  but 
probably  dating  only  from  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century. 
Everywhere  on  the  Coal  Measures  the  soil  is  poor|  while  vegetation  is 
also  miured  by  the  smoke  from  the  works,  eqieaally  copper  smoke. 
Lcland  {c,  IS3S)  describes  the  lowlands  as  growing  gooo  com  and 
grass  but  litUewood.  while  the  mountains  had  "  redde  dere,  kiddes 
plenty,  oxen  and  sheep."  The  land  even  in  the  "  Vale  "  seems  to 
have  been  open  and  unendosed  till  the  end  of  the  15th  or  beginning 
of  the  i6th  century,  while  endosure  spread  to  the  uplands  stiU  later. 
About  one-fifth  oc  the  total  area  b  still  oommon  land,  more  than  half 
of  which  is  unsuitable  for  cultivation. '  The  total  area  under  culti- 
vation in  190S  was  969J171  acres  or  about  one-half  of  the  total  are  a 
of  the  county.  ^  The  cnief  crops  raised  (giving  them  in  the  order 
of  their  respective  acreages)  are  oats,  baney,  turnips  and  swedes, 
wheat,  potatoes  and  mangolds.  A  steady  oecreaae  of  the  acreage 
under  grain-crops,  green-crops  and  dovcr  has  been  accompanied 
fay  an  increase  m  the  area  of  pasture.  Dairying  has  been  Laigdy 
aoandoned  for  stock-raising,  and  very  little  "  (^aaphiUy  cheese  is 
now  made  in  that  district.  In  190S  Glamorgan  had  the  laigest 
number  of  hones  in  agriculture  of  any  Welsh  county  except  those  of 
Carmarthen  and  Can^^n.  Ciood  sheep  and  ponies  are  roired  in  the 
hill-country.  I^-keeping  is  mudi  neglected,  and  despite  the  mild 
Ittle  frwt  u 


1905  was  47*3  acres,  there  being  only  46  holdings  above  300 
and  1719  between  50  and  500  acres. 

Mining  and  Jdanufaetures.—Down  to  the  middle  of  the  i8tb 
century  the  county  had  no  industry  of  any  importance  except 
agriculture.  The  coal  which  underlies  practically  the  whole  surface 
of  the  county  except  the  Vale  of  Glamorgan  and  West  (jower  was 
little  worked  till  about  1755.  when  it  began  to  be  used  instead  of 
charcoal  for  the  smelting  of  iron.  By  1811,  when  there  were  35 
blast  furnaces  in  the  county,  the  demand  for  coal  for  this  purpose 
had  much  increased,  but  it  was  in  the  most  active  period  of  railway 
construction  that  it  reached  its  maximum.  Down  to  about  1850, 
if  not  later,  the  chief  collieries  were  owned  by  the  ironmasters  and 
were  worked  for  their  own  nrquirements,  but  when  the  suitability 
of  the  lower  scams  in  the  district  north  of  Cardiff  for  steam  purposes 
was  realized,  an  export  trade  sprang  up  and  soon  assumed  enormous 
proportions,  so  that  "  the  port  01  Cardiff  "  (induding  Barry  and 
Penarth),  from  which  the  bulk  df  the  steam  coal  was  shipped,  became 
the  first  port  in  the  world  for  the  shipment  of  coal.  The  development 
of  the  anthradte  coal-fidd  lying  to  the  north  and  west  of  Swansea 
(from  which  port  it  is  mostly  shipped)  dates  mainly  from  the  dosing 
years  of  the  X9th  century,  when  the  demand  for  this  coal  grew 
rapidly.  There  are  still  large  areas  in  the  Rhymney  Valley  on  the 
east,  and  in  the  districts  of  Neath  and  Swansea  on  the  west,  whose 
devdopment  has  only  recently  been  undertaken.  In  connexion  with 
the  coal  industry,  patent  fud  (made  from  small  coal  and  tar)  is 
largely  manufactured  at  Cardiff,  Port  Talbot  and  Swansea,  the  ship- 
ments from  Swansea  bdng  the  laigest  in  the  kingdom.  Next  in 
importance  to  coal  are  the  iron,  steel  and  tin-plate  industries,  and 
in  the  Swansea  district  the  smdting  of  copper  aiid  a  variety  of  other 
ores. 

The  manufacture  of  iron  and  sted  b  carried  onat  Dowlais,  Merthyr 
Tydfil,  Cardiff,  Port  Talbot.  Briton  Ferry,  Pontardawe,  Swansea. 
Gorsdnon  and  (3owerton.  During  the  last  quarter  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury the  use  of  the  native  ironstone  was  almost  wholly  given  up, 
and  the  necessary  ore  b  now  imported,  mainly  from  Spain.  As  a 
result  several  cf  the  older  inland  works,  such  as  those  cm  Aberdare, 
Ystalyfera  and  Brynaman  have  been  abandoned,  and  new  works 
have  been  established  on  or  near  the  sea-board;  «*^the  Dowlais 
company  in  i8qi  opened  large  works  at  Cardiff.  The  tin-plate 
industry  b  mainly  confined  to  ue  west  of  the  county,  Swansea  bdng 
the  chief  ponrt  for  the  shipment  of  tin-plates,  thoura  there  are  works 
near  Uantrisant  and  at  Mdin  Griffith  near  Cardiff,  the  latter  being 
the  oldest  in  the  county.  Cc^per-smdting  is  earned  on  on  a  large 
scale  in  the  west  of  the  county,  at  Port  Talbot.  Cwmavon,  Njeath  and 
Swansea,  and  on  a  small  scale  at  C^ardiff,  the  eariiest  works  having 
been  established  at  Neath  in  1584  and  at  Swansea  in  1717.  There 
are  nickel  works  at  Clydach  near  bwansea,  the  nickd  bdng  imported 
in  the  form  of  "  matte  "  from  Canada.  Swansea  has  almost  a 
monopoly  of  the  manufacture  of  q)dter  or  anc  Lead,  stiver  and  a 
number  of  other  metab  or  their  by-products  are  treated  in  or  near 
Swansea,  whkh  b  often  styled  the  '*  metalluii^kal  capital  of  Wales.** 
Limestone  and  dlica  quarries  are  worked,  while  sandstone  and  day 
are  also  raised.  Swansea  and  Nantgarw  were  formeriy  famous  for 
thdr  china,  coarse  ware  b  ^1  made  chiefly  at  Ewenny  and  terra- 
cotta at  Plencoed.  Laige  numbers  of  people  are  employed  in 
engineering  works  and  in  the  manufacture  of  machines,  chains, 
conveyances,  tools,  paper  and  chemicals.  The  textile  factories  are 
few  and  unimportant. 

Fisikmrr.— -Fisheries  exist  all  along  the  coast;  by  lines,  draught- 
nets,  dredging,  trawling,  fixed  nets  and  by  hand.  There  b  a  fleet  of 
tiawlerB  at  Swansea.  The  prindpal  fish  causht  are  cod,  herring, 
pollock,  whiting,  flukes,  brill,  plaice,  soles,  turbot,  oysters,  mussels, 
Umpets,  cockles,  shrimps,  cmbs  and  lobsters.  There  are  good  fish- 
markets  at  Swansea  and  Cardiff. 

Communieaiunu. — The  county  has  ample  dock  accommodation. 
The  various  docks  of  Cardiff  amount  to  a  10  acres,  induding  timber 
ponds;  Penarth  has  a  dock  and  baan  of  a6  acres  and  a  tidal  harbour 
of  55  acres.  Barry  docks  cover  114  acres;  Swansea  has  147  acres, 
induding  iu  new  King's  Dock;  and  Port  Talbot  90  acres.  There 
are  also  docks  at  Briton  Ferry  and  Porthcawl,  iMit  they  are  not 
capable  of  admitting  deep-draft  vessda. 

Besides  its  ports,  Glamorgan  has  abundant  means  of  transit  in 
many  railways,  of  which  the  Great  Western  b  the  chid.  Its  trunk 
line  traversing  the  countiy  between  the  mountains  and  the  \ 


through  Cardiff,  Bridgend  and  Landore  (on  the  outskirts  of  Swansea), 
and  urows  off  numerous  branches  to  the  north.  The  Taff  Vale 
railway  serves  all  the  valley  of  the  Taff  and  its  tributaries,  and  has 
also  extensbns  to  Barry  and  (through  Uantrisant  and  Cowbridgc) 


dimate  very  litt 


grown.    The  average  aiae  ci  hoklings  in 


to  Aberthaw.  The  Rhymney  railway  likewise  serves  the  Rhymney 
Valky,  and  has  a  joint  service  with  the  Great  Western  between 
Caixliff  and  Merthyr  Tydfil— the  latter  town  beii»  also  the  termmus 
of  the  Brecon  and  MerUiyr  and  a  branch  of  the  North-Westem  from 
Abergavenny.  The  Barry  railway  visits  Cardiff  and  then  traveb  in 
a  north-we^eriy  direction  to  Pontypridd  and  Forth,  while  it  sends 
aAother  branch  along  the  coast  through  Uantwit  Major  to  Bridgend. 
Swansea  b  connected  with  Merthyr  by  the  Great  Western,  with 
Brecon  by  the  Midland,  with  Craven  Arms  and  Mtd-Walcsgenerally 
by  the  London  &  North-Westem,  with  the  Rhondda  Valley  by 
the  Rhondda  and  Swansea  Bay  (now  woriced  by  the  Great  Western) 
I  and  with  Mumbles  by  the  Mumbles  nulway.    The  Port  Talbot 


GLAMORGANSHIRE 


75 


ciflway  miui  to  Blaeo^nr,  and  the  Neath  and  Brecon  railway 
(starting  from  Neath)  joins  the  Midland  at  Cdbren  Junction.  The 
canak  of  the  county  are  the  Glamocnn  canal  from  Cardiff  to 
Merthyr  Tydfil  (a^^  m.)i  with  a  brandi  (7  m.)  to  Aberdare.  the 
Neath  canal  (13  m.)  from  Briton  Ferry  to  Abernant,  Glvn  Neath 
(whence  a  tramway  formerly  connected  it  with  Aberaare),  the 
Tennant  canal  connecting  the  riveri.Neath  and  Tawe,  ajid  the  Swan- 
tea  canal  (i64m.),  runnu^  up  the  Swanaca  Valley  fnmi  Swansea  to 
Aberorave  in  Breconshire.  Comparatively  little  use  is  now  made  of 
these  canals,  excepting  the  lower  portions  of  the  Glamorgan  canaL 

Po^tUajAom  vmi  Atuiinistrati9». — ^The  area  of  the  andent  county 
with  which  the  administrative  county  is  conterminous  is  Si8>^3 
acres,  with  a  population  in  1901  of  859,931  persons.  In  the  tnree 
decades  between  183 1  and  1861  it  increased  M'2,  35*4  and  37'i  % 
respectively,  and  in  1881-1891, 34*4,  iu  average  mcrease  in  the  other 
decennial  periods  subsequent  to  1861  bein^  about  2}%.  The 
county  is  divided  imo  five  parliamentary  divisions  (via.  Gnmofgan- 
shire  East,  South  and  Middle.  Gower  and  Rhondda) ;  it  also  include 
the  Cardiff  district  of  boroughs  (consisting  of  Cardiff,  Cowbridge  and 
Llantrisant),  which  has  one  member;  thejpieater  part  of  the  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  Merthyr  Tydfil  (which  mainly  consists  of  the' 
county  DOTOttgh  of  Merthyr,  the  urban  district  of  Aberdare  and  part 
of  Mountain  Ash),  and  returns  two  member* ;  and  the  two  divisions 
of  Swansea  District  returning  one  member  each,  one  divinon  con- 
sistiiig  of  the  major  part  of  Swansea  town,  the  other  comprising  the 
mnainder  of  Swansea  and  the  boroughs  of  Aberavon,  Kenfig, 
Uwchwr  and  Neath.  There  arc  six  municipal  boroughs:  Aberavon 
(pop.  in  1901,-  7553).  Cardiff  (164,333),  Cowbridge  (1202),  Merthyr 
Tydfil  (69,238),  Neath  (13,720)  and  Swansea  (94,537).  Cardiff 
(which  In  1905  was  created  a  city),  Merthyr  Tydfil  and  Swansea  are 
county  boroughs.  The  following  are  urban  districts:  Aberdare 
(4^3M),  Barry  (27,0^).  Bridgend  (6062),  Briton  Ferry  1(6973), 


moutn  \446iJ,  fenartn  (14,228).  fontypndd  (32.^16),  fortncawl 
(1872)  and  Rhondda,  previously  known  as  Ysttadyiodwg  (113.735). 
Glamorgan  is  in  the  S.  Wales  circuit,  and  both  assises  and  quarter- 
sessions  are  held  at  Cardiff  and  Swansea  alternately.  All  the 
muakmal  boroughs  have  separate  commissions  of  the  peace,  and 
Caidin  and  Swansea  have  abo  separate  courts  of  quarter-sessions. 
The  county  has  thirteen  other  petty  sessbnal  divisions,  Cardiff,  the 
Rhondda  (with  Pontypridd)  and  the  Merthyr  and  Aberdare  district 
have  stipoidiary  magistrates.  There  are  165^  civil  parishes.  Ex- 
ccpCiQ|  the  districts  oi  Gower  and  Kilvey,  wmch  are  in  the  diocese 
of  Sc  David's,  the  whole  county  is  in  the  diocese  of  Llandaff.  There 
are  159  ecclesiastical  parishes  or  districts  situated  wholly  or  partly 
within  the  county. 

HisUry. — ^The  eariiest  known  tnces  of  man  within  the  area 
of  the  present  county  are  the  human  remains  found  in  the  famous 
bone-caves  of  (jower,.  though  they  are  scanty  as  compared  with 
the  hnge  deposits  of  still  earlier  animal  remains.  To  a  later 
stage,  perhaps  in  the  NcoUthic  period,  belongs  a  numberof  com- 
plete skdetons  discovered  in  1903  in  sand-blown  tumuli  at 
the  mouth  <rf  the  Ogmore,  where  many  flint  implements  were 
also  found.  Considerably  later,  and  probably  belonging  to  the 
htoaze  Age  (though  finds  of  bronze  implements  have  been  scanty) , 
are  the  many  cairns  and  tumuli,  mainly  on  the  hills,  such  as  on 
Garth  Mountain  near  Cardiff,  C^rug-yr-avan  and  a  number  east 
of  the  Tawe;  the  stone  drdes  often  found  in  association  witfi 
the  tumult,  that  of  Cam  Llecharth  near  Pontardawe  being  one 
of  the  most  complete  in  Wales;  and  the  fine  cromlechs  of  Cefn 
Bryn  in  Gower  (known  as  Arthur's  Stone),  of  St  Nicholas  and  of 
St  Lythan's  near  Cardiff. 

In  Roman  times  the  country  from  the  Neath  to  the  Wye  was 
occupied  by  the  Silures,  a  pre-Ccltic  race,  probably  governed  at 
that  time  by  Brythonic  Celts.  West  of  the  Neath  and  along  the 
fringe  of  the  Brecknock  Mountains  were  probably  remnants  of  the 
earlier  Goidelic  Celts,  who  have  left  traces  in  the  place-names  of 
the  Swansea  valley  (e.g.  Uwch^  "  a  lake  ")  and  in  the  illegible 
Ogham  inscription  at  Loughor,  the  only  other  Ogham  stone  in 
the  county  being  at  Kenfig,  a  few  miles  to  the  east  of  the  Neath 
estuary.  The  conquest  of  the  Silures  by  the  Romans  was  begun 
about  AJ>.  50  by  Ostorius  Scapula  and  completed  some  25  years 
later  by  Julius  Frontinus,  who  probably  constructed  the  great 
military  road,  called  Via  Julia  Maritima,  from  Gloucester  to  St 
David's,  with  stations  at  Cardiff,  Bovium  (variously  identified 
with  Boverton,  Cowbridge  and  Ewenny),  Nidum  (identified  with 
Neath)  and  Leucarum  or  Loughor.  The  important  station  of 
Gaer  on  the  Usk  near  Brecon  was  connected  by  two  branch 
roads,  one  running  from  Cardiff  through  Gelligaer  (where  there 
was  a  strong  hill  fort)  and  Merthyr  Tydfil,  and  another  from  Neath 


through  Capd  Colbren.  Welsh  tradition  credits  GUmorgan 
with  being  the  first  home  of  Christianity,  and  T.i«tifi«g  the  earliest 
bishopric  in  Britain,  the  name  of  three  reputed  missionaries  of 
the  2nd  century  be^  preserved  in  the  names  ofparishes  in  south 
Glamorgan.  What  is  certain,  however,  is  that  the  first  two  bishops 
of  Llandaff,  St  Dubridus  and  St  Teilo,  lived  during  the  first 
half  of  the  6th  century,  to  which  period  also  belongs  the  establish- 
ment of  the  great  monastic  settlements  of  Uancarvan  by  C^adoc, 
of  Uandough  by  Oudoceys  and  of  Llantwit  Major  by  nitutus,  the 
last  of  which  flourished  as  a  seat  of  learning  down  to  the  12th 
century.  A  few  moated  mounds  such  as  at  Cardiff  indicate  that, 
after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Romans,  the  coasts  were  visited  by 
sporadic  bands  of  Saxons,  but  the  Scandinavians  who  came  in 
the  9th  and  succeeding  centuries  left  more  abundant  traces  both 
in  the  place-names  of  the  coast  and  in  such  camps  as  that  on 
Sully  Island,  the  Bulwarks  at  Porthkerry  and  Haixlings  Down 
in  Gower.  Meanwhile  the  native  tribes  of  the  district  had 
regained  their  independence  under  a  line  of  Webh  chieftains, 
whose  domain  was  consolidated  into  a  prindpality  known  as 
Gl3rwyssing,  till  about  the  end  of  the  loth  century  when  it 
acquired  the  name  of  Morganwg,  that  is  the  territory  of  Morgan, 
a  prince  who  died  in  aj>.  980;  it  then  comprised  the  whole 
country  from  the  Neath  to  the  Wye,  practically  corresponding 
to  the  present  diocese  of  Llandaff.  Gwlad  Morgan,  later  softened 
into  Glamorgan,  never  had  much  vogue  and  meant  precisely  the 
same  as  Morganwg,  though  the  two  terms  became  differentiated 
a  few  centuries  later. 

The  Norman  conquest  of  Morganwg  was  effected  in  the 
dosing  years  of  the  ixth  century  by  Robert  Fitshamon,  lord  of 
Gloucester.  His  followers  settled  in  the  low-lying  lands  of -the 
*'  Vale,"  which  became  known  as  the  "  body  "  of  the  shire, 
while  in  the  hill  country,  which  consisted  of  tea  "  members," 
corresponding  to  its  andedt  territorial  divisions,  the  Welsh 
retained  their  customary  laws  and  much  of  their  independence. 
Glamorgan,  whose  bounds  were  now  contracted  between  the 
Neath  and  the  Rhymney,  then  became  a  lordship  marcher,  its 
status  and  organization  bdng  that  of  a  county  palatine;  its 
lord  possessed  jura  regaiiat  <uid  his  chief  official  was  from  the 
first  a  vice<omes,  or  sheriff,  who  presided  over  a  county  court 
composed  of  his  lord's  prindpal  tenants.  The  inhabitants  of 
Cardiff  in  which,  as  the  caful  baroniae^  this  court  was  held 
(though  sometimes  ambulatory),  were  soon  granted  municipal 
privileges,  and  in  time  0>wbridge,  Kenfig,  Llantrisant,  Aberavon 
and  Neath  also  became  chartered  market-towns.  The  manorial 
system  was  introduced  throughout  the  "  Vale,"  the  manor  in 
many  cases  becoming  the  parish,  and  the  owner  building  for  iu 
protection  first  a  castle  and  then  a  church.  The  church  itself 
became  Normanized,  and  monasteries  were  established — (he 
Cistcrdan  abbey  of  Neath  and  Margam  in  1129  and  X147  re- 
spectively, the  Benedictine  priory  of  Ewenny  in  1x41  and  that  of 
(^rdiff  in  1147.  Dominican  and  Franciscan  houses  were  also 
founded  at  Cardiff  in  the  following  century. 

Gower  (with  Kilvey)  or  the  country  west  of  the  monm  bet  ween 
Neath  and  Swansea  had  a  separate  history.  It  was  conquered 
about  1 100  by  Henry  de  Newbuigh,  xst  earl  of  Warwick,  by 
whose  descendants  and  the  powerful  family  of  De  Breos  it 
was  successively  held  as  a  marcher  lordship,  organized  to  some 
extent  on  county  lines,  till  1469.  Swansea  (which  was  the  caput 
baroniae  of  Ck>wer)  and  Loughor  received  their  earlier  charters 
from  the  lords  of  Gower  (see  Gower). 

For  the  first  two  centuries  after  Fitzhamon's  time  the  lordship 
of  Glamorgan  was  held  by  the  earls  of  Gloucester,  a  title  con- 
ferred by  Henry  I.  on  Us  natural  son  Robert,  who  acquired 
Glamorgan  by  marrying  Fitzhamon's  daughter.  To  the  ist 
eari's  patronage  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  and  other  men  of 
letters,  at  Cardiff  C^tle  of  which  he  was  the  builder,  is  probably 
due  the  large  place  which  Celtic  romance,  especially  theArthurian 
cyde,  won  for  itself  In  medieval  literature.  The  lordship  passed 
by  descent  through  the  families  of  Clare  (who  hdd  it  from  1217 
to  1317),  Despenser,  Beauchamp  and  Neville  to  Richard  III.,  on 
whose  fall  it  escheated  to  the  crown.  From  time  to  time,  the 
Welsh  of  the  hills,  often  joined  by  their  countrymen  from  other 


76 


puU,  nidcd  tlic  Vile,  ud  even  CudiS  Cutk  ni  ititeA  about 
1153  by  IvoiBub,  lordofScDghcDydd,  irhafat*  timehdd  jti 
lord  1  ptiioncr.  At  lut  CuophiUy  Cutlc  wu  built  to  knp  them 
Id  cbEck,  but  IbU  provoked  ad  iDv&von  in  1170  by  Pnnce 
Uenvlyn  ap  CtiSEfa,  wbo  besieged  Ibe  cuUe  and  reliucd  to  cetiie 
ocept  OD  conditiona.  In  1316  Llewdyo  firen  bcadfid  a  revolt  in 
the  umc  disliicl,  but  being  defeUed  wupu  t  lodeatb  by  Dopoiicr, 
wboie  great  uapopuluily  niih  tbe  Wdih  made  Clamoigan  le» 
■afe  u  a  retnat  for  Edward  U.  «  few  yean  later.  In  1404 
Glendawa  awept  through  the  counly.  burning  caitlei  and  laying 
vaite  the  poaKuioni  of  tbe  king'»  Kupportcra.  By  tbe  Act  of 
Union  of  r  53  5  the  county  of  Glamorgan  was  incorporated  aa  it 
paw  eiiita,  by  tbe  addition  to  the  old  codnty  of  tbe  lordship 
<rf  Gower  and  Kilvey,  west  of  lbs  Neath.  By  anotber  (CI  of 
iSt'  tbe  court  of  great  KstioDi  w»  ulsblisbed,  uid  Glamorgan, 
with  tbe  cDUDIiei  ol  Brecon  and  Radnor,  (Dtmed  one  of  lu  four 
Welsh  drcuits  from  thence  till  iSjo,  wben  Ibe  English  aiaize 

in  rSj]  and  to  hve  in  1885.  Tbe  boroucbs  wm  alio  given  a 
member.  In  1S31  CardiS  (witb  Llantrisuit>BdCowbiidge},lbe 
Swansea  group  of  boiDuglis  ud  (he  parliamentary  botougb  of 
Mertbyi  Tydfil  weti  given  one  member  each,  increased  to  two, 
in  Ibe  case  of  Metlhyr  Tydfil  in  iS6j.    In  1S85  the  Swansea 

Ihe  lordship  of  Glamorgan,  ibom  of  ita  quasi-regal  statua,  waa 
granted  by  Edward  VI.  to  William  Herbert,  afterwards  1st  earl 
of  Pembroke,  from  wboBi  It  budcueoded  to  the  prtseot  mitquesa 

The  rule  ol  the  Tudorg  promoted  the  rapid  assimDitlon  of  the 
iobabitants  of  the  county,  and  by  the  reign  of  Elisabeth  even 
tbe  descendants  of  the  Norman  kni^ts  had  largely  become 

prevalent  ipeecb  almost  throughout  tbe  county,  except  in  tbe 
penipsulal  pan  of  Cower  and  perhaps  Cardiff,  till  the  last  quarter 
of  the  rgtb  century.  Since  Chen  it  haa  lost  ground  in  the  mari- 
time towns  and  the  aouth-east  comer  of  tbe  county  geoeralty, 
while  (airly  balding  iu  own,  despite  much  En^iih  migration,  in 
tbe  indualrial  districts  10  tbe  north.  In  19)1  about  j6%  of  tbe 
total  population  above  three  years  of  age  was  returned  as  speaking 
English  only,  37%  as  speaking  both  English  and  Wdsb,  and 
^uul  6)%  IS  spoking  Welsh  only. 

In  common  wilb  the  rest  of  Wales  the  county  was  mainly 
Kf^atisl  in  tbe  Civil  Wai-,  and  indeed  stood  foremoti  in  lis 
readiness  to  pay  ibip-money,  but  when  Charlo  I.  visiied  Cardiff 
in  July  1645  he  failed  to  recruit  bis  army  there,  owing  to  the 
dt^tisfaclion  of  tbe  county,  which  a  few  months  later  declared 
lor  tbe  parUament.  Then  was,  however,  a  subsec)uent  Royalist 
revolt  in  Glamorgan  in  164S,  but  it  was  signally  ctushed  by 
Colonel  Horton  at  the  battle  of  St  Pagan's  (Sth  of  May). 

The  educational  gap  caused  by  final  disappearance  of  the 
great  university  of.Llantwlt  Major,  founded  in  Uie  61b  century, 
and  by  the  dissolution  of  tbe  monasteiies  was  to  some  eitenC 
filled  by  the  foundation,  by  the  Siradling  family,  of  a  grammar 
■cbool  at  Cowbridge  which,  rcfounded  in  1685  by  Sir  Leoline 
Jeokina,  is  still  carried  on  as  an  endowed  schooL  The  only  other 
ancieni  grammar  school  is  that  ol  Swansea,  founded  by  Bishop 
Core  in  r6gi,  and  now  under  the  control  of  the  borough  council. 
Be^des  the  University  College  of  South  Wales  and  Monmculb- 
ahite  established  at  CardiS  in  rSSj,  and  a  technical  college 
at  Swansea,  there  is  a  Church  of  Eo^aad  tbeotogical  college 
(St  Michael's)  at  Ltandall  (previously  at  Aberdare),  a  training 
college  for  scbool-miilresses  at  Swansea,  achoc^  for  ibe  bliod  at 
Cardiff  aod  Swansea  and  for  tbe  deaf  at  Cardiff,  Swansea  and 
Pontypridd. 

Xxlifiiifiei,— The  antiquities  of  the  county  not  already 
mentioned  ioclude  an  unusually  latge  number  of  castles,  all 
of  which,  except  tbe  castles  of  Morlaia  (near  Mertbyr  Tydfil}, 
CasteU  Cocfa  and  Llanlrisant,  are  between  the  hill  country  and 
the  sea.  The  finest  specimen  Is  that  of  Caerphilly,  but  tbere 
are  also  more  or  less  imposing  rulas  at  Oysteimouth,  Caty, 
Newcastle  (at  Bridgend),  lianbleUuan,  Tennaid  and  Swansea 


Among  the  restored  cullts,  raided  In  by  their  piacot  owners, 
BR  SI  Ilonat's, "  Ibe  latest  and  moat  complete  c4  tbe  structures 
bunt  lor  defence,"  Cardiff,  the  reudence  of  the  marquess  of 
Bute,  St  Fawn's,  Dunraven,  Fonmon  and  Fenricc.  Of  tbe 
monastic  buildings,  that  of  Eweony  is  best  preserved,  Neath 
and  Matgam  an  mereruic*,  while  all  the  olbers  have  disappeared. 
Ahnoot  all  tbe  olds  churches  pcnseas  towers  of  a  somewhat 
military  charactc,  and  moat  of  them, -except  in  Gower,  retain 
■ome  Norman  masonry.  Colly,  Coychurdi  and  Ewenny  (aH  Deal 
Bridgend)  ue  fine  eiamples  of  cross  chnrches  wilb  embattled 
towers  cfaancteriitic  of  ibe  county.  Tbere  an  intsesling 
monumental  eSgies  at  St  Mary's,  Swansea,  Oiwich.  Ewenny, 
Uanlwit  hiajor,  Llantrisant,  Coity  and  other  churtbcs  in  the 
Valt  Then  an  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  sculptured  atonei, 
of  which  some  sixteen  are  both  omamcnled  and  inacribed,  five 
of  tbe  latter  being  at  Margam  and  three  at  Uantwii  Major, 
and  dating  from  the  91b  century  if  not  esiliv. 

ATTTHOUTrES. — The  TKOrds  of  the  Curia  oHKiiaimt  or  CooBty 
Coun  ot  GlaiDoran  ur  ■upp«ed  to  have  psisbed,  io  also  have 
Ibe  lecoidi  of  Neatb.  Wiih  tbew  aavtrnm,  the  ncocdi  d  the 
county  have  beea  wdl  preserved.  A  coUcctioa  edited  by  G.  T* 
Clark  uoder  the  title  Csriual  aUa  mwtlmt*l»n»tatiimnitm  it 
damortut  pfrtimetU  was  privately  printed  by  bfan  iiLitivT  vvtornoa 
(iSSj-Itur  A  Disrit&K  CaUttnt  el  Ot  Piaria  uJ  Min» 
AOrt  mSS.  n  On  Fmaiim  (tf  Bis§  TtOtl  ^  Utfim  (fi  vSli.) 
wai  privairly  i^iued  (i!M-i90jl  undtr  Ibe  editoraElp  ^  Dr  de 
Crjv  liir.h.  "ho  hM  al»  published  hiHories  of  the  Abbeys  of 
NiMtli  ,ir;.l  ^]  jjEsm.     Tkc  Bmt  cf  LSan  M/  (edited  by  Dr  Cweoo- 

Ku.n  J  (iic'jk««y  LWaff^Srfiff  iii^pShlUbed  its  R^^ 

™u'', '  '1'  T/n^'J  if«M-Sl"t^'l?'w^ona  (iSydd'MgigKi^ 
(ir::<  -  '.  .IncrcaDIributiansanRiceMartck'iBHteiifabuurga— 
it^-  I  <  .i.i.'iri.  wcitlen  in  1478!  TAi  Lml  ef  ItsrpK  (lElJ) 
e  lordship  cJ  Glainorffao),  by  G.  T.  Qark,  whoec 
rimiT'Ean  (l8a6)  ond  Sriirt^  MHilarf  j4«*i(n:r»rr 


a:- 


»    (£fBi 


spcdfic  infective  and 
y  a  iisiue  pansiLe  (BacOliu  maBri). 
hieHy  tbe  borse,  ass  and  mule,  arc 
icnble  from  them  to  ban.  Glanders 
s  is  dealt  with  under  VEnmiaKv 
form  of  disease  In  rnan,  then  being 
development  in  tbe  human  subject 
For  the  pathology  see  the  article 
niTs  chiefly  among  those  who  from 


B,  &c^  tbe 


from  a  glandered  animal  either  through 

irough  application  10  tbe  mucous  mem- 

'*      A  period  of  incubation,  lasting 


rom  three 

to  five 

days,  ge 

erally 

ollows  the  imroduction  ol 

the  Vitus  in 

toiheh 

nuinsysl 

m,   Tt 

is  period,  howevei,  appears 

obeof 

much  longer  dura 

ion,  especiaUy  when  there 

of  the  poison.    Tbe  first  symptoms 

an  a  general  leeli 

g  of  iUnc 

Dipanied  wiib  pains  in  tbe 

imbi  and 

joints 

■esembling 

"ih^ 

of  acute  rheumatism.     If 

the  disease 

has  bee 

introduc 

edbym 

cans  of  an  abraded  surface. 

pain  is  felt 

at  that  point,  and 

infiam 

matory  swelling  takes  plate 

there,  and 

extend! 

along  tbe  neigbbouiing  lympbalica.     An 

ulcer  isfo 

Tdcd  at 

tbe  pgin 

of  inoculaiioD  which  discharges 

an  offensiv 

icbor. 

nd  blebs 

appear 

n  the  inflamed  skin,  atoDg 

with  diffuse 

ei.asinphlegmo 

the  disease 

Slops 

short  wil 

h  these 

of  grave  0 

™Jtu*i 

onal  dist 

dlyac 

Over  the  whole  surface 

tbe  body  there  ^pear  numerous  red  spou  or  pustules,  which 
break  and  discharge  a  thick  mucous  or  sanguineous  fluid.  Besides 
these  Ihen  an  larger  swellings  lying  deeper  in  the  subcutaneous 
(Issue,  which  at  first  are  eimmely  hard  and  painful,  and  10 
which  the  term  farcy  "  buds  "  or  "  buttons  "  is  applied.  These 
ultimately  open  and  become  citenaive  sloughing  ulcers. 

The  mucoUB  memltnnca  participate  in  the  same  leskmi  as 


GLANVILI^-GLAPTHORNE 


77 


■re  present  in  the  skin,  and  this  is  particularly  the  case  with 
the  interior  of  the  nose,  where  indeed,  in  many  instances,  the 
disease  first  of  all  shows  itself.  This  organ  becomes  greatly 
swollen  and  inflamed,  while  from  one  or  both  nostrib  there 
exndes  a  copious  discharge  of  highly  offensive  purulent  or 
sanguineous  matter^  The  lining,  membrane  of  the  nostrils 
is  covered  with  papules  similar  in  charact^  to  those  on  the 
skin,  which  form  ulcers,  and  may  lead  to  the  destruction  of  the 
cartilaginous  and  bony  textures  of  the  nose.  The  diseased  action 
extends  into  the  throat,  mouth  and  eyes,  while  the  whole  face 
becomes  swollen  and  erysipelatous,  and  the  lymphatic  glands 
under  the  jaws  inflame  and  suppurate.  Not  unfrequently  the 
bronchial  tubes  become  affected,  and  cough  attended  with 
expectoration  of  matter  similar  to  that  discharged  from  the 
nose  is  -the  consequence.  The  general  constitutional  symptoms 
are  exceedingly  severe,  and  advance  with  great  rapidity,  the 
patient  passing  into  a  state  of  extreme  prostration,  hi  the 
acute  form  of  the  disease  recovery  rarely  if  ever  occurs,  and  the 
case  generally  terminates  fatally  in  a  period  varying  from  two 
or  three  days  to  as  many  weeks. ' 

A  chronic  form  of  glanders  and  farcy  is  occasionally  met  with, 
in  which  the  ^mptoms,  although  essentially  the  same  as  those 
above  described,  advance  much  more  sk>wly,  and  are  attended 
with  relatively  less  urgent  constitutional  disturbance.  Cases 
of  recovery  from  this  form  are  on  record;  but  in  general  the 
disease  ultimatdy  proves  fatal  by  exhaustion  of  the  patient, 
or  by  a  sudden  supervention,  which  is  apt  to  occur,  of  the  acute 
form.  On  the  other  hand,  acute  glanders  is  never  observed 
to  become  chronic  _ 

In  the  treatment  of  this  malady  in  human  beings  reliance 
b  mainly  placed  on  the  maintenance  of  the  patient's  strength 
by  strong  nourishment  and  tonic  remedies.  Cauterization 
should  be  resorted  to  if  the  point  of  infection  is  early  known. 
Abscesses  may  be  opened  and  antiseptic  lotions  used.  In  all 
cases  of  the  outbreak  of  glanders  it  is  of  the  utmost  consequence 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease  by  the  destruction  of  affected 
ywitwi*  and  the  cleansing  and  disinfection  of  infected  localities. 

OLARVILL  (or  Glanvil),  JOSEPH  (1636-1680),  English 
phflosopher,  was  bom  at  Plymouth  in  1636,  and  was  educated 
at  Exeter  and  Lincoln  colleges,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  as 
M.A.  in  1658.  After  the  Restoration  he  was  successively  rector 
of  Wimbush,  Essex,  vicar  of  Frome  Selwood,  Somersetshire, 
rector  of  Streat  and  Walton.  In  1666  he<was  appointed  to  the 
abbey  church,  Bath;  in  1678  he  became  prebendary  of  Wor- 
cester Cathedral,  and  acted  as  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  Charies  IL 
from  1673.  He  died  at  Bath  in  November  1680.  Glanvill's. 
first  work  (a  passage  in  which  suggested  the  theme  of  Matthew 
Arnold's  Scluiar  Gipsy),  The  Vanity  of  Dogmaliung,  or  Con- 
fidence in  Opinions^  manifested  in  a  Disamrse  of  the  shortness 
and  uncertainty  of  ow  Knowledge,  and  its  Causes,  with  Reflexions 
on  Peripaieticism,  and  an_  Apology  for  Philosophy  (x66i),  is 
interesting  as  showing  one  H>ecial  direction  in  which  the  new 
method  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy  might  be  developed.  Pascal 
had  already  shown  how  philosophic  scepticism  might  be 
employed  as  a  bulwark  for  faith,  and  Glanvill  follows  in  the 
same  track.  The  philosophic  endeavour  to  cognize  the  whole 
system  of  things  by  referring  all  events  to  their  causes  appears 
to  him  to  be  from  the  outset  doomed  to  failure.  For  if  we 
inquire  into  this  causal  relation  we  find  that  though  we  know 
isolat«l  facts,  we  cannot  perceive  any  such  connexion  between 
them  as  that  the  one  should  give  rise  to  the  other'.  In  the 
words  of  Hume,  "  they  seem  conjoined  but  never  connected." 
All  causes  then  are  but  secondary,  f.«.  merely  the  occasions 
on  which  the  one  first  cause  operates.  It  is  singular  enough 
that  Glanvill  who  had  not  only  shown,  but  even  exaggerated, 
the  infirmity  of  human  reason,  himself  provided  an  example  of 
its  weakness;  for,  after  having  combated  scientific  dogmatism, 
he  not  only  yielded  to  vulgar  superstitions,  but  actually  en- 
deavoured to  accredit  them  both  in  his  revised  edition  of  the 
Vanity  of  Dogmatising,  published  as  Scepsis  scientifica  (1665, 
ed.  Rev.  John  Owen,  1885),  and  in  his  Philosophical  Considera- 
Uons  concerning  the  existence  of  Sorcerers  and  Sorcery  (1666). 


The  latter  work  appears  to  have  be^n  based  on  the  story  of  the 
drum  which  was  idleged  to  have  been  heard  every  night  in  a 
house  in  Wiltshire  (Tedworth,  belonging  to  a  Mr  Mompesson), 
a  story  which  made  much  noise  in  the  year  1663,  and  which  is 
supposed  to  have  furnished  Addison  with  the  idea  of  his  comedy 
the  Drummer.  At  his  death  Glanvill  left  a  piece  entitled  Saddu- 
cismus  Triumphatus  (printed  in  1681,  reprinted  with  some 
additions  in  x68a,  German  trans.  1701).  He  had  there  collected 
twenty-six  relations  or  stpries  of  the  same  description  as  that 
of  the  drum,  in  order  to  establish,  by  a  series  of  facts,  the  opinion 
which  he  had  expressed  in  his  Philosophical  Considerations. 
Glanvill  supported  a  much  more  honourable  cause  when  he 
undertook  the  defence  of  the  Royal  Sodety  of  London,  under 
the  title  of  Plus  Ultra,  or  the  Progress  and  Advancement  of 
Science  since  the  time  of  Aristotle  (1668),  a  work  which  shows 
how  thoroughly  he  was  imbued  with  the  ideas  of  the  empirical 
method. 

Besides  the  worldi  already  noticed,  Glanvill  wrott^  Lux  orientalis 
(1662);  Philosophia  pia  (167 1);  Essays  on  Several  Important 
Subjects  in  Philosophy  and  RJdigum  (1676);  An  Essay  concerning 
Preachmg\  and  Sermons.  See  C.  Remusat,  Hist,  de  la  pkil.  en 
Angleterre,  bk.  iii.  ch.  xi.;  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  Rationalism  in  Europe 
(1865),  L  xao-128;  Hallam's  Literature  of  Europe,  iii.  358-362; 
TuUoike  Rational  Theology,  iL  443-455. 

GLAHVILU  RANULF  DB  (sometimes  written  Glanvzl, 
Glamville)  (d.  X190),  chief  justiciar  of  England  and  reputed 
author  of  a  book  on  English  law,  was  bom  at  Stratford  in  Suffolk, 
but  in  what  year  is  unknown.-  There  is  but  little  information 
regarding  his  early  life.  He  first  comes  to  the  front  as  sheriff 
of  Yorkshire  from  xi6j  to  1x70.  In  X173  he  became  sheriff 
of  Lancashire  and  custodian  of  the  honotir  of  Richmond.  In 
1x74  he  was  one  of  the  English  leaders  at  the  battle  of  Alnwick, 
and  it  was  to  him  that  the  king  of  the  Soots,  William  the  Lion, 
surrendered.  In  1x75  ^e  was  reappointed  sheriff  of  Yorkshire, 
in  XX  76  he  became  justice  of  the  king's  court  and  a  justice 
itinerant  in  the  northern  circuit,  and  in  1180  chief  justiciar  of 
Enc^nd.  It  was  with  his  assistance  that  Henry  II.  completed 
his  judicial  reforms,  though  the  principal  of  them  had  been 
carried  out  before  he  came  into  office.  He  became  the  king's 
right-hand  man,  and  during  Henry's  frequent  absences  was  in 
effect  viceroy  of  England.  After  the  death  of  Henry  in  1189,' 
Glanvill  was  removed  from  his  office  by  Richard  L,  and  im- 
prisoned till  he  had  paid  a  ransom,  according  to  one  authority, 
of  £15,000.  Shortly  after  obtaining  his  freedom  he  took  th6 
cross,  and  he  died  at  the  siege  of  Acre  in  xxqo.  At  the  instance, 
it  may  be,  of  Henry  II.,  Glanvill  wrote  or  superintended  the. 
writing  of  the  Tractatus  de  legibus  et  consuetudinibus  regni 
Angliae,  which  is  a  practical  treatise  on  the  forms  of  procedure 
in  the  king's  court.  As  the  source  of  bur  knowledge  regarding 
the  earliest  form  of  the  curia  regis,  and  for  the  information  it 
affords-regarding  ancient  customs  and  laws,  it  is  of  great  value 
to  the  student  of  English  history.  It  is  now  generally  agreed 
that  the  work  of  Glanvill  is  of  earlier  date  than  the  Scottish  law 
book  known  from  its  61st  words  as  Regiam  Majestatem,  a  work 
which  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  his. 

The  treatise  of  Glanvill  was  first  printed  in  IXS4«  An  English 
translation,  with  notes  and  introduction  by  John  Bcaracs,  was 

Rublished  at  London  in  1812.  A  French  version  b  found  in  various 
ISS..  but  has  not  yet  been  printed.    (See  also  Emgush  Law: 
History  of.) 

GLAPTHORNB,  HENRY  (fl.  x635-x642),-Enc^sh  poet  and 
dramatist,  wrote  in  the  reigii  of  Charles  I.  All  that  is  known 
of  him  is  gathered  from  his  own  work.  He  published  Pohns 
(X639),  many  of  them  in  praise  of  an  unidentified  "  Ludnda  "; 
a  poem  in  honour  of  his  friend  Thomas  Beedome,  whose  Poems 
Divine  and  Humane  he  edited  in  X64X;  and  Whitehall  (164a), 
dedicated  to  his  "  noble  friend  and  gossip.  Captain  Richard 
Lovelace."  The  first  volume  contains  a  poem  in  honour  of  the 
duke  of  York,  and  Whitehall  is  a  review  of  the  past  glories  of 
the  English  court,  containing  abundant  evidences  of  the  writer's 
devotion  to  the  royal  cause.  Argalus  and  Parthenia  (1639)  is  a 
pastoral  tragedy  founded  on  an  episode  in  Sidney's  Arcadia; 
Albertus  Wallenslein  (1639),  his  only  attempt  at  historical  tragedy, 
represents  Wallettstcin  as  a  monster  of  pride  and  cruelty.    Hts 


78 


GLARUS 


Other  plays  are  The  ffattander  (written  1635;  printed  1640), 
a  romantic  comedy  of  which  the  scene  is  laid  in  Genoa;  Wit  in  a 
Constable  (1640),  which  is  probably  a  version  of  an  earlier  play, 
and  owes  something  to  Shakespeare's  Much  Ado  about  Nothing; 
and  The  Ladies  PHvUedge  (1640).  The  Lady  Mother  (1635) 
has  been  identified  (Fleay,  Biog.  Chron.  of  the  Drama)  with  TJie 
NoUe  Trial,  one  of  the  plays  destroyed  by  Warburton's  cook, 
and  Mr  A.  H.  Bullen  prints  it  in  vol.  ii.  of  his  Old  English  Plays 
as  most  probably  Glapthome's  work.  The  Paraside,  or  Revenge 
for  Honour  (1654),  entered  at  Stationers'  Hall  in  1653  as  Glap- 
thome's, was  printed  in  the  next  year  with  George  Chapman's 
name  on  the  title-page.  It  should  probably  be  included  among 
Glapthome's  plays,  which,  though  they  hardly  rise  above  the 
level  of  contemporary  productions,  contain  many  felidtous 
isolated  passages. 

The  Plays  and  Poems  ef  Henry  Oaptkome  (1874)  contains  an  un- 
signed memoir,  which,  however,  gives  no  information  about  the 
dramatist's  life.  Hiere  b  no  reason  for  suppoainK  that  the  George 
Glapthome  of  whose  trial  details  are  given  wasa  rdative  of  the  poet. 

GLARUS  (Ft.  Garis),  one  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  the  name 
being  taken  from  that  of  its  chief  town.  Its  area  is  266-8  sq.  m., 
of  which  Z73*i  sq.  m.  are  classed  as  "productive"  (forests 
covering  41  sq.  m.),  but  it  also  contains  13-9  sq.  m.  of  glaciers, 
ranking  as  the  fifth  Swiss  canton  in  this  respect.  It  is  thus  a 
mountain  canton,  the  loftiest  point  in  it  being  theTOdi  (x  1,887  ft.), 
the  highest  summit  that  rises  to  the  north  of  the  upper  Aar  and 
Vorder  Rhine  valleys.  It  is  composed  of  the  upper  valley  of 
the  Linth,  that  is  the  portion  which  lies  to  the  south  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  Lake  of  ZOrich  to  the  Walensee,  This  river 
rises  in  the  glaciers  of  the  TSdi,  and  has  carved  out  for  itself  a 
deep  bed,  so  that  the  floor  of  the  valley  is  comparatively  level, 
and  therefore  is  occupied  by  a  number  of  considerable  villages. 
Glader  passes  only  lead  from  its  head  to  the  Grisons,  save  the 
rough  footpath  over  the  Kisten  Pass,  while  a  fine  new  carriage 
road  over  the  Klausen  Pass  gives  access  to  the  canton  of  Uri. 
The  upper  Linth  valley  is  sometimes  called  the  Grossthal  (main 
valley)  to  distinguish  it  from  its  chief  (or  south-eastern)  tributary, 
the  Semf  valley  or  Kleinthal,  which  joins  it  at  Schwanden,  a 
little  above  Glarus  itself.  At  the  head  of  the  Kleinthal  a  mule 
track  leads  to  the  Grisons  over  the  Panizer  Pass,  as  also  a  foot- 
path over  the  Segnes  Pass.  Just  below  Glarus  town,  another 
glen  (coming  from  the  south-west)  joins  the  main  valley,  and  is 
watered  by  the  KlOn,  while  from  its  head  the  Pragel  Pass 
(a  mule  path,  converted  into  a  carriage  road)  leads  over  to 
the  canton  of  Schwyz.  The  Kl6n  glei^  (uninhabited  save  in 
summer)  is  separated  from  the  main  glen  by  the  fine  bold  mass 
of  the  Gl&misch  (9580  ft.),  while  the  Semf  valley  is  similarly  cut 
off  from  the  Grossthal  by  the  high  ridge  running  iK>rthwards 
from  the  Haus^tock  (10,343  ft.)  over  the  K&rpfstock  (9177  ft.). 
The  principal  lakes,  the  KlOnthalezsee  and  the  Muttensee,  are 
of  a  thoroughly  Alpine  character,  while  there  are  several  fine 
waterfalls  near  the  head  of  the  n^ain  valley,  such  as  those  formed 
by  the  Sandbach,  the  Schreienbach  and  the  Ffttschbach.  The 
Pantenbrttcke,  thrown  over  the  narrow  deft  formed  by  the 
Linth,  is  one  of  the  grandest  sights  of  the  Alps  bdow  the  snow- 
line. There  is  a  sulphur  spring  at  Stachelberg,  near  Linthal 
village,  and  an  iron  spring  at  Elm,  while  in  the  Semf  valley 
there  are  the  PUttenberg  slate  quarries,  and  just  south  of  Elm 
those  of  the  Tschingelberg,  whence  a  terrific  landslip  descended 
to  Elm  (nth  September  x88i),dtetroyingmany  houses  and  killing 
115  persons.  A  railway  runs  through  the  whole  canton  from 
north  to  south  past  Glarus  to  Unthal  village  (16^  m.),  while 
from  Schwanden  there  is  an  dectric  line  (opened  in  1905)  up  to 
Elm  (8|  m.) 

In  r9oo  the  population  of  the  canton  was  33,349  (a  decrease 
on  the  33,835  of  1888,  this  bdng  the  only  Swiss  canton  which 
shows  a  decrease),  of  whom. 31,797  were  German-speaking, 
while  there  were  34,403  Protestants,  79x8  Romanists  (many  in 
Nftfds)  and  3  Jews.  After  the  capital,  Glarus  (f.t.),  the  Urgest 
villages  are  Kif  eb  (3557  inhabitants),  Ermenda  (3494  inhabitants, 
opposite  Glarus,  of  which  it  is  practically  a  suburb),  Netstal 
(2003  inhabitants).  Mollis  (19x3  inhabitants)  and  tinthtbal 


(X894  inhabitants).  The  slate  industry  is  now  the  most  important 
as  the  cotton  manufacture  has  lately  very  greatly  fallen  off. 
this  being  the  real  reason  of  the  diminution  in  the  number  of  the 
population.  There  is  little  agriculture,  for  it  is  a  pastoral  region 
(owing  to  its  height)  and  contains  87  mountain  pastures  (though 
the  firwst  of  all  within  the  limiu  of  the  canton,  the  Umerboden, 
or  the  Glarus  side  of  the  Klausen  Pass,  belongs  to  Uri),  which 
can  support  8054  cows,  and  are  of  an  estimated  capital  value 
of  about  £346,ooa  One  of  the  most  characteristic  products 
(thqugh  inferior  qualities  are  manufactured  elsewhere  in  Switser- 
land)  is  the  cheese  called Schabtieger,  KrSuterhilse,OT grtaichcese^ 
made  of  skim  milk  (Zieger  or  sirac),  whether  of  goats  or  cows, 
mixed  with  buttemiilk  and  coloured  with  powdered  StdnHea 
{MdUotus  officinalis)  or  Uauer  Honigklee  (Mdilotus  caendea). 
The  ciuxU  are  brought  down  from  the  huts  on  the  pastures,  and, 
after  being  mixed  with  the  dried  powder,  are  ground  in  a  mill, 
then  put  into  shapes  and  pressed.  The  cheese  thus  produced 
is  ripe  in  about  a  year,  keeps  a  long  time  and  is  largdy  exported, 
even  to  America.  The  ice  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  Kldn- 
thalersee  in  winter  is  stored  up  on  its  shore  and  exported.  A 
certain  number  of  visitors  a>me  to  the  canton  in  the  sumnter, 
either  to  profit  by  one  or  other  of  the  mineral  springs  men- 
tioned above,  or  simply  to  enjoy  the  beauties  of  nature,  especially 
at  Obstalden,  above  the  Walensee.  The  canton  forms  but  a 
single  administrative  district  and  contains  38  communes.  It 
sends  to  the  Federal  Stdnderalh  2  representatives  (dected  by 
the  Landsgemeinde)  and  3  also  to  the  Federal  Nationalrath.  The 
canton  still  keeps  its  primitive  democratic  assembly  or  Lands- 
gemeinde (meeting  annually  in  the  open  air  at  Glarus  on  the  first 
Sunday  in  May),  composed  of  all  male  dtisens  of  20  years  of  a^e. 
It  acts  as  the  sovereign  body,  so  that  no  "  referendum."  is 
required,  while  any  dtizen  can  submit  a  proposal.  It  ruunes  the 
executive  of  6  members,  besides  the  Landammaim  or  president, 
all  holding  office  for  three  years.  The  a>mmunes  (forming  18 
dectoral  cirdes)  dect  for  three  years  the  Landrath^  a  sort  of 
standing  committee  composed  of  members  in  the  proportion  of 
z  for  every  500  inhabitants  or  fraction  over  350.  The  present 
constitution  dates  from  X887.  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

OLARUS  (Fr.  Claris),  the  capital  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  the 
same  name.  It  is  a  dean,  modem  little  town,  built  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Linth  (opposite  it  is  the  industrial  suburb  of  Eimenda 
on  the  right  bank),  at  the  north-eastem  foot  of  the  imposing 
rock  peak  of  the  Vorder  GUtmisch  (7648  ft.),  while  on  the  east 
rises  the  Schild  (6400  ft.).  It  now  contains  but  few  houses 
built  before  i86x,  for  on  the  xo/ix  May  x86i  practically  the 
whole  town  was  destroyed  by  fire  that  was  farmed  by  a  violent 
Fdhn  or  south  wind,  rushing  down  from  the  high  mountains 
through  the  natural  fimnd  formed  by  the  Linth  valley.  The 
total  loss  is  estimated  at  about  half  a  million  sterling,  of  which 
about  £xoo,ooo  were  made  up  by  subscriptions  that  poured  in 
from  every  side.  It  possesses  the  broad  streets  and  usual 
buildings  of  a  modem  town,  the  parish  church  being  by  far  the 
most  statdy  and  weU-situated  buildjng;  it  a  used  in  common 
by  the  Protestants  and  Romans.  Zwingli,  the  reformer,  was 
parish  priest  here  from  1506  to  15x6,  before  he  became  a  Pro- 
testant. The  town  is  1578  ft.  above  the  sea-level,  and  in  1900 
had  a  peculation  of  4877,  almost  all  German-speaking,  while 
X348  were  Romanists.  For  the  Linth  canals  (18x1  and  x8x6) 
seeLiKTH. 

The  District  or  Giakus  is  said  to  have  been  converted  to 
Christianity  in  the  6th  century  by  the  Irish  monk,  FridoUn, 
whose  spedal  protector  was  St  HiUry  <rf  Poitiers;  the  former 
was  the  founder,  and  both  were  patrons,  of  the  Benedictine 
nunnery  of  Sftckingen,  on  the  Rhine  between  Constance  and 
Basel,  that  about  the  9th  century  became  the  owner  of  the 
distria  which  was  then  named  after  St  Hilary.  The  Habsburgs, 
protectors  of  the  nunnery,  gradually  drew  to  themsdves  the 
exercise  of  all  the  rights  of  the  nuns„  so  that  in  1353  Glarus 
joined  the  Swiss  Confederation.  But  Uie  men  of  Glarus  did  not 
gain  their  complete  freedom  till  after  they  had  driven,  back  the 
Habsburgs  in  the  i^orious  battle  of  Nifds  (X388),  the  comple> 
ment  of  Sempach,  so  that  the  Habsbuxgers  gave  up  their  rights 


GLAS,  G.— GLAS,  J. 


ill  I3qS,  whale  those  of  Sickingeo  were  bought  up  in  i395»  on 
condition  of  a  small  annual  payment.  Glarua  early  adopted 
Protestantism,  but  there  were  many  struggles  later  on  between 
the  two  parties,  as  the  chief  family,  that  of  Tschudl,  adhered  to 
the  old  faith.  At  last  it  was  arranged  that,  besides  the  common 
LamdsgemeituU,  each  party  should  have  its  separate  Lands- 
gemuinde  (1623)  and  tribunals  (1683),  while  it  was  not  till  1798 
that  the  Protestants  agreed  to  accept  the  Gregorian  calendar. 
Hie  slate^uarrying  industry  appeared  early  in  the  17th  century, 
while  cotton-spinning  was  introduced  about  X7J4,  and  calico- 
printing  by  1750.  In  X798,  in  consequence  of  the  resistance 
of  Glams  to  the  French  invaders,  the  canton  was  united  to  other 
districts  under  the  name  of  canton  of  the  Linth,  though  in  1803 
it  was  reduced  to  its  former  limits.  In  1799  it  was  traversed 
by  the  Russian  army,  under  Suworoff,  coming  over  the  Pragel 
Pass,  but  blocked  by  the  French. at  N&fels,  and  so  driven  over 
the  Panizer  to  the  Grisons.  The  old  system  of  government  was 
set  up  again  in  18x4.  But'in  1836  by  the  new  Liberal  con- 
stitution one  single  Landsgemeinde  was  restored,  de^ite  the 
resiatance  (1837)  of  the  Romanist  population  at  Nilfels.- 

AiTTBOitrnBS.— J.  B&bler,  Die  Alpmrtscka/l  im  Kami.  G.  (Soleure. 
i8q8)  :  J. J[.  Bluroer,  article  on  the  early  history  of  the  canton  in 
VOL  iiL  (2arich.  1844)  of  the  ArckivJ.  uhoetM.  CeukichU;  E.  Buss 
and  A.  Hdm.  Der  BergstunvonElm  (188 1)  (ZOrich.  1881):  W.  A.  B. 
CooUdge.  The  Ranme  ^the  Tddi  (London.  18^) ;  J.  G.  Ebcl.  Schilde- 
rum§  der  CebirgsvMer  d.  SckwetM,  voL  ii.  (Leipsig,  1798) ;  Gottfried 
Hecr,  CesekidUe  d.  Landes  Oana  (to  1830)  (2  vol*.,  Glarus,  1898- 
1809),  Gameriuke  Refotmatiorugesckichle  (Glarus,  1900),  Zur  $00 
idiri^n  Ceddcklitufeier  der  ScUacht  bet  N&fels  (1388)  (GUrus,')888) 
aotf  Die  Kireken  i.  Kant.  Glarus  (Glarus,  1890);  Oswald  Heer  and 
J.  J.  Blumer-Heer,  Der  Kami.  Glarus  (St  Gall.  1846) ;  J.  J.  Hottinser. 
Comrad  Backer  vem  der  Linlh  (ZCtrich,  1852);  JakrSuch,  published 
aonuaJIy  aince  1865  by  the  Cantonal  Historical  Society;  A.  Jenny- 
Trfkmpy,  *'  Han?el.u.  Industrie  d.  Kant.  G."  (article  in  vol.  xxxiii., 
1899,  of  the  Jahrbuck);  M.  Schuler,  GesckieMe-d.  Landes  Glarus 
(Zurich,  1836);  E.  N&f-Blumcr.  OubfOkrer  dureh  die  Glamer-Alpen 
(Schwanden,  1902);  Aloys  Schulte,  article  on  the  true  and  legendary 
early  history  of  the  Canton,  published  in  vol.  xviii.,-  1893,  of  the 
Jakrbuckf.  sekweit.  Gesckickte  (ZQrich);  J.  J.  Blumer,  Staats-  und 
RecktsgesMkU  d.  sckweiz.  Demokratien  (3  vols.,  St  Gall,  1850^ 
1859):  HS'Ryffd,  Die  ukweie.  Landsgemeinden  (ZQrich,  1903^; 
R.  von  Rediog-Biber^g,  Der  Zug  Suworoffs  durck  die  Sekweit  tu 
1799  (Stans,  1895).  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

GLAS,  GEORGE  (17 2 5-1765),  Scottish  seaman  and  merchant 
adventurer  in  West  Africa,  son  of  John  Glas  the  divine,  was 
bom  at  Dundee  in  1725,  and  is  said  to  have  been  brought  up 
as  a  surgeon.  He  obtained  command  of  a  ship  which  traded 
between  Braxil,  the  N. W.  coasts  of  Africa  andTBe  Canary  Islands. 
Oufing  his  voyages  he  discovered  on  the  Saharan  seaboard  a 
fiver  nsvigable  for  some  distance  inland,  and  here  he  proposed 
to  found  a  trading  station.  The  exact  spot  is  not  known  with 
certainty,  but  it  is  plausibly  identified  with  Gueder,  a  place 
in  about  29"  xo'  N.,  possibly  the  haven  where  the  Spaniards  had 
in  the  X5th  and  x6th  centuries  a  fort  c^led  Santa  Crua  de  Mar 
Pequefla.  Glas  made  an  arrangement  with  the  Lords  of  Trade 
wherry  he  was  granted  £15,000  if  he  obtained  free  cession  of 
the  port  he  Bad  discovered  to  the  British  crown;  the  proposal 
was  to  be  laid  before  parliament  in-  the  session  of  1765. 
Having  chartered  a  vessel,  Glas,  with  his  wife  and  daughter, 
sailed -for  Africa  in  1764,  reached  his  dfiSlination  and  made 
a  treaty  with  the  Moors  of  the  district.  He  named  his  settle- 
ment Port  Hillsborough,  after  Wills  Hill,  earl  of  Hillsborough 
(afterwards  marqub  of  Downshirc),  president  of  the  Board 
of  Trade  and  Plantations,  x  763-1 765.  In  November  1764 
Glas  and  some  companions,  leaving  his  ship  behind,  went  in 
the  longboat  to  Lanzarote,  intending  to  buy  a  small  barque 
suitable  for  the  navi^tion  of  the  river  on  which  was  his  settle- 
ment. From  Lanzarote  he  forwarded  to  London  the  treaty 
he  had  concluded  for  the  acquisition  of  Port  Hillsborough.  A 
few  days  later  he  was  seized  by  the  Spaniards,  taken  to  Teneriffe 
^d  imprisoned  at  Santa  Cruz.  In  a  letter  to  the  Lords  of  Trade 
from  Teneriffe,  dated  the  X5th  of  December  1764,  Glas  said 
be  believed  the  reason  for  bis  detention  was  the  jealousy  of  the 
Spaniards  at  the  settlement  at  Port  Hillsborough  "  because 
from  thence  in  time  of  war  the  English  might  ruin  their  fishery 
and  effectually  stop  the  whole  commerce  of  the  Canary  Islands." 


79 

The  Spaniards  further  looked  upon  the  settlement  as  a  step 
towards  the  conquest  of  the  islands.  "They  are  therefore 
contriving  how  to  make  out  a  claim  to  the  port  and  wiU  forge 
old  manuscripts  to  prove  their  assertion  **  {Caiendar  of  Home 
Office  Papers f  x76o-a765).  In  March  X765  the  ship's  company 
at  Port  Hillsborough  was  attacked  by  the  natives  and  severid 
members  of  it  killed.  The  survivors,  including  Mrs  and  Miss 
Glas,  escaped  to  Teneriffe.  In  October  following,  through  the 
representations  of  the  British  government,  Glas  was  released 
from  prison.  With  his  wife  and  child  he  set  sail  for  England 
on  board  the  barque  •*"  Earl  of  Sandwich."  On  the  30th  of 
November  Spanish  and  Portuguese  members  of  the  crew,  who 
had  learned  that  the  ship  contained  much  treasure,  mutinied, 
killing  the  captain  and  passengers.  Glas  was  stabbed  to  death, 
and  his  wife  and  daughter  thrown  overboard.  (The  murderers 
were  afterwards  captured  and  hanged  at  Dublin.)  After  the 
death  of  Glas  the  British  government  appears  to  have  taken 
no  steps  to  carry  out  his  project.' 

In  1764  Glas  published  in  London  Tke  History  of  tke  Discovery  and 
Conquest  of  Ike  Canary  Islands,  which  he  had  translated  from  the 
MS.  of  an  Andalusian  monk  named  Juan  Abreu  de  Galindo,  then 
recently  discovered  at  Palma.  To  this  Glas  added  a  description  of 
the  islands,  a  continuation  of  the  history  and  an-  account  of  the 
manners,  customs,  trade,  &c.,  of  the  inhabitants,  displaying  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  the  archipelago. 

GLAS,  JOHN  (1695-1773),  Scottish  divine,  was  bom  at 
Auchtermuchty,  Fife,  where  his  father  was  parish  minister, 
on  the  5th  of  Dctober  1695.  He  was  educated  at  Kindaven  and 
the  grammar  school,  Perth,  graduated  A.M.  at  the  university  of^ 
St  Andrews  in  x  713,  and  completed  his  education  for  the  ministiy 
at  Edinburgh.  He  was  licensed  as  a  preacher  by  the  presbytery 
of  Dunkeld,  and  soon  afterwards  ordained  by  that  of  Dundee 
as  minister  of  the  parish  of  Tealing  (1719),  where  his  effective 
preaching  soon  secured  a  large  congregation.  Early  in  lus 
ministry  he  was  "  brought  to  a  stand  "  while  lecturing  on  the 
"Shorter  Cat^hism"  by  the  question  "How  doth  Christ 
execute  the  office  of  a  king  ?  "  This  led  to  an  examination  of 
the  New  Testament  foundation  of  the  Christian  CThurch,  and  in 
1725;  in  a  letter  tb  Francis  Archibald,  minister  of  Guthrie, 
Forfarshire,  he  repudiated  the  obligation  of  national  covenants. 
In  the  same  ybar  his  views  found  expression  in  the  formation  of 
a  sodety'"  separate  from  the  multitude  "  numbering  nearly  a 
hundred,  and  drawn  from  his  own  and  neighbouring  parishes. 
The  members  of  this  ecclesiola  in  ecdesia  pledged  themselves 
"  to  join  together  in  the  Christian  profession,  to  follow  Christ 
the  Lord  as  the  righteousness  of  his-people,  to  walk  together 
in  brotherly  love,  and  in  the  duties  of  it,  in  subjection-to 
Mr  Glas  as  their  overseer  in  the  Lord,  to  observe  the  ordinance 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  once  every  month,  to  submit  themselves 
to  the  Lord'^  law  for  removing- offences,"  &c.  (Matt,  xviii. 
15-20).  From  the  scriptural  doctrine  of  the  essentially  spiritual 
nature  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  Glas  in  his  public  teaching 
drew  the  conclusions:  (i)  that  there  is  no  warrant  in  the  New 
Testament  for  1^  national  church;  i,2)  that  the  magistrate  as 
such  has  no  function  in  the  church;  (3)  that  national  covenants 
are  without  scriptural  grounds;  (4)  that  the  true  Reformation 
cannot  be  carri«l  out  by  political  and  secular  weapons  but  by 
the  word  and  spirit  of  Christ  only. 

This  argument  is  most  fully  exhibited  in  a  treatise  entitled 
The  Testimony  of  Ike  King  of  Martyrs  (1729).  For  the  promulga- 
tion of  these  views,  which  were  confessedly  at  variance  with  the 
doctrines  of  the  standards  of  the  national  church  of  Scotland, 
he  was  summoned  (1726)  before  his  presbytery,  where  in  the 
course  of  the  investigations  which  followed  he  affirmed  still 
more  explicitly  his  belief  that "  every  national  church  established 
by  the  laws  of  earthly  kingdoms  is  antichristian  in  its  constitution 
and  persecuting  in  its  spirit,"  and  further  declared  opinions 
upon  the  subject  of  church  government  which  amounted  to  a 
repudiation  of  Presbyterianism  and  an  acceptance  of  the  puritan 
type  of  Independency.  For  these  opinions  he  was  in  1728 
suspended  from  the  discharge  of  ministerial  functions,  and 
finally  deposed  in  1730.  The  members  of  the  society  already 
referred  to,  however,  for  the  most  part  continued  to  adhere 


8o 


GLASER— GLASGOW 


to  him,  thus  constituting  the  first  "  Glassite  "  or  "  Glasite  " 
church.  The  seat  of  this  congregation  was  shortly  afterwards 
transferred  to  Dundee  (whence  Glas  subsequently  removed  to 
Edinburgh),  where  he  officiated  for  some  time  as  an  "  elder." 
He  next  laboured  in  Perth  for  a  few  years,  where  he  was  joined 
by  Robert  Sandeman  (see  Glasites),  who  became  his  son-in-law, 
and  eventually  was  recognized  as  the  leader  and  principal 
exponent  of  Glas's  views;  these  he  developed  in  a  direction 
which  laid  them  open  to  the  charge  of  antinomianism.  Ulti- 
mately in  1730  Glas  returned  to  Dundee,  where  the  remainder 
of  his  life  was  spent.  He  introduced  in  his  church  the  primitive 
custom  of  the  "  osculum  pacts  "  and  the  "  agape  "  celebrated 
as  a  common  meal  with  broth.  From  this  custom  his  congr^- 
tion  was  known  as  the  "kail  kirk."  In  1739  the  General 
Assembly,  without  any  application  from  him,  removed  the 
sentence  of  deposition  which  had  been  passed  against  him,  and 
restored  fafm  to  the  character  and  function  of  a  minister  of  the 
gospel  of  Christ,  but  not  that  of  a  minister  of  the  Established 
Church,  of  Scotland,  declaring  that  he  was  not  eligible  for  a 
charge  until  he  should  have  renounced  principles  inconsistent 
with  the  constitution  of  the  church. 

A  collected  edition  of  hb  works  was  published  at  Edinburgh  in 
X76i  (4  vds.,  8vo),  and  a^ain  at  Perth  in  1782  (5  vols.,  8vo).  He 
died  in  1773. 

Glas's  published  works  bear  witness  lo  his  vigorous  mind  and 
scholarly  attainments.  His  reconstruction  of  the  ime  Discourse  of 
Celsus  (1753).  from  Origen's  reply  to  it.  is  a  competent  and  learned 

Siece  of  work.  The  Testimony  of  Ike  King  of  Martyrs  concerning  His 
'iniiom  (1729)  is  a  classic  repudiation  of  erastianism  and  defence 
of  the  spiritual  autonomy  of  the  church  under  ^esus  Christ.  His 
common  sense  appears  in  his  rejection  of  Hutchmson's  attempt  to 
prove  that  the  Bible  supplies  a  complete  system  of  physical  science, 
and  hts  shrewdness  in  his  N<^s  on  Scrtpture  Texts  (I747)'  He 
published  a  volume  of  Christian  Songs  (Perth,  1784).      (D.  M N.) 

GLASER,  CHRISTOPHER,  a  pharmaceutical  chembt  of  the 
17th  century,  was  a  native  of  Basel,  became  demonstrator  of 
chemistry  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi  in  Paris  and  apothecary  to 
Louis  XIV.  and  to  the  duke  of  Orleans.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  Traiti  de  la  chymie  (Paris,  1663),  which  went  through  some 
ten  editions  in  about  five-and-twenty  years,  and  was  translated 
into  both  German  and  English.  It  has  been  alleged  that  he  was 
an  accomplice  in  the  notorious  poisonings  carried  out  by  the 
marchioness  de  Brinvilliers,  but  the  extent  of  his  complicity  is 
doubtful.  He  appears  to  have  died  some  time  before  1676. 
Tlie  sal  polychresium  Glaseri  is  normal  potassium  sulphate  which 
he  pirepared  and  used  medicinally. 

GLASGOW,  a  city,  county  of  a  dty,  royal  burgh  and  port  of 
Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Clyde, 
40zi  m.  N.W.  of  London  by  the  West  Coast  railway  route,  and 
47  m.  W.S.W.  of  Edinburgh  by  the  North  British  railway.  The 
valley  of  the  Clyde  is  closely  confined  by  hills,  and  the  dty 
extends  far  over  these,  the  irregularity  of  its  site  making  for 
picturesqueness.  The  commercial  centre  of  Glasgow,  with  the 
majority  of  important  ptiblic  buildings,  lies  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  river,  which  traverses  the  city  from  W.S.W.  to  E.N.E., 
and  is  croued  by  a  number  of  bridges.  The  uppermost  is 
Dalmamock  Bridge,  dating  from  1891,  and  next  below  it  is 
Rutherglen  Bridge,  rebuilt  in  1896,  and  superseding  a  structure 
of  1775.  St  Andrew's  suspension  bridge  gives  access  to  the  Green 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Hutchesontown^  a  district  which  is  ap- 
proached also  by  Albert  Bridge,  a  handsome  erection,  leading 
from  the  Saltmarket.  Above  this  bridge  is  the  tidal  dam  and 
weir.  Victoria  Bridge,  of  granite,  was  opened  in  1856,  taking 
the  place  of  the  venerable  bridge  erected  by  Bishop  Rae  in  1345, 
which  was  demolished  in  1847.  Then  follows  a  suspension  bridge 
(dating  from  1853)  by  which  foot-passengers  from  the  south  side 
obtain  access  to  St  Enoch  Square  and,  finally,  the  most  important 
bridge  of  all  is  reached,  variously  known  as  Glasgow,  Jamaica 
Street,  or  Broomielaw  Bridge,  built  of  granite  from  Telford's 
designs  and  first  itscd  in  1835.  Towards  the  dose  of  the  century 
it  was  reconstructed,  and  reopened  in  1899.  At  the  busier 
periods  of  the  day  it  bears  a  very  heavy  traffic.  The  stream  is 
spanned  between  Victoria  and  Albert  Bridges  by  a  bridge 
betonging  to  the  Glasgow  &  South-Western  railway  and  by  two 


bridges  carrying  the  lines  of  the  Caledonian  raflwmy,  one  bdow 
Dalmamock  Bridge  and  the  other  a  massive  work  immediatdy 
west  of  Glasgow  Bridge. 

Buildings. — George  Square,  in  the  .heart  of  the  dty,  is  an 
open  space  of  which. every  possible  advantage  has  been  taken. 
On  its  eastern  side  stand  the  munidpal  buildings,  a  palatial 
pile  in  Venetian  renaissance  style,  from  the  designs  of  William 
Young,  a  native  of  Paisley.  They  were  opened  in  1889  and  cost 
nearly  £600,000.  They  form  a  square  block,  four  storeys  hi|^ 
and  carry  aulomed  turret  at  each  end  of  the  western  facade, 
from  the  centre  of  which  rises  a  massive  tower.  The  entrance 
hall  and  grand  staircase,  the  council  chamber,  banqueting  hall 
and  reception  rooms  are  decorated  in  a. grandiose  style,  not 
unbecoming  to  the  commercial  and  industrial*  metit^wlis  of 
Scotland.  Several  additional  blocks  have  been  built  or  rented 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  munidpal  staff.  Admirably 
equipped  sanitary  chambers  were  opened  in  1897,  indudlng  a 
J>acteriological  and  chemical  laboratoiy.  -Up  till  18x0  the  town 
council  met  in  a  hall  adjoining  the  old  tolbooth.  It  then  moved 
to  the  fine  classical  structure  at  the  foot  of  the  Saltmarket, 
which  is  now  used  as  court-houses.  This  was  vacated  in  184a 
for  the  county  buildings  in  Wilson  Street.  Growth  of  business 
compelled  another  migration  to  Ingram  Street  in  1875,  and, 
fourteen  years  later,  it  occupied  its  present  quarters.  On  the 
southern  side  of  George  Square  the  chief  structure  is  the  massive 
General  Post  Office.  On  the  western  side  stand  two  ornate  Italian 
buildings,  the  Bank  of  ScoUand  and  the  Merchants'  House,  the 
head  of  which  (the  dean  of  gild),  along  with  the  bead  of  the 
Trades'  House  (the  deacon-convener  of  trades)  has  been  de  facto 
member  of  the  town  coundl  since  17x1,  an  arrangement  devised 
with  a  view  to  adjusting  the  frequent  disputes  between  the  two 
gilds.  The  Royal  Exchange,  a  Corinthian  building  with  a  fine 
portico  of  columns  in  two  rows,  is  an  admired  example  of  the 
work  of  David  Hamilton  (1768-1843),  a  native  of  Glasgow,  who 
designed  severaLof  the  public  buildings  and  churches,  and  gained 
the  second  prise  for  a  design  for  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  The 
news-room  of  the  exchange  is  a  vast  apartment,  130  It.  long, 
60  ft.  wide,  X30  ft.  high,  with  a  richly-decorated  roof  supported 
by  Corinthian  pillars.  Buchanan  Street,  the  most  important 
and  handsome  street  in  the  city,  contains  the-Stock  Exchange, 
the  Western  Club  Hotise  (by^avid  Hamilton)  and  the  offices  of 
the  Glasgow  Herald.  In  Sauchiehall  Street  are  the  Fine  Art 
Institute  and  the  former  Corporation -Art  Gallery.  Argyll 
Street,  the  busiest  thoroughfare,  mainly  occupied  with  shops, 
leads  to  Trongate,  where  a  few  remains  of  the  old  town  are  now 
carefully  preserved.  On  the  south  side  of  the  street,  spanning 
the  pavement,  stands  the  Tron  Steeple,  a  stunted  spire  dating 
from  1637.  It  is  all4hat  is  left  of  St  Mary's  church,  which  was 
but-ned  down  in  1793  during  the  revels  of  a  notorious  body 
Jinown  as  the-Hell  Fire  Club.  On  the  opposite  side,  at  the  comer 
of  High  Street,  stood  the  andent  tolbooth,  or  prison,  a  turreted 
building;  five  storeys  high,  with  a  fine  Jacobean  crown  tower. 
The  only  remnant  of  the  structure  is  the  tower  knoTwn  as  the 
Crou  Steeple. 

Although  almost  all  the  old  public  buildings  of  Glasgow  have 
been  swept  away,  the  cathedral  remains  in  excellent  preservation. 
It  stands  in  the  north-eastern  quarter  of  the  dty  at  a 
hdght  of  X04  ft.  above  the  levd  of  the  Clyde.  It  is  a  ?. 
beautiful  example  of  Early  English  work,  impressive 
in  its  simplicity.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  Latin  cross, 
with  imperfect  transepts.  Its  length  from  east  to  west  is  3x9  ft., 
and  its  width  63  ft.;  the  hdght  of  the  choir  i&  93  ft.,  and  of  the 
nave  85  ft.  At  the  centre  rises  a  fine  tower,  with  a  short  octagonal 
spire,  3 25  ft.  high.  The  choir,  k>cally  known  as  the  High  Church, 
serves  as  one  of  the  dty  churches,  and  the  extreme  east  end  of  it 
forms  the  Lady  chapel.  The  rich  western  doorway  is  French 
in  design  but  English  in  details.  The  chapter-house  projects 
from  the  north-eastern  comer  and  somewhat  mars  the  harmony 
of. the  effect.  It  was  built  in  the  xsth  century  and  has  a  groined 
roof  supported  by  a  pillar  20  ft.  high.  Many  dtisens  have 
contributed  towards  filling  the  windows  with  stained  glass, 
executed  at  Munich,  the  government  providing  the  eastern 


mfndow  in  recognition  of  their  CDIFrprikc.  The  crypE  bcDcath 
Ihc  cboir  ii  lui  ilie  law  murkible  put  ol  the  eili£«  bcmg 
without  equA]  io  SatUaod.  It  b  home  od  65  pillan  lod  lighted 
by  41  windows,  Tbe  sculpture  of  the  CApiub  o(  thr  columns 
ud  boBci  of  the  graicied  vsultiog  is  exquisite  and  the  wlule 
is  in  eicdlent  piessvilion.  Stdctlf  qjukiog,  it  is  ool  •  aypt, 
bQI  «  kiwer  church  sdipted  to  the  iJorHng  ground  of  the  right 
itnk  d  the  Udendinu  biuiL  The  ddppiag  aisJe  is  so  osmcd 
from  the  cDDstaat  dto|)poii(  of  witer  fmn  the  loal,  St  Muogo's 
WeD  in  the  wnlh-euters  aarta  wu  cojisidcnd  to  poueu 
thenpeiitic  virtues,  uid  La  Uieicrypt  a  recumbent  efiigy,  headless 
ud  hsadleWi  it  failbhtUy  accepted  a*  the  lomb  of  KeoIigerD. 
Tlie  fathedral  contains  lew  monuments  of  eiceptibaai  m«rit, 
bal  the  sumninding  graveyaid  is  alnioet  completely  paved  with 
n  inveaiLgafion  was  ordered  by  David, 


tothelai 


Bbeloni 


Lolhe 


tuhopric.  and 

that  dale  1  othedral  had  already  been  endowed.  When  David 
isceoded  the  thnme  in  1134  he  gave  to  the  see  of  Glai^w  the 
lands  of  Paitick,  besides  lestoriDg  many  poesessions  of  which 
it  had  been  deprived.  Joceb'n  (d.  nog),  made  bishop  iJ^  1174, 
•u  ibe  GiK  gt»l  bishop,  and  is  tnemonble  for  his  efforts  to 
replace  the  cathedral  built  in  1136  by  Bishop  John  Adialus,  which 
bad  been  destroyed  by  tin.  The  oypl  is  bis  work,  and  be  begati 
Ike  cboir.  Lady  chapd,  and  cenlnl  tower.    Tie  new  sUuctuie 


waa  sufficiently  advanced  to  be  dedicated  in  i  ig?.  Other  [amous 
bisbops  were  Robert  Muhait  (d.  j  6),  appointed  in  1171,  who 
was  among  the  first  to  join  in  the  revolt  of  Wallace,  and  received 
Robed  Bruce  when  be  by  under  the  bu  ot  the  church  [01  tbe 
murder  of  Comyn;  John  Cameron  (d.  144O),  appointed  in  143S, 
under  whom  tbe  building  as  it  stands  was  completed;  and 
Williani  TumbuU  (d.  1454),  appointed  in  1447,  who  (bunded  the 
university  in  1450.  James  Beaton  or  Bethune  (i5r;-i«oj) 
was  the  last  Roman  Catholic  archbisbop.  He  Bed  to  France  at 
the  lelormatioB  in  1560,  and  took  with  him  the  Ireasurei  and 
records  of  the  see,  including  the  Red  Book  of  Glasgow  dating 
from  the  reign  of  Robert  111.  Hie  documents  were  deposited 
in  the  Scots  College  in  Paris,  wen  sent  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  for  safety  Io  St  Omer,  and  were  never  recovered. 
This  Ion  cxpUuDs  the  paudly  of  the  earlier  aruuls  of  the  dty. 
The  nal  of  the  Xeformera  led  them  to  threaten  to  muIilMe  the 
cathedral,  but  the  building  was  saved  by  the  prompt  action  of 

Eicepling   the   cathedral,   none  of   the    Glasgow   cburchei 
possesses   historical   interest;   and,   speaking   generally,  it   is 
only  tbe  buildings  that  have  been  erected  since  the    f,^,^,, 
be^ning  of  the  iglh  ceniury  that  have  pronounced 
irchiteclurat  merit.    This  wss  due  Isrgely  In    '     '  '     ' 


of  the  K 

Utbeydidmtactually  toibid.  tberaisngof  lemplEsol  be 


82 


GLASGOW 


CteJ- 


design.  Representative  eztmples  of  Utter  work  are  found  in  the 
United  Free  churches  in  Vincent  Street,  in  Caledonia  Road  and 
at  Queen's  Park,  designed  by  Alexander  Thomson  (1817-1875), 
an  architect  of  distinct  originality;  St  George's  church,  in  West 
George  Street,  a  remaricable  work  by  William  Stark,  erected 
in  the  banning  of  the  19th  century;  St  Andrew's  church 
in  St  Andrew's  Square  off  the  Saltmarket,  modelled  after 
St  Martin's-in-the-Fields,  London,  with  a  fine 'Roman  portico, 
some  of  the  older  parish  churches,  such  as  St  Enoch's,  dating 
from  1780,  with  a  good  spire  (the  saint's  name  is  said  to  be  a 
cofTuption  of  Tanew,  mother  of  Kentigem);  the  episcopal 
church  of  St  Mary  (1870),  in  Great  Western  Road,  by  Sir  G.  G. 
Scx>tt;  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  of  St  Andrew,  on  the 
river-bank  between  Victoria  and  Broomielaw  bridges;  the 
Barony  church,  replacing  the  older  kirk  in  which  Norman 
Madeod  ministered;  and  several  admirable  structures,  well 
situated,  on  the  eastern  confines  of  Kelvingrove  Park. 

The  principal  burying-ground  is  the  Necropolis,  occupying 
Fir  Park,  a  hill  about  300  ft.  lugltx  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
dty.  It  provides  a  not  inappropriate  background  to  the  cathe- 
dral, from  which  it  is  approached  by  a  bridge,  known  as  the 
*'  Bridge  of  Si^,"  over  the  Molendinar  ravine.  The  ground, 
which  once  formed  portion  of  the  estate  of  Wester  Craigs,  belongs 
to  the  Merchants'  House,  which  purchased  it  in  1650  from  Sir 
Ludovic  Stewart  of  Minto.  A  Doric  colunin  to  the  memory  of 
Knox,  surmounted  by  a  colossal  statue  of  the  reformer,  was 
erected  by  public  subscription  on  the  crown  of  the  height  in 
1824*  uid  a  few  years  later  the  idea  arose  of  utilizing  the  land  as 
a  cemetery.  The  Jews  have  reserved  for  their  own  peoi^  a 
detached  area  in  the  north-western  comer  of  the  cemetery. 

Educatum. — ^The  university,  founded  in  1450  by  Bishop 
Tumbull  under  a  bull  of  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  survived  in  its  old 
quarters  till  far  in  the  19th  century.  The  paedagogium, 
or  college  of  arts,  was  at  first  housed  in  Rottenrow, 
but  was  moved  in  1460  to  a  site  in  I^gh  Street, 
where  Sir  James  Hamilton  of  Cadzow,  first  Lord 
HamQton  (d.  1479),  gave  it  four  acres  of  land  and  some  buildings. 
Queen  Mary  bestowed  upon  it  thirteen  acres  of  contiguous 
ground,  and  her  son  granted  it  a  new  charter  and  enlarged  the 
endowments.  Prior  to  the  Revolution  its  fortunes  fluctuated, 
but  in  the  i8th  century  it  became  very  famous.  By  the  middle 
of  the  X9th  century,  however,  its  surroundings  had  deteriorated, 
and  in  x86o  it  was  dedded  to  rebuild  it  elsewhere.  The  groimd 
had  enormously  increased  in  value  and  a  railway  company 
purchased  it  for  £xoo,ooa  In  1864  the  university  bought  tlu: 
Gilmore  HUl  estate  for  £65,000,  the  adjacent  property  of  Dowan 
HiU  for  £16,000  and  the  property  of  Clayslaps  for  £17 ,40a  Sir 
G.  G.  Scott  was  appointed  architect  and  selected  as  the  site  of 
the  university  buildings  the  ridge  of  Gilmore  Hill — the  finest 
situation  in  Glasgow.  The  design  is  Early  English  with  a 
suggestion  in  parts  of  the  Scots-French  style  of  a  much  later 
period.  The  main  structure  is  540  ft.  long  and  300  ft.  broad. 
The  prindpalf  ront  faces  southwards  and  consists  of  a  lofty  central 
tower  with  spire  and  comer  blocks  with  turrets,  between  which 
are  buildings  of  lower  height.  Behind  the  tower  lies  the  Bute 
hall,  built  on  chusters,  binding  together  the  various  departments 
and  smaller  halls,  and  dividing  the  massive  edifice  into  an 
eastern  and  irestem  quadrangle,  on  two  sides  of  which  are 
ranged  the  dass-rooms  in  two  storeys.  The  northern  facade 
comprises  two  comer  blocks,  besides  the  museum,  the  library 
and,  in  the  centre,  the  students'  reading-room  on  one  floor  and 
the  Hunterian  museum  on  the  floor  above.  On  the  south  the 
ground  falls  in  terraces  towards  Kelvingrove  PariL  and  the 
Kdvin.  On  the  west,  but  apart  from  the  main  stracture,  stand 
the  houses  of  the  prindpal  and  professors.  The  foundation 
stone  was  laid  in  x868  and  the  opening  ceremony  was  hdd  in 
187a  The  total  cost  of  the  university  buildings  amounted  to 
£500,000,  towards  which  government  contributed  £120,000  and 
public  subscription  £350,000.  The  third '  marquess  of  Bute 
(1847-1900)  gave  £40,000  to  provide  the  Bute  or  common  hall, 
a  room  of  fine  proportions  fitted  in  Gothic  style  and  divided 
by  a  beautiful  Gothic  iczcen  from  the  Randolph  hall^  named 


after  another  benefactor,  Cbaries  Randolph  (1809-1878),  a 
native  of  Stiriing,  who  had  prospered  as  shipbuilder  and  marine 
engineer  and  left  £60,000  to  the  univeraty  The  graceful  spire 
surmounting  the  tower  was  provided  from  the  bequest  of  £5000 
by  Mr  A.  Cunningham,  deputy  town-derk,  and  Dr  John  M'Intyre 
erected  the  Students'  Union  at  a  cost  of  £5000,  while  other 
donors  completed  the  equipment  so  generously  that  the  senate 
was  enabled  to  carry  on  its  work,  for  the  first  time  in  its  history, 
in  almost  ideal  drcumstances.  The  library  indudes  the  collec- 
tion of  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and  the  Hunterian  museum, 
bequeathed  by  William  Hunter,  the  anatomist,  is  particulariy 
rich  in  coins,  medals,  black-letter  books  and  anatomical  prepara- 
tions. The  observatory  on  Dowan  Hill  is  attached  to  the  chair 
of  astronomy.  An  interesting  link  with  the  past  are  the  exhibi- 
tions founded  by  John  Snell  (1629-1679),  a  native  of  Colmooell 
in  Ayrshire,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  studenu  of  distinction 
to  continue  their  -career  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  Amongst 
«iist'»^««*»«^  exhibitioners  have  been  Adam  Smith,  John 
Gibson  Lockhart,  John  Wilson  ("  Christopher  North"),  Arch- 
bishop Tait,  Sir  William  Hamilton  and  Professor  Shairp.  The 
curriculum  of  the  university  embraces  the  faculties  of  arts, 
divinity,  medidne,  law  and  sdence.  The  goveming  body 
indudes  the  chanceQw,  elected  for  life  by  the  general  council, 
the  prindpal,  also  dected  for  life,  and  the  lord  rector  elected 
triennially  by  the  students  voting  in  "  nations  "  according  to 
thdr  birthplace  {GloUianc,  natives  of  Lanarkshire;  Trans- 
forthana,  of  Scotland  north  of  the  Forth;  Rtdkuiana,  of  the 
shires  of  Bute,  Renfrew  and  Ayr;  and  Louioniaf  all  others). 
There  are  a  large  number  of  well-endowed  chairs  and  lectureshipa 
and  the  normal  number  of  students  exceeds  aooo.  The  uni-' 
versities  of  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen  unite  to  return  one  member 
to  parliament.  Queen  Margaret  College  for  women,  established 
in  1883,  occupies  a  handsome  building  close  to  the  botanic 
gardens,  has  an  endowment  of  upwards  of  £25,000,  and  was 
incorporated  with  the  university  in  1893.  Muirhead  College 
is  another  institution  for  women. 

Elementary  instruction  is  supplied  at  numerous  board  schoolsu 
Hisher,  secondaiy  and  technical  education  is  provided  at  aevaal 
well-known  institutions.  There  arc  two  educational 
endowments  boards  which  apply  a  revenue  of  about 
£10,000  a  year  mainly  to  the  loandation  of  bumries. 
Anderson  College  in  George  Street  perpetuates  the 
memory  of  its  founder.  John  Anderson  (1736-1796).  profcaaor  of 
natural  philosophy  in  the  uniycrnty,  who  opened  a  class  in  physics 
for  working  men,  which  he  conducted  to  the  end  of  his  life.  By  his 
will  he  provided  for  an  institution  for  the  instruction  of  artisans  and 
others  unable  to  attend  the  university.  The  coUege  which  bean  his 
name  began  in  1796  with  lecturesoo  natural  phikMO^y  and  chemistry 
by  Thomas  Garnett  (i766-i0O2).  Two  years  later  mathematics  and 
geography  woe  added.  In  1799  Dr  George  Birkbeck  (1776-1841) 
succeeaed  Garnett  and  b^an  those  lectures  on  mechanics  and  appliea 
science  which,  continued  daewhere,  ultimatdy  led  to  the  founoation 
of  mechanics'  institutes  in  many  towns.  In  later  years  the  ooU^e 
was  further  endowed  and  its  curriculum  enlai^ged  by  the  inclusion 
of  literature  and  languages,  but  ultimatdy  it  was  deteranned  to 
limit  the  scope  of  its  work  to  medidne  (comprising,  however.  physicSi 
chemistry  and  botany  also).  The  lectures  of  its  medical  acbool, 
incorporated  in  1887  and  situated  near  the  Western  Infirmary,  are 
accepted  by  Glasgow  and  other  univerntieSb  The  Glasgow  and 
West  of  Scotland  Technical  CoUege,  formed  in  1886  out  of  a  com- 
bination of  the  arts  side  of  Anderson  College,  the  CoUege  of  Sdence 
and  Arts,  Allan  Glen'^  Institution  and  the  Atkinson  Institution,  ta 
subsidised  by  the  corporation  and  the  endowments  board,  and  ta 
especially  concerned  with  students  desiroua  of  fdlowing  an  in- 
dustrial career.  St  Mui^o's  College,  which  has  devdmed  from  an 
extra-mural  achod  in  connexion  with  the  Royal  Infirmary,  wae 
incorporated  in  1889,  with  faculties  of  medicine  and  law.  The 
United  Free  Church  CoUege.  finely  situated  near  Kdvinnove  Rarkgi 
the  School  of  Art  and  Design,  and  the  normal  schools  for  die  trmimng 
of  teachers,  are  institutions  with  distinctly  ^)fdaKifd  objects. 

The  Hii^  school  in  Elmbank  is  the  succesaor  of  the  grammar 
schod  (long  housed  in  John  Street)  which  was  founded  in  the  14th 
century  as  an  appanage  of  the  catnedraL  It  was  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  schod  board  in  1873.  -Other  secondary  school* 
include  GUsgow  Academy,  Kdvinstde  Academy  and  the  girls*  and 
boys*  achods  endowed  by  the  Hutcheson  tnigt.  Several  of  the 
schools  under  the  board  are  furnished  with  secondary  departments 
or  equipped  as  science  schools,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  maintaii^ 
elementary  scboob  and  ulvanccd  academics. 
•  AH  Cautriu,  Ukrorin  and  ifssnoM.— Glasgow  merchants  and 


GLASGOW 


83 


BiaiBiCMtDren  aUlce  bftve  been  eoastettt  patrooi  bf  «t,  and  thdr 
ISwcalsty  may  have  had  •ome  influence  on  the  younger  painters  who, 
towanb  the  doae  oC  the  19th  century,  broke  away  from,  tradition 
and,  rtimutoted  by  tiainingin  the  studios  of  Paris,- became  known 
as  the  "Glasgow  schooL"  The  art  gallery  and  museum  in  Kelvin- 
nove  Park,  which  was  built  at  a  cost  of  £250,000  (partly  derived 
from  tbejirafits  of  the  exhibitions  heki  in  the.  ^rk  in  1888  and.  1901), 
b  eiceptidnally  wdl  appointed;  The  collection  ori|;inattxl'  in  1854, 
in  the  purr-hasB  of  the  works  of  art  belonging  to  Archtbakl  M'Lellan, 
and  was  supplemented  from  time  to  thne  by.  numerous  bequests  of 
important  pictures.  It  was  housed  for  many  ^ears  in  the  Corpors- 
tioii  gallerifes  in  Sauchiehall  Street.  The  Institute  of  Fine  Arts,  in 
Saocnichall  Street,  is  mostly  devoted-  to  peribcUcal  exhibitions  of 
■mdera  art.  There  are  also  Djctures  on  exhibition  in  the  People's 
Palace  00  Ciufiom  Gieen,  which  was  built  by  the  corporation  in 
1898  and  combines  an  art  gallery  and  museum  with  a  conservatory 
and  winter  garden,  and  in  the  museum  at  Camphill,  situated 
within  the  bounds  of  Queen's  Park.  The  librarv  and  Huotcrian 
museum  in  the  university  are  mostly  reserved  for  the  use  of  students. 
Tbe  faculty  of  procurators  possess  a  valuable  library  wluch  is  housed 
ia  their  ban,  an  Italian  Reiaisaancc  building,  in  West  George  Street. 
In  Bath  Street  there  are  the  Mechanicr  and  the  Philosophical 
Society's  libraries,  and  the  Physicians*  is  in  St  Vincefit  &reet. 
Miller  Street  contains  the  headquarters  of  the  public  libraries.  The 
premises  once  occupied  by  the  watCT  commianon  have  been  converted 
to  house  the  Mitchell  liorarv,  which  grew  out  of  a  bequest  of  £70,000 
by  Stephen  Mitchell,  largely  reinforced  by  further  gifts  oi  libraries 
and  fimds,  and  now  contains  upwards  01  100,000  volumes.    It  is 

Evcmedby thecitycouncilandhasbeeniniisesincei877.  Another 
ildiag  in  this  street  accommodates  both  the  Stirling  and  Baillte 
iibrariea.  The  Stirling,  with  some  50,000  volumes,  is  particularly 
rich  in  tracts  of  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries,  and  the  Baillie  was 
cfkdowed  by  George  Baillie,  a  solicitor  who,  in  1863,  gave  £18,000 
for  educational  objects.  The  Athenaeum  in  St  George's  Place,  an 
institution  largdy  concerned  with  evening  classes  in  various  subjects, 
contains  an  excalent  library  and  reading-room. 

Charities, —  The  old  Ro^ral  Infirmary,  despised  by  Robert  Adam 
mad  opened  in  1704,  adjoining  the  cathedral,  occupies  the  site  of  the 
airfaieipiacopal  palace,  the  last  portion  of  which  was  removed  towards 
the  dose  ol^the  18th  centuiy.  The  chief  architectural  feature  of  the 
infirmary  is  the  central  dome  forming  the  roof  of  the  operating 
theatre.  On  the  northern  side  are  the  buildings  of  the  medioa 
^school  attached  to  the  institution.  The  new  infirmary  commemor* 
atcs  the  Diamond  Jubilee  of  Queen  Victoria.  A  little  farther  north, 
in  Castle  Street,  is  the  blind  asylum.  The  Western  Infirmary  is  to 
some  extent  used  for  the  purposes  of  clinical  instruction  in  connexion 
with  the  university,  to  which  it  stands  in  immediate  proximity. 
Near  it  b  the  Royal  hospital  for  sick  children.  To  the  south  of 
Queea'sTtark  b  >^toria  Infirmary,  and  cloae  to  it  the  deaf  and  dumb 
institution.  On  the  bank  of  the  nver,  not  far  from  the  south-eastern 
boujKlary  of  the  city,  b  the  Belvedere  hospital  for  infectious  diseases, 
and  at  RuchiU,  in  the  north,  b  another  hospital  of  the  same  character 
opened  in  1900.  The  Roval  asylum  at  Gartnavd  b  situated  near 
lordanhill  sta'tion,  and  tne  District  asylum  at  Gartloch  (with  a 
branch  at  West  Muckroft)  lies  in  the  parish  of  Cadder  beyond  the 
north-eastern  boundary.  There  are  numerous  hospitals  exclusively 
devoted  to  the  treatment  of  specbl  diseases,  ana  several  nursing 
tttstttutioos  and  homes.  Hutcbeson's  Hosfutal,  designed  by  David 
Hamilton  and  adorned  with  statues  of  the  founders,  b  situated  lA 
Ingram  Street,and  by  the  increase  in  the  value  of  its  lands  has  become 
a  very  wealthy  bodv.  George  Hutcheson  (1S80-1639),  a  bwyer  in 
the Irongate  near  the  tolbooth,  who  afterwards  Uvedm  the  Bishop's 
castle,  which  stood  close  to  the  spot  where  tbe  Kelvin  enters  the  Clyde, 
founded  the  hospital  for' poor  old  men.  His  brother  Thomas  (1589- 
1641)  established  in  oonnenon  with  it  a  school  for  the  lodging  and 
education  of  CMphan  boys,  tbe  sons  of  burgesses.  The  trust,  through 
tbe  growth  of  its  funds,  has  been  enablra  to  extend  its  educational 
scxype  and  to  subsidize  schools  apart  from  the  charity. 

Monuments. — ^Most  of  the  statues  have  been  erected  in  (korge 
Square.  They  are  grouped  around  a  fluted  pillar  80  ft.  hisb,-  sur- 
mounted by  a  oc4ossal  statue  of  Sir  Walter  bcott  by  John  Ritchie 
i  1809-1 850).  erected  in  1837,  and  include  Queen  Victoria  and  the. 
'rince  Consort  (both  equestrian)  by  Baron  Marochetti;  James  Watt 
by  Chantrey;  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Thomas  Campbell  the  poet,  who 
was  bom  in  Glasgow,  and  David  Livinntone.  all  by  John  Mossman; 
Sir  John  Moore,  a  native  of  Glasgow,  oy  Flaxman,  erected  in  1819; 
James  Oswald,  the  first  member  returned  to  parlbment  for  the  city 
after  the  Reform  Act  of  1832:  Lord  Clyde  ^ir  Colin  Campbell), 
also  a  native,  by  Foley,  erected  in  1808;  Dr  Thomas  Graham, 
master'  of  the  mint,  another  native,  by  Brodie:  Robert  Burns  by 
G.  E.  Ewtng,  erected  in  1877,  subscribea  for  in  shillings  by  the  work- 
ing men  of  Scotland;  and  Wtltbm  Ewart  Gladstone  by  Hamo 
Tbornycroft,  unveiled  by  Lord  Rosebery  in  1902.  In  front  of  the 
Royal  Exchange  stands  the  equestrian  monument  of  the  duke  of 
Wellington.  In  Cathedral  Square  are  the  statues  of  Norman 
Maclcod,  Tames  White  and  James  Arthur,  and  in  front  of  the  Royal 
infirmaiy  w  that  of  Sir  James  Lumsden,  lord  provost  and  benefactor. 
Nelson  IS  commemorated  by  an  obelisk  143  ft.  high  on  the  Green, 
whirti  was  erected  in  1806  and  b  said  to  be  a  copy  of  that  in  the 
Piaiza  del  Popc^  at  Rome.    One  of  the  most  familiar  statues  b  the 


equestrian  fi^re  of  Willbm  III.  in  the  Trongate,  which  was  presented 
to  the  town  m  1735  by  James  Macrae  (i677"i744),  a  poor  Ayrshire 
lad  who  had  amassed  a  fortune  in  Indb,  where  he  was  governor  of 
Madras  from  1725  to  1730. 

IUcreatimu.-0(  the  theatres-  the  chief  are  the  King'a  in  Bath 
Street,  the  Royal  and  the- Grand  in-  Cowcaddens,  the  Royalty  and 
Gaiety  in  Sauchiehall  Street,  and  the  Princess's  in  Mam  Street. 
Variety  theatres,  headed  by  the  Empire  in  Sauchiehall  Street,  ate 
found  in  various  parts  of  tne  town.  There  b  a  circus  in  Waterloo 
Strcetr  a  hippodrome  in  Sauchiehall  Street  and  a  xoological  gaitkn 
in  New  City  Road.  The  principal  concert  halb  are  the  great  hall 
of  the  St  Andrew's  Halls,  a  group  of  rooms  belonging  to  the  corpora- 
tion ;  theCity  Hall  in  Candleriggs,  the  People'aralace  on  the  Green, 
and  Queen's  Rooms  dose  to  Kdvingrove  Park.  Throughout  winter 
enormous  crowds  throng  the  football  grounds  of  the  Queen's  Park, 
the  leading  amateur  club,  and  the  Celtic,  the  Rangers,  the  Third 
Lanark  and  other  prominent  jprafosional  clubs. 

Parks  and  Open  SpaceSi—Tht  oklest  open  space  b  the  Green 
(140  acres),  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  adjdning  a  densely- 
populated  district.  It  once  extended  farther  west,  but  a  portion 
was  built  over  at  a  time  wh^i  public  rights  were  not  vigilantly 
guarded.  It  b  a  favourite  area  for  popular  demonstrations,  and 
sections  have  been  reserved  for  recreatu^  or  Ud  out  in  flower-beds. 
Kdvingrove  Park,  in  the  west  end,  has  exceptional  advantages,  for 
the  Kelvin  bum  flows  through  it  and  the  ground  is  naturally  terraced, 
while  the  situation  b  beautified  by  the  adjoining  Gilmore  Hill  with 
the  univer^ty  on  its  summit.  The  park  was  laid  out  under  the 
direction  of  air  Joseph  Paxton,  and  contains  the  Stewart  fountain, 
erected  to  commemorate  the  laboure  of  Lord  Provost  Stewart 
and  hb  colleagues  in  the  promotion  of  the  Loch  Katrine  waterscheme. 
The  other  parks  on  the  right  bank  are,  in  the  north,  Ruchni  (53 
acres),  acquired  in  1891,  and  Springburn  (53^  acres),  acquired  in 
x89a,  and.  in  the  east,  Alexandra  Park  (xao  acres),  in  which  b  bid 
down  a  nine-hole  golf-course,  and  ToUaoss  (82]  acres',  beyond  the 
municipal  boundaiy,  acquired  in  1897.  On  the  left  tuinic  Queen's 
Park  (iM  acres),  occupying  a  commanding  site,  was  laid  out  by  Sir 
Joseph  Paxton,  and  considerably  enlarged  in  1894  by  the  enclosure 
of  the  grounds  of  Camphill.  The  other  southern  parks  are  Richmond 
(44  acres),  acauired  in  18^,  and  named  after  Lord  Provost  Sir  David 
Richmond,  who  opened  it  in  1899:  Maxwell,  which  was  taken  over 
on  the  annexation  of  Pollok|hields  in  1891;  Belbhouston  (176 
acres), acquired  in  1895:  and  Cathkin  Braes  (50  acres),  3}m.  beyond 
the  south-eastern  boundary,  presented  to  the  city  in  1886  by  James 
Dick,  a  manufacturer,  containing  "  Queen  Mary's  stone,"  a  point 
which  commands  a  vbw  of  the  lower  valley  of  the  Clyde.  In  the 
north-western  district  of  Vhe  town  40  acres  between  Great  Western 
Road  and  the  Kelvin  are  devoted  to  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens, 
which  became  public  property  in  1891.  They  are  beautifully  bid 
out,  and  contain  a  preat  range  of  hothouses.  The  gardens  owed 
much  to  Sir  Willbm  nooker,  who  was  regius  professor  of  botany  in 
Glasgow  University  before  hb  appointment  to  the  directordiip  of 
Kew  Gardens. 

Communiealions. — The  North  British  railway  terminus  b  situated 
in  Queen  Street,  and  consists  of  a  hij^h-level  station  (main  line) 
anda  low-level  station,  used  in  connexion  with  the  City  &  District 
line,  largely  underground,  serving  the  northern  side  m  the  town, 
opened  in  1886.  The  Great  Northern  and  North-Eastera  railways 
use  the  high-level  line  of  the  N.B.R.,  the  three  companies  forming  tne 
East  Coast  Jmnt  Service.  The  Central  terminus  of  the  C^edonbn 
railway  in  Gordon  Street,  served  by  the  West  Coast  system  (in 
which  the  London  &  North-Westem  railway  shares),  also  comprises 
a  high-level  station  for  the  main  line  trafiic  and  a  low-level  station 
for  the  Cathcart  District  railway,  completed  in  1886  and  made 
circular  for  the  southern  side  and  subuirbs  in  18^,  and  also  for  the 
connexion  between  Maryhill  and  Rutherglen,  which  b  mostly  under- 
ground. Both  the  underground  lines  communicate  with  certain 
branches  of  the  main  line,  either  directly  or  by  change  of  carriage. 
The  older  terminus  of  the  Caledonbn  railway  in  Buchanan  Street 
now  takes  the  northern  and  eastern  traffic  The  terminus  of  the 
Glasgow  &  South-Western  railway  company  in  St  Enoch  Square 
serves  the  country  indicated  in  its  title,  and  also  gives  the  Miobnd 
railway  of  Engbnd  access  to  the  west  coast  aira  GlasKow.  The 
Glasgow  Subway — an  underground  cable  passenger  line,  o)  m.  long, 
worlud  in  two  tunneb  aiuf  passing  below  the  Qyde  twice — was 
opened  in  1896.  Since  no  more  bndge-building  will  be  sanctioned 
west  of  the  railway  bridge  at  the  Broomiebw,  there  are  at  certain 
points  steam  ferry  boats  or  floating  bridge  for  con^^eying  vehicles 
across  the  harbour,  and  at  Stobcross  there  is  a  subway  for  foot  and 
wheeled  traffic.  Steamen,  carrying  both  goods  and  passengers, 
constantly  leave  the  Broomiclaw  quay  for  the  pien  and  ports  on 
the  river  and  firth,  and  the  isUnds  and  sea  lochs  of  Argyllshire. 
The  city  b  admirably  served  by  tramways  which  penetrate  every 
populous  district  and  cross  the  nver  by  Glasgow  ana  Albot  bridges. 

zVoif.-j-Natural  causes,  such  as  proximity  to  the  richest  field  of 
coal  and  ironstone  in  Scotland  and  the  vicinity  of  hill  streams  of  pure 
water,  account  for  much  of  the  great  development  of  trade  in  Glasgow. 
It  was  in  textiles  that  the  city  showed  its  earliest  predominance, 
which,  however,  has  not  been  maintained,  owing,  it  b  alleged,  to 
the  shortage  of  female  Ubour.  Several  cotton  mills  are  still  worked, 
but  the  leading  feature  in  the  trade  has  always  been  the  manufacture 


84 


GLASGOW 


of  such  light  textures  as  ^in,  striped  and  figured  muslins,  ginghams 
and  fancy  fabrica.  ThruMl  is  made  on  a  considerable  scale,  but  |ute 
and  nllc  are  of  comparatively  little  importance.  The  principal 
varieties  of  carpets  are  woven.  Some  factories  are  exclusively 
devoted  to  the  making  of  lace  curtains.  The  allied  industries  of 
bleaching,  minting  and  d)rein^,  on  the  other  hand;  have  never 
declined.  The  use  ol  chlorine  m  bleaching  was  first  introduced  in 
Great  Britain  at  Glasgow  in  1787,  on  the  suggestion  of  James  Watt, 
whose  father-ittolaw  was  a  bleacMr;  and  it  was  a  Glasgow  bleacher, 
Charies  Tenoant.  who  first  discovered  and  made  bleai^ing  powder 
(chloride  of  lime).  Turkey-red  dyeing  was  begun  at'  Glingow  by 
David  Dale  and  Geoige  M'lntosh,  and  the  cobur  was  long  known 
locally  as  Dale's  red.  A  lar»e  quantity  of  gr^  doth  continues  to  be 
sent  from  Lancashire  and  other  mills  to  be  bleached  and  printed  in 
Soottidi  works.  These  industries  gave  a  powerful  impetus  to  the 
manufacture  of  chemicals,  and  the  worics.at  St  RoUox 'developed 
rapidly.  Among  prominent  chemical  industries  are  to  be  reckoned 
the  alkali  trades — including  soda,  bleaching  powder  and  soap- 
making — the  preparation  of  alum  and  prussiates  of  potash,  bichro- 
mate of  potasn,.  white  lead  and  other  pi^ents,  dynamite  and  gun- 
powder. Glass-making  and  paper-making  are  also  carried  on,  ami 
there  are  several  breweries  and  distilleries,  besides  factories  for  the 
mi^kii^  of  aerated  waters,  starch,  dextrine  and  matches.  Many 
miacdbneous  trades  flourish,  such  as  clothing,  confectionery, 
cabinet-making,  bread  and  biscuit  making,  boot  and  shoe  making, 
flour  mills  and  saw  mills,  pottery  and  indiarubber.  ^nce  the  days 
of  the  brothers  Robert  Foulis  (1705-1776)  and  Andrew  Foulis 
(171 2-1 775),  printing,  both  letterpress  and  colour,  has  been  identified 
with  Glaigow,  though  in  a  lesser  degree  than  with  Edinburgh. 
The  tobacco  trade  still  flourishes,  though  much  lessened.  But  the 
great  industry  is  iron-founding.  The  discovery  of  the  value  of 
blackband  ironstone,  till  then  regarded  as  useless  *'  wild  coal,"  by 
Eiavid  Mushet  (i 773-1847),  and  Neilson's  invention  of  the  hot-air 
blast  thxtw  the  control  of  the  Scottish  iron  trade  into  the  hands  of 
Gta^w  ironmasters,  although  the  furnaces  themselves  were  mostly 
erected  in  Lanarluhire  and  Ayrshire.  The  expansion  of  the  industry 
was  such  that,  in  1850,  one-third  of  the  total  output  in  the  United 
Kingdom  was  Scottisn.  .During  the  following  years,  however,  the 
trade  seemed  to  have  lost  its  elasticity,  the  annual  production 
averaging  about  one  million  tons  of  pig-ifon.  Mild  steel  is  manu- 
factured extensively^  and  some  crucible  cast  steel  is  made.  In  addi- 
tion to  brass  founones  there  are  works  for  the  extraction  of  copper 
and  the  smelting  of  lead  and  sine.  With  such  resources  every 
branch  of  engineering  is  well  represented.  Locomotive  engines  are 
.built  for  every  country  where  railways  are  employed,  and  alfkinds  of 
builder's  ironwork  b  forged  in  enormous  quantities,  and  the  sewing- 
machine  factories  in  the  neighbourhood  are  important.  B<»ler- 
makiiu^  and  marine  engine  works,  in  many  cases  in  direct  connexion 
with  the  shipbuilding  yards,  are  numerous.  Shipbuilding,  indeed,  is 
the  greatest  of  the  industries,  of  Glasgow,  and  in  some  years  more 
than  half  of  the  total  tonnage  in  the  United  Kingdom  has  been 
launched  on  the  Clyde,  the  yards  of  which  extend  from  the  harbour 
to  Dumbarton  on  one  side  and  Greenock  on  the  other  side  of  the  river 
and  firth.  Excepting  a  trifling  proportion  of  wooden  ships,  the 
Clyde-built  vessels  are  of  iron  ana  steel,  the  trade  having  owed  its 
immense  expannon  to  the  prompt  adoption  of  this  material.  Every 
variety  of  craft  is  turned  out,  from  battleships  and  great  liners  to 
dredging-plant  and  hopper  barges. 

The  Port. — ^The  harbour  extends  from  Glasig;ow  Bridge  to  the  point 
where  the  Kelvin  joins  the  Clyde,  and  occupies  ao6  acres.  For  the 
most  part  it  is  liiwd  by  quays  and  wharves,  which  have  a  total 
length  <^  8}  m.,  and  from  the  harbour  to  the  sea  vessels  drawing 
26  ft.  can  go  up  or  down  on  one  tide.  It  b  curious  to  remember 
that  in  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  the  river  was  fordable  on 
foot  at  Dumbuck,  la  m.  below  Glasgow  and  i^  m.  S.E.  of  Dum- 
barton. Even  within  the  limits  of  the  present  harbour  Smeaton 
reported  to  the  town  council  in  1740  that  at  Pointhouse  ford,  just 
east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kelvin,  the  depth  at  low  water  was  only 
15  in.  and  at  high  water  39  in.  The  transformation  effected  within 
a  century  and  a  half  b  due  to  the  eAerpr  and  enterprise  of  the  Cljrde 
Navigation  Trust.  The  earliest  shippii^-port  of  Glasgow  was  Irvine 
in  Ayrshire,  but  lighten^  was  tedious  and  land  carriage  costly,  and 
in  1058  the  dvic  authonties  endeavoured  to  purchase  a  site  for  a 
spacious  harbour  at  Dumbarton.  Being  thwarted  by  the  magistrates 
of  that  burgh,  however,  in  1663  they  secured  l^  acres  on  the  southern 
tnnk  at  a  spot  some  a  m.  above  Greenock,  which  became  known  as 
Port  Glasgow,  where  they  built  harbours  and  constructed  the  first 
graving  dock  in  Scotland.  Sixteen  years  later  the  Broomielaw  ciuay 
was  built,  but  it  was  not  until  the  tobacco  merchants  appreciated 
the  necesrity  of  bringing  their  wares  into  the  heart  of  the  dty  that 
serious  consideration  was  paid  to  schemes  for  deepening  the  water- 
way. Smeaton's  suggestion  of  a  lock  and  dam  4  m.  below  the 
Broomidaw  was  happily  not  accepted.  In  1768  John  Golbome 
advised  the  narrowing  oil  the  river  and  the  increasing  of  the  scour 
by  the  construction  of  rubble  jetties  and  the  dredging  of  sandbanks 
and  shoals.  After  James  Watt's  report  in  1769  on  the  ford  at 
Dumbuck,  Golbome  succeeded  in  1 775  in  deepening  the  ford  to  6  ft. 
at  low  water  with  a  width  of  300  ft.  By  Rennie's  advice  in  17^. 
following  up  Golbome's  recommendation,  as  many  as  aoo  jetties 
built  between  Glasgow  and  Bowling,  some  old  ones  were 


shortened  and  low  mbbl^wallB  carried  from  point  to  pmnt  of  tiie 
jetties,  and  thus  the  cbannU-was  made  more  uniform  ana  much  land 
nclaimed.  By  1836  there  was  a  depth  of  7  or  8  ft.  at  the  BroMnidaw 
at  low  water,  and  in  1840  the  whole  duty  ojf  improving  the  navigatioa 
was  devolved  upon  the  Navigation  Trust.  Steam  dredgers  were 
kept  constantly  at  work^  shoals  were  removed  and  rocin  blasted 
away.  Two  znillion  cubic  yarda  of  matter  are  lifted  every  year 
and  dunhped  in  Loch  Loi^.  By  1900  the  channel  had  been  deepened 
to  a  minifflum  of  aa  ft.,  aind,  as  already  indicated,  the  lar]^?est  vessels 
make  the  open  sea  in  one  tide,  vriiereas  in  1840  it  took  ships  drawing 
only  15  ft.  two  and  even  three  tides  to  reach  the  sea.  The  debt  oi  the 
Trust  amounts  to  £6,000,000,  and  the  annual  revenue  to  £450,000. 
Long  bdore  these  great  resulu  had  been  achieved,  however,  the 
>lupping  trade  had  been  revolutionised  by  the  application  of  steam 
to  navigation,  and  later  by  the  use  of  iron  for.wood  in  shipbuilding; 
in  both  respects  exiormously  enhancing  the  industry  and  cominenx 
of  Glasgow.  From  x8ia  to  i8ao  Henry  Bdl's  "Comet,**  30  tons, 
driven  by  an  engine  of  3  horse-power,  plied  between  Glssgow  amt 
GreenocK,  untU  she  was  wrecked,  being  the  first  steamer  to  run 
regularly  on  any  river  in  the  Old  Worid.  Thus  since  the  appearance 
of  that  primitive  vessd  phenomenal  changes  had  taken  diwe  on  the 
Clyd^  When  the  quays  and  wharves  c^sed  to  be  abfe  to  accom- 
modate the  KTOwing  traffic,  the  construction  of  docks  became 
imperative,  in  1867  Kingston  Dock  on  the  south  side,  of  st  acres, 
was  opened,  but  soon  proved  inadequate,  and  in  1B80  Queen  s  Dock 
(two  basins)  at  Stobcross,  on  the  north  side,  of  30  acres,  was  com- 
pleted. Although  tlus  could  accommodate  one  million  tons  of 
shipping,  more  dock  space  wa<  qxedily  called  for.  and  in  1897 
Prince's  Dock  (three  basins)  on  the  opposite  nde,  of  7a  acres,  was 
opened,  fully  equipped  with  hydraulic  and  steam  cranes  and  all  the 
other  latest  api^iances.  There  are,  besides,  three  graving  docks, 
the  longest  of  which  (880  ft.)  can  be  made  at  will  into  two  docks 
of  417  ft.  and  457^  ft.  in  length.  The  (^ledonian  and  Glasgow  & 
South-Westem  railways  have  access  to  the  harbour  for  goods  and 
minerab  at  Terminus  Quay  to  the  west  of  Kingston  Dock,  and  a 
mineral  dock  has  been  constructed  by  the  Trust  at  Clydebank, 
about  3}  m.  below  the  harbour.  The  shipinng  atuiiu  to  coloeal 
proportions.  The  imports  consist  chiefly  of  flour,  fruit,  timber, 
iron  ore,  live  stock  and  wheat ;  and  the  exports  prindpally  of  cotton 
manufacture,  manufactured  iron  and  sted,  machinery,  whisky, 
cotton  yarn,  linen  fabrics,  coal,  jute,  jam  and  foods,  and  woollen 
manufactures. 

Cenemment. — By  the  Local  Government  (Scotland)  Act  1889  the 
dty  was  placed  entirdy  in  the  county  of  Lanark,  the  districts  then 
transferred  ha^ang  previously  bdonged  to  the  shires  of  Dumbarton 
and  Renfrew.  In  1891  the  boundaries  were  enlarged  to  include 
six  suburban  bunhs  and  a  number  of  suburban  districts,  the  area 
being  increased  from  6111  acres  to  11,861  acres.  The  total  area 
of  the  dty  and  the  conterminous  burghs  of  Ckivan,  Partick  and 
Kinning  Fvk— ^hich,  though  they  suc^ssfully  resisted  annexation 
in  1891,  are  practkally  part  of  the  dty — b  15,659  acres.  The 
extreme  length  from  north  to  south  and  from  east  to  west  u  about 
5  m.  each  way,  and  the  drcumfcrence  measures  37  m.  In  1893  the 
munldpal  burgh  sras  constituted  a  county  of  a  dty.     Glawow  b 

Kverned  by  a  corporation  consbting  of  77  members,  indumng  14 
ilics  and  the  lord  provost.  In  189^  all  the  powers  which  the  town 
council  exercised  as  police  'commissionen  and  trustees  for  parks, 
markets,  srater  and  the  like  were  consolidated  and  conferredTupon 
the  corporation.  Three  yean  later  the  two  parish  coundb  of  the 
dty  and  barony,  which  administered  the  poor  law  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  dty  north  of  the  Clyde,  were  amalgamated  as  the  pariah 
coundl  of  GUsgow,  with  3 1  members.  As  a  county  of  a  dty  Glasgow 
has  a  lieutenancy  (successive  lords  provost  holding  the  office)  and  a 
court  of  quarter  sessions,  which  b  tne  appeal  court  from  the  magis- 
trates sitting  as  licensing  authority.  Under  the  corporation  municmal 
owncnhip  has  reached  a  remarkable  development,  the  corporation 
owning  the  supplies  of  water-gas  and  electric  power,  tramways  and 
muniapal  lodging-houses.  The  enterprise  of^  the  corporation  has 
brought  its  work  prominently  into  notice,  not  only  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  but  in  the  United  States  of  America  and  elsewhere. 
In  1859  water  was  conveyed  by  aoueducu  and  tunneb  from  Loch 
Katnne  (36^  ft.  above  sea-levd,  giving  a  pressure  of  70  or  80  ft. 
above  the  highest  point  in  the  city)  to  the  reservoir  at  Mugdock 
(with  a  capaaty  of  500,000.000  gallons),  a  distance  of  27  m.,  whence 
after  filtration  it  was  dbtributed  by  pipes  to  Glasgow,  a  further 
distance  of  7  m.,  or  ^4  m.  in  all.  During  the  next  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury it  became  evident  that  this  supply  would  require  to  be  aug- 
mented, and  powere  were  accordin^y  (Stained  in  1895  to  raise  Loch 
Katrine  5  ft.  and  to  connect  with  it  by  tunnel  Loch  Arklet  (455  ft. 
above  the  sea),  with  storage  for  3/>50,ooo,ooo  gallons,  the  two  lochs 
together^  poasessinff  a  capadty  of  twelve  thousand  million  nllons. 
The  entire  works  between  the  loch  and  the  dty  were  duplicated 
over  a  distance  of  33!  m.,  and  an  additional  reservoir,  holding 
694,000,000  gallons,  was  constructed,  increasing  the  supply  held  in 
reserve  from  laydays'  to  30J  days*.  In  1909  the  building  of  a  dam 
was  undertaken  i|  m.  west  of  the  lower  end  of  Loch  Arklet,  designed 
to  create  a  sheet  of  water  3}  m.  long  and  to  increase  the  water-supply 
of  the  city  by  ten  million  gallons  a  day.  The  water  committee 
supplies  hydraulic  power  to  manufacturers  and  merchants.  In 
1869  the  corporation  acquired  the  gasworks,  die  productive  ca|ndty 


GLASGOW 


85 


u  foUowed.  ud  in  1896  ■  borne  wu  acclcd  [a  .  .  _ . 
I  of  faMuIki  ill  ccTtain  dminutuKct.  Tbt  powtn  oT 
— -  - — -' —  — w  pnMitioLly  txhauftcd  in  "•**  -*" 


."na&i.so. 


ad  building,  and  {jji.soainbuilding 

1;  white,  oa  the  oihcr  udr,  sround 

IruslHft  owned  rwriuble 

a  iefiixacy  of  £423.050' 

,.„r_j  of  Ihe  iruit  bid  yickftd 

uid  It  wu  rfltiQAted  inat  t)ie»  opfTBIiofia,  bentncol  to 
1  a  vsrirty  0<  wayi.  had  cost  tbt  citiacot />4,ooci  a  year, 
n  act  was  obtained  for  dealLns  id  atmilar  Uihnn  with  in- 

'  0t  tbe  river»  and  for  acquiring  not  more  than  15  acres  of 
in  or  vilbout  the  dty,  for  dweDing*  for  tbe  poorest  daun. 


cntirelf  reoodeUed, 


a  being  di\ided  if 


wh  dittiiKt,  irilh  tepuate  woria  for  the  di^ponl  of  iti  own  K*agt 
Ok  lectioa  (utliorized  in  1891  ^nd  doubled  in  1901)  comprivs  i 
iq.  A. — ooe^iaU  within  the  city  north  of  the  river,  and  the  other  ii 
■be  diatriet  In  Lanariohire — with  worki  at  Dalnumock:  tooihe 
aetiiia  tautlmriied  in  1896)  includes  ihe.area  on  the  noRli  binl 
■«  pRivided  lor  ia  tS^I,  ai  well  ai  the  bur^ha  of  Panick  and  Clyde 
bsot  and  interveinnc  portions  at  the  shires  of  Renfrew  and  Dum 
bartofu  the  total  ar^  cDnuninf  of  14  iq.  m-,  with  works  at  Dalmuli 
7  m.  below  Glaarn;  and  the  third  KCIion  (authoriied  in  i8qS 
cnbrvoH  tbe  whole  Ditnidpal  area  od  the  aouth  tide  of  the  rivei 
(te  buifha  of  Rutherelen,  Pollr" -'— -  —--■—"--■---"- 
■•d  oxiaia  diKiicta  in  tin  co 

9.  n-  in  all,  which 
Reafrev  -""  " 


nutiootd  its  repnsenUlion  on  the  board  ol  the  Clyde  Navieation 
Tn»I  and  the  goveminf  body  of  tbe  West  of  Scotland  Tecbnical 
CoUeie.  In  respect  t*  iBflisnientary  repreteontion  the  Reform 
An  ol  l8ja  gave  two  tnemben  10  Clu(ow,  a  third  was  added  in 
1»6«  (thougb each electr- ■—'—'■■■ >  ~' ■-  -"--^--^ 

PtpMlatiem.~''nrBailinut  tbe'  19th  ce 

ii.i~.Jy,    OBly?7,3Bsini«oi.itw.. 

C  I47/I43.{a  itil.  ali«dy_<ii 


7  the  population  grew 
arly  doubled  in  twenty 
vrarm.  beii«  MZiiHS  '^  ""■  abfady  outstrippinc  Edinburgb.  It 
hadbecaiiH39MO},>alS«i.»>diii^Siilwa>sii,4  -  "  ' 
prior  to  auamti  of  the  boundary,  11  was  s^sMig, 
leasion,  ^S8,I9B,  aod  in  1901  it  nood  at  76i.7«. 
ai>ef»ecu.aBdlbedeuli-iateit  per  1000,  but  the  m 
Ike  city  imnonawnt  Khan  waa  cuiied  out  was  as  high  as  u 
pfT  looiL    Owinfl  to  Its  bdng  convenient  of  acceis  from  the  Hi^n- 

Ctwgnw.  while  tba  great  industries  al 


uashighai 


Z^ 


.hkiiill«jS-l«79wasi3,4»,697,ni 


if  tbe  ci 


ds  j[5,00O,DDO. 


Hiilaty.—Tbae  arc  levcral  iLeotics  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
name  of  Glasgow.  One  boldl  tb*t  it  coma  from  Gaelic  wonts 
■ueanins  "  dark  ^en,"  descriptive  of  the  ninow  nvine  through 
which  tbe  MoIendiBai  Sowed  to  tbe  Clyde.  But  tbe  more 
gcoeraUy  accepted  venion  [•  that  tbe  word  is  the  Celtic  CJeicAa, 
sfterwarda  irritten  Glesco  or  Glajghu,  meaaing  "  dear  green 
■pot  "  (gJoi,  green;  lu  or  jAh,  deal],  which  a  supposed  to  have 
been  tbe  name  of  Ibe  aeitlement  that  Kcnligcrn  found  bete 
■ben  be  came  to  conven  the  Bnloss  of  Stnlhdyde.  Mungo 
became  Ibe  pation-siiot  of  Glaagow,  and  the  mollo  and  arms 


of  the  city  an  wholly  identified  with  him—"  Let  Glaicow 
Flourish  by  the  Pieachiog  of  the  Word,"  uiually  ihoneoed  lo 
"Let CUlgow Flourish."  It itnoltill the ulh century, however, 
that  the  hlttoty  of  the  dty  become!  clear.  About  ii;8  William 
Etie  Lion  made  the  town  by  charter  a  burgh  of  barony,  and  gave 
II  a  market  with  freedom  and  customa.  Arnongit  more  or  less 
isolated  episodes  ol  which  record  has  been  preserved  may  be 
mentioned  the  battle  of  the  Bell  a"  tbe  Brae,  ou  Ibe  sile  of  High 
Street,  in  which  Wnlhice  touted  the  Englidi  under  Percy  in 
1300;  the  betrayal  of  Wallace  10  the  English  in  ijoj  in  a  bara 
aituated,  according  to  tradition,  in  Robroyston,  juat  beyond  the 
north-eaatem  boundary  of  the  city;  the  ravages  of  the  p!aguc  in 

of  Ihe  bishop's  cattle,  garrisoned  by  the  earl  of  CIcncaim,  and 
the  subuquent  6ghi  at  tbe  ButU  (now  Ibe  GiUowgite)  when 
tbe  terms  of  surrender  were  dishonoured,  iij  which  the  Pegenl'a 
men  gained  the  day.  Host  of  the  inhabitants  were  opposed  to 
Queen  Maty  and  many  actively  supported  Murray  in  tbe  battle 
of  Langside — the  site  of  which  Is  now  occupied  by  the  Queen's 
Park— on  tbe  ijth  of  May  i5«S,  in  which  she  lost  crown  and 
kingdom.  A  memorial  of  the  conSict  was  erected  on  the  site 
in  1887-  Vnda  Jame.  VI.  the  town  became  a  royal  burgh  in 
1636,  with  freedom  of  tbe  river  from  the  Broomiclaw  to  the  Cloch. 
But  the  efforts  to  establish  episcopacy  aroused  the  fervent 
aali-prrlatlcal  teatiment  of  tbe  people,  who  made  common 
cause  with  the  Covenanters  to  the  end  of  their  long  struggle. 
Montrose  mulcted  the  citizens  heavily  after  Ihe  battle  of  Kilsyth 

foe  contumacy  to  their  sovereign  lord.  Plague  and  famine  devasl- 
iflagrition  hud  a  third 


[n  ashes.    Even  after  the  re 


a  the  hcadquarten 


t'  sake.     The  t 


,ntly  6 


e  Whiggamc 


Ji  rebels 
nsfolk 


ith  an  army  of  Highkndeti,  whose  brutality  only  k 
rengtben  the  resistance  at  the  battles  of  Dm  mclog  and  Botbwell 
rig.  With  the  Union,  holly  resented  as  it  was  at  the  time, 
ie  dawn  of  almost  unbroken  prosperity  arose.  By  the  treaty 
I  Union  Scottish  ports  were  placed,  in  respect  of  trade,  on  the 
ime  footing  as  En^sh  ports,  and  the  situation  of  Glasgow 
labled  It  to  acquire  a  full  share  of  Ihe  evec-increising  Atlantic 
-ade.    Its  commerce  was  already  considerable  and  in  population 

was  now  the  second  town  in  Scotland.  It  enjoyed  a  practical 
lonopoly  of  Ihe  sale  of  raw  and  refined  sugars,  bad  the  right 
>  distil  spirits  from  molasses  free  of  duty,  dealt  largely  in  cured 
erring  and  salmon,  sent  hides  to  Fnglith  tannetl  and  manu- 
Lctured  soap  and  linen.     It  challenged  the  supremacy  of  Bristol 

''     ^  '  '      '      '  ■  *'      cargoes  from  Virginia,  Maryland 


It  by  ., 


brought  into  the  United  Kingdom.  The  tobacco  merchants 
built  handsome  mansions  and  tbe  town  rapidly  extended  west- 
wards. With  the  surplus  profits  new  industries  were  created, 
which  helped  the  city  through  the  period  of  the  American  War. 
Most,  though  not  all,  of  the  manufactures  in  which  Glasgow 
has  always  held  a  foremost  place  date  from  this  period.  It  was 
in  17114  that  James  Wall  succeeded  in  repairing  a  hitherto 
unworkable  model  of  Newcomen's  fire  (steam)  engine  in  his  small 
workshop  within  the  coUege  precincts.  Shipbuilding  on  a 
colossal  scale  and  the  enormous  developments  in  the  iron  in- 
dustries and  engineering  were  practically  Ihe  growth  ol  the  19th 
century.  The  faUurc  of  Ihe  Western  bank  in  1857,  ihc  Civil 
War  in  tbe  United  Suie),  Ihe  collapse  of  the  City  of  Glasgow 
bank  in  1878,  among  other  disasters,  involved  heavy  losses  and 
distress,  but  recovery  was  tdwaya  rapid. 

AiiTHOnniss.— 1.  aeland,  Aniuli  cf  Oaiina  (Gla^ow,  1S16); 
nm«^n,  LiUiary  Jlillcy  o/  Claiiaa  (Glasgow,  ISH,-     "  -'  - 
-  -Ui„i„dcU,,,8,j„.^P^^n^, 


Mi 


litBuiikkicords  n/C/iufirw  jBuish  Records  Society ) ;  Clarlci 

inr  to  fUniwam  I'f^lasEpw,   1891};  Rritr  Clyde  a*d  Harbour  fj 

n-.Clasrira  Pail  tmt  Preiml  (GlaiEOW,  I884): 

il  CAu(«  (Maitluid  Club,  1854);  ].  Strang, 


86 


GLASITES— GLASS 


ClutiBiMi iu  UKki  (Clugow.  iS&i) :  RtH)  (" Sevx  ").  Old  Gla-.rim 
fcklgow.  1S6():  A.  Macgeonc  OU  Cliucvw  tC^'K"".  "l-'«): 
Dcu.  Ill  Xitrr  ay^t  (Glatiov.  iMll;  Gale.  /^*  Xuir^n^  ll^I^r- 
*Htl  (GIUDV.  lUt);  Muan.  f^^u  d>k1  PntaU  L.l:-.':'>  ef 
Claii«i  (cSipw.  ii«s);  J.  M^ciil.  CAil,  5«u/  ii-<J  £'  "i  "lu 
JlwSb(ii>/Cfauimti880;i:B.RuHcll.l>/<i>iOuJ!<>c''n<i'  -..  w. 
I8W):  Tii^HtHia  (Cli«OK.  iBSg);  T.  5oai<;r>.i|.  .  ...-f 
4pivt  (Glaieov,  18«I)i  J.  A.  Kll[atri[l>.  Lilirv>  U:;,'.;     ■  .  ef 

CJuj™  (C.(=^.i»,   1B99I;  Slr  J.   Bell  an.l  J.   P^.™.   <-■.:'  to 


Scoiland  by  John  Glaj  (fl.r).  It  •proid  into  EogUnd  and 
America,  but  is  Doir  pnctiuily  eitinct.  GLaa  di&vritEd  from 
tbc  Weatmiruter  CoofeuioD  oniy  in  his  vicwi  M  Lo  the  spiritus] 
nitun  of  the  cbuccb  ud  the  funclioni  of  tbc  dvil  mtgiilntc. 
But  his  MO-in-Uw  Robert  Ssndemaa  added  a  dislinclive  doctiiae 
M  to  the  nature  of  faith  ohich  is  thiu  stated  od  bis  tombstone: 
"  That  the  bare  death  of  Jesus  Christ  «Ii]hiuI  a  thought  01 
deed  on  the  part  of  man,  is  sufficieu  t  topreaebt  the  chief  of  siuiers 
■potlns  bdoce  God."  Is  a  series  of  letters  to  James  Heivey, 
the  author  of  Tkerim  amt  Aifatia,  be  maintaiiied  tbat  justifying 
faith  is  a  simple  aasent  to  the  divine  testimooy  cDucctning 
Jesus  Christ,  differing  in  do  way  in  its  cbajacler  from  b«Iief  in  any 
ordinary  testimony.  In  tbeirpracticc  the  Glasitccburcbes  aimed 
tt  a  strict  coDformily  with  the  primitive  type  of  Christianily 
■1  understood  by  tliem.  Each  congregation  bad  a  plurality  of 
elders,  paston  or  bishops,  who  were  chosen  sfcoiding  to  what 
were  believed  to  be  the  instructions  of  Paul,  without  regard  to 
previous  education  or  present  occupation,  and  who  enjoy  a 
perfect  equality  in  office.  To  have  been  married  a  second  time 
disqualified  for  ordination,  oc  for  continued  tenurt  of  the  office 
of  bishop.     In  all  the  action  of  the  church  unanimity  was  con- 

Ihe  rot,  he  must  either  suireadet  his  judgmeat  ta  tbat  of  the 
church,  or  be  shut  out  from  iu  communioa.  To  join  in  prayer 
with  any  one  not  a  member  of  the  denominalioa  was  tegsjded 
as  unlawful,  and  even  to  eat  or  drink  with  one  who  had  been 
eicommunicaled  was  held  to  be  wrong.  The  Lord's  Supper 
was  observed  weeldy;  and  between  forenoon  and  aftemooo 
service  every  Sunday  a  love  feast  was  held  at  which  every 
member  was  required  to  be  present.  Mutual  exhortation  w. 
prart  ised  at  all  the  meetings  for  divine  service,  when  any  memb 
who  had  the  gift  of  speech  (xfifw^)  was  allowed  to  spa 
The  practice  of  «aahin|  one  another's  feet  was  at  one  tic 
observed;  audit  wasfor  along  time  customary  for  leach  broth 
ind  sister  to  receive  new  members,  on  admission,  with  a  ho 
fcisa.  "  Things  sliugled  "  and  "  blood  "  were  rigorously  a 
stained  tram;  the  lot  was  regarded  as  sacred;  the  accumuUtii 
of  wealth  they  held  to  be  UDscriptural  and  improper,  and  eai 
-  liable  tr  - 


I  of  the  poor  and  the  c 


member  ci 
«  any  tin 

of  the  church.  Cbuidus  of  this  order  were  founded  In  Paisli . . 
Glasgow,  fkUnburgh,  Leith,  Aihroatb,  Montrose,  Aberdeen, 
Dunkeld,  C\q>ar,  Galashiels,  Liverpool  and  London 
Michael  Faraday  was  long  an  elder.  Their  ceIu 
in  practice,  neglect  of  educalioa  (or  the  ministry, 
anlinomiao  tendency  of  their  doctrine  (oatHbutcd 
dissolution.  Many  Claaitcs  joined  the  general  body  of  Scottish 
Congregatiouliits,  and  the  sect  may  now  be  considered  eitinct 

See  James  Rm,  JTutory  of  CnurtfsJjnat   /ndiUfidnuy  4i 
SaOiui  (Glasgow,  1900).  ^D.Mw.) 

OLUI  (O.E.  ffaa,  cf.  Ger.  Oat,  petbips  derived  from  an  ok 
Teutonic  root  tlo-,  a  variant  of  (f o-,  having  the  genersf  sense  0 
shining,  d.  "  glare,"  "  glow  "),  a  hard  subsunce,  ususjly  trans- 
parent or  translucent,  which  from  a  Suid  coni"  ' 
temperature  has  passed  ti 
rapidity  to  prevent  the  lormaiioa  ol 

■  the  name  CUiius  or  Claisitea  wt 
io  EngUnd  and  Amerii 


iR  nany  vatietiet  of  glasi  differing  widely  In  chnaiftl  com- 
posltioD  and  in  pbysiol  qualitio.  Most  varietio,  howeyo', 
have  certain  qualilie*  in  common.  They  pass  through  a  viscooi 
stage  in  cooling  from  a  state  of  fluidity;  Ihey  develop  eSecu 

if  colour  when  the  glasa  mixtures  are  fused  irith  certain  metallic 
.rides;  Ihey  are,  when  cold,  bad  conductors  both  ol  electricity 

onchoidal  ftacluie;  they  ue  but  ^hlty  affected  by  ordinary 
olvents,  but  are  readily  altackedbyhydiofluoiic  add. 

The  structure  of  glass  has  been  the  subject  ol  repealed  in- 
'eltigations.  The  theory  most  widdy  accepted  at  prtaefit  is 
hat  glass  is  a  Quickly  solidified  solution,  in  which  silica,  silicates, 
■orates,  phosphates  and  aluminates  may  be  dtber  solvents  or 
olutea,  end  metallic  oxides  and  meiils  may  be  held  dtber 
n  solution  or  in  suspension.    Long  experience  ht>  fixed  the 

mixtures,  so  far  as  ordinary  furnace  temperatures  arc  con- 
t,  which  produce  the  varieties  of  glass  in  common  use.  The 
ial  materials  ol  which  these  miiturea  are  made  are,  for 

English  flint  glass,  sand,  carbonate  of  potash  and  ltd  lead; 

for  plate  and  sheet  glass,  sand,  carbonate  or  sulphate  ol  soda 

and  carbonate  of  lime;  and  for  Bohemian  glaas,  sand,  carbonate 
if  potuh  and  carbonale  of  lime.  It  is  convenient  to  treat 
hese  glasses  as  "normal"  glasses,  but  Ihey  are  in  reality 
nixlurcs  of  silicates,  and  caimot  rightly  bt  regarded  as  definite 

chemical   compounds   or   reprcacnted    by    definite   chemical 

The  knowledge  of  the  dMmlMiy  of  ^a»-maUng  has  been 
>nsiderahly  widened  by  Dr  F.  O.  Scholt's  experiments  at  the 
Jena  glass-works.    The  commercial  bucicsb  ol  thoe  works  has 


been  chiefly  t 
optical  glass.  Gl 
required,  and  hav 


lolg! 


increase  in  the  number  of  ^ 

Lssca  possessing  special  qualities  have  beeo 
i  been  supplied  by  the  introduction  ol  new 
lalerial).  The  range  of  the  specific  gravity 
■I  to  ja  iUustrates  the  effect  of  modified 
the  same  way  glass  can  be  tendered  more  or 
s  stability  can  be  increased  both  in  relatioo 
mperature  and  to  the  chemical  actios,  of 


idity  ol  ^ass  at  a  high  temperalurt  lenders  posa 
asea  of  tadelling,  pouring,  casting  and  itirdng. 
lass  in  a  viscous  state  can  be  railed  with  an  iron  n 
like  dough ;  can  be  rendered  hollc 


to  take  the  shape  and  im- 
lost  indefinitely  extended  as 
tensible  is  viscous  glass  that 
t  suf&dently  fine  and  elastic 


jrbycc  . 
nechamcally  drivei 
preasion  of  a  mould;  and 
soUd  rod  or  ss  hollow  lul 
it  can  be  drawn  out  into 
to  be  woven  into  a  fabric. 

Glasses  ate  generally  transparent  but  may  be  translucent  or 
opaque.  Semi-opadty  due  to  crystalliiaiion  may  be  Induced 
in  many  glasses  by  imini.lT.Tng  them  for  a  long  period  at  a 

duced  the  crystalline,  devitrified  material,  known  as  Rfaumur's 
porcelain.  Semi-Opacity  and  opadly  are  usually  produced 
by  the  addition  lo  the  glass-mixtures  of  materials  which  will 
remain  in  suspension  in  the  i^ass,  such  as  oride  of  tin,  ocde 
of  arsenic,  phosphste  of  lime,  a>olite  or  a  mixture  of  ftlspai 
and  fluorspar. 

Little  is  known  about  (he  actual  cause  ol  cnlonr  In  itua 
beyond  the  fact  that  certain  materials  added  Ic 
with  certain  gltss-miiturc*  will  in  lj 
produce  effects  of  colour.    The  colouring  agents  an  generally 
- ~  "  ■        ■■*     mtcoloure 


ictal  may  produce  different 
M  chrome  green  or  yelloi 


lof  tt 


cobalt. 


s,  and  dii 

colour*.    Tie  putf^blue 
of  chromium,  the  dichroic  canary- 

lUve  green  or  ■  pale  blue  according 
mixed.  Ferric  oxide  gives  a  yellow 
uicc  ol  an  oildiiing  agent  to  prevent 


Atbefe 


■  pdcyi 


piece  of  ^*9*  ud  hcMcd,  civo  a  pennuenl  ydlow  lUin.  Finely 
divided  ngetible  chiraul  ulded  to  a  udi-lirae  fUu  gi^vs  h 
ycDow  cokmr.  II  hu  been  nigECttcd  tbat  the  mbur  Is  due  to 
volpbur,  but  the  etfKt  cid  be  produced  with  m-  gliu  miiture 
coDtAinin^  do  ■uiphuf,  free  or  combioed,  and  by  [acreasiDg 
the  pnpoitioa  of  cbuinal  the  iDttuity  of  the  cobur  aa  he 
iDcnsicd  until  it  teuhca  bUck  opacity.    Seleniles  and  leleaitCT 

ydknr.  Tdlurium  appeui 
to  ^ve  a  pale  pink  tint. 
Nickd  with  a  potaih-lead 
^aiB^Tit.a  violet  ooloui, 
and  a  bnwn  coloui  irith 
a  udaJinM  tfta.  Cona 
live*  ■  pouack-Une  wUcb 
becoBia  sRcn  U  the  pio- 
ponioD  of  tlH  copper  uide 
o  inacaied.  If  onde  of 
foppcT  it  added  to  a  |l«jt 


ISS  87 

iDUice  of  beat,  or  by  placing  them  in  a  haled  kQn  iDd  albwlns 
the  beat  gradually  to  die  ouL 

The  fumacts  (ig,  15)  employed  for  mclltag  tfan  are  niually 
heated  with  gu  on  the  "  Siemeni,"  or  ume  »imitar  ryiteiii  of 
Tegeoentive  heating.  In  [he  Uniled  Sutca  natural  gai  ii  lucd 
wherever  it  is  available.  In  iome  l^ngliih  worka  coal  is  lElU 
employed  for  direct  heating  with  various  fonns  of  n: 
stokers.  Crude  pclraJeum  and  a  thin  tar,  resulting 
pcoctM  of  enriching  waler-gai  with  petnlcnm,  have  1 


belted    developa 

aiB«oo-raby    colour      A  p,g   , j._swaeos . C< 

BiBilar  turn,  a  lU  cooling 

is  greatly  retarded,  produces  througbont  iti  lubstaoce  ainal 
crystals  of  metallic  copper,  and  clotely  Tesembla  tbe  Duneral 
(ailed  avantoiine.  There  ii  also  an  intennediaie  stage  in  which 
the  ^aM  baj  a  nuty  red  colour  by  reflected  light,  and  a  purple- 
blue  caloat  by  tnnsmiiied  light.    Glass       


nibygl 


iweUGan 


lt,»bohi 


I,  ba*  luggeilcd  tbi 
change*  in  colour  correspond  with  changes  eSecied  li 
stmcturE  of  the  metals  as  they  pass  gradually  from  toluti 
the  ^asa  to  a  state  of  crystalliiation. 

Owing  to  imparitie*  csnlaioed  in  the  matertalt  from  ' 
glasses  are  nude,  accidentU  cokiralion  or  discoloration  is 
peoduced.    For  this  reason  c^cmica]  agents  are  added  to  glass 


■    By 


elide  is  tbe  usual  cause  of  1 

into  foric  oddc  the  gteci  tint  11  changed  to  yellow,  which 
less  noticeable.  Oxidation  Diy  be  effected  by  the  aildilion  to 
the  glass  isiitiUT  of  a  substance  which  gives  up  oxygen  at  a 
hi^  tcmpetatUK.  such  as  rainganese  dioxide  or  arsenic  irioiide. 
With  tbe  larae  object,  red  lead  and  saltpetre  are  used  in  the 
mittatc  lot  potssh-lead  glass.  Manganese  dioxide  not  only  acts 
as  a  aowcc  of  oxygen,  but  develops  a  pink  lint  in  tbe  glass,  which 
is  aMnpkmentary  to  and  neutnliici  the  green  colour  due  to 

Oasi  is  a  bad  oonductor  of  heaL  When  boiliiig  water  i) 
poured  bito  a  tfass  vessel,  tbe  vessel  frequently  breaks,  on 
sccoust  of  tbe  oneqaal  expansion  of  the  inner  and  outer  layen. 
II  in  tbe  pncesa  of  ^asa  manufacture  a  ^ass  vessel  is  suddenly 
cootedi  the  anstitueot  pirtidn  are  unable  to  anange  themselves 
and  the  vtMtl  remains  in  a  state  of  extreme  tension.  Theiurface 
of  tbe  vtMcl  may  be  hard,  but  the  vessel  is  liable  to  fiactiue 
OB  rcoivlDS  ■  Uifiisg  shock.  U.  de  la  Bsstie's  process  of 
» tftnfhfning  *'  ^asa  conusted  in  dipping  ^a&s,  raised  to  a 
ten^eciton  ilightly  below  the  mdting-point,  Inlo  Biolteo 
tallow.  The  loiface  ol  tbe  glass  was  hardened,  bat  the  inner 
laycfi  reDuloed  in  tuMible  equilibrium.  Direclly  Ibe  crust 
was  pieKtd  tbe  abote  nust  was  thaiiered  inlo  minuie  fragments. 
In  aU  btaacbes  til  glass  nunnfacture  the  process  of  "  annealing," 
><.  oootuig  Ibe  Inanafactured  objects  sufficiently  slowly  to  allow 
tbe  constituent  particles  to  settle  into  a  condition  of  equilibrium, 
ia  id  vital  importaoc«.  The  desired  result  is  obtained  either  by 
mning  the  manufactured  goodi  giaduilly  away  from  a  constant  | 


both  Mith  compressed  air  and  with  sieam  witb  couidenble 
luciess.  Electrical  fumices  have  not  as  yet  been  employed 
lor  ordinaiy  ^OSS-making  on  a  copunercialscak  but  the  el«tncal 
plants  which  have  been  erected  for  melting  and  moulding 
ipiarti  suggist  the  possibility  of  electric  heating  being  empkiyed 
Tor  the  manufactiin;  of  glass.  Many  forms  of  apparatus  have 
been  tried  for  ascertaining  the  trmperalure  of  glass  furnace*. 
It  is  usually  easenliil  that  some  pam  of  the  apparatus  shall  be 
Tiade  to  acquire  a  tempemlure  identical  with  the  temperature 
10  be  measured.  Owing  to  the  physical  changes  produced  in  the 
mateiial  eipcacd  prolonged  observations  of  temperature  are 
mposiible.  In  the  F^  radiation  pyrometer  this  difficulty 
a  obviated,  as  the  instrument  may  be  placed  at  a  considerable 
listance  From  the  furnace.  The  radiation  r*"'"B  out  from  an 
ipcning  in  the  furnace  falls  upon  a  concave  mirror  in  a  telescope 
ind  is  locused  upon  a  Ihcnnoeleclric  couple.  The  hotter  tbe 
umace  the  greater  is  the  rise  of  temperature  of  the  couple. 
The  electromotive  force  thus  generated  is  measured  by  a  galvano- 
meter, the  scale  ol  which  is  divided  and  figured  so  that  the 
■-mpcniture  may  be  directly  read.  {See  TnEiuiwETiy.) 
In  deating  with  the  maauficlure  of  glass  it  is  convenient 
I  group  the  various  branches  in  the  following  manner: 
Uanfaclaiid  CSair. 
I.  Optical  Claa 


II.  Blown  Gta» 


L  TaUcgL 


J.Tube.  C.   Sheet    D.  Bottles. 


III.  Mechaidolly  Pressed  Glut 

A.  Plate  and  rolled  liiite  glaiL  B,  Pressed  table  glaM. 

I.  Optical  Class. — As  regards  both  mode  of  production  and 
^seiitial  properties  optical  glasa  differs  widely  from  all  other 
irietitj.  These  difierences  arise  primarily  (rom  the  fact  that 
lass  for  optical  uses  ia  required  in  comparatively  Urge  and  thick 
ieces,  while  for  most  other  purpcoes  glass  is  used  in  the  form 
I  (omparativdy  thin  sheets;  when,  therefore,  as  a  consequence 


88 


GLASS 


of  DoUond's  invcDtion  of  achromatic  telescope  objectives  in 
1757,  a  demand  first  arose  for  optical  glass,  the  industry  was 
unable  to  furnish  suitable  material  Flint  glass  particularly, 
which  appeared  quite  satisfactory  when  viewed  in  small  pieces, 
was  found  to  be  so  far  from  homogeneous  as  to  be  useless  for 
lens'  construction.  The  first  step  towards  overcoming  this  vital 
defect  in  optical  glass  was  taken  by  P.  L.  Guinand,  towards  the 
end  of  the  x8th  century,  by  introducing  the  process  of  stirring 
the  molten  ^ass  by  means  of  a  cylinder  of  fireclay.  Guinand 
was  induced  to  migrate  from  his  home  in  Switzerland  to  Bavaria, 
where  he  worked  at  the  production  of  homogeneous  flint  glass, 
first  with  Joseph  von  Utzschneider  and  then  with  J.  Fraunhofer; 
the  latter  ultimately  attained  considerable  success  and  produced 
telescope  disks  up  to  a8  centimetres  (x  x  in.)  diameter.  Fraunhofer 
further  initiated  the  ^edfication  of  refraction  and  dispersion 
in  terms  of  certain  lines  of  the  ^>ectrum,  and  even  attempted 
an  investigation  of  the  effect  of  chemical  composition  on  the 
relative  dispersion  produced  by  glasses  in  different  parts  of  the 
spectrum.  Guinand's  process  was  further  devel(H>ed  in  France 
by  Guinand's  sons  and  subsequently  by  Bontemps  and  E.  Feil. 
In  X848  Bontemps  was  obliged  to  l«ive  France  for  political 
reasons  and  came  to  England,  where  he  initiated  the  optical 
glass  manufacture  at  Chance's,  glass  works  near  Birmingham, 
and  this  firm  ultimately  attained  a  considerable  reputation  in 
the  production  of  optical  glass,  especially  of  large  disks  for 
telescope  objectives.  Efforts  at  improving  optical  glass  had, 
however,  not  been  confined  to  the  descendants  and  succes^rs 
of  Guinand  and  Fraunhofer.  In  1824  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  of  London  appointed  a  committee  on  the  subject,  the 
experimental  work  being  carried  out  by  Faraday.  Faraday 
independently  recognized  the  necessity  for  mechanical  agitation 
of  the  molten  g^ass  in  order  to  ensure  homogeneity,  and  to 
facilitate  his  manipulations  he  worked  with  dense  Ind  borate 
glasses  which  are  very  fusible,  but  have  proved  too  unstable 
for  ordinary  optical  purposes.  Later  M&cs  of  Clichy  (France) 
exhibited  some  "zinc  crown"  glass  in  small  plates  of  optical 
quality  at  the  London  Exhibition  of  X851;  and  another  French 
glass-maker,  Lamy,  produced  a  dense  thalliiui  glass  in  X867. 
In  1854  W.  V.  Harcourt  began  experiments  in  glas»>making, 
in  which  he  was  subsequently  joined  by  G.  G.  Stokes.  Their 
object  was  to  pursue  the  inquby  begun  by  Fraimhof er  as  to  the 
effect  of  chemical  composition  on  the  distribution  of  diq)ersion. 
The  specific  effect  of  boric  add  in  this  respect  was  correaiy 
ascertained  by  Stokes  and  Harcourt,  but  they  mistook  the  effect 
of  titanic  add.  J.  Hopkinson,  worldng  at  Chance's  glass  works, 
suteequently  made  an  attempt  to  produce  a  titanium  silicate 
gUss,  but  nothing  further  resulted. 

The  next  and  most  important  forward  step  in  the  progress  of 
optical  glass  manufacture  was  initiated  by  Ernst  Abbe  and 
carried  out  jointly  by  him  and  O.  Schott  at  Jena  in  Germany. 
Aided  by  grants  from  the  Prussian  government,  these  workers 
systematically  investigated  the  effect  of  introdudng  a  large 
number  of  different  chemical  substances  (oxides)  into  vitreous 
fluxes.  As  a  result  a  whole  series  of  glasses  of  novd  composition 
and  optical  properties  were  produced.^.  A  certain  number  of  the 
most  promising  of  these,  from  the  purely  optical  point  of  view, 
had  unfortunately  to  be  abandoned  for  practical  use  owing  to 
their  chemical  instability,  and  the  problem  of  Fraunhofer,  viz. 
the  production  of  pairs  of  glasses  of  widely  differing  refraction 
and  dispersion,  but  having  a  similar  distribution  of  dispersion 
in  the  various  regions  of  the  spectrum,  was  not  in  the  first  instance 
solved.  On  the  other  hand,  while  in  the  older  crown  and. flint 
glasses  the  rdation  between  refraction  and  dispersion  had  been 
practically  fixed,  dispersion  and  refraction  increasing  regularly 
with  the  density  of  the  glass,  in  some  of  the  new  glasses  introduced 
by  Abbe  and  Schott  this  relation  is  altered  ^d^a  relativdy 
low  refractive  index  is  accompanied  by  a  relativdy  high  disper- 
sion, while  in  others  a  high  refractive  index  is  associated  with 
low  dispersive  power. 

The  initiative  of  Abbe  and  Schott,  which  was  greatly  aided 
by  the  resources  for  sdentific  investigation  available  at  the 
Physikalische  Rdchsanstalt  (Imperial  Physical   Laboratory), 


led  to  iuch  important  devdopments  that  similar  track  «u 
undertaken  in  France  by  the  firm  of  Mantois,  the  succesaocs 
of  Feil,  and  somewhat  later  by  Chance  in  England.  The  manu* 
facture  of  the  new  varieties  of  ^ass,  originally  known  as  "  Jena  " 
glasses,  is  now  carried  out  extensivdy  and  with  a  coudderaJbAt 
degree  of  commercial  success  in  France,  and  also  to  ii,  less  extent 
in  En^^d,  but  none  of  the  other  makers  of  optical  glass  has 
as  yet  contributed  to  the  progress  of  the  industry  to  anything 
like  the  same  extent  as  the  Jena  firm. 

The  older  optical  glares,  now  generally  known  as  the 
"  ordinary  "  crown  and  flint  glasses,  are  all  of  the  nature  of  pure 
silicates,  the  basic  constituents  being,  in  the  case  of  crown 
glasses,  lime  and  soda  or  lime  and  potaaji,  or  a  mixture  of  both, 
and  in  the  case  of  flint  glasses,  lead  and  dther  (or  both)  soda  and 
potash.  With  the  exception  of  the  heavier  fiSnt  Qead)  i^asses, 
these  can  be  produced  so  as  to  be  free  both  from  noticeable 
colour  and  from  such  defects  as  bubbles,  opaque  indusions  or 
"  striae,"  but  extreme  care  in  the  choice  of  all  the  raw  iimt<^ai< 
and  in  all  the  manipulations  is  required  to  ensure  this  resulL 
Further,  these  glasses,  when  made  from  properiy  proportioned 
materials,  possess  a  very  considerable  degree  of  chemical  stability, 
which  is  amply  sufficient  for  most  optical  purposes.  The  newer 
glasses,  on  the  other  hand,  contain  a  mudi  wider  variety  of 
chemical  constituents,  the  most  important  being  the  oxides  of 
barium,  magnesium,  aluminium  and  zinc,  used  dther  with  <x 
without  the  addition  of  the  bases  already  named  in  xcfereoce 
to  the  older  glasses,  and — ^among  add  bodies — boric  anhydride 
(BiOa)  which  replaces  the  silica  of  the  older  glasses  to  a  varying 
extent.  It  must  be  admitted  that,  by  the  aid  of  certain  of  these 
new  constituents,  glasses  can  be  produced  which,  as  regards 
purity  of  colour,  f rradom  from  ddects  and  chemical  stability  are 
equal  or  even  superior  to  the  best  of  the  "  ordinary  "  glasses,  but 
it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  when  this  is  the  case  the  optical 
properties  of  the  new  glass  do  not  fall  very  widdy  outside 
the  limits  set  by  the  older  glasses.  On  the  other  hand,  the  more 
extreme  the  optical  properties  of  these  new  glasses,  Le,  the 
further  they  depart  from  the  ratio  of  rdractive  index  to  dispersive 
power  found  in  the  older  glasses,  the  greater  the  difficulty  found 
in  obtaining  them  of  dther  sufficient  purity  or  stability  to  be  of 
practical  use.  It  is,  in  fact,  admitted  that  some  of  the  glasses, 
most  useful  optically,  the  dense  barium  crown  glasses,  which 
are  so  widdy  used  in  modem  photographic  lenses,  cannot  be 
produced  entirely  free  dther  from  noticeable  cdour  or  from 
nimierous  small  bubbles,  while  the  chemical  nature  of  these 
glasses  is  so  sensitive  that  considerable  care  is  required  to  protect 
the  surfaces  of  lenses  made  from  them  if  serious  tarnishing  is  to 
be  avoided.  In  practice,  however,  it  is  not  found  that  the  {Mxsence 
either  of  a  deddedly  greenish-ydlow  colour  or  of  numerous 
small  bubbles  interferes  at  all  seriously  with  the  successful  use 
of  the  lenses  for  the  majority  of  purposes,  so  that  it  is  prderabk 
to  sacrifice  the  perfection  of  the  glass  in  order  to  secure  valuable 
optical  properties. 

It  is  a  further  striking  fact,  not  unconnected  with  those  just 
enumerated,  that  the  extreme  range  of  optical  prc^>erties  covered 
even  by  the  relativdy  large  number  of  optical  glasses  now  available 
is  in  reality  very  smalL  The  refractive  indices  of  all  ghuses  at 
present  a^^iilable  lie  between  1*46  and  1*90,  whereas  tranq;>arent 
minerals  are  known  having  refractive  indices  lying  considerably 
outside  these  limits;  at  least  one- of  these,  fluorite  (caldum 
fluoride),  is  actually  used  by  opticians  in  the  construction  of 
certain  lenses,  so  that  probably  progress  is  to  be  looked  for  in  a 
considerable  widening  of  the  limits  of  available  optical  materials; 
possibly  such  progress  may  lie  in  the  direction  of  the  artifidal 
production  of  large  mineral  crystals. 

The  qualities  required  in  optical  glasses  have  already  been 
partly  referred  to,  but  may  now  be  summarized: — 

X.  Transiency  and  Freedom  from  CoUmr. — ^Theae  qualities  can 
be  readily  judged  by  inspection  01  the  glass  in  pieces  of  oonaideFable 
thickness,  andthey  may  be  quantitatively  measured  by  means  of  the 
spectro-photometer. 

a.  HomogeneUy. — ^The  optical  desideratum  is  uniformity  of  re- 
fractive index  arid  dtsperuve  power  throughout  the  mass  of  the  gtaaa. 
This  is  probably  never  completely  attaiiwd,  variations  in  the  sixth 


uid^iadujlvari 


«  indni  bring  tAmind  b  d 
K  nuM  paSa  tbiL    Whi 


fj  mining  dv  glaia  jq  1  bexm  of  pmUd  l^hE,  when  the  ilrw 
KBtLB-  lb  Eght  uid  Apprv  M  dclvr  dark  or  bn^ht  lijwt  ucocdiiu 
u  IIm  (nBliaa  of  Ihe  nr.     Plate  (lua  of  the  urk]  quality.  wtiicE 

«rav.  ■■  men  to  bo  i  mat*  oT  fw  Btriae.  whoa  a  cocuidenble  ihklowu 
Bed  in  paiaUtL  ligliL    Plate  glaaa  Ii 
d  for  the  cheapn-  tarmt  of  Inuo. 


ih'in'liLly 

floiiKl  to  a  mater  degnoi  the  tower 
.    Tbc  dwiiKal  ftabiuty,  u.  Ibe  pc 

„ — Of  dlicn  of  aUDoiphFnc  nioUtm  -...^  ^~^ 

t^rpHida  klldy  upoa  the  ouantilv  tif  alkalia  cancaincd  in  - 
bw  thrir  pcopoftioB  to  tlie  lead,  bme  tn-  barium  preienl.  thi 
beiaa  geatnUf  Ina  Iba  higher  the  propottton  of  alliBlL 


ii  |la*  daring  ooolin^    ftoceiaea  of  anneali 

cocEag,  are  intended  to  lelieve  thete  vtraiu,  bu^wiuf  imKcnnuc 

Uvea  nnga  of  tempentm  where  the  glua  ia  jiut  kning  tht  lut 
tm  of  plattidty.  n  eKtremelv  gndual,  a  rale  nuuured  in  boun 
per  dc^ne  Ccotjgfadc  bring  rrquirtd.  The  existence  of  InteiDal 
■trairu  in  glaia  can  be  rradiltf  Tecngniinl  by  oaminalion  in  polanted 
beht.  any  aigna  of  doubl?  lefradun  indicating  the  euitence of  Krain. 
If  tbc  glaai  i>  vsy  badly  annealed,  [he  lenaea  made  Innn  it  may  fly 
' — »  dunng  or  after  maauUcIure. """ ' ' "--*- 

glaw- 


JMifurnnt— The  purely  oplicxl 

ditpcnioo,  allboueh  of  tbe  greatol 
canm  oe  orsit  wiih  in  any  detail  here;  For  ai^  accounl 


readily  obierved 


readily  ot 


l^.'JT'h' 


rvTnctive  index  of 


. . hSdib  Dtht  (the  D  line  of  the  aiilir 

ipecttim).  *hik  tbe  leitcn  C,  Fand  G'  rSrr  to  li net  is  tbe  hydropn 
apeclrum  by  which  di^ienuiD  ia  now  scnenlly  iprci^-  The 
■ymbol  r  [epreatnta  the  iavene  of  the  diiperKve  power,  iti  value 
>xat  (»e-')ltC~F).  Tbe  very  much  longer  listi  of  German  and 
French  firrna  contain  only  a  few  typea  not  itpramted  la  thii  table, 
if aim/ricliire  of  OpIUai  Oiui.—tn  ill  eailis  tUga,  the  proceu 
for  Che  production  of  optica]  glaaadcBdyreaemblea  that  uaed  in 
the  pioductioD  of  any  albei  gtui  ol  the  highctt  quality.  The  taw 
materials  aiv  sdecled  with  great  care  to  aiaijie chemical  purity, 
but  whereaa  in  most  glassa  the  only  Impuiitica  to  be  dieadod 
aie  thou  that  are  either  infusible  or  produce  a  colouring  effect 
upon  the  ^au,  for  optical  purposes  the  admiiture  ol  other 
gfass-faiming  bodies  than  tliose  which  are  intended  to  be  ptetent 
mutt  be  avoided  on  accouni  of  their  eSecl  in  modifying  the 
optical  conilalits  of  the  glaii.    C(in$lancy  of  compcsilioD  of  the 

ilant  propoTtioni  an  therefon  essenlial  to  the  produaion  of  the 
required  glasaei.  The  maloiali  are  genenlly  used  in  the  form 
either  of  oiidH  (lead,  anc,  lilica,  lie)  or  of  sails  readily  decom- 
powd  by  heat,  such  as  the  Ditnles  or  caihonates.  Fngoents  of 
glui  of  the  same  compo^tion  u  that  aimed  at  are  geneially 
incorponted  to  a  Umiied  eitent  with  the  nuisl  nw  materials 
to  facilitate- thdr  luson.  The  crucibles  oi  pou  uaed  (or  the 
productiooof  optical  glass  very  closely  Teaemble  those  used  in  the 
rnanufactuteof  flint  glass  for  other  piirpoaes;  they  are"  covered  " 
and  the  molten  materials  are  thus  protected  from  the  action  of 
the  furnace  gases  by  the  interposition  of  a  wall  of  fireclay,  but 
as  cruciblca  for  optical  glass  are  used  for  only  one  fusion  Ukd  are 
then  broken  up,  they  an  not  made  so  thick  and  heavy  as  (hose 
iisedinfliBt-rfaasmaklng,>incethelatterremainin  (be  (uraace 
for  many  weeks.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cbemical  and  phyiical 
nature  (>f  the  fireclays  used  in  the  manufacture  of  auch  crucibles 
lequitea  careful  attention  in  order  la  secure  the  best  leiulls. 
The  furnace  used  for  the  production  of  optical  glass  is  generally 
constructed  to  take  one  crucible  only,  so  that  the  beat  of  the 
furnace  may  be  accurately  adjusted  to  the  requiremenlt  of  the 
patticulu  glass  under  treatment.  These  amall  furnaces  are 
frequently  airanged  for  direct  coal  firing,  but  regeneralive  gai- 
£red  fumacei  are  also  employed.  The  empty  crucible,  having 
first  been  gradually  dried  and  heated  to  a  bright  red  heat  in  a 
subsidiary  (unutce,  is  taken  up  by  means  of  massive  iron  tongs 
arid  introduced  into  the  previously  heated  furnace,  the  tempera- 
luieof  which  is  then  gradually  raised.     When  a  suitable  tempcra- 


II  thefusi 


of  tbe  p; 


attained,  the  rn 
.    paratively  small  quantiti 
'.    ia  gradually  filled  with  a 
-■  l.—Optial  Frtptrlia. 


at  a  lime.     In  this  way  the  crucible 
aa  of  te^Een  glass,  which  is,  however, 


Dincrnon- 


Partial  and  Reblive  Partial  Dtipenii 


Medium  EanoD  Cm 


Barium  Light  F1 
Eiua  Litht  Fill 
Ejon  Ught  FUi 


iS 


la 


Enra  DeMc  Flint 


90 


GLASS 


full  of  bubbles  of  all  liiet.  These  bubbles  arise  partly  from  the 
air  endoeed  between  the  particles  of  raw  materials  and  partly 
from  the  gaseous  decomposition  pcxMiucts  of  the  materials 
themselves.  In  the  next  stage  of  the  process,  the  glass  is  raised 
to  a  high  temperature  in  ordier  to  render  it  suflkiently  fluid  to 
allow  of  the  complete  elimination  of  these  bubbles;;  the  actual 
temperature  required  varies  with  the  chemical  composition  of 
the  glass,  a  bright  red  beat  sufficing  for  the  most.f  usible  glasses, 
while  with  others  the  utmost  capacity  of  the  .best  furnaces 
is  required  to  attain  the  necessary  temperature.  With  these 
latter  ^Luses  there  is,  of  course,  considerable  risk  that  the 
partial  fusion  and  consequent  contraction  of  the  fircday  of  the 
crudble  may  result  in  its  destruction  and  the  entire  loss  of  the 
glass.  The  stages  of  the  process  so  far  described  generallyoccupy 
from  36  to  60  hours,  and  during  this  time  the  constant  care  and 
watchfulness  of  those  attending  the  furnace  is  required.  This  is 
still  more  the  case  in  the  next  stage.  The  examination  of  small 
test-pieces  of  the  ^ass  withdrawn  from  the  crudble  by  means 
of  an  Iron  rod  having  shown  that  the  molten  mass  is  free  from 
bubbles,  the  stilting  process  may  be  begun,  the  object  of  this 
manipulation  being  to  render  the  glass  as  homogeneous  as  possible 
and  to  secure  the  absence  of  veins  or  striae  in  the  product.  For 
this  purpose  a  cylinder  of  fireday,  provided  with  a  square  axial 
hole  at  the  upper  end,  is  heated  in  a  small  subsidiary  furnace  and 
is  then  introduced  into  the  molten  glass.  Into  the  square  axial 
hole  fits  the  square  end  of  a  hooked  iron  bar  which  projects 
several  yards  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  fumaccj  by  means  of 
this  bar  a  workman  moves  the  fireday  cylinder  about  in  the  glass 
with  a  steady  circular  sweep.  Althou^  the  wdgh't  of  the  iron 
bar  is  carried  by  a  support,  such  as  an  overhead  chain  or  a  swrivd 
roller,  this  operation  is  very  laborious  and  trying,  more  especially 
during  the  earlier  stages  when  the  heat  radiated  from  the  op>en 
mouth  of  the  crudble  is  intense.  The  men  who  manipulate  the 
stirring  bars  are  therefore  changed  at  short  intervals,  while  the 
bars  thcmsdves  have  also  to  be  changed  at  somewhat  longer 
^tervals,  as  they  rapidly  become  oxidized,  and  accumulated 
teale  would  tend  to  fall  off  them,  thus  contaminating  the  glass 
bdow.  The  stirring  process  is  b^un  when  the  glass  is  perfectly 
fluid  at  a  temperature  little  short  of  the  highest  attained  in  its 
fusion,  but  as  the  stirring  proceeds  the  ghua  is  allowed  to  cool 
gradually  and  thus  becomes  more  and  more  viscous  Until  finally 
the  stirring  cylinder  can  scarcdy  be  moved.  When  the  glass  has 
acquired  this  d^ree  of  consistency  it  is  supposed  that  no  fresh 
movements  can  occur  within  its  mass,  so  that  if  homogeneity  has 
been  attained  the  glass  will  preserve  it  permanently.  The  stirring 
is  therefore  discontinued  and  the  day  cylinder  b  dther  left 
embedded  in  the  glass,  or  by  the  exercise  of  considerable  force 
it  may  be  gradually  withdrawn.  The  crudble 
with  the  semi-solid  glass  which  it  contains  is  now 
allowed  to  cool  considerably  in  the  mdting  furnace, 
or  it  may  be  removed  to  another  slightly  heated 
furnace.  When  the  glass  has  cooled  so  far  as 
to  become  hard  and  soUd,  the  furnace  is  hermetic- 
ally sealed  up  and  allowed  to  cool  very  gradually 
to  the  ordinary  temperature.  If  the  cooling  is  very 
gradual— occupying  several  weeks—it  sometimes 
happens  that  the  entire  contents  of  a  Urge  crudble,  weighing 
perhaps  1000  lb,  are  fotmd  intact  as  a  sin^  mass  of  glass,  but 
more  frequently  the  mass  is  found  broken  up  into  a  number  of 
fragments  of  various  sizes.  From  the  large  masses  great  lenses 
and  mirrors  may  be  produced,  while  the  smaller  pieces  are  used 
for  the  production  of  the  disks  and  sUbs  of  UKxlerate  size,  in 
which  the  optical  glass  of  onnmerce  is  usuaUy  supplied.  In  order 
to  allow  of  the  removal  of  the  glass,  the  cold  crudble  b  broken 
up  and  the  glass  carefully  separated  from  the  fragments  of  fire- 
clay. The  pieces  of  glass  are  then  examined  for  the  detection  of 
the  grosser  defects,  and  obviously  defective  pieces  are  rejected. 
As  the  fractured  surfaces  of  the  glass  in  thb  condition  are  un- 
suitable for  delicate  examination  a  good  deal  of  glass  that  passes 
this  inspection  has  yet  ultimatdy  to  be  rejeaed.  The  next  stage 
in  the  prq>aration  of  the  glass  b  the  process  of  moulding  and 
annealing.    Lumps  of  glass  of  approximatdy  the  .right  wei|^t 


are  chosen,  and  are  heated  to  a  temperature  just  sufficSent  to 
soften  the  g^ass,  when  the  lumps  are  caused  to  assume  the  shape 
of  moulds  made  of  iron  or  fireclay  dther  by  the  natural  flow  of 
the  softened  ^ass  under  gravity,  or  by  pressure  from  suitable 
toob  or  presses.  The  glass,  now  in  its  approximate  form,  is 
placed  in  a  heated  chamber  where  it  b  sllowed  to  cool  very 
gradually — the  mibimum  time  of  cooling  from  a  dull  red  heat 
bdng  six  days,  while  for  "  fine  annealing  "  a  much  longer  period 
b  required  (see  above).  At  the  end  of  the  annealing  process  the 
glass  issues  in  the  shape  of  disks  or  slabs  slightly  larger  than 
required  by  the  optician  in  each  casfe.  The  s^ass  is,  however,  by 
no  means  ready  for  delivery,  since  it  has  yet  to  be  examined 
with  scrupulous  care,  and  all  defective  pieces  must  be  rejected 
entirdy  or  at  least  the  defective  part  must  be  cut  out  and  the 
slab  remoulded  or  ground  down  to  a  smaller  size.  For  the  purpose 
of  rendering  thb  minute  examination  possible,  opposite  i^ane 
surfaces  of  the  glass  are  ground  approximatdy  flat  aiod  pcdbhed^ 
the  faces  to  be  polished  bdng  so  chosen  as  to  allow  of  a  view 
through  the  greatest  possible  thickness  of  glass;  thus  in  slabs 
the  narrow  e^ges  are  polished. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  above  account  of  the 
process  of  production  that  optical  ^ass,  rdativdy  to  other 
kinds  of  glass,  b  very  eq)ensive,  the  actual  price  varying  from 
3s.  to  30s.  per  lb  in  small  slabs  or  disks.  Tbt  price,  however, 
rapidly  increases  with  the  total  bulk  of  perfect  glass  required  in 
one  piece,  so  that  large  disks  of  g^ass  suitabw  for  tdcacope 
objectives  of  wide  aperture,  or  blocks  for  large  prisms,  become 
exceedingly  costly.  The  reason  for  thb  high  cost  b  to  be  found 
partly  in  the  fact  that  the  yield  of  optically  perfect  glass  even 
in  large  and  successful  mdtings  rardy  exceeds  ao%  of  the  total 
weight  of  glass  mdted.  Further,  all  the  subsequent  processes 
of  cutting,  moulding  and  annealing  become  increauBing^y  difficult, 
owing  to  the  greatly  increased  risk  of  breakage  arising  from 
either  external  injury  or  internal  strain,  as  the  dimensions  of 
the  individual  piece  of  j^ass  increase.  Neverthdess,  disks  of 
optical  glass,  both  crown  and  flint,  have  been  produced  up  to 
39  in.  in  diameter. 

II.  Blown  Glass.  (A)  Table-ware  and  Vases.-^Tht  varieties 
of  glass  used  for  the  manufacture  of  table-ware  and  vases  are 
the  potash-lead  glass,  the  soda-lime  glass  and  the  potash-lime 
glass.  These  glasses  may  be  colouriess  or  odoured.  Venetian 
glass  b  a  soda-lime  glass;  Bohemian  ^ass  b  a  potash-lime 
glass.  The  potash-lead  glass,  which  was  first  used  on  a  com« 
merdal  scale  in  England  for  the  manufacture  of  table-ware, 
and  which  is  known  as  "  flint "  glass  or  "  crystal,"  b  also  largely 
used  in  France,  Germany  and  the  United  States.  Table  IX. 
shows  the  typical  composition  of  these  glasses. 


Table  II. 

SiQi. 

KaO. 

PbO. 

Na^. 

CaO. 

MgO. 

FeiD, 

and 

AWOv 

Potash-lemd  (flint)  glass  . 
Soda-lime  (Venetian)  glaM    . 
Potash-lime  (Bohemian)  glan 

5317 
73*40 
71-70 

1388 

•  • 

ia-70 

32-95 

•  • 

•  ■ 

18-58 
3-50 

5-o6 
10-30 

•  • 

•  a 

a -48 
0-90 

For  melting  the  leadless  glasses,  open,  boiri-shaped  crudbles 
are  used,  ranging  from  i  a  to  40  in.  in  diameter.  Glass  mixtures 
containing  lead  are  mdted  in  covered,  beehive-shaped  crudbles 
holding  from  la  to  18  cwt.  of  glass.  They  have  a  hooded  open- 
ing on  one  side  near  the  top.  Thb  opening  serves  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  g^ass-mixture,  for  the  removal  of  the  mdted 
glass  and  as  a  source  of  heat  for  the  processes  of  manipulation. 

The  Venetian  furnaces  in  the  island  of  Murano  are  small 
low  structures  heated  with  wood.  The  heat  passes  from  the 
melting  furnace  into  the  annealing  kiln.  In  Germany,  Austria 
and  the  United  States,  gas  furnaces  are  gencfally  used.  In 
England  directly-heated  coal  furnaces  are  still  in  common  use, 
which  in  many  cases  are  stoked  by  mechanical  feeders.  There 
are  two  systems  of  annealing.  The  manufactured  goods  are 
dther  removed  gradually  from  a  constant  source  of  heat  by  means 
of  a  train  of  small  iron  trucks  drawn  abng  a  tramway  by  an 


GLASS 


9' 


cmDeis  duin,  or  are  placed  in  a  heated  kfln  in  which  the  fire  is 
allowed  gradually  to  die  out.  The  second  system  is  e^)eciaUy 
used  for  annealing  laige  and  heavy  objects.  The  manufacture 
of  table-ware  is  carried  on  by  small  gangs  of  men  and  boys.  In 
En^aad  each  "  gang  "  or  "  chair  "  consists  of  three  men  and  one 
boy.  In  works,  however,  in  which  most  of  thegoodsare  moulded, 
and  where  less  skilled  UiMur  is  required,  the  proportion  of  boy 
labour  is  increasedi  There  are  generally  two  idiif  ts  of  workmen, 
each  shift  woridng  six  hours,  and  the  work  is  carried  on  continu- 
ously ffom  Monday  momiag  until  Friday  morning.  Directly 
work  is  woMpended  the  glass  remaining  in  the  crucibles  is  ladled 
mto  water,  drained  and  dried.  It  is  then  mixed  with  the  glass 
miztoR  and  broken  ^ass'  ("  aillet "),  and  replaced  in  the 


9t 


B 


Fta.  16. — Pootib  and  Blowing  Iron. 
CPttotee;  ^,  ^ving  puntee;  c,  blowing  iron. 

cmcibles.  The  furnaces  are  driven  to  a  white  heat  in  order  to 
fuse  the  mixture  and  expel  bubbles  of  gas  and  air.  Before  work 
begins  the  temperature  is  lowered  sufficiently  to  render  the  glass 
viscous.  In  the  viscous  state  a  mass  of  glass  can  be  coiled  upon 
the  heated  end  of  an  iron  rod,  and  if  the  rod  is  hoUow  can  be 
blown  into  a  hollow  bulb.  The  tools  used  are  extremely  primitive 
^boUow  iron  Uowing-rods,  solid  tods  for  holding  vessels  during 
manipulation,  vpring  tools,  resembling  sugar-tongs  in  shape, 
with  steel  or  wooden  blades  for  fashioning  the  viscouk  glass, 
caUipen,  measure^cks,  and  a  variety  of  moulds  of  wood, 
carbon,  cast  iron,  gun-metal  and  plaster  df  Paris  (figs,  idand  17). 
The  most  jn^MNtant  tool,  however,  is  the  bench  or  "  chair  ** 
«i  which  the  workman  sits,  which  serves  as  his  lathe.   He  sits 


d,  ''Sugar. 


c,  €,  '  Sugar-Congs 


Fig.  ij.^Shapbg  and  Measuring  Took 

tongs  **  tod  with  wooden  -  /.  Pinoen. 

f,  SdMora. 
"  toob  with  cutting    a.  Battledore. 

it  Marking  compais. 

between  two  rigid  parallel  arms,  projecting  forwards  and  back- 
wards and  sloping  slightly  from  back  to  front.  Across  the  arms 
be  balances  the  iron  rod  to  which  the  glass  bulb  adheres,  and 
rolling  it  backwards  and  forwards  with  the  fingers  of  his  left 
hand  fashions  the  glass  between  the  blades  of  his  sugar-tongs 
tool,  grasped  in  his  right  hand.  The  hollow  bulb  is  woriced  into 
the  shape  it  is  intended  to  assume,  partly  by  blowing,  partly  by 
gnviution,  and  partly  by  the  workman's  toolL  If  the  blowing 
iron  is  held  verti<^y  with  the  bulb  uppermost  the  bulb  becomes 
fbttened  and  shallow,  if  the  bulb  is  allowed  to  hang  downwards 
it  becomes  elongated  and  reduced  in  diameter,  and  if  the  end  of 
the  bulb  is  pierced  and  the  iron  is  held  horizontally  and  sharply 
trandled,  as  a  mop  Is  trundled,  the  bulb  opens  out  into  a  flattened 
disk. 
Duxinf  the  process  of  mam'pulatlon,  whether  on  the  chair 


or  whilst  the  glass  is  being  reheated,  the  rod  must  be  constantly 
and  gently  trundled  to  prevent  the  collapse  of  the  bulb  or  vessel. 
Every  natural  development  of  the  spherical  form  can  be  obtained 
by  blowing  and  fashioning  by  hand.  A  non-spherical  form  can  only 
be  produced  by  blowing  the  hollow  biilb  into  a  mould  of  the 
required  shape.  Moulds  are  used  both  for  giving  shape  to  vessels 
and  also  for  impressing  patterns  on  their  suface.  Although 
q>herical  forms  can  be  obtained  without  the  use  of  moulds, 
moulds  are  now  largely  used  for  even  the  simplest  kinds  of  table- 
ware in  order  to  economize  time  and  skilled  labour.  In  France, 
Germany  and  the  United  States  it  is  rere  to  find  a  piece  of  table- 
ware wkich  has  not  received  its  shape  in  a  mould.  The  old  and 
the  new  systems  of  making  a  wine-glass  illtistrate  almost  all  the 
ordinary  processes  of  glass  working.  Sufficient  glass  is  first 
"  gathoed  "  on  the  end  of  a  blowing  iron  to  form  the  bowl  of 
the  wine-glass.  The  mere  act  of  coiling  an  exact  weight  of 
molten  glass  round  the  end  of  a  rod  4  ft.  in  length  requires 
considerable  skilL  The  mass  of  glass  is  rolled  on  a  polished 
slab  of  iron,  the  *'  marvor,"  to  solidify  it,  and  it  is  then  slightly 
hollowed  by  blowing.  Under  the  old  system  the  form  of  the  bowl 
is  gradually  developed  by  blowing  and  by  sluq>ing  the  bulb  with 
the  sugar-tongs  tool.  The  leg  is  either  pulled  out  from  the 
substance  of  the  base  of  the  bowl,  or  from  a  small  lump  of  ^ass 
added  to  the  base.  The  foot  starts  as  a  small  independent  bulb 
on  a  separate  blowing  iron.  One  extremity  of  this  bulb  is  made 
to  adhere  to  the  end  of  the  leg,  and  the  other  extremity  is  broken 
away  from  its  blowing  iron.  The  fractured  end  b  heated,  and  by 
the  combined  action  of  heat  and  centrifugal  force  opens  out 
into  a  flat  foot  The  bowl  u  now  severed  from  its  blowing  iron 
and  the  unfinished  wine-glass  is  supported  by  its  foot,  which  is 
attached  to  the  end  of  a  working  rod  by  a  metal  clip  or  by  a  seal 
of  glass.  The  fractured  edge  of  the  bowl  b  heated,  trimmed 
with  scissors  and  melted  so  as  to  be  perfectly  smooth  and  even, 
and  the  bo^  itself  receives  its  final  form  from  the  sugar-tongs 
tool 

Under  the  new  system  the  bowl  b  fashioned  by  blowing  the 
slightly  hollowed  mass  of  glass  into  a  mould.  The  leg  b  formed 
and  a  small  lump  of  molten  glass  b  attached  to  its  extremity 
to  form  the  foot.  The  blowing  iron  b  constantly  trundled,  and 
the  small  lump  of  glass  b  squeezed  and  flattened  into  the  shape 
of  a  foot,  either  between  two  slabs  of  wood  hinged  together, 
or  by  pressure  against  an  upright  board.  The  bowl  b  severed 
from  the  blowing  iron,  and  the  wine-glass  b  sent  to  the  an- 
nealing oven  with  a  bowl,  longer  than  that  of  the  finished  ^ass, 
and  with  a  rough  fractured  edge.  When  the  glass  b  cold  the 
surplus  b  removed  either  by  grinding,  or  by  applying  heat  to  a 
Une  scratched  with  a  dianaond  round  the  bowL  The  fractured 
edge  b  smoothed  by  the  impactof  a  gas  flame. 

In  the  manufacture  of  a  wine>glaas  the  ductility  of  glass  b 
illustrated  on  a  small  scale  by  the  process  of  pulling  out  the  leg. 
It  is  more  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  cane 
and  tube.  Cane  b  produced  from  a  solid  mass  of  molten  gjass, 
tube  from  a  mass  hollowed  by  blowing.  One  workman  holds 
the  blowing  iron  with  the  mass  of  gkss  attached  to  it,  and 
another  fixes  an  iron  rod  by  means  of  a  seal  of  gUss  to  the 
extremity  of  the  mass.  The  two  workmen  face  each  other 
and  walk  backwards.  The  diameter  of  the  cane  or  tube  b 
regulated  by  the  weight  of  s^ass  carried,  and  by  the  dbtance 
covered  by  the  two  woikmen.  It  b  a  curious  property  of  viscous 
glass  that  whatever  form  b  given  to  the  mass  of  ^ass  before  it 
b  drawn  out  b  retained  by  the  finished  cane  or  tube,  however 
small  its  section  may  be.  Owing  to  thb  property,  tubes  or 
canes  can  be  produced  with  a  square,  oblong,  oval  or  triangular 
section.  Exceedingly  fine  canes  of  milk-white  glass  pUy  an 
important  part  in  the  mastexpieces  produced  by  the  Venetian 
^ass-makers  of  the  x6th  century.  Vases  and  drinking  cups 
were  produced  of  extreme  lightness,  in  the  walb  ci  which  were 
embedded  patterns  rivalling  lace-work  in  fineness  and  intricacy. 
The  canes  from  which  the  patterns  are  formed  are  either  simple 
or  complex.  The  latter  are  naade  by  dipping  a  small  mass  of 
molten  colourless  glass  into  an  iron  cup  around  the  inner  wall 
of  which  short  lengths  of  white  cane  have  been  arranged  at 


92 


GLASS 


regular  intervals.  The  canes  adhere  to  the  molten  glass,  and 
the  mass  is  first  twisted  and  then  drawn  out  into  fine  cane, 
which  contains  white  threads  arranged  in  endless  spirals.  The 
process  can  be  almost  indefinitely  repeated  and  canes  formed 
of  extreme  complexity.  A  vase  decorated  with  these  simple 
or  complex  canes  is  produced  by  embedding  short  lengths  of 
the  cane  on  the  surface  of  a  mass  of  molten  glass  and  blowing 
and  fashioning  the  mass  into  the  required  sha^. 

Table-ware  and  vases  may  be  wholly  coloured  or  merely 
decorated  with  colour.  Touches  of  colour  may  be  added  to 
ve^els  in  course  of  manufacture  by  means  of  seals  of  molten 
glass,  applied  like  sealing-wax;  or  by  causing  vessels  to  wrap 
tbenuelves  round  with  threads  or  coils  of  coloured  glass.  By 
the  application  of  a  pointed  iron  hook,  while  the  glass  is  stiU 
ductile,  the  parallel  coils  can  be  distorted  into  bends,  loops  or 
zigzags.  The  surface  of  vessels  may  be  spangled  with  gold  or 
platinum  by  rolling  the  hot  glass  on  metallic  leaf,  or  .iridescent, 
by  the  deposition  of  metallic  tin,  or  by  the  corrosion  caused 
by  the  chemical  action  of  acid  fumes.  Gilding  and  enamel 
decoration  are  applied  to  vessels  when  cold,  and  fixed  by 
heat. 

Cutting  and  engramng  are  mechanical  processes  for  producing 
decorative  effects  by  abrading  the  surface  of  the  glass  when  cold. 
The  abrasion  u  effected  by  pressing  the  glass  against  the  edge 
of  wheels,  or  disks,  of  hard  material  revolving  on  horizontal 
spindles.  The  spindles  of  cutting  wheels  are  (kiven  by  steam 
or  electric  power.  The  wheels  for  making  deep  cuts  are  made 
of  iron,  and  are  fed  with  sand  and  water,  llie  wheeb  range 
in  diameter  from  x8  in.  to  3  in.  Wheels  of  carborundum  are 
also  used.  Wheels  of  fine  sandstone  fed  with  water  are  used 
for  making  slighter  cuts  and  for  smoothing  the  rough  surface 
left  by  the  iron  wheels.  Polishing  is  effected  by  wooden  wheels 
fed  with  wet  pumice-powder  and  rottenstone  and  by  brushes 
fed  with  mobtened  putty-powder.  Patterns  are  produced  by 
combining  straight  and  curved  cuts.  Cutting  brings  out  the 
brilliancy  of  glass,  which  is  one  of  its  intrinsic  qualities.  At 
the  end  of  the  x8th  century  English  cut  ghus  was  unrivalled 
for  design  and  beauty.  Gradually,  however,  the  process  was 
applied  without  restraint  and  the  products  lost  all  artistic 
quality.  At  tlus  present  time  cut  ^ass  is  steadily  regaining 
favour. 

Engraving  is  a  process  of  drawing  on  glass  by  means  of  small 
copper  wheels.  The  wheels  range  from  }  in.  to  2  in.  in  diameter, 
and  are  fed  with  a  mixture  of  fine  emery  and  oiL  The  spindles 
to  which  the  wheels  are  attached  revolve  in  a  lathe  worked  by 
a  foot  treadle.  The  true  use  of  engraving  is  to  add  interest  to 
vessels  by  means  of  coats  of  arms,  crests,  monograms,  inscriptions 
and  graceful  outlines.  The  improper  use  of  engraving  is  to 
hide  defective  materiaL  There  are  two  other  processes  of 
marking  patterns  on  glass,  but  they  possess  no  artistic  value. 
In  the  "  sandblast "  process  the  suriace  of  the  glass  is  exposed 
to  a  stream  of  sharp  sand  driven  by  compressed  air.  The  parts 
of  the  surface  which  are  not  to  be  blasted  are  covered  by  adhesive 
paper.  In  the  "  etching  "  process  the  surface  of  the  glass  is 
etdied  by  the  chemical  action  of  hydrofluoric  add,  the  parts 
which  are  not  to  be  attacked  being  covered  with  a  resinous  paint. 
The  glass  is  first  dipped  in  this  protective  liquid,  and  when  thk 
paint  has  set  the  pattern  is  scratched  through  it  with  a  sharp 
poinL    The  glass  is  then  exposed  to  the  add. 

Glass  steppers  are  fitted  to  bottles  by  grinding.  The  hiouth 
of  the  bottle  is  ground  by  a  revolving  iron  cone,  or  mandrel, 
fed  with  sand  and  water  and  driven  by  steam.  The  head  of  the 
stopper  is  fastened  in  a  chuck  and  the  peg  is  ground  to  the  size 
of  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  by  means  of  sand  and  water  pressed 
against  the  glass  by  bent  strips  of  thin  sheet  iron.  The  mouth 
of  the  bottle  is  then  pressed  by  hand  on  the  peg  of  the  stopper, 
and  the  mouth  and  peg  are  groimd  t<^ther  with  a  medium  of 
very  fine  emery  and  water  nntU  an  air-tight  joint  is  seoired. 

The  revival  in  recent  years  of  the  craft  of  glass-blowing  in 
England  must  be  attributed  to  William  Biorris  and  T.G.  Jackson, 
R.A.  (PI.  II.  figs.  II  and  12).  They,  at  any  rate,  seem  to  have 
been  the  first  to  grasp  the  idea  that  a  wine-glass  is  not  merely 


a  bowl,  a  stem  and  a  foot,  but  that,  whilst  retaining  simplicity 
of  form,  it  may  neverthdess  possess  decorative  effect.  Tliey, 
moreover,  suggested  the  introduction  for  the  manufacture  of 
table-glass  of  a  material  similar  in  texture  to  that  used  by  the 
Venetians,  both  colourless  and  tinted. 

The  colours  previously  available  for  English  table-glass  were 
ruby,  canary-yellow,  emerald-green,  dark  peacock-green,  light 
peacock-blue,  dark  purple-blue  and  a  dark  purple.  About 
1870  the  "  Jackson  "  table-glass  was  made  in  a  Ught,  duU  green 
glass.  The  dull  green  was  followed  successively  by  amber,  white 
opal,  blue  opal,  straw  opal,  sea-green,  horn  a>lour  and  various 
pale  tints  of  soda-lime  glass,  ranging  from  yellow  to  blue.  Ex- 
periments  were  also  tried  with  a  violct-coloured  glass,  a  violet 
opal,  a  transparent  black  and  with  glasses  shading  from  red 
to  blue,  red  to  amber  and  blue  to  green. 

In  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1900  surface  decoration  was  the 
prominent  featture  of  all  the  exhibits  of  table-glass.  The  carved 
or  "  cameo  "  glass,  introduced  by  Thomas  Webb  of  Stourbridge 
in  1878,  had  been  copied  with  varying  success  by  j^ass-makers 
of  all  nations.  In  many  spedmens  there  were  three  or  more 
layers  of  differently  coloured  glass,  and  ciuious  effects  of  blended 
colour  were  obtained  by  cutting  through,  or  partly  through, 
the  different  layers.  The  surface  of  the  glass  had  usually  been 
treated  with  hydrofluoric  add  so  as  to  have  a  satin-like  ^oss. 
Some  vases  of  this  character,  shown  by  Emile  Gall6  and  Daum 
Prfees  of  Nancy,  possessed  considerable  beauty.  The  "  Favrile  " 
glass  of  Louis  C.  Tiffany  of  New  York  (PI.  U.  fig.  13)  owes  its 
effect  entirdy  to  surface  colour  and  lustre.  The  happiest  sped> 
mens  of  this  glass  almost  rival  the  wings  of  butterflies  in  the 
brilliancy  of  their  iridescent  colours.  The  vases  of  Karl  Rocppisg 
of  Berlin  are  so  fantastic  and  so  fragile  that  they  appear  to  be 
creations  of  the  lamp  rather  than  of  the  furnace.  An  illustration 
is  also  given  of  some  of  Powell's  "  Whitefriars  "  glass,  shown  at 
the  St  Louis  Exhibition,  1904  (PI.  II.  fig.  14).  The  spedmens 
of  **  p&te  de  verre  "  exhibited  by  A.  L.  Dammouse,  of  Sevres, 
in  the  Mus£e  des  Arts  d6coratifs  in  Paris,  and  at  the  London 
Franco-British  Exhibition  in  1908,  deserve  attention.  They 
have  a  semi-opaque  body  with  an  "egg-shell"  surface  and  are 
ddicately  tinted  with  colour.  The  shapes  are  exceedingly 
simple,  but  some  of  the  pieces  possess  great  beauty.  The  material 
and  technique  suggest  a  dose  relationship  to  porcdain. 

(B)  Tube. — ^The  process  of  making  tube  has  already  been 
described.  Although  the  bore  of  the  thermometer-tube  is 
exceedingly  small,  it  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  ordinary 
tube.  The  white  line  of  enamel,  which  b  seen  in  some  thermo- 
meters  behind  the  bore,  b  introduced  before  the  mass  of  glass 
b  pulled  out.  A  flattened  cake  of  viscous  glass-enamd  b  welded 
on  to  one  side  of  the  mass  of  glass  after  it  has  been  hollowed  by 
blowing.  The  mass,  with  the  enamd  attached,  b  dipped  into 
the  crudble  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  transparent  ^bss; 
the  whole  mass  b  then  pulled  oUt  into  tube.  If  the  section  of 
the  finished  tube  b  to  be  a  triangle,  with  the  enamd  and  bore 
at  the  base,  the  mdten  mass  b  pressed  into  a  V-shaped  mould 
before  it  b  pulled  out. 

In  modem  thermometry  instruments  of  extreme  accnracy 
are  required,  and  researches  have  been  made,  espedally  in 
Germany  and  France,  to  ascertain  the  causes  of  variability 
in  mercurial  thermometers,  and  how  such  variability  b  to  be 
removed  or  reduced.  In  all  mercurial  thermometers  there 
b  a  slight  depression  of  the  ice-point  after  exposure  to  high 
temperatures;  it  b  also  not  uncommon  to  find  that  the  readings 
of  two  thermometers  between  the  ice-  and  boiling-points 
fail  to  agree  at  any  intermediate  temperature,  although  the 
ice-  and  boilingrpoints  of  both  have  been  determined  together 
with  perfect  accuracy,  and  the  intervening  spaces  have  been 
equally  divided.  It  has  been  proved  that  these  variations 
depend  to  a  great  extent  on  the  chemical  nature  of  the  glass  of 
which  the  thermometer  b  made.  Special  glasses  have  thercf (Nre 
been  produced  by  Tonndot  in  France  and  at  the  Jena  glass- 
works in  Germany  expressly  for  the  manufacture  of  thermomelen 
for  accurate  physical  measurements;  the  analyses  of  these  are 
shown  in  Table  III. 


GLASS 


93 


Tadlb  III. 

p 

SiOk. 

Na^. 

K^. 

CaO. 

AWO.. 

MgO. 

8,0.. 

ZnO. 

Depression 

of 
Ice>  point. 

Toiinelof«"Verredur" 
Jena  gtass — 
XVl.-ui        .       .       . 
59-ui        .       .       . 

7096 

67.5 
72-0 

I3-02 
14-0 

ii*o 

0-56 

•  • 

•  • 

14-40 

70 
50 

1-44 

3.5 
50 

0*40 

•  • 

a 

•  • 

3-0 
13-0 

•  • 

70 

•  • 

0-07 
0*05 

0*03 

Since  the  discovery  of  the  Rdntgen  rays,  experiments  have 
been  made  to  ascertain  the  effects  of  the  different  constituents 
of  glass  on  the  transparency  of  glass  to  X-rays.  The  oxides 
of  lead,  barium,  zinc  and  antimony  are  found  perceptibly  to 
retard  the  rays.  The  glass  tubes,  therefore,  from  which  the 
X-ray  bulbs  are  to  be  fashioned^  must  not  contain  any  of  these 
oxides,  whereas  the  gjass  used  for  making  the  funnel-shaped 
shields,  which  direct  the  rays  upon  the  patient  and  at  the  same 
time  protect  the  hands  of  the  operator  from  the  action  of  the 
rays,  must  contain  a  large  proportion  of  lead. 

Among  the  many  developments  of  the  Jena  Works,  not  the 
least  important  are  the  glasses  made  in  the  form  of  a  tube, 
from  which  gas-chimneys,  gauge-glasses  and  chemical  apparattis 
are  fashioned,  specially  ^apted  to  resist  sudden  changes  of 
temperature.  Oiie  method  is  to  form  the  tube  of  two  layen 
of  gias,  one  being  considerably  more  expansible  than  the  other. 

(C)  Sked  and  Crown-glass. — Sheet-glass  is  almost  wholly 
a  soda-Iime-silicate  glass,  containing  only  small  quantities  of 
iron,  alumina  and  other  impurities.  The  raw  materials  used 
in  this  manufacture  are  chosen  with  considerable  care,  since  the 
requirements  as  to  the  colour  of  the  product  are  somewhat 
ttxincent.  The  materials  ordinarily  employed  are  the  following: 
sand,  of  good  quality,  uniform  in  grain  and  free  from  any 
DocaUe  quantity  of  iron  oxide;  carbonate  of  lime,  generally 
in  the  form  of  a  pure  variety  of  powdered  limestone;  and 
solphate  of  soda.  A  certain  proportion  of  soda  ash  (carbonate 
of  soda)  is  also  used  in  some  works  in  sheet-glass  mixtures,  while 
"  decolotiseis  "  (substances  intended  to  remove  or  reduce  the 
colour  of  the  ^bss)  are  also  sometimes  added,  those  most  generally 
used  being  manganese  dioxide  and  arsenic.  Another  essentiid 
ingredient  of  all  gjass  mixtures  containing  sulphate  of  soda 
is  some  form  of  carbon,  which  is  added  either  as  coke,  charcoal 
or  anthracite  coal;  the  carbon  so  introduced  aids  the  reducing 
substances  contained  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  furnace  in  bringing 
about  the  reduction  of  the  sulphate  of  soda  to  a  condition  in 
vfaidft  it  combines  more  readily  wjth  the  silicic  add  of  the  sand. 
The  proportioQs  in  which  these  ingredients  are  mixed  vary 
according  to  the  exact  quality  of  glus  required  and  with  the 
form  and  temperature  of  the  melting  furnace  employed.  A 
good  quality  of  sheet-glais  should  show,  on  analysis,  a  compou- 
tioo  approximating  to  the  following:  silica  (SiO^,  73%; 
lime  (CaO),  13%;  soda  (Na«0),  14%;  and  iron  and  alumina 
(FesOb,AI/>i),  1%.  The  actual  composition,  however,  of  a 
mixture  that  will  give  a  g^ass  of  this  composition  cannot  be 
directly  calculated  from  these  figures  and  the  known  composition 
of  tbe  raw  materials,  owing  to  the  fact  that  considerable  losses, 
particulariy  of  alkali,  occur  during  melting. 

The  fu^OD  of  sheet-glass  is  now  genenlly  carried  out  in 
ftt-fired  regenerative  tank  fymaoes.  The  g^ass  in  process 
of  fusion  is  contained  in  a  basin  or  tank  built  up  of  large  blocks 
of  fire-day  and  is  heated  by  one  or  more  powerful  gas  flames 
which  enter  the  upper  part  of  the  furnace  chamber  through 
suitable  ^>ertures  or  "  ports."  In  Europe  the  gas  burnt  in 
ibcse  fiimaoes  is  derived  from  special  gas-producers,  while  in 
some  parts  ol  ^nerica  natural  gas  is  utilized.  With  producer 
gu  it  is  necessary  to  pre-heat  both  the  gas  and  the  air  which 
is  supplied  for  its  combiution  by  passing  both  through  heated 
regenerators  (for  an  account  of  the  principles  of  the  regenerative 
famaoe  see  article  Ftjknace).  In  many  respects  the  glass- 
Bwltiiig  tank  resembles  the  open-hearth  steel  furnace,  but  there 
are  certain  interesting  differences.  Thus  the  dimensions  of  the 
largest  glssi  tanks  greatly  exceed  those  of  the  largest  steel 
laraaces:  glan  furnaces  containing  up  to  350  tons  of  molten 


gUss  have  been  successfully  oper> 
atcd,  and  owing  to  the  relatively 
low  density  of  glass  this  involves 
very  large  dimensions.  The  tem- 
perature required  in  the  fusion  of 
sheet-glass  and  of  other  glasses 
produced  in  tank  furnaces  is  much 
lower  than  that  attained  in  steel 
furnaces,  and  it  is  consequently  pos- 
sible to  work  glass-tanks  continuously  for  many  months  together; 
on  the  other  hand,  glass  is  not  readily  freed  from  fordgn  bodicar 
that  may  become  admixed  with  it,  so  that  the  absence  of  detach- 
able particles  is  much  more  essential  in  glass  than  in  sted  melting. 
Finally,  fluid  sted  can  be  run  or  poured  off,  since  it  is  perfectly 
fluid,  while  glass  cannot  be  thus  treated,  but  is  withdrawn  from 
the  furnace  by  means  of  either  a  ladle  or  a  gatherer's  pipe, 
and  the  temperature  required  for  this  purpose  is  much  lower  tluin 
that  at  which  the  glass  is  mdted.  In  a  sheetrglass  tank  there  > 
is  therefore  a  gradient  of  temperature  and  a  continuous  passage 
of  material  from  the  hotter  end  of  the  furnace  where  the  raw 
materiab  are  introduced  to  the  cooler  end  where  the  gbss, 
free  from  bubbles  and  raw  material,  is  withdrawn  by  the: 
gatherers.  For  the  purpose  of  the  removal  of  the  glass,  the 
cooler  end  of  the  furnace  is  provided  with  a  number  of  suitable 
openings,  provided  with  movable  covers  or  shades.  The 
"gatherer"  approaches  one  of  these  openings,  removes  the 
shade  and  introduces  his  previously  heated  "pipe."  Ttu% 
instrument  is  an  iron  tube,  some  5  ft.  long,  provided  at  one  end 
with  an  enlarged  butt  and  at  the  other  with  a  wooden  covering, 
acting  as  handle  and  mouthpiece.  The  gatherer  dips  the  butt 
of  the  pipe  into  the  molten  *'  metal "  and  withdraws  upon  it  a 
small  ball  of  viscous  g^ass,  which  he  allows  to  cool  in  the  air 
while  constantly  rotating  it  so  as  to  keep  the  mass  as  neariy 
spherical  in  shape  as  he  can.  When  the  first  ball  or  '*  gathering  ""' 
has  cooled  suffidently,  the  whole  is  again  dipped  into  the  molten 
glass  and  a  further  layer  adheres  to  the  pipe-end,  thus  forming 
a  hirger  ball.  This  process  is  repeated,  with  di^t  modifications,, 
until  the  gathering  is  of  the  proper  size  and  weight  to  yidd  the 
sheet  which  is  to  be  blown.  When  this  is  the  case  the  gathering 
is  carried  to  a  block  or  half-open  mould  in  which  it  is  rolled 
and  blown  tmtil  it  acquires,  roujghly,  the  shape  of  a  hemisphere, 
the  flat  side  being  towards  the  pipe  and  the  convexity  away 
from  it;  the  diameter  of  this  hemisphere  is  so  regulated  as  to 
be  approximately  that  of  the  cylinder  which  is  next  to  be  formed 
of  the  viscous  mass.  From  the  hemispherical  shape  the  mass 
of  g^ass  is  now  gradually  blown  into  the  form  of  a  short  cylinder, 
and  then  the  pipe  with  the  adherent  mass  of  gUss  is  handed 
over  to  the  blower  proper.  This  workman  stands  upon  a  idatf orm 
in  front  of  spedal  furnaces  which,  from  their  shape  and  purpose, 
are  called  "blowing  holes."  The  blower  repeatedly  heats 
the  lower  part  of  the  mass  of  glass  and  keeps  it  distended  by 
blowing  while  he  swings  it  over  a  deep  trench  which  is  provided 
next  to  his  working  platform.  In  this  way  the  glass  is  extended 
into  the  form  of  a  long  cylinder  dosed  at  the  lower  end.  The 
size  of  cylinder  which  can  be  produced  in  this  way  depends 
chiefly  upon  the  dimensions  of  the  working  platform  and  the 
weight  which  a  man  is  able  to  handle  freely.  The  lower  end  of 
the  cylinder  is  opened,  in  the  case  of  small  and  thin  cylinders, 
by  the  blower  holding  his  thumb  over  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
pipe  and  simultaneously  warming  the  end  of  the  cylinder  in  the 
furnace,  the  expansion  of  the  imprisoned  air  and  the  softening 
of  the  glass  causing  the  end  of  the  cylinder  to  burst  open.  The 
blower  then  heats  the  end  of  the  cylinder  again  and  rapidly 
spins  the  pipe  about  its  axis;  the  centrifugal  effect  is  sufficient 
to  spread  the  soft  glass  at  the  end  to  a  radius  equal  to  that  of  the 
rest  of  the  cylinder.  In  the  case  of  large  and  thick  cylinders, 
however,  another  process  of  opening  the  ends  is  generally 
employed:  an  assistant  attaches  a  small  lump  of  hot  glass  to  the 
domed  end,  and  the  heat  of  this  added  glass  softens  the  cylinder 
suffidently  to  enable  the  assistant  to  cut  the  end  open  with  a 
pair  of  shears;  subsequently  the  open  end  is  spun  out  to  the 
diameter  of  the  whole  as  described  above.    The  finished  cylinder 


9+ 


GLASS 


is  next  carried  to  a  rack  and  the  pipe  detached  from  it  by  applying 
a  cold  iron  to  the  neck  of  thick  hot  glass  which  connects  pipe-butt 
and  cylinder,  the  neck  cracking  at  the  touch.  Next,  the  rest 
of  the  connecting  neck  is  detached  from  the  cylinder  by  the 
application  of  a  heated  iron  to  the  chilled  ^ass.  This  leaves  a 
cylinder  with  roughly  parallel  ends;  these  ends  are  cut  by  the 
use  oi  a  diamond  applied  internally  and  then  the  cylinder  is 
$plit  lon^tudinally  by  the  same  means.  The  split  cylinder  is 
passed  to  the  flattem'ng  furnace,  where  it  is  exposed  to  a  red  heat, 
sufficient  to  soften  the  glass;  when  soft  the  cylinder  is  laid  upon 
a  smooth  flat  slab  and  flattened  down  upon  it  by  the  careful 
application  of  pressure  with  some  form  of  rubbing  implement, 
wldch  frequently  takes  the  form  of  a  block  of  charred  wood. 
When  flattened,  the  sheet  is  moved  away  from  the  working 
opening  of  the  furnace,  and  pushed  to  a  system  of  movable 
grids,  by  means  of  which  it  is  slowly  moved  along  a  tunnel, 
away  from  a  source  of  heat  nearly  equal  in  temperature  to  that 
of  the  flattening  chamber.  The  glass  thus  cools  gradually  as  it 
passes  down  the  tunnel  and  is  thereby  adequately  annealed. 

The  process  of  sheet-glass  manufacture  described  above  is 
typical  of  that  in  use  in  a  large  number  of  works,  but  many 
modifications  are  to  be  found,  particularly  in  the  furnaces  in 
which  the  glass  is  melted.  In  some  works,  the  older  method 
of  melting  the  glass  in  large  pots  or  crucibles  is  still  adhered  to, 
although  the  old-fashioned  coal-fired  furnaces  have  nearly 
everywhere  given  place  to  the  use  of  producer  gas  and  re- 
generators. For  the  production  of  coloured  sheet-glass,  however, 
the  employment  of  pot  furnaces  is  still  almost  universal,  prob- 
ably because  the  quantities  of  glass  required  of  any  one  tint 
are  insufficient  to  employ  even  a  small  tank  furnace  continuously; 
the  exact  control  of  the  colour  is  also  more  readily  attained  with 
the  smaller  bulk  of  glass  which  has  to  be  dealt  with  in  pots.  The 
general  nature  of  the  colouring  ingredients  employed,  and  the 
colour  effects  produced  by  them,  have  ^already  been  mentioned. 
In  coloured  sheet-glass,  two  distinct  kinds  are  to  be  recognized; 
in  one  kind  the  colouring  matter  is  contained  in  the  body  of  the 
glass  itself,  while  in  the  other  the  coloured  sheet  consists  of 
ordinary  white  glass  covered  upon  one  side  with  a  thin  coating  of 
intensely  coloured  glass.  The  latter  kind  is  known  as  "  flashtti," 
and  is  universally  employed  in  the  case  of  colouring  matters 
whose  effect  is  so  intense  that  in  any  usual  thickness  of  glass 
they  would  cause  almost  entire  opacity.  Flashed  glass  is 
produced  by  taking  either  the  first  or  the  last  gathering  in  the 
production  of  a  cylinder  out  of  a  crucible  containing  the  coloured 
"metal,"  the  other  gatherings  being  taken  out  of  ordinary 
white  sheet-glasSb  It  is  important  that  the  thermal  expansion 
of  the  two  materials  which  are  thus  incorporated  should  be 
nearly  alike,  as  otherwise  warping  of  the  finished  sheet  is  liable 
to  result. 

Mechanical  Processes  for  Ihe  Produdion  of  Sheei-gfass.— The 
complicated  and  indirect  process  of  sheet-glass  manufacture 
had  led  to  numerous  inventions  aiming  at  a  direct  method  of 
production  by  more  or  less  mfchaniral  means%  All  the  earlier 
attempts  in  this  direction  failed  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
bringing  the  glass  to  the  machines  without  introducing  air-beUs, 
which  are  always  formed  in  molten  glass  when  it  is  ladled  or 
poured  from  one  vessel  into  another.  More  modem  inventors 
have  therefore  adopted  the  plan  of  drawing  the  glass  direct  from 
the  furnace.  In  an  American  process  the  glass  is  drawn  direct 
from  the  molten  mass  in  the  tank  in  a  cylindrical  form  by  means 
of  an  iron  ring  previously  immersed  in  the  glass,  and  is  kept 
in  shape  by  means  of  spedal  devices  for  cooling  it  rapidly  as  it 
leaves  the  molten  bath.  In  this  process,  however,  the  entire 
operations  ol  splitting  and  flattening  are  retained,  and  although 
the  mechanical  process  is  said  to  be  in  successful  commercial 
operation,  it  has  not  as  yet  made  itself  felt  as  a  formidable  rival 
to  hand-made  sheet-glass.  An  effort  at  a  more  direct  mechanical 
process  is  embodied  in  the  inventions  of  Foucault  which  are  at 
present  being  developed  in  Germany  and  Belgium;  in  this 
process  the  glass  is  drawn  from  the  molten  bath  in  the  shape  of 
flat  sheets,  by  the  aid  of  a  bar  of  iron,  previously  immersed  in  the 
^ass,  the  glass  receiving  its  form  by  being  drawn  through  slots 


iq  large  fire-bricks,  and  being  kept  In  shape  by  rapid  diiUing 
produced  by  the  action  of  air-blasts.  The  mechanical  operation 
is  quite  successful  for  thick  sheets^  but  it  is  not  as  yet  available 
for  the  thinner  sheets  required  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of 
sheet-^ass,  since  with  these  excessive  breakage  occurs,  while 
the  sheets  generally  show  grooves  or  Unes  derived  from  small 
irregularities  of  the  drawing  orifice.  For  the  production  of  thick 
sheets  which  are  subsequently  to  be  polished  the  process  may 
thus  claim  considerable  success,  but  it  is  not  as  yet  po^ible 
to  produce  satisfactory  sheet-j^ass  by  such  means. 

Crown-glass  has  at  the  present  day  almost  dis^peared  from 
the  market,  and  it  has  been  superseded  by  sheet-^ass,  the  more 
modem  processes  described  above  being  capaUe  of  producing 
much  larger  sheets  of  glass,  free  from  the  knob  or  "  bullion  '* 
which  n^y  still  be  seen  in  old  crown-glass  windows.  For  a 
few  isolated  purposes,  however,  it  is  desirable  to  use  a  0aas 
which  has  not  been  touched  upon  either  surface  and  thus  pre- 
serves the  lustre  of  its  "fire  polish"  undiminished;  this  can 
be  attained  in  crown-glass  but  not  in  sheet,  since  one  sde  of 
the  latter  is  always  more  or  less  marked  by  the  robber  used 
in  the  process  of  flattening.  One  of  the  few  uses  of  crown-^lass 
of  this  kind  is  the  glass  slides  upon  which  microscopic  specimens 
are  mounted,  as  well  as  the  thin  g^ass  slips  with  whidi  sudi 
preparations  are  covered.  A  full  account  of  the  process  of 
blowing  crown-glass  vrill  be  found  in  all  older  books  and  aztides 
on  the  subject,  so  that  it  need  only  be  mentioned  here  that  the 
g^ass,  inst«ul  of  being  blown  into  a  cylinder,  is  blown  into  a 
flattened  sphere,  which  is  caused  to  burst  at  the  point  opposite 
the  pipe  and  is  then,  by  the  rapid  q>inning  of  the  g^bus  in  front 
of  a  very  hot  furnace-opening,  caused  to  esqumd  into  a  flat  disk 
of  large  diameter.  This  only  requires  to  be  annealed  and  is  then 
ready  for  cutting  up,  but  the  limip  of  glass  by  whidi  the  original 
globe  was  attached  to  the  pipe  remains  as  the  bullion  in  the  centre 
of  the  disk  of  ^ass. 

Coloured  GlassforMosaic  Windows,— -Tht  production  of  coloured 
glass  for  "mosaic"  windows  has  become  a  separate  branch 
of  G^aas-making.  Charies  Winston,  after  prdonged  study 
of  the  coloured  windows  of  the  xjth,  X4th  and  15th  centuries, 
convinced  himself  that  no  i^proach  to  the  colour  effect  of  time 
windows  could  be  made  with  g^bus  which  is  thin  and  even  in 
section,  homogeneous  in  texture,  and  made  and  oolouxed  with 
highly  refined  materials.  To  obtain  the  effect  it  was  neceauxy 
to  reproduce  as  far  as  possible  the  conditions  under  which  the 
early  craftsmen  worked,  and  to  create  sdentifically  glass  which 
is  impure  in  cdour,  irregular  in  section,  and  non-homogeneous 
in  texture.  The  glass  b  made  m  c^inders  and  in  "  crowns  "  or 
drdes.  The  cylinders  measure  about  14  in.  in  length  by  8  in. 
in  diameter,  and  vary  in  thickm^  from  |  to  |  in.  The  crowns 
are  about  15  in.  in  diameter,  and  vary  in  thidtivHis  from  i  to  4  in.* 
the  centre  being  the  thickest,  llieae  cylindeiB  and  crowns 
may  be  dther  solid  colour  or  flashed.  Great  variety  of  colour 
may  be  obtained  by  flashing  one  colour  upon  another,  sucfa  as 
blue  on  green,  and  raby  on  blue,  green  or  ydlow. 

E.  J.  Prior  has  introduced  an  ingenious  method  of  wV^wg 
small  oblong  and  square  sheets  of  coloured  g^bus,  which  are  thick 
in  the  centre  and  taper  towards  the  edges,  and  which  have  one 
surface  slightly  roughened  and  one  brilliantly  polished.  Glass  is 
blown  into  an  oblong  box-shaped  iron  mould,  about  z  a  in.  in  depth 
and  6  in.  across.  A  hollow  rectangular  bottle  is  formed,  the  base 
and  sides  of  which  are  converted  into  sheets.  The  outer  surface 
of  these  sheets  is  slightly  roughened  by  contact  with  the  iron 
mould. 

(D)  Bottles  and  meckonicatty  blown  Glcss. — ^The  manufacture 
of  bottles  has  become  an  industry  of  vast  proportions.  The 
demand  constantly  increases,  and,  owing  to  constant  improve- 
ments in  material  in  the  moulds  and  in  the  methods  of  working, 
the  supply  fully  keeps  pace  with  the  demand.  Excqpt  for 
making  bottles  of  special  colours,  gas-heated  tank  furnaces  are 
in  general  use.  Mdting  and  working  are  carried  on  continuously. 
The  essential  qualities  of  a  bottle  are  strength  and  power  to  resist 
chemical  corrosion.  The  materials  are  selected  with  a  view  to 
secure  these  qualities.    For  the  highest  quality  of  bottles,  which 


*r«  pnctiaStf  cotourieB,  lud,  limsloiie  and  sulphate  and 
cutsnate  of  aoda  *R  UKd.  The  feUowinf  ii  ■  typical  anaiysii 
of  hi(fa  qiuiily  botlk-flaa:  SiO,,  «9'is%:  X>A  i]'«%: 
CaO,  is-09%;  AliOj,  !■»%;  and  FeA,  0-65%.  For  lh« 
anuDaCBr  fraJdc*  of  daik-coloured  bottles  the  sLkM  mixture 
a  chciixntd  by  wlstltutiDg  commDn  lalt  for  pan 


of  Kit*,  ud  br  tlw  addition    ol    fcl^iar,  gianit 


B<HlleiD«iidii  .         ,       „ 

loceiber  at  the  base  or  at  one  aide,  or  in  thzeo  pieces,  one 
Jonninc  the  body  and  two  piectf  forming  Ibc  neck. 
A  bottle  ttuf  or  "tbop"  ci>n*i>I>  of  6n  pcnoin,      Tfae 

of  the  blo*llic-lraD,  lolla  it  on  a  slab  of  imn  or  itone.  sliglilly 
«|Hixls  Ibc  llan  by  blowinf,  and  banda  the  blowing  iron  and 
(tas  to  the  "blown."  Tie  blowci  plaeex  the  glass  in  the  mould, 
clnea  the  mould  by  praiing  a  lever  with  his  foot,  and  eithec 
biowi  ik>wn  the  Mowing  iron  or  altaches  it  to  a  tube  connected 
with  ■  nqiply  of  compressed  air.  When  the  air  baa  forced  the 
^  glass  Co  take  the  form  of  the  mould,  the 

Dould  is  opened  and  the  Uowei  gives  the 
blowiDg  iron  with  the  bottk  attached  to 


toadies  Ibe  lop  of  the  neck  of  Ibe  bottle 
with  ■  moistened  piece  of  iron  and  by 
lapping  the  blowing  iron  detaches  the 
bottle  and  drops  it  into  a  wooden  trough. 
He  then  grips  the  body  ol  the  bottle  with 
a  four-pronged  clip,  attached  to  an  iron 
nd,  and  passes  it  to  the  "  bottle  maker." 
The  bottle  maker  huts  the  fractured  neck 
of  the  bottle,  binds  *  band  of  molten  gliss 
round  tbe  tod  ol  ii  and  simultaneously 
shape*  the  inside  and  the  outside  of  the 
neck  by  using  the  too!  shown  in  fig.  18. 


.    Tliel 


tbe  The  processes  of  manipulation  which  have 
been  described,  although  in  pnclice  they 
n  very  rapidly  performed,  ate  destined 
o  be  replaced  by  the  automatic  working 

^     „  jf  a  machine.     Bottle-making    machines, 

"rtl^tj*  based    on    Ashley's    original  ^t. 


akeady  being  largely  used.    They  ei 


e   and   labour. 


^  bottle-making  machine  combines  the 
mat  with  a  plunger  with  that  of  blowing  by 
.  The  neck  of  the  bottle  is  first  formed  by  the 
pluDgFf,  and  the  body  is  subsequently  blown  by  compressed  air 
sdmjtled  through  the  plunger.  A  sufficient  weight  of  molten 
flasa  ro  form  s  bottle  is  gathered  and  placed  in  a  funnel-shaped 
vewd  which  aecves  as  a  measure,  and  gives  access  id  the  mould 
which  ahapcB  Ibe  outside  i^  Ibe  Deck.  A  plunger  is  forced 
Mtiwmfa  into  tbe  )^»  in  the  neck-mould  and  loims  the  neck. 
TI1C  fimBcl  B  removed,  and  tbe  plunger,  neck-mould  and  the 
■Baa  ol  moltoi  glass  attached  to  the  neck  are  inverted.  A  bottle 
mould  files  and  envelops  the  mass  of  molten  glass.  Com- 
preiaed  air  admitted  through  the  plunger  forces  Che  molten  glass 
10  take  tbe  form  of  tbe  bottle  mould  and  completes  the  bottle. 

In  ibc  CUE  of  the  machine  patented  by  Michael  Owens  o! 
ToMo.  U.S.A-.  for  ruking  tumhlen,  lamp-chimneys,  and  other 
goods  of  sinilu  duracier,  the  manual  operations  requiied  are 
(1)  iMhaiag  tbe  Biollea  glass  at  the  end  of  a  blowing  iron; 
|i)  iditiiW  Ibe  blowiog  iron  with  Ibe  glass  attached  to  it  in  the 
■BddDc;  0)  lOBOvIng  tbe  blowing  iron  with  the  blown  vessel 
•lUcbed.  Each  marhlne  (fig.  19)  consists  of  a  revolving  table 
dnrint  fine  er  ii>  moulds.  The  moulds  are  opened  and  closed 
br  cams  actuled  by  conpRSsed  air.  As  soon  sa  a  blowing 
with  an  air  jec,  tbe  sections  of  the  mould 


nollen  glass,  and  Ihe  1 


95 


ifter  removal  from  UK 


gUs9  lo  tdte  Che 
machine,  Ihe  tun 
its  fractured  edge 

Compressed  air  or  steam  is  also  used  fttr  fashioning  very  large 

Molten  glass  is  spread  upon  a  large  iron  plate  of  the  required 
shape  and  dimensions.  The  Battened  mass  of  glass  is  held  by 
a  rim,  connected  to  Ibe  edge  of  tbe  plate.  Theplate  witbchcglass 

duced  through  openings  in  the  plate.  The  mass  of  glass,  yielding 
to  its  own  weight  and  tbe  pnnure  of  air  or  stean,  sinks  down- 
wards and  adapts  llself  to  any  mould  or  receptacle  beneath  it. 

The  processes  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  Ibe  glast 
bulbs  for  incandescent  ekcCric  lamps,  are  similar  to  the  old' 


,.d  logeiheri  il  is  betted  and  tbe  ir 
^r  with  finely  powdered  plumbago.  When  Ihe  glass 
vm  in  the  mould  Ibe  blowing  iron  is  twisted  round  and 
lat  the  finished  bulb  may  not  b«  marked  by  Ibe  joint 


111.  Mechanically 
lass  popularly  known  I 
oiling.    Tbe  following 


BESSED  Glass.  (A)  /Vole-(f«i.— Tbe 
"  plate.gbss  "  is  made  by  casting  and 
re  typical  analyses: 


s;o,. 

c=o. 

N./). 

Atrf),.       Fe,0^ 

E^^iiih : 

7^-64 

\m 

''<■« 

Lt   VA 

iterials  for  Ibe  production  of  plste-glsss  are  chosen 
re  so  as  to  secure  a  product  as  free  from  colour 
ince  Che  relatively  great  thickness  of  tfae  tbecis 


96 


GLASS 


would  render  even  a  faint  tint  conspicuous.  The  substances 
employed  are  the  same  as  those  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  sheet-glass,  viz.  pure  sand,  a  pure  form  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  sulphate  of  soda,  with  the  addition  of  a  suitable  proportion 
of  carbon  in  the  form  of  coke,  charcoal  or  anthracite  coaL 

The  glass  to  be  used  for  the  production  of  plate  is  universally 
melted  in  pots  or  crucibles  and  not  in  open  tank  furnaces. 
When  the  glass  is  completely  melted  and  **  fine,"  ix.  free  from 
bubbles,  it  is  allowed  to  cool  down  to  a  certain  extent  so  as 
to  become  viscous  or  pasty.  The  whole  pot,  with  its  contents 
of  viscoiis  glass,  is  then  removed  bodily  from  the  furnace  by 
means  of  huge  tongs  and  is  transported  to  a  crane,  which  grips 
the  pot,  raises  it,  and  ultimately  tips  it  over  so  as  to  pour  the 
glass  upon  the  slab  of  the  rolling-table.  In  most  modem  works 
the  greater  part  of  these  operations,  as  well  as  the  actual  rolling 
of  the  glass,  is  carried  out  by  mechanical  means,  steam  power 
and  subsequently  electrical  power  having  been  successfully 
applied  to  this  purpose;  the  handling  of  ^e  great  weights  of 
glass  required  for  the  largest  sheets  of  plate-glass  which  are 
produced  at  the  present  time  would,  indeed,  be  impossible 
without  the  aid  of  machinery.  The  casting-table  usually  con- 
sists of  a  perfectly  smooth  cast-iron  slab,  frequently  built  up 
of  a  number  of  pieces  carefully  fitted  together,  mounted  upon 
a  low,  massive  truck  nmning  upon  rails,  so  that  it  can  be  readily 
moved  to  any  desired  position  in  the  casting-room.  The  viscous 
mass  having  been  thrown  on  the  casting-table,  a  large  and 
heavy  roller  passes  over  it  and  spreads  it  out  into  a  sheet. 
Rollers  up  to  5  tons  in  weight  are  employed  and  are  now 
generally  driven  by  power.  The  width  of  the  sheet  or  plate 
is  regulated  by  moving  guides  which  are  placed  in  front  of 
the  roller  and  are  pushed  along  by  it,  while  its  thickness 
is  regulated  by  raising  or  lowering  the  roller  relatively  to 
the  surface  of  the  table.  Since  the  surfaces  produced  by 
rolling  have  subsequently  to  be  grotmd  and  polished,  it  is 
essential  that  the  glass  should  leave  the  rolling-table  with  as 
smooth  a-  surface  as  possible,  so  that  great  care  is  required  in 
this  part  of  the  process.  It  is,  however,  equally  important 
that  the  glass  as  a  whole  should  be  flat  and  remains  flat  during 
the  process  of  gradual  cooling  (annealing),  otherwise  great 
thicknesses  of  glass  would  have  to  be  grotmd  away  at  the  pro- 
jecting parts  of  the  sheet.  The  annealing  process  is  therefore 
carried  out  in  a  manner  differing  essentially  from  that  in  use 
for  any  other  variety  of  flat  gla^  and  nearly  resembling  that 
used  for  optical  glass.  The  rolled  sheet  is  left  on  the  casting- 
table  until  it  has  set  sufficiently  to  be  pushed  over  a  flat  iron 
plate  without  risk  of  distortion;  meanwhile  the  table  has  been 
placed  in  front  of  the  opening  of  one  of  the  large  annealing 
kilns  and  the  slab  of  glass  is  carefully  pushed  into  the  kiln.  The 
annealing  kilns  are  large  fire-brick  chambers  of  smaU  height 
but  with  sufficient  floor  area  to  accommodate  four  or  six  large 
slabs,  and  the  slabs  are  placed  directly  upon  the  floor  of  the 
kiln,  which  is  built  up  of  carefully  dressed  blocks  of  burnt  fire- 
clay resting  upon  a  bed  of  sand;  in  order  to  avoid  any  risk  of 
working  or  buckling  in  this  floor  these  blocks  arc  set  slightly 
apart  and  thus  have  room  to  expand  freely  when  heated.  Before 
the  glass  is  introduced,  the  annealing  kiln  is  heated  to  dull  red 
by  means  of  coal  fires  in  grates  which  are  provided  at  the  ends 
or  sides  of  the  kiln  for  that  purpose.  When  the  floor  of  the  kiln 
has  been  covered  with  slabs  of  glass  the  opening  is  carefully 
built  up  and  luted  with  fire-bricks  and  fire-clay,  and  the  whole 
is  then  allowed  to  cool.  In  the  walls  and  floor  of  the  kiln  special 
cooling  channels  or  air  passages  are  provided  and  by  gradually 
opening  these  to  atmospheric  circulation  the  cooling  ]&  con- 
siderably accelerated  while  a  very  even  distribution  of  tempera- 
ture is  obtained;  by  these  means  even  the  largest  slabs  can  now 
be  cooled  in  three  or  four  days  and  are  nevertheless  sufficiently 
well  annealed  to  be  free  from  any  serious  internal  stress.  From 
the  annealing  kiln  the  slabs  of  ^ass  are  transported  to  the 
cutting  room,  where  they  are  cut  square,  defective  slabs  being 
rejected  or  cut  down  to  smaller  sizes.  The  glass  at  this  stage 
has  a  comparatively  dull  surface  and  this  must  now  be  replaced 
by  that  brilliant  and  perfectly  polished  surface  which  is  the  chief 


beauty  of  this  variety  of  glass.  The  first  step  in  this  process  is 
that  of  grinding  the  surface  down  until  all  projections  are 
removed  and  a  cImc  approximation  to  a  perfect  plane  is  obtained. 
This  operation,  like  all  the  subsequent  steps  in  the  polishing 
of  the  glass,  is  carried  out  by  powerful  madiinery.  By  means 
of  a  rotating  table  either  two  surfaces  of  glass,  or  one  surface 
of  glass  and  one  of  cast  iron,  are  rubbed  together  with  the  inter- 
position of  a  powerful  abrasive  such  as  sand,  emery  or  carbor- 
undum. The  machinery  by  which  this  is  done  has  undergone 
numerous  modifications  and  improvements,  all  tending  to  pro^ 
duce  more  perfectly  plane  ^ass,  to  reduce  the  risk  of  breakage, 
and  to  lessen  the  expenditure  of  time  and  power  required  per 
sq.  yd.  of  gjass  to  be  worked.  It  is  impossible  to  describe 
this  machinery  within  the  limits  of  this  article,  but  it  is  notable 
that  the  principal  difficulties  to  be  overcome  arise  from  the 
necessity  of  providing  the  ^ass  with  a  perfectly  continuous 
and  imyielding  support  to  which  it  can  be  firmly  attached  but 
from  which  it  can  be  detached  without  undue  difficulty. 

When  the  surface  of  the  glass  has  been  ground  down  to  a  plane, 
the  surface  itself  is  still "  grey,"  ix.  deeply  pitted  with  the  marks 
of  the  abrasive  used  in  grinding  it  down;  these  nurks  are  re- 
moved by  the  ixocess  of  smoothing,  in  which  the  surface  is 
successively  ground  with  abrasives  of  gradually  increasing  fine- 
ness, leaving  ultimately  a  very  smooth  and  very  minutely  pitted 
"  grey  "  surface.  This  smooth  surface  is  then  brilliantly  polished 
by  the  aid  of  friction  with  a  rubbing  tool  covered  wiUi  a  soft 
substance  like  leather  or  felt  and  fed  with  a  polishing  material, 
such  as  rouge.  A  few  strokes  of  such  a  rubber  are  sufficient  to 
produce  a  decidedly  **  polished  "  ^>pearance,  but  prolonged 
rubbing  under  considerate  pressure  and  the  use  of  a  polishLig 
paste  of  a  proper  consistency  are  required  in  order  to  remove  the 
last  trace  of  pitting  from  the  surface.  This  entbe  process  must, 
obviously,  be  applied  in  turn  to  each  of  the  two  surfaces  of  the 
slab  of  glass.  Plate-glass  is  manufactured  in  this  manner  in 
thicknesses  varying  from  iV  iU'  to  i  in.  or  even  more,  while 
single  sheets  are  produced  measuring  more  than  37  ft.  by  13  ft. 

"  RoUed  Plate  "  and  fig^^  "  Rf^itd  PAk/«."— Class  for  this 
purpose,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  the  best  white  and 
tinted  varieties,  is  now  universally  produced  in  tank-furnaces, 
similar  in  a  general  way  to  those  used  for  sheet-^aas,  except  that 
the  furnaces  used  for  "  rolled  plate  "  glass  of  the  rougjiest  kinds 
do  not  need  such  minutely  careful  attention  and  do  not  work  at 
so  high  a  temperature.  The  composition  of  these  glasses  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  sheet-glass,  but  for  the  ordinary  kinds  of  rolled 
plate  much  less  scrupulous  selection  need  be  made  in  the  choice 
of  raw  materials,  especially  of  the  sand. 

The  glass  is  taken  from  the  furnace  in  large  iron  ladles,  which 
are  carried  upon  slings  nmning  on  overhead  rails;  from  the 
Udle  the  glass  is  thrown  upon  the  cast-iron  bed  of  a  rolling-table, 
and  is  rolled  into  sheet  by  an  iron  roller,  the  process  being 
similar  to  that  employed  in  making  plate-glass,  but  on  a  smaller 
scale.  The  sheet  thus  rolled  is  roughly  trimmed  while  hot  and 
soft,  so  as  to  remove  those  portions  of  glass  which  have  been 
spoilt  by  immediate  contact  with  the  ladle,  and  the  sheet,  still 
soft,  is  pushed  into  the  open  mouth  of  an  annealing  tunnel  or 
"  lear,"  down  which  it  is  carried  by  a  system  of  moving  grids. 

The  surface  of  the  glass  produced  in  this  way  may  be  nxKiified 
by  altering  the  surface  of  the  rolling-table;  if  the  table  has  a 
smooth  surface,  the  glass  will  also  be  more  or  less  smooth,  but 
much  dented  and  buckled  on  the  surface  and  far  from  having  the 
smooth  face  of  blown  sheet.  If  the  table  has  a  pattern  engraved 
upon  it  the  glass  will  show  the  same  pattern  in  relief,  the  most 
frequent  pattern  of  the  kind  being  either  small  parallel  ridges  or 
larger  ribs  crossing  to  form  a  lozenge  pattern. 

The  more  elaborate  patterns  foimd  <m  what  b  known  as 
"  figure  rolled  plate "  are  produced  in  a  somewhat  different 
manner;  the  glass  used  for  this  purpose  is  considerably  whiter 
in  colour  and  much  softer  than  ordinary  rolled  plate,  and  instead 
of  being  rolled  out  on  a  table  it  is  produced  by  rolling  between 
two  moving  rollers  from  which  the  sheet  issues.  The  pattern  is 
impressed  upon  the  soft  sheet  by  a  printing  roller  which  is 
brought  down  upon  the  glass  as  it  leaves  the  main  rolls.    This 


Fig.  II.— Table  Glass.  Fig.  u.— Table  Glass. 

Designed  by  T.  G.  Jackson  in  i8;a.  Desgaed  for  Wm.  Morris  about  187:  by  Philip  Webb. 


Fig.  14.— Whitef liars  Glass,  1906. 


gLut  ibonn  ■  pUtcm  In  high  nlief  and  give 


d(  rolkd  pluc-tlu*  u 
a  rcinforceineDt  oi  win 


3  with 


embedded  is  tl 

gicml  idnnUgi 

&n,  but  owing 

win  >Dd  glut,  ibcK  ii  1  ilrong  lendeocy  [or  tuch  "  wim!  gliH  " 

10  cnck  ipoauneoiuty. 

FaUnt  Plalt-^i.~Tba  term  u  i|^edto  blown ihcct-gJui, 
wbdie  Borfad  to*  been  reodeied  plane  aod  biiUiant  by 
of  grinding  and  poliabjng.   The  name  "  pitenl  plate  " 
[he  lad  (hat  cerum  palented  devices  ofigina^    ' 
Chance  of  Biiminghftm  fint  nude  U  poaaibie  1 
parativeiy  thin  glass  in  this  way. 

(B)  PreiHtf  C/ui— The  technical  diflennce  b< 
and  nwuided  glass  is  ' 


toe  dty-taboutei  can  now  have  o 

glasa  dishes  of  elaborate  dotgn,  which  only 

tingwsb  fiom  band-cut  cryitiJ,    The  deceptive  cQect  ii 

caia  heightened  by  cutting  avn  and  polishing  by  hand  the 


■BDlun,  must  be  sufficiemly  Suld  t 

o  adapt  ilsell 

™dily 

to  the 

intricades  of  the  moulds,  which  a 

mplei. 

sulphate  of  soda,  njt 

■sleof 

ca.ba».te  Q 

The 

[allowing  is  ail 

uislysb  of  a  qxdmen  al  Englis 

h  pressed  ^asa; 

SiO„  JoM% 

Narf),    .8-j8%; 

-aO,    5-4S"/, 

BaO.  « 

■  7%; 

AW>k  o-j3% 

and   Fe,OfcO-»%. 

Tanks  and  pots  an  bn 

based 

lot  mllinglhe  glut    The  moulds 

aiemadeolc 

isllron. 

They 

are  iBually  in  two  main  pieces,  a  base  and  an  upper  pan  or  collar 
of  hinged  leclions.  The  plunger  is  genenlly  worked  by  a  band 
lever-  The  operator  knows  by  touch  when  the  plunger  has 
pressed  (be  ^au  far  enough  to  exactly  £11  the  mould.  Although 
the  noulds  an  healed,  the  lorfsce  ol  theglua  is  always  slightly 


of  pTTSied  glasa-ware,  as  soon  i 
u  exposed  19  a  sharp  beat  in  a 
that  the  rulHed  surface  may  I 


Ii  libented  Iron 
1  subsidlaty  fun 
amoved  by  meli 


(An,.!,^l,,i,,  lo'-j  iN.r,, -Mik  WMlraniUlHl  hiid  Enfiliih  by  C. 
Mi-'.ritl  in  l66l.  and  the  tmiulaiioa,  Tie  Art  o]  Mot.-I  tUui,  wai 
n-ivaiay  rcpcmud  by  Sir  T.  PhiUippa,  Bart.,  ia  iHi6):  Jiilunn 
Kunliel,  VtOiUtMii  Ctawikr-Xuil  (Nuremberg,  178;)^  ApiW 
[Vlljll,  Cuniailia  t]  CtsilHMihiii  {Landcio.  1840);  A.  SauBy. 
tlan^,  tl  Cfari-Matwf  (fram  the  Frendi}  (London,  l8te)t  C. 
Boniempi,  CuuUir  nma  (Paris,  1B6S);  E.  PcUboi,  Lt  Vim. 
MM  AuUin,  iijairiatie*  (FJUii,  iBlg);  yi.  Stan.  "  flie  GlsiTabri- 
btiun."  in  BoUey'i  TslhiiilsiH, vol.  iii.  (Bniiusict,  iKl):  H,  E. 
B-nrath.  Die  CbifiOnluilien  (Bniniwicfc,  1875):  ],  Falck  and  L, 
Litimcyt,  fMc  CIruiKdiulm  (Viciuia.  1875):  D.  H.  HoveiDdl, 
Jr.,:ur  Oil  (Jena,  190a:  Eag.  trans,  by  ].  D.  and  A.  Eveiett, 
M.icraillan,  1907) ;  J.  HenrivnuiL />  VtmaUsruUl  (fatit.  I«»7), 


ic  Cialjabriiatieii  (Vieni 


LIU.  U  Vim  a  k  srilUl  (Paris.  1W7), 
li  (1903):  Chance,  Hanii  and  Pcwcll, 
ndon,  1881);  Moriti  V.  Ruhr,  rturii 
•utJuH  OijUliM  (Berlla,  iSmJ;  C.  E. 

linu  it  la  AailHmtlru  it  Iriaaam   ITm^l. 
,>™.^tan_...(FWf,.< 


m  (Palis,  loao);  R.  Cci 


liMi! 


I.  Btarbriliait  M*  CIttllirpmt 
.^.,cu>..u.T,  HfMmck  dtt  CUKjabriktlum 


n,  ■9<ill._'-p». 


_  orlj^ted  from  a  Kngle  centre.  It  baa 
been  generally  ■— '"""^  that  Egypt  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
glass  industry.  It  ii  true  that  many  conditions  eiislcd  in  Egypt 
lavoiuabk  to  the  devekipnieiit  of  ibe  craft.  The  Nile  supplied  a 
waterway  for  the  conveyance  of  fuel  and  for  tbe  distribution 
ol  tbe  finished  wares.  Materials  were  available  providing  the 
essential  ingredients  of  glass.     The  Egyptian  pottetia  afforded 

and  from  Ec^ptian  alabasterKjuarriea  veined  vessels  wen 
wrought,  which  may  well  have  suggested  the  decorative  arrange- 
ment  of  zigiag  lines  (see  Plate  I.  figs,  i,  1,  4  d)  so  frequently 
found  on  early  specimens  ttf  glass-ware.  Iri  Egypt,  however, 
no  trmcei  have  at  pnsent  been  found  of  the  industry  in  a  rudi- 
mentary condition,  and  tbe  vases  which  have  been  dasuficd 
aa  "  primitive  "  bear  witness  to  an  elaboration  of  technique 
far  in  advance  of  the  experimental  peiiod.  The  earliest  apedniens 
of  ^aas-varc  which  can  be  deSnilely  claimed  as  Egyptian 
productions,  and  Ibe  glaas  manufactory  discovered  by  Dl 
Flinders  Petii*  U  Tell  el  Amama,  belong  to  the  period  of  Ibe 
XVIIIth  dynasty.  Tbe  comparaUve  lateness  of  this  period 
makes  it  difficult  to  account  for  the  wall  painting  at  Beni  Hasan, 
which  accurately  represents  tbe  process  of  glass-blowing,  and 
which  is  attributed  to  the  period  ol  the  Xlth  dynasty.  Dt 
Pettie  surmounts  the  difficulty  by  saying  that  the  process 
depicted  is  not  glass-blowing,  but  »me  metallurgical  process 
in  which  reeds  wereusedti[^Kd  with  lumps  of  clay.  It  is  possible 
thai  the  picture  doci  not  represent  Egyptian  glass-bloweis,  but 
ird  of  the  proctas  ol  ^ass-blowing  seen  in  some 


«igna. 


.    The  I 


;tually  found  in  Egypt,  a 
which  have  been  found,  lead  to  the  supposition  that 

t~taditian,  reairded  by  Fliny  {iVa<.  Hi'rf.  mvi.  tj),  assigns  the 
discovery  of  ^ass  to  Syria,  and  tbe  geographical  position  of  that 
cauntry,  its  forests  aa  a  source  of  furl,  and  its  deposits  of  land 
add  probability  to  the  tradition.  The  story  that  Phoenicisa 
merchants  found  a  glass-like  substance  under  ibeir  cooking  pots, 
which  had  been  sucqwrted  on  blocks  of  natron,  need  not  be 
discarded  u  pure  eciion.  Tbe  fire  may  well  have  caused  the 
of  carbonate  of  soda,  to  combine  with 


the  I 


a  permanent  glass,  is  sufliciently  glasa-likc 


98 


GLASS 


possibility  of  creating  a  permanent  transparent  material.  More- 
over, Pliny  (xxxvi.  66)  actually  records  the  discovery  which 
eflfected  the  conversion  of  deliquescent  silicate  of  soda  into 
permanent  glass.  The  words  are  "  Coeptus  addi  magnes  lapis.'' 
There  have  been  many  conjectures  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
words  *'  magnes  lapis."  The  material  has  been  considered  by 
some  to  be  magnetic  iron  ore  and  by  others  oxide  of  manganese. 
Oxides  of  iron  and  manganese  can  only  be  used  in  glass  manu- 
facture in  comparatively  small  quantities  for  the  purix>5e  of 
colouring  or  neutralizing  colour  in  glass,  and  their  introduction 
would  not  be  a  matter  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  specially 
recorded.  In  chapter  35  of  the  same  book  Pliny  describes  five 
varieties  of  "  magnes  lapis."  One  of  these  he  ^ys  is  found  in 
magnesia,  is  white  in  colour,  does  not  attract  iron  and  is  like 
pumice  stone.  This  variety  must  certainly  be  magnesian 
limestone.  Magnesian  limestone  mixed  and  fused  with  sand  and 
an  alkaline  carbonate  produces  a  permanent  glass.  The  scene 
of  the  discovery  of  glass  is  placed  by  Pliny  on  the  banks  of  the 
little  river  Belus,  under  the  heights  of  Mount  Carmel,  where 
sand  suitable  for  glass-making  exists  and  wood  for  fuel  is 
abundant.  In  this  neighbourhood  fragments  and  lumps  of  glass 
are  still  constantly  being  dug  up,  and  analysis  proves  that  the 
glass  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  magnesia.  The 
district  was  a  glass-making  centre  in  Roman  times,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  Romans  inherited  and  perfected  an  indigenous 
industry  of  remote  antiquity.  Pliny  has  so  acctirately  recorded 
the  stages  by  which  a  permanent  glass  was  developed  that  it 
may  be  assumed  that  he  had  good  reason  for  claiming  for  Syria 
the  discdvery  of  glass.  Between  Egypt  and  Syria  there  was 
frequent  intercourse  both  of  conquest  and  commerce.  It  was 
customary  for  the  victor  after  a  successful  raid  to  carry  off 
skilled  artisans  as  captives.  It  is  recorded  that  Tahutmes  III. 
sent  Syrian  artisans  to  Egypt.  Glass-blowers  may  have  been 
amongst  their  captive  craftsmen,  and  may  have  started  the 
industry  in  Egypt.  The  claims  of  Syria  and  Egypt  are  at  the 
present  time  so  equally  balanced  that  it  is  advisable  to  regard 
the  question  of  the  birthplace  of  the  glass  industry  as  one  that 
has  still  to  be  settled. 

The  "  primitive  "  vessels  which  have  been  found  in  Egypt  are 
small  in  size  and  consist  of  columnar  stibium  jars,  flattened 
bottles  and  amphorae,  all  decorated  with  zigzag  lines,  tiny 
wide-mouthed  vases  on  feet  and  minute  jugs.  The  vcsseb 
of  later  date  which  have  been  found  in  considerable  quantities, 
principally  in  the  coast  towns  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean, 
are  amphorae  and  alabastra,  also  decorated  with  zigzag  lines. 
The  amphorae  (Plate  I.  figs,  i  and  a)  terminate  with  a  point, 
or  with  an  unfinished  extension  from  the  terminal  point,  or  with 
a  knob.  The  alabastra  have  short  necks,  are  slightly  wider  at 
the  base  than  at  the  shoulder  and  have  rounded  bases.  Dr 
Petrie  has  called  attention  to  two  technical  peculiarities  to  be 
found  in  almost  every  qsecimen  of  early  glas»-ware.  The 
inner  surface  is  roughened  (Plate  I.  fig.  4  £),  and  has  particles 
of  sand  adhering  to  it,  as  if  the  vessel  had  been  filled  with  sand 
and  subjected  to  heat,. and  the  inside  of  the  neck  has  the  impres- 
sion of  a  metal  rod  (Plate  I.  fig.  4  a),  which  appears  to  have 
been  extracted  from  the  neck  with  difficulty.  From  this  evidence 
Dr  Petrie  has  assumed  that  the  vessels  were  not  blown,  but 
formed  upon  a  core  of  sandy  paste,  modelled  upon  a  copper  rod, 
the  rod  being  the  core  of  the  neck  (see  Ecypt:  Art  and 
Arckaedogy).  The  evidence,  however,  hardly  warrants  the 
abandonment  of  the  simple  process  of  Mowing  in  favour  of  a 
process  which  i»  so  difficult  that  it  may  almost  be  said  to  be 
impossible,  and  of  which  there  is  no  record  or  tradition  except 
in  connexion  with  the  manufacture  of  small  beads.  The  technical 
difficulties  to  which  Dr  Petrie  has  called  attention  seem  to 
admit  of  a  somewhat  leas  heroic  explanation.  A  modem  glass- 
blower,  when  making  an  amphora-shaped  vase,  finishes  the  base 
fi^t,  fixes  an  iron  rod  to  the  finished  base  with  a  seal  of  glass, 
levers  the  vase  from  the  blowing,  iron,  and  finishes  the  mouth, 
whibt  he  holds  the  vase  by  the  iron  attach^  to  its  base.  The 
"  primitive  "  g^ass-worker  reversed  this  process.  Having  blown 
the  body  of  the  vase,  he  finished  the  mouth  and  neck  partj  and 


fixed  a  small,  probably  hdlow,  cq>per  rod  inside  the  finished 
neck  by  pressing  the  neck  upon  the  rod  (Plate  I.  fig.  4  i^) .  Having 
severed  the  body  of  the  vase  from  the  blowing  iron,  he  heated 
and  closed  the  fractured  base,  whibt  holding  the  vase  by  means 
of  the  rod  fixed  in  the  neck.  Nearly  every  specimen  shows 
traces  of  the  pressuQre  of  a  tool  on  the  outside  of  the  neck,  as 
weU  as  signs  of  the  base  having  bwn  closed  by  melting.  Occasion- 
ally a  knob  or  excrescence,  formed  by  the  residue  of  the  ^aas 
beyond' the  point  at  which  the  base  has  been  pinched  together, 
remains  as  a  silent  witness  of  the  process. 

II  glass-blowing  had  been  a  perfectly  new  invention^  of  Graeco- 
Egyptian  or  Roman  times,  some  specimens  illustrating  the 
transition  from  core-moulding  to  blowing  roust  have  been 
discovered.  The  absence  of  traces  of  the  transition  strengthens 
the  supposition  that  the  revolution  in  technique  merely  cofasisted 
in  the  discovery  that  it  was  more  convenient  to  finish  the  base 
of  a  vessel  before  its  mouth,  and  such  a  revolution  would  leave 
no  tface  behind.  The  roughened  inner  surface  and  thjb  adhering 
particles  of  sand  may  also  be  accounted  for.  The  vesseb, 
especially  those  in  which  many  differently  coloured  glasses  were 
incorporated,  required  prolonged  annealing.  It  is  probable  that 
when  the  metal  rod  was  withdrawn  the  vessel  was  filled  with 
sand,  to  prevent  collapse,  and  buried  in  heated  ashes  to  anneal. 
The  greater  the  heat  of  the  ashes  the  more  would  the  sand 
adhere  to  and  impress  the  inner  surface  of  the  vesseb.  The 
decoration  of  zigzag  lines  was  probably  applied  directly  after 
the  body  of  the  vase  had  been  blown.  Threads  of  coloured 
molten  ^ass  were  spirally  coiled  round  the  body,  and,  whibt 
still  viscid,  were  dragged  into  zigzags  with  a  metal  hook. 

Egypt. — The  glass  industry  flourished  in  Egjrpt  in  Graeco- 
Egyptian  and  Roman  times.  All  kinds  of  vesseb  were  blown, 
both  with  and  without  moulds,  and  both  moulding  and  cutting 
were  used  as  methods  of  decoration.  The  great  variety  of  these 
vesseb  b  well  shown  in  the  illustrated  catalogue  of  Graeco- 
Egyptian  glass  in  the  Cairo  museum,  edited  by  C.  C.  Edgar. 

Another  spedes  of  glass  manufacture  in  which  the  Egyptians 
would  appear  to  have  been  peculiarly  skilled  b  the  so-caUed 
mosaic  glass,  formed  by  the  union  of  rods  of  various  colouza 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  pattern;  the  rod  so  formed  was 
then  reheated  and  drawn  out  until  reduced  to  a  very  small  size, 
X  sq  in  or  less,  and  divided  into  tablets  by  being  cut  trans- 
versely, each  of  these  tablets  presenting  the  pattern  traversing 
its  substance  and  vbible  on  each  face.  This  process  was  no 
doubt  first  practised  in  Egypt,  and  b  never  seen  in  such  per- 
fection as  in  objects  of  a  decidedly  Egyptian  character.  Very 
beautiful  pieces  of  ornament  of  an  arcUtectural  ch'aracter  are 
met  with,  which  probably  once  served  as  decorations  of  caskets 
or  o£her  small  pieces  of  furniture  or  of  trinkets;  also  tragic 
masks,  human  faces  and  birds.  Some  of  the  last-named  are 
represented  with  such  truth  of  colouring  and  delicacy  of  detail 
that  even  the  separate  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail  are  well 
dbtinguished,  although,  as  in  an  example  in  the  British  Museum, 
a  human-headed  hawk,  the  piece  which  contains  Uie  figure 
may  not  exceed  |  in.  in  its  laigest  dimension.  Works  of  thb 
description  probably  belong  to  the  period  when  Egypt  passed 
underi  Roman  domination,  as  similar  objects,  though  of  inferior 
delicacy,  appear  to  have  been  made  in  Rome. 

Assyria. — Early  Ass3rrian  gbss  b  represented  in  the  British 
Museum  by  a  vase  of  transparent  greenbh  ^ass  found  in  the 
north-west  palace  of  Nineveh.  On  One  side  of  thb  a  lion  is 
engraved,  and  also  a  line  of  cuneiform  characters,  in  which 
b  the  name  of  Sargon,  king  of  Assyria,  722  B.C.  Fragments  of 
coloured  glasses  were  also  fpund  there,  but  our  materiab  are 
too  scanty  to  enable  us  to  form  any  decided  opinion  as  to  the 
degree  of  perfection  to  which  the  art  was  carried  in  Assyria.  Many 
of  the  specimens  discovered  by  Layard  at  Nineveh  have  all  the 
appearance  of  being  Roman,  and  were  no  doubt  derived  from 
the  Roman  colony,  Niniva  Gaudiopolb,  which  occupied  the  same 
site. 

Roman  Glass. — ^In  the  first  centuries  of  our  era  the  art  of  glass- 
making  was  developed  at  Rome  and  other  cities  under  Roman 
rule  in  a  most  remarkable  manner,  and  it  reached  a  point  of 


GLASS 


99 


cxcdlence  which  in  some  respects  has  never  been  excelled  or 
even  perhaps  equalled.  It  may  appear  a  somewhat  exaggerated 
assertion  that  glass  was  used  for  morepurposes,  and  in  one  sense 
more  extensivdy,  by  the  Romans  of  the  imperial  period  than 
by  ourselves  in  the  present  day;  but  it  is  one  which  can  be 
borne  out  by  evidence.  It  is  true  that  the  use  of  glass  for  windows 
was  only  ^adually  extending  itself  at  the  time  when  Roman 
dviliaation  sank  under  the  torrent  of  German  and  Hunnish 
barbarism,  and  that  its  employment  for  optical  instruments 
was  only  known  in  a  rudimentary  stage;  but  for  domestic 
purposes,  for  architectural  decoration  and  for  personal  orna- 
ments glass  was  unquestiohably  much  more  used  than  at  the 
present  day.  It  must  be  remiembered  that  the  Romans  possessed 
no  fine  procdain  decorated  with  lively  colours  and  a  beautiful 
giaxe;  Samian  ware  was  the  most  decoi^tive  kind  of  pottery 
which  was  then  made.  Cdloured  and  ornamental  glass  held 
aipoqg  them  much  the  same  place  for  table  services,  vessels  for 
tohct  use  and  the  like,  as  that  held  among  us  by  porcebin. 
Pliny  iNai.  Hist,  xxxvi.  36,  67)  tells  us  that  for  drinking  vesseb 
it  was  even  preferred  to  gold  and  silver. 

Glass  was  largely  used  in  pavements,  and  in  thin  plates  as  a 
coating  lor  walls.  It  was  used  in  windows,  though  by  no  means 
exclusively,  mica,  alabaster  aild  shells  having  been  also  em- 
ployed. Glass,  in  flat  pieces,  such  as  might  be  employed  for 
windows,  has  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  Roman  houses,  both  in 
Eni^and  and  in  Italy,  and  in  the  house  of  the  faun  at  Pompeii 
a  small  pane  in  a  bronxe  frame  remains.  Most  of  the  pieces 
have  evidently  been  made  by  casting,  but  the  discovery  of 
fragments  of  sheet-glass  at  SUchester  proves  that  the  process 
of  making  sheef -glass  was  known  to  the  Romans.  When  the 
window  openings  were  large,  as  was  the  case  in  basilicas  and 
other  public  buildings^  and  even  in  houses,  the  pieces  of  glass 
were,  doubtless,  fixed  in  pierced  slabs  of  marble  or  in  frames 
of  wood  or  bronxe.  The  Roman  glass-blowers  were  masters 
of  all  the  ordinary  methods  of  manipulation  and  decoration. 
Their  craftsmanship  is  proved  by  the  large  cinerary  urns,  by 
the  jugs  with  wide,  deq)ly  ribbed,  scientifically  fixed  handles, 
and  by  vessels  and  vases  as  el^ant  in  form  and  light  in  weight 
as  any  that  have  been  since  produced  at  Murano.  Their  moulds, 
both  for  blowing  hollow  vessels  and  for  pressing  ornaments,  were 
as  pecfect  for  the  purposes  for  which  they  were  intended  as  those 
of  the  present  time.  Their  decorative  cutting  (Plate  I.  figs.  5 
and  6),  which  took  the  form  of  simple,  incised  lines,  or  bands  of 
shallow  oval  or  hexagonal  hollows,  was  more  suited  to  the 
materia]  than  the  deep  prismatic  cutting  of  comparatively 
recent  times. 

The  Romans  had  at  their  command,  of  transparent  colours, 
Uue,  green,  purple  or  amethystine,  amber,  brown  and  rose; 
of  opaque  colours,  white,  black,  red,  blue,  yellow,  green  and 
orange.  Then  are  many  shades  of  transparent  blue  and  of 
opaque  Uue,  yellow  and  green.  In  any  large  collection  of 
fragments  it  would  be  easy  to  find  eight  or  ten  varieties  of  opaque 
blue,  ranging  from  lapis  lazuli  to  turquoise  or  to  lavender  and 
six  or  seven  of  opaque  green.  Of  red  the  varieties  are  fewer; 
the  finest  is  a  crimson  red  of  very  beautiful  tint,  and  there  are 
various  gradations  from  this  to  a  dull  brick  red.  One  variety 
forms  the  gitound  of  a  very  good  imitation  of  porphyry;  and 
there  is  a  dull  semi-transparent  red  which,  when  light  is  passed 
througih  it,  appears  to  be  of  a  dull  green  hue.  With  these 
coburs  the  Roman  vUrarius  worked,  either  using  them  singly 
or  blending  them  in  almost  evciy  conceivable  combination, 
sometimes,  it  must  be  owned,  with  a  rather  gaudy  and  inharmo- 
ttk>us  effect. 

The  glares  to  which  the  Venetians  gave  the  name  "  mille 
fiori  **  were  formed  by  arranging  side  by  side  sections  of  glass 
cane,  the  canes  themselves  bdng  built  up  qf  differently  coloured 
rods  of  g^ass,  and  binding  them  together  by  heat.  A  vast 
quantity  of  small  cups  and  paterae  were  made  by  this  means  in 
patterns  which  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  the  surfaces  of 
madrepores.  In  these  every  colour  and  every  shade  of  colour 
seem  to  have  been  tried  in  great  variety  of  combination  with 
effects  more  or  leas  pleasing,  but  tranq>arent  violet  or  purple 


appears  to  have  been  the  most  common  ground  colour.  Although 
most  of  the  vesseb  of  thu  mille  fiori  glass  were  small,  some  were 
made  as  large  as  20  in.  in  diameter.  Imitations  of  natural 
stones  were  made  by  stirring  together  in  a  crudble  glasses  of 
different  colours,  or  by  incorporating  fragments  of  differently 
coloured  glasses  into  a  mass  of  molten  glass  by  rolling.  One 
variety  u  that  in  which  transparent  brown  glass  b  so  mixed 
with  opaque  white  and  blue  as  to  resemble  onyx.  Thb  was 
admetimes  done  with  great  success,  and  very  perfect  imitations 
of  the  natural  stone  wero  produced.  Sometimes  purple  glass 
b  used  in  place  of  brown,  probably  with  the  design  of  imitating 
the  predous  murrhine.  Imitations  of  porphyry,  of  serpentine, 
and  of  granite  are  also  met  with,  but  these  were  used  chieiBy 
in  pavemtots,  and  for  the  decoration  of  waib,  for  which  pur- 
poses the  onyx-glass  was  likewise  employed. 

The  famous  cameo  glass  was  formed  by  covering  a  mass  of 
molten  glass  with  one  or  more  coatings  of  a  differently  cdoured 
glass.  The  usual  process  was  to  gather,  first,  a  small  quantity 
of  opaque  white  £iass;  to  coat  thb  with  a  thick  layer  <^  trans- 
lucent  blue  glass;  and,  finally,  to  cover  the  blue  glass  with  a 
coating  of  the  white  gjass.  Tlie  outer  coat  was  then  removed 
from  that  portion  which  was  to  constitute  the  ground,  leaving 
the  white  for  the  figures,  foliage  or  other  ornamentation;  these 
were  then  sculptured  by  means  of  the  gem-engraver's  toob 
Pliny  no  d6ubt  means  to  rder  to  thb  when  he  says  {Nai.  HiO, 
xxxvi,  36.  66),  "  aliud  argenti  modo  caebtur,"  contrasting  it 
with  the  process  of  cutting  gbss  by  the  help  of  a  whed,  to  which 
he  rders  in  the  words  immediatdy  preceding,  "aliud  tomo 
teritur." 

The  Portland  or  Barberini  vase  in  the  British  Museum  b  the 
finest  example  of  thb  kind  of  work  which  has  come  down  to  us, 
and  was  entire  until  it  was  broken  into  some  hundred  pieces  by  a 
madman.  The  pieces,  however,  were  joined  together  by  Mr 
Doubleday  with  extraordinary  skill,  ahd  the  beauty  of  design 
and  execution  may  still  be  appreciated.  The  two  other  moat 
remarkable  examples  of  thb  cameo  ^ass  are  an  amphora  at 
Naples  and  the  Auldjo  vase.  The  amphora  measures  x  ft.  f  in» 
in  hdght,  x  ft.  7!  in.  in  circumference;  it  b  shaped  like  the 
earthem  amphoras  with  a  foot  far  too  small  to  support  it,  and 
must  no  doubt  have  Jiad  a  stand,  probably  of  gold;  the  greater 
part  b  covered  with  a  most  exquisite  design  of  garlands  and 
vines,  and  two  groups  of  boys  gathering  and  treading  grapes 
and  playing  on  various  instruments  of  music;  bdow  these 
b  a  line  of  sheep  and  goats  in  varied  attitudes.  The  ground 
b  blue  and  the  figures  white.  It  was  found  in  a  house  in  the 
Street  of  Tombs  at  Pompeii  in  the  year  1839,  and  b  now  in  the 
Royal  Museum  at  Naples.  It  b  well  engraved  in  Richardson's 
Studies  of  Ornamental  Design.  The  Auldjo  vase,  in  the  British 
Museum,  b  an  oenochoe  about  9  iiL  iagji;  the  ornament  consists 
mainly  of  a  most  beautiful  band  of  foliage,  chiefly  of  the  vine, 
with  bunches  of  grapes;  the  ground  b  blue  and  the  ornaments 
white;  it  was  found  at  Pompeii  in  the  house  of  the  faun.  It  also 
has  been  engraved  by  Richardson.  The  same  process  was  used 
in  producing  large  tablets,  employed,  no  doubt,  for  various 
decorative  purposes.  In  the  South  Kensington  Museum  b  a 
fragment  of  such  a  tablet  or  slab;  the  figure,  a  portion  of  which 
remains,  could  not  have  been  less  than  about  X4  in.  high.  The 
ground  of  these  cameo  glasses  b  most  commonly  transparent 
blue,  but  sometimes  opaque  blue,  purple  or  dark  brown.  The 
superimposed  layer,  which  b  sculptured,  b  generally  opaque 
white.  A  very  few  spedmens  have  been  met  with  in  which 
several  colours  are  employed. 

At  a  long  interval  after  these  beautiful  objects  come  those 
vesseb  which  were  ornamented  dther  by  means  of  coarse  threads 
trailed  over  their  surfaces  and  forming  rude  patterns,  or  by 
coloured  enameb  merely  {daced  on  t)iem  in  lumps;  and  these, 
doubtless,  were  cheap  and  conunon  wares.  But  a  modification 
of  the  first-named  process  was  in  use  in  the  4th  and  succeeding 
centuries,  showing  great  ingenuity  and  manual  dexterity, — that, 
namdy,  in  which  the  add^  portions  of  ^ass  are  united  to  the 
body  of  the  cup,  not  throughout,  but  oiily  at  points,  and  then 
shaped  dther  by  the  whed  or  by  the  hand  (PUte  I.  fig.  3).    The 


lOO 


GLASS 


attached  portions  form  !n  some  inrtance^  inscriptions,  as  on  a 
cup  found  at  Strassburg,  which  bears  the  name  of  the  emperor 
Maximian  (a.d.  286-310},  on  another  in  the  Vereinigte  Samm- 
lungen  at  Munich,  and  on  a  third  in  the  TrivuLd  collection  at 
Milan,  where  the  cup  is  white,  the  inscription  green  and  the 
network  blue.  Probably,  however,  the  finest  example  is  a 
situla,  zo|  in.  high  by  8  in.  wide  at  the  top  and  4  in^  at  the 
bottom,  preserved  in.  the  treasury  of  St  Mark  at  Venice.  This 
is  of  glass  of  a  greenish  hue;  on  the  upper  part  is  represented, 
in  relief,  the  chase  of  a  lion  by  two  men  on  horseback  accompanied 
by  dogs;  the  costume  appears  to  be  Byzantine  rather  than 
Roman,  and  the  style  is  very  bad.  The  figures  are  very  much 
undercut.  The  lower  part  has  four  rows  of  drdes  united  to  the 
vessel  at  those  points  alone  where  the  circles  touch  each  other. 
All  the  other  examples  have  the  lower  portion  covered  in  like 
manner  by  a  network  of  circles  standing  nearly  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  from  the  body  of  the  cup.  An  example  connected  with  the 
specimens  just  described  is  the  cup  belonging  to  Baron  Lionel 
de  Rothschild;  though  externally  of  an  opaque  greenish  colour, 
it  is  by  transmitted  light  of  a  deep  red.  On  the  outside,  in  very 
high  relief,  are  figures  of  Bacchus  with  vines  and  panthers, 
some  portions  being  hollow  from  within,  others  fixed  on  the 
exterior.  The  changeability  of  colour  may  remind  .us  of  the 
"  calices  versicolores  "  which  Hadrian  sent  to  Servianus. 

So  few  examples  of  ^ass  vessels  of  this  period  which  have 
been  painted  in  enamel  have  come  down  to  us  that  it  has  been 
questioned  whether  that  art  was  then  practised;  but  several 
specimens  have  been  described  which  can  leave  no  doubt  on  the 
point;  decisive  examples  are  a£forded  by  two  cups  found  at 
Vaspelev,  in  Denmark,  engravings  of  which  are  published  in 
the  Annakrfor  Nordisk  Otdkyndegked  for  1861,  p.  305.  These 
are  small  cups,  3  in.  and  2^  in.  high,  3}  in.  and  3  in.  wide,  with 
feet  and  straight  sides;  on  the  larger  are  a  lion  and  a  bull,  on 
the  smaller  two  birds  with  grapes,  and  on  each  some  smaller 
ornaments.  On  the  latter  are  the  letters  DVB.  R.  The  colours 
are  vitrified  and  slightly  in  relief;  green,  blue  and  brown  may 
be  distinguished.  They  are  found  with  Roman  bronze  vessels 
and  other  articles. 

The  art  of  glass-making  no  doubt,  like  all  other  art,  deteriorated 
during  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  but  it  is  probable  that 
it  continued  to  be  practised,  though  with  constantly  decreasing 
skill,  not  only  in  Rome  but  in  the  provinces.  Roman  tec^inique 
was  to  be  found  in  Byzantium  and  Alexandria,  in  Syria,  in  Spain, 
in  Germany,  France  and  Britain. 

Early  Ckristian  and  Bytantine  Class. — The  process  of  embed- 
ding gold  and  silver  leaf  between  two  layers  of  glass  originated 
as  early  as  the  xst  century,  probably  in  Alexandria.  The  process 
consisted  in  spreading  the  leaf  on  a  thin  film  of  blown  glass  and 
pressing  molten  glass  on  to  the  leaf  so  that  the  molten  glass 
cohered  with  the  film  of  glass  through  the  pores  of  the  metallic 
leaf.  If  before  this  application  of  the  molten  glass  the  metallic 
leaf,  whilst  resting  on  the  this  film  of  blown  glass,  was  etched 
with  a  sharp  point,  patterns,  emblems,  inscriptions  and  pictures 
could  be  embedded  and  rendered  permanent  by  the  double 
coating  of  glass.  The  plaques  thus  formed  could  be  reheated 
and  fashioned  into  the  bases  of  bowls  and  drinking  vessels. 
In  this  way  the  so-ailled  "  fondi  d'oro  "of  the  catacombs  in  Rome 
were  made.  They  are  the  broken  bases  of  drinking  vessels 
containing  inscriptions,  emblems,  domestic  scenes  and  portraits 
etched  in  gold  leaf.  Very  few  have  any  reference  to  Christianity, 
but  they  served  as  indestructible  marks  for  indicating  the  position 
of  interments  in  the  catacombs.  The  fondi  d'oro  suggested  the 
manufacture  of  plaques  of  gold  which  could  be  broken  up  into 
tesserae  for  use  in  mosaics. 

Some  of  the  Roman  artificers  in  glass  no  doubt  migrated 
to  Constantinople,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  art  was  practised 
there  to  a  very  great  extent  during  the  middle  ages.  One 
of  the  gates  near  the  port  took  its  name  from  the  adjacent 
glass  houses.  St  Sofia  when  erected  by  Justinian  had  vaults 
covered  with  mosaics  and  immense  windows  filled  with  plates 
of  glass  fitted  into  pierced  marble  frames;  some  of  the  plates, 
7  to  8  in.  wide  and  9  to  10  in.  high,  not  blown  but  cast,  which 


are  in  the  windows  may  possibly  date  from  the  building  of  the 
church.  It  is  also  recorded  that  pierced  silver  disks  were  sus> 
pended  by  chains  and  supported  glass  lamps  "  wrought  by  fixe." 
Glass  for  mosaics  was  ako  largely  made  and  exported.  In  the 
8th  century,  when  peace  was  made  between  the  caliph  Walid 
and  th^  emperor  Justinian  II.,  the  former  stipulated  for  a 
quantity  of  mosaic  for  the  decoration  of  the  new  mosque  at 
Damascus,  and  in  the  xoth  century  the  materials  for  the  decora- 
tion  of  the  niche  of  the  kibla  at  Cordova  were  furnished  by 
Romanus  II.  In  the  nth  century  Desiderius,  abbot  of  Monte 
Casino,  sent  to  Constantinople  for  workers  in  mosaic 

We  have  in  the  work  of  the  monk  Theophilus, '  Ditersarum 
artium  schedtdOt  and  in  the  probably  earlier  work  of  Eradius, 
about  the  i  xth  century,  instructions  as  to  the  art  of  glass-making 
in  general,  and  also  as  to  the  production  of  coloured  and  enamelled 
vessels,  whidi  these  writers  speak  of  as  being  practised  by  the 
Greeks.  The  only  entire  enamdled  vessd  which  we  can  con> 
fidently  attribute  to  Byzantine  art  is  a  small  vase  preserved  in 
the  treasury  of  St  Mark's  at  Venice.  This  is  decorated  with 
drdes  of  rosettes  of  blue,  green  and  red  enamel,  each  surroui^ded 
by  lines  of  gold;  within  the  drdes  are  little  figures  evidently 
suggested  by  antique  originals,  and-  predsdy  like  similar  figures 
found  on  carved  ivory  boxes  of  Byzantine  origin  dating  from 
the  nth  or  1 3th  century.  Two  inscriptions  in  Cufic  characters 
surround  the  vase,  but  they,  it  would  seem,  are  merely  ornamental 
and  destitute  pf  meaning.  The  presence  of  these  inscriptions 
may  perhaps  lead  to  the  inference  that  the  vase  was  made 
in  Sicily,  but  by  Byzantine  workmen.  The  double-handled 
blue-glass  vase'in  the  British  Museum,dating  from  the  5th  century, 
is  probably  a  chalice,  as  it  dosdy  resembles  the  chalices  re- 
presented on  early  Christian  monuments. 

Of  tmcoloured  glass  brought  from  Constantinople  several 
examples  exist  in  the  treasury  of  St  Mark's  at  Venice,  part  of 
the  plunder  of  the  imperial  dty  when  taken  by  the  crusaders 
in  1204.  The  ^ass  in  all  is  greenish,  very  thick,  witti  many 
bubbles,  and  has  been  cut  with  the  whed;  in  some  instances 
drdes  and  cones,  and  in  one  the  outlines  of  the  figure  of  a 
leopard,  have  been  left  standing  up,  the  rest  of  the  surface  having 
been  laboriously  cut  away.  The  intention  would  seem  to  have 
been  to  imitate  vessels  of  rock  crystal.  The  so-called  "  Hedwig  " 
passes  may  also  have  originated  in  Constantinople.  These  are 
small  cups  deeply  and  ruddy  cut  with  conventional  representa- 
tions of  eagles,  lions  and  griffins.  Only  nine  spedmens  are  known. 
The  specimen  in  the  Rijks  Museum  at  Amsterdam  has  an  eagle 
and  two  lions.  The  spedmen  in  the  Germanic  Museum  at 
Nuremberg  has  two  lions  and  a  griffin. 

Saracenic  Glass. — ^The  Saracenic  invasion  oi  Ssrria  and  Egypt 
did  not  destroy  the  industry  of  glass-making.  The  craft  survived 
and  flourished  under  the  Saracenic  regime  in  Alexandria,  Cairo, 
Tripoli,  lyre,  Aleppo  and  Damascus.  In  inventories  of  the  Z4th 
cepcury  both  in  England  and  in  France  mention  may  frequently 
be  found  of  g^ass  vessels  of  the  manufacture  of  Damascus.  A 
writer  in  the  early  part  of  the  x^th  century  states  that  "  8^as»- 
making  is  an  important  industry  at  Haleb  (Aleppo)."  Edward 
Dillon  (Glass,  1902)  has  very  property  laid  stress  on  the  import- 
ance of  the  enamelled  Saracenic  glass  of  the  13th,  Z4th  and 
X5th  centuries,  pointing  out  that,  whereas  the  Romans  and 
Byzantine  Greeks  made  some  crude  and  ineffectual  experiments 
in  enamelling,  it  was  under  Saracenic  influence  that  the  processes 
of  enamelling  and  gilding  on  glass  vessels  were  perfected.  An 
analysis  of  the  glass  of  a  Cai^ene  mosque  lamp  shows  that  it  is  a 
soda-h'me  glass  and  contains  as  much  as  4  %  of  magnttia.  This 
large  proportion  of  magnesia  undoubtedly  supplied  the  stability 
required  to  withstand  the  process  of  ehamellii^.  The  enamelled 
Saracenic  glasses  take  the  form  of  flasks,  vases,  goblets,  beakers 
and  mosque  lamps.  The  enamelled  decoration  on  the  lamps  is 
restricted  to  lettering,  scrolls  and  conventional  foliage;  on  other 
objects  figure-subjects  of  all  descriptions  are  f redy  used.  C.  H. 
Read  has  pointed  out  a  curious  feature  in  the  construction  ot  tlua 
enamdled  beakers.  The  base  is  double  but  the  inner  lining  has 
an  opening  in  the  centre.  Dillon  has  suggested  that  this  central 
recess  may  have  served  to  support  a  wick.  It  is  possible,  however^ 


GLASS 


loi 


tluit  it  served  no  useful  purpose,  but  that  the  construction 
u  a  survival  from  the  manufacture  of  vessels  with  fondi  d'oro. 
The  bases  containing  the  embedded  gold  leaf  must  have  been 
welded  to  the  vessels  to  which  they  belonged,  in  the  same  way 
as  the  bases  are  welded  to  the  Saracenic  beakers.  The  enamelling 
process  was  probably  introduced  In  the  early  part  of  the  X3th 
century;  most  of  the  enamelled  mosque  lamps  belong  to  the 
14th  century. 

Vtneiian  C/oji.— 'Whether  refugees  from  Padua,  AquOeia 
or  other  Italian  cities  carried  the  art  to  the  lagoons  of  Venice 
in  the  sth  century,  or.  whether  it  was  learnt  from  the  Greeks 
of  Constantinople  at  a  much  later  date,  has  been  a  disputed 
question.  It  would  appear  not  improbable  that  the  former 
was  the  case,  for  it  must  be  itmembered  that  articles  formed 
of  glass  were  in  the  later  days  of  Roman  civilization  in  constant 
daily  use,  and  that  the  making  of  glass  was  carried  on,  not  as 
now  in  large  establishments,  but  by  artisans  working  on  a  small 
scale.  It  seems  certain  that  some  knowlnlge  of  the  art  was 
preserved  in  France,  in  Gennany  and  in  Spain,  and  it  seems 
improbable  that  it  should  have  been  lost  in  that  archipelago, 
where .  the  traditions  of  ancient  dvjliiatlon  must  have  b^n 
better  preserved  than  in  almost  any  other  place.  In  533 
Cassiodorus  writes  of  the  "innumerosa  navigia"  belonging 
to  Venice,  and  where  trade  is  active  there  is  always  a  probability 
that  manufactures  will  flourish.  However  this  may  be,  the 
earliest  positive  evidence  of  the  existence  at  Venice  of  a  worker 
in  glass  would  seem  to  be  the  mention  of  Petrus  Flavianus, 
phiolarius,  in  the  ducale  of  Vitale  Falier  in  the  year  1090.  In 
1234  twenty-nine  persons  are  mentioned  as  friolari  {i.e,  phiolari), 
and  in  the  same  century  "  maricgole,"  or  codes  of  trade  regula- 
tions, were  drawn  up  {Monogrqfia  della  vetraria  VenaiaHa  e 
MwaneUf  p.  3 19)  •  The  manufacture  had  then  no  doubt  attained 
oonsiderablie  proportions:  in  1268  the  glass- workers  became 
an  incorporated  body;  in  their  processions  they  exhibited 
decanters,  scent-bottles  and  the  like;  in  1279  they  made,  among 
other  things,  weights  and  measures.  In  the  latter  part  of  this 
century  the  glass-houses  were  almost  entirely  transferred  to 
Murano.  Thenceforward  the  manufacture  continued  to  grow 
in  importance;  glass  vessels  were  made  in  large  quantities, 
as  well  as  glass  for  windows.  The  earliest  example  which  has 
as  yet  been  described — a  cup  of  blue  glass,  enamelled  and  gilt — 
is.  however,  not  earlier  than  about  1440.  A  good  many  other 
examples  have  been  preserved  which  may  be  assigned  to  the 
same  century:  the  earlier  of  these  bear  a  resemblance  in  form 
to  the  vesseb  of  silver  made  in  the  west  of  Europe;  in  the  later 
an  imitation  of  classical  forms  becomes  apparent.  Enamel 
and  gilding  were  freely  used,  in  imitatioa  no  doubt  of  the  much- 
admired  vessels  brought  from  Damascus.  Dillon  has  pointed 
out  that  the  process  of  enamelling  had  probably  been  derived 
from  Syria,  with  which  country  Venice  had  considerable  com- 
mercial  intercourse.  Many  of  the  ornamental  processes  which 
we  admire  in  Venetian  glass  were  already  in  use  in  this  century, 
as  that  of  mille  fiori,  and  the  beautiful  kind  of  glass  known  as 
"  vitro  di  trina  "  or  lace  glass.  An  elaborate  account  of  the 
processes  of  making  the  vitro  di  trina  and  the  vasi  a  reticelli 
(Plate  I.,  fig.  7)  is  given  in  Bontemps's  Guide  du  venter,  pp. 
6o2-<^i2.  Many  of  the  examples  of  these  processes  exhibit 
surprising  skill  and  taste,  and  are  among  the  most  beautiful 
objects  produced  at  the  Venetian  furnaces.  That  peculiar 
kind  of  glass  usually  called  schmels,  an  imperfect  imitation  of 
calccdony,  was  also  made  at  Venice  in  the  1 5th  century.  Avan- 
turine  glass,  that  in  which  numerous  small  particles  of  copper 
are  diffused  through  a  transparent  yellowish  or  brownish  mass, 
was  not  invented  until  about  x6qo. 

Tlie  peculiar  merits  of  the  Venetian  -manufacture  are  the 
Hfg^"^  of  form  and  the  surprising  lightness  and  thinness  of 
the  substance  of  the  vessels  produoMl.  The  highest  perfection 
with  regard  both  to  fonA  and  decoration  was  reached  in  the 
16th  century;  subsequently  the  Venetian  workmen  somewhat 
abused  their  skill  by  givjng  extravagant  forms  to  vessels,  making 
drinking,  ^Ui^ses  in  the  forms  of  ships,  lions,  birds,  whales  and 
the  like.    ' 


Besides  the  making  of  vessels  of  all  kinds  the  factories  of 
Murano  had  for  a  long  period  almost  an  entire  monopoly  of 
two  other  branches  of  the  art — the  making  of  mirrors  and  of 
beads.  Attempts  to  make  mirrors  of  glass  were  made  as  early 
as  A.O.  13x7,  but  even  in  the  i6th  century  mirrors  of  steel  were 
still  in  use.  To  make  a  really  good  mirror  of  glass  two  things 
are  required — a  plate  free  from  bubbles  and  striae,  and  a  method 
of  applying  a  film  'of  metal  with  a  uniform  bright  surface  free 
from  defects.  The  principle  of  applying  metallic  films  to  glass 
seems  to  have  been  known  to  the  Romans  and  even  to  the 
Egyptians^  And  is  mentioned  by  Alexander  Neckam  in  the  xath 
century,  but  it  would  appear  that  it  was  not  until  the  i6th 
century  that  the  process  of  "  silvering  "  mirrors  by  the  use  of  an 
amalgam  of  tin  and  mercuxy  had  been  perfected.  During  the 
i6th  and  X7th  centuries  Venice  exported  a  prodigious  quantity  of 
mirrors,  but  France  and  England  gradually  acquired  knowledge 
and  skill  in  the  art,  and  in  1772  only  one  glass-house  at  Murano 
•continued  to  make  mirrors. 

Hie  making  of  beads  was  probably  practised  at  Venice  from 
a  very  early  period,  but  the  earliest  documentary  evidence 
bearing  on  the  subject  does  not  appear  to  be  of  earlieadate  than 
the  X4th  century,  when  prohibitions  were  directed  against  those 
who  made  of  glass  such  objects  as  were  usually  made  of  crystal 
or  other  hard  stones.  In  the  x6th  century  it  had  become  a  trade 
of  great  Importance,  and  about  X764  twenty-two  furnaces  were 
employed  in  the  production  of  beads.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
same  century  from  600  to  1000  workmen  were,  it  is  stated, 
employed  on  one  branch  of  the  art,  that  of  ornamenting  beads 
by  the  help  of  the  blow-pipe.  A  very  great  variety  of  patterns 
was  produced;  a  tariff  of  the  year  x8oo  contains  an  enumeration 
of  562  spedes  and  a  vast  number  of  sub-spedes. 

The  efforts  made  in  France,  Germany  and  England,  in  the 
17th  and  x8th  centuries,  to  improve  the  manufacture  of  glass 
in  those  countries  had  a  very  injurioxis  effect  on  the  industry 
of  Murano.  The  invention  of  colourless  Bohemian  glass  brought 
in  its  train  the  practice  of  cutting  glass,  a  method  of  onuunenta- 
tion  for  which  Venetian  glass,  from  its  thinness,  was  ill  adapted. 
One  remarkable  man,  Giuseppe  Briatl,  exerted  himself,  with 
much  success,  both  in  working  in  the  old  Venetian  method  and 
also  in  Imitating  the  new  fashions  invented  in  Bohemia.  He 
was  especially  successful  in  making  vases  and  circular  dishes  of 
vitro  dl  trina;  one  of  the  latter  in  the  Correr  collection  at  Venice, 
believed  to  have  been  made  in  his  glass-house,  measures  55 
centimetres  (nearly  33  in.)  in  diameter.  The  vases  made  by 
him  are  as  elegant  in  form  as  the  best  of  the  Cinquecento  period, 
but  may  perhaps  be  distinguished  by  the  superior  purity  and 
brilliancy  of  the  glass.  He  also  niade  with  great  taste  and 
skill  large  lustres  and  mirrors  with  frames  of  ^ass  ornamented 
either  in  intaglio  or  with  foliage  of  various  colours.  He  obtained 
a  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  working  practised  in  Bohemia 
by  disguising  himself  as  a  porter,  and  thus  worked  for  three 
years  in  a  Bohemian  glass-house.  In  X736  he  obtained  a  patent 
at  Venice  to  manufacture  glass  in  the  Bohemian  maimer.  He 
died  in  1772. 

The  fall  of  the  repubb'c  was  accompanied  by  interruption  of 
trade  and  decay  of  manufaaure,  and  in  the  last,  years  of  the 
i8th  and  beginning  of  the  19th  century  the  glaw-making  of 
Murano  was  at  a  very  low  ebb.  In  the  year  X838  Signor  Bussolin 
revived  several  of  the  andent  processes  of  glass-working,  and 
this  revival  was  carried  on  by  C.  Pietro  Biguglia  in  X845,  and 
by  others,  and  later  by  Salviati,  to  whose  successful  efforU  the 
modem  renaissance  of  Venetian  art  glass  is  prindpally  due. 

The  fame  of  Venice  in  glass-making  so  completely  edipsed 
that  of  other  Italian  dtles  that  it  is  difficult  to  learn  much 
respecting  their  pn^ress  in  the  art.  Hartshome  and  Dillon  have 
drawn  attention  to  the  important  part  played  by  the  little 
Ligurian  town,  Altare,  as  a  centre  from  which  glass-workers 
migrated  to  all  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  said  that  the  glass  industry 
was  established  at  Altare,  in  the  xxth  century,  by  French 
craftsmen.  In  the  X4th  century  Muranese  glass-workers  settled 
there  ami  developed  the  industry.  It  ai^iears  that. as  early 
as  X29S  furnaces  had  been  established  at  Treviso,  Vicenx* 


I02 


^   GLASS 


Padua,  Mantua,  Ferraca,  Ravenna  and  dologna.  In  1634 
there  were  two  glass-boutes  in  Rome  and  one  in  Florence;  but 
whether  any  of  these  produced  ornamented  vessek,  or  only  articles 
of  common  use  and  window  ^ass,  woidd  not  appear  to  have  as 
yet  been  ascertained. 

Germany — Glass-making  in  Germany  during  the  Roman 
period  seems  to  have  been  carried  on  extensively  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Cologne.  The  Cologne  museum  contains  many  specimens 
of  Roman  glass,  some  of  which  are  remarkable  for  their  cut 
decoration.  The  craft  survived  the  downfall  of  the  Roman 
power,  and  a  native  industry  was  developed.  This  industry 
must  have  won  some  reputation,  for  in  758  the  abbot  of  J  arrow 
appealed  to  the  bishop  of  Mainz  to  send  him  a  worker  in  glass. 
There  are  few  records  of  glass  manufacture  in  Germany  before 
the  beginning  of  the  z6th  century.  The  positions  of  the  factories 
were  determined  by  the  supply  of  wood  for  fuel,  and  subse- 
quently, when  the  craft  of  glass-cutting  was  introduced,  by  the 
accessibility  of  water-power.  The  vessels  produced  by  the* 
16th-century  glass-workers  in  Germany,  Holland  and  the  Low 
Countries  are  closely  allied  in  form  and  decoration.  The  glass 
is  coloured  (generally  green)  and  the  decoration  consists  of  glass 
threads  and  glass  studs,  or  pnmts  {"  Nuppen  ")•  Tfie  use  of 
threads  and  prunts  is  illustrated  by  the  development  of  the 
"  Roemer,"  so  popular  as  a  drinking-glass,  and  as  a  feature 
in  Dutch  studies  of  still  life.  The  "  Igel,"  a  squat  tumbler 
covered  with  prunts,  gave  rise  to  the  *'  Krautsrunk,"  which  is 
like  the  "Igel,"  but  longer  and  narrbw-waisted.  The  "  Roemer  " 
itself  consists  of  a  cup,  a  short  waist  studded  with  prunts  and 
a  foot.  The  foot  at  first  was  formed  by  coiling  a  thread  of 
g^ass  round  the  base  of  the  waist;  but,  subsequently,  an  open 
glass  cone  was  joined  to  the  base  of  the  waist,  and  a  glass  thread 
was  coiled  upon  the  surface  of  the  cone.  The  "  Passglas," 
another  popular  drinking-glass,  is  cylindrical  in  form  and  marked 
with  horizontal  rings  of  glass,  placed  at  regular  intervals,  to 
indicate  the  quantity  of  liquor  to  be  taken  at  a  draught 

In  the  edition  of  1581  of  the  De  re  mdaUica  by  Georg  Agricola, 
there  is  a  woodcut  showing  the  interior  of  a  German  glass 
factory,  and  ^ass  vessels  both  finished  and  unfinished. 

In  1428  a  Muranese  glass-worker  set  up  a  furnace  in  Vienna, 
and  another  furnace  was  built  in  the  same  town  by  an  Italian 
in  i486.  In  1531  the  town  council  of  Nuremberg  granted  a 
subsidy  to  attract  teachers  of  Venetian  technique.  Many 
specimens  exist  of  German  winged  and  enamelled  glasses  of 
Venetian  character.  The  Venetian  influence,  however,  was 
indirect  rather  than  direct.  The  native  glass-workers  adopted 
the  process  of  enamelling,  but  applied  it  to  a  form  of  decoration 
characteristically  German.  On  tall,  roomy,  cylindrical  glasses 
they  painted  portraits  of  the  emperor  and  electors  of  Germany, 
or  the  imperial  eagle  bearing  on  its  wings  the  arms  of  the  states 
composing  the  empire.  The  earliest-known  example  of  these 
enamelled  glasses  bean  the  date  1553.  They  were  immensely 
popular  and  the  fashion  for  them  lasted  into  the  i8th  century. 
Some  of  the  later  ^ledmens  have  views  of  cities,  battle  scenes 
and  processions  painted  in  grisaille. 

A  more  important  outcome,  however,  of  Italian  influence  was 
the  production,  in  emidation  of  Venetian  ^ass,  of  a  glass  made 
of  refined  potash,  lime  and  sand,  which  was  more  colourless 
than  the  material  it  was  intended  to  imitate.  This  colourless 
potash-lime  glass  has  always  been  known  as  Bohemian  glass. 
It  was  well  adapted  for  receiving  cut  and  engraved  decoration, 
and  in  these  processes  the  German  craftsmen  proved  themselves 
to  be  exceptionally  skilful.  At  the  end  of  the  i6th  century 
Rudolph  II.  brought  Italian  rock-cryst^  cutters  from  Milan 
to  take  control  of  the  crystal  and  glass-cutting  works  he  had 
established  at  Prague,  tt  was  at  Prague  that  Caspar  Lehmann 
and  2^chaxy  BeUer  learnt  the  craft  of  cutting  glass.  George 
Schwanhart^  a  pupil  of  Caspar  Lehmann,  started  glass-cutting 
at  Ratisbim/  and  about  1690  Stephen  Schmidt  and  Hermann 
Schwinger  introduced  the  crafts  of  cutting  and  engraving 
glass  in  Nuremberg.  To  the  Germai^  must  be  credited  the 
discovery,  or  devdopment,  of  colourless  potash-lime  glass, 
the  reintroduction  of  the  crafts  of  cutting  and  engraving  on 


glass,  the  invention  by  H.  Schwanhart  of  the  process  of  etching 
on  glass  by  means  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  and  the  rediscovery  by 
J.  Kunkcl,  who  was  director  of  the  glass-houses  at  Potsdam  in 
1679,  of  the  method  of  making  copper-ruby  glass. 

Lovu  Countries  and  the  United  Provinces. — ^The  glass  industry 
of  the  Low  Countries  was  chiefly  influenced  by  Italy  and  Spain, 
whereas  German  influence  and  technique  predominated  in  the 
United  Provinces.  The  history  of  glass-making  in  the  provinces 
is  almost  identical  with  that  of  Germany  In  the  17th  and 
i8ih  centuries  the  processes  of  scratching,  engraving  and  etching 
were  brought  to  great  perfection. 

The  earliest  record  of  glass-making  in  the  Low  Countries 
consists  in  an  account  of  payments  made  in  1453-1454  on  behalf 
of  Philip  the  Good  of  Burgundy  to  "  Gossiun  de  VieugUse, 
Maitre  Vorrier  de  Lille  "  for  a  glass  fountain  and  four  glass 
plateaus.  .Schuermans  has  traced  Italian  glass-workers  to 
Antwerp,  Li6ge,  Brussels  and  Namur.  Antw^yp  appears  to 
have  been  the  headquarters  of  the  Muranese,  and  li^e  the 
headquarters  of  the  Altarists.  Guicciardini  in  his  description 
of  the  Netherlands,  in  1563,  mentions  glass  as  among  the  chief 
articles  of  export  to  England. 

In  1599  the  privilege  of  making ."  Voires  de  cristal  \  la  fascboa 
Venise,"  was  Ranted  to  Philippe  de  Gridolphi  of  Antwerp. 
In  1623  Anthony  Miotti,  a  Muranese,  addressed  a  petition  to 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain  for  permission  to'  make  glasses,  vases  and 
cups  of  fine  crystal,  equal  to  those  of  Venice,  but  to  be  sold  at 
one-third  less  than  Venetian  glasses.  In  1642  Jean  Savonettl 
"  gentilhomme  Verrier  de  Murano "  obtained  a  patent  for 
making  glass  in  Brussels.  The  Low  Country  glasses  are  closely 
copied  from  Venetian  models,  but  generally  are  heavier  and 
less  elegant.  Owing  to  the  fadiion  of  Dutch  and  Flemish  painters 
introducing  glass  vases  and  drinking-glasses  into  their  paintings 
of  still  life,  interiors  and  scenes  of  conviviality,  Holland  and 
Belgium  at  the  present  day  possess  more  accurate  records  of 
the  products  of  their  andent  glass  factories  than  any  other 
countries. 

Spain. — During  the  Roman  occupation  Pliny  states  that  glass 
was  made  "  per  Hispanias  "  {NiU.  Hist,  xxxvi.  26.  66).  Traces 
of  Roman  glass  manufactories  have  been  found  in  Valencia 
and  Murda,  in  the  valleys  which  run  down  to  the  coast  of  Cata- 
lonia, and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ebro.  Little  is  known  about 
the  condition  of  glass-making  in  Spain  between  the  Roman 
period  and  the  13th  century.  In  .the  Z3th  century  the  craft  of 
glass-making  was  practised  by  the  Moors  in  Almeria,  and  was 
probably  a  survival  from  Roman  times.  The  system  of  decorat- 
ing vases  and  vessels  by  means  of  strands  of  glass  trailed  upon 
the  surface  in  knots,  zigcags  and  trellis  work,  was  adopted  by 
the  Moors  and  is  characteristic  of  Roman  craftsmanship.  Glass- 
making  was  continued  at  Pinar  de  la  Vidriera  and  at  Al  Castril 
de  la  Pena  into  the  i7th  century.  The  objects  produced  show 
no  sign  of  Venetian  influence,  but  are  distinctly  Oriental  in  form. 
Many  of  the  vessels  have  four  or  as  many  as  eight  handles,  and 
are  decorated  with  serrated  ornamentation,  and  with  the  trailed 
strands  of  glass  already  referred  to.  The  glass  is  geherally  of  a 
dark-green  colour. 

Barcelona  has  a  long  record  as  a  centre  of  the  glass  industry. 
In  13  24  a  municipal  edict  was  issued  forbidding  the  erection 
of  glass-furnaces  within  the  dty.  In  1455  the  glass-makers  of 
Barcdona  were  permitted  to  form  agild.  .  Jeronimo  Paulo,  writing 
in  149 1,  say's  that  glass  vessels  of  various  sorts  were  tknt  thence 
to  many  places,  and  even  to  Rome.  Marfneus  Siculus,  writing 
eariy  in  the  i6th  century,  says  that  the  best  glass  was  made  at 
Barcelona;  and  Caspar  Baneiros,  in  his  CAroMir'a^Ato,  published 
in  1562,  states  that  the  glass  made  at  Barcelona  was  fimost 
equal  to  that  of  Vem'ce  and  that  large  quantities  were  e^Mrted. 

The  author  of  the  Atlante  espaAolt  writing  at  the  end  of  the 
x8th  century,  says  that  excellent  ^ass  was  still  made  at  Barcdona 
on  Venetian  models.  The  Italian  influence  was  strongly  fdt 
in  Spain,  but  Spanish  writers  have  given  no  ptedse  information 
as  to  when  it  was  introduced  or  whence  it  came.  Schuermans 
has,  however,  discovered  the  names  of  more  than  twenty  Italians 
who  found  their  way  into  Spain,  in  some  cases  by  way  of  Flanders, 


GLASS 


103 


fiom  Altare  or  from  Vtaice.  The  Spanish  gltw^malrers 
were  very  succci9ful  in  ihiitating  the  Venetian  ityle,  and  many 
spedmens  lupposed  to  have  originated  from.Murano  are  really 
Spanish.  In  addition  to  the  works  at  Barcelona,  the  works 
which  chiefly  affected  Venetian  metlyxb  were  those  of  Cadalso 
in  the  province  of  Toledo,  founded  in.  the  x6th  century,  and  the 
works  established  in  x68o  at  San  Martin  de  Valdeiglesias  in 
Avtia.  There  were  alao  works  at  Valdemaqueda  and  at  Vjlla- 
franca.  In  1680  the  works  in  Barcelona,  Valdemaqueda  and 
Villafranca  are  named  in  a  royal  schedule  giving  the  prices  at 
which  glass  was  to  be  sold  in  Madrid.  In  177a  important  glass 
works  were^cstablished  at  Recuenco  in  the  province  of  Cuenca, 
mainly  to  supply  Madrid.  The  royal  glass  manufactory  of  La 
Granja  de  San  Ddefonso'  was  founded  about  -173$;  in  the  first 
instance  for  the  manufacture  of.  mirror  plates,  but  subsequently 
for  the  production  of  vases  and  tab]e-w;aro  in  tjbe  French  style. 
The  objects  produced*  artf  mostly  of  .white  dear  glass,  cut, 
engraved  and  gflded.  Engraved  flowerf,  views  and  devices 
are  often  oomlnned  with  decorative  cutting.  *  0on  Sigismundo 
Brun  is  credited  with  the  invention  of  permanent  gilding  fixed 
by  heat  Spanish  glass  is  well  represented  in  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum. 

Franu. — Pliny  states  that  glass  was  made  in  Gaul,  and  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  made  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
and  on  a  considerable  scale.  There  were  glawnnsking  dist^cts 
both  in  Normandy  and  in  Poitou. 

Little  information  can  be  gathered  concerning  the  ^ass 
industry  between  the  Roman  period  and  the  X4th  century. 
It  is  recorded  tlult  in  the  7th  century  the  abbot  of  Wearmouth 
in  Eni^and  obtained  artifioen  in  ^^ass  from  France;  and  there 
b  a  tradition  that  in  the  xith  century  ^ass-workers  migrated 
from  Normandy  and  Brittany  and  set  up  works  at  Altare  near 
Genoa. 

In  1302  window  glass,  probably  crown-glass,  was  made  at 
Bcza  le  For£t  in  the  department  of  the  Eure.  In  1416  these 
works  were  in  the  hands  of  Robin  and  Leban  Guichard,  but 
passed  subsequently  to  the  Le  Vaillants. 

In  1338  Humbert,  the  dauphin,  granted  a  part  of  the  forest 
of  Chamborant  to  a  glass-worker  named  Guionet  on  the  condition 
that  Guionet  should  supply  him  with  vessels  of  glass. 

In  1466  the  abbess  of  St  Croix  of  Poitiers  received  a  gross 
of  passes  from  the  glass-works  of  La  Ferridre,  for  the  privilege 
of  gathering  fern  for  the  manufacture  of  potash. 

In  France,  as  in  other  countries,  efi^orts  were  made  to  intro* 
duce  Italian  methods  of  ^ass-working.  Schuermans  in  his 
researches  discovered  that  during  the  xsth  and  x6th  centuries 
nuny  ^ass-workers  left  Altare  and  settled  in  France, — the 
Saroldi  migrated  to  Poitou,  the  Fern  to  Provence,  the  Massari  to 
Lorraine  and.  the  Bormioli  to  Normandy.  In  X5SX  Henry  II. 
01  France  established  at  St  Germain  en  Laye  an  Italian  named 
Mtttio;  he  was'  a  native  of  Bologna,  but  of  Altare  origin.  In 
I5q3  Henry  IV.  permitted  two  "  gentil  hommcs  verrien  *'  from 
Mantua  to  settle  at  Rouen  in  order  to  make  "  verres  de  cristal, 
verres  dor£e  emaul  et  autres  ouvrages  qui  se  font  en  Venise.'* 

France  assimilated  the  craft  of  glass-making,  and  her  crafts- 
men acquired  a  wide  reputation.  Lonaine  and  Normandy 
appear  to  have  been  the  most  important  centres.  To  Lorraine 
belong  the  weU-known  names  Hennezel,  de  ThieCry,  du  Thisac, 
dc  Houx;  and  to  Normandy  the  names  de  Bongar,  de  Cacqueray 
It  Vaillant  and  de  Brossard. 

.  In  the  X7th  century  the  manufacture  of  mirror  glass  became 
an  important  branch  of  the  industry.  In  X665  a  manufactory 
was  established  in  the  Faubourg  $t  Antouae  in  Paris,  and  another 
at  Tour-b-Ville  near  Cherbourg. 

Louis  Lucas  de  Nehou,  who  succeeded  de  Cacquexay  at  the 
works  at  Tour-la-ViUe,  moved  in  1675  to  the  works  in  Paris. 
Here,  in  x688,  in  conjunction  with  A.  Thevart,  he  succeeded 
ia  perfecting  the  process  of  casting  plate-glass.  Mirror  plates 
prrvious  to  the  invention  had  been  made  from  blown  "  sheet  " 
g|a».  and  were  consequently  very  Umited  in  sixe.  De  Ndiou's 
process  of  rolling  moltengUtfs  poured  on  an  iron  table  rendered 
the  maaufaaure  of  very  large  plates  possible. 


The  Manufactoire  Royale  des  Glaoes  was  removed  in  1693  to 
the  Chateau  de  St  Gobain. 

In  the-  x8th  century  the  manufacture  of  vases  de  vtne  had 
become  so  neglected  that  the  Academy  of  Sdences  in  X759 
offered  a  prize  for  an  essay  on  xhe  means  by  which  the  industry 
might  be  revived  (Labarte,  HisUrire  des  arts  induslriels). 

The  famous  Baccarat  works,  f^  making  cryB^l  glass,  were 
founded  in  x8x8  by  d'Artigues. 

Engiisk  Gass.—Tbc  records  of  ^ass-making  in  FwgUnH  are 
fxfmli'ngly  meagre*  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  during  the 
Roman  occupation  the  craft  was  carried  on  in  several  parts  of 
the  country.  •  Remains  of  a  Roman  glass  manufactory  of  con- 
siderable extent,  were  discovered  near  the  Manchester  Ship 
Caxud  at  Warrington.  Wherever  the  Romans  settled  glass 
vessds  .and  fragments  of  glass  have  been  found.  Thoe  is  no 
evidence  to  prove  that  the  industry  survived  the  withdrawal 
<>f  the  Roman  garrison. 

It  is  probable  that  the  glass  drinking-vessels,  which  have  been 
found  in  pre-Christian  Anglo-Saxon  tombs,  were  introduoed 
from  Germany.  Some  are  elaborate  in  design  and  bear  witness 
to  advanced  technique  of  Roman  character.  In  67s  Benedict 
Bisoop,  abbot  of  Wearmouth,  was  obliged  to  obtain  glass-workers 
from  France,  and  in  758  Cuthbert,  abbot  of  Jarrow,  appealed 
to  the  bishop  of  Mainz  to  send  him  artisans  to  manufacture 
"  windows  and  vessels  of  glass,  because  the  En^^lish  were  ignorant 
andhdpless."  Except  for  the  statement  in  Bede  that  the  French 
artisans,  sent  by  Benedict  Biscop,  taught  .their  craft  to  the 
English,  there  is  at  present  no  evidence  of  {jass  having  been  made 
in  England  between  the  Roman  period  and  the  X3th  century. 
In  some  deeds  relating  to  the  pariah  of  Chiddingfold,  in  Surrey, 
of  a  date  not  later  than  1230,  a  grant  is  recorded  of  twenty 
acres  of  land  to  Lawrence  "  vitrearius,"  and  in  another  deed, 
of  about  1280,  the  "  ovenhusvdd  "  is  mentioned  as  a  boundary. 
This  fidd  has  been  identified,  and  pieces  of  crudble  and  fragments 
of  glass  have  been  dug  up.  There  is  another  deed,  dated  1300, 
which  mentions  one  William  "  le  verir  "  of  Chiddingfold. 

About  X350  considerable  quantities  of  colouriess  flat  glass 
were  supplied  by  John  Alemayn  of  Chiddingfold  for  glazing 
the  windows  in  St  George's  chapd,  Windsor,  and  in  the  chapd 
of  St  Stephen,  Westminster.  Hie  name  Alemayn  (Aleman) 
suggests  a  foreign  origin.  In  1380  John  Glasewryth,  a  Stafford- 
shire glass-worker,  came  to  work  at  Shuerewode,  Kirdford, 
and  there  made  brode-glas  and  vessels  for  Joan,  widow  of 
John  Shertere. 

There  were  two  kinds  of  flat  glass,  known  respectivdy  as 
"  brode-g^as  "  and  "  Normandy  "  ^ass.  The  former  was  made, 
as  described  by.  Theophilus,  from  cylinders,  which  were  split, 
reheated  and  flattened  into  square  sheets.  It  was  known  as 
Lorraine  glass,  and  subsequently  as  "  German  sheet  "  or  sheet- 
glass.  Normandy  glass  was  made  from  glass  drdes  or  disks. 
When,  in  after  years,  the  process  was  perfected,  the  fsJitaa  was 
known  as  "crown"  glass.  In  1447  Engfish  flat  glass  is 
mentioned  in  the  contract  for  the  windows  of  the  Beauchamp 
chapd  at  Warwick,  but  disparagingly,  as  the  contractor  binds 
hlmiself  not  to  use  it.  In  1486,  however,  it  is  rderred  to  in  such 
a  way  as  to  suggest  that  it  was  superior  to  "  Dutch,  Venice  or 
Normandy  glass."  The  industry  does  not  seem  to  have  prospered, 
for  when  in  1567  an  inquiry  was  made  as  to  its  condition,  it  was 
ascertained  that  only  smaU  rough  goods  were  being  made. 

In  the  x6lh  century  the  fs^on  for  using  gjass  vessels  of 
ornamental  character  spread  from  Italy  into  France  and  England. 
Henry  VIII.  had  a  large  coUectibn  of  glass  drinking-vessels 
chiefly  of  Venetian  manufacture.  The  increasing  demand  for 
Venetian  drinking-glasses  suggested  the  possibility  of  making 
similar  glass  in  England,  and  various  attempts  were  made  to 
introduce  Venetian  workmen  and  Venetian  methods  of  manu- 
facture. In  X550  dght  Muranese  glass-blowers  were  working  in 
or  near  the  Tower  of  London.  They  had  left  Murano  owing  to 
slackness  of  trade,  but  had  been  recalled,  and  appealed  to  the 
Coundl  of  Ten  in  Venice  to  be  allowed  to  comf^ete  thdr  contract 
in  London.  Seven  of  these  glass-woriiers  left  London  in  the 
following  year,  but  one,  Josepho  Casselari,  remained  and  jotnec' 


104 


GLASS 


ThomaJB  Cavato,  a  Dutclunan.  In  1574  Jacob  Verzdlini,  a 
fugitive  Venetian,  residing  in  Antiverp,  obtained  a  patent  for 
making  drioking-glaafies  in  London  "such  as  are  made  in 
Murano."  He  established  works  in  Cmtched  Friars,  and  to  him 
is  probably  due  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  soda-ash,  made 
from  seaweed  and  seaside  plants,  in  place  of  the  crude  potash 
made  from  fern  and  wood  ashes.  His  manufactory  was  burnt 
down  in  1575,  but  was  rebuilt.  He  afterwards  moved  his  works 
to  Winchester  House,  Broad  Street.  There  is  a  small  goblet 
(PL  I.,  fig.  8)  in  the  British  Museum  whidi  is  attributed  to 
Verzellini.  It  is  Venetian  in  character,  of  a  brownish  tint,  with 
two  white  enamel  lings  round  the  body.  It  is  decorated  with 
diamond  or  steel-point  etching,  and  bears  on  one  side  the  date 
1586,  and  on  the  opposite  side  the  words  "  In  God  is  al  ml  trust." 
Verzellini  died  in  x6o6  and  was  buried  at  Down  in  Kent.  In 
1592  the  Broad  Street  works  had  been  taken  over  by  Jerome 
Bowes.  They  afterwards  passed  into  the  bands  of  Sir  R.  Mansel, 
and  in  x6i8  James  Howell,  author  of  EpiHolae  Ho-dianaet  was 
acting  as  steward.  The  works  continued  in  operation  until  1641. 
During  excavations  in  Broad  Street  in  1874  many  fragments 
of  s^ass  were  found;  amongst  them  were  part  of  a  wine-glass, 
a  square  scent-bottle  and  a  wine-glass  stem  containing  a  spiral 
thread  of  white  enamel 

A  greater  and  more  lasting  influence  on  English  glass-making 
came  from  France  and  the  Low  Countries.  In  1567  James 
Carr^  of  Antwerp  stated  that  he  had  erected  two  glass-houses 
at  *'  Femefol "  (Femfold  Wood  in  Sussex)  for  Normandy  and 
Lorraine  glass  for  windows,  and  had  brought  over  workmen. 
From  this  period  began  the  records  in  England  of  the  great 
glass-making  families  of  Hcnnexel,  de  Thietry,  du  Thisac  and  du 
Houx  from  Lorraine,  and  of  de  Bongar  and  de  Cacqueray  from 
Normandy.  About  this  time  glass-works  were  established  at 
Ewhurst  and  Alford  in  Surrey,  Loxwood,  Kirdford,  Wisborough 
and  Petworth  in  Sussex,  atad  Sevenoaks  and  Pcnshurst  in  Kent. 
Beginning  in  Sussex,  Surrey  and  Kent,  where  wood  for  fuel 
was  plentiful,  the  foreign  glass-workers  and  their  descendants 
migrated  from  place  to  place,  always  driven  by  the  fuel-hunger 
of  their  furnaces.  They  gradually  made  their  way  into  Hamp- 
shire, Wiltshire,  Gloucestershire,  Staffordshire,  Northumberiand, 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  They  can  be  traced  by  cullet  heaps  and 
broken-down  furnaces,  and  by  their  names,  often  mutilated, 
recorded  in  parish  registers. 

In  16  zo  a  patent  was  granted  to  Sir  W.  Slingsby  for  burning 
coal  in  furnaces,  and  coal  appears  to  have  been  used  in  the 
Broad. Street  worics.  In  16 15  all  patents  for  glass-making 
were  revoked  and  a  new  patent  issued  for  making  i^ass  with 
cool  as  fuel,  in  the  names  of  Mansel,  Zouch,  Thelwall,  Kellaway 
and  Perdval.  To  the  last  is  credited  the  first  introduction  of 
covered  crucibles  to  protect  the  molten  glass  from  the  products 
of  burning  coaL 

Simultaneously  with  the  issue  of  this  patent  the  use  of  wood 
for  melting  glass  was  prohibited,  and  it  was  made  illegal  to  import 
glass  from  abroad.  About  16x7  Sir  R.  Mansel,  vice-admiral 
and  treasurer  of  the  navy,  acquired  the  sole  rights  of  making 
glass  in  England.  These  rights  he  retained  for  over  thirty  years. 
.  During  the  protectorate  all  patent  rights  virtually  lapsed, 
and  mirrors  and  drinking-glasses  were  once  more  imported  from 
Venice.  In  X663  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  although  unable  to 
obtain  a  renewal  of  the  monopoly  of  glass-making,  secured  the 
prohibition  of  the  importation  of  glass  for  mirrors,  coach  plates, 
spectacles,  tubes  and  lenses,  and  contributed  to  the  revival  of 
the  glass  industry  in  all  its  branches.  Evelyn  notes  in  his 
Diary  a  visit  in  1673  to  the  Italian  glass-house  at  Greenwich, 
"  where  glass  was  blown  of  finer  metal  than  that  of  Murano,"  and 
a  visit  in  1677  to  the  duke  of  Buckingham's  glass-works,  where 
they  made  huge  "  vases  of  mettal  as  cleare,  ponderous  and 
thick  as  chrystal;  also  looking-glasses  far  larger  and  better 
than  any  that  came  from  Venice." 

Some  light  is  thrown  on  the  condition  of  the  industry  at  the 
end  of  the  X  7  th  century  by  the  Houghton  letters  on  the  improve- 
ment of  trade  and  commerce,  which  appeared  in  1696.  A  few 
of  these  letters  deal  with  the  glass  trade,  and  in  one  a  list  is 


given  of  the  glass-works  then  in  operation.    There  were  88  g|a» 

factories  in  England  which  are  thus  classified: 

Bottles .39 

LookinK-glaas  plates      ....     2 

Crown  and  plate-glass  ....    5 

Window  glass     ......  15 

Flint  andordinary  glass     ...  37 

88 

It  is  probable  that  the  flint-g^ass  of  that  date  was  very  different 
from  the  flint-cjass  of  to-day.  The  term  flint-glass  is  now 
tmdostood  to  mean  a  glass  composed  of  the  silicates  of  potash 
and  lead.  It  is  the  most  brilliant  and  the  most  colourless 
of  all  passes,  and  was  undoubtedly  first  perfected  in  En^and. 
Hartshome  has  attributed  its  discovery  to  a  London  merchant 
named  Tilson,  who  in  X663  obtained  a  patent  for  making 
"crystal  glass."  E.  W.  Hulme,  however,  who  has  carefully 
investigated  the  subject,  is  of  opinion  that  flint-^ass  in  its 
present  form  was  introduced  about  X73a  The  use  of  oxide  of 
lead  in  glass-making  was  no  new  thing;  it  had  been  used, 
mainly  as  a  flux,  both  by  Romans  and  Venetians.  The  invention, 
if  it  may  be  regarded  as  one,  consisted  in  eliminating  lime  from 
the  glass  mixture,  substituting  refined  potash  for  soda,  and  using 
a  very  large  proportion  of  lesul  oxide.  It  Is  probable  that  flint- 
glass  was  not  invented,  but  gradually  evolved,  that  potash-lead 
glasses  were  in  use  during  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century, 
but  that  the  mixture  was  not  perfected  until  the  middle  of  the 
following  century. 

The  1 8th  century  saw  a  great  development  in  all  branches  of 
glass-making.  CoUectors  of  glass  axe  chiefly  tencemed  with  the 
drinking-glasses  which  were  produced  in  great  profusion  and 
adapted  for  every  description  of  beverage.  The  most  noted 
are  the  glasses  with  stout  cylindrical  legs  (PUte  I.  fig.  9),  con- 
taining spiral  threads  of  air,  or  of  white  or  coloured  enamel 
To  this  type  of  glass  belong  many  of  the  Jacobite  glasses  which 
commemorate  the  old  or  the  young  Pretender. 

In  X746  the  industry  was  in  a  sufiiciently  prosperous  condition 
to  tempt  the  government  to  impose  an  excise  duty.  The  report 
of  the  commission  of  excise,  dealing  with  glass,  published  in  1835 
is  curious  and  interesting  reading.  So  burdensome  was  the  duty 
and  so  vexatious  were  the  restrictions  that  it  is  a  matter  for 
wonder  that  the  industry  survived.  In  this  respect  England 
was  more  fortunate  than  Ireland.  Before  X835,  when  the  excise 
duty  was  introduced  into  Ireland,  there  were  flourishing  glass- 
works in  Belfast,  Cork,  Dublin  and  Waterford.  By  1850  the 
Irish  gUss  industry  had  been  practically  destroyed.  Injurious 
as  the  exdse  duty  undoubtedly  was  to  the  glass  trade  generally, 
and  especially  to  the  flint-glass  industry,  it  is  possible  that  it 
may  have  helped  to  develop  the  art  of  decorative  glass-cutting. 
The  duty  on  flint-glass  was  imposed  on  the  molten  glass  in  the 
crucibles  and  on  the  unfinished  goods.  The  manufacturer  had, 
therefore,  a  strong  inducement  to  enhance  by  every  means  in  his 
power  the  selling  value  of  his  glass  after  it  had  escaped  the 
exciseman's  clutches.  He  therefore  employed  the  best  available 
art  and  skill  in  improving  the  craft  of  ^ass-cutting.  It  is 
the  development  of  this  craft  in  connexion  with  the  perfecting 
of  flint-glass  that  makes  the  x8th  century  the  m<»t  important 
period  in  the  history  of  English  glass-making.  Glass-cutting 
was  a  craft  imported  from  Germany,  but  the  English  material 
so  greatly  surpassed  Bohemian  glass  in  brilliance  that  the 
Bohemian  cut-glass  was  eclipsed.  Glass-cutting  was  carried  on 
at  works  in  Birmingham,  Bristol,  Belfast,  Cork,  Dublin,  Glas- 
gow, London,  Newcastle,  Stourbridge,  Whittington  and  Water- 
ford.  The  most  important  centres  of  the  craft  were  London, 
Bristol,  Birmingham  and  Waterford  (see  Plate  I.,  fig.  xo,  for 
oval  cut-glass  Waterford  bowl).  The  finest  specimens  of  cut- 
glass  belong  to  the  period  between  1780  and  x8xa  Owing 
to  the  sacrifice  of  form  to  prismatic  brilliance,  cut-glass  gradually 
lost  its  artistic  value.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  19th  century 
it  became  the  fashion  to  regard  all  cut-glass  as  barbarous,  and 
.services  of  even  the  best  period  were  neglected  and  dispersed. 
At  the  present  time  scarcely  anything  is  known  about  the 
origin  of  the  few  specimens  of  x8th-century  English  cut-glass 


GLASS,  STAINED 


105 


which  have  been  preserved  in  public  collections.  It  is  strange 
that  so  little  interest  has  been  taken  in  a  craft  in  which  for 
some  thirty  years  England  surpassed  all  competitors,  creating 
a  wave  of  fashion  which  influenced  the  glass  industry  throughout 
the  whole  of  Europe. 

In  the  report  of  the  Excise  Commission  a  list  is  given  of  the 
glass  manufactories  which  paid  the  excise  duty  in  1833.  There 
were  105  factories  in  England,  10  In  Scotland  and  10  in  Ireland. 
In  England  ther  chief  centres  of  the  industry  were  Bristol, 
Birmingham,  London,  Manchester,  Newcastle,  Stourbridge 
and  York.  Plate-glass  was  made  by  Messra  Cookson  of  New- 
castle, and  by  the  British  Plate  Glass  Company  of  Ravenhcad. 
Crown  and  German  sheet-glass  were  made  by  Messrs  Chance  & 
Hartley  of  Birmingham.  The  London  glass-works  were  those 
of  Apsley  PcUatt  of  Blackfriars,  Christie  of  Stangate,  and  W|lliam 
Holmes  of  Whitefriars.  In  Scotland  there  were  works  in  Glasgow, 
Leith  and  Portobello.  In  Ireland  there  were  works  in  Belfast, 
Cork,  Dublin  and  Waterford.  The  famous  Waterford  works 
were  in  the  hands  of  Gatchell  &  Co. 

.  /iiiMi.— Pliny  sutes  (Nat.  Hiit.  xxxvi.  a6.  66)  that  no  glass 
was  to  be  compared  to  the  Indian,  and  gives  as  a  reason  that  it 
was  made  from  broken  crystal;  and  in  another  passage  (xii. 
19,  42)  be  says  that  the  Tro^odytes  brought  to  Ocelis  (Ghella 
near  Bab-el-Mandeb)  objects  d.  ^ass.  We  have,  however, 
very  little  knowledge  of  Indiangiass  of  any  considerable  antiquity. 
A  few  small  vesscb  have  been  found  in  the  "  topes,"  as  in  that 
At  Manlkxala  in  the  Punjab,  which  probably  dates  from  about 
the  Christian  era;  but  they  exhibit  no  remarkable  character, 
aod  fragments  found  at  Brahmanabad  are  hardly  distinguishable 
from  Roman  glass  of  the  imperial  period.  Tlie  chronicle  of  the 
Sinhalese  kings,  the  Makavamsa,  however,  asserts  that  mirrors 
ct  glittering  glass  were  carried  in  procession  in  306  B.C.,  and  beads 
like  gems,  and  windows  with  onfaments  like  jewels,  are  also 
mentioned  at  about  the  same  date.  If  there  really  was  an 
important  manufacture  of  glass  in  Ceylon  at  this  early  time, 
that  island  perhaps  furnished  the  Indian  glass  of  Pliny.  In  the 
later  part  of  the  x  7th  century  some  glass  decorated  with  enamel 
was  made  at  DelhL  A  specimen  is  in  the  Indian  section  of  the 
Soyth  Kensington  Museum.  Glass  is  made  in  several  parts  of 
India — as  Patna  and  Mysore — ^by  very  simple  and  primitive 
methods,  and  the  residts  are  correspondingly  defective.  Black, 
green,  ltd,  blue  and  jrellow  glasses  are  made,  which  contain  a 
large  proportion  of  alkali  and  are  readily  fusible.  The  greater 
part  is  worked  into  bangles,  but  some  small  bottles  are  blown 
(Buchanan,  Jmimey  through  Mysore^  \.  147,  iii.  369). 

Ptrtia, — No  very  remarkable  specimens  of  Persian  glass  are 
known  in  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  some  vessels  of  blue 
ghss  richly  decorated  with  gold.  These  probably  date  fcpm 
the  17th  century,  for  Chardin  tells  us  that  the  windows  of  the 
tomb  of  Shah  Abbas  U.  (ob.  1666),  at  Kum,  were  "  de  crista! 
pdnt  d'or  et  d'azur."  At  the  present  day  bottles  and  drinking- 
vessels  are  made  in  Persia  which  in  texture  and  quality  differ 
little  from  ordinary  Venetiaui  glass  of  the  i6th  or  17th  centuries, 
while  in  form  th^r  exactly  resemble  those  which  may  be  seen 
in  the  engravings  in  Chardin's  Travels. 

China. — The  history  of  the  manufacttue  of  glass  in  China  is 
obscure,  but  the  common  opinion  that  it  was  learnt  from 
the  Europeans  in  the  17th  century  seems  to  be  erroneous.  A 
writer  in  the  iiimoires  eoncemant  Us  Chinois  (ii.  46)  states 
00  the  authority  of  the  annals  of  the  Han  dynasty,  that  the 
emperor  Wu-ti  (z4o  B.c.)  had  a  manufactory  of  the  kind  of  glass 
called  "  lieou-li "  (probably  a  form  of  opaque  glass),  that  in  the 
beginning  of  the  3rd  century  of  our  era  the  emperor  Tsaou-tsaou 
received  from  the  West  a  considerable  present  of  glasses  of  all 
ooloiin,  and  that  soon  after  a  glass-maker  catte  into  the  country 
who  taught  the  art  to  the  natives. 

The  Wei  dynasty,  to  which  Tsaou-tsaou  belonged,  reigned  in 
northern  China,  and  at  this  day  a  considerable  manufacture 
of  ^ass  is  carried  on  at  Po-shan-hien  in  Shantung,  which  it 
would  seem  has  existed  for  a  long  period.  The  Rev.  A.  William* 
ton  {Journeys  in  North  Chma,  i.  131)  says  that  the  glass  is 
extremely  pure,  and  is  made  from  the  rocks  in  the  neighbourhood. 


The  rocks  are  probably  of  quarts,  t.e.  rock  crystal,  a  correspond- 
once  with  Pliny's  statement  respecting  Indian  glass  which  seems 
deserving  of  attention. 

Whether  the  making  of  glass  in  China  was  an  original  dis- 
covery pf  that  ingenious  people,  or  was  derived  via  Ceylon  from 
Egypt,  cannot  perhaps  be  now  ascertained;  the  manufacture 
has,  however,  never  greatly  extended  itself  in  China.  The  case 
has  been  the  converse  of  that  of  the  Romans;  the  latter  had  no 
fine  pottery,  and  therefore  employed  glass  as  the  material  for 
vessels  of  an  ornamental  kind,  for  table  services  and  the  like. 
The  Chinese,  on  the  contrary,  having  from  an  early  period  had 
excellent  porcelain,  have  been  careless  about  the  manufacture  of 
glass.  A  Chinese  writer,  however,  mentions  the  manufacture 
of  a  huge  vase  in  a.d.  627,  and  in  11 54  Edrisi  (first  climate,  tenth 
section)  mentions  Chinese  glass.  A  glass  vase  about  a  foot  high 
is  preserved  at  Nara  in  Japan,  and  is  alleged  (o  have  been  placed 
there  in  the  8th  century.  It  seems  probable  that  this  is  of 
Chinese  manufacture.  A  writer  in  the  Mtmowes  concernani 
Us  Chinois  (ii.  463  and  477),  writing  about  1770,  says  that 
there  was  then  a  glass-house  at  Peking,  where  every  year  a 
good'  number  of  vases  were  nuule,  some  requiring  great  labour 
because  nothing  was  blown  (rien  n'est  soufB6),  meaning  no  doubt 
that  the  ornamentation  was  produced  not  by  blowing  and  mould- 
ing, but  by  cutting.  This  factory  was,  however,  merely  an 
appendage  to  the  imperial  magnificence.  The  earliest  articles 
of  Chinese  glass  the  date  of  which  has  been  ascertained,  which 
have  been  noticed,  are  some  bearing  the  name  of  the  emperor 
Kienlung  (1735-1795),  one  of  which  is  in  the  Victoria  axyi  Albert 
Museum. 

In  the  manufacture  of  ornamental  glass  the  leading  idea 
in  China  seems  to  be  the  imitation  of  natural  stones.  The 
coloured  glass  is  usually  not  of  one  bright  colour  throughout, 
but  semi-transparent  and  marbled;  the  ooloura  in  many  insfanrrs 
are  singulariy  fine  and  harmoniouSk  As  in  1770,  carving  or  cut- 
ting Is  the  diief  method  by  which  ornament  is  produced,  the 
vessels  being  blown  very  solid. 

Bibliography.— OcoivAgricola,  De  re  fiMtatftca  (Basel,  .1556); 
Percy  Bate.  EHtlisk  TabUGuss  (n.d.) ;  G.  Bontemps,  Guide  du  verrier 
(Pans,  1868):  Edward  Dillon.  Glass  (London,  1907);  C.  C.  Edgar. 
"  Gracco-Egyptian  Glaas.'*  Catalogue  du  Musie  du  Caire  (1905) ; 
Sir  A.  W.  Franks.  Guide  to  Glass  Room  in  British  Museum  (1888); 
Rev.  A.  Hallen,  "  Glass-making  in  Sussex."  Scottish  Antiquary^ 
No.  2%  (1893):  Albert  Hartshome,  Old  English  Classes  (London); 
E.  W.  Hulme. "  English Giass-making  in  XVI.  andXVlI.  Centuries." 
The  Antiquary,  Nos.  59.  60.  63.  64.  6^:  Alexander  Nesbitt.  "  Class," 
Art  Handbook,  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum;  E.  Peligot,  Le  Verre, 
son  kistoire,  sa  fabrication  (Paris,  1878);  Apsley  Pellatt,  Curiosities 


cenic  Glass,"  Archaeotogia,  vol.  58.  part  i.;  Juan  F.  Rtano, 
"Spanish  Arts,"  AH  Handbooh,  Vktoria  and  Albert  Museum: 
H.  Schuennans,  "  Muianese  and  Altarist  Glass  Workers,"-  eleven 
letters:  Bulletins  des  commissions  royaJes  (Brussels,  1883,  1891). 
For  the  United  States,  see  vol.  x.  of  Reports  of  the  12th  Census,  pp. 
Q4<)-iooo.  and  Special  Report  of  Census  of  Manufactures  (1905),  Part 
III.,  pp.  837-935.  (A.  Nb.;  H.  J.  P.) 

GLASS.  STAIMED.  All  coloured  glass  is,  strictly  speaking, 
"  stained  "  by  some  metallic  oxide  added  to  it  in  the  process 
of  manufacture.  But  the  term  "  stained  glass  "  is  popularly, 
as  well  as  technically,  used  in  a  more  limited  sense,  and  is  under- 
stood to  refer  to  stained  ^ass  windows.  Still  the  words  "  stained 
glass"  do  not  fully  describe  what  is  meant;  for  the  glass  in 
coloured  windows  is  for  the  most  part  not  only  stained  but 
painted.  Such  painting  was,  however,  until  comparatively 
modem  times,  used  only  to  give  details  of  drawing  and  to  define 
form.  The  colour  in  a  stained  glass  window  was  not  painted 
on  the  glass  but  incorporated  in  it,  mixed  with  it  in  the  making — 
whence  the  term  "  pot-metal "  by  which  self-coloured  glass  is 
known,  i.e.  glass  coloured  in  the  melting  pot. 

A  medieval  window  was  consequently  a  patchwork  of  variously 
coloured  pieces.  And  the  earlier  its  date  the  more  surely  was 
it  a  mosaic,  not  in  the  form  of  tesserae,  but  in  the  manner 
known  as  "  opus  sectile."  Shaped  pieces  of  coloured  glass  were, 
that  is  to  say,  put  together  like  the  parts  of  a  puule.    The 


io6 


GLASS,  STAINED 


nearest  approach  to  an  exception  to  tliis  rule  is  a  fragment  at 
the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  in  which  actual  tesserae  are 
fused  together  into  a  solid  slab  of  many-coloured  glass,  in  effect 
a  window  panel,  through  which  tlie  light  shines  with  all  the 
brilliancy  of  an  Early  Gothic  window.  But  apart  from  the  fact 
that  the  design  proves  in  this  case  to  be  even  more  effective 
with  the  h'ght  upon  it,  the  use  of  gold  leaf  in  the  tesserae  con- 
firms the  presumption  that  this  work,  which  (supposing  it  to 
be  genuine)  would  be  Byzantine,  centuries  eariier  than  any 
coloured  windows  that  we  know  of,  and  entirely  different  from 
them  in  technique,  is  rather  a  specimen  of  fused  mosaic  that 
happens  to  be  translucent  than  part  of  a  window  designedly 
executed  in  tesserae. 

The  Eastern  (and  possibly  the  earlier). practice  was  to  set 
chips  of  coloured  glass  in  a  heavy  fretwork  of  stone  or  to  imbed 
them  in  plaster.  In  a  medieval  window  they  were  held  together 
by  strips  of  lead,  in  section  something  like  the  letter  H,  the 
upright  strokes  of  which  represent  the  "  tapes"  extending  on 
either  side  well  over  the  edges  of  the  glass,  and  the  crossbar  the 
connecting  "  core  "  between  them.  The  leading  was  sddered 
together  at  the  points  of  junction,  cement  or  putty  was  rubbed 
into  the  crevices  between  glass  and  lead,  and  the  window  was 
attached  (by  means  of  copper  wires  soldered  on  to  the  leads) 
to  iron  saddle-bars  let  into  the  masonry. 

Stained  glass  was  primarily  the  art  of  the  glazier;  but  the 
painter,  called  in  to  help,  asserted  himself  more  and  more,  and 
eventually  took  it  almost  entirely  into  his  own  hands.  Between 
the  period  when  it  was  glazier's  work  eked  out  by  painting 
and  when  it  was  painter's  work  with  the  aid  of  the  glazier  lies 
the  entire  development  of  stained  and  painted  window-making. 
With  the  eventual  endeavour  of  the  giaiss  painter  to  do  without 
the  glazier,  and  'to  get  the  colour  by  painting  in  translucent 
enatnd  upon  colourless  glass,  we  have  the  beginning  of  a  form  of 
art  no  longer  monumental  and  comparatively  trivial. 

This  evolution  of  the  painted  window  from  a  patchwork  of 
little  pieces  of  coloured  glass  explains  itself  when  it  is  remembered 
that  coloured  glass  was  originally  not  made  in  the  big  sheets 
produced  nowadays,  but  at  first  in  jewels  to  look  as  much  as 
possible  like  rubies,  sapphires,  emeralds  and  other  precious 
stones,  and  afterwards  in  rounds  and  sheets  of  small  dimensions. 
Though  som^of  the  earliest  windows  were  in  the  form  of  pure 
glazing  ("  leaded-lights  ")» the  addition  of  painting  seems  to  have 
been  customary  from  the  very  first.  It  was  a  means  of  render- 
ing detail  not  to  be  got  in  lead:  Glazing  affords  by  itself  scope 
for  beautiful  pattern  work;  but  the  old  glaziers  never  carried  their 
art  as  far  as  they  might  have  done  in  the  direction  of  ornament; 
their  aim  was  always  in  the  direction  of  picture;  the  idea  was  to 
make  windows  serve  the  purpose  of  coloured  story  books.  That 
was  beyond  the  art  of  the  glazier.  It  was  easy  enough  to  repre- 
sent the  drapery  of  a  saint  by  red  glass,  the  ground  on  which  he 
stood  by  green,  the  sky  above  by  blue,  his  crown  by  yellow, 
the  scroll  in  his  hand  by  white,  and  his  flesh  by  brownish  pink; 
but  when  it  came  to  showing  the  folds  of  red  drapery,  blades  of 
green  grass,  details  of  goldsmith's  work,  lettering  on  the  scroll, 
the  features  of  the  face — the  only  possible  way  of  doing  it  was 
by  painting.  The  use  of  paint  was  confined  at  first  to  an  opaque 
brown,  used,  not  as  colour,  but  only  as  a  means  of  stopping  out 
h'ght,  and  in  that  way  defining  comparatively  delicate  details 
within  the  lead  lines.  These  themselves  outlined  and  defined 
the  main  forms  of  the  design.  The  pigment  used  by  the  glass 
painter  was  of  course  vitreous:  it  consisted  of  powdered  glass 
and  sundry  metallic  oxides  (copper,  iron,  manganese,  &c.), 
so  that,  when  the  pieces  of  painted  ^lass  were  made  red  hot  in 
the  kiln,  the  powdered  glass  became  fused  to  the  surface,  and 
with  it  the  dense  colouring  matter  also.  When  the  pieces  of 
painted  glass  were  afterwards  glazed  together  and  seen  against 
the  light,  the  design  appeared  in  the  brilliant  colour  of  the  glass, 
its  forms  drawn  in  the  uniform  black  into  which,  at  a  little 
distance,  leadwork  and  painting  lines  became  merged. 

It  needed  solid  painting  to  stop  out  the  light  entirely:  thin 
paint  only  obscured  it.  And,  even  in  early  glass,  thin  paint  was 
used,  whether  to  subdue  crude  colour  or  to  indicate  what  little 


shading  a  13th-century  draughtsman  might  desire.  In  the 
present  state  of  old  glass,  the  surface  often  quite  disintegrated, 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  to  what  extent  thin  paint  was  used  for 
either  purpose.  There  must  always  have  been  the  temptation  to 
make  tint  do  instead  of  solid  lines;  but  the  more  workmanlike 
practice,  and  the  usual  one,  was  to  get  difference  of  tint,  as  a 
pen-draughtsman  does,  by  lines  of  solid  opaque  colour.  In 
comparatively  colourless  glas^  (grisaiilc)  the  pattern  was  Qften 
made  to  stand  out  by  cross-hatching  the  background,  and 
another  common  practice  was  to  coat  the  glass  with  paint  all 
over,  and  scrape  the  design  out  of  it.  The  effect  of  either 
proceeding  was  to  lower  the  tone  of  the  glass  without  dirtying 
the  colour,  as  a  smear  of  thin  paint  w<nild  do. 

Towards  the  X4th  century,  when  Cvothic  design  took  a  more 
naturalistic  direction,  the  desire  to  get  something  like  modelling 
made  it  necessary  to  carry  painting  farther,  and  they  ^t  rid 
to  some  extent  of  the  ill  effect  of  shading-colour  smeared  on  the 
glass  by  stippling  it.  This  not  only  softened  the  tint  and  allowed 
of  gradation  according  to  the  amount  of  stippling,  but  let  some 
light  through,  where  the  bristles  of  the  stippling-tool  took  up 
the  pigment.  Shading  of  this  kind  enforced  by  touches  of  strong 
brushwork,  cross-hatching  and  some  scratching  out  of  high 
h'ghts  was  the  method  of  glass  painting  adopted  in  the  X4th 
century. 

Glass  was  never  at  the  best  a  pleasant  surface  to  paint  on; 
and  glass  painting,  following  the  line  of  least  resistance, 
developed  in  the  later  Gothic  and  early  Renaissance  periods 
into  something  unlike  any  other  form  of  painting.  The  outlines 
continued  to  be  traced  upon  the  glass  and  fixed  in  the  fire;  but, 
after  that,  the  process  of  painting  consisted  mainly  in  the 
removal  of  paint.  The  entire  surface  of  the  glass  was  coated  with 
an  even  "  matt  "  of  pale  brown;  this  was  allowed  to  dry;  and 
then  the  high  lights  were  rubbed  off,  and  the  modelling  was  got 
by  scrubbing  away  the  paint  with  a  dry  hog-hair  brush,  more 
or  less,  according  to  the  gradations  required.  Perfect  modelling 
was  got  by  repeating  the  operation — how  often  depended  upon 
the  dexterity  of  the  painter.  A  painter's  method  is  partly  the 
outcome  of  his  individuality.  One  man  would  float  on  his  colour 
and  manipulate  it  to  some  extent  in  the  moist  state;  another 
would  work  entirely  upon  the  dry  matt.  Great  use  was  made 
of  the  pointed  stick  with  which  sharp  lines  of  light  were  easily 
scraped  out;  and  in  the  x6th  century  Swiss  glass  painters, 
working  upon  a  relatively  small  scale,  got  their  modelling 
entirely  with  a  needle-point,  scraping  away  the  paint  just  as  an 
etcher  scratches  away  the  varnish  from  his  etching  plate.  The 
practice  of  the  two  craftsmen  is,  indeed,  identical,  though  the 
one  scratches  out  what  are  to  be  black  lines  and  the  other  lines 
of  light.  In  the  end,  then,  though  a  painter  would  always  use 
touches  of  the  brush  to  get  crisp  lines  of  dark,  the  maniptUation 
of  glass  painting  consistmi  more  in  erasing  lights  than  in  painting 
shadows,  more  in  rubbing  out  or  scraping  off  paint  than  in  putting 
it  on  in  brush  strokes. 

So  far  there  was  no  thought  of  getting  colour  by  means  of 
paint.  The  colour  was  in  the  glass  itself,  permeating  the  mass 
("  pot-metal  ").  There  was  only  one  exception  to  this — ruby 
glass,  the  colour  of  which  was  so  dense  that  red  glass  thick 
enough  for  its  purpose  would  have  been  practically  obscure; 
and  so  they  made  a  colouriess  pot-metal  coated  on  one  side 
only  with  red  glass.  This  led  to  a  practice  which  forms  an  ex- 
ception to  the  rule  that  in  "pot-metal"  glass  every  change  of 
colour,  or  from  colour  to  white,  is  got  by  the  use  of  a  separate 
piece  of  glass.  It  was  possible  in  the  case  of  this  "  flashed  '* 
ruby  to  grind  away  portions  of  the  surface  and  thus  obtain 
white  on  red  or  red  on  white.  Eventually  they  made  coated 
glass  of  blue  and  other  colours,  with  a  view  to  producing  sinailar 
effects  by  abrasion.  (The  same  result  is  arrived  at  nowadays 
by  means  of  etching.  The  skin  of  coloured  glass,  in  old  days 
laboriously  ground  or  cut  away,  is  now  easily  eaten  off  by  fluoric 
acid.)  One  other  exceptional  expedient  in  colouring  had  very 
considerable  effect  upon  the  development  of  glass  design  from 
about  the  beginning  of  the  X4th  century.  The  discovery  that 
a  solution  of  silver  applied  to  glass  would  under  the  action  of  the 


GLASS,  STAINED 


107 


fire  stftin  it  yellow  enabled  the  glass  painter  to  get  yellow  upon 
colourless  glass,  green  upon  grey-blue,  and  (by  staining  only 
the  abraded  portions)  yellow  upon  blue  or  ruby.  This  yellow  was 
neither  enamel  nor  pot-metal  colour,  but  stain— the  only  staining 
actually  done  by  the  glass  painter  as  distinct  from  the  glass 
maker.  It  varied  in  colour  from  pale  lemon  to  deep  orange,  and 
was  singulariy  pure  in  quality.  As  what  is  called  "  white  " 
glass  became  purer  and  was  employed  in  greater  quantities  it 
was  lavishly  uised;  so  much  so  that  a  brilliant  effect  of  silvery 
white  and  golden  yellow  is  characteristic  of  later  Gothic 
windows. 

The  last  stage  of  glass  painting  was  the  employment  of  enamel 
not  for  st(q>ping  out  light  but  to  get  cdour.  It  began  to  be  used 
in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century — at  fiist  only  in  the  form  of  a 
flesh  tint;  but  it  was  not  long  before  other  colours  were  introduced. 
This  use  of  colour  no  longer  in  the  glass  but  upon  it  marks  quite 
a  new  departure  in  technique.  Enamel  colour  was  finely  powdered 
coloured  ^ass  mixed  with  gum  or  some  such  substance  into  a 
pigment  which  could  be  applied  with  a  brush.  When  the  glass 
painted  with  it  was  brought  to  a  red  heat  in  the  oven,  the  powdered 
^ass  naelted  and  was  fused  to  it,  just  like  the  opaque  brown 
employed  from  the  very  beginning  of  glass-painting. 

This  process  of  enamelling  was  hardly  called  for  in  the  interests 
of  art.  Even  the  red  flesh-colour  (borrowed  from  the  Limoges 
enamellers  upon  copper)  did  not  in  the  least  give  the  quality  of 
flesh,  though  it  enabled  the  painter  to  suggest  by  contrast  the 
whiteness  of  a  man's  beard.  As  for  the  brighter  enamel  colours, 
they  had  nothing  like  the  depth  or  richness  of  "stained  "  glass. 
What  enamel  really  did  was  to  make  easy  much  that  had  been 
impossible  in  mosaic,  as,  for  example,  to  represent  upon  the 
very  smallest  shield  of  arms  any  number  of  "  charges  "  all  in 
the  correct  tinctures.  It  encouraged  the  minute  workmanship 
characteristic  of  Swiss  glass  painting;  and,  though  this  was  not 
altogether  inappropriate  to  domestic  window  panes,  the  painter 
was  tempted  by  it  to  depart  from  the  simplicity  and  breadth  of 
design  inseparable  from  the  earlier  mosaic  practice.  In  the  end 
he  introduced  coloured  glass  only  where  he  cduld  hardly  help  it, 
and  glazed  the  great  part  of  his  window  in  rectangular  panes  of 
dear  glass,  upon  which  he  preferred  to  paint  his  picture  in  opaque 
brown  and  translucent  enamel  colours. 

Enamel  upon  glass  has  not  stood  the  test  of  time.  Its  presence 
is  usually  to  be  detected  in  old  windows  by  specks  of  light  shining 
through  the  colour.  This  is  where  the  enamel  has  crumbled  off. 
There  is  a  very  good  reason  for  that.  Enamel  must  melt  at  a 
temperature  at  which  the  glass  it  is  painted  on  keeps  its  shape. 
The  lower  the  melting  point  of  the  powdered  glass  the  more  easily 
it  is  fused.  The  painter  is  consequently  inclined  to  use  enamel  of 
which  the  contraction  and  expansion  is  much  greater  than  that  of 
his  ^ass — with  the  result  that,  under  the  action  of  the  weather, 
the  colour  is  apt  to  work  itself  free  and  expose  the  bare  white 
^ass  beneath.  The  only  eiuunel  which  has  held  its  own  is  that  of 
the  Swiss  ^ass-painters  of  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries.  The 
domestic  window  panes  they  painted  may  not  in  all  cases  have 
been  tried  by  the  sudden  changes  of  atmosphere  to  which  church 
windows  are  subject;  but  credit  must  be  given  them  for  ex- 
ceptionally skilful  and  conscientious  workmanship. 

The  story  of  stained  glass  is  bound  up  with  the  history  of 
architecture,  to  which  it  was  subsidiary,  and  of  the  church, 
which  was  its  patron.  Its  only  possible  course  of  development 
was  in  the  wake  of  church  building.  From  its  very  inception  it 
was  Gothic  and  ecclesiastical.  And,  though  it  survived  the 
upheaval  of  the  Renaissance  and  was  turned  to  civil  and  domestic 
use,  it  is  to  church  windows  that  we  must  go  to  see  what  stained 
^ass  really  was— or  is;  for  time  has  been  kind  to  it.  The  charm 
of  medieval  glass  lies  to  a  great  extent  in  the  material,  and  especi- 
ally in  the  inequality  of  it.  Chemically  impure  and  mechanic- 
ally imperfect,  it  was  rarely  crude  in  tint  or  even  in  texture.  It 
shaded  off  from  light  to  dark  according  to  its  thickness;  it  was 
speckled  with  air  bubbles;  it  was  streaked  and  clouded;  and  all 
these  imperfections  of  manufacture  went  to  perfection  of  colour. 
And  age  has  improved  it:  the  want  of  homogeneousness  in  the 
material  has  led  to  the  disintegration  of  its  surface;  soft  particles 


in  it  have  been  dissolved  away  by  the  acUcm  of  the  weather,  and 
the  surface,  pitted  like  an  oyster-shell,  refracts  the  light  in  a  way 
which  adds  greatly  to  the  effect;  at  the  same  time  there  is 
roothold  for  the  lichen  which  (like  the  curtains  of  black  cobwebs) 
veils  and  gives  mystery  to  the  colour.  An  appreciable  part  of  the 
beauty  of  old  glass  is  the  result  of  age  and  accident.  In  that 
respect  no  new  glass  can  compare  with  it.  Tlicre  is,  however,  no 
sudi  thing  as  "  the  lost  secret "  of  glass-making.  It  is  no  secret 
that  age  mellows. 

Stained  and  painted  glass  is  conunonly  apportioned  to  its 
"  period,"  Gothic  or  Renaissance,  and  further  to  the  particular 
phase  of  the  style  to  which  it  bctongs.  C.  Winston,  who  was  the 
first  to  inquire  thoroughly  into  English  glass,  adopting  T. 
Rickman's  classification,  divided  Gothic  windows  into  Early 
English  (to  c.  1280),  Decorated  (to  e.  1380)  and  Perpendicular 
(to  c.  1530).  These  dates  will  do.  But  the  transition  from  one 
phase  of  design  to  another  is  never  so  sudden,  nor  so  easily 
defined,  as  any  table  of  dates  would  lead  us  to  suppose.  The  old 
style  lingered  in  one  district  long  after  the  new  fashion  was 
flourishing  in  another.  Besides,  the  English  periods  do  not  quite 
coincide  with  those  of  other  countries.  France,  Germany  and 
the  Low  Countries  count  for  much  in  the  history  of  stained  glass; 
and  in  no  tvro  places  was  the  pace  of  progress  quite  the  same. 
There  was,  for  example,  scarcely  any  X3th-centiuy  Gothic  in 
Germany,  where  the  "geometric"  style,  equivalent  to  our 
Decorated,  was  preceded  by  the  Romanesque  period;  in  France 
the  Flamboyant  took  the  place  of  our  Perpendicular;  and  in 
Italy  Gothic  never  properly  took  root  at  all.  All  these  con- 
sidered, a  rather  rough  and  ready  division  presents  the  least 
difficulty  to  the  student  of  old  glass;  and  it  will  be  found  con- 
venient to  think  of  Gothic  glass  as  (x)  Early,  (2)  Middle  and  (3) 
Late,  and  of  the  subsequent  windows  as  (i)  Renaissance  and  (2) 
Late  Renaissance.  The  three  periods  of  Gothic  correspond 
approximately  to  the  X3th,  X4th  and  xsth  centuries.  The 
limits  of  the  two  periods  of  the  Renaissance  are  not  so  easily 
defined.  In  the  first  part  of  the  26th  century  (in  Italy  long 
before  that)  the  Renaissance  and  Gothic  periods  overlapped;  in 
the  latter  part  of  it,  glass  painting  was  already  on  the  decline; 
and  in  the  ijih  and  x8th  centuries  it  sank  to  deeper  depths  of 
degradation. 

The  likeness  of  early  windows  to  translucent  enamel  (which  is 
also  glass)  is  obvious.  The  lines  of  lead  glazing  correspond 
absolutely  to  the  "  doisons  "  of  Byzantine  goldMoith's  work. 
Moreover,  the  extreme  minuteness  of  the  leading  (not  always 
either  mechanically  necessary  or  architecturally  desirable) 
suggests  that  the  starting  point  of  all  this  gorgeous  illumination 
was  the  idea  of  reproducing  on  a  grandiose  scale  the  jewelled 
effect  produced  in  small  by  cloisonn6  eiuimellers.  In  other 
respects  the  earliest  glass  shows  the  influence  of  Byzantine 
tradition.  It  js  mainly  according  to  the  more  or  less  Byzantine 
character  of  its  design  and  draughtsmanship  that  archaeologists 
ascribe  certain  remains  of  old  glass  to  the  1 2th  or  the  nth  century. 
Apart  from  documentary  or  direct  historic  evidence,  it  is  not 
possible  to  determine  the  precise  date  of  any  particular  fragment. 
In  the  "  restored  "  windows  at  St  Denis  there  are  remnants  of 
glass  belonging  to  the  year  xio8.  Elsewhere  in  France  (Reims, 
Anger,  Le  Mans,  Chartres,  &c.)  there  is  to  be  found  very  early 
glass,  some  of  it  probably  not  much  bter  than  the  end  of  the  xoth 
century,  which  is  the  date  confidently  ascribed  to  certain 
windows  at  St  Remi  (Reims)  and  at  Tegernsee.  The  rarer  the 
specimen  the  greater  may  be  its  technical  and  antiquarian 
interest.  But,  even  if  we  could  be  quite  sure  of  its  date,  there  is 
not  enough  of  this  very  early  work,  and  it  does  not  sufficiently 
distinguish  itself  from  what  followed,  to  count  artistically  for 
much.    The  glory  of  early  glass  belongs  to  the  13th  century. 

The  design  of  windows  was  influenced,  of  course,  by  the  con- 
ditions of  the  workshop,  by  the  nature  of  glass,  the  difficulty 
of  shaping  it,  the  way  it  could  be  painted,  and  the  necessity 
of  lead  glazing.  The  place  of  glass  in  the  scheme  of  church 
decoration  led  to  a  certain  severity  in  the  treatment  of  it.  The 
growing  desire  to  get  more  and  more  light  into  the  churches, 
and  the  consequent  manufacture  of  purer  and  more  transparent 


io8 


GLASS,  STAINED 


glass,  affected  the  glazier's  colour  scheme.  For  all  that,  the 
fashion  of  a  window  was,  mutatis  mutandis,  that  of  the  painting, 
carving,  embroidery,  goldsmith's  work,  enamel  and  other  crafts- 
manship of  the  period.  The  design  of  an  ivory  triptych  is  very 
much  that  of  a  three-light  window.  There  is  a  little  enamelled 
shrine  of  German  workmanship  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Miiseum  which  might  almost  have  been  designed  for  ^ass; 
and  the  famous  painted  ceiling  at  Hildesheim  is  planned  precisely 
on  the  lines  of  a  medallion  window  of  the  13th  century.  By  that 
time  glass  had  fallen  into  wa}rs  of  its  own,  and  there  were  already 
various  types  of  design  whidi  we  now  recognize  as  characteristic 
of  the  first  great  period,  in  some  respects  the  greatest  of  all. 

Pre>eminently  typicaJ  of  the  first  period  is  the  "  medallion 
window."    Glaziers  began  by  naively  accepting  the  iron  bars 
across  the  Kght  as  the  basis  of  their  composition,  and  planned 
a  window  as  a  series  of  panels,  one  above  the  other,  between  the 
horizontal  crossbars  and  the  upright  lines  of  the  border  round  it. 
The  next  step  was  to  mitigate  the  extreme  severity  of  this  com- 
position by  the  introduction  of  a' circular  or  other  medallion 
within   the  square  boundary  lines.    Eventually   these   were 
abandoned  altogether,  the  iron  bars  were  shaped  according  to 
the  pattern,  and  there  was  evolved  the  "  medallion  window," 
in  which  the  main  divisions  of  the  design  are  emphasized  by  the 
strong  bands  of  iron  round  them.    Medallions  were  invariably 
devoted  to  picturing  scenes  from  Bible  history  or  from  the  lives 
of  the  saints,  set  forth  in  the  simplest  and  most  straightforward 
manner,  the  figures  all  on  one  plane,  and  as  far  as  possible  dear-cut 
against  a  sapphire-blue  or  ruby-red  ground.    Scenery  was  not  so 
much  depicted  as  suggested.    An  arch  or  two  did  duty  for  archi- 
tecture, any  scrap  of  foliated  ornament  for  landscape.    Simplicity 
of  silhouette  was  absolutely  essential  to  the  readableness  of 
pictures  on  the  small  scale  allowed  by  the  medallion.    As  it  is, 
they  are  so  difficult  to  decipher,  so  confused  and  broken  in  effect, 
as  to  give  rise  (the  radiating  shape  of  "  rose  windows "  aiding) 
to  the  misconception  that  the  design  of  early  glass  is  kaleido- 
scopic— which  it  is  not.    The  intervals  between  subject  medaUions 
were  filled  in  England  (Canterbury)  with  scrollwork,  in  France 
(Chartres)  more  often  with  geometric  diaper,  in  which  last 
sometimes  the  red  and  blue  merge  into  an  unpleasant  purple. 
Design  on  this  small  scale  was  obviously  unsuited  to  distant 
windows.    Clerestory  lights  were  occupied  by  figures,  sometimes 
on  a  gigantic  scale,  entirely  occupying  the  window,  except  for 
the  border  and  perhaps  the  slightest  pretence  of  a  niche.    This 
arrangement  lent  itself  to  broad  effects  of  colour.    The  drawing 
may  be  rude;  at  times  the  figures  are  grotesque;  but  the  general 
impression  is  one  of  mysterious  grandeur  and  solemnity. 
.  The  depth  and  intensity  of  colour  in  the  windows  so  far  described 
comes  chiefly  from  the  quality  of  the  glass,  but  partly  also  from 
the  fact  that  very  little  white  or  pale-^oIoured  glass  was  used. 
It  was  not  the  custom  at  this  period  to  dilute  the  colour  of  a 
rich  window  with  white.    If  light  was  wanted  they  worked  in 
white,  enlivened,  it  might  be,  by  colour.    Strictly  speaking, 
13th-century  glass  was  never  colourless,  but  of  a  greenish  tint, 
due  to  impurities  in  ihe  sand,  potash  or  other  ingredients;  it 
was  of  a  homy  consistency,  too;  but  it  is  convenient  to  speak 
of  all  would-be-dear  glass  as  "  white."    The  greyish  windows  in 
which  it  prevails  are  technically  described  as  "in  grisaille." 
There  are  examples  (Salisbury,  Ch&lons,  Bonlieu,  Angers)  of 
"  plain  glazing  "  in  grisaille,  in  which  the  lead  lines  make  very 
ingenious  and  beautiful  pattern.    In  the  more  usual  case  of 
painted  grisaille  the  lead  lines  still  formed  the  groundwork  of 
the  design,  though  supplemented  by  foliated  or  other 'detail, 
boldly  outlined  in  strong  brown  and  emphasized  by  a  background 
of  cross-hatcning.    French  grisaille  was  frequently  all  in  white 
(Reims,  St  Jean-aux-Bois,  Sens),  English  work  was  usually 
enlivened  by  bands  and  bosses  of  colour  (Salisbury);  but  the 
general  effect  of  the  window  was  still  grey  and  silvery,  even 
though  there  might  be  distributed  about  it  (the  "  five  sisters," 
York  minster)  a  fair  amount  of  coloured  glass.    The  use  of  grisaille 
is  sufficiently  accounted   for  by  considerations  of  economy 
and  the  desire  to  get  light;  but  it  was  also  in  some  sort  a  protest 
(witness  the  Cistercian  interdict  of  1 134)  against  undue  indulgence 


in  the  luxury  of  colour.  At  this  stage  of  its  devdopment  it  was 
confined  strictly  to  pattemwork;  figure  subjects  were  always 
in  colour.  For  all  that,  some  of  the  most  restful  and  entirdy 
satisfying  work  of  the  X3th  century  was  in  grisaille  (Salisbury, 
Chartres,  Rdms,  &c.). 

The  second  or  Middle  period  of  (jothic  glass  marks  a  sta^ 
between  the  work  of  the  Eiarly  Gothic  artist  who  thought  out  his 
design  as  glazing,  and  that  of  the  later  draughtsman  who  con- 
cdved  it  as  something  to  be  painted.  It  represents  to  many  the 
period  of  greatest  interest— probably  because  of  its  departure 
from  the  severity  of  Early  work.  It  was  the  period  of  more 
naturalbtic  design;  and  a  toudi  of  nature  is  more  easily 
appreciated  than  architectural  fitness.  Middle  Gothic  glass, 
halting  as  it  does  between  the  relativdy  rude  mosaic  of  early 
times  and  the  painter-like  accomplishment  of  fuUy-devd^>ed 
glass  painting,  has  not  the  salient  merits  of  dther.  In  the  mat  ter 
of  tone  also  it  is  intermediate  between  the  deep,  rich,  sober 
harmonies  of  Eariy  windows  and  the  lighter,  brighter,  gayer 
colouring  of  later  ^iass.  Now  for  the  first  time  grisaille  ornament 
and  coloured  figurework  were  introduced  into  the  same  window. 
And  this  was  done  in  a  very  judidous  way,  in  alternate  bands 
of  white  and  deep  rich  colour,  binding  together  the  long  lights 
into  which  windows  were  by  this  time  divided  (chapter-house, 
York  minster).  A  similar  horizontal  tendency  of  design  is  notice- 
able in  windows  in  which  the  figures  are  enshrined  under  canopies, 
henceforth  a  feature  in  glass  design.  The  pinnadework  falls 
into  pronounced  bands  of  brassy  yellow  between  the  tiers  of 
figures  (nave,  York  minster)  and  serves  to  correct  the  vertical 
lines  of  the  masonry.  Canopywork  grew  sometimes  to  such 
dimensions  as  quite  to  overpower  the  figure  it  was  supposed 
to  frame;  but,  then,  the  sense  of  scale  was  never  a  directing 
factor  in  Decorated  design.  A  more  interesting  form  of  ornament 
is  to  be  foimd  in  Germany,  where  it  was  a  pleasing  custom 
(Regensburg)  to  fill  windows  with  conventional  foliage  without 
figurework.  There  is  abxmdance  of  Middle  Gothic  ^ass  in 
England  (York,  Wdls,  Ely,  Oxford),  but  the  best  of  it,  such  as 
the  great  East  window  at  Gloucester  cathedral,  has  features 
more  characteristic  of  the  isth  than  of  the  14th  century. 

The  keynote  of  Late  Gothic  glass  is  brilliancy.  It  had  a  silvery 
quality.  The  15th  century  was  the  period  of  white  glass,  which 
approached  at  last  to  colourlessness,  and  was  employed  in  great 
profusion.  Canop3rwork,  more  universal  than  ever,  was  repre- 
sented almost  entirdy  in  white  touched  with  yellow  stain,  but 
not  in  suffident  quantities  to  impair  its  silveriness.  Whatever 
the  banality  of  the  idea  of  imitation  stonework  in  glass,  the 
effect  of  thus  framing  cobured  pictures  in  delicate  white  is 
admirable:  at  last  we  have  white  and  colour  in  perfect  combina- 
tion. Fifteenth-century  figurework  contains  usually  a  large 
proportion  of  white  glass;  flesh  tint  is  represented  by  white; 
there  is  white  in  the  drapery;  in  short,  there  is  always  white 
enough  in  the  figures  to  connect  them  with  the  canopywork  and 
make  the  whole  effect  one.  The  preponderance  of  white  wiU  be 
better  appreciated  when  it  is  stated  that  very  often  not  a  fifth 
or  sixth  part  of  the  glass  is  coloured.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing 
to  find  figures  draped  entirely  in  white  with  only  a  little  cdeur 
in  the  background;  and  figurework  all  in  grisaille  upon  a  ground 
of  white  latticework  is  quite  characteristic  of  Perpendicular 
glass. 

One  of  the  most  typical  forms  of  Late  English  Gothic  canopy 
is  where  (York  minster)  its  slender  pinnades  fill  the  upper  part 
of  the  window,  and  its  soh'd  base  frames  a  picture  in  small  of 
some  episode  in  the  history  of  the  personage  depicted  as  large  as 
life  above.  A  much  less  satisfactory  continental  practice  was 
to  enrich  only  the  lower  half  of  the  window  with  stained  f^ass  and 
to  make  shift  above  (Munich)  with  "  roundels  "  of  plain  white 
glass,  the  German  equivalent  for  diamond  latticework. 

A  sign  of  later  times  is  the  way  pictures  spread  beyond  the 
confines  of  a  single  light.  This  happened  by  degrees.  At  first 
the  connexion  between  the  figures  in  separate  window  opem'ngs 
was  only  in  idea,  as  when  a  central  figure  of  the  crudfied  Christ 
was  flanked  by  the  Virgin  and  St  John  in  the  side  lights.  Then 
the  arms  of  the  cross  would  be  carried  through,  or  as  it  were 


GLASS,  STAINED 


109 


behind,  the  mullions.  The  expaxunon  to  a  picture  right  across 
the  window  was  only  a  question  of  time.  Not  that  the  artist 
ventured  as  yet  to  disregard  the  architectural  setting  of  his 
picture — that  happened  later  on — but  that  he  often  composed 
it  with  such  cunning  reference  to  intervening  stonework  that  it 
did  not  interfere  with  it.  It  has  been  argued  that  each  separate 
light  of  a  window  ought  to  be  complete  in  itself.  On  the  other 
hand  it  has  proved  possible  to  make  due  acknowledgment  of 
architectural  conditions  without  cramping  design  in  that  way. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  vai^ty  and  breadth  of  treatment 
gained  by  accepting  the  whole  window  as  field  for  a  design.  And, 
when  a  number  of  lights  go  to  make  a  window,  it  is  the  window, 
and  DO  separate  part  of  it,  which  is  the  main  consideration. 

By  the  end  of  the  Gothic  period,  glass  painters  proceeded  on 
an  entirely  different  method  from  that  of  the  X3th  century. 
The  designer  of  early  days  began  with  glazing:  he  thought  in 
mosaic  and  lead  work;  the  lines  he  first  drew  were  the  lines  of 
S^aang;  painting  was  only  a  supplementary  process,  enabling 
him  to  get  what  lead  lines  would  not  give.  The  Late  Gothic 
draughtsman  b^an  with  the  idea  of  painting;  glazing  was  to  him 
of  secondary  importance;  he  reached  a  stage  (Creation  window, 
Great  Malvern)  where  it  is  dear  that  he  fint  sketched  out  his 
design,  and  then  bethought  him  how  to  glaze  it  in  such  wise  that 
the  leadwork  (which  once  boldly  outlined  everything)  should  not 
interfere  with  the  picture.  The  artful  way  in  which  he  would 
introduce  little  bits  of  colour  into  a  window  almost  entirely 
white,  makes  it  certain  that  he  had  always  at  the  back  of  his 
mind  the  consideration  of  the  glazing  to  come.  So  long  as  he 
thought  of  that,  and  did  not  resent  it,  all  was  fairly  well  with 
glass  painting,  but  there  came  a  point  where  he  found  it  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  to  reconcile  the  extreme  delicacy  of  his  painting 
upon  white  glass  with  the  comparatively  brutal  strength  of 
his  lead  lines.  It  is  here  that  the  conditions  of  painting  and 
glazing  dash  at  last. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  Late  Gothic  windows  were  never 
by  any  chance  rich  in  colour.  Local  conservatism  and  personal 
predilection  prevented  anything  like  monotonous  progress  in 
a  single  direction.  There  is  (St  Sebald,'  Nuremberg)  Middle 
Gothic  glass  as  dense  in  colour  as  any  xjth-century  work,  and 
Late  Gothic  (Troycs  cathedral)  which,  from  its  colour,  one  might 
take  at  first  to  be  a  century  earlier  than  it  is.  In  Italy  (Florence) 
and  to  some  extent  in  Spain  (Seville)  it  was  the  custom  to  make 
canopywork  so  rich  in  cok>ur  that  it  was  more  like  part  of  the 
picture  than  a  frame  to  it.  But  that  was  by  exception.  The 
tendency  was  towards  lighter  windows.  Glass  itself  was  less 
deei^y  stained  when  painters  depended  more  upon  their  power 
of  deepening  it  by  paint.  It  was  the  seeking  after  delicate 
effects  of  painting,  quite  as  much  as  the  desire  to  let  light  into 
the  church,  which  determined  the  tone  of  later  windows.  The 
dearer  the  glass  the  more  scope  it  gave  for  painting. 

It  is  convenient  to  draw  a,  line  between  Gothic  art  and  Renais- 
sance. Nothing  is  easier  than  to  say  that  windows  in  which 
crocheted  canopywork  occurs  are  Gothic,  and  that  those  with 
arabesque  are  Renaissance.  But  that  is  an  arbitrary  distinction, 
which  does  not  really  distinguish^  Some  of  the  most  beautiful 
work  in  glass,  such  for  example  as  that  at  Auch,  is  so  plainly 
intermediate  between  two  styles  that  it  is  impossible  to  describe 
it  as  anything  but  "  transitionaL"  And,  apart  from  particular 
instances,  we  have  only  to  look  at  the  best  Late  Gothic  work  to 
see  that  it  is  informed  by  the  new  spirit,  and  at  fine  Renaissance 
^ass  to  observe  how  it  conforms  to  Gothic  traditions  of  workman- 
ship. The  new  idea  gave  a  spurt  to  Gothic  art;  and  it  was 
Gothic  impetus  which  carried  Renaissance  glass  painting  to  the 
summit  of  accomplishment  reached  in  the  first  half  of  the  i6th 
century.  When  that  subsided,  and  the  pictorial  spirit  of  the  age 
at  last  prevailed,  the  bright  days  of  glass  were  at  an  end.  If  we 
have  to  refer  to  the  early  Renaissance  as  the  culminating  period 
of  glass  painting,  it  is  because  the  technique  of  an  earlier  period 
found  in  it  freer  and  fuller  expression.  With  the  Renaissance, 
design  broke  free  from  the  restraints  of  tradition. 

An  interesting  development  of  Renaissance  design  was  the 
framing  of  pictures  in  ^den-yellow  arabesi^ue  ornament. 


acarcdy  ardiitectural  enough  to  be  called  canopyworit,  and 
reminiscent  rather  of  beaten  goldsmith's  work  than  of  stone 
carving.  This  did  for  the  glass  picture  what  a  gilt  frame  does  for 
a  painting  in  oil.  Very  often  framework  of  any  kind  was  dispensed 
with.  The  primitive  idea  of  accepting  bars  and  muUions  as 
boun^Jaries  of  design,  and  filling  the  compartments  formed  by 
them  with  a  medley  of  little  subjects,  lingered  on.  The  result 
was  delightfully  broken  colour,  but  inevitable  confusion;  for 
iron  and  masonry  do  not  effectivdy  separate  glass  pictures. 
There  was  no  longer  in  late  glass  any  pretence  of  preserving  the 
plane  of  the  window.  It  was  commonly  designed  to  suggest  that 
one  saw  out  of  it.  Throughout  the  period  of  the  Renaissance, 
architectural  and  landscape  backgrounds  play  an  important 
part  in  design.  An  extremely  beautiful  feature  in  early  x6th- 
centuzy  French  glass  pictures  (Rouen,  &c)  is  the  little  peep  of 
distant  country  delicately  painted  upon  the  pale-blue  glass  which 
represents  the  sky.  In  larger  work  landscape  and  uchitecture 
were  commonly  painted  upon  white  (Ring's  College,  Cambridge). 
The  landscape  effect  was  always  happiest  when  one  or  other  of 
these  conventions  was  adopted.  Canopywork  never  went  quite 
out  of  fashion.  For  a  long  while  the  plan  was  still  to  frame 
coloured  pictures  in  white.  Theoretically  this  is  no  less  effectually 
to  be  done  by  Italian  than  by  Gothic  shrinework.  Practically  the 
architectural  setting  assumed  in  the  x6th  century  more  and  more 
the  aspect  of  background  to  the  figures,  and,  in  order  that  it 
should  take  its  place  in  the  picture,  they  painted  it  so  heavily  that 
it  no  longer  told  as  white.  Already  in  van  Orley's  magnificent 
transept  windows  at  St  Gudule,  Brussels,  the  great  triumphal  arch 
behind  the  kneeling  donors  and  their  patron  saints  (in  late  glass 
donors  take  more  and  more  the  place  of  holy  personages)  tells 
dark  against  the  dear  ground.  There  came  a  time,  towards  the 
end  of  the  century,  when,  as  in  the  wonderful  windows  at  Gouda, 
the  very  quality  of  white  glass  is  lost  in  heavily  painted  shadow. 

The  pictorial  ambition  of  the  glass  painter,  active  from  the 
first,  was  kept  for  centuries. within  the  bounds  of  decoration. 
Medallion  subjects  were  framed  in  ornament,  standing  figures  in 
canopywork,  and  pictures  were  concdved  with  regard  to  the 
window  and  its  place  in  architecture.  Severity  of  treatment  in 
design  may  have  been  due  more  to  the  lixnitations  of  technique 
than  to  restraint  on  the  part  of  the  painter.  The  point  is  that  it 
led  to  unsurpassed  results.  It  was  by  absolute  reliance  upon  the 
depth  and  brilliancy  of  self-coloured  glass  that  all  the  beautiful 
effects  of  early  glass  were  obtained.  We  need  not  compare  early 
mosaic  with  later  painted  glass;  each  was  in  its  way  admirable; 
but  the  early  manner  is  the  more  peculiar  to  glass,  if  not  the  moro 
proper  to  it.  The  ruder  and  more  archaic  design  gives  in  fullest 
measure  the  glory  of  glass— for  the  loss  of  which  no  quality  of 
painting  ever  got  in  glass  quite  makes  amends.  The  pictorial 
effects  compatible  with  glass  design  are  those  which  go  with  pure, 
brilliant  and  translucent  colour.  The  ideal  of  a  "  primitive " 
Italian  painter  was  more  or  less  to  be  realized  in  glass:  that  of  a 
Dutch  realist  was  not.  It  is  astonishing  what  glass  painters  did 
in  the  way  of  light  and  shade.  But  the  fact  remains  that  heavy 
painting  obscured  the  glass,  that  shadows  rendered  in  opaque 
surface-colour  lacked  transluccncy,  and  that  in  seeking  before  all 
tihings  the  effects  of  shadow  and  relief,  glass  painters  of  the  17th 
century  fell  short  of  the  qualities  on  the  one  hand  of  glass  and  on 
the  other  of  painting. 

The  course  of  glaai  painting  was  not  so  even  as  this  general 
survey  of  its  progress  might  seem  to  imply.  It  was  quickened 
here,  impeded  there,  by  historic  events.  The  art  made  a  splendid 
start  in  France;  but  its  development  was  stayed  by  the  disasters 
of  war,  just  when  in  England  it  was  thriving  under  the  Planta- 
genets.  It  revived  again  under  Francis  I.  In  Germany  it  was 
with  the  prosperity  of  the  free  dties  of  the  Empire  that  glass 
painting  prospered.  In  the  Netherlands  it  blossomed  out  under 
the  favour  of  Charles  V.  In  the  Swiss  Confederacy  its  direction 
was  determined  by  civil  and  domestic  ixistead  of  church  patron- 
age. In  most  countries  there  were  in  different  districts  local 
schools  of  glass  painting,  each  with  some  character  of  its  own.  To 
what  extent  design  was  affected  by  national  temperament  it  is  not 
easy  to  say.    The  marked  divergence  of  th^  Flemish  from  the 


no 


GLASS,  STAINED 


French  treatment  of  glass  in  the  z6th  century  is  not  entirely  due 
to  a  preference  on  the  one  part  for  colour  and  on  the  other  for 
light  and  shade,  but  is  partly  owing  to  the  circumstance  that, 
whilst  in  France  design  remained  in  the  hands  of  craftsmen, 
whose  trade  was  gUss  painting,  in  the  Netherlands  it  was 
entrusted  by  the  emperor  to  his  court  painter,  who  concerned 
himself  as  little  as  possible  with  a  technique  of  which  he  knew 
nothing.  If  in  France  we  come  also  upon  the  names  of  well- 
known  artists,  they  seem,  like  Jean  Cousin,  to  have  been  closely 
connected  with  gkss  painting:  they  designed  so  like  glass 
painters  that  they  might  have  begun  their  artistic  career  in  the 
workshop. 

The  attribution  of  fine  windows  to  famous  artists  should  not 
be  too  readily  accepted;  for,  though  it  is  a  foible  of  modem 
times  to  father  whatever  is  noteworthy  upon  some  great  name, 
the  masterpieces  of  medieval  art  are  due  to  tmknown  craftsmen. 
In  Italy,  where  glass  painting  was  not  much  practised,  and  it 
seems  to  have  been  the  custom  either  to  import  glass  painters  as 
they  were  wanted  or  to  get  work  done  abroad,  it  may  well  be 
that  designs  were  supplied  by  artists  more  or  less  distinguished. 
Ghiberti  and  Donatello  may  have  had  a  hand  in  the  cartoons  for 
the  windows  of  the  Duomo  at  Florence;  but  it  is  not  to  any 
sculptor  that  we  can  give  the  entire  credit  of  design  so  absolutely 
in  the  spirit  of  colour  decoration.  The  employment  of  artists  not 
connected  with  gl^  design  would  go  far  to  explain  the  great 
diflference  of  Ital^  glass  from  that  of  other  countries.  The  .X4th- 
century  woriL  at  Assisi  is  more  correctly  described  as  "  Trecento  " 
than  as  Gothic,  and  the  "  Quattrocento  '*  windows  at  Florence 
are  as  different  as  could  be  from  Perpendicular  work.  One 
compares  them  instinctively  with  Italian  paintings, , not  with 
glass  elsewhere.  And  so  with  the  15th-century  Italian  glass. 
The  superb  x6th-century  windows  of  William  of  Marseilles  at 
Arczzo,  in  which  painting  is  carried  to  the  furthest  point  possible 
short  of  sacrificing  the  pure  quality  of  glass,  are  more  according 
to  contemporary  French  technique.  Both  French  and  Italian 
influence  may  be  traced  in  Spanish  glass  (Avila,  Barcelona, 
Burgos,  Granada,  Leon,  Seville,  Toledo).  Some  of  it  is  said  to 
have  been  executed  in  France.  If  so  it  must  have  been  done  to 
Spanish  order.  The  coarse  effectiveness  of  the  design,  the 
strength  of  the  colour,  the  general  robustness  of  the  art,  are 
characteristically  Spanish;  and  nowhere  this  side  of  the  Pyrenees 
do  we  find  detail  on  a  scale  so  enormous. 

We  have  passed  by,  in  foUowing  the  progressive  course  of 
craftsmanship,  some  fonps  of  design,  peculiar  to  no  one  period 
but  very  characteristic  of  glass.  The  "  quarry  window,"  barely 
referred  to,  its  diamond-shaped  or  obk>ng  pajies  painted,  richly 
bordered,  relieved  by  bosses  of  coloured  ornament  often  heraldic, 
is  of  constant  occurrence^  Entire  windows,  too,  were  from 
first  to  last  given  up  to  heraldry.  The  "  Jesse  window  "  occurs 
in  every  style.  According  to  the  fashion  of  the  time  the  "  Stem 
of  Jesse  "  burst  out  into  conventional  foliage,  vine  branches 
or  arbitrary  scrollwork.  It  appealed  to  the  designer  by  the 
scope  it  gave  for  freedom  of  design.  He  found  vent,  again, 
for  fantastic  imagination  in  the  representation  of  the  "Last 
Judgment,"  to  which  the  west  window  was  commonly  devoted. 
And  there  are  other  schemes  in  which  he  delighted;  but  this 
is  not  the  place  to  dwell  upon  them. 

The  glass  of  the  f  7th  century  does  not  count  for  much.  Some 
of  the  best  in  England  is  the  work  of  the  Dutch  van  Linge  family 
(Wadham  and  Balliol  Colleges,  Oxford).  What  gUss  painting 
came  to  in  the  i8th  century  is  nowhere  better  to  be  seen  than  in 
the  great  west  window  of  the  ante-chapel  at  New  College,  Oxford. 
That  is  all  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  and  the  best  china  painter  of 
his  day  could  do  between  them.  The  very  idea  of  employing  a 
china  painter  shows  how  entirely  the  art  of  the  glass  painter 
bad  died  out. 

It  re-awoke  in  England  with  the  Gothic  revival  of  the  xpth 
century;  and  the  Gothic  revival  determined  the  direction 
modem  glass  should  take.  Early  Victorian  doings  are  interesting 
only  as  wM»rV«»g  the  steps  of  recovery  (cf .  the  work  of  T.Willement 
in  the  choir  of  the  Temple  church;  of  Ward  and  Nixon,  lately 
removed  from  the  south  transept  of  Westminster  Abbey;  of 


Wailes).  Better  things  begin  with  the  windows  at  WestminsDer 
inspired  by  A.  C.  Pugin,  who  exercised  considerable  influence 
over  his  contemporaries.  John  Powell  (Hardman  &  Co.)  was 
an  able  artist  content  to  walk,  even  after  that  master's  death, 
reverently  in  his  footsteps.  Charles  Winston,  whose  Hints 
on  Glass  Painting  was  the  first  real  contribution  towards  the 
understanding  of  Gothic  glass,  and  who,  by  the  aid  of  the  Powells 
(of  Whitefriars)  succeeded  in  getting  something  very  like  the 
texture  and  cok>ur  of  old  ^ass,  was  more  learned  in  ancient 
ways  of  workmanship  than  appreciative  of  the  art  resulting 
from  them.  (He  is  responsible  for  the  Munich  glass  in  Glasgow 
cathedral.)  So  it  was  that,  except  for  here  and  there  a  window 
entmsted  by  exception  to  W.  Dyce,  E.  Poynler,  D.  G.  Rossetti, 
Ford  Madox  Brown  or  E.  Qume- Jones,  glass,  from  the  beginning 
of  its  recovery,  fell  into  the  hands  of  men  with  a  strong  bias 
towards  archaeology.  The  architects  foremost  in  the  Gothic 
revival  (W.  Butterfield,  Sir  G.  Scott,  G.  E.  Street,  &c.)  wer«  all 
inclined  that  way;  and,  as  they  had  the  placing  of  commissions 
for  windows,  they  controlled  the  policy  of  glass  painters. 
Designers  were  constrained  to  work  in  the  pedantically  archaeo- 
logical manner  prescribed  by  architectural  fashion.  Unwillin^y 
as  it  may  have  been,  they  made  mock-medieval  windows,  the 
inter^t  in  which  died  with  the  pq;>u]ar  illusion  about  a  Gothic 
revivfil.  But  they  knew  their  trade;  and  when  an  artist  like 
John  Clayton  (master  of  a  whole  school  of  bter  glass  painters) 
took  a  window  in  hand  (St  Augustine's,  Kilburn ;  Truro  cathedral; 
King's  College  Chapd,  Cambridge)  the  result  was  a  work  of  art 
from  which,  tradework  as  it  may  in  a  sense  be,  we  may  gather 
what  such  men  might  have  done  had  they  been  left  free  to  follow 
their  own  arUstic  impulse.  It  is  necessary  to  refer  to  this  because 
it  is  generally  supposed  that  whatever  is  best  in  recent  glass  is 
due  to  the  romantic  movement.  The  charms  of  Bume-Jones's 
design  and  of  William  Morris's  colour,  place  the  windows  done 
by  them  among  the  triumphs  of  modem  decorative  art;  but 
Morris  was  neither  foremost  in  the  reaction,  nor  quite  such  a 
master  of  the  material  he  was  working  in  as  he  showed  himself 
in  less  exacting  crafts.  Other  artists  to  be  mentioned  in  con- 
nexion with  glass  design  are:  Clement  Heaton,  Bayne,  N.  H.  J. 
Westlake  and  Henry  Holiday,  not  to  speak  of  a  younger  genera- 
tion of  able  men. 

Foreign  work  shows,  as  compared  with  English,  a  less  just 
appreciation  of  glass,  though  the  foremost  draughtsmen  of 
their  day  were  enlisted  for  its  design.  In  Germany,  King  Louis 
of  Bavaria  employed  P.  von  Cornelius  and  W.  von  Kaulbach 
(Aix-la-Chapelle,  Cologne,  Glasgow);  in  France  the  bourbons 
employed  J.  A.  D.  Ingres,  F.  V.  E.  Delacroix,  Vernet  and  J.  H. 
Flandrin  (Dreux);  and  the  execution  of  their  designs  was 
entrusted  to  the  most  expert  painters  to  be  procured  at  Munich 
and  Sevres;  but  all  to  little  effect.  They  either  used  potmetal 
glass  of  poor  quality,  or  relied  upon  enamel — with  the  result 
that  their  colour  lacks  the  qualities  of  glass.  Where  it  is  not 
heavy  with  paint  it  is  thin  and  cmde.  In  Belgium  happier 
results  were  obtained.  In  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Sacrament  at 
Brussels  there  is  one  window  by  J.  B.  Capronnicr  not  unworthy 
of  the  fine  series  by  B.  van  Orley  which  it  supplements.  At  the 
best,  however,  foreign  artists  failed  to  appreciate  the  quality 
of  gbss;  they  put  better  draughtsmanship  into  their  windows 
than  English  designers  of  the  mid- Victorian  era,  and  painted 
them  better;  but  they  missed  the  glory  of  translucent  colour. 

Modem  facilities  of  manufacture  make  possible  many  things 
which  were  hitherto  out  of  the  question.  Enamel  colours  ire 
richer;  their  range  is  extended;  and  it  may  be  possible,  with 
the  improved  kilns  and  greater  chemical  knowledge  we  possess, 
to  make  them  hold  permanently  fast.  It  was  years  ago  demon- 
strated at  Sevres  how  a  picture  may  be  painted  in  colours  upon 
a  sheet  of  plate-glass  measuring  4  ft.  by  a^  ft.  We  are  now  no 
doubt  in  a  position  to  produce  windows  painted  on  much  larger 
sheets.  But  the  results  achieved,  technically  wonderful  as  they 
are,  hardly  warrant  the  waste  of  time  and  labour  upon  work  ao 
costly,  so  fragile,  so  lacking  in  the  qualities  of  a  picture  on  thn 
one  hand  and  of  glass  on  the  other. 

In  America,  John  la  Farge,  finding  European  material  opt 


GLASS,  STAINED 


III 


restrained  from  self-expresuon.  Moreover,  the  recognition  of 
the  artistic  position  of  craftsmen  in  general  makes  it  possible 
for  a  man  to  devote  himself  to  glass  without  sinking  to  the  rank 
of  a  mechanic;  and  artists  begin  to  realise  the  scope  glass  offers 
them.  •  What  they  lack  as  yet  is  experience  in  their  craft,  and 


enongh,  produced  pofmetal  more  heavily  charged  with 
colour.  This  was  wilfully  streaked,  mottled  and  quasi- 
acddentally  varied;  some  of  it  was  opalescent;  much  of  it  was 
more  like  agate  or  onyx  than  jewels.  Other  forms  of  American 
enterprise  were :  the  making  of  glass  in  lumps,  to  be  chipped 
into  flakes;  the  ruckling  it; 
the  shaping  it  in  a  molten  ExampUs  of  ImperUuU  HistoHad  Slaitud  Class, 

state,  or  the  pulling  it  out  of  There  aie  remains  of  the  earliest  known  glass:  in  France — at  Le  Mans,  Chartrcs,  Chftlons-sur-Mame, 

«]isn«      It  takes  an  artist  of  Angers  and  PoUierscathedrals,  the  abbey  church  of  St  Denis  and  at  St  Remi,  Reims:  in  England — at 

aa«l«c.    XI.  »*><^  •»»  "JJ"^  "•  York  minster  (fragments):  in  Germany— «(t  Augsburg  and  Strassbuig  cathedrals:  in  Austria— in  the 

some  reserve  to  make  judiaous  dolsters  of  Hdligen  Kreux. 

use  of  ^ass  Uke  this.    La  Farge  The  following  m  a  classified  list  of  some  of  the  most  characteristic  and  important  windows,  omitting 

nod  L.  C.  Tiffany  have  turned  it  for  the  most  part  isolated  examples,  and  giving  by  preference  the  names  of  churches  where  there  is  a  fair 

to  beautiful  account*  but  even  *<°o*>Bt  of  glass  remaining ;  the  country  in  which  at  each  period  the  art  throve  best  is  put  first. 


they  have  put  it  to  purposes 
more  pictorial  than  it  can 
pcoperiy  fulfil.  The  design  it 
calls  for  is  a  severely  abstract 
form  of  ornament  verging  upon 
the  barbaric. 

Of  late  years  each  country 
has  been  learning  so  much 
from  the  others  that  the 
newest  effort  is  very  much  in 
one  direction.  It  seems  to  be 
agreed  that  the  art  of  the 
sriiidow-maker  begins  with 
gazing,  that  the  all-needful 
thing  is  beautiful  glass,  that 
l>ainting  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  and  on  occasion 
(thanks  to  new  developments 
in  .the 
pcnsed 


France. 
ChartresN 
Le  Mans 

Bourges    >  cathedrals. 
Reims 
Auxerre   J 
Ste  Chapelle,  Paris. 
Church  of  St  Jcan-aux-Bois. 

EngjUmd, 
York  minster. 
Ely  cathedral. 
Wells  cathedral. 
Tewkesbury  abbey. 


Italy. 

Church  of  St  Francis,  Asnu. 

Church    of    Or    San    Michele, 
Florence, 
making  of  glass)  dis>     Church  of  S.  Petronio,  Bologna, 
with     altogether.    A 


Eakly  Gothic 

EH^tOMd. 

Canterbury  ) 
Salisbury     t  cathedrals. 
Lincoln        ) 
York  minster. 


Middle  Gothic 
CemtaHy. 


Ctrmany. 
Church  of  St  Kunibert,  Cologne 

(Romanesque). 
Cologne  cathedral. 


Francs. 


Church  of  St  Sebald,  Nuremberg.    £vreux  cathedral 

Strassburg  -« 

Regensburg 

Augsburg    ^cathedrals. 

Erfurt 

Freiburg 

Church  of  Nieder  Haslach. 


Church  of  St  Pierre.  Chartres. 
Cathedral    and    church    of    Sc 

Urbain,  Troves. 
Church  of  Ste  IcadegDnde,Poitiers. 
Cathedral  and  church  of  Sc  Ouen, 

Rouen. 

Spain. 

Toledo  cathcdrsL 


tendency  has  developed  itself  En^nd, 

in  the  direction  not  merely  of     New  College.  Oxford. 

Gloucester  cathedral. 


Church  of  St  Mary,  Shrewsbury. 
Fairford  church. 


Fhaue. 


mosaic,  but  of  carrying  the 
glaxier's  art  farther  than  has 
been  done  before  and  render- 
ing landscapes  and  even  figure 
subjects  in  unpainted  glass. 
When,  however,  it  comes  to 
the  representation  of  the 
human  face,  the  limitations 
of  simple  lead-glazing  are  at 
once  apparent.  A  possible 
way  out  of  the  difficulty  was  |t  ^**{!^  \  '^*'"*°- 
shown  »t  the  Paris  Exhibition  Church  of  ^t  Foy,  Conches, 
of  1900  by  M.  Tournel,  who,  church  of  St  Gervab,  Paris. 
by  fusing  together  coloured 
teserae  on  to  larger  pieces  of 
colouriess  glass,  anticipated  the 
discovery  of  the  already  men- 
tioned fragment  of  Byzantine 


Lats  Gothic 
Franct. 
T^  fcathedrals. 


York,  minster  and  other  churches.  Church  of  Notre  Dame.  Alenfon. 
Great  Malvern  abbey. 


St  Vincent ) 


Italy. 
The  Dttomo,  Florence. 

Transition  Pbuod 
Thechmr  of  thecathedralat  Auch. 


Rbnaissancb 

Nttkerlands. 

Brussels  cathedral 
Church  of  St  Jacques 
Church  of  St  Martin 
Cathedrsl 


Cologne) 

Ulm       (cathedrals. 

Munich  ) 

Church  of  St  Lorens,  Nurembeig. 

Spain. 
Toledo  cathedral. 


!" 


Li<ge. 


Switufkuii. 
Lucerne  and  most  of  die  other 
principal  museums. 


Church  of  St  £tienne-du-Mont, 

Paris. 
Church  of  St    Martin.    Mont- 

morencVj^ 
Church  01  £couen. 
Church  of  St  £tienne,  Beauvais. 


Aresao 


Granada 

Seville 


Spain. 
I  cathedrals. 


Cam- 


Church  of  St  Ntzier,  Troycs. 
Church    of    Brou.    Bourg-en- 

Bresse. 
The  Ch&teau  de  Chantilly. 


Netherlands. 
Groote  Kirk,  Ck>uda. 
Choir  of  Brussels  cathedral. 
Antwerp  cathedral. 


mosaic  now  in  the  Victoria 
and  Albert  Museum.  He  may 
have  seen  or  heard  of  some- 
thing of  the  sort.  There  would 
be  no  advantage  in  building 
up  whole  windows  in  this 
way;  but  for  the  rendering  of 
the  flesh  and  sundry  minute 
details  in  a  window  for  the 
most  part  heavily  leaded,  this 
fusing  together  of  tesserae, 
and  even  of  little  pieces  of 

glass  cut  carefully  to  shape,  seems  to  supply  the  want  of  some- 
thing more  in  keeping  with  severe  mosaic  gazing  than  painted 
flesh  proves  to  be. 

Glass  painters  are  allowed  to-day  a  freer  hand  than  formeriy. 
They  are  no  longer  exclusively  engaged  upon  ecclesiastical  work; 
domestic  gbus  te  an  important  industry;  and  a  workman  once 
comparatively  exempt  from  pedantic  control  is  not  so  easily 


Italy. 

Certosa  di  Pavia. 
Church  of  S.  Petronio.  Bologna. 
Church  of  Su  Maria  Novella, 
Florence. 

Germany. 
Freiburg  cathedral. 

Latb  Rbnaissancb 
France. 

Church  of  St  Martin-^Vignes. 

Troyes. 
Nave   and   transepts   of    Auch 

cathcdralt 

Switaertand. 
Most  museums. 


perhsps  due  workmanlike  respect  for  traditional  ways  of  work- 
manship. When  the  old  methods  come  to  be  superseded 
it  will  be  only  by  new  ones  evolved  out  of  them.  At  present  the 
conditions  of  glass  painting  remain  very  much  what  they  were. 
The  supreme  beauty  of  glass  is  still  in  the  purity,  the  brilliancy, 
the  translucency  of  its  colour.  To  make  the  most  of  this  the 
designer  must  be  master  of  his  trade.    The  test  of  window  desgn 


Engfand. 

Kin|(*s    College    chapel, 
bndse. 

Uchfieid  cathedral. 

St    GeoTKe's    church,    Hanover 
Square.  London. 

St    Margaret's    church.    West- 
minster. 

Engfand. 
Wadham) 

Balliol     >  colleges.  Oxford. 
New         ) 


tn 


GLASSBRENfNER— GLASTONBURY 


is,  now  as  ever,  that  it  should  have  nothing  to  lose  and  everything 
to  gain  by  execution  in  stained  glass. 

Bibliography.— Thcophilut,  ArU  ef  tkt  Middle  Ates  (London. 
1847);  Charles  Winston,  An  Imptiry  into  Ike  Difference  of  Style 
cbsentMe  in  Ancient  Glass  Painting,  especially  ta  England  (Oxford, 


1847),  and  Memoirs  illustrative  of  the  Art  of  Glass  Painting  (London, 
1865);  N.  H.  J.  Weatlake.  A  History  ef  Design  in  -PeSnted  Glass 
U  vols.,  London,  1881-1804);  L-  F*  Day,  Windows,  A  Book  about 


Stained  and  Painted  Glass  (London,  iQOQ),'and  Stained  Glass  (London. 
1003);  A.  W.  Franks,  A  Book  of  Ornamental  GlaMtng  Quarries 
(London,  1840);  A  Booke  of  SunSry  Draugktes,  principaly  serving 


for  Clasiers  (London,  161 5,  reproduced  1900):  F.  G.  Joyce.  Tke 
Faitford  Windows  (cokMired  plates)  (London,  1870);  Dtoers  Works 
of  Early  Masters  in  Ecclesiastical  Decoration,  edited  by  John  Weale 
(2  vols.,  London,  1846);  Ferdinand  de  Lasteyrie,  Htstoire  de  la 
peinture  sur  verre  d'aprks  ses  monuments  en  Franu  (3  vola.,  Paris, 
1853),  and  Quelques  wufts  sur  la  tkiorie  de  la  peinture  sur  verre  (Paris, 
1853) ;  L.  Magne.  (Emre  des  peintres  terriers  francais  {2  vols.,  Paris, 
1885) ;  VioUet  le  Due.  "  Vitrail,"  vol.  ix.  of  the  Dtctumnaire  raisomU 
de  Farckitecture  (Paris,  1868):  O.  Metson.  "  Lcs  Vitraox,"  Biblio- 
tkkoue  de  Fenseignement  des  beaifx-arts  (Paris,  1895);  E.  Levy  and 
J.  D.  Capronnier,  Htstoire  de  la  peinture  sur  verre  (coloured  plates) 
(Brussels,  i860);  Ottsn,  Le  Vitrail,  son  kistoire  d  trovers  les  dges 
(Paris) ;  Pierre  le  Vieil,  L'Art  de  la  peinture  sur  vertt  et  de  la  vitrerie 
(Paris.  1774);  C.  Cahier  and  A.  Martin,  Vitraux  peints  de  Bourges 
du  Xtll*  siide  (2  vols.,  Paris.  1841-18x4):  S.  Clement  iad  A. 
Guitard,  Vitraux  du  XIII*  siicle  de  la  catkidrale  de  Bourges  (Bourges, 
1900);  M.  A.  Cksaert,  Cesckickle  der  Clasmalerei  in  Deutukhnd 
und  den  Niederlanden,  Prankreick,  Engfand,6fc.,  von  ikrem  Ursprung 
bis  auf  die  neueste  Zeit  (Tabinsen  and  Stuttgart,  1830;  also  an 
Englisn  translation,  London,  1851);  F.  Gewes,  Der  aue  Penster- 
ulunuck  des  Freiburger  Munsters,  5  parts  (Freiburg  im  Breisgau, 
1903,  &c.);  A.  Hafner,  Ckefs-d'amre  de  la  peinture  suisu  sur  verre 
(Berlin).  (L.  F.  D.) 

GLASSBRENKBR.  ADOLF  (18x0-1876),  German  humorist 
and  satirist,  was  bom  at  Berlin  on  the  37th  of  March  1810. 
After  being  for  a  short  time  in  a  merchant's  office,  he  took  to 
journalism,  and  in  1831  edited  Don  Quixote,  a  periodical  which 
was  suppressed  in  1833  owing  to  its  revolutionary  tendencies. 
He  next,  under  the  pseudonym  Ad<df  Brenn^as,  published  a 
series  of  pictures  of  Berlin  Ufe,  under  the  titles  Berlin  line  es 
ist  und—trinkt  (30  parts,  with  illustrations,  1833-1849),  and 
Buntes  Berlin  (14  parts,  with  illustrations,  Berlin,  1837-1858), 
and  thus  became  the  founder  of  a  popular  satirical  literature 
associated  with  modern  Berlin.  In  1840  he  married  the  actress 
Adele  Peroni  (i  813-1895),  and  removed  in  the  following  year 
to  Neustrelitx,  where  his  wife  had  obtained  an  engagement  at 
the  Grand  ducal  theatre.  In  1848  Glassbrenner  entered  the 
political  arena  and  became  the  leader  of  the  democratic  party 
in  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  Expelled  from  that  country  in  1850, 
he  settled  in  Hamburg,  where  he  remained  until  1858;  imd  then 
he  became  editor  of  the  MonlagsMeilung  in  Berlin,  where  he  died 

on  the  35th  of  September  1876. 

Among  Glassbrenner's  other  humorous  and  satirical  writings  may 
be  mentioned:  Leben  und  Treiben  der  feinen  Welt  (1834);  Bilder 
und  Trdume  aus  Wien  {2  vols.,  1836);  Gedickte  (1851,  5th  cd.  1870); 
the  comic  epics,  Neuer  Reineke  Fucks  (1846.  4tn  ed.  1870)  and 
Die  verkekrte  Wdt  (1857.  6th  ed.  1873);  also  Berliner  Volksleben 
(3  vols.,  illustrated;  Leipzig.  18x7-1851).  Glassbrenner  has 
published  lomc  charming  booksTor  children.  notAhWLackende  Kinder 
(14th  cd.,  1884),  and  Spreckende  Tiere  (30th  cd.,  Hamburg,  1899). 

^ce  R.  Schmidt-Cabanis,  "  Adolf  Glassbrenner,"  in  Unsere  Zeit 
(1881). 

GLASS  CLOTH,  a  textile  material,  the  name  of  which  indicates 
the  use  for  which  it  was  originally  intended.  The  cloths  are  in 
general  woven  with  the  plain  weave,  and  the  fabric  may  be  all 
white,,  striped  or  checked  with  red,  blue  or  other  coloured 
threads;  the  checked  cloths  are  the  most  common.  The  real 
article  should  be  all  linen,  but  a  large  quantity  is  made  with 
cotton  warp  and  tow  weft,  and  in  some  cases  they  are  composed 
entirely  of  cotton.  The  short  fibres  of  the  cheaper  kind  are 
easily  detached  from  the  cloth,  and  hence  they  are  not  so  satis- 
factory for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended. 

GLASSIUS,  SALOMO  (1593-1656),  theologian  and  biblical 
critic,  was  bom  at  Sondershausen,  in  the  principality  of  Schwarz- 
burg-Sondershausen,  on  the  ioth  of  May  1593.  In  i6x3  he 
eAtered  the  university  of  Jena.  In  z6i  5,  with  the  idea  of  studying 
law,  he  moved  to  Wittenberg.  In  consequence  of  an  illness, 
however,  he  returned  to  Jena  after  a  year.  Here,  as  a  student 
of  theology  under  Johann  Gerhard,  be  directed  his  attention 


especially  to  Hebrew  and  the  cognate  dialects;  in  1619  he  was 
made  an  "  adjunctus  "  of  the  philosophical  faculty,  and  some 
time  afterwards  he  received  an  appointment  to  the  chair  of 
Hebrew.  From  1635  to  1638  he  was  superintendent  in  Sonders- 
hausen; but  shortly  after  the  death  of  Gerhard  (1637)  he  was, 
in  accordance  with  Gerhard's  last  wish,  appointed  to  succeed 
him  at  Jena.  In  1(^0,  however,  at  the  earnest  invitation  of 
Duke  Ernest  the  Bious,  he  removed  to  (jotha  as  court  preacher 
and  general  superintendent  in  the  execution  of  important  reforms 
which  had  been  initiated  in  the  ecclesiastical  and  educational 
establishments  of  the  duchy.  The  delicate  duties  attached  to 
this  office  he  discharged  with  tact  and  energy;  and  in  the 
"  syncretistic "  controveisy,  by  which  Protestant  Germsny 
was  so  long  vexed,  he  showed  an  unusual  combination  of  firmness 
with  liberality,  of  loyalty  to  the  past  with  a  just  regard  to  the 
demands  of  the  present  and  the  future.  He  <Ued  on  the  37th  of 
July  1656. 

Hb  principal  work,  Pktiologia  sacra  (1633),  marks  the  transition 
from  the  eanier  views  on  questions  of  biblical  criticism  to  those  of 
the  school  of  Spencr.  It  was  more  than  once  reprinted  during  his 
lifetime,  and  appeared  in  a  new  and  revised  form,  edited  by  J.  A. 
Dathe  ( 1 73 1  -l  79 1 )  and  G.  L.  Bauer  at  Leipaig.  Glasnus  succeeded 
Gerhard  as  editor  of  the  Weimar  Bt6eiwerA,andwrote  the  commentary 
on  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  for  that  publication.  '  A 
volume  of  his  Opuscula  was  printed  at  Leiden  in  1700. 

See  the  article  in  Herxog-rlauck,.  RealencyUopddie, 

GLA8SW0RT.  a  name  given  to  Salicomia  kerbacea  (also 
known  as  marsh  samphire),  a  salt-marsh  herb  with  succulent, 
jointed,  leafless  stems,  in  reference  to  its  former  use  in  g^ass- 
making,  when  it  was  bumt  for  barilla.  Salstda  Kali^  an  allied 
plant  with  rigid,  fleshy,  ^inous-pointed  leaves,  which  was  used 
for  the  same  purpose,  was  known  as  prickly  glasswort.  Both 
plants  are  members  of  the  natural  order  Chenopodiaceae. 

GLASTONBURY,  a  market  town  and  municipal  borough  in 
the  Eastern  parliamentary  division  of  Somersetshire,  England, 
on  the  main  road  from  London  to  Exeter,  37  m.  S.W.  of  Bath  by 
the  Somerset  &  Dorset  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  4016.  The  town 
lies  in  the  midst  of  orchards  and  water-meadows,  reclaimed  from- 
the  fens  which  encircled  Glastonbury  Tor,  a  conical  height  once 
an  island,  but  now,  with  the  surrounding  flats,  a  peninsula  washed 
on  three  sides  by  the  river  Bme. 

The  town  is  famous  for  its  abbey,  the  ruins  of  which  are  frag- 
mentary, and  as  the  work  of  destmction  has  in  many  places 
descended  to  the  very  foundations  it  is  impossible  to  make  out 
the  details  of  the  plan.  Of  the  vast  range  of  buildings  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  monks  hardly  any  part  remains  except  the 
abbot's  kitchen,  noteworthy  for  its  octagonal  interior  (the  ex- 
terior  plan  being  square,  with  the  four  comers  filled  in  with  fire- 
places and  chimneys),  the  porter's  lodge  and  the  abbey  bam. 
Considerable  portions  are  standing  of  the  so-called  chapel  of  St 
Joseph  at  the  west  end,  which  has  been  identified  with  the  Lady 
chapel,  occupying  the  site  of  the  earliest  church.  This  chapel, 
which  is  the  finest  part  of  the  ruins,  is  Transitional  work  of  the 
1 3th  century.  It  measures  about  66  ft.  from  east  to  west  and 
about  36  from  north  to  south.  Below  the  chapel  is  a  crypt  of  the 
X5th  century  inserted  beneath  a  building  which  had  no  previous 
crypt.  Between  the  chapel  and  the  great  church  is  an  Early 
English  building  which  appears  to  have  served  as  a  Galilee  porch. 
The  church  itself  was  a  cruciform  stracture  with  a  choir,  nave 
and  transepts,  and  a  tower  surmounting  the  centre  of  intersection. . 
From  east  to  west  the  length  was  410  ft.  and  the  breadth  of  the 
nave  was  about  80  ft.  The  nave  had  ten  bays  and  the  choir  six. 
Of  the  nave  three  bays  of  the  south  side  are  still  standing,  and  the 
windows  have  pointed  arches  extemally  and  semicircular  arches 
intemally.  Two  of  the  tower  piers  and  a  part  of  one  arch  give 
some  indication  of  the  grandeur  of  the  building.  The  foundations 
of  the  Edgar  chapd,  discovered  in  1908,  make  the  whole  church 
the  longest  of  cathedral  or  monastic  churches  in  the  country.  The 
old  clock,  presented  to  the  abbey  by  Adam  de  Sodbury  (1333- 
1335)1  And  noteworthy  as  an  early  example  of  a  clock  striking  the 
hours  automatically  with  a  count-wheel,  was  once  in  WcUs 
cathedral,  but  is  now  preserved  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum. 


GLASS.    STAINED 


^tvO^ 

w 

m 

lOw^ 

i  mm 

assail  T-MBp  '        '*•/  !• 

"  *^''5''!Si>  I- 

GLASS,  STAIN  KD 


4^SI?gl^i 


I.  A  Typical  Perpendicular  Canopy  (from  Lewis  F,  Day,  Windmis.  by  permission  of  B.  T.  Batsford). 
II.  A  Window  from  Aurb.     Illuatraling  the  transilion  from  Perpendicular  lo  Rcnaissante. 
III.  A  Sirteenlh-Centuiy  Jesse  Window,     From  Beauvais  (source  as  in  Fig.  I.>. 
iV.  Portion  of  a  Renaissance  Window.    Fiom  Montmorency,  showing  the  perfection  of  glass  painting. 

From  LucIiB  tUrn.  Onn^r,  Ai  Prinlrti  fi^rfiri  Frtiltlr.  trinniittrioii  otFiniilii.Di*Kn  c<i 


GLASTONBURY 


"3 


The  Glastonbury  tborn,  planted,  accoTding  to  the  legend,  by 
Joseph  of  Arimathea,  has  been  the  object  of  considerable  com- 
ment. It  is  said  to  be  a  distinct  variety,  flowering  twice  a  year. 
The  actual  thorn  visited  by  the  pilgrims  was  destroyed  about  the 
Reformation  time,  but  iq>ecimens  of  the  same  variety  are  still 
extant  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

The  chief  buildings,  apart  from  the  abbey,  are  the  church  of  St 
John  Baptist,  Perpendicular  in  style,  with  a  fine  tower  and  some 
X5tb-ccntury  monuments;  St  Benedict's,  dating  from  1493-1524; 
St  John's  ho^ital,  founded  Z246;  and  the  George  Inn,  buUt  in 
the  time  of  Henry  VII.  or  VIIL  The  present  stone  cross  replaced 
a  far  finer  one  of  great  age,  which  had  fallen  into  decay.  The 
Antiquarian  Museum  contains  an  excellent  collection,  including 
remains  from  a  prehistoric  village  of  the  marshes,  discovered  in 
1893,  and  consisting  of  sixty  mounds  within  a  spact  of  five  acres. 
There  is  a  Roman  Catholic  missionaries'  college;  In  the  x6th 
century  the  woollen  industry  was  introduced  by  the  duke  of 
Somerset;  and  silk  manufacture  was  carried  on  in  ther  iSth 
century.  Tanning  and  tile-making,  and  the  manufacture  of 
boots  and  sheep-skin  rugs  are  practised.  The  town  is  governed 
by  a  masros",  4  aldermen  and  12  councillors.    Area,  5000  acres. 

The  lake-village  discovered  in  1892  proves  that  there  was  a 
Celtic  settlement  about  300-200  B.C.  on  an  island  in  the  midst  of 
swamps,  and  therefore  easily  defensible.  British  earthworks 
and  Ronoan  roads  and  relics  prove  later  occupation.  The  name 
of  Glastonbury,  however,  is  of  much  later  origin,  being  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Saxon  Cltutyngabyrig.  By  the  Britons  the  spot 
seems  to  have  been  called  Ynys  yr  Af alon  (latinixed  as  Avallonia) 
or  Ynysvitrin  (see  Avalon),  and  it  became  the  local  habitation  of 
various  fragments  of  Celtic  romance.  According  to  the  legends 
which  grew  up  under  the  care  of  the  monks,  the  first  church  of 
Glastonbttzy  was  a  little  wattled  building  erected  by  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  as  the  leader  of  the  twelve  apostles  sent  over  to 
Britain  from  Gaul  by  St  Philip.  About  a  hundred  years  later, 
according  to  the  same  authorities,  iha  two  missionaries,  Phaganus 
and  Deruvianus,  who  came  to  king  Lucius  from  Pope  Eleutherius, 
established  a  fraternity  of  anchorites  on  the  qx>t,  and  after  three 
hondred  years  more  St  Patrick  introduced  among  them  a  regular 
monastic  life.  The  British  monastery  founded  about  6ox  was 
succeeded  by  a  Saxon  abbey  built  by  Ine  in  70S.  From  the 
decadent  state  into  which  Glastonbury  was  brought  by  the 
Danish  invasions  it  was  recovered  by  Dunstan,  who  had  been 
educated  within  its  walls  and  was  appointed  its  abbot  about  946. 
The  church  and  other  buildings  of  his  erection  remained  till  the 
installation,  in  1082,  of  the  first  Norman  abbot,  who  inaugurated 
the  new  ^poch  by  commencing  a  new  church.  His  successor 
Heriewin  (x  ioz-ix2o),  however,  pulled  it  down  to  make  way  for 
a  finer  structure.  Henry  of  Blois  (XX26-XX72)  added  greatly  to 
the  extent  of  the  monastery.  In  i  X84  (on  25th  May)  the  whole  of 
the  buildings  were  laid  in  ruins  by  fire;  but  Henry  n.  of  England, 
in  whose  hands  the  monastery  then  was,  entrusted  his  chamberiain 
Rudolphtts  with  the  work  of  restoration,  and  caused  it  to  be 
carried  out  with  much  magnificence.  The  great  church  of  which 
the  ruins  still  remain  was  then  erected.  In  the  end  of  the  12th 
txaiury,  and  on  into  the  following,  Glastonbury  was  distracted 
by  a  strange  dispute,  caused  by  the  attempt  of  Savaric,  the 
ambitious  iHshop  of  Bath,  to  make  himself  master  of  the  abbey. 
The  conflict  was  dosed  by  the  decision  of  Innocent  III.,  that  the 
abbacy  should  be  merged  in  the  new  see  of  Bath  and  Glastonbury, 
and  that  Savaric  should  have  a  fourth  of  the  pn^>erty.  On 
Sa\'aric'a  death  his  successor  gave  up  the  joint  bi^opric  and 
allowed  the  o^nks  to  elect  their  own  abbot.  From  this  date  to  the 
Reformation  the  nionastery,  one  of  the  chief  Benedictine  abbeys 
in  Engjand,  continued  to  flourish,  the  chief  events  in  its  history 
being  connected  with  the  maintenance  of  its  claims  to  the 
possession  of  the  bodies  or  tombs  of  King  Arthur  and  St  Dunstan. 
From  early  times  through  the  middle  ages  it  was  a  place  of 
pilgrimage.  As  early  at  least  as  the  beginning  of  the  xith 
century  the  tradition  that  Arthur  was  buried  at  Glastonbury 
appears  to  have  taken  shape;  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II., 
accortting  to  Giraldus  Cambrensis  and  others,  the  abbot  Henry  de 
Bkns,  csnsiiig  search  to  be  made,  discovered  at  the  depth  ci  x6 


ft.  a  massive  oak  trunk  with  an  inscription  "  Hie  jacet  sepultus 
inditus  rex  Arthurus  in  insula  Avalonia."  After  the  fire  of  i  X84 
the  monks  asserted  that  they  were  in  possession  of  the  remains  of 
St  Dunstan,  which  had  been  abstracted  from  Canterbury  after  the 
Danish  sack  of  xoxx  and  kept  in  concealment  ever  since.  Hie 
Canterbury  monks  naturally  denied  the  assertion,  and  the  contest 
continued  for  centuries.  In  x  50S  Warham  and  Goldston  having 
examined  the  Canterbury  shrine  reported  that  it  contained  all  the 
prindpal  bones  of  the  saint,  but  the  abbot  of  Glastonbury  in 
reply  as  stoutly  maintained  that  this  was  impossible.  The  day 
of  such  disputes  was,  however,  drawing  to  a  dose.  In  XS39  the 
last  and  6oth  abbot  of  Glastonbury,  Robert  Why  ting,  was 
lodged  in  the  Tower  on  account  of  "  divers  and  sundry  treasons." 
"li^e'accoimt' or 'book 'of  his  treasons  ....  seems  to  be  lost, 
and  the  nature  of  the  charges  ....  can  only  be  a  matter  of  specu- 
lation "  (Gairdner,  Cal.  Pap.  on  Hen.  VIII.,  xiv.  ii.  pre/,  xxxii). 
He  was  removed  to  Wells,  where  he  was  "  arraigned  and  next 
day  put  to  execution  for  robbing  of  Glastonbury  church."  The 
execution  took  place  on  Glastonbury  Tor.  His  body  was 
quartered  and  his  head  fixed  on  the  abbey  gate.  A  darker 
passage  does  not  occur  in  the  annals  of  the  English  Reformation 
than  this  murder  of  an  able  and  high-spirited  man,  whose  worst 
offence  was  that  he  defended  as  best  he  could  from  the  hand  of  the 
spoiler  the  property  in  his  charge. 

In  X907,  the  site  of  the  abbey  with  the  remains  of  the  buildings, 
which  had  been  in  private  hands  since  the  granting  of  the  estate 
to  Sir  Peter  Carew  by  Elizabeth  in  1559,  was  bought  by  Mr 
Ernest  Jardine  for  the  purpose  of  transferring  it  to  the  Church 
of  England.  Bishop  Kennion  of  Bath  and  Wells  entered  into 
an  agreement  to  raise  a  sum  of  £3x,ooo,  the  cost  of  the  purchase; 
this  was  completed,  and  the  site  and  buildings  were  formally 
transferred  at  a  dedicatory  service  in  X909  to  the  Diocesan 
Trustees  of  Bath  and  Wells,  who  are  to  hold  and  manage  the 
property  according  to  a  deed  of  trust.  This  deed  provided  for 
the  appointment  of  an  advisory  coundl,  consisting  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  the  bishop  of  Bath  and  WfcUs  and  four 
other  bishops,  each  with  power  to  nominate  one  derical  and 
<Hie  lay  member.  The  council  has  the  duty  of  dedding  the 
purpose  for  which  the  property  is  to  be  used  "  in  connexion  with 
and  for  the  benefit  of  the  Church  of  England."  To  give  time  for 
further  collection  of  funds  and  deliberation,  the  property  was 
re-let  for  five  years  to  the  origixud  purchaser. 

In  the  8th  century  Glastonbury  was  already  a  borough  owned 
by  the  abbey,  which  continued  to  be  overiord  till  the  Dissolution. 
The  abbey  obtained  charters  in  the  7th  century,  but  the  town 
received  its  first  charter  from  Henry  II.,  who  exempted  the  men 
of  Glastonbury  from  the  jurisdiction  of  ro3raI  offidals  and  freed 
them  from  certain  toUs.  This  was  confirmed  by  Henry  III.  in 
X227,  by  Edward  I.  in  1278,  by  Edward  II.  in  13x3  and  by 
Henry  VI.  in  1447.  The  borough  was  incorporated  by  Anne  in 
1706,  and  the  corporation  was  reformed  by  the  act  of  1835. 
In  13x9  Glastonbury  received  a  writ  of  summons  to  parliament, 
but  made  no  return,  and  has  not  since  been  represented.  A 
fair  on  the  8th  of  September  was  granted  in  X127;  another  on 
the  29th  of  May  was  hdd  under  a  charter  of  x  282.  Fairs  known 
as  Torr  fair  and  Michaelmas  fair  are  now  hdd  on  the  second 
Mondays  in  September  and  Cktober  and  are  chiefly  important 
for  the  sale  of  horses  and  cattle.  The  market  day  every  other 
Monday  is  noted  for  the  sale  of  cheese.  Glastonbury  owed  its 
medieval  importance  to  its  coimexion  with  the  abbey.  At  the 
Dissolution  the  introduction  of  woollen  manufacture  checked 
the  decay  of  the  town.  The  doth  trade  flourished  for  a  century 
and  was  replaced  by  silk-weaving,- stocking-knitting  and  glove- 
making,  all  of  which  have  died  out. 

See  AbbotGasquet,H«inr  Vlll.and  the  English  Monasteries  (1906). 
and  The  Last  Abbot  oj[  Glastonbury  (1895  and  1908):  William  of 
Malmesbury,  "  De  antiq.  Glastoniensis  jecclcstae,  in  Rerum  Angli- 
cantm  script,  vet.  torn.  i.  (1684)  (also  printed  bv  Heame  and  Misne) ; 
John  of  Glastonbury,  Chronica  sine  de  hist,  de  rebus  Clast.^  ea.  by 
Heame  (2  vols..  Oxford,  1726);  Adam  of  Domerham,  De  rebus 
gestis  Clast.,  ed.  by  Heame  (2  vols.,  Oxford,  1727):  Hist,  and  Antiq, 
of  Glast.  (London,  1807) ;  Avalonian  Guide  to  the  Town  of  Glastonbury 
(8th  ed..  1839);  Warner.  Hist,  of  the  Abbey  and  Town  (Bath,  1826): 
I  Rev.  F.  Wanre,  "  Glastonbury  Abbey/'  in  Proc.  of  Somersetshin 


114. 


GLATIGNY— GLAUCHAU 


AniaenL  and  Nat  Uia.  Sue.,  1S49;  Rev,  F.  Warrc,  "  ^ 
Kuini  of  Glutoflbury  Ablicy."  16.  18:9:  Rrv.  W.  ^ 
"  On  Ike  Reputed  Diieovify  of  King  Arthur's  Rrmaiirt  ^1 
bury,"  it.  iSw;  Rev.  ].  ft.  Green,  '■  Uuonan  M  Ci.i.i. 
ind  "  Cuo  anci  Sivuic.  it,  iS6,j:  Rev.  Cioon  lodcuiti. 
Biifasn  aF  Bilh  lad  CliKODbury,"  ib.  iWi.  1863;  f.. 
nu,  ■'  King  lae,"  It.  ISJi  and  t»r*--  Dr  W.  Bniii.'.  . 
1/  Bril.  Ardual.  Aa.  vol.  ni,,  iSsS:  Rev.  R.  WUU<,  .^ ., 
RiUBry  1^  OaiMUnirj  Akhtj  (tU£):  W.  H.  P.  Cr»~.'II. 
gil  Ike  Early  aUUry  M  Gbuunhury  AbUy  (lODg),  Vicv-.  .. 
of  thcBbbcy  buUilins  «1U  be  [aund  in  Dugiblc's  JiTdiius;:.  . ' 
Stevcru'i  liimaillcM  (1730);  Stukelcy,  IlSufariuin  cutiour. 
Cnm.AiilimaicHi7U):Cnxrr.AntumlArcHI,a^,(!^>. 
Arlif.  ami  hfw.  Oinul.  11.,  iv..  v.  (1*07),  &c;  Bmiur 
facI»niJ,4>ilwiiiliu.  Iv.  (1813)!  VUuls  HoniimUa,  iv.  (1'- 
/fn,  Mo-miAoK.  i,  (iBiJ). 

GLATlQHy.  JOSEPH  ALBER1 
Fieacb  poel,  *u  bom  al  Lillebo 
lilt  of  May  I>J9.  HisCatber,  w 
warda  a  gendArme,  remDved  ia  1844  to  Beniay»  wher«  AlbeT 
received  an  elementaiy  educalion.  Soon  afler  leaving  scfa« 
he  *M  apprenticed  to  a  printer  at  Pont  AudctnM,  where  he  pre 
ductd  a  three-act  play  at  the  local  theatre.  He  then  joined 
(ravelling  company  ol  acton  to  whom  he  acted  aa  promptei 
Inspired  primarily  hy  the  itudy  of  Thtodore  de  BanviUe.  h 
puhlithcdhis  Vigna  JoUcs  \b  1857;  his  beat  coUection  of  lyric! 
La  Fiicha  i'or,  appeared  in  1564;  and  a  third  voJunie,  GUU 
€lpiisquiia,\Btilt-  After  Glatigny  Killed  in  Paris  he  improviBe 
'         '      leveral  onc-acl  playi.     On  a 


(Seini 


expedition  to  Coni 


wilh  Emt 


:e  for  a  n 
rough t  hi 


s,  but  the  hard- 


ship! of  his  life  weakened  his  health  ai 
the  lethol  April  1873. 
See  Cat  ulle  Mendis.  Urcnie  du  f 

GLATZ  (Slav.  Kladiko),  a  fortified  town  of  Germany,  in 
~       ■  .  ~.    .     ,  ^^^  valley  on  the  Wt  bi 


uuttr-ntOaiipmain  (tS8i),aDd 


It  Neis 


K,  not  far  froi 

u  by  rail.    Pop.  (1905)  16,051 


n  frontier,  58  m 


The  to 


the  old  citadel.    A 
the  town  on  both  bi 


loflt 


!K  Fiussiani  about 
river  there  is  a  for 
;  neighbouring  h 


ipby 


hindered  and  which  affords  t 
The  inner  ceintute  of  walls  was  razed  in  i8gi  and  their  sile  ia 
now  occupied  by  new  tiieels.  There  are  a  Lutbeian  and  Iwo 
Roman  Catfaolic  churches,  one  of  which,  the  parish  church, 
contains  the  monnnients  of  seven  SUesian  dukes.  Among  (be 
other  buildings  the  principal  are  the  Royal  Catholic  gymnasium 
and  the  mililaTy  hospital.  The  industries  include  machine 
shop),  breweries,  and  the  maDufacture  of  spirits,  linen,  damaak, 
doth,  hosiery,  beads  and  Irather. 

Glata  existed  as  early  aa  the  loth  century,  and  received 
German  settlers  about  njo.  It  was  besieged  several  limes 
during  the  Thirty 


iB93  S 


.    In  1! 


tuallyil 


■e  by  flood).  The 
d  for  by  the  kingdom!  of  Poland 
scaniepartottbelatter  country, 
K  of  fiabsburg,  from  vhom  it 

■>■■.  i/KunuKaoiiuiuiin  Wortttii Biid\&iss\3a,  1897); 
Ktaaa.  Du  Cn^scliJl  OaU  {a<,iia.  1873I;  nitA  Gcuhuluiquiani 
derCr^Ffl^^CIiUs,  edited  by  F-Volluner and  HoliauB(ieS3-iS9i). 
GUUBBRtJOHAHH  RUDOLF  (1604-1668),  German  chemist, 
was  bora  at  Kailsladl,  Bavaria,  in  1604  and  died  at  Anuterdam 
in  166S.  Little  more  is  known  of  his  life,  than  that  he  resided 
■uccetsivety  in  Vienna.  Salzburg,  Frankfvit  and  Cologne  before 
Bcllling  in  HoUand,  where  he  made  bis  living  chiefly  by 


ureal  CO 


iisidphate—ia/iiiii.aWf,GUuber'ssail— formed 
cing  one  oi  the  chiel  themes  of  bis  Uiraialiim 
noliced  that  nilric  acid  was  formed  when 
uled  for  the  common  salt.   Further  he  prepared 


uch  as  dyeing,  or  in  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
aanuies.  One  of  his  most  notable  works  was  bis  7 
VMJarIi  in  which  he  urged  Ihat  the  natural  r. 
lermany  should  be  developed  for  the  profit  of  the  c 
ave  various  instances  of  how  this  might  be  done. 


Saionyin  IhemiddleollbeiSth 
by  J.  R,  Glauber  (De  nofxro 
by  the  action  of  oU  of  vitriol  or 
and,  ascribing  to  il  many  mcdici 
ChtAtri.  As  the 
crysiBlli«s  in  the  c 
the  world,  as  in  S[ 
and  the  Russian  C 
ajm.E.oFTiOis.th 
below  the  surface,  a. 


lyslen 


st-named  region,  about 


of  the  blood, 
stitutes  the  mil 


IS  belonging  tc 


.    It  h. 


syMem 


ut  cha  nges  tolheanbydn 


it  crystalliies  fram 

Esceindryair,andat3S°C.meltintheirwaterofcryatslliai- 
Al  100°  Ihey  lost  all  their  water,  and  on  further  heating 
Il  843°.  Its  mttimum  solubility  in  water  is  at  j4*;  above 
Itmoetature  it  ceases  to  exist  in  the  solution  as  a  dea- 
ls sail. the  sol  ubilityolwhich 
Glauber's  salt  readily  forms 
I  which  cryslallizalion  lakes  place 

ihe  air  or  by  touching  tbe  solulion 
Jne  it  is  employed  as  an  aptiient, 
lOSl  innocuous  known.  Forchilditn 
in  salt  and  the  two  be  used  with  the 

simulation  of  tht  taste  of  common  sail  also  renden  it  suitable 

take  any  drug.    If,  however,  ils  presence  is  rccogniztd  sodium 
phosphate  may  be  substituted. 

QLAnCHAD,  a  lown  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Saiony, 
00  the  right  bank  of  Ihe  Mulde,  7  m.  N.  of  Zwickau  and  1 7  W.  of 
Chemniu  by  raU.  Pop.  Ci87S>  ".743;  doos)  J4,Ss6.  1 1  has 
important  manufaclures  of  woollen  and  balf-woollen  goods, 
in  regard  to  which  il  occupies  a  bigb  position  in  Getituiny. 
There  are  also  dye-works,  print-works,  and  manufactories 
of  paper,  linen,  thread  and  machinery.  Clauchau  possesses  a 
high  grade  school,  elementary  schods,  a  weaving  school,  an 
orphanage  and  an  infirmary.    Some  portions  of  t 


.    Glauchau 


d  Wends,  and  belonged  10  the  lords  ot 
■T  iU  dsckkliU  if  Suit  GlatuUn 


GLAUCONITE— GLAUCUS 


"5 


GLAUCONm  a  mineral,  green  Id  colour,  and  chemically  a 
hydrous  silicate  of  iron  and  potassium.  It  especially  occurs  in  the 
green  sands  and  muds  which  are  gathering  at  the  present  time  on 
the  sea  bottom  at  many  different  places.  The  wide  extension  of 
these  sands  and  muds  was  first  made  known  by  the  naturalists  of 
the  "  Challenger,"  and  it  is  now  found  that  they  occur  in  the 
Meditaranean  as  well  as  in  the  open  ocean,  but  they  have  not 
been  found  in  the  Black  Sea  or  in  any  fresh-water  lakes.  These 
deposits  are  not  in  a  true  sense  abyssal,  but  are  of  terrigenous 
origin,  the  mud  and  sand  being  derived  from  the  wear  of  the  con- 
tinents, transported  by  marine  currents.  The  greater  pait  of  the 
mass  consists  in  all  cases  of  minerals  such  as  quartz,  felq>ar 
(often  labradorite),  mica,  chlorite,  with  more  dr  less  caldte  which 
is  probably  always  derived  from  shells  or  other  organic  sources. 
Maiiy  accessory  minerals  such  as  tourmaline  and  zircon  have 
been  identified  also,  while  augite,  hornblende  and  other  volcanic 
minerals  occur  in  varying  proportion  as  in  all  the  sediments  of  the 
open  sea.  The  depth  in  which  they  acomiulate  varies  a  good 
deal,  viz.  from  300  up  to  3000  fathoms,  but  as  a  rule  is  less  than 
1000  fathoms,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  most  common  situations 
are  whcxe  the  continental  shores  slope  rather  steeply  into  moderate 
dq>ths  of  water.  Many  of  the  blue  muds,  which  owe  their  colour 
to  fine  particles  of  sulphide  of  iron,  contain  also  a  small  quantity 
of  glauconite;  in  Globigerina  oozes  this  substance  has  also  been 
fooixl,  and  in  fact  there  exists  every  gradation  between  the 
gUuconitic  deposits  and  the  other  types  of  sands  and  muds  which 
are  found  at  similar  depths. 

The  colouring  matter  is  believed  in  every  case  to  be  (^auconite. 
Other  ingredients,  such  as  lime,  alumina  and  magnesia  are 
usually  shown  to  be  present  by  the  analyses,  but  may  perhaps  be 
regard^  as  non-essential;  it  is  impossible  to  isolate  this  substance 
in  a  pure  state  as  it  occurs  only  in  fine  aggregates,  mixed  with 
other  minerals.  The  glauconite,  though  crystalline,  never  occurs 
well  crystallized  but  only  as  dense  clusters  of  very  minute 
particles  which  react  feebly  on  polarized  light.  They  have  one 
well-marked  characteristic  inasmuch  as  they  often  form  roimded 
lumps.  In  many  cases  it  is  certain  that  these  are  casts,  which 
fin  up  the  interior  of  empty  shells  of  Foraminifera.  They  may  be 
seen  occupying  these  sheik,  and  when  the  shell  is  dissolved  away 
perfect  casts  of  glauconite  are  set  free.  Apparently  in  some 
manner  not  understood,  the  decaying  organic  matter  in  the  shell 
of  the  dead  organism  initiated  or  favoured  the  chemical  reactions 
by  which  the  glauconite  was  formed.  That  the  mineral  originated 
on  the  sea  bottom  among  the  sand  and  mud  is  quite  certainly 
established  by  these  facts;  moreover,  since  it  is  so  soft  and 
friable  that  it  is  easily  powdered  up  by  pressure  with  the  fingers, 
it  cannot  have  been  transported  from  any  great  distance  by 
corrents.  Small  rounded  glauconite  lumps,  which  are  common 
on  the  sands  but  show  no  trace  of  having  filled  the  chambers  of 
Foraminifera,  may  have  arisen  by  a  re-deposit  of  broken-down 
casts  such  as  have  been  described;  probably  slight  movement  of 
the  deposits,  occasioned  by  currents,  may  have  broken  up  the 
^auconite  casts  and  scattered  the  soft  material  through  the 
water.  Films  or  stains  of  glauconite  on  shells,  sand  grains  and 
pbo^hate  nodules  are  explained  by  a  similar  deposit  of  frag- 
mental  glauconite. 

In  a  small  number  of  Tertiary  and  older  rocks  glauconite  occurs 
as  an  essential  component.  It  is  found  in  the  Pliocene  sands  of 
Holland,  the  Eocene  sands  of  Paris  and  the  "  Molasse  "  of 
Switzerland,  but  is  much  more  abundant  in  the  Lower  Cret- 
aceous rocks  of  N.  Europe,  especially  in  the  subdivision  known 
as  the  Greensand.  Rounded  lumps  and  casts  like  those  of  the 
green  sands  of  the  present  day  are  plentiful  in  these  rocks,  and  it 
B  obvious  that  the  mode  of  formation  was  in  all  respects  the 
same.  The  green  sand  when  weathered  is  brown  or  rusty 
coloured,  the  glauconite  being  oxidized  to  limonite.  Calcareous 
sands  or  impure  limestones  with  glauconite  are  also  by  no 
nieans  rare,  an  example  being  the  well-known  Kentish  Rag. 
In  the  Chalk-rock  and  Chalk-marl  of  some  parts  of  England 
giauconite  is  rather  frequent,  and  glauconitic  chalk  is  known  also 
in  the  north  of  France.  Among  the  oldest  rocks  which  contain 
this  mineral  are  the  Lower  Silurian  of  the  St  Petersburg  district, 


but  it  is  very  rare  in  the  Palaeozoic  formations,  possibly  because  it 
undergoes  crystalline  change  and  is  also  liable  to  be  oxidized 
and  converted  into  other  ferruginous  minerals.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  certain  deposits  of  iron  ores  may  owe  their  origin 
to  d^Msits  of  glauconite,  as  for  example  those  of  the  Mesabi 
range,  Minnesota,  U.S.A.  (J.  S.  F.) 

OLAUOOUS  (Gr.  7Xavici&t,  bright,  gleaming),  a  word  meaning  of 
a  sea-green  colour,  in  botany  covered  with  bloom,  like  a  plum  or  a 
cabbage-leaf. 

GLAUCUS  ("  bright  ")>  the  name  of  several  figures  in  Greek 
mythology,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  following: 

X.  Glaucus,  sunuuned  PonHus,  a  sea  divinity.  Originally  a 
fisherman  and  diver  of  Anthedon  in  Boeotia,  having  eaten  of  a 
certain  magical  herb  sown  by  Cronus,  he  leapt  into  the  Sea,  where 
he  was  changed  into  a  god,  and  endowed  with  the  gift  of  unerring 
prophecy.  According  to  others  he  sprang  into  the  sea  for  love 
of  the  sea-god  Melicertes,  with  whom  he  was  often  identified 
(A thenaeus  vii.  396) .  He  was  worshipped  not  only  at  Anthedon, 
but  on  the  coasts  of  Greece,  Sicily  and  Spain,  where  fishermen 
and  sailors  at  certain  seasons  watched  for  his  arrival  during  the 
night  in  order  to  consult  him  (Pausanias  ix.  23).  In  art  he  is 
depicted  as  a  vigorous  old  man  with  long  hair  and  beard,  his  body 
terminating  in  a  scaly  tail,  his  breast  covered  with  shells  and  sea- 
weed. He  was  said  to  have  been  the  builder  and  pilot  of  the 
Argo,  and  to  have  been  changed  into  a  god  after  the  fight  between 
the  Argonauts  and  Tyrrhenians.  He  assisted  thfe  expedition  in 
various  ways  (Athenaeus,  loc.  cU.\  see  also  Ovid,  Afete}ii.xiii.  904). 
Glaucus  was  the  subject  of  a  satyric  drama  by  Aesdiylus.  He 
was  famous  for  his  amours,  espedaliy  those  with  Scylla  and  Circe. 

See  the  exhaustive  monograph  by  R.  .Gaedechens,  Glaukos  der 
MeergaU  (i860),  and  article  by  the  same  in  Roacher's  Lexikon  der 
Mytiuiogie;  and  for  Glaucus  and  Scylla,  E.  Vinct  in  Annali  del- 
V  Instituto  di  Correspondenza  archeologica,  xv.  (i843)> 

3.  Glaucus,  usually  sumamed  Potnieus,  from  Potniae  near 
Thebes,  son  of  Sisyphus  by  Merope  and  father  of  Bellerophon. 
According  to  the  legend  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  his  own  mares 
(Virgil,  Georgics,  iii.  267;  Hyginus,  Fab.  350,  373).  On  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  also  at  Olympia  and  Nemea,  he  was 
worshipped  as  Taraxippus  ("  terrifier  of  horses  "),  his  ghost  being 
said  to  appear  and  frighten  the  horses  at  the  games  (Pausanias 
vi.  30).  He  is  closely  akin  to  Glaucus  Pontius,  the  frantic  horses 
of  the  one  probably  representing  the  stormy  waves,  the  other 
the  sea  in  its  calmer  mood.  He  also  was  the  subject  of  a  lost 
drama  of  Aeschylus. 

3.  GLAUCU3,  the  son  of  Minos  and  PasiphaS.  When  a  child, 
while  playing  at  ball  or  pursuing  a  mouse,  he  fell  into  a  jar  of 
honey  and  was  smothered.  His  father,  after  a  vain  search  for 
him,  consulted  the  oracle,  and  was  referred  to  the  person  who 
shoiild  suggest  the  aptest  comparison  for  one  of  the  cows  of 
Minos  which  had  the  power  of  assuming  three  different  colours. 
Polyidus  of  Argos,  whojiad  likened  it  to  a  mulberry  (or  bramble), 
which  changes  from  white  to  red  and  then  to  black,  soon  after- 
wards discovered  the  child;  but  on  his  confessing  his  inability 
to  restore  him  to  life,  he  was  shut  up  in  a  vault  with  the  corpse. 
Here  he  killed  a  serpent  which  was  revived  by  a  companion, 
which  laid  a  certain  herb  upon  it.  With  the  same  herb  Polyidus 
brought  the  dead  Glaucus  back  to  life.  According  to  others, 
he  owed  his  recovery  to  Aesculapius.  The  story  was  the  subject 
of  pbys  by  the  three  great  Greek  tragedians,  and  was  often 
represented  in  mimic  dances. 

Sec  Hyginus,  Fab.  136:  Apollodonis  iii.  3.  xo;  C.  H5ck,  Kreta, 
iii.  1829;  C.  Eckermann,  Meiampus,  1840. 

4.  (3LAUCUS,  son  of  Hippolochus,  and  grandson  of  Bellerophon, 
mythical  progenitor  of  the  kings  of  Ionia.  He  was  a  Lycian 
prince  who,  along  with  his  cousin  Sarpedon,  assisted  Priam  in 
the  Trojan  War.  When  he  found  himself  opposed  to  Diomedes, 
with  whom  he  was  connected  by  tics  of  hospitality,  they  ceased 
fighting  artd  exchanged  armour.  Since  the  equipment  of  Glaucus 
was  golden  and  that  of  Diomedes  brazen,  the  expression  **  golden 
for  brazen  "  {Iliad,  vi.  236)  cdme  to  be  used  proverbially  for  a 
bad  exchange.    Glaucus  was  afterwards  slain  by  Ajax. 

All  the  above  are  exhaustively  treated  by  R.  Gaedechens  in  Ersch 
and  Grubcr's  AUgemeine  Encydopddie. 


OUZDIfi. — The  budam  ol  the  gb^cr  may  be  conGocd  to 
the  men  Btting  mnd  leiLing  oC  glui  ({.>.),  even  ibe  catling  up 
of  the  plates  into  squares  being  generally  an  independent  art, 
requiring  a  degree  ol  tact  and  judgment  not  necessarily  possessed 
by  Ibe  building  artificer.  The  tools  generally  used  by  the  giaxicr 
are  the  diamond  lor  cutting,  laths  or  straight  edges,  tee  square, 
meuuiiog  rule,  glaiing  knile,  hacking  kniie  and  hammer,  duster, 
aaah  tool,  (wo-loat  rjle  and  a  glazier's  cradle  lor  carrying  Ibe 
glass.  Clazlets'  inaleriili  are  glass,  putty,  priming  or  paint, 
springs,  vash-icslhcr  or  india-rubber  (or  door  panels,  size,  black. 
The  glass  is  supplied  by  the  manulacturcr  and  cut  to  the  sizes 
required  for  the  particular  work  (o  be  eaecutcd.  Putty  is  made 
of  whiting  and  liuMed  oil,  and  is  generally  bought  in  iron  kegs 
of  )  or  I  cat.;  the  putty  should  always  be  kept  covered  over, 
D  found  to  be  getting  har 


should  be  put  on  it  to  keep  it  moist.  Priming  is  a  thin  i 
paint  with  a  small  amount  of  red  lead  in  it.  In  the  la 
of  caiea  after  the  suhcs  for  the  windows  art  fitted  th 
sent  to  the  glaiier't  and  primed  and  glazed,  and  then  re 
to  the  job  and  buog  ia  Iheic  proper  positions.  1 
Bashes  it  is  important  that  the  rebates  be  ihoroi 
else  the  putty  will  not  adhere.    AQ  wood  thai  is 


a  before 


ring  primed  to  have  the  knoii 


hen  priming 


knotting.  When 
into  JLa  place;  each  pane  should  fit  easily  with  about  ^Ih 
play  all  round.  The  glider  runt  the  putty  round  the  rcb 
with  his  hands,  and  then  beds  the  glass  in  it,  pushing  it  di 
^    ~   n  further  secures  it  by  knocking  in  small  n 


n  the  n 


He  II 


le  putty  0 


the  edges  of  the  protruding  pulty  and  bevels  ofl 
the  rebate  or  out^de  of  the  sash  with  a  putty  knife,  ine  sau 
is  Ihen  ready  for  painting.  Large  squares  and  plate  glass  are 
usually  inserted  when  the  tashet  arc  hung  to  avoid  risks  of 
breakage.  For  inside  nork  the  panes  of  glass  are  generally 
aecured  with  beads  (not  with  putty),  and  in  the  beat  work 
these  beads  are  fiicd  nifb  bnm  <aew>  and  caps  to  allow  of  easy 
lemoval  without  breaking  the  beads  and  damagiDg  the  paint, 
&c.  In  the  case  of  gloss  in  door  paoels  where  there  is  much 
vibration  and  slamming,  the  glass  is  bedded  in  wasb-lealher 
Of  iadia.rubbcr  and  secured  with  beads  ii  before  menliontd. 
The  most  common  glass  and  that  generally  used  is  cleat  sheet 
la  varyiDg  thicknesses,  ranging  in  weight  from  ij  to  jo  oi.  per  sq. 
vatwki  ''"  ^''  ""  '"  '"''  '"  """'  qualities  of  English 
tTSm  "'  foreign  manufacture.  But  there  are  many  other 
varieties— obscured,  fluted,  enamelled,  coloured  and 
ornamental,  rolled  and  raugh  plate,  British  polished  plate, 
patent  pbte,  fluted  rolled,  quarry  roUied,  chequered  tough,  and 
'    y  of  figured  rolled,  and  stained  glass,  and  crown-glass 


with  hi 


In  the  ( 


Lead  tight  glazing  b  the  glazing  of  frames  wlih  small  squares 
of  glass,  which  are  held  logcibcr  by  reticulations  of  lead;  these 

are  let  into  mortices  in  the  wood  frames  or  stone  jambs.  This 
is  formed  with  slripl  of  lead,  soldered  at  the  angles;  the  glass 
is  placed  between  the  strips  and  the  lead  ^aliened  over  the 
edges  of  glass  to  secure  it.  This  is  much  used  in  public  build- 
ings and  private  residences.  In  Weldon's  method  the  saddle 
bars  are  bedded  in  the  centre  of  the  strips  of  lead,  thus 
attengthening  the  frame  of  lead  strips  and  giving  a  better 

DiVfii  cait  plale,  usually  )  in.  thick,  has 

le  is  obligatory  in  Loudon  for  all  lantern 


and  skylights,  screeas  and  i 
and  warehouse  buildings,  in  ac 
Act.   It  isalwused  lot  ihede 


efleclual  application  ol  ih< 
it  absorbs  all  the  light  tl 
difiuses  it  in  the  most  e& 


th  the  London  Building 
and  lor  port  and  cabin 
lass,  and  if  fractured  Is 

"  (fig.  i),  consists  ol  an 
itoperties  of  the  prism ; 
window  opening,  and 


portions  ot  the  *|iutmeiit.    It  can  be  fixed  in  the  ordinary 
way  or  placed  over  the  existing  glaaa. 

Pavement  li^ls  (fig.  s)  and  itallbostd  lights  are  constnicicd 

with  iron  frames  in  small  tquans  and  glazed  wi 

glass,  and  are  used  to  light  basements.    Tbcy    . 
ate  placed  on  the  pavemeol  and  under  shop 
fronts  to  the  portion  called  the  slallboaid,  and 
are  also  Insetted  In  iron  coal  plates. 

Creal  skill  has  of  late  years  been  di^layed  in 

publiculoon3,resla<innts,&c.,  as,  for  instance, 
in  bevelling  the  edges,  silvering,  brilliant  cutting, 
embossing,  bending,  cutting  shelving'to  fancy    * 
shapes  and  polishing,  and  in  gb  '"  ' 

There  are  tevenil  patent  metho . „ 

■uch  u  an  applied  to  railway  statioiH,  andioa 
and  printing  and  other  lacloriea  requir- 
ii^  li^ht.    Some  ol  the  first  patents  of 
ih.abhn^wMa erected  with  wtKidglaaldg 


"  McIIowh' Eclipse  kocj  Gluing  "  (fig,  4). 


t  galvanized  steel  T-bars.  so 


^i!&Cd^ 


GLAZUNOV— GLEE 


117 


•nd  the  glass  is  bedded  on  asbestos  packuiff  to  get  a  better  bearing 
edge.  10  as  to  be  held  mote  securely.  Hope  s  gls^ng  is  very  sunilar, 
but  tbc  bars  are  either  T  or  cross  according  to  the  span.  The 
"  Flection  "  glaaing  used  by  Messrs  HeUiwelfft  Co.  (fig.  6)  is  com- 
poeed  of  steel  shapeoT  bars  with  copper  capping,  secured  with  bolts 

and  nuts  and  having  asbestos  packing  on 
top  of  the  glass  under  the  edges  01  the 
capiMng.  Pennycook's  glazing  is  composed 
of  sted  shaiied  T  bars  encased  with  le^d 
and  lead  vnngs.  Rendje's  "  Invincible " 
Fig.  S-— Heywwd's  «Mn«  (fi«- 7)  «•  composed  of  steel  T  bars 


Glazing. 


Vmlm 


with  specially  shaped  oopner  water  and  con- 
densation dutnnels,  all  formed  in  the  one 
piece  and  resting  on  top  of  the  T  steel; 
the  glass  rests  on  the  zinc  channel,  and  a 
copper  capping  is  fixed  over  the  edges  of 
the  glass  and  secured  with  bolts  and  nuts. 
Deanl's  glazing  is  very  similar,  and  is  com- 
posed of  T  *t^  encased  with  lead|  it 
claims  to  save  all  drilling  for  fixing  to  iron 
FlO.  6. — ^Hdliwell's  roofs.  There  are  also  other  systems  com- 
*  Perfection  "  Glazing,  posed  of  wood  bars  with  condensation  gutter 

and  capping  of  copper  secured  with  bolts 
and  nuts,  and  asbestos  packing  with  slight 
differences  in  some  minor  matters,  but  these 
^rstems  are  but  little  used. 

Cloisonn6  ^asa  is  a  patent  ornamental 
glan  formed  bv  placing  two  pieces  flat 
against  each  otner  enclosing  a  species  of 
gUMS  moeaic  Designs  are  worked  and 
shaped  in  gilt  wire  and  placed  on  one  sheet 
of  glass;  the  space  between  the  wire  is 
then  filled  in  with  coloured  beads,  and 
Fio.  7.— Rendle's     another  sheet  of  glass  is  placed  on  top  of 

"  Invincible  '*  Glazing.  >^  ^  1^^  them  m  position,  and  the  edges 

of  the  glass  are  bound  with  linen,  Saz., 

to  keep  them  firmly  together. 

Glus  is  now  iised  for  decorative  purposes,  such  as  wall  tiling 
And  cafings;  it  b  coloured  and  deoonted  In  almost  any  shade 
and  presents  a  very  effective  appearance.  An  invention 
has  been  patented  for  building  bouses  entirely  of 
glass;  the  walls  are  constructed  of  blocks  or  bricks 
of  opaque  glass,  the  several  walls  being  varied  in  thirknrnH 
jKCording  to  the  constructional  requirements. 

It  is  certainly  true  that  dayli^t  has  much  to  do  with  the 
Military  condition  ci  all  buildings,  and  this  being  so  the  proper 
distribution  of  daylight  to  a  buildmg  is  of  the  greatest  possible 
impoftance,  and  must  be  effected  by  an  ample  proviuon  of 
Windows  judiciously  arranged.  The  heads  of  all  windows  should 
be  kept  as  near  the  ceiling  as  possible,  as  well  to  obtain  easy 
ventilation  as  to  ensure  good  lighting.  As  far  as  is  practicable 
a  building  should  be  plsjined  so  that  each  room  receives  the 
sun^s  rays  for  some  part  of  the  day.  This  is  rarely  an  easy 
matter,  eq>eda]ly  in  towns  where  the  aspect  of  the  building 
is  out  of  the  architect's  hands.  The  best  sites  for  light  are 
found  in  streets  running  north  and  south  and  east  and  west, 
and  %^*«ng  areas  or  courts  in  buildings  should  always  if  possible 
be  arranged  on  these  lines.  The  task  of  adeq\iately  lighting 
lofty  city  buildings  has  been  greatly  minimized  by  the  introduc- 
tion ci  many  forms  of  reflecting  sind  intensifying  contrivances, 
whicb  are  used  to  deflect  light  into  those  apartments  into  which 
daylight  docs  not  directly  penetrate,  and  which  would  otherwise 
require  the  use  of  artificial  light  to  render  them  of  any  use; 
the  most  useful  of  these  inventions  are  the  various  forms  of 
prism  g^ass  already  referred  to  and  illustrated  in  this  article. 

See  L.  F.  Day,  Siained  and  Padnled  Oass;  and  W.  Eckstein. 
Jnierur  Ligfili»g.  0-  Bt.) 

flLAZUirOV,  ALEXANDER  CONSTANTINOVICH  (1865-  ), 
Rnssian  musical  composer,  was  bom  in  St  Petersburg  on  the 
loth  of  August  1865,  his  father  being  a  publisher  and  bookseller. 
He  showed  an  early  talent  for  music,  and  studied  for  a  year  or 
so  with  Rimsky-Korsakov.  At  the  age  of  ^xteen  he  composed 
a  symphony  (afterwards  elaborated  and  published  as  op.  5), 
but  h»  opus  I  was  a  quartet  in  D,  followed  by  a  pianoforte 
suite  on  5-o-«-A-a,  the  diminutive  of  his  name  Alexander.  In 
1B84  he  was  taken  up  by  Liszt,  and  soon  became  known  as  a 
composer.  His  first  symphony  was  played  that  year  at  Weimar, 
and  he  appeared  as  a  conductor  at  the  Paris  exhibition  in  1889. 
la  1897  li^  fourth  and  fifth  ^mphonies  were  performed  in  London 


under  his  own  conducting.  In  1900  he  became  professor  at  the 
St  Petersburg  conservatoire.  His  separate  works,  including 
orchestral  symphonies,  dance  music  and  songs,  make  a  long 
list.  Glazunov  is  a  leading  representative  of  the  modem  R  ussian 
school,  and  a  master  of  orchestration;  his  tendency  as  compared 
with  contemporary  Russian  composers  is  towards  classical  form, 
and  he  was  much  influenced  by  Brahms,  though  in  "  programme 
music  "  he  is  represented  by  such  works  as  his  symphonic  poems 
The  Forest,  Stenka  Raadn,  The  Kremlin  and  his  suite  Aus  dem 
MiUdalter,  His  ballet  musk:,  as  in  Raynumda.  achieved  much 
popularity. 

GLEBE  (Lat.  ^iaeba,  gldfa,  dod  or  lump  of  earth,  hence  soil, 
land),  in  ecclesiastical  law  the  land  devoted  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  incumbent  of  a  church.  Burn  {Ecclesiastical  Law,  s.v. 
"  Glebe  Lands ")  says:  "  Every  church  of  common  right  is 
entitled  to  house  and  glebe,  and  the  assigning  of  them  at  the 
first  was  of  such  absolute  necessity  that  without  them  no  church 
could  be  regularly  consecrated.  The  house  and  ^ebe  are  both 
comprehended  imder  the  word  manse,  of  which  the  rule  of  the 
canon  law.  is,  sancUum  est  iti  unicuique  ecclesiae  unus  mansus 
integer  absque  uUo  servitio  tribuatur"  In  the  technical  language 
of  En^h  law  the  fee-simple  of  the  glebe  is  said  to  be  in  abeyanu, 
that  is,  it  exists  "  only  in  the  remembrance,  expectation  and 
intendment  of  the  law."  But  the  freehold  is  in  the  parson, 
although  at  common  law  he  could  alienate  the  same  only  with 
proper  consent, — that  is,  in  his  case,  with  the  consent  of  the  bishop. 
The  disaUing  statutes  of  Elizabeth  (Alienation  by  Bishops, 
1559,  and  Dilapidations,  &c.,  1571)  made  void  all  alienations 
by  ecclesiastical  persons,  except  leases  for  the  term  of  twenty- 
one  years  or  three  lives.  By  an  act  of  1842  (s  &  6  Vict.  c.  27, 
Ecclesiastical  Leases)  glebe  land  and  buildings  may  be  let  on 
lease  for  farming  purposes  for  fourteen  years  or  on  an  improving 
lease  for  twenty  years.  But  the  parsonage  house  and  ten  acres 
of  glebe  situate  most  conveniently  for  occupation  must  not  be 
leased.  By  the  Ecclesiastical  Leasing  Acts  of  1842  (5  &  6 
Vict.  c.  Z08)  and  1858  g^ebe  lands  may  be  let  on  building  leases 
for  not  more  than  ninety-nine  years  and  on  mining  leases  for 
not  more  than  sixty  years.  The  Tithe  Act  1842,  the  Glebe 
Lands  Act  x888  and  various  other  acts  make  provision  for  the 
sale,  purchase,  exchange  and  gift  of  glebe  lands.  In  Scots 
ecclesiastical  law,  the  manse  now  signifies  the  minister's  dwelling- 
house,  the  glebe  being  the  land  to  which  he  is  entitled  in  addition 
to  his  stipend.  All  parish  ministers  appear  to  be  entitled  to  a 
glebe,  excq>t  the  ministers  in  royal  burghs  proper,  who  cannot 
claim  a  glebe  unless  there  be  a  landowner's  district  annexed; 
and  even  in  that  case,  when  there  are  two  ministers,  it  is  only 
the  fixst  who  has  a  claim. 

See  Phillimore,  Ecclesiastical  Law  (2nd  ed.):  Cripns,  Law  of 
Church  and  Clergy;  Leach,  Tithe  Ads  (6th  cd.);  Dart,  Vendors  and 
Purchasers  (7th  ed.). 

GLEE,  a  musical  term  for  a  part-song  of  a  particular  kind. 
The  word,  as  well  as  the  thing,  is  essentially  confined  to  England. 
The  technical  meaning  has  been  explained  in  different  ways; 
but  there  is  little  doubt  of  its  derivation  through  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  word  {i.e.  merriment,  entertainment)  from  the  A.S. 
gtem,  gleo,  corresponding  to  Lat.  gaudium,  ddectamentum,  hence 
Indus  mttsicus\  on  the  other  hand,  a  musical  "  glee  "  is  by  no 
means  necessarily  a  merry  composition.  Gleeman  (A.S.  "  gleo- 
man  ")  is  translated  simply  as  "  musicus  "  or  "  cantor,"  to  which 
the  less  distinguished  titles  of  "mimus,  jocista,  scurra,"  are 
frequently  added  in  old  dictionaries.  The  accomplishments 
and  social  position  of  the  gleeman  seem  to  have  been  as  varied 
as  those  of  the  Provengal "  joglar."  There  are  early  examples  of 
the  word  "  glee  "  being  used  as  synonymous  with  harmony  or 
concerted  music.  The  former  explanation,  for  instance,  is 
given  in  the  Pramptorium  parvulorum,  a  work  of  the  1 5th  century. 
Glee  in  its  present  meaning  signifies,  broadly  speaking,  a  piece 
of  Cbncerted  vocal  music,  generally  unaccompanied,  and  for 
male  voices,  though  exceptions  are  found  to  the  last  two  restric- 
tions. The  number  of  voices  ought  not  to  be  less  than  three. 
As  regards  musical  form,  the  ^ee  is  little  distinguished  from  the 
catch, — the  two  terms  being  often  used  indiscriminately  for  the 


GLEICHEN— GLEIM 


lunc  tang;  bul  tba«  is  a  dluioct  SBaate  bttweei 
nmdrigal— one  of  the  etilicM  forma  of  cnncmid  m 
:n  Englind.    While  the  DudrlE>l  doe*  not  shon  &  di 


Comi 


ivealth;  uad  i 
:  i8th  century  u 


fully  eipUioed  by  the  developmen 
nudrigai  ceiched  its  tcmt  in  Queci 
proper  *u  little  known  before  th^ 

&nt  quutec  id  Ibe  igth.  Among  the  numeroui  coUcctioni 
the  innumerible  pieces  of  (hit  kind,  only  one  of  the  eirlieit 
■nd  moit  funoui  m>y  be  menUoned,  Catch  Ikal  Calch  can,  a 
Claict  CMation  a}  Cuitlia,  Rimiidi  snt)  Csnmj,  for  Hint  and 
four  touts,  published  by  John  Hilton  In  iSji.  The  name 
"  glee,"  however,  ippeln  for  Ibe  Gnt  time  in  John  Fliyfprd's 
Utaical  CmfaHum,  published  twenty-one  yesn  afterwuds, 
and  reprinted  again  and  again,  with  addilions  by  later  composers 
— Hcniy  PuRell,  WUham  Croft  and  John  Blow  aoiong  the 
Dumber.  The  arif^natar  of  tbe  glee  In  its  modeni  fonn  was 
Dr  Ante,  born  in  i;io.  Among  lalec  English  muscians  famous 
lor  their  glees,  catches  and  pan-songa,  the  foUoning  may  be 
mentioned:— Altwood,  Boyce,  Bishop,  Crotch,  CaUcotI,  Shield, 
Stevens,  Horsley,  Webb  and  KnyveI^  The  convivial  character 
of  the  glee  led.  in  the  iSth  century,  to  the  formation  of  various 
Bocielles,  which  offered  prises  and  medals  for  the  best  compoai- 
ns  of  the  kind  and  assembled  for  social  and  artistic  purposes. 


It  fan 


Ther 
in  17B7,  a 


ias7-    Asii 


— The( 


KOf  Mr 

ul's  churchyard.    This  dub  was  dissolved  i: 
sodeij — The  Catch  Club— was  formed  in  176 

10  groups  of  a 


a  Germany,  thtis  turned 

.     .  er  (Get.  ilrici-Uke,  ot 

resembling).  The  first  is  a  group  of  three,  each  situated  on  a 
hill  in  Thuringia  between  Gotfaa  and  Erfun.  One  of  these 
called  Cleichcn,  the  Wanderslcbener  (^eicbe  (1111  ft.  tbovt 
the  sea],  was  besieged  unsuccessfully  by  tbe  emperor  Heniy  IV. 

Ill-,  a  crusader,  is  the  subject  of  a  romantic  legend.  Having 
been  captured,  he  was  released  from  his  imprisonment  by  a 
Turkish  mman,  who  returned  with  bim  to  Germany  and  became 
his  wife,  a  papal  dispensation  allowing  him  to  live  with  two 
wives  at  the  same  time  (see  Keincck,  Dit  Sail  K"  dir  Doppddie 
tinlt  Gra/tn  ten  Glticktn,  1891)'  After  belonging  to  the  elector 
of  Mainz  the  castle  became  the  property  of  Prussia  in  igoj. 
The  second  castle  is  called  Muhlburg  (ijsg  ft.  above  the  sea). 
This  eiisied  as  early  aa  704  and  was  besieged  by  Henry  IV. 
in  10S7.  It  ume  into  tbe  hands  of  Prussia  in  iSoj.  The  third 
castle,  Wschsenburg  (1358  ft.),  ia  still  inhabited  and  contains 
a  toUcclion  of  weapons  and  pictures  belonging  to  its  owner,  the 
duke  of  Saie-Coburg-Cotha,  whose  family  obtained  possession 
ofitinijftS.  11  wasbuiltabout  935  (sec  Beyer,  DieJrriCWtAnr, 
Elfun,  ligSy  The  other  group  consists  of  two  castles,  Neuen- 
Cleichen  and  Allen- Gleichen.  Both  are  in  luins  and  crown 
tiro  hills  aboul  1  m.  S.E.  from  GottiDgcn. 

The  name  of  Cleicben  is  taken  by  the  family  descended  from 
Prince  Victor  of  Hohcnlobe-Langenburg  through  his  marriage 
wilh  Miss  Laui«  Seymour,  daughter  of  Admiral  Sir  George 
Francis  Seymour,  a  branch  of  the  Hobcnlobe  family  having  at 
one  time  owned  part  of  the  county  of  Gleichen. 

OLEia,  OEOBOB  (1753-1840),  Srattish  divine,  was  born  at 
Boghall,  Kincatdineshire,  oa  the  iitb  of  May  1753,  tbe  son  of  a 
farmer.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  be  entered  King's  College. 
Aberdeen,  where  the  Btst  prize  in  mathematics  and  physical  and 
moral  sdcncei  fell  to  him.  In  his  tweoiy-Etat  year  he  took 
ordcnin  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church,  and  was  ordained  10  the 
pastoral  charge  of  a  congtdgalion  at  Piltenwcem,  Fife,  whence 
be  removed  in  1790  to  Stirling.  He  became  a  frequent  contributor 
10  the  ilonlUy  Rctieu,  Ihe  Gmlltman'i  Uafimnt,  the  AMi- 
faioHit  Repim  and  the  Briliii  Ciilic.    He  also  wrote  aeveral 


aniclei  for  the  third  edition  of  tbe  Encyctepatdia  Briiamica,  and 
on  the  death  of  the  editor,  Colin  Maclarquhar,  in  tjgj.  wa* 
engaged  to  edit  Ihe  recuuDiiig  volumea.  Among  hia  principal 
contributions  to  this  work  were  aniclea  00  "  Instinct,"  "Theology" 
and  "  Metaphysics."  The  two  su^^leinentary  volumes  woe 
mainly  his  own  work.  He  was  twice  chosen  bislu^  of  Dunkeld, 
but  the  opposition  of  Bishop  Skinner,  afterwards  primus,  tendered 

aecraled  assistant  and  successor  to  the  bishop  of  Brechin,  in  iSio 
was  preferred  to  the  sole  charge,  and  in  1816  was  elected  primus 
of  the  Episcopal  Cburcb  of  Scotland,  in  which  capadiy  he  greatly 
aided  in  the  introduction  of  many  useful  reforms,  in  fostering  4 
more  catholic  and  tolerant  spirit,  and  in  cementing  a  firm 
alliance  with  the  siUt  church  of  England.  He  died  at  Stirling 
on  the  9ih  of  Haich  1S40. 

5liiiy  oj  TtaSigy.'^THW  ari™r>  fr^m  a  biihop^'o  ™wb  on 
hi*  admission  to  holy  ordefs  fjej?):  an  edition  of  Siaciiousr'i 
UiHtrj  ^Oh  Bail  (tetTll  and  a  life  of  Robertion  the  historian. 
preBied  to  an  ediltsn  at  his  works.  See  Life  of  Biikop  CUir.  by 
the  Rev.  W.  Walker  (1B79I.  Letters  to  Mendemn  of  Edinburgh 
aod  John  l>ou£Us,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  art  in  the  Bridah  U  jseum. 

Hislhirdandonlysurvivingaon,  GEOiaEKOBtiTGLEictijgG- 
iSSSj.wascducaledatGlBsgDwUnivenily.whencehepassedwiih 
a  Snell  eihibition  to  Balllol  College,  Oiford.  He  abandoned  his 
scholastic  studiea  to  enter  tbe  army,  and  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Peniiuulai  War  (i8i]'i4),  and  in  tbe  American  War,  in 
which  he  was  thrice  wounded.  Resuming  his  work  at  Oiford,  be 
proceeded  B.A.  In  iSig,  &I,A.  in  iSii,  aod,  having  been  ordaiiitd 
in  iSio,  hdd  successively  cundei  at  Westwell  in  Kent  and  Ash 
(10  the  latter  the  rectory  of  Ivy  Church  was  added  In  iSii).  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  chaplain  of  Chelsea  hoapital  (i£j4), 
chaplain -general  of  the  forces  (1844-1873)  and  inspector-general 
of  military  schools  (1846-1851}.  From  iSjStill  his  death  on  the 
gth  of  July  1888  he  was  prebend  of  Wfllesden  in  St  Paul's 
cathedral.    During  tbe  last  sixty  years  ot  his  life  he  was  a  prolific. 


■■sif»s>m' 


:ei:  he  wi 


',  and  produced  a  large  nt 


ler  of  historical 


'  I.Llterwerefbenileahktoriesirftliecampugnsia which 
i.i>  ot  Sir  tJumia^Mmiro  (3  vols.,  iBjo);  HbI«7  •/ 


;   Tht  LwipsiL   Campain  and   Lite, 


IBM):  n.  i 
liiiD-.Slory 

.'iiUrj  ot  Crttt , I 

(tS47);  Ucanphlea  of  Lord  Clivi 
(1S61).  andTWarren  Haninga.  (■& 


^^H* 


QLBIM,  JOHANH  WILHBLM  LUDWIO  (1719-1. 
poet,  was  bom  on  the  ind  of  April  171Q  at  Ermsleben,  near 
Hidberaiadt.  Having  studied  law  at  the  univtrsily  of  Halle  be 
became  secretary  to  rrince  William  ot  Brandenbuig-Scbwedt 
at  Berlin,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Ewald  von  Kleist, 
whose  devoted  friend  he  became.  When  tbe  prince  lell  at  the 
battle  of  Prague,  Gleim  became  secretary  to  Prince  Leopold  of 
Dessau;  but  be  soon  gave  up  bis  position,  not  being  able  to  bear 
the  roughness  of  the  "Old  Dessauer."  After  residing  •  few 
yesn  in  Berlin  be  was  appointed,  in  1747,  secretary  of  Ihe 
cathediil  chapter  at  Halberstadt.  "  Father  Gleim  "waaibe  title 
accorded  10  him  throughout  sU  literary  Germany  im  account  of 
bis  kind-hearted  though  incoDsdeiate  and  undisciiminating 
patronage  alike  of  the  poets  and  poetasten  of  tbe  period.  He 
wrote  alargenumberotfeebleinutationsofAnacreon,  Horace  and 
the  minncsingcra,  a  dull  didactic  poem  entitled  Ballaial  odet  dat 
rale  fincA  (1774),  and  collectioDsoffaUea  and  romances.  Ot  higher 
merit  are  hia  PtcuioscIu  KrUtdicdtr  vm  tintn  Cmaditr  (1758). 
Thcae,  which  were  in^ired  by  the  campaigns  of  Frederick  II.. 
are  often  distinguished  by  genuine  feeling  and  vigorous  force  of 
eiprcasion.  They  are  also  noteworthy  as  being  the  hrst  of  that 
long  series  of  noble  political  songs  in  which  later  German  litera- 
ture ia  BO  rich.  With  thU  eiception,  Gldm's  writings  are  for  tbe 
moat  pan  tamely  commonplace  in  thought  and  eapresaion.  He 
died  at  Halheistidt  on  the  18th  of  February  1S03. 

Gleim's  Sdnllub  Wtrtt  appeared  la  J  vols.  In  the  yesn  1811- 
1B13:  a  reprint  •ol  tbe  IMtr  taut  Griudiirf  was  pubWieil  by 


GLEIWITZ— GLENCX)RSE 


119 


A.  Smner  Uk  1883    A  good  lelection  of  Gleiin's  poetry  will  be  found 
In  F.  Munckcr,  Anaknontiker  und  preuuisck-patnoHseke  Lyriker 

it  894).  See  W.  Kftcte,  GUims  L^en  aus  mnen  Brieffn  und  Sckriflen 
181 1).  His  carreHModence  with  Heinte  was  published  in  2  vols. 
i894>i896),  with  Us  (1889),  in  both  cases  edited  by  C.  SchQddekopf. 

GUUWITZ.  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 

Silesia,  on  the  Klodnits,  and  the  railway  between  Oppeln  and 

Cracow,  40  m.  S.E.  of  the  former  town.    Pop.  (1875)  I4>xs6; 

(1905)  61,534.    It  poaacsaes  two  Protestant  and  four  Roman 

Catluklic  cbtirches,  a  synagogue,  a  mining  school^  a  convent,  a 

hospital,  two  orphanages,  and  barracks.    Gldwitz  is  the  centre  of 

the  mining  industry  of  Upper  Silesia.    Besides  the  royal  foundry, 

with  which  are  connected  machine  manufactories  and  boiler- 

worics,  thnc  axe  other  foundries,  meal  mills  and  manufactories 

of  wire,  gas  pipes,  cement  and  paper. 

Sec  B.  Nietsche,  (ksckkkU  der  Stadt  Ckwita  (1886);  and  Seidel, 
Dm  k^iglklu  EisemgMurH  m  GUswiU  (Berlin,  1896). 

GLOfAUiOlfD,  a  glen  of  Perthshire,  Scotland,  situated  to  the 
S£.  of  Loch  Tay.  It  comprises  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the 
coarse  oi  the  Almond,  or  a  distance  of  30  m.  For  the  greater 
part  it  follows  a  direction  east  by  south,  but  at  Newton  Bridge 
it  inclines  sharply  to  the  south-east  for  3  m.,  and  narrows  to  such 
a  degree  that  this  portion  is  known  as  the  Small  (or  Sma')  Glen. 
At  the  end  of  this  pass  the  glen  expands  and  nus  eastwards  as 
£ar  as  the  well-known  public  school  of  Trinity  College,  where  it 
may  be  considered  to  terminate.  The  most  interesting  ^wt  in 
the  gjen  is  that  traditionally  known  as  the  grave  of  Ossian.  The 
district  east  of  Buchanty,  near  which  are  the  remains  of  a  Roman 
camp,  is  said  to  be  the  Drumtochty  of  Ian  Madaren's  stories. 
The  mountainous  region  at  the  head  of  the  glen  is  dominated  by 
Ben  y  Hone  or  Ben  Chonzie  (3048  ft.  high). 

OLBNCAIRN,  BARL8  OF.  The  xst  earl  of  Glencaira  in  the 
Scottish  peerage  was  Alexander  Cunningham  (d.  1488),  a  son 
of  Sir  Robert  Cunningham  of  Kilmaurs  in  Ayrshire.  Made  a  lord 
of  the  Scottish  parlisiment  as  Lord  lUlmaurs  not  later  than  1469, 
Cunningham  was  created  eari  of  Glencaim  in  1488;  and  a  few 
weeks  later  he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Sauchicbum  whilst 
<i|**ing  for  King  James  III.  against  his  rebellious  son,  afterwards 
James  IV.  His  son  and  successor,  Robext  (d.  c.  1490),  was 
deprived  of  his  earldom  by  James  IV.,  but  before  1505  this  had 
been  revived  in  favour  of  Robert's  son,  Cuthbest  (d.  c.  1540), 
who  became  3rd  earl  of  Glencaim,  and  whose  son  Willxaii 
(c.  1490-x  547)  was  the  4th  earL  This  noble,  an  early  adherent  of 
the  Reformation,  was  during  his  public  life  frequently  in  the 
pay  and  service  of  England,  although  he  fought  on  the  Scottish 
side  at  the  battle  of  Solway  Moss  (X543),  where  he  was  taken 
prisoner.  Upon  his  release  early  in  1543  he  promised  to  adhere 
to  Hezuy  VUI.,  who  was  anxious  to  bring  Scotland  under  his 
rule,  and  in  1544  he  entered  into  other  engagements  with  Henry, 
uzidertaking  inter  alia  to  deliver  Mary  queen  of  Scots  to  the 
English  king.  However,  he  was  defeated  by  James  Hamilton, 
cart  of  Arran,  and  the  project  failed;  Glencaim  then  deserted 
his  fellow-conspirator,  Matthew  Stewart,  earl  of  Lcimox,  and 
came  to  tenns  with  the  queen-mother,  Mary  of  Guise,  and  her 
party. 

William's  son,  Alexander,  the  5th  earl  (d.  1574),  was  a  more 
pffDnounced  reformer  than  his  father,  whose  English  sympathies 
he  shared,  and  was  among  the  intimate  friends  of  John  Knox. 
In  March  1557  he  signed  the  letter  asking  Knox  to  return  to 
SooUand;  in  the  f blowing  December  he  subscribed  the  first 
"band**  of  the  Scottish  reformers;  and  he  anticipated  Lord 
Junes  Stewart,  afterwards  the  regent  Murray,  in  taking  up  arms 
against  the  regent,  Mary  of  Guise,  in  1558.  Then,  joined  by 
Stewart  and  the  lords  of  the  congregation,  he  fought  against 
the  regent,  and  took  part  in  the  attendant  negotiations  with 
Elizabeth  of  England,  whom  he  visited  in  London  in  December 
1560.  When  in  August  1561  Mary  queen  of  Scots  returned  to 
Srotiand,  Glencaim  was  made  a  member  of  her  council;  he 
remained  loyal  to  her  after  she  had  been  deserted  by  Murray, 
but  in  a  few  wcdu  rejoined  Murray  and  the  other  Protestant 
kx&t,  returning  to  Mary's  side  in  1566.  After  the  queen  had 
married  the  earl  of  Bothwell  she  was  again  forsaken  by  Glen- 
aixn,  who  fought  against  her  »t  Carberry  Hill  and  at  Langside. 


The  earl,  who  was  always  to  the  fore  in  destroying  churches, 
abbeys  and  other  "  monuments  of  idolatry,"  died  on  the  23rd  of 
November  1 574.  His  short  satirical  poem  against  the  Grey  Friars 
is  printed  by  Knox  in  his  History  of  the  R^ormalion. 

James,  the  7th  earl  (d.  c,  1622),  took  part  in  the  seizure  of 
James  VL.,  called  the  raid  of  Ruthven  in  1582.  William,  the 
9th  earl  (c.  1610-1664),  a  somewhat  lukewarm  Royalist  during 
the  Civil  War,  was  a  party  to  the  "  engagement  "  between  the 
king  and  the  Scots  in  1647;  for  this  proceeding  the  Scottish 
parliament  deprived  him  of  his  office  as  lord  justice-general, 
and  nominally  of  his  earldom.  In  March  1653  Charles  II. 
commissioned  the  earl  to  command  the  Royalist  forces  in  ScotUnd, 
pending  the  arrival  of  General  John  Middleton,  and  the  insurrec- 
tion of  this  year  is  generally  known  as  Glencaira 's  rising.  After 
its  failure  he  was  betrayed  and  imprisoned,  but  although  excepted 
from  pardon  he  was  not  executed;  and  when  Charles  II.  was 
restored  he  became  lord  chancellor  of  Scotland.  After  a  dispute 
with  his  former  friend,  James  Sharp,  archbishop  of  St  Andrews, 
he  died  at  Belton  in  Haiddingtonshire  on  the  30th  of  May  1664. 
This  earl's  son  John  (d.  x  703),  who  followed  his  brother  Alexander 
as  xith  earl  in  1670,  was  a  supporter  of  the  Revolution  of  168S. 
His  descendant,  James,  the  14th  carl  (X749-1791),  is  known  as 
the  friend  and  patron  of  Robert  Bums.  He  performed  several 
useful  services  for  the  poet;  and  when  he  died  on  the  30th  of 
January  1791  Bums  wrote  a  Lament  beginning,  "The  wind 
blew  hollow  frae  the  hills,"  and  ending  with  the  lines,  "  But 
I'll  remember  thee,  Glencaim,  and  a'  that  thou  hast  done  for  me." 
The  14th  earl  was  never  married,  and  when  his  brother  and 
successor,  John,  died  childless  in  September  1796  the  earldom 
became  extinct,  although  it  was  claimed  by  Sir  Adam  Fergusson, 
Bart.,  a  descendant  of  the  loth  earL 

OLENCOB,  a  glen  in  Scotland,  situated  in  the  north  of  Argyll- 
shire. Beginning  at  the  north-eastern  base  of  Buchaille  Etive, 
it  takes  a  gentle  north-westerly  trend  for  xo  m.  to  its  mouth 
on  Loch  Levcn,  a  salt-water  arm  of  Loch  Linnhe.  On  both  sides 
it  is  shut  in  by  wild  and  precipitous  mountains  and  its  bed  is 
swept  by  the  Coe — Ossian's  "  dark  Cona," — which  rises  in  the 
hUls  at  its  eastem  end.  About  half-way  down  the  glen  the 
stream  forms  the  tiny  Loch  Triochatan.  Towards  Invercoe 
the  landscape  acquires  a  softer  beauty.  Here  Lord  Strathcona, 
who,  in  1894,  purchased  the  heritage  of  the  Macdonalds  of 
Glencoe,  built  his  stately  mansion  of  Mount  RoyaL  The  principal 
mountains  on  the  south  side  are  the  various  peaks  of  Buachaille 
Etive,  Stob  Dearg  (3345  ft.),  Bidcan  nam  Bian  (3756  ft.)  and 
Meall  Mor  (22x5  ft.),  and  on  the  northcm  side  the  Pap  of  Glencoe 
(2430  ft.),  Sgor  nam  Fiannaidh  (3168  ft.)  and  Meall  Dearg 
(3118  ft.).  Points  of  interest  are  the  Devil's  Staircase,  a  steep, 
boulder-strewn  "  cut "  (1754  ft.  high)  across  the  hills  to  Fort 
William;  the  Study;  the  cave  of  Cbsian,  where  tradition  says 
that  he  was  born,  and  the  lona  cross  erected  in  1883  by  a 
Macdonald  in  memory  of  his  clansmen  who  perished  in  the 
massacre  of  1692.  About  x  m.  beyond  the  head  of  the  glen  is 
Kingshouse,  a  relic  of 'the  old  coaching  days,  when  it  was 
customary  for  tourists  to  drive  from  Ballachulish  via  Tyndmm 
to  Loch  Lomond.  Now  the  Glencoe  excursion  is  usually  made 
from  Oban — ^by  rail  to  Achnadoich,  steamer  up  Loch  Etive, 
coach  up  Glen  Etive  and  down  Glencoe  and  steamer  at 
Ballachulish  to  Oban.  One  mile  to  the  west  of  the  Glen  lies  the 
village  of  Ballachulish  (pop.  XX43).  It  is  celebrated  for  its 
slate  quarries,  which  have  been  worked  since  1 760.  The  industry 
provides  employment  for  600  men  and  the  annual  output 
averages  30,000  tons.  The  slate  is  of  excellent  quality  and  is 
used  throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  Ballachulish  is  a  station 
on  the  Callander  and  Oban  extension  line  to  Fort  William 
(Caledonian  railway).  The  pier  and  ferry  are  some  2  m.  W.  of 
the  village. 

GLENOORSE,  JOHN  IN0U8.  Lord  (X810-1891),  Scottish 
judge,  son  of  a  minister,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh  on  the  21st  of 
August  x8io.  From  Glasgow  University  be  went  to  Balliol 
CoUege,  Oxford.  He  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Faculty 
of  Advocates,  and  soon  became  known  as  an  eloquent  and 
successful  pleader.    In  x85a  he  was  made  solicitor-general  ir 


I20 


GLENDALOUGH— GLENDOWER,  OWEN 


Scotland  in  Lord  Derby's  fint  ministry,  three  months  later 
becoming  Lord  Advocate.  In  1858  he  resumed  this  office  in 
Lord  Derby's  second  administration,  being  returned  to  the 
House  of  Commons  as  member  for  Stamford.  He  was  responsible 
for  the  Universities  of  Scotland  Act  of  1858,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  was  elevated  to  the  bench  as  lord  justice  clerk.  In  1867 
he  was  made  lord  justice  general  of  Scotland  and  lord  president 
of  the  court  of  session,  taking  the  title  of  Lord  Glencorse. 
Outside  his  judicial  duties  be  was  responsible  for  much  useful 
public  work,  particularly  in  the  department  of  higher  education. 
In  1869  he  was  elected  chancellor  of  Edinburgh  University, 
having  already  been  rector  of  the  university  of  Glasgow.  He 
died  on  the  20th  August  1891. 

OLENDALOUGH,  VALB  OF.  a  mountain  glen  of  Co. 
Wicklow,  Ireland,  celebrated  and  frequently  visited  both  on 
account  of  its  scenic  beauty  and,  more  especially,  because  of  the 
collection  of  ecclesiastical  remains  situated  in  it.  Fortunately 
for  its  appearance,  it  is  not  approached  by  any  railway,  but 
services  of  cars  are  maintained  to  several  points,  of  which 
Rathdrum,  8}  m.  S.E.,  is  the  nearest  raOway  station,  on  the 
Dublin  &  South-Eastern.  The  glen  is  traversed  by  the  stream 
of  Glenealo,  a  tributary  of  the  Avonmore,  expanding  into  small 
loughs,  the  Upper  and  the  Lower.  The  former  of  these  is 
walled  by  the  abrupt  heights  of  Camaderry  (2296  ft.)  and 
Lugduff  (3176  ft.),  and  here  the  extreme  narrowness  of  the  valley 
adds  to  its  grandeur;  while  lower  down,  where  it  widens,  the 
romantic  character  of  the  scenery  is  enhanced  by  the  scattered 
ruins  of  the  former  monastic  settlement.  These  ruins  have 
the  collective  name  of  the  "  Seven  Churches."  The  settlement 
owed  its  foundation  to  the  hermit  St  Kevin,  who  is  reputed  to 
have  died  on  the  3rd  of  June  618;  and  it  rapidly  became  a  seat 
of  learning  of  wide  fame,  but  suffered  much  at  the  hands  of  the 
Danes  and  the  Anglo-Normans.  In  close  proximity  to  an  hotel, 
and  to  one  another,  in  an  enclosure,  are  a  round  tower,  one  of  the 
finest  in  Ireland,  no  ft.  high  and  52  in  circumference;  St  Kevin's 
kitchen  or  church  (closely  resembling  the  house  of  St  Columba  at 
Kells),  which  measures  25  ft.  by  15,  with  a  high-pitched  roof  and 
round  belfry — supposed  to  be  the  earliest  example  of  its  type; 
and  the  cathedral,  about  73  ft.  in  total  length  by  51  in  width. 
This  possesses  a  good  square-headed  doorway,  and  an  east 
window  of  ornate  character  (the  chancel  being  of  later  dale 
than  the  nave),  and  there  are  also  some  early  tombs,  but  the 
whole  is  in  a  decayed  condition.  In  the  enclosure  are  also  a 
Lady  chapel,  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  doorway  of  wrought 
granite,  in  a  style  of  architecture  resembling  Greek,  a  priest's 
house  (restored),  and  slight  remains  of  St  Chiaran's  church. 
Here  is  also  St  Kevin's  cross,  a  granite  monolith  never  completed; 
and  the  enclosure  is  entered  by  a  fine  though  dilapidated  gateway. 
Other  neighbouring  remains  are  Trinity  or  the  Ivy  Church, 
towards  Laragh,  with  beautiful  detailed  work;  St  Saviour's 
monastery,  carefully  restored  under  the  direction  of  the  Board 
of  Works,  with  a  chancel  arch  of  thre^  orders  (re-erected); 
while  on  the  shores  of  the  upper  lough  are  Reefert  Church, 
the  burial-place  of  the  O'Toole  family,  and  TeampuU-na-skellig, 
the  church  of  the  rock.  St  Kevin's  bed  is  a  cave  approachable 
with  difficulty,  above  the  lough,  probably  a  natural  cavity 
artificially  enlarged,  to  which  attaches  the  legend  of  St  Kevin's 
hermitage.  Along  the  valley  there  are  a  number  of  monuments 
and  stone  crosses  of  various  sizes  and  styles.  The  whole  collec- 
tion forms,  with  the  possible  exception  of  Clonmacnoise  in  King's 
county,  the  most  striking  monument  of  monasticism  in  Ireland. 

OLBNDOWER,  OWEN  (c,  t359-i4i5)>  the  last  to  claim  the 
title  of  an  independent  prince  of  Wales,  more  correctly  described 
as  Owain  ab  Grufifydd,  lord  of  Glyndyvrdwy  in  Merioneth,  was 
a  man  of  good  family,  with  two  great  houses,  Sycharth  and 
Glyndyvrdwy  in  the  north,  besides  smaller  estates  in  south 
Wales.  His  father  was  called  Gruffydd  Vychan,  and  his  mother 
Helen;  on  both  sides  he  had  pretensions  to  be  descended  from 
the  old  Welsh  princes.  Owen  was  probably  bom  about  1359. 
studied  law  at  Westminster,  was  squire  to  the  earl  of  Arundel, 
and  a  witness  for  Grosvenor  in  the  famous  Scrope  and  Grosvenor 
lawsuit  in  1386.    Afterwards  he  was  in  the  service  of  Henry  of 


Bolingbroke,  the  future  king,  though  by  an  error  St  ku  been 
commonly  stated  that  he  was  squire  to  Richard  II.  Welsh 
sympathies  were,  however,  on  Richard's  side,  and  oombiiied 
with  a  personal  quarrel  to  make  Owen  the  leader  of  a  national 
revolt. 

The  lords  of  Glyndyvrdwy  had  an  ancient  feud  with  their 
Engh'sh  neighbours,  the  Greys  of  Ruthin.  Reginald  Grey 
n^lected  to  summon  Owen,  as  was  his  duty,  for  the  Scottnh 
expedition  of  1400,  and  then  charged  him  with  treason  for 
failing  to  appear.  Owen  thereupon  took  up  arms,  and  when 
Henry  IV.  returned  from  Scotland  in  September  he  found  north 
Wales  ablaze.  A  hurried  campaign  under  the  king's  personal 
command  was  Ineffectual.  Owen's  estates  were  declared  forfeit 
and  vigorous  measures  threatened  by  the  English  government. 
Still  the  revolt  gathered  strength.  In  the  spring  of  140X  Owen 
was  raiding  in  south  Wales,  and  credited  with  the  intention  of 
invading  Engbnd.  A  second  campaign  by  the  king  in  the 
autumn  was  defeated,  like  that  of  the  previous  year,  through 
bad  weather  and  the  Fabian  tactics  of  the  Welsh.  Owen  had 
already  been  intriguing  with  Henry  Percy  (Hot^ur),  who 
during  1401  held  command  in  north  Wales,  and  with  Percy's 
brother-in-law,  Sir  Edmund  Mortimer.  During  the  winter  of 
1401-1402  his  plans  were  further  extended  to  negotiations  with 
the  rebel  Irish,  the  Scots  and  the  French.  In  the  spring  he  had 
grown  so  strong  that  be  attacked  Ruthin,  and  took  Grey  prisoner. 
In  the  summer  he  defeated  the  men  of  Hereford  under  Edmund 
Mortimer  at  Pilleth,  near  Brynglas,  in  Radnorshire.  Mortimer 
was  taken  prisoner  and  treated  with  such  friendliness  as  to 
make  the  English  doubt  his  loyalty;  within  a  few  months  he 
married  Owen's  daughter.  In  the  autumn  the  English  king 
was  for  the  third  time  driven  "  bootless  home  and  weather- 
beaten  back."  The  few  English  strongholds  left  in  Wales  were 
now  hard  pressed,  and  Owen  boasted  that  he  would  meet  his 
enemy  in  the  field.  Nevertheless,  in  May  1403  Henzy  of  Mon- 
mouth was  allowed  to  sack  Sycharth  and  Glyndyvrdwy  un- 
opposed. Owen  had  a  greater  plot  in  hand.  'The  Perdes  were 
to  rise  in  arms,  and  meeting  Ciwen  at  Shrewsbury,  overwhelm 
the  prince  before  help  could  arrive.  But  Owen's  share  in  the 
undertaking  miscarried  through  his  own  defeat  near  Carmarthen 
on  the  1 2th  of  July,  and  Percy  was  crtished  at  Shrewsbury  ten 
days  later.  Still  the  Welsh  revolt  was  never  so  formidable. 
Owen  styled  himself  openly  prince  of  Wales,  established  a  regular 
government,  and  called  a  parliament  at  MachynUeth.  As  a 
result  of  a  formal  alliance  the  French  sent  troops  to  his  aid,  and 
in  the  course  of  1404  the  great  castles  of  Harlech  and  Aberystwith 
fell  into  his  han^. 

In  the  spring  of  1405  Owen  was  at  the  height  of  his  power; 
but  the  tide  turned  suddenly.  Prince  Henry  defeated  the  Welsh 
at  Grosmont  in  March,  and  twice  again  in  May,  when  Owen's 
son  Griffith  and  his  chancellor  were  made  prisoners.  Scrope's 
rebellion  in  the  North  prevented  the  EngUdi  from  following 
up  their  success.  The  earl  of  Northumberland  took  refuge  in 
Wales,  and  the  tripartite  alliance  of  Owen  with  Percy  and 
Mortimer  (transferred  by  Shakespeare  to  an  earlier  occasion) 
threatened  a  renewal  of  danger.  But  Northumberland's  plots 
and  the  active  help  of  the  French  proved  ineffective.  The 
English  under  Prince  Henry  gained  ground  steadily,  and  the 
recovery  of  Aberystwith,  after  a  long  siege,  in  the  autumn  of 
1408  marked  the  end  of  serious  warfare.  In  February  1409 
Harlech  was  also  recaptured,  and  Owen's  wife,  daughter  and 
grandchildren  were  taken  prisoners.  Owen  himself  still  heki 
out  and  even  continued  to  intrigue  with  the  French.  In  July 
1415  Gilbert  Talbot  had  power  to  treat  with  Owen  and  his 
supporters  and  admit  them  to  pardon.  Owen's  name  does  not 
occur  in  the  document  renewing  Talbot's  powers  in  February 
1416;  according  to  Adam  of  Usk  he  died  in  141 5.  Later  English 
writers,  allege  that  he  died  of  starvation  in  the  mountains;  but 
Welsh  legend  represents  him  as  spending  a  peaceful  old  age  with 
his  sons-in-law  at  Ewyas  and  Monington  in  Herefordshire,  till 
his  death  and  burial  at  the  latter  place.  The  dream  of  aa 
independent  and  united  Wales  was  never  nearer  realisation  than 
under  Owen's  leadership.     The  disturbed  sute  of  England 


GLENELG— GLEYRE 


121 


helped  him,  but  he  was  indeed  a  remarkable  peiaonality/and 
has  Dot  undeservedly  become  a  national  hero.  Sentiment  and 
tradition  have  magnified  his  achievements,  and  confused  his 
career  with  tales  of  portents  and  magical  powers.  Owen  left 
many  bastard  children;  his  legitimate  representative  in  1433 
was  his  daughter  Alice,  wife  of  Sir  John  Scudamore  of  Ewyas. 

The  facta  of  Owen's  life  must  be  pieced  together  from  scattered 
lefeienccs  in  cootemporary  chronidea  and  documents;  perhaps  the 
most  important  are  Adam  of  Usk's  Chronicle  and  EHu's  Original 
LeUtrj.  On  the  Welsh  side  something  is  given  by  the  bards  loio 
Goch  and  Lewis  Glyn  Cothi.  For  modem  accounts  consult  J.  H. 
Wylie's  Hiitary  of  England  under  Henry  IV.  Uvols..  1884-1898): 
A.  C.  Bradley's  popularoiography ;  and  Professor  Tout's  article  in  the 
DieUauary  of  NaUonal  Biography,  (C.  L.  K.) 

GLBNBLO.  CHARLES  GRANT.  Baron  (i  778-1866),  eldest 
son  of  Charles  Grant  (q.v,),  chairman  of  the  directors  of  the 
East  India  Company,  was  bom  in  India  on  the  26th  of  October 
1778,  and  was  educated  at  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  of 
which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1802^  Called  to  the  bar  in  1867, 
he  was  elected  member  of  parliament  for  the  Inverness  burghs 
in  1807,  and  having  gained  some  reputation  as  a  speaker  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  he  was  made  a  lord  of  the  treasury  in 
December  1813,  an  office  which  he  held  until  August  181 9,  when 
he  became  secretary  to  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  and  a 
privy  councillor.  In  1833  he  was  appointed  vice-president  of 
the  board  of  trade;  from  September  1837  to  June  1838  he  was 
president  of  the  board  and  treasurer  of  the  navy;  then  joining 
the  Whigs,  he  was  president  of  the  board  of  control  under  Earl 
Grey  and  Lord  Melbourne  from  November  1830  to  November 
1834.  At  the  board  of  control  Grant  was  primarily  responsible 
for  the  act  of  1833,  which  altered  the  constitution  of  the  govern- 
ment of  India.  In  April  1835  he  became  secretary  for  war  and 
the  colonies,  and  was  created  Baron  Glenelg.  His  term  of  office 
was  a  stormy  one.  His  differences  with  Sir  Benjamin  d'Urban 
(f.f.),  governor  of  Cape  Colony,  were  serious;  but  more  so  were 
those  with  King  William  IV.  and  others  over  the  administration 
of  Canada.  He  was  still  secretary  when  the  Canadian  rebellion 
broke  out  in  1837;  his  wavering  and  feeble  policy  was  fiercely 
attacked  in  parliament;  he  became  involved  in  disputes  with 
the  earl  of  Durham,  and  the  movement  for  his  supercession  found 
supporters  even  among  his  colleagues  in  the  cabinet.  In  February 
1839  he  resigned,  receiving  consolation  in  the  shape  of  a  pension 
of  £2000  a  year..  From  1818  until  he  was  made  a  peer  Grant 
repceseoted  the  county  of  Inverness  in  parliament,  and  he  has 
been  called  "  the  last  of  the  Canningites."  Living  mainly 
abroad  during  the  concluding  years  of  his  life,  he  died  unmarried 
at  Cannes  on  the  23rd  of  April  1866  when  his  title  became 
extinct. 

Glenelg's  brother,  Sir  Robert  Grant  (i77<>-i838),  who  was 
third  wrangler  in  1801,  was,  like  his  brother,  a  fellow  of  Magdalene 
Cbllege,  Cambridge,  and  a  barrister.  From  1818  to  1834  he 
represented  various  constituencies  in  parliament,  where  he  was 
chiefly  prominent  for  his  persistent  efforts  to  relieve  the  dis- 
abilities of  the  Jews.*  In  June  1834  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  Bombay,  and  he  died  in  India  on  the  9th  of  July  1 838.  Grant 
wrote  a  Skekk  of  the  History  of  Ike  East  India  Co.  (1813),  and  is 
afao  known  as  a  writer  of  hymns. 

OLBIIBLO.  a  municipal  town  and  watering  place  of  Adelaide 
oonnty,  South  Australia,  on  Holdfast  Bay,  6i  m.  by  rail  S.S.W. 
of  the  dty  of  Adelaide.  Pop.  (xQot)  3949*  It  is  a  popular 
aommer  resort,  connected  with  Adelaide  by  two  lines  of  railway. 
In  the  vidnity  is  the  "  Old  Gum  Tree  "  under  which  South 
Australia  was  proclaimed  British  territory  by  Governor  Hidd- 
mazsb  in  1836. 

6LBIIGARR1F7.  or  GLENCARirr  ("  Rough  Glen  "),  a  celebrated 
Rsoft  of  tourists  in  summer  and  invalids  in  winter,  in  the  west 
riding  of  county  Cork,  Ireland,  on  Glengarriff  Harbour,  an  inlet 
on  the  northern  side  of  Bantry  Bay,  11  m.  by  coach  road  from 
Bantry  on  the  Cork,  Bandon  &  South  Coast  railway.  Beyond 
its  hotels,  Glengarriff  is  only  a  small  village,  but  the  island- 
atudded  harbour,  the  narrow  glen  at  its  head  and  the  surrounding 

>  Sir  S.  Walpole  (History  of  Entlandt  vol.  v.)  is  wrong  in  sUttng 
that  CharlM  Grant  introduced  bills  to  remove  Jewish  disabilities  in 
1833  and  1834.    They  were  introduced  by  hb  brother  Robert. 


of  mountains,  afford  most  attractive  views,  and  its  situation  on 
the  "  Prince  of  Wales'  "  route  travelled  by  King  Edward  VII. 
in  1848,  and  on  a  fine  mountain  coach  road  from  Macroom, 
brings  it  into  the  knowledge  of  many  travellers  to  Killamey. 
Thackeray  wrote  enthusiastically  of  the  harbour.  The  glaciated 
rocks  of  the  glen  are  dothed  with  vegetation  of  peculiar  luxuri- 
ance, flourishing  in  the  mild  climate  which  has  given  Glengarriff 
its  high  reputation  as  a  health  resort  for  those  suffering  from 
pulmonary  complaints. 

GLEN  GREY,  a  division  of  the  Cape  province  south  of  the 
Stormberg,  adjoining  on  the  east  the  Tninskeian  Territories.  Pop. 
(1904)  55>io7.  Chief  town  Lady  Frere,  32  m.  N.E.  of  Queens- 
town.  The  district  is  well  watered  and  fertile,  and  large  quantities 
of  cereals  are  grown.  Over  96%  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  the 
Zulu-Xosa  (Kaffir)  race,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  district 
was  settled  during  the  Kaffir  wars  of  Cape  Colony  by  Tembu 
(Tambookies)  who  were  granted  a  location  by  the  colonial 
government  in  recognition  of  their  loyalty  to  the  British. 
Act  No.  25  of  1894  of  the  Cape  parliament,  passed  at  the  instance 
of  Cecil  Rhodes,  which  laid  down  the  basis  upon  whicli  is  effected 
the  change  of  land  tenure  by  natives  from  communal  to  individual 
holdings,  and  also  dealt  with  native  local  self-government  and 
the  labour  question,  applied  in  the  first  instance  to  this  diVision, 
and  is  known  as  the  Glen  Grey  Act  (see  Cape  Coloky:  History). 
The  provisions  of  the  act  respecting  individual  land  tenure  and 
local  self-government  were  in  1898  applied,  with  certain  modifica- 
tions, to  the  Transkeian  Territories.  The  division  is  named 
after  Sir  George  Grey,  governor  of  Cape  Colony  i8s4*-x86i. 

GLENS  FALLS,  a  viUagepf  Warren  county,  New  York,  U.S.A., 
55  m.  N.  of  Troy,  on  tfaie  Hudson  river.  Pop.  (1890)  9509; 
(1900)  12,613,  of  whom  176a  were  foreign-born;  (1910  census) 
15,243.  Glens  FaUs  is  served  by  the  Delaware  &  Hudson  and 
the  Hudson  Valley  (electric)  railways.  The  village  contains  a 
state  armoury,  the  Crandall  free  public  library,  a  Y.M.C.A. 
building,  the  Park  hospital,  an  old  ladies'  home,  and  St  Mary's 
(Roman  Catholic)  and  Glens  Falls  (non-sectarian)  academies. 
There  are  two  private  parks,  open  to  the  public,  and  a  water- 
works system  is  maintained  by  the  village.  An  iron  bridge 
crosses  the  river  just  below  the  falls,  connecting  Glens  Falls  and 
South  Glens  Falls  (pop.  in  1910,  2247).  The  falls  of  the  Hudson 
here  furnish  a  fine  water-power,  which  is  utilized,  in  connexion 
with  steam  and  electricity,  in  the  manufacture  of  lumber,  paper 
and  wood  pulp,  women's  clothing,  shirts,  collars  and  cuffs,  &c. 
In  1905  the  village's  factory  products  were  valued  at  $4,780,331. 
About  12  m.  above  Glens  Falls,  on  the  Hudson,  a  massive  stone 
dam  has  been  erected;  here  electric  power,  distributed  to  a  large 
are?.,  is  generated.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Glens  Falls  a^e 
valuable  quarries  of 'black  marble  and  limestone,  and  lime, 
plaster  and  Portland  cement  works.  Glens  Falls  was  settled 
about  the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  (1763),  and  was 
incorporated  as  a  village  in  18(39. 

GUSNTILT,  a  glen  in  the  extreme  north  of  Perthshire,  Scotland. 
Beginning  at  the  confines  of  Aberdeenshire,  it  follows  a  north- 
westerly direction  excepting  for  the  last  4  m.,  when  it  runs 
due  S.  to  Blair  AtholL  It  is  watered  throughout  by  the  Tilt, 
which  enters  the  Garry  after  a  course  of  14  m.,  and  receives  on 
its  right  the  Tarff,  which  forms  some  beautiful  falls  just  above 
the  confluence,  and  on  the  left  the  Fender,  which  has  some 
fine  falls  also.  The  attempt  of  the  6th  duke  of  Atholl  (1814- 
1864)  to  close  the  glen  to  the  public  was  successfully  contested 
by  the  Scottish  Rights  of  Way  Society.  The  group  of  mountains — 
Cam  nan  Gabhar  (3505  ft.),  Ben  y  GIoc  (3671)  and  Cam  Liath 
(3193) — on  its  left  side  dominate  the  lower  half  of  the  glen. 
Marble  of  good  quality  is  occasionally  quarried  in  the  glen,  and 
the  rock  formation  has  attracted  the  attention  of  geologists 
from  the  time  of  James  Hutton. 

GLEYRE,  MARC  CHARLES  GABRIEL  (1806-1874),  French 
painter,  of  Swiss  origin,  was  bora  at  Chevilly  in  the  canton  of 
Vaud  on  the  2nd  of  May  1806.  His  father  and  mother  died 
while  he  was  yet  a  boy  of  some  eight  or  nine  years  of  age;  and 
he  was  brought  up  by  an  unde  at  Lyons,  who  sent  him  to  »' 
industrial  school  of  that  city.    Going  up  to-  Paris  a  I' 


122 


GLIDDON— GLINKA,  M.  I. 


seventeen  or  nineteen,  he  spent  four  years  in  close  artistic  study — 
in  Hersent's  studio,  in  Suisse's  academy,  in  the  gaU4;ries  of  the 
Louvre  To  this  period  of  laborious  application  succeeded 
four  years  of  meditative  inactivity  in  ItaJy,  where  he  became 
acquainted  with  Horace  Vemet  and  Leopold  Robert;  and  six 
years  more  were  consumed  in  adventurous  wanderings  in  Greece, 
Egypt,  Nubia  and  Syria.  At  Cairo  he  was  attacked  with 
ophthalmia,  and  in  the  Lebanon  he  was  struck  down  by  fever; 
and  he  returned  to  Lyons  in  shattered  health.  On  his  recovery 
he  proceeded  to  Paris,  and,  fixing  his  modest  studio  in  the  rue 
de  University,  began  carefully  to  work  out  the  conceptions  which 
had  been  slowly  shaping  themselves  in  his  mind.  Mention 'is 
made  of  two  decorative  panels—"  Diana  leaving  the  Bath,"  and 
a  **  Young  Nubian  " — as  almost  the  first  fruits  of  his  genius; 
but  these  did  not  attract  public  attention  till  long  after,  and  the 
painting  by  which  he  practically  opened  his  artistic  career  was 
the  "  Apocalyptic  Vision  of  St  John,"  sent  to  the  Salon  of  1840. 
This  was  followed  in  1843  by  "  Evening,"  which  at  the  time 
received  a  medal  of  the  second  class,  and  afterwards  became 
widely  popular  under  the  title  of  the  Lost  Illusions.  It  represents 
a  poet  seated  on  the  bank  of  a  river,  with  drooping  head  and 
wearied  frame,  letting  his  lyre  slip  from  a  careless  hand,  and 
gazing  sadly  at  a  bright  company  of  maidens  whose  song  is 
dowly  dying  from  his  ear  as  their  boat  is  borne  slowly  from  his 
sight. 

In  spite  of  the  success  which  attended  these  first  ventures, 
Gleyre  retired  from  public  competition,  and  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  in  quiet  devotion  to  his  own  artistic  ideals,  neither  seeking 
the  easy  applause  of  the  crowd,  nor  turning  his  art  into  a  means 
of  aggrandizement  and  wealth.  After  1845,  when  he  exhibited 
the  "  Separation  of  the  Apostles,"  he  contributed  nothing  to 
the  Salon  except  the  "  Dance  of  the  Bacchantes  "  in  1849.  Yet 
he  laboured  steadily  and  was  abundantly  productive.  He  had 
an  "  infinite  capacity  of  taking  pains,"  and  when  asked  by  what 
method  he  attained  to  such  marvellous  perfection  of  workman- 
ship, he  would  reply,  "  En  y  pensant  toujours."  A  long  series 
of  years  often  intervened  between  the  first  conception  of  a  piece 
and  its  embodiment,  and  years  not  unfrequently  between  the 
first  and  the  final  stage  of  the  embodiment  itself.  A  landscape 
was  apparently  finished;  even  his  fellow  artists  would  consider 
it  done;  Gleyre  alone  was  conscious  that  he  bad  not  "  found 
his  sky."  Happily  for  French  art  this  high-toned  laboriousness 
became  influential  on  a  large  number  of  Gleyre's  younger 
contemporaries;  for  when  Delaroche  gave  up  his  studio  of 
instruction  he  reconunended  his  pupils  to  apply  to  Gleyre,  who 
at  once  agreed  to  give  them  lemons  twice  a  wedc,  and  character- 
istically refused  to  take  any  fee  or  reward.  By  instinct  and 
principle  he  was  a  confirmed  celibate:  "  Fortune,  talent,  health, 
— he  had  everything;  but  he  was  married,"  was  his  lamentation 
over  a  friend.  Though  he  lived  in  almost  complete  retirement 
from  public  life,  he  took  a  keen  interest  in  politics,  and  was  a 
voracious  reader  of  political  journals.  For  a  time,  indeed,  under 
Louis  Phih'ppe,  his  studio  had  been  the  rendezvous  of  a  sort 
of  liberal  club.  To  the  last— amid  all  the  disasters  that  befell 
his  country — he  was  hopeful  of  the  future,  "  la  raison  finira  bien 
par  avoir  raison."  It  was  while  on  a  visit  to  the  Retrospective 
Exhibition,  opened  on  behalf  of  the  exiles  from  Alsace  and 
Lorraine,  that  he  died  suddenly  on  the  5th  of  May  1874.  He 
left  unfinished  the  "  Earthly  Paradise,"  a  noble  picture,  which 
Taine  has  described  as  '*  a  dream  of  innocence,  of  happiness 
and  of  beauty — Adam  and  Eve  standing  in  the  sublime  and 
joyous  landscape  of  a  paradise  enclosed  in  mountains," — a 
worthy  counterpart  to  the  "  Evening."  Among  the  other 
productions  of  bis  genius  are  the  "  Deluge,"  which  represents 
two  angeb  speeding  above  the  desolate  earth,  from  which  the 
destroying  waters  have  just  begun  to  retire,  leaving  visible 
behind  them  the  ruin  they  have  wrought;  the  "Battle  of  the 
Lemanus,"  a  piece  of  elaborate  design,  crowded  but  not  cumbered 
with  figures,  and  giving  fine  expression  to  the  movements  of 
the  various  bands  of  combatants  and  fugitives;  the  "  Prodigal 
Son,"  in  which  the  artist  has  ventured  to  add  to  the  parable 
the  new  element  of  mother's  love,  greeting  the  repentant  youth 


with  a  welcome  that  shows  that  the  mother's  heart  thinks  less 
of  the  repentance  than  of  the  return,  "Ruth  and  Doac"; 
"  Ulysses  and  Nausicaa  ";  **  Hercules  at  the  feet  of  Omphalc  "; 
the  "  Young  Athenian,"  or,  as  it  is  popularly  called,  "  Sappho  "; 
"Minerva  and  the  Nymphs";  "Venus  »a»<6i7/2ot",  "  Daphnis 
and  Chloe";  and  "Love  and  the  Parcae."  Nor  must  it  be 
omitted  that  he  left  a  considerable  number  of  drawings  and  water- 
colours,  and  that  we  are  indebted  to  him  for  a  number  of  portraits, 
among  which  is  the  sad  face  of  Heine,  engraved  in  the  Rnuc  des 
deux  monda  for  April  1853.  In  Qiment's  catalogue  of  bis 
works  there  are  683  entries,  including  sketches  and  studies. 

See  Fritz  Berthoud  in  Bibiiolhkque  universtUt  de  Genhe  (1874); 
Albert  dc  Montct.  Diet,  biograpktque  des  Cenevois  et  des  Vattdois 
(1877):  and  Vu  de  Charles  Gleyre  (1877).  written  by  his  friend, 
Charles  Clement,  and  illustrated  by  30  plates  from  his  works. 

GUDDON,  GEORGE  ROBINS  (1809-1857).  British  Egyptolo- 
gist, was  bom  in  Devonshire  in  1809.  His  father,  a  merchant, 
was  United  States  consul  at  Alexandria,  and  there  Gliddon 
was  taken  at  an  early  age.  He  became  United  States  vice- 
consul,  and  took  a  great  interest  in  Eg}rptian  antiquities.  Sub- 
sequently he  leaured  in  the  United  States  and  succeeded  in 
rousing  considerable  attention  to  the  subject  of  Egyptology 
generally.  He  died  at  Panama  in  1857.  His  chief  work  was 
Ancient  Egypt  (1850,  ed.  1853).  He  wrote  also  Memoir  on  the 
Cotton  of  Egypt  (184 1);  Appeal  to  the  Antiquaries  of  Europe 
on  the  Destruction  of  the  Monuments  of  Egypt  (1841);  Discourses 
on  Egyptian  Archaeology  (1841);  Types  of  Mankind  (1854), 
in  conjunction  with  J.  C.  Nott  and  others;  Indigenous  Races 
of  the  Earth  (1857),  also  in  conjunction  with  Nott  and  others. 

GUNKA.  FEDOR  NIKOLAEVICH  (1788-1849).  Russian  poet 
and  author,  was  born  at  Smolensk  in  1788,  and  was  specially 
educated  for  the  army.  In  1803  he  obtained  a  commission 
as  an  officer,  and  two  years  later  took  part  in  the  Austrian  cam- 
paign. His  tastes  for  literary  pursuits,  however,  soon  induced 
him  to  leave  the  service,  whereupon  he  withdrew  to  his  estates 
in  the  government  of  Smolensk,  and  subsequently  devoted 
most  of  his  time  to  study  or  travelling  about  Russia.  Upon  the 
Invasion  of  the  French  in  181 3,  he  re-entered  the  Russian  army, 
and  remained  in  active  service  until  the  end  of  the  campaign 
in  1814.  Upon  the  elevation  of  Count  Milarodovich  to  the  military 
governorship  of  St  Petersburg,  Glinka  was  appointed  colonel 
under  his  command.  On  account  of  his  suspected  revolutionary 
tendencies  he  was,  in  1826,  banished  to  Petrozavodsk,  but  he 
nevertheless  retained  his  honorary  post  of  president  of  the 
Society  of  the  Friends  of  Russian  Literature,  and  was  after  a 
time  allowed  to  return  to  St  Petersburg.  Soon  afterwards  he 
retired  completely  from  public  life,  and  died  on  his  estates  in 
1849. 

Glinka's  martial  songs  have  special  reference  to  the  Rusuan 
military  campaigns  of  his  time.  He  is  known  also  as  the  author  of 
the  descriptive  poem  Kareliya,  &c.  {Carelia,  or  the  Captivity  of 
Martha  Joanoona)  (1830),  and  of  a  metrical  ixiraphraae  of  the  book 
of  Job.  His  fame  as  a  military  author  is  chiefly  due  to  his  Pisma 
Russkago  OfUseta  {Letters  of  a  Russian  Officer)  (8  vols..  1815-1816). 

GUNKA.  MICHAEL  IVANOVICH  (1803-1857).  Russian 
musical  composer,  was  bom  at  Novospassky,  a  village  in  the 
Smolensk  government,  on  the  3nd  of  June  1803.  His  early 
life  he  spent  at  home,  but  at  the  age  of  thirteen  we  find  him 
at  the  Blagorodrey  Pension,  St  Petersburg,  where  he  studied 
music  under  Carl  Maier  and  John  Field,  the  Irish  composer  and 
pianist,  who  had  settled  in  Russia.  We  are  told  that  in  his 
seventeenth  year  he  had  already  begun  to  compose  romances 
and  other  minor  vocal  pieces;  but  of  these  nothing  now  is  known. 
His  thorough  musical  training  did  not  begin  till  the  year  1830, 
when  he  went  abroad  and  stayed  for  three  years  in  Italy,  to  study 
the  works  of  old  and  modem  Italian  masters.  His  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  requirements  of  the  voice  may  be  connected 
with  this  course  of  study.  His  training  as  a  composer  was 
finished  under  the  contrapuntist  Dehn,  with  whom  Glinka 
stayed  for  several  months  at  Berlin.  In  1833  he  relumed  to 
Russia,  and  devoted  himself  to  operatic  composition.  On  the 
37  th  of  September  (9th  of  October)  1836,  took  place  the  first 
representation  of  his  opera  Life  for  the  Tsar  (the  libretto  by  Baron 


dc  Rocn).  Thii  wu  the  lurnini-poiiii 
ihc  work  wu  Dot  odL>  a  grut  lucceu,  but  m  ■  nunDci  dccuk 
the  ori^  ud  baiii  of  t  Kuuiui  Kboo]  of  niilioiu]  muuc^ 
The  itory  ii  tikeo  from  the  invuioa  ol  Rutsi*  by  Ibc  Polo 
early  in  the  ]7tb  centuir,  ind  the  bero  a  ■  peuanl  vhatacrificci 
hii  lile  for  tbt  Uu.  Glinki  bu  weddetl  (hit  pilrioiic  theme 
Id  bBpiiing  anuic  His  meicxlie),  mortover,  ibow  diuinct 
Affiniiy  10  tlie  popttlu  ungt  of  ibe  Rtiuiuu,  so  thmt  the  term 
"  lulioAk]  "  axy  justly  be  appUed  to  them.  Ha  appointmcol 
■1  irapeiial  chapdduitcr  aod  cooductor  of  tbe  open  of  St  Pclen- 
burg  wu  the  reward  of  hii  dramatic  iu<:caKL  Hu  lecond  open 
RuuUn  and  Lyudmiia,  fouodcd  oo  Fiuhkio's  poem,  did  doI 
appeu  till  igji;  it  wai  as  advazice  upon  UJt  jtr  lie  Tio 
in  it!  muiicil  upecl,  but  made  no  imptcuioa  upon  the  public. 
In  tbe  mtutime  Glinka  wrote  ao  overture  aod  fourenlre-iFIC* 
lo  Kukolnik't  drama  Pritm  KMmiky.  In  iBm  be  went  to 
Parii,  and  his  you  ArragBxcia  I1S41),  and  tbe  lymphonic  work 
on Spaniih tbefflci,  Uiu Nuiii MjJlnil,ttBect  ibe musical r«ulis 
ol  two  jrein'  ujoum  <d  Spain.  Os  hii  relum  to  St  Pelenhufg 
be  wrote  and  arranged  several  piecH  for  tbe  orrbeitn,  amongst 
which  Ibc  so-called  Kamarinskaya  achieved  popuLsrity  beyond 
ibe  timili  of  Russia.    He  also  composed  numerous  songs  jind 


GLINKA,  S.  N.— GLOCKENSPIEL 

GUnka's  life, 


In  .8s;  hr 


id  for 


autobiognpbr,  orcbestnted  Weber's  Imilation  A  h 
taiit,  and  began  to  consider  ■  plan  for  a  musical  venion  ol 
Cofol'a  Tarati-Bniba.  Abandoniog  the  idea  and  becoming 
absorbed  in  a  passion  for  ecdesiastical  music  he  went  to  Berlin 
to  study  the  andenl  church  modes.  Here  he  died  suddenly 
00  tbe  and  of  February  1857. 

DUKKA.  IIHDY  HIKOUBVICB  {1774-1847).  Rusuan 
author,  Ibe  elder  brother  of  Fedor  N.  Glinka,  wu  botn  al 
Smidensk  in  1774.  In  1796  he  entered  the  Russian  army,  but 
He 


d  lulnequeniiy  at 
s  are  apirilcd  and 


afterwards  employed  himself  in  the  edi 
lileraiy  punuits,  6nt  in  the  Ukiaini 
Uohhw,  where  he  died  in  1847.  His 
patriotic;  he  wrote  alio  several  dnmali 
Young's  flifU  TlimgUs. 

UHorioJ  pdnl  of  view  mn-.  Ruutel  Ckltnic  l£iiii»i  Raiini- 
aUUrital  yimentll  ^  JCujia  >■  On  iSlk  Hid  Iflk  CiiU>rvi)  {> 
VDla..  t%tii:  ttlariyn  Kmrii.  &c.   (HiiUry  cj  Xaiiu  jar  liv  nH  si 

rnll)  do  vols.,  iSl7-ieig,  liid  ed.  iSll.  3rd  rd.  lSl4)^  IHoriya 
Armrtt.  ic.  (MUUry -^ llu  iitt'iUic  cf  Uu  ArmlfKiam  I,/ AmUjan 
frrm  T^kcj  u  RuitU)  li«ji):  ind  hi>  contribuiion.  10  ibe  ItHiiky 

Vyiumi  (itmnaii  UiimtB),  a  monthly  periudkal.  edited  by  him 

GUSB-FUH,  or  Sea-Heimehoc,  the  names  by  which  loine 
■ea-fisbe*  are  known,  which  hive  the  remarkable  faculty  of 
jjgaling  their  ttomachs  with  air.  They  belong  10  the  lamilie* 
Diodontidae  and  TettodoDtidae.  Tbeii  jaws  resemble  the  thaip 
beak  of  a  patrol,  the  bone*  and  teeth  being  coalesced  into  one 
mass  with  a  sharp  edge.  In  the  Diodonli  there  is  no  mesial 
division  of  the  jaws,  whilst  in  Ibe  TeUodonts  lucb  a  division 
csMSi  SO  that  ibcy  appear  to  tan  two  teetb  above  and  (wo 


Fio.  I,— I>iaJ«i  mciJeliir. 


jl  provided  with  variously  forr 


It  <fi|.  i).     A  fob  thus  blown  oat 


mposing  or  poisonous  animal 


aUBIOBfUHA,  A.  d'Otbigny,  a  genus 
minitera  (^e.)  ol  pelagic  habit,  and  formci 
aggregsle  ol  spheroidal  chambers  with  a  ere 


Hoj/i(miia  only  dlHcis  in  Ibe  '■  fiat  "  or  nautiloid  spital. 

GUKKBHSPIBL,  or  Oichestul  Beus  (Ft.  iariam.  Cer. 
GlxkttufUl.  SuMkaniunika;  Ital,  iamfanrUi;  Med,  Lai. 
/in/tfi itdWu US,  cyvK&d/Hm,  £«nfrv/biii).  an  inslrumeni  of  percussion 
of  dehnite  musical  pilch,  used  in  the  orchestra,  and  made  in 
two  or  three  different  styles.  The  oldest  form  o[  glackens|»cl, 
seen  in  illuminaled  HSS.  of  the  middle  ages,  consists  ol  a  set 
of  bells  mounted  on  a  fnme  and  played  by  one  performer  by 
means  of  steel  hammers.  The  name  "  bell  "  is  now  generally 
a  misnomel,  other  forms  of  mclal  or  wood  having  been  found 
more  convenient.     The  pynmid-shaped  glockenspiel,  formerly 

o[  an  octave  ol  semitone,  hemispherical  bells,  placed  oue  above 
iho  other  and  fastened  to  an  iiaa  rod  which  passes  through  the 
centre  of  each,  the  bells  being  of  graduated  sices  and  diminishing 
in  diameter  as  the  pitch  rises.  The  lyre-shaped  glockenspiel, 
or  steel  harmonica  iSUMkarmcnita),  Is  a  nencr  model,  which  hat 
instead  ol  bells  twelve  or  more  bars  of  steel,  graduating  in  siie 
accotding  to  Ibeir  pitch.  These  bars  ate  fastened  horiionlally 
aciDis  two  bars  of  steel  set  perpendicularly  in  a  steel  frame  io 
the  shape  ol  a  lyre.  The  bars  are  itiuck  by  lillle  steel  hammers 
atlachai  (o  whalebone  slicks, 

Wigner  has  used  the  glockenspiel  with  eutuisitF  judgment  In  (he 
fin  acene  of  the  la«  act  of  Die  ICafMnandin  the  peaonts' walti 
in  (he  Ian  eceoe  of  Dit  UritwiiufB.  When  chordi  are  xtilleo  for 
the  fkxkenipiei.  a>  in  Moan's  JtacK  flktt.  the  keyed  harmonica' 
i>  used.  It  coniini  of  a  keyboard  having  a  Utile  hammer  ailached 
10  each  key,  which  nritces  a  bar  of  fliast  or  steel  when  the  key  is 
depressed.  The  perfomier,  being  able  to  use  both  hands,  can  play 
a  melody  srith  full  harmonies,  scale  and  arpenio  passiges  in  single 
■  nd  double  notes.  A  peal  ol  hemispbericaf  bells  was  specially 
conHncted  for  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan's  GMn  Uind.  It  coniisii  of 
four  belli  conilnicled  of  bell-metal  aboul  I  in.  thick,  the  larB^X 

stand  one  abov^  the  other,  srith  a  clearance  i(  aboul  I  in.  bel-wn 
them;  (be  lim  ol  the  lowest  and  largest  bell  is  ij  in.  from  the  looi 
oi  tbe  stand.    The  bells  are  struck  by  mallets,  which  arc  of  two 


■  Sec  "  The  Keyed  Harmonica  improved  by  H.  Klein  of  Pressburi." 
article  in  the  .(Ur.  Matrt.  2l(..  BdT  i.  pp.  J7S-««9  (l^'piig.  17"''' 
alB  Becker,  p.  lU-  Build. 


124 


GLOGAU— GLOSS,  GLOSSARY 


with  wash'leather  for  piano  effects.  The  peal  was  unique  at  the 
time  it  was  made  for  the  Cuiden  Legend,  but  a  smaller  bell  of  the  same 
shape,  i  in.  thick,  with  a  diameter  measuring  about  i6  in.,  specially 
made  for  the  performance  of  Liszt's  St  Ettsabetk,  when  conducted 
by  the  composer  in  London,  evidently  suggested  the  idea  for.  the 
peal.  (K.  S.) 

GLOOAU,  a  fortified  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Silesia,  59  m.  N.W.  from  Breslau,  on  the  railway  to  Frankfort- 
OD-Oder.  Pop.  (1905)  23,461.  It  is  built  partly  on  an  island 
and  partly  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder;  and  owing  to  the 
fortified  enceinte  having  been  pushed  farther  afield,  new  quarters 
have  been  opened  up.  Among  its  most  important  buildings 
are  the  cathedral,  in  the  Gothic,  and  a  castle  (now  used  as  a 
courthouse),  in  the  Renaissance  style,  two  other  Roman  Catholic 
and  three  Protestant  churches,  a  new  town-hall,  a  synagogue, 
a  military  hospital,  two  Clascal  schools  {Oymnasien)  and 
several  libraries.  Owing  to  its  situation  on  a  navigable  river 
and  at  the  junction  of  several  lines  of  railway,  Glogau  carries 
on  an  extensive  trade,  which  is  fostered  by  a  variety  of  local 
industries,  embracing  machinery-building,  tobacco,  beer,  oil, 
sugar  and  vinegar.  It  has  also  extensive  lithographic  works, 
and  its  wool  market  is  celebrated. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  nth  century  Glogau,  even  then  a 
populous  and  fortified  town,  was  able  to  withstand  a  regular 
siege  by  the  emperor  Henry  V.;  but  in  11 57  the  duke  of  Silesia, 
finding  he  could  not  hold  out  against  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
set  it  on  fire.  In  1252  the  town,  which  had  been  raised  from  its 
ashes  by  Henry  I.,  the  Bearded,  became  the  capital  of  a  princi- 
pality of  Glogau,  and  in  1482  town  and  district  were  united  to 
the  Bohemian  crown.  In  the  course  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
Glogau  suffered  greatly.  The  inhabitants,  who  had  become 
Protestants  soon  after  the  Reformation,  were  dragooned  into 
conformity  by  Wallenstein's  soldiery;  and  the  Jesuits  received 
permission  to  build  themselves  a  church  and  a  college.  Captured 
by  the  Pfotestants  in  1632,  and  recovered  by  the  Imperialists 
in  1633,  the  town  was  again  captured  by  the  Swedes  in  1642, 
and  continued  in  Protestant  hands  till  the  peace  of  Westphalia 
in  1648,  when  the  emperor  recovered  it.  In  1741  the  Prussians 
took  the  place  by  storm,  and  during  the  Seven  Years'  War  it 
formed  an  important  centre  of  operations  for  the  Prussian  forces. 
After  the  battle  of  Jena  (1806)  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French ; 
and  was  gallantly  held  by  Laplane,  against  the  Russian  and 
Prussian  besiegers,  after  the  battle  of  Katzbach  in  August  1813 
until  the  17th  of  the  following  April. 

See  Minsberg,  CeschukU  der  Stadt  und  Festung  Clogau*s  (2  vols., 
Glogau.  1853);  and  H.  von  Below,  Zur  CesckiclUe  des  Jakres  1806. 
Clcgau's  Belagerung  und  Verteidigung  (Berlin,  1893). 

OLORIOSA,  in  botany,  a  small  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Liliaceae,  native  of  tropical  Asia  and  Africa. 
They  are  bulbous  plants,  the  slender  stems  of  which  support 
themselves  by  tendril-like  prolongations  of  the  tips  of  some 
of  the  narrdw  generally  lanceolate  leaves.  The  flowers,  which 
are  borne  in  the  leaf-axils  at  the  ends  of  the  stem,  are  very 
handsome,  the  six,  generally  narrow,  petals  arc  bent  back  and 
stand  erect,  and  are  a  rich  orange  yellow  or  red  in  colour;  the 
six  stamens  project  more  or  less  horizontally  from  the  place 
of  insertion  of  the  petals.  They  are  generally  grown  in  cultiva- 
tion as  stove-plants. 

GLORY  (through  the  0.  Fr.  ghriey  modem  gloire^  from  Lat. 
gloria^  cognate  with  Gr.  kMus,  KKUof),  a  synonym  for  fame, 
renown,  honour,  and  thus  used  of  anything  which  reflects  honour 
and  renown  on  its  possessor.  In  the  phrase  "  glory  of  God  " 
the  word  implies  both  the  honour  due  to  the  Creator,  and  His 
majesty  and  effulgence.  In  liturgies  of  the  Christian  Church 
are  the  Gloria  Patri,  the  doxology  beginning  **  Glory  be  to  the 
Father,"  the  response  Gloria  tibi,  Domine,  "  Glory  be  to  Thee, 
O  Lord,"  sung  or  said  after  the  giving  out  of  the  Gospel  for 
the  day,  and  the  Gloria  in  excelsis^  **  Glory  be  to  God  on 
high,"  sung  during  the  Mass  and  Communion  service.  A 
"  glory  "  is  the  term  often  used  as  synonymous  with  halo, 
nimbus  or  aureola  (9.9.)  for  the  ring  of  light  encircling  the 
head  or  figure  in  a  pictorial  or  other  representation  of  sacred 
persons. 


GLOSS,  GLOSSARY,  &c.    The  Greek  word  yXutraa  (whence 
our  "  glos9  "),  meaning  originally  a  tongue,  then  a  langua^  or 
dialect,  gradually  came  to  denote  any  obsolete,forelgn,  provincial, 
technical  or  otherwise  peculiar  word  or  use  of  a  word  (see  Arist. 
Rket.  in.  3.  2).    The  making  of  collections  and  explanations^  of 
such  ykuaffoi  was  at  a  comparatively  early  date  a  well-recognized 
form  of  literary  activity.    Even  in  the  5th  century  B.C.,  among 
the  many  writings  of  Abdcra  was  included  a  treatise  entitle 
Ilepi  'Om^pov  4  6p9otni:ip  ml  f\uaakta¥.    It  was  not,  however^ 
until  the  Alexandrian  period  that  the  7XtiNr<ro7p&^,  glosso- 
graphers  (writers  of  glosses),  or  glossators,  became  numerous. 
Of  many  of  these  perhaps  even  the  names  have  perished;  but 
Alhenaeus  the  grammarian  alone  {c.  a.d.  250)  alludes  to  no 
fewer  than  thirty-five.    Among  the  earliest  was  Philetas  of  Cos 
(d.  c.  290  B.C.),  the  elegiac  poet,  to  whom  Aristarchus  dedicated 
the  treatise  IIp^  ^iXrray;  he  was  the  compiler  of  a  lexico- 
graphical work,  arranged  probably  according  to  subjects,  and 
entitled  'Arairra  Or   TySavai  (sometimes  'Aroxroi   ntyJuMVw).. 
Next  came  his  disciple  Zenodotus  of  Ephe8us(c.  280  B.C.),  one  of 
the  earliest  of  the  Homeric  critics  and  the  compUer  of  TiJuaeax 
'Oyetipuax;  Zenodotus  in  turn  was  succeeded  by  his  greater  pupil 
Aristophanes  of  Byzantium  (c.  200  B.C.),  whose  great  compilation 
Ilcpi  yJt^v  (still  partially  preserved  in  that  of  Pollux),  is  known 
to  have  included  'Arruoi  Xi(cts,  KoMaviKoX  y^Mmox^  and  the 
like.    From  the  school  of  Aristophanes  issued  more  than  one 
glossographer  of  name, — Diodorus,  Artemidorus  (rXMnroi,  and 
a  collection    of    Xc^ets    A^aprvruol),   Nicander  of   Colophon 
(rXuffffai,  of  which  some  twenty-six  fragments  still  survive), 
and  Aristarchus  (c.  210  B.C.),  the  famous  critic,  whose  numerous 
labours  included  an  arrangement  of  the  Homeric  vocabulary 
(XI(«(S)  in  the  order  of  the  books.    Contemporary  with  the 
last  named  was  Crates  of  Mallus,  who,  besides  making  some 
new  contributions  to   Greek   lexicography   and  dialectology, 
was  the  first  to  create  at  Rome  a  taste  for  similar  investigations 
in  connexion  with  the  Latin  idioms.    From  his  school  proceeded 
Zenodotus  of  Mallus,  the  compiler  of  'E^furai  Xebecs  or  ^Xwao-cu, 
a  work  said  to  have  been  designed  chiefly  to  support  the  views 
of  the  school  of  Pcrgamum  as  to  the  allegorical  interpretation  of 
Homer.'    Of  later  dale  were  Didymus  (Chalcenterus,  c.  50  B.C.), 
who  made  collections  of  Xc(cis  rpa7w5ou/i^vcu  cw/iacai,  &c.;  Apol- 
lonius  Sophists  (c.  20  B.C.),  whose  Homeric  Lexicon  has  come 
down  to  modem  times;  and  Neoptolemus,  known  distinctively  as 
6  YXcixraoTpd^.    In  the  beginning  of  the  1st  century  of  the 
Christian  era  Apion,  a  grammarian  and  rhetorldan  at  Rome 
during  the  reigns  of  Tiberius  and  Claudius,  followed  up  the  labours 
of  Aristarchus  and  other  predecessors  with  TKuaffai  '0;xi|puta£, 
and  a  treatise  IIcpl  r^  'Po^iMuic^  jiaMxrov;  Heliodorus  or 
Herodorus  was  another  almost  contemporary  glossographer; 
Erotian  also,  during  the  reign  of  Nero,  prepared  a  special  glossary 
for  the  writings  of  Hippocrates,  still  preserved.    To  this  period 
also  Pamphilus,  the  author  of  the  Aet/yudy,  from  which  Diogenian 
and  Julius  Vestinus  afterwards  drew  so  largely,  most  probably 
belonged.    In  the  following  century  one  of  the  most  prominent 
workers  in  this  department  of  literature  wSis  Aelius  Herodianus, 
whose  treatise  Ilepi  /loi^povf  X4(eus  has  been  edited  in  modern 
times,  and  whose  'Emtuptcfjoi  we  still  possess  in  an  abridgment; 
also   Pollux,   Diogenian    {Ak^a  roPToiaiHi),    Julius   Vesiinus 
('EiriroM^  Tuv  HaM^Xou  f\taaaC»)  and  especially  Phrynichus, 
who  flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  2nd  century,  and  whose 
Eclogae  nominum  el  verborum  Atlicorum  has  frequently  been 
edit(^.    To  the  4th  century  belongs  Ammonius  of  Alexandria 
(c.  389),  who  wrote  Ilcpi  btioiup  Kal  6ia^>6p(ap  \k^¥,  a  dictionary 
of  words  used  in  senses  different  from  those  in  which  they  had 

'  The  history  of  the  literary  closs  in  its  proper  sense  has  given 
rise  to  the  common  English  use  oithe  word  to  mean  an  interpretation, 
especially  in  a  disingenuous,  sinister  or  false  way;  the  form  '*  glosc," 
more  particularly  associated  with  explaining  away,  palliating  or 
talking  speciously,  is  simply  an  alternative  spelling.  The  word  has 
thus  to  some  extent  influenced,  or  been  influenced  by.  the  meaning 
of  the  etymologically  different  "  gloss  "  •lustrous  surface  (from  the 
same  root  as  "glass  " ;  cf.  "  glow  "}.  in  its  extended  sense  of  "  out- 
ward fair  seeming." 

>  See  Matthaei,  dossaria  Craeca  (Moscow,  1774/5)- 


GLOSS,  GLOSSARY 


^2S 


bcea  employed  by  older  and  approved  writers.  Of  somewhat 
Uter  date  is  the  well-known  Hesydu'us,  whose  often-edited 
Af^txdy  superseded  all  previous  works  of  the  kind;  Cyril,  the 
celebrated  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  also  contributed  somewhat 
to  the  advancement  of  glossography  by  his  ZwaYoor^  rc^  wpdt 
Std^poi'  o7iiiaffia9  Jio^pcdf  rowou^Kiir  \ii«a»;  while  Orus^ 
Orion,  Philozenus  and  the  two  Philemona  also  belong  to  this 
period.  The  works  of  Photius,  Suidas  and  Zonaras,  as  also  the 
Eiymohgicum  magnum,  to  which  might  be  added  the  Lexica 
Sangermania  and  the  Lexica  Seguerianaf  are  referred  to  in  the 
article  Dictionary. 

To  a  special  category  of  technical  glossaries  belongs  a  large 
and  important  dass  of  works  relating  to  the  law-coqipilations  of 
Justinian.  Although  the  emperor  forbade  under  severe  penalties 
all  commentaries  (inroiu^ttara)  on  his  legislation  {Const.  Deo 
A  adore,  sec  12;  Const.  TantOf  sec.  21),  yet  indices  {Mucet) 
and  references  (xop&rirXa),  as  well  as  translations  {Ipfjoivfiai 
marii  w66a)  and  paraphrases  (if^apulai  df  xXdros),  were 
expressly  permitted,  and  lavishly  produced.  Among  the 
numerous  compilers  of  alphabetically  arranged  M(ett  Tu/iolical 
or  AarccytKoZ,  and  yXSiOoai  potuxal  {glossae  nomicae), 
Cyril  and  Philoxenus  are  particularly  noted;  but  the  authors 
of  ropoYpa^ol,  or  atiiiaua^s,  whether  tfy^v  or  Insldtv 
Kdiurai,  are  too  numerous  to  mention.  A  collection  of  these 
rapaypa^id  tS»  xoXoiwr,  combined  with  vtai  xofiaypa^al  on 
the  revised  code  called  ri  /3a0'»Xuc&,  was  made  about  the  middle 
of  the  1 2th  century  by  a  disciple  of  Michael  Hagiotheodorita. 
This  work  is  known  as  the  Clossa  ordinaria  tQv  fioffiXuaav.* 

In  Italy  also,  during  the  period  of  the  Byzantine  ascendancy, 
various  glossae  (glosae)  and  scholia  on  the  Justinian  code  were 
produced  *;  particularly  the  Turin  gloss  (reprinted  by  Savigny), 
to  which,  apart  from  later  additions,  a  date  prior  to  1000  is 
usually  assigned.  After  the  total  extinction  of  the  Byzantine 
authority  in  the  West  the  study  of  law  became  one  of  the  free 
arts,  and  numerous  schools  for  its  cultivation  were  instituted. 
Among  the  earliest  of  these  was  that  of  Bologna,  where  Pepo 
(1075)  and  Imerius  (1100-1118)  began  to  give  their  expositions. 
They  had  a  numerous  following,  who,  besides  delivering  exegctical 
lectures  ("  ordinariae  '*  on  the  Digest  and  Code,  "  extraordin- 
ariae  "  on  the  rest  of  the  Corpus  juris  civiiis),  also  wrote 
Glossae,  first  interiinear,  afterwards  marginal.*  The  series 
of  these  glossators  was  closed  by  Accursius  (q.v.)  with  the  com- 
pilation known  as  the  Clossa  ordinaria  or  magistraiis,  the 
authority  of  which  soon  became  very  great,  so  that  ultimately 
it  came  to  be  a  recognized  maxim,  "  Quod  non  agnoscit  glossa, 
non  agnoscit  curia.*'*  For  some  account  of  the  glossators  on 
the  canon  law,  see  Canon  Law. 

In  late  classical  and  medieval  Latin,  glosa  was  the  vulgar  and 
romanic  (e.g.  in  the  early  8th  century  Corpus  Glossary,  and  the 
late  8th  century  Leiden  Glossary),  glossa  the  learned  form 
(Varro,  De  ling.  Lot.  vii.  10;  Auson.  Epigr,  127.  2  (86.  2),  written 
in  Creek,  Quint,  i.  t.  34).  The  diminutive  glossula  occurs  in 
Diom.  426.  26  and  elsewhere.  The  same  meaning  has  glossarium 
(Cell,  xviii.  7.  3  glosaria^yXuaoiLptov),  which  also  occurs  in  the 
modem  sense  of  "  glossary  "  (Papias,  "  unde  glossarium  dictum 
quod  omnium  fere  partium  glossas  contineat  "),  as  do  the  words 
glossa,  glossae,  gfossulae,  glossemata  (Steinmeyer,  Alth.  Gloss,  iv. 
408,  410),  expressed  in  later  times  by  dictionarium,  dicticnarius, 
9ocabularium,    vocabularius    (see    Dictionaky).    Clossa    and 

*  See  Labb^.  Veteresglossae  verhorum  juris  quae  passim  in  Bastlicis 
rtperitaUur  (1606):  Otto,  Thesaurus  juris  Remani,  iii.  (1697); 
Scephens.  Thesaurus  linguae  Craecae,  viii.  (1825). 

*  See  Biener,  CeschichU  der  Novdlen,  p.  229  sqq. 

'  Imeriua  himself  is  with  some  probability  believed  to  have  been 
the  author  of  the  Brachylo^s  (^-v.). 

*  Thus  Fit.  Villani  {De  ortgine  eieitatis  FhrenUae.  ed.  1847,  p.  23), 
speaking  of  the  Glossator  Accura'us,  aa^^  of  the  Glowae  that "  tantae 
auctoritatia  gratiaeque  fuere,  ut  omnium  consensu  publice  appro* 
barentur,  et  reiectis  aliis.  quibuscumque  penitus  abolitis,  solae 
juxta  textum  legum  adpositae  sunt  et  ubique  terrarum  sine  contro- 
vcrsia  pro  le^^bus  cclcbrantur.  ita  ut  netas  sit,  non  secus  quam 
tcxtui.  Gloasis  Accurstt  contraire."  For  similar  testimonies  see 
Bayle's  DiUiennaire.  s.v.  "  Accursius."  and  Rudorff,  R&m.  ReckU- 
tstckitkU,  i.  338  (1857). 


glossema  (Vanro  vii.  34. 107;  Aainius  Callus,  ap.  Suet.  De  gramm, 
22;  Fest.  166^8,  i8z*.  18;  Quint,  i.  8.  15,  &c.)  are  anonyms, 
signifying  (a)  the  word  which  requires  explanation;  or  (6) 
such  a  woid  (called  lemma)  together  with  the  interpretation 
{interpretamentum);  or  (c)  the  interpretation  alone  (so  first 
in  the  Anecd.  Helv.). 

Latin,  like  Greek  glossography,  had  its  ori^n  chiefly  in  the 
practical  wants  of  students  and  teachers,  of  whose  names  we 
only  know  a  few.  No  doubt  even  m  classical  times  collections 
of  glosses  ("  glossaries  ")  were  compiled,  to  which  allusion  seems 
to  be  made  by  Varro  {De  ling.  Lat.  vii.  zo, "  tesca,  aiunt  sanctaesse 
qui  glossas  scripserunt  ")  and  Verrius-Festus  (z66^  6.  "  naucum 
.  .  .  glossematorum  .  .  .  scriptorcs  fabae  grani  quod  haereat  in 
fabulo  "),  but -it  is  not  known  to  what  extent  Varro,  for  instance, 
used  them,  or  retained  their  original  forms.  The  scriptorea 
glossematorum  were  distinguished  from  the  learned  glossographers 
like  Aurelius  Opilius  (cf.  his  Musae,  ap.  Suet.  De  pramm,  6; 
Geli.  i.  25.  17;  Varro  vii.  50,  65,  67,  70,  79, 106),  Servius  Qodius 
(Varro  vii.  70.  106),  Aelius  Stilo,  L.  Ateius  PhUol.,  whose  liber 
glossematorum  Festus  mentions  (181*.  18). 

Verrius  Flaccus  and  his  epitomists,  Festus  and  Paulus,  have 
preserved  many  treasures  of  cariy  glossographers  who  are  now  lost  to 
us.  He  copied  AcHus  Stilo  (Rdtzenstein^  Vert.  Forsch.,"  in  vol.  L 
of  Breslauer  phiM.  Abhaudl.,  p.  88;  Kric^hammer,  Comm.  phiL 
len.  vii.  l.  74  sqq.),  Aurelius  Opilius,  Ateuis  Philol.,  the  treatise 
De  obscuris  Catonis  (Reitzenstdn,  ib.  56.  92).  He  often  made  use  of 
Varro  (Willers,  De  Verrio  Fiaeco,  Halle.  1898),  though  not  of  his 
ling.  lat.  (Kricgshammer,  74  sqq.);  and  was  also  acquainted  with 
later  glossographers.  Perhaps  wc  owe  to  him  the  gfossae  asbestos 
(Goetz,  Corpus,  iv. ;  id.,  Rketn.  Mus.  xl.  328).  Festus  was  used  by 
Ps.-PhiIoxenuB  (Dammann.  De  Festo  PB.-PbiIoxeni  auctore, 
Comm.  len.  v.  36  sqq.),  as  appears  from  the  glossae  ab  absens  (Goetz, 
"  Dc  Astrabae  PI.  fraementis,"  Ind.  len.,  1893.  iii.  sqq.).  The 
distinct  connexions  with  Nonius  need  not  be  ascnbed  to  borrowing, 
as  Plinius  and  Caper  may  have  been  used  (P.  Schmidt,  De  Non.  Marc, 
auctt.  gramm.  145;  Nettleship,  Led.  and  Ess.  229;  FrOhde,  De  Non. 
Marc,  et  Verrio  Flacco.  2 ;  W.  M.  Lindsay,  "  Non.  Marc.,"  Diet,  oj 
Repub.  Latin,  100,  &c.). 

The  bilingual  (Gr.-Lat.,  Lat.-Gr.)  glossaries  also  point  to  an  cariy 
period,  and  were  used  by  the  grammarians  (i)  to  explain  the  peculi- 
arities {idiomata)  of  the  Latin  language  by  comparison  with  the 
Greek,  and  (2)  tor  tnstilirtion  in  the  two  lan^ages  (Charis.  354. 
9,  ?9i.  7,  392.  i6rsqq.;  Marschall,  De  Q.  Remmii  P.libris  gramm.  aa; 
Goetz,  Corp.  gloss,  lot.  ii.  6). 

For  the  purposesof  grammatical  instruction  (Greek  forthe Romans, 
Latin  for  the  Hclicniatic  world),  we  have  systematic  works,  a  trans* 
latiop  of  Dositheus  and  the  so-called  Hermeneutica,  parts  of  which 
may  be  dated  as  early  as  the  3rd  century  a.d..  and  lexica  (cf. 
Schocnemann,  De  lexicts  ant.  I23{  Knaack,  m  Phil.  Rundsck.,  1884. 
372;  Traube,  in  Bytant.  Ztsckr.  liL  605;  David,  Comment.  Jen.  v. 
I97sqq.). 

The  most  important  remains  of  bilingual  glossaries  are  two  well- 
known  lexica;  one  (Latin*Greek),  formerly  attributed  (but  wrongly, 
see  Rudorff,  in  Abh.  Akad.  BerL,  1865,  320  sq.;  Loewe,  Prodr.  183, 
too;  Morarosen,  C.IX.  v.  8120;  A.  Uammann,  De  Festo  Pseudo- 
philoxeni  auctore.  13  sqq.;  Goetz,  Corp.  ii.  i-3i3)  to  Philoxenus 
^consul  a.d.  535).  clearly  consists  of  two  closely  allied  glossaries 
(containing  glosses  to  Latin  authors,  as  Horace,  Cicero,  Juvenal, 
Virgil,  the  Jurists,  and  excerpts  from  Festus),  worked  into  one  by 
some  Greek  grammarian,  or  a  person  who  worked  under  Greek 
influence  (his  alphabet  runs  A,  B,  G»  D,  E,  &c.);  the  other  (Greek- 
Latin)  is  ascribed  to  Cyril  (Stephanus  says  it  was  found  at  the  end 
of  some  of  his  writings),  and  u  considered  to  be  a  compUation  of 
not  later  than  the  6tn  century  ^Macrobius  is  used,  ana  the  Cod. 
Hart.,  which  is  the  source  of  afl  the  other  MSS.,  belongs  to  the  7th 
century);  cf.  Goetz,  Corp.  ii.  315-483,  487-506,  praef.  ibid.  p. 
XX.  sqq.  Furthermore,  the  bilingual  medico-botanic  glossaries  had 
their  origin  in  old  lists  of  plants,  as  Ps.-Apuleius  in  the  treatise 
De  herbarum  virtutibus,  and  Ps.-Dio8Corides  (cf.  M.  Wellmann, 
Hermes,  xxxiii.  360  sqq.,  who  thinks  that  the  latter  work  is  based  on 
Pamphilus,  q.v.;  Goetz,  Corp.  iii.);  the  glossary,  entitled  Herme- 
neuma,  printed  from  the  Cod.  Vatic,  reg.  Christ.  I3te,  contains  names 
of  diseases. 

Just  as  grammar  developed,  so  we  see  the  original  form  of  the 
glosses  extend.  If  massucum  edacem  in  Phcidus  indicates  the 
original  form,  the  allied  gloss  of  Festus  (masucium  edacem  a  mam- 
dendo  scilicet)  shows  an  etymological  addition.  Another  cKtensba 
conMsts  in  adding  special  references  to  the  original  source,  as  e.g. 
at  the  gloss  Ocrem  (Fest.  181*.  17),  which  is  taken^  from  Ateiua 
Philol.  In  this  way  collections  arose  like  the  priscorum  verborum 
cum  exemplis,  a  title  given  by  Fest.  (318*.  10)  to  a  particular  work. 
Further  tne  glossae  veterum  (Charis.  343. 10) ;  the  gfossae  antiquitatum 
{id.  339.  30);  the  idonei  vocum  antiquarum  enarrotores  (Gdl.  xviii. 
6.  8);  the  libri  rerum  verborumque  veterum  {id.  xiiL  34.  25).    L. 


126 


GLOSS,  GLOSSARY 


Cincius,  according  to  Festus  (530<>.  2),  wrote  D*  verbis  priscia ;  Santra, 
D9  antiquitait  veroorum  (Festus  277*.  a). 

Of  Latin  glossaries  of  the  first  four  centuries  of  the  Roman  emperors 
f«w  traces  are  left,  if  we  except  Verrius-Festus.  Charis,  229.  30, 
speaks  of  glossat  antiquitatum  and  242.  10  of  glessae  veterum,  but  it 
is  not  known  whether  these  glosses  are  identic,  or  in  what  relation 
they  stand  to  the  glossemata  ter  liUeras  Latinos  ordine  composita, 
which  were  incorporated  with  the  works  of  this  grammarian  according 
to  the  index  in  Kcil,  p.  6.  Latin  glosses  occur  in  Ps.-Philoxenus, 
and  Nonius  must  have  used  Latin  glossaries;  there  exists  a  ghs' 
sanum  PlauUnum  (Ritschl,  Op.  ii.  234  8qq.)i  and  the  bilingual 
glossaries  have  been  used  by  the  later  grammarian  Martyrius;  but 
of  this  early  period  we  know  by  name  only  Fulgentius  and  Pladdus, 
who  is  sometimes  called  Luctatius  Placidus,  by  confusion  with 
the  Statius  scholiast,  with  whom  the  ghssae  Placidi  have  no  con- 
nexion. All  that  we  know  of  him  tends  to  show  that  he  lived  in 
North  Africa  (like  Fulgentius  and  Nonius  and  perhaps  Charisius) 
in  the  6th  century,  from  whence  his  glosses  came  to  Spain,  and  were 
used  by  Isidore  and  the  compiler  of  the  Liber  glossarum  (see  below). 
These  glosses  we  know  from  (1)  Codices  Romani  (i5tn  and  16th 
centu^);  (2)  the  Liber  glossarttm;  (3)  the  Cod.  Paris,  nov.  acciuis. 
1298  (saed  xi.),  a  collection  of  glossaries,  in  which  the  Placidus- 
glosses  are  kept  separate  from  the  others,  and  still  retain  traces  of 
their  original  order  (cf.  the  editions  published  by  A.  Mai,  Class, 
auct.  iii.  427-501,  and  Deuerling,  18751  Goetz,  Corp.  v.;  P.  Karl, 
"  De  Placidi  glossis,"  Comm.  ten.  vii.  3.  99,  103  sqq. ;  Loewe. 
Gloss.  Norn.  86;  F.  BQchelcr,  in  Thesaur.  gloss,  emend.).  His 
collection  includes  glosses  from  Plautus  and  Luciliua. 

(Fabius  Planciaocs)  Fulgentius  (c.  a.d.  468-533)  wrote  Expositio 
sermonum  antiquorum  (ed.  Rud.  Helm,  Lips.  1898;  cf.Wessncr.  Com- 
ment, len.  vi.  a.  135  sqq.)  in  sixty-two  paragraphs,  each  containing  a 
lemma  (sometimes  two  or  three)  with  an  expunation  giving  quotations 
and  names  of  authors.  Next  to  him  come  the  glossae  Nontanae,  which 
arose  from  the  contents  of  the  various  paragraphs  in  Nonius  Mar- 
oellus'  work  being  written  in  the  margin  without  the  words  of  the 
text;  these  epitomized  glosses  were  alphabetized  and  afterwards 
copied  for  other  collections  (sec  Goetz,  Corp.  v.  6^7  sqq.,  id,  v. 
Praef.  xxxv.;  Onions  and  Lindsay,  Harvard  Stud.  ix.  67  sqq.; 
Lindsay,  Nonii  praef.  xxi.).  In  a  similar  way  arose  the  glossae 
Eucherti  or  glossae  spiritaies  secundum  Eucherium  episcopum  found 
in  many  M^  (cf.  K.  Wotke,  Sitt.  Ber.  A  bad.  Wicn,  cxv.  a2S  sqq.; 
*the  Corpus  Glossary,  first  part),  which  are  an  alphabetical  extract 
from  the  formulae  spiritalis  intelligentiae  of  St  Euchcrius,  bishop  of 
Lyons,  c.  434-4SO-* 

Other  sources  were  the  Differentiae,  already  known  to  Plactdus  and 
much  used  in  the  medieval  glossaries;  and  the  Synonyma  Ciceronis; 
cf.  Goetz,  "  Der  Liber  glossarum,"  in  Abhandl.  der  philol.-kisL  CI. 
der  sdehs.  Cesellsch.  d.   Wiss.,  1893,  p.  215:  id.  in  Berl.  pkilol. 


of  the  scholiasts  come  the  grammarians,  as  Charisius,  or  an  ars  similar 
to  that  ascribed  to  him;  further,  treatises  de  dubiis  generibus,  the 
scriptores  orthograpkid  (especially  Caper  and  Beda),  and  Priscianus, 
the  chief  grammarian  of  the  middle  ages  (cf.  C«oetz  in  Mtianges 
Boissier,  224). 

During  the  6th.  7th  and  8th  centuries  glossography  developed  in 
various  ways;  old  glossaries  were  worked  up  into  new  forms,  or 
amalgamated  with  more  recent  ones.  It  ceased,  moreover,  to  be 
exclusively  Latin-Latin,  and  interpretations  in  Germanic  (Old  High 
German,  An^lo-Saxon)  and  Romanic  dialects  took  the  place  of  or 
were  used  side  by  side  with  earlier  Latin  ones.  The  origin  and 
development  of  the  late  classic  and  medieval  glossaries  preserved 

•The  so-called  Malberg  glosses,  found  in  various  texts  of  the  Lex 
Salica.  are  not  glosses  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  but  precious 
remains  of  the  parent  of  the  present  literary  Dutch,  namely,  the  Low 
German  dialect  spoken  by  the  Salian  Franks  who  conquered  Caul 
from  the  Romans  at  the  end  of  the  ^th  century.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  conquerors  brought  their  Prankish  law  with  them,  cither  written 
down,  or  by  oral  tradition;  that  they  translated  it  into  Latin  for 
the  sake  of  the  Romans  settled  in  the  country,  and  that  the  trans- 
lators, not  always  knowing  a  proper  Latin  equivalent  for  certain 
things  or  actions,  retained  in  their  translations  the  Prankish  technical 
names  or  phrases  which  they  had  attempted  to  translate  into  Latin. 
E.g.  in  chapter  ii.,  by  the  sicic  of  "  porceliuj  lacians  "  (a  sucking-pig). 
we  find  the  Prankish  "  ckramnechaltio,"  lit.  a  stye-porker.  iTie 
person  who  stoic  such  a  pig  (siill  kept  in  an  enclosed  place,  in  a  stye) 
was  fined  three  times  as  much  as  one  who  stoic  a  "  porcellus  de  campo 
aui  sine  matre  yiverc  possii,"  as  the  Latin  text  has  it,  for  which  the 
Malberg  technical  expression  appears  to  have  been  ingymus,  that  is, 
a  one  year  (winter)  old  animal,  i.e.  a  yearling.  Nearly  all  these 
glosses  are  preceded  by  "  mal  "  or  *'  maib,''  which  is  thought  to  be 
a  contraction  for  '*  malberg,"  the  Prankish  for  "  forum."  The 
antiquity  and  importance  of  these  glosses  for  philology  may  be 
realized  from  the.  fact  that  the  Latin  translation  of  the  Lex  Salica 
probably  dates  from  the  latter  end  of  the  5th  century.  For  further 
information  cf.  Jac.  Grimm's  preface  to  Joh.  Merkel's  ed.  (1850), 
and  H.  Kern's  notes  to  J.  H.  He»seU's  ed.  (London,  i88o)of  the  Lex 
Salica. 


to  us  can  be  traced  with  certainty.  While  reading  the  manuscript 
texts  of  classical  authors,  the  Bible  or  early  Christian  and  profane 
writers,  students  and  teachers,  on  meeting  with  any  obscure  or  out- 
of-the-way  words  which  they  considered  difficult  to  remember  or  to 
require  elucidation,  wrote  above  them,  or  in  the  margins,  interpreta- 
tions or  explanations  in  more  easy  or  better-known  words.  The 
interpretations  written  above  the  line  are  called  "interlinear." 
those  written  in  the  margins  of  the  MSS.  "  marginal  glosses.** 
A^in,  MSS.  of  the  Bible  or  portions  of  the  Bible  were  often  provided 
with  literal  translations  in  tne  vernacular  written  a'xive  the  lines  of 
the  Latin  version  (interiinear  versions). 

Of  such  glossed  MSS.  or  translated  texts,  photo^phs  may  be 
teen  in  the  various  palaeographical  works  published  m  recent  years : 
cf.  The  Falaeogr.  Society,  1st  ser.  vol.  iL  pis.  o  (Terentius  MS.  of 
4th  or  5th  century,  interlinear  glosses)  and  24  (Augustine's  epistles, 
6th  or  7th  century,  marginal  glosses);  see  furthes,  plates  10,  12. 
33.  40,  50-54.  57.  58,  63,  73,  75,  80;  vol.  ill.  plates  10,  24,  31.  39. 
44.  54.  00. 

From  these  glossed  or  annotated  MSS.  and  tnteriincar  versions 
glossaries  were  compiled;  that  is.  the  obscure  and  difficult  Latia 
words,  together  with  the  interpretations,  were  excerpted  and 
collected  in  separate  lists,  in  the  order  in  which  they  appeared,  one 
after  the  other,  in  the  MSS.,  without  any  alphabetical  arrangement, 
but  with  the  names  of  the  authors  or  the  titles  of  the  books  whence 
they  were  taken,  placed  at  the  head  of  each  sepaiate  collection  or 
chapter.  In  this  arrangement  each  article  by  itself  is  called  a  glosfS : 
when  reference  is  made  only  to  the  word  explained  it  is  called  the 
lemma,  while  the  explanation  is  termed  the  inter pretamentum. 
Jn  most  cases  the  form  of  the  lemma  was  retained  just  as  it  atfXMl 
in  its  source,  and  explained  by  a  single  word  {fescai  sancta, 
Varro  vii.  10;  cluctdalus:  suavis,  id.  vii.  107:  cf.  fsid.  Etym.  i. 
30.  I,  "  quid  enim  illud  sit  in  uno  verbo  positum  declarat  [scit. 
glossa]  ut  conticescere  est  tacere  ").  so  that  we  meet  with  lemmata 
in  the  accusative,  dative  and  genitive,  likewise  explained  by  words 
in  the  same  cases;  the  forms  of  verbs  being  treated  in  the  same  way. 
Of  this  first  stage  in  the  making  of  emsaries,  many  traces  are 
preserved,  for  instance,  in  the  late  8tn  century  Leiden  Glossary 
(Voss.  69,  ed.  J.  H.  Hessels),  where  chapter  iii.  contains  words  or 
glosses  excerpted  from  the  Life  of  St  Martin  by  Sulpkius  Severus: 
chs.  iv.,  V.  and  xxxv.  glosses  from  Rufinus;  ens.  vi.  and  xl.  from 
Gildas;  chs.  vii.  to  xxv.  from  books  of  the  Bible  (Paralipomenon ; 
Proverbs.  &c.,  &c.);  chs.  xxvi.  to  xlviiL  from  Isidore,  the  Vita  S. 
Anthonii,  Cassiodorus,  St  Jerome,  Cassianus,  Orosius,  St  Augustine. 
St  Clement,  Eucherius,  St  Gregory,  the  grammarians  lA>natus, 
Phocas,  &c.  (See  also  Goetz,  Corp.  v.  «u6.  23-547.  6.  and  i.  3-40 
from  Ovid's  Metam.;  v.  657  from  Apuleius,  17«  aeo  SocriUis;  cf. 
Landgraf,  in  Arch.  ix.  174). 

By  a  second  operation  the  glosses  came  to  be  arranged  in  alpha- 
betical  order  according  to  the  first  letter  pf  the  lemma,  but  still  re- 
tained in  separate  chapters  under  the  names  of  authors  or  the  titles 
of  books.  ^  Of  this  second  stage  the  Leiden  Glossary  contains  traces 
also:  ch.  i.  (Verba  de  Canonthus)  and  ii.  {Sermones  de  Regulis); 


Goetz,  Corp.  v.  529  sqq.  (from  Terentius),  iv.  427  sqq.  (Virgil)'. 
The  thira  operation  collected  all  the  accessible  fosses  in  alpha- 


betical order,  in  the  first  instance  according  to  the  first  letters  oTthe 
lemmata.  In  this  arrangement  the  names  of  the  authors  or  the  titles 
of  the  books  could  no  longer  be  preserved,  and  consequently  th^ 
sources  whence  the  glosses  were  excerpted  became  uncertain. 
especially  if  the  grammatical  forms  of  the  lemmata  had  been 
normalized. 

A  fourth  arrangement  collected  the  glosses  ac<*ording  to  the  first 
two  letters  of  the  lemmata,  as  in  the  Corpus  Glossary  and  in  the  still 
earlier  Cod.  Vat.  3321  (Goetz,  Corp.  iv.  i  sqq.),  wnere  even  many 
attempts  were  made  to  arrange  them  accordmg  to  the  first  three 
letters  of  the  alphabet.  A  peculiar  arrangement  is  seen  in  the 
Glossae  affatim  (Goetz,  Corp.  iv.  471  sqq.),  where  all  words  are 
alphabetized,  first  according  to  the  initial  letter  of  the  word  (a,  b,  c. 
&c.),  and  then  further  according  to  the  first  vowel  in  the  word 
(a,  e,  i,  o,  u). 

I*!^o  date  or  period  can  be  assigned  to  any  of  the  above  stages  or 
arrangements.  For  instance,  the  first  and  second  are  both  found  in 
the  Leiden  Glossary,  which  dates  from  the  end  of  the  8th  century, 
whereas  the  Corpus  Glossary,  written  in  the  beginning  of  the  same 
century,  represents  already  the  fourth  stage. 

For  the  purpose  of  identification  titles  have  of  late  years  been 

f:ivcn  to  the  various  nameless  collections  of  glosses,  derived  partly 
rom  their  first  lemma,  partly  from  other  ch^cteristics,  as  glossae 
abstrusae;  glossae  abavus  major  and  minor;  g.  afatim;  g.  ab  absens; 
g.  atfuctor-,  g.  Abba  Pater;  g.  a,  ai  g.  VergiKanae;  g.  nominum 
(Goetz,  Corp.  ii.  563,  iv.);  g.  Sangailenses  (Warren,  Transact. 
Amer.  Pkilol.  Assoc,  xv.,  1S85,  p.  141  sqq.). 

A  chief  landmark  in  glossography  is  represented  by  the  Ortgines 
(Etymologtae)  of  Isidore  (d.  636),  an  encyclopedia  in  which  he.  like 
Cassiodorus,  mixed  human  and  divine  subjects  together.  In  many 
places  we  can  trace  his  sources,  but  he  also  uaed  gkmariea.  His  work 
became  a  great  mine  for  later  glossographers.  In  the  tenth  book  he 
deals  with  the  etymology  of  many  substantives  and  adjectives 
arranged  alphabetically  according  to  the  first  letter  of  the  words, 
perhaps  by  himself  from  various  sources.  His  princijal  source 
IS  Scrvius,  then  the  fathers  of  the  Church  (Augustine,  Jerome. 


GLOSS,  GLOSSARY 


127 


Lactantiut)  and  Donatus  the  grmmmarian.  Thb  tenth  book  was 
also  copied  and  used  separately,  and  mixed  up  with  other  works- 
(cf.  Loewe.  Prodr.  167.  21).  Isidore's  Differentiae  have  also  had  a 
great  reputation. 

Next  comes  the  Liber  glossarum,  chiefly  compiled  from  Isidore, 
but  all  article*  arranged  alphabetically;  its  autnor  lived  in  Spain 
c.  A.D.  690-750:  he  has  been  called  Ansileubus,  but  not  in  any  of 
the  MSS.,  some  of  which  belong  to  the  8th  century;  hence  this  name 
is  suspected  to  be  merely  that  of  some  owner  of  a  copy  of  the  book 
(cf.  Goeu.  "  Der  Liber  Glossarum."  in  Abhandl.  der  pkOol.-kist. 
Clou,  der  k6n.tdcks.  Ges.  xiii.,  1893;  id.,  Corp.  v..  praef.  xx.  161). 

Here  cpmej  in  regard  to  time,  some  Latin  glossaries  already  largely 
mixed  with  Cermanic,  more  especially  Anglo-Saxon  interpretations  r 
(1)  the  Corpus  Glossary  (ed.  ].  H.  Hesaels),  written  in  the  b<mnning 
of  the  8th  century,  preserved  m  the  library  of  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Cambridge;  (a)  the  Leiden  Glossary  (end  of  8th  century,  ed.  Hesscls; 
another  edition  by  Plac.  Glogger),  preserved  iff  the  Leiden  MS.  Voss. 
Q*.  69;  (3)  the  Epinal  Glossary,  written  in  the  beginning  of  the  9th 
century'  and  published  in  facsimile  by  the  London  Phuol.  Society 
from  a  MS.  in  the  town  library  at  Epinal;  (4)  the  Glossae  Aniph- 
niamai,  Le,  three  glossaries  preserved  in  the  Amplonian  Ubrafy  at 
Erfurt,  known  as  trfurt',  Erfurt*  and  Erfurt*.  The  first,  published 
by  Goetx  (Corp.  v«337-ioi-;  cf.  also  Loewe,  Prodr.  114  sqq.)  with 
the  various  reaidin|(B  of  the  kindred  £pinal,  consists,  like  the  latter, 
of  different  collections  of  glosses  (also  some  from  Aldhelm),  some 
arranged  alphabetically  according  to  the  first  letter  of  the  lemma, 
others  according  to  the  first  two  letters.  The  title  of  Erfurt'  fkui^ 
II.  ennscriptio  posarum  in  unam)  shows  that  it  is  also  a  combination 
of  various  glossaries:  it  is  arranged  alphabetically  accordins  to  the 
first  two  letters  of  the  lemmata,  and  contains  the  qffatim  ana  abavus 
maior  glosses,  also  a  collection  from  AldhcIm;  Erfurt*  arc  the 
dossae  nominum,  mixed  also  with  Anglo-Saxon  interpretations 
(Goets,  Corp.  ii.  563).  The  form  in  which  the  three  Erfurt  glossaries 
have  come  down  to  us  points  back  to  the  8th  century. 

The  first  great  glossary  or  collection  of  various  glosses  and  eloscaries 
b  that  of  Salomon,  bishop  of  Constance,  formerly  abbot  of  St  Gall, 
who  died  a.d.  919.  An  edition  of  it  in  two  parts  was  printed  c.  1475 
at  Augsburg,  with  the  headline  SaUmonu  eccUsie  Constantiensis 
episeopi  glosse  ex  iUustrissimis  cMecle  aucloribus.  The  oldest  MSS. 
oil  this  work  date  from  the  nth  century,  its  sources  are  the  Liber 
^OMsanun  (Loewe,  Prodr.  234  sqq.),  the  glossary  preserved  in  the 
9Ch<entury  MS.  La/.  Monac.  14429  (Goetz,  "  Lib.  Gloss."  35  sqq.), 
and  the  great  Abavus  Gloss  (ui.,  ibid.  p.  37.  id.,  Corp.  W.  praef. 
xz3i\'iL). 

The  Lib.  flossamm  has  also  been  the  chief  souccc  for  the  important 
(but  not  oneinal)  glossary  of  Papias.  of  a.d.  1053  (cf.  Goetz  in  Sitt. 
Ber.  Akad.  iliinck.,  1903,  p.  267  sqo..  who  enumerates  eighty-seven 
MSS.olthei2th  tothe  i^th  centuries),  of  whom  we  only  know  that  he 
lived  aoKMig  clerics  and  dedicated  his  work  to  his  two  sons.  An 
edition  of  it  was  published  at  Milan  "  per  Dominicum  de  Vcspolate  " 
on  the  1 2th  of  December  1476:  other  editions  followed  in  1485, 
1491,  1496  (at  Venice).  He  also  wrote  a  grammar,  chiefly  compiled 
from  Priscianus  (Hagen,  Anecd.  Helv.  clxxix.  sqq.). 

The  same  Lib.  gloss,  is  the  source  (i)  for  the  Abba  Pater  Glossary 
(cf.  Cfoetz,  ibid.  p.  39),  publbhed  by  G.  M.  Thomas  (Silz.  Ber.  Akad. 
iiUnek.,  1868,  ii.  369  sqq.);  (3)  the  Greek  f;Iossary  Absida  lucida 
(Goetz,  ib.  p.  41);  aiid  (3)  the  Lat.-Arab.  glossary  in  the  Cod.  Letd. 
Seal,  Orient  No.  231  (published  by  Scybold  in  Semit.  Sludien,  Heft 
xv.-xvii.,  Beriin,  1900). 

The  Paulus-Gbssary  Ccf.  Goetz, "  Der  Liber  Glossarum,"  p.  215)  is 
compiled  from  the  second  Salomon-Glossary  {abatti  mafiistralus), 
the  Aba9us  major  and  the  Liber  glossarum,  with  a  mixture  of 
Hebraica.  Many  of  hb  glomes  appear  again  in  other  compilations, 
as  in  the  Cod.  Vatic.  14^  (cf.  Goetz,  Corp.  v.  520  sqq.),  mixed  up 
with  flosses  from  Beda,  Placidus.  &c.  (cf.  a  glossary  published  by 
Ellis  in  Amer.  Joum.  of  Philol.  vL  4,  vii.  3,  containing  besides 
Paulus  flosses,  also  excerpts  from  Isidore;  Cambridge  Journ.  of 
PkiJol.  viii.  71  sqq.,  xiv.  81  sqq.). 

Osbern  of  Gloucester  (c.  1 123-1200)  compiled  the  glossary  entitled 
Panormia  (publbhed  by  Angelo  Mai  as  Tkesaurus  novus  Latinitatis, 
from  Cod.  Vatic,  reg.  Chnst.  1392;  cf.  W.  Meyer,  Rhein.  Mus. 
XXIX.,  1874;  Goetz  in  Silzungsber.  sacks.  Ges.  d.  Wtss.,  1903,  p.  133 
sqq.;  Berickte  liA.  die  Vcrkandl.  der  kon.  sacks.  Cesrllsck.  der  Wiss., 
Leipzig.  1902) ;  giving  derivations,  etymologies,  tcsiimonia  collected 
from  Paulus,  Priscianus,  Plautus,  Horace,  Virgil,  Ovid,  Mart. 
Capella,  Macrobius.  Ambrose,  Sidonius,  Prudcntius,  Joscphiis, 
Jerome,  &c.,  &c.  (>sbcm's  materbl  was  also  used  by  Hugucio, 
whose  compendium  was  still  more  extensively  ^iscd  (cf.  Goetz.  I.e., 
p.  121  sqq..  who  enumerates  one  hundred  and  three  MSS.  of  his 
treatise),  and  contains  many  biblical  glosses,  especially  Hebraica. 
some  treatises  on  Latin  numerals.  &c.  (cf.  Hamann.  Wntere  Mitteil. 
aus  dem  Brepiloquus  Bentkemianus,  Hamburg.  1882;  A.  Thomas. 
"Glosses  proven^ales  in6d."  in  Romania,  xxxiv.  p.  177  sqq;  P. 
Toynbee.  tbid.  xxv.  p.  517  sqq,). 

The  great  work  of  Johannes  de  Janua,  entitled  Summa  qutu 
•ocalur  eatkolicon,  dates  from  the  year  1286.  and  treats  of  (1 )  accent, 
(2)  etymokjgy,  (3)  synux.  and  (4)  so-called  prosody,  i.e.  a  lexicon, 

*  Anglo-Saxon  scholars  ascribe  an  earlier  date  to  the  text  of  the 
MS,  00  accooot  of  certain  archaisms  in  its  Anglo-Saxon  uonjs. 


which  also  deals  with  quantity.  It  mostly  uses  Hugucio  and  Papbs; 
its  classical  quotations  are  limited,  except  from  Horace;  it  quotes  the 
Vulgate  by  preference,  frequently  independently  from  rlugucio; 
it  excerpts  Priscbnus,  Donatus,  Isidore,  the  fathers  of  the  Church, 
especially  Jerome,  Gregory,  Aucustine,  Ambrose:  it  borrows 
many  Hebrew  glosses,  mostly  from  Jerome  and  the  other  collections 
then  in  use;  it  mentions  the  uraecismus  of  Eberhardus  Bethuniensis, 
the  works  of  Hrabanus  Maurus,  the  Doctrinale  of  Alexander  de  Villa 
Dei,  and  the  Aurora  of  Petrus  de  Riga.  Many  quotations  from  the 
Catkolicon  in  Du  Cange  are  really  from  Hugucio,  and  may  be  traced 
to  Osbern.  There  exist  many  MSS>  of  this  work,  and  the  Mains 
edition  of  1460  is  well  known  (cf.  Goetz  in  Berickte  Hb.  die  Verkandl. 
der  kdn.  sdcks.  Gesellsck.  der  Wiss.,  Leipzig,  1^02). 

^  The  gloss  MSS.  of  the  9th  and  loth  centuries  are  numerous,  but  a 
diminution  becomes  visible  towards  the  nth.  We  then  find  gram- 
matical  treatises  arise,  for  which  also  glossaries  were  used.  The  chief 
material  was  ^i)  the  Liber  glossarum;  (2)  the  Paulus  glosses;  (3) 
the  Abavus  major;  (4)  excerpts  from  Priscian  and  glosses  to  Priscian; 
(5)  Hebrew-biblical  collections  of  proper  names  (chiefly  from  Jerom*e). 
After  these  comes  medieval  material,  as  the  derivattones  which  are 
found  in  m^ny  MSS.  (cf.  Goetz  in  Stitungsber.  sacks.  Ges.  d.  Wiss., 
I903*  P*  13^  *<1<1-;  Traube  in  Arckiv  f.  tat.  Lex.  vi.  264),  containing 
quotations  from  Plautus,  Ovid,  Juvenal,  Persius,  Terence,  occasion- 
allj^  from  Priscian,  Eutychcs,  and  other  grammarians,  with  etymo- 
logical explanations.  These  derivattones  were  the  basb  for  the 
grammatical  works  of  Osbern,  Hugucio  and  Joannes  of  Janua. 

A  peculbr  feature  of  the  late  middle  ages  are  the  medico-botanic 
glossaries  based  on  the  earlier  ones  (see  Goetz,  Corp.  iii.).  The 
additions  consisted  in  Arabic  words  with  Latin  explanations,  while 
Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  interchange  with  English,  French, 
Italian  and  German  forms.  Of  glossaries  of  this  kind  we  ha\'e  (i) 
the  Glossae  alpkita  (published  by  S.  de  Renzi  in  the  3rd  vol.  of  the 
ColUci.  SaUmitana,  Naples,  1854,  from  two  Paris  MSS.  of  the  14th 
and  15th  centuries,  but  some  of  the  glosses  occur  already  in  earner 
MSS.);  (2)  Sinoncnna  Bartkolomei,  collected  by  John  Mirfeld, 
towards  the  end  of  the  14th  century,  ed.  J.  L.  G.  Mowat  {Anecd. 
Oxon.  i.  I,  1882,  cf.  Loewe,  Gloss.  Norn.  1 16  sqq.);  it  seems  to  have 
used  the  same  or  some  similar  source  as  No.  i ;  (3)  the  compilations 
of  Simon  de  Janua  (.Clavis  sanationis,  end  of  I3tn  century),, and  of 
Matthaeus  Silvaticus  {Pandectae  medicinae,  14th  century:  cf. 
H.  Stadlcr,  "  Dioscor.  Lon^ob."  in  Roman.  Forsck.  x.  3.  371: 
Steinmeyer,  Althockd.  Gloss.wx.). 

Of  biblical  glossaries  we  have  a  laive  number,  mostly  mixed  with 
fflosscs  on  otner,  even  profane,  subjects,  as  Hebrew  and  other 
biblical  proper  names,  and  explanations  of  the  text  of  the  Vulgate 
in  general,  and  the  prologues  of  Hicronymus.  So  we  have  the 
Glossae  veteris  ac  novi  teslamenti  (beginning  "  Prologus  gracce  latine 
praclocutio  sive  praefatio  ")  in  numerous  MSS.  of  the  9th  to  14th 
centuries,  mostly  retaining  the  various  books  under  separate  headings 
(cf.  Arcvalo,  Isid.  vii.  407  sqo.;  Loewe.  Prodr.  141 ;  Steinmeyer 
>v.  459;  S.  Berber,  De  compendiis  exegelicis  ouibusaam  medii  aevi, 
Paris,  T879).  STpecial  mention  should  oe  maae  of  Guil.  Brito,  who 
lived  about  1250.  and  compiled  a  ^umnuz  (l^eginning  "diflicilesstudeo 
partes quas  Biblia  gestat  Panderc  "),  contained  in  many  MSS.  especi- 
ally  in  French  libraries.  This  Summa  gave  rise  to  the  Mammotrectus 
of  Joh.  Marchesinus,  aboOt  1300,  of  which  we  have  editions  printed 
in  1470.  1476,  1479.  &c. 

Finally  we  may  mention  such  compilations  as  the  Summa  Heinrici; 
the  work  of  Johannes  de  Garlandb.  which  he  himself  calls  dictionarius 
(cf.  Scheler  in  Jahrb.  f.  rom.  u.  engl.  Philol.  vi..  1865,  p.  142  sqq.); 
and  that  of  Alexander  Neckam  [ib.  vii.  p.  60  sqq.).  cf.  R.  Ellis,  in 
Amer.  Joum.  of  Phil.  x.  2);  which  are.  strictly  spcakinei  not  glosso- 
eraphic.  The  Breviloquus  drew  its  chief  material  from  Papia'!, 
Hugucio.  Brito.  &c.  (K.  Hamann,  Mitteil.  aus  dem  Breviloquus 
Bcnlhemianus,  Hamburg.  1879;  id.,  Weitere  Mitteil.,  &c.,  Hamburg, 
1882);  so  also  the  Vocabularium  Ex  quo;  the  various  Gemmae; 
Vocabularia  rerum  (cf.  Dicfcnbach,  Glossar.  Latino-Germanicum). 

After  the  revival  of  learning,  J,  Scaliger  (1540-1609)  was  the  first 
to  impart  to  glossaries  that  importance  which  they  deserve  (cf. 
Goetz,  in  Sitzuuf^sbcr.  sacks.  Ger.  d.  Wisi.,  1888,  p.  219  sqq.).  and  in 
his  edition  of  Festus  made  great  use  of  Ps.-PhiIoxenus.  which  enabled 
O.  'MOller.  the  later  c<Htor  of  Fcstus.  to  follow  in  his  footsteps. 
ScaliRcralso  planned  the  publication  of  a  Corpus  glossarum,  and  left 
behind  a  collection  of  glosses  known  as  glossae  Isidori  (Goetz,  Corp. 
v.  p.  589  sqq. ;  id.  in  Sitzun^shcr.  sacks.  Ccs.,  1888.  p.  224  sqq. ;  Loewe. 
Prodr.  23  stjo.).  which  occurs  also  in  old  glossaries,  clearly  in  reference 
to  the  tenth  book  of  the  £/^»Mfl/(7jf tor. 

The  study  of  glosses  spread  through  the  publication,  in  1573. 
of  the  bilingual  glossaries  by  H.  Steph.inus  (Estienne),  containing, 
besides  the  two  %rv:iX.  glossaries,  also  the  Hermencumnta  Stcphani, 
which  is  a  recension  of  the  Ps.-Dosilhcana  (republished  Uoctz, 
Corp.  iii.  438-474),  and  the  glossae  Sifphani,  excerpted  from  a 
collcctionof  the //trmfurtima/a  (16.  iii.  4,^8-474). 

In  1600  Bonav.  V'ulcanius  rcpul)li^hf<l  the  same  glo^isaries.  adding 
(l)  the  glossae  Isidori,  which  now  appeared  for  the  first  time;  (2) 
the  Onomasticon ;  (3)  notae  and  castigaliones,  derived  from  Scaliger 
(Loewe,  Prodr.  183). 

In  1606  Carolus  and  Petrus  Labbacus  published,  with  the  effective 
help  of  Scaliger.  another  collirtion  of  gloss.iries.  republished,  in  1679, 
by  Du  Cange,  after  which  the  f7th  and  i8ih  ceniurics  produce' 


128         GLOSSOP— GLOUCESTER,  EARLS  AND  DUKES  OF 


further  trlosaaries  (Erasm.  Nyenip  published  extracts  from  the 
Leiden  Glossary,  Voss.  69,  in  17S7,  SymhoUu  ad  Literat.  Ttut.), 
though  glosses  were  constantly  used  or  referred  to  by  Salmasius, 
Meursius.  Heraldus,  Barth^  Fabricius  and  Burman  at  Leiden,  where 
a  rich  collection  of  glossaries  had  been  obtained  by  the  acquisition 
of  the  Vossius  library  (cf.  Loewe,  Prodr.  168).  In  the  19th  centuiy 
came  Osann's  Clossarii  Laiini  specimen  (1826);  the  glossoj^phic 
publications  of  Angelo  Mai  ^Classici  auetores,  vols,  iii.,  vi.,  vu.,  viii., 
Kome,  1831-1836,  containing  Osbern's  Panormiat  Placidus  and 
various  gloues  from  Vatican  MSS.) ;  Fr.  Oehler's  treatise  (r847) 
on  the  CW.  Amplanianus  ci  Osbcm,  tfnd  hw  edition  of  the  three 
Erfurt  glossaries,  so  important  for  Anglo-Siaxon  philology;  in  1854 
G.  F.  Hildebrand's  Clossarium  L4ttinum  (an  extract  from  Abapus 
minor),  preserved  in  a  Cod.  Paris,  lat.  7690;  1857,  Thomaa  Wright's 
vol.  01  Anglo-Saxon  glosses,  which  were  republished  with  others  in 
1 884  by  R.  Paul  WOlckcr  under  the  title  Anilo-Saxen  and  Old  English 
Vicabularies  (London,  a  vols.,  1857);  L.  Diefenbach's  supplement 
to  Du  Cange,  entitled  Clossarium  Latino-Cermanicum  mediae  et 
infimae  aetatis,  containing  mostly  glosses  collected  from  jglossaries, 
vocabularies,  &c.,  enumerated  in  the  preface;  Ritschls  treatise 
(1870)  on  Placidus,  which  called  forth  an  edition  (1875)  of  Placidus 
by  Deucrling;  G.  Loewe's  Prodromus  (1876),  and  other  treatises 
by  him,  published  after  his  death  by  G.  Goetx  (Leipzig,  1884); 
1888,  the  second  volume  of  Goctz's  own  great  Corpus  ^ssariorum 
Latinorum^  of  which  seven  volumes  (except  the  first)  had  seen  the 
light  by  1907,  the  last  two  being  separately  entitled  Thesaurus 
gutssarum  emendatarum,  containing  many  emendations  and  correc- 
tions of  earlier  glossaries  by  the  author  and  other  scholars;  looo, 
Arthur  S.  Napier,  Old  EnMsh  Glosses  (Oxford),  collected  chiefly  from 
Aldhclm  MSa.,  but  also  from  Augustine.  Avianus,  Beda,  Boethius, 
Gregory,  Isidore,  Juvencus,  Phocas,  Prudcntius,  &c. 

There  are  a  very  great  number  of  glossaries  still  in  MS.  scattered  In 
various  libraries  ol  Europe,  especially  in  the  Vatican,at  Monte  Cassino, 
Paris,  Munich,  Bern,  the  British  M  useum,  Leiden,  Oxford ,  Cambridge, 
Ac.  Much  hais  already  been  done  to  make  the  material  contained  in 
these  MSS.  accessible  m  print,  and  much  may  yet  be  done  with  what 
b  still  unpublished,  though  we  may  find  that  the  differences  between 
the  glossaries  which  often  present  themselves  at  first  sight  are  mere 
differences  in  form  introduced  by  succes«vc  more  or  less  qualified 
copyists. 

Some  Celtic  (Breton,  Cornish,  Welsh,  Irish)  glossaries  have  been 
preserved  to  us,  the  particulars  of  which  may  be  learnt  from  the 

gublications  of  Whitley  Stokes,  Sir  John  Rhys,  Kuno  Meyer,  L.  C. 
tern.  G.  I.  Ascoli,  Hcinr.  Zimmer,  Ernst  Windisch,  Nigra,  and  many 
others;  these  are  published  separately  as  books  or  in  2euss's  Clram- 
matica  Celtica,  A.  KQhn's  Beitrdge  »ur  vergUich.  Sprachforschun^, 
Zeitschr.  fur  celtische  Philologie,  Archie  fikr>Cdlische  Lexicographte, 
the  Revw  celtiaue.  Transactions  of  the  London  Philological  Soctety^  &c. 
The  first  Ffebrew  author  known  to  have  used  glosses  was  R. 
Gershom  of  Mets  (1000)  in  his  commentaries  on  the  Talmud.  But 
he  and  other  Hebrew  writers  after  him  mostly  used  the  Old  French 
language  (though  sometimes  also  Italian,  Slavonic,  German)  of  which 
an  example  has  been  published  by  Lambert  and  Brandin,  in  their 
Clossaire  ktbreurfranqais  du  XIII*  sikcle:  recueil  de  mots  hibreux 
hiblifues  avec  traduction  franfaise  (Paris,  1905).  See  further  The 
Jetnsh  Encyclopedia  (New  York  and  London,  1903), article  "  Gloss." 

Authorities. — ^For  a  great  part  of  what  hu  been  said  above,  the 
writer  b  indebted  to  G.  Goets's  article  on  "  Latcin.  Glossographie  " 
in  Pauly's  RealencyUopddie:  By  the  side  of  Goeu's  Corpw  sunds 
the  great  collection  of  Steinmeyer  and  Sievers,  Die  aUhochdeutschen 
Classen  (in  x  vols.,  1879-1898),  containing  a  vast  number  of  (also 
Anglo-Saxon)  glosses  culled  from  Bible  MSS.  and  MSS.  of  classical 
Christian  authors,  enumerated  and  described  in  the  4th  vol.  Beskies 
the  works  of  the  editors  of,  or  writers  on,  glosses,  already  mentioned, 
we  refer  here  to  a  few  others,  whose  writings  may  be  consulted : 
Hugo  BiQmnerj  Cathtdicon  Angficum  (ed.  Hertage);  De-Vit  (at 
end  of  Forcellmi's  Lexicon);  F.  Deycks;  Du  Cange;  Funck; 
I.  H.  Gallte  {AUsdchs.  Sprachdenkm.,  1894):  Gi«bcr;  K.  Gruber 
{Hauptquellen  des  Corpus,  Epin.  u.  Erfurt  Gloss.,  Erlangen,  1904); 
Hattcmcr;  W.  Hcraeus  {Die  Sprache  des  Petroniut  und  die  Classen, 
Leipzig,  1899):  Kettner;  Kluge;  Krumbacher;  Lagarde;  Land- 
eral;  Marx;  W.  Meyer-Lubke  ("  Zu  den  latein.  Glossen "  in 
Wiener  Stud.  xxv.  00  sqq.);  Henry  Nettleship;  Niedermann, 
Notes  d'itymol.  lot.  (Macon,  190a),  Contribut.  d  la  critique  des  glosses 
latines  (NeuchAtel,  1905):  Pokrowskii;  Quicherat;  Otto  B. 
Schlutter  (many  important  articles  in  Anglta,  Entlische  Studien, 
Archie  f.  latein.  lixicograpkie,  &c);  Schdll;  Schuchardt;  Leo 
Sommer;  3tadler;  Stowasser;  Strachan;  H.  Sweet;  Usener 
(Rhein.  Bins,  xxiii.  ^96,  xxiv.  382) ;  A.  Way,  Promptoriumpanulorum 
sive  clericorum  (3  vols.,  London,  1843-1865) ;  Weyman.  Wilmanns  (in 
Rhein.  Mus.  xxiv.  363);  Wdlfflin  in  Arch.  fOr  laLLexicogr.;  Zupitza. 
Cf.  further,  the  various  volumes  of  the  following  periooicals: 
Romania;  Zeituhr.  fir  deutsches  Alterthum;  AngJia;  EMtliscke 
Studien;  Journal  of  English  and  German  Philology  (ed.  Cook  and 
Karsten);  Archie  fur  latein.  Lexicogr.,  and  others  treating  of  philo- 
logy, lexicography,  grammar,  &c  (J.  H.  H.) 

OUMSOP,  a  market  town  and  municipal  borough,  in  the 
High  Peak  parliamentary  division  of  Derbyshire,  England,  on 
the  extreme  northern  border  ol  the  county;  13  m.  £.  by  S.  of 


Manchester  by  the  Great  Central  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  21,526. 
It  b  the  chief  seat  of  the  cotton  manufacttire  in  Derbyshire, 
and  it  has  also  woollen  and  paper  miUs,  dye  and  print  works, 
and  bleaching  greens.  The  town  consbts  of  three  main  divisions, 
the  Old  Town  (or  Glossop  proper),  Howard  TowA  (or  Glossop 
Dale)  and  Mill  Town.  An  older  parbh  church  was  replaced  by 
that  of  All  Saints  in  1830;  there  b  also  a  very  fine  Roman 
CathoHc  church.  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood  b  Glossop 
Hall,  the  seat  of  Lord  Howard,  lord  of  the  manor,  a  picturesque 
old  building  with  extensive  terraced  gardens.  On  a  hill  near  the 
town  b  Melandra  Castle,  the  site  of  a  Roman  fort  guarding 
Longdendale  and  the  way  into  the  hilb  of  the  Peak  Dbtrict. 
In  the  neighbourhood  also  a  great  railway  viaduct  q>ans  tfa^ 
Dinting  vaUey  with  sixteen  arches.  To  the  north,  in  Longden- 
dale, there  are  five  lakes  belonging  to  the  water-supply  system 
of  Manchester,  formed  by  damming  the  Etberow,  a  stream  which 
descends  from  the  high  moors  north-east  of  Glossop.  The  town 
b  governed  by  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  18  councillors.  Area, 
3052  acres. 

Glossop  was  granted  by  Henry  I.  to  William  Peverel,  on  the 
att^der  of  whose  son  it  reverted  to  the  crown.  In  11 57  it 
wasflfted  by  Henry  II.  to  the  abbey  of  Basingwerk.  Henry 
VIII.  bestowed  it  on  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury.  It  was  made  a 
municipal  borough  in.  1666. 

GLOUCESTER.  BAKU  AND  DUKES  OF.  The  Englbh 
earldom  of  Gloucester  was  held  by  several  members  of  the  royal 
family,  including  Robert,  a  natural  son  of  Henry  I.,  and  John, 
afterwards  king,  and  others,  until  12 18,  when  Gilbert  de  Clare 
was  recognized  as  earl  of  Gloucester.  It  remained  in  the  family 
of  Clare  (q.v.)  until  13 14,  when  another  Eari  Gilbert  was  killed 
at  Bannockbum;  and  after  thb  date  it  was  claimed  by  various 
relatives  of  the  Clares,  among  them  by  the  younger  Hugh  le 
Despenser  (d.  1326)  and  by  Hugh  Audley  (d.  1347),  both  of  whom 
had  married  sbters  of  Earl  Gilbert.  In  1397  Thomas  le  Despenser 
( 1 373-1400),  a  descendant  of  the  Clares,  was  created  earl  of 
Gloucester;  but  in  1399  he  was  degraded  from  hb  earldom 
and  in  January  1490  was  beheaded. 

The  dukedom  dates  from  1385,  when  Thomas  of  Woodstock, 
a  yoimger  son  of  Edward  III.,  was  created  duke  of  Gloucester, 
but  hb  honours  were  forfeited  when  he  was  found  guilty  of 
treason  in  1397.  The  next  holder  of  the  title  was  Humphrey, 
a  son  of  Henry  IV.,  who  was  created  duke  of  Gloucester  in  1414. 
He  died  without  sons  in  1447,  and  in  1461  the  title  was  revived 
in  favour  of  Richard,  brother  of  Edward  IV.,  who  became  king 
as  Richard  III.  in  1483. 

In  1659  Henry  (i 639-1660),  a  brother  of  Charles  II.,  was 
formally  created  duke  of  Gloucester,  a  title  which  he  had  borne 
since  infancy.  Thb  prince,  sharing  the  exile  of  the  Stuarts,  had 
incensed  hb  mother.  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  by  hb  firm  ad- 
herence to  the  Protestant  religion,  and  had  fought  among  the 
Spaniards  at  Dunkirk  in  1658.  Having  returned  to  England 
with  Charles  II.,  he  died  unmarried  in  London  on  the  13th  of 
September  1660.  The  next  duke  was  William  (1689-1700), 
son  of  the  princess  Anne,  who  was,  after  his  mother,  the  heir  to 
the  English  throne,  and  who  was  declared  dukeof  Gloucester  by 
his  uncle,  William  III.,  in  1689,  but  no  patent  for  this  creation 
was  ever  passed.  William  died  on  the  30th  of  July  1700,  and 
again  the  title  became  extinct. 

Frederick  Loub,  the  eldest  son  of  George  II.,  was  known 
for  some  time  as  duke  of  Gloucester,  but  when  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  1726  it  was  as  duke  of  Edinburgh  only.  In  1764 
Frederick's  third  son,  William  Henry  (i 743-1805),  was  created 
duke  of  Gloucester  and  Edinburgh  by  his  brother,  George  III. 
This  duke's  secret  marriage  with  Maria  (d.  1807),  an  illegitimate 
daughter  of  Sir  Edward  Walpole  and  widow  of  James,  2nd 
Earl  Waldegrave,  in  1766,  greatly  incensed  hb  royal  relatives 
and  led  to  hb  banbhment  from  court.  Gloucester  died  on  the 
25th  of  August  1805,  leaving  an  only  son,  William  Frederick 
( 1 776-1 834) ,who  now  became  duke  of  Gloucester  and  Edinburgh. 
The  duke,  who  served  with  the  British  army  in  Flanders,  married 
his  cousin  Mary  (1776-1857),  a  daughter  of  George  III.  He 
died  on  the  30th  of  November  1834,  leaving  no  children,  and  hU 


GLOUCESTER,  EARLS  AND  DUKES  OF 


129 


widow,  tbe  liM  lurvivorof  the  family  of  Gcorxc  III.,  died  gn  the 
3oihof  April  .857. 

OLOnCSSTBR,  GILBERT  DB  CURB.  Ejibl  or  (1143-iiQS), 
wu  a  ion  of  Richard  de  Clare,  7l>i  earl  of  GlgucalEi  and  Slh 
arl  of  Claw,  and  was  boto  il  Chrislchurch,  H»mpshire,  on  the 
jod  of  Septemher  114^.  Having  married  Alice  of  Angoul£me, 
half-siiter  of  king  Hciuy  Ilf.,  he  hcame  ad  of  Gloucester 
and  Clan  on  hit  lalhcr'^  death  in  July  1 161.  and  almost  at  once 
jnoed  the  baronial  patty  led  hy  Simon  de  Montforl,  eati  of 
Leiceitet.  Wilb  Simon  Gloiicsttr  vaj  al'the  hattle  of  Lewes 
in  May  1264,  when  the  lEing  himBClf  suriendeted  Co  him,  and 
after  thift  victory  he  wu  one  of  the  thiee  persons  selected  to 
□omion  te  B  councQ,  Soon,  however,  he  quarrelled  with  Leicester, 
Leaving  London  lor  bis  lands  on  the  Welsh  border  he  met 
Fiiace  Edward,  afterwards  king  Ednaid  I.,  at  Ludlow,'  juit 
after  hii  escape  [ram  captivity,  and  hy  hii  siiiU  contributed 
largely  10  the  prince's  victory  al  Evesham  in  August  iiftj.  Bu( 
this  alliance  was  as  transitory  as  Ihe  one  with  Leicester.  Glou- 
cester took  up  the  cudgels  on  behalf  of  the  barons  who  had 
surrendered  at  Keoilwortb  in  November  and  December  1166, 
and  after  putting  his  demands  before  the  king,  secured  possession 
of  London,    This  hapi»ened  in  April  1J67,  bi      " 


uspeao 


with  Ken 


eEdwa 


having  evaded  an  obligation  10  go  on  the  Cr 
10  secure  the  peaceful  accession  of  Edward  I.  to  the  throne 
in  117).  Gloucester  then  passed  several  yean  in  fighting  in 
Wales,  or  on  the  Welsh  border:  in  iiSg  when  the  barons  were 
asked  for  i  subsidy  he  replied  OD  Iheir  behalf  thai  they  would 
Irul  aotliing  until  they  saw  the  king  in  person  (nui  friia 
faimaliur  vUfriBl  ia  Aaglia  Jaciim  regis),  and  in  U91  he  was 
Gaed  and  imprisoned  on  account  o(  hi*  violent  qu*rrel  with 
Humphrey  de  Bobun,  earl  of  Hereford.    Having  divorced  his 

Johanna  (d.  1307).  Elrl  CUberl,  who  [s  sometimca  called'the 
"  Red,"  died  at  Monmouth  on  the  7lh  of  December  1105, 
leaving  in  addition  to  three  daughters  a  son.  Gilbert,  earl  of 
Gloucester  and  Clare,  who  was  killed  at  Bannockbum. 

geC.  Mmaat.  Sirnun  di  Uonlfurl,  camU  lU  Leiai^ir  (1K4).  tad 


;M7).  fourth 


C  W.I 

OLOnCfCJI'EH.  HmtPHBEY.  Da 
son  of  Henry  l\'.  by  Mary  de  Bobun 
knighted  at  his  father's  coronallon  on  the  nib  of  October 
I3W,  and  created  duke  of  Gloucester  by  Henry  V  at  Ldcester 
DD  the  i6lh  of  May  1414.  He  served  in  the  war  neit  year, 
■nd  was  wounded  at  Agincourt,  where  he  owed  bis  life  to  bis' 
brother's  valour.  In  April  1416  Humphrey  received  ibe  enpctor 
Sigismund  at  Dover  and,  according  to  a  i6ih-ceDlury  story, 
did  Dot  let  him  land  till  be  lud  disclaicned  all  title  to  imperial 
authority  in  En«bnd.  In  the  second  invasioo  of  France 
Humphrey  commanded  Ihe  force  which  during  1418  reduced 
tbe  Cotentin  and  captured  Cherbourg.  Afterwards  be  joined 
tbe  mainr  4rmy  before  Rouen,  and  look  pan.  in  subsequent 
canipai£iii  till  January  1410.  He  then  went  home  to  replace 
Bedford  *s  regent  u  England,  and  held  office  till  Hcniy's 

brother  fram  May  to  September  1411. 
Henry  V.  measured  Humphrey's  capacity,  and  by  his  wiU 
■     ■  •-■-■•       ngland.    Humphrey 

but  tbe  paihament 


1I  the  full  position  of, 

Jlowed  him  only  the 

with  limited  pow 


Utle  I 


ack  of  di 


■oon  justi&ed  this 
jaogueline  of  Bavaria,  heiress  of  Holland,  to  whose  lands 
Philip  of  Bozgundy  had  claims.  Bedford,  in  the  interest  of  so 
important  ui  ally,  endeavoitred  vainly  to  restraia  bis  brother. 
Finally  in  October  1434  Humphrey  took  up  arms  in  his  wife's 
behaif,  but  after  a  short  campaign  in  Hainault  went  borne, 
and  left  Jac<}ueline  to  be  overwhelmed  by  Burgundy-  Return- 
ing In  England  in  April  i4>j  be  tooD  entangled  bimseU  is  a 
quanel  with  the  council  and  bis  uncle  Henry  Beaufort,  and 
sdrred  np  a  tumult  in  London.  Open  war  iraa  averted  only  by 
Ecaufon'*  prudence,  and  Bedford's  hurried  retara,    Hujaphiey 


had  charged  his  uncle  with  disloyally  to  the  lale  and  piesenl 

With  somedifficultyBedlord  effected  a  formal  reamdUa- 
t  Leicester  in  March.  1426,  and  forced  Humphrey  to  accept 
ort'a  disavowal    When  Bedford  left  England  next  year 

His  open  adultery  with  his  mistress,  Eleanor  Cobbam,  also  made 
him  unpopular.  To  check  his  indiscretion  the  council,  in 
November  1429,  had  the  king  crowned,  and  10  put  an  end  to 
Humphrey's  protectorate.  However,  when  Henry  VI.  was  soon 
afterwards  taken  to  bf  crownedin  France,  Humphrey  was  made 
lieutenant  and  warden  of  the  kingdom,  and  thus  ruled  England 
for  nearly  two  years.    His  jealousy  of  Bedford  and  Beaufort 

one  to  whom  he  would  defer.  The  defection  of  Burgundy  routed 
English  feeling,  and  Humphrey  won  popularity  as  leader  of  Ibe 
war  party.  In  I4j6  he  commanded  lA  a  sbort  invasion  of 
Flanders.  Bui  be  bad  no  real  pawn,  and  bis  political  im- 
portance lay  in  his  persistent  opposition  to  Beaufort  and  the 
coundUon  of  his  party.  In  1439  be  renewed  his  [barges  against 
his  uncle  without  effect.  His  position  was  furthei  damaged  by 
his  connexion  with  Eleanor  Cobbam,  whom  he  had  now  married. 
In  1*41  Eleanor  was  charged  with  practising  sorcery  against 
Ihe  king,  and  Humphrey  had  to  submit  to  see  her  condemned, 

bis' political  opposilioa,  and  endeavoured  to  'thwart  Suffolk, 
who  was  now  laking  Beaufort's  place  in  the  council,  by  opposing 
the  king's  marriage  to  Margaret  of  Anjou.  Under  SuiSolk's 
inSuence  Henry  VI.  grew  to  distrust  his  uncle  altogether.  The 
crisis  came  in  the  parliament  of  Bury  St  Edmunds  in  February 
1147.  Immediately  on  his  arrival  there  Humphrey  was  arrested, 
and  four  days  bier,  on  Ihe  ijrd  of  February,  be  died.  Rumour 
attributed  hia  death  10  foul  pliy.  But  his  health  had  been  long 
undermined  by  eicesscs,  and  his  end  was  probably  only  hastened 
by  Ihe  shock  of  his  arrest. 

Humphrey  was  buried  at  St  Albans  Abbey,  m  a  fibc  tomb, 
which  still  exists.  He  was  ambilioiu  and  self-seeking,  but 
unstable  and  unprincipled,  and,  lacking  the  fine  qualities  of  hia 
brolhera,  excelled  neither  in  war  nor  in  peace.  Still  he  was  a 
cultured  and  courtly  prince,  who  could  win  popularity.  He 
WHS  long  remembered  as  the  good  Duke  Hum[:Juey,  and  in  his 
lifelimt  was  a  liberal  patron  of  letters.  He  had  been  a  great 
collcclor  of  books,  many  of  which  he  presented  to  the  university 
of  Oiford.  He  CDOtiibuted  also  to  the  building  of  the  Divinity 
School,  and  of  tbe  room  still  called  Duke  Humphrey's  library. 
His  books  weri  dispersed  at  the  Reformation  and  only  Ihiee 
volumes  of  his  donation  now  remain  in  the  Bodleian  bbiary. 
Titus  Uvius,-  an  Italian  in  Humphrey's  service,  wrote  a  Oe 
of  Henry  V.  at  his  patron's  bidding.  Other  Italian  scholars, 
as  Leonardo'  Aretino,  benefited  by  his  patronage.  AmongsC 
English  men  of  letters  he  befriended  Reginald  Fecock,  Whet- 
hamslead  of  Si  Albans,  Capgrave  the  historian,  Lydgale,  and 
Gilbert  Kymei,  who  was  bis  physidan  and  chancellor  of  Oiford 

in  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  The  adjoining  aisle,  called  Duke 
Humphrey's  Walk,  was  frequented  by  beggars  and  needy 
advenlureis.  Hence  Ibe  i6th-cfnluiy  proverb  "  to  dine  with 
Duke  Humphrey,"  used  of  those  who  loitered  there  dinnec- 


rf'M£nr/£l*«fVo« 

Itiuii  (all  in  Roll)  S> 


.,r,>  Steventon'i  IPori 


luliojud  HitloTj:  I.  Vf.  Ranvay't  ^vojfrr  ajuf 
J»7  0/  EntiBud.  vol.  iv. :  11   Pauli,  Pkara  of 
I7i-40i  (1*0;  and  K.  H.  \Tekers,  Humtkrn. 
"or  HuraphrryV  cormpondence  with 
^  the  Enrluk  Hisrmal  Jfcvuv,  vols. 
..„  *^  (CL.K.) 

OLOnCESTKR.  RICHAMO  in  inARS,  EtiL  or  (ii»-i>fii). 
ras  a  son  of  Gilbert  de  Clare,  6th  earl  of  Gloucealer  and  '' 
arl  of  Ctace,  and  was  bom  on  tbe  4th  of  August  iiii,  succc 


I30 


GLOUCESTER,  EARLS  AND  DUKES  OF 


to  his  father's  earldoms  on  the  death  of  the  latter  in  October 
I  ajo.  His  first  wife  was  Margaret^  daughter  of  Hubert  de  Burgh, 
and  after  her  death  in  x  23  7  he  married  Maud,  daughter  of  John  de 
Lacy,  earl  of  Lincohi,  and  passed  his  early  years  in  tournaments 
and  pilgrimages,  taking  for  a  time  a  secondary  and  undecided 
part  in  politics.  He  refused  to  help  Henry  III.  on  the  French 
expedition  of  1250,  but  was  afterwards  with  the  king  at  Paris; 
then  he  went  on  a  diplomatic  errand  to  Scotland,  and  was  sent 
to  Germany  to  work  among  the  princes  for  the  election  of  his 
stepfather,  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  as  king  of  the  Romans. 
About  1258  Gloucester  took  up  his  position  as  a  leader  of  the 
barons  in  their  resistance  to  the  king,  and  he, was  prominent 
during  the  proceedings  which  followed  the  Mad  Parliament  at 
Oxford  in.  1 258.  In  1 259,  however,  he  quarrelled  with  Simon  do 
Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester;  the  dispute,  begun  in  England, 
was  renewed  in  France  and  he  was  again  in  the  confidence  and 
company  of  the  king.  This  Attitude,  too,  wns  only  temporary, 
and  in  1261  Gloucester  and  Leicester  were  again  working  in 
concord.  The  earl  died  at  his  residence  near  Canterbury  on  the 
1 5th  of  July  z  262.  A  large  landholder  like  his  son  and  successor, 
Gilbert,  Gloucester  was  the  most  powerful  English  baron  of  his 
time;  he  was  avaricious  and  extravagant,  but  educated  and  able. 
He  left  several  children  in  addition  to  EsltI  Gilbert. 

GLOUCESTER,  ROBERT,  Easl  of  (d.  1147),  was  a  natural 
son  of  Henry  I.  of  England.  He  was  bom,  before  his  father's 
accession,  at  Caen  in  Normandy;  but  the  exact  date  of  his  birth, 
and  his  mother's  name  are  unknown.  He  received  from  his 
father  the  hand,  of  a  wealthy  heiress,  Mabel  of  Gloucester, 
daughter  of  Robert  Fitz  Hamon,  and  with  her  the  lordships 
of  Gloucester  and  Glamorgan,  About  1 121  the  earldom  of 
Gloucester  was  created  for  his  benefit.  His  rank  and  territorial 
influence  made  him  the  natural  leader  of  the  western  baronage. 
Hence,  at  his  father's  death,  he  was  sedulously  courted  by  the 
rival  parties  of  his  half-sister  the  empress  Matilda  and  of  Stephen. 
After  some  hesitation  he  declared  for  the  latter,  but  tendered 
hb  homage  upon  strict  conditions,  the  breach  of  which  should  be 
held  to  invalidate  the  contract.  Robert  afterwards  alleged  that 
he  had  merely  feigned  submission  to  Stephen  with  the  object 
of  secretly  furthering  his  half-sister's  cause  among  the  English 
barons.  The  truth  appears  to  be  that  he  was  mortified  at  finding 
himself  excluded  from  the  inner  councils  of  the  king,  and  so 
resolved  to  sell  his  services  elsewhere.  Robert  left  England  for 
Normandy  in  1137,  renewed  his  relations  with  the  Angevin 
party,  and  in  1 138  sent  a  formal  defiance  to  the  king.  Returning 
to  England  in  the  following  year,  he  raised  the  standard  of 
rebellion  in  his  own  earldom  with  such  success  that  the  greater 
part  of  western  England  and  the  south  Welsh  marches  were 
soon  in  the  possession  of  the  empress.  By  the  battle  of  Lincoln 
(Feb.  3,  I141),  tn  which  Stephen  was  taken  prisoner,  the  earl 
made  good  Matilda's  claim  to  the  whole  kingdom.  He  accom- 
panied her  triumphal  progress  to  Winchester  and  London,  but 
was  unable  to  moderate  the  arrogance  of  her  behaviour.  Con- 
sequently she  was  soon  expelled  from  London  and  deserted  by 
the  bishop  Henry  of  Winchester  who,  as  legate,  controlled  the 
policy  of  the  English  church.  With  Matilda  the  earl  besieged 
the  legate  at  Winchester,  but  was  forced  by  the  royalists  to  beat 
a  hasty  retreat,. and  in  covering  Matilda's  flight  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  pursuers.  So  great  was  his  importance  that  his 
party  purchased  his  freedom  by  the  release  of  Stephen.  The  earl 
renewed  the  struggle  for  the  crown  and  continued  it  until  his 
death  (Oct.  31, 1147);  but  the  personal  impopularity  of  Matilda, 
and  the  estrangement  of  the  Church  from  her  cause,  made  his 
efforts  unavailing.  >His  loyalty  to  a  lost  cause  must  be  allowed 
to  weigh  in  the  scale  against  his  earlier  double-dealing.  But  he 
hardly  deserves  the  extravagant  praise  which  is  lavished  upon 
him  by  William  of  Malmesbury,  The  sympathies  of  the  chronicler 
are  too  obviously  influenced  by.  the  earl's  munificence  towards 
literary  menl 

See  the  Historia  novtUa  by  William  of  Malmesbury  ^Ils  editipn) ; 
the  Historia  Anghrum  by  Henry  of  Huntingdon  (Rolls  edition); 
T.  H.  Round's  Geoffrey  de  Mandeville  (1892);  and  Or  ROssler's 
Kaiserin  Matkilde  (Berlin,  1897).  (H.  W.  C  D.) 


GLOUCESTER.  THOMAS  OF  WOODSTOCK,  Duke  of  (135$- 
1397)1  seventh  and  youngest  son  of  the  English  king  Edward  III., 
was  bom  at  Woodstock  on  the  7th  of  January  1355.  Having 
married  Eleanor  (d.  1399),  daughter  and  co-heiress  of  Humphrey 
de  Bohun,  earl  of  Hereford,  Essex  and  Northampton  (d.  1373), 
Thomas  obtained  the  office  of  constable  of  England,  a  position 
previously  held  by  the  Bohuns,  and  was  made  earl  of  Buckingham 
by  his  nephew,  Richard  II.,  at  the.  coronation  in  July  1377.' 
He  took  part  in  defending  the  English  coasts  against  the  attacks 
of  the  French  and  Castilians,  after  which  he  led  an  army  through 
northern  and  central  France,  and  besieged  Nantes,  which  town, 
however,  he  failed  to  take. 

Returning  to  England  early  in  1381,  Budungham  found  that 
his  brother,  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster,  had  married 
his  wife's  sister,  Mary  Bohun,  to  his  own  son,  Henry,  afterwards 
King  Henry  IV.  The  relations  between  the  brothers,  hitherto 
somewhat  strained,  were  not  improved  by  this  proceeding,  as 
Thomas,  doubtless,  was  hoping  to  retain  possession  of  Mary's 
estates.  Having  taken  some  part  in  crushing  the  rising  of  the 
peasants  in  138 1,  Buckingham  became  more  friendly  with 
Lancaster;  and  while  marching  with  the  king  into  Scotlaud  in 
1385  was  created  duke  of  Gloucester,  a  mark  of  favour,  however, 
which  did  not  prevent  him  from  taking  up  an  attitude  of  hostility 
to  Richard.  Lancaster  having  left  the  country,  Gloucester 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  party  which  disliked  the  royal 
advisers,  Michael  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Suffolk  and  Robert  de  Vere, 
earl  of  Oxford,  whose  recent  elevation  to  the  dignity  of  duke  of 
Ireland  had  aroused  profoimd  discontent.  The  moment  was 
propitious  for  interference,  and  supported  by  those  who  were 
indignant  at  the  extravagance  and  incompetence,  real  or  alleged, 
of  the  king,  Gloucester  was  soon  in  a  position  of  authority.  He 
forced  on  the  dismissal  and  impeachment  of  Suffolk;  was  a 
member  of  the  commission  appointed  in  1386  to  reform  the 
kingdom  and  the  royal  household;  and  took  up  arms  when 
Richard  began  proceedings  against  the  commissioners.  Having 
defeated  Vere  at  Radcot  in  December  1387  the  duke  and  his 
associates  entered  London  to  find  the  king  powerless  in  their 
hands.  Gloucester,  who  had  previously  threatened  his  uncle 
with  deposidon,  was  only  restrained  from  taking  this  extreme 
step  by  the  influence  of  his  colleagues;  but,  as  the  leader  of  the 
"lords  appellant  "In  the  "  Merciless  Parliament,"  which  met 
in  February  1388  and  was  packed  with  his  supporters,  he  took 
a  savage  revenge  upon  his  enemies,  while  not.  neglecting  to  add 
to  his  own  possessions. 

He  was  not  seriously  punished  when  Richard  regained  his 
power  in  May  1389,  but  he  remained  in  the  background,  although 
employed  occasionally  on  public  business,  and  accompanying  the 
king  to  Ireland  in  1394.  In  1396,  however,  uncle  and  nephew  were 
again  at  variance.  Gloucester  disliked  the  peace  with  France  and 
Richard's  second  marriage  with  Isabella,  daughter  of  King^ 
Charles  VI.;  other  causes  of  difference  were  not  wanting,  and  it 
has  been  asserted  that  the  duke  was  plotting  to  seize  the  king.  At 
all  events  Richard  decided  to  arrest  him.  By  refusing  an  invita- 
tion to  dinner  the  duke  frustrated,  the  first  attempt,  but  on  the 
nth  of  July  1397  he  was  arrested  by  the  king  himself  at  his 
residence,  Pleshcy  castle  in  Essex.  He  was  taken  at  once  to 
Calais,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  was  murdered  by  order  of  the 
king  on  the  9th  of  September  following.  The  facts  seem  to  be  as 
follows.  At  the  beginning  of  September  it  was  reported  that  he 
was  dead.  The  rumour,  probably  a  deliberate  one,  was  false,  and 
about  the  same  time  a  justice,  Sir  Wilh'am  Rickhill  (d.  1407)^ 
was  sent  to  Calais  with  instructions  dated  the  Z7th  of  August  to 
obtain  a  confession  from  Gloucester.  On  the  8th  of  September 
the  duke  confessed  that  he  had  been  guilty  of  treason,  and  his 
death  immediately  followed  this  avowal.  Unwilling  to  meet  his 
parliament  so  soon  after  his  uncle's  death,  Richard's  purpose  was 
doubtless  to  antedate  this  occurrence,  and  to  foster  the  impression 
that  the  duke  had  died  from  natural  causes  in  August.  W^hen 
parliament  met  in  September  he  was>  declared  guilty  of  treason 
and  his  estates  forfeited.  Gloucester  had  one  son,  Humphrey 
(c.  X381-1399),  who  died  unmarried,  and  four  daughters,  the 
most  notable  of  whom  was  Anne  (c.  1380*1438),  who  was 


GLOUCESTER 


i3» 


successively  the  wife  of  Thomas,  3rd  earl  of  Stafford,  Edmund,  5th 
earl  of  Stafford,  and  William  Bourchier,  count  of  Eu.  Gloucester 
is  supposed  to  have  written  LOrdonnance  d*Angi€l€rre  pour  le 
camp  d  Voutrancef  ou  gaigt  de  balaiile, 

Q18LIOCRAPHY. — ^See  T.  Waldngham.  Historia  AngUcana,  edited 


JiisUma  vitae  et  repii  Rxeardi  Jl.,  edited  by  T.  Hearne  (Oxjford, 
1720) ;  Chnmique  &  la  traison  et  mort  de  Richard  II,  edited  by  B. 
Xvlluams  (London,  1846);  J.  Froissart.  Chronigues,  edited  by  S. 
Luce  and  C  Raynaud  (Paris.  1865^1897) ;  W.  Stubb»,  Constitutumal 
History,  vol.  ii.  (Oxford.  189I6);  f  Tail  in  Owens  CdUge  Historical 
Essays  and  S.  Armitage-Smith,  John  oj  Gaunt  (London,  1904). 

GLOUCESTER  (abbreviated  as  pronounced  Glo*ster),  a  dty, 
county  of  a  city,  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  and  port, 
and  the  county  town  of  Gloucestershire,  England,  on  the  left 
(east)  bank  of  the  river  Severn,  1 14  m  W.N  W  of  London.  Pop. 
(1901)  47,955.  It  is  served  by  the  Great  Western  railwap  and 
the  west-aiKl-north  branch  of  the  Midland  railway;  while  the 
Berkeley  Ship  Canal  runs  S.W.  to  Sharpness  Docks  in  the  Severn 
estuary  (i6|  m.).  Gloucester  is  situated  on  a  gentle  eminence 
overlooking  the  Severn  and  sheltered  by  the  Cottcswold»  on  the 
cast,  while  the  Malvems  and  the  hills  of  the  Forest  of  Dean  rise 
prominently  to  the  west  and  north-west. 

The  cathedral,  in  the  north  of  the  city  near  the  river,  originates 
in  the  foundation  of  an  abbey  of  St  Peter  in  6Si^  the  foundations 
of  the  present  church  having  been  laid  by  Abbot  Scrlo  (1077- 
11C4);  aord  Walter  Froucester  (d.  141 2)  its  historian,  became  its 
first  mitred  abbot  in  138 1.  Until  1541.  Gloucester  lay  in  the  see 
of  Worcester,  but  the  separate  see  was  then  constituted,  with 
John  Wakeman,  last  abbot  of  Tewkesbury,  for  its  first  bishop. 
The  diocese  covers  the  greater  part  of  Gloucestershire,  with  small 
parts  of  Herefordshire  and  Wiltshire.  The  cathedral  may  be 
SQCcinctly  described  as  consisting  of  a  Norman  nucleus,  with 
additions  in  every  style  of  Gothic  architecture.  It  is  420  ft.  long, 
and  144  ft.  broad,  with  a  beautiful  central  tower  of  the  15th 
century  rising  to  the  height  of  225  ft.  and  topped  by  foui^ graceful 
pinoades.  The  nzve  is  massive  Norman  with  Early  English 
roof;  the  crypt  also,  under  the  choir,  aisles  and  diapcls,  is 
Norman,  as  b  the  chapter-house.  The  crypt  is  one  of  the  four 
apsidal  cathedral  cryptsin  England,  theothersbcingat  Worcester, 
Winchester  and  Canterbury.  The  south  porch  is  Perpendicular, 
with  fan-tiT^acery  i;oof,  as  also  is  the  north  transept,  the  south 
being  transitional  Decorated.  The  choir  |has  Perpendicular 
tracery  over  fTorman  work,  with  an  apsidal  chapel  on  each  side. 
The  choir-vaulting  is  particularly  rich,  and  the  modern  scheme 
of  colouring  is  judicious.  The  -splendid  late  Decorated  east 
window  is  partly  filled  with  ancient  glass.  Between  the  apsidal 
chapels  is  a  cross  Lady  chapel,  and  north  of  the  nave  are  the 
cloisters,  with  very  early  example  of  fan-traccry,  the  carols  or 
stalb  for  the  monks'  study  and  writing  lying  to  the  south.  The 
finest  monument  is  the  canopied  shrine  of  Edward  II.  who  was 
brought  hither  from  Berkeley.  By  the  visits  of  pilgrims  to  this 
the  building  and  sanctuary  were  enriched.  In  a  sidc-chapel,  too, 
is  a  monument  in  coloured  bog  oak  of  Robert  Curthose,  a  great 
benefactor  to  the  abbey,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Conqueror,  who  was 
inlcrred  there;  and  those  of  Bishop  Warburton  and  Dr  Edward 
Jeniwr  are  also  worthy  of  special  mention.  A  musical  festival, 
(the  Festival  of  the  Three  Choirs)  is  held  annually  in  this  cathedral 
and  those  of  Worcester  and  Hereford  in  turn.  Between  1873 
and  1890  and  in  1S97  the  cathedral  was  extensively  restored, 
piincipally  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott.  Attached  to  the  deanery  is  the 
Norman  prior's  chapel.  In  6t  Mary's  Square  outside  the  Abbey 
gate.  Bishop  Hooper  suffered  martyrdom  under  Queen  Mary  in 

«S5S- 

Quaint  gabled  and  timbered  houses  preserve  the  ancient  aspect 

of  the  city.  At  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  four  principal 
streets  stood  th?  Tolscy  or  town  hall,  replaced  by  a  modem 
building  in  1 894.  None  of  the  old  public  buildings,  i  n  fact ,  is  left , 
but  the  New  Inn  in  Northgate  Street  is  a  beautiful  timbered 
house,  strong  and  massive,  with  external  galleries  and  courtyards, 
built  in  1450  for  the  pilgrims  to  Edward  II. 's  shrine,  by  Abbot 
Sebroke,  a  traditional  subterrajnean  passage  leading  thence  to  the 
cathediaL   The  timber  is  principally  chestnut.   There  are  a  large 


number  of  churches  and  dissenting  chapels,  and  it  may  have 
been  the  old  proverb,  "  as  sure  as  God's  in  Gloucester  J'  which 
provoked  Oliver  Cromwell  to  declare  that  the  city  had  "  more 
churches  than  godliness."  Of  the  churches  four  are  of  special 
interest:  St  Mary  de  Lode,  with  a  Norman  tower  and  chancel, 
and  a  monument  of  Bishop  Hooper,  on  the  site  of  a  Roman 
temple  which  became  the  first  Christian  church  in  Britain,  St 
IMary  de  Crypt,  a  cruciform,  structure  of  the  X2th  century,  with, 
later  additions  and  a  "beautiful  and  lofty  tower;  the  church  of 
St  Michael,  said  to  have  been  connected  with  the  ancient  abbey  (tf 
St  Peter;  and  St  Nicholas  church,  originally  of  Norman  erection, 
and  posse^ng  a  tower  and  other  portions  of  later  date.  la  the 
neighbourhood  of  St  Mary  de  Crypt  are  sh'ght  remains  of  Grey- 
friars  and  Blackfriars  monasteries,  and  also  of  the  city  wall. 
Early  vaulted  cellars  remain  under  the  Fleece  and  Saracen's 
Head  inns.. 

There  are  three  endowed  schools:  the  College  school,  refounded 
by  Henry  VIII.  as  part  of  the  cathedral  establishment,  the 
school  of  St  Mary  de  Crypt,  founded  by  Dame  Joan  Coolft  in  the 
same  reign;  and  Sir  Thomas  Rich's  Blue  Coat  hospital  for  34 
boys  (1666)  Ai  the  Crypt  school  the  famous  preacher  George 
Whitefield  (i  714-1770)  was  educated,  and  he  preached  bis  first 
sermon  in  the  church.  The  first  Sunday  school  was  held  in 
Gloucester,  being  originated  by  Robert  Raikes,  in  1780! 

The  noteworthy  modem  buildings  include  the  musetim  and 
school  of  art  and  science,  the  county  gaol  (on  the  site  of  a  Saxon 
and  Norman  castle),  the  Shire  Hall  and  the  Whitfefield  memorial 
church.  A  park  in  the  south  of  the  city  contains  a  spa,  a  chaly- 
beate spring  having  been  discovered  in  18x4.  'West  of  this, 
across  the  canal,  are  the  remains  (a  gateway  and  some  walls)  of 
Llanthony  Priory,  a  cell  of  the  mother  abbey  in  the  vale  of 
Ewyas,  Monmouthshire,  which  in  thereignof  Edward  IV.  became 
the  secondary  establishment. 

Gloucester  possesses  match  works,  foundries,  marble  and 
slate  works,  saw-mills,  chemical  works,  rope  works,  flour-mills, 
manufactories  of  railway  wagons,  engines  and  agricultural 
implements,  and  boat  and  ship-building  yards.  Gloucester 
was  declared  a  port  in  1882.  The  Berkeley  canal  was  opened  in 
1827.  The  Gloucester  canal-harbour  and  that  at  Sharpness  on 
the  Sevem  are  managed  by  a  board.  Principal  imports  are 
timber  and  grain;  and  exports,  coal,  salt,  iron  and  bricks; 
The  salmon  and  lamprey  fisheries  in  the  Severn  are  valuable. 
The  tidal  bore  in  the  river  attains  its  extreme  height  just  below 
the  city,  and  sometimes  surmounts  the  weir  in  the  western 
branch  of  the  river,  affecting  the  stream  up  to  Tewkesbury  lock. 
The  parliamentary  borough  returns  one  member.  The  city  ife 
governed  by  a  mayor,  10  aldermen  and  30  councillors. .  Area, 
23 1 5  acres. 

History.— The  traditional  existence  of  a  British  settlement 
at  Gloucester  (Cxr  Glow,  Gleawecastre,  Gleucestre)  is  not 
confirmed  by  any  direct  evidence,  but  Gloucester  was  the  Roman 
municipality  or  colonia  of  Clevum,  founded  by  Nerva  (a.d.  96-98), 
Parts  of  the  walls  can  be  traced,  and  many  remains  and  coins 
have  been  found,  though  inscriptions  (as  is  frequently  the  case 
in  Britain)  are  somewhat  scarce.  Its  situation  on  a  jiavigable 
river,  and  the  foundation  in  681  of  the  abbey  of  St  Peter  by 
>Ethel)-ed  favoured  the  growth  of  the  town;  and  before  the 
Conquest  Gloucester  was  a  borough  govemed  by  a  portreeve, 
with  a  castle  which  was  frequently  a  royal  residence,  and  a  mint. 
The  first  overlord,  Earl  Godwine,  was  succeeded  nearly  a  century 
later  by  Robert,  earl  of  Gloucester.  Henry  II.  granted  the  first 
charter  in  X155  which  gave  the  burgesses  the  same  liberties 
as  the  citizens  of  London  and  Winchester,  and  a  second  charter 
of  Henry  II.  gave  them  freedom  of  passage  on  the  Sevem.  The' 
first  charter  was  confirmed  in  1 194  by  Richard  I.  The  privileges 
of. the  borough  were  greatly  extended  by  the  charter  of  John 
(1200)  which  gave  freedom  from  toll  throughout  the  kingdom 
and  from  pleading  outside  the  borough.  Subsequent  charters 
were  numerous.  Gloucester  was  incorporated  by  Richard  III. 
in  1483,  the  town  being  made  a  county  in  itself..  This  charter 
was  confirmed  in  1489  and  1510,  and  other  charters  of  incorpor:*- 
tion  were  received  by  Gloucester  from  Elizabeth  in  1560,  Jan* 


132 


GLOUCESTER,  U.S.A.— GLOUCESTERSHIRE 


in  1604.  Charles  X.  in  1626  and  Charies  n.  in  1679. .  The 
chartered  port  pi  Gloucester  dates  from  1580.  JGloucester 
returned  two  members  to  parliament  from  1275  to  1885,  since 
when  it  has  been  represented  by  one  member.  A  seven  days' 
fair  from  the  34th  of  June  was  granted  by  Edward  I.  in  130a, 
and  James  I.  licensed  fairs  on  the  35th  of  March  and  the  17th 
of  November,  and  fairs  Amder  these  grants  are  still  held  on  the 
first  Saturday  in  April  and  July  and  the  last  Saturday  in 
November.  The  fair  now  held  on  the  aSth  of  September  was 
granted  to  the  abbey  of  St  Peter  in  1 337.  A  markdl  on  Wednes- 
day  existed  in  the  reign  of  John,  was  confirmed  by  charter  in 
1337  and  IS  still  held.  The  iron  trade  of  Gloucester  dates  from 
before  the  Conquest;  tanning  was  carried  on  before  the  reign  of 
Richard  III.,  pin-making  and  l>ell-founding  were  introduced 
in  the  i6th,  and  the  long-existing  coal  trade  became  important 
in  the  i8th  century.  The  cloth  trade  flourished  from  the  i3th 
to  the  i6th  century.  The  sea-borne  trade  in  com  and  wine 
existed  before  the  reign  of  Richard  I. 

See  W.  H.  Stevenson,  Records  of  tho  Corporation  of  ClofUister 
(Gloucester,  1893) ;  Victoria  County  Uistory,  ClonustersHin. 

GLOUCESTER,  a  dty  and  port  of  entry  of  Essex  county, 
Massachusetts,  U.S.A.,  beautifully  situated  on  Cape  Ann. 
Pop.  (1890)  34,651;  (1900)  30,131,  of  whom  8768  were  foreign- 
born,  including  4388  English  Canadians,  800  French  Canadians, 
665  Irish,  653  Finns  and  594  Portuguese;  (19x0  census) 
34,398  Area,  53 '6  sq.  m.  It  is  served  by  the  Boston  &  Maine 
railway  and  by  a  steamboat  line  to  Boston.  The  surface  is 
sterile,  naked  and  rugged,  with  bold,  rocky  ledges,  and  a  most 
picturesque  shore,  the  beauties  of  which  have  made  it  a  favourite 
summer  resort,  much  frequented  by  artists.  Included  within 
the  dty  borders  are.  several  villages,  of  which  the  prindpal  one, 
also  known  as  Gloucester,  has  a  deep  and  commodious  harbour. 
Ahiong  the  other  villages,  all  summer  resorts,  are  Annisquam, 
Bay  View  and  Magnolia  (so  called  from  the  Magnolia  glauca^ 
which  grows  wild  there,  this  being  t>robably  its  most  northerly 
habitat) ;  near  Magnolia  are  Rafe*8  Chasm  (60  ft.  deep  and  6-10  ft. 
wide)  and  Norman's  Woe,the  scene  of  the  wreck  of  the  "Hesperus" 
(which  has  only  tradition  as  a  basis),  celebrated  in  Longfellow's 
poem.  There  is  some  slight  general  commerce — in  1909  the 
Imports  were  valued  at  $130,098;  the  exports  at  $7853 — 
but  the  principal  business  is  fiaJiing,  and  has  been  since  early 
colonial  days.  The  pursuit  of  cod,  mackerd,  herring  and 
halibut  fills  up,  with  a  winter  coasting  trade,  the  round  of 
the  year.  In  this  industry  Gloucester  is  the  most  important 
place  in  the  United  States;  and  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  greatest 
fishing  ports  of  the  world.  Most  of  the  adult  males  are  engaged 
jn  it.  The  "  catch  "  was  valued  in  1895  at  $3,2x3,985  and  in 
X905  at  $3,377,330.  The  organization  of  the  industry  has 
undergone,  many  transformations,  but  a  notable  feature  is  the 
general  practice — espedally  sinCe  modem  methods  have  necessi- 
tated larger  vessels  and  more  costly  gear,  and  correspondingly 
greater  capital — of  profit-shari^ig;  aJl  the  crew  entering  on  that 
basis  and  not  independently.  There  are  some  manufactures, 
chiefly  connected  with  the  fisheries..  The  total  factory  product 
in  X905  was  valued  at  $6,930,984,  of  which  the  canning  and 
preserving  of  fish  represented  $4,068,571,  and  glue  represented 
$753,003.  An  industry  of  considerable  importance  is  the 
quarrying  of  the  beautiful,  dark  Cape  Ann  granite  that  underlies 
the  dty  and  all  the  environs. 

Gloucester  harbour  was  probably  noted  by  (Hiamplain  (as 
La  Beauport),  and  a  temporary  settlement  was  made  by  English 
fishermen  sent  out  by  the  Dorchester  Company  of  "  merchant 
adventurers  "  in  1633-1635;  some  of  these  settlers  returned 
to  England  in  1635,  and  others,  with  Roger  Conant,  the  governor, 
removed  to  what  is  now  Salem.*  Permanent  settlement  ante- 
dated. 1639  at  least,  and  in  1643  the  township  was  incorporated. 
From  Gosnold's  voyages  onward  the  extraordinary  abundance 
of  cod  about  Cape  Ann  was  well  known,  and  though  the  first 

'  According .  to  some  authorities  (e.g'.  Pringle)  a  few  settlers 
remained  on  the  site  of  Gloucester,  the  permanent  settlement  thus 
dating  from  1633  to  1635;  of  this,  however,  there  is  no  proof,  and 
the  contrary  opinion  i^toe.one  generally  hdd. 


settlos  characteristically  eiMU^  tried  to  live  by  fanning,  they 
speedily  became  perforce  a  sea-faring  folk.  The  active  pursuit  of 
fishing  as  an  industry  may  be  dated  as  beginning  about  1700,: 
for  then  began  voyages  beyond  Cape  Sable.  Voyages  to  the 
Grand  Banks  began  about  174X.  Mackerel  was  a  relatively 
unimportant  catch  until  about  x83x,  and  since  then  has  been 
an  important  but  unstable  return;  halibut  fishing  has  been 
vigorously  pursued  since  about  1836  and  herring  since  about* 
'1856.  At  the  opening  of  the  War  of  Independence  Gloucester, 
whose  fisheries  then  employed  about  600  men,  was  second  to 
Marblehead  as  a  fishing-port.  The  war  destroyed  the  fisheries, 
which  steadily  declined,  reaching  their  lowest  ebb  from  1830  to 
184a  Meanwhile  fordgn  commerce  had  greatly  expanded. 
The  dbd  take  had  supported  in  the  i8th  century  an  extensive 
trade  with  Bilbao,  Lisbon  and  the  West  Indies,  and  though 
changed  in  nature  with  the  decline  of  the  Bank  fisheries  after 
the  War  of  Independence,  it  continued  large  through  the  first 
quarter  of  the  19th  century.  Throughout  more  than  half  <^ 
the  same  century  also  Gloucester  carried  on  a  varied  and 
valuable  trade  with  Surinam,  hake  beingthe  chief  artide  of 
export  and  molasses  and  stigar  the  prindpal  imports.  "  India 
Square  "  remains,  a  memento  of  a  bygone  day.  About  1850  the 
fisheries  revived,  especially  after  i860,  under  the  influence  of 
better  prices,  improved  methods  and  the  discovery  of  new 
groimds,  becoming  again  the  chief  economic  interest;  and  since 
that  time  the  village  of  Gloucester  has  changed  from  a  picturesque 
hamlet  to  a  fairly  modem,  though  ptill  quaint  and  somewhat 
fordgn,  settlement  Gasoline  boats"  were  introduced  in  1900. 
Ship-building  is  another  industry  of  the  past.  The  first "  schooner  " 
was  launched  at  Gloucester  in  1713.  From  X830  to  1907,  776 
vessels  and  5243  lives  were  lost  in  the  fisheries,  but  the  loss  of 
hit  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the  use  of  better  vessels  and  by 
improved  methods  of  fishing.    Gloucester  became  a  dty  in  1874. 

Gloucester  life  has  been  celebrated  in  many  books;  among  others 
in  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps-Ward's  Singular  Life  and  Old  Maid's 
Paradise,  in  Rudyard  Kipling's  Captains  Courageous,  and  in  Jamea 
B.  Connolly's  Out  of  Gloucester  (1903),  The  Deep  Sea's  Toll  (1905), 
and  TTie  Crested  Seas  (1907). 


1892). 


OLOUCESTER  CIT7,  a  dty  of  Camden  county.  New  Jersey, 
U.S.A.,  on  the  Delaware  river,  opposite  Philadelphia.  Pop. 
(1890)  6564;  (1900)  6840,  of  whom  X094  were  foreign-bom; 
(1905)  8055;  (1910)  9463.  '  The  dty  is  served  by  the  West 
Jersey  &  Seashore  and  the  Atlantic  City  railways,  and  by  ferry 
to  Philadelphia,  of  which  it  is  a  residential  suburb.  Among 
its  manufactures  are  incandescent  gas-burners,  rugsv.  cotton 
yams,  boats  and  drills.  The  munidpality  owns  and  operates 
the  water  works.  It  was  near  the  site  of  Gloucester  City  that 
the  Dutch  in  1633  planted  the  short-lived  colony  of  Fort  Nassau, 
the  first  European  settlement  on  the  Delaware  river,  but  it  was 
not  until  after  the  arrival  of  English  Quakers  on  the  Ddaware, 
in  1677,  that  a  permanent  settlement,  at  first  called  Axwamus, 
was  established  on  the  site  of  the  present  dty.  This  was  surveyed 
and  laid  out  as  a  town  in  1689.  During  the  War  of  Independence 
the  place  was  frequently  occupied  by  troops,  and  a  number  of 
skirmishes  were  fought  in  its  vicinity.  The  most  noted  of  these 
was  a  successful  attack  upon  a  detachment  of  Hessians  on  the 
35th  of  November  1777  by  American  troops  under  the  command 
of  General  Lafayette.  In  x868  Gloucester  City  was  chartered 
as  a  dty.  In  Camden  county  there  is  a  township  named 
Gloucester  (pop.  in  1905,  3300),  incorporated  in  1798,  and 
originally  including  the  present  township  of  Clementon  and  parts 
of  the  present  townships  of  Watcriord,  Union  and  Winslow. 

OLOUCESTERSHIRB,  a  county  of  the  west  midlands  of 
England,  bounded  N.  by  Worcestershire,  N.E.  by  Warwickshire, 
E.  by  Oxfordshire,  S.E.  by  Berkshire  and  Wiltshire,  S.  by 
Somerset,  and  W.  by  Monmouth  and  Herefordshire.  Its  area 
is  1 343*3  sq.  ™*  l^c  outline  is  very  irregular,  but  three  physical 
divisions  are  well  marked-— the  hills,  the  vale  and  the  forest, 
(i)  The  first  (the  eastern  part  of  the  county)  lid  among  the 


GLOUCESTERSHIRE 


o  f L  » 


e  pomlt    : 


» It.,  bi 


exceeding 


!d  N^  Tin  ntenhed  belweca  the  Thuna  izid  Severn 
valleyi  lia  dose  to  il,  »  that  Cloucotcnbire  iadudo  Thames 
Bad  itself,  in  the  soulh-eut  near  Cirencester,  and  most  of  the 
upper  feetlen  ol  the  Tbwces  wfaicb  joia  the  main  ilreani,  from 
nmrrow  ind  inclursque  valieyi  on  (be  north,  (i)  Tbe  wnteiD 
CoiteswoJd  line  overlooLt  ■  rich  valley,  that  of  die  kmt  Severn, 
usually  spoken  of  aa  "  The  VaJe,"  or,  in  two  dlviiioni,  *9  the 
vaJe  oi  Glouciatet  and  the  vale  of  Berkeley.  This  peat  river 
teceivc*  three  famous  tribnlaries  during  its  course  throu^ 
Glotictstershlre.  Near  Tevkesbury,  chi  the  northern  border, 
iIm  Avon  joins  it  on  the  left  and  forms  the  county  boundary 
for  4  m.  This  is  tlie  liver  known  variously  as  the  Upper, 
Wotcfsteishiri,  Warwickshire,  Stratford  or  Shakespeare's  Avon, 
which  descends  a  lovely  pastoral  valley  through  the  counties 
named.     It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  BiistoJ  Avon,  which 

south-east  of  GlouLTSlershire,  sweeps  southward  and  westward 
through  Wiltshirt,  pierces  the  hill*  through  a  narrow  valley 
which  becomes  a  wooded  gorge  where  the  Clifton  luqieDsion 
bridge  crates  it  below  Bristol,  and  enters  the  Severn  eXuity 
•I  Avonraouih.  For  17  m.  from  its  mouth  it  forms  the  boundaiy 
between  Glouieslershire  and  Somersetshire,  and  for  8  m.  it  is 
one  of  the  moal  important  commercisl  waterways  in  the  kingdom, 
connecting  the  port  of  Biistol  with  the  sea.  The  third  great 
trihulary  of  the  Severn  is  the  Wye.  From  its  mouth  in  the 
estuary,  S  m.  N.  of  that  of  the  Bristol  Avon,  it  forma  the  county 
boundary  for  16  m-  northward,  and  above  this,  over  two  short 
reaches  of  its  beautiful  winding  course,  it  is  again  the  boundary. 
C3)  Between  the  Wye  and  the  Severn  liesa  beautiful  and  historic 
tract,  the  ioreat  of  DesD,  which,  unlike  Ihe  majority  of  English 
forests,  maiatiuoi  its  tDdent  characlet.  Cloucesteishire  has 
Ibos  a  share  in  Ihe  courses  of  five  of  Ihe  most  famous  of  English 
rivers,  aad  covets  two  of  the  most  inleretling  physical  diitiicis 
in  the  (suntry.  The  miDOr  rivers  of  the  county  are  never  long. 
The  vak  is  M  no  point  nitbin  the  couniy  wider  tlun  n  m.,  and 
*o  does  Dot  petmii  the  formation  of  any  tonsiderable  uibutaiy 
10  the  Severn  from  the  Dean  Hills  on  Ihe  one  hand  or  the 
Cotleswolds  on  the  other.  The  Leadon  rises  east  of  Hereford, 
forms  pan  of  the  turth.westem  boundary,  and  jnns  the  Severn 
Dev  Gloucester,  watering  the  vale  of  Gloucester,  the  northern 
part  of  the  vale.  In  Ihe  southern  part,  the  vale  of  Berkeley, 
Ibe  Stroudwatcr  traverses  a  narrow,  jHcturesque  and  populous 
valley,  and  the  Lillle  Avon  Sows  past  the  town  ol  Berkeley, 
jiuinc  the  Severn  estuary  on  the  left.  The  Fronle  runs  south' 
ward  to  tbe  Bristol  Avon  at  Btislol.  The  principal  northern 
feeders  of  the  Thames  are  Ibe  Chum  (regarded  by  some  as 
properly  the  headwater  of  the  main  river)  rising  In  the  Seven 
Spcinp,  In  the  bills  above  Cheltenham,  sod  formiog  the  soulbem 
county  bouMlsry  near  its  junclion  with  tbe  Thames  at  Ciicktade; 
tbe  Colo,  g  DOteworthy  trout^tream,  joining  above  Lechlade, 
and  tbe  Lech  (forming  part  of  the  eastern  county  boundary) 
jdimog  below  tbe  saow  town;  while  from  the  east  of  the  county 
there  pass  into  Oxfordshire  the  Windrush  and  the  Evenlode, 

aonben  Cottowald*. 

f ,; —     ■™-~ ^"-i^-Tniei»pt»senMdbytl»k~— ■"" 

nn  Hals  aid  bv  nita  at  Huntley. 
'  '  a  patch  of  gieenstoBC,  the 

Upper  Silurian  basin  of  Tottwoctk,  in 

nsUali&cdKEEs  of  the  county.  Oftbese  the  Upper 

is  the  dcniiiaat  stntuB,  "p«— «  sear  Danory  miO, 
chase  and  Portoa  passage,  wrapping  round  the  base  of 
UBIIev  Ub.  aad  reappcuing  in  the  vale  of  Woolhope. 
ft  lii—topt  k  cmoacd  at  FaUeld  mill  and  Whhfidd, 
aaJ  qoaffied  for  bming  at  May  hm.  The  Lower  Ludlow  shalca  or 
■adaune*  an  seen  at  Berkeley  and  PUrtoa,  where  the  upper  pan 
is  probabfy  Aynealry  iiinestoBC.  The  sefiea  of  sandy  shales  sod 
aadAoaes  which,  aa  Downton  landstDna  and  Ledbury  shales. 
fona  a  uusilioa  to  the  Old  Red  SaiKfstooe  are  quarried  at  Dyjnock. 
The  "  Old  Red  "  iUeU  occurs  at  Berkeley,  Tortwonh  Cnen,  Thorn- 
bvy,  aad  acsail  pbees  in  tbe  Bristol  coal-field,  'a  anticlinal  folds 


keldean,  AbeXllTB 


thcDUtbby  the  WyFlrom  Monmouth  to  Woobtton.    TUslonoatloa 
is  ov«  Sooo  ft.  thick  in  the  fornt  of  Dean.    Tlw  Briitol  airf  Fmnl 

lited,  Ihey'mi      ■       ^ 


eMiy 


Severn.    The  lower  limeiione ., . 

area  and  only  lejin  Ihe  foml.  richly  foeailiferous  sod  lamoui  lor 
their  bone  bed.  The  great  marine  leiies  known  as  tbe  Mountain 
Limestone,  forming  Ihe  walb  of  the  grand  corses  ol  Ihe  Wye  end 
Avon,  is  over  M0o7t.  thick  In  the  latter  district,  but  only  480  in  Ihe 
forner.  when  il  yieUs  the  browo  beoiBtite  in  pockets  so  largely 

it,  though  but  4S5 

field  of  two  great  ieriH,  the  lower  sooo  II.  thick  wilh  36 
Ihe  upper  Jooo  ft.  wilh  sj  seams,  g  oi  which  reach  3  fl,  in 
•a.  These  tsm  series  are  ananted  by  over  lioo  ft,  of  hard 
~  '"sonant  Grit),  conuining  only  5  coal;ieams.    In  the 


i:t. 


,.  .1  I  rarWniEui^Aui.W^The 

•Iiraitd  b<iiw  Ik-'I.  (he  C«hain  landicape  marble, 
II  liiDcslane,  yielding  f>irr«LiuiiU  and  Centiax 
diniict  of  Over  S<>vem  Is  mainly  of  Keuper  marii. 

Gloucester  is  occupied  by  ihe  next  formation.  iKe 

a  depoBl  of  clays  and  dayey  Umeslooes.  chancleriied 
I  producing  Gloucester 


I,  bcErmnltet 


AmmoDitB,  bcErmnltes  and  giR^nt 
■  i(i=cci-haringlinienonebed.  Thep 

-c  are  on  the  clays  of  Ihe  Lower _ 

'  Hi:  Lisa  or  martitime  fomu  hilldcka  flanking  the  Oolite 
rii  »llheCotlcswoH>,aEat  Wotton-under-Edger— "■'■ — ' 


...    ,.._  , ea  ol  Ihe  Lower 

^t  the  hair  Ii  a  Innuilon  Kiie*  cf  sands.  30  to  40  f  I.  thkrk, 
clopnl  at  Nailiwonh  and  Fmceiter.  Leckhampton  hill  la 
tecLlon  ol  the  Lower  Oolite,  where  the  sands  an  capped  by 
s  remarkable  pea  grit.  Above  this  an  UT  It.  ol  freestone, 
tolile  marl.  34  ft.  of  upper  freestone  and  3S  II.  of  ragstnoe. 
nsuick  none  bclongi  10  lower  fmsloBe.    Resllnr  on  ihe 


I™  UeM  1 


u  "  A/.J-,  4i«rid,j  [WcuuijjtK.  pjling.  Ac..at  Scvenhamplonand 
'here.  FioinIhcCmiOoliiF\^nchu.hainptanitoiieiaobu:ned, 
at  its  top  it  sboul  40  ft.  of  flaagy  Doliie  with  bands  of  cisy 
'n  as  the  Foreil  Marble.  Ripple  marks  an  abundani  on  the 
:  in  fact  all  the  Odiiei  leem  to  have  been  near  ihore  or  in 

—      "'heslbedolt 

-J.  produeUve  la  l — , ...  - - 

., D  Fsirford.    Near  Ihe  laller  town  and  LtchUde  Is  a 

lulltractafblueOxfordCUyoltheMiddleODlite.  Thecounly hat 

0  higher  Secondary  or  Tertiary  rocks:  but  Ihe  Qualerriary  series 

1  represented  by  much  nonhem  drilt  gravel  in  the  vale  and  Over 
evem,  by  sccuRiulalions  ol  Oolitic  detritus,  including  post-Claeial 
■■"""■""^  f««-*-  .......ti.ig  fnjm  Sharniefls  to  Gloucester. 

le  IS  mDd.    BeiweeD  Ihree-quartera  and 


adapted  lor  paalurage.  and  a  mcin  mid  climate  lavours  Ihe  growth 
of  natMsand  toot  crops.  Thecaltle,  saveoalhefmniiH'DrHere- 
lDnBhire,  aremoslly  iihonhania,  of  which  many  an  led  fordiiiant 
markets,  aiid  many  reared  and  kept  for  dairy  purposes.  The  rich 
nsiiig  tcact  of  the  vale  ef  Berkeley  peoddces  Ihe  famoua  *'  doable 
Gloueesler  "  cheeses,  and  tbe  vale  in  general  has  long  been  celebraled 
lor  cheese  and  butter.  The  vale  of  Gloucetter  Is  Ihe  chief  graln- 
growfng  district.  Tum^a,  ftc.,  occupy  about  thrce-founhs  ol  Ihe 
green  crop  acreage,  potatoes  occupying  only  about  a  Iwelllh.  A 
lealun  of  the  CDunly  it  its  apple  and  pear  orchards,  chiefly  lor  Ihe 

farm.  The  Colleiwold  district  Is  comparatively  barren  etcepl  In 
Ihe  valleys,  but  il  has  been  famous  dnce  the  iglh  century  for  Ihe 
bned  of  iheep  named  after  ii.    Oati  and  barley  an  here  the  chief 

(UtrlnJiulnci.— The  manufacture  of  woollen  clolh  fallowed  upon 


GLOUCESTERSHIRE 


•aid*.    Stroud  a  the 


Campania.     Of  the  CrcU 


at  E>aii  am  imporunl,  Oi  !«•  ulcn 
caiiniy.  N.E.  arBriilot.  Stcontiuni  n 
ita  ID  the  ted  Durl  of  GlouceAcnhi 

an  provided 

--■-     "'the 

Itdividea 

beneath  the  Severn  by  IhC  Sevtni  Tunnd, 
luikabte  eoDineeniu  work.  A  waon  direct 
nween  Londaa  and  South  Wala.  it  provided 
1  BuKtl  on  the  duin  Une,  running  north  of 
'  ~hip^n(Sodbuiy.  OuerCmtWeMem 
I  on  the  nubi  ITim,  by  the  Sdnid  viUey 
. 1. J  -intiduing  by  the  right 


Soulb  Wife*, 

Pi'iine  t™ 
BriKolbyl 

loCloucnler.Groaiinc  the  Severn  then  UK-  __ _       _, 

bank  ol  tbe  river  into  Wilea.  with  hraacliei  nonh-weu  into  Hereford' 
•hire;  the  Oifordind  Womter  trunli  line.  croaiiH  Ihe  ooi  ' 
_,  .t .J  ...i.j,  chelKBhini  msd  Cloiicenc 


tnoch  Ifarougk  the  Cotteawolda  from  Chipping  Norton 
•nd  the  line  fnon  Chellenhiai  hy  Broadwiy 
The  veit-and-nanh  line  of  the  Mtdtuid  nilwi] 


fiDn  Chellenhiai  by  Broiiidwi)'  to  HorKyboumi 

-nonh  line  of  the  MMtuid  nilwiy  followa  the  vil 

-lel  by  Gloucealet  uid  Chetlenbam  with  ■  branch  into  lb 
Dena  by  Berkeley,  croHini  die  Severn  it  Sharpneaa  by 


Eieat  bridge  1387  ydi.  in  length, 

Ihe  [orett  of  Dean  are  terved Iw  1 

Tewkobuiy  ii  lerved  bv  ■  Hi 

Malvern.   The  Midbod  and  So. 

eait  and  eoulS  from  Cfadtcnliain  oy  i^ireni 

municstion  with  the  sooth  of  England.    Thi 

or  the  Great  WeHttii  from  Oiiord  terminal 


and  Colefotd:  and.  t 


795,709  ajrea,  with  a  DOpuiationiolSsi  of  599.947  and  in  !■ 
6H,72g.  The  area  of  the  adminiHcative  county  ii  Soy^ei.v  <■ 
county  containa  jS  huEtdredL  The  munkipal  bofooBha  arc-  ^: 
a  city  and  caui^  borough  (pop.  3J5.94S);  Chellenhjin  iyi 
ClonceHer,  a  dty  and  eouoly  EorHigb  («flSs):  T.n;. 
<54i9l.  Theaiherurbindiitcictaare— Awre(ia9IS),Oiar1ii.ri 
Gioi),Cii™ncnEr!7S36),CoWord^MO.Kinpwood.OiMli.  . 
outakSnaot  Briflol  Ui.9fii).  NaiUworth  (vnE),  Nc^inhnn. 
SLOw-on-ihe-Wald(ii«6);Slroud(9i!j).Tnbury(t989).\'.' 
00-Sevem  (1B66I,    Tbe  number  of  anull  ancient  nuikci  1. 

large,  opcaally  ia  '*■'  —.■i™  ~'«  <J  •*■-  —i^  «"  ■<■'■ 

of  the  forest,  and  ai 

J-yd«l'.,(JSK 


eailerD  boundary  Tetbury  and  Morahlicldi  Stonehou^.'  < 
Dunley  (ij7i).  Watlon-under-Ediie  (1992)  and  Chipping  ~. 
along  Ihe  weitcrn  line  ol  the  hilU:  and  between  thmi  .  1 
Severn.  Berkeley  and  Thombury  (1594).  Among  theuijl.iii<l 

,. ,j.  .L — ,„  ^^  ioinia,and  villaBesarefew.htii  iil  ih 

upperThamcahaun,  tlicican    ' 


Wold,  ttandlog  huh.  and  MoretDa-in-ihe-Men 
en  of  the  Evenlode.  Id  a  nonhcrn  pt^onutii 
ucat  detached,  i>  Chipping  Campdeiu  W^ichi 
a.  N.E.  of  Cheltenham,   In  the  nocih-woC,  Nen 


and  Clieltcnham,  eaeh  relurniiTg  ane  mi 
of  Ihe  borough  of  Briitoi,  which  lelumi 
Hislfry.—Tlie  Engliih  conqueal  ol 
577  wiib  the  victory  of  Ceawlin  at  Deotkun,  fi 


capture  ol  Greocefter,  Cloucster  and  fiatk.  Tbe  Hwicca*  w 
occupied  the  district  were  a  West  Saicon  tribe,  but  their  territa 
had  become  a.  dependency  of  Heicia  in  the  7tb  century,  a: 
was  not  brought  under  Wat  Saion  dominion  until  the  9 
cinlury.  No  icnponanl  sctllementi  were  made  by  the  Du 
nhire  probably  originited  as  a  sk 


n  the  i«h  antur. . 

iuon  Chronicle  in  1016.    Tonnb  the 

he  boundariea  were  readjusted 

L  county  by  itulT,  and  at  the  um 

he  Wye  and  the  5« 


■dbym 


snlth 


Ihtlai 


added  tc 

ng  time  remained  very  unsettled, 
aud  the  thirty-nlDe  hundreda  mentioned  in  the  Donusday  Survey 
and  the  Ihiny-one  husdredi  of  tbe  Hundred  Rolls  of  1174  differ 
very  widely  in  name  and  eilent  both  innn  each  other  and  froiD 
the  twenty-eight  hundreds  of  the  present  day. 

Glouccstershiic  formed  part  of  Harold's  earldom  at  the  time 

Conqueror,    In  the  wars  of  Stephen's  reign  the  cause  of  the 
ipported  by  Robert  ol  Gloucester  who  had 


rislol,  a 


It  Glouo 


iienceste 

were  also  garrisoned  on  her  bebalf.    In  th 

ebaioo»' 

var  of  the 

reign  ol  Hcniy  Ul.  Gloucesler  was  garrisoned  lot 

imon  de  Montfort.  but  was  captured  by  Prioce  Edwar 

in.  16s. 

D  which  y 

Jir  de  Montlon  was  slain  «t  Eveshsm.     B 

riiloland 

actively  supported  the  Yorkist  cause  during 

the  War. 

\  the  R« 

«.     Ib  the  teligiou.  struggles  of  the  i61h  century 

showed  strong  Protestant  sympathy,  an 

d  in  the 

^gnofM 

ly  Bishop  Hooper  was  sent  to  Clouctatet  to 

uiawarm 

ng  to  the  county,  while  the  same  Puritan 

leanings 

induced  th  ,  . . 

civil  war  of  the  17th  century.  In  1643  Bristol  and  Greoctsttr 
were  captured  by  the  Royalists,  but  the  latter  «u  retovered 
in  the  same  year  and  Bristol  in  i$4S.  Cloucettcr  was  garrisoned 
for  the  patlianieDt  throu^ut  Ihesltug^. 

On  the  subdivisioii  of  tbe  Merdan  diocese  In  660  tbe  greater 
pan  ol  modem  Cloucesteishire  wai  included  in  the  dioc^e  of 
Worcester,  and  sbotily  after  the  Conquest  constituted  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Gloucesler,  vrhich  in  1290  cnmprised  the  deaneries 
of  Csmpden,  Slow,  Cirencester,  Fairiord,  Winchcombc,  Stone- 
house,  Hawkesbury,  Bilton,  Bristol,  Durslcy  and  Gloucester. 
Tbe  district  west  of  Ihe  Severn,  with  the  eiceplion  of  a  few 
parishes  in  the  deaneries  of  Ross  and  Staunton,  constiluted  the 
deanery  of  the  forest  within  tbe  archdeaconry  and  diocese  of 
Hereford.  In  1535  the  deanery  of  Bitton  had  been  absorbed 
in  that  of  Hawkesbury.  In  1541  tbe  diooae  of  Ghjucestet  was 
created,  its  boundaries  being  identical  with  those  of  Che  county. 
On  the  erection  oi  Biista!  to  t  see  in  IJ4>  the  deanery  ol  Brisiol 
was  transferred  from  Gloucater  10  that  diocese.  In  1S3&  tbe 
lees  ol  Gloucester  and  Bristol  mete  tmited;  the  archdeaconry  of 
Bristol  was  created  out  of  the  deaneries  of  Bristol,  Cirencester, 
Fairfotd  and  Hawke^uty;  and  the  deanery  of  the  forest  was 
transferred  to  the  archdeaconry  of  Gloucester.  In  1&83  the 
nrchdeacotuy  of  Citencatcr  was  constituted  to  include  the 
draperies  ol  Campden,  Stow,  Northlcach  north  and  eoulh, 
Fairiord  and  Cirencester.  In  1S97  the  diocese  ol  Bristol  was 
recreated,  and  included  the  deaneries  of  Bristol,  Staplcton  and 


Alter 


si  very  ei 
dbyC 


le  church,  the  abbey  ol 


is  and  privileges  in  the 


rm,  and  the  ettales  of  the 
ipal  lay-lcniuita  were  tor  the  most  part  otitlying  parcels 
ronies  having  their  "  caput  "  in  other  counties.  The  large 
cs  held  hy  William  Fitz  Osbero,  enrl  of  Hereford,  escheated 
le  crown  on  the  rebellion  ol  bis  Ion  Ead  Roger  in  ro74- 
.  The  Berkeley!  have  held  lands  in  Gloucestershire  from 
■     le  Dome  ■      "  " 


Dan,  each  returning 

Tracy,  Clifton,  Dennis  a; 

d  Poynli  have  figured  prominently 

in  Ihe  annals  of  the  county 

Gilbert  de  Clare,  earl  of  Gloaceiter, 

and  Richard  ol  Cornwall  c 

aimed  extensive  lands  and  privileges 

xvern  valley  began  in 

in  the  .hire  in  Ihe  ijlh  ce 

tury,  and  Simon  de  Montfort  awDed 

GLOVE 


135 


Bristol  was  made  a  county  in  1425,  and  in  1483  Richard  III. 
created  Gloucester  an  independent  county,  adding  to  it  the 
hundreds  oi  Dudston  and  King's  Barton.  The  latter  were 
reunited  to  Gloucestershire  in  1673,  but  the  cities  of  Bristol  and 
Gloucester  continued  to  rank  as  independent  counties,  with 
separate  jurisdiction,  county  rate  and  assises.  The  chief  officer 
of  the  forest  of  Dean  was  the  warden,  who  was  generally  also 
constable  of  St  Briavel  Castle.  The  first  justice-seat  for  the 
forest  was  held  at  Gloucester  Castle  in  1282,  the  last  in  1635. 
The  hundred  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  is  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  for  certain  purposes. 

The  physical  characteristics  of  the  three  natural  divisions  of 
Gloucestershire  have  givea  rise  in  each  to  a  special  industry, 
as  already  indicated.  The  forest  district,  until  the  development 
of  the  Sussex  mines  in  the  x6th  century,  was  the  chief  iron- 
producing  area  of  the  kingdom,  the  mines  having  been  worked 
in  Roman  times,  while  the  abundance  of  timber  gave  rise  to 
numerous  tanneries  and  to  an  important  ship-buUding  trade. 
The  hill  district,  besides  fostering  agricultural  pursuits,  gradually 
absorbed  the  woollen  trade  from  the  big  towns,  which  now 
devoted  themselves  almost  entirely  to  foreign  commerce.  Silk- 
weaving  was  introduced  in  the  xjth  century,  and  was  especially 
prosperous  in  the  Stroud  vaUey.  The  abundance  of  clay  and 
building-stone  in  the  county  gave  rise  to  considerable  manu- 
factures of  brick,  tiles  and  pottery.  Numerous  minor  industries 
sprang  up  in  the  xyth  and  18th  centuries,  such  as  flax-growing 
and  the  manufacture  of  pins,  buttons,  lace,  stockings,  rope  and 
sailcloth. 

Gloucestershire  was  first  represented  in  parliament  in  1290, 
w  hen  it  returned  two  members.  Bristol  and  Gloucester  acquired 
representation  in  1295,  Cirencester  in  1572  and  Tewkesbury 
in  1620.  Under  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  the  county  returned 
four  members  in  two  divisions;  Bristol,  Gloucester,  Cirencester, 
Stroud  and  Tewkesbury  returned  two  members  each,  and 
Cheltenham  returned  one  member.  The  act  of  1868  reduced  the 
representation  of  Cirencester  andTewkesbury  to  one  member  each. 

Antiquities. — ^The  cathedrals  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol,  the 
magnificent  abbey  church  of  Tewkesbury,  and  the  church  of 
Cirencester  >rith  its  great  Perpendicular  porch,  are  described 
under  their  separate  headings.  Of  the  abbey  of  Hayles  near 
Winchcomb,  founded  by  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  in  1246, 
little  more  than  the  foundations  are  left,  but  these  have  been 
excavated  with  great  care,  and  interesting  fragments  have  been 
brought  to  light.  Most  of  the  old  market  towns  have  fine  parish 
churches.  At  Deerhurst  near  Tewkesbury,  and  Geeve  near 
Cheltenham,  there  are  churches  of  special  interest  on  account 
of  the  pre-Korman  work  they  retain.  The  Perpendicular  church 
at  Lcchlade  is  unusually  perfect;  and  that  at  Fairford  was 
built  {c.  1500),  according  to  tradition,  to  contain  the  remarkable 
series  of  stained-glass  windows  which  are  said  to  have  been 
brought  from  the  Netherlands.  These  are,  however,  adjudged 
to  be  of  English  workmanship,  and  are  one  of  the  finest  series 
in  the  country.  The  great  Decorated  Calcot  Bam  is  an  interesting 
rdic  of  the  monastery  of  Kingswood  near  Tetbury.  The  castle 
at  Berkeley  is  a  splendid  example  of  a  feudal  stronghold.  Thorn- 
bury  Castle,  in  the  same  district,  is  a  fine  Tudor  ruin,  the  pre- 
tensions of  which  evoked  the  jealousy  of  Cardinal  Wolsey  against 
its  builder,  Edward  Stafford,  duke  of  Buckingham,  who  was 
beheaded  in  1521.  Near  Cheltenham  is  the  fine  15th-century 
mansion  of  Southam  de  la  Bere,  of  timber  and  stone.  Memorials 
of  the  de  la  Bere  family  appear  in  the  church  at  Cleeve.  The 
mansion  contains  a  tiled  floor  from  Hayles  Abbey.  Near 
Winchcomb  is  Sudeley  Castle,  dating  from  the  xsth  century, 
but  the  inhabited  portion  is  chiefly  Elizabethan.  The  chapel  is 
the  burial  place  of  Queen  Catherine  Parr.  At  Great  Badminton 
is  the  mansion  and  vast  domain  of  the  Beauforts  (formerly  of 
the  Botelers  and  others),  on  the  south-eastern  boundary  of  the 
county. 

See  Vielena  County  History,  Chuuslerskire;  Sir  R.  Atkyns, 
The  Ancient  and  Present  State  of  Cloucesterskire  (London,  171a;  and 
cd.,  London,  1768) :  Samuel  Rudder.  A  New  History  of  Gloucestershire 
(Cirencester,  1779);  Ralph  Bigland,  Historical^  MonmmenUU  and 


Genealoticai  CoUectuna  relatiot  to  Ike  County  of  Cloucestet  (a  vols., 


History  (2  vols.,  Gloucester,  1807);  Legends,  tales  and  Sonts  in 


the  Dialect  of  the  Peasantry  of  Cloucesterskire  (London,  1876) ;  J.  D. 
Robertson,  Glossary  of  Dialect  and  Archaic  Words  of  Gloucester 
(London,  1890):  W.  Baxeley  and  F.  A.  Hyett,  Bibliogra^rs' 
Manual  of  Glouusterskire  (3  vols.,  London,  1895-1897);  W.  H. 
Hutton,  B^  Thames  and  Cotswold  (London.  1903).  See  abo  Trans- 
actions  of  the  Bristol  and  Gloucestershire  Archaeological  Society, 

OLOVB  (O.  Eng.  glaf,  perhaps  connected  with  Gothic  lofa,  the 
palm  of  the  hand),  a  covering  for  the  hand,  commonly  with  a 
separate  sheath  for  each  finger. 

The  use  of  gloves  is  of  high  antiquity,  and  apparently  was 
known  even  to  the  pre-historic  cave  dwellers.  In  Homer 
LaSrtes  is  described  as  wearing  gloves  (x«p«3af  hrl  x^pai) 
while  walking  in  his  garden  {Od.  xxiv.  230).  Herodotus  (vi. 
72)  tells  how  Leotychides  filled  a  glove  ix^pit)  with  the  money 
he  received  as  a  bribe,  and  Xenophon  {Cyrop.  viii.  8. 17)  recordis 
that  the  Persians  wore  fur  gloves  having  separate  sheaths  for 
the  fingers  (xetptSos  joffclas  xcU  boKniMftpas).  Among  the 
Romans  also  there  are  occasional  references  to  the  use  of  gloves. 
According  to  the  younger  Pliny  {Ep.  iii.  5.  15)  the  secretary 
whom  his  uncle  had  with  him  when  ascending  Vesuvius  wore 
gloves  {manicae)  so  that  he  might  not  be  impeded  in  his  work 
by  the  cold,  and  Varro  {R.R.  i.  55.1)  remarks  that  olives  gathered 
with  the  bare  fingers  are  better  than  those  gathered  with  gloves 
{digitahula  or  digitalia).  In  the  northern  countries  the  general 
use  of  gloves  would  be  more  natural  than  in  the  south,  and  it 
is  not  without  significance  that  the  most  common  medieval 
Latin  word  for  glove  (guantus  or  wantuSf  Mod.  Fr.  gant)  is  of 
Teutonic  origin  (O.  H.  Ger.  want).  Thus  in  the  life  of  Colurobanus 
by  Jonas,  abbot  of  Bobbio  (d.  c.  665),  gloves  for  protecting  the 
hands  in  doing  manual  labour  are  spoken  of  as  tegumenta  manuum 
quae  Colli  wanlos  vacant.  Among  the  Germans  and  Scandi- 
navians, in  the  8th  and  9th  centuries,  the  use  of  gloves,  fingerless 
at  first,  would  seem  to  have  been  all  but  universal,  and  in  the 
case  of  kings,  prelates  and  nobles  they  were  often  elaborately 
embroidered  and  bejewelled.  This  was  more  particularly  the  case 
with  the  gloves  which  formed  part  of  the  pontifical  vestments(see 
below)  In  war  and  in  the  chase  gloves  of  leather,  or  with  the 
backs  armoured  with  articulated  iron  plates,  were  early  worn;  yet 
in  the  Bayeux  tapestry  the  warriors  on  cither  side  fight  ungloved. 
The  fact  that  gloves  are  not  represented  by  contemporary  artists 
docs  not  prove  their  non-existence,  since  this  might  easily  be 
an  omission  due  to  lack  of  obser\'ation  or  of  skill;  but,  so  far 
as  the  records  go,  there  is  no  evidence  to  prove  that  gloves  were 
in  general  use  in  England  until  the  13th  century.  It  was  in 
this  century  that  ladies  began  to  wear  gloves  as  ornaments; 
they  were  of  linen  and  sometimes  reached  to  the  elbow.  Ii 
was,  however,  not  till  the  i6th  century  that  ihjey  reached  their 
greatest  elaboration,  when  Queen  Elizabeth  set  the  fashion  for 
wearing  them  richly  embroidered  and  jewelled. 

The  symbolic  sense  of  the  middle  ages  early  gave  to  the  u:>e 

of  gloves  a  special  significance.    Their  liturgical  use  by  the 

Church  is  dealt  with  below  (PoHtifical  gloves);  this  was  imitated 

from  the  usage  of  civil  life.    Embroidered  and  jewelled  gloves 

formed  part  of  the  insignia  of  the  emperors,  and  also,  and  that 

quite  early,  of  the  kings  of  England.    Thus  Matthew  of  Paris, 

in  recording  the  burial  of  Henry  II.  in  1189,  mentions  that  he 

was  buried  in  his  coronation  robes,  with  a  golden  crown  on  his 

head  and  gloves  on  his  hands.     Gloves  were  also  found  on  the 

hands  of  Ring  John  when  his  tomb  was  opened  in  1797.  and  on 

those  of  King  Edward  I.  when  his  tomb  was  opened  in  1 774. 

See  W.  B.  Redfem,  Royal  and  Historic  Gloves  and  Shoes,  with 
numerous  examples. 

Gages. — Of  the  symbolical  uses  of  the  glove  one  of  the  most 
widespread  and  important  during  the  middle  ages  was  the 
practice  of  tendering  a  folded  glove  as  a  gage  for  waging  one's 
law.  The  origin  of  this  custom  is  probably  not  far  to  seek.  The 
promise  to  fulfil  a  judgment  of  a  court  of  law,  a  promise  secured 
by  the  delivery  of  a  wed  or  gage,  is  one  of  the  oldest,  if  not  the 
very  oldest,  of  all  enforceable  contracts.  This  gage  was  origii>''^* 


136 


GLOVE 


a  chattel  of  value,  which  had  to  be  deposited  at  once  by  the 
defendant  as  security  into  his  adversary's  hand;  and  that  the 
glove  became  the  formal  symbol  of  such  deposit  is  doubtless 
due  to  its  being  the  most  convenient  loose  object  for  the  purpose. 
The  custom  survived  after  the  contract  with  the  vadium,  wed 
or  gage  had  been  superseded  by  the  contract  with  pledges  (per- 
sonal sureties).  In  the  rules  of  procedure  of  a  baronial  court 
of  the  14th  century  we  find:  "  He  shall  wage  his  law  with  his 
folded  glove  {de  son  gauni  plyee)  and  shall  deliver  it  into  the  hand 
of  the  other,  and  then  take  his  glove  back  and  find  pledges  for 
his  law."  The  delivery  of  the  glove  had,  in  fact,  become  a  mere 
ceremony,  because  the  defendant  had  his  sureties  close  at  hand.^ 

Associated  with  this  custom  was  the  use  of  the  glove  in  the 
wager  of  battle  (podium  in  dueUo).  The  glove  here  was  thrown 
down  by  the  defendant  in  open  court  as  security  that  he  would 
defend  his  cause  in  arms;  the  accuser  by  picking  it  up  accepted 
the  challenge  (see  Wager).  This  form  is  still  prescribed  for  the 
challenge  of  the  king's  champion  at  the  coronation  of  English 
sovereigns,  and  was  actu^y  followed  at  that  of  George  IV. 
(see  Champion).  The  phrase  "  to  throw  down  the  gauntlet  " 
is  still  in  common  use  of  any  challenge. 

Pledges  of  Service.— The  use  of  the  glove  as  a  pledge  of  fulfilment 
is  exemplified  also  by  the  not  infrequent  practice  of  enfeoffing 
vassals  by  investing  them  with  the  glove;  similarly  the  emperors 
symbolized  by  the  bestowal  of  a  glove  the  concession  of  the  right 
to  found  a  town  or  to  establish  markets,  teints  and  the  like; 
the  "  hands  "  in  the  armorial  bearings  of  certain  German  towns 
are  really  gloves,  reminiscent  of  this  investiture.  Conversely, 
fiefs  were  held  by  the  render  of  presenting  gloves  to  the  sovereign. 
Thus  the  manor  of  Little  Holland  in  Essex  was  held  in  Queen 
Elizabeth's  time  by  the  service  of  one  knight's  fee  and  the  rent  of 
a  pair  of  gloves  turned  up  with  hare's  skin  (Blount's  Tenures, 
ed.  Beckwith,  p.  130).  The  most  notable  instance  in  England, 
however,  is  the  grand  serjcanty  of  finding  for  the  king  a  glove 
for  his  right  hand  on  coronation  day,  and  supporting  his  right 
arm  as  long  as  he  holds  the  sceptre.  The  right  to  perform 
this  "  honourable  service  "  was  originally  granted  by  William  the 
Conqueror  to  Bertram  de  Verdun,  together  with  the  manor  of 
Fernham  (Famham  Royal)  in  Buckinghamshire.  The  male 
descendants  of  Bertram  performed  this  serjeanty  at  the  corona* 
tions  until  the  death  of  Theobald  de  Verdun  in  1316,  when  the 
right  passed,  with  the  manor  of  Famham,  to  Thomas  Lord 
Furnival  by  his  marriage  with  the  heiress  Joan.  His  son  William 
Lord  Furnival  performed  the  ceremony  at  the  coronation  of 
Richard  II.  He  died  in  1383,  and  his  daughter  and  heiress  Jean 
de  Furnival  having  married  Sir  Thomas  Nevill,  Lord  Furnival 
in  her  right,  the  latter  performed  the  ceremony  at  the  coronation 
of  Henry  IV.  His  heiress  Maud  married  Sir  John  Talbot  (ist 
earl  of  Shrewsbury)  who,  as  Lord  Furnival,  presented  the  glove 
embroidered  with  the  arms  of  Verdun  at  the  coronation  of 
Henry  V.  When  in  1541  Francis  carl  of  Shrewsbury  exchanged 
the  manor  of  Famham  with  King  Henry  VIII.  for  the  site  and 
precincts  of  the  priory  of  Worksop  in  Nottinghamshire  he 
stipulated  that  the  right  to  perform  this  serjeanty  should  be 
reserved  to  him,  and  the  king  accordingly  transferred  the 
obligation  from  Famham  to  Worksop.  On  the  3rd  of  April 
1838  the  manor  of  Worksop  was  sold  to  the  duke  of  Newcastle 
and  with  it  the  right  to  perform  the  service,  which  had  hitherto 
always  been  carried  out  by  a  descendant  of  Bertram  de  Verdun, 
At  the  coronation  of  King  Edward  VII.  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury 
disputed  the  duke  of  Newcastle's  right,  on  the  ground  that  the 
serjeanty  was  attached  not  to  the  manor  but  to  the  priory  lands 
at  Worksop,  and  that  the  latter  had  been  subdivided  by  sale 
so  that  no  single  person  was  entitled  to  perform  the  ceremony 
and  the  right  had  therefore  lapsed.  His  petition  for  a  regrant 
to  himself  as  lineal  heir  of  Bertram  de  Verdun,  however,  was 

>  F.  W.  Maitland  and  W.  P.  Baildon,  The  Court  Boron  (Selden 
Society,  London,  1891),  p.  17.  Maitland  wrongly  translates  gaunt 
plyee  as  "  twisted  "  glove,  adding  "  why  it  shoulobe  twisted  I  cannot 


say."    An  earlier  instance  of  the  deliveiy  of  a  folded  glove  as  gage 
is  quoted  from  the  13th-century  Anglo-Norman  poem  known  as  The 
Sont  of  Dermott  and  the  Earl  (cd.  G.  H.  i 
J.  11.  Round's  Commune  of  London^  p.  153. 


m 


disallowed  by  the  court  of  claims,  and  the  serjeanty  was  declared 
to  be  attached  to  the  manor  of  Worksop  (G.  Woods  WoUaston, 
Coronation  Claims,  London,  1903,  p.  133). 

Praenlations. — From  the  ceremonial  and  symbolic  use  of 
gloves  the  transition  was  easy  to  the  ciistom  which  grew  up  of 
presenting  them  to  persons  of  distinction  on  special  pensions. 
When  (2ueen  Elizabeth  visited  Cambridge  in  1578  the  vicc> 
chancellor  offered  her  a  "  paire  of  gloves,  perfumed  and  garnished 
with  embroiderie  and  goldsmithe's  wourke,  price  60a.,"  and  at 
the  visit  of  James  I.  there  in  1615  the  mayor  and  corporation 
of  the  town  "  delivered  His  Majesty  a  fair  pair  of  perfumed 
gloves  with  gold  laces.''  It  was  formerly  the  custom  in  England 
for  bishops  at  their  consecrations  to  make  presents  of  gloves  to 
those  who  came  to  their  consecration  dinners  and  others,  but  this 
gift  beticame  such  a  burden  to  them  that  by  an  order  in  council 
in  1678  it  was  commuted  for  the  payment  of  a  sum  of  £50  towards 
the  rebuilding  of  St  Paul's.  Serjeants  at  law,  on  their  appoint- 
ment, were  given  a  pair  of  ^oves  containing  a  sum  of  money 
which  was  termed  "  regards  ";  this  custom  is  recorded  as  early 
as  1495,  when  according  to  the  Black  Book  of  Lincoln's  Inn 
each  of  the  new  Serjeants  received  £6,  13s.  4d.  and  a  pair  of 
gloves  costing  4d.,  and  it  persisted  to  a  late  period.  At  one  time 
it  was  the  practice  for  a  prisoner  who  pleaded  the  king's  pardon 
on  his  discharge  to  present  the  judges  with  gloves  by  way  of  a 
fee.  Glove-silver,  according  to  Jacob's  Law  Dictionary,  was  a 
name  used  of  extraordinary  rewards  formerly  given  to  officers  of 
courts,  &&,  or  of  money  given  by  the  sheriff  of  a  county  in  which 
no  offenders  were  left  for  execution  to  the  clerk  of  assize  and 
judge's  officers;  the  explanation  of  the  term  is  that  the  glove 
given  as  a  perquisite  or  fee  was  in  some,  cases  Uncd  with  money 
to  increase  its  value,  and  thus  came  to  stand  for  money  osten- 
sibly given  in  lieu  of  gloves.  It  is  still  the  cUstom  in  the  United 
Kingdom  to  present  a  pair  of  white  gloves  to  a  judge  or  magis- 
trate who  when  he  takes  his  seat  for  criminal  business  at  the 
appointed  time  fiinds  no  cases  for  trial.  By  ancient  custom 
judges  are  not  allowed  to  wear  gloves  while  actually  sitting  on 
the  bench,  and  a  witness  taking  the  oath  must  remove  the  glove 
from  the  hand  that  holds  the  book.  (See  J.  W.  Norton-Ky^e, 
The  Law  and  Customs  relating  to  Cloves,  London,  1901.) 

Pontifical  gloves  (Lat.  ckinUkecae)  are  liturgical  ornaments 
peculiar  to  the  Western  Church  and  proper  only  to  the  pope,  the 
cardinals  and  bishops,  though  the  right  to  wear  them  is  often 
granted  by  the  Holy  See  to  abbots,  cathedral  dignitaries  and 
other  prelates,  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  episcopal  insignia. 
According  to  the  present  use  the  gloves  are  of  silk  and  of  the 
h'turgical  colour  of  the  day,  the  edge  of  the  opening  ornamented 
with  a  narrow  band  of  embroidery  or  the  Uke,  and  the  middle  of 
the  back  with  a  cross.  They  may  be  worn  only  at  the  celebra- 
tion of  mass  (except  masses  for  the  dead).  In  vesting,  the 
gloves  are  put  on  the  bishop  immediately  after  the  dalmatic,  the 
right  hand  one  by  the  deacon,  the  other  by  the  subdeacon.  They 
are  worn  only  until  the  ablution  before  the  canon  of  the  mass, 
after  which  they  may  not  again  be  put  on. 

At  the  consecration  of  a  bishop  the  consecrating  prdate  puts 
the  gloves  on  the  new  bishop  immediately  after  the  mitre,  with 
a  prayer  that  his  hands  may  be  kept  pure,  so  that  the  sacrifice  he 
offers  may  be  as  acceptable  as  the  gift  ojf  venison  which  Jacob, 
his  hands  wrapped  in  the  skin  of  kids,  brought  to  Isaac.  This 
symbolism  (as  in  the  case  of  the  other  vestmeftts)  is,  however,  of 
late  growth.  The  liturgical  use  of  gloves  itself  cannot,  according 
to  Father  Braun,  be  traced  beyond  the  beginning  of  the  xoth 
century,  and  their  introduction  was  due,  perhaps  to  the  simple 
desire  to  keep  the  hands  clean  for  the  holy  mysteries,  but  more 
probably  merely  as  part  of  the  increasing  pomp  with  which  the 
Carolingian  bishops  were  surrounding  themselves.  From  the 
Prankish  kingdom  the  custom  spread  to  Rome,  where  liturgical 
gloves  are  first  heard  of  in  the  .earlier  half  of  the  nth  century. 
The  earliest  authentic  instance  of  the  right  to  wear  them  being 
,  granted  to  a  non-bishop  is  a  bull  of  Alexander  IV.  in  X070,  con- 
ceding this  to  the  abbot  of  S.  Pietro  in  Cielo  d'  Oro. 

During  the  middle  ages  the  occasions  on  which  pontifical  gloves 
(often  wanti,  guanii,  and  sometimes  manieae  in  tht  inventories) 


GLOVER,  SIR  J.  H.— GLOVERSVILLE 


were  wocc  were  not  so  carefuny  defined  as  now,  the  use  varying  in 
different  churchea.  Nor  were  the  liturgical  colours  prescribed. 
Jhit  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  medieval  pontifical  glove 
was  the  ornament  {iaseOus,  fitnUa^  monile^  paraiura)  set  in  the 
nuddl&of  the  back  of  the  glove.  This  was  usually  a  small  plaque 
of  metal,  enamelled  or  jewelled,  generally  round,  but  sometimes 
Bquazc  or  irregular  in  shape.  Sometimes  embroidery  was  substi- 
tuted; still  more  rardy  the  whole  glove  was  covered,  even  to  the 
fingers,  with  elaborate  needlework  designs. 

Utuigjcal  gloves  have  not  been  worn  by  Anglican  bishops  since 
the  Reformation,  though  th^  are  occasionally  represented  as 

wearing  them  on  their  effigies. 

See  J.  Braun^.J.,i>M  liiurgiuhi  Gewandmng  (Freibuq^  tm  Breiseau, 
>907}»  PP<  3S9*3S3>  wheie  many  beautiful  examples  are  lUuatrated. 

Manufadure  of  Chtes. — Three  countries,  according  to  an  old 
proverb,  contribute  to  the  making  of  a  good  glove — Spain 
dressing  the  leather,  France  cutting  it  and  England  sewing  it. 
But  the  manufacture  of  gloves  was  not  introduced  into  Great 
Britain  till  the  loth  or  nth  century.  The  incorporation  of 
Rovers  of  Perth  was  chartered  in  X165,  and  in  1 190  a  glove- 
makers'  gild  was  formed  in  France,  with  the  object  of  regulating 
the  trade  and  ensuring  good  workmanship.  The  glovers  of 
London  in  1349  framed  their  ordinances  and  had  them  approved 
by  the  corporation,  the  dty  regulations  at  that  time  fizkag  the 
price  of  a  pair  of  common  sheepskin  gloves  at  id.  In  1464,  when 
the  gild  received  armorial  bearings,  they  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  very  strong,  but  apparently  their  position  improved  sub- 
sequently  and  in  1638  they  were  incorporated  as  a  new  company. 
In  1580  It  is  recorded  that  botL  French  and  Spanish  gloves  were 
on  sale  in  London  shops,  and  in  x66x  a  company  of  glovers  was 
incorporated  at  Worcester,  which  still  remains  an  important  seat 
of  the  English  glove  industry.  In  America  the  manufacture  of 
^vcs  dates  from  about  1760,  when  Sir  William  Johnson  brought 
over  several  families  of  glove  makers  from  Perth;  these  settled 
IB  Fulton  county.  New  York,  which  is  now  the  largest  seat  of  the 
glove  trade  in  the  United  States. 

Gloves  mav  be  divided  into  two  distinct  categories,  accordine  as 
thoe  are  made  of  leather  or  are  woven  or  knitted  from  fibres  sucn  as 
■alk,  mooH  or  cotton.  The  manufacture  of  the  latter  kinds  is  a  branch 
of  the  hosiery  industry.  For  leather  gloves  skins  of  various  aninuils 
are  emploved — deer,  calves,  sheep  and  lambs,  goats  and  kids,  Ac — 
bot  Idas  nave  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  production  of  many  of 
the  "  kid  gloves  "  of  commerce.  The  skins  are  prepared  and  dressed 
by  spcdaTproccases  (see  LBA'riiBR)  before  going  to  the  glove-maker 
to  be  cut,-  Owing  to  the  elastic  character  of  the  matcrialthe  cutting 
is  a  ddicate  operation,  and  long^  practice  is  requiretj  before  a  man 
becomes  expert  at  it.  Formerly  it  was  done  bv  shears/  the  workmen 
following  an  outline  marked  on  the  leather,  out  now  steel  dies  are 
nniverwly  empjoyed  not  only  for  the  bodies  of  the  gloves  but  also 
for  the  thumb-pieces  and  fourchettes  or  sides  of  the  fingers.  .When 
huuA  sewing  is  employed  the  pieces  to  be  sewn  together  are  placed 
between  a  pair  of  jaws,  the  holding  edges  of  which  are  serrated  with 
fine  saw-teeth,  and  the  sewer  by  passing  the  needle  forwards  and 
backwards  between  each  of  these  teeth  secures  neat  uniform  stitching. 
But  sewing  machines  are  now  widely  emploved  on  the  work.  The 
labour  of  making  a  glove  b  much  subdivided,  diiTerent  operators 
sewing  different  pieces,  and  others  again  embroidering  the  back, 
forming  the  button-holes.attaching  the  buttons, &c.  After  the  gloves 
are  completed,  they  undergo  the  process  of  "  laying  off,"  in  which 
they  are  drawn  over  metal  forms,  shaped  like  a  hand  and  heated 
■oicmally  by  steam;  in  this  way  they  are  finallsr  smoothed  and 
shaped  befoce  being  wrapped  in  paper  and  packed  in  boxes. 

oloves  made  of  thin  indiarubber  or  of  white  cotton  are  worn  by 
some  surgeons  while  performing  operations,  on  account  of  the  ease 
wHh  which  they  can  be  throughly  sterilized. 

GLOVEB,  SIR  JOHN  HAWLEY  (i839-x8^s)>  captain  in  the 
British  navy,  entered  the  service  in  1841  and  parsed  his  examina- 
tkm  as  lieutenant  in  1849,  but  did  not  receive  a  commission  till 
May  x8^x.  He  served  oh  various  stations,  and  was  wounded 
severely  In  aa  action  with  the  Burmese  at  Donabew  (4th 
February  1853).  But  his  reputation  was  not  gained  at  sea  and 
as  a  naind  officer,  but  on  shore  and  as  an  administrative  official 
in  the  agonies.  During  his  years  of  service  as  lieutenant  in  the 
navy  be  had  had  considerable  experience  of  the  coast  of  Africa, 
and  bad  taken  part  in  the  expedition  of  Dr  W.  B.  Baikie  (1824- 
1864)  up  the  Niger.  On  the  41st  of  April  1863  he  was  appointed 
administrator  of  the  government  of  Lagos,  and  in  that  capacity, 
or  as  oolooial  tecretary,  be  remained  there  till  1872.  During  this 


137 

period  he  had  been  much  onployed  in  repelling  the  marauding 
incursions  of  the  Ashantis.  When  the  Aahanti  war  broke  out 
in  1873,  Captain  Glover  undertook  the  hazardous  and  doubtful 
task  of  organizing  the  native  tribes,  whom  hatred  of  the  Ashantis 
might  be  expect^  to  make  favourable  to  the  British  authorities-' 
to  the  extent  at  least  to  which  their  fears  would  allow  them  to  act. 
His  services  were  accepted,  and  in  September  of  1873  ^^  landed  at 
Cape  Coastf  and,  after  forming  a  small  trustworthy  force  of 
Hausa,  marched  to  Accfa.  His  influence  sufficed  to  gather  a 
numerous  native  force,  but  neither  he  nor  anybody  else  could 
overcome  their  abject  terror  of  the  ferocious  Ashantis  to  the 
extent  of  making  them  fight.  In  January  1874  Captain  Glover 
waff  able  to  render  some  assistance  in  the  talcing  of  Kumasi, 
but  it  was  at  the  head  of  a  Hausa  force.  His  services  were 
acknowbdged  by  the  thanks  of  parliament  and  by  his  creation 
as  G.C.M.G.  In  1875  ^^  ^^  appointed  governor  of  Newfound- 
land and  held  the  post  till  i88t,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the 
Leeward  Islands.  He  returned  to  Newfoundland  in  1883,  and 
died  in  London  on  the  30th  Sq>tember  1885. 
Lady  Glover's  Life  of  her  husband  appeared  in  1897. 

GLOVBR^RICHARD  (1712-1785),  English  poet,  son  of  Richard 
Glover,  a  Hamburg  merchant,  was  born  in  London  in  171  a.  He 
was  educated  at  Cheam  in  Surr^.  While  there  he  wrote  in  his 
sixteenth  year  a  poem  to  the  memory  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  which 
was  prefixed  by  Dr  Pemberton  to  his  View  o/NewUm*s  Philosophy, 
published  in  17  28.  In  1737  he  published  an  epic  poem  in  praise 
of  liberty,  LecnidaSf  whidi  was  thought  to  have  a  special  reference 
to  the  politics  of  the  time;  and  being  warmly  commended  by  the 
prince  of  Wales  and  his  court,  it  soon  passed  through  several 
editions.  In  1739  Gk>ver  published  a  poem  entitled  London,  or 
the  Progress  of  Commerce;  and  in  the  same  year,  with  a  view  to 
exciting  the  nation  against  the  Spaniards,  he  wrote  a  spirited 
ballad,  Hosier's  Ghost,  very  popular  in  its  day.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  two  tragedies,  Boadicea  (1753)  and  Medea  (1761), 
written  in  dose  imitation  of  Greek  models.  The  success  of 
Glover's  Lecnidas  led  him  to  take  considerable  interest  in  politics, 
and  in  1761  he  entered  parliament  as  member  for  Weymouth. 
He  died  on  the  2Sth  of  November  1785.  The  Athenaid,  an  epic  in 
thirty  books,  was  published  in  1787,  and  his  diary,  entitled 
Memoirs  of  a  distinguished  literary  and  political  Character  from 
1743  to  1757,  appeared  in  1813.  Glover  was  one  of  the  reputed 
authors  of  Junius;  but  his  claims — which  were  advocated  in  an 
Inquiry  concerning  the  author  of  the  Letters  of  Junius  (18x5),  by 
R.  Duppa — rest  on  very  slight  grounds. 

GLOVERSVILLE,  a  dty  of  Fulton  county,  New  York, 
U.S.A.,  at  the  foot-hills  of  the  Adirondacks,  about  55  m.  N.W. 
of  Albany.  Pop.  (1890)  X3,864;  (1900)  18,349,  of  whom  2542 
were  fordgn-bom;  (X910  census)  20,642.  It  is  served  by 
the  Fonda,  Johnstown  &  Gloversvillc  railway  (connecting 
at  Fonda,  about  9  m.  distant,  with  the  New  York  Central), 
and  by  dectric  lines  connecting  with  Johnstown,  Amsterdam 
and  Schenectady.  The  city  has  a  public  library  (26,000 
volumes  in  1908),  the  Nathan  Littauer  memorial  hospital, 
a  state  armoury  and  a  fine  government  building.  Gloversvillc 
is  the  principal  glove-manufacturing  centre  in  the  United 
States.  In  X900  Fulton  county  produced  more  than  57%, 
and  Gloversvillc  38-8%,  of  all  the  leather  gloves  and  mittens 
made  in  the  United  States;  in  X905  Gloversville  produced  29-9% 
of  the  leather  gloves  and  mittens  made  in  the  United  States, 
its  products  being  valued  at  $5,302,196.  Gloversville  has  more 
than  a  score  of  tanneries  and  leather-finishing  factories,  and 
manufactures  fur  goods.  In  1905  the  dty's  total  factory  product 
was  valued  at  $9,340,763.  The  extraordinary  localization  of  the 
glove-making  industry  in  Gloversville,  Johnstown  and  other 
parts  of  Fulton  county,  is  an  inddcnt  of  much  interest  in  the 
economic  history  of  the  United  States.  The  industry  seems  to 
have  had  its  origin  among  a  colony  of  Perthshire  families, 
induding  many  glove-makers,  who  were  settled  in  this  region  by 
Sir  William  Johnson  about  X760.  For  many  years  the  entire 
product  seems  to  have  been  disposed  of  in  the  neighbourhood, 
but  about  X809  the  goods  began  to  find  more  distant  ma**' 
and  by  1825  the  industry  was  firmly  established  on  a  pro* 


138 


GLOW-WORM— GLUCK 


busts,  the  trade  being  handed  down  from  father  to  son.  An 
interestinig  phase  o(  the  development  is  that,  in  addition  to  the 
factory  woi^,  a  large  amount  of  the  industry  is  in  the  hands  of 
"  liome  workers "  both  in  the  town  and  country  districts. 
Gloversville,  settled  originally  about  1770,  was  known  for  some 
time  as  Stump  City,  its  present  name  being  adopted  in  183  a. 
It  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1851  and  was  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1890. 

OLOW<-WOR1I»  the  popular  name  of  the  wingless  female  of 
the  beetle  Lampyris  noctilnca,  whose  power  of  emitting  light  has 
been  familiar  for  many  centunes.  llie  luminous  organs  of  the 
glow-worm  consist  of  cells  similar  to  those  of  the  fat-body, 
grouped  into  paired  masses  in  the  ventral  region  of  the  hinder 
abdominal  segments.  The  light  given  out  by  the  wingless 
female  insect  is  believed  to  serve  as  an  attraction  to  the  flying 
male,  whose  luminous  organs  remain  in  a  rudimentary  condition. 
The  common  glow-worm  is  a  widespread  European  and  Siberian 
insect,  generally  distributed  in  England  and  ranging  in  Scotland 
northwards  to  the  Tay,  but  unknown  in  Ireland.  Exotic  ^>ccies 
of  Lampyris  are  similarly  luminous,  and  light-giving  organs  are 
present  in  many  genera  of  the  family  Lampyridae  £rom  various 
parts  of  the  world.  Frequently — as  in  the  south  European  Luciola 
ilalka^-hoih  sexes  of  the  beetle  are  provided  with  wings,  and  both 
male  and  female  emit  light.  These  luminous,  winged  Lampjrrids 
are  generally  known  as  "  fire-flies. "  In  ooircspondence  with  their 
power  of  emitting  light,  the  insects  are  nocturnal  in  habit, 

Elongate  centipedes  of  the  family  Geopkilidaej  certain  species 
of  which  are  luminous,  arc  sometimes  mistaken  for  the  true 
glow-worm. 

GLOXINIA,  a  charming  decorative  plant,  botanically  a  species 
of  Sinningia  {S,  spcciosa)^  a  member  of  the  natural  order  Ges- 
neraceae  and  a  native  of  Brazil.  The  species  has  given  rise  under 
cultivation  to  numerous  forms  showing  a  wonderful  variety  of 
colour,  and  hybrid  forms  have  also  been  obtained  between  these 
and  other  species  of  Sinningia.  A  good  strain  of  seed  will 
produce  many  superb  and  charmingly  coloured  varieties,  and 
if  sown  early  in  spring,  in  a  temperature  of  65*  at  night,  they 
may  be  shifted  on  into  6-in.  pots,  and  in  these  may  be  flowered 
during  the  sunmier.  The  bulbs  arc  kept  at  rest  through  the 
winter  in  dry  sand,  in  a  temperature  of  50°,  and  to  yield  a  succession 
should  be  started  at  intervals,  say  at  the  end  of  February  and 
the  beginning  of  April.  To  prolong  the  blooming  season,  use 
weak  manure  water  when  the  flower-buds  show  themselves. 

OLUCINUH,  an  alternative  name  for  Beryllium  {q.v.).  When 
L.  N.  Vauquelin  in  1798  published  in  the  Annates  de  ckimie  an 
accoimt  of  a  new  earth  obtained  by  him  from  beryl  he  refrained 
from  giving  the  substance  a  name,  but  in  a  note  to  his  paper 
the  editors  suggested  glucine,  from  yXvk6y,  sweet,  in  reference 
to  the  taste  of  its  salts,  whence  the  name  Glucinum  or  Glucinium 
(symbol  Gl.  or  sometimes  G).  The  name  beryllium  was  given 
to  the  metal  by  German  chemists  and  was  generally  used  until 
recently,  when  the  earlier  name  was  adopted. 

OLUCK,^  CHRISTOPH  WILUBALD  (1714-1787),  operatic 
composer,  German  by  his  nationality,  French  by  his  place  in  art, 
was  born  at  Weidenwang,  near  Neumarkt,  in  the  upper 
Palatinate,  on  the  and  of  July  17 14.  He  belonged  to  the  lower 
middle  class,  his  father  being  gamekeeper  to  Prince  Lobkowitz; 
but  the  boy's  education  was  not  ne^ectcd  on  that  account. 
From  his  twelfth  to  his  eighteenth  year  he  frequented  the 
Jesuit  school  of  Kommotau  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Prince 
Lobkowitz's  estate  in  Bohemia,  where  be  not  only  received  a 
good  general  education,  but  also  had  lessons  in  music.  At  the 
age  of  eighteen  Gluck  went  to  Prague,  where  he  continued  his 
musical  studies  under  Czemohorsky,  and  maintained  himself 
by  the  exercise  of  his  art,  sometimes  in  the  very  humble  capacity 
of  fiddler  at  village  fairs  and  dances.  Through  the  introductions 
of  Prince  Lobkowitz,  however,  he  soon  gained  access  to  the  best 
families  of  the  Austrian  nobility;  and  when  in  1736  he  proceeded 
to  Vienna  he  was  hospitably  received  at  his  protector's  palace. 
Here  he  met  Prince  Melzi,  an  ardent  lover  of  music,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Milan,  continuing  his  education  under  Giovanni 
*  Not,  tfi  frequently  spelt,  GIQck. 


Battista  San  Martini,  a  great  musical  historian  and'  contra- 
puntist, who  was  also  famous  in  his  own  day  as  a  compoaer  of 
church  and  chamber  music.  We  soon  fijid  Gluck  producing 
operas  at  the  rapid  rate  necessitated  by  the  omnivcttous  taste 
of  the  Italian  public  in  those  days.  Nine  of  these  works  were 
produced  at  various  Italian  theatres  between  1741  and  1745. 
Although  their  artistic  value  was  small,  th^r  were  so  favourably 
received  that  in  1745  Gluck  was  invited  to  London  to  compose 
for  the  Ha3anarket.  The  first  opera  produced  there  was  ciUled 
Lm  CadtUa  dei  giganii;  it  was  foUowoi  by  a  revised  version  of 
one  of  his  earlier  operas.  Gluck  also  appeared  in  London  as  « 
performer  on  the  musical  glasses  (see  Habmonica). 

The  success  of  his  two  operas,  as  well  as  that  of  a  pasticcio 
(».e.  a  collection  of  favourite  arias  set  to  a  new  libretto)  entitled 
Piramo  e  TishCy  was  anything  but  brilliant,  and  he  accordingly 
left  London.  But  his  stay  in  England  was  not  without  important 
consequences  for  his  subsequent  career.  Gluck  at  this  time  was 
rather  less  than  an  ordinary  producer  oi  Italian  opera.  Handd's 
well-known  saying  that  Gluck  "  knew  no  more  counterpoint 
than  his  cook  ^'  must  be  taken  in  connexion  with  the  less  well- 
known  fact  that  that  cook  was  an  excellent  bass  singer  who 
performed  in  many  of  Handel's  own  operas.  But  it  indicates 
the  musical  reason  of  Gluck's  failure,  while  Gluck  himself  learnt 
the  dramatic  reason  through  his  surprise  at  finding  that  arias 
which  in  their  original  setting  had  bcoi  much  api^uded  lost 
all  effect  when  adapted  to  new  words  in  the  pasticcio.  Irrdevaat 
as  Handel's  criticism  appears,  it  was  not  without  bearing  on 
Gluck's  difiiculties.  The  use  of  counterpoint  has  very  little 
necessary  connexion  with  contrapuntal  display;  its  rnl  and 
final  cause  is  a  certain  depth  of  harmonic  expression  which  Gluck 
attained  only  in  his  most  dramatic  moments,  and  for  want  of 
which  he,  even  in  his  finest  worksy  sometimes  moved  very  lamely. 
And  in  later  years  his  own  mature  view  of  the  importance  of 
harmony,  which  he  upheld  in  long  arguments  with  Gr£try,  who 
believed  only  in  melody,  shows  that  he  knew  that  the  dramatic 
expression  of  music  must  strike  below  the  surface.  At  this 
early  period  he  was  simply  prpdudng  Handelian  opera  in  an 
amateurish  style,  suggesting  an  unsuccessful  imitation  of  Hasse; 
but  the  failure  of  his  pasticcio  is  as  significant  to  us  as  it  was  to 
him,  since  it  shows  that  already  the  effect  of  his  music  depended 
upon  its  characteristic  treatment  of  dramatic  situations.  This 
characterizing  power  was  as  yet  not  directly  evident,  and  it 
needed  all  the  influence  of  the  new  instrumental  resources  of 
the  rising  sonata-forms  before  music  could  pass  out  of  what  we 
may  call  its  architectural  and  decorative  period  and  enter  into 
dramatic  regions  at  all. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  chamber  music  of  his  master, 
San  Martini,  had  already  indicated  to  Gluck  a  new  direction 
which  was  more  or  less  incompatible  with  the  older  art;  and 
there  is  nothing  discreditable  either  to  Gluck  or  to  his  con- 
temporaries in  the  failure  of  his  earlier  works.  Had  the  young 
composer  been  successful  in  the  ordinary  opera  stria,  there  is 
reason  to  fear  that  the  great  dramatic  reform,  initiated  by  him, 
might  not  have  taken  place.  The  critical  temper  of  the  London 
public  fortunately  averted  this  calamity.  It  may  also  be  assumed 
that  the  musical  atmosphere  of  the  English  capital,  and  especially 
the  great  works  of  Handel,  were  not  without  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  young  composer.  But  of  still  greater  importance  in 
this  respect  was  a  short  trip  to  Paris,  where  Gluck  became  for 
the  first  time  acquainted  with  the  classic  traditions  and  the 
declamatory  style  of  the  French  opera — a  sphere  of  music  in 
which  his  own  greatest  triumphs  were  to  be  achieved.  Of 
these  great  issues  little  trace,  however,  is  to  be  found  in  the  works 
produced  by  Gluck  during  the  fifteen  years  after  his  return  from 
England.  In  this  period  Gluck,  in  a  long  course  of  works  by 
no  means  free  from  the  futile  old  traditions,  gained  technicitl 
experience  and  important  patronage,  though  hb  success  was 
not  uniform.  His  first  opera  written  for  Vienna,  La  Semvramida 
riconosciuta^  b  again  an  ordinary  opera  seria,  and  little  more 
can  be  said  of  Tclemacco,  althou^  thirty  years  later  Gluck  was 
able  to  use  most  of  its  overture  and  an  en^lrgetic  duet  in  one  of 
his  greatest  works^  Armide, 


GLUCK 


139 


Gluck  settled  permanently  at  Vienna  in  1756,  having  two 
yean  previously  been  appointed  court  chapel-master,  with  a 
salary  of  3000  florins,  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  He  had 
already  received  the  order  of  knighthood  from  the  pope  in  conse- 
quence of  the  successful  production  of  two  of  his  works  in  Rome. 
During  the  long  interval  from  1756  to  1762  Gluck  seems  to  have 
matured  his  plans  for  the  reform  of  the  opera;  and,  barring  a 
ballet*  named  Dim  Giovanni,  and  some  airs  nouveaux  to  French 
worda  with  pianoforte  accompaniment,  no  compositions  of  any 
importance  have  to  be  recorded.  Several  later  piices  d'occasion, 
such  as  //  Trionfo.  di  Clelia  (1763),  are  still  written  in  the  old 
manner,  though  already  in  1763  Orjfeo  ed  Euridictihovrs  that  the 
composer  had  entered  upon  a  new  career.  Gluck  had  for  the 
first  time  deserted  Metastasio  for  Raniero  Calzabi^,  who,  as 
Vernon  Lee  suggests,  was  in  all  probability  the  immediate  cause 
of  the  formation  of  Gluck's  new  ideas,  as  he  was  a  hot-headed 
dramatic  theorist  with  a  violent  dislike  for  Metastasio,  who  had 
hitherto  dominated  the  whole  sphere  of  operatic  libretto. 

Quite  apart  from  its  significance  in  the  history  of  dramatic 
music,  Orpheus  is  a  work  which,  by  its  intrinsic  beauty^  commands 
the  highest  admiration.  Orpheus's  air,  Che  Jaro,  is  known  to 
every  one;  but  still  finer  is  the  great  scena  in  which  the  poet's 
song  softens  even  the  omJ^e  sdegnost  of  Tartarus.  The  ascending 
passion  of  the  entries  of  the  solo  {Dtk  I  ptacaten;  Mille  ptne; 
lien  liranne),  interrupted  by  the  harsh  but  gradually  softening 
exclamations  of  the  Furies,  is  of  the  highest  dramatic  effect. 
These  melodies,  moreover,  as  well  as  every  declamatory  passage 
assigned  to  Orpheus,  are  made  subservient  to  the  purposes  of 
dramatic  characterization;  that  is,  they  could  not  possibly 
be  assigned  to  any  other  person  in  the  drama,  any  more  than 
Hamlet's  monologue  could  be  spoken  by  Polonius.  It  is  in  this 
power  of  muucally  realizing  a  character^— a  power  all  but  un- 
known in  the  serious  opera  of  his  day — ^that  Gluck's  genius 
as  a  dramatic  composer  is  chiefly  shown.  After  a  short  relapse 
into  his  earlier  'manner,  Gluck  followed  up  his  Orpheus  by  a 
second  classical  music-drama  (1767)  named  AUeste.  In  his 
dedication  of  the  score  to  the  grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  he  fully 
ezpre»ed  his  aims,  as  well  as  the  reasons  for  his  total  breach  with 
the  old  traditions.  "  I  shall  try,"  he  wrote,  "  to  reduce  music 
to  Its  real  function,  that  of  seconding  poetry  by  intensifying 
the  ei^ression  of  sentiments  and  the  interest  of  situations 
without  interrupting  the  action  by  needless  ornament.  I  have 
accordingly  taken  care  not  to  interrupt  the  singer  in  the  heat  of 
the  dialogue,  to  wait  for  a  tedious  ritomel^  nor  do  I  allow  him  to 
stop  on  a  sonorous  vowel,  in  the  middle  of  a  phrase,  in  order  to 
show  the  nimbleness  of  a  beautiful  voice  in  a  long  cadenta." 
Such  theories,  and  the  stem  consistency  with  which  they  were 
carried  out,  were  little  to  the  taste  of  the  pleasure-loving 
Vknnese;  and  the  success  of  AUesie,as  well  as  that  of  Paris 
and  HeUna,  which  followed  two  years  later,  was  not.  such  as 
Glttck  had  desired  and  expected.  He  therefore  eageriy  accepted 
ibe  chance  of  finding  a  home  for  his  art  in  the  centreof  intellectual 
and  niore  especially  dramatic  life,  Paris.  Such  a  chance  was 
opened  to  him  through  the  bailli  Le  Blanc  du  RouUet,  attach^  of 
the  French  embassy  at  Vienna^  and  a  musical  amateur  who 
entered  into  Gluck's  ideas  with  enthusiasm.  A  classic  opera 
for  the  Paris  stage  was  accordingly  projected,  and  the  friends 
fised  upon  Racine's  Ipkiginie  en  A  ulide.  After  some  difficulties, 
overcome  chiefly  by  the  intervention  of  Gluck's  former  pupil 
the  dauphiness  Marie  Antoinette,  the  opera  was  at  last  accepted 
and  performed  at  the  Acad^mie  de  Musique,  on  the  xgth  of 
April  1774. 

The  great  importance  of  the  new  work  was  at  once  perceived 
by  the  musical  amateurs  of  the  French  capital,,  and  a  hot  con- 
troversy  on  the  merits  of  iphiglnie  ensued,  in  which  some  of  the 
leading  literary  men  of  France  took  part.  Amongst  the  opponents 
of  Glock  were  not  only  the  admirers  of  Italian  vocalization  and 
sweetness,  but  also  the  adherents  of  the  earlier  French  school,  who 
refused  to  see  in  the  new  composer  the  legitimate  successor  of 
Lolli  and  Ramean.  Marmontel,  Laharpe  and  D'Alembert  were 
his  opponents,  the  Abb£  Amaud  and  others  his  enthusiastic 
friends.    Rousseau  took  a  peculiar  position  in  the  struggle. 


In  his  early  writings  he  is  a  violent  partisan  of  Italian  music, 
but  when  Gluck  himself  appeared  as  the  French  champion 
Rotisseau  acknowledged  the  great  composer's  genius;  although 
he  did  not  always  understand  it,  as  for  example  when  he  suggested 
that  in  AkesU,  "  Divinitis  du  Styx,"  perhaps  the  most  majestic 
of  all  Gluck's  arias,  ought  to  have  been  set  as  a  rondo.  Neverthe- 
less in  a  letter  to  Dr  Bumey,  written  shortly  before  his  death, 
Rousseau  gives  a  close  and  appreciative  analysis  of  Alcestc, 
the  first  Italian  version  of  which  Gluck  had  submitted  to  him 
for  suggestions;  and  when,  on  the  first  performance  of  the 
piece  not  being  received  favourably  by  the  Parisian  audience, 
the  composer  exclaimed,  "  Akeste  est  lomUe"  Rousseau  is  said 
to  have  comforted  him  with  the  flattering  bonmot,  "  Oui,  mats 
die  est  iombie  du  del"  The  contest  received  a  still  more  personal 
character  when  Picdnni,  a  celebrated  and  by  no  means  incapable 
composer,  came  to  Paris  as  the  champion  of  the  Italian  party 
at  the  invitation  of  Madame  du  Barry,  who  held  a  rival  court  to 
that  of  the  young  princess  (see  Opesa).  As  a  dramatic  contro- 
versy it  suggests  a  parallel  with  the  Wagnerian  and  anti- 
Wagnerian  warfare  of  a  later  age;  but  there  is  no  such  radical 
difference  between  Gluck's  and  Piccinni's  musical  methods  as 
the  comparison  would  suggest.  Gluck  was  by  far  the  better 
musician,  but  his  deficiencies  in  musical  technique  were  of  a 
Kind  which  contemporaries  could  perceive  as  easily  as  they  could 
perceive  Picdnni's.  Both  composers  were  remarkable  inventors 
of  melody,  and  both  had  the  gift  of  making  incorrect  music 
sound  agreeable.  Gluck's  indisputable  dramatic  power  might 
be  plausibly  dismissed  as  irrelevant  by  upholders  of  music  for 
music's  sake,  even  if  Piccinni  himself  had  not  chosen,  as  he 
did,  ta  assimilate  every  feature  in  Gluck's  style  that  he  could 
understand.  The  rivalry  between  the  two  comix>scrs  was  soon 
developed  into  a  quarrel  by  the  skilful  engineering  of  Gluck's 
enemies.  In  1777  Piccinni  was  given  a  libretto  by  Marmontel 
on  the  subject  of  Roland,  to  Gluck's  Intense  disgust,  as  he  had 
already  begun  an  opera  on  that  subject  himself.  This,  and  the 
failure  of  an  attempt  to  show  his  command  of  a  lighter  style  by 
furbishing  up  some  earlier  works  at  the  instigation  of  Marie 
Antoinette,  inspired  Gluck  to  produce  his  Armide,  which  appeared 
four  months  before  Piccinni's  Roland  was  ready,  and  raised  a 
storm  of  controversy,  admiration  and  abuse.  Gluck  did  not 
anticipate  Wagner  more  clearly  in  his  dramatic  reforms  than  in 
his  caustic  temper;  and,  as  in  Gluck's  own  estimation  the 
difference  between  Armide  and  Alceste  is  that  "  /'«»  {Alceste)i 
doiifaire  pleurtr  et  V  autre  f aire  iprouverunevolupiueuse  sensation,** 
it  was  extremely  annoying  for  him  to  be  told  by  Laharpe  that 
he  had  made  Armide  a  sorceress  instead  of  an  enchantress,  and 
that  her' part  was  "  utte  criaillerie  monotone  et  fatiguante."  He 
replied  to  Laharpe  in  a  long  pubh'c  letter  worthy  of  Wagner  in 
its  venomous  sarcasm  and  its  tremendous  value  as  an  advertise- 
ment for  its  recipient. 

Gluck's  next  work  was  Ipkiginie  en  Tauride,  the  success 
of  which  finally  disposed  of  Piccinni,  who  produced  a  work 
on  the  same  subject  at  the  same  time  and  who  is  said  to  have 
acknowledged  Gluck's  superiority.  Gluck's  next  work  was 
£cho  et  Narcisse,  the  comparative  failure  of  which  greatly 
disappointed  him;  and  during  the  composition  of  another  opera, 
Les  Danaldes,  an  attack  of  apoplexy  compelled  him  to  give  up 
work.  He  left  Paris  for  Vienna,  where  he  lived  for  several 
years  in  dignified  leisure,  disturbed  only  by  his  dedining  health. 
He  died  on  the  isth  of  November  1787.         (F.  H.;  D.  F.  T.) 

The  great  interest  of  the  dramatic  aspect  of  Gluck's  reforms 
is  apt  to  overshadow  his  merit  as  a  musician,  and  yet  in  some 
ways  to  idealize  it>  One  is  tempted  to  regard  him  as  condoning 
for  technical  musical  deficiencies  by  sheer  dramatic  power, 
whereas  unprejudiced  study  of  his  work  shows  that  where  his 
dramatic  power  asserts  Itself  there  is  no  lack  of  musical  technique. 
Indeed  only  a  great  musician  could  so  reform  opera  as  to  give  it 
scope  for  dramatic  power  at  all.  Where  Gluck  differs  from  the 
greatest  musidans  is  in  his  absolute  dependence  on  literature 
for  his  inspiration.  Where  his  librettist  failed  him  (as  in  his 
last  complete  work,  £cho  et  Narcisse),  he  could  hardly  write 
tolerably  good  music;  and,  even  in  the  fiinest  works  of  his  French 


I4-0 


GLUCK 


period,  the  less  emotional  situations  are  sometimes  set  to  music 
which  has  little  interest  except  as  a  document  in  the  history  of 
the  art.  This  must  not  be  taken  to  mean  n^rely  that  Gluck 
could  not,  like  Mozart  and  nearly  all  the  great  song-writers, 
set  good  music  to  a  bad  text.  Such  inability  would  prove 
Gluck 's  superior  literary  taste  without  casting  a  slur  on  his 
musicianship.  But  it  points  to  a  certain  weakness  as  a  musician 
that  Gluck  could  not  be  inspired  except  by  the  more  thxilling 
portions  of  his  libretti.  When  he  was  in^ired  there  was  no 
question  that  he  was  the  first  and  greatest  writer  of  dramatic 
music  before  Mozart.  To  begin  with,  be  could  invent  sublime 
melodies;  and  his  power  of  producing  great  musical  effects  by 
the  simplest  means  was  nothing  short  of  Handclian.  Moreover, 
in  his  peculiar  sphere  he  deserves  the  title  generally  accorded 
to  Haydn  of  "  father  of  modem  orchestration."  It  is  misleading 
to  say  that  he  was  the  first  to  use  the  timbre  of  instruments 
with  a  sense  of  emotional  effect,  for  Bach  and  Handel  well  knew 
how  to  give  a  whole  aria  or  whole  chorus  peculiar  tone  by  means 
of  a  definite  scheme  of  instrumentation.  But  Gluck  did  not  treat 
instruments  as  part  of  a  decorative  design,  any  more  than  he  so 
treated  musical  forms.  Just  as  his  sense  of  musical  form  is  that 
of  Philipp  Emmanuel  Bach  and  of  Mozart,  so  is  his  treatment 
of  instrumental  tone-colour  a  thing  that  changes  with  every 
shade  of  feeling  in  the  dramatic  situation,  and  not  in  acoordande 
with  any  purely  decorative  scheme.  To  accompany  an  aria 
with  strings,  oboes  and  flutes,  was,  for  example,  a  perfectly 
ordinary  procedure;  nor  was  there  anything  unusual  in  making 
the  wind  instruments  play  in  unison  with  the  strings  for  the 
first  part  of  the  aria,  and  writing  a  passage  for  one  or  more  of 
them  in  the  middle  section.  But  it  was  an  unheard-of  thing  to 
make  this  passage  consist  of  long  appoggiaturas  once  every  two 
bars  in  rising  sequence  on  the  first  oboe,  answered  by  deep 
piMucato  bass  notes,  while  Agamemnon  in  despair  cries: 
"  J^entends  retentir  dans  num  sein  U  cri  piaintif  de  la  nature" 
Some  of  Gluck's  most  forcible  effects  are  of  great  subtlety,  as, 
for  instance,  in  iphigjtnU  en  TauridCt  where  Orestes  tries  to 
reassure  himself  by  saying:  "  Le  calme  rentre  dans  man  ceeur" 
while  the  intensely  agitated  accompaniment  of  the  strings 
belies  him.  Again,  the  sense  of  orchestral  climax  shown  in  the 
Oracle  scene  in  Akcste  was  a  thing  inconceivable  in  older  music, 
uid  unsurpassed  in  artistic  and  dramatic  ^irit  by  any  modem 
composer.  Its  influence  in  Mozart's  Idomeneo  is  obvious  at  a 
first  glance. 

The  capacity  for  broad  melody  always  implies  a  true  sense 
of  form,  whether  that  be  developed  by  skill  or  not;  and  thus 
Gluck,  in  rejecting  the  convenient  formalities  of  older  styles 
of  opera,  was  not,  like  some  reformers,  without  something 
bettefr  to  substitute  for  them.  Moreover  he,  in  consultation  with 
his  13)rettist,  achieved  great  skill  in  hokiing  together  entire 
scenes,  or  even  entire  acts,  by  dramatically  apposite  repetitions 
of  short  arias  and  choruses.  And  thus  in  large  portions  of  his 
finest  works  the  music,  in  spite  of  frequent  full  doses,  seems  to 
move  pari  passu  with  the  drama  in  a  marmer  which  for  natural- 
ness uid  continuity  is  surpassed  only  by  the  finales  of  Mozart 
and  the  entire  operas  of  Wagner.  This  is  perhaps  most  noticeable 
in  the  second  act  of  Orfeo.  In  its  origiiud  Italian  version  both 
scenes,  that  in  Hades  and  that  in  Elysium,  are  indivisible  wholes, 
and  the  division  into  single  movements,  though  technically 
obvious,  is  aesthetically  only  a  natural  means  of  articulating 
the  stmcture..  The  unity  of  the  scene  in  Hades  extends,  in  the 
original  version,  even  to  the  key-system.  This  was  damaged 
when  Gluck  had  to  tran!^x>se  the  part  of  Orpheus  from  an  alto 
to  a  tenor  in  the  French  version.  And  here  we  have  one  of 
many  instances  in  which  the  improvements  his  French  experience 
enabled  him  to  make  in  his  great  Italian  works  were  not  alto^ 
gether  unmixed.  Little  harm,  however,  was  done  to  Orfeo 
which  has  not  been  easily  remedied  by  tran^iosing  Orpheus'a 
part  back  again;  and  in  a  suitable  compromise  between  the 
two  versbns  Orfeo  remains  Gluck's  most  perfect  and  inq>ired 
woric.  The  emotional  power  of  the  music  is  such  that  the 
inevitable  ^wiling  of  the  story  by  a  happy  ending  has  not  the 
a^>ect  of  mere  conventionality  which  it  had  in  cases  where  the 


music  produced  no  more  than  the  normal  effect  iipmi  x8th- 
century  audiences.  Moreover  Gluck's  genius  was  of  too  high 
an  order  for  him  to  be  less  successful  in  p<Htraying  a  sufficiently 
intense  happiness  than  in  portraying  grief.  He  failed  only  in 
what  may  be  called  the  business  capacities  of  artistic  technique; 
and  there  is  less  "  business  "  in  Orfeo  than  in  ahnost  any  other 
music-drama.  It  was  Gluck's  first  great  inq;>inaion,  and  his 
theories  had  not  had  time  to  take  action  in  paper  l^arfare. 
Akesle  contains  his  grandest  muuc  and  is  also  very  free  from 
weUc  pages;  but  in  its  original  Italian  verswn  the  third  act 
did  not  give  Gluck  scope  for  an  adequate  dimaz.  This  difficulty 
so  accentuated  itsdf  in  the  French  version  that  after  continual 
retouchings  a  part  for  Hercules  was,  in  Gludc's  absence,  added 
by  Gossec;  and  three  pages  of  Gludc's  music,  dealing  with  the 
supreme  crisis  where  Alceste  is  rescued  from  Hades  (either  by 
Apollo  or  by  Hercules)  were  no  longer  required  in  performance 
and  have  been  lost.  The  Italian  version  is  so  different  from  the 
French  that  it  caimot  help  us  to  restore  this  passage,  in  which 
Gluck's  music  now  stops  short  just  at  the  point  wh^  we  realize 
the  full  height  of  his  power.  The  comparison  between  the 
Italian  and  French  Alcesie  is  one  of  the  naost  interesting  that  can 
be  made  in  the  study  of  a  musician 's  devek^ment.  It  wouM  have 
been  far  easier  for  Gluck  to  write  a  new  opert.  if  be  had  not 
been  so  justly  attached  to  his  second'  Italian  masterpiece.  So 
radical  are  the  differences  that  in  retranslating  the  French 
libretto  into  Italian  for  performance  with  the  French  music 
not  one  line  of  Calzabigi's  original  text  can  be  retained^ 

In  Iphiginie  en  Aulide  and  Ipkightie  en  Tamiit,  Gluc^ 
shows  signs  that  the  controversies  aroused  by  his  methods 
began  to  interfere  with  his  musical  spontaneity.  He  had  not, 
in  Orfea^  gone  out  of  his  way  to  avoid  rondos,  or  we  daould  have 
bad  no  "  Che  faro  setaa  Euridke."  We  read  with  a  respectful 
smile  Gluck's  assurance  to  the  bailli  Le  Blanc  du  Roulkt  that 
"  you  would  not  believe  Armide  to  be  by  the  same  composer  " 
as  Alceste.  But  there  is  no  question  that  Armide  is  a  very  great 
work,  full  of  melody,  colour  and  dramatic  pomt;  and  that  Gluck 
has  availed  himself  of  every  suggestion  that  his  libretto  afforded 
for  orchestral  and  emotional  effects  of  an  entirely  different  type 
from  any  that  he  had  attempted  before.  And  it  is  haitUy 
relevant  to  blame  him  for  his  inability  to  write  erotic  music. 
In  the  first  place,  the  libretto  is  not  erotic,  though  the  subject 
would  no  doubt  become  so  if  treated  by  a  modem  poet.  In  the 
second  place  a  conflict  of  passions  (as,  for  instance,  where  Armide 
summons  the  demons  of  Hate  to  exorcise  love  from  her  heart, 
and  her  courage  fails  her  as  soon  as  they  begin)  has  never,  even 
in  Alceste,  been  treated  with  more  dramatic  musical  fom. 
The  work  as  a  whole  is  unequal,  partly  because  there  is  a  little 
too  much  action  in  it  to  suit  Gluck's  methods;  but  it  shows, 
as  docs  no  other  opera  until  Mozart's  Dou  Giovanni,  a  sense  of 
the  development  of  characters,  as  distinguished  from  the  mere 
presentation  of  them  as  already  fixed. 

In  Iphigtnie  en  Aulide  and  Iphigitne  en  Tauride,  the  very 
subtlety  of  the  finest  features  indicates  a  certain  seU-oonsdous- 
ness  which,  when  inspiration  is  lacking,  becomes  mannerism. 
Moreover,  in  both  cases  the  libretti,  though  skilfully  managed^ 
tell  a  ratb^r  more  complicated  story  than  those  which  Gluc^ 
had  hitherto  so  succesfully  treated;  and;  where  imipifation 
fails,  the  musical  technique  becomes  curious^  amateurish 
without  any  corresponding  naivete.  $till  these  wmka  are 
immortal,  aind  their  finest  passages  are  equal  to  anything  in 
Alceste  and  Orfeo.  £cho  et  Ifarcisse  we  must,  like  Ghick't 
contemporaries,  regard  as  a  failure.  As  in  Orfeo,  the  pathetic 
story  is  ruined  by  a  violent  happy  ending,  but  here  this  artistic 
disaster  takes  place  before  the  pathos  has  had  time  to  assert 
itself.  Gluck  had  no  opportunities  in  this  work  for  any  hi^er 
qualities,  musical  or  dramatic,  than  prettlness;  and  with  him 
beauty,  without  visible  emotion,  was  indeed  skin-deep.  It  is 
a  pity  that  the  plan  of  the  great  Pelletan-Damcke  critical 
idiiion  de  luxe  of  Gluck's  French  operas  forbids,  the  indusioa 
of  his  Italian  Paride  e  Elena,  his  third  opera  to  Calzabigi's 
libretto,  which  was  never  given  in  a  French  version;  for  there 
can  be  no  question  that,  whatever  he  owed  to  France,  the 


•• 


GLUCKSBURG— GLUCOSE 


i4t 


period   of  his  greatness  began  with  his  collaboration  with 
Calzablgi.  .         '  '  (D.F.T.) 

GLOGKSBURO,  a  town  of  Geiniany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
pi  Schleswig-Holstein,  romantically  situated  among  pine  woods 
on  the  Flensburg  Fjord  o£f  the  Baltic,  6  m.  N.E.  from  Flensburg 
by  rail.  Pop.  (1905)  1 551.  It  has  a  Protestant  church  and  some 
small  manufactures  and  is  a  favourite  sea-bathing  resort.  The 
castle,  which  occupies  the  site  of  a  former  Cistercian  monastery, 
was,  from  1622  to  1779,  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Holstein- 
Sonderburg-Gliicksbuig,  passing  then  to  the  king  of  Denmark 
and  in  1866  to  Prussia.  King  Frederick  VII.  of  Denmark  died 
here  on  the  15th  of  November  1863. 

*  GLOGKSTADT,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Schleswig-Holstein,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  small  river  Rhin,  and  28  m.  N.W.  of  Allona, 
en  the  railway  from  Itzehoe  to  Elmshom.  Pop.  (1905)  6586. 
It  has  a  Protestant  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  a  handsome 
town-hall  (restored  in  1873-1874),  a  gymnasium,  a  provincial 
prison  and  a  penitentiary.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged 
in  commerce  and  fishing;  but  the  frequent  losses  from  inunda- 
lions  have  greatly  retarded  the  prosperity  of  the  town.  Glilck- 
stadt  was  founded  by  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  in  16x7,  and 
fortified  in  1620.  It  soon  became  an  important  trading  centre. 
In  1627-28  it  Was  besieged  for  fifteen  weeks  by  the  imperialists 
under  Tilly,  without  success.  In  1 814  it  was  blockaded  by  the 
allies  and  capitulated,  whereupon  its  fortifications  were  de- 
molished. In  1830  it  was  made  a  free  port.  It  came  into  the 
possession  of  Prussia  together  with  the  rest  of  Schleswig-Holstein 
in  1866. 

SetLnAt.Ciackstadt.  Btilrdge  wr  Cesckichte  dieser  SuuU  {Kiel, 
1854). 

GLUOOSB  (from  Gr.  7Xi;xfo,  sweet),  a  carbohydrate  of  thp 
formula  C«Hi^«;  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  aldehyde  of  sorbite. 
The  name  is  applied  in  commerce  to  a  complex  mixture  of 
carbohydrates  obtained  by  boiling  starch  with  dilute  mineral 
adds;  in  chemistry,  it  denotes,  with  the  prefixes  d,  I  and 
d-k-i  (or  Oi  the  dextro-rotatory,  lacvo-rotatory  and  inactive 
forms  of  the  definite  chemical  compound  defined  above.  The 
d  modification  is  of  the  commonest  occurrence,  the  other  forms 
being  only  known  as  synthetic  products;  for  this  reason  it  is 
usually  termed  gluc(»e,  simply;  alternative  names  are  dextrose, 
grape  sugar  and  diabetic  sugar,  in.  allusion  to  its  right-handed 
optical  rotation,  its  occurrence  in  large  quantity  in  grapes,  and 
in  the  urine  of  diabetic  patients  respectively.  In  the  vegetable 
kingdom  glucose  occurs,  always  in  admixture  with  fructose, 
in  many  fruits,  especially  grapes,  cherries,  bananas,  &c.;  and 
in  combination,  generally  with  phenols  and  aldehydes  belonging 
to  the  aromatic  series,  it  forms  an  extensive  class  of  compounds 
termed  glucosides.  It  appears  to  be  synthesized  in  the  plant 
tissues  from  carbon  dioxide  and  water,  formaldehyde  being  an 
intermediate  product;  or  it  may  be  a  hydrolytic  product  of  a 
glucosade  or  of  a  polysaccharose,  such  as  cane  sugar,  starch, 
ceUuIose,  &c.  In  the  plant  it  is  freely  converted  into  more 
complex  sugars,  poly-saccharoses  and  also  proteids.  In  the 
anlinal  kingdom,  also,  it  is  very  widely  distributed,  being  some- 
tiiBCf  a  normal  and  sometimes  a  pathological  constituent  of 
the  fluids  and  tissues;  in  particular,  it  is  present  in  large 
amount  in  the  urine  of  those  suffering  from  diabetes,  and 
may  be  present  in  nearly  all  the  body  fluids.  It  also  occurs  in 
honey,  the  white  appearance  of  candied  honey  being  due  to 
iu  separation. 

Pure  J-glucose,  which  may  be  obtained  synthetically  (sec 
Sucab)  or  by  adding  crystallized  cane  sugar  to  a  mixture  of 
80%  alcohol  and  iV  volume  of  fuming  hydrochloric  acid  so 
long  as  it  dissolves  on  shaking,  crystallizes  from  water  or  alcohol 
at  ordinary  temperatures  in  nodular  masses,  composed  of  minute 
nz-sided  ^tes,  and  containing  one  molecule  of  water  of  crystal- 
lization. This  product  melts  at  86°  C,  and  becomes  anhydrous 
when  heated  to  1 10°  C.  The  anhydrous  compound  can  also  be 
prepared,  as  hard  crusts  melting  at  146^  by  crystallizing  con- 
centrated aqueous  solutions  at  30^  to  35°.  It  is  very  soluble 
ia  water,  but  only  slightly  soluble  in  strong  alcohol.    Its  taste 


is  somewhat  sweet,  its  sweetening  power  being  estimated  at 
from  i  to  I  that  of  cane  sugar.  When  heated  to  above  200°  it 
turns  brown  and  produces  caramel,  a  substance  possessing  a 
bitter  taste,  and  used,  in  its  aqueous  solution  or  otherwise, 
under  various  trade  names,  for  colouring  confectionery,  spirits, 
&c.  The  specific  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarized  light  by 
glucose  solutions  is  characteristic.  The  specific  rotation  of  a* 
freshly  prepared  solution  is  205°,  but  this  value  gradually 
diminishes  to  52*5°,  24  hours  sufficing  for  the  transition  in  the 
cold,  and  a  few  minutes  when  the  solution  is  boiled.  This 
phenomenon  has  been  called  mutarotation  by  T,  M.  Lowry. 
The  specific  rotation  also  varies  with  the  coqccntration;  this 
is  due  to  the  dissociation  of  complex  molecules  into  simpler 
ones,  a  view  confirmed  by  cryoscopic  measurements. 

Glucose  may  be  estimated  by  means  of  the  polarimeter,  t.e. 
by  determining  the  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarization  of  a 
solution,  or,  chemically,  by  taking  advantage  of  its  property  of 
reducing  alkaline  copper  solutions.  If  a  glucose  solution  be 
added  to  copper  sulphate  and  much  alkali  added,  a  yellowish-red 
precipitate  of  cuprous  hydrate  separates,  slowly  in  the  cold, 
but  immediately  when  the  liquid  is  heated;  thb  precipitate 
rapidly  turns  red  owing  to  the  formation  of  cuprous  oxide.  In 
1846  L.  C.  A.  Barreswil  found  that  a  strongly  alkaline  solution 
of  copper  sulphate  and  potassium  sodium  tartrate  (Rochelle 
salt)  remained  unchanged  on  boiling,  but  yielded  an  immediate 
precipitate  of  red  cuprous  oxide  when  a  solution  of  glucose  was 
added.  He  suggested  that  the  method  was  applicable  for  quanti-. 
tatively  estimating  glucose,  but  its  acceptance  only  followed 
after  H.  von  Fehling's  investigation.  "  Fehling's  solution" 
is  prepared  by  dissolving  separately  34-639  grammes  of  copper 
sulphate,  173  grammes  of  Rochelle  salt,  and  71  grammes  of 
caustic  soda  in  water,  mixing  and  making  up  to  1000  ccs.; 
xo  ccs.  of  this  solution  is  completely  reduced  by  0-05  grammes  of 
hexose.  Volumetric  methods  are  used,  but  the  uncertainty  of 
the  end  of  the  reaction  has  led  to  the  suggestion  of  special 
indicators,  or  of  determining  the  amount  of  cuprous  oxide 
gravimetrically. 

ChemiUrv. — In  its  chemical  properties  glucose  is  a  typical  oxyalde- 
hyde  or  aldose.  The  aldehyde  group  reacts  with  hydrocyanic  arid 
to  produce  two  stcrco-isomeric  cyanhydrins;  this  isomensm  is  due 
to  the  conversion  of  an  originallv  non-asymmetric  carbon  atom  into 
an  asymmetric  one.  The  cvaanydrin  is  hydrolysable  to  an  acid, 
the  lactone  of  which  may  be  reduced  by  sodium  amalgam  to  a 
glucohcptose,  a  non-fermentable  sugar  containing  seven  carbon 
atoms.  By  repeating  the  process  a  non-fermentable  gluco-octose 
and  a  fermentable  glucononoM  may  be  prepared.  The  aldehyde 
group  also  reacts  with  phenyl  hydrazine  to  form  two  phenylhydra- 
zoncs;  under  certain  conditions  a  hydroxyl  group  adjacent  to  the 
aldehyde  group  is  oxidized  and  glucosazone  is  produced:  this 
glucosazone  b  decomposed  by  hydrochloric  acid  into  phenyl 
hydrazine  and  the  keto-aldehyde  glucosone.  These  transforma tions 
are  fully  discussed  in  the  article  Sugar.  On  reduction  glucose 
appears  to  yield  the  hexahydric  alcohol  <<-sorbite,  and  on  oxidation 
d-gluconic  and  (^-saccharic  acids.  Alkalis  partially  convert  it  into 
d-niannose  and  (f-fructose.  Baryta  and  lime  ywld  sacchatates, 
«.^CtHifOi'BaO.  prectpitable  by  alcohol. 

The  constitution  of  glucose  was  established  by  H.  Kiliani  in  1885* 
1887,  who  showed  it  to  be  CH,0H(CH0H)4CH0.  The  subject 
was  taken  up  by  Emil  Fischer,  who  succeeded  in  synthesizing 
^lucme,  and  also  several  of  its  sterco-isomcrs,  there  being  16  accord- 
ing to  the  Le  Bcl-van't  HofT  theory  (sec  Stbreo-Isomerism  and 
Sugar).  This  open  chain  structure  is  challenged  in  the  views  put 
forward  by  T.  M.  Lowry  and  E.  F.  Armstrong.  In  X895  C.  Tanrct 
showed  thst  glucose  existed  in  more  than  one  form,  and  he  isolated 
•.  fi  and  7  varieties  with  specific  rotations  of  105  ,  sa-S*  and  22*. 
It  is  now  agreed  that  the  fi  variety  b  a  mixture  of  the  a  and  7. 
This  discovery  explained  the  mutarotation  of  glucose.  In  a  fresh 
solution  a-glucosc  only  exists,  but  on  standing  it  is  sbwly  trans- 
formed  into  7-gIucose,  equilibrium 

being   reached   when  the  a  and   y  CHsOH  CHiOH 

forms    are    present    in    the    ratio  CH-OH  CH-OH 

0-368  :o-632  (Tanret,  ZWi. />Ay»la/.  /"u  ^H 

C&m.,   1905.   53.   P-   692).    It  i»  0<.A:{J.nm  ^<//-H  nm 
convenient   to   refer   to   these   two      ^(yiOH)i    ^(CH-OH)r 
forms  as  a  and  fi.   Lowry  and  Arm-         HC-OH        HO-CH 
strong   represent   these   compounds        «-glucose  /^glucose 

by   the   following  spatial   formulae 

which  postulate  a  Y-oxidic  structure,  and  5  asymmetric  carbon 
atoms,  f.e.  one  more  than  in  the  Fischer  formulae.  These  formulae 
are  supported  by  many  connderationa,  especially  by  the  selective 


d  by  iht  InKnclion  ol 
ling  hydnayl  grouiK  (tec 

jrntjblr.  Of 

Ihe  Emlat  imporuncc  » (he  alcohnlie  iHincaiuion  bnught  iboiit 
by  veul  cell*  XSvtkarffmycei'arauiat  «*  •^fl?  thu  (niLwr*  ik* 
equittonCHuO,-  lC>H/f+2COb  PuMii 
Ihe  tu|ir  to  bt »  cbanied.    Tk:-«L--«*-, 


of  Ihc  liqiud  alter. I 

id  if  the  Action  of  the  pnccdinB  fcrme 


cBHiiiediii  w  1 0  «  %  of 
bthcbuedihepknof 

B  fmnculnc,  tbt  akohol 
bcinc  inciwed.    Some 


We  tnay  btre  notin  the  f nquent  production  of  kIucok  byiheuiiioTi 
at  enxynws  upon  other  cafbohvdratet.  Of  cspKial  zio^f  a  the 
tniuformatiofl  of  maltOH  by  PUUaKiDtOfilucOK,  and  dI  cane  ibgar 

other  insIAKCf  are:  laetoK  by  uctaie  into  gdUcrose  and  ftlucme; 
Irchatoie  by  trehalase  into  gluctuc^  pielibiihe  by  melibiaHe  Into 
galactOKUKlcLimHe^andDf  meLizitDKby  iDctizitaxeintolouninchK 
aitd  iLucQAe.  touianoae  yielding  glucue  olao  whcD  acted  upon  by  the 

CiiiiiiiKiiif  Chuest.—Th!  glucose  of  coinineiTe,  which  may  be 

nted  by  hydrolyting  starch  by  bjjhni  wjlh  a  dilute  mineral  acid- 
In  EuiDpe.  pouto  tutcli  ii  generalty  employed:  in  America,  corn 
•larch.  The  acid  employed  may  be  hydcochloric.  ohicb  livei  the 
best  remits,  or  ttilphLiric.  which  ib  uied  in  Cendony;  ulphilric  acid 
ia  more  readily  veparated  from  the  product  than  hydrochloric,  lince 
the  Addition  of  powdered  chalk  precipiEates  it  aa  calciunt  aulphatc, 
which  iiuv  be  removed  by  a  filter  press.     The  proqesn  of  manii- 

loUowinc  ia  an  outline  oE  the  pioceia  when  hydnxihbric  acid  is  uied : 
Sutch  C'Deen"  uafch  ia  Amctiea)  ■■  nude  into  a  "  milk  "  wiih 
<n«r.  and  the  milk'pnmped  into  boiling  dilute  acid  contained  in 
aclotcd  **  coavetter,  generally  made  of  copper  or  cast  iron;  >tcam 
uied  in  al  llie  »me  time,  and  tlie  preanirc  u  Ic  rr  ijt  ^'.  A.. ..-  -t  lb 
tolhcui.in.    Wbenlbecon.veneruiulllheic  c- 

carbOBite.  and.  alter  actilini.  thie  tupeciuiant  liquiil,  t<  mcd 
"  light  liQuor,"  'a  ran  lhrau(h  bag  filtetm  and  then  on  lo  iHini  i  'ar 
Altera,  whicb  liave  been  previously  uied  (or  the  ^'  hc]^->'  Inivr." 
The  Golourleu  or  imber-coloured  nitrate  ia  coTiccntraiitl  to  r;^  to 


it  formi  the  "  heavy  liquoi 


ing.&c 


era- glue 


OSIDB,  in  chemiMiy.  the  geneiic  name  of  an  eilensivt 
I  subsianco  chaiactcriied  by  the  pioperty  of  yielding 
,  nwrc  commonly  glucose,  when  hytlrolysed  by  purely 
i  means,  or  decomposed  by  a  Eermcnl  or  eiuyme.  Thr 
as  originally  given  lo  vegetable  products  ol  this  nature, 
h  Ibc  othet  part  of  tbe  mDlecule  wi^,  in  the  giealei 
of  cases,  an  aromatic  aldehydic  or  phenolic  compound 

tended  10  include  tynl belie  ethers,  such  as  those  obtained 
ig  on  alcoholic  glucose  solutions  vilh  bydrocliloijc  acid, 


e  polysjt  .     , 

,  also.     Although  glue 


tmed  pcntoiidcs.  Much  atlci 
kilgar  parts  of  the  molecules; 
en  determined,  and  tbe  compo 
;»  the  preparation  of  the  synll 


ji,  joSi)  obi: 
c  glucose  sol 
o  E.  F.  Arm 


Pkys.  Soc-r  1935,  July  i).  who  disolve  Aolid  anhydrous  gluctn* 
in  methyl  alwhol  cooiiiining  bydrocbloiic  acid.  A  mixture 
of  a-  and  0-glucose  result,  whidi  are  iben  elberibed,  and  if  tbe 
solution  be  neutralized  before  the  B-ionn  iaomeiiies  and  the 
sdvint  removed,  k  miituie  of  tbe  a-  and  ^-meihyl  eibm  ii 
lined.    TlieH  may  be  Mpmted  by  tbe  action  ol  tuilable 


t  foui 


that 


e  at  ioo°;  they  appear  10  be  stereo-isomer 
unds  of  tbe  formulae  ].,  II. ;  Tbe  diSerence  bt 


I  phenyl  hyt(r&- 
:  'T-oiidic  com- 
wmh  tbe  ■-  and 


thatmaltase, 
umog  in  yeast  0<C  1 
=d..glut,^de,      "^^ 


CfWH  CHiOn 

CHOH  tHOH 

.(CHOH),  "*^(CHMf), 

tocn,  CH*C-H 

cihyl  It.  j).me(hyl 


atural  glutoaidei,  it  is  found  that  the  majority  an  ■ 
.form;  e.i.  emulsin  hydrolyses  salidn,  helicin,  aescuUn, 

ClasslBcalioIi  of  the  glucovdcs  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty, 
bie  biied  on  the  chemical  constitution  ol  tbe  noo-glucos*  part 
[  the  molecules  has  been  proposed  by  Urnnty,  wbo  framed  four 


elhylcti. 


,    (>)    I 


ounds  will  be  nc 


will  be 


.,.      .  (4)anthi 

may  also  be  made  to  include  tbe  cyanogci 
those  containing  prussic  add.  J.  J.  L.  va 
iidc,  1900)  follows  a  botanical  cLaa^licatiDn 

compounds.     In  this  article  the  ch 
followed.    Only  the  more  importinl 
tbe  reader  being  referred  10  van  Riji   , 
aniuibiicli  da  iirtit.\icht»  Chimit  for  furtbei  details. 
I.  ElkfUm  Damilmj.—ThtK  m  generally  mustard  oils,  and 

myconicacid.  C«H,.N^KlA;H>q.  SKm^n  .   ..    ., 

W.'ulfSite.  "simTbui,    C.H.K.SiO,,!'  occurs   in   white'"pepiJ 
:.  H-™,™  .™  Ik.  mi.u.nt  »il  HOCJI.-CHi  NC5.  (1uco«  a 
and  Mnapinic  add.    Jalapin 


msatlol 


™rI'minTn.'c"IO)«,  i 

ih'I  ulapinnlic  add.    The  formulae  of  1 

CJI,.O.SC<g.|^^^K 


Snalbin 
H  CO  C,H.  0  N<<g^''' 


lompounds.  ArlHitin,  CnH^iOi,  which  occurs  in  tiQrberry  aLiof 
kith  methyl  arbutin,  hydmlyaea  to  hydroquinone  and  iIucok. 
Pharmacologically  it  acts  ai  a  urinary  antiseptic  aod  diuretic: 
ihe  tienioyL  dnivalive.  celloiiopin,  has  been  used  for  lubeiculosia. 
ialicin.  also  termed  "  aaBgenin  ''and  "  glucose,"  Ci^.O..  occun  la 
thewilkiw.  Theeniymesptyalio  and  emulsin  convert  it  into  riucose 
ind  saligcnin.  onhiHiiybcuvlakohol,  HOCHi-CHiOK.  Itaida- 
lion  gives  the  aldehyde  belicm.  PopuUn,  CbHoOi,  wbidi  occun 
in  the  leaves  and  tnrk  of  PeMiIui  trtrntJa^  is  benaoyl  salicui. 

3.  SiyraUitt  I>fTrwrriTj.^-Thii  group  contains  a  bemene  and  also 
■  n  ethylene  group,  ticliw  derived  Itdnn  styrolene  CiI1i'CK:CHt. 
Conifei^n,  CiTtfiA,  occurs  U  the  aml^um  ol  copifetoui  wood^ 
Pmiiiain  rnnvms  !.  tnt.t  bIu^h^  ^nd  coriifeTyl  alcohol.  arhile  taaim- 
yiehli  with  emulsin  glucviE  and 
ia).  Syringin.  whicb  occurs  in  tfac 
lethoiyunirerlB.  Phloridiin,  CnHiiOi.. 
various  Iruil  trees;  it  bydrdyaa  to 
ch  ii  the  phtoroclocin  ester  d  jpara- 


GLUE 


H3 


CmHwO^C?).  whkh  hydrolyses  to  rhamnose  and  hcsperetin,  CuHi*0«. 
the  phloroslucin  ester  of  nieta-oxy<para-mcthoxycinnamic  acid  or 
isoferulic  acid,  CitHi/)«.  We  may  here  include  various  coumarin 
and  benzo-y-pyrone  derivatives.  Ae»culin,  CuHmO*.  occurring^  in 
horse-chestnut,  and  daphnin,  occurring  in  Daphne  alfnna,  arc  iso- 
meric; the  former  hydrolyses  to  glucose  and  acsculctin  (4-S-dioxy- 
coumarin).  the  latter  to  glucose  and  daphnetin  (3*4-dioxycoumarin). 
Fiaxin,  CuHnOu,  occurring  in  Fraxinus  excdsior,  and  with  aesculin 
in  horse-chestnut,  hydrolyses  to  |(lucose  and  fraxetin.  the  mono- 
rocthyl  ester  of  a  trioxycoumann.  Flavonc  or  benzo-7-pyrone 
derivatives  are  very  numerous;  in  many  cases  they  (or  the  non- 
sugar  part  of  the  molecule)  are  vegetable  dycstuHs.  Quercitrin, 
CnHi^it,  is  a  yellow  dvestuff  found  \n  Quercus  tinctoria;  it  hydro- 
lyacs  to  rhamnose  and  .quercctin,  a  dioxy-/}-phcnyl-triox)rbcnzo- 
Y-pyrone.  Rhamnetin.  a  splitting  product  01  the  glucosidcs  of 
KMamnus,  is  monomethyl  quercetm;  fisctin,  from  Rhus  colinuSt 
is  monoxyquercettn ;  chrysin  is  phenyl-dioxybcnzo-T-pyrone. 
Sapooarin,  a  glucoside  found  in  Saponaria  ojlicinalis,  is  a  related 
compound.  Strophanthin  is  the  name  given  to  three  different 
compounds,  two  obtained  from  Strophantkus  Kombe  and  one  from 
5.  kWpidus. 

4.  Anikraune  Derintwes. — ^These  are  generally  substituted 
anthraquinones:  many  have  medicinal  applications,  being  used 
as  purgatives,  while  one,  ruberythric  acid,  yields  the  valuable  dyc- 
stun  madder,  the  base  of  which  is  alizarin  {g.v.).  Chrysophanic 
acid,  a  dioxymethylanthraquinone,  occurs  in  rhubarb,  which  also 
contains  eroodtn,  a  trioxymethylanthraquinone;  this  substance 
occurs  in  combination  with  rhamnose  in  frangula  bark. 

The  most  important  cyanogcnetic  glucoside  is  amygdalin,  which 
occurs  in  bitter  almonds.    The  enzyme  maltasc  decomposes  it  into 

S*  loose 'and  mandelic  nitrile  glucoside;  the  bttcr  b  broken  down 
emulsin  into  glucose,  benzaldchydc  and  pnissic  acid.  Emulsin 
o  decomposes  amygdalin  directly  into  these  compounds  without 
the  intermediate  formation  of  mandelic  nitrile  gluco&ide.  Several 
other  glucosides  of  this  nature  have  been  isolated.  The  saponins  are 
a  group  of  substances  characterized  by  forming  a  lather  with  water; 
they  occur  in  soap-bark  (g.v.).  Mention  may  also  be  made  of  indican, 
the  glucoside  of  the  indigo  plant;  this  is  h)^drolysed  by  the  indigo 
fenDCOt,  indiffiulsin,  to  indoxyi  and  indiglucin. 

OLUB  (from  the  0.  Fr.  glu,  bird-lime,  from  the  Late  Lat. 
gfuUmf  glui,  glue),  a  valuable  agglutinant,  consisting  of  impure 
(datin  and  widely  used  as  an  adhesive  medium  for  wood,  leather, 
paper  and  similar  substances.  Glues  and  gelatins  merge  into 
one  another  by  imperceptible  degrees.  The  difTercnce  is  con- 
ditioned by  the  degree  of  purity:  the  more  impure  form  is  termed 
glue  and  is  only  used  as  an  adhesive,  the  purer  forms,  termed 
gelatin,  have  other  appL'cations,  especially  in  culinary  operations 
and  confectionery.  Referring  to  the  article  Gelatin  for  a 
general  account  of  this  substance,  it  is  only  necessary  to  state 
here  that  gelatigenous  or  glue-forming  tissues  occur  in  the  bones, 
skins  and  intestines  of  all  animals,  and  that  by  extraction  with 
hot  water  these  agglutinating  materials  are  removed,  and  the 
■ohition  on  evaporating  and  cooling  yields  a  jelly-like  substance 
— gelatin  or  glue. 

Glues  may  be  most  conveniently  classified  according  to  their 
sources:  bone  glue,  skin  glue  and  fish  glue;  these  may  be 
regarded  severally  as  impure  forms  of  bone  gelatin,  skin  gelatin 
and  isinglass. 

Bone  Clue. — For  the  manufacture  of  gjue  the  bones  arc  supplied 
fresh  or  after  having  been  used  for  making  soups;  Indian  and 
South  American  bones  are  unsuitable,  since,  by  reason  of  their 
previous  treatment  with  steam,  both  their  fatty  and  glue-forming 
constituents  have  been  already  removed  (to  a  great  extent). 
On  the  average,  fresh  bones  contain  about  50%  of  mineral 
matter,  mainly  calcium  and  magnesium  phosphates,  about 
12%  each  of  moisture  and  fat,  the  remainder  being  other 
organic  matter.  The  mineral  matter  reappears  in  commerce 
chieHy  as  artificial  manure;  the  fat  is  employed  in  the  candle, 
soap  and  ^yoerin  industries,  while  the  other  organic  matter 
supplies  glue. 

llie  separation  of  the  fat,  or  *'  de-greasing  of  the  bones  " 
is  effected  (i)  by  boiling  the  bones  with  water  in  open  vessels; 
(9)  by  treatment  with  steam  under  pressure;  or  (3)  by  means 
of  solvents.  The  last  process  is  superseding  the  first  two,  which 
give  a  poor  return  of  fat — a  valuable  consideration — and  also 
invtrfve  the  loss  of  a  certain  amount  of  glue.  Many  sol/ents 
have  been  proposed;  the  greatest  commercial  success  appears 
to  attend  Scottish  shale  oil  and  natural  petroleum  (Russian  or 
American)  boiling  at  about  loo**  C.    The  vessels  in  which  the 


extraction  is  carried  out  consist  of  upright  cylindrical  boilers, 
provided  with  manholes  for  charging,  a  false  bottom  on  which 
the  bones  rest,  and  with  two  steam  coils — one  for  heating  only, 
the  other  for  leading  in  "  live  "  steam.  There  is  a  pipe  from 
the  top  of  the  vessel  leading  to  a  condensing  plant,  lie  vessels 
are  arranged  in  batteries.  In  the  actual  operation  the  boiler 
is  charged  with  bones,  solvent  is  run  in,  and  the  mixture  gradually 
heated  by  means  of  the  dry  coil;  the  spirit  distils  over,  carrying 
with  it  the  water  present  in  the  bones;  and  after  a  time  the 
extracted  fat  is  run  off  from  discharge  cocks  in  the  bottom  of  the 
extractor.*  '  A  fresh  charge  of  solvent  is  introduced,  and  the  cycle 
repeated;  this  is  repeated  a  third  and  fourth  time,  after  which 
the  bones  contain  only  about  o  2%  of  fat,  and  a  little  of  the 
solvent^  which  is  removed  by  blowing  in  live  steam  under  70  to 
80  lb  pressure.  The  de-greased  bones  are  now  cleansed  from 
all  dirt  and  flesh  by  rotation  in  a  horizontal  cylindrical  drum 
covered  with  stout  wire  gauze.  The  attrition  accompanying 
this  motion  suffices  to  remove  the  loosely  adherent  matter, 
which  falls  through  the  meshes  of  the  gauze;  this  meal  contains 
a  certain  amount  of  glue-forming  matter,  and  is  generally 
passed  through  a  finer  mesh,  the  residuum  being  worked  up  in 
the  glue-house,  and  the  flour  which  passes  through  being  sold 
as  a  bone-meal,  or  used  as  a  manure. 

The  bones;  which  now  contain  5  to  6%  of  glue-forming 
nitrogen  and  about  60%  of  calcium  phosphate,  are  next  treated 
for  glue.  The  most  economical  process  consists  in  steaming 
the  bones  under  pressure  (15  lb  to  start  with,  afterwards  5  lb) 
in  upright  cylindrical  boilers  fitted  with  false  bottoms.  The 
glue-liquors  collect  beneath  the  false  bottoms,  and  when  of  a 
strength  equal  to  about  20%  dry  glue  they  are  run  off  to  the 
darifiers.  The  first  runnings  contain  about  65  to  70%  of  the 
total  glue;  a  second  steaming  extracts  another  25  to  30%.  For 
clarifying  the  solutions,  ordinary  alum  is  used,  one  part  being 
used  for  200  parts  of  dry  glue.  The  alum  is  added  to  the  hot 
liquors  ,  ant^  the  temperature  raised  to  100**;  it  is  then  allowed 
to  settle,  and  the  surface  scum  removed  by  filtering  through 
coarse  calico  or  fine  wire  fillers. 

The  clear  liquors  arc  now  concentrated  to  a  strength  of  about 
32 %  dry  glue  in  winter  and  35  %  in  summer.  This  is  invariably 
elTccted  in  vacuum  pans — open  boiling  yields  a  dark-coloured 
and  inferior  product.  Many  types  of  vacuum  plant  are  in  use; 
the  Yaryan  form,  invented  by  H.  T.  Yaryan,  is  perhaps  the  best, 
and  the  double  effect  system  is  the  most  efiident.  After  con- 
centration the  liquors  are  bleached  by  blowing  in  sulphur 
dioxide,  manufactured  by  burning  sulphur;  by  this  means  the 
colour  can  be  lightened  to  any  desired  degree.  The  liquors  are 
now  run  into  galvanized  sheet-iron  troughs,  2  ft.  long,  6  in. 
wide  and  5  in.  deep,  where  they  congeal  to  a  firm  jelly,  which  is 
subsequently  removed  by  cutting  round  the  edges,  or  by  warming 
with  hot  water,  and  turning  the  cake  out.  The  cake  is  sliced 
to  sheets  of  convenient  thickness,  generally  by  means  of  a  wire 
knife,  i.e.  a  piece  of  wire  placed  in  a  frame.  Mechanical  sliccrs 
acting  on  this  principle  are  in  use.  Instead  of  allowing  the 
solution  to  congeal  in  troughs,  it  may  be  "  cast  "  on  sheets  of 
glass,  the  bottoms  of  which  are  cooled  by  running  water.  After 
congealing,  the  tremulous  jelly  is  dried;  this  is  an  operation 
of  great  nicety:  the  desiccation  must  be  slow  and  is  generally 
effected  by  circulating  a  rapid  current  of  air  about  the  cakes 
supported  on  nets  set  in  frames;  it  occupies  from  four  to  five 
days,  and  the  cake  contains  on  the  average  from  10  to  13%  of 
water. 

Skin  Clue. — In  the  preparation  of  skin  glue  the  "materials 
used  are  the  parings  and  cuttings  of  hides  from  tan-yards,  the 
ears  of  oxen  and  sheep,  the  skins  of  rabbits,  hares,  cats,  dogs 
and  other  animals,  the  parings  of  tawed  leather,  parchment 
and  old  gloves,  and  many  other  miscellaneous  scraps  of  animal 
matter.    Much  experience  is  needed  in  order  to  prepare  a  good 

*  This  fat  contains  a  small  quantity  of  solvent,  which  is  removed 
by  heating  with  steam,  when  the  M>Ivent  distils  off.  Hot  water  is 
then  run  in  to  melt  the  fat,  whirh  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  water 
and  is  floated  off.  Another  boiling  with  water,  and  again  floating 
off.  frees  the  fat  from  dirt  and  mineral  matter,  and  the  product  is 
ready  for  c.i!>king. 


14+ 


GLUTARIC  ACID 


glue  from  such  heterogeneous  materials;  one  blending  may  be 
a  success  and  another  a  failure.  The  raw  material  has  been 
divided  into  three  great  divisions:  (i)  sheep  pieces  and  fleshings 
(ears,  &c.);  (2)  ox  fleshings  and  trimmings;  (3)  ox  hides  and 
pieces;  the  best  glue  is  obtained  from  a  mixture  of  the  hide, 
ear  and  face  dippings  of  the  ox  and  calf.  The  raw  material 
or  "  stock  "  is  first  steeped  for  from  two  to  ten  weeks,  according 
to  its  nature,  in  wooden  vats  or  pits  with  lime  water,  and  after- 
wards carefully  dried  and  stored.  The  object  of  the  lime  steeping 
is  to  remove  any  blood  and  flesh  which  may  be  attached  to  the 
skin,  and  to  form  a  lime  soap  with  the  fatty  matter  present. 
The  "  scrows ''  or  glue  pieces,  which  may  be  kept  a  long  time 
without  undergoing  change,  are  washed  with  a  ^dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  remove  all  lime,  and  then  very  thoroughly  with 
water;  they  are  now  allowed  to  drain  and  dry.  The  skins 
are  then  placed  in  hemp  nets  and  introduced  into  an  open  boiler 
which  has  a  false  bottom,  and  a  tap  by  which  liquid  may  be  run 
off.  As  the  boiling  proceeds  test  quantities  of  liquid  are  from 
time  to  time  examined,  and  when  a  sample  is  found  on  cooling 
to  form  a  stiff  jelly,  which  happens  when  it  contains  about  32% 
dry  glue,  it  is  ready  to  draw  off.  The  solution  is  then  run  to  a 
darifier,  in  which  a  temperature  sufficient  to  keep  it  fluid  is 
maintained,  and  in  this  way  any  impurity  is  permitted  to  subside. 
The  glue  solution  is  then  run  into  wooden  troughs  or  coolers  in 
which  it  sets  to  a  firm  jelly.  The  cakes  are  removed  as  in  the 
case  of  bone  glue  (see  above),  and,  having  been  placed  on  nets, 
arc,  in  the  Scottish  practice,  dried  by  exposure  to  open  air. 
This  primitive  method  has  many  disadvantages:  on  a  hot 
day  the  cake  may  become  unshapely,  or  melt  and  slip  through 
the  net,  or  dry  so  rapidly  as  to  crack;  a  frost  may  produce 
fissures,  while  a  fog  or  mist  may  predpitate  moisture  on  the 
surface  and  occasion  a  mouldy  appearance.  The  surface  of  the 
cake,  which  is  generally  dull  after  drying,  is  polished  by  washing 
with  water.  The  practice  of  boiling,  clarification,  cooling  and 
drying,  which  has  been  already  described  in  the  case  of  bone  ^ue, 
has  been  also  applied  to  the  separation  of  skin  glue.- 

Fish  Glue. — Whereas  isinglass,  a  very  pure  gelatin,  is  yidded 
by  the  sounds  of  a  limited  number  of  fish,  it  is  found  that  all 
fish  offals  yield  a  glue  possessing  considerable  adhesive  properties. 
The  manufacture  consists  in  thoroughly  washing  the  offal  with 
\vater,  and  then  discharging  it  into  extractors  with  live  steam. 
After  digestion,  the  liquid  is  run  off,  allowed  to  stand,  the 
upper  oily  layer  removed,  and  the  lower  gluey  solution  darified 
with  alum.  The  liquid  is  then  filtered,  concentrated  in  open  vats, 
and  bleached  with  sulphur  dioxide.^  Fish  glue  is  a  light-brown 
viscous  liquid  which  has  a  distinctly  disagreeable  odour  and 
an  acrid  taste;  these  disadvantages  to  its  use  are  avoided  if  it 
be  boiled  with  a  little  water  and  x  %  of  sodium  phosphate,  and 
0025%  of  saccharine  added. 

Properties  of  Clue. — A  good  quality  of  glue  should  be  free  from 
all  specks  and  grit,  have  a  uniform,  ligh^  brownish-yellow, 
transparent  appearance,  and  should  break  with  a  glassy  fracture. 
Steeped  for  some  time  in  cold  water  it  softens  and  swells  up 
without  dissolving,  and  when  again  dried  it  ought  to  resume  its 
original  properties.  Under  the  influence  of  heat  it  entirely 
dissolves  in  water,  forming  a  thin  syrupy  fluid  with  a  not 
disagreeable  smell.  The  adhesiveness  of  different  qualities  of 
glue  varies  considerably;  the  best  adhesive  is  formed  by  steeping 
the  glue,  broken  in  small  pieces,  in  water  until  they  are  quite 
soft,  and  then  pladng  them  with  just  suflident  water  to  effect 
solution  in  the  glue-pot.  The  hotter  the  glue,  the  better  the 
joint;  remclted  glue  is  not  so  strong  as  the  freshly  prepared; 
and  newly  manufactured  glue  is  inferior  to  that  which  has  been 
long  in  stock.  It  is  therefore  seen  that  many  factors  enter  into 
the  determination  of  the  cohesive  power  of  glue;  a  well-prepared 
joint  may,  under  favourable  conditions,  withstand  a  pull  of 
about  700  lb  per  sq.  in.  The  following  table,  after  Kilmarsch, 
shows  the  holding  power  of  glued  joints  with  various  kinds  of 
woods. 

*The  residue  in  the  extractcMs  is' usually  dried  in  steam-heated 
vessels,  and  mixed  with  potassium  and  magnesium  salts;  the  product 
b  then  put  on  the  market  as  fish-potash  guano. 


Wood. 

lb  per  sq.  in.           1 

With  grain. 

Beech    . 
Maple    .     .     . 
Oak       .     .     . 
Fir   .... 

LI 

302 
132 

Special  Kinds  of  Clues,  Cements,  Cfc. — By  virtue  of  the  fact  that 
the  word  "  glue  "  ts  frc<)uently  used  to  denote  many  adhesives,  whkh 
may  or  may  not  contain  gelatin,  there  will  now  be  given  an  account 
of  some  special  preparations.  These  may  be  conveniently  divided 
into:  (i)  licjuid  glues,  mixtures  containmg  gelatin  which  do  not 
jelly  at  ordinary  temperatures  but  still  possess  adhesive  properties ; 
(3)  water-proof  glues,  including  mixtures  containing  gelatm,  and 
also  the  "  marine  glues,"  which  contain  no  glue;  (3)  glues  or  cements 
for  special  purposes,  e.g.  for  cementing  glass,  potterv,  leather,  Ac, 
for  cementing  dissimilar  materials;  such  as  paper  or  leather  to  iron. 

Liquid  Clues. — The  demand  for  liquid  glues  is  mainly  due  to  the 
disadvantages — the  necessity  of  dissolving  and  using  while  hot — 
of  ordinary  glue.  They  are  gjenerally  prepared  by  adding  to  a  warm 
glue  solution  some  reagent  which  destroys  the  property  of  gelatintxing. 
The  reagents  in  common  use  are  acetic  acid;  magnesium  chloride, 
used  for  a  g;lue  employed  by  printers;  hydrochloric  acid  and  zinc 
sulphate;  nitric  acid  and  lead  sulphate;  and  phosphoric  add  and 
ammonium  carbonate. 

Water-proof  Clues. — Numerous  redpes  for  water-proof  glues  have 
been  published;  glue,  having  been  swollen  bsr  soaking  in  water, 
dissolved  in  four-fifths  its  weight  of  linseed  oil,  furnishes  a  good 
water-proof  adhesive;  linseed  oil  varnish  and  litharge,  addc3  to 
a  glue  solution,  is  also  -used;  resin  added  to  a  hot  glue  solu- 
tion in  water,  and  afterwards  diluted  with  turpentine,  ts  another 
recipe;  the  best  glue  is  said  to  be  obtained  by  dissolving  one 
part  of  glue  in  one.  and  a  half  parts  of  water,  and  then  adding 
one-fiftieth  part  of  potassium  bichromate.  Alcoholic  solutions  cw 
various  gums,  and  also  tannic  acid,  confer  the  same  property  on 
glue  solutions.  The  "  marine  glues  "  are  solutions  of  india-rubber, 
shellac  or  asphaltum,  or  mixtures  of  these  substances,  in  benxene  or 
naphtha.  Jeffrey's  marine  glue  is  formed  by  dissolving  india-rubber 
in  four  parts  of  benzene  and  adding  two  parts  of  shellac;  it  is 


a  hard  mass,  which  melts  on  heating  fike  ordinary  glue. 

Special  Clues. — ^Thcre  are  innumerable  redpes  for  adhesives 
specially  applicable  to  certain  substances  and  under  nrtain  con- 
ditions. For  repairing  ^lass,  ivory,  &c.  isingUss  (q.v.),  irfiich  may  be 
replaced  by  fine  glue,  yields  valuable  cements;  bookbinders  employ 
an  elastic  glue  obtained  from  an  ordinary  glue  solution  and  glycerin, 
the  water  being  expelled  bv  heating ;  an  efficient  cement  for  mounting 
photographs  b  obtained  by  dissolving  glue  in  ten  parts  of  alcohol 
and  adding  one  ^art  of  glycerin;  portabfe  or  mouth  glue — so  named 
because  it  melts  m  the  mouth — is  prepared  by  dissolving  one  part  of 
sugar  in  a  solution  of  four  parts  of  glue.  An  india-rubber  substitute 
is  obtained  by  adding  sodium  tungstate  and  hvdrochloric  add  to  a 
strong  glue  solution;  thb  preparation  may  be  rolled  out  when 
heated  to  60*. 

For  further  details  see  Thomas  Lambert,  Clue,  Gdatine  and  theif 
Allied  Products  (London,  loo^);  R.  L.  Fembach,  Clues  andCdatin^ 
(1907) ;  H.  C.  Standage,  Atffutinants  of  aU  Kinds  for  all  Purposfs 
(1907)- 

GLUTARIC  ACID,  or  Normal  Pysotartaxic  Acm, 
HOsCCHrCHrCHrCOiH,  an  organic  acid  prepared  by  the 
reduction  of  a-oxyglutaric  add  with  hydriodic  add,  by  redudng 
glutaconic  acid,H0aC'CHfCH:CH-C02H,  with  sodium  amalgam, 
by  conversion  of  trimethylene  bromide  into  the  cyanide 
and  hydrolysb  of  thb  compound,  or  from  acetoaceUc  ester, 
which,  in  the  form  of  its  sodium  derivative,  condenses 
with  ^-iodopropionic  ester  to  form  aceto^utaric  ester, 
CHaCOCH(CO,C,Hi)CH,CH,CO,C,Hi,  from  jwhich  glutaric 
add  b  obtained  by  hydrolysis.  It  b  abo  obtained  when  sebacic, 
stearic  and  oldc  adds  are  oxidized  with  nitric  apd.  It  crystal- 
lizes in  large  monodinic  prisms  which  melt  at  97*^  C,  and 
dbtib  between  302°  and  304^  C,  practically  without  decomposi- 
tion. It  b  soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  ether.  By  long  heating  the 
acid  b  converted  into  its  anhydride,  which,  however,  b  obtained 
more  readily  by  heating  the  silver  salt'of  the  add  with  acetyl 
chloride.  By  distillation  of  the  ammonium  salt  glutarimide, 
CH2(CHs-CP)tNH,  is  obtained;  it  forms  small  crystab  mdting 
at  151°  to  152*  C.  and  sublimes  unchanged. 

On  the  alkyl  glutaric  acids,  see  C.  Hell  (Ber,,  1889, 99,  pp.  48. 60), 
C.  A.  Bischoff  {Ber.,  1891.  24.  p.  1041).  K.  Auwers  (Ber.,  1891,  24, 
p.  1923)  and  W.  H.  Perkm,  junr.  {Jouru.  Chan,  Soc.,  1896, 69,  p.  a68). 


GLUTEN— GLYCAS 


H5 


flUimt.  >  Ungh,  tcoidooi,  ductile,  ■omewhat  elutic, 
DCuJy  '"'■^-«'  >Dd  Knytob-ydlaw  ilbaminoiu  lulstuice, 
obUiDcd  Irem  tbe  Bout  of  what  by  nuhing  Id  vatei,  is  whidi 
it  a  iTV^IllM*  Gluten,  when  driec!,  toKS  ebout  two-llurda  ol 
iti  «d^l, ''— ""■■"B  brittle  and  fcmi-tniupareut;  when  Umasly 
beued  it  cncUei  and  iwellt,  *ad  buini  like  festhet  or  bom. 
It  is  wilufalB  in  Kmig  acelic  tad,  and  in  cauicic  lUkili),  wbicb 
Eitier  max  ^  ""^  I"'  ^'  porificuioa  of  tuuch  In  Bbidi  it  ii 
present.  When  ttealed  *icb  -i  to  ■!%  (oluiion  of  hjdnxblorii: 
acid  il  iwdb  up,  and  it  lenjtb  fom*  >  liquid  n»embling  a 
Bluiion  of  albaDUD,  and  lacvorotatory  ai  regard*  polatiud 
Lght.  Usatuaed  wiib  water  and  upoud  to  tbe  air  gluten 
pairefiot.  and  evolvo  mlwn  dioiide,  bjMrogeD  and  lulphiuetted 
bydrocED,  aad  io  tb«  cod  ii  almoat  entirely  nsolved  into  a  liquid, 

analysB  ^Icn  abows  a  oomposilion  ol  about  s3%or  carbon,  1% 
ol  bydnisBt,asd  nitrogen  ij  to  18%,  baideaoiygen,  and  about 
i%a{iii^m,aiHiaunallquaniiiyof iQDrganicm*tter.  Accord- 
!■(  to  H.  Rittbausen  it  is  a  mixture  t^  ^uUnaitnil  (IJebig'a 
ncelaUe  fibrin),  ^altmfibrin,  fiiadiu  (Fflamenleioi),  tfulin  or 
ngetabk  idalin,  ud  muctim,  which  are  all  closely  allied  to  one 
'       '    '    impositkni.    It  Is  the^iadin-which  confcn 

I  starch.  In  the  so-called 
fhuea  o(  the  Bonr  of  baiiey,  lye  and  nuiie,  this  body  is  absent 
(H.  Ritihaaen  and  U.  KniBler).  Tbe  £luteii  yielded  by  wheal 
whacb  liaa  nndetgoae  fittDenlitiao  or  lu  begun  10  sprout  is 
dmid  ot  lonsbncM  and  tUitidty.  clliese  qualities  aa  be 
nsUccd  to  H  by  kneading  wiib  salt,  lime-water  or  alum.  Glnlen 
B  employed  in  the  minufaaurecj  gluten  bread  and  hiscuiti 
lot  tbe  diabetic,  and  of  chDrolate,  and  also  in  the  adulteration 
9I  tea  and  coffee-  For  making  bread  it  must  ^  be  used  fresh,  as 
ocberwbc  it  decomposes,  and  does  not  knead  welL  Granulated 
■huen  is  a  kind  of  vermicelli,  made  in  some  starch  manufactories 
by  miting  freah  gluten  with  twice  its  weight  of  Itour,  and  gnnu- 
btiox  by  Bwana  of  a  cylinder  and  contained  alincr,  each  armed 
with  ipike>,  and  reviving  in  oppoaite  directions.  The  process 
is  completed  by  tbe  drying  and  atfling  of  tbe  gnnulei. 

aVartOK,  or  Wocvhim  (Cull  iucw},  a  camivoioua 
Muntma]  beiooging  to  tbe  Uuadiiat,  or  weasel  family,  and  the 
■ole  114*  mutative  of  its  genua.  T\»  legs  are  short  and  stout, 
with  laqtt  feet,  the  torn  of  which  terminate  in  strong,  iharp 
dawa  ooasiderably  curved-  The  mode  c^  progression  is  semi- 
plaatignule.  In  siie  and  fonn  the  glutton  It  something  like  the 
badcei.  mcasnring  from  )  to  j  It.  in  length,  eicluaive  of  the  thick 
boaby  tail,  which  b  about  S  in.  long.  Tbe  head  is  broad,  the 
cya  arc  oaaS  aod  tbe  back  arched.  The  fur  con^ta  of  an  under- 
growth of  tbon  woolly  hair,  mixed  with  long'  straight  hain, 
tr>  iIk  abvukdancc  and  Length  of  which  on  the  sides  and  tail 
tbe  CTcatDfV  owe*  its  ahagi^  appearance.  The  colour  of  the  fur 
is  blacfcBb-bnwn,  with  a  hroad  band  of  cheslnul  itretching 
froxa  tbe  shoulders  along  each  side  of  the  body,  the  two  meeting 
Bear  the  root  of  the  taiL  Unlike  the  majority  ol  arctic  animals, 
ibe  Im'  of  the  gtutlon  in  winter  grows  darker,  like  other 
Wrrfn'fiff'.  tbe  glutton  il  provided  wiib  anal  glands,  wbicb 
■eCRtc  ■  yeOowish  Hiiid  pouessing  a  highly  foetid  odour.  It 
IS  a  boceal  animal,  Inhabltiitg  tbe  nonbem  regions  of  both 
In  iiiiiiilii  III,  bat  moM  abundant  in  Ibe  drcumpolar  area  of  the 
New  Worid,  when  it  occurs  Ihrou^ut  ihe  British  provinces 
aad  Aiufca,  bong  apedally  numerous  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  lb*  M—^t"''*  river,  and  "iffyling  southwards  as  far  as  New 
Votk  asd  Ibe  Rocfcy  Uountaina.  The  wolverine  is  a  voradou) 
■■T*iral.  and  aik>  one  with  an  inquisitive  dispo&itioiL  It  feeds 
~  z  rodenta  and  foxea,  which  it  digs  fjom 

il  of  ita  food  on  dead  carcases,  which 
it  (nqocBtly  obtain*  by  methods  that  have  made  it  peculiarly 
obihuiaaa  to  tbe  bujiter  and  trapper.  StwuLd  Ihe  hunter, 
aftaaocceediBg  la  killing  his  game,  leave  tbe  carcase  insufEdently 
protected  for  more  than  a  sin^  night,  the  glutton,  whole  fear 
'  '    "  ouching  it  during 


on  tbe  •econd,  hiding  the  remainder  beneatb  the  mow.  It 
annoy*  the  irapper  by  fr^wing  up  liis  lirws  of  rnartctj-lnpa, 
often  Blending  10  a  length  of  40  to  50  m.,  each  of  which  it  enter* 
from  behind,  eiuacting  Ihe  bait,  pulling  up  Ihe  traps,  and  devour- 
ing or  concealing  the  entrapped  martens.  So  persiilent  is  Ihe 
glutton  in  tbis  practice,  when  oocc  il  discovers  a  line  of  traps, 
that  its  eilermination  along  Ibe  lispper's  route  is  a  necessary 
preliminary  to  Ihe  success  of  his  business.  This  is  no  easy  task, 
as  Ihe  glutton  is  too  cunning  to  be  caught  by  the  melhodi  success- 
fully employed  on  the  other  members  of  the  weasel  family. 
The  trap  generally  used  for  (his  purpose  is  made  to  rrsemble 
a  cache,  or  hidden  store  of  food,  such  as  tbe  Indians  and  hunter* 
are  in  Ibe  habit  of  forming,  the  disftivety  and  rising  of  which 
is  one  of  the  pulton's  most  congenial  occupations — the  bail, 
instead  of  being  paraded  as  in  most  trap*,  being  carefully  con- 
cealed, to  lull  the  knowing  beaat'i  suspicions.  One  of  Ihe  most 
prominent  characteristics  of  tbe  wolverine  is  its  propensity 
to  steal  and  hide  things,  not  merely  food  which  it  might  after- 
wards need,  or  traps  which  il  regards  as  enemies,  but  articles 
which  cannot  possibly  have  any  interest  except  Ibal  of  curioaily. 
The  following  instance  of  this  is  quoted  by  Dr  E.  Coues  in  hi! 
work  on  Ihe  Fia-bmint  Anijiwis  of  North  Amoiat:  "A 
hunter  and  his  family  having  left  their  bdge  nnguarded  during 


Tbe  Gil 


heir  absence,  an  ineir  tctutn  found  il  completely  gutted — Ibe 
ulls  were  there,  but  nothing  else.  Blankets,  guns,  kettle*, 
xea,  cans,  knives  sad  all  the  olber  paraphernalia  of  a  trapper'* 
enl  had  vanished,  and  the  tracks  left  by  the  beast  showed 
iho  had  been  tbe  thief .  Thefamily  set  to  work,and,bycarefully 
oUowing  up  all  hia  paths,  recovered,  with  some  tricing  exceptions, 
be  whole  of  tbe  l«t  property."  The  cunning  displayed  by  Ibe 
lulton  in  unravelling  the  snares  set  for  il  forms  at  once  Ibe 
dmiiation  and  despair  of  every  trapper,  while  its  great  strength 
and  ferociiy  render  il  a  dangerous  intagotiist  to  animal*  larger 
Ibao  llself,  occasionally  induding  man.  The  rutting-seaun 
occurs  In  March,  and  the  female,  secure  In  bet  burrow,  product 
bei  young— four  or  five  at  1  birth — in  June  or  July.  In  defence 
ol  tbese  she  is  exceedingly  bold,  and  the  Indians,  according  to 
Dr  Coues,  "  have  been  heard  to  ssy  thai  they  would  sooner 
met  a  *be-bear  with  her  cubs  than  a  carcAJou  (the  Indian 
of  tbe  glutton)  under  Ibe  same  drcumatancei."  On 
tatching  sight  of  its  enemy,  nun,  the  wolverine  before  finally 
determining  on  flight,  is  said  to  sit  on  its  haunches,  and,  in  order 
a  clearer  view  of  tbe  danger,  shade  lis  eyes  with  one  of 
it*  fore-paws.  When  tmsaed  for  food  il  becomes  fearless,  and 
has  been  known  to  come  on  board  an  ice-bound  vessel,  and  iu 
ircseuceof  thccrewseixeacanof  meal.  The  glutton  is  valuable 
[or  its  fur,  which,  when  several  skins  are  sewn  together,  forms 
ilegani  hearth  and  carriage  rugs.  (R.  L.*) 

OLYCAS.  MICHAEL,  Byxantinc  hisloiion  (according  to  some 
1  Sicilian,  according  Io  olhers  a  Corfiote),  llourisbed  during  Ibe 
i3th  century  aj).    His  chiel  work  is  hi*  OnmnJt  of  evenw 


146 


GLYCERIN 


from  the  creation  of  the  worid  to  the  death  of  Alexius  L  Cora- 
nenus  (11x8).  It  is  eztTemely  brief  and  written  in  a  popular 
style,  but  too  much  ^ace  is  devoted  to  theological  and  scientific 
matters.  Glycas  was  also  the  author  of  a  theological  treatise 
and  a  number  of  letters  on  theological  questions.  A  poem  of 
some  600  *'  political "  verses,  written  during  his  imprisonment 
on  a  charge  of  slandering  a  neighbour  and  containing  an  appeal 
to  the  emperor  Manuel,  b  still  extant.  The  exact  nature  of  his 
offence  is  not  known,  but  the  answer  to  his  appeal  was  that  he 
was  deprived  of  his  eyesight  by  the  emperor's  orders. 

Editions:  "  Chronicle  and  Letters,"  in  J.  P.  Migne.  Patrtiofpa 
Graeca,  dviii.:  poem  in  E.  Legrand,  Bibltotkifue  grecgue  wlgnre, 
i.;  see  also  F.  Hirsch.  Bysantinuche  Sttidien  (1876):  C.  Krumbacher 
in  SitMungsherickte  hayer.  Acad.,  1894;  C.  F.  Bihr  in  Ench  and 
Gruber's  AUgemeiiu  EncyUopddie. 

OLTCBRIN.  Glycerine  or  Glycerol  (in  pharmacy  Gy- 
eerinum)  (from  Gr.  yXuKbSf  sweet),  a  trihydric  alcohol, 
trihydroxypropane,  C»H»(0H)9.  It  is  obtainable  from  most 
natural  ^tty  bodies  by  the  action  of  alkalis  and  similar  reagents, 
whereby  the  fats  are  decomposed,  water  being  taken  up,  and 
glycerin  being  formed  together  with  the  alkaOne  salt  ci  some 
particular  acid  (vaxying  with  the  nature  of  the  fat).  Owing  to 
their  possession  of  this  common  property,  these  natural  fatty 
bodies  and  various  artificial  derivatives  of  glycerin,  whi(^ 
bdiave  in  the  same  way  when  treated  with  alkalis,  are  known 
as  ^ycerides.  In  the  ordinazy  process  of  soap-making  the 
glycerin  remains  dissolved  in  the  aqueous  liquors  from  whidi  the 
soi^>  is  separated. 

Glycerin  was  discovered  in  1779  by  K.  W.  Scheele  and  named 
OlsUss  (frincipe  doux  des  Afn%sj--sweet  principle  of  oils),  and 
more  fuUy  investigated  subsequently  by  M.  E.  Chevreul,  who 
named  it  glycerin,  M.  P.  E.  Berthelot,  and  many  other  chemists, 
from  whose  researches  it  results  that  glycerin  is  a  trihydric 
alcohol  indicated  by  the  formula  CiH»(OH)a,  the  natural  fats 
and  oils,  and  the  glycerides  generally,  being  substances  of  the 
nature  of  compound  esters  formed  from  glycerin  by  the  replace- 
ment of  the  hydrogen  of  the  OH  groups  by  the  radicals  of 
certain  adds,  adled  for  that  reason  "  £aitty  adds."  The  relation- 
ship of  these  ^ycerides  tP  glycerin  is  shown  by  the  series  of  bodies 
formed  from  glycerin  by  replacement  of  hydrogen  by  "  stearyl " 
(CuHaiO),  the  radical  of  stearic  add  (CisH»«0*OH)  :— 
Glycerin.        Monostearin.  Distearin.  Tristearin. 

CHtOH      CHrO(C»H«0)     CHrO(CttH„0)     CH,.0(CuH»0) 

(IhOH       OTOH  jCH.O(C»HnO)      CH.O(C«H„0) 

(IhiOH      CHiOH  CHrOH  <iH,.0(CaH„0) 

The  process  of  saponification  may  be  viewed  as  the  gradual 
progressive  transformation  of  tristearin,  or  some  analogously 
constituted  substance,  into  distearin,  monostearin  and  glycerin, 
or  as  the  similar  transformation  of  a  substance  analogous  to 
distearin  or  to  monostearin  into  glycerin.  If  the  reaction  is 
brought  about  in  presence  of  an  alkali,  the  add  set  free  becomes 
transformed  into  the  corre^wnding  alkaline  salt;  but  if  the 
decompoution  is  effected  without  the  presence  of  an  alkali 
{%.e.  by  means  of  water  alone  or  by  an  acid),  the  add  set  free 
and  the  glycerin  are  obtained  together  in  a  form  which  usually 
admits  of  their  ready  separation.  It  is  noticeable  that  with 
few  exceptions  the  fatty  and  oily  matters  occurring  in  nature 
are  substances  analogous  to  tristearin,  ix.  they  are  trebly 
replaced  glycerins.  Amongst  these  glycerides  may  be  mentioned 
the  following: 

rmtoarvii— CiHi(0-CttHuO)a.    The  chief  constituent  of  hard 
animal  fats,  such  as  beef  and  mutton  tallow.^  Ac ;  also  con- 
tained in  many  vegetable  fats  in  smaller  quantity, 
rritrfeta— CiHft(0-CnHuO)i.    Laraely  present  in  olive  oil  and 
other  saponifiable  vegetable  ous  and  soft  fats;  also  present 
In  animal  fats,  e«>ecially  hog's  lard. 
rr«^i/fiif<M— C(Hi(OCitH«iO)i.    The  chief  constituent  of  palm 
oil;  also  contained  in  greater  or  less  quantities  in  human 
fat,  olive  oil.  and  other  animal  and  vegetable  fats. 
TrtrtctnoMfi— CiHft(OCuHsaOi)>.  The  main  constituent  of  castor 

Other  analogous  glycerides  are  ap0arent1y  contained  in 
greater  or  smaller  quantity  in  certain  other  oils.    Thus  in  cows' 


butter,  tributyriu,  CiHi(0'C4H;0)s,  and  the  anabgous  glycerides 
of  other  readily  volatile  adds  dmdy  resembling  butyric  acid, 
are  present  in  small  quantity;  the  production  of  these  acids 
on  saponification  and  distillation  with  dilute  sulphuric  add  is 
utilized  as  a  test  of  a  purity  of  butter  as  sold.  Triaceiin, 
C»H»(0-CtHaO)a,  is  apparently  contained  in  cod-liver  oiL  Some 
other  ^ycerides  isolated  from  natural  sources  are  analogous 
in  composition  to  tristearin,  but  with  this  difference,  that  the 
three  radicals  which  replace  hydrogen  in  glycerin  are  not  all 
identical;  thus  kephalin,  myelin  and  kdthin  are  ^yceridcs 
in  which  two  hydrogens  are  replaced  by  fatty  acid  radicals, 
and  the  third  by  a  complex  phosphoric  add  derivative. 

Glycerin  is  also  a  product  of  certain  kinds  of  fermentation. 
eq;)eciaUy  of  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  sugar;  consequently 
it  is  a  constituent  of  many  wines  and  other  fermented  Uquors. 
According  to  Louis  Pasteur,  about  ^th  of  the  sugar  transformed 
under  ordinary  conditions  in  the  fermenution  of  grape  juice 
and  similar  saccharine  liquids  into  alcohol  and  other  products 
be<!omes  converted  into  glycerin.  In  certain  natunl  fatty 
substances,  e.g.  palm  oil,  it  exists  in  the  free  state,  so  that  it  can 
be  8q>arated  by  washing  with  boiling  water,  which  dissolves 
the  glycerin  but  not  the  fatty  glycerides. 

Properties. — Glycerin  is  a  visdd,  coloutless  liquid  <lf  sp.  gr. 
x*a65  at  is"  C,  poasesung  a  somewhat  sweet  taste;  below  o*^  C. 
it  solidifies  to  a  white  crystalline  mass,  which  mdts  at  17"  C. 
When  heated  alone  it  partially  volatilises,  but  the  greater  part 
decomposes;  under  a  pressure  of  xs  mm.  of  mercury  It  bolls 
at  170*  C.  In  an  atmosphere  of  steam  it  distils  without  decom- 
position under  ordinary  barometric  pressure.  It  dissolves 
readily  in  water  and  alcohol  in  all  pn^wrtions,  but  is  insoluble 
in  ether.  It  possesses  considerable  solvent  powers,  whence  it  is 
employed  for  numerous  purposes  in  pharmacy  and  the  arts. 
Its  viscid  character,  and  its  non-liability  to  dry  and  harden  by 
exposure  to  air,  also  fit  it  for  various  other  uses,  such  as  lubrica- 
tion, &c.,  whilst  its  peculiar  physical  characters,  enabling  it  to 
blend  with  dther  aqueous  or  oily  matters  under  certain  circum- 
stances, render  it  a  useful  ingredient  in  a  large  number  of  pxoducts 
of  varied  kinds. 

iianttfacture.—Tht  simplest  modes  of  preparing  pure  glycerin  are 
based  on  the  saponification  of  fats,  either  bv  alkalis  or  by  superheated 
steam,  and  on  the  circumstance  that,  although  glycerin  ca»not  be 
distilled  by  itself  under  the  ordinary  pressure  without  decomposition, 
it  can  be  readily  volatilized  in  a  current  of  superheated  steam. 
Commercial  glycerin  is  mostly  obtained  from  the  "spent  lyes" 
of  the  soap-maker.  In  the  van  Ruymbeke  process  the  qient  lyes 
are  allowed  to  settle,  and  then  treated  with  ^  persulphate  of  Iron," 
the  exact  composition  of  which  is  a  trade  secret,  but  it  is  possibly  a 
mixture  of  ferric  and  ferrous  sulphates.  Ferric  hydrate,  iron  soaps 
and  all  insoluble  impurities  are  precipitated.  The  liquid  is  filter- 
pressed,  and  any  excess  of  iron  in  the  filtrate  is  jpredpttated  by  the 
careful  addition  of  caustic  soda  and  then  removedf.  The  liquid  is  then 
eva|x>rated  under  a  vacuum  of  27  to  38  in.  of  mereunr.  and,  when  of 
specific  gravity  1*295  (corresponding  to  about  80%  of  glycerin), 
it  is  distilled  under  a  vacuum  o!  38  to  29  In.  In  the  Glatx  process  the 
lye  is  treated  with  a  little  milk  of  lime,  the  liquid  then  neotnlized 
with  hydrochloric  add,  and  the  liouid  filtered.  Evaporation  and 
subsequent  distillation  under  a  high  vacuum  gives  dude  glycerin. 
The  impure  glycerin  obtained  as  above  is  punfied  by  redistulatloo 
in  steam  andevaporation  in  vacuum  pans. 

Technical  Uses. — Besides  its  use  as  a  starting-point  in  the  produc- 
tion of  *'  nitroglycerin  "  (q.v.)  and  other  chemical  products,  glycoin 
is  largely  employed  for  a  number  of  purposes  in  the  arts,  its  applica- 
tion thereto  bdnff  due  to  its  peculiar  physical  properties.  Thus  its 
non-liability  to  freeze  (when  not  absolutely  anhydrous,  which  it 
practically  never  is  when  freely  exposed  to  the  air)  and  its  non- 
volatility  at  ordinary  temperatures,  combined  with  its  power  of 
always  keeping  fluid  and  not  drying  up  and  hardening,  render  it 
valuable  as  a  lubricating  agent  lor  dockwork,  watches,  &c.,  as  a 
substitute  for  water  in  wet  g^as-meters,  and  as  an  ingredient  in 
cataplasms,  plasters,-  modelhng  clay,  pasty  colouring  matters, 
dyeing  matenals,  moist  coloura  for  artists,  and  numerous  other 
analogous  substances  which  are  required  to  be  lce{>t  in  a  permanently 
soft  condition.  Glycerin  acts  as  a  preservative  against  decompoMtion, 
owing  to  its  antiseptic  qualities,  which  also  led  to  its  being  employed 
to  preserve  untanned  leather  (especially  during  transit  when  ex- 
ported, the  bides  bdng,  moreover,  kept  soft  and  surale);  to  make 
solutions  of  gdatinr  albumen,  gum,  paste,  cements,  ac  which  will 
keep  without  decomposition;  to  preserve  meat  and  other  edibles; 
to  mount  anatomical  preparations;  to  preserve  vacdne  lymph  un- 
changed ;  and  for  many  similar  purposes.    Its  solvent  power  is  also 


GLYCOLS— GLYPTOTHEK 


Ihe  5ya 


Ddliad  in  the  pmductloa  of  vukua  o^burui 
celouiinc  oMta  vould  ifot  dimcivt  In  mter 
violet.  Ibt  tinciwu]  coiiatilutnu  nl  mutda, 
CDkwrifii  autcen diaolve  in  glyctnA, '  ■  ■' 
caknndcveii  vbea  diluted  with  WAte 
cither  Rtunnl  In  nun^a  or  dutotved  by  the  dyt 
in  tin  (filBted  fluid.   Ghana  ii  lUo  einplored  in  the 
cf  brmic  ndd  (g^).    Certain  kind*  of  copyii 
iDfiiDved  iiy  tba  iubedtution  d  glycerin,  in  pail 
iwar  or  honey  lunally  added. 

•taacei  ai  iodine.  alloEl^^kalii.  &r..  aiid  ia  thFcrton!  uaed 
apfiijriBf  thea  to  .<i-**^  eurfico.  opeciaUy  ■>  it  udi  in  tt 
abwptJoiL  It  doa  not  evaprmle  «■  luni  nncid,  whilst  Lti  nvri 
liyfKaeofK  adtod  eiiMiTa  inc  moulDHftBnd  iD^tDes  of  ^ny  nirfj 

qaaadty  be  iatTodiicxd  into  the  Tecljin.     For  Ehu  purpoee  it  il 
very  Wt^  "^ed  either  u  H  nippDalory  or  in  the  fluid  lorm  (one 

il-vid^  a«  a  food  and  im  lioL  in  any  Knae  a  Kibotjlute  Idf  W-Uvfr 
aL   Vtty  Uip  doKs  in  aDLniali  uupc  Lctlui^.  collipac  and  death- 
OLTCOU,  Id  oisanic  chenuitry,   the  generic  name  givi 
to  tlw  al^ihatlc  dih^dric  alcoboli.    Tboc  compoimda  may  t 
obUloal  b]r  heating  tbe  alkylcD  lodldci  or  bromides  ((.(.elhylet 


H7 


faailva 
a,  Chiu: 


o  produod  bdng  tbcn  hydrcdyved  w 


(G.  Wagner,  Btr.,  iSSS,  ii,  p.  1131),  or  by  tlic  actioa  of  nitroiu 
aodoa  the  '^■'■*^™* 

Glyoib  may  be  dainfied  ai  frimcry,  containing  t«ro— CHiOH 
grDDpa;  trimary-iiaHdary,  oontaining  (be  grouping— CH(OH) - 
CEU>H;iaa>f><Jarv,witbib<:giDU[^-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-:and 
tertiary,  wilb  the  poupins  >C(OH)-(OK]C<.  Tbe  Mamdary 
^lyadi  are  prepared  1^  tbe  aclioQ  o(  alcobolk  potaifa  on  alde- 
hydes, lhu>: 
3(CHi}iCH-CH0 +KMO  -(CH,}iCHCO,K+ 

(CH  J,C  H  CH  (OH)CH  (OH)-CH  (CHih. 
Hie  teniuy  ^coii  are  known  aa  finataui  and  are  formed 
oa  tbe  reduction  of  ketones  with  lodium  amaigam. 

TIm  tfycob  an  <omewhaI  tbldi  liquids,  of  high  txdiing  point, 
tbe  [laaeDEia  only  being  crystalline  aijidi;  they  ue  readQy 
•oinble  in  wata  and  alcohol,  but  are  insoluble  in  ether.  By  the 
acticm  of  dehydrating  agents  tbey  are  convened  inici  aldehydes 
or  ketoDCL  In  their  gcnoal  behaviour  towards  oddizing  agents 
the  primary  fytxiU  behave  very  liinilarly  to  tbe  ordinaTy 
piinuiy  akohols  (<!■'■),  but  the  secondary  and  tertiary  glycols 

Ethykoe  'Jy^T^HilOHh.  was  £nt  prepaied  by  A.  Wurti 

silvTr  aceeate.  1 1  i*  a  ■omcwhat  pleasant  imeliinE  Liquid,  bcqiing 
at  197'to  I97^^*C-  and  havinga^xcilicKravityot  I'laj  (0').  On 
(mioD  with  mild  potaih  at  ijo  C.  it  completely  dccempoao.  giving 
pMaauun  oialate  and  hydrofen, 

CJ1.O1+2KH0  -  K/ifl,+au. 

Two  _pr3|n^lene  dyeolt,  CiHA.  are  known,  vli.  a.ptopyIene 
glyeet.  CHi-CH(OH)'CH,OH,  a  liquid  boiling  at  ISB*  to  180^' and 
obtahsed  by  beacioE  giycenn  with  aodium  hydroxide  and  diadllins 
tke  uktun:  and  mnMhytene  glycol.  CHiOH'CllrCH^H,  a 
iqoid  boiling  al  ST4*  C  and  pfejnred  by  bnlinE  trimethylene  bra- 
wde  with  ))«aih  nlution  (A.^Dder,  Am..  iMi.  314.  p.  178). 

BLTOMIC  (from  Glycon,  a  Creek  lyiic  poet),  a  form  of  vene, 
best  known  In  Catullus  and  Horace  (usually  In  tbe  catalertic 
tariety  .  i  ^  .._-..  x),  with  three  leet — a  spondee  and  two  dac- 
tyb;  or  tom — three  trochee*  and  a  dactyl,  or  a  dactyl  and  three 
chocca.  Si  R.  Jebb  pointed  out  thai  the  last  form  nyghi  be 
varied  by  (ladng  the  dactyl  second  or  third,  and  according  to  its 
flace  this  nrsc  was  called  a  FItsI,  Second  or  Third  Clycnnlc. 

Cf.  J.  W.  White,  in  Clniiul  QuarUrh  (Oct.  1909). 

SLTFH  (from  Gi.  yUtar,  to  carve),  in  architecture,  a  venjcal 
chanad  in  a  hiat  (see  TuOLypB). 

flLTrmiXMI  (Greek  for  "  flutcd-lootb  "},  a  name  applied 
by  Sii  R.  Owei  >□  the  typical  representative  of  a  group  of 
BCUtk,  amadiDo-like,  Siiulh   American,   eiUnct   Edentata, 


charactertied  by  having  the  carapace  compoaed  of  a  toBd  piece 
(fonned  by  the  union  ol  a  multitude  ol  bony  dermal  plates) 
wilboDl  any  movable  rin^  Tbe  fadal  portion  of  the  skull  is 
very  ibott;  a  hmg  process  of  Ihe  miiUlary  bone  descends 
from  the  anterior  part  of  tbe  sygomalic  orcb;  and  the  ascej>dIog 
ramus  irf  the  mandible  is  remarkably  high.  Tbe  teeth,  4  in  the 
later  apedes,  are  much  alike,  having  two  deep  grooves  01  flutinff 
on  each  side,  10  as  10  divide  tbem  into  three  distinct  loba  (fig.). 
Tbey  are  very  tall  and  grew  thmughDut 


life. 


rtebral   < 


solid  tube,  but 
there  Is  a  complei  joint  at  the  base  of  tbe 
neck,  to  aUoir  tbe  bead  being  retracted 
within  the  carapace.  The  limbs  are  very 
■tlong,  and  the  feet  iborl  and  broad,  re- 
— iir ;teraally  those  of  an  elephiol 


Glyptodonta  constitute  a  f anuly, 
ioHtiiat,   whoKi  position    is    pew.    «.    ...w 
irmadillc*   tpatypediiati;  Ihe  gioip  being 
..nu_».<  by  ,  number  of  generic  types. 


he  Girt*. 


tad-dnlh  In  KHK  mstancea  having  a  lenath 
of  fnm  13  to  16  ft.  In  ajtMim  (nth 
which  SM^etUvtim  Is  IdentScsl)  the  tail- 
aheath  conaiMt  oi  a  Belies  oi  cotonn-lte 
rings,  gradually  diminiihint  in  diameter  from. 
base  to  tip.  DaMcatui,  id  lAich  the  tail- 
■heath  u  in  tbe  lonn  of  *  huge  solid  dub,  is 
the  largest  member  of  the  family:  in  Paivi- 
aitw  and  SdmealjfUa  ismitluna)  tbe 

•"'^' — •■■ s«s  basilly  of  a  iraall  number 

I.  and  terminany  of  a  tube. 

,  the  bony  icutes  of  the  cara- 
pace have  been  praerved,  and  lince  the  T 
loramina,  which  often  pierce  the  latter,  atop  (ooU 
short  of  the  loriDec,  it  is  evident  thai  these  the  u 
— -:  fat  tbe  paieagB  of  blond-vtjtla  and  ing  c 
reapladea  (or  bristles.  In  the  early  lowei 
itocene  enoch.  when  South  Anierio 
Ith   North  America,  ec 


alyptadim.    One    ll 

Is  the  undermentioned  Pi 


«  these  northern 


..  ..  Pauaonia  there  ocenr  the  twQcuiioui  genera  PratoJuaMila' 
flunu  uA^PdUtkUui,  tbe  former  of  which  Is  a  punitive  and 

■ — ■  .yp,  (rf  .lypiodgnt,  while  the  latter  aeenu  to  come 

._  .. armadUka.    Both  are  represented  by  q>ecie>  of  aim- 

parativdy  small  aisei  la  Pnpitaaluiplapiutia  the  icutes  of  tbe 
carapace,  which  are  ten  deeply  tculptured  than  in  the  larger  glyUa- 
donts,  are  arranged  in  diatirict  transverse  rows,  in  three  of  which 
tbey  pattiilly  ovcrbp  near  the  border  of  the  mapve  after  tbe 
[asliion  o(  the  snnadilloa.  The  skull  and  limb-bonea  exhibit  levenl 
leatures  met  with  in  the  latter,  and  tbe  vertebime  ol  the  back  are  not 
welded  into  a  conlmuous  tube.  There  are  eight  pairs  of  teeth,  tbe 
Km  four  of  which  areiimpler  than  tbe  teat,  and  may  perhapatbne- 
loie  be  rmided  as  premolars.  More  remarkable  is  PetleflilM,  on 
acOTjnt  ol  the  fact  that  the  teeth,  which  are  linnle.  with  a  chevion- 

backwarda,  tbe  number  ol  pairs  being  seven.     Accordingly,  a 

n  ihc  eariier  article,  ia  rendered  ncressary.    Tbe  head  bei 

ire  looeety  opposed  or  ilightly  overispping,  form  a  number 

LiTBaATUal.— R.  Lydeliker,  "The  Eilincl  Estates  of  Ar- 

renrin.."  A%.  Uta.  La  PI.-      "  '     '         "    '-- 

I.  "  '  Glyptothe 


1  (ii.  yiiorrii,  carved,  and  S^,  a  place 
age),  an  architectural  term  given  to  a  gallery  for  th« 
ion  of  sculpture,  and  Gist  employed  at  Munich,  when  it 
was  buHl  to  exhibit  the  tculpiuic*  from  tbe  temple  of  Aegina. 


rt^h 


148 


GMELIN--GNEISENAU 


OHBUN,  the  name  of  several  distinguishcfd  German  scientists, 
of  a  TQbingen  family.  Johann  Georg  Gmelin  (1674-1728), 
an  apothecary  in  TttbUigen,  and  an  accomplished  chemist  for 
the  times  in  which  he  lived,  had  three  sons.  The  first,  Johann 
Conrad  (i  702-1 759)',  was  an  apothecary  and  surgeon  in  Tflbingen. 
The  second,  Johann  Georg  (1709-1755)1  ^as  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry  and  natural  history  |n  St  Petersburg  in  1731,  and 
from  X733  to  1743  was  engaged  in  travelling  through  Siberia. 
The  fruits  of  hia  journey  were  Flora  SUririca  (4  vols.,  1749- 
1750)  and  Reisen  durch  Sibirien  (4  vols.,  1753).  He  ended  lis 
days  as  professor  of  medicine  at  TQbingen,  a  post  to  which  he 
was  appointed  in  1749.  The  third  son,  Philipp  Friedrich  (x72x~ 
1768),  was  extraordinary  professor  of  medicine  at  TQbingen 
in  1750,  and  in  1755  became  ordinary  professor  of  botany  and 
chemistry.  In  the  second  generation  Samuel  Gottlieb  (1743- 
1774),  the  son  of  Johann  Conrad,  was  appointed  professor  of 
natural  history  at  St  Petersburg  in  1766,  and  in  the  following 
year  started  on  a  journey  throu^  south  Russia  and  the  recpons 
round  the  Caspian  Sea.  On  his  way  back  he  was  captured  by 
Usmey  Khan,  of  the  Kaitak  tribe,  and  died  from  the  ill-treatment 
he  suffered,  on  the  27th  of  July  1774.  One  of  his  nephews, 
Ferdinand  Gottlob  von  Gmelin  (i 782-1848),  became  professor  of 
medicine  and  natural  history  at  Tubingen  in  1805,  and  another. 
Christian  Gottlob  (1792-1860),  who  in  1828  was  one  of  the 
first  to  devise  a  process  for  the  artificial  manufacture  of  ultra- 
marine, was  professor  of  chemistry  and  pharmacy  in  the  same 
university.  In  the  youngest  branch  of  the  family,  Philipp 
Friedrich  had  a  son^  Johann  Friedrich  (1748-1804),  who  was 
appointed  professor  of  medicine  in  TQbingen  in  1772,  and  in 
X775  accepted  the  chair  of  medicine  and  chemistry  at  GOttingen. 
In  X788  he  published  the  X3th  edition  of.  Linnaeus'  Sysiema 
Naturae  with  many  additions  and  alterations.  His  son  Leopold 
(i  788-1853),  was -the  best -known  member  of  the  family.  He 
studied  medicine  and  chemistry  at  GOttingen,  TQbingen  and 
Vienna,  and  in  1813  began  to  lecture  on  chemistry  at  Heidelberg, 
where  in  1814  he  was  appointed  extraordinary,  and  in  x8x7 
ordinary,  professor  of  chemistry  and  medicine.  He  was  the 
discoverer  of  potassium  ferricyanide  (1822),  and  wrote  the 
Handbuck  der  Chemie  (ist  ed.  X817-X819,  4th  ed.  X843-X8S5), 
an  important  work  in  its  day,  which  was  translated  into  En^sh 
for  the  Cavendish  Society  by  H.  Watts  (1815-1884)  in  X848- 
X859.  He  resigned  his  chair  in  1852,  and  died  on  the  X3th  of 
April  in  the  following  year  at  Heidelberg. 

OHOND,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  WQrttemberg,* 
in  a  charming  and  fruitful  valley  on  the  Rems,  here  spanned  by 
a  beautiful  bridge,  31  m.  E.N.E.  of  Stuttgart  on  the  railway 
to  NOrdlingen.  Pop.  (1905)  18,699.  It  is  surrounded  by  old 
walls,  flanked  with  towers,  and  has  a  considerable  number  of 
ancient  buildings,  among  which  are  the  fine  church  of  the  Holy 
Cross;  St  John's  church,  which  dates,  from  the  time  of  the 
Hohenstaufen;  and,  situated  on  a  height  near  the  town,  partly 
hewn  out  of  the  rock,  the  pilgrimage  church  of  the  Saviour. 
Among  the  modern  buildings  are  the  gymnasium,  the  drawing 
and  trade  schools,  the  Roman  Catholic  seminary,  the  town 
hall  and  the  industrial  art  museum.  Clocks  and  watches  are 
manufactured  here  and  also  other  articles  of  silver,  while  the 
town  has  a  considerable  trade  in  com,  hops  and  fruit.  The 
scenery  in  the  neighbourhood  is  very  beautiful,  near  the  town 
being  the  district  called  Little  Switzerland. 

GmQnd  was  surrounded  by  walls  in  the  beginning  of  the  X2th 
century  by  Duke  Frederick  of  Swabia.  It  received  town  rights 
from  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  after  the  extinction  of  the 
Hohenstaufen  became  a  free  imperial  town.  It  retained  its 
independence  till  X803,  when  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
WQrttemberg  GmQnd  is  the  birth-place  of  the  painter  Hans 
Baldung  (X475-1545)  and  of  the  architect  Heinrich  Arler  or  Parler 
(fl.  1350).    In  the  middle  ages  the  population  was  about  xo,ooo. 

See  Kaiser,  CmAnd  und  seine  Umgebung  (1888). 

*  There  are  two  places  of  this  name  in  Austria,  (i)  GmQnd, 
a  town  in  Lower  Austria,  containing  a  palace  belonging  to  the 
imperial  family,  (2)  a  town  in  Carintnia,  with  a  beautiful  Gothic 
church  and  some  mteresting  ruins. 


OMUNDBW,  a  town  and  summer  resort  of  Austria,  in  Upper 
Austria,  40  m.  S.S.W.  of  Linz  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  7x26.  It 
is  situated  at  the  efflux  of  the  Traun  river  from  the  lake  of  the 
same  name  and  is  surrounded  by  high  mountains,  as  the  Traun- 
stein  (5446  ft.),  the  Erlakogd  (5x50  ft.),  the  WUde  Kogel  (6860 
ft.)  and  the  Hdllen  Gebirge.  It  is  much  frequented  as  a  health 
and'  summer  resort,  and  has  a  variety  of  lake,  bribe,  vegetable 
and  pine<»ne  baths,  a  hydropathic  establishment,  inhalatioii 
chambers,  whey  cuze,  &c.  There  are  a  great  number  <rf  ex- 
cursions and  points  of  interest  round  Gmunden,  spedally  worth 
mentioning  being  the  Traun  Fall,  xo  m.  N.  of  GmundeiL  It  b 
also  an  important  centns  of  the  salt  industry  in  Salzkamxnergut. 
Gmunden  was  a  town  endrded  with  walls  already  in  xx86.  On 
the  X4th  of  November  X626,  Pappenhdm  compdetdy  defeated 
here  the  army  of  the  rebellious  peasants. 

See  F.  Krackowiaer.  Gesckickte  der  Siadt  GmundeH  m  Oberdslennck 
(Gmunden,  1 898-1901,  3  vols.). 

ONAT  (0.  Eng.  gMt^t  the  common  English  name  for  the 
smaller  dipterous  flies  (see  Dxptera)  of  the  family  Ctdiddae, 
which  are  now  induded  among  "  mosquitoes  "  (see  Mosquito). 
The  distinctive  term  has  no  zoological  significance,  but  in 
England  the  "  mosquito  "  has  commonly  been  distinguished 
from  the  "  gnat "  as  a  variety  of  larger  size  and  mcne  poisoiMnn 
bite. 

ONATHOPODA,  a  term  in  zoological  classification,  suggested 
as  an  alternative  name  /or  the  group  Arthropoda  (7.9.).  The 
word,  which  means  "  jaw-footed,"  refers  to  the  fact  that  in  the 
members  of  the  group,  some  of  the  lateral  appendages  or  "  feet  *' 
in  the  region  of  the  mouth  act  as  jaws. 

ONATIA  (also  Ecnatu  or  Icnatu,  mod.  AtumOt  near 
Fasano),  an  andent  dty  of  the  Peucetii,  and  their  frontier  town 
towards  the  Sallentini  (t.e.  of  Apulia  towards  Calabria),  in 
Roman  times  of  importance  for  its  trade,  lying  as  it  did  on  the 
sea,  at  the  point  where  the  Via  TTaiana  joined  the  coast  road,* 
38  m.  S.E.  of  Barium.  The  andent  dty  walls  have  been  almost 
entirdy  destroyed  in  recent  times  to  provide  building  mateiial,* 
and  the  place  is  famous  for  the  discoveries  made  in  its  tombs. 
A  considerable  cdlection  of  antiquities  from  Gnatia  is  i»eserved 
at  Fasano,  though  the  best  are  in  the  museum  at  BarL  Gnatia 
was  the  scene  of  the  prodigy  at  which  Horace  mocks  {Sat.  L 
5.  97).  Near  Fasano  are  two  small  subtoranean  chapels  with 
paintings  of  the  xxth  century  a.o.  (E.  Bertaux,  LArt  dans 
ritalie  miridicnaU,  Paris,  X904,  X35).  (T.  Asw) 

ONBISBNAU,  AUGUST  WILHELM  ANTON,  Count  Next- 
HAROT  VON  (x  760-1831),  Prussian  field  marshal,  was  the  son 
of  a  Saxon  officer  named  Kdthardt.  Born  in  1760  at  Schildau, 
near  Torgau,  he  was  brought  up  in  great  poverty  thexe,  and 
subsequently  at  WQrsburg  and  Erfurt.  In  X777  be  entered 
Erfurt  tmiversity;  but  two  years  later  joined  an  Austrian 
regiment  there  quartered.  In  X782  taking  the  additional  name 
of  Gneisenau  from  some  lost  estates  of  his  family  in  Austria, 
he  entered  as  an  officer  the  service  of  the  margrave  of  Baireuth- 
Anspach.  With  one  of  that  prince's  mercenary  rcpments  in 
Eni^ish  pay  he  saw  active  service  and  gained  valuable  experi- 
ence in  the  War  of  American  Independence,  and  returning 
in  X786,  applied  for  Prussian  service.  Frederick  the  Great  gave 
him  a  commission  as  first  lieuteiumt  in  the  infantry.  Made 
StabskapUdn  in  X790,  Gneisenau  served  in  Poland,  1 793-1794, 
and,  subsequently  to  this,  ten  years  of  quiet  garrison  life  in 
Jauer  enabled  him  to  undertake  a  wide  range  of  nu'litary  studies. 
In  X796  he  married  Caroline  von  Kottwitz.  In  x8o6  he  was 
one  of  Hohenlohe's  staff-officers,  fought  at  Jena,  and  a  little 
later  commanded  a  provisional  infantry  brigade  which  fought 
under  Lestocq  in  the  lithuanian  campaign.  Early  in  1807 
Major  von  Gneisenau  was  sent  as  commandant  to  Colberg,  which, 
small  and  ill-protected  as  it  was,  succeeded  in  holding  out  until 
the  peace  of  Tilsit.  The  commandant  lecdved  the  much-prized 
order  "  pour  le  m^rite,"  and  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel. 

A  wider  q>here  of  work  was  now  opened  to  him.    As  chief  of 

*  There  is  no  authority  for  calling  the  tatter  Via  Egnatia. 
■  H.  Swinburne,  Trails  in  tk»  Two  Sicilies  (London.  1790),  IL  15, 
mentions  the  walls  a«  being  8  yds.  thick  and  16  courses  high. 


GNEISS 


149 


cngiDeen,  and  a  member  of  the  reoxganizing  commjltee,  he 
played  a  great  part,  along  with  Schamhorst,  in  the  work  of  re- 
conatructing  the  Prussian  army.  A  colonel  in  1809,  he  soon  drew 
upon  himself,  by  his  energy,  the  suspicion  of  the  dominant  French, 
and  Stein's  fall  was  soon  followed  by  Gneisenau's  retirement. 
But,  after  visiting  Russia,  Sweden  and  England,  he  returned 
to  Berlin  and  resumed  his  pUce  as  a  leader  of  the  patriotic 
party.  In  open  military  work  and  secret  machinations  his 
energy  and  patriotism  were  equally  tested,  and  with  the  out- 
break of  the  War  of  Liberation,  Major-General  Gneisenau 
became  Blttcher's  quartermaster-general.  Thus  began  the 
connexion  between  these  two  soldiers  which  has  furnished 
military  history  with  its  best  example  of  the  harmonious  co- 
operation between  the  general  and  his  chief-of-staff.  With 
BlQcher,  Gneisenau  served  to  the  capture  of  Paris;  his  military 
character  was  the  exact  complement  of  BlQcher's,  and  under 
this  h^py  guidance  the  young  troops  of  Prussia,  often  defeated 
bat  never  discouraged,  fought  their  way  into  the  heart  of  France. 
The  i^n  of  the  march  on  Paris,  which  led  directly  to  the  fall 
of  Napoleon,  was  specifically  the  work  of  the  diief-of- staff. 
In  reward  for  his  distinguished  service  he  was  in  18 14,  along 
with  York,  Kleist  and  BUlow,  made  count  at  the  same  time  as 
BlOcher  became  prince  of  Wahlstatt;  an  annuity  was  also 
assigned  to  him. 

In  181 5,  once  more  chief  of  Blttcher's  staff,  Gneisenau  played 
a  very  conspicuous  part  in  the  Waterloo  campaign  (q.v.).  Senior 
generals,  such  as  York  and  Kleist,  had  been  set  aside  iit  order 
that  the  chief-of-staff  should  have  the  command  in  case  of  need, 
and  when  on  the  field  of  Ligny  the  old  field  marshal  was  disabled, 
Gneisenau  at  once  assumed  the  control  of  the  Prussian  army. 
Even  in  the  light  of  the  evidence  that  many  years'  research 
has  coilected,  the  precise  part  taken  by  Gneisenau  in  the  events 
which  followed  is  much  debated.  It  is  known  that  Gneisenau 
had  the  deepest  distrust  of  the  British  commander,  who,  he 
ooDakkxed,  had  left  the  Prussians  in  the  lurch  at  Ligny,  and  that 
to  the  hour  of  victory  he  had  grave  doubts  as  to  whether  he  ought 
not  to  fall  back  on  the  Rhine.  Blttcher,  however,  soon  recovered 
bom,  his  injuries,  and,  with  Grolmann,  the  quartermaster- 
genenJ,  he  managed  to  convince  Gneisenau.  The  relations  of 
the  two  may  be  illustrated  by  Brigadier-General  Hardinge's 
report.  Blttcher  burst  into  Hardinge's  room  at  Wavre,  saying 
"  Cneisatau  has  given  vtay,  and  we  are  to  march  at  once  to  your 
chief." 

On  the  fidd  of  Waterloo,  however,  Gneisenau  was  quick  to 
realise  the  magnitude  of  the  victory,  and  he  carried  out  the 
punoit  with  a  relentless  vigour  which  has  few  parallels  in 
history.  His  reward  was  further  promotion  and  the  insignia 
of  the  "BUdc  Eagle"  which  had  been  taken  in  Napoleon's 
coach.  In  x8i6  he  was  appointed  to  command  the  Vlllth 
Prussian  Oorps,  but  soon  retired  from  the  service,  both  because 
of  ill-health  and  for  political  reasons.  For  two  years  he  lived  in 
retirement  on  his  estate,  Erdmannsdorf  in  Silesia,  but  in  x8i8 
be  was  made  governor  of  Berlin  in  succession  to  Kalkreuth,  and 
member  of  the  Staatsraih.  In  1825  he  became  general  field 
marsfaaL  la  1831  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Army  of  Observation  on  the  Polish  frontier,  with  Clausewitz 
as  his  chief-of-staff.  At  Posen  he  was  struck  down  by 
diolera  and  died  on  the  24th  of  August  1831,  soon  followed 
by  his  chief-of-staff,  who  fell  a  victim  to  the  same  disease  in 
November. 

As  a  soldier,  Gneisenau  was  the  greatest  Prussian  general 
nnce  Frederick;  as  a  man,  his  iK)bIe  character  and  virtuous  life 
secured  him  the  affection  and  reverence,  not  only  of  his  superiors 
and  subordinates  in  the  service,  but  of  the  whole  Prussian 
nation.  A  statue  by  Ranch  was  erected  in  Berlin  in  1855,  and 
in  Dsemocy  of  the  siege  of  1807  the  Colberg  grenadiers  received 
his  name  in  1889.  One  of  his  sons  led  a  brigade  .of  the  Vlllth 
Army  Com  in  the  war  of  1870. 

See  C.  H.  Pertz,  Das  Ltben  its  FddmarschaUs  Grqfen  Neitkardi 
•M  Gneisemau,  vols.  1*3  (Beriin,  1864-1869):  vols.  4  and  5. 
G.  Ddbrftck  (ib.  1879, 1880),  with  numerous  documeote  and  letten; 
H.  DelbrQck.  Das  LAen  des  G.  F.  M.  Grafen  van  Gneisenau  (3  vols.. 
and  ed.,  Bcrfin,  1894).  based  on  Peru*s  work,  but  containing  much 


new  material;  Flau  von  Bcgudin,  DenhtHrdtgkeiten  (Berlin,  1892); 
Hormayr,  Lebensbilder  aus  den  B^reiungskrieten  (Jcn*>  1841): 
Pick,  Aus  dem  brieflicken  Nacklass  Gneis^naus;  also  the  histories  of 
the  campaigns  of  1807  ^nd  X813-15. 

GNEISS,  a  term  long  mied  by  the  xnihers  of  the  Han  Mountains 
to  designate  the  country  rock  in  which  the  mineral  veins  occur; 
it  is  bdieved  to  be  a  word  of  Slavonic  origin  meaning  "  rotted  " 
or  "  decomposed."  It  has  gradually  passed  into  acceptance  as  a 
generic  term  signifying  a  large  and  varied  series  of  metamorphic 
rocks,  which  mostly  consist  of  quartz  and  felspar  (orthodase 
and  plagiodase)  with  muscovite  and  biotite,  hornblende  or 
augite,  iron  oxides,  zircon  and  apatite.  There  is  also  a  long 
list  of  accessory  minerals  which  are  present  in  gneisses  with  more 
or  less  frequency,  but  not  invariably,  as  garnet,  sillimanite, 
cordierite,  graphite  and  graphitoid,  epidote,  caldte,  orthite, 
tourmaline  and  andalusite.  The  gneisses  all  possess  a  more 
or  less  marked  paralld  structure  or  foliation,  which  is  the  main 
feature  by  which  many  of  them  are  separated  from  the  granites, 
a  group  of  rocks  having  nearly  the  same  mineralogical  composi- 
tion and  dosely  allied  to  many  gneisses. 

The  felspars  of  the  gneisses  are  predominantly  orthodase 
(often  perthitic),  but  microdine  is  common  in  the  more  add 
types  and  ollgodase  occurs  also  very  frequently,  espcdally  in 
certain  sedimentary  gneisses,  while  more  basic  varieties  of 
plagiodase  are  rare.  Quartz  is  very  sddom  absent  and  may  be 
blue  or  milky  and  opalescoit.  Muscovite  and  biotite  may  both 
occur  in  the  same  rock;  in  other  cases  only  one  of  them  is  present. 
The  commonest  and  most  important  types  of  gneiss  are  the  mica- 
gneisses.  Hornblende  is  green,  rarely  brownish;  augite  pale 
green  or  nearly  colourless;  enstatite  appeaxs  in  some  granulite- 
gneisses.  Epidote,  often  with  endosures  of  orthite,  is  by  no 
means  rare  in  gneisses  from  many  different  parts  of  the  world. 
Sillimanite  and  andalusite  are  not  infrequent  ingredients  of 
gneiss,  and  their  presence  has  been  accounted  for  in  more  than 
.one  way.  Cordierite-gneisses  are  a  spedal  group  of  great  in  terest 
and  possessing  many  peculiarities;  they  are  partly,  if  not 
entirdy,  foliated  contact-altered  sedimentary  rocks.  Kyanite 
and  staurolite  may  also  be  mentioned  as  occasionally  occurring. 

Many  varieties  of  gneiss  have  received  specific  names  according 
to  the  minerals  they  consist  of  and  the  structural  peculiarities 
they  exhibit.  Muscovite-gneiss,  biotite-gndss  and  muscovite- 
biotite-gneiss,  more  common  perhaps  than  all  the  others  taken 
together,  are  grey  or  pinkish  rocks  according  to  the  colour  of 
their  prevalent  felq>ar,  not  unlike  granites,  but  on  the  whole 
more  often  fine-grained  (though  coarse-grained  types  occur)  and 
possessing  a  gneissose  or  foliated  structure.  The  latter  consists 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  flakes  of  mica  in  such  a  way  that 
thdr  faces  are  paralld,  and  hence  the  rock  has  the  property  of 
splitting  more  readily  in  the  direction  in  which  the  mica  plates 
are  disposed.  This  fissility,  though  usually  marked,  is  not  so 
great  as  in  the  schists  or  slates,  and  the  split  faces  are  not  so 
smooth  as  in  these  latter  rocks.  The  films  of  mica  may  be 
continuous  and  are  usually  not  flat,  but  ixiegularly  curved. 
In  some  gndsses  the  paralld  flakes  of  mica  are  scattered  through 
the  quartz  and  felspar;  in  others  these  minerals  form  discrete 
bands,  the  quartz  and  felspar  being  grouped  into  lentides 
separated  by  thin  films  of  mica.  When  large  felspars,  of  rounded 
or  elliptical  form,  are  visible  in  the  gneiss,  it  is  said  to  have 
augen  structure  (Cier.  Augen^eyn).  It  should  also  be  remarked 
that  the  essential  component  minerals  of  the  rocks  of  this  family 
arc  practically  always  determinable  by  naked  eye  inspection  or 
with  the  aid  of  a  simple  lens.  If  the  rock  is  too  fine  grained 
for  this  it  is  generally  rdcgated  to  the  schists.  When  the 
bands  of  folia  are  very  fine  and  tortuous  the  structure  is  called 
hdizitic. 

In  mica-gneisses  sillimanite,  kyanite,  andalusite  and  garnet 
may  occur.  The  significance  of  these  minerals  is  variously 
interpreted;  they  may  indicate  that  the  gneiss  consists  wholly 
or  in  part  of  sedimentary  material  which  has  been  contact- 
altered,  but  they  have  also  been  regarded  as  having  been 
devdoped  by  metamorphic  actioxi  out  of  biotite  or  other  primary 
ingredients  of  the  rock. 


GNEIST 

Ud  1*1»     '«'  '"  f^'f 


orttarxlue  uid  micrDcline,  and  matt  sphrne  and  cpidotc.  Miny 
of  Ihem  ««  rich  in  hornblende  ind  ihui  form  lr»nsitioin  to 
•mphiboLiUM.     PyroKne-gneiBO  irc  less  frequcnl  but  occur 

IR  very  dott\y  illied  to  Ibe  pyroicnc-gnFiuM.     Hypcnlheoc 

tima  gunetilcrous. 

In  evrry  country  where  Ihe  lo«e«  and  oldest  locki  have  come  to 

»plul  ncki  oT  the  An:han  (Lewiiian.  LauRnluin,  Ac.)  teriei. 
In  the  Alpt,  Han,  ScHland,  Nomy  and  Sxcden.  Cauda.  South 
-  '  I,  PH>iaHia[  India.  Himaliya.  <Io  mention  only  a  lew 
-^  ■■----  -— -py  wide  areai  and  exhibit  a  rich  diveraity  ol 
lai  beea  InFerred  that  they  are  oT  sreat  gcolojiral 


localities  tl 
l'''*lnd™ 


believed  that  they  re| 


d  while  thia  ii  no  tonger  general 
■ii.i  >cui<4>->i  who  bold  that  lb«e  gneiuei  ar 
Canbcian  tgt.  Otbci*.  while  adnlltio;  Ihe  t 
hypotbcBs.coiuidcrthat  there  aRlocalitiu  in* 
can  be  shown  to  penetnte  into  roclu  which  ma 


lO  that  t 


lout  pfe-CambfiaD. 

brought  to  tbeir  pmeni  iiaie  t»r  tuch  agent*  ol  nietarroiphitm  bb 

dcmonBtrated  partly  1^  (heir  mode  of  occurrence:  they  accompany 
liiDdtoncfl.  BTaphitic»criiita.quartfitesandotherroclaoi  adi  mcnia  ry 
type:  aonie  of  Ebem  where  least  altered  may  even  ahow  remains  of 
bedding  or  of  original  pebbly  character  (conglomerate  gneiiiei). 
Mote  cooclmive,  faoweverf  it  the  chemical  compotiliailol  Ifaeie  rocks. 
which  often  ia  nich  u  no  igneoui  matiefl  poeieii,  but  memblea  that 
of  nuny  InponargiUaceoiu  ledinentf.    These  sedinientary  gnFisan 

and  gamet  and  may  contain  Vyanite  and  ■Illimanitcorlns  frequently 
caklte.    Someof  them,  however,  arc  rich  In  felspukAdquarli.  with 

nnicavile  and  biotite;  otberi  may  cv >...<.     ,. 

aiiglte»  and  aU  these  may  bear  so  close  >  m. 
IfMousotigia  that  by  no  single  chancier,  cher 
caa  tbeir  sriginal  natore  be  definitely  eBablu. 
however,  acarcliilstudy  of  theirlalioniof  thi 
of  the  different  types  -**-'- • — "■- — '"  ■ 


poiltii 


ur  together  vlU  gcoerally  les 


,    the  sedimenlaiy  echisU  into  which  t 
J.J 1 [  ,],,„,ioB  by  the 

lalusile  and  iilllRU 
'  in  h  primitive,  ' 


:rDded  may  show, co 


kril^  anibl 


after  consolirlatio 


ic  character  have  been  inlnided,  foUowing 
foliation  planes  already  present  in  the  co 
produce  tWt  altemi-'-  '-  -' ' 


3d  in  mincfal  cornposilton  a 


of  tlM  older  rock) 
have  invaded  I  her 


iiid  sedimentary  malerii 


:neom  injection  aiv 
I  not  difficult  to  und 
xks.    All  the  factor 

I^JCI^-iih^htem 


so  completely  confoaed  that  the  geologist  cai 

'  that  In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  earth's  history 
n  belong,  and  in  the  rdalivdy  deep  pans  ol 
me  they  niiully  occur,  there  has  been  oiosl 

eraldnd  the  geological  distribution  of  ^neissoss 
peralurrs,  are  found  at  great  depths  and  havf 


GHEIST,    HQHHICK    RUDOLF 

rOH  (iBiS-iS-Js),  German  jurist  i 
(eilio  on  Ibe  ijlh  of  August  jgi6, 
a  the  "  Kammeigeiicbt  "  (court  of  appeal) 
eccivjng  bis  school  education  at  the  gyi 


'rinaldoi^ni  in  Ihe  faculty  of  law.  He  had,  howcvi 
en  the  judicial  branch  of  the  legal  proleuion  ai 
laving  while  yet  a  atudeat  acted  a  Ausadlalt 


of  a  judge 

tlacbed 

in  that  cilj 

After 

ty  of  Berlin 

in  1835 

pupil  of  the 

■  years  on  a  lengthened  tour  L 

He  uljliied  hii  Wat-irrjakrt 

live  study,  And  on  bis  retutn  in 

naiy  profestor  d  Ron 


Italy,  France  and 
1S44  was  appdnted 


c  Ent-ftui 


uoiiilca 


which  ei 


:cacher  wi 


hool  of  Prussian 
nonallyc 


.49,  his  rrioJ  by  Jur, 


[,  Zli>  Jtrmtlica  Verlrllf  dt 
iliialimtn-Sethlti  (Berlin,  1845).  i>arj  ^iii 
cmic  labours  he  continued  bis  judicial  alter, 
1  due  couue  lucccssively  u^ttant  judge  of  the 
and  of  the  supreme  tribuniL  But  to  *  mind 
ch  at  his,  (he  want  of  elasticity  in  the  procedure 
as  galling.  "  Brought  up,"  he  telli,  in  Ihe  preface 
■e  Ke./ai««(rie.c 


ion,  he  pleaded  in 

The  period  of " 
ppoili    ■      ■ 
with  ai 


waa  common  to  both  Ccnnuiy  and 
I  rnastcrly  way  the  benefits  which  had 
ry  through  in  more  eilendcd  applici- 
KC  admiuion  ic  the  tribunal!  of  his 


y  fori 


o  then 


mional  st 


le  threi 


imself 
onal  Assembly 


Ihougb  his  candidalun 

of  thai  year  was  unsuccessiuj,  ac  tell  mat  "  tne  die  wu  cast," 
and  deddii^g  tor  a  political  career,  retired  in  1850  from  bis  judicial 
position.  Entering  the  ranks  of  the  Nalioul  Liberal  party, 
he  began  boLh  in  wriling  and  speeches  aclively  to  champion 
tbeir  cause,  now  busying  himself  pre-eminently  srilh  the  study 
of  conslilutional  law  and  history.  In  tSjj  appeared  his  AiU 
und  RiUaiilwjl  in  Entlawd,  and  In  iBs;  the  GackitkU  nd 
kntite  Caloit  der  Amirr  in  Ext/axil,  a  pamphlet  primarily 
lo  combat  the  Prussian  abusi       


which  th 


iu  eflect  in  modifying  ct 
in  England  iistU.  In  iBjS  Gne. 
professor  of  Roman  lav,  and  in  tli 
parliamentary  career  by  hii  eleciio 
neicnhaus  (House  of  Deputies]  ofil 


!dlbtl 


Iben  ruled 
d  ordinary 
imeaced  his 
ic  Abgtotd- 

nntiT'jflj: 


GNESEN— GNOME,  AND  GNOMIC  POETRY 


151 


Joining  the  Left,  he  at  once  became  one  of  its  leading  spokesmen. 
His  chief  oratorical  triumphs  are  associated  with  the  early  period 
of  his  membership  of  the  House;  two  noteworthy  occasions 
being  his  violent  attack  (September  1862)  upon  the  government 
budget  in  connexion  with  the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian 
army,  and  his  defence  (1864)  of  the  Polish  chiefs  of  the  (then) 
grand-duchy  of  Posen,  who  were  acnised  of  high  treason.  In 
1857-1863  was  published  Das  keutige  englisckc  Verfassungs- 
vnd  Verwaltungsreckt,  a  work  which,  contrasting  English  and 
German  constitutional  law  and  administration,  aimed  at  exercis- 
ing political  pressure  upon  the  government  of  the  day.  Id 
1868  Gneist  became  a  member  of  the  North  German  parliament, 
and  acted  as  a  member  of  the  commission  for  organizing  the 
federal  army,  and  also  of  that  for  the  settlement  of  ecclesiastical 
controversial  questions.  On  the  establishment  of  German 
unity  his  mandate  was  renewed  for  the  Reichstag,  and  in  this 
he  sat,  an  active  and  prominent  member  of  the  National  Liberal 
party,  until  1884.  In  the  Kulturkaropf  he  sided  with  the 
government  against  the  attacks  of  the  Clericals,  whom  he  bitterly 
denounced,  and  whose  implacable  enemy  he  ever  showed  himself. 
In  1879,  together  with  his  colleague,  von  H&ncl,  he  violently 
attacked  the  motion  for  the  prosecution  of  certain  Socialist 
members,  which  as  a  result  of  the  vigour  of  his  opposition  was 
almost  unanimously  rejected.  He  was  parliamentary  reporter 
for  the  committees  on  all  great  financial  and  administrative 
questions,  and  his  profound  acquaintance  with  constitutional 
law  caused  his  advice  to  be  frequently  sought,  not  only  in  his 
own  but  also  in  other  countries.  In  Prussia  he  largely  influenced 
legislation,  the  reform  of  the  judicial  and  penal  systems  and  the 
new  constitution  of  the  Evangelical  Church  being  largely  his 
work.  He  was  also  consulted  by  the  Japanese  government  when 
a  (institution  was  being  introduced  into  that  country.  In 
1875  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  supreme  administrative 
court  (OberverwaltungsgericMt)  of  Prussia,  but  only  held  ofTicc 
for  two  years.  In  1882  was  published  his  Englische  Vcrjassungs- 
gtsckickle  (trans.  History  of  the  English  Constitutionf  London, 
t886),  which  may  perhaps  be  described  as  his  magnum  opus. 
It  placed  the  author  at  once  on  the  level  of  such  writers 
on  English  constitutional  history  as  Hallam  and  Stubbs,  and 
supplied  English  literature  with  a  text-book  almost  unrivalled 
in  point  of  historical  research.  In  x888  one  of  the  first  acts 
of  the  ill-fated  emperor  Frederick  III.,  who  had  always,  as 
crown  prince,  shown  great  admiration  for  him,  was  to  ennoble 
Gneist,  and  attach  him  as  instructor  in  constitutional  law  to  his 
scm,  the  emperor  William  II.,  a  chaige  of  which  he  worthily 
acquitted  himself.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  full  of  energy, 
and,  in  the  possession  of  all  his  faculties,  he  continued  his  wonted 
academic  labours  imtil  a  short  time  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  at  Berlin  on  the  32nd  of  July  1895. 

As  a  politician,  Gneist 's  career  cannot  perh^s  be  said  to  have 
been  entirely  successful.  In  a  country  where  parliamentary 
institutions  are  the  living  exponents  of  the  popuhir  will  he  might 
have  risen  to  a  foremost  position  in  the  state;  as  it  was,  the 
party  to  which  he  allied  himself  could  never  hope  to  become 
more  than  what  it  remained,  a  parliamentary  faction,  and  the 
influence  it  for  a  time  wielded  in  the  counsels  of  the  state  waned 
as  soon  as  the  Sodal-Democratic  party  grew  to  be  a  force  to.  be 
reckoned  with.  It  is  as  a  writer  and  a  teacher  that  Gneist  is 
best  known  to  fame.  He  was  a  jurist  of  a  special  type.  To  him 
law  was  not  mere  theory,  but  living  force;  and  this  conception 
of  its  power  animates  all  his  schemes  of  practical  reform.  As 
a  teacher  he  exercised  a  magnetic  influence,  not  only  by  reason 
of  the  clearness  and  cogency  of  his  exposition,  but  also  because 
of  the  success  with  which  he  developed  the  talents  and  guided 
the  a^irations  of  his  pupils.  He  was  a  man  of  noble  bearing, 
religious,  and  im^med  fvith  a  stem  sense  of  duty.  He  was  proud 
of  being  a  " Preussischer  Junker"  (a  member  of  the  Prussian 
squirearchy),  and  throughout  his  writings,  despite  their  liberal 
tendencies,  may  be  perceived  the  loyalty  and  affection  with  which 
he  clung  to  monarchical  institutions.  A  great  admirer  and  a  true 
friend  of  England,  to  which  country  he  was  attached  by  many 
personal  ties,  be  surpassed  all  other  Germans  in  his  efforts  to 


make  her  free  institutions,  in  which  he  found  his  ideal,  the 
common  heritage  of  the  two  great  nations  of  the  Teutonic  race. 

Gneist  was  a  prolific  writer,  especially  on  the  subject  he  had  made 
peculiarly  his  own,  that  of  constitutional  law  and  history,  and  among 
nis  workis,  other  than  those  above  named,  may  be  mendoned  the 
following:  Budget  und  Gesets  nock  dem  constitutiondUn  Staaisreckt 
Englands  (Berkn.  1867);  Freie  Adoocatur  {ib.,  1867);  D«r  RtdUs- 
staai  (•&.,  1872.  and  and  edition,  1879);  Zur  VenoaUungsrtform 
in  Pretusen  (Leipzig,  i860);  Das  tnglische  Parlament  (Berlin,  1886); 
in  English  translation.  The  En^ish  Parliament  (London,  1&B6;  3rd 
edirion,  1889);  Die  MilitSr-Vorlage  von  i8ga  und  der  ^eussiscke 
VerfassungsconJIikt  von  2862  bis  1866  (Berlin,  1893);  Die  nationaU 
Recklsidee  von  den  Stdnden  und  das  ^eussische  Dreiklassenwahl' 
system  {ib.,  18^5);  Die  verfassungsmdsstge  Stellung  despreussiscken 
GesamtministeriuMs  (ib.,  1895).  See  O.  Gierke,  .  Rudolf  von 
Gneistt  GedScktnisrede  (Berlin,  1895),  an  In  Memoriam  address 
delivered  in  Berlin.  (P.  A.  A.) 

ONESEN  (Polish,  C^msm),  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Posen,  in  an  undulating  and  fertile  country,  on  the 
Wrzesnia,  30  m.  E.N.E.  of  Posen  by  the  railway  to  Thorn. 
Pop.  (1905)  23,727.  Besides  the  cathedral,  a  handsome  Gothic 
edifice  with  twin  towers,  which  contains  the  remains  of  St 
Adalbert,  there  are  eight  Roman  Catholic  churches,  a  Protestant 
church,  a  synagogue,  a  clerical  seminary  and  a  convent  of  the 
Franciscan  nuns.  Among  the  industries  are  doth  and  linen 
weaving,  brewing  and  distilling.  A  great  horse  and  cattle 
market  is  held  here  annually.  Gncsen  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns 
in  the  former  kingdom  of  Poland.  Its  name,  Cniezno,  signifies 
"  nest,"  and  points  to  early  Polish  traditions.  The  cathedral  is 
believed  to  have  been  founded  towards  the  close  of  the  9th 
century,  and,  having  received  the  bones  of  St  Adalbert,  it  was 
visited  in  1000  by  the  emperor  Otto  III.,  who  made  it  the  seat 
of  an  archbishop.  Here,  until  1320,  the  kings  of  Poland  were 
crowned;  and  the  archbishop,  since  1416  primate  of  Poland, 
acted  as  protector  pending  the  a^ppointment  of  a  new  king.. 
In  182Z  the  see  of  Posen  was  founded  and  the  archbishop 
removed  his  residence  thither,  though  its  cathedral  chapter 
still  remains  at  Gnesen.  After  a  long  period  of  decay  the  town 
revived  after  181 5,  when  it  came  under  the  rule  of  Prussia. 

See  S.  Karwowski,  Gnietno  (Posen,  1893). 

6N0HE,  AMD  GNOMIC  POETRY.  Sententious  maxims,  put 
into  verse  for  the  better  aid  of  the  memory,  were  known  by  the 
Greeks  as  gnomes,  yviafiai,  from  ytfoifitf,  an  opim'on.  A  gnome 
is  defined  by  the  Elizabethan  critic  Henry  Peacham  (1576?- 
1643  ?)  as  "  a  saying  pertaining  to  the  manners  and  common 
practices  of  men,  which  dedareth,  with  an  apt  brevity,  what 
in  this  our  life  ought  to  be  done,  or  not  done."  The  Gnomic 
Poets  of  Greece,  who  flourished  in  the  6th  century  B.C.,  were 
those,  who  arranged  series  of  sententious  maxims  in  verse. 
These  were  collected  in  the  4th  century,  by  Lobon  of  Argos, 
an  orator,  but  his  collection  has  disappeared.  The  chief  gnomic 
poets  were  Theognis,  Solon,  Phocylides,  Simonides  of  Amorgos, 
Dcmodocus,  Xenophanes  and  Euenus.  With  the  exception  of 
Theognis,  whose  gnomes  were  forttmately  preserved  by  some 
schoolmaster  about  300  B.C.,  only  fragments  of  the  Gnomic 
Poets  have  come  down  to  us.  The  moral  poem  attributed  to 
Phocylides,  long  supposed  to  be  a  masterpiece  of  the  school, 
is  now  known  to  have  been  written  by  a  Jew  in  Alexandria. 
Of  the  gnomic  movement  typified  by  the  moral  works  of  the 
poets  named  above,  Prof.  Gilbert  Murray  has  remarked  that 
it  receives  its  special  expression  in  the  conception  of  the  Seven 
Wise  Men,  to  whom  such  proverbs  as  "  Know  thyself "  and 
"  Nothing  too  much  "  were  popularly  attributed,  and  whose 
names  differed  in  different  lists.  These  gnomes  or  maxims 
were'  extended  and  put  into  literary  shape  by  the  poets. 
Fragments  of  Solon,  Euenus  and  Mimncrmus  have  been  pre- 
served, in  a  very  confused  state,  from  having  been  written, 
for  purposes  of  comparison,  on  the  margins  of  the  MSS.  of 
Theognis,  whence  they  have  often  slipped  into  the  text  of  that 
poet.  Theognis  enshrines  his  moral  precepts  in  his  elegies,  and 
this  was  probably  the  custom  of  the  rest;  it  is  improbable 
that  there  ever  exbted  a  species  of  poetry  made  up  entirely  oC 
successive  gnomes.  But  the  title  "  gnomic  "  came  to  be  given 
to  all  poetry  which  dealt  in  a  sententious  way  with  questions 


152 


GNOMES— GNOSTICISM 


of  ethics.  It  was,  unquestionably,  the  source  from  which  moral 
philosophy  was  directly  developed,  and  theorists  upon  life  and 
infinity,  such  as  Pythagoras  and  Xenophanes,  seem  to  have 
begun  their  career  as  gnomic  poets.  By  the  very  nature  of 
things,  gnomes,  in  their  literary  sense,  belong  exclusively  to  the 
dawn  of  literature;  their  nalvet6  and  their  simplicity  in  moraliz- 
ing betray  it.  But  it  has  been  observed  that  many  of  the  ethical 
reflections  of  the  great  dramatists,  and  in  particular  of  Sophocles 
and  Euripides,  are  gnomic  distiches  expanded.  It  would  be  an 
error  to  suppose  that  the  ancient  Greek  gnomes  are  all  of  a 
solemn  character;  some  arc  voluptuous  and  some  chivalrous; 
those  of  Demodocus  of  Leros  had  the  reputation  of  being  droll. 
In  modern  times,  the  gnomic  spirit  has  occasionally  beeb  dis- 
played by  poets  of  a  homely  philosophy,  such  as  Francis  Quarlcs 
(i 592-1644)  in  England  and  Gui  de  Pibrac  (i 529-1 584)  in 
France.  The  once-celebrated  Quatrains  of  the  latter,  published 
in  1574,  enjoyed  an  immense  success  throughout  Europe;  they 
were  coniposcd  in  deliberate  Imitation  of  the  Greek  gnomic 
writers  of  the  6th  century  b.c.  These  modem  effusions  are 
rarely  literature  and  perhaps  never  poetry.  With  the  gnomic 
writings  of  Pibrac  it  was  long  customary  to  bind  up  those  of 
Antoine  Favre  (or  Faber)  (1557-1624)  and  of  Pierre  Mathieu 
(i  563-1621).  Gnomes  are  frequently  to  be  found  in  the  andent 
literatures  of  Arabia,  Persia  and  India,  and  in  the  Icelandic 
staves.  The  priamd^  a  brief,  sententious  kind  of  poem,  which 
was  in  favour  in  Germany  from  the  X2th  to  the  x6th  century, 
belonged  to  the  true  gnomic  class,  and  was  cultivated  with 
particular  success  by  Hans  Rosenblut,  the  lyrical  goldsmith 
of  Nuremberg,  in  the  15th  century.  (^<?*) 

GNOMES  (Fr.  gnomes t  Ger.  CnometCi^  in  folk-lore,  the  name 
now  commonly  given  to  the  earth  and  mountain  spirits  who  are 
supposed  to  watch  over  veins  of  precious  metals  and  other 
hidden  treasures.  They  are  usually  pictured  as  bearded  dwarfs 
clad  in  brown  close-fitting  garments  with  hoods.  The  word 
"gnome"  as  applied  to  these  is  of  comparatively  modern 
and  somewhat  uncertain  origin.  By  some  it  is  said  to  have 
been  coined  by  Paracelsus  (so  Hatzfeld  and  Darmesteter, 
Diclionnaire),  who  uses  Gnomi  as  a  synonym  of  Pygmaei,  from 
the  Greek  7wm7i  intelligence.  The  New  En^isk  Didiottary^ 
however,  suggests  a  derivation  from  genomus,  i.e.  a  Greek  type 
7i7H6/iot,  "earth-dweller,"  on  the  ainalogy  of  0aKaaffov6tioSt 
"  dwelling  in  the  sea,"  adding,  however,  that  though  there  is 
no  evidence  that  the  term  was  not  used  before  Paracelsus, 
it  is  possibly  "  a  mere  arbitrary  invention,  like  so  many  others 
found  in  Paracelsus  "  {N.E.D.  s.v.). 

GNOMON,  the  Greek  word  for  the  style  of  ft  sundial,  or  any 
object,  commonly  a  vertical  column,  the  shadow  of  which  was 

observed  in  former  times  in  order  to  learn 
-f  the  altitude  of  the  sun,  especially  when  on 
the  meridian.    The  art  of  constructing  a 
sundial  is  sometimes  termed  gnofnonics. 
^^       I      In  geometry,  a  gnomon  is  a  plane  figure 
j{  ^        formed  by  removing  a  parallelogram  from 

a  comer  of  a  larger  parallelogram;  in  the 
figure  ABCDEFA  is  a  gnomon.  Gnomonic  projection  is  a  pro- 
jection of  a  sphere  in  which  the  centre  of  sight  is  the  centre  of 
the  sphere. 

GNOSTICISM  (Gr.  7vc^»,  knowledge),  the  name  generally 
applied  to  that  spiritual  movement  existing  side  by  side  with 
genuine  Christianity,  as  it  gradually  crystallized  into  the  old 
Catholic  Church,  which  may  roughly  be  defined  as  a  distinct  religi- 
ous syncretism  bearing  the  strong  impress  of  Christian  influences. 

I.  The  term  "  Gnosis  "  first  appears  in  a  technical  sense  in 
I  Tim.  vi.  ^o  (4  ^euScS^io/MOf  YvtMns).  It  seems  to  have  at  first 
been  applied  exclusively,  or  at  any  rate  principally,  to  a  particular 
tendency  within  the  movement  as  a  whole,  i.e.  to  those  sections  of 
(ihe  Syrian)  Gnostics  otherwise  generally  known  as  Ophites  or 
Naasscni  (see  Hippolytus,  PhiiosophumenOj  v.  2:  Naa^<n|Pol 
M  iavToift  TtnacTUtovi  iLVOKaXovvns ;  Irenaeus  i.  11.  i; 
Epiphanius,  Haeres.  xxvi.  Cf.  also  the  self-assumed  name  of  the 
Carpocratiani,  Ircn.  i-  25.  6).  But  in  Irenaetis  the  term  has 
already  come  to  designate  the  whole  movement.   This  first  came 


rB 


?th( 

th( 
sui 
In 


into  prominence  in  the  opening  decades  of  the  and  century  AJ>., 
but  is  certainly  older;  it  reached  its  height  in  the  second  third  of 
the  same  century,  and  began  to  wane  about  the  3rd  century,  and 
from  the  second  half  of  the  3rd  century  onwards  was  replaced  by 
the  closely-related  and  more  powerful  Manichaean  movement. 
Offshoots  of  it,  however,  continued  on  into  the  4th  and  5th 
centuries.  Epiphanius  still  had  the  opportimity  of  making 
personal  acquaintance  with  Gnostib  sects. 

II.  Of  the  actual  writings  of  the  Gnostics,  which  were  extra- 
ordinarily numerous,^  very  little  has  survived;'  they  were 
sacrificed  to  the  destructive  zeal  of  their  ecclesiastical  opponents; 
Numerous  fragments  and  extracts  from  Gnostic  writings  are  to  be 
found  in  the  works  of  the  Fathers  who  attacked  Gnosticism. 
Most  valuable  of  all  are  the  long  extracts  in  the  5th  and  6th  books 
of  the  Philosopkununa  of  Hippolytus.  The  most  accessible  and 
best  critical  edition  of  the  fragments  which  have  been  pxcserved 
word  for  word  is  to  be  found  in  Hilgenfeld's  Kelzergesckidkte  des 
UrckristerUums.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  fragments  is 
the  letter  of  Ptolemaeus  to  Flora,  preserved  in  Epiphanius,  Haeres, 
xxxiii.  3-7  (see  on  this  point  Haniack  in  the  Sitiungsberickte  der. 
Berliner  Akademie,  1902,  pp.  507-545).  Gnostic  fragments  are 
certainly  also  preserved  for  us  in  the  Ads  of  Tkomas.  Here  we 
should  especially  mention  the  beautiful  and  much-discussed 
Song  of  Ike  Peati,  or  Song  of  Ike  Soul,  which  is  generally,  though 
without  absolute  clear  proof,  attributed  to  the  Gnostic  Bardesanes 
(till  lately  it  was  known  only  in  the  Syrian  text;  edited  and 
translated  by  Bevan,  Texts  and  Studies,*  v.  3, 1897;  Hofmann, 
Zeitsckrift  fiir  neutesiamentlicke  Wissensckaft,  iv.;  for  the 
newly-found  Greek  text  see  Acta  apostolorum,  ed.  Bormet,  ii.  2, 
c.  108,  p.  219).  Generally  also  inuch  Gnostic  matter  is  contained 
in  the  apocryphal  histories  of  the  Apostles.  To  the  school  of 
Bardesanes  belongs  the  "  Book  of  the  Laws  of  the  Lands,"  which 
does  not,  however,  contribute  much  to  our  knowledge  of  Gnos- 
ticism. Finally,  we  should  mention  in  this  connexion  the  text  on 
which  are  based  the  pseudo-Clementine  Homilies  find  Recogni' 
tiones  (beginning  of  the  3rd  century).  It  is,  of  course,  already 
permeated  with  the  Catholic  spirit,  but  has  drawn  so  largdy  upon 
sources  of  a  Judaeo-Christian  Gnostic  character  that  it  comes  to 
a  great  extent  within  the  category,  of  sources  ior  Gnostidsm. 
Complete  original  Gnostic  works  have  unfortunately  survived  to 
us  only  from  the  period  of  the  decadence  of  Gnosticism.  Of 
these  we  should  mention  the  comprehensive  work  called  the 
Pistis-Sopkia,  probably  belonging  to  the  second  half  of  the  3rd 
century.*  Further,  the  Coptic-Gnostic  texts  of  the  Codex 
Brucianus;  both  the  books  of  leu,  and  an  anonymous  third 
work  (edited  and  translated  by  C.  Schmidt,  Texte  mid  Unter- 
suckungen,  vol.  viii,  1892;  and  a  new  translation  by  the  same  in 
Koptiscke-gnosHscke  Sdiriften,  i.)  which,  contrary  to  the  opinion 
of  their  editor  and  traenslatot,  the  present  writer  believes  to 
represent,  in  their  existing  form,  a  still  later  period  and  a 
still  more  advanced  «tage  in  the  decadence  of  Gnosticism. 
For  other  and  older  Coptic-Guoslic  texts,  in  one  of  which  is  con- 
tained the  source  of  Irenaeus's  treatises  on  the  Barbdognostics, 
but  which  have  imfortunately  not  yet  been  made  completely 
accessible,  see  C.  Schmidt  in  Sitsungsberickle  der  Berl.  Akad. 
(1896),  p.  839  seq.,  and  "  Philotesia,"  dedicated  to  Paul  Kleinert 
(1907),  p.  315  seq. 

On  the  whole,  then;  for  an  exposition  of  Gnosticism  we  are 
thrown  back  upon  the  polemical  writings  of  the  Fathers  in  their 
controversy  with  heresy.  ■  The  most  ancient  of  these  is  Justin, 
who  according  to  his  Apol.  i.  26  wrote  a  Syntagma  against  all 
heresies  (e.  A.t).  150),  and  also,  probably,  a  special  polemic  against 

>  See  the  list  of  their  titles  in  A.  Harnack.  GeschickU  der  alUkrisi- 
lichen  IMeralur,  Teil  I.  v.  171;  ib.  Teil  II.  Ckronologie  der  aUckristl. 
Liieratttr,  i.  533  aeq.;  alio  Liechtenhahn,.  Die  QffenbaruKg  im 
Gnosticismus  (1901). 

'  For  the  text  see  A.  Mcrx,  Bardesanes  von  Edessa  (1863),  and  A. 
Hilffcnfcld,  Bardesanes  der  letsie  Cnostiker  (1864). 

>l£d.  Pctcrmann-Schwartzc;  newly  translated  by  C.  Schmidt, 
Koptiuh-gnostische  Schriflen,  i.  (1905),  tn  the  series  Die  griechiscken 
ckristtichen  Schriftsleller  der  erslen  drei  Jakrkunderte;  see  alto 
A.  Harnack.  Texte  und  Untersuchungen,  Bd.  vti.  Heft  2  (1891),  and 
Ckronologie  der  alkkrisUicken  Literatw,  ii.  193-195. 


GNOSTICISM 


153 


Marcton  (fragment  in  Irenaeus  iy.  6.3).  Both  these  writings  are 
lost.  He  was  followed  by  Irenaeus,  who,  especially  in  the  first 
bopk  of  his  treatise  Adversus  haertses  {QJrfxo^  koI  ij^arponrifi 
T^  4<v6u»rifpov  yrueeun  fiifi)da  rimt,  c.  a.d.  180),  gives  a 
detailed  account  of  the  Gnostic  heresies.  He  founds  his  work 
upon  that  of  his  master  Justin,  but  adds  from  his  own  knowledge 
among  many  other  things,  notably  the  detailed  account  of 
Valentinianism  at  the  beginning  of  the  book.  On  Irenaeus,  and 
probably  also  on  Justin,  Hippolytus  drew  for  his  SytUagma 
(beginning  of  the  3rd  century),  a  work  which  is  also  lost,  but  can, 
with  great  certainty,  be  reconstructed  from  three  recensions  of  it: 
in  the  PaiM^ion  of  Epiphanius  (after  374),  in  Philaster  of  Brescia, 
Advtrsus  kaereses,  and  the  Pseudo-Tertullian,  Liber  adversus 
emmes  kaereses.  A  second  work  of  Hippolytus  (Kard  -waouv 
aifiimiM^  IXryxot)  b  preserved  in  the  so-called  Pkilosopkumena 
which  survives  under  the  name  of  Origen.  Here  Hippolytus 
gave  a  second  exposition  supplemented  by  fresh  Gnostic  original 
sources  with  which  he  had  become  acquainted  in  the  meanwhile. 
These  sources  quoted  in  Hippolytus  have  lately  met  with  very 
unfavourable  criticisms.  The  opinion  has  been  advanced  that 
Hippolytus  has  here  fallen  a  victim  to  the  mystification  of  a 
forger.  The  truth  of  the  matter  must  be  that  Hippolytus 
probably  made  use  of  a  collection  of  Gnostic  texts,  put  together 
by  a  Gnostic,  in  which  were  already  represented  various  secondary 
developments  of  the  genuine  Gnostic  schools.  It  i^  also  possible 
that  the  compiler  has  himself  attempted  here  and  there  to 
harmonize  to  a  certain  extent  the  various  Gnostic  doctrines,  yet 
in  no  case  is  this  collection  of  sources  given  by  Hippolytus  to  be 
passed  over;  it  should  rather  be  considered  as  important  evidence 
for  the  beginnings  of  the  decay  of  Gnosticism.  Very  noteworthy 
references  to  Gnosticism  are  also  to  be  found  scattered  up  and 
down  the  Stromateis  of  Clement  of  Alexandria*.  Especially 
important  are  the  Excerpta  ex  Theodoio^  the  author  of  which  is 
certainly  Clement,  which  are  verbally  extraaed  from  Gnostic 
writings,  and  have  almost  the  value  of  original  sources.  The 
writings  of  Origen  also  contain  a  wealth  of  material.  In  the 
first  i^ce  should  be  mentioned  the  treatise  Contra  Celsum,  in 
which  the  expositions  of  Gnosticism  by  both  Origen  and  Celsus 
are  of  interest  (see  especially  v.  61  seq.  and  vi.  25  seq.).  Of 
Tertullian's  works  should  be  mentioned:  De  praescriptione 
kaeretkorum^  especially  Adversus  Marcionem,  Adversus  Hcrmo- 
tetuMf  and  finally  Adversus  Valentinianos  (entirely  founded  on 
Irenaeus).  Here  must  also  be  mentioned  the  dialogue  of  Ada- 
mantius  with  the  Gnostics,  De  recta  in  deutnjide  (beginning  of  4th 
century).  Among  the  followers  of  Hippolytus,  Epiphanius  in  his 
PanarioH  gives  much  independent  and  valuable  information 
from  his  own  knowledge  of  contemporary  Gnosticism.  But 
Thcodoret  of  Cjrrus  (d.  455)  is  already  entirely  dependent  on 
previous  works  and  has  nothing  new  to  add.  With  the  4lh 
century  both  Gnosticism  and  the  polemical  literature  directed 
against  it  die  out.* 

III.  If  we  wbh  to  grasp  the  peculiar  character  of  the  great 
Gnostic  movement,  we  must  take  care  not  to  be  led  astray  by 
the  catchword  "  Gnosis."  It  is  a  mistake  to  regard  the  Gnostics 
as  pre-eminently  therepresentativesof  intellectamongChristlans, 
and  Gnosticism  as  an  intellectual  tendency  chiefly  concerned 
with  philosophical  speculation,  the  reconciliation  of  religion 
with  philosophy  and  theology.  It  is  true  that  when  Gnosticism 
was  at  its  height  it  numbered  amongst  its  followers  both  theo- 
logians and  men  of  science,  but  that  is  not  its  main  characteristic. 
Among  the  majority  of  the  followers  of  the  movement "  Gnosis  " 
was  understood  not  as  meaning  "  knowledge  "  or  "  understand- 
ing/' in  our  sense  of  the  word,  but  "  revelation."  These  little 
Gnostic  sects  and  groups  all  lived  in  the  conviction  that  they 

•  See  R.  A.  Lipeius.  Die  QiuUen  der  dltesten  Ketxergesckickte  (1875) ; 
A  Harnack.  ZurQueUenknlik  der  Cesckichte  des  CnosUcismus  (1873) : 
A.  Hilgenfeld,  Ketzergesckiekle,  pp.  1-83;  Harnack.  Cesckickte  der 
aUckrisdick.  LiUratur,  i.  171  seq.,  ii.  533  seq..  712  seq.;  J.  Kunze. 
De  kistariae  Cnostie.  fontibus  (1894).  On  the  Pkilosopkumena  of 
Hippolytus  we  G.  Salmon,  the  cross-references  in  the  Philo- 
sopfaumena.  Hermatkena,  vol.  xi.  (1885)  p.  5380  seq.;  H.  Stachelin, 
Du  imosHscken  Quetten  Hippolyts,  Texte  una  Unters.  Bd.  vi.  Hft. 

3  («890). 


possessed  a  secret  and  mysterious  knowledge,  in  no  way  accessible 
to  those  outside,  which  was  not  to  be  proved  or  propagated, 
but  believed  in  by  the  initiated,  and  anxiously  guarded  as  a 
secret.  Thb  knowledge  of  theirs  was  not  based  on  reflection, 
on  scientific  inquiry  and  proof,  but  on  revelation.  It  was 
derived  directly  from  the  times  of  primitive  Chrbtianity;  from 
the  Saviour  himself  and  hb  disciples  and  friends,  with  whom 
they  claimed  to  be  connected  by  a  secret  tradition,  or  else  from 
later  prophets,  of  whom  many  sects  boasted.  It  was  laid  down 
in  wonderful  mystic  writings,  which  were  in  the  possession  of  the 
various  circles  (Liechtenhahn,  Die  OJenbarung  im  CnosticismuSf 
xgox). 

In  short,  Gnosticbm,  in  all  its  various  sections,  its  form  and 
its  character,  falls  under  the  great  category  of  mystic  religions, 
which  were  so  characteristic  of  the  religious  life  of  decadent 
antiquity.  In  Gnosticism  as  in  the  other  mystic  religions  we 
find  the  same  contrast  of  the  initiated  and  the  uninitiated,  the 
same  loose  organization,  the  same  kind  of  petty  sectarianbm 
and  mystery-mongering.  All  alike  boast  a  mystic  revelation 
and  a  deeply-veiled  wisdom.  As  in  many  mystical  religions, 
so  in  Gnosticism,  the  ultimate  object  b  individual  salvation, 
the  assurance  of  a  fortunate  destiny  for  the  soul  after  death. 
As  in  the  others,  so  in  this  the  central  object  of  worship  is  a 
redeemer-deity  who  has  already  trodden  the  difficult  way  which 
the  faithful  have  to  follow.  And  finally,  as  in  all  mystical 
religions,  so  here  too,  holy  rites  and  formulas,  acts  of  initiation 
and  consecration,  all  those  things  which  we  call  sacraments, 
play  a  very  prominent  part.  The  Gnostic  religion  is  full  of  such 
sacraments.  In  the  accounts  of  the  Fathers  we  find  less  about 
them;  yet  here  Irenaeus'  account  of  the  Marcosians  is  of  the 
highest  significance  (i.  21  seq.).  Much  more  material  b  to  be 
found  in  the  original  Gnostic  writings,  especially  in  the  Pistis- 
Sopkia  and  the  two  books  of  Icu,  and  again  in  the  Excerpta  ex 
TkeodotOf  the  Acts  of  Tkomas,  and  here  and  there  also  in  the 
pseudo-Clementine  writings.  Above  all  we  can  see  from  the 
original  sources  of  the  Mandaean  religion,  which  also  represents 
a  branch  of  Gnosticism,  how  great  a  part  the  sacraments  played 
in  the  Gnostic  sects  (Brandt,  Manddiscke  Religion,  p.  96  seq.)* 
Everywhere  we  are  met  with  the  most  varied  forms  of  holy  rites 
— the  various  baptbms,  by  water^  by  fire,  by  the  spirit,  the 
baptism  for  protection  against  demons,  anointing  with  oil, 
sealing  and  stigmatizing,  piercing  the  ears,  leading  into  the 
bridal  chamber,  partaking  of  holy  food  and  drink.  Finally, 
sacred  formulas,  names  and  symbols  are  of  the  highest  import- 
ance among  the  Gnostic  sects.  We  constantly  meet  with  the 
idea  that  the  soul,  on  leaving  the  body,  finds  its  path  to  the 
highest  heaven  opposed  by  the  deities  and  demons  of  the  lower 
realms  of  heaven,  and  only  when  it  is  in  possession  of  the  names 
of  these  demons,  and  can  repeat  the  proper  holy  formula,  or  is 
prepared  with  the  right  symbol,  or  has  been  anointed  with  the 
holy  oil,  finds  its  way  unhindered  to  the  heavenly  home.  Hence 
the  Gnostic  must  above  all  things  learn  the  names  of  the  demons, 
and  equip  himself  with  the  sacred  formulas  and  symbols,  in 
order  to  be  certain  of  a  good  destiny  after  death.  The  exposition 
of  the  system  of  the  Ophites  given  by  Celsus  (in  Origen  vi.  25  seq.) , 
and,  in  connexion  with  Celsus,  by  Origen,  is  particularly  instruc- 
tive on  this  point.  The  two  "  Coptic  Icu  "  books  unfold  an 
immense  system  of  n^mes  and  symbob.  This  system  again  was 
simplified,  and  as  the  supreme  secret  was  taught  in  a  single 
name  or  a  single  formula,  by  means  of  which  the  happy  possessor 
was  able  to  penetrate  through  all  the  spaces  of  heaven  (cf.  the 
name  "  Caulacau  "  among  the  Basilidians;  Irenaeus,  Adv.  kaer. 
i.  24.  5,  and  among  other  sects).  It  was  taught  that  even  the 
redeemer-god,  when  he  once  descended  on  to  this  earth,  to  rise 
from  it  again,  availed  himself  of  these  names  and  formulas  on  his 
descent  and  ascent  through  the  world  of  demons.  Traces  of 
ideas  of  this  kind  are  to  be  met  with  almost  everywhere.  They 
have  been  most  carefully  collected  by  Anz  ( Ursprung  dcs  Cnosli- 
cismus,  Texte  und  Untersuckungen  xv.  4  passim)  who  would  see 
in  them  the  central  doctrine  of  Gnosticism. 

IV.  All  these  investigations  point  clearly  to  the  fact  that 
Gnosticbm  belongs  to  the  group  of  mystical  religions.    We  must 


'5+ 


GNOSTICISM 


now  proceed  to  define  more  exactly  the  peculiar  and  distinctive 
character  of  the  Gnostic  system.  The  basis  of  the  Gn(»tic 
religion  and  world-philosophy  lies  in  a  decided  Oriental  dualism. 
In  sharp  contrast  are  opposed  the  two  worlds  of  the  good  and  of 
the  evil,  the  divine  world  and  the  material  world  (.vkti),  the 
worlds  of  light  and  of  darkness.  In  many  systems  there  seems 
to  be  no  attempt  to  derive  the  one  world  from  the  other.  The 
true  Basilides  (q.v.),  perha(»  also  Satornil.  Marcion  and  a  part 
of  his  disciples,  Bardesanes  and  others,  were  frankly  dualists. 
In  the  case  of  other  systems,  owing  to  the  inexactness  of  our 
information,  we  are  unable  to  decide;  the  later  systems  of 
Mandaeism  and  Manichaeanism,  so  closely  related  to  Gnosticism, 
are  also  based  upon  a  decided  dualism.  And  even  when  there 
is  an  attempt  at  reconciliation,  it  is  still  quite  clear  how  strong 
was  the  original  dualism  which  has  to  be  overcome.  Thus  the 
Gnostic  systems  make  great  use  of  the  idea  of  a  fall  of  the  Deity 
himself;  by  the  fall  of  the  Godhead  into  the  world  of  matter, 
this  matter,  previously  insensible,  is  animated  into  life  and 
activity,  and  then  arise  the  powers,  both  partly  and  wholly 
hostile,  who  hold  sway  over  this  world.  Such  figures  of  fallen 
divinities,  sinking  down  into  the  world  of  matter  are  those  of 
Sophia  (s.e.  Ahamoth)  among  the  Gnostics  (Ophites)  in 
the  narrower  sense  of  the  word,,  the  Simoniani  (the  figure  of 
Helena),  the  Barbelognostics,  and  in  the  system  of  the  Pistis- 
Sophia  or  the  Primal  Man,  among  the  Naasseni  and  the  sect, 
related  to  them,  as  described  by  Hippolytus.*  A  further  weaken- 
ing of  the  dualism  is  indicated  when,  in  the  systems  of  the 
Valentinian  school,  the  fall  of  Sophia  takes  place  within  the 
godhead,  and  Sophia,  inflamed  with  love,  plunges  into  the  Bythos, 
the  highest  divinity,  and  when  the  attempt  is  thus  made  genetic- 
ally to  derive  the  lower  world  from  the  sufferings  and  passions 
of  fallen  divinity.  Another  attempt  at  reconciliation  is  set 
forth  in  the  so-called  "  system  of  emar\ations  "  in  which  it  is 
assumed  that  from  the  supreme  divinity  emanated  a  someivhat 
lesser  world,  from  this  world  a  second,  and  so  on,  until  the 
divine  element  (of  life)  became  so  far  weakened  and  attenuated, 
th^t  the  genesis  of  a  partly,  or  even  wholly,  evil  world  appears 
both  possible  and  comprehensible.  A  system  of  emanations 
of  this  kind,  in  its  purest  form,  is  set  forth  in  the  expositions 
coming  from  the  school  of  Basilides,  which  are  handed  down  by 
Irenaeus,  while  the  propositions  which  are  set  forth  in  the 
Philosophumena  of  Hippolytus  as  being  doctrines  of  Basilides 
represent  a  still  closer  approach  to  a  monistic  philosophy. 
Occasionally,  too,  there  is  an  attempt  to  establish  at  any  rate  a 
threefold  division  of  the  world,  and  to  assume  >  between  the 
worlds  of  light  and  darkness  a  middle  world  connecting  the  two; 
this  is  clearest  among  the  Scthiani  mentioned  by  Hippolytus 
(and  cf.  the  Gnostics  in  Irenaeus  i.  30.  i).  Quite  peculiar  in 
this  connexion  are  the  accounts  in  Books  xix.  and  xx.  of  the 
Clementine  Homilies.  After  a  preliminary  examination  of  all 
possible  different  attempts  at  a  solution  of  the  problem  of  evil, 
the  attempt  is  here  made  to  represent  the  devil  as  an  instrument 
of  God.  Christ  and  the  devil  are  the  two  hands  of  God,  Christ 
the  right  hand,  and  the  devil  the  left,  the  devil  having  power 
over  this  world-epoch  and  Christ  over  the  next.  The  devil  here 
assumes  very  much  the  characteristics  of  the  punishing  and  just 
God  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  prospect  is  even  held  out  of 
his  ultimate  pardon.  All  these  e£forts  at  reconciliation  show 
how  clearly  the  problem  of  evil  was  realized  in  these  Gnostic 
and  half-Gnostic  sects,  and  how  deeply  they  meditated  on  the 
subject;  it  was  not  altogether  without  reason  that  in  the  ranks 
of  its  opponents  Gnosticism  was  judged  to  have  arisen  out  of  the 
question,  ir60cp  r6  Kojsbv; 

This  dualism  had  not  its  origin  in  Hellenic  soil,  neither  is  it 
related  to  that  dualism  which  to  a  certain  extent  existed  also  in 
late  Greek  religion.  For  the  lower  and  imperfect  world,  which 
in  that  system  too  is  conceived  and  assumed,  b  the  nebulous 
world  of  the  non-existent  and  the  formless,  which  is  the 

*  Cf.  the  same  idea  of  the  fall  of  mankind  in  the  pagan  Gnosticism 
of  "  Poimandres":  see  Reitzenstein.  Poimandres  (1904);  and  the 
pmition  of  the  Primal  Man  {UrmtHSch)  amon^  the  Manichaeans  is 
similar. 


necessary  accompaniment  of  that  which  exists,  as  shadow  is  of 

light. 

In  Gnosticism,  on  the  contrary,  the  worid  of  evil  is  full  of 
active  energy  and  hostile  powers.  It  is  an  Oriental  (Iranian) 
dualism  which  here  finds  expression,  though  in  one  point,  it  i% 
true,  the  mark  of  Greek  influence  is  quite  clear.  When  Gnosticism 
recognizes  in  this  corporeal  and  material  world  the  true  seat  of 
evil,  consistently  treating  the  bodily  existence  of  mankind  as 
essentially  evil  and  the  separation  of  the  spiritual  from  the 
corporeal  being  as  the  object  of  salvation,  this  is  an  outcome 
of  the  contrast  in  Greek  dualism  between  spirit  and  matter,  soul 
and  body.  For  in  Oriental  (Persian)  dualism  it  is  within  this 
material  world  that  the  good  and  evil-powers  are  at  war,  and  this 
world  beneath  the  stars  is  by  no  means  conceived  as  entirely 
subject  to  the  influence  of  evil.  Gnosticism  has  combined  the 
two,  the  Greek  opposition  between  spirit  and  matter,  and  the 
sharp  Zoroastrian  dualism,  which,  where  the  Greek  mind  con- 
ceived of  a  higher  and  a  lower  world,  saw  instead  two  hostile 
worlds,  standing  in  contrast  to  each  other  like  light  and  darkness. 
And  out  of  the  combination  of  these  two  dualisms  arose  the 
teaching  of  Gnosticism,  with  its  thoroughgoing  pessimism  and 
fundamental  asceticism. 

Another  characteristic  feature  of  the  Gnostic  conception  of 
the  universe  is  the  r61e  played  in  almost  all  Gnostic  systems 
by  the  seven  world-creating  powers.  There  are  indeed  certain 
exceptions;  for  instance,  in  the  systems  of  the  Valentinian  schools 
there  is  the  figure  of  the  one  Demiurge  who  takes  the  place  of 
the  Seven.  But  how  widespread  was  the  idea  of  seven  powers, 
who  created  this  lower  material  world  and  rule  over  it,  has 
been  clearly  proved,  especially  by  the  systematic  examination 
of  the  subject  by  Anz  {Ur sprung  des  Gnoslicismus).  These 
Seven,  then,  are  in  most  systems  half-evil,  half-hostile  powers; 
they  are  frequently  characterized  as  "  angels,"  and  are  reckoned 
as  the  last  and  lowest  emanations  of  the  Godhead;  below  them 
— and  frequently  considered  as  derived  from  them — comes  the 
world  of  the  actually  devilish  powers.  On  the  other  hand,  among 
the  speculations  of  the  Mandaeans,  we  find  a  different  and  perhaps 
more  primitive  conception  of  the  Seven,  according  to  which 
they,  together  with  their  mother  Namrus  (RQhi)  and  their 
father  (Ur),  belong  entirely  to  the  world  of  darkness.  They 
and  their  family  are  looked  upon  as  captives  of  the  god  of  light 
(Mandft-d'hayye,  Hibil-Zlv&),  who  pardons  them,  sets  them  on 
chariots  of  light,  and  appoints  them  as  rulers  of  the  world 
(cf.  chiefly  Genza,  in  Traclal  6  and  8;  W.  Brandt,  lianddisckc 
Schriften,  125  seq.  and  137  seq.;  Afand^iscke  Religion,  34  seq., 
&c.)-  In  the  Manichaean  system  it  is  related  how  the  helper  of 
the  Primal  Man,  the  spirit  of  life,  captured  the  evil  archonUs,  and 
fastened  them  to  the  firmament,  or  according  to  another  account, 
flayed  them,  and  formed  the  firmament  from  their  skin  (F.  C. 
Baur,  DasmanichUische  RetigionssyslemtV.  65),  and  this  concept  ion 
is  closely  related  to  the  other,  though  in  this  tradition  the  number 
(seven)  of  the  archonles  is  lost.  Similarly,  the  last  book  of  the 
PislisSophia  contains  tfie  myth  of  the  capture  of  the  rebellious 
archontes,  whose  leaders  here  appear  as  five  in  number  (Schmidt, 
Kopiisck-gnostische  Schriflen,  p.  234  seq.).'  There  can  scarcely 
be  any  doubt  as  to  the  origin  of  these  seven  (five)  powers;  they 
are  the  seven  planetary  divinities,  the  sun,  moon  a/id  five  planets. 

In  the  Mandaean  speculations  the  Seven  are  introduced  with 
the  Babylonian  names  of  the  planets.  The  connexion  of  the 
Seven  with  the  planets  is  also  clearly  established  by  the  exposi- 
tionsof  Celsusand  Origen  {Contra  Celsum,  vi.  2 2  seq.)  and  similarly 
by  the  above-quoted  passage  in  the  Pistis-Sopkia,  where  the 
archontes,  who  are  here  mentioned  as  five,  are  identified  with 
the  five  planets  (excluding  the  sun  and  moon).  This  collective 
grouping  of  the  seven  (five)  planetary  divinities  is  derived  from 
the  late  Babylonian  religion,  which  can  definitely  be  indicated 
as  the  home  of  these  ideas  (Zimmem,  Keilinschriften  in  dem 
alien  Testament,  ii.  p.  620  seq.;  cf.  particularly  Diodonis  ii.  30). 
And  if  in  the  old  sources  it  is  only  the  first  beginnings  of  this 
development  that  can  be  traced,  we  must  assume  that  at  a  later 

'  These  ideas  may  possibly  be  traced  still  further  back,  and  perhaps 
even  underlie  St  Paul's  exposition  in  Col.  ii,  15. 


GNOSTICISM 


155 


period  the  Babylonian  religion  centred  in  the  adoration  of  the 
seven  planetary  deities.  Very  instructive  in  this  connexion 
is  the  later  (Arabian)  account  of  the  religion  of  the  Mesopotamian 
Sabaeans.  The  religion  of  the  Sabaeans,  evidently  a  later 
offshoot  from  the  stock  of  the  old  Babylonian  religion,  actually 
consists  in  the  cult  of  the  seven  planets  (cf.  the  great  work  of 
Daniel  Chwolsohn,  Die  Ssabier  u.  der  Ssabismus).  But  this 
reference  to  Babylonian  religion  does  not  solve  the  problem 
•which  is  here  in  question.  For  in  the  Babylonian  religion  the 
planetary  constellations  are  reckoned  as  the  supreme  deities. 
And  here  the  question  arises,  how  it  came  about  that  in  the 
Gnostic  systems  the  Seven  appear  as  subordinate,  half-daemonic 
powers,  or  even  completely  as  powers  of  darkness.  This  can 
only  be  explained  on  the  assumption  that  some  religion  hostile 
to,  and  stronger  than  the  Babylonian,  has  superimposed  itself 
upon  this,  and  has  degraded  its  principal  deities  into  daemons. 
Which  religion  can  this  have  been  ?  We  are  at  first  inclined  to 
think  of  Christianity  itself,  but  it  is  certainly  most  improbable 
that  at  the  time  of  the  rise  of  Christianity  the  Babylonian  teaching 
about  the  seven  planet-deities  governing  the  world  should  have 
played  so  great  a  part  throughout  all  Syria,  Asia  Minor  and 
Egypt,  that  the  most  varying  sections  of  syncretic  Christianity 
^ould  over  and  over  again  adopt  this  doctrine  and  work  it  up 
into  their  system.  It  is  far  more  probable  that  the  combination 
which  we  meet  with  in  Gnosticism  is  older  than  Christianity, 
and  was  foiind  already  in  existence  by  Christianity  and  its  sects. 
We  must  also  reject  the  theory  that  this  degradation  of  the 
planetary  deities  into  daemons  is  due  to  the  influence  of  Hebrew 
monotheism,  for  almost  all  the  Gnostic  sects  take  up  a  definitely 
hostile  attitude  towards  the  Jewish  religion,  and  almost  always 
the  highest  divinity  among  the  Seven  is  actually  the  creator-God 
of  the  Old  Testament.  There  remains,  then,  only  one  religion 
which  can  be  used  as  an  explanation,  namely  the  Persian,' which 
in  fact  fulfils  all  the  necessary  conditions.  The  Persian  religion 
was  at  an  early  period  brought  into  contact  with  the  Babylonian, 
through  the  triumphant  progress  of  Persian  culture  towards 
the  West;  at  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  it  was  already  the 
prevailing  religion  in  the  Babylonian  plain  (cf.  F.  Cumont, 
TexUs  d  manumenis  rel.  aux  mystires  de  MUhra,  i.  5,  8-xo,  14, 
22i  seq.,  233).  It  was  characterized  by  a  main  belief,  tending 
towards  monotheism,  in  the  Light-deity  Ahuramazda  and  his 
satellites,  who  appeared  in  contrast  with  him  as  powers  of  the 
nature  of  angels. 

A  combination  of  the  Babylonian  with  the  Persian  religion 
could  only  be  effected  by  thie  degradation  of  the  Babylonian 
deities  into  half-divine,  half-daemonic  beings,  infinitely  remote 
from  the  supreme  God  of  light  and  of  heaven,  or  even  into 
powers  of  darkness.  Even  the  characteristic  duaUsm  of  Gnostic- 
ism has  already  proved  to  be  in  part  of  Iranian  origin;  and  now 
it  becomes  dear  how  from  that  mingling  of  late  Greek*  and 
Persian  duaUsm  the  idea  could  arise  that  these  seven  half- 
daemonic  powers  are  the  creators  or  rulers  of  this  material 
world,  which  is  separated  infinitely  from  the  light-world  of  the 
good  God.  Definite  confirmation  of  this  conjecture  is  afforded 
us  by  lat^r  sources  of  the  Iranian  religion,  in  which  we  likewise 
meet  with  the  characteristic  fundamental  doctrine  of  Gnosticism. 
Thus  the  Bundakisk  (Hi.  35,  v.  i)  is  able  to  inform  us  that  in  the 
primeval  strife  of  Satan  against  the  light-worid,  seven  hostile 
powers  were  captured  and  set  as  constellations  in  the  heavens, 
where  they  are  guarded  by  good  star-powers  and  prevented 
from  doing  harm.  Five  of  the  evil  powers  are  the  planets, 
while  here  the  sun  and  moon  are  of  course  not  reckoned  among 
the  evil  powers— for  the  obvious  reason  that  in  the  Persian 
official  rdigion  they  invariably  appear  as  good  divinities  (cf. 
similar  ideas  in  the  Arabic  treatise  on  Persian  religion  Ulema-i- 
isiam,  Vullers,  Fragmente  liber  die  Religion  Zoroaslers,  p.  49* 
and  in  other  later  sources  for  Persian  religion,  put  together 
in  Spiegel,  Eraniscke  Alterlumskunde,  Bd.  ii.  p.  180).  These 
Persian  fancies  can  hardly  be  borrowed  from  the  Christian 
Gnostic  systems,  their  definitcness  and  much  more  strongly 
doalistic  diaracter  recalling  the  exposition  of  the  Mandaean 
(and  Manidwean)  system,  are  proofs  to  the  contrary.    They  are 


derived  from  the  same  period  in  which  the  underlying  idea 
of  the  Gnostic  systems  also  originated,  namely,  the  time  at  which 
the  ideas  of  the  Persian  and  Babylonian  religions  came  into 
contact,  the  remarkable  results  of  which  have  thus  paHly  found 
their  way  into  the  official  documents  of  Parsiism. 

With  this  fundamental  doctrine  of  Gnosticism  is  connected, 
as  Anz  has  shown  in  his  book  which  we  have  so  often  quoted, 
a  side  of  their  religious  practices  to  which  we  have  already 
alluded.  Gnosticism  is  to  a  great  extent  dominated  by  the  idea 
that  it  is  above  all  and  in  the  highest  degree  important  for  the 
Gnostic's  soul  to  be  enabled  to  find  its  way  back  through  the 
lower  worlds  and  spheres  of  heaven  ruled  by  the  Seven  to  the 
kingdom  of  light  of  the  supreme  deity  of  heaven.  Hence,  a 
principal  item  in  their  religious  practice  consisted  in  communica- 
tions about  the  being,  nature  and  names  of  the  Seven  (or  of 
any  other  hostile  daemons  barring  the  way  to  heaven),  the 
formulas  with  which  they  must  be  addressed,  and  the  symbols 
which  must  be  shown  to  them.  But  names,  symbols  and 
formulas  are  not  efftcadous  by  themselves:  the  Gnostic  must 
lead  a  life  having  no  part  in  the  lower  world  ruled  by  these 
spirits,  and  by  his  knowledge  he  must  raise  himself  above 
them  to  the  God  of  the  worid  of  light.  Throughout  this  mysti^ 
religious  world  it  was  above  all  the  influence  of  the  Ute  Greek 
religion,  derived  from  Plato,  that  also  continued  to  operate; 
it  is  filled  with  the  echo  of  the  song,  the  first  note  of  which  was 
sounded  by  the  Platonists,  about  the  heavenly  home  of  the 
soul  and  the  homeward  journey  of  the  wise  to  the  higher  world 
of  light. 

But  the  form  in  which  the  whole  is  set  forth  is  Oriental,  and 
it  must  be  carefully  noted  that  the  Mithras  mysteries,  so  dosely 
connected  with  the  Persian  religion,  are  acquainted  with  this 
doctrine  of  the  ascent  of  the  soul  through  the  planetary  spheres 
(Origen,  Contra  Cdsum,  vi;  22). 

V.  We  cannot  here  undertake  to  set  forth  and  explain  in  detail 
all  the  complex  varieties  of  the  Gnostic  systems;  but  it  will 
be  useful  to  take  a  nearer  view  of  certain  principal  figures  which, 
have  had  an  influence  upon  at  least  one  series  of  Gnostic  systems, 
and  to  examine  their  brigins  in  the  history  of  religion.  In 
almost  all  systems  an  important  part  is  played  by  the  Great 
Mother  (jx^p)  who  appears  under  the  most  vari^  forms  (d. 
GsEAT  MoTHES  OF  THE  Goos).  At  an  early  period,  and  notably 
in  the  older  systems  of  the  Ophites  (a  fairly  exact  account  of 
which  has  been  preserved  for  us  by  Epiphanius  and  Hippolyttis), 
among  the  Gnostics  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  word,  the  Archon- 
tid,  the  Sethites  (there  are  also  traces  among  the  Naasseni, 
cf.  the  Philosophumena  of  Hippolytus),  the  ^tfnip  is  the  most 
prominent  figure  in  the  light-world,  elevated  above  the  ifiio§iiLi, 
and  the  great  mother  of  the  faithful.  The  sect  of  the  Barbelo- 
gnostics  takes  its  name  from  the  female  figure  of  the  Barbelo 
(perhaps  a  corruption  of  Ilap0iwot;  d.  the  form  BapOofiit  for 
"  virgin  "  in  Epiphanius,  Haer.  xxvi.  i).  But  Gnostic  speculation 
gives  various  accounts  of  the  descent  or  fall  of  this  goddess  of 
heaven.  Thus  the  "  Helena  "  of  the  Simoniani  descends  to  this 
world  in  order  by  means  of  her  beauty  to  provoke  to  sensual 
passion  and  mutual  strife  the  angels  who  rule  the  world,  and 
thus  again  to  deprive  them  of  the  powers  of  light,  stolen  from 
heaven,  by  means  of  which  they  rule  over  the  world.  She  is 
then  held  captive  by  them  in  extreme  degradation.  Similar 
ideas  are  to  be  found  among  the  "  Gnostics  "  of  Epiphanius. 
The  kindled  idea  of  the  light-maiden,  who,  by  exciting  the  sensual 
passions  of  the  rulers  (ApxoFTVt),  takes  from  them  those  powers 
of  light  which  still  remain  to  them,  has  also  a  central  place 
in  the  Manichaean  scheme  of  salvation  (F.  C.  Baur,  Das  mani- 
ckdiscke  Reiigionssystem,  pp.  2x9,  315,  321).  The  light-maiden 
also  plays  a  prominent  part  in  the  Pistis-Sopkia  (cf.  the  index 
to  the  translation  by  C.  Schmidt).  With  this  figure  of  the  mother- 
goddess  who  descends  into  the  lower  world  seems  to  be  closely 
connected  the  idea  of  the  fallen  Sophia,  which  is  so  widespread 
among  the  Gnostic  systems.  This  Sophia  then  is  certainly 
no  longer  the  dominating  figure  of  the  light-world,  she  is  a  lower 
aeon  at  the  extreme  limit  of  the  world  of  light,  who  sinks  down 
into  matter  (Barbelognostics,  the  anonymous  Gnostic  of  Irenaeus, 


IS6 


GNOSTICISM 


Bardesanes,  PistisSopkia),  or  turns  in  presumptuous  love  to- 
wards the  supreme  God  (fivOiis),  and  thus  brin^  the  Fall  into 
the  world  of  the  aeons  (Valentinians).  This  Sophia  then  appears 
as  the  mother  of  the  "  seven  "  gods  (see  above).. 

The  origin  of  this  figure  is  not  far  to  seek.  It  is  certainly 
not  derived  from  the  Persian  religious  system,  to  the  spirit  of 
which  it  is  entirely  opposed.  Neither  would  it  be  correct  to 
identify  her  entirely  with  the  great  goddess  Ishtar  of  the  old 
Babylonian  religion.  But  there  can  hardly  be  any  doubt  that 
the  figure  of  the  great  mother-goddess  or  goddess  of  heaven, 
who  was  worshipped  throughout  Asia  under  various  forms  and 
names  (Astarte,  Beltis,  Atargatis,  Cybele,  the  Syrian  Aphrodite), 
was  the.  prototype  of  the  fifinip  of  the  Gnostics  (cf.  Great 
MoTHES  Of  THE  GoDS).  The  character  of  the  great  goddess  of 
heaven  is  still  in  many  places  fairly  exactly  preserved  in  the 
Gnostic  speculations.  Hence  we  are  able  to  understand  how  the 
Gnostic  ii^rriPf  the  Sophia,  appears  as  the  mother  of  the  Heb- 
domas  {ifidofths).  The  great  s^dess  of  heaven  is  the  mother  of 
the  stars.  Particularly  instructive  in  this  connexion  is  the  fact 
that  in  those  very  sects,  in  the  systems  of  which  the  figure  of  the 
M^P  plftys  A  special  part,  unbridled  prostitution  appears  as  a 
distinct  and  essential  part  of  the  cult  (cf.  the  accounts  of  par- 
ticular branches  of  the  Gnostics,  Nicolaitans,  Philionites,  Bor- 
borites,  &c.  in  Epiphanius,  Haer.  xxv.,  Jixvi.).  The  meaning  of 
this  cult  is,  of  course,  reinterpreted  in  the  Gnostic  sense:  by  this 
unbridled  prostitution  the  Gnostic  sects  desired  to  prevent  the 
sexual  propagation  of  mankind)  the  origin  of  all  evU.  But  the 
connexion  is  clear,  and  hence  it  also  explained  the  curious  Gnostic 
myth  mentioned  above,  namely  that  the  /ti^p  (the  light-maiden) 
by  appearing  to  the  archontes  (Apxoira),  the  lower  powers  of 
this 'world,  inflames  them  to  sexual  lusts,  in  order  to  take  from 
them  that  share  of  light  which  they  have  stolen  from  the  upper 
world.  This  is  a  Gnostic  interpretation  of  the  various  myths  of 
the  great- mother-goddess's  many  loves  and  love-adventures  with 
other  gods  and  heroes.  And  when  the  pagan  legend  of  the  Syrian 
Astarte  tells  how  she  lived  for  ten  years  in  Tyre  as  a  prostitute, 
this  directly  recalls  the  Gnostic  myth  of  how  Simon  found 
Helena  in  a  brothel  in  Tyre  (Epiphanius,  Ancoratus,  c.  104). 
From  the  same  group  of  myths  must  be  derived  the  idea  of  the 
goddess  who  defends  to  the  under-world,  aiid  is  there  taken 
prisoner  against  her  will  by  the  lower  powers;  the  direct  proto- 
type of  this  myth  is  to  be  found,  e.g.  in  Ishtar's  journey  to  hell. 
And  finally,  just  as  the  mother-goddess  of  south-western  Asia 
stands  in  particularly  intimate  connexion  with  the  youthful 
god  of  spring  (Tammuz,  Adonis,  Attis),  so  we  ou^t  perhaps  to 
compare  here  as  a  parallel  the  relation  of  Sophia  with  the  Soter 
in  certain  Gnostic  systems  (see  below). 

Another  characteristic  figure  of  Gnosticism  is  that  of  the 
Primal  Man  (irpwros  Mptam).  In  many  systems,  certainty, 
it  has  already  been  forced  quite  into  the  background.  But  on 
closer  examination  we  can  clearly  see  that  it  has  a  wide  influence 
on  Gnosticism.  Thus  in  the  system  of  the  Naasseni  (see  Hip- 
polytus,  PkUosophumena)^  and  in  certain  related  sects  there 
enumerated,  the  Primal  Man  has  a  central  and  predominant 
position.  Again,  in  the  text  on  which  are  based  the  pseudo- 
Clementine  writings  (RecognUions,  i.  x6, 32, 45-47,  52,  ii.  47;  and 
Homiiies^  iii.  17  seq.  xviii.  14),  as  in  the  dosely  related  system 
of  the  Ebionites  in  Epiphanius  {Haer.  xxx.  3-16;  cf.  liii.  x),  we 
meet  with  the  man  who  existed  before  the  world,  the  prophet 
who  goes  through  the  world  in  various  forms,  and  finally  reveals 
himself  in  Christ.  Among  the  Barbelognosticd  (Irenaeus  i. 
2Q.  3),  the  Primal  Man  (Adamas,  homo  perjectus  et  verus)  and 
Gnosis  appear  as  a  pair  of  aeons,  occupying  a  prominent  place 
in  the  whole  series.  In  the  Valentinian  systems  the  pair  of 
aeons,  Anthropos  and  Ekklesia,  occupy  the  third  or  fourth 
place  within  the  Oydods,  but  incidentally  we  learn  that  with 
some  representatives  of  this  school  the  Anthropos  took  a  still 
more  prominent  place  (first  or  second;  Hilgenfeld,  Ketzer- 
geschickte,  p.  294  seq.)>  And  even  in  the  PistisSopkia  the 
Primal  Man  "  leu  "  is  frequently  alluded  to  as  the  King  of  the 
Luminaries  (cf.  index  to  C.  Schmidt's  translation).  We  also 
meet  with  speculations  of  this  kind  about  man  in  the  circles 


of  non-Christian  Gnosis.  Thus  in  the  Poimandres  of  Hermes 
man  is  the  most  prominent  figure  in  the  speculation;  numerous 
pagan  and  half-pagan  parallels  (the  "  Gnostics  "  of  Plotinus, 
Zosimus,  Bitys)  have  been  collected  by  Reitzenstein  in  his 
work  Poimandres  (pp.  8z-ii6).  Reitzenstein  has  shown  (p. 
81  seq.)  that  very  probably  the  system  of  the  Naasseni  described 
by  Hippolytus  was  originally  derived  from  purely  pagan  circles, 
which  are  probably  connected  in  some  way  with  the  mysteries 
of  the  Attis  cult.  The  figure  in  the  Mandaean  system  most, 
closely  corresponding  to  the  Primal  Man,  though  this  figure 
also  actually  occurs  in  another  part  of  the  system  (cf.  the  figure 
of  Adakas  Mana;  Brandt,  Manddische  Religion,  p.  36  seq.)  is 
that  of  Mand&  d'hayyi  (yvilMns  rnt  t^^l^'t  c^*  ^he  pair  of  aeons, 
Adamas  and  Gnosis,  among  the  Barbclognostics,  in  Irenaeus 
i'  39.  3).  Finally,  in  the  Manichaean  system,  as  is  well  known, 
the  Primal  Man  again  assumes  the  predominant  place  (Baar. 
Manich.  RdigionssysUm^  49  seq.). 

This  figure  of  the  Primal  Man  can  particularly  be  compared 
with  that  of  the  Gnostic  Sophia.  Wherever  this  figure  has  not 
become  quite  obscure,  it  rcpresenXs  that  divine  power  which, 
whether  simply  owing  to  a  fall,  or  as  the  hero  who  makes  war 
on,  and  is  partly  vanquished  by  darkness,  dekrends  into  the 
darkness  of  the  material  world,  and  with  whose  descent  begins 
the  great  drama  of  the  world's  development.  From  this  power 
are  derived  those  portions  of  light  existing  and  held  prisoner 
in  this  lower  world.  And  as  he  has  raised  himself  again  out  of 
the  material  world,  or  has  been  set  free  by  higher  powers,  so 
shall  also  the  members  of  the  Primal  Man,  the  portions  of 
light  still  imprisoned  in  matter,  be  set  free. 

The  question  of  the  derivation  of  the  myth  of  the  Primal 
Man  is  still  one  of  the  unsolved  problems  of  religious  history. 
It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  according  to  the  old  Persian  myth 
also,  the  development  of  the  world  begins  with  the  slaying  of 
the  primal  man  Gayomart  by  Angra-Mainyu  (Ahriman); 
further,  that  the  Primal  Man  ("son  of  man "« man)  also 
plays  a  part  in  Jewish  apocalyptic  literature  (Daniel,  Enoch, 
iv.  Ezra),  whence  this  figure  passes  into  the  Gospels;  and  again, 
that  the  dogma  of  Christ's  descent  into  hell  is  directly  connected 
with  this  myth.  But  these  parallels  do  not  carry  us  much  further. 
Even  the  Persian  myth  is  entirely  obscure,  and  has  hitherto 
defied  interpretation.  It  is  certainly  true  that  in  some  way 
an  essential  part  in  the  formation  of  the  myth  has  been  played 
by  the  sun -god,  who  daily  descends  into  darkness,  to  rise  from 
it  again  victoriously.  But  how  to  explain  the  combination  of 
the  figure  of  the  sun-god  with  that  of  the  Primal  Man  is  an 
unsolved  riddle.  The  meaning  of  this  figure  in  the  Gnostic 
speculations  is,  however,  clear.  It  answers  the  question:  how 
did  the  portions  of  light  to  be  found  in  this  lower  world,  among 
which  certainly  belong  the  souls  of  the  Gnostics,  enter  into  it? 

A  parallel  myth  to  that  of  the  Primal  Man  are  the  accounts 
to  be  found  in  most  of  the  Gnostic  systems  of  the  creation  of 
the  first  man.  In  all  tnese  accounts  the  idea  is  expressed  that 
so  far  as  his  body  is  concerned  man  is  the  work  of  the  angels 
who  created  the  world.  So  e.g.  Satornil  relates  (Irenaeus  i. 
24.  i)  that  a  brilliant  vision  appeared  from  above  to  the  world- 
creating  angels;  they  were  unable  to  hold  it  fast,  but  formed 
man  after  its  image.  And  as  the  man  thus  formed  was  unable 
to  move,  but  could  only  crawl  like  a  worm,  the  supreme  Power 
put  into  him  a  spark  of  life,  and  man  came  into  existence. 
Imaginations  of  the  same  sort  are  also  to  be  found,  e.g.  in  the 
genuine  fragments  of  Valentinus  (Hilgenfeld,  KelzergeschichU, 
P-  393),  the  Gnostics  of  Irenaeus  i.  30.  6,  the  Mandaeans 
(Brandt,  Religion  der  Mandder,  p.  36),  and  the  Manichaeans 
(Baur,  Rcligionssystem,  p.  118  seq.).  The  Naasseni  (Hippolytus. 
Philosopkumena,  v.  7)  expressly  characterize  the  myth  as 
Chaldean  (cf.  the  passage  from  Zosimus,  in  Reitzenstein's 
Poimandres,  p.  104).  Clearly  then  the  question  which  the  myth 
of  the  Primal  Man  is  intended  to  answer  in  relation  to  the 
whole  universe  is  answered  in  relation  to  the  nature  of  man  by 
this  account  of  the  coming  into  being  of  the  first  man,  which 
may,  moreover,  have  been  influenced  by  the  account  in  the  Old 
Testament.    That  question  is:  how  does  it  happen  that  in  this 


GNOSTICISM 


157 


inferior  body  of  drutn,  fallen  a  prey  to  corruption,  there  dweUs 
a  higher  spark  of  the  divine  Being,  or  in  other  words,  how  are 
we  to  explain  the  double  nature  of  man? 

VI.  Of  aU  the  fundamental  ideas  of  Gnosticism  of  which  we 
have  so  far  treated,  it  can  with  some  certainty  be  assumed  that 
they  were  in  existence  before  the  rise  of  Christianity  and  the 
influence  of  Christian  ideas  on  the  development  of  Gnosticism. 
The  main  question  with  which  we  have  now  to  deal  is  that  of 
whether  the  dominant  figure  of  the  Saviour  (Zur^p)  in  Gnosticism 
is  of  specifically  Christian  derivation,  or  whether  this  can  also 
be  explained  apart  from  the  assumption  of  Christian  influence. 
And  here  it  must  be  premised  that,  intimately  as  the  conception 
of  salvation  u  bound  up  with  the  Gnostic  religion,  the  idea  of 
salvation  accomplished  in  a  definite  historical  moment  to  a 
certain  extent  remained  foreign  to  it.  Indeed,  nearly  all  the 
Christian  Gnostic  systems  clearly  exhibit  the  great  difficulty 
with  which  they  had  to  contend  in  order  to  reconcile  the  idea 
of  an  historical  redeemer,  actually  occurring  in  the  form  of  a 
definite  person,  with  their  conceptions  of  salvation.  In  Gnosticism 
salvation  always  lies  at  the  root  of  all  existence  and  all  history. 
The  fundamental  conception  varies  greatly.  At  one  time  the 
Primal  Man,  who  sank  down  into  matter,  has  freed  himself 
and  risen  out  of  it  again,  and  like  him  his  members  will  rise  out 
of  darkness  into  tlM  light  {Pnwiandres);  at  another  time  the 
Primal  Man  who  was  conquered  by  the  powers  of  darkness 
has  been  saved  by  the  powers  of  light,  and  thus  too  all  his  race 
will  be  saved  (Manicbaeism);  at  another  time  the  fallen  Sophia 
is  purified  by  her  passions  and  sorrows  and  has  found  her  Syzygos^ 
the  SpUt,  and  wedded  him,  and  thus  all  the  souls  of  the  Gnostics 
who  stin  languish  in  matter  will  become  the  brides  of  the  angels 
of  the  Soter  (Valentinus).  In  fact  salvation,  as  conceived  in 
Gnosticism,  is  always  a  myth,  a  history  of  bygone  events,  an 
allegory  or  figure,  but  not  an  historical  event.  And  this  decision 
is  not  afifected  by  the  fact  that,  in  certain  Gnostic  sects  figured 
historical  personages  such  as  Simon  Magus  and  Menander. 
The  Gnostic  ideas  of  salvation  were  in  the  later  schools  and  sects 
iranaterred  to  these  persons  whom  we  must  consider  as  rather 
obscure  charlatans  and  mirade-mongers,  just  as  in  other  cases 
they  were  transferred  to  the  person  of  Christ.  The  "  Helena  " 
of  the  Simonian  system  was  certainly  not  an  historical  but  a 
mythical  figure.  This  expUins  the  Uborious  and  artificial  way 
in  which  the  person  of  Jesus  is  connected  in  many  Gnostic  systems 
with  the  originar  Gnostic  conception  of  redemption.  In  this 
patchwork  the  joins  are  everywhere  still  deariy  to  be  recognized. 
Thus,  €.g.  in  the  Valentinian  system,  the  myth  of  the  fallen 
Sophia  and  the  Soter,  of  their  ultimate  union,  their  marriage 
and  their  70  sons  (Irenaeus  i.  4.  5;  Hippolytus,  PkUos.  vi. 
34),  has  absolutely  nothing  to  do  with  the  Christian  conceptions 
of  salvation.  The  subject  is  here  that  of  a  high  goddess  of  heaven 
(she  has  70  sons)  whose  friend  and  lover  finds  her  in  the  misery 
of  deepest  degradatbn,  frees  her,  and  bears  her  home  as  his 
bride.  To  this  myth  the  idea  of  salvation  through  the  earthly 
Christ  can  only  be  attached  with  difficulty.  And  it  was  openly 
maintained  that  the  Soter  only  existed  for  the  Gnostic,  the 
Saviour  Jesus  who  appeared  on  earth  only  for  the  "  Psychicus  " 
(Irenaeus  L  6.  i). 

VII.  Thus  the  essential  part  of  roost  of  the  conceptions  of 
what  we  call  Gnosticism  was  already  in  existence  and  fully 
developed  before  the  rise  of  Christianity.  But  the  fundamental 
ideas  of  Gnosticism  and  of  early  Christianity  had  a  kind  of 
magnetic  attraction  for  each  other.  What  drew  these  two 
forces  together  was  the  energy  exerted  by  the  universal  idea  of 
salvation  in  both  systems.  Christian  Gnosticism  actually 
introduced  only  one  new  figure  into  the  already  existing  Gnostic 
theories,  namely  that  of  the  historical  Saviour  Jesus  Christ. 
This  figure  afforded,  as  it  were,  a  new  point  of  crystallization 
for  the  existing  Gnostic  ideas,  which  now  grouped  themselves 
round  this  point  in  all  their  manifold  diversity.  Thus  there 
came  into  the  fluctuating  mass  a  strong  movement  and  formative 
impulse,  and  the  individual  systems  and  sects  sprang  up  like 
mosbrooms  from  this  soil. 

It  must  now  be  our  task  to  make  plain  the  position  of  Gnosti- 


cism within  the  Christian  religion,  and  its  significance  for  the 
development  of  the  latter.  Above  all  the  Gnostics  represented 
and  developed  the  distinctly  anti-Jewish  tendency  in  Christianity. 
Paul  was  the  apostle  whom  they  reverenced,  and  his  spiritual 
influpnce  on  them  is  quite  unmistakable.  The  Gnostic  Marcion 
has  been  rightly  characterized  as  a  direct  disciple  of  Paul. 
Paul's  battle  against  the  law  and  the  narrow  national  conception 
of  Christianity  found  a  willing  following  in  a  movement,  the 
syncretic  origin  of  which  directed  it  towards  a  universal  religion. 
St  Paul's  ideas  were  here  developed  to  their  extremest  conse- 
quences, and  in  an  entirely  one-sided  fashion  such  as  was  far 
from  being  in  his  intention.  In  nearly  all  the  Gnostic  systems 
the  doctrine  of  the  seven  world-creating  spirits  is  given  an 
anti- Jewish  tendency,  the  god  of  the  Jews  and  of  the  Old 
Testament  appearing  as  the  highest  of  the  seven.  The  demiurge 
of  the  Valentinians  always  clearly  bears  the  features  of  the  Old 
Testament  creator-God. 

The  Old  Testament  was  absolutely  rejected  by  most 
of  the  Gnostics.  Even  the  so-called  Judaeo-Christian  Gnostics 
(Cerinthus),  the>  Ebionite  (Esscnian)  sect  of  the  Pseudo- 
Clementine  writings  (the  Elkcsaites),  take  up  an  inconsistent 
attitude  towards  Jewish  antiquity  and  the  Old  Testament. 
In  this  repect  the  opposition  to  Gnosticism  led  to  a  reactionary 
movement.  If  the  growing  Christian  Church,  in  quite  a  different 
fashion  from  Paul,  laid  stress  on  the  literal  authority  of  the  Old 
Testament,  interpreted,  it  is  true,  allegorically;  if  it  took  up  a 
much  more  friendly  and  definite  attitude  towards  the  Old 
Testament,  and  gave  wider  scope  to  the  legal  conception  of 
reUgion,  this  must  be  in  part  ascribed  to  the  involuntary  reaction 
upon  it  of  Gnosticism. 

The  attitude  of  Gnosticism  to  the  Old  Testament  and  to  the 
creator-god  proclaimed  in  it  had  its  deeper  roots,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  in  the  dualism  by  which  it  was  dominated.  With 
this  dualism  and  the  recognition  of  the  worthlessness  and 
absolutely  vicious  nature  of  the  material  world  is  combiped  a 
decided  spiritualism.  The  conception  of  a  resurrection  of  the 
body,  of  a  further  existence  for  the  body  after  death,  wasimattain- 
able  by  almost  all  of  the  Gnostics,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
a  few  Gnostic  sects  dominated  by  Judaeo-Christian  tendencies. 
With  the  dualistic  philosophy  is  further  connected  an  attitude 
of  absolute  indifference  towards  this  lower  and  material  world, 
and  the  practice  of  asceticism.  Marriage  and  sexual  propagation 
are  considered  either  as  absolute  Evil  or  as  altogether  worthless, 
and  carnal  pleasure  is  frequently  looked  upon  as  forbidden. 
Then  again  asceticism  sometimes  changes  into  wild  libertinism. 
Here  again  Gnosticism  has  exercised  an  influence  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Church  by  way  of  contrast  and  opposition.  If  here 
a  return  was  made  to  the  old  material  view  of  the  resurrection 
(the  apostolic  dyd^r cures  r%%  ctuptubi),  entirely  abandoning  the 
more  spiritual  conception  which  had  kiccn  arrived  at  as  a  com- 
promise by  Paul,  this  is  probably  the  result  of  a  reaction  from 
the  views  of  Gnosticism.  It  was  jmt  at  this  point,  too,  that 
Gnosticism  started  a  development  which  was  followed  later  by 
the  Catholic  Church.  In  spite  of  the  rejection  of  the  ascetic 
attitude  of  the  Gnostics,  as  a  blasphemy  against  the  Creator, 
a  part  of  this  ascetic  principle  became  at  a  later  date  dominant 
throughout  all  Christendom.  And  it  is  interesting  to  observe 
how,  f.f.,  St  Augustine,  though  desperately  combating  the 
dualism  of  the  Manichaeans,  yet  afterwards  introduced  a  number 
of  dualistic  ideas  into  Christianity,  which  are  distinguishable 
from  those  of  Manichaeism  only  by  a  very  keen  eye,  and  even 
then  with  difficulty. 

The  Gnostic  religion  also  anticipated  other  tendencies.  As 
we  have  seen,  it  is  above  all  things  a  religion  of  sacraments  and 
mysteries.  Through  its  syncretic  origin  Gnosticism  introduced 
for  the  first  time  into  Christianity  a  whole  mass  of  sacramental, 
mystical  ideas,  which  had  hitherto  existed  in  it  only  in  its 
earliest  phases.  But  in  the  long  run  even  genuine  Christianity 
has  been  unable  to  free  itself  from  the  magic  of  the  sacraments; 
and  the  Eastern  Church  especially  has  taken  the  same  direction 
as  Gnosticism.  Gnosticism  was  also  the  pioneer  of  the  Christian 
Church  in  the  strong  emphasis  laid  on  the  idea  of  salvation  in 


158 


GNOSTICISM 


religion.  And  since  the  Gnostics  were  compelled  to  draw  the 
figure  of  the  Saviour  into  a  world  of  quite  alien  myths,  their 
Christology  became  so  complicated  in  character  that  it  frequently 
recalls  the  Christology  of  the  later  dogmatic  of  the  Greek  Fathers. 

Finally,  it  was  Gnosticism  which  gave  the  most  decided 
impulse  to  the  consolidation  of  the  Christian  Church  as  a  church. 
Gnosticism  itself  is  a  free,  naturally-growing  religion,  the  religion 
of  isolated  minds,  of  separate  little  circles  and  minute  sects. 
The  homogeneity  of  wide  circles,  the  sense  of  responsibility 
engendered  by  it,  and  continuity  with  the  past  are  almost 
entirely  lacking  in  it.  It  is  based  upon  revelation,  which  even 
at  the  present  time  is  imparted  to  the  individual,  upon  the  more 
or  less  convincing  force  of  the  religious  imagination  and  specula- 
tions of  a  few  leaders,  upon  the  voluntary  and  unstable  grouping 
of  the  schools  round  the  master.  Its  adherents  feel  themselves 
to  be  the  isolated,  the  few,  the  free  and  the  enlightened,  as 
opposed  to  the  sluggish  and  inert  masses  of  mankind  degraded 
into  matter,  or  the  initiated  as  opposed  to  the  uninitiated,  the 
Gnostics  as  opposed  to  the  "  Hylici  "  (OXucof);  at  most  in  the 
later  and  more  moderate  schools  a  middle  place  was  given  to 
the  adherents  of  the  Church  as  Psychici  (\^uoi). 

This  freely -growing  Gnostic  religiosity  aroused  in  the  Church 
an  increasingly  strong  movement  towards  unity  and  a  firm 
and  inelastic  organization,  towards  authority  and  tradition.  An 
organized  hierarchy,  a  definitive  canon  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
a  confession  of  faith  and  rule  of  faith,  and  unbending  doctrinal 
discipline,  these  were  the  means  employed.  A  part  was  also 
played  in  this  movement  by  a  free  theology  which  arose  within 
the  Church,  itself  a  kind  of  Gnosticism  which  aimed  at  holding 
fast  whatever  was  good  in  the  Gnostic  movement,  and  obtaining 
its  recognition  within  the  limits  of  the  Church  (Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Origen).  But  the  mightiest  forces,  to  which  in  the 
end  this  theology  too  had  absolutely  to  give  way,  were  outward 
organization  and  tradition. 

It  must  be  considered  as  an  unqualified  advantage  for  the 
further  development  of  Christianity,  as  a  universal  religion,  that 
at  its  very  outset  it  prevailed  against  the  great  movement  of 
Gnosticism.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  a  few  of  its  later  repre- 
sentatives Gnosticism  assumed  a  more  refined  and  spiritual 
aspect,  and  even  produced  blossoms  of  a  true  and  beautiful  piety, 
it  is  fundamentally  and  essentially  an  unstable  religious  syn- 
cretism, a  religion  in  which  the  determining  forces  were  a  fantastic 
oriental  imagination  and  a  sacramentalism  which  degenerated 
into  the  wildest  superstitions,  a  weak  dualism  fluctuating 
unsteadily  between  asceticism  and  libertinism.  Indirectly,  how- 
ever. Gnosticism  was  certainly  one  of  the  most  powerful  factors 
in  the  development  of  Christianity  in  the  ist  century. 

VIII.  This  sketch  may  be  completed  by  a  short  review  of  the 
various  separate  sects  and  their  probable  connexion  with  each 
other.  As  a  point  of  departure  for  the  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  Gnosticism  may  be  taken  the  numerous  little  sects 
which  were  apparently  first  included  under  the  name  of "  Gnos- 
tics "  in  the  narrower  sense.  Among  these  probably  belong  the 
Ophites  of  Celsus  (in  Origen),  the  many  little  sects  included  by 
Epiphanius  qnder  the  name  of  Nicolaitans  and  Gnostics  {itaer, 
25.  26);  the  Archontici  (Epiphanius,  Haer.  x\.),  Sethites  (Cain- 
ites)  should  also  here  be  mentioned,  and  finally  the  Carpocratians. 
Common  to  all  these  is  the  dominant  position  assumed  by  the 
"  Seven  "  (headed  by  laldabaoth);  the  heavenly  world  lying 
above  the  spheres  of  the  Seven  is  occupied  by  comparatively 
few  figures,  among  which  the  most  important  part  is  played  by 
the  M^Pf  who.  b  sometimes  enthroned  as  the*  supreme 
goddess  in  heaven,  but  in  a  few  systems  has  already  descended 
from  there  into  matter,  been  taken  prisoner,  &c.  Numerous 
little  groups  are  distinguished  from  the  mass,  sometimes  by  one 
peculiarity,  sometimes  by  another.  On  the  one  hand  we  have 
sects  with  a  strongly  ascetic  tendency,  on  the  other  we  find  some 
characterized  by  unbridled  libertinism;  in  some  the  most 
abandoned  prostitution  has  come  ^o  be  the  most  sacred  mystery; 
in  others  again  appears  the  worship  of  serpents,  which  here 
appears  to  be  connected  in  various  and  often  very  loose  ways 
with  the  other  ideas  of  these  Gnostics — hence  the  names  of  the 


"Ophites,"  "Naasaeni."  To  this  class  also  fundamentally 
belong  the  Simoniani,  who  have  included  the  probably  historical 
figure  of  Simon  Magus  in  a  system  which  seems  to  be  dosely 
connected  with  those  we  have  mentioned,  especially  if  we  look 
upon  the  "  Helena  "  of  this  system  as  a  mythical  figure.  A 
particular  branch  of  the  "  Gnostic  "  sects  is  represented  by  those 
systems  in  which  the  figure  of  Sophia  sinking  down  into  matter 
already  appears.  To  these  belong  the  Barbelognostics  (in  the 
description  given  by  Irenaeus  the  figure  of  the  Spirit  takes  the 
place  of  that  of  Sophia),  and  the  Gnostics  whom  Irenaeus  (i.  30) 
describes  (cf.  Epiphanius,  Haer.  xxvi.).  And  here  may  best  be 
included  Bardesanes,  a  famous  leader  of  a  Gnostic  school  of 
the  end  of  the  2nd  century.  Most  scholars,  it  is  true,  following 
an  old  tradition,  reckon  Bardesanes  among  the  Valentinians. 
But  from  the  little  .we  know  of  Bardesanes,  his  S}*stem  bears  no 
trace  of  relationship  with  the  complicated  Valentinian  system, 
but  is  rather  completely  derived  from  the  ordinary  Gnosticism, 
and  is  distinguished  from  it  apparently  only  by  its  more  strongly 
dualistic  character.  The  systems  of  Valentinus  and  his  disciples 
roust  be  considered  as  a  further  development  of  what  we  have 
just  characterized  as  the  popular  Gnosticism,  and  especially  of 
that  branch  of  it  to  which  the  figure  of  Sophia  is  already  known. 
In  them  above  all  the  world  of  the  higher  aeons  is  further  ex- 
tended and  filled  with  ^  throng  of  varied  figures.  They  also 
exhibit  a  variation  from  the  characteristic  dualism  of  Gnosticism 
into  monism,  in  their  conception  of  the  fall  of  Sophia  and  their 
derivation  of  matter  from  the  passions  of  the  fallen  Sophia.  The 
figures  of  the  Seven  have  here  entirely  disappeared,  the  remem- 
brance of  them  being  merely  preserved  in  the  name  of  the 
ArifuovpySs  (c/35o;i&s).  In  general,  Valentinianism  displays  a 
particular  resemblance  to  the  dominant  ideas  of  the  Church, 
both  in  its  complicated  Christology,  its  triple  division  of  mankind 
into  rnvtiaruoolt  ^^ugoZ  and  ^Xtioot,  and  its  far-fetched 
interpretation  of  texts.^  A  quite  different  position  from  those 
mentioned  above  is  taken  by  Basilides  (f.v.).  From  what  little 
we  know  of  him  he  was  an  uncompromising  dualist.  Both  the 
systems  which  are  handed  down  under  his  name  by  Irenaeus  and 
Hippolytus,  that  of  emanations  and  the  monistic-evolutionary 
system,  represent  further  developments  of  his  ideas  with  a 
tendency  away  from  dualism  towards  monism.  Characteristic- 
ally, in  these  Basilidian  systems  the  figure  of  the  "  Mother  "  or 
of  Sophia  docs  not  appear.  This  peculiarity  the  Basilidian 
system  shares  with  that  of  Satornil  of  Antioch,  which  has  only 
come  down  to  us  in  a  very  fragmentary  state,  and  in  other 
respects  recalls  in  many  ways  the  popular  Gnosticism.  By 
itself,  on  the  other  hand,  stands  the  system  preserved  for^l&  by 
Hippolytus  in  the  Fkiiosophumena  under  the  name  of  the 
Naasscni,  with  its  central  figure  of  "  the  Man,"  whidh,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  very  closely  related  with  certain  specifically  pagan 
Gnostic  speculations  which  have  come  down  to  us  (in  the  Pot- 
mandres,  in  Zosimus  and  Plotinus,  Ennead  ii.  9).  With  the 
Naasscni,  moreover,  are  related  dso  the  other  sects  of  which 
Hippolytus  alone  gives  us  a  notice  in  his  Pkilosophumena 
(Docctae,  Perates,  Sethiani,  the  adherents  of  Justin,  the  Gnostic 
of  Monoimos).  Finally,  apart  from  all  other  Gnostics  stands 
Mardon.  With  him,  as  far  as  we  arc  able  to  condude  from  the 
scanty  notices  of  him,  the  nuinifold  Gnostic  speculations  are 
reduced  essentially  to  the  one  problem  of  the  good  and  the  just 
God,  the  God  of  the  Christians  and  the  God  of  the  Old  Testajnent. 
Between  these  two  powers  Mardon  affirms  a  sharp  and,  as  it 
appears,  originally  irreconcilable  dualism  which  with  him  rests 
moreover  on  a  speculative  basis.  Thanks  to  the  noble  simplicity 
and  specifically  religious  character  of  his  ideas,  Marcion  was 
able  to  found  not  only  schools,  but  a  community,  a  church  of 
his  own,  which  gave  trouble  to  the  Church  longer  than  any 
other  Gnostic  sect;  Among  his  disdples  the  speculative  and 
fantastic  element  of  Gnosticism  again  became  more  apparent. 
As  we  have  already  intimated,  Gnostidsm  had  such  a  power 

*  For  the  dtsdples  of  Valentinus,  especially  Marcus,  after  whom 
was  named  a  separate  sect,  the  Marcosians,  with  their  Pythagorean 
theories  of  numbers  and  their  strong  tincture  of  the  mystical,  magic, 
and  sacramcntaL  see  Valsntinvs  and  Valentinians, 


'S9 


it  now  drew  within  in  limits  e\ 


m  Epiphtniiu  (If air.)  give 


cilracUoC  whicfa  art  given  by  Hippolytiuin  the  PAUss.  (ii.  t]]. 
I^tei  evidence  of  the  decadeDce  of  Gnosticiira  occun  in  th< 
Fatis-Sophia  and  the  Coptic  Gnostic  wnilngt  discoveied  ind 
edited  by  Schmidt.  In  these  canfused  records  of  human  imaginA- 
lioD  fonu  mad»  we  possess  a  veii  table  heibaiium  ol  all  possibJi 

side  by  tide.    None  the  less,  the  stieim  ol  the  Gnostic  relifioo 


untouibed   by   Chrittii 


imd  purpose  uf  C^ 


lighl  on  the  pssl.  a 


ot  to  be  ohuincd  without  taiini 

__-_ ,  CiJKliicic  EnhncUiiSf  it.  nrKln- 

Mnt  Hwtfucicii  Syanm  (Berlin.  iSiSl:  F.  Chr.  Baur.  Dii  cloial. 
Cttm  im  ihft  fulntid.  E-MuUiint  (Tabinicn,  iBij):  E.  W. 
MMItr.  Ctui.  Jir  Ktimelnii  >■  Ar  putiucttm  KitU  Ini  Oriiiiui 
(tune.  iMo):  R.  A.  LipHiis.  Da  Cmialiaiinii  (Lciuic.  iSeo: 
orifiiuny  ia  Ench  and  Craber'i  EmctdapdJit]-.  H.  X.  ManKl. 
Tin  CMUic  Hmiai  rt  llu  ill  mi  ndCmlimti  (Loodon.  iS;5)i 
K.  Kepler,  Obtr  Gnnii  md  MiiyltKiKkt  Rdifin.  a  lecture 
ddjvnedal  the  Coniteis  ol  Oricnulitu  (Berlin,  iMi):  A.  Hilicn- 
IcM,  XittcrfnckiiUi  ia  VrckriiUiaiitu  (Leipiil.  1B84);  and  in 
Zliflr.  /«r  wiiunicluJlL  Tkicl.  1890.  i.  -'£er  Cnotticiimui  "; 
A.  Hanisck,  Dttmrttaeiitiu.  L  171  leq.  (d.  the  cancipaixliiii 
•rclioni  of  the  DmmtfiickiiiUn  ol  Loots  and  Seeberg);  W.  Am, 
"  Zur  Fnfe  nadi  dem  Orvpnine  do  Gnoslicivmu,"  Ttttt  ■.  Hitter. 
neAv«|fii.  av.  4  (Lcipaif,  1S97) ;  R-  iiechtenhahn,  Dit  OffmbaruHi 
tm  Ciuilkamia  (C^fittinaen.  1901I1  C.  Schmidt.  "  Plnini  Sielluni 
niD  CnoKiciainiiB  o.  Qiehl.  Chtislentun "  ftUi  ■.  UaUrii>rk. 
n.  4  (i^) ;  E- de  Fave. /M»<ul>n  1  r AnA  ik  CmHieuik  (Pirii. 
19a});  R.  ReiutBRnn,  Ptimaiiim  (Ldpili,  ro04li  C.  KiUcn, 
aitKk  "  Gnauicismus  in  Kenoc-Kaixk's  AaltwiUpHilii  Ciid 
ed J  vi  riB  If  ■  BoinHI  "  Kauplpi^blcnic  der  CikmU,^'  Forsrhiaif 
Lidl  <•  Lu  d  tilHi- nnMrnamniU    0(90;    T  Wend  la  d 

-"*;?«••. 

1^  (En     d 


mud  dnUnlum  (  907^  p.  M  sen  Set 
mooa^phs  on  he  no  vidual  Gnostic 
■  Die  optiniichen  Syucme      Zls  ll    J   Wl 


>  pli     864     A  Tiama  k  " 
■tin      TaU  >    Unirr  vk 


nble-talkd  Gnu  or  Black  Wild  bctst  ICmuduaa  fn) 


ONU,  the  Holleniot  name  fat  the  Urge  whlte-UDed  South 
ifrican  antelope  (».».),  now  nearly  eitincl,  know  to  the  Boen 
s.the  black  wildebeest,  and  to  natundisu  as  Cumcka^a  (oi 
'ate^epaj)  inu.  A  second  and  larger  species  is  the  brindled 
nu  or  blue  wildebeest  (C.  Uartiiiij  or  Caioblepai  gorion)^  also 

cvetal  East  African  forma  mote  or  less  closely' related  to  the 


or  Co- Banc  (Jap,  Gf-ban,  I 


.    According  to  Falkenet  the 


cs,  making  ]6i  inlerscctions,  upon  which  the  flat  round 
1  while  and  iSi  black,  arc  placed  one  by  one  as  the 
occeda.  Tbe  men  ate  placed  by  the  two  pbiyen  on  any 
:lions  (nu)  thai  may  seem  advantageous,  the  abject  bei 

siible,  tbe  player  enclosing  the  greater  number  nl  v 
ints  being  Che  winner.  Completely  surrounded  mei 
plured  and  removed  from  the  board.  This  game  is  pisj 
igland  upon  a  board  divided  into  ]6i  squares,  the  men 

:h  simpler  variety  of  Co,  mostly  played  by  ft 


I  object 


aslhewi 


lyhave 


e  Co-Saar,  by  A.  Jlo«rd  Cady,  in  Spaldiog'i  Home  Library 
>  York,  lia6}:Ciimri  AnciauaiutOrunlal.by  Edward  Falkener 
don.  iSgi);  Dai  japuw-Miiiiiili  Spid  do.  by  O.  Konchelt 
LOhami.  iMl):  Doi  A'litior-'---'-'—  '-■ ■— '"    ^--^ --- 


16' E.    1 


I*  jj'  N.,  and  b< 


fJ.S'3.  a 


:n73'*s'and 


Diu  {,...)  Goa 

'emor.gencral,  and  a  single  ecclesiastical  province  subject 
the  archbishop  of  Goa;  for  judicial  purposes  the  province 
ludes  Macao  in  China,  and  Timnr  in  the  MsJay  Anhipelago. 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  river  Terakhul  or  Araundem, 
ich  divides  il  from  the  Sawanlwati  state.  £.  by  the  Western 
ats,  S.  by  Kanara  disltict,  and  W.  by  the  Arabian  Sea.  It 
ipriss  tbe  tbree  districts  of  Ilhas,  Bardei  and  Salielle, 
iquered  early  in  the  i6lh  century  and  tfaetefore  known  as  the 
has  Conquiilas  [Old  Conquests),  seven  districts  acquired 
■t  and  known  as  the  Novas  Conquistas,  and  the  island  d 

\i  m.,  is  a  hilly  region,  e^xcially  the  Novas  Conquistas^  it> 


hats,  Ihoughtbe  highest 

ummiU  nowhere  reach  an 

altitude  of 

4000  ft.,  and  the  island 

fGoa.   Numerous  short  bu 

navigable 

rivers  water  the  lowl«,d» 

kiriing  the  coast,   llie  tw 

largest  riv 

rs  are  the  Mandavi  and 

he  Juari,  which  together 

encircle  th, 

island  nf  Goa  (Ilhas), 

lebya 


:  Tisvldl,  Tissuvaddy.  Titsuary)  ii  a  triangular 
apei  of  which,  called  the  cnhi  or  cape,  is  a  rocliy 
iraling  the  harbour  of  Goa  into  two  anchonges — 
Agoada  or  Aguada  at  (he  mouth  oi  the  Mandavi,  on  the  north, 
and  Mormuglo  or  Marmaglo  at  the  mouth  of  the  Juari,  on  the 
•outh.    The  northern  haven  is  eiposed  to  the  full  force  of  the 

The  southern,  sheltered  by  the  promontory  ol  Silsetle,  is  always 


i6o 


GOA 


Western  Ghats.  Coa  imports  textiles  and  foodstuffs,  and  exports 
coco-nuts,  areca-nuts,  spices,  fish,  poultry  and  timber.  Its 
trade  is  carried  on  almost  entirely  with  Bombay,  Madras, 
Kathiawar  and  Portugal.  Manganese  is  mined  in  large  quantities, 
some  iron  b  obtained,  and  other  products  are  salt,  palm-spirit, 
betel  and  bananas. 

Cilies  of  Goa.—x.  The  andent  Hindu  city  of  Goa,  of  which 
hardly  a  fragment  survives,  was  built  at  the  southernmost  point 
of  the  island,  and  was  famous  in  early  Hindu  legend  and  history 
for  its  learning,  wealth  and  beauty.  In  the  Puranos  and  certain 
inscriptions  its  name  appears  as  Gove,  Govftpurl,  Gomant,  &c.; 
the  medieval  Arabian  geographers  knew  it  as  Sind&bur  or  Sandi- 
bur,  and  the  Portuguese  as  Goa  Vclha.  It  was  ruled  by  the 
Kadamba  dynasty  from  the  2nd  century  A.O.  to  13x2,  and  by 
Mahommedan  invaders  of  the  Deccan  from  13 12  until  about 
13  70,  during  which  period  it  was  visited  and  described  by  Ibn 
Batuta.  It  was  then  annexed  to  the  Hindu  kingdom  of 
Vijayanagar,  of  which,  according  to  Ferishta,  it  still  formed  part 
in  1469,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  Bahmani  sultan  of  the 
Deccan;  but  two  of  the  best  Portuguese  chroniclers  state  that 
it  became  independent  in  1440,  when  the  second  city  (Old  Goa) 
was  founded. 

2.  Old  Goa  is,  for  the  most  part,  -a  city  of  ruins  without 
inhabitants  other  than  ecclesiastics  and  their  dependents.  The 
chief  sur>'iving  buildings  are  tiie  cathedral,  founded  by  Albu- 
querque in  151 1  to  commemorate  his  entry  into  Goa  on  St 
Catherine's  day  .1510,  and  rebuilt  in  1623,  and  still  used  for 
public  worship;  the  convent  of  St  Francis  (1517).  a  converted 
mosque  rebuilt  in  1661,  with  a  portal  of  carved  black  stone, 
which  is  the  only  relic  of  Portuguese  architecture  in  India  dating 
from  the  first  quarter  of  the  i6th-  century;  the  chapel  of  St 
Catherine  (1551);  the  church  of  Bom  Jesus  (1594-1603)1  & 
superb  example  of  Renaissance  architecture  as  developed  by  the 
Jesuits,  containing  the  magnificent  shrine  and  tomb  of  St 
Francis  Xavicr  (see  Xavier,  Franqscode)  ;  and  the  1 7th-century 
convents  of  St  IVIonica  and  St  Cajetan.  The  college  of  St  Paul 
(see  below)  is  in  ruins. 

3.  Panjim,  Pangim  or  New  Goa  originally  a  suburb  of  Old 
Goa,  is,  like  the  parent  city,  built  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mandavi 
estuary,  in  15'  30'  N.  and  73*  33'  E.  Pop.  (1901)  9500.  It  is 
a  modem  port  with  few  pretensions  to  architectural  beauty. 
Ships  of  the  largest  size  can  anchor  in  the  river,  but  only  small 
vessels  can  load  or  discharge  at  the  quay.  Panjim  became  the 
residence  of  the  viceroy  in  1759  and  the  capital  of  Portuguese 
India' in  1843.  It  possesses  a  lyceum,  a  school  for  teachers,  a 
seminary,  a  technical  school  and  an  exocrimental  agricultural 
station. 

PolUical  History. — With  the  subdivision  of  the  Bahmani 
kingdom,  after  1482,  Goa  passed  into  the  power  of  Yusuf  Adil 
Shah,  king  of  Bijapur,  who  was  its  ruler  when  the  Portuguese 
first  reached  India.  At  this  time  Goa  was  important  as  the 
starting-point  of  pilgrims  from  India  to  Mecca,  as  a  mart  with 
no  rival  except  Calicut  on  the  west  coast,  and  especially  as  the 
centre  of  the  import  trade  in  horses  (Gulf  Arabs)  from  Hormuz, 
the  control  of  which  was  a  vital  matter  to  the  kingdoms  warring 
in  the  Deccan.  It  was  easily  defensible  by  any  power  with 
command  of  the  sea,  as  the  encircling  rivers  could  only  be  forded 
at  one  spot,  and  had  been  deliberately  stocked  with  crocodiles. 
It  was  attacked  on  the  loth  of  February  15 10  by  the  Portuguese 
under  Albuquerque.  As  a  Hindu  ascetic  had  foretold  its  downfall 
and  the  garrison  of  Ottoman  mercenaries  was  outnumbered, 
the  city  surrendered  without  a  struggle,  and  Albuquerque  entered 
it  in  triumph,  while  the  Hindu  townsfolk  strewed  filagree  flowers 
of  gold  and  silver  before  his  feet.  Three  months  later  Yusuf 
Adil  Shah  returned  with  60,000  troops,  forced  the  passage  of  the 
ford,  and  blockaded  the  Portuguese  in  their  ships  from  May  to 
August,  when  the  cessation  of  the  monsoon  enabled  them  to  put 
to  sea.  In  November  Albuquerque  returned  with  a  larger  force, 
and  after  overcoming  a  desperate  resistance,  recaptured  the  city, 
permitted  his  soldiers  to  plunder  it  for  three  days,  and  massacred 
the  entire  Mahommedan  population. 

Goa  was  the  first  territorial  possession  of  the  Portuguese  in 


Asia.  Albuquerque  intended  it  to  be  a  colony  and  a  naval  base, 
as  distinct  from  the  fortified  factories  which  had  been  established 
in  certain  Indian  seaports.  He  encouraged  his  men  to  marry 
native  women,  and  to  settle  in  Goa  as  farmers,  retail  traders  or 
artisans.  These  married  men  soon  became  a  privileged  caste, 
and  Goa  acquired  a  large  Eurasian  population.  Albuquerque 
and  his  successors  left  ahnost  imtouched  the  customs  and  con- 
stitutions of  the  30  village  communities  on  the  island,  only 
aboh'slung  the  rite  of  suttee.  A  register  of  these  customs  {Poral 
de  usos  e  costumes)  was  published  in  1526,  and  is  an  historical 
document  of  much  value;  an  abstract  of  it  is  given  in  R.  S. 
Whiteway's  Rise  of  ike  Portuguese  Empire  in  India  (London, 
1898). 

Goa  became  the  capital  of  the  whole  Portuguese  empire  in  the 
East.  It  was  granted  the  same  civic  privilt^es  as  Lisbon.  Its 
senate  or  municipal  chamber  maintained  direct  communications 
with  the  king  and  paid  a  special  representative  to  attend  to  its 
interests  at  court.  In  1563  the  governor  even  proposed  to  make 
Goa  the  seat  of  a  parliament,  in  which  all  parts  of  the  Portuguese 
east  were  to  be  represented;  this  was  vetoed  by  the  king. 

In  1542  St  Francis  Xavier  mentions  the  architectural  splendour 
of  the  city;  but  it  reached  the  climax  of  its  prosperity  between 
1575  and  1625.,  Goa  Dourada,  or  Golden  Goa,  was  then  tho 
wonder  of  all  travellers,  and  there  was  a  Portuguese  proverb, 
"  He  who  has  seen  Goa  need  not  see  Lisbon."  Merchandise  from 
all  parts  of  the  East  was  dispUyed  in  its  bazaar,  and  separate 
streets  were  set  aside  for  the  sale  of  different  da^esof  goods — 
Bahrein  pearls  and  coral,  Chinese  porcelain  and  silk,  Portuguese 
velvet  and  piece-goods,  drugs  and  spices  from  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago. In  the  main  street  slaves  were  sold  by  auction.  The 
houses  of  the  rich  were  surrounded  by  gardens  and  palm  groves; 
they  were  built  of  stone  and  painted  red  or  white.  Instead  of 
glass,  their  balconied  windows  had  thin  polished  oyster-shells  set 
in  lattice-work. 

The  soda]  life  of  Goa  was  brilliant,  as  befitted  the  headquarters 
of  the  viceregal  court,  the  army  and  navy,  and  the  church;  but 
the  luxury  and  ostentation  of  all  classes  had  become  a  byword 
before  the  end  of  the  x6th  century.  Almost  all  manual  labour  was 
done  by  slaves;  conunon  soldiers  assumed  high-sounding  titles, 
and  it  was  even  customary  for  the  poor  noblemen  who  congregated 
together  in  boarding-houses  to  subscribe  for  a  few  silken  cloaks,  a 
silken  umbrella  and  a  common  man^rvant,  so  that  each  coidd 
take  his  turn  to  promenade  the  streets,  fashionably  attired  and 
with  a  proper  escort.  There  were  huge  gambling  saloons, 
licensed  by  the  municipality,  where  determined  players  lodged 
for  weeks  together;  and  every  form  of  vice,  except  drunkenness, 
was  practised  by  both  sexes,  although  European  women  were 
forced  to  lead  a  kind  of  zenana  life,  and  never  ventured  unvdled 
into  the  streets;  they  even  attended  at  church  in  their  palanquins, 
so  as  to  avoid  observation. 

The  appearance  of  the  Dutch  in  Indian  waters  was  followed  by 
the  gradual  ruin  of  Goa.  In  1603  and  1639  the  city  was  blockaded 
by  Dutch  fleets,  though  never  captured,  and  in  1635  it  was 
ravaged  by  an  epidemic.  Its  trade  was  gradually  monopolized 
by  the  Jesuits.  Thevenot  in  1666,  Baldacus  in  1672,  fryer  in 
1675  describe  i's  ever-increasing  poverty  and  decay.  In  1683  only 
the  timely  appearance  of  a  Mogul  army  saved  it  from  capture  by 
a  horde  of  Mahratta  raiders,  and  in  1739  the  whole  territory  was 
attacked  by  the  same  enemies,  and  only  saved  by  the  tmexpectcd 
arrival  of  a  new  viceroy  with  a  fleet.  This  peril  was  always 
imminent  until  1759,  when  a  peace  with  the  Mahrattas  was  con- 
duded.  In  the  same  year  the  proposal  to  remove  the  seat  of 
government  to  Panjim  was  carried  out;  it  had  been  discussed  as 
early  as  1684.  Between  1695  and  1775  the  population  dwindled 
from  20,000  to  1 600,  and  in  1835  Goa  was  only  inhabited  by  a  few 
priests,  monks  and  nuns. 

Ecdexiastical  History. — Some  Dominican  friars  came  out  to 
Goa  in  1510,  but  no  large  missionary  enterprise  was  undertaken 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Franciscans  in  1 51 7.  From  thdr  head- 
quarters in  Goa  the  Franciscan  preachers  visited  many  parts  of 
western  India,  and  even  journeyed  to  Ceylon,  Pegu  and  the 
Malay  Archiptiago.  For  nearly  twenty-five  years  they  carried  oa 


GOAL— GOAT 


i6i 


ihtwmAci  evaogelizatioo  almost  alone,  with  such  success  that  in 
1534  Pope  Paul  III.  made  Goa  a  bishopric,  with  spiritual  jurisdic- 
tion over  all  Portuguese  possessions  between  China  and  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  though  itself  suffragan  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Fuochal  in  Madeira.  A  Frandscan  friar,  JoSb  de  Albuquerque, 
came  to  Goa  as  its  first  bbhop  in  1538.  In  1542  St  Francis 
Xavier  came  to  Goa,  and  took  over  the  Franciscan  college  of 
Santa  F6,  for  the  training  of  native  missionaries;  this  was  re- 
named the  College  of  St  Paul,  and  became  the  headquarters  of -all 
Jesuit  missions  in  the  East,  where  the  Jesuits  were  commonly 
styled  Pmdistas.  By  a  Bull  dated  the  4th  of  February  1557 
Goa  was  made  an  archbishopric,  with  jurisdiction  over  the  sees  of 
Malacca  and  Cochin,  to  which  were  added  Macao  (1575),  Japan 
(1588),  Angamale  or  Cranganore  (1600),  Meliapur  (Mylapur) 
(1606),  Peking  and  Nanking  (1610),  together  with  the  bishopric  of 
Mozambique,  which  included  the  entire  coast  of  East  Africa.  In 
1606  the  archbishop  received  the  title  of  Primate  of  the  East,  and 
tht  king  of  Portugal  was  named  Patron  of  the  Catholic  Missions 
in  the  East;  his  right  of  patronage  was  limited  by  the  Concordat 
of  1857  to  Goa,  Malacca,  Macaoand  certain  parts  of  British  India. 
The  Inquisition  was  introduced  into  Goa  in  1560:  a  vivid 
account  of  its  proceedings  is  given  by  C.  Dellon,  RdatioH  de 
VinquisUioH  dt  Coa  (1688).  Five  ecclesiastical  councils,  which 
dealt  with  matters  of  discipline,  were  held  at  Goa — in  1567, 
iS7St  1 58 St  1592  ^^  1606;  the  archbishop  of  Goa  also  presided 
over  the  more  important  synod  of  Diamper  (Udayamperur, 
about  I  a  m.  S.E.  of  Cochin),  which  in  1599  condemned  as 
heretical  the  tenets  and  liturgy  of  the  Indian  Nestorians,  or 
Christians  of  St  Thomas  (q.v.).  In  1675  Fryer  described  Goa  as 
**  a  Rome  in  India,  both  for  absoluteness  and  fabrics,"  and 
Hamilton  states  that  early  in  the  i8lh  century  the  number  of 
ecckaiastics  in  the  settlement  had  reached  the  extraordinary 
total  of  30,000.  But  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  in  1759  ,  and  by 
1800  Goa  had  lost  much  even  of  its  ecclesiastical  importance. 
The  Inquisition  was  abolished  in  1814  and  the  religious  orders 
were  secularized  in  1835. 

BnLiocRAPHY. — J.  N.  da  Fonseca,  An  Historical  and  Archaeo- 
lopcal  Sketch  of  Coa  (Bombay.  1878)  is  a  minute  study  of  the  city 
from  the  eariiest  times,  illustrated.  For  the  early  history  of  Portu- 
guese rule  the  chief  authorities  arc  The  Commentaries  .  .  .  of 
Daiboqn^qne  (Hakluyt  Society's  translation,  London,  1877).  the 
Cartas  of  Albuquerque  (Lisbon,  1884),  the  Historia  .  ,  .  aa  India 
of  F.  L.  de  Castanheda  (Lisbon,  1833,  nmtten  before  1553),  the 
Lemdas  da  India  of  G.  Correa  (Lisbon,  i860,  written  15M-1566), 
and  tJie  Deeadas  da  India  of  Jofio  dc  Barros  and  D.  do  Couto  (Lisbon, 
1778-1788,  written  about  1510-1616).  Couto's  Soidado  pratico 
(Lisboo.  1 790)  and  S.  Botelho's  Carlas  and  Tombo,  written  iS47~t554i 
pabliabed  m  Subsidtos  "  of  the  Lisbon  Academy  (1868),  are  valuable 
studies  ai  military  life  and  administration.  Tne  Arcnivo  Portugues 
oritmtal  (6  parts.  New  Goa,  1857-1877)  is  a  most  useful  collection 
ci  documents  dating  from  1515;  part  2  contains  the  privileges.  &c. 
of  the  city  of  Goa,  and  part  4  contains  the  minutes  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal councds  and  of  the  synod  of  Diamper.  The  social  life  of  Goa  has 
been  ||;raphicaUy  described  by  many  writers;  sec  especially  the 
tnv«b  of  Varthema  (c.  1505),  Linschoten  (c.  1580).  Pyrard  (1608) 
in  the  Hakluyt  Society's  translations;  J.  Mocquet,  Voyages  (Paris, 
i8jD.  written  1608-1610);  P.  Baldaeus.  in  ChurekuTs  Voyages, 
vol.  3  (London,  173a);  J.  Fiver,  A  New  Account  of  East  India 
end  Persia  (London,  1698):  A.  de  Mandelslo,  Voyages  (London, 
1669) ;  Les  Voyates  deM.de  Thevenot  aux  Indes  Orientales  (Amster- 
dam, 1779),  ana  A.  Hamilton,  A  New  Account  of  the  East  Indies 
(London,  1774).  For  Goa  in  the  20th  century  see  The  Imiterial 
Catetleer  of  India.  (K.  G.  J.) 

GOAL,  originally  an  object  set  up  as  the  place  where  a  race 
ends,  the  winning-post,  and  so  used  figuratively  of  the  end  to 
which  any  effort  is  directed.  It  is  thus  used  to  translate  the 
Lat.  aula,  the  boundary  pillar,  set  one  at  each  end  of  the  circus 
to  mark  the  turning-point.  The  word  was  quite  eariy  used  in 
various  games  for  the  two  posts,  with  or  without  a  cross-bar, 
through  or  over  which  the  ball  has  to  be  driven  to  score  a  point 
towards  winning  the  game.  The  New  English  Dictionary  quotes 
the  use  in  Richard  Stanyhurst's  Description  of  Ireland  (1577); 
but  the  word  gifi  in  the  sense  of  a  boundary  appears  as  early  as  the 
beginning  of  the  Z4th  century  in  the  religious  poems  of  William  de 
Shorefaam  (c.  1315).  The  origin  of  the  word  is  obscure.  It  is 
BsuaDy  taken  to  be  derived  from  a  French  word  gauU,  meaning  a 
pole  or  stick,  but  this  meaning  does  not  appear  in  the  English 


usage,  nor  does  the  usual  English  meaning  appear  in  the  French. 
There  is  an  O.  Eng.  gailan,  to  hinder,  which  may  point  to  a  lost 
gdl,  barrier,  but  there  is  no  evidence  in  other  Teutonic  languages 
for  such  a  word. 

GOALPARA,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the 
Brahmaputra  valley  division  of  eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
The  town  (pop.  6287)  overlooks  the  Brahmaputra.  It  was  the 
frontier  outpost  of  the  Mahommedan  power,  and  has  long  been  a 
flourishing  seat  of  river  trade.  The  civil  station  is  built  on  the 
summit  of  a  small  hill  commanding  a  magnificent  view  of  the 
valley  of  the  Brahmaputra,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  snowy 
ranges  of  the  Himalayas  and  on  the  south  l)y  the  Garo  hills. 
The  native  town  is  built  on  the  western  slope  of  the  hill,  and  the 
lower  portion  is  subject  to  inundation  from  the  marshy  land 
which  extends  in  every  direction.  It  has  declined  in  importance 
since  the  district  headquarters  were  removed  to  Dhubri  in  1879, 
and  it  suffered  severely  from  the  earthquake  of  the  xsth  of  June 
1897. 

The  District  comprises  an  area  of  3961  sq.  m.  It  is  situated 
along  the  Brahmaputra,  at  the  comer  where  the  river  takes  its 
southerly  course  from  Assam  intQ  Bengal.  The  scenery  is 
striking.  Along  the  banks  of  the  river  grow  clumps  of  cane  and 
reed;  farther  back  stretch  fields  of  rice  cultivation,  broken  only 
by  the  fruit  trees  surrounding  the  villages,  and  in  the  background 
rise  the  forest-dad  hills  overtopped  by  the  white  peaks  of  the 
Himalayas.  The  soil  of  the  hills  is  of  a  red  ochreous  earth, 
with  blocks  of  granite  and  sandstone  interspersed;  that  of  the 
plains  is  of  alluvial  formation.  Earthquakes  are  common  and 
occasionally  severe  shocks  have  been  experienced.  The  Brahma- 
putra annually  inundates  vast  tracts  of  country.  Numerous 
extensive  forests  yield  valuable  timber.  Wild  animals  of  all 
kinds  are  found.  In  190X  the  population  was  462,083,  showing 
an  increase  of  3%  in  the  decade.  Rice  forms  the  staple  crop. 
Mustard  and  jute  are  also  largely  grown.  The  manufactures 
.consist  of  the  making  of  brass  and  iron  utensils  and  of  gold  and 
silver  ornaments,  weaving  of  silk  cloth,  basket-work  and  pottery. 
The  cultivation  of  tea  has  been  introduced  but  does  not  flourish 
anywhere  in  the  district.  Local  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  Marwari 
merchants,  and  is  carried  on  at  the  basars,  weekly  hais  or  markets 
and  periodical  fairs.  The  chief  exports  are  mustard-seed,  jute, 
cotton,  timber,  lac,  silk  cloth,  india-rubber  and  tea;  the  imports, 
Bengal  rice,  European  piece  goods,  salt,  hardware,  oil  and 
tobacco. 

Dhubri  (pop.  3737)1  the  administrative  headquarters  of  the 
district,  stands  on  the  Brahmaputra  where  that  river  takes  its 
great  bend  south.  It  is  the  termination  of  the  emigration  road 
from  North  Bengal  and  of  the  river  steamers  that  connect  with 
the  North  Bengal  railway.  It  is  also  served  by  the  eastern 
Bengal  State  railway. 

GOAT  (a  common  Teut.  word;  O.  Eng.  gOl,  Goth,  gaits,  Mod. 
Ger.  CeisSt  cognate  with  Lat.  kaedus,  a  kid),  properly  the  name  of 
the  well-known  domesticated  European  ruminant  {Capra  kircus), 
which  has  for  all  time  been  regarded  as  the  emblem  of  everything 
that  is  evil,  in  contradistinction  to  the  sheep,  which  is  the  symbol 
of  excellence  and  purity.  Although  the  more  typical  goats  are 
markedly  distinct  from  sheep,  there  is,  both  as  regards  wild  and 
domesticated  forms,  an  almost  complete  gradation  from  goats 
to  sheep,  so  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  define  either  group. 
The  position  of  the  genus  Capra  (to  all  the  members  of  which, 
as  well  as  some  allied  species,  the  name  "  goat  "  in  its  wider  sense 
is  applicable)  in  the  family  Bovidaa  is  indicated  in  the  article 
BovioAE,  and  some  of  the  distinctions  between  goats  and  sheep 
are  mentioned  in  the  article  Sheep.  Here  then  it  will  suffice 
to  mention  that  goats  are  characterized  by  the  strong  and  offen* 
sive  odour  of  the  males,  which  are  furnished  with  a  beard  on 
the  chin;  while  as  a  general  rule  glands  are  present  between  the 
middle  toes  of  the  fore  feet  only. 

Goats,  in  the  wild  state,  are  an  exclusively  old-world  group, 
of  which  the  more  typical  forms  are  confined  to  Europe  and 
south-western  and  central  Asia,  although  there  are  two  outlying 
species  in  northern  Africa.  The  wild  goat,  or  pasang,  is  repre- 
sented in  Europe  in  the  Cyclades  and  Crete  by  rather  small  races, 


oini  ol  I  he  old  bucks  >n 
merited  by  llicir  bnld  u 


u-likt  backward  sweep  a 


ihirp  Innt  edge,  inLeiruplcd  al  irregular  i: 

luch  u  the  Hebridn,  ShelUnil,  Canina,  Azores, . 
Juan  Fcmanda,  Some  ot  Ibat  revecttd  breeds  h. 
horns  of  considemble  size,  altliough  not  showing  I 
of  curve  dislinclive  of  tbe  wild  race.  In  the  Azores 
remarkably  upright  and  ginlgbt,  whence  the  name 
goat  "  wbich  hu  been  given  10  these  animals,  Tl 
known  as  baoaf-slinus,  formerly  Tcuch  used  in  me 
antidotes  of  poison,  are  obtained  frbm  the  stomal 

rxt. 

Although  there  have  in  all  probability  been 
important  loca!  crosses  witb  other  wild  spedcs, 
no  doabtithat  damcsticaled  goats  generally  aie  di 
(he  wild  goat.  It  is  true  that  many  tame  goats 
■isted  horns  recalling  those 
nearly  aU  sue 
in  the  opposite 


cated  breeds  It 


Firstly,  1 


foUow 
ive  tbe  < 


:  o[  the  II 


wilt  be  Found  tl 
mong  the  dome 


ie  Maltese  goat  has  tbe  can  lon^,  wfde  and  hanging  down 
belowthejaw.    TbehsirlaloDgandcream-ailoured.   The  breed 
usually  bomless. 

The  Syrian  goal  is  met  with  in  various  pitts  of  tbe  E«M,  in 
3wei  ^ypt,  on  the  shores  ol  the  Indian  Ocean  and  in  MaijU- 
isur.  The  hair  and  eais  are  eicessivcly  long,  the  latter  to 
uch  so  that  they  are  sometimet  clipped  la  prevent  theii  being 
im  by  stones  or  thorny  shrubs.    The  bonu  are  somewhat  tltcl 

The  Angara  goat  it  often  confounded  with  tbe  Kashmir,  but 
Is  in  reality  quite  distinct.  The  principal  (oilut*  of  this  breed. 
of  which  there  are  two  or  three  varieties,  la  the  length  and 
quantity  ol  the  bair,  which  his  a  pinicularly  soil  and  ulky 
leiLure,  covering  the  whole  body  and  1  gicit  part  of  tbe  le^ 
with  close  m.illed  ringlets.  The  horns  of  the  mole  differ  from 
those  of  the  female,  being  directed  vertically  and  in  shape  spiral, 
whilst  in  the  female  they  have  a  boriamtal  tendency,  somewhat 
like  those  of  a  ran.  The  coal  is  compoHd  of  two  kinds  of  hair, 
the  one  short  and  coarse  and  ol  tbe  character  of  hair,  which  lies 
close  to  the  skin,  the  other  long  and  curty  and  of  the  nature  of 
wool,  forming  the  outer  covering.  Both  are  toed  by  the  manu- 
facturer, but  the  exterior  portion,  which  makes  up  by  tar  tbe 
greater  bulk,  is  much  the  more  valuable.  The  process  of  shearing 
takes  place  in  early  spring,  the  average  amount  of  wool  yidded 


giled;  1 


□  goats,  of  w 
reu-mancd  breeds,  dlSc     _ 
in  colour  and  gtighlly  in  (be 

x  vertically  from  the 


The  colour  varies  from  dirty  white  to  dark-brawn,  but  w1 
pure-bied  b  never  black,  which  indlcitei  eastern  blood.  M 
European  countries  possess  more  than  one  description  of 
common  goat.  In  the  British  Isles  there  arc  two  distinct  tyj 
one  short  and  the  other  long  haired.  In  the  farmer  tbe  biii 
(hick  and  close,  with  frequently  an  under-coat  resembling  wi 


Theh 
Oat  at 


The  other  vi 


in  the  male,  1 


lofm. 


rally  whit 


blualed  close  together,  often  continuing  parallel  alo 
to  the  eilremities,  being  also  large,  corrugated  and  pointed. 
The  legs  are  long  and  the  sides  Oat,  the  animal  itself  being  gener- 
(lly  gaunt  and  thin.  This  breed  is  peculiar  to  Ireland,  the 
Welsh  being  of  a  similar  type,  but  more  often  white.  The  short- 
baired  goat  is  the  English  goat  proper.  Both  British  breeds, 
u  well  ai  those  from  abroad,  are  frequently  amamented  with 
two  tassel-like  appendages,  henging  near  together  under  the 
throat-  It  haa  been  supposed  by  many  that  these  are  traceable 
to  foreign  blood;  but  although  there  are  foreign  breeds  that 
possess  them,  theyappear  to  pertain  quite  as  much  to  the  English 
native  tireeds  as  to  those  of  distant  countries,  (he  peculiarity 
being  mentioned  ia  very  old  works  on  the  goats  of  tbe  British 
Islands.  The  milk-produce  in  the  common  goat  as  well  as  other 
kinds  varies  greatly  with  individuals.  Irish  goats  often  yield 
quantity  of  milk,  but  the  quality  Is  poor.  Tbe  goata  of  Franc 
IK  timilai  to  those  of  Britain,  varying  in  length  of  hair,  cobu 
and  character  of  horns.  Tbe  Non»ay  breed  is  frequently  whit 
with  long  hair;  it  ia  rather  small  in  siae,  with  small  bone*, 
abort  roujided  body,  bead  small  with  a  prominent  forehead,  an 
■bolt,  straight,  corrugated  faoms.  Tbe  facial  line  Is  concavi 
The  boms  of  the  nulei  are  very  large,  and  curve  round  after  tti 
mtoiKr  of  iIk  tild  goat,  with  ( tuft  of  hair  between  and  in  fion 


with  the    '; 


-Male  Angora  Coat. 
:h  inhiul  being  about  if  lb.    The  best  quality  comei 
Bstrated  males,  females  producing  the  nert  best, 
breed  was  introduced  at  tbe  Cape  about  1S64.     The 

er  than  that  of  any  other  breed,  and  in  its  native  country 
;rral  lo  mutton.    The  kids  are  bom  small,  but  grow  fast, 


■olh  long  and  wide.  The  hair  varies  lo 
.nd  of  diffeienl  colours  according  to  the  ii 
re  very  erect,  and  sametimei  slightly  spi 


ength,  and  is  coarse 
dividual    Tbe  horns 


of  a  uniform  grcyish-wlute 
r  may  be,  is  beautifully  soft 
n  resembling  down.  It  ma 
ind  continues  to  grow  until  t 
imovcd.   it   falls  oS 


irolly; 


(,  whatever  the  colour 

id  9ilky.  and  of  a  tuBy 

ts  appearance  in  tbe 

llowing  spring,  when. 


with  it, is 
when  the  Heece 


irlng  that  lime  a  [ 
'cd.   The  Utter! 


imbing  by  which  all 
r,  wnicn  of  nccc^ty  comes 
Eerwards  carefully  separated, 
weighs  about  half  a  pound, 
ir-famed  and  costly  shiwb 
h  a  demand  that ,  it  is  stated, 
t  work  at  Kashmir  in  their 
t  short,  neat  head,  long,  thin, 
and  a  k>ng  heavy  coat,  ore 
d  the  best.    Then  ue  Kvenl  vaiietits 


GOATSUCKER 


163 


g  tluB  vuluible  quality,  but  IhoK  et  Kuhmir,  T 
ukd  Mongolia  ue  the  mut  Btrrmeil 

TI1C  Nubian  goal,  whidi  ii  met  witb  In  NubU,  Upper  Eg 
and  Ahyoiiiia,  diffen  greatly  in  appuriuicc  from  tbosc  pre  vioi 
described.  Tlie  att  of  Ilie  limilc  it  otremcly  ahort.  ale 
Ske  that  □[  a  lace-borae.  and  the  legi  an  long,  Tliia  bJ 
I)icREan  alandx  considerab]/  higher  than  the  amuaan  g 
One  ol  its  pcculiaritiea  is  the  convex  profile  of  the  face, 
lorchcad  bong  prominent  and  ibe  Dostzih  sunk  in,  the  noK  il 
dlmnely  unaU^  and  the  lower  lip  prDfecling  from  the  up 
The  can  uc  long,  broad  and  tbin,  and  bang  down  by  Ibc 


of  tbebead  like  a  lop-eucd  rabbit.  Tlie  honu  aie  black,  alightly 
■wilted  and  vecy  ibocl,  flat  at  the  bue,  poinled  at  the  tips. 
and  recombcnt  on  the  head.  Among  gotii  met  with  in  England 
a  gaod  many  thaw  aigns  of  a  more  or  less  lemole  croas  Hilb  this 
bfeed,  derived  probably  from  spedmeni  brought  bom  the  East 
oa  board  ships  for  lupplying  milk  duiing  the  voyage. 

Tlie  TbelKn  goat,  oi  tbe  Sudan,  whicb  i>  boiuless,  di^lsys 
tht  civracleriatic  features  of  the  last  in  an  exaggerated  degtee 
tod  in  tbe  fonn  of  the  head  and  ikuU  is  veiy  sbcep-like. 

The  Nepal  goat  appean  to  be  a  variety  ol  tbe  Nubian  breed 
having  the  uue  arched  facial  line,  pendulous  rart  aod  long 
IcgL  The  horns,  however,  an  more  spicaL  The  csloui  of  the 
hair,  which  is  longer  than  in  tbe  Nubian,  is  blacky  grey  or  while 
lilb  black  blotcho. 

Lastly  the  Guinea  goal  Ii  a  dwarf  breed  originally  from  the 
(Dut  whence  its  name  is  derived.  There  are  three  vanelM 
Bojdea  Ibe  commonest  Cipro  mum,  there  is  a  rarer  breed 
Ctfa  dtftiis,  inhatnting  the  Maucitiui  and  the  islands  of 
Bourbon  and  Madagascar.  The  other  variety  is  net  with  along 
■he  White  Nile,  in  Lower  Egypt,  and  at  various  poinu  on  the 
African  coast  of  the  Mediterranean. 

As  regards  wQd  goals  olher  than  Ibe  reptetentitives  of  Cs^s 
kinms,  the  members  of  the  ibex-group  are  noiiced  under  Ibex 
while  another  distinctive  type  receives  mention  under  MABUtoji 
Tbe  ibex  arc  connected  with  tbe  wild  goat  by  means  of  Cafra 
mbioMi:,  in  which  the  front  edge  of  tbe  horns  is  Ihioner  than  in 


tbe  SpaiHsh  C.  fyraukt  show 

show  th 

eibci- 

ype 

of  bo 

nmay 

pas*  into  the  spirally  Iwisted 

one  dis 

of 

le  m 

Jkhor 

C./altmtri.   latbeutidelBiimeDiioi 

e  of  the  Ca 

ibei.  or  t«r,  C.  UKojira,  u  a 

mpm 

that 

group; 

but  beidde  this  ammal  the  Can 

casus  Is 

hehom 

murkiblc  goat,  or  lur,  knowi 

^CfoUcn. 

which  is  of  a  dark-btowu  co 

our,  the 

ly 

moolh 

black 

boms  diverge  outwards  in  a 

ng 

hose 

ol  the 

bbanl  among  the  sheep  rath 

er  than 

in  goa 

las 

ion;  a 

nd,  in 

b  tor,  which  has  only  a ' 


io  difficult  to  give  a  precbe 


It  Is  one  of  the  q>edes  which  render  I 
definition  of  dthec  sheep  oc  goats. 

The  ihort-hoined  Asiatic  goata  of  the  genus  Hemilrapa 
receive  meolioo  in  Ibc  article  Tahi;  but  it  may  be  added  that 
fossil  species  of  the  same  genus  are  known  from  the  Lower 
Pliocene  formations  of  India,  which  have  also  yielded  lemaiiH 
of  a  goat  allied  to  the  markhor  of  the  Himalayas.  Tbe  Rocky 
Mountain  goat  (f.T.)  of  America  has  no  claim  to  be  regarded  u  « 


■  P.!., 


.■srST' 


WiU  Oicn,  Skaf,  and  Costt  (Loodun.  1S98J. 

IKlAnnCXra,  a  bird  from  very  ancJenI 
believed  to  have  the  habit  implied  by  tbe  common  name  it  bean 
in  many  Eimpcan  tongues  besides  English — as  teatiiied  by 
the  Gi.  aiyilNilM,  the  Lai.  cafrimidtiu,  IlaL  lucdeafrt. 
Span,  duliuatrai,  Fr.  UOickitri,  and  Gcr.  ZufeHMeUer. 
liie  common  goatsucker  {Cafrimidpa  tiacpaau.  Linn.},  is 
admittedly  tbe  type  of  a  very  peculiar  and  distinct  fanUly, 
Cafrimidiidiu,  a  group  remarkable  for  the  Bat  head,  enormously 
wide  tnoul  h ,  large  eyes,  and  soft ,  pencilled  plumage  of  its  membeii, 
which  vary  in  vze  from  a  lark  to  a  crow.  Its  position  has  been 
variously  assigned  by  ayslematists.  Though  now  judiciously 
removed  from  the  Patsoa,  in  nhich  Linnaeus  placed  all  tbe 
species  known  to  him,  Huxley  considered  it  to  form,  with  two 
other  families— the  twilu  (Cy^iefito)  and  humming-turds 
{Trockilida)^'OK  division  Cypitiomorphaa  of  his  larger  grnup 
Att^tlvpaSkat,  which  is  equivalent  in  the  main  to  the  Unnaean 
Paiioa,  There  are  two  ways  of  regarding  tbe  Co^awJfHfae- 
one including  the  genus  Padarfia  and  its  allio,  Ibe  other  recognis- 
ing them  as  a  distinct  family,  Fodarpdat.  As  a  matter  of 
convenience  we  shall  here  comprehend  these  fast  in  the  Capri— 
malgiilae,  which  will  then  contain  two  subfamilies,  CafrimiUtimit 
and  Padartinat;  for  what,  according  to  older  authors,  conslitula 
a  third,  though  represented  only  by  SUatamis,  the  singular 
oil-bird,  or  guacharo,  certainly  seems  to  require  separation  aa  an 
independent  family  (see  Gdacrabo). 

Some  of  the   diSerences  between   the  CaprimidpiHt  and 
by  Sdatet  {Pm.  Ziml.  Sec.. 


have  Jour  phalanges  only,  t 


.    In  the  f. 


a  very  u 


Common  Goatsucker 
and  the  daws  are  smooth  and  other  dutincuons  more  recondlM 
have  alio  been  indioled  by  bim  (um  at  p  jSi}  The  Ct/ri- 
nulpniu  may  be  further  divided  into  those  having  Ihc  gape 
thickly  beset  by  strong  bristles,  and  those  in  which  thete  ate  few 
such bristlesornone— the  former  coniaining  Ibe  genera  CapH- 
nuliui,  AMriaUmia,  Nyoidrtmui  and  others,  and  the  Uttel 
Pedarpu,  CkariHa,  Lyncamii  and  a  few  mott. 
~  f  Europe  (C.  evs^oew)  arrives 


btei: 


igfror 


164 


GOATSUCKER 


the  season  advances  the  song  of  the  cock,  from  its  singularity, 
attracts  attention  amid  ail  rural  sounds.  This  song  seems  to  be 
always  uttered  when  the  bird  is  at  rest,  though  the  contrary  has 
been  asserted,  and  is  the  continuous  repetition  of  a  single  burring 
note,  as  of  a  thin  lath  fixed  at  one  end  and  in  a  state  of  vibration 
at  the  other,  and  loud  enough  to  reach  in  still  weather  a  distance 
of  half-a-mile  or  more.  On  the  wing,  while  toying  with  its  mate, 
or  performing  its  rapid  evolutions  round  the  trees  where  it 
finds  its  food,  it  has  the  habit  of  occasionally  producing  another 
and  equally  extraordinary  sound,  sudden  and  short,  but  some- 
what resembling  that  made  by  swinging  a  thong  in  the  air, 
though  whether  this  noise  proceeds  from  its  mouth  is  not  ascer- 
tained. In  general  its  flight  is  silent,  but  at  times  when  disturbed 
from  its  repose,  its  wings  may  be  heard  to  smite  together.  The 
goatsucker,  or,  to  use  perhaps  its  commoner  English  name, 
nightjar,'  passes  the  day  in  slumber,  crouching  on  the  ground 
or  perching  on  a  tree — in  the  latter  case  sitting  not  across  the 
branch  but  lengthways,  with  its  head  lower  than  its  body.  In 
hot  weather,  however,  its  song  may  sometimes  be  heard  by  day 
and  even  at  noontide,  but  it  is  then  uttered,  as  it  were,  drowsily, 
and  without  the  vigour  that  characterizes  its  crepuscular  or 
nocturnal  performance.  Towards  evening  the  bird  becomes 
active,  and  it  seems  to  pursue  its  prey  throughout  the  m'ght 
uninterruptedly,  or  only  occasionally  pausing  for  a  few  seconds 
to  alight  on  a  bare  spot — a  pathway  or  road — and  then  resuming 
its  career.  It  is  one  of  the  few  birds  that  absolutely  make  no 
nest,  but  lays  its  pair  of  beautifully-marbled  eggs  on  the  ground, 
generally  where  the  herbage  is  short,  and  often  actually  on  the 
soil.  So  light  is  it  that  the  act  of  brooding,  even  where  there  is 
some  vegetable  growth,  produces  no  visible  depression  of  the 
grass,  moss  or  lichens  on  which  the  eggs  rest,  and  the  finest 
sand  equally  fails  to  exhibit  a  trace  of  the  parental  act.  Yet 
scarcely  any  bird  shows  greater  local  attachment,  and  the 
precise  site  chosen  one  year  is  almost  certain  to  be  occupied 
the  next.  The  young,  covered  when  hatched  with  dark-spotted 
down,  are  not  easily  found,  nor  are  they  more  easily  discovered 
on  becoming  fledged,  for  their  plumage  almost  entirely  resembles 
that  of  the  adults,  being  a  mixture  of  reddish-brown,  grey  and 
black,  blended  and  mottled  in  a  manner  that  passes  description. 
They  soon  attain  their  full  size  and  power  of  flight,  and  then  take 
to  the  same  manner  of  life  as  their  parents.  In  autumn  all 
leave  their  summer  haunts  for  the  south,  but  the  exact  time  of 
their  departure  has  hardly  been  ascertained.  The  habits  of  the 
nightjar,  as  thus  described,  seem  to  be  more  or  less  essentially 
those  of  the  whole  subfamily — the  differences  observable  being 
apparently  less  than  are  found  in  other  groups  of  birds  of  similar 
extent. 

A  second  spedes  of  goatsucker  (C.  ruficcttis),  which  is  some- 
what larger,  and  has  the  neck  distinctly  marked  with  rufous, 
is  a  summer  visitant  to  the  south-western  parts  of  Europe,  and 
espedally  to  Spain  and  PortugaL  The  occurrence  of  a  single 
example  of  this  bird  at  Killingworth,  near  Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
in  October  1856,  has  been  recorded  by  Mr  Hancock  {Ibis,  1862, 
p.  39);  but  the  season  of  its  appearance  argues  the  probability  of 
its  being  but  a  casual  straggler  from  its  proper  home.  Many  other 
species  of  Caprimulgus  inhabit  Africa,  Asia  and  their  islands, 
while  one  (C/  macrurus)  is  found  in  Australia.  Very  nearly  allied 
to  this  genus  is  ArUrostomus,  an  American  group  containing 
many  species,  of  which  the  chuck-will's-widow  (A.  carolinensis) 
and  the  whip-poor-will  (A.  tocifnus)  of  the  eastern  United  States 
(the  latter  also  reaching  Canada)  are  familiar  examples.  Both 
these  birds  take  their  common  name  from  the  cry  they  utter, 
and  their  habits  seem  to  be  almost  identical  with  those  of  the 
old  world  goatsuckers.  Pacing  over  some  other  forms  which 
need  not  here  be  mentioned,  the  genus  Nyctidromus,  though 
consisting  of  only  one  qiedes  {N.  albicMis)  which  inhabits 
Central  and  part  of  South  America,  requires  remark,  since  it  has 
tarsi  of  suflident  length  to  enable  it  to  run  swiftly  on  the  ground, 
while  the  legs  of  most  birds  of  the  family  are  so  short  that  they  can 

*  Other  English  names  of  the  bird  are  evejar,  fern-owl,  chum-owl 
and  wheel-bira — the  last  from  the  bird's  song  resemblii^  the  noise 
made  by  a  spinning-wheel  in  motion. 


make  but  a  shuffling  progress.  Hdeolkrepta,  with  the  unique 
form  of  wing  posseted  by  the  male,  needs  mention.  Notice 
must  also  be  taken  of  two  African  species,  referred  by  some 
ornithologists  to  as  many  genera  {Macrodipuryx  and  Cos- 
metomis),  though  probably  one  genus  would  sufiice  for  both. 
The  males  of  each  of  them  are  characterized  by  the  wonderful 
development  of  the  ninth  primary  in  either  wing,  which  reaches 
in  fully  adult  spcdmens  the  extraordinary  length  of  17  in.  or 
more.  The  former  of  these  birds,  the  Caprimulgus  macrtdiplerus 
of  Adam  AfzcHus,  is  considered  to  belong  to  Uic  west  coast  of 
Africa,  and  the  shaft  of  the  elongated  remigcs  is  bare  for  the 
greater  parfof  its  length,  retaining  the  web,  in  a  spatulate  form, 
only  near  the  tip.  The  latter,  to  which  the  specific  name  of 
vexiilarius  ytoi  given  by  John  Gould,  has  been  found  on  the 
east  coast  of  that  continent,  and  is  reported  to  have  occurred  in 
Madagascar  and  Socotra.  In  this  the  remigial  streamers  do 
not  lose  their  barbs,  and  as  a  few  of  the  next  quills  are  also  to 
some  extent  elongated,  the  bird,  when  flying,  is  said  to  look  as 
though  it  had  four  wings.  Spedmens  of  both  are  rare  in  collec- 
tions, and  no  traveller  seems  to  have  had  the  opportunity  of 
studying  the  habits  of  either  so  as  to  suggest  a  reason  for  this 
marvellous  sexual  development. 

The  second  group  of  Caprimulginae,  those  which  are  but 
poorly  or  not  at  all  furnished  with  rictal  bristles,  contains  about 
five  genera,  of  which  we  may  particularize  Lyncomis  of  the  old 
world  and  ChordiUs  of  the  new.  The  spedes  of  the  former  are 
remarkable  for  the  tuft  of  feathers  which  springs  from  each  side 
of  the  head,  above  and  behind  the  ears,  so  as  to  give  the  bird  an 
appearance  like  some  of  the  "  homed  "  owls — those  of  the  genus 
Scops,  for  example;  and  remarkable  as  it  is  to  find  certain  forms 
of  two  families,  so  distinct  as  are  the  Strigidoe  and  the  Capri- 
mulgidae,  resembling  each  other  in  this  singular  external  feature, 
it  is  yet  more  remarkable  to  note  that  in  some  groups  of  the 
latter,  as  in  some  of  the  former,  a  very  curious  kind  of  dimorphism 
takes  place.  In  either  case  this  has  been  frequently  asserted 
to  be  sexual,  but  on  that  point  doubt  may  fairly  be  entertained. 
Certain  it  is  that  in  some  groups  of  goatsuckers,  as  in  some  groups 
of  owls,  individuals  of  the  same  species  are  found  in  plumage  of 
two  entirely  different  hues — rufous  and  grey.  The  only  explana- 
tion as  yet  offered  of  this  fact  is  that  the  difference  is  sexual, 
but  evidence  to  that  effect  is  conflicting.  It  must  not,  however, 
be  supposed  that  this  common  feature,  any  more  than  that  of 
the  existence  of  tufted  forms  in  each  group,  indicates  any  dose 
rdationship  between  them.  The  resemblances  may  be  due  to 
the  same  causes,  concerning  which  future  observers  may  possibly 
enlighten  us,  but  at  present  we  must  regard  them  as  analogies, 
not  homologies.  The  spedes  of  Lyncornis  inhabit  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  one,  however,  occurring  also  in  China..  Of  Cfurrdiles 
the  best-known  species  is  the  night-hawk  of  North  America 
(C.  virginianus  or  C.  popetue),  which  has  a  wide  range  from 
Canada  to  Brazil  Others  are  found  in  the  Antilles  and  in  South 
America.  The  general  habits  of  all  these  birds  agree  with  those 
of  the  typical  goatsuckers. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  birds  forming  the  genus  Podargus 
and  those  allied  to  it,  whether  they  be  regarded  as  a  distinct 
family,  or  as  a  subfamily  of  Caprimulgidae.  As  above  stated, 
they  have  feet  constructed  as  those  of  birds  normally  are,  and 
thdr  sternum  seems  to  present  the  tonstant  though  compara- 
tively trivial  difference  of  having  its  posterior  margin  elongated 
into  two  pairs  of  processes,  while  only  one  pair  is  found  in  the 
true  goatsuckers.  Podargus  indudes  the  bird  (P.  cutieri)  known 
from  its  cry  as  morcpork  to  the  Tasmanians,'  and  several  other 
spedes,  the  number  of  which  is  doubtful,  from  Australia  and 
New  Guinea.  They  have  comparatively  powerful  bills,  and  it 
would  seem  feed  to  some  extent  on  fruits  and  berries,  though  they 
mainly  subsist  on  insects,  chiefly  Cicadae  and  Pkasmidae.  They 
also  differ  from  the  true  goatsuckers  in  having  the  outer  toes 
partially  reversible,  and  they  build  a  flat  nest  on  the  horizontal 
branch  of  a  tree  for  the  reception  of  their  eggs,  which  are  of  a 
spotless  white.    Apparently  allied  to  Podargus,  but  differing 

*  In  New  Zealand,  however,  this  name  is  given  to  an  owl  (Scdogfaux 
novae-tdandiae). 


GOBAT— GOBI 


165 


Among  other  respects  in  its  mode  of  nidificfltion,  is  AegtOkeUs, 
fbhicb  belongs  also  to  the  Australian  sub-region;  and  farther 
to  the  northward,  extending  throughout  the  Malay  Archipelago 
and  into  India,  comes  BatrackosUmus,  wherein  wc  again  meet 
with  species  having  aural  tufts  somewhat  like  LyHComis.  The 
Podarginae  are  thought  by  some  to  be  represented  in  the  new 
wxirld  by  the  genus  NyctibiuSf  of  which  several  species  occur 
from  the  Antilles  and  Central  America  to  Brazil.  Finally,  it  may 
be  stated  that  none  of  the  Caprimulgidae  seem  to  occur  in 
Polynesia  or  in  New  Zealand,  though  there  is  scarcely  any  other 
part  of  the  world  suited  to  their  habits  in  which  members  of  the 
family  are  not  found.  (A.  N.) 

GOBAT,  SAMUEL  (i  799-1879),  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  was  bom 
at  Cr^minc,  Bern,  Switzerland,  on  the  26th  of  January  1799. 
After  serving  in  the  mission  house  at  Basel  from  1823  to  1826, 
he  went  to  Paris  and  London,  whence,  having  acquired  some 
knowledge  of  Arabic  and  Ethiopic,  he  went  out  to  Abyssinia 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society.  The 
unsettled  state  of  the  country  and  his  own  ill  health  prevented 
his  making  much  headway;  he  returned  to  Europe  in  1835  and 
from  1839  to  1843  lived  in  Malta,  where  he  supervised  an  Arabic 
translation  of  the  Bible.  In  1846  he  was  consecrated  Protestant 
bishop  of  Jerusalem,  under  the  agreement  between  the  British 
and  Prussian  governments  (1841)  for  the  establishment  of  a 
joint  bishopric  for  Lutherans  and  Anglicans  in  the  Holy  Land. 
He  carried  on  a  vigorous  mission  as  bishop  for  over  thirty  years, 
his  diocesan  school  and  orphanage  on  Mount  Zion  being  specially 
noteworthy.  He  died  on  the  nth  of  May  1879. 

A  record  of  hb  life,  largely  autobiographical,  was  published  at 
Basel  in  1884,  and  an  English  translation  at  London  in  the  same  year. 

GOBEL,  IRAN  BAFTISTE  JOSEPH  (1727-1794).  French 
ecclesiastic  and  politician,  was  born  at  Thann,  in  Alsace,  on  the 
xst  of  September  1727.  He  studied  theology  in  the  German 
College  at  Rome,  and  then  became  successively  a  member  of 
the  chapter  of  Porrcntruy,  bishop  in  partibus  of  Lydda,  and 
finally  suffragan  of  Basel  for  that  part  of  the  diocese  situated 
in  French  territory.  His  political  life  began  when  he  was  elected 
deputy  to  the  states-general  of  1789  by  the  clergy  of  the  baiUiage 
of  Huningue.  The  turm'ng-point  of  his  life  was  his  action  in 
taking  the  oath  of  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  (Jan.  3rd, 
1791);  in  favour  of  which  he  had  declared  himself  since  the  5th 
ol  May  1790.  The  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  gave  the 
appointment  of  priests  to  the  electoral  assemblies,  and  since 
taking  the  oath  Gobel  hod  become  so  popular  that  he  was  elected 
bishop  in  several  dioceses.  He  chose  Paris,  and  in  spite  of  the 
difficulties  which  he  had  to  encounter  before  he  could  enter  into 
posseaston,  was  consecrated  on  the  27th  of  March  1791  by  eight 
bishops,  including  Talleyrand.  On  the  8th  of  November  1792, 
Gobcl  was  appointed  administrator  of  Paris.  He  was  careful 
to  flatter  the  politicians  by  professing  anti-clerical  opinions, 
declaring  himself,  among  other  things,  opposed  to  the  celibacy 
of  the  clergy;  and  on  the  17th  Brumaire  in  the  year  II.  (7th 
November  1793),  be  came  before  the  bar  of  the  Convention,  and, 
in  a  famous  scene,  resigned  his  episcopal  functions,  proclaiming 
that  he  did  so  for  love  of  the  people,  and  through  respect  for 
their  wishes.  The  followers  of  Hubert,  who  were  then  pursuing 
their  anti-Christian  pc^cy,  claimed  Gobcl  as  one  of  themselves; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  Robespierre  looked  upon^  him  as  an 
atheist,  though  apostasy  cannot  strictly  speaking  be  laid  to  the 
charge  of  the  oc-bishop,  nor  did  he  ever  make  any  actual  pro- 
fession of  atheism.  Robeq>ierre,  however,  found  him  an  obstacle 
to  has  religious  schemes,  and  involved  him  in  the  fate  of  the 
H^bertbts.  Gobel  was  condemned  to  death,  with  Chaumette, 
Hubert  azKl  Anacharsis  Cloots,  and  was  guillotined  on  the  X2th 

of  April  1794. 

See  E.  Charavay,  AuewMU  iUctarale  de  Paris  (Paris,  1890): 
H.  Monin,  La  Chanum  el  FE^ise  sons  la  Rtoolution  (Paris,  1892) ; 
A.  Aniard,  "  La  Culte  de  la  raison  "  in  the  review.  La  Rimduiion 
PrawfaiiM  (1891).  Fw  a  bibliography  of  documents  relating  to 
his  episcopate  see  "  Episcopat  de  Gobel  **  in  vol.  iit.  (1990)  of 
M.  Toumeux's  BMiograpkU  de  rkisUrire  de  Paris  pendant  la  Rtv.  Fr. 

OOBELDI,  the  name  of  a  family  of  dyers,  who  in  all  probability 
came  origioally  from  Reims,  and  who  in  the  middle  of  the  xsth 


century  established  themselves  in  the  Faubourg  Safnt  Marcel, 
Paris,  on  the  banks  of  the  Biivre.  The  first  head  of  the  firm 
was  named  Jehan  (d.  1476).  He  discovered  a  peculiar  kind  of 
scarlet  dyestuff,  and  he  expended  so  much  money  on  his 
establishment  that  it  was  named  by  the  common  people  la  folie 
Gobelin.  To  the  dye-works  there  was  added  in  the  i6th  century 
a  manufactory  of  tapestry  (q.v.).  So  rapidly  did  the  wealth 
of  the  family  increase,  that  in  the  third  or  fourth  generation 
some  of  them  forsook  their  trade  and  purchased  titles  of  nobility. 
More  than  one  of  their  number  held  offices  of  state,  among 
others  Balthasar,  who  became  successively  treasurer  general  of 
artillery,  treasurer  extraordinary  of  war,  councillor  secretary  of 
the  king,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  councillor  of  state  and 
president  of  the  chamber  of  accounts,  and  who  in  i6ox  received 
from  Henry  IV.  the  lands  and  lordship  of  Briecomtc-Robert. 
He  died  in  1603.  The  name  of  the  Gobelins  as  dyers  cannot  be 
found  later  than  the  end  of  the  17th  century.  In  1662  the  works 
in  the  Faubourg  Saint  Marcel,  with  the  adjoining  grounds,  were 
purchased  by  Colbert  on  behalf  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  transformed 
into  a  general  upholstery  manufactory,  in  which  designs  both 
in  tapestry  and  in  all  kinds  of  furniture  were  executed  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  royal  painter,  Le  Brun.  On  account  of 
the  pecuniary  embarrassments  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  establishment 
was  closed  in  1694,  but  it  was  reopened  in  1697  for  the  manu- 
facture of  tapestry,  chiefly  for  royal  use  and  for  presentation. 
During  the  Revolution  and  the  reign  of  Napoleon  the  manufacture 
was  suspended,  but  it  was  revived  by  the  Bourbons,  and  in  1826 
the  manufacture  of  carpets  was  added  to  that  of  tapestry.  In 
187 1  the  building  was  partly  burned  by  the  Communists.  The 
nuinufacture  is  still  carried  on  under  the  state. 

See  Lacordaire.  Notice  historifue  sur  Us  manufactures  impMales 
de  tapisserie  des  Gobelin  et  de  tapts  de  la  Savonnerte,  jprMdie  au  cata- 
logue des  tapisseries  qui  y  sont  exposis  (Paris,  1853);  Genspach, 
Ripertoire  ditailU  des  tapisseries  c»6cuties  aux  Gobatns,  1662-18^ 
(Paris,  1893);  Guiffrey,  Histoire  de  la  tapisserie  en  France  (Pans, 
1 878-1 885).  The  two  last-named  authors  were  directors  of  .the 
manufactory. 

GOBI  (for  which  alternative  Chinese  names  are  Sha-mo, 
"  sand  desert,"  and  Han-hai,  "  dry  sea  "),  a  term  which  in  its 
widest  significance  means  the  long  stretch  of  desert  country  that 
extends  from  the  foot  of  the  Pamirs,  in  about  77^  E.,  eastward 
to  the  Great  Khingan  Mountains,  in  ii6°-xi8*  E.,  on  the  border 
of  Manchuria,  and  from  the  foothills  of  the  Altai,  the  Sayan 
and  the  Yablonoi  Mountains  on  the  N.  to  the  Astin-tagh  or 
Altyn-tagh  and  the  Nan-shan,  the  northernmost  constituent 
rang:s  of  the  Kuen-lun  Mountains,  on  the  south.  By  conven- 
tional usage  a  relatively  small  area  on  the  east  side  of  the  Great 
Khingan,  between  the  upper  waters  of  the  Sxmgari  and  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Liao-ho,  is  also  reckoned  to  belong  to  the  (}obi. 
On  the  other  hand,  geographers  and  Asiatic  explorers  prefer  to 
regard  the  W.  extremity  of  the  Gobi  region  (as  defined  above), 
namely,  the  basin  of  the  Tarim  in  E.  Turkestan,  as  forming  a 
separate  and  independent  desert,  to  which  they  have  given  the 
name  of  Takla-makan.  The  latter  restriction  governs  the  present 
article,  which  accordingly  excludes  the  Takla-makan,  leaving  it 
for  separate  treatment.  The  desert  of  (k>bi  as  a  whole  is  only 
very  imperfectly  known,  information  being  confined  to  the 
observations  which  individual  travellers  have  made  from  their 
respective  itineraries  across  the  desert.  Amongst  the  explorers 
to  whom  we  owe  such  knowledge  as  we  possess  about  the  Gobi, 
the  most  important  have  been  Marco  Polo  (i  273-1 275),  CSerbillon 
(1688-1698),  Ijsbrand  Ides  (1692-1694),  Lange  (1727-1728  and 
Z736),  Fuss  and  Bunge  (1830-1831),  Fritsche  (1868-1873), 
Pavlinov  and  Matusovski  (1870),  Ney  Elias  (1873-1873),  N.  M. 
Przhevalsky  (1870-1872  and  1876-1877),  Zosnovsky  (1875), 
M.  V.  Pjevtsov  (1878),  G.  N.  Potanin  (1877  and  1884-1886), 
Count  Sz^chenyi  and  L.  von  Loczy  (1879-1880),  the  brothers 
prum-Grzhimailo  (1889-1890),  P.  K.  Kozlov  (1893-1894  and 
1899-1900),  V.  I.  Roborov^y  (18^),  V.  A.  Obruchev  (1894- 
1896),  Futterer  and  Holderer  (1896),  C.  E.  Bonin  (1896  and  1899), 
Sven  Hedin  (1897  and  1900-1901),  K.  Bogdanovicb  C1898), 
Ladyghin  (1899-1900)  and  Kat»iakov.  (1899-1900). 

Geographically  the  Gobi  (a  Mongol  word  meaning  "  desert '') 


1 66 


GOBI 


is  the  deeper  part  of  the  gigantic  depression  which  filb  th6 
interior  of  the  lower  terrace  of  the  vast  Mongolian  plateau,  and 
measures  over  xooo  m.  from  S.W.  to  N.E.  and  450  to  600  m. 
from  N.  to  S.,  being  widest  in  the  west,  along  the  line  joining 
the  Baghrash-kol  and  the  Lop-nor  (87*'-89"  £.).  Owing  to  the 
immense  area  covered,  and  the  piecemeal  character  of  the 
information,  no  general  description  can  be  made  applicable  to 
the  whole  of  the  Gobi.  It  will  be  more  convenient,  therefore,  to 
describe  its  principal  distinctive  sections  seriatim,  beginning  in 
the  west. 

GkaskiuH-Goln  and  Kuruk-tagk. — The  Yutduz  valley  or  valley  of 
the  Khaldyk-Eol  (83"-86*  E.,  43*  N.)  is  enclosed  by  two  prominent 
members  of  tne  Tian-shan  system,  namely  the  Cnol-tagh  and  the 
Kuruk-tagh,  running  parallel  and  close  to  one  another.  As  they  pro- 
ceed eastward  they  diverge,  sweeping  back  on  N.  and  Sw  respectively 
so  as  to  leave  room  for  the  Baghrasn-kol.  These  two  ranges  mark 
the  northern  and  the  southern  edges  respectively  of  a  great  swelling, 
which  extends  eastward  for  nearly  twenty  degrees  of  longitude.  On 
its  northern  side  the  Chol-tagh  descends  steeply,  and  its  foot  is  fringed 
by  a  string  of  deep  depressions,  ranging  from  Lukchun  (425  ft.  baow 
the  level  of  the  sea)  to  Hami  (2800  ft.  above  sea-level).  To  the  south 
of  the  Kuruk-tagh  lie  the  desert  of  Lop,  the  desert  of  Kum-tagh,  and 
the  valley  of  the  Bulunzir-goL  To  this  great  swelling,  which  arches 
up  between  the  two  border-ranges  of  the  Chol-tagh  and  Kuruk-tagh, 
the  Mongols  give  the  name  of  ohashiun-Gobi  or  Salt  Desert.  It  is 
some  80  to  100  m.  across  from  N.  to  S.,  and  u  traversed  by  a  number 
of  minor  parallel  ranges,  ridges  and  chains  of  hills,  and  down  its 
middle  runs  a  broad  stony  valley,  25  to  150  m.  wide,  at  an  elevation  of 
3000  to  asoo  ft.  The  Chol-tagh,  which  reaches  an  average  altitude 
of  6000  It.,  is  absolutely  sterile,  and  its  northern  foot  rests  upon  a 
narrow  belt  of  barren  sand,  which  leads  down  to  the  depressions 
mentioned  above. 

The  Kuruk-tagh  is  the  greatly  diuntegrated,  denuded  and  wasted 
relic  of  a  mountain  range  which  formerly  was  of  incomparably 
greater  magnitude.  In  the  west,  between  Baghrash-kol  and  the 
Tarim,  it  consists  of  two,  |x>ssibly  of  three,  principal  ranges,  which, 
although  broken  in  continuity,  run  generally  parallel  to  one  another, 
and  embrace  between  them  numerous  minor  chains  of  heights. 
These  minor  ranges,  together  with  th'e  principal  ranges,  divide  the 
region  into  a  series  of  long,  narrow  valleys,  mostlyr  parallel  to  one 
another  and  to  the  enclosing  mountain  chains,  which  descend  like 
terraced  steps,  on  the  one  side  towards  the  depression  of  Lukchun 
and  on  the  other  towards  the  desert  of  Lop.  In  many  cases  these 
latitudinal  valleys  are  barred  transversely  by  ridges  or  spurs, 
generally  elevations  en  nuus«  of  the  bottom  of  the  valley.  Where 
such  elevations  exist,  there  is  generally  found,  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
transverse  ridge,  a  cauldron-uiaped  depression,  which  some  time 
or  other  has  been  the  bottom  of  a  former  lake,  but  is  now  nearly  a 
dry  salt-basin.  The  surface  configuration  is  in  fact  markedly 
similar  to  that  which  occurs  in  the  inter-mont  latitudinal  valleys  of 
the  Kuen-lun.  The  hydrography  of  the  Ghashiun-Gobi  ana  the 
Kuruk-tagh  is  determined  by  these  cheouered  arrangements  of  the 
latitudinal  valleys.  Most  of  the  principal  streams,  instead  of  flowing 
straight  down  these  valleys,  cross  them  diagonally  and  only  turn 
west  after  they  have  cut  their  way  through  one  or  more  of  the  trans- 
verse barrier  ranges.^  To  the  highest  range  on  the  great  swelling 
Grum-Grzhimailo  gives  the  name  of  Tuge-tau,  its  altitude  being 
9000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea  and  some  4000  ft.  above  the  crown 
of  the  swelling  itself.  This  range  he  considers  to  belong  to  the  Chol- 
tagh  system,  whereas  Sven  Hedin  would  assign  it  to  the  Kuruk-tagh. 
This  last,  which  is  pretty  certainly  identical  with  the  range  of  Khara- 
tclwn-ula  (also  known  as  the  iCyzyl-sanghir,  Sinir,  and  Singhcr 
Mountains),  that  overiooks  the  southern  snore  of  the  Baghrash-lcol, 
though  parted  from  it  by  the  drift-sand  desert  of  Ak-bel-kura  (White 
Pass  Sands),  has  at  first  a  W.N.W.  to  E.S.E.- strike,  but  it  gradually 
curves  round  like  a  scimitar  towards  the  E.N.E.  and  at  the  same 
time  gradually  decreases  in  elevation.  I n  91  *  E.,  while  the  princi(>al 
range  of  the  Kuruk-tagh  system  wheels  to  the  E.N.E.,  four  of  its 
subsidiary  ranges  terminate,  or  rather  die  away  somewhat  suddenly, 
on  the  bnnk  of  a  long  narrow  depression  (in  which  Sven  Hedin  sees 
a  N.E.  bay  of  the  former  great  Central  Asian  lake  of  Lop-nor),  having 
over  against  them  the  echeloned  terminals  of  similar  subordinate 
ranges  of  the  Pe-shan  (Bcy-san)  system  (see  below).  The  Kuruk-tagh 
is  throughout  a  relatively  low,  but  almost  completely  barren  range, 
being  entirely  destitute  of  animal  life,  save  for  hares,  antelopes  and 
wild  camels,  which  frccjuent  its  few  small,  widely  scattered  oases. 
The  vegetation,  which  is  confinied  to  these  same  relatively  favoured 
spots,  is  of  the  scantiest  and  is  mainly  confined  to  bushes  of  saxaul 
^mdnuis  Ammodendron),  reeds  {kami^h),  tamarisks,  poplars, 
Kalidium  and  Ephedra, 

Desert  of  £«^.— This  section  of  the  Gobi  extends  south-eastward 
from  the  foot  of  the  Kuruk-tagh  as  far  as  the  present  terminal  basin 
of  the  Tarim,  namely  Kara-kosnun  (Przhevalsky's Lop-nor), and  ban 
almost  perfectly  horizontal  expanse,  for,  while  the  Baghrash-kol 
in  the  ^^.  lies  at  an  altitude  of  2940  ft.,  the  Kara-koshun,  over  200  m. 

«  a.  G.  E.  Gnim-Grihimailo,  Opisaniye  I*uteskestv%ya,  I  381-417. 


to  t6e  S.,  is  only  300  ft.  lower.  The  characteristic  features  of  thi$ 
almost  dead  level  or  but  slightly  undulating  region  are:  (i.)  broad, 
unbroken  expanses  of  clay  intermingled  with  sand,  the  clay  (sheri 
being  indurated  and  saliferous  and  often  arranged  in  terraces;  (ti.| 
hard,  level,  clay  expanses,  more  or  less  thickly  sprinkled  with  fine 
gravel  (say),  the  day  being  mostly  of  a  yellow  or  yellow-grey  cohmr ; 
(iii.)  benches,  flattened  ndges  and  tabular  masses  of  conaolidatea 
clay  (Jardangs),  arranged  in  distinctly  defined  laminae,  three  stories 
being  sometimes  superimposed  one  upon  the  other,  and  their  vcitical 
faces  being  abraded,  and  often  undercat,  by  the  wind,  while  the 
formations  themselves  are  separated  by  parallel  gullies  or  wind« 
furrows,  6  to  20  ft.  deep,  all  sculptured  in  the  direction  of  the  pre^ 
vailing  wind,  that  is,  from  N.E.  to  S.\V. ;  and  (iv.)  the  absence  of 
drift-sand  and  sand-dunes,  except  in  the  south,  towards  the  out« 
lying  foothills  of  the  Astin-tagh.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  character* 
istic,  after  the  jardangs  or  cby  terraces,  is  the  fact  that  the  whole 
of  this  region  Is  not  only  swept  bare  of  sand  by  the  terrific  sand- 
storms (burans)  of  the  spring  months,  the  narticlM  of  sand  with 
which  the  wind  is  laden*  acting  like  a  sano-blast,  but  the  actual 
substantive  materials  of  the  desert  itself  are  abraded,  filed,  eroded 
and  carried  bodily  away  into  the  network  of  Likes  in  which  the  TariiH 
loses  itself,  or  are  even  blown  across  the  lower,  constantly  shifting 
watercourses  of  that  river  and  deposited  on  or  among  the  gigantic 
dunes  which  choke  the  eastern  end  of  the  desert  of  Takla-makan. 
Numerous  indications,  such  as  salt-stained  depressions  of  a  lacustrine 
appearance,  traces  of  former  lacustrine  shore-lines,  more  or  less 
t^rallcl  and  concentric,  the  presence  in  places  of  vast  quantities  of 
fresh-water  mollusc  shells  (species  of  Lxmnaea  and  Planorifis),  the 
existence  of  belts  of  dead  poplars,  patches  of  dead  tamarisks  an<S 
extensive  beds  of  withered  reeds,  all  these  always  on  top  of  the 
jardangs,  never  in  the  wind-etched  furrows,  together  with  a  few 
scrubby  poplara  and  Elaeagnus,  still  struggling  bard  not  to  die.  the 
presence  of  ripple  marks  of  aqueous  origin  on  the  leeward  sides  cm  the 
clay  terraces  and  in  other  wind -sheltered  situations,  all  testify  to 
the  former  existence  in  this  region  of  more  or  less  extensive  fresh- 
water lakes,  now  of  course  completely  desiccated.  During  the 
prevalence  of  the  spring  storms  the  atmosphere  that  ovcraangs 
the  immediate  surface  of  the  desert  u  so  heavily  charged  with  dust 
as  to  be  a  veritable  pall  of  desolation.  Except  for  the  wild  camel 
which  frequents  the  reed  oases  on  the  N.  edge  of  the  desert,  animal 
life  is  even  less  abundant  than  in  the  Ghashiun-Gobi,  and  the  same 
is  true  as  regards  the  vegetation. 

Desert  of  Rum-tagk. — ^This  section  lies  E.S.E.  of  the  desert  <A  Lop,, 
on  the  other  side  ofthe  Kara-koshun  and  its  more  or  less  temporary 
continuations,  and  reaches  north-eastwards  as  far  as  the  vicinity  of 
the  town  of  Sa<how  and  the  lake  of  Kara-nor  or  Kala-chi.  Its 
southern  rim  is  marked  by  a  labyrinth  of  hills,  dotted  in  groups  and 
irregular  dusters,  but  evidently  survivals  of  two  parallel  ranges 
which  are  now  worn  down  as  it  were  to  mere  fragments  of  their 
former  skeletal  structure.  Between  these  and  the  Astin-tagh  inters 
venes  a  broad  latitudinal  valley,  seamed  with  watercourses  which 
come  down  from  the  foothills  of  the  Astin-tagh  and  beside  which 
scrubby  desert  plants^  of  the  usual  character  maintain  a  precarious 
existence,  water  reaching  them  in  some  instances  at  intervals  of  years 
only.  This  part  of  the  desert  has  a  general  slope  N.W.  towards  the 
relative  depre^ion  of  the  Kara-koshun.  A  noticeable  feature  of  the 
Kum-tagh  is  the  presence  of  large  accumulations  of  drift-sand, 
especially  along  the  foot  of  the  crumbling  desert  ranges,  where  it 
rises  into  duqes  sometimes  as  much  as  250  ft.  in  height  and  climbs 
half-way  up  the  flanks  of  ranges  themselves.  The  prevailing  winds 
in  this  region  would  appear  to  blow  from  the  W.  and  N.W.  during 
the  summer,  winter  and  autumn,  though  in  spring,  when  they  certainly 
are  more  violent,  they  no  doubt  come  from  the  N.E.,  as  in  the  desert 
of  Lop.  Anyway,  the  arrangement  of  the  sand  here  *'  agrees  per- 
fectly with  the  law  laid  down  by  Potanin,  that  in  the  ba«ns  of  Central 
Asia  the  sand  is  heaped  up  in  greater  mass  on  the  south,  all  along 
the  bordering  mountain  ranges  where  the  floor  of  the  depressions 
lies  at  the  highest  level."  *■  The  country  to  the  north  (A  the  desert 
ranges  is  thus  summarily  described  by  Sven  Hedin  :*  "  The  first  cone 
of  drift-sand  is  succeeded  by  a  region  which  exhibits  proofs  of  wind- 
modelling  on  an  extraordinarily  energetic  and  well  developed  scale, 
the  results  corresponding  to  the  jardann  and  the  wind-eradea 
gullies  of  the  desert  of  Lop.  Both  sets  of  phenomena  lie  parallel 
to  one  another;  from  this  we  may  infer  that  the  winds  which  prevail 
in  the  two  deserts  are  the  same.  Next  comes,  sharply  demarcated 
from  the  zone  iust  described,  a  more  or  less  thin  Icamish  steppe 
growing  on  levcf  ground ;  and  this  in  turn  u  followed  by  another  very 

narrow  belt  of  sand,  immediately  south  of  Achik-kuduk. 

Finally  in  the  extreme  north  we  nave  the  characteristic  and  sharply 
defined  belt  of  kambh  steppe,  stretching  froih  E.N.E.  to  W.S.W. 
and  bounded  on  N.  and  S.  by  high,  sharp<ut  clay  terraces.  .... 
At  the  points  where  we  measurea  them  tne  northern  terrace  was 
113  ft.  high  and  the  southern  85}  ft.  .  . .  Both  terraces  belong  to 
the  same  level,  and  would  appear  to  correspond  to  the  shore  lines  of  a 
big  bay  of  the  last  surviving  remnant  of  the  Central  Asian  Mediter- 
ranean. At  the^int  where  I  crossed  it  the  depression  was  6  to7  m. 
wide,  and  thus  resembled  a  flat  valley  or  immense  river-bed." 

*  Quoted  in  Sven  Hedin,  Scientific  ResnUst  iL  499. 
>  op.  ciL  ii.  499-500. 


GOBI 


167 


Dtsert  efHami  and  tiu  Pe-^hatt  Mounlams. — ^Thit  nction  occupies 
the  apace  between  the  Tian-shan  •yscem  on  the  N.  and  the  Nan-dian 
Mountaina  on  the  S.,  and  is  connected  on  the  W.  with  the  desert  of 
Lx^  The  classic  account  is  that  of  Przhevalskv,  who  crossed  the 
desert  from  Hand  (or  Khami)  to  Su-chow  (not  Sa-cnow)  in  the  summer 
of  1879.  In  the  middle  this  desert  rises  into  a  vast  swelling,  80  m. 
across,  whkh  reaches  an  average  elevation  of  5000  ft.  and  a  maximum 
elevation  of  5500  ft.  On  its  northern  and  southern  borders  it  is 
overtopped  bj^  two  divisions  of  the  Bey-san  (■-  Pe-shan)  Mountains, 
neitber  of  which  attains  any  great  relative  altitude.  Between  the 
northern  division  and  the  Karlyk-tagh  range  or  E.  Tian-shan 
intervenes  a  somewhat  undulating  barren  plain,  3900  ft.  in  altitude 
and  40  m.  from  N.  to  S.,  sloping  downwards  from  both  N.  and  S. 
towards  the  middle,  where  lies  the  oasis  of  Hami  (2800  ft.).  Similarly 
from  the  southern  division  of  the  Bey-san  a  second  plain  slopes  down 
for  1000  ft.  to  the  valley  of  the  river  Bulunzir  or  Su-lai-ho,  which 
comes  out  of  China,  from  the  south  side  of  the  Great  Wall,  and  finally 
empties  itself  into  the  lake  of  Kalachi  or  Kara-nor.  From  the 
Bolunzir  the  same  plain  continues  southwards  at  a  level  of  A700  ft. 
to  the  foot  of  the  Nan-shan  Mountainsi  The  total  breadth  of  the 
desert  from  N.  to  Sw  is  here  200  m.  Its  general  character  is  that  of  an 
anduhting  plain,  dotted  over  with  occasional  elevations  of  clay, 
which  present  the  appearance  of  walls,  table-topped  mounds  ana 
broken  towers  Uardangs)^  the  surface  of  the  plain  being  strewn  with 
gravel  and  absolutely  destitute  of  vegetation.  Generallv  speaking, 
the  Bey-san  ranges  consist  of  isolated  hills  or  groups  of  nills,  of  low 
relative  elevatbn  (100  to  300  ft.),  scattered  without  any  regard  to 
order  over  the  arch  ol  the  swelling.  Thcv  nowhere  rise  into  wdl- 
dcfined  peaks.  Their  axis  runs  from  W.SAV.  to  E.N.E.  But  whereas 
Przhevalsky  and  Sven  Hcdin  consider  them  to  be  a  continuation  of 
the  Kuruk-tagh,  though  the  latter  regards  them  as  separated  from 
the  Kuruk-tagh  by  a  well-marked  bay  of  the  former  Central  Auan 
Mediterranean  (Lop-nor),  Futterer  declares  they  are  a  continuation 
of  the  Chol-tagh.  The  swelling  or  undulating  plain  between  these 
two  ranges  01  the  Bey-san  measures  about  70  m.  across  and  is 
tnverHd  by  several  stretches  of  high  ground  having  generally  an 
east-west  direction.^  Futterer,  who  crossed  the  same  desert  twenty 
years  after  Przhevalsky,  agrees  generally  in  his  description  of  it, 
Dut  sQoplements  the  account  of  the  latter  explorer  with  several 
particulars.  He  observes  that  the  ranges  in  this  part  of  the  Gobi 
are  much  worn  down  and  wasted,  like  the  Kuruk-tagh  farther  west 
and  the  tablelands  of  S.E.  Mongolia  farther  east,  throuffh  the  effects 
of  century-long  insolation,  wind  erosion,  great  and  sudden  changes 
of  temperature,  chemical  action  and  occasional  water  erosion. 
Vast  areas  towairds  the  N.  consist  of  expanses  of  gently  sloping  (at 
a  mean  slope  of  3*)  clay,  intermingled  with  gravel.  He  pomts  out 
also  that  the  greatest  accumulations  of  sand  and  other  products  of 
aerial  denudation  do  not  occur  in  the  deepest  parts  of  the  depressions 
but  at  the  outlets  of  the  valteys  and  glcns,  and  along  the  foot  of  the 
ranges  which  flank  the  depressions  on  the  S.  Wherever  water  has 
been,  desert  scrub  is  found,  such  as  tamarisks,  Dodartia  orientalis, 
ApioPkytlum  ptbicum,  CaUigonivm  nnnex,  and  Lycium  ruthenicum, 
bat  all  with  their  roots  elevated  on  little  mounds  in  the  same  way 
as  the  tamarisks  grow  in  the  Takla-makan  and  desert  of  Lop. 

Farther  east,  towards  central  Mongolia,  the  relations,  says  Futterer, 
are  the  same  as  along  the  Hami-Su-chow  route,  except  that  the  ranges 
have  lower  and  broader  crests,  and  the  detached  hills  are  more 
denuded  and  more  disintegrated.  Between  the  ranges  occur  broad, 
flat,  cauldron-shaped  valleys  and  basins,  almost  destitute  of  life 
except  for  a  few  naies  and  a  few  birds,  such  as  the  crow  and  the 
pheasant,  and  with  scanty  vegetation,  but  no  great  accumulations 
of  drift-sand.  The  rocks  are  severely  weathered  on  the  surface,  a 
thkk  layer  of  the  coarser  products  of  cienudation  covers  the  flat  parts 
and  climbs  a  good  way  up  the  flanks  of  the  mountain  ranges,  but  all 
the  finer  material,  sand  and  clay  has  been  blown  away  partly  S.E.  into 
Ordoa,  partly  into  the  Chinese  provinces  of  Shen-si  anci  Shan-si,  where 
it  is  cfeposited  as  loess,  and  partly  W.,  where  it  chokes  all  the  southern 
parts  «M  the  basin  of  the  Tarim.  In  these  central  parts  of  the  Gobi, 
as  indeed  in  all  other  parts  except  the  desert  of  Lop  and  Ordos,  the 
prevaiiing  winds  blow  from  the  W.  and  N.W.  These  winds  are  warm 
m  summer,  and  it  is  they  which  in  the  desert  of  Hami  bring  the  fierce 
aaadstorms  or  burans.  The  wind  docs  blow  also  from  the  N.E.,  but 
it  is  then  cold  and  often  brings  snow,  though  it  speedily  clears  the 
air  of  the  everlasting  dust  haze.  In  summer  great  heat  is  encountered 
hen  on  the  relatively  low  (3000-4600  ft),  gravelly  expanses  (xay) 
on  the  N.  and  on  those  of  the  S.  (4000-5000  ft.) ;  but  on  the  higher 
swelling  between,  which  in  the  Pe-shan  ranges  ascends  to  7550  ft, 
there  b  great  cold  even  in  summer,  and  a  wide  daily  range  of  tempera- 
ture. Above  the  broad  and  deep  accumulations  of  the  products  of 
draudation  which  haVc  been  brought  down  by  the  rivers  from  the 
Tko-shaa  ranges  (e.g.  the  Kartyk-tagh)  on  the  N.  and  from  the  Nan- 
sban  OQ  the  S.,  and  have  filled  up  the  cauldron-shaped  valleys,  there 
rises  a  broad  swelling,  built  up  of  granitic  rocks,  crystalline  schists 
and  metamorphosed -sedimentary  rocks  of  both  ArcHaic  and  Palaeo- 
aoic  age.  all  greatly  foMed  ana  tilted  up,  and  shot  through  with 
wtnenMis  imiptloQB  of  vokanic  rocks,  predominantly  porphyritic 
and  dioritic    On  this  swelling  rise  four  more  or  less  parallel  mountain 

^^■^^        I     11         ■    II      ^^^l^^^i^^^^BiM*^—^—— ^— ^^B^M^^P^^^Ii^W^— ^.^^^^^^^M^l^^— ^^^^»^^^^^"^^^— 

■  Prdlevalsky,  /s  Zayaua  chern    Hami  v  Tibet  na  Verthovya 


ranges  of  the  Pe-shan  system,  together  with  a  fifth  chain  of  hills 
farther  S..  all  having  a  strike  from  W.N.W.  to  E.N.E.  The  range 
farthest  N.  rises  to  looo  ft.  above  the  desert  and  7550  ft  above 
sea-lcvel,  the  next  two  ranges  reach  1300  ft  above  the  general  level 
of  the  desert,  ami  the  range  farthest  south  1^7^  ft  or  an  absolute 
altitude  of  7200  ft,  while  the  fifth  chain  of  hills  does  not  esaoeed 
650  ft  in  relative  elevation.  All  these  ranges  decrease  in  altitude 
from  W.  to  E.  In  the  depressions  which  border  the  Pe-dian  swelling 
on  N.  and  S.  arc  found  the  sedimentary  deposits  of  the  Tertiary 
sea  of  the  Han-hai;  but  no  traces  of  thoae  deposits  have  been  found 
on  the  swelling  itself  at  altitudes  of  5600  to  5700  ft  Hence,  Futterer 
infers,  in  recent  geological  times  no  large  sea  has  occupied  the  central 
part  of  the  Gobi.  Beyond  an  occasional  visit  from  a  oand  of  nomad 
Mongols,  this  region  of  the  Pe-shan  swelling  is  entirely  uninhabited.' 
And  yet  it  was  from  this  very  region,  avers  G.  £.  Grum-Grzhimailo. 
that  the  Yue-chi,  a  nomad  race  akin  to  the  Tibetans,  proceeded 
when,  towards  the  middle  of  the  2nd  century  B.C.,  they  moved 
westwards  and  settled  near  Lake  Issyk-kul;  and  from  here  proceeded 
also  the  Shanshani.  or  people  who  some  two  thousand  years  ago 
founded  the  state  of  Shanshan  or  LoQ-laqf,  ruins  of  the  chief  town  of 
which  Sven  Hedin  discovered  in  the  desert  of  Lop  in  1901.  Here, 
says  the  Russian  explorer,  the  Huns  gathered  strength,  as  also  did 
the  Tukiu  (Turks)  in  the  6th  century,  and  the  U^hur  tribes  and  the 
rulers  of  the  Tangut  kingdom.  But  after  Jenghiz  Khan  in  the  12th 
century  drew  away  the  peoples  of  this  rcgbn,  and  im  others  came 
to  take  their  pbce,  the  country  went  out  of  cultivation  and  eventu- 
ally became  the  barren  desert  it  now  is.* 

Ata-shan. — ^Thu  division  of  the  great  desert,  known  also  as  the 
Hsi-tau  and  the  Little  Gobi,  fills  Uie  space  between'  the  great  N. 
loop  of  the  Hwang-ho  or  Yellow  river  on  the  E.,  the  Edzm-gol  on 
the  W.,and  the  Nan-shan  Mountains  on  the  S.  W.,  whereit  is  separated 
from  the  Chinese  province  of  Kan-suh  by  the  narrow  rocky  chain 
of  Lung-shan  (Ala-shan).  10,500  to  1 1,600  ft  in  altitude.  It  belongs 
to  the  middle  basin  of  the  three  great  depressions  into  which  Potanin 
divides  the  Gobi  as  a  whole.  "  Topographically,"  says  Przhevalsky, 
"  it  is  a  perfectly  level  plain,  which  in  all  probaDility  once  formed  the 
bed  of  a  ttuge  lake  or  inland  sea.'*  The  data  upon  which  he  bases  this 
conclusion  are  the  level  area  of  the  region  as  a  whole,  the  hard  saline 
cby  and  the  sand-strewn  surface,  and  lastly  the  salt  hikes  which 
occupy  its  lowest  parts.  For  hundreds  of  miles  there  is  nothing  to  be 
seen  but  bare  sands;  in  some  places  they  continue  so  -far  without 
a  break  that  the  Mongols  call  them  Tyngheri  (t.e.  sky).  These  vast 
expanses  are  absolutely  waterless,  nor  do  any  oases  relieve  the  un- 
broken stretches  of  jrellow  sand  which  alternate  with  equally  vast 
areas  of  saline  day  or,  nearer  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  with  barren 
shingle.  Although  on  the  whole  a  level  country  with  a  general 
altitude  of  3300  to  5000  ft;  this  section,  like  most  other  parU  of  the 
Gobi,  b  crowned  by  a  chequered  network  of  hills  and  broken  ranges 
going  up  1000  ft  higher.  The  vegetation  b  confined  to  a  rew 
varieties  of  bushes  and  a  dozen  kinds  of  grasses,  the  most  conspicuous 
being  saxaul  and  AmobkyUum  gobicum*  (a  grass).  The  othere 
include  prickly  convolvulus,  field  wormwood,  acacia, /««/«  ammo- 
pkila,  Sophora  flavescetu,  Conwlvulus  Ammanit  Peganum  and 
Astragalus,  but  all  dwarfed,  deformed  and  starved.  The  fauna 
consbts  01  little  else  except  antelopes,  the  wolf,  fox,  hare,  hedge- 
hog, marten,  numerous  lizards  and  a  few  birds,  e.g.  the  sand- 
grouse,  lark,  stonechat,  sparrow,  crane,  Podous  Hendersoni,  Otocorys 
albigtda  and  CaUrita  crisUtta.*  The  only  human  inhabitants  of 
Ala-shan  are  the  Torgod  Mongols. 

Ordos, — East  of  the  desert  of  Ala-shan,  and  only  separated  from 
it  by  the  Hwang-ho,  is  the  desert  of  Ordos  or  Ho-tau,  "a  level 
steppe,  jpartiy  bordered  by  low  hills.  The  soil  is  altogether  sandy 
or  a  muture  of  clay  and  sand,  ill  adapted  for  agriculture.  The 
absolute  height  of  this  country  b  between  3000  and  3500  ft,  so  that 
Ordos  forms  an  intermediate  step  in  the  descent  to  China  from  the 
Gobi,  separated  from  the  latter  by  the  mountain  ranges  lying  on 
the  N.  and  E.  of  the  Hwang-ho  or  Yellow  river."*  Towards  the 
south  Ordos  rises  to  an  altitude  of  over  5000  ft,  and  in  the  W.,  along 
the  right  bank  of  the  Hwang-ho,  the  Arbus  or  Arbiso  Mountains, 
which  overtop  the  steppe  by  some  300D  ft,  serve  to  link  the  AJa^shan 
Mountains  with  the  In-shan.  The  northern  part  of  the  great  loop 
of  the  river  is  filled  with  the  sands  of  Kuzupchi,  a  succession  of  dunes, 
40  to  50  ft  high.  Amongst  them  in  scattered  patches  grow  the  shrub 
Hedysarum  and  the  trees  CaUigonium  Tragopyrtm  and  Pugionium 
comutum.  In  some  pbces  these  sand-dunes  approach  close  to  the 
great  river,  in  others  they  are  parted  from  it  by  a  belt  of  sand, 
intermingled  with  cby,  which  terminates  in  a  steep  escarpment, 
50  ft  and  in  some  localities  100  ft  above  the  river.  Thb  belt  is 
studded  with  little  mounds  (7  to  10  ft  high),  mostly  overgrown  with 
wormwood  (Artemisia  campestris)  and  the  Siberbn  pea-tree  (Caro* 
gana);  and  here  too  grows  one  of  the  most  characteristic  pbnts 
of  Ordos,  the  liquorice  root  (Clycyrrhita  uraUnsis).    Eventually 


*  Futterer,  Durch  Asien,  i.  pp.  206-211. 

'G.   E.   Grum-Grzhimailo,   Opisanie  Puteshestriya  v  Sapadniy 
Kitai,  iu  p.  127. 

*  Its  seeds  are  pounded  by  the  Mongols  to  flour  and  mixed  with- 
their  tea. 

*  Pnhevalsky,  MoHifolia^Eng,  trans,  cd.  by  Sir  H.  Yule). 

*  Pnhevabky.  op.  c%l.  p.  183.  ' 


i68 


GOBI 


the  sand-dunes  cron  over  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Hwang-ho.  and 
are  threaded  by  the  beds  of  dry  watercourses,  while  the  level  spaces 
amongist  them  are  studded  with  little  mounds  (3  lo  6  ft.  high), 
on  which  grow  stunted  Niiraria  Scoberi  and  Zygopkytlum,  Ordos, 
which  was  anciently  known  as  Ho-nan  ("  the  country  south  of  the 
river  ")  and  still  farther  back  in  time  as  Ho-tau,  was  occupied  by  the 
Hiong>nu  in  the  ist  and  2nd  centuries  a.d.,  but  was  almost  de- 

Eopuhtcd  during  and  after  the  Dungan  revolt  of  1 869.  North  of  the 
ig  loop  of  the  Hwang-ho  Ordos  is  separated  from  the  central  Gobi 
by  a  succession  of  mountain'chains,  the  Kara-naryn-ubi,  the  Sheiten- 
uLa.  and  the  In-shan  Mountains,  which  link  on  to  the  south  end  of  the 
Great  Khingan  Mountains.  The  In-shan  Mountains,  which  stretch 
from  108*  to  lia*  E.,  have  a  wild  Alpine  character  and  are  dis- 
tinguished from  other  mountains  in  the  S.C  of  Mongolia  by  an 
abundance  of  both  water  and  vegetation.  In  one  of  their  constituent 
ranges,  the  bold  Munni-ula,  70  m.  long  and  nearly  20  m.  wide,  they 
attam  elevations  of  7500  to  8500  ft.,  and  have  steep  flanks,  slashed 
with  rugged  gorges  and  narrow  ^Icns.  Forests  begin  on  them  at 
5300  ft.  and  wild  flowers  grow  in  great  profusion  and  varietur  in 
summer,  though  with  a  striking  lack  01  brilliancy  in  colouring. 
In  this  same  tx>rder  range  there  is  also  a  much  greater  abundance 
and  variety  of  animal  life,  especially  amongst  the  avifauna. 

Eastern  Coin. — Here  the  surface  is  extremely  diversified,  although 
there  are  no  great  differences  in  vertical  elevation.  Between  Ursa 
(48*N.  and  lOT^E.)  and  the  little  lake  of  Iren-dubasu-nor  (ill  "^o'  E. 
and  45"  45'  N.)  the  surface  is  greatly  eroded,  and  consists  of  broad 
flat  depressions  and  basins  separated  by  groups  of  flat-topped 
mountains  of  lelatively  low  elevation  (500  to  600  ft.),  through 
which  archaic  rock»  crop  out  as  crags  and  isolated  rugged  masses. 
The  floors  of  the  depressions  lie  mostly  between  2900  and  3200  ft. 
above  sea-level.  Farther  south,  between  Iren-dubasu-nor  and  the 
Hwang-ho  comes  a  region  of  broad  tablelands  alternating  with 
flat  plains,  the  latter  ranging  at  altitudes  of  1300  to  3600  It.  and 
the  former  at  3500  to  4000  ft.  The  slopes  of  tne  plateaus  are  mure 
or  less  steep,  and  are  sometimes  penetrated  by  "  bays  "  of  the  low- 
lands.  As  the  border-range  of  the  Khingan  is  approached  the 
country  steadily  rises  up  to  ^500  ft.  and  then  to  5350  ft.  Here 
small  lakes  frequently  fill  the  depressions,  though  the  water  in  them 
is  eenerally  salt  or  brackish.  And  both  here,  and  for  200  m.  south 
of  Urga,  streams  are  frequent.and  grassgrowsmorcorlcssabundantly. 
There  is,  however,  through  all  the  central  parts,  until  the  bordering 
mountains  are  reached,  an  utter  absence  of  trees  and  shrubs.  Clay 
and  sand  are  the  predominant  formations,  the  watercourses,  especi- 
ally in  the  north,  oeing  frcqucntiv  excavated  6  to  8  ft.  deep,  and  in 
many  places  in  the  flat,  dry  valleys  or  depressions  farther  south 
beds  01  loess,  15  to  20  ft.  tnick.  are  exposed.  West  of  the  route 
from  Urga  to  Kalgan  the  country  presents  approximatd)^  the  same 
general  features,  except  that  the  mountains  are  not  so  irregularly 
scattered  in  groups  but  have  more  strongly  defined  strikes,  mostly 
E.  to  W.,  W.N.W:  to  E.S.E..  and  W.S.W.  to  E.N.E.  The  altitudes 
too  are  higher,  those  of  the  lowlands  ranging  from  3300  to  ^600  ft., 
and  those  of  the  ranges  from  650  to  1650  ft.  nigher,  though  in  a  few 
cases  they  reach  altitudes  of  8000  ft.  above  sea-level.  The  elevations 
do  not,  however,  as  a  rule  form  continuous  chains,  but  make  up  a 
congeries  of  short  ridges  and  groups  rising  from  a  common  base  and 
intersected  by  a  labyrinth  of  ravines,  gullies,  glens  and  basins. 
But  the  tablelands,  built  up  of  the  horizontal  xtd  deposits  of  the 
Han-hai  (Obruchcv's  Gobi  formation)  which  are  charactenstic  of 
the  southern  parts  of  eastern  Mongolia,  are  absent  here  or  occur 
only  in  one  locality,  near  the  Shara-muren  river,  and  are  then  greatly 
intersected  by  gullies  or  dry  watercourses.*  Here  there  is,  however, 
a  great  dearth  of  water,  no  streams,  no  lakes,  no  wells,  and  precipiu- 
tion  fails  but  seldom.  The  prevailing  winds  blow  from  the  W.  and 
N.W.  and  the  pall  of  dust  overhangs  the  country  as  in  the  lakla- 
makan  and  the  desert  of  Lop.  Characteristic  of  the  flora  are  wild 
garlic,  Kalidium  graciU,  wormwood,  saxaul,  Nilrarta  Scobert^ 
Cara^ana,  Ephedra,  saltwort  and  dtrtsun  (Lastagrostts  spUndens). 

This  great  desert  country  of  Gobi  is  crossed  by  several  trade  routes, 
some  of  which  have  been  in  use  for  thousands  of  years.  Among  the 
most  important  are  those  from  Kalgan  on  the  frontier  of  China  to 
Urga  (600  m.),  from  Su<how  (in  Kan-suh)  to  Hami  (420  m.)  from 
Hami  to  Peking  (1300  m.),  from  Kwci-hwa-cheng  (or  Kuku-khoto) 
to  Hami  and  oarkul,  and  from  Lanchow  (in  Kan-suh)  to  Hami. 

Cltmate. — The  climate  of  the  Gobi  is  one  of  great  extremes,  com- 
bined with  rapid  changes  of  temperature,  not  only  at  all  seasons  of 
the  vcar  but  even  within  24  hours  (as  much  as  S8*F.).  For  instance, 
at  Urva  (3770  ft.)  the  annual  mean  is  27•5^^.,  the  January  mean 
-15*7  ,  and  the  July  mean  63*5*,  the  extremes  being 


lOO'S*  and 
->44'S'';  while  at  bivantse  (3905  ft.)  the  annual  mean  is  37*,  the 
January  mean  2-3*.  and  the  July  mean  66*3*,  the  range  being  from 
a  recorded  maximum  of  93*  to  a  recorded  minimum  01-53"  Even 
in  southern  Mongolia  the  thermometer  goes  down  as  low  as  -27", 
and  in  Ala-shan  it  rises  day  after  day  in  July  as  high  as  90*.  Although 
the  south-east  monsoons  reach  the  S.E.  parts  of  the  Gobi,  the  air 
gmerally  throughout  this  region  is  characterised  by  extreme  dryness, 
especialfy  during  the  winter.  Hence  the  icy  sandstorms  and  snow- 
storms of  spring  and  early  summer.  The  rainfall  at  Ur^a  for  the  year 
amounts  to  only  9*7  in. 

*  Obruchev,  in  Imeslia  of  Russ.  C^eogr.  Soc.  (1895). 


Sands  of  the  Gobi  Deserts. — >^th  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  masses 
of  sand  out  of  which  the  dunes  and  chains  of  dunes  ibarkkams)  are 
built  up  in  the  several  deserts  of  the  Gobi,  opinions  differ.  While 
some  explorers  consider  them  to  be  the  product  of  marine,  or  at  any 
rate  lacustrine,  denudation  (the  Central  Asian  Mediterranean), 
others— and  this  is  not  only  the  more  reasonable  view,  but  it  is  the 
view  which  u  gaining  most  j^und— consider  that  they  are  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  aerial  denudation  of  the  border  ranges  («.f .  Nan-snan. 
Kariyk-tagh,  &c.^,  and  more  especially  of  the  tembly  wasted  ranges 
and  chains  of  hillsj  which,  like  the  gaunt  fragmenu  of  montane 
skeletal  remains,  he  Uttered  all  over  the  swelling  uplands  and 
tablelands  of  the  Gobi,  and  that  they  have  bc«n  transported  by  the 
prevailing  winds  to  the  localities  in  which  they  are  now  accumulated, 
the  winds  obeying  amilar  transportation  laws  to  the  rivers  and 
streams  which  carry  down  sediment  in  moister  parts  <^  the  world. 
Potanin  points  out '  that  "  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  regularity 
observable  in  the  distribution  of  the  sandy  deserts  over  the  vast 
uplands  of  central  Asia.  Two  agencies  are  represented  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  sands,  though  what  they^  really  are  is  not  quite  clear; 
and  of  these  two  agencies  one  prevails  in  the  north-west,  the  other 
in  the  south-east,  so  that  the  whole  of  Central  Asia  may  be  divided 
into  two  regions,  the  dividing  line  between  them  being  drawn  from 
north-east  to  south-west,  from  Uraa  via  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Tian-shan  to  the  city  of  Kashgar.  North-west  of  this  Une  the  sandy 
masses  are  broken  up  into  detached  and  disconnected  areas,  and  are 
almost  without  exception  heaped  up  around  the  lakes,  and  con- 
se9uently  in  the  lowest  parts  of  the  several  districts  in  which  they 
exist.  Moreover,  we  find  also  that  these  sandy  tracts  always  occur 
on  the  western  or  south-western  shores  of  the  fakes;  this  is  the  case 
with  the  lakes  of  Balkash,  Ala-kul.  Ebi-nor,  Ayar-nor  (or  TelU-nor). 
Orku-nor,  Zaisan-nor,  Ulungur-nor,  Ubsa-nor.  Durga-nor  and 
Kara-nor  lying  E.  of  Kirghix-nor.  South-east  of  the  Une  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  sand  is  quite  different.  In  that  part  of  Asia  we  have 
three  gigantic  but  disconnected  basins.  Thelirst,  lying  farthest  east, 
is  embraced  on  the  one  side  by  the  ramifications  of  the  jCentei  and 
Khangai  Mountains  and  on  the  other  by  the  In-shan  Mountains. 
The  second  or  middle  division  is  contained  between  the  Ahai  of  the 
Gobi  and  the  Ala-shan.  The  third  basin,  in  the  west.  Ues  bet^'cen 
the  Tian-shan  and  the  border  ranges  of  western  Tibet.  .  .  .'  The 
deepest  parts  of  each  of  these  three  depressions  oocur  near  their 
nonhem  borders;  towards  their  southern  boundaries  they  are  all 
alike  \ery  much  higher.  .  .  .  However,  the  sandy  deserts  are  not 
found  in  the  kiw-lying  tracts  but  occur  on  the  higher  uplands  which 
foot  the  southern  mountain  ranges,  the  In-shan  and  the  Nan-shan. 
Our  maps  show  an  immense  expanse  of  sand  south  of  the  Tarim 
in  the  western  basin;  beginning  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city 
of  Yarkent  ( Yarkund),  it  extends  eastwards  past  the  towns  of  Kbotan. 
Kenya  and  Cherchen  to  Sa-chow.  Along  this  stretch  there  is  only 
one  focality  which  forms  an  exception  to  the  rule  we  have  indkated. 
namely,  the  region  round  the  lake  of  Lop-nor.  In  the  middle  basin  the 
widest  expanse  of  sand  occurs  between  the  Edzin-gd  and  the  range 
of  Ala-shan.  On  the  south  it  extends  nearly  as  far  as  a  line  drawn 
through  the  towns  of  Lian<how.  Kan-chow  and  Kao-tai  at  the  foot 
of  the  Nan-shan;  but  on  the  south  it  does  not  approach  anything 
like  so  far  as  the  latitude  (42®  N.)  of  the  lake  of  Ghashiun-nor.  StiU 
farther  east  come  the  sandy  deserts  of  Ordos,  extending  south- 
eastward as  far  as  the  mountain  range  which  separates  ^tios 
from  t he  (Chinese)  provinces  of  Shan-si  and  Shen-si.  In  the  eastern 
basin  drift-sand  is  encountered  between  the  district  of  Ude  in  the 
nurth  (4^*  30'  N.)  and  the  foot  of  the  In-shan  in  the  south."  ]n 
two  regions,  if  not  in  three,  the  sands  have  overwhelmed  large 
tracts  of  once  cultivated  country,  and  even  buried  the  cities  m 
which  men  formerly  dwelt.  These  regions  are  the  southern  parts 
of  the  desert  of  Takla-makan  (where  Sven  Hedin  and  M.  A.  Stein  > 
have  discovered  the  ruins  under  the  desert  sands),  along  the  N. 
foot  of  the  Nan-shan.  and  probably  in  part  (other  agencies  having 
helped)  in  the  north  of  the  desert  of  Lop,  where  Sven  Hedin 
diiicovered  the  ruins  of  LoQ-Ian  and  of  other  towns  or  villages. 
For  these  vast  accumuhitions  of  sand  arc  consuntly  in  movement; 
though  the  movement  is  slow,  it  has  nevertheless  been  calcu- 
lated that  in  the  south  of  the  Takla-makan  the  sand-dunes  travel 
bodily  at  the  rate  of  roughly  something  Uke  160  ft.  in  the  course  of  a 
year.  The  shape  and  arraneement  of  the  individual  sand-dunes, 
and  of  the  barkhans,  generally  indicate  from  which  direction  the 
predominant  winds  blow.  On  the  windward  side  of  the  dune  the 
slope  b  long  and  gentle,  while  the  leeward  side  is  steep  and  in  outline 
cuncave  Uke  a  horse-shoe.  The  dunes  vary  in  height  from  30  up  to 
300  ft.,  and  in  some  places  mount  as  it  were  upon  one  another's 
shoulders,  and  in  some  localities  it  is  even  said  that  a  third  tier  is 
sometimes  superimposed. 

AuTUORiTiBS.— See  N.  M.  Przhevalsky.  J/otifofsa.  Ote  TangiU 
Country,  Sfc.  (Eng.  trans,,  ed.  by  Sir  H.  Yule,  London.  1876),  and 
From  Kulja  across  Ike  Tian  Shan  to  Lob  Nor  (Eng.  trans,  by  Delroar 
Morgan.  London,  1879);  G.  N.  Potanin,  Tangntsko^Tibetskaya 
Okraiw  Kitaya  i  Cenlratnaya  Mongoliya,  1884-1866  (1893.  &c.): 
M.  V.  Pjevtsov.  Sketch  of  a  Journey  to  Monjolia  (in  Russian.  Omsk, 

'  In  Taniutsko-Tibetskaya  Okraina  Kitaya  i  Centrainaya  Uoth 
goliya,  \.  pp.  96,  &c. 
I      ■  See  Sand-buried  Cities  of  Kkotan  (London,  1902). 


GOBLET— GODALMING 


169 


18S3);  G.  E.  Cnim-CRhimano.  Opisamie  PMleskeslriya  v  Sapadniy 


CenUalmoy  Asiy,  1893-1895  •  {i^/oo^  &c.);  Roborovskyr  Trudy 
TOet^koi  Ekspaliisiy,  188^1890;  Sven  Hcdtn,  Scientific  FesuUs 
v[  a  Jottnuy  in  Central  Aiia,  i8w^igo2  (6  vob.,  190^1907); 
Futterer,  Dmek  Asien  (1901,  &c.):  K.  Boedanovich,  GeoCogtckesktya 
Jdedemaniya.  v  Vostocknom  Turkutane  and  Trudiy  Tibetskoy  Eksfe- 
diisiy,  1890-1800;  L.  von  Loczy,  Die  vnuenschajtlichen  O^gebnuse 
ier  Keiu  de$  Cr^en  Ssidunyi  t»  Ostasien,  1877-1880  (1883);  Ney 
Elias,  in  Joum.  Roy.  Ceog.  Soe.  (1875);  C.  W.  Campbell's  "journeys 
in  Mongolia,"  in  Geographical  JaurntU  (Nov.  1903) ;  Pocdnievym, 
iioneotia  and  the  Mongds  (in  Russian,  St  Pett^Suiv,  1807  &c.); 
Denikcr's  summary  of  Kozlov's  latest  journeys  In  La  Cwgrapkie 
(1901.  &C.} ;  F.  von  Richthofen,  China  (1877).  (J.  T.Bb.) 

GOBLET,  REN6  (1828-19^5),  French  politician,  was  bom  at 
Aire-sur-Ia-Lys,  in  the  Pas  de  Calais,  on  the  26th  of  November 
1828,  and  was  educated  for  the  law.  Under  the  Second  Empire, 
be  hdpcd  to  found  a  Liberal  journal,  Le  Frogrhs  de  la  Somtnef 
add  in  July  1871  was  sent  by  the  department  of  the  Somme  to 
the  National  AascmUy,  where,  he  took  his  place  on  the  extreme 
left.  He  failed  to  secure  election  in  1876,  but  next  year  was 
retunied  for  Amiens.  He  held  a  minor  government  office  in 
1879,  and  in  1882  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  the  Freydnet 
cabinet.  He  was  minister  of  education,  fine  aits  and  relii^on  in 
Henri  BrisBon's  first  cabinet  in  1885,  and  again  under  Freydnet 
in  x886,  when  he  greatly  increased  his  reputation  by  an  able 
defence  of  the  government's  education  proposals.  Meanwhile 
his  extreme  independence  and  excessive  candour  had  alienated 
him  from  many  of  his  party,  and  all  through  his  life  he  was 
frequently  in  conflict  with  his  political  aasodates,  from  Gambetta 
downwards.  On  the  fall  of  the  Freydnet  cabinet  in  December 
he  formed  a  cabinet  in  which  be  reserved  for  himself  the  portfolios 
of  the  interior  and  of  religion.  The  Goblet  cabinet  was  unpopular 
from  the  outset,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  anybody  ooiild 
be  found  to  accept  the  ministry  of  fordgn  a£fairs,  which  was 
finally  given  to  M.  Flourens.  Then  came  iwJiat  is  known  as  the 
Schnacbde  inddent,  the  arrest  on  the  German  frontier  of  a 
French  official  named  Schnaebele,  which  caused  immense  ^cdte- 
ment  in  France.  For  some  days  Goblet  took  no  definite  decision, 
bat  left  Fkmrens,  who  stood  for  peace,  to  fight  it  out  with 
General  Boulangcr,  then  minister  of  war,  who  was  for  the 
despatch  of  an  ^tlmatum.  Although  he  finally  intervened  on 
the  side  of  Flourens,  and  peace  was  preserved,  his  weakness  in. 
face  of  the  Boulangist  propaganda  became  a  national  danger. 
Defeated  on  the  budget  in  May  1887,  his  government  resigned; 
but  he  returned  to  office  next  year  as  fordgn  minister  in  the 
radical  administration  of  Charles  Floquet.  He  was  defeated  at 
the  polls  by  a  Boulanpst  candidate  in  1889,  and  sat  in  the  senate 
from  1891  to  1893,  when  he  returned  to  the  popular  chamber. 
In  association  with  MM.  E.  Lockroy,  Ferdinand  Sarrien  and 
P.  L.  Peytral  he  drew  up  a  republican  programme  which  they 
put  fofward  in  the  Peiile  RipiMique  fran^aise.  At  the  dections 
of  1898  he  was  defeated,  and  thencdorwaxd  took  little  part  in 
public  affairs.    He  died  in  Paris  on  the  X3th  of  September 

190s- 
GOBLET, .  a'  large  type  of  drinldng-vessd,  particularly  one 

shaped  like  a  cup,  without  handles,  and  mounted  on  a  shank 
with  a  foot.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  O.  Fr.  gobdetf  diminu- 
tive of  gobelf  gobeau,  which  Skeat  takes  to  be  formed  from  Low 
Lat.  eupdlus,  cup,  diminutive  of  cupa^  tub,  cask  (see  Drinking- 
Vcsscu). 

GOBY.  The  gobies  {Gchius)  are  small  fishes  readily  recognixed 
by  their  ventrals  ^the  fins  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  chest)  bdnft 
united  into  one  fin,  forming  a  suctorial  disk,  by  which  these  fishes 
are  enaMed  to  attach  themsdves  in  every  possible  position  to  a 
rock  or  other  firm  substances.  They  are  essentially  coast-fishcs, 
Inhafaiting  nearly  all  seas,  but  disappearing  tdwards  the  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  Oceans.  Many  entff,  or  live  exdusivdy  in,  such 
fresh  waten  as  are  at  no  great  distance  from  the  sea.  Nearly  500 
iifferent  kinds  are  known.  The  largest  Britbh  spedes,  Gobius 
^pil^t  occurring  in  the  rock-pools  of  Cornwall,  measures  10 
ia.  CoHms  akocki,  from  brackish  and  fresh  waters  of  Lower 
Bcsfd,  Is  one  of  the  very  smallest  of  fishes,  not  measuring  over 


16  millimetres  (  «>  7  linds).  Tlie  males  are  usually  more  brilliantly 
coloured  than  the  females,  and  guard  the  eggs,  which  are  often 
placed  in  a  sort  of  nest  made  of  the  shdl  of  some  bivalve  or  of  the 
carapace  of  a  crab^  with  the  oonveidty  turned  upwards  and 


Fio.  l.—Ccbius  lentiginmus,  Fic.  a. — ^United 

Ventrals  of  Goby. 

covered  with  sand,  the  egg»  .being  stuck  to  the  inner  surface  of 
this  foof . 

Close  allies  of  the  gobies  are  the  waQdng  fish  or  jumping  fish 
(Periophlkalmus),  ol  which  various  spedes  are  found  in  great 


Pig.  y.—P€Hophthalmus  kodreuidi, 

numbers  on  the  mud  flats  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  in  the  tropics," 
skipping  about  by  means  of  the  muscular,  scaly  base  of  their 
pectoral  fins,  with  the  head  raised  and  bear^  a  pair  of  strongly* 
projecting  versatile  eyes  dose  together. 

OOCH,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  Rhine  province,  on 
the  Niers,  8  m.  S.  of  Cleves  at  the  junction  of  the  railways  Cologde- 
Zevcnaar  and  Boxtel-WeseL  Pop.  (1905)  10,232.  It  hu  a 
Protestant  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church  and  manufactures  of 
brushes,  plush  goods,  cigars  and  margarine.  In  the  middle  ages 
it  was  the  seat  of  a  krge  trade  in  linen.  Goch  became  a  town  in 
1 231  and  bdonged  to  the  dukes  of  Gdderland  and  later  to  the. 
dukes  of  Cleves. 

GOD,  the  common  Teutonic  word  for  a  personal  object  of 
rdlgious  worship.  It  is  thus,  like  the  Gr.  Ae6i  and  Lat.  deus, 
applied  to  all  those  superhuman  beings  of  the  heathen  mythologies 
who  exerdse  pow^  over  nature  and  man  and  are  often  identified 
with  some  particular  sphere  of  activity;  and  also  to  the  visible 
material  objects,  whether  an  image  of  the  supernatural  bdng  or  a 
tree,  pillar,  &c.  used  as  a  symbol,  an  idol.  The  word  "  god,"  on 
the  conversion  of  the  Teutonic  races  to  Christianity,  was 
adopted  as  the  name  of  the  one  Supreme  Bdng,  the  Creator  of  the 
universe,  and  of  the  Persons  of  the  Trinity.  The  New  English 
Dictionary  points  out  that  whereas  the  old  Teutonic  type  of  the 
word  is  neuter,  corresponding  to  the  Latin  mifNtn,  in  the  Christian 
applications  it  becomes  masculine,  and  that  even  where  the 
earlier  neuter  form  is  still  kept,  as  in  Gothic  and  Old  Norwegian, 
the  construction  is  masculine.  Popular  etymology  has  connected 
the  word  with  "  good  **\  this  is  exemplified  by  the  corruption  of 
"  God  be  with  you  "  into  "  good-bye."  "  God  "  is  a  word 
commoA  to  all  Teutonic  languages.  In  Gothic  it  is  Guth\  Dutch 
has  the  same  form  as  English;  Danish  and  Swedish  have  Gvd, 
German  GoU.  According  to  the  New  English  Dictionary,  the' 
original  may  be  found  in  two  Arjran  rooU,  both  of  the  form  gheu, 
one  of  which  means  "  to  invoke,"  the  other  "  to  pour  "  (d.  Gr. 
xW);  the  last  is  used  of  satiifidal  offerings.  The  word  would 
thus  mean  the  object  dther  of  religious  invocation  or  of  rdlgious 
worship  by  sacrifice.  It  has  been  also  suggested  Uiat  the  word 
might  mean  a  "  molten  image  "  from  the  sense  of  "  pour/' 

See  Rblicion;  Hbbrbw  Rslicion;  Theism,  &c. 

GODAUilNG.  a  market-town  and  munidpal  borough  in  the 
Guildford  parliamentary  division  of  Surrey,  En^^and,  34  m.  S. W. 
of  London  by  the  London  &  South- Western  railway.  P<^.  (1901) 
8748.   It  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  W^» 


170 


GODARD— GODAVARI 


which  is  navigable  thence  to  the  Thames,  and  on  the  high  road 
between  London  and  Portsmouth.  Steep  hills,  finely  wooded, 
enclose  the  valley.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  church  of 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  a  cruciform  building  of  mixed  architecture, 
but.  prindpally  Early  English  and  Perpendicular;  the  town-hall, 
Victoria  hall,  and  market-house,  and  a  technical  institute  and 
school  of  science  and  art.  Charterhouse  School,  one  of  the 
prindpal  English  public  schools,  originally  founded  in  x6ii,  was 
.transferred  froni  Charterhouse  Square,  London,  to  Godalming  in 
1877.  It  stands  within  grounds  92  acres  in  extent,  half  a  mile 
north  of  Godalming,  and  consists  of  spacious  buildings  in  Gothic 
style,  with  a  chapel,  library  and  hall,  besides  boarding-houses, 
masters'  houses  and  sanatoria.  (See  Chastesbouse.)  Godalming 
has  manufactures  of  paper,  leather,  parchment  ^nd  hosiery,  and 
some  trade  in  com,  malt,  bark;  hoops  and  timber;  and  the 
Bargate  stoi)e,of  which  the  parish  church  is  built,  is  still  quarried. 
The  borough  is  under  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  x8  councillors. 
Area,  812  acres. 

Godalming  (Godelminge)  belonged  to  King  Alfred,  and  was  a 
royal' manor  at  the  time  of  Dom^day.  The  manor  belonged  to' 
the  see  of  Salisbury  in  the  middle  ages,  but  reverted  to  the  crown 
in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  Godalming  was  incorporated  by 
Elizabeth  in  1574,  when  the  borough  originated.  The  charter 
was  confirmed  by  James  I.  in  1620,  and  a  fresh  charter  was 
granted  by  Charles  II.  in  1666.  The  borough  was  never  repre- 
sented in  pariiament.  The  bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1300  received  the 
grant  of  a  weekly  market  to  be  held  on  Mondays:  the  day  was 
altered  to  Wednesday  by  Elizabeth's  charter.  The  bi^op's 
grant  included  a  fair  at  the  feast  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul  (29th  of 
June).  Another  fair  at  Candlemas  (2nd  of  February)  was  granted 
by  Elizabeth.  The  market  is  still  held.  The  making  of  cloth, 
particulariy  Hampshire  kerseys,  was  the  staple  industry  of 
Godalming  in  the  middle  ages,  but  it  began  to  decay  eariy  in  the 
X7th  century  and  by  1850  was  practically  extinct.  As  in  other 
cases,  dyeing  was  subsidiary  to  the. doth  industry.  Tanning, 
introduced  in  the  ^  5th  century,  survives.  The  presents  manu- 
facture of  fleecy  hosiery  dates  from  the  end  of  the  i8th  century. 

eODARD,  BENJAMIN  LOUIS  PAUL  (1849-1895),  French 
composer,  was  .born  in  Paris,  on  the  ^8th  of  August  1849.  He 
studied  at  the  Conservatoire,  and  competed  for  the  Prix  de 
Rome  without  success  in  1866  and  1867.  He  began  by  publishing 
a  number  of  songs,  many  of  which  are  charming,  such  as  "  Je 
ne  veux  pas  d'autres  choses,"  "Ninon,"  "  Chanson  de  Florian," 
also  a  quantity  of  piano  pieces,  some  chamber  music,  induding 
several  violin  sonatas,  a  trio  for  piano  and  strings,  a  quartet  for 
strings,  a  violin  concerto  and  a  second  work  of  the  same  kind 
entitled  "  Concerto  Romantique."  Godard's  chance  arrived  in 
.the  year  1878,  when  with  his  dramatic  cantata,  Le  Tasse^  he  shared 
with  M.  Th6odore  Dubois  the  honour  of  winning  the  musical 
competition  instituted  by  the  city  of  Paris.  From  that  time 
until  his  death  Godard  composed  a  surprisingly  large  number  of 
works,  including  four  operas,  Pedro  <fe  Zalamea,  produced  at 
Antwerp  in  1884;  Jocelyrtt  given  in  Paris  at  the  Thi&tre  du 
Cb&teau  d'Eau,  in  1888;  DantCi  played  at  the  Op^  Comique 
two  years  later;  and  La  VivandUre,  left  unfinished  and  partly 
scored  by  another  hand.  This  last  work  was  heard  at  the  Opira 
Comique  in  1895,  and  has  been  played  in  England  by.  the  Carl 
Rosa  Opera  Company.  His  other  works  indude  the  "  Symphonic 
I£gendaire,"  "  Symphonie  gothique."  "  Diane "  and  various 
orchestral  works.  Godard's  productivity  was  enormous,  and  his 
compositions  are,  for  this  reason  only,  deddedly  unequal.  He 
was  at  his  best  in  works  of  smaller  dimensions,  and  has  left  many 
exquisite  songs.  Among  hb  more  ambitious  works  the  "  Sym- 
phonie I£gendaire  "  may  be  singled  out  as  being  one  of  the  most 
distinctive.  He  had  a  dedded  individuality,  and  his  premature 
death  at  Cannes  on  the  loth  of  January  1895  was  a  loss  to 
French  art. 

OODAVARI,  a  river  of  central  and  western  India.  It  flows 
across  the  Deccan  from  the  Western  to  the  Eastern  Ghats;  its 
total  length  is  900  m.,  the  estimated  area  of  its  drainage  basin, 
xia,aoo  sq.  m.  Its  traditional  source  is  on  the  side  of  a  hill 
behind  the  village  of  Trimbak  in  Nasik  district,  Bombay,  where 


the  water  runs  into  a  reservoir  from  the  Up*  of  an  image.  But 
according  to  popular  legend  it  proceeds  from  the  same  ultimate 
source  as  the  Ganges,  though  underground.  Its  course  is  gener- 
ally  south-easterly.  After  passing  through  Nasik  district,  it 
crosses  into  the  dominions  of  the  nizam  of  Hyderabad.  When 
it  again  strikes  British  territory  it  is  joined  by  the  Pranhita, 
with  its  tributaries  the  Wardha,  the  Penganga  and  Wainganga. 
For  some  distance  it  flows  between  the  nizam's  dominions  and 
the  Upper  Godavari  district,  and  receives  the  Indravati,  the  Tal 
and  the  Sabari.  The  stream  has  here  a  channel  varying  from 
X  to  a  m.  in  breadth,  occasionally  broken  by  alluvial  Islands. 
Paralld  to  the  river  stretdi  long  ranges  of  hills.  Bdow  the 
junction  of  the  Sabari  the  channd  begins  to  contract.  The 
flanking  hills  gradually  dose  in  on  both  sidei,  and  the  result  is 
a  magnificent  gorge  only  200  yds.  wide  through  whidi  the  water 
flows  into  the  plain  of  the  ddta,  about  60  m.  from  the  sea.  The 
head  of  the  delta  is  at  the  village  of  Dowlaishweram,  where  the 
main  stream  is  crossed  by  the  irrigation  anicut.  The  river  has 
seven  mouths,  the  largest  being  the  Gautami  Godavari.  The 
Godavari  is  regarded  as  peculiarly  sacred,  and  once  every  iwdve 
years  the  great  bathing  festiv;^  called  Puskkaram  is  held  on  its 
banks  at  Rajahmundry. 

The  upper  waters  of  the  Godavari  are  scarcdy  utilized  for 
irrigation,  but  the  entire  delta  has  been  turned  into  a  garden  of 
perennial  crops  by  means  of  the  anicut  at  Dowlai^weram, 
constructed  by  Sir  Arthur  Cotton,  from  which  three  main  caitals 
are  drawn  off.  The  river  channd  here  is  3I  m..  wide.  The  anicut 
is  a  substantial  mass  of  stone,  bedded  in  lime  cement,  about 
2^  m.  long,  X30  ft.  broad  at  the  ba,se,  and  X2  ft  high.  The 
stream  is  thus  pent  back  so  as  to  supply  a  volume  of  3000  cubic  ft. 
of  water  per  second  during  its  low  season,  and  xa,ooo  cubic  ft. 
at  time  of  flood.  The  ouun  canals  have  a  total  length  of  493  m., 
irrigating  662,000  acres,  and  all  navigable;  and  there  are  1929  m. 
of  distributary  channds.  In  1864  water-communication  was 
opened  between  the  deltas  of  the  Godavari  and  KIstna.  Rocky 
barriers  and  rapids  obstruct  navigation  in  the  upper  portion  of 
the  Godavari.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  construct  canals 
round  these  barriers  with  little  success,  and  the  undertaking  has 
been  abandoned. 

GODAVARI,  a  district  of  British  India,  In  the  north-east 
of  the  Madras  presidency.  It  was  remodelled  in  1907-1908, 
when  part  of  it  was  transiferred  to  Kistna  district.  Its  present 
area  is  5634  sq.  m.  Its  territory  now  lies  mainly  east  of 
the  Godavari  river,  induding  the  entire  delta,  with  a  long 
narrow  strip  extendiing  up  its  valley.  The  apex  of  the  ddta* 
is  at  Dowlaishweram,  where  a  great  dam  renders  the  waters 
available  for  irrigation.  Between  this  point  and  the  coast 
there  is  a  vast  extent  of  rice  fields.  Farther  inland,  and 
endosing  the  valley  of  the  great  river,  are  low  hills,  steep  and 
forest-clad.  The  north-eastern  part,  known  as  the  Agency 
tract,  is  occupied  by  spurs  of  the  Eastern  Ghats.  The  coast  is 
low,  sandy  and  swampy,  the  sea  very  shallow,  so  that  vesscb 
roust  lie  nearly  5  m.  from  Cocanada,  the  chief  port.  The  Sabari 
is  the  prindpal  tributary  of  the  Godavari  within  the  district. 
The  Godavari  often  rises  in  destructive  floods.  The  population 
of  the  present  area  in  190X  was  1,445,961.  In  the  old  district 
the  increase  during  the  last  decade  was  xx%.  The  chief  towns 
are  Cocanada  and  Rajahmundry.  The  forests  are  of  great  value; 
coal  is  known,  and  graphite  is  worked.  The  population  is 
prihdpally  occupied  in  agriculture,  the  prindpal  crops  being 
rice,  oil-seeds,  tobacco  and  sugar.  The  dgars  known  in  England 
as  Lunkas  are  partly  made  from  tobacco  grown  on  lankas  or 
islands  in  the  river  Godavari.  Sugar  (from  the  juice  of  the 
palmyra  palm)  and  rum  are  made  by  European  processes  at 
Samalkot.  The  administrative  headquarters  are  now  at  Coca- 
nada, the  chief  seaport;  but  Rajahmundry,  at  the  head  of  the 
ddta,  b  the  old  capital.  A  large  but  decreasing  trade  is  conducted 
at  Cocanada,  rice  being  shipped  to  Mauritius  and  Ceylon,  and 
cottop  and  oil-seeds  to  Europe.  Rice-cleaning  mills  have  been 
established  here  and  at  other  places.  The  district  is  traversed 
by  the  main  line  of  the  East  Coast  railway,  with  a  branch  to 
Cocaiuda;  the  iron  girder  bridge  Of  forty-two  spans  over  the 


GODEFROY— GODET 


171 


Godavari  river  near  Rajahmundry  was  opened  in  1900.  There 
b  a  government  college  at  Rajahmundry,  with  a  training  college 
atta^ed,  and  an  aided  college  at  Cocanada. 

The  Godavari  district  formed  part,  of  the  Andhra  division  of 
Dravida,  the  north-west  portion  being  subject  to  the  Orissa 
kings,  and. the  south-western  belonging  to  the  Vengi  kingdom. 
For  centuries  it  was  the  battle6eld  on  which  various  chiefs 
fought  for  independence  with  varying  success  till  the  beginning 
of  the  x6th  century,  when  the  whole  country  may  be  said  to  have 
passed  under  Mahommedan  power.  At  Uie  conduuon  of  the 
struggle  with  the  French  in  the  Carnatic,  Godavari  with  the 
Northnn  Circars  was  conquered  by  the  English,  and  finally 
ceded  by  imperial  sanad  in  1765.  The  district  was  constituted 
in  1859,  by  the  redistribution  of  the  territory  comprising  the 
former  districts  of  Guntur,  Rajahmundry  and  Masulipatam, 
into  what  are  now  the  Kistna  and  Godavari  districts. 

See  H.  Morris,  Distrid  Manual  (1878):  Distria  Cautteer  (1906). 

GODEFROY  (Gothofredus),  a  French  noble  famfly,  which 
numbered  among  its  members  several  distinguished  jurists  and 
historians.  The  family  claimed  descent  from  Symon  Godefroy, 
who  was  bom  at  Mons  about  1320  and  was  lord  of  Sapigncuhc 
near  Berry-au-bac,  now  in  the  department  of  Aisne. 

DcKis  GooEraoY  (Dionysius  Gothofredus)  (X549-X623), 
jurist,  son  of  Uon  Godefroy,  lortd  of  Guignecourt,  was  bom  in 
Paris  on  the  x  7th  of  October  1549.  He  was  educated  at  the 
ColUge  de  Navarre,  and  studied  law  at  Louvain,  Cologne  and 
Heidelberg,  returning  to  Paris  in  X573.  He  embraced  the 
reformed  religion,  and  in  1579  left  Paris,  where  his  abilities  and 
conneaiona  promised  a  briUiant  career,  to  establish  himself  at 
Geneva.  He  became  professor  of  law  there,  received  the  freedom 
of  Uie  dty  in  1580,  and  in  X587  became  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  the  Two  Hundred.  Henry  IV.  induced  him  to  return  to  France 
by  ^"Mfcing  bim  ^and  baiUi  of  Gez,but  no  sooner  had  he  installed 
himself  than. the  town  was  sacked  and  his  library  burnt  by  the 
tsDops  of  the  duke  of  Savoy.  In  X59X  he  became  professor  of 
Roman. law  at  Strassburg,  where  he  remained  until  April  1600, 
when  in  response  to  an  invitation  from  Frederick  IV.,  elector 
palatine,  be  removed  to  Heidelberg.  The  difficulties  of  his 
position  led  to  his  return  to  Strassburg  for  a  short  time,  but  in 
November  1604  he  definitely  settled  at  Heidelberg.  He  was 
made  head  of  the  faculty  of  law  in  the  university,  and  was  from 
time  to  time  employed  on  missions  to  the  French  court.  His 
repeated  refusal  of  offers  of  advancement  in  his  own  country 
was  due  to  his  Calvinism.  He  died  at  Strassburg  on  the  7th  of 
September  x6a2,  having  left  Heidelberg  before  the  dty  was 
sacked  by  the  imperial  troops  in  1621.  His  most  important  work 
was  the  Corpus  jurit  ciniis,  originally  published  at  Geneva  in 
1583,  which  went  through  some  twenty  editions,  the  most 
valuable  of  them  being  that  printed  by  the  Elzevirs  at  Amster- 
dam in  1633  and  the  Leipzig  edition  of  1740. 

Lists  of  his  other  learned  works  may  be  found  in  Senebier's  Hist, 
lia.  de  Cemhi,  y<A.  ii.,  and  in  Nic^ron's  liimoires,  vol.  xvti.  Some  of 
his  correspondence  with  his  learned  friends,  with  his  kinsman 
IVesident  de  Thou,  Isaac  Caaaubon,  Tcan  Jacques  Grynaeus  and 
otberm,  u  preserved  in  the  libraries  of  the  British  Museum,  of  Basel 
and  Paris. 

His  eldest  son,  Thcodou  Godetxoy  (1580-1649),  was  bom 
at  Geneva  on  the  X4th  of  July  1580.  He  abjured  Calvinism, 
and  was  Called  to  the  bar  in  Paris.  He  became  historiographer 
of  France  in  X613,  and  was  employed  from  time  to  time  on 
diplomatic  missions.  He  was  employed  at  the  congress  of 
Munster,  where  he  remained  after  the  signing  of  peace  in  1648 
as  char^fc  d'affaires  until  his  death  on  the  sth  of  October  of  the 
next  jrear.  His  most  important  work  is  Le  Cirimonial  de  France 
.  .  .  (16x9),  a  work  which  became  a  classic  on  the  subject  of 
royal  ceremonial,  and  was  re-edited  by  his  son  in  an  enlarged 
editioii  in  X649. 


hb  printed  works  he  made  vast  collections  of  historical 
iterial  which  remains  in  MS.  and  fills  the  greater  part  of  the 
Godefroy  collection  of  over  five  hundred  portfolios  in  the  Library 
of  the  Institute  In  Paris.  These  were  catalogued  by  Ludovic 
Labane  in  the  Annuaire  BuUeSin  (1865-1866  and  1893)  of  the 
SociiU  de  rkislpire  d$  Frauu. 


The  second  son  of  Denis,  Jacques  Godefroy  (X587-X653), 
jurist,  was  born  at  Geneva  on  the  13th  of  September  1587.  He 
was  sent  to  France  in  x6ix,  and  studied  law  and  history  at 
Bourges  and  Paris.  He  remained  faithful  to  the  Calvinist 
persuasion,  and  soon  retumed  to  Geneva,  where  he  became  active 
in  public  affairs.  He  was  secrets^  of  state  from  1632  to  1636, 
and  syndic  or  chief  magistrate  in  1637,  164X,  1645  ^^d  1649. 
He  died  on  the  33rd  of  June  1652.  In  addition  to  his  dvic  and 
political  work  he  lectured  on  law,  and  produced,  after  thirty 
years  of  labour,  his  edition  of  the  Codes  Theodosianus.  This 
code  formed  the  prindpal,  though  not  the  only,  source  of  the 
legal  systems  of  the  countries  formed  from  the  Western  Empire. 
Godefroy's  edition  was  enriched  with  a  multitude  of  important 
notes  and  historical  comments,  and  became  a  standard  authority 
on  the  decadent  period  of  the  Western  Empire.  It  was  only 
printed  thirteen  years  after  his  death  under  the  care  of  his 
friend  Antoine  Marville  at  Lyons  (4  vols.  X665),  and  was  reprinted 
at  Leipzig  (6  vols.)  in  x  736-1745.  Of  his  numerous  other  works 
the  most  important  was  the  reconstruction  of  the  twdve  tables 
of  early  Roman  law. 

See  also  the  dictionary  of  Moreri,  Nic^ron's  liimoires  (vol.  17) 
and  a  notice  in  the  BiblvoOikquo  umuersette  de  Ceuhe  (Dec.  1837). 

Dsms  GoDEntOY  (x6i5-x68x),  ddest  son  of  Theodore, 
succeeded  his  father  as  historiographer  of  France,  and  re-edited 
various  chronides  which  had  been  published  by  him.  He  was 
entrusted  by  Colbert  with  the  care  and  investigation  of  the 
records  tonceming  the  Low  Countries  preserved  at  Lille,  where 
great  part  of  his  life  was  spent.  He  was  also  the  historian  of 
the  reigns  of  Charles  VII.  and  Charles  VIII. 

Other  members  of  the  family  who  attained  distinction  in  the 

same  branch  of  learning  were  the  two  sons  of  Denis  Godefroi — 

Denis  (X653-X719),  also  an  historian,  and  Jean,  sieur  d'Aumont 

(X656-X732),  who  edited  the  letters  of  Louis  XII.,  the  memoirs 

of  Marguerite  de  Valois,  of  Castelnau  and  Pierre  de  I'Estoile, 

and  left  some  usdvil  material  for  the  history  of  the  Low  Countries; 

Jean  Baptiste  Achille  Godefroy,  sieur  de  Maillart  ( 1697- x  759), 

and  Denis  Joseph  Godefroy,  sieur  de  Maillart  (1740-X819),  son 

and  grandson  of  Jean  Goddroy,  who  were  both  offidals  at 

Lillle,  and  Idt  valuable  historical  documents  which  have  remained 

in  MS. 

For  further  details  see  Les  Savauis  Codsfro^  (P*'^;  '^73^  ^  ^^ 
marquis  de  Godefroy-M6nilglaiie,  son  of  Denis  Josepn  Godefroy. 

GODESBERO,  aspa  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  Rhine  province, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  almost  opposite  KOnigswinter, 
and  4  m.  S.  of  Bonn,  on  the  railway  to  Coblenz.  It  is  a  fashion- 
able sunmier  resort,  and  contains  numerous  pretty  villas,  the 
residences  of  merchants  from  Cologne,  Elberfdd,  Crefdd  and 
other  Rhenish  manufacturing  centres.  It  has  an  Evangelical 
and  three  Roman  Catholic  churches,  a  synagogue  and  several 
educational  establishments.  Its  chalybeate  springs  annually 
attract  a  large  number  of  visitors,  and  the  pump-room,  baths 
and  public  grounds  are  arranged  on  a  sumptuous  scale.  On  a 
conical  basalt  hill,  dose  by,  are  the  ruins,  surmounted  by  a 
picturesque  round  tower,  of  Godesberg  castle.  Built  by  Arch- 
bishop Dietrich  I.  of  Cologite  in  the  X3th  century.  It  was  destroyed 
by  the  Bavarians  in  X583. 

See  Dennert.  Godesberg,  eine  Perk  da  Rheins  (Godesbergt  1900). 

GODET.  FRfofolC  LOUIS  (18x2-1900),  Swiss  Protestant 
theologian,  was  bom  at  NeuchAtd  on  the  25th  of  October  1812. 
After  studying  theology  at  Neuchfttel,  Bonn  and  Berlin,  he  Was 
in  X850  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Neuch&teL  From 
1851  to  x866  he  also  held  a  pastorate.  In  1873  he  became  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  free  Evangelical  Church  of  .NeuchAtd,  and 
professor  in  its  theological  faculty.  He  died  there  on  the  29th  of 
October  1900.  A  conservative  scholar,  Godet  was  the  author 
of  some  of  the  most  noteworthy  French  commentaries  published 
in  recent  times. 

His  commentaries  are  on  the  Gospel  of  St  John  (2  vols.,  1863-1865; 
^  ed.,  f88i-i888;  Eng.  trans.  1886,  &c.):  St  Luke  (2  vols..  1871; 
3rd  ed.,  1888;  Eng.  trans.  1875,  &e.);  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (2 
vols.,  i879>i88o;  2nd  ed.,  1883-1890;  Eng.  trans.,  1880,  &c.): 
Corinthians  (a  vols..  1886-1887 ;  Eng.  trans.  1886,  &c.).    His  other 


172  GODFREY,  SIR  E.  B.— GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON 


work*  include  Altides  UHiq»ts  (a  vols.,  1 873-1 874;  4th  ed.,  1880; 
Eng.  trans.  1875  f.),  and  Introduction  au  Nouaeau  TutametiU  (189^  i> ; 
Eng.  trans.,  1894,  &c.);  Ltctures  in  Dejenu  of  Ike  Christian  faith 
(Ei%.  trans.  4th  ed.t  1900). 

OODFRBT,  SIR  EDMUND  BBRRT  (1621-1678),  English 
magistrate  and  politician,  younger  son  of  Thomas  Godfrey 
(i  586-1664),  a  member  of  an  old  Kentish  family,  was  born  on 
the  asrd  of  December  x6ai.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster 
school  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  after  entering  Gray's 
Inn  became  a  dealer  in  wood.  His  business  prospered.  He  was 
made  a  justice  of  the  peace  for  the  city  of  Westminster,  and  in 
September  x666  was  knighted  as  a  reward  for  his  services  as 
magistrate  and  citizen  during  the  great  plague  in  London;  but 
in  1669  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  few  days  for  instituting  the 
arrest  of  the  king's  physician,  Sir  Alexander  Fraizer  (d.  1681), 
who  owed  him  money.  The  tragic  events  in  Godfrey's  life  began 
in  September  1678  when  Titus  Gates  and  two  other  men.appeared 
before  him  with  written  information  about  the  Popish  Plot,  and 
swore  to  the  truth  of  their  statements.  During  the  intense 
excitement  which  followed  the  ma^trate  expressed  a  fear  that 
his  life  was  in  danger,  but  took  no  extra  precautions  for  safety. 
On  the  xath  of  October  he  did  not  return  home  as  usual,  and  on 
the  17th  his  body  was  found  on  Primrose  Hill,  Hampstead. 
Mediad  and  other  evidence  made  It  certain  that  he  had  been 
murdered,  and  the  excited  populace  regarded  the  deed  as  the 
work  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  Two  committees  investigated 
the  occurrence  withmit  definite  result,  but  in  December  1678 
a  certain  Miles  Prance,  who  had  been  arrested  for  conspiracy, 
confessed  that  he  had  shaded  in  the  murder.  According  to 
Prance  the  deed  was  instigated  by  some  Roman  Catholic  priests, 
three  of  whom  witnessed  the  murder,  and  was  committed  in  the 
courtyard  of  Somerset  House,  where  Godfrey  was  strangled  by 
Robert  Green,  Lawrence  Hill  and  Henry  Berry,  the  body  being 
afterwards  taken  to  Hampstead.  The  three  men  were  promptly 
arrested;  the  evidence  of  the  informer  William  Bedloe,  although 
contradictory,  was  similar  on  a  few  points  to  that  of  Prance,  and 
in  February  1679  they  were  hanged.  Soon  afterwards,  however, 
some  doubt  was  cast  upon  this  story;  a  war  of  words  ensued 
between  Prance  and  othera,  and  it  was  freely  asserted,  that 
Godfrey  had  committed  suicide.  Later  the  falsehood  of  Prance's 
confession  wks  proved. and  Prance  pleaded  guilty  to  perjury; 
but  the  fact  temains  that  Godfrey  was  murdered.  Godfrey 
was  an  excellent  magistrate,  and  was  very  charitable  both  in 
public  and  in  private  life.  Mr  John  Pollock,  in  the  Popish  Plot 
(London,  1903),  confirms  the  view  that  the  three  men.  Green, 
HUl  and  Berry,  were  wrongfully  executed,  and  thinks  the 
murder  was  committed  by  some  Jesuits  aided  by  Prance. 
Godfrey  was  feared  by  the  Jesuits  because  he  knew,  through 
Gates,  that  on  the  a4th  of  April  1678  a  Jesuit  congregation  had 
met  at  the  residence  of  the  duke  of  York  to  concert  plans  for  the 
king's  murder.  He  concludes  thus:  "  The  success  of  Godfrey's 
murder  as  a  political  move  is  indubitable.  The  duke  of  York 
was  the  pivot  of  the  Roman  Catholic  scheme  in  England,  and 
Godfrey's  death  saved  both  from  utter  ruin."  On  the  other  hand 
Mr  Alfred  Marks  'mlai&Who  kUkd  Sir  E.  B.  Godfrey?  (1905) 
maintains  that  suicide  was  the  cause  of  Godfrey's  death. 

See  the  article  Oatbs,  Titus,  also  R.  Tuke,  Memoirs  of  Ike  Life 
And  Death  of  Sir  Edmondbury  Godfrey  (London,  i68a);  and  G. 
Burnet,  History  of  my  Own  Time;  The  Reifin  of  Charles  IL,  edited  by 
O.  Airy  (Oxford,  1900). 

GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON  (c.  xo6o-xxoo),  a  leader  in  the  First 
Crusade,  was  the  second  son  of  Eustace  II. ,  count  of  Boulogne, 
by  his  marriage  with  Ida,  daughter  of  Duke  Godfrey  II.  of 
Lower  Lorraine.  He  was  designated  by  Duke  Godfrey  as  his 
successor;  but  the  empemr  Henry  IV.  gave  him  only  the  mark 
of  Antwerp,  in  which  the  lordship  of  Bouillon  was  included 
(1076).  He  fought  for  Henry,  however,  both  on  the  Elster  and 
!n  the  siege  of  Rome;  and  he  was  mvested  in  1082  with  the  duchy 
of  Lower  Lorraine.  Lorraine  had  been  penetrated  by  Cluniac 
influences,  and  Godfrey  would  seem  to  have  been  a  man  of 
notable  piety.  Accordingly,  though  he  had  himself  served  as 
an  imperialist,  and  though  the  Germans  in  general  had  little 
fympathy  with  the  Crusaders  (ivfrMnnafran/ . . .  quasi  dclirantes)f 


Godfrey,  nevertheless,  when  the  call  cftme  "  to  follow  Christ,'* 
almost  literally  sold  all  that  he  had,  and  foUowed.  Along  witb 
his  brothers  Eustace  and  Baldwin  (the  future  Baldwin  I.  of 
Jerusalem)  he  led  a  German  contingent,  some  40,000  strong, 
along]"Charlemagne'8road,"  through  Hungary  to  Constantinople, 
starting  in  August  X096,  and  arriving  at  Constantinople,  after 
some  difficulties  in  Hungary,  in  November.  He  was  the  first 
of  the  crusading  princes  to  arrive,  and  on  him  fell  the  duty  of 
deciding  what  the  relations  of  the  princes  to  the  eastern  emperor 
Alexius  were  to  be.  Eventually,  after  several  disputfs  and 
some  fighting,  he  did  homage  to  Alexius  in  January  xo97{  and 
his  example  was  followed  by  the  other  princes.  From  this  time 
until  the  beginning  of  X099  Godfrey  appears  as  one  of  the 
minor  princes,  plodding  onwards,  and  steadily  fighting,  while 
men  like  Bohemund  and  Raymund,  Baldwin  and  Tancrod  were 
determining  the  course  of  events. 

In  1099  he  came  once  more  to  the  front.  The  mass, of  the 
crusaders  became  weaiy  of  the  political  factions  which  divided 
some  of  their  leaders;  and  Godfrey,  who  was  more  of  a  pilgrim 
than  a  politician,  becomes  the  natural  representative  of  this 
feeling.  He  was  thus  able  to  force  the  reluctant  Raymund  to 
march  southward  to  Jerusalem;  and  he  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  siege,  his  division  being  the  first' to  enter  when  the 
city  was  captured.  It  was  natural  therefore  that,  when  Raymund 
of  Provence  refused  the  offered  dignity,  Godfrey  should  be  elected 
ruler  of  Jerusalem  (July  22, 1099).  He  assumed  the  title  not  of 
king,  but  of  "  advocate  "  ^  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  new 
dignity  proved  still  more  onerous  than  honourable;  and  during 
his  short  reign  of  a  year  Godfrey  had  to  combat  the  Arabs  of 
^Syptf  and  the  opposition  of  Raymund  and  the  patriarch 
Dagobert.  He  was  successful  in  repelling  the  Egyptian  attack 
at  the  battle  of  Ascalon  (August  X099);  but  he  failed,  owing  to 
Raymund's  obstinacy  and  greed,  to  acquire  the  town  of  Ascalon 
after  the  battle.  Left  alone,  at  the  end  of  the  autumn,  with  an 
army  of  some  aooo  men,  Godfrey  was  yet  able,  in  the  spring  of 
xxoo,  probably  with  the  aid  of  new  pilgrims,  to  exact  tribute 
from  towns  like  Acre,  Ascalon^  Arsuf  and  Caesarea.  But  already, 
at  the  end  of  1099  Dagobert,  archbishop  of  Pisa,  had  been 
substituted  as  patriarch  for  Arnulf  (who  had  been  acting  as  vicar) 
by  the  influence  of  Bohemund;  and  Dagobert,  whose  vassal 
Godfrey  had  at  once  piously  acknowledged  himself,  seems  to 
have  forced  him  to  an  agreement  in  April  xxoo,  by  which  he 
promised  Jerusalem  and  Jaffa  to  the  patriarch,  in  case  he  should 
acquire  in  their  place  Cairo  or  some  other  town,  or  should  die 
without  issue.  Thus  were  the  foundations  of  a  theocracy  laid 
in  Jerusalem;  and  when  Godfrey  died  (July  xxoo)  he  left  the 
question  to  be  decided,  whether  a  theocracy  or  a  monarchy 
should  be  the  government  of  the  Holy  Land. 

Because  he  had  been  the  first  ruler  in  Jerusalem  Godfrey 

was  idolized  in  later  saga.    He  was  depicted  as  the  leader  of 

the  crusades,  the  king  of  Jerusalem,  the  legidator  who-  laid 

down  the  assizes  of  Jerusalem.    He  was  none  of  these  things. 

Bohemund  was  the  leader  of  the  crusades;  Baldwin  was  first 

king;  the  assizes  were  the  result  of  a  gradual  development. 

In  still  other  wa3rs  was  the  figure  of  Godfrey  idealized  by  the 

grateful  tradition  of  later  days;  but  in  teality  he  would  seem  to 

have  been  a  quiet,  pious,  hard-fighting  knight,  who  was  chosen 

to  rule  in  Jerusalem  because  he  had  no  dangerovs  qualities, 

and  no  obvious  defects. 

LxTEKATURE.— The  narrative  of  Albert  of  Aix  may  be  regarded 
as  presenting  the  Lotharingtan  point  of  view,  as  the  Cesia  presents 
the  Norman,  and  Raymund  of  Agiles  the  Provencal.  The  career 
of  Godfrey  has  been  discussed  in  modem  times  by  R.  R6hricht* 
Die  Deutschen  im  heiligen  Laftde,  Band  ii.,  and  Ceschichte  des  ersten 
KreuMzugeSt  passim  (Innsbruck,  1901).  (E.  Ba.) 

Romances. — Godfrey  was  the  prindpal  hero  of  two  French 
chansons  de  geste  dealing  with  the  CTusAde,iheChansond*AntiocJte 
(ed.  P.  Paris,  a  vols.,  i848>  and  the  Chanson  de  JirusaJcm  (ed. 
C.  Hippeau^  x868),  and  other  poems,  containing  less  historical 

*  An  ■"  advocate  "  was  a  layman  who  had  been  invested  with  pan 
of  an  ecclesiastic  estate,  on  condition  that  he  defended  the  rest,  and 
exercised  the  blood-ban  in  lieu  of  the  ecclesiastical  owner  (sec 
Advocatb,  sec.  Advocatus  ecclesiae)f 


GODFREY  OF  VITERBO— GODIVA 


173 


material,  were  subsequently  added.  In  addition  the  parentage 
and  early  exploits  of  Godfrey  were  made  the  subject  of  legend. 
His  grandfather  was  said  to  be  Hclias,  knight  of  the  Swan,  one 
of  the  brothers  whose  adventures  are  well  known,  though  with 
some  variation,  in  the  familiar  fairytale  of  *'The  Seven  Swans." 
Heiias,  drawn  by  the  swan,  one  day  disembarked  at  Nijmwegen, 
and  reconquered  her  territory  for  the  duchess  of  Bouillon. 
Marrying  her  daughter  he  exacted  a  promise  that  his  wife  should 
not  inquire  into  his  origin.  The  tale,  which  is  almost  identical 
with  the  Lohengrin  legend,  belongs  to  the  class  of  the  Cupid  and 
Psyche  narratives.    See  Lohengrin. 

bee  also  C.  Hippeau.  Le  Chevalier  au  cygne  (Paris,  2  vols.,  1874- 
1877):  H.  Pigeonneau,  Le  Cyde  de  la  crotsade  el  de  la  famille  de 
BcutUan  (1877) ;  W.  Colther,  '*  Lohengrin,"  in  fUtman.  Forsch.  (vol.  v., 
1889):  Hist.  IM.  de  la  France,  vol.  xxii.  pp.  350-402;  the  English 
romance  of  HeljaSt  Knyghte  ofAe  Swanne  was  printed  by  W.  Copland 
about  1550.  ^^ 

GODFREY  OP  VITERBO  {c.  1120-c.  1196),  chronicler,  was 
probably  an  Italian  by  birth,  although  some  authorities  assert 
that  be  was  a  Saxon.  He  evidently  passed  some  of  his  early  life 
at  Viterbo,  where  abo  he  spent  his  concluding  days,  but  he  was 
educated  at  Bamberg,  gaining  a  good  knowledge  of  Latin. 
About  1 140 he  became  chaplain  to  the  German  king,  Conrad  III.; 
but  the  greater  part  of  his  life  was  s|>ent  as  secretary  {notarius) 
in  the  service  of  the  emperor  Frederick  I.,  who  appears  to  have 
thoroughly  trusted  him,  and  who  employed  him  on  many 
diplomatic  errands.  Incessantly  occupied,  he  visited  Sicily, 
France  and  Spain,  in  addition  to  many  of  the  German  cities,  in 
the  emperor's  interests,  and  was  by  his  side  during  several  of 
the  Ilaliaji  campaigns.  Both  before  and  after  Frederick's  death 
in  1 190  he  enjoyed  the  favour  of  his  son,  the  emperor  Henry  VI., 
for  whom  he  wrote  his  Speculum  regum,  a  work  of  very  little 
value.  Godfrey  also  wrote  Memoria  secuhrumf  or  Liber  memo- 
rielis,  a  chronicle  dedicated  to  Henry  VI.,  irhich  professes  to 
record  the  history  of  the  world  from  the  creation  until  X185. 
It  is  written  partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  verse.  A  revision  of 
this  work  was  drawn  up  by  Godfrey  himself  as  PanUteon^  or 
Umhersitatis  libri  qui  chronici  appdlanlAr.  The  author  borrowed 
from  Otto  of  Freising,  but  the  earlier  part  of  his  chronicle  is  full 
of  imaginary  occurrences.  ParUkeon  was  first  printed  in  1559, 
and  extracts  from  it  are  published  by  L.  A.  Muratori  in  the 
Rerum  Italicatum  scripiores,  tome  vii.  (Milan,  1725).  The  only 
part  of  Godfrey's  work  which  is  valuable  is  the  Gesla  Pridetici  /., 
verses  relating  events  in  the  emperor's  career  from  x  155  to  1180. 
Coacemed  mainly  with  affairs  in  Italy,  the  poem  tells  of  the  sieges 
of  Milan,  of  Frederick's  flight  to  Pa  via  in  1 167,  of  the  treaty  with 
Pope  Alexander  III.  at  Venice,  and  of  other  stirring  episodes 
with  which  the  author  was  intimately  acquainted,  and  many  of 
whkh  he  had  witnessed.  Attached  to  the  Gesta  Friderici  is  the 
Ctiia  Heinrici  K/.,  a  shorter  poem  which  is  often  attributed  to 
Godfrey,  although  W.  Wattenbach  and  other  authorities  think 
it  was  not  written  by  him.  The  Memoria  secuhrum  was  very 
popttlar  during  the  middle, ages,  and  has  been  continued  by 

several  writers. 

Godfrey's  works  are  found  in  the  Monnmenta  Germaniae  hisloricat 
Bawl  axil.  (Hanover.  1872).  The  Gesta  Friderici  I.  et  Heinrici  VL 
is  pttbiiched  Beparateiy  with  an  introduction  by  G.  Waitx  (Hanover, 
1872).  See  also  H.  Ulroann,  Gotfried  von  Viterbo  (GOtting^n,  1863), 
and  W.  Wattenbach,  DeuUcUands  GeschichUfuellen,  Band  ii. 
(Bcrlia.  1894).  (A.  W.  H.*) 

GODHRA*  a  town  of  British  India,  administrative  head- 
quarters of  the  Pancb  Mahals  district  of  Bombay,  and  also  of 
the  Rewa  Kantha  political  agency;  situated  52  m.  N.E.  of 
Baroda  on  the  railway  from  Anand  to  Ratlam.  Pop.  (1901) 
20,91  s*    It  has  a  trade  in  timber  from  the  neighbouring  forests. 

QOOm.  JEAN  BAPnSTE  ANDRlS  (1817-1888),  French 
socialist,  was  bom  on  the  26th  of  January  181 7  at  Esqueh^ries 
(Aisne).  The  son  of  an  artisan,  he  entered  an  iron-works  at  an 
eariy  age,  and  at  seventeen  made  a  tour  of  France  as  journeyman. 
Returning  to  Esquehiries  in  1837,  he  started  a  small  factory  for 
the  mantJacture  of  castings  for  heating-stoves.  The  business 
increased  rapidly,  and  for  the  purpose  of  railway  facilities  was 
transferred  to  Guise  in  1846.  At  the  time  of  Godin's  death  in 
1888  the  •nniial  output  was  over  four  millions  of  francs  (Xi6o,ooo), 


and  in  1908  tbe  employees  numbered  over  2000  and  the  output 
was  over  £280,000.  An  ardent  disciple  of  Fourier,  he  advanced 
a  considerable  sum  of  money  towards  the  disastrous  Fourierist 
experiment  of  V,  P.  Considlrant  (q.v.)  in  Texas.  He  profited, 
however,  by  its  failure,  and  in  1859  started  the  famiiistire  or 
community  settlement  of  Quise  on  more  carefully  laid  plans. 
It  comprises,  in  addition  to  the  workshops,  three  large  buildings, 
four  storeys  high,  capable  of  housing  all  the  work-people,  each 
family  having  two  or  three  rooms.  Attached  to  each  building 
is  a  vast  central  court,  covered  with  a  glass  roof,  under  which  the 
children  can  play  in  all  weathers.  There  are  also  crdcbes, 
nurseries,  hospital,  refreshment  rooms  and  recreation  rooms  of 
various  kinds,  stores  for  the  purchase  of  groceries,  drapery  and 
every  necessity,  and  a  laige  theatre  for  concerts  and  dramatic 
entertainments.  In  1880  the  whole  was  turned  into  a  co-opera- 
tive society,  with  provision  by  which  it  eventually  became  the 
property  of  the  workers.  In  1871  Godin  was  elected  deputy  for 
Aisne,  but  retired  in  1876  to  devote  himself  to  the  management 
of  the  famiiistire.  In  1882  he  was  created  a  knight  of  the  legion 
of  honour. 

(3odin  was  the  author  of  Sclutums  sociates  (1871):  Les  Socialisles 
el  les  droits  du  travail  (1874):  MutualiU  sociate  (1880);  La  Rt- 
publtgue  du  travail  et  la  riforme  partementaire  ( 1 88^).  See  Bcmardot, 
Le  Famiiistire  de  Guise  et  son  [ondateur  (Pans,  1887):  Fischer, 
Die  Famiiistire  Godin's  (Berlin,  1890);  LestcUc.  Etude  sur  le  familis' 
tire  de  Guise  (Paris,  1904);  D.  F.  P.,  Le  Famaislire  illustri,  risultals 
de  vinft  ans  d'associatton,  tSSo-'igoo  (Eng.  trans..  Twenty-eight  years 
of  co-partnership  at  Guise^  by  A.  Williams,  1908). 

G0D1VA»  a  Saxon  lady,  who,  according  to  the  legend,  rode 
naked  through  the  streets  of  Coventry  to  gain  from  her  husband 
a  remission  of  the  oppressive  toll  imposed  on  his  tenants.  The 
story  is  that  she  was  the  beautiful  wife  of  Leofric,  earl  of  Mercia 
and  lord  of  Coventry.  The  people  of  that  city  suffering  griev- 
ously under  the  earl's  oppressive  taxation,  Lady  Godiva  appealed 
again  and  again  to  her  husband,  who  obstinately  refused  to  remit 
the  tolb.  At  last,  weary  of  her  entreaties,  he  said  he  would  grant 
her  request  if  she  would  ride  naked  through  the  streets  of  the 
town.  Lady  Godiva  took  him  at  his  word,  and  after  issuing  a 
proclamation  that  all  persons  should  keep  within  doors  or  shut 
their  windows,  she  rode  through,  clothed  only  in  her  long  hair. 
One  person  disobeyed  her  proclamation,  a  tailor,  ever  afterwards 
known  as  Peeping  Tom.  He  bored  a  hole  in  his  shutters  that  he 
might  see  Godiva  pass,  and  is  said  to  have  been  struck  blind.. 
Her  husband  kept  his  word  and  abolished  the  obnoxious  taxes. 

The  oldest  form  of  the  legend  makes  Godiva  pass  through 
Coventry  market  from  one  end  to  the  other  when  the  people 
were  assembled,  attended  only  by  two  soldiers,  her  long  hair 
down  so  that  none  saw  her,  "  apparentibus  cruribus  tamen 
candidissimis."  This  version  is  given  in  Fhres  ktsUfriarum  by 
Roger  of  Wcndover,  who  quoted  froni  an  earlier  writer.  The 
later  story,  with  its  episode  of  Peeping  Tom,  has  been  evolved 
by  later  chroniclers.  Whether  the  lady  Godiva  of  this  story  is 
the  Godiva  or  Godgifu  of  history  is  undecided.  That  a  lady  of 
this  name  exbted  in  the  early  part  of  the  tith  century  is  certain, 
as  evidenced  by  several  ancient  documents,  such  as  the  Stow 
charter,  the  Spalding  charter  and  the  Domesday  survey,  though 
the  spelling  of  the  name  varies  considerably.  It  would  appear 
from  Liber  Eliensis  (end  of  12th  century)  that  she  was  a  widow 
when  Leofric  married  her  in  Z040.  In  or  about  that  year  she 
aided  in  the  founding  of  a  monastery  at  Stow,  Lincolnshire. 
In  1043  she  persuaded  her  husband  to  build  and  endow  a  Bene- 
dictine monastery  at  Coventry.  Her  mark,  **^  Ego  Godiva 
Comitissa  dlu  istud  desideravi,"  was  found  on  the  charter  given 
by  her  brother,  Thorold  of  Bucknall — sheriff  of  Lincolnshire — 
to  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Spalding  in  1051;  and  she  is 
commemorated  as  benefactress  of  other  monasteries  at  Leo' 
minster,  dhester,  Wenlock,  Worcester  and  Evesham.  She 
probably  died  a  few  years  before  the  Domesday  survey  (io85-> 
1086),  and  was  buried  in  one  of  the  porches  of  the  abbey  diurch. 
Dugdale  (1656)  says  that  a  window,  with  representations  of 
Leofric  and  CSodiva,  was  placed  in  Trinity  Church,  Coventry, 
about  the  time  of  Richard  II.  The  Godiva  procession,  a  com- 
I  mcmoration  of  the  legendary  ride  instituted  on  the  31st  of  May 


174 


GODKIN— GODOLPHIN 


1678  as  part  of  Coventry  fair,  was  celebrated  at  intervals  until 
1826.  From  1848  to  1887  it  was  revived,  and  recently  further 
attempts  have  been  made  to  popularize  the  pageant.  The 
wooden  e£Bgy  of  Peeping  Tom  which,  since  181  a,  has  looked 
out  on  the  world  from  a  house  at  the  north-west  com^  of 
Hertford  Street,  Coventry,  represents  a  man  in  armour,  and 
was  probably  an  image  of  St  George.  It  was  removed  from 
another  part  of  the  town  to  its  present  position. 

GODKIN,  EDWIN  LAWRENCE  (1831-1902),  American 
publicist,  was  bom  in  Moyne,  county  Wicklow,  Ireland,  oh  the 
and  of  October  1831.  His  father,  James  Godkin,  was  a  Presby- 
terian minister  and  a  journalist,  and  the  son,  after  graduating 
in  1851  at  Queen's  College,  Belfast,  and  studying  Uw  in  London, 
was  in  1853-1855  war  correspondent  for  the  London  Daily  News 
in  Turkey  and  Russia,  being  present  at  the  capture  of  Sevastopd, 
and  late  in  1856  went  to  America  and  wrote  letters  to  the  same 
journal,  giving  his  impressions  of  a  tour  of  the  southern  states  of 
the  American  Union.  He  studied  law  in  New  York  City,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1859,  travelled  in  Europe  in  1860-1862, 
wrote  for  the  London  News  and  the  New  York  Times  in  1862- 
1865,  and  in  1865  founded  in  New  York  City  the  Nation,  a 
weekly  projected  by  him  long  before,  for  which  Charles  ELiot 
Norton  gained  friends  in  Boston  and  James  Miller  McKim  (1810- 
1874)  in  Philadelphia,  and  which  Godkin  edited  until  the  end  of 
the  year  1899.  In  1881  he  sold  the  Nation  to  the  New  York 
Evening  Post,  and  became  an  associate  editor  of  the  Post,  of 
which  he  was  editor-in-chief  in  1883-1899,  succeeding  Carl 
Schurz.  In  the  'eighties  he  engaged  in  a  controversy  with 
Goldwin  Smith  over  the  Irish  question.  Under  his  leadership  the 
Post  broke  with  the  Republican  party  in  the  presidential  cam- 
paign of  1884,  when  Godkin's  opposition  to  Blaine  did  much  to 
create  the  so-called  Mugwump  party  (see  Mugwuup),  and  his 
organ  became  thoroughly  independent,  as  was  seen  when  it 
attacked  the  Venezuelan  policy  of  President  Cleveland,  who  had 
in  so  many  ways  approximated  the  ideal  of  the  Post  and  Nation. 
He  consbtently  advocated  currency  reform,  the  gold  basis,  a  tariff 
for  revenue  only,  and  civil  service  reform,  rendering  the  greatest 
aid  to  the  last  cause.  His  attacks  on  Tammany  Hall  were 
so  frequent  and  so  virulent  that  in  1894  he  was  sued  for  libel 
because  of  bioc^aphical  sketches  of  certain  leaders  in  that 
organization — cases  which  never  came  up  for  trial.  His  opposi- 
tion to  the  war  with  Spain  and  to  imperialism  was  able  and 
forcible.  He  retired  from  his  editorial  duties  on  the  30th  of 
December  1899,  and  sketched  his  career  in  the  Evening  Post 
of  that  date.  Although  he  recovered  from  a  severe  apoplectic 
stroke  early  in  1900,  his  health  was  shattered,  and  he  died  in 
Green  way,  Devonshire,  England,  on  the  aist  of  May  1902. 
Godkin  shaped  the  lofty  and  independent  policy  of  the  Post 
and  the  Nation,  which  had  a  small  but  influential  and  intellectual 
class  of  readers.  But  as  editor  he  had  none  of  the  personal 
magnetism  of  Greeley,  for  instance,  and  his  superiority  to  the 
influence  of  popular  feeling  made  Charles  Dudley  Warner  style 
the  Nation  the  "  weekly  judgment  day."  He  was  an  economist 
of  the  school  of  Mill,  urged  the  necessity  of  the  abstraction 
called  "economic  man,"  and  insisted  that  socialism  put  in 
practice  would  not  improve  social  and  economic  conditions 
in  general.  In  politics  he  was  an  enemy  of  scntimentalism  and 
loose  theories  in  government.  He  published  A  History  of 
HuHgory,  A.D.  300-1850  (1856),  Government  (1871,  in  the 
American  Science  Series),  Reflections  and  Comments  (1895), 
Problems  of  Modern  Democracy  (1896)  and  Unforeseen  Tendencies 
of  Democracy  (1898). 

'See  Life  and  Letters  of  E.  L.  Godkin,  edited  by  Rotlo  Ogden  (2  vols., 
New  York.  1907). 

OODMANCHESTER,  a  municipal  borough  in  the  southern 
parliamentary  division  of  Huntingdonshire,  England,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ouse,  i  m.  S.S.E.  of  Huntingdon,  on  a  branch 
of  the  Great  Eastern  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  aoiy.  It  has  a 
beautiful  Perpendicular  church  (St  Mary's)  and  an  agricultural 
trade,  with  flour  mills.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  4 
aldermen  and  la  councillors.    Area,  4907  acres. 

A  Romano-British  village  occupied  the  site  of  (}odmanchester. 


The  town  (Gumencestre,  Gomecestre)  belonged  to  the  king  before 
the  Conquest  and  at  the  time  of  the  Domesday  survey.  In  1 2 13 
King  John  granted  the  manor  to  the  men  of  the  town  at  a  fee- 
farm  of  £120  yearly,  and  confirmation  charters  were  granted 
by  several  succeeding  kings,  Richard  II.  in  1391-1392  adding 
exemption  from  toll,  pannage,  &c.  James  I.  granted  an  in- 
corporation charter  in  1605  under  the  title  of  bailiffs,  assistants 
and  commonalty,  but  under  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  of  1835 
the  corporation  was  changed  to  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and  12 
councillors.  Godmanchester  was  formerly  included  for  parlia- 
mentary purposes  in  the  borough  of  Huntingdon,  which  has 
ceased  to  be  separately  represented  since  1885.  The  incorpora- 
tion charter  of  1605  recites  that  the  burgesses  are  chieiSy  engaged 
in  agriculture,  and  grants  them  a  fair,  which  still  continues 
every  year  on  Tuesday  in  Easter  week. 

See  Victoria  County  History,  HuutingdoH',  Robert  Fox.  The 
History  of  Godmanchester  (1831). 

OOdOLLO,  a  market  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Pcst- 
Pilis-Solt-Kiskun,  23  m.  N.E.  of  Budapest  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900) 
5875.  Gdd0ll6  is  the  summer  residence  of  the  Hungarian  royal 
family,  and  the  royal  castle,  built  in  the  second  half  of  the  i8th 
century  by  Prince  Anton  Grassalkovich,  was,  with  the  beautiful 
domain,  presented  by  the  Hungarian  nation  to  King  Francis 
Joseph  I.  after  the  coronation  in  1867.  In  its  park  there  are  a 
great  number  of  stags  and  wild  boars.  G6d6lld  is  a  favourite 
summer  resort  of  the  inhabitants  of  Budapest.  In  its  vicinity 
is  the  famous  place  of  pilgrimage  Miria-BesnyO,  with  a  fine 
Franciscan  monastery,  which  contains  the  tombs  of  the  Grassal- 
kovich family. 

GODOLPHINi  SIDNEY  GODOLPHIN.  Eaxl  or  (c.  1645- 
171 2),  was  a  cadet  of  an  ancient  family  of  Cornwall.  At  the 
Restoration  he  was  introduced  into  the  royal  household  by. 
Charles  II.,  with  whom  he  had  previously  become  a  favourite, 
and  he  also  at  the  same  period  entered  the  House  of  Commons  as 
member  for  Helston.  Although  he  very  seldom  addressed  the 
House,  and,  when  he  did  so,  only  in  the  briefest  manner,  he 
gradually  acquired  a  reputation  as  its  chief  if  not  its  only  financial 
authority.  In  March  1679  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
privy  council,  and  in  the  September  following  he  was  promoted, 
along  with  Viscount  Hyde  (afterwards  earl  of  Rochester)  and 
the  earl  of  Sunderland,  to  the  chief  management  of  affairs. 
Though  he  voted  for  the  Exclusion  Bill  in  x68o,  he  was  continued 
in  office  after  the  dismissal  of  Sunderland,  and  in  September 
1684  he  was  created  Baron  Godolphin  of  Rialton,  and  succeeded 
Rochester  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  After  the  accession  of 
James  II.  he  was  made  chamberlain  to  the  queen,  and,  along 
with  Rochester  and  Sunderland,  enjoyed  the  king's  special 
confidence.  In  1687  he  was  named  commissioner  of  the  treasury. 
He  was  one  of  the  council  of  five  i^pointed  by  King  James  to 
represent  him  in  London,  when  he  went  to  join  the  army  after 
the  landing  of  William,  prince  of  Orange,  in  England,  and,  along 
with  Halifax  and  Nottingham,  he  was  afterwards  appointed  a 
commissioner  to  treat  with  the  prince.  On  the  accession  of 
William,  though  he  only  obtained  the  third  seat  at  the  treasury 
board,  he  had  virtually  the  chief  control  of  affairs.  He  retired 
in  March  1690,  but  was  recalled  on  the  November  following 
and  appointed  first  lord.  While  holding  this  office  he  for  several* 
years  continued,  in  conjunction  with  Marlborough,  a  treacherous 
intercourse  with  James  II.,  and  is  said  even  ttf  have  anticipated 
Marlborough  in  disclosing  to  James  intelligence  regarding. the 
intended  expedition  against  Brest.  Godolphin  was  not  only  a 
Tory  by  inheritance,  but  had  a  romantic  adnuration  for  the  wife 
of  James  II.  He  also  wished  to  be  safe  whatever  happened, 
and  his  treachery  in  this  case  was  mostly  due  to  caution.  After 
Fenwick's  confession  in  1696  regarding  the  attempted  assassina- 
tion of  William  III.,  Godolphin,  who  was  compromised,  was  in- 
duced to  tender  his  resignation;  but  when  the  Tories  came  into 
power  in  1700,  he  was  again  appointed  lord  treasurer  and 
retained  office  for  about  a  year.  Though  not  a  favourite  with 
(2ueen  Anne,  he  Was,  after  her  accession,  I4>p6inted  to  his  old 
office,  on  the  strong  recommendation  of  Marlborough.  He  also 
in  X704  received  the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  in  December 


GODOY 


175 


1706  he  was  created  Visa>unt  Rialton  and  earl  of  Godolphin. 
Though  a  Tory  he  had  an  active  share  in  the  intrigues  which 
gradually  led  to  the  predominance  of  the  Whigs  in  alliance 
with  Marlborough.  The  influence  of  the  Marlboroughs  with  the 
queen  was,  however,  gradually  supplanted  by  that  of  Mrs 
Masham  and  Harley,  earl  of  Oxford,  and  with  the  fortunes  of 
the  Marlboroughs  those  of  Godolphin  were  indissoiubly  united. 
The  services  of  both  were  so  appreciated  by  the  nation  that 
they  were  able  for  a  time  to  regard  the  loss  of  the  queen's  favour 
with  indifference,  and  even  in  1708  to  procure  the  expulsion  of 
Harley  from  ofiice;  but  after  the  Tory  reaction  which  followed 
the  impeachment  of  Dr  Sacheverel,  who  abused  Godolphin  under 
the  name  of  Volpone,  the  queen  made  use  of  the  opportunity 
to  tAke  the  initiatory  step  towards  delivering  herself  from 
the  irksome  thraldom  of  Marlborough  by  abruptly  dismissing 
Godolphin  from  office  on  the  7th  of  August  1710.  He  died  on 
the  15th  of  September  1712. 

Godolphin  owed  his  rise  to  power  and  his  continuance  in  it 
under  foursovereigns  chiefly  to  his  exceptional  mastery  of  financial 
matters;  for  if  latterly  he  was  in  some  degree  indebted  for  his 
promotion  to  the  support  of  Marlborough,  he  received  that 
support  mainly  because  Marlborough  recognized  that  for  the 
prosecution  of  England's  foreign  wars  his  financial  abilities  were 
an  indispensable  necessity.  He  was  cool,  reserved  and  cautious, 
but  his  prudence  was  less  associated  with  high  si^dty  than 
traceable  to  the  weakness  of  his  personal  antipathies  and  pre- 
judices, and  his  freedom  from  political  predilections.  Perhaps 
it  was  his  unlikeness  to  Marlborough  in  that  moral  characterisric 
which  so  tainted  Marlborough's  greatness  that  rendered  possible 
between  them  a  friendship  so  intimate  and  undisturbed:  he 
was,  it  would  appear,  exceptionally  devoid  of  the  passion  of 
avarice;  and  so  little  advantage  did  he  take  of  his  opportunities 
of  aggrandixement  that,  though  his  style  of  living  wai  un- 
ostentatious.— ^and  in  connexion  with  his  favourite  pastimes 
of  hone-racing,  card-playing  and  cock-fighting  he  gained 
perhaps  more  than  he  lost, — all  that  he  left  behind  him  did  not, 
according  to  the  duchess  of  Marlborough,  amountito  more  than 

£|2,OOOl 

Godolphin  married  Margaret  Blagge,  the  pious  lady  whose 
life  was  written  by  Evelyn,  on  the  i6thof  May  1675,  and  married 
a^in  after  her  death  in  1678.  His  son  and  successor,  Francis 
(167^x766),  held  various  offices  at  court,  and  was  lord  privy 
seal  from  1735  to  1740.  He  married  Henrietta  Churchill  (d. 
1733),  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  who  in  1 722  became 
in  her  own  right  duchess  of  Marlborough.  He  died  without  male 
issue  in  January  1766,  when  the  earldom  became  extinct,  and 
the  estates  passed  to  Thomas  Osborne,  4th  duke  of  Leeds,  the 
husband  of  the  earl's  daughter  Mary,  whose  descendant  is  the 
present  representative  of  the  Godolphins. 

A  life  of  Godolphin  was  published  in  1888  in  London  by  the  Hon. 
H.  Elliot. 

GODOY.  ALVAREZ  DBPARIA,  BIOS  SANCHEZ  YZARZOSA, 
■ABUBL  DB  (1767-1851),  duke  of  El  Alcudia  and  prince  of  the 
Peace,  Spanish  royal  favourite  and  minister,  was  born  at  Badajoz 
on  the  1 3th  of  May  2767.  His  father,  Don  Jos£  de  Godoy,  was 
the  head  of  a  very  ancient  but  impoverished  family  of  nobles 
in  Estzrmadura.  His  mother,  whose  maiden  name  was  Maria 
Anlonia  Alvarez  de  Faria,  belonged  to  a  Portuguese  noble  family. 
Manuel  boasts  in  his  memoirs  that  he  had  the  best  masters,  but 
it  is  certain  that  he  received  only  the  very  slight  education 
tauaJJy  given  at  that  time  to  the  sons  of  provincial  nobles. 
In  1784  he  entered  the  Guardia  de  Corps,  a  body  of  gentlemen 
who  acted  as  the  immediate  body-guard  of  the  king.  His  well- 
built  and  stalwart  person,  his  handsome  foolish  face,  together 
with  a  certain  geniality  of  character  which  he  must  have 
pooessed,  earned  him  the  favour  of  Maria  Luisa  of  Parma,  the 
princess  of  Asturias,  a  coarse,  passionate  woman  who  was  much 
neglected  by  her  husband,  who  on  his  part  cared  for  nothing  but 
hunting. 

When  King  Charles  IIL  died  in  1788,  Godoy's  fortune  was 
soon  made.  The  princess  of  Asturias,  now  queen,  understood 
how  to  manage  her  husband  Charles  IV.    Godoy  says  in  his 


memoirs  that  the  king,  who  had  been  carefully  kept  apart  from 
aff^rs  during  his  father's  life,  and  who  disliked  his  father's 
favourite  minister  Floridablanca,  wished  to  have  a  creliture  of 
his  own.  This  statement  is  no  doubt  true  as  far  as  it  goes.  But 
it  requires  to  be  completed  by  the  further  detail  that  the  queen 
put  her  lover  in  her  husband's  way,  and  that  the  king  was  guided 
by  them,  when  he  thought  he  was  ruling  for  himself  through 
a  subservient  minister.  In  some  respects  King  Charles  was 
obstinate,  and  Godoy  is  probably  right  in  saying  that  he  never 
was  an  absolute  "  viceroy,"  and  that  he  could  not  always  secure 
the  removal  of  colleagues  whom  he  knew  to  be  his  enemies. 
He  could  only  rule  by  obeying.  Godoy  adopted  without  scruple 
this  method  of  pushing  his  fortunes.  When  the  king  was  set  on  a 
particular  course,  he  followed  it;  the  execution  was  left  to  him 
and  the  queen.  His  pliability  endeared  him  to  his  master, 
whose  lasting  affection  he  earned.  In  practice  he  commonly 
succeeded  in  inspiring  the  wishes  which  he  then  proceeded  to 
gratify.  From  the  very  beginning  of  the  new  reign  he  was 
promoted  in  the  army  with  scandalous  rapidity,  made  duke  of 
El  Alcudia,  and  in  1792  minister  under  the  premiership  of 
Aranda,  whom  he  succeeded  in  displacing  by  the  dose  of  the 
year. 

His  official  life  is  fairiy  divided  by  himself  into  three  periods. 
From  1792  to  1798  he  was  premier.  In  the  latter  year  his  un- 
popularity and  the  intrigues  of  the  French  government,  which 
had  taken  a  dislike  to  him,  led  to  his  temporary  retirement, 
without,  however,  any  diminution  of  the  king's  personal  favour. 
He  asserts  that  he  had  no  wish  to  return  to  office,  but  letters 
sent  by  him  to  the  queen  show  that  he  begged  for  employment. 
They  are  written  in  a  very  unpleasant  mixture  of  gush  and 
vulgar  familiarity.  In  1801  he  returned  to  office,  and  until 
*i8o7  he  was  the  executant  of  the  disastrous  policy  of  the  court. 
The  third  period  of  his  public  life  is  the  last  year,  x 807-1808, 
when  he  was  desperately  striving  for  his  phure  between  the 
aggressive  intervention  of  Napoleon  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
growing  hatred  of  the  nation,  organized  behind,  and  about,  the 
prince  of  Asturias,  Ferdinand.  On  the  17  th  of  March  1808  a 
popular  outbreak  at  Aranjuez  drove  him  into  hiding.  When 
driven  out  by  hunger  and  thirst  he  was  recognized  and  arrested. 
By  Ferdinand's  order  he  was  kept  in  prison,  till  Napoleon 
demanded  that  he  should  be  sent  to  Bayonne.  Here  he  rejoined 
his  master  and  mistros.  He  remained  with  them  till  Charles  IV. 
died  at  Rome  in  1819,  having  survived  his  queen.  The  rest  of 
Godoy's  life  was  spent  in  poverty  and  obscurity.  After  the 
death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  in  1833,  he  returned  to  Madrid,  and 
endeavoured  to  secure  the  restoration  of  his  property  confiscated 
in  1808.  Part  of  it  was  the  estate  of  the  Soto  de  Roma,  granted 
by  the  cortes  to  the  duke  of  Wellington.  He  failed,  and  during 
hb  last  yean  lived  on  a  small  pension  granted  him  by  Louis 
Philippe.    He  died  in  Paris  on  the  4th  of  October  1851. 

As  a  favourite  Godoy  is  remarkable  for  the  length  of  his 
hold  on  the  affection  of  his  sovereigns,  and  for  its  completeness. 
Latterly  he  was  supported  rather  by  the  husband  than  by  the 
wife  He  got  rid  of  Aranda  by  adopting,  in  order  to  please  the 
king,  a  policy  which  tended  to  bring  on  war  with  France.  When 
the  war  proved  disastrous,  he  made  the  peace  of  Basel,  and  was 
created  prince  of  the  Peace  for  his  services.  Then  he  helped  to 
make  war  with  England,  and  the  disasters  which  followed  only 
made  him  dearer  to  the  king.  Indeed  it  became  a  main  object 
with  Charles  IV.  to  protect  "  Manuelito  "  from  popular  hatred, 
and  if  possible  secure  him  a  principality.  The  queen  endured 
his  infidelities  to  her,  which  were  flagrant.  The  king  arranged 
a  marriage  for  him  with  Dofia  Teresa  de  Bourbon,  daughter  of  the 
infante  Don  Luis  by  a  morganatic  marriage,  though  he  was 
probably  already  married  to  Dofia  Josefa  Tud6,  and  certainly 
continued  to  live  with  her.  Godoy,  in  his  memoirs,  lays  claim 
to  have  done  much  for  Spanish  agriculture  and  industry,  but 
he  did  little  more  than  issue  proclamations  and  appoint  officers. 
His  intentions  may  have  been  good,  but  the  policy  of  his  govern- 
ment was  financially  ruinous.  In  his  private  life  he  was  not 
only  profligate  and  profuse,  but  childishly  ostentatious.  The 
best  that  can  be  said  for  him  is  that  he  was  good-natured,  and 


176 


GODROON— GODWIN,  MARY 


did  his  best  to  restrainthe  Inquisition  and  the  ourely  reactionary 
parties. 

AuTHOarriBS. — GodoyV  Memoirs  were  published  in  Spanish, 
English  and  French  in  1836.  A  ceneral  account  of  his  career  will 
be  found  in  the  Mimoires  sur  la  lUtolulum  d'Espagne,  by  the  Abb6 
de  Prsdt  (18x6). 

OODROON,  or  Gadioon  (Fr.  godrcn,  of  unknown  etymology), 
in  architecture,  a  convex  decoration  (said  to  be  derived  from 
raised  work  on  linen)  applied  in  France  to  varieties  of  the  bead 
and  reel,  in  which  the  bead  is  often  carved  with  ornament. 
In  England  the  term  is  constantly  used  by  auctioneers  to  describe 
the  raised  convex  decorations  under  the  bowl  of  stone  or  terra- 
cotta vases.  The  godroons  radiate  from  the  vertical  support 
of  the  vase  and  rise  half-way  up  the  bowl. 

GODWIN.  FRANCIS  {1562-1633),  English  divine,  son  of 
Thomas  Godwin,  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  was  bom  at  Hanning- 
ton,  Northamptonshire,  in  156a.  He  was  elected  student  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1578,  took  his  bachelor's  degree  in 
iSSio,  and  that  of  master  in  1583.  After  holding  two  Somerset- 
shire livings  he  was  in  1587  appointed  subdean  of  Exeter.  In 
1590  he  accompanied  William  Camden  on  an  antiquarian  tour 
through  Wales.  He  was  created  bachelor  of  divinity  in  1 593,  and 
doctor  in  1 595.  In  1601  he  published  his  Catalogue  of  the  Bishops 
of  Efigjland  since  the  first  planting  of  the  Christian  Religion  in  this 
Island,  a  work  which  procured  him  in  the  same  year  the  bishopric 
of  Llandaff.  A  second  edition  appeared  in  1615,  and  in  1616  he 
published  an  edition  in  Latin  with  a  dedication  to  King  James, 
who  in  the  following  year  conferred  upon  him  the  bishopric  of 
Hereford.  The  work  was  republished,  with  a  continuation  by 
William  Richardson,  in  x  743.  In  x6i6  Godwin  published  Rerum 
AnglicoruM,  Henrico  VIII.,  Edwardo  VI.  d  Maria  regnantibus. 
Annates t  which  wks  afterwsirds  translated  and  published  by  his 
son  Morgan  under  the  title  A  nnales  of  England  (1630).  He  is  also 
the  author  of  a  somewhat  remarkable  story,  published  posthum- 
ously in  X638,  and  entitled  The  Man  in  the  Moone,  or  a  Discourse 
of  a  Voyage  thither,  by  Domingo  Consoles,  written  apparently 
some  time  between  the  years  1599  and  1603.  In  this  production 
Godwin  not  only  declares  himself  a  believer  in  the  Copemican 
system,  but  adopts  so  far  the  principles  of  the  law  of  gravitation 
as  to  suppose  that  the  earth's  attraction  diminishes  with  the 
distance.  The  work,  which  displays  considerable  fancy  and  wit, 
was  translated  into  French,  and  was  imitated  in  several  important 
particulars  by  Cyrano  de  Bergerac,  from  whom  (if  not  from 
Godwin  direct)  Swift  obtained  valuable  hints  in  writing  of 
Gulliver's  voyage  to  Laputa.  Another  work  of  Godwin's,  Nuncius 
inanimattu  Utopiae,  originally  published  in  1629  and  again  in 
1657,  seems  to  have  been  the  prototype  of  John  Wiikins's 
Mercury,  or  the  Secret  and  Swift  Messenger,  which  appeared  in 
X641.    He  died,  after  a  lingering  illness,  in  April  1633. 

GODWIN.  MARY  WOLLSTONECRAFT  (i759-i797)>  English 
miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  at  Hoxton,  on  the  27th  of  April 
1759.  Her  family  was  of  Irish  extraction,  and  Mary's  grand- 
father, who  was  a  respectable  manufacturer  in  Spitalfields, 
realized  the  property  which  his  son  squandered.  Her  mother, 
Elizabeth  Dixon,  was  Irish,  and  of  good  family.  Her  father. 
Edward  John  Wollstonecraft,  alter  dissipating  the  greater  part  of 
his  patrimony,  tried  to  earn  a  living  by  farming,  which  only 
plunged  him  into  deeper  difficulties,  and  he  led  a  wandering, 
shifty  life.  The  family  roamed  from  Hoxton  to  Edmonton,  to 
Essez,  to  Beverley  in  Yorkshire,  to  Laugharne,  Pembrokeshire, 
and  back  to  London  again. 

After  Mrs  Wollstonecraft 's  death  in  1780.  soon  followed  by  her 
husband's  second  marriage,  the  three  daughters,  Mary,  Everina 
and  Eliza,  sought  to  earn  their  own  livelihood.  The  sisters 
were  all  clever  women — Mary  and  Eliza  far  above  the  average 
— but  their  opportunities  of  culture  had  been  few.  Mary, 
the  eldest,  went  in  the  first  instance  to  live  with  her  friend 
Fanny  Blood,  a  girl  of  her  own  age,  whose  father,  like 
Wollstonecraft,  was  addicted  to  drink  and  dissipation.  As  long 
as  she  lived  with  the  Bloods,  Mary  helped  Mrs  Blood  to  earn 
money  by  taking  in  needlework,  while  Fanny  painted  in  water- 
colours.    Everina  went  to  live  with  her  brother  Edward,  and 


Eliza  made  a  hasty  and,  as  it  proved,  unhappy  raarria^  with  a 
Mr  Bishop.  A  legal  separation  was  af  terwaxds  obtained,  and  the 
sisters,  together  with  Fanny  Blood,  took  a  house,  first  at  Islington, 
afterwards  at  Newington  Green,  and  opened  a  school,  which  was 
carried  on  with  indifferent  success  for  nearly  two  years.  During 
their  residence  at  Newington  Green,  Mary  was  introduced  to  Dr 
Johnson,  who,  as  Godwin  tcUs  us,  *'  treated  her  with  particular 
kindness  and  attention." 

In  X  785  Fanny  Blood  married  Hugh  Skeys,  a  merchant,  and  went 
with  him  to  Lisbon,  where  she  died  in  childbed  after  sending  fM* 
Mary  to  nurse  her.  "  The  lossof  Fanny,"  as  she  said  in  a  letter  to 
Mrs  Skeys's  brother,  George  Blood, "  wassufficient  of  itself  to  have 
cast  a  cloud  over  my  brightest  days. ...  I  have  lost  all  relish  for 
pleasure,  and  life  seems  a  burden  almost  too  heavy  to  be  endured." 
Her  first  novel,  Mary,  a  Fiction  (1788),  was  intended  to  com- 
memorate her  friendship  with  Faimy.  After  closing  the  school  at 
Newington  Green,  Mary  became  governess  in  the  famQy  of  Lord 
Kingsborough,  in  Ireland.  Her  pupils  were  much  attached  to  her, 
especially  Margaret  King,  afterwards  Lady  Mountcashd;  and 
indeed,  Lady  Kingsborough  gave  the  reason  for  dismissing  her 
after  one  year's  service  that  the  children  loved  their  governess 
better  than  their  mother.  Mary  now  resolved  to  devote  herself 
to  literary  work,  and  she  was  encouraged  by  Jolmson.  the 
publisher  in  St  Paul's  churchyard,  for  whom  she  acted  as  literary 
adviser.  She  also  undertook  translations,  chiefly  from  the  French. 
The  Elements  of  Morality  (1790)  from  the  German  of  Salznaann, 
illustrated  by  Blake,  an  old-fashioned  book  for  children,  and 
Lavater's  Physiognomy  were  among  her  translations.  Her 
Origi$tal  Stories  from  Real  Life  were  published  in  X79X,  and,  with 
illustrations  by  Blake,  in  1796.  In  X792  appeared  A  Vindication 
of  the  Rights  of  Woman,  the  work  with  which  her  name  b  always 
associated. 

It  is  not  among  the  least  oddities  of  this  book  that  it  is  dedicated 
to  M.  Talleyrand  P£rigord,latebishopof  Autun.  Mary  Wollstone- 
craft still  believed  him  to  be  sincere,  and  working  in  the  same 
direction  as  herself.  In  the  dedication  she  states  the  "  main 
argument  "  of  the  work,  "  built  on  tliis  simple  principle  that,  if 
woman  be  not  prepared  by  education  to  become  the  companion 
of  man,  she  will  stop  the  progress  of  knowledge,  for  truth  must 
be  common  to  ail,  or  it  will  be  inefficacious  with  reqiect  to  its 
influence  or  general  practice."  In  carrying  out  this  argument  she 
used  great  plainness  of  speech,  and  it  was  this  that  caused  all,  or 
nearly  all,  the  outcry.  For  she  did  not  attack  the  institution  of 
marriage,  nor  assail  orthodox  religion;  her  book  was  really  a  plea 
for  equality  of  education,  passing  into  one  for  state  education  and 
for  the  joint  education  of  the  sexes.  It  was  a  protest  against  the 
assumption  that  woman  was  only  the  plaything  of  man,  and  she 
asserted  that  intellectual  companionship  was  the  chief,  as  it  is 
the  lasting,  happiness  of  marriage.  She  thus  directly  opposed  the 
teaching  of  Rousseau,  of  whom  she  was  in  other  respects  an 
ardent  disdple. 

Mrs  Wollstonecraft,  as  she  now  stylfed  herself,  desired  to  watch 
the  progress  of  the  Revolution  in  France,  and  went  to  Paris  in 
X792.  Godwin,  in  his  memoir  of  his  wife,  considers  that  the 
change  of  residence  may  have  been  prompted  by  the  discovery 
that  she  was  becoming  attached  to  Henry  Fuseli,  but  there  is 
little  to  confirm  this  surmise;  indeed,  it  was  first  proposed  that 
she  should  go  to  Paris  in  company  with  him  and  his  wife,  nor 
was  there  any  subsequent  breach  in  their  friendship.  She  re- 
mained in  Paris  during  the  Reign  of  Terror,  when  communication 
with  England  was  difficult  or  almost  impossible.  Some  time  in 
the  spring  or  summer  of  1 793  Captain  Gilt>ert  Imlay,  an  American, 
became  acquainted  with  Mary — an  acquaintance  which  ended  in 
a  more  intimate  connexion.  There  was  no  legal  ceremony  of 
marriage,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  a  marriage  would  have 
been  valid  at  the  time;  but  she  passed  as  Imlay's  wife,  and 
Imlay  himself  terms  her  in  a  legal  document,  "  Mary  Imlay,  my 
best  friend  and  wife."  In  August  1793  Imlay  was  called  to  Havre 
on  business,  and  was  absent  for  some  months,  during  which 
time  most  of  the  letters  published  after  her  death  by  Godwin 
were  written.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year  she  joined  Imlay  at 
Havre,  and  there  in  the  spring  of  1794  she  gave  birth  to  a  girt. 


GODWIN,  W. 


177 


who  received  the  name  of  Fanny,  in  memory  of  the  dear  friend  of 
her  youth.  In  this  year  she  published  the  first  volume  of  a  never 
completed  Histoncal  and  Moral  View  of  ike  French  Revolution. 
Imlay  became  involved  in  a  multitude  of  speculations,  and  his 
affection  for  Mary  and  their  child  was  already  waning.  He  left 
Mazy  for  some  months  at  Havre.  In  June  1795,  after  joining 
him  in  England,  Mary  left  for  Norway  on  business  for  Imlay. 
Her  letters  from  Norway,  divested  of  all  personal  details,  were 
afterwards  published.  She  returned  to  England  late  in  2795, 
and  found  letters  awaiting  her  from  Imlay,  intimating  his  inten- 
tion to  separate  from  her,  and  offering  to  settle  an  annuity  on  her 
and  her  child.  For  herself  she  rejected  this  offer  with  scorn: 
**  From  you,"  she  wrote,  "  I  will  not  receive  anything  more.  I 
am  not  sufficiently  humbled  to  depend  on  your  beneficence.? 
They  met  again,  and  for  a  short  time  lived  together,  until  the 
discovery  t^t  he  was  carrying  on  an  intrigue  under  her  own 
roof  drove  her  to  despair,  and  she  attempted  to  drown  herself 
by  leaping  from  Putney  bridge,  but  was  rescued  by  watermen. 
Imlay  now  comidetely  deserted  her,  although  she  continued  to 
bear  his  name. 

In  1796,  when  Mary  WoUstonecraft  was  living  in  London, 
supporting  herself  and  her  child  by  working,  as  before,  for  Mr 
Johnami,  she  met  William  Godwin.  A  friendship  sprang  up 
between  them, — a  friendship,  as  he  himself  says,  which  "  melted 
into  love."  Godwin  states  that  "  ideas  which  he  is  now  willing 
to  denominate  prejudices  made  him  by  po  means  willing  to 
conform  to  the  ceremony  of  marriage  ";  but  these  pitjudices 
were  overcome,  and  they  were  married  at  St  Pancras  church  on 
the  a9th  of  March  1797.  And  now  Mary  had  a  season  of  real 
calm  in  her  stormy  existence.  Godwin,  for  once  only  in  his  life, 
was  stirred  by  passion,  and  his  admiration  for  his  irife  equalled 
his  affection.  But  their  happiness  was  of  short  duration.  The 
btrth  of  her  daughter  Mary,  afterwards  the  wife  of  Percy  Bysshe 
Shelley,  on  the  30th  of  August  1797,  proved  fatal,  and  Mrs 
Godwin  died  on  the  xoth  of  September  following.  She  was 
buried  in  the  churchyard  of  Old  St  Pancras,  but  her  remains 
were  afterwards  removed  by  Sir  Percy  Shelley  to  the  churchyard 
of  St  Peter's,  Bournemouth. 

Her  principal  publiihed  works  are  as  fcXUnm—Tlumfhls  on  (he 
'"^     ^'  /—«-*-    jTu  PemaU  Reader  {wtAecXxaoM) 

\)\  An  Historical  and 

_  ^         ,         French  Reooluliont  and 

Ike  efeeis  U  has  tto^iced  in  Europe^  vol.  i.  (no  more  published) 
(1790):  Vindication  of  the  Rithts  of  Woman  (1793);  Vindication 
of  Ae  Rights  of  Man  (1793) ;  j/arv,  a  Fiction  (1788) ;  Letters  written 
daring  a  Short  Residence  *n  Steeden,  Norway  and  Denmarh  (1796): 
Foslhumons  Worhs  U  vols..  1798).  it  is  imposmble  to  trace  the  many 
articles  oontriboted  by  her  to  oenodical  literature. 

A  memoir  of  her  life  was  published  by  Godwin  in  1798.  A  large 
portico  of  C  Kegan  Paul's  work,  Wiiltam  Godwin,  his  Friends  and 
Contemporaries,  was  devoted  to  her,  and  an  edition  of  the  Letters  to 
Imlay  11879).  of  which  the  firat  edition  was  published  by  Godwin, 
tt  prefaced  by  a  soncwhat  fuller  memoir.  See  also  E.  Dowden, 
The  French  Reoolulion  and  English  Literature  (1897)  pp.  82  et  seq.; 
E.  R.  PenncU,  Mary  WoUstonecraft  Godwin  (1883).  in  the  Eminent 
Women  Series;  E.  R.  Cknigh,  A  Study  of  Mary  WoUstoneeraft  and 
Ae  Riehls  of  Woman  (1S98) :  an  edition  of  her  OngyMl  Storus  O^). 
with  William  Blake's  illustrations  and  an  introduction  by  E.  V. 
LiKas:  and  the  Looe  Letters  of  Mary  WoUstonecraft  to  Gilbert  Imlay 
(1908),  with  an  introduction  by  Roger  Ingpen. 

«ODWDI,  WIUIAH  (1756-1836),  English  poh'Ucal  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  son  of  a  Nonconformist  minister,  was  bom 
on  the  3rd  of  March  x  756,  at  Wisbeach  in  Cambridgeshire.  His 
family  came  on  both  sides  of  middle-class  people,  and  it  was 
probably  only  as  a  joke  that  Godwin,  a  stem  political  reformer 
and  philoaophical  radical,  attempted  to  trace  his  pedigree  to  a 
time  before  the  Norman  conquest  and  the  great  earl  Godwine. 
Both  parents  were  strict  Calvinists.  The  father  died  young,  and 
never  uofatA  love  or  much  regret  in  his  son;  but  in  spite  of 
wide  differences  of  opinion,  tender  affection  always  subsisted 
between  William  Godwin  and  his  mother,  until  her  death  at  an 
advanced  age. 

WiDiam  Godwin  was  educated  for  his  father's  profession  at 

Hoxton  Academy,  where  he  was  under  Andrew  Kippis  the 

biognpher  and  Dr  Abraham  Rees  of  the  Cyclopaedia,  and  was 

at  first  more  Calvinistic  than  his  teachers,  bcooming  a  Sande- 

xu.  4 


Her  principal  puoitsnea  worn  are  as  lonows?— 
Edueat£on  el  Daughters,. . .  (1787) :  The  Female  Re 
(1789):  Ortginal  Stories  from  Real  Life  (1791);  A\ 
Moral  View  of  Uu  Origin  and  Progress  of  tiie  French 


manian,  or  follower  of  John  Glas  (9.V.),  whom  he  describes  as 
"  a  celebrated  north-country  apostle  who,  after  Calvin  had 
damned  ninety-nine  in  a  hundred  of  mankind,  has  contrived  a 
scheme  for  damning  ninety-nine  in  a  hundred  of  the  followers 
of  Calvin."  He  then  acted  as  a  minister  at  Ware,  Stowmarket 
and  Beaconsfield.  At  Stowmarket  the  trachings  of  the  French 
philosophers  were  brought  before  him  by  a  friend,  Joseph  Fawcet, 
who  held  strong  republican  opinions.  He  came  to  London  in 
1782,  still  nominally  a  minister,  to  regenerate  society  with  his 
pen — a  real  enthusiast,  who  shrank  theoretically  from  no  con- 
clusions from  the  premises  which  he  laid  down.  He  adopted 
the  principles  of  the  Encydopaedists,  and  his  own  aim  was  the 
complete  overthrow  of  all  existing  institutions,  poUtical,  sodal 
and  religious.  He  believed,  however,  that  calm  discussion  was 
the  only  thing  needful  to  carry  every  change,  and  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end  of  his  career  he  deprecated  every  approach 
to  violence.  He  was  a  philosophic  radical  in  the  strictest  sense 
of  the  term. 

His  first  published  work  was  an  anonymous  Life  of  Lord 
Chatham  (1783).  Under  the  inappropriate  title  Sketches  of 
History  (1784)  he  published  under  his  own  name  six  sermons 
on  the  characters  of  Aaron,  Hazacl  and  Jesus,  in  which,  though 
writing  in  the  character  of  an  orthodox  Calvinist,  he  enunciates 
the  proposition  "  God  Himself  has  no  right  to  be  a  tyrant." 
Introduced  by  Andrew  Kippis,  he  began  to  write  in  1785  for  the 
Annual  Register  and  other  periodicals,  producing  also  three 
novels  now  forgotten.  The  "Sketches  of  English  History" 
written  for  the  Annual  Register  from  1785  onward  still  deserve 
study.  He  joined  a  club  called  the  "  Revolutionists,"  and 
associated  much  with  Lord  Stanhope,  Home  Tooke  and  Hol- 
cxofu    His  clerical  character  was  now  completely  dropped. 

In  2793  Godwin  published  his  great  work  on  political  sdence. 
The  Inquiry  concerning  Political  Justice,  and  its  Influence  om 
General  Virtue  and  Happiness.  Although  this  work  is  little 
known  and  less  read  now,  it  marks  a  phase  in  English  thought. 
Godwin  could  never  have  been  himself  a  worker  on  the  active 
stage  of  life.  But  he  was  none  the  less  a  power  behind  the 
workers,  and  for  its  pditical  effect.  Political  Justice  takes  its 
place  with  Milton's  Areopagitica,  with  Locke's  Essay  on  Educa- 
tion and  with  Rousseau's  £mile.  By  the  words  "political 
justice  "  the  author  meant  "  the  adoption  of  any  principle  of 
morality  and  truth  into  the  practice  of  a  community,"  and  the 
work  was  therefore  an  inquiry  into  the  principles  of  sodety,  of 
govemment  and  of  morals.  For  many  years  Godwin  had  been 
"  satisfied  that  monarchy  was  a  q)cdes  of  govemment  unavoid- 
ably corrupt,"  and  from  desiring  a  govemment  of  the  simplest 
construction,  he  gradually  came  to  consider  that  "govemment 
by  its  very  nature  counteracts  the  improvement  of  original 
mind."  Believing  in  the  perfectibility  of  the  race,  that  there  are 
no  innate  prindples,  and  therefore  no  original  propensity  to  evil, 
he  considered  that  "  our  virtues  and  our  vices  may  be  traced 
to  the  inddents  which  make  the  history  of  our  lives,  and  if  these 
inddents  could  be  divested  of  every  improper  tendency,  vice 
would  be  extirpated  from  the  world."  All  control  of  man  by  man 
was  more  or  less  intolerable,  and  the  day  would  come  when  each 
man,  doing  what  seems  right  in  his  own  eyes,  would  also  be 
doing  what  is  in  fact  best  for  the  community,  because  all  will  be 
gtiided  by  prindples  of  pure  reason.  But  all  was  to  be  done  by 
discussion,  and  matured  change  resulting  from  discussion. 
Hence,  while  Godwin  thoroughly  approved  of  the  philosophic 
schemes  of  the  precursors  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  as  far 
removed  as  Burke  himself  from  agredng  with  the  way  in  which 
they  were  carried  out..  So  logical  and  uncompromising  a  thinker 
as  Godwin  could  not  go  far  in  the  discussion  of  abstract  questions 
without  exdting  the  most  lively  opposition  in  matters  of  detailed 
opinion.  An  i^ectionate  son,  and  ever  ready  to  give  of  his 
hard-earned  income  to  more  than  one  ne'er-do-well  brother,  he 
maintained  that  natural  relationship  had  no  daim  on  man,  nor 
was  gratitude  to  parents  or  benefactors  any  part  of  justice  or 
virtue.  In  a  day  when  the  penal  code  was  still  extremely  severe, 
he  argued  gravely  against  all  punishments,  not  only  that  of 
death.    Property  was  to  bdong  to  him  who  most  wanted  it; 

U 


178 


GODWIN-AUSTEN 


acqunulated  property  was  a  monstxons  injustice^  Hence 
maxriage,  which  is  law,  is  the  worst  of  all  laws,  and  as  property 
the  worst  ol-all  properties.  A  man  so  passionless  as  Godwin 
could  venture  thus  to  argue  without  su^idon  that  he  did  so  only 
to  gratify  his  wayward  desires.  Portions  of  this  treatise,  and 
only  portions,  found  ready  acceptance  in  those  minds  which  were 
prepared  to  receive*  them.  Perhaps  no  one  received  the  whole 
teaching  of  the  book.  But  it  gave  cohesion  and  voice  to  philo- 
sophic radicalism;  it  was  the  manifesto  of  a  school  without 
which  liberalism  of  the  present  day  had  not  been.  Godwin 
himself  in  after  days  modified  his  communistic  views,  but  his 
strong  feeling  for  individualism,  his  hatred  of  all  restrictions  on 
liberty,  his  trust  in  man,  his  faith  in  the  power  of  reason  remained ; 
it  was  a  manifesto  which  enunciated  principles  modifying  action, 
even  when  not  wholly  ruling  it. 

In  May  X794  Godwin  published  the  hovel  of  Caleb  WtUiamSf 
or  Things  as  they  arst  a  book  of  which  the  political  object  is 
overlooked  by  many  readers  in  the  strong  interest  of  the  story. 
The  book  was  dramatized  by  the  younger  Colman  as  ^he  Iron 
Chest,  It  is  one  of  the  few  novels  of  that  time  which  may  be  said 
still  to  live.'  A  theorist  who  lived  mainly  in  his  study,  Godwin 
yet  came  forward  boldly  to  stand  by  prisoners  arraigned  of  high 
treason  in  that  same  year — 1794.  The  danger  to  persons  so 
charged  was  then  great,  and  he  deliberately  put  himself  into 
this  same  danger  for  his  friends.  But  when  his  own  trial  was 
discussed  in  the  privy  council,  Pitt  sensibly  held  that  Political 
Justice,  the  work  on  which  the  charge  could  best  have  been 
founded,  was  priced  at  three  guineas,  and  could  never  do  much 
harm  among  those  who  had  not  three  shillings  to  spare. 

From  this  time  Godwin  became  a  notable  figure  in  London 
society,  and  there  was  scarcely  an  important  person  in  politics, 
on  the  Liberal  side,  in  literature,  art  or  science,  who  does  not 
appear  familiarly  in  the  pages  of  Godwin's  singular  diary.  For 
forty-eight  years,  beginning  in  1788,  and  continuing  to  the  very 
end  of  his  life,  Godwin  kept  a  record  of  every  day,  of  the  work 
he  did,  the  books  he  read,  the  friends  he  saw.  Condensed  in  the 
highest  degree,  the  diary  is  yet  easy  to  read  when  the  style  is 
once  mastered,  and  it  is  a  great  help  to  the  understanding  of  his 
cold,  methodical,  unimpassioned  character.  He  carried  his 
method  into  every  detail  of  life,  and  lived  on  his  earnings  with 
extreme  frugality.  Until  be  made  a  large  sum  by  the  publication 
of  Political  Justice,  he  lived  on  an  average  of  £1 20  a  year. 

In  1797,  the  intervening  years  having  been  spent  in.strenuous 
literary  labour,  Godwin  married  Mary  Wollstonecraft  (see 
Godwin^  Masy  WoLLSTONECaAPT).  Since  both  held  the  same 
views  regarding  the  shivery  of  marriage,  and  since  they  only 
married  at  all  for  the  sake  of  possible  offspring,  the  marriage 
was  concealed  for  some  time,  and  the  happiness  of  the  avowed 
married  life  was  very  brief;  his  wife's  death  on  the  loth  of 
September  left  Godwin  prostrated  by  affliction,  and  with  a 
charge  for  which  he  was  wholly  unfit — his  infant  daughter  Mary, 
and  her-  stepsister,  Fanny  Imlay,  who  from  that  time  bore  the 
name  of  Godwin.  His  unfitness  for  the  cares  of  a  family,  far 
more  than  love,  led  him  to  contract  a  second  marriage  with 
Mary  Jane  Gairmont  in  x8ox.  She  was  a  widow  with  two 
children,  one  of  whom,  Clara  Mary  Jane  Clairmont,  became  the 
mistress  of  Lord  Byron.  The  second  Mrs  Godwin  was  energetic 
and  painstaking,  but  a  harsh  stepmother;  and  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  children  were  not  worse  off  under  her  cire 
than  they  would  have  been  under  Godwin's  neglect. 

The  second  novel  which  proceeded  from  Godwin's  pen  was 
called  St  Leon,  and  published  in  1799.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable 
for  the  beautiful  portrait  of  Marguerite,  the  heroine,  drown  from 
the  character  of  his  own  wife.  His  opinions  underwent  a  change 
in  the  direction  of  theism,  influenced,  he  says,  by  his  acquaintance 
with  Coleridge.  He  also  became  known  to  Wordsworth  and 
Lamb.  Study  of  the  Elizabethan  dramatists  led  to  the  produc- 
tion jn  1800  of  the  Tragedy  of  Antonio.  Kemble  brought  it  out 
at  Drury  Lane,  but  the  failure  of  this  attempt  made  him  refuse 

*  For  an  anaIyn»of  Caleb  Williams  see  the  chapter  on  *'  Theorists 
of  Revolution  **  in  frofeMor  E.  Dowden's  Tkt  French  RtaoluHon 
and  En^ish  IMerahm-  (1897). 


Abbas,  King  of  Persia,  which  Godwin  offered  him  in  the  nest 
year.  He  was  more  suoceasf  nl  with  his  Life  of  Chancer,  for  which 
he  received  £600. 

The  events  of  Godwin's  life  were  few.  Under  the  advice  of 
the  second  Mrs  Godwin,  and  with  her  active  cooperation,  he 
carried  on  business  as  a  bookseller  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Edward  Baldwin,  publishing  several  useful  school  books  and 
books  for  children,,  among  them  Charles  and  Mary  Lamb's  To/er 
from  Shakespeare,  But  the  specdation  was  unsuccessful,  and 
for  many  years  Godwin  struggled  with  constant  pecuniary 
difficulties,  for  which  more  than  one  subscription  was  raised 
by  the  leaders  of  the  Liberal  party  and  by  literary  men.  He 
became  bankrupt  in  x82»,  but  during  the  following  years  he 
accomplished  one  of  his  best  pieces  of  work.  The  History  of  the 
Commonwealth,  founded  on  pamphlets  and  ori^al  documents, 
which  still  xetains  considerable  value.  In  1833  the  govenoment 
of  Earl  Grey  conferred  upon  him  the  office  known  as  yeomam 
usher  of  the  exchequer,  to  which  were  attached  apa'rtments  in 
Palace  Yard,  where  he  died  on  the  7th  of  April  X836. 

In  his  own  time,  by  his  writings  and  by  his  conversation, 
Godwin  had  a  great  power  of  influencing  men,  and  eq>eciaUy 
young  men.  Though  his  character  wouJd  seem,  from  much 
which  is  found  in  his  writings,  and  from  anecdotes  told  by  those 
who  still  remember  him,  to  have  been  unsympathetic,  it  was  not 
so  understood  by  enthusiastic  young  people,  who  hung  on  his 
wordsas  those  of  a  prophet.  The  most  remarkable.of  these  was 
Percy  Bysshe  Shelley,  who  in  the  glowing  dawn  of  his  genius 
turned  to  Godwin  as  his  teacher  a^d  guide.  The  last  of  the  long 
series  of  young  men  who  sat  at  Godwin's  feet  was  Edward  Lytton 
Bulwer,  afterwards  Lord  Lytton,  whose  early  romances  were 
formed  after  those  of  Godwin,  and  who,  in  Eugene  Aram,  suc« 
ceeded  to  the  story  as  arranged,  and  the  plan  to  a  considerable 
extent  sketched  out,  by  Godwin,  whose  age  and  failing  health 
prevented  him  from  completing  it  Godwin's  character  ai^>eazs 
in  the  worst  light  in  connexion  with  Shelley.  His  early  corre- 
spondence with  Shelley,  which  began  in  x8x  r,  is  remarkable  for 
its  genuine  good  sense  and  kindness;  but  when  Shelley  carried 
out  the  principles  of  the  author  of  Political  Justice  in  eloping 
with  Mary  Godwin,  Godwin  assumed  a  hostile  attitude  that 
would  have  been  unjustifiable  in  a  man  of  ordinary  views,  and 
was  ridiculous  in  the  light  of  his  professions.  He  was  not,  more 
over,  too  proud  to  accept  £xooo  from  his  son-inrlaw,  and  after 
the  reconciliation  following  on  Shelley's  marriage  in  x8i6,  he 
continued  to  demand  money  until  Shelley's  death.  His  character 
had  no  doubt  suffered  under  his  long  embam^ssments  and  his 
unhappy  marriage. 

Godwin's  more  important  works  are — The  Inquiry  concerning 
Polttieal  Justice,  and  tts  Influence  on  General  Virtue  and  Ha^pineu 
(1793):  Thtngs  as  they  are,  or  the  Adventures  of  Caleb  WtUioms 
(1794),  The  Inquirer,  a  series  of  Essays  (1797):  Memoirs  of  the 
Author  of  the  Rights  of  Womanp7i)») ;  St  Leon,  ataleo/lhe  Sixteenth 


Century  6799);  Antoftio,  a  tragedy  (1800):  The  Life  of  Chancer 
(1803);  Fleetwood,  a  Novel  (1805):  Faulkner,  a  Trag^y  (1807); 
Essay  on  Sepulchres  (1809);  Lives  of  Edward  and  John  Philtps,  the 
Nephews  of  Milton  (1813^ ;  Mandenlle,  a  Tale  of  the  Ttmes  of  Crom- 
well O817):  Of  Populatton,  an  answer  to  Malthus  (1820);  History 
of  the  Commonwealth  (1824--1828):  CloudesUy,  a  Novel  (1830): 
Thoughts  on  Man,  a  series  of  Essays  (t  83 1 ) ;  Lives  of  the  Necromancers 
(183^).    A  volume  of  essays  was  also  coUcctcd  from  hb  papers  and 

gubluhcd  in  i873,as  left  for  publication  by  his  daushter  Mrs  Shelley 
lany  other  short  and  anonymous  worln  proceeded  from  his  ever 
busy  pen,  but  manvaie  irrecoverable,  and  all  are  forgotten.  Godwin's 
life  wav  published  in  x876  in  two  volumes,  under  the  title  Williaift 
Godwin,  his  Friends  and  Contemporaries,  by  C  Kegan  Paul  The 
best  estimate  of  his  literary  position  is  that  given  by  Sir  Leslie 
Stephen  in  his  English  Thought  in  the  j8th  Century  (it.  2(64-281 ;  ed., 
1902).  See  also  the  article  on  Willtan\  Godwin  in  W.  Ha«Utt*s 
The  SpirU  cf  the  Age  (1835).  and  "  Godwin  and  Shelley  "  m  ^  U 
Stephen's  Hours  in  a  Library  <voL  iiL,  ed.  1892). 

OODWIN-AUSTBII*  ROBERT  AtFRBD  CiOTNB  (x8o8<-i884). 
English  geologist,  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Henry  E.  Austen,  was 
bom  on  the  X7th  of  March  x8o8.  He  was  educated  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxfoid,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1830  Be 
afterwards  entered  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  X833  he  married  the  only 
daughter  and  heiress  of  General  Sir  Henry  T  Godwin,  ILC  B  , 
and  he  took  the  additional  name  of  Godwin  by  Royal  licence 


GODWINE— GODWIT 


179 


in  1854.  At  Oifoid  as  a  pupfl  of  William  BucUand  be  became 
deeply  interested  in  geology,  and  soon  afterwards  becoming 
acquainted  with  De  la  Becbe,  he  was  inspired  by  that  great 
master,  and  assisted  him  by  making  a  geological  map  of  the 
neighbourhood  of  Newton  Abbot,  which  was  embodied  in  the 
Geological  Survey  map.  He  also  published  an  elaborate  memoir 
*'  On  the  Geology  of  the  South-East  of  Devonshire  "  {Trans. 
CtU.  Soc.  ser.  s,  voL  viii.).  His  attention  was  next  directed  to 
the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  Surrey,  his  home-county,  his  estates 
being  situated  at  Chilworth  and  Shalford  near  Guildford  Later 
lie  dealt  with  the  superficial  accumulations  bordering  the  English 
Channel,  and  with  the  erratic  boulders  of  Selsea.  In  1855  be 
brought  before  the  Geological  Society  of  London  his  celebrated 
p(^>er  "  On  the  possible  Extension  of  the  Coal-Measures  beneath 
the  South-Eastem  part  of  Eni^and,"  in  which  he  tainted  out 
on  wdl-considered  theoretical  grounds  the  likelihood  of  coal- 
measures  being  some  day  reached  in  that  area.  In  this  article 
he  also  advocated  the  freshwater  origin  of  the  Old  Red  Sand* 
stone,  and  discussed  the  reUtions  of  that  formation,  and  of  the 
Devonian,  to  the  Silurian  and  Carboniferous.  He  was  elected 
F.ILS.  in  1849,  and  in  1862  he  was  awarded  the  Wollaston  medal 
by  the  Geological  Sodcty  of  London,  on  which  occasion  he  was 
styled  by  Sir  R.  L  Murchison  "pre-eminently  the  physical 
geographer  of  bygone  periods"  He  died  at  Shalford  House 
near  Guildford  on  the  25th  of  November.  1884. 

His  8<m,  Lieut  Colonel  Hensv  Havi^isbam  Godwxn-Austem 
(b  1834),  entered  the  army  in  1851.  and  served  for  many  years 
on  the  Trigonometrical  Survey  of  India,  retiring  in  1877  He 
gave  much  attention  to  geology,  but  is  more  especially  dis- 
tinguished for  his  researches  on  the  natural  history  of  India 
and  as  the  author  of  The  Land  and  Freskwakt  MMusca  of  India 
(1882-1887) 

WXOWm  (d.  IOS3),  ion  of  Wulfnoth,  earl  of  the  West- 
Saxons,  the  leading  Englishman  in  the  first  half  of  the  nth 
century.  His  birth  and  origin  are  utterly  uncertain;  but  he 
rase  to  power  eariy  in  Canute's  reign  and  was  an  earl  in  Z028. 
Be  received  in  marriage  Gytha,  a  connexion  of  the  king's,  and 
in  X030  became  earl  of  the  West-Saxons.  On  the  death  of  Canute 
in  X035  he  joined  with  Queen  Emma  in  supporting  the  claim 
of  Hardacanutc,  the  son  of  Canute  and  Emma,  to  the  crown  of 
his  father,  in  opposition  to  Leofric  and  tlw  northern  party  who 
supported  Harold  Harefoot  (see  Hasdxcanutz).  While  together 
tlicy  hdd  Wessex  for  Hardicanute,  the  etheling  iEUred,  son  of 
Emmn  by  her  former  husband  iEthelred  U.,  landed  in  England 
in  the  hapt  of  winning  back  his  father's  crown;  but  falling  into 
the  hands  of  Godwine,  he  and  his  followers  were  cruelly  done  to 
death.  On  the  death  of  Hardicanute  in  Z042  Godwine  was 
foremost  in  promoting  the  election  of  Edward  (the  Confessor) 
to  the  vacant  throne.  He  was  now  the  first  man  in  the  kingdom, 
tfaoQ^  his  power  was  still  balanced  by  that  of  the  other  great 
earls,  Leofric  of  Merda  and  Siward  of  Northumberland,  His 
SOBS  Sweyn  and  Harold  were  promoted  to  earldoms;  and  his 
dan^ter  Eadgyth  was  married  to  the  king  (1045).  His  policy 
was  strong  national  in  opposition  to  the  marked  Normanizlng 
tcndeacics  of  the  king.  Between  him  and  Edward's  foreign 
favourites,  particularly  Robert  of  Jumiiges,  there  was  deadly 
lend.  The  ^pointment  of  Robert  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
boxy  in  X05X  marks  the  decline  of  Godwine's  power;  and  in  the 
same  year  a  series  of  outrages  committed  by  one  of  the  king's 
foreign  favourites  led  to  a  hreach  between  the  king  and  the  earl, 
which  culminated  in  the  exile  of  the  latter  with  all  his  family  (see 
EowAXD  THE  Coktsssor).  But  uext  year  Godwine  returned  in 
trioiiqA;  and  at  a  great  meeting  held  outside  London  he  and 
his  family  were  restored  to  all  their  offices  and  possessions, 
and  the  archbishop  anil  many  other  Normans  were  banished. 
In  the  following  year  Godwine  was  smitten  with  a  fit  at  the 
kh^s  table,  and  died  three  days  later  on  the  15th  of  April  1053. 

Godwine  appears  to  have  had  seven  sons,  three  of  whom — 
King  Harold,  G3rrth  and  Leof wine— were  killed  at  Hastings; 
two  others,  Wulfnoth  and  ./Elf gar,  are  of  h'ttle  importance; 
another  was  Earl  Tostig  {q.t.)  The  eldest  son  was  Sweyn,  or 
fiv^goi  (d.  1051),  who  was  outlawed  foe  lediidng  Eadgifu 


abbess  of  Leominster.  After  fighting  for  the  king  of  Denmark 
he  returned  to  England  in  Z049,  ^ben  his  inurder  of  his  cousin 
Beorn  compelled  him  to  leave  England  for  the  second  time. 
In  1050,  however,  he  regained  his  earldom,  and  in  1051  he  shared 
his  father's  exile.  To  atone  for  the  murder  of  Beorn,  Sweyn 
went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and  on  the  return  journey 
he  died  on  the  29th  of  September  1052,  meeting  his  deatl^ 
according  to  one  account,  at  the  hands  of  the  Sara^ns. 

OODWIT,  a  word  of  unknown  origin,  the  name  commonly 
applied  to  a  marsh-bird  in  great  repute,  when  fattened,  for  the 
table,  and  formerly  abundant  in  the  fens  of  Norfolk,  the  Isle 
of  Ely  and  Lincolnshire.  In  Turner's  days  (1544)  it  was  worth 
three  times  as  much  as  a  snipe,  and  at  the  same  peroid  Belon 
said  of  it—"  C'est  vn  Oyseau  es  delices  des  Fran^oys."  Casaubon, 
who  Latinised  its  name  "  Dei  ingenium  (Ephemerides,  19th 
Sq>tember  x6zr),  was  told  by  the  "  omitkotropkaeus  "  he  visited 
at  Wisbech  that  in  London  it  fetched  twenty  pence.  Its  fame 
as  a  delicacy  is  perpetuated  by  many  later  writers,  Ben  Jonson 
among  them,  and  Pennant  says  that  in  his  time  (1766)  it  sold  for 
half-a-crown  cm*  five  shillings.  Under  the  name  godwit  two 
perfectly  distinct  species  of  British  birds  were  included,  but  that 
which  seems  to  have  been  especially  prized  is  known  to  modem 
ornithologists  as  the  black-tailed  godwit,  Limosa  aegocepkalat 
formerly  called,  from  its  lout)  cry,  «  yarwhelp,'  shrieker  or 
barker,  in  the  districts  it  inhabited,  lie  practice  of  netting 
this  bird  in  large  numbers  during  the  spring  and  summer,  coupled 
with  the  gradual  reclamation  of  the  fens,  to  which  it  resorted^ 
has  now  rendered  it  but  a  visitor  in  England;  and  it  probably 
ceased  from  breeding  regularly  in  Enghtnd  in  1824  or  thereabouts, 
though  under  favourable  conditions  it  may  have  occasionally 
laid  its  eggs  for  some  thirty  years  later  or  more  (Stevenson, 
Birds  0/  Norfolk^  iL  250).  This  godwit  is  a  species  of  wide 
range,  reaching  Iceland,  where  it  is  called  Jardraeka  (■■earth- 
raker),  in  summer,  and  occurring  numerously  in  India  in  winter. 
Its  chief  breeding-quarters  seem  to  extend  from  Holland  east- 
wards to  the  south  of  Russia.  The  second  British  apedes  is  that 
which  is  known  as  the  bar-tailed  godwit,  L.  lapponkd,  and  this 
seems  to  have  never  been  more  than  a  bird  of  doilble  passage 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  arriving  in  largie  flocks  on  the  south 
coast  about  the  x  2  th  of  May,  and,  after  staying  a  few  days, 
proceeding  to  the  north-eastward.  It  is  known  to  breed  in 
Lapland,  but  its  eggs  are  of  great  rarity.  Towards  autumn 
the  young  visit  the  English  coasts,  and  a  few  of  them  remain, 
together  with  some  of  the  other  species,  in  favourable  situations 
throughout  the  winter  One  of  the  local  names  by  which  the 
bar-tailed  godwit  is  known  to  the  Norfolk  gunners  is  scamell, 
a  word  which,  in  the  mouth  of  Caliban  ( Tempest,  ix.  ii.),  has  been 
(he  cause  of  much  perplexity  to  Shakespearian  critics^ 

The  godwits  bdong  to  the  group  Limicolae,  and  are  about  as 
big  as  a  tame  pigeon,  but  possess  long  legs,  and  a  long  bill  with 
a  slight  upward  turn.  It  is  believed  that  in  the  genus  Limosa 
the  female  is  larger  than  the  male.  While  the  winter  plumage 
is  of  a  sober  greyish-brown,  the  breeding-dress  is  marked  by  a 
predominance  of  bright  bay  or  chestnut,  rendering  the  wearer 
a  very  beautiful  object.  The  black-tailed  godwit,  though  varying 
a  good  deal  in  size,  is  constantly  larger  than  the  bar-tailed,  and 
especially  longer  in  the  legs.  The  species  may  be  further  distin- 
gidshed  by  the  former  having  the  proximal  third  of  the  tail-quills 
pure  white,  and  the  distal  two-thirds  black,  with  a  narrow  white 
margin,  while  the  latter  has  the  same  feathers  barred  with 
black  and  white  alternately  for  nearly  their  whole  length. 

America  possesses  two  species  of  the  genus,  the  very  large 
marbled  godwit  or  marUn,  L.  fedoa^  easily  recognised  by  its  sise 
and  the  buff  colour  of  its  axiUaries,  and  the  smaller  Hudsonian 
godwit,  L.  hvdsonica,  which  has  its  axillaries  of  a  deep  black. 
This  last,  though  less  numerous  than  its  congener,  seems  to 
range  over  the  whole  of  the  continent,  breeding  in  the  extreme 
north,  while  it  has  been  obtained  also  in  the  Strait  of  Magellan 
and  the  Falkland  Islands.  The  first  seems  not  to  go  farther 
southward  than  the  Antilles  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 


*  This  name 
in  Suffolk. 


to  have  survived  in  Whdp  Moor,  near  Brandon, 


i8o 


GOEBEN— GOES,  D.  DE 


From  Asia,'  or  at  least  its  eastern  part,  two  species  .have 
been  described.  One  of  them,  L.  mdanuroides,  differs  only 
from  L.  aegocephala  in  its  smaller  siz€,  and  is  believed  to  breed 
in  Amurland,  wintering  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  New 
Zealand  and  Australia.  The  other,  L.  uropygialist  is  dosely 
allied  to  and  often  mistaken  for  L,  lapponkaf  from  which  it 
chiefly  differs  by  having  the  rump  barred  like  the  tail  This 
was  found  breeding  in  the  extreme  north  of  Siberia  by  Di  von 
Middendorff,  and  ranges  to  Australia,  whence  it  was,  like  the 
last,  first  described  by  -Gould.  (A.  N  ) 

OOEBEN,  AUGUST  KARL  VON  (18x6-1880),  Prussian 
general  of  infantry,  came  of  old  Hanoverian  stock.  Bom  at 
Stade  on  the  xotfa  of  December  t8i6,  h^  aspired  frdm  his  earliest 
years  to  the  Prussian  service  rather  than  that  of  his  own  coimtry, 
4nd  at  the  age  of  seventeen  obtained  a  commission  in  the  34th 
regiment  of  Prussian  infantry.  But  there  was  little  scope  there 
^or  the  activities  of  a  yotmg  ukI  energetic  subaltern,  and,  leaving 
fhe  service  in  1836,  he  entered  the  CarHst  army  campaigning  in 
Spain.  In  the  five  campaigns  which  he  made  in  the  service  of 
Don  Carlos  he  had  many  and  various  vicissitudes  of  fortune. 
)Ie  had  not  fought  for  two  months  when  he  fell,  severely  wounded. 
Into  the  hands  of  the  Spanish  Royal  troops.  After  eight  months' 
detention  he  escaped,  but  it  was  not  long  before  he  was  captured 
again.  This  time  his  imprisonment  vras  long  and  painful,  and 
on  two  occasions  he  was  compelled^  to  draw  lots  for  his  life  with 
his  fellow-captives.  When  released,  he  served  till  1840  ^th 
distinction..  In  that  year  he  made  his  way  back,  a  beggar 
without  means  or  clothing,  to  Prussia.  The  Carlist  lieutenant- 
colonel  was  glad  to  be  re-admitted  into  the  Prussian  service  as  a 
second  lieutenant,  but  he  was  still  young,  and  few  subalterns 
could  at  the  age  of  twenty-four  cUdm  five  years'  meritorious 
war  service^  In  a  few  years  we  find  him  serving  as  captain  on  the 
Great  General  Staff,  and  in  1848  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  be 
transferred  to  the  staff  of  the  JVv  army  corps,  his  immediate 
superior  being  Major  von  Moltke.  The  two  " coming  men" 
became  fast  friends,  and  their  mutual  esteem  was  never  disturbed. 
In  the  Baden  insurrection  Goeben  served  with  distinction  on  the 
staff  of  Prince  William,  the  future  emperor.  Staff  and  regimental 
duty  (as  usual  in  the  Prussian  service)  alternated  for  some  years 
after  this,  till  in  1863  he  became  major-general  commanding  the 
26th  infantry  brigade.  In  x86o,  it  should  be  mentioned,  he 
was  present  with  the  Spanish  troops  in  Morocco,  and  took  par^ 
in  the  battle  of  Tetuan. 

In  the  first  of  Prussia's  great  wars  (1864)  he  distinguished 
himself  at  the  head  of  his  brigade  at  lUickebUll  and  Sonderburg. 
In  the  war  of  1866  Lieutenant-General  von  Goeben  commanded 
the  X3th  division,  of  which  his  old  brigade  formed  part,  and, 
in  this  higher  sphere,  once  more  displayed  the  qualities  of  a  bom 
leader  and  skilful  tactician.  He  held  almost  independent 
command  vdth  conspicuous  success  in  the  actions  of  Dermbach, 
Laufach,  Rissingen,  Aschaffenburg,  Gerchsheim,  Tauber- 
Bischofsheim  and  WOrzburg.  The  mobilization  of  1870  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  the  VIII.  (Rhineland)  army  cqrps,  forming 
part  of  the  First  Army  under  Steinmetz.  It  was  his  resolute  and 
energetic  leading  that  contributed  mainly  to  the  victory  of 
Spicheren  (6th  August),  and  won  the  only  laurels  gained  on  the 
Prussian  right  wing  at  Gravelotte  ( 1 8th  August) .  Under  Manteuffel 
the  VIII.  corps  took  part  in  the  operations  about  Amiens  and 
Bapaume,  and  on  the  8th  of  January  X87X  Coeben  succeeded 
that  general  in  the  command  of  the  First  Army,  with  which  he 
had  served  throughout -the  campaign  as  a  corps  commander. 
A  fortnight  later  he  had  brought  the  war  in  northern  France 
to  a  brilliant  conclusion,  by  the  decisive  victory  of  St  Quentin 
(i8th  and  19th  January  1871).  The  close  of  the  Franco-German 
War  left  Goeben  one  of  the  most  distinguished  men  in  the 
victorious  army.  He  was  colonel  of  the  28th  infantry,  and  had 
the  grand  cross  of  the  Iron  Cross.  He  conunanded  the  VIII. 
corps  at  Coblenz  until  his  death  in  1880. 

(jeneral  von  Goeben  left  many  writings.  His  memoirs  are  to 
be  found  in  his  works  Vier  Jahre  in  Spanien  (Hanover,  1841), 
RHse-und  Lagerbriefe  aus  Spanien  und  vom  spaniscken  Heere  in 
Uarokko  (Hanover,  1863)  and  in  the  Darmstadt  AUgemeinc 


MiUt&neiikHg^  The  former  French  port  (Queuleu)  at  Meu 
renamed  (loeben  after  him,  and  the  28th  infantry  bears  his  name 
A  statue  of  Goeben  by  Schaper  was  erected  at  Coblena  in  1884 
.  See  G  Zemin,  Das  Leben  des  Generals  August  von  Goeben  (2  vols., 
Beriin,  1895-1897) ;  H.  Barth,  A.  van  Goeben  (Beriin,  1906) ;  and.  for 
his  share  m  the  war  oi  1870-71 .  H.  Kunz,  Der  Feldsug  tm  N  und 
N  W.  Frankreichs  18/0-187/  (Beriin,  1889),  and  the  14th  Monograph 
of  the  Great  General  Staffs  (1891). 

QOBJB,  MICHAEL  JAN  DB  (1836-1909),  Dutch  orientalist. 
Was  born  in  FriesUnd  in  X836.  He  devot»l  himself  at  an  early 
age  to  the  study  of  oriental  languages  and  beoune  especially 
proficient  in  Arabic,  under  the  guidance  of  Dozy  and  Juynbol^ 
to  whom  he  was  afterwards  an  intimate  friend  and  colleague. 
He  took  his  degree  of  doctor  at  Leiden  in  x86o,  and  then  studied 
for  a  year  in  Oxford,  where  he  examined  and  collated  the  Bodleian 
MSS.  of  Idrlsl  (part  being  published  in  x866,  in  collaboratioa 
with  R.  P.  Dozy,  as  Description  de  PAfrique  ei  de  FEspagne), 
About  the  same  time  he  wrote  Mtmoires  de  VkisUrire  d  de  la 
giographie  orienUUeSt  and  edited  Expugnaiio  regionnm.  In 
1883.  on  the  death  of  Dozy,  he  became  Arabic  professor  at  Ldden, 
retiring  in  1906.  He  died  on  the  X7th  of  May  1909.  Thou^ 
perhaps  not  a  teacher  of  the  first  order,  he  widded  a  great 
influence  during  his  long  professoriate  not  only  over  his  pupils, 
but  over  theologians  and  eastern  administrators  who  attended 
his  lectures,  and  his  many  editions  of  Arabic  texts  have  been  of 
the  highest  value  to  scholars,  the  most  important  being  his  great 
edition  of  Tabarl.  Though  entirely  averse  from  politics,  he  took 
a  keen  interest  in  the  municipal  affairs  of  Leiden  and  made  a 
special  study  of  elementary  education.  He  took  the  leading  part 
in  the  International  Congress  of  Orientalists  at  Algiers  in  1905. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institut  de  France,  was  awarded  the 
German  Order  of  Merit,  and  received  an  honorary  doctorate  of 
Cambridge  University.  At  his  death  he  was  president  of  the 
newly  formed  International  Association  of  Academies  of  Sdence. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  Pragmenla  historicorum  Arabicomm 
(1869-1871);  Diwan  of  Moslim  ilm  al-WHid  (1875);  BiUiotheca 
geographorum  Arabicorum  (1870-1894);  Annals  of  T'^^^ori 
(1879-Z901);  edition  of  Ibn- Qotaiba's  biographies  (1904); 
of  the  travels  of  Ibn  Jubaye  (1907,  5th  vol.. of  Gibb  Memorial). 
He  was  also  the  chief  editor  of  the  Encyclopaedia  of  Islam  (vols, 
i.-iii.),  and  contributed  many  articles  to  periodicals.  He  wrote 
for  the  9th  and  the  present  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica, 

GOES,  DAMl20  DB  (x  503-1 574),  Portuguese*  humanist,  was 
bom  of  a  patridan  family  at  Alemquer,  in  Febraary  X502. 
Under  King  John  III.  he  was  employed  abroad  for  many  years 
from  1523  on  diplomatic  and  commercial  missions,  and  be 
travelled  over  the  greater  part  of' Europe.  He  was  intimate 
with  the  leading  scholars  of  the  time,  was  acquainted  with  Luther 
and  other  Protestant  divines,  and  in  1532  became  the  pupil  and 
friend  of  Erasmus.  Goes  took  his  degree  at  Padua  in  1 538  after 
a  four  years'  course.  In  1 537,  at  the  instance  of  his  f  nend  Cardinal 
Sadoleto,  he  undertook  to  mediate  between  the  Church  and  the 
Lutherans,  but  failed  through  the  attitude  of  the  Protesianta 
He  married  in  Flanders  a  rich  and  noble  Dutch  lady,  D  Joanna 
de  Hargen,  and  settled  at  Louvain,  then  the  literary  centre  of 
the  Low  Countries,  where  he  was  living  in  1542  when  the  French 
besieged  the  town.  He  was  given  the  command  of  the  defending 
forces,  and  saved  Louvain,  but  was  taken  pritener  and  confined 
for  nine  months  in  France,  till  he  obtained  his  freedom  by  a 
heavy  ransom.  He  was  rewarded,  however,  by  a  grant  of  anna 
from  Charles  V.  He  finally  relumed  to  Portugal  in  1545,  with 
a  view  of  becoming  tutor  to  the  king's  son,  but  he  failed  to 
obtain  this  post,  owing  to  the  denunciations  of  Father  Simon 
Rodriguez,  provincial  of  the  Jesuits,  who  accused  Cvoes  of 
favouring  the  Lutheran  doctrines  and  of  being  a  disdple  of 
Erasmus.  Nevertheless  in  1548  he  was  appointed  chief  keeper 
of  the  archives  and  royal  chronicler,  and  at  once  introdttced 
some  much-needed  reforms  into  the  administration  of  his  office. 

In  X55&  he  was  given  a  commission  to  write  a  history  of  the 
reign  of  King  Manoel,  a  task  previously  confided  to  Jofto  d« 
Barros,  but  relinquished  by  him.  It  was  an  onerous  undertaking 
lor  a  coDscientious  historian,  since  it  was  neccwary  to  expose 


GOES,  H.  VAN  DER— GOES 


i8i 


the  miseiies  as  well  as  relate  the  glories  of  the  period,  and  so  to 
offend  some  of  the  most  powerful  families.  Goes  had  already 
written  a  Ckronide  of  PrinM  John  (afterwards  John  II.)  >  "and 
when,  after  more  than  eight  years'  labour,  he  produced  the  First 
Part  of  his  Ckronide  of  King  Manoel  (1566),  a  chorus  of  attacks 
greeted  it,  the  edition  was  destroyed,  and  Ke  was  compelled  to 
issue  a  revised  version.  He  brought  out  the  three  other  parts 
in  1566-1567,  though  chapters  23  to  27  of  the  Third  Part  were 
so  mutilated  by  the  censorship  that  the  printed  text  differs 
largely  from  the  MS.  Hitherto  Goes,  notwithstanding  his  Liberal- 
ism, had  escaped  the  Inquisition,  though  in  1540  his  Pida, 
rdigiot  moresque  Aethiopum  had  been  prohibited  by  the  chief 
inquisitor,  Cardinal  D.  Henrique;  but  the  denunciation  of 
Father  Rodriguez  in  1545,  which  had  been  vainly  renewed  in 
iS50>  was  now  brought  into  action,  and  in  1571  he  was  arrested 
to  stand  his  trial.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  Inquisi- 
tion made  itself  on  this  occasion,  as  on  others,  the  instrument  of 
private  enmity;  for  eighteen  months  Goes  lay  ill  in  prison,  and 
then  he  was  condemned,  though  he  had  lived  for  thirty  years  as 
a  faithful  Catholic,  and  the  worst  that  could  be  proved  against 
him  was  that  in  his  youth  he  had  spoken  against  Indulg^ces, 
disbelieved  in  auricular  confession,  and  consorted  with  heretics. 
He  was  sentenced  to  a  term  of  redusion,  and  his  property  was 
confiscated  to  the  crown.  After  he  had  abjured  his  errors  in 
private,  he  was  sent  at  the  end  of  1572  to  "do  penance  at  the 
monastery  of  Batalha.  Later  he  was  allowed  to  return  home 
to  Alemquer,  where  he  died  on  the  30th  of  January  1574.  He 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  Nossa  Senhora  da  Varzea. 

Damiio  de  Goes  was  a  man  of  wide  ctilture  and  genial  and 
courtly  manners,  a  skilled  musician  and  a  good  linguist.  He 
wrote  both  Portuguese  and  Latin  with  classic  strength  and 
simplicity,  and  his  style  is  free  from  affectation  and  rhetorical 
ornaments.  His  portrait  by  Albrecht  Dttrer  shows  an  open, 
intelligent  face,  and  the  record  of  his  life  proves  him  to  have 
been  upright  and  fearless.  His  prosperity  doubtless  excited 
ill-will,  but  above  all,  his  ideas,  advanced  for  Portugal,  his  foreign 
ways,  outspokenness  and  honesty  contributed  to  the  tragedy 
of  his  end,  at  a  time  when  the  forces  of  ignorant  reaction  held 
the  ascendant.  He  had,  it  may  be  presumed,  given  some  um- 
brage \o  the  court  by  condemning,  in  the  Ckronide  of  King 
Maweif  the  royal  ingratitude  to  distinguished  public  servants, 
though  be  received  a  pension  and  other  rewards  fbr  that  work, 
and  he  had  certainly  offended  the  nobility  by  his  administration 
of  the  archive  office  and  by  exposing  !alse  genealogical  claims 
in  bis  NobUiario.  He  paid  the  penalty  for  telling  the  truth,  as 
be  knew  it,  in  an  age  when  an  historian  had  to  choose  between 
flattery  of  the  great  and  nlence.  llie  Ckronide  of  King  Manod 
was  the  first  official  history  of  a  Portuguese  reign  to  be  written 
in  a  critical  spirit,  and  Dami&o  de  Goes  has  the  honour  of  having 
been  the  first  Portuguese  royal  chronicler  to  deserve  the  name 
of  aa  historian. 

His  Portugune  works  include  Chronica  do  fdicissimo  rei  Dom 
Emanud  (parts  i.  and  is.,  Lisbon,  1566,  parts  iii.  and  iv.,  ib. 
1567).  Other  editbna  appeared  in  Lisbon  in  1619  and  1749  and  in 
Onrnbra  in  1790.  Ckrontea  do  Principe  Dom  Joom  (Lisbon,  1558), 
with  sabwquent  editions  in  1567  and  1734  in  Lisbon  and  in  1790  in 
OMDibra.  Li9ro  de  Marco  TuUio  Cicerom  chamado  Caiam  Mayor 
{Venice.  IS38).  This  is  a  translation  of  Cicero's  De  senectuU.  His 
Latin  worn,  niiblishcd  separatelv,  comprise:  (i)  LegcUio  magni  int- 
peraloris  Pnsbiteri  Joannis,  Sfc.  (Antwerp,  x  533) ;  (3)  Legatio  Daoidis 
■k,.t.  .. .-  «.-  /n.. ^   (3)CoinmeniartirerMmgestttrum 

,  rditio,  moresque  Aethiopum 

incorporating Nos.(i)  and  (3)  iis)Hispania(Louv^in, 

i^):  (6)  AlifHOi  eptstaiae  Sadoieti  Bembi  et  attorum  darissimorum 

^  ^g  (Louvain,  1544) ;  (7)  Damiani  a  Goes  equUis  Lusilani 


eUqmat  opuseuta  (Lou  vain.  1 54^) ;  (8)  Urbis  Lovaniensis  o^JMfia  (Lisbon. 
1546) :  (9)  De  beUo  Cambaico  idlimo  (Louvain,  15^0) ;  (10)  Urbis  Olisi- 
pomensia  descriptio  (Evora,  1 554) :  (i  I )  Epistda  adaieronymum  Cardo-. 
smm  dJ^dbon,  1556).  Most  of  the  above  went  through  several  editions. 


and  manvwcre  afterwards  included  with  new  works  in  such  collections 
as  Na  (7).  and  seven  sets  of  Opuseuta  appeared,  all  incomplete. 
^oa.  (x),  (4)  and  (5)  suffered  mutilation  m  subsequent  editions, 
at  the  fcainds  of  the  censors,  because  they  offended  against  religious 
octbodoacy  or  family  pride. 

AuTMOaiTfBS. — (A)  foaquim  de  Vasconcellos,  Coesiana  (5  vols.), 
with  the  following  sub-titles:  (i)  0  Retrato  de  Albrecht  Direr 
(Porto.  1079);  (3)  Bibliographia  (Porto,  1879),  which  describes  67 


numbers  of  books  by  Goes;  (3)  As  Variantes  das  Chronicas  Poriu- 
guesas  (Porto,  1881):  (4)  DamOo  de  Goes:  Novos  Estudos  (Porto, 
1897) ;  (.5)  As  Cartas  Latinos—  in  the  press  (1906).  Snr.  Vasconcellos 
only  pnnted  a  very  limited  number  of  copies  of  these  studies  for 
distribution  among  friends,  so  that  they  are  rare.  (B)  Guilherme 
J.  C.  Henriquea,  Ineditos  Goesianos,  vol.  i.  (Lisbon,  1896),  vol.  ii. 
(containing  the  Proceedings  at  the  trial  by  the  Inquisition)  (Lisbon, 
1898).  (CT)  A.  P.  Lopes  de  Mcndon^a,  Damido  de  Goes  e  a  Inquisifio 
de  Portugal  (Lisbon,  i8m).  (D)  Dr  Sousa  Viterbo,  Damido  de  Goes 
e  D.  Antonio  Pinheiro  (Coimbra,  1895).  (E)  Dr  Theophilo  Braga, 
Historia  da  Unioersidade  de  Coimbra  (Lisbon,  1893).  i.  374-380. 
(F)  Menendes  y  Pelayo,  Mistoria  de  las  Heter.  Bspaiioles,  ii. 
129-143-  (E.  Pa.) 

GOES.  HUGO  VAN  DER  (d.  1483),  a  painter  of  consider- 
able celebrity  at  Ghent,  was  known  to  Vasari,  as  he  is  known  to 
us,  by  a  single  picture  in  a  Fk>rentine  monastery.  At  a  period 
when  the  family  of  the  Medici  had  not  yet  risen  from  the  rank 
of  a  great  mercantile  firm  to  that  of  a  reigning  dynasty,  it  em- 
ployed as  an  agent  at  the  port  of  Bruges  Tommaso  Portinari,  a 
lineal  descendant,  it  was  said,  of  Folco,  the  father  of  Dante's 
Beatrix.  Tommaso,  at  that  time  patron  of  a  chapel  in  the  hospital 
of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  at  Florence,  ordered  an  altar-piece  of 
Hugo  van  der  Goes,  and  commanded  him  to  illustrate  the  sacred 
theme  of  "  Quem  genuit  adoravit."  In  the  centre  of  a  vast 
triptych,  comprising  numerous  figures  of  life  size,  Hugo  repre- 
sented the  Virgin  kneeling  in  adoration  before  the  new-bom 
Christ  attended  by  Shepherds  and  Angels.  On  the  wings  he 
portrajred  Tommaso  and  his  two  sons  in  prayer  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Saint  Anthony  and  St  Matthew,  and  Tommaso's 
wife  and  two  daughters  supported  by  St  Margaret  and  St  Mary 
Magdalen.  The  triptych,  which  has  suffered  much  from  decay 
and  restoring,  was  for  over  400  years  at  Santa  Maria  Nuova, 
and  is  now  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery.  Imposing  because  composed 
of  figures  of  unusual  size,  the  altar-piece  is  more  remarkable 
for  portrait  character  than  for  charms-of  ideal  beauty. 

Tliere  are  also  small  pieces  in  public  galleries  which  claim  to 
have  been  executed  by  Van  der  Goes.  One  of  these  pictures  in 
the  National  Gallery  in  London  is  more  nearly  allied  to  the  school 
of  Memling  than  to  the  triptych  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova;  another, 
a  small  and  very  beautiful  "  John  the  Baptist,"  at  the  Pina- 
kothek  of  Munich,  is  really  by  Memling;  whilst  numerous  frag- 
ments of  an  altazpicce  in  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna,  though 
assigned  t6  Hugo,  are  by  his  more  gifted  countryman  of  Bruges. 
Van  der  Goes,  however,  was  not  habitually  a  painter  of  easel 
pieces.  He  made  his  reputation  at  Bruges  by  producing  coloured 
hangings  in  disUmper.  After  he  settled  at  Ghent,  and  became  a 
master  of  his  gild  in  1465,  he  designed  cartoons  for  glass  windows. 
He  also  made  decorations  for  the  wedding  of  Charles  the  Bold  and 
Margaret  of  York  in  1468,  for  the  festivalsof  the  Rhetoricians  and 
papal  jubilees  on  repeated  occasions,  for  the  solemn  entry  of 
Charles  the  Bold  into  Ghent  in  1470-2471,  and  for  the  funeral  of 
Philip  the  Good  in  1474.  The  kbour  which  he  expended  on 
these  occasions  might  well  add  to  his  fame  without  being  the 
less  ephemeral.  About  the  year  1475  he  retired  to  the  monastery 
of  Rouge  Cloltre  near  Ghent,  where  he  took  the  cowl.  There, 
though  he  still  clung  to  his  profession;  he  se^ros  to  have 
taken  to  drinking,  and  at  one  time  to  have  shown  decided 
symptoms  of  insanity.  But  his  superiors  gradually  cured  him 
of  his  intemperance,  and  he  died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity  in 
1483. 

GOBS,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Zeeland,  Holland,  on  the  island 
of  South  Beveland,  ii|  m.  by  rail  £.  of  Middelburg.  Pop.  (1900) 
6919.  It  is  connected  by  a  short  canal  with  the  East  Scheldt, 
and  has  a  good  harbour  (1819)  defended  by  a  fort.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  interesting  Gothic  church  (1423)  and  the 
picturesque  old  town  hall  (restored  1771).  There  are  various 
educational  and  charitable  institutions.  Goes  has  preserved 
for  centuries  its  prosperous  position  as  the  market-town  of  the 
island.  The  chief  industries  are  boat-building,  brewing,  book- 
binding and  cigar-making.  The  town  had  its  origin  in  the 
castle  of  Oostende.  built  here  by  the  noble  family  of  Borsselc. 
It  received  a  charter  early  in  the  isth  century  from  the 
countess  Jacoba  of  Holland,  who  frequently  stayed  at  the 
castle. 


l82 


GOETHE 


GOBTHB,  JOHAilN  WOLFGANG  VON  (1749-1839),  Gennan 
poet,  dramatist  and  philosopher,  was  bom  at  Frankfort-on-Main 
on  the  28th  of  August  1749.  He  came,  on  his  father's  side,  of 
Thuringian  stock,  his  great-grandfather,  Hans  Christian  Goethe, 
having  been  a  farrier  at  Artem-on-the>Unstrut,  about  the 
middle  of  the  X7th  century.  Hans  Christian's  son,  Friedrich 
Georg,  was  brought  up  to  the  trade  of  a  tailor,  and  in  this 
capacity  settled  in  Frankfort  in  1686.  A  second  marriage, 
however,  brought  him  into  possession  of  the  Frankfort  inn, 
"  Zum  Weidenhof,"  and  he  ended  his  days  as  a  well-to-do  inn> 
keeper.  His  son,  Johann  Raspar,  the  poet's  father  (i  710-z 78a), 
studied  law  at  Leipzig,  and,  after  going  through  the  prescribed 
courses  of  practioil  training  .at  Wet^ar,  travelled  in  Italy. 
He  hoped,  on  his  return  to  Frankfort,  to  obtain  an  official 
position  in  the  government  of  the  free  dty,  but  his  personal 
influence  with  the  authorities  was  not  sufiidently  strongs  '  In 
his  (Usappointment  he  resolved  never  again  to  offer  his  services 
to  his  native  town,  and  retired  into  private  life,  a  course  which 
his  ample  means  facilitated.  In  1742  he  acquired,  as  a  consoUi- 
tidn  for  the  public  career  he  had  missed,  the  title  of  kaUerlkker 
Rai,  and  in  1748  married  Katharina  Elisabeth  (1731-1808), 
daughter  of  the  SdkuWuiss  or  BUrgermeisUr  of  Frankfort, 
Johann  Wolfgang  Textor.  The  poet  was  the  eldest  son  of  this 
union.  Of  the  later  children  only  one,  Comdia,  bom  in  2750, 
survived  the  years  of  childhood;  she  died  as  the  wife  of  Goethe's 
friend,  J.  G.  Schlosser,  in  1777.  The  best  elements  in  Goethe's 
genius  came  from  his  mother's  side;  of  a  lively,  impulsive 
disposition,  and  gifted  with  remarkable  imaginative  power, 
Frau  Rat  was  the  ideal  mother  of  a  poet;  moreover,  being 
hardly  dghteen  at  the  time  of  her  son's  birth,  she  was  herself 
able  to  be  the  companion  of  his  childhood.  From  his  father, 
whose  stem,  somewhat  pedantic  nature  repelled  warmer  feelings 
on  the  part  of  the  children,  Goethe  inherited  that  "holy  earnest- 
ness "  and  stability  of  character  which  brought  him  unscathed 
through  temptations  and  passions,  and  held  the  balance  to  his 
all  too  powerful  imagination. 

Unforgettable  is  the  picture  which  the  poet  subsequently 
drew  of  his  childhood  spent  in  the  large  house  with  its  many 
nooks  and  crannies,  in  the  Grosse  Hirschgraben  at  Frankfort. 
Books,  pictures,  objects  of  art,  antiquities,  reminiscences  of 
Rat  Goethe's  visit  to  Italy,  above  all  a  marionette  theatre, 
kindled  the  child's  quick  intellect  and  imaginatipn.  His  training 
was  conducted  in  its  early  stages  by  his  father,  and  was  later 
supplemented  by  tutors.  Meanwhile  the  varied  and  picturesque 
life  of  Frankfort  was  in  itsdf  an  education.  In  1759,  during  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  the  French,  as  Maria  Theresa's  allies,  occupied 
the  town,  and,  much  to  the  irritation  of  Goethe's  father,  who 
was  a  stanch  partisan  of  Frederick  the  Great,  a  French  lieu- 
tenant. Count  Thoranc,  was  quartered  on  the  Goethe  household. 
The  fordgn  occupation  also  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  French 
troupe  of  actors,  and  to  thdr  performances  the  boy,  through  his 
grandfather's  influence,  had  free  access.  Goethe  has  also  recorded 
his  memories  of  another  picturesque  event,  the  coronation  of  the 
emperor  Joseph  11.  in  the  Frankfort  Rdmer  or  town  hall  in  1764; 
but  these  memories  wero  darkened  by  bdng  associated  in  his 
mind  with  the  tragic  denouement  of  his  first  love  affair.  The 
object  of  this  passion  was  a  certain  Gretchen,  who  seems  to  have 
taken  advantage  of  the  boy's  interest  in  her  to  further  the 
dishonest  ends  of  one  of  her  friends.  The  discovery  of  the  affair 
and  the  investigation  that  followed  cooled  Goethe's  ardour  and 
caused  him  to  turn  his  attention  seriously  to  the  studies  which 
were  to  prepare  him  for  the  university.  Meanwhile  the  literary 
instinct  had  begun  to  show  itsdf;  we  hear  of  a  novd  in  letters — 
a  kind  of  linguistic  exercise,  in  which  the  characters  carried  on 
the  correspondence  in  different  languages— of  a  prose  epic  on 
the  subject  of  Joseph,  and  various  religious  poems  of  which  one, 
Die  Hdilenfahrt  Christi,  found  its  way  in  a  revised  form  into  the 
poet's  complete  works. 

In  October  1765,  Goethe,  then  a  little  over  sixteen,  left  Frank- 
fort for  Ldpzig,  where  a  wider  and,  in.  many  respects,  less 
provincial  life  awaited  him.  He  entered  upon  his  university 
studies  with  seal,  but  his  own  education  in  Frankfort  had  not 


been  the  best  preparation  for  the  sdiolastic  methods  whidi  still 
dominated  the  German  universities;  of  his  professors,  Ofiily 
Gellert  seems  to  have  won  his  interest,  and  that  interest  was  soon 
exhausted.  The  literary  beginnings  he  had  made  in  Frankfort 
now  seemed  to  him  amateurish  and  trivial;  he  fdt  that  he  had 
to  turn  over  a  new  leaf,  and,  under  the  guidance  of  E.  W.  Bduisch, 
a  genial,  original  comrade,  he  learned  the  art  of  writing  those 
light  Anacreontic  lyrics  which  harmonized  with  the  tone  of  polite 
Ldpzig  sodety.  Ardfidal  as  this  poetry  is,  Goethe  was,  neverthe- 
less, inspired  by  a  real  passion  in  Leipag,  namdy,  for  Anna 
Katharina  Schttnkopf ,  the  daughter  of  a  wine-merchant  at  whose 
house  he  dined.  She  b  the  "  Annette  "  after  whom  the  recently 
discovered  collection  of  lyrics  was  named,  although  it  must  be 
added  that  neither  these  lyrics  nor  the  Neue  Liedcf,  published  in 
X770,  express  very  directly  Goethe's  feelings  for  Kttbchen 
SchOnkopf .  To  his  Ldpzig  student-days  bdong  also  two  small 
plays  in  Alexandrines,  Die  Latme  des  VvHebUtit  a  pastoral 
comedy  in  one  act;  which  reflects  the  lighter  side  of  the  poet's 
love  affair,  and  DteMitscktUdigen  (puUished  in  a  revised  form, 
X769),  a  more  sombrfe  picture,  in  which  comedy  is  incongruously 
mingled  with  tragedy.  In  Leipzig  Goethe  abo  had  time  for  what 
remained  one  of  the  abiding  interesta  of  his  life,  for  ait;  he  re- 
garded A.  F.  Oeser  (1717-1799),  the  director  of  the  academy  of 
painting  in  the  Pldssenbuig,  who  had  given  him  lessons  in  drawing, 
as  the  teacher  who  in  Leipzig  had  influenced  him  most.  His  art 
studies  were  also  furthered  by  a  short  vidt  to  Dresden.  His  stay 
in  Leipzig  cam^,  however,  to  an  abrupt  condusion;  the  dis- 
tractions of  student  life  proved  too  much  for  his  strength;  a 
sudden  haemorrhage  supeirvened,  and  he  lay  long  ill,  first  in 
Leipzig,  and,  after  it  was  posdble  to  remove  him,  at  home  in 
Fnmkfort.  These  months  of  slow  recovery  were  a  time  of  serious 
intro^)ection  for  Goethe.  He  still  corre^Mnded  with  his  Ldpzig 
friends,  but  the  tone  of  his  letters  dianged;  life  had  become 
graver  and  more  earnest  for  him.  He  pored  over  books  on  occult 
philosophy;  he  busied  himself  with  alchemy  and  astrology.  A 
friend  of  his  mother's,  Susanne  Katharina  von  Klettenbeig,  who 
bdonged  to  pietist  drdes  in  Frankfort,  turned  the  boy's  thoughts 
to  religious  msrstidsm.  On  his  recovery  his  father  resolved  that 
he  should  complete  his  legal  studies  at  Strassbuig,  a. dty  which, 
although  then  outside  the  German  em[nre,  was,  in  respect  of 
language  and  culture,  wholly  Gennan.  From  the  first  moment 
Goethe  set  foot  in  the  narrow  streets  of  the  Alsatian  capital,  in 
April  1770,  the  whole  current  of  hb  thought  seemed  to  change. 
The  Gothic  architecture  of  thie  Strassburg  minster  became  to 
him  the  symbol  of  a  national  and  German  ideal,  directly  anta- 
gonistic to  the  French  tastes  and  the  classical  and  rationalistic 
attaaosphere  that  prevailed  in  Ldpzig.  The  second  moment  of 
importance  in  Goethe's  Strassbuig  period  was  his  meeting  with 
Herder,  who  spent  some  weeks  in  Strassburg  undergoing  an  <^>era- 
tion  of  the  eye.  In  this  thinker,  who  was  Us  senior  by  five  years, 
Goethe  found  the  master  he  sought;  Herder  tauf^t  him  the 
significance  of  Gothic  architecture,  revealed  to  him  the  charm 
of  nature's  simplidty,  and  injured  him  with  enthusiasm  for 
Shakespeare  and  the  Volksli€d.  Meanwhile  Goethe's  1^  studio 
were  not  neglected,  and  he  found  time  tio  add  to  knoiriedge  of 
other  subjects,  notably  that  of  medidne.  Another  factor  of 
importance  in  Goethe's  Strassburg  life  was  his  love  for  Friederike 
Brion»  the  daughter  of  an  Alsatian  village  pastor  in  Sesrahdm. 
Even  more  than  Herder's  precept  and  example,  thiapassion  showed 
Goethe  how  trivial  and  artifidal  had  been  the  Anacreontic  and 
pastoral  poetry  with  which  he  had  occupied  himself  in  Ldpag ; 
and  the  lyrics  inspired  by  Friederike,  such  as  KUine  BbmeH^ 
kleine  BUUtcr  and  Wie  kerrlich  leuckta  mir  die  NaiwI  mark  the 
beginning  of  a  new  epoch  in  Gennan  lyric  poetry.  The  idyll  of 
Sesenhdm,  as  described  in  Dichiung  und  WakrheUt  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  love-stories  in  the  literature  of  the  world.  From 
the  first,  however,  it  was  dear  that  Friederike  Brion  could  never 
become  the  wife  of  the  Frankfort  patridan's  son;  an  unhappy 
ending  to  the  romance  was  unavoidable,  and,  as  is  to  be  seen  in 
pasdonate  outpourings  like  the  Wanderers  Stwrmlied,  and  in  the 
bitter  self -accusations  of  Clarigo,  it  Idt  deep  wounds  on  the  poet's 
sensitive  souL 


GOETHE 


183 


To  Stnasbuig  we  oire  Goethe's  first  important  drama,  CdtM 
flim  BeHUkingeHf  or,  as  it  was  called  in  its  earliest  form, 
GesckickU  CoUfrUdens  von  Berlkkinien  dromaHsiert  (not  published 
until  i8<x).  Revised  under  the  now  familiar  title,  it  appeared  in 
X773t  auter  Goethe's  return  to  Frankfort.  In  estimating  this 
drama  we  must  bear  in  mind  Goethe's  own  Strassburg  life,  and 
the  turbulent  spixii  of  hisown  age,  rather  than  the  historical  facts, 
which  the  poet  found  in  the  autobiogr^>hy  of  his  hero  published 
in  1731.  The  latter  supplied  only  the  rough  materials;  the  GOtz 
von  Berlichingen  whom  Goethe  drew,  with  his  lofty  ideals  of 
light  and  wrong,  and  his  enthusiasm  for  freedom,  is  a  very 
diCFeient  personage  from  the  unscrupulous  robber-knight  of  the 
16th  century,  the  rough  friend  of  Franz  von  Sickingen  and  of  the 
revolting  peasants.  Still  less  historical  justification  is  to  be  found 
for  the  vadllating  Weitalingen  in  whom  Goethe  executed  poetic 
justice  on  himself  as  the  lover  of  Friederike,  or  in  the  women  of 
the  play,  the  gmtle  Maria,  the  heartless  Adelheid.  But  there  is 
fenial,  creative  power  in  the  very  subjectivity  of  these  chxu-acters, 
and  a  vigorous  dramatic  life,  which  is  irresistible  in  its  appeal. 
With  CdiM  von  Bertkkmgen,  Shakespeare's  art  first  triumphcHd  on 
tht  German  stage,  and  the  literaiy  movement  known  as  Sturm 
mmd  Drang  was  inaugurated. 

Having  received  his  degree  in  Strassburg,  Goethe  returned 
home  in  August  1771,  and  began  his  initiation  into  the  routine  of 
an  advocate's  profession.  In  the  following  year,  in  order  to  gain 
insight  into  another  side  of  his  calling,  he  q)ent  four  months  at 
Wetzlar,  where  the  imperial  law-courts  were  established.  But 
Goethe's  professional  duties  had  only  a  small  share  in  theeventful 
years  which  lay  between  his  return  from  Strassburg  and  that  visit 
to  Weimar  at  the  end  of  1775,  which  turned  the  whole  course  of 
his  career,  and  resulted  in  his  permanent  attachment  to  the 
Weimar  court.  Goethe's  life  in  Frankfort  wasaround  of  stimulat- 
ing literary  intercourse;  in  J.  H.  Merck  (174X-X79X),  an  army 
offidal  in  the  neighbouring  town  of  Darmstadt,  he  found  a  friend 
axui  mentor,  whose  irony  and  common-sense  served  as  a  corrective 
to  his  own  exuberance  of  spirits.  Wetzlar  brought  new  friends 
and  another  passion,  that  for  Charlotte  Buff,  the  daughter  of  the 
Amtnumn  there — a  love-story  which  has  been  immortalized  in 
WerUuri  Leiden— znd  again  the  young  poet's  nature  was  obsessed 
by  a  love  which  was  this  time  strong  enough  to  bring  him  to 
the  brink  of  that  suidde  with  which  the  novel  ends.  A  visit  to 
the  Rhine,  where  new  interests  and  the  attractions  of  Maximiliane 
von  Laroche,  a  daughter  of  Wieland's  friend,  the  novelist  Sophie 
von  Laroche,  brought  partial.healing;  his  intense  preoccupation 
with  literary  work  on  his  return  to  Frankfort  did  the  rest.  Iii 
1775  Goethe  was  attracted  by  still  another  t3rpe  of  woman,  Lili 
Schanemaim,  whose  mother  was  the  widow  of  a  wealthy  Frankfort 
banker.  A  formal  betrothal  took  place,  and  the  beauty  of  the 
lyrics  whidi  LOi  inspired  leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  here  was 
a  panion  no  less  genuine  than  that  for  Friederike  or  Charlotte. 
But  Goethe — more  woridly  wise  than  on  former  occasions — felt 
instinctively  that  the  gay,  social  world  in  which  Lili  moved  was 
iwt  really  congenial  to  him.  A  visit  to  Switzerland  in  the 
summer  of  1775  may  not  have  weakened  his  interest  in  her,  but  it 
at  least  allowed  him  to  regard  her  objectively;  and,  without  tragic 
consequences  on  either  side,  the  passion  was  ultimately  allowed  to 
yield  to  the  dictates  of  common-sense.  Goethe's  departure  for 
Weimar  in  November  made  the  final  break  less  difiicult. 

The  period  from  X77X  t6  X775  was,  in  literary  respects,  the 
most  i»oductive  of  the  poet's  Ufe.  It  had  been  inaugurated 
with  Cm  von  Berlichingen,  and  a  few  months  later  this  tragedy 
was  followed  by  another,  Clavigo,  hardly  less  convincing  in  its 
character-drawing,  and  reflecting  even  more  faithfully  than  the 
former  the  experiences  Goethe  had  gone  through  in  Strassburg. 
Again  poetic  justice  is  effected  on  the  unfortunate  hero  who 
has  chMen  his  own  personal  advancement  in  preference  to  his 
duty  to  the  woman  he  loves;  more  pointedly  than  in  Cdtt  is 
Ihe  moral  enforced  by  Clavigo's  worldly  friend  Carios,  that  the 
ground  of  Clavigo's  tragic  end  lies  not  so  much  in  the  defiance 
of  a  moral  law  as  in  the  hero's  vacillation  and  want  of  character. 
With  Die  Leiden  des  jungen  Wertken  (1774).  the  literary 
pfcdpitate  of  the  author's  own  experiences  in  Wetzlar,  Goethe 


succeeded  in  attracting,  as  no  German  had  done  before  him, 
the  attention  of  Europe.  Once  more  it  was  the  gospel  that  the 
world  belongs  to  the  strong,  which  lay  beneath  the  surface  of 
this  romance.  This,  however,  was  not  the  lesson  which  was 
drawn  from  it  by  Goethe's  contemporaries;  they  shed  tears 
of  sympathy  over  the  lovelorn  youth  whose  burden  becomes 
too  great  for  him  to  bear.  While  C^  inaugurated  the  manlier 
side  of  the  Sturm  und  Drang  literature,  Wertker  was  responsible 
for  its  sentimental  excesses.  And  to  the  sentimental  rather 
than  to  the  heroic  side  belongs  also  Stella,  *'  a  drama  for  lovers," 
in  which  the  poet  again  reproduced,  if  with  less  fidelity  than  in 
Werlher,  certain  a^>ects  of  his  own  love  troubles.  A  lighter 
vein  is  to  be  observed  in  various  dramatic  satires  written  at  thb 
time,  such  as  Gdtter,  Hdden  und  Wieland  (1774),  Hanrwursts 
HocJaeit,  Fasinachtsspid  vom  Pater  Brey,  Satyros,  and  in  the 
SingspieUf  Ertnn  und  Elmire  (1775)  and  Claudine  von  Villa 
Bdla  (X776);  while  in  the  Frankfurter  Gdekrte  Anzeiger  (1772- 
'773)»  Goethe  drove  home  the  principles  of  the  new  movement 
of  Sturm  und  Drang  in  terse  and  pointed  criticism.  The  exuber- 
ance.of  the  young  poet's  genius  is  also  to  be  seen  in  the  many 
unfinished  fragments  of  this  period;  at  one  time  we  find  him 
occupied  with  dramas  on  Caesar  and  Mahomet,  at  another  with 
an  epic  (m  Der  ewige  Jude,  and  again  with  a  tragedy  on  Prometheus, 
of  which  a  magnificent  fragment  has  passed  into  his  works. 
Greatest  of  all  the  torsos  of  this  period,  however,  was  the  drama^ 
tization  of  Faust,  Thanks  to  a  manuscript  copy  of  the  play  in 
its  earliest  form — dbcovered  as  recently  as  X887 — we  are  now 
able  to  distinguish  how  much  of  this  tragedy  was  the  immediate 
product  of  the  Sturm  und  Drang,  and  to  understand  the  intentions 
with  which  the  young  poet  began  his  masterpiece.  Goethe's 
hoo  dianged  with  the  author's  riper  experience  and  with  his  new 
conceptions  of  man's  place  and  duties  in  the  world,  but  the 
Gretchen  tragedy  was  taken  over  into  the  finished  poem,  practi- 
cally unaltered,  from  the  earliest  Faust  of  the  Sturm  und  Drang. 
With  these  wonderful  scenes,  the  most  intensely  tragic  inaJl 
German  literature,  Goethe's  poetry  in  this  period  reaches  its 
dimax.  Still  another  important  work,  however,  was  concdved, 
and  in  large  measure  written  at  this  time,  the  drama  of  Egmont, 
which  was  not  published  until  1788.  This  work  may,  to  some 
extent,  be  regarded  as  supplementary  to  Fa$tst;  it  presents  the 
lighter,  more  cheerful  and  optimbtic  side  of  Goethe's  philosophy 
in  these  years;  Graf  Egmont,  the  most  winning  and  fascinating 
of  the  poet's  heroes,  is  endowed  with  that  "  demoruc  "  power 
over  the  sympathies  of  men  and  women,  which  Goethe  himsdf 
possessed  in  so  high  a  degree.  But  Egmont  dtpeadi  for  its 
interest  almost  solely  on  two  characters,  Egmont  himself  and 
Klftrchen,  Gretchen's  counterpart;  regarded  as  a  drama,  it 
demonstrates  the  futility  of  that  defiance  of  convention  and 
rules  with  which  the  Sturm  und  Drang  set  out.  It  remained  for 
Goethe,  in  the  next  period  of  his  life,  to  construct  on  dassic 
modds  a  new  vehide  for  German  dramatic  poetry. 

In  December  X774  the  young  "  hereditary  prince  "  of  Wdmar, 
Charles  Aug\istus,  passing  through  Frankfort  on  his  way  to  Paris,, 
came  into  personal  touch  with  Goethe,  and  invited  the  poet  to 
vi$it  Weimar  when,  in  the  following  year,  he  took  up  the  rdns 
of  government.  In  October  X775  the  invitation  was  repeated, 
and  on  the  7th  of  November  of  that  year  Goethe  arrived  in  the 
little  Saxon  capital  which  was  to  remain  his  home  for  the  rest  of 
his  life.  During  the  first  few  months  in  Weimar  the  poet  gave 
himsdf  up  to  the  pleasures  of  the  moment  as  unreservedly  as 
his  patron;  indeed,  the  Wdmar  court  even  looked  upon  him  for 
a  time  as  a  tempter  who  led  the  young  duke  astrav.  But  the 
latter,  although  himsdf  a  mere  stripling,  had  impucilT  faith  in 
Goethe,  and  a  firm  conviction  that  his  genius  could  be  utilized 
in  other  fields  besides  literature.  Goethe  was  not  long  in  Weimar 
before  he  was  entrusted  with  responsible  state  duties,  and  events 
soon  justified  the  duke's  confidence.  Goethe  proved  the  soul 
of  the  Wdmar  government,  and  a  minister  of  state  of  energy 
and  foresight.  He  interested  himself  in  agriculture,  horticulture 
and  mining,  which  were  of  paramount  importance  to  the  welfare 
of  the  duchy,  and  out  of  these  interests  sprang  his  own  love  for 
the  natural  sdences,  which  took  up  so  much  of  his  time  in  later 


184 


GOETHE 


yean.  The  inevitable  love-interest  was  also  not  wanting.  As 
Friederike  had  fitted  into  the  background  of  Goethe's  Strassburg 
life,  Lotte  into  that  of  Wetzlar,  and  Lili  into  the  gaieties  of 
Frankfort,  so  now  Charlotte  von  Stein,  the  wife  of  a  Weimar 
official,  was  the  personification  of  the  more  aristocratic  ideab  of 
Weimar  society.  We  possess  only  the  poet's  share  of  his  corre- 
spondence with  Frau  von  Stein,  but  it  is  possible  to  infer  from 
it  that,  of  all  Goethe's  loves,  this  was  intellectually  the  most 
worthy  of  him.  Frau  von  Stein  was  a  woman  of  refined  literary 
taste  and  culture,  seven  years  older  than  he  and  the  mother  of 
seven  children.  There  was  something  more  spiritual,  something 
that  partook  rather  of  the  passionate  friendships  of  the  x8th 
century  than  of  love  in  Goethe's  relations  with  her.  Frau  von 
Stein  dominated  the  poet's  life  for  twelve  years,  until  his  journey 
to  Italy  in  x  786-1788.  Of  other  events  of  this  period  the  most 
notable  were  two  winter  journeys,  the  first  in  1777,  to  the  Harz 
Mountains,  the  second,  two  years  later,  to  Switzerland — ^journeys 
which  gave  Goethe  scope  for  that  introspection  and  reflection 
for  which  his  Weimar  life  left  him  little  time.  On  the  second  of 
these  journeys  he  revisited  Friederike  in  Sesenheim,  saw  Lili, 
who  had  married  and  settled  in  Strassburg,  and  made  the 
personal  acquaintance  of  Lavater  in  Zurich. 
.  The  literary  results  of  these  years  cannot  be  compared  with 
those  of  the  preceding  period;  they  are  virtually  limited  to  a 
few  wonderful  lyrics,  such  as  Wanderers  NaclUlied,  An  den  Mond^ 
Cesang  der  Geisier  ilber  den  Wassem,  or  ballads,  such  as  Der 
ErlhSnigf  a  charming  little  drama.  Die  Gesdnrister  (1776),  in 
which  the  poet's  relations  to  both  Lili  and  Frau  von  Stein  seem 
to  be  reflected,  a  dramatic  satire,  Der  TriumphderEmpfindsamkeil 
(1778),  and  a  number  of  SingspieU^  Lila  (1777),  Die  Pisckerin, 
Scherty  List  und  Racke^  and  Jery  und  Bdtdy  (1780).  But  greater 
works  were  in  preparation.  A  jeligious  epic,  Ene  Ceheimnisset  and 
a  tragedy  Elpenor,  did  not,  it  is  trjie,  advance  much  further 
than  plans;*  but  in  1777,  under  the  influence  of  the  theatrical 
experiments  at  the  Weimar  court,  Goethe  conceived  and  in  great 
measure  wrote  a  novel  of  the  theatre,  which  was  to  have  borne 
the  title  WiUtdm  Meisters  tkeatralische  Sendung;  and  in  1779 
himself  took  part  in  a  representation  before  the  court  at  Etters- 
burg,  of  his  drama  Ipfugenie  auf  Tauris.  This  Ipkigenie  was, 
however,  in  prose;  in  the  following  year  Goethe  remoulded  it 
in  iambics,  but  it  was  not  until  he  went  to  Rome  that  the  drama 
finally  received  the  form  in  which  we  know  it. 

In  September,  1786  Goethe  set  out  from  Karlsbad — secretly 
and  stealthily,  his  plan  known  only  to  his  servant— on  that 
memorable  journey  to  Italy,  to  which  he  had  looked  forward 
with  such  intense  longing;  he  could  not  cross  the  Alps  quickly 
enough,  so  impatient  was  he  to  set  foot  in  Italy.  He  travelled 
by  way  of  Munich,  the  Brenner  and  Lago  di  Garda  to  Verona 
and  Venice,  and  from  thence  to  Rome,  where  he  arrived  on  the 
29th  of  October  1786.  Here  he  gave  himself  up  unreservedly 
to  the  new  impressions  which  crowded  on  him,  and  he  was  soon 
at  home  among  the  German  artists  in  Rome,  who  welcomed  him 
warmly.  In  the  spring  of  1787  he  extended  his  journey  as  far 
as  Naples  and  Sicily,  returning  to  Rome  in  June  1787,  where  he 
remained  until  his  final  departure  for  Germany  on  the  2nd  of 
April  1788.  It  is  difficult  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of 
Goethe's  Italian  journey.  He  himself  regarded  it  as  a  kind  of 
climax  to  his  life;  never  before  bad  he  attained  such  complete 
understanding  of  his  genius  and  mission  in  the  world;  it  afforded 
him  a  vantage-ground  from  which  he  could  renew  the  past  and 
make  plans  for  the  future.  In  Weimar  he  had  felt  that  he  was  no 
longer  in  sympathy  with  the  Sturm  und  Drangt  but  it  was  Italy 
which  first  taught  him  dearly  what  might  take  the  i^ace  of  that 
movement  in  German  poetry.  To  the  modem  reader,  who 
may  well  be  impressed  by  Goethe's  extraordinary  receptivity, 
it  may  seem  strange  that  his  interests  in  Italy  were  so  limited; 
for,  after  all,  he  saw  comparatively  little  of  the  art  treasures  of 
Italy.  He  went  to  Rome  in  Winckelmann's  footsteps;  it  was 
the  antique  he  sought,  and  his  interest  in  the  artists  of  the 
Renaissance  was  virtually  restricted  to  their  imitation  of  classic 
models.  This  search  for  the  classic  ideal  is  reflected  in  the  works 
he  completed  or  wrote  imder  the  Italian  sky.    The  calm  beauty 


of  Greek  tragedy  is  seen  fn  the  new  fambic  version  of  Ipkigenie 
auf  Tauris  (1787);  the  classicism  of  the  Renaissance  gives  the 
ground-tone  to  the  wonderful  drama  of  Targuato  Tasso  (1790), 
in  which  the  conflict  of  poetic  genius  with  the  prosaic  world  is 
transmuted  into  imperishable  poetry.  Gassic,  too,  in  this 
sense,  were  the  plans  of  a  drama  on  Ipkigenie  auf  Detpkos  and 
of  an  epic,  Nausikaa.  Most  interesting  of  all,  however,  is  the 
reflection  of  the  classic  spirit  in  works  already  begun  in  earlier 
days,  such  as  Egmont  and  Faust.  The  former  drama  was  finished 
in  Italy  and  appeared  in  1788,  the  latter  was  brought  a  step 
further  forward,  part  of  it  being  published  as  a  Fragment  in  1 790. 

Disappointment  in  more  senses  than  one  awaited  Goethe  on 
his  return  to  Weimar.  He  came  back  from  Italy  with  a  new 
philosophy  of  life,  a  philosophy  at  once  classic  and  pagan,  and 
with  very  definite  ideas  of  what  constituted  literary  excellence. 
But  Germany  had  not  advanced;  in  1788  his  countrymen  were 
still  under  the  influence  of  that  Sturm  und  Drang  from  which 
the  poet  had  fled.  The  times  seemed  to  him  more  out  of  joint 
than  ever,  and  he  withdrew  into  himself.  Even  his  relations  to 
the  old  friends  were  changed.  Frau  von  Stein  had  not  known 
of  his  flight  to  Italy  until  she  received  a  letter  from  Rome;  but 
he  looked  forward  to  her  welcome  on  his  return.  The  months 
of  absence,  however,  the  change  he  had  undergone,  and  doubtless 
those  lighter  loves  of  which  the  Rdmiscke  Elegien  bear  evidence, 
weakened  the  Weimar  memories;  if  he  left  Weimar  as  Frau  von 
Stein's  lover  he  returned  only  as  her  friend;  and  she  naturally 
resented  the  change.  Goethe,  meann^iile,  satisfied  to  continue 
the  freer  customs  to  which  he  had  adapted  himself  in  Rome, 
found  a  new  mistress  in  Chrxstiane  Vulpius  (x  765-18x6),  the 
least  interesting  of  all  the  women  who  attracted  him.  But 
Christiane  gradually  filled  up  a  gap  in  the  poet's  life;  she  gave 
him,  quietly,  unobtrusively,  without  making  demands  on  him, 
the  comforts  of  a  home.  She  was  not  accepted  by  court  society ; 
it  did  not  matter  to  her  that  even  Goethe's  intimate  friends 
ignored  her;  and  she,  who  had  suited  the  poet's  whim  when  he 
desired  to  shut  himself  ofi'from  all  that  might  dim  the  recollection 
of  Italy,  became  with  the  years  an  indispensable  helpmate  to 
him.  On  the  birth  in  1789  of  his  son,  Goethe  had  soipe  thought 
of  legalizing  his  relations  with  Christiane,  but  this  intention  was 
not  realized  until  x8o6,  when  the  invasion  of  Weimar  by  the 
French  made  him  fear  iot  both  life  and  property. 

The  period  of  Goethe's  life  which  succeeded  his  return  from 
Italy  was  restless  and  unsettled;  relieved  of  his  state  duties, 
he  returned  in  x  790  to  Venice,  only  to  be  disenchanted  with  the 
Italy  he  had  loved  so  intensely  a  year  or  two  before.  A  journey 
with  the  duke  of  Weimar  to  Breslau  followed,  and  in  1792  he 
accompam'ed  his  master  on  that  campaign  against  France  which 
ended  so  ingloriously  for  the  German  arms  at  Valmy.  In  later 
years  Goethe  published  his  account  both  of  this  Campagne  in 
Frankreick  and  of  the  Bdagerung  von  Mains,  at  which  he  was 
also  present  in  x  793.  His  literary  work  naturally  suffered  under 
these  distractions.  Tasso,  and  the  edition  of  the  Sckriften  in 
which  it  was  to  appear,  had  still  to  be  completed  on  his  return 
from  Italy;  the  Rdmiscke  Eiegien,  perhaps  the  most  Latin  of  all 
his  works,  were  published  in  X79S,  and  the  Venetianiscke  Epi- 
gramme,  the  result  of  the  second  visit  to  Italy,  in  X796.  'Die 
French  Revolution,  in  which  all  Europe  >ras  engrossed,  was  in 
Goethe's  eyes  only  another  proof  that  the  passing  of  the  old 
regime  meant  the  abrogation  of  all  law  and  order,  and  he  gave 
voice  to  his  antagonism  to  the  new  democratic  .principles  in  the 
dramas  Z>cr  Crosskopkta  {1792),  Der  BUrgergeneral  (1793),  ^u^d 
in  the  unfinished  fragments  Die  Aufgeregten  and  Das  Mddcken 
von  Oherkirck.  The  spirited  translation  of  the  epic  of  Reinecke 
Fucks  (X794)  he  took  up  as  a  reUef  and  an  antidote  to  the  social 
disruption  of  the  time.  Two  new  interests,  however,  strengthened 
the  ties  between  Goethe  And  Weimar, — ties  whidi  the  Italian 
journey  had  threatened  to  sever:  his  appointment  in  1791  as 
director  of  the  ducal  theatre,  a  post  which  he  occupied  for 
twenty-two  years,  and  his  absorption  in  scientific  studies.  In 
X  790  he  published  his  important  Versuck,  die  Metamorpkose  der 
Pfianun  tu  erkldren,  which  was  an  even  more  fundamental 
achievement  for  the  new  science  of  comparative  morphology 


GOETHE 


i8S 


than  his  discovery  some  six  yean  earlier  of  the  existence  of  a 
formation  in  the  human  jaw-bone  analogous  to  the  intermaxillary 
bone  in  apes;  and  in  1791  and  1792  appeared  two  parts  of  his 
BeitrUge  tur  Opiik, 

Meanwhile,  however,  Goethe  had  again  taken  up  the  novel 
of  the  theatre  which  he  had  begun  years  before,  with  a  view  to 
finishing  it  and  including  it  in  the  edition  of  his  Neue  Schrijlen 
(1799-1800).  WUkdm  Mcisters  Uteairaiische  Scndung  became 
WUhdm  Meisttrs  Lehrjahre;  the  novel  of  purely  theatrical 
interests  was  widened  out  to  embrace  the  history  of  a  young 
man's  apprenticeship  to  life.  The  change  of  plan  explains, 
although  it  may  not  exculpate,  the  formlessness  and  loose 
construction  of  the  work,  its  extremes  of  realistic  detail. and 
poetic  allegory.  A  hero,  who  was  probably  originally  intended 
to  demonstrate  the  failure  of  the  vacillating  temperament  when 
brought  face  to  face  with  the  problems  of  art,  proved  ill-adapted 
to  demonstrate  those  precepts  for  the  guidance  of  life  with  which 
the  Lekrjakre  doses;  unstable  of  purpose,  Wilhelm  Meister  is 
not  so  much  an  illustration  of  the  author's  life-philosophy  as  a 
lay-figure  on  which  he  demonstrates  his  views.  WUkdm  Meister 
\&  a  work  of  extraordinary  variety,  ranging  from  the  commonplace 
realism  of  the  troupe  of  strolling  players  to  the  poetic  romanticism 
of  Mignon  and  the  harper;  its  flashes  of  intuitive  criticism  and 
its  weighty  apothegms  add  to  its  value  as  a  BUdungsroman  in 
the  best  sense  of  that  word.  Of  all  Goethe's  works,  this  exerted 
the  most  immediate  and  lasting  influence  on  German  literature; 
it  served  as  a  model  for  the  best  fiction  of  the  next  thirty  years. 

In  completing  WUhdm  Meisttr^  Goethe  found  a  sympathetic 
and  encouraging  critic  in  Schiller,  to  whom  he  owed  in  great 
measure  his  renewed  interest  in  poetry.  After  years  of  tentative 
approaches  on  Schiller's  part,  years  in  which  that  poet  concealed 
even  from  himself  his  desire  for  a  friendly  understanding  with 
Goethe,  the  favourable  moment  arrived;  it  was  in  June  1794, 
when  Sichiikr  was  seeking  collaborators  for  his  new  periodical 
DU  Horen;  and  his  invitation  addressed  to  Goethe  was  the 
beginning  of  a  friendship  which  continued  unbroken  until  the 
younger  poet's  death.  The  friendship  of  Goethe  and  Schiller, 
of  which  their  correspondence  is  a  priceless  record,  had  its 
limitations;  it  was  purely  intellectual  In  character,  a  certain 
barrier  of  personal  reserve  being  maintained  to  the  last.  But 
for  the  literary  life  of  both  poets  the  gain  was  incommensurable. 
As  far  as  actual  work  was  concerned,  Goethe  went  hi^  own  way 
as  he  had  always  been  accustomed  to  do;  but  the  mere  fact  that 
he  devoted  himself  with  increasing  interest  to  literature  was  due 
to  Schiller's  stimulus.  It  was  Schiller,  too,  who  induced  him  to 
undertake  those  studies  on  the  nature  of  epic  and  dramatic 
poetry  which  resulted  in  the  epic  of  Hermann  und  Dorothea 
and  the  fragment  of  the  Ackilieis;  without  the  friendship  there 
would  have  been  no  Xenien  and  no  baflads,  and  it-was  his  younger 
friend's  encouragement  which  induced.  Goethe  to  betake  himself 
once  more  to  the  "misty  path"  of  Faustj  and  bring  the  first 
part  of  that  drama  to  a  conclusion. 

Goethe's  share  in  the  Xeniai  (1 795)  may  be  briefly  dismissed. 
This  ooUcction  of  distichs,  written  in  collaboration  with  Schiller, 
was  pfompted  by  the  indifference  and  animosity  of  contemporary 
criticism,  and  its  disregard  for  what  the  two  poets  regarded  as 
the  hi^bcr  interests  of  German  poetry.  .  The  Xenien  succeeded 
as  X  retaliation  on  the  critics,  but  the  masterpieces  which  followed 
them  proved  in  the  long  run  much  more  effective  weapons 
against  the  prevailing  mediocrity.  Prose  works  like  the  Unter- 
kaHungen  daUscher  Ausgcwanderten  (1795)  were  unworthy  of 
the  poet's  genius,  and  the  translation  of.Benvenuto  Cellini's 
Uft  (i  796-1 797)  was  only  a  translation.  But  in  1798  appeared 
Herwunm  und  Dorotheat  one  of  Goethe's  most  perfect  poems. 
It  is  indeed  remarkable — when  we  consider  by  how  much  re- 
flcctkm  and  theoretic  discussion  the  composition  of.  the  poem 
was  preceded  and  accompanied-rthat  it  should  make  upon  the 
reader  ao  simple  and  "naive"  an.  impression;  in  this  respect 
it  is  the  triumph  of  an  art  that  conceals  art.  Goethe  has  here 
taken  a  umple  story  of  village  life,  mirrored  in  it  the  most 
pregnant  ideas  of  his  time,  and  presented  it  with  a  skill  which 
nay  wdl  be  called  Homeric;  but  he  has  discriminated  with 


the  insight  of  genfus  between  the  Homeric  method  of  reproduc- 
ing the  heroic  lire  of  primitive  Greece  and  the  same  method 
as  adapted  to  the  commonplace  happenings  of  18th-century 
Germany.  In  this  respect  he  was  undoubtedly  guided  by  a 
forerunner  who  has  more  right  than  he  to  the  attribute  "naive," 
by  J.  H.  Voss,  the  author  of  Luise,  Hardly  less  imposing  in 
their  calm,  placid  perfection  are  the  poems  with  which,  in 
friendly  rivalry,  Goethe  seconded  the  more  popular  ballads 
of  his  friend;  Dcr  ZauberieJtriingt  Der  Cott  und  die  Bayadere, 
Die  Braut  von  Korintk,  Alexis  und  Dora,  Der  neue  Fausias  and 
Dieschdne  Mtillerin—z  cycle  of  poems  in  the  style  of  the  Voikslied 
—are  among  the  masterpieces  of  Goethe's  poetry.  On  the  other 
hand,  even  the  friendship  with  Schiller  did  not  help  him 
to.add  to  his  reputation  as  a  dramatist.  Die  natUrliche  Tochtcr 
(1803),  in  which  he  began  to  embody  his  ideas  of  the  Revolution 
on  a  wide  canvas,  proved  impossible  on  the  stage,  and  the 
remaining  dramas,  which  were  to  have  formed  a  trilogy,  were 
never  written.  Goethe's  classic  principles,  when  applied  to 
the  swift,  direct  art  of  the  theatre,  were  doomed  to  failure,  and 
Die' natUrliche  Tochter,  notwithstanding  its  good  theoretic  in- 
tention, remains  the  most  lifeless  and  shadowy  of  all  his  dramas. 
Even  less  in  touch  with  the  living  present  were  the  various 
prologues  and  Festspiele,  such  as  PalHophron  und  Neater pe  (1800), 
Was  vnr  bringen  (1802),  which  in  these  years  he  composed  for 
the  Weimar  theatre. 

Goethe's  classicism  brought  him  into  inevitable  antagonism 
with  the  new  Romantic  movement  which  had  been  inaugurated 
in  1798  by  the  Athenaeum,  edited  by  the  brothers  Schlegel. 
The  sharpness  of  the  conflict  was,  however,  blunted  by  the  fact 
that,  without  exception,  the  young  Romantic  writers  looked 
up  to  Goethe  as  its  master;  they  modelled  their  fiction  on 
WUhdm  Meister]  they  regarded  his  lyrics  .as  the  high-water 
mark  of  Gernuin  poetry;  Goethe,, Novalis  declared,  was  the 
"  Statthi^tct  of  poetry  on  earth."  With  regard  to  painting  and 
sculpture,  however,  Goethe  felt  that  a  protest  was  necessary, 
if  the  insidious  ideas  propounded  in  works  like  Wackenrodcr's 
Henensergiessungen  were  not  to  do  irreparable  harm,  by  bringing 
back  the  confusion  of  the  Sturm  Und  Drang;  and,  as  a  rejoinder 
to  the  Romantic  theories,  Goethe,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend 
Heinrich  Meyer  (1760-1832),  published  from  1798  to  1800  an 
art  review.  Die  PropyUlen,  Again,  in  Winckdmann  und  seine 
ZeU  (1805)  (joethe  vigorously  defended  the  classical  ideals- of 
which  Winckelmann  had  been  the  founder.  Bui  in  the  end  he 
proved  himself  the  greatest  enemy  to  the  strict  classic  doctrine  by 
the  publication  in  -1808  of  the  codipleted  first  part  of  Faust,  a 
work  which  was-  accepted  by  contemporaries  as  a  triumph  of 
Romantic  art.  Faust  is  a  patchwork  of  many  colours.  With  the 
aid  of  the  vast  body  of  Faust  literature  which  has  sprung  up  in 
recent  years,  and  the  many  new  documents  bearing  on  its  history 
— above  all,  the  so<alled  Urjausl,  to  which  reference  has  already 
been  made — we  are  able  now  to  ascribe  to  their  various  periods 
the  component  parts  of  the  worlc;  it  is  possible  to  discriminate 
between  the  Sturm  und  Drang  hero  of  the  oftening  scenes  and 
of  the  Gretchen  tragedy— the  contemporary  of  G6tz  and  Clavigo 
— and  the  superimposed  Faust  of  calmer  moral  and  intellectual 
idealsr— a  Faust  who  corresponds  to  Hermann  and  Wiihclm 
Meister.  In  its  original  form  the  poem  was  the  dramatization 
of  a  specific  and  individualized  story;  in  the  years  of  Goethe's 
friendship  with  Schiller  it  was  extended  ifi  embody  the  higher 
strivings  of  x8th-century  humanism;  ultimately,  as  we  shall  see, 
it  became,  in  thie  second  part,  a  vast  allegory  of  human  life  and 
activity.  Thus  the  elements  of  which  Faust  is  composed  were 
even  more  difficult  to  blend  than  were  those  of  WUhdm  Meister; 
but  the  very  want  of  uniformity  is  one  source  of  the  perennial 
fascination  of  the  tragedy,  and  has  made  it  In  a  peculiar  degree 
the  national  poem  of  the  (3erman  people,  the  mirror  which 
reflects  the  national  life  and  poetry  from  the  outburiit  of  Sturm 
und  Drang  to  the  well-weighed  and  tranquil  classicism  of  Goethe's 
old  age. 

The  third  and  final  period  of  Goethe's  long  life  may  be  said 
to  have  begun  after  Schiller's  death.  He  never  again  lost  touch 
with  literature  as  he  had  done  in  the  years  which  preceded  his 


i86 


GOETHE 


friendship  with  Schiller;  but  be  stood  in  no  active  or  unmediate 
connexion  with  the  literary  movement  of  his  day.  His  life 
moved  on  comparatively  uneventfully.  Even  the  Napoleonic 
regime  of  1806-^1813  disturbed  but  little  his  equanimity.  Goethe, 
the  cosmopolitan  WdlbUrger  of  the  i8th  century,  had  himself  no 
very  intense  feelings  of  patriotism,  and,  having  seen  Germany 
flourish  as  a  group  of  small  states  under  enlightened  despotisms, 
he  had  little  confidence  in  the  dreamers  of  18x3  who  hoped 
to  see  the  glories  of  Barbarossa's  empire  revived.  Napoleon, 
moreover,  he  regarded  not  as  the  scourge  of  Europe,  but  as  the 
defender  of  civilization  against  the  barbarism  of  the  Slavs; 
and  in  the  famous  interview  between  the  two  men  at  Erfurt  the 
poet's  admiration  was  reciprocated  by  the  French  conqueror. 
Thus  Goethe  had  no  great  sympathy  for  the  war  of  liberation 
which  kindled  young  hearts  from  one  end  of  Germany  to  the 
other;  and  when  the  national  enthusiasm  rose  to  its  highest 
pitch  he  buried  himself  in  those  optical  and  morphological 
studies,  which,  with  increasing  years,  occupied  more  and  more 
of  his  time  and  interest. 

The  works  and  events  of  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  Goethe's 
life  may  be  briefly  summarized.  In  1805,  as  we  have  seen,  he 
suffered  an  irreparable  loss  in  the  death  of  Schiller;  in  x8o6, 
Cbristiane  became  his  legal  wife,  and  to  the  same  year  belongs 
the  magnificent  tribute  to  his  dead  friend,  the  Epilog  xu  SchiUers 
Clocke,  Two  new  friendships  about  this  time  kindled  in  the 
poet  something  of  the  juvenile  fire  and  passion  of  younger  days. 
Bcttina  von  Arnim  came  into  personal  touch  with  Goethe  in 
1807,  and  her  Briefwechsd  Goeihes  mit  einem  Kinde  (published 
in  1835)  is,  in  its  mingling  of  truth  and  fiction,  one  of  the  most 
delightful  products  of  the  Romantic  mind;  but  the  episode  was 
of  less  importance  for  Goethe's  life  than  Bettina  would  have  us 
believe.  On  the  other  hand,  his  interest  in  Minna  Herzlieb, 
foster-daughter  of  the  publisher  Frommann  in  Jena,  was  of  a 
warmer  nature,  and  has  left  its  traces  on  his  sonnets. 

In  x8o8,  as  we  have  seen,  appeared  the  first  part  of  Faust ^  and 
in  1809  it  was  followed  by  Die  Wahlvenoandtsckqften.  The  novel, 
hardly  less  than  the  drama,  effected  a  change  in  the  public 
attitude  towards  the  poet.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  century 
the  conviction  had  been  gaining  ground  that  Goethe's  mission 
was  accomplished,  that  the  day  of  his  leadership  was  over; 
but  here  were  two  works  which  not  merely  re-established  his 
ascendancy,  but  proved  that  the  old  poet  was  in  sympathy  with 
the  movement  of  letters,  and  keenly  alive  to  the  change  of  ideas 
which  the  new  century  had  brought  in  its  train.  The  intimate 
psychological  study  of  four  minds,  which  forms  the  subject  of 
the  Waklvenvandtschaftcn,  was  an  essay  in  a  new  type  of  fiction, 
and  pointed  out  the  way  for  developments  of  the  German  novel 
after  the  stimulus  of  Wiihdm  Meiskr  had  exhausted  itselL 
Less  important  than  Die  Waklvervmndlschaften  was  Pandora 
(18 10),  the  final  product  of  Goethe's  classicism,  and  the  most 
^uncompromisingly  classical  and  allegorical  of  all  hb  works. 
And  in  18 10,  too,  appeared  his  treatise  on  Farbenlekre.  In  the 
following  year  the  first  volume  of  his  autobiography  was  pub- 
lished under  the  title  Aus  meinem  Leben,  Dichlung  und  Wahrheil. 
The  second  and  third  volumes  of  this  work  followed  in  x8i2  and 
1814;  the  fourth,  bringing  the  story  of  his  life  up  to  the  close 
of  the  Frankfort  period  in  1833,  after  his  death.  Goethe  felt,' 
even  late  in  life,  too  intimately  bound  up  with  Weimar  to  discuss 
in  detail  his  early  life  there,  and  he  shrank  from  carrying  his 
biography  beyond  the  year  X775.  But  a  number  of  other 
publications— -descriptions  of  travel,  such  as  the  Italieniscke 
Reise  (t8i6-x8i7),  the  materials  for  a.  continuation  of  Dichlung 
und  Wahrkeit  coUected  in  Tag-  und  Jahreshejte  (1830) — ^have  also 
to  be  numbered  among  the  writings  which  Goethe  has  left  us  as 
documents  of  his  life.  Meanwhile  no  less  valuable  biographical 
materials  were  accumulating  in  his  diaries,  his  voluminous 
correspondence  and  his  conversations,  as  recorded  by  J.  P. 
Eckermann,  the  chancellor  Mulier  and  F.  Soret.  Several 
periodical  publications,  Vber  Kunst-und  Altertum  (1816-1833), 
Zur  Naturunssensckafi  Uhcrkaupi  (181 7-1824),  Zur  Morphology 
(1817-X824),  bear  witness  to  the  extraordinary  breadth  of 
Goethe's  interests  in  these  years.  Art,  science,  literature — ^little 


escaped  his  ken — and  that  not  merely  in  Germany:  EngVsh 
writers,  Byron,  Scott  and  Carlyle,  Italians  like  Manzoni,  French 
^ientists  and  poets,  could  all  depend  on  friendly  words  o( 
appreciation  and  encouragement  from  Weimar. 

In  West-dsUichcr  Dvwan  (1819),  a  collection  of  lyrics — matchless 
in  form  and  even  more  concentrated  in  expression  than  those 
of  earlier  days — which  were  suggested  by  a  German  translation 
of  Haiiz,  Goethe  had  another  surprise  in  store  for  his  contem- 
poraries. And,  again,  it  was  an  actual  passion — that  for  Marianne 
von  Willemer,  whom  he  met  in  1S14  and  18x5 — which  rekindled 
in  him  the  lyric  fire.  Meanwhile  the  years  were  thinning  the 
ranks  of  Weimar  society:  Widand,  the  last  of  (joethe's  greater 
literary  contemporaries,  died  in  X813,  his  wife  in  x8i6,  Cluirlotte 
von  Stein  in  X827  and  Duke  Charles  Augustus  in  1828.  Goethe's 
retirement  from  the  direction  of  the  theatre  in  1817  meant  for 
him  a  break  with  the  literary  life  of  the  day.  In  1822  a  passion 
for  a  young  girl,  Ulrike  von  Levetzow,  whom  be  met  at  Marien- 
bad,  inspired  the  fine  TrUogie  der  Lcidenuhaft,  and  between 
1821  and  X829  appeared  the  long-expected  and  long-promised 
continuation  of  Wilhelm  Meister,  Wilhelm  Meisters  Waiderjakre. 
The  latter  work,  however,  was  a  disappointment:  perhaps  it 
could  not  have  been  otherwise.  Goethe  had  lost  the  thread  of 
his  romance  and  it  was  difficult  for  him  to  resume  it.  Problems 
of  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  society  and  industrial  questions 
were  to  have  formed  the  theme  of  the  Wanderjahre;  but  since 
the  French  Revolution  these  problems  had  themselves  entered 
on  a  new  phase  and  demanded  a  method  of  treatment  which  it 
was  not  easy  for  the  old  poet  to  leam.  Thus  his  intentions  were 
only  partially  carried  out,  and  the  volumes  were  filled  out  by 
irrelevant  stories,  which  had  been  written  at  widely  different 
p>eriods. 

But  the  crowning  achievement  of  Goethe's  L'teraiy  life  was 
the  completion  of  Faust.  The  poem  had  accompanied  him  from 
early  manhood  to  the  end  and  was  the  repository  for  the  fullest 
"  confession  "  of  his  life;  it  is  the  poetic  epitome  of  his  experience. 
The  second  part  is,  in  form,  far  removed  from  the  impressive 
realism  of  the  Ur/ausL  It  is  a  phantasmagory;  a  drama  the 
actors  in  which  are  not  creatures  of  flesh  and  blood,  but  the 
shadows  of  an  unreal  world  of  allegory.  The  lover  of  Gretchen 
had,  as  far  as  poetic  continuity  is  concerned,  disaf^iearcd  with 
the  dose  of  the  first  part.  In  the  second  part  it  is  virtually  a  new 
Faust  who,  at  the  hands  of  a  new  Mephistophdes,  goes  out  into 
a  world  that  is  not  ours.  Yet  behind  these  unconvincing  shadows 
of  an  imperial  court  with  its  finandal  difl^culties,  of  the  classical 
Walpurgisnacht,  of  the  fantastic  creation  of  the  Homunculus, 
the  noble  Helena  episode  and  the  impressive  mystery-scene 
of  the  dose,  where  the  centenarian  Faust  finally  triumphs  over 
the  powers  of  evil,  there  lies  a  philosophy  of  life,  a  ripe  wisdom 
bom  of  experience,  such  as  no  European  poet  had  given  to  the 
world  since  the  Renaissance.  Faust  has  been  well  called  the 
'*  divine  comedy  "  of  18th-century  humanism. 

The  second  part  of  Faust  forms  a  worthy  dose  to  the  life  of 
Germany's  greatest  man  of  letters,  who  died  in  Wdxnar  on  the 
22nd  of  March  X832.  He  was  the  last  of  those  universal  minds 
which  have  been  able  to  compass  all  domains  of  human  activity 
and  knowledge;  for  he  stood  on  the  brink  of  an  era  of  rapidly 
expanding  knowledge  which  has  made  for  ever  impossible  the 
universality  of  interest  and  sympathy  which  distinguished  him. 
As  a  poet,  his  fame  has  undergone  many  vicissitudes  since  his 
death,  ranging  from  the  indifference  of  the  "  Young  German  " 
school  to  the  enthusiastic  admiration  of  the  dosing  decades  of 
the  xpth  century — ^an  enthusiasm  to  which  we  owe  the  Weimar 
Goethe-Gesetlscha/l  (founded  in  1885)  and  a  vast  literature  dealing 
with  the  poet's  life  and  work;  but  the  fact  of  his  bdzig  Germany's 
greatest  poet  and  the  master  of  her  classical  literature  has  never 
been  seriously  put  in  question.  The  intrinsic  value  of  his  poetic 
work,  regarded  apart  from  his  personality,  is  smaller  in  propor- 
tion to  its  bulk  than  is  the  case  with  many  lesser  German  poets 
and  with  the  greatest  poets  of  other  literatures.  But  Goethe 
was  a  type  of  literary  man  hitherto  unrepresented  among  the 
leading  writers  of  the  world's  literature;  he  was  a  poet  whose 
supreme  greatness  lay  in  his  subjectivity.  Only  a  sniall  fraction 


GOETHE 

lOd  abfcclll 


187 


at  Coctbc'i  work  toi  mitlca 

ipirit,  and  (pnof  [ran  ohii  might  be  called 

impulM;  by  £«  the  liiger — aDd  the  better — part  ii  the  im. 

mediate  leflei  of  hii  feeliogi  iid  eipericnco. 

It  b  ai  a  lyric  poet  Uiat  Goelhr'i  supremacy  !•  leut  likel) 
(g  be  chaUenged;  he  has  giv^D  bii  oalioD,  vb«e  highest  literary 
tipnuiaii  bu  in  all  ago  beta  cuenlially  lyric,  ill  grealol  ungi 
No  other  German  poet  has  succeeded  in  atluning  feeling,  tenti. 
nMOl  and  (bought  w  periectly  to  the  music  ol  wants  u  he;  doh 
has  (ipiened  to  [uUy  that  spirituality  in  which  the  qulaieueaw 
of  Cermaa  lyrism  Lici.  Goethe's  dnmas,  on  the  othn  hand, 
have  not,  ia  the  eye»  of  his  natloa,  succeeded  io  holding  theij 
o*n  betide  Scjiiller's;  bul  the  reason  is  rather  because  Goethe, 
inn  what  might  be  called  a  irilful  obstinacy,  refused  10  bt 
bound  by  the  conventions  of  the  theatre,  than  because  he  wu 
de6cient  in  the  cunning  of  the  dramatist.  For,  as  an  intcrprelei 
of  liuBiu  character  in  the  dnma,  Goelhe  is  without  a  rival 
•sung  modem  poets,  and  there  is  not  one  of  bispLsys 


a  few 


lioMl 

dnma,  and  it  remains  perhaps  for  the  theatre  of  the  fulun  to 
pnive  itself  capable  of  populariiint  psycbologicid  nujierplecei 
like  roue  and  Ifkitaic.  It  is  as  a  novelist  that  Goethe  has 
taOered  mou  by  the  lapse  of  time.  The  Swrimt  0/  Wtrtker  do 
knger  moves  us  to  lean,  and  even  IfiUcfx  MtiOtr  and  Dit 
WMttma nilitkajln  require  more  undenlanding  for  ibe 
cmditioa*  under  which  tliey  wcie  wiiiitn  than  do  Fauil  or 
Efmanl.  Goethe  could  fill  bii  ptOK  with  rich  wisdom,  but  he 
was  ooly  Ibc  perfect  artist  in  vcne. 

Liltk  allenlton  it  coKidays  paid  to  Coelhe'i  work  in  other 
fields,  work  which  he  himself  in  some  catej  priied  moie  highly 
tbao  his  poet  ry.  It  is  only  as  an  illusl  ration  of  his  many-lidedDea 
aod  his  manifc" 


Hisai 


latheal 


II,  as  a  practical  polil  leal 
■      ■        ■      ■  of  Eur. 


k  the  growing  individualism  t 


which  be,  with  inadetjulte  matbe 
the  Newtonian  theoryof  light  and 
ship  of  "  Neptunism."  the  theory  o 


ori^n  01  the  earth' 
n  the  other  hand,  b 


1  opposed 


Of  far-reaching 

tl  ibe  Darwijuan  theory  m  bis  worics  cm  the  mna- 
if  plants  and  on  anirul  motpbology.  Indeed,  Ibe 
D  bt  drawn  from  Goethe's  contributions  to  botany 
and  anatomy  Is  that  he,  ai  no  other  of  his  coDiempoiaties, 
possesed  that  type  of  sdentific  mind  which,  in  the  191b  century, 
has  made  for  progress;  he  was  Darwin's  predecessor  by  virtue 
of  his  eaundiiioD  of  what  has  now  become  one  of  the  common- 
(diceiof  natural  science— organic  evolution.  Modem,  100,  was 
ibe  Efutlook  of  the  aging  poet  on  the  changing  social  conditions 
of  the  age,  wonderfully  sympathetic  Eiia  attitude  towards  modem 
ipduatiy,  which  steam  was  just  bepnning  to  establish  on  a  new 
ha*ia,  and  toward*  modem  democracy.  Tbe  Europe  of  his  bier 
'  :  idyllic  and    enlighlened 


From  the  philo«ophic  movement,  b  which  Schillet  and  thi 
RoDaniidtts  were  so  deeply  involved,  Goetbe  stood  apart 
Compaiailvely  early  in  life  be  had  found  In  Spinoia  the  philo 
Bopfaei  who  nvonded  to  his  needs.  Spinoza  laugh  I  him  to  sc 
innatunthe"  living  garment  of  God,"  asd  more  he  did  not  seel 
or  need  to  know.  At  a  convinced  realist  he  look  his  siandpoio 
on  DaiuR  and  experience,  and  could  afford  to  look  on  object!  vcl; 
at  Ike  controvtniei  of  the  melaphyilcians.  Kant  he  by  m 
means  ignoitd.  and  uedet  Schiller's  guidance  he  learned  mud 
from  tarn;  but  of  tbe  younger  thinkers,  only  Schelling,  who» 
isystic  nature-phDoaopby  was  a  development  of  Spinou' 
ideas,  toocbed  a  Bympalbetic  chord  in  his  nature.  As  a  moralis 
and  a  foide  to  the  conduct  ol  life — an  aspect  of  Goethe's  worl 


which  Carlyk,  viewing  him  through  the  coloured  glistea  < 
Fichtean  idealism,  enqjliaaiied  aiid  interpreted  not  atway 
justly — Goethe  was  a  powerful  force  on  German  life  in  years  c 

political  and  Intellectual  deproiion.  It  is  difficult  even  sti 
to  get  beyond  the  maiiras  of  piactical  wisdom  he  scattered  s 
Lbcrally  through  bis  writings,  the  lessons  lo  be  learned  frot 
t  even  that  cabn,  optimist 


ever  deserted  Goethe,  and  wa 

mot  ol  hi]  life.     Ii  the  phdosophy  of  Spi 

ith  a  religion  which  mad< 

nnecesiaiy   and   impossible, 
estinism  supplied  the  foimd 


densed  in  Napoleon' 
*t  Erfurt:   Vtild  ■ 


,  uttered  after  the  meeiin 


<d  ediiioot  of  Goethe's 
Sikrifitit  {i  vols..  Leipiie, 
'--■■-     \NJ-l«oo)i  miSt 


wrilian  appeared  in  the  poet  t  I 
l7»7-!?90i;  If""  Sil.>ifui  (7  , 

(1 1  vail.,  StuiiBin.  iSob-iSio);  Wirti  do  vols..  Stuiigan,  iSit- 
Iti4):  to  which  lia  volumes  wen  added  in  l«M-lfeli  Ifnlf 
(ycilh<ladi|e  Auigabe  leiner  Kand)  (40  vdIl.  Slutt^ri,  1817-1810}. 
Cucibr'i  ffaclittlaasffne  IVrrkt  appeared  as  a  contmuailon  of  this 
ediiion  in  is  voluinet  [Siuitnn,  Itu-iau).n  which  Gvevotunie* 
wi'ic  uddcirin  184].    These  were  loltowed  b^  several  edltuns  of 


3«ly  in  foci 


S.,S 


,-..  _ in  Ihiny^ii  votuoKi,   iSM-iSto;  that  in 

hoer'i  OeMiito  ffoliMalliuriilwr,  volt,  U-117  (lS8l-iS«>  b 

is  [tov  approacfaing  coinp)eti«i,  beinD  to  appear;  ii  is  divided 
inioluurscciions:!.  Iferb  (c  S6  vtiU.);  II.  ^urwiiii^HliiiJiIiikt 

IF"(r  <ia  vols.):  111.  roHHclbr  (13  vole.):  1 V.  Sru/>  (c. u  voIl). 
Of  i^lher  recent  editions  the  most  noteworthy  are:  Samiiitkt  Wtrkt 
CJiiljililiiins-Aiiigabe].ediledbyE.vonderHclli9i(4avaU.,S(uitEan. 
■  ch'i  IT.;   WoZ,  edited  by  K.  Heincmaon   (jo  vols.,  LeipiiE, 


L.  Geife 


rd  aod  a  number  of 


(u  vols.,  Leipiig.  1901).  Thci 
murjiit  ui  sekcted  worlis:  reference  need  01 
uiiful  collection  of  Che  eaify  writings  and 
Hirurl  «ith  an  introduction  by  M.  Berngyt.  I 
Ltii'tig.  IB7J.  and  ed.,  1887).  A  French 
CEuvrei  cemfitlH,  by  J.  Porthal,  nppeartil 

cbm^l  «orkf  have  all  been  fr«iL>iihilv  r,  1,.- 
tb.  m  <nl1  be  found  In  Bo)io'<  >ian-J  -  I  '.'  -. 

Thedefioiliveeditlonof  Cocihi.'-': leiien  u  tnac  lomiuw 

5t';tiaulll.andlV,oFi)>eWeii...:r.  '      '      ' loUectioru ol aeleclS 
le^irn  bated  on  the  Weimar  p^Fiii ■    ^■    !■  -      published  by  E.  von 

may  be  made  of  tbe  0rui^KftKfnnjcAni5cAiJtrrai<J(70tfif,  edited 
by  Goethe  himself  (1818-1819;  4ih  ed..  rfiSi:  alio  srvecal  cheap 
reprinii.  English  iiaMlation  by  I_  D.  Schmita.  l87J-l870)j 
BnrtiMtilijd  •aixhtn  Cscffa  irnif  ZtlUr  (6  vols.,  i8j]-i8u;  reprint 
in  RKlirn's  UntKTKilbMuilktt,  1904:  English  iranilatian  by 
A.  D.  Cideridjje.  18S7];  BtUina  Km  Amim,  Cctlka  Bruficrrkwl 
mil  rinrm  Kindt  (1835:  4lh  cd.,  1S90;  English  tranililion,  1838): 
Brufr  wni  ■^Hl  on  Goaii.  edited  by  F.  W.  Riemn  (1846);  Gtillui 
B«ijt  an  frm  ten  51«m,  edited  by  A.  SchOII  (1848-1811 :  3rd  ed. 
by  J,  Wahle.  llgo-IVIO}\  Bntfittcluil  tmiiihtn  GoOlir  taid  K.  F.nm 
Rtmhard  (iSsof:  flric/ncWswucVa  Cotlii  uvl  Kvbd  (1  voli., 
iSjl);  Bhffwakul  mctKlun  Gatlki  mHf  SUuUtra  ScklUit  (iBjj): 
BrufwHksd  lUl  //rmri  Karl  A<it<ul  mil  Cmllu  (i  volt.,  l8ii  ; 
B'Utwaluti  tmu-lm  Gotllu  siJ  ITufur  Criftim  SUritrri  llttil: 
CorOut  nUurwiltnucki/Uifjke  KamipanJna.  and  Coilkti  Brwf- 
iMcktel  mil  in  Gibnitn  m  HumbMi,  ediied  by  F,  T.  Bntnnek 
(1B74-1876):  CttilHj  mi  Carljia  BruJmcM  (1887I,  aln  in 
En>lTih:CMtl(iii>if  ifuRimuiifil,  edittff  by  C.  Schuddebopf  and 
O.  ^aliel  [1  vols..  1898-1^);  CMlt  uni  LaKler.  edited  by  H. 
Funck  (1901),  CKlke  vnd  OiUncitk.  ediied  by  A,  Sauer  (i  volt.. 
1901-19031.  BHides  ihe  cDrmpondence  hiili  Schiller  and 
Bohn'i  Ul^ary  conlaiDs  a  tranualion  of  £ar/y 


wJJlcr  (1,870^  dwhe'i  coll«i«t  (Sp™i.  was  pi 


rgly 


GOETHE 

(aUowii«:  W.  Scbmr.  Ami  Cwita  nritnl  (Itn);  R-  WciMa- 

,...   .^_i,  ,.  ,-. J  n. —     _,    .    ■—,1;  iV.  WUmiuu, 

_ .1874):  J.Buchicdd. 

[UJ  I.DU  DM  airlukittin  in  itnjtttitr  CtUtll  (iMll;    ' 

>cU,  WirlU.  .wt  WH  inl  (iSSS;  * "    '  ' 

hani»flt  Rbwiuom  umJ  Gotllir  (107^} 

W"  "   K.» 


{i)   fiuiraBtj.— Gonbc'*  lutobkicnphy.  jfiii  ntwiH  LOem: 
DitUititt  aiuf  H'mtrjtnl.  appeared  in  UirR  piru  bcUKcn  ISil  4nd 

dtMriuit  \tn  Wtim-vr  in  1—;.  in  i"'!  (En(E«h  ittMliiion  by 
J.Oitnlocd,  '>i< :  Lj lucra phial wnlin«i 


,;.'<-.■£,', 


and  cipKuUy  by  tab 


'i.rf'V'P 


■^U.  >M.  FUjb);  H.  VicKoA.  CsrUul  Z^&«  (1  voU.,  llUT-ISu; 
jiSrd.,  lU:) :  J.  W.  Schifn,  Coalui  L^ta  |]  voU..  iBji :  iid  «!., 
i8j_7);  C.  K  Lcw«,  r*.  Lift  a>H(  Worti  ■■/  G«i*r  (a  voli,  lass: 
9Dd  rd..  tS'-i;  ird  ed.,  1S7J;  cbnp  rvpnni.  coa6;  ihc  Gomui 
tniuUlicmtiv  J.rtueiilniuiSihcditiDii.iuu^  h riiatm biixraphy 
wu  publiifat.ll.y  Ltwciin  1II7J  undn  ilie title  rk(  5»rT  1^  Cwlh/f 
Up):  W.  I.I6liO.».  If.  Ccud.  /u  c»nl  eiph«<[i  au  fl  w 
(1*73-187})-  A  Bo«n,  C«M<  (i»7a-i87)|;  K.  Gacdelw,  GoujKi 
tftni  HW  ,Vitriytni  {1874;  ind  ed.,  1877);  H.  Grimni,  Cncite.' 
forkmnn  (18761  Slh  cd.,  lOOl;  Eniliih  mniliiion,  iSSol: 
A.  Hiywanl,  Cw/te  (r878):  H.  Hi  Bn>,-<.„,  (7,«w  „„j  J,-t,/)(r, 
■■        ' (ia7g):.H.  I^ii'iuc  G.tii,,,  irff-  ii^^Oi 


.     Uu.  utn  LrSn       _ 

vol.  il..  1901:  EngLllll  iraiublioo  by 
G.  MTulunnky.  C«iiU  (1««)^  K.  G.  Ai 
"  ■■ *"  ■■     n.CMdu.kan^  L. 


HcUi  pcriodi  1 


Til  Lcim  ■«(  iriW  \V„kt  (1865);  [ 
._  H.ineiMnn,  CorHi.  j:^(Kn  ii.if 
R.    M.    Meyer,   CmU   (i89J;   3rd    ■ 


OWAlry.  C-^ — -  1  .^, 

:n  and  R.  Meyer,  t; 

Of  wrilillBi  on  ipecul  p 

Double  IB  IfaechicnoIacicaJ  lequeria: of  1  III'  loci's  lili.) :  H.  UUn 
Gtalut  SUmmtaum  {iS^i;  K  Kein^minn,  l.arit-i  il„:ln  (I 
Mh  cd.,  IB(M};  p.  Butler,  /ji  U»rc  ir  C^rik,  i,i<r^lj:  Britji 
Fnu  Sal  (1  m\i..  md  ed.,  tflos):  F.  Kwjn.  C.'rikri  Vairr  (it 
C,  WilkDWlU,  Cimului  die  Sckmair  G,u!ui  (i<)oih  T.  B>" 
Ctalu.  fS  mr  It  III  amia  (tM);  H  DLinT^Et.  F'^ftiliiUr, 
CttOts  Jrtndlal  ll8u):  W.  von  BiL-U-tmanri.  CMM  -iJ  Lr 
llSM);  P-  F.  Ludui,  Fritdrriii  II:,,.-,  (1K7I4,  jr.l  ,'il  .  r 
A.  BwltclKniiliy,  Fhtitrikt  Brian  (iSSii):  r.  E.  tun  Dur.kl 
Ul")  KM  HKlilAKiiJi  Alheili^  (I8;<).  Init  >-:l  ,  ISgjI,  W  If. 
CsKte  tn  IP<li;ar  (1881];  A.Dieuunn,  Cm^  iin/,.'>f  ffii,'. 
»  K'rIIHI'  (ISjI:  ind  td.,  1901);  II.  Dllnll.'t,  C,:/nt  „nJ 
AufU   (l8S9->»4;    IIXI    cd.-    18S8).    ,|I  ■;    \,\     rl„'    .  ,i„.     ... 

AiuCtuka  >>n.«d«i»«i»  (iSfiP)  .>"  1  ■  i'-' ■'--  ■  ■  . 

1874)1  ].  Kuiliuui.  AiiS  Co,:l„i  1: 
O.  fhniKk.  Zb  IfarhBKkul,:/  .!  , 
Crimm.  SckiUa  iHHf  OhMc   (f.'  . 

Dcclit,  CaKbimd  stiller  m  f 

JfiUnlmtn  m  ff.  feii  |i3g<^,^  L 

B  H'ri.mr  C»  •■oil..  1S6J);  C.  A.  II , ^  ;i./,,wi', 

iHiiiunicJhni   IVaari  ■iiler  CarlUi  leiluni  (1B91):  J.   W 
-      -"  '          HofliaMnaui,  CHlkeiLnlHnit t»^i):O.Hin 
" ■"■"  '"t.  ■ 


n,  CooJh  im  UfltiU  u 


[899;  ipd  «d,i  190a);  B.  Sccig,  Omit  ml 

K.  C.  Ciaet,  GmiIu  iitr  iri«  SiQUi 

X-Sai 


Byd«  ml-  Corfi  (■8jsTrwT'vM  Biid™il 
(1879.  '*«*)jj.  M' '    " 


?Tii^' 


lU^adRii  innel  i^iteit  und  Wirtni 


.j_.     JiHy   Tnri    (1694):'    E.'bi^nlt 

I  liUralurt  (184J);  E.  Rod.  £iwi  mr  Cuellu  (iSgSh  A.  Luther, 
jBtlkt,  uckl  PWlrip  (190s);  R-  SailKhik,  Cnukir  OamUer 
(1848);  W,  Bode.  CmiIui  Ubtnikaiul  (iood;  ind  ed.,  looi):  by 
the  h™,  C«l*«  AUIlO,k  (1901):  T.  Vallbehr,  (;«fh  u»d  Jll 
Mdndi  Xauf  (1895);  E.  Lielitenberier.  £liulei  iiir  Iri  ufjur 
Itnfui  di  Cmlihi  (1I7B):  T.  Achclb,  Jrnxdnii  dir  L/K*  Cotllut 
6905);  B.  LiUBUnn.  (n»(*M  Lyiik  (1903I;  R.  Riermnn,  Ci«*« 
Rsmmlickmik  (IWl);  R.  Vinkow.  Crolit  all  Natar/nriikir  {iSbi): 
E.  Ciro,  jU  PItSlaapliu  it  Gealit  (ill66.9iid  ed.,  1H70);  H.  SHintr. 
C«dUi  WilUnKkauiutt  (1897] :  F.  Siebeek,  Ctaljte  all  DnMrt  ( i«ii) : 
f.  Bjldentpergtr,  O^oer*,  a  >™ra  (1904):  S.  WwrtioWl,  (S«te 
■id  ^u  R«uiUil  (iilB«). 
More  ipccUl  irettiKt  doling  with  individiul  works  are  the 


f  CttuU  (1 ,    ... 

(d.,  I(W);E.  Schmdt 


■■  ilim  I'lnkiJniu  nr  fiildiiif  Illicit  If Ue  d^  Ditlilnl  (lS<I.  m 
XfciiK  Stkr-JUt,  1884)1  K.  FiKher.  CkUu  IfSitmii  (1U8), 
F.  T.  Bninnek,  C«*iU)  Eimm  mni  Sckiiltri  Walitxatt*  liiiij, 
C.  Sctaucbudl.  ChUh  ilaJunuita  Xnn  (it6aj;  H  Dunufr. 
/MlfflHi  Slif  ruru,'  Jit  im  allrOtn  Btartnltntm  (iSu),  F 
Ken.  Gtaka  TUit  (ItOO);  J.  Schubur,  Dti  utibnntuetn 
CriMdHdBiUtn  M  CMIfi  HUii&i  IftiiMr  (i»9fi),  eT  Bou.  AUttir 
ud  C^Mb  ia  Xtnintampt  (iSji);  E.  Scbuidt  ud  B.  Suphin. 
jr»>n  int.  met  J«  BMMeknlm  [1891):  W.  voa  HumboMi. 
ifittuucW  r«Kte.'  Htrmamit  lo^  AwAh  (1799I:  V  Htba, 
?tir  GhAb  Hwmm  wid  DtnOu*  (1891):  A.  Ftiu.  QHJn  ud 
Ktmpmliim  dv  jlcUIMi  (lOOIli  K-  Ah.  SliidiAi  nir  inUHIimatt- 
tatkitUi  (M  IMcbBiu  mJ  VsVikfM  (I89SJ,  A.  Juof,  Oxitu 
Wtivtirjtlin  «d  du  nrKilftfim  Frun  do  Ip.  Jatnkuiidiru  [laul : 
F.  Knrwig,  V*riHBiv«Uv  CwMfi  fun  08661:  ibe  miuou  a( 
Am  by  C.  voa  Loepcr  (a  vote.,  1BT9).  and  K  J.  Scbiecr  (i  voU.. 
Jid  mud  4Ih  ed..  1(98-1901);  K.  FiKba.  Cetliei  Fttat  (i  voU.. 
I>9J.  1901. 190]]  :0.  Pnlowcr.  Oatn  Atm.  2»iiiut(  imd  emri* 
■■  imHr  Eiiuiikiaiptuduiliu  (1899)1  ].  Minor.  CtUkdi  Au>, 
EtaaukvuHiukuiila  umi  BtUanint  ti  vtiW..  1901). 

{1}  Sallatratkial  Warki.  Caelti.Stcuua,  &1.—L.  Uaflid.  Dit 
CMki-LaintM  ill  Dnlattbai  (187S):  S.  Mind.  VmBcUii  •met 
OMlu-BMMlidi  (1M4).  10  which  G.  von  Lotper  iitd  W.  voa  Bieda- 

1. ■!_.  -ippiniimii.    F.  StRhtke.  CttOut  Bntfi. 

I  itt  QtM  '■"-  ■""-■    =—---'  "— — — 


Vmiitlmii  utv  ^uite  itt  O*^  (i88i-iS«4).  BrUii.. 

CauOctf  «f  Ptinui Bttkt:  Ctellit  (i8MI>;  Coedeke'i  Cruidi 
mr  CiicUcIm  dtr  dnucikn  ZMcbwii  (Ind  cd..  vol  in.  1891);  1 
ihc  bibtio^pbis  in  the  Galii-Jtiitbktk  (liBcc  1880).  AIh  . 
Hoys.  Zar  EwflUrHt  imHtCtiUit-LUtialur  (1904).  dn  Conhc : 
^BfliMl  w  £^OnnM,_Cb(Mt  <■  EifJaiid     ^   '  * 


laiiiktiau  i*  iit  CMIkt-LtUHAit  <  1 904; 

__. E.  OnnM,  Cb(Mt  <■  EnfJand  wi7  ..    . 

ImTcd..  1909)1  W.  KciBciiiua.  ^  BiUiatnlAiial  LHIi/l 
TramlaUim  and  AnmlaUi  EiiHnu  if  Gtalu'i    Fn 
Referem  may  abo  be  nade  here  10  F.  Zamcke'i  "~ 
OriniHfai(^iui(aam>CHttuKldafu«  (ISB8). 
JCMte-Cotttictg/l  wai  foiBdcd  al  Weinu  IB  1 88 

JaMtk 


F.  Zarncke'i  Vtfndaui  itr 

888.  aod  suBiben 


r88e. 


n  Enflidi  (kiclbe 

et  <I  publiuEioOB.  uca 
(J.  G.  R.) 


iiuband  having  ni 


Ihe  islh  of  Deamber  ijSi 

von  Fogwiicb  (1796-1871),  who  bad 

with  hiT  iDotber  (nit  Counuu  He 

Tbe  tnaniajre  wai  a  very  unhappy  ( 

qiulilles  Ibal  could  appeal  to  a  woman  who,  wnateva  tne 

cenwriout  might  uy  ot  hei  manl  cbaracict,  wai  diitin(uiibcd 

to  [he  last  by  a  lively  inlellect  and  1  liniulat  chirm.     Auguii 

VDD  Goethe,  whou  »lf  distinction  oas  hit  birtb  and  bis  po^lioo 

as  grBnd.ducal  cbambcrlAin,  died  in  Italy,  00  tbe  17th  ol  Ociober 

1830.  leaviog  ibiee  cbildien:  W«i.tbei  WoLrctNC,  bom  oo 

April  9,  181a,  died  oq  April  15,  iSBj;  Woucuia  Haxuhuah, 

bom  on  ScpiembiT  18,  1810,  died  on  January  to,  tSSy,  Alma, 

bom  on  October  31,  1B17,  died  on  Sepicmba  >g.  1S44- 

Of  Wallher  von  Goethe  littte  need  be  uid.  In  youth  be  had 
musical  ambitions,  studied  under  Mendeluoha  and  Weinlig 
at  Leipzig,  under  Loewe  at  Stettin,  and  afterwards  ac  Vienna. 
He  published  a  few  longa  of  do  great  merit,  and  had  at  his 
death  DO  tDore  thaD  the  reputation  among  hii  friend*  oI  a  kindly 

WoUgaog  or,  as  he  was  familiarly  called.  Wolf  vcm  Goetbf, 
wu  by  far  tbe  more  gifted  of  the  two  bnitbers,  and  his  ^oomy 
destiny  by  so  mucb  the  more  tragic,  A  sensitive  and  highly 
unaginative  boy,  he  was  the  favourite  of  his  grandfather,  who 
made  him  his  constant  companioii.  This  fan.  instead  of  being 
to  the  boy's  advantage,  was  to  prove  his  bane.  The  exalted 
atjnosphere  of  the  great  iDan's  Ideas  was  too  rarefied  for  the 
child's  intellectual  health,  and  a  bnin  well  fitted  10  do  eicdlenl 
work  in  the  world  was  mined  by  the  eflort  to  live  up  to  an 
impossible  idcaL  To  maintain  himscU  oa  the  same  height  aa 
hi)  gnndfatber,  and  to  make  the  name  of  Goethe  illustrious  in 
his  desceadiDta  also,  became  Wolfgang's  ambiiioii.  and  his 
incapacity  10  realise  ttus,  very  soon  bone  is  upon  him,  panlyMi) 


GOETZ 


189 


Us  efforts  and  plunged  him  at  last  into  bitter  revolt  against  his 
late  and  gloomy  isc^tion  from  a  world  that  seemed  to  have  no 
use  for  him  but  as  a  curiosity.  From  the  first,  too,  he  was 
hampered  by  wretched  health;  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was 
subjected  to  one  of  those  terrible  attacks  of  neuralgia  which 
were  to  torment  him  to  the  last;  physically  and  mentally  alike 
be  stood  in  trsgic  contrast  with  his  grandfather,  in  whose 
gigantic  personality  the  vigour  of  his  race  seems  to  have  been 
exhausted. 

From  1839  to  1845  Wolfgang  studied  law  at  Bonn,  Jena, 
Heidelberg  and  Berlin,  taking  his  degree  of  doctor  juris  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1845.  During  this  period  be  had  made  his  first  literary 
efforts.  His  StudenUn-BrieJe  (Jena,  1842),  a  medley  of  letters 
and  Ijrrics,  are  wholly  conventional.  This  was  followed  by  Der 
Menick  und  die  dementariscke  Nalur  (Stuttgart  and  Tiibingen, 
1845),  in  three  parts  (Beitrdge) :  (i)  an  historical  and  philosophical 
dissotation  on  the  relations  of  mankind  and  the  "  soul  of  nature," 
largely  influenced  by  Schelling,  (2)  a  dissertation  on  the  juridical 
side  of  the  question,  De  fragmemto  Vegoiae,  being  the  thesis 
presented  for  his  degree,  (3)  a  lyrical  drama,  Erlinde.  In  this 
last,  as  in  his  other  poetic  attempts,  Wolfgang  showed  a  consider- 
able measure  of  inherited  or  acquired  ability,  in  his  wealth  of 
language  and  his  easy  mastery  of  the  difficulties  of  rhythm  and 
rhyme.  But  this  was  all.  The  work  was  characteristic  of  his 
self-centred  isolation:  ultra-romantic  at  a  time  when  Romanti- 
cism was  already  an  outworn  fashion,  remote  alike  from  the 
^irit  of  the  age  and  from  that  of  Goethe.  The  cold  reception 
it  met  with  shattered  at  a  blow  the  dream  of  Wolfgang's  life; 
henceforth  he  realized  that  to  the  world  he  was  interesting 
mainly  as  *'  Goethe's  grandson,"  that  anything  he  might  achieve 
would  be  measured  by  that  terrible  standard,  and  he  hated  the 
legacy  of  hb  name. 

The  next  five  years  he  spent  in  Italy  and  at  Vienna,  tormented 
by  facial  neuralgia.  Returning  to  Weimar  in  1850,  he  was  made  a 
chamberlain  by  the  grand-duke,  and  in  1852,  bis  health  being 
now  somewhat  restored,  he  entered  the  Prussian  diplomatic 
service  and  went  as  attach^  to  Rome.  The  fruit  of  his  long 
yeaia  of  illness  was  a  slender  volume  of  lyrics,  CedickU  (Stuttgart 
and  Tabingen,  185 1),  good  in  form,  but  seldom  inspired,  and 
showing  occasionally  the  influence  of  a  morbid  sensuality.  In 
1854  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  legation;  but  the  aggressive 
ttltramontanism  of  the  Curia  became  increasingly  intolerable 
to  his  overwrought  nature,  and  in  1856  he  was  transferred,  at  his 
own  request,  as  secretary  of  legation  to  Dresden.  This  post  he 
resigned  in  1859,  in  which  year  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
Frwihen  (baron).  In  1866  he  received  the  title  of  councillor 
of  legation;  but  he  never  again  occupied  any  diplomatic  post. 

The  rest  of  his  life  he  devoted  to  historical  research,  ultimately 
selectiog  as  his  special  subject  the  Italian  libraries  up  to  the  year 
1500.  The  outcome  of  all  his  Ubours  was,  however,  only  the 
fint  part  of  Studies  and  Researches  in  the  Times  and  Life  of 
Cardittal  Bessarion,  embracing  the  period  of  the  council  of 
Florence  (privately  printed  at  Jena,  1871),  a  catalogue  of  the 
MSS.  in  the  monastery  of  Suicta  Justina  at  Padua  (Jena, 
1873),  and  a  mass  of  undigested  material,  which  he  ultimately 
bequeathed  to  the  tmiversity  of  Jena. 

Ib  1870  Qttilie  von  Goethe,  who  had  resided  mainly  at  Vienna, 
returned  to  Weimar  and  took  up  her  residence  with  her  two  sons 
in  the  Goethehaus.  So  k>ng  as  she  lived,  her  small  salon  in  the 
attic  storey  of  the  great  house  was  a  centre  of  attraction  for 
many  of  the  most  illustrious  personages  in  Europe.  But  after 
her  death  in  1872  the  two  brothers  lived  in  almost  complete 
isolation.  The  few  old  friends,  including  the  grand-duke  Charles 
Alexander,  who  continued  regulariy  to  visit  the  house,  were 
entertained  with  kindly  hospitality  by  Baron  Walther;  Wolf- 
ing refused  to  be  drawn  from  his  isolation  even  by  the  advent 
of  royalty.  "Tell  the  empress,"  he  cried  on  one  occasion, 
*'that  I  am  not  a  wild  beast  to  be  sUred  at  I "  In  1879.  his 
iDOcaaing  iUness  necessitating  the  constant  presence  of  an 
attendant,  he  went  to  live  at  Leipzig,  where  he  died. 

Goethe's  grandsons  have  been  so  repeatedly  accused  of  having 
a  dog-in-the-nunger  temper  in  closing  the  (}oethehaus 


to  the  public  and  the  Goethe  archives  to  research,  that  the 
charge  has  almost  universally  come  to  be  regarded  as  proven. 
It  is  true  that  the  house  was  closed  and  access  to  the  archives  only 
very  sparin^y  allowed  until  Baron  Walther's  death  in  1885. 
But  the  reason  for  this  was  not,  as  Herr  Max  Hecker  rather 
absurdly  suggests,  Wolfgang's  jealousy  of  his  grandfather's 
oppressive  fame,  but  one  far  more  simple  and  natural.  From 
one  cause  or  another,  principally  Oltilie  von  Goethe's  extrava- 
gance, the  family  was  in  very  straitened  circumstances;  and  the 
brothers,  being  thoroughly  unbusinesslike,  believed  themselves 
to  be  poorer  than  they  really  were.'  They  closed  the  Goethehaus 
and  the  archives,  because  to  have  opened  them  would  have 
needed  an  army  of  attendants.*  If  they  deserve  any  blame  it 
is  for  the  pride,  natural  to  their  rank  and  their  generation,  which 
prevented  them  from  charging  an  entrance  fee,  an  expedient 
which  would  not  only  have  made  it  possible  for  them  to  give 
access  to  the  house  and  collections,  but  would  have  enabled 
them  to  save  the  fabric  from  falling  into  the  lamentable  state 
of  disrepair  in  which  it  was  found  after  their  death.  In  any  case, 
the  accusation  is  ungenerous.  With  an  almost  exaggerated 
Piddt  Goethe's  descendants  preserved  his  hoiue  untouched, 
at  great  inconvenience  to  themselves,  and  left  it,  with  all  i^ 
treasures  intact,  to  the  nation.  Had  they  been  the  selfidi 
misers  they  are  sometimes  painted,  they  could  have  realized  a 
fortune  by  selling  its  contents. 

Wolf  Goethe  (Weimar,  1889)  is  a  sympathetic  ai)prectation  by  Otto 
Mejer,  formerly  president  of  the  Lutheran  consistory  in  Hanover. 
See  also  Jennv  v.  Gcrstenbergk,  Ouilie  von  Goethe  und  ihre  Sdhne 
Walther  und  wdf  (Stuttgart,  1901).  and  the  article  on  Maximilian 
Wolfgang  von  Goethe  by  Max  F.  Hecker  in  AUgem.  deuische  Bio- 
graphie,  Bd.  49.  Nachtriige  (Leipzig,  1904).  (W.  A.  P.) 

OOBTZ,  HERHANN  (1S40-1876).  German  musical  composer, 
was  bom  at  KSnlgsberg  in  Prussia,  on  the  17th  of  December  1840, 
and  began  his  regular  musical  studies  at  the  comparatively 
advanced  age  of  seventeen.  He  entered  the  music-school  of 
Professor  Stern  at  Berlin,  and  studied  composition  chiefly  under 
Ulrich  and  Hans  von  Billow.  In  1863  he  was  appointed  organist 
at  Winterthur  in  Switzerland,  where  he  lived  in  obscurity  for 
a  number  of  years,  occupying  himself  with  composition  during 
his  leisure  hours.  One  of  his  works  was  an  opera.  The  Taming 
of  the  SArop,  the  libretto  skilfully  adapted  from  Shakespeare's 
play.  After  much  delay  it  was  produced  at  Mannheim  (in 
October  1874),  and  its  success  was  as  instantaneous  as  it  has  up  to 
the  present  proved  lasting.  It  rapidly  made  the  round  of  the 
great  German  theatres,  and  spread  its  composer's  fame  over  all 
the  land.  But  Goetz  did  not  live  to  enjoy  this  happy  result 
for  long.  In  December  1S76  he  died  at  Zurich  from  overwork. 
A  second  opera,  Francesca  da  Rimini,  on  which  he  was  engaged, 
remained  a  fragment;  but  it  was  finished  according  to  his 
directions,  and  was  performed  for  the  first  time  at  Mannheim 
a  few  months  after  the  composer's  death  on  the  4th  of  December 
1876.  Besides  his  dramatic  work,  Goetz  also  wrote  various 
compositions  for  chamber-music,  of  which  a  trio  (Op.  i)  and 
a  quintet  (Op.  16)  have  been  given  with  great  success  at  the 
London  Monday  Popular  Concerts.  Still  more  important  is  the 
Symphony  in  F.  As  a  composer  of  comic  opera  Cioetz  lacks  the 
sprightliness  and  artistic  savoir  faire  so  rarely  found  amongst 
Germanic  nations.  His  was  essentially  a  serious  nature,  and 
passion  and  pathos  were  to  him  more  congenial  than  humour. 
The  more  serious  sides  of  the  subject  are  therefore  insisted  upon 
more  successfully  than  Katherine's  ravings  and  Petruchio's 
eccentricities.  There  are,  however,  very  graceful  passages,  e.g. 
the  singing  lesson  Bianca  receives  from  her  disguised  lover. 
Goetz's  style,  although  influenced  by  Wagner  and  other  masters, 
shows  signs  of  a  distinct  individuality.  The  design  of  his  music 
is  essentially  of  a  polyphonic  character,  and  the  working  out  and 
interweaving  of  his  themes  betray  the  musician  of  high  scholar- 
ship.   But  breadth  and  beautiful  flow  of  melody  also  were  his, 

'  After  Walther's  death  upwards  of  £10.000  in  bonds.  &c.,  were 
discovered  put  away  and  forgotten  in  escritoires  and  odd  ccMtiers. 

*This  was  the  reason  pvcn  by  Baron  Walther  himself  to  the 
writer's  mother,  an  old  fncnd  of  Frau  von  Goethe,  who  lived  with 
her  family  in  the  Goethehaus  for  some  years  after  1871. 


190 


GOFFE— GOGOL 


u  is  seen  in  the  symphony,  and  perhaps  still  mote  in  the  quintet 
for  pianoforte  and  strings  above  referred  to.  The  most  important 
of  Goets's  posthumous  works  are  a  setting  of  the  137th  Psalm 
for  soprano  solo,  chorus  and  orchestra,  a  **  Spring  "  overture 
(Op.  1$).  and  a  pianoforte  sonau  for  four  hands  (Op.  17). 

OOFPB  (or  (Sough),  WILUAM  (fl.  x64a-i66o).  EngUsh 
parliamentarian,  son  of  Stephen  Goffe,  puritan  rector  of  Stanmer 
in  Essex,  began  life  as  an  apprentice  to  a  London  Salter,  a  zealous 
parliamentarian,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  dvil  war  he  joined 
the  army  and  became  obtain  in  Colonel  Harley's  regiment  of  the 
new  model  in  1645.  He  was  imprisoned  in  164a  for  his  share  in 
the  petition  to  give  the  control  of  the  militia  to  the  parliament. 
By  his  marriage  with  Frances,  daughter  of  Genenl  Edward 
Whalley,  he  became  connected  with  Oliver  Cromwell's  family 
and  one  of  his  most  faithful  followers.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  deputation  which  on  the  6th  of  July  1647  brought  up  the 
charge  against  the  eleven  members.  He  was  active  in  bringing 
the  king  to  trial  and  signed  the  death  warrant.  In  1649  he 
received  the  honorary  degree  of  M.A.  at  Oxford.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  Dunbar,  commanding  a  regiment  there  and  at 
Worcester.  He  assist^  in  the  expulsion  oi  Barebone's  parlia- 
ment in  1653,  took  an  active  part  in  the  suppresnon  of  Pen- 
rtiddock's  rising  in  July  1654,  and  in  October  1655  was  appointed 
major-general  for  Berkshire,  Sussex  and  Hampshire.  Meanwhile 
he  had  been  elected  member  for  Yarmouth  in  the  parliament  of 
1654  and  for  Hampshire  in  that  of  1656.  He  supported  the 
proposal  to  bestow  a  royal  title  upon  Cromwell,  who  greatly 
esteemed  him,  was  included  in  the  newly-constituted  House  of 
Lords,  obtained  Lambert's  place  as  major-general  of  the  Foot, 
and  was  even  thought  of  as  a  fit  successor  to  Cromwell.  As  a 
member  of  the  committee  of  nine  appointed  in  June  1658  on 
public  affairs,  he  was  witness  to  the  protector's  appointment 
of  Richard  Cromwell  as  his  successor.  He  supported  the  latter 
during  his  brief  tenure  of  power  and  his  fall  involved  his  own  loss 
of  influence.  In  November  1659  he  took  part  in  the  futile  mission 
sent  by  the  army  to  Monk  in  Scotland,  and  at  the  Restoration 
escaped  with  his  father-in-law  (General  Edward  Whalley  to 
Massachusetts.  Goffe's  political  aims  appear  not  to  have  gone 
much  beyond  fighting  "  to  pull  down  Charles  and  set  up  Oliver  "; 
and  he  was  no  doubt  a  man  of  deep  religious  feeling,  who  acted 
throughout  according  to  a  strict  sense  of  duty  as  he  conceived  It. 
He  was  destined  to  pass  the  rest  of  his  life  in  exile,  separated 
from  his  ynlc  and  children,  dying,  it  is  supposed,  about  1679. 

OOPPBR,  to  give  a  fluted  or  crimped  appearance  to  anything, 
particularly  to  linen  or  lace  frills  or  trimmings  by  means  of 
heated  irons  of  a  qsedal  shape,  called  goffering-irons  or  tongs. 
*'  (Coffering,"  or  the  French  term  gaufrage,  is  also  used  of  the 
wavcy  or  crimped  edging  in  certain  forms  of  porcelain,  and  also 
of  the  stamped  or  embossed  decorations  on  the  edges  of  the 
binding  of  books.  The  French  word  gaufre,  from  which  the 
English  form  is  adapted,  means  a  thin  cake  marked  with  a 
pattern  like  a  honeycomb,  a  "  wafer,"  which  is  etymologically 
the  same  word.  Waufre  appears  in  the  phrase  unfer  a  vMufres, 
an  iron  for  baking  cakes  on  (quotation  of  1433  in  J.  B.  Roque- 
fort's Gossaire  de  la  langue  romane).  The  word  is  Teutonic, 
cf.  Dutch  vafcl,  Ger.  Wafel,  a  form  seen  In  "  waffle,"  the  name 
given  to  the  well-known  batter-cakes  of  America.  The  "  wafer  " 
was  so  called  from  Its  likeness  to  a  honeycomb,  Wabe,  ultimately 
derived  from  the  root  wab-t  to  weave,  the  ceUs  of  the  comb 
appearing  to  be  woven  together. 

GOO  (possibly  connected  with  the  Ontilic  Cagaya,  "  of  the 
land  of  Gag,"  used  in  Amama  Letters  i.  38,  as  a  synonym  for 
"  barbarian,"  or  with  Ass.  Cagu,  a  ruler  of  the  land  of  Sahi, 
N.  of  Assyria,  or  with  Gyges,  Ass.  CugUt  a  king  of  Lydia),  a 
Hebrew  name  found  In  Exek.  zxxviii.-xxzix.  and  in  Rev.  xx., 
and  denoting  an  antithcocratic  power  that  is  to  manifest  itself 
in  the  world  immediately  before  the  final  dispensation.  In  the 
later  passage,  Gog  and  Magog  are  spoken  of  as  co-ordinate;  in 
the  earlier,  Grog  is  given  as  the  name  of  the  person  or  people  and 
Magog  as  that  of  the  land  of  origin.  Magog  is  perhaps  a 
contracted  form  of  Mat-gog,  mat  being  the  common  Assyrian 
word  for  "  land."  The  passages  are,  however,  intimately  related 


and  both  depend  upon  Gen.  z.  3,  though  here  Magog  alone  is 
mentioned.  He  is  the  second  "son"  of  Japhet,  and  the  order 
of  the  names  here  and  in  Exekiel  xxxviiL  a,  indicates  a  locality 
between  Cappadocia  and  Media,  ix.  in  Armenia.  According 
to  Josephus,  who  is  followed  by  Jerome,  the  Sc3rthians  were 
primarily  intended  by  this  designation;  and  this  pUusible 
opinion  has  been  generally  followed.  The  name  XidiBat,  it  is 
to  be  observed,  however,  is  often  but  a  vague  word  for  any  or  all 
of  the  numerous  and  but  partially  known  tribes  of  the  north; 
and  any  attempt  to  assign  a  more  definite  locality  to  Magog  can 
only  be  very  hesitatingly  made.  According  to  some,  the  Maiotes 
about  the  Palus  Maeotis  are  meant;  according  to  others,  the 
Massagetae;  according  to  Kiepert,  the  Inhabitants  of  the 
northern  and  eastern  paru  of  Armenia.  The  imagery  employed 
in  Exekiel's  prophetic  descrq)lion  was  no  doubt  suggested  by  the 
Scythian  invasion  which  about  the  time  of  Josiah,  630  b,c, 
had  devastated  Asia  (Herodotus  1.  X04-X06;  Jer.  iv.  3-vi.  30). 
Following  on  this  description,  Gog  figures  largdy  in  Jewish  and 
Mahommedaa  as  well  as  in  Christian  eschatology.  In  the 
distria  of  Astrakhan  a  legend  is  still  to  be  met  with,  to  the  effect 
that  Gog  and  Magog  were  two  great  races,  which  Alexander  the 
Great  subdued  aLd  banished  to  the  inmost  recesses  of  the 
Caucasus,  where  they  are  meanwhile  kq>t  In  by  the  terror  of 
twelve  trumpets  bbwn  by  the  winds,  but  irfienoe  they  are 
destined  ultimately  to  make  their  escape  and  destroy  the  world. 

The  legends  that  attach  themselves  to  the  gigantic  effigies 
(dating  from  2708  and  replacing  those  destroyed  in  the  Great 
Fire)  of  Gog  and  Magog  in  Guildhall,  London,  are  connected 
only  remotely,  if  at  all,  with  the  biblical  notices.  According  to 
the  RecuyeU  des  histoiru  de  Troye,  Gog  and  Magog  were  the 
survivors  <A  a  race  of  giants  descended  from  the  thirty-three 
wicked  daughters  of  Diocletian;  after  their  brethren  bad  been 
slain  by  Brute  and  his  companions,  Gog  and  Magog  were  brought 
to  London  (Troy-novant)  and  compelled  to  officiate  as  porters 
at  the  gate  of  the  royal  palace.  It  is  known  that  efl^es  simiUr 
to  the  present  exists  in  London  as  eariy  as  the  time  of  Henry  V. ; 
but  when  this  legend  began  to  attach  to  them  is  uncertain.  They 
may  be  compared  with  the  giant  Images  formeriy  kept  at  Antwerp 
(Antigomes)  and  Douai  (Gayant).  According  to  (Qeoffrey  of 
Monmouth  {CkronuUs,  i.  x6),  (}oemot  or  GoSmagot  (either 
corrupted  from  or  corrupted  into  **  Gog  and  Magog  ")  was  a 
giant  who,  along  with  his  brother  Corineus,  tyrannised  in  the 
western  horn  of  England  until  slain  by  foreign  invaders. 

0000,  or  GoGHA,  a  town  of  British  India  in  Ahmedabad 
dblrict,  Bombay,  193  m.  N.W.  of  Bombay.  Pc^.  (1901)  4798. 
About  i  m.  east  of  the  town  is  an  excellent  anchorage,  in  some 
measure  sheltered  by  the  island  of  Piram,  which  lies  still  farther 
east.  The  natives  of  this  place  are  reckon^  the  best  sailors  in 
India;  and  ships  touching  here  may  procure  water  and  supplies, 
or  repair  damages.  The  anchorage  is  a  safe  refuge  during  the 
south-west  monsoon,  the  bottom  being  a  bed  of  mud  and  the 
water  always  smooth.  Gogo  has  lost  its  commercial  importance 
and  has  stouiily  declined  in  population  and  trade  since  the  time 
of  the  American  Civil  War,  when  it  was  an  important  cotton- 
mart. 

OOOOL.  NIKOLAI  VASIUBVICH  (1809-1853),  Russian 
novelist,  was  bom  in  the  province  of  Poltava,  in  Soiith  Russia, 
on  the  31st  of  March  1809.  Educated  at  the  Niezhin  gymnasium, 
he  there  surted  a  manuscript  periodical,  **  The  Star,"  and  wrote 
several  pieces  including  a  tragedy.  The  Brigamds.  Having 
completed  his  course  at  Niexhin,  he  went  in  i8a9  to  St  Petersburg, 
where  he  tried  the  stage  but  failed.  Next  year  he  obtained  a 
clerkship  in  the  department  of  appanages,  but  he  soon  gave  it  up. 
In  literature,  however,  he  found  his  true  vocation.  In  1829  he 
published  anonymously  a  poem  called  //o/y,  and,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  V.  Alof,  an  idyll.  Hams  Kuckd  GarteUt  which  he 
had  written  while  still  at  Nitthin.  The  idyll  was  so  ridiculed  by 
a  reviewer  that  iu  author  bought  up  all  the  copies  he  could 
secure,  and  burnt  them  in  a  room  which  he  hired  for  the  purpose 
at  an  inn.  Gogol  then  fell  back  upon  South  Russian  popular 
literature,  and  especially  the  tales  of  Cossackdom  on  which  his 
boyish  fancy  had  been  nursed,  his  father  having  occupied  the 


GOGRA— GOITRE 


191 


poet  of  *'  regimental  secretary."  one  of  the  honorary  officials  in 
the  Zaporogian  Cossack  forces. 

In  1830  he  published  in  a  periodical  the  first  of  the  stories 
which  appeared  next  year  under  the  title  of  Eveninis  in  a  Farm 
near  Dikanka:  by  Rudy  Panko,  This  work,  containing  a  series 
of  attractive  pictures  of  that  Little^Russian  life  which  lends 
ita^  to  ronumce  more  readily  than  does  the  monotony  of 
**  Great-Russian  '*  existence,  immediately  obtained  a  great 
success — its  light  and  colour,  its  freshness  and  originality  being 
hailed  with  enthusiasm  by  the  principal  writers  of  the  day  in 
Rusda.  Whereupon  Gogol  planned,  not  only  a  history  of  Little- 
Riuaia,  but  also  one  of  the  middle  ages,  to  be  completed  in  eight 
or  nine  volumes.  This  plan  he  did  not  carry  out,  though  it  led 
to  his  being  appointed  to  a  professorship  in  the  university  of 
St  Petersburg,  a  post  in  which  he  met  with  small  success  and 
which  he  resigned  in  1835.  Meanwhile  he  had  published  his 
ArabesqiuSt  a  cdlection  of  essays  and  stories;  his  Taras  Bulha, 
the  chief  of  the  Cossack  Tales  translated  into  English  by  George 
Tolstoy;  and  a  number  of  novelettes,  which  mark  his  transition 
from  the  romantic  to  the  realistic  school  of  fiction,  such  as  the 
admiraUe  sketch  of  the  tranquil  life  led  in  a  quiet  country 
bouse  by  two  kindly  specimens  of  Oid-world  Gentlefolks ^  or  the 
description  of  the  petty  miseries  endured  by  an  ill-paid  clerk 
in  a  government  office,  the  great  object  of  whose  life  is  to  secure 
the  "  cloak  "  from  which  his  story  takes  its  name.  To  the  same 
period  belongs  his  celebrated  comedy,  the  Revitor,  or  government 
inspector.  His  aim  in  writing  It  was  to  drag  into  light  "  all  that 
was  bad  in  Russia,"  and  to  hold  it  up  to  contempt.  And  he 
succeeded  in  rendering  contemptible  and  ludicrous  the  official 
Kfe  of  Russia,  the  corruption  universally  prevailing  throughout 
the  civil  service,  the  alternate  arrogance  and  servility  of  men 
in  office.  The  plot  of  the  comedy  is  very  simple.  A  traveller 
who  arrives  with  an  empty  purse  at  a  provincial  town  is  taken 
for  an  inspector  whose  arrival  is  awaited  with  fear,  and  he 
reoeivea  all  the  attentions  and  bribes  which  are  meant  to  pro- 
pitiate the  dreaded  investigator  of  abuses.  The  play  appeared 
on  the  stage  in  the  spring  of  1836,  and  achieved  a  full  success, 
in  qnte  of  the  opposition  attempted  by  the  official  classes  whose 
malpractices  it  exposed.  The  aim  which  Gogol  had  in  view 
when  writing  the  Revitor  he  afterwards  fully  attained  in  his 
great  novel,  Mertmnya  Duski^  or  Dead  Soub,  the  first  part  of 
whkh  appeared  in  1842.  The  hero  of  the  story  is  an  adventurer 
who  goes  about  Russia  making  fictitious  purchases  of  "  dead 
souia^"  i,e.  of  serfs  who  have  died  since  the  last  census,  with  the 
view  of  pledging  his  imaginary  property  to  the  government. 
Bat  has  adventures  are  merely  an  excuse  for  drawing  a  series 
of  pictures,  of  an  unfavourable  kind,  of  Russian  provincial  life, 
and  of  introducing  on  the  scene  a  number  of  types  of  Russian 
society.  Of  the  force  and  truth  with  which  these  delineations 
are  executed  the  universal  consent  of  Russian  critics  in  their 
favour  may  be  taken  as  a  measure.  From  the  French  version 
of  the  story  a  general  idea  of  its  merits  may  be  formed,  and  some 
knowledge  of  its  plot  and  Its  principal  characters  may  be  gathered 
from  the  Engluih  adaptation  published  in  1854,  as  an  original 
work,  under  the  title  of  Home  Life  in  Rnssia.  But  no  one  can 
fully  appreciate  Gogol's  merits  as  a  humorist  who  is  not  intimate 
witli  the  language  in  which  he  wrote  as  well  as  with  the  society 
which  he  depictnl. 

In  1836  Gogol  for  the  first  time  went  abroad.  Subsequently 
he  spent  a  considerable  amount  of  time  out  of  Russia,  chiefly 
in  Italy,  ndiere  much  of  his  Dead  Souls  was  written.  His 
icsidenoe  there,  especially  at  Rome,  made  a  deep  impression  on 
his  mind,  which,  during  his  Uter  years,  turned  towards  mysticism. 
The  but  works  which  he  published,  his  Confession  and  Cone- 
Mponiemuwitk  Friends^  offer  a  painful  contrast  to  the  light,  bright, 
vigorous,  realbtic,  humorous  writings  which  had  gained  and  have 
retained  for  him  his  immense  popularity  in  faJs  native  Und. 
Asoetidsm  and  mystical  exaltation  had  told  upon  his  nervous 
syttcm,  and  its  feeble  condition  showed  itself  in  hu  Uterary 
cnmpositions  In  1848  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and 
«■  Ids  ittum  settled  down  at  Moscow,  where  he  died  on  the  3rd 
ol  Mafch  185a. 


See  Materials  for  the  Biography  of  Gogol  (In  Russian)  (1897).  by 
Shenrok;  "  Illness  and  Death  of  Cogol,"  by  N.  Bazhenov,  Russkaya 
Muisl,  January  1902.  (W.  R.  S.-R.) 

GOORA,  or  Ghacra,  a  river  of  northern  India.  It  is  an 
important  tributary  of  the  Ganges,  bringing  down  to  the  plains 
more  water  than  the  Ganges  itself.  It  rises  in  Tibet  near  Lake 
Manasarowar,  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  Brahmaputra 
and  the  Sutlej,  passes  through  Nepal  where  it  is  known  as  the 
Kauriala,  and  after  entering  British  territory  becomes  the  most 
important  waterway  in  the  United  Provinces.  It  joins  the  Ganges 
at  Chapra  after  a  course  of  600  m.  Its  tributary,  the  Rapti, 
also  has  considerable  commercial  importance.  The  Gogra  has 
the  alternative  name  of  Sarju,  and  in  its  lower  course  is  also 
known  as  the  Dcoha. 

OOHIBR,  LOUIS  jfoOHB  (i  746-1830),  French  poUticUn, 
was  bom  at  Semblancay  (Indre-et-Loire)  on  the  37th  of  February 
X746,  the  son  of  a  notary.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Rennes, 
and  practised  there  until  he  was  sent  to  represent  the  town  in 
the  states-general.  In  the  Legislative  Assembly  he  represented 
Ille-et-Vllaine.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  deliberations; 
he  protested  against  the  exaction  of  a  new  oath  from  priests 
(Nov.  2a,  1 791),  and  demanded  the  sequestration  of  the  emigrants' 
property  (Feb.  7, 179a).  He  was  minister  of  justice  from  March 
Z793  to  April  1794,  and  in  June  1799  he  succeeded  Treilhard 
in  the  Directory,  where  be  represented  the  republican  interest. 
His  wife  was  intimate  with  Josephine  Bonaparte,  and  when 
Bonaparte  suddenly  returned  from  Egypt  In  October  1799  he 
repeatedly  protested  his  friendship  for  Gohier,  who  was  then 
president  of  the  Directory,  and  tried  in  vain  to  gain  him  over. 
After  the  coup  d'itat  of  the  i8th  Brumaire  (Nov.  9,  1799),  he 
refused  to  abdicate  his  functions,  and  sought  out  Boni^rte 
at  the  Tuileries  "  to  save  the  republic,"  as  he  boldly  expressed 
it.  He  was  escorted  to  the  Luxembourg,  and  on  his  release 
he  retired  to  his  estate  at  Eaubonne.  In  xSoa  Napoleon  made 
him  consul-general  at  Amsterdam,  and  on  the  union  of  the 
Netherlands  with  France  he  was  offered  a  similar  post  in  the 
United  States.  His  health  did  not  permit  of  his  taking  up  a  new 
appointment,  and  he  died  at  Eaubonne  on  the  29th  of  May  1830. 

His  iitmoires  i'un  vitiran  irriprochaiie  de  la  Rholutum  was 
published  in  1 824,  hb  rroort  on  the  papers  of  the  civil  list  preparatory 
to  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI.  Is  printed  in  Le  Frocks  de  Louis  XVI 
(Paris,  an  111)  and  elsewhere,  while  others  appear  in  the  Moniteur, 

GOHRDE,  a  forest  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hanover,  immediately  W.  of  the  Elbe,  between  Wittenberg  and 
LQneburg.  It  has  an  area  of  about  85  sq.  m.  and  is  famous  for  its 
oaks,  beeches  and  game  preserves.  It  is  memorable  for  the 
victory  gained  here,  on  the  z6th  of  September  1813,  by  the  allies, 
under  Wallmoden,  over  the  French  forces  commanded  by  Pecheur. 
The  hunting-box  situated  in  the  forest  was  built  in  1689  and  was 
restored  by  Ernest  Augustus,  King  of  Hanover.  It  Is  known  to 
history  on  account  of  the  constitution  of  Gdhrde,  promulgated 
herein  1719. 

GOITO,  a  village  of  Lombardy ,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Mantua, 
from  which  it  Is  11  m.  N.W.,  on  the  road  to  Brescia.  Pop. 
(village)  737;  (commune)  5712.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Mindo  near  the  bridge.  Its  position  has  given  it  a  certain 
military  importance  in  various  campaigns  and  it  has  been 
repeatedly  fortified  as  a  bridge-head.  The  Piedmontese  forces 
won  two  actions  (8th  of  April  and  30th  of  May  1848)  over  the 
Austrians  here. 

GOITRX  (from  Lat.  fiiMifr,  the  throat;  synonyms,  Bronchocele, 
Derbyshire  Neck),  a  term  applied  to  a  swelling  in  the  front  of  the 
neck  caused  by  enlargement  of  the  thyroid  gland.  This  structure, 
which  lies  between  the  skin  and  the  anterior  surface  of  the  wind- 
pipe, and  In  health  is  not  large  enough  to  give  rise  to  any  external 
prominence  (except  in  the  pictures  of  certain  artists),  is  liable  to 
variations  in  size,  more  especially  in  females,  a  temporary 
enlargement  of  the  gland  being  not  uncommon  at  the  catamenial 
periods,  as  well  as  during  pregnancy.  In  goitre  the  swelling  b 
conspicuous  and  is  not  only  unsightly  but  may  occasion  much 
discomfort  from  its  pressure  upon  the  windpipe  and  other 
important  parts  of  the  neck.    J.  L.  Alibert  recorded  cases  of 


192 


GOKAK— GOLD 


goitre  where  the  tumour  hung  down  over  the  breast,  or  reached 
as  low  as  the  middle  of  the  thigh. 

Goitre  usually  appears  in  early  life,  often  from  the  eighth  to  the 
twelfth  year;  its  growth  is  at  first  slow,  but  after  several  years  of 
comparative  quiescence  a  sudden  increase  is  apt  to  occur.  In  the 
earlier  stages  the  condition  of  the  gland  is  simply  an  enlargement 
of  its  constituent  parts,  which  retain  their  normalsoft  consistence; 
but  in  the  course  of  time  other  changes  supervene,  and  it  may 
become  cystic,  or  acquire  hardness  from  increase  of  fibrous  tissue 
or  from  calcareous  deposits.  Occasionally  the  enlargement  is 
uniform,  but  more  commonly  one  of  the  lobes,  generally  the  right, 
is  the  larger.  In  rare  instances  the  disease  is  limited  to  the 
isthmus  which  connects  the  two  lobes  of  the  gland.  The  growth 
is  unattended  with  pain,  and  is  not  inconsistent  with  good  health. 

Goitre  is  a  marked  example  of  an  endemic  disease.  There  are 
few  parts  of  the  world  where  it  is  not  found  prevailing  in  certain 
localities,  these  being  for  the  most  part  valleys  and  elevated  plains 
in  mountainous  districts(see  Cretinism).  The  malady  is  generally 
ascribed  to  the  use  of  drinking  water  impregnated  with  the  salts  of 
lime  and  magnesia,  in  which  ingredients  the  water  of  goitrous 
dist  ricts  abounds.  But  in  localities  not  far  removed  from  those  in 
which  goitre  prevails,  and  where  the  water  is  of  the  same  chemical 
composition,  the  disease  may  be  entirely  unknown.  The  disease 
may  be  the  result  of  a  combination  of  causes,  among  which  local 
telluric  or  malarial  influences  concur  with  those  of  the  drinking 
water.  Goitre  is  sometimes  cured  by  removal  of  the  individual 
from  the  district  where  it  prevails,  and  it  is  apt  to  be  acquired 
by  previously  healthy  persons  who  settle  in  goitrous  localities; 
and  it  is  only  in  such  places  that  the  disease  exhibits  hereditary 
tendencies. 

In  the  early  stages,  change  of  air,  especially  to  the  seaside,  is 
desirable,  and  small  doses  of  iron  and  of  iodine  should  be  given; 
if  this  fails  small  doses  of  thyroid  extract  should  be  tried.  If 
palliative  measures  prove  unsuccessful,  operation  must  be  under- 
taken for  the  removal  of  one  lateral  lobe  and  the  isthmus  of  the 
tumour.  This  may  be  done  under  chloroform  or  after  the  sub- 
cutaneous injection  of  cocaine.  If  chloroform  is  used,  it  must  be 
given  very  sparingly,  as  the  breathing  is  apt  to  become  seriously 
embarrassed  during  the  operation.  After  the  successful  per- 
formance of  the  operation  great  improvement  takes  place,  the 
remaining  part  of  the  gland  slowly  decreasing  in  size.  The  whole 
of  the  gland  must  not  be  removed  during  the  operation,  lest  the 
strange  disease  known  as  Myxoedema  should  be  produced  (see 
Metabouc  Diseases). 

In  exopldhalmic  goitre  the  bronchocele  b  but  one  of  three 
phenomena,  which  together  constitute  the  disease,  via.  palpitation 
of  the  heart,  elargement  of  the  thyroid  gland,  and  protrusion  of 
the  eyeballs.  This  group  of  symptoms  is  known  by  the  name  of 
"  Graves's  disease  "  or  "  Von  Basedow's  disease  " — the  physicians 
by  whom  the  malady  was  originally  described.  Although 
occasionally  observed  in  men,  this  affection  occurs  chiefly  in 
females,  and  in  comparatively  early  life.  It  is  generally  preceded 
by  impoverishment  of  blood,  and  by  nervous  or  hjrsterical 
disorders,  and  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  cases  of  organic  heart 
disease.  It  has  been  suddenly  developed  as  the  effect  of  fright  or 
of  violent  emotion.  The  first  symptom  is  usually  the  palpitation 
of  the  heart,  which  is  aggravated  by  slight  exertion,  and  may  be 
so  severe  as  not  only  to  shake  the  whole  frame  but  even  to  be 
audible  at  some  distance.  A  throbbing  is  felt  throughout  the 
body,  and  many  of  the  larger  blood-vessels  are,  like  the  heart, 
seen  to  pulsate  strongly.  The  enlargement  of  the  thyroid  is 
gradual,  and  rarely  increases  to  any  great  size,  thus  differing 
from  the  commoner  form  of  goitre.  The  enlarged  gland  is  of  soft 
consistence,  and  communicates  a  thrill  to  the  touch  from  its 
dilated  and  pulsating  blood-vesseb.  Accompanying  the  goitre  a 
remarkable  change  is  observed  in  the  eyes,  which  attract  attention 
by  their  prominence,  and  by  the  startled  expression  thus  given  to 
the  countenance.  In  extreme  cases  the  eyes  protrude  from  their 
sockets  to  such  a  degree  that  the  eyelids  cannot  be  closed,  and 
injury  may  thus  arise  to  the  constantly  exposed  eyeballs.  Apart 
from  such  risk,  however,  the  vision  is  rarely  affected.  It  occasion- 
ally happeis  that  in  undoubted  cases  of  the  disease  one  or  other  of  I 


the  three  above-named  phenomena  is  absent,  generally  either  the 
goitre  or  the  exophthalmos.  The  palpitation  of  the  heart  is  the 
most  constant  symptom.  Sleeplessness,  irritability,  disorders  of 
digestion,  diarrhoea  and  uterine  derangements,  are  frequent 
accompaniments.  It  is  a  serious  disease  and,  if  unchecked,  may 
end  fatally.  Some  cases  are  improved  by  general  hygienic 
measures,  others  by  electric  treatment,  or  by  the  administration 
of  animal  extracts  or  of  sera.  Some  cases,  op  the  other  hand,  may 
be  considered  suitable  for  operative  treatment  (E.  O.*) 

OOKAK.  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the  Belgaum  district  of 
Bombay,  8  m.  from  a  station  on  the  Southern  Mahratta  railway. 
Pop.  (1901)  986a  It  contains  old  temples  with  jnscriptions, 
and  is  known  for  a  special  industry  of  modelled  toys.  About 
4  m.  N.W.  are  the  Gokak  Falls,  where  the  Ghatprabha  throws 
itself  over  a  precipice  170  ft.  high.  Gose  by,  the  water  has  been 
impounded  for  a  large  reservoir, which  supplies  not  only  irrigation 
but  also  motive  power  for  a  cotton-mill  employing  2000  hands. 

OOKCHA,  (GdK-CHAi;  Armenian  Saanga\  ancient  Haasra- 
vagha),  the  largest  lake  of  Russian  Transcaucasia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Erivan,  in  40*  9'  to  40°  38'  N.  and  45*  i*^  to  45*  40'  E. 
Its  altitude  is  6345  ft.,  it  is  of  triangular  shape,  and  measures 
from  north-west  to  south-east  45  m.,  its  greatest  width  being 
25  m.,  and  its  maximum  depth  67  fathoms.  Its  area  is  540  sq.  m. 
It  is  surrounded  by  barren  mountains  of  volcanic  origin,  xa,ooo 
ft.  high.  Its  outflow  is  the  Zanga,  a  left  bank  tributary  of  the 
Aras  (Araxes) ;  it  never  freezes,  and  its  level  undergoes  periodical 
osdllations.  It  contains  four  species  of  Salmonidaef  and  two 
of  Cyprinidact  which  are  only  met  with  in  the  drainage  area 
of  this  lake.  A  lava  island  in  the  middle  is  crowned  by  an 
Armenian  monastery. 

OOL001fDA,a  fortress  and  ruined  dty  of  India,  in  the  Nizbn's 
Dominions,  5  m.  W.  of  Hyderabad  city.  In  former  times 
Golconda  was  the  capital  of  a  large  and  powerful  kingdom  of 
the  Deccan,  ruled  by  the  Kutb  Shahi  dynasty  which  was  founded 
in  1 51  a  by  a  Turkoman  adventurer  on  the  downfall  of  the 
Bahmani  dynasty,  but  the  dty  was  subdued  by  Aurangzeb  in 
1687,  and  annex^  to  the  Delhi  empire.  The  fortress  of  Golconda, 
situated  on  a  rocky  ridge  of  granite,  is  extensive,  and  contains 
many  endosures.  It  is  strong  and  in  good  repair,  but  is  com> 
manded  by  the  summits  of  the  enormous  and  massive  mausolca 
of  the  andent  kings  about  600  yds.  distant.  These  buildings, 
which  are  now  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  place,  form  a  vast 
group,  situated  in  an  arid,  rocky  desert.  They  have  suffered 
considerably  from  the  ravages  of  time,  but  more  from  the  hand 
of  man,  and  nothing  but  the  great  solidity  of  thdr  walls  has 
preserved  them  from  utter  ruin.  These  tombs  were  erected  at  a 
great  expense,  some  of  them  being  said  to  have  cost  as  much 
as  £150,000.  Golconda  fort  is  now  used  as  the  Nizlm's  treasury, 
and  also  as  the  state  prison.  Golconda  has  given  its  name  in 
English  literature  to  the  diamonds  which  were  found  in  other 
parts  of  the  dominions  of  the  Kutb  Shahi  dynasty,  not  near 
Golconda  itself. 

GOLD  [ssrmbolAu,  atomic  weight  i95*7(H  «•  i),i97*a(0  -"id)], 
a  metallic  chemical  dement,  valued  from  the  earliest  ages  on 
account  of  the  permanency  of  its  colour  and  lustre.  Gold 
ornaments  of  great  variety  and  daborate  workmanship  have 
been  discovered  on  sites  belonging  to  the  earliest  known  dviliza- 
tions,  Minoan,  Egyptian,  Anyrian,  Etruscan  (see  JswEutv, 
Plate,  Egypt,  Crete,  Aegean  Ciyhization,  Nitiiisiiatics). 
and  in  andent  literature  gold  is  the  universal  symbol  of  the 
highest  purity  and  value  (cf.  passages  in  the  Oid  Testament, 
e.;.  Ps.  xix.  10  "  More  to  be  desUnd  are  they  than  gold,  yea,  than 
much  fine  gold  ").  With  regard  to  the  history  of  the  metallurgy 
of  gold,  it  may  be  mentioned  that,  according  to  Pliny,  macury 
was  employed  in  his  time  both  as  a  means  of  separating  the 
precious  metals  and  for  the  purposes  of  gilding.  Vitruvius  also 
gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  means  of  recovering  gold,  by 
amalgamation,  from  doth  into  which  it  had  been  woven. 

Physical  Properties. — Gold  has  a  characteristic  yeUow  colour, 
which  b,  however,  notably  affected  by  small  quantities  of  other 
metals;  thus  the  tint  is  sensibly  lowered  by  small  quantities 
of  silver,  and  heightened  by  copper.    When  the  gold  is  findy 


GOLD 


193 


divided,  as  in  "  purple  of  Cassius,"  or  wheti  it  is  predpitated 
from  solutions,  the  colour  is  ruby-red,  while  in  very' thin  leaves 
it  transmits  a  greenish  light.  It  is  nearly  as  soft  as  lead  and 
softer  than  silver.  When  pure,  it  is  the  most  malleable  of  all 
metab  (see  Golobeating).  It  is  also  extremely  ductile;  a 
sin^  grain  may  be  drawn  into  a  wire  500  ft.  in  length,  and  an 
ounce  of  gold  covering  a  silver  wire  is  capable  of  being  extended 
more  than  1300  m.  The  presence  of*  minute  quantities  of 
cadmium,  lead,  bismuth,  antimony,  arsenic,  tin,  tellurium  and 
sine  renders  gold  brittle,  tsVy^^  P^^  o^  od^  o'  ^^  ^^^  metals 
first  named  being  sufficient  to  produce  that  quality.  Gold  can 
be  readily  welded  cold;  the  finely  divided  metal,  in  the  state 
in  which  it  is  precipitated  from  solution,  may  be  compressed 
between  dies  into  disks  or  medals.  The  spedfic  gravity  of  gold 
obtained  by  precipitation  from  solution  by  ferrous  sulphate 
is  from  19*5$  to  30'72.  The  specific  gravity  of  cast  gold  varies 
from  z8'29  to  -19*37,  and  by  compression  between  dies  the 
spedfic  gravity  may  be  raised  from  19-37  to  i9'4i ;  by  annealing, 
however,  the  previous  density  is  to  some  extent  recovered,  as 
it  is  then  fotmd  to  be  19-40.  The  melting-point  has  been 
vmriously  given,  the  early  values  ranging  from  1425"  C.  to  1035°  C. 
Using  improved  methods,  C.  T.  Heycock  and  F.  H.  Neville 
determined  it  to  be  xo6x-7"  C;  Daniel  Berthelot  gives '1064°  C, 
while  Jaquerod  and  Perrot  give  io66*  1-1067-4°  C  At  still 
hti^ier  temperatures  it  volatilizes,  forming  a  reddish  vapour. 
Macquer  and  Lavoisier  showed  that  when  gold  is  strongly  heated, 
fumes  arise  which  gild  a  piece  of  silver  held  in  them.  Its  vola- 
tility has  also  been  studied  by  L.  Eisner,  and,  in  the  presence  of 
other  metals^  by  Napier  and  others.  The  volatility  is  hardy 
appreciable  at  107 5";  at  1250"  it  is  four  times  as  much  as  at 
xioo*.  Copper  and  sine  increase  the  volatility  far  more  than 
lead,  while  the  greatest  volatility  is  induced,  according  to  T. 
Kirke  Rose,  by  tellurium.  It  has  also  been  shown  that  gold 
volatilises  when  a  gold-amalgam  is  distilled.  Gold  is  dissipated 
by  sending  a  powerful  charge  of  dectridty  through  it  when  in  the 
form  of  leaf  or  thin  wire.  The  dnrtric  conductivity  is  given  by 
A.  Matthiessen  as  73  at  o*  C,  pure  silver  being  100;  the  value 
of  this  coeffident  depends  greatly  on  the  purity  of  the  metal, 
the  presence  of  a  few  thousandths  of  silver  lowering  it  by  xo%. 
Its  conductivity  for  heat  has  been  variously  given  as  103  (C.  M. 
Desptets),  98  (F.  Crace-Calvert  and  R.  Johnson),  and  60  (G.  H. 
Wiedemann  and  R.  Franz),  pure  «lver  bdng  100.  Its  specific 
heat  is  between  0*0298  (Dulong  and  Petit)  and  0-03244  (Reg- 
naolt).  Its  coeffident  of  expansion  for  each  degree  between 
o*  and  zoo*  C.  is  0-0000x4661,  or  for  gold  which  has  been 
•wti^aL^  0*0000x5x36  (Laplace  and  Lavoisier).  The  spark 
spectrum*  (rf  gold  has  been  mapped  by  A.  Kirchhoff,  R.  Thal6n, 
Sir  William  Huggins  and  H.  Kriiss;  the  brightest  lines  are  6277, 
9960,  5955  and  5836  in  the  orange  and  yellow,  and  5230  and 
479s-in  the  green  and  blue. 

Ckemieai  Properties. — Gold  is  permanent  in  both  dry  and 
moist  air  at  ordinary  or  high  temperatures.  It  is  insoluble  in 
hydroddoric,  -nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  but  dissolves  in  aqua 
repa — a  mixture  of  hydrochloric  and  nitric  adds — and  when 
very  finely  .divided  in  a  heated  mixture  of  strong  sulphuric 
add  and  a  little  nitric  add;  dilution  with  water,  however, 
precipitates  the  metal  as  a  violet  or  brown  powder  from  this 
solutloa.  The  metal  is  soluble  in  solutions  of  chlorine,  bromine, 
tbJosolphates  and  cyanides;  and  also  in  solutions  which 
gcncnte  chlorine,  sudi  as  mixtures  of  hydrochloric  add  with 
mtric  add,  chromic  add,  antimonious  add,  peroxides  and 
Bitiates,  and  of  nitric  add  with  a  chloride.  Gold  is  also  attacked 
when  strong  sulphuric  add  is  submitted  to  dectrolysis  with  a 
fold  positive  pde.  W.  Skey  showed  that  in  substances  which 
contain  small  quantities  of  gold  the  predous  metal  may  be 
removed  by  the  -solvent  action  of  iodine  or  bromine  in  water. 
Filter  papier  soaked  with  the  dear  solution  is  burnt,  and  the 
presence  of  gold  is  indicated  by  the  pdrple  colour  of  the  ash.  In 
solutaoD  minute  quantities  0^  gold  may  be  detected  by  the 
fonnatioD  of  **  purple  of  Cassius,"  a  bluish-purple  predpitate 
thrown  down  by  a  mixture  of  ferric  and  stannous  chlorides. 

The  atomic  weight  of  gold  was  first  determined  with  accuracy 


by  Berzelius,  who  deduced  the  value  195-7  (H^  i)  from  the 
amount  of  mercury  necessary  to  predpitate  it  from  the  chloride, 
and  X95-2  from  the  ratio  between  gold  and  potassium  chloride 
in  potassium  aurichloride,  KAuCU.  Later  determinations 
were  made  by  Sir  T.  £.  Thorpe  and  A.  P.  Laurie,  KrOss  and 
J.  W.  Mallet.  Thorpe  and  Laurie  converted  potassium  atiri- 
bromide  into  a  mixtiire  of  metallic  gold  and  potassium  bromide 
by  careful  heating.  The  relation  of  the  gold  to  the  potassium 
bromide,  as  well  as  the  amounts  of  silver  and  silver  bromide 
which  are  equivalent  to  the  potassium  bromide,  were  determined. 
The  mean  value  thus  adduced  was  195  86.  KrOss  worked  with 
the  same  salt,  and  obtained  the  value  195*65;  whUe  Mallet, 
by  analyses  of  gold  chloride  and  bromide,  and  potassium  auri« 
bromide,\>btained  the  value  X95'77. 

Occlusion  of  Gas  by  Gold.—T.  Graham  showed  that  gold  la 
capable  of  ocdudlng  by  voltune  0*48%  of  hydrogen,  0-20% 
of  nitrogen,  0*29%  of  carbon  monoxide,  and  o*x6%  of  carbon 
dioxide.  Varrentrapp  pointed  out  that  "cornets"  from  the 
assay  of  gold  may  retain  gas  if  they  are  not  strongly  heated. 

Occurrence  and  Distribution. — Gold  is  found  in  nature  chiefly 
in  the  metallic  state,  i.e.  as  "  native  gold,"  and  less  frequently 
in  combination  with  tellurium,  lead  and  silver.  These  are  the 
only  certain  examples  of  natural  combinations  of  the  metal, 
the  minute,  though  economically  valuable,  quantity  often 
found  in  pyrites  and  other  sulphides  bdng  probably  only,  present 
in  mechanical  suspension.  The  native  metal  crystallizes  in  the 
cubic  system,  the  octahedron  bdng  the  commonest  form,  but 
other  and  complex  combinations  have  been  observed.  Owing 
to  the  softness  of  the  metal,  large  crystals  are  rarely  well  defined, 
the  points  being  commonly  rounded.  In  the  irregiUar  crystalline 
aggregates  branching  and  moss-like  forms  are  most  common, 
and  in  Transylvania  thin  plates  or  sheets  with  diagonal  structures 
are  found.  More  characteristic,  however,  than  the  crystallized 
are  the  irregular  forms, which,  when  large,  are  known  as  "nuggets" 
or  ''*  pepites,"  and  when  in  pieces  bdow  i  to  i  oz.  weight  as  gold 
dust,  the  larger  sizes  being  distinguished  as  coarse  or  nuggety 
goldr  a(id  the  smaller  as  gold  dust  proper.  Except  in  the  larger 
nuggets,  which  may  be  more  or  less  angular,  or  at  times  even 
masses  of  crystals,  with  or  without  associated  quartz  or  other 
rock,  gold  is  generally  found  bean-shaped  or  in  some  other 
flattened  form,  the  smallest  partides  being  scales  of  scarcdy 
appreciable  thickness,  which,  from  their  small  bulk  as  compared 
with  thdr  surface,  subside  very  slowly  when  suspended  in  water, 
and  are  therefore  readily  carried  away  by  a  rapid  current.  These 
form  the  "  float  gold  "  of  the  miner.  The  physical  properties  of 
native  gold  are  generally  similar  to  that  of  the  mdted  metal. 

Of  the  minerals  containing  gold  the  most  important  are  sylvanite  or 
graphic  tellurium  (Ag,  Au)  Teg,  with  24  to  26%;  calavente,  AuTei, 
wttn  42%;  nagyagite  or  foliate  tdiurium  (Pb,  Au)tt  Sbi(S,  Tejsit 
with  5  to  9%  of  gold;  petate.  (Ag,  Au)tTe,  and' white  tellurium. 
Theae  are  confined  to  a  few  localities,  tht  oldest  and  best  known 
being  those  of  Nagyag  and  Offenbanya  in  Transylvania;  they  have 
also  oeen  found  at  Red  Cloud,  Colorado,  in  Calaveras  county,  Cali- 
fornia, and  at  Perth  and  Boulder,  West  Australia.  The  minerals 
of- the  second  class,  usually  spoken  of  as  "  auriferous,"  are  compara- 
tively numerous.  Prominent  among  theae  are  galena  and  iron  pyrites, 
the  former  bdng  almost  invariably  gold-bearing^.  Iron  pyrites, 
however,  is  of  greater  practical  importance,  bein^  in  some  districts 
exceedinftly  rich,  and,  next  to  the  native  metal,  is  the  most  prolific 
source  of  gold.  Magnetic  pyrites,  copper  pyrites,  zinc  blende  and 
arsenical  pyrites  are  other  and  less  important  examples,  the  last 
oonstitutin|;  the  gold  ore  formerly  worked  in  Silesia.  A  native  goU 
amalgam  is  found  as  a  rarity  in  California,  and  bismuth  irom 
South  America  is  sometimes  rich  in  gold.  Native  arsenic  and 
antimony  arc  also  veiy  frequently  found  to  contain  goM  and  silver. 

The  association  and  distnbutaon  of  gold  may  be  considered  under 
two  different  heads,  namdy^  as  it  occurs  in  mineral  vdns — "  reef 
goki,"  and  in  alluvial  or  other  superficial  deposits  which  are  derived 
from  the  waste  of  the  former — ^"alluviaf  gold."  Four  distinct 
types  of  reef  gold  deposits  may  be  distinguished:  (1)  Gold  may 
occur  disseminated  through  metalliferous  vdns,  generally  with 
sulphides  and  more  paiticulariy  with  pyrites.  These  deposits  seem 
to  oe  the  primary  sources  of  native  gold,  (a)  More  common  are  the 
auriferous  quartz-reefs — veins  or  masses  of  quaru  conuining  gold 
in  flakes  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  or  so  finely  divided  as  to  be  invisible. 
(x)  The  "  iMinket  "  formation,  which  characterizes  the  goldfields  of 
South  Africa,  consists  of  a  quartzite  conglomerate  throughout 
which  sold  is  very  finely  dissenunated.    (4)  The  siliceous  sinter  at 


19+ 


GOLD 


Mount  Moraaii,  QueeniUnd,  which  u  obviously  Mtodated  with 
hydrothennu  action,  b  also  gold-bearing.  The  genesis  <A  the  last 
three  tjrpes  of  deposit  is  generally  asagned  to  the  simultaneous 
percolation  of  solutions  of  gold  and  silia,  the  auriferous  solution 
being  formed  during  the  disintegration  of  the  gold-bearing  metallic 
ferous  veins.  But  there  is  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  mechanism 
of  the  process;  some  authors  hold  that  the  soluble  chloride  is  first 
formed,  while  others  postulate  the  intervention  of  a  soluble  aurate. 

In  the  alluvial  deooatts  the  associated  minerab  are  chiefly  those 
of  great  density  ana  hardness,  such  as  pbtinum,  osmiridium  and 
otho*  metab  of  the  platinum  group,  tinstone,  chromic,  magnetic 
and  brown  iron  ores,  diamond,  ruby  and  sapphire,  ciroon,  topax, 
garnet.  &c.  which  represent  the  more  durable  original  constituents  (A 
the  rocks  whose  distintegration  has  furnished  the  detritus. 

StaiisUcs  of  Cold  Production.— Tht  supply  of  gold,  and  abo 
its  relation  to  the  supply  of  silver,  has,  among  dvilized  nations, 
always  been  of  paramount  importance  in  the  economic  questions 
concerning  money  (see  Money  and  Bimetallism);  in  this 
article  a  summary  of  the  modern  gold-produdng  areas  will  be 
given,  and  for  further  detaib  reference  should  be  made  to  the 
aiticies  on  the  localities  named.  The  chief  sources  of  the 
European  supply  during  the  middle  ages  were  the  mines  of 
Saxony  and  Austria,  while  Spain  also  contributed.  The  supplies 
from  Mexico  and  Brazil  were  important  during  the  i6th  and  17th 
centuries.  Russia  became  prominent  in  1823,  and  for  fourteen 
years  contributed  the  bulk  of  the  supply.  The  United  States 
(California)  ^iUT  1848,  and  Australia  aJFter  185 1,  were  responsible 
for  enormous  increases  in  the  total  production,  which  hu  been 
subsequently  enhanrrd  by  discoveries  in  (Canada,  South  Africa, 
India,  China  and  other  countries. 

The  average  annual  world's  production  for  certain  periods 
from  1801  to  1880  in  ounces  b  given  in  Table  I.    The  average 

Table.  I. 


Period. 

Oz. 

Period. 

Os. 

1801-1810 
1811-1820 
1821-1830 
1831-1840 
1841-1850 
1851-1855 

590.750 
380,300 
472.400 
674,200 
1,819,600 
6,350.180 

1856-1860 
1861-1865 
1866-1870 
1871-1875 
1876-1880 

6,350,180 
5.951.770 
6,169,660 
5487,400 
5,729,300 

|>roduction  of  the  five  years  1881-1885  was  the  smallest  since  the 
Australian  and  Califomian  mines  began  to  be  worked  in  1848- 
1849;  the  minimum  4,6x4,588  os.,  occurred  in  1882.  It  was 
not  until  after  1885  that  the  annual  output  of  the  worid  began 
to  expand.  Of  the  total  production  in  1876,  5,016,488  oz., 
almost  the  whole  was  derived  from  the  United  States,  Australasia 
and  Russia.  Since  then  the  proportion  furnished  by  these 
countries  has  been  greatly  lowered  by  the  supplies  from  South 
Africa,  Canada,  India  and  China.  The  increase  of  production 
has  not  been  uniform,  the  greater  part  having  occurred  most 
notably  since  1 895.  Among  the  regions  not  previously  important 
as  gold-producers  which  now  contribute  to  the  annual  output, 
the  most  remarkable  are  the  goldfields  of  South  Africa  (Transvaal 
and  Rhodesia,  the  former  of  which  were  discovered  in  1885). 
India  likewise  has  been  added  to  the  Ibt,  its  active  production 
having  begun  at  about  the  same  time  as  that  of  South  Africa. 
The  average  annual  product  of  India  for  the  period  1886  to  1899 
inclusive  was  £698,208,  and  its  present  annual  product  average^ 
about  550,000  oz^  or  about  £2,200,000,  obtained  almost  wholly 
from  tiie  free-milling  quartz  veins  of  the  Colar  goldfields  in 
Mysore,  southern  India.  In  1900  the  output  was  valued  at 
£1,891,804,  in  1905  at  £2450,536,  and  jn  1908  at  £2,270,000. 
Canada,  too,  assumed  an  important  rank,  having  contributed 
in  1900  £5,58'3,3oo;  but  the  output  has  since  steadily  declined 
to  £1,973,000  in  1908.  The  great  increase  during  the  few  years 
preceding  1899  was  due  to  the  development  of  the  goldfields 
of  the  North-Westem  Territory,  espedally  British  Columbia. 
From  the  district  of  Yukon  (Kbndike,  &c.)  £2,800,000  was 
obtained  in  1899,  wholly  from  alluvial  workings,  but  the  progress 
made  since  has  been  slower  than  was  expected  by  sanguine 
people.  It  b,  however,  probable  that  the  North-Westem 
Territory  will  continue  to  yield  gold  in  important  quantities 
for  some  time  to  come. 
The  output  of  the  United  States  increased  from  lifiSOfioo 


in  1881  to  £16,085,567  in  1900,  £17,916,000  in  1905,  and  to 
£30,065,000  In  1908.  Thb  increase  was  chiefly  due  to  the 
exploitation  of  new  goldfields.  The  fall  in  the  price  of  silver 
stimulated  the  discovery  and  development  of  gold  deposits, 
and  many  states  formerly  regarded  as  characteristically  silver 
dbtricts  have  become  important  as  gold  producers.  Colorado  is 
a  case  in  point,  its  output  having  increased  from  about  £600,000 
in  x88o  to  £6,065,000  in  1900;  it  was  £5,139,800  in  1905.  Some- 
what more  than  one-half  of  the  Colorado  gold  b  obtained  from 
the  Cripple  Creek  dbtrict.  Other  states  abo  showed  a  largely 
augmented  product.  On  the  other  hand,  the  output  of  California, 
which  was  producing  over  £3,000,000  per  annum  in  1876,  has 
faOen  off,  the  average  annual  output  from  1876  to  1900 
being  £2,800,000;  in  1905  the  yield  was  £3,839,000.  This 
decrease  was  largely  caused  by  the  practical  suspension  for 
many  years  of  the  hydraulic  mining  operations,  in  preparation 
for  which  millions  of  dollars  had  been  expended  in  deep  tunneb, 
flumes,  &c.,  and  the  active  continuance  of  which  might  have  been 
expected  to  yield  some  £2,000,000  of  gold  annually.  Thb  inter- 
ruption, due  to  the  practical  prohibition  of  the  industry  by  tbe 
United  States  courts,  on  the  groimd  that  it  was  injuring,  through 
the  deposit  of  tailings,  agricultural  lands  and  navigable  streams, 
was  lessened,  though  not  entirely  removed,  by  compromises  and 
regulations  which  permit,  under  certain  restrictions,  the  renewed 
exploitation  of  the  andent  river-beds  by  the  hydraulic  method. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  progressive  xeduction  of  mining  and 
metallurgical  costs  effected  by  improved  tranqtortation  and 
machinery,  and  the  use  of  lUgh  ex[^osives,  compressed  air, 
electric-power  transmission,  &c.,  resulted  in  California  (as 
elsewhere)  in  a  notable  revival  of  deep  mining.  Thb  was 
especially  the  case  on  the  "  Mother  Lode/^  where  highly  promising 
results  were  obtained.  Not  only  b  vein-material  formerly 
regarded  as  unxemunerative  now  extracted  at  a  profit,  but  Sxk. 
many  instances  increased  gold-values  have  been  encountered 
below  zones  of  relative  barrenness,  and  operators  have  been 
encouraged  to  make  costly  preparations  for  really  deep  mining 
— ^more  than  3000  ft.  below  the  surface.  The  gold  product  of 
California,  therefore,  may  be  fairly  expected  to  maintain  itsdf^ 
and,  indeed,  to  show  an  advance.  Alaska  appeared  in  the  tist 
of  gold-producing  countries  in  z886,  and  gradually  increased  its 
annual  output  until  1897,  when  the  coimtry  attracted  much  atten- 
tion with  a  production  valued  at  over  £500,000;  tbe  opening  up 
of  new  workings  lias  increased  thb  figure  immensrly,  bam  about 
£1400,000  in  X90X  to  £3,006,500  in  1905.  The  Alaska  gold' 
was  derived  almost  wholly  from  the  large  low-grade  quartz  mines 
of  Douglas  Island  prior  to  1899,  but  in  that  year  an  important 
dbtrict  was  discovered  at  Cape  Nome,  on  the  north-western 
coasL  The  result  of  a  few  months'  Forking  during  that  jrear 
was  more  than  £500,000  of  gold,  and'a  very  much  larger  annual 
output  may  reasonably  be  anticipated  In  the  future;  in  1905  it 
was  about  £900,000.  The  gold  occurs  in  alluVial  deposits 
designated  as  gulch-,  bar-,  botch-,  tundra-  and  bourh-placezs. 
The  tundra  b  a  coastal  plain,  swampy  and  covered  with  under^ 
growth  and  underlaid  by  gravel  The  most  interesting  and,  thus 
far,  the  most  productive  are  the  beach  deposits,  similar  to  those 
on  the  coast  of  Northern  California.  These  occur  in  a  strip  of 
comparatively  fine  gravel  and  sand,  150  yds.  wide,  extending 
along  the  shore.  The  gold  b  found  in  stratified  layers,  with 
"  ruby  "  and  black  sand.  The  "  niby  "  sand  consbts  chiefly  of 
fine  garnets  and  magnetites,  with  a  few  rose-quartz  grains. 
Further  exfdoration  of  the  interior  wHl  probably  result  in  the' 
discovery  of  additional  gold  dbtricts. 

Mexico,  from  a  gold  production  of  £200,000  in  1891,  advanced 
to  about  £x,88i,8oo  in  2900  and  to  about  £3,221,000  in  1905.  Of 
thb  increase,  a  considerable  part  was  derived  from  gold-quarts 
mining,  thou^  much  was  also  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the 
working  of  the  ores  of  other  metals.  The  product  of  Colembia, 
Venezuela,  the  Guianas,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  Argentina,  Chile, 
BoUvia,  Peru  and  Ecuador  amounted  in  1900  to  £2481,000  and 
to  £2,046,000  in  1905. 

In  1876  Australasia  produced  £7,364,000,  of  which  Victoria 
contributed  £3,984,000.  The  annual  output  of  Victoria  declined 


uBtil' tie  jtu- i(«i,  whm  I[  bcgu  to  incrOM  npUUr,  bnt 
ill  [onner  levd,  the  value*  for  igos  tnd  1905  txing  £],u 

"kI  j£3iij''>°<x>-     There  bu  beeo  4D  impotunt  tncin 
QucaisUnd,    which   u]vu>ctd    from    £1,(96,000  in    18. 
t,t^^l,ooo  in  tgoo,  tnd  lubiuueDtly  declined  lo   li^Sg/xxt 
in  1905.     Then  hu  been  no  incKue,  and,  indeed,  no  Inrge 
fluctiulion  until  quite  recently  in  the  output  of  Nn 
which  Avenged  £1  " "    


annom  bom  iSfA  to  iSpS,  but 


II.-Cb« 


'"  «95 

The  fcM  pndnctkiD  of  Ruarii  bu  been  mnnAaUy  coutant, 
ivencini  £(399,>0>  per  wummi  the  gbU  ii  derived  chiefly 

[rom  placer  mikinci  in  Siberia. 

The  gold  pn>ductiDn  ol  China  wu  euimated  tot  1899  at 
[1,118,938  and  for  iqoo  at  £860,0001  it  increaaed  b  1901  to 
ibout  £1,700,000,  to  fall  to£}4o,aoo!n  1905;  in  1906  and  1907 
t  ncovcied  to  about  £1,000,000. 
'radntlifli  qf  CmUui  Caumtria,  iStl-lfoS  (wgf.}. 


the  productio 

1900  and  I90si™e  10^1,415,459 
and  £1,070,407  reipectjvdy.  By 
far  &  moat  impoitant  addiiioo 


come  f iwn  WeatAuiualia,i>hicli 
bciwi  iti  piodtiction  in  1S87  — 
■boat  the  time  of  the  Incep- 
tion of  minbii  at  Wllmten- 
tand  ("tlie  Kand")  in  South 

inoportions  towaidi  the  dose  of 
ibe  lotb  centuiy,iraa£6,4 16,000 
1^1899,  £6,1 79,000  in  1900,  and 
£S.>ii,ooo  in  1905.  Tfae  lolal 
Auffrabaian  production  in  190B 
*ai  valued  at  £14,708,000. 

Vndonbtedly  tbe  grealen  of 
the  gold  discoveriei  made  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  19th  century 

dimici  in  the  Tiansvaal.     By 


IS 


I,4j!o67 


J.837.I8! 


l."4Si744 


1,110,869 

I.4?8,4r7 


i-ije-os* 

3-47744' 
M49,749 


ckmctet  aod  great  economic 
Importance  liii  disliirt  deserve* 
■  more  eitended  description.  The  gold  occun  in  conglameiaie 
beds,  locally  known  u  "banket."  Then  are  several  leriei  of 
paiallcl  bedi.  intentratified  with  quartaite  and.ichlit,  tbe  moat 
important  being  the  "main  reef"  aerieL  The  gold  in  thii  con- 
^meralc  reef  ia  partly  of  delrital  origin  and  partly  of  the  genetic 
character  of  ordinary  vein-gotd.  The  fonnation  is  noted  for  its 
regularity  as  regartU  both  the  thicknesa  and  the  gold-tenor  of 
the  ore-beixiiig  reefs,  In  which  respect  it  ii  unparaileJed  in  the 
pology  of  tbe  luriferoui  foimalioDt.  Tbe  gold  (amcs,  00  an 
avense,  £1  per  Ion,  and  is  worked  by  oidioary  methods  of  gold- 
miniog,  ilamp-miUing  and  cyaniding.  In  1S99,  1761  stainpa 
were  in  i^ieraiiaD,  crushing  7,331446  tons  of  ore,  and  yielding 
£iS.Ij4,ooa,  equivalent  to  'IS%  o[  tlie  world's  production. 
Of  thia,  80^  came  from  within  i )  ra.  of  Johannesburg. .  Alter 
September  1899  operaiioos  were  suspended,  almost  eniiiely 
owing  to  the  Boer  War,  but  on  tbe  md  of  May  1901  they  were 
started  again.  In  190$  the  yield  was  valued  at  £10,801,074, 
and  in  1909  at  £)o,9i5,78S.  So  certain  is  Ibe  ore-beaiiag 
formation  that  engineen  in  eatimaliug  iti  auriferous  contenta 
feel  justified  in  auuming,  ai  a  iactor  in  their  calculaliona,  a 
vertical  extension  limited  only  by  the  lowest  depths  at  which 


rethe  Ii 


Lionel    PUtlips 

proved  lor  61  m..  ana  tic 

mined  to  be  worth  £i,sc 

Witwatenrand  banket  a 

Gold  Coast  of  Africa.    Ii 

ol  the  Tranivaal,  where 

veina,  there  is  unquesllor 

woekings.     The  economic  importance  ol  the  re^n  gcneralJy 

has  been  (ulty  proved.     Rhodesia  produced  £}S6,i4S  in  1900 

iaA  £711,656  in  1901,  in  spite  of  the  South  African  War;  the 

(mdiict  (oe  1905  was  valued  at  £1,480,449,  luid  lor  1908  at 

il,Sl«,OOD. 


estimated  the  gold  remaining  t< 
0,000,00a.  Dcposli  simQal  to 
xur  in  Zululand,  and  also  on 
1  Rhodesia,  the  country  lying  m 

gold  occun  in  well-delincd  qua 


llOJIl 

1S7.S30 


U^ 


Sf 


Russia. 


'W^. 


'.103,411 

iSi 

1,063,^3 


1,678,613 

1.371,187 

MJi-sjo 
>.4"9.9So 

'.691.113 

i»S 

iWsso 


|!B9.B97 
l,803.S00 

J'S.74a 
*.>63t!3J 
4.6»J6q 


«7«,9«o 

fI 

S.'75!Si 

3.>i >.)4; 

6.»B7.»i 

1:3 

9.Bl4.iOS 

14.313.660 

life 

1S:S3S 


I  alio**  with  moB  metali,  and  lA  these  many 

_, e  la  Oe  aiti.    Tbe  alloy  with  meimn~-told 

I  so  readily  lormed  that  mercuiy  Is  one  of  i  he  most 

—  ■--  extndiiig  Ihe  piTcious  metal.    With  10%  ol 

-' — I  Is  fluid,  and  wiih  US  %paaty.  while  with 

—~~~- , ih-whlte  nyiuls.    Cold  readily  alloys  with 

ley.  jeweOy  and  plale.  Other  meuli  which  hod  applicatioii  in 
metalJuiiy  of  gold  by  virtue  of  ihcir  property  of  extraclini  tbe 
t  u  an  alloy  are  lead,  which  combine!  very  readily  when  molten, 
which  aa  afterwards  be  sepajaied  by  cupellation,  and  copper, 
ch  ii  lepintcd  from  the  gold  by  m'-5~  -'-  --J ■ 1 

"  *  L  alkiy  is 


in  acids  or  by  dectro- 


InVMiot  of  gDl<nnl4iiarti  of^y.     Thi] 

500,  635,  730  and 

.     lil.'^'  *ii*Fr.-- 
■  used  lor  jewelry,  o 


:,"::.'« 


foe  plate  aod  jewelry:  375,  500,  Sas,  730  and 

916.6,  CDrrespondlng  to  9,  11,  15,  18  and  i"* "  ' 

metals  being  ntver  and  ceniper  lo  varyiag  pr 
Ihrsa  alloys  ol  tbe  lotkrwiiit  itandardi  are  used  lo 
840  and  730.    K  greenish  alloy  uied  by  Eoldimithi  c 
sUvor  aKTuK  ol  gold.    "  Blue  iDld '*  is  staled  t 
of,goldaBd>5%oliH-     —     ' 

of  gcM  (od  sdver,  th>  __w.,u  u-  -....-^  •.,-;.  ,.-.•.  jw  iv  y~, 
the  cotovr  of  tbe  precious  metal  being  developed  by  "  jHckling  '  in 
a  miatuiT  of  pliun-Julce,  vinqar  aHf  copper  sulphate.  They  may 
be  moA  to  possess  a  series  of  faronsei,  in  which  gold  and  diver  replace 
tin  and  doc,  all  these  alloys  being  chanctenicd  by  patina  having 
a  wDoderful  range  of  dnt  The  comnioii  alloy,  Shi-ya-ku-Do.  con- 
lain  70%  of  copper  and  10%  of  gold;  when  eipiised  to  air  it 
becomes  coated  with  a  Kne  hlsck  pstin*.  and  is  nucE  used  in  Japan 

J Gold  wire  may  be  drawn  of  any  quality,  but  il 

I.-.  -. .. J      jI,.^,j_.. 


its  add  3  to 


Id  3  of  goU;  lor  light 


,,-.,.  J  sKerandVofgold: 

Gtid  and  5fAw.— .£lectrum  b  a  natural  alloy  of  gold  and  niver. 
MatlhieiHn  obKrved  that  the  density  of  alloys,  the  conipoHiiaii  of 
which  varies  from  AuAgi  to  AutAg.  b  grater  than  that  calculated 
from   the  densitiet  of  Ibe  consliliient  metals.     These  alloys  arc 

o(  the'  lonnulae  AuAg,  AuAgi.  AuAg.  andTAuAgB  are  perfect^ 

t  on  cooling  the  alloy  AuAgK, 

U  quantities  sine  renders  giid 


'  CofSaa/ziK'.— 'Sheo  p 


196 


GOLD 


brittle,  tmt  it  may  be  added  to  ^Id  in  larger  quantitiea  without 
destroying  the  ductility  of  the  precious  metal ;  Piligot  proved  that  a 
triple  alloy  of  «>ld,  copper  and  zinc,  which  contains  5*8  %  of  the  Ust- 
oamed,  is  perfectly  ductile.  The  alloy  of  ii  parts  gold  and  x  part  of 
sine  is.  however,  stated  to  be  brittle. 

CM  and  r<i>.— Alchome  showed  that  gold  alloyed  with  ^th  part 
of  tin  b  sufficiently  ductile  to  be  rolled  and  stamped  into  coin,  pro- 
vided the  metal  is  not  annealed  at  a  high  temperature.  The  alloys 
of  tin  and  gold  are  hard  and  brittle,  and  the  combination  of  the  metals 
is  attended  with  contraction;  thus  the  aUayr  SnAu  has  a  density 
I4«243,  instead  oi  I4-828  indicated  by  calculation.  Matthiessen  and 
Bote  obtained  large  crystals  of  the  alloy  AutSn»,  having  the  colour 
of  tin,  which  chained  to  a  bronse  tint  by  oxidation. 

CM  and  Iron, — Hatchett  found  that  the  alloy  of  11  parts  gold 
and  I  part  of  iron  is  easily  rolled  without  anneahng.  In  these  pro- 
portions the  density  of  the  alloy  is  less  than  the  mean  of  its  con- 
stituent metals. 

CM  and  PaUadUtm.—'Theae  metals  are  stated  to  allov  in  all  pro- 
portions. Aooording  to  Chenevix,  the  alloy  composed  01  equal  parte 
of  the  two  metals  is  grey,  is  less  ductile  than  ite  constituent  metals 
and  has  the  specific  gravity  1 1  'OS.  The  alloy  of  4  parte  of  gold  and  i 
part  of  palladium  is  white,  hard  and  ductile.  Graham  showed  that  a 
wire  of  palladium  alloyed  with  from  a^  to  25  parte  of  gold  does  not 
exhibit  the  remarkable  retraction  which,  in  pure  palladium,  attends 
its  loss  tk  occluded  hydrogen. 

CM  and  Platinum.— durkt  states  that  the  alloy  of  equal  parte 
of  the  .two  metels  is  ductile,  and  has  almost  the  colour  of  gold. 

CM  and  Rhodiwn. — Gold  alloyed  with  ith  or  1th  of  rhodium  is, 
according  to  Woltaston,  very  ductile,  infusible  a  nd  of  the  colour  of  gold. 

CM  and  Iridium, — Small  quantities  of  iridium  do  not  destroy  the 
ductility  of  gold,  but  this  is  probably  because  the  metal  is  only  dis- 
seminated through  the  mass,  and  not  alloyed,  as  it  falls  to  the  bottom 
of  the  crucible  in  which  the  gold  is  fused. 

CM  and  Nickd. — Eleven  parte  of  gold  and  i  of  nickel  yield  an 
alloy  retembltng  brass. 

GM  and  Cobalt. — Eleven  parte  of  gold  and  X  of  cobalt  form  a 
brittle  alloy  of  a  dull  yellow  colour. 

Compounds. — Aurous  oxide,  AuiO.  is  obteined  by  cautiously 
adding  potesh  to  a  solution  of  aurous  bromide,  or  by  boiling 
mixed  solutions  of  auric  chloride  and  mercurous  nitrate.  It  forms 
a  dark-violet  precipitate  which  dries  to  a  greyish-violet  powder. 
When  freshly  prepared  it  dissolves  in  cold  water  to  form  an  indigo- 
coloured  solution  with  a  brownish  fluorescence  of  colloidal  aurous 
oxide;  it  b  insoluble  in  hot  water.  Thb  oxide  is  slightly  basic. 
Auric  oxide,  Au^i,  b  a  brown  powder,  decomposed  into  its  elements 
when'heated  to  about  250*  or  on  exposure  to  light.  When  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  auric  chloride  is  treated  with  caustic  potash, 
a  brown  precipitate  of  auric  hydrate,  Au(OH)i,  b  obteined,  which, 
on  heating,  loses  water  to  form  aunrl  hydrate,  AuO(OH),  and 
auric  oxide,  Au^a*  It  functions  chieiiy  as  an  acidic  oxide,  being 
less  basic  than  aluminium  oxide,  and  forming  no  steble  oxy-salts. 
It  dissolves  in  alkalis  to  form  well-defined  crystalline  salts:  potassium 
aurate,  KAuOf3H^,  is  very  soluble  in  water,  and  is  used  in  electro- 

EUding.  With  concentrated  ammoma  auric  oxide  forms  a  black, 
ighly  exploave  compound  of  the  composition  AuNiHf^HiO, 
namra  "  fulminating  sold  " ;  thb  substence  b  generally  considered 
to  be  Au(NHi)NH'3H|0.  but  it  may  be  an  ammine  of  the  formula 
[Au(NHi)i(OH)ilOH.  Other  oxides,  e.g.  Au^,  have  been  described. 
Aurous  chloride,  AuCl,  is  obteined  as  a  lemon-yellow,  amornhous 
powder,  insoluble  in  water,  by  heating  auric  chloride  to  185  .  It 
begins  to  decompose  into  gold  and  chlorine  at  185*,  the  decomposition 
being  complete  at  330*;  water  decomposes  it  into  gold  and  auric 
chlonde.  Auric  chloride,  or  eold  trichloride,  AuCl«,  is  a  dark  ruby- 
red  or  reddish-brown,  crysteuine,  deliquescent  powder  obteined  by 
dissolving  the  metel  in  aqua  regia.  It  is  also  obteined  by  carefully 
evaporating  a  solution  01  the  metal  in  chlorine  water.  The  gold 
chloride  of  commerce,  which  b  used  in  photography,  is  really  a 
hydrochloride,  chlorauric  or  aurichloric  acid,  HAuQ«'3H|0,  and 
b  obteined  in  long  yellow  needles  by  crystelltzing  the  acid  solution. 
Corresponding  to  tnb  acid,  a  series  of  salte,  named  chloraurates  or 
aurichforides,  are  known.  The  potassium  salt  b  obtained  by  ciys- 
tellbing  equivalent  quantities  of  potassium  and  auric  chlorides. 
Light-yellow  monoclinic  needles  of  2KAuCl4*H/)  are  deposited  from 
wamv  stronely  acid  solutions,  and  transparent  rhombic  tables  of 
KAuCl4*2HiO  from  neutral  solutions.  By  crystellbing  an  aqueous 
solution*  red  crystels  of  AuClf2H^  are  obteined.  Auric  chloride 
combines  with  the  hydrochlorides  of  many  orranic  bases — amines, 
alkaloids,  &c.— to  form  characteristic  compounds.  Gold  dichloride, 
probably  AU]Cl«,">Au.AuCl4,  aurous  chloraurate,  is  said  to  be 
obteined  as  a  dark-red  mass  by  heating  finely  divided  gold  to  140*- 
170*  in  chlorine.  Water  decomposes  it  into  gold  and  auric  chloride. 
The  bromides  and  iodides  resemble  the  chlondes.  Aurous  bromide, 
AuBr^  b  a  ycllowish-grecn  powder  obtained  by  heating  the  tri- 
bromide  to  140";  aunc  bromide,  AuBri,  forms  reddish-black  or 
scarlet-red  leaiy  crystels,  which  dissolve  in  water  to  form  a  reddish- 
brown  solution,andcombine8  with  bromides  toformbromaurates  corre- 
sponding to  the  chloraurates.  Aurous  iodide,  Aul,  is  a  light-yellow, 
sparingly  soluble  powder  obteined,  together  with  free  iddine,  by 
adding  potessium  iodide  to  auric  chloride;  auric  iodide.  Aula, 
b  formed  as  a  dark-green  powder  at  the  same  time,  but  it  readily 


decomposes  to  aurous  iodide  and  iodine.  Aurous'  iodide  b  abo 
obteined  as  a  green  solid  by  acting  upon  gold  with  iodine.  The 
iodaurates  correspond  to  the  chlor-  and  bromaurates;  the  potaasiuni 
salt,  KAuIt,  forms  highly  lustrous,  intensely  bUck,  four-sided  prisms. 

Aurous  cyanide,  AuCN,  forms  yellow,  micfosoopic,  besEagoiial 
tebles,  insoluble  in  water,  and  b  obtained  by  the  addition  of  hydro 
chloric  acid  to  a  solution  of  potassium  aurocyaaide,  KAu(CN)». 
Thb  ttlt  b  prepared  by  predpiteting  a  solution  of  gold  in  aaua  regia 
by  ammonb,  and  then  introducing  the  well-washed  precipitate  into 
a  boiling  solution  of  potassium  cyanide.  The  stdution  b  filtocd 
and  allowed  to  cool,  when  colourless  rhombic  pyramids  of  the 
aurocyanide  separate.  It  b  also  obtained  in  the  action  of  potasdnoi 
cyanide  on  sold  in  the  presence  of  air,  a  reaction  utilised  in  the 
MacArthur-Forrest  process  of  gold  extractioa  (see  bdow).  Auric 
cyanide,  Au(CN)a,  is  not  certainly  known '  ite  douUe  salts,  how- 
ever, have  Dcen  frequently  described.  Potassium  aufkyanide. 
2ICAu(CN)4'3H|0,  b  obtained  as  large,  colourless,  efflorescent 
teblets  by^  crystallizingconcentrated  solutioni  <rf  auric  chloride 
and  potassium  cyanide.  The  acid,  auricyanicacid,  2HAu(CN}4  3H<0, 
is  obteined  by  treating  the  silver  salt  (obtained  by  preapitetiajg 
the  potassium  salt  witn  silver  nitrate)  with  hydrochloric  add;  it 
forms  tebular  crystab,  readily  soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  ether. 

Gold  forms  three  sulphidea  corresponding  to  the  oxides;  they 
readily  decompose  on  heating.  Aurous  sulphide,  AuiS,  b  a  browniab- 
bbck  powder  formed  by  passing  sulphuretted  hydrofcn  into  a 
solution  of  potassium  aurocyanide  and  then  acidifying.  Sodium 
aurosulphide,  NaAuS-4H/),  u  prepared  by  fusing  gold  with  sodium 
sulphide  and  sulphur,  the  mdt  being  extracted  with  water,  filtered 
in  an  atmosphere  of  nitrogen,  and  evaporated  in  a  vacuum  .oenc 
sulphuric  add.  It  forms  colourless,  monoclinic  pcbms,  which  turn 
brown  on  exposure  to  air.  Thb  method  of  hnxtpng  gold  into 
solution  is  mentioned  by  Stehl  in  his  (^urvatumes  CkymicO' 
Pkysico-Medicae;  he  there  remarks  that  Moses  probably  desboyed 
the  golden  calf  by  burning  it  with  sulphur  and  allcaU  fEx.  xxxii.  ao). 
Aunc  sulphide,  AusSi,  is  an  amorphous  powder  fonr.ed  when  lithium 
aurichlonde  is  treated  with  dry  sulphuretted  hydrogen  at  ->lo*. 
It  is  very  unstable,  tlecomposing  into  gold  and  sulphur  at  aoo*. 

Oxy-salte  of  gold  are  almost  unknown,  but  the  sulphite  and  thio- 
sulphate  form  double  salts.  Thus  by  adding  add  sodium  sulphite 
to,  or  by  passing  sulphur  dioxide  at  w*  into,  a  solution  of  sodium 
aurate,  the  salt,  3NaiSO«'AuflSOf3HiO  b  obteined,  which,  when 
precipiteted  from  ite  aqueous  solution  by  alcohol,  forms  a  purple 
powder,  appearing  vellow  or  green  by  reflected  light.  Sodium 
aurothiosulphate,  3NaiSiOc  Aut^a«4lW),  forms  coloorlesa  needles; 
it  is  obtained  in  the  direct  action  of  sodium  thiosulphateongoldiathe 
presence  of  an  oxidixing  agent,  or  by  the  addition  of  a  dilute  solutiott 
of  auric  chloride  to  a  Kidium  thiosulphafce  solution. 

Mining  and  Metallurgy, 

The  various  deposits  of  gold  may  be  divided  into  two  daisea — 
"veins"  and  "placers."  The  vein  mining  of  gold  does  not 
greatly  differ  from  that  of  similar  deposits  of  metab  (see  Mines al 
Deposits)  .  In  the  placer  or  alluvial  deposits,  the  predous  metal 
b  found  usually  in  a  water-worn  condition  imbedded  in  earthy 
matter,  and  the  method  of  working  all  such  deposits  b  baaed  on 
the  disintegration  of  the  earthy  matter  by  the  action  of  a  stream 
of  water,  which  washes  away  the  lighter  portions  and  leaves  the 
denser  gold.  In  alluvial  deposits  the  richest  ground  b  usually 
found  in  contact  with  the  "bed  rock";  and,  when  the  overiying 
cover  of  gravel  is  very  thick,  or,  as  sometimes  happens,  when  the 
older  gravel  b  covered  with  a  flow  of  basalt,  regular  mining  by 
shafts  and  levels,  as  in  what  are  known  as  tunnd-daims,  may  be 
required  to  reach  the  auriferous  ground. 

The  extraction  of  gold  may  be  effected  by  several  methods; 
we  may  distingubh  the  following  leading  types: 

I .  By  simple  washing,  i.e. dre^i  ng  auriferous  sands,graveb,&c. ; 

3.  By  amalgamation,  i.e.  forming  a  gold  amalgam,  afterwards 
removing  the  mercury  by  dbtillation; 

3.  By  chlorination,  i.e,  forming  the  soluble  gold  chloride  and 
then  predpitating  the  metal; 

4.  By  the  cyanide  process,  i.e.  dissolving  the  gdd  in  potassium 
cyanide  solution,  and  then  predpitating  the  metal; 

5.  Electrolytically,  generally  applied  to  the  solutions  obtained 
in  processes  (3)  and  (4). 

I.  Extraction  of  CM  by  Waskinf. — In  the  cariy  days  of  gold- 
washing  in  California  and  Australia,  when  rich  alluvial  deposite 
were  common  at  the  surface,  the  most  simple  appUanccs  sufficed. 
The  most  characteristic  b  the  "  pan,"  a  drcuhr  dish  of  sheet- 
iron  or  '*  tin,"  with  sloping  sides  about  13  or  14  in.  in  diameter. 
The  pan,  about  two-thiras  filled  with  the  "  pay  dirt  "  to  be  waited, 
is  held  in  the  stream  or  in  a  hole  filled  with  water.  The  larger 
stones  having  been  removed  by*  hand,  gyratory  motion  Is  givea 
to  the  pan  by  a  combination  ol  shaking  and  twisting  oMyeoneots 


GOLD 


197 


to  at  t»  keep  its  contents  suspended  In  the  stretm  of  water,  which 
carries  away  the  bulk,  of  ..the  lighter  material,  leaving  the  heavy 
ninerali,  together  with  any  gdd  which  may  have  been  present.  The 
washing  is  repeated  until  enough  of  the  enriched  sand  is  collected, 
when  the  gold  is  finally  recovered  by  careful  washing  or  **  panning 
out  "  in  a  smaller  pan.  In  Mexico  and  South  America,  instead  of  the 
pan,  a  wooden  dish  or  trough,  known  as  "  batea,"  is  used. 

The  **  cradle  "  is  a  simple  appliance  for  treating  somewhat  larger 
quantities,  and  consists  essentially  of  a  box,  mounted  on  rockers, 
and  provided  with  a  perforated  bottom  of  sheet  iron  in  which  the 
**  pay  dirt  "  is  placed.  Water  is  poured  on  the  dirt,  and  the  rocking 
.motion  impartcid  to  the  cradle  causes  the  finer  particles  to  pass  through 
the  perforated  bottom  on  to  a  canvas  screen,  and  thence  to  the  base 
o(  the  cradle,  where  the  auriferous  particles  accumulate  on  transverse 
bars  of  wood,  caUed  "  riilles." 

The  *'  torn  '*  b  a  smt  of  cradle  with  an  extended  sluice  placed  on 
an  iocUne  of  about  x  in  la.  The  upper  end  ^contains  a  perforated 
riddle  plate  which  is  placed  directly  over  the  riffle  box,  and  under 
certain  dreumstances  mereury^  may  be  pland  behind  the  riffles. 
Copper  plates  amal^mated  with  mercury  are  also  used  when  the 
gold  is  very  fine,  and  u  some  instances  amalgamated  silver  coins  have 
been  used  for  the  same  purpose.  Sometimes  the  stuff  is  disintegrated 
with  water  in  a  "  puddling  machine,"  which  was  used,  especially  in 
Australia,  when  the  earthy  matters  are  tenacious  and  water  scarce. 
The  machine  frequently  resembles  a  brickmaker's  wash-mill,  and  is 
worked  bjr  horse  or  steam  power. 

In  workings  on  a  larger  scale,  where  the  supply  <rf  water  b abundant, 
as  in  California,  sluices  were  generally  employed.  They  are  shallow 
trooghs  about  la  ft.  long,  about  i6  to  ao  m.  wide  and  i  ft.  in  depth. 
The  troughs  taper  slightly  so  that  they  can  be  joined  in  series,  the 
total  length  <rften  reaching  several  hundred  feet.  The  incline  of  the 
sluice  varies  with  the  conioraiation  of  the  .ground  and  the  tenacity  of 
the  staff  to  be  washed,  from  i  in  i6  to  i  in  8.  A  rectangular  trough 
of  boards,  whose  dimensions  depend  chiefly  on  the  size  oi  the  planlu 
availaUe,  is  set  up  on  the  higher  part  of  the  ground  at  one  side  of  the 
claim  to  be  workra,  upon  trestles  or  piers  of  rough  stone- work,  at  such 
an  iocKnation  that  the  stream  may  carry  off  all  but  £he  largest  stones, 
which  are  kept  back  by  a  Rating  of  boards  about  a  in.  apart.  The 
gravel  b  du^  by  hand  and  thrown  in  at  the  upper  end,  the  stones 
«ept  back  being  removed  at  intervab  by  two  men  with  four-prons^ed 
steel  forks.  The  floor  of  the  sluice  b  kid  with  riffles  made  of  strips 
of  wood  a  in.  square  laid  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  current,  and 
at  other  points  with  boards  having  transverse  notches  filled  with 
mercury.    These  were  known  originally  as  Hungarian  riffles. 

In  larger  plant  the  upper  ends  of  the  sluices  are  often  cut  in  rock 
or  lined  with  stone  blocks,  the  grating  stop(Mng  the  larger  stones 
being  known  as  a  "  grizzly."  In  order  to  save  very  fine  and  especblly 
msty  particles  of  g«d,  so-called  "  under<urrent  sluices  "  are  used; 
tbeae  are  shallow  wooden  tanks,  50  sq.  yds.  and  upwards  in  area, 
which  are  placed  somewhat  below  the  mam  sluice,  and  communicate 
with  it  above  and  bdow,  the  entry  beingprotected  by  a  grating  so 
that  <mly  the  finer  material  b  admitted,  incse  are  paved  with  stone 
blocks  or  lined  with  mercury  riffles,  so  that  from  the  greatly  reduced 
vieloctty  of  flow,  due  to  the  sudden  increase  of  sunace,  the  finer 
partidcs  of  gold  may  collect.  In  order  to  save  finely  divided  gold.- 
amal^mated  cop(>er  plates  are  sometimes  placed  in  a  nearly  TeveL 
positioo.  at  a  considerable  dbtance  from  the  head  of  the  sluice,  the 
gold  which  b  retained  in  it  being  removed  from  time  to  time.  Sluices 
are  often  made  double,  and  they  are  usually  cleaned  up— -that  is, 
the  deposit  rich  in  gold  b  removed  from  them — once  a  week. 

The  "  pan  "  b  now  only  used  by  prospectors,  while  the  "  cradle  " 
and  '*  torn  "  are  practically  confined  to  the  Chinese;  the  sluice  b 
considered  40  be  tne  best  contrivance  for  washing  gokl  gravels. 

a.  Tk€  Amalgamatum  Process. — ^This  method  is  empfeyed  to 

atnct  gold  from  both  alluvial  and  reef  deposits:  in  the  first 

case  it  it  combined  with  "  hydraulic  mining,"  ».e.  disintegrating 

aurifcnHis  giaveb  by  powerful  jets  of  water,  and  the  sluice 

sjrstcm  desoibed  above;  in  the  second  case  the  vein  stuff  u 

prcfMRd  .by  ■crushing  and  the  amaigsmation  b  carried  out  in 

milhk 

Hydfanfirmining  has  for  the  most  part  been  omfined  to  the  country 
of  its  invention,  Califonua,  and  the  western  territories  of  America. 
w!iere  the  conditions  favourable  for  its  use  are  more  fully  developed 
thaa  elsewhere-  ■  notably  the  presence  of  thick  banks  oigravel  that 
caaaot  be  utilised  by  other  methods,  and  abundance  of  water,  even 
tbocigb  cooaideraUe  work  may  be  required  at  times  to  make  it  avail- 
able. The  seneral  conditions  to  be  observed  in  such  workings 
be  briny  suted  as  folbws;'  (i)  The  whole  of  the  auriferous 


gravd,  down  to  the  "  bed  rock,"  must  be  removed, — that  is,  no 
■electioa  of  rich  or  ooor  parts  b  possible;  (a)  thb  must  be  accom- 
plisbed  by  the  aid  01  water  alone,  or  at  times  by  water  supplemented 
by  Masting ;  (3)  the  congtomerate  must  be  mechanically  disintegrated 
without  interrupting  the  whole  system;  (4)  the  gold  must  be  saved 
without  itttcmiptiiq^  the  continuous  flow  of  water;  and  (5)  anange- 
asencs  most  be  made  for  diqtosing  <A  the  vast  masses  of  impoverished 
gra^i^ 

The  water  b  broivht  from  a  ditch  on  the  high  ground,  and  through 
a  Mne  of  pipes  to  the  distributing  box,  whence  the  branch  pipes 


supplying  the  jets  diverge.  The  stream  issues  through  a  nozzle, 
termed  a  "  monitor  "  <tf  "  giant,"  which  b  fitted  with  a  ball  and 
socket  joint,  so  that  the  direction  oi  the  jet  may  be  varied  through 
considerable  angles  by  simpiv  moving  a  handle.  The  material  of 
the  bank  being  loosened  by  bUsting  and  the  cutting  action  of  the 
water,  crumbles  into  holes,  and  the  superincumbent  mass,  often 
with  large  trees  and  stones,  falb  into  the  lower  ground.  The 
stream,  laden  with  stones  and  gravel,  passes  into  the  sluices,  where 
the  gold  b  recovered  In  the  manner  already  described.  Under  the 
most  advantu^eous  conditions  the  loss  of  gold  may  be  estimated  fit 
IS  or  ao%,  vac  amount  recovered  rw^^nting  a  value  of  about 
two  shillings  per  ton  of  gravel  treated.  The  loss  of  mercuiy  is 
about  the  same,  from  s  to  6  cwt.  being  in  constant  use  per  mile  of 
sluice. 

In  worldly  auriferous  river-beds,  dredges  have  been  used  with 
considerable  success  in  certain  parts  of  New  Zealand  and  on  the 
Pacific  slope  in  Ameiicau  The  dredges  used  in  Californb  are  almost 
exclusively  of  the  endless<hain  bucket  or  steam-shovel  pattern. 
Some  dredges  have  a  capacity  under  favourable  conditions  of  over 
aooo  cub.  yds.  of  gravel  daily.  The  gravel  is  excavated  as  in  the 
ordinal^  form  of  endless-chain  bucket  dredge  and  dumped  on  to  the 
deck  01  the  dredge.  It  then  passes  through  screens  and  grizzlies 
to  retain  the  coarse  gravel,  the  finer  material  passing  on  to  sluice 
boxes  provided  with  riffles,  supplied  with  mercury.  There  are 
belt  conveyers  for  discharging  the  gravel  and  tailings  at  the  end  of  the 
vessel  remote  from  the  buckets.  The  water  necessary  to  the  process 
b  pumped  from  the  river;  as  much  as  aooo  gallons  per  minute  b 
used  on  the  larger  dredges. 

The  dressing  or  mechanical  preparation  of  vein  stuff  containing  gold 
b  generally  similar  to  that  of  other  ores  (see  Ore-dressing),  except 
that  the  precious  metal  should  be  removed  from  the  waste  substances 
as  quickly  as  possible,  even  although  other  minerals  of  value  that  are 
subsequently  recovered  maybe  present.  In  all  cases  the  quarts 
or  other  vein  stuff  must  be  reduced  to  a  very  fine  powder  as  a  pre- 
liminary to  further  operations.  Thb  may  be  done  in  several  ways, 
«.f .  either  (1)  by  the  Mexican  crusher  or  arrailra,  in  which  the  grinding 
b  effected  upon  a  bed  c^  stone,  over  which  heavy  blocks  of  stone 
attached  to  cross  arms  are  dragged  by  the  rotation  of  the  arms  about 
a  central  spindle,  or  (a)  by  the  Chilean  mill  or  tra^ke^  also  known 
as  the  edge-runner,  where  the  grinding  stones  roU  upon  the  ffoor, 
at  the  same  time  tumine  about  a  central  upright — contrivances 
whkh  are  mainly  used  for  the  preparation  01  silver  ores;  but 
by  far  the  brant  proportion  of  the  gold  quartz  of  Californb, 
Australia  and  Africa  u  reduced  by  ^3)  the  stamp  mill,  which  is  stmiUr 
in  principle  to  that  used  in  Europe  tor  the  preparation  of  tin  and  other 
ores. 

The  stamp  mill  was  first  used  in  Californb,  and  its  use  has  since 
spread  over  the  whole .worid.  In  the  mills  of  the  Califombn  type  the 
stamp  is  a  cylindrical  iron  pestle  faced  with  a  chilled  cast  iron  shoe, 
removable  so  that  it  can  be  renewed  when  necessary,  attached  to 
a  round  iron  rod  or  lifter,  the  whole  weighiM  from  600  to  900  lb; 
stamps  weighing  i^ao  lb  are  in  use  in  the  Transvaal.  The  lift  is 
effected  by^  cams  acting  on  the  under  surface  of  tappets,  and  formed 
by  cylindrical  boxes  keyed  on  to  the  stems  of  the  lifter  about  one- 
fourth  of  their  length  from  the  top.  As,  however,  the  cams,  unlike 
those  of  European  stamp  mills,  are  placed  to  one  side  of  the  stamp,  the 
Utter  b  not  only  lifted  but  turned  partly  round  on  its  own  axis,  where- 
by the  shoes  are  worn  down  uniformly.  The  height  of  lift  may  be 
between  4  and  18  in.,  and  the  number  of  blows  from  30  to  over  100 
per  minute.  The  stamps  are  usually  arranged  in  batteries  of  five; 
the  order  of  working  b  usually  i,  4,  a,,  5,  3,  but  other  arrangements, 
€'t.  1, 3.  5,  a,  4,  and  i,  5.  a,  4, 3,  are  common.  The  stuff,  previoudy 
broken  to  about  a-in.'  lumps  in  a  rock-breaker,  b  fed  in  through  an 
aperture  at  the  back  of  tne  "  battery  box,"  a  constant  supply  of 
water  b  admitted  from  above,  and  mercurv  in  a  finely  divided  state 
b  added  at  frequent  intervals.  The  discharge  of  the  comminuted 
material  takes  place  through  an  aperture,  which  is  covered  by  a 
thin  steel  pbte  perforated  with  numerous  slits  about  ^th  in.  broad 
and  )  in.  long,  a  certain  volume  being  discharged  at  every  blow 
and  carried  forward  by  the  flushing  water  over  an  apron  or  table 
in  front,  covered  by  copper  pbtes  filled  with  mercury.  SimiUr 
j>lates  are  often  used  to  catch  any  particles  of  gold  that  may  be  thrown 
oack,  while  the  main  operation  b  so  conducted  that  the  bulk  of  the 
gold  may  be  reduced  to  the  state  of  amalgam  by  bringing  the  two 
metab  into  intimate  contact  under  the  stamp  head,  and  remain  in  the 
battery.  The  tables  in  front  are  laid  at  an  incline  of  about  8  *  and  are 
about  13  ft.  k>ng;  they  collect  from  10  to  IS%  of  the  whole  gold; 
a  further  quantity  b  recovered  by  leading  the  sands  through  a  gutter 
about  16  m.  broad  and  lao  ft.  long,  alio  lined  with  amalgamated 
copper  pbtes,  after  the  pyritic  and  other  heavy  mincrak  have  been 
separated  by  depositing  in  catch  pits  and  other  simibr  contrivances. 

when  the  ore  does  not  contain  any  considerable  amount  of  free  gold 
mercury  b  not,  as  a  rule,  used  during  the  crushing,  but  the  amalgama- 
tion b  carried  out  in  a  separate  plant.  Contnvances  <A  the  most 
diverse  constructions  have  been  empk>yed.  The  most  primitive  is 
the  rubbing  together  oi  the  concentrated  crushin^s  with  mercury  in 


bebw).' 


^■cd  through' 

»■  tin  iadde  or  tlw 


198  GO 

Al  SdwBiBilt.  Ktfpniyeh  KmdMri  iDd  other  loalicia  In 
Huiwiy.  qiuru  vtin  Muff  conuining  ■  nule  gold,  putly  (ne  and 
puily  uaoducd  widi  pvritis  and  giltu.  u,  (Iter  Munping  in  miUi. 
---"—  —  •'- —  dooibed  •bove,  but  witlioui  _[«»uin  •ump>, 

■\na  Eaa  hivioc  ■  iIiiiIIdv  crliadrial  bottom 

,  •hkh  ■  nodcB  muB=,  nariy  of  the  mine 

thitpe  ■■  tlH  JABoe  of  Uw  |nB»  mod  vncd  beJow  witb  Kvtral  pn>- 
JceUiif  bliulB,  ii  BUde  to  revolve  by  Duini  "heel*.  The  ttuB 
Inwi  the  fUinpi  It  conveyed  to  the  middle  of  the  mullcr,  Mnd  u 
diitiibuted  om  t>ie  mercury,  wliea  tht  gold  ubiHlei,  wfaUe  the 
quirti  and  li(hlcr  miteriili  in  guided  by  the  blula  to  the  cu- 
cunfeieDce  niui  tn  duclurged,  unuUy  idId  a  lecond  Himlar  mill, 
and  eubiequenily  put  over  bUnket  ublei,  ij.  botrdt  covmd 
with  cinvH  or  luldnt^the  gold  and  heavier  jiulidei  beooming  en- 
tangled in  the  fibret.  The  action  rf  thia  Btin  It  really  nwn  nearly 
analogaul  to  that  tf  a  ccnlrif  ugal  puap.  at  no  grinding  aclioa  tiket 
placrinit.  The tma^am ii dooed out penodxall)'— tortaightly or 
moniWy— and  after  Olerinf  through  linen  bagi  lo  immve  the  eueii 
of  meicufy,  it  i>  tmutemd  to  retont  (or  dittiltation  (lee  bekwl. 

Many  other  fotmi  nl  Ban-aaialgaiiiaton  h»vi  brni  devi«d.  The 
Laulo  itan  impfuved  KuBiarian  mill,  while  the  Pkxard  u  of  the 
■itietype.    In  the  Ksoi.aDd  B<w  miilh  whichirealto  emplayed 

flat  horiiontal  tarEacet  uutod  of  caDkaJ «  curved  tiufacea  at  in  the 

pni^wriy  Jnttilird  f"™-. .     . 

mition,aBd  norepanicululy  in  the  trenrmeoi 

the  KKtlkd  "  liclieiiinB  "  or  "  Souring  "  of  the 

partidct,  le^ng  their  bricht  meuUic  lurfuxi. . 

of  nalEtdBg  nth  or  taking  up      ' 

tenedia  propoied  the  mon  efl™ , , 

It  appean  that  amaigamilm  It  often  iofcdcd  by  tht  lu-nt 
(Miad  OB  theHifaaeflhcgold  when  it  iiaiiociated  wiuitutpbi 

( 1 864)  and  Sir  WiUiim  Crookei  in  England  (1 865}  made  indepcndeally 
the  ducDvery  thii.  by  the  addition  of  >  anaU  qutniiiy  of  todium  10 
tbemerrury.IhcopentiooitmiKhfaciliuteit.  Il ii alto iUled that 
■odium  pcevtotiboth  tht '-■ickenin("andlhe"aourina"of  the 
maY:ury  which  it  prtxluccd  by  certain  atociated  nineralt.  The 
addilioo  oC  potttiium  cyanide  hat  been  luncttcd  to  attbt  the 
amalgamation  and  10  prewit  *'  flooring"  but  bkey  bat  thowa  that 
iu  ute  it  titeaded  mk  loot  of  gold. 

JItJgrtJttit  «/  CM  fnm  ttK  iliMfiati.— The  anulgam  it  £nt 
Hw^prf  In  wetted  caavaa  or  bucktldn  in  order  to  remove  exc^  of 
of  ^  tolid  amalgam,  about  >  in.  in  diameter. 

..o  an  iron  vettel  provided  with  an  imn  tube  that 

.^^ condener  containing  water-    Tbe  ditiillttion  It  then 

efiected  by  healing  to  dull  redneia.  Tht  unalgan  yieldi  (bout 
w  to  to  V.  id  t<M.  Horiiontal  cytindric*!  retorii.  holding  from 
xo  to  11m  A  rS  anutiam,  are  uad  in  the  larger  CalifomUn  millt. 
poi  rttorti  being  uied  in  the  taialet  millt.    Hie  bullion  kit  in  the 


of  qieciil  ImpoTtuKe,  vii.  thechlorlnailonorPlattfierprocai,  la 
which  tbe  metal  a  converted  iaio  tbe  chloride,  and  the  cyanide  or 
Mac  Aitbur-Fotral  proccu,  In  which  i  I  is  convened  into  potauiiuo 

(3)  CU>fiiHfi«  IT  PAiUkt  iVKcn.— In  ihii  jicoceit  nolitened  gold 
-»  arc  treated  with  chlorine  gat.  the  retuliing  acM  chloride  dit- 
Jvpd  out  with  water,  and  the  gold  precipitated  with  ferroui  tulphate, 
larcoal.tulphutelted  hydrogen  or  otherwitc.  Theprocettoriguiaied 
L  1B48  with  C.  F.  Plattner,  who  tuEgntcd  that  the  rctiduei  from 
^Ttain  minei  at  Rtichenitcin,  in  SSita,  thould  be  treated  with 
chlorine  after  the  artenical  product*  had  been  etiracted  by  roatliaf . 
'"  "  It  be  noticed,  however,  that  Perry  independently  made  the 


ntoCgoMbyaii 


BO  longer  capable 

. OC  tbe  numeiDua 

la  perhapi  todium  anutlpm. 


The  atractwn  of  gidd  from  aunfefout  mincnltby  fuiion,exceptat 
an  incident  In  their  treatment  for  other  metalt,  it  very  nrriy  naciited. 
It  wi*  at  one  tine  propoaed  to  treat  the  csncmtialed  blacit  iron 
,1    -I..  ,T__,  __fj — IT —  _i-_L — Btti  chiefly  of  mag- 

t  with  tulphunc  add 

I  atiDcialion  with  copper  are  tmdted  In  reverbntory 
-v- 'wTgulua.  which,  when  detilveriied  by  Ziervogel't  method. 
a  Rtidue  conuinint  M  or  JO  01.  o(  gold  per  ton.    Thii  it 
d  with  rich  gotd  orei,  notaUy  thote  coBttinnn  telluriuni.  1"^ 
metal  or  regulut;  and  by  a  following  procttt  o<  partial  let 
oalogout  10  that  of  tekcting  in  mpper  tmdting,  "  botton 
.jHire  copper  are  obtained  in  which  practicnlly  all  the  nl 
Hilnled.    By  coniinuiiu  the  treauntnl  g(  theie  in  the  ordir 
way  of  refininff.  poling  antT  gnnulatina.  all  the  foretan  mat 
other  than  gold,  copper  and  ulver  arc  re 


d  waihiiigt,  which  « 
netite.  at  an  in»  oce,  E>y  tmelting  it  with  chan 
inn,  the  latter  netal  ponriting  the  property 
conuderable  quintity.  By  tubtequenl  irtatnn 
the  Bold  could  be  recovered-  Eaperimenti  on 
by  AnoMO-  in  1B3J,  but  they  have  r>ever  bee 

andii^ 


of  impure  copper  ar 


E.isrs5 


'rulifonia,  where  the 
fnrvA  It  rarely  applie. 


:ion,  operated  upon.    Thi 

fuiihed:  [hj  calcination, 

chlorinating  tk 
heiold. 


IH  metab,  exc^  fcJd 

9,  wnicn  are  unacted  upon  Ir^  cUorineifiL) 
■rid  lixiviatidc  the  product;  (iu.)  ptncipiratinf 

magneila  or  lend  which  may  be  prraent,  into 

-«iwi  i*n<,vralure  into  finely  dl<rided  metnllk 
rked  by  ^  cUorine^gaa.    The  high 


JP^I  _ 

v^tility  of  ^1d  in  the  pretence  of  certai 
coriudertd.  Aecordinf  to  bgletton  the  lott 
of  the  loltl  gold  p " 

pcrature  anddunt 


il,  dighlly 


pyrolualtb  lalt  a: 

lie  eenentor  beneath  ihefalie 

through  the  maitteDtdore,  which  rettt  on  t  bed  of  broken  qnana; 
the  gold  it  thut  converted  into  a  tohibie  chloride,  which  it  afterwnrda 
removed  by  waihing  with  water-  Both  Gaed  and  rotating  vatt  arc 
— iployed.  the  chlorination  proceeding  more  rapidly  in  the  latter 

iroduced  procenea  in  which  the  chlorine  it  generated  in  the 
... loridiiing  vat,  the  rcagenia  used  bsngdilutemlutioiu  of  bleaching 
powder  ard  an  acid-    Munklell'i  prweit  it  d  ihii  type.    In  the 


lYWOodei 


arAlt"llIeo 


S^^ter 


tulphate,  and  th 
Sa^Bkeri 


BxiraOitn  by  Utam  af  Aipuata  Sotulima.—UABy  pmctutt 
have  been  suggested  in  which  the  gotd  o(  auiiferoui  depositt  ii 
converled  ioto  product)  talubtc  in  water,  ftoin  which  toluliona 
the  gold  may  be  pieclpiuted.    01  tfacM  ptoceuci,  Cwg  only  an 


Sd'lb^eiMu'Cl  toeing  Unk^""™  "  "™*  "** 

After  tetlUng  the  lolution  it  run  into  the  precipitatini  tanka.  The 
pred)Htantt  in  ute  are:  ferroui  tulphate.  cWcoal  and  tulphiiTrtted 
hydrofen,  either  atone  or  mixed  with  sulphur  dioxide;  the  ute  of 
capper  and  iron  lulphidet  hat  been  tuggetud.  but  appaientiy  thetc 

1,1  (lie  r--r  r'  '-IT-  "1  eulphate,  prepared  by  ditiolving  iitm  in 

di-  reaction  lollowitheequalioaAuClil-JFeSO. 

I.    At  the  tame  lime  any  lead,  calcium, 

bf  HTtent  are  prerripitated  at  autphatei;  it  it 

th  to  remove  theie  metalt  by  the  prelimintTy 

w  'ilh  wooden  poJet,  and  the  ^ild  allowed  to 

ni  0  HEthoE  tanka.  wh^  a  further  amount 

ot  ind  il  then  filtered  through  tawdutt  oc 

H  !  alierwanii  burnt  and  the  gold  teraialtd 

ti. Mnd  treated  in  the  chkitiilinng  vnt.     The 

piedpilated  gold  it  washed,  (retted  with  tall  and  lulphuric  add 
to  remove  iron  salla.  rojshly  dried  by  pmung  in  clothi^Dr  on  filter 

cruciblei-    Thui  prepared  it  hat  a'  finenea  of  Sai>96o,  t&  chief 

Percy  advocated  it  in  1869,  and  Davit  tdopied  it  on  the  large  tciue 
U  a  workt  In  Carolina  in  iSto.    The  action  it  not  properly  under- 

&e.}  which  are  invariably  pretent  in  wood  chtmaL  The  procetn 
contittt  etteotially  in  runmng  the  tolution  over  layert  of  chamal. 
the  chamal  being  aftcrwardt  burned.  It  hat  been  fomd  that  tb* 
reaction  proccetit  taster  mbta  the  tolutitm  it  heated- 


Picclpiiuioii  vitb  fntplwr  diodde  vhI  lulphuitRH]  hjntnna 
procMH  iBvcb  more  npdly,  aai  hu  bem  adopted  »  nftny  unvlu. 
Sulphur  difuidc.  fmrntccf  by  bunung  luLphur  {■  forced  inlo  the 


Eydro«D.  obuliaed  by  trtaliiig  inui  lulphide  oi 
■1th  oUote  ■ulphurie  aai,  a  forced  in  wr^'" 
pndpiuicd  u  ihe  wIpUde,  lotelber  vilh  u 
copptr,  lilver  lad  lead  xfaich  suy  be  prcai 

m  oiUvctrd  ID  A  filter-pRH,  lod  Iben  nuH 

with  niETT^  borax  ud  BdiiuB  orfaoule.    The  ******—*  of 

4.  Cmk" 
of  ^ini 


Hie  Dteapiute 

■  oflheioIdH 

^retai. — Thii  pnjOHB  drpmdfl  Dpda  the  volubility 
_  .  .  .  _  lutf  ■alution  or  potuaium  cyanidE  id  (lie  preicnce 
■LT  (Dr«ofpcotbcroudixiii|BKenEJ,  and  tbenibeequenc  precipita- 
van  of  Ibe  pild  by  meulUc  line  or  by  elecIrolyiU.  The  •olubilily 
o(  «k)  In  cyuude  hIuILoiu  ou  koon  to  K.W.  Scbede  in  nit; 
■nd  M.  Fmraday  Applied  il  u  Uie  prepantioii  of  emremdy  thin 
Elisa  of  tbe  meul.  L  Ebaer  rccofDlied.  in  1846,  Che  pan  played 
by  ibt  aunHphere,  uid  in  1879  [)iiioAiiiowed  that  Meachinc  powder, 
—MM  af.  dioMde.aad  other  olidixiiwiieiitt,  facilitated  the  tblulion. 
S.  B.  Cbrixy  <rrau.  AJ.U£..  I«9«<  wL  16)  hai  •hown  that  Ibe 
■olutioD  a  hajtened  by  many  oudioog  uenti,  eapeciBUy  lodiuin  and 
*"f*"*—  dioulet  and  polatrium  mrkyamde-  According  tc 
G.  dodllDder  (Ztil.  /,  aafrv.  Oni.,  iB9«.  vol.  io)  the  late  of  lotu- 
t£oa  !■  potaHJutB  c>amde  depend*  ukmi  Ebc  tuhdivisoa  of  the^old 
— the  Saa  tbe  Hbdiviiian  the  quicker  the  •slulion.^nd  oa  tbt 

la  0>>5%  of  c^qide.  and  reniairuD;  laiiTy  alationary  with 

1—  '»~vimtl0ll-     TTie  aclion  proceeib  in  two  itaRS;  in 

,-_,^ll  ptroude  and  polaiaiuin  ■umrvanirfp  ■»  Innnnl. 

and  in  tbe  iccoiid  tbe  hydiweii  penndde  oi 


If^™?" 


of  eold  aod  poCaiiiuni cyani^  loaumcyaDide,  lhu>  (I)  2Au4-4KCM 
■«4ilU)-!KAu(CN},-MKOH+Hrf),:W)ZAu4-4KCN+2HA- 


aKAB(cSi+iKOrt.  tfceiid™ni™'niiybiwri[ica4 
2>W+0t-«KAu(CN),+4K0H. 

Tbe  csnunmaal  praceo  *a>  patented  In  1890  by  MacAitliur  and 
Fomit.  and  ■•  an  in  ok  all  over  the  world.  It  i>  bnt  adapted  lor 
frewBillint  ors.  e^iecially  alter  tbe  bulk  of  ihe  (old  hai  &*n  ic- 

TrawaaL  la  tlu*WiHterHaod  Ibe  ORTwh^h  conUiiu  abaul 
9  dvta.  of  told  la  Ihe  metric  ton  (idoo  lb),  i>  ilamped  and  amiltam- 
aled.  and  Ike  iGmea  and  IailinE*.ontaimii(  about  jl  dwu,  per  ton, 
are  cyaaiitcd,  about  2  dwts,  more  beiog  thut  extracted.  The  total 
coat  pertoaof  ore  treated  i«  about  0*.,  of  which  the  cyaniding  coate 

The  procoa  embrxccfl  three  operalicnu:  (t)  Solution  of  lbe|pld; 
(jlprcciprlation  of  the  gold ;  (^)  Ireatment  of  Ihe  preriplEate. 

vata,  whuan  CAUtmeted  d  vood,  iroa  or  maaonry:  ateel  vata. 
coated  ioWSeand  a«it  with  pitch,  of  circular  aectioa  andholdinE  up  to 
1000  tana,  have  eoaie  into  uae.  Tbe  diameter  li  tenerally  36  li.,  but 
B>ay  be  fieaier;  tbe  ben  depth  ia  coiuidefcd  to  be  a  quarter  of  Ihe 
diameln.  Tbe  vati  are  fitted  with  Slteri  made  of  cocd-bui  natlint 
and  jute  cloth  upponed  m  voddea  fiamea.  Tbe  leaching  ia  gencr- 
ally  carried  «il  with  a  atiiHif ,  aiedjug,  aad  iritb  a  weak  liquor,  in  the 
order  given:  loaetiiiica  there  la  a  prelinlaary  leaching  with  a  weak 
Irengtba  employed  depend  alio  upon  the  node  of 


(o  the  decii-olyaiAg  I 


:ii,S 


ik>,andthe 
of  Ihe  vat  I 


kacbed  n  n  i^momi  ^  nnni"^  doon  i'^the' kI 

for  fine  nnda,  and  up  Io  14  daya  For  coane  landi:  th 
cyanide  pertonof  laJjinBi  variei  troino-l6loo-ia  lb.  Ei 
piecipitation,  and  o-^  to  for  zinc  predpitalion. 

The  pred^tation  u  elVecIed  by  line  in  Ihe  form  of  hright  tumingt. 

prvcipilation  with  line  f  ollowaequaliona  lor  3  acDOcding  aapotaaiium 

(1)  4KAu(CN),+4Zii+2H/)-aZn(CN),+ 

lWn(cff).+Zn(0K)i+*H+4Au: 
(j)  aKAii(CN)i+JZn-HKCN+iH,0- 

3K.Zn(CN),+Zn(OK],+4H+3Aui 
OAe  part  ol  one  pr«dp<latini3'l  part*  of  gold  in  Ihe  firtl  caae.  and 
3-06  in  the  iecDiid.  It  may  be  noticed  that  Ihe  poUuiuni  linc 
cyvide  ia  oaeleaa  in  gold  catiaclion,  for  it  neither  diaaolvca  gold  nor 
caDpotaHUn  cyanide  be  lefeaerated  From  it. 

Th  preeipitaung  boiet.  generally  made  of  wood  but  ■ometimea  of 
ateel.aBd  let  on  an  incline,  art  divided  by  partitionaintoaltcmateHr 
wide  and  namjw  conpanmenta.  B  that  the  liquor  travel!  upward! 
in  it*  pawop  lbim|h  (he  wide  diviiiom  and  downward!  through  Ihe 

TV  gold  and  other  metaliate  preripilated  on  the  under  turf acea  of 
ibe  iwmincaand  fall  lathe  boliam  of  the  omipartmem  aa  a  black 
dimb    Tbe  bUidt  ia  cktaed  mil  lorudchtiy  se  momhly,  the  atac  . 


LU  199 

lurnlw  bring  ckaned  by  ruhbing  and  tbe  aupetnaUBI  liquor 

The  ilioie  to  ohuioed  connau  cf  Enely  divided  gold  and  tilver 
{J-iO%),  ainc  (JO-60%},  lead  (10%),  carbon  (lO'AT.  loieltaer  with 
tin,  copper,  aniimonv,  anenk  and  other  impuiilica  of  ibe  line  and 
oret.  After  well  wathing  with  water,  the  tlimea  are  rougblydried  in 
bag-filten  or  Bliei-preaaex,  and  then  treated  with  dilute  Hdphuric 
acid,  the  Bolution  beisE  healed  by  Heam.  Thii  diitolvei  out  Ihe 
ainc.  Lime  ia  added  10  bring  down  the  gold,  and  Ibe  aediment.  alter 
waahinf  and  drying,  ii  fuird  in  graphite  crudUea. 

J.  Ehdril-itii  T'nKuiii.— Tbe  elacuolytic  tepamtiao  of  tbe  goM 
from  cyanide  lolutioot  waa  fint  practiied  in  the  Ttana«aaL  Tbe 
proceia.  aa  elaboiaied  by  Uetara.  Siemena  and  Hakke.  aaeatially 


ihgold.helag 
■a  are  that  Ibe 


anodea,  and  lead  cathodet,  Ibe  latter,  when  coated  arilh  go 

luted  and  cupelled.    Itiadvaniagaovertheaincpracaaan. 

depouted  gold  ia  purer  and  mon  readily  extiaelRl,  and  that  an 

aolutiooa  can  be  employed,  thereby  elVecting  an  economy  in  cyanide. 
In  the  proeei.  empk^al  the  Worceiter  Workt  in  the  Tiantvaal, 
the  Uquora.  containing  about  igo  graina  of  gold  per  [on  and  from 
(Kig  to  o-ol  %  of  cyanide,  art  Inaled  in  rectangular  vatt  in  which  it 
placed  a  tenet  ol  iron  and  leaden  plalea  at  inlervalt  oi  I  in.  The 
eilbodet,  which  are  iheeti  ol  thin  lad  foil  wdghing  II  Ih  Io  the 
tq.  yiL.  are  removed  monthly.  Ibeir  gold  conlenl  bdng  fmn  0-5  to 
10%,  and  after  fokling  are  melted  in  tcvnbcratory  funiacea  to 
ingotacantaimBiaiof^olfold.  CDpellalionbringauptbegoldto 
about 900 fine.  Hany vaiiationaDllheelectrolyiicpniceiaaaabove 
outlined  have  been  tuggetted.    S.  Cowper  fTohi  faaa  tugiealtd 

ind  aoodeacf  lead  coated  arilh  lead  peroxide,  the  go"  ' 


molleii 


in  the 


Pelaun^Tetici  proctaa  th 
(«al.obe)ow). 

Kifinmi  er  Farli»t  tf  Cold.— Gold  it  UrnaM  alw).^  lilvei- 
bearing,  and  it  may  be  alto  noticed  that  lilver  generally  ccntainl 
some  gold.  Consequently  tbe  icpamlioE  of  Iheie  two  metab  11 
one  of  tbe  moat  Importanl  metallurgical  proceuca..  In  addition 
to  Ibe  leparaiioD  o[  ibe  alver  the  c^ieiatiOD  extend*  to'ihe 
elitninajioa  of  the  la»  uacej  oF  lead,  tin,  anenic,  ttc.  which 
ht   .  r'  '  '  id  the  preceding  cupellatioit. 

r  I  rtlng  "  of  goU  and  lilvei  ia  at  con^denbte  aniiquity. 
T   I    " :      Q  lUtet  that  in  hia  time  a  proceia  waa  employed  for  re. 

Bt I   ^rifying  gold  in  large  quaotftiet  by  ecmenlLn*  or  burning 

it  ■  ■  Juminouaearth.which.hydMlnjyingtheailver,  left  the 
gcMi'i  '  ite  of  purity.  Pliny  ahowt  that  for  tlui  purpoK  the  gold 
wj<  I  i .  .on  the  fire  In  an  earthen  veaari  with  treble  iit  weighl  of 
irdt  again  expoaed  to  the  fire  with  two 

oftlMai 


part!  of  tail  and  one  ol  argitlj 

moiiture,  effected  the  decomp. 

tilver  became  converted  into  cbloridi 
The  methodt  of  parting  can  he  di 

'metlioda.    Id  Ihe  "dry  "method! 


electnlyiic  nwtliodt.    lDlhe"< 
into  tulphide  m  chloride,  the 


of  the  fa 


Ihe  gold  remaining  unaltered:  ii 
ia  ditiolved  by  nitric  acid  or  b 
cctrolytic  proceatea  advantage  ia  1 
in  current  denilllet  and  other  di 


F.  B.  MillerVchlorlDe  proceia  it  ol  any  importance.  Ait  method,  aiid 
the  vet  proceaa  of  rtftnlng  by  tvlphuric  acid,  together  aith  iho 
electrolytic  proceia.  being  tlie  only  onet  now  practiied. 

The  convenion  of  tilver  into  tbe  tolphlde  may  be  rilcctcd  by 
beating  with  antimony  aulplude.lilhaiie  and  lulphui.  pycilei.  or  with 
tulpbur  alone.  Tlia  antimony,  or  Ckii  and  Hun.  method  wai 
rnctiicd  up  tin  1846  at  the  Dretden  mint:  it  it  only  applicable  10 


H  of  a  gold^aii 


Rthan50%ofgold.    Theli 


removed  by  an  oxididng  fution  with  nitre.  The  ivlcjiur  and 
lithai^.  or  ryanmclkRU.  pnceit  vat  uied  to  concentnte  the 
gold  ID  an  alloy  in  order  to  mahe  it  amenable  to  "  quartation."  or 
porting  with  nitric  acid.  Futioii  with  tulphur  vii  uicd  for  Ihe  tame 
puipote  ai  [he  Pfannentchmied  pcoceit.  ll  *aa  employed  io  1797 
at  Ihe  St  Pclenburg  mint. 

The  cwiveiaion  rf  Ibe  lilver  Imo  Ibe  ehkiride  may  be  effected  by 
meant  of  tall— the  "cemematioa  ''praceia— or  other  chloridea,  or 
hy  free  chlorine — Miller't  procew.  llieiirat  procettconiiiiieHeDti- 
ally  in  beating  Ihe  alloy  with  lalt  and  brickduit:  the  Unci  abuirha 
the  chloride  formed,  while  ihenild  la  recovered  by  waihing.  It  it  00 
longer  employed.  Theiecond  pmcetadefendiuponilie^ct  tbal.if 
chlcaine  be  led  into  Ihe  molieo  alloy,  the  baie  meialiand  the  lilver 
are  convened  inio  chlondea.  It  waa  pfopowd  in  1838  by  Lewit 
ThoRipKjn.  but  n  vai  only  applied  commercially  after  MQIer't  im- 
ptDveRienti  in  1U7,  when  It  wat  adopted  at  thi  Sydney  mint.  Sir 
W.  C.  Roberla-Aunen  Iniioduccd  il  at  the  London  mint:  and  it  haa 
alio  been  uied  at  Pieioria.  It  il  ctpedally  aultaUe  to  gold  containiiw 
1...1.  -M J  I. ._    _  diaracter  tl  Auatialian  pild— but  fi 


yieldil 


the  lulpburic  add  and  electrolytic  methodt  in  point  id 


GOLD  AND  SILVER  THREAD 

a  in  (Ik  wet  ny  nu/ be  rSattd 


nof  tulphuri 

Faniog  by  "iUic  Kid  iiof  anadefablc  »ntiquity,  bring  mcntianRl 
by  ALbcrtiu  M>giuu  (13th  an(-),  DirinEucdo  [1540)  lad  Agricola 
(1556)-  I1  a  DOW  rarvly  pnctiiedt  although  in  nme  retinena  both 
the  PItnc  acid  and  the  Hltphuric  mcid  ptoccmm  uc  mmbined,  the 
alloy  JHog  fint  treated  with  oitnc  add-  It  lunl  to  be  called  "  quir- 
tatioD  "  or  "  inquartation."  from  (he  liict  that  ilie  alloy  beit  aullnl 
for  the  opentloD  of  refiniiw  coataioed  3  pans  at  lilver  to  1  of  pild. 
The  opoitKHi  nay  be  cDnductcd  in  veveU  of  (laia  or  plarinuDit  and 
each  poond  of  grannlated  metal  it  treated  with  ■  pounrfand  a  quarter 
€f  ni(iic  add  of  apecific  gravity  1'3}.  The  pvthod  ii  lociietiDira 
cnpttwed  in  On  uia.y  id  gM. 

Refining  bv  BUlphurie  acid»  Che  proccaa  osually  adopted  for 
•enai*ting  jE«d  from  tDver,  wu  6rH  employed  on  the  large  leale  by 
d'Aitet  In  ruii  la  itejiand  waa  introduced  into  tbe  Mint  nfinoy, 
'  '  I.  by  Malhin  in  1819.  It  it  bued  upon  the  iacu  that  enn- 
cd  hot  lulphiiric  acid  convetta  (ilvcr  ud  copper  into  uluble 
M  irithoal  attacking  tbi  gold,  Ibe  lilver  aiilphate  bebif 
iieMly  reduced  to  tba  metallK  itaU  by  copper  platea  with  the 
Idii  at  copper  nilphate.    It  i>  applicable  to  aay  alloy,  and  ia 


Buba«]uejit]y .««»..  » .—  «- 

fonatiofi  oc  copper  eulphate.     -.  — „ j  — j- 

the  beet  netbod  U*  partins  gold  with  the  eiEeptlaa  ol  tlie  dectro- 

Tbc  procen  embnc«  four  operation!:  (1)  tbe  preparattoo  of  an 
alloy  uitable  for  parting;  (1)  the  tiea(aKnt  with  lulpbuiic  add! 
(3)  the  ticatmeat  oi  the  reiidue  for  gold  1  (4>  t>K  tteatmeiit  of  tbe 
ioliitioa  for  lUver, 

It  it  iieceeaary  to  ninove  ai  oinipletety  a*  ponible  any  lead,  tin, 
Intmulh,  antimony,  arteoic  and  tellurium,  impurltiet  whicb  Impair 
the  propertiet  ol  gold  and  nivcr,  by  an  oiididng  fuiioa,  t^.  with 
nitie.  Over  id%  of  copper  mahet  tbe  partiag  ^fficull:  conie- 
queatly  in  tuch  alloya  the  percentage  of  copper  it  diminiibed  by  the 
addition  oil  bIv«  free  Innn  coppeTt  or  ebe  the  copper  it  mnrea  by  a 
chemtcal  proceia.  Other  uadeiinble  imputitiei  an  the  platinum 
metak,  qiccia]  lieatment  bein^  aeccoary  when  these  subetancea  are 
preaent-  Tbe  alloyi  after  tbe  preliminary  R&ning,  ia  granulated  by 
being  poured,*ivhUe  molten,  in  a  chin  atream  into  cold  water  whidi  is 
kept  well  agitated. 

The  aCMi  treatment  it  generally  carried  out  in  cast  mai  pots; 
platinam  vetaelsutcd  to  beemployed,  while  porcelain  vessela  are  only 
lued  for  mall  dpetationi,  M,  for  charges  or  t9q  to  sj^oz.  asalOker 
Id  (he  Han.  Tbe  pott,  which  are  usually  cyhndrical  with  a  hemi- 
•pherlcalbonnin,oiavboldasniuchas  13.001  "  ly. 

Theyue  prondcd  with  Gde,  made  dther  of  le^  th 

teid.<rfiichhaveDpeaincitoeerv(forihein  oy 

•ndadd.and  ■         ■     ■    -  . 


bulUon  it  treated  in 


by  the  abaen 
allowed  toco 

which  ai 


EC  ol  any  faisung.    Geneially  t 
ol,  and  the  residue,  which  lettli 

rfnM  tecolw  with  Bopper,  \t 

ic  inolnUe  in  tuont  tidpbunc  aciti ;  >ilvcr  ., 
inte  K  pment  In  aidicient  qnantity  and  the 

Jy  coded.    The  tolution  it  removed  hy  ladles  01 

nod  tbe  midiie  it  leached  out  with  boiling  water:  this 
nilphalei.  A  certain  amouM  oi  nlverisitilipmentaii 
loM.  Pettenkoler,  it  it  imponiUe  to  remove  all  the  hIv 
of  tnlphiiric  acid.  Several  uethodt  are  in  uie  for  n 
diver.  Fniioawithanallialinebiiulphuecoaverttthei 
aulphate,  wUch  ouy  be  extracted  by  bnling  with  tulphi 
then  with  water.  Another  pncett  coniiui  in  trratini  1 
theceiidiwwith  one-quarter  of  iu  weight  of  calcined 
with  talphiHic  acid,  the  leudue  being  finally  boil 

qiiantlly  ol  add.  O--"-  -"  -  --  -*■ — '—- ■  ■ 

filtcKdtrom  the  in 


TbeiOveT 
bollngiim 
direetl^  ptei 


mlhalarge 

chioride,  and  the  gold  prcdpitaled 

ilpburic  acid 


he  aolutioD  obt^ned  b  thi 
kvriety  of  procettet.    The 

edpitated  with  copper,  the  co 

rr-  lulphatei  and  tbe  silver  lepa 

"  cement  lilver-"  Or  the  (ilvcr  sulphate  1 
adotion  by  cooiing  and  dilution,  and  (ben 
tbc  inteiactioB  band  accompanird  with  1 
beat.    Ot  Cutikow^  method  of ; 


iy%i^4r»ed'fronitIie 
ontidnbll^volut^ll^i 


lumee — or  tnetuipnuncaciopmcfiB.  Oar 
(act  that,  with  a  tnitable  current  density, 

siivetcathode.  the  lilver  of  the  anode  iid 
i[  tbe  cathode,  the  gold  remaining  at  the  1 
free  from  gold,  and  the  gold  after  boiling 


i{7^  di^  sd^on  a 


«uu,u  uHv/i-i;  kuc  ^wnj,  ut,«  is  Ht  Buiutile  foT  refiniog.  becauae  Dtbvr 
mdali  (silver,  capper.  Ac)  passing  irith  gold  into  the  aololion  wouU 
Irpoiit  with  it.  Bock,  however,  in  iSSo  (Strr-  «nd  kMamMmitiikt 
Znlimj.  1860,  p.  «i  r)  deicribed  nprocen  used  at  tba  North  Geraan 
Rehnrry  in  liambuK  lor  the  reining  of  fold  coataining  nlalianei 
nth  a  small  proportion  of  liivfr,  Icoo  or  bunuth,  and  a  nmscmi^it 
palrnt  specilfatian  (1896)  and  a  paoer  by  WoUwiU  iZitti./.iUk- 
'^Khem.,  EA9S,  pp-  379,  40a,  4^0  have  thrown  mere  light  up«x 
iheprocess-  Theelectrolyle  isndchloride  {]-^«  pailsof  puregeid 
yer  too  of  solutian]  mixed  inth  from  a  to  AVc'  iIk  slxojyet 
aydmchloric  acid  to  muier  liie  gold  anodes  readily  soluble,  whidk 
:fiey  are  ik>1  in  the  neutral  cblonde  solution-  The  bath  is  used  U 
^3*  to  70*  C  (130*10  ijS^  F-),  and  if  free  cldorine  be  evolved^  which 
■  knnwn  aT  nn,-*  hv  {la  mmgcnt  sokII,  tfac  lempcaturc  Ib  Tailed,  Of 

— —  -t 'ubiliiy  ol  the  gold.    The  bath 

ampfces  pi «-  -.  .  — J- 


moit  acul  is  added,  to  pionaati 
is  uied  with  a  current-dcnsty  of 
(or  higher],  with  electrodes  abont 

(be  anode  metals  pam  Into  aolutL. — r- 

fractory  metala  of  that  group,  which  remain  as  metala,  and  lilv 
which  b  convened  intolnsoliible  diloride:  lead  and  biimuth  lo 
chloride  and  oxychlorlde  respectively,  and  theae  diiaolve  until  l — 
bath  la  latutated  with  them,  and  then  predpilate  with  tbe  iilwr  in 
the  tank.    But  if  die  gnld-ttrength  ol  tbe  bath  be  mail     ' 
gold  it  depoaited  at  the  catbode—ln  ■  loose  powdery  CO 
puR  loliitioni,  bat  in  a  mooth  detachable  depoiit  I 
Fiiiuon.    Under  gndcondUiont  the  gold  di     " 
the  pure metaL    The  tanklaolpaicdainor 
electrodea  for  impure  njlullons  nre  )  in.  np 

encent  liie  temdnah  of  tbe  bathit  I  volt. , 

bang  employed,  the  turamver  of  gcM  it  rapld^vn  etteoi 
of  succeu  when  the  cottlineit  of  the  metal  it  taken  intc 

Platinum  and  palladium  diitolved  from  tbe  anode  act 
solution,  and  are  removed  at  intervale  rif,  tay,  a  I 

contain  more  rhan  5%  ol  pallariium,  or  aomo  of  this  m 

'he  metalluTgy  of  gdd  are  the 


is  especially  treated  by  \ 
0/  CoU,  which  pays  pi 
methcHls;  Alfred  James. 
Ed^r  Sraart,  Cyonijliiig^ 


I-  Eisiler-    The  cyanide  procest 

rmiil.  Pnwu/gr  lit  ExtnOum 

e  Witwatemnd 


CyanUt  Praaia;  H.  Foiin  juliac.  . 
..  JoU  and  -^ibir  Oris.  Gold  milling  it  tret 
mdboBiafGcU  UiiliMf;  C.  G.  Watnford  U 


ind  Siifrr  Orel.  Gold  milUng  it  treated 
~  -  ■■■    ^       -     :k, 

(iqoS)!  J.H.  C^,  cHiu'l^^^  ^HMdt  Alri^:  F-  M-  liatch 
and  1-  A-  Chalmers.  CM  ltiistsi^O«  Kand;  5-  ]-  Tmscott.H'ifnlirs- 
ntidCaUfitldi  Banka  aid  Ifinine  PraiHa;  Australasia:  O.  Cb^ 
Auilmliai  Umni  aiul  UBalturn;  Karl  Scbmcisaer,  CiilMMi  al 
AtOmlasia:  A.  G.  ChaHrton,  CM  Uinnranil  MiUnria  ICuCcnl 
•iajb-aJia;  India:  F.  H.  Hatch,  7b  iTiilor  C^/'icM. 

HOLD  AHD  SILVER  THREAD.  Under  thii  heading  tome 
general  account  may  be  given  of  gold  and  ulver  itiipa,  threada 
and  ^mp  used  in  comieiion  with  vaiiclict  of  weaving,  erahroideTy 
and  twisting  and  piajling  or  Lace  work-  To  this  day,  in  many 
oriental  centres  where  it  sccmt  thai  early  Iratlitioni  of  tbe 
knowledge  and  the  use  ol  fabiics  wholly  or  partly  woven,  onia. 
mented.  and  embroidered  with  gold  and  nivTr  bavc  been  main- 
tained, tbe  passion  for  such  biiUiuiI  and  coMly  lotilti  ii  Mill 
■tiong  and  prevalent.  One  of  the  earliest  mcDtiotis  of  the  UM 
of  gold  in  a  woven  fabric  occurs  In  the  deacrlplion  of  the  tpbod 
made  tot  Aaron  (Emd.  inii.  j,  3),  "  And.  be  made  (he  epbod 
of  gold,  blue,  and  purple,  and  scarlet,  and  fine  twined  lineo. 
And  they  did  beat  the  gold  into  thin  [ilatea.  and  cut  it  into  wire* 
(strips),  to  work  it  in  the  blue,  and  in  the  purple,  and  in  the 
scarlet,  and  in  the  fine  linen,  with  cunning  work."  This  ia 
luggmive  of  early  Syrian  or  AraKc  izi-daming  or  weaving  with 
gold  lUipa  ot  tinsel  In  both  the  Iliad  and  tbe  Odyiity  alludon 
it  fiequently  made  to  inwoven  and  embroidered  golden  textiTea. 
Amyiian  sculpture  gives  an  daboratdy  designed  omameiu  upon 
Ifat  nbe  of  Sing  Assur-nasir-pal  (SS4  i.e.)  which  was  probably 
'of  gold  and  coloured  threads,  and  tcatlfies 
tinsununale  skill  of  As^rian  or  Babyloman  workers 
date.  From  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  wcaven  Lbe 
ngPer^anaof  the  time  ol  Darius  derived  their  cdebrity 
oa  and  uten  of  splendid  HuSi.     Roodoliu  describe* 


GOLDAST 


201 


the  corsdet  given  by  Amasis  king  of  Egypt  to  the  Minerva  of 
Lindus  and  how  it  was  inwoven  or  embroidered  with  gold.  Darius, 
we  are  told,  wore  a  war  mantle  on  which  were  figured  (probably 
inwoven)  two  golden  hawks  as  if  pecking  at  each  other.  Alex> 
ander  the  Great  is  said  to  have  found  Eastern  kings  and  princes 
arrayed  in  robes  of  gold  and  purple.  More  than  two  hundred, 
years  later  than  Alexander  the  Great  was  the  king  of  Pergamos 
(the  third  bearing  the  name  Attaius)  who  gave  much  attention 
to  working  in  metals  and  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  as  having 
invented  weaving  with  gold,  hence  the  historic  Attalic  cloths. 
There  are  several  references  in  Roman  writings  to  costumes 
and  stuffs  woven  and  embroidered  with  gold  threads  and  the 
Graeco-Roman  ckryso-pkryiiutn  and  the  Roman  auri-phryiium 
are  evidences  not  only  of  Roman  work  with  gold  threads  but 
also  of  its  indebtedness  to  Phrygian  sources.  The  famous 
tunics  of  Agripplna  and  those  of  Hcliogabalus  are  said  to  have 
been  of  tissues  made  entirely  with  gold  threads,  whereas  the 
robes  which  Marcus  Aurelius  found  in  the  treasury  of  Hadrian, 
as  well  as  the  costumes  sold  at  the  dispersal  of  the  wardrobe 
of  Commodus,  were  different  in  character,  being  of  fine  linen 
and  possibly  even  of  silken  stuffs  inwoven  or  embroidered  with 
gold  threads.  The  same  description  is  perhaps  correct  of  the 
reputedly  splendid  hangings  with  which  King  Dagobert  decorated 
the  eariy  medieval  oratory  of  St  Denis.  Reference  to  these 
and  many  such  stuffs  is  made  by  the  respectively  contemporary 
or  almost  contemporary  writers;  and  a  very  full  and  interesting 
work  by  Monsieur  Francisque  Michel  (Paris,  185a)  is  still  a 
standard  book  for  consultation  in  respect  of  the  history  ci  silk, 
gold  and  silver  stuffs. 

From  indications  such  as  these,  as  well  as  those  of  later  date, 
one  sees  broadly  that  the  art  of  weaving  and  embroidering  with 
gold  and  silver  threads  passed  from  one  great  city  to  another, 
travelling  as  a  rule  westward.  Babylon,  Tarsus,  Bagdad, 
Damascus,  the  islands  of  Cyprus  and  Sicily,  Constantinople, 
Venice  and  southern  Spain  appear  successively  in  the  process 
of  time  as  famous  centres  of  these  much-prized  manufactures. 
During  the  middle  ages  European  royal  personages  and  high 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries  used  cloth  and  tissues  of  gold  and  silver 
for  their  state  and  ceremonial  robes,  as  well  as  for  costly  hangings 
and  deowation;  and  various  names — cidatoun,  tartarium, 
naques  or  nac,  baudekln  or  baldachin  (Bagdad)  and  tissue — were 
applied  to  textiles  in  the  making  of  which  gold  threads  were 
almost  always  introduced  in  combination  with  others.  The 
thin  flimsy  paper  known  as  tissue  paper  is  so  called  because  It 
originally  was  placed  between  the  folds  oT  gold  "  tissue  "  (or 
weaving)  to  prevent  the  contiguous  surfaces  from  fraying  each 
other.  Under  the  articles  dealing  with  carpets,  embroidery, 
lace  and  tapestry  will  be  found  notices  of  the  occasional  use  in 
such  productions  of  gold  and  silver  threads.  Of  early  date  in 
the  bittory  of  European  weaving  are  rich  stuffs  produced  in 
Southern  Spain  by  Moors,  u  well  as  by  Saracenic  and  Byzantine 
wca^vs  at  Palermo  and  Constantinople  in  the  12th  century, 
an  which  metallic  threads  were  freely  used.  Equally  esteemed 
at  about  the  same  period  were  corresponding  stuffs  made  in 
Cyprus,  whilst  for  centuries  later  the  merchants  in  such  fabrics 
eaigeriy  sought  for  and  traded  in  Cyprus  gold  and  silver  threads. 
Later  the  actual  manufacture  of  them  was  not  confined  to  Cyprus, 
but  was  also  carried  on  by*  Italian  thread  and  trimming  makers 
from  the  X4th  century  onwards.  For  the  most  part  the  gold 
threads  referred  to  were  of  silver  gilt.  In  rare  instances  of 
middle-age  Moorish  or  Arabian  fabrics  the  gold  threads  are 
made  with  strips  of  parchment  or  paper  gilt  and  still  rarer  are 
instances  of  the  use  of  real  gold  wire. 

In  India  the  prepjuation  of  varieties  of  gold  and  silver  threads 
is  an  ancient  and  important  art.  The  "  gold  wire  '*  of  the 
maonfactttrer  has  been  and  is  as  a  rule  silver  wire  gilt,  the  silver 
wire  being,  of  course,  composed  of  pure  silver.  The  wire  is 
drawn  by  means  of  simple  draw-plates,  with  rude  and  simple 
arplianrif,  from  rounded  bars  of  silver,  or  gold-plated  silver,  as 
the  case  may  be.  The  wire  is  flattened  into  strip,  tinsel 
or  ribbon-like  form,  by  passing  fourteen  or  fifteen  strands 
timultancousty,  over  a  fine,  smooth,  round-topped  anvil  and 


beating  each  as  it  passes  with  a  heavy  hammer  having  a  slightly 
convex  surface.  Such  strips  or  tinsel  of  wire  so  flattened  are 
woven  into  Indian  soniri,  tissue  or  cloth  of  gold,  the  web  or  warp 
being  composed  entirely  of  golden  strips,  and  ruperi,  similar  tissue 
of  silver.  Other  gold  and  silver  threads  suitable  for  use  in 
embroidery,  pillow  and  needlepoint  lace  making,  &c.,  consist  of 
fine  strips  of  flattened  wire  wound  round  cores  of  orange  (in  the 
case  of  silver,  white)  silk  thread  so  as  to  completely  cover  them. 
Wires  flattened  or  partially  flattened  are  also  twisted  into 
exceedingly  fine  spirals  and  much  used  for  heavy  embroideries. 
Spangles  for  embroideries,  &c.,  are  made  from  spirals  of  compara- 
tively stout  wire,  by  cutting  them  down  ring  by  ring,  laying  each 
C-like  ring  on  an  anvil,  and  by  a  smart  blow  with  a  hammer 
flattening  it  out  into  a  thin  round  disk  with  a  slit  extending 
from  the  centre  to  one  edge.  The  demand  for  many  kinds  of 
loom-woven  and  embroidered  gold  and  silver  work  in  India  is 
immense,  arid  the  variety  of  textiles  so  ornamented  is  also  very 
great,  chief  amongst  which  are  the  golden  or  silvery  tinsel 
fabrics  known  as  kincoba. 

Amongst  Western  communities  the  demand  for  gold  and 
silver  embroideries  and  braid  lace  now  exists  chiefly  in  connexion 
with  naval,  military  and  other  uniforms,  nfasonic  insignia, 
court  costumes,  public  and  private  liveries,  ecclesiastical  robes 
and  draperies,  theatrical  dresses,  &c. 

The  proportions  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  gold  thread  for  the 
woven  braid  lace  or  ribbon  trade  varies,  but  in  all  cases  the 
proportion  of  gold  is  exceedingly  small.  An  ordinary  gold  braid 
wire  is  drawn  from  a  bar  containing  90  parts  of  silver  and  7 
of  copper,  and  plated  with  3  of  gold.  On  an  average  each  ounce 
troy  of  a  bar  so  plated  is  drawn  into  1500  yds.  of  wire;  and  there- 
fore about  16  grains  of  gold  cover  i  m.  of  wire.  (A.  S.  C.) 

OOLOAST  AB  HAIHINSFBLD,  HELCHIOR  (1576-1635), 
Swiss  writer,  an  industrious  though  uncritical  collector  of 
documents  relating  to  the  medieval  history  and  Constitution  of 
Germany,  was  born  on  the  6th  of  January  1576  (some  say  1578), 
of  poor  Protestant  parents,  near  Bischofszell,  in  the  Swiss  Canton 
of  Thurgau.  His  university  career,  first  at  Ingolstadt  (1585- 
1586),  then  at  Altdorf  near  Nuremberg  (1597*1598),  was  cut  short 
by  his  poverty,  from  which  he  suffered  all  his  life,  and  which 
was  the  main  cause  of  his  wanderings.  In  1598  he  found  a  rich 
protector  in  the  person  of  Bartholomaeus  Schobinger,  of  St 
Gall,  by  whose  liberality  he  was  enabled  to  study  at  St  Gall 
(where  he  first  became  interested  in  medieval  documents,  which 
abound  in  the  conventual  library)  and  elsewhere  in  Switzerland. 
Before  his  patron's  death  (1604)  he  became  (1603)  secretary  to 
Henry,  duke  df  Bouillon,  with  whom  he  went  to  Heidelberg  and 
Frankfort.  But  in  1604  he  entered  the  service  of  the. Baron  von 
Hohensax,  then  the  possessor  of  the  precious  MS.  volume  of  old 
German  poems,  returned  from  Paris  to  Heidelberg  in  1888,  and, 
partially  published  by  Coldast.  Soon  he  was  back  in  Switzerland, 
and  by  1606  in  Frankfort,  earning  his  living  by  preparing  and 
correcting  books  for  the  press.  In  1611'  he  was  appointed 
councillor  at  the  court  of  Saxe- Weimar,  and  in  161 5  he  entered 
the  service  of  the  count  of  Schaumburg  at  Biickebuig.  In  1624 
he  was  forced  by  the  war  to  retire  to  Bremen;  there  in  1625  he 
deposited  his  library  in  that  of  the'town  (his  books  were  bought 
by  the  town  in  1646,  but  many  of  his  MSS.  passed  to  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden,  and  hence  are  now  in  the  Vatican  library), 
he  himself  returning  to  Frankfort.  In  2627  he  became  councillor 
to  the  emperor  and  to  the  archbishop-elector  of  Treves,  and  in 
1633  passed  to  the  service  of  the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt. 
He  died  at  Giessen  early  in  1635. 

His  immense  industry  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  his  biographer, 
Senckenburgf  gives  a  list  of  65  works  published  or  written  by 
him,  some  extending  to  several  substantial  volumes.  Among  the 
more  important  are  his  Faraeneticorum  veterum  pars  i.  (1604), 
which  contained  the  old  German  tales  of  Kunig  Tyrol  von  SckoUen^ 
the  Winsbekt  and  the  Winsbekin;  Suevicarum  rerum  scriptores 
(Frankfort,  1605,  new  edition,  1727);  RcrUm  Alamannkarum 
scriptores  (FrankJfort,  1606,  new  edition  by  Senckenburg,  1730); 
ConstUtUiones  imperiaks  (Frankfort,  1607-1613,  4  vols.);  Mon- 
arckia  t.  Romqni  imperii  (Hanover  and  Frankfort,  1612-1614, 


202 


GOLDBEATING— GOLDBERG 


3  vols.);  CommerUarii  de  regni  Bohemiae  juribus  (Frankfort, 
1627,  new  edition  by  Schmink,  1 7 1 9) .  He  also  edited  De  Thou 's 
History  (1609-1610)  and  Willibald  Pirckheimer's  works  (1610). 
In  1688  a  volume  of  letters  addressed  to  him  by  his  learned 
friends  was  published. 

Life  by  Senckcnburg.  prefixed  to  his  1730  work.  See  also  R.  von 
Raumcr's  CeuhichU  d.  germaniscken  PhUUotte  (Munich,  1870). 

(W.  A.  B.  C.) 

GOLDBEATING.— The  art  of  goldbeating  is  of  great  antiquity, 
being  referred  to  by  Homer;  and  Pliny  (N.H.  33.  19)  states 
that  I  oz.  of  gold  was  extended  to  750  fcavcs,  each  leaf  being 
four  fingers  (about  3  in.)  square;  such  a  leaf  is  three  times 
as  thick  as  the  ordinary  leaf  gold  of  the  present  time.  In  all 
probability  the  art  originated  among  the  Eastern  nations,  where 
the  working  of  gold  and  the  use  of  gold  ornaments  have  been 
distinguishing  characteristics  from  the  most  remote  periods. 
On  Egyptian  mummy  cases  specimens  of  original  leaf-gilding 
are  met  with,  where  the  gold  is  so  thin  that  it  resembles  modem 
gilding  (9.V.).  The  minimum-  thickness  to  which  gold  can  be 
beaten  is  not  known  with  certainty.  According  to  Mersenne 
(i6ai)  I  oz.  was  spread  out  over  105  sq.  ft.;  Reaumur  (17 11) 
obtained  146I  sq.  ft.;  other  values  are  189  sq.  ft.  and  300  sq.  ft. 
Its  malleability  b  greatly  diminished  by  the  presence  of  other 
metals,  even  in  very  minute  quantity.  In  practice  the  average 
dq^rce  of  tenuity  to  which  the  gold  is  reduced  is  not  nearly  so 
great  as  the  last  example  quoted  above.  A  "  book  of  gold  " 
containing  25  leaves  measuring  each  3I  in.,  equal  to  an  area  of 
264  sq.  in.,  generally  weighs  from  4  to  5  grains. 

The  gold  used  by  the  goldbeater  is  variously  alloyed,  according 
to  the  colour  required.  Fine  gold  is  commonly  supposed  to  be 
incapable  of  being  reduced  to  thin  leaves.  This,  however,  is 
not  the  case,  although  its  use  for  ordinary  purposes  is  undesirable 
on  account  of  its  greater  cost.  It  also  adheres  on  one  part  of  a 
leaf  touching  another,  thus  causing  a  waste  of  labour  by  the 
leaves  being  spoiled;  but  for  work  exposed  to  the  weather  it  is 
much  preferable,  as  it  is  more  durable,  and  does  not  tarnish  or 
change  colour.  The  external  gilding  on  many  public  buildings, 
t.g.  the  Albert  Memorial  in  Kensington  Gardens,  London,  is  done 
with  pure  gold.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  classes  of 
leaf  recognized  and  ordinarily  prepared  by  British  beaters,  with 
the  proportions  of  alloy  per  oz.  they  contain. 


Name  of  Leaf. 

Proportion 
of  Gold. 

Proportion 
of  Silver. 

Proportion 
of  Copper. 

Red 

Pale  red     .... 
Extra  deep      .     .     . 

Deep 

Citron 

Yellow       .... 
Pale  yellow     .     . 
Lemon       .... 
Green  or  pale  .     . 
White 

Grains. 
456-460 

'^ 

444 
440 
408 

^?* 
360 

312 
240 

Grains. 

•  • 

12 

24 

30 

72 

96 
120 
168 
240 

Grains. 
20-24 

16 

12 

12 

10 

The  process  of  goldbeating  is  as  follows:  The  gold,  havine  been 
alloyed  according  to  the  colour  desired,  is  melted  in  a  crucible  at  a 
higher  temperature  than  is  simply  necessary  to  fuse  it.  as  its  malle- 
ability b  improved  bv  exposure  to  a  greater  heat ;  sudden  cooling 
does  not  interfere  with  its  malleability,  gold  differing  in  this  respect 
from  some  other  metals.  It  is  then  cast  into  an  ingot,  and  flattened, 
by  rolling  between  a  pair  of  powerful  smooth  steel  rollers,  into  a 
ribbon  ol  i  \  in.  wide  and  10  ft.  in  length  to  the  oz.  After  being 
flattened  it  is  annealed  and  cut  into  pieces  of  about  6}  grs.  each,  or 
about  7S  per  oz.,  and  placed  between  the  leaves  of  a  "  cutch,"  which 
is  about  i  in.  thick  and  x\  in.  square,  containing  about  180  leaves  of 
a  tough  paper.  Formerly  fine  vellum  was  used  Tor  this  purpose,  and 
generally  still  it  is  interleaved  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  of 
vellum  to  six  of  paper.  The  cutch  is  beaten  on  for  about  20  minutes 
with  a  17-lb  hammer,  which  rebounds  by  the  elasticity  of  the  skin, 
and  saves  the  labour  of  lifting,  by  which  the  gold  is  spread  to  the 
size  of  the  cutch;  each  leaf  is  then  taken  out,  and  cut  into  four 
pieces,  and  put  between  the  skins  of  a  "  shoder,"  4}  in.  square  and 
i  in.  thick,  containing  about  720  skins,  which  have  been  worn  out 
in  the  finishing  or  "  mould  "  process.  The  shoder  requires  about 
two  hours'  beating  upon  with  a  9-lb  hammer.  As  the  gold  will 
spread  unequally,  the  shoder  is  beaten  upon  after  the  larger  leaves 
have  reached  the  edges.    The  effect  of  this  is  that  the  margins  <rf 


larger  leaves  come  out  of  the  edges  in  a  state  of  dust.  This  atlows 
time  for  the  smaller  leaves  to  reach  the  full  size  of  the  shoder,  thus 
producing  a  general  evenness  of  size  in  the  leaves.  Each  leaf  is  asaio 
cut  into  four  pieces,  and  placed  between  the  leaves  of  a  "  OMMild/ 
composed  of  about  950  of  the  finest  gold-beaters*  skins,  5  inr  square 
and  I  in.  thick,  the  contents  of  one  shoder  filling  three  moulds. 
The  material  has  now  reached  the  last  and  most  difficult  stage  of  the 
process:  and  on  the  fineness  of  the  skin  and  judgment  of  the  work- 
man the  perfection  and  thinness  of  the  leaf  oigold  depend.  During 
the  first  hour  the  hammer  is  allowed  to  fall  principally  upon  the  centre 
of  the  mould.  This  causes  gaping  cracks  upon  tne  edges  of  the 
leaves,  the  sides  of  whkrh  readily  coalesce  and  unite  without  leaving 
any  trace  of  the  union  after  being  beaten  upon.  At  the  second  hour, 
when  the  gold  is  about  the  150,000th  (>art  of  an  inch  in  thkkness,  it 
for  the  first  time  permits  the  transmission  of  the  rays  <A  l^ht.  Pure 
gold,  or  gold  but  slightly  alloyed,  transmits  green  rays;  {cold  highly 
alloyed  with  silver  transmits  pale  violet  rays.  The  mould  requires 
in  all  about  four  hours'  beating  with  a  7-lb  hammer,  when  the 
ordinary  thinness  for  the  gold  leaf  of  commerce  will  be  reached.  A 
single  ounce  of  gold  will  at  this  stage  be  extended  to  75X4X4  •  1200 
leaves,  whkh  will  trim  to  squares  of  about  i\  in.  each.  The  hnisbed 
leaf  is  then  taken  out  of  the  mould,  and  the  rough  edges  are  trimmed 
off  by  slips  of  the  ratan  fixed  in  parallel  grooves  of  an  instrument 
called  a  waggon,  the  leaf  being  laid  upon  a  leathern  cushion.  The 
leaves  thus  prepared  are  placed  into  "  books  "  capable  of  holding 
25  leaves  each,  which  have  been  rubbed  over  with  red  ochre  to 
prevent  the  gold  clinging  to  the  paper.  Dentist  gold  is  gold  leaf 
carried  no  farther  than  the  cutch  stage,  and  should  be  perfectly  pure 
gold. 

B)r  the  above  process  also  silver  u  beaten,  but  not  so  thin,  the 
inferior  value  of  the  metal  not  rendering  it  commercially  desirable  to 
bestow  so  much  labour  upon  it.  Copper,  tin,  zinc,  paiiadium,  lead, 
cadmium,  platinum  and  aluminium  can  be  beaten  into  thin  leaves, 
but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  gold  or  silver. 

The  fine  membrane  called  goldbeater's  skin,  used  for  making 
up  the  shoder  and  mould,  is  the  outer  coat  of  the  caecum  or  blind 
gut  of  the  oz.  It  is  stripped  off  in  lengths  about  25  or  30  in.^ 
and  freed  from  fat  by  dipping  in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali  and 
scraping  with  a  blunt  knife.  It  is  afterwards  stretched  on  a 
frame;  two  membranes  are  glued  together,  treated  with  a 
solution  of  aromatic  substances  or  camphor  in  isin^Uss,  and 
subsequently  coated  with  white  of  egg.  Finally  they  are  cut 
into  squares  of  $  or  5)  in.;  and  to  make  up  a  mould  of  950  pieces 
the  gut  of  about  380  oxen  is  required,  about  2)  skins  being  got 
from  each  animal.  A  skin  will  endure  about  200  beatings  in 
the  mould,  after  which  it  is  fit  for  use  in  the  shoder  alone. 

The  dryness  of  the  cutch.  shoder  and  mould  is  a  matter  of  extreme 
delicacy.  They  rcauire  to  be  hot-pressed  every  time  they  are  used, 
although  they  may  be  used  daily,  to  remove  the  moisture  which  they 
acquire  from  the  atmosphere,  except  in  extremely  frosty  weather, 
when  they  acquire  so  little  moisture  that  a  difficulty  arises  from  their 
ovcr-dryncss,  whereby  the  brilliancy  of  the  gold  is  diminished,  and 
it  spreads  very  slowly  under  the  hammer.  On  the  contrary,  if  the 
cutch  or  shoder  be  damp,  the  ^old  will  become  pierced  with  innumer- 
able microscopic  holes;  and  in  the  moulds  in  its  more  attenuated 
state  it  will  become  reduced  to  a  pulverulent  state.  This  condition 
is  more  readily  produced  in  alloyed  golds  than  in  fine  gold.  It  is 
necessary  that  each  skin  of  the  mould  should  be  rubbed  over  with 
calcined  gypsum  each  time  the  mould  may  be  used,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  aohe&ion  of  the  gold  to  the  surface  of  the  skin  in  beating. 

GOLDBERG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Pnissian  province  of 
Silesia,^  14  m.  by  rail  S.W.  of  LiegniU,  on  the  Katzbach,  an 
affluent  of  the  Oder.  Pop.  (1905)  6804.  The  principal  buildings 
are  an  old  church  dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century, 
the  Schwabe-Priesemuth  Institution,  completed  in  1876,  for  the 
board  and  education  of  orphans,  and  the  classical  school  or 
gymnasium  (founded  in  1524  by  Duke  Frederick  II.  <^  Liegniiz), 
which  in  the  17th  century  enjoyedgreatprosperity,and numbered 
Wallenstein  among  its  pupils.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
woollen  doth,  flannel,  gloves,  stockings,  leather  and  beer,  and 
there  is  a  considerable  trade  in  com  and  fruit.  Goldberg 
owes  its  origin  and  name  to  a  gold  mine  in  the  neighbourhood, 
which,  however,  has  been  wholly  abandoned  since  the  time  of 
the  Hussite  wars.  The  town  obtained  civic  rights  in  121 1.  It 
suffered  heavily  from  the  Tatars  in  1241,  from  the  plague  in  1334, 
from  the  Hussites  in  1428,  and  from  the  Saxon,-  Imperial  and 
Swedish  forces  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  On  the  27th  of 
May  1813  a  battle  took  place  near  it  between  the  French  and  the 

1  Goldberg  is  also  the  name  of  a  smaU  town  in  the  grand-duchy  of 
Mccklcnbui^g-Scbweriiur 


GOLD  COAST 


Rununi;  and  on  the  ijrd  uid  (he  37lh  of  August  of  tbc  unw 
year  Gghti  bclw«en  the  ilUa  and  ttie  Frcncb. 

Sr  Sturm.  CtutiilUi  ilir  Sail  GMbtri  in  ^lUuwi  (1887). 

OOU)  COAST,  that  pnttion  a(  tbe  Guiou  Coast  (Wat  Alrici) 
■bkh  eilcnds  from  Assioi  upon  the  w«i  to  the  river  Volta  on 
Ibe  cut,  I1  derivet  its  name  from  tbe  quantities  of  grains  of 
gold  miied  vilh  the  und  o[  ibe  liVcn  traversing  the  district. 
Tht  leim  Cold  Coast  is  no*  geniraUy  identified  with  the  British 
Gold  Coul  (oloay.  Tbit  «teDdi  (ram  }"  f  W.  lo  1°  14'  E.,  Ibe 
length  of  the  cout-line  being  (bout  37a  m.  It  is  boooded  W.  by 
tbelvory  Coast  colony  (French),  E.  by  Togolind  (Gentian).  On 
(he  north  Ibe  Hritish  possessions,  including  Ashinti  («.«,}  and  the 
Nonhem  TeniloTies.  eilend  lo  Ibe  11th  degree  of  north  litilude. 
The  frontier  lepauting  the  colony  from  Ashanli  (&ied  by  order 


in  cnindl,      nd      OcbeiqoAisng      ral         m    loni   h 

of  Ashaoti  project  iredge-like  10  Ibe  cooBuence  □[  the  riven  Ohn 
and  Prah,  vhich  poinl  is  but  60  m.  from  the  sea  M  Cape  Coast. 
Tbecombinedareaof  the  Cold  Coast,  Ashanli  and  the  Noilhern 
Territories,  ts  about  So,oco  sq.  m-,  with  a  total  population 
offioaUy  esiiinaied  in  igoS  at  j, 700,000;  the  Gold  Coast  colony 
ilonc  bas  *n  area  of  14,10a  sq.  m..  with  t  population  of  over  a 

Pkrnal  /nuiiwi.— TlKKKh  ibe  lagoons  coninian  to  Ibe  Wni 

el  the  colony  (Annl  in  the  weal  and  Kwitla  in  the  eail)  the  gialcr 
tan  ej  tiK  coail^ine  is  ol  a  diHercnl  character.  Cape  Three  Poinii 

■auihcriypDJnioliliecolony.  Thence  tbe  coast  (rendi  E.  Sy  N..>nd 
is  but  diihtly  indented.  Ttie  uiually  low  sandy  beach  is,  however. 
diversified  by  bold,  incky  headlands.  The  flat  bell  of  couniiy  docs 
BDi  etiend  inland  any  comiderable  diiunee.  the  spun  of  the  great 
plateau  which  [onns  the  nujor  pan  of  Wesi  Africa  adnncini  in  (he 
ost.  in  ilie  Akwapim  districl,  near  to  the  coast.  Here  the  hilh  reach 

peaks,  genenliy  of  coiucal  larAaiinA.     Numenms  .riven  docend 


j(  ban  of  und  Uack  Ihelr  n 
la  harbours.   Cml  Atlantic 

'obnraiid'~ihe  Pial 


.  and  the  Gold 


1-M'W.  Asawa 


l\^tr 


wily  hi 


iLm.  InUnd  is  a  broad  belt  of  s. 
ftone  and  marl  with  an  occasiDiul  band  of  aurilcrous  conolonvi 
beat  known  and  most  catcniivcly  worthed  for  gold  in  the  W: 
distrK      ThoiKh  the  conglomerates  ixar  ume  resemblance  to 

Banket     of  South  Africa  they  arc  most  probably  of  more  n 
date    The  alluvial  sHts  and  gravels  also  carry  gold. 

Chnsle —The  climate  on  the  coast  is  hoi.  moist  and 
cspecnly  or  Europeans.  The  mean  lemperat 
coast  towns  is  78*  to  8a*  F.  Fevers  ami  &js 
mcM    o  be  dreaded  by  the  Eunwean. 
although  hey  en|oy  to&rableheahnand 


Id^^ciHery  ai 


SS'S 


wind  blow 


the  leeward.    The  nin^ll  at  Accra,  in  tbe  leeward  dis(ricl, 
rages  ij  in.  in  the  year,  but  at  places  in  the  windward  district  is 
h  giea  er,  averaging  7^  in.  at  Axim. 
Fien     TI1&  greater  part  (probably  ihree^fourthi)  of  the  eohiny  is 


horiiontally  a  large  number  of  branches.  The  lo 
growth  ui  he  fonst  consists  of  ferns  and  herbaceous  plants, 
ne  em  some  arc  dimben  reaching  30  to  40  f  t.  up  the  itemi  of 
Tees  hey  entwine  Flowering  plants  are  conparativetr  rate; 
nc   de  orchids  and  a  beautilul  while  lily.   The  "  bush  "  er  ii 

h  creepers,  some  as  thick  as  bawscis,  bamboos  and  icni 
m  nusa  and  has  a  hnghl  of  from  y>  lo  60  ft.  The  creepers  arc  fr 
na  onyn  hcbuih,-bgtonthegroundand hangingfromthcbran 
o  fa  hghnl  trees.  West  of  (lie  Prah  the  forest  comes  down  t( 
cd»  of  Tie  Atlantic.  _  East  of  tb  "    ' 


E  ph  tl 


farther  east,  by  Accra,  are  nuir 
immediately  wen  of  the  lower  ^ 
y  plains  with  fin  pilms.    Behinn 


MslrCS 


nouthii  of  the  rivers  and  along  (hi 
haracltiiitic  tree.  There  are  nun< 
oa>(.   The  fruit  trees  and  planu 


'"wi'd.r"" 


- ._  ...  .  :lude  pythons,  cobras,  homed  and  puff  addets  and  the 
venomous  sraler  snake.  Among  the  lesser  denizens  of  the  forest  are 

ma lulFes  and  Dtlers  frequent  (lie  riven  and  lagoons  and  hippopotami 
art  found  in  the  Volta.  Linrds  iti  brilliant  hue.  tortoiK*  and  grraf 
suiis  are  commrm.  Birds,  which  are  not  very  numeroui.  include 
parrotsandhaml^ns.kInffisheTS,  oaprcys,  herona.  crossbills,  curlews, 
woodpecken,  doves,  pifeoni,  storks,  pelicans,  swallows,  vultures  and 
tht  spur  plover  (the  lul-Aamed  raiT),   Shoals  of  herrings  frequent 

boniio,  flying  fish,  fighting  fish  and  shynose,  Sliaria  abound  at  the 
moulhiofall  the  rivers,  edible  turtle  are  (airly  conmon,  as  ate  (he 
sword  (ish,  dolphin  and  sliDi  lay  <«ilh  eoivnous  caudal  spine). 
Oysters  are  Bumerous  on  rocla  ruimiac  lUa  the  n  and  on  tha 


20+ 


GOLD  COAST 

L  IiuKIJlt(<iiBullItudinoin;bRtla. 


the  AiwpJiti€S,  whicK  CAjry  maiUria]  fever,  ind  Ihr  ^tomyiat  . 
ttrip«l  while  and  black  moaquilD  whicli  canin  ycUow-fevcr. 

/JiiuiitoBlj.-Thr  nalivn  are  .11  of  tlic  Nrero  race.  The  mo. 
importint  tribe  iithcFamil^D.), and  IhcFamilineuuc  it icncran 
uiMkntood   IhiDUK^UBt   ihc  cobny.     The  Fsnll  inf  A.hanii  If 


allied  Iribci  inhabit  the  euutn  ponioa  and  are  believed 
abiici(inal  inhabitanu.  The  AUm  (Akem).  oho  oocupy  i 
CM  ponion  of  Ihe  colony,  have  eniiied  In  >Dld-di«in[  i 
immemorial.  Thecapiulollhrlr  lounlry  i>  Kibbrthe 
(Aqiupcm),  totilbem  nTkuliboun  of  the  Akbn,  are  eifeo 
EUed  la  africultun  and  in  trade.  The  Aiicra,  a  elever  nee 
fwnd  faiTll  the  towH  oC  the  We«  Afrieu  rout  as  jn 
Hilon.  They  ue  employed  by  the  interior  tribn  ai  mUdl 
Snicintun.    Oa  Ihe  right  bank  o(  the  Volu  occup)"" 


■bout  the  Krobobni.  ai 

weil  OF  the  colony  it  Ihr 
liingdoni.    Tbeinhabitan 


kim  and  Ihe  Adangme.  In  Ihe 
untry.  fonneriy  an  independent 
ledloclheirikillinwac.    They 


ii^L.  AuinI,  AmanahLa  ^nollonia).  Aoini.  Ahaou,  Wuaw, 
'**■**'  TihufofD  UafSti  or  Tulcl),  and  Oenkycra  in  the  ve«, 
and  in  Akr,  Akim.  and  Aknpim  in  the  nu.  ai  weU  ■>  in  the 
difTerenl  part*  of  AahanL  Fantl  dialecti  an  qioken,  not  only  En 
Fanti  proper,  but  In  Afuto  or  Ihe  coantry  round  Cape  Coait.  In 
Aboia.  ^ymako.  Akonfi,  Gomoa  and  Aeooa.  The  difference 
between  ihe  two  lypa  b  sol  very  great  i  a  Fantl.  for  etample,  can 
converte  wilhoul  nuich  difKculty  *ith  a  native  of  Akwapim  or 


J  a  coa^dcied  ' 

Akwairfni,  which  i>  bi 
ifluencei.  haa  been  puik  t, 
irjea.    Tliey  had  rrduced  it 


bibed  Fantl  InRuencei.  hai  beet 


M.'hkhL . ... 

It  J  111*  d  fiaandK^Su  H.rAccia, 
"   '    ianiborg),Li.  Tew. 


le  book-linpiage  by  the 

:n],  apeak  dialectt  of  the 

'Ed  Coait  iioccDpin]  by  another 

iTiUIhi  L 

40,aOd  people,  iimlLidine  theinh.iliit; 

mTihrNli'Mand  Kankanl.  O-u  ,  .    . 

NiniuaandnuncmiuinLindvLlliiEci.  1 1  hu  been  reduced  to . 

fay  Ihe  iniuianario.  The  Ad^nKnic  :]Tid  Krobo  dialecti  are  apoken 
hy  about  80,000  people.  They  diner  lery  coniiderably  from  Ca 
ampei,  but  booki  printed  in  Gn  cjn  be  uied  by  both  the  Krobo  and 

either  alum  ri  or  the  Ohutu  tunguif  if/Acn  in  1  few  lomu  in  Aiau, 
Comoa  and  AkDiii£. 

Feliihiun  (g.B.)i.lheprevaiiini;reliponolaUlhe  tribea.    Belief 
in  a  Cod  is  unive~l,  ■>  alu  ia  a^iciiel  in  a  future  Hate.    Chii.Ii. 

fj^lf****      Th^u*  ive>  [^r^ng  ChARianTly  numbH  about  ao!ow; 


i.,j36:t 


«  (Evanjelieal)  w 


;   the   Wnleyini    nined   a 

in  i>  chielly  in  the  handi  of 
n  ana  Koman  Catholic,  miaiana.  ^ho 

id  Mahoinraedan  Kbooh.  The  nalivei 
igent.  They  c^ilain  caaily  the  meana  of 
are  aHKiined  to  unacnatomed  labour,  tuch  a* 
,  They  are  keen  traden.  Tbe  native  cuitom  of 
burying  the  dead  under  the  Aoon  of  the  houaei  pmailed  uniil  1874. 
when  it  vaa  prohibiled  by  the  Britith  authorilie*. 

TivMi.— Unlike  the  other  Britiih  poaaeniona  oa  the  we«  coait  of 
Africa,  tbe  colony  haa  many  towna  along  the  ahOTe,IhLibeine  due  to 
Ihe  multiplKity  of  triden  of  rival  naliona  vha  went  ihilhec  in  queit 
of  jpW.^   Be^nnii»  at  the  int.  "— ■>■-  *— -•  ~  ^■-' 


■Thii  name  appeui  in  a  great  variety  of  (omu— Kwl,  Ekiri, 
Okwi,  Oji.  Odachi,  Otuii.  Tyi,Twi,  Tachi,  Cbvec  or  Chcb 


poiunct  reached  b  Aum  (pop-,  l«et ,  iitt),  the  the  ot  an  old  Dutch 

fort  built  Dear  the  mouth  of  the  Axim  river,  and  in  the  pre-railway 
dayi  the  pon  of  the  gold  region.  Rounding  Cape  Three  Poinii. 
whoH  vicinity  ii  marked  by  a  line  o(  breaker!  neariy  if  «.  long, 
Ttt«,.«...  i-  ^^^w^A  -r^^^*„  miiet  farther  eaat  ia  Sekondi  (s.v.). 
[-point  of  the  raij.ay  to  Ihe  (oM-feldi 


the  mouth  ol  the  Prah.     Eiihi 
liaj.  a  handful  ot  gngliib  loMier 


•e  of  then 
uof  Etmii 


'hole  Aabanii  hoar.  Saltpnnd,  loirirda 
the  end  of  Ihe  Iglh  century,  diverted  to  itiell  the  Inde  tnriDcrly  done 
by  Aiumabo,  from  which  it  b  diKant  9  m.  Salipond  iaa  wclf-lHiilt. 
flourithiog  town,  and  i>  singular  in  poaaraainc  no  ancient  fon. 
Bel  ween  Ananubo  and  Salt|xindiBKarniantine(C<irni4ntync),  noted 
■«tk#nii,^  whence  Ihe  EngUihfint*<»>rtHi  #!.««  ^b,.™.  t  hu  «»-t 
general  name  Ctmmianl] 


. ,      CWinnebah  b  ^_ 
in  oM  town  noted  for  the  nti 


60  m.  between  Accra  and  the  Volla.  on  the  right  bank  of  which  river, 
near  ill  mouth,  ii  the  town  of  Addah  (pop.  13,940).  Kwilta  (pop. 
joiS)  lin  beyond  the  Volu  not  far  from  Ihe  CenDan  frontier.    Of 

one  ol  the  Iml'known'.'^'ii  39™  nIe?  °'  *~  °5— '-  ~?^^" 
1400  It.  above  Ka-lcvel.  and  iia  healthy  pi 
At  Akropong  are  the  heattquarlera  of  the 
Akute  it  a  brge  town  on  the  banki  of  t 
centre  of  the  gold  mining  Induitry  in  Ihi 

S nance  ttatea  from  Ihe  Scanning  of  Ihe  ^ 
laat  and  Sekondipoaaeaa  municipal  go 

.4  (TKiifliiie  and  TWe.— The  aoil  ii  everywhei . 

needi  of  Ihe  people  being  few  then  ii  little  incentive  10  work.  The 
FoceKiakineiupptyaninexhaunibleKiumDf wealth.noublyin  ' 
ml  palm.    Among  vegetable  pnxjucu  cultivated  are  cocoa,  coti 

( jsrgtni  mftort)  and  Qui 


ta-parndiifl.    Tbe  ni 


It  (Strtflia 


Thb  leaul 
chiefly  in  t 

eultivatloii 


Kponed  alighil 
nd  Ihe  Bn^i^° 


itivea  to  improve  their 
number  of  thrir  cnpa. 
I  of  cocoa  phutationb 
rcra.  Subacbuently  the 
diilrict  of  the  ctdoof. 

that  year  the  quaniiiy 
I  fetched  1C4I.000.     In 


FTtabliahed,  Tobacco  and  oiffee  are  grown  at 
aome  Qi  ine  Duei  miuionary  atationa. 

The  chief  exporti  arc  gold,  palm  inl  and  palm  kemela.  cocoa. 
rubber,  timber  (including  mahooanyl  and  kola  nun.  Of  thev 
■rticlea  the  gold  and  rubber  are  ifiipped  chielly  10  England,  whilu 
Genoany.  France  and  America,  take  Ihe  pnJin  product*  and  ground, 
nuti.  The  rubber  eomei  chiefly  Iron  AihantL  The  importa  toniiit 
□f  eotton  goods,  rum,  gin  and  other  apirita.  rice,  BiHar,  tobacco,  beada, 
machinery,  building  rnaleriala  and  European  gooda  generally. 

The  value  of  tbe  trade  incitaacd  from  C1.61S.309  in  1(96  to 
^.05S,i;i  >o  19°^.  In  the  laM  nanied  year  the  imEona  were  valued 
at  Cl.ojS.Bu  and  the  aport*  at  £1.996411.  While  the  value  o( 
import!  had  remained  nearly  atatioaary  idnce  1901  the  value  of 
evportt  had  nearly  InUed  in  that  period.  In  the  five  yean  1003- 
1907  the  toul  trade  increaaed  from  £1.063486  to  £j,oo7.U9.  Great 
Britain  and  Britith  coloniei  take  66%  of  the  eiportt  and  Hipply 
over  60V.  o(  the  importa.  In  both  iraporl  and  eipoct  trade  Germany 
ii  lenHid.  followed  by  France  and  the  Uniied  &ate(.  Specie  u  in- 
cluded in  theee  tDlala,  over  a  quarter  of  a  miUioo  being  impeded  in 

^uhini  b  carried  on  eitentivcly  along  tbe  coaat.  and  aalted  and 
sun-dried  fiih  from'  Addah  and  Kwitia  diilriiU  And  a  ready  ute 
inland.  Clolhi  aie  woven  bv  the  natlvei  from  home-grown  and 
imported  yam;  the  makiog  of  canoe*.  Irom  tbe  tilh.cotton  treei. 
ia  a  flourishing  induitry,  and  aalt  from  tbe  lagooai  near  Addah  ia 
roughly  prepared.  There  ore  ^so  native  artiAara  in  gold  aad  other 
metals,  the  workmanihip  la  aome  caaes  bring  of  eoa^iicuoua  laeril. 
Odum  wood  b  largely  uied  in  building  and  lor  cabinet  work. 

CM  VJ>>f».-Cold  is  found  id  almoM  every  part  of  Ihe  colaoy. 
but  only  in  a  lew  dialricta  in  paying  qmntitiei.  Although  aince  the 
discovery  of  the  coast  gold  had  been  continuously  etponed  to 
Europe  from  ill  poni,  it  wai  not  until  the  lair  twen^  yura  ol  ibe 
19th  century  that  effort!  were  made  to  eilract  gold  accoiding  to 
modcni  medudi.  .  The  richneH  of  Ihe  Tarkwa  inajn  nd  waa  tint 


GOLD  COAST 


205 


dHboverad  by  a  French  trader.  M.  J.  Bennat,  about  1880.  During 
clic  period  i8to  to  1900  the  value  oS  the  eold  exported  varied  from 
a  minimum  of  C32.000  to  a  nwrimum  (1889)  of  C103.000.  The 
increased  mterest  shown  in  the  industrv  led  to  the  construction  of  a 
railway  (see  below)  to  the  chief  gold-fields,  whereby  the  diflficultics  of 
transpon  wete  largely  ovcrcorae.  Consequent  upon  the  taking  up  of 
a  number  of  concessions,  a  concessions  ordinance  was  issued  in 
August  1900.  This  was  followed  in  looi  by  the  grant  of  2825  con- 
oeasioiis.  and  a  "  boom  "  in  the  West  African  market  on  the  London 
scock  exchange.  Many  concessions  were  speedily  abandoned,  and  in 
1901  the  export  of  gokl  dropped  to  its  bwest  point.  6162  ox.,  worth 
£22  186.  but  in  1903  a  large  company  began  crushing  ore  and  the 
oatpar  of  gold  rose  to  26.011  ox.,  valued  at  C96.880.  In  1907  the 
export  was  293,13^  OS.,  wotnt  £1.164,676.  It  should  be  noted  that  one 
of  the  principal  gold  mines  is  not  in  the  colony  proper,  but  at  Obuassi 
ill  AshaotL  Undeii^round  labour  is  performed  mainly  by  Basas  and 
Knimen  from  Liberia.  Of  native  tnbcs  the  Apoilonia  have  proved 
the  best  for  underground  work,  as  they  have  mining  traditions  dating 
from  Portuguese  tiroes.  A  good  deal  of  alluvial  gold  is  obtained  by 
dredginff  appaiatus.  The  use  of  dredging  apparatus  is  modem,  but 
the  nauves  nave  worked  the  alluvial  s(MI  and  the  sand  of  the  sea> 
shore  for  generations  to  get  the  gold  they  contain. 

Commtmuattons. — ^The  colony  possesses  a  railway,  built  and 
owned  by  the  government,  which  serves  the  gold  mines,  and  has  its 
sea  terminus  at  Sekondi.  Work  was  begun  in  Au|;ust  1898,  but 
onring  to  ttw  disturbance  caused  by  the  Ashanti  rising  of  1900  the 
raits  only  reached  Tarkwa  (39  m.)  in  May  1901.  Thence  the  line  is 
carried  to  Kumasi.  the  distance  to  Obuassi  (134  m.)  being  completed 
by  December  1903,  whilst  the  first  train  entered  the  Ashanti  capital 
on  the  1st  of  October  1903.  The  total  length  of  the  line  is  168  m. 
The  cost  of  construction  was  £1. 830,00a  The  line  has  a  sauge 
1  ft.  6  in.  There  b  a  branch  line,  30  m.  long,  from  Tarkwa  N.W.  to 
Prestea  on  the  Ankobra  river.  Another  railway,  built  1907-10, 
35  m.  in  Icnsth.  runs  from  Accra  to  Mangoase,  in  the  centre  Of  the 
chief  cocoa  plantations.    An  extension  to  Kumasi  has  been  surveyed. 

Tortuous  bush  tracks  are  the  usual  means  of  intertuil  communica- 
tion. These  are  kept  in  fair  order  in  the  neighbourhood  of  govem- 
menc  stations.  There  is  a  well<onstnicted  road  141  m.  k)ng  from 
Cape  Coast  to  Kumasi.  and  roads  connecting  neighbouring  towns  are 
maintained  by  the  government.  Systematic  attempts  to  make  use 
of  the  upper  Volta  as  a  means  of  conveying  goods  to  the  interior  were 
6rst  trieo  in  looo.  The  rapids  about  60  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river  effectually  prevent  boats  of  large  size  passing  up  the  stream. 
WhcTT  railways  or  canoes  are  not  available  goods  are  generally 
carried  on  the  heads  of  porters,  60  lb  being  a  full  load.  Telegraphs, 
introduced  in  1883,  connect  aU  the  important  towns  in  the  colony, 
and  a  line  starting  at  Cape  Coast  stretcbes  far  inland,  .via  Kumasi  to 
Wa  in  the  Northern  Temtoriea.  Accra andSekondi  are  in  telegraphic 
communication  with  Europe,  the  Ivory  Coast,  Lagos  and  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  There  is  regular  and  frequent  steamship  communica- 
tion with  Europe  by  British.  Belgian  and  German  lines. 

Admimistraticn,  Kgoenue,  6rc.— The  country  b  governed  as  a  crown 
colony,  the  governor  being  assisted  by  a  legislative  council  composed 
of  onaals  and  nominated  unofficial  members.  Laws,  called  ordin- 
awcea,  are  enacted  by  the  governor  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
this  coandL  The  law  of  the  colony  is  the  common  law  and  statutes 
oIF  ceoeral  application  in  force  in  Ensland  in  1874,  modified  by  local 
ordinances  passed  since  that  date.  The  governor  is  also  governor  of 
Ashanti  ana  the  Northern  Territories,  but  in  those  dependencies  the 
legislative  council  has  no  authority. 

Native  laws  and  customs — which  are  extremely  elaborate  and 
complicated'-are  not  interfered  with  "except  when  repugnant  to 
natural  justice."  Those  relating  to  land  tenure  and  succession  may 
be  thus  sumroarixed.  Individual  tenure  is  not  unknown,  but  most 
bod  is  bdd  by  the  tribe  or  by  the  family  in  common,  each  member 
having  the  rignt  to  select  a  part  of  the  common  land  for  his  own  use. 
Permanent  alienation  can  only  take  place  with  the  unanimous 
consent  of  the  family  and  is  uncommon,  but  long  leases  are  granted. 
J  jimssinn  is  throuni  the  female,  ue.  when  a  man  dies- bis  property 
goes  to  bis  sister's  children.  The  government  of  the  tribes  b  by  their 
own  kings  and  chiefs  under  the  supervision  of  district  commissionera. 
Slavery  aas  been  abolished  in  the  colony.  In  the  Northern  Terri- 
tories the  dealing  in  slaves  b  unlawful,  neither  can  any  person  be 
pal  in  pawn  for  debt;  nor  will  any  court  give  effect  to  tne  relations 
oetween  master  and  slave  except  m  so  far  as  those  relations  may  be 
in  accordance  with  the  English  bws  relating  to  master  and  servant. 

For  administrative  (Nirposes  the  colony  b  divided  into  three 
pTDvinces  under  provincial  commissioners,  and  each  province  b  'sub- 
divided into  districts  presided  over  by  commissioners,  who  exercise 
judicial  as  well  as  executive  functions.  The  supreme  court  consists 
of  a  chief  justice  and  three  puisne  Judges.  The  defence  of  the  colony 
b  entrusted  to  the  Gold  Coast  regiment  of  the  West  African  Frontier 
Force,  a  force  of  natives  controUea  by  the  Colonial  Office  but  officered 
from  the  Britbh  army.  There  b  also  a  corps  of  volunteers  (formed 
1893). 

The  chief  somoe  of  revenue  b  the  customs  and  (since  1903)  railway 
reoripca.  whflst  the  heaviest  items  of  expenditure  are  transport  (in- 
dudrag  railways)  and  mine  surveys,  medical  and  sanitary  services, 
and  maintenance  of  the  military  force.  The  revenue,  which  in  the 
pcfiod  1894-1898  averaged  £344*559  yeariy,  rose  in  1898-1903  to  an 


average  of  £556416  a  year.  For  the  five  yean  1903-1907  rhe 
averige  annual  revenue  was  £647.557  and  the  average  annual 
expenditure  £615,606.  Save  for  municipal  purposes  there  b  no 
direct  taxation  in  tne  colony  and  no  poor-houses  exist.  There  b  a 
public  debt  of  (December  1907)  £2,206.964.  It  should  be  noted  that 
the  expenditure  on  Ashanti  and  the  Northern  Territories  b  included 
in  the  Gold  Coast  budget. 

History.— 'li  b  a  debated  question  whether  the  Gold  Coast  was 
dbcovered  by  French  or  by  Portuguese  sailors.  The  evidence 
available  b  insufficient  to  prove  the  assertion,  of  which  there  b 
no  contemporary  record,  that  a  company  of  Norman  merchants 
established  themselves  about  1364  at  a  place  they  named  La 
Mina  (Elmina),aDd  that  they  traded  with  the  nativesfor  nearly 
fifty  years,  when  the  enterprise  was  abandoned.  It  b  well  estab- 
lished that  a  Portuguese  expedition  under  Diogo  d'Azambuja, 
accompanied  probably  by  Christopher  Columbus,  took  possession 
of  (or  founded)  Elmina  in  X48x-t483.  By  the  Portuguese  it  was 
called  variously  S&o  Jorge  da  Mina  or  Ora  del  Mina — the  mouth 
of  the  (gold)  mines.  That  besides  alluvial  washings  they  also 
worked  the  gold  mines  was  proved  by  discoveries  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  19th  century.  The  Portuguese  remained  undbturbed 
in  their  trade  until  the  Reformation,  when  the  papal  bull  which 
had  given  the  country,  with  many  others,  to  Portugal  ceased  to 
have  a  binding  power.  EngUsh  ships  in  1 5  53  brought  back  from 
Guinea  gold  to  the  weight  of  1 50  lb.  The  fame  of  the  Gold  Coast 
thereafter  attracted  to  it  adventurers  from  almost  every  European 
nation.  The  English  were  followed  by  French,  Danes,  Branden- 
burgers,  Dutch  and  Swedes.  The  most  aggressive  were  the 
Dutch,  who  from  the  end  of  the  z6th  century  sou^t  to  oust  the 
Portuguese  from  the  Gold  Coast,  and  in  whose  favour  the  Portu- 
guese did  finally  withdraw  in  1642^  in  return  for  the  withdrawal 
on  the  part  of  the  Dutch  of  their  claims  to  Brazil.  The  Dutch 
henceforth  made  Elmina  their  headquarters  on  the  coast.  Traces 
of  the  Portuguese  occupation,  which  lasted  160  years,  are  still  to 
■be  found,  notably  in  the  language  of  the  natives.  Such  familiar 
words  as  palaver,  fetish,  caboceer  and  dash  (•'.«.  a  gilt)  have  all  a 
Portuguese  origin. 

An  English  company  built  a  fort  at  Kormantine  previously  to 
1651 , and  some  ten  years  later  CapeCoast  Castle  was  built.  The 
settlements  made  by  the  English  provoked  the  hostility  Apfiaar* 
of  the  Dutch  and  led  to  war  between  England  and  aaetot 
Holland,  during  which  Admiral  de  Ruyter  destroyed 
(i664>x66s)  all  the  English  forts  save  Cape  Coast 
castle.  The  treafy  of  Breda  in  1667  confirmed  the  Dutch  in  the 
possession  of  their  conquests,  but  the  Englbh  speedily  opened 
other  trading  stations.  Charles  II.  in  167  2  granted  a  charter  to 
the  Royal  African  Company,  which  built  forts  at  Dixcove, 
Sekondi,  Accra,  Whydah  and  other  places,  besides  repairing  Cape 
Coast  Castle.  At  thb  time  the  trade  both  in  slaves  and  gold  was 
very  great,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  x8th  century  the  value  of 
the  gold  exported  annually  was  estimated  by  WiUem  Bosman,  the 
chief  Dutch  factor  at  Elmina,  to  be  over  £200,000.  The  various 
European  traders  were  constantly  quarrelling  among  themselves 
and  exercised  scarcely  any  controloverthenatives.  Piracy  was  rife 
along  the  coast,  and  was  not  indeed  finally  stamped  out  until  the 
middle  of  the  1 9th  century.  The  Royal  African  Company,  which 
lost  its  monopoly  of  trade  with  England  in  X700,  was  succeeded 
by  another,  the  African  Company  of  Merchants,  which  was  con- 
stituted in  1750  by  act  of  parliament  and  received  an  annual 
subsidy  from  government.  The  slave  trade  was  then  at  its 
height  and  some  xo,ooo  negroes  were  exported  yearly.  Many 
of  the  slaves  were  ptisoners  of  war  sold  to  the  merchants  by 
the  Ashanti,  who  had  become  the  chief  native  power.  The  aboli- 
tion of  the  slave  trade  (1807)  crippled  the  company,  which  was 
dissolved  in  x82x,  when  the  crown  took  possession  of  the  forts. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  the  British  had  begun 
to  exercise  territorial  rights  in  the  towns  where  they  held  forts, 
and  in  18x7  the  right  of  the  Britbh  to  control  the  natives  living  in 
the  coast  towns  was  recognized  by  Ashanti.  In  1824  the  first 
step  tovaxds  the  extension  of  British  authority  beyond  the  coast 
region  was  taken  by  Governor  Sir  Charles  M'Carthy,  who  incited 
the  Fanti  to  rise  against  their  oppressors,  the  Ashanti.  (The 
Fanti's  country  had  been  conquered  by  the  Ashanti  in  z8o7«) 


2o6 


GOLD  COAST 


ibrte 


Sir  Charies  and  the  Fanti  army  were  defeated,  the  governor  losing  | 
bis  life,  but  in  1826  the  English  gained  a  victory  over  the  Ashanti 
at  Dodowah.  At  this  period,  however,  the  home  government, 
disgusted  with  the  Gold  Coast  by  reason  of  the  perpetual  dis- 
turbances in  the  protectorate  and  the  trouble  it  occasioned, 
determined  to  abandon  the  settlements,  and  sent  instructions  for 
the  forts  to  be  destroyed  and  the  Europeans  brought  home.  The 
merchants,  backed  by  Major  Rickets,  and  West  India  regiments, 
the  administrator,  protested,  apd'as  a  compromise  the  forts  were 
banded  over  to  a  committee  of  merchants  (Sept.  1828),  who  were 
given  a  subsidy  of  £4000  a  year.  The  merchants  secured  (1830) 
as  their  administrator  Mr  George  Maclean — a  gentleman  with 
military  experience  on  the  Gold  Coast  and  not  engaged  in  trade. 
To  Maclean  is  due  the  consolidation  of  British  interests  in  the 
interior.  He  concluded,  183 1,  a  treaty  with  the  Ashantiadvantage^ 
ous  to  the  Fanti,  whilst  with  very  inadequate  means  he  contrived 
to  extend  British  influence  over  the  whole  region  of  the  present 
colony.  In  the  words  of  a  Fanti  trader  Maclean  understood  the 
people, "  he  settled  things  quietly  with  them  and  the  people  also 
loved  him."'  Complaints  that  Maclean  encouraged  slavery 
reached  England,  but  these  were  completely  disproved,  the 
governor  being  highly  commended  on  his  administration  by  the 
House  of  Commons  Committee.  It  was  decided,  nevertheless, 
that  the  Colonial  Office  should  resume  direct  control  of  the  forts, 
which  was  done  in  1843,  Maclean  continuing  to  direct  native 
affairs  until  his  death  in  1847.  The  jurisdiction  of  England  on 
the.Gold  Coast  was  defined  by  the  bond  of  the  $th  of  March  1844, 
Ogg^^  an  agreement  with  the  native  chiefs  by  which  the 
mmd  crown  received  the  right  of  trying  criminals,  repressing 

Dateh  human-sacrifice,  &c.  The  limits  of  the  protectorate 
inland  were  not  defined.  The  purchase  of  the  Danish 
_  forts  in  1850,  and  of  the  Dutch  forts  and  territory  in 
1 87 1,  led  to  the  consolidation  of  the  British  power  along  the 
coast;  and  the  Ashanti  war  of  1873-74  resulted  in  the  extension 
of  the  area  of  British  influence.  Since  that  time  the  colony  has 
been  chiefly  engaged  in  the  development  of  its  material  resources, 
a  development  accompanied  by  a  slow  but  substantial  advance 
in  civilization  among  the  native  population.  (For  further 
historical  information  see  Ashanti.) 

For  a  time  the  Gold  Coast  formed  officially  a  limb  of  the 
"  West  African  Settlements  "  and  was  virtually  a  dependency  of 
Sierra  Leone.  In  1874  the  settlements  on  the  Gold  Coast  and 
Lagos  were  created  a  separate  crown  colony,  this  arrangement 
lasting  until  1886  when  Lagos  was  cut  off  from  the  Gold  Coast 
administration. 

Northern  Territories. 

The  Herthem  Territories  of  the  Gold  Coast  form  a  British 
protectorate  to  the  north  of  Ashanti.  They  are  bounded  W.  and 
N. — where  xz^  N.  is  the  frontier  line  except  at  the  eastern 
extremity — by  the  French  colonies  of  the  Ivory  Coast  and  Upper 
Senegal  and  Niger,  E.  by  the  German  colony  of  Togoland.  The 
southern  frontier,  separating  the  protectorate  from  Ashanti,  is 
the  Black  Volta  to  a  point  a  little  above  its  junction  with  the 
White  Volta.  Thence  the  frontier  turns  south  and  afterwards 
east  so  as  to  include  the  Brumasi  district  in  the  protectorate, 
the  frontier  gaining  the  main  Volta  below  Yeji>  The  Territories 
include  nearly  all  the  country  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich 
to  3**  W.  and  between  8**  and  11°  N.,  and  cover  an  area  of  about 
33,000  sq.m. 

Lying  north  of  the  great  belt  of  primeval  forest  which  extends 
parallel  to  the  Guinea  coast,  the  greater  part  of  the  protectorate 
consists  of  open  country, well  timbered,  and  much  of  it  presenting 
a  park-like  appearance.  There  are  also  large  stretches  of  grassy 
plains,  and  in  the  south-east  an  area  of  treeless  steppe.  The  flora 
and  fauna  resemble  those  of  Ashanti.  The  country  is  well 
watered,  the  Black  Volta  forming  the  west  and  southern  frontier 
for  some  dbtance,  while  the  White  Voltalraverscs  its  central 
regions.  Both  rivers,  and  also  the  united  stream ,  contain  rapids 
which  impede  but  do  not  prevent  navigation  (see  Volta).  The 
climate  is  much  healthier  than  that  of  the  coast  districts,  and  the 

>  Blue  Book  on  Africa  {Western  Coast)  (1865),  p.  333. 


fever  experienced  is  of  a  milder  type.  The  rainfall  is  less  than  on 
the  coast;  the  dry  season  lasts  from  November  (when  the 
harmattan  begins  to  blow)  to  March.  The  mean  temperature  at 
Gambaga  is  80°  F.,  the  mean  annual  rainfall  43  in.  The  inhabi- 
tants were  officially  estimated  in  1907  to  number  **'st  least 
X, 000,000."  The  Dagomba,  Dagarti,  Grunshi,  Xangarga,  Moshi 
and  Zebarima,  Negro  or  Negroid  tribes,  constitute  the  bulk  of  the 
people,  and  Fula,  Hausa  and  Yoruba  have  settled  as  traders  or 
cattle  raisers.  A  large  number  of  the  natives  axtf  Moslems,  the 
rest  are  fetish  worshippers.  The  tribal  organization  is  maintained 
by  the  British  authorities,  who  found  comparatively  little 
difficulty  in  putting  an  end  to  slave-raiding  ai\d  gaining  the 
confidence  of  the  chiefs.  _  Trained  by  British  officers,  the  natives 

make  excellent  soldiers. 

Apicukure  and  Trade. — The  chief  crops  are  maize,  suinea<om, 
millet,  yams,  rice,  beans,  groundnuts,  tobacco  and  cotton.    Cotton  b 

Srown  m  most  parts  of  the  protectorate,  the  soil  and  climate  in  many 
istricts  being  very  suitable  for  its  cultivation.  Rubber  is  found  in 
the  north-western  regions.  When  the  protectorate  was  assumed  by 
Great  Britain  the  Territories  were  singularly  destitute  of  fruit  trees. 
The  British  have  introduced  the  orange,  citron,  lime,  guava,  mai^ 
and  soursop,  and  among  plants  the  banana,  pine-appic  and  papaw. 
A  large  number  of  vegetables  and  flowers  have  also  been  introduced 
by  the  administration. 

Stock-raiang  u  carried  on  extensively,  and  besides  oxen  and  sheep 
there  are  large  numbers  of  horses  ana  donkeys  in  the  Toritories. 
The  chief  exports  are  cattle,  dawa-dawa  (a  favourite  flavouring 
matter  for  soup  among  the  Ashanti  and  other  tribes)  and  shea- 
butter — the  latter  used  in  cooking  and  as  an  illuminant.  The 
principal  imports  are  kola-nuts,  salt  and  cotton  goods.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  European  goods  imported  is  German  and  comes 
through  Togoland.  Tne  administratictn  levies  a  tax  on  traders' 
caravans,  and  in  return  ensures  the  safety  of  the  roads.  This  tax  is 
the  chief  local  source  of  revenue.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the 
Territories,  as  well  as  statistics  of  trade,  are  included  in  thdse  of  the 
Gold  Coast. 

Gold  exists  in  quartz  formation,  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the  Black 
Volta,  and  is  found  equally  on  the  British  and  French  sides  of  the 
frontier. 

Towns. — ^The  headquarters  of  the  administration  are  at.  Tamale 
(or  Tamari),  a  town  in  the  centre  of  the  Dagomba  country  east  of  the 
White  Volta  and  aoo  ro.  N.E.  of  Kumasi.  Its  inhabitants  are  keen 
traders,  and  it  forms  a  distributing  centre  for  the  whole  protectorate. 
Gambaga,  an  important  commercial  centre  and  from  1897  to  1907 
the  seat  of  government,  is  in  Mamprusi,  the  north-east  comer  of  the 
protectorate  and  is  85  m.  N.N.E.  of  Tamale.  A  hundred  and  forty 
miles  due  south  of  Gambaga  is  Salaga.  This  town  is  situated  on  the 
caravan  route  from  the  Hausa  states  to  Ashanti^and  has  a  consider- 
able trade  in  kola-nuts,  shea-butter  and  salt.  On  the  White  Volta. 
midway  between  Gambaga  and  Salaga,  is  the  thriving  town  of 
Daboya.  On  the  western  frontier  are  Bole  (Baule)  and  Wa.  They 
carry  on  an  extensive  trade  with  Bontuku,  the  capital  of  Jaman,  and 
other  places  in  the  Ivory  Coast  colony.  In  all  the  towns  the  popula- 
tion largely  consists  of  aliens — Hausa,  Ashanti,  Mandingos,  Ac 

Communications. — Lack  of  easy  communication  with  tbe  sea 
hinders  the  development  of  the  country.  The  ancient  caravan  routes 
have  been,  however,  supplemented  by  roads  built  by  the  British, 
who  have  further  organized  a  service  of  boats  on  the  volta.  Large 
car^o  boats,  chiefly  laden  with  salt,  ascend  that  river  from  Addah  to 
Vcji  and  Daboya.  From  Ycji,  the  port  of  Salaga.  a  good  road.  150 
m.  long,  has  been  made  to  Gambaga.  There  is  also  a  river  service 
from  Ycji  to  Longoro  on  the  Black  Volta,  the  port  of  Kintampo.  in 
northern  Ashanti.  There  is  a  complete  telegraphic  system  connect- 
ing the  towns  of  the  protectorate  with  Kumasi  and  the  GoldXIoast 
ports. 

History. — ^It  was  not  until  the  last  quarter  of  the  19th  century 
that  the  country  immediately  north  of  Ashanti  became  known 
to  Europeans.  The  first  step  forward  was  made  by  Monsieur 
M.  J.  Bonnat  (one  of  the  Kumasi  captives,  see  Ashanti)  who, 
ascending  the  Volta,  reached  Salaga  (1875-1876).  In  1882 
Captain  R.  La  Trobe  Lonsdale,  an  officer  in  British  colonial 
service,  went  farther,  visiting  Yendi  in  the  north  and  Bontuku 
in  the  west.  Two  years  later  Captain  Brandon  Kirby  made  his 
way  to  Kintampo.  In  1887-1889  Captain  L.  G.  Binger,  a  French 
officer,  traversed  the  country  from  north  to  south.  Thereafter 
the  whole  region  was  visited  by  British,  French  and  German 
political  missions.  Prominent  among  the  British  agents  was 
Mr  George  E.  Ferguson,  a  native  of  West  Africa,  who  had 
previously  explored  northern  Ashanti.  Between  1892  and  1897 
Ferguson  concluded  several  treaties  guarding  British  interests. 
In  X897  Lieutenant  Henderson  and  Ferguson  occupied  Wa,  where 
they  were  attacked  by  the  sofas  of  Samory  (see  Senegal,  (  3). 


GOLDEN— GOLDEN  BULL 


*ba  had  piiw  In  iIk  »/a  cunp  u  piricy,  w** 

time  iK(ati>t»iu  vere  opcDcd  in  Europe  to  Kltlc  thr  ipherc* 
o(  influence  of  the  topective  couolrio.  (The  Anglo-Frencb 
Igncmnil  of  iKg  hid  fiicd  the  bauDdaria  at  the  hinteitsods 
dI  the  Fmch  colony  of  the  Ivory  Cout  uid  the  Briliali  colony 
of  the  Gold  Cout  u  Im  u  g*  N,  only.)  A  period  of  considerable 
tezuion,  ariiing  from  the  prosmily  of  Britiih  and  French  troops 
in  the  disputed  territory,  wu  ended  by  the  lignature  of  aeon  ven- 
tiu  in  Puii  (14th  of  June  iS^e),  in  whidi  the  irnteni  ud 
Dortbeni  boundaries  were  cLefined.  The  Britiih  abandoned 
Iheir  daim  10  the  imponaJtt  town  and  diitrict  of  Wa^adugu 
in  the  north.  In  the  foUowing  year  (i4ih  of  November  iSgu) 
■a  urctBwm  deGoiag  the  eutern  Irontkr  wai  concluded  with 
Gcraany.  Trevloiuly  ■  iqutte  block  ol  territory  to  the  north 
of  R*  N.  bad  bees  refuded  n  iMntn],  both  by  Britain  _and 
Germany.  Thb  <rai  hi  virtue  of  an  imoiniieni  made  in  iSSS. 
By  the  iSgg  coDveatloa  ibe  ncultal  aone  waa  pamlled  out 
between  Ibe  two  powera.  The  deUmitatloo  ot  the  fronlieii 
agrtcil  upon  took  jjace  during  1 900-1 Q04. 

In  i$9T  the  Nortbem  Teiritoiiet  were  coiutftuted  a  leparate 
dBtrkt  of  the  Gold  Coait  bioteiland,  and  were  placed  in  charge 
of  a  chief  conunintoner.  Colonel  H.  F.  Nonhcotl  (killed  in  the 
Boer  War.  rSw-igoi)  *u  the  SnI  conuninioneT  and  com- 
mandant ol  the  troopa.     He  was  aucceedcd  by  Col. 


:t  admi 


onder  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  governor  of  the  Gold  Cc 
The  pnremment  was  at  hiit  of  a  semi-militaiy  character,  but  in 
1407  a  civilian  staff  waa  ^>pointed  to  cany  on  the  administration. 
aihl  a  force  of  armed  constabulary  replaced  the  troops  which 
had  been  Matiooed  In  the  protectorale  and  which  were  then 
disbanded.    The  proeperity  of  ibe  country  under  Briliib  ad- 

-A  good  njfdinary  of 


litforyof 


■    by 


Itrm*  iLondoi,  iMjtind  Ta  llu  CM  CoaHja 
111,  bolli  by  Sir  Rich»rJ  Burton.  Of  ihe  earlier 
iMt  are  fir  CMm  Caut  or  s  Orienptum  ef  Gum 


■ffiCV: 


•phy,  rHifian.  tew.  Ac., 


ey  (London.  iMl)  conlaii 

, S«  alK  Kr/ml  an  Eiir 

(Coienul  Ofike  Rnorrt.  No.  11 
.- — . — _  ^  n,S„„  ,«  .  . 


l9^)..iKl/'optTir, 


J^?^^ 


rks quoted  under 

Few  ihe  Nonhcm  Terriloiies  fee  L.  C.  Binitr.  Da  mirr  ■■  Cod/r 
d>  Cmtmf  {Pini.  iSgi).  a  standard  >uIhDniv;  H.  p.  NonhCDil, 
H^ftH  »  Ikr  HrrOm,  TrmU'io  if  llu  Ccli  Caul  (War  OfUct. 
London.  iBwj).  a  valuable  cnmpil.tion  .umnanring  the  then  iviil- 

the  BHrS^cSoiiial  OffccV    ALip"on  the  scale  ot  i  :  l/MD.ooo  u 
wd  by  ihr  War  Office  (F.R.C) 

OOLDO.  a  cily  and  the  county-seat  ot  Jefferson  county, 
Cotorado.  U  S.*..  on  Clear  Creek  (limneriy  called  the  Vasquea 
iDtk  «4  the  South  Platte),  about  14  ra.  W.  by  S.  ot  Denver. 
Pop  Ii«BS)  11  SI.  <i«io)  1477.  Golden  i)  a  residential  suburb 
o<  DemM,  srrwd  by  the  Colorada  A  Soutbera.  Ibe  Denver  & 


Inlermounlam   (electric),  and  the  Deavtr  b  Nortb-Wcstem 
Electric  railways.     It  is  about  S7oo  It.  above  lea-leveL    About 
600  tt.  above  the  dty  is  Casile  Rock,  n 
and  W.  of  Golden  is  Lookout  Mountain 


in  anuKinenl  park. 


boys,  and  In  Golden  is  ' 
(opened  1S74),  which  oSc 
metallurgica]  engineeruig 
'      '  Golden,  and  among  the  city's 


Colorado  Suu  Scfaool  ot  Min 
nJurses  in  mining  engineciing  aj 


re  pottery, 
sd  5out. 


spoaits  of  coal,  copper  and  gold  Ii 
Truck-farming  and  the  growing  of  fruit  are  important  in 
in  the  neighbourhood.  The  first  teltleraenc  here  was  a  goia 
mining  camp,  established  in  185P,  and  named  in  honour  ot 
Tom  Golden,  one  of  Ihe  pioneer  prapectors.  The  village  was 
laid  out  in  t36o,  and  Golden  wis  incorpatated  as  a  town  in  1865 
and  waa  chartered  as  a  dty  In  1(170.  Golden  was  made  the 
capital  el  Colorado  Tetiilory  in  iM>,  and  several  sessions  (ot 
parts  ot  sessions)  ol  the  Assembly  irerc  held  here  bet  ween  1864 
and  r86S,  when  the  seat  of  government  was  formally  established 
a(  Denver;  the  territorial  offices  of  Colorado,  however,  were 
at  Golden  only  in  iSM-iSSr. 

O0U>B8  BULL  (Lat.  BMi  Atma),  the  general  designation 
olany  charter  decorated  with  a  golden  seal  or  Anifo,  either  owing 
to  the  intrinsic  importance  of  its  contents,  or  to  the  rank  and 
dignity  ot  the  beslower  or  the  tecipienl.  The  cualom  of  thus 
giving  distinction  to  certain  documents  is  said  to  be  of  Byiantine 
origin,  though  if  this  be  the  case  it  is  somewhat  strange  that  the 
word  employed  aa  an  equivalent  (or  golden  bull  in  Bysantine 
Greek  should  be  the  hybrid  j^Hvidoi^Aor  (d.  Codlnns  Cut»- 
palates,  A  iiirraa  tioyofftnit  StaT^mt  ri  npi  roO    B^ffMut 

ZotXrar^.nlrorApX^^I  andAnruComnena.<4irnad,lib.iii-AiA 
XpwodocrXiov  XAyov.  lib.  viii.,  xpvtrddav^oi'  X^ov).  In  Germany 
a  Golden  Bull  is  mentioned  under  the  reign  ot  Henry  I.  the  Fowler 
in  Ovanici  Caisin.  [i.  ji,  and  the  oldest  German  eiample,  if  it 
be  genuine,  dales  from  gjj.     Al  first  the  golden  seal  was  formed 


after 


>mpDicd  of  two  ibin  metal  plates  filled  in  wit 
nber  of  golden  bulls  issued  by  the  imperial  ct 
ve  been  very  large;  the  dty  ol  Frankfort,  lor  ei 


10  few 


1  eight. 


Dple, 


practically  restricted  to  a  few 
documents  of  unusual  political  importance,  Ihe  golden  bul!  of 
Ihe  Empire,  the  gulden  bull  of  Brahsnl.  the  golden  hull  of 
Hungary  and  the  golden  hull  o(  Milan — and  of  these  the  Erst 
u  undoubtedly  Ac  Golden  Bull  par  ticdlma.  The  main  object 
ot  Ihe  Golden  Bull  was  to  provide  a  set  ol  rules  ior  the  election 
of  the  German  kings,  or  kings  of  the  Romans,  as  they  are  called 
in  this  document.  Since  the  informal  establishment  ol  the 
electoral  college  about  a  century  before  (see  Electors),  varioui 
disputes  had  taken  place  about  the  right  of  certain  princes  to 
vote  at  the  elections,  these  and  other  difficulties  having  arisen 
owing  to  the  absence  of  any  authoritative  ruling.  The  spiritual 
eleclon,  it  is  true,  had  eierciscd  their  votes  without  challenge, 
but  far  diflcrent  was  the  case  of  ihe  temporal  electors.  The 
families  ruling  in  Sasony  and  in  Bavaria  had  been  divided  into 
two  main  branches  and,  as  the  German  slates  had  not  yet 


family  ol  Wiitels 
the  Rhenish  pali 
duke  of  Bavaria 
king  of  Bohemia. 


milarty  al 


m  and  the  other  In 


imed  Ihe  vole  ai  ihe  expense  o[  the 
jver.  then  had  been  several  disputed 
the  German  crown  during  the  past 
mnry.  In  more  than  one  instance  a  prince,  chosen  by  a 
inorily  ol  Ibe  eleciors.  had  claimed  to  eierdse  Ibe  funrtMns 
king,  and  as  often  civil  war  had  been  the  result.  Under  these 
mnsuiKci  Ibe  emperor  Cbaric*  IV.  deiennined    by  ao 


2o8 


GOLDEN  BULL 


authoritative  pronouncement  tomakesuch  proceedings  impossible 
in  the  futurev  and  at  the  same  time  to  add  to  his  own  power 
and  prestige,  especially  in  his  capacity  as  king  of  Bohemia. 

Having  arranged  various  disputes  in  Germany,  and  having  in 
April  1355  secured  his  coronation  in  Rome,  Charies  gave  instruc- 
tions for  the  bull  to  be  drawn  up.  It  is  uncertain  who  is  respon- 
sible for  its  actual  composition.  The  honour  has  been  assigned 
to  Bartolo  of  Sassoferrato,  professor  of  law  at  Pisa  and  Perugia, 
to  the  imperial  secretary,  Rudolph  of  Friedberg,  and  even  to 
the  emperor  himself,  but  there  is  no  valid  authority  for  giving 
it  to  any  one  of  the  three  in  preference  to  the  others.  In  its 
first  form  the  bull  was  promulgated  at  the  diet  of  Nuremberg 
on  the  loth  of  January  1356,  but  it  was  not  accepted  by  the 
princes  until  some  modifications  had  been  introduced,  and  in 
its  final  form  it  was  issued  at.  the  diet  of  Metz  on  the  25th  of 
December  following. 

The  text  of  the  Golden  Bull  consists  of  a  prologue  and-  of 
thirty-one  chapters.  Some  lines  of  verse  invoking  the  aid  of 
Almighty  God  are  followed  by  a  rhetorical  statement  of  the 
evils  which  arise  from  discord  and  division,  illustrations  being 
taken  from  Adam,  who  was  divided  from  obedience  and  thus  fell, 
and  from  Helen  of  Troy  who  was  divided  from  her  husband. 
The  early  chapters  are  mainly  concerned  with  details  of  the 
elaborate  ceremonies  which  are  to  be  observed  on  the  occasion 
of  an  elettion.  The  number  of  electors  is  fixed  at  seven,  the  duke 
of  Saxe- Wittenberg,  not  the  duke  of  Saxe-Lauenburg,  receiving 
the  Saxon  vote,  and  the  count  palatine,  not  the  duke  of  Bavaria, 
obtaining  the  vote  of  the  Wittelsbachs.  The  electors  were  ar- 
ranged in  order  of  precedence  thus:  tHe  archbishops  of  Mainz, 
of  Trier  and  of  Cologne,  the  king  of  Bohemia,  qui  inter  eUctores 
laicos  ex  regiae  dignitatis  fasligio  jure  et  merito  obtinet  primatiam, 
the  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine,  the  duke  of  Saxony  and  the 
margrave  of  Brandenburg.  The  three  archbishops  were  respec- 
tively arch-chancellors  of' the  three  principal  divisions  of  the 
Empire,  Germany,  Aries  and  Italy,  and  U}c  four  secular  electors 
each  held  an  office  in  the  imperial  household,  the  functions  of 
which  they  were  expected  to  discharge  on  great  occasions. 
The  king  of  Bohemia  was  the  arch-cupbearer,  the  count  palatine 
was  the  arch-steward  {dapifer)^  the  duke  of  Saxony  was  arch- 
marshal,  and  the  margrave  of  Brandenburg  was  arch-chamber- 
lain. The  work  of  summoning  the  electors  and  of  presiding  over 
their  deliberations  fell  to  the  archbishop  of  Mainz,  but  if  he 
failed  to  discharge  this  duty  the  electors  were  to  assemble  without 
summons  within  three  months  of  the  death  of  a  king.  Elections 
were  to  be  held  at  Frankfort;  they  were  to  be  decided  by  a 
majority  of  votes,  and  the  subsequent  coronation  at  Aix-Ia- 
Chapelle  was  to  be  performed  by  the  archbishop  of  Cologne. 
During  a  vacancy  in  the  Empire  the  work  of  administciing  the 
greater  part  of  Germany  was  entrusted  to  the  count  palatine 
of  the  Rhine,  the  duke  of  Saxony  being  responsible,  however, 
for  the  government  of  Saxony,  or  rather  for  the  districts  ubi 
Saxonica  jura  servantur. 

The  chief  result  of  the  bull  was  to  add  greatly  to  the  power  of 
the  electors'  for,  to  quote  Bryce  {Holy  Roman  Empire),  it 
**  confessed  and  legalized  the  independence  of  the  electors  and 
the  powerlessness  of  the  crown."  To  these  princes  were  given 
sovereign  rights  in  their  dominions,  which  were  declared  in- 
divi^ble  and  were  to  pass  according  to  the  rule  of  primogeniture. 
Except  in  extreme  cases,  there  was  to  be  no  appeal  from  the 
sentences  of  their  tribunals,  and  they  were  confirmed  in  the  right 
of  coining  money,  of  taking  tolls,  and  in  other  privileges,  while 
conspirators  against  their  lives  were  to  suffer  the  penalties  of 
treason.  One  clause  gave  special  rights  and  immunities  to  the 
king  of  Bohemia,  who,  it  must  be  remembeied,  at  this  time  was 
Charles  himself,  and  others  enjoined  the  observance  of  the  pubGc 
peace.  Provision  was  made  for  an  annual  meeting  of  the  electors, 
to  be  held  at  Metz  four  weeks  after  Easter,  when  matters  pro 
bono  et  salute  communi  were  to  be  discussed.  This  arrangement, 
however,  was  not  carried  out,  although  the  electors  met  occasion- 
ally. Another  clause  forbade  the  cities  to  receive  Pfahlbilrger, 
i.e.  forbade  them  to  take  men  dwelling  outside  their  walls  under 
their  protection.    It  may  be  noted  that  there  is  no  admission 


whatever  that  the  election  of  a  king  needs  oonfiimation  from 
the  pope. 

The  Golden  Bull  was  thus  a  great  victory  for  the  dectors,  but 
it  weakened  the  position  of  the  German  king  and  was  a  distinct 
humiliation  for  the  other  princes  and  for  the  dties.  The  status 
of  those  rulers  who  did  not  obtain  the  electoral  privilege  was 
lowered  by  this  very  fact,  and  the  regulations  about  the  Pfakt- 
btirger,  together  with  the  prohibition  of  new  leagues  and  associa- 
tions, struck  a  severe  blow  at  the  dties.  The  German  kings  were 
dected  according  to  the  conditions  laid  down  in  the  bull  until 
the  dissolution  of  the  Empire  in  1806.  At  first  the  document 
was  known  simply  as  the  Lex  Carolina;  but  gradually  the  name 
of  the  Book  with  the  Golden  Bull  came  into  use,  and  the  present 
elliptical  title  was  suffidently  established  by  141 7  to  be  officially 
employed  in  a  charter  by  King  Sigismund.  The  original  auto- 
graph was  committed  to  the  care  of  the  dector  of  Maina,  and  it 
was  preserved  in  the  archives  at  Mainz  till  1789.  Offidal  tran- 
scripts were  probably  furnished  to  each  of  the  seven  dectors  at 
the  time  of  the  promulgation,  and  before  long  many  of  the  other 
members  of  the  Empire  secured  copies  for  themselves.  The 
transcript  which  belonged  to  the  dector  of  Trier  is  preserved  in 
the  state  archives  at  Stuttgart,  that  of  the  dector  of  Cologne  in 
the  court  library  at  Darmstadt,  and  that  of  the  king  of  Bohemia 
in  the  imperial  archives  at  Vienna.  Berlin,  Munich  and  Dresden 
also  boast  the  possession  of  an  dectoral  transcript;  and  the 
town  of  Kitzingen  has  a  contemporary  copy  in  its  munidpal 
archives.  There  appears,  however,  to  be  good  reason  to  doubt 
the  genuineness  of  most  of  these  so-calied  original  transcripts. 
But  perhaps  the  best  known  example  is  that  of  Frankfort-on- 
Main,  which  was  procured  from  the  imperial  chancery  in  1366, 
and  is  adorned  with  a  golden  seal  like  the  ori^naL  Not  only 
was  it  regularly  quoted  as  the  indubitable  auth<Mrity  in  regard 
to  the  election  of  the  emperors  in  Frankfort  itself,  but  it 
was  from  time  to  time  officially  consulted  by  members  of  the 
Empire. 

The  manuscript  conusts  of  43  leaves  of  parchment  of  medium 
quality,  each  measuring  about  io|  in.  in  height  by  7i  in  breadth. 
The  seal  is  of  the  plate  and  wax  type.  On  the  obverse  appears  a 
figure  of  the  emperor  seated  on  his  throne,  with  the  aceptie  in  his 
right  hand  and  the  ^iobe  in  his  left:  a  shield,  with  the  crowned 
imperial  eagle,  occupies  the  space  on  the  one  ude  of  the  throne,  and 
a  corresponding  shield,  with  the  crowned  Bohemian  lion  with  two 
tails,  occupies  the  space  on  the  other  side;  and  round  the  margin 
runs  the  legend,  Karolus  quartus  dtoinafaoente  dementia,  Ramanorum 
imperator  semper  A  ugustus  et  Boimiae  rex.  On  the  reverse  ia  a  castle, 
with  the  words  Aurea  Roma  on  the  gate,  and  the  drcumacriptton 
reads,  Roma  caput  mundi  regit  orbisfrena  rotundi.  The  original  Latin 
text  of  the  bull  was  printed  at  Nurembeiv  by  Friedrich  Creussner  in 
147^,  and  a  second  edition  by  Anthonius  Kobui]^  (d.  1532)  appeared 
at  the  same  place  in  1477.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  frequently 
reprinted  from  various  manuscripts  and  collections.  M.Goldast  gave 
the  Palatine  text,  compared  with  those  of  Bohemia  and  Frankiort, 
in  his  CoUeclio  constitultonum  et  legum  imperialium  (Frankfort,  161A). 
Another  b  to  be  found  in  De  comUiis  imperii  of  O.  Panvinius,  and  a 
third,  of  unknown  history,  ia  prefixed  to  the  Codex  ruessuum 
Imperii  (Mainz,  1599,  and  again  1015).  The  Frankfort  text  appeared 
in  17^3  as  Aiwea  BuUa  secundum  exemplar  originate  Frankfurtenu, 
edited  by  W.  C.  Multz,  and  the  text  u  also  found  in  J.  J.  Schmauss. 
Corpus  juris  publici,  edited  by  R.  von  Hommd  (Ldpzig,  1704).  and 
in  the  AusgewdUte  Urkunden  sur  Erlduterung  der  VerfassungS' 
eeschichte  DeutscfUands  im  Mittelalter,  edited  by  W.  Altihann  and 
t,.  Bernhcim  (Beriin,  1891,  and  again  1895).  German  translations, 
none  of  which,  however,  had  any  official  authority,  were  published 
at  Nuremberg  about  1474.  at  Venice  in  1476,  ami  at  Strasaburg  in 
148^.  Among  the  earlier  commentators  on  the  document  are 
Hf .Canisius and  J.  Limnaeus  who  waote  InAuream  Bullam(StnsAtu%, 
1663).  The  student  will  find  a  good  account  of  the  older  literature 
on  the  subject  in  C.  G.  Biener's  CommentarU  de  origine  et  frogressu 
legum  Junumaue  Germaniae  (1787-1795).  See. also  J.  D.  von 
Otenschli^r,  Neue  Erldutetungen  der  Guldenen  BuUe  (Frankfort  and 
Leipzig,  1766) ;  H.  G.  vonThulemeyer,  De  BuUa  Aurea,  Armentea,  &c 

i Heidelberg,  i68a);  J.  St  Patter,  Historische  Enlwickelung  der 
eutigen  Staatsverfassung  des  teutscken  Reicks  (Gdttingen,  -1786- 
1787).  and  O.  Stobbe,  Geschickte  der  deutschen  RecktsquMen  (Bnin»- 
wicK,  1860-1  86a).  Amon^  the  more  modem  works  may  be 
mentioned:  E.  Nerger,  Die  Geidne  BuUe  neck  ihrem  Ursprung 
(Gdtiingen.  1877),  O-  Hahn.  Ursprung  Und  Bedeutung  der  GMnen 
BuUe  (Breslau.  1903);  and  M.  G.  Schmidt,  Die  staatsrechtliche 
Anwendung  der  Goldnen  BuUe  (Halle.  1894).  There  u  a  valuable 
contribution  to  the  subject  in  the  Quetlensammlung  9ur  Gesckichte  der 
deutschen  Reicksverfassung,  edited  by  K.  Zeumer  (Leipzig,  1904),  and 


GOLDEN-EYE— GOLDEN  ROSE 


209 


anotlwr  by  O.  Harnack  in  hk  Das  KmrfOrsUm  Kolkgit$m  his  mr 
MiUed€8i4UnJakrhundtfU  (Gieaoen.iSSA).  There  is  an  English  trani- 
Ution  of  the  bull  in  E.  F.  Hendenon's  Seka  Historical  Dtumtnts  of 
ike  Jiiddk  A^  (London.  1905).  (A.  W.  H.*) 

GOUDBH-BTB,  a  name  indiacriminatdy  given  In  many  parta 
of  Britain  to  two  very  distinct  q)ecies  of  ducks,  from  tlie  rich 
yellow  c(4our  of  their  irides.  The  commonest  of  them — the 
Anas  fmligula  of  Linnaeus  and  FtUipda  criOata  of  most  mpdem 
omithologista — is,  however,  usually  called  by  English  writers 
the  tufted  duck,  while  "  golden-eye  "  is  reserved  in  books  for 
the  A.  claugtda  and  A.  gtancian  of  Linnaeus,  who  did  not  know 
that  the  birds  he  so  named  were  but  examples  of  the  same 
species,  differing  only  in  age  or  sex;  and  to  this  day  many  fowlers 
perpetuate  a  like  mistake,  deeming  the  "  Morillon,"  which  is  the 
female  or  young  male,  distinct  from  the  "  Golden-eye "  or 
'*  Raitle-wings  "  (as  from  its  noisy  flight  they  oftener  call  it), 
which  is  the  adult  male.  This  spedes  belongs  to  the  group  known 
as  diving  ducks,  and  is  the  type  of  the  very  well-marked  genus 
Clamguia  of  later  systematists,  which,  among  other  differences, 
has  the  posterior  end  of  the  sternum  prolong^  so  as  to  extend 
considerably  over,  and,  we  may  not  unreasonably  suppose, 
protect  the  belly — ^a  character  possessed  in  a  still  greater  degree 
by  the  mergansers  {Merginae),  while  the  males  idso  exhibit  in 
the  extraordinarily  developed  bony  labyrinth  of  their  tmchea 
and  its  midway  enlargement  another  resemblance  to  the  members 
of  the  same  subfamily.  The  golden-eye,  C.  glaucioH  of  modem 
writcn,  has  its  home  in  the  northern  parts  of  both  hemispheres, 
whence  in  winter  it  migrates  southward;  but  as  it  is  one  of  the 
ducks  that  constantly  resorts  to  hollow  trees  for  the  purpose 
of  breeding  it  hardly  transcends  the  limit  of  the  Arctic  forests 
on  either  continent.  So  well  known  is  this  habit  to  the  people 
of  the  northern  districts  of  Scandinavia,  that  they  very  commonly 
devise  artificial  nest-boxes  for  its  accommodation  and  their  own 
profit.  HoUow  logs  of  wood  are  prepared,  the  top  and  bottom 
closed,  and  a  hole  cut  in  the  side.  These  are  affixed  to  the  tnmks 
of  living  trees  in  suitable  places,  at  a  o>nvenient  distance  from 
the  ground,  and,  being  readily  occupied  by  the  birds  in  the  breed- 
ing-season, are  regularly  robbed,  first  of  the  numerous  eggs,  and 
finally  of  the  down  they  contain,  by  those  who  lucve  set  them  up. 

The  adult  male  golden-eye  is  a  very  beautiful  bird,  mostly 
black  above,  but  with  the  head,  which  is  slightly  crested,  reflect- 
ing rich  green  lights,  a  large  oval  white  patch  under  each  eye 
and  elongated  white  scapulars;  the  lower  parts  are  wholly 
white  and  the  feet  bright  orange,  except  the  webs,  which  are 
dusky.  In  the  female  and  young  male,  dark  brown  replaces  the 
black,*  the  cheek-spots  are  indistinct  and  the  elongated  white 
scapulars  wanting.  The  golden-eye  of  North  America  has  been 
by  some  authors  deemed  to  differ,  and  has  been  named  C. 
americanaf  but  apparently  on  insufficient  grounds.  North 
America,  however,  has,  in  common  with  Iceland,  a  very  distinct 
tpedn,  C.  islandita,  often  called  Barrow's  duck,  which  is  but 
a  rare  straggler  to  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  never,  so  far 
as  known,  to  Britain.  In  Iceland  and  Greenland  it  is  the  only 
habitual  re|H«sentative  of  the  genus,  and  it  occurs  from  thence 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  breeding-habits  it  diffen  from  the 
commoner  q>edes,  not  placing  its  eggs  in  tree-holes;  but  how 
far  this  difference  is  voluntary  may  be  doubted,  for  in  the 
coQntries  it  frequents  trees  aro  wanting.  It  is  a  larger  and 
stouter  bird,  and  in  the  male  the  white  cheek-patches  take  a  moro 
crcxentic  form,  while  the  head  is  glossed  with  purple  rather 
than  green,  and  the  white  scapulars  are  not  elongated.  The  New 
World  also  possesses  a  third  and  still  more  beautiful  species  of 
the  genus  in  C.  albecla,  known  in  books  as  the  buff el-headed  duck, 
and  to  American  fowlers  as  the  "  ^>irit-duck  "  and  "  butter-ball " 
— the  former  name  being  applied  from  its  rapidity  in  diving,  and 
the  latter  from  its  exceeding  fatness  in  autumn.  This  is  of  small 
sice,  but  the  lustre  of  the  feathers  in  the  male  is  most  brilliant, 
exhibiting  a  deep  plum-coloured  gloss  on  the  head.  It  breeds 
in  trees,  and  is  supposed  to  have  ocoirred  more  than  once  in 
Britain.  (A.  N.) 

OOUDBH  FLSBCl,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  fleece  of  the 
lan  on  which  Phiixus  and  Helle  cscap^l,    for  .which    see 


AxcoNAUTS.    For  the  modem  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  see 
Knighthood  and  Chivauy,  section  Orders  of  Knighthood, 

GOLDEN  HORDE,  the  name  of  a  body  of  Tatars  who  in  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century  overran  a  great  portion  of  eastern 
Europe  and  founded  in  Russia  the  Tatar  empire  of  khanate 
known  as  the  Empiro  of  the  Golden  Horde  or  Western  Kipchaks. 
They  invaded  Europe  about  zaj;  under  the  leadership  of  Bita 
Khan,  a  younger  son  of  JujI,  eldest  son  of  Jenghis  Khan,  passed 
over  Russia  with  slaughter  and  destruction,  and  penetrated 
into  Silesia,  Poland  and  Hungary,  finally  defeating  Henry  II., 
duke  of  Silesia,  at  Liegnits  in  the  battle  known  as  the  Wahlstatt 
on  the^th  of  April  1341.  So  costly  was  this  victory,  however, 
that  Bita,  finding  he  could  not  reduce  Neustadt,  retraced  his 
steps  «nd  established  himself  in  his  magnificent  tent  (whence 
the  name  "  golden" )  on  the  Volga.  The  new  settlement  was 
known  as  5ir(7r^  ("  Golden  Camp,"  whence  "  Golden  Horde  "). 
Very  rapidly  the  powers  of  BltO  extended  over  the  Russian 
princes,  and  so  long  as  the  khanate  remained  in  the  direct 
descent  from  BitO  nothing  ocoirred  to  check  the  growth  of  the 
empire.  The  names  of  Bitll's  successors  are  Sartak  (1256), 
Bereke  (Baraka)  (1356-1366),  Manga-TimOr  (x  266-1380),  Toda 
Manga  (x 280-1287),  (?)  Tola  Bught  (X287-1290),  TOkta  (1290- 
X3X2),  Uabeg  (x3X3-X34o),  Tin-Beg  (X340),  Jinl-Beg  (1340- 
X357).  The  death  of  Jftnl-Beg,  however,  threw  the  empire  into 
confusion.  Birdl-Beg  (Berdi-Beg)  only  reigned  for  two  years, 
after  which  two  rulers,  calling  thenuelves  sons  of  Jinl-Beg 
occupied  the  throne  during  one  year.  From  that  time  (1359) 
till  1378  no  single  ruler  held  the  whole  empire  under  contni, 
various  members  of  the  other  branches  of  the  old  house  of  jajl 
assuming  the  title.  At  last  in  X378  Tdktimish,  of  the  Eastern 
Kipchaks,  succeeded  in  ousting  all  rivals,  and  establishing 
himself  as  ruler  of  eastem  and  westem  Kipchak.  For  a  short 
time  the  gloiy  of  the  Golden  Horde  was  renewed,  until  it  was 
finally  crushed  by  Timur  in  X395. 

See  further  Mongols  and  Russia;  Sir  Henry  Howorth's  History 
of  the  Mongols;  S.  Lane-Poole's  Mohammadan  Dynasties  (1804), 
pp.  333-331 ;  for  the  relations  of  the  various  descendants  of  Jengnia, 
see  Stockvis,  Manud  d'histoire,  voL  L  chap.  ix.  table  7. 

OOUDEH  ROD,  in  botany,  the  popular  name  for  SoUdago 
virgaurea  (natural  order  Compositae),  a  native  of  Britain  and 
widely  distributed  in  the  north  temperate  region.  It  is  an  old* 
fashioned  border-plant  flowering  from  July  to  September,  with 
an  erect,  sparingly-branched  stem  and  small  bright-yellow 
clustered  heads  of  flowers.  It  grows  well  in  o>mmon  soil  and  is 
readily  propagated  by  division  in  the  spring  or  autumn. 

GOLDEN  ROSE  (rosa  aurea),  an  ornament  made  of  wrought 
gold  and  set  with  gems,  generally  sapphires,  which  Is  ble»ed 
by  the  pope  on  the  fourth  (Laetare)  Sunday  of  Lent,  and  usually 
afterwards  sent  as  a  mark  of  special  favour  to  some  distinguished 
individual,  to  a  church,  or  a  dvil  community.  Formerly  it 
was  a  single  rose  of  wrought  gold,  coloured  red,  but  the  form 
finally  adopted  is  a  thorny  branch  with  leaves  and  flowers,  the 
petals  of  which  are  decked  with  gems,  surmounted  by  one 
principal  rose.  The  origin  of  the  custom  is  obscure.  From  very 
early  times  popes  have  given  away  a  rose  on  the  fourth  Sunday 
of  Lent,  whence  the  name  Dominica  Rosa,  sometimes  given  to 
this  feast.  The  practice  ci  blessing  and  sending  some  such 
symbol  (e.g.  enlogiae)  goes  back  to  the  earliest  Christian  antiquity, 
but  the  use  of  the  rose  itself  does  not  seem  to  go  farther  back  thu 
the  xxth  century.  According  to  some  authorities  it  was  used 
by  Leo  DC.  (X049-X054),  but  in  any  case  Pope  Urban  II.  sent  one 
to  Fulk  of  Anjou  during  the  preparations  for  the  first  crusade. 
Pope  Urban  V.,  who  sent  a  golden  rose  to  Joanna  of  Naples  in 
X366,  is  alleged  to  have  been  the  first  to  determine  that  one 
should  be  consecrated  annually.  Beginning  with  the  x6th 
century  there  went  regularly  with  the  rose  a  letter  relating  the 
reasons  why  it  was  sent,  and  redting  the  merits  and  virtues 
of  the  receiver.  When  the  change  was  made  from  the  form 
of  the  simple  rose  to  the  branch  Is  uncertain.  The  rose  sent 
by  Innocent  IV.  in  1344  to  Count  Raymond  Berengar  IV.  of 
Provence  was  a  simple  flower  without  any  accessory  ornamenta- 
tion, while  the  one  given  by  Benedict  XI.  in  1303  or  1304  to  the 

1« 


ilQ 


GOLDEN  RULE— OOLDFINCH 


church  of  St  Stephen  at  Perugia  consisted  of  a  branch  garnished 
with  five  open  and  two  cIosmI  roses  enriched  with  a  sapphire, 
the  whole  having  a  value  of  seventy  ducats.  The  value  of  the 
gift  varied  according  to  the  character  or  rank  of  the  recipient. 
John  XXII.  gave  away  some  weighing  xa  oz.,  and  worth 
from  £250  to  £395.  Among  the  recipients  of  this  honour  have 
been  Henry  VI.  of  England,  1446;  James  III.  of  Scotland,  on 
whom  the  rose  (made  by  Jacopo  Magnolio)  was  conferred  by 
Innocent  VIII.;  James  IV.  of  Scotland;  Frederick  the  Wise, 
elector  of  Saxony,  who  received  a  rose  from  Leo  X.  in  1518; 
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who  received  three,  the  hut  from  Clement 
VU.  in  1524  (each  had  nine  branches,  and  rested  on  different 
forms  of  feet,  one  on  oxen,  the  second  on  acorns,  and  the  third  on 
lions);  Queen  Mary,  who  received  one  in  1555  from  Julius  III.; 
the  republic  of  Lucca,  so  favoured  by  Pius  IV.>,  in  1564;  the 
Lateran  Basilica  by  Pius  V.  three  years  later;  the  sanctuary 
of  Loreto  by  Gregory  XIII.  in  1584;  Maria  Theresa,  queen  of 
France,  who  received  it  from  Clement  IX.  in  1668;  Mary 
Casimir,  queen  of  Poland,  from  Innocent  XI.  in  1684  in  recogni- 
tion of  the  deliverance  of  Vienna  by  her  husband,  John  Sobi^ki; 
Benedict  XIII.  (1726)  presented  one  to  the  cathedral  of  Capua, 
and  in  1833  it  was  sent  by  Gregory  XVI.  to  the  church  of  St 
Mark's,  Venice.  In  more  recent  times  it  was  sent  to  Napoleon  III. 
of  France,  the  empress  Eug6nie,  and  the  queens  Isabella  II., 
Christina  (1886)  and  Victoria  (1906)  of  Spain.  The  gift  of  the 
golden  rose  used  almost  invariably  to  accompany  the  coronation 
of  the  king  of  the  Romans.  If  in  any  particular  year  no  one  is 
considered  worthy  of  the  rose,  it  is  laid  up  in  the  Vatican. 

Some  of  the  most  famous  Italian  goldsmiths  have  been 
employed  in  making  the  earlier  roses;  and  such  intrinsically 
valuable  objects  have,  in  common  with  other  priceless  historical 
examples  of  the  goldsmiths'  art,  found  their  way  to  the  melting- 
pot.  It  is,  therefore,  not  surprising  that  the  number  of  existing 
historic  specimens  is  very  small.  These  include  one  of  the  i4tb 
century  in  the  Cluny  Museum,  Paris,  believed  to  have  been  sent 
by  Clement  V.  to  the  prince-bishop  of  Basel;  another  conferred 
in  1458  on  his  native  city  of  Siena  by  Pope  Pius  II.;  and  the 
rose  bestowed  upon  Siena  by  Alexander  VII.,  a  son  of  that  city, 
which  is  depicted  in  a  procession  in  a  fresco  in  the  Palazzo 
Pubblico  at  Siena.  The  surviving  roses  of  more  recent  date 
include  that  presented  by  Benedict  XIII.  to  Capua  cathedral; 
the  rose  conferred  on  the  empress  Caroline  by  Pius  VII.,  1819, 
at  Vienna;  one  of  1833  (Gregory  XVI.)  at  St  Mark's,  Venice; 
and  Pope  Leo  XIII.'s  rose  sent  to  Queen  Christina  of  Spain, 
which  is  at  Madrid. 

Authorities. — Ang^lo  Rocca.  Aurea  Rosa,  Ac.  (1719);  Busenelli, 
De  Rosa  Aurea,  Effistda  (17^9);  Girbal,  La  Rosa  ae  oro  (Madrid, 
1820) ;  C.  Joret.  La  Rose  d'or  dans  I'antiquiU  et  au  tuoyen  Age  (Paris. 
18^2),  pp.  4^2-435:  Eugene  MunU  in  Rtmte  d'art  chriiien  (1901), 
scries  V.  vol.  12  pp.  i-ii;  De  F.  Mely,  Le  Trisor  de  Skartres 
(1886):  Marquis  de  Mac  Swiney  Mashanaelass,  Le  Portugal  el  le 
Saint  Sikge:  Les  Roses  d'or  enooyies  paries  Papes  aux  rots  de 
Portugal  au  XVI*  sikcle  (1904):  Sir  C.  Young,  Ornaments  and  Gift 
consecrated  by  the  Roman  Pontics:  the  Golden  Rose,  the  Cap  and 
Swords  presented  to  Sovereigns  oj  England  and  Scotland  (1864). 

(J.  T.  S.*;  E.  A.  J.) 

GOLDEN  RULB,  the  term  applied  in  all  European  languages 
to  the  nde  of  conduct  laid  down  in  the  New  Testament  (Matthew 
vii.  12  and  Luke  vi.  31),  "  whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should 
do  to  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them,  for  this  is  the  law  and  the 
prophets."  This  principle  has  often  been  stated  as  the  funda- 
mental precept  of  social  morality.  It  is  sometimes  put  negatively 
or  passively,  "  do  not  that  to  another  which  thou  wouldst  not 
have  done  to  thyself  "  (cf.  Hobbes,  LeviathaHf  xv.  79,  xvii.  85), 
but  it  should  be  observed  that  in  this  form  it  implies  merely 
abstention  from  evil  doing.  In  either  form  the  precept  in  ordinary 
application  is  part  of  a  hedonistic  system  of  ethics,  th«  criterion 
of  action  being  strictly  utilitarian  in  character. 

See  H.  Sidgwick,  History  of  Ethics  (5th  ed.,  1903),  p.  167 ;  James 
Setb,  Ethical  Principles,  p.  97  foU. 

OOLOFIELD,  a  town  and  the  county-seat  of  Esmeralda 
county,  Nevada,  U.S.A.,  about  170  m.  S.E.  of  Carson  City. 
Pop.  (19x0,  U.  S.  census)  4838.  It  is  served  by  the  Tonopah 
&  Goldfield,  Las  Vegas  &  Tonopah,  and  Tonopah  &  Tidewater 


railways.  The  town  lies  m  the  midst  of  a  desert  ^lww«t^<«iyj  {n 
high-grade  gold  ores,  and  is  essentially  a  mining  camp.  The 
discovery  of  gold  at  Tonopah,  about  28  m.  N.  of  Goldfield,  in 
X900  was  followed  by  its  discovery  at  Goldfield  in  1902  and  1903; 
in  1904  the  Goldfidd  district  produced  about  800  tons  of  ore, 
whidi  yielded  $2,300,000  worth  of  gold,  or  30%  of  that  ci  the 
state.  This  remarkable  production  caused  Goldfield  to  girow 
rapidly,  and  it  soon  became  the  largest  town  in  the  state.  In 
addition  to  the  mines,  there  are  lai^ge  reduction  works.  In  1907 
Goldfield  became  ihe  county-seat.  The  gold  output  in  1907  was 
$8,408,396;  in  1908,  $4,880,251.  Soon  after  mining  on  an  ex- 
tensive scale  began,  the  miners  organized  themsdves  as  a  local 
branch  of  the  Western  Federation  of  Miners,  and  in  this  branch 
were  included  many  labourers  in  Goldfidd  other  than  miners. 
Between  this  branch  and  the  mine-owners  there  arose  a  series  ot 
more  or  less  serious  differences,  and  there  were  several  set  strikes 
— in  December  1906  and  January  1907,  for  higher  wages;  in 
March,  and  April  1907,  because  the  mine-owners  refused  to 
discharge  carpenters  who  were  members  of  the  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labour,  but  did  not  bdong  to  the  Western  Federation  of 
Miners  or  to  the  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World  affiliated  with 
it,  this  last  organization  being,  as  a  result  of  the  strike,  forced 
out  of  Goldfield;  in  August  and  September  1907,  because  tL 
nde  was  introduced  at  some  of  the  mines  requiring  miners  to 
change  their  dotbing  before  entering  and  after  leaving  the 
mines, — a  rule  made  necessary,  according  to  the  <^>erators,  by 
the  wholesale  stealing  (in  miners'  parlance,  "  high-grading  'O 
of  the  very  valuable  ore  (some  of  it  valued  at  as  high  as  $20  a 
ppund);  and  in  November  and  December  1907,  because  some 
of  the  mine-owners,  avowedly  on  account  of  the  hard  times, 
adopted  a  system  of  paying  in  cashier's  checks.  Excepting 
occasional  attacks  upon  non-union  workmen,  or  upon  persona 
supposed  not  to  be  in  sympathy  with  the  miners'  union,  there 
had  been  no  serious  disturbance  in  Goldfidd;  but  in  December 
X907,  Governor  Sparks,  at  the  instance  of  the  mine<owners, 
appealed  to  President  Roosevdt  to  send  Federal  troops  to 
Goldfield,  on  the  ground  that  the  situation  there  was  ominous, 
that  destruction  of  life  and  property  seemed  probable,  and  that 
the  state  had  no  militia  and  would  be  powerless  to  maintain  order. 
President  Roosevdt  thereupon  (December  4th)  ordered  General 
Frederick  Funston,  commanding  the  Division  of  California,  tt 
San  Francisco,  to  proceed  with  300  Federal  troops  to  Goldfidd. 
The  troops  arrived  in  Goldfield  on  the  6th  of  December,  and 
immediatdy  afterwards  the  mine-owners  reduced  wages  and 
announced  that  no  members  of  the  Western  Federation  of  Miners 
would  thereafter  be  employed  in  the  mines.  President  Roosevdt, 
becoming  convinced  that  conditions  had  not  warranted  Governor 
Sparks's  appeal  for  Federal  assistance,  but  that  the  immediate 
withdrawal  of  the  troops  might  neverthdess  lead  to  serious 
disorders,  consented  that  they  should  remain  for  a  short  time 
on  condition  that  the  state  should  immediately  organize  an 
adequate  militia  or  police  force.  Accordingly,  a  specisl  meeting 
of  the  legislature  was  immediatdy  called,  a  state  police  force 
was  organized,  and  on  the  7th  of  March  1908  the  troops  were 
withdrawn.  ^  Thereafter  work  was  gradually  resumed  in  the 
mines,  the  contest  having  been  won  by  the  mine-ownen. 

OOLDFINCH  (Ger.  Goldfinl^),  the  FringiUa  cardtulis  of 
Linnaeus  and  the  Cardudis  degans  of  later  authors,  an  extremely 
well-known  bird  found  over  the  greater  parts  of  Europe  and 
North  Africa,  and  eastwards  to  Persia  and  Turkestan.  Its  gay 
plumage  is  matched  by  its  sprightly  nature;  and  together  they 
make  it  one  of  the  most  favourite  cage-birds  among  all  dasses. 
As  a  songster  it  is  indeed  surpassed  by  many  other  species, 
but  its  dodlity  and  ready  attachment  to  its  master  or  mistress 
make  up  for  any  defect  in  its  vocal  powers.  In  some  parts  of 
England  the  trade  in  goldfinches  is  very  considerable.  In  x86o 
Mr  Hussey  reported  {Zool.^  p.  7144)  the  average  annual  captures 
near  Worthing  to  exceed  ix,ooo  dozens — ^nearly  all  being  cock- 
birds;  and  a  witness  before  a  committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1873  stated  that,  when  a  boy,  he  could  take  forty 

1  The  more  common  German  name,  however,  is  Distdfink  (Thisde- 
Finch)  or  Stieglitt, 


GOLDFISH— GOLDIE 


doKU  in  >  morning  neai  Bcigbton.  In  tbcac  diioicts  and  DIhcn 
the  number  hu  become  mucli  reduced,  owing  doubtlos  ia  piut 
to  tbe  laUl  pnctkc  of  catchmg  the  bjids  juat  before  or  during 
the  breed  JDg-scuon;  but  perhaps  the  BtronEesI  cjtase  of  their 
growing  scardty  ia  the  cooatuit  breaking-up  of  wule  llpda^  uid 
the  extirpation  of  weeda  (particularly  of  the  order  Composilat) 
*■**"'■■'  to  the  impToved  ■yatem  of  agriculture;  for  in  nuny 
pvta  of  Scotland,  Eaal  Lothian  for  inatance,  where  goldGnchefl 
were  oatx  aa  plenliFul  aa  apairowa,  they  arc  now  only  rar 
atracS^en,  and  yet  there  ihey  have  not  been  thinned  by  netlinf 
Though  goldfinchea  may  occaaionally  be  obaerved  in  the  colda 
jRAIhei,  incomparably  the  largtat  number  leave  Bn'tain  i 
4ulumn,  returning  In  ipring,  and  resorting  to  gardena  an 
orchanb  Co  breed,  when  tbe  lively  »ng  of  the  eock,  and  th 
bright  yellow  wings  of  both  tmxa,  quicldy  attract  notice.  Th 
neat  ia  a  beautifully  neat  atiucture,  ofien  placed  at  no  great 
hd^t  from  the  ground,  but  generaJly  ao  well  hidden  b 
leily  bough  on  which  it  ia  built  as  not  to  be  euily  found, 
the  young  being  hatched,  iheconstjuitvisir  a  of  the  parental 
ita  iite.  When  the  broods  leave  (he  nest  they  move  ini 
more  open  country,  and  frequenting  pmiurei,  commons,  heaiha 
■nd  downs,  usemble  in  large  flocka  towards  the  end  of  tut 
Eaatwaid  of  the  range  of  the  preaenl  speciei  ita  place  ia  tak 
its  congener  C.  tankrfs,  which  is  eaaily  recogniEed  by  wi 
tbe  black  hood  and  white  ear-coveita  of  the  Briliah  bird.  Its 
borne  aeema  to  be  in  Central  Aaia,  but  it  raovea  southward  in 
winter,  being  common  at  that  season  in  Cashmere,  and  is  ni 
Dnftequenlly  brought  for  aale  to  Calcutta.  The  position  of  ll 
genlH  Cv^udU  in  tbe  family  Friniiiiidae  a  not  vciy  dea 
Stnclnnlly  it  would  aeem  lo  have  some  relation  to  (he  sisku 
fCftfTSVHHfrir),  though  the  members  of  the  two  groups  have  vci 
difierent  habits,  and  perhaps  ita  neartat  kinship  lies  with  tl 
bawfindiei  (CKcMrausUs).    See  Fihcb.  (A.  N.) 

OOLDFUB   (Cyfrinai  or  Cdrouiw  auralia)    a  unsll  & 
b>k«ning  to  Uk  Cypnnid  famdy  a  native  of  Chuu  but  natu 


T 

descope-fiah. 

aJiiBl  m  other  couotriea. 

In  the  wild  lUte  Its  colo 

IS  do  not 

differ  from  those  of  aCnicia 

n  carp,  and  like  thai  fish  it  ii 

of  file  and  easUy  domes 

be  rather 

comaue;  and  aa  in  other  hahes  (for  inatince,  (he  le 

nch,  carp. 

od,  flounder),  the  colour 

i  moat  of  these  albinos  a  a  bright 

kk«,  (be  fish  being  miit 

ccasionally  even  this  ahad    "'  — '""" 
or  less  pure  while  or  sQv 

ly.    The 

Chiikese  have  domesticated  these  albinos  for  a  long 

time,  and 

by  careful  idettion  have 

succeeded  in  propagating 

all  (hose 

struge  varieliei,  and  even 

monstrosities,  which  appear  in  every 

domeMic  animal.    In  torn 

haU  it*  rwrmal  length,  in 

others  entirely  absent;  in 

thersthe 

ual  £n  has  >  double  spin 

;  In  others  all  (he  fins  are 

of  nearly 

d-nbk  (he  usual  length. 

The  anout  is  frequently  a 

alformcd. 

pTJug  the  head  of  (he  fish  an  abearance  similar  to 

that  of  a 

bulldog.     The  variety  m 

Ht  highly  priied  has  an 

eaittmely 

abort  anout,  eyn  which  ain 

ooat  wholly  project  beyond 

(he  orbit. 

an  dnml  fin,  and  a  very 

long  three-  or  fout-lobed 

oudalfin 

211 

The  domestication  of  ibe  goldfish  by  tbe  Chiaoe  dales  back 
from  the  highest  antiquity,  and  Ihey  were  introduced  Into  Japan 
at  (be  beginning  of  the  i6th  century;  but  the  dale  of  (heir 
importation  into  Europe  is  still  uncirtun.  Tbe  great  Cerman 
ichthyologist,  M.  E.  Bloch,  thought  he  could  (rac«  it  back  in 
England  to  the  reign  of  James  I.,  whilst  other  author*  £i  the 
dale  at  t69r.  It  appears  certain  Ibal  they  were  bruugbt  to 
France,  only  much  later,  ai  a  present  to  Ume  di  Pompadour, 

Louis  XV.,  have  failed  (o  (nee  any  records  of  (hia  evcn(.  The 
fish  has  since  spread  over  a  considerable  part  of  Europe,  and  in 
many  places  it  bas  reverted  to  ita  wild  condition.  In  many  parts 
of  Bouth-eaalera  Aaia,  in  Mauritius,  in  North  and  South  Africa, 
in  Madagascar,  in  the  Azorca,  it  baa  become  thoroughly  accllma> 
(Lied,  and  succesafully  coinpe(e8  with  the  indigenous  fresh-water 
fishes.  1(  will  no(  thrive  in  riven;  in  large  ponds  it  readily 
reverts  lo  (he  cobra(ion  of  (he  original  wild  stock.  II  flourishea 
bea(  in  small  tonka  and  ponda,  in  which  the  water  ia  cona(antly 
changing  and  doea  not  freeic;  in  such  locailliea,  and  with  a  fuU 
supply  of  food,  which  consists  of  weeds,  crumbs  of  bread,  bran, 

from  6  to  ii  in.,  breeding  readily,  sometimes  at  diSerent  times 
of  the  same  year. 

QOLDFnSS,  DEORH  AUQUST  (sjSi-iS^SI,  German  palacon- 
tolsgiat,  bom  at  Thumau  neat  Bayteuih  an  the  rSIb  of  April 
1783,  was  educated  at  Eriangcn,  wheie  be  graduated  Ph.D.  in 
1804  and  became  profetaor  of  zoology  in  rSiS.  Ht  waa  sub- 
sequently appointed  professor  of  zoology  and  mineralogy  in  tbe 
university  of  Bonn.  Aided  by  Count  C.  MUnstei  be  iaaued  the 
important  Pdrifacia  Ccnuunioi  USi6-ii**),  a  work  which  waa 
intended  la  illuiirate  the  invertebrate  fossils  of  Germany,  but  it 
was  left  incomplete  after  the  sponges,  cotala,  crinoida,  echinids 
and  part  of  the  molluaca  had  been  figured.  Goldfuss  died  at  Bonn 
on  the  ind  of  October  ii4«- 

OOLDIB,  CIB  OEOflOB  DASBWOOD  TAUBMAN  (iB*^-  ), 
Engliah  adminialrator,  the  founder  of  Nigeria,  waa  bom  on  tbe 
loth  of  Hay  1S4A  at  (he  Nunnery  in  (he  tile  of  Man,  being  the 
youngeit  son  of  Lieut.-Colonel  John  Taubman  Goldie-Taubman. 
speaker  of  (he  House  of  Keys,  by  his  second  wife  Caroline, 
daughfer  of  John  E.  Hoveden  of  Heminglord,  Cai^bridgeahire, 
Sit  George  resumed  his  pa(emal  name,  Coldie,  by  royal  licence  in 
li&j.  He  ma  educated  a(  (be  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
wich, and  for  about  two  years  held  a  commission  in  the  Royal 
Englneera.  He  (ravelled  in  all  parts  of  Africa,  gaining  an  ei- 
teniive  knowledge  of  the  continent,  and  fint  visited  the  country 
of  the  Niger  iu  18;;.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  adding  to  the 
Britiahi  empire  the  then  little  known  regiona  of  Ihe  lower  and 
middle  Niger,  and  for  over  twenty  yean  his  eHorts  were  devoted 
(0  (he  realiialion  of  (his  concepdon.  Tbe  method  by  irhich  he 
de(crralned  (0  work  was  (he  revival  of  govemmen(  by  chartered 
companies  wKhin  (fic  empirc--a  merhod  supposed  la  be  buried 
with  the  Eas(  India  Company.  The  first  step  was  to  combine  all 
BritishcommeR:ialinterestsintheNiger,and  this  he  accomplished 
in  iSjg  when  the  United  African  Company  was  formed.  In  igSi 
Gotdie  sought  a  chatter  from  the  imperial  government  (the  md 
Gladstone  ministry).  Objections  of  various  kinds  were  raised. 
To  meet  Ihem  the  capital  of  the  company  (renamed  the  National 
African  Company)  was  Increased  from  £115,000  (o£r,ooo,ooi),  and 
grea(  energy  waa  diq>byed  in  founding  ala(ions  on  the  Niger. 
At  this  lime  French  traders,  encouraged  by  Gambella,  established 
themselves  on  (be  lower  river.  Ihus  rendering  it  difficult  for  the 
company  to  obtain  tcrrilotiil  rights;  but  the  Frenchmen  were 
bou^t  out  in  1884.  so  (hat  at  (he  Berlin  conference  00  Wes( 
Africa  in  1885  M  t  GoMIe,  present  as  an  cipert  on  matters  relating 
to  Ihe  rivet,  was  able  to  announce  that  on  the  lower  Niger  ihe 
British  dag  alone  Hew,  Meantime  the  Niger  coast  line  had  been 
placed  under  Bri(iah  prolec(ion.  Through  Joseph  Thomson. 
David  Mcintosh,  D,  W.  Sargent,  ].  Flint,  WilUun  Wallace, 
E.  DangerGeld  and  n 


:r  Niger  a 


■e  Hausi 


made< 


1  of  tbe 


212 


GOLDING— GOLDMARK 


(July  z886),  the  Natioud  African  Company  becoming  the  Royal 
Niger  Comi>any,  with  Lord  Aberdare  as  governor  and  Goldie  as 
vice-governor.  In  1895,  on  Lord  Aberdare's  death,  Goldie 
became  governor  of  the  company,  whose  destinies  he  had  guided 
throughout. 

The  building  up  of  Nigeria  as  a  British  state  had  to  be  carried 
on  in  face  of  further  difficulties  raised  by  French  travellers  with 
political  missions,  and  abo  in  face  of  German  opposition.  From 
1884  to  1890,  Prince  Bismarck  was  a  persistent  antagonist,  and 
the  strenuous  efforts  he  made  to  secure  for  Germany  the  basin  of 
the  lower  Niger  and  Lake  Chad  were  even  more  dangerous 
to  Goldie's  schemes  of  empire  than  the  ambitions  of  France. 
Herr  E.  R.  Flegel,  who  had  travelled  in  Nigeria  during  1882-1884 
under  the  auspices  of  the  British  company,  was  sent  out  in  1885 
by  the  newly-formed  German  Colonial  Society  to  secure  treaties 
for  Germany,  which  had  established  itself  at  Cameroon.  After 
Flegel's  death  in  1886  his  work  was  continued  by  hb  companion 
Dr  Staudinger,  while  Herr  Hoenigsbeig  was  despatched  to  stir 
up  trouble  in  the  occupied  portions  of  the  Company's  territory, — 
or,  as  he  expressed  it, "  to  burst  up  the  charter."  He  was  finaJly 
arrested  at  Onitsha,  and,  after  trial  by  the  company's  supreme 
court  at  Asaba,  was  expelled  the  country.  Prince  Bismarck  then 
sent  out  his  nephew,  Herr  von  Puttkamer,  as  German  consul- 
general  to  Nigeria,  with  orders  to  report  on  this  affair,  and  when 
this  report  was  published  in  a  White  Book,  Bismarck  demanded 
heavy  damages  from  the  company.  Meanwhile  Bismarck  main- 
tained constant  pressure  on  the  British  government  to  compel  the 
Royal  Niger  Company  to  a  division  of  spheres  of  influence,  where- 
by Great  Britain  wodd  have  lost  a  third,  and  the  most  valuable 
part,  of  the  company's  territory.  But  he  fell  from  power  in 
March  1890,  and  in  July  following  Lord  Salisbury  concluded  the 
famous  "  Heligoland  "  agreement  with  Germany.  After  this 
event  the  aggressive  action  of  Germany  in  Nigeria  entirely  ceased, 
and  the  door  was  opened  for  a  final  settlement  of  the  Nigeria- 
Cameroon  frontiers.  These  negotiations,  which  resulted  in  an 
agreement  in  1 893,  were  initiated  by  Goldie  as  a  means  of  arresting 
the  advance  of  France  into  Nigeria  from  the  direction  of  the  Congo. 
By  conceding  to  Germany  a  long  but  narrow  strip  of  territory 
between  Adamawa  and  Lake  Chad,  to  which  she  had  no  treaty 
claims,  a  barrier  was  raised  against  French  expeditions,  semi- 
military  and  semi-exploratory,  which  sought  to  enter  Nigeria 
from  the  east.  Later  French  efforts  at  aggression  were  made 
from  the  western  or  Dahomeyan  side,  despite  an  agreement 
concluded  with  France  in  1890  respecting  the  northern  frontier. 

The  hostility  of  certain  Fula  princes  led  the  company  to 
despatch,  in  1897,  an  expedition  against  the  Mahommedan  states 
of  Nup£  and  lUorin.  Thb  expedition  was  organized  and  poaonally 
directed  by  Goldie  and  was  completely  successf  uL  Internal  peace 
was  thus  secured,  but  in  the  following  year  the  differences  with 
France  in  regard  to  the  frontier  line  became  acute,  and  compelled 
the  intervention  of  the  British  government.  In  the  negotiations 
which  ensued  Goldie  was  instrumental  in  preserving  for  Great 
Britain  the  whole  of  the  navigable  stretch  of  the  lower  Niger.  It 
was,  however,  evidently  impossible  for  a  chartered  company  to 
hold  its  own  against  the  state-supported  protectorates  of  France 
and  Germany,  and  in  consequence,  on  the  ist  of  January  1900, 
the  Royal  Niger  Company  transferred  its  territories  to  the  British 
government  for  the  sum  of  £865,000.  The  ceded  territory 
together  with  the  small  Niger  Coast  Protectorate,  already  under 
imperial  control,  was  formed  into  the  two  protectorates  of 
northern  and  southern  Nigeria  (see  further  Nicekia). 

In  1905-1904,  at  the  request  of  the  Chartered  Company  of 
South  Africa,  Goldie  visited  Rhodesia  and  examined  the  situation 
in  connexion  with  the  agitation  for  self-government  by  the 
Rhodesians.  In  1902-1903  he  was  one  of  the  royal  commissioners 
who  inquired  into  the  military  preparations  for  the  war  in  South 
Africa  (1899-1902)  and  into  the  operations  up  to  the  occupation 
of  Pretoria,  and  in  1905-1906  was  a  member  of  the  royal  com- 
mission which  investigated  the  methods  of  disposal  of  war  stores 
after  peace  had  been  made.  In  1905  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  Royal  Geographical  Sodety  and  hdd  that  office  for  three 
years.    In  1908  he  was  chosen  an  alderman  of  the  London  County 


Council.  Goldie  was  created  K.C.M.G.  in  1887,  and  a  prWy 
councillor  in  1898.  He  became  an  F.R.S.,  honorary  D.C.L.  <^ 
Oxford  University  (1897)  and  honorary  LL.D.  of  Cambridge 
(1897).  He  married  in  1870  Matilda  Catherine  (d.  1898),  daug|iter 
of  John  WilUam  Elliott  of  Wakefield. 

OOLDINO,  ARTHUR  {e,  1536-c.  1605),  English  translator,  son 
of  John  Golding  of  Belchamp  St  Paul  and  Halstcd,  Essex,  one  of 
the  auditors  of  the  exchequer,  was  bom  probably  in  London 
about  1536.  His  half-sister,  Margaret,  married  John  de  Vere, 
x6th  eari  of  Oxford.  In  1549  he  was  already  in  the  service  of 
Protector  Somerset,  and  the  statement  that  he  was  educated  at 
Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  lacks  corroboration.  He  seems  to 
have  resided  for  some  time  in  the  house  of  Sir  Wilh'am  Cedl,  in 
the  Strand,  with  his  nephew,  the  poet,  the  17th  earl  of  Oxford, 
whose  receiver  he  was,  for  two  of  his  dedications  are  dated  from 
Cedl  House.  His  chief  work  is  his  translation  of  Ovid.  Tke 
Fyrst  Power  Bookes  of  P,  Ooidius  Nasos  iporjte,  eutitttd  Meta- 
morphosiSj  translated  oute  of  Latin  into  Englishe  meter  (1565), 
was  supplemented  in  1567  by  a  translation  of  the  fifteen  books. 
Strangely  enough  the  translator  of  Ovid  was  a  man  of  strong 
Puritan  sympathies,  and  he  translated  many  of  the  woiks  of 
Calvin.  To  his  version  of  the  Metamorphoses  he  prefixed  a  long 
metrical  explanation  of  his  reasons  for  o>nsidering  it  a  work 
of  edification.  He  sets  lorth  the  moral  which  he  supposes  to 
underlie  certain  of  the  stories,  and  shows  how  the  pagan 
machinery  may  be  brought  into  line  with  Christian  thought. 
It  was  from  Golding's  pages  that  many  of  the  Elizabethans  drew 
their  knowledge  of  clasairal  mythology,  and  there  is  little  doubt 
that  Shakespeare  was  well  acquainted  with  the  book.  Golding 
translated  also  the  Commentaries  of  Caesar  (1565),  Calvin's 
commentaries  on  the  Psalms  (1571),  his  sermons  on  the  Galatians 
and  Ephesians,  on  Deuteronomy  and  the  book  of  Job,  Theodore 
Beaa's  Tragedie  of  A  brakams  Sacrifice  (1577)  and  the  De  BeneficOs 
of  Seneca  (1578).  He  completed  a  translation  begun  by  Sidney 
from  Philippe  de  Mornay,  A  Worke  concerning  the  Trewnesse  of 
the  Christian  Rdigion  (1604).  His  only  original  work  is  a  prose 
Discourse  on  the  earthquake  of  1580,  in  which  he  saw  a  jud^^ent 
of  God  on  the  wickedness  of  his  time.  He  inherited  three  con- 
siderable estates  in  Essex,  the  greater  part  of  which  he  sold  in 
X  595.  The  last  trace  we  have  of  Golding  is  contained  in  an  order 
dated  the  25th  of  July  X605,  giving  him  licence  to  print  certain 
of  his  works. 

GOLDINQBN  (Lettish,  Kuldiga),  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Courland,  55  m.  by  rail  N.E.  of  Libau,  and  on 
Windau  river,  in  56**  58'  N.  and  22*  E.  Pop.  (1897)  9733.  It 
has  woollen  mills,  needle  and  match  factories,  breweries  and 
dbtilleries,  a  college  for  teachers,  and  ruins  of  a  castle  of  the 
Teutonic  Knights,  built  in  X248  and  used  in  the  X7th  century  as 
the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Courland. 

OOLDMARK,  KARL  (1832-  ),  Hungarian  composer,  was 
bom  at  Keszthely-am-Plattensce,  in  Hungary,  on  the  x8th  of 
May  1832.  His  father,  a  poor  cantor  in  the  local  Jewish  syna- 
gogue, was  unable  to  assist  to  any  extent  finandally  in  Ihe 
development  of  his  son's  talents.  Yet  in  the  household  much 
music  was  made,  and  on  a  cheap  violin  and  home-made  flute, 
constmcted  by  Goldmark  himself  from  reeds  cut  from  the  river- 
bank,  the  future  composer  gave  rein  to  his  musical  ideas.  His 
talent  was  fostered  by  the  village  schoolmaster,  by  whose  aid 
he  was  able  to  enter  the  music-school  of  the  Oedenburgcr  Verdn. 
Here  he  remained  but  a  short  time,  his  success  at  a  school  concert 
finally  determining  his  parents  to  allow  him  to  devote  himself 
entirely  to  music  In  1844,  then,  he  went  to  Vienna,  where 
Jansa  took  up  his  cause  and  eventually  obtained  for  him  admis- 
sion to  the  conservatorium.  For  two  years  Goldmark  worked 
under  Jansa  at  the  violin,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution, 
after  studying  all  the  orchestral  instmmenls  he  obtained  an 
engagement  in  the  orchestra  at  Raab.  There,  on  the  capit ulation 
of  Raab,  he  was  to  have  been  shot  for  a  spy,  and  was  only  saved 
at  the  eleventh  hour  by  the  happy  arrival  of  a  former  colleague. 
In  1850  Goldmark  left  Raab  for  Vienna,  where  from  his  friend 
Mittrich  he  obtained  his  first  real  knowledge  of  the  dassics. 
There,  too,  he  devoted  himsdf  to  composition.  In  1857  Goldmark 


GOLDONI— GOLDSCHMIDT 


213 


win  ma  then  engaged  in  the  Karl-theater  band,  gave  a 
concert  of  his  own  worics  with  such  success  that  his  first  quartet 
attracted  very  general  attention.  Then  followed  the  "  Sakun- 
tala  "  and  "  Penthesilea  "  overtures,  which  show  how  Wagner's 
Influence  had  supervened  upon  his  previous  domination  by 
Mendels&ofan,  and  the  deUghtful  "  Lindliche  Hochzeit"  sym- 
phony, whi<^  carried  his  fame  abroad.  Goldmark's  reputation 
was  now  made,  and  very  largely  increased  by  the  production 
at  Vienna  in  1875  of  his  first  and  best  <^ra,  Die  Kdnigin  von 
Saba.  Over  this  opera  he  spent  seven  years.  Its  popularity 
is  still  almost  as  great  as  ever.  It  was  followed  in  November 
1886,  abM>  at  Vienna,  by  Merlin^  much  of  which  has  been  re- 
written since  then.  A  third  opera,  a  venion  of  Dickens's  Crickel 
en  the  Hearlk^  was  given  by  the  Royal  Carl  Rosa  Company 
in  London  in  1900.  Goldmark's  chamber  music  has  not  made 
much  lasting  impression,  but  the  overtures  "  Im  Friihling," 
**  Prometheus  Bound,"  and  "  Sapho  "  are  fairly  well  known. 
A  *'  programme  "  seems  essential  to  him.  In  opera  he  is  most 
certainly  at  his  best,  and  as  an  orchestral  colourist  he  ranks 
among  the  very  highest. 

OOLDONI,  CARLO  (i  707-1793),  Italian  dramatist,  the  real 
founder  of  modem  Italian  comedy,  was  born  at  Venice,  on  the 
iSth  of  February  1707,  in  a  fine  house  near  St  Thomas's  church. 
H^  father  Giulio  was  a  native  of  Modena.  The  first  playthings 
of  the  future  writer  were  puppets  which  he  made  dance;  the 
fir&t  books  he  read  were  plays, — among  others,  the  comedies  of 
the  Florentine  Cicogninl.  Later  he  received  a  still  stronger 
Impression  from  the  Mandragora  of  MachiaveUi.  At  eight  years 
old  he  had  tried  to  sketch  a  play.  His  father,  meanwhile,  had 
taken  his  degree  in  medicine  at  Rome  and  fixed  himself  at 
Perugia,  where  he  made  his  son  join  him;  but,  having  soon 
quarrdlcd  with  his  colleagues  in  medicine,  he  departed  for 
Chioggia,  leaving  his  son  to  the  care  of  a  philosopher,  Professor 
Caldini  of  Rimini.  The  young  GoldonI  soon  grew  tired  of  his 
Uf  e  at  Rimini,  and  ran  away  with  a  Venetian  company  of  players. 
He  began  to  study  law  at  Venice,  then  went  to  continue  the 
same  pursuit  at  Pa  via,  but  at  that  time  he  was  studying  the 
Greek  and  Latin  comic  poets  much  more  and  much  better  than 
books  about  law.  "  I  have  read  over  again,"  he  writes  in  his 
own  Memoirs, "  the  Greek  and  Latin  poets,  and  I  have  told  to 
mysdf  that  I  should  like  to  imitate  them  in  their  style,  their 
plots,  their  precision;  but  I  would  not  be  satisfied  unless  I 
succeeded  in  giving  more  Interest  to  my  works,  happier  issues 
to  my  pkits,  better  drawn  characters  and  more  genuine  comedy." 
For  a  satire  entitled  //  Cohsso,  which  attacked  the  honour  of 
several  families  of  Pavia,  he  was  driven  from  that  town,  and 
went  first  to  study  with  the  jurisconsult  Morelli  at  Udine,  then 
to  take  his  degree  in  law  at  Modena.  After  having  worked 
some  time  as  derk  in  the  chanceries  of  Chioggia  and  Feltrc, 
his  father  being  dead,  he  went  to  Venice,  to  exercise  there  his 
profession  as  a  lawyer.  But  the  wish  to  write  for  the  stage 
was  always  strong  in  him,  and  he  tried  to  do  so;  he  made, 
however,  a  mistake  in  his  choice,  and  began  with  a  tragedy, 
A  malasMtita,  which  was  represented  at  Milan  and  proved  a  failure. 
In  Z754  he  wrote  another  tragedy,  Bdisario,  which,  though  not 
much  better,  chanced  nevertheless  to  please  the  public.  This 
first  success  encouraged  him  to  write  other  tragedies,  some  of 
which  were  well  received;  but  the  author  himself  saw  clearly 
that  he  had  not  yet  found  his  proper  sphere,  and  that  a  radiod 
dramatic  reform  was  absolutely  necessary  for  the  stage.  He 
wished  to  create  a  characteristic  comedy  in  Italy,  to  follow  the 
example  of  Molidre,  and  to  delineate  the  realities  of  social  life 
in  as  natural  a  manner  as  possible.  His  first  essay  of  this  kind 
%ras  Momch  Cortesan  (Momolo  the  Courtier),  written  in  the 
Venetian  dialect,  and  based  on  his  own  experience.  Other 
|4ays  followed — some  interesting  from  their  subject,  others 
from  the  characters;  the  best  of  that  period  are — Le  Trentadue 
Disgnne  d*  ArUcckino,  La  Noiie  crilica,  La  BancaroUa,  La 
Donma  di  Carbo.  Having,  while  consul  of  Genoa  at  Venice, 
been  cheated  by  a  captain  of  Ragusa,^  he  founded  on  this  his 
play  VlmpQsUre.  At  Leghorn  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
OMBcdian  Medebac,  and  foUowed  him  to  Venice,  with  his  company* 


for  which  he  began  to  write  \a&  best  plays.    Once  he  promised 

to  write  sixteen  comedies  in  a  year,  and  kept  his  word;  among 

the  sixteen  are  some  of  his  very  best,  such  as  //  Cajfh,  II  Bugiardo^ 

La  Pamela.    When  he  left  the  company  of  Medebac,  he  passed 

over  to  that  maintained  by  the  patrician  Vendramin,  continuing 

to  write  with  the  greatest  facility.    In  1761  he  was  called  to 

Paris,  and  before  leaving  Venice  he  wrote  Una  delle  uUime  sere 

di  CamevaU  (One  of  the  Last  Nights  of  Carnival),  an  allegorical 

comedy  in  which  he  said  good-bye  to  his  country.    At  the  end 

of  the  representation  of  this  play,  the  theatre  resounded  with 

applause,  and  with  shouts  expressive  of  good  wishes.    Goldoni, 

at  this  proof  of  public  sympathy,  wept  as  a  child.    At  Paris, 

during  two  years,  he  wrote  comedies  for  the  Xtalian  actors;  then 

he  taught  Italian  to  the  royal  princesses;  and  for  the  wedding 

of  Louis  XVI.  and  of  Marie  Antoinette  he  wrote  in  French  one 

of  his  best  comedies,  Le  Bourm  bienfaisani,  which  was  a  great 

success.    When  he  retired  from  Paris  to  Versailles,  the  king 

made  him  a  gift  of  6000  francs,  and  fixed  on  him  an  annual 

pension  of  1 200  francs.   It  was  at  Versailles  he  wrote  his  Memoirs, 

which  occupied  him  till  he  reached  his  eightieth  year.    The 

Revolution  deprived  him  all  at  once  of  his  modest  pension,  and 

reduced  him  to  extreme  misery;  he  dragged  on  his  unfortunate 

existence  till  1793,  and  died  on  the  6th  of  February.    The  day 

after,  on  the  proposal  of  Andr6  Chinier,  the  Convention  agreed 

to  give  the  pension  back  to  the  poet;  and  as  he  had  already 

died,  a  reduced  allowance  was  granted  to  his  widow. 

The  best  comedies  of  Goldoni  are:  La  Donna  di  Carbo,  La  BoUega 
di  Caffi.  Pamela  nubile,  Le  Baruffe  ckumoUe,  I  Rnsteghi,  Todero 
BronioloH,  Cli  Innamoraii,  II  VentagUo,  II  Bugiardo,  La  Casa  nova, 
II  Burbero  benefico,  La  Locandiera.  A  collected  edition  (Venioe, 
1788)  was  republished  at  Florence  in  1837.  See  P.  G.  Molmenti, 
Carlo  Coldont  (Venice,  1875);  Rabany,  Carlo  Goldoni  (Paris,  1896). 
The  Memoirs  were  translated  into  English  by  John  Black  ^Boston, 
1877).  with  preface  by  W.  D.  Howells. 

GOLDSt  a  Mongolo-Tatar  people,  living  on  the  Lower  Amur 
in  south-eastern  Siberia.  Their  chief  settlements  are  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Amur  and  along  the  Sungari  and  Usuri  rivers.  In 
physique  they  are  typically  Mongolic.  Like  the  Chinese  they 
wear  a  pigtail,  and  from  them,  too,  have  learnt  the  art  of  silk 
embroidery.  The  Golds  live  almost  entirely  on  fish,  and  are 
excellent  boatmen.  They  keep  large  herds  of  swine  and  dogs, 
which  live,  like  themselves,  on  fish.  Geese,  wild  duck,  eagles, 
bears,  wolves  and  foxes  are  also  kept  in  menageries.  There  is 
much  reverence  paid  to  the  eagles,  and  hence  the  Manchus  call 
the  Golds  "  Eaglets."    Their  religion  is  Shamanism. 

See  L.  Schrenck,  Die  Vslker  des  Amurlandes  (St  Petersburg,  Z891) ; 
Laufer,  "The  Amoor  Tribes,"  in  American  AnikrofKdogtst  (New 
York,  1900) ;  E.  G.  Ravenstein,  The  Russians  on  Ike  Amur  (1861). 

G0LD8B0R0,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Wayne  county. 
North  C'lrolina,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Neuse  river,  about  50  m.  S.E.  of 
Raleigh.  Pop.  (1890)  4017;  (1900)  5877  (2520  negroes);  (1910) 
6x07.  It  is  served  by  the  Southern,  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line 
and  the  Norfolk  &  Southern  railways.  The  surrounding  country 
produces  large  quantities  of  tobacco,  cotton  and  grain,  and 
trucking  is  an  important  industry,  the  dty  being  a  distributing 
point  for  strawberries  and  various  kinds  of  vegetables.  The 
city's  manufactures  indude  cotton  goods,  knit  goods,  o>tton- 
seed  oil,  agricultural  implements,  lumber  and  furniture.  Golds- 
boro  is  the  seat  of  the  Eastern  insane  asylum  (for  negroes)  and 
of  an  Odd  Fellows'  orphan  home.  The  munidpality  owns  and 
operates  its  water-works  and  electric-lighting  plant.  Goldsboro 
was  settled  in  1838,  and  was  first  incorporated  in  1841.  In  the 
camp>aign  of  1865  Goldsboro  was  the  point  of  junction  of  the 
Union  armies  under  gcnerab  Sherman  and  Schofidd,  previous 
to  the  final  advance  to  Greensboro. 

QOLDSCHMIDT,  HERMANN  (1802-1866),  German  painter 
and  astronomer,  was  the  son  of  a  Jewish  merchant,  and  was  born 
at  Frankfort  on  the  1 7th  of  June  1802.  He  for  ten  years  as^sted 
his  father  in  his  business;  but,  his  love  of  art  having  been 
awakened  while  journeying  in  Holland,  he  in  183a  began  the 
study  of  painting  at  Munich  under  Cornelius  and  Schnorr,  and 
in  1836  established  himself  at  Paris,  where  he  painted  a  number 
of  pictures  of  more  than  average  merit,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  "Cumaean  Sibyl"  (284/^  to 


214 


GOLDSMID— GOLDSMITH,  OLIVER 


Venus  "  (184s);  a  "  View  of  Rome  "  (1849);  tbe  "  Death  of 
Romeo  and  Juliet"  (1857);  and  several  Alpine  landscapes. 
In  1847  he  began  to  devote  his  attention  to  astronomy;  and 
from  X852  to  i86z  he  discovered  fourteen  asteroids  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter,  on  which  account  he  received  the  grand 
astronomical  prize  from  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  observa- 
tions of  the  protuberances  on  the  sun,  made  during  the  total 
ecUpse  on  the  loth  of  July  x86o,  are  included  in  the  work  of 
Midler  on  the  edipse,  published  in  i86x.  Goldschmidt  died  at 
Fontainebleau  on  the  26th  of  August  x866. 

OOLDSHID,  the  name  of  a  family  of  Anglo- Jewish  bankers 
sprung  from  Aaron  Goldsmid  (d.  X78a),  a  Dutch  merchant  who 
settled  in  England  about  1763.  Two  of  his  sons,  Benjamin 
Goldsmid  (c.  X753-X808)  and  Abraham  Goldsmid  {c.  X756-X8X0), 
began  business  together  about  X777  as  bill-brokers  in  London, 
and  soon  became  great  powers  in  the  money  market,  during  the 
Napoleonic  war,  through  their  dealings  with  the  government. 
Abraham  Goldsmid  was  in  18x0  joint  contractor  with  the  Barings 
for  a  government  loan,  but  owing  to  a  depreciation  of  the  scrip 
he  was  forced  into  bankruptcy  and  committed  suicide.  His 
brother,  in  a  fit  of  depression,  had  similarly  taken  his  own  life 
two  years  before.  Both  were  noted  for  their  public  ^d  private 
generosity,  and  Benjamin  had  a  part  in  founding  the  Royal 
Naval  Asylum.  Benjamin  left  four  sons,  the  youngest  being 
Lionel  Prager  Goldsmid;  Abraham  a  daughter,  Isabd. 

Their  nephew,  Sir  Isaac  Lyon  Goldsmid,  Bart,  (x 778-1859), 
was  bom  inLondon,  and  began  in  business  with  a  firm  of  bullion 
brokers  to  the  Bank  of  England  and  the  East  India  Company. 
He  amassed  a  large  fortune,  and  was  made  Baron  da  Palmeira 
by  the  Portuguese  government  in  1846  for  services  rendered  in 
settling  a  monetary  dispute  between  Portugal  and  Brazil,  but 
he  is  chiefly  known  for  his  efforts  to  obtain  the  emancipation  of 
the  Jews  in  England  and  for  his  part  in  foimding  University 
College,  London.  The  Jewish  Disabilities  Bill,  first  introduced 
in  Parliament  by  Sir  Robert  Grant  in  X830,  owed  its  final  passage 
to  Goldsmid's  energetic  work.  He  helped  to  establish  the 
University  College  hospital  in  X834,  serving  as  its  treasurer  for 
eighteen  years,  and  also  aided  in  the  efforts  to  obtain  reform  in 
the  English  penal  code.  Moreover  he  assisted  by  his  capital 
and  his  enterprise  to  build  part  of  the  English  southern  railways 
and  also  the  London  docks.  In  184  x  he  became  the  first  Jewish 
baronet,  the  honour  being  conferred  upon  him  by  Lord  Melbourne. 
He  had  married  his  cousin  Isabel  (see  above),  and  their  second 
son  was  Sir  Francis  Henry  Goldsmid,  Bart.  (X808-X878),  bom  in 
London,  and  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1833  (the  first 
Jew  to  become  an  English  barrister;  Q.C.  X858).  After  the 
passing  of  the  Jewish  Disabilities  Bill,  in  which  he  had  aided 
his  father  with  a  number  of  pamphlets  that  attracted  great 
attention,  he  entered  Parliament  in  i860  (having  succeeded  to 
the  baronetcy)  as  member  for  Reading,  and  represented  that 
constituency  imtil  his  death.  He  was  strenuous  on  behalf  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  and  the  founder  of  the  great  Jews'  Free  School. 
He  was  a  munificent  contributor  to  charities  and  especially  to 
the  endowment  of  University  College.  He,  like  his  father, 
married  a  cousin,  and,  dying  without  issue,  was  succeeded  in  the 
baronetcy  by  his  nephew  Sir  Julian  Goldsmid,  Bart,  (x  838-1 896), 
son  of  Frederick  David  Goldsmid  (i8i2-x866),  long  M.P.  for 
Honiton.  Sir  Julian  was  for  many  years  in  Parliament,  and  his 
wealth,  ability  and  influence  made  him  a  personage  of  consider- 
able importance.  He  was  eventually  made  a  privy  councillor. 
He  had  eight  daughters,  but  no  son,  and  his  entailed  property 
passed  to  his  relation,  Mr  d'Avigdor,  his  house  in  Hccadilly 
being  converted  into  the  Isthmian  Club. 

Another  distinguished  member  of  the  same  family,  Sir 
Frederic  John  Goldsmid  (1818-1908),  son  of  Lionel  Prager 
Goldsmid  (see  above),  was  educated  at  King's  College,  London, 
and  entering  the  Madras  army  in  1839  served  in  the  China  War 
of  1 840-41 ,  with  the  Turkish  troops  in  eastern  Crimea  in  1855-56, 
and  was  given  political  employment  by  the  Indian  government. 
He  received  the  thanks  of  the  commander-in-chief  and  of  th^ 
war  office  for  services  during  the  Egyptian  campaign,  and  was 
retired  a  major-general  in  x87S*  \  Sir  Frederic  Goldsmid's  name 


is,  however,  associated  less  with  military  service  than  with  much 
valuable  work  in  exploration  and  in  surveying,  for  which  he 
repeatedly  received  the  thanks  of  government.  From  1865  to 
1870  he  was  director-general  of  the  Indo-European  telegraph, 
and  carried  through  the  telegraph  convention  with  Persia;  and 
between  1870  and  1872,  as  commissioner,  he  settled  with  Persia 
the  difficult  questions  of  the  Perso-Baluch  and  Perso-Afghan 
boundaries.  In  the  course  of  his  work  he  had  to  travel  exten- 
sively, and  he  followed  this  up  by  various  responsible  missions 
connected  with  eqiigration  questions.  In  x 881-1882  he  was  in 
Egypt,  as  controller  of  the  Daira  Sanieh,  and  doing  other  mis- 
cellaneous military  work;  and  in  1883  he  went  to  the  Congo, 
on  behalf,  of  the  king  of  the  Belgians,  as  one  of  the  organizers 
of  the  new  state,  but  had  to  return  on  account  of  illness.  From 
his  early  years  he  had  made  studies  of  several  Eastern  languages, 
and  he  ranked  among  the  foremost  Orientalists  of  his  day.  In 
x886  he  was  president  of  the  geographical  section  of  the  British 
Association  meeting  held  at  Birmingham.  He  had  married  in 
X849,  and  had  two  sons  and  four  daughters.  In  1871  he  was 
made  a  K.CS.L  Besides  important  contributions  to  the  9th 
edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  BrUannka  and  many  periodicals, 
he  wrote  an  excellent  and  authoritative  biography  of  Sir  James 
Outram  (2  vols.,  i88o). 

A  sister  of  the  last-named  married  Henry  Edward  Goldsmid 
(18x2-1855),  an  eminent  Indian  civil  servant,  son  of  Edward 
Goldsmid;  his  reform  of  the  revenue  system  in  Bombay,  and 
introduction  of  a  new  system,  established  after  his  death,  through 
his  reports  in  X840-X847,  and  his  devoted  labour  in  land-surveys, 
were  of  the  highest  importance  to  westcm  India,  and  established 
his  memory  there  as  a  public  benefactor. 

OOLDSMITH,  LEWIS  (c.  x 763-1846),  Anglo-French  pubh'dst, 
of  Portuguese- Jewish  extraction,  was  bom  near  London  about 
1763.  Having  published  in  x8ox  The  Crimes  of  Cabinets,  or  a 
Renew  of  the  Plans  and  Aggressions  for  Annihilating  the  Liberties 
of  Prance,  and  the  Dismemberment  of  her  Territories,  an  attack  on 
the  military  policy  of  Pitt,  he  moved,  in  x8o2,  from  England  to 
Paris.  Talleyrand  introduced  him  to  Napoleon,  who  arranged 
for  him  to  establish  in  Paris  an  English  tri-weekly,  the  Argus, 
which  was  to  review  English  affairs  from  the  French  point  of 
view.  According  to  his  own  account,  he  was  in  X803  entrusted 
with  a  mission  to  obtain  from  the  head  of  the  French  royal 
family,  afterwards  Louis  XVIII.,  a  renunciation  of  his  claims  to 
the  throne  of  France,  in  retum  for  the  throne  of  Poland.  The 
offer  was  declined,  and  (joldsmith  says  that  he  then  recdved 
instmctions  to  kidnap  Louis  and  kill  him  if  he  resisted,  but, 
instead  of  executing  these  orders,  he  revealed  the  plot.  He  was, 
nevertheless,  employed  by  Napoleon  on  various  other  secret 
service  missions  till  1807,  when  his  Republican  sympathies  began 
to  wane.  In  X809  he  returned  to  England,  where  be  was  at  first 
imprisoned  but  soon  released;  and  he  became  a  notary  in 
London.  In i8zz,beingnow violentlyanti-r)^ubIican,hefottndcd 
a  Sunday  newspaper,  the  Anti-GaUican  Monitor  and  Anti- 
Corsican  Chronide,  subsequently  known  as  the  British  Monitor, 
in  which  he  denounced  the  French  Revolution.  In  x8ii  he 
proposed  that  a  public  subscription  should  be  raised  to  put  a 
price  on  Napoleon's  head,  but  this  suggestion  was  strongly  repro- 
bated by  the  British  government.  In  the  same  year  he  published 
Secrd  History  of  the  Cabinet  of  Bonaparte  and  Recueil  des  mani- 
festes,  or  a  CMection  of  the  Decrees  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  and  in 
18 1 2  Secret  History  of  Bonaparte* s  Diplomacy.  Goldsmith  alleged 
that  in  the  latter  year  he  was  offered  £200,000  by  Napoleon 
to  discontinue  his  attacks.  In  18x5  he  published  An  Appeal  to 
the  Governments  of  Europe  on  the  Necessity  of  bringing  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  to  a  Public  Trial.  In  X825  he  again  settled  down  in 
Paris,  and  in  1832  published  his  Statistics  of  France.  His  only 
child,  Georgiana,  became,  in  X837,  the  second  wife  of  Lord 
Lyndhurst.    He  died  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of  January  X846. 

GOLDSMITH,  OLIVER  (1728-1774),  English  poet,  playwright, 
novelist  and  man  of  letters,  came  of  a  Protestant  and  Saxon 
family  which  had  long  been  settled  in  Ireland.  He  is 
usually  said  to  have  been  born  at  Pallas  or  Pallasmore,  Co. 
Longford;  Jbut  secent  investigators. have  coatendedi  with  much 


GOLDSMITH,  OLIVER 


215 


show  of  probability,  that  his  trae  birthplace  was  Smith-HiU 
House,  Elphin,  Rosoommon,  the  residence  of  his  mother's  father, 
the  Rev.  Oliver  Jones.  His  father,  Charles  Goldsmith,  lived  at 
Pallas,  supporting  with  difficulty  his  wife  and  children  on  what 
he  oould  earn,  partly  as  a  curate  and  partly  as  a  farmer. 

While  Oliver  was  still  a  child  his  father  was  presented  to  the 
living  of  Kilkenny  West,  in  the  county  of  West  Meath.  This 
was  worth  about  £200  a  year.  The  family  accordingly  quitted 
their  cottage  at  Pallas  for  a  spacious  house  on  a  frequented  road, 
near  the  village  of  Lissoy.  Here  the  boy  was  taught  his  letters  by 
a  relative  and  dependent,  Elizabeth  Delap,  and  was  sent  in  his 
seventh  year  to  a  village  school  kept  by  an  oldijuartermaster  on 
half-pay,  who  professed  to  teach  nothing  but  reading,  writing 
and  arithmetic,  but  who  had  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  stories 
about  ghosts,  banshees  and  fairies,  about  the  great  Rapparee 
chiefs,  Baldearg  O'DonneU  and  galloping  Hogan,  and  about  the 
exploits  of  Peterborough  and  Stanhope,  the  surprise  of  Monjuich 
and  the  glorious  disaster  of  Brihuega.  This  man  must  have  been 
of  the  Protestant  religion;  but  he  was  of  the  aboriginal  race,  and 
not  only  spoke  the  Irish  language,  but  could  pour  forth  unpre- 
meditated Irish  verses.  Oliver  early  became,  and  through  life 
continued  to  be,  a  passionate  admirer  ci  the  Irish  music,  and 
especially  of  the  compositions  of  Carolan,  some  of  the  last  notes 
of  whose  harp  he  heard.  It  ought  to  be  added  that  Oliver,  though 
by  birth  one  of  the  Englishry ,  and  though  connected  by  numerous 
ties  with  the  Established  Church,  never  shovred  the  least  sign  of 
tha.t  contemptuous  antipathy  with  which,  in  his  days,  the  ruling 
minority  in  Ireland  too  generally  regarded  the  subject  majority. 
So  far  indeed  was  he  from  sharing  in  the  opinions  and  feelings  of 
the  caste  to  which  he  belonged  that  he  conceived  an  aveision  to 
the  Glorious  and  Immortal  Memory,  and,  even  when  George  III. 
was  on  the  throne,  maintained  that  nothing  but  the  restoration 
of  the  banished  dynasty  could  save  the  country. 

From  the  humble  academy  kept  by  the  old  soldier  Goldsmith 
was  removed  in  his  ninth  year.  He  went  to  several  grammar- 
schools,  and  acquired  some  knowledge  of  the  ancient  languages. 
His  life  at  this  time  seems  to  have  been  far  from  happy.  He  had, 
as  appears  from  the  admirable  portrait  of  him  by  Reynolds  at 
K  nole,  features  harsh  even  to  ugliness.  The  small-pox  had  set  its 
mark  on  him  with  more  than  usual  severity.  His  stature  was 
small,  and  his  limbs  ill  put  together.  Among  b<^  little  tender- 
ness is  shown  to  personal  defects;  and  the  ridicule  excited  by 
poor  Oliver's  appearance  was  heightened  by  a  peculiar  simplicity 
and  a  disposition  to  blunder  which  he  retained  to  the  last.  He 
became  the  common  butt  of  boys  and  masters,  was  pointed  at  as 
a  fright  in  the  play-ground,  and  flogged  as  a  dunce  in  the  school- 
r«?om.  When  he  had  risen  to  eminence,  those  who  had  once 
derided  him  ransacked  their  memory  for  the  events  of  his  early 
years,  and  recited  repartees  and  couplets  which  had  dropped 
from  him,  and  which,  though  little  noticed  at  the  time,  were 
supposed,  a  quarter  of  a  century  later,  to  indicate  the  powers 
which  produced  the  Vicar  of  Wakefidd  and  the  Deserted  Village, 

On  the  nth  of  June  1744,  being  then  in  his  sixteenth  year, 
Oliver  went  up  to  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  as  a  sixar.  The  sizars 
paid  nothing  for  food  and  tuition,  and  very  little  for  lodging; 
but  they  had  to  perform  some  menial  services  from  which  they 
have  long  been  relieved.  Goldsmith  was  quartered,  not  alone,  in 
a  garret  of  what  was  then  No.  35  in  a  range  of  buildings  which  has 
kmg  since  disappeared.  His  name,  scrawled  by  himself  on  one  of 
its  window-panes  is  still  preserved  in  the  college  library.  From 
such  garrets  many  men  of  less  par^s  than  his  have  niade  their 
way  to  the  woolsack  or  to  the  episcopal  bench.  But  Goldsmith, 
while  he  suffered  all  the  humiliations,  threw  away  all  the 
advantages  of  his  situation.  .He  neglected  the  studies  of  the 
l^ace,  stood  low  at  the  examinations,  was  turned  down  to  the 
bottom  of  his  class  for  playing  the  buffoon  in  the  lecture-room, 
was  severely  reprimanded  for  pumping  on  a  constable,  and  was 
caned  by  a  brutal  tutor  for  giving  a  ball  in  the  attic  storey  of  the 
college  10  some  gay  youths  and  damsels  from  the  dty. 

While  Oliver  was  leading  at  DubUn  a  life  divided  between 
squalid  distress  and  squalid  dissipation,  hisjather  died,  leaving 
a  mere  pittance.    In  February  1749  the  youth  obtained  his 


bachelor's  degree,  and  left  the  university.  During  some  time 
the  humble  dwdling  to  which  his  widowed  mother  had  retired 
was  his  home.  He  was  now  in  his  twenty-first  year;  it  was 
necessary  that  he  should  do  something;  and  his  education 
seoned  to  have  fitted  him  to  do  nothing  but  to  dress  himself 
in  gaudy  colours,  ol  which  he  was  as  fond  as  a  magpie,  to  take  a 
hand  at  cards,  to  sing  Irish  airs,  to  play  the  flute,  to  angle  in 
summer  and  to  tell  ghost  stories  by  the  fire  in  winter.  He  tried 
five  or  six  professions  in  turn  without  success.  He  applied  for 
ordination;  but,  as  he  applied  in  scarlet  clothes,  he  was  speedily 
turned  out  of  the  episcopal  palace.  He  then  became  tutor  in  an 
opulent  family,  but  soon  quitted  his  situation  in  consequence  of  a 
dispute  about  pay.  Then  he  determined  to  emigrate  to  America. 
His  relations,  with  much  satisfaction,  saw- him  set  out  for  Corit 
on  a  good  horse,  with  £30  in  his  pocket.  But  in  six  weeks  he 
came  back  on  a  miserable  hack,  without  a  penny,  and  informed 
his  mother  that  the  ship  in  which  he  had  taken  his  passage, 
having  got  a  fair  wind  while  he  was  at  a  party  of  pleasure,  had 
sailed  without  him.  Then  he  resolved  to  study  the  law.  A 
generous  uncle,  Mr  Contazine,  advanced  £50.  With  this  sua 
Goldsmith  went  to  Dublin,  was  enticed  into  a  gaming-house 
and  lost  every  shilling.  He  then  thought  of  medidne.  A  small 
purse  was  made  up;  and  in  his  twenty-fourth  year  he  was  sent 
to  Edinburgh.  At  Edinburgh  he  passed  eighteen  months  in 
nominal  attendance  on  lectures,  and  picked  up  some  superficial 
information  about  chemistry  and  natural  history.  Thence  he 
went  to  Ldden,  still  pretending  to  study  physic.  He  left  that 
celebrated  university,  the  third  university  at  which  he  had 
resided,  in  his  twenty-seventh  year,  without  a  degree,  with  the 
merest  smattering  of  medical  knowledge,  and  with  no  property 
but  his  dothes  and  his  flute.  His  flute,  however,  proved  a  useful 
friend.  He  rambled  on  foot  through  Flanders,  France  and 
Switzerland, -playing  tunes  which  everywhere  set  the  peasantry 
dandng,  and  which  often  procured  for  him  a  supper  and  a  bed. 
He  wandered  as  far  as  Italy.  His  musical  performances,  indeed, 
were  not  to  the  taste  of  the  Italians;  but  he  contrived  to  live  on 
the  alms  which  he  obtained  at  the  gates  of  convents.  It  should, 
however,  be  observed  that  the  stories  which  he  told  about  this 
part  of  his  life  ought  to  be  recdved  with  great  caution;  for  strict 
veradty  was  never  one  of  his  virtues;  and  a  man  who  is  ordinarily 
inaccurate  in  narration  is  likdy  to  be  more  than  ordinarily 
Inaccurate  when  he  talks  about  his  own  travels.  Goldsmith, 
indeed,  was  so  regardless  of  truth  as  to  assert  in  print  that  he  was 
present  at  a  most  interesting  conversation  between  Voltaire  and 
Fontenelle,  and  that  this  conversation  took  place  at  Paris. 
Now  it  is  certain  that  Voltaire  never  was  within  a  hundred 
leagues  of  Paris  during  the  whole  time  which  Goldsmith  passed 
on  the  continent. 

In  February  1756  the  wanderer  landed  at  Dover,  without  a 
shilling,  without  a  friend  and  without  a  calling.  He  had  indeed, 
if  his  own  unsupported  evidence  may  be  trusted,  obtained  a 
doctor's  degree  on  the  continent;  but  this  dignity  proved 
utterly  useless  to  him.  In  England  his  flute  was  not  in  request; 
there  were  no  convents;  and  he  was  forced  to  have  recourse  to 
a  series  of  desperate  e3q)edients.  There  Is  a  tradition  that  he 
turned  strolling  player.  He  pounded  drugs  and  ran  about 
London  with  phials  for  charitable  chemists.  He  asserted,  upon 
one  occasion,  that  he  had  lived  "among  the  beggarsin  Axe  Lane." 
He  was  for  a  time  usher  of  a  school,  and  felt  the  miseries  and 
humiliations  of  this  situation  so  keenly  that  he  thought  it  a 
promotion  to  be  permitted  to  earn  his  bread  as  a  bookseller's 
hack;  but  he  soon  found  the  new  yoke  more  galling  than  the 
old  one,  and  was  glad  to  become  an  usher  again.  He  obtained  a 
medical  appointment  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company; 
but  the  appoint  ment  was  speedily  revoked.  Why  it  was  revoked 
we  are  not  told.  The  subject  was  one  on  which  he  never  liked 
to  talk.  It  is  probable  that  he  was. incompetent  to  perform 
the  duties  of  the  place.  Then  he  presented  himself  at  Surgeons' 
Hall  for  examination,  as  "  mate  to  an  hospital."  Even  to  so 
humble  a  post  he  was  found  unequal  Nothing  remained  but  to 
return  to  the  lowest  drudgery  of  literature.  Goldsmith  took  a 
room  in  a  tiny  squar^  off  Ludgate  Hill,  to  which  he  had  to  climb 


2l6 


GOLDSMITH,  OLIVER 


from  Sea-ood  Lane  by  a  dioy  ladder  of  flagstones  called  Break- 
neck Steps.  Green  Arbour  Court  and  the  ascent  have  long 
diasppeared.  Here,  at  thirty,  the  unlucky  adventurer  sat 
down  to  toil  like  a  galley  slave.  Already,  in  1 758,  during  his  first 
bondage  to  letters,  he  had  translated  Marteilhe's  remarkable 
Menkrirs  0/  a  ProUstatU^  Condemned  to  the  Galleys  of  France  for  kis 
ReligioH,  In  the  years  that  now  succeeded  he  sent  to  the  press 
some  things  which  have  survived,  and  many  which  have  perished. 
He  produced  articles  for  reviews,  magazines  and  newspapers; 
children's  books,  which,  bound  in  gilt  paper  and  adorned  with 
hideous  woodcuts,  appeared  in  the  window  of  Newbery's  once 
far-famed  shop  at  the  comer  of  Saint  Paul's  churchyard;  An 
Inquiry  into  the  State  of  Polite  Learning  in  Europe^  which,  though 
of  little  or  no  value,  b  stUl  rq>rinted  among  his  works;  a  volume 
of  essays  entitled  The  Bee;  a  Ufe  of  Beau  Nash;  a  superficial 
and  incorrect,  but  very  readable,  History  of  England,  in  a  series 
of  letters  purporting  to  be  addressed  by  a  nobleman  to  his  son; 
and  some  very  lively  and  amusing  sketches  of  London  Society  in 
another  series  of  letters  purporting  to  be  addressed  by  a  Chinese 
traveller  to  his  friends.  All  these  works  were  anonymous; 
but  some  of  them  were  well  known  to  be  Goldsmith's;  and  he 
gradually  rose  in  the  estimation  of  the  booksellers  for  whom  he 
drudged.  He  was,  indeed,  emphatically  a  popular  writer.  For 
accurate  research  or  grave  disquisition  he  was  not  well  qualified 
by  nature  or  by  education.  He  knew  nothing  accurately;  his 
reading  had  been  desultory;  nor  had  he  meditated  deeply  on 
what  he  had  read.  He  had  seen  much  of  the  world;  but  he  had 
noticed  and  retained  little  more  of  what  he  had  seen  than  some 
grotesque  incidents  and  characters  which  had  happened  to  strike 
his  fancy.  But,  though  his  mind  was  very  scantily  stored  with 
materiab,  he  used  what  materials  he  had  in  such  a  way  as  to 
produce  a  wonderful  effect.  There  have  been  many  greater 
writers;  but  perhaps  no  writer  was  ever  more  uniformly- agree- 
able. His  style  was  always  pure  and  easy,  and,  on  proper 
occasions,  pointed  and  energetic.  His  narratives  were  always 
amusing,  his  descriptions  always  picturesque,  his  humour  rich 
and  joyous,  yet  not  without  an  occasional  tinge  of  amiable 
sadness.  About  everything  that  he  wrote,  serious  or  sportive, 
there  was  a  certain  natural  grace  and  decorum,  hardly  to  be 
expected  from  a  man  a  great  part  of  whose  life  had  been  passed 
among  thieves  and  beggars,  street-walkers  and  merryandrews, 
in  those  squalid  dens  which  are  the  reproach  of  great  capitals. 
•  As  his  name  gradually  became  known,  the  circle  of  his  acquaint- 
ance widened.  He  was  introduced  to  Johnson,  who  was  then 
considered  as  the  first  of  living  English  writers;  to  Reynolds, 
the  first  of  English  painters;  and  to  Burke,  who  had  not  yet 
entered  parliament,  but  had  distinguished  himself  greatly  by  his 
writings  and  by  the  eloquence  of  his  conversation.  With  these 
eminent  men  Goldsmith  became  intimate.  In  1763  he  was  one 
of  the  nine  original  members  of  that  celebrated  fraternity  which 
has  sometimes  been  called  the  Literary  Club,  but  wUch  has 
always  discbimed  that  epithet,  and  still  glories  in  the  simple 
name  of  the  Club. 

By  this  date  Goldsmith  had  quitted  his  miserable  dwelling 
at  the  top  of  Breakneck  Steps,  and,  after  living  for  some  time 
at  No.  6  Wine  Office  Court,  Fleet  Street,  had  moved  into  the 
Temple.  But  he  was  still  often  reduced  to  pitiable  shifts,  the 
most  popular  of  which  is  connected  with  the  sale  of  his  solitary 
novel,  the  Vicar  of  Wakefidd.  Towards  the  close  of  I764(?) 
his  rent  is  alleged  to  have  been  so  long  in  arrear  that  his  landlady 
one  morning  called  in  the  help  of  a  sheriff's  officer.  The  debtor, 
in  great  perplexity,  despatched  a  messenger  to  Johnson;  and 
Johnson,  always  friendly,  though  often  surly,  sent  back  the 
messenger  with  a  guinea,  and  promised  to  follow  speedily. 
He  came,  and  found  that  Goldsmith  had  changed  the  guinea, 
and  was  railing  at  the  landlady  over  a  bottle  of  Madeira.  Johnson 
put  the  cork  into  the  bottle,  and  entreated  his  friend  to  consider 
calmly  how  money  was  to  be  procured.  Goldsmith  said  that  he 
had  a  novel  ready  for  the  press.  •  Johnson  glanced  at  the  manu- 
script, saw  that  there  were  good  things  in  it.took  it  to  a  bookseller, 
sold  it  for  £60  and  soon  returned  with  the  money.  The  rent 
was  paid;  and  the  sheriff's  officer  withdrew.    (Unfortunately, 


however,  for  this  time-honoured  version  of  the  circumstances, 
it  has  of  late  years  been  discovered  that  as  early  as  October 
X762  Goldsmith  had  already  sold  a  third  of  the  Vicar  to  one 
Benjamin  Collins  of  Salisbury,  a  printer,  by  whom  it  was  eventu- 
ally printed  for  F.  Newbery,  and  it  is  difficult  to  xtcondle  this 
faa  with  Johnson's  narrative.) 

But  before  the  Vicar  of  Wakefidd  appeared  in  1766,  came  the 
great  crisis  of  Goldsmith's  literary  life.  In  Christmas  week  1764 
he  published  a  poem,  entitled  the  Traveler.  It  was  the  first 
work  to  which  he  had  put  his  name,  and  it  at  once  raised  him 
to  the  rank  of  a  legitimate  English  classic.  The  opinion  of  the 
most  skilful  critics  was  that  nothing  finer  had  appeared  in  verse 
since  the  fourth  book  of  the  Dunciad.  In  one  respect  the 
Travdler  differs  from  all  Goldsmith's  other  writings.  In  general 
his  designs  were  bad,  and  his  execution  good.  In  the  Traveller 
the  execution,  thou^  deserving  of  much  praise,  is  far  inferior 
to  the  design.  No  philosophical  poem,  ancient  or  modem,  has 
a  plan  so  noble,  and  at  the  same  time  so  simple.  An  En^ish 
wanderer,  seated  on  a  crag  among  the  Alps,  near  the  point 
where  three  great  countries  meet,  looks  down  on  the  boundless 
prospect,  reviews  his  long  pilgrimage,  recalls  the  varieties  of 
scenery,  of  climate,  of  government,  of  religion,  of  national 
character,  which  he  has  observed,  and  comes  to  the  oondosion, 
just  or  unjust,  that  our  happiness  depends  little  on  political 
institutions,  and  much  on  the  temper  and  regulation  of  our  own 
minds. 

While  the  fourth  edition  of  the  Traveller  was  on  the  counters 
of  the  booksellers,  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield  appeared,  and  rapidly 
obtained  a  popularity  which  has  lasted  down  to  our  own  time, 
and  which  is  likely  to  last  as  long  as  our  language.  The  fi.bfe 
is  indeed  one  of  the  worst  that  ever  was  constructed.  It  wants, 
not  merely  that  probability  which  ought  to  be  found  in  a  tale  oi 
common  English  life,  but  that  consistency  which  ought  to  be 
found  even  in  the  wildest  fiction  about  witches,  giants  and 
fairies.  But  the  earlier  chapters  have  all  the  sweetness  of  pastoral 
poetry,  together  with  all  the  vivacity  of  comedy.  Moses  and  his 
spectacles,  the  vicar  and  his  monogamy,  the  sharper  and  his 
cosmogony,  the  squire  proving  from  Aristotle  that  relatives  are 
related,  Olivia  preparing  herself  for  the  arduous  task  of  converting 
a  rakish  lover  by  studying  the  controversy  between  Robinson 
Crusoe  and  Friday,  the  great  ladies  with  their  scandal  about  Sir 
Tomkyn's  amours  and  Dr  Burdock's  verses,  and  Mr  Burchdl 
with  his  "  Fudge,"  have  caused  as  much  harmless  mirth  as  has 
ever  been  caused  by  matter  packed  into  so  small  a  number  of 
pages.  The  latter  part  of  the  tale  h  unworthy  of  the  beginning. 
As  we  approach  the  catastrophe,  the  absurdities  lie  thicker  and 
thicker,  and  the  gleams  of  pleasantry  become  rarer  and  rarer. 

The  success  which  had  attended  Goldsmith  as  a  novelist 
emboldened  him  to  try  his  fortune  as  a  dramatist.  He  wrote 
the  Good  Natur*d  Man,  a  piece  which  had  a  worse  fate  than  it 
deserved.  Garrick  refused  to  produce  it  at  Prury  Lane.  It  was 
acted  at  Covent  Garden  in  January  1 768,  but  was  coldly  received. 
The  author,  however,  cleared  by  his  benefit  nights,  and  by  the 
sale  of  the  copyright,  no  less  than  £500,  five  times  as  much  as  he 
had  made  by  the  Traveller  and  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield  together. 
The  plot  of  the  Good  Natur*d  Man  is,  like  almost  all  Goldsmith's 
plots,  very  ill  constructed.  But  some  passages  are  exquisitely 
ludicrous, — much  more  ludicrous  indeed  than  suited  the  taste 
of  the  town  at  that  time.  A  canting,  mawkish  play,  entitled 
False  Delicacy,  had  just  been  produced,  and  sentimentality 
was  all  the  mode.  During  some  years  more  tears  were  shed  at 
comedies  than  at  tragedies;  and  a  pleasantry  which  moved  the 
audience  to  anything  more  than  a  grave  smile  was  reprobated 
as  low.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  the  very  best  scene  in 
the  Good  Natur*d  Man,  that  in  which  Miss  Richland  finds  her 
lover  attended  by  the  bailiff  and  the  bailiff's  follower  in  full 
court  dresses,  should  have  been  mercilessly  hissed,  and  should 
have  been  omitted  after  the  first  night,  not  to  be  restored  for 
several  years. 

In  May  1770  appeared  the  Deserted  Village,  In  mere  diction 
and  versification  this  celebrated  poem  is  fully  equal,  perhaps 
superior,  to  the  Travdler;  And  it  is  generally  preferred  to  tlie 


GOLDSMITH,  OLIVER 


217 


Tratdkr  by  that  large  class  of  readers  who  think*  with  Bayes 
in  the  Rehearsal^  that  the  only  use  of  a  plot  is  to  bring  in  fine 
things.  More  discerning  judges,  however,  while  they  admire 
the  beauty  of  the  details,  are  shocked  by  one  unpardonable  fault 
which  pervades  the  whole.  The  fault  which  we  mean  is  not  that 
theory  about  wealth  and  luxury  which  has  so  often  been  censured 
by  political  economists.  The  theory  is  indeed  false;  but  the 
poem,  considered  merely  as  a  poem,  is  not  necessarily  the  worse 
on  that  account.  The  finest  poem  in  the  Latin  language — 
indeed,  the  finest  didactic  poem  in  any  language — ^was  written 
in  defence  of  the  silliest  and  meanest  of  all  systems  of  natural 
and  moral  philosophy.  A  poet  may  easily  be  pardoned  for 
reasoning  ill;  but  he  cannot  be  pardoned  for  describing  ill,  for 
observing  the  world  in  which  he  lives  so  carelessly  that  his 
portraits  bear  no  resemblance  to  the  originals,  for  exhibiting  as 
copies  from  real  life  monstrous  combinations  of  things  which 
never  were  and  never  could  be  found  together.  What  would 
be  thought  of  a  painter  who  should  mix  August  and  January  in 
one  landscape,  who  should  introduce  a  frosen  river  Into  a  harvest 
scene  ?  Would  it  be  a  suffident  defence  of  such  a  picture  to  say 
that  every  part  was  exquisitely  coloured,  that  the  green  hedges, 
the  apple-trees  loaded  with  fruit,  the  waggons  reeling  under  the 
3rellow  sheaves,  and  the  sun-burned  reapers  wiping  their  fore- 
heads were  very  fine,  and  that  the  ice  and  the  boys  sliding  were 
also  very  fine  ?  To  such  a  picture  the  Deserted  Village  bears  a 
great  resemblance.  It  is  made  up  of  incongruous  parts.  The 
village  in  its  happy  days  is  a  true  English  village.  The  village 
in  its  decay  is  an  Irish  village.  The  felicity  and  the  misery 
which  Goldsmith  has  brought  close  together  belong  to  two 
different  countries  and  to  two  different  stages  in  the  progress 
of  society.  He  had  assuredly  never  seen  in  his  native  island  such 
a  rural  paradise,  such  a  seat  of  plenty,  content  and  tranquillity, 
as  his  Auburn.  He  had  assuredly  never  seen  in  England  idl 
the  inhabitants  of  such  a  paradise  turned  out  of  their  homes  in 
one  day  and  forced  to  emigrate  in  a  body  to  America.  The 
hamlet  he  had  probably  seen  in  Rent;  the  ejectment  he  had 
probably  seen  in  Munster;  but  by  joining  the  two,  he  has 
pcoduccd  something  which  never  wa^  and  never  will  be  seen  in 
any  part  of  the  world. 

In  1773  Goldsmith  tried  his  chance  at  Covent  Garden  with  a 
second  (day.  She  Stoops  to  Conquer,  The  manager  was,  not 
without  great  difficulty,  induced  to  bring  this  piece  out.  The 
sentimental  comedy  still  reigned,  and  Goldsmith's  comedies  were 
not  sentimental.  The  Good  Ifatur'd  Man  had  been  too  funny  to 
sucked;  yet  the  mirth  of  the  Good  Naiitr'd  Man  was  sober  when 
compared  with  the  rich  drollery  of  She  Stoops  to  Conquer^  which 
is,  in  truth,  an  incomparable  farce  in  five  acts.  On  this  occasion, 
however,  genius  triumphed.  Pit,  boxes  and  galleries  were  in  a 
constant  roar  of  laughter.  If  any  bigoted  admirer  of  Kelly 
and  Cumberland  ventured  to  hiss  or  groan,  he  was  speedily 
nknced  by  a  general  cry  of  "  turn  him  out,"  or  "  throw  him 
over."  Later  generations  have  confirmed  the  verdict  which  was 
pronounced  on  that  night. 

While  Goldsmith  was  writing  the  Deserted  Village  and  She 
Stoops  to  Conquer,  he  was  employed  on  works  of  a  very  different 
kiiMl — works  from  which  he  derived  little  reputation  but  much 
profit.  He  compiled  for  the  use  of  schools  a  History  of  Rome, 
by  which  he  made  £250;  a  History  of  England,  by  which  he 
Budc  £500;  a  History  of  Greece,  for  which  he  received  £250; 
a  Soiurat  History,  for  which  the  booksellers  covenanted  to  pay 
him  800  guineas.  These  works  he  produced  without  any 
elaborate  research,  by  merely  selecting,  abridging  and  translating 
into  his  own  clear,  pure  and  flowing  language,  what  he  found  in 
books  weU  known  to  the  world,  but  too  bulky  or  too  dry  for  boys 
and  girls.  He  committed  some  strange  blunders,  for  he  knew 
nothing  with  accuracy.  Thus,  in  his  History  of  England,  he  tells 
IIS  that  Naseby  is  In  Yorkshire;  nor  did  he  correct  this  mistake 
when  the  book  was  reprinted.  He  was  very  nearly  hoaxed  into 
paltiog  into  the  History  of  Greece  an  account  of  a  battle  between 
Alexander  the  Great  and  Montezuma.  In  his  Animated  Nature 
he  rdates,  with  faith  and  with  perfect  gravity,  all  the  most 
absurd  lies  which  he  could  find  in  books  of  travels  about  gigantic 


Patagonians,  monkeys  that  preach  sermons,  nightingales  that 
repeat  long  conversations.  "  If  he  can  tell  a  horse  from  a  cow," 
said  Johnson,  "  that  is  the  extent  of  his  knowledge  of  zoology." 
How  little  Goldsmith  was  qualified  to  write  about  the  physical 
sciences  is  sufficiently  proved  by  two  anecdotes.  He  on  one 
occasion  denied  that  the  sun  is  longer  in  the  iM>nhem  than  in  the 
southern  signs.  It  was  vain  to  cite  the  authority  of  Maupertuis. 
"  MaupertuisI"  he  cried,  "  I  understand  those  matters  better 
than  Maupertuis."  On  another  occasion  he,  in  defiance  of 
the  evidence  of  his  own  senses,  maintained  obstinately,  and 
even  angrily,  that  he  chewed  his  dinner  by  moving  his  upper 
jaw. 

Yet,  ignorant  as  Goldsmith  was,  few  writers  have  done  more 
to  make  the  first  steps  in  the  laborious  road  to  knowledge  easy 
and  pleasant.  His  compilations  are  widely  distinguished  from 
the  compilations  of  ordinary  bookmakers.  He  was  a  great, 
perhaps  an  unequalled,  master  of  the  arts  of  selection  and  con- 
densation. In  these  respects  his  histories  of  Rome  and  of 
England,  and  still  more  his  own  abridgments  of  these  histories, 
weU  deserved  to  be  studied.  In  general  nothing  is  less  attrac- 
tive than  an  epitome;  but  the  epitomes  of  Goldsmith, 
even  when  most  concise,  are  always  amusing;  and  to  read  them 
is  considered  by  intelligent  children  not  as  a  task  but  as  a 
pleasure. 

Goldsmith  might  now  be  considered  as  a  prosperous  man. 
He  had  the  means  of  living  in  comfort,  and  even  in  what  to  one 
who  had  so  often  slept  in  bams  and  on  bulks  must  have  been 
luxury.  His  fame  was  great  and  was  consuntly  rising.  He 
lived  in  what  was  intellectually  far  the  best  society  of  the  king- 
dom, in  a  society  in  which  no  talent  or  accomplishment  was 
wanting,  and  in  which  the  art  of  conversation  was  cultivated 
with  splendid  success.  There  probably  were  never  four  talkers 
more  admirable  in  four  different  ways  than  Johnson,  Burke, 
Beauclerk  and  Garrick;  and  Goldsmith  was  on  terms  of  intimacy 
with  all  the  four.  He  a^ired  to  share  in  their  colloquial  renown, 
but  never  was  ambition  more  unfortunate.  It  may  seem  strange 
that  a  man  who  wrote  with  so  much  perq>icuity,  vivacity  jmd 
grace  should  have  been,  whenever  he  took  a  part  in  conversation, 
an  empty,  noisy,  blundering  rattle.  But  on  this  point  the 
evidence  is  overwhelming.  So  extraordinary  was  the  contrast 
between  Goldsmith's  published  works  and  the  silly  things  which 
he  said,  that  Horace  Walpole  described  him  as  an  inspired  idiot. 
"  NoU,"  said-Garrick,  "  wrote  like  an  angel,  and  talked  like  poor 
Poll."  Chamier  declared  that  it  was  a  hard  exercise  of  faith  to 
beliieve  that  so  foolish  a  chatterer  could  have  really  written  the 
Traveller.  Even  Boswell  could  say,  with  contemptuous  com- 
passion, that  he  liked  very  well  to  hear  honest  Goldsmith  run  on. 
"  Yes,  sir,"  said  Johnson,  "  but  he  should  not  like  to  hear  him- 
self." Minds  differ  as  rivers  differ.  There  are  transparent  and 
sparkling  rivers  from  which  it  is  delightful  to  drink  as  they  flow; 
to  such  rivers  the  minds  of  such  men  as  Burke  and  Johnson  may 
be  compared.  But  there  are  rivers  of  which  the  water  when  first 
drawn  is  turbid  and  noisome,  but  becomes  pellucid  as  crystal 
and  delicious  to  the  taste,  if  it  be  suffered  to  stand  till  it  has 
deposited  a  sediment;  and  such  a  river  is  a  type  of  the  mind  of 
Goldsmith.  His  first  thoughts  on  every  subject  were  confused 
even  to  absurdity,  but  they  required  only  a  little  time  to  work 
themselves  clear.  When  he  wrote  they  had  that  time,  and 
therefore  his  readers  pronounced  him  a  man  of  genius;  but 
when  he  talked  he  talked  nonsense  and  made  himself  the 
laughing-stock  of  his  hearers.  He  was  painfully  sensible  of 
his  inferiority  in  conversation;  hefelt  every  failure  keenly;  yet 
he  had  not  sufficient  judgment  and  self-command  to  hold  his 
tongue.  His  animal  spirits  and  vanity  were  always  impelling 
him  to  try  to  do  the  one  thing  which  he  could  not  do.  After 
every  attempt  he  felt  that  he  had  exposed  hitaiself,  and  writhed 
with  shame  and  vexation;  yet  the  next  momen,t  he  began 
again. 

His  associates  seem  to  have  regarded  him  with  kindness,  which, 
in  spite  of  their  admiration  of  his  writings,  was  not  unmixed  with 
contempt.  In  truth,  there  was  in  his  character  much  to  love, 
but  very  little  to  respect.    His  heart  was  soft  even  to  weakness: 


•  • 


2X8 


GOLDSTUCKER 


he  was  so  generous  that  he  quite  forgot  to  be  just;  he  forgave 
injuries  so  readily  that  be  might  be  said  to  invite  them,  and  was 
so  liberal  to  beggars  that  he  had  nothing  left  for  his  tailor  and  his 
butcher.  He  was  vain,  sensual,  frivolous,  profuse,  improvident. 
One  vice  of  a  darker  shade'was  imputed  to  him,  envy.  But  there 
is  not  the  least  reason  to  believe  that  this  bad  passion,  though  it 
sometimes  made  him  wince  and  utter  fretful  excbmations,  ever 
impelled  him  to  injure  by  wicked  arts  the  reputation  of  any  of 
his  rivals.  The  truth  probably  is  that  he  was  not  more  envious, 
but  merely  less  prudent,  than  his  neighbours.  His  heart  was 
on  his  lips.  All  those  small  jealousies,  which  are  but  too  common 
among  men  of  letters,  but  which  a  man  of  letters  who  is  also  a 
man  of  the  world  does  his  best  to  conceal.  Goldsmith  avowed 
with  the  simplicity  of  a  child.  When  he  was  envious,  instead  of 
affecting  indifference,  instead  of  damning  with  faint  praise, 
instead  of  doing  injuries  slyly  and  in  the  dark,  he  told  everybody 
that  he  was  envious.  "  Do  not,  pray,  do  not,  talk  of  Johnson  in 
such  terms,"  he  said  to  Boswell; "  you  harrow  up  my  very  soul." 
George  Steevens  and  Cumberland  were  men  far  too  cunning 
to  say  such  a  thing.  They  would  have  echoed  the  praises  of  the 
man  whom  they  envied,  and  then  have  sent  to  the  newspapers 
anonymous  libels  upon  him.  Both  what  was  good  and  what  was 
bad  in  Goldsmith's  character  was  to  his  associates  a  perfect 
security  that  he  would  never  commit  such  villainy.  He  was 
neither  ill-natured  enough,  nor  long-headed  enough,  to  be 
guilty  of  any  malicious  act  which  required  contrivance  and 
disguise. 

Goldsmith  has  sometimes  been  represented  as  a  man  of  genius, 
cruelly  treated  by  the  world,  and  doomed  to  struggle  with 
diffictUties,  which  at  last  broke  his  heart.  But  no  representation 
can  be  more  remote  from  the  truth.  He  did,  indeed,  go  through 
much  sharp  misery  before  he  had  done  anything  considerable 
in  literature.  But  after  his  name  had  appeared  on  the  title-page 
of  the  TravdUrf  he  had  none  but  himself  to  blame  for  his  dis- 
tresses. His  average  income,  during  the  last  seven  years  of  his 
life,  certainly  ezce«ied  £400  a  year,  and  £400  a  year  ranked, 
among  the  incomes  of  that  day,  at  least  as  high  as  £800  a  year 
would  rank  at  present.  A  single  man  living  in  the  Temple,  with 
£400  a  year,  might  then  be  called  opulent.  Not  one  in  ten  of  the 
young  gentlemen  of  ^>od  families  who  were  studying  the  law 
there  had  so  much.  But  all  the  wealth  which  Lord  Clive  had 
brought  from  Bengal  and  Sir  Lawrence  Dundas  from  Germany, 
joined  together,  would  not  have  sufficed  for  Goldsmith.  He 
spent  twice  aa  much  as  he  had.  He  wore  fine  clothes,  gave 
dinners  of  several  courses,  paid  court  to  venal  beauties.  He  had 
also,  it  should  be  remembered,  to  the  honour  of  his  heart,  though 
not  of  his  head,  a  guinea,  or  five,  or  ten,  according  to  the  state  of 
his  purse,  ready  for  any  tale  of  distress,  true  or  false.  But  it  was 
not  in  diess  or  feasting,  in  promiscuous  amours  or  promiscuous 
charities,  that  his  chief  expense  lay.  He  had  been  from  boyhood 
a  gambler,  and  at  once  the  most  sanguine  and  the  most  unskilful 
of  gamblers.  For  a  time  he  put  off  the  day  of  inevitable  ruin  by 
temporary  expedients.  He  obtained  advances  from  booksellers 
by  promising  to  execute  works  which  he  never  began.  But  at 
length  this  source  of  supply  failed.  He  owed  more  than  £2000; 
and  he  saw  no  hope  of  extrication  from  his  embarrassments. 
His  spirits  and  health  gave  way.  He  was  attacked  by  a  nervous 
fever,  which  he  thought  himself  competent  to  treat.  It  would 
have  been  happy  for  him  if  his  medical  skill  had  been  appreciated 
as  justly  by  himself  as  by  others.  Notwithstanding  the  degree 
which  he  pretended  to  have  received  on  the  continent,  he  could 
procure  no  patients.  "  I  do  not  practise,"  he  once  said;  "  I 
make  it  a  rule  to  prescribe  only  for  my  friends."  "  Pray,  dear 
Doctor,"  said  Beauclerk,  "  alter  your  rule;  and  prescribe  only 
for  your  enemies."  Goldsmith,  now,  in  spite  of  this  excellent 
advice,  prescribed  for  himself.  The  remedy  aggravated  the 
malady.  The  sick  man  was  induced  to  call  in  real  physicians; 
and  they  at  one  time  imagined  that  they  had  cured  the  disease. 
Still  his  weakness  and  restlessness  continued.  He  could  get  no 
sleep.  He  could  take  no  food.  "  You  are  worse,"  said  one  of  his 
medical  attendants,  "  than  you  should  be  from  the  degree  of 
fever  which  you  have.    Is  your  mind  at  ease?"  "No;  it  is 


not,"  were  the  last  recorded  words  of  Oliver  Goldsmith.  He 
died  on  the  4th  of  April  1774,  in  his  forty-sixth  year.  He  was 
laid  in  the  churchyard  of  the  Temple;  but  the  spot  was  not 
marked  by  any  inscription  and  is  now  forgotten.  The  coffin 
was  followed  by  Burke  and  Reynolds.  Both  these  great  men 
were  sincere  mourners.  Burke,  when  he  heard  of  Goldsmith's 
death,  had  burst  into  a  flood  of  tears.  Reynolds  had  been  so 
much  moved  by  the  news  that  he  had  flung  aside  his  brush  and 
palette  for  the  day. 

A  short  time  after  Goldsmith's  death,  a  little  poem  appeared, 
which  will,  as  long  as  our  language  lasts,  associate  the  names  of 
his  two  illustrious  friends  with  his  own.  It  has  already  been 
mentioned  that  he  sometimes  felt  keenly  the  sarcasm  which  bis 
wild  blundering  talk  brought  upon  him.  He  was,  not  long 
before  his  last  illness,  provoked  into  retaliating.  He  wisely 
betook  himself  to  his  pen;  and  at  that  weapon  he  proved 
himself  a  match  for  all  his  assailants  together.  Within  a  small 
compass  he  drew  with  a  singularly  easy  and  vigorous  pencil 
the  characters  of  nine  or  ten  of  his  intimate  associates. 
Though  thb  little  work  did  not  receive  his  last  touches,  it 
must  always  be  regarded  as  a  masterpiece.  It  b  impossible, 
however,  not  to  wish  that  four  or  five  likenesses  which  have 
no  interest  for  posterity  were  wanting  to  that  noble  gallery, 
and  that  their  places  were  supplied  by  sketches  of  Johnson 
and  Gibbon,  as  happy  and  vivid  as  the  sketches  of  Burke  and 
Garrick. 

Some  of  Goldsmith's  friends  and  admirers  honoured  him 

with  a  cenotaph  in  Westminster  Abbey.    Nollekens  was  the 

sculptor,  and  Johnson  wrote  the  inscription.    It  is  much  to  be 

lamented  that  Johnson  did  not  leave  to  posterity  a  more  durable 

and  a  more  valuable  memorial  of  bis  friend.    A  life  of  Goldsmith 

would  have  been  an  inestimable  addition  to  the  Lives  of  the  Poets. 

No  man  appreciated  Goldsmith's  writings  more  justly  than 

Johnson;  no  man  was  better  acquainted  with  Goldsmith's 

character  and  habits;    and  no  man  was  more  competent  to 

delineate  with  truth  and  spirit  the  peculiarities  of  a  mind  in 

which  great  powers  were  found  in  company  with  great  weaknesses. 

But  the  list  of  poets  to  whose  works  Johnson  was  requested  by 

the  booksellers  to  furnish  prefaces  ended  with  Lyttelton,  who 

died  in  1773.    The  line  seems  to  have  been  drawn  expressly  for 

the  purpose  of  excluding  the  person  whose  portrait  would  have 

most  fitly  closed  the  series.    Goldsmith,  however,  has  been 

fortunate  in  his  biographers.  (M.) 

Goldsmith's  life  has  been  written  by  Prior  (1837),  by  Washington 
Irving  (1844-1849).  and  by  John  Forster  (1848,  and  ed.  1854). 
The  dtligence  of  Prior  deserves  great  praise ;  the  style  of  Washington 
Irving  u  always  pleasing ;  but  the  highest  place  must,  in  justice,  be 
assigned  to  the  eminently  interesting  work  of  Forster.  Subsequent 
biographies  are  by  William  Black  (1878),  and  Austin  Dobson  (1B88, 
American  ed.  I809).  The  above  article  by  Lord  Macaulay  has  been 
slightly  revised  for  this  edition  by  Mr  Austin  Dobson,  as  regards 
questions  of  fact  for  which  there  has  been  new  evidence. 

OOLDSTOCKBR,  THBODOR  (182X-X872),  German  Sanskrit 
scholar,  was  bom  of  Jewish  parents  at  Kfinigsberg  on  the  z8th  of 
January  182 x,  and,  after  attending  the  gymnasium  of  that 
town,  entered  the  university  in  1836  as  a  student  of  Sanskrit. 
In  X  838  he  removed  to  Bonn,  and,  after  graduating  at  KOnigsberg 
in  X840,  proceeded  to  Paris;  in  X842  he  edited  a  German  trans- 
lation of  the  Prabodka  Ckandrodaya.  From  1847  to  1850  be 
resided  at  Berlin,  where  his  talents  and  scholarship  were  recog- 
nized by  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  but  where  his  advanced 
political  views  caused  the  authorities  to  regard  him  with  suspicion. 
In  the  latter  year  he  removed  to  London,  -where  in  x 85 2  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Sanskrit  in  University  College.  He  now 
WMrked  on  a  new  Sanskrit  dictionary,  of  which  the  first  instal- 
ment appeared  in  1856.  In  x86i  he  published  his  chief  work: 
Pdrtim:  his  place  in  Sa$taMi  Lllerature;  and  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  and  chief  promoters  of  the  Sanskrit  Text  Society; 
he  was  also  an  active  member  of  the  Philological  Society,  and  of 
other  learned  bodies.  He  died  in  London  on  the  6th  of  March 
187a. 

As  Litarary  Remains  some  of  his  writings  were  published  in  two 
volumes  (London,  1879).  but  his  papers  were  left  to  the  India  Office 
with  the  request  that  they  wecaaot  to  be  published  until  1920. 


GOLDWELL— GOLF 


219 


GOLDWBLU  THOKAS  (d.  1585),  EngUsh  ecdetiastic,  began 
his  career  as  vicar  of  Cheriton  in  1531,  after  graduating  M.A.  at 
All  Souls  College,  Oxford.  He  became  chaplain  to  Cardinal 
Pole  and  lived  with  him  at  Rome,  was  attainted  in  1539,  but 
returned  to  England  on  Mary's  accession,  and  in  1555  became 
bishop  of  St  Asaph,  a  diocese  which  he  did  much  to  win  back 
to  the  old  faith.  On  the  death  of  Mary,  Goldwell  escaped  from 
England  and  in  1 561  became  superior  of  the  Theatlnes  at  Naples. 
He  was  the  only  English  bishop  at  the  council  of  Trent,  and  in 
X  563  was  again  attainted.  In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed 
vicar-general  to  Carlo  Borromeo,  archbishop  of  Milan.  He  died 
in  Rome  in  1 585,  the  last  of  the  English  bishops  who  had  refused 
to  accept  the  Reformation. 

OOLDZIHBR.  lONAZ  (1850-  ),  Jewish  Hungarian  orient- 
alist, was  bom  in  Stuhlweissenburg  on  the  a  and  of  June 
1850.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Budapest,  Berlin, 
Leipzig  and  Leiden,  and  became  privat  docent  at  Budapest  in 
1872.  In  the  next  year,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Hungarian 
government,  he  began  a  journey  through  Syria,  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  and  took  the  opportunity  of  attending  lectures  of 
Mahommedan  sheiks  in  the  mosque  of  d-Azhar  in  Cairo.  He 
was  the  first  Jewish  scholar  to  become  professor  in  the  Budapest 
University  (1894),  and  represented  the  Hungarian  government 
and  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  numerous  international  con- 
gresses. He  received  the  Urge  gold  medal  at  the  Stockholm 
Oriental  Congress  in  1889.  He  became  a  member  of  several 
Hungarian  and  other  learned  societies,  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  Jewish  community  in  Budapest.  He  was  made  Litt.  D. 
of  Cambridge(i904)and  LL.D.  of  Aberdeen  (1906).  His  eminence 
in  the  sphere  of  scholarship  is  due  primarily  to  his  careful  in- 
vestigationofpre-MahommedanandMahommedanlAw,tradilion, 
religion  and  poetry,  in  connexion  with  which  he  published  a  large 
number  of  treatises,  review  articles  and  essays  Contributed  to 
the  collections  of  the  Hungarian  Academy. 

Among  his  chief  works  are:  BeHriig  tar  LiUraiurpsehtckU  ier 
Scki'a  (1874):  Eeiir&f  tw  CesckickU  der  SprackittehrsamkeU  bet 
den  Arahem  (Vienna,  187 1-1873);  ^^  Mylkas  bet  den  Hebrdem  und 


Manii 

1889-I890,  . , 

1896-1899.  a  vols.) ;  Buck  v.  Weun  d.  SeeU  (ed.  1907). 

60LBTTA  [La  Govletxx],  a  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Tunis  in 
36*  501'  N.  xo*  19'  E.,  a  little  south  of  the  ruins  of  Carthage,  and 
00  the  north  side  of  the  ship  canal  which  traverMS  the  shallow 
Lake  of  Tunis  and  leads  to  the  city  of  that  name.  Built  on  the 
narrow  strip  of  sand  which  separates  the  lake  from  the  gulf, 
Gdelta  is  defended  by  a  fort  and  battery.  The  town  contains 
a  summer  palace  of  the  bey,  the  old  seraglio,  arsenal  and  custpm- 
houae,  and  many  villas,  gardens  and  pleasure  resorts,  Goletta 
being  a  favourite  place  for  sea-bathixig.  A  short  canal,  from 
which  the  name  of  the  town  is  derived  (Arab.  Haik-^Wadt 
"  throat  of  the  canal  ")i  40  ft.  broad  and  8^  ft.  deep,  divides  the 
town  and  affords  communication  between  the  ship  canal  and 
a  dock  or  basin,  io8a  ft.  long  and  541  ft.  broad.  An  electric 
tramway  which  runs  along  the  north  bank  of  the  ship  canal 
connects  Goletta  with  the  dty  of  Tunis  (9.?.).  Pop.  (1907) 
about  5000,  mostly  Jews  and  Italian  fishermen. 

Beyond  Cape  Carthage,  5  m.  N.  of  Goletta,  is  La  Marsa,  a 
summer  resort  overlooking  the  sea.  The  bey  has  a  palace  here, 
and  the  French  resident-general,  the  British  consul,  other 
officials,  and  many  Tunisians  have  country-houses,  surrounded 
by  groves  of  olive  trees. 

Before  the  opening  of  the  ship  canal  in  1893  Goletta^  as  the 
port  of  Tunis,  was  a  place  of  considerable  importance.  The 
bann  at  the  Goletta  end  of  the  canal  now  serves  as  a  subsidiary 
harbour  to  that  of  Tunis.  The  most  stirring  events  in  the 
history  of  the  town  are  connected  with  the  Turkish  conquest 
of  the  Barbary  states.  Khair-ed-Din  Barbarossa  having  made 
himself  master  of  Tunis  and  its  port,  Goletta  was  attacked  in 
1535  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  who  seized  the  pirate's  fleet, 
whkb  was  sheltered  in  the  small  canal,  his  arsenal,  and  300  brass 
cannon.    The  Turks  regained  possession  in  1 574.    (See  Tunisu  : 


GOLF  (in  its  older  forms  Gopf,  GoiTTr  or  Gowff,  the  last  of 
which  gives  the  genuine  old  pronunciation),  a  game  which 
probably  derives  its  name  from  the  Ger.  kolbe^  a  club — in  Dutch, 
ibo//— which  last  is  nearly  in  sound  identical  and  might  suggest  a 
Dutch  origin,*  which  many  pictures  and  other  witnesses  further 
support. 

History.— Kkit  of  the  most  ancient  and  most  interesting  of  the 
pictures  in  which  the  game  is  portrayed  is  the  tailpiece  to  an 
illuminated  Book  of  Hours  made  at  Bruges  at  the  beginning  of 
the  x6th  century.  The  original  is  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
players,  three  in  number,  have  but  one  club  apiece.  The  heads 
of  the  clubs  are  steel  or  steel  covered.  They  play  with  a  ball  each. 
That  which  gives  this  picture  a  peculiar  interest  over  the  many 
pictures  of  Dutch  schools  that  portray  the  game  in  progress  is 
that  most  of  them  show  it  on  the  ice,  the  putting  being  at  a  stake. 
In  this  Book  of  Hours  they  are  putting  at  a  hole  in  the  turi,  as  in 
our  modem  golf.  It  is  scarcely  to  be  doubted  that  the  game  is  of 
Dutch  origin,  and  that  it  has  been  in  favour  since  very  early  days. 
Further  than  that  our  knowledge  does  not  go.  The  early  Dutch- 
men played  golf,  they  painted  golf,  but  they  did  not  write  it. 

It  is  uncertain  at  what  date  golf  was  introduced  into  Scotland, 
but  in  X457  the  popularity  of  the  game  had  already  become  so 
great  as  seriously  to  interfere  with  the  more  important  pursuit 
of  archery.  In  March  of  that  year  the  Scottish  parliament 
"  decreted  and  ordained  that  wapinskawingis  be  halden  be  the 
lordis  and  baroitis  spirituale  and  temporale,  four  times  in  the 
zeir;  and  that  the  fute-ball  and  golf  be  utterly  cryit  doun,  and 
nockt  usU;  and  that  the  bowe-merkis  be  maid  at  ilk  paroche  kirk 
a  pair  of  buttis,  and  sckuttin  be  usit  ilk  Sunday."  Fourteen  years 
afterwards,  in  May  1471,  it  was  judged  necessary  to  pass  another 
act  "  anent  wapenshawings,"  and  in  X49X  a  final  and  evidently 
angxy  fulmination  was  issued  on  the  general  subject,  with  pains 
and  penalties  annexed.  It  runs  thus —  *'  Futeball  and  Golfe 
forbidden.  Item,  it  is  statut  and  ordainit  that  in  na  place  of  the 
realme  there  be  usit  fute-ball,  gt^fe,  or  utker  sik  unprofitabiil 
spottis"  &C.  This,  be  it  noted,  is  an  edict  of  James  IV. ;  and  it  is 
not  a  little  curious  presently  to  find  the  monarch  himself  setting 
an  ill  example  to  his  commons,  by  practice  of  this  "  unprofitabill 
sport,"  as  is  shown  by  various  entries  in  the  accounts  of  the  lord 
high  treasurer  of  Scotland  (X503-XS06). 

About  a  century  later,  the  game  again  appears  on  the  surface  of 
history,  and  it  is  quite  as  popular  as  before.  In  the  year  1592 
the  town  council  of  Edinburgh  "ordanis  proclamation  to  be  made 
threw  this  burgh,  that  na  inhabitants  of  the  samyn  be  seen  at  ony 
pastymes  witlUn  or  without  the  toun,  upoun  the  Sabboth  day,  sic 
as  golfe,  &c."  *  The  following  year  the  edict  was  re-announced , 
but  with  the  modification  that  the  prohibition  was  "  in  tyme  of 
sermons." 

Golf  has  from  old  times  been  known  in  Scotland  as  "The 
Royal  and  Ancient  Game  of  Goff."  Though  no  doubt  Scottish 
monarchs  handled  the  club  before  him,  James  IV.  is  the  first  who 
figures  formally  in  the  golfing  record.  James  V.  was  also  very 
partial  to  the  game  distinctively  known  as  "  royal  ";  and  there 
is  some  scrap  of  evidence  to  show  that  his  daughter,  the  unhappy 
Mary  Stuart,  was  a  golfer.  It  was  alleged  by  her  enemies  that ,  as 
showing  her  shameless  indifference  to  the  fate  of  her  husband,  a 
very  few  days  after  his  murder,  she  "  was  seen  playing  golf  and 
pallmall  in  the  fields  beside  Seton."  *  That  her  son,  James  VI. 
(afterwards  James  I.  of  England),  was  a  golfer,  tradition  con- 
fidently asserts,  though  the  evidence  which  connects  him  with  the 
personal  pract  ice  of  the  game  is  slight .  Of  t  he  interest  he  took  in 
it  we  have  evidence  in  his  act— already  alluded  to—  "  anenl  golfe 
ballis"  prohibiting  their  importation,  except  under  certain 

I  From  an  enactment  of  James  VI.  ^then  James  1.  of  England), 
bearing  date  1618,  we  find  that  a  considerable  importation  of  golf 
balls  at  that  time  took  place  from  Holland,  and  as  thcrrby  '  na 
small  quantitie  of  gold  and  silver  is  transponcd  xierlv  out  of  his 
Hienes'  ktngdome  of  Scoteland  "  (see  kttcr  of  His  Majesty  from 
Salisbury,  the  5th  of  August  1618),  he  issues  a  royal  prohibition,  at 
once  as  a  wise  economy  of  the  national  moneys,  and  a  protection  to 
native  industry  in  the  article.  From  this  it  might  almost  seem  that 
the  nme  was  at  that  date  still  known  and -practised  in  Holland. 

•  Records  of  the  City  of  Edinburtk. 

>  Inventories  of  Mary  Queen  of  ScoU^  preface,  p.  hex.  (1863). 


220 


GOLF 


restrictions.  Charies  I.  (a»  bis  brother  Prince  Henry  had  been ») 
was  devotedly  attached  to  the  game.  Whilst  engaged  in  it  on 
the  links  of  Leith,  in  1642,  the  news  reached  him  of  the  Irish 
rebellion  of  that  year.  He  had  not  the  equanimity  to  finish  his 
match,  but  returned  precipitately  and  in  much  agitation  to 
Holyrood.*  Afterwards,  while  prisoner  to  the  Scots  army  at 
Newcastle,  he  found  his  favourite  diversion  in  "  the  royal  game." 
"  The  King  was  nowhere  treated  with  more  honour  than  at  New- 
castle, as  he  himself  confessed,  both  he  and  his  train  having  liberty 
to  go  abroad  and  play  at  goff  in  the  Shield  Field,  without  the 
walls."*  Of  his  son,  Charles  II.,  as  a  golfer,  nothing  whatever  is 
ascertained,  but  James  II.  was  a  known  devotee.*  After  the 
Restoration,  James,  then  duke  of  York,  was  sent  to  Edinburgh  in 
i68i/a  as  commissioner  of  the  king  to  parliament,  and  an 
historical  monument  of  his  prowess  as  a  golfer  remains  there  to 
this  day  in  the  "  Golfer's  Land,"  as  it  is  still  called,  77  Canongate. 
The  duke  having  been  challenged  by  two  English  noblemen  of  his 
suite,  to  play  a  match  against  them,  for  a  very  large  stake,  along 
with  any  Scotch  ally  he  might  select,  chose  as  his  partner  one 
*'  Johne  Patersone,"  a  shoemaker.  The  duke  and  the  said  Johne 
won  easily,  and  half  of  the  large  stake  the  duke  made  over  to  his 
humble  coadjutor,  who  therowith  built  himself  the  house  men- 
tioned above.  In  1834  William  IV.  became  patron  of  the  St 
Andrews  Golf  Club  (St  Andrews  being  then,  as  now,  the  most 
famous  seat  of  the  game),  and  approved  of  its  being  styled  "  The 
Royal  and  Ancient  Golf  Club  of  St  Andrews."  In  1837,  as 
further  proof  of  royal  favour,  he  presented  to  it  a  magnificent  gold 
medal,  which  "  should  be  challenged  and  played  for  annually  "; 
and  in  1838  the  queen  dowager,  duchess  of  St  Andrews,  became 
patroness  of  the  club,  and  presented  to  it  a  handsome  gold  medal 
— "  The  Royal  Adelaide  "—with  a  request  that  it  should  be  worn 
by  the  captain,  as  president,  on  all  public  occasions.  In  June 
1863  the  prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  Edward  VII.)  signified  his 
desire  to  become  patron  of  the  club,  and  in  the  following  September 
was  elected  captain  by  acclamation.  Hb  engagements  did  not 
admit  of  his  coming  in  person  to  undertake  the  duties  of  the 
office,  but  his  brother  Prince  Leopold  (the  duke  of  Albany), having 
in  1876  done  the  club  the  honour  to  become  its  captain,  twice 
visited  the  ancient  city  in  that  capacity. 

In  more  recent  days,  golf  has  become  increasingly  popular  in 
a  much  wider  degree.  In  x88o  the  man  who  travelled  about 
England  with  a  set  of  golf  clubs  was  an  object  of  some  astonish- 
ment, almost  of  alarm,  to  his  fellow-travellers.  In  those  days  the 
commonest  of  questions  in  regard  to  the  game  was, "  You  have  to 
be  a  fine  rider,  do  you  not,  to  play  golf  ?  "  so  confounded  was  it  in 
the  popular  mind  with  the  game  of  polo.  At  Blackheath  a  few 
Scotsmen  resident  in  London  had  long  played  golf.  In  1864  the 
Royal  North  Devon  Club  was  formed  at  Westward  Ho,  and  this 
was  the  first  of  the  seaside  links  discovered  and  laid  out  for  golf  in 
England.  In  1869  the  Royal  Liverpool  Club  established  itself  in 
possession  of  the  second  English  course  of  thisquality  at  Hoylake,  in 
Cheshire.  A  golf  club  was  formed  in  connexion  with  the  London 
Scottish  Volunteers  corps,  which  had  its  house  on  the  Putney  end 
of  Wimbledon  Common  on  Putney  Heath;  and,  after  making  so 
much  of  a  start,  the  progress  of  the  game  was  slow,  though  steady, 
for  many  years.  A  few  more  clubs  were  formed;  the  numbers  of 
golfers  grew;  but  it  coiild  not  be  said  that  the  game  was  yet  in 
any  sense  popular  in  England.  All  at  once,  for  no  very  obvious 
reason,  the  qualities  of  the  ancient  Scottish  game  seemed  to  strike 
home,  and  from  that  moment  its  popularity  has  been  wonderfully 
and  increasingly  great.  The  English  links  that  rose  into  most 
immediate  favour  was  the  fine  course  of  the  St  George's  Golf 
Club,  near  Sandwich,  on  the  coast  of  Kent.  To  the  London  golfer 
it  was  the  first  course  of  the  first  class  that  was  reasonably 
accessible,  and  the  fact  made  something  like  an  epoch  in 
English  golf.  A  very  considerable  increase,  it  is  true,  in  the 
number  of  English  golfers  and  English  golf  clubs  had  taken  place 
before  the  discoverv  for  golfing  purposes  of  the  links  at  Sandwich. 

*  Anonymous  autnor  of  MS.  m  the  Harlctan  Library. 

•  See  History  of  Leith,  by  A.  Campbell  (1827). 

>  Local  Records  of  Northumberland,  by  John  Sykes  (Newcastle, 

^Robertson's  Historical  Notices  of  Leith, 


Already  there  was  a  chain  of  links  all  round  the  coast,  besides 
numerous  inland  courses;  but  since  1890  their  increase  has  been 
extraordinary,  and  the  number  which  has  been  formed  in  the 
colonies  and  abroad  is  very  large  also,  so  that  in  the  Golfer's 
Year  Book  for  1906  a  space  of  over  300  pages  was  allotted  to  the 
Club  Directory  alone,  each  page  containing,  on  a  rough  average, 
six  clubs.  To  compute  the  average  membership  of  these  dubs  is 
very  difficult.  There  is  not  a  little  overlapping,  in  the  sense  that 
a  member  of  one  club  will  often  be  a  member  of  several  others; 
but  probably  the  average  may  be  placed  at  something  like  200 
members  for  each  club. 

The  immense  amount  of  golf-playing  that  this  denotes,  the 
large  industry  in  the  making  of  clubs  and  balls,  in  the  upkeep 
of  links,  in  the  actual  work  of  dub-carrying  by  the  caddies, 
and  in  the  instruction  given  by  the  professional  dass,  is  obvious. 
Golf  has  taken  a  strong  hold  on  the  affections  of  the  people  in 
many  parts  of  Irdandj  and  the  fashion  for  golf  in  Enghind  has 
reacted  strongly  on  Scotland  itself,  the  andent  home  of  the  game, 
where  since  1880  golfers  have  probably  increased  in  the  ratio  of 
forty  to  one.  Besides  the  industry  that  such  a  ^wth  of  the 
game  denotes  in  the  branches  immediately  connected  with  it, 
as  mentioned  above,  there  is  to  be  taken  into  further  account 
the  visiting  population  that  it  brings  to  all  lodging-houses  and 
hotels  within  reach  of  a  tolerable  golf  links,  so  that  many  a 
fishing  village  has  risen  into  a  moderate  watering-place  by  virtue 
of  no  other  attractions  than  those  which  are  offered  by  its  golf 
course.  Therefore  to  the  Briton,  golf  has  developed  from 
something  of  which  )ie  had  a  vague  idea — as  of  "  curling  " — 
to  something  in  the  nature  of  an  important  business,  a  bunness 
that  can  make  towns  and  has  a  considerable  effect  on  the  receipts 
of  railway  companies. 

Moreover,  ladies  have  learned  to  play  golf.    Although  this 
is  a  crude  and  brief  sentence,  it  does  not  state  the  fact  too 
widely  nor  too  fordbly,  for  though  it  is  true  that  before  188$ 
many  played  on  the  short  links  of  St  Andrews,  North  Berwick, 
Westward  Ho  and  elsewhere,  still  it  was  virtually  junknown 
that  they  should  play  on  the  longer  courses,  wUch  till  then 
had  been  in  the  undisputed  possession  of  the  men.    At  many 
places  women  now  have  their  separate  links,  at  others  they  play 
on  the  same  course  as  the  men.    But  even  where  links  are  set 
apart  for  women,  they  are  far  different  from  the  little  courses 
that  used  to  be  assigned  to  them.    They  are  links  only  a  little 
less  formidable  in  their  bunkers,  a  little  less  varied  in  their 
features  than  those  of  men.     The  ladies  have  their  annual 
championship,  which  they  play  on  the  long  links  of  the  men, 
sometimes  on  one,  sometimes  on  another,  but  always  on  courses 
of  the  first  quality,  demanding  the  finest  display  of  golfing  skilL 
The  daim  that  England  made  to  a  golfing  fellowship  with 
Scotland  was  conceded  very  strikingly  by  the  admission  of 
three  English  greens,  first  those  of  Hoylake  and  of  Sandwich, 
and  in  1909  Deal,  into  the  exclusive  list  of  the  links  on  which 
the  open  championship  of  the  game  is  decided.    Before  En^nd 
had  so  fully  assimilated  Scotland's  ^aroe  this  great  annual 
contest  was  waged  at  St  Andrews,  Musselburgh  and  Prestwick 
in  successive  years.    Now  the  ancient  green  of  Mussdburgh, 
somewhat  worn  out  with  length  of  hard  and  gallant  scnrice,  and 
moreover,  as  a  nine-holes  course  inadequately  accommodating 
the  numbers  who  compete  in  the  championships  to-day,  has  been 
superseded  by  the  course  at  Muirficld  as  a  championship  arena. 
While  golf  had  been  making  itself  a  force  in  the  southern 
kingdom,  the  professional  element — men  who  had  learned  the 
game  from  childhood,  had  become  past-masters,  were  capable 
of  giving  instruction,  and  also  of  making  dubs  and  balls  and 
looking  after  the  greens  on  which  golf  was  played — ^had  at  first 
been  taken  from  the  northern  side  of  the  Border.    But  when 
golf  had  been  started  long  enough  in  England  for  the  little  boys 
who  were  at  first  employed  as  "caddies" — in  carrying  the 
players'  clubs— to  grow  to  sufficient  strength  to  drive  the  ball 
as  far  as  their  masters,  it  was  inevitable  that  out  of  the  number 
who  thus  began  to  play  in  their  boyhood  some  few  sho^ 
develop  an  exceptional  talent  for  the  game.    This,  in  fact, 
actually  happened,  and  English  golfers,  both  of  the  amateur 


GOLF 


221 


and  the  professtono!  dtsses,  luiv«  proved  tbemsdvai  so  adept 
at  Scotland's  game,  that  the  champiooships  in  either  the  Open 
or  the  Amateur  competitions  have  been  won  more  often  by 
English  than  by  Scottish  players  of  late  years.  Probably  in  the 
United  Kingdom  to-day  there  are  as  many  English  as  Scottish 
professional  golf  players,  and  their  relative  number  is  increasing. 

GcM  also  "caught  on,"  to  use  the  American  expression,  in 
the  United  States.  To  the  American  of  1890  golf  was  largely  an 
unknown  thing.  Since  then,  however,  golf  has  become  perhaps 
a  greater  factor  in  the  life  of  the  upper  and  upper-middle  classes 
in  the  United  States  than  it  ever  has  been  in  England  or  Scotland. 
Golf  to  the  English  and  the  Scots  meant  only  one  among  several 
of  the  sports  and  pastimes  that  take  the  man  and  the  woman 
of  the  upper  and  upper-middle  classes  into  the  country  and  the 
fresh  air.  To  the  American  of  like  status  golf  came  as  the  one 
thing  to  take  him  out  of  his  towns  and  give  him  a  reason  for 
exercise  in  the  country.  To-day  golf  has  become  an  interest 
all  over  North  America,  but  it  is  in  the  Eastern  States  that  it 
has  made  most  difference  in  the  life  of  the  classes  with  whom  it 
has  become  fashionable.  Westerners  and  Southerners  found 
more  excuses  before  the  coming  of  golf  for  being  in  the  open 
country  air.  It  is  in  the  Eastern  States  more  especially  that  it 
has  had  so  much  influence  in  making  the  people  live  and  take 
exercise  out  of  doors.  In  a  truly  democratic  spirit  the  American 
woman  golfer  plays  on  a  perfect  equality  with  the  American 
man.  She  does  not  compete  in  the  men's  championships;  she 
has  championships  of  her  own;  but  she  plays,  without  question, 
on  the  same  links.  There  is  no  suggestion  of  relegating  her,  as  a 
certain  cynical  writer  in  the  Badminton  volume  on  golf  described 
it,  to  a  waste  comer,  a  kind  of  "Jews'  Quarter,"  of  the  links. 
And  the  Americans  have  taken  up  golf  in  the  spirit  of  a  sumptuous 
and  opulent  people,  spending  money  on  magnificent  clubhouses 
beyond  the  finest  dreams  of  the  Englishman  or  the  Scot.  The 
greatest  success  achieved  by  any  American  golfer  fell  to  the  lot 
of  Mr  Walter  Travis  of  the  Garden  City  club,  who  in  1904  won 
the  British  amateur  championship. 

So  much  enthusiasm  and  'so  much  golf  in  America  have  not 
failed  to  make  their  influence  felt  in  the  United  Kingdom. 
Naturally  and  inevitably  they  have  created  a  strong  demand 
for  professional  instruction,  both  by  example  and  by  precept, 
and  for  professional  advice  and  assistance  in  the  laying-out  and 
upkeep  of  the  many  new  links  that  have  been  created  in  all  parts 
of  the  States,  sometimes  out  of  the  least  promising  material. 
By  the  offer  of  great  prizes  for  exhibition  matches,  and  of  wages 
that  are  to  the  British  rate  on  the  scale  of  the  dollar  to  the 
shilling,  they  have  attracted  many  of  the  best  Scottish  and 
English  professionals  to  pay  them  longer  or  shorter  visits  as  the 
case  may  be,  and  thus  a  new  opening  has  been  created  for  the 
energies  of  the  professional  golfing  dius. 

Tk€  Came.—The  game  of  golf  may  be  briefly  defined  as 
consisting  in  hitting  the  ball  over  a  great  extent  of  country, 
preferably  of  that  sand-hill  nature  which  is  found  by  the  sea-side, 
and  finally  hitting  or  "  putting  "  it  into  a  little  hole  of  some 
4  in.  diameter  cut  in  the  turf.  The  place  of  the  hole  is  commonly 
marked  by  a  flag.  Eighteen  is  the  recognixed  number  of  these 
K(des  on  a  full  course,  and  they  are  at  varying  distances  apart, 
from  too  yds.  up  to  anything  between  a  \  and  }  m.  For  the 
vaiions  strokes  reqxiired  to  achieve  the  hitting  of  the  ball  over 
the  great  hills,  and  finally  putting  it  into  the  small  hole,  a  number 
of  different  "  clubs "  has  been  devised  to  suit  the  different 
positions  in  which  the  ball  may  be  found  and  the  different 
directions  in  which  it  is  wished  to  propel  it.  At  the  start 
for  each  bole  the  ball  may  be  placed  on  a  favourable  position 
(r.f .  "  tee'd  "  on  a  small  mound  of  sand)  for  striking  it,  but 
after  that  it  may  not  be  touched,  except  with  the  dub,  until 
it  tsblt  into  the  next  hole.  A  "  full  drive,"  as  the  farthest  dutance 
that  the  ball  can  be  hit  is  called,  is  about  200  yds.  in  length, 
of  which  some  three-fourths  will  be  traversed  in  the  air,  and  the 
rest  by  bounding  or  running  over  the  ground.  It  is  easily  to  be 
andentood  that  when  the  baU  is  lying  on  the  turf  behind  a  tall 
sand-hill,  or  in  a  bunker,  a  differently-shaped  dub  is  required 
for  laisinf  it  over  such  an  obstacle  from  that  which  is  needed 


when  it  Is  placed  on  the  tee  to  start  with;  and  again,  that 
another  dub  is  needed  to  strike  the  ball  -out  of  a  cup  or  out  of 
heavy  grass.  It  is  this  variety  that  gives  the  game  its  charm. 
Each  player  plays  with  his  own  ball,  with  no  interference  from 
his  opponent,  and  the  object  of  each  is  to  hit  the  ball  from  the 
starting-point  into  each  successive  hole  in  the  fewest  strokes. 
The  player  who  at  the  end  of  the  round  {ix,  of  the  course  of 
eighteen  holes)  has  won  the  majority  of  the  holes  is  the  winner 
of  the  round;  or  the  dedsion  may  be  reached  1>efore  the  end 
of  the  round  by  one  side  gaining  more  holes  than  there  remain  to 
play.  For  instance,  if  one  player  be  four  holes  to  the  good,  and 
only  three  holes  remain  to  be  played,  it  is  evident  that  the 
former  must  be  the  winner,  for  even  if  the  latter  win  every 
remaining  hole,  he  still  must  be  one  to  the  bad  at  the  finish. 

The  British  Amateur  Championship  is  decided  by  a  tourna- 
ment in  matches  thus  played,  each  defeated  player  retiring,  and 
his  opponent  passing  on  into  the  next  round.  In  the  case  of  the 
Open  Championship,  and  in  most  medal  competitions,  the  scores 
are  differently  reckoned — each  man's  total  score  (irrespective 
of  his  relative  merit  at  each  hole)  being  reckoned  at  the  finish 
against  the  total  score  of  the  other  players  in  the  competition. 
There  is  also  a  species  of  competition  caUed  "  bogey  "  play,  in 
which  each  man  plays  against  a  "  bogey  "  score — a  score  fixed 
for  each  hole  in  thfc  round  before  starting — ^and  his  position  in 
the  competition  relatively  to  the  other  players  is  determined 
by  the  number  of  holes  that  he  is  to  the  good  or  to  the  bad  of  the 
"  bogey  "  score  at  the  end  of  the  round.  The  player  who  is  most 
holes  to  the  good,  or  fewest  holes  to  the  bad,  wins  the  competition. 
It  may  be  mentioned  inddentally  that  golf  occupies  the  almost 
unique  position  of  being  the  only  qx>rt  in  which  even  a  single 
player  can  enjoy  his  game,  his  opponent  in  this  event  being 
"  Cokmd  Bogey  " — more  often  than  not  a  redoubtable  adversary. 

The  links  which  have  been  thou|Eht  worthy,  by  reason  of  their 
geographioal  poutions  and  their  merits,  of  being  the  scenes  on  which 
the  gdU  championshipa  are  fought  out,  are,  as  we  have  alreadv  said, 
three  in  Scotland — St  Andrews,  Prestwick  and  Muirfield — and  three 
in  England — Hoytake,  Sandwich  and  Deal.  This  brief  list  is  veiy 
far  from  bein^  complete  as  regards  links  of  first-class  quality  in  Great 
Britain.  Besides  those  named,  there  are  in  Scotland — Carnoustie, 
Nofth  Berwick,  Cruden  Bay,  Nairn,  Aberdeen,  Dornoch,  Troon, 
Machrihanish,  South  Uist,  Islay,  Gullane,  Luffness  and  many  more. 
In  England  there  are — ^Westward  Ho,  Bembridge,  Littlestone,  Great 
Yarmouth,  Brancaster, -Seaton  Carew,  Formbjfi  Lytham,  Harlech, 
Bumham,  amone  the  seaside  ones;  while  of  the  inland^  some  of  them 
of  very  fine  quality,  we  cannot  even  attempt  a  selection,  so  large  is 
their  number  and  so  variously  estimated  their  comparative  merits. 
Ireland  has.  Portrush,  Newcastle,  Portsalon,  Dollymount  and  many 
more  of  the  first  class;  and  there  are  excellent  couracs  in  the  Isle  of 
Man.  In  America  manv  fine  courses  have  been  constructed.  There 
is  not  a  British  colony  01  any  standing  that  is  without  its  golf  course-^ 
Australia,  India,  South  Africa,  all  have  their  golf  championships, 
which  are  keenly  contested.  Canada  has  had  courses  at  Quebec  and 
Montreal  for  many  years,  and  the  Calcutta  Golf  Club,  curioualy 
enough,  is  the  oldest  established  (next  to  the  Blackheath  Club),  the 
next  oldest  being  the  dub  at  Pau  in  the  Basses-Pvr^ii^es. 

The  Open  Championship  of  golf  was  started  in  i860  by  the 
Prestwick  Club  givme  a  belt  to  oe  played  for  annually  under  the 
condition  that  it  should  become  the  property  of  any  who  could  win 
it  thrice  in  succession.  -The  f  oUowii^  ia  the  ust  of  the  champions : — 

i860.  W.  Park,  Musselburgh    .     .  .  174— at  Prestwick. 

1 861.  Tom  Morris,  sen.,  Prestwick  ,  i63T-at  Prestwick. 

1862.  Tom  Morris,  sen.,  Prestwick  .  163 — ^at  Prestwick. 

1863.  W.  Park.  Musselburgh    .     .  .  l6»>-at  Prestwkk. 

1864.  Tom  Morris,  sen.,  Prestwick  .  160— at  Prestwick. 
l86i.  A.  Strath,  St  Andrews     .     .  .  163— at  Prestwick. 

1866.  W.  Park,  Musselburgh    .     .     .  i6(^-at  Prestwick. 

1867.  Tom  Morris,  sen.,  St  Andrews  «  170 — at  Prestwick^ 

1868.  Tom  Morris,  iun.,  St  Andrews  .  lS4-~«t  Prestwick. 

1869.  Tom  Morris,  lun.,  St  Andrews  .  l57-~«t  Prestwick. 

1870.  Tcmi  Morris,  )un.,  St  Andrews  .  149 — at  Prestwick. 

Tom  Morris,  junior,  thus  won  the  bdt  finally,  aoconjing  to  the 
conditions.  In  187 1  there  was  no  competition;  but  by  1873  the 
three  duba  of  St  Andrews,  Prestwick  and  Musselburgh  had  sub- 
scribed for  a  cup  which  should  be  played  for  over  the  course  of  each 
subacribing  dub  successively,  but  should  never  become  the  property 
of  the  winner.  In  later  years  the  course  at  Muirfield  was  substituted 
for  that  at  Musselburgh,  and  Hoylake  and  Sandwich  were  admitted 
into  the  list  of  championship^  courses.  Up  to  1801,  inclusive,  the 
play  of  two  rounds,  or  thirty-six  holes^etermined  the  championship, 
out  from  1892  the  result  haa  been  determined  by  the  play  of  7a  holes 


222 

ATtEr  Ih(  li 
IS?2.  ~- 
I8?3. 

m*. 

lis  i- 
lis  b 


I  i87i,tlw  rrJIoirii^in 


Bob  Minin,  ^i  Anditn 
D.  Brown,  Muwibitrgh    ,      , 
WilllF  Piirk,  inn..  MuHclburth 
Juk  fiuriu,  Wtrvick         . 
.    WUUt  Pirfc,  jur.,  Muactburgh 

Mr  John  Ball,  jun.,  Hovlake 
.    Hu^  Kiiloldy,  St  AndVews 

Mr^l.  H.  Katofl.  Hovlalu     . 
.    W.  Au<:hi«l<iiii«,  St  Andnn 
.    I.  H.  Taylor.  Winchcitcr 
.    yn.Tsvlor,Winrtei,r 


E.  Lmidby 
E,  Laidby  ' 


iS^S.  Mr   oKn  Ball 

iSM.  Mr  P.  G.  Talt 

1900.  Mr  H.  H.  HilloE 

-  "H.H.  Hillon 

.^5P . 

Mr  W.J,  TravU 
Mrl.'Robb    .     . 

.,.,.  Mr£A.U«n  ' 

1909.  Mr  Robert  Maxml 

,1910.  UrJoluiBall 
The  Udiei'  Cl!3m;,luri-hiii  wii 

1B91.  L4.l>  M.  ■■c-.ii      . 

1694.  U.Jy  M.  Sm[.       . 

1S9I.  ij.lv  M.  ^ntt 


ffi  Sal 

K  KSS! 

1901.  MioM 

I90ji  M'"!*- 

I9CI4.  WimL. 


«M.  Huln  . 
in  M.  Tittenon 
in  D.  Campbell 
in  Grant  Siiuie 


liKl 


Koylalce. 

Sind^ch. 
St  AndrewL 


Hoytakt. 

Prenwkk. 

StAndrewi. 

Hoylake. 

St  Andcm. 

Sindwkh. 

PreMwick. 

St'^ndren. 

Sandwich. 

Muirfitld. 

pTHMnck. 

Haybke. 

Sandwich. 

StAndren. 

Hoytakc:, 

Mulifidd. 

Sandwich. 

Itlr 

MuiriML 
Hoylake. 

3- 
StAsnei. 


f  the  Ruld  ihould  be  coniulltd).  A  new  clau  of  goltn  b*I 
•isea,  tcquiring  a  code  o[  tuin  (camid  talber  more  exactly 
ban  the  older  code.  The  Scotliih  golfer,  who  wai "  teethed  " 
D  B  golf  club,  19  Ml  Andre*  Lang  bu  dctcribed  it,  imbibed  all 


few  (ules  auffictd  lor 


play  golf  as 


;can  [l«9 


t,  then  they  begai 


he  Englishman,  and  it  ill 

ask  ior  a  code  ol 
an  eveiy  point— 


BD  ideal  perhapa  impossible  t 
thai  the  code  put  lotwird  by  the  Royal  and  Ancient  Club  ol 
St  Andrews  did  not  realize  it  adequately.  Nevettheleu  (be  new 
golfen  were  very  loyal  indeed  lo  the  dub  (hat  had  ever  of  old 
held,  by  tacit  conient,  the  position  ol  lountol  golfing  legitUtion. 
The  Royal  and  Ancient  Club  was  appealed  10  by  English  golXeii 


Crick 


al  they 


le  both  wiUini 


0  give  it.  It  wa>  a  place  Ihat  the  Clu 
n  the  least  wish  to  occupy,  but  the  hon 
nily  upon  it,  that  there  wai  no  declini 


It  St  Andrews  d 


the  appoinlmeni  of 
of  Golf  Coniinitlee.' 
Ancient  Club;  but 
all  parti  of  the  Unit 


ce  this  c 


:nhip  lioi 


south,  east  and  west — from  Westward  Ho  and  Sandwich  to 
Doinoch,  and  alt  the  many  first-rale  links  of  Ireland — on  the 
commitiee.  Ireland  hai,  indeed,  some  of  the  best  links  in  tbe 
kingdom,  and  yields  to  ncilhei  Scollaad  nor  EtIgUnd  in  co- 
lor the  game.    This  committee,  after  a  general  reviiioa 


■h  they  n- 


Royal  and  Ancient  Club  at  St  Andrews,  which  may  confirm  o 
may  reject  Ihcm  at  will  The  ladies  of  Great  Britain  manag 
otherwise.  They  have  a  Got£ng  Union  which  settles  question 
foe  them;  but  since  this  union  itself  accepli  al  binding  (h 
■luwera  given  by  the  Rules  of  Goll  Committee,  they  really  arriv 
at  (hesatnecondu^onsby  a  tlightlydiflerentpatb.  Nor  does  th 
American  Union,  governing  the  pUy  of  men  and  women  alik 
in  the"  Stales,  really  act  differently.    The  American*  naturall 


iSSs.    Theadv 

tbe  ball-is  struc! 
consequence  of  1 
increased  camp 

(he  old  conditions  a  few  workers  at  the  few  greens  then  in 
enstence  were  enouzh  to  supply  the  golfing  wants,  now  there 
golf  dub  and  hall  making,  which  not 
(he  local  dub-makers'  shop&  ali  Ihe 
kingdom  over,  but  is  an  impottant  branch  of  the  commerce  oC 
the  stores  and  of  ihebigathletlcDUtBtlere,  both  in  Great  Britain 
and  in  (he  United  Slates.  By  far  the  largest  modilication  In 
the  game  since  the  change  to  gutta-percha  balls  from  balls 
ol  leather-covering  stuHed  with  [eathcis,  is  due  to  the  American 
invention  of  the  india-rubber  cased  balls.  Practically  it  is  at  aa 
American  invention  (hat  i(  is  still  regarded,  although  the  British 
law  courts  decided,  after  a  lengthy  trill  (1905),  that  there  had 
been  "  prior  users  "  ol  (be  princip^^e  o[  the  balls'  manulaclure, 
and  therefore  tbal  the  patent  of  Mr  UaskcU,  by  whose  name  Ihc 


lo  the  legisla 

ion  of  Scotland,  witb  (be 

lie  definition 

f  the  status  0 

alionhasbee 

effected  in  th 

implement! 

ency  ol  the 

nodem  wood 

n  dubs  it  to 

ompared  wil 

the  clubs  of 

say,  isaoor 

claimed  (pro 

ably  with  jus 

ice)  for  this 

the  weight 

>ehlnd  the  po 

Bt  on  which 

ter  material 

n  the  wood  of 

the  dub  is  a 

eased  demand  lot  these  art 

det  and  the 

among  (heir 

makera.    Whereas  under 

fint  taHi  of  the  kind  w««  allal,  was  not  good.  II  h  'SdiuUi 
to  Kinuk  thai  in  Ihc  Ant  ioiroduclion  of  Ihe  gutu-ptrchi 
bill*,  (upcrafding  Ihc  leather  and  rmhei  cempoationi,  ihcyalso 
*n<  called  by  IIh  name  of  th«i  Rtst  maker,  "  Goutlay."  The 
fvneral  mode  of  cnanufaflun  oi  the  nibber-corcd  ball,  which  is 
Ml*  everyvbere  in  use,  ii  inleriorly,  a  hard  core  of  gutta-perchi 


.    by 


coacbiDsy,  india-rubber  Ehiead  or  itripi  at 
TT  aQ  is  ut  ouler  coat  of  gutta-percha.     Some  makcn  have 
ied  to  diipeov  with  the  kemcL  of  hard  lubstance,  or  to  sub- 
itutc  for  it  kerneii  of  lame  Ruid  ot  gelaltnous  substance,  but 
general  the  above  is  a  lufijcicnt,  though  rough,  description  of 
e  mode  oj  making  all  these  beHt.    Their  aupcrionty  over  the 
tolid  gulia-percha  lie*  in  their  tuperior  resiliency.    The  effect 
iithai  they  go  much  more  lightly  off  the  club.    It  is  not  so  much 
in  ibc  iie-shou  that  Ibis  luperiorily  is  observed,  as  In   Ibe 
second  ihots,  when  the  ball  is  lying  badly;  balls  of  the  rubber- 
cored  kind,  with  their  greater  liveliness,  are  more  easy  to  raise 
in  the  air  from  a  lie  of  this  kind.    They  also  go  remarkably  well 
aS  ibc  iron  clubl,  and  thus  make  the  game  easier  by  placing  the 
player  within  an  iron  diot  of  the  hole  at  a  distance  at  wbich  he 
would  have  to  use  a  wooden  dub  if  he  were  playingwith  a  solid 
gulla-perchaball.     Tbeyalsotendtom  ' 


tbeficl 


a  ball.     Bui  Ihe  m 


E  shilling  lor  the  balls  mode  by  m 
Tbe  rubber-cored  bill  doa 


with  the  old  gulta-pcnha  bs 
be  leisl  difference,  nevenhc 
ball  are  also  best  with  Ih 


fourth  best  closer  u 


been  touched  on 
doubt  thai  [he  bi 


ic  question  of  the  eipcnie  of  Ihe  game  has 


hemselves  being  perhaps 
be  given  to  their  manu- 
■ccessary  annual  eipendi- 
1  though  be  plays  pretty 


m  their 


0  be  for  a  well  kept  ci 

is  a  good  deal  more  lun 

her  used  to  be.     This  i 

he  green.  1 


reinti 


etlhii 


r  perfectly  m. 
ind  probably  the  modern 
.  bis  clubhouse  wants  thin 
big  lIlB  of  servants  and 

ve  guineas  added  to  a  ten 


i;  required.  Such  ■  (ubtctiplion  as 
d:  filieen  guinea  tnlrance  fee  is  not  uncommon,  ana  ever 
rrry  moderate  compared  with  Ihe  subscriptions  lo  wmt 
flubs  in  the  United  Stales,  where  a  hundred  dollars  a  ] 
[-'cniy  pounds  of  our  rnsney.  is  not  unusual.  But  on  thi 
Cui!  is  a  very  economic;)!  pastime,  aa  compared  with 


DJthe 


any  other  sport  oi 
Britons,  and  it  is  a 
Ifae  life  of  a  ouui  or  woman. 

duury  if  TcdutlaJ  Tirmi  mat  in 


ildf.— To  urike  the  ground  with  the  cli 
3(1  Ihe  ball  unduly. 
Saffy.—A  short  wooden  club,  with  laid-b; 


SSKS 


In  the  older-fashioned  driver. 

I  ini  after  one  side  has  become  more  holes  up 

*ho  carries  the  dubs.    Diminutive    of 

^■r.  cadilj. 

1  club  that  Is  capable  of  Ihe  fanbeit  drive 

on  heads. 

I  he  tiound  auung  the  ball  to  lie  badly. 


b,'uwl  when  the  ball  li< 


Haif-SliiiL—f.  ttiat  played  with  something  leu  than  a  full  swing, 
'Hahtd.—A  hole  is  '^  halved  "  when  both  lidci  have  played  It  in 
he  ame  number  of  strokes.  A  round  is  "  halved  "  when  each  aide 
Hiniiiuip.~Thc  itrokei  which  a  player  receives  rither  in  nuuh 
^onfiiiC.— Said  of  a  ball  Ihit  liesona  slope  inclining  dawns-anl* 

Hovrd.—h  eeneral  term  for  bunker,  whan,  long  grass,  roads  and 
I]  kinds  of  bad  ground. 
/f«l.— To  hit  the  ba 


id  the  bait  to  the  right,  i 


[jxa-Bai 


"/^.-{^Tl^e  Tn^lk  rf'tbe  cluEh^d"ill 
le,"  "an  upright  lie");  if)  the  posHion  o 
ti."  a  good  He,"  "a  bad  lie").   ■ 

Lila.  Re.— The  stnAe  which  makes  th  

us  opponent's  io  course  of  playing  a  hole. 

Lilu^i'ioe~Lu- — Said  when  both  sides  have  played 


VW^-PIay.— Play  In  which  Ibe  tcvt  is  reckoned  by  holes  wo 
Ualal-Pla^.—Pliy  in  which  I 


i  for  getting  Ih 
«Mrrk.— Astr 


fiUIir,— The  club 


reckoned  by  Ibe  lolal 
t  back.  Inn 

H  short  strokes  near  Ihe  bole. 


GOLIAD— GOLIARD 

.    Coliuin 


Rtfmf-lkl-GrreH.—Any  ch^n*  dttcctSoD  that  tht  l»l[  itCFivu  u 

Ttun  ,IJt.— To  tmi  the  hall  low  and  clew  to  Che  ground  in 
apniiBchins  [he  holt — opposite  10  Wtinj  it  up.    _ 
Sinukt  flajw.— Playci  wli'.  raceivo  ng  oddi  in  handicap  ami- 

'sK^To  hil  the  ball  wilK  a  cut  aero-  !l,  » tluil  !l  flifm  curving 

aiBiiw.— (o)  The  piite  on  ilkh  the  piayer  haa  to  Mand  wlien 
playing— u.  a  bad  ttaacp,"  "a  good  rtance,'  are  cpmnwn  ei- 
pnBio»;  (Ij  [he  podtlon-relariw  to  eacli  other  ot  the  player  t  feet. 

Snm.— Whan  one  baH  1jc>  id  >  ilnight  line  between  another  and 
Ibe  bide  Ibc  fint  ii  laid  10  "  Eiymle,"  or  "  to  be  a  Hynue  10  "  the 
other— IniD  an  old  Scottish  •'>td  given  by  Januooa  la  mean  the 
falntot  [Dtm  <il  anylhfaig."  T  Ik  idea  probably  vu,  lb«  "alymie" 
osly  IcCi  yw  the  "  laintat  Corn  "  o(  the  hole  to  aim  at. 

n*.— The  lilile  mound  of  und  oo  vhich  the  ball  n  geneialTy 


:e  mailed  ai  the  limit,  outiide  of 


(he  ball  al 


' "  two  up,"  &C,  *bea  he  it  k 
|.  rLgth  than  a  iBlT-ihot,  but  longer  thar 


7^— To, 

many  bolei  to  Ihe  $oa 
rfiji-SW.-A.Sot 

BmilooauFHT.- Tlie  lilcniEur.  ol  ni^- i-mii  ii .- IT  ■ .  .  ■,.  I 
theSnewofliby  Mr  Robert  Cluk.Cs'/:  A  ki^'yalati/Att'^-.i '.  .,■ 
M(T»nnieipct:tivc1y,iDdlheCaMi»iaif«i«^iuaorMVsi<  V  1 
A louirbwh  £v  Mr  Homa  Hutihinjnn.  mmcd  IUhIs  w  i.^.".  >- 
very  shortly  IolIu»Td  by  a  much  more  Importonl  work  by  Sir  U.  Ii 
SioiiHon,  Biirt.,  called  Tht  Atl  ol  Colt,  a  title  which  tulr'n-i.  1 
eiplajnt  iliell.    The  Bsdmlntou  Library  bsok  on  Cpf/uiicinii.  1 

about  the  nme,  wiih  ofrivr  diOa  and  advice  lo  tun^ri?,  jn'l 
■imilir  didactic  linei.  booki  have  b«n  wriiien  by  Mr  II.  • 
Evennl,  Mr  Garden  Smilh  and  W.  PjirL,  ihe  pisfesiianal  !■'  ' 
Mr  H.  j.  Whigham,  lomctime  .malcur  champinn  gi>)l,r  ..1   1 

r£  Beet  tf  alVawfcSftfi'  coinpiuS,  with  ■MSlSMi?by  .\l)  11.. 


IMI-nJCMoi 


called  Crtnl  CtJfm!  their  Urihali  Hi 


lie  photiHnipha  of  playci 


OOUAD.  IS  uniDCoipoiatcd  village  and  the  counly-v 
Gnliid  county,  Texan,  U.S.A.,  on  the  N.  bank  oT  the  San  Ai 
tiver,  S5  m.  S.E.  of  San  Anlonio.  Fop.  Uyoo)  about  1701 
ii  KTved  by  tlic  Galvntan,  Huriiburg  k  Sui  Anlonio  lailway 
(SouUicni  PadGc  Syiletn).  Situated  In  tbe  midit  o(  a  licb 
fimiing  and  stock-raising  countiy,  Goliad  hu  flour  rnilli,  cotton 

the  old  Spanish  mission  of  La  Baliia.  which  was  removed  to  this 
point  irom  tbe  Cuadaloupe  river  in  1747.  During  (he  itnigglc 
between  Mexico  and  Spain  the  Huican leader  Bcmardo  Guticrrca 
(i77S-i8it)  was  besieged  here.  The  name  Goliad,  probably  u 
anagram  ol  the  name  of  the  Mexican  patriot  Hid»]go(J7SJ-i8ii), 
was  first  used  about  1819.  On  Ihe  outbreak  ot  Ihe  Teian  Wat 
of  Liberation  Goliad  was  garrisoned  by  aimallfomof  Medcaos, 
who  surrendered  to  the  Texans  in  October  iSjs.  and  ontheiolh 
of  December  a  prdiminary  "  dedaration  of  independence " 
was  published  here,  antedating  by  several  months  the  official 
Declaration  isiued  at  Old  Washington,  Tetu,  on  the  ind  1 
March  1S36.  In  iSjii,  when  Sanu  Anna  began  his  advanc 
ajaiiul  (he  Teian  posts,  Goliad  was  occupied  by  a  fotce  ol  about 
3SO  Americans  under  CiJoncl  James  W.  Fannin  (l.  i3bi>-iS,j6), 
who  was  oveitaken  on  the  Colctto  Creek  while  attempting  to 
carry  out  orders  to  withdraw  from  Goliad  and  to  unite  with 
General  Houilon;  be  lurrendercd  after  a  ibarp  fight  (Maidt 
lO-io)  in  which  he  inflicted  a  beavy  loss  on  the  Mexican 
«>a  marcbeld  back  with  his  force  lo  Goliad,  where  on  Ibc  mi 
«l  IIk  i/tb  oC  Uaich  tbty  wttt  ihot  down  by  SanU  t 


g,  gambling  and  in 
'    '     lion  of  tl 


Dearly  deitroyed  by  a  tornado  on  the  i$th 

ne  applied   lo   those  wuidtrinf  itudenu 
■  in  England,  France  and  Germany,  during 


icbolanhi] 
iC  froi 


Tie. 

Ihe  Lat.  pJa,  gluttony  (Wright},  but  was  connected  by  Ibem 
lythical  "  Bishop  Goliss,"  also  called  "  eniipatia  "  and 
" — Eiprdallyin  Gemiinj — in  whoae  name  I  hcit  satirical 
•ere  tnosQy  written.  Many  wholars  have  accepted 
BUdinger's  suggestion  (Vltr  rimie  Rult  Jcr  Vatoi'lcpeciit  in 
OiUrrrlch,  Vienna,  1854)  (hat  tbe  title  of  Colias  goes  back  to 
(he  letter  of  St  Bernard  (o  Innocent  II,,  in  which  he  referred 
..  Abelard  as  Goliath,  thus  amnecting  Ihe  goliards  with  the 
keen-witted  sludenl  adbctenia  of  (bat  grea(  medieval  critic. 
Ciesebrecht  and  olhcra.  however,  support  tbe  derivation  of 
goliard  from  iiilUard,  a  gay  fellow,  leaving  "  GoUas  "  as  (he 
jinary  "  paiion"of  thrir  fraternity. 

piegd  has  ingeniously  diMntingled  something  of  a  biography 

in  artkipctta  who  flourished  mainly  in  Burgundy  and  at 

butg  from  1160  lo  beyond  the  middle  of  the  13th  centuiy; 

the  proof  of  the  ttllily  of  Ihia  Individual  is  not  convincing. 

It  is  doubtful,  too,  if  the  jocular  references  to  the  rules  of  Ibc 

"  gild  "  of  goUards  should  be  taken  too  seriously,  though  their 

aping  of  the  "  orders  "  of  Ihe  cburch,  especiaUy  Ihcir  conlrastins 

■"'    ■'  "  was  too  bold  for  church  synods. 

iformly  directed  against  the  church, 

1 1117  (he  council  of  TrivHforbide 

priests  lo  permit  the  goliards  to  lake  part  in  chanting  the  service. 

''       played  a  con^icuous  part  in  the  disturbances  at 

'  of  Paris,  in  connexion  with  the  intrigues  of  Ihe 

papal  legale.     During  the  century  which  followed  they  foitned. 

ibjecl  for  the  deliberations  ol  several  church  councils,  notably 

1B9  when  it  was  ordered  that  "    no  clerks  shall  be  jongleurs, 

(al  Cologne)  when  they  were 


0  preacl 


n  the  i 


legislation  was  only  effective  when  the  "  privilege)  of  clergy  " 
were  withdrawn  from  the  goliards.  Those  historians  who  regard 
tbe  middle  ages  as  completely  dominated  by  ascetic  ideals,  itgard 
the  goliard  movement  as  a  protest  against  the  spirit  of  the  time. 
But  it  is  rather  indicative  ol  tbe  wide  diversity  in  temperament 
omong  those  who  crowded  to  the  univenilies  in  the  ijih  century, 
and  who  found  in  Ihe  privileges  of  the  clerk  some  advantage 
and  attraclion  in  the  student  life,  Ihe  goUard  poems  are  as 
truly  "medieval"  as  the  monastic  life  which  they  despised; 
they  nMrdy  voice  another  section  of  humaiuty.     Yet  ihi^r 

Along  with  these  satires  went  many  poems  In  praise  of  wine 
and  riotous  living.  A  remarkable  collection  of  them,  now  at 
Munich,  from  the  DMnaiiery  at  Benedictbeuren  In  Bavaria, 
was  published  by  Scbmeller  (3rd  ed,,  184 j)  under  the  title  Camina 
Suraiu.  Many  of  these,  which  form  the  mainpart  of  song-books 
of  German  students  to-day,  have  been  delicately  translated  by 
John  Addinglon  Symonds  in  a  small  volume,  Wat,  Wtmm  and 
Snxf  (1SS4).  As  Symonds  has  said,  they  farm  a  prelude  lo  Ihe 
Renaissance.  The  poems' of  "Bishop  Golias"  were  later 
attributed  to  Walter  Mapca,  and  Iiave  been  published  by  Thom&a 
Wright  in  Tit  Lali*  Ptemi  cemttnly  elMiuUi  la  Walur  Mtptt 
(London,  1S41). 

The  word  "  goliard  "  itself  oudived  these  (lubuleiu  bands 
which  had  ^ven.  it  birth,  and  passed  over  into  Fnnch  and 
English  literature  of  the  14th  century  in  the  general  meaning  of 
jongleur  or  minstrel,  quite  apart  from  any  clerical  assodition. 
II  is  thus  used  in  Pi'eri  Plmman,  where,  however,  the  goliard 
still  rhymes  in  Latin,  and  in  Chaucer. 

See.  beudes  Ihe  works  quoted  above,  M.  Haemer,  CtltorAalkl 
lulif  Hilt  dW  iillin  in  rjln  7a*rim(irl  •'■  Ent/EHtf  (L  ' 
Spiegel,  Dit  KagoiiJni  uni  ilir  "  Ordeii  "  (Spiret   -"— 
Oil  laltiwivint  VapnUnliiiir  iti  MiuOaUni  I 

the  article  in  Ln  pamit  EmyiifptiUi.    All  of 

graphical  apparaliH.  (J.  T.S.*J 


HtanaJMiariadit  i- 
Ex^ni  (Ldpdg.  1905) ; 
^ilrea,  iBoi);  Hubaisch. 
Urr  (G«tliti,  1870):  and 
Jl  of  thwhavc  Inbln- 


GOLIATH— GOLITSUIN,  V.  V. 


225 


OOUAIHt  the  aame  of  the  fiant  by  •laying  whom  David 
achieved  renown  (i  Sam.  zviL).  The  Philiitinea  had  come  up  to 
make  war  againat  Saul  and,  as  the  rival  campa  lay  oppoaite  each 
othcTr  this  warrior  came  forth  day  by  day  to  chjUlenge  to  single 
oombaL  Only  David  ventured  to  re^wifd,  and  armed  with  a 
sling  and  pebUes  he  overcame  Goliath.  The  Philistines,  seeing 
their  champion  killed,  lost  heart  and  were  easily  put  to  flight. 
The  giant's  arma  were  placed  in  the  sanctuary,  and  it  was  bis 
famous  sword  which  David  took  with  him  in  his  flight  from  Saul 
(i  Sam.  izL  x-9).  From  another  passage  we  learn  that  Goliath 
of  Gath,  "  the  shaft  of  whose  spear  was  like  a  weaver's  beam/' 
was  slain  by  a  certain  F.lhanan  of  Bethlehem  in  one  of  David's 
conflicts  with  the  Philistines  (a  Sam.  sd.  xS'S^) — the  parallel 
t  Chron.  sx.  5,  avoids  the  contradiction  by  reacting  the  "  brother 
of  Goliath."  But  this  old  popular  stoiy  has  probably  preserved 
the  more  original  tradition,  aiMi  if  FJhansn  is  the  son  of  Dodo 
in  the  Ittt  of  David's  mi|^ty  men  (a  Sam.  xziii.  9,  24),  the 
resemblance  between  the  two  names  may  have  led  to  the  trans- 
ference. The  narratives  of  David's  early  life  point  to  some 
es|>loit  by  means  of  which  he  gained  the  favour  of  Saul,  Jonathan 
and  Israel,  but  the  absence  of  all  reference  to  his  achieve- 
ment in  the  subsequent  chapters  (i  Sam.  zzi.  11,  zzix.  5) 
is  evidence  of  the  relatively  late  origin  of  a  tradition  which 
in  oourse  of  time  became  one  of  the  best-known  incidents  in 
David's  life  (Ps.  cxliv.,  LXX.  title,  the  apocryphal  Ps.  di.,  Ecdus. 

zlviL  4). 

See  David;  Samubl  (Books)  and  especially  Cheyne,  Aids  and 
DtMutStmdy  m  CriHcism,  pp.  80  tqq.,  125  tqq.  In  the  old  Egyptian 
of  Smukil  (mscribed  to  about  aooo  B.c.)i  the  •tory  of  the 


alayiagof  the  Bedouin  hero  has  wveral  point*  of  resemblance  with  that 
of  Davkl  and  Goliath.  See  L.  B.  Paton.  HisL  nfSyr.  and  Pal.  p.  60; 
A.  leremiaa.  Das  A.T.  im Idchted.  atUn  Oritnis,  and ed.  pp.  aoo,  491 ; 
A.  K.  Sw  Kennedy,  Century  Bible:  Samnel,  p.  laa.  aigues  tnat  lAivid't 


advcffiary  was' originally  nameleis,  in  i  Sam.  xviL  he  is 
only  in  V.  4. 

OOUTRnH,  BORIS  AiBKSTBS¥ICH  (x654-i7X4),  Russian 

ttarrsman,  came  of  a  princdy  family,  rislming  descent  from 

Prince  Gedimin  of  Lithuania     Earlier  members  of  the  family 

were  Mikhail  (d.  c.i  55a),  a  famous  soldier,  and  his  great-grandson 

Vasily  Vasilevich  (d.  1 6 19),  who  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Poland 

to  offer  the  Russian  crown  to  Prince  Ladislaus.    Boris  became 

court  chamberlain  in  1676.    He  was  the  young  tsar  Peter's  chief 

9appotttt  when,  in  1689,  Peter  resisted  the  usurpations  of  his 

cUer  sister  Sophia,  and  the  head  of  the  loyal  cotmdl   which 

assembled  at  the  Troitsa  monastery  during  the  crisis  of  the  struggle. 

GoHtsuin  it  was  who  suggested  taking  refuge  in  that  strong 

fortress  and  won  over  the  boyars  of  the  opposite  party.    In  1690 

be  was  created  a  boyar  and  shared  with  Lev  Naruishkin,  Peter's 

vnde,  the  conduct  of  home  affairs.    After  the  death  of  the 

tsaritaa  Natalia,  Peter's  mother,  in  1694,  his  influence  increased 

atiU  further.    He  accompanied  Peter  to  the  White  Sea  (1694- 

1695);  took  part  in  the  Axov  campaign  (1695);  an<l  ^as  o^^  o^ 

the  triumvirate  who  ruled  Russia  during  Peter's  first  foreign 

tour  (1697-1698) .  The  Astraikhan  rebellion  ( 1 706) ,  which  affected 

aO  the  districts  under  his  government,  shook  Peter's  confidence 

in  him,  and  seriously  impaired  his  position.    In  1707  be  was 

saperwded  in  the  Volgan  provinces  by  Andrei  Matvyeev.    A 

year  before  his  death  he  entered  a  monastery.    Golitsuin  was  a 

typical  representative  of  Russian  society  oi  the  end  of  the  X7th 

centory  in  its  transition  from  barbariun  to  civilization.    In 

many  req>ects  he  was  far  in  advance  of  his  age.    He  was  highly 

eduoted,  spoke  Latin  with  graceful  fluency,  frequented  the  society 

ol  scholars  and  had  his  children  carefully  educated  according 

to  the  best  European  models.    Yet  this  eminent,  this  superior 

prrsonagB  was  an  habitual  drunkard,  an  uncouth  savage  who 

intruded  upon  the  hospitality  of  wealthy  foreigners,  and  was  not 

ashamwt  to  seise  upon  any  dish  he  took  a  fancy  to,  and  send  it 

home  to  his  wife.    It  was  his  reckless  drunkeimess  which 

ultimately  ruined  him  in  the  estimation  of  Peter  the  Great, 

de^rfte  h^  previous  inestimable  services. 

See  S  Solovev,  History  of  Rmssia  (Rus.),  vol.  xiv.  (Moscow.  1858); 
R.  N.  Baio.  Tkt  First  Rxmanan  (London,  1905).  (R.  N.  B.) 

OOUnUDf,      DHITRT      ■IKHAILOVICH       (1665-1737). 
Rusrian  statesman,  was  sent  in  1697  to  Italy  to  learn  "  military 


affairs";  in  1704  he  was  appointed  to  the  oomnumd  of  an 
auxiliary  corps  in  Poland  aipJnat  Charles  XII.;  from  17x1  to 
1 7 x8  he  was  governor  of  Byelogorod.  In  x  7 x8  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  newly  erected  Kammer  KaiUgium  and  a  senator. 
In  May  X723  he  was  implicated  in  the  disgrace  of  the  vice- 
chancellor  Shafixov  and  was  deprived  of  all  his  oflices  and 
dignities,  which  he  only  recovered  through  the  mediation  of  the 
empress  Catherine  I.  After  the  death  of  Peter  the  Great, 
Crolitsuin  became  the  recognised  head  of  the  old  Conservative 
party  which  had  never  forgiven  Peter  for  putting  away  Eudozia 
and  marrying  the  plebeian  Martha  Skavronskaya.  But  the 
reformers,  as  represented  by  Alexander  Menshikov  and  Peter 
Tolstoi,  prevailed;  and  Crolitsuin  remained  in  the  background 
till  the  fall  of  Menshikov,  1737.  During  the  last  years  of  Peter  II. 
(17  28-1 730),  (k>Utsuin  was  the  most  prominent  statesman  in 
Russia  and  his  high  aristocratic  theories  had  full  play.  On  the 
death  of  Peter  II.  he  conceived  the  idea  of  limiting  the  autocracy 
by  subordinating  it  to  the  authority  of  the  supreme  privy  council, 
of  which  he  was  president.  He  drew  up  a  form  of  constitution 
which  Anne  of  CourUnd,  the  newly  elected  Russian  empress, 
was  forced  to  sign  at  Mittau  before  being  penpitted  to  proceed  to.; 
St  Petersburg.  Anne  lost  no  time  in  repudiating  this  constitution  ,i 
and  never  forgave  its  authors,  (jolitsuin  was  left  in  peace,  how-| 
ever,  and  lived  for  the  most  part  in  retirement,  till  1736,  when  bej 
was  arrested  on  suspicion  of  being  concerned  in  the  conq>iracyi 
of  his  son-in-law  Prince  Constantine  Cantimir.  This,  ho«-ever,< 
was  a  mere  pretext,  it  was  for  his  anti-monarchical  sentiments 
that  he  was  really  prosecuted.  A  court,  largely  composed  of 
his  antagonists,  condemned  him  to  death,  but  the  empress 
reduced  <he  sentence  to  lifelong  imprisonment  in  SchlOmelburg 
and  confiscation  of  «U  his  estates.  He  died  in  his  prison  on  the 
14 th  of  April  1737,  after  three  months  of  confinement. 
See  R.  N.  Bain.  Tke  Pupils  cf  Peter  the  Great  (London.  1807). 

GOUTSUIN,  VASILT  VASILBVICH  (1643-X714),  Russian 
statesman,  spent  his  early  days  at  the  court  of  Tsar  Alexius 
where  he  graiduaUy  rose  to  the  rank  of  boyar.  In  2676  he  was 
sent  to  the  Ukraine  to  keep  in  order  the  Crimean  Tatars  and 
took  part  in  the  Chigirin  campaign.  Personal  experience  of  the 
inconveniences  and  dangers  of  the  prevailing  system  of  prefer- 
ment, the  so-called  myestnichestvo,  or  nnk  priority,  whidi  had 
paralysed  the  Russian  armies  for  centuries,  induced  him  to  pro- 
pose its  abolition,  which  was  accomplished  by  Tsar  Theodore  III. 
(1678).  The  May  revolution  of  X682  placed  Golitsuin  at  the 
head  of  the  Posclsky  Prikax,  or  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
during  the  regency  of  Sophia,  sister  of  Peter  the  Great,  whose 
lover  he  became,  he  was  the  principal  minister  of  state  (x68a- 
X689)  and  "  keeper  of  the  great  seal,"  a  title  bestowed  upon 
only  two  Russians  before  him,  Athonasy  Orduin-Nashchokin 
and  Artamon.  Matvyeev.  In  home  affairs  his  influence  was 
insignificant,  but  his  foreign  policy  was  distinguished  by  the 
peace  with  Poland  in  1683,  whereby  Russia  at  last  recovered 
Kiev.  By  the  terms  of  the  same  treaty,  he  acceded  to  the 
grand  league  against  the  Porte,  but  his  two  expeditions  against 
the  Crimea  (1687  and  X689),  "  the  First  Crimean  War,"  were 
unsuccessful  and  made  him  extremely  unpopular.  Only  with  the 
utmost  diffiailty  could  Sophia  get  the  young  tsar  Peter  to 
decorate  the  defeated  oommander-in-chief  as  if  he  had  returned 
a  victor.  In  the  dvil  war  between  Sophia  and  Peter  (August- 
September  1689),  (k>lJtsuin  half-heartedly  supported  his  mistress 
and  shared  her  ruin.  His  life  was  spared  owing  to  the  supplica- 
tions of  his  cousin  Boris,  but  he  was  deprived-of  his  boyardom. 
his  estates  were  confiscated  andJie  was  banished  successively  to 
Kargopol,  Mecen  and  Kologora,  where  he  died  on  the  aist  of 
April  1 7 14.  (Solitsuin  was  unustully  well  educated.  He  under- 
stood (jerman  and  Greek  as  well  as  his  mother-tongue,  and  could 
express  himself  fluently  in  Latin.  He  was  a  great  friend  of 
foreigners,  who  generally  alluded  to  him  as  "  the  great  Golitsuin." 

His  brother  MfKHAn.  (X674-1730)  was  a  celebnted  soldier,  who 
is  best  known  for  his  governorship  of  Finland  (17x4-1721).  where 
his  admirable  qualities  earned  the  remembrance  of  the  people 
whom  he  had  conquered.    And  Mikhail's  son  Alexander  (171ft- 


226 


GOLIUS— GOLTZ,  B. 


1783)  was  a  diplomat  and  soldier,  wbo  rose  to  be  field-marshal 
and  governor  of  St  Petersburg. 

See  R.  N.  Bain.  The*  First  Ramdnon  (London.  lOOS):  A. 
Brilckner,  First  Colimn  (Leipzig.  1887);  S.  Solovev.  History  of 
Russia  (Rus.),  vols.  xiiL-xiv.  (Moocow,  1858,  &c).       (R.  N.  B.) 

OOUUS  or  (Gohl),  JACOBUS  (i 596-1667),  Dutch  Oiientslist. 

was  bom  at  the  Hague  in  1596  ,  and  studieid  at  the  university  of 

Leiden,  where  in  Arabic  and  other  Eastern  languages  he  was  the 

most  distinguished  pupil  of  Erpenius.    In  1622  he  accompanied 

the  Dutch  embassy  to  Morocco,  and  on  his  return  he  was  chosen 

to  succeed  Erpenius  ( 1624) .    In  the  following  year  he  set  out  on  a 

Syrian  and  Arabian  tour  from  which  he  did  not  return  until  1629. 

The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  at  Leiden  where  he  held  the 

chair  of  mathematics  as  well  as  that  of  Arabic.    He  died  on  the 

28th  of  September  1667. 

His  most  important  work  Is  the  Lexic&n  Arabico-Latinum,  fol., 
Leiden.  1653,  which,  based  on  the  Sihak  of  Al-Jauhari.  was  only 
•uperaeded  by  the  corresponding  work  of  Freytag.  Among  his  earlier 
publications  may  be  mentioned  editions  m  various  Arabic  texts 
{Proverbia  quaeaam  Aiis,  imperaUnis  Muslemici,  et  Carmen  Tograi- 
pollae  doctissimi,  necnon  disserUUio  quaedam  Aben  Syrtae,  1629;  and 
Ahmedis  Ardbsiadae  vitae  et  rerutn  gestarum  Timuri,  mti  vidgo  Tamer ^ 
lanes  dicitur,  kistoria,  1636).  In  1656  he  publbhed  a  new  edition, 
with  considerable  additions,  of  the  Grammaiica  Arabica  of  Erpenius. 
After  his  death,  there  was  found  among  his  papers  a  DieHfftarium 
Persico-Latinwn  which  was  published,  with  adoitions,  by  Edmund 
Castetl  in  his  Lexicon  heptaglotUm  (1669).  C>>lius  also  edited,  trans- 
lated and  annotated  the  astronomical  treatise  of  Alfiagan  (Jf«Aam- 
medis,  filii  Ketiri  Ferganensis^  qui  vidgo  Alfraganus  dicitur,  dementa 
astronomica  Arokiu  et  Latine,  1669). 

OOLLHOWi  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Pomerania,on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ihna,  14  m.  N.N.E.  of  Stettin, 
with  which  it  has  communication  by  rail  and  steamer.  Pop. 
(1905)  8539.  It  possesses  two  Evangelical  churches,  a  synagogue 
and  some  small  manufactures.  GoUnow  was  fotmded  in  1190, 
and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  town  in  1268.  It  was  for  a  time 
a  Hanse  town,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  Prussia  in  1720, 
having  belonged  to  Sweden  since  1648. 

QOLOSH,  or  Galosh  (from  the  Fr.  galoche^  Low  Lat  calopedes, 
a  wooden  shoe  or  clog;  an  adaptation  of  the  Gr.  KoKarb&iov, 
a  diminutive  formed  of  xaXQi^,  wood,  and  iroik,  foot),  originally 
a  wooden  shoe  or  patten,  or  merely  a  wooden  sole  fastened  to 
the  foot  by  a  strap  or  cord.  In  the  middle  ages  "  galosh  "  was  a 
general  term  for  a  boot  or  shoe,  particularly  one  with  a  wooden 
sole.  In  modem  usage,  it  is  an  outer  shoe  worn  in  bad  weather 
to  protect  the  inner  one,  and  keep  the  feet  dry.  Goloshes  are 
now  almost  universally  made  of  rubber,  and  in  the  United  States 
they  are  known  as  "  rubbers  "  simply,  the  word  golosh  being 
rardy  if  ever  used.  In  the  bootmakers'  trade,  a  "  golosh " 
is  the  piece  of  leather,  of  a  make  stronger  than,  or  different  from 
that  of  the  "  uppers, "  which  nms  around  the  bottom  part  of  a 
boot  or  shoe,  just  above  the  sole. 

OOLOVIN,  FEDOR  ALBKSYEEVICH,  Count  (d.  1706), 
Russian  statesman,  leamt,  like  so  many  of  his  countrymen  in 
later  times,  the  business  of  a  ruler  in  the  Far  East.  During  the 
regency  of  Sophia,  sister  of  Peter  the  Great,  he  was  sent  to  the 
Amur  to  defend  the  new  Muscovite  fortress  of  Albazin  against 
the  Chinese.  In  1689  he  concluded  with  the  CeleAial  empire  the 
treaty  of  Nerchinsk,  by  which  the  line  of  the  Amur,  as  far  as  its 
tributary  the  Gorbitsa,  was  retroceded  tx>  CHiina  because  of  the 
impossibility  of  seriously  defending  it.  In  Peter's  grand  embassy 
to  the  West  in  1697  (}olovin  occupied  the  second  place 
immediately  after  Lefort.  It  was  his-chief  duty  to  hire  foreign 
sailors  and  obtain  everything  necessary  for  the  construction  and 
complete  equipment  of  a  fleet.  On  Lefort 's  death,  in  March  1699, 
he  succeeded  him  as  admiral-genend.  The  same  year  he  was 
created  the  first  Russian  count,  and  was  also  the  first  to  be 
decorated  with  the  newly-instituted  Russian  order  of  St  Andrew. 
The  conduct  of  foreign  affairs  was  at  the  same  time  entrusted 
to  him,  and  from  1699  to  his  death  be  was  "the  premier  minister 
of  the  tsar."  Golovin's  first  achievement  as  foreign  minister  wa^ 
to  supplement  the  treaty  of  C^ariowita,  by  which  peace  with 
Turkey  had  only  been  secured  for  three  years,  by  concluding  with 
the  Porte  a  new  treaty  at  Constantinople  (June  13,  1700),  by 
which  the  term  of  the  peace  was  extended  to  thirty  years  and, 


besides  other  concessions,  the  Azov  district  and  alttrip  of  territory 
extending  thence  to  Kuban  were  ceded  to  Russia.  He  also 
controlled,  with  consummate  ability,  the  <^>erations  of  the 
brand-new  Russian  diplomatists  at  the  various  foreign  courts. 
His  superiority  over  all  his  Muscovite  contemporaries  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  he  was  ahready  a  statesman,  in  the  modem  sense, 
while  they  were  still  learning  the  elements  of  statesmanship. 
His  death  ¥ras  an  irreparable  loss  to  the  tsar,  who  wrote  upon  the 
despatch  announcing  it,  the  words  "  Peter  filled  with  grief." 
See  R.  N.  Bain.  The  First  Romanou  (London.  1905).     (R.  N.  B.) 

OOLOVKIN.  OAVRIIL  IVANOVICR.  Count  (1660-1734), 
Russian  statesman,  was  attached  (1677),  while  still  a  lad,  to  the 
court  of  the  tsarevitch  Peter,  afterwards  Peter  the  Great,  with 
whose  mother  Natalia  he  was  connected,  and  vigilantly.gtttided 
him  during  the  disquieting  period  of  the  regency  of  Sophia, 
sister  of  Peter  the  Great  (1682-1689).  He  accompanied  the 
young  tsar  abroad  oif  his  first  foreign  tour,  and  worked  by  bis 
side  in  the  dockyards  of  Saardam.  In  1 706  he  succeeded  Golovin 
in  the  direction  of  foreign  affairs,  and  was  created  the  first  Russian 
grand-chancellor  on  the  field  of  Poltava  (1709).  Cotovkin  held 
this  office  for  twenty-five  years.  In  the  reign  of  Catherine  I. 
he  became  a  member  of  the  supreme  privy  council  which  had 
the  chief  conduct  of  affairs  during  this  and  the  succeeding  reigns. 
The  empress  also  entrusted  him  witfi  her  last  will  whereby  she 
appointed  the  young  Peter  II.  her  successor  and  Gotovkin  one 
of  his  guardians.  On  the  death  of  Peter  II.  in  1730  he  declared 
openly  in  favour  of  Anne,  duchess  of  Courland,  in  opposition 
to  the  aristocratic  Dolgorakis  and  (joh'tsuins,  and  his  determined 
attitude  on  behalf  of  autocracy  was  the  chief  cause  of  the  failure 
of  the  proposed  constitution,  which  would  have  converted  Russia 
into  a  limited  monarchy.  Under  Anne  he  was  a  member  of  the 
first  cabinet  formed  in  Russia,  but  had  less  influence  in  affaiis  than 
Ostermann  and  MUnnich.  In  1707  he  was  created  a  count  of 
the  Holy  Roman  empire,  and  in  17 10  a  ootint  of  the  Russian 
empire.  He  was  one  of  the  wealthiest,  and  at  the  same  time 
one  of  the  stingiest,  magnates  of  his  day.  His  ignorance  of  any 
language  but  his  own  made  his  intercourse  with  foreign  ministers 
very  inconvenient. 

See  R.  N.  Bain,  The  PttpUs  oj  Peter  the  Great  (London.  1807). 

GOLOVNIN,  VASILT  HIKHAILOVICH  (1776-1831),  Russian 
vice-admiral,  was  bom  on  the  20th  of  April  1776  in  the  village 
of  Gulynki  in  the  province  of  Ryazan,  and  received  his  education 
at  the  Cronstadt  naval  school  From  1801  to  1806  he  served  as 
a  volunteer  in  the  English  navy.  In  1807  he  was  commi^sipned 
by  the  Russian  government  to  survey  the  coasts  of  Kamchatka 
and  of  Russian  America,  including  also  the  Kurile  Islands. 
Golovnin  sailed  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  on  the  5th  of 
October  2809,  arrived  in  Kamchatka.  In  1810,  whilst  attempting 
to  survey  the  coast  of  the  island  of  Kunashiri,  he  was  seized  by 
the  Ja[>anese,  and  was  retained  by  them  as  a  prisoner,  until  the 
i3ih  ofOctober  1813,  when  he  was  liberated,  and  in  the  foUowing 
year  he  retumed  to  St  Petersburg.  Soon  after  this  the  govem- 
ment  planned  another  expedition^  which  had  for  its  object  the 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe  by  a  Russian  ship,  and  (Golovnin 
was  Appointed  tO'  the  command.  He  started  from  St  Petersburg 
on  the  7th  of  September  1817,  sailed  round  Cape  Horn,  and 
arrived  in  Kamchatka  in  the  following  May.  He  retumed  to 
Europe  by  way  of  the  C^pe  of  Good  Hope,  and  landed  at  St 
Petersburg  on  the  2  7th  of  September  1819.  He  died  on  the  1 2th 
of  July  1831. 

(jolovnin  published  several  works,  of  whkii  the  following  are  the 
roost  important: — Journey  to  Kamehaika  (2  vols..  1819);  Journey 
Round  the  World  (2  vols.,  1822);  and  Narratioe  of  my  CeMioity  in 
Japan,  1811-1813  (2  vols.,  1816).  The  last  has  been  translatad  into 
French.  Gennan  and  Enelish,  the  English  edition  bring  in  three 
volumes  (1824).  A  complete  editi  n  of  his  works  was  published  at 
St  Petersburg  m  five  volumes  in  1864,  with  maps  and  oiarts,  and  a 
biograQfry  otjthe  author  by  N.  Grech. 

GOLtZ,  BOGUHIL  (1801-1870),  German  humorist  and 
satirist,  was  bom  at  Warsaw  on  the  aoth  of  March  xSoi.  After 
attendhsg  the  classical  schools  of  Marienwerder  and  Ktaigsberg. 
he  leamt  farming  on  an  estate  near  Thom,  and  in  1821  entered 
the  university  of  Breslau  as  a  student  of  philosophy.    Bat  he 


GOLTZ,  C— GOLUCHOWSKI 


227 


toon  abandoMd  aa  academical  career,  and,  after  returning  for 

a  «dule  to  country  fife,  retired  to  the  small  town  of  G<^ub, 

arhere  he  devoted  himsetf  to  literary  studies.    In  1847  he  settled 

at  Thorn, "  the  home  of  Copernicus,"  where  he  died  00  the  1 2th 

of  November  1870.    Golts  is  best  known  to  literary  fame  by  hb 

Buck  dtr  Kindheit  (Frankfort,  1847;  4th  ed.,  Berlin.  1877).  in 

which,  after  the  style  of  Jean  Paul,  and  Adalbert  Stifter,  but 

with  a  more  modem  realism,  he  gives  a  charming  and  idyllic 

description  of  the  impressions  of  his  ow^  childhood.    Among  his 

other  works  must  be  noted  Bin  Jugtndkben  (1852);  Dtr  Metuck 

mmd  die  LeuU  (1858);  Zur  Charaktenstik  und  Naiwgesckickle 

i€r  Frauen  (1859) ;  Zw  Cesckkkte  und  Ckarakteristik  des  deuiscken 

Cemus  (1864),  and  Die  WtWdugfieU  und  die  Lebensweiskeit 

(1869). 

Goltx's  works  have  not  been  collected,  but  a  selactlon  will  be  found 
ia  Redun's  Uwkmsalhibliotiuk  (ed.  by  P.  Stein.  1901  and  1906). 
See  O.  Roquctte,  Siebwig  Jakrt,  i.  (1894). 

OOLIZ,     OOLHAR.     Frxikerk    Von    Dbk    (1843-       ). 

Prussian  soldier  and  militaiy  writer,  was  born  at  Bielkenfeld, 

East  Prussia,  on  the  X2th  of  August  1843,  and  entered  the 

Pruaaian  infantry  in  i86x.    In  1864  he  entered  the  Berlin 

Military  Academy,  but  was  temporarily  withdtewn  in  1866  to 

serve  in  the  Austrian  war,  in  which  he  wns  wounded  at  Trautenau. 

Ia  1867  he  joined  the  topographical  section  of  the  general  staff, 

aad  at  the  beginning  of  the  Franco-German  War  of  1870-71 

was  attached  to  the  staff  of  Prince  Frederick  Charles.    He  took 

part  in  the  battles  of  Vionville  and  Gravelotte  and  in  the  siege 

of  Mcta.    After  iu  fall  he  served  under  the  Red  Prince  in  the 

campaign  of  the  Loire,  including  the  battles  of  Orleans  and  Le 

Mans^    He  was  appointed  in  187 1  professor  at  the  military  school 

at  Potsdam,  And  the  same  year  was  promoted  captain  and  placed 

ia  the  historical  section  of  the  genera]  sUff.    It  was  then  he 

wrote  Die  OferaHomn  der  II.  Armee  bis  wur  CapUuloHou  von 

UelM  aad  Die  Siebm  Tage  «pi»  Le  Mans,  both  published  m  1873. 

Ia  1874  be  was  appointed  to  the  staff  of  the  6th  division,  and 

while  so  eaioloyed  wrote  Die  OperaUonen  der  II.  Armee  an  der 

Imre  and  Uen  Cambetta  und  seine  Armeen,  published  in  187  s 

aad  Z877  respectively.    The  Utter  was  translated  into  French 

the  same  year,  and  both  are  impartially  written.    The  views 

cxpccssed  ia  the  latter  work  led  to  his  being  sent  back  to  regi- 

oacatiBl  duty  for  a  time,  but  it  was  not  long  before  he  returned 

to  the  nilitaiy  histoiy  section.    In  1878  von  der  Golu  was 

appointed  lecturer  in  military  history  at  the  military  academy 

at  Beilia,  where  he  remained  for  five  years  and  attained  the  rank 

of  major.    He  poblished,  in  1883,  Rossbaek  und  Jena  (new  and 

revised  edition.  Von  Rossbaek  bis  Jena  und  AuersUldt,  1906), 

Das  Veik  im  Wagen  (English  tranabtioa  Tke  Nation  in  Arms), 

both  of  wfaidt  quickly  became  military  dasstcs,  and  during  his 

residence  ia  Berlia  contributed  many  articles  to  the  military 

joumah.    In  June  1883  his  services  were  lent  to  Turkey  u> 

rrofganhr  the  military  establishments  of  the  country.    He  q>ent 

twdve  yean  ia  this  work,  the  result  of  which  appeared  in  the 

Greoo-Turkirii  War  of  1897,  and  he  was  made  a  pasha  and  in 

1895  *  muskir  or  fidd-manhaL    On  his  return  to  Germany  in 

1896  be  became  a  Ueuteaant-general  and  commander  of  the  sth 
divisaoa,  aad  ia  1898,  head  of  the  F.ngineer  and  Pioneer  Corps 
and  inapector-geneFal  of  fortifications.  In  1900  he  was  made 
general  of  iafaatry  aad  ia  1903  conwiaader  of  the  L  army  corps. 
Ia  1907  he  was  made  iiiq>ector-general  of  the  newly  created 
sixth  amy  inq)ection  esfshlished  at  Berlia,  and  ia  1908  was 
givca  the  rank  of  cofonel-general  (fienenloberst). 

In  additioa  to  the  works  already  named  aiid_frBquent  contribo 

uk 

(1894)1  Analeiiitke  AusfUige  (1896);  a  map'  and  de> 

of  the  environs  of  Constantmople;  Von  Jena  bis  Pr.  Eyiau 

),  a  BBoat  important  hiatorical  work,  carrying  on  the  story  of 

und  Jena  to  the  peace  of  Tilsit.  Ac 

G0L1Znn»    HBMDRIK    (1558-1617),    Dutch    painter   and 

cagisvcr,  was  born  ia  1558  at  MCdebrecht,  ia  the  duchy  of 

JOScfa.    After  studyiag  painting  on  glass  for  some  years  under 

his  father,  he  was  taught  the  use  of  the  burin  by  Dirk  Volkertsz 

Ceocakft,  a  Dutch  c&graver  of  mediocre  attainment,  whom  he 


to  military  periodical  literature,  he  wrote  JCrief/iSAnMf  (1895 
later  edStion  JCmf*  wed  HoniiAruae,  looi ;  Eog.  trans.  Tke  (Oemduc 
eK  WerV.  Der  tkessalisekt  Krieg  (Berlin.  1898;:  Ein  Au^fhtg  naek 


Mi 


soon  surpassed,  but  who  retained  his  services  for  his  own 

advantage.    He  was  also  employed  by  Philip  Galle  to  engrave  a 

set  of  prints  of  the  history  of  Lucretia.    At  the  age  of  twenty-one 

he  married  a  widow  somewhat  advanced  in  years,  whose  money 

enabled  him  to  establish  at  Haadem  an  hidependent  business; 

but  his  unpleasant  relations  with  her  so  affected  his  health  that 

he  found  it  advisable  in.  1590  to  make  a  tour  through  Germany 

to  Italy,  where  he  acquired  an  intense  admiration  for  the  works 

of  Midtelangdo,  which  led  him  to  surpass  that  master  in  the 

grotesqueness  and  extravagance  of  his  designs.    He  returned 

to  Haarlem  considerably  improved  in  health,  and  laboured  there 

at  his  art  till  his  death,  on  the  xst  of  January  1617.    Goltzius 

ought  not  to  be  judged  chiefly  by  the  works  he  valued  most, 

his  eccentric  imitations. of  Michelangelo.    His  portraits,  though 

mostly  miniatures,  are  master-pieces  of  their  kind,  both  on 

account  of  their  exquisite  finish,  and  as  fine  studies  of  individual 

character.    Of  his  larger  heads,  the  life-sise  portrait  of  himself 

is  probably  the  most  striking  example.    His  "  master-pieces," 

so  called  from  their  being  attempts  to  imitate  the  style  of  the 

old  masters,  have  perhaps  been  overpraised.    In  his  command 

of  the  burin  Goltzius  is  not  surpassed  even  by  Dfirer;  but  his 

techm'cal  skill  is  often  unequally  aided  by  higher  artistic  qualities. 

Even,  however,  his  eccentricities  and  extravagances  are  greatly 

counterbalanced  by  the  beauty  and  freedom  of  his  execution. 

He  began  painting  at  the  age  of  forty-two,  but  none  of  his 

works  in  this  branch  of  art — some  of  which  are  in  the  imperial 

collection  at   Vienna— display  any  qiecial  excellences.     He 

also  executed  a  few  pieces  in  chiaroscuro. 

His  prints  amount  to  more  than  300  plates,  and  are  fully  described 
in  Bartsch's  Pointre-paotur,  and  Weigel's  supplement  to  the  same 
work. 

GOLUCHOWSKI,  AGENOR,  Count  (1849-  ),  Austrian 
statesman,  was  bom  on  the  25th  of  March  1849.  His  father, 
descended  from  an  old  and  noble  Polish  family,  was  governor 
of  Galida.  Entering  the  diplomatic  service,  the  son  was  in 
1872  appointed  attache  to  the  Austrian  embassy  at  Berlin, 
where  he  became  secretary  of  legation,  and  thence  he  was 
transferred  to  Paris.  After  rising  to  the  rank  of  counsellor  of 
legation,  he  was  in  1887  made  minister  at  Bucharest,  where  he 
remained  till  1893.  In  these  positions  he  acquired  a  great 
reputation  as  a  firm  and  skilful  dipfonuitist,  and  on  the  retirement 
of  Count  Kalnoky  in  May  X895  was  chosen  to  succeed  him  as 
Austro-Hungarian  minister  for  foreign  affairs.  The  appointment 
of  a  Pole  caused  some  surprise  in  view  of  the  importance  of 
Austrian  relatfons  with  Ru85ia(thca  rather  strained)and  Germany, 
but  the  choice  was  justified  by  events.  In  his  q>eech  of  that 
year  to  the  delegations  he  dedued  the  nudntenance  of  the  Triple 
Alliance,  and  in  particular  the  closest  intimacy  with  Germany, 
to  be  the  keystone  of  Austrian  policy;  at  the  same  time  be 
dwelt  on  the  traditional  f ricndriiip  between  Austria  and  Great 
Britain,  and  expressed  his  desire  for  a  good  understanding  with 
all  the  powers.  In  pursuance  of  this  policy  he  effected  an  under- 
standing with  Russia,  by  which  neither  power  was  to  exert  any 
separate  influence  in  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  thus  removed 
a  long-standing  cause  of  friction.  This  understanding  was 
formally  ratified  during  a  visit  to  St  Petersburg  on  which  he 
accompanied  the  emperor  b  April  1897.  He  took  the  lead  in 
establishing  the  European  concert  during  the  Armenian  troubles 
of  1896,  and  again  resisted  isolated  action  on  the  part  of  any  of 
the  great  powers  during  the  Cretan  troubles  and  the  Greco- 
Turkish  War.  In  November  1897,  when  the  Austro-Hungarian 
flag  was  insulted  at  Mersina,  he  threatened  to  bombard  the 
town  if  instant  reparation  were  not  made,  and  by  his  firm 
attitude  greatly  enhanced  Austrian  prestige  in  the  East.  In  his 
speech  to  the  delegations  in  1898  he  dwelt  on  the  necessity  of 
expanding  Austria's  mercantile  marine,  and  of  raising  the  fleet 
to  a  strength  which,  while  not  vying  with  the  fleets  of  the  great 
naval  powers,  would  ensure  respect  for  the  Austrian  flag  wherevtr 
her  interests  needed  protection.  He  also  hinted  at  the  necessity 
for  European  combination  to  resist  American  competition. 
The  understanding  with  Russia  in  the  matter  of  the  Balkan 
States  temporarilv  cndaogered  frieadW  reUtions  with  Italy, 


228 


GOMAU-GOMER 


who  thought  her  interests  threatened,  until  Goluchowski 
guazanleed  in  1898  the  existing  order.  He  further  encouraged 
a  good  understanding  with  Italy  by  personal  conferences  with 
the  Italian  foreign  minister,  Tittoni,  in  1904  and  1905.  Count 
Lamsdorff  visit^  Vienna  in  December  190a,  when  arrangranents 
were  made  for  concerted  action  in  imposing  on  the  sultan  reforms 
in  the  government  of  Macedonia.  Further  steps  were  taken  after 
Goluchowski's  interview  with  the  tsar  at  MUrzsteg  in  1903,  and 
two  civil  agents  rq>resenting  the  countries  were  appointed  for 
two  years  to  ensure  the  execution  of  the  promised  reforms.  This 
period  was  extended  in  1905,  when  G<^uchowaki  was  the  chief 
mover  in  forcing  the  Porte,  by  an  international  naval  demonstra- 
tion at  Mitylene,  to  accept  financial  control  by  the  powers  in 
Macedonia.  At  the  conference  assembled  at  Algedras  to  settU 
the  Morocco  Question,  Austria  supported  the  German  position, 
and  after  the  dose  of  the  conferences  the  emperor  William  II. 
telegraphed  to  Goluchowski:  "  You  have  proved  yourself  a 
brilliant  second  on  the  duelling  ground  and  you  may  feel  certain 
of  like  services  from  me  in  similar  circumstances."  This  pledge 
was  redeemed  in  1908,  when  Germany's  support  of  Austria  in 
the  Balkan  crisis  proved  conclusive.  By  the  Hungarians, 
however,  Golucbowdci  was  hated;  he  was  su^)ected  of  having 
inspired  the  emperor's  opposition  to  the  use  oif  Magyar  in  the 
Hungarian  army,  and  was  made  responsible  for  the  slight 
offered  to  the  Magyar  deputation  by  Frands  Joseph  in  September 
1905.  So  long  as  he  remained  in  office  there  was  no  hope  of 
axxiving  at  a  settlement  of  a  matter  which  threatened  the  dis- 
ruption of  the  Dual  monarchy,  and  on  the  nth  of  October  1906 
he  was  forced  to  resign. 

OOMAL,  or  Guical,  the  name  of  a  river  of  Afghanistan,  and  of 
a  mountain  pass  on  the  Dera  Ismail  Khan  border  of  the  North- 
West  Frontier  Province  of  British  India.  The  Gomal  river,  one 
of  the  most  important  rivers  in  Afghanistan,  rises  in  the  un- 
expired regions  to  the  south-east  of  GhaznL  Its  chief  tributary 
u  the  Zhob.  Within  the  limits  of  British  territory  the  Gomal 
forms  the  boundary  between  the  North- West  Frontier  Province 
and  Baluchistan,  and  more  or  less  between  the  Paithan  and 
Baluch  races.  The  Gomal  pass  is  the  most  important  pass  on 
the  Indian  frontier  between  the  Khyber  and  the  Bolan.  It 
connects  Dera  Ismail  Khan  with  the  Gomal  valley  in  Afghanistan, 
and  has  formed  (or  centuries  the  outlet  for  the  povindah  trade. 
Until  the  year  1889  this  pass  was  almost  unknown  to  the  Anglo- 
Indian  ofllidal;  but  in  that  year  the  government  of  India 
dedded  that,  in  order  to  maintain  the  safety  of  the  railway 
as  weU  as  to  perfect  communication  between  Quetta  and  the 
Punjab,  the  Zhob  valley  should,  like  the  Bori  valley,  be  brought 
under  British  protection  and  control,  and  the  Gomal  pass  should 
be  opened.  After  the  Waziristan  expedition  of  1894  Wana  was 
occupied  by  British  troops  in  order  to  dominate  the  Gomal  and 
Waziristan;  but  on  the  formation  of  the  North- West  Frontier 
Province  in  1901  it  was  dedded  to  replace  these  troops  by  the 
South  Waxiristan  militia,  who  now  secure  the  safety  of  the 
pass. 

00HARU8,  ^ANZ  (XS63-X641),  Dutch  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Bruges  on  the  30th  of  January  1563.  His  parents,  having 
embraced  the  prindples  of  the  Reformation,  emigrated  to  the 
Palatinate  in  1578,. in  order  to  enjoy  freedom  to  profess  their 
new  faith,  and  they  sent  their  son  to  he  educated  at  Strassburg 
under  Johann  Sturm  (1507-1589).  He  remained  there  three 
years,  and  then  went  in  1580  to  Neustadt,  whither  the  professors 
of  Hdddberg  had  been  driven  by  the  dector-paUtine  because 
they  were  not  Lutherans.  Here  his  teachers  in  theology  were 
Zacharius  Ursinus  (i  534-1583),  Hieronymus  Zanchius  <x56o- 
1590),  and  Daniel  Tossanus  (1541-1602)^.  Crossing  to  England 
towards  the  end  of  x  582,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  John  Raincdds 
(1549-1607)  at  Oxford,  and  those  of  William  Whitaker  (1548- 
159s)  ^  Cambridge.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1584,  and 
then  went  to  Hdddbexg,  where  the  faculty  had  been  by  this  time 
re-esublished.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Reformed  Dutdi  church  in 
Frankfort  from  X587  till  1593,  when  the  congregation  was 
dispersed  by  persecution.  In  1594  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  at  Ldden,  and  bdore  going  thither  recdved  from 


the  university  of  Hdddberg  the  degree  of  doctor.  He  tftught 
quietly  at  Leiden  till  1603,  when  Jakobus  Arminius  came  to  be 
one  of  his  colleagues  in  the  theological  faculty,  and  began  to 
teach  Pelagian  doctrines  and  to  create  a  new  party  in  the  uni- 
versity. Gbmarus  tmmediatdy  set  himself  earnestly  to  oppose 
these  views  in  his  classes  at  college,  and  was  supported  by 
Johann  B.  Bogermann  (1570-1637),  who  afterwards  became 
professor  of  theolovv  at  Franeker.  Arminius  "  sought  to  make 
dection  dependent  upon  faith,  whilst  they  sought  to  enforce 
absolute  piedestination  as  the  rule  of  faith,  according  to  which 
the  whole  Scriptures  are  to  be  interpreted  "  (J.  A.  Domer, 
History  of  Protestant  Theology ^  i.  p.  41 7).  Gomarus  then  became 
the  leader  of  the  opponents  of  Arminius,  who  from  that  drcum- 
stance  came  to  be  known  as  (jomarists.  He  engaged  twice  in 
personal  disputation  with  Arminius  in  the  assembly  of  the 
'estates  of  Holland  in  x6o8,  and  was  one  of  five  Gomarists  who 
met  five  Arminians  or  Remonstrants  in  ihe  same  assembly  of 
1609.  On  the  death  of  Arminius  shortly  after  this  time,  Konrad 
Vorstius  (i 569-1622),  who  sympathised  with  his  views,  was 
appointed  to  succeed  him,  in  spite  of  the  keen  opposition  of 
(jomarus  and  his  friends;  and  Gomarus  took  his  defeat  so  ill 
that  he  resigned  his  post,  and  went  to  Middlebuig  in  161  r,  where 
he  became  preacher  at  the  Rdormed  church,  and  taught  theology 
and  Hebrew  in  the  newly  founded  lUustre  Scktde.  From  this 
place  he  was  called  in  2614  to  a  chair  of  theology  at  Sanmur, 
where  he  remained  four  years,  and  then  accepted  a  call  as 
professor  of  thedogy  and  Hebrew  to  Groningen,  where  he  stayed 
till  his  death  on  the  iith  of  January  1641.  He  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  synod  of  Dort,  assembled  in  x6x8  to  judge  of  the 
doctrines  of  Arminius.  He  was  a  man  of  ability,  enthusiasm 
and  learning,  a  considerable  Oriental  scholar,  and  also  a  keen 
controversialist.  He  took  part  in  revising  the  Dutch  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  1633,  and  after  hk  death  a  book  by  him, 
called  the  Lyra  Davidis^  was  published,  which  sou|^t  to  explain 
the  prindples  of 'Hebrew  metre,  and  n^ch  created  some  con- 
troversy at  the  time,  having  been  opposed  by  Louis  Cappei. 
His  works  were  collected  and  published  in  one  -  volume  fdio, 
in  Amsterdam  in  1645.  He  was  succeeded  at  Groningen  in  1643 
by  his  pupil  Samud  Mareuus  (i  599-1673). 

OOMBBRVILLB,  MARIN  LE  ROT,  Sizui  du  Paic  n  DS 
(x6oo-x674)t  French  novdist  and  misodlaneous  writer,  was  b<»n 
at  Paris  in  1600.  At  fourteen  years  of  age  he  wrote  a  volume 
of  verse,  at  twenty  a  Discows  sur  Fkistoire  and  at  twenty-two 
a  pastorml.  La  Caritkie,  which  is  really  a  novd.  The  perscms  in 
it,  though  still  disguised  as  shepherds  and  shepherdesses,  repre> 
sent  real  persons  for  whose  identification  the  author  hiznaelf 
provides  a  key.  This  was  followed  by  a  more  ambitious  attempt, 
PoUxandre  (5  vols.  1632-1637).  The  hero  wanders  throu|^  the 
world  in  search  of  the  island  home  of  the  princess  Alddiaae. 
It  contains  much  history  and  geography;  the  travels  of  Polex* 
andre  extending  to  such  unexpected  places  as  Benin,  the  Canary 
Islands,  Mexico  and  the  Antilles,  and  inddeotally  we  leam  all  that 
was  then  known  of  Mexican  history.  Cy/M^to(4  vols.)  appeared 
in  x630>x642,  and  in  1651  the  Jeuno  Akidiane,  intended  to  undo 
any  harm  the  earlier  novels  may  have  done,  for  GomberviBe 
became  a  Jansenist  and  spent  the  last  twenty-five  yean  of  his 
life  in  piouajstirement.  He  ¥ras  one  of  the  eariiest  and  most 
energetic  membeis  of  the  Academy.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the 
Z4th  of  June  1674. 

CKMIBR,  the  bibhcal  nanw  of  a  race  appearing  in  the  table 
of  nations  (Gen.  x.  a),  as  the  "  eldest  son  "  of  Japheth  and  the 
"  father  "  of  Ashkenax,  Riphath  and  Togarmah;  and  in  Esek. 
xxxviii.  6  as  a  companion  of  "  the  house  of  Togarmah  in  the 
uttermost  paru  of  the  north,"  and  an  ally  of  (jOg;  both  Gomer 
and  Togarmah  being  credited  with  "  hordes," »  E.V.,  tju 
"  bands  "  or  "  armies."  The  "  sons  "  of  Gomer  are  probab^ 
tribes  of  north-east  Asia  Minor  and  Armenia,  and  Gomer  is 
identified  with  the  Cimmerians.  These  are  referred  to  in  cund- 
form  inscriptions  under  the  Assyrian  name  ^wimiri  ipwtirrai) 
as  raiding  Asia  Minor  from  the  north  and  north-east  of  the  Black 

'  W  4>P^  A  word  peculiar  to  Eiekid,  Clarendon  Pkess  fisft. 


GOMERA— GOMM 


22g 


Sea,  and  oveminoing  Lydia  in  the  7th  century  b.  c.   (see 

CiMMEBn,  ^YTHiA,  Lydia).    They  do  not  seem  to  have  made 

any  permanent  settlements,  unless  some  such  are  indicated  by 

the  faa  that  the  Armenians  called  Cappadocia  Camir.    It  is, 

however,  suggested  that  this  n?me  is  borrowed  from  the  Old 

Testament.* 

The  name  Comer  (Comer  bath  Diblaim)  was  also  borne  by  the 
unfaithful  wife  of  Hoiea.  whom  he  pardoned  and  took  back  (Hoiea 
1.  3).  Hosea  uses  these  incidents  as  symbolic  of  the  sin.  punishment 
and  redemption  of  Israel,  but  there  is  no  need  to  regard  Comer  as  a 
purely  imaginary  person.  (W.  H.  Bb.) 

GOMERA,  an  island  ip  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  forming  part  of 
the  Spanish  archipelago  of  the  Canary  Islands  iq.v.).  Pop. 
(1900)  15,358;  area  144  sq.  m.  Gomera  lies  20  m.  W.S.W.  of 
Teneriffe.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  33  m.  The  coast  is 
precipitous  and  the  interior  mountainous,  but  Gomera  has  the 
most  wood  and  is  the  best  watered  of  the  group.  The  inhabitants 
are  very  poor.  Dromedaries  are  bred  on  Gomera  in  large 
numbers.  San  Sebastian  (3187)  is  the  chief  town  and  a  port. 
It  was  visited  by  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage  of  discovery  in 

149^- 

60HEZ,  DIOGO  (Dieco)  (fl.  1440-1482),  Portuguese  seaman, 
explorer  and  writer.  We  first  trace  him  as  a  cavallciro  of  the 
royal  household;  in  1440  he  was  appointed  receiver  of  the  royal 
customs — ^in  1466  judge— at  Cintra  {juii  das  caiuas  e  feilorias 
contttdas  de  Cinlra);  on  the  5th  of  March  1482  he  was  confirmed 
in  the  last-named  office.  He  wrote,  especially  for  the  benefit 
of  Martin  Behaim,  a  Latin  chronicle  of  great  value,  dealing  with 
the  life  and  discoveries  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,  and 
divided  into  three  parts:  (i)  De  prima  invcntionc  Cuineac, 
(a)  De  ifuulis  prima  inventis  in  mare  {sic)  Occidentis;  (3)  De 
ifoemtione  instUarum  de  Azores.  This  chronicle  contains  the 
only  contemporary  account  of  the  rediscovery  of  the  Azores 
by  the  Portuguese  in  Prince  Henry's  service,  and  is  also  note- 
worthy for  its  clear  axription  to  the  prince  of  deliberate  scientific 
and  commercial  purpose  in  exploration.  For,  on  the  one  hand, 
the  infante  sent  out  his  caravels  to  search  for  new  lands  {ad 
quaerendas  terras)  from  his  wish  to  know  the  more  distant  parts 
of  the  western  ocean,  and  in  the  hope  of  finding  islands  or  terra 
Jirma  beyond  the  limits  bid  down  by  Ptolemy  {ultra  deurip- 
ticnem  Tdomei)',  on  the  other  hand,  his  information  as  to  the 
native  trade  from  Tunis  to  Timbuktu  and  the  Gambia  helped 
10  in4>ire  his  persistent  exploration  of  the  West  African  coast— ^ 
"  to  seek  those  lands  by  way  of  the  sea."  Chart  and  quadrant 
were  used  on  the  prince's  vessels,  as  by  Gomez  himself  on  reach- 
ing the  Cape  Verde  Islands;  Henry,  at  the  time  of  Diogo's  first 
voyage,  was  in  correspondence  with  an  Oran  merchant  who 
kept  him  informed  upon  events  even  in  the  Gambia  hinterland; 
and,  before  the  discovery  of  the  Senegal  and  Cape  Verde  in  1445, 
Gomez'  royal  patron  had  already  gained  reliable  information 
of  some  route  to  Timbuktu.  In  the  first  part  of  his  chronicle 
Gomez  tells  how,  no  long  time  after  the  disastrous  expedition 
of  the  Danish  nobleman  "  Valine  "  (Adalbert)  in  1448,  he  was 
sent  out  in  command  of  three  vessels  along  the  West  African 
coaai,  accompanied  by  one  Jacob,  an  Indian  interpreter,  to  be 
employed  in  the  event  of  reaching  India.  After  passing  the  Rio 
Grande,  beyond  Cape  Verde,  strong  currents  checked  his  course; 
bis  officers  and  men  feared  that  they  were  approaching  the 
extremity  of  the  ocean,  and  he  put  back  to  the  Gambia.  He 
ascended  this  river  a  considerable  distance,  to  the  negro  town  of 
"  Cant<^."  whither  natives  came  from  "  Kukia  "  and  Timbuktu 
for  trade;  he  gives  elaborate  descriptions  of  the  negro  world 
he  had  now  penetrated,  refers  to  the  Sierra  Leone  ("  Serra  Lyoa  ") 
Mountains,  sketches  the  course  of  this  range,  and  says  much  of 
Kukia  (in  the  upper  Niger  basin?),  the  centre  of  the  West  African 
gold  trade,  and  the  resort  of  merchants  and  caravans  from  Tunis, 
Fez,  Cairo  and  "  all  the  land  of  the  Saracens."  Mahommcdan- 
ism  was  already  dominant  at  the  Cambria  estuary,  but  Gomez 
seems  to  have  won  over  at  least  one  important  chief,  with  his 
court,  to  Christianity  and  Portuguese  allegiance.  Another 
African  voyage,  apparently  made  in  1462,  two  years  after  Henry 

*  A.  Jeremias.  Das  A.T.  im  Lichte  des  aUen  Orients,  pp.  145  f. 


the  Navigator's  death  (though  assigned  by  some  to  1460),  resulted 
in  a  fresh  discovery  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  already  found  by 
Cadamoslo  (f.v.).  To  the  island  of  Santiago  Gomez,  like  his 
Venetian  forerunner,  claims  to  have  given  its  present  name. 
His  narrative  is  a  leading  authority  on  the  last  illness  and  death 
of  Prince  Henry,  as  well  as  on  the  life,  achievements  and  pur- 
poses of  the  latter;  here  alone  is  recorded  what  appears  to  have 
been  the  earliest  of  the  navigator's  exploring  ventures,  that 
which  under  Joio  de  Trasto  reached-Grand  Canary  in  14 15. 

Of  Gomez'  chronicle  there  b  only  one  MS.,  viz.  Cod,  Hisp.  27.  in  the 
Hof'  und  Staats-Bibliothek,  Munich;  the  original  Latin  text  was 
printed  by  Schmcller  "  Ober  Valcntim  Fernandez  Alcm4o  "  in  the 
AbhandluHgen  der  pkilosopk.-f^ktlolog.  Kl.  der  bayerisck.  Akademu  der 
Wtssensckatten,  vol.  iv.,  part  iti.  (Munich, 1847) ;  see  alsoSophus  Ruge, 
"  Die  Entdeckung  der  Azorcn."  pp.  149-180  (esp.  178-179)  in  the 
27th  Jakresberickl  des  Vereins  fur  Erdkunde  (Dresden,  1901);  lules 
Mees.  Histoire  de  la  dieouvertedes  Ues  Acpres,  pp.  4^-45. 1 25- 127 (Client, 
looi);  R.  H.  Major,  Ltje  oj  Prince  Henry  the  NavtMtor,  pp.  xviii., 
xix..  61-65.  287-299,  303-305  (London.  1868);  C.  R.  Beazley.  Prince 
Henry  Ike  Navigator,  289-298. 304-305;  and  Introduction  to  Azurara's 
Discovery  and  Conquest  of  Cutnea,  ii.,  iv.,  xiv.,  xxv.-xxvii..  xcii.-xcvi. 
(London.  1899).  (C.  R.  B.) 

GOMEZ  DB  AVELLANEDA,  OBRTRUDIS  (1814-1873). 
Spanish  dramatist  and  poet,  was  born  at  Puerto  Principe 
(Cuba)  on  the  23rd  of  March  1814,  and  removed  to  Spain  in  1836. 
Her  Poesias  Uricas  (1841),  issueid  with  a  laudatory  preface  by 
Gallego.  made  a  most  favourable  impression  and  were  republished 
with  additional  poems  in  1850.  In  1846  she  married  a  diplo- 
matist named  Pedro  Sabater,  became  a  widow  within  a  year, 
and  in  1853  married  Colonel  Domingo  Verdugo.  Meanwhile 
she  had  published  Sab  (1839),  Cuatimozin  (1846),  and  other 
novels  of  no  great  importance.  She  obtained,  however,  a  scries 
of  successes  on  the  stage  with  Alfonso  Munio  (1844),  a  tragedy 
in  the  new  romantic  manner;  with  Sail  (1849),  a  biblical  drama 
indirectly  suggested  by  Alfieri;  and  with  Baltasar  (1858),  a 
piece  which  bears  some  resemblance  to  Byron's  Sardanapalus. 
Her  commerce  with  the  world  had  not  diminished  her  natural 
piety,  and,  on  the  death  of  her  second  husband,  she  found  so 
much  consolation  in  religion  that  she  had  thoughts  of  entering 
a  convent.  She  died  at  Madrid  on  the  2nd  of  February  1873, 
full  of  mournful  forebodings  as  to  the  future  of  her  adopted 
country.  It  is  impossible  to  agree  with  Villemain  that  "  Ic 
g^nic  dc  don  Luis  do  Lton  et  de  sainte  Th6rdse  a  rcparu  sous  le 
voile  funebre  de  Gomez  de  Avcllancda,"  for  she  has  neither  the 
monk's  mastery  of  poetic  form  not  the  nun's  sublime  simplicity  of 
soul.  She  has  a  grandiose  tragical  vision  of  life,  a  vigorous 
eloquence  rooted  in  pietistic  pessimism,  a  dramatic  gift  effective 
in  isolated  acts  or  scenes;  but  she  is  deficient  in  constructive 
power  and  in  intellectual  force,  and  her  lyrics,  though  instinct 
with  melancholy  beauty,  or  the  tenderness  of  resigned  devotion, 
too  often  lack  human  passion  and  sympathy.  The  edition  of  her 
Obras  Utcrarias  (5  vols.,  1869- 187 1),  still  incomplete,  shows  a 
scrupulous  care  for  minute  revision  uncommon  in  Spanish 
writers;  but  her  emendations  arc  seldom  happy.  But  she  is 
interesting  as  a  link  between  the  classic  and  romantic  schools  of 
poetry,  and,  whatever  her  artistic  shortcomings,  she  has  no  rivals 
of  her  own  sex  in  Spain  during  the  19th  century. 

OOMM.  SIR  WILUAM  MAYNARD  (i  784-1875),  British 
soldier,  was  gazetted  to  the  9th  Foot  at  the  age  of  ten,  in  recog- 
nition of  the  services  of  his  father,  Lieut.-Colonel  William  Gomro, 
who  was  killed  in  the  attack  on  Guadaloupe  (1794).  He  joined 
his  regiment  as  a  lieutenant  in  1799,  and  fought  in  Holland  under 
the  duke  of 'York,  and  subsequently  was  with  Pulteney's  Ferrol 
expedition.  In  1803  he  became  Captain,  and  shortly  afterwards 
qualified  as  a  staff  officer  at  the  High  Wycombe  miUtary  college. 
On  the  general  staff  he  was  with  Cathcart  at  Copenhagen,  with 
Wellington  in  the  Peninsula,  and  on  Moore's  staff  at  Corunna. 
He  was  also  on  Chatham's  staff  in  the  disastrous  Walchcren 
expedition  of  1809.  In  1810  he  rejoined  the  Peninsular  army  as 
Leith's  staff  officer,  and  took  part  in  all  the  battles  of  2810, 
t8ii  and  1812,  winning  his  majority  after  Fuentes  d'Onor  and 
his  lieutenant-colonelcy  at  Salamanca.  His  careful  reconnais- 
sances and  skilful  leading  were  invaluable  to  Wellington  in  the 
Vittoria  campaign,  and  to  the  end  of  the  war  he  was  one  of  the 


230 


GOMPERS— GONCHAROV 


most  trusted  men  of  his  staff.  His  reward  was  a  transfer  to  the 
Coldstream  Guards  and  the  K.C.B.  In  the  Waterloo  campaign 
be  served  on  the  staff  of  the  5th  British  Division.  From  the 
peace  until  1839  he  was  employed  on  home  service,  becoming 
colonel  in  1829  and  major-general  in  1837.  From  1839  to  1842 
he  commanded  the  troops  in  Jamaica.  He  became  lieutenant- 
general  in  1846,  and  was  sent  out  to  be  commander-in-chief  in 
India,  arriving  only  to  find  that  his  appointment  had  been 
cancelled  in  favour  of  Sir  Charles  Napier,  whom,  however,  he 
eventually  succeeded  (1850-1855).  In  1854  he  became  general 
and  in  1868  field  marshal.  In  1872  he  was  appointed  constable 
of  the  Tower,  and  he  died  in  1875.  He  was  twice  married,  but 
had  no  children.  His  Letters  and  Journals  were  published  by 
F.  C.  Carr-Gomm  in  1881.  Five  "  Field  Marshal  Gomm  " 
scholarships  were  afterwards  founded  in  his  memory  at  Keble 
College.  Oxford.  • 

OOMPERS,  SAMUEL  (1850-  ),  American  labour  leader, 
was  born  in  London  on  the  27th  of  January  1850.  He  was 
put  to  work  in  a  shoe-factory  when  ten  years  old,  but  soon 
became  apprenticed  to  a  cigar-maker,  removed  to  New  York 
in  1863,  biecame  a  prominent  member  of  the  International 
Cigar-makers'  Union,  was  its  delegate  at  the  convention  of  the 
Federation  of  Organized  Trade  and  Labor  Unions  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  later  known  as  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor,  of  which  he  became  first  president  in  1882.  He  was 
successively  re-elected  up  to  1895,  when  the  opposition  of  the 
Socialist  Labor  Party,  then  attempting  to  incorporate  the 
Federation  into  itself,  secured  his  defeat;  he  was  re-elected 
in  the  following  year.  In  1894  he  became  editor  of  the  Federa- 
tion's organ,  The  American  Federalionist. 

QOMPERZ.  THEODOR  (1837-  ),  German  philosopher  and 
classical  scholar,  was  born  at  Briinn  on  the  29th  of  March  1832. 
He  studied  at  Briinn  and  at  Vienna  under  Herman  Bonitz. 
Graduating  at  Vienna  in  1867  he  became  Privatdment,  and 
subsequently  professor  of  classical  philology  (1873).  In  1882 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Science.  He 
received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  honoris  causa  from 
the  university  of  Kdnigsberg,  and  Doctor  of  Literature  from 
the  universities  of  Dublin  and  Cambridge,  and  became  corre- 
spondent for  several  learned  societies.  His  principal  works  are: 
Demosthenes der  Staatsmann  {1&64),  Philodcmi  de  ira  /i6«r(i864), 
Traumdcuiung  und  Zauberei  (1866),  Herkulanische  Sluditn 
(1865-1866),  BeitrUge  zur  Krilih  und  Erkidrung  griech,  Schrijl- 
sleller  (7  vols.,  1875-1900),  Neue  Bruchstucke  Epikurs  (1876), 
Die  Bruchstucke  der  griech.  Tragiker  und  Cobets  neueste  kritische 
Manier  (1878),  Herodoteische  Studien  (1883),  Ein  bisher  unbe- 
kanntes  griech.  SchriJtsysUm  (1884),  Zu  PhUodems  Buchern 
von  der  Musik  (1885),  Ober  den  Abschluss  des  herodoieiscben 
Ceschichtswerkes  (1886),  Platonische  AufsOtuis  vols.,  1887-1905), 
Zu  Heraklits  Lehre  und  den  Oberresten  seines  Werkes  (1887), 
Zu  Aristoteles*  Poetik  (2  parts,  1888-1896),  Ober  die  Charakicre 
Theophrasts  (1888),  Nachlese  zu  den  BruchslUcken  der  griech. 
Tragiker  (1888),  Die  Apologie  der  Heilkunst  (1890),  Philodem 
mid  die  dsthctischcn  Schri/len  der  herculanischen  BiUiothek  (1891), 
DieSchri/t  vomStaatswesenderAthener{iSgi)fDiejungsl  entdcckten 
Vberreste  einer  den  Platonischen  Phddon  enthaltenden  Papyrus- 
roUe  (1892),  A  us  der  Hekale  des  KaUimachos  (1893),  Essays 
und  Erinnerungen  (1905).  He  supervised  a  translation  of  J.  S. 
Mill's  complete  works  (12*  vols.,  Leipzig,  1869-1880),  and 
wrote  a  life  (Vienna,  1889)  of  Mill.  His  Criechische  Denker: 
Ceschichte  der  antiken  Philosophie  (vols.  i.  and  ii.,  Leipzig,  1893 
and  1902)  was  translated  into  English  by  L.  Magnus  (vol.  i.,  1901). 

GONAOUAS  ("  borderers  "),  descendants  of  a  very  old  cross 
between  the  Hottentots  and  the  Kaffirs,  on  the  "  ethnical  divide  " 
between  the  two  races,  apparently  before  the  arrival  of  the 
whites  in  South  Africa.  They  have  been  always  a  despised  race 
and  regarded  as  outcasts  by  the  Bantu  peoples.  They  were 
threatened  with  extermination  during  the  Kaffir  wars,  but  were 
protected  by  the  British.  At  present  they  live  in  settled  com- 
munities under  civil  magistrates  without  any  tribal  organization, 
and  in  some  districts  could  be  scarcely  distinguished  from  the  other 
natives  but  for  their  broken  Hottentot-Dutch-English  speech. 


OOMCALVES  DIAS,  ANTONIO  (1823-1864),  Brazilian  lyric 
poet,  was  bom  near  the  town  of  Caxias,  in  Maranhio.  From  the 
university  of  Coimbra,  in  Portugal,  he  returned  in  1845  ^o  his 
native  province,  well-equipped  with  legal  lore,  but  the  literary 
tendency  which  was  strong  within  him  led  him  to  try  his  fortune 
as  an  author  at  Rio  dc  Janeiro.  Here  he  wrote  for  the  newspaper 
press,  ventured  to  appear  as  a  dramatist,  and  in  1846  established 
his  reputation  by  a  volume  of  poems — Primeiros  Cantos — which 
appealed  to  the  national  feelings  of  his  Brazilian  readers,  were 
remarkable  for  their  autobiographic  impress,  and  by  their  beauty 
of  expression  and  rhythm  placed  their  author  at  the  head  of  the 
lyric  poets  of  his  country.  In  1 848  he  followed  up  his  success  by 
Segundos  Cantos  e  sextUhas  de  Fret  Antdo^  in  which,  as  the  title 
indicates,  he  puts  a  number  of  the  pieces  in  the  mouth  of  a  simple 
old  Dominican  friar;  and  in  the  following  year,  in  fulfilment  of 
the  duties  of  his  new  post  as  professor  of  Brazilian  history  in  the 
Imperial  College  of  Pedro  II.  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  he  published  an 
edition  of  Bcrredo's  A  nnaes  historicos  do  Maranhdo  and  added  a 
sketch  of  tho  migrations  of  the  Indian  tribes.  A  third  volume  of 
poems,  which  appeared  with  the  title  of  Ultimos  Cantos  in  1851, 
was  practically  the  poet's  farewell  to  the  service  of  the  muse,  for 
he  spent  the  next  eight  years  engaged  under  government  patronage 
in  studying  the  state  of  public  instruction  in  the  north  and  the 
educational  institutions  of  Europe.  On  his  return  to  Brazil  in 
1 860  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  an  expedition  for  the  explora- 
tion of  the  province  of  Ccar&,  was  forced  in  1S62  by  the  state  of 
his  health  to  try  the  effects  of  another  visit  to  Europe,  and  died  in 
September  1864,  the  vessel  that  was  carrying  him  being  wrecked 
off  his  native  shores.  While  in  Germany  he  published  at  Leipzig 
a  complete  collection  of  his  lyrical  poems,  which  went  through 
several  editions,  the  four  first  cantos  of  an  epic  poem  called  Os 
Tymbiras  (1857)  and  a  Diccionario  da  lingua  Tupy  (1858). 

A  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Dias-has  made  its  appearance 
at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  See  Wolf.  Brest!  liltiraire  (Berlin,  1863):  Inno- 
ccncio  de  Silva.  Ducionario  bibliograpkico  portugun,  viiL  1^7; 
Sotcro  dos  Rcis,  Cur  so  de  tilteratura  portugueza  e  brdalttra, 
iv.  (Maranhao.  1868);  Jos6  Verissimo,  Estudos  de  titeratura 
braztletra,  segunda  serie  (Rio,  1901). 

GONCHAROV,  IVAN  ALEXANDROVICH  (1813-1891),  Rus- 
sian novelist,  was  born  6/18  July  1812,  being  the  son  of  a  rich 
merchant  in  the  town  of  Simbirsk.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  was 
placed  in  one  of  the  gymnasiums  at  Moscow,  from  which  he  passed, 
though  not  without  some  difficulty  on  account  of  his  ignorance 
of  Greek,  into  the  Moscow  University.  He  read  many  French 
works  of  fiction,  and  published  a  translation  of  one  of  the  novels 
of  Eugene  Sue.  During  his  university  career  he  devoted  himself 
to  study ,  taking  no  interest  in  the  political  and  Socialistic  agitation 
among  his  f  cllow-st  udcnts.  He  was  first  employed  as  secretary  to 
the  governor  of  Simbirsk,  and  afterwards  in  the  ministry  of 
finance  at  St  Petersburg.  Being  absorbed  in  bureaucratic  work, 
Goncharov  paid  no  attention  to  the  social  questions  then  ardently 
discussed  by  such  men  as  Herzen,  Aksakov  and  Bielinski.  He 
began  his  literary  career  by  publishing  translations  from  Schiller, 
Goethe  and  English  novelists.  His  first  original  work  was 
Obuiknovennaya  Isloria,  *'  A  Common  Story  "  (1847).  In  1856  he 
sailed  to  Japan  as  secretary  to  Admiral  Putiatin  for  the  purpose  of 
negotiating  a  commercial  treaty,  and  on  his  return  to  Russia  he 
published  a  description  of  the  voyage  under  the  title  of  *'  The 
Frigate  Pallada."  His  best  work  isO6^om0p  (1857),  whichexposed 
the  laziness  and  apathy  of  the  smaller  landed  gentry  in  Russia, 
anterior  to  the  reforms  of  Alexander  II.  Russian  critics  have 
pronounced  this  work  to  be  a  faithful  characterization  of  Russia, 
and  the  Russians.  Dobrolubov  said  of  it,  "  Oblomofka  [the 
country-seat  of  the  Oblomovs]  is  our  fatherland:  something  of 
Oblomov  is  to  be  found  in  every  one  of  us."  Peesarev,  another 
celebrated  critic,  declared  that  "  Oblomovism,"  as  Goncharov 
called  the  sum  total  of  qualities  with  which  he  invested  the  hero 
of  his  story,  "  is  an  illness  fostered  by  the  nature  of  the  Slavonic 
character  and  the  life  of  Russian  society."  In  1858  Goncharov 
was  appointed  a  censor,  and  in  1868  he  published  another  novel 
called  Obreev.  He  was  not  a  voluminous  writer,  and  during  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  produced  nothing  of  any  importance.  His 
death  occurred  on  15/27  September  1891. 


GONCOURT— GONDAR 


231 


flONOOURT,  DB,  a  name  famous  in  French  literary  history. 
EoMOND  Louis  Antoine  Huot  de  Goncourt  was  bom  at 
Nancy  on  the  26th  of  May  1822,  and  died  at  Champrosay  on  the 
i6tb  of  July  1896.  Jules  Altrco  Huot  de  Goncourt,  his 
brother,  was  bom  in  Paris  on  the  17  th  of  December  1830,  and 
died  in  Paris  on  the  20th  of  June  1870. 

Writing  always  in  collaboration,  until  the  death  of  the  younger, 
it  was  their  ambition  to  be  not  merely  novelists,  inventing  a  new 
kind  of  novel,  but  historians;  not  merely  historians,  but  the 
historians  of  a  particular  century,  and  of  what  was  intimate  and 
what  is  unknown  in  it ;  to  be  alsodiscriminating,  indeed  innovating, 
Clitics  of  art,  but  of  a  certain  section  of  art,  the  i8th  century,  in 
France  and  Japan;  and  also  to  collect  pictures  and  bibelots, 
always  of  the  French  and  Japanese  i8th  century.  Their  histories 
{Portraits  tiUimesdu  XVIII*  siicle(iSs7),  La  Femmeau  XVIII* 
siiiU  (1862),  La  du  Barry  (1878),  &c.)  are  made  entirely  out  of 
documents,  autograph  letters,  scraps  of  costume,  engravings, 
songs,  the  unconscious  self -revelations  of  the  time;  their  three 
volumes  on  VArtdu  XVIII' siicU  (i859-i875)deal  with  Watteau 
and  bis  followers  in  the  same  scrupulous,  minutely  enlightening 
way,  with  all  the  detail  of  unpublished  documents;  and  when 
they  came  to  write  novels,  it  was  with  a  similar  attempt  to  give 
the  inner,  undiscovered,  minute  tmths  of  contemporary  existence, 
the  itudU  of  life.  The  same  morbidly  sensitive  noting  of  the 
inidiif  of  whatever  came  to  them  from  their  own  sensations  of 
things  and  people  around  them,  gives  its  curious  quality  to  the 
nine  volumes  of  the  Journal,  1887-1896,  which  will  remain, 
perhaps,  the  truest  and  most  poignant  chapter  of  human  history 
that  they  have  written.  Their  novels,  Samr  PkUomhne  (1861), 
RtmU  Mauperin  (1864),  Cerminie  Lacerleux  (1865),  Manelte 
Salomon  (1865),  Madame  Cenaisais  (1869),  and,  by  Edmond 
alone.  La  FUU  Elisa  (1878),  Les  Frires  Zemganno  (1879),  La 
Faustitt  (1882),  ChirU  (ift84),  are,  lu>wever,  the  work  by  which 
they  will  live  as  artbts.  Learning  something  from  Flaubert,  and 
teaching  almost  everything  to  Zola,  they  invented  a  new  kind  of 
novel,  and  their  novels  are  the  result  of  a  new  vision  of  the  world, 
in  which  the  very  element  of  sight  is  decomposed,  as  in  a  picture 
of  Monet.  Seen  through  the  nerves,  in  this  conscious  abandon- 
ment to  the  tricks  of  the  eyesight,  the  world  becomes  a  thing  of 
broken  patterns  and  conflicting  colours,  and  uneasy  movement. 
A  novel  of  the  Goncourts  is  made  up  of  an  infinite  number  of 
details,  set  side  by  side,  every  detail  equally  prominent.  While  a 
novel  of  Flaubert,  for  all  its  detail,  gives  above  all  things  an 
impression  of  unity , a  novel  of  the  Goncourts  deliberately  dispenses 
with  unity  in  order  to  give  the  sense  of  the  passing  of  life,  the 
beat  and  form  of  its  moments  as  they  pass.  It  is  written  in  little 
chapters,  sometimes  no  longer  than  a  page,  and  each  chapter  is  a 
separate  notation  of  some  significant  event,  some  emotion  or  sensa- 
tion which  seems  to  throw  sudden  light  on  the  picture  of  a  soul. 
To  the  Goncourts  humanity  is  as  pictorial  a  thing  as  the  world  it 
moves  in;  they  do  not  search  further  than  "  the  physical  basis 
of  Hfe,"  and  they  find  everything  that  can  be  known  of  that 
uaknown  force  written  visibly  upon  the  sudden  faces  of  little 
inddeats,  little  expressive  moments.  The  soul,  to  them,  is  a 
series  of  moods,  which  succeed  one  another,  certainly  without 
any  of  the  too  arbitrary  logic  of  the  novelist  who  has  conceived  of 
character  as  a  solid  or  consistent  thing.  Their  novels  are  hardly 
stories  at  all,  but  picture-galleries,  hung  with  pictures  of  the 
momentary  aspects  of  the  world.  French  critics  have  complained 
that  the  language  of  the  Goncourts  is  no.  longer  French,  no  longer 
the  French  of  the  past;  and  this  is  true.  It  is  their  distinction — 
the  finest  of  their  inventions— that,  in  order  to  render  new 
sensations,  a  new  vision  of  things,  they  invented  a  new 
language.  (A.  Sv.) 

In  his  win  Edmond  de  Goncourt  left  his  estate  for  the  endowment 
of  an  academy,  the  formation  of  which  was  entrusted  to  MM. 
Aij^KMise  Oauoet  and  Lten  Henniquc.  The  society  wm  to  concist  of 
ten  members,  each  of  whom  was  to  receive  an  annuity  of  6000  francs, 
and  a  yearly  prize  of  5000  francs  was  to  be  a«-arded  to  the  author  of 
■ome  work  of  fiction.  EtKht  of  the  members  of  the  new  academv 
were  nominated  in  the  wifl.  They  were:  Alphonse  Daudet,  J.  K. 
Huysmans,  Lioa  Henniquc,  Octave  Mirbcau,  the  two  brothers 
J.  H.  Rosny,  Gusuw  Gcnroy  and  Paul  Marguorittc.  On  the  19th 
of  Jantary  1903.  after  much  htigation.  the  academy  was  constituted. 


with  El^mir  Bourges.  Lucten  Descaves  and  lAon  Daudet  as  members 
in  addition  to  those  mentioned  in  de  Goncourt's  will,  the  place  of 
Alphonse  Daudet  having  been  left  vacant  by  his  death  in  1 097. 

On  the  brothers  de  Goncourt  see  the  Journal  des  Goncourt  already 
cited:  also  M.  A.  Belloc  (afterwards  Lowndes)  and  M.  L.  Shcdiock, 
Edmond  and  JuUs  de  Goncourt,  with  Letters  and  Leaves  from  their 
Journals  (1895) ;  Alidor  Dclzant,  Les  Goncourt  (tSSq)  which  contains 
a  valuable  bibliography;  Letires  de  Jules  de  Goncourt  (1888),  with 
preface  by  H.  C^rd;  R.  Doumic.  Portraits  d'icrivains  (1892}:  Paul 
Bourget,  Nouveaux  Essais  de  psycktdogie  contemporaint  (1886); 
Cmile  Zola,  Les  Romanciers  naluralistes  (1881),  Ac 

GONDA,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Fyzabad 
division  of  the  United  Provinces.  The  town  is  28  m.  N.W.  of 
Fyzabad,  and  is  an  important  junction  on  the  Bengal  &  North- 
western railway.  The  site  on  which  it  stands  was  originally  a 
jungle,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  a  cattle-fold  (Contka  or  Gotkak), 
where  the  cattle  were  enclosed  at  night  as  a  protection  against 
wild  beasts,  and  from  this  the  town  derives  its  name.  Pop. 
(1901)15, 8 II.   The  cantonments  were  abandoned  in  1863. 

The  district  of  Gonda  has  an  area  of  2813  sq.  m.  It  consists 
of  a  vast  plain  with  very  slight  undulations,  studded  with  groves 
of  mango  trees.  The  surface  consists  of  a  rich  alluvial  deposit 
which  is  naturally  divided  into  three  great  belts  known  as  the 
tar&i  or  swampy  tract,  the  uparhar  or  uplands,  and  the  tarhar 
or  wet  lowlands,  all  three  being  marvellously  fertile.  Several 
rivers  flow  through  the  district,  but  only  two,  the  Gogra  and 
Rapti,  are  of  any  commercial  Importance,  the  first  being  navigable 
throughout  the  year,  and  the  latter  during  the  rainy  season. 
The  country  is  dotted  with  small  lakes,  the  water  of  which  is 
largely  used  for  irrigation.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny  in 
1857,  the  raja  of  Gonda,  after  honourably  escorting  the  govern- 
ment treasure  to  Fyzabad,  joined  the  rebels.  His  estates,  along 
with  those  of  the  rani  of  Tulsipur,  were  confiscated,  and  conferred 
as  rewards  upon  the  maharajas  of  Balrampur  and  Ajodhya,  who 
had  remained  loyal.  In  1901  the  population  was  1,403,195, 
showing  a  decrease  of  4  %  in  one  decade.  The  district  is  traversed 
by  the  main  line  and  three  branches  of  the  Bengal  &  North- 
western railway. 

GONDAU  a  native  state  of  India,  in  the  Kathiawar  political 
agency  of  Bombay,  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  peninsula  of 
Kathiawar.  Its  area  is  1024  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901)  162,859.  The 
estimated  gross  revenue  is  about  £100,000,  and  the  tribute 
£7000.  Grain  and  cotton  are  the  chief  products.  The  chief, 
whose  title  is  Thakur  Sahib,  is  a  Jadeja  Rajput,  of  the  same  clan 
as  the  Rao  of  Cutch.  The  Thdcqr  Sahib,  Sir  Bhagvat  Sinhji 
(b.  1865),  was  educated  at  the  Rajkol  college,  and  afterwarcte 
graduated  in  arts  and  medicine  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
He  published  (in  English)  a  Journal  of  a  Visit  to  En^and  and 
A  Short  History  of  Aryan  Medical  Science.  In  1892  he  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  Univeisity.  He  was 
created  K.C.I.E.  m  1887  and  G.C.I.E.  in  1897.  The  state  has 
long  been  conspicuous  for  its  progressive  administration.  It 
is  traversed  by  a  railway  connecting  it  with  Bhaunagar,  Rajkot 
and  the  sea-board.  The  town  of  Gondal  is  23  m.  by  rail  S.  of 
Rajkot;  pop.  (1901)  19,592. 

GONDAR,  properly  Guendar,  a  town  of  Abyssinia,  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  Amharic  kingdom,  situated  on  a  basaltic  ridge 
some  7500  ft.  above  the  sea,  about  21  m.  N.E.  of  Lake  Tsana, 
a  splendid  view  of  which  is  obtained  from  the  castle.  Two 
streams,  the  Angrcb  on  the  east  side  and  the  Gaha  or  Kaha  on 
the  west,  flow  from  the  ridge,  and  meeting  below  ithe  town,  pass 
onwards  to  the  lake.  In  the  early  yeais  of  the  20th  century  the 
town  was  much  decayed,  numerous  ruins  of  castles,  palaces 
and  churches  indicating  its  former  importance.  It  was  never  a 
compact  city,  being  divided  into  districts  separated  from  each 
other  by  open  spaces.  The  chief  quarters  were  those  of  the 
Abun-Bed  or  bishop,  the  Etchoge-Bed  or  chief  of  the  monks, 
the  Dcbra  Berhan  or  Church  of  the  Light,  and  the  Gemp  or 
castle.  There  was  also  a  quarter  for  the  Mahommedans.  Gondar 
was  a  small  village  when  at  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century 
it  was  chosen  by  the  Negus  Sysenius  (Seged  I.)  as  the  capital 
of  his  kingdom.  His  son  Fasilidas,  or  A'lem-Seged  (1633-166^), 
was  the  builder  of  the  castle  which  bears  his  name.  Later 
emperors  built  other  castles  and  palaces,  the  latest  in  date  being 


232 


GONDOKORO— GONDOMAR 


that  of  the  Negus  Yesu  II.  This  was  erected  about  1736,  at 
which  time  Gondar  appears  to  have  been  at  the  height  of  its 
prosperity.  Thereafter  it  suffered  greatly  from  the  civil  wars 
which  raged  in  Abyssinia,  and  was  more  than  once  sacked.  In 
1868  it  was  much  injured  by  the  emperor  Theodore,  who  did 
not  spare  either  the  castle  or  the  churches.  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Abyssinians  at  Debra  Sin  in  August  1887  GOndar  was 
looted  and  fired  by  the  dervishes  under  Abu  Anga.  Although 
they  held  the  town  but  a  short  time  they  inflicted  very  great 
damage,  destroying  many  churches,  further  damaging  the  castles 
and  carrying  off  much  treasure.  The  population,  estimated  by 
James  Bruce  in  1770  at  10,000  families,  had  dwindled  in  1905 
to  about  7000.  Since  the  pacification  of  the  Sudan  by  the 
British  (1886-1889)  there  has  been  some  revival  of  trade  between 
Gondar  and  the  regions  of  the  Blue  Nile.  Among  the  inhabitant  s 
are  numbers  of  Mahommedans,  and  there  is  a  settlement  of 
Falashas.  Cotton,  cloth,  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  copper 
wares,  fancy  articles  in  bone  and  ivory,  excellent  saddles  and 
shoes  are  among  the  products  of  the  local  industry. 

Unlike  any  other  buildings  in  Abyssinia,  the  castles  and 
palaces  of  Gondar  resemble,  with  some  modifications,  the 
medieval  fortresses  of  Europe,  the  style  of  architecture  being 
the  result  of  the  presence  in  the  country  of  numbers  of  Portuguese. 
The  Portuguese  were  expelled  by  Fasilidas,  but  his  castle  was 
built,  by  Indian  workmen,  under  the  superintendence  of 
Abyssinians  who  had  learned  something  of  architecture  from  the 
Portuguese  adventurers,  helped  possibly  by  Portuguese  still  in 
the  country.  The  castle  has  two  storeys,  is  90  ft.  by  84  ft., 
has  a  square  tower  and  circular  domed  towers  at  the  corners. 
The  most  extensive  ruins  are  a  group  of  royal  buildings  enclosed 
in  a  wall.  These  ruins  include  the  palace  of  Yesu  II.,  which  has 
several  fine  chambers.  Christian  Levantines  were  employed  in 
its  construction  and  it  was  decorated  in  part  with  Venetian 
mirrors,  &c.  In  the  same  enclosure  is  a  small  castle  attributed 
to  Yesu  I.  The  exterior  walls  of  the  castles  and  palaces  named 
are  little  damaged  and  give  to  Gondar  a  unique  character  among 
African  towns.  Of  the  forty-four  churches,  all  in  the  circular 
Abyssinian  style,  which  are  said  to  have  formerly  existed  in 
Gondar  or  its  immediate  neighbourhood,  Major  Powell-Cotton 
found  only  one  intact  in  1900.  This  church  contained  some 
well-executed  native  paintings  of  St  George  and  the  Dragon, 
The  Last  Supper,  &c.  Among  the  religious  observances  of  the 
Christians  of  Gondar  is  that  of  bathing  in  large  crowds  in  the 
Gaha  on  the  Feast  of  the  Baptist,  and  again,  though  in  more 
orderly  fashion,  on  Christmas  day. 

See  E.  RQppell,  Reise  in  Abyssinien  (Frankfort-on>the-Main,  1839- 
1840);  T.  von  Hcuclin,  Reise  nock  Abessinien  (Jena,  1868);  G. 
Lc;can,  Voyage  en  Abyssinie  (Paris,  1872):  Achillc  Kaffray,  Afrique 
cruntale;  Abyssinie  (Paris,  1876):  P.  H.  G.  Powell-Cotton,  A 
Sporting  Trip  throuf^h  Abyssinia,  chaps.  27-30  (London,  1902):  and 
BoU.  Soc.  Ceog.  Italiana  for  1909.  Views  of  the  castle  arc  given  by 
Hcuglin,  Raffray  and  Powell-Cotton. 

GONDOKORO,  a  government  station  and  trading-place  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  upper  Nile,  in  4°  54'  N.,  31°  43'  £.  It  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  Northern  Province  of  the  (British)  Uganda 
protectorate,  is  1070  m.  by  river  S.  of  Khartum  and  350  m. 
N.N.W.  in  a  direct  line  of  Entebbe  on  Victoria  Nyanza.  The 
station,  which  is  very  unhealthy,  is  at  the  top  of  a  cliff  25  ft. 
above  the  river-level.  Besides  houses  for  the  civil  and  military 
authorities  and  the  lines  for  the  troops,  there  are  a  few  huts 
inhabited  by  Bari,  the  natives  of  this  part  of  the  Nile.  The 
importance  of  Gondokoro  Ues  in  the  fact  that  it  is  within  a  few 
miles  of  the  limit  of  navigability  of  the  Nile  from  Khartum  up 
stream.  From  this  point  the  journey  to  Uganda  is  continued 
overland. 

Gondokoro  was  first  visited  by  Euro[>eans  in  1841-1842, 
when  expeditions  sent  out  by  Mehemet  Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt, 
ascended  the  Nile  as  far  as  the  foot  of  the  rapids  above  Gondokoro. 
It  soon  became  an  ivory  and  slave-trading  centre.  In  1851  an 
Austrian  Roman  Catholic  mission  was  established  here,  b'ut  it 
was  abandoned  in  1859.  It  was  at  Gondokoro  that  J.  H.  5peke 
and  J.  A.  Grant,  descending  the  Nile  after  their  discovery  of  its 
source,  met,  on  the  15th  of  February  1863,  Mr  (afterwards  Sir) 


Samuel  Baker  and  his  wife  who  were  journeying  up  the  river. 
In  187 1  Baker,  then  governor-general  of  the  equatorial  provinces 
of  Egypt,  established  a  military  post  at  Gondokoro  which  be 
named  Ismailia,  after  the  then  khedive.  Baker  made  this  post 
his  headquarters,  but  Colonel  (afterwards  General)  C.  G.  Gordon, 
who  succeeded  him  in  1874,  abandoned  the  station  on  account 
of  its  unhealthy  sit^  removing  to  Lado.  Gondokoro,  however, 
remained  a  trading-station.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mahdists 
in  1885.  After  the  destruction  of-  the  Mahdist  power  in  ^898 
Gondokoro  was  occupied  by  British  troops  and  has  since  formed 
the  northernmost  post  on  the  Nile  of  the  Uganda  protectorate 
(see  Sudan;  Nile;  and  Uganda). 

GONDOMAR.  DIEGO  SARMIENTO  DB  ACUflA,  Count  of 
( 1 567-1626).  Spanish  diplomatist,  was  theson  of  Garcia  Sarmiento 
de  Sotomayor,  corregidor  of  Granada,  and  governor  of  the 
Canary  Islands,  by  his  marriage  with  Juana  de  Acufia,  an 
heiress.  Diego  Sarmiento,  their  eldest  son,  was  bom  in  the 
parish  of  (jondomar,  in  the  bishopric  of  Tuy,  Gah'cia,  Spain, 
on  the  ist  of  November  1567.  He  inherited  wide  estates  both 
in  Galicia  and  in  Old  Castile.  In  1583  he  was  appointed  by 
Philip  II.  to  the  military  command  of  the  Portuguese  frontier 
and  sea  a>ast  of  Galicia.  He  is  said  to  have  taken  an  active 
part  in  the  repulse  of  an  English  coast-raid  in  1585,  and  in  the 
defence  of  the  country  during  the  unsuccessful  English  attack 
on  Coruzma  in  1589.  In  1593  he  was  named  corridor  of  Torow 
In  1603  he  was  sent  from  court  to  Vigo  to  superintend  the 
distribution  of  the  treasure  brought  from  America  by  two 
galleons  which  were  driven  to  take  refuge  at  Vigo,  and  on  his 
return  was  named  a  member  of  the  board  of  finance.  In  e6oq 
he  was  again  employed  on  the  coast  of  Galicia,  this  time  to  repel 
a  naval  attack  made  by  the  Dutch.  Although  he  held  miliury 
commands,  and  administrative  posts,  his  habitual  residence  was 
at  Valladolid,  where  he  owned  the  Casa  del  Sol  and  was  already 
collecting  his  fine  library.  He  was  known  as  a  courtier,  and 
apparently  as  a  friend  of  the  favourite,  the  duke  of  Lerma. 
In  161 2  he  was  chosen  as  ambassador  in  England,  but  did  not 
leave  to  take  up  his  ^pointment  till  May  1613. 

His  reputation  as  a  diplomatist  is  based  on  his  two  periods 
of  service  in  England  from  1613  to  1618  and  from  1619  to  1622. 
The  excellence  of  his  latinity  pleased  the  literary  tastes  o{  James 
I.,  whose  character  he  judged  with  remarkable  insight.  He 
flattered  the  king's  love  of  books  and  of  peace,  and  he  made 
skilful  use  of  his  desire  for  a  matrimonial  alliance  between  the 
prince  of  Wales  and  a  Spanish  infanta.  The  ambassador's 
task  was  to  keep  James  from  aiding  the  ProtesUnt  stales 
against  Spain  and  the  house  of  Austria,  and  to  avert  English 
attacks  on  Spanish  possessions  in  America.  His  success  made 
him  odious  to  the  anti-Spanish  and  puritan  parties.  The  active 
part  he  took  in  promoting  the  execution  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
aroused  particular  animosity.  He  was  attacked  in  pamphlets, 
and  the  dramatist  Thomas  Middleton  made  him  a  principal 
person  in  the  strange  political  play  A  Came  of  ChesSj  which  was 
suppressed  by  order  of- the  council.  In  161 7  Sarmiento  was 
created  count  of  Gondomar.  In  1618  he  obtained  leave  to  come 
home  for  his  health,  but  was  ordered  to  return  by  way  of  Flanders 
and  France  with  a  diplomatic  mission.  In  1619  he  returned  to 
London,  and  remained  till  1622,  when  he  was  allowed  to  retire. 
On  his  return  he  was  named  a  member  of  the  royal  council  and 
governor  of  one  of  the  king's  palaces,  and  was  appointed  to  a 
complimentary  mission  to  Vienna.  (>>ridomar  was  in  Madrid 
when  the  prince  of  Wales— afterwards  Charles  I. — ^made  his 
journey  there  in  search  of  a  wife.  He  died  at  the  house  of  the 
constable  of  Castile,  near  Haro  in  the  Rioja,  on  the  2nd  of 
October  1626. 

Cvondomar  was  twice  married,  first  to  his  niece  Beatrix 
Sarmiento,  by  whom  he  had  no  children,  and  then  to  his  cousin 
Constanza  de  Acufia,  by  whom  he  had  four  sons  and  three 
daughters.  The  hatred  he  aroused  in  England,  which  was 
shown  by  constant  jeers  at  the  intestinal  complaiqt  from  which 
he  suffered  for  years,  was  the  best  tribute  to  the  z^  with  which 
he  served  his  own  master!  Gondomar  collected,  both  before  he 
came  to  London  and  during  his  resident  there,  a.  very  fine 


GONDOPHARES— G6NGORA  Y  ARGOTE 


233 


libmy  of  printed  books  and  manuscripts.  Orders  for  the 
arrangement,  binding  and  storing  of  his  books  in  his  house  at 
VaUadolid  take  a  prominent  place  in  his  voluminous  correspond- 
ence. In  1785  the  library  was  ceded  by  his  descendant  and 
representative  the  marquis  of  Malpica  to  King  Charles  III., 
and  it  is  now  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Madrid.  A  portrait  of 
Goodomar,  attributed  to  Valazquez,  was  formerly  at  Stowe. 
It  was  mezzotinted  by  Robert  Cooper. 

AuTBOKiTiBS. — Gondomar's  knissioiu  to  England  are  largely  dealt 
with  in  S.  R.  Gardiner's  History  of  England  CLondon.  i8a3>i884). 
In  Spanish,  Don  Fascual  de  Gayamsos  wrote  a  useful  biographical 
introduction  to  a  publication  of  a  few  of  his  letters — Cinco  Cartai 
pdiUco-Ulerarias  ae  Don  Diep*  Sarmiento  de  AcuHd,  Ccnde  de 
Gcmdcmar,  issued  at  Madrid  i  W9  by  the  Sociedad  de  BtUtSfUos  of  the 
Spanish  Academy;  and  there  is  a  life  in  English  by  F.  H.  Lyon 
(1910).  (D.  H.) 

GONDOPHARES,  or  Gomdophernes,  an  Indo-Parthian  king 
who  ruled  over  the  Kabul  valley  and  the  Punjab.  By  means 
of  his  coins  his  accession  may  be  dated  with  practical  certainty 
at  A.D.  31,  and  his  reign  lasted  for  some  thirty  years.  He  is 
notable  for  his  association  with  St  Thomas  in  early  Christian 
tradition.  The  legend  is  that  India  fell  to  St  Thomas,  who 
showed  unwillingness  to  start  until  Christ  appeared  in  a  vision 
and  ordered  him  to  serve  King  Gondophares  and  build  him  a 
palace.  St  Thomas  accordingly  went  to  India  and  suffered 
martyrdom  there.  This  legend  b  not  incompatible  with  what 
is  known  of  the  chronology  of  Gondophares'  reign. 

€M>n>WA]fA.  the  historical  name  for  a  large  tract  of  hilly 
country  in  India  which  roughly  corresponds  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  present  Central  Provinces.  It  is  derived  from  the 
abori^nal  tribe  of  Gonds,  who  still  form  the  largest  element 
in  the  population  and  who  were  at  one  time  the  ruling  power. 
From  the  12th  to  as  late  as  the  xBth  century  three  or  four  Gond 
dynasties  reigned  over  this  region  with  a  degree  of  civilization 
that  seems  surprising  when  compared  with  the  existing  condition 
of  the  people.  They  built  large  walled  cities,  and  accumulated 
immense  treasures  of  gold  and  silver  and  jewels.  On  the  whole, 
they  maintained  their  independence  fairly  well  against  the 
Mahommedans,  being  subject  only  to  a  nonUnal  submission  and 
occasional  payment  of  tribute.  But  when  the  Mahratta  invaders 
appeared,  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  the  Gond 
kxogdoms  offered  but  a  feeble  resistance  and  the  aboriginal 
popcdation  fled  for  safety  to  the  hiUs.  Gondwana  was  thus 
induded  in  the  dominions  iA.  the  Bhonsla  raja  of  Nagpur,  from 
whom  it  finally  paned  to  the  British  in  1853. 

The  Gonds,  who  call  themselves  Koitur  or  "  highlanders," 
are  the  most  numerous  tribe  of  Dravidian  race  in  India.  Their 
total  number  in  1901  was  2,286,913,  of  whom  nearly  two  millions 
were  enumerated  in  the  Central  Provinces,  where  they  form  20% 
c/L  the  population.  Thay  have  a  language  of  their  own,  with 
many  didects,  which  is  intermediate  between  the  two  great 
Dravidian  languages,  Tamil  and  Telugu.  It  is  unwritten  and 
has  no  literature^  ezcq>t  a  little  provided  by  the  missionaries. 
More  than  half  the  Gonds  in  the  Central  F^vinces  have  now 
abandoned  their  own  dialects,  and  have  adopted  Aryan  forms 
of  speech.  This  indicates  the  extent  to  which  they  have  become 
Hindtiizcd.  The  hi^er  class  among  them,  called  Raj  Gonds, 
have  been  definitely  admitted  into  Hinduism  as  a  pure  cultivating 
caste;  b«t  the  great  majority  still  retain  the  animistic  beliefs, 
^^twiMiiMl  observances  and  impure  customs  of  food  which  are 
coanon  to  most  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  India. 

QOHVilOH  (the  late  French  and  Italian  form,  also  found  in 
other  Romanic  languages,  of  ^mi/aiMm,  which  is  derived  from 
the  0.iL  Ger.  gamdJanOf  gtmd,  war,  and  fanOt  flag,  cf .  Mod.  Ger. 
Fakme,  and  En^bh  "  vane  "),  a  banner  or  standard  of  the 
middle  aflea.  It  took  the  form  df  a  small  pennon  attached  below 
the  head  of  a  knight's  lance,  or  when  used  in  religious  processions 
and  ceremonies,  or  as  the  banner  of  a  dty  or  state  or  military 
order,  it  became  a  many-streamered  rectangular  ensign,  fre- 
qneaUy  swinging  from  a  crois-bar  attached  to  a  pole.  This  is 
the  most  frequent  use  of  the  word.  The  title  of  "  gonfalonier," 
the  bearer  of  the  gonfalon,  was  in  the  middle  ages  both  military 
•ad  civiL  It  was  home  by  the,  counts  of  Vexin,  as  leaders  of  the 


men  of  Saint  Denis,  and  when  the  Vexin  was  incorporated  u  the 
kingdom  of  France  the  title  of  Gonfalonier  de  Sant  Denis  passed 
to  the  kings  of  France,  who  thus  became  the  bearers  of  the 
"  oriflamme,"  as  the  banner  of  St  Denis  was  called.  '*  Gon- 
falonier "  was  the  title  of  dvic  magistrates  of  various  degrees 
of  authority  in  maAy  of  the  city  republics  of  Italy,  notably  of 
Florence,  Sienna  and  Lucca.  At  Florence  the  functions  of  the 
office  varied.  At  first  the  gonfaloniers  were  the  leaders  of  the 
various  military  divisions  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1293  was 
created  the  office  of  gonfalonier  of  justice,  who  carried  out  the 
orders  of  the  signiory.  By  the  end  of  the  14th  century  the 
gonfalonier  was  the  chief  of  the  signiory.  At  Lucca  he  was  the 
chief  magistrate  of  the  republic.  At  Rome  two  gonfaloniers 
must  be  distinguished,  that  of  the  church  and  that  of  the 
Roman  people;  both  offices  were  conferred  by  the  pope.  The 
first  was  usually  granted  to  soverdgns,  who  were  bound  to 
defend  the  church  and  lead  her  armies.  The  second  bore  a 
standard  with  the  letters  S.P.Q.R.  on  any  enterprise  undertaken 
in  the  name  of  the  church  and  the  people  of  Rome,  and  also  at 
ceremonies,  processions,  &c  This  was  granted  by  the  pope  to 
distinguished  families.  Thus  the  Cesarini  hdd  the  office  till 
the  end  of  the  17th  century.  The  Pamphili  held  it  from  x686 
tiU  1764. 

OONO  (Chinese,  gong-gong  or  tam-tam),  a  sonorous  or  musical 
instrument  of  Chinese  origin  and  manufacture,  made  in  the  form 
of  a  broad  thin  disk  with  a  deep  rim.  Gongs  vary  in  diameter 
from  about  20  to  40  in.,  and  they  are  made  of  bronze  containing 
a  maximum  of  22  parts  of  tin  to  78  of  coi^per;  but  in  many  esses 
the  proportion  of  tin  is  considerably  less.  Such  an  alloy,  when 
cast  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  is  excessivdy  brittle,  but  it  can  be 
tempered  and  annealed  in  a  peculiar  manner.  If  suddenly  cooled 
from  a  cherry-red  heat,  the  alloy  becomes  so  soft  that  it  can  be 
hammered  and  worked  on  the  lathe,  and  afterwards  it  may  be 
hardened  by  re-heating  and  cooling  it  slowly.  In  these  properties 
it  will  be  observed,  the  alloy  behaves  in  a  manner  exactly  opposite 
to  steel,  and  the  Chinese  avail  themsdves  of  the  known  peculiari- 
ties for  preparing  the  thin  sheets  of  which  gongs  are  made.  They 
cool  thdr  castings  of  bronze  in  water,  and  after  hammering  out 
the  alloy  in  the  soft  slate,  harden  the  finished  gongs  by  heating 
them  to  a  cherry-red  and  aflowing  them  to  cool  slowly.  These 
properties  of  the  aUoy  long  remained  a  secret,  said  to  have  been 
first  discovered  in  Europ<e  by  Jean  Pierre  Joseph  d'Arcet  at  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century.  Riche  and  Champion  are  said 
to  have  succeeded  in  producing  tam-tams  having  all  the  qualities 
and  timbre  of  the  Chinese  instnunents.  The  composition  of  the 
alloy  of  bronze  used  for  making  gongs  is  stated  to  be  as  follows:' 
Copper,  76'52-,  Tin,  22'43;  Lead,  o*62-.  Zinc,  0*23;  Iron,  o>i8. 
The  gong  is  beaten  with  a  round,  hard,  leather-covered  pad, 
fitted  on  a  short  stick  or  handle.  It  emits  a  peculiarly  sonorous 
sound,  its  complex  vibrations  bursting  into  a  wave-like  succession 
of  tones,  sometimes  shrill,  sometimes  deep.  In  China  and  Japan 
it  is  Used  in  religious  ceremonies,  state  processions,  marriages 
and  other  festivals;  and  it  is  said  that  the  Chinese  can  modtfy 

its  tone  variously  by  particular  wa^  of  striking  the  disk. 

The  ^ng  has  been  cliectively  used  m  the  orchestra  to  intensify  the 
impression  of  fear  and  horror  in  melodramatic  scenes.  The  tam-tam 
was  first  introduced  into  a  western  orchestra  by  Franoois  Jo0e|>h 
Gossec  in  the  funeral  march  composed  at  the  death  of  Mirabeau  in 
1791.  Gaspard  S^ntini  used  it  m  La  Vestale  (1807).  in  the  finale  of 
act  II.,  an  impressive  scene  in  which  the  high  pontm  pronounces  the 
anathema  on  the  faithless  vestal.  It  was  also  used  in  the  funeral 
music  played  when  the  remains  of  Napoleon  the  Great  were  brought 
back  to  France  in  1840.  Meyerbeer  made  use  of  the  instrument  in  the 
scene  of  the  resurrection  of  the  three  nuns  in  Robert  le  diahU.  Four 
tam-tams  are  now  used  at  Bayreuth  in  Parsifal  to  rdnforoe  the  bell 
instruments,  although  there  is  no  indication  given  in  the  score  ^see 
Pa  RSI  pal).  The  um-tam  has  been  treated  from  its  ethnographical 
side  by  Franz  Heger."  (K.  S.) 

q6N00RA  T  ARGOTB,  LUIS  DB  (1561-1627),  Spanish  lyric 
poet,  was  bom  at  Cordova  on  the  i  ith  of  July  x  561 .  His  father, 
Francisco  de  Argote,  was  corregidor  of  that  dty;  the  poet  early 
adopted  the  surname  of  his  mother,  Leonora  de  G6ngora,  who 

<  See  Larrande  Encyclopidie,  vol.  viii.  (Paris).  "  Bronze."  p.  146a. 

*Alte  MetaUUommeln  ans  SUdost-Asien  (Ldpzig.  1902).  Bd.  i.. 
Text:  Bd.  ii..  Tafehi. 


234 


GONIOMETER 


was  descended  Irom  an  ancient  tamily.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he 
entered  as  a  student  of  civil  and  canon  law  at  the  university  of 
Salamanca,  but  he  obtained  no  academic  distinctions  and  was 
content  with  an  ordinary  pass  degree.  He  was  already  known 
as  a  poet  in  1585  when  Cervantes  praised  him  in  the  Galatea;  in 
this  same  year  he  took  minor  orders,  and  shortly  afterwards 
was  nominated  to  a  canonry  at  Cordova.  About  1605-1606 
he  was  ordained  priest,  and  thenceforth  resided  principally  at 
Valladolid  and  Madrid,  where,  as  a  contemporary  remarks,  he 
"  noted  and  stabbed  at  everything  with  his  satirical  pen."  His 
circle  of  admirers  was  now  greatly  enlarged;  but  the  acknowledg- 
ment accorded  to  his  singular  genius  was  both  slight  and  tardy 
Ultimately  indeed,  through  the  influence  of  the  duke  of  Sandoval, 
he  obtained  an  appointment  as  honorary  chaplain  to  Philip  III., 
but  even  this  slight  honour  he  was  not  permitted  long  to  enjoy. 
In  i6a6  a  severe  illness,  which  seriously  impaired  his  memory, 
compelled  his  retirement  to  Cordova,  where  he  died  on  the  a4th 
of  May  1627.  An  edition  of  hb  poems  was  published  almost 
immediately  after  his  death  by  Juan  Lopez  de  Vicufia;  the 
frequently  reprinted  edition  by  Hozes  did  not  i^pear  till  1633. 
The  collection  consists  of  numerous  sonnets,  odes,  ballads,  songs 
for  the  guitar,  and  of  certain  larger  poems,  such  as  the  Soledades 
and  the  Polifemo.  Too  many  of  them  exhibit  that  tortuous 
elaboration  of  style  {eUUo  cuUo)  with  which  the  name  of  G6ngora 
is  inseparably  associated;  but  thou^  G6ngora  has  been  justly 
censured  for  affected  Latinisms,  unnatural  transpositions,  strained 
metaphors  and  frequent  obscurity,  it  must  be  admitted  that  he 
was  a  man  of  rare  genius, — a  fact  cordially  acknowledged  by 
those  of  his  contemporaries  who  were  most  capable  of  judging. 
It  was  only  in  the  hands  of  those  who  imitated  G6ngora's  style 
without  inheriting  his  genius  that  cuUeranismo  became  alMurd. 
Besides  his  lyrical  poems  G6ngora  is  the  author  of  a  play  entitled 
Las  Firmaas  de  Isabd  and  of  two  incomplete  dramas,  the 
Comedia  tenatoria  and  El  Doctor  Carlino.  The  only  satisfactory 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  by  R.  Foulch£-Delbose  in 
the  SMiotheca  Hispanica. 

See  Edward  Churton,  C&ngora  (London.  1863,  2  vols.);  M. 
Gonz&lez  y  Francds,  Cingora  raeionero  (C6rdoba,  1895) ;  M.  Goncilez 
y  Franc^,  Don  Luis  de  Gdngora  vindtcando  su  Jama  ante  el  propio 
ebupo  (C6nloba,  1899} ; "  Vlngt-six  Lettres  de  G6ngora  "  in  the  Reoue 
kispantquet  vol.  x.  pp.  184-325  (Paris,  1903). 

GONIOMETKk  (from  Or.  yaida,  angle,  and  lArpm,  measure), 
an  instrument  for  measuring  the  angles  of  crystals;  there  are  two 
kinds— the  contact  goniometer  and  the  reflecting  goniometer. 
Nicolaus  Stena  in  1669  determined  the  interfacial  angles  of 
quartz  crystals  by  cutting  sections  perpendicular  to  the  edges, 
the  plane  angles  of  the  sections  being  then  the  angles  between  the 
faces  which  are  perpendicular  to  the  sections.  The  earliest  instru- 
ment was  the  contact  goniometer  devised  by  Carangeot  in  1783. 

The  Contact  Goniometer  (or  Hand-Goniometer). — ^This  consists  of 
two  metal  rules  pivoted  together  at  the  centre  of  a  graduated  semi- 
circle (fig.  i).   The  instrument  is  placed  with  its  plane  perpendicular 

to  an  edgie  between 
two  faces  of  the 
crystal  to  be  meas- 
ured, and  the  rules 
are  brought  into 
contact  with  the 
faces;  this  b  best 
done  by  holding  the 
crystal  up  against 
the  light  with  the 
cdee  m  the  line  of 
signt.  The  angle 
between  the  rules, 
as  read  on  the 
graduated  semi- 
circle, then  gives 
the  angle  between 
-  ...  the  two  faces.    The 

rules  are  dotted,  to  that  they  may  be  shortened  and  their  tips  applied 
to  a  crystal  partly  embedded  in  its  matrix.  The  instrument  repre- 
sented m  fig.  X  b  practically  the  same  in  all  its  detaib  as  that  made 
for  Carangeot,  and  it  b  employed  at  the  present  day  for  the  approxi- 
mate measurement  of  lacve  crystab  with  dull  and  rough  faces. 
S.  L.  Penfield  (1900)  has  devised  some  cheap  and  simple  forms  of 
contact  goniometer,  consisting  of  jointed  arms  and  protractors  made 
of  cardboaid  or  cellukiid. 


Fig.  I.— Contact  Goniometer. 


The  Reflecttnn  Coniemeter,— This  b  an  instrument  of  far  greater 
precision,  and  is  always  used  for  the  accurate  measurement  of  the 
angles  when  small  crystab  with  bright  faces  are  availabk:.  As  a  rale. 
the  smaller  the  crystal  the  more  even  are  its  faces,  and  when  these  are 
smooth  and  bri^^ht  they  reflect  sharply  defined  images  of  a  bright 
object.  By  turning  the  crystal 
about  an  axis  parallel  to  the 
edge  between  two  faces,  the 
image  reflected  from  a  second 
face  may  be  brought  into  the 
same  position  as  that  formerly 
occupied  by  the  image  reflected 
from  the  nrst  face,  the  angle 
through  which  the  crystal  has 
been  rotated,  as  determined  by 
a  graduated  cirelc  to  which  the 
crystal  b  fixed,  b  the  angle 
between  the  normals  to  the 
two  faces. 

Several  forms  of  instruments 
depending  on  this  principle 
have  been  devised,  the  earliest 
being  the  vertical-circle  gonio- 
meter of  W.  H.  Wollaston, 
made  in  1800.  This  consists 
of  a  circle  m  (fig.  2),  graduated 
to  degrees  of  arc  and  reading 
with  the  vernier  k  to  minutes, 
which  turns  with  the  milled 
head  t  about  a  horizontal 
axis.    The  crystal  is  attached^  ,7  •    t  ^*.    t   ^     . 

with  wax  (a  mature  of  bee*-  "G*  2.— VerUcal-Cude  Gomomelcr. 
wax  and  pitch)  to  the  holder 

q,  and  by  means  of  the  pivoted  arcs  it  may  be  adjusted  so  that 
the  edee  between  two  faces  (a  sone-axb)  b  paralld  to,  and  coincident 
with,  tne  axis  of  the  instrument.  The  crystal-holder  and  adjustment- 
arcs,  together  with  the  milled  head  s,  are  carried  on  an  axb  which 
passes  through  the  hollow  axb  of  the  graduated  circle,  and  may  thus 
be  rotated  independently  of  the  circle.    In  use,  the  goniometer  b 

E laced  directly  opposite  to  a  window,  with  its  axb  parallel  to  the 
orizontal  window-bars,  and  as  far  distant  as  possible.  The  eye  u 
E laced  quite  close  to  the  crystal,  and  the  image  of  an  upper  window- 
ar  (or  better  still  a  slit  in  a  dark  screen)  as  seen  in  the  crystal-face 
is  made  to  coincide  with  a  lower  window-bar  (or  chalk  mark  <»  the 
floor)  as  seen  directly:  thb  b  done  by  turning  the  mUled  head  s, 
the  reading  of  the  graduated  circle  having  previously  been  observed. 
Without  moving  the  eye,  the  milled  head  I,  together  with  the  crystal, 
is  then  rotated  until  the  image  from  a  second  lace  b  brought  into  the 
same  position;  the  difference  between  the  first  and  second  readlnn 
of  the  graduated  circle  will  then  give  the  angle  between  the  norm^ 
of  the  two  faces. 

Several  improvements  have  been  made  on  Woltaston's  gonio- 
meter. The  adjustment-arcs  have  been  modified;  a  nurror  of  olack 
glass  fixed  to  the  stand  beneath  the  crystal  gives  a  reflected  image  of 
the  signal,  with 
which  the  reflec- 
tion from  the 
crystal  can  be 
more  conveni- 
ently made  to  co- 
incide; a  telescope 
provided  with 
cross-wires  gives 
greater  preasion 
to  the  direction 
of  the  reflected 
rays  of  light;  and 
with  the  telescope 
a  collimator  has 
sometimes  been  . 
used.  F 

A  still  greater 
improvement  was 
eflFectcd  by  plac- 
ing the  graduated 
circle  in  a  hori- 
zontal position, 
as  in  the  instru- 
ments of  E.  L. 
Malus   (18 10),   F. 

C.  von  Riese  (1829)  and  J.  Babinet  (1839).  Many  forms  of 
the  horisonttU-cirde  goniometer  have  been  constructed:  tbey  are 
provided  with  a  telescope  and  collimator,  and  in  construction  are 
essentblly  the  same  as  a  spectrometer,  with  the  addition  of  arnuige^ 
ments  for  adjusting  and  centring  the  crystal.  The  instrument  shown 
in  fie.  3  b  made  by  R.  Fucss  oTBerlin.  It  has  four  concentric  axes, 
which  enable  the  crystal-holder  A,  together  with  the  adjiMtment> 
arcs  B  and  centring-slides  D,  to  be  raised  or  lowered,  or  to  be  rotated 
independently  of  the  circle  H;  further,  either  the  crystal-liolder  or 
the  telescope  T  may  be  routed  with  the  circle,  while  the  other 


Fig.  3. — ^Horizontal-Cirde  Goniometer. 


GONfTAUT— GONZAGA 


235 


The  crystal  is  placed  on  the  holder  and  adjusted 
•o  that  the  edfe  (sone-axis)  between  two  faces  is  coincident  with  the 
axis  of  the  instrument.  Light  from  an  incandescent  gas-burner 
psMses  through  the  slit  of  the  collimator  C,  and  the  image  of  the  slit 
(signal)  reflected  from  the  crystal  face  is  viewed  in  the  telescope. 
The  camp  a  and  slow-motion  screw  F  enable  the  image  to  be 
brought  exactljr  on  the  cross-wires  of  the  telescope,  and  the  position 
of  the  circle  with  respect  to  the  vernier  is  read  through  the  lens. 
The  crjrstal  and  the  circle  are  then  rotated  together  until  the  image 
fmm  a  second  face  is  broucht  on  the  cross-wires  of  the  telescope,  and 
the  angle  through  which  tney  have  been  turned  is  the  angle  between 
the  normals  to  the  two  faces..  While  measuring  the  aagws  between 
tl»  fact*  of  crystab  the  telescope  remains  find  ov  the  clamp  A  but 
whtn  thb  is  released  the  instrument  may  be  used  as  a  spectrometer 
or  refractometer  for  determining,  by  the  method  01  minimum 
deviation,  the  indices  of  refraction  of  an  artificially  cut  prism  or  of  a 
transparent  crystal  when  the  faces  are  suitably  incfined  to  one 
another. 

With  a  one-drde  goniometer,  such  as  is  described  above,  it  is 
necessary  to  mount  and  re-adjust  the  ciystal  afresh  for  the  measure- 
ment of  each  aooe  of  faces  («.«.  each  set  <h  faces  intersecting  in  parallel 
edges);  with  very  small  crystals  this  opention  takes  a  considerable 
time,  and  the  minute  faces  are  not  readily  identified  again.  Further, 
in  certain  cases,  it  b  not  possible  to  measure  the  angles  between  zones, 
oor  to  determine  the  position  of  small  faces  which  do  not  lie  in  pro- 
miaent  sones  on  the  crystal.  These  difficulties  have  been  overcome 
by  the  use  of  a  two<ircIe  goniometer  or  theodolite-goniometer, 
which  as  a  combination  of  a  vertical'Circle  goniometer  and  one  with  a 
horiaotttal-drcle  was  first  em^rfoyed  bv  W.  H.  Miller  in  1 874.  Spccbl 
lonna  have  been  designed  by  £.  S.  Fedorov  (1889),  V.  Goldscbmidt 
(1893)1  Sw  Csapski  (itej)  and  F.  Stoeber  (1898).  which  differ  mainly 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  optical  parts.  In  thete  instruments  the 
crystal  b  set  up  and  adjusted  once  for  all,  with  the  axis  of  a  prominent 

parallel  to  the  axb  of  either  the  horizontal  or  the  vertical 

As  a  rule,  onlv  in  this  zone  can  the  angles  between  the  faces  be 
ed  directly;  the  positions  of  all  the  other  faces,  which  need 
be  observed  oaiy  once,  are  fixed  by  the  simultaneous  readings  of  the 
two  drcks.  These  readines,  corresponding  to  the  pobr  d  istance  and 
aaimuth,  or  btitnde  and  longitude  readings  of  astronomical  tele- 
scopes, must  be  plotted  on  a  projection  before  the  symmetry  of  the 
crystal  b  apparent;  and  laborious  cakubtions  are  necessary  in 
araer  to  determine  the  indices  of  the  faces  and  the  angles  between 
them,  and  the  other  constants  of  the  crystal,  or  to  test  whether  any 
three  faces  are  accurately  in  a  zone. 

These  disadvantages  are  overcome  by  adding  still  another  gradu- 
ated circle  to  the  instrument,  with  its  axb  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
of  the  vertical  drcbt  thus  forming  a  thiee-circle  goniometer.  With 
such  an  instrument  measurements  may  be  made  in  any  sone  or 
bttwten  any  two  faces  without  re-adjusting  the  crystal ;  further  the 
traablesome  calculations  are  avoided,  and,  indeed,  the  instrument 
amy  be  used  for  solving  qiherical  triang^  DiiBTerent  forms  of 
th>ije<ircle  goniometers  nave  been  designed  by  G.  F.  H.  Smith 
(1899  and  X904).  E-  S.  Fedorov  (1900)  and  J.  F.  C.  Klein  (1900). 
Brssdfs  being  used  as  a  one-,  two-,  or  three-ctrck  goniometer  for 
the  measurement  of  the  interfadal  angles  of  crystals,  and  as  a  re- 
fractometer for  determining  refractive  indices  by  the  prbmatic 
method  or  by  total  reflection,  Klein's  instrument,  which  b  called  a 
poljrmeter.  b  fitted  with  accessory  optical  apparatus  which  enables 
It  to  be  used  for  examining  a  crystal  m  parallel  or  convergent  polar- 
ised Ui^  and  for  measuring  the  ofvtic  ajdal  angle. 

GoatometefB  of  spedal  construction  have  been  devised  for  certain 


lapidaries  applbnoes  for  cutting  section-pbtes  and  prisms,  from 
cryscab  accurately  in  any  desired  direction.  The  instrument 
connKmly  enuployed  for  measuring  the  optic  axial  angle  of  bbxbl 
crystab  is  ntUy  a  combination  of  a  goniometer  with  a  polariscope. 
For  the  optical  investigation  of  minute  crystab  under  the  microscope, 
varioua  forms  of  stage-gooiometer  with  one,  two  or  three  graduated 
have  been  constructed.  An  ordinary  microscope  fitted  with 
and  a  rotating  graduated  stage  serves  the  purpose  of  a 
'  for  Waauriiy  the  pbne  angles  of  a  crystal  face  or  section, 

ing  the  same  in  jMinapk  as  the  contact  goniometer. 

For  fnOer  descriptions  of  goniometers  reference  may  be  made  to 
the  text-books  of  CnfstaDMjaphy  and  Mineralogy,  especblly  to 
P.  H.  Groth,  Pkynkahuke  KrystaUcinpkit  (4th  ed.,  Leipzig,  190s). 
See  abo  C  Leiss,  Dig  opHseken  InstntmenU  4er  Pirma  R.  rfiess,  dertn 
JBcscArcibmf, Justientutund Auwenduni (Leipzig,  1899).  (L. J. S.) 

eOHTAUT,  BABIB  JOStiPHmB  LOUISE,  Duchesse  de 
(1771-1857),  was  bom  in  Paris  on  the  3rd  of  August  1773, 
daoghUr  of  Augustin  Francois,  comte  de  Montaut-Navailles, 
who  bad  been  governor  of  Louis  XVI.  and  lib  two  brothers  when 
claldren.  The  count  of  Provence  (afterwards  Loub  XVIII.) 
and  fab  wife  stood  sponsors  to  Jos^hine  de  Montaut,  and  she 
sbaicd  the  lessons  given  by  Madame  de  Gcnlb  to  the  Orieans 
fudy,  with  whom  her  mother  broke  ofi  relations  after  the  out- 


break of  the  Revolution.  Mother  and  daaghter  emigrated  to 
Coblenz  in  1792;  thence  they  went  to  Rotterdam,  and  finally 
to  England,  where  Josephine  married  the  marqub  Charies 
Michel  de  Gontaut-Saint-BUuiaTd.  They  returned  to  France 
at  the  Restoration,  and  resumed  their  place  atcourt.  Madame 
de  Gontaut  became  lady-in-waiting  to  Caroline,  ducheas  of 
Beny,  and,  on  the  birth  of  the  princess  Louise  (MUe  d'Artob, 
afterwards  duchess  of  Panna),  governess  to  tiie  children  of 
France.  Next  year  the  birth  of  Henry,  duke  of  Bordeaux 
(afterwards  known  as  the  comte  de  Chambord),  added  to  her 
charge  the  heir  of  the  Bourbons.  She  remained  faithful  to  hb 
cause  all  her  life.  Her  husband  <fied  in  i8a2,  and  in  1827  she 
was  created  duchesse  de  Gontaut.  She  followed  the  exiled  royal 
family  in  1830  to  Holyrood  Palace,  and  then  to  Prague,  but  in 
1834,  owing  to  differences  with  Pierre  Louis,  due  de  Blaois,  who 
thought  her  comparatively  liberal  views  dangerous  for  the 
prince  and  princess,  she  received  a  brusque  cong6  from  Charles  X. 
Her  twin  daughters,  Jos^hine  (i  796-1 844)  and  Chariotte  (1796- 
x8i8),  married  respectively  Ferdinand  de  (Ilhabot,  prince  de  L6on 
and  afterwards  due  de  Rohan,  and  Francob,  comte  de  Bourbon- 
Busset.  She  herself  wrote  in  her  old  age  some  naive  memoirs, 
which  throw  an  odd  light  on  the  pretensions  of  the  "  governess 
of  the  children  of  France."    She  died  in  Paris  in  1 857. 

See  hex Memcirs{Eng.  ed.,  2  vols.,  i894),and  Lettm  «iiAffttei(i89S). 

GONVILB,  BDMUND  (d.  1351),  founder  of  GonviUe  HaU, 
now  (jonville  and  Caius  College,  at  Cambridge,  England,  b 
thought  to  have  been  the  son  of  William  de  Gonvile,  and  the 
brother  of  Sir  Nicholas  Gonvile.  In  1320  he  was  rector  of 
Thelnetham,  Suffolk,  and  steward  there  for  William,  eari  Warren 
and  the  eari  of  Lancaster.  Six  yean  later  he  was  rector  of 
Rushworth,  and  in  1342  reaor  of  Terrington  St  John  and  comi- 
missioner  for  tho  marshlands  of  Norfolk.  In  thb  year  he 
founded  and  endowed  a  coUegistO  church  at  Rushworth,  sup- 
pressed in  1541.  The  foundation  of  Gonville  Hall  at  (Cambridge 
was  effected  by  a  charter  granted  by  Edward  III.  in  1348. 
It  was  called,  officially,  .the  Hall  of  the  Annunciation  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  but  was  usually  known  as  Gunnell  or  Gonville 
Hall.  Its  original  site  was  in  Free-school  Lane,  where  Corpus 
Chrbti  College  now  stands.  Gonvile  apparently  wished  it  to- 
be  devoted  to  training  for  thedogical  study,  but  after  hb  death 
the  foundation  was  completed  by  William  Bateman,  bishop  of- 
Norwich  and  founder  of  Trinity  HaU,  on  a  different  site  and  with 
oonsiderably  altered  statutes.    (See  also  Caius,  John.) 

GONZAQA,  an  Italian  princdy  family  named  after  the  towu 
where  it  probably  had  its  ori^.  Its  known  hbtory  beg^  with| 
the  X3th  century,  when  Luigi  I.  (1267-1360),  after  fierce  struggles 
supplanted  hb  brother-in-law  Rinaldo  (nicknamed  Passerino). 
Bonacobi  as  lord  of  Mantua  in  August  1328,  with  the  title  of 
captain-general,  and  afterwards  of  vicar-general  of  the  empire,) 
adding  the  designation  of  count  of  Bfiruuiola  and  Concordia,' 
which  fief  the  (jonzagas  held  from  1328  to  1354.  In  July  1335. 
hb  son  Guido,  with  the  help  of  FUlppino  and  Feltrino  Gonsaga,' 
wrested  Reggio  from  the  Scaligeri  and  held  it  untH  1371.  Luigi. 
was  succeeded  by  Guido  (d.  1369);  the  latter*s  son  Luigi  11* 
came  next  in  succession  (d.  1382),  and  then  CHovan  Francesco  L 
(d.  1407),  who,  although  at  one  time  allied  with  the  treacherous 
Gian  Galeazso  Visconti,  incurred  the  latter's  enmity  and  all  but 
lost  hb  estates  and  hb  life  in  consequence;  eventually  he  joined 
the  Florentines  and  Bolognese,  enemies  of  ^^sconti  He  pro-; 
moted  commerce  and  wisely  developed  the  pmspmXy  oif  hb 
dominions.  Hb  son  Giovan  Francesco  II.  (d.  1444)  succeeded  him 
under  the  regency  of  hb  uncle  Oirlo  Malatesta  and  the  protection 
of  the  Venetians.  He  became  a  famous  general,  and  was  rewarded 
for  hb  services  to  the  emperor  Sigismund  with  the  title  of 
marquess  of  Mantua  for  himself  and  hb  descendants  (1432),  an 
investiture  which  legitimatized  the  usurpations  of  the  house  of 
Gonzaga.  Hb  son  Luigi  III.  "  U  Turco  "  (d.  1478)  likewbe 
became  a  Celebrated  soldier,  and  was  also  a  learned  and  liberal 
prince,  a  patron  of  literature  and  the  arts.  Hb  son  Federigo  I. 
(d.  1484)  followed  in  hb  father's  footsteps,  and  served  under 
various  foreign  sovereigns,  including  Bona  of  Savoy  andXorenso 
de*  Medici;  subsequent^  he  upheld  the  rights  of  the  house  of 


2^6 


GONZAGA,  T.  A.— GONZALO  DE  BERGEO 


Este  against  Pope  Siztus  IV.  and  the  Venetians,  whose  ambitious 
claims  were  a  menace  to  his  own  dominions  of  Ferrara  and 
Mantova.  His  son  Giovan  Francesco  IIL  (d.  1 519)  continued  the 
military  traditions  of  the  family,  and  commanded  the  allied 
Italian  forces  against  Charles  VIII.  at  the  battle  of  Fomovo; 
he  afterwards  fought  in  the  kingdom  of  Naides  and  in  Tuscany, 
until  captured  by  the  Venetians  in  1509.  On  his  liberation  be 
adopted  a  more  peaceful  and  conciliatory  policy,  and  with  the 
help  of  his  wife,  the  famous  Isabella  d'Este,  he  promoted  the 
fine  arts  and  letters,  collecting  pictures,  statues  and  other  works 
of  art  with  intelligent  discrimination.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Federigo  II.  (d.  1540),  captain-general  of  the  papal  forces. 
After  the  peace  of  Cambrai  (1529)  his  ally  and  protector,  the 
emperor  Charles  V.,  raised  his  title  to  that  of  duke  of  Mantua  in 
1530;  in  1536  the  emperor  decided  the  controversy  for  the 
succession  of  Monferrato  between  Federigo  and  the  house  of 
Savoy  in  favour  of  the  former.  His  son  Francesco  I.  succeeded 
him,  and,  being  a  minor,  was  placed  under  the  regency  of  his 
uncle  Cardinal  Ercole;  he  was  accidentally  drowned  in  1550, 
leaving  his  possessions  to  his  brother  Guglielmo.  The  latter 
was  an  extravagant  spendthrift,  but  having  subdued  a  revolt 
in  Monferrato  was  presented  with  that  territory  by  the  emperor 
Maximilian  II.  At  his  death  in  1587  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Vincenzo  I.  (d.  161 2),  who  was  more  addicted  to  amusements 
than  to  warfare.  Then  followed  in  succession  his  sons  Francesco 
II.  (d.  1612),  Ferdinando  (d.  1626),  and  Vincenzo  II.  (d.  1627),  all 
three  incapable  and  dissolute  princes.  The  last  named  appointed 
as  his  successor  Charles,  the  son  of  Henriette,  the  heiress  of  the 
French  family  of  Nevers-Rethel,  who  was  only  able  to  take 
possession  of  the  ducal  throne  after  a  bloody  struggle;  his 
dominions  were  laid  waste  by  foreign  invasions  and  he  himself 
was  reduced  to  the  sorest  straits.  He  died  in  1637,  leaving  his 
possessions  to  his  grandson  Charles  (Carlo)  IL  under  the  regency 
of  the  latter's  mother  Maria  Gonzaga,  which  lasted  until  1647. 
Charles  died  in  consequence  of  his  own  profligacy  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Ferdinand  Charles  (Ferdinando  Carlo), 
who  was  likewise  for  some  years  under  the  regency  of  his  mother 
Isabella  of  Austria.  Ferdinand  Charles,  another  extravagant 
and  dissolute  prince,  acquired  the  county  of  Guastalla  by 
marriage  in  1678,  but  lost  it  soon  afterwards;  he  involved  his 
country  in  useless  warfare,  with  the  result  that  in  1708  Austria 
annexed  the  duchy.  On  the  sth  of  July  of  the  same  year  he 
died  in  Venice,  and  with  him  the  Gonzagas  of  Mantua  came  to  an 
end. 

Of  the  cadet  branches  of  the  house  one  received  the  lordship 
of  Bozzolo,  another  the  counties  of  Novellara  and  Bagnolo,  a 
third,  of  which  the  founder  was  Ferrante  I.  (d.  1557)1  retained 
the  county  of  Guastalla,  raised  to  a  duchy  in  1621,  and  came  to 
an  end  with  the  death  of  Giuseppe  Maria  on  the  x6th  of  August 

1746. 

BiBLiocaAraT.—S.  MafFei.  AnnaK  di  Manlooa  (Tortoiia»  1675); 
G.ynonaLQuadro sUfrico delta Mirandola (Modena,  1847) ;  T.  Alio, 
Storia  di  Guastalla  (Guastalla.  1875,  4  vols.):  Alesaandro  Ludo, 
/  Precattori  d'Jsabdla  d'Este  (Ancona,  1887) ;  A.  Luzio  and  R.  Renier, 
"  Francesco  Gonzaga  alia  battaglia  di  Fomovo  (1495),  aecondo  1 
documenti  Mantovani  "  (in  AratMio  starieo  ilaliano,  met.  v.  voL  vi., 
aos-246) :  ttf.,  ManUna  t  Urbina^  Isabdia  d'Este  e  Elisabeth  Ccmmps 
wale  reUuionifamigliari  e  ndUvicende^eUHcke  (Turin,  1893);  L.  G.. 
P^lissier,  "  Les  Relations  de  Franons  de  Gonza^e,  marquis  de 
Mantoue.  avec  Ludovico  Sforza  et  Louis  XII  "  (in  Annales  de  la 
faetdU  de  Lettres  de  BoriM«x,  1803);  Antonino  Bcrtolotti,  "  Lettere 
del  duca  di  SavcMa  Emanude  Pilioerto  a  Guglielmo  Gonzaga,  duca  di 
Mantova"(i4  rch.  star.  it.,xr.  v.,  vol.  ix.  pp.  250-283) ;  Edmondo  Solari, 
Lettere  itudite  del  card,  Gasparo  Contarini  nd  carleu*o  del  card. 
Erceie  Gonaaga  (Venice.  1904) ;  Arturo  Segri,  //  RicMamo  di  Dart 
Ferrante  Gonzaga  dal  ipvemo  di  Milano,  e  sue  canseguente  (Turin, 

1904). 

OOMZAOA.  THOMAZ  AMTONIQ  (1744-1809),  Portuguese 
poet,  was  a  native  of  Oporto  and  the  son  of  a  Bnudlian-bom 
judge.  He  spent  a  part  of  his  boyhood  at  Bahia,  where  his 
father  was  disembargador  of  the  appeal  court,  and  returning  to 
Portugal  he  went  to  the  university  of  Coimbra  and  took  his  law 
degree  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  He  remained  on  there  for  some 
years  and  compiled  a  treatise  of  natural  law  on  regalist  lines, 
dedicating  it  to  Pombal,  but  the  fall  of  the  marquis  led  him  to 


leave  Coimbra  and  become  a  candidate  for  a  magistraey,  and  in 
1782  he  obtained  the  posts  of  trnvidor  and  pmedor  of  the  goods  of 
deceased  and  absent  persons  at  Villa  Rica  in  the  province  A  Minas 
Geraes  in  BraziL  In  1786  he  was  named  disembargador  of  the 
appeal  court  at  Bahia,  and  three  years  later,  as  he  was  about  to 
marry  a  young  lady  of  position,  D.  Maria  de  Seizas  Brandio,  the 
Marilia  of  his  verses,  he  suddenly  found  himself  arrested  on  the 
charge  of  being  the  principal  author  of  a  Rq>ublican  conspiracy  in 
Minas.  Conducted  to  Rio,  he  was  imprisoned  in  a  fortress  and 
interrogated,  but  constantly  asserted  his  innocence.  However, 
his  friendship  with  the  conspirators  compromised  him  in  the  eyes 
of  his  absolutist  judges,  who,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  known  of 
the  plot  and  not  denounced  it,  sentenced  him  in  April  1792  to 
perpetual  exile  in  Angola,  with  the  confiscation  of  his  property. 
Later,  this  penalty  was  commuted  into  one  of  ten  years  of  exile  to 
Mozambique,  with  a  deathsentence  if  he  should  return  to  America. 
After  having  ^lent  three  years  in  prison,  Gonzaga  sailed  in  May 
X  792  for  Mozambique  and  shortly  after  his  arrival  a  violent  fever 
almost  ended  his  life.  A  wealthy  Portuguese  gentleman^  maitied 
to  a  lady  of  colour,  charitably  received  him  into  his  house,  and 
when  the  poet  recovered,  he  married  their  young  daughter  who 
had  nursed  him  through  the  attack.  He  lived  in  exile  until  his 
death,  practising  advocacy  at  intervals,  but  his  last  years  were 
embittered  by  fits  of  melanchoh'a,  deepening  into  madness,  which 
were  brought  on  by  the  remembrance  of  his  misforttmes.  His 
reputation  as  a  poet  rests  on  a  little  volume  of  bucolics  entitled 
Marilia,  which  includes  all  his  published  verses  and  is  divided  into 
two  parts,  corresponding  with  those  of  his  life.  The  first  extends 
to  his  imprisonment  and  breathes  only  love  and  pleasure,  while 
the  main  theme  of  the  second  part,  written  in  prison,  b  his 
saudade  for  Marilia  and  past  happiness.  Gonzaga  borrowed  his 
forms  from  the  best  ^models,  Anacreon  and  Theocritus,  but  the 
matter,  except  for  an  occasional  imitation  of  Petruch,  the 
natural,  elegant  style  and  the  harmonious  metrification,  are  all 
his  own.  The  booklet  comprises  the  most  celebrated  collection  of 
erotic  poetry  dedicated  to  a  single  person  in  the  Portuguese 
tongue;  ind^d  its  popularity  is  so  great  as  to  exceed  its  intrinsic 

merit. 

Twenty-nine  editions  had  appeared  up  to  1854,  bat  the  Fsris 
edition  ol  1862  in  2  vds.  b  In  every  way  the  best,  althouch  the 
authenticity  of  the  venes  in  its  3rd  jiart,  which  do  not  rcute  to 
Marilia,  is  doubtful.  A  popular  edition  of  the  first  two  parts  wa» 
published  in  1888  (Lisbon,  CorazzI).  A  French  versioa  of  Marilia  by 
Monglave  and  Cnalas  appeared  in  Paris  in  1825,  an  Italian  by 
VeguEzi  Ruscalla  at  Turin  in  18^  a  Latin  by  Dr  Castro  Lopes  at 
Rio  in  1868,  and  there  is  a  Spanish  one  by  Vedia. 

See  Innoccncio  da  Silva,  Diccionario .  biUiogtafkko  fariugmex^ 
vol.  viL  p.  320,  also  Dr  T.  Braga,  Filinlc  Elysio  e  as  Disstdenias  da 
Arcadia  (Oporto,  1901).  (E.  Pa.). 

OONZiLBZ-CARVAJAU  T0MA8  JOSft  (1753-1834).  Spanish 
poet  and  statesman,  was  bom  at  Seville  in  x  753.  He  studied  at 
the  university  of  Seville,  and  took  the  degree  of  LL.D.  at  Madrid. 
He  obtained  an  office  in  the  financial- department  of  the  govern- 
ment; and  in  1795  was  made  intendant  of  the  colonies  which  had 
just  been  founded  in  Sierra  Morena  and  Andalusia.  Dtxrins 
x8o9-x8xx  he  held  an  intendancy  in  the  patriot  army.  He 
became,  in  x8x2,  director  of  the  university  of  San  laidio ;  but 
having  offended  the  government  by  establishing  a  chair  of  inter- 
national hiw,  he  was  imprisoned  for  five  years  (x8  x  5-1820).  The 
revolution  of  1820  reinstated  him,  but  the  counter-revolution  off 
three  years  later  forced  him  iilto  exile.  After  four  years  he  was 
allowed  to  return,  and  he  died,  in  X834,  a  member  of  the  supreme 
council  of  war*  Gonz&lez-Carvajal  enjoyed  European  fame  as 
author  of  metrical  translations  of  the  poetical  books  of  the  Bible. 
To  fit  himself  for  this  work  he  commenced  the  study  of  Hebrew  at 
the  age  of  fifty-four.  He  also  wrote  other  works  in  verse  and 
prose,  avowedl V  taking  Luis  de  Leon  as  his  model. 

See  biographical  notice  in  BiUioleea  de  EmuUneyrOt  voL  bcvU., 
Podas  del  sig^  28, 

GONZALO  DB  BBRCBO  (c.  xx8o-«.  X246),  the  earliest  Castilian 
poet  whose  name  is  known  to  us,  was  bom  at  Berceo,  a  village  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Calahorra  in  the  province  of  Logrolko.  In 
X 22 1  he  became  a  deacon  and  was  attached,  as  a  secular  priest, 
to  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  San  Millan  de  la  Cofolla,  in  the 


GOOCH— GOOD  FRIDAY 


237 


diocese  of  Calahorca.  His  nanie  is  to  be  met  with  in  a  number  of 
documents  between  the  years  1 337  and  1 246.  ,  He  wrote  upwards 
of  13,000  verses,  all  on  devotional  subjects.  His  best  work  is  a 
life  of  StOria;  others  treat  of  the  life  of  St  Millan,  of  St  Dominic 
of  Silos,  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the  Martyrdom  of  St  Laurence, 
the  visible  signs  preceding  the  Last  Judgment,  the  Praises  of 
Our  Lady,  the  Miracles  of  Our  Lady  and  the  Lamentations  of  the 
Virgin  on  the  Passion  of  her  Son.  He  writes  in  the  common 
tongue,  the  roman  paladino^  and  his  claim  to  the  name  of  poet 
rests  on  his  use  of  the  cuaderna  via  (single-rhymed  quatrains, 
each  verse  being  of  fourteen  syllables).  Sometimes,  however,  be 
takes  the  more  modest  title  of  juf /or  (jongfeur),  when  claiming 
paynent  for  his  poems.  His  literary  attainments  are  not  great, 
and  be  lacks  imagination  and  animation  of  style,  but  he  has  a 
certain  eloquence,  and  in  H>eaking  of  the  Virgin  and  the  saints  a 
certain  charm,  while  his  verse  bears  at  times  the  imprint  of  a 
passionate  devotion,  recalling  the  lyrical  style  of  the  great 
Spanish  mystics.  There  is,  however,  a  very  strong  popular  element 
in  his  writings,  which  explains  his  long  vogue.  The  great 
majority  of  his  legends  of  the  Virgin  are  obviously  borrowed 
from  the  collection  of  a  Frenchman,  Gautier  de  Coinci;  but  he 
has  succeeded  in  making  this  material  entirely  his  own  by  reason 
of  a  certain  conciseness  and  a  realism  in  detail  which  make  his 
work  far  superior  to  the  tedious  and  colourless  narrative  of  his 


Hb  Poesias  are  in  the  BiiilioUca  i$  antores  espafioles  of  RIva- 
dcoeyra,  vol.  Ivii.  (1864) ;  La  Vida  <U  San  Domingo  de  Silos  has  been 
edited  by  J.  D.  FitxGerald  (Parts,  1904;  see  the  Bibliolhkque  de 
PEcoU  des  HauUs  Eludes,  part  149);  ace  also  F.  Fernandez  y 
Gonzales  in  the  Ras6n  (vol.  i..  Madnd.  i860}:  N.  Hcr^Eueta.  "  Docu- 
mentoa  referentes  a  Gonzalo  de  Bcrcco."  in  the  Revista  de  arckivos, 
(jrd  series.  Feb.-March,  1904,  pp.  178-179).  (P.  A.) 

GOOCH.  SIR  DANIEL,  Bart.  (18x6-1889),  English  mechanical 
engineer,  was  born  at  Bodlington,  in  Northumberland,  on  the 
x6th  of  August  1816.  At  the  age  of  fifteen,  having  shown  a  taste 
for  mechanics,  he  was  put  to  work  at  the  Tredegar  Ironworks, 
Moomouthshire.  In  1834  he  went  to  Warrington,  where,  at  the 
Vulcan  foundry,  under  Robert  Stephenson,  he  acquired  the 
principles  of  locomotive  design.  Subsequently,  after  passing  a 
year  at  Dundee,  he  was  engaged  by  the  Stephensons  at  their 
Gateshead  wotks,  where  he  seems  to  have  conceived  that  predilec- 
tion for  the  broad  gauge  for  which  he  was  afterwards  distinguished, 
through  having  to  design  some  engines  for  a  6-foot  gauge  in 
Russia  and  noticing  the  advantages  it  offered  in  allowing  greater 
tpojct  for  the -machinery,  &c.,  as  compared  with  the  standard 
gauge  favoured  by  Stephenson.  In  1837,  on  I.  K.  Brunei's 
recommendation,  he  was  appointed  locomotive  superintendent  to 
the  Great  Western  railway  at  a  time  when  the  engines  possessed 
by  the  railway  were  very  poor  and  inefficient.  He  soon  improved 
this  state  of  affairs,  and  gradually  provided  his  employers  with 
locofnotives  which  were  tmsurpassed  for  general  excellence  and 
economy  of  working.  One  of  the  most  famous,  the  "  Lord  of  the 
Isles,"  was  awarded  a  gold  medal  at  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851, 
auid  when,  thirty  years  afterwards,  it  was  withdrawn  from  active 
service  it  had  run  more  than  three-quarters  of  a  million  miles,  all 
with  its  original  boiler.  In  1864  he  left  the  Great  Western  and 
interested  himself  in  the  problem  of  laying  a  telegraph  cable 
across  the  Atlantic.  At  this  time  the  "  Great  Eastern  "  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  bondholders,  of  whom  he  himself  was  one  of  the 
most  important,  and  it  occurred  to  him  that  she  might  advan- 
ta^ously  be  utilized  In  the  enterprise.  Accordingly,  at  his 
instance  she  was  chartered  by  the  Telegraph  Construction 
Company,  of  which  also  he  was  a  director,  and  in  1865  was 
employed  in  the  attempt  to  lay  a  cable,  Gooch  himself  super- 
intending operations.  The  cable,  however,  broke  In  mid-ocean, 
and  the  attempt  was  a  failure.  Next  year  it  was  renewed  with 
more  success,  for  not  only  was  a  new  cable  safely  put  in  place,  but 
the  older  one  was  picked  up  and  spliced,  so  that  there  were  two 
complete  lines  between  England  and  America.  For  this  achieve- 
ment Gooch  was  created  a  baronet.  Meanwhile  the  Great 
Western  railway  had  fallen  on  evil  days,  being  indeed  on  the 
verge  of  bankruptcy,  when  in  1866  the  directors  appealed  to  him 
to  accept  ths  chairmaaship  of  the  board  and  undertake  the 


rehabilitation  of  the  company.  He  agreed  to  the  proposal,  and 
was  so  successful  in  restoring  its  prosperity  that  in  1889,  at  the 
last  meeting  over  which  he  presided,  a  dividend  wasdedarol  at  the 
rate  of  7}  %.  Under  his  administration  the  system  was  greatly 
enlarged  and  consolidated  by  the  absorption  of  various  smaller 
lines,  such  as  the  Bristol  and  Exeter  and  the  Cornwall  railways; 
and  his  appreciation  of  its  strategic  value  caused  him  to  be  a 
strenuous  supporter  of  the  construction  of  the  Severn  TunneL 
His  death  occurred  on  the  Z5th  of  October  1889  at  his  residence, 
Clewer  Park,  near  Windsor. 

GOOD.  JOHN  MASON  (1764-1827),  English  writer  on  medical, 
religious  and  classical  subjects,  was  bom  on  the  35th  of  May 
1764  at  Epping,  Essex.  After  attending  a  school  at  Romsey 
kept  by  his  father,  the  Rev.  Peter  Good,  who  was  a  Nonconformist 
minister,  he  was,  at  about  the  age  of  fifteen,  apprenticed  to  a 
surgeon-apothecary  at  Gosport.  In  1783  he  went  to  London  to 
prosecute  his  medical  studies,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1784  he 
began  to  practise  as  a  surgeon  at  Sudbury  in  Suffolk.  In  1793 
he  removed  to  London,  where  he  entered  into  partnership  with 
a  surgeon  and  apothecary.  But  the  partnership  was  soon 
dissolved,  and  to  increase  his  income  he  began  to  devote  attention 
to  literary  pursuits.  Besides  contributing  both  in  prose  and 
verse  to  the  Analytical  and  Critical'  Reviews  and  the  British 
and  Monthly  MagaxineSf  and  other  periodicals,  he  wrote  a  large 
number  of  works  relating  chiefly  to  medical  and  religfous  subjects. 
In  1794  he  became  a  member  of  the  British  Pharmaceutical 
Society,  and  in  that  connexion,  and  especially  by  the  publication 
of  his  work,  A  History  of  Medicine  (i79s)>  he  did  much  to  effect 
a  greatly  needed  reform  in  the  profession  of  the  apothecary. 
In  1820- he  took  the  diploma  of  M.D.  at  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen.  He  died  at  Shepperton,  Middlesex,  on  the  and  of 
January  1837.  Good  was  not  only  well  versed  in  classical 
literature,  but  was  acquainted  with  the  principal  European 
languages,  and  also  with  Persian,  Arabic  and  Hebrew.  His 
prose  works  display  wide  erudition;  but  their  style  is  dull  and 
tedious.  His  poetry  never  rises  above  pleasant  and  well-versified 
commonplace.  His  translation  of  Lucretius,  The  Nature  of 
Things  (1805-1807),  contains  elaborate  philological  and  ex- 
planatory notes,  together  with  parallel  passages  and  quotations 
from  European  and  Asiatic  authors. 

GOOD  FRIDAY  (probably  "God's  Friday '0>  the  English 
name  for  the  Friday  before  Easter,  kept  as  the  anniversary  of 
the  Crucifixion.  In  the  Greek  Church  it  has  been  or  is  known 
as  viurx^  [oravpuoittop],  rapaaKtv^,  trapnoiuvi^  fieyiXii  or  iyia, 
ournfila  or  rd  mar^pia,  ^fiipa  rod  aravpov,  while  among  the 
Latins  the  names  of  most  frequent  occurrence  are  Pascha  Crucis, 
Dies  Dominicae  Passionis,  Parasceve,  Feria  Sexta  Paschae, 
Feria  Sexta  Major  in  Hierusalem,  Dies  Absolutionis.  It  was 
called  Long  Friday  by  the  Anglo-Saxons'  and  Danes,  possibly  in 
allusion  to  the*  length  of  the  services  which  marked  the  day. 
In  Germany  it  is  sometimes  designated  Stiller  Freitag  (compare 
Greek,  ^fiioiiia  irpaicrot;  Latin,  hebdomas  inofficiosat  non 
taboricsa),  but  more  commonly  Charfreitag.  The  etymology 
of  this  last  name  has  been  much  disputed,  but  there  seems  now 
to  be  little  doubt  that  it  is  derived  from  the  Old  High  German 
chara,  meaning  suffering  or  mourning. 

The  origin  of  the  custom  of  a  yearly  commemoration  of  the 
Crucifixion  is  somewhat  obscure.  It  may  be  regarded  as  certain 
that  among  Jewish  Christians  it  almost  imperceptibly  grew  out 
of  the  old  habit  of  annually  celebrating  the  Passover  on  the 
14th  of  Nisan,  and  of  observing  the  "  days  of  unleavened  bread  " 
from  the  1 5th  to  the  3ist  of  that  month.  In  the  Gentile  churches, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  seems  to  be  well  established  that  originally 
no  yearly  cycle  of  festivals  was  known  at  all.    (See  Easter.) 

From  its  earliest  observance,  the  day  was  marked  by  a  specially 
rigorous  fast,  and  also,  on  the  whole,  by  a  tendency  to  greater 
simplicity  in  the  services  of  the  church.  Prior  to  the  4th  century 
there  is  no  evidence  of  non-celebration  of  the  eucharist  on  Good 
Friday;  but  after  that  date  the  prohibition  of  communion 

*  See  Johnson's  diction  of  Ecclesiastical  Laws  (vol.  i.,  anno957) : 
"  Housel  ought  not  to  be  hallowed  on  Long  Friday,  because  Christ 
suffered  for  us  on  that  day." 


238 


GOODMAN— GCX)DSIR 


became  common.  In  Spain,  Indeed,  it  became  customary  to 
close  the  churches  altogether  as  a  sign  of  mourning;  but  this 
practice  was  condemned  by  the  council  of  Toledo  (633).  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  the  Good  Friday  ritual  at  present 
observed  is  marked  by  many  special  features,  most  of  which 
can  be  traced  back  to  a  date  at  least  prior  to  the  close  of  the  8ih 
century  (see  the  Ordo  Romanus  in  Muratori's  Liturg.  Rom.  Vet.). 
The  altar  and  officiating  clergy  are  draped  in  black,  this  being  the 
only  day  on  which  that  colour  is  permitted.  Instead  of  the 
epistle,  sundry  passages  from  Hosea,  Habakkuk,  Exodus  and 
the  Psalms  are  read.  The  gospel  for  the  day  consists  of  the 
history  of  the  Passion  as  recorded  by  St  John.  This  b  often 
sung  in  plain-chaunt  by  three  priests,  one  representing  the  '*  nar- 
rator," the  other  two  the  various  characters  of  the  story.  The 
singing  of  this  is  followed  by  bidding  prayers  for  the  peace  and 
unity  of  the  church,  for  the  pope,  the  clergy,  all  ranks  and 
conditions  of  men,  the  sovereign,  for  catechumens,  the  sick  and 
afflicted,  heretics  and  schismatics,  Jews  and  heathen.  Then 
follows  the  "  adoration  of  the  cross  "  (a  ceremony  derived  from 
the  church  of  Jerusalem  and  said  to  date  back  to  near  the  time 
of  Helena's  "invention  of  the  cross");  the  hymns  Pange 
lingua  and  VexiUa  regis  are  sung,  and  then  follows  the  "  Mass 
of  the  Presanctificd."  The  name  is  derived  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  celebrated  with  elements  consecrated  the  day  before,  the 
liturgy  being  omitted  on  this  day.  The  priest  merely  places  the 
Sacrament  on  the  altar,  censes  it,  elevates  and  breaks  the  host, 
and  communicates,  the  prayers  and  responses  interspersed  being 
peculiar  to  the  day.  This  again  is  followed  by  vespers,  with  a 
special  anthem;  after  which  the  altar  is  stripped  in  silence. 
In  many  Roman  Catholic  countries — ^in  Spain,  for  example — it  is 
usual  for  the  faithful  to  spend  much  time  in  the  churches  in 
meditation  on  the  "  seven  last  words "  of  the  Saviour;  no 
carriages  are  driven  through  the  streets;  the  bells  and  organs 
are  silent;  and  in  every  possible  way  it  is  sought  to  deepen  the 
impression  of  a  profound  and  universal  grief.  In  the  Greek 
Church  also  the  Good  Friday  fast  is  excessively  strict;  as  in  the 
Roman  Church,  the  Passion  history  is  read  and  the  cross  adored; 
towards  evening  a  dramatic  representation  of  the  entombment 
takes  place,  amid  open  demonstrations  of  contempt  for  Judas 
and  the  Jews.  In  Lutheran  churches  the  organ  is  silent  on  this 
day,  and  altar,  font  and  pulpit  are  draped  in  black,  as  indeed 
throughout  Holy  Week.  In  the  Church  of  England  the  history 
of  the  Passion  from  the  gospel  according  to  John  is  also  read; 
the  collects  for  the  day  are  based  upon  the  bidding  prayers 
which  are  found  in  the  Ordo  Romanus.  The  "  three  hours  " 
service,  borrowed  from  Roman  Catholic  usage  and  consisting 
of  prayers,  addresses  on  the  "  seven  last  words  from  the  cross  " 
and  intervals  for  meditation  and  silent  prayer,  has  become  very 
popular  in  the  Anglican  Church,  and  the  observance  of  the  day 
is  more  marked  than  formerly  among  Nonconformist  bodies, 
even  in  Scotland. 

GOODMAN,  GODFJIET  (1583-1656),  bishop  of  Gloucester, 
was  born  at  Ruthin,  Denbighshire,  and  educated  at  Westminster 
and  Cambridge.  He  took  orders  in  1603,  and  in  1606  obtained 
the  living  of  Stapleford  Abbots,  Essex,  which  he  held  together 
with  several  other  livings.  He  was  canon  of  Windsor  from  16x7 
and  dean  of  Rochester  1620-162 x,  and  became  bishop  of 
Gloucester  in  1625.  From  this  time  his  tendencies  towards 
Roman  Catholicism  constantly  got  him  into  trouble.  He 
preached  an  unsatisfactory  sermon  at  court  in  1626,  and  in 
1628  incurred  charges  of  introducing  popery  at  Windsor.  In 
1633  he  secured  the  see  of  Hereford  by  bribery,  but  Archbishop 
Laud  persuaded  the  king  to  refuse  his  consent.  In  X638  he  was 
said  to  be  converted  to  Rome,  and  two  years  later  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  refusing  to  sign  the  new  canons  denouncing  popery 
and  affirming  the  divine  right  of  kings.  He  afterwards  signed 
and  was  released  on  bail,  but  next  year  the  bishops  who  had 
signed  were  all  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  by  order  of  parliament, 
on  the  charge  of  treason.  After  eighteen  weeks'  imprisonment 
Goodman  was  allowed  to  return  to  his  diocese.  About  1650  he 
settled  in  London,  where  he  died  a  confessed  Rom&n  Catholic 
His  best  known  book  is  The  Fail  of  Man  (London,  16x6). 


GOODRICH,  SAMUEL  6RI8W0LD  (1793-X860),  Americmn 
author,  better  known  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Peter  Parley," 
was  bom,  the  son  of  a  Congregational  minister,  at  Ridgefidd, 
Connecticut,  on  the  19th  of  August  1793.  He  was  largely 
self-educated,  became  an  assistant  in  a  country  store  at  Danbury, 
(^nn.,  in  1808,  and  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  x8i  i,  and  from  1816  to 
1822  was  a  bookseller  and  publisher  at  Hartford.  He  visited 
Europe  in  x823~i824,  and  in  1826  removed  to  Boston,  where 
he  continued  in  the  publishing  business,  and  from  X828  to  1842 
he  published  an  illustrated  annual,  the  Tekatt  to  which  he  was 
a  frequent  contributor  both  in  prose  and  verse.  A  sdectioa 
from  these  contributions  was  published  in  1841  under  the  title 
Sketches  from  a  Student's  Window.  The  Token  also  contained 
some  of  the  earliest  work  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  N.  P.  Willis, 
Henry  W.  Longfellow  and  Lydia  Maria  Child.  In  X84X  he 
established  Merry's  Museum,  which  he  continued  to  edit  till 
1854.  In  1827  he  began,  under  the  name  of  "  Peter  Pariey,"  his 
series  ol  books  for  the  young,  which  embraced  geography, 
"biography,  history,  science  and  miscellaneous  tales.  Of  these 
he  was  the  sole  author  of  only  a  few,  but  in  1857  he  wrote  that  he 
was  "the  author  and  editor  of  about  170  volumes,"  and  that 
about  seven  millions  had  been  sold.  In  1857  he  published 
Recaliections  of  a  LifaimCf  which  contains  a  list  both  of  the 
works  of  which  he  was  the  author  or  editor  and  of  the  ^>uriou3 
woiics  published  under  his  name.  By  his  writings  and  publica- 
tions he  amassed  a  large  fortune.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representatives  in  1836,  and  of  the 
state  Senate  in  1837,  his  competitor  in  the  last  election  being 
Alexander  H.  Everett,  and  in  18SX-1853  he  was  consul  at  Paris, 
where  he  remained  till  1855,  taking  advantage  of  his  stay  to  have 
several  of  his  works  translated  into  French.  After  his  return 
to  America  he  published,  in  1859,  Illustrated'  History  of  tke 
Animal  Kingdom.  He  died,  in  New  York,  on  the  9th  of  May 
x86o. 

His  brother,  Chakles  Augustus  Goodrich  (x  790-1862),  & 
Congregational  clergyman,  published  various  ephemeral  buoks, 
and  helped  to  compile  some  of  the  "Peter  Pariey  "  series. 

GOODRICH,  or  Goooricke,  THOMAS  (d.  1554),  English 
ecclesiastic,  was  a  son  of  Edward  (Goodrich  of  East  Kirkby, 
Lincolnshire,  and  was  educated  at  Corpus  Christ!  College, 
Cambridge,  afterwards  becoming  a  fellow  of  Jesus  College  in  the 
same  university.  He  was  ansong  the  divinesxonsulted  about  the 
legality  of  Henry  VIII.'s  marriage  with  Catherine  of  Aragon, 
became  one  of  the  royal  chaplains  about  1530,  and  was  conse> 
crated  bishop  of  Ely  in  1 534.  He  was  favourable  to  the  Reforma- 
tion, helped  in  1537  to  draw  up  the  Institution  of  a  Christian 
Man  (known  as  the  Bishops^  Book),  and  translated  the  (Sospd 
of  St  John  for  the  revised  New  Testament.  On  the  accession  of 
Edward  VI.  in  X547  the  bishop  was  made  a  privy  councillor^ 
and  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  public  affairs  during  the  xeign. 
"  A  busy  secular  spirited  man,"  as  Burnet  calls  him,  he  was 
equally  opposed  to  the  xealots  of  the  "  old  "  and  the  "  new: 
religion."  He  assisted  to  compile  the  First  Prayer  Book  of 
Edward  VI.,  was  one  of  the  conunissioners  for  the  trial  of  Bishop 
Gardiner,  and  in  January  X55x~i552  succeeded  Rich  as  lord  high 
chancellor.  This  office  he  continued  to  hold  during  tlw  nine 
days'  reign  of  "  Queen  Jane  "  (Lady  Jane  Grey);  but  he  con-^ 
tinned  to  make  his  peace  with  (^een  Mary,  conformed  to  the 
restored  religion,  and,  though  deprived  of  the  chanccUorship^ 
was  allowed  to  keep  his  bishopric  until  his  death  on  the  xoth  oC 
May  1554. 

See  the  IhcL  Nat.  Biog.,  where  further  authoritieB  are  dted. 

G00D8IR,*  JOHN  (X8X4-1867),  Scottish  anatomist,  bom  at 
Anstruther,  Fife,  on  the  20th  of  March  18x4,  was  the  son  of  Dr 
John  Goodsir,  and  grandson  of  Dr  John  Goodsir  of  Largo.  He 
was  educated,  at  the  buig;h  and  grammar-schools  of  his  native 
place  and  at  the  university  of  St  Andrews.  In  1830  he  was 
apprenticed  to  a  surgeon-dentist  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  studied 
anatomy  under  Robert  Knox,  and  in  1835  he  joined  his  father 
in  practice  at  Anstruther.  Three  years  later  he  communicated 
to  the  British  Association  a  paper  on  the  pulps  and  sacs  of  the 
human  teeth,  his  resevchcs  on  the  whole  process  of  de&titi<m 


GOODWILL— GOODWIN,  Ti 


239 


being  at  this  tifliie  distinguished  by  their  completeness;  and 
about  tlie  same  date,  on  the  nomination  of  Edward  Forbes,  he 
was  elected  to  the  famous  coterie  called  the  "  Universal  Brother- 
h<Mxl  of  the  Friends  of  Truth,"  which  comprised  artists,  scholars, 
naturalists  and  others,  whose  relationship  became  a  potent 
influence  in  science.  With  Forbes  he  worked  at  marine  zoology, 
but  human  anatomy,  pathology  and  morphology  formed  his 
chief  study.  In  1840  he  moved  to  Edinburgh,  where  in  the 
following  year  he  was  appointed  conservator  of  the  museum  of 
the  College  of  Surgeons,  in  succession  to  William  Macgilllvray. 
Much  of  his  reputation  rested  on  his  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of 
tissues.  In  his  lectures  in  the  theatre  of  the  college  in  1842-1843 
be  evidencad  the  largeness  of  his  observation  of  cell-life,  both 
physiologically  and  pathologically,  insisting  on  the  importance 
of  the  cell  as  a  centre  of  nutrition,  and  pointing  out  that  the 
organism  is  subdivided  into  a  number  of  departments.  R. 
Virchow  recognized  his  indebtedness  to  these  discoveries  by 
dedicating  his  CeUtUar  Patkohiie  to  Goodsir,  as  "  one  of  the 
earliest  and  most  acute  observers  of  cell-h'fe."  In  1843  Goodsir 
obtained  the  post  of  curator  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh; 
the  following  jrear  he  was  appointed  demonstrator  of  anatomy, 
and  in  1845  curator  of  the  entire  museum.  A  year  later  he  was 
elected  to  the  chair  of  anatomy  in  the  university,  and  devoted 
all  bis  energies  to  anatomical  research  and  teaching. 

Human  myology  was  his  strong  point;  no  one  had  laboured 
harder  at  the  dissecting-table;  and  he  strongly  emphasized 
the  necessity  of  practice  as  a  means  of  research.  He  believed 
tiiat  anatomy,  physiology  and  pathology  could  never  be  prq;>erly 
advanced  without  daily  consideration  and  treatment  of  disease. 
In  1848  he  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
and  in  the  same  year  he  joined  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society,  acting  as  chairman  of  the  veterinary  department,  and 
advising  on  strictly  agricultural  matters.  In  1847  he  delivered 
a  series  of  systematic  lectures  on  the  comparative  anatomy 
of  the  invertebrata;  and,  about  this  period,  as  member  of  an 
aesthetic  dub,  he  wrote  papers  on  the  natural  principles  of 
beauty,  the  aesthetics  of  the  ugly,  of  smell,  the  approbation  or 
disapprobation  of  sounds,  &c  Owing  to  the  failing  health  of 
Professor  Robert  Jameson,  Goodsir  was  induced  to  deliver  the 
course  of  lectures  on  natural  history  during  the  summer  of  1853. 
-  The  lectures  were  long  remembered  for  their  brilliancy,  but 
the  infinite  amount  of  thought  and  exertion  which  they  cost 
broke  down  the  health  of  the  lecturer.  Goodsir,  nevertheless, 
persevered  in  his  labours,  writing  in  1855  on  organic  electricity, 
in  1 856  on  morphological  subjects,  and  afterwards  on  the  structure 
of  organizM  forms.  His  speculations  in  the  latter  domain  gave 
birth  to  his  theory  of  a  triangle  as  the  mathematical  figure 
upon  which  nature  had  built  up  both  the  organic  and  inorganic 
worlds,  and  he  hoped  to  complete  this  triangle  theory  of  format  ion 
and  law  as  the  greatest  of  his  works.  In  his  lectures  on  the  skull 
and  brain  he  held  the  doctrine  that  symmetry  of  brain  had  more 
to  do  with  the  higher  faculties  than  bulk  or  form.  He  died  at 
Wardie,  near  Edinburgh,  on  the  6th  of  March  1867,  in  the  same 
cottage  in  which  his  friend  Edward  Forbes  died.  His  anatomical 
lectures  were  remarkable  for  their  solid  basis  of  fact;  and  no  one 
in  Britain  took  so  wide  a  field  for  survey  or  marshalled  so  many 
facts  for  anatomical  tabulation  and  synthesis. 

See  Anatomical  Memoirs  of  John  Goodsir,  F.R.S.,  edited  by  W. 
Tmmer,  with  Memoir  by  H.  Lonsdale  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1868).  in 
which  Goodsir's  lectures,  addresses  and  writings  are  epitomized; 
Proc.  Roy.  Sot.  voL  iv.  (1868) ;  Trans.  Bot.  Soc.  Eiin.  vol.  be.  (1868). 

QOODWILL,  in  the  law  of  property,  a  term  of  somewhat 
vague  significance.  It  has  been  defined  as  every  advantage 
which  has  been  acquired  in  carrying  on  a  business,  whether 
connected  with  the  premises  in  which  the  business  has  been 
carried  on,  or  with  the  name  of  the  firm  by  whom  it  has  been 
conducted  {Ckmion  v.  Douglas,  1859,  Johns,  174).  Goodwill 
«iay  be  either  professional  or  trade.  Professional  goodwill 
usually  takes  the  form  of  the  recommendation  by  a  retiring 
professional  man,  doctor,  solicitor,  8[c.,  to  his  clients  of  the  suc- 
cessor or  purchaser  £pupled  generally  with  an  undertaking  not 
to  compete  with  liini. . .  Ihule  goodwill  varies  with  the  nature  of 


the  business  with  which  it  is  connected,'  biit  there  are  two  rights 
which,  whatever  the  nature  of  the  business  may  be,  are  invariably 
associated  with  it,  viz.  the  right  of  the  purchaser  to  represent 
himself  as  the  owner  of  the  business,  and  the  right  to  restrain 
competition.  For  the  purposes  of  the  Stamp  Act,  the  goodwill  of 
a  business  is  property,  and  the  proper  duty  must  be  paid  on  the 
conveyance  of  such.    (See  also  Paktnersuip;  Patents.) 

GOODWIN,  JOHN  {c.  1594-1665),  English  Nonconformist 
divine,  was  bom  in  Norfolk  and  educated  at  Queens'  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  elected  fellow  in  16x7.  He  was  vicar 
of  St  Stephen's,  Coleman  Street,  London,  from  1633  to  1645, 
when  he  was  ejected  by  parliament  for  his  attacks  on  Presbyterian- 
ism,  especially  in  his  Bco/taxla  (1644).  He  thereupon  established 
an  independent  congregation,  and  put  his  literary  gifts  at  Oliver 
Cromwell's  service.  In  1648  he  justified  the  proceedings  of  the 
army  against  the  parliament  ("  Pride's  Purge  ")  in  a  pamphlet 
Might  and  Right  Well  Met,  and  in  1649  defended  the  proceedings 
against  Charies  I.  (to  whom  he  had  o£fered  spiritual  advice)  in 
TfifwroUKou  At  the  Restoration  this  tract,  with  some  that 
Milton  had  written  to  Monk  in  favour  of  a  republic,  was  publicly 
burnt,  and  Goodwin  was  ordered  into  custody,  though  finally  in- 
demnified. He  died  in  1665.  Among  his  other  writings  are  Anti- 
Cavalierisme  (1642),  a  translation  of  the  StnUagemata  Salanae  of 
Giacomo  Aconcio,  the  Elizabethan  advocate  of  toleration,  tracts 
against  Fifth-Monarchy  Men,  Cromwell's  "Triers"  and 
Baptists,  and  Redemption  Redeemed,  containing  a  thorough 
discussion  of  .  .  ,  election,  reprobation  and  the  perseverance  of 
the  saints  (165 1 ,  reprinted  1840).  Goodwin's  strongly  Arminian 
tendencies  brought  him  into  conflict  with  Robert  Baillie,  professor 
of  divinity  of  Glasgow,  George  Kendall,  the  Calvinist  prebendary 
of  Exeter,  and  John  Owen  (q.v.),  who  replied  to  Redemption 
Redeemed  in  The  Doctrine  of  the  Saints  Perseverance,  paying  a 
high  tribute  to  his  opponent's  learning  and  controversial  skill. 
Goodwin  answered  all  three  in  the  Triumviri  (1658).  John 
Wesley  in  later  days  held  him  in  much  esteem  and  published  an 
abridged  edition  of  his  Imputatio  fidei,  a  work  on  justification 
that  had  originally  appeared  in  1612. 

Life  by  T.  Jackson  (London,  1839). 

GOODWIN.  NATHANIEL  CARL  (1857-  ^)7  American  actor, 
was  born  in  Boston  on  the  asth  of  July  1857.  While  clerk  in  a 
large  shop  he  studied  for  the  stage,  and  made  his  first  appearance 
in  1873  in  Boston  in  Stuart  Robson's  company  as  the  newsboy 
in  Joseph  Bradford's  Law.  He  made  an  immediate  success  by  his 
imitations  of  popular  actors.  A  hit  in  the  burlesque  Blach-eyed 
Susan  led  to  his  taking  part  in  Rice  and  Goodwin's  Evangeline 
company.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he  married  Eliza  Weathersby 
(d.  1887),  an  English  actress  with  whom  he  played  in  B.  E. 
Woollf's  Hobbies.  It  was  not  until  1889,  however,  that  Nat 
Goodwin's  talent  as  a  comedian  of  the  "legitimate"  type  began 
to  be  recognized.  From  that  time  he  appeared  in  a  number  of 
plays  designed  to  display  his  drily  humorous  method,  such  as 
Brafider  Matthews' .  and  George  H.  Jessop's  A  Cold  Mine, 
Henry  Guy  Carleton's  A  Gilded  Pool  znd  Ambition,  Clyde  Fitch's 
Nathan  Hale,  H.  V.  Esmond's  When  we  were  Twenty-one,  &c. 
Till  1903  he  was  associated  in  his  performances  with  his  third 
wife,  the  actress  Maxine  Elliott  (b.  1873),  whom  he  married  in 
1898;  this  marriage  was  dissolved  in  1908. 

GOODWIN,  THOMAS  (1600-1680),  EngUsh  Nonconformist 
divine,  was  born  at  Rollesby,  Norfolk,  on  the  5th  of  October 
1600,  and  was  educated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  where  in 
x6i6  he  graduated  B.A.  In  1619  he  removed  to  Catharine  Hall, 
where  in  1620  he  was  elected  fellow.  In  1625  he  was  licensed 
a  preacher  of  the  university;  and  three  years  afterwards  he 
became  lecturer  of  Trinity  Church,  to  the  vicarage  of  which  he 
was  presented  by  the  king  in  1632.  Worried  by  Ids  bishop,  who 
was  a  zealous  adherent  of  Laud,he  resigned  all  hisprefermentsand 
left  the  university  in  1634.  He  lived  for  some  time  in  London, 
where  in  1638  he  married  the  daughter  of  an  alderman ;  but  in  the 
following  year  he  withdrew  to  Holland,  and  for  some  time  was 
pastor  of  a  small  congregation  of  English  merchants  and  refugees 
at Amheim.  RetumingtoLondonsoonaf terLaud'simpeachment 
by  the  Long  Parliament,  he  ministered  for  some  years  to  the 


240 


GOODWIN;  W.  W.— GOODYEAR 


Independent  congregation  meeting  at  Paved  Alley  Church,  Lime 
Street,  in  the  parbh  of  St  Dunstan's-in-the-East,  and  rapidly  rose 
to  considerable  eminence  as  a  preacher;  in  1643  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  and  at  once  identified 
himself  with  the  Congregational  party,  generally  referred  to  in 
contemporary  documents  as  "  the  dissenting  brethren."  He 
frequently  preached  by  appointment  before  the  Commons,  and  in 
January  1650  his  talents  and  learning  were  rewarded  by  the 
House  with  the  presidentship  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  a  post 
which'  he  held  until  the  Restoration.  He  rose  into  high  favour  with 
the  protector,  and  was  one  of  his  intimate  advisers,  attending  him 
on  his  death-bed.  He  was  also  a  commissioner  for  the  inventory 
of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  1650,  and  for  the  approbation  of 
preachers,  1653,  and  together  with  John  Owen  iq.v.)  drew  up  an 
amended  Westminster  Confession  in  1658.  From  z66o  until  his 
death  on  the  33rd  of  February  x68o  he  lived  in  London,  and 
devoted  rhimself  exclusively  to  theological  study  and  to  the 
pastoral  charge  of  the  Fetter  Lane  Independent  Church. 

The  works  pubtisblsd  bv  Goodwin  during  his  Jifettme  consist 
chiefly  tA  sermons  printed  by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons;  but 
he  was  also  associated  with  Philip  Nye  and  others  in  the  preparation 
of  the  ApologelicaU  Narration  (1643).  His  collected  writings,  which 
include  expositions  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  and  of  the 
Apocalypse,  weie  published  in  five  folio  volumes  between  1681  and 
IJ04,  and  were  reprinted  in  twelve  8vo  volumes  (Edin.,  1861-1866). 
Characterized  by  abundant  yet  one-sided  reading,  remarkable  at  once 
for  the  depth  and  for  the  narrowness  of  their  observation  and  spiritual 
experience,  often  admirably  thorough  in  their  workmanship,  yet  in 
style  intolerably  prolix — they  fairly  exemplify  both  the  merits  and 
the  defects  of  tne  special  school  of  religious  thought  to  which  they 
belong.  Calamy's  estimate  of  Goodwm's  qualities  may  be  quoted 
as  both  friendly  and  just.  "  He  was  a  considerable  scholar  and  an 
eminent  divine,  and  had  a  very  happy  faculty  in  descanting  upon 
Scripture  so  as  to  bring  forth  surprising  remarks,  which  yet  generally 
tended  to  illustration.  A  memoir,  derived  from  his  own  papers,  by 
hb  son  (Thomas  Goodwin,  "the  younger,"  i65o?-i7i6r.  Inde- 
pendent minister  at  London  and  Pinner,  and  author  of  the  History 
of  the  ReigH  of  Henry  V.)  is  prefixed  to  the  fifth  volume  of  his  collected 
works;  as  a  patriarch  and  Atlasof  Independency  "  he  is  also  noticed 
by  Anthony  Wood  in  the  Atkenae  Oxontenses.  An  amusing  sketch, 
from  Addison's  point  of  view,  of  the  austere  and  somewhat  fanatical 
president  of  Magdalen  is  preserved  in  No.  494  of  the  Spectator, 

GOODWIN.  WILUAM  WATSON  (183 1-  ),  American 
classical  scholar,  was  bom  in  Concord,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
9th  of  May  1831.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1851,  studied  in 
Germany,  was  tutor  in  Greek  at  Harvard  in  1856--1860,  and 
Eliot  professor  of  Greek  there  from  i860  until  his  resignation  in 
1901.  He  became  an  overseer  of  Harvard  in'  1903.  In  1882- 
1883  he  was  the  first  director  of  the  American  School  for  Classical 
Studies  at  Athens.  Goodwin  edited  the  PanegyrtcM  of  Isocrates 
(1864)  and  Demosthenes  On  The  Crewn  (1901);  and  assisted  in 
preparing  the  seventh  edition  of  Liddell  and  Scott's  Gruk- 
English  Lexicon.  He  revised  an  English  version  by  several 
writers  of  Plutarch's  Morals  (5  Vols.,  1871;  6th  ed.,  1889),  and 
published  the  Greek  text  with  literal  English  version  of  Aeschylus* 
Agamemnon  (1906)  for  the  Harvard  production  of  that  pby  in 
June  1 906.  As  a  teacher  he  did  much  to  raise  the  tone  of  classical 
reading  from  that  of  a  mechanical  exercise  to  literary  study. 
But  his  most  important  work  was  his  Syntax  of  the  Moods  and 
Tenses  of  the  Creeh  Verb  (i860),  of  which  the  seventh  revised 
edition  appeared  in  1877  and  another  (enlarged)  in  1890.  This 
was  "  based  in  part  on  Madvig  and  KrOger,"  but,  besides  making 
accessible  to  American  students  the  works  of  these  continental 
grammarians,  it  presented  original  matter,  including  a  "  radical 
innovation  in  the  classification  of  conditional  sentences,"  notably 
the  "  distinction  between  particular  and  general  suppositions." 
Goodwin's  Greek  Grammar  (elementary  edition,  1870;  enlarged 
1879;  revised  and  enlarged  1893)  gradually  superseded  in  roost 
American  schools  the  Grammar  of  Hadley  and  Allen.  Both  the 
Moods  and  Tenses  and  the  Grammar  in  later  editions  are  largely 
dependent  on  the  theories  of  Gildersleeve  for  additions  and 
changes.  Goodwin  also  wrote  a  few  elaborate  syntactical 
studies,  to  be  found  in  Harvard  Studies  in  Classical  PhiMogyf 
the  twelfth  volume  of  which  was  dedicated  to  him  upon  the 
completion  of  fifty  years  asjm  alumnus  of  Harvard  and  forty-one 
years  as  Eliot  professor. 


GOOD?riN  SANDS,  a  dangerous  line  of  shoals  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Strait  of  Dover  from  the  North  Sea,  about  6  m.  from  the 
Kent  coast  of  England,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  the 
anchorage  of  the  Downs.  For  this  they  form  a  shelter.  They 
are  partly  exposed  at  low  water,  but  the  sands  are  shifting,  and 
in  spite  of  lights  and  bell-buoys  the  Goodwins  are  frequently 
the  scene  of  wrecks,  while  attempts  to  erect  a  lighthouse  or 
beacon  have  failed.  Tradition  finds  in  the  Goodwins  the  remnant 
of  an  island  called  Lomea,  which  belonged  to  Earl  Godwine  itL 
the  first  half  of  the  i  ith  century,  and  was  afterwards  submerged, 
when  the  funds  devoted  toats  protection  were  diverted  to  build 
the  church  steeple  at  Tenterden  (q.v.).  Four  lightships  mark 
the  limits  of  the  sands,  and  also  signal  by  rockets  to  the  lifeboat 
stations  on  the  coast  when  any  vessel  is  in  distress  on  the  sands. 
Perhaps  the  most  terrible  catastro{die  recorded  here  was  the 
wreck  of  thirteen  ships  of  war  during  a  great  storm  in  November 

X703. 

GOODWOOD,  a  mansion  in  the  parish  of  Boxgrove.  in  the 
Chichester  parliamentary  division  of  Sussex,  England,  4  m. 
N.E.  of  Chichester.  It  was  built  from  designs  of  Sir  William 
Chambers  with  additions  by  Wyatt,  after  the  purchase  <rf  the 
property  by  the  first  duke  of  Richmond  in  17  20.  The  park  is  in 
a  hilly  district,  and  is  enriched  with  magnificent  trees  of  many 
varieties,  including  some  huge  cedars.  In  it  is  a  building  ccmi- 
taining  a  Roman  slab  recording  the  construction  of  a  temple 
to  Minerva  and  Neptune  at  Chichester.  There  is  mention  of  a; 
British  tributary  prince  named  Cogidubnusj  who  perhaps  savc<£ 
also  as  a  Roman  official.  A  reference  to  early  Christianity  in 
Britain  has  been  erroneously  read  into  this  inscription.  On  the 
racecourse  a  famous  annual  meeting,  dating  from  1802,  is  held 
in  July.  The  parish  church  of  SS.  Mary  and  Blaize,  Boxgrove, 
is  almost  entirely  a  rich  specimen  of  Early  English  work. 

GOODYEAR.  CHARLES  (1800-1860),  American  inventor, 
was  bom  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  on  the  29th  of  December 
1800,  the  son  of  Amasa  Goodyear,  an  inventor  (especially  ol 
farming  implements)  and  a  pioneer  in  the  manufacture  of  hard- 
ware in  America.  The  family  removed  to  Naugatuck,  Cbnn., 
when  Charles  was  a  boy;  he  worked  in  his  father's  button 
factory  and  studied  at  home  untU  1816,  when  he  apprenticed 
himseU  to  a  firm  of  hardware  merchants  in  Philaddphia.  In 
1821  he  returned  to  Connecticut  and  entered  into  a  partnership 
with  his  father  at  Naugatuck,  which  continued  till  1830,  when  ft 
was  terminated  by  business  reverses.  Already  he  was  interested 
in  an  attempt  to  discover  a  method  of  treatment  by  which  india- 
rubber  could  be  made  into  merchandizable  articles  that  would 
stand  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  To  the  solution  of  this  problem 
the  next  ten  years  of  his  life  were  devoted.  With  ceaseless 
energy  and  unwavering  faith  in  the  successful  outcome  of  his 
labours,  in  the  face  of  repeated  failures  and  hampered  by 
poverty,  which  several  times  led  him  to  a  debtor's  prison,  he 
persevered  in  his  endeavours.  For  a  time  he  seemed  to  have 
succeeded  with  a  treatment  (or  "  cure  ")  of  the  rubber  with 
aquafortis.  In  1836  he  secured  a  contract  for  the  manufacture 
by  t^  process  of  mail  bags  for  the  U.^S.  government,  but  the 
rubber  fabric  was  useless  at  high  temperatures.  In  1837  he  met 
and  worked  with  Nathaniel  Hay  ward  (i  808-1 865),  who  had  been 
an  employee  of  a  rubber  factory  in  Roxbury  and  had  made 
experiments  with  sulphur  mixed  with  rabber.  .  C^oodyeaf  bought 
from  Hay  ward  the  right  to  use  this  imperfect  process.  In  1S39, 
by  dropping  on  a  hot  stove  some  indiarubber  mixed  with  sulphur, 
he  discovered  accidentally  the  process  for  the  vulcanisation  of 
rubber.  Two  years  more  passed  before  he  could  find  any  one  wha 
had  faith  enough  in  his  discovery  to  invest  money  in  it.  At 
last,  in  1844,  by  which  time  he  had  perfected  his  process,  his 
first  patent  was  granted,  and  in  the  subsequent  years  more  than 
sixty  patents  were  granted  to  him  for  the  application  of  his 
original  process  to  various  uses.  Numerous  infringements  had 
to  be  fought  in  the  courts,  the  decisive  victory  coming  in  1851 
in  the  case  of  Goodyear  v.  Day,  in  which  his  rights  were  defended 
by  Daniel  Webster  and  opposed  by  Rufus  Choate.  In  185  a  he 
went  to  England,  where  articles  made  under  his  patents  had 
been  displayed  at  the  International  Exhibition  of  1851^  but  he 


GOOGE— GOOSE 


241 


VBAtle  to  citaMith  factories  there.  In  France  a  company 
for  the  manufacture  of  vulcaniaed  rubber  by  his  process  failed, 
and  in  December  1855  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  for  debt 
in  Paris.  Owing  to  the  expense  of  the  litigation  in  which  he  was 
cogafed  and  to  bad  business  management,  he  profited  little  from 
bis  invcntioos.  He  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  xst  of  July 
i860.  He  wrote  an  account  of  his  discovery  entitled  Cum- 
Elasik  ami  Us  Varuties  (a  vols.,  New  Haven,  1853-1855). 

See  also  B.  K.  Pctrce.  TriaU  efan  InvtHtcr,  JJft  Mid  Diseoverks  of 
CkttfUs  Ceodyear  (New  York,  1866):  James  Parton,  Fanwu* 
AmeriMiu  erf  Rtetnt  Times  (Boston,  1867):  and  Herbert  L.  Terry, 
IwdiA  Rubber  and  its  Mant^aciun  (New  York,  1907). 

6006B,  BARMABB  (i54»-x594)»  English  poet,  son  of  Robert 
Googe,  recorder  of  Lincoln,  was  bom  on  the  nth  of  June  1540 
at  Alvingham,  Lincolnshire.  He  studied  at  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  at  New  College,  Oxford,  but  does  not  seem  to 
have  taken  a  degree  at  either  university.  He  afterwards  removed 
to  Staple's  Inn,  and  was  attached  to  the  household  of  his  kinsman, 
Sir  William  Cecfl.  In  1563  he  became  a  gentleman  pensk>ner 
to  Queen  Elixabeth.  He  was  absent  in  Spain  when  his  poems 
were  sent  to  the  printer  by  a  friend,  L.  Blundeston.  Googe  then 
gave  hii  consent,  and  they  appeared  in  x  563  as  Eifiogs,  Epyiapkes, 
cmd  SomdUt.  There  is  extant  a  curious  correH>ondence  on  the 
subject  of  his  marriage  with  Mary  Darrell,  whose  father  refused 
Go^'s  suit  on  the  ground  that  she  was  bound  by  a  previous 
contract.  The  matter  was  decided  by  the  intervention  of  Sir 
William  Cedl  with  Archbishop  Parker,  and  the  marriage  took 
place  in  1564  or  x  565.  Googe  was  provost-marshal  of  the  court 
of  Connaught,  and  some  twenty  letters  of  his  in  this  capacity 
are  preserved  in  the  record  office.  He  died  in  February  1594. 
He  was  an  ardent  Protestant,  and  his  poetry  b  coloured  by  his 
leligioas  and  political  views.  In  the  third  "  Eglog,"  for  instance, 
be  lamcnta  the  decay  of  the  old  nobility  and  tht  rise  of  a  new 
aristocsacy  of  wealth,  and  he  gives  an  indignant  account  of  the 
sufferings  of  his  co-reli^omsts  under  Mary.  Tlw  other  eclogues 
deal  with  the  sorrows  of  earthly  love,  leading  up  to  a  dialogue 
between  Corydon  and  Comix,  in  which  the  heavenly  love  is 
extolled.  The  volume  includes  epitaphs  on  Nicholas  Grimald, 
John  Bale  and  on  Thomas  Phaer,  whose  translation  of  Virgil 
Googe  ia  uncritical  enough  to  prefer  to  the  versions  of  Surrey 
and  of  Gavin  Douglas.  A  much  more  charming  pastoral  than 
any  of  those  contained  in  this  volume,  "  Phyllida  was  a  fayer 
maid"  {ToUeTs  Miscdlany)  has  been  ascribed  to  Baroabe 
Googe.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  English  pastoral  poets,  and 
the  first  who  was  in4>tred  by  Spanish  romance,  being  consider- 
ably indebted  to  the  Diana  Bnamorada  of  Montemayor. 

His  other  works  include  a  translation  from  Marcellus  Palingenius 
(Mid  to  be  an  anagram  for  Pietro  Angdo  MansoUi)  of  a  satirical 
Latin  poem,  Zediacus  vitas  (Venice,  1531?),  in  twelve  books,  under 
the  title  of  Tkt  Zodyakt  of  Lift  (1560):  7m  Po^k  Kingdoms,  or 
roipi  of  AmtkkriU  (1570),  translated  from  Thomas  Kirchmayer  or 
Naogeorgus;  Tks  Sptritnal  Hnsbandrio  from  the  laroe  author, 
printed  with  the  last;  Fonrs  Bookes  of  Hnsbandrio  (1577),  collected 
Dv  Cooradus  Heretbachius;  and  Tks  Prooerbes  of  .  ,  .  hopes  do 
Memdom  (1579). 

OOOLB^  a  market  town  and  port  in  the  O^joldcross  parlia* 
mentary  division  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England, 
at  the  ooofluence  of  the  Don  and  the  Ouse,  24  m.  W.  by  S.  from 
Hull,  served  by  the  North  Eastern,  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire, 
Great  Central  and  Asholme  joint  railways.  Pop.  of  urban 
district  (1901)  16,576.  The  town  owes  its  existence  to  the 
construction  of  the  Knottin^ey  canal  in  1826  by  the  Aire  and 
Calder  Navigation  Company,  after  which,  in  1829,  Goole  was 
made  a  bonding  port.  Previously  it  had  been  an  obscure  hamlet. 
The  poit  waa  administratively  combined  with  that  of  Hull  in 
1885.  It  a  47  m.  from  the  North  Sea  (mouth  of  the  Humber), 
and  a  wide  system  of  inland  navigation  opens  from  it.  Thefe  are 
eight  docks  supplied  with  timber  ponds,  quays,  warehouses  and 
other  accommodation.  The  depth  of  water  is  2x  or  22  ft.  at  high 
water,  spring  tides.  Chief  exports  are  coal,  stone,  woollen  goods 
and  machinery;  imports,  butter,  fruit,  indigo,  logwood,  timber 
and  wool.  Industries  include  the  manufacture  of  alum,  sugar, 
tope  and  agricultural  instraments,  and  iron-founding.  Ship- 
is  also  carried  on,  and  there  is  a  large  dry  dock  and  a 

5 


patent  slip  for  repairing  vessels.  Passenger  steamship  services 
are  worked  in  connexion  with  the  Lancashire  8c  Yorkshire  railway 
to  Amsterdam,  Antwerp,  Bruges,  Copenhagen,  Rotterdam  and 
other  north  European  ports.  The  handsome  diurch  of  St  J<^ 
the  Evangelist,  with  a  lofty  tower  and  spire,  dates  from  1844. 

Q008B  (a  common  Teut.  word,  O.  Eng.  gds,  pi.  1;^,  Ger.  CanSt 
O.  Norse  gds,  from  Aryan  root,  ghans,  whence  Sans,  ka^sd,  Lat. 
anser  (for  hanser),  Gr.  x¥f  &c.),  the  general  English  name  for  a 
considerable  number  of  birds,  belonging  to  the  family  AnaHdat 
of  modem  ornithologists,  whidi  are  mostly  larger  than  ducks 
and  less  than  swans.  Technically  the  word  goose  is  reserved 
for  the  female,  the  male  being  called  gander  (A.-S.  gandra). 

The  most  important  species  of  goose,  and  the  type  of  the 
genus  Anuff  is  undoubtedly  that  which  is  the  origin  of  the 
weIl>known  domestic  race  (see  Poultry),  the  Anser  ferus  or 
A.  cinereus  of  most  naturalists,  commonly  called  in  English  the 
grey  or  grey  lag^  goose,  a  bird  of  exceedingly  wide  range  in  the 
Old  Worid,  apparently  breeding  where  suitable  localities  are 
to  be  found  in  most  European  countries  from  Lapland  to  Spain 
and  Bulgaria.  Eastwards  it  extends  to  China,  but  does  not 
seem  to  be  known  in  Japan.  It  is  the  only  species  indigenous 
to  the  British  Islands,  and  in  former  days  bred  abundantly  in 
the  English  Fen-country,  where  the  young  were  caught  in  large 
numben  and  kept  in  a  more  or  less  reclaimed  condition  with  the 
vast  flocks  of  tame-bred  geese  that  at  one  time  formed  so  valuable 
a  property  to  the  dwellera  in  and  around  the  Fens.  It  is  im- 
possible  to  determine  when  the  wild  grey  lag  goose  ceased  from 
breeding  in  England,  but  it  certainly  did  so  towards  the  end  of 
the  x8th  century,  for  Danieil  mentions  {Rurai  Sports,  iii.  242) 
his  having  obtained  two  broods  in  one  season.  In  Scotland  this 
goose  continues  to  breed  sparingly  in  several  parts  of  the  High- 
lands and  in  certain  of  the  Hebrides,  the  nesta  being  generkUy 
placed  in  long  heather,  and  the  ^gs  seldom  excee<Ung  five  or 
six  in  number.  It  is  most  likely  the  birds  reared  here  that  are 
from  time  to  time  obtained  in  En^nd,  for  at  the  present  day 
the  grey  lag  goose,  though  once  so  numerous,  is,  and  for  many 
yean  has  been,  the  rarest  species  of  those  that  habitually  resort 
to  the  British  Islands.  The  domestication  of  thb  species,  as 
Darwin  remarks  (Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,  L 
287),  is  of  very  ancient  date,  and  yet  scarcdy  any  other  animal 
that  has  been  tamed  for  so  long  a  period,  and  bred  so  largely  in 
captivity,  has  varied  so  little.  It  has  increased  greatly  in  size 
and  fecundity,  but  almost  the  only  change  in  plumage  is  that 
tame  geese  commonly  lose  the  browner  and  darker  tints  of  the 
wild  bird,  and  arc  more  or  less  marked  with  white — ^being  often 
indeed  wholly  of  that  colour.*  The  most  generally  recognised 
breeds  of  domestic  geese  are  those  to  which  the  distinctive  names 
of  Emden  and  Toulouse  are  applied;  but  a  singular  breed,  said 
to  have  come  from  Sevastopol,  was  introduced  into  western 
Europe  about  the  year  1856.  In  this  the  upper  plumage  is 
elongated,  curled  and  q>ira]]y  twisted,  having  their  shaft 
transparent,  and  so  thin  that  it  often  splits  into  fine  filaments, 
which,  remaining  free  for  an  inch  or  more,  often  coalesce  again;* 
while  the  quills  are  aborted,  so  that  the  birds  cannot  fly. 

*  The  meaning  and  derivation  of  this  word  Uu  had  long  been  a 
puzsle  until  Skeat  sunested  (/Mr,  1870,  p.  301}  that  it  agnified 
late,  last,  or  slow,  as  m  lafford,  a  loiterer,  lagman,  the  last  man, 
lagketkt  the  -posterior  molar  or  "  wisdom  teeth  (as  the  but  to 
appear),  and  lagclock,  a  clock  that  is  behind  time.  Thus  the  grey 
lag  goose  M  tbe^rey  goose  which  in  England  when  the  name  was 
given  was  not  migratory  but  lagged  behind  the  other  wild  species  at 
the  season  when  tney  betook  themadves  to  their  northern  breeding- 

Starters.  In  connexion  with  this  word,  however,  must  be  noticed 
e  curious  fact  mentioned  by  Rowley  (Om.  Miscell.t  iii.  213}, 
that  the  flocks  of  tame  geese  in  Lincolnshire  are  urged  on  by  thetr 
drivers  with  the  cry  of     laglem,  1^'em." 

'  From  the  times  of  the  Romans  white  geese  have  been  held  in 
great  estimation,  and  hence,  doubtless,  they  have  been  preferred  as 
breeding  stock,  but  the  practice  of  plucking  geese  alive,  continued 
for  so  many  centuries,  hsis  not  improbably  auo  helped  to  perpetuate 
this  variation,  for  it  is  well  known  to  many  bira-keepen  that  a 
white  feather  Is  often  produced  in  pboe  of  one  of  the  natural  colour 
that  has  been  pulled  out. 

*  In  some  English  counties,  especially  Norfolk  and  Lincoln,  it 
was  no  uncommon  thing  formerly  for  a  man  to  keep  a  stock  of  a 
thousand  geese,  each  of  which  might  be  reckoned  to  rear  on  an 

la 


242 


GOOSE 


Tbe  otber  British  tpedm  of  typical  geese  are  the  bean-goose 
(il.  stgttitm),  the  pink-footed  (A.  brachyrhynchus)  and  tlie  wliite- 
frontc^  {A.  aUnfr<ms).  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  but  not 
yet  recognized  as  occurring  in  Britain,  is  a  smaU  form  of  the  last 
{A,  erytkropus)  whidi  is  known  to  breed  in  Lapland.  All  these, 
for  the  sake  of  discrimination,  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — 
(t)  those  having  the  "nail "  at  the  tip  of  the  bill  white,  or  of  a 
very  pde  flesh  colour,  and  (a)  those  in  which  this  "nail"  is 
black.  To  the  former  belong  the  grey  lag  goose,  as  well  as  A. 
albifrons  and  A.  erytkropus,  and  to  the  latter  the  other  two. 
A,  albifrons  and  A.  erytkropuSf  which  differ  little  but  in  size, — 
the  last  being  not  much  bigger  than  a  mallard  {Anas  boschas), — 
may  be  readUy  distinguished  from  the  grey  lag  goose  by  their 
bright  orange  legs  and  their  mouse-coloured  upper  wing-coverts, 
to  say  nothing  of  their  very  conspicuous  white  face  and  the 
broad  black  bars  which  cross  the  belly,  though  the  last  two 
characters  are  occasionally  observable  to  some  extent  in  the 
grey  lag  goose,  which  has  the  bill  and  legs  flesh-coloured,  and 
the  upper  wing-coyerts  of  a  bluish-grey.  Of  the  second  group, 
with  the  black  "  nail,"  A.  segetum  has  the  bill  long,  black  at  the 
base  and  orange  in  the  middle;  the  feet  are  also  orange,  and 
the  upper  wing-coverts  mouse-coloured,  as  in  /I.  albifrons  and 
A.  erytkropus,  while  A.  brachyrhynchus  has  the  bill  short,  bright 
pink  in  the  middle,  and  the  feet  iiao  pink,  the  upper  wing-ooverts 
being  nearly  of  the  same  bluish-grey  as  in  the  grey  lag  goose. 
Eastern  Asia  possesses  in  A.  grandis  a  third  species  of  this  group, 
which  chiefly  differs  from  A .  segetum  in  its  lariger  site.  In  North 
America  there  is  only  one  spedes  of  typical  goose,  and  that 
belongs  to  the  white-"  nailed  "  group.  It  very  nearly  resembles 
A.  albifrons,  but  is  larger,  and  has  been  described  as  distinct 
under  the  name  of  A.  gambdi.  Central  Asia  and  India  possess 
in  the  bar-headed  goose  {A,  indicus)  a  bird  easily  distinguished 
from  any  of  the  foregoing  by  the  character  implied  by  its  English 
name;  but  it  is  certainly  somewhat  abnormal,  and,  indeed, 
under  the  name  of  Eulabia,  has  been  separated  from  the  genus 
Anser,  which  has  no  other  member  indigenous  to  the  Indian 
Region,  nor  any  at  aU  to  the  Ethiopian,  Australian  or  Neotropical 
Regions. 

America  possesses  by  far  the  greatest  wealth  of  Anserine  forms. 
Beside  others,  presently  to  be  mentioned,  its  northern  portions 
are  the  home  of  all  the  spedes  of  snow-geese  belonging  to  the 
genus  Chen.  The  first  of  these  is  C.  hyperboreus,  the  snow-goose 
proper,  a  bird  of  large  size,  and  when  adult  of  a  pure  white, 
except  the  primaries,  which  are  black.  This  has  long  been 
deeined  a  visitor  to  the  Old  Worid,  and  sometimes  in  considerable 
numbers,  but  the  later  discovery  of  a  smaUer  form,  C.  albaius, 
scarcely  differing  except  in  size,  throws  some  doubt  on  the  older 
records,  especially  since  examples  which  have  been  obtained  in 
the  British  Islands  undoubtedly  belong  to  this  lesser  bird,  and 
it  would  be  satisfactory  to  have  the  occurrence  in  the  Old  Worid 
of  the  true  C.  hyperboreus  placed  on  a  surer  footing.  So  nearly 
allied  to  the  spedes  last  named  as  to  have  been  often  confounded 
with  it,  is  the  blue-winged  goose,  C.  coerulescens,  which  is  said 
never  to  attain  a  snowy  plumage.  Then  we  have  a  very  small 
spedes,  long  ago  described  as  distinct  by  Samud  Heame,  the 
Arctic  traveller,  but  until  x86i  discredited  by  ornithologists. 
Its  distinctness  has  now  been  fully  recognized,  and  it  has  recdved, 
somewhat  unjustly,  the  name  of  C.  rossi.  Its  face  is  adorned 
with  numerous  papillae,  whence  it  has  been  removed  by  Elliot 
to  a  separate  genus,  Bxanthemops,  and  for  the  same  reason  it 
has  long  been  known  to  the  European  residents  in  the  fur 
countries  as  the  "homed  wavey" — the  last  word  bdng  a 
rendering  of  a  native  name,  IKowa,  which  signifies  goose.  Finally, 

aversge  seven  goslinn.  The  flocks  were  regulariy  taken  to  pasture 
and  water,  just  as  weep  are.  and  the  man  who  tended  them  was 
called  the  gooseherd,  corrupted  into  gozzerd.  The  birds  were 
plucked  five  rimes  in  the  year,  and  in  autumn  the  flocks  were  driven 
to  London  or  other  large  maricets.  They  tnvelled  at  the  rate  of 
about  a  nule  an  hour,  and  would  get  over  nearly  lo  m.  in  the  day. 
For  further  particulars  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  Pennants 
BriHsh  Zoology \  Montagu's  Ornithological  Dictionary;  Latham's 
General  History  of  Birds;  and  Rowley^  Ontiikological  liiscdlany 
Cm.  906-3 1^),  where  some  account  also  may  be  found  of  the  goose- 
tatting  at  Stnasbuig. 


there  appears  to  bdong  to  this  section,  though  it  has  been 
frequently  referred  to  another  {Chtoephaga),  and  has  also  been 
made  the  type  of  a  distinct  genus  {Philacte),  the  beautiful 
emperor  goose,  P.  canagica,  whifJi  is  almost  peculiar  to  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  though  straying  to  the  condnent  in  winter, 
and  may  be  recognised  by  the  white  edging  of  its  remiges. 

The  southern  portions  of  the  New  World  are  inhabited  by 
about  half  a  dozen  spedes  of  geese  not  neariy  akin  to  the  fore- 
going, and  separated  as  the  genus  Chloephaga.  The  most 
noticeable  of  them  are  the  rock  or  kelp  goose,  C.  aniarctica,  and 
the  upland  goose,  C.  tnagdlanica.  In  both  of  these  the  sexes 
are  totally  unlike  in  colour,  but  in  others  a  greater  simiUrity 
obtains.^  Formerly  erroneously  assodated  with  the  birds  of 
this  group  comes  one  which  belongs  to  the  northern  hemisphere, 
and  is  common  to  the  Old  Worid  as  wdl  as  the  New.  It  contains 
the  geese  which  have  received  the  common  names  of  bernades 
or  brents,*  and  the  sdentific  appellations  of  Bemicla  and  Branta 
— ^for  the  use  of  dther  of  which  much  may  be  said  by  nomcn- 
daturists.  All  the  spedes  of  this  section  are  distinguished  by 
their  general  dark  sooty  colour,  relieved  in  some  by  white  of 
greater  or  less  purity,  and  by  way  of  distincUon  from  the  members 
of  the  genus  Anser,  which  are  known  as  grey  geese,  are  frequently 
called  by  fowlers  black  geese.  Of  these,  the  best  known  both 
in  Europe  and  North  America  is  the  brent-goose — the  Anas 
bemicla  of  Linnaeus,  and  the  B.  torquala  of  many  modem 
writers — a  truly  marine  bird,  seldom  (in  Europe  at  least)  quitting 
salt-water,  and  coming  southwards  in  vast  flocks  towards 
autumn,  frequenting  bays  and  estuaries  on  the  British  coasts, 
where  it  lives  chiefly  on  sea-grass  {Zostera  maritima).  It  is 
known  to  breed  in  Spitsbergen  and  in  Greenland.  A  form  which 
is  by  some  ornithologists  deemed  a  good  spedes,  and  called 
by  them  B.  nigricans,  occurs  chiefly  on  the  Padfic  coast  of 
North  America.  In  it  the  black  of  the  neck,  which  in  the  common 
brent  terminates  just  above  the  breast,  extends  over  most  of 
the  lower  parts.  The  tme  bernade-goose,'  the  B.  leucopsis  of 
most  authors,  is  but  a  casual  visitor  to  North  America,  but  is 
said  to  breed  in  Iceland,  and  occasionally  in  Norway.  Its  usual 
incun<Umla,  however,  still  form  one  of  the  puzzles  of  the  ornitho- 
logist, and  the  difficulty  is  not  lessened  by  the  fact  that  it  will 
breed  fredy  in  semi-ci^tivity,  while  the  brent-goose  will  not. 
From  the  latter  the  bernade-goose  is  easily  distinguished  by  its 
larger  size  and  white  cheeks.  Hutchins's  goose  (B.  Hnlckinsi) 
seems  to  be  its  tme  representative  in  the  New  Worid.  In  this 
the  face  is  dark,  but  a  white  crescentic  or  triangular  patch 
extends  from  the  throat  on  either  side  upwards  behind  the  eye. 
Almost  exactly  similar  in  coloration  to  the  last,  but  greatly 
superior  in  size,  and  possessing  i8  rectrices,  while  all  the  fore- 
going have  but  x6,  is  the  common  wild  goose  of  America,  B. 
canadensis,  which,  for  more  than  two  centuries  has  been  intro- 
duced into  Europe,  where  it  propagates  so  fredy  that  it  has  been 
induded  by  nearly  aU  the  ornithologists  of  this  quarter  of  the 
^obe  as  a  member  of  its  fauna.  An  allied  form,  by  some 
deemed  a  q>edes,  a  B.  leucopareia,  which  ranges  over  the  western 
part  of  North  America,  and,  though  having  z8  rectrices,  is 
distinguished  by  a  white  collar  round  the  lower  part  of  the 
neck.  The  most  diverse  spedes  of  this  group  of  geese  are  the 
beautiful  B.  ruficollis,  a  native  of  north-eastern  Asia,  which 
occasionally  strays  to  western  Europe,  and  has  been  obtained 
more  than  once  in  Britain,  and  that  which  is  peculiar  to  the 
Hawaian  archipeUgo,  B.  sandvicensis. 

The  largest  living  goose  is  that  called  the  Chinese,  Guinea  or 
swan-goose,  Cygnopsis  cygnaides,  and  this  is  the  stock  whence 
the  domestic  geese  of  several  eastern  countries  have  spmng. 
It  may  often  be  seen  in  English  parks,  and  it  is  found  to  cross 
readily  with  the  common  tame  goose,  the  offering  bdng  fertile, 

>  See  Sdater  and  Salvin,  Proe.  Zoel.  Society  (1876).  pp.  561-369. 

'The  etymology  of  these  two  words  is  exceedingly  obscure. 
The  ordinary  spejune  bernicle  seems  to  be  wrong,  if  we  may  judge 
from  the  analogy  of  the  French  Bemache.  In  both  wortb  the  c 
should  be  sounoeid  as  a. 

*  The  old  fable,  perhaps  still  believed  by  the  uneducated  in  aooae 
parts  of  the  worid,  was  that  bemacle-geese  were  produced  from  the 
barnacles  {^podidae)  that  grow  on  timber  exposed  to  sah-watcr. 


' 


GOOSE  (GAME  OF)— GOOSEBERRY 


and  BIyth  has  said  that  these  crosses  are  very  abundant  in  India. 
The  true  home  of  the  species  is  in  eastern  Siberia  or  Mongolia. 
It  is  distinguished  by  its  long  smooth  neck,  marked  dorsally 
by  a  chocolate  streak.  The  reclaimed  form  is  usually  distin- 
guished by  the  knob  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  but  the  evidence  of 
many  observers  shows  that  this  is  not  found  in  the  wild  race. 
Of  this  bird  there  is  a  perfectly  white  breed. 

We  have  next  to  mention  a  very  curious  form,  Cereopsis 
mmU'luUandiaet  which  is  peculiar  to  Australia,  and  is  a  more 
terrestrial  type  of  goose  than  any  other  now  existing.  Its  short, 
decurved  bill  and  green  cere  give  it  a  very  peculiar  expression, 
and  its  almost  um'form  grey  plumage,  bearing  rounded  black 
qwts,  is  also  remarkable.  It  bears  captivity  well,  breeding  in 
con&nement,  but  is  now  seldom  seen.  It  appears  to  have  been 
formerly  very  abundant  in  many  parts  of  Australia,  from  which 
it  has  cif  Ute  been  exterminated.  Some  of  its  pecuUarities  seem 
to  have  been  still  more  exaggerated  in  a  bird  that  is  wholly 
extinct,  the  Cnemiornis  cakUrans  of  New  Zealand,  the  remains 
of  which  were  described  in  full  by  Sir  R.  Owen  in  1873 
(  Trans.  Zod.  Society ^  ix.  asj).  Among  the  first  portions  of  this 
singular  bird  that  were  found  were  the  tihiaef  presenting  an 
extraordinary  development  of  the  patdia,  which,  united  with 
the  shank-bone,  gave  rise  to  the  generic  name  applied.  For  some 
time  the  affinity  of  the  owner  of  this  wonderful  structure  was 
in  doubt,  but  all  hesitation  was  dispelled  by  the  discovery  of  a 
nearly  pcxfcct  skeleton,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  which  proved 
the  bird  to  be  a  goose,  of  great  size,  and  unable,  from  the  shortness 
of  its  wings,  to  fly.  In  correlation  with  this  loss  of  power  may 
also  be  noted  the  dwindling  of  the  keel  of  the  sternum.  Generally, 
however,  its  osteological  characters  point  to  an  affinity  to  Cere- 
apsiSt  as  was  noticed  by  Dr  Hector  {Trans.  New  Zeal.  InstUuUt 
▼L  76-84),  who  first  determined  its  Anserine  character. 

Birds  of  the  genera  Ckenatcpex  (the  Egyptian  and  Orinoco 
geese),  PUctropUrnSt  Sareidiomis,  CUamydocken  and  some  others, 
are  commonly  called  geese.  It  seems  uncertain  whether  they 
should  be  grouped  with  the  Anserinae.  The  males  of  all,  like 
those  of  the  above-mentioned  genus  CUdphagOt  appear  to  have 
that  oiiious  enlargement  at  the  junction  of  the  bronchial  tubes 
and  the  trachea  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  ducks  or 
AnaHnae.  (A.  N.) 

GOOIB  (Gakc  of),  an  andent  French  game,  said  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  Greeks,  very  popular  at  the  close  of  the  middle 
ages.  It  was  played  on  a  piece  of  card-board  upon  which  was 
drawn  a  fantastic  scroll,  called  the  jardin  de  FOie  (goose-garden), 
divided  into  63  spaces  marked  with  certain  emblems,  such  as 
dice,  an  inn,  a  bridge,  a  Ubyrinth,  &c.  The  emblem  inscribed  on 
I  and  63,  as  weH  as  every  ninth  space  between,  was  a  goose. 
The  object  was  to  land  one's  counter  in  number  63,  the  number 
of  spaces  moved  through  being  determined  by  throwing  two 
dice.  The  counter  was  advanced  or  retired  according  to  the  space 
on  which  it  was  placed.  For  instance  if  it  rested  on  the  inn  it 
must  remain  there  until  each  adversary,  of  which  there  might 
be  several,  had  played  twice;  if  it  rested  on  the  deaik's  head 
the  player  m'ust  begin  over  again;  if  it  went  beyond  63  it  must 
be  retired  a  certain  number  of  q>aces.  The  game  was  usually 
played  for  a  stake,  and  tpedal  fines  were  exacted  for  resting  on 
certain  spaces.  At  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  a  variation  of 
(he  game  was  called  they«fi  de  la  JUpolution  Fran^ise. 

GOOSBBBRBY,  Riba  Grossularia,  a  well-known  fruit-bush 
of  northern  and  central  Europe,  placed  in  the  same  genus  of 
the  natural  order  to  which  it  gives  name  (Ribesiaceae)  as  the 
closely  allied  currants.  It  forms  a  distinct  'section  Grossularia, 
the  members  of  which  differ  from  the  true  currents  chiefly  in 
their  ^Mnous  stems,  and  in  their  flowers  growing  on  short  foot- 
stalks, solitary,  or  two  or  three  together,  instead  of  in  racemes. 

The  wild  gooseberry  is  a  small,  straggling  bush,  nearly  re- 
sembling the  cultivated  plant,— the  branches  being  thickly 
set  with  sharp  spines,  standing  out  singly  or  in  diverging  tufts 
of  two  or  three  from  the  bases  of  the  short  spurs  or  Uieral  leaf 
shoots,  on  which  the  bell-shaped  flowers  arc  produced,  singly 
or  in  pairs,  from  the  groups  of  rounded,  deeply-crenated  y  or  5- 
Wwd  leavca.    The  fruit  is  smaller  than  in  the  garden  kinds. 


2+3 

but  is  often  of  good  flavour;  it  b  generally  hairy,  but  in  one 
variety  smooth,  constituting  the  R.  Uvarcrispa  of  writers;  the 
colour  is  usually  green,  but  plants  are  occasionally  met  with 
having  deep  purple  berries.  The  gooseberry  is  indigenous  in 
Europe  and  western  Asia,  growing  nattirally  in  alpine  thickets 
and  rocky  woods  in  the  lower  (tountry,  from  France  eastward, 
perhaps  as  far  as  the  Himalaya.  In  Britain  it  is  often  fotmd  in 
copses  and  hedgerows  and  about  old  ruins,  but  has  been  so  long 
a  plant  of  cultivation  that  it  is  difficult  to  decide  upon  its  daim 
to  a  pUce  in  the  native  flora  of  the  island.  Common  as  it  Is  now 
on  some  of  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Alps  of  Piedmont  and  Savoy, 
it  is  uncertain  whether  the  Romans  were  acquainted  with  the 
gooseberry,  though  it  may  possibly  be  alluded  to  in  a  vague 
passage  of  Pliny:  the  hot  summers  of  Italy,  in  andent  times  as 
at  present,  would  be  unfavourable  to  its  cultivation.  Abundant 
in  Germany  and  France,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  much 
grown  there  in  the  middle  ages,  though  the  wild  fruit  was  held 
in  some  esteem  medicinally  for  the  cooling  properties  of  its  add 
juice  in  fevers;  while  the  old  EngUsh  name,  Fea^berry,  still 
surviving  in  some  provincial  dialects,  indicates  that  it  was 
similarly  valued  in  Britain,  where  it  was  planted  in  gardens 
at  a  comparatively  early  period.  William  Turner  describes  the 
gooseberry  in  his  Herball,  written  about  the  middle  of  the  x6th 
century,  and  a  few  years  Uter  it  is  mentioned  in  one  of  Thomas 
Tusser's  quaint  rhymes  as  an  ordinary  object  of  garden  culture. 
Improved  varieties  were  probably  first  raised  by  the  skilful 
gardeners  of  Holland,  whose  name  for  the  fruit,  KnUsbene,  may 
have  been  easily  corrupted  into  the  present  En|^h  vernacular 
word.^  Towards  the  end  of  the  z8th  century  the  gooseberry 
became  a  favourite  object  of  cottage-horticulture,  especially  in 
Lancashire,  where  the  working  cotton-apinners  have  raised 
numerous  varieties  from  seed,  their  efforts  having  been  chiefly 
directed  to  increasing  the  size  of  the  fruit.  Of  the  many  hundred 
sorts  enumerated  in  recent  horticultural  works,  few  perhaps  equal 
in  flavour  some  of  the  older  denizens  of  the  fruit-garden,  such 
as  the  "  old  rough  red  "  and  "  hairy  amber."  The  climate  of 
the  British  Islands  seems  peculiarly  adapted  to  bring  the  goose- 
berry to  perfection,  and  it  may  be  grown  successfully  even  in 
the  most  northern  parts  of  Scotland;  indeed,  the  flavour  of  the 
fruit  b  said  to  improve  with  increaung  latitude.  In  Norway 
even,  the  bush  flourishes  in  gardens  on  the  west  coast  nearly  up 
to  the  Arctic  drde,  and  it  is  found  wild  as  far  north  as  63*. 
The  dry  sununers  of  the  French  and  German  plains  are  less 
suited  to  it,  though  it  is  grown  in  some  hilly  districts  with  tolerable 
success.  Ilie  gooseberry  in  the  south  of  Enghmd  will  grow  well 
in  cool  situations,  and  may  be  sometimes  seen  in  gardens  near 
London  flourishing  under  the  partial  shade  of  apple  trees;  but 
in  the  north  it  needs  full  exposure  to  the  sun  to  bring  the  fruit 
to  perfection.  It  will  succeed  in  almost  any  soil,  but  prefers  a 
rich  loam  or  black  alluvium,  and,  though  naturally  a  plant  of 
rather  dry  places,  will  do  well  in  moist  land,  if  drained. 

The  varieties  are  most  easily  propagated  by  cuttings  planted 
in  the  autumn,  which  root  rapidly,  and  in  a  few  years  form 
good  fruit-bearing  bushes.  Much  difference  of  opinion  prevails 
regarding  the  mode  of  pruning  this  valuable  shrub;  it  is  probable 
that  in  different  situations  it  may  require  varying  treatment. 
The  fruit  bdng  borne  on  the  lateral  spurs,  and  on  the  shoots  of 
the  last  year,  it  is  the  usual  practice  to  shorten  the  side  branches 
in  the  winter,  before  the  buds  begin  to  expand;  some  reduce  the 
longer  leading  shoots  at  the  same  time,  while  others  prefer  to 
nip  off  the  ends  of  these  in  the  summer  while  they  are  still 

>  The  first  part  of  the  word  has  been  usually  treated  as  an  ety- 
mological corruption  dther  of  this  Dutch  word  or  the  allied  Ger. 
Krausbeere^  or  of  the  eariier  forms  of  the  Fr.  groMoiUe.  The  New 
English  Dictionary  takes  the  obvious  derivation  from  "  goose  "  and 
"  berry  "  as  probable;  "  the  grounds  on  which  plants  and  fruits 
have  reedved  names  aawdating  them  with  animals  are  so  commonlv 
Inexplicable,  that  the  want  of  appropriateness  in  the  meaning  affonb 
no  sufficient  ground  for  assuming  that  the  word  is  an  etymolofftzim; 
corruption."  Skeat  (Etym.  Diet.,  i9^)  connects  the  French,  Dutch 
and  German  words,  and  finds  the  origin  in  the  M.H.G.  hrus,  cuning. 
crispcdt  applied  here  to  the  hairs  on  the  fruit.  The  French  word 
was  latiniwd  as  g^otsnloHa  and  confused  with  froMiu,  thick,  fat^ 


2++ 


GOOSEBERRY 


iiKculenL  When  lufe  Inilt  ii  dojred,  plenty  of 
be  auppUed  te  (lie  roeti,  tjti  Ihe  graier  ponioD  oF  the  bemca 
picked  off  while  SIHI  imall.  If  lUncUidi  ue  doired,  the  gooee' 
berry  nuy  be  with  edvutige  gnlted  or  budded  on  stoeki  of 
■omc  other  qMciet  of  Xibes.  R.  avrum.  the  omuncntil  golden 
cuTrmI  of  [he  flower  gudcn,  uiswcrin;  well  lor  the  puipoee.  ^e 
guDt  foovebeiriei  of  the  Lance  shire  "  (uden  "  Are  obtained 
by  the  cuelul  culture  of  vuielia  qKciafly  railed  with  Ibii 
object,  Oie  growth  being  encouraged  by  abundant  muuiing,  and 
the  teraova]  of  all  but  a  very  few  berries  from  each  pLanl^  Single 
gDOMberriei  of  neatly  i  «.  In  weight  have  been  occuieniUy 
eihibiied;  but  the  produce  of  luch  findful  horticullim  ii 
generally  iniipid.  The  buibet  at  tima  lufler  much  ftom  the 
nvagei  of  the  caUtpiUan  of  Ibe  gooaebetry  or  magpie  math. 
Abrojej  pojsidariaiaj  which  often  atrip  the  bnnchea  of  leave* 
in  the  early  lummet,  if  ooc  dstroycd  before  the  miiduef  ii 
accuniplifhed.    The  moat  eHecIual  way  of  getting  ri(' 


irefully, 


and  pick  oB  the  larvae  by  hand;  when  Uigci  Ibey  may  be 
thaken  oS  by  linking  the  branches,  but  by  that  time  the  harm 
ft  generally  done— the  eg^  ate  laid  on  the  leaves  of  the  previous 
Kuon.  Equally  annoying  in  some  yean  ii  the  smaller  kiva 
of  the  V-moth,  Haliat  Hiuna,  which  often  appean  in  great 
numben,  and  It  not  »  teadily  lemoved.  The  gooiebetiy  is 
•omelimci  attacked  by  the  grub  of  the  gooaebeny  uw9y, 
NimatHj  Hiaii,  of  which  Kvenl  bioodt  appear  in  the  coutie  of 
the  spring  and  summer,  and  are  very  deetructive.  The  gruba 
bury  themselves  in  the  ground  to  pais  into  the  pupal  state; 
the  Gist  brood  of  flies,  hatched  juit  as  Ihe  bushes  iire  coming  into 
leaf  in  the  spring,  lay  theii  eggs  on  the  lower  side  of  ibc  leaves, 
where  the  small  greemsh  larvse  soon  after  emerge.  For  the 
destruction  of  the  first  bnuds  It  has  been  recommended  to  tytinge 
tbe  buihei  with  tar-water;  perhapi  a  very  weak  solution  of 

of  while  bcUebore  is  said  to  destroy  both  this  grub  and  the 
csterpillara  of  the  gooeebetry  moth  and  V-molh;  infusion  of 
foiglove.  and  tobacco-watet,  are  likewiae  tried  by  aome  growers. 
If  the  fallen  leaves  are  carefully  removed  from  the  ground  in  the 
aulunm  and  burnt,  and  Ihe  surface  of  the  soil  turned  overwlth 
the  fork  or  spade,  moat  egga  and  chrysalids  will  be  destnjycd. 

The  gooseberry  was  introduced  into  tlu  United  States  by  the 
early  settlers,  and  in  tome  parts  ol  New  England  large  quantities 
of  tbe  green  fmit  are  produced  and  sold  for  culinary  use  in  tbe 
towns;  but  tbe  eiceaaive  heat  of  the  American  summer  it  not 
adapted  for  the  healthy  maturation  of  the  beniei,  especially  of 
(he  English  varieties.  Perhaps  if  some  of  Eheae,  or  those  raised 
in  the  country,  could  be  crossed  with  one  of  the  indigenous 
species,  kinds  might  be  obttlDed  better  fitted  for  American 
coodiUou  of  culture,  although  Ibe  gooaeberry  docs  not  readily 
hybridiic.  Tin  altackt  of  tbe  Americas  gooseberry  mildew 
■      e  la^y 


n  cup*    with    while 
J  torn    edgea    dus- 

lAicStim  Cnuuiarm.)  ih   iZT  fci  i 

t,  Leaf  ihowina  patches  of  duiter-^u«  on  /c^     ,t      *,    k.. 

,u,/a«;  s.  FnJl.  itawi>«  same;  3.  ClSief.  W,"'"    "    ™ 

cups  much  enlarged.  recen^  been  dts- 

spores  conlained  in  thoe  cupa  will  not  reprodnce  Ihe  disease  on 
Ibe  gooaebeny,  bot  infect  speciea  of  Cara  (sedges)  on  which 
they  produce  a  fungus  of  ■  loUUy  difl ~      '~'~ 


riiaiftrti  and 

on  tbe  sedge  and  the 
latter  live  through  the 
winter  and  produce  the 

berry  in  tbe  succwimg 


IgiSaJ.  'i^ilSSn^ 


..1  GoosebeiTyM  Ddew(»ta(r. 

^- ,.    Plant  with  kavea  and  Iniil 

,    ,        ,    attacked  by  Ibe  fungoa. 
covered    by    the  .         — . 

cobweb-like  mycelium,  the  attack  frequently  loultins  In  the 
of  Ihe  abont*  and  tlie  dentuctian  of  the  IruiU.    After  a 


GOOTY— GORAKHPUR 


HS 


time  tlie  myodiam  beoomet  rusty  brown  and  pnduoet  tlie 
viatcr  fonn  of  the  fungus.  Thxough  tlie  winter  the  shoots 
are  covcicd  thickly  with  the  brown  mycelium  and  in  the  spring 
tbe  wpom  contained  in  the  peritheda  germinate  and  start  the 
infection  anew,  as  in  the  case  of  the  European  mildew.  This 
fungus  has  recently  been  the  subject  of  legislation,  and  when  it 
appears  in  a  district  strong  rq>res8ive  measures  are  called  for. 
In  bad  cases  the  attacked  bushes  should  be  destroyed,  while  in 
milder  attacks  frequent  spraying  with  potassium  sulphide  and 
the  pruning  off  and  immediate  destruction  by  fire  of  all  the 
young  shoots  showing  the  mildew  should  be  resorted  to. 

The  gooseberry,  when  ripe,  yields  a  fine  wine  by  the  fermenta- 
tion of  the  juioe  with  water  and  sugar,  the  resulting  sparkling 
liquor  retaining  much  of  the  flavour  of  the  fruit.  By  similarly 
treating  the  juice  of  the  green  fruit,  picked  just  before  it  ripens, 
an  effervescing  wine  is  produced,  nearly  resembling  some  kinds 
of  diimpagnf,  and,  when  skilfully  prepared,  far  superior  to 


Ffeo.  31. — irFractificatioo  (ferUktdmm)  burrtiag.  ascos  containing 
ORs  pfotmoing;  a.  Aacns  with  spocei  more  highly  magniiied. 


iBiich  of  the  Kquor  told  under  that  name.  Brandy  has  been 
made  from  ripe  goosd>enies  by  distillation;  1:^  exposing  the 
juke  with  sugar  to  the  acetous  fermentation  a  good  vinegar 
may  be  obtained.  The  gooseberry,  when  perfectly  ripe,  contains 
a  large  <)uantity  of  sugar,  most  abundant  in  the  red  and  amber 
varittics;  in  the  former  it  amounts  to  from  6  to  upwards  of 
8%.    Tbe  acidity  of  the  fruit  is  chiefly  due* to  maUc  add. 

Several  other  spedca  of  the  sub-genus  produce  edible  fruit, 
tboogh  none 'have  as  yet  been  brought  under  economic  culture. 
Among  them  may  be  noticed  R.  pxyacanthaidet  and  R.  Cynosbati, 
abundant-  in  Canada  and  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States, 
and  ML  tradU,  common  afeng  the  Allei^uuiy  range.  The 
group  is  a  widdy  distributed  one  in  the  north  temperate  xone, — 
one  species  is  fouiul  in  Europe  extending  to  the  Caucasus  and 
North  Africa  (Atlas  Mountains),  five  occur  in  Asia  and  nineteen 
in  North  America,  the  range  extending  southwards  to  Mexico 
and  Guatemala. 

GOCftfp  a  town  and  hiU  fortress  in  southern  India,  in  the 
Anantapur  district  of  Madras,  48  m.  E.  of  Bellary.  Pop.  (1901) 
96BS.  The  town  if  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  rocky  hills,  connected 
by  a  mlL  On  the  highest  of  these  stands  the  dtadel,  aioo  ft. 
»baf¥9  sca-levd  and  1000  ft.  above  the  surrounding  country. 
Here  waa  the  stronghold  of  Morarf  Rao  Ghorpade,  a  famous 
Mahiatta  warrior  and  ally  of  the  En^^Jsh,  who  was  ultimately 
starred  into  surrender  by  Hayder  Alt  in  177$. 

eOnOR  (Testwdo  pdypkemus),  the  only  living  reprelenUtive 
on  tbe  North  American  continent  of  the  genus  T^stmdo  of  the 
fafflSty  Tfdtdiiiidait  or  land  tortoises;  it  occurp  in  the  south- 
eastern parU  of  the  United  Sutes,  from  Fkrida  in  the  south  to 
the  river  Savannah  in  the  north.  Its  carapace,  which  is  oblong 
and  remarkably  compressed,  measures  from  ia-z8  in.  in  extreme 
length,  the  shields  which  cover  it  being  grooved,  and  of  ayeUow- 
brown  ookntr.  It  is  characterised  by  the  shape  of  the  front  lobe 
of  the  plastron,  which  is  bent  upwards  and  extends  beyond  the 
carapace.  The  gopher  abounds  chiefly  in  tl^e  forests,  but 
occasionally  visiu  the  open  plains,  where  it  docs  great  damage, 
especially  to  the  potato  crops,  on  which  it  feeds.  It  is  a  nocturnal 
animal,  remaining  concealed  by  day  in  its  deep  burrow,  and 
;  forth  at  night  to  feed.    The  eggs,  five  in  numbv ,  almost 


round  and  z|  in.  in  diameter,  afe  laid  in  a  separate  cavity  near 
the  entrance.  The  flesh  of  the  gopher  or  mungofa,  as  it  is  also 
called,  is  considered  excellent  eating. 

The  name  "gopher"  is  more  commonly  applied  to  certain 
small  rodent  mammsh,  particularly  the  pocket-gopher. 

GOPPIVQBN.  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  WOrttem- 
berg,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Fils,  as  m.  E.S.E.  of  Stuttgart  on 
the  railway  to  Friedrichshafen.  Pop.  (1905)  90,87a  It  possesses 
a  castle  bidlt,  partly  with  stones  from  the  ndned  casUe  of  Hohen- 
staufen,  by  Duke  Qiristopher  of  WOrttemberg  in  the  i6th  century 
and  now  used  as  public  offices,  two  Evangelical  churches,  a 
Roman  Catholic  church,  a  synagogue,  a  clsMJral  school,  and  a 
modem  school.  The  manufactures  are  considerable  and  indude 
linen  and  woollen  doth,  leather,  ^ue,  pi4>er  and  toys.  There  are 
msrhinr  shops  and  tanneries  in  the  town.  Three  m.  N.  of  the 
town  are  the  ruins  of  the  casde  of  Hohenstaufen.  G0ppingen 
originally  belonged  to  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  and  in  1270 
came  into  possession  of  the  counts  of  Wttrttemberg.  It  was 
surrounded  by  walls  in  1 1  ig,  and  was  almost  entirdy  rebuilt  after 
a  fire  in  1783. 

See  Pfdffer,  BudkivAiMC  and  Ctkkkkk  dtr  Stadi  Cdppimim 
(i8«5). 

QORAKHPUR.  a  dty,  district  and  division  of  the  United 
Provinces  of  British  India.  The  dty  is  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  river  RaptL  Pop.  (1901)  64,148.  It  is  bdieved  to  have 
been  founded  about  1400  .aj>.  It  is  the  dvil  headquarters  of  the 
district  and  was  formeriy  a  militaxy  cantonment.  It  consists  of 
a  number  of  adjacent  village  sites,  sometimes  separated  by 
cultivated  land,  and  most  of  the  inhabitants  are  agriculturists. 

The  DxsntiCT  or  GoBAXHPua  has  an  area  of  453$  >q<  m*  It 
lies  immediatdy  south  of  the  lower  Himalayan  slopes,  but  itself 
forms  a  portion  of  the  great  alluvial  plain.  Only  a  few  ssnHhills 
break  the  monotony  of  its  levd  surface.  Which  is,  however,  inter- 
sected by  numerous  rivers  studded  with  bdces  and  marshes.  In 
the  north  and  centre  dense  forests  abound,  and  the  whole  country 
has  a  verdant  appearance.  The  prindpsl  rivers  are  the  Raptl, 
the  Gogra,  the  Gandak  and  Little  Gandak,  the  Kuana,  the  Rohin, 
the  Ami  and  the  GunghL  Tigers  are  found  in  the  north,  and 
many  other  wild  animals  abound  throughout  the  district.  The 
lakes  are  well  stocked  with  fish.  The  district  is  not  subject  to 
very  intense  heat,  from  which  it  is  secured  by  its  vicinity  to  the 
hills  and  the  moisture  of  its  soiL  Dust-storms  are  rare,  and  cool 
breeaes  from  the  north,  rushing  down  the  gorges  of  tbe  Himalayas, 
succeed  each  short  interval  of  warm  weather.  The  climate  is, 
however,  relaxing.  Ihe  southern  and  eastern  portions  are  as 
healthy  as  most  parts  of  the  province,  but  the  tarai  and  forest- 
tracts  are  still  subject  to  malaria. 

Gautama  Buddha,  the  founder  of  the  rdigion  bearing  his  name, 
was  bom,  and  died  near  the  boundaries  of  the  district.  From  the 
beginning  of  the  6th  century  the  country  was  the  scene  of  a  con- 
tinuous struggle  between  the  Bhars  and  thdr  Aryan  antagonists, 
the  Rathors.  About  900  the  Domhatars  or  military  Brahmans 
a|^>eared,  and  expelled  the  Rathors  from  the  town  of  Gorakbpur, 
but  they  also  were  soon  driven  back  by  other  invaders.  During 
the  15th  aAd  i6th  centuries,  after  the  district  had  been  desoUted 
by  incessant  war,  the  descendants  of  the  various  conquerors  held 
parts  of  the  territory,  and  eadi  seems  to  have  lived  quite  isolated, 
as  no  bridges  or  roads  attest  any  intercourse  with  each  other. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  x6th  century  Mussulmans  occupied 
Gorakbpur  town,  but  they  interfered  very  little  with  the  district, 
and  allowed  it  to  be  controlled  by  the  native  rajas.  In  the 
middle  of  the  i8th  century  a  formidable  foe,  the  Banjaras  from  the 
west,  so  weakened  the  power  of  the  rajas  that  they  could  not  resist 
the  fiscal  exactions  of  the  Oudb  officials,  who  plundered  the 
country  to  a  great  extent.  The  district  formed  part  of  the 
territory  ceded  by  Oudh  to  the  British  under  the  treaty  of  x8ox. 
During  the  Mutiny  it  was  lost  for  a  short  time,  but  under  the 
friendly  Gurkhi|s  the  rebels  were  driven  out.  Tbe  population  in 
190X  was  9,957,074,  showing  a  decrease  of  3%  in  the  decade. 
The  district  is  traversed  by  the  main  line  and  several  branches  of 
the  Bengal  &  North-Westem  railway,  and  the  Gandak,  the  Gogra 
and  the  Rapti  are  navigable. 


246 


GORAL— GORCHAKOV 


The  DivmOH  hu  u  ana  e(  9534  iq.  m.  The  population  [a 
1901  wu  6,333^13,  Ovinias  BVentB  dnait)'  o(  66(  penom  per 
iq.  m.,  beiDg  more  llian  one  10  every  acre,  ami  the  hifheU  for 
any  Urge  tiact  in  India. 

SOHAL,  the  native  name  of  a  unall  HlmaUyaa  rough-haiied 
andcylindncal-honied  rumliuat  duMd  inlheume  group  as  the 
dumoLi.  Sdenti£ciiUy  Uiii  loimal  it  knawn  ai  Urolrapa  (or 
Cnui)  fsrsJ;  and  tbi  Dative  oitna  i>  now  empbyed  ai  the 
detignitioD  oi  all  the  other  members  of  the  same  genua.  In 
addition  10  certain  peculiarities  in  the  form  of  the  skull,  gorals 
are  cliiBfly  diitinguiihed  from  serowi  (;.c.)  by  not  paiaeaiing  a 
l^nd  below  the  eye,  nor  a  comspondiog  deprtuioa  in  the  akulL 
Several  ipeda  are  known,  ranging  Irom  the  Hiroalaya  to  Burma, 
Hbet  and  North  China.  01  these,  the  two  Uimilayan  gorali 
W.foltai  (/.  M/drdi)  are  usually  found  (a  anull  parties,  but 
less  tonunonly  in  pain.  They  genenlly  frequent  grassy  hills,  or 
rocky  ground  clothed  with  foletl;  in  fine  weather  Feeding  imly 
In  the  momingi  and  evening,  but  «hen  the  sky  is  cloudy  graaing 
throughout  tlK  day. 

DORAMT.  or  GouUHY  (pitkramantt  llfax),  reputed  to  be  one 
of  the  best-flavoured  (reihwaler  fishes  m  the  East  Indian  archi- 
pelago, lis  original  home  is  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo  and  several 
other  East  Indian  islands,  but  thence  it  has  been  transported  to 
and  acclimatised  in  Fcnang,  MsUcci,  Mtiiritios  and  even 
Cayame.    Beinganalmostomnivorousfijh  and  trnadous  of  life. 


It  Mems  to  recomniend  itself  particularly  for  acclimatlation  in 
Dtfaei  Uopicil  countries;  and  spednuns  kept  in  capiiviiy  become 
as  tame  u  carps.  It  attains  the  size  of  a  large  turbot.  Its 
shape  is  ftat  and  short,  the  body  covered  wifh  luge  scales;  the 
dorsal  and  anal  Gas  are  provided  with  numerous  spines,  and 
the  ventral  fins  produced  into  long  fllanenta.  Like  AHoiai, 
the  dimbiiK  pe^:A.  it  pa«sesies  t  auprabranchial  accessory 
reqnratory  organ. 

OOltBBBSDOBF,  ■  village  and  climatic  health  resort  of 
Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Sitesia,  romantically 
siiuaicd  in  a  deep  and  well-wooded  valley  of  tbe  Waldenburg 
range,  1900  ft.  above  the  sea,  60  m,  S.W.  of  Brtslau  by  the 
railway  to  Friedland  and  3  m.  from  the  Austrian  [rootier.  Pop. 
It  has  lour  large  sanatoria  (or  consumptives,  the  earliest  of 
which  was  founded  in  i&st  by  Hemunn  Brehmer  (iHl6-rS«g). 

OOBBODUC.  n  mythical  king  of  Biilain.    He  gave  his  kingdom 

he  two  quarrelled  and  the  younger  stabbed  the  elder.  Their 
Lother,  loving  the  latter  most,  avenged  his  death  bymurd^ng 
n  son,  and  tbe  people,  horri£ed  at  her  act,  revolled  and 
Lurder«l  both  her  and  King  Gorboduc  This  legend  was  the 
ibject  of  the  earliest  regular  English  tragedy  which  in  1561 
as  played  before  Queen  Elizabeth  in  the  Inner  Temple  hall. 
1  was  written  by  Thomas  Sackville,  Lord  Buckhurst  and 
Thomas  Norton  in  collaboration.    Under  the  title  of  CarMia  it 

r*e  Ttattdy  of  Fotcx  and  Porrei  in  ijjo, 

OORCHAKOT,  or  GoiTcauorr,  a  noble  Russian  family, 
descended  from  Michael  Vsevolodovich,  prince  of  Chernigov, 
who,  in  1)46,  was  assassinated  by  the  MoDgols.  PaiHC£  Ahduv 
IvAMOVICH  (176S-185J),  general  In  Ibc  Rusuan  army,  took  a 
conspicuous  part  in  the  final  campsigtia  against  Napoleon. 
AlGUKDU  ivAMOvicx  (17(19-181])   Served  with  distinction 


under  his  relative  Suvuov  hi  the  Turkish  Wan,  and  look  part 
as  a  general  officer  in  Ibe  Italian  and  Swiss  opentiona  ol  i7m, 
and  in  the  war  against  Napoleon  in  Poland  in  1806-1807  (battle 
ol  Heilsberg).  Piia  Dmitiievich  (■790-1868)  served  under 
Kamenski  and  Euliuov  in  the  campaign  against  TuiLey,  and 
afterwards  against  France  in  iSij-1814.  In  i8»he  suppressed 
an  insurrection  in  the  Caucasus,  for  which  service  he  was  tailed 
Lo  the  rank  of  maJor-gencraL  In  1818-1S39  be  fought  under 
Wittgenstein  against  the  Turks,  won  an  action  at  Aides,  and 
signed  the  treaty  of  peace  at  Adrianoplc.  In  1839  he  was  made 
governor  of  Eastern  Siberia,  and  In  1851  retired  into  private 
life.  When  the  Crimean  War  broke  out  be  ofleied  his  services 
to  the  emperor  Nicholas,  by  whom  be  wa*  appointed  general  <A 
the  VI.  army  corps  in  the  Crimea.  He  conunaadcd  the  aups 
in  the  battles  ol  Alma  and  Inkerman.  He  retired  in  i8jj  and 
died  at  Moscow,  on  the  iSth  of  March  iBAa. 

PuHCE  MiKBiii.  DuTKiEVica  (i7gs-iS6i),  brotha  of  the 
■  took  part 


L  the  c 


1,  and  ia  I8I^ 


ring  the  Ruaso-Turkish  War  of  igiS-iSiq 
he  was  present  at  the  ucges  of  Siliatria  and  Shumla.  Alter 
being  aupointed,  in  1&30,  a  general  officer,  he  was  present  in  the 
campaign  in  Poland,  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Grochow, 
on  the  35th  of  February  iSji.  He  also  distinguished  himsclt 
at  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka  and  at  the  taking  of  Vanaw.  For 
these  services  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  ol  lieutenant-gencnL 
In  1846  he  was  nominated  mOitaiy  governor  ol  Wanaw.  In 
1S40  he  commanded  the  Russian  artillery  in  the  war  against  the 

ol  the  Russian  army  at  the  funeral  of  the  duke  ol'n 
At  this  time  he  was  chief  of  the  stall  of  the  Russian  army  aiul 
adju[ant.geDera]  to  the  tsar.  Upon  Rusaia  declaring  war 
against  Turkey  in  1853,  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chiel 
ol  the  troops  which  occufded  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  In  1854 
he  crossed  the  Danube  and  besieged  Silistria,  but  was  nipeiseded 
in  April  by  Prince  Faskevich,  who,  however,  resigned  on  the  Sth 
ol  June,  when  Gorchakov  resumed  the  command.    In  July 

the  Danube;  in  August  they  withdrew  to  Russia.    In  iSjj  he 

Crimea  in  place  of  Prince  Menshikov.  Corchakov's  defence  of 
Sevaslopd,  and  final  retreat  to  the  northern  part  of  tbe  town, 
which  he  continued  to  defend  till  peace  was  signed  b  Pans,  were 
conducted  with  skill  and  energy.  In  i8j6  be  was  appwnlcd 
governor-general  ol  Poland  in  succession  to  Prince  Paakevich. 
He  died  at  Wanaw  on  the  30th  ol  May  1861.  and  was  buried. 

Prince  GoacnAicov,  AuxtmEt  Hikhailovicd  {179S-1SS]), 
Russian  itilesman,  cousinof  Princes  Petr  and  Mikhail  Gorchakov, 
was  bom  on  the  i6lh  of  July  i;qS,  and  was  educated  at  the 
lyceum  of  Tsarskoye  Selo,  where  he  had  the  poet  Pushkin  as  a 
school-fellow.  He  became  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  leamt 
toapeakandwrile  in  French  with  facility  and  elegance-  Pusbkin 
in  one  of  his  poems  described  young  Gorchakov  as  "  Fortune's 
favoured  son,"  and  predicted  his  success.  On  leaving  tbe  lycrum 
Gorchakov  entered  the  foreign  office  under  Count  Nesseliodc. 
His  first  diplomatic  work  of  importance  was  tbe  negotiation  ol  a 
marriage  between  the  grand  ducheis  Olga  and  the  crown  prince 
Charles  ol  WUrtlemberg.  He  lemaloed  at  Stuttgart  for  some 
yean  as  Russian  minister  and  confidential  advisei  of  the  crawn 
princess.  He  foretold  the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary  qxriC 
in  Germany  and  Austria,  and  was  credited  with  counselling  Ibe 
abdication  of  Ferdinand  in  favour  of  Frands  Joseph.  When  tbe 
German  confederation  was  re-established  in  1850  in  plaa  of  the 
parliament  of  Frankfort,  Gorchakov  waa  apptnnted  Rassiaa 
nunlstel  to  tbe  diet.  It  was  here  that  he  first  met  Prince 
Bismarck,  with  whom  he  formed  a  Friendship  which  was  after- 
wards renewed  at  St  Petersburg.  The  emperor  NicfaoUs  found 
that  bb  ambassador  at  Vienna,  Baron  Meyendotfl.  was  not  a 
sympathetic  instrument  for  carrying  out  his  schemes  in  tbe  East. 
He  therelore  translened  Gorchakov  to  Vienna,  where  Ibe  tatter 
nnuincd  through  the  critical  period  of  tbe  Crimean  War. 


GORDIAN— GORDIUM 


H7 


Corchakov  perceived  Uiat  Rusaian  designs  against  Turkey, 
supported  by  Great  Britain  and  France,  were  impracticable, 
and  he  counselled  Russia  to  make  no  more  useless  sacrifices, 
but  to  accept  the  bases  of  a  pacification.  At  the  same  time, 
although  he  attended  the  Paris  conference  of  1856,  he  purposely 
abstained  from  affixing  his  signature  to  the  treaty  of  peace  after 
that  of  Count  Orlov,  Russia's  chief  representative.  For  the  time, 
however,  he  made  a  virtue  of  necessity,  and  Alexander  II., 
recognizing  the  wi^om  and  courage  which  Gorchakov  had 
exhibited,  appointed  him  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  place  of 
Count  Neaselrode.  Not  long  after  his  accession  to  office  Gorcha- 
kov issued  a  circular  to  the  foreign  powers,  in  which  he  announced 
that  Russia  proposed,  for  internal  reasons,  to  keep  herself  as 
free  as  possible  from  complications  abroad,  and  he  added  the 
now  historic  phrase,*"  La  Russie  ne  houde  pas;  eUe  se  recueiUe." 
During  the  Polish  insurrection  Gorchakov  rebuffed  the  sugges- 
tions of  Great  Britain,  Austria  and  France  for  assuaging  the 
severities  employed  in  quelling  it,  and  he  was  especially  acrid 
in  his  replies  to  fiarl  Russell's  despatches.  In  July  1863 
Gorchakov  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  Russian  empire 
expressly  in  reward  for  his  bold  diplomatic  attitude  towards  an 
indignant  Europe.  The  appointment  was  hailed  with  enthusiasm 
in  Russia,  and  at  that  jimcture  Prince  Chancellor  Gorchakov 
was  unquestionably  the  most  powerful  minister  in  Europe. 

An  approchemenl  now  began  between  the  courts  of  Russia  and 
Prussia;  and  .in  1863  Gorchakov  smoothed  the  way  for  the 
occupation  of  Hol&tein  by  the  Federal  troops.  This  seemed 
equally  favourable  to  Austria  and  Prussia,  but  it  was  the  latter 
power  which  gained  all  the  substantial  advantages;  and  when 
the  conffict  arose  between  Austria  and  Prussia  in  x866,  Russia 
remained  neutral  and  permitted  Prussia  to  reap  the  fruits  and 
establish  her  supremacy  in  Germany.  When  the  Franco-German 
War  of  1870-71  broke  out  Russia  answered  for  the  neutrality 
of  Austria.  An  attempt  was  made  to  form  an  anti-Prussian 
coalition,  but  it  failed  in  consequence  of  the  cordial  understanding 
between  the  German  and  RUssian  chancellors.  In  return  for 
Rtusia's  service  in  preventing  the  aid  of  Austria  from  being 
given  to  France,  Gorchakov  looked  to  Bismarck  for  diplomatic 
support  in  the  Eastern  Question,  and  he  received  an  instalment 
of  the  expected  support  when  he  successfully  denoi&ced  the 
Black  Sea  clauses  of  the  treaty  of  Paris.  This  was  justly  regarded 
by  him  as  an  important  service  to  his  country  and  one  of  the 
triumphs  of  Jiis  career,  and  he  hoped  to  obtain  further  successes 
with  the  assistance  of  Germany,  but  the  cordial  relations  between 
the  cabinets  of  St  Petersburg  and  Berlin  did  not  subsist  much 
kmger.  In  1875  Bismarck  was  suspected  of  a  design  of  again 
attacking  France,  and  Gorchakov  gave  him  to  understand,  in  a 
way  which  was  not  meant  to  be  offensive,  but  which  roused  the 
German  chancellor's  indignation,  that  Russia  would  oppose  any 
such  scheme.  The  tension  thus  produced  between  the  two 
statesmen  was  increased  by  the  political  complications  of  1875- 
1878  in  south-eastern  Europe,  which  began  with  the  Herze- 
fovinian  insurrection  and  culminated  at  the  Berlin  congress. 
Gorchakov  hoped  to  utilize  the  complications  in  such  a  way  as 
to  recover,  without  war,  the  portion  of  Bessarabia  ceded  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  but  he  soon  lost  control  of  events,  and  the 
Slavophil  agitation  produced  the  Russo-Turkish  campaign  of 
1877*78.  By  the  preliminary  peace  of  San  Stefano  the 
Sla^>phi]  aspirations  seemed  to  be  realized,  but  the  stipulations 
of  that  peace  were  considerably  modified  by  the  congress  of 
Berlin  (x3tb  June  to  X3th  July  1878),  at  which  the  aged  chancellor 
held  nominally  the  post  of  first  plenipotentiary,  but  left  to  the 
secood  i^enipotentiary.  Count  Shuvalov,  not  only  the  task  of 
defending  Russian  interests,  but  also  the  responsibility  and 
odium  for  the  concessions  which  Russia  had  to  make  to  Great 
Britain  and  Austria.  He  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  lost 
portion  of  Bessarabia  restored  to  his  country  by  the  Berlin 
treaty,  but  at  the  cost  of  greater  sacrifices  than  he  antidpated. 
After  the  congress  he  continued  to  hold  the  post  of  minister  for 
foreign  affairs,  but  lived  chiefly  abroad,  and  resigned  formally  in 
t88i,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  M.  de  Giera.  He  died  at  Baden- 
Baden  on  the  xxth  ol  March  1883.    Prince  Gorchakov  devoted 


himself  entirely  to  foreign  affairs,  and  took  no  part  in  the  great 
internal  x-eforms  of  Alexander  II.'s  reign.  As  a  diplomatist  he 
displayed  many  brilliant  qualities — adroitness  in  negotiation, 
incisiveness  in  argument  and  elegance  in  style.  His  statesman- 
ship, though  marred  occasionally  by  personal  vanity  and  love 
of  popular  applause,  was  far-seeing  and  prudent.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  career  his  main  object  was  to  raise  the  prestige  of 
Russia  by  undoing  the  results  of  the  Crimean  War,  and  it  may 
fairly  be  said  that  he  in  great  measure  succeeded.      (D.  M.  W.) 

GORDIAN*  or  Gordunvs,  the  name  of  three  Roman 
emperors.  The  first,  Marcus  Antonius  Gordianus  Sempronianus 
Romanus  Africanus  (aj>.  x  59-238),  an  extremely  wealthy  man, 
was  descended  from  the  Gracchi  and  Trajan,  while  his  wife  was 
the  great-granddaughter  of  Antoninus  Pius.  While  he  gained 
unbounded  popularity  by  his  magnificent  games  and  shows,  his 
prudent  and  retired  life  did  iK>t  exdte  the  suspidon  of  Caracalla, 
in  whose  honour  he  wrote  a  long  epic  called  A  ntoninias.  Alexander 
Severus  called  him  to  the  dangerous  honours  of  govenunent  in 
Africa,  and  during  his  proconsulship  occurred  the  usurpation  of 
Maximin.  The  universal  discontent  roused  by  the  oppressive  rule 
of  Maximin  culminated  in  a  revolt  in  Africa  in  338,  and  Gordian 
reluctantly  yielded  to  the  popular  damour  and  assumed  the 
purple.  His  son,  Marcus  Antonius  Gordianus  (199-238),  was 
assodated  with  him  in  the  dignity..  The  senate  confirmed  the 
choice  of  the  Africans,  and  most  of  the  provinces  gladly  sided 
with  the  new  emperors;  but,  even  while  their  cause  was  so 
successful  abroad,  they  had  fallen  before  the  sudden  inroad  of 
Cappellianus,  legatus  of  Numidia  and  a  supporter  of  Maximin. 
They  had  reigned  only  thirty'six  days.  Both  the  Gordians  had 
deserved  by  their  amiable  character  their  high  reputation;  they 
were  men  of  great  accomplishments,  fond  of  literature,  and 
voluminous  authors;  but  they  were  rather  intellectual  voluptu- 
aries than  able  statesmen  or  powerful  rulers.  Having  embraced 
the.  cause  of  Gordian,  the  senate  was  obliged  to  continue  the 
revolt  against  Maximin,  and  appointed  Pupienus  Maximus 
and  Caeb'us  Balbinus,  two  of  its  noblest  and  most  esteemed 
members,  as  joint  emperors.  At  their  inauguration  a  sedition 
arose,  and  the  popular  outcry  for  a  Gordian  was  Appeased 
by  the  association  with  them  of  M.  Antonius  Gordianus 
Pius  (224-244),  grandson  of  the  e^der  Gordian,  then  a  boy  of 
thirteen.  Maximin  forthwith  invaded  Italy,  but  was  murdered 
by  his  own  troops  while  besieging  Aquileia,  and  a  revolt  of  the 
praetorian  guards,  to  which  Pupienus  and  Balbintis  fell  victims, 
left  Gordian  sole  emperor.  For  some  time  he  was  under  the 
control  of  his  mother's  eunuchs,  till  Timesithetis,*  his  father-in- 
law  and  praefect  of  the  praetorian  guard,  persuaded  him  to  assert 
his  independence.  When  the  Persians  under  Shapur  (Sapor)  I. 
invaded  Mesopotamia,  the  young  emperor  opened  the  temple  of 
Janus  for  the  last  time  recorded  in  history,  and  marched  in  person 
to  the  East.  The  Persians  were  driven  back  over  the  Euphrates 
and  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Resaena  (243),  and  only  the  death 
of  llmesitheus  (under  suspidous  circumstances)  prevented  an 
advance  into  the  enemy's  territory.  Philip  the  Arabian,  who 
succeeded  Timesitheus,  stirred  up  discontent  in  the  army,  tod 
Gordian  was  murdered  by  the  mutinous  soldiers  in  Mesopotamia. 

See  lives  of  the  Gordians  by^  CapitoUnus  in  the  Scriptores  kistoriae 
Augustae;  Hcrodian  vii.  viii.;  Zosimus  i«  16,  18;  Ammianus 
Marcellihus  xxiit.  5;  Eutropius  ix.  2;  Aurelius  Victor,  Ctusara, 
37;  artide  Shapue  (I.);  Pauly-Winowa,  ReaUncydop&dU,  i. 
2619  f.  (von  Rohden). 

GORDIUM,  an  andent  dty  of  Phxygia  situated  on  the  Persian 
"  Royal  road  "from  Pessinus  to  Ancyra,  and  not  far  from  the 
Sangarius.  It  lies  opposite  the  village  Pebi,  a  little  north  of 
the  point  where  the  Constantinople-Angora  railway  crosses  the 
Sangarius.  It  is  not  to  be  confused  with  Gordiou-kome,  ref oimded 
as  Juliopolis,  a  Bithynian  town  on  a  small  tributary  of  the 
Sangarius,  about  47  m.  in  an  air-line  N.  W.  of  Gordium.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend,  Gordium  was  founded  by  Gordius,  a  Phrygian 
peasant  who  had  been  called  to  the  throne  by  his  countrsmien  in 
obedience  to  an  oracle  of  Zeus  oomrrumding  them  to  sdect  the 
first  person  that  rode  up  to  the  temple  of  the  god  in  a  wagon. 
The  king  afterwards  dedicated  his  car  to  the  ^d,  and  another 
'  For  this  name  see  footnotife  to  SsAFtJl. 


248 


GORDON  (FAMILY)— GORDON,  A. 


orade  declared  that  whoever  succeeded  in  untying  the  strangely 

entwined  knot  of  cornel  bark  which  bound  the  yoke  to  the  pole 

should  reign  over  all  Asia.    Alesouider  the  Great,  according  to 

the  story,  cut  the  knot  by  a  stroke  of  his  sword.    Gordiom  was 

captured  and  destroyed  by  the  Gauls  soon  after  189  b.c  and 

disappeared  from  history.    In  imperial  times  only  a  small  village 

existed  on  the  site.    Excavations  made  in  1900  by  two  German 

scholars,  G.  and  A.  Koerte,  revealed  practic^y  no  remains  later 

than  the  middle  of  the  6th  century  B.c.  (when  Phiygia  fell  under 

Persian  power). 
See  Jahrbuck  des  InsHtaOs,  Eig&nxungiheft  v.  (1904).    Q.  G.  C.  K) 

GORDON,  the  name  of  a  Scottish  family,  no  fewer  than  157 
main  branches  of  which  are  traced  by  the  family  historians.  A 
laird  of  Gorden,  in  Berwickshire,  near  the  English  border,  is  said 
to  have  fallen  in  the  battle  of  the  Standard  (x  138) .  The  families 
of  the  two  sons  ascribed  to  him  by  tradition,  Richard  Gordon  of 
Gordon  and  Adam  Gordon  of  Huntly ,  were  united  by  the  marriage 
of  their  great-grandchildren  Alicia  and  Sir  Adam,  whose  grandson 
Sir  Adam  (killed  at  Halidon  Hill,  1333)  at  first  todL  the  English 
side  in  the  Scottish  struggle  for  independence,  and  is  the  first 
member  of  the  family  definitely  to  emerge  into  history.  He  was 
justiciar  of  Sa>tland  in  13x0,  but  after  Baimockbum  he  attached 
himself  to  Robert  Bruce,  who  granted  him  in  X3X8  the  lordship  of 
Strathbogie  in  Aberdeeiishire,  to  which  Gordon  gave  the  name  of 
Huntly  from  a  village  on  the  Gordon  estate  in  Berwickshire.  He 
had  two  sons,  Adam  and  William.  The  younger  son,  laird  of 
Stitchel  in  Roxburghshire,  was  the  ancestor  of  William  de 
Gordon  of  Stitchel  and  Lochinvar,  founder  of  the  Galloway 
branch  of  the  family  represented  in  the  Scottish  peerage  by  the 
dormant  viscounty  of  Kenmure  iq.v.),  created  in  1633;  most  of 
the  Irish  and  Virginian  Gordons  are  offshoots  of  this  stock.  Hie 
elder  son,  Adam,  inherited  the  Gordon-Huntly  estates.  He  had 
two  grandsons,  Sir  John  (d.  1394)  and  Sir  Adam  (slain  at  Homildon 
Hill,  X403).  Sir  John  had  two  iUegitimate  sons,  Jock  of  Scur- 
dargue,  the  ancestor  of  the  earls  of  Aberdeen,  and  Tam  of 
Ruthven.  From  these  two  stocks  most  of  the  northern  Gordon 
f  amili^  are  derived.  Sir  Adam's  daughter  and  heiress,  Elizabeth, 
married  Sir  Alexander  Seton,  and  with  her  husband  was  confirmed 
in  1408  in  the  possession  of  the  barony  of  Gordon  and  Huntly  in 
Berwickshire  and  of  the  Gordon  lands  in  Aberdeen.  The  Seton- 
Gordons  are  their  descendants.  Their  son  Alexander  was  created 
eari  of  Huntly  (see  Huntly,  Eakls  and  Makqvesses  of), 
probably  in  1445;  and  his  heixs  became  dukes  of  Govdon,  George 
Gordon  {c.  X650-X7X6),  4th  marquess  of  Huntly,  being  created 
duke  of  Gordon  in  1684.  He  had  been  educated  in  a  French 
Catholic  seminary,  and  served  in  the  French  army  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1673  to  X675.  Under  James  II.  he  was  xnade  keeper  of 
Edinburgh  Castle  on  account  of  his  religion,  but  he  refused  to 
support  James's  efforts  to  impose  Roman  Catholicism  on  his 
subjects.  He  offered  little  active  resistance  when  the  castle  was 
besieged  by  William  III.'s  forces.  After  his  submission  he  was 
more  than  once  imprisoned  on  suspicion  of  Jacobite  leanings,  and 
was  ordered  by  George  I.  to  reside  on  parole  in  Edinburgh.  For 
some  time  before  his  death  he  wasseparated  from  his  wife  Elizabeth 
Howard,  daughter  of  the  6th  duke  of  Norfolk.  His  son  Alexander, 
and  duke  of  Gordon  (c.  x678-x7a8),  joined  the  Old  Pretender,  but 
gained  the  royal  pardon  after  the  surrender  of  Gordon  Castle  in 
X716.  Of  his  children  by  his  wife  Henrietta  Mordaunt,  second 
daughter  of  Charles  Mordaunt,  eail  of  Petoborouf^,  Cbsmo 
Geoi^  (c.  X720-X7sa)  succeeded  as  3rd  duke;  Lord  Lewis  Gordon 
.(d.  1754)  took  an  active  part  in  the  Jacobite  rising  of  1745;  and 
General  Lord  Adam  Gordon  (c.  x726-x8ox)  became  commander  of 
the  forces  in  Scotland  in  1783,  and  governor  of  Edinburgh  Castle 
in  X786.  Lord  George  Gordon  (9.9.)  was  a  younger  son  of  the 
3rd  duke.. 

The  title,  with  the  earldom  of  Norwich  and  the  barojiy  of 
Gordon  Huntly,  became  extinct  on  the  death  of  George,  sth 
duke  (1770-X836),  a  distinguished  soldier  who  raised  the  corps 
now  known  as  the  and  battalion  of  the  Gordon  Highlanders. 
The  marquessate  of  Huntly  passed  to  his  cousin  and  heir-male, 
George,  5th  earl  of  Aboyne.  Lady  Chariotte  Gordon,  sister  of 
and  co-heiress  with  the  5th  duke,  married  Charles  Lennox,  4th 


duke  of  Richmond,  whose  son  took  the  name  of  Gordon-Lennos. 
The  dukedom  of  Gordon  was  revived  in  1876  in  favour  of  the 
6th  duke  of  Richmond,  iriio  thenceforward  was  styled  duke  of 
Richmond  and  Gordon.  Adam  Gordon  of  Aboyne  (d.  1537) 
took  the  courtesy  title  of  eari  of  Sutheriand  in  rifpht  of  his  wife 
Elizabeth,  countess  of  Sutherhmd  in  her  own  right,  suter  of  the 
9th  earL  The  lawless  and  turbulent  Gordons  of  Gight  were  the 
maternal  anceAors  of  Lord  Byron. 

Among  the  many  soldiers  of  fortune  bearing  the  name  of 
Gordon  was  Colonel  John  Gordon,  one  of  the  murderers  oC 
Wallenstein.  Patrick  Gordon  (X63S-X699)  was  bora  at  Aixcb- 
leuchries  in  Aberdeenshire,  entered  the  service  of  Chaxles  X. 
of  Sweden  in  1651  and  served  against  the  Poles.  He  changed 
sides  more  than  once  before  he  found  his  way  to  Moscow  in  i66x 
and  took  service  under  the  tsar  Alexis.  He  became  general  in 
1687;  in  x688  he  helped  to  secure  Peter  the  Great's  ascendancy; 
and  later  he  crushed  the  revolt  of  the  StreltzL  HU  diary  was 
published  in  German  (3  vols.,  1849-1853,  Moscow  and  St  Peters- 
burg), and  selections  from  the  English  original  by  the  Spalding 
Qub  (Aberdeen,  1859). 

The  Gordons  fill  a  considerable  place  in  Scottish  legend  and 
baUad.  "  Captain  Car,"  or"  Edom  (Adam)  of  Gordon  "  describes 
an  incident  in  the  struggle  between  the  Forbeses  and  Gordons 
in  Aberdeenshire  in  xs7x;  "  The  Duke  of  Gordwi's  Daughter  " 
has  apparently  no  foundation  in  fact,  though  "  Geordie  "  ai  the 
ballad  is  sometimes  said  to  have  been  George,  4th  eari  of  Huntly; 
*'  The  Fire  of  Frendraught "  goes  back  to  a  feud  (1630)  between 
James  Crichton  of  Frendraught  and  Wilham  Gordon  of  Rothie- 
may;  the  "  Gallant  Gordons  Gay  "  figure  in  "  Chevy  Chase  '*; 
William  Gordon  of  Earlston,  the  Covenanter,  i^ipears  in  "  Both- 
weU  Bridn  "  &c. 

See  WilUam  Gordon  (of  oki  Aberdeen).  Tkt  Hisiery  0/  Ok  Ameient, 
NobU,  and  Illustrious  House  of  Gordon  (a  vols.,  EdinDUfKh,  1736- 

House  of  Gordon,  by 
than  an  abridgment: 
M.  fw  ««»vviM  vj  ^awy^ov,  ««jv  ^vwa,  v«uv«u  wj  ChaHcs,  iich  iBarqiiess 
of  Huntly,  Ac.  (New  Soalding  Club.  Aberdeen,  1894);  The  Gordon 
Book,  ed.  J.  M.  Bulloch  (1903);  Th*  House  ef  Gordon,  ed.  J.  M. 
Bulloch  (Aberdeen,  voL  L,  1903);  and  Mr  Bulloch's  Tke  First  Duke 
of  Cordon  (1909). 

GORDON*  ADAH  UNDSAT  (X833-X870),  Austra£an  poet, 
was  bom  at  FayalV  in  the  Azores,  in  1833,  the  son  of  a  retired 
Indian  officer  who  taught  Hindustani  at  Chdtenham  College. 
Young  Gordon  was  educated  there  and  at  Merton  College, 
Oxfoid,  but  a  youthful  indiscretion  led  to  his  being  sent  in  1855 
to  South  Australia,  where  he  joined  the  mounted  poUce.  He  then 
became  a  hbrsebreaker,  but  on  his  father's  death  he  inherited 
a  fortune  and  obtained  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Assembly.  At 
this  time  he  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  best  non-professkynal 
steeplechase  rider  in  the  colony.  In  1867  he  moved  to  Victoria 
and  set  up  a  livery  stable  at  Ballarat.  Two  volumes  of  poems. 
Sec  Spray  and  Smoke  Drift  and  Askiarolh,  were  published  in  this 
year,  and  two  years  liter  he  gave  up  his  business  and  settled 
at  New  Brighton,  near  Melbourne.  A  second  volume  of  poetry. 
Busk  Ballads  and  Galloping  Rhymes,  appeared  in  1870.  It 
brought  him  more  praise  than  emolument,  and,  thoroughly 
discouraged  by  his  failure  to  make  good  his  daim  to  some 
property  in  Scotland  to  which  he  believed  himself  entitled, 
he  committed  suicide  on  the  a4th  of  June  X870.  Hu  reput^ion 
rose  after  his  death,  and  he  became  the  b^t  known  and  most 
widely  popular  of  Australian  poets.  Much  of  Gordon's  poetry 
might  have  been  written  in  England;  when,  however,  it  is 
reidly  local,  it  is  vividly  so;  his  genuine  feeling  frequently 
kindles  into  pasaon;  his  versification  is  always  dastic 
sonorous,  but  sometimes  too  reminiscent  of  Swinburne, 
compositions  are  almost  entirely  lyrical,  and  their  merit  is 
usually  in  proportion  to  the  degree  in  whidi  they  )>artake  of  the 
character  of  the  ballad. 

Gordon's  j^oems  were  oonected  and  published  in  1880  with  a 
biographical  introduction  fay  Marcus  Clarke. 

GORDON,  ALBZANDBR  (c,  x69a-c.  1754),  Scottish  aatiquary, 

is  believed  to  have  been  born  in  Aberdeen  in  X69S.    He  is 

the  "  Sandy  Gordon  "  of  Scott's  Antiquary.    Of  his  parentage 

and  early  history  nothing  is  known.    He  appears  to  hawe 


GORDON,  C.  G. 


249 


distingaislied  himself  in  classics  at  Aberdeen  University,  and  to 
have  made  a  living  at  first  by  teaching  languages  and  music. 
When  still  young  he  travelled  abroad,  probably  in  the  capacity  of 
tutor  He  returned  to  Scotland  previous  to  1726,  and  devoted 
himsdf  to  antiquarian  work.  In  1726  appeared  the  Itinerarium 
Sepietilrumale,  his  greatest  and  bot-lmown  work.  He  was  already 
the  friend  of  Sir  John  Clerk,  of  Penicuik,  better  known  as  Baron 
Clerk  (a  baron  of  the  exchequer);  and  the  baron  and  Roger  Gale 
(vice-president  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries)  are  the  "  two 
gentlemen,  the  honour  of  their  age  and  country,"  whose  letters 
were  publ^ed,  without  their  consent  it  appears,  as  an  appendix 
to  the  Itinerarium,  Subsequently  Gordon  was  appointed  secre- 
tary to  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Learning,  with  an 
annual  salary  of  £50.  Resigning  this  post,  or,  as  there  seems 
reason  for  believing,  being  dismissed  for  carelessness  in  his 
accounts,  he  succeeded  Dr  Stukclcy  as  secretary  to  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries,  and  also  acted  for  a  short  time  as  secretary  to 
the  Egyptian  Club,  an  association  composed  of  gentlemen  who 
bad  visited  Egypt.  In  1741  he  accompanied  James  Glen  (after- 
wards governor),  to  Souah  Carolina.  Through  hb  influence  Gor- 
don, boides  receiving  a  grant  of  land  in  South  Carolina,  became 
registrar  of  the  province  and  justice  of  the  peace,  and  filled 
several  other  offices.  From  his  will,  dated  the  2 and  of  August 
X754»  it  appears  he  had  a  son  Alexander  and  a  daughter  Frances, 
to  whom  he  bequeathed  most  of  his  property,  among  which  were 
portraits  of  himself  and  of  friends  painted  by  his  own  hand. 

See  Sir  Daniel  Wibon,  Alexander  Cordon,  Ike  Anti^tmry;  and  liis 
Papers  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Antiqiutrus  ef  Scotland, 
with  Additional  Notes  and  an  Appendix  of  Original  Letters  by 
Dr  David  Laing  (Pfoc.  Soc.  ofAniSq,  rfScoL  x.  363-582). 

QORDOK,  CHARLES  OBOROB  (1833-1885),  British  soldier 
and  administrator,  fourth  son  of  General  H.  W.  Gordon,  Royal 
ArtiUcry,  was  bom  at  Woolwich  on  the  28th  of  January  1833. 
He  received  his  early  education  at  Taunton  school,  and  was 
given  a  cadetship  in  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wodwich, 
in'  1848.  He  was  commissioned  as  second  lieutenant  in  the 
corps  of  Royal  Engineers  on  the  23rd  of  June  1852^  After 
passing  through  a  course  of  instruction  at  the  Royal  Engineers' 
establishment,  Chatham,  he  was  promoted  lieutenant  in  1854, 
And  was  sent  to  Pembroke  dock  to  assist  in  the  construction  of 
the  fortifications  then  being  erected  for  the  defence  of  Milford 
Haven.  The  Crimean  War  broke  out  shortly  afterwards,  and 
Gordon  was  ordered  on  active  service,  and  landed  at  Balaklava 
on  the  1st  of  January  1855.  The  siege  of  Sevastopol  was  in 
progress,  and  he  had  his  full  share  of  the  arduous  work  in  the 
trenches.  He  was  attached  to  one  of  the  British  columns  which 
sssanked  the  Redan  on  the  18th  of  June,  and  was  also  present 
at  tb«  capture  of  that  work  on  the  8th  of  September.  He  took 
part  in  the  expedition  to  Kinbum,  and  then  returned  to  Sevas- 
topol to  superintend  a  portion  of  the  demolition  of  the  Russian 
dockyard.  After  peace  with  Russia  had  been  concluded,  Gordon 
was  attached  to  an  international  commission  appointed  to  de- 
Ijniit  the  new  boundary,  as  fixed  by  treaty,  between  Russia  and 
Turibey  in  Bessarabia;  and  on  the  conclusion  of  this  work  he 
was  ordered  to  Asia  Minor  on  similar  duty,  with  reference  to 
the  eastern  boundary  between  the  two  countries.  While  so 
employed  (Gordon  took  the  opportunity  to  make  himself  well 
Acquainted  with  the  geography  and  people  of  Armenia,  and 
the  knowledge  of  dealing  with  eastern  nations  then  gained 
was  of  great  use  to  him  in  after  life. 

He  returned  to  England  towards  the  end  of  1858,  and  was 
then  selected  for  the  appointment  of  adjutant  and  field-works 

instructor    at  the  Royal   Engineers'  establishment, 

and  took  up  his  new  duties  at  Chatham  after  promot  ion 
to  the  rank  of  captain  in  April  1859.  But  his  stay  in  England 
was  brief,  for  in  i860  war  was  d«Jared  against  China,  and 
Cordon  was  ordered  out  there,  arriving  at  Tientsin  in  September. 
H/e  was  too  late  for  the  attack  on  the  Taku  forts,  but  was  present 
jit  the  occupation  of  Peking  and  destruction  of  the  Summer 
Palace.  He  remained  with  the  British  force  of  occupation  in 
nofthem  China  until  April  1862,  when  the  British  troops, 
aoder  the  wmmaod  of  General  Staveiey,  proceeded  to  Shanghai, 


in  order  to  protect  the  European  settlement  at  that  place  from 
the  Taiping  rebels.  The  Taiping  revolt,  which  had  some  remark- 
able points  of  similarity  with  the  Mahdist  rebellion  in  the  Sudan, 
had  commenced  .in  1850  in  the  province  of  Kwangsi.  The 
leader.  Hung  Sin  Tsuan,  a  semi-political,  aemi-religious  en- 
thusiast, assumed  the  title  of  Tien  Wang,  or  Heavenly  King, 
and  by  playing  on  the  feelings  of  the  lower  class  of  people  gradu- 
ally collected  a  considerable  force.  The  Chinese  authorities 
endeavoured- to  arrest  him,  but  the  imperialist  troops  were 
defeated.  The  area  of  revolt  extended  northwards  through 
the  provinces  of  Hunan  and  Hupch,  and  down  the  valley  of 
the  Yangtszc-kiang  as  far  as  the  great  city  of  Nanking,  which 
was  captured  by  the  rebels  in  1853.  Here  the  Tien  Wang 
established  his  court,  and  while  spending  his  own  time  in  heavenly 
contemplation  and  earthly  pleasures,  sent  the  assistant  Wangs 
on  warlike  expeditions  through  the  adjacent  provinces.  For 
some  years  a  constant  struggle  was  maintained  between  the 
Chinese  imperialist  troops  and  the  Taipings,  with  varying  success 
on  both  sides.  The  latter  gradually  advanced  eastwards,  and  ap- 
proaching the  important  city  of  Shanghai,  alarmed  the  European 
inhabitants,  who  subscribed  to  raise*  a  mixed  force  of  Europeans 
and  Manila  men  for  the  defence  of  the  town.  This  force,  which 
was  placed  under  the  command  of  an  American,  Frederick 
Townscnd  Ward  (1831-1863),  took  up  a  position  in  the  country 
west  of  Shanghai  to  check  the  advance  of  the  rebels.  Fighting 
continued,  round  Shanghai  for  about  two  years,  but  Ward's 
force  was  not  altogether  successful,  and  when  General  Staveley 
arrived  from  Tientsin  affairs  were  in  a  somewhat  critical  con- 
dition. He  decided  to  clear  the  district  of  rebels  within  a  radius 
of  30  m.  from  Shanghai,  and  Gordon  was  attached  to  his  staff 
as  engineer  officer.  A  French  force,  under  the  command  of 
Admiral  Pr6tet,  co-operated  with  Staveley  and  Ward,  with  his 
little  army,  also  assisted.  Kahding,  Singpo  and  other  towns 
were  occupied,  and  the  country  was  fairly  cleared  of  rebels 
by  the  end  of  1862.  Ward  was,  unfortunately,  killed  in  the 
assault  of  Tseki,  and  his  successor,  B  urge  vine,  having  had  a 
quarrel  with  the  Chinese  authorities,  Li  Hung  Chang,  the  gover- 
nor of  the  Kiang-su  province,  requested  General  Staveley  to 
appoint  a  British  othctt  to  command  the  contingent.  Staveley 
selected  Gordon^  who  had  been  made  a  brevet-major  in  December 
1862  for  his  previous  services,  and  the  nomination  was  approved 
by  the  British  government.  The  choice  was  judicious  as 
further  events  proved.  In  March  1863  Gordon  proceeded  to 
Sungkiang  to  take  command  of  the  force,  which  had  received 
the  name  of  "The  Ever-Victorious  Army,"  an  encouraging 
though  somewhat  exaggerated  title,  considering  its  previous 
history.  Without  waiting  to  reorganize  his  troops  he  marched 
at  once  to  the  relief  of  Chansu,  a  town  40  m.  north-west  of 
Shanghai,  which  was  invested  by  the  rebels.  The  relief  was 
successfully  accomplished,  and  the  operation  established  Gordon 
in  the  confidence  of  his  troops.  He  then  reorganized  his  force, 
a  matter  of  no  small  diflliculty,  and  advanced  against  Quinsan, 
which  was  captured,  though  with  considerable  loss.  Gordon 
then  marched  through  the  country,  seizing  town  after  town 
from  the  rebels  until  at  length  the  great  city  of  Suchow  was 
invested  by  his  army  and  a  body  of  Chinese  imperialist  troops. 
The  city  was  taken  on  the  29th  of  November,  and  after  its 
capture  (jordon  had  a  serious  dispute  with  Li  Hung  Chang, 
as  the  latter  had  beheaded  certain  of  the  rebel  leaders  whose 
lives  the  former  had  promised  to  spare  if  they  surrendered.  This 
action,  though  not  opposed  to  Chinese  ethics,  was  so  opposed 
to  Gordon's  ideas  of  honour  that  he  withdrew  his  force  from 
Suchow  and  remained  inactive  at  Quinsan  until  February 
1864.  He  then  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  subjugation  of 
the  rebels  was  more  important  than  his  dispute  with  Li,  and 
visited  the  latter  in  order  to  arrange  for  further  operations. 
By  mutual  consent  no  allusion  was  made  to  the  death  of  the 
Wangs.  This  was  a  good  example  of  one  of  Gordon's  marked 
characteristics,  that,  though  a  man  of  strong  personal  feelings, 
he  was  always  prepared  to  subdue  them  for  the  public  benefit. 
He  declined,  however,  to  take  any  decoration  or  reward  from 
the  emperor  for  his  services  at  the  capture  of  Suchow.    After 


250 


GORDON.  C.  G. 


the  meeting  with  Li  Hung  Chang  the  "  Ever-Victorious  Army  " 
again  advanced  and  took  a  number  of  towns  from  the  rebels, 
ending  with  Chanchufu,  the  principal  military  position  of  the 
Taipings.  This  fell  in  May,  when  Gordon  returned  to  Quinsan 
and  disbanded  his  force.  In  June  the  Tien  Wang,  seeing  his 
cause  was  hopeless,  committed  suicide,  and  the  capture  of  Nan- 
king by  the  imperialist  troops  shortly  afterwards  brought  the 
Taiping  revolt  to  a  conclusion.  The  suppression  of  this  serious 
movement  was  undoubtedly  due  in  great  part  to  the  skill  and 
energy  of  Gordon,  who  had  shown  remarkable  qualities  as. a 
leader  of  men.  The  emperor  promoted  him  to  the  rank  of  Titu, 
the  highest  grade  in  the  Chinese  army,  and  also  gave  him  the. 
Yellow  Jacket,  the  most  important  decoration  in  China.  He 
wished  to  give  him  a  large  sum  of  money,  but  this  Gordon  refused. 
He  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel  for  his  Chinese  services, 
and  made  a  Companion  of  the  Bath.  Henceforth  he  was  often 
familiarly  spokeai>f  as  "  Chinese  "  Gordon. 

Gordon  was  appointed  on  his  return  to  England  Commanding 
Royal  Engineer  at  Gravesend,  where  he  was  employed  in  super- 
intending the  erection  of  forts  for  the  defence  of  the  Thames. 
He  devoted  himself  with  energy  to  his  official  duties,  and  his 
leisure  hours  to  practical  philanthropy.  All  the  acts  of  kindness 
which  he  did  for  the  poor  during  the  six  years  he  was  stationed 
at  Gravesend  will  never  be  fully  known.  In  October  187 1  he 
was  appointed  British  representative  on  the  international 
commission  which  had  been  constituted  after  the  Crimean  War 
to  maintain  the  navigation  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Danube, 
with  headquarters  at  Gabtz.  During  1872  Gordon  was  sent  to 
inspect  the  British  military  cemeteries  in  the  Crimea,  and  when 
passing  through  Constantinople  on  his  return  to  Galatz  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Nubar  Pasha,  prime  minister  of  Egypt, 
who  sounded  him  as  to  whether  he  would  take  service  under  the 
khedive.  Nothing  further  was  settled  at  the  time,  but  the 
following  year  he  received  a  definite  offer  from  the  khedive, 
which  he  accepted  with  the  consent  of  the  British  government, 
and  proceeded  to  Egypt  early  in  1874.  He  was  then  a  colonel 
in  the  army,  though  still  only  a  captain  in  the  corps  of  Royal 
Engineers. 

To  understand  the  object  of  the  appointment  which  Gordon 
accepted  in  Egypt,  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  few  facts  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Sudan.  In  1820-22  Nubia,  Sennar  and  Kordofan 
had  been  conquered  by  Egypt,  and  the  authority  of  the  Egyptians 
was  subsequently  extended  southward,  eastward  to  the  Red 
Sea  and  westward  over  Darfur  (conquered  by  Zobeir  Pasha  in 
1874).  One  result  of  the  Egyptian  occupation  of  the  country 
was  that  the  slave  trade  was  largely  developed,  especially  in  the 
White  Nile  and  Bahr-el-Ghazal  districts.  Captains  Speke  and 
Grant,  who  had  travelled  through  Uganda  and  came  down  the 
White  Nile  in  1863,  and  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  who  went  up  the 
same  river  as  far  as  Albert  Nyanza,  brought  back  harrowing 
tales  of  the  misery  caused  by  the  slave-hunters.  Public  opinion 
was  considerably  moved,  and  in  1869  the  khedive  Ismail  decided 
to  send  an  expedition  up  the  White  Nile,  with  the  double  object 
of  limiting  the  evils  of  the  slave  trade  and  opening  up  the  district 
to  commerce.  The  command  of  the  expedition  was  given  to 
Sir  Samuel  Baker,  who  reached  Khartum  in  February  1870,  but, 
owing  to  the  obstruction  of  the  river  by  the  sudd  or  grass  barrier, 
did  not  reach  Gondokoro,  the  centre  of  his  province,  for  fourteen 
months.  He  met  with  great  difficulties,  and  when  his  four  years' 
service  came  to  an  end  little  had  been  effected  beyond  establishing 
a  few  posts  along  the  Nile  and  placing  some  steamers  on  the  river. 
It  was  to  succeed  Baker  as  governor  of  the  equatorial  regions 
that  the  khedive  asked  for  Gordon's  services,  having  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  latter  was  the  most  likely  person  to  bring 
the  affair  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion.  After  a  short  stay  in 
Cairo,  Gordon  proceeded  to  Khartum  by  way  of  Suakin  and 
Berber,  a  route  which  he  ever  afterwards  regarded  as  the  best 
mode  of  access  to  the  Sudan.  From  Khartum  he  proceeded  up 
the  White  Nile  to  Gondokoro,  where  he  arrived  in  twenty-four 
days,  the  sudd,  which  had  proved  such  an  obstacle  to  Baker, 
having  been  removed  since  the  departure  of  the  latter  by  the 
Egyptian  governor-general.    Gordon  remained  in  the  equatorial 


provinces  until  October  1676,  And  then  returned  to  Cairo.  The 
two  years  and  a  half  thus  spent  in  Central  Africa  was  a  time  of 
incessant  toil.  A  line  of  stations  was  established  from  the  Sobat 
confluence  on  the  White  Nile  to  the  frontier  of  Uganda-^to 
which  country  he  proposed  to  open  a  route  from  Mombasa — and 
considerable  progress  was  made  in  the  suppression  of  the  slave 
trade.  The  river  and  Lake  Albert  were  mapped  by  Gordon  and 
his  staff,  and  he  devoted  himself  with  wonted  energy  to  improving 
the  condition  of  the  people.  Greater  results  might  have  been 
obtained  but  for  the  fact  that  Khartum  and  the  whole  of  the 
Sudan  north  of  the  Sobat  were  in  the  hands  of  an  Egyptian 
governor,  independent  of  Gordon,  and  not  too  well  disposed 
towards  his  proposals  for  diminishing  the  sbve  trade.  On 
arriving  in  Cairo  Gordon  informed  the  khedive  of  his  reasons 
for  not  wishing  (o  return  to  the  Sudan,  but  did  not  definitely 
resign  the  appointment  of  governor  of  the  equatorial  provinces. 
But  on  reaching  London  he  telegraphed  to  the  British  consul' 
general  in  Cairo,  asking  him  to  let  (he  khedive  know  that  he 
would  not  go  back  to  Egypt.  Isniail  Pasha,  feeling,  no  doubt, 
that  Gordon's  resignation  would  injure.his  prestige,  wrote  to  him 
saying  that  he  had  promised  to  return,  and  that  he  expected  him 
to  keep  his  word.  Upon  this  Gordon,  to  whom  the  keeping  of  a 
promise  was  a  sacred  duty,  decided  to  return  to  Cairo,  but  gave 
an  assurance  to  some  friends  that  he  would  not  go  back  to  the 
Sudan  unless  he  was  appointed  governor-general  of  the  entire 
country.  -After  some  discussion  the  khedive  agreed,  and  made 
him  governor-general  of  the  Sudan,  inclusive  of  Darfur  and  the 
equatorial  provinces. 

One  of  the  most  important  questions  which  Gordon  had  to 
take  up  on  his  appointment  was  the  state  of  the  political  relations 
between  Egypt  and  Abyssinia,  which  had  been  in  an 
unsatisfactory  condition  for  some  years.  The  dispute 
centred  round  the  district  of  Bogos,  lying  not  far 
inland  from  Massawa,  which  both  the  khedive  and  King  John  <^ 
Abyssinia  claimed  as  belonging  to  their  respective  dominions. 
War  broke  out  in  1875,  when  an  Egyptian  expedition  was 
despatched  to  Abyssinia,  and  was  completely  defeated  by  King 
John  near  Gundet.  A  second  and  larger  expedition,  under 
Prince  Hassan,  the  son  of  the  khedive,  was  sent  the  following  year 
from  Massawa.  The  force  was  routed  by  the  Abyssinians  at 
Gura,  but  Prince  Hassan  and  his  stall  got  back  to  Massawa. 
Matters  then  remained  quiet  until  March  1877,  when  Gordon 
proceeded  to  Massawa  to  endeavour  to  make  peace  with  King 
John.  He  went  up  to  Bogos,  and  had  an  interview  with  Walad 
Michael,  an  Abyssinian  chief  and  the  hereditary  ruler  of  Bogos, 
who  had  joined  the  Egyptians  with  a  view  to  raiding  on  his  own 
account.  Gordon,  with  his  usual  powers  of  diplomacy,  persuaded 
Michael  to  remain  quiet,  and  wrote  to  the  king  proposing  terms 
of  peace.  But  he  received  no  reply  at  that  time,  as  John,  feeling 
pretty  secure  on  the  Egyptian  frontier  after  his  two  successful 
actions  against  the  khedive's  troops,  had  gone  southwards  to 
fight  with  Menelek,  king  of  Shoa.  Gordon,  seeing  that  the 
Abyssinian  difficulty  could  wait  for  a  few  months,  proceeded  to 
Khartum.  Here  he  took  up  the  slavery  question,  and  proposed 
to  issue  regulations  making  the  registration  of  slaves  compulsory, 
but  his  proposals  were  not  approved  by  the  Cairo  government. 
In  the  meantime  an  insurrection  had  broken  out  in  Darfur,  and 
Gordon  proceeded  to  that  province  to  relieve  the  Egyptian 
garrisons,  which  were  considerably  stronger  than  the  force  he 
had  available,  the  insurgents  also  being  far  more  numerous  than 
his  little  army.  On  coming  up  with  the  main  body  of  rebels  he 
saw  that  diplomacy  gave  a  better  chance  of  success  than  fighting, 
and,  accompanied  only  by  an  interpreter,  rode  into  the  enemy's 
camp  to  discuss  the  situation.  This  bold  move,  which  probably 
no  one  but  Gordon  would  have  attempted,  proved  quite  success* 
ful,  as  part  of  the  insurgents  joined  him,  and  the  remainder 
retreated  to  the  south.  The  relief  of  the  Egyptian  garrisons  was 
successfully  accomplished,  and  Gordon  visited  the  provinces  of 
Berber  and  Dongola,  whence  he  had  again  to  return  to  the 
Abyssinian  frontier  to  treat  with  King  John.  But  no  satisfactory 
settlement  was  arrived  at,  and  Gordon  came  back  to  Khartum 
in  January  1878.    There  he  had  scarcely  a  week's  rest  when  the 


GORDON,  C.  G. 


251 


khcdive  summoned  him  to  Cairo  to  assist  in  settling  the  financial 
aifairs  of  Egypt-  He  reached  Cairo  in  March,  and  was  at  once 
appointed  by  Ismail  as  president  of  a  commission  of  inquiry  into 
the  finances,  on  the  understanding  that  the  European  com- 
missioners of  the  debt,  who  were  the  representatives  of  the  bond- 
holders, and  whom  Ismail  regarded  as  interested  parties,  should 
mot  be  members  of  the  commission.  Cordon  accepted  the  post 
on  these  terms,  but  the  consuls-general  of  the  different  powers 
refused  to  agree  to  the  constitution  of  the  commission,  and  it  fell 
to  the  ground,  as  the  khcdive  was  not  strong  enough  to  carry 
his  point.  The  attempt  of  the  latter  to  utilize  Gordon  as  a 
counterpoise  to  the  European  financiers  having  failed,  Ismail 
fell  into  the  hands  of  his  creditors,  and  was  deposed  by  the 
sulian  in  the  following  year  in  favour  of  his  son  Tewfik.  After 
the  conclusion  of  the  financial  episode,  Gordon  proceeded  to  the 
province  of  Harrar,  south  of  Abyssinia,  and,  finding  the  adminis- 
tration in  a  bad  condition,  dismissed  Raouf  Pasha,  the  governor. 
He  then  returned  to  Khartum,  and  in  1879  went  again  into 
Darfor  to  pursue  the  slave  traders,  while  his  subordinate,  Gessj 
Pasha,  fought  them  with  great  success  in  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal 
district  and  killed  Suleiman,  their  leader  and  a  son  of  Zobcir. 
This  put  an  end  to  the  revolt,  and  Gordon  went  back  to  Khartum. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  went  down  to  Cairo,  and  when  there  was 
requested  by  the  new  khcdive  to  pay  a  visit  to  King  John  and 
make  a  definite  treaty  of  peace  with  Abyssinia.  Gordon  had  an 
interesting  interview  with  the  king,  but  was  not  able  to  do  much, 
as  the  king  wa'hted  great  concessions  from  Egypt,  and  the 
kbtdivc's  instructions  were  that  nothing  material  was  to  be 
ooffKcded.  The  matter  ended  by  Gordon  being  made  a  prisoner 
and  sent  back  to  Massawa.  Thence  he  returned  to  Cairo  and 
resigned  his  Sudan  appointment.  He  was  considerably  ex- 
hausted by  the  three  years'  incessant  work,  during  which  he  had 
ridden  no  fewer  than  8500  m.  on  camels  and  mvdes,  and  was 
constantly  engaged  in  the  task  of  trying  to  reform  a  vicious 
system  of  administration. 

In  March  1880  Gordon  visited  the  king  of  the  Belgians  at 
Brussels,  and  King  Leopold  suggested  that  he  should  at  some 
future  date  take  charge  of  the  Congo  Free  State. 
In  April  the  government  of  the  Cape  Colony  telegraphed 
to  him  offering  the  position  of  commandant  of  the 
Cape  local  forces,  but  he  declined  the  appointment.  In  May 
the  marquess  of  Ripon,  who  had  been  given  the  post  of  governor- 
general  of  India,  asked  Gordon  to  go  with  him  as  private  secretary. 
This  be  agreed  to  do,  but  a  few  days  later,  feeling  that  he  was 
Dot  suitable  for  the  position,  asked  Lord  Ripon  to  release  him. 
The  latter  refused  to  do  so,  and  Cordon  accompanied  him  to 
India,  but  definitely  resigned  his  post  on  Lord  Ripon's  staff 
shortly  afterwards.  Hardly  had  he  resigned  when  he  received 
a  telegram  from  Sir  Robert  Hart,  inspector-general  of  customs 
in  China,  inviting  him  to  go  to  Peking.  He  started  at  once 
and  arrived  at  Tientsin  in  July,  where  he  met  Li  Hung  Chang, 
and  learnt  that  affairs  were  in  a  critical  condition,  and  that  there 
was  risk  of  war  with  Russia.  Gordon  proceeded  to  Peking  and 
used  all  his  influence  in  favour  of  peace.  His  arguments,  which 
were  given  with  much  plainness  of  speech,  appear  to  have 
convinced  the  Chinese  government,  and  war  was  avoided. 
Gordon  returned  to  England,  and  in  April  1881  exchanged 
with  a  brother  officer,  who  had  been  ordered  to  Mauritius  as 
Commanding  Royal  Engineer,  but  who  for  family  reasons  was 
unabJe  to  accept  the  appointment.  He  remained  in  Mauritius 
until  the  March  following,  when,  on  promotion  to  the  rank  of 
major-general,  he  had  to  vacate  the  position  of  Commanding 
RoyaJ  Engineer.  Just  at  the  same  time  the  Cape  ministry 
tekgrafrfied  to  him  to  ask  if  he  would  go  to  the  Cape  to  consult 
with  the  government  as  regards  settling  affairs  in  Basutoland. 
The  telegram  stated  that  the  position  of  matters  was  grave, 
and  that  it  was  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  colony  should 
secure  the  services  of  someone  of  proved  ability,  firmness  and 
energy.  Gordon  sailed  at  once  for  the  Cape,  and  saw  (he  governor, 
Sir  Hercules  Robinson.  Mr  Thos.  Scanlen,  the  premier,  and 
^Ir.  J.  X  Mernman,  a  member  of  the  ministry,  who,  for  political 
I,  asked  him  not  to  go  to  Basutoland,  but  to  take  the 


appointment  of  commandant  of  the  colonial  forces  at  King 
William's  Town.  After  a  few  months,  which  were  spent  in 
reorganizing  the  colonial  forces,  Gordon  was  requested  to  go  up 
to  Basutoland  to  try  to  arrange  a  settlement  with  the  chief 
Masupha,  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Basuto  leaders. 
Greatly  to  his  surprise,  at  the  very  time  he  was  with  Masupha, 
Mr.  J.  W.  Sauer,  a  member  of  the  Cape  government,  was  taking 
steps  to  induce  Lerethodi,  another  chief,  to  advance  against 
Masupha.  This  not  only  placed  Gordon  in  a  position  of  danger, 
but  was  regarded  by  him  as  an  act  of  treachery.  He  advised 
Masupha  not  to  deal  with  the  Cape  government  until  the  hostile 
force  was  withdrawn,  and  resigned  his  appointment.  He  con- 
sidered that  the  Basuto  difficulty  was  due  to  the  bad  system 
of  administration  by  the  Cape  government.  That  Gordon's 
views  were  correct  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  a  few  years  later 
Basutoland  was  separated  from  Cape  Colony  and  placed  directly 
under  the  imperial  government.  After  his  return  to  England 
from  the  Cape,  being  unemployed,  Gordon  decided  to  go  to 
Palestine,  a  country  he  had  long  desired  to  visit.  Here  he 
remained  for  a  year,  and  devoted  his  time  to  the  study  of  Biblical 
history  and  of  the  antiquities  of  Jerusalem.  The  king  of  the 
Belgians  then  asked  him  to  take  charge  of  the  Congo  Free  State, 
and  he  accepted  the  mission  and  returned  to  London  to  make 
the  necessary  preparations.  But  a  few  days  after  his  arrival  he 
was  requested  by  the  British  government  to  proceed  immediately 
to  the  Sudan.  To  understand  the  reasons  for  this,  it  is  necessary 
briefly  to  recapitulate  the  course  of  events  in  that  country  since 
Gordon  had  left  it  in  1879. 

After  his  resignation  of  the  post  of  governor-general,  Raouf 
Pasha,  an  official  of  the  ordinary  type,  who,  as  already  mentioned, 
had  been  dismissed  by  Gordon  for  misgovcmment  in  1878,  was 
appointed  to  succeed  him.  As  Raouf  was  instructed  to  increase 
the  receipts  and  diminish  the  expenditure,  the  system  of  govern- 
ment naturally  reverted  to  the  old  methods,  which  Gordon  had 
endeavoured  to  improve.  The  fact  that  justice  and  firmness 
were  succeeded  by  injustice  and  weakness  tended  naturally 
to  the  outbreak  of  revolt,  and  unfortunately  there  was  a  leader 
ready  to  head  a  rebellion— one  Mahommed  Ahmed,  already 
known  for  some  years  as  a  holy  man,  who  was  insulted  by  an 
Egyptian  official,  and  retiring  with  some  followers  to  the  island 
of  Abba  on  the  White  Nile,  proclaimed  himself  as  the  mahdi, 
a  successor  of  the  prophet.  Raouf  endeavoured  to  take  him 
prisoner  but  without  success,  and  the  revolt  spread  rapidly. 
Raouf  was  recalled,  and  succeeded  by  Abdel  Kader  Pasha,  a 
much  stronger  governor,  who  had  some  success,  but  whose 
forces  were  quite  insufficient  to  cope  with  the  rebels.  The 
Egyptian  government  was  too  busily  engaged  in  suppressing 
Arabi's  revolt  to  be  able  to  send  any  help  to  Abdel  Kader,  and 
in  September  1882,  when  the  British  troops  entered  Cairo, 
the  position  in  the  Sudan  was  very  perilous.  Had  the  British 
government*  listened  to  the  representations  then  made  to  them, 
that,  having  conquered  Egypt,  it  was  imperative  at  once  to 
suppress  the  revolt  in  the  Sudan,  the  rebellion  could  have  been 
crushed,  but  unfortunately  Great  Britain  would  do  nothing 
herself,  while  the  steps  she  allowed  Egypt  to  take  ended  in  the 
disaster  to  Hicks  Pasha's  expedition.  Then,  in  December  1883, 
the  British  government  saw  that  something  must  be  done,  and 
ordered  Egypt  to  abandon  the  Sudan.  But  abandonment  was 
a  policy  most  difficult  to  carry  out,  as  it  involved  the  withdrawal 
of  thousands  of  Egyptian  soldiers,  civilian  employes  and  their 
families.  Abdel  Kader  Pasha  was  asked  to  undertake  the  work, 
and  he  agreed  on  the  understanding  that  he  would  be  supported, 
and  that  the  policy  of  abandonment  was  not  to  be  announced. 
But  the  latter  condition  was  refused,  and  he  declined  the  task. 
The  British  government  then  asked  General  Gordon  to  proceed 
to  Khartum  to  report  on  the  best  method  of  carrying  out  the 
evacuation.  The  mission  was  highly  popular  in  England. 
Sir  Evelyn  Baring  (Lord  Cromer)  was,  however,  at  first  opposed 
to  Gordon's  appointment.  His  objections'  were  overcome,  and 
Gordon  received  his  instructions  in  London  on  the  i8th  of 
January  1884.  and  started  at  once  for  Cairo,  accompanied  by 
Lieut.-Colonel  J.  D.  H.  Stewart. 


2Si 


GORDON,  C.  G. 


AiKtat' 


At  Cairo  he  received  further  instructions  from  Sir  Evelyn 
Baring,  and  was  appointed  by  the  khedive  as  govemor-genenl, 
with  executive  powers:  Travelling  by  Korosko  and 
Berber,  he  arrived  at  Khartum  on  tfie  i8th  of  February, 
and  was  well  received  by  the  inhabitants,  who  believni 
that  he  had  come  to  save  the  country  from  the  rebels.  Gordon 
at  once  commenced  the  task  of  sending  the  women  and  children 
and  the  sick  and  wounded  to  Egypt,  and  about  two  thousand 
five  hundred  had  been  removed  before  the  mahdi's  forces  dosed 
upon  Khartum.  At  the  same  time  he  was  impressed  with  the 
necessity  of  making  some  arrangement  for  the  future  government 
of  the  country,  and  asked  for  the  help  of  Zobeir  (q.v.),  who  had 
great  influence  in  the  Sudan,  and  had  been  detained  in  Cairo 
for  some  years.  This  request  was  made  on  the  veiy  day  Gordon 
reached  Khartum,  and  was  in  accordance  with  a  similar  proposal 
be  had  made  when  at  Cairo.  But,  after  delays  which  involved 
the  loss  of  much  precious  time,  the  British  government  refused 
(x3th  of  March)  to  sanction  the  appointment,  because  Zobeir 
had  been  a  notorious  slave-hunter.  With  this  refusal  vanished 
all  hope  of  a  peaceful  retreat  of  the  Egyptian  garrisons.  Waver- 
ing tribes  went  over  to  the  mahdi.  Tlie  advance  of  the  rebels 
against  Khartum  was  combined  with  a  revolt  in  the  eastern 
Sudan,  and  the  Egyptian  troops  in  the  vicinity  of  Suakin  met 
with  constant  defeat.  At  length  a  British  force  was  sent  to 
Suakin  under  the  command  of  General  Sir  Gerald  Graham,  and 
routed  the  rebels  in  several  hard-fought  actions.  Gordon 
telegraphed  to  Sir  Evelyn  Baring  urging  that  the  road  from 
Suakin  to  Berber  should  be  opened  by  a  small  force.  But  this 
request,  though  strongly  supported  by  Baring  and  the  British 
militaiy  authorities  in  Cairo,  was  refused  by  the  government  in 
London.  In  April  General  Graham  and  his  forces  were  withdrawn 
from  Suakin,  and  Gordon  and  the  Sudan  were  seemingly 
abandoned  to  their  fate.  The  garrison  of  Berber,  seeing  that 
there  was  no  chance  of  relief,  surrendered  a  month  later  and 
l^hartum  was  completely  isolated.  Had  it  not  been  for  the 
presence  of  Gordon  the  city  would  also  soon  have  fallen,  but  with 
an  energy  and  skill  that  were  almost  miraculous,  he  so  organized 
the  defence  that  Khartum  held  out  until  January  1885.  When 
it  is  remembered  that  Gordon  was  of  a  different  nationality 
and  religion  to  the  garrison  and  population,  that  he  had  only 
one  British  officer  to  assist  him,  and  that  the  town  was  badly 
fortified  and  insufficiently  provided  with  food,  it  is  Just  to  say 
that  the  defence  of  Khartum  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
episodes  in  military  history.  The  siege  commenced  on  the  x8th 
of  March,  but  it  was  not  until  August  that  the  British  govern- 
ment under  the  pressure  of  public  opinion  dedded  to  take  steps 
to  relieve  Gordon.  General  Stephenson,  who  was  in  command 
of  the  British  troops  in  Egypt,  wished  to  send  a  brigade  at  once 
to  Dongola,  but  he  was  overruled,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
beginning  of  November  that  the  British  relief  force  was  ready 
to  start  from  Wadi  Haifa  under  the  command  of  Lord  Wolseley. 
The  force  reached  Korti  towards  the  end  of  December,  and  from 
that  place  a  column  was  despatched  across  the  Bayuda  desert 
to  Metemma  on  the  Nile.  After  some  severe  fighting  in  which 
the  leader  of  the  column,  Sir  Herbert  Stewart,  was  mortally 
wounded,  the  force  reached  the  river  on-  the  30th  of  January, 
and  the  following  day  four  steamers,  which  had  been  sent  down 
by  Gordon  to  meet  the  British  advance,  and  which  had  been 
waiting  for  them  for  four  months,  reported  to  Sir  Charies  Wilson, 
who  had  taken  command  after  Sir  Herbert  Stewart  was  wounded. 
On  the  34th  Wilson  started  with  two  of  the  steamers 
for  Khartum,  but  on  arriving  there  on  the  28th  he 
found  that  the  place  had  been  captured  by  the  rebels  and  Gordon 
killed  two  days  before.  A  bdicf  has  been  entertained  that 
Wilson  might  have  started  earlier  and  saved  the  town,  but  this 
is  quite  groundless.  In  the  first  place,  Wilson  could  not  have 
started  sooner  than  he  did;  and  in  the  second,  even  if  he  had 
been  able  to  do  so,  it  would  have  made  no  difference,  as  the  rebels 
could  have  taken  Khartum  any  time  they  pleased  after  the  5th 
of  January,  when  the  provisions  were  exhausted.  Another 
popular  notion,  that  the  capture  of  the  place  was  due  to  treachenr 
on  the  part  of  the  garrison,  is  equally  without  foundation.    Tne 


attack  was  made/Vat*;a'  point  in  the  fortifications  where  the 
rampart  and  ditdThad  beien  destroyed  by  the  rising  of  the  Nile, 
and  when  the  mahdi's  troops  entered  the  soldiers  were  too  weak 
to  make  any  effectual^xesistance.  Gordon  himself  expected  the 
town  to  fall  before  the  endof  December,  and  it  is  really  difficult 
to  understand  how  he  succeeded  in  holding  out  until  the  a6th 
of  January.  Writing  on  the  14th  of  December  he  said,  **  Now, 
mark  this,  if  the  eiqpeditionaiy  force — and  I  ask  for  no  more 
than  two  hundred  men — does  not  come  in  tia  days,  the  town 
may  fall,  and  I  have  done  my  best  for  the  honour  of  my  country.'* 
He  had  indeed  done  his  best,  and  far  more  than  could  have  been 
regarded  as  possible.  To  understand  what  he  went  through 
during  the  latter  months  of  the  siege,  it  is  only  necessary  to  read 
his  own  journal,  a  portion  of  which,  dating  from  xoth  September 
to  X4th  December  1884,  was  fortunatdy  preserved  and  published. 
Gordon  was  not  an  author,  but  he  wrote  many  short 
memoranda  on  subjects  that  interested  him,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  these  have  been  utilized,  espectidly  in  the  work  by 
his  brother.  Sir  Henry  Gordon,  entitled  E»aUs  in  the  Life  of 
Charles  George  Cordon,  from  Us  BegintUng  to  its  End,  He  was 
a  voluminous  letter-writer,  and  much  of  his  correspondence  has 
been  published.  His  character  was  remarkable,  and  the  influence 
he  had 'over  those  with  whom  he  came  in  contact  was  very 
striking.  His  power  to  command  men  of  non-European  races 
was  probably  unique.  He  had  no  fear  of  death,  and  cared  but 
little  for  the  opinion  of  others,  adhering  tenadou^y  to  the  course 
he  believed  to  be  right  in  the  face  of  all  opposition.  Though 
not  holding  to  outward  forms  of  religion,  he  was  a  truly  rdigious 
man  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word,  and  was  a  constant  student 
of  the  Bible.  To  serve  God  and  to  do  his  duty  were  the  great 
objects  of  his  life,  and  he  died  as  he  had  lived,  carrying  out  the 
work  that  lay  before  him  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  The  last 
words  of  his  last  letter  to  his  sister,  written  when  he  knew  that 
death  was  veiy  near,  sum  up  his  character:  "  I  am  quite  happy, 
thank  God,  and,  like  Lawrence,  I  l^ave  tried  to  do  my  duty."' 

*  With  this  estimate  of  Gordon's  character  may  be  contrasted 
those  of  Lord  Cromer  (the  most  tevete  of  Gordon's  critics),  and  of 
Lord  Morley  of  Blackburn;  in  their  strictures  as  in  thor  praiie 
they  help  to  explain  both  the  causes  of  the  extraordinary  influence 
widded  oy  Gordon  over  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men  and  also 
his  difficulties.  Lord  Cromer's  criticism,  it  should  t»e  remembered, 
does  not  deal  with  Gordon's  career  as  a  whole  but  soldy  with  hb  last 
mission  to  the  Sudan;  Lord  Motley's  is  a  more  ^neraf  judgment. 

Lord  Cromer  {Modem  Eiypt,  vol.  i.,  ch.  xxvii.,  p.  565-571)  sajrs: 
"  We  may  admire,  and  for  my  own  part  I  do  very  much  admire 
General  Cordon's  personal  oouraget  his  disinterestedness  and  his 
chivalrous  feeling  in  favour  of  the  beleaguered  garrisons,  but  ad- 
miration of  these  qualities  is  no  suffident  pica  a^^nst  a  condemna- 
tion of  his  conduct  on  the  ground  that  it  was  quixotic  In  his  last 
letter  to  his  sister,  dated  December  14,  iBSL  he  wrote:  '  I  am 

Suite  happy,  thank  God,  and,  like  Lawrence,  I  nave  tried  to  do  my 
uty  "...  I  am  not  now  dealing  with  General  Gordon's  character, 
which  was  in  many  tespccts  mwie,  or  with  his  military  defence  01 
Khartoum,  which  was  heroic,  t>ut  with  the  political  conduct  of  his 
misnon,  and  from  this  point  of  view  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying 
that  General  Gordon  cannot  be  considered  to  have  tried  to  do  his 
duty  unless  a  very  strained  and  misuken  view  be  uken  of  what 
his  duty  was.  ...  As  a  matter  of  public  morality  I  cannot  think 
that  General  Gordon's  process  of  reasoning  is  defensible.  ...  I 
(b  not  think  that  it  can  be  held  that  General  Gordon  made  any 
serious  effort  to  carry  out  the  main  ends  of  British  and  Egjrptiaa 
policy  in  the  Sudan.  He  thought  more  of  his  peraonal  opinions 
than  of  the  interests  of  the  sute.  ...  In  fact,  exoept  ncnonal 
Courarc,  great  fertility  in  military  resource,  a  livdy  though  sonoe* 
timesill-directed  repugnance  to  injustice,  oppression  and  meanness 
of  every  d^ription.  and  a  considerable  power  of  acquiring  influence 
over  tnose.  necessarily  limited  in  numbers,  with  whom  he  was 
brought  into  personal  contact.  General  Gordon  does  not  appear  to 
have  possessed  any  of  the  qualities  which  would  have  fitted  bins 
to  underuke  the  difficult  task  he  had  in  hand.'* 
Lord  Morley  {Life  of  Gladstone,  vol.  in.,  1st  ed.,  1901.  ch.  9. 

E.  15X)  says:  *^  Gordon,  as  Mr  Gladstone  said,  was  a  hero  M  heroes. 
[e  was  a  soldier  bf  infinite  peraonal  courage  and  daring,  of  striking 
military  energy,  initiative  and  resource;  a  high,  pure  and  single 
character,  dwelling  much  in  the  region  of  the  unseen.  But  as  all 
who  knew  htm  admit.,  and  as  his  own  records  tntify,  nptwithstand- 
ing  an  undereurrent  of  shrewd  common  sense,  he  was  the  creature, 
alnuMt  the  sport,  of  impulse;  his  impressions  and  purposes  changed 
with  ihe  speed  of  lightning:  anger  often  mastered  him;  be  went 
very  often  by  intuitkms  and  inspirations  rather  than  by  oool 


GORDON,  LORD  G.— GORDON,  SIR  J.  W. 


AuTnournn.— Tl«  /rmnwli  14  Itajnr-CmrTtt  Ceriat  al  KfcjrtiMt 
(iSSS);  Lord  CroiMf.  ilaUni  Etyfl  U  vol...  1908I;  F,  R.  Wingate, 
UaUUim   a-uf   lit   Eat''"   Siiam    (1S91):    the   firilut    Ptrlio- 
2  Ftfr  «"  Etypf  (iSa^-iMj);  C.  C.  Gordon.  Rliiataiil 


C.   B.   HiU.    C«!,>>icl  Cnrdnn    i>i    CmUal  A(',<a   <U 
tkMtral  C.  C  Garian  In  las  SiiUr  (iHM):  H.  W.  Cc 
IhiUUtt  C.  C.  ConlDI  (1M6) ;  Cwnmuidrr  L.  Hrii 
AM&ni  i*  Chin  (M&i);  A.  Wil>»i.  ContH'i 
TaMfint  KtUUion  (i«6e);  D.  C.  Baul[i!r.  Li/t 
A.  Ecmaa  Halii,  Tkt  SOr^  ^  ObHH  Anlin  .    . 


It  tiiVe,  fkt  Sary  of  Obmia 

L  IMJ):  Colood  Sir  W.  F.  Butler,  C 
i±ib^  Fotbo,  CUhw  Gsrdn  (i«e4) :  < 


voL  IMJ):  Colood  Sir  W 

•     ■iih»HForbc.,C«««_ ,^ ., 

DItn  i*  Cki-ui  [itSs):  UeatemotT.  Una.  R.E..  W-.H,  .  in 

lit  &imn  (iSqr):  Uculcnant-Gfiienil  Sir  G,  Graham.  /  .  ■  -it 
»M  GuioH  11887)1  "  War  CoirEiiundent."  Why  Cnr.!-.-.  :  «l 
(1896).  11.-.  M.\\  ; 

OOBDOV,  WRD  ABOBOB  (1751-1793),  thiid  ud  yoangeit 
via  at  CouDO  George,  duke  oF  Gordon,  vu  bora  Id  Loodoo  on 
Uw  26tfa  of  Decembs  1751-  After  compledog  fau  education  at 
ELoD,  be  eBtend  Ihe  navy,  where  be  nac  to  the  ruk  of  Licuteouit 
m  177>.  but  Lord  Sandwich,  then  at  tbe  head  of  the  admiralty, 
mold  nat  promise  him  tbe  command  of  a  ship,  and  be  resided 
ha  commitfioD  ibortly  before  tbe  befiinmnf  of  tbe  American 
War.  In  1774  Ibe  pocket  boioush  of  Ludgenhall  was  bought 
for  him  by  General  Fraser,  whom  he  was  oppoaing  in  Inverness' 
■hire,  in  order  to  bribe  him  not  to  contest  the  county.  He  was 
con^leRd  flllbty,  and  was  not  looked  upon  is  being  of  any 
inportaace.  In  1779  fie  organized,  and  made  himself  head  t>f 
Uw  Protestant  associations,  formed  to  secure  tiie  repeal  of  the 
Catholic  Relief  Act  of  177B.  Onttie  indof  June  r7So  he  headed 
the  mob  whicll  marched  in  procession  from  St  George'^  Fields 
to  iIk  Houies  o(  Parliament  in  order  to  present  the  monster 
petition  agalnit  the  acts.  After  the  mob  reached  WesIminstR  a 
terrific  riot  ensued,  which  continued  icverai  days,  during  which 
the  dty  was  virtually  at  their  mercy.  At  first  indeed  tbey 
diyersed  after  threatening  to  make  a  forcible  entry  into  the 
Honse  of  Commons,  but  reassembled  Mon  aflerwards  and 
destroyed  several  Roman  Catholic  chapels,  pillaged  the  private 
dwellings  of  many  Roman  Catholics,  set  fire  In  Newgate  and 
broke  open  all  the  other  prisons,  attacked  the  Bank  of  England 
and  several  other  public  buildings,  and  continued  tbe  work  of 
violence  and  conflagration  until  ttie  interference  of  the  military, 
by  whom  no  fewer  than  450  persons  were  killed  and  wounded 
before  the  riots  were  quelled.  For  his  share  in  instigating  the 
riots  lArd  Cordon  was  apprehended  on  a  charge  of  high  treason; 
bat,  mainly  through  the  skilful  and  eloquent  defence  of  Erskioe, 
be  was  acquitted  on  the  ground  tliat  he  had  no  ireasooaUe 
intentions.  His  life  was  henceforth  full  of  crack-brained  acbernes, 
political  and  financial.  In  17S6  he  was  eicommuidcated  by  tbe 
aicbbishop  of  Culerbnry  for  refusing  to  bear  witness  in  an 
fiflnlstt'"!  suit;  and  in  1787  he  waa  convicted  of  libelling  the 
tpigta  of  Prance,  tbe  French  ambasaador  and  the  administration 
of  lattice  in  England.  He  was,  however,  permitted  to  withdraw 
from  the  court  without  bail,  and  made  his  escape  to  Holland; 
bat  on  account  of  representations  from  the  court  of  Versailles 
be  waa  commanded  to  quit  that  country,  and,  returning  to 
F"t''"^.  **•  apFnhended,  and  in  January  ijSSjra*  sentenced 

X  from  carffnUy  mrveyed  fact:  with  many  variatloiu  of 

'  — ' — ■ '" —  lee  in  people  kaa  famooL  an  invincible 

a»»  wUlg  their  lasted.  Everybody 
il  a  soldier  of  this  temperament  on  a 
a  to  the  Sudan  in  iM^hat  was  not 
as  Sir  £.  Baring  said,  bn  profoundly 

-  — : -■  aeffynntrol.  wu  little 

._     MrGladrtoDcalnys 

,_,__.,  _ . ding  why  the  violent  end  of  tie 

It  CavagHil  in  Afihaniatan  stined  the  world  so  little  in 

Bffaoa  nth  the  fat*  of  CsrioB.    The  answer  Is  that  Gordon 

od  sdied  it  00  in  hither  lide. 

IS  Rliek«;  tbe  Bible  was  the 

.^  .- ,  -oth  old  dikpensacion  and  new; 

bflities';  h^  speech  was  slurp,  pithy,  rapid  ami  ironic;  above 
■n,  be  knew  the  ways  of  war  ud  would  not  bear  the  awocd  lot 


1  five  yean'  imprisonment  In  Newgate,  where  be  Uved  at  bit 
Me,  giving  dinners  and  dances.  As  he  could  not  obtain  securities 
n  his  good  behaviour  on  ihe  termination  of  his  tetm  o[  imprison- 
lent,  he  waa  not  allowed  (0  leave  Newgate,  and  there  he  died 

TV  U^ef  Lvi'emi'Gwibit.  vili^PiOeMfUail  Anew  of  Mi 
Pttitial  CMhcI,  by  ftoben  Wation,  M.D.  (London,  17a;).  Tbe 
tiest  accoLintiof  Lord  Geoc^  Cordon  ore  la  be  found  inthejllHIiaf 
Ailiilcri  fiDTH  178a  lO  the  year  of  hli  death. 

aORDOH,  SIR  JOHN  WATSON  (i7Sg-i864),  Scottiib  paintec. 
WIS  the  elilcst  boo  of  C^ilain  Walson,  R.N.,  a  udet  of  the 
family  of  Watson  of  Overmains,  in  the  county  of  Berwick.  He 
was  bom  in  Edinburgh  in  1 788,  and  was  educated  jpedally  with 
a  view  to  his  joining  the  Royal  Engineers.  He  entered  as  a 
student  in  the  government  school  of  doign,  under  the  nunage- 
raent  of  tbe  Board  of  Manufactures.  His  natural  taste  lor  art 
quickly  developed  itself,  and  his  father  was  persuaded  to  allow 
him  to  adopt  it  as  his  profession.  Captain  Watson  was  himself 
a  skilful  draughtsman,  and  his  brother  George  Watson,  after- 
wards president  of  the  Scottish  Academy,  stood  high  as  a  portrait 
painter,  second  only  to  Sir  Henry  Raebum,  who  also  was  a 
friend  of  the  family-  In  tbe  yeariSoS  John  sent  to  tbe  exhibition 
of  the  Lyceum  in  Nicolson  Street  a  subject  from  the  £ay  sf  Ite 
ZniJ  Uintird,  and  continued  fot  some  years  to  eihibit  fancy 
subjects;  but,  although  freely  and  iweelly  painted,  tb^  were 
altogether  without  the  foite  and  diuacter  which  stamped  bii 
portrait  pictures  as  the  works  of  a  master.  After  tbe  death  ol 
Sir  Henry  Raeburain  ittj,  be  succeeded  to  much  of  liis  practice. 
He  assumed  in  iSifi  the  name  of  Gordon.  One  ol  the  eartieal 
of  his  famous  sitters  was  Sir  Walter  Scott,  iVho  sal  for  a  6m,t 
portrait  in  iSio.  Titen  came  J-  C.  Lockhart  in  1811;  Professor 
Wilson,  1811  and  1850.  two  portrsiU;  Sir  Archibald  Alison, 
iBjo;  Dr  Chalmen,  1844;  ■  Utile  later  De  Quincey,  and  Sir 
David  Brewster,  1864.  Among  his  most  important  works  may 
be  mentioned  the  eat!  of  Dalbousie  (18]]},  in  the  Archers'  Hdl, 
Edinburgh;  Sir  Alexander  Hope  (i8js),  in  tfic  county  buildings, 
Linlithgow;  Lord  President  Hope,  in  tbe  Parliament  House; 
and  Dr  Chalmers.  These,  unlike  his  Uter  works,  are  geoer- 
ally  rich  in  colour.  Tbe  full  length  of  Dr  Brunton  (1S44), 
and  Dr  Lee,  the  principal  of  tbe  university  (1846),  both  on  the 
staircase  of  tbe  college  library,  mark  a  modification  of  his  style, 
which  ultimately  resolved  itself  into  extteme  simplicity,  both 
of  colour  and  treatment. 

During  tbe  last  twenty  years  o(  his  life  lie  painted  many 
distinguished  Englishmen  who  came  to  Edinburgb  to  sit  to  him. 
And  it  is  significant  that  David  Coi,  the  landscape  painter,  on 
being  presented  with  his  portrait,  subscribed  for  by  many 
friends,  chose  to  go  to  Edinburgh  to  have  il  eiecutcd  by  Watson 
Gordon,  although  hs  neither  knew  the  painter  personally  nor 
bad  ever  before  visited  the  country.  Among  tbe  portraits 
painted  during  this  period,  in  what  may  be  termed  his  third  style, 
are  De  Quincey,  in  the  Nalional  Portrait  Gallery,  London; 
General  Sir  Thomas  Macdougall  Brisbane,  in  tbe  Royal  Society  1 
tbe  prince  of  Wales,  Lord  Mw^ulay,  Sit  M.  Packington,  Lord 
Murray,  Lord  Cockbum,  Lord  Rutherford  and  Sir  John  Shaw 
Lefevre,  in  the  Scottish  National  Gallery.  These  latter  pictures 
are  roostlyciearandgrey,  sometimes  showing  little  or  no  positive 
colour,  the  ficsh  itself  being  very  grey,  and  the  handling  extremely 
masterly,  though  never  obtruding  its  cleverness.  He  was  very 
successful  in  rendering  acute  observant  character.  A  good 
examcde  of  his  last  style,  showing  pearly  flesb.painting  freely 
bandied,  yet  hi^y  finished,  it  hb  bead  of  Sir  John  Shaw 
LefevR. 

John  WatsoD  Gordon  was  one  of  the  earlier  mcmbeti  ol  the 
Royal  Scottish  Academy,  and  was  elected  its  president  !a  iSjo; 
he  was  at  the  same  time  appointed  Umnct  for  Scotland  to  the 
queen,  and  received  Ihe  honour  of  knighthood.  Since  1841  be 
bftd  been  an  ssMdale  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  b  iBji  he 
was  elected  a  royil  tcidemjcian,  He  died  on  the  ttt  of  June 
1864. 


25+ 


GORDON,  L.— GORE,  C. 


GORDON,  LEON,  originally  Judah  Loeb  ben  Ashcr  (1831- 
1892),  Russian-Jewish  poet  and  novelist  (Hebrew),  was  born  at 
Wilna  in  1831  and  died  at  St  Petersburg  in  1892.  He  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  modem  revival  of  the  Hebrew  language 
and  culture.  His  satires  did  much  to  rouse  the  Russian  Jews 
to  a  new  sense  of  the  reality  of  life,  and  Gordon  was  the  apostle 
of  enlightenment  in  the  Ghettos.  His  Hebrew  style  is  dassical 
and  pure.  His  poems  were  collected  in  four  volumes,  Kol  Skure 
Yehudah  (St  Petersburg,  x883>i884);  his  novels  in  Ka  KUhbe 
Yehuda  (Odessa,  1889). 

For  his  works  see  Jewisk  Quarteiiy  RentWt  xviiL  437  seq. 

GORDON,  PATRICK  (Z63S-X699),  Russian  general,  was 
descended  from  a  Scottish  family  of  Aberdeenshire,  who 
possessed  the  small  estate  of  Auchleuchries,  and  were  connected 
with  the  house  of  Haddo.  He  was  bom  in  1635,  and  after 
completing  his  education  at  the  parish  schools  of  Cruden  and 
Ellon,  entered,  in  his  fifteenth  year,  the  Jesuit  college  at  Brauns- 
berg,  Prussia;  but,  .as  "  his  humour  could  not  endure  such  a 
still  and  strict  way  of  living,"  he  soon  resolved  to  return  home. 
He  changed  his  mind,  however,  before  re-embarking,  and  after 
joumeying  on  foot  in  several  parts  of  Gennany,  ultimately,  in 
1655,  enlisted  at  Hamburg  in  the  Swedish  service.  In  the 
course  of  the  next  five  years  he  served  alternately  with  the 
Poles  and  Swedes  as  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  either.  In  x66i, 
after  further  experience  as  a  soldier  of  fortune,  he  took  service 
in  the  Russian  army  under  Alexis  I.,  and  in  1665  he  was  sent 
on  a  special  mission  to  England.  After  his  retum  he  distin- 
guished himself  in  several  wars  against  the  Turks  and  Tatars  in 
southern  Russia,  and  in  recognition  of  his  services  he  in  1678  was 
made  major-general,  in  1679  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
at  Kiev,  and  in  X683  was  made  lieutenantrgeneral.  He  visited 
England  in  x686,  and  in  X687  and  X689  took  part  as  quarter- 
master-general in  expeditions  against  the  Crim  Tatars  in  the 
Crimea,  being  made  full  general  for  his  services,  in  spite  of  the 
denunciations  of  the  Greek  Chiirch  to  which,  as  a  heretic,  he 
was  exposed.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  in  Moscow 
in  X689,  Gordon  with  the  troops  he  commanded  virtually  decided 
events  in  favour  of  the  tsar  Peter  I.,  and  against  the  tsaritsa 
Sophia.  He  was  therefore  during  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
Ugh  favour  with  the  tsar,  who  confided  to  him  the  command  of 
his  capital  during  his  absence  from  Russia,  employed  him  in 
organizing  hb  army  according  to  the  European  system,  and 
latterly  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  general-in-chief.  He  died 
on  the  29th  of  November  X699.  The  tsar,  who  had  visited  him 
frequently  during  his  illness,  was  with  him  when  he  died,  and 
with  his  own  hands  dosed  his  eyes. 

General  Gordon  left  behind  him  a  diary  of  his  life,  written  in 
English.  This  is  preserved  in  MS.  in  the  archives  of  the  Russian 
foreign  office.  A  complete  German  translation,  edited  by  Dr 
Maurice  Pnwalt  {TagebiuhdesGenerals  Patrick  Ccrdon)  was  published, 
the  first  volume  at  Moscow  in  18^9,  the  second  at  St  Petersburg  in 
1851.  and  the  third  at  St  Petersburg  in  i8m;  and  Passages  from 
tke  Diary  of  General  Patrick  Gordon  of  AuckUuckries  (1635-1699), 
was  printed,  under  the  editorship  of  Joseph  Robertson,  for  the 
Spakling  Club,  Aberdeen,  1859. 

GORDON-CUMMING.  ROUALETN  GEORGE  (x82o-x866), 
Scottish  traveller  and  sportsman,  known  as  the  "  lion  hunter," 
was  bora  on  the  xsth  of  March  1820.  He  was  the  second  son  of 
Sir  William  G.  Gordon-Cumming,  and  baronet  of  Altyre  and 
Gordonstown,  Elginshire.  From  his  early  years  he  was  distin- 
guished by  his  passion  for  sport.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and 
at  eighteen  joined  the  East  India  Co.'s  service  as  a  comet  in  the 
Madras  Light  Cavalry.  The  climate  of  India  not  suiting  him, 
after  two  years'  experience  he  retired  from  the  service  and 
returned  to  Scotland.  During  his  stay  in  the  East  he  had  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  collection  of  hunting  trophies  and  specimens 
of  natural  histoxy.  In  X843  he  joined  the  Cape  Mounted  Rifles, 
but  for  the  sake  of  absolute  freedom  sold  out  at  the  end  of  the 
year  anfl  with  an  ox  wagon  and  a  few  native  followers  set  out 
lor  the  interior.  He  hunted  chiefly  in  Bechuanaland  and  the 
Limpopo  valley,  regions  then  swarming  with  big  game.  In 
X848  ht  retumed  to  England.  The  story  of  his  remarkable 
exploits  is  vividly  told  in  his  bookj  Five  Years  of  a  Hunter^s 


Life  in  tke  Par  Interior  of  Sonik  Africa  (London,  i8so,  sxH 
ed.  X851).  Of  this  volume,  received  at  first  with  incredulity 
by  stay-at-home  critics,  David  Livingstone,  who  furnished 
Gordon-Cumming  with  most  of  his  native  gitides,  wrote:  "  I 
have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  Mr  Cumming's  book  conveys  a 
trathful  idea  of  South  African  hunting  "  (Missionary  Travds, 
chap.  vii.).  His  collection  of  hunting  trophies  was  exhibited 
in  London  in  185X  at  the  Great  Exhibition,  and  was  iUustrated 
by  a  lecture  delivered  by  Gordon-Cumming.  The  collection* 
known  as  **  The  South  Africa  Museum,"  was  afterwards  exhibited 
in  various  parts  of  the  country.  In  X858  Gordon-Cumming  went 
to  live  at  Fort  Augustus  on  the  Caledonian  Canal,  where  the 
exhibition  of  his  trophies  attracted  many  visitors.  He  died 
there  on  the  24th  of  March  x866. 

An  abridgment  of  his  book  was  published  in  1856  uq^a-  the  title 
of  Tke  Lion  Hunter  of  Soutk  Africa,  and  in  this  form  waS^requently 
reprinted,  a  new  edition  appearing  in  1904. 

GORE,  CATHERINE  GRACE  FRANCES  (x799-x86xj,  English 
novelist  and  dramatist,  the  daughter  of  Charles  Moody,  a  wine- 
merchant,  was  bom  in  x  799  at  East  Retford,  Nottinghamshire. 
In  X823  she  was  married  to  Captain  Charies  Gore;  and,  in  the 
next  year,  she  published  her  first  work,  Theresa  Morehmoni,  or 
the  Maid  of  Honour.  Then  followed,  among  others,  the  Lettre 
de  Cachet  (1827),  The  Reign  of  Terror  (X827),  Hungarian  Tales 
(X829),  Manners  of  the  Day  (1830),  Mothers  and  Daughters  (X831), 
and  The  Pair  of  May  Pair  (1832),  Mrs  Armytage  (1836).  Every 
succeeding  year  saw  several  volumes  from  her  pen:  The  Cabinoi 
Minister  and  The  Courtier  of  the  Days  of  Charles  I  J.,  in  1839; 
Preferment  in  X840.  In  X84X  Cecil,  or  the  Adventures  of  a  Coi^ 
comb,  attracted  considerable  attention.  CreviUe,  or  a  Season  in 
Paris  appeared  in  the  same  year;  then  Orminglon,  or  Cecil  a 
Peer,  Fascination,  the  Ambassador's  Wife;  and  in  1843  Th€ 
Banker's  Wife.  Mrs  Gore  continued  to  write,  with  iinfafHnu 
fertility  of  invention,  tiU  her  death  on  the  a9th  of  January  x86i. 
She  also  wrote  some  dramas  of  which  the  most  successful  was 
the  Schm^  for  Coquettes,  produced  at  the  Haymarket  (x83x). 
She  was  a  woman  of  versatile  talent,  and  set  to  music  Buraa's 
"  And  ye  shall  walk  in  silk  attire,"  one  of  the  most  popular  songs 
of  her  day.  Her  extraordinary  literary  industry  is  proved  by 
the  existence  of  more  than  seventy  dhtinct  works.  Her  best 
novels  are  Cecil,  or  the  Adventures  of  a  Coxcomb,  and  The  Banker's 
Wife.  Cecil  gives  extremely  vivid  dcetches  of  London  fashionable 
life,  and  is  full  of  happy  epigrammatic  touches.  For  the  know- 
ledge of  London  clubs  displayed  in  it  Mrs  Gore  was  indebted  to 
William  Beckford,  the  author  of  Vatheh.  The  Banker's  Wifa 
is  distinguished  by  some  clever  studies  of  character,  especially 
in  the  persons  of  Mr  Hamlyn,  the  cold  calculating  money-maker^ 
and  his  warm-hearted  countxy  neighbour,  O>lonel  Haniilton. 

Mrs  Gore's  novels  had  an  immense  temporary  popularity; 
they  were  parodied  by  Thackeray  in  Punch,  in  his  "  Lords  and 
Liveries  by  the  author  of  Dukes  and  Dijeuners  ";  but,  tedious 
as  they  are  to  present-day  readers,  they  presented  on  the  whole 
faithful  pictures  of  the  contemporary  lUe  and  pursuits  of  the 
English  upper  classes^ 

GORE,  CHARLES  (X853-  ),  English  divine,  was  bom  in 
x8s3,  the  3rd  son  of  the  Hon.  Charles  Alexander  Gore,  brother 
of  the  4th  earl  of  Arran.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  the  4tli 
earl  of  Bessborough.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  and  was  elected  feUow  of  Trinity  College  is  X875. 
From  x88o  to  X883  he  was  vice-principal  of  the  theological* 
college  at  Cuddesdon,  and,  when  in  X884  Pusey  House  was 
foxmdcd  at  Oxford  as  a  home  for  Dr  Pusey's  library  and  a  centre 
for  the  propagation  of  his  principles,  he  was  appointed  principal, 
a  position  which  he  held  until  1893.  As  principal  of  Pusey  House 
Mr  Gore  exercised  a  wide  influence  over  undergraduates  and  the 
younger  clergy,  and  it  was  largely,  if  not  mainly,  vndet  this 
influence  that  the  "  Oxford  Movement "  underwent  a  change 
which  to  the  survivors  of  the  old  school  of  Tractarians  seemed 
to  involve  a  break  with  its  ba^c  principles.  "  Ptiseyism  "  had 
been  in  the  highest  degree  conservative,  basing  itself  on  authority 
and  tradition,  and  repudiating  any  compromise  with  the  modem 
critical  and  liberalizing  spirit.  Mr  Gore,  starting  from  the 


GORE— GORGE 


255 


basi»of  faith  and  autbority,  soon  found  from  his  practical  experi- 
ence in  dealing  with  the  "  doubts  and  difficulties  "  of  the  younger 
generation  that  this  uncompromising  attitude  was  untenable, 
and  set  himsdf  the  task  of  reoondling  the  principle  of  authority 
in  rdigbn  with  that  of  scientific  authority  by  attempting  to 
define  the  boundaries  of  their  req>ective  spheres  of  influence. 
To  him  the  divine  authority  of  the  Catholic  Church  was  an 
ajdom,and  in  1889  he  published  two  works,  the  larger  of  which, 
Ttu  Church  and  the  Ministry^  is  a  learned  vindication  of  the 
principle  of  Apostolic  Succession  in  the  q>iscopate  against  the 
Presbyterians  and  other  Protestant  bodies,  while  the  second, 
Roman  Cathdic  Claims^  is  a  defence,  couched  in  a  more  popular 
form,  of  the  Anglican  Church  and  Anglican  orders  against  the 
Attadcs  of  the  Romanists. 

So  far  his  published  views  had  been  in  complete  consonance 
irith  those  of  the  older  Tractaiians.  But  in  1890  a  great  stir 
was  created  by  the  publication,  under  his  editorship,  of  Lux 
Mundi,  a  series  of  essays  by  different  writers,  being  an  attempt 
*'  to  succour  a  distressed  faith  by  endeavouring  to  bring  the 
Christian  Creed  into  its  right  rdation  to  the  modem  growth  of 
knoidedge,  scientific,  historic,  critical;  and  to  modem  problems 
of  politics  and  ethics."  Mr  Goro  himself  contributed  an  essay 
on  "  The  Holy  Spirit  and  Inspiration."  The  book,  which  ran 
throu^  twelve  editions  in  a  little  over  a  year,  met  with  a  some- 
what mi3ced  reception.  Orthodox  churchmen,  Evangelical  and 
Tractarian  alike,  were  alarmed  by  views  on  the  incarnate  nature 
of  Christ  that  seemed  to  them  to  impugn  his  Divinity,  and  by 
concessions  to  the  Higher  Criticbm  in  the  matter  of  the  inspira- 
tion <^  Holy  Scriptures  which  appeared  to  them  to  convert  the 
"  impregnable  rock,"  as  Gladstone  had  called  it,  into  a  founda- 
tion of  sand;  scq>tics,  on  the  other  hand,  were  not  greatly 
impmsed  by  a  system  of  defence  which  seemed  to  dnw  an 
artificial  line  beyond  which  criticism  was  not  to  advance.  None 
the  less  the  book  produced  a  profound  effect,  and  that  far  beyond 
the  borders  of  the  English  Church,  and  it  is  largely  due  to  its 
induence,  and  to  that  of  the  school  it  represents,  that  the  High 
Church  movement  developed  thenceforth  on  "  Modernist " 
rather  than  Tractarian  lines. 

In  189 1  Mr  Gore  was  chosen  to  deliver  the  Bampton  lectures 
before  the  university,  and  chose  for  his  subject  the  Incarnation. 
In  these  lectures  he  developed  the  doctrine,  the  enunciation  of 
which  in  Lux  Mundi  had  caused  so  much  heart-searching.  This  is 
an  attempt  to  explain  how  it  came  that  Christ,  though  incarnate 
God,  could  be  in  error,  e.g,  in  his  citations  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  orthodox,  explanation  was  based  on  the  principle  of 
accommodation  iq.v.).  This,  however,  ignored  the  difficulty  that 
if  Christ  during  his  sojourn  on  earth  was  not  subject  to  human 
limitations,  especially  of  knowledge,  he  was  not  a  man  as  other 
men,  and  therefore  not  subject  to. their  trials  and  temptations. 
This  difficulty  Gore  sought  to  meet  through  the  doctrine  of  the 
lAmMfis.  Ever  since  the  Pauline  q>istles  had  been  received  into 
the  canon  theologians  had,  from  various  points  of  view,  at- 
tempted to  explain  what  St  Paul  meant  when  he  wrote  of 
Christ  (2  Phil.  ii.  7)  that  "  he  emptied  himself  and  took  upon 
him  the  form  of  a  servant "  {hmbv  bsbnacvf  /lop^^y  foi/XoD 
Xafium).  According  to  Mr  Gore  this  means  that  Christ,  on  his 
Incarnation,  became  subject  to  all  human  limitations,  and  had, 
•o  far  as  his  life  on  earth  was  concerned,  stripped  himself  of  all 
the  attributes  of  the  Godhead,  including  the  Divine  omniscience, 
the  Divine  nature  being,  as  it  were,  hidden  under  the  human.^ 

Lux  Mundi  and  the  Bampton  lectures  led  to  a  situation  of 
some  tension  which,  was  relieved  when  in  1893  Dr  Gore  resigned 
his  prindpalship  and  became  vicar  of  Radley,  a  small  parish 
near  Oxford.  In  1894  he  became  canon  of  Westminster.  Here 
be  gained  commanding  influence  as  a  preacher  and  in  1898  was 
appointed  one  of  the  court  chaplains.    In  1902  he  succeeded 

*  Cf..  the  Lutheran  theologian  Emtt  Sartoriui  in  his  Lihre  von 
dtr  kaiittn  Liebe  (1844),  Lekrt  i*.  pp.  21  et  aeq.:  "  the  Son  of  God 
vcib  his  all-teeing  eye  and  descends  into  human  darkness  and  as 
child  of  man  ofiena  his  eye  as  the  gradually  growing  light  of  the 
worU  of  humanity,  until  at  the  right  hand  of  the  Father  he  allows 
k  to  ahine  forth  in  all  its  glory."  See  Loots.  Art.  "  Kenosb  "  in 
HenoK-Haock,  RgokncykhpAdu  (ed.  1901).  x.  247. 


J.  J.  S.  Perowne  as  bishop  of  Worcester  and  in  1905  was  installed 
bi^op  of  Birmingham,  a  new  see  the  creation  of  which  had  been 
mainly  due  to  his  efforts.  While  adhering  rigidly  to  his  views 
on  the  divine  institution  of  q>t5Copacy  as  owential  to  the 
Christian  Church,  Dr  Gore  from  the  first  cultivated  friendly 
rdations  with  the  ministers  of  other  denominations,  and  advo- 
cated co-operation  with  them  in  aU  matters  when  agreement 
was  possible.  In  sodal  questions  he  became  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  considerable  group  of  Hi^  Churchmen  known,  somewhat 
loosely,  as  Christian  Socialists.  He  worlced  actively  against  the 
sweating  system,  pleaded  for  European  intervention  in  Mace- 
donia, and  was  a  keen  supporter  of  the  Licensing  Bill  of  1908. 
In  1892  he  founded  the  clerical  fraternity  known  as  the  Com- 
munity of  the  Resurrection.  Its  members  are  priests,  who  are 
bound  by  the  obligation  of  celibacy,  live  under  a  common  rule 
and  with  a  common  purse.  Their  work  is  pastoral,  evangelistic, 
literary  and  educationaL  In  1898  the  House  of  the  Resurrection 
at  Mirfield,  near  Huddersfield,  became  the  centre  of  the  com- 
munity; in  X903  a  ooUege  for  training  candidates  for  orders  was 
established  there,  and  in  the  same  year  a  branch  house,  for 
missionary  work,  was  set  up  in  Johannesburg  in  South  Africa. 

Dr  Gore's  works  include  The  Incarnation  (Bampton  Lectures, 
1891).  The  Creed  of  the  Christian  (1895),  The  Body  of  Christ  (1901). 
The  New  Theology  and  the  Old  Rtligion  (1908),  and  expositions  of 
The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (1896),  BPhesians  (1898),  and  Romans 
(1899),  while  in  1910  he  published  Oraers  and  Unity, 

GORB.  (i)  (O.  Eng.  gor,  dung  or  filth),  a  word  formerly 
used  in  the  sense  of  dirt,  but  now  confined  to  blood  that  has 
thickened  after  being  shed.  (2)  (O.  Eng.  gdra,  probably  con- 
nected with  gore,  an  old  word  for  "  ^>ear "),  something  of 
triangular  shape,  resembling  therefore  a  ^>ear-head.  The  word 
is  used  for  a  tapering  strip  of  land,  in  the  "  common  or  open 
field  "  system  of  agriculture,  where  from  the  shape  of  the  land 
the  acre  or  half-acre  strips  could  not  be  portioned  out  in  straight 
divisions.  Sinularly  "gore"  is  used  in  the  United  States, 
especially  in  Maine  and  Vermont,  for  a  strip  of  land  left  out 
in  surveying  when  divisions  are  made  and  boundaries  marklMl. 
The  triangular  sections  of  material  used  in  forming  the  covering 
of  a  balloon  or  an  tmibrella  are  also  called  "  gores,"  and  in 
dressmaking  the  term  is  used  for  a  triangular  piece  of  material 
inserted  in  a  dress  to  adjust  the  difference  in  widths.  To  gore, 
i.e.  to  stab  or  pierce  with  any  sharp  instrument,  but  more 
particularly  used  of  piercing  with  the  horns  of  a  bull,  is  probably 
directly  connected  with  gare,  a  spear. 

GORBE,  an  island  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  forming  part 
of  the  French  colony  of  Senegal.  It  lies  at  the  entrance  of  the 
large  natural  harbour  formed  by  the  peninsula  of  Cape  Verde. 
The  island,  some  900  yds.  long  by  330  broad,  and  3  m.  distant 
from  the  nearest  point  of  the  maioluui,  is  mostly  barren  rock. 
The  greater  part  of  its  surface  is  occupied  by  a  town,  formeriy 
a  thriving  commercial  entrepot  and  a  strong  military  post. 
Until  1906  it  was  a  free  port.  With  the  rise  of  Dakar  (9.9.) , 
c.  i860,  on  the  adjacent  coast,  Goree  lost  its  trade  and  its 
inhabitants,  mostly  Jobfs,  had  dwindled  in  1905  to  about  1500. 
Its  healthy  climate,  however,  makes  it  useful  as  a  sanatorium. 
The  streets  are  narrow,  and  the  houses,  mainly  built  of  dark- 
red  stone,  are  flat-roofed.  The  castle  of  St  Michael,  the  gover- 
nor's residence,  the  hospital  and  barracks,  testify  to  the  former 
importance  of  the  town.  Within  the  castle  is  an  artesian  well, 
the  only  water-supply,  save  that  coUeaed  in  rain  tanks,  on  the 
island.  Goree  was  first  occupied  by  the  Dutch,  who  took  posses- 
sion of  it  early  in  the  17th  century  and  called  it  Goeree  or  Goede- 
reede,  in  memory  of  the  island  on  their  own  coast  now  united 
with  Overflakkee.  Its  native  name  is  Bir,  i^.  a  belly,  in  allusion 
to  its  shape.  It  was  c^tured  by  the  English  under  Commodore 
(afterwaitls  Admiral  Sir  Robert)  Holmes  in  1663,  but  retaken 
in  the  following  year  by  de  Ruyter.  The  Dutch  were  finally 
expelled  in  1677  by  the  French  under  Admiral  d'Estr6es. 
Goree  subsequently  fell  again  into  the  hands  of  the  English, 
but  was  definitely  occupied  by  France  in  18x7  (see  Seneoal: 
History). 

OORGB.  strictly  the  French  word  for  the  throat  considered 
eztemally.    Hence  it  Is  applied  in  falconry  to  a  hawk's  crop. 


256 


GORGEI— GORGES 


and  thus,  with  the  sense  of  something  gteedy  or  ravenous,  to 
food  given  to  a  hawk  and  to  the  contents  of  a  hawk's  crop  or 
stomach.  It  is  from  this  sense  that  the  expression  of  a  person's 
"  gorge  rising  at  "  anything  in  the  sense  of  loathing  or  disgust 
is  derived.  "  Gorge/'  from  analogy  with  "  throat,"  is  used 
with  the  meaning  of  a  narrow  opening  as  of  a  ravine  or  valley 
between  hills;  in  fortification,  of  the  neck  of  an  outwork  or 
bastion;  and  in  architecture,  of  the  narrow  part  of  a  Roman 
Doric  column,  between  the  echinus  and  the  astragaL  From 
"gorge"  also  comes  a  diminutive  "gorget,"  a  portion  of  a 
woman's  costume  in  the  middle  ages,  being  a  dose  form  of 
wimple  covering  the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  breast,  and  also 
that  part  of  the  body  armour  covering  the  neck  and  collar- 
bone (see  Gorget).  The  word  "gorgeous,"  of  splendid  or 
magnificent  appearance,  comes  from  the  O.  Fr.  goriias,  with 
the  same  meaning,  and  has  very  doubtfully  been  connected 
with  gorge,  a  ruffle  or  neck-covering,  of  a  supposed  elaborate 
kind. 

gORGBI,  ARTHUR  (i8x9-  ),  Hungarian  soldier,  was 
bom  at  Toporcz,  in  Upper  Hungary,  on  tho  30th  of  January 
x8i8.  He  came  of  a  Saron  noble  family  who  were  converts  to 
Protestantism.  In  1837  be  entered  the  Bodyguard  of  Hungarian 
Nobles  at  Vienna,  where  he  combined  military  service  with  a 
course  of  study  at  the  university.  In  1845,  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  he  retired  from  the  army  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  chemistry  at  Prague,  after  which  he  retired  to  the 
family  estates  in  Hungary.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary 
war  of  1848,  Gdrgei  offered  his  sword  to  the  Hungarian  govern- 
ment. Entering  the  Honvid  army  with  the  rank  of  captain,  he 
was  employed  in  the  purchase  of  arms,  and  soon  became  major 
and  commandant  of  the  national  guards  north  of  the  Theiss. 
Whilst  he  was  engaged  in  preventing  the  Croatian  army  from 
crossing  the  Danube,  at  the  isUnd  of  Csepd,  below  Pest,  the 
wealthy  Hungarian  magnate  Count  Eugene  Zichy  fell  into  his 
hands,  and  Gdrgei  caused  him  to  be  arraigned  before  a  court- 
martial  on  a  charge  of  treason  and  immediately  hanged.  After 
various  successes,  over  the  Croatian  forces,  of  which  the  most 
remarkable  was  that  at  Ozora,  where  xo,ooo  prisoners  fell  into 
his  hands,  Gdrgei  was  appointed  conunander  of  the  army  of  the 
Upper  Danube,  but,  on  the  advance  of  Prince  Windischgrftta 
across  the  Leitha,  he  resolved  to  fall  back,  and  in  spite  of  the 
remonstrances  of  Kossuth  he  held  to  his  resolution  and  retreated 
upon  Waitzen.  Here,  irritated  by  what  he  considered  undue 
interference  with  his  plans,  he  issued  (January  5th,  1849)  a  pro- 
clamation throwing  the  blame  for  the  recent  want  of  success 
upon  the  government,  thus  virtually  revolting  against  their 
authority.  Gdrgei  retired  to  the  Hungarian  Erzgebirge  and 
conducted  operations  on  his  own  initiative.  Meanwhile  the 
supreme  command  had  been  conferred  upon  the  Pole  Dembinski, 
but  the  latter  fought  without  success  the  battle  of  Kapolna, 
at  which  action  Gdrgci's  corps  arrived  too  late  to  take  an  effective 
part,  and  some  time  after  this  the  command  was  again  conferred 
upon  Gdrgei.  The  campaign  in  the  spring  of  1849  was  brilliantly 
conducted  by  him,  and  in  a  series  of  engagements,  he  defeated 
Windischgr&t2.  In  April  he  won  the  victories  of  GdddUd  Izaszeg 
and  Nagy  Sarld,  relieved  Komom,  and  again  won  a  battle  at 
Acs  or  Waitzen.  Had  he  followed  up  his  successes  by  taking 
the  offensive  against  the  Austrian  frontier,  he  might  perhaps 
have  dictated  terms  in  the  Austrian  capital  itself.  As  it  was, 
he  contented  himself  with  reducing  Ofen,  the  Hungarian  capital, 
in  which  he  desired  to  re-establish  the  diet,  and  after  effecting 
this  capture  he  remained  inactive  for  some  weeks.  Meanwhile, 
at  a  diet  held  at  Debreczin,  Kossuth  had  formally  proposed  the 
dethronement  of  the  Habsburg  dynasty  and  Hungary  had  been 
proclaimed  a  republic.  Gdrgei  had  refused  the  field-marshal's 
b&ton  offered  him  by  Kossuth  and  was  by  no  means  in  sympathy 
with  the  new  regime.  However,  he  accepted  the  portfolio  of 
minister  of  war,  while  retaining  the  command  of  the  troops  in 
the  field.  The  Russians  had  now  intervened  in  the  struggle  and 
made  common  cause  with  the  Austrians;  the  allies  were  advanc- 
ing into  Hungary  on  all  sides,  and  Gdrgei  was  defeated  by 
Haynau  at  Pered  (soth-axst  of  June).    Kossuth,  perceiving 


the  impossibility  of  continuing  the  struggle  and  being  onwilliog 
himself  to  make  terms,  resigned  his  position  as  dictator,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Gdrgei,  who  meanwhile  had  been  fighting  hard 
against  the  various  colunms  of  the  enemy.  Gdtgci,  convinced 
that  he  could  not  break  through  the  enemy's  lines,  surrendered, 
with  his  army  of  ao,ooo  infantry  and  aooo  cavalry,  to  the 
Russian  general  ROdiger  at  Vilagos.  Gdigei  was  not  court- 
martialled,  as  were  his  generals,  but  kept  in  confinement  at 
Klagenfurt,  where  he  lived,  chiefly  emi^yed  in  chemical  woriL, 
until  1867,  when  he  'was  pardoned  and  returned  to  Hungary. 
The  surrender,  and  particularly  the  fact  that  his  life  was  spared 
while  his  generals  and  many  of  his  officers  and  men  were  hanged 
or  shot,  1^,  perhaps  natunlly,  to  his  being  abused  of  treason 
by  public  opinion  of  his  counUymen.  After  his  rdease  he 
played  no  further  part  in  public  He.  Even  in  1885  an  attempt 
which  was  made  by  a  large  number  of  his  old  comrades  to  re- 
habilitate him  was  not  favourably  received  in  Hungary.  After 
some  years'  work  as  a  railway  engineer  be  retired  to  Viscgt&d, 
where  he  lived  thenceforward  in  retreat  (See  also  Humgast: 
History.) 

General  Gdrgei  wrote  a  justification  of  his  operations  (iietn 
Leben  und  Wirken  in  Ungam  x84S'i8s9,  Leipzig,  1852),  an 
anonymous  paper,  under  the  title  Was  verdanken  vrir  der  Rnoiu^ 
tionf  (1875),  and  a  reply  to  Kossuth's  charges  (signed  "Joh. 
Demir")  in  BudapesU  SzemU,  x88i,  25-26.  Ajnongst  those 
who  wrote  in  his  favour  were  Captain  Stephan  Gdrgei  (1848  is 
184Q  bdl,  Budapest,  X885),  and  Colonel  Aschermaim  {Eim  ojfenes 
Wort  in  der  Sacke  dgs  Homid-Generals  A  rikur  Ofrgei,  Klausenbuzg, 
X867). 

See  alio  A.  G.  Horn,  Cdrg/tit  OberkommandaiU  d.  ung.  Armoe 
(Leipzig,  1850) ;  Kinety,  Gargevstitt  and  Work  in  HungjoryXLuoAan, 
1853) ;  Szinyei,  in  Magydr  lr6k  (iti.  X378),  Hentaller,  G^gei  as  a 
Statesman  (Hungarian);  Elem&r,  Cdrgti  in  1848-1849  (Hungarian, 
Budapest,  1886). 

GORGES,  SIR  FBRDIHAMDO  {fi.  1566-1647),  English  colonial 
pioneer  in  America  and  the  founder  of  Maine,  was  bom  in 
Somersetshire,  En^and,  probably  in  1566.  From  youth  both 
a  soldier  and  a  sailor,  he  was  a  prisoner  in  Spain  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one,  having  been  captured  by  a  ship  of  the  Spanish 
Armada.  In  1589  he  was  in  command  of  a  small  body  of  troops 
fighting  for  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  after  distinguishing  him- 
self at  the  siege  of  Rouen  was  kiiighted  there  in  159  x.  In  X596 
he  was  commissioned  captain  and  keeper  of  the  castle  and  fort 
at  Plymouth  and  captain  of  St  Nicholas  Isle;  in  XS97  he  accom- 
panied Essex  on  the  expedition  to  the  Azores;  in  X599  assisted 
him  in  the  attempt  to  suppress  the  Tyrone  rebellion  in  Ireland, 
and  in  x6oo  was  implicated  in  Essex's  own  attempt  at  rebellion 
in  London.  In  1603,  on  the  accession  of  James  I.,  he  was 
suspended  from  his  post  at  Plymouth,  but  was  restored  in  the 
same  year  and  continued  to  serve  as  "  governor  of  the  forts 
and  island  of  Plymouth"  until  X629,  when,  his  garrison  having 
been  without  pay  for  three  and  a  half  yeaxs,  his  fort  a  ruin, 
and  all  his  applications  for  aid  having  been  ignored,  he  resigned. 
About  1605  he  began  to  be  greatly  interested  in  the  New  World; 
in  x6o6  he  became  a  member  of  the  Plymouth  Company,  and  he 
laboured  zealously  for  the  founding  of  the  Popham  cobny  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Sagadahoc  (now  the  Kennebec)  river  in  1607. 
For  several  years  following  the  failure  of  that  enterprise  in  x6o8 
he  continued  to  fit  out  ships  for  fishing,  trading  and  exploring, 
with  colonization  as  the  chief  end  in  view.  He  was  largely 
instrumental  in  procuring  the  new  charter  of  xdzo  for  the 
Pl3rmouth  Company,  and  was  at  all  times  of  its  existence  perhaps 
the  most  influential  member  of  that  body.  He  was  the  recipient, 
either  solely  or  jointly,  of  several  grants  of  territory  from  it, 
for  one  of  which  he  received  in  X639  the  royal  charter  of  Maine 
(sec  Maine).  In  1635  he  sought  to  be  appointed  governor-general 
of  all  New  En^and,  but  the  English  Civil  War-tn  which  he 
espoused  the  royal  cause — prevented  him  from  ever  actually 
holding  that  ofiice.  A  short  time  before  his  death  at  Long 
Ashton  in  1647  he  wrote  his  Brieft  Narration  of  the  OriginaU 
Undertakings  oftke  Advancement  ef  Plantations  into  ike  Paris  of 
America.  He  was  an  advocate,  especially  late  in  life,  of  the 
feudal  type  of  colony. 


GORGET— GORILLA 


257 


See  J.  P.  Baxter  (ed.).  Sk  Ptrdtmattdo  (krmu  Md  his  Prminu  <4 
Maku  (3  vols.,  Boston,  1890:  in  the  Prince  bociety  PubUcattons), 
the  fixvt  volnme  oC  which  is  a  memoir  of  Goites,  and  the  other 
vohimet  contain  a  leprint  of  the  Britft  NanaUan,  Gocfes'a  kttecs, 
and  other  documentary  materiaL 

OOROET  (0.  Fr.  gorgelet  dioL  of  gorge,  throat),  tlie  name 
applied  after  about  1480  to  the  coIIar>piece  of  a  suit  of  armour. 
It  was  generally  formed  of  stnall  overlapping  rings  of  plate,  and 
attached  either  to  the  body  armour  or  to  tbe  annet.  It  was 
worn  in  the  x6tb  and  17th  centuries  with  the  half-armour, 
with  the  plain  cuiraas,  and  even  oocasionaUy  without  any 
body  armour  at  alL  During  these  times  it  gradually  became  a 
distinctiye  badge  for  officers,  and  as  such  it  survived  in  several 
armies— in  the  form  of  a  small  metal  plate  affixed  to  the  front 
of  the  collar  of  the  uniform  coat— until  after  the  Napoleonic  wars. 
In  the  German  army  to-day  a  goiget-plate  of  this  sort  is  the 
distinctive  mark  of  military  poUce,  while  the  former  pfficer's 
gorget  is  represented  in  British  uniforms  by  the  red  patches  or 
tabs  worn  on  the  collar  by  staff  officers  and  by  the  white  patches 
of  the  midshipmen  in  the  Royal  Navy. 

G0RQIA8  (c.  483-375  B.a),  Greek  sophist  and  rhetorician, 
was  a  native  of  Leonti^  in  Sicily.  In  437  be  was  sent  by  his 
feDow-dtixens  at  the  head  <A  an  embassy  to  ask  Athenian 
protection  against  the  aggression  of  the  Syiacusans.  He  subse- 
quently sett^  in  Athens,  and  supported  himaelf  by  the  practice 
of  oratory  and  by  teaching  rhetoric.  He  died  at  Larissa  m 
Thessaly.  His  chief  claim  to  recognition  consists  in  the  fact  that 
he  transplanted  rhetoric  to  Greece,  and  contributed  to  the 
diffttsioo  of  the  Attic  dialect  as  the  language  of  literary  prose. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  lost  work  On  Natme  or  the  Non^existetU 
(IIcp2  roC  10^  6noi  4  npl  ^ivcuf,  fragments  edited  by  M.  C. 
Valeton,  2876),  the  substance  of  which  may  be  gathered  from 
the  writings  of  Sextus  Empiricus,  and  also  from  the  treatise 
(ascribed  to  Theophnstus)  Dt  MeUtso,  XeHophane,  Gorgia. 
Gorgias  »  the  central  figure  in  the  Platonic  dialogue  Gorgias, 
Tbe  genuineness  of  two  rhetorical  exercises  (The  Encomium 
9f  HtUn  and  The  D^enu  of  Pala$Hedes,  edited  with  Antiphon  by 
F.  Blaas  in  the  Teubner  series,  x88x),  which  have  come  down 
under  his  name,  is  disputed. 

For  fats  pUJoiophical  opinions  see  Sophists  and  Scbpticism. 
See  alto  Gompen,  Grtth  Thimhers,  Eng.  trans,  vol.  i.  bk.  iii.  chap. 
vu.;  Jcbb's  Auk  Orators,  introd.  to  vol.  i.  (1893);  F.  Blais,  Dk 
clUseho  BeredsamheU,  L  (1887);  and  article  Rbbtosic 

eOROOH,  G0R00N8  (Gr.  Tofiyit,  Tofiydns,  the  "terrible," 
or,  according  to  some,  the  "  loud-roaring  ")t  a  figure  or  figures 
in  Cnek  mythology.  Homer  speaks  of  only  one  Gorgon,  whose 
head  is  represented  in  the  Iliad  (v:  741)  as  fixed  in  the  centre  of 
4hc  aegis  of  Zeus.  In  the  Odysuy  (xL  633)  she  is  a  monster  of  the 
under-world.  Hesiod  increases  the  number  of  Gorgons  to  three— 
Stheao  (the  mighty),  Euryale  (the  far^pringcr)  and  Medusa 
(the  queen),  and  makes  them  the  daughters  of  the  sea-god 
Phorcys  and  of  Keto.  Their  home  is  on  the  farthest  side  of  the 
western  ocean;  according  to  later  authorities,  in  Libya  (Hesiod, 
Theog.  a74;  Herodotus  iL  91;  Pausanias  iL  ax).  The  Attic 
tradition,  reproduced  In  Euripides  {Ioh  xooa),  r^arded  the 
Gorgon  as  a  monster,  produced  by  Gaea  to  aid  her  sons  the 
giants  against  the  gods  and  slain  by  Athena  (the  passage  is  a. 
iccsu  classicus  on  the  aegis  of  Athena). 

Tbe  Gorgons  arc  represented  as  winged  creatures,  having 
the  form  of  young  women;  their  hair  consists  of  snakes;  they 
are  round-faced,  flat-nosed,  with  tongues  lolling  out  and  large 
projecting  teeth.  Sometimes  they  have  wings  of  gold,  braxen 
daws  and  the  tusks  of  boars.  Medusa  was  the  only  one  of  the 
three  who  was  mortal;  hence  Perseus  was  able  to  kill  her  by 
cutting  off  bar  head.  From  the  blood  that  spurted  from  her  neck 
wpnng  Chrysaor  and  Pegastis,  her  two  sons  by  Poseidon.  The 
bead,  which  bad  the  power  of  turning  into  stone  all  who  looked 
iqKMi  it,  was  given  to  Athena,  who  placed  it  in  h^  shield; 
according  to  another  account,  Perseus  buried  it  in  the  market- 
place of  Argos.  The  hideously  grotesque  original  type  of  the 
Gorgondon,  as  the  (}orgon's  head  was  called,  was  placed  on  the 
waOs  of  dties,  and  on  shields  and  breastplates  to  terrify  an  enemy 
(d.  tbe  hideous  faces  on  Qilnese  soldiers'  shidds),  and  used 


generally  as  an  amulet,  a  protection  against  the  evil  eye.  Herades 
is  said  to  have  obtained  a  lock  of  Medusa's  hair  (which  possessed 
the  same  powers  as  the  head)  from  Athena  and  given  it  to 
Sterope,  the  daughter  oi  Cepheus,  as  a  protection  for  the  town 
of  Tegea  against  attach  (Apdllodorus  ii.  7.  3).  According  to 
Roscher,  it  was  supposed,  when  exposed  to  view,  to  bring  on  a 
storm,  which  put  the  enemy  to  flight.  Frazer  {GMen  Bough,  L 
378)  gives  examples  of  the  superstition  that  cut  hair  caused 
storms.  According  to  the  later  idea  of  Medusa  as  a  beautiful 
maiden,  whose  hair  had  been  changed  into  snakes  by  Athena, 
the  head  was  represented  in  works  of  art  with  a  wonderfully 
handsome  face,  wrapped  in  the  calm  repose  of  death.  The 
Rondanini  Medusa  at  Munich  is  a  famous  spedmen  of  this 
conception.  Various  accounts  of  the  Gorgons  were  given  by 
later  andent  writers.  According  to  Diod.  Sic.  (iii.  54.  55) 
they  wero  female  warriors  living  near  I^e  Tritonis  in  Libya^ 
whose  queen  was  Medusa;  according  to  Alexander  of  Myndus, 
quoted  in  Athenaeus  (v.  p.  a 21),  they  were  terrible  wild  animals 
whose  mere  look  turned  men  to  stone.  Pliny  {Nat,  Hist,  vi. 
36  [31])  describes  them  ss  savage  women,  whose  persons  were 
covered  with  hair,  which  gave  rise  to  the  story  of  their  snaky 
hair  and  girdle.  Modem  authorities  have  explained  them  as  the 
personification  of  the  waves  of  the  sea  or  of  the  barren,  un* 
productive  coast  of  Libya;  or  as  the  awful  darkness  of  the 
storm-doud,  which  comes  from  the  west  and  is  scattered  by  the. 
sun-god  Perseus.  More  recent  is  the  explanation  of  anthro- 
pologists that  Medusa,  whose  virtue  is  really  in  her  head,  is 
derived  from  the  ritual  ibask  common  to  primitive  cults. 

See  Jane  E.  Harrison,  PrdUgomena  to  tho  Stvfy  of  Grteh  Rdigkm 
(1903);  W.  H.  Roscher,  Dk  Gorgonen  und  Vtrwandtes  (i8ra); 
t.  Six^  Db  Corgone  (1885),  on  the  types  of  the  Goreon's  head ;  articles 
By  Ro^her  and  Furtwftn^er  in  RcMcher's  Lexikon  der  Mythologk, 
by  G.  Glocz  in  Daiembeig  and  Saglio's  DicUennaire  des  afiH^ttis, 
and  by  R  Gidechens  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  AUgetnoine  Encychpddk; 
N.  G.Polites  Co  vtpl  rAr  rcrr^Mdr  jiSfot  ro^  r$  'BXXqru^  ^^.  1 878) 
gives  an  account  of  the  Gorgons,  and  of  the  various  superatitions 
connected  with  them,  from  the  modem  Greek  jpotnt  of  view,  which 
regards  them  as  nudevolent  spirits  of  the 


OOROONZOLAt  a  town  of  Lombardy,  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Milan,  from  which  it  is  xx  m.  E.N.E.  by  steam  tramway. 
Pop.  (190X)  5x34.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  district  in  which  is 
produced  the  well-known  Gorgonzola  cheese. 

GOBI,  a  town  of  Russian  Transcaucasia,  in  the  government 
of  Tiflis  and  49  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  the  dty  of  Tiflis,  on  the  river 
Kura;  altitude,  aoxo  ft.  Pop.  (1897)  10,457.  The  surrounding 
country  is  very  picturesque.  Gori  has  a  high  school  for  girls,  and 
a  school  for  Russian  and  Tatar  teachers.  At  one  time  cdebrated 
for  its  silk  and  cotton  stuffs,  it  is  now  famous  for  com,  rq>uted 
the  best  in  Georgia,  and  the  wine  is  also  esteemed.  The  climate 
is  excellent,  dcli^tjfully  cool  in  summer,  owing  to  the  rdreshing 
breezes  from  the  mountains,  though  these  are,  however,  at  times 
disagreeable  in  winter.  Gori  was  founded  (i  x  23)  by  the  Georgian 
king  David  II.,  the  Renovater,  for  the  Armenians  who  fled  their 
country  on  the  Persian  invasion.  The  earliest  remains  of  the 
fortress  aro  Byzantine;  it  was  thoroughly  restored  in  X634- 
1658,  but  destroyed  by  Nadir  Shah  of  Persia  in  the  x8th  century. 
There  is  a  church  constmcted  in  the  17th  century  by  Capuchin 
missionaries  from  Rome.  Five  miles  east  of  Ck>ri  is  the  remark- 
able rock-cut  town  of  Uplis-tsykhe,  whidi  was  a  fortress  in  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Gre^  of  Macedon,-and  an  inhabited  dty 
in  the  reign  of  th6  Georgian  king  Bagrat  III.  (980-1014). 

GORILLA  (or  Pqnco),  the  largest  of  the  man-like  apes,  and 
a  native  of  West  Africa  from  the  Congo  to  Cameroon,  whence 
it  extends  eastwards  across  the  continent  to  German  East  Africa. 
Many  naturalists  r^ard  the  gorilla  as  best  induded  in  the  same 
genus  as  the  chimpanzee,  in  which  case  it  should  be  known  as 
Anthropopithecus  gorilla,  but  by  others.it  is  regarded  as  the 
representative  of  a  genus  by  itself,  when  its  title  will  be  Gorilla 
saoagei,  or  G,  gorilla.  That  there  are  local  forms  of  gorilla  is 
quite  certain:  but  whether  ^y  of  these  are  entitled  to  rank  as 
distinct  spedes  may  be  a  matter  of  opinion.  It  was  long  supposed 
that  the  apes  encountered  on  an  island  off  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  by  Hanno,  the  Carthaginian,  were  gorillas,  but  in  the 


2S^ 


GORINCHEM— GORING 


Opinion  of  lome  of  those  Jbest  qualified  to  Judge,  it  is  probable 
that  the  creatures  in  question  were  really  baboons.  The  first 
real  account  of  the  gorilla  appears  to  be  the  one  given  by  an 
En^ish  sailor,  Andrew  Battel,  who  spent  some  time  in  the  wilds 
of  West  Africa  during  and  about  the  year  1590;  his  account 
being  presented  in  Purchas's  PUgnmagCt  publ^ed  in  the  year 
16x3.  From  this  it  appears  that  Battel  was  familiar  with  both 
the  chimpansee  and  the  gorilla,  the  former  of  which  he  terms 
engeoo  and  the  latter  pongo — names  which  ought  apparently 
to  be  adopted  for  these  two  species  in  place  of  those  now  in  use. 
Between  Battel's  time  and  1846  nothing  appears  to  have  been 
heard  of  the  gorilla  or  pongo,  but  in  that  year  a  missionary  at 
the  Gabun  accidentally  d^covered  a  skull  of  the  huge  ape; 
and  in  1847  a  sketch  of  that  specimen,  together  with  two  others, 
came  into  the  hands  of  Sir  R.  Owen,  by  whom  the  name  GoriUa 
savagei  was  proposed  for  the  new  Ape  in  1848.  Dr  Iliomas 
Savage,  a  missionary  at  the  Gabun,  who  sent  Owen  information 
with  regard  to  the  origiiud  skull,  had,  however,  himself  proposed 
the  name  Tro^odyUs  goriilQ  in  1847.  The  first  complete  skeleton 
of  a  gorilla  sent  to  Europe  was  received  at  the  museum  of  the 
Royid  College  of  Surgeons  in  1851,  and  the  first  complete  skia 
appears  to  have  reached  the  British  Museum  in  1858.  Paul-B. 
du  ChaiUu's  account  (i86x)  of  his  journeys  in  the  Gabun 
region  popularized  the  luiowledge  of  the  existence,  of  the  gorilla. 
Male  goriUas  largely  exceed  the  females  in  size,  and  attaint  a 
height  of  from  5)  ft.  to  6\  ft.^  or  perhaps  even  more.  Some  of 
the  features  distinguishing  the  gorilla  from  the  mere  gorilla-like 
chimpanzees  will  be  found  mentioned  in  the  article  Pumates. 
Among  them  are  the  small  ears,  elongated  head,  the  presence  of 
a  deep  groove  alongside  the  nostrils,  the  small  size  of  the  thumb, 
and  the  great  length  of  the  arm,  which  reaches  half-way  down 
the  shin-bone  (tibia)  in  the  «ect  posture.  In  old  males  the  eyes 
are  overhung  by  a  beetling  penthouse  of  bone,  the  hinder  half 
of  the  middle  line  of  the  skull  bears  a  wall-like  bony  ridge  for 
the  attachment  of  the  powerful  jaw-muscles,  and  the  tusks,  or 
canines,  are  of  monstrous  size,  recalling  those  of  a  carnivorous 
animal.  The  general  colour  is  blackish,  with  a  more  or  less 
marked  grey  or  brownish  tinge  on  the  hair  of  the  shoulders,  and 
sometimes  of  chestnut  on  the  head.  Mr  G.  L.  Bates  (in  Proc. 
Zod.  Soc.,  1905,  vol.  i.)  states  that  gorillas  only  leave  the  depths 
of  the  forest  to  enter  the  outlying  clearings  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  human  settlements  when  they  are  attracted  by  some  special 
fruit  or  succulent  plant;  the  favourite  being  the  fruit  of  the 
"  mejom,"  a  tall  cane-like  plant  (perhaps  a  kind  of  Amomum) 
which  grows  abundantly  on  deserted  clearings.  At  one  isolated 
viliJage  the  natives,  who  were  unarmed,  reported  that  they  not 
unf  requently  saw  and  heard  the  gorillas,  which  broke  down  the 
stalks  of  the  plantains  in  the  reat  of  the  habitations  to  tear  out 
and  eat  the  tender  heart.  On  the  old  clearings  of  another  village 
Mr  Bates  himself,  although  he  did  not  see  a  gorilla,  saw  the  fresh 
tracks  of  these  great  apes  and  the  torn  stems  and  discarded 
fruit  rinds  of  the  "  mejoms,"  as  well  as  the  broken  stalks  of  the 
latter,  which  had  been  usol  for  beds.  On  another  occasion  he 
came  across  the  bed  of  an  old  gorilla  which  had  been  used  only 
the  night  before,  as  was  proved  by  a  negro  woman,  who  on  the 
previous  evening  had  heard  the  animal  breaking  and  treading 
down  the  stalks  to  form  its  couch.  According  to  native  report, 
the  gorillas  sleep  on  these  beds,  which  are  of  sufficient  thickness 
to  raise  them  a  foot  or  two  above  the  ground,  in  a  sitting  posture, 
with  the  head  inclined  forwards  on  the  breast.  In  the  first  case 
Mr  Bates  states  that  the  tracks  and  beds  indicated  the  presence 
of  three  or  four  gorillas,  some  of  which  were  small.  This  account 
does  not  by  any  means  accord  with  one  given  by  von  Koppenf els, 
in  which  it  is  stated  that  while  the  old  male  gorilla  sleeps  in  a 
sitting  posture  at  the  base  of  a  tree-trunk  (no  mention  being 
made  of  a  bed),  the  female  and  young  ones  pass  the  night  in  a 
nest  in  the  tree  several  yards  above  the  ground,  made  by  bending 
the  boughs  together  and  covering  them  with  twigs  and  moss. 
Mr  Bates's  account,  as  being  based  on  actual  inspection  of  the 
beds,  is  probably  the  more  trustworthy.  Even  when  asleep  and 
snoring,  gorillas  are  difficult  to  approach,  since  they  awsU^e  at 
the  slightest  rustle,  and  an  attempt  to  surroimd  the  one  heard 


making  his  bed  by  the  woman  resulted  fai  faOore.  Most  gotiBaa 
killed  by  natives  are  believed  by  Mr  Bates  to  have  bees  en- 
countered suddenly  in  the  daytime  on  the  ground  or  in  low  trees 
in  the  outlying  clearings.  Many  natives,  even  if  armed,  refuse, 
however,  to  molest  an  adult  male  gorilla,  on  account  of  its 
f  erodty  when  wounded.  Mr  Bates,  like  Mr  Winwood  Reade, 
refused  to  credit  du  Chaillu's  account  of  his  having  killed  gorillas, 
and  stated  that  the  only  instance  he  knew  of  one  of  these  snimals 
being  slain  by  a  European  was  an  old  male  (now  in  Mr  Walter 
Rothschild's  museum  at  Tring)  shot  by  the  German  tnuler 
Paschen  in  the  Yaunde  district,  of  which  an  illustrated  account 
was  published  in  xgox.  Mr  E.  J.  Corns  states,  however,  that 
two  European  traders,  apparently  in  the  "  'eighties  "  of  the  X9th 
century,  were  in  the  habit  of  surrounding  and  o^turing  these 
animate  as  occasion  offered.^  FuUy  adidt  goriUas  have  never 
been  seen  alive  in  captivity-^nd  perhaps  never  will  be,  as  the 
creature  is  ferocious  and  morose  to  a  degree.  So  long  ago  as  the 
year  x8s$>  when  the  spedes  was  known  to  zoologists  only  by  its 
skeleton,  a  gorilla  was  actually  living  in  England.  This  animal, 
a  young  female,  came  from  the  Gabun,  and  was  kq>t  for  some 
months  in  Wombwell's  travdling  menagerie,  where  it  was  treated 
as  a  pet.  On  its  death,  the  body  was  sent  to  Mr  Chariea  Waterton, 
of  Walton  Hall,  by  whom  the  skin  was  mounted  in  a  grotesque 
manner,  and  the  dceleton  given  to  the  Leeds  museum.  Appar- 
ently, however,  it  was  not  till  several  years  later*tfaat  the  akin 
was  recognized  by  Mr  A.  D.  Bartlett  as  that  of  a  gorflla;  the 
aninud  having  probably  been  regarded  by  its  owner  as  a  chuoA- 
panzee.  A  young  male  was  purchased  by  the  Zoologiol  Society 
in  October  1887,  from  Mr  Cross,  the  Liverpool  dealer  in  i^i^itwi^ 
At  the  time  of  arrival  it  was  supposed  to  b^  about  three  yean  <dd, 
and  stood  2|  ft.  high.  A  second,  a  male,  supposed  to  be  rather 
older,  was  acquired  in  March  1896,  having  been  brought  to 
Liverpool  from  the  French  Congo.  It  is  described  as  having 
been  thoroughly  healthy  at  the  date  of  its  arrival,  and  of  an 
amiable  and  tractable  disposition.  Neither  survived  long.  Two 
others  were  received  in  the  Zoological  Society's  menagerie  in 
X904,  and  another  was  housed  there  for  a  short  time  in  the 
foUowing  year,  while  a  fifth  was  received  in  X906.  Falkenstein's 
gorilla,  exhibited  at  the  Westnunster  aquarium  under  the  naxne 
of  pongo,  and  afterwards  at  the  Berlin  aquarium,  survived  for 
eighteen  months.  "  Pussi,"  the  gorilla  of  the  Breslau  Zoological 
Gardens,  holds  a  record  for  longevity,  with  over  seven  years 
of  menagerie  life.  Writing  in  X903  Mr  W.  T.  Hornaday  stated 
that  but  one  live  gorilla,  and  that  a  tiny  infant,  had  ever 
landed  in  the  United  States;  and  it  lived  only  five  days  after 
arrival  (R.  L.*0 

OORINCHEH,  or  Goscuic,  a  fortified  town  of  HoUand  in  the 
province  of  south  Holland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Merwede 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Linge,  x6  m.  by  rail  W.  o|  Dordrecht. 
It  is  connected  by  the  Zcderik  and  Merwede  canals  with  Amster- 
dam, and  steamers  ply  hence  in  every  direction.  Pop.  (xgoo) 
X  1,987.  Gorinchem  possesses  several  interesting  old  houses,  and 
overlooking  the  river  are  some  fortified  gateway^  of  the  X7th 
century.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  old  church  of  St 
Vincent,  containing  the  monuments  of  the  lords  of  Arkel;  the 
town  haU,  a  prison,  custom-house,  barracks  and  a  military 
hospital.  The  charitable  and  benevolent  institutions  are 
numerous,  and  there  are  also  a  library  and  several  learned 
associations.  Gorinchem  possesses  a  good  harbour,  and  besides 
working  in  gold  and  silver,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in 
grain,  hemp,  cheese,  potatoes,  cattle  and  fish,  the  salmon  fishery 
being  noted.  Woerkum,  or  Woudridiem,  a  little  below  the  town 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Merwede,  is  famous  for  its  quaint  cAA 
buildings,  which  are  decorated  with  mosaics. 

OORJNO.  GBOROB  GORING.  Losd  (x6ofr-i6s7),  English 
Royalist  soldier,  son  of  George  Goring,  earl  of  Norwich,  was  bom 
on  the  14th  of  July  x6o8.  He  soon  became  famous  at  court 
for  his  prodigality  and  dissolute  manners.  His  father-in-law, 
Richard  Boyle,  earl  of  Cork,  prociired  for  him  a  post  in  the  Dutch 

>  In  190^  the  Rev.  Geo.  Grenfell  reporticd  that  he  had  that  summer 
shot  a  gonlla  in  the  Bwela  country,  east  of  the  Moogsila  affluent  of 
the  Congo. 


GORKI— GCJRLITZ 


250 


army  with  the  rank  of  oolonet    He  waa  permanently  lamed 
by  a  wound  received  at  Breda  in  1637,  and  returned  to  England 
early  in  1639,  when  he  was  made  governor  of  Portsmouth.    He 
scr^d  in  the  Scottish  war,  and  already  had.  a  considerable 
reputation  when  he  was  concerned  in  the  "  Army  Plot."    Officers 
of  the  army  stationed  at  York  proposed  to  petition  the  king  ^d 
parliament  for  the  maintenance  of  the  royal  authority.    A 
second  party  was  in  favour  of  more  violent  measures,  and 
Coring,  in  the  hope  of  being  appointed  lieutenant-general, 
proposed  to  march  the  army  on  London  and  overawe  the  parlia- 
ment during  Strafford's  trial.    This  proposition  being  rejected 
by  his  fellow  officers,  he  betrayed  the  proceedings  to  Mountjoy 
Blount,  earl  of  Newixirt,  who  passed  on  the  information  in- 
directly to  Pym  in  April.    Colonel  G<»ing  was  thereupon  called 
on  to  give  evidence  before  the  Commons,  who  conunended  him 
for  his  services  to  the  Commonwealth.    This  betrajral  of  his 
comrades  induced  confidence  in  the  minds  of  the  parliamentary 
leaders,  who  sent  him  back  to  his  Portsmouth  command.    Never- 
thdcsa  he  declared  for  the  king  in  August.    He  surrendered 
Portsmouth  to  the  parliament  in  September  1642  and  went  to 
Holland  to  recruit  for  the  Royalist  army,  returning  to  England 
in  December.    Appointed  to  a  cavalry  command  by  the  earl  of 
Newcastle,  he  defeated  Fairfax  at  Seaaoft  Moor  near  Leeds 
in  March  1643,  but  in  May  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  Wakefield 
on  the  Cloture  of  the  town  by  Fairfax.    In  April  1644  he  effected 
an  exchange.    At  Marston  Moor  he  commanded  the  Royalist 
left,  and  charged  with  great  success,  but,  allowing  his  troopers 
to  di^>erse  in  search  of  plunder,  was  routed  by  Cromwell  at  the 
close  of  the  battle.    In  November  1644,  on  his  father's  elevation 
to  the  earldom  of  Norwich,  he  beoune  Lord  Goring.    The 
parliamentary  authorities,  however,  refused  to  recognize  the 
creation  of  the  eariddm,  and  continued  to  speak  of  the  father  as 
Lord  Goring  and  the  son  as  General  Goring.    In  August  he  had 
been  deq>atched  by  Prince  Rupert,  who  recognized  his  ability, 
to  join  Charles  in  the  south,  and  in  spite  of  his  dissolute  and 
insubordinate  character  he  was  appointed  to  supersede  Henry, 
Lord  Wilmot,  as  lieuL-general  of  the  Royalist  horse  (see  Great 
Rebeluon).    He  secured  some  successes  in  the  west,  and  in 
January    1645   advanced   through   Hampshire  and  occupied 
Famham;  but  want  of  money  compelled  him  to  retreat  to 
Salisbury  and  thence  to  Exeter.    The  excesses  committed  by  his 
troops  seriously  injured  the  Royalist  cause,  and  his  exactions 
made  his  name  hated  throuf^out  the  west.    He  had  himself 
prepared  to  besiege  Taunton  in  March,  yet  when  in  the  next 
month  he  was  desired  by  Prince  Charles,  who  was  at  Bristol, 
to  send  reinforcements  to  Sir  Richard  Grenville  for  the  siege  of 
Taunton,  he  obeyed  the  order  only  with  ill-humoiir.    Later  in 
the  month  he  was  summoned  with  his  troops  to  the  relief  of  the 
king  at  Oxford.    Lord  Goring  had  long  been  intriguing  for  an 
independent  command,  and  he  now  secured  from  the  king  what 
was  practically  supreme  authority  in  the  west.    It  was  alleged 
by  the  earl  of  Newport  that  he  was  willing  to  transfer  his 
allegiance  once  more  to  the  parliament.    It  is  not  likely  that  he 
meditated  open  treason,  but  he  was  culpably  negligent  and 
occupied  with  private  ambitions  and  jealousies.    He  was  stiU 
engaged  in  desultory  operations  against  Taunton  when  the 
main  campaign  of  1645  opened.    For  the  part  taken  by  Goring's 
army  in  the  operations  of  the  Naseby  campaign  see  Great 
Rebeluon.    After  the  decisive  defeat  of  the  king,  the  army  of 
Furfaz  marched  into  the  west  and  defeated  Goring  in  a  disastrous 
fight  at  Langport  on  the  loth  of  July.    He  made  no  further 
serious  resistance  to  the  parliamentary  general,  but  wasted  his 
time  in  frivolous  amusements,  and  in  November  be  obtained 
leave  to  quit  his  disorganized  forces  and  retire  to  France  on  the 
ground  of  health.    His  fa*her's  services  secured  him  the  command 
of  some  English  regiments  in  the  Spanish  service.    He  died  at 
Madrid  in  July  or  August  1657.    Clarendon  gives  him  a  very 
unpleasing  character,  declaring  that  "  Goring  .   .  .  would, 
without  hesitation,  have  broken  any  trust,  or  done  any  act  of 
treachery  to  have  satisfied  an  ordinary  passion  or  appetite;  and 
in  truth  wanted  nothing  but  industry  (for  he  had  wit,  and 
ooarage»  and  understanding  and  ambition,  uncontrolled  by  any 


fear  of  God  or  man)  %o  have  been  as  efninent  and  successful  in 
the  highest  attempt  of  wickedness  as  any  man  in  the  age  he 
lived  in  or  before.  Of  all  his  qualifications  dissimulation  was 
his  masterpiece;  in  which  he  so  much  excelled,  that  men  were 
not  ordinarily  ashamed,  or  out  of  countenance,  with  being 
deceived  but  twice  by  him." 

See  the  life  by  C.  H.  Firth  in  the  DicHonary  of  NaiUmal  Bibtrabhy; 
Du^dale's  Banmate,  where  there  are  some  doubtful  stories  01  his 
life  in  Spain;  the  Oartmdon  State  Papers;  Clarendon's  Hislcry  of  the 
Great  Rebeiliou;  and  S.  R.  Gardiner's  History  of  the  Great  doU  War, 

GORKI,  MAXIM  (1868-  ),  the  pen-name  of  the  Russian 
novelist  Alexd  Maxinwvich  Pycshkov,  who  was  bom  at  Nizhni- 
Novgorod  on  the  a6th  of  March  x868.  His  father  was  a  dyer, 
but  be  lost  both  his  parents  in  childhood,  and  in  his  ninth  year 
was  sent  to  assist  in  a  boot-shop.  We  find  him  afterwards  in  a 
variety  of  callings,  but  devouring  books  of  all  sorts  greedily, 
whenever  they  fell  into  his  hands.  He  ran  away  from  the  boot- 
shop  and  went  to  help  a  land-surveyor.  He  was  then  a  cook 
on  board  a  steamer  and  afterwards  a  gardener.  In  his  fifteenth 
year  he  tried  to  enter  a  school  at  Kazan,  but  was  obliged  to  betake 
himself  again  to  his  drudgery.  He  became  a  baker,  than  hawked 
about  kwut  and  helped  the  barefooted  tramps  and  labourers 
at  the  docks.  From  these  he  drew  some  of  his  most  striking 
pictures,  and  learned  to  give  sketches  of  hmnble  life  generally 
with  the  fidelity  of  a  Defoe.  After  a  long  course  of  drudgery 
he  had  the  good  fortune  to  obtain  the  place  of  secretary  to  a 
barrister  at  Nizhni-Novgorod.  This  was  the  turning-point  of 
his  fortunes,  as  he  found  a  sympathetic  master  who  helped  him. 
He  also  became  acquainted  with  the  novelist  Korolenko,  who 
assisted  him  in  his  Uterary  efforts.  His  first  story  was  Makar 
Chudra,  which  was  published  in  the  journal  KavkoM,  He  con- 
tributed to  many  periodicals  and  finally  attracted  attention  by 
his  tale  called  Ckelkashf  which  appeared  in  Russkoe  Bogalsto 
("  Russian  wealth  ").  This  was  followed  by  a  series  of  tales 
in  which  he  drew  with  extraordinary  vigour  the  life  of  the 
bosniaki,  or  tramps.'  He  has  sometimes  docribed  other  daues 
of  society,  tradesmen  and  the  educated  classes,  but  not  with 
equal  success.  There  are  some  vigorous  pictures,  however, 
of  the  trading  dass  in  his  Poma  Gordeyet.  But  his  favourite 
type  is  the  rebd,  the  man  in  revolt  against  sodety,  and  him  he 
describes  from  personal  knowledge,  and  enlists  our  i^mpathies 
with  him.  We  get  such  a  type  completdy  in  Kamnalov.  Gorki 
is  always  preaching  that  we  must  have  ideals — something  better 
than  everyday  life,  and  this  view  is  brought  out  in  his  pLsy 
At  the  Lnoesl  Depths,  which  had  great  success  at  Moscow,  but 
was  coldly  reodved  at  St  Petersburg. 

For  a  good  criticism  of  Gorki  see  Ideas  and  ReaKHes  im  Russian 
JAterature^  by  Prince  Kropotldn.  Many  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  English. 

GORUTZ,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Silesia,  on  the  Idt  bank  of  the  Neisse,  6a  m.  E.  fnmi  Dresden 
on  the  railway  to  Breslau,  and  at  the  junction  of  lines  to  Berlin, 
Zituu  and  Halle.  Pop.  (1885)  55,702,  (1905)  80,931.  The 
Neisse  at  this  point  is  crossed  by  a  railway  bridge  1650  ft.  long 
and  xao  ft.  high,  with  32  arches.  Gdrlitz  is  one  of  the  hand- 
somest, and,  pwing  to  the  extensive  forests  of  70,000  acres, 
which  are  the  property  of  the  munidpality,  one  of  the  wealthiest 
towns  in  Germany.  It  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  walks  and 
fine  gardens,  and  although  its  old  walls  and  towers  have  now 
been  demolished,  many  of  its  ancient  buildings  remain  to  form 
a  picturesque  contrast  with  the  signs  of  modem  industry.  From 
the  hill  called  Landskrone,  about  1500  ft.  high,  an  extensive 
prospect  is  obtained  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  prindpal 
buUdings  are  the  fine  Gothic  church  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul, 
dating  from  the  15th  century,  with  two  statdy  towers,  a  famous 
organ  and  a  very  heavy  bell;  the  Frauen  Kirche,  erected  about 
the  end  of  the  X5th  century,  and  possessing  a  fine  portal  and 
choir  in  pierced  yrotk;  the  Kloster  Kirche,  restored  in  x868, 
with  handsome  choir  stalls  and  a  carved  altar  dating  from  1383; 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  chiirch,  founded  in  1853,  in  the  Roman 
style  of  architecture,  with  beautiful  glass  windows  and  dl-paint- 
ings.  The  old  town  hall  (Rathaus)  contains  a  very  valuable 
library,  having  at  its  entrance  a  fine  ffight  of  stq>s.    There  is 


26o 


GORRES 


also  a  new  town  hall  which  wai  erected  in  1904-1906.  Other 
buildings  are:,  the  old  bastion,  named  Kaisertruta,  now  used 
as  a  guardhouse  and  armoury;  the  gymnasium  buildings  in 
the  Gothic  stjric  erected  in  18 ji;  the  Ruhmeshalle  with  the 
Kaiser  Friedridi  museum,  the  house  of  the  estates  of  the  province 
(SUlndehaus),  two  theatres  and  the  barracks.  Near  die  toVm 
k  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Cross,  where  there  is  a  model  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  made  during  the  xsth  century. 
In  Uie  public  park  there  is  a  bust  of  Schiller,  a  monument  to 
.Alexander  von  Humboldt,  and  a  statue  of  the  mystic  Jakob 
Bdhme  (1575-1624);  a  monument  has  been  erected  in  the  town 
in  commemoration  of  the  war  of  1870-71,  and  also  one  to  the 
emperor  William  I.  and  a  statue  of  Prince  Frederick  Qiarles. 
In  connexion  with  the  natural  history  society  there  is  a  valuable 
museum,  and  the  scientific  institute  possesses  a  large  library 
and  a  rich  collection  of  antiquities,  coins  and  articles  of  tirtu. 
Gdrlita,  next  to  Breslau,  is  the  largest  and  most  flourishing 
commercial  town  of  Silesia,  and  is  also  regarded  as  classic  ground 
for  the  study  of  German  Renaissance  architecture.  Besides 
cloth,  which  forms  its  staple  article  of  commerce,  it  has  manu- 
factories of  various  linen  and  woollen  wares,  midlines,  railway 
wagons,  glass,  sago,  tobacco,  leather,  chemicals  and  tiles. 

G<(riit2  existed  as  a  village  from  a  very  early  period,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  lath  century  received  dvic  rights.  It  was 
then  known  as  Drebenau,  but  on  being  rebuilt  after  its  destruc- 
tion by  fire  in  X131  it  received  the  name  of  Zgorzelice.  About 
the  end  of  the  lath  century  it  was  strongly  fortified,  and  for  a 
short  time  it  was  the  capital  of  a  duchy  of  Gdriits.  It  was 
several  times  besieged  and  taken  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
and  it  also  suffered  considerably  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  In  the 
battle  which  took  place  near  it  between  the  Austrians  and 
Prussians  on  the  7th  of  September  1757,  Hans  Karl  von  Winter- 
feldt,  the  general  of  Frederick  the  Great,  was  slain.  In  18x5  the 
town,  with  the  greater  part  of  Upper  Lusatia,  came  into  the 
possession  of  Prussia. 

Sec  Neumann,  CesckkkU  vom  GdrUtu  (1856). 

GORRES,  iOHANH  iOSBPH  VOH  (X776-X848),'  German 
writer,  was  bom  on  the  25th  of  January  1776,  at  Coblena.  His 
father  was  a  man  of  moderate  means,  who  sent  his  son  to  a  Latin 
college  under  the  direction  of  the  Roman  Catholic  deigy.  The 
sympathies  of  the  young  GQrres  were  from  the  first  strongly 
with  the  French  Revolution,  and  the  dissoluteness  and  irrdigion 
of  the  French  exiles  in  the  Rhineland  confirmed  him  in  his  hatred 
of  princes^  He  harangued  the  revolutionary  dubs,  and  insisted 
on  the  unity  of  interests  which  should  ally  all  dviUsed  states  to 
one  another.  He  then  commenced  a  republican  journal  called  2>af 
tiOe  Blatif  and  afterwards  RUbexaMf  in  which  he  strongly  con- 
demned the  administration  of  the  Rhenish  provinces  by  France. 

After  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio  (1797)  there  was  some  hope 
that  the  Rheni&h  provinces. would  be  constituted  into  an  inde- 
pendent republic  In  1799  the  provinces  sent  an  embassy,. of 
•which  GArres  was  a  member,  to  Paris  to  put  their  case  before  the 
directory.  The  embassy  reached  Paris  on  the  aoth  of  November 
X799;  two  days  before  this  Napoleon  had  assumed  the  supreme 
direction  of  affairs.  After  mbch  delay  the  embassy  was  recdved 
by  him;  but  the  only  answer  they  obtained  was  "that  they 
might  rely  on  perfect  Justice,  and  that  the  French  ^vemment 
would  never  lose  sight  of  thdr  wants.''  G6rres  on  his  return 
published  a  tract  called  ResuUale  meiner  Sendung  nach  Paris ^  in 
which  he  reviewed  the  history  of  the  French  Revolution.  During 
the  thirteen  years  of  Napoleon's  dominion  Gdrres  lived  a  retired 
life,  devoting  himself  diiefly  to  art  or  sdence.  In  x8ox  he 
married  Catherine  de  Lasaulx,  and  was  for  some  years  teacher 
at  a  secondary  school  in  Coblenz;  in  1806  he  moved  to  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  lectured  al  the  university.  As  a  leading  member 
of  the  Heiddberg  Romantic  group,  he  edited  together  with 
K.  Brentano  and  L.  von  Amim  the  famous  ZeitungfUr  EinsiedUr 
(subsequently  re-named  Trdst'Eimamkeii),  and  in  1807  he 
pubUshed  Die  teulscken  VdksbUcker.  He  returned  to  Coblens 
in  x8o8,.and  again  found  occupation  as  a  teacher  in  a  secondary 
school,  supported  by  dvic  funds.  He  now  studied  Persian,  and 
in  two  yean  published  a  MytkentesckickU  der  osialischen  fFett, 


which  was  foOowed  ten  yeah  later  by  Das  Hddsnhick  won  iron; 
a  txanslati<m  of  part  of  the  Skaknamaf  the  epic  of  FirdoosL  In 
x8x3  he  activdy  took  up  the  cause  of  national  independence, 
and  in  the  following  year  founded  Der  rkeiniscke  Merkur.  The 
intense  earnestness  of  the  paper,  the  bold  out^mkenness  of  its 
hmtility  to  Napoleon,  and  its  fiery  doquence  secured  for  it 
almost  instantly  a  podtion  and  influence  unique  in  the  history 
of  German  newspapers.  Napoleon  himself  called  it  la  einquiime 
puissance.  Hie  ideal  it  insisted  on  was  a  united  Germany,  with 
a  representative  government,  but  under  an  emperor  after  the 
fashion  of  other  days, — for  GOrxcs  now  abandoned  .his  early 
advocacy  of  republicanism.  When  Napoleon  was  at  Elba, 
Gdrres  wrote  an  imaginary  proclamation  issued  by  him  to  the 
people,  the  intense  irony  of  which  was  so  weU  veiled  that  many 
Frenchmen  mistook  it  for  ^n  original  utterance  of  the  emperor. 
He  inveighed  bitteriy  against  the  second  peace  of  Paris  (18x5), 
declaring  that  Alsace  and  Lorraine  should  have  been  deinanded 
back  from  France. 

Stein  was  glad  enough  to  use  the  Merkur  at  the  time  of  the 
meeting  of  the  congress  of  Vienna  as  a  vehicle  for  giving  espies 
don  to  his  hopes.  But  Hardenberg,  in  May  18x5,  warned  Gflrres 
to  remember  that  he  was  not  to  arouse  hostility  against  France, 
but  only  against  Bonaparte.  There  was  also  in  the  Merkur  an 
antipathy  to  Prusda,  a  cbntinual  c]q>resdon  of  the  deare  that 
an  Austrian  prince  should  assume  the  imperial  title,  and^also  a 
tendency  to  pronounced  liberalism — all  of  which  made  it  most 
distastdul  to  Hardenberg,  and  to  his  master  King  Frederidi 
William  III.  GOrres  disregarded  warnings  sent  to  him  by  the 
censorship  and  continued  the  paper  in  all  its  fierceness.  Accord- 
ingjly  it  was  suppressed  early  in  x8i6,  at  the  instance  of  the 
Prussian  government;  and  soon  after  Gttrres  was  dismissed  from 
his  post  as  teacher  at  Coblenz.  From  this  time  his  writings 
were  his  sole  means  of  support,  and  he  became  a  most  diligent 
political  pamphleteer.  In  the  ^d  exdtemcnt  which  followed 
Kptzebue's  assassination,  the  reactionary  decrees  of  Carisbad 
were  framed,  and  these  were  the  subject  of  Gdrres's  celebrated 
pamphlet  Teutschland  und  die  Revolution  (i8ao).  In  this  work 
be  reviewed  the  drcumstances  which  had  led  to  the  murder  of 
Kotaebue,  and,  while  eq>resung  all  posdble  horror  at  the  deed 
itsdf ,  he  urged  that  it  was  imposdble  and  undedrable  to  repress 
the  free  utterance  of  public  opinion  by  reactionary  measures. 
The  success  of  the  work  was  very  marked,  de^ite  its  ponderous 
style.  It  was  suppressed  by  the  Prusdan  ^vemmoit,  and 
orders  were  issued  for  the  arrest  of  G6rres  and  the  seizure  of  his 
papers.  He  escaped  to  Strassburg,  and  thence  went  to  Switzer- 
land.  Two  more  political  tracts,  Europa  uud  die  Raolutiom 
.(x8ax)  and  In  Sacken  der  Rheinprovimen  und  in  eifener  Angdc- 
genkeit  t  x8a  a) ,  also  deserve  mention. 

In  Gorrcs's  pamphlet  Die  heilige  AUians  und  die  Vdlker  ai^ 
dem  Kongress  zu  Verona  he  asserted  that  the  princes  had  noet 
together  to  crush  the  liberties  of  the  people,  and  that  the  peofJe 
must  look  elsewhere  for  hdp.  The  "  elsewhere  "  was  to  Rome; 
and  from  this  time  G6rres  became  a  vehement  Ultramontane 
writer.  He  was  summoned  to  Munich  by  King  Ludwig  of  Bavaria 
as  Professor  of  History  in  the  univerdty,  and  there  his  writing 
enjoyed  very  great  popularity.  His  CkrisUicke  Myst^  (X836- 
1843)  gave  a  series  of  biographies  of  the  saints,  together  with  an 
exposition  of  Roman  Catholic  mystidsm.  But  his  most  cele> 
brated  ultramontane  work  was  a  polemical  one.  Its  occasion 
was  the  deposition  and  imprisonment  by  the  Prusdan  govern- 
ment of  the  archbishop  Clement  Wencedaus,.  in  consequence  of 
the  refusal  of  that  pidate  to  sanction  in  certain  instances  the 
marriages  of  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics.  G5rres  in  his 
Atkanasius  (1837)  fiercdy  uphdd  the  power  of  the  churdi, 
although  the  liberals  of  later  date  who  have  daimed  GOrres  as 
one  of  thdr  own  sdiool  deny  that  he  ever  indsted  on  the  absolute 
supremacy  of  Rome.  Atkanasius  went  through  severd  editions, 
and  originated  a  long  and  bitter  controversy.  In  the  Historisck^ 
polUiscke  BUUter,  a  Munich  journal,  (jArres  and  his  son  Guido 
(i8o5-i85a)  continually  uphdd  the  claims  of  the  churdu 
Gdrres  received  from  the  king  the  order  of  merit  for  his  servitie^ 
He  died  00  the  a9th  of  January  1848. 


GORSAS— GORTON 


261 


Garm's  GfJMMMlb  Sekr^en  (only  his  pditiail  writinn)  appeared 
ia  SB  volumet  (1854-1860).  to  which  three  volumes  dTCtsammtUa 
BrHf0  wcce  subsequently  added  (1858-1874).  Co.  J.  (^alUnd. 
Jtsipk  son  Gdrrts  (1876,  and  cd.  1877) ;  J.  N.  aepp,  GOrret  und  taint 
Ztiignosse*  (1877),  and  by  the  same  author,  Cdrres,  in  the  series 
CrisksktUm  (1896).    A  G^nts^CtteUsckafl  was  founded  in  1876. 

QOBSIS,  AMTOIMB  406BPH  (i7S»-i793).  French  pubUdst 
and  politician,  was  born  at  Limoges  ( Haute- Vienne)  on  the  tAth 
ol  March  1752,  the  son  of  a  shoemaker.  He  established  himself 
as  a  private  tutor  in  Paris,  and  presently  set  up  a  school  for  the 
army  at  Versailles,  which  was  attended  by  commoners  as  well 
as  nobka.  In  1781  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  short  time  in  the 
Bicltre  on  an  accusation  of  corrupting  the  morals  of  his  pupils, 
lisi  real  offence  being  the  writiiog  of  satirical  verse.  These 
drcumstanccs  explain  the  violence  of  his  anti-monarchical 
aentiment.  At  the  opening  of  the  states-general  he  began  to 
imbliah  the  dnmier  de  VersaSUs  d  Paris  el  de  Paris  d  VersailUs, 
in  which  appeared  on  the  4th  of  October  1789  the  account  of  the 
banquet  of  the  royal  bodyguard.  Gorsas  is  said  to  have  himself 
lead  it  in  public  at  the  Palus  Royal,  and  to  have  headed  one  of 
the  columns  that  marched  on  Versailles.  He  then  changed  the 
of  his  paper  to  the  Courrier  dcs  quaire-nnit4rois  diparte^ 
continuing  his  incendiary  propaganda,  which  had  no 
amaO  share  in  provoking  the  popular  insurrections  of  June  and 
Augnst  1792.  During  the  September  massacres  he  wrote  In 
hia  paper  that  the  prisons  were  the  centre  of  an  anti-national 
conspiracy  and  that  the  people  exercised  a  just  vengeance  on 
the  gudlty.  On  the  loth  of  September  1792  he  was  elected  to 
the  (invention  for  the  department  of  Seine^-Oise,  and  on  the 
loth  ai  January  1793  was  elected  one  of  its  secretaries.  He  sat 
at  first  with  the  Mountain,  but  having  been  long  associated 
with  Rdand  and  Brissot,  his  agreement  with  the  Girondists 
became  gradually  more  pronounced;  during  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI. 
be  disso  Jated  himself  more  and  more  from  the  principles  of  the 
Movmtain,  and  he  voted  for  the  king's  detention  during  the  war 
and  subsequent  banishment.  A  violent  attack  on  Marat  in 
the  Courrier  led  to  an  armed  raid  on  his  printing  establishment 
on  the  9th  of  March  1793.  The  place  was  sacked,  but  Gorsas 
f^fupH  the  popular  fury  by  dight.  The  facts  being  reported  to 
the  Convention,  little  sympathy  was  shown  to  (Sorsas,  and  a 
icsolution  (which  was  evaided)  was  passed  forbidding  repre- 
acnti^ves  to  occupy  themselves  with  journalism.  On  the  2nd 
of  June  he  was  ordered  by  the  Convention  to  hold  himself  under 
arrest  with  other  members  of  his  party.  He  escaped  to  Nor- 
mandy to  join  Buzot,  and  after  the  defeat  of  the  (jirondists  at 
Pacy-sor-Eure  he  found  shelter  in  Brittany.  He  was  imprudent 
enough  to  return  to  Paris  in  the  autumn,  where  he  was  arrested 
on  the  6th  of  October  and  guillotined  the  next  day. 

Sec  the  Moniieur,  No.  268  (1792).  Nos.  10. 70  new  aeries  18  (1793)  *> 
M.  Toumeux,  BibL  de  Fhist.  de  Paris,  10,391  •»!.  (1894). 

OOBST,  SIB  40HH  KLDON  (1835-  ),  English  statesman, 
vaa  bom  at  Preston  in  1835,  the  son  of  Edward  Chaddock 
GofBt,  who  took  the  name  of  Lowndes  on  succeeding  to  the 
family  esUte  in  1853.  He  gnuluated  third  wrangler  from  St 
John's  CoUege,  Cambridge,  in  1857,  and  was  admitted  to  a 
fellowship.  After  beginning  to  read  for  the  bar  in  London,  his 
father's  illness  uid  death  led  to  his  sailing  to  New  Zealand,  where 
he  married  in  t86o  Mary  Elizabeth  Moore.  The  Maoris  had  at 
that  time  set  up  a  king  of  their  own  in  the  Waikato  district  and 
Gorst,  who  had  made  friends  with  the  chief  Tamihana  (William 
Thomson),  acted  as  an  intermediary  between  the  Maoris  and 
the  government.  Sir  George  Grey  made  him  inspector  of 
achoob,  then  resident  magistrate,  and  eventually  dvil  com- 
Boiinoner  in  Upper  Waikato.  Tamihana*s  influence  secured  his 
safety  in  the  Maori  outbreak  of  1863.  In  1908  he  published  a 
volume  of  recollections,  under  the  title  of  New  Zealand  Rerisitedi 
JUeoBecUoiu  of  Ike  Days  of  my  Youth.  He  then  returned  to 
&i|^and  and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in  1865, 
becoming  Q.C.  in  1875.  He  stood  unsuccessfully  for  Hastings 
in  the  Conservative  interest  in  1865,  and  next  year  entered 
parUament  as  member  for  the  bopugh  of  Cambridge,  but  failed 
to  seoiie  re-election  at  the  dissolution  of  1868.  After  the 
Contcrvative  defeat  of  that  year  he  was  entrusted  by  Disraeli 


with  the  reorganization  of  the  party  madilnery,  and  in  five  years 
of  hard  wo^  he  paved  the  way  for  the  Conservative  success  at 
the  general  election  of  1874.  At  a  bye-election  in  1875  he  re- 
entered parliament  as  meinber  for  Chatham,  which  he  continuad 
to  represent  until  1892.  He  joined  Sir  Henry  Drummond- 
Wolff,  Lord  Randolph  Churchill  and  Mr  Arthur  Balfour  in  the 
'*  Fourth  Party,"  and  he  became  soUdtor-general  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  1885-1886  and  was  knighted.  On  the  formation 
of  the  second  Salisbury  administration  (1886)  he  became  under- 
secretary for  India  and  in  1891  finanrial  secretary  to  the 
Treasury.  At  the  general  election  of  1892  he  became  member 
for  Cambridge  University.  He  was  deputy  chairman  of  com- 
mittees in  the  House  of  Commons  from  1888  to  1891,  and  on  the 
formation  of  the  third  Salisbury  administration  in  1895  he 
became  vice-president  of  the  committee  of  the  coundl  on  educa- 
tion (until  1902).  Sir  John  Gorst  adhered  to  t)ie  prind|des  of 
Tory  democracy  which  he  had  advocated  in  the  days  of  the 
fourth  party,  and  continued  to  exhibit  an  active  Interest  in  the 
housing  of  the  poor,  the  education  and  care  of  their  children, 
and  in  social  questions  generally,  both  in  parliament  and  in  the 
press.  But  he  was  always  exceedingly  "  independent  "  in  his 
political  action.  He  objected  to  Mr  Chamberlain's  proposals 
for  tariff  reform,  and  lost  his  seat  at  Cambridge  at  the  general 
election  of  1906  to  a  tariff  reformer.  He  then  withdrew  from 
the  vice-chancellorship  of  the  Primrose  League,  of  which  he 
had  been  one  of  the  founders,  on  the  ground  that  it  no  longer 
represented  the  policy  of  Lord  Beaconsfield.  In  19x0  he  con- 
tested Preston  as  a  Liberal,  but  failed  to  secure  election. 

His  dder  son,  Sni  J.  Eloon  (joist  (b.  x86i),  was  finandal 
adviser  to  the  Egyptian  government  from  1898  to  1904,  when 
he  became  assistant  under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs. 
In  1907  he  succeeded  Lord  Cromer  as  British  agent  and  consul- 
general  in  Egypt. 

An  account  of  Sir  John  Gont**  connexion  Vith  Locd  Randolph 
Churchill  will  be  found  in  the  Fourth  Party  (1906),  by  hb  younger 
•00,  Harold  E.  (jorat. 

GORTON,  SAMUEL  (c.  1600-1677),  English  sectary  and 
founder  of  the  American  sect  of  Gortonites,  was  bom  about 
x6oo  at  Gorton,  Lancashire.  He  was  first  apprenticed  to  a 
clothier  in  London,  but,  fearing  persecution  for  his  religious 
convictions,  he  sailed  for  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  X636.  Con- 
stantly involved  in  religious  disputes,  he  fled  in  turn  to  Ply- 
mouth, and  (in  x637~x638)  to  Aquidneck  (Newport),  where  he 
was  publicly  whipped  for  insulting  the  clergy  and  ma^^trates. 
In  1643  he  boujg^t  land  from  the  Narraganset  Indians  at 
Shawomet — now  Warwick — ^where  he  was  joined  by  a  number 
of  his  followers',  but  he  quarrelled  with  the  Indiams  and  the 
authorities  at  Boston  sent  soldiers  to  arrest  Gorton  and  six  of  his 
companions.  He  served  a  term  of  imprisonment  for  heresy  at 
Charlestown,  after  which  he  was  ejected  from  the  colony. 
In  England  in  1646  he  published  the  ctirious  tract  "  Simpli- 
dlies  Defence  against  Seven  Headed  Policy  "  (reprinted  in 
1835)1  giving  an  account  of  his  grievances  against  the  Massa- 
chusetts government.  In  1648  he  returned  to  New  England 
with  a  letter  of  protection  from  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and  joining 
his  former  companions  at  Shawomet,  which  he  named  Warwick, 
in  honour.of  the  earl,  be  remained  there  till  his  death  at  the  end 
of  1677.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  founder  of  a  small 
"Beet  called  the  (xortonites,  which  survived  till  the  end  of  the 
x8lh  century.  They  had  a  great  contempt  for  the  regular  dergy 
and  for  all  outward  forms  of  rdigion,  holding  that  the  true 
believers  partook  of  the  perfection  of  God. 

Among  his  auaint  writings  are:  An  IneonupUhU  Key  composed 

?f  the  ex.  Psalms  wherewith  you  may  open  the  rest  of  the  Scriptures 
1647).  and  Saltmarsh  returned  from  the  Dead^  with  its  sequel,  An 
AnhdoU  against  the  Common  Platue  of  the  World  (1657).  See  L.  G. 
Jones,  Samud  Gorton:  aforgMen  rounder  of  our  Lihertus  (Providence. 
1896). 

OORTOH,  an  urban  district  in  the  Gorton  parliamentary 
division  of  Lancashire,  England,  forming  an  eastern  suburb 
of  Manchester.  Pop.  (1901)  26,564.  It  b  largely  a  manufactur- 
ing district,  having  cotton  mills  and  iron,  engineering  and 
chemical  works. 


262 


GORTYNA— g5RZ  AND  GRADISCA 


GORTTKA,  or  Gostyn,  an  important  andent  city  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  island  of  Crete.  It  stood  on  the  banks 
of  the  small  river  Lethaeus  (Mitropolipotamo),  about  three  hours 
distant  from  the  sea,  with  which  it  a>mmunicatcd  by  means  of 
its  two  harbours,  Metallum  and  Lebena.  It  had  temples  of 
Apollo  Pythius,  Artemis  and  Zeus.  Near  the  town  was  the 
famous  fountain  of  Sauros,  inclosed  by  fruit-bearing  poplars; 
and  not  far  from  this  was  another  spring,  overhung  by  an  ever- 
green plane  tree  which  in  popular  belief  marked  the  scene  of 
the  amours  of  Zeus  and  Europa.  Gortyna  was,  next  to  Cnossus, 
the  largest  and  most  powerful  city  of  Crete.  The  two  cities 
combined  to  subdue  the  rest  of  the  island;  but  when  they  had 
gained  their  object  they  quarrelled  with  each  other,  and  the 
history  of  both  towns  is  from  this  time  little  more  than  a  record 
of  their  feuds.  Neither  plays  a  conspicuous  parjt  in  the  history 
of  Greece.  Under  the  Romans  Gortyna  became  the  metropolis 
of  the  island.  Extensive  ruins  may  still  be  seen  at  the  modem 
village  of  Hagii  Deka,  and  here  was  discovered  the  great  inscrip- 
tion containing  chapters  of  its  andent  laws.  Though  partly 
ruinous,  the  church  of  St  Titus  is  a  very  interesting  monument 
of  early  Christian  architecture,  dating  from  about  the  4th  century. 

See  also  Crbtb,  and  for  a  full  account  of  the  laws  see  Greek 
Law. 

OdRTZ,  OEORG  HEINRICH  VON,  Baron  von  Schlitz 
(166S-1719),  Hobtdn  statesman,  was  educated  at  Jena.  He 
entered  the  Holstein-Gottorp  service,  and  after  the  death  of 
the  duchess  Hedwig  Sophia,  Charles  XII.'s  sister,  became  very 
influential  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Duke  Charles  Frederick. 
His  earlier  policy  aimed  at  strengthening  Holstein-Gottorp 
at  the  expense  of  Denmark.  With  this  object,  during  Charles 
XII.'s  stay  at  Altranst&dt  (i 706-1 707),  he  tried  to  divert  the 
king's  attention  to  the  Holstein  question,  and  six  years  later, 
when  the  Swedish  commander,  Magnus  Stenbock,  crossed  the 
Elbe,  Gttrtz  rendered  him  as  much  assistance  as  was  compatible 
with  not  openly  breaking  with  Denmark,  even  going  so  far 
as  to  surrender  the  fortress  of  Tttnning  to  the  Swedes.  GOrtz 
next  attempted  to  undermine  the  grand  alliance  against  Sweden 
by  negotiating  with  Russia,  Prussia  and  Saxony  for  the  purpose 
of  isolating  Denmark,  or  even  of  turning  the  arms  of  the  iJlies 
against  her,  a  task  by  no  means  impossible  in  view  of  the  strained 
relations  between  Denmark  and  the  tsar.  The  plan  foundered, 
however,  on  the  refusal  of  Charles  XII.  to  save  the  rest  of  his 
German  domains  by  ceding  Stettin  to  Prussia.  Another  simul- 
taneous plan  of  procuring  the  Swedish  crown  for  Duke  Charles 
Frederick  also  came  to  nought.  Gdrt2  first  suggested  the 
marriage  between  the  duke  of  Holstein  and  the  tsarevna  Anne 
of  Russia,  and  negotiations  were  begun  in  St  Petersburg  with 
that  object.  On  the  arrival  of  Charles  XII.  from  Turkey  at 
Slralsund,  GQttz  was  the  first  to  visit  him,  and  emerged  from 
his  presence  chief  minister  or  "grand-vizier"  as  the  Swedes 
preferred  to  call  the  bold  and  crafty  satrap,  whose  absolute 
devotion  to  the  Swedish  king  took  no  account  of  the  intense 
wretchedness  of  the  Swedish  nation.  Gdrtz,  himself  a  man  of 
uncommon  audacity,  seems  to  have  been  fasdnated  by  the 
heroic  element  in  Charles's  nature  and  was  determined,  if 
possible,  to  save  him  from  his  difficulties.  He  owed  his  extra- 
ordinary influence  to  the  fact  that  he  was  the  only  one  of  Charles's 
advisers  who  believed,  or  pretended  to  believe,  that  Sweden 
was  still  far  from  exhaustion,  or  at  any  rate  had  a  suffident 
reserve  of  power  to  give  support  to  an  energetic  diplomacy — 
Charles's  own  opinion,  in  fact.  GOrtz's  position,  however, 
was  highly  peculiar.  Ostensibly,  he  was  only  the  Holstein 
minister  at  Charles's  court,  in  reality  he  was  everything  in  Sweden 
except  a  Swedish  subject — finance  minister,  plenipotentiary 
to  foreign  powers,  factotum,  and  responsible  to  the  king  alone, 
though  he  had  not  a  line  of  instructions.  But  he  was  just  the 
man  for  a  hero  in  extremities,  and  his  whole  course  of  procedure 
was,  of  necessity,  revolutionary.  His  chief  finandal  expedient 
was  to  debase,  or  rather  ruin,  the  currency  by  issuing  copper 
tokens  redeemable  in  better  times;  but  it  was  no  fault  of  his 
that  Charles  XII.,  during  his  absence,  flung  upon  the  market 
too  enormous  an  amount  of  this  copper  money  for  G6riz  to  deal 


with.  By  the  end  of  17 18  it  seemed  as  if  Gfirtz's  system  could 
not  go  on  much  longer,  and  the  hatred  of  the  Swedes  towards 
him  was  so  intense  and  universal  that  they  blamed  him  for 
Charles  Xli.'s  tyranny,  as  well  as  for  his  own.  Gfirtz  hoped, 
however,  to  conclude  peace  with  at  least  some  of  Sweden's 
numerous  enemies  before  the  crash  came  and  then,  by  means 
of  fresh  combinations,  to  restore  Sweden  to  her  rank  as  a  great 
power.  It  must  be  admitted  that,  in  pursuance  of  his  "  system," 
G5rtz  displayed  a  genius  for  diplomacy  which  would  have  done 
honour  to  a  Metternich  or  a  Talleyrand.  He  desired  pcwct  with 
Russia  first  of  all,  and  at  the  congress  of  Aland  even  obtained 
relatively  favourable  terms,  only  to  have  them  rejected  by  his 
obstinatdy  optimistic  master.  Simultaneously,  Gdrtz  was  negott* 
ating  with  Cardinal  Alberoni  and  with  the  whigs  in  England;  but 
all  his  ingenious  combinations  collapsed  like  a  house  of  cards  on 
the  sudden  death  of  Charles  XII.  The  whole  fury  of  the  Swedish 
nation  instantly  feU  upon  Gdrt2.  After  a  trial  before  a  special 
commission  which  was  a  parody  of  justice — the  accused  was 
not  permitted  to  have  any  legal  assistance  or  the  use  o(  writing 
materials — he  was  condemned  to  decapitation  and  promptly 
executed.  Perhaps  Gdrtz  deserved  his  fate  for  "  unnecessarily 
making  himself  the  tool  of  an  unheard-of  despotism,"  but  his 
death  was  certainly  a  judicial  murder,  and  some  historians  even 
regard  him  as  a  political  martyr. 

See  R.  N.  Bain.  Charles  XII.  CLondon,  1805),  and  Soondinana, 
chap.  13  (Cambridge,  1905);  B.  von  Beskow,  Ffekerrt  Ctort 
Heinrick  von  CdrU  (Stockholm.  1868).  (R.  N.  B.) 

GOrZ  (Ital.  Gorizia;  Slovene,  Gorica),  the  capital  of  the 
Austrian  crownland  of  Gdrz  and  Gradisca,  about  390  m.  S.W. 
of  Vienna  by  rail.  Pop  (1900)  25,433,  two-thirds  Italians, 
the  remainder  mostly  Slovenes  and  Germans.  It  is  picturesquely 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Isonzo  in  a  fertile  valley,  35  nu 
N.N.W.  of  Trieste  by  rail.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop  and 
possesses  an  interesting  cathedral,  built  in  the  Z4th  century 
and  the  richly  decorated  church  of  St  Ignatius,  built  in  the 
Z7th  century  by  the  Jesuits.  On  an  eminence,  wbJch  dominates 
the  town,  is  situated  the  old  castle,  formerly  the  seat  of  the 
counts  of  G()rz,  now  partly  used  as  barracks.  Owing  to  the 
mildness  of  its  climate  C^tz  has  become  a  favourite  winter- 
resort,  and  has  received  the  name  of  the  Nice  of  Austria.  Its 
mean  annual  temperature  is  55^  F.;  while  the  mean  winter 
temperature  is  38-7^  F.  It  is  adorned  with  several  pretty  gardens 
with  a  luxuriant  southern  vegetation.  On  a  height  to  the  N. 
of  the  town  is  situated  the  Franciscan  convent  of  CastagOavizza, 
in  whose  chapd  lie  the  remains  of  Charles  X.  of  France(d.  1836), 
the  last  Bourbon  king,  of  the  duke  of  Angoultoie  (d.  1844), 
his  son,  and  of  the  duke  of  Chambord  (d.  1883).  Seven  miles 
to  the  north  of  Gdrz  is  the  Monte  Santo  (2275  ^^•)t  &  much- 
frequented  place  on  which  stands  a  pilgrimage  church.  The 
industrtes  include  cotton  and  silk  weaving,  sugar  refining, 
brewing,  the  manufacture  of  leather  and  the  making  of  rosoglio. 
There  is  also  a  considerable  trade  in  wooden  work,  vegetables, 
early  fruit  and  wine.  G6rz  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  at 
the  beginning  of  the  zith  century,  and  received  its  charter  as 
a  tofin  in  1307.  During  the  middle  ages  the  greater  part  of 
its  population  was  German. 

GdRZ  AND  GRADISCA,  a  county  and  crownland  of  Austria, 
bounded  £.  by  Camiola,  S.  by  Istria,  the  Triestine  territory 
and  the  Adriatic,  W.  by  Italy  and  N.  by  Carinthia.  It  has 
an  area  of  1x40  sq.  m.  The  coast  line,  though  extending  for 
35  m.,  does  not  present  any  harbour  of  importance.  It  is  fringed 
by  alluvial  deposits  and  lagoons,  which  are  for  the  most  part 
of  very  modem  formation,  for  as  late  as  the  4th  or  5th  centuries 
Aquileia  was  a  great  seaport.  The  harbour  of  Grado  is  the  only 
one  accessible  to  the  larger  kind  of  coasting  craft.  On  all  sides, 
except  towards  the  south-west  where  it  um'tes  with  the  Friuliaa 
lowland,  it  is  surrounded  by  mountains,  and  about  four-sixths 
of  its  area  is  occupied  by  mountains  and  hills.  From  the  Juh'an 
Alps,  which  traverse  the  province  in  the  north,  the  country 
descends  in  successive  terraces  towards  the  sea,  and  may  roughly 
be  divided  into  the  upper  highlands,  the  lower  highlands,  the 
hilly  district  and  the  lowlands.    The  prindpal  peaks  in  the 


GOSCHEN,  VISCOUNT 


263 


Julian  Alps  are  the  Monte  Canin  (8469(1.)!  the  Manhart  (8784  ft.), 
the  Jalouc  (8708  ft.),  the  Krn  (7367  ft.),  the  Matajur  (5386  ft.), 
and  the  highest  peak  in  the  whole  range,  the  Trigiav  or 
Terglou  (9394  ft.).  The  Julian  Alps  are  crossed  by  the  Predil 
Pass  i$Bii  ft.),  through  which  passes  the  principal  road  from 
Carinthia  to  the  Coastland.  The  southern  part  of  the  province 
belongs  to  the  Karst  region,  and  here  are  situated  the  famous 
cascades  and  grottoes  of  Sankt  Kanzian,  where  the  river  Reka 
begins  its  subterranean  course.  The  principal  river  of  the 
province  is  the  Isonzo,  which  rises  in  the  Trigiav,  and  pursues 
a  strange  zigzag  course  for  a  distance  of  78  m.  before  it  reaches 
the  Adriatic.  At  Gdre  the  Isonzo  is.  still  138  ft.  above  the  sea, 
and  it  is  navigable  only  in  its  lowest  section,  where  it  takes  the 
name  of  the  Sdobba.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Idria, 
the  Wippach  and  the  Torre  with  its  tributary  the  Judrio, 
which  forms  for  a  short  distance  the  boundary  between  Austria 
and  Italy.  Of  q^al  interest  not  only  in  itself  but  for  the 
frequent  allusions  to  it  in  classical  literature  is  the  Timavus 
or  iimavo,  which  appears  ncar'Duino,  and  after  a  very  short 
course  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Trieste.  In  ancient  times  it  appears, 
according  to  the  well-known  description  of  Virgil  (Aen.  i.  244) 
to  have  rushed  from  the  mountain  by  nine  separate  mouths 
and  with  much  noise  and  commotion,  but  at  present  it  usually 
issues  from  only  three  mouths  and  flows  quiet  and  still.  It 
is  strange  enough,  however,  to  see  the  river  coming  out  full 
formed  from  the  rock,  and  capable  at  its  very  source  of  bearing 
vessels  on  its  bosom.  According  to  a  probable  hypothesis  it 
is  a  continuation  of  the  above-mentioned  river  Reka,  which  is 
lost  near  Sankt  Kanzian. 

Agriculture,  and  specially  viticulture,  is  the  principal  occupa- 
tion of  the  population,  and  the  vine  is  here  planted  not  only 
in  regular  vineyards,  but  is  introduced  in  long  lines  through 
the  ordinary  fields  and  carried  up  the  hills  in  terraces  locally 
called  roncku  The  rearing  of  the  silk-worm,  especially  in  the 
lowlands,  constitutes  another  great  source  of  revenue,  and 
furnishes  the  material  for  the  only  extensive  industry  of  the 
country.  The  manufacture  of  silk  is  carried  on  at  Gdrz,  and  in 
and  around  the  village  of  Haidenschaft.  GOrz  and  Gradisca 
bad  in  1900  a  population  of  233,338,  which  is  equivalent  to 
203  inhabitants  per  square  mile.  According  to  nationality  about 
two-thirds  were  Slovenes,  and  the  remainder  Italians,  with  only 
about  2200  Germans.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  population 
(99*6%)  belongs  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  local 
diet,  of  which  the  archbishop  of  Giirz  is  a  member  ex-officio, 
is  composed  of  22  members,  and  the  crownland  sends  5  deputies 
to  the  Reichsrat  at  Vienna.  For  administrative  purposes  the 
province  is  divided  into  4  districts  and  an  autonomous  munici- 
pality, Gdn  (pop.  25,432),  the  capital.  Other  principal  places 
are  Cormons  (5824),  Monfalcone  (5536),  Kiichheim  (5699), 
Gradisca  (3843)  and  Aquileia  (2319). 

Gdn  first  appears  distinctly  in  history  about  the  dose  of  the 
loth  century,  as  part  of  a  district  bestowed  by  the  emperor 
Otto  m.  on  John,  patriarch  of  Aquileia.  In  the  zxth  century 
it  became  the  seat  of  the  Eppenstein  family,  who  frequently 
bore  the  title  of  counts  of  Gorizia;  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
1 2th  century  the  countship  passed  from  them  to  the  Lumgau 
family  which  continued  to  exist  till  the  year  1500,  and  acquired 
possessions  in  Tirol,  Carinthia,  Friuli  and  Styria.  On  the 
death  of  Count  Lconhard  (i3th  April  1500)  the  fief  reverted  to 
the  house  of  Hab&burg.  The  countship  of  Gradisca  was  united 
with  it  in  1754.  The  province  was  occupied  by  the  French  in 
1809,  but  reverted  again  to  Austria  in  181 5.  It  formed  a  district 
of  the  administrative  province  of  Trieste  until  i86x,  when  it 
became  a  separate  crownland  under  its  actual  name. 

fiOfCHBf,  GEORGE  JOACHIM  GOSCHEN,  ist  Viscount 
(1831-1907),  British  statesman,  son  of  William  Henry  G^Sschen, 
a  London  merchant  of  German  extraction,  was  bom  in  London 
on  the  loth  of  August  1831.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby  under 
Dr  Tail,  and  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  a  first- 
class  in  dassics.  He  entered  his  father's  firm  of  Frtlhling  & 
GdKhen,  of  Austin  Friars,  in  1853,  and  three  years  later  became 
a  director  of  the  Bank  of  England.    His  entry  into  public  life 


took  place  in  1863,  when  he  was  returned  without  opposition 
as  member  for  the  city  of  London  in  the  Liberal  interest, 
and  this  was  followed  by  his  re-election,  at  the  head  of  the  poll, 
in  the  general  election  of  1865.  In  November  of  the  same  year 
he  was  appointed  vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and 
paymaster-general,  and  in  January  1866  he  was  made  chancellor 
of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  When 
Mr  Gladstone  became  prime  minister  in  December  1868,  Mr 
Goschen  joined  the  cabinet  as  president  oL  the  Poor  Law  Board, 
and  continued  to  hold  that  office  until  March  1871,  when  he 
succeeded  Mr  Childers  as  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In  1874 
he  was  dected  lord  rector  of  the  university  of  Aberdeen.  Being 
sent  to  Cairo  in  1876  as  delegate  for  the  British  holders  of 
Egyptian  bonds,  in  order  to  arrange  for  the  conversion  of 
the  debt,  he  succeeded  in  effecting  an  agreement  with  the 
Khedive. 

In  1878  his  views  upon  the  county  franchise  question  pre- 
vented him  from  voting  imiformly  with -his  party,  and  he  in- 
formed his  constituents  in  the  dty  that  he  would  not  stand 
again  at  the  forthcoming  general  dection.  In  x88o  he  was 
elected  for  Ripon,  and  continued  to  represent  that  constituency 
until  the  general  dection  of  J885,  when  he  was  returned  for  the 
Eastern  Division  of  Edinburgh.  Being  opposed  to  the  extension 
of  the  franchise,  he  was  unable  to  join  Mr  Gladstone's  govern- 
ment in  1880;  declining  the  post  of  viceroy  of  India,  he  accepted 
that  of  spedsd  ambassador  to  the  Porte,  and  was  successful  in 
settling  the  Montenegrin  and  Greek  frontier  questions  in  x88o 
and  i88x.  He  was  made  an  ecdesiastical  commissioner  in  1882, 
and  when  Sir  Henry  Brand  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1884, 
the  speakership  of  the  House  of  Commons  was  offered  to  him, 
but  declined.  During  the  parliament  of  1880-1885  he  frequently 
found  himself  unable  to  concur  With  his  party,  especially  as 
regards  the  extension  of  the  franchise  and  questions  of  foreign 
poh'cy;  and  when  Mr  Gladstone  adopted  the  policy  of  Home 
Rule  for  Ireland,  Mr  Goschen  followed  Lord  Hartington  (after- 
wards duke  of  Devonshire)  and  became  one  of  the  most  active  of 
the  Liberal  Unionists.  His  vigorous  and  eloquent  opposition  to 
Mr  Gladstone's  Home  Rule  Bill  of  1886  brought  him  into  greater 
public  prominence  than  ever,  but  he  failed  to  retain  his  seat  for 
Edinburgh  at  the  dection  in  July  of  that  year.  On  the  resigna- 
tion of  Lord  Randolph  Churchill  in  December  x886,  Mr  Goschen, 
though  a  Liberal  Unionist,  accepted  Lord  Salisbury's  invitation 
to  join  his  ministry,  and  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Bdng  defeated  at  Liverpool,  36th  of  January  X887,  by  seven 
votes,  he  was  elected  for  St  George's,  Hanover  Square,  on  the 
9th  of  February.  His  chancellorship  of  the  exchequer  during 
the  ministry  of  x886  to  1892  was  rendered  memorable  by  his 
successful  conversion  of  the  National  Debt  in  1888  (see  National 
Debt).  With  that  finandal  operation,  under  which  the  new 
3f  %  Consols  became  known  as  "  Goschens,"  his  name  will 
long  be  connected.  Aberdeen  University  again  conferred  upon 
him  the  honour  of  the  lord  rectorship  in  1888,  and  he  received 
a  similar  honour  from  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1890. 
In  the  Unionist  opposition  of  1893  to  1895  ^^  Goschen  again 
took  a  vigorous  part,  his  speeches  both  in  and  out  of  the  House 
of  Commons  being  remarkable  for  their  eloquence  and  debating 
power.  From  1895  to  1900  Mr  Goschen  was  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  and  in  that  office  he  earned  the  highest  reputation 
for  his  businesslike  grasp  of  detail  and  his  statesmanlike  outlook 
on  the  naval  policy  of  the  country.  He  retired  in  1900,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Viscount  Goschen  of  Hawk- 
hurst,  Kent.  Though  retired  from  active  politics  he  continued 
to  take  a  great  interest  in  public  affairs;  and  when  Mr  Chamber- 
lain started  his  tariff  reform  movement  in  1903,  Lord  Goschen 
was  one  of  the  weightiest  champions  of  free  trade  on  the  Unionist 
side.  He  died  on  the  7  th  of  February  1907,  being  succeeded  in 
the  title  by  his  son  George  Joachim  (b.  1866),  who  was  Con- 
servative M.P.  for  East  Grinstead  from  1895  to  1900,  and 
married  a  daughter  of  the  ist  earl  of  Cranbrook. 

In  educational  subjects  Goschen  had  always  taken  the  greatest 
interest,  his  best  known,  but  by  no  means  his  only,  contribution 
to  popular  culture  being  his  participation  in  the  University 


264 


GOS-HAWK— GOSLAR 


Extension  Movement;  and  his  first  efforts  in  parliament  were 
devoted  to  advocating  the  abolition  of  religious  tests  and  the 
admission  of  Dissenters  to  the  universities.  His  published 
works  indicate  how  ably  he  combined  tht  wise  study  of  econo- 
mics with  a  practical  instinct  for  business-like  progress,  without 
neglecting  the  more  ideal  aspects  of  human  life.  In  addition  to 
his  well-known  work  on  Tlu  Theory  of  the  Foreign  Exchanges, 
he  published  several  financial  and  political  pamphlets  and 
addresses  on  educational  and  social  subjects,  among  them  being 
that  on  Cullivalion  of  the  Imagination,  Liverpool,  1877,  and  that 
on  Intellectual  Interest,  Aberdeen,  1888.  He  also  wrote  The  Life 
and  Times  of  Ceorg  Joachim  Coschen,  publisher  and  printer  of 
Leipzig  (1903).  (H.  Ch.) 

OOS'HAWK,  t.e.  goose-hawk,  the  Astur  pdwnbarius  of 
ornithologists,  and  the  largest  of  the  short-winged  hawks  used 
in  falconry.  Its  English  name,  however,  has  possibly  been 
transferred  to  this  species  from  one  of  the  long-winged  hawks 
or  true  falcons,  since  there  is  no  tradition  of  the  gos-hawk,  now 
so  called,  having  ever  been  used  in  Europe  to  take  geese  or  other 
large  and  powerful  birds.  The  genus  Astur  may  be  readily 
distinguished  from  Falco  by  the  smooth  edges  of  its  beak, 
its  short  wings  (not  reaching  beyond  about  the  middle  of  the  tail), 
and  its  long  legs  and  toes — though  these  last  are  stout  and  com- 
paratively shorter  than  in  the  sparrow-hawks  (Accipiter),  In 
plumage  the  gos-hawk  has  a  general  resemblance  to  the  pere- 
grine falcon,  and  it  undergoes  a  corresponding  change  as  it 
advances  from  youth  to  maturity — the  young  being  longitudin- 
ally streaked  beneath,  while  the  adults  are  transversely  barred. 
The  irides,  however,  are  always  yellow,  or  in  old  birds  orange, 
while  those  of  the  falcons  are  dark  brown.  The  sexes  differ 
greatly  in  size.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  gos-hawk, 
nowadays  very  rare  in  Britain,  was  once  common  in  EngUind, 
and  even  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  Thornton  obtained 
a  nestling  in  Scotland,  while  Irish  gos-hawks  were  of  old  highly 
celebrated.  Being  strictly  a  woodland-bird,  its  disappearance 
may  be  safely  connected  with  the  disappearance  of  the  ancient 
forests  in  Great  Britain,  though  its  destructiveness  to  poultry 
and  pigeons  has  doubtless  contributed  to  its  present  scarcity. 
In  many  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe  it  still  abounds.  It 
ranges  eastward  to  China  and  is  much  valued  in  India.  In 
North  America;  it  is  represented  by  a  v^ry  nearly  allied  species, 
A.  atricapillus,  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  closer  barring  of 
the  breast.  Tliree  or  four  examples  corresponding  with  this 
form  have  been  obtained  in  Britain.  A  good  many  other  species 
of  Astur  (some  of  them  passing  into  Accipiter)  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  but  the  only  one  that  need  here  be 
mentioned  is  the  A.  novae-hoUandiae  of  .Australia,  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  dimorphism — one  form  possessing  the  normal 
dark-coloured  plumage  of  the  geilus  and  the  other  being  perfectly 
white,  w^ith  crimson  irides.  Some  writers  hold  these  two  forms 
to  be  distinct  spedes  a^d  call  the  dark-coloured  one  A>,  cinereur 
or  A.  raii,  (A.  N.)    . 

GOSHEN,  a  division  of  Egypt  settled  by  the  Israelites  between 
Jacob's  immigration  and. the  Exodus.  Its  exact  delimitation 
is  a  difficult  problem.  The  name  may  possibly  be  of-  Semitic, 
or  at  least  non-Egyptian  origin,  as  in  Palestine  we  meet  with  a 
district  (Josh.  x.  41)  and  a  city  {ib.  xv.  51)  of  the  same  same. 
The  Scptuagint  reads  Tiatu  'Apo/Sias  in  Gen.  zlv.  10,  and 
zlvi.  34,  elsewhere  simply  Tttrtii,  In  xlvi.  28  "  Goshen  .  •  • 
the  land  of  Goshen  "  are  tran^ted  respectively  *"  Heroopolis 
.  .  .  the  land  of  Rameses."  This  represents  a  late  Jewish 
identification.  Ptolemy  defines  "  Arabia  "  as  an  Egyptian  nome 
on  the  eastern  border  of  the  delta,  with  capital  phacussa, 
corresponding  to  the  Egyptian  nome  Sopt  and  town  Kesem. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  Phacussa  be  situated  at  the  mounds  of 
FiV^s.  or  at  another  place,  Saft-el-Henjieh,  which  suits  Strabo's 
description  of  its  locality  rather  better.  The  extent  of  Goshen, 
according  to  the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith  (L  9,  10),  included 
Tanis  and  Mempfus;  this  is  probably  an  overstatement.  It 
b  indeed  impossible  to  say  more  than  that  it  was  a  place  of 
good  pasture,  on  the  frontier  of  Palestine,  and  fruitful  in  edible 
vegetables  and  in  fish  (Numbers  xi.  5).  (R.  A.  S.  M.) 


GOSHEN,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Elkhart  county, 
Indiana,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Elkhart  river,  about  95  m.  E.  by  S. 
of  Chicago,  at  an  altitude  of  about  800  ft.  Pop.  (xSgo) 
6033;  (1900)  78x0  {462  foreign-bom);  (19x0)  85x4.  Goshen  is 
served  by  the  Cleveland,  Cincixmati,  Chicago  &  St  Louis,  and 
the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern  railways,  and  is  connected 
by  electric  railway  with  Warsaw  and  South  Bend.  The  city 
has  a  Carnegie  library,  aiKl  is  the  seat  of  Goshen  College  (under 
Mennonite  control),  chartered  as  Elkhart  Institute,  at  Elkhart, 
Ind.,  in  1895,  and  removed  to  Goshen  and  opened  under  its 
present  name  in  1903.  The  college  includes  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment,  an  academy,  a  Bible  school,  a  normal  school,  a  summer 
school  and  correspondence  courses,  and  schools  of  bustncn, 
of  music  and  of  oratory,  and  in  1908-1909  had  331  students, 
73  of  whom  were  m  the  Academy.  Goshen  is  situated  in 
a'  good  farming  region  and  is  an  important  lumber  market. 
There  is  a  good  water-power.  Among  the  city's  manufactures 
are  wagons  and  carriages,  furniture,  trooden-ware,  veneer- 
ing, sash  and  doors,  ladders,  lawn  swings,  rubber  goods, 
flour,  foundry  products  and  agricultural  machiiiery.  The 
municipality  owns  its  water  works  and  its  electric-lighting 
system.  Goshen  was  first  settkd  in  X828  and  was  first  chartered 
a^  a  city  in  1868. 

GOSLAR.  a  town  of  Germany,  in  t^ie  Prussian  province  of 
Hanover,  romantically  utuated  on  the  Oose,  an  aflluent  of  the 
Oker,  at  the  north  foot  of  the  Hars,  24  m.  S.^.  of  Hildeshetm 
and  31  m.  S.W.  from  Brunswick,  by  rait  Pop.  (X905)  17^8x7. 
It  is  surrounded  by  walls  and  is  of  antique  appearance.  Aniong 
the  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  "Zwinger,"  a  tower  with 
walls  23  ft.  thick;  the  market  church,  in  Xhe  Romanesque 
style,  restored  since  its  partial  destruction  by  fire  in  .1844,  and 
containing  the  town  archives  and  a  library  in  which  are  some 
of  Luther^s  manuscripts;  the  old  town  hall  (Rathaus),  posseting 
many  interesting  antiquities;  the  Kaiserworth  (formerly  the 
hall  of  the  tailors*  gild  and  now  an  ixm)  with  the  statues  of 
eight  of  the  German  emperors;  and  the  Kaiserhaus,  the  oldest 
secular  building  in  Germany,  built  by  the  emperor  Henry  III. 
before  X050  and  often  the  residence  of  his  successors.  This  was 
restored  in  x  867-1878  at'  the  cost  of  the  Prussian  government, 
and  was  adorned  with  freseoes  portraying  events  in  German 
history.  Other  buildings  of  interest  are: — ^the  small  chapel 
which  is  all  that  remains  ^ce  1820  of  the  old  and  famous 
cathedral  of  St  Simon  and  St  Jude  founded  by  Henry  III.  about 
X040,  containing  among  other  relics  of  the*  cathedral  an  dd 
altar  supposed  to  be  that  of  the  idol  Krodo  which  formerly 
stood  .on  the  Burgberg  near  Neustadt-Harzburg;  the  church 
of  the  former  Benedictine  monastery  of  St  Mazy,  or  Neuwerk, 
of  the  X  2th  century,  in  the  Romanesque  style,  with  wall-paintings 
of  considerable  merit;  and  the  house  of  the  bakers'  gild  now 
an  hotel,  the  birthplace  of  Marshal  Saxe.  There  are  four 
Evangelical  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  a  synagogue, 
several  schools,  a  natural  science  musetun,  containing  a  collection 
ot  Hars  nunerals,  the  Fenkner  museum,  of  antiquities  and  a 
.number  of  small  foundations.  Tlie  town  has  equestrian  statues 
of  the  emperor  Frederick  I.  and  of  the  German  emperor  William 
L  The  population  is  chiefly  occupied  in  connexion  with  the 
sulphur,  copper,  silver  and  other  mines  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  town  has  also  been  long  noted  for  its  beer,  and  possesses 
some^mall  manufactures  and  a  considerable  trade  in  fruit. 

Goslar  is  believed  to  have  been  founded  by  Henry  the  Fowler 
about  920,  and  when  in  the  time  of  Otto  the  Great  the  mineral 
treasures  iii  the  neighbourhood  were  discovered  it  increased 
rapidly  in  prosperity.  It  was  often  the  meeting-place  of  German 
diets,  twenty-three  of  which  are  said  to  have  been  held  here, 
and  was  frequently  the  residence  of  the  emperors.  About  13  50 
it  joined  the  Hanseatic  League.  In  the  middle  of  the  X4ih 
century  the  famous  Goslar  statutes,  a  code  of  laws,  which  was 
adopt<Mi  by  many  other  towns,  was  published.  The  town  was 
unsuccessfully  besieged  in  1625,  during  the  Thirty  Years*  War, 
but  was  taken  by  the  Swedes  in  1632  and  nearly  destroyed  by 
fire.  Further  conflagrations  in  1728  and  1780  gave  a  severe 
blow  to  its  prosperity.    It  was  a  free  town  till  1802,  when  it 


GOSLICKI— GOSPEL 


265 


into  the  potacssion  of  PnissiA.  In  1807  H  was  Joined  to 
Westphalia,  in  1816  to  Hanover  and  in  x866  it  was,  along  with 
Huovcr,  re-nnited  to  Prussia. 

See  T.  Erdmann,  Dit  alU  Kaiserstadt  Cosier  und  ihre  Umtebunt 
«'»  Gtsekicht*.  Sagt  und  BUd  (Goslar,  1893};  Cnisius,  GtschickU 
der  vcrmals  kaistrUchen  freien  RtUkstadi  Goslar-  (1842-1843);  A. 
Wolfatieg.  VtrJassMnMiscMickU  von  Goslar  (Berlin,  1885);  T.  AKbc, 
Die  Kauor^aU  nt  Coslar  (189a):  Neuburo,  Coslars  Bergbau  bis 
iSS2  (Hanover.  1892):  and  the  Urkundenbuck  der  Stadt  Goslar, 
edited  by  G.  Bode  (Halle,  i893-i90o)-  Por  the  Codcrische  Statulen 
net  the  cditioa  published  by  C^achen  (BerUo,  1840). 

OOSUCKI,  WAWRZTNIEC  ( ?  xsas-zOo?),  Polish  bishop, 
better  known  under  his  Latinized  name  of  Laurentius  Grimalius 
Goslidus,  was  bom  about  1 533.  After  having  studied  at  Cracow 
and  Padua,  he  entered  the  church,  and  was  successively  appointed 
bishop  of  Kaminietz  and  of  Posen.  Goslicki  was  an  aaive  man 
<rf  business,  was  held  in  hi|^  estimation  by^  his  contemporaries 
and  was  frequently  engaged  in  political  affairs.  It  was  chiefly 
through  his  influence,  and  through  the  letter  he  wrote  to  the 
pope  against  the  Jesuits,  that  t^ey  were  prevented  from  establish- 
ing thdr  schools  at  Crarow.  He  was  also  a  strenuous  advocate 
of  reiigious  toleration  in  Poland.    He  died  on  the  3xst  of  October 

1607. 

Hw  principal  work  is  Do  Optimo  senalore,  &c.  (Venice,  1568). 
There  arc  two  English  translations  published  respectively  under 
the  titles  A  commonwealth  of  good  counsailo,  &c.  C1607),  and  Tko 
Auomplisked  Somuior,  done  tnto  English  by  Mr  Oldisworth  (i733)* 

GOSUll.  or  Gauzunus  (d.  c.  886),  bishop  of  Paris  and  defender 
of  the  dty  against  the  Northmen  (885),  was,  according  to  some 
authorities,  the  son  of  Roricon  II.,  count  of  Maine,  according 
to  others  the  natural  son  of  the  emperor  Louis  I.  In  848  he 
became  a  monk,  and  entered  a  monastery  at  Rrims,  later  he 
became  abbot  of  St  Denis.  Like  most  of  the  prelates  of  his 
time  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  strug^  against  the 
Northmen,  by  whom  he  and  his  brother  Louis  were  taken 
prisoners  (858),  and  he  was  released  only  after  paying  a  heavy 
ransom  (Prudentii  Trecensis  epUcopi  AnnakSf  ann.  858).  From 
855  to  867  he  held  intermittently,  and  from  867  to  881  regularly, 
the  office  of  chancellor  to  Charies  the  Bald  and  his  successors. 
In  883  or  884  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Paris,  and  foreseeing  the 
dangers  to  ndiich  the  city  was  to  be  estposed  from  the  attacks 
of  the  Northmen,  he  planned  and  directed  the  strengthening 
of  the  defences,  though  he  also  relied  for  security  on  the  merits 
of  the  ielics  of  St  Germain  and  St  Genevieve.  When  the  attack 
finally  came  (885),  the  defence  of  the  dty  was  entrusted  to  him 
and  to  Odo,  count  of  Paris,  and  Hugh,  abbot  of  St  Germain 
rAujerrois.  The  dty  was  attacked  on  the  26th  of  November, 
and  the  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  bridge  (now  the  Pont- 
au-Chan^)  lasted  for  two  days,  but  Goslin  repaired  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  wooden  tower  overnight,  and  the  Normans  were 
obliged  to  give  up  the  attempt  to  take  the  dty  by  storm.  The 
siege  lasted  for  about  a  year  longer,  while  the  emperor  Charles 
tbe  Fat  was  in  Italy.  Goslin  died  soon  after  the  preliminaries 
oi  the  peace  had  been  agreed  on,  worn  out  by  his  exertions,  or 
killed  by  a  pestilence  which  raged  in  the  dty. 

See  Ainaury  Duval,  L*£viqn€  Godin  on  U  sUge  do  Paris  par  Us 
Normands,  ckrottigne  dn  IX*  sibcle  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1853,  3rd  ed.  ib. 

1835)- 

G08N0L9.  BARTHOLOMEW  (d.  1607),  English  navigator. 

Nothing  is  biown  of  his  birth,  parentage  or  early  life.    In  i6oa, 

in  command  of  the  "  Concord,"  chartered  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 

and  others,  he  crossed  the  Atlantic;  coasted  from  what  is  now 

Elaine  to  Martha's  Vineyard,  landing  at  and  naming  Cape  Cod 

and  Elizabeth  Island  (now  Cuttyhunk)  and  giving  the  name 

Martha's  Vineyard  to  the  island  now  called  No  Man's  Land; 

and  returned  to  England  with  a  cargo  of  furs,  sassafras  and  other 

commodities  obtained  in  trade  with  the  Indians  about  Buzzard's 

Bay.    In  London  be  activdy  promoted  the  colonization  of 

tbe  rcgkms  be  had  visited  and,  by  arousing  the  interest  of  Sir 

Ferdinando  Gorges  and  other  influential  persons,  contributed 

toward  securing  the  grants  of  the  charters  to  the  London  and 

Plymouth  Companies  in  x6o6.    In  1606-1607  he  was  associated 

with  Christopher  Newport  in  command  of  the  three  vessels 

by  whidi  tbe  first  Jamestown  colonists  were  carried  to  Virginia. 


As  a  member  of  the  council  he  took  an  active  share  in  the  affairs 
of  the  colony,  ably  seconding  the  efforts  of  John  Smith  to  intro- 
duce order,  industry  and  system  among  the  motley  array  of 
adventurers  and  idle  "  gentlemen  "  of  which  the  little  band  was 
composed.  He  died  from  swamp  fever  on  the  sand  of  August  1607. 

See  TTu  Works  of  John  Smith  (Arber's  Edition.  London,  1884): 
and  J.  M.  Brereton,  Brief  and  True  Relation  of  the  North  Part  of 
Virginia  (reprinted  by  B.  F.  Stevens,  London,  1901),  an  account  of 
Gosnold's  voyage  of  i6oa. 

G08PATRIC  (fl.  X067),  ead  of  Northumberland,  bdonged  to 
a  family  which  had  connexions  with  the  royal  houses  both  of 
Wessex  and  Scotland.  Before  the  Conquest  be  accompanied 
Tostig  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  (xo6i);  and  at  that  time 
was  a  landholder  in  Cumberland.  About  1067  he  bought  the 
earidom  of  Northumberland  from  William  the  Conqueror;  but, 
repenting  of  his  submission,  fled  with  other  Englishmen  to  the 
court  of  Scotland  (xo68).  He  joined  the  Danish  army  of  in- 
"vasion  in  the  next  year;  but  was  afterwards  able,  from  his 
possession  of  Bambtirgh  castle,  to  make  terms  with  the  con- 
queror, who  left  him  undisturbed  till  xo7a.  The  peace  conduded 
in  that  year  with  Scotland  left  him  at  William's  mercy.  He 
lost  his  earldom  and  took  refuge  in  Scotland,  where  Malcolm 

seems  to  have  provided  for  him. 

See  E.  A.  Freeman,  Norman  Conquest,  vol.  i.  (Oxford,  1877), 
and  the  Bn^ish  Hist,  Reoiew,  vol.  xix.  (London,  1904). 

GOSPEL  (O.  Eng.  godspel,  i.e.  good  news,  a  translation  of  Lat. 
bona  annuntiatiOf  or  evangeliuM,  Gr.  tbaYY&Mv;  d.  Goth. 
iu  spiUoHj  "to  announce  good  news,"  Ul^as'  translation  of 
the  Greek,  from  <«,  that  which  is  good,  and  spdhn  to  announce), 
primarily  the  "  glad  tidings  "  aimounced  to  the  world  by  Jesus 
Christ.  The  word  thus  came  to  be  applied  to  the  whole  body  of 
doctrine  taught  by  Christ  and  hb  disdples,  and  so  to  the  Christian 
revelation  generally  (see  Chkistiamity)  ;  by  analogy  the  term 
"gospd"  is  also  used  in  other  connexions  as  equivalent  to 
"authoritative  teaching."  In  a  narrower  sense  each  of  the 
records  of  the  life  and  t^ching  of  Christ  preserved  in  the  writings 
of  the  four  "  evangelists  "  is  described  as  a  GoH>eL  The  many 
mwe  or  less  imaginative  lives  of  Christ  which  are  not  accepted 
by  the  Christian  Church  as  canonical  are  known  as  "  apocryphal 
gospels  "  (see  Apoceyphal  LmsATXTSx).  The  present  axtide 
is  concerned  soldy  with  general  considerations  affecting  the 
four  canonical  Gospds;  see  for  details  of  each,  the  articles 
under  Matthew,  Mask,  Lukz  and  John. 

The  Pour  Gospds. — ^The  disdples  of  Jesus  prodaimed  the 
Gospd  that  He  was  the  Christ.  Those  to  whom  this  message 
was  first  delivered  in  Jerusalem  and  Palestine  had  seoi  and 
heard  Jesus,  or  had  heard  much  about  Him.  They  did  not 
require  to  be  told  who  He  was.  But  more  and  more  as  the  work 
of  preaching  and  teaching  extended  to  such  as  had  not  this 
knowledge,  it  became  necessary  to  indude  in  the  Gospd  ddivered 
some  account  of  the  ministry  of  Jesus.  Moreover,  alike  those 
who  had  followed  Him  during  His  life  on  earth,  and  all  who 
joined  themsdves  to  them,  must  have  felt  the  need  of  dwdling 
on  His  precepts,  so  that  these  must  have  been  often  repeated, 
and  also  in  all  probability  from  an  early  time  grouped  together 
according  to  their  subjects,  and  so  taught.  For  some  time, 
probably  for  upwards  of  thirty  years,  both  the  facts  of  the  life 
of  Jesus  and  His  words  were  only  related  orally.  This  would 
be  in  accordance  with  the  habits  of  mind  of  the  early  preachers 
of  the  Gospd.  Moreover,  they  were  so  absorbed  in  the  expecta- 
tion oi  the  speedy  return  of  Christ  that  they  did  not  fed  called 
to  make  provision  for  the  instruction  of  subsequent  generations. 
The  Epbtles  of  the  New  Testament  contain  no  indications  of 
the  existence  of  any  written  record  of  the  life  and  teaching 
of  Christ.  Tradition  indicates  aj>.  60-70  as  the  period  when 
written  accounts  of  the  life  and  teaching  of  Jesus  began  to  be 
made  (see  Marx,  Gospel  op,  and  Maitrew,  Go»el  op). 
This  may  be  accepted  as  highly  probable.  We  cannot  but 
suppose  that  at  a  time  when  the  numba  of  the  original  band 
(A  disdples  of  Jesus  who  survived  must  have  been  becoming 
noticeably  smaller,  and  all  these  were  advanced  in  life,  the 
importance  of  writing  down  that  which  had  been  orally  delivered 
concerning  the  (jO^)d-history  must  have  been  realized.    We  also 


266 


GOSPEL 


gather  from  Luke's  preface  (t.  z-4)  that  the  work  of  writing 
was  undertaken  in  these  circumstances  and  under  the  influence 
of  this  feeling,  and  that  various  records  had  ahcady  in  con- 
sequence been  made. 

But  do  our  Gospeb,  or  any  of  them,  in  the  form  in  which 
we  actually  have  them,  belong  to  the  number  of  those  earliest 
records  ?  Or,  if  not,  what  are  the  relations  in  which  they 
severally  stand  to  them  ?  These  are  questions  which  in  modern 
criticism  have  been  greatly  debated.  With  a  view  to  obtaining 
answers  to  them,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  reception  of  the 
Gospels  in  the  early  Church,  and  also  to  examine  and  compare 
the  Gospels  themselves.  Some  account  of  the  evidence  supplied 
in  these  two  ways  must  be  given  in  the  present  article,  so  far 
as  it  is  common  to  all  four  Gospels,  or  to  three  or  two  of  them, 
and  in  the  articles  on  the  several  Gospels  so  far  as  it  is  especial 
to  each. 

X.  The  Reception  of  the  Gospels  in  the  Early  Church.— Tht 
question  of  the  use  of  the  Gospels  and  of  the  nuinner  in  which 
they  were  regarded  during  the  period  extending  from  the  latter 
years  of  the  ist  century  to  the  beginning  of  the  last  quarter 
of  the  and  is  a  difficult  one.  There  is  a  lack  of  explicit  references 
to  the  Gospels;  *  and  many  of  the  quotations  which  may  be 
taken  from  them  are  not  exact.  At  the  same  time  these  facts 
can  be  more  or  less  satbfactorily  accounted  for  by  various 
circumstances.  In  the  first  place,  it  would  be  natural  that 
the  habits  of  thought  of  the  period  when  the  Gospel  was  delivered 
orally  should  have  continued  to  exert  influence  even  after  the 
tradition  had  been  committed  to  writing.  Although  documents 
might  be  known  and  used,  they  would  not  be  regarded  as  the 
authorities  for  that  which  was  independently  remembered,  and 
would  not,  therefore,  necessarily  be  mentioned.  Consequently, 
it  is  not  strange  that  citations  of  sayings  of  Christ— and  these 
are  the  only  express  citations  in  writings  of  the  Subapostolic 
Age — should  be  made  without  the  source  whence  they  were 
derived  being  named,  and  (with  a  sin^e  exception)  without 
any  clear  indication  that  the  source  was  a  document.  The 
exception  is  in  the  little  treatise  commonly  called  the  Epistle 
of  Barnabas,  probably  composed  about  a.d.  130,  where  (c.  iv. 
14)  the  words  "  many  are  called  but  few  chosen  "  are  intro- 
duced by  the  formula  "  as  It  is  written." 

For  the  identification,  therefore,  of  the  source  or  sources 
used  we  have  to  rely  upon  the  amount  of  correspondence  with 
our  Gospels  in  the  quotations  made,  and  in  respect  to  other 
parallelisms  of  statement  and  of  expression,  in  these  early 
Christian  writers.  Tht  correspondence  is  in  the  main  full  and 
true  as  regards  spirit  and  substance,  but  it  is  rarely  complete 
in  form.  The  existence  of  some  differences  of  language  may, 
however,  be  too  readily  taken  to  disprove  derivation.  Various 
forms  of  the  same  saying  occurring  in  different  documents, 
or  remembered  from  oral  tradition  and  through  catechetical 
instruction,  would  sometimes  be  purposely  combined.  Or, 
again,  the  memory  might  be  confused  by  this  variety,  and  the 
verification  of  quotations,  especially  of  brief  ones,  was  difficult, 
not  only  from  the  comparative  scarcity  of  the  copies  of  books, 
but  also  because  ancient  books  were  not  provided  with  ready 
means  of  reference  to  particular  passages.  On  the  whole  there 
is  clearly  a  presumption  that  where  we  have  striking  expressions 
which  are  known  to  us  besides  only  in  one  of  our  Gospel-records, 
that  particular  record  has  been  the  source  of  it.  And  where 
there  are  several  such  coincidences  the  ground  for  the  supposition 
that  the  writing  in  question  has  been  used  may  become  very 
strong.  There  is  evidence  of  this  kind,  more  or  less  clear  in  the 
several  cases,  that  all  the  four  Gospels  were  known  in  the  first 
two  or  three  decades  of  the  and  century.  It  is  fullest  as  to  our 
first  Gospel  and,  next  to  this  one,  as  to  our  third. 

After  this  time  it  becomes  manifest  that,  as  we  should  expect, 
documents  were  the  recognized  authorities  for  the  Gospel  history; 
but  there  is  still  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  documents  upon 
which  reliance  was  placed,  and  the  precise  estimation  in  which 

*  For  the  only  two  that  can  be  held  to  be  such  in  the  first  half 
of  the  2nd  century,  and  the  doubts  whether  they  refer  to  our  present 
Gospels,  lee  MxaK,  Gospel  of,  and  Matthew,  Gospei.  of. 


they  were  severally  held.  This  is  in  part  at  least  doe  to  tlie 
circumstance  that  nearly  all  the  writinj^  which  have  remained 
.of  the  Christian  literature  belonging  to  the  period  circa  kjd. 
130-180  are  addressed  to  non-Christians,  and  that  ^or  the  most 
part  they  give  only  summaries  of  the  teaching  of  Christ  and  of 
the  facts  of  the  Gospel,  while  terms  that  would  not  be  undo*- 
stood  by,  and  names  that  would  not  carry  weight  with,  others 
than  Christians  are  to  a  large  extent  avoided.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  writings  now  in  question  are  two  by  Justin 
Martyr  {drca  A.D.  145-160),  viz.  his  Apology  and  his  Dialogue 
unth  Trypho,  In  the  former  of  these  works  he  shows  plainly 
his  Intention  of  adapting  his  languid  and  reasoning  to  Gentile, 
and  In  the  latter  to  Jewish,  readers.  In  both  his  name  for  the 
Gospel-records  is  "  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles."  After  a  great 
deal  of  controversy  there  has  come  to  be  very  wide  agreement 
that  he  reckoned  the  first  three  Gospels  among  these  Memoirs. 
In  the  case  of  the  second  and  third  there  are  indications,  though 
slight  ones,  that  he  held  the  view  of  their  composition  and 
authorship  which  was  common  from  the  last  quarter  of  the 
century  onwards  (see  Mark,  Gospel  of,  and  Luke,  Gospel 
op),  but  he  has  made  the  largest  use  of  our  first  Gospd.  It  is 
also  generally  allowed  that  he  was  acquainted  with  the  fourth 
Gospel,  though  some  think  that  he  used  it  with  a  certain  reserve. 
Evidence  may,  however,  be  adduced  which  goes  far  to  show 
that  he  regarded  it,  also,  as  of  apostolic  authority.  There  is  a 
good  deal  of  difference  of  opinion  still  as  to  whether  Justin 
reckoned  other  sources  for  the  Gospel-history  besides  our 
Gospels  among  the  Apostolic  Memoirs.  In  this  connexion, 
however,  as  well  as  on  other  grounds,  It  Is  a  significant  fact  that 
within  twenty  years  or  so  after  the  death  of  Justin,  which  prob- 
ably occurred  circa  a.d.  160,  Tatian,  who  had  been  a  hearer  of 
Justin,  produced  a  continuous  narrative  of  the  Gospel-history 
which  received  the  name  Diatessaron  ("  through  four "),  in 
the  main  a  compilation  from  our  four  Gospels.^ 

Before  the  close  of  the  and  century  the  four  Gospels  had 
attained  a  position  of  unique  authority  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  Church,  not  different  from  that  which  they  have 
held  since,  as  is  evident  from  the  treatise  of  Irenaeus  Against 
Heresies  {c.  a.o.  x8o;  see  esp.  ill.  i.  i  f.  and  x.,  xi.)  and  from  other 
evidence  only  a  few  years  later.  The  struggle  against  Gnosticism, 
which  had  been  going  on  during  the  middle  part  of  the  century, 
had  compelled  the  Church  both  to  define  her  creed  and  to  draw 
a  sharper  line  of  demarcation  than  heretofore  between  those 
writings  whose  authority  she  regarded  as  absolute  and  all  others. 
The  effect  of  this  was  no  doubt  to  enhance  the  sense  generally 
entertained  of  the  value  of  the  four  Gospels.  At  the  same  time 
in  the  formal  statements  now  made  it  is  plainly  Implied  that  the 
belief  expressed  is  no  new  one.  And  It  Is,  indeed,  difficult  to 
suppose  that  agreement  on  this  subject  between  different 
portions  of  the  Church  could  have  manifested  itself  at  this  time 
in  the  spontaneous  maimer  that  It  does,  except  as  the  consequence 
of  traditional  feelings  and  convictions,  which  went  back  to  the 
early  part  of  the  century,  and  which  oould  hardly  have  arisen 
without  good  foundation,  with  respect  to  the  special  value  of 
these  works  as  embodiments  of  apostolic  testimony,  although 
all  that  came  to  be  supposed  in  regard  to  their  actual  authorship 
cannot  be  considered  proved. 

a.  The  Internal  Criticism  of  the  Gospels.— In  the  middle  of  the 
19th  century  an  able  school  of  critics,  known  as  the  Tubingen 
school,  sought  to  show  from  indications  In  the  several  Gospels 
that  they  were  composed  well  on  In  the  and  century  in  the 
interests  of  various  strongly  marked  parties  into  which  the  Church 
was  supposed  to  have  been  divided  by  differences  in  regard  to 
the  Judaic  and  Pauline  forms  of  Christianity.  These  theories 
are  now  discredited.  It  may  on  the  contrary  be  confidently 
asserted  with  regard  to  the  first  three  Gospels  that  the  local 
colouring  in  them  Is  predominantly  Palestinian,  and  that  they 

>  The  character  of  Tatian's  Diatessaron  has  been  much  disputed 
in  the  past,  but  there  can  no  longer  be  any  reasonable  doubt  00  the 
•ubiect  after  recent  dtacovcries  and  investigations.  (An  account 
of  these  may  be  seen  most  conveniently  in  The  Diatessaron  of  Taiiaa» 
by  S.  Hemphill;  see  under  Tatian.) 


267 


ibaw  no  utDi  al  ici 
dKuraitincH  of  Ihe  i 
oi  the  Faunb  Goipe]  i 
U  funhat,  much  ifiei 


[he  begiruun^  of  IheC 


:o  juiiify  iti  being  pi 


a  then 


in  coBXtBls,  stnogMnent,  uid  even  in  i>otds  and  the 
mtcncea  and  paragraphs,  been  called  Synoptic  Gmpeli,  It 
bu  long  been  aeea  (hat,  to  accauut  loi  ihii  limiluitjr,  Klationa 
ol  inuidepeodcnce  heiween  them,  or  o(  cnmman  derivation 
must  be  luppotcd.  And  the  queatian  ai  to  the  tnic  theory  of 
thoa  reUtioni  is  known  as  the  Syuoptic  Probltm.  Reference 
has  already  been  made  to  the  fact  thai  during  the  gieatei  part 
of  the  ApoUolic  age  the  Gospel  history  <n>  taught  oially  Now 
some  have  held  that  the  fonn  ol  thii  onl  teacUos  wu  to  a  great 

fint  three  Coapela.  Thit  oral  theoiy  was  for  a  long  tmie  the 
(•vourite  one  in  England;  it  was  never  widely  held  in  Cennany 
and  in  recent  yean  the  majority  of  English  itudenta  of  the 
Synoptic  Pioblem  have  come  to  feel  that  it  d«a  not  B  isfac  only 
oplaln  the  phenomena.  Not  only  are  the  resemblances  loo 
clofte,  and  their  character  in  pan  not  of  a  kind,  to  be  thus 

coatexts  are  rather  such  as  would  arise  throitgh  the  levuion 
of  a  documeal  than  through  the  freedom  of  oral  delivery. 

It  is  now  and  has  for  many  yean  beeo  widely  held  that  a 
document  which  fa  most  nearly  represented  by  the  Gospel  gf 
Uaik,  or  which  (as  some  would  say)  was  virtually  identical 
with  it,  has  been  used  in  the  composition  of  our  first  and  third 
Gospels.     This  source  has  supplied  the  Synoptic  Outline,  and  in 

connected  with  the  history  of  Ibis  document  are  treated  in  the 
article  on  Hau,  Gospej.  Ot. 

There  ii  alio  a  considerable  amount  ol  matter  common  to 
Matthew  and  Luke,  but  not  found  in  Mark.  It  is  introduced 
into  the  SyDOptic  Outline  very  differently  in  those  two  Gospels. 
which  deaily  suggests  that  it  eiisted  in  a  lepante  farm,  and 
wa*  independently  combined  by  tbe  hnt  and  third  evangelists 
with  tbeii  otbei  document.  This  conuDOO  matter  bas  also  a 
charactei  o[  its  own;  it  consists  mainly  of  fuecct  of  discourse. 
Tbe  Iwm  in  which  it  is  given  in  the  two  Gospels  is  in  several 
passages  so  nearly  identical  that  we  must  suppose  these  [necei 
at  least  to  liave  been  derived  Immediately  or  ultimately  from 
tbe  same  Greek  document.  In  other  cases  tbere  is  more  diver- 
gence, but  in  some  of  them  this  ia  accounted  for  by  the 
"'  ~  ''    '  'a  Matthew  passsges  fi 


e  been  i 


chief  n 

instances  in  which  n 

possible  that  our  fin 


There 


n  the  otb 


ird  evangelists  may  have  used 
two  oocumeou  wmtn  were  not  in  all  respects  identical,  but  which 
corresponded  very  closely  on  the  whole.  The  ultimate  source 
of  the  aubject  matter  in  question,  or- of  the  most  distinctive 
and  larger  part  of  it,  was  in  all  probability  an  Aramaic  one, 
and  in  some  pans  different  translations  may  have  been  used. 

This  second  source  used  in  the  composition  of  Matthew  and 
Luke  has  frequently  been  called  "  The  Logia  "  in  order  to  signify 
that  it  was  a  collecLion  of  tbe  sayings  and  discourses  of  Jesus. 
This  name  has  been  suggested  by  Schleierinacher's  interpretation 
of  Fapias'  fragment  on  Maiibew  (see  Matthew,  Gospel  or). 

contained  a  good  many  narratives,  and  in  order  to  avoid  any 
pteciature  assumption  u  to  its  contents  and  character  several 
recent  critics  have  named  it  "  Q."  It  may.  however,  fairly 
be  called  "  the  Logisn  document,"  as  a  convenient  way  of 
indicating  the  character  of  the  greater  part  of  the  matter  which 
oar  flrsl  and  third  evangelists  have  taken  from  it,  and  this 
doignaiion  is  used  In  the  articles  on  the  Gospels  of  Luke 
•od  Hatthtw.  The  ttconstcuction  of  this  document  ha*  been 
attempted  by  several  ciitlo.  The  arrangement  oC  Its  contents 
w^  It  tttai*.  beat  be  learned  from  Luke. 


marks  m 


re  be  added 


to  tbe  bearing 
ISC  of  the  Gospels, 
igaged  in  historical 


Theit  effect  is  to  lea 
inquiries,  to  look  beyond  our  Gospels 
of  treating  the  testimony  of  Lhe  Gospels  severally  aa  lodependcnl 
and  ultimate.  Nevenhtless  it  will  still  appear  that  each  Gospel 
baa  its  distinct  value,  both  historically  and  in  regard  to  the 
moral  and  spiritual  instruction  afforded.  And  the  fruits  of 
much  of  that  older  study  ol  the  Gospels,  which  was  largely 
employed  in  pointing  out  the  special  cbaracteiislics  of  each, 
will  still  prove  serviceable 
AuTBOiims.— I  German  Books  InlridMlieai  U  Iki  Ntw 
■■  ]  Hollzmann  1  d  cd  l802f  B  Well.  (Eng  nins. 
indnded      9005   G   A  jot    hpr(6t.ed      906   Enj 


1M7)  Th   Zlh^ 


«t     ,oo1  G  A  lof   h^ 
odea    U   kmuJu  L  Id 


T     f  90  )    H   I  Ka\aa*tiTiJlt*d-Ommtnter  sun  ,.  .     v«, 
^■iSq)    I    Udhauten    Dsi  £Hiie<lHiM  iiara    Dti  EniiccI  un 


- .  _  - 1  E^ifigd  urn  Lttoi  (1904)  £  itlaiv*t  f 
funedm  (I90J.,   A    Hinack    Sprik}u  niul  Am  .>»•    us 
ImtiU  QtaOt  ii!  ifofiUiK  lai  Li^  (>907). 

2.  French  Books:  A.  Loi*y,Ler£iviietlujyfl0«iaiiej{]oo7-rqoB). 

3.  Engliib  Books:  C.  Salmon,  InirAuOioti  It  Ike  Net  Ttslamml 
(in  ed.i  iSBj:  otb  ed.,  1901);  W.  Sudiy,  Jnipinlimi  (Led.  vi., 
»kl  Hi.,  1903);  B.  F.  Weuont,  Xn  /iUn>/ach«  ig  Uu  SiudrJf  Ihi 
CdiMi  (im  ed,,  iS}i;8tbid..  i<9S);  A.  Wright,  Tlu  OmfotUien 
of  /(Tf™-  CMfrfi  (1890) :  J.  E.  Caipenler,  I*.  Km  Thnt  ScspiU. 
Arif  Ong.B  anj  RdUtou  (1890) ;  A.  J.  lolley,  Tin  JyMflic  Priiirm 
(iSni);^.  C.  Hawking  S™  iyi4<""  (■•w) ;  W^  Alc«ndi:r, 
Lradinr  liai  uf  On  Cupilt  (new  cd..,  rB9i\:  E.  A.  Abbott,  CJm 
(l^/n,!:  J,  A,  ficblnwTi.   ni  Sl«i(y  o/  !>«  Cpjftii   (l90J)i  F.    C. 


(1903) ;  M  11.,  I**  ■i?»tf"f 
^.  iytiDpMi.— w.  G,  Ruii 

■     ~  "aUff  o/H*  - 


-     ,.,  _,  Sy^pliiai,  A»  Etpttiliat  rf 

UUUT  ajIktSruplit  C0!ftl!  it&fo);  A.  Wrighi,  TU 
jyjinpnt  oj  clu  Cotpdi  in  Cruk  (and  M.,  1903). 

Sec  >1k  the  attides  on  each  Gospd,  and  the  article  Bib  La.  acclion 
A»  Ttiumtni.  (V.  K.  S.) 

OOSPORT,  a  seapoit  Id  tbe  Farebam  paiUanenlary  division 
ol  Hampshire,  England,  ladng  Portsmouth  across  Ponsmoutb 
harbour,  Si  m.  S.W.  from  London  by  the  London  &  South- 
western railway.  Fop.  of  urban  district  of  Go^nrt  and  Alvec- 
sloke  (igoi),  18,884.  A  ferry  and  a  fioating  bridge  connect  it 
with  Portsmouth.  It  is  enclosed  within  a  double  line  of  fortifica- 
tions, consisting  of  the  old  Gosport  lines,  and.  about  300a  yds. 

occa^onalbatteries,  forming  pan  of  the  defence  works  of  Ports- 
mouth haibour.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  town  hall  and 
market  hill,  and  the  church  of  Holy  Trinity,  erected  in  tbe  time  of 
William  IlL  To  the  south  at  Kaslir  there  Is  a  magnificent 
naval  hospital,  capable  of  containing  moo  patients,  and  adjoin- 
ing it  a  gunboat  slipway  and  large  barracks.  To  the  nonh  is 
the  Roysl  Clarence  victualling  yard,  with  brewery,  cooperage, 
powder  maguines,  biscuit-miking  eiublishmenl,  and  store- 
houses for  various  kinds  of  provisions  tor  the  royal  navy. 

Gosport  ((koeporte,  Goiepon,  Gosberg.  (lodsport)  was 
originally  included  in  Alverstoke  manor,  held  in  10S6  by  the 
bishop  and  monks  of  Winchester  under  whom  villeins  farmed  the 
land.  In  1184  the  monks  agreed  to  ^ve  up  Alverstoke  with 
Gosport  to  the  bishop,  whose  successors  continued  to  hold  them 
until  the  lands  were  taken  over  by  the  ecclesiastical  commis- 
Koneis.  Alter  the  confiscation  of  the  bishop's  lands  in  t64i, 
bowevei,  the  manor  ol  Alverstoke  with  Gospon  was  granted  to 
George  Wilhera,  but  reverted  to  the  bisht^  at  the  Resloration. 
~    the  r6Ih  century  Gospon  wis  "  a  little  village  of  fishermen." 


caUeda 


1  .461, 


burgage  tenure.     Frot 

in  the  borough  coun,  and  government  by  a  beiliR  continued 

until  168],  when  Gosiwit  wis  Included  in  Portsmouth  borough 


268 


GOSS,  SIR  J.— GOSSE,  P.  H. 


under  the  charter  of  Charles  II.  to  that  town.  This  was  annulled 
in  1688,  ^nce  which  time  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  election  of 
bailiffs.  With  this  exception  no  charter  of  incorporation  is 
known, although  by  the  i6th  century  the  inhabitants  held  common 
property  in  the  shape  of  tolls  of  the  ferry.  The  importance  of 
G<^port  increased  during  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries  owing  to 
its  position  at  the  mouth  of  Portsmouth  harbour,  and  its  con- 
venience  as  a  victualling  station.  For  this  reason  also  the  town 
was  particularly  prosperous  during  the  American  and  Peninsular 
Wars.  About  z  540  fortifications  were  built  there  for  the  defence 
of  the  harbour,  and  in  the  X7th  century  it  was  a  garrison  town 
under  a  lord-lieutenant. 

GOSS,  SIR  JOHN  (x8oo-x88o),  Enfi^sh  composer,  was  bom 
at  Fareham,  Hampshire,  on  the  37th  of  December  1800.  He 
was  elected  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  z8ix,  and  in  x8z6, 
on  the  breaking  of  his  voice,  became  a  pupil  of  Attwood.  A 
few  early  compositions,  some  for  the  theatre,  exist,  and  some 
glees  were  published  before  1825.  He  was  appointed  organist 
of  St  Luke's,  Chelsea,  in  1824,  and  in  X838  became  organist  of 
St  Paul's  in  succession  to  Attwood;  he  kept  the  post  until 
X872,  when  be  resigned  and  was  knighted.  His  position  in  the 
London  musical  world  of  the  time  was  an  influential  one,  and  he 
did  much  by  his  teaching  and  criticism  to  encourage  the  study  and 
appreciation  of  good  music.  In  1876  he  was  given  the  degree 
of  Mus.D.  at  Cambridge.  Though  his  few  orchestral  works 
have  very  small  importance,  his  church  music  includes  some 
fine  compositions,  such  as  the  anthems  "O  taste  and  see," 
"  O  Saviour  of  the  world  "  and  others.  He  was  the  last  of  the 
great  English  school  of  chtirch  composers  who  devoted  themselves 
almost  exclusively  to  church  music;  and  in  the  history  of  the  glee 
his  is  an  honoured  name,  if  only  on  account  of  his  finest  work 
in  that  form,  the  five-part  glee,  Ossian's  "  Hymn  to  the  sun." 
He  died  at  Brixton,  London,  on  the  xoth  of  May  x88o. 

GOSSAMER*  a  fine,  thread  like  and  filmy  substance  spun 
by  small  spiders,  which  is  seen  covering  stubble  fields  and  gorse 
bushes,  and  floating  in  the  air  in  clear  weather;  especially  in  the 
autumn.  By  transference  anything  light,  unsubstantial  or 
flimsy  is  known  as  "gossamer."  A  thin  gauxy  material  used 
for  trimming  and  millinery,  resembling  the  "  chiffon  "  of  to-day, 
was  formerly  known  as  gossamer;  and  in  the  early  Victorian 
period  it  was  a  term  used  in  the  hat  trade  'or  silk  hats  of  very 
light  weight. 

The  word  is  obscure  in  origin,  it  is  found  in  numerous  forms 
in  English,  and  is  apparently  taken  from  gose,  goose  and 
somare,  summer.  The  Germans  have  MUickensommert  maidens' 
summer,  and  AUwetbersommar,  old  women's  summer,  as  well 
as  SommerfSden,  summer-threads,  as  equivalent  to  the  English 
gossamer,  the  connexion  apparently  being  that  gossamer  is 
seen  most  frequently  in  the  warm  days  of  late  autumn  (St 
Martin's  summer)  when  geese  are  also  in  season.  Another 
suggestion  is  that  the  word  is  a  corruption  of  gaxe  d  Marie 
(gauze  of  Mary)  through  the  legend  that  gossamer  was  origin- 
ally the  threads  which  fell  awav  from  the  Virgin's  shroud  on  her 
assumption. 

OOSSB,  EDMUIIB  (1849-  ),  English  poet  and  critic,  waa 
bom  in  London  on  the  2zst  of  September  X849,  son  of  the  zoolo- 
gist P.  H.  Gosse.  In  x^7  he  became  an  assistant  in  the  depart- 
ment of  printed  books  in  the  British  Museum,  where  he  remained 
until  he  became  in  1875  translator  to  the  Board  of  Trade.  In 
X904  he  was  appointed  librarian  to  the  House  of  Lords.  In 
1884-1890  he  was  Clark  Lecturer  in  English  Uterature  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  Himself  a  writer  of  literary  verse  of  much 
grace,  and  master  of  a  prose  style  admirably  expressive  of  a  wide 
and  appreciative  culture,  he  wa^  conspicuous  for  his  valuable 
work  in  bringing  foreign  literature  home  to  English  readers. 
Northern  Studies  (1879),  a  collection  of  essays  on  the  literature 
of  Holland  and  Scandinavia,  was  the  outcome  of  a  prolonged 
visit  to  those  countries,  and  was  followed  by  later  work  in  the 
same  direction.  He  translated  Ibsen's  Hedda  Gabler  (t89t), 
and,  with  W.  Archer,  The  Master- Builder  (1893),  and  in  X907 
he  wrote  a  life  of  Ibsen  for  the  "  Literary  Lives  "  jseries.  He 
abo  edited  the  English  translation  of  the  works  of  BjOmson. 


His  services  to  Scandinavian  letters  were  acknowledged  in  i90i« 
when  he  was  made  a  knight  of  the  Norwegian  order  of  St  Olaf 
of  the  first  dass.  Mr  Goue's  published  volumes  of  verse  indude 
On  Viol  and  FluU  (1873),  King  Erik  (1876),  New  Poems  (1879), 
Firdaun  in  ExiU  (1885),  In  Russet  and  SUver  (1894),  ColUcted 
Poems  (1896).  Hypolympiot  or  the  Cods  on  the  Island  (1901), 
an  "  ironic  phantasy,"  the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  the  acAh 
century,  though  the  personages  are  Greek  gods,  if  written  in 
prose,  with  some  blank  verse.  His  Seventeenth  Century  Studies 
(1883),  Life  of  William  Congreve  (x888).  The  Jacobean  Poets 
(1894),  Life  and  Letters  of  Dr  John  Donne^  Dean  of  St  PauTs 
(1899),  Jeremy  Taylor  (1904,  "  English  Men  of  Letters  "),  and 
Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne  (X905)  form  a  very  considerable 
body  of  critical  work  on  the  English  X7th-century  writers.  He 
also  wrote  a  life  of  Thomas  Gray,  whose  works  he  edited  (4  vols., 
X884);  A  History  of  Eighteenth  Century  Literature  -(1889);  a 
History  of  Modem  En^ish  lAleraHtre  (1897),  and  vols.  iii.  and  iv. 
of  an  Illustrated  Record  of  English  Literature  (1903-X9C4)  under- 
taken in  connexion  with  Dr  Richard  Gamett.  Mr  Gosse  waa 
always  a  sympathetic  student  of  the  younger  school  of  French 
and  Belgian  writers,  some  of  his  papers  on  the  subject  being 
coUected  as  French  Profiles  (1905).  Critical  Kit-KaU  (1896) 
contains  an  admirable  criticism  of  J.  M.  de  Heredia,  reminiscences 
of  Lord  de  Tabley  and  others.  He  edited  Heinemann's  series 
of  "  Literature  of  the  World  "  and  the  same  publisher's  "  Inter- 
national Library."  To  the  9th  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  he  contributed  numerous  articles,  and  his  services 
as  chief  literary  adviser  in  the  preparation  of  the  xoth  and  xith 
editions  incidentally  testify  to  the  hi^  position  held  by  him 
in  the  contemporary  world  of  letters.  In  1905  he  was  entertained 
in  Paris  by  the  leading  littirateurs  as  a  representative  of  ^g^ish 
literary  culture.  In  1907  Mr  Gosse  published  anonymously 
PaUier  and  Son^  an  intimate  study  of  his  own  early  family  life. 
He  married  Ellen,  daughter  of  Dr  G.  W.  Epos,  and  had  a  ion  and 
two  daughters. 

OOSSB.  PHILIP  HBNR7  (x8xo-x888),  Eng^  naturalist, 
was  bom  at  Worcester  on  the  6th  of  April  z8io,  his  father, 
Thomas  Gosse  (1765-1844)  being  a  miniature  painter.  In  his 
youth  the  family  setUed  at  Poole,  where  Gosse's  tum  for  natural 
history  was  noticed  and  encouraged  by  his  aunt,  Mrs  Bdl,  the 
mother  of  the  zoologist,  Thomas  Bell  (1792-1880).  He  had, 
however,  little  opportunity  for  developing  it  unUl,  in  X827, 
he  found  himself  cleric  in  a  whaler's  office  at  Cailxmear,  in 
Newfoundland,  where  he  beguiled  the  tedium  of  his  life  by 
observations,  chiefly  with  the  microscope.  After  a  brief  and 
unsuccessful  interlude  of  farming  in  Canada,  during  which  he 
wrote  an  unpublished  woric  on  the  entomology  of  Newfoundland, 
he  travelled  m  the  United  States,  was  received  and  noticed 
by  men  of  science,-  was  employed  as  a  teacher  for  some  time 
in  Alabama,  and  returned  to  England  in  1839.  His  Canadiam 
Naturalist  (1840),  written  on  the  voyage  home,  was  followed 
in  X843  by  his  Introduction  to  Zoology.  His  first  widely  popular 
book  was  The  Ocean  (1844).  In  1844  Gosse,  who  had  meanwhile 
been  teaching  in  London,  was  sent  by  the  British  Museum  to 
collect  specimens  of  natural  history  in  Jamaica.  He  vptat 
nearly  two  years  on  that  island,  and  after  his  return  published 
his  Bvrds  of  Jamaica  (1847)  and  his  Naturalist's  Sojourn  in 
Jamaica  (x8sx).  He  also  wrote  about  this  time  several  zoological 
works  for  the  S.P.C.K.,  and  laboured-  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
impair  his  health.  While  recovering  at  Ilfnicombe,  he  was 
attracted  by  the  forms  of  marine  life  so  abundant  on  that  shore, 
and  In  X853  published  A  Naturalist's  Rambles  on  the  Deponshire 
Coast,  accompanied  by  a  description  of  the  marine  aquarium 
invented  by  him,  by  means  of  which  he  succeeded  in  preserving 
zoophytes  and  other  marine  animals  of  the  humbler  grades 
alive  and  in  good  condition  away  from  the  sea.  This  arrange- 
ment was  more  fully  set  forth  and  illustrated  in  his  Aquarium 
(X854),  succeeded  in  185S-18S6  by  A  Manual  of  Marine  Zoology, 
in  two  volumes,  illustrated  by  nearly  700  wood  engravings 
after  the  author's  drawings.  A  volume  on  the  marine  fauna 
of  Tenby  succeeded  in  1856.  In  June  of  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  F.R.S.    Gosse,  who  was  a  xsost  careful  (^server,  but  who 


GOSSEC— GOTA 


269 


lacked  the  philosophical  spirit,  was  now  tempted  to  essay  work 
oC  a  more  ambitious  order,  publbhing  in  1857  two  books.  Life 
and  Ompkatost  embodying  his  speculations  on  the  appearance 
of  life  on  the  earth,  which  he  considered  to  have  been  instan- 
taneous, at  least  as  regarded  its  higher  forms.  His  views  met 
with  no  favour  from  scientific  men,  and  he  returned  to  the 
field  of  observation,  which  he  was  better  qualified  to  cultivate. 
Taking  up  his  residence  at  St  Marychurch,  in  South  Devon,  he 
produced  from  1858  to  x86o  his  standard  work  on  sea-anemones, 
the  Aciittoiogia  Bntannka,  The  Romance  of  Natural  History 
and  other  popular  works  folloin'cd.  In  1865  he  abandoned 
authorship,  and  chiefly  devoted  himself  to  the  cultivation  of 
orchids.  Study  of  the  Rotifera,  however,  also  engaged  his 
attention,  and  his  results  were  embodied  in  a  monograph  by 
Dt  C.  T.  Hudson  (1886).  He  died  at  St  Marychurch  on  the 
ajrd  of  August  1888. 

His  life  was  written  by  his  son,  Edmund  Gosac. 

OOSSEG,  FRANCOIS  JOSEPH  (i734-i829)>  French  musical 
composer,  son  of  a  small  farmer,  was  born  at  the  village  of 
Vergnics,  in  Belgian  Hainaut,  and  showiAg  early  a  taste  for 
music  became  a  choir-boy  at  Antwerp.  He  went  to  Paris  in 
1751  and  was  taken  up  by  Rameau.  He  became  conductor 
of  a  private  band  kept  by  La  Popeliniire,  a  wealthy  amateur, 
and  gradually  determined  to  do  something  to  revive  the  study 
of  instruroental  music  in  France.  He  had  his  own  first  symphony 
performed  in  1754,  and  as  conductor  tathe  Prince  de  Condi's 
<^chcstni  he  produced  several  operas  and  other  compositions 
of  his  own.  He  imposed  his  influence  upon  French  music  with 
remarkable  success,  founded  the  Concert  des  Amateurs  in  1770, 
organised  the  £cole  de  Chant  in  1784,  was  conductor  of  the  band 
of  the  Garde  Nationale  at  the  Revolution,  and  was  appointed 
(with  M^hul  and  Cherubini)  inspector  of  the  Conservatoire  de 
ifusique  when  this  institution  was  created  in  1795.  He  was  an 
original  member  of  the  Institute  and  a  chevalier  of  the  legion 
of  honour.  Outside  France  he  was  but  little  kno¥m,  and  his 
own  numerous  compositions,  sacred  and  secular,  were  thrown 
into  the  shade  by  those  of  men  of  greater  genius;  but  he  has  a 
place  in  history  as  the  inspircr  of  others,  and  as  having  powerfully 
stimulated  the  revival  of  instrumental  music  He  died  at 
Passy  on  the  i6th  of  February  1829. 

Sec  the  Lipes  by  P.  Hddouin  (1853)  and  E.  Q.  J.  Gicgmr  (1878). 

GOSSIP  (from  the  O.E.  godsibb,  i.e.  God,  and  sib^  akin,  standing 
in  relation  to),  originally  a  god-parent,  i.e,  one  who  by  taking  a 
sponsor's  vows  at  a  baptism  stands  in  a  spiritual  relationship 
to  the  child  baptized.  The  common  modem  meaning  is  of  light 
personal  <^  social  conversation,  or,  with  an  invidious  sense,  of 
idle  tale-bearing.  "  Gossip  "  was  early  used  with  the  sense  of 
a  friend  or  acquaintance,  either  of  the  parent  of  the  child 
baptised  or  of  the  other  god-parents,  and  thus  came  to  be  used, 
with  little  reference  to  the  position  of  sponsor,  for  women  friends 
of  the  mother  present  at  a  birth;  the  transition  of  meaning 
to  an  idle  chatterer  or  talker  for  talking's  sake  is  easy.  The 
application  to  the  idle  talk  of  such  persons  does  not  appear  to 
be  an  eariy  one. 

OOSSMBB,  JOHANNES  EVANGEUSTA  (1773-1858),  German 

divine  and  philanthropist,  was  born  at  Hausen  near  Augsburg 

on  the  14th  of  December  1^73,  and  educated  at  the  university 

of  Dillingen.    Here  like  Martin  Boos  and  others  he  came  under 

the  spell  of  the  Evangelical  movement  promoted  by  Johann 

Michael  Sailer,  the  professor  of  pastoral  theology.    After  taking 

priest's  orders,  Gossner  held  livings  at  Diricwang  (1804-181 1) 

and  Munich  (181X-1817),  but  his  evangelical  tendencies  brought 

about  his  dismissal  and  in  1826  he  formally  left  the  Roman 

Catholic  for  the  Protestant  communion.     As  minister  of  the 

Bethlehem  church  in  Berlin  (1829-1S46)  he  was  conspicuous 

not  only  for  practical  and  effective  preaching,  but  for  the  founding 

of  schools,  asylums  and  missionary  agencies.    He  died  on  the 

aotb  of  March  1858. 

Lwer  by  Bethmann-Hollweg  (Berlin,  1858)  and  H.  Dalton 
(Beriin,  1878)^ 

GOSSOV,    STEPHEN    (15S4-1624),    English    satirist,    was 

baptised  at  St  George's,  Canterbury,  on  the  17th  of  April  1554. 


He  entered  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  1572,  and  on  leaving 
the  university  in  1576  he  went  to  London.  In  1598  Francis 
Meres  in  bis  Palladis  Tamia  mentions  him  with  Sidney,  Spenser, 
Abraham  Fraunce  and  others  among  the  *'  best  for  pastorall," 
but  no  pastorals  of  his  are  extant.  He  is  said  to  have  been  an 
actor,  and  by  his  own  confession  he  wrgte  plays,  for  he  speaks 
of  CatUines  Conspiracies  as  a  "  Pig  of  mine  own  Sowe."  To 
this  play  and  some  others,  on  account  of  their  moral  intention, 
he  extends  indulgence  in  the  general  condemnation  of  stage 
pla3rs  contained  in  his  Schoole  of  Abuse,  containing  a  pleasatU 
invective  against  Poets,  Pipers,  Plaiers,  Jesters  and  such  like 
Caterpillars  of  the  Commonwealth  (1579).  The  euphuistic  style 
of  this  pamphlet  and  its  ostentatious  display  of  learning  were 
in  the  taste  of  the  time,  and  do  not  necessarily  imply  insincerity. 
Gosson  justified  his  attack  by  considerations  of  the  disorder 
which  xht  love  of  melodrama  and  of  vulgar  comedy  was  intro- 
ducing into  the  social  life  of  London.  It  was  not  only  by 
extremists  like  Gosson  that  these  abuses  were  recognised. 
Spenser,  in  his  Tcivres  of  the  Muses  (1501),  laments  the  same 
evils,  although  only  in  general  terms.  The  tract  was  dedicated 
to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  who  seems  not  unnaturally  to  have 
resented  being  connected  with  a  pamphlet  which  opened  with 
a  comprehensive  denunciation  of  poets,  for  Spenser,  writing 
to  Gabriel  Harvey  (Oct.  16,  1579)  of  the  dedication,  says  the 
author  "  was  for  hys  labor  scorned."  He  dedicated,  however, 
a  second  tract,  The  Epkcmerides  of  Phialo  .  .  .  and  A  Short 
Apologie  of  the  Schoole  of  Abuse,  to  Sidney  on  Oct.  28lh,  1579. 
Gosson's  abuse  of  poets  seems  to  have  had  a  large  share  in 
inducing  Sidney  to  write  bis  Apologie  for  Poetrie,  which  pro|>ably 
dates  from  1581.  After  the  publication  of  the  Schoole  of  Abuse 
Gosson  retired  into  the  country,  where  he  acted  as  tutor  to  the 
sons  of  a  gentleman  {Plays  Confute.  "  To  the  Reader,"  1582). 
Anthony  i  Wood  places  this  earlier  and  assigns  the  termination 
of  his  tutorship  indirectly  to  his  animosity  against  the  stage, 
which  apparently  weari^  his  patron  of  his  company,  llie 
publication  of  his  polemic  provoked  many  retorts,  the  most 
formidable  of  which  was  Thomas  Lodge's  Defence  of  Playes 
(t  580).  The  players  themselves  retaliated  by  reviving  Gosson's 
own  plays.  Go^n  replied  to  his  various  opponents  in  1582 
by  bis  Playes  Confuted  in  Five  Actions,  dedicated  to  Sir  Francis 
Wabingham.  Meanwhile  he  had  taken  orders,  was  made 
lecturer  of  the  parish  church  at  Stepney  (1585),  and  was  pre- 
sented by  the  queen  to  the  rectory  of  Great  Wigborough,  Essex, 
which  he  exchanged  in  x6oo  for  St  Botolph's,  Bishopsgate.  He 
died  on  the  13th  of  February  1624.  Pleasant  Quip  pes  for  Upstart 
New-fangled  Gentlewomen  (1595),  a  coarse  satiric  poem,  is  also 
ascribed  to  (losson. 

The  Schocle  of  Abuse  and  Apologie  were  edited  (1868)  by  Prof.  E. 
Arbcr  in  his  English  Reprints.    Two  poems  of  (Sosson's  are  included. 

GOT,  FRANCOIS  JULES  EDMOND  (1823-1901),  French  actor, 
was  born  at  LigneroUes  on  the  ist  of  October  1822,  and  entered 
the  Conservatoire  in  1841,  winning  the  second  prize  for  comedy 
that  year  and  the  first  in  1842.  After  a  year  of  military  service 
he  made  his  d£but  at  the  Com6die  Fran^aise  on  the  17th  of  July 
1844,  as  Alexis  in  Les  Hfritiers  and  Mascarelles  in  Les  Pricieuses 
ridicules.  He  was  immediately  admitted  pensionnaire,  and  be- 
came sociitaire  in  2850.  By  special  permission  of  the  emperor 
in  x866  he  played  at  the  Odfon  in  £mile  Augier's  Contagion. 
His  golden  jubilee  at  the  Thi&tre  Fran^ais  was  celebrated  in 
1894,  and  he  made  his  final  appearance  the  year  after.  Got 
was  a  fine  representative  of  the  grand  style  of  French  acting, 
and  was  much  admired  in  England  as  well  as  in  Paris.  He 
wrote  the  libretto  of  the  opera  Francois  Villon  (1857)  and  also 
of  VEsclave  (1874).  In  x88i  he  was  decorated  with  the  cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 

GOTA,  a  river  of  Sweden,  draining  the  great  Lake  Vencr. 
The  name,  however,  is  more  familiar  in  its  application  to  the 
canal  which  affords  communication  between  (jothenburg  and 
Stockholm.  The  river  flows  out  of  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  lake  almost  due  south  to  the  Cattegat,  which  it  enters 
by  two  arms  enclosing  the  island  of  Hisingen,  the  eastern  forming 
the  harbour  and  bearing  the  heavy  sea-traffic  <^  the  port  of 


270 


GOTARZES— GOTHA 


Gothenburg.  The  Gdta  river  Is  50  m.  in  length,  and  is  navigable 
for  large  vessels,  a  series  of  locks  surmounting  the  famous  falls 
of  Trollb&ttan  iq.v.).  Passing  the  abrupt  wooded  Hallcberg 
and  Hunneberg  (royal  shooting  preserves)  Lake  Veneris  reached 
at  Vcncrsborg.  Several  important  ports  lie  on  the  north,  east 
and  south  shores  (see  Vener).  From  Sjdtorp,  midway  on  the 
eastern  shore,  the  western  Gdta  canal  leads  S.E.  to  Karlsborg. 
Its  course  necessitates  over  twenty  locks  to  raise  it  from  the 
Vener  level  (144  ft.)  to  its  extreme  height  of  300  ft.,  and  lower 
it  over  the  subsequent  fall  through  the  small  lakes  Viken  and 
Botten  to  Lake  Vetter  (q.v.;  289  ft.),  which  the  route  crosses  to 
Motala.  The  eastern  canal  continues  eastward  from  this  point, 
and  a  descent  is  followed  through  five  locks  to  Lake  Borcn, 
after  which  the  canal,  carried  still  at  a  considerable  elevation, 
overlooks  a  rich  and  beautiful  plain.  The  picturesque  Lake 
Roxen  with  its  ruined  castle  of  Stjernarp  is  next  traversed.  At 
Norsholm  a  branch  canal  connects  Lake  Glan  to  the  north, 
giving  access  to  the  important  manufacturing  centre  of  Norrkd- 
ping.  Passing  Lake  Asplingcn,  the  canal  follows  a  cut  through 
steep  rocks,  and  then  resumes  an  elevated  course  to  the  old  town 
of  Sodcrkdping,  after  which  the  Baltic  Is  reached  at  Mem. 
Vessels  plying  to  Stockholm  run  N.E.  among  the  coastal  island- 
fringe  {skUrg&rd),  and  then  follow  the  SOdertelge  canal  into 
Lake  Malar.  The  whole  distance  from  Gothenburg  to  Stockholm 
Is  about  360  ra.,  and  the  voyage  takes  about  2)  days.  The  length 
of  artificial  work  on  the  Gdta  canal  proper  Is  54  m.,  and  there 
are  58  locks.  The  scenery  is  not  such  as  will  bear  adverse 
weather  conditions;  that  of  the  western  canal  is  without  any 
interest  save  in  the  remarkable  engineering  work.  The  idea 
of  a  canal  dates  from  1516,  but  the  construction  was  organized 
by  Baron  von  Platten  and  engineered  by  Thomas  Telford  in 
1 8 10-183  2.  The  falls  of  TroUhftttan  had  already  been  locked 
successfully  in  1800. 

GOTARZES,  or  Goterzes,  king  of  Parthia  {c.  a.d.  42-51). 
In  an  inscription  at  the  foot  of  the  rock  of  Behistun*  he  is 
called  rwr&AJ'iif  TtinroOpos^  i.e.  "son  of  Givt"  and  seems 
to  be  designated  as  "  satrap  of  satrap."  This  inscription 
therefore  probably  dates  from  the  reign' of  Artabanus  II.  (a.d. 
ZO-40),  to  whose  family  Gotarzes  must  have  belonged.  From 
a  very  barbarous  coin  of  Gotarzes  with  the  inscription  0aai- 
Xuat  fioffiKKav  Kpaavo^  voi  iccKaXov/xcrot  Aprafiavov  Fwrep^f^ 
(Wroth,  Catalogue  of  the  Coins  of  Parthia,  p.  165;  Nwnism. 
Chron.,  1900,  p.  95;  the  earlier  readings  of  this  inscription  are 
wrong),  which  must  be  translated  "  king  of  kings  Arsakes, 
named  son  of  Artabanos,  Gotarzes,"  it  appears  that  he  was 
adopted  by  Artabanus.  When  the  troublesome  reign  of  Arta- 
banus II.  ended  in  a.d.  39  or  40,  he  was  succeeded  by  Vardanes, 
probably  his  son;  but  against  him  In  41  rose  Gotarzes  (the  dates 
arc  fixed  by  the  coins).  He  soon  made  himself  detested  by  his 
cruelty — among  many  other  murders  he  even  slew  his  brother 
Artabanus  and  his  whole  family  (Tac.  A  un.  xi.  8) — and  Vardanes 
regained  the  throne  in  42;  Gotarzes  fled  to  Hyrcania  and 
gathered  an  army  from  the  Dahan  nomads.  The  war  between 
the  two  kings  was  at  last  ended  by  a  treaty,  as  both  were  afraid 
of  the  conspiracies  of  their  nobles.  Gotarzes  returned  to 
Hyrcania.  But  when  Vardanes  was  assassinated  in  45,  Gotarzes 
was  acknowledged  in  the  whole  empire  (Tac.  Ann.  xi.  9  ff.; 
Joseph.  Anliq.  xx.  3,  4,  where  Gotarzes  is  called  Kotardes). 
He  now  takes  on  his  coins  the  usual  Parthian  titles,  "  king  of 
kings  Arsaces  the  benefactor,  the  just,  the  illustrious  (Epipkanes), 
the  friend  of  the  Greeks  {Philhellcn)"  without  mentioning  his 
proper  name.  The  discontent  excited  by  his  cruelty  and  luxury 
induced  the  hostile  party  to  apply  to  the  emperor  Claudius 
and  fetch  from  Rome  an  Arsacid  prince  Meherdates  (i.e.  Mithra- 
dates),  who  lived  there  as  hostage.  He  crossed  the  Euphrates 
in  49,  but  was  beaten  and  taken  prisoner  by  Gotarzes,  who  cut 
off  his  ears  (Tac.  Ann.  xii.  10  ff.).  Soon  after  Gotarzes  died, 
according  to  Tacitus,  of  an  illness;  Joscphus  says  that  he  was 
murdered.    His  last  coin  is  dated  from  June  51. 

*  Rawlinson,  Journ.  Roy.  Ceot.  Soc.  ix.  114:  Flandin  and  Coste, 
La  Peru  ancienne,  i.  tab.  19;  Dittcnbcrgcr,  Orientis  Craeci  inscr. 


An  earlier  "  Arsakes  with  the  name  Gotarzes,"  mentiOfled  Oil 
some  astronomical  tablets  from  Babylon  (SirsBsmaier  in  Zeilsckr, 
fur  Asswiologie,  vt.  216;  Mahler  in  Wiaier  Zeilsckr.  fiir  Kunde  des 
Morgenlands,  xv.  63  ff.),  appears  to  have  xeigtaed  for  some  time  to 
Babylonia  about  87  B.C.  (Ed.  M.) 

GOTHA,  a  town  of  Germany,  alternately  with  Cobuxg  tbe 
residence  of  the  dukes  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  in  a  pleasant 
situation  on  the  Leine  canal,  6  m.  N.  of  the  slope  of  the  Thuringian 
forest,  17  m.  W.  from  Erfurt,  on  the  railway  to  Bcbra-Cassel. 
Pop.  (1905)36,906.  It  consists  of  an  old  inner  town  and  encircling 
suburbs,  and  is  dominated  by  the  castle  of  Friedenstein,  lying 
on  the  Schlossberg  at  an  elevation  of  1 100  ft.  With  the  exception 
of  those  in  the  older  portion  of  the  town,  the  streets  are  band- 
some  and  spacious,  and  the  beautiful  gardens  and  promenades 
between  the  suburbs  and  the  castle  add  greatly  to  the  town's 
attractiveness.  To  the  south  of  the  castle  there  is  an  extensive 
and  finely  adorned  park.  To  the  north-west  of  the  town  the 
Galbcrg — on  which  there  is  a  public  pleasure  garden — and 
to  the  south-west  the  Seeberg  rise  to  a  height  of  over  1300  ft. 
and  afford  extensive  views.  The  castle  of  Friedenstein,  begun 
by  Ernest  the  Pious,  duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  in  1643  and 
completed  in  1654,  occupies  the  site  of  the  old  fortress  of  Grim- 
menstein.  It  is  a  huge  square  building  flanked  with  two  wings, 
having  towers  rising  to  the  height  of  about  140  ft.  It  contains 
the  ducal  cabinet  of  coins  and  the  ducal  library  of  nearly  200,000 
volumes,  among  which  are  several  rare  editions  and  about 
6900  manuscripts.  The  picture  gallery,  the  cabinet  of  engravings, 
the  natural  history  museum,  the  Chinese  museum,  and  the 
cabinet  of  art,  which  includes  a  collection  of  Egyptian,  Etruscan, 
Roman  and  German  antiquities,  are  now  included  in  the  new 
museum,  completed  in  1878,  which  stands  on  a  terrace  to  the 
south  of  the  castle.  The  principal  other  public  buildings  are 
the  church  of  St  Margaret  with  a  beautiful  portal  and  a  lofty 
tower,  founded  in  the  Z2th  century,  twice  burnt  down,  and 
rebuilt  in  its  present  form  in  2652;  the  church  of  the  Augustinlan 
convent,  with  an  altar-piece  by  the  painter  Simon  Jacobs; 
the  theatre;  the  fire  insurance  bank  and  the  life  insurance  bank; 
the  ducal  palace,  in  the  Italian  villa  style,  with  a  winter  garden 
and  picture  gallery;  the  buildings  of  the  ducal  legislature; 
the  hospital;  the  old  town-hall,  dating  from  the  ixth  century; 
the  old  residence  of  the  painter  Lucas  Cranach,  now  used  as  a 
girls'  school;  the  ducal  stable;  and  the  Fricdrichsthal  palace, 
now  used  as  public  offices.  The  educational  establishments 
include  a  gymnasium  (founded  in  1524,  one  of  the  most  famous 
in  Germany),  two  training  schools  for  teachers,  conservatoires 
of  music  and  several  scientific  institutions.  Gotha  Is  remarkable 
for  its  Insurance  societies  and  for  the  support  it  has  given  to 
cremation.  The  crematorium  was  long  regarded  as  a  model 
for  such  establishments. 

Gotha  is  one  of  the  most  active  commercial  towns  of  Thuringia, 
its  manufactures  including  sausages,  for  which  it  has  a  great 
reputation,  porcelain,  tobacco,  sugar,  machinery,  mechanical 
and  surgical  instruments,  musical  Instruments,  shoes,  lamps 
and  toys.  There  are  also  a  number  of  nurseries  and  market 
gardens.  The  book  trade  is  represented  by  about  a  dozen  firms, 
including  that  of  the  great  geographical  house  of  Justus  Perthes, 
founded  in  1785. 

Gotha  (in  old  chronicles  called  Gotegewe  and  later  Cotaka) 
existed  as  a  village  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  In  930  its  lord 
Gothard  abbot  of  Hersfeld  surrounded  it  with  walls.  It  was 
known  as  a  town  as  early  as  1200,  about  which  time  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  landgraves  of  Hiuringia.  On  the 
extinction  of  that  line  Gotha  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
electors  of  Saxony,  and  it  fell  later  to  the  Ernestine  line  of  dukes. 
After  the  battle  of  Miihlberg  in  1547  the  castle  of  Grimmenstein 
was  partly  destroyed,  but  it  was  again  restored  in  1554.  In 
1567  the  town  was  taken  from  Duke  John  Frederick  by  the 
elector  Augustus  of  Saxony.  After  the  death  of  John  Frederick's 
sons,  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Duke  Ernest  the  Pious,  the 
founder  of  the  line  of  the  dukes  of  Gotha;  and  on  the  extinction 
of  this  family  it  was  united  in  1825  along  with  the  dukedom  to 
Coburg 


GOTHAM,  WISE  MEN  OF— GOTHENBURG 


271 


Cctka  und  seine  Umtebung  fCotha,  1851):  KQhne,  Beitrdge 

Mur  CesckUkU  der  EntwUkelung  der  sociaUn  Zusidnde  der  Sladt 
und  d€S  Henogtums  Goika  (Gocha,  1862);  Humbert,  Les  Villes 
d€  ia  Tkurimte  (Paris.  i869}»  and  Beck,  CesckichU  der  Sladt  Cotha 
(Gotbat  1870). 

OOTHAM ,  WISE  MEN  OP,  the  early  name  given  to  the  people 
of  the  village  of  Gotham,  Nottingham,  in  allusion  to  their  reputed 
simplicity.  But  if  tradition  is  to  be  believed  the  Gothamites 
were  not  so  very  simple.  The  story  is  that  King  John  intended 
to  live  in  the  neighbourhood,  but  that  the  villagers,  foreseeing 
ruin  as  the  cost  of  supporting  the  court,  feigned  imbeicility  when 
the  royal  messengers  arrived.  Wherever  the  latter  went  they 
saw  the  rustics  engaged  in  some  absurd  task.  John,  on  this 
report,  determined  to  have  his  hunting  lodge  elsewhere,  and  the 
*'  wise  men  "  boasted,  "  we  ween  there  are  more  fools  pass 
through  Gotham  than  remain  in  it."  The  "  foles  of  Gotham  " 
are  mentioned  as  early  as  the  zsth  century  in  the  Towneley 
Mysteries',  and  a  collection  of  their  "  jests  "  was  published  in 
the  i6lh  century  under  the  title  Merrie  Tales  of  the  Mad  Men 
of  Gotham,  gathered  together  by  A.B,,  of  Phisicke  Doctour,  The 
'*  A.B."  was  supposed  to  represent  Andrew  Borde  or  Boorde 
(1490?-!  549),  famous  among  other  things  for  his  wit,  but  he 
probably  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  compilation.  As  typical 
of  the  Gothamite  folly  is  usually  quoted  the  story  of  the  villagers 
joining  hands  round  a  thornbush  to  shut  in  a  cuckoo  so  that  it 
would  sing  all  the  year.  The  localizing  of  fools  is  common  to 
most  countries,  and  there  are  many  other  reputed  "  imbecile  " 
centres  in  England  besides  Gotham.  Thus  there  are  the  people 
of  Coggeshall,  Essex,  the  "carles  of  Austwick,"  Yorkshire, 
*'  the  gowks  of  Gordon,"  Berwickshire,  and  for  many  centuries 
the  charge  of  folly  has  been  made  against  "  silly  "  Suffolk  and 
Norfolk  {Descriptio  Norfokiensium  about  12th  century,  printed 
in  Wright's  Early  Mysteries  and  other  Latin  Poems).  In  Germany 
there  are  the  Sehildburgers,  in  Holland  the  people  of  Kampen. 
Annong  the  ancient  Greeks  Boeotia  was  the  home  of  fools; 
among  the  Thradans,  Abdcra;  among  the  andent  Jews, 
Nazareth. 

See  W.  A.  Gouiton.  Book  of  Noodles  (London,  1888);  R.  H. 
Cunniogham,  ^mtiitiic  Prose  Ckap-books  (1889}. 

QOTHENBURQ  (Swed.  CSteborg),  a  city  and  seaport  of 
Sweden,  on  the  river  GOta,  5  m.  above  its  mouth  in  the  Cattegat, 
285  m.  S.W.  of  Stockholm  by  rail,  and  360  by  the  Gdta  canal- 
route.  Pop.  (1900)  130,619.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  the  district 
(/Jfi)  of  Gdtcborg  och  Bohus,  and  the  seat  of  a  bbhop.  It  lies 
on  the  east  or  left  bank  of  the  river,  which  is  here  lined  with 
quays  on  both  sides,  those  on  the  west  belonging  to  the  large 
island  of  Hisingen,  contained  between  arms  of  the  G6ta.  On 
this  island  are  situated  the  considerable  suburbs  of  Lindholmcn 
and  Lundby. 

The  dty  itself  stretches  east  and  south  from  the  river,  with 
extensive  and  pleasant  residential  suburbs,  over  a  wooded  plain 
endosed  by  low  hills.  The  inner  city,  including  the  business 
quarter,  is  contained  almost  entirely  between  the  river  and  the 
Rosenlunds  canal,  continued  in  the  Vallgraf,  the  moat  of  the  old 
fortifications;  and  is  crossed  by  the  Storahamn,  Ostrahamn 
and  Vestrahamn  canals.  The  Storahamn  is  flanked  by  the 
handsome  tree-planted  quays,  Norra  and  Sddra  Hamngatan. 
The  first  of  theser  starting  from  the  Stora  Bommenshamn, 
where  the  sea-going  passenger-steamers  lie,  leads  past  the  museum 
to  the  Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg.  The  museum,  in  the  old  East 
India  Company's  house,  has  fine  collections  in  natural  history, 
entomology,  botany,  anatomy,  archaeology  and  ethnography, 
a  picture  and  sculpture  gallery,  and  exhibits  of  coins  and  in- 
dustrial art.  Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg  is  the  business  centre,  and 
contains  the  towii-hall  (1670)  and  exchange  (1849).  Here  are 
statues  by  B.  £.  Fogdberg  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  of  Odin, 
and  of  G^r  I.  by  J.  P.  Molin.  Among  several  churches  in 
this  quarter  of  the  city  is  the  cathedral  {Custavii  Domkyrka), 
a  crudform  church  founded  in  1633  and  rebuilt  after  fires  in 
1743  and  1815.  Here  are  also  the. customs-house  and  residence 
of  the  governor  of  the  Idn.  On  the  north  side,  jclosely  adjacent, 
are  the  Lilla  Bommenshamn,  where  the  GOta  canal  steamers 
lie,  and  the  two  principal  railway  stations,  Statens  and  Bergslafs 


Bangard.  Above  the  Rosenlunds  canal  rises  a  low,  rocky 
eminence,  Lilla  Otterh^Ueberg.  The  inner  city  is  girdled  on 
the  south  and  east  by  the  Kung&park,  which  contains  Molin's 
famous  group  of  statuary,  the  Belt-bucklers  (Bdltespdnnare), 
and  by  the  beautiful  gardens  of  the  Horticultural  Society 
(Trddg&rdsforeningen).  These  grounds  are  traversed  by  the 
broad  Nya  A116,  a  favourite  promenade,  and  beyond  them  lies 
the  best  residential  quarter,  the  first  houses  facing  Vasa  Street, 
Vasa  Park  and  Kungsport  Avenue.  At  the  north  end  of  the 
last  are  the  university  and  the  New  theatre.  At  the  west  end 
of  Vasa  Street  is  the  city  h'brary,  the  most  important  in  the 
country  except  the  royal  library  at  Stockholm  and  the  university 
libraries  at  Upsala  and  Lund.  The  suburbs  are  extensive.  To 
the  south-west  are  Majorna  and  Masthugget,  with  numerous 
factories.  Beyond  these  lie  the  fine  Slottskog  Park,  planted  with 
oaks,  and  picturesquely  broken  by  rocky  hills  commanding  views 
of  the  busy  river  and  the  city.  The  suburb  of  Annedal  is  the 
workmen's  quarter;  others  are  Landala,  Garda  and  Stampen. 
All  are  connected  with  the  city  by  electric  tramways.  Six 
railways  leave  the  dty  from  four  stations.  The  prindpal  lines, 
from  the  Statens  and  Bergslafs  stations,  run  N.  to  Trollh&ttan, 
and  into  Norway  (Christiania);  N.E.  between  Lakes  Vcner 
and  Vetter  to  Stockholm,  Falun  and  the  north;  E.  to  Boris 
and  beyond,  and  S.  by  the  coast  to  Helsingborg,  &c.  From 
the  Vestg5ta  station  a  narrow-gauge  line  runs  N.E.  to  Skara 
and  the  southern  shores  of  Vener,  and  from  Sard  station  near 
Slottskog  Park  a  line  serves  Sard,  a  seaside  watering-place  on 
an  inland  20  m.  S.  of  Gothenburg. 

The  dty  has  numerous  important  educational  establishments. 
The  university  {Hogskola)  was  a  private  foundation  (1891), 
but  is  governed  by  a  board,  the  members  of  which  are  nominated 
by  the  state,  the  town  council,  Royal  Society  of  Science  and 
Literature,  directors  of  the  museum,  and  the  staffs  of  the  various 
local  colleges.  There  are  several  boys'  schools,  a  college  for 
girls,  a  scientific  college,  a  commercial  college  (1826),  a  school 
of  navigation,  and  Chalmers'  Polytcchnical  College,  founded 
by  William  Chalmers  (i 748-181 1),  a  native  of  Gothenburg  of 
English  parentage.  He  bequeathed  half  his  fortune  to  this 
institution,  and  the  remainder  to  the  Sahlgrcnska  hospital. 
A  people's  library  was  founded  by  members  of  the  family  of 
Dickson,  several  of  whom  have  taken  a  prominent  part  in 
philanlhropical  works  in  the  city.  The  connexion  of  the  family 
with  Gothenburg  dates  from  1802,  when  Robert  Dickson,  a 
native  of  Montrose  in  Scotland,  founded  the  business  in  which 
he  was  joined  in  1807  by  his  brother  James. 

In  respect  of  industry  and  commerce  as  a  whole  Gothenburg 
ranks  as  second  to  Stockholm  in  the  kingdom;  but  it  is  actually 
the  principal  centre  of  export  trade  and  port  of  register;  and 
as  a  manufacturing  town  it  is  slightly  inferior  to  Malmd.  Its 
principal  industrial  establishments  are  mechanical  works  (both 
in  the  dty  and  at  Lundby),  saw-mills,  dealing  with  the  timber 
which  is  brought  down  the  GOta,  flour-mills,  margarine  factories, 
breweries  and  distilleries,  tobacco  works,  cotton  mills,  dyeing 
and  bleaching  works  (at  Levanten  in  the  vicinity),  furniture 
factories,  paper  and  leather  works,  and  shipbuilding  yards. 
The  vessels  registered  at  the  port  in  1901  were  247  of  1 20,488  tons. 
There  are  about  3  m.  of  quays  approachable  by  vessels  drawing 
20  ft.,  and  slips  for  the  accommodation  of  large  vessels.  Gothen- 
burg is  the  prindpal  port  of  embarkation  of  Swedish  emigrants 
for  America. 

The  city  is  governed  by  a  council  including  two  mayors,  and 
returns  nine  members  to  the  second  chamber  of  the  Riksdag 
(parliament). 

Founded  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1619,  Gothenburg  was 
from  the  first  designed  to  be  fortified,  a  town  of  the  same  name 
founded  on  Hisingen  in  1603  having  been  destroyed  by  the  Danes 
during  the  Calmar  war.  From  162 1,  when  it  was  first  chartered, 
it  steadily  increased,  though  it  suffered  greatly  in  the  Danish 
wars  of  the  last  half  of  the  17th  and  the  beginning  of  the  i8th 
centuries,  and  from  several  extensive  conflagrations  (the  last 
in  1813),  which  have  destroyed  important  records  of  its  history. 
The  great  development  of  its  herring  fishery  in  the  latter  part 


272 


GOTHIC— GOTHS 


of  the  x8th  century  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  city's  trade,  which 
was  kept  up  by  the  ioflueiux  of  the  *'  Contineatai  System," 
under  which  Gothenburg  became  a  depot  for  the  colonial  mer- 
chandise of  England.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  it  began  to 
decline,  but  after  its  closer  connexion  with  the  interior  of  the 
country  by  the  Gdta  canal  (opened  183  a)  and  Western  railway 
it  rapidly  advanced  both  in  population  and  trade.  Since  the 
demolition  of  its  fortifications  in  i8o7|  it  naa  been  defended 
only  by  some  small  forts.  Gothenburg  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  poet  Bengt  Lidner  (17  57-1 793)  and  two  of  Sweden's  greatest 
sculptors,  Bengt  Erland  Fogelberg  (i  786-1 854)  and  Johann 
Peter  Molin  (18x4-1873).  After  the  French  Revolution  Gothen- 
burg was  for  a  time  the  residence  of  the  Bourbon  family.  The 
name  of  this  city  is  associated  with  the  municipal  licensing 
system  known  as  the  Gothenburg  System  (see  Liquor  Laws). 

See  W.  Berg.  Samlingar  till  Cdteborgs  historia  (Gothenburg.  1893) ; 
Lagerbefg,  Cdtebort  i  dldre  ock  nyare  Hd  (Cothenburg,  1902); 
FvSding,Det  forna  Cdlebori  (Stockholm,  1903). 

GOTHIC,  the  term  generally  applied  to  medieval  architecture, 
and  more  especially  to  that  in  which  the  pointed  arch  appears. 
The  style  was  at  one  time  supposed  to  have  originated  with  the 
warlike  people  known  as  the  Goths,  some  of  whom  (the  East 
Goths,  or  Ostrogoths)  settled  in  the  eastern  portion  of  Europe, 
and  others  (the  West  Goths,  or  Visigoths)  in  the  Asturias  of 
Spain;  but  as  no  buildings  or  remains  of  any  description  have 
ever  been  found,  in  which  there  are  any  traces  of  an  independent 
construction  in  either  brick  or  stone,  the  title  is  misleading; 
since,  however,  it  is  now  so  generally  accepted  it  would  be  difficiilt 
to  change  it.  The  term  when  first  employed  was  one  of  reproach, 
as  Evelyn  (1702)  when  speaking  of  the  faultless  building  (t.«. 
cla^c)  says,  "  they  were*demolished  by  the  Goths  or  Vandals, 
who  introduced  their  own  licentious  style  now  called  modem 
or  (jothic."  The  employment  of  the  pointed  arch  in  Syria, 
Egypt  and  Sidly  from  the  8th  century  onwards  by  the  Mahom- 
medans  for  their  mosques  and  gateways,  some  four  centuries 
before  it  made  its  appearance  in  Europe,  also  makes  it  advisable 
to  adhere  to  the  old  term  (jOthic  in  preference  to  Pointed 
Architecture.    (See  Architecture) 

OflTHITB,  or  Goethite,  a  mineral  composed  of  an  iron 
hydrate,  FeiOt.HiO,  crystallizing  in  the  orthorhombic  system 
and  isomorphous  with  diaspore  and  nianganite  iq.v.).  It  was 
first  noticed  in  1789,  and  in  x8o6  was  named  after  the  poet 
Goethe.  Crystals  are  prismatic,  acicular  or  scaly  in  habit; 
they  have  a  perfect  cleavage  parallel  to  the  brachypiiucoid 
(M  in  the  figure).  Reniform  and  stalactitic 
masses  with  a  radiated  fibrous  structure  also 
occur.  ■  The  colour  varies  from  yellowish 
or  reddish  to  blackish-brown,  and  by  trans- 
mitted light  it  is  often  blood-red;  the  streak 
is  brownish-yellow;  hardness,  5;  ^>ecific 
gravity,  4*3.  The  best  crystals  are  the 
brilliant,  blackbh-brown  prisms  with  terminal 
pyramicUd  planes  (fig.)  from  the  Restormel 
iron  mines  at  Lostwithiel,  and  the  Botallack 
mine  at  St  Just  in  Cornwall.  A  variety 
occurring  as  thin  red  scales  at  Siegen  in  Westphalia  is  known 
as  Rubinglimmer  or  pyrrhosiderite  (from  Gr.  wvppt;,  flame- 
coloured,  and  cliiipot,  iron):  a  scaly-fibrous  variety  from  the 
same  locality  is  called  lepidocrocite  (from  Xcirfy,  scale,  and  Kpods, 
fibre) .  Sammetblende  or  przibramite  is  a  variety,  from  Prribram 
in  Bohemia,  consisting  of  delicate  acicular  or  capillary  crystals 
arranged  in  radiating  groups  with  a  vdvety  surface  and  yellow 
colour. 

GSthitc  occurs  with  other  iron  oxides,  especially  limonite 
and  hematite,  and  when  found  in  sufficient  quantity  is  mined 
with  these  as  an  ore  of  iron.  It  often  occurs  also  as  an  enclosure 
in  other  minerals.  Adcular  crystals,  resembling  rutile  in  ap- 
pearance, sometimes  penetrate  crystals  of  pale-coloured  amethyst, 
for  instance,  at  Wolf's  Island  in  Lake  Onega  in  Russia:  this 
form  of  the  mineral  has  long  been  known  as  onegite,  and  the 
crystals  enclosing  it  are  cut  for  ornamental  purposes  under  the 
name  of "  Cupid's  darts  "  (JUches  d*amour).    The  metallic  glitter 


:d\ 


i  ! 


of  avanturine  or  sun-stone  {q.9.)  is  doe  to  the  endosed  scales 
of  gOthite  and  certain  other  minerals.  (L.  J.  S.) 

OOTm  (ficUmeSt  later  GoCAu),  a  Teutonic  people  who  in  the 
xst  century  of  the  Christian  eca  appear  to  have  inhahiffri  the 
middle  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Vistula.  They  were 
probably  the  eastenunost  <^  the  Teutonic  peoples. 
According  to  their  own  traditions  as  recorded  by 
Jordanes,  they  had  come  originally  from  the  island  Scandza, 
i.e.  Sk&ne  or  Sweden,  under  the  leadership  of  a  king  named 
Berig,  and  landed  first  in  a  region  called  (jothiscandza.  Thence 
they  invaded  the  territories  of  the  Ulmerugi  (the  Holmryge  of 
Ang^o-Saxon  tradition),  probably  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Rilgenwalde  in  eastern  Pomerania,  and  conquered  both  them 
and  the  neighbouring  Vandals..  Under  their  sixth  king  Filimer 
they  migrated  into  Scythia  and  settled  in  a  district  which  they 
called  Oium.  The  rest  of  their  early  history,  as  it  is  ^ven  by 
Jordanes  following  Casaiodorus,  is  due  to  an  orroneous  identifica- 
tion of  the  Goths  with  the  Getae,  and  ancient  Thractan  people. 

The  credibility  of  the  story  of  the  migration  from  Sweden 
has  been  much  discussed  by  modem  authors.  The  legend  was 
not  peculiar  to  the  Ck>ths,  similar  traditions  being  current  among 
the  Langobardi,  the  Burgundlans,  and  a^Mirently  several 
other  Teutonic  nations.  It  has  been  observed  jrith  truth 
that  so  many  populous  nations  can  hardly  have  ^rung  from 
the  Scandinavian  peninsula;  on  the  other  hand,  the  existence  of 
these  traditions  certainly  requires  some  explanation.  Possibly, 
however,  many  of  the  royal  families  may  have  contained  an 
dement  of  Scandinavian  blood,  a  hypothesis  which  would  well 
accord  with  the  social  conditions  of  the  migration  period,  as 
illustrated,  e.g.,  in  Vdisunga  Sagi^  and  in  Hervarar  Saga  ok 
HeHSreks  JfConungs.  In  the  case  of  the  Goths  a  coxmezion  with 
Gotland  is  not  unlikely,  since  it  is  dear  from  archaeolo^cal 
evidence  that  this  island  had  an  extensive  trade  with  the  coasts 
about  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula  in  eariy  times.  If,  however, 
there  was  any  migration  at  all,  one  would  rather  have  expected 
it  to  have  taken  place  in  the  reverse  direction.  For  the  origin 
of  the  Ctoths  can  hardly  be  separated  from  that  of  the  Vandals, 
whom  according  to  Procopius  they  resembled  in  language  and 
in  all  other  respects.  Moreover  the  Gepidae,  another  Teutonic 
people,  who  axe  said  to  have  formeriy  inhabited  the  delta  of 
the  Vistula,  also  appear  to  have  been  dosdy  ooimected  with 
the  (joths.  According  to  Jordanes  they  partidpated  in  the 
migration  from  Scandza. 

Apart  from  a  doubtful  referen<x  by  Riny  to  a  statement 
of  the  early  traveller  Pytheas,  the  first  notices  we  have  of  the 
Goths  go  back  to  the  first  yeais  of  the  Christian  era,  at  which 
time  they  seem  to  have  been  subject  to  the  Marcomaimic  king 
Maroboduus.  They  do  not  enter  into  Roman  history,  however, 
until  after  the  beginning  of  the  3rd  century,  at  which  time  they 
appear  to  have  come  in  conflict  with  the  emperor  Caracalla 
During  this  century  thdr  frontier  seems  to  have  been  advanced 
considerably  farther  south,  and  the  whole  country  as  far  as  the 
lower  Danube  was  frequently  ravaged  by  them.  Hie  emperor 
Gordianus  is  called  "  victor  Gothomm  "  by  Capitolinus,  though 
we  have  no  record  of  the  ground  for  the  daim,  and  further  conflicts 
are  recorded  with  his  successors,  one  of  whom,  Dedus,  was  slain 
by  the  Goths  in  Moesia.  According  to  Jordanes  the  kings  of 
the  Cioths  during  these  campaigns  were  (Htrogotha  and  after- 
Wards  Cniva,  the  former  of  whom  is  praised  also  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  poem  Widsith.  The  emperor  Gallus  was  forced  to  pay 
tribute  to  the  Goths.  By  this  time  they  had  reached  the  coasts  of 
the  Black  Sea,  and  during  the  next  twenty  years  they  frequently 
ravaged  the  maritime  regions  of  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.  Aurdian 
is  said  to  have  won  a  victory  over  them,  but  the  province  of 
Dacia  had  to  be  given  up.  In  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great 
Thrace  and  Moesia  were  again  plundered  by  the  CSoths,  a.d.  321. 
Constantine  drove  them  back  and  oonduded  pea<x  with  thdr 
king  Ariaric  in  336.  From  the  end  of  the  3rd  century  we  hear 
of  subdivisions  of  the  nation  called  Greutungj,  Teniingi, 
Austrogothi  (Ostrogoth!) ,  Visigothi,  Taifali,  though  it  is  not 
dear  whether  these  were  all  distinct. 

Though  by  this  time  the  Goths  had  extended  their  territories 


GOTHS 


273 


far  to  the  south  and  east,  it  must  not  be  assumed  that  they  had 
evacuated  their  old  lands  on  the  Vistula:  Jordanes  records 
several  traditions  of  their  conflicts  with  other  Teutonic  tribes, 
in  particular  a  victory  won  by  Ostr(^tha  over  Fastida,  king  of 
the  Gepidae,  and  another  by  Geberic  over  Visimar,  king  of  the 
Vandals,  about  the  end  of  Constantine's  reign,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  Vandals  sought  and  obtained  permission  to  settle 
in  Pannonia.  Geberic  was  succeeded  by  the  most  famous  of 
the  Gothic  kings,  Hermanaric  (EorroenriCi  Idrmunrekr),  whose 
deeds  are  recorded  in  the  traditions  of  all  Teutonic  nations. 
According  to  Jordanes  he  conquered  the  Heruli,  the  Aestii, 
the  Venedi,  and  a  number  of  other  tribes  who  seem  to  have  been 
settled  in  the  southern  part  of  Russia.  From  Anglo-Saxon 
sources  it  seems  probable  that  his  supremacy  reached  westwards 
aa  far  as  Holstein.  He  was  of  a  cruel  disposition,  and  is  said  to 
have  killed  his  nephews  Embrica  (Emerca)  and  Fritla  (Fridla) 
In  order  to  obtain  the  great  treasure  which  they  possessed. 
Still  more  famous  is  the  story  of  Suanihilda  (Svanhildr),  who 
according  to  Northern  tradition  was  his  wife  and  was  cruelly 
put  to  death  on  a  false  charge  of  unfaithfulness.  An  attempt 
to  avenge  her  death  was  made  by  her  brothers  Ammius  (HamSir) 
and  Saras  (S&rli)  by  whom  Hermanaric  was  severely  wounded. 
To  his  time  belong  a  number  of  other  heroes  whose  exploits 
are  recorded  in  English  and  Northern  tradition,  amongst  whom 
we  may  mention  Wudga  (Vidigoia),  Hama  and  several  others, 
who  in  Widsiik  are  represented  as  defending  their  country  against 
the  Huns  in  the  forest  of  the  Vistula.  Hermanaric  committed 
suicide  in  his  distress  at  an  invasion  of  the  Huns  aboutAJ).  370, 
and  the  portion  of  the  nation  called  Ostrogoths  then  came  under 
Hunnish  supremacy.  The  Visigoths  obtained  permission  to 
cross  the  Danube  and  settle  in  Moesia.  A  large  part  of  the  nation 
became  Christian  about  this  time  (see  below).  The  exactions 
of  the  Roman  governors,  however,  soon  led  to  a  quarrel,  which 
ended  in  the  total  defeat  and  death  of  Valens  at  Adrianople 
in  the  year  378.  (F.  G.  M.  B.) 

From  about  370  the  history  of  the  East  and  West  Goths 
parts  asunder,  to  be  joined  together  again  only  incidentally 
and  for  a  season.  The  great  mass  of  the  East  Goths 
stayed  north  of  the  Danube,  and  passed  under  the 
overlordshlp  of  the  Hun.  They  do  not  for  the  present 
play  any  important  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  Empire.  The  great 
mass  of  the  West  Goths  crossed  the  Danube  into  the  Roman 
provinces,  and  there  played  a  most  important  part  in  various 
characters  <tf  allian<x  and  enmity.  The  great  migration  was  in 
376,  when  they  were  allowed  to  pan  as  peaceful  settlers  under 
the^  chief  Frithigem.  His  rival  Athanaric  seems  to  have  tried 
to  maintain  his  party  for  a  while  north  of  the  Danube  in  defiance 
of  the  Huns;  but  he  had  presently  to  follow  the  example  of  the 
great  mass  of  the  nation.  The  peaceful  designs  of  Frithigem 
were  meanwhile  thwarted  by  the  ill-treatment  which  the  Goths 
suffered  from  the  Roman  officials,  which  led  first  to  disputes 
and  then  to  open  war.  In  378  the  Goths  won  the  great  battle  of 
Adrianople,  and  after  this  Theodosius  the  Great,  the  successor 
of  Valens,  made  terms  with  them  in  381,  and  the  mass  of  the 
Gothic  warriors  entered  the  Roman  service  aafoederati.  Many 
of  their  chiefs  were  in  high  favour;  but  it  seems  that  the  orthodox 
Tbeodosius  showed  more  favour  to  the  still  remaining  heathen 
party  among  the  Goths  than  to  the  larger  part  of  them  who  had 
embraced  Arian  Christianity.  Athanaric  himself  came  to  Con- 
stantinople in  381 ;  he  was  received  with  high  honours,  and  had 
s  solemn  funeral  when  he  died.  His  saying  is  worth  recording, 
as  an  example  of  the  effect  which  Roman  civQixation  had  on 
the  Teutonic  mind.  **  The  emperor,"  he  said,  "  was  a  god  upon 
earth,  snd  be  who  resisted  him  would  have  his  blood  on  his 
own  bead." 

The  death  of  Theodosius  in  395  broke  up  the  union  between 
the  West  Goths  and  the  Empire.  Dissensions  arose  between 
them  and  the  ministers  of  Arcadius;  the  Goths  threw  off  their 
allegiance,  and  chose  Alaric  as  their  king.  This  was  a  restoration 
aMke  of  national  unity  and  of  national  independence.  The 
royal  title  had  not  been  borne  by  their  leaders  in  the  Roman 
service.  Alaric's  position  a  quite  different  from  that  of  several 
jtn  5« 


Goths  in  the  Roman  service,  who  appear  as  simple  rebels.  He 
was  of  the  great  West  Gothic  house  of  the  Balthi,  or  Bold-men, 
a  house  second  in  nobility  only  to  that  of  the  Amali.  His  whole 
career  was  taken  up  with  marchings  to  and  fro  within  the  lands, 
first  of  the  Eastern,  then  of  the  Western  empire.  The  Goths 
are  under  him  an  independent  people  under  a  national  king; 
their  independence  is  in  no  way  interfered  with  if  the  Gothic 
king,  in  a  moment  of  peace,  accepts  the  office  and  titles  of  a 
Roman  general.  But  under  Alaric  the  Goths  make  no  lasting 
settlement.  In  the  long  tale  of  intrigue  and  warfare  between 
the  Goths  and  the  two  imperial  courts  which  fills  up  this  whole 
time,*  cessions  of  territory  are  offered  to  the  Goths,  provinces 
are  occupied  by  them,  but  as  yet  they  do  not  take  root  anyyvhere; 
no  Western  land  as  yet  becomes  Gothia,  Alaric's  designs  of 
settlement  seem  in  his  first  stage  to  have  still  kept  east  of  the 
Adriatic,  in  Illyricum,  po»ibIy  in  Greece.  Towards  the  end  of 
his  career  his  eyes  seem  fixed  on  Africa. 

Greece  was  the  scene  of  his  great  campaign  in  395-96,  the 
second  Gothic  invasion  of  that  country.  In  this  campaign  the 
religious  position  of  the  Goths  is  strongly  marked.  The  Arian 
appeared  as  an  enemy  alike  to  the  pagan  majority  and  the 
Catholic  minority;  but  he  came  surrounded  by  monks,  and  his 
chief  wrath  was  directed  against  the  heathen  temples  {vide  G.  F. 
Hertzberg,  CeschickU  Crieckenlands,  ili.  391).  His  Italian  cam- 
paigns fall  into  two  great  divisions,  that  of  403-3,  when  he 
was  driven  back  by  Stilicho,  and  that  of  408-10,  after  Stilicho's 
death.  In  thb  second  war  he  thrice  besieged  Rome  (408,  409, 
4x0).  The  second  time  it  suited  a  momentary  policy  to  set 
up  a  puppet  emperor  of  his  own,  and  even  to  accept  a  military 
commission  from  him.  The  third  time  he  sacked  the  dty, 
the  first  time  since  Brennus  that  Rome  had  been  taken  by  an 
army  of  utter  foreigners.  The  intricate  political  and  military 
detdls  of  these  campaigns  are  of  less  importance  in  the  history 
of  the  Gothic  nation  than  the  stage  which  Alaric's  reign  marks 
in  the  history  of  that  nation.  It  stands  between  two  periods 
of  settlement- within  the  Empire  and  of  service  under  the  Empire. 
Under  Alaric  there  is  no  settlement,  and  service  is  quite  secondary 
and  precarious;  after  his  death  in  410  the  two  begin  again  in 
new  shapes. 

Contemporary  with  the  campaigns  of  Alaric  was  a  barbarian 
invasion  of  Italy,  which,  according  to  one  view,  again  brings 
the  East  and  West  Goths  together.  The  great  mass  of  the  East 
Goths,  as  has  been  already  said,  became  one  of  the  many  natioiSs 
which  were  under  vassalage  to  the  Huns;  but  their  relation 
was  one  merely  of  vassalage.  They  remained  a  distinct  people 
under  kings  of  their  own,  kings  of  the  house  of  the  Amali  and  of 
the  kindred  of  Ermanaric  (Jordanes,  48).  They  had  to  follow  the 
lead  of  the  Huns  in  war,  but  they  were  also  able  to  carry  on  wars 
of  their  own;  and  it  has  been  held  that  among  these  separate 
East  Gothic  enterprises  we  are  to  place  the  invasion  of  Italy  in 
405  by  Radagaisus  (whom  R.  Pallmann^  writes  Ratiger,  and 
takes  him  for  the  chief  of  the  heathen  part  of  the  East  Goths). 
One  chronicler,  Prosper,  makes  this  invasion  preceded  by  another 
in  400,  in  which  Alaric  and  Radagaisus  appear  as  partners. 
The  paganism  of  Radagaisus  is  certain.  The  presence  of  Goths 
in  his  army  is  certain,  but  it  seems  dangerous  to  infer  that  his 
invasion  was  a  national  Gothic  enterprise. 

Under  Ataulphus,  the  brother-in-law  and  successor  of  Alaric, 
another  era  opens,  the  beginning  of  enterprises  which  did  in  the 
end  lead  to  the  establishment  of  a  settled  Gothic  monarchy 
in  the  West.  The  position  of  Ataulphus  is  well  marked  by  the 
speech  put  into  his  mouth  by  Orosius.  He  had  at  one  time 
dreamed  of  destroying  the  Roman  power,  of  turning  Romania 
into  Gothia,  and  putting  Ataulphus  in  the  stead  of  Augustus; 
but  he  bad  learned  that  the  world  could  be  governed  only  by 
the  laws  of  Rome  and  he  had  determined  to  use  the  Gothic  arms 
for  the  support  of  the  Roman  power.  And  in  the  confused  and 
contradictory  accounts  of  his  actions  (for  the  story  in  Jordanes 
cannot  be  reconciled  with  the  accounts  in  Olympiodorus  and 
the  chroniclers),  we  can  see  something  of  this  principle  at  work 
throughout.  Gaul  and  Spain  were  overrun  both  by  barbarian 
^CtukichUdtr  Vdlkerwanderung  (Gotha,  1863-1864). 

la 


274 


GOTHS 


invaders  and  by  rival  emperon.  The  sword  of  tlie  Goth  was 
to  win  back  the  last  lands  for  Rome.  And,  amid  many  shillings 
of  allegiance,  Ataulphus  seems  never  to  have  wholly  given  up 
the  position  of  an  ally  of  the  Empire.  His  marriage  with  Pladdia, 
the  daughter  of  the  great  Theodosius,  was  taken  as  the  seal  of 
the  union  between  Goth  and  Roman,  and,  had  their  son  Theo- 
dosius  lived,  a  dynasty  might  have  arisen  uniting  both  claims. 
But  the  career  of  Ataulphus  was  cut  short  at  Barcelona  in  415, 
by  his  murder  at  the  hands  of  another  faction  of  the  GothL 
The  reign  of  Sigeric  was  momentary.  Under  Wallia  in  4x8  a 
more  settled  stale  of  things  was  established.  The  Empire  re- 
ceived again,  as  the  prize  of  Gothic  victories,  ^be  Tarraconensis 
in  Spain,  and  Novempopulana  and  the  Narbonensis  in  Gaul. 
The  "second  Aquitaine,"  with  the  sea-coast  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Garonne  to  the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  became  the  West 
Gothic  kingdom  of  Toulouse.  The  dominion  of  the  Goths  was 
now  strictly  Gaulish;  their  lasting  Spanish  dominion  does  not 
yet  begin. 

The  reign  of  the  first  West  Gothic  Theodoric  (419-451)  shows 
a  shifting  state  of  relations  between  the  Roman  ami  Gothic 
powers;  but,  after  defeats  and  successes  both  ways,  the  older 
relation  of  alliance  against  common  enemies  was  again  estab- 
Ibhed.  At  last  Goth  and  Roman  had  to  join  together  against 
the  common  enemy  <^  Europe  and  Christendom,  Attila  the  Hun. 
But  they  met  Gothic  warriors  in  his  army.  By  the  terms  of 
their  subjection  to  the  Huns,  the  East  Goths  came  to  fight  for 
Attila  against  Christendom  at  ChAlons.  just  as  the  Servians  came 
to  fight  for  Bajazct  against  Christendom  at  Nicopolls.  Theodoric 
fell  in  the  battle  (451).  After  this  momentary  meeting,  the 
history  of  the  East  and  West  Goths  again  separates  for  a  while. 
The  kingdom  of  Toulouse  grew  within  Gaul  at  the  expense  of 
the  Empire,  and  in  Spain  at  the  expense  of  the  Suevi.  Under 
Euric  (466-485)  the  West  Gothic  power  again  became  largely 
a  Spanish  power.  The  kingdom  of  Toulouse  look  in  nearly  all 
Gaul  south  of  the  Loire  and  west  of  the  Rhone,  with  all  Spain, 
except  ihe  north-west  corner,  which  was  still  held  by  the  Sucvi. 
Provence  alone  remained  to  the  Empire.  The  West  Gothic 
kings  largely  adopted  Roman  manners  and  culture;  but,  as 
they  still  kept  to  their  original  Arian  creed,  their  rule  never 
became  thoroughly  acceptable  to  their  Catholic  subjects.  They 
stood,  therefore,  at  a  great  disadvantage  when  a  new  and  aggres- 
sive Catholic  power  appeared  in  Gaul  through  the  conversion 
of  the  Frank  Clovis  or  Chlodwig.  Toulouse  was,  as  in  days  long 
after,  the  seat  of  an  heretical  power,  against  which  the  forces 
of  northern  Gaul  marched  as  on  a  crusade.  In  507  the  West 
Gothic  king  Alaric  II.  fell  before  the  Prankish  arms  at  Campus 
Vogladensis,  near  Poitiers,  and  his  kingdom,  as  a  great  power 
north  of  the  Alps,  fell  with  him.  That  Spain  and  a  fragment  of 
Gaul  slill  remained  to  form  a  West  Gothic  kingdom  was  owing 
to  the  intervention  of  the  East  Goths  under  the  rule  of  the  greatest 
man  in  Gothic  history. 

When  the  Hunnish  power  broke  in  pieces  on  the  death  of 
Attila,  the  East  Goihs  recovered  their  full  independence.  They 
now  entered  into  relations  with  the  Empire,  and  were  settled 
on  lands  in  Pannonia.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  latter 
half  of  the  sth  century,  the  East,  Goths  play  in  south-eastern 
Europe  nearly  the  same  part  which  the  West  Goths  played 
in  the  century  before.  They  are  seen  going  to  and  fro,  in  every 
conceivable  relation  of  friendship  and  enmity  with  the  Eastern 
Roman  power,  till,  just  as  the  West  Goths  had  done  before  them, 
they  pass  from  the  East  to  the  West.  They  are  stUl  ruled  by 
kings  of  the  hotise  of  the  AmaU,  and  from  that  house  there  now 
steps  forward  a  great  figure,  famous  alike  in  history  and  in 
romance,  in  the  person  of  Theodoric,  son  of  Theodemir.  Born 
about  454,  his  childhood  was  tpenl  at  Constantinople  as  a 
hostage,  where  he  was  carefully  educated.  The  early  part  of 
his  life  is  taken  up  with  various  disputes,  intrigues  and  wars 
within  the  Eastern  empire,  in  which  he  has  as  his  rival  another 
Theodoric,  son  of  Triarius,  and  surnamed  Strabo.  This  older 
but  lesser  Theodoric  seems  to  have  been  the  chief,  not  the  king, 
of  that  branch  of  the  East  Goths  which  had  settled  within  the 
Empire  at  an  earlier  time.    Theodoric  the  Great,  as  he  is  some- 


times distinguished,  is  sometimes  the  friend,  sometimes  the 
enemy,  of  the  Empire.  In  the  former  case  he  is  clothed  with 
various  Roman  titles  and  offices,  as  patrician  and  consul;  but 
in  all  cases  alike  he  remains  the  national  East  Gothic  king.  It 
was  in  both  characters  together  that  he  set  out  in  488,  by  com- 
mission from  the  emperor  Zeno,  to  recover  Italy  from  Odoacer. 
By  493  Ravenna  was  taken;  Odoacer  was  killed  by  Theodoric's 
own  hand;  and  the  East  Gothic  power  was  fully  established 
over  Italy,  Sicily,  Dalmatia  and  the  lands  to  the  north  of  Italy. 
In  this  war  the  history  of  the  East  and  West  Goths  begins  again 
to  tmite,  if  we  may  accept  the  witness  of  one  writer  that  Hieo- 
doric  was  helped  by  West  Gothic  auxiliaries.  The  two  branches 
of  the  nation  were  soon  brought  much  more  dosely  together, 
when,  through  the  overthrow  of  the  West  Gothic  kingdom  of 
Toulouse,  the  power  of  Theodoric  was  practically  extended 
over  a  large  part  of  Gaul  and  over  nearly  the  whote  of  Spain. 
A  time  of  confusion  followed  the  fall  of  Alaric  II.,  and,  as  that 
prince  was  the  son-in-law  of  Theodoric,  the  East  Gothic  king 
stepped  in  as  the  guardian  of  bis  grandson  Amalaric,  and  pre- 
served for  him  all  his  Spanish  and  a  fragment  of  his  Gai^i&b 
dominion.  Toulouse  passed  away  to  the  Frank;  but  the  (}oth 
kept  Narbonne  and  its  district,  the  land  of  Septimania — the 
land  which,  as  the  last  part  of  Gaul  held  by  the  Goths,  kept 
the  name  of  Colkia  for  many  ages.  While  Theodoric  lived, 
the  West  Gothic  kingdom  was  practically  united  to  his  own 
dominion.  He  seems  also  to  have  claimed  a  kind  of  protect- 
orate over  the  Teutonic  powers  generally,  and  indeed  to  have 
practically  exercised  it,  except  in  the  case  of  the  Franks. 

The  East  Gothic  dominion  was  now  again  as  great  in  extent 
and  far  more  splendid  than  it  could  have  been  in  the  time  of 
Ermanaric.  But  it  was  now  of  a  wholly  different  character. 
The  dominion  of  Theodoric  was  not  a  barbarian  but  a  civilized 
power.  His  twofold  position  ran  through  everything.  He  was 
at  once  national  king  of  the  Goths,  and  successor,  thoiigh  without 
any  imperial  titles,  of  the  Roman  emperors  of  the  West.  The 
two  nations,  differing  in  manners,  language  and  religion,  lived 
side  by  side  on  the  soil  of  Italy;  each  was  ruled  accoi^ng  to  its 
own  law,  by  the  prince  who  was,  in  his  two  separate  characters, 
the  common  sovereign  of  both.  The  picture  of  Theodoric's 
rule  is  drawn  for  us  in  the  state  papers  drawn  up  in  his  name 
and  in  the  names  of  his  successors  by  his  Roman  minister  Cassio- 
dorus.  The  Goths  seem  to  have  been  thick  on  the  ground  in 
northern  Italy;  in  the  south  they  formed  little  more  than 
garrisons.  In  Theodoric's  theory  the  Goth  was  the  armed  pro- 
tector of  the  peaceful  Roman;  the  Gothic  king  had  the  toil  of 
government,  while  the  Roman  consul  had  the  honour.  All  the 
forms  of  the  Roman  administration  went  on,  and  the  Roman 
polity  and  Roman  culture  had  great  influence  on  the  Goths 
themselves.  The  rule  of  the  prince  over  two  distinct  nations 
in  the  same  land  was  necessarily  despotic;  the  old  Teutomc 
freedom  was  necessarily  lost.  Such  a  system  as  that  which 
Theodoric  established  needed  a  Theodoric  to  carry  it  on.  It 
broke  in  pieces  after  his  death. 

On  the  death  of  Theodoric  (526)  the  East  and  West  Goths 
were  again  separated.  The  few  instances  in  which  they  are 
found  acting  together  after  this  time  are  as  scattered  and 
incidental  as  they  were  before.  Amalaric  succeeded  to  the 
West  Gothic  kingdom  in  Spain  and  Septimania.  Provence 
was  added  to  the  dominion  of  the  new  East  Gothic  king  Athalaric, 
the  grandson  of  Theodoric  through  his  daughter  Amalasuniha. 
The  weakness  of  the  East  Gothic  position  in  Italy  now  showed 
itself.  The  long  wars  of  Justinian's  reign  (535-555)  recovered 
Italy  for  the  Empire,  and  the  Gothic  name  died  out  on  Italian 
soil.  The  chance  of  forming  a  national  state  in  Italy  by  the 
union  of  Roman  and  Teut6nic  elements,  such  as  those  which 
arose  in  Gaul,  in  Spain,  and  in  parts  of  Italy  under  Lombard 
rule,  was  thus  lost.  The  East  Gothic  kingdom  was  destroyed 
before  Goths  and  Italians  had  at  all  mingled  together.  The  war 
of  course  made  the  distinction  stronger;  under  the  kings  who 
were  chosen  for  the  purposes  of  the  war  national  Gothic  feeling 
had  revived.  The  Goths  were  now  again,  if  not  a  wandering 
people,  yet  an  armed  host,  no  longer  the  protecton  but  the 


GOTHS 


275 


enemies  of  the  Roman  people  of  Italy.  The  East  Gothic  dominion 
and  the  East  Gothic  name  wholly  passed  away.  The  nation 
had  followed  Theodoric.  It  is  only  once  or  twice  after  his 
expeditioo  that  we  hear  of  Goths,  or  even  of  Gothic  leaders, 
in  the  eastern  provinces.  From  the  soil  of  Italy  the  nation 
passed  away  almost  without  a  trace,  while  the  next  Teutonic 
conquerors  stamped  their  name  on  the  two  ends  of  the  land, 
one  of  which  keeps  it  to  this  day. 

The  West  Gothic  kingdom  lasted  much  longer,  and  came 
much  nearer  to  establishing  itself  as  a  national  power  in  the 
lands  which  it  took  in.    But  the  difference  of  race  and  faith 
between  the  Arian  Goths  and  the  Catholic  Romans  of  Gaul  and 
Spain  influenced  the  history  of  the  West  Gothic  kingdom  for 
a  long  time.    The  Arian  Goths  ruled  over  Catholic  subjects, 
and  were  surrounded  by  CathoUc  neighbours.    The  Franks 
were  Catholics  from  their  first  conversion;  the  Suevi  became 
Catholics  much  earlier  than  the  Goths.    The  African  conquests 
of  Belisarius  gave  the  Goths  of  Spain,  Instead  of  the  Arian 
Vandals,  another  Catholic  neighbour  in  the  form  of  the  restored 
Roman  power.     The   Catholics  everywhere  preferred  either 
Roman,  Suevian  or  Prankish  rule  to  that  of  the  heretical  Golhs; 
even  the  unconquerable  mountaineers  of  Cantabria  seem  for 
a  while  to  have  received  a  Frankish  governor.    In  some  other 
mountain  districts  the  Roman  inhabitants  long  maintained 
their  independence,  and  in  534  a  large  part  of  the  south  of  Spain, 
including  the  great  cities  of  Cadia,  Cordova,  Seville  and  New 
Carthage,  was,  with  the  good  will  of  its  Roman  inhabitants, 
reunited  to  the  Empire,  which  kept  some  points  on  the  coast 
as  late  as  624.    That  is  to  say,  the  same  work  which  the  Empire 
was  carrying  on  in  Italy  against  the  East  Goths  was  at  the  same 
moment  carried  on  in  Spain  against  the  West  Goths.    But  in 
Italy  the  whole  land  was  for  a  while  won  back,  and  the  Gothic 
power  passed  away  for  ever.    In  Spain  the  Gothic  poweroutlived 
the  Roman  power,  but  it  outh'ved  it  only  by  itself  becoming 
in  some  measure  Roman.    The  greatest  period  of  the  Gothic 
power  as  such  was  in  the  reign  of  Leovigild  (568-586).    He 
reunited  the  Gaulish  and  Spanish  parts  of  the  kingdom  which 
had  been  parted  for  a  moment ;  he  united  the  Suevian  dominion 
to  his  own;  he  overcame  some  of  the  independent  districts, 
and  won  back  part  of  the  recovered  Roman  province  in  southern 
Spain.    He  further  established  the  power  of  the  crown  over  the 
Gothic  nobles,  who  were  beginning  to  grow  into  territorial  lords. 
The  next  reign,  that  of  his  son  Recared  (586-601),  was  marked 
by  a  change  which  took  away  the  great  hindrance  which  had 
thus  far  stood  in  the  way  of  any  national   union  between 
Goths  and  Romans.    The  king  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
Gothic  people  embraced  the  Catholic  faith.    A  vast  degree  of 
influence  now  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Catholic  bishops;  the 
two  nations  began  to  unite;  the  (loths  were  gradually  romanizcd 
and  the  Gothic  language  began  to  go  out  of  use.    In  short,  the 
Romance  nation  and  the  Romance  speech  of  Spain  began  to 
be  formed.    The  Goths  supplied  the  Teutonic  infusion  into  the 
Roman  mass.    The  kingdom,  however,  still  remained  a  Gothic 
kingdom.    "Gothic,"  not  «' Roman"  or  "Spanish,"  is  its 
formal  title;  only  a  single  late  instance  of  the  use  of  the  formula 
"  regnum  Hispaniae  "  is  known.    In  the  first  half  of  the  7th 
century  that  name  became  for  the  first  time  geographically 
applicable  by  the  conquest  of  the  still  Roman  coast  of  southern 
Spain.    The  Empire  was  then  engaged  in  the  great  struggle 
with  the  Avars  and  Persians,  and,  now  that  the  Gothic  kings 
were  Catholic,  the  great  objection  to  their  rule  on  the  part  of 
the  Roman  inhabitants  was  taken  away.    The  (jothic  nobility 
still  remained  a  distinct  class,  and  held,  along  with  the  Catholic 
prelacy,  the  right  of  choosing  the  king.     Union  with  the  Catholic 
Church  was  accompanied  by  the  introducrion  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical ceremony  of  anointing,  a  change  decidedly  favourable  to 
elective  rule.    The  growth  of  those  later  ideas  which  tended 
again  to  favour  the  hereditary  doctrine  had  not  time  to  grow 
up  in  Spain  before  the  Mahommedan  conquest  (71 1).    The  West 
Gothic  crown  therefore  remained  elective  till  the  end.    The 
ovMlem  Spanish  nation  is  the  growth  of  the  long  struggle  with 
the  Mussulmans;  but  it  has  a  direct  connexion  with  the  West 


Ciothic  kingdom.  We  see  at  once  that  the  Goths  hoM  altogether 
a  different  place  in  Spanish  memory  from  that  which  they  hold 
in  Italian  memory.  In  luly  the  Goth  was  but  a  momentary 
invader  and  ruler;  the  Teutom'c  element  in  Italy  comes  from 
other  sources.  In  Spain  the  Goth  supplies  an  important  element 
in  the  modem  nation.  And  that  element  has  been  neither 
forgotten  nor  despised.  Part  of  the  unconquered  region  of 
northern  Spain,  the  land  of  Asturia,  kept  for  a  while  the  name 
of  Gothia,  as  did  the  Gothic  possessions  in  Gaul  and  in  Crim. 
The  name  of  the  people  who  played  so  great  a  part  in  all  southern 
Europe,  and  who  actually  nled  over  so  large  a  part  of  it  has 
now  wholly  passed  away;  but  It  is  in  Spain  that  its  historical 
impress  is  to  be  looked  for. 

Of  Gothic  literature  in  the  Gothic  language  we  have  the  Bible 
of  Ulfilas,  and  some  other  religious  writings  and  fragments 
(see  Gothic  Language  below).  Of  Gothic  legislation  in  Latin 
we  have  the  edict  of  Theodoric  <tf  the  year  500,  edited  by  F. 
Bluhme  in  the  Monumenta  Germantae  kistorica;  and  the  booki 
of  Variae  of  Cassiodorus  may  pas^  as  a  collection  of  the  state 
papers  of  Theodoric  and  his  immediate  successors.  Among  the 
West  Goths  written  laws  had  already  been  put  forth  by  Euric. 
The  second  Alaric  (484-507)  put  forth  a  Breviarium  of  Roman 
law  for  his  Roman  subjects;  but  the  great  collection  of  West 
Gothic  laws  dates  from  the  later  days  of  the  monarchy,  being 
put  forth  by  King  Recceswinth  about  654.  This  code  gave 
occasion  to  some  well-known  comments  by  Montesquieu  and 
Gibbon,  and  has  been  discussed  by  Savigny  {Gesckickte  des 
rdmisclun  Rechts,  ii.  65)  and  various  other  writers.  They  are 
printed  in  the  Monuwunia  Germantae,  Uges,  tome  L  (1902). 
Of  special  Gothic  histories,  besides  that  of  Jordanes,  already 
so  often  quoted,  there  is  the  Gothic  history  of  Isidore,  archbishop 
of  Seville,  a  ^>ecial  source  of  the  history  of  the  West  (jothic 
kings  down  to  Svinthala  (621-631).  But  all  the  Latin  and 
Greek  writerscontemporary  with  the  days  of  Gothic  predominance 
make  their  constant  contributions.  Not  for  q)ecial  facts,  but 
for  a  general  estimate,  no  writer  is  more  instructive  than  Salvian 
of  Marseilles  in  the  5th  century,  whose  work  De  Gubematione  Dei 
is  full  of  passages  contrasting  the  vices  of  the  Romans  with  the 
virtues  of  the  barbarians,  especially  of  the  Goths.  In  all  such 
pictures  we  must  allow  a  good  deal  for  exaggeration  bqth  ways, 
but  there  must  be  a  ground-work  of  truth.  The  chief  virtues 
which  the  Catholic  presbjrter  praises  In  the  Arian  Goths  are 
their  chastity,  their  piety  according  to  their  own  creed,  their 
tolerance  towards  the  (Catholics  under  their  rule,  and  their 
general  good  treatment  of  their  Roman  subjects.  He  even 
ventures  to  hope  that  such  good  people  may  be  saved,  notwith- 
standing their  heresy.  AU  this  must  have  had  some  ground- 
work of  truth  in  the  5th  century,  but  it  is  not  very  wonderful 
if  the  later  West  Goih»  of  Spain  had  a  good  deal  fallen  away  from 
the  doubtless  somewhat  ideal  picture  of  Salvian.       (E.  A.  F.) 

There  is  now  an  extensive  literditure  on  the  Goths,  and  among  the 
principal  works  mav  be  mentioned:  T.  Hodgkin,  Italy  ana  her 
Jntaders  (Oxford.  1880-1800);  J.  Aschbach,  GeukichU  der  West- 
goten  (Frankfort.  1827);  F.  Dahn,  Die  K^iee  der  Cermanen  (1861- 
1809);  E.  von  Wietershrtm,  CeKktckle  der  Vdlkermanderung  (1880- 
1881):  R.  Pallmann,  Die  GesehukU  der  Vdlkerwanderung  (Gotha, 
1863-1864);  B.  Rappaport,  Dte  EinfaUe  der  Goten  in  das  r&miscke 
Jtnck  (Leipzig.  1899).  and  K.  Zeuas.  Die  Dentuhen  mnd  die  Nackbar- 
ie  (Munich,  1837).    Other  works  which  may  be  consulted  are : 


slamme 


E.  Gibbon.  Decline  and  Foil  of  the  Roman  Empire,  edited  tyy  J.  B. 
Bury  (1896-1900);  H.  H.  Milman,  History  of  Latin  Christianity 
(1867):  ].  B.  Bury^  History  of  the  Later  Roman  Empire  (1889); 
P.  Villan,  Le  Invastoni  barbaruhe  in  Italia  (Milan,  1901);  and  F. 
Martroye,  VOcctdent  d  fipoffne  bytantine:  Goths  et  Vandales  (Paris, 
1903).  Thare  isa  popular  history  of  the  Goths  by  H.  Bradley  in  the 
"  Story  of  the  Nations  "  series  (London,  1 888).  For  the  laws  see  the 
Leus  in  Band  I.  of  the  Monumenta  Germantae  historiea,  Uges  (1902). 
A.  Helffcrich.  EntsUhung  und  CesehuhU  des  Westgottnrechts  (Berlin,  . 
1858);  F.  Bluhme.  Zur  Textkriiik  des  Westgotenrechts  (1872):  F. 
Dahn.  Lex  Vtsigothorum.  Westgottuhe  Stmdten  (WQrzburKi  1874); 
C.  Rinaudo,  I^ffi  ^1  Visigole,  studto  {J\snti,  1878);  and  K.  Zeumer. 
"  Geschichte  der  westgotischen  Gesetnebung  in  the  fienes  Archie 
derCeseUschaflfaralteredenlscheGeschichtshunde,  See  also  the  article 
OD  Thbodokic. 

Gothic  Language. — Our  knowledge  of  the  Gothic  language 
is  derived  almost  entirely  from  the  fragments  of  a  translation 


276 


GOTLAND 


of  the  Bible  which  is  believed  to  have  been 'made  by  the  Arian 
bishop  Wulfila  or  Ulfilas  (d.  383)  for  the  Goths  who  dwelt  on 
the  lower  Danube.  The  MSS.  which  have  come  down  to  us 
and  which  date  from  the  period  of  Ostrogothic  rule  in  Italy 
(4$9~'55S)  contain  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  complete, 
4^ether  with  more  or  less  considerable  fragments  of  the  four 
pospels  and  of  all  the  other  Pauline  Epistles.  The  only  remains 
of  the  Old  Testament  are  three  short  fragments  of  E^ra  and 
Nehemiah.  There  is  also  an  incomplete  commentary  (skeireins) 
on  St  John's  Gospel,  a  fragment  of  a  calendar,  and  two  charters 
(from  Naples  and  Arezzo,  the  latter  now  lost)  which  contain 
some  Gothic  sentences.  All  these  texts  are  written  in  a  special 
character,  which  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Wul£la.  It 
is  based  chiefly  on  the  uncial  Greek  alphabet,  from  which 
indeed  most  of  the  letters  are  obviously  derived,  and  several 
orthographical  peculiarities,  e.g.  the  use  of  at  for  e  and  ei  for  I 
reflect  the  Greek  pronunciation  of  the  period.  Other  letters, 
however,  have  been  taken  over  from  the  Runic  and  Latin 
alphabets.  Apart  from  the  texts  mentioned  above,  the  only 
remains  of  the  Gothic  language  are  the  proper  names  and 
occasional  words  which  occur  in  Greek  and  Latin  writings, 
together  with  some  notes,  including  the  Gothic  alphabet,  in  a 
SaUburg  MS.  of  the  xoth  century,  and  two  short  inscriptions 
on  a  torque  and  a  spear-head,  discovered  at  Buzeo  (Walachla) 
and  Kovel  (Volhynia)  respc5ctively.  The  language  itself,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  date  of  Wulfila's  translation,  is 
of  a  much  more  archaic  type  than  that  of  any  other  Teutonic 
writings  which  we  possess,  except  a  few  of  the  earliest  Northern 
inscriptions.  This  may  be  seen,  e.g.  in  the  better  preservation 
of  final  and  unaccented  syllables  and  in  the  retention  of  the  dual 
and  the  middle  (passive)  voice  in  verbs.  It  would  be  quite 
erroneous,  however,  to  regard  the  Gothic  fragments  as  represent- 
ing a  type  of  language  common  to  all  Teutonic  nations  in  the 
4th  century.  Indeed  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the 
language  are  very  marked,  and  there  is  good  reason  for  believing 
that  it  differed  considerably  from  the  various  northern  and 
western  languages,  whereas  the  differences  among  the  latter 
at  this  time  were  probably  comparatively  slight  (see  Teutonic 
Languages).  On  the  other  hand,  it  roust  not  be  supposed  that 
the  language  of  the  Goths  stood  quite  isolated.  Procopius 
(Vand.  i.  2)  states  distinctly  that  the  Gothic  language  was 
spoken  not  only  by  the  Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths  but  also  by  the 
Vandals  and  the  (iepidae;  and  in  the  former  case  there  is  sufficient 
evidence,  chiefly  from  proper  names,  to  prove  that  his  statement 
is  not  far  from  the  truth.  With  regard  to  the  Gepidae  we  have 
less  information,  but  since  the  Goths,  according  to  Jordanes 
(cap.  17),  believed  them  to  have  been  originally  a  branch  of 
their  own  nation,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  two  languages, 
were  at  least  closely  related.  Procopius  elsewhere  {Vand.  i. 
3;  Golh.  i.  X,  iii.  2)  speaks  of  the  Rugii,  Sciri  and  Alani  as 
Gothic  nations.  The  fact  that  the  two  former  were  sprung 
from  the  nortb-east  of  Germany  renders  it  probable  that  they 
had  Gothic  affinities,  while  the  Alani,  though  non-Teutonic 
in  origin,  may  have  become  gothicized  in  the  course  of  the 
migration  period  Some  modern  writers  have  included  in  the 
same  class  the  Burgundians,  a  nation  which  had  apparently 
come  from  the  basin  of  the  Oder,  but  the  evidence  at  our  disposal 
on  the  whole  hardly  justifies  the  supposition  that  their  language 
retained  a  close  affinity  with  Gothic. 

In  the  4th  and  5th  centuries  the  Gothic  language-fusing 
the  term  in  its  widest  sense — must  have  spread  over  the  greater 
part  of  £uro];>e  together  with  the  north  coast  of  Africa.  It 
disappeared,  however,  with  surprising  rapidity.  There  is  no 
evidence  for  its  survival  in  Italy  or  Africa  after  the  fall  of  the 
Ostrogothic  and  Vandal  kingdoms,  while  in  Spain  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  Visigoths  retained  their  language  until  the  Arabic 
conquest.  In  central  Europe  it  may  have  lingered  somewhat 
longer  in  view  of  the  evidence  of  the  Salzburg  MS.  mcniioncd 
above.  Possibly  the  information  there  given  was  derived  from 
southern  Hungary  or  Transylvania  where  remains  of  the  Gepidae 
were  to  be  found  shortly  before  the  Magyar  invasion  (889). 
According  to  Walafridus  Strabo  {dc  Rcb.  EccUs.  cap.  7)  aLw 


Gothic  was  still  used  in  his  time  (the  9th  century)  in  some 
churches  in  the  region  of  the  lower  Danube.  Thenceforth  the 
language  seems  to  have  survived  only  among  the  Goths  {Coti 
Tctraxitae)  of  the  Crimea,  who  are  mentioned  for  the  last  time 
by  Ogier  Ghislain  de  Busbecq,  an  imperial  envoy  at  Constanti- 
nople about  the  middle  of  the  x6th  century.  He  collected  a. 
number  of  words  and  phrases  in  use  among  them  which  show 
clearly  that  their  language,  though  not  unaffected  by  Iranian 
influence,  was  still  essentially  a  form  of  Gothic. 

See  H.  C.  von  dcr  Gabelentz  and  J.  Loebe.  Uifilas  (Altenbuivand 
Leipzig.  1 836-1 846);  E.  Bernhardt.  Vulfila  odtt  die  gotiuhe  Bibd 
(Halle,  1 875).  For  other  works  on  the  Got  hie  language  see  J .  Wright, 
A  Primer  of  the  Gothic  Lantuage  (Oxford,  1892),  p.  143  f.  To  the 
references  there  given  should  be  added:  C.  C.  Uhlenbeck,  EtymO' 
logischesWdrlerbuch  d.got.Spra(he{AmstcrAAm,and  ed.1901 )  :F.Kfuge, 
"  Geschichte  d.  got.  Sprache  "  in  H.  Paul's  Crundriss  d.  germ.  Pkd^ 
logie  (2nd  ed..  vol.  i.,  Straasburg,  1897):  W.  Streitbeiv.  Cotiukes 
Elementarbuck  (Heidelberg,  1897)^,  Th.  von  Grienbergcr,  Be^ge  uir 
Geschichte  d.  deutschen  Sprache  «.  Literatur,  xxi.  185  ff.;  L.  F.  A. 
Wimmer,  Die  Runenuhrift  (Berlin,  1887).  p.  61  ff.;  G.  Stephens, 
Handbook  to  the  Runic  Monuments  (London.  1884),  p.  203;  F.  Wrede, 
Vber  die  Sprache  der  Wandalen  iStrassburg,  x886).  For  further 
references  see  K.  Zeuss,  Die  Deuluhen,  p.  432  f .  (where  eariier  refer- 
ences to  the  Crimean  Goths  are  also  given) ;  F.  Kluge,  op,  cit.^  p.  515 
ff.;  and  O.  Bremer,  ib.  voL  iii.,  p.  822.  (H.  M.  C.j 

GOTLAND,  an  island  in  the  Baltic  Sea  belonging  to  Sweden, 
lying  between  57"  and  58*^  N.,  and  having  a  length  from  S.  S.  W. 
to  N.N.E.  of  75  m.,  a  breadth  not  exceeding  30  m.,  and  an  area 
of  XX42  sq.  m.  The  nearest  point  on  the  mainland  is  50  m. 
from  the  westernmost  point  of  the  island.  With  the  island 
F&rO,  off  the  northern  extremity,  the  Karls5e,  off  the  west  coast, 
and  Gdtska  Sandd,  25  m.  N.  by  £.,  Gotland  forms  the  admini- 
strative district  {Idn)  of  Gotland.  The  island  is  a  level  plateau 
of  Silurian  limestone,  rising  gently  eastward,  of  an  average 
height  of  80  to  100  ft.,  with  steep  coasts  fringed  with  tapering, 
free-standing  columns  of  limestone  {raukar).  A  few  low  isolated 
hills  rise  inland.  The  climate  is  temperate,  and  the  soil,  although 
in  parts  dry  and  sterile,  is  mostly  fertile.  Former  marshy  moors 
have  been  largely  drained  and  cultivated.  There  are  extensive 
sand-dunes  in  the  north.  As  usual  in  a  limestone  formation, 
some  of  the  streams  have  their  courses  partly  below  the  surface, 
and  caverns  are  not  infrequent.  Less  than  half  the  total  area 
is  under  forest,  the  extent  of  which  was  formerly  much  greater. 
Baricy,  rye,  wheat  and  oats  are  grown,  especially  the  first,  which 
is  exported  to  the  breweries  on  the  mainland.  The  sugar-beei 
is  also  produced  and  exported,  and  there  are  beet-sugar  works 
on  the  island.  Sheep  and  cattle  are  kept;  there  is  a  government 
sheep  farm  at  Roma,  and  the  cattle  may  be  noted  as  belonging 
prindpally  to  an  old  native  breed,  yellow  and  homed.  Some 
lime-burning,  cement-making  and  sea-fishing  are  carried  on. 
The  capital  of  the  island  is  Visby,  on  the  west  coast.  There  are 
over  80  m.  of  railways.  Lines  run  from  Visby  N.E.  to  Tingstide 
and  S.  to  Hofdhem,  with  branches  from  Roma  to  Klintehamn, 
a  small  watering-place  on  the  west  coast,  and  to  Slitehamn  on 
the  east.  Excepting  along  the  coast  the  island  has  no  scenic 
attraction,  but  it  is  of  the  highest  archaeological  interest.  Nearly 
every  village  has  its  ruined  church,  and  others  occur  where  no 
villages  remain.  The  shrunken  walled  town  of  Visby  was  one 
of  the  richest  commercial  centres  of  the  Baltic  from  the  ixth  to 
the  X4th  century,  and  its  prosperity  was  shared  by  the  whole 
islimd.  It  retains  ten  churches  besides  the  cathedral.  The 
massive  towers  of  the  village  churches  are  often  detached,  and 
doubtless  served  purposes  of  defence.  The  churches  of  Roma, 
Hemse,  with  remarkable  mural  paintings,  Othcn  and  L&rbo 
may  be  specially  noted.  Some  contain  fine  stained  glass,  as  at 
Dalhcm  near  Visby.  The  natives  of  Gotland  speak  a  dialect 
disiinguishcd  from  that  of  any  part  of  the  Swedish  mainland. 
Pop  of  Idn  (1900)  52,781. 

Gotland  was  subject  to  Sweden  before  890,  and  in  1030  was 
chrisiianizcd  by  St  Olaf,  king  of  Norway,  when  returning  from 
his  exile  at  Kiev.  He  dedicated  the  first  church  in  the  island  to 
Si  Peter  at  Visby.  At  that  time  Visby  bad  long  been  one  <A 
the  most  important  trading  towns  in  the  Baltic,  and  the  chief 
distributing  centre  of  the  oriental  commerce  which  came  to 
Europe  along  the  rivers  of  Russia.    In  the  early  years  of  the 


GOTO  ISLANDS— GOTTFRIED  VON  STRASSBURG 


Himmtk  Logui,  «  sbcut  (he  middle  of  (he  13th 
i[  becune  the  chief  depAl  fdr  (he  produce  of  Ihe  eu(e 

cDUBtrie*,  indudingi  >»  >  CDmneici*)  Kue,  in  d>u|h[er  cotooy 
(nth  cenimy  oi  eirliei)  of  Novgorod  (he  Gieit.  Although 
Vuby  wu  in  independent  member  of  the  Hinwadi:  League, 
the  inifLieace  of  LUbeck  wu  peninoun(  in  the  dly,  uid  haJf 
iti  governinf  body  wen  men  of  Gennu  deaceat.  Indeed, 
BjOrkinder  endeavoun  lo  prove  that  the  dty  wu  ■  Gennu 
(HanKstic)  foundaiion,  dating  prindpaJly  from  the  middle 
of  the  iilh  nntuiy.  However  that  may  be,  the  ilt 
Viiby  in  the  tea  trade  of  the  North  ia  conduaively 


cfam 


:of  m 


which  bi 


,     Thii 


WattrralU  dot  it  Koofiliit  e*  dt  Sckipfoi  gnuiU 
Visby  ("  lea-law  which  the  merchanta  and  seamen  have  tnade 
■t  Visby  ")  wai  a  compilation  baaed  upon  (he  LUbeck  code, 
(be  Oliron  code  and  the  Amiterdim  code,  and  wai  finl  piinted 
in  Low  German  in  1 505,  but  in  all  prohabili(y  had  iU  oiigiD  about 
1140,  or  Dot  much  later  (lee  Su  Lawe).  By  the  middle  of  the 
14th  century  the  repu(a(ion  of  the  wealth  of  the  dty  val  lO 
pvat  that,  acci>rding  to  an  old  ballad,  **  Ihe  Gotlsnden  weighed 
ou(  gold  with  itone  weighti  and  played  with  the  choicest  jiwtla. 
The  iwine  ale  out  of  lilver  trougha,  and  the  womeD  iputi  with 
diitafliof  gold."  Thii  tabled  wealth  wai  too  itrong  a  (emp[a(LOn 
for  the  energetic  Valdemar  Allerdag  of  Denmark.  In  ijfli  he 
invwled  the  iiLand,  routed  the  defender!  of  Visby  under  the 
dty  walls  (a  monoUthic  crcas  marks  the  burial-place  of  the 
islanden  wbo  fell]  and  plundered  the  dty.  From  (hit  blow 
i(  never  recovered,  t(i  decay  being,  however,  ma(erial]y  helped 
by  the  fact  that  for  the  greater  part  of  tlie  next  150  years  it  was 
Ibe  stnui^iold  trf  succcsaive  freebooters  or  se^-nivers — first, 
o<  (be  Hanseadc  privateers  called  VitalienbrSdre  or  Viklualien- 
bffihler,  who  made  it  their  stronghold  during  the  last  eight 
years  of  the  14th  century;  then  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  whose 

tilartd  nnlil  it  was  redeemed  by  Queen  Margaret.  Then  too 
Erik  XUI.  (the  Pomeranian),  aller  being  driven  out  of  Denmark 
by  his  own  subjects,  established  himself  in  1437,  and  for  a 
doaen  years  waged  piracy  upon  Danes  and  Swedes  alike.  After 
him  came  Olaf  and  Ivar  Tholt,  two  Danish  hirds,  who  down  to 
the  year  14S7  lerroriEed  the  seas  from  their  pirates'  stronghold 
af  Visby.  Lastly,  the  Danish  admiral  54ien  Norrhy,  Ihe  last 
supporter  of  Cfarislian  I.  ol  Denmark,  when  his  master's  cause 
was  I0SI,  waged  a  guerrilla  war  upon  the  Danish  merchant  ships 
ind  others  from  the  same  convenient  base.  But  this  led  to  an 
eipedilioo  by  the  men  of  Lubeck,  who  partly  destroyed  Vliby 
in  i;s5.  By  the  peace  of  Stettin  (1J70)  Gotland  was  csafirmcd 
10  (he  Danish  crown,  to  which  il  had  been  given  by  Queen 
Uartarcl.  But  at  (he  peace  ol  BrBmiebro  in  ifi4  j  it  was  at  length 
reMorrd  to  Sweden,  to  which  it  has  since  belonged,  except  for 
(he  \ivtt  years  1676-1670,  when  i(  was  forcibly  occupied  by  (he 
Dsne*.  and  a  few  weeks  in  1808,  when  (he  Russians  landed  a  force. 
The  citreme  wealth  of  the  Cotlanders  naturally  fostered  a 
spirit  of  independence,  and  their  relations  with  Sweden  were 
curiou*.  The  island  at  one  period  ruid  an  annua]  tribute  of 
60  iruukt  of  silver  10  Sweden,  1 
i(  wu  paid  by  the  de^re  ol  t 

by  Sweden.  Ttie  pope  recognised  (heir  independence,  and  it 
was  by  their  own  free  will  that  I  hey  came  under  the  spiritual 
charge  of  the  bishop  of  LintOping.  Their  local  government  was 
repoblicsn  in  form,  and  a  popular  assembly  is  indicated  in  the 
wriden  Calland  Lau,  which  dates  not  later  than  the  middle  of 
the  Iilh  century.  Sweden  had  nb  rights  of  objection  to  the 
meanim  adopted  by  this  body,  and  there  was  no  Swedish 
judge  or  olhcr  offidal  in  the  iilind.  Visby  had  a  system  of 
govemnent  and  rights  independent  of,  and  in  lome  messure 
oppcacd  to,  that  of  the  rest  of  the  island.  It  seems  clear  that 
there  wen  at  one  time  (wo  acparale  corporatlona,  for  the  native 
Gollasden   and   Ihe   foreign    traders   respectively,   and   that 


these  w 


Butwequenlly  fused.     The  rights  an 


a  of  nati 


Gotlanden  were  not  enjoyed  by  foreignen  as  a  whole — even 

BtermaRiage  was  illeg^but  Germans,  on  tctount  of  thdr 

'al  pee-einineDCe  in  the  iiland,  were  eiccpted. 


SoAbohni  Gi.  t                 497  et  ieq,)rw.  Moler, 

ButnsihUn  \m   i»i)o)!HansHilde- 

btaiKf  Vubf  Jiholm,  180J  el  •eq.); 

Au  B;«iliand<  aia  (tM).  where  mnr 

njliji^M  K.  K  uaulalur  (book  iU.  eh. 

OnO  IILANIH  [Goto  Retto  GottoI  a  group  of  Island* 
belonging  to  Japan  lying  wai  of  Kiushiu  m  33°  N.,  iig"  E. 
The  southern  of  the  two  prindpel  islands,  Fukae-ahima,  measure* 
17  m,  by  I]);  Ihe  northern,  Nakaori-shima,  measures  93  m.  by 
T  t.  These  islands  lie  almost  In  the  direct  touleof  sleamers  plying 
between  Nagssaki  and  Shanghai,  and  are  distant  some  jo  m.  from 
NagasakL  Some  dome-shaped  hills  command  the  old  castle- 
tt)wn  of  Fukae.  The  islands  are  highly  cultivated;  deer  and 
other  game  abound,  and  trout  are  plentiful  in  the  mountain 

OOTTER.  FBIBDRICR  WILHELX  (i  746-1 707),  German  poet 
and  dram*ti3[,  was  bom  on  the  jrd  of  September  T746,  at  Gotha. 
After  the  completion  of  his  university  career  at  Cfltlingen,  he 

and  subsequently  went  to  Wetilar,  the  scat  of  the  imperial  law 
courts,  as  secretary  to  the  Saie-Coburg-Cotha  legation.    In 

here,  together  with  H.  C.  Boie,  he  founded  the  famous  CdUiKjer 
Uuiauiimaiuuk.  In  17J0  he  was  once  mote  in  Wetclar,  where 
he  belonged  to  Goethe's  circle  of  acquaintances.  Four  yean 
later  he  took  up  hit  permanent  abode  in  Qolha,  where  he  died  on 
the  iSIh  of  March  1797.  Coder  was  the  chief  tiprcsenlative  of 
French  (aste  in  the  German  literary  life  of  his  timt  His  own 
poc(iy  is  elegant  and  polished,  and  in  great  measure  free  from  the 
trivialities  of  the  Anacreontic  lyric  of  the  earlier  generation  of 
imitators  ofFrench  Ulerature;  hut  he  was  lacking  in  (he  imagin- 
ative depth  that  characterizes  the  German  poetic  temperament. 
His  plays,  of  which  iieropt  (1774),  an  adaplation  in  admirable 
blank  verse  of  the  tragedies  of  MaEfe!  and  Voltaire,  and  Midea 
('775),  a  Kuiodtami,  are  best  known,  were  mostly  based  on 
French  oiiginils  and  had  considerable  influence  in  counteracting 
the  fonnlessoess  and  irregularity  ol  the  Slarmand  Drant  drama. 
Gotter't  collected  GtdickU  appeared  in  1  vols,  in  [7B7  and  1788; 
a  third  valunie  {Iba)  conlaini  hit  Lilaariicktr  NaiUaii.  S«  B. 
Liunisnn,  Srkridtr  u'd  CoUn  (18S7),  and  R.  SchlOsxr,  F.  W. 
GalUr,  jtin  Ltbn  und  uint  Wtrlu  (iBim). 

OOTTFRIED  VON  BTBAESBDHO.  one  of  the  chief  German 

poets  of  Ihe  middle  ages.     The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death 

are  alike  unknown,  but  he  was  the  contemporary  of  Hartmann 

Aue,  Wolfram  von  Eschcnbach   and  Walther  von  der 

Vogelweide,  and  bis  epic  TrisUiH  was  written  about  (he  year 

iiio,     la  all  probabibly  he  did  no(  belong  to  the  nobility,  as 

he  it  enlitled  Itiitkr,  never  Zferr,  by  his  cdnlemponries;  his 

poem — the  only  work  that  can  with  any  certainty  be  attributed 

to  him— bear*  witness  to  a  learned  education.    The  stoiy  of 

rriilBfi  had  been  evolved  from  lis  shadowy  Celtic  origins  by  the 

French  Iraiatra  of  the  eariy  islh  century,  and  had  already 

found  lU  way  into  Germany  before  the  close  of  that  century, 

In  the  crude,  unpolished  version  of  Eilhart  von  Oberge.    It 

was  Gottfried,  however,  who  gave  il  its  final  form.    His  version 

is  based  not  on  that  of  Chr^ien  de  Troyea,  but  on  that  of  > 

Ve  Thomas,  who  seems  lo  have  been  more  popular  wiib 

mporaries.     A  comparison  of  the  German  epic  with  (be 

:h  original  is,  however,  impossible,  as  Chrtti'en't  TrislaM 

irely  lost,  and  of  Thomsa'i  only  n  few  (rngmenM  have  come 

to  us.    The  story  centre*  In  the  fatal  voyage  which  Tristan, 

dal  to  the  court  of  hit  uncle  King  Marke  of  KumewaJ 

iwall),  makes  to  Ireland  to  bring  hack  Isolde  aa  the  king'a 

On  the  return  voyage  Tristan  and  Isolde  drink  by 

ke  a  love  potion,  which  binds  them  irrevocably  to  each  at  het. 

The  eiHC  resolves  itself  into  a  serjes  of  love  intrigues  in  which 

'*     '  ro  lovers  ingeniously  outwit  the  trusting  king.    They  ato 

ildy  discovered,  and  Tristan  fleea  to  Normandy  where 

inie*  another  bold*— "  Isolds  with  (he  white  band*  "— 


»78 


CXJTTINGEN— GOTTLING 


wtlhoat  bdB(  able  to  for^  Ihc  blood  boldc  ot  IrUiuL  At  tbii 
point  Coltfijcd'i  nimtivc  bicaki  oS  sad  to  leun  tbe  ckte 
of  the  itory  wt  htvc  to  lum  to  two  minor  poeti  of  the  time, 
Ulrich  von  TUrheim  and  HeEnrkh  van  Fniberg— the  laller 

further  love  idvcDturci  TriitiDii  fatally  wounded  by  ■pmioncd 
■pear  iu  Nonnandy;  Ibc  *' blood  Isolde,"  aa  ibe  only  pcnon 
who  has  power  to  cure  him,  ii  lummoaed  from  Comwill.  The 
•hip  Ibal  brisp  faei  It  to  bear  a  wbite  sail  il  ahe  la  oo  board, 
a  black  one  U  nol.  Triitan'i  wife,  however,  deteivet  bim, 
auDoundag  that  tbe  oil  ii  black,  wtd  when  Iiolde  anivei, 
ibe  Gndi  her  lover  dead.  Harke  at  latl  leaira  the  iruih  concern- 
tog  the  love  potion,  ud  bat  the  two  loven  bulled  tide  by  tide 
inKomewal. 

It  it  difficult  to  lorm  an  ettlmate  of  Cotllried'i  Independence 
of  bit  French  toum;  but  it  seemt  dear  that  he  followed  clc«ly 
the  narrative  of  tvenit  he  found  in  Thomti,  He  has,  however, 
Introduced  into  the  itory  an  astounding  fineness  of  psychological 
motive,  which,  to  judge  from  ■>  general  comparison  of  the 
Arthurian  epic  in  both  lands,  is  German  rather  than  Freticb; 
he  has  sfHTitualiied  and  deepened  Ibe  nanatlvei  he  hu,.lbove 
tU,  depicted  whb  a  variety  and  insight,  unusual  in  >ii«dieval 
literature,  Ibc  eSecls  of  an  overpowering  paSHOn.  YeC,  glowing 
and  seduclive  as  Coltiried't  love-icenet  are,  they  are  never 
lor  a  moment  disfiguml  by  frivolous  binti  or  innuendo;  the 
tragedy  is  unrolled  with  aaeunettaets  that  admits  of  no  touch 
of  huiDOUt,  and  also,  It  may  he  added,  with  a  freedom  from 
moralizing  which  was  easier  to  attain  in  the  ijih  than  In  later 
teniuries.   The  mastery  of  style  is  no  less  conqiicuous.   Gottfried 

was  a  more  original  and  daring  artificer  of  rhymes  and  rhythms 
than  that  master;  he  delighted  in  the  sheer  mu^  of  words, 
and  indulged  in  antlthesa  and  allegorical  conceits  lo  an  extent 
that  proved  fatal  to  his  imiiatora.  As  far  as  beauty  of  expression 
is  concetned,  Cottfried't  TriiUa  is  tbe  matteriMece  of  the  German 

'      '   .m[nquent1yediled;brK.F.Masinun 
ill  '    '  Miein  (i  vols..  3rd  ed.,  LeIpiiE.  1S90- 

T».,i  !  v..  ,„.;■  ,  ,.■  volt.,  Stutlgan,  ISSs);  by  K.  MaroM 
Uvt^r-  ■  baiiB:.kt.ii...:,  .„\^  iiodera  Ceritian  have  been  made  by  H- 
Kun  ISiLit^n.  iMI;  by  K.  Simnck  {Uipu;,  ISJJJ;  and,  bol 
o(aU,  byW.  Herti  {Siullgart.  iSn).  There  iiilaaan  abbiEviated 
EogUdi  inndalloa  by  Jnne  L.  Weston  (London,  1609).  The 
cwuinualion  of  inrich  von  TDrtidm  irill  be  found  In  MBSsnun'i 
edition;  that  by  Keiixich  von  Freiberg  has  been  leparaidy  edited 
by  B.  Bi^-lin.'i"  It.ripilo.  iSJt).    See  sin  R.  Heiniel,  ■■Cotlfrieds 

vGo-.,.. ;.    ■  .  ..,  ii5«  Quelle  "in  the  Z«(./fi,rf«(.,*l/. 

,\,  ■      \-l.  Coltter,  Du,  Sair  POT   rrilWM  Biid 

JjiJjV  i.,.u,...-j.  }!-'7.':  i.  Piquet.  i'OnrijuJil/  il  CcUJ'iii  ic 
SI'ailmiTt  Ai"i  w"  f<*«  ■*•  rru*m  il  iinUi  (Lille,  looO.  K. 
Immeiminii  (d.D.)  hai  mitten  an  epic  of  rrulon  mill  luJitJi»V'i. 
R.  Waener  {q.v.)  a  muilcal  drama  {ifos).  Cp.  R.  BechMein,  rnJtii. 
■■d  IicUt  i*  itr  itUtckm  DidUmnt  ia  tfaaril  (Leipzig,  1B77). 

OOmHOEII.  a' town  of  Germany,  in  Ibe  Fiustlan  province 
ot  Hanover,  pleasantly  situated  at  the  west  loot  of  the  Kainberg 
<|]aa  ft.),  in  the  broad  and  fertile  valley  oi  Ibe  Lone,  67  m.  S. 
from  Hanover,  on  Ibe  railway  to  Casiel.  Pop.  (1875)  17,0:7, 
(1905)  34,ojo.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Leine  canal,  which  separates 
tbe  Alliladt  from  the  Neusladt  and  from  Match,  and  issurrounded 
by  Tampans,  which  are  planted  wilh  lime-trees  and  form  an 
agreeable  promenade.  The  s 
are  for  the  most  part  crooked 
are  ipacioualy  and  regularly 


1  of  St  Job 


witht» 


I  of  St  Jair 


■I4th 


»  ft.),  the  medieval  town  ball,  built 
century  and  restored  in  iSSo,  and  tbe  numerous  university 
building,  GOItingen  possesses  lew  tltuclurea  of  any  public 
Importance.  There  are  tsveral  thriving  indualries,  Including, 
besides  the  vacioiu  branches  of  the  publishing  (lade,  tbe  manu- 
facture of  doth  and  woollcnt  and  ol  matbemaljcal  and  olbet 

Tbe  university,  tbe  famous  Georgia  Augusta,  founded  by 
George  II.  in  i  7m  and  opened  in  17J7,  rapidly  attained  a  leading 
position,  and  in  iBij  lu  itudentt  numbered  1547.  Political 
dbtuibuxxs,  in  wbkh  both  (mfessois  and  slutknts  were  Im- 


plicated, lowered  the  attendance  to  We  In  tSu-  llie  eapuhfaa 
in  i8]7  of  the  famous  seven  profeHort — Dit  GHUnta  Sitioi — 
vis.  the  Cermanist,  Wilbelm  Ednard  Albtedit  (iSoo-iSTfih 
the  historian,  Friedrich  Chttstoph  Dahlmann  (1781-1860)1 
'  Ltaliti,  Georg  Heindcb  Augutt  EnraU  (i8o]-i87s)i 
irian.  Georg  (Sotlfried  Gervinus  (1305-1875);  Ibe 
physicist,  Withelm  Eduard  Weber  (i8o4-ig4i);and  the  philo- 
logists, the  brothers  Jacob  Ludwig  Karl  Grimm  (i;gs-iWj). 
nd  Wilhelm  Karl  Grimm  (1786-1859),—  for  prolciling  against 
he  tevDcatlon  by  King  Ernest  Augustus  of  Hanover  of  the 
iberal  conttitutioix  of  i8jj,  further  reduced  the  prosperity  of 
the  university.  The  events  of  1848,  on  the  olber  hand,  told 
somewhstin  ill  favour;  and,  since  tbe  annexation  of  Haoovn  in 
1866,  it  hat  been  careful^  fouered  by  Ibe  Pnissian  govimnient. 
In  1903  its  teaching  stall  numbeied  iJi  and  its  siudenit  isi». 
The  main  univeixity  building  lies  on  the  Wilhelmspltts,  and, 
adjoining,  is  the  famous  library  of  500,000  volt,  and  5300  MSS., 
the  richest  collection  of  modern  Uicraiute  in  Germaoy.  Tbtn 
is  a  good  chemical  laboraloiy  as  well  as  adequate  zoological, 
ethnographical  and  minerslogical  collections,  the  most  remark- 

anatomical  institute.  There  are  also  a  celebrated  observalory. 
long  under  the  direction  of  Wilhelm  KUnketfues  (1817-1884). 
a  boiinical  gatdeo,  an  agticultmal  institute  and  various  bo^ni^ 
all  connected  wilh  the  university.  Of  the  sdentifie  sodetiea 
the  most  noted  is  the  Koyil  Society  of  Scieno*  (KiiUflidH 
SttUua  da  WisHnsdalm)  founded  by  Albrechl  von  Haller, 
which  is  divided  in  to  three  classes,  the  physical,  the  mathematics 
and  tbe  historical-philological.  It  numbers  about  80  members 
and  publishes  the  well-known  Geaincitclu  fO^irU  Andttii, 
There  are  monuinenis  in  tbe  town  lo  the  malbematidans  K.  F. 
Gauss  and  W.  E.  Weber,  and  alu  to  tbe  poet  C.  A.  BQrger. 

The  earliest  mention  of  a  wUage  of  Coding  01  Gutingi  occurs 
in  documents  of  about  ojo  «.n.  The  place  received  municipal 
'  '  ■    '        .'     -^  "--    jy_  £jjom  ijnx  and  from 


.  146J  ii 


Gsitingen. 


It  of  tl 


r  house  of  Bru 


swick- 


tbe  lowns  01  ttw  Jlanseattc  L.eBgue.  .  In  1531  it  jtnned  tbe 
Reformation  movement,  and  in  tbe  foUowing  century  il  suSered 
considerably  in  Ibe  Thirty  Yeats'  War,  being  taken  by  TiUy 
in  1616,  after  a  siege  of  ij  days,  and  recaptured  by  the 
Saiona  in  1631.  After  a  cenlui?  of  decay,  it  was  anew  brought 
into  importance  by  the  establishment  of  its  university;  and  a 
marked  increase  in  iti  indutlrial  atid  commercial  prosperity 
has  again  laken  place  in  recent  years.  Towards  the  end  o(  tli 
iSth  century  G6tlingen  was  the  centre  of  a  society  of  young 
poetsof  the  SfwiMhHdlVimf  period  olGertnan  literature,  known 
as  the  ClUinin  DiMabuii  or  tfaiHtand  (see  GeiuaHv: 
Ii'frrrKiire). 

See  Freuidarir,  Caotmtf  im  Vtrtuiiniluit  and  Cifimarl  (Gaiiin. 
■ea.  1887);  the  CrllallSniiiic*  dir  Slail  CSUinrn.  editnl  by  G. 
Schmidt,  a  HaaetUait  and  G.  KiMncri  Ungci.  GnUnttn  t~l  dii 
•_ ...  ^....  .      „    ,        .,.-.,      jgjjj. 


uS^i 


;  and  Cminfrr  Proftii 


and  b.  Mejer.  XalterfucUdUlKikr  BlUtr  aui  CMintf  {iSSq). 

eOnum,  carl  WILKBLM  (I7q3-i86«),  German  classical 
scholar,  was  bom  at  Jens  on  the  igib  of  January  1745. 
He  studied  at  the  univeralka  of  Jena  and  Berlin,  Wok.  put 
in  ihe  war  against  France  in  1814,  and  finally  settled  down 
in  1811  as  professor  at  the  university  of  his  native  lown,  where 
be  continued  lo  reside  till  bit  dealh  oix  the  mlb  of  January 
lB6g,  In  his  early  yean  GSltling  devoted  himself  to  German 
literature,  and  published  twowotkson  Ibe  Nibelungen:  Oba  ias 
Grnhklaiklu  im  mhd<a,tnjiede  {1814}  and  AriMaii|«  uid 
Gibdiiiai  {1817).  The  greater  part  of  his  life,  however,  was 
devoted  to  the  study  of  classical  literniure,  especially  the  elucida- 
lion  of  Greek  authois.  Theconienisol  hisCeioMHeffe  .4Uiiiid- 
Jmgni  ui  itm  jUonuJini  AlUrlum  (1851-1863)  and  Opuscnla 
^cddmica  (published  in  i86q  after  his  death)  auRiciently  indicate 
the  varied  nature  of  his  studies.  He  edited  Ihc  Tix**  (gram~ 
matical  manual)  of  Theodosius  of  Alexandria  (181)),  Aristotle's 
Palilici  (1S14).  and  Eamamici  (183a]  and  Hesiod  (1831 ;  3rd  ed. 
by  J.  Flach,  1878).  Mention  may  also  be  made  ol  his  Attiamiimt 
Ltittfm  AcctKlda tritdiiulmSpraditUisi),ttiiMtgcdlntia  a 


GOTTSCHALK— GOTTSCHED 


279 


imaOer  work,  which  was  tranalatcd  Into  Bng^  (1831)  m  tho 
EUmenU  of  Greek  AceentnoHan;  and  of  hU  Correspondence  with 
Coeike  (published  x88o). 

See  menioira  by  C.  Nipperdey,  his  cbHesKoe  at  Jena  (1869),  G. 
Lochboix  (Staraard.  1876},  K.  Fischer  (preface  to  the  Oputcwla 
Acadtmim),  and  C.  Buman  in  AUgameime  aeuisdu  BioffafhUt  ix. 

QOtTKHALK  [Godescalus,  Gottescale],  (c.  808-^7?), 
German  theologian,  was  bora  near  Mains,  and  was  devoted 
{obiaims)  from  infancy  by  his  paxents,— his  £sther  was  a  Saxon, 
Count  Bern, — to  the  monastic  life.  He  was  trained  at  the 
monastery  of  Folda,  then  under  the  abbot  HnUsanus  Maurus,  and 
became  the  friend  of  Walafrid  Strabo  and  Loup  of  Ferxiires.  In 
June  829,  at  the  synod  ol  Mains,  on  the  pretext  that  he  had  been 
unduly  constrained  bx  lu*  abbot,  he  sou^^t  and  obtained  his 
liberty,  withdrew  first  to  Corbie,  where  he  met  Ratramnos,  and 
then  to  the  monastery  of  Orbais  in  the  diocese  of  Soissons. 
There  he  studied  St  Augustine,  with  the  result  that  he  became  an 
enthusiastic  believer  in  the  doctrine  of  absolute  predestination,  in 
one  point  going  beyond  his  master^Gottschalk  believing  in  a 
predestination  to  condemnation  as  well  as  in  a  predestination  to 
salvation,  while  Augustine  had  contented  himself  with  the 
doctrine  of  preterition  as  complementary  to  the  doctrine  of  dec- 
tion.  Between  83  s  and  840  Gottschalk  was  ordained  priest, 
without  the  knowledge  of  his  bishop,  by  Rigbold,  ekorepiseopus  of 
Reims.  Before  840,  deserting  his  monastery,  he  went  to  Italy, 
preached  there  his  doctrine  of  douUe  predestination,  and  entered 
into  relations  with  Notting,  bishop  of  Verona,  and  Eberhard, 
count  of  FriuIL  Driven  from  Italy  through  the  influence  of 
Hrabanus  Maurus,  now  archbishop  of  Mains,  who  wrote  two 
violent  letters  to  Notting  and  Eberhard,  he  travelled  through 
Dalmatia,  Pannonia  and  Norica,  but  continued  preaching  and 
writing.  In  October  848  he  presented  to  the  synod  at  Mains  a 
profession  of  faith  and  a  refutation  of  the  ideas  expressed  by 
Hrabanus  Maurus  in  his  letter  to  Notting.  He  was  convicted, 
however,  of  heresy,  beaten,  obliged  to  swesr  that  he  would  never 
again  enter  the  territory  of  Louis  the  German,  and  handed  over 
to  Hincmar,  archbishop  of  Reims,  who  sent  him  back  to  his 
monasteiy  at  Orbais.  The  next  year  at  a  provincial  council  at 
Qoieny,  presided  over  by  Charles  the  Bald,  he  attempted  to 
justify  his  ideas,  but  was  agsin  condemned  as  a  heretic  and 
disturixr  of  the  public  peace,  was  degraded  from  the  priesthood, 
whipped,  obliged  to  bum  his  declaration  of  faith,  and  shut  up  in 
the  monastery  of  Hautvilliera.  There  Hincmar  tried  again  to 
induce  him  to  retract.  Gottschalk  however  continued  to  defend 
his  doctrine,  writing  to  his  friends  and  to  the  most  eminent  theo- 
logians of  France  and  Germany.  A  great  controveisy  resulted. 
Prodentius,  bishop  of  Troyes,  Wenilo  of  Sens,  Ratramnus  of 
Corbie,  Loup  of  Ferri^res  and  Flonis  of  Lyons  wrote  in  his 
favour.  Hincmar  wrote  De  praedesiinatume  and  De  una  non 
Irina  deitaU  against  his  views,  but  gained  little  aid  from 
Johannes  Sootus  Erigena,  whom  he  had  oiled  in  as  an  authority. 
The  question  was  discussed  at  the  councils  of  Kiersy  (853),  of 
Valence  (855)  and  of  Savonni^res  (859).  Finally  the  pope 
Nicolas  I.  took  up  the  case,  and  summoned  Hincmar  to  the 
council  of  Mets  (863).  Hincmar  cither  could  not  or  would  not 
appear,  but  declared  that  Gottschalk  might  go  to  defend  himself 
before  the  pope.  Nothing  came  of  this,  however,  and  when 
Hincmar  learned  that  Gottschalk  had  fallen  ill,  he  forbade  him 
the  sacraments  or  burial  in  consecrated  ground  unless  he  would 
recanu  This  Gottschalk  refused  to  do.  He  died  on  the  30th  of 
October  between  866  and  870. 

Gottschalk  was  a  vigorous  snd  original  thinker,  but  also  of  a 

violent  temperament,  incapable  of  disdpline  or  moderation  in 

his  ideas  as  in  his  conduct.    He  was  less  an  innovator  than  a 

reactionary.    Of  bis  many  works  we  have  only  the  two  pro- 

fcssionB  of  faith  (cf.  Migne,  Patrologia  Latino,  cxxi.  c  347  et  seq.), 

axMl  some  poems,  edited  by  L.  Traube  in  Monumenta  Cermamiat 

kutorica:  PeSat  Laiini  aevi  Carolini  (t.  iii.  707-738).    Some 

frsgments  of  his  theological  treatises  have  been  preserved  in  the 

writings  of  Hincmar,  Erigena,  Ratramnus  and  Loup  of  Ferridres. 

From  the  17th  century,  when  the  Janaenists  exalted  Gottschalk. 
moch  has  been  written  on  him.    hfention  may  be  msde  of  two 
studies,  F.  PScavet.  "  Les  Discusskms  sur  la  liberty  au  temps  I 


de  Gottschalk,  de  Raban  Maur,  d*Hiocmar,  et  de  Jean  Scots'*  in 
Comptes  rendurie  Vacad.  des  sciences  morales  et  potiHgues  (Fsris, 
1896);  and  A.  Fieystedt,  "Studien  zu  Gottschalks  Leben  und 
L^re,**  in  ZoitsckriflfOr  KirchengesckickU  (X897),  vol.  xviiL 

QOnSGHALU  RUDOLF  VON  (X833-X909),  German  man  of 
letters,  was  bom  at  BresUu  on.  the  30th  of  September  X833,  the 
son  of  a  Prussian  artillery  officer.  He  received  his  oiriy  educa- 
tion at  the  g3rmnana  in  Mains  and  Coburg,  and  subsequently  at 
Rastenbuxg  in  East  Prussia.  In  1841  he  entered  the  univexsity 
of  KOnigsberg  as  a  student  of  law,  but,  in  consequence  of  his 
pronouiiced  liberal  opinions,  was  expelled.  The  academic 
authorities  at  BresUu  and  Leipcig  were  not  more  tolerant 
towards  the  young  fire-eater,  and  it  was  only  in  Berlin  that  he 
eventually  found  himself  free  to  prosecute  his  studies.  During 
this  period  of  unrest  he  issued  IJeder  der  Gegemwari  (x84a)  and 
ZonsmjlUckamge  (i843)^the  poeUcal  fxuiU  of  his  pdUtical 
enthusissm.  He  completed  his  itudies  in  Bexiin,  took  the  degree 
of  doctor  juris  in  KQnigsberg,  and  endeavoured  to  obtain  there  the 
vtnia  Ugofidi,  His  political  views  again  stood  in  the  way,  and 
forsaking  the  legal  career,  Gottschall  now  devoted  himself  entirely 
to  literature.  He  met  with  immediate  success,  and  beginning  as 
dramaturge  in  KSnigsberg  with  Der  BlindoMm  Akala  (1846)  and 
Lard  Byron  in  Italian  .(1847)  proceeded  to  Hamburg  where  he 
occupied  a  similar  position.  In  x8sa  he  married  Marie,  baroness 
von  Seherr-Thoss,  and  for  the  next  few  years  lived  in  Silesia. 
In  x86s  he  took  over  the  editorship  of  a  Posen  newspaper,  but  in 
1864  removed  to  Leipzig.  Gottschall  was  raised,  in  1877,  by  the 
king  of  Prussia  to  the  hereditaxy  nobility  with  the  prefix  "  von," 
having  been  previously  made  a  Geheimer  Hofral  by  the  grand  duke 
of  Weimar.  Down  to  1887  Gottschall  edited  the  Brockkaus'scke 
BldUerfUr  litterariscke  Unterhaliung  and  the  monthly  periodical 
Unsete  ZeU,    He  died  at  Leipzig  on  the  axst  of  March  1909. 

Gottschall's  prolific  literary  productions  cover  the  fields  of 

poetry,  novd-writixig  and  literary  criticism.    Among  his  volumes 

of  lyric  poetry  are  Sehastopol  (1856),  Janus  (1873),  Bunta  Blittan 

(X89X).  Among  his  epics,  Carh  Zona  (1854),  Maja  (1864),  deaUng 

with  an  episode  in  the  Indian  Mutiny,  and  Merlins  Wande- 

rungen  (1887).    The  comedy  Pitt  und  P&x  (1854) ,  first  produced 

on  the  stage  in  BresUu,  was  never  surpassed  by  the  other  Ughter 

pieces  of  the  author,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  Die  Welt 

das  Sckwindels  and  Der  Spion  ton  Rkeinsberg.     The  tragedies, 

MaMeppOf  Catkarina  Howard,  Amy  Robsart  and  Der  Cotse  ton 

Venedig,  were  very  successful;  and  the  historical  novels,  Im 

Banna  das  sckwonen  Adlers  (1875;  4th  ed.,  1884),  Dia  Erhsckaft 

das  Blutes  (x88i).  Die  TockterRilbeMaUsiifiSQ),  and  VerkUmmerte 

Existaman  (1893),  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of  popularity.    As  a 

critic  and  historian  of  Uterature  Gottschall  has  also  done  excellent 

work.    His  Die  dautscka  Natianaltiteralnr  das  19.  Jakrkunderts 

(1855;  7th  ed.,  i90x-x9oa),  and  Poetik  (x8s8;  6th  ed.,  1903) 

oonunand  the  respect  of  all  students  of  literature. 

GottschaU's  collected  DramaHscha  Werke  appeared  in  la  .vols,  in 
1880  (and  ed..  1884);  he  has  also,  in  recent  ycatrsj  published  many 
volumes  of  collected  essays  and  criticisms,  bee' bis  autobiography, 
Aus  mainar  Juiend  (1898). 

OOmCHSD,  JOHANlf  CHRUTOPH  (1700-1766),  German 
author  and  critic,  was  bom  on  the  and  of  February  1700,  at 
Judithenkirch  near  Kttnigsberg,  the  son  of  a  Luthersn  clergyman. 
He  studied  philosophy  and  history  at  the  university  of  his  native 
town,  but  immediately  on  taking  the  degree  of  Magister  in  1733, 
fled  to  Leipzig  in  order  to  evade  impressment  in  the  Prussian 
military  service.  Here  he  enjoyed  the  protection  of  J.  B. 
Mencke  (1674-1733),  who,  under  the  name  of  "  PhiUnder  von 
der  Linde,"  was  a  well-known  poet  and  also  president  of  the 
Deutsckabende  poetiscka  GesaUsckaft  in  Leipzig.  Of  this  society 
Gottsched  was  elected  "  Senior"  in  1736,  and  in  the  next  year 
reorganized  it  under  the  title  of  the  Daulscka  GeseUsckafl.  In 
Z730  he  was  appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  poetry,  and, 
in  X734,  ordinaiy  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the 
university.    He  died  at  Leipzig  on  the  i  ath  of  December  1 766. 

Gottsched's  chief  work  was  hts  Versnck  einar  kritiscken 
Dicktkusut  filr  dia  Denttckan  (1730),  the  first  systematic  treatise 
in  German  on  the  art  of  poetry  from  the  standpoint  of  Boileau. 
His  Au^HMicka  Redekunsi  (1728)  and  his  Crundlegung  ainar 


28o 


GOTZ— GOUDIMEL 


deutschen  Sprackkunst  (1748)  wer«  of  importance  for  the  develoi>- 
ment  of  German  style  and  the  purification  <^  the  language. 
He  wrote  several  plays,  of  which  Der  sterbende  Cato  (1732),  an 
adaptation  ci  Addison's  tragedy  and  a  French  play  on  the  same 
theme,  was  long  popular  on  the  stage.  In  his  Deuische  Sckau- 
bUkne  (6  vols.,  1740-1745),  which  contained  mainly  translations 
from  the  French,  he  provided  the  German  stage  with  a  flassiral 
repertory,  and  his  bibliogr^hy  of  the  German  drama,  Ndliger 
VofrcA  awr  GtsclnckU  der  deulscken  dramatiscken  DidUhmst 
(i7'57-X765),  is  still  valuable.  He  was  also  the  editor  kA  several 
journals  devoted  to  literary  criticism.  As  a  critic,  Gottsched 
insisted  on  German  literature  being  subordinated  to  the  laws 
of  French  classicism;  he  enunciated  rules  by  which  the  play- 
wright must  be  bound,  and  abolished  bombut  and  buffoonery 
from  the  serious  stage.  While  such  reforms  obviously  afforded 
a  healthy  corrective  to  the  extravagance  and  want  of  taste 
which  were  rampant  in  the  German  literature  of  the  time, 
Gottsched  went  too  far.  In  1740  he  came  into  conflict  with  the 
Swiss  writers  Johann  Jakob  Bodmer  {q.v.)  and  Johann  Jakob 
Brdtinger  (1701-1776),  "who,  under  the  influence  of  Addison 
and  contemporary  Italian  critics,  demanded  that  the  poetic 
ima^nation  should  not  be  hampered  by  artificial  rules;  they 
pointed  to  the  great  English  poets,  and  especially  to  Milton. 
Gottsched,  although  not  blind  to  the  beauties  of  the  English 
writers,  clung  the  more  tenaciously  to  his  principle  that  poetry 
must  be  the  product  of  rules,  and,  in  the  fierce  controversy 
which  for  a  time  raged  between  Leipzig  and  Zttrich,  he  was 
inevitably  defeated.  His  influence  speedily  declined,  and 
before  Ids  death  his  name  became  proverbial  for  pedantic 
folly. 

His  wife,  Luise  Addgunde  Victorie,  n6e  Kulmus  (17x3-1763), 
in  some  re^)ects  her  husband's  intellectual  superior,  was  an 
author  of  some  reputation.  She  wrote  several  popular  comedies, 
of  which  Das  Testament  is  the  best,  and  translated  the  Spectator 
(9  vols.,  X739-X743)>  Pope's  Rape  of  the  Loch  (1744)  and  other 
English  and  French  works.  After  her  death  her  husband  edited 
her  Sdmtliche  Heinere  Gedkhte  with  a  memoir  (X763). 

See  T.  W.  Danzel.  Gottsched  und  seine  Zeit  (Leipzig.  1848):  J. 
CrOger,  Gottsched,  Bodmer,  und  Breitinger  (with  selections  from  their 
writings)  (Stuttgart,  1884):  F.  Servaes.  Die  Poetih  GoUscheds  und 
der  Sckweiser  (Strasebun;,  1887):  E.  Wolff.  GoUscheds,  SteUung  im 
deutschen  BUdungsleben  {2  vols..  Kiel,  1895-1807).  and  G.  Waniek, 
Gottsched  und  die  deuische  Literalur  seiner  Zeit  (Leipzig,  1897).  On 
Frau  Gottsched,  see  P.  Schlenther,  Frau  Gottsched  und  die  burgerliche 
KomOdie  (Berlin,  x886). 

OOTZ,  johann  NIKOLAUS  (172X-X78X),  German  poet,  was 
born  at  Worms  on  the  9th  of  July  X72X.  He  studied  theology 
at  -Halle  (1739-1742),  where  he  became  intimate  with  the  poets 
Johann  W.  L.  Gleim  and  Johann  Peter  Uz,  acted  for  some  years 
as  military  chaplain,  and  afterwards  filled  various  other  ecclesi- 
astical offices.  He  died  at  Winterburg  on  the  4th  of  November 
X781.  The  writings  of  G5tz  consist  of  a  number  of  short  lyrics 
and  several  translations,  of  which  the  best  is  a  rendering  of 
Anacreon.  His  original  compositions  are  light,  lively  and 
sparkling,  and  are  animated  rather  by  French  wit  than  by 
German  depth  of  sentiment.  The  best  known  of  his  poems  is 
Die  liddcheninsdf  an  elegy  which  met  with  the  warm  approval 
of  Frederick  the  Great. 

Gdtz's  Vermischie  Gedichte  were  published  with  biography  by 
K.  W.  Ramler  (Mannheim,  1785;  new  cd..  1807),  and  a  collection  of 
his  poems,  dating  from  the  years  1745-1765,  has  been  edited  by 
C.  SchQddekopf  in  the  Deutsche  Lileraturaenkmale  des  18.  und  tg. 
Jakrhunderts  (1893).  See  also  Brieje  von  und  an  J.  N.  Gdtx,  edited 
by  C.  SchQddekopf  (1893). 

QOUACHB,  a  French  word  adapted  from  the  ItaL  guazso 
(probably  in  origin  connected  with  "  wash  "),  meaning  h'terally 
a  "  ford,"  but  used  also  for  a  method  of  painting  in  opaque 
water-colour.  The  colours  are  mixed  with  or  painted  in  a 
vehicle  of  gum  or  honey,  and  whereas  in  true  water-colours 
the  high  lights  are  obtained  by  leaving  blank  the  surface  of  the 
paper  or  other  material  used,  or  by  allowing  it  to  show  through 
a  translucent  wash  in  "  gouadie,"  these  are  obtained  by  white 
or  other  light  colour.  "  Gouadie  "  is  frequently  used  in  miniature 
painting. 


GOUDA  (or  Tek  Gouwe),  a  toWn  of  Holland,  in  the  province 
of  South  Holland,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Gouwe  at  its  coafluence 
with  the  Ysel,  and  a  junction  station  x  2}ra.  by  rail  N.E.  of  Rotter- 
dam. Pop.  (X900)  22.303.  Tramwajrs  connect  it  with  Bodegraven 
(5}m.  N.)  on  the  old  Rhine  and  with  Oudewater  (8  m.  E.)  on 
the  Ysel;  and  there  is  a  regular  steamboat  service  in  various 
directions,  Amsterdam  being  reached  by  the  canalized  Gouwe; 
Aar,  Dredit  and  Amstd.  The  town  of  Gouda  is  laid  out  in  a 
fiite  open  manner  and,  like  other  Dtitch  towns,  is  intersected  by 
numerous  canals.  On  its  outskirts  pleasant  walks  and  fine 
trees  have  replaced  the  old  fortifications.  The  Groole  Markt 
is  the  largest  market-square  in  Holland.  Among  the  numerous 
churches  bdonging  to  various  denominations,  the  first  {dace  must 
be  given  to  the  Groote  Kerk  of  St  John.  It  was  founded  in  X48s* 
but  rebuilt  after  afire  in  1552,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  dimensions 
(345  ft.  long  and  150  ft.  broad),  for  a  Urge  and  cdebrated  organ, 
and  a  splendid  series  of  over  forty  stained-^ass  windows  presented 
by  dties  and  princes  and  executed  by  various  wdi-known  artists, 
induding  the  brothers  Dirk  (d.£.i577)  and  Wouter  (d.  c.  1590) 
Crabeth,  between  the  years  X555  and  1603  (see  Exptatsaiion 
of  Ike  Famous  and  Renowned  Glass  Works,  fr'c,  Gouda,  1876, 
reprinted  from  an  older  vdume,  X7x8).  Other  noteworthy 
buildings  are  the  Gothic  town  hall,  founded  in  X449  and  rebuilt 
in  1690,  and  the  wcigh-house  built  by  Pieter  Post  of  Haarlem 
(1608-1669)  and  adorned  with  a  fine  relid  by  Barth.  Eggers 
(d.  c,  X690).  The  museum  oi  anticjUities  (.1874)  contains  an 
exquisite  chalice  of  the  year  1425  and  some  pictures  and  portraits 
by  Wouter  Crabeth  the  younger.  Com.  Ketel  (a  native  of  Gouda, 
1548-16x6)  and  Ferdinand  Bol  (i6i6-x68o).  Other  buildings 
are  the  orphanage,  the  hoq>ital,  a  house  of  correction  for  women 
and  a  music  hall. 

In  the  time  of  the  coimts  the  wealth  of  Gouda  was  mainly 
derived  from  brewing  and  doth-weaving;  but  at  a  later  date 
the  making  of  day  tobacco  pipes  became  the  staple  trade,  and, 
although  this  industry  has  somewhat  declined,  the  churchwarden 
pipes  of  Gouda  are  still  well  known  and  largdy  manufactured. 
In  winter-time  it  is  considered  a  feat  to  skate  hither  from 
Rotterdam  and  elsewhere  to  buy  such  a  pipe  and  return  with 
it  in  one's  mouth  without  its  bdng  broken.  The  mud  from  the 
Ysel  furnishes  the  material  for  large  brick-works  and  potteries; 
there  are  also  a  celebrated  manufactory  of  stearine  candles,  a 
yam  factory,  an  oil  refinery  and  cigar  factwies.  The  itansit 
and  shipping  trade  is  considerable,  and  as  oat  of  the  prindpal 
markets  of  South  Holland,  the  round,  white  Gouda  cheeses  are 
known  throughout  Europe.  Boskoop,  5  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Gouda 
on  the  Gouwe,  is  famous  for  its  nursery  gardens;  and  the  little 
old-world  town  of  Oudewater  as  the  birthplace  of  the  famous 
theologian  Arminius  in  1560.  The  town  haU  (1588)  of  Oudewater 
contains  a  picture  by  Dirk  Stoop  (d.  1686),  commemorating 
the  capture  of  the  town  by  the  Spaniards  in  1575  and  the 
subsequent  sack  and  massacre. 

OOUDIMSL,  CLAUDE,  musdal  composer  of  the  i6lh  century, 
was  bom  about  15x0.  The  French  and  the  Belgians  daim  him 
as  their  countryman.  In  all  probability  he  was  bom  at  Besanpon, 
for  in  his  edition  of  the  songs  of  Arcadelt.  as  well  as  in  the  mass 
of  1554,  he  calls  himself  "  nalif  de  Besan^on  "  and  '*  Claudius 
Godimcllus  Vesconlinus."  Thb  discountenances  the  theory  of 
Ambros  that  he  was  bom  at  Vaison  near  Avignon.  As  to  his 
early  education  we  know  little  or  nothing,  but  the  excellent 
Latin  in  which  some  of  his  letters  were  written  proves  that, 
in  addition  to  his  musical  knowledge,  he  also  acquired  a  good 
classical  training.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was  in  Rome  in  1540 
at  the  head  of  a  music-school,  and  that  besides  many  other 
celebrated  musicians,  Palestrina  was  amongst  his  pupils.  'About 
the  middle  of  the  century  he  seems  to  have  left  Rome  for  Paris, 
where,  in  conjunction  with  Jean  Duchemin,  he  published,  in 
Z555>  ^  musical  setting  of  Horace's  Odes.  Infinitdy  more 
important  is  another  collection  of  vocal  pieces,  a  setting  of  the 
celebrated  French  version  of  the  Psalms  by  Afarot  and  Bexa 
published  in  1565.  It  is  written  in  four  parts,  the  mdody  bdng 
assigned  to  the  tenor.  The  invention  of  the  melodies  was  long 
ascribed  to  Goudimd,  but  they  have  qow  definitely  hteq  proved 


GOUFFIER— GOUGH,  VISCOUNT 


281 


to  have  origiiuited  in  popular  tunes  found  in  the  collections  of 
this  period.  Some  of  these  tunes  are  still  used  by  the  French 
Protestant  Church.'  Others  were  adopted  by  the  German 
Lutherans,  a  German  uaitation  of  the  French  versions  of  the 
Psalms  in  the  same  metres  having  been  published  at  an  early 
date.  Although  the  French  version  of  the  Psalms  was  at  first 
used  by  Catholics  as  well  as  Protestants,  there  is  little  doubt 
that  Goudimcl  had  embraced  the  new  faith.  In  Michel  Brenet's 
Biographle  {Annalesfranc-cunioiseSt  Besancon,  2898,  P.  Jacquin) 
it  is  established  that  in  Metz,  where  he  was  living  in  1 565,  Goudi- 
mel  moved  in  Huguenot  circles,  and  even  figured  as  godfather 
to  the  daughter  of  the  president  of  Senneton.  Seven  years 
later  be  feO  a  victim  to  religious  fanaticism  during  the  St 
Bartholomew  massacres  at  Lyons  from  the  27th  to  the  28th  of 
August  1572,  his  death,  it  is  stated,  being  due  to  "  les  ennemis 
de  U  gloire  de  Dieu  et  quelques  mfchants  envieux  de  I'honneur 
qu'il  avait  acquis."  Masses  and  motets  belonging  to  his  Roman 
period  are  found  in  the  Vatican  library,  and  in  the  archives 
of  various  churches  in  Rome;  others  were  published.  Thus 
the  work  entitled  Missae  tres  a  ClaudioGoudimel  praestantissimo 
musico  auctore,  nunc  pHmum  in  lucem  tdilae,  contains  one  mass 
by  the  learned  editor  himself,  the  other  two  being  by  Claudius 
Sermisy  and  Jean  Maillard  respectively.  Another  collection. 
La  FUur  dtM  chansons  dcs  diux  plus  exceUens  musUicns  de  nostre 
temps,  consists  of  part  songs  by  Goudimel  and  Orlando  di  Lasso. 
Bumey  gives  in  his  history  a  motet  of  Goudimel's  Domine  quid 
muUiplkati  sunt, 

GOtJFFISB,  the  name  of  a  great  French  family,  which  owned 
the  estate  of  Bonnivet  in.Poitou  from  the  X4th  century.  Guil- 
lAUME  GoumsR,  chamberlain  to  Charles  VIL,  was  an  inveterate 
enemy  of  Jacques  Coe\ir,  obtaining  his  condemnation  and  after- 
wards receiving  his  property  (1491).  He  had  a  great  number 
of  children,  several  of  whom  played  a  part  in  history.  Aktus, 
seigneur  dcBoisy  (c.  i475-z52o)was entrusted  with  the  education 
of  the  young  coimt  of  Angoul^me  (Francis  I.),  and  on  the  acces- 
sion of  this  prince  to  the  throne  as  Francis  I.  became  grand 
roaster  of  the  royal  household,  playing  an  important  part  in  the 
government;  to  him  was  given  the  task  of  negotiating  the 
treaty  of  Noyon  in  1516;  and  shortly  before  his  death  the  king 
raised  the  estates  of  Roanne  and  Boisy  to  the  rank  of  a  duchy, 
that  of  Roannais,  in  his  favour.  Adrien  Gouffier  (d.  1523) 
was  bishop  of  Coutances  and  AIM,  and  grand  almoner  of  France. 
GnLLAUMC  GoOTriER,  seigneur  de  Bonnivet,  became  admiral 
of  France  (see  Bonnivet).  Claude  Gouftier,  son  of  Artus, 
was  created  comte  de  Maulevricr  (1542)  and  marquis  de  Boisy 
(1564). 

There  were  many  branches  of  this  family,  the  chief  of  them 
being  the  dukes  of  Roannais,  the  counts  of  Caravas,  the  lords  of 
Cr^vecoeur  and  of  Bonnivet,  the  marquises  of  Thots,  of  Brazeux, 
and  of  Espagny.  The  name  of  Goufiier  was  adopted  in  the  1 8th 
century  by  a  branch  of  the  house  of  Choiseul.  (M.  P.*) 

G0U6B»  IIARTIN  (c.  1360-1444),  surnamed  DE  Charpaicne, 
French  chancellor,  was  bom  at  Bourges  about  1360.  A  canon 
of  Bourges,  in  1402  he  became  treasurer  to  John,  duke  of  Berri, 
and  in  1406  bishop  of  Chartres.  He  was  arrested  by  John  the 
Fearlett,  duke  of  Burgundy,  with  the  hapless  Jean  de  Montaigu 
(1349-1409)  in  1409,  but  was  soon  released  and  then  banished. 
Attaching  himselif  to  the  dauphin  Louis,  duke  of  Guienne,  he 
became  his  chancellor,  the  king's  ambassador  in  Brittany,  and  a 
member  of  the  grand  council;  and  on  the  13th  of  May  1415, 
he  was  transferred  from  the  see  of  Chartres  to  that  of  Clermont- 
Ferrand.  In  May  14x8,  when  the  Burgundians  re-entered  Paris, 
be  only  escaped  death  at  their  hands  by  taking  refuge  in  the 
Bastille.  He  then  left  Paris,  but  only  to  fall  into  the  hands  of 
his  enemy,  the  duke  de  la  Tr6moille,  who  imprisoned  him  in 
the  castle  of  Sully.  Rescued  by  the  dauphin  Charles,  he  was 
appointed  chancellor  of  France  on  the  3rd  of  February  1422. 
Be  endeavoured  to  reconcile  Burgundy  and  France,  was  a  party 
to  the  selection  of  Arthur,  earl  of  Richmond,  as  constable,  but 
had  to  resign  his  chancellorship  in  favour  of  Rcgnault  of  Chartres ; 
first  from  March  25th  to  August  6th  1425,  and  again  when  La 
TrfowiUe  had  supplanted  Richmond.    After  the  fall  of  La 


Tr£moille  in  1433  he  returned  lo  court,  and  exercised  a  powerful 

influence  over  afifairs  of  state  almost  till  his  death,  which  took 

place  at  the  castle  of  Beaulieu  (Piiy-de-Ddme)  on  the  2$^^  ot 

26lh  of  November  1444. 

See  Hiver's  account  in  the  Mimoires  de  la  Seeiili  des  Anlimuires 
du  Centre^  p.  267  (1869) ;  and  the  NouetUe  Biograpkie  tJtniraU,  vd. 
xxi. 

OOUOB  (adopted  from  the  Fr.  gouges  derived  from  the  Late 
Lat.  gi^na  or  gulbia,  in  Ducange  gulbiuMt  an  implement  ad 
hortum  excolendutHt  and  also  instrumenium  Jerreum  in  usu 
fabrorum; .  according  to  the  New  English  Diciionary  the  word 
is  probably  of  Celtic  origin,  ;>//,  a  beak,  appearing  in  Welsh, 
and  gUht  a  boring  tool,  in  Cornish),  a  tool  of  the  chisel  type,  with 
a  curved  blade,  used  for  scooping  a  groove  or  channel  in  wood, 
stone,  &c.  (see  Tool).  A  similar  instrument  is  used  in  surgery 
for  operations  involving  the  excision  of  portions  of  bone. 
"  Gouge  "  is  also  used  as  the  name  of  a  bookbinder's  tool,  for 
impressing  a  curved  line  on  the  leather,  and  for  the  line  so  im- 
pressed. In  mining,  a  "  gouge  "  is  the  layer  of  soft  rock  or  earth 
sometimes  found  in  each  side'of  a  vein  of  coal  or  ore,  which  the 
miner  can  scoop  out  with  his  pick,  and  thus  attack  the  vein  more 
easily  from  the  side.  The  verb  "  to  gouge  "  is  used  in  the  sense 
of  scooping  or  forcing  out. 

GOUGH,  HUGH  GOUOH,  Visooumt  (1779-1869),  British 
field-marshal,  a  descendant  of  Frauds  Gough  who  was  made 
bishop  of  Limerick  in  1626,  was  bom  at  Woodstown,  Limerick, 
on  the  3rd  of  November  2779.  Having  obtained  a  commission 
in  the  army  in  August  1794,  he  served  with  the  78th  Highlanders 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  taking  part  in  the  capture  of  Cape 
Town  and  of  the  Dutch  fleet  in  Saldanha  Bay  in  1796.  His 
next  service  was  in  the  West  Indies,  where,  with  the  87th 
(Royal  Irish  Fusiliers),  he  shared  in  the  attack  on  Porto  Rico, 
the  capture  of  Surinam,  and  the  brigand  war  in  St  Lucia.  In 
1809  he  was  called  to  fake  part  in  the  Peninsular  War,  and, 
joining  the  army  under  Wellington,  commanded  his  regiment  as 
major  in  the  operations  before  Oporto,  by  which  the  town  was 
taken  from  the  French.  At  Talavera  he  was  severely  wounded, 
and  had  his  horse  shot  under  him.  For  his  conduct  on  this 
occasion  he  was  afterwards  promoted  lieutenant-colonel,  his 
commission,  on  the  recommendation  of  Wellington,  being 
antedated' from  the  day  of  the  duke's  despatch.  He  was  thus 
the  first  officer  who  ever  received  brevet  rank  for  services 
performed  in  the  field  at  the  head  of  a  regiment.  He  was  next 
engaged  at  the  battle  of  Barrosa,  at  which  his  regiment  captured 
a  French  eagle.  At  the  defence  of  Tarifa  the  post  of  danger 
was  assigned  to  him,  and  he  compelled  the  enemy  to  raise  the 
siege.  At  Vitoria,  where  Gough  again  distinguished  himself, 
his  regiment  captured  the  baton  of  Marshal  Jourdan.  He  was 
again  severely  wounded  at  Nivelle,  and  was  soon  after  created  a 
knight  of  St  Charles  by  the  king  of  Spain.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  he  returned  home  and  enjoyed  a  respite  of  some  years  from 
active  service.  He  next  took  command  of  a  regiment  stationed 
in  the  south  of  Ireland,  discharging  at  the  same  time  the  duties 
of  a  magistrate  during  a  period  of  agitation.  Gough  was  pro- 
moted major-general  in  1830.  Seven  years,  later  he  was  sent  to 
India  to  take  command  of  the  Mysore  division  of  the  army. 
But  not  long  after  his  arrival  in  India  the  difficulties  which  lad 
\o  the  first  Chinese  war  made  the  presence  of  an  energetic  general 
on  the  scene  indispensable,  and  Gough  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  China.  This  post  he  held  during 
all  the  operations  of  the  war;  and  by  his  great  achievements 
and  numerous  victories  in  the  face  of  immense  difficulties,  he 
at  length  enabled  the  English  plenipotentiary.  Sir  H.  Pottinger, 
to  dictate  peace  on  his  own  terms.  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
'treaty  of  Nanking  in  August  1842  the  British  forces  were  with- 
drawn; and  before  the  close  of  the  year  Gough,  who  had  been 
made  a  G.C.B.  in  the  previous  year  for  his  services  in  the  capture 
of  the  Canton  forts,  was  created  a  baronet.  In  August  1843  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  India, 
and  in  December  he  took  the  command  in  person  against  the 
Mahrattas,  and  defeated  them  at  Maharajpur,  capturing  more 
than  fifty  guns.    In  1845  occurred  the  rupture  with  the  Sikhs, 


282 


GOUGH,  J.  B.— GOUJON,  JEAN 


who  crossed  the  Sutlej  in  large  numbers,  and  Sir  Hugh  Gough 
conducted  the  operations  against  them,  being  well  supported 
by  Lord  Hardinge,  the  governor-general,  who  volunteoed  to 
serve  under  him.  Successes  in  the  hard-fought  battles  of 
Mudki  and  Ferozeshah  were  succeeded  by  the  victory  of 
Sobraon,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  Sikhs  sued  for  peace  at 
Lahore.  The  services  of  Sir  Hu|^  Gough  were  rewarded  by 
his  elevation  to  the  peerage  of  the  United  Kingdom  as  Baron 
Gough  (April  1846).  The  war  broke  out  again  in  1848,  and 
again  Lord  Gough  took  the  field;  but  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  ChillianwaUa  being  eqmvocal,  he  was  superseded  by  the 
home  authorities  in  favour  of  Sir  Charles  Napier;  before  the 
news  of  the  supersession  arrived  Lord  Gough  had  finally  crushed 
the  Sikhs  in  the  battle  of  Gujarat  (February  1849)*  His  tactics 
during  the  Sikh  wars  were  the  subject  of  an  embittered  contro- 
versy (see  Sum  Waes).  Lord  Gough  now  returned  to  En^Und, 
was  raised  to  a  viscountcy,  and  for  the  third  time  received  the 
thanks  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament  A  pension  of  £aooo  per 
annum  was  granted  to  him  by  parliament,  and  an  equal  pension 
by  the  East  India  Company.  He  did  not  again  see  active  service. 
In  1854  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  Royal  Horse  Guards, 
and  two  years  later  he  was  sent  to  the  Crimea  to  invest  Marshal 
P61i»ier  and  other  officers  with  the  insignia  of  the  Bath.  Honours 
were  multiplied  upon  him  during  his  latter  years.  He  was  made 
a  knight  of  St  Patrick,  being  )he  first  knight  of  the  order  who 
did  not  hold  an  Irish  peerage,  was  sworn  a  privy  councillor, 
was  named  a  G.C.S.I.,  and  in  November  x86a  was  made  fidd- 
marshal.  He  was  twice  married,  and  left  children  by  both  bis 
wives.    He  died  on  the  and  o(  March  1869. 

See  R.  S.  Rait.  Lord  Cough  (1903) ;  and  Sir  W.  Lee  Warner,  Lord 
DaUumsie  (1904). 

OOUOH.  JOHN  BARTHOLOMEW  (1817-1886),  American 
temperance  orator,  was  bom  at  Sandgate,  Kent,  England,  on 
the  asnd  of  August  181 7.  He  was  educated  by  his  mother, 
a  schoolmistress,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve  was  sent  to  the  United 
States  to  seek  his  fortune.  He  lived  for  two  years  with  family 
friends  on  a  farm  in  western  New  York,  and  then  entered  a 
book-bindery  in  New  York  City  to  learn  the  trade;  There  in 
1833  his.  mother  joined  him,  but  after  her  death  in  1835  he  fell 
in  with  dissolute  companions,  and  became  a  confirmed  drunkard. 
He  lost  his  position,  and  for  several  years  supported  himsdf 
as  a  ballad  singer  and  story-teller  in  the  cheap  theatres  and 
concert-halls  of  New  York  and  other  eastern  cities.  Even  this 
means  of  livelihood  was  being  closed  to  him,  when  in  Worcester, 
Massachusetts,  in  1842  he  was  induced  to  sign  a  temperance 
pledge.  After  several  lapses  and  a  terrific  struggle,  he  determined 
to  devote  his  life  to  lecturing  in  behalf  of  temperance  reform. 
Gifted  with  remarkable  powers  of  pathos  and  of  description, 
he  was  successful  from  the  start,  and  was  soon  known  and  sought 
after  throughout  the  entire  country,  his  appeals,  which  were 
directly  personal  and  emotional,  bdng  attended  with  extra- 
ordinary responses.  He  continued  his  work  until  the  end  of  his 
life,  made  several  tours  of  England,  where  his  American  success 
was  repeated,  and  died  at  his  work,  being  stricken  with  apoplexy 
on  the  lecture  platform  at  Frankford»  Pennsylvania,  where  he 
passed  away  two  days  later,  on  the  x8th  of  February  1886. 
He  published  an  AuUtbiography  (1846);  Orations  (1854);  Tern- 
pcrahce  Addresses  (1870);  Temperatue  Lectures  (1879);  and  Sun- 
light and  Shadow^  or  Cleanings  from  My  Life  Work  (1880). 

OOUGH,  RICHARD  (1735-1809),  English  antiquary,  was  bom 
in  London  on  the  axst  of  October  x  735.  His  father  was  a  wealthy 
M.P.  and  director  of  the  East  India  Company.  (k>ugh  was  a 
precocious  child,  and  at  twelve  had  translated  from  the  French 
a  history  of  the  Bible,  which  his  mother  printed  for  private 
circulation.  When  fifteen  he  translated  Abb£  Fleur/s  work  on 
the  Israelites;  and  at  sixteen  he  published  an  elaborate  work 
entitled  Atlas  Renovatus,  or  Ceography  modernised.  In  X752 
he  entered  Corpus  Christi  CoUe^,  Cambridge,  where  he  began 
his  work  on  British  topography,  published  in  1768.  Leaving 
Cambridge  in  1756,  he  began  a  series  of  antiquarian  excursions 
in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain.  In  1773  he  began  an  edition 
in  English  of  Camden's  Britannia,  which  appeared  in  1789. 


Meantime  he  published,  in  1786,  the  first  volume  of  his  splendid 
work,  the  Stpukkrol  Monuments  of  Great  Britain,  appltod  to 
itlustrate  the  history  of  families,  manners,  habits,  and  arts  at  the 
different  periods  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  the  Seventeenth 
Century,  This  volume,  which  contained  the  first  four  centuries, 
was  followed  in  r796  by  a  second  volume  containing  the  xsih 
century,  and  an  introduction  to  the  second  volume  appeared 
in  X  799.  Gough  was  chosen  a  fdlow  otthe  Society  of  Antiquaries 
of  London  in  1767,  and  from  177X  to  1791  he  was  its  director. 
He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1775.  He  died  at  Enfield  on  the  20th 
of  February  1809.  His  books  and  manuscripts  rdating  to 
Anglo-Saxon  and  northem  literature,  all  his  oAlections  in  the 
department  of  British  topography,  and  a  large  number  of  hb 
drawings  and  engravings  of  other  archaeological  Remains,  were 
bequeathed  to  the  imiversity  of  Oxford. 

Among  the  minor  works  of  Gough  are  An  Aeeount  of  the  Bedford 
MissalUta  MS.);  A  Calaloeue  of  the  Coins  of  Canute,  King  of 
Denmarh  (1777);  History  «/  Fleshy  in  Essex  (1803);  An  Account  of 
the  Coins  rftks  Sdeucidae,  Kints  ef  Syria  (1804) ;  and  *'  Hiatorv  of  the 
Society  ci  Antiquaries  of  London,"  prefixed  to  their  Arehaeelegia. 

GOUJET,  CLAUDS  PIBRRB  (X697-X767),  French  abb£  and 
litterateur,  was  bora  in  Paris  on  the  X9th  of  October  1697. 
He  studied  at  the  College  of  the  Jesuits,  and  at  the  Cdtlige 
Mazarin,  but  he  nevertheless  became  a  strong  J^nsenisL  In 
X705  he  assumed  the  ecclesiastical  Ibbit,  in  17x9  entered  the 
order  of  Oratorians,  and  soon  afterwards  was  named  duon 
of  St  Jacques  I'Hdpital.  On  account  of  his  extreme  Jansenist 
opinions  he  suffered  considerable  persecution  from  the  Jesuits, 
and  several  of  his  works  were  suf^nessed  at  their  instigation. 
In  his  latter  years  his  health  b^an  to  fail,  and  he  lost  his 
eyesight.  Poverty  compelled  him  to  sell  his  library,  a  sacrifice 
which  hastened  his  death,  which  took  place  at  Paris  on  the 
xst  of  February  1767. 

He  b  the  author  of  SuppUaunt  an  didionuatre  de  MorM  (1735). 
and  a  Nouoeau  SuppUment  to  a  subsequent  edition  of  the  work; 
he  collaborated  in  BiblioMque  franfatsOt  ou  hisloire  littiraire  de 
la  France  (18  vols.,  Paris.  1 740-1 759);  and  in  the  Vies  des  saints 
Vj  vols.,  1730);  he  also  wrote  Mtmmres  hisiorifues  et  litliraires  sur 
le  cdtkge  royal  de  France  (1758^;  Hisloire  des  Inquisitions  (Paris. 
I7^a);  and  supecvised  an  edition  of  Richelet's  Dictionnoire,  of 
which  he  has  also  given  an  abridgment.  He  helped  the  abb6  Fabre 
in  his  continuation  of  Fleury's  Hisloire  eccUsiasUque, 

See  Mimoires  hisL  etlilt.de  I'abU  Goujet  (1767). 

GOUJON,  JBAM  (c.  xsao-c.  1566),  French  sculptfir  of  the 
x6th  century.  Although  some  evidenoe  has  been  offered  in 
favour  of  the  date  1520  {Archiees  de  Fart  franqais,  in.  350), 
the  time  and  place  €i  his  birth  an  still  uncertain.  The 
first  mention  of  his  name  occurs  in  the  accounts  of  the  cfanrch 
of  St  Madou  at  Rouen  in  the  year  1540,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  was  employed  at  the  cathedral  of  the  same  town,  irtiere 
he  added  to  the  tomb  of  Cardixud  d'Amboise  a  statue  of  his 
nephew  Cveorges,  afterwards  removed,  and  possibly  carved 
portions  of  the  tomb  of  Louis  de  Bresi,  executed  some  time  after 
X545.  On  leaving  Rouen,  Goujon  was  emptoyed  by  Pierre 
Lescot,  the  celebrated  architect  of  the  Louvre,  on  the  restorations 
of  St-Germain  I'Auxerrois;  the  building  acoounu— some  of 
which  for  the  3rears  X542-1544  were  discovered  by  M.  de  Laborde 
on  a  piece  of  parchment  binding— specify  as  his  work,  iK>t  only 
the  carvings  of  the  pulpit  (Louvre),  but  also  a  Notre  Dame  de 
Pi6t6,  now  lost.  In  x 547  appeared  Martin's  French  translation 
of  Vitruvius,*the  illustrations  of  which  were  due,  the  translator 
tells  us  in  his  "  Dedication  to  the  King,"  to  Goujon,  "  naguercs 
architecte  de  Monseigneur  le  Coim6table,  et  maintenant  un  des 
vdtres."  We  leam  fxom  this  statement  ix>t  only  that  Goujon 
had  been  ti^en  into  the  royal  service  on  the  accession  of  Henry 
II.,  but  also  that  he  had  been  previously  employed  under  Bullant 
on  the  chAteau  of  £couen.  Between  1547  and  1549  he  was 
employed  in  the  decoration  of  the  Log^  ordered  from  Lescot 
for -the  entry  of  Henry  II.  into  Paris,  which  to<A  place  on  the 
x6th  <d  June  X549.  Lesoot's  edifice  was  reconstructed  at  the 
end  of  the  x8th  century  by  Bernard  Poyet  into  the  Fontaine 
des  Innocents,  this  being  a  conudenble  variation  of  the  origuul 
design.  At  the  Louvre,  Goujon,  under  the  direction  of  Lncot» 
executed  the  carviAgs  of  the  south-west  an^  of  the  court,  Ihe 


GOUJON,  J.  M.— <X)ULBURN,  H. 


283 


reliefs  of  the  Escalier  Henri  II.,  and  the  Tribune  des  Cariatidca, 
Im*  which  he  received  737  livres  on  the  5th  of  Sq>teniber  1550. 
Between  1548  and  1554  rose  the  ch&teau  d'Anet*  in  the  embel- 
hshment  of  which  Goujon  was  assodatod  with  PhUibert  Delorme 
in  the  service  €i  Diana  of  Poitiers.  Unfortunately  the  building 
accounts  of  Anet  have  disappeared,  but  Goujon  executed  a 
vast  number  oi  other  worics  of  equal  importance,  destroyed  or 
lost  in  the  great  Revolution.  In  2555  his  name  tippeaa  again 
in  the  Louvre  accounts,  and  continues  to  do  so  every  succeeding 
year  isp  to  156a,  when  all  trace  of  himns  lost.  In  the  course  of 
this  year  an  attempt  was  made  to  turn  out  of  the  royal  employ- 
ment all  those  who  were  suspected  of  Huguenot  tendencies. 
Goujon  has  always  been  claimed  as  aHeformer;  it  is  consequently 
possible  that  he  was  one  ct  the  victims  of  this  attack.  We  should 
therefore  probably  ascribe  the  work  attributed  to  him  in  the 
H6td  Carnavalet  {in  siiu),  together  with  much  dse  executed 
in  various  parts  of  Paris— but  now  dispersed  or  destroyed — 
to  a  period  intervening  between  the  date  of  his  dismissal  from 
the  Louvre  and  lus  d^th,  which  is  computed  to  have  taken 
l^ace  between  1564  and  2568,  probably  at  Bologna.  The 
researches  of  M.  Tomaso  Sandonnini  (see  GautU  des  Beaux  Arts, 
3*  p^riode,  vol.  xxxi.)  have  finally  disposed  of  the  supposition, 
long  entertained,  that  Goujon  died  during  the  St  Bartholomew 
massacre  in  157a. 

List  of  otUkeHtic  vorks  of  Jean  Goujon:  Two  marble  columns 
supporting  the  organ  of  the  church  of  St  Madou  (Rouen)  on 
right  and  left  of  porch  on  entering;  left-hand  gate  of  the  church 
of  St  Madou;  bas-reliefs  for  decoration  of  screen  of  St  Gcmain 
rAnxcrrois  (now  in  Louvre);  "  Victory  "  over  chimney-piece 
of  Salle  des  Gardes  at  £coucn;  altar  at  Chantilly;  illustrations 
for  Jean  Martin's  translation  of  Vitruvius;  bas-reliefs  and 
sculptural  decoration  of  Fontaine  des  Innocents;  bas-reliefs 
adorning  entrance  of  H6td  Carnavalet,  also  series  of  satyrs* 
heads  on  keystones  of  arcade  of  courtyard;  fountain  of  Diana 
from  Anet  (now  in  Louvre);  internal  decoration  of  cEapel  at 
Anet;  portico  of  Anet  (now  in  courtyard  of  £cole  des  Beaux 
Arts);  bust  of  Diane  de  Poictiers  (now  at  Versailles);  Tribune 
of  Caryatides  in  the  Louvre;  decoration  of  "  Escalier  Henri 
II.,  '*  Louvre;  odls  de  bocuf  and  decoration  of  Henri  II.  faCade, 
Louvre;  groups  for  pediments  of  facade  now  placed  over 
entrant  to  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  collections,  Louvre. 

Sec  A.  A.  Pottier,  (Etares  de  Goujon  (1844);  R^inald  Litter, 
Jea*  Goujon  (London,  1903). 

GOUJON.  JEAN  MARIE  CLAUDS  ALEXANDRE  (1766-1795), 
French  publicist  and  statesman,  was  bom  at  Bourg  on  the 
13th'  of  April  1766,  the  son  of  a  postmaster.  The  boy  went 
eariy  to  sea,  and  saw  fighting  when  he  was  twelve  years  old; 
in  1790  he  settled  at  Meudon,  and  began  to  make  good  his  lack 
of  education.  As  procureur-gin^ral-syndic  of  the  department 
of  Sdiie>«t-Oise,  in  Augiut,  1 79a,  he  had  to  supply  the  inhabitants 
with  food,  and  fulfiUnl  his  difficult  funaions  with  energy  and 
tact.  Ia  the  Convention,  which  be  entered  on  the  death  of 
Hirault  de  S^helles,  he  took  his  seat  on  the  benches  of  the 
Mountain.  He  conducted  a  mission  to  the  armies  of  the  Rhine 
and  the  Moselle  with  creditable  moderation,  and  was  a  con- 
sistent  advocate  of  peace  within  the  republic.  Nevertheless, 
be  was  a  determined  opponent  of  the  counter-revolution,  which 
he  denounced  in  the  Jacobin  Club  and  from  the  Mountain 
after  his  recall  to  Paris,  following  on  the  revolution  of  the  9th 
Thcrmidor  {Jniy  a7, 1794).  He  was  one  of  those  who  protested 
against  ihe  rrsdmission  of  Louvet  and  other  survivors  of  the 
Gtrondin  party  to  the  Convention  in  March  1795;  and,  when 
the  populace  invaded  the  legislature  on  the  ist  Prairial  (May 
90,  2795)  and  compelled  the  deputies  to  legislate  in  accordance 
with  their  desires,  he  proposed  the  immediate  establishment 
of  a  special  commission  which  should  assure  the  execution  of 
the  proposed  changes  and  assume  the  functions  of  the  various 
committees.  The  failure  of  the  insurrection  involved  the  fall 
ti  those  deputies  who  had  supported  the  demands  of  the  populace. 
Before  the  close  of  the  sitting,  (joujon,  with  Romme,  Duroi, 
Duqucsnoy,  Bourbotte,  Soubrany  and  others  were  put  under 
ancsC  by  their  colleagues,  and  on  thdr  way  to  the  ch&teau 


of  Taureaa  in  Brittaby  had  a  narrow  escape  from  a  mob  at 
Avranches.  They  were  brought  back  to  Paris  for  trial  before 
a  military  commission  on  the  17th  of  June,  and,  though  no  proof 
of  their  complidty  in  organising  the  insurrection  could  be  found — 
they  were,  in  fact,  with  the  exception  of  Cioujon  and  Bourbotte, 
Strangers  to  one  another — they  woe  condemned.  In  accordance 
with  a  pre-arranged  plan,  they  attempted  suidde  on  the  stair- 
case leading  from  the  court-room  with  a-  knife  which  (joujon 
had  successfully  concealed.  Romme,  Cioujon  and  Duquesnoy 
succeeded,  but  the  other  three  merdy  inflicted  wounds  which 
did  not  prevent  their  being  taken  immediatdy  to  the  guillotine. 
With  their  deaths  the  Mountain  ceased  to  exist  as  a  party. 

See  J.  Claretie,  Les  Demiers  Moutagnards,  kistoire  de  linsurrecUon 
de  Prairial  an  III  d^aprU  les  documents  (1S67):  Difense  du  repri- 
senlant  du  peuple  Goujon  (PariS|  no  date),  with  tne  letters  and  a  hymn 
written  by  Goujon  durink  his  imprisonment.  For  other  documents 
see  Maunce  Toumeux  (Paris,  1890,  vol.  i.,  pp.  43a-435). 

GOULBURN,  EDWARD  HETRIGK  (X818-X897),  English 
churchman,  son  of  Mr  Serjeant  Goulburn,  M.P.,  recorder  of 
Leicester,  and  nephew  of  the  Right  Hon.  Henry  Goulburn, 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  the  ministries  of  Sir  Robert  Ped 
and  the  duke  of  Wellington,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  xxth  of 
February  1818,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford.  In  1839  he  became  fellow  and  tutor  of  Merton,  and  in 
2841  and  2843  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest  respectivdy. 
For  some  years  he  held  the  living  of  Holywdl,  Oxford,  and  was 
chaplain  to  Samud  Wilberforce,  bishop  of  the  diocese.  In 
2849  he  succeeded  Tait  as  headmaster  of  Rugby,  but  in  2857 
he  resigned,  and  accepted  the  charge  <^  Quebec  Chapd,  Maryle- 
bdne.  In  2858  he  biecame  a  prebenda2y  of  St  Paul's,  and  in 
2859  vicar  of  St  John's,  Paddington.  In  2  866  he  was  made 
dean  of  Norwich,  and  in  that  office  exercised  a  long  and  marked 
influence  on  church  life.  A  strong  (Conservative  and  a  churchman 
of  traditional  orthodoxy,  he  was  a  keen  antagonist  of  "  higher 
criticism  "  and  of  all  forms  of  rationalism.  His  Tkougkts  on 
Personal  Religion  (286a)  and  Tke  Pursuit  of  Holiness  were 
well  received;  and  he  wrote  the  Life  (289a)  of  his  friend  Dean 
Burgon,  with  whose-  doctrinal  views  he  was  substantially  in 
agreement.  He  resigned  the  deanery  in  2889,  and  died  at 
Tunbridge  Wells  on  the  3rd  of  May  2897. 

See  Life  by  B.  Compton  (1899). 

GOULBURN,  HENRY  (2784-2856),  EngHsh  statesman,  was 
bom  in  London  on  the  29th  of  March  2784  and  was  educated  at 
Trinity  C>>llege,  Cambridge.  In  2808  he  became  member  of 
parliament  for  Honham;  in  2810  he  was  appointed  under- 
secretary for  home  affairs  and  two  and  a  half  years  later  he  was 
made  under-secretary  for  war  and  the  colonies.  Still  retaining 
office  in  the  Toiry  government  he  became  a  privy  councillor  in 
28a  2,  and  just  afterwards  was  appointed  chief  secretary  to  the 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  a  position  which  he  hdd  until  April 
2837.  Here  although  frequently  denounced  aS  an  Orangeman, 
his  period  of  office  was  on  the  whole  a  succeissful  one,  and  in 
28a3  he  managed  to  pass  the  Irish  Tithe  (Composition  Bill.  In 
January  x8a8  he  was  made  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  under 
the  duke  of  Wellington;  like  his  leader  he  disliked  Roman 
Catholic  emancipation,  which  he  voted  against  in  28a8.  In  the 
domain  of  finance  Cioulbura's  chief  achievements  were  to  reduce 
the  rate  of  interest  on  part  of  the  national  debt,  and  to  allow 
any  one  to  sell  beer  upon  payment  of  a  small  annual  fee,  a  com« 
plete  change  of  policy  with  regard  to  the  drink  traffic  Leaving 
office  with  Wellington  in  November  2830,  (joulbum  was  home 
secretary  under  Sir  Robert  Peel  for  four  months  in  1835,  and 
'  when  this  statesnum  returned  to  office  in  September  2841  he 
became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  for  the  second  time.  Although 
Peel  himself  did  some  of  the  chancellor's  work,  (k>ulburn  was 
responsible  for  a  further  reduction  in  the  rate  of  interest  on  the 
national  debt,  and  he  aided  his  chief  in  the  struggle  which  ended 
in  the  repeal  of  the  com  laws.  With  his  colleagues  he  left  office 
in  June  1846.  After  representing  Horsham  in  the  House  of 
Commons  for  over  four  years  Goulburn  was  succcssivdy  member 
for  St  Germans,  for  West  Looe,  and  for  the  dty  of  Armagh.  In 
May  1832  he  was  dected  for  Cambridge  University,  and  he 
retained  this  seat  until  his  death  on  the  rath  of  January  2856 


284 


GOULBURN— GOULD,  JAY 


at  Betchworth  House,  Dotking.  Goulburn  was  one  of  Peel's 
firmest  supporters  and  most  intimate  friends.  His  eldest  son, 
Henry  (1813-1843),  was  senior  dasuc  and  second  wrangler 
at  Cambridge  in  1835. 

See  S.  Walpole,  History  of  England  (i878*x886). 

QOULBURN.  a  city  of  Argyle  county,  New  South  Wales, 
Australia,  134  m.  S.W.  of  Sydney  by  the  Great  Southern  railway. 
Pop.  (1901)  xo,6i8.  -  It  lies  in  a  productive  agricultural  district, 
at  an  altitude  of  2129  ft.,  and  is  a  place  of  great  importance, 
being  the  chief  depot  of  the  inland  trade  of  the  southern  part 
of  the  state.  There  are  Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic  cathedrals. 
Manufactures  of  boots  and  shoes,  fiour  and  beer,  and  tanning 
are  important.  Hie  municipality  was  created  in  2859;  and 
Goulburn  became  a  city  in  1864. 

GOULD,  AUGUSTUS  ADDISON  (1805-1866),  American 
conchologist,  was  bom  at  New  Ipswich,  New  Hampshire,  on  the 
33rd  of  AprU  1805,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1835,  and 
took  hi»  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  in  1830.  Thrown  from 
boyhood  on  his  own  exertions,  it  was  only  by  industry,  per- 
severance and  self-denial  that  he  obtained  Uie  means  to  pursue 
his  studies.  Establishing  himself  in  Boston,  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  practice  of  medicine,  and  finally  rose  to  high  professional 
rank  and  social  position.  He  became  president  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Medical  Society,  and  was  employed  in  editing  the  vital 
statistics  of  the  state.  As  a  conchologist  his  reputation  is  world- 
wide, and  he  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  science  in  America. 
His  writings  fill  many  pages  of  the  publications  of  the  Boston 
Society  of  Natural  History  (see  voL  zi.  p.  197  for  a  list)  and 
other  periodicak.  He  published  with  L.  Agassiz  the  Principles 
of  Zoology  (and  ed.  1851);  he  edited  the  Terrestrial  and  Air- 
breathing  MMusks  (1851-1855)  of  Amos  Binney  (1803-1847);  he 
translated  Lamarck's  Genera  of  Shells.  The  two  most  important 
monuments  to  his  scientific  work,  however,  are  MoUusca  and 
Shells  (vol.  xii.,  1852)  of  the  United  States  exploring  expedition 
(1838-1842)  under  Lieutenant  CharlesWilkes(i833),  published  by 
the  government,  and  the  Report  on  the  Jntertebrata  published  by 
order  of  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  in  1841.  A  second 
edition  of  the  latter  work  was  authorized  in  1865,  and  published 
in  1870  after  the  author's  death,  which  took  place  at  Boston 
on  the  X5th  of  September  1866.  Gould  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  all  the  prominent  American  scientific  societies,  and 
of  many  of  those  of  Europe,  including  the  London  Royal  Society. 

GOULD.  BENJAMIN  APTHORP  (1824-1896),  American 
astronomer,  a  son  of  Benjamin  Apthorp  Gould  (1787-1859), 
principal  of  the  Boston  Latin  school,  was  bom  at  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  37th  of  September  1824.  Having  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1844,  he  studied  mathematics  and  as- 
tronomy under  C.  F.  Gauss  at  G5ttingen,  and  returned  to 
America  in  1848.  From  1852  to  1867  he  was  in  charge  of  the 
longitude  department  of  the  United  States  coast  survey;  he 
developed  and  organized  the  service,  was  one  of  the  first  to 
determine  longitudes  by  telegraphic  means,  and  employed  the 
Atlantic  cable  in  x866  to  establish  longitude-relations  between 
Europe-  and  America.  The  Astronomicai  Journal  was  founded 
by  Gould  in  1849;  and  its  publication,  suspended  in  1861, 
was  resumed  by  him  in  1885.  From  1855  to  1859  he  acted  as 
director  of  the  Dudley  observatory  at  Albany,  New  York; 
and  published  in  1859  a  discussion  of  the  places  and  proper 
motions  of  circumpolar  stars  to  be  used  as  standards  by  the 
United  States  coast  survey.  Appointed  in  1862  actuary  to 
the  United  States  sanitary  commission,  he  issued  in  1869  an 
important  volume  of  Military  and  Anthropdogical  Statistics. 
He  fitted  up  in  1864  a  private  observatoiy  at  Cambridge,  Mass.; 
but  undertook  in  x868,  on  behalf  of  the  Aigentine  republic, 
to  organize  a  national  observatory  at  Cordoba;  began  to  observe 
there  with  four  assistants  in  1870,  and  completed  in  1874  his 
Uranometria  ArgerUina  (published  1879)  for  which  be  received 
in  1883  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society. 
This  was  followed  by  a  zone-catalogue  of  73,160  stars  (1884),  and 
a  general  catalogue  (1885)  compiled  from  meridian  observations 
of  32,448  stars.  Gould's  measurements  of  L.  M.  Rutherfurd's 
photographs  of  the  Pleiades  in  1866  entitle  him  to  rank  as  a 


pioneer  in  the  use  of  the  camera  as  an  instrument  of  prectsiott; 
and  he  secured  at  Cordoba  1400  negatives  of  soutton  star- 
clusters,  the  reduction  of  whidi  occupied  the  closing  years  of 
his  life.  He  returned  in  1885  to  his  home  at  Cambridge,  wfaeic 
he  died  <»i  the  36th  of  November  1896. 

See  AOronomicai  Journal,  "fXo,  589;  Ohservaloryt  zz.  70  (same 
notice  abridged);  Science  (Dec.  18,  1896,  S.  C.  Chandler);  AOro- 
physical  Journal,  v.  So;  Monthly  Notices  Roy,  AOr,  Society,  IvxL 

2X8 

GOULP,  SIR  PRANCIS  CARRUTHERS  (1844-  )>  English 
caricaturist  and  politician,'  was  bom  in  Barnstaple  .on  the  2nd 
of  December  1844.  Although  in  early  youth  he  showed  great 
love  of  drawihg,  he  began  life  in  a  bank  and  then  joined  the 
London  Stock**  Exchange,  vhere  he  constantly  sketched  the 
members  and  illustrated  important  events  in  the  financial 
world;  many  of  these  drawings  were  reproduced  by  lithography 
and  published  for  private  circulation.  In  1879  he  began  the 
regular  illustration  of  the  Christmas  numbers  of  Truihf  and  in 
1887  he  became  a  contributor  to  the  Pall  Mall  Caulie,  trans- 
ferring his  allegiance  to  the  Westminster  Gaxetie  on  its  foundation 
and  subsequently  acting  as  assistant  editor.  Among  his  inde- 
pendent publications  are  Who  hilled  Cock  Robin  f  {iSgf),  TaUst 
told  in  the  Zoo  (1900),  two  volumes  of  Froissarl*s  ifodem 
Chronicles,  told  and  pictured  by  P.  C.  Could  (1903  and  2903), 
and  Picture  PalUics — a  periodical  reprint  of  his  WeUwhester 
Gazette  cartoons,  one  of  the  ^ost  noteworthy  implements  <tf 
political  warfare  in  the  armoury  of  the  Liberal  party.  Frequently 
grafting  his  ideas  on  to  subjects  taken  freely  from  Uncle  Remus, 
Alice  in  Wonderlapd,  and  the  works  of  Dickens  and  Shakespeare, 
Sir  F.  C.  Gould  used  these  literary  vehicles  with  extraordinary 
dexterity  and  point,  but  with  a  satire  that  was  not  unkind  and 
with  a  vigour  from  which  bitterness,  vimlcnce  and  cynicism 
were  notably  absent.    He  wm  knighted  in  2906. 

GOULD,  JAY  (1836-1893),  American  financier,  was  bom  in 
Roxbury,  Delaware  county,  New  Yoric,  on  the  37th  of  May  2836. 
He.  was  brought  up  on  his  father's  farm,  studied  at  Hobart 
Academy,  and  though  he  left  school  in  his  sixteenth  year,  devotcsd 
himself  assiduously  thoeafter  to  private  study,  chiefly  of  mathe- 
matics and  surveying,  at  the.  same  time  keeping  books  for  a 
blacksmith  for  his  board.  For  a  short  time  be  worthed  for  his 
father  in  the  hardware  business;  in  2853-1856  he  worked  as  a 
surveyor  in  preparing  maps  of  Ulster,  Albany  and  Ddaware 
counties  in  New  York,  of  Lake  and  Geauga  counties  in  (%io, 
and  of  Oakland  county  in  Michigan,  and  of  a  projected 
railway  line  between  Newburgh  and  Syracuse,  N.Y.  An  ardent* 
anti-renter  in  his  boyhood  and  youth,  he  wrote  A  history  of 
Delaware  County  and  the  Border  Wars  of  New  York,  containing 
a  Sketch  of  the  Early  Settlements  intke  County,  and  A  History 
of  the  Late  Anti-Rent  Difficulties  in  Ddaware  (Roxbuxy,  1856). 
He  then  engaged  in  the  lumber  and  tanning  business  in  western 
New  York,  and  in  banking  at  Stroudsburg,  Pennsylvania.  In 
1863  he  married  Miss  Helen  Day  Miller,  and  through  her  father, 
Daniel  S.  Miller,  he  was  appointed  manager  of  the  Rensselaer 
&  Saratoga  railway,  which  he  bought  up  when  it  was  in  a  very 
bad  condition,  and  skilfully  reorganized;  in  the  same  way  he 
bought  and  reorganized  the  Rutland  &  Washington  railway, 
from  which  he  ultimately  realized  a  large  profit.  In  1859  he 
removed  to  New  Yoric  City,  where  he  became  a  broker  in  railway 
stocks,  and  in  1868  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Erie  railway,  of 
which  by  shrewd  strategy  he  and  James  Fisk,  Jr.(q.v.),  had  gained 
control  in  July  of  that.  year.  The  management  of  the  road  under 
his  control,  and  especially  the  sale  of  $5,000,000  of  fraudulent 
stock  in  1868-1870,  led  to  litigation  begun  by  En^ish  bond- 
holders, and  Gould  was  forced  out  of  the  company  in  March 
1873  and  compelled  to  restore  securities  valued  at  about 
$7,500,000.  It  was  during  his  control  of  the  Erie  that  he  and 
Fisk  entered  into  a  league  with  the  Tweed  Ring,  they  admitted 
Tweed  to  the  directorate  of  the  Erie,  and  Tweed  in  turn  arranged 
favourable  legislation  for  them  at  Albany.  With  Tweed,  Gould 
was  cartooned  by  Nast  in  1869.  In  October  1871  Gould  was  the 
chief  bondsman  of  Twee^  when  the  latter  was  held  in  $1^000,000 
baiL    With  Fisk  in  August  1869  he  began  to  buy  gold  in  a  daring 


GOUNOD 


28s 


attempt  to  "  corner  "  the  market,  bis  hop>e  being  that,  witb  the 
advance  in  price  of  gold,  wheat  would  advance  to  such  a  price 
that  western  farmers  would  sell,  and  there  would  be  a  consequent 
great  movement  of  breadstuffs  from  West  to  East,  which  would 
result  in  increased  freight  business  for  the  Erie  road.  His 
speculations  in  gold,  during  which  he  attempted  through  President 
Grant's  brother-in-law,  A.  H.  Corbin,  to  influence  the  president 
and  bis  secretary  General  Horace  Porter,  culminated  in  the  panic 
of  *'  Black  Friday,"  on  the  24th  of  September  1869,  when  the 
price  of  gold  fell  from  162  to  135. 

Gould  gained  control  of  the  Union  Pacific,  from  which  in 
1883  he  withdrew  after  realizing  a  large  profit.  Buying  up  the 
stock  of  the  Missouri  Pacific  he  built  up,  by  means  of  consolida- 
tiona,  reorganisations,  and  the  construction  of  branch  lines, 
the  "  GouM  System  "  of  railways  in  the  south-western  states. 
In  x88o  he  was  in  virtual  control  of  10,000  miles  of  railway,  about 
one-ninth  of  the  railway  mileage  of  the  United  States  at  that 
time.  Besides,  he  obtained  a  controlling  interest  in  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Company,  and  after  188 1  in  the  elevated 
railwtys  in  New  York  City,  and  was  intimately  connected  with 
many  of  the  largest  raUway  financial  operations  in  the  United 
States  for  the  twenty  years  following  x  868.  He  died  of  consump- 
tion and  of  mental  strain  on  the  and  of  December  1891,  his 
fortune  at  that  time  being  estimated  at  $72,000,000;  all  of 
this  he  left  to  his  own  family. 

His  eldest  son,  George  Jay  Gould  (b.  1864),  was  prominent 
also  as  an  owner  and  manager  of  railways,  and  became  president 
of  the  Little  Rock  &  Fort  Smith  railway  (x888),  the  St  Louis, 
Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  railway  (1893),  the  International 
8c  Great  Northern  railway  (1893),  the  Missouri  Pacific  railway 
(1893),  the  Texas  ft  Pacific  railway  (1893),  and  the  Manhattan 
Railway  Company  (189a);  he  was  also  vice-president  and 
director  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company.  It  was 
under  his  control  that  the  Wabash  system  became  transconti- 
nental and  secured  an  Atlantic  port  at  Baltimore;  and  it  was 
be  who  brought  about  a  friendly  alliance  between  the  Gould 
and  the  Rockefeller  interests. 

The  eldest  daughter,  Helen  Miller  Goxsw  (b.  x868),  became 
widely  known  as  a  philanthropist,  and  particularly  for  her 
generous  gifts  to  American  army  hospitals  in  the  war  with  Spain 
in  1898  and  for  her  many  contributions  to  New  Yoik  University, 
to  which  she  gave  $350,000  for  a  library  in  1895  &°cl  $100,000 
for  a  Hafl  of  Fame  in  1900. 

QOUirOD,  CHARLES  PRAN^IS  (x8ifr-i893),  French  com- 
poser, was  bom  in  Paris  on  the  X7th  of  June  x8i8,  the  son  of 
F.  L.  Gounod,  a  talented  painter.  He  entered  the  Paris  Con- 
servatmre  in  1836,  studied  under  Reicha,  Hal^vy  and  Lesueur, 
and  won  the  "  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  "  in  1839.  While  residing 
in  the  Eternal  Gty  he  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  study 
of  sacred  music,  notably  to  the  works  of  Palestrina  and  Bach. 
In  X843  ^  ^ct  to  Vieniu,  where  a  **  requiem  "  of  his  composi- 
tion was  performed.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he  tried  in  vain  to 
find  a  publisher  for  some  songs  he  had  written  in  Rome.  Having 
become  wgazust  to  the  chapel  of  the  "  Mi^ons  £trangdres," 
be  turned  his  thoughts  and  mind  to  religious  music.  At  that 
time  be  even  contemplated  the  idea  of  entering  into  holy 
orders.  His  thoughts  were,  however,  turned  to  more  mundane 
matters  when,  through  the  intervention  of  Madame  Viardot, 
the  celebrated  singer,  he  received  a  commission  to  compose  an 
opera  on  a  text  l^  £mile  Augier  for  the  Acad£mie  Nationale 
de  Musique.  Sapho,  the  work  in  question,  was  produced  in 
iSsr,  and  if  its  success  was  not  very  great,  it  at  least  sufficed  to 
bring  the  composer 's  name  to  the  fore.  Some  critics  appeared 
to  consider  this  work  as  evidence  of  a  fresh  departure  in  the 
style  of  dramatic  music,  and  Adolphe  Adam,  the  composer, 
who  was  also  a  musical  critic,  attributed  to  Gounod  the  wish 
to  revive  the  system  of  musical  declamation  invented  by  Gluck. 
The  fact  was  that  Sapko  differed  in  some  respects  from  the 
operatic  works  of  the  period,  and  was  to  a  certain  extent  in 
advance  of  the  times.  When  it  was  revived  at  the  Paris  Op^ 
hi  X884,  several  additions  were  made  by  the  composer  to  the 
original  score,  not  altogether  to  its  advantage,  and  Sopho  once 


more  failed  to  attract  the  public.  Gounod's  second  dramatic 
attempt  was  again  in  connexion  with  a  classical  subject,  and 
consisted  in  some  choruses  written  for  Ulysse,  a  tragedy  by 
Ponsard,  played  at  the  Th6&tre  Francais  in  1853,  when  the 
orchestra  was  conducted  by  Offenbach.  The  composer's  next 
opera.  La  Nonne  sanglanU,  given  at  the  Paris  Op^ra  in  1854, 
was  a  failure. 

Goethe's  Faust  had  for  years  exercised  a  strong  fascination 
over  Gounod,  and  he  at  last  determined  to  turn  it  to  operatic 
account.  The  performance  at  a  Paris  theatre  of  a  drama  on 
the  same  subject  delayed  the  production  of  his  opera  for  a  timei 
In  the  meanwhile  he  wrote  in  a  few  months  the  music  for  an 
operatic  version  of  Moliire's  comedy,  Le  Midecin  malgri  luii 
which  was  produced  at  the  Th^&tre  Lyriquc  in  1858.  Berlioz  well 
described  this  charming  little  work  when  he  wrote  of  it, "  Every- 
thing is  pretty,  piquant,  fluent,  in  this '  op£ra  comique  ';  there  is 
nothing  superfluous  and  nothing  wanting."  The  first  perform- 
ance of  Faust  took  place  at  the  Th£&tre  Lyrique  on  the  X9th 
of  March  1859.  Goethe's  masterpiece  had  already  been  utilized 
for  operatic  purposes  by  various  composers,  the  most  celebrated 
of  whom  was  Spohr.  The  subject  had  also  inspired  Schumann. 
Berlioz,  Liszt,  Wagner,  to  mention  only  a  few,  and  the  enormous 
success  of  Gounod's  opera  did  not  deter  Boito  from  writing  hi^ 
Mefistofele.  Faust  is  without  doubt  the  most  popular  Frencl^ 
opera  of  the  second  half  of  the  19th  century.  Itssuccess  hasbeei^ 
universal,  and  nowhere  has  it  achieved  greater  vogue  than  itf 
the  land  of  Goethe.  For  years  it  remained  the  recognized  type 
of  modem  French  opera.  At  the  time  of  its  productipn  in  Paris! 
it  was  scarcely  appreciated  according  to  its  merits.  Its  style' 
was  too  novel,  and  its  luscious  harmonies  did  not  altogethc^ 
suit  the  palates  of  those  dilettanti  who  still  looked  upon  RossinE 
as  the  incaniation  of  music.  Times  have  indeed  changed,  ana 
French  composers  have  followed  the^road  opened  by  Gounod,' 
and  have  further  developed  the  form  of  the  lyrical  drama,^ 
adopting  the  theories  of.  Wagner  in  a  manner  suitable  to  thcif 
national  temperament.  Although  in  its  ori^al  version  FausH. 
contained  spoken  dialogue,  and  was  divided  into  set  pieced' 
according  to  custom,  yet  it  differed  greatly  from  the  operas  ot 
the  past.  Gounod  had  not  studied  the  works  of  German  mastcri. 
such  as  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann  in  vain,  and  althouga 
his  own  st^e  is  eminently  Gallic,  yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
much  of  its  charm  emanates  from  a  certain  poetic  sentimentality^ 
which  seems  to  have  a  Teutonic  origin.  Certainly  no  musi(^ 
such  as  his  had  previously  been  produced  by  any  French  com-' 
poser.  Auber  was  a  gay  triflcr,  scattering  his  bright  effusionft^ 
with  absolute  insauciancef  teeming  with  melodious  ideas,  but' 
lacking  depth.  Beriioz,  a  musical  Titan,  wrestled  against  fate 
with  a  superhuman  energy,  and,  Jove-like,  subjugated  his 
hearers  with  his  thunderbolts.  It  was,  however,  reserved  foi^ 
Gounod  to  introduce  la  note  tendrCt  to  sing  the  tender  passion, 
in  accents  soft  and  languorous.  The  musical  language  em-' 
ployed  in  Faust  was  new  and  fascinating,  and  it  was  soon  to  be^ 
adopted  by  many  other  French  composers,  certain  of  its  idioml' 
thereby  becoming  hackneyed.  Gounod's  opera  was  given  i^| 
London  in  1863,  when  its  success,  at  first  doubtful,  became 
enormous,  and  it  was  heard  concurrently  at  Covent  Gardefi' 
and  Her  Majesty's  theatres.  Since  then  it  has  never  lost  itj( 
popularity. 

Although  the  success  of  Faust  in  Paris  was  at  first  not 
great  as  might  have  been  expected,  yet  it.  gradually  increas 
and  set  the  seal  on  Gounod's  fame.  The  fortunate  compose, 
now  experienced  no  difficulty  in  finding  an  outlet  for  his  works, 
and  the  succeeding  decade  is  a  specially  important  one  in  hi^ 
career.  The  opera  from  his  pen  which  came  after  Faust  wa^^ 
PhiUman  et  Baucis^  a  setting  of  the  mythological  tale  in  which 
the  composer  followed  the  traditions  of  the  Op^ra  Comique^ 
employing  spoken  dialogue,  while  not  abdicating  the  in- 
dividuality of  his  own  style.  This  work  was  produced  at  the' 
Th£fttre  Lyrique  in  x86o.  It  has  repeatedly  been  heard  in 
London.  La  Reine  de  SabOf  a  four-act  opera,  produced  at  thi^ 
Grand  Op6ra  on  the  28th  of  February  1862,  was  altogether 
a  far  more  ambitious  work.    For  some  rttson  it  did  not  mec^ 


}t 


286 


GOURD 


with  suooen,  although  the  score  contains  som^  of  Gounod's 
choicest  in^irations,  notably  the  well-known  air,  *'  Lend  me 
your  aid."  La  Reine  de  Saba  was  adapted  for  the  English  stage 
under  the  name  of  Irene.  The  non-success  of  this  work  proved 
a  great  disappointment  to  Gounod,  who,  however,  set  to  work 
again,  and  this  time  with  better  results,  MireilU,  the  fruit  of  his 
labours,  being  given  for  the  first  time  at  the  Th6&tre  Lyrique 
on  the  X9th  of  March  1864.  Founded  upon  the  Mireia  of  the 
Provencal  poet  Mistral,  MireiUe  contains  much  charming  and 
characteristic  music.  The  libretto  seems  to  have  militated  against 
its  success,  and  although  several  revivals  have  taken  place  and 
various  modifications  and  alterations  have  been  made  in  the  score, 
yet  MireUU  has  never  enjoyed  a  very  great  vogue.  Certain 
portions  of  this  opera  have,  however,  been  popularized  in  the 
concert-room.  La  Caiomhet  a  little  opera  in  two  acts  without  pre- 
tension, deserves  mention  here.  It  was  originally  heard  at  Baiden 
in  z86o,  and  subsequently  at  the  Op6ra  Comique.  A  suavely 
melodious  entr'acte  from  this  little  work  has  suitvived  and  been 
repeatedly  performed. 

Animated  with  the  desire  to  give  a  pendant  to  his  PansI, 
Gounod  now  sought  for  inspiration  from  Shakespeare,  and 
turned  his  attention  (o  Romeo  and  Juliet.  Here,  indeed,  was  a 
subject  particularly  well  calculated  to  appeal  to  a  composer 
who  had  so  eminently  qualified  himself  to  be  considered  the 
musician  of  the  tender  passion.  The  operatic  version  of  the 
Shakespearean  tragedy  was  produced  at  the  Th£&tre  L3rrique  on 
the  37th  of  April  1867.  It  is  generally  considered  as  being  the 
composer's  second  best  opera.  Some  pec^le  have  even  placed 
it  on  the  same  level  as  Fatu/,  but  this  verdict  has  not  found 
general  acceptance.  Gounod  himself  is  stated  to  have  expressed 
his  opinion  of  the  relative  value  of  the  two  operas  enigmatically 
by  saying,  "  Faust  is  the  oldest,  but  I  was  younger;  Romio 
is  the  youngest,  but  I  was  older."  The  luscious  strains  wedded 
to  the  love  scenes,  if  at  times  somewhat  cloying,  are  generally 
in  accord  with  the  situations,  often  irresistibly  fascinating, 
while  always  absolutely  individuaL  The  success  of  Romio 
in  Paris  was  great  from  the  outset,  and  eventually  this  work 
was  transferred  to  the  Grand  Op£ra,  after  having  for  some  time 
formed  part  of  the  repertoire  of  the  Op6ra  Comique.  In  London 
it  was  not  until  the  part  of  Romeo  was  sung  by  Jean  de 
Reszke  that  this  opera  obtained  any  real  hold  upon  the  English 
public. 

After  having  so  successfully  sought  for  inspiration  from 
Moliere,  Goethe  and  Shakespeare,  Gounod  now  turned  to  another 
famous  dramatist,  and  selected  Pierre  Corneille's  Polyeucte 
as  the  subject  of  his  next  opera.  Some  years  were,  however, 
to  elapse  before  this  work  was  given  to  the  public.  The  Franco- 
German  War  had  broken  out,  and  Gounod  was  compelled  to 
take  refuge  in  London,  where  he  composed  the  "  biblical  elegy  " 
Gallia  for  the  inauguration  of  the  Royal  Albert  HalL  During 
his  stay  in  London  Gounod  composed  a  great  deal  and  wrote  a 
number  of  songs  to  English  words,  many  of  which  have  attained 
an  enduring  popularity,  such  as  "  Maid  of  Athens,"  "  There 
is  a  green  hill  far  away,"  "  Oh  that  we  two  were  maying," 
"  The  fountain  mingles  with  the  river."  His  sojourn  in  London 
was  not  altogether  pleasant,  as  he  was  embroiled  in  lawsuits 
with  publishers.  On  Gounod's  return  to  Paris  he  hurriedly 
set  to  music  an  operatic  version  of  Alfred  de  Vign/s  Cinq-liarSj 
which  was  given  at  the  Op6ra  Comique  on  the  5th  of  April  1877 
(and  in  London  in  1900),  without  obtaining  much  success. 
PolyeuUef  his  much-cherished  work,  appeared  at  the  Grand 
Op6ra  the  following  year  on  the  7th  of  October,  and  did  not  mMt 
with  a  better  fate.  Neither  was  Gounod  more  fortunate  witn 
Le  Tribut  de  Zamora,  his  last  opera,  which,  given  on  the  same 
stage  in  i88z,  speedily  vanished,  never  to  reappear.  In  his 
later  dramatic  works  he  had,  unfortunately,  made  no  attempt 
to  keep  up  with  the  times,  preferring  to  revert  to  old-fashioned 
methods. 

The  genius  of  the  great  composer  was,  however,  destined  to 
assert  itsdf  in  another  field — that  of  sacred  music.  His  friend 
Camille  Saint-SaCos,  in  a  volume  entitled  PortraiU  tt  Sowenirs, 
writes: 


Gounod  did  not  cease  all  his  life  to  write  for  the  church,  to 
accumulate  masses  and  motetts;  but  it  was  at  the  comroenoement 
of  his  career,  in  the  Messe  de  Sainte  CMle,  and  at  the  end,  in  the 
oratorios  Tke  Redempiion  and  Mors  et  vito,  that  be  rose  highest. 

Saint-SaCns,  indeed,  has  formulated  the  opinion  that  the  three 
above-mentioned  works  will  survive  all  the  master's  operas? 
Among  the  many  masses  composed  by  Gounod  at  the  outset 
of  his  career,  the  best  is  the  Uesse  de  Sainte  Cfeife,  written  in 
1855.  He  also  wrote  the  Messe  du  Sacri  Cmnr  (1876)  and  the 
Messe  d  la  mimoire  de  Jeanne  d'Arc  (1887).  This  last  work 
oflfers  certain  peculiarities,  being  written  for  solos,  chorus, 
organ,  eight  trumpets,  three  trombones,  and  harps.  In  style 
it  has  a  certain  affinity  with  Palestrina.  The  RedempHon^  which 
seems  to  have  acquired  a  permanent  footing  in  Great  Briuin, 
was  produced  at  the  Birmingham  Festival  of  x88a.  It  was 
styled  a  sacred  trilogy,  and  was  dedicated  to  Queen  Victoria. 
The  score  is  prefixed  by  a*'commentary  written  by  the  a>mposer, 
in  which  the  scope  ol  the  oratorio  is  explained.  It  cannot  be 
said  that  Gounod  has  altogether  risen  to  the  magnitude  of  hv& 
task.  The  music  of  Tke  Redemptionrbean  the  unmistakable 
imprint  of  the  composerfs  hand,  and  contains  many  beautiful 
thoughts,  but  the  work  in  its  entirety  is  not  exempt  from 
monotony.  Mors  et  vita,  a  sacred  trilogy  dedicated  to  Pope 
Leo  XIII.,  was  also  produced  for  the  first  time  in  Birminghun 
at  the  Festival  of  1885.  This  work  is  divided  into  three  paru, 
"  Mors,"  "  Judicium,"  "  Vita."  The  first  consisU  of  a  Requiem, 
the  second  depicts  the  Judgment,  the  third  Eternal  Life. 
Although  quite  equal,  if  not  superior  to  Tke  Redemption,  Mors 
et  vita  has  not  obtained  similar  success. 

Gounod  was  a  great  worker,  an  indefatigable  writer,  and  it 
would  occupy  too  much  spt^ot  to  attempt  even  an  incomplete 
catalogue  of  his  compositions.  Besides  the  works  already 
mentioned  may  be  named  two  symphonies  which  were  played 
during  the  'fifties,  but  have  long  since  fallen  into  ncgject. 
Symphonic  music  was  not  Gounod's  forte,  and  the  French  master 
evidently  recognized  the  fact,  for  he  made  no  further  attempts 
in  this  style.  The  incidental  music  he  wrote  to  the  dramas  Les 
Deux  Reines  and  Jeanne  d'Arc  must  not  be  forgotten.  He  also 
attempted  to  set  Molidre's  comedy,  Georgee  Dandin,  to  music, 
keeping  to  the  original  prose.  This  work  has  never  been  brought 
out.  Gounod  composed  a  large  number  of  songs,  many  of  which 
are  very  beautifuL  One  of  the  vocal  pieces  that  have  contri- 
buted most  to  tus  popularity  b  the  celebrated  Meditation  am 
tke  First  Prelude  of  Back,  more  widely  known  as  the  Ave  Maria. 
The  idea  of  fitting  a  melody  to  the  Prelude  of  Bach  was  original, 
and  it  must  be  admitted  that  in  this  case  the  experiment  was 
successful. 

Gounod  died  at  St  Cloud  on  the  i8th  of  October  1895.  His 
influence  on  French  music  was  immense,  though  during  the 
last  years  of  the  19th  century  it  was  rather  counterbalanced 
by  that  of  Wagner. .  Whatever  may  be  the  verdict  of  posterity, 
it  b  unlikely  that  the  quality  of  individuality  will  be  denied 
to  Gounod.  To  be  the  composer  of  FauH  b  alone  a  suflkient 
title  to  lasting  fame.  (A.  He.) 

GOURD,  a  name  given  to  various  plants  of  the  order  Cucmr- 
bitaceae,  especially  those  belonging  to  the  genus  Cucurbiia, 
monoecious  trailing  herbs  of  annual  duration,  with  long  succulent 
stems  furnished  with  tendrib,  and  large,  rough,  palmatdy-lobed 
leaves;  the  flowers  are  generally  large  and  of  a  bright  yellow 
or  orange  colour,  the  barren  ones  with  the  stamens  united; 
the  fertUe  are  followed  by  the  large  succulent  fruit  that  gives 
the  gourds  their  chief  economic  value.  Many  varieties  of 
Cucurbita  are  under  cultivation  in  tropical  and  temperate 
climates,  especially  in  southern  Asia;  but  it  b  extremely 
difficult  to  refer  them  to  definite  specific  groups,  on  account  of 
the  facility  with  which  th^  hybridixe;  whQe  it  b  very  doubtful 
whether  any  of  the  original  forms  now  exbt  in  the  wild  state. 
Charies  Naudin,  who  made  a  careful  and  interesting  series  of 
observations  upon  this  genus,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  all 
varieties  known  in  European  gardens  might  be  referred  to  six 
original  spedea;  probably  three,  or  at  most  four,  have  furnished 
the  edible  kinds  in  ordinary  cultivation.    Adopting  the  ^>ecific 


GOURGAUD 


287 


usually  given  to  the  more  familiar  fomis,  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  gourds,  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  is  perhaps 
C.  maxima,  the  Potiron  Jaune  of  the  French,  the  red  and  yellow 
gourd  of  British  gardeners  (fig.  6),  the  spheroidal  fruit  of  which 
b  remaduible  for  its  enormous  size:  the  colour  of  the  somewhat 
rough  rind  varies  from  white  to  bright  yellow,  while  in  some  kinds 
it  fcmains  green;  the  fleshy  interior  is  of  a  deep  yellow  or 
orange  tint.  This  valuablegourd  is  grown  extensively  in  southern 
Asia  and  Europe.  In  Turk^  and  Asia  Minor  it  yields,  at  some 
periods  of  the  year,  an  important  artide  of  diet  to  the  people; 
immense  quantities  are  sold  in  the  markets  of  Constantinople, 
where  in  the  winter  the  heaps  of  one  variety  with  a  white  rind 
are  described  as  resembling  moimds  of  snowballs.  The  yellow 
kind  attains  occasionally  a  wei|^t  of  upwards  of  240  S>.  It 
grows  well  in  Central  Europe  and  the  United  States,  while  in 
the  south  of  England  it  will  produce  its  gigantic  fruit  in  perfection 
in  hot  summers.  The  yellow  flesh  of  this  gourd  and  its  numerous 
varieties  yields  a  considerable  amount  of  nutriment,  and  is  the 
more  valuable  as  the  fruit  can  be  kept,  even  in  warm  climates,  for 
a  long  time.  In  France  and  in  the  East  it  is  much  used  in  soups 
and  ragouts,  while  simply  boiled  it  forms  a  substitute  for  other 
taUe  vegetables;  the  taste  has  been  compared  to  that  of  a  young 
canoL  In  some  countries  the  larger  kinds  are  employed  as 
cattle  food.  The  seeds  yield  by  expression  a  huge  quantity 
ol  a  bland  oil,  which  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  that  of 
the  poppy  and  olive.  The  **  mammoth  "  gourds  of  Enf^lsh  and 
American  gardeners  (known  in  America  as  squashes)  belong 
to  this  species.  The  pumpkin  (summer  squash  of  America) 
B  Cmcmhita  Pepo,  Some  of  the  varieties  of  C.  maxima  and 
Pepo  ocmtain  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar,  amounting  in 
the  sweetest  kinds  to  4  or  5%,  and  in  the  hot  plains  of  Hungary 
efforts  have  been  made  to  make  use  of  them  as  a  conunerdal 
source  of  sugar.  The  young  shoots  of  both  these  large  gourds 
may  be  given  to  cattle,  and  admit  of  being  eaten  as  a  green 
vegetable  when  boiled.  The  vegetable  marrow  is  a  variety 
(tfR/era)  of  C  Pepo.  Many  smaller  gourds  are  cultivated  in 
India  naA  other  hot  diniates,  and  some  have  been  introduced 
into  English  gardens,  rather  for  the  beauty  of  their  fruit  and 

foliage  than  for  their  escu- 
lent qualities.  Among  these 
is  C.  Pepo  var.  MtrafUia, 
the  orange  gourd,  bearing  a 
spheroidal  fruit,  like  a  large 
orange  in  form  and  colour; 
in  Britain  it  is  generally 
too  bitter  to  be  palatable, 
though  applied  to  culinary 
purposes  in  Turkey  and  the 
Levant.  C.  Pepo  var.  pyri- 
formis  and  var.  verrucosa, 
the  warted  gourds,  are 
likewise  occasionally  eaten, 
especially  in  the  immature 
state;  and  C.  moschata 
(musk  melon)  is  very  exten- 
sively cultivated  throughout 
India  by  the  natives,  the 
yellow  flesh  being,  cooked 
and  eaten. 

The     bottle-gourds    are 
placed  in  a  separate  genus, 
Lagenaria,  chiefly  differing 
Group  of  Gourds.  from  Cucurbita  in  the  an- 

1-5.  Various  forms  of  bottle  gourd,  thers  being  free  instead  of 

A  ri^^IiJS  nSSL-.««-«.  a<"»««a^    The  botUe-gourd 
6.Gmntv«xTd,CucurbUamamma,  ^^^^^  ^^^^^    ^^^^ 

garu,  is  a  dimbing  i^nt  with  downy,  heart-shaped  leaves  and 
beautiful  white  flowers:  the  remarkable  fruit  (figs.  1-5)  first  begins 
to  grow  in  the  form  of  an  dongated  cylinder,  but  gradually  widens 
towards  the  extremity,  untU,  when  ripe,  it  resembles  a  flask 
with  a  narrow  neck  and  large  rounded  bulb;  it  sometimes 
attains  a  length  of  7  ft.    When  ripe,  thp  pulp  is  removed  from 


bthsBritiih 


the  neck,  and  the  interior  deared  by  leaving  water  standing 
in  it;  the  woody  rind  that  remains  is  used  as  a  bottle:  or  the 
lower  part  is  cut  off  and  cleared  out,  forming  a  basin-like  vessd 
applied  to  the  same  domestic  purposes  as  the  calabash  {Cres- 
cetUia)  of  the  West  Indies:  the  smaller  varieties,  divided  length- 
wise, form  spoons.  The  ripe  f  nut  is  apt  to  be  bitter  and  cathartic, 
but  while  immature  it  is  eaten  by  the  Arabs  and  Turks.  When 
about  the  sixe  of  a  small  cucumber,  it  is  stuffed  with  rice  and 
minced  meat,  flavoured  with  pepper,  onions,  ftc.,  and  then  boiled, 
forming  a  favourite  dish  with  Eastern  epicures.  The  elongated 
snake-gourds  of  India  and  Chixia  {Trickosantkes)  are  used  in 
curries  and  stews. 

All  the  true  gourds  have  a  tendency  to  secrete  the  cathartic 
prindple  colocyntkin,  and  in  many  varieties  of  Cucwbita  and  the 
allied  genera  it  b  often  elabdrated  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
render  them  unwholesome,  or  even  poisonous.  The  seeds  of 
several  sptdes  therefore  possess  some  anthelmintic  pn^>erties; 
those  of  the  common  pumpkin  are  frequently  administered 
in  America  as  a  vermifuge. 

The  cultivation  of  gourds  began  far  beyond  the  dawn  of  history, 
and  the  esculent  species  have  become  so  modified  by  culture 
that  the  original  plants  from  which  they  have  descended  can 
no  longer  be  traced.  The  abundance  of  varieties  in  India  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  part  of  Asia  as  the  birthplace  of  the  present 
edible  forms;  but  sonfe  appear  to  have  been  cultivated  in  all 
the  hotter  regions  of  that  continent,  and  in  North  Africa,  from 
the  earliest  ages,  while  the  Romans  were  familiar  with  at  least 
certain  kinds  of  Cucurbita,  and  with  the  bottle-gourd.  Cucurbita 
Pepo,  the  source  of  many  of  the  American  forms,  is  probably 
a  native  of  that  continent. ; 

Most  of  the  annual  gourds  may  be  grown  mKoemlviSfy  b  Britain. 
They  are  usually  raised  in  hotbeds  or  under  fiames,  and  planted  out 
in  nch  soil  in  tm  oariy  summer  as  soon  as  the  mghts  become  warm. 
-The  more  ornamental  kinds  may  be  trained  over  trelUs-workj  a 
favourite  mode  of  displaying  them  in  the  East;  but  the  situation 
must  be  iheltered  and  sunny.  Even  JLofcnana  will  sometimes  pro- 
duce fine  fruit  when  so  treated  in  the  southern  counties. 

For  an  account  of  these  cultivations  in  England  see  paper  by  Mr 
J.  W.  Oddl.  "  Gourds  and  Cucurtnts,"  in  foum.  Rofiil  HorL  Soc 
450(1904). 


GOUROAUD,  QASPAR,  Baxon  (1783-1853),  French  soldier, 
was  bora  at  Versailles  on  the  24th  of  S^tember  1783;  his  father 
was  a  musician  of  the  royal  chapd.  At  school  he  showed  talent 
in  mathematical  studies  and  accordingly  entered  the  artillery. 
In  rSoa  he  became  junior  lieutenant,  and  thereafter  served 
with  credit  m  the  campaigns  of  X803-X805,  bdng  wounded  at 
Austerb'tx.  He  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Saragossa  in  180S, 
but  returned  to  service  in  Central  Europe  and  took  part  in  nearly 
all  the  battles  of  the  Danubian  campaign  of  1809.  In  i8xt 
he  was  chosen  to  inspect  and  report  on  the  fortifications  of 
Danxig.  Thereaftor  he  became  one  of  the  ordnance  officeiB 
attached  to  the  emperor,  whom  he  followed  dosdy  through 
the  Russian  campaign  of  x8za;  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  enter 
the  Kremlin  and  discovered  there  a  quantity  of  gunpowder 
which  might  have  been  used  for  the  destruction  of  Napoleon. 
For  his  services  in  this  campaign  he  recdved  the  title  of  baron, 
and  became  first  ordnance  officer.  In  the  campaign  of  18x3 
in  Saxony  he  further  evinced  his  courage  and  prowess,  espedally 
at  Ldpxig  and  Hanau;  but  it  was  in  the  first  battle  of  18x4, 
near  to  Brienne,  that  he  rendered  the  most  signal  service  by 
killing  the  leader  of  a  small  band  of  Cossacks  who  were  riding 
furiously  towards  Napoleon's  tent.  Wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Montmirail,be  yet  recovered  in  time  to  share  in  several  of  the 
conflicU  which  foUowed,  distinguishing  himself  especially  at 
Laon  and  Rdms.  Though  enrolled  among  the  royal  guards- of 
Louis  XVin.  in  the  summer  of  x8x4,  he  yet  embraced  the  cause 
of  Napoleon  during  the  Hundred  Days  (x8i  5),  was  named  general 
and  aide-de-camp  by  the  emperor,  and  fought  at  Waterioo. 

After  the  second  abdication  of  the  emperor  (June  32nd,  X815) 
Gourgaud  retired  with  him  and  a  few  other  companions  to 
Rochefort.  It  was  to  him  that  Napoleon  entrusted  the  letter 
of  appeal  to  the  prince  regent  for  an  asylum  in  England.  Gour- 
gaud set  off  in  U.M.S.J'  Slancy,"  but  was  not  aUowcd  to  land 


288 


GOURKO— GOURVILLE 


in  England.  He  determined  to  share  Napoleon's  exile  and 
sailed  with  him  on  H.M.S.  "  Northumberland  "  to  St  Helena. 
The  ship's  secretary,  John  R.  Glover,  has  left  air  entertaining 
account  of  some  of  Gourgaud's  gasconnades  at  table.  His 
extreme  sensitiveness  and  vanity  soon  brought  him  into  collision 
with  Las  Cases  and  Montholon  at  Longwood.  The  former  he 
styles  in  his  journal  a  "  Jesuit "  and  a  scribbler  who  went  thither 
in  order  to  become  famous.  With  Montholon,  his  senior  in  rank, 
the  friction  became  so  acute  that  he  challenged  him  to  a  duel, 
for  which  he  suffered  a  sharp  rebuke  from  Napoleon.  Thing 
of  the  life  at  Longwood  and  the  many  slights  which  he  suffered 
from  Napoleon,  he  desired  to  depart,  but  before  he  could  sail 
he  spent  two  months  with  Colonel  Basil  Jackson,  whose  account 
of  him  throws  milch  light  on  his  character,  as  also  on  the  "  policy" 
adopted  by  the  exiles  at  Longwood.  In  England  he  was  gained 
over  by  members  of  the  Opposition  and  thereafter  made  common 
cause  with  O'Meara  and  other  detractors  of  Sir  Hudson  Lowe, 
for  whose  character  he  had  expressed  high  esteem  to  Basil  Jack- 
son. He  soon  published  his  Campagne  de  1815^  in  the  preparation 
of  which  he  had  had  some  help  from  Napoleon;  but  Gourgaud's 
Journal  de  Stt-HiUne  was  not  destined  to  be  published  till 
the  year  1899.  Entering  the  arena  of  letters,  he  wrote,  or  colla- 
borated in,  two  well-known  critiques.  The  first  was  a  censure  of 
Count  P.  de  S^gur's  work  on  the  campaign  of  18x3,  with  the 
result  that  he  fought  a  duel  with  that  officer  and  wounded  him. 
He  also  sharply  criticized  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Life  of  Napckon. 
He  returned  to  active  service  in  the  army  in  1830;  and  in  1840 
proceeded  with  others  to  St  Helena  to  bring  back  the  remains 
of  Napoleon  to  France.  He  became  a  deputy  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly  in  1849;  he  died  in  1852. 

Gourgaud's  works  are  La  Campagne  de  1815  (London  and  Fans, 
1818);  NapoUon  et  la  Grande  ArnUe  en  Russie;  examen  critique  de 
Vouvrage  de  M.  le  comte  P.  de  Sigur  (Paris,  1824);  Rifutation  de  la 
vte  de  NapoUon  par  Sir  Walter  ScoU  (Paris,  1827).  He  collaborated 
with  Montholon  in  the  work  entitled  Mimoires  pour  servir  i  Vkistoire 
de  France  sous  NapoUon  (Paris.  1822-1823).  and  with  Belliard  and 
others  in  the  work  entitled  Bourrienne  et  see  erreurs  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1830) ;  but  his  most  important  work  is  the  Journal  tntdit  de  Ste- 
Hakne  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1899),  which  is  a  remarkably  naif  and  lifelike 
record  of  the  life  at  Longwood.  See,  too,  Notes  and  Reminiscences  of 
a  Staff  Officer,  by  Basil  Jackson  (London,  1904),  and  the  bibliography 
to  the  artkle  Lows,  Sir  Hudsok.  Q.  Hl.  R.) 

GOURKO,  JOSEPH  VLADIHIROVICH,  Count  (182^-1901), 
Russian  general,  was  born,  of  Lithuanian  extraction,  on  the 
J  5th  of  November  1828.  He  was  educated  in  the  imperial 
corps  of  pages,  entered  the  hussars  of  the  imperial  bodyguard 
as  ^ub-lieutenant  in  1846,  became  captain  in  1857,  adjutant 
to  the  emperor  in  i860,  colonel  in  186 1,  commander  of  the  4th 
Hussar  regiment  of  Mariupol  in  1866,  and  major-general  of  the 
emperor's  suite  in  1867.  He  subsequently  commanded  the 
grenadier  regiment,  and  in  1873  the  ist  brigade,  2nd  division, 
of  the  cavalry  of  the  guard.  Although  he  took  part  in  the 
Crimean  War,  being  stationed  at  Belbek,  his  claim  to  distinction 
is' due  to  his  services  in  the  Turkish  war  of  1877.  He  led  the  van 
of  the  Russian  invasion,  took  Trnovo  on  the  7th  July,  crossed 
the  Balkans  by  the  Hain  Bogaz  pass,  debouching  near  Hainkioi, 
and,  notwithstanding  considerable  resistance,  captured  Uflani, 
Maglish  and  Kazanlyk;  on  the  i8th  of  July  he  attacked  Shipka, 
which  was  evacuated  by  the  Turks  on  the  following  day.  Thus 
within  sixteen  days  of  crossing  the  Danube  Gourko  had  secured 
three  Balkan  passes  and  created  a  panic  at  Constantinople. 
He  then  made  a  series  of  successful  reconnaissances  of  the 
Tunja  valley,  cut  the  railway  in  two  places,  occupied  Stara 
Zagora  (Turkish,  Eski  Zagra)  and  Nova  Zagora  (Yeni  Zagra), 
checked  the  advance  of  Suleiman's  army,  and  returned  again 
over  the  Balkans.  In  October  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  allied  cavalry,  and  attacked  the  Plevna  line  of  communication 
to  Orkhanie  with  a  large  mixed  force,  captured  Gorni-Dubnik, 
Telische  and  Vratza,  and,  in  the  middle  of  November,  Orkhanie 
itself.  Plevna  was  isolated,  and  after  its  fall  in  December 
Gourko  led  the  way  amidst  snow  and  ice  over  the  Balkans  to 
the  fertile  valley  beyond,  totally  defeated  Suleiman,  and  occupied 
Sophia,  Philippopolis  and  Adrianople,  the  armistice  at  the 
end  of  January  1878  stopping  further  operations  (see  Ritsso- 


TuuosK  Wars).  Gourko  was  made  a  count,  and  decorated 
with  the  2nd  class  of  St  George  and  other  orders.  In  1 879-1 880 
he  was  govnnor  of  St  Petersburg,  and  from  1883  to  i894^vemor- 
general  of  Poland.    He  died  on  the  29th  of  January  1901. 

GOURMET*  a  French  term  for  one  who  takes  a  refined  and 
critical,  or  even  merely  theoretical  pleasure  in  good  cooking 
and  the  delights  of  the  table.  The  word  has  not  tlw  disparaging 
sense  attached  to  the  Fr.  gourmand,  to  whom  the  practical 
pleasure  of  good  eating  is  the  chief  end.  The  O.  Fr.  groumel 
or  g^omet  meant  a  servant,  or  shop-boy,  especially  one  employed 
in  a  wine-seller's  shop,  hence  an  expert  taster  of  wines,  from 
which  the  modem  usage  has  developed.  The  etymology  of 
gourmet  is  obscure;  it  may  be  ultimately  connected  with  the 
English  "  groom  "  (q.v.).  The  origin  of  gourmand  is  unknown. 
In  English,  in  the  form  "  grummet,"  the  word  was  early  applied 
to  a  cabin  or  ship's  boy.  Ships  of  the  Cinque  Porta  were  obliged 
to  carry  one  "  grummet ";  thus  in  a  charter  of  1229  (quoted 
in  the  New  English  Dictionary)  it  is  laid  down  servitia  inde 
debita  Domino  Regi,  xxi.  naves,  et  in  qualibet  nave  xxL  homines, 
cum  uno  gartione  qui  dicitur  ^omet, 

GOUROCK,  a  police  burgh  and  watering-place  of  Renfrew- 
shire, Scotland,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde, 
3i  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Greenock  by  the  Caledonian  railway.  Pop. 
(1901)  5261.  It  is  partly  situated  on  a  fine  bay  affording  good 
anchorage,  for  which  it  is  largely  resorted  to  by  the  numerous 
yacht  dubs  of  the  Clyde.  The  extension  of  the  railway  from 
Greenock  (in  1889)  to  the  commodious  pier,  with  a  tunnel  \\  m. 
long,  the  longest  in  Scotland,  affords  great  facilities  for  travel 
to  the  ports  of  the  Firth,  the  sea  lochs  on  the  southern  Highland 
coast  and  the  Crinan  Canal.  The  eminence  called  BarrhiU 
(480  ft.  high)  divides  the  town  into  two  parts,  the  eastern  known 
as  Kempoch,  the  western  as  Ashton.  Near  Kempoch  point  is 
a  monolith  of  mica-schut,  6  ft.  high,  called  "  Granny  Kempoch," 
which  the  superstitious  of  other  days  regarded  as  possessing 
influence  over  the  winds,  and  which  was  the  scene,  in  1662,  of 
certain  rites  that  led  to  the  celebrants  being  burned  as  witches. 
Gamble  Institute  (named  after  the  founder)  contains  halJs, 
recreation  rooms,  a  public  library  and  baths.  It  is  said  that 
Gourock  was  the  first  place  on  the  Clyde  where  herrings  were 
cured.  There  is  tramway  communication  with  Greenock  and 
Ashton.  About  3  m.  S.W.  there  stands  on  the  shore  the  familiar 
beacon  of  the  Cloch.    (jourock  became  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1694. 

GOURVILLE,  JEAN  HERAULD  (1625-1703),  French  adven- 
turer, was  bom  at  La  Rochefoucauld.  At  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  entered  the  house  of  La  Rochefoucauld  as  a  servant,  and  in 
1646  became  secretary  to  Francois  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  author, 
of  the  Maximes.  Resourceful  and  quick-witted,  he  rendered 
services  to  his  master  during  the  Fronde,  in  his  intrigues  with 
the  parliament,  the  court  or  the  princes.  In  these  negotiations 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Cond£,  whom  he  wished  to  help 
to  escape  from  the  ch&teau  of  Vincennes;  of  Mazarin,  for  whom 
he  negotiated  the  reconciliation  with  the  princes;  and  of  Nicolas 
Fouquet.  After  the  Fronde  he  engaged  in  financial  affairs, 
thanks  to  Fouquet.  In  1658  he  farmed  the  taiUe  in  Guienne. 
He  bought  depreciated  rentes  and  had  them  raised  to  their 
nominal  value  by  the  treasury;  he  extorted  gifts  from  the 
financiers  for  his  protection,  being  Fouquet's  confidant  in  many 
operations  of  which  he  shared  the  profits.  In  three  years  he 
accumulated  an  enormous  fortune^  still  further  increased  by  hb 
unfailing  good  fortune  at  cards,  playing  even  with  the  king. 
He  was  involved  in  the  trial  of  Fouquet,  and  in  April  1663  was 
condemned  to  death  for  peculation  and  embezzlement  of  public 
funds;  but  escaping,  was  executed  in  effigy.  He  sent  a  valet 
one  night  to  take  the  effigy  down  from  the  gallows  in  the  court 
of  the  Palais  de  Justice,  and  then  fled  the  country.  He  re-' 
mained  five  years  abroad,  being  excepted  in  1665  from  the 
amnesty  accorded  by  Louis  XIV.  to  the  condemned  financiers. 
Having  returned  secretly  to  France,  he  entered  the  service  of 
Condi,  who,  unable  to  meet  his  creditors,  had  need  of  a  clever 
manager  to  put  his  affairs  in  order.  In  this  way  he  was  able  to 
reappear  at  court,  to  assist  at  the  campaigns  of  the  war  with 
Holland,  and  to  offer  himself  for  all  the  delicate  negotiations 


GOUT 


289 


for  his  master  or  the  king.  He  received  diplomatic  missions  in 
Germany,  in  Holland,  and  especially  in  Spain,  thoii^  it  was 
only  in  1694,  that  he  was  freed  from  the  condemnation  pro- 
nounced against  him  by  the  chamber  of  justice..  From  1696 
he  fell  ill  and  withdrew  to  his  estate,  where  he  dictated  to  his 
secretary,  in  four  months  and  a  half,  his  Mimoirts,  an  important 
source  for  the  history  of  his  time.  In  spite  of  several  errors, 
introduced  purposely,  they  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  life  and  morals 
of  a  financier  of  the  age  of  Fouquet,  and  throw  light  on  certain 
points  of  the  diplomatic  history.    They  were  fifst  published  in 

1724. 

There  is  a  modem  edition,  with  notes,  an  introduction  and  ap- 
pendix,  by  Leceatre  (Paris,  1894-1895,  a  vols.). 

QOUT,  the  name  rather  vaguely  given,  in  medicine,  to  a 
constitutional  disorder  which  manifests  itself  by  inflammation 
of  the  joints,  with  sometimes  deposition  of  urates  of  soda,  and 
also  by  morbid  changes  in  various  important  organs.  The 
term  gout,  which  was  first  used  about  the  end  of  the  13th 
century,  is  derived  through  the  Fr.  gouUe  from  the  Lat.  gutUif 
a  di^,  in  allusion  to  the  old  pathological  doctrine  of  the  dropping 
of  a  morbid  material  from  the  blood  within  the  joints.  The 
diseavt  was  known  and  described  by  the  ancient  Greek  physfdans 
under  various  terms,  which,  however,  appear  to  have  been 
applied  by  them  alike  to  rheumatism  and  gout.  The  general 
term  artkrUis  {jLpOpov^  a  joint)  was  employed  when  many  joints 
were  the  seat  of  inflsimmation;  while  in  those  instances  where 
the  disease  was  limited  to  one  part  the  terms  used  bore  reference 
to  such  locality;  hence  podagra  (voSdypo,  from  imbi,  the  foot, 
and  &7pa,  a  seizure),  ckiragra  (x^Pt  the  hand),  ganag^a  (y^, 
the  knee),  &c 

Hippocrates  in  hb  Aphorisms  speaks  of  gout  as  occurring 
most  commonly  in  spring  and  autumn,  and  mentions  the  fact 
that  women  are  less  liable  to  it  than  men.  He  also  gives  directions 
as  to  treatment.  Cdsus  gives  a  similar  account  of  the  disease. 
Galen  regarded  gout  as  an  unnatural  accumulation  of  humours 
in  a  part,  and  the  chalk-stones  as  the  concretions  of  these,  and 
be  attributed  the  disease  to  over-indulgence  and  luxury.  Gout 
is  alluded  to  in  the  works  of  Ovid  and  Pliny,  and  Seneca,  in  his 
9Sth  epistle,  mentions  the  prevalence  of  gout  among  the  Roman 
ladies  of  his  day  as  one  of  the  results  of  their  high  living  and 
debauchery.  Lucian,  in  his  Tragopodagra,  gives  an  amusing 
account  of  the  remedies  employed  for  the  cure  of  gout. 

In  all  tiroes  this  disease  has  engaged  a  large  share  of  the  atten- 
tion of  physicians,  from  its  wide  prevalence  and  from  the  amount 
of  suffering  whidi  it  entails.  Sydenham,  the  famous  English 
physician  of  the  17th  century,  wrote  an  important  treatise  on 
the  subject,  and  his  description  of  the  gouty  paroxysm,  all  the 
more  vivid  from  his  having  himself  been  afflicted  with  the  disease 
for  thirty-four  years,  is  still  quoted  by  writers  as  the  most 
graphic  and  exhaustive  Account  of  the  symptomatology  of  gout. 
Subsequently  Cullen,  recognizing  gout  as  capable  of  manifesting 
itself  in  various  ways,  divided  the  disease  into  regular  goui, 
which  affects  the  joints  only,  and  irregular  goul^  where  the  gouty 
disposition  exhibits  itself  in  other  forms;  and  the  latter  variety 
he  subdivided  into  atonic  gouif  where  the  most  prominent 
symptoms  are  throughout  referable  to  the  stomach  and  ali- 
mentary canal;  rdrocedent  goui,  where  the  inflammatory  attack 
suddenly  disappears  from  an  aJFected  joint  and  serious  disturb- 
ance takes  place  in  some  internal  organ,  generally  the  stomach 
or  heart;  and  misplaced  gout,  where  from  the  fint  the  disease 
does  not  appear  externally,  but  reveals  itself  by  an  inflammatory 
attack  of  some  internal  part.  Dr  Garrod,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  authorities  on  gout,  adopted  a  division  somewhat 
similar  to,  though  simpler  than  that  of  Cullen,  namely,  regular 
goml,  which  affects  the  joints  alone,  and  is  either  acute  or  chronic, 
and  irregular  gout,  affecting  non-articular  tissues,  or  disturbing 
the  functions  of  various  organs. 

It  is  often  stated  that  the  attack  of  got*^  comes  on  without 
any  previous  warning;  but,  while  this  is  true  in  many  instances, 
the  reverse  is  probably  as  frequently  the  case,  and  the  pre- 
monitory symptoms,  especially  in  those  who  have  previously 
suffered  from  the  disease,  may  be  sufficiently  precise  to  indicate 


the  impending  seizure.  Among  the  more  common  of  these 
may  be  mentioned  marked  disorders  of  the  digestive  oigans, 
with  a  feeble  and  capricious  appetite,  flatulence  and  pain  after 
eating,  and  uneasiness  in  the  right  side  in  the  region  of  the  liver. 
A  remarkable  tendency  to  gnashing  of  the  teeth  is  sometimes 
observed.  This  symptom  was  first  noticed  by  Dr  Graves, 
who  connected  it  with  irritation  in  the  urinary  organs,  which 
also  is  present  as  one  of  the  premonitory  indications  of  the 
gouty  attack.  Various  forms  of  nervous  disturbance  also  present 
theniselves  in  the  form  of  general  discomfort,  extreme  irritability 
of  temper,  and  various,  pervjerted  sensations,  such  as  that  of 
numbness  and  coldness  in  the  limbs.  These  symptoms  may 
persist  for  many  days  and  then  undergo  amelioration  inunediatdy 
before  the  impending  paroxysm.  On  the  night  of  the  attack 
the  patient  retires  to  rest  apparently  well,  but  about  two  or  three 
o'clock  in  the  morning  awakes  with  a  painful  feeling  in  the  foot, 
most  commonly  in  the  ball  of  the  great  toe,  but  it  may  be  in 
the  instep  or  heel,  or  in  the  thumb.  With  the  pain  there  often 
occurs  a  distinct  shivering  followed  by  feveridmess.  The  pain 
soon  becomes  of  the  most  agonizing  character:  in  the  words 
of  Sydenham,  "  now  it  is  a  violent  stretching  and  tearing  of  the 
ligaments,  now  it  is  a  gnawing  pain,  and  now  a  pressure  and 
tightening;  so  exquisite  and  lively  meanwhile  is  the  part 
affected  that  it  cannot  bear  the  weight  of  the  -bedclothes,  nor 
the  jar  of  a  person  walking  in  the  room." 

When  the  affected  part  is  examined  it  is  found  to  be  swollen 
and  of  a  deep  red  hue.  The  superjacent  skin  is  tense  and  glisten- 
ing, and  the  surrounding  veins  are  more  or  less  distended.  After 
a  few  hours  there  is  a  remission  of  the  pain,  slight  perspiration 
takes  place,  and  the  patient  may  fall  asleep.  The  pain  may 
continue  moderate  during  the  day  but  returns  as  night  advances, 
and  the  patient  goes  through  a  simihir  experience  of  suffering 
to  that  of  the  previous  night,  followed  with  a  like  abatement 
towards  morm'ng.  These  nocturnal  exacerbations  occur  with 
greater  or  less  severity  during  the  continuance  of  the  attack, 
which  generally  lasts  for  a  week  or  ten  days.  As  the  symptoms 
decline  the  swelling  and  tenderness  o|  the  affected  joint  abate, 
but  the  skin  over  it  pits  on  pressure  for  a  time,  and  with  this 
there  is  often  associated  slight  desquamation  of  the  cuticle. 
During  the  attacks  there  is  much  constitutional  disturbance. 
The  patient  is  restless  and  extremely  irritable,  and  suffers  from 
cramp  in  the  limbs  and  from  dyspepsia,  thirst  and  constipation. 
The  urine  is  scanty  and  high-coloured,  with  a  copious  deposit, 
consisting  chiefly  of  urates.  During  the  continuance  of  the 
symptoms  the  inflammation  may  leave  the  one  foot  and  affect 
the  other,  or  both  may  suffer  at  the  same  time.  After  the  attack 
is  over  tht;  patient  feels  quite  well  and  fancies  himself  better 
than  he  had  been  for  a  long  time  before;  hence  the  once  popular 
notion  that  a  fit  of  the  gout  was  capable  of  removing  ajl  other 
ailments.  Any  such  idea,  however,  is  sadly  belied  in  the  ex- 
perience of  most  sufferers  from  this  disease.  It  is  rare  that  the 
first  is  the  only  attack  of  gout,  and  another  is  apt  to  occur  within 
a  year,  although  by  care  and  treatment  it  may  be  warded  off. 
The  disease,  however,  undoubtedly  tends  to  take  a  firmer  hold 
on  the  constitution  and  to  return.  In  the  earlier  recurrences 
the  same  joints  as  were  formerly  the  seat  of  the  gouty  inflam- 
mation suffer  again,  but  in  course  of  time  others  become  im- 
plicated, until  in  advanced  cases  scarcely  any  artictdation 
escapes,  and  the  disease  thus  becomes  chronic.  It  is  to  be  noticed 
that  when  gout  assumes  this  form  the  frequently  recurring  attacks 
are  usually  attended  with  less  pain  than  the  earlier  ones,  but 
their  disastrous  effects  are  evidenced  alike  by  the  disturbance 
of  various  important  organs,  especially  the  stomach,  liver, 
kidneys  and  heart,  and  by  the  remarkable  changes  which  take 
place  in  the  joints  from  the  formation  of  the  so-called  chalk- 
stones  or  tophi.  These  deposits,  which  are  highly  characteristic 
of  gout,  appear  at  first  to  take  place  in  the  form  of  a  semifluid 
material,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  urate  of  soda,  which 
gradually  becomes  more  dense,  and  ultimately  quite  hard. 
When  any  quantity  of  this  is  deposited  in  the  structures  of  a 
joint  the  effect  is  to  produce  stiffening,  and,  as  dqxnits  appear 
to  take  place  to  a  greater  or  leas  amount  in  connexion  with  every 


290 


GOUT 


attack,  permanent  thickening  and  defonnity  0!  the  parts  is  apt 
to  be  the  consequence.  The  extent  of  this  depends,  of  course, 
on  the  amount  of  the  deposits,  which,  however,  would  seem 
to  be  in  no  necessary  relation*  to  the  severity  of  the  attack,  being 
in  some  cases  even  of  chronic  gout  so  slight  as  to  be  barely 
appiedable  externally,  but  on  the  other  hand  occasionally 
causing  great  enlargement  of  the  joints,  and  fixing  them  in  a 
flexed  or  extended  position  which  renders  them  entirely  useless. 
Dr  Garrod  describes  tbe  appearance  of  a  hand  in  an  extreme 
case  of  this  kind,  and  likens  its  shape  to  a  bundle  of  French 
carrots  with  their  heads  forward,  the  nails  conesponding  to  the 
stalks.  Any  of  the  joints  may  be  thus  affected,  but  most 
commonly  those  of  the  hands  and  feeL  The  deposits  take  place 
in  other  structures  besides  those  of  joints,  such  as  along  the  course 
of  tendonsi  underneath  the  skin  and  periosteum,  in  the  sclerotic 
coat  of  the  eye,  and  especially  on  the  cartilages  of  the  external 
ear.  When  largely  deposited  in  joints  an  abscess  sometimes 
forms,  the  skin  gives  way,  and  the  concretion  is  exposed.  Sir 
Thomas  Watson  quotes  a  case  of  this  kind  where  the  patient 
when  playing  at  cards  was  accustomed  to  chalk  the  score  of  the 
game  upon  the  table  with  his  gouty  knuckles. 

The  recognition  of  what  is  termed  irregular  gout  is  less  easy 
than  that  form  above  described,  where  the  disease  gives  abundant 
external  evidence  of  its  presence;  but  that  other  parts  than 
joints  suffer  from  gouty  attacks  is  beyond  question.  -  The  diag- 
nosis may  often  be  made  in  cases  where  in  ao  attack  of  ordinary 
gout  the  disease  suddenly  leaves  the  affected  joints  and  some 
new  series  of  symptoms  arises.  It  has  been  often  observed  when 
cold  has  been  applied  to  an  inflam«l  joint  that  the  pain  and 
inflammation  in  the  part  ceased,  but  that  some  sudden  and 
alarming  seizure  referable  to  the  stomach,  brain,  heart  or  lungs 
supervened.  Such  attacks,  which  correspond  to  what  is  termed 
by  Cullen  retrocedent  gout,  often  terminate  favourably,  more 
especially  if  the  disease  again  returns  to  the  joints.  Further, 
the  gouty  nature  of  some  long-continued  internal  or  cutaneous 
disorder  may  be  rendered  apparent  by  its  disappearance  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  paroxysm  in  the  joints.  Gout,  when  of  long 
standi^,  is  often  found  associated  with  degenerative  changes  in 
the  heart  and  large  arteries,  the  liver,  and  especially  the  kidneys, 
which  are  apt  to  assume  the  contracted  granular  condition 
characteristic  of  one  of  the  forms  of  Bright's  disease.  A  variety 
of  urinary  calculus — the  uric  add — formed  by  concretions  of 
this  substance  in  the  kidneys  is  a  not  unfrequent  occiirrence 
in  connexion  with  gout;  hence  the  well-known  association  of 
this  disease  and  gravel. 

The  pathology  of  gout  is  discussed  in  the  article  on  Metabolic 
Diseases.  Many  points,  however,  still  remain  tmexplained. 
As  remarked  by  Trousseau,  "  the  production  in  excess  of  uric 
acid  and  urates  is  a  pathological  phenomenon  inherent  like  all 
others  in  the  disease;  and  like  all  the  others  it  is  dominated 
by  a  specific  cause,  which  we  know  only  by  its  effects,  and  which 
we  term  the  gouty  diathesis."  This  subject  of  diathesis  (habit, 
or  orgam'c  predisposition  of  individuals),  which  is  regarded  as  an 
essential  element  in  the  pathology  of  gout,  naturally  suggests 
the  question  as  to  whether,  besides  being  inherited,  such  a 
peculiarity  may  also  be  acquired,  and  this  leads  to  a  considera- 
tion of  the  causes  which  are  recognised  as  influential  in  favouring 
the  occurrence  of  this  disease. 

It  is  beyond  dispute  that  gout  is  in  a  marked  d^^rce  hereditary, 
fully  more  than  half  the  number  of  cases  being,  according  to 
Sir  C.  Scudamore  and  Dr  Garrod,  of  this  character.  But  it  is 
no  less  certain  that  there  are  habits  and  modes  of  life  the  observ- 
ance of  which  may  induce  the  disease  even  where  no  hereditary 
tendencies  can  be  traced,  and  the  avoidance  of  which  may,  on 
the  other  hand,  go  far  towards  weakening  or  neutralizing  the 
influence  of  inherited  liabilify.  Gout  is  said  to  affect  the  sedentary 
more  readily  than  the  active.  If,  however,  inadequate  exercise 
be  combined  wirh  a  luxurious  manner  of  living,  with  habitual 
over  indulgence  in  animal  food  and  rich  dishes,  and  especially 
in  alcoholic  beverages,  then  undoubtedly  the  chief  factors  in  the 
production  of  the  disease  are  present. 

Much  has  been  written  upon  the  rdative  influence  of  various 


forms  of  alcoholic  drinks  in  promoting  the  development  of  gout 
It  is  generally  stated  that  fermented  are  more  injurious  than 
distilled  liquors,  and  that,  in  particular^  the  stronger  wines, 
such  as  port,  sherry  and  madeira,  are  much  more  potent  in  their 
gout-produdng  action  than  the  lighter  class  of  wines,  sudi  as 
hock,  moselle,  &c.,  while  malt  liquors  are  fully  as  hurtful  as  strong 
wines.  It  seems  quite  as  probable,  however,that  over-indul^ce 
in  any  form  of  alcohol,  when  associated  with  the  other  conditions 
already  adverted  to,  will  have  very  much  the  same  effect  In 
developing  gout.  The  comparative  absence  of  gout,  in  countries 
where  spirituous  liquors  are  chiefly  used,  such  as  Scotland,  is 
cited  as  showing  their  relatively  slight  effect  in  enoouiaging 
that  disease;  but  it  is  to  be  notittd  that  in  such  countries  there 
is  on  the  whole  a  less  marked  tendency  to  excess  in  the  other 
pleasures  of  the  table,  which  in  no  degree  less  than  alcohol  are 
chargeable  with  inducing  the  gouty  habit.  Gout  is  not  a  common 
disease  among  the  poor  and  labouring  classes,  and  when  it  does 
occur  may  often  be  connected  even  in  them  ^rith  errors  in' living. 
It  is  not  very  rare  to  meet  gout  in  butlers,  coachmen,  &c.,  w^ 
are  apt  to  live  luxuriously  while  leading  comparatively  easy  lives. 

Gout,  it  must  ever  be  borne  in  mind,  may  also  affect  persons  who 
observe  the  strictest  temperance  in  living,  and  whose  only  excesses 
are  in  the  direction  of  over-work,  cither  physical  or  intellectuaL 
Many  of  the  great  names  in  history  in  all  times  have  had  their 
existence  embittered  by  this  malady,  and  have  died  from  its 
effects.  The  influence  of  hereditary  tendency  may  often  be 
traced  in  such  instances,  and  is  doubtless  call«l  into  activity 
by  the  depressing  consequences  of  over-work;  It  may,  notwith- 
standing, be  affirmed  as  generally  true  that  those  who  lead  regular 
lives,  and  are  moderate  in  the  use  of  animal  food  and  alcoholic 
drinks,  or  still  better  abstain  from  the  latter  altogether;  are 
less  likely  to  be  the  victims  of  gout  even  where  an  undoi]^t«l 
inherited  tendency  exists. 

Gout  is  more  common  in  mature  age  than  in  the  earh'er  years 
of  life,  the  greatest  number  of  tases  in  one  decennfal  period  being 
between  the  ages  of  thirty  aild  forty,  next  between  twenty  and 
thirty,  and  thirdly  between  forty  and  fifty.  It  may  occasionally 
affect  very  young  persons;  such  cases  are  generally  regarded  as 
hereditary,  but,  so  far  as  diet  is  concerned,  it  has  to  be  remembered 
that  their  home  life  has  probably  been  a  predisposing  cause. 
After  middle  life  gout  rarely  appears  for  the  first  time.  Women 
are  much  less  the  subjects  of  gout  than  men,  apparently  from 
their  less  exposure  to  the  influences  (excepting,  of  course,  that 
of  heredity)  which  tend  to  develop  the  disease,  and  doubtless 
also  from  the  differing  circumstances  of  their  physical  constitu- 
tion. It  most  frequently  appears  in  females  after  the  cessation 
of  the  menses.  Persons  exposed  to  the  influepce  of  lead  poisoning, 
such  as  plumbers,  painters,  &c.,  are  apt  to  suffer  from  gout; 
and  it  would  seem  that  impregnation  of  the  system  with  this 
metal  markedly  interferes  with  the  uric  add  excreting  function 
of  the  kidney. 

Attacks  of  gout  are  readUy  exdfed  in  those  predisposed  to 
the  disease.  Exposure  to  cold,  -disorders  of  digestion,  fatigue, 
and  irritation  or  injuries  of  particular  joints  will  often  precipitate 
the  gouty  paroxysm. 

With  respect  to  the  treatment  of  gout  the  greatest  variety 
of  opinion  has  prevailed  and  practice  been  pursued,  from  the 
numerous  quaint  nostrums  detailed  by  Ludan  to  the  "  expectant  '* 
or  do-nothing  sjrstem  recommended  by  Sydenham.  But  gout, 
although,  as  has  been  shown,  a  malady  of  a  most  severe  and 
intractable  character,  may  nevertheless  be  successfully  dealt 
with  by  appropriate  medidnal  and  hygienic  measures.  The 
general  plan  of  treatment  can  be  here  only  briefly  indicated. 
During  the  acute  attack  the  affected  part  should  be  kept  at 
perfect  rest,  and  have  applied  to  it  warm  opiate  fomentations 
or  poultices,  or,  what  answers  quite  as  well,  be  enveloped  in 
cotton  wool  covered  in  with  oil  silk.  The  diet  of  the  patient 
should  be  h'ght,  without  am'mal  food  or  stimulants.  Hie  adminis- 
tration of  Some  simple  laxative  will  be  of  service,  as  well  as  the 
free  use  of  alkah'ne  diuretics,  such  as  the  bicarbonate  or  acetate 
of  pota^.  The  medidnal  agent  most  relied  on  for  the  relief 
of  pain  is  oolchicum,  wbi^b  manifestly^  exercises  a  powefful 


GOUTHIERE 


291 


actkm  OD  the  disease.  This  drug  (Cdekicum  aniumnaU),  which 
b  believed  to  correspond  to  the  hermodactyi  of  the  ancients, 
has  proved  of  such  efficacy  in  modifying  the  attacks  that,  as 
observed  by  Dr  Garrod,  "  we  may  safely  assert  that  eolchicum 
possesses  as  specific  a  control  over  the  gouty  inflammation  as 
dnchona  barks  or  their  alkaloids  over  intermittent  fever.*' 
It  is  usually  administered  in  the  form  of  the  wine  in  doses  of 
10  to  30  drops  every  four  or  six  hours,  or  in  pill  as  the  acetous 
extract  (gr.  i-gr.  i.).  The  effect  of  colchicum  in  subduing  the 
pain  of  gout  is  generally  so  prompt  and  marked  that  it  is  un- 
necessary to  have  recourse  to  opiates;  but  its  action  requires 
to  be  carefully  watched  by  the  physician  from  its  well-known 
nauseating  and  depressing  consequences,  which,  should  they 
appear,  render  the  suspension  of  the  drug  necessary.  Otherwise 
the  remedy  may  be  continued  in  graduaUy  diminishing  doses 
for  some  days  after  the  disappearance  of  the  gouty  inflammation. 
Should  gout  give  evidence  of  its  presence  in  an  irregular  form 
by  attacking  internal  organs,  besides  the  medicinal  treatment 
above  mentioned,  the  use  of  frictions  und  mustard  applications 
to  the  joints  is  indicated  with  the  view  of  exciting  its  appearance 
there.  When  gout  has  become  chronic,  colchicum,  although  of 
less  service  than  in  acute  gout,  is  yet  valuable,  particularly 
when  the  inflammatory  attacks  recur.  More  benefit,  however, 
appears  to  be  derived  from  potassium  iodide,  guaiacum,  the 
alkalis  potash  and  lithia,  and  from  the  administration  of  aspirin 
and  sodium  salicylate.  Salicylate  of  menthol  is  an  effective 
local  application,  painted  on  and  covered  with  a  gutta-percha 
bandage.  Lithia  was  strongly  recommended  by  Dr  Garrod  from 
its  solvent  action  upon  the  urates.  It.  is  usually  administered 
an  the  form  of  the  carbonate  (gr.  v.,  freely  diluted). 

The  treatment  and  regimen  to  be  employed  in  the  intervals 
of  the  gouty  attacks  are  of  the  highest  importance  These 
bear  reference  for  the  most  part  to  the  habits  and  mode  of  life 
of  the  patient.  Restriction  must  be  laid  upon  the  amount  and 
quality  of  the  food,  and  equally,  or  still  more,  upon  the  alcohoh'c 
stimulants.  "  The  instances,"  says  Sir  Thomas  Watson,  "  are 
not  few  of  men  of  good  sense,  and  masters  of  themselves,  who, 
being  warned  by  one  visitation  of  the  gout,  have  thenceforward 
resolutely  abstained  from  xich  living  and  from  wine  and  strong 
drinks  of  all  kinds,  and  who  have  been  rewarded  for  their  prudence 
and  self-denial  by  complete  immunity  from  any  return  of  the 
disease,  or  upon  whom,  at  any  rate,  its  future  assaults  have  been 
few  and  feeble."  The  same  eminent  authority  adds:  "  I  am 
sure  it  is  worth  any  youHg  man's  while,  who  has  had  the  gout, 
10  become  a  teetotaller."  By  those  more  advanced  in  life 
who,  from  long  continued  habit,  are  unable  entirely  to  relinquish 
the  use  of  stimulants,  the  strictest  possible  temperance  must 
be  observed.  Regular  but  moderate  exercise  in  the  form  of 
walking  or  riding,  in  the  case  of  those  who  lead  sedentary  lives, 
is  of  great  advantage,  and  all  over*work,  either  physical  or  mental, 
should  be  avoided.  Patiguez  la  bUe,  et  reposa  la  tiu  is  the  maxim 
of  an  experienced  French  doctor  (Dr  Debout  d'Estrto  of  Con« 
trexfville).  Unfortunately  the  complete  carrying  out  of  such 
directions,  even  by  those  who  fed  their  importance,  is  too  often 
rendered  difficult  or  impossible  by  circumstances  of  occupation 
and  otherwise,  and  at  most  only  an  approximation  can  be  made. 
Certain  minerAl  waters  and  baths  (such  as  those  of  Vichy, 
Royat,  Contrex^ville,  &c.)  are  of  undoubted  value  in  cases  of 
gout  and  arthritis.  The  particular  place  must  in  each  case  be 
determined  by  the  physician,  and  special  caution  must  be 
observed  in  recommending  this  plan  of  treatment  in  persons 
whose  gout  is  complicated  by  organic  disease  of  any  kind. 

Dr  Alexander  Haig's  "  uric  acid  free  diet  "  has  found  many  ad- 
herrnu.  His  view  as  regards  the  pathology  is  that  in  gouty  persons 
the  Mood  is  less  alkaline  than  in  normal,  and  therefore  less  able  to 
hddla  solution  uric  acid  or  its  salts,  which  are  retained  m  the  joints. 
Assuming  gout  to  be  a  poisoning  by  animal  food  (meat,  fish,  eggs), 
and  by  tea,  coffee,  cocoa  and  other  vegetable  alkaloid-containing  sub- 
stances, he  recommends  an  average  daily  diet  excluding  these,  and 
coataining  34  oz.  of  breadstuffs  (toast,  bread,  biscuits  and  puddings) 
together  with  34  os.  of  fruit  and  vegetables  (excluding  peas,  beans, 
leattb.  mushrooms  and  asparagus);  8  oa.  of  the  breadstuffs  may  be 
replaced  by  a  I  oz.  of  tnilk  or  2  oc  oicheese,  butter  and  oil  being  taken 
aa  requirco,  so  that  it  is  not  strictly  a  vegetarian  diet. 


Precisely  the  (Wpodte  view  as  to  diet  has  recently  been  put  forward 
b]f  Professor  A.  Robin  of  the  HOpital  Beaujon,  who  says  serious 
mistakes  are  made  in  ordering  patients  to  abstain  from  red  meats 
and  take  light  food,  fiah^  eg^,  &c.  The  common  object  in  view  is  the 
diminishedoutput  of  unc  add.  This  output  is  chiefly  obtained  from 
food  rich  in  nudeins  and  in  collagenous  matters,  ue.  young  white 
meats,  eggs,  &c.  Consequently  the  gouty  subject  ought  to  restrict 
himself  to  the  consumption  of  red  meatj  beef  and  mutton,  and  leave 
out  of  hb  dietary  all  white  meat  and  mternal  organs.  He  should 
take  little  h^rocarbons  and  supus,  and  be  moderate  in  fats. 
Vegetarian  diet  he  regards  as  a  mistake,  likewise  milk  diet,  as  they 
tend  to  weaken  the  patient.  To  prevent  the  formation  of  uric  acid 
Robin  preacfibes  qmnic  add  combined  with  formine  or  urotropine. 


OOUTHlteB,  PIBRHB  (i74a-x8o6),  F^nch  metal  worker, 
was  born  at  Troyes  and  went  to  Paris  at  an  early  age  as  the 
pupil  of  Martin  Cour.  During  hb  brilliant  career  he  executed 
a  vast  quantity  of  metal  work  of  the  utmost  variety,  the  best  of 
which  was  unsurpassed  by  any  of  hb  rivab  in  that  great  art 
period.  It  was  long  believed  that  he  received  many  commissions 
for  furniture  from  the  court  of  Loub  XVI.,  and  espedally  from 
Marie  Antoinette,  but  recent  searcha  suggest  that  hb  work  for 
the  queen  was  Confined  to  bronzes.  Gouthiire  can,  however,  well 
bear  this  loss,  nor  will  hb  reputation  suffer  should  those  critics 
ultimately  be  justified  who  beh'eve  that  many  of  the  furniture 
mounts  attributed  to  him  were  from  the  hand  of  Thomire.  But 
if  he  did  not  work  for  the  court  he  unquestionably  produced 
many  of  the  most  splendid  bdongings  of  the  due  d'Aumont, 
the  duchesse  de  Mazarin  and  Mme  du  Barry.  Indeed  the 
custom  of  the  beautiful  mbtress  of  Loub  XV.  brought  about 
the  finandal  ruin  of  the  great  artbt,  who  accompli^ed  more 
than  any  other  man  for  the  fame  of  her  chiteau  of  Louvedennes. 
When  the  collection  of  the  due  d'Aumont  was  sold  by  auction 
in  Paris  in  1783  so  many  objects  mounted  by  Gouthiire  were 
b6ught  for  Loub  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette  that  it  b  not 
difficult  to  perceive  the  basb  of  the  belief  that  they  were  actually 
made  for  the  court.  The  due's  sale  catalogue  b,  however,  in 
existence,  with  the  names  of  the  purchasers  and  the  prices 
realized.  The  auction  was  almost  an  apotheosb  of  Gouthiire. 
The  precious  lacquer  cabinets,  the  chandeliers  and  candelabra, 
the  tables  and  cabinets  in  marquetry,  the  columns  and  vases 
in  porphyry,  jasper  and  choice  marbles,  the  porcelains  of  China 
and  Japan  were'  nearly  all  mounted  in  bronze  by  him.  More 
than  fifty  of  these  pieces  bore  Gouthiire's  signature.  The  due 
d'Aumont's  cabinet  represented  the  high-water  mark  of  the 
chaser's  art,  and  the  great  prices  which  were  paid  for  Gouthi^'s 
work  at  thb  sale  are  the  most  condusive  criterion  of  the  value 
set  upon  hb  achievement  in  hb  own  day.  Thus  Marie  Antoinette 
paid  x3,ooo  livrcs  for  a  red  jasper  bowl  or  briUe-par/ums  mounted 
by  him,  which  was  then  already  famous.  Curiously  enough 
it  commanded  only  one-tenth  of  that  price  at  the  Foumier  sale 
in  xSjx;  but  in  X865,  when  the  marqub  of  Hertford  bought 
it  at  the  prince  de  Beauvab's  sale,  it  fetched  31,900  francs.  It 
b  now  in  the  Wallace  Collection,  which  contains  the  finest  and 
roost  representative  gathering  of  Gouthidre's  undoubted  work. 
The  mounts  of  gilt  bronze,  cast  and  elkborately  chased,  show 
sat3nrs'  heads,  from  which  hang  festoons  of  vine  leaves,  while 
within  the  feet  a  serpent  b  coiled  to  spring.  A  smaller  cup  b  one 
of  the  treasures  of  the  Louvre.  There  too  b  a  bronze  dock, 
Mgned  by  "  Gouthi^, cwUur ef  doreur du  Roy d  Paris" dated 
X77X,  with  a  river  god,  a  water  nymph  symbolizing  the  Rh6ne 
and  its  tributary  the  Durance,  vkd  a  female  figure  typifying  the 
dty  of  Avignon.  Not  all  of  Gouthiere's  work  b  of  the  highest 
quality,  and  much  of  what  he  executed  was  from  the  designs 
of  others.  At  hb  best  hb  delicacy,  refinement  and  finish  are 
exceedingly  ddightful — ^in  hb  great  moments  he  ranks  with 
the  highest  alike  as-  artbt  and  as  craftsmaxL  The  tone  of  soft 
dead  gold  which  b  found  on  some  of  hb  mounts  he  b  believed 
to  have  invented,  but  indeed  the  gilding  of  all  hb  superiative 
work  possesses  a  remarkable  quality.  Thb  charm  of  tone  b 
admirably  seen  in  the  bronzes  and  candeUbra  which  he  executed 
for  the  chimnc3rpiece  of  Marie  Antoinette's  boudoir  at  Fontaine- 
bleau.  He  continued  to  embellbh  Louvedennes  for  Madame 
du  Barry  until  the  Revolution,  and  then  the  guillotine  came  for 
her  and  absolute  ruin  for  him.    When  her  propecty  was  seized 


292 


GOUVION  SAINT-CYR— GOVERNMENT 


the  owed  him  756,000  livies,  of  which  be  never  received  a  sol, 
despite  repeated  applications  to  the  administrators.  "  lUduit 
d  soUiciter  une  place  d  Vkospice,  U  mound  dans  la  misire"  So 
it  was  stated  in  a  lawsuit  brought  by  his  sons  against  du  Barry's 
hein. 

GOUVION  SAINT-CTR,  LAURENT,  Makq^tis  de  (1764-1830), 
French  marshal,  was  bom  at  Toul  on  the  xjth  of  April  1764. 
At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  went  to  Rome  with  the  view  of  pro- 
secuting the  study  of  painting,  but  although  he  continued  his 
artistic  studies  affer  his  return  to  Paris  in  1784  he  never  definitely 
adopted  the  profession  of  a  painter.  In  1792  he  was  chosen 
a  captain  in  a  volunteer  battalion,  and  served  on  the  staff  of 
General  Custine.  Promotion  rapidly  followed,  and  in  the  course 
of  two  years  he  had  become  a  general  of  division.  In  1796  he 
commanded  the  centre  division  c^  Moreau's  aiiny  In  the  campaign 
of  the  Rhine,  and  by  coolness  and  sagadty  greatly  aid«l  him 
in  the  celebrated  retreat  from  Bavaria  to  the  Rhine.  In  1798 
he  succeeded  Mass^na  in  the  command  of  the  army  of  Italy. 
In  the  following  year  he  commanded  ^e  left  wing  of  Jourdan's 
army  in  Germany;  but  when  Jourdan  was  succeeded  by  Mass6na, 
he  joined  the  army  of  Morcau  in  Italy,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  in  face  of  the  great  difficulties  that  followed  the  defeat 
of  Novi.  When  Moreau,  in  x8oo,  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  Gouvion  St-Cyr  was  named  his  principal 
lieutenant,  and  on  the  9th  of  May  gained  a  victory  over  General 
Kray  at  Biberach.  He  was  not,  however,  on  good  terms  with 
his  commander  and  retired  to  France  after  the  first  operations 
of  the  campaign.  In  xSox  he  was  sent  to  Spain  to  command 
the  army  intended  for  the  invasion  of  Portugal,  and  was  named 
grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  When  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  shortly  afterwards  concluded  with  Portugal,  he  succeeded 
Lucien  Bonaparte  as  ambassador  at  Madrid.  In  1803  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  an  army  corps  in  Italy,  in  1805 
he  served  with  distinction  under  Mass^na,  and  in  x8o6  was 
engaged  in  the  campaign  in  southern  Italy.  He  took  part  in 
the  Prussian  and  Polish  campaigns  of  1807,  and  in  x8o8,  in  which 
yeaf  he  was  made  a  count,  he  commanded  an  army  corps  in 
Catalonia;  but,  not  wishing  to  comply  with  certain  orders 
he  received  from  Paris  (for  which  see  Oman,  Peninsular  Waff 
vol.  iii.)»  he  resigned  his  command  and  remained  in  disgrace 
till  x8i  X.  He  was  still  a  general  of  division,  having  been  excluded 
from  the  first  list  of  mi^shals  owing  to  his  action  in  refusing 
to  influence  the  troops  in  favour  of  the  establishment  of  the 
Empire.  On  the  opening  of  the  Russian  campaign  he  received 
command  of  an  army  corps,  and  on  the  x8th  of  August  18x3 
obtained  a  victory  over  the  Russians  at  Polotsk,  in  recognition 
of  which  he  was  created  a  marshal  of  France.  He  received  a 
severe  wound  in  one  of  the  actions  during  the  general  retreat. 
St-Cyr  dbtinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Dresden  (August 
96-27,  X813),  and  in  the  defence  of.  that  place  against  the  Allies 
after  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  capitulating  only  on  the  ixth  of 
November,  when  Napoleon  had  retreated  to  the  Rhine.  On 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  created  a  peer  of  France, 
and  in  July  x8x5  was  appoint«l  war  minister,  but  resigned  his 
office  in  the  November  following.  In  June  x  81 7  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  marine,  and  in  September  following  again  resumed 
the  duties  of  war  minister,  which  he  continued  to  discharge 
till  November  X819.  During  this  time  he  effected  many  reforms, 
particularly  in  respect  of  measures  tending  to  make  the  army 
a  national  rather  than  a  dynastic  force.  .He  exerted  himself 
also  to  safeguard  the 'rights  of  the  old  soldiers  of  the  Empire, 
organized  the  general  staff  and  revised  the  code  of  military  law 
and  the  pension  regulations.  He  was  made  a  marquos  in  x8x7. 
He  died  at  Hyeres  (Var)'  on  the  X7th  of  March  1830.  Gouvion 
St-Cyr  would  doubtless  have  obtained  better  opportunities  of 
acquiring  distinction  had  he  shown  himself  more  blindly  devoted 
to  the  interests  of  Napoleon,  but  Napoleon  paid  him  the  high 
compliment  of  referring  to  his  "  military  genius,"  and  entrusted 
him  with^independent  commands  in  secondary  theatres  of  war. 
It  is  doubtful,  hoirever,  if  he  possessed  energy  commensurate 
with  his  skill,  and  in  Napoleon's  modem  conception  of  war, 
u  three  parts  moral  to  one  technical,  there  was  more  need  for 


the  services  of  a  bold  leader  of  troops  whose  "  doctrine  "— io 
use  the  modem  phrase — ^predisposed  him  to  self-sacrificing  and 
vigorous  action,  than  for  a  savant  in  Che  art  of  war  of  the  type  of 
St-Cyr.  Contemporary  opinion,  as  reflected  by  Marbot,  did 
justice  to  his  "  commanding  talents,"  but  remarked  the  indolence 
which  Was  the  outward  sign  of  the  vague  complexity  of  a  mind 
that  had  passed  beyond  the  simplicity  of  mediocrity  without 
attaining  the  simplicity  of  genius. 

He  was  the  author  of  the  following  works,  all  of  the  highest 
value:  Journal  des  opirations  de  rarmee  de  Catalogne  en  j8o8  H 
tSop  (F^ris.  1 821);  Mimoires  sur  Us  campagnes  des  armies  de  Rhin 
et  de  Rkin-et-Afosdle  de  I7(f4  d  x/p/  (Paris,  1829);  and  Mimoires 
pour  sernr  d  fkisioire  militaire  sous  le  Directoiret  le  Censulat,  et 
VEmpire  (183X). 

See  Gay  de  Vernon's  Vie  de.Coueion  Saint-Cyr  (x6s7); 

OOVAN,  a  municipal  and  police  burgh  of  Lanarkshire,  Stotland. 
It  lies  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Clyde  in  actual  contact  with 
Glasgow,  and  in  a  parish  of  the  same  name  which  includes  a  large 
part  of  the  city  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  Pop.  (XIB9X)  6x,589; 
(190X)  76,532.  Govan  remained  little  more  than  a  village  tUl 
i860,  when  the  growth  of  shipbuilding  and  allied  trades  gave 
its  development  an  enormous  impetus.  Among  its  public  build- 
ings are  the  municipal  chambers,  combination  fever  hospital, 
Samaritan  hospital  and  reception  houses  for  the  poor.  Elder 
Park  (40  acres)  presented  to  the  burgh  in  x88s  contains  a  statue 
of  John  Elder  (i 824-1869),  the  pioneer  shipbuilder,  the  husband 
of  the  donor.  A  statue  of  Sir  William  Pearce  (i'833-x888), 
another  well-known  Govan  shipbuilder,  once  M.P.  for  the  burgh, 
stands  at  Govan  Cross.  The  Govan  lunacy  board  opened  in 
1896  an  asylum  near  Paisley.  Govan  is  supplied  with  Glasgow 
gas  and  water,  and  its  tramways  are  leased  by  the  Glasgow 
corporation;  but  it  has  an  electric  light  installation  of  its  own, 
and  performs  all  other  municipal  functions  quite  independently 
of  the  dty,  annexation  to  which  it  has  always  strenuously 
resisted.  Prince's  Dock  lies  within  its  bounds  and  the  ship- 
building yards  have  turned  out  many  famous  ironclads  and 
liners.  Besides  shipbuilding  its  other  industries  are  match- 
making^  silk- weaving,  hair-working,  copper- working,  tube- 
making,  weaving,  and  the  manufacture  of  locomotives  and 
electrical  apparatus.  The  town  forms  the  greater  part  of  the 
Govan  division  of  Lanarkshire,  which  returns  one  member  to 
parliament. 

GOVERNMENT  (O.  Fr.  govememenSt  mod.  geuvernemeni, 
O.  Fr.  goVemeTf  mod.  gotrvemer,  from  Lat.  gubemarCf  to  steer  a 
slup,  guide,  rule;  cf.  Gr.  jcv^epror),  in  its  widest  sense,  tl^ 
ruling  power  in  a  political  society.  In  every  sodety  of  men  there 
is  a  determinate  body  (whether  consbting  of  one  individual 
or  a  few  or  many  individuals)  whose  commands  the  rest  of  the 
community  are  bound  to  obey.  This  sovereign  body  is  what  in 
more  popular  phrase  is  termed  the  government  of  the  country, 
and  the  varieties  which  may  exist  in  its  constitution  are  known 
as  forms  of  government. .  For  the  opposite  theory  of  a  community 
with  "  no  government,"  see  Anaschism. 

How  did  government  come  into  existence?  Various  answers 
to  this  question  have  at  times  been  given,  which  may  be  dis- 
tinguished broadly  into  three  classes.  The  first  dass  would 
comprehend  the  legendary  accounts  which  nations  have  given 
in  primitive  times  of  their  own  forms  of  government.  These 
are  always  attributed  to  the  mind  of  a  single  lawgiver.  The 
government  of  Sparta  was  the  invention  of  Lycurgus.  Solon, 
Moses,  Numa  and  Alfred  in  like  manner  shaped  the  government 
of  their  respective  nations.  There  -was  no  curiosity  about  the 
institutions  of  other  nations — about  the  origin  of  governments 
in  general;  and  each  nation  was  perfectly  ready  to  accept  the 
traditional  POfwBh-iu  of  any  other. 

The  aecondmay  be  ealled  the  logical  6r  metaphysical  account 
of  the  origin  of  government.  It  contained  no  overt  reference 
to  any  particular  form  of  government,  whatever  its  covert 
references  tt^y  have  been.  It  answered  the  question,  how 
government  in  genecal  came  into  existence;  and  it  answered 
it  by  a  logical  analysis  of  the  elements  of  sodety.  The  phenome- 
non to  be  accounted  for  being  government  and  laws,  it  abstracted 
government  and  kws,  and  contemplated  mankind  as  existing 


GOVERNMENT 


293^ 


without  them.  The  characteristic  feature  of  this  kind  of  specula- 
tion is  that  it  reflects  how  contemporary  men  would  behave 
if  all  government  were  removed,  and  infers  that  men  must  have 
behaved  so  before  government  came  into  existence.  Society 
without  government  resolves  itself  into  a  number  of  individual 
each  following  hb  own  aims,  and  therefore,  in  the  days  before 
government,  each  man  followed  his  own  aims.  It  is  easy  to  see 
how  this  kind  of  reasoning  should  lead  to  very  different  views 
iA  the  natiure  of  the  supposed  original  state.  With  Hobbcs, 
it  is  a  state  of  war,  and  government  is  the  result  of  an  agreement 
among  men  to  keep  the  peace.  With  Locke,  it  is  a  state  of 
liberty  and  equality, — it  is  not  a  state  of  war;  it  is  governed 
by  its  own  law, — the  law  of  nature,  which  is  the  same  thing 
as  the  law  of  reason.  The  state  of  nature  is  brought  to  an  end 
by  the  voluntary  agreement  of  individuals  to  surrender  their 
natural  liberty  and  submit  themselves  to  one  supreme  govern- 
ment. In  the  words  of  Locke,  "  Men  being  by  nature  all  free, 
equal  and  independent,  no  one  can  be  put  out  of  this  estate 
and  subjected  to  the  political  power  of  another  without  his  own 
consent.  The  only  way  whereby  any  one  divests  himself  of  his 
natural  liberty,  and  puts  on  the  bonds  of  civil  society,  is  by  agree- 
ing with  other  men  to  join  and  unite  into  a  community  "  (On 
Citil  Government,  c  viii.).  Locke  boldly  defends  his  theory 
as  founded  on  historical  fact,  and  it  is  amusing  to  compare  his 
demonstration  of  the  basclc^ness  of  Sir  R.  Filmer's  speculations 
with  the  scanty  and  doubtful  examples  which  he  accepts  as  the 
foundation  of  his  own.  But  in  general  the  various  forms  of  the 
hypothesis  eliminate  the  question  of  time  altogether.  The 
original  contract  from  which  government  sprang  is  likewise  the 
subsisting  contract  on  which  civil  society  continues  to  be  based. 
The  historical  weakness  of  the  theory  was  probably  always 
recognized.  Its  logical  inadequacy  was  conclusively  demon- 
strated by  John  Austin.  But  it  still  clings  to  speculations  on 
the  principles  of  government. 

The  "  social  compact "  (see  Roitsseau)  is  the  niost  famous 
of  the  metaphysical  explanations  of  government.  It  has  had 
the  largest  history,  the  widest  influence  and  the  most  complete 
development.  To  the  same  class  belong  the  various  forms  of 
the  theory  that  governments  exist  by  diyine  appointment. 
Of  all  that  has  been  written  about  the  divine  right  of  kings,  a 
great  deal  must  be  set  down  to  the  mere  flatteries  of  courtiers 
and  ecclesiastics.  But  there  remains  a  genuine  l>elief  that  men 
are  bound  to  obey  their  rtilers  because  their  rulers  have  been 
appcHnted  by  God.  Like  the  social  compact,  the  theory  of 
divine  appointment  avoided  the  question  of  historical  fact. 

The  application  of  the  historical  method  to  the  phenomena 
of  society  has  changed  the  aspect  of  the  question  and  robbed  it 
of  iu  poUtical  interest.  The  student  of  the  history  of  society  has 
00  formula  to  express  the  law  by  which  government  is  bom.  All 
that  he  can  do  is  to  trace  governmental  forms  through  various 
stages  of  social  development.  The  more  complex  and  the*  larger 
the  aodety,  the  more  distinct  is  the  separation  between  the 
governing 'part  and  the  rest,  and  the  more  elaborate  is  the 
subdivision  of  functions  in  the  government.  The  primitive 
type  of  ruler  is  king,  judge,  priest  and  general.  At  the  same 
time,  his  way  of  life  differs  little  from  that  of  his  followers  and 
subjects.  Themetaphysical  theories  were  so  far  right  in  imputing 
greater  equality  of  social  conditions  to  more  primitive  times. 
Increase  of  bulk  brings  with  it  a  more  complex  sodalorganization. 
War  tends  to  develop  the  strength  of  the  government^  organiza- 
tion; peace  relaxes  it.  All  societies  of  men  exhibit  the  germs 
of  government;  but  there  would  appear  to  be  races  of  men  so 
few  that  they  cannot  be  said  to  live  together  in  society  at  all. 
Modem  investigations  have  illustrated  very  fully  the  importance 
of  the  family  {q,v.)  in  primitive  societies,  and  the  belief  in  a 
common  descent  has  much  to  do  with  the  sodal  cohesion  of  a 
tribe.  The  government  of  a  tribe  resembles  the  government  of  a 
household;  the  head  of  the  family  is  the  ruler.  But  we  cannot 
affirm  that  political  government  has  its  origin  in  family  govern- 
ment, or  that  there  may  not  have  been  states  of  society  in 
which  government  of  some  sort  existed  while  the  family  did 
not. 


I.  Forks  or  GovEsmcBirT 

Three  Standard  Formj.— Political  writers  from  the  time  of 
Aristotle  have  been  singularly  unanimous  in  their  classification 
of  the  forms  of  government.  There  are  three  ways  in  which 
states  may  be  governed.  They  may  be  governed  by  one  man, 
or  by  a  number  of.men,  smaU  in  proportion  to  the  whole  number 
of  men  in  the  state,  or  by  a  number  large  in  proportion  to  the 
whole  number  of  men  in  the  state.  The  government  may  be 
a  monarchy,  an  aristocracy  or  a  democracy.  The  same  terms 
are  used  by  John  Austin  as  were  used  by  Aristotle,  and  in  very 
nearly  the  same  sense.  The  determining  quality  in  governments 
in  both  writers,  and  it  may  safely  be  said  in  all  intermediate 
writers,  is  the  numerical  relation  between  the  constituent 
members  of  the  government  and  the  population  of  the  state. 
There  were,  of  course,  enormous  differences  between  the  state- 
systems  present  to  the  mind  of  the  Greek  philosopher  and  the 
English  jurist.  Aristotle  was  thinking  of  the  small  independent 
states  of  Greece,  Austin  of  the  great  peoples  of  modem  Europe. 
The  unit  of  govemment  in  the  one  case  was  a  city,  in  the  other 
a  nation.  This  difference  is  of  itself  enough  to  invalidate  all 
generalization  founded  on  the  common  terminology.  But  on 
one  point  there  is  a  complete  parallel  between  the  politics  of 
Aristotle  and  the  politics  of  Austin.  The  Greek  cities  were  to 
the  rest  of  the  world  very  much  what  European  nations  and 
European  colonics  are  to  the  rest  of  the  world  now.  They  were 
the  only  communities  in  which  the  govemed  visibly  took  some 
share  in  the  work  of  government.  Outside  the  European  system, 
as  outside  the  Greek  system,  we  have  only  the  stereotyped 
uniformity  of  despotism,  whether  savage  or  civilized.  The 
question  of  forms  of  govemment,  therefore,  belongs  character- 
istically to  the  European  races.  The  virtues  and  defects  of 
monarchy,  aristocracy  and  democracy  are  the  virtues  and 
defects  manifested  by  the  historical  governments  of  Europe. 
The  generality  of  the  language  used  by  political  writers  must 
not  blind  us  to  the  fact  that  they  are  thinking  only  of  a  compara- 
tively small  portion  of  mankind. 

Greek  Politics. — Aristotle  divides  governments  according  to 
two  principles.  In  all  states  the  governing  power  seeks  either 
its  own  advantage  or  the  advantage  of  the  whole  state,  and 
the  government  is  bad  or  good  accordingly.  In  all  states  the 
governing  power  is  one  man,  or  a  few  men  or  many  men.  Hence 
six  varieties  of  government,  three  of  which  are  bad  and  three 
good.  Each  excellent  form  has  a  corresponding  depraved  form, 
thus: — 

The  good  govemment  of  one  (Monarchy)  corresponds  to  the 
depraved  form  (Tyranny). 

The  good  govemment  of  few  (Aristocracy)  correqx»nds  to 
the  depraved  form  (Oligarchy). 

The  good  government  of  many  (Commonwealth)  corresponds 
to  the  depraved  form  (Democracy). 

The  fault  of  the  depraved  forms  is  that  the  governors  act 
unjustly  where  their  own  interests  are  concerned.  The  worst 
of  the  depraved  forms  is  tyranny,  the  next  oUgarchy  and  the 
least  bad  democracy.^  Each  of  the  three  leading  types  exhibits 
a  number  of  varieties.  Thus  in  monarchy  we  have  the  heroic, 
the  barbaric,  the  elective  dictatorship,  the  Lacedemonian 
(hereditary  generalship,  arpannia),  and  absolute  monarchy. 
So  democracy  and  oligarchy  exhibit  four  corresponding  varieties. 
The  best  type  of  democracy  is  that  of  a  community  mainly 
agricultural,  whose  citizens,  therefore,  have  not  leisure  for 
political  affairs,  and  allow  the  law  to  rule.  The  best  oligarchy 
is  that  in  which  a  considerable  number  of  small  proprietors 
have  the  power;  here,  too,  the  laws  prevail.  The  worst 
democracy  consists  of  a  larger  citizen*  class  having  leisure  for 
politics;  and  the  worst  oligarchy  is  that  of  a  smaU  number  of 
very  rich  and  influential  men.  In  both  the  sphere  of  law  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  A  good  govemment  is  one  in  which 
as  much  as  possible  is  left  to  the  laws,  and  as  little  as  possible 
to  the  will  of  the  governor. 

*  Aristotle  eliewhere  speaks  of  the  error  of  those  who  think  that 
any  one  of  the  depraved  forms  is  better  than  any  other. 


29+ 


GOVERNMENT 


Tbe  PolUies  of  Anstotle,  from  which  these  principles  are 
taken,  presents  a  striking  picture  of  the  variety  and  activity 
of  political  life  in  tbe  free  communities  of  Greece.  The  king  and 
council  of  heroic  times  had  disappeared,  and  self-government 
in  some  form  or  other  was  the  general  rule.  It  is  to  be  noticed, 
however,  that  the  governments  of  Greece  were  essentially 
unstable.  The  political  philosophers  could  lay  down  the  law 
of  development  by  which  one  form  of  government  gives  birth 
to  another.  Aristotle  devotes  a  large  portion  of  his  work  to 
the  consideration  of  the  causes  of  revolutions.  The  dread  of 
tyranny  was  kept  alive  by  the  facility  with*  which  an  over- 
powerful  and  unscrupulous  citizen  could  seize  the  whole  machinery 
of  government.  Communities  oscillated  between  some  form  of 
oligarchy  and  some  form  of  democracy.  The  security  of  each 
was  constantly  imperilled  by  the  conspiracies  of  the  opposing 
factions.  Hence,  although  political  life  exhibits  that  exuberant 
variety  of  form  and  expression  which  characterizes  all  the  in- 
tellectual products  of  Greece,  it  lacks  the  quality  of  persistent 
progress.  Then  there  was  nb  approximation  to  a  national 
government,  even  of  the  federal  type.  The  varying  confederacies 
and  hegemonies  are  the  nearest  approach  to  anything  of  the  kind. 
What  kind  of  national  government  would  ultimately  have  arisen 
if  Greece  had  not  been  crushed  it  is  needless  to  conjecture; 
the  true  interest  of  Greek  politics  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  free 
citizens  were,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word,  self-governed. 
Each  citizen  took  his  turn  at  the  common  business  of  the  state. 
He  spoke  his  own  views  in  the  agora,  and  from  time  to  time 
in  his  own  person  acted  as  magistrate  or  judge.  Citizenship 
in  Athens  was  a  liberal  education,  such  as  it  never  can  be  made 
under  any  representative  system. 

The  Government  of  Rome, — During  the  whole  period  of  freedom 
the  government  of  Rome  was,  in  theory  at  least,  municipal 
self-government.  Each  citizen  had  a  right  to  vote  laws  in  his 
own  person  in  the  comitia  of  the  centuries  or  the  tribes.  The 
administrative  powers  of  government  were,  however,  in  the  hands 
of  a  bureaucratic  assembly,  recruited  from  the  holders  of  high 
public  office.  The  senate  represented  capacity  and  experience 
rather  than  rank  and  wealth.  Without  some  such  instrument 
the  city  government  of  Rome  could  never  have  made  the  conquest 
of  the  world.  The  gradual  extension  of  tbe  citizenship  to  other 
Italians  changed  the  character  of  Roman  government.  The 
distant  citizens  could  not  come  to  the  voting  booths;  the  device 
of  representation  was  not  disa>vered;  and  the  comitia  fell  into 
the  power  of  the  town  voters.  In  the  last  stage  of  the  Roman 
republic,  the  inhabitants  of  one  town  wielded  the  resources  of 
a  world-wide  empire.  We  can  imagine  what  would  be  the  eflfect 
of  leaving  to  the  people  of  London  or  Paris  the  supreme  control 
of  the  British  empire  or  of  France, — irresistible  temptation, 
inevitable  corruption.  The  rabble  of  the  capital  learn  to  live 
on  the  rest  of  the  empire.*  The  favour  of  the  effeminate  masters 
of  the  world  is  purchased  by  panem  ei  cireenses.  That  capable 
officers  and  victorious  armies  diould  long  be  content  to  serve 
such  masters  was  impossible.  A  conspiracy  of  generals  placed 
Itself  at  the  head  of  affairs,  and  the  most  capable  of  them  made 
himself  sole  master.  Under  Caesar,  Augustus  and  Tiberius, 
the  Roman  people  became  habituated  to  a  new  form  of  govern- 
ment, which  is  best  described  by  the  name  of  Caesarism.  The 
outward  forms  of  republican  government  remained,  but  one 
man  united  in  his  own  person  all  the  leading  offices,  and  used 
them  to  give  a  seemingly  legal  title  to  what  was  essentially 
military  despotism.  There  is  no  more  interesting  constitutional 
study  than  the  chapters  in  which  Tacitus  traces  the  growth 
of  the  new  system  under  the  subtle  and  dissimulating  intellect 
of  Tiberius.  The  new  Roman  empire  was  as  full  of  fictions  as 
the  English  constitution  of  the  present  day.  The  master  of  the 
world  posed  as  the  humble  servant  of  a  menial  senate.    Dq>re- 

*  None  of  the  free  states  of  Greece  ever  made  extensive  or  per- 
manent conquests;  but  the  tribute  sometimes  paid  by  one  state  to 
another  (as  by  the  Aeginetans  to  the  Athenians)  was  a  manifest  source 
of  comiptioQ.  Compare  the  remarks  of  Hume  {Essays,  part  i.  3,  ThtU 
PotiUcs  may  be  reduced  to  a  Science),  "  free  governments  are  the  most 
ruinous  and  oppressive  for  their  provinces/* 


eating  the  outward  symbols  of  sovereignty,  he  was  satisfied  with 
the  modest  powers  of  a  consul  or  a  tribunus  plebis.  The  reign 
of  Tiberius,  little  capable  as  he  was  by  personal  character  of 
tapUvating  the  favour  of  the  multitude,  did  more  for  imperialism 
than  was  done  by  his  more  famous  predecessors.  Henceforward 
free  government  all  over  the  world  lay  crushed  beneath  the 
military  despotism  of  Rome.  Caesarism  remained  true  to  the 
character  imposed  upon  it  by  its  origin.  The  Caesar  was  an 
elective  not  an  hereditary  king.  The  real  foundation  of  his 
power  was  the  army,  and  the  army  in  course  of  time  openly 
assumed  the  right  of  nominating  the  sovereign.  The  character- 
istic weakness  of  the  Roman  empire  was  the  uncertainty  of  the 
succession.  The  nomination  of  a  Caesar  in  the  lifetime  of  the 
emperor  was  an  ineffective  remedy.  Rival  emperora  were 
dected  by  different  armies;  and  nothing  less  than  the  force 
of  arms  could  decide  the  question  between  them. 

Modem  Cottmmenls. — Feudalism. — The  Roman  empire  be- 
queathed to  modern  Eur^  the  theory  of  universal  dominion. 
The  nationalities  which  grew  up  after  its  fall  arranged  themselves 
on  the  basis  of  territorial  sovereignty.  Leaving  out  of  account 
the  free  mtmidpalities  of  the  middle  ages,  tbe  problem  of  govern- 
ment had  now  to  be  solved,  not  for  small  urban  communities, 
but  for  large  territorial  nations.  The  medieval  form  of  govern- 
ment was  f^dal.  One  common  type  pervaded  all  the  relations 
of  life.  The  relation  of  king  and  loid  was  like  the  relation  between 
lord  and  vassal  (see  Feudausm).  The  bond  between  them 
was  the  tenure  of  land.  In  England  there  had  been,  before 
the  Norman  Conquest,  an  approximation  to  a  feudal  system. 
In  the  earlier  English  constitution,  the  most  striking  features 
were  the  power  of  the  witan,  and  the  common  property  of  the 
nation  in  a  large  portion  of  the  soil.  The  steady  development 
of  the  power  of  the  king  kept  pace  with  the  aggregation  of  the 
English  tribes  under  one  king.  The  conception  that  the  land 
belonged  primarily  to  the  people  gave  way  to  the  conception 
that  everything  belonged  primarily  to  the  king.*  The  Norman 
Conquest  imposed  on  England  the  already  highly  developed 
feudalism  of  France,  and  out  of  this  feudalism  the  free  govern- 
ments of  modem  Europe  have  grown.  One  or  two  of  the  leading 
steps  in  this  process  may  be  indicated  here.  The  first,  and 
perhaps  the  most  important,  was  the  device  of  representation. 
For  an  account  of  its  origin,  and  for  instances  of  its  use  in  En^nd 
before  its  application  to  politics,  we  must  be  content  to  refer 
to  Stubbs's  Consiilutional  History,  voL  ii.  The  problem  of  com- 
bining a  large  area  of  sovereignty  with  some  degree  of  self- 
government,  which  had  proved  fatal  to  andent  commonwealths, 
was  henceforward  solved.  From  that  time  some  form  of  repre- 
sentation has  been  deemed  essential  to  every  constitution 
professing,  however  remotely,  to  be  free. 

The  connexion  between  representation  and  the  feudal  system 
of  estates  must  be  shortly  noticed.  The  feudal  theory  gave  the 
king  a  limited  right  to  military  service  and  to  certain  Aids,  both 
of  which  were  utterly  inadequate  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the 
government,  especially  in  time  of  war.  The  king  therefore 
had  to  get  contributions  from  jiis  people,  and  he  consulted 
them  in  their  respective  orders.  The  three  estates  were  simply 
the  three  natural  divisions  of- the  people,  and  Stubbs  has  pointed 
out  that,  in  the  occasional  treaties  between  a  necessitous  king 
and  the  order  ol  merchants  or  lawyers,  we  have  examples  of 
inchoate  esutes  or  sub-esutes  of  the  realm.  The  right  of  repre- 
sentation was  thus  in  its  origin  a  right  to  consent  to  taxation. 
The  pure  theory  of  feudalism  had  from  the  b^inning  been 
broken  by  William  the  Conqueror  causing  all  free-holders  to 
take  an  oath  of  direct  allegiance  to  himself.  The  institution  of 
parliaments,  and  the  association  of  the  king's  smaller 
tenants  mi  capite  with  other  commoners,  still  further  removed  the 

*  Ultimately,  in  the  theory  of  English  law,  the  king  may  be  said  to 
have  become  tbe  universal  successor- of  the  people.  Some  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  prerogative  rights  seem  to  be  explainable  only 
on  this  view,  e.i.  the  curious  distinction  between  wrecks  come  to 
land  and  wrecks  still  on  water.  The  common  right  to  wreckage  «-as 
no  doubt  the  origin  of  the  prerogative  xijiYkt  to  tbe  former.  Every 
ancient  common  right  has  come  to  be  a  right  of  the  crown  or  a  right 
held  of  the  crown  by  a  vassal. 


GOVERNMENT 


29s 


govemttient  from  the  purely  feudal  type  in  which  the  mesne  lord 
stands  between  the  inferior  vassal  and  the  king. 

Parliamentary  Gooemmenl. — The  English  System. — The  right 
of  the  commons  to  share  the  power  of  the  king  and  lords  in 
legislation,  the  exclusive  right  of  the  commons  to  impose  taxes, 
the  disappearance  of  the  dergy  as  a  separate  order,  were  all 
important  steps  in  the  movement  towards  popular  government. 
The  extinction  of  the  old  feudal  nobility  in  the  d3mastic  wars  of 
the  X5th  century  simplified  the  question  by  leaving  the  crown 
face  to  face  with  parliament.  The  immediate  result  was  no 
doubt  an  increase  in  the  power  of  the  crown,  which  probably 
never  stood  higher  than  it  did  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
Elizabeth;  but  even  these  powerful  monarchs  were  studious 
in  their  regard  for  parliamentary  conventionalities.  After  a 
long  period  of  speculative  controversy  and  civil  war,  the  settle-, 
ment  of  x683  established  limited  monarchy,  as  the  government 
of  England.  Since  that  time  the  external  form  of  government 
has  remained  unchanged,  and,  80  far  as  legal  description  goes, 
the  constitution  of  William  III.  might  be  taken  for  the  same 
system  as  that  which  still  exists.  The  silent  changes  have, 
however,  been  enormous.  The  most  striking  of  these,  and  that 
which  has  produced  the  most  salient  features  of  the  English 
system,  is  the  growth  of  cabinet  government.  Intimately  con* 
nected  with  this  is  the  rise  of  the  two  great  historical  parties  of 
English  politics.  The  nonnal  state  of  government  in  England 
is  that  the  cabinet  of  the  day  shall  represent  that  which  is,  for 
the  time,  the  stronger  of  the  two.  Before  the  Revolution  the 
king's  ministers  had  begun  to  act  as  a  united  body;  but  even 
after  the  Revolution  the  union  was  still  feeble  and  fluctuating, 
and  each  individual  minister  was  bound  to  the  others  only  by 
the  tie  of  common  service  to  the  king.  Under  the  Hanoverian 
sovereigns  the  ministry  became  consolidated,  the  position  of 
the  cabinet  became  definite,  and  its  dependence  on  parliament, 
and  more  particularly  on  the  House  of  Commons,  was  established. 
Ministers  were  chosen  exclusively  from  one  house  or  the  other, 
and  they  assumed  complete  responsibility  for  every  act  done 
in  the  name  of  the  crown.  The  simplicity  of  EngUsh  politics 
has  dividttl  parliament  into  the  representatives  of  two  parties, 
and  the  party  in  opposition  has  been  steadied  by  the  conscious- 
ness that  it,  too,  has  constitutional  functions  of  high  importance, 
because  at  any  moment  it  may  be  called  to  provide  a  ministry. 
Criticism  is  sobered  by  being  made  responsible.  Along  with 
this  movement  went  the  withdrawal  of  the  personal  action  of 
the  sovereign  in  politics.  No  king  has  attempted  to  veto  a 
bill  since  the  Scottish  Militia  Bill  was  vetoed  by  Queen  Anne. 
No  ministry  has  been  dismissed  by  the  sovereign  since  1834. 
Whatever  the  power  of  the  sovereign  may  be,  it  is  unquestionably 
limited  to  his  personal  influence  over  his  ministers.  And  it 
must  be  remembered  that  since  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  ministers 
have  become,  in  practice,  responsible  ultimately,  not  to  parlia- 
ment, but  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Apart,  therefore,  from 
democratic  changes  due  to  a  wider  suffrage,  we  find  that  the 
House  of  Commons,  as  a  body,  gradually  made  itself  the  centre 
of  the  government.  Since  the  area  of  the  constitution  has  been 
enlarged,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  orthodox  descriptions 
of  the  government  any  longer  apply.  The  earlier  constitutional 
writers,  such  as  Blackstone  and  J.  L.  Delolme,  regard  it  as'  a 
wonderful  compound  of  the  three  standard  forms, — monarchy, 
aristocracy  and  democracy.  Each  has  its  place,  and  each  acts 
as  a  check  upon  the  others.  Hume,  discussing  the  question 
"  Whether  the  British  government  inclines  more  to  absolute 
monarchy  or  to  a  republic,"  decides  in  favour  of  the  former 
alternative.  "  The  tide  has  run  long  and  with  some  rapidity 
to  the  side  of  popular  government,  and  is  just  beginning  to 
tarn  toward  monarchy."  And  he.gives  it  as  his  own  opinion 
that  absolute  monarchy  would  be  the  easiest  death,  the  true 
euthanasia  of  the  British  constitution.  These  views  of  the 
English  government  in  the  i8th  century  may  be  contrasted 
with  Bagehot's  sketch  of  the  modem  government  as  a  working 
instrument.' 

■See   Bagehot's  English  CMstitutiem;  or,  for  a  more  recent 
■aalysih  Siooey  Low's  C^^ernance  eif  Emgfand, 


Leading  Features  of  ParliamerUary  Government, — The  parlia- 
mentary government  developed  by  England  out  of  feudal 
materids  has  been  deliberately  accepted  as  the  type  of  constitu- 
tional government  all  over  the  worid.  Its  leading  features  are 
popular  representation  more  or  less  extensive,  a  bicameral 
legislature,  and  a  cabinet  or  consolidated  ministry.  In  connexion 
with  all  of  these,  numberless  questions  of  the  highest  practical 
importance  have  arisen,  the  bare  enumeration  of  which  would 
surpass  the  limits  of  our  space.  We  shall  confine,  ourselves  to 
a  few  very  general  considerations. 

The  Two  Chambers.— Tint,  as  to  the  douole  ciumiber.  This, 
which  is  perhaps  more  accidental  than  any  other  portion  of 
the  British  system,  has  been  the  most  widely  imitated.  In  most 
European  countries,  in  the  British  colonies,  in  the  United 
States  Congress,  and  in  the  separate  states  of  the  Union,*  there 
are  two  houses  of  legislature.  This  result  has  been  brought 
about  partly  by  natural  imitation  <^  the  accepted  type  of  free 
government,  partly  from  a  conviction  that  the  second  chamber 
will  moderate  the  democratic  tendencies  of  the  first.  But  the 
elements  of  the  British  original  cannot  be  reproduced  to  order 
under  different  conditions.  There  have,  indeed,  been  a  few 
attempts  to  imitate  the  special  character  of  hereditary  nobility 
attaching  to  the  Britbh  House  of  Lords.  In  some  cotmtries, 
where  the  feudal  tradition  is  still  strong  (e.g.  Prussia,  Austria, 
Hungary),  the  hereditary  element  in  the  upper  chambers  has 
survived  as  truly  representative  of  actual  social  and  economic 
relations.  But  where  these  social  conditions  do  not  obtain 
{e.gy,  in  France  after  the  Revolution)  the  attempt  to  establish 
an  hereditary  peerage  on  the  Brituh  model  has  always  failed. 
For  the  peculiajr  solidarity  between  the  British  nobility  and  the 
general  mass  of  the  people,  the  outcome  of  special  conditions 
and  tendencies,  is  a  result  beyond  the  power  of  constitution- 
maken  to  attain.  The  British  system  too,  after  its  own  way, 
has  for  a  long  period  worked  without  any  serious  collision 
between  the  Houses, — the  standing  and  obvious  danger  of  the 
bicameral  system.  The  actual  ministers  of  the  day  must  possess 
the  confidence  of  the  House  of  Commons;  they  ne^  not — in  fact' 
they  often  do  not — possess  the  confidence  of  the  House  of  Lords. 
It  is  only  in  legislation  that  the  Lower  House  really  shares  its 
powen'with  the  Upper;  and  (apart  from  any  such  change  in 
the  constitution  as  was  suggested  in  1907  by  Sir  H.  Campbell- 
Bannerman)  the  constitution  possesses,  in  the  unlimited  poyrcr 
of  nominating  peen,  a  well-understood  last  resource  diould 
the  House  of  Lords  persist. in  refusing  important  measures 
demanded  by  the  representatives  of  the  people.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  it  is  well  understood  that  the  real  sovereignty  lies 
with  the  people  (the  electorate),  and  the  House  of  Lords 
recognizes  the  principle  that  it  must  accept  a  measure  when  the 
popular  will  has  been  clearly  expressed.  In  all  but  measures 
of  first-class  importance,  however,  the  House  of  Lords  is  a  real 
second  chamber,  and  i^  these  there  is  little  danger  of  a  collision 
between  the  Houses.  There  is  the  widest  possible  difference 
between  the  British  and  any  other  second  chamber.  In  the 
United  States  the  Senate  (constituted  on  the  system  of  equal 
representation  of  states)  is  the  more  Important  of  the  two 
Houses,  and  the  only  one  whose  control  of  the  executive  can  be 
compared  to  that  exercised  by  the  British  House  of  Commons. 

The  real  strength  of  popular  government  in  England  lies  in 
the  ultimate  supremacy  of  the  House  of  Commons.  That 
supremacy  had  been  acquired,  perhaps  to  its  full  extent,  before 
the  extension  of  the  suffrage  made  the  constituencies  democratic. 
Foreign  imitators,  it  may  be  observed,  have  bctjen  more  ready  to 
accept  a  wide  basis  of  representation  than  to  confer  real  power 
on  the  representative  body.  In  all  the  monarchical  countries 
of  Europe,  however  unrestricted  the  right  of  suffrage  may  be, 
the  real  victoo'  of  constitutional  government  has  yet  to  be  won. 
Where  the  suffrage  means  little  or  nothing,  there  is  little  or  no 
reason  for  guarding  it  against  abuse.  The  independence  of  the 
executive  in  the  United  Sutes  brings  that  country,  from  one 

'  For  an  account  of  the  double  chamber  system  in  the  state  legis- 
latures see  United  Statbs:  CmMitution  and  Government,  and  also 
S.  G.  Fisher.  TheEtobaion  of  the  Constitution  (Philadelphia,  1897), 


296 


GOVERNMENT 


point  of  view,  more  near  to  the  state  system  of  the  continent 
of  Europe  than  to  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  people 
make  a  more  complete  surrender  of  power  to  the  government 
(State  or  Federal)  than  is  done  in  England. 

Cabinet  GovemmeiU.—Tht  peculiar  functions  of  the  English 
cabinet  are  not  easily  matched  in  any  foreign  system.  They  are 
a  mystery  even  to  most  educated  Englii^men.  The  cabinet 
iq.v.)  is  much  more  than  a  body  consisting  of  chiefs  of  depart- 
ments. It  is  the  inner  council  of  the  empire,  the  arbiter  of 
national  policy,  foreign  or  domestic,  the  sovereign  in  commission. 
The  whole  power  of  the  House  of  Commons  is  concentrated  in 
its  hands.  At  the  same  time,  it  has  no  place  whatever  in  the 
legal  constitution.  Its  numbers  and  its  constitution  are  not 
fixed  even  by  any  rule  of  practice.  It  keeps  no  record  of  its 
proceedings.  The  relations  of  an  individual  minister  to  the 
cabinet,  and  of  the  cabinet  to  its  head  and  creator,  the  premier, 
are  things  known  only  to  the  initiated.  With  the  doubtful 
exception  of  France,  no  other  system  of  government  presents 
us  with  anything  like  its  equivalent.  In  the  United  States, 
as  in  the  European  monarchies,  we  have  a  council  of  ministers 
surrounding  the  chief  of  the  state. 

Change  of  Power  in  ike  English  System. — One  of  the  most 
difficult  problems  of  government  Is  how  to  provide  for  the 
devolution  of  political  power,  and  perhaps  no  other  question 
is  so  generally  and  justly  applied  as  the  test  of  a  working  con- 
stitutioni  If  the  transmission  works  smoothly,  the  constitution, 
whatever  may  be  its  other  defects,  may  at  least  be  pronounced 
stable.  It  would  be  tedious  to  eniuncrate  all  the  contrivances 
which  this  problem  has  suggested  to  political  societies.  Here, 
as  usual,  oriental  despotism  stands  at  the  bottom  of  the  scale. 
When  sovereign  power  is  imputed  to  one  family,  and  the  law 
of  succession  fails  to  designate  exclusively  the  individual  entitled 
to  succeed,  assassination  becomes  almost  a  necessary  measure 
of  precaution.  The  prince  whom  chance  or  intrigue  has  pro- 
moted to  the  throne  of  a  father  or  an  uncle  must  make  hlxnself 
safe  from  his  relatives  and  competitors.  Hence  the  scenes 
which  shock  the  European  conscience  when  "  Amurath  an 
Amurath  succeeds."  The  strong  monarchical  governments 
of  Europe  have  been  saved  from  this  evil  by  an  indisputable 
law  of  succession,  which  macks  out  from  his  infancy  the  next 
successor  to  the  throne.  The  king  names  his  ministers,  and  the 
law  names  the  king.  In  popular  or  constitutional  governments 
far  more  elaborate  precautions  are  required.  It  is  one  of  the  real 
merits  of  the  English  constitution  that  it  has  solved  this  problem 
— ^in  a  roundabout  way  perhaps,  after  its  fashion — ^but  with  per- 
fect success.  The  ostensible  seat  of  power  is  the  throne,  and 
down  to  a  time  not  long  distant  the  demise  of  the  crown  suspended 
all  the  other  powers  of  the  state.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  the 
real  change  of  power  occurs  on  a  change  of  ministry.  The  con- 
stitutional practice  of  the  19th  century  settled,  beyond  the 
reach  of  controversy,  the  occasions  on  which  a  ministry  is  bound 
to  retire.  It  must  resign  or  dissolve  when  it  is  defeated  ^  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  if  after  a  dissolution  it  is  beaten  again, 
it  must  resign  without  alternative.  It  may  resign  if  it  thinks  its 
majority  in  the  House  of  Commons  not  sufficiently  large.  The 
dormant  functions  of  the  crown  now  come  into  existence.  It 
receives  back  political  power  from  the  old  ministry  in  order  to 
transmit  it  to  the  new.  When  the  new  ministry  is  to  be  formed, 
and  how  it  is  to  be  formed,  is  also  clearly  settled  by  established 
practice.  The  outgoing  premier  names  his  successor  by  recom- 
mending the  king  to  consult  him;  and  that  successor  must  be 
the  recognized  leader  of  his  successful  rivals.  All  this  is  a 
matter  of  custom,  not  of  law;  and  it  is  doubtful  if  any  two 
authorities  could  agree  in  describing  the  custom  in  language 
of  precision.  In  theory  the  monarch  may  send  for  any  one 
he  pleases,  and  charge  him  with  the  formation  of  a  government; 
but  the  ability  to  form  a  g6vernment  restricts  this  liberty  to 
the  recognised  head  of  a  party,  subject  to  there  being  such  an 
individuaL    It  is  certain  that  the  intervention  of  the  crown 

*  A  government  "  defeat  *•  may,  of  course,  not  really  represent  a 
hostile  vote  in  exceptional  cases,  and  in  some  instances  a  government 
has  obtained  a  reversal  of  the  vote  and  has  not  resigned. 


facilitates  the  transfer  of  power  from  one  party  to  another:  by 
giving  it  the  appearance  of  a  mere  change  of  servants.  The 
real  disturbance  is  that  caused  by  the  appeal  to  the  electors. 
A  general  election  is  alwa^  a  struggle  between  the  great  political 
parties  for  the  possession  of  the  powers  of  government.  It 
may  be  noted  that  modem  practice  goes  far  to  establish  the  rule 
that  a  ministry  beaten  at  the  hustings  should  resign  at  once 
without  waiting  for  a  formal  defeat  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  English  custom  makes  the  ministry  dependent  on  the  will 
of  the  House  of  Commons;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  House 
of  Commons  itself  is  dependent  on  the  will  of  the  ministry.  In 
the  last  result  both  depend  on  the  will  of  the  constituencies, 
as  caressed  at  the  general  election.  There  is  no  fixity  in  either 
direction  in  the  tenure  of  a  ministry.  It  may  be  chidlenged  at 
any  moment,  and  it  huts  until  it  is  challenged  and  beaten.  And 
that  there  should  be  a  ministry  and  a  House  of  Commons  in 
harmony  with  each  other  but  out  of  harmony  with  the  people  is 
rendered  all  but  impossible  by  the  law  and  the  practice  as  to 
the  duration  of  parlUments. 

Change  of  Power  in  the  United  Stales.— Tht  United  Sutes 
offers  a  very  different  solution  of  the  problem.  Tlie  American 
president  is  at  once  king  and  prime  minister;  and  there  is  no 
titular  superior  to  act  as  a  conduit-pipe  between  him  and  his 
successor.  His  crown  is  rigidly  fixed;  he  can  be  removed  only 
by  the  difficult  method  of  impeachment.  No  hostile  vote 
on  matters  of  legislation  can  affect  his  position.  But  the  end  of 
his  term  is  known  from  the  first  day  of  his  government;  and 
almost  before  he  begins  to  reign  the  political  forces  of  the  country^ 
are  shaping  out  a  new  struggle  for  the  succession.  Further,  a' 
change  of  government  in  America  means  a  considerable  change 
in  the  administrative  staff  (sec  Civil  Service).  The  com- 
motion caused  by  a  presidential  election  in  the  United  Stales 
is  thus  infinitely  greater  and  more  prolonged  than  that  caused 
by  a  general  election  in  England.  A  change  of  power  in  England 
affects  comparatively  few  personal  interests,  and  absorbs  the 
attention  of  the  country  for  a  comparatively  short  space  of  time. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  long  foreseen  and  elaborately  prepared 
for,  and  when  it  comes  it  involves  the  personal  fortunes  of  large 
numbers  of  citizens.  And  yet  the  British  constitution  is  more 
democratic  than  the  American,  in  the  sense  that  the  popular 
will  can  more  speedily  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  government. 

Change  of  Power  in  France. — ^The  established  practice  of 
England  and  America  may  be  compared  with  the  constitutional- 
ism of  France.  Here  the  problem  presents  different  conditions. 
The  head  of  the  state  is  neither  a  premier  of  the  English,  nor 
a  president  of  the  American  type.  He  is  served  by  a  prime 
minister  and  a  cabinet,  who,  like  an  English  ministry,  hold  office 
on  the  condition  of  parliamentary  confidence;  but  he  holds 
office  himself  on  the  same  terms,  and  is,  in  fact,  a  minister  like 
the  others.  So  far  as  the  transmission  of  power  from  cabinet 
to  cabinet  is  concerned,  he  discharges  the  fimctions  of  an  English 
king.  But  the  transmission  of  power  between  himself  and  his 
successor  is  protected  by  no  constitutional  devices  whatever, 
and  experience  would  seem  to  show  that  no  such  devices  are 
really  necessary.  Other  European  countries  professing  con- 
stitutional government  appear  to  follow  the  English  practice. 
The  Swiss  republic  is  so  peculiarly  situated  that  it  is  hardly  fair  to 
compare  it  with  any  other.  But  it  is  interesting  to  note  that, 
while  the  rulers  of  the  states  are  elected  annually,  the  same 
persons  are  generally  re-elected. 

The  Relation  between  Government  and  Laws. — It  might  he 
supposed  that,  if  any  general  proposition  could  be  establish^i 
about  government,  it  would  be  one  establishing  some  constant 
relation  between  the  form  of  a  government  and  the  character 
of  the  laws  which  it  enforces.  The  technical  language  of  the 
English  school  of  jurists  is  certainly  of  a  kind  to  encourage  such 
a  supposition.  The  entire  body  of  law  in  force  in  a  country 
at  any  moment  is  regarded  as  existing  solely  by  the  fiat  of  the 
governing  power.  There  is  no  maxim  mon;  entirely  in  the  spirit 
of  this  jurisprudence  than  the  following: — "  The  real  legislator 
is  not  he  by  whom  the  law  was  first  ordained,  but  he  by  whose 
will  it  continues  to  be  law."    The  whole  of  the  vast  repertory 


GOVERNMENT 


297 


of  niles  which  make  up  the  law  of  England — the  rules  of  practice 
in  the  courts,  the  local  customs  of  a  county  or  a  manor,  the 
principles  formulated  by  the  sagadty  of  generations  of  judges, 
equally  with  the  statutes  for  the  year,  are  conceived  of  by  the 
school  of  Austin  as  created  by  the  will  of  the  sovereign  and  the 
two  Houses  of  Parliament,  or  so  much'  of  them  as  would  no# 
satisfy  the  definition  of  sovereignty.  It  would  be  out  of  place 
to  examine  here  the  difficidties  which  onbarrass  this  definition, 
but  the  statement  we  have  made  carries  on  its  face  a  demonstrar 
tion  of  its  own  fabity  in  fact.  There  is  probably  no  government 
in  the  world  of  which  it  could  be  said  that  it  might  change  at 
will  the  substantive  laws  of  the  country  and  still  remain  a 
government.  However  well  it  may  suit  thepurposesof  analytical 
jurisprudence  to  define  a  law  as  a  command  set  by  sovereign  to 
subject,  we  must  not  forget  that  this  is  only  a  definition,  and  that 
the  assumption  it  rests  upon  is,  to  the  student  of  society,  any- 
thing but  a  universal  fact.  From  his  point  of  view  the  cause  of 
a  particular  law  is  not  one  but  many,  and  of  the  many  the  deliber- 
ate will  of  a  legislator  may  not  be  one.  Sir  Henry  Maine  has 
illustrated  this  point  by  the  case  of  the  great  tax-gathering 
empires  of  the  east,  in  which  the  absolute  master  of  millions 
of  men  never  dreams  of  making  anything  in  the  nature  of  a  law 
at  all.  lliis  view  is  no  doubt  as  strange  to  the  English  statesman 
as  to  the  English  jurist.  The  most  conspicuous  work  of  govern- 
ment in  his  view  is  that  of  parliamentary  legislation.  For  a 
large  portion  of  the  year  the  attention  of  the  whole  people  is 
bent  on  the  operations  of  a  body  of  men  who  are  constantly 
engaged  in  making  new  laws.  It  is  natural,  therefore,  to  think 
of  law  as  a  factitious  thing,  made  and  unmade  by  the  people 
who  happen  for  the  time  being  to  constitute  parliament.  It  is 
forgotten  how  small  a  proportion  the  laws  actually  devised  by 
parliament  are  of  the  law  actually  prevailing  in  the  land.  No 
European  country  has  undergone  so  many  (Ganges  in  the  form 
of  government  as  France.  It  is  surprising  how  little  effect  these 
political  revolutions  have  had  on  the  body  of  French  law. 
The  change  from  empire  to  republic  is  not  marked  by  greater 
legislative  effects  .than  the  change  from  a  Conservative  to  a 
Liberal  ministry  in  England  would  be. 

These  reflections  should  make  us  cautious  in  accepting  any 
general  proposition  about  forms  of  government  and  the  spirit 
ctf  their  laws.  We  must  remember,  also,  that  the  classification 
of  governments  according  to  the  numerical  proportion  between 
governors  and  governed  supplies  but  a  small  basis  for  generaliza- 
tion. What  parallel  can  be  drawn  between  a  small  town,  in  which 
half  the  population  are  slaves,  and  every  freeman  has  a  direct 
voice  in  the  government,  and  a  great  modem  state,  in  which 
there  is  not  a  single  slave,  while  freemen  exercise  their  sovereign 
powers  at  long  intervals,  and  through  the  action  of  delegates 
and  representatives  ?  Propositions  as  vague  as  those  of  Montes- 
quieu may  indeed  be  asserted  with  more  or  less  plausibility. 
But  to  take  any  leading  head  of  positive  law,  and  to  say  that 
monarchies  treat  it  in  one  way,  aristocracies  and  democracies 
in  another,  is  a  different  matter. 

IL  Sphere  or.  Goveknment 

The  action  of  the  state,  or  sovereign  power,  or  government 
in  a  dvilized  community  shapes  itself  into  the  threefold  functions 
of  legislation,  judicature  and  administration.  The  two  first 
are  perfectly  well-defined,  and  the  last  includes  all  the  kinds 
fA  state  action  not  included  in  the  other  two.  It  is  with  reference 
to  legislation  and  administration  that  the  line  of  permissible 
state-action  requires  to  be  drawn.  There  is  no  doubt  about  the 
province  of  the  judicatiuv,  and  that  function  of  government 
may  therefore  be  dismissed  ^th  a  very  few  observations. 

The  complete  separation  of  the  three  functions  marks  a 
high  point  of  social  organization.  In  .simple  societies  the  same 
officers  discharge  all  the  duties  which  we  divide  between  the 
legislator,  the  administrator  and  the  judge.  The  acts  them- 
selves are  not  consciously  recognized  as  being  of  different  kinds. 
The  evolution  of  aU  the  parts  of  a  highly  complex  government 
from  one  original  is  illtistrated  in  a  striking  way  by  the  history 
of  English  institutions.    All  the  conspicuous  parts  of  the  modem 


government,  however  little  they  may  resemble  each  other  now, 
can  be  followed  back  without  a  br^  to  their  common  origin. 
Parliament,  the  cabinet,  the  privy  council,  the  courts  of  law, 
all  carry  us  back  to  the  same  nidus  in  the  council  of  the  feudal 
king. 

Judicature. — ^The  business  of  judicature,  requiring  as  it  does 
the  possession  of  a  high  degree  of  technical  skill  and  knowledge, 
is  generally  entrusted  by  the  sovereign  body  or  people  to  a 
separate  and  independent  dass  of  functionaries.  In  England 
the  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  House  of  Lords  still  maintains 
in  theory  the  connexion  between  the  sufxeme  legislative  and  the 
supreme  judicial  functions.  In  some  states  of  the  American  Union 
certain  judidal  functions  of  the  upper  house  were  for  a  time  main- 
tained after  the  example  of  the  English  constitution  as  it  existed 
when  the  states  were  founded.  In  England  there  is  also  stUl 
a  considerable  amount  of  judicial  work  in  which  the  people  takes 
its  share.  The  inferior  magistrades,  except  in  populous  places, 
are  in  the  hands  of  private  persons.  And  by  the  jury  system 
the  ascertainment  of  fact  has  been  committed  in  very  large 
measure  to  persons  selected  indiscriminately  from  the  mass 
of  the  people,  subject  to  a  small  property  qualification.  But 
the  higher  functions  of  the  judicature  are  exercised  by  persons 
whom  the  law  has  jealously  fenttd  off  from  extemal  interference 
and  control.  The  independence  of  the  bench  dbtinguishes  the 
English  system  from  every  other.  It  was  established  in  principle 
as  a  barrier  against  monarchical  power,  and  hence  has  become 
one  of  the  traditional  ensigns  of  popular  government.  In  many 
of  the  American  states  the  spirit  of  democracy  has  demanded 
the  subjection  of  the  judiciary  to  popular  control.  The  judges 
are  dected  directly  by  the  people,  and  hold  office  for  a  short 
term,  instead  of  being  appointed,  as'  in  England,  by  the  re^Mns- 
ible  executive,  and  removable  only  by  a  vote  of  the  two  Houses. 
At  the  same  time  Che  constitution  of  the  United  States  has 
assigned  to  the  supreme  court  of  the  Union  a  perfectly  unique 
position.  The  supreme  court  is  the  guardian  of  the  constitution 
(as  are  the  state  courts  of  the  constitution  of  the  states;  see 
United  States).  It  has  to  judge  whether  a  measure  passed 
by  the  legislative  powers  is  not  void  by  reason  of  being  uncon- 
stitutional, and  it  may  therefore  have  to  veto  the  deliberate 
resolutions  of  both  Houses  of  Congress  and  the  president.  It 
is  admitted  that  this  singular  experiment  in  government  has  been 
completely  justified  by  its  success. 

Limits  of  State  Interference  in  Legislation  and  Administration.—' 
The  question  of  the  limits  of  state  action  does  not  arise  with 
reference  to  the  judiciary.  The  enforcement  of  the  laws  is  a 
duty  which  the  soverdgn  power  must  of  absolute  necessity 
take  upon  itself.  But  to  what  conduct  of  the  dtixens  the  laws 
shall  extend  is  the  most  perplexing  of  all  political  questions. 
The  corrdative  question  with  regard  to  the  executive  would 
be  what  works  of  public  convenience  should  the  state  imdcrtake 
through  its  own  servants.  The  whole  question  of  the  sphere 
of  government  may  be  stated  in  these  two  questions:  What 
should  the  state  do  for  its  dtizens  ?  and  How  far  should  the 
state  interfere  with  the  action  of  its  dtizens  ?  These  questions 
are  the  direct  outcome  of  modem  popular  govemment;  they 
are  equally  unknown  to  the  small  democracies  of  andent  times 
and  to  despotic  governments  at  all  times.  Accordingly  ancient 
political  philosophy,  rich  as  it  is  in  aU  kinds  of  suggestions, 
has  very  little  to  say  that  has  any  bearing  on  the  sphere  of 
government.  The  conception  that  the  power  of  the  state  can 
be  and  ought  to  be  limited  belongs  to  thft  times  of  "  govemment 
by  discussion,"  to  use  Bagchot's  expression, — to  the  time  when 
the  soverdgn  number  is  divided  by  dass  interests,  and  when 
the  action  of  the  majority  has  to  be  carried  out  in  the  face  of 
stfong  minorities,  capable  of  making  themsdves  heard.  Aristotle 
does  indeed  dwell  on  one  aspect  of  the  question.  He  would 
limit  the  action  of  the  govemment  in  the  sense  of  leaving  as  little 
as  possible  to  the  personal  will  of  the  governors,  whether  one 
or  many.  His  maxim  is  that  the  law  should  reign.  But  that  the 
sphere  of  law  itself  should  be  restricted,  otherwise  than  by 
general  prindples  of  morality,  is  a  consideration  wholly  foreign 
to  andent  philosophy.    The  sUte  is  conceived  as  acting  like 


298 


GOVERNOR— GOWER,  J. 


a  Just  man,  and  justice  in  the  state  is  the  same  thing  as  Justice 
in  the  individual.  The  Greek  institutions  which  the  philosophers 
are  unanimous  in  commending  are  precisely  those  which  the  most 
state-ridden  nations  of  modem  times  would  agree  in  repudiating. 
The  exhaustive  discussion  of  all  political  measures,  which  for 
over  two  centuries  has  been  a  fixed  habit  of  English:  public  life, 
has  of  itself  established  the  principle  that  there  are  assignable 
limits  to  the  action  of  the  state.  Not  that  the  limits  ever  have 
been  assigned  in  terms,  but  popular  sentiment  has  more  or 
less  vaguely  fenced  off  departments  of  conduct  as  sacred  from 
the  interference  of  the  law.  Phrases  like  "  the  liberty  of  the 
subject,"  the  "  sanctity  of  private  property,"  an  Englishman's 
house  is  his  castle,"  "  the  rights  of  conscience,"  are  the  common- 
places of  political  discussion,  and  tell  the  state,  "  Thus  far  shalt 
thou  go  and  no  further." 

The  two  contrasting  policies  are  those  of  laissorjain  (let 
alone)  and  Protection,  or  individualism  and  state-socialism, 
the  one  a  policy  of  non-interference  with  the  free  play  of  social 
forces,  the  other  of  their  regulation  for  the  benefit  of  the  com- 
munity. The  laiss€Mrfaire  theory  was  prominently  upheld  by 
John  Stuart  Mill,  whose  essay  on  Liberty^  together  with  the 
concluding  chapters  of  his  treatise  on  Political  Economy,  gives 
a  tolerably  complete  view  of  the  principles  of  government. 
There  is  a  general  presumption  against  the  interference  of  govern- 
ment, which  is  only  to  be  overcome  by  very  strong  evidence 
of  necessity.  Governmental  action  is  generally  less  effective 
than  voluntary  action.  The  necessary  duties  of  government 
are  so  burdensome,  that  to  increase  them  destroy*  its  efficiency. 
Its  powers  are  already  so  great  that  individual  freedom  is 
constantly  in  danger.  As  a  general  rule,  nothing  which  can  be 
done  by  the  voluntary  agency  of  individuals  should  be  left  to 
the  state.  Each -man  is  the  best  judge  of  his  own  interests. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  thing  itself  is  admitted  to 
be  useful  or  necessary,  and  it  cannot  be  effected  by  voluntary 
agency,  or  when  it  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the  consumer  cannot 
be  considered  capable  of  judging  of  the  quality  supplied,  then 
Mill  would  allow  the  state  to  interpose.  Thus  the  education 
of  children ,  and  even  of  adults,  would  fairly  come  within  the 
province  of  the  state.  Mill  even  goes  so  far  as  to  admit  that, 
where  a  restriction  of  the  hours  of  labour,  or  the  establishment 
of  a  periodical  holiday,  is  proved  to  be  beneficial  to  labourers 
as  a  class,  but  cannot  be  carried  out  voluntarily  on  account  of 
the  refusal  of  individuals  to  co-operate,  government  may  justifi- 
ably compel  them  to  co-operate.  Still  further,  Mill  would  desire 
to  see  some  control  exercised  by  the  government  over  the  opera- 
tions of  those  voluntary  associations  which,  consisting  of  large 
numbers  of  shareholders,  necessarily  leave  their  affairs  in  the 
hands  of  one  or  a  few  persons.  In  short.  Mill's  general  rule 
against  state  action  admits  of  many  important  exceptions, 
founded  on  no  principle  less  vague  than  that  of  public  expediency. 
The  essay  on  Liberty  is  mainly  concerned  with  freedom  of 
individual  character,and  its  arguments  apply  to  control  exerdsed, 
not  only  by  the  state,  but  by  society  in  the  form  of  public  opinion. 
The  leading  principle  is  that  of  Humboldt, "  the  absolute  and 
essential  importance  of  human  development  in  its  richest 
diversity."  Humboldt  broadly  excluded  education,  religion 
and  morals  from  the  action,  direct  and  indirect,  of  the  state. 
Mill,  as  we  have  seen,  conceives  education  to  be  within  the  pro- 
vince of  the  state,  but  he  would  confine  iUi  action  to  compelling 
parents  to  educate  their  children. 

The  most  thoroughgoing  opponent  of  state  action,  however, 
is  Herbert  Spencer.  In  his  Social  Statics,  published  in  1850, 
he  holds  it  to  be  the  Essential  duty  of  government  to  ^olect — 
to  maintain  men's  rights  to  life,  to  personal  liberty  and  to 
property;  and  the  theory  that  the  government  ought  to  under- 
take other  offices  besides  that  of  protector  he  regards  as  an 
untenable  theory.  Each  man  has  a  right  to  the  fuUest  exercise 
of  all  his  faculties,  compatible  with  the  same  right  in  others. 
This  is  the  fundamental  law  of  equal  freedom,  which  it  is  the 
duty  and  the  only  duty  of  the  state  to  enforce.  If  the  state 
goes  beyond  this  duty,  it  becomes,  not  a  protector,  but  an 
aggressor.    Thus  all  state  regulations  of  coounerce,  all  religious 


establishments,  all  government  relief  of  the  poor,  all  stats 
systems  of  education  and  of  sanitary  superintendence,  even 
the  state  currency  and  the  poM-office,  stand  condemned,  not 
only  as  ineffective  for  their  respective  purposes,  but  as  involving 
vi<^tions  of  man's  natural  liberty. 

*  The  tendency  of  modem  legislation  is  more  a  question  of 
political  practice  than  of  politioil  theory.  In  some  cases  state 
interference  has  been  abolished  or  greatly  limited.  These  caaca 
are  mainly  two — ^in  matters  of  opinion  (especially  religious 
opinion),  and  in  matten  of  contract. 

The  mere  enumeration  of  the  individual  instances  would  occupy  a 
formidable  amount  of  space.  The  reader  u  referred  to  such  articiea 
at  England,  Chukch  or;  Establishmbnt;  Makriagb;  Oath; 
Roman  Catholic  Chukch,  Ac,  and  Company;  Conteact; 
Paktnbsship,  Ac  In  other  cases  the  state  has  interfered  for  the 
protection  and  assistance  of  definite  daaaet  of  peraoni.  For  example, 
the  education  and  protection  of  children  (see  Children,  Law  Re- 
lating to;  Education;  Technical  Education);  the  regulation 
of  factory  labour  and  dangerous  employment  (see  Laboub  Ljigisla* 
tion);  improved  conditions  of  health  (see  Adulteration;  Hous- 
ing; Public  Health,  Law  op,  Ac);  coercion  for  moral  purposes 
&»  Bet  and  Betting;  Criminal  Law;  Gaming  and  Wagering; 
QUOR  Laws:  Lotteries,  Ac).  Under  numerous  other  heading 
in  this  work  the  evolution  of  existing  forms  of  government  is  dis- 
cussed ;  scealjo  the  bibliogni^uoal  note  to  the  article  C<h(stitution 
and  Constitutional  Law. 

GOVSRlfOR  (from  the  Fr.  gottvemetir,  from  gouterner,  O.  Fr. 
govemeTf  Lat.  guberMore,  to  steer  a  ship,  to  direct,  guide),  |n 
general,  one  who  governs  or  exercises  authority;  specifioslly, 
an  official  appointed  to  govern  a  district,  province,  town,  &c. 
In  British  colonies  or  dependencies  the  representative  of  the 
crown  is  termed  a  governor.  Colonial  governors  are  classed 
as  govemors-general,  goveraon  and  lieutenant-governors, 
according  to  the  status  of  the  colony  or  group  of  colonies  over 
which  they  preside.  Their  powers  vary  according  to  the  position 
which  they  occupy.  In  all  cases  they  represent  the  authotky 
of  the  crown.  In  the  United  States  (f.t.)  the  official  at  the 
head  of  every  state  government  is  called  a  governor. 

OOW,  NIBL  (1737-1807),  Scottish  musidan  of  humble  parent- 
age, famous  as  a  violinist  and  player  of  reels,  but  more  so  for 
the  part  he  played  in  preserving  the  old  melodies  of  Scotland. 
His  compositions,  and  those  of  his  four  sons,  Nathaniel,  the 
most  famous  (1763-1831),  William  (1751-1791),  Andrew  (1760- 
1803),  and  John  (1764-1826),  formed  the  "  Gow  Collection," 
comprising  various  volumes  edited  by  Niel  and  his  sons,  a 
valuable  repository  of  Scottish  traditional  ain.  The  most  im- 
portant of  Niel's  sons  was  Nathaniel,  who  is  remembered  as 
the  author  of  the  well-known  "  Caller  Herrin,"  taken  from  the 
fishwives'  cry,  a  tune  to  which  words  were  afterwards  written 
by  LadyNaime.  Nathaniersson,  Niel  Gow  junior  (1795-1823), 
was  the  author  of  the  famous  songs  "  Flora  Macdonald'sLament " 
and  "  Cam'  ye  by  AthoL" 

OOWER,  JOHN  (d.  1408),  Encash  poet,  died  at  an  advanced 
age  in  1408,  so  that  he  may  be  presumed  to  have  been  bom 
about  1330.  He  belonged  to  a  good  Kentish  family,  but  the 
suggestion  of  Sir  Harris  Nicolas  that  the  poet  is  to  be  identified 
with  a  John  Gower  who  was  at  one  time  possessed  of  the  manor 
of  Kent  well  is  open  to  serious  objections.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  he  ever  lived  as  a  country  gentleman,  but  he  was  undoubtedly 
possessed  of  some  wealth,  and  we  know  that  he  was  the  owner 
of  the  manon  of  Feltwell  in  Suffolk  and  Moulton  in  Norfolk. 
In  a  document  of  1382  he  is  called  an  "  Esquier  de  Kent,"  and 
he  was  certainly  not  in  holy  orders.  That  be  was  acquainted 
with  Chaucer  we  knov,  fint  because  Chaucer  in  leaving  England 
for  Italy  in  1378  appointed  Gower  and  another  to  represent 
him  in  his  absence,  secondly  because  Chaucer  addresed  his 
TroUus  and  Criseide  to  Gower  and  Strode  (whom  he  addresses 
as  **  moral  Gower  "  and  "  philosophical  Strode  ")  for  criticism 
and  correction,  and  thirdly  because  of  the  lines  in  the  fint  edition 
of  GowePs  Confessio  amaniis,  "  And  gret  wel  Chaucer  whan  ye 
mete,"  Ac.  There  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  the  suggestion, 
based  partly  on  the  subseqtient  omission  of  thesa  lines  and 
partly  on  the  humorous  reference  <rf  Chaucer  to  Gower's  Cottfessio 
amantis  in  the  introduction  to  the  Man  of  Law's  Tak,  that  the 
friendship  was  broken  by  a  quarrel.      From  his  Latin  poem 


COWER 

pftiofully 


«99 


I'm  damaaUs  we  tnow  llul  he  wu  i      .  . 
inUmted  in  lliepeuuu'  riilogot  13B1;  ud  t^  the  il 

we  can  tnce  A  (rwliuUy  iaoeuinf  lenie  of  diieppoiiitmcDt 
the  youthful  king,  whom  he  at  fint  acquits  of  aU  re^xiiuibilk/ 
tor  the  ilate  of  the  kingdom  on  accouot  of  his  tender  age.  That 
he  became  penonally  known  to  the  Llnf  we  leam  from  bis 
own  atatcnient  in  the  fint  edition  of  the  Cff^rrtw  ^iwaitJu, 
wbeie  he  Hyi  that  he  met  the  king  npon  the  river,  wu  invited 
to  enter  the  loyal  barge,  and  En  the  convenalion  which  fallowed 
received  the  luggotioo  wbich  led  bim  to  write  hit  principal 
Eo^iih  poem.  At  the  same  lime  we  know,  eipediUy  from  the 
later  revitioni  of  the  dm/uiir  amanlii,  that  be  wu  a  great 
admim  of  the  king's  briUianC  catuin,  Keory  of  Lancuter, 
tflerwanU  Hetuy  IV.,  wboei  be  came  eventually  to  regard  u  a 
poMibk  nvtour  of  lodety  from  the  mligovenuiient  of  Richard  II. 
We  have  a  leoard  that  in  ijg]  he  received  a  collar  from  his 
fivoultc  political  hero,  and  It  1>  to  be  observed  that  the 
eSor  npoa  Gower*!  tomb  i>  neuing  a  collar  of  SS.  with  the 
swan  bulge  which  wu  used  by  Henry. 

The  first  edition  of  the  Cn/eirie  amialii  a  dated  ijgo,  and 
tfaia  contains,  at  least  in  some  copies,  a  secondary  dedication 
to  the  then  eari  ol  Derby,  The  later  form,  tn  irikicb  Heniy 
bfome  the  sole  object  oI  the  dedication,  is  of  the  year  1393. 
Cover's  pob'tical  opinions  are  itiU  mon  itron^y  eipretaed  in 
the  Crnia  tripertUa. 

In  tjdS  he  wai  married  to  Agnes  Groundolf,  and  from  the 
fecial  licence  granted  by  the  bishop  of  Winchester  for  tbe 
idebration  of  tbii  marriage  in  John  Gower's  private  oratory 
we  gathet  that  be  wai  then  living  in  kidgings  asaigned  to  him 
niihui  the  pdory  of  St  Muy  Ovety,  aod  perhaps  al»  that  he 
was  tiM  infirm  to  be  married  in  the  pari&h  church.  It  a  probable 
that  thb  wju  oat  hl>  first  marriage,  for  there  are  indications 
in  hi*  early  French  poem  that  be  had  a  wife  at  the  time  when 
thai  was  written.  His  will  is  dated  the  rsth  of  August  r4oS, 
and  bis  death  to^  place  very  soon  after  this.  He  had  been 
bUod  for  some  yean  before  hii  death.  A  magnificent  tomb 
with  a  recumbent  effigy  wu  erected  over  hia  grave  in  the  chapel 
of  St  John  the  Baptist  within  the  church  of  the  priory,  now 
St  Saviour's,  Soathwirk,  and  this  is  still  to  be  seen,  though  not 
quite  in  ill  original  state  or  placs.  From  the  inscription  on  the 
tomb,  as  well  u  from  other  indkationi,  it  appean  that  he  was  a 
caosidenble  benefactor  of  the  priory  and  contributed- largely 
to  the  rebuilding  ol  the  cburch. 

The  etCgy  oD  Gower's  tomb  rests  ill  head  upon  a  pile  of  three 
folio  volumes  entitled  Sfaiiliim  Kudilanlii,  Vn  dawianlii 
and  Cfnfano  'amaidij-  ■  Tieie  arc  his  three  principal  works. 
The  first  of  these  wu  long  supposed  to  have  perished,  but  a  copy 
ol  it  was  discovered  in  the  year  li^i  under  the  title  ilvna 
it  rimmt.  It  I*  a  French  poem  of  about  ja,ooo  Unes  In  twelve- 
line  m--**.  and  under  the  form  of  an  allegoiy  of  the  human  soul 
describes  the  Kveo  deadly  sins  and  their  oppoaing  virtues,  and 
then  Uie  vatiou*  estates  of  man  and  the  vicn  hicident  to  each, 
coixJuding  with  a  narrative  of  the  life  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and 
with  pruie  of  ber  •■  the  means  of  reconciliation  between  God 
and  man.  Tbe  work  is  extremely  tedious  lor  the  most  part, 
but  shows  considerable  command  over  the  language  and  a  great 
lacility  in  metrical  elpreuion. 

Gower's  neit  work  wu  Ibe  Vn  dantufii  in  Latin  ele^ac 
verse,  In  which  the  author  takea  occa^on  from  the  peasants' 
insantclion  ol  1381  to  deal  igaln  wilH  the  fault)  of  the  various 
iliiifi  cf  Kiciety.  In  the  eaitlei  portion  the  isturrectlon  itself 
B  dcacribed  in  a  ntber  vivid  manner,  though  under  tbe  form 
ol  an  iDegory:  the  remainder  contains  much  the  same  mslerial 
as  wt  have  already  seen  iii  that  part  of  the  French  poem  where 
the  daJMi  of  eodety  are  described.  Gower's  Latin  verie  is 
very  fair,  u  judged  by  the  medieval  standard,  hut  In  this  book 
be  hat  botnwed  very  fredy  from  Ovid,  Aleonder  Neckam, 
Telei  de  Rifa  and  olhen. 

Gower's  chief  claim,  however,  to  reputation  at  a  poet  rests 
upOQ  hk  Engllth  week,  tbe  CfKfeuif  tmaalii,  in  which  he 
di^itTt  In  hit  native  )anfat(e  a  real  gift  M  a  ttory-tdkr.    Be 


is  himselt  the  lover  ol  hit  poem.  In  q>ite  of  Ui  advandng  yean, 
and  be  makes  his  confestion  to  Gcniui,  the  prieat  of  Venus, 
under  the  ususi  headings  supplied  by  the  seven  deadly  tins. 
These  with  their  several  branches  are  successively  described. 
and  tbe  nature  of  them  illustrated  by  tales,  which  are  directed 
to  the  illustration  both  of  the  general  nature  of  the  sin,  and  of  Ibe 
particular  form  which  it  may  take  in  ■  lover.  Finally  he  receivea 
at  once  hit  abtolution,  and  bis  rfi^miwl  hom  the  service  of 
Venus,fDcwhichhi9igetendenhimun£t,  Thci 
and  there  It  often  much  qualntnesa  of  fancy  In  the  applical 
of  moral  ideu  to  the  telationt  ol  the  lover  and  his  mistress. 
Tbe  tales  are  drawn  from  very  various  sources  and  are  often 
extremely  well  told.  The  metre  it  tbe  short  couplet,  and  it  is 
extremely  smooth  and  regular.  The  great  fault  of  the  Canfaiia 
ammlii  b  the  extent  of  iu  digreitlont,  especially  in  the  filth 
and  seventb  booka. 

Gower  alto  wrote  in  ijg;  a  short  .series  ol  French  ballades 
on  the  virtue  of  tbe  minied  itate  (rraiW  fair  aamtUr  la 
ssuWlMiinii),  and  after  the  tccettion  of  Henry  IV.  be  produced 
the  Crenita  ItipatHIa,  a  pattban  account  in  Latin  leonine 
hexameters  of  the  event>  1^  the  last  twelve  years  of  the  reign 
of  Richard  II.  About  the  same  time  be  addressed  an  Engliih 
poem  in  seven-line  itanaat  to  Henry  IV.  (/■•  Ftaiu  t}  Peaa), 
and  dedicated  to  the  king  a  series  of  French  ballades  (Ciii<taHte 
Btiaia),  which  deal  with  the  conventional  tapa  of  love,  but 
are  often  graceful  and  even  poetical  in  expression.  Several 
occisianal  Latin  pkcca  also  belong  to  the  later  years  of  his 
life. 

On  the  whole  Gowtr  must  be  admitted  10  have  had  contider- 
able  literary  powen;  and  tbou^  not  a  man  of  genius,  and  by 
no  means  to  be  compared  with  Chaucer,  yet  he  did  good  service 
in  helping  to  establish  the  standard  litnary  language,  which  at 
the  end  of  the  I4ih  century  took  tbe  (dace  of  tbe  Middle  Entfiih 
dislecti.  The  Cm/cuu  amantti  srat  long  regarded  u  a  elude 
of  the  hmguage.  and  Gower  and  Chaucer  were  often  mentioned 
side  by  tide  u  the  liiheri  of  EBglith  poetry. 


, na,-.j:ii   iiiiCtHon  (1481); 

Berthelrtte  {isji  and  iJHli  Chtlmert,  Briiii*  rjeujiaio);  ftnn- 
boM  FauU  (ig^;  H.  SS^ty  {liig.  inconiiil^ir  ,  The  two  series 
o(  Fieneh  bilbdn  and  ibe  Praist  cf  Piaa  y.-i-:  printed  for  tbg 


Ijo.    The  Cr 

i:inr  Latia  poem*  w«e  prin 

nc.,  14)-    TheProiMKjFt 


by  U.  O.  Cou  for  the  R.odiutghe  Qub  hi 
Wright'!  P^'l'il^  /wS  (R^li 


ffippcervl  in  K\\f  e  iriy  folio  edii 
I  (bo  by  Dr5iii.it  iahitCtiMi  .... 
.y  be  maili:  t^  T:~'l't  lUtiliatinu  el 
■,  <iml  ri,.i^,r-    ,i,e  article  (by  S5 


SOWBB,  a  seigniory 


district  la  the  county  of  Glamorgan, 
jymg  oetween  ine  nvers  Tawe  and  Lou^»r  and  between 
Breconshire  and  tbe  sea,  its  length  from  the  Brcconshire  border 
to  Worm's  Head  being  iS  m.,  and  Its  breadth  about  8  m.  II 
corresponds  to  the  ancient  commote  of  Gower  {In  Webb  Opyr) 
which  ineariy  Welsh  times  wugrouped  with  two  othercommotci 
tiretching  westwards  to  the  Towy  and  so  formed  pan  'Of  the 
principality  of  Vstrad  Tywl.  Its  eariy  istodaliDII  with  the 
country  to  the  west  instead  of  with  Clamorgio  is  perpeluttcd  by 
ilt  continued  inclusion  in  the  diocese  of  Si  Davidi,  its  two  rural 
deaneries.  West  and  East  Gower.  being  in  tbe  archdeaconry 
of  Carmarthea.  What  b  meant  by  Gower  in  modem  popular 
usage,  bowever,  b  only  tbe  penlntnlar  part  or  "  Englith  Gower  " 
(that  it  the  Webb  5r»«yr,  u  dittinct  from  Gwyr  proper), 
roughly  cone^wndbif  to  the  hundred  of  Swantn  and  lying 

Them 


300 


GOWER 


being  the  most  important.  In  the  Roman  period  the  river  Tawe, 
or  the  great  morass  between  it  and  ihe  Neath,  probably  formed 
the  boundary  between  the  Silures  and  the  Goidelic  population 
to  the  west.  The  latter,  reinforced  perhaps  from  Ireland, 
continual  to  be  the  dominant  race  in  Gower  till  their  conquest 
or  partial  expulsion  in  the  4th  century  by  the  sons  oi  Cunedda 
who  introduced  a  Brythcmic  element  into  the  district.  Centuries 
later  Scandinavian  rovers  raided  the  coasts,  leaving  traces  of 
their  more  or  less  temporary  occupation  in  such  place-names 
as  Burry  Holms,  Worms  Head  and  Swansea,  and  probably 
also  in  some  diff  earthworks.  About  the  year  ixoo  the  conquest 
of  Gower  was  undertaken  by  Henry  de  Newburgh,  first  earl  of 
Warwick,  with  the  assistance  of  Maurice  de  Lon<kes  and  others. 
His  followers,  who  were  mostly  Englishmen  from  the  marches 
and  Somersetshire  with  perhaps  a  q>rink]ing  of  Flemings,  settled 
for  the  most  part  on  the  southern  side  of  the  peninsula,  leaving 
the  Welsh  inhabitants  of  the  northern  half  of  Gower  practically 
undisturbed.  These  invaders  were  probably  reinforced  a  little 
later  by  a  small  detachment  of  the  larger  colony  of  Flemings 
which  settled  in  south  Pembrokeshire.  Moated  mounds,  which 
in  some  cases  developed  into  castles,  were  built  for  the  protection 
of  the  various  manors  into  which  the  district  was  parcelled  out, 
the  castles  of  Swansea  and  Loughor  being  ascribed  to  the  earl 
of  Warwick  and  that  of  Oystermouth  to  Maurice  de  Londres. 
These  were  repeatedly  attacked  and  burnt  by  the  Welsh  during 
the  X2th  and  13th  centuries,  notably  by  Griffith  ap  Rhys  in 
XI 13,  by  his  son  the  Lord  Rh^  in  X189,  by  his  grandsons  acting 
in  concert  with  Llewelyn  the  Great  in  xai5,  and  by  the  last 
Prince  Llewelyn  in  x  257.  With  the  Norman  conquest  the  feudal 
system  was  introduced,  and  the  manors  were  held  in  capiU 
of  the  lord  by  the  tenure  of  castle-guard  of  the  castle  of  Swansea, 
the  caput  baroniae. 

About  XI 89  the  lordship  passed  from  the  Warwick  family 
to  the  crown  and  was  granted  in  xao3  by  King  John  to  William 
de  Braose,  in  whose  family  it  remained  for  over  120  years  except 
for  three  short  intervals  when  it  was  held  for  a  second  time  by 
King  John  (X21X-12X5),  by  Llewelyn  the  Great  (1216-1223), 
and  the  Despensers  (c.  1323-1326).  In  xao8  the  Welsh  and 
English  inhabitants  who  had  frequent  jcauae  to  complain  of 
their  treatment,  received  each  a  charter,  in  similar  terms,  from 
King  John,  who  also  visited  the  town  of  Swansea  in  xaxo  and 
in  X2X5  granted  its  merchants  liberal  privileges.  In  1283 
a  number  of  de  Braose's  tenants — unquestionably  Welshmen — 
left  Gower  for  the  royal  lordship  of  Carmarthen,  declaring  that 
they  would  live  under  the  king  rather  than  under  a  lord  marcher. 
In  the  following  year  the  king  visited  de  Braoae  at  Oystermouth 
Castle,  which  seems  to  have  been  made  the  lord's  chidT  residence, 
after  the  destruction  of  Swansea  Castle  by  Llewelyn.  Later 
on  the  king's  officers  of  the  newly  organized  county  of  Carmarthen 
repeatedly  claimed  jurisdiction  over  Gower,'  thereby  endeavour- 
ing to  reduce  its  status  from  that  of  a  lordship  marcher  with 
semi-regal  jurisdiction,  into  that  of  an  ordinary  constituent  of 
the  new  county.  De  Braose  resisted  the  claim  and  organized  the 
English  part  of  his  lordship  on  the  lines  of  a  county  p&latine, 
wiih  its  own  comitaius  and  chancery  held  in  Swansea  Castle, 
the  sheriff  and  chancellor  being  appointed  by  himself.  The 
inhabitants,  who  had  no  right  of  appeal  to  the  crown  agabist 
their  lord  or  the  decisions  of  his  court,  petitioned  the  king, 
who  in  1305  appointed  a  special  commission  to  enquire  into 
their  alleged  grievances,  but  in  the  following  year  the  d^  Braose 
of  the  time,  probably  in  alarm,  conceded  liberal  privileges  both 
to  the  burgesses  of  Swansea  and  to  t^  English  and  Welsh 
inhabitants  of  his  "  cotinty  "  of  English  Gower.  He  was  the 
last  )ord  seignior  to  live  within  the  seigniory,  which  pa^ed  from 
him  to  his  son-in-law  John  de  Mowbray.  Other  troubles  befell 
the  de  Braose  barons  and  their  successors  in  title,  for  their  right 
to  the  lordship  was  contested  by  the  Beauchamps,  representa- 
tives of  the  earlier  earls  of  Warwick,  in  prolonged  litigation 
carried  on  intennittently  from  1278  to  1396,  the  Beaucnamp9 
being  actually  in  possession  from  1354,  when  a  decision  was 
given  in  their  favour,  till  its  reversal  in  1396.  It  then  reverted 
to  the  Mowbrayt  and  was  held  by  them  until  the  4th  duke  of 


Norfolk  exchanged  it  hi  1489,  for  lands  in  England,  with  William 
Herbert,  earl  of  Pembroke.  The  latter's  granddaughter  brought 
it  to  her  husband  Charles  Somerset,  who  in  1506  was  granted 
her  father's  subtitle  of  Baron  Herbert  of  Chepstow,  Raglan  and 
Gower,  and  from  him  the  lordship  has  descended  to  the  present 
lord,  the  duke  of  Beaufort. 

•  Gower  was  made  subject  to  ^e  ordinary  law  of  England  by 
its  inclusion  in  1535  in. the  county  of  Glamorgan  as  then  re- 
oiganized;  its  chancery,  which  from  about  the  beginning  of 
the  X4th  century  had  been  located  at  Oystermouth  Castle,  came 
to  an  end,  but  though  the  Welsh  acts  of  1535  and  1542  purported 
to  abdish  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  lords  marchers  as 
conquerors,  yet  some  of  these,  possibly  from  being  regarded  as 
private  righta,  have  survived  into  modem  times.  For  instance, 
the  seignior  maintained  a  franchise  gaol  in  Swansea  Castle  till 
1858,  when  it  was  abolished  by  act  of  parliament,  the  appoint- 
ment of  coroner  for  Gower  is  still  vested  in  him,  all  writs  are 
executed  by  the  lord's  officers  instead  of  by  the  officers  of  the 
sheriff  for  the  county,  and  the  lord's  rights  to  the  foreshore, 
treasure  trove,  felon's  ^oods  and  wrecks  are  undiminished. 

The  characteristically  English  part  of  Gower  lies  to  the  south 
and  south-west  of  its  central  ridge  of  Ce&i  y  Bryn.  It  was  this 
part  that  was  declared  by  Professor  Freeman  to  be  "  more  Teu- 
tonic than  Kent  itself."  The  seaside  fringe  lying  between  this 
area  and  the  town  of  Swansea,  as  well  as  the  extreme  north-west 
of  the  peninsula,  also  became  an^dzed  at  a  comparatively 
early  date,  though  the  place-names  and  the  names  of  the  in- 
habitants are  still  mainly  Welsh.  The  present  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  the  two  languages  is  one  drawn  from  Swansea 
in  a  W.N.W.  direction  to  Llanrhidian  on  the  north  coast.  It 
has  remained  practically  the  same  for  several  centuries,  and  is 
likely  to  continue  so,  as  it  very  neariy  coincides  with  the  southern 
outcrop  of  the  coal  measures,  the  industrial  population  to 
the  north  being  Welsh-speaking,  the  agriculturists  to  the  south 
being  English.  In  1901  the  Gower  rural  district  (which  includes 
the  Welsh-speaking  industrial  parish  of  Llanrhidian,  with  about 
three-sevenths  of  the  total  population)  had  64'5%of  the  popula- 
tion above  three  years  of  age  that  spoke  English  only,  5-2% 
that  spoke  Welsh  only,  the  remainder  being  biUnguals,  as  com- 
pared with  17  %  speaking  English  only,  17*7  speaking  Welsh  only 
and  the  rest  bilinguals  in  the  Swaiisea  rural  district,  and  7% 
speaking  English  only,  55*2  speaking  Welsh  only  and  the  rest 
bilinguds  in  the  Pontardawe  rural  district,  the  last  two  di^ricts 
constituting  Welsh  Gower. 

More  than  one-fourth  of  the  whole  area  of  Gower  is  unenclosed 
common  land,  of  which  in  F>ngli«h  Gower  fully  one-half  is 
apparently  capable  of  cultivation.  Besides  the  demesne  manors 
of  the  lord  seignior,  six  in  number,  there  are  some  twelve  mesne 
manors  and  fees  belonging  to  the  Penrice  estate,  and  neariy 
twenty  more  belonging  to  various  other  owners.  The  tenure  is 
customary  freehold,  though  in  some  cases  described  as  copyhold, 
and  in  the  ecclesiastical  manor  of  Bishopston,  descent  b  by 
borough  English.  The  holdings  are  on  the  whole  probably  snudler 
in  size  than  in  any  other  area  of  correspondmg  extent  in  Wales, 
and  agriculture  is  still  in  a  backward  state. 

In  the.  Arthurian  romances  Gower  appears  m  the  form  of 
Goire  as  the  island  home  of  the  dead,  a  vie^  which  probably 
q>rang  up  among  the  Celts  of  Cornwall,  to  whom  the  peninsula 
would  appear  as  an  island.  It  is  also  surmised  by  Sir  John  Rh^ 
that  Malory's  Brandegore  {i.e.  Br&n  of  Gower)  represents  the 
Celtic  god  of  the  other  world  (Rhj's,  Arikurian  Legend,  160, 
329  et  aeq.).  On  Cefn  Bryti,  almost  in  thecentre  of  the  peninsula, 
is*a  cromlech  with  a  large  capstone  known  as  Arthur's  Stone. 
The  unusually  large  number  of  cainis  on  this  hill,  given  as  eighty 
by  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  suggests  that  this  part  of  Gower 
was  a  favourite  burial-place  in  early  British  times. 

See  Rev.  J.  D.  Davies,  A  History  0/  West  Cewer  (4  vols..  1877^ 
1804);  Cdl.  W.  Ll'Morgan,  An  Antimiarian  Survey  if  Bast  Gewer 
(1899);  an  article  (probably  by  Professor  Freeman)  entitled 
"  Anglia  Tran»-Walliana  "  in  the  Saturday  Renew  for  May  ao, 
1876;  "The  Signory  of  Gower"  by  G.  T.  Clarlc  in  Ar  '^     '  ~'- 


Camhrensis  for  1803-1804;  The  Surveys  ef  Cewer  aud  Kihey,  ed. 
Baker  and  Grhnt-mnos  (186X-1870).  (D.  tL  T.; 


) 


GOWN— GOWRIE,  EARL  OF 


301 


GOWNv  properly  the  term  for  a  loose  outer  garment  formerly 
worn  by  either  sex  but  now  generally  for  that  worn  by  women. 
While  "  dress  "  is  the  usual  English  word,  except  in  such  com- 
binations as  "  tea-gown,"  "  dressing-gown  "  and  the  like,  where 
the  original  loose  flowing  nature  of  the  "  gown  "  is  referred  to, 
*'  gown  "  is  the  common  American  word.  "  Gown  "  comes  from 
the  O.  Fr.  goune  or  ganne:  The  word  appears  in  vario^  Romanic 
languages,  cf.  Ital.  gonna.  The  medieval  Lat.  gunna  is  used  of 
a  garment  of  skin  or  fur.  A  Celtic  origin  has  been  usually 
adopted,  but  the  Irish,  Gaelic  and  Manx  words  are  taken  from 
the  En^ish.  Outside  the  ordinary  use  of  the  word,  "  gown  " 
is  the  name  for  the  distinctive  robes  worn  by  holders  of  particular 
offices  or  by  members  of  particular  professions  or  of  universities, 
&c.  (see  Robes). 

GOWBIB,  JOHN  RUTHVEN,  3RD  Eakl  of  (c.  X577-X600), 
Scottish  conspirator,  was  the  second  son  of  William,  4th  Lord 
Ruthven  and  ist  earl  of  Gowrie  (cr.  1581),  by  his  wife  Dorothea, 
daughter  of  Henry  Stewart,  and  Lord  Methven.  The  Ruthven 
family  was  of  ancient  Scottish  descent,  and  had  owned  extensive 
estates  in  the  time  of  William  the  Lion;  the  Ruthven  peerage 
dated  from  the  year  1488.  The  i  st  earl  of  Gowrie  (?  1 541-  x  584) , 
and  his  father,  Patrick,  3rd  Lord  Ruthven  (c.  X53a-X566),  had 
both  been  concerned  in  the  murder  of  Rizzio  in  1566;  and 
both  took  an  active  part  on  the  side  of  the  Kirk  in  the  constant 
intrigues  and  factions  among  the  Scottish  nobility  of  the  period. 
The  former  had  been  the  custodian  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots, 
during  her  imprisonment  in  Loch  Leven,  where,  according  to 
the  queen,  he  had  pestered  her  with  amorous  attentions;  he 
had  also  been  the  chief  actor  in  the  plot  known  as  the  "  raid  of 
Ruthven"  when  King  James  VL  was  treacherously  seized 
while  a  guest  at  the  castle  of  Ruthven  in  1582,  and  kept  under 
restraint  for  several  months  while  the  earl  remained  at  the  head 
of  the  government.  Though  pardoned  for  this  conspiracy  he 
continued  to  plot  against  the  king  in  conjunction  with  the  earls 
of  Mar  and  Angus,  and  he  was  executed  for  high  treason  on 
the  2nd  of  May  X584;  his  friends  complaining  that  the  confession 
on  which  he  was  convicted  of  treason  was  obtained  by  a  promise 
of  pardon  from  the  king.  His  eldest  sOn,  William,  2nd  earl  of 
Cou-rie,  only  survived  till  1588,  the  family  dignities  and  estates/ 
which  had  been  forfeited,  having  been  restored  to  him  in  X586. 

Wlicn,  therefore,  John  Ruthven  succeeded  to  the  earldom 
while  still  a  child,  he  inherited  along  with  his  vast  estates  family 
traditions  of  treason  and  intrigue.  There  was  also  a  popular 
belief,  though  without  foundation,  that  there  was  Tudor  blood 
in  his  veins;  and  Burnet  afterwards  asserted  that  Gowrie 
stood  next  in  succession  to  the  crown  of  England  after  King 
James  VI.  Like  his  father  and  grandfather  before  him,  the 
young  earl  attached  himself  to  the  party  of  the  reforming 
preachers,  who  procured  his  election  in  159a  as  provost  of 
Perth,  a  post  that  was  almost  hereditary  in  the  Ruthven  family. 
He  received  an  excellent  education  at  the  grammar  school  of 
Perth  and  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  was  in  the 
summer  of  X593,  about  the  time  when  his  mother,  and  his  sister 
the  countess  of  Atholl,  aided  Bothwell  in  forcing  himself  sword 
in  hand  Into  the  king's  bedchamber  in  Holyrood  Palace.  A 
few  months  later  Gowrie  joined  with  Atholl  and  Montrose  in 
offering  to  serve  Queen  Elizabeth,  then  almost  openly  hostile 
to  the  Scottish  king;  and  it  is  probable  that  he  had  also  relations 
with  the  rebellious  Bothwell.  Gowrie  had  thus  been  already 
deeply  engaged  in  treasonable  conspiracy  when,  in  August 
X594,  he  proceeded  to  Italy  with  his  tutor,  William  Rhynd,  to 
study  at  the  university  of  Padua.  On  his  way  home  in  1599 
he  icmained  for  some  months  at  Geneva  with  the  reformer 
Theodore  Beza;  and  at  Paris  he  made  acquaintance  with  the 
English  ambassador,  who  reported  him  to  Cecil  as  devoted  to 
Elizabeth's  service,  and  a  nobleman  "  of  whom  there  may  be 
exceeding  use  made."  In  Paris  he  may  also  at  this  time  have 
had  further  communication  with  the  cxUed  Bothwell;  in  London 
be  was  received  with  inarked  favour  by  Queen  Elizabeth  and  her 
mannters. 

These  ctrcuxnstanceS  owe  their  importance  to  the  light  they 
thnnr  oa  the  obscurity  of  the  celebrated  "  Gowrie  conspiracy," 


which  resulted  in  the  slaughter  of  the  earl  and  his  brother  by 
attendants  of  King  James  at  Gowrie  House,  Perth,  a  few  weeks 
after  Gowrie's  return  to  Scotland  in  May  x6oo.  Iliis 
event  ranks  amAng  the  xmsolved  enigmas  of  history. 
The  mystery  is  caused  by  the  improbabilities  inherent  in 
any  of  the  dtemative  hypotheses  suggested  to  account 
for  the  unquestionable  facts  of  the  occurrence;  the  discrepandes 
in  the  evidence  produced  at  the  time;  the  apparent  lack  of 
forethought  or  plan  otf  the  part  of  the  chief  actors,  whichever 
hypothesb  be  adopted,  as  well  as  the  thoughtless  folly  of  their 
actual  procedure;  and  the  insufficiency  of  motive,  whoever 
the  guilty  parties  may  have  been.  The  solutions  of  the  mystery 
that  have  been  suggested  are  three  in  number:  first,  that 
Gowrie  and  his  brother  had  concocted  a  plot  to  murder,  or 
more  probably  to  kidnap  King  James,  and  that  they  lured  him 
to  Gowrie  House  for  this  purpose;  secondly,  tkat  James  paid 
a  surprise  visit  to  Gowrie  House  with  the  intention,  which  he 
carried  out,  of  slaughtering  the  two  Ruthvens;  and  thirdly, 
that  the  tragedy  wait  the  outcome  of  an  unpremeditated  brawl 
following  high  words  between  the  king  and  the  earl,  or  his 
brother.  To  understand  the  relative  probabilities  of  these 
hypotheses  regard  must  be  had  to  the  condition  of  Scotland  in 
the  year  1600  (see  Scotland:  History).  Here  it  can  only  be 
recalled  that  plots  to  capture  the  person  of  the  sovereign  for  the 
purpose  of  coercing  his  actions  were  of  frequent  occurrence, 
more  than  one  of  which  had  been  successful,  and  in  several  of 
which  the  Ruthven  family  had  themselves  taken  an  active 
part;  that  the  relations  between  England  and  Scotland  were 
at  this  time  more  than  usually  strained,  and  that  the  young 
earl  of  Gowrie  was  reckoned  in  London  among  the  adherents 
of  Elizabeth;  that  the  Kirk  party,  being  at  variance  with 
James,  looked  upon  Gowrie  as  an  hereditary  partisan  of  their 
cause,  and  had  recently  sent  an  agent  to  Paris  to  recall  him 
to  SoDtland  as  their  leader;  that  Gowrie  was  believed  to  be 
James's  rival  for  the  succession  to  the  English  crown.  Moreover, 
as  regards  the  question  of  motive  it  is  to  be  observed,  on  the 
one  hand,  that  the  Ruthvens  believed  Gowrie's  father  to  have 
been  treacherously  done  to  death,  and  his  widow  insulted  by 
the  king's  favourite  minister;  whOe,  on  the  other,  James  was 
indebted  in  a  large  sum  of  money  to  the  earl  of  Gowrie's  estate, 
and  popular  gossip  credited  either  Gowrie  or  his  brother,  Alex- 
ander Ruthven,  with  being  the. lover  of  the  queen.  Although 
the  evidence  on  these  points,  and  on  every  minute  circumstance 
connected  with  the  tragedy  itself,  has  been  exhaustively  examined 
by  historians  of  the  Gowrie  conspiracy,  it  cannot  be  asserted 
that  the  mystery  has  been  entirely  dispelled;  but,  while  it  is 
improbable  that  complete  certainty  will  ever  be  arrived  at  as 
to  whether  the  guilt  lay  with  James  or  with  the  Ruthven  brothers, 
the  most  modem  research  in  the  light  of  materials  inaccessible 
or  overlooked  till  the  20th  century,  points  pretty  clearly  to  the 
conclusion  that  there  was  a  genuine  conspiracy  by  Gowrie  and 
his  brother  to  kidnap  the  king.  If  this  be  the  true  solution, 
it  follows  that  King  James  was  innocent  of  the  blood  of  the 
Ruthvens;  and  it  raises  the  presumption  that  his  own  account 
of  the  occurrence  was,  in  spite  of  the  glaring  improbabilities 
which  it  involved,  substantially  true. 

The  facts  as  related  by  James  and  other  witnesses  were,  in 
outline,  as  follows.  On  the  5th  of  August  x6oo  the  king  rose 
early  to  hunt  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Falkland  Palace,  about 
X4  m.  from  Perth.  Just  as  he  was  setting  forth  in  company 
with  the  duke  of  Lennox,  the  earl  of  Mar,  Sir  Thomas  Erikine 
and  others,  he  was  accosted  by  Alexander  Ruthven  (known 
as  the  master  of  Ruthven),  a  younger  brother  of  the  earl  of 
Gowrie,  who  had  ridden  from  Perth  that  morning  to  inform 
the  king  that  he  had  met  on  the  previous  day  a  man  in  posses- 
sion of  a  pitcher  full  of  foreign  gold  coins,  whom  he  had  secretly 
locked  up  in  a  room  at  Gowrie  House.  Ruthven  urged  the  king 
to  ride  to  Perth  to  examine  this  man  for  himself  and  to  take 
possession  of  the  treasure.  After  some  hesitation  James  gave 
credit  to  the  story,  suspecting  that  the  possessor  of  the  coins 
was  one  of  the  numerous  Catholic  agents  at  that  time  moving 
about  Scotland  In  disguise.    Without  giving  a  positive  reply  to 


^ 


302 


GOWRIE 


Alexander  Ruthven,  James  started  to  bunt;  but  later  m  the 
morning  he  called  Ruthven  to  him  and  said  he  would  ride  to 
Perth  when  the  hunting  was  over.  Ruthven  th.en  despatched  a 
servant,  Henderson,  by  whom  he  had  been  accompanied  from 
Perth  in  the  early  morning,  to  tell  Cowrie  that  the  king  was  com- 
ing to  Cowrie  House.  This  messenger  gave  the  information  to 
Cowrie  about  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Meanwhile  Alexander 
Ruthven  was  urging  the  king  to  lose  no  time,  requesting  him 
to  keep  the  matter  secret  from  his  courtiers,  and  to  bring  to 
Cowrie  House  as  small  a  retinue  as  possible.  James,  with  a 
train  of  some  fifteen  persons,  airived  at  Cowrie  House  about 
one  o'dock,  Alexander  Ruthven  having  spurred  forward  for 
a  mile  or  so  to  announce  the  king's  approach.  But  notwithstand- 
ing Henderson's  warning  some  three  hours  earlier.  Cowrie  had 
made  no  preparations  for  the  king's  enteruinment,  thus  giving 
the  impression  of  having  been  taken  by  surprise.  After  a 
meagre  repast,  for  which  he  was  kept  waiting  an  hour,  James, 
forbidding  his  retainers  to  foUow  him,  went  with  Alexander 
Ruthven  up  the  main  staircase  and  passed  through  two  chambers 
and  two  doors,  both  of  which  Ruthven  locked  behind  them, 
into  a  turret-room  at  the  angle  of  the  house,  with  windows 
looking  on  the  courtyard  and  the  street.  Here  James  expected 
to  find  the  mysterious  prisoner  with  the  foreign  gold.  He  found 
instead  an  armed  man,  who,  as  appeared  later,  was  none  other 
thani  Cowrie's  servant,  Henderson.  Alexander  Ruthven  immedi- 
ately put  on  his  hat,  and  drawing  Henderson's  dagger,  presented 
it  to  the  king's  breast  with  threats  of  instant  death  if  James 
opened  a  window  or  called  for  help.  An  allusion  by  Ruthven 
to  the  execution  of  his  father,  the  ist  earl  of  Cowrie,  drew 
from  James  a  reproof  of  Ruthven's  ingratitude  for  various 
benefits  conferred  on  his  family.  Ruthven  then  uncovered  his 
head,  declaring  that  James's  life  should  be  safe  if  he  remained 
quiet;  then,  committing  the  king  to  the  custody  of  Henderson, 
he  left  the  turret— ^tensibly  to  consult  Cowrie — and  locked  the 
door  behind  him.  While  Ruthven  was  absent  the  king  questioned 
Henderson,  who  professed  ignorance  of  any  plot  and  of  the 
purpose  for  which  he  had  been  placed  in  the  turret;  he  also 
at  James's  request  opened  one  of  ^he  windows,  and  was  about 
to  open  the  other  when  Ruthven  returned.  Whether  or  not 
Alexander  had  seen  his  brother  as  uncertain.  But  Cowrie  had 
meantime  spread  the  report  below  that  the  king  had  taken  horse 
and  had  ridden  away;  and  the  royal  retinue  were  seeking 
their  horses  to  follow  him.  Alexander,  on  re-entering  the  turret, 
attempted  to  bind  James's  hands;  a  struggle  ensued,  in  the 
course  of  which  the  Idng  was  seen  at  the  window  by  some  of  his 
followers  below  in  the  street,  who  also  heard  him  cry  "  treason  " 
and  call  for  help  to  the  earl  of  Mar.  Cowrie  affected  not  to  hear' 
these  cries,  but  kept  asking  what  was  the  matter.  Lennox, 
Mar  and  most  of  the  other  lords  and  gentlemen  ran  up  the  main 
n0  staircase  to  the  king's  help,  but  were  stopped  by  the 

uiamgMtr  locked  door,  which  they  spent  some  time  in  trying 
ottt0  iQ  batter  down.  John  Ramsay  (afterwards  earl  of 
iMMvoM,  Holdemesse),  noticing  a  small  dark  stairway  leading 
directly  to  the  inner  chamber  adjoining  the  turret,  ran  up  it 
and  found  the  king  struggling  at  grips  with  Ruthven.  Drawing 
his  dagger,  Ramsay  wounded  Ruthven,  who  was  then  pushed 
down  the  stairway  by  the  king.  Sir  Thomas  Erskine,  sum- 
moned by  Ramsay,  now  followed  up  the  small  stairs  with  Dr 
Hugh  Hcrries,  and  these  two  coming  upon  the  wounded  Ruthven 
despatched  him  with  their  swords.  Cowrie,  entering  the  court- 
yard with  his  stabler  Thomas  Cranstoun  and  seeing  his  brother's 
body,  rushed  up  the  staircase  after  Erskine  and  Herries,  followed 
by  Cranstoun  and  others  of  his  retainers;  and  in  the  mel6e 
Cowrie  was  killed.  Some  commotion  was  caused  in  the  town  by 
the  noise  of  these  proceedings;  but  it  quickly  subsided,  though 
the  king  did  not  deem  it  safe  to  return  to  Falkland  for  some 
hours. 

The  tragedy  caused  intense  excitement  throughout  Scotland, 
and  the  investigation  of  the  circumstances  was  followed  with 
much  interest  in  England  also,  where  all  the  details  were  reported 
to  Elizabeth's  ministers.  The  preachers  of  the  Kirk,  whose 
influence  in  Scotland  was  too  extensive  for  the  king  to  neglect, 


were  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  persuaded  to  accq)t 
James's  account  of  the  occurrence,  although  he  voluntarily 
submitted  himself  to  cross-examination  by  one  of  their  number. 
Their  belief,  and  that  of  their  partisans,  influenced  no  doubt 
by  political  hostility  to  James,  was  that  the  king  had  invented 
the  story  of  a  conspiracy  by  Cowrie  to  cover  his  own  design 
to  extirpate  the  Ruthven  family.  James  gave  some  colour  to 
this  belief,  which  has  not  been  entirely  abandoned,  by  the  rdent- 
less  severity  with  which  he  pursued  the  two  younger,  and 
unquestionably  innocent,  brothers  of  the  earL  Creat  efforts 
were  made  by  the  government  to  prove  the  complicity  of  others 
in  the  plot.  One  noted,  and  dissolute  conspirator.  Sir  Robert 
Ix>gan  of  Restalrig,  was  posthimiously  convicted  of  having  been 
privy  to  the  Cowrie  conspiracy  on  the  evidence  of  certain  letters 
produced  by  a  notary,  Ceorge  Sprot,  who  swore  they  had  been 
written  by  Logan  to  Cowrie  and  others.  These  letters,  which 
are  still  in  existence,  were  in  fact  forged  by  Sprot  in  imitation 
of  Logan's  handwriting;  but  the  researches  of  Andrew  Lang 
have  shown  cause  for  suspecting  that  the  most  im-  ^ 
portant  of  them  was  either  copied  by  Sprot  from  a  j^igadte. 
genuine  original  by  Logan,  or  that  it  embodied  the 
substance  of  such  a  letter.  If  this  be  correct,  it  would 
appear  that  ihe  conveyance  of  the  king  to  Fast  Castle,  Logan's 
impregnable  iortress  on  the  coast  of  Berwickshire,  was  part 
of  the  plot;  and  it  supplies,  at  all  events,  an  additional 
piece  of  evidence  to  prove  the  genuineness  of  the  Cowrie 
conspiracy. 

Cowrie's  two  younger  brothers,  WilUam  and  Patrick  Ruthven, 
fled  to  England;  and  after  the  accession  of  James  to  the  Enj^sh 
throne  William  escaped  abroad,  but  Patrick  was  taken  and 
imprisoned  for  nineteen  years  in  the  Tower  of  London.  Released 
in  162a,  Patrick  Ruthven  resided  first  at  Cambridge  and  after- 
wards in  Somersetshire,  being  granted  a  small  pension  by  the 
crown.  He  marri^i  Elizabeth  Woodford,  widow  of  the  ist 
Lord  Cerrard,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons  and  a  daughter,  Mary; 
the  latter  entered  the  service  of  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  and 
married  the  famous  painter  van  Dyck,  who  painted  several 
portraits  of  her.  Patrick  died  in  poverty  in  a  cell  in  the  King's 
Bench  in  1653,  being  buried  as  "  Lord  Ruthven."  His  son, 
Patrick,  presented  a  petition  to  Oliver  Cromwell  in  1656,  in 
which,  after  reciting  that  the  parliament  of  Scotland  in  1641 
had  restored  his  father  to  the  barony  of  Ruthven,  he  prayed 
that  his  **  extreme  poverty  "  might  be  relieved  by  the  bounty 
of  the  Protector. 

Sec  Andrew  Lane,  James  VI.  and  Ike  Cowrie  MysUry  (Londom 
tooa),  and  the  authorities  there  cited:  Robert  Pitcaira,  CrimimU 


Trials  in  Scotland  (3  vols.,  Edinburah,  18^) ;  David  Moyne,  Memoirs 
'of  Scotland^  tS77~tOoj  (fcdii  " 
Tragedy  of  Cowrie  House  (I 
Bissct,  Essays  on  Historical  Trtitk  (London,  1871^^;  David  Caldcr- 


of  the  Affairs  of  ScoUaiul^  tS77- 
Barb6.  The  '       '       '  -      ■ 


inburgh,  1830);  Loub  A. 
of  Cowrie  House  (London,   1887);   Andrew 


wood,  History  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  (8  vols.,  Edinburgh,  184a- 
1849):  P.  F.  Tytlcr.  History  of  Scotland  (o  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1828- 
1843} ;  John  Hill  Burton,  History  of  Scotland  (7  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
1 867-1 870).  W.  A.  Craigie  has  edited  as  Skotlands  Rimur  some 
Icelandic  ballads  relating  to  the  Cowrie  conspiracy.  He  has  also 
printed  the  Danish  translation  of  the  official  account  of  the  con- 
spiracy, which  was  published  at  Copenhagen  in  itez.    (R.  J.  M.) 

QOWRIBi  a  belt  of  fertile  aUuvial  land  {Scetice,  "carse'O 
of  Perthshire,  Scotland.  Occupying  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  it  has  a  generally  north-easterly  trend  and  extends 
from  the  eastern  boundaries  of.  Perth  dty  to  the  confines  of 
Dundee.  It  measures  z  5  m.  in  length,  its  breadth  from  the  river 
towards  the  base  of  the  Sidkw  Hills  varying  from  s  to  4  m. 
Probably  it  is  a  raised  beach,  submerged  tmtil  a  comparatively 
recent  period.  Although  it  contained  much  bog  land  and  stagnant 
water  as  late  as  the  zSth  century,  it  has  since  been  drained  and 
cultivated,  and  is  now  one  of  the  most  productive  tracts  in 
Perthshire.  The  district  is  noteworthy  for  the  number  of  its 
castles  and  mansions,  almost  wholly  residential,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  Kinfauns  Castle,  Inchyra  House,  Pitfour 
Castle,  Errol  Park,  Megginch  Castle,  dating  from  1575;  Fingask 
Castle,  Kinnaird  Castle,  erected  in  the  z  5th  century  and  occupied 
by  James  VI.  in  z6t  7 ;  Rossie  Priory,  the  seat  of  Lord  Kinnaird; 
and  Huntly  Castle,  built  by  the  3rd  earl  of  Kinghorne. 


GOYA— GOYAZ 


303 


flOYAt  a  rfver  town  and  port  of  Corrientes,  Aisentine  Republic, 
the  commercial  centre  of  the  south-western  departments  of  the 
province  and  chief  town  of  a  department  of  the  same  name, 
on  a  riacho  or  side  channel  of  the  Parani  about  5  m.  from  the 
main  channel  and  about  120  m.  S.  of  the  city  of  Corrientes. 
Pop.  (1905,  est.)  7000.  The  town  is  built  on  low  ground  which 
is  subject  to  inundations  in  very  wet  weather,  but  its  streets 
are  broad  and  the  general  appearance  of  its  edifices  is  good. 
Among  its  public  biddings  is  a  handsome  parish  church  and  a 
national  normal  school.  The  productions  of  the  neighbourhood 
are  chiefly  pastoral,  and  its  exports  include  cattle,  hides,  wool  and 
oranges.  Goya  had  an  export  of  crudely-made  cheese  long  before 
the  modem  cheese  factories  of  the  Argentine  Republic  came  into 
existence.  The  place  dates  from  1807,  and  had  its  origin,  it  is 
said,  i^  the  trade  established  there  by  a  ship  captain  and  his 
wife  Gregoria  or  Goya,  who  supplied  passing  vessels  with  beef. 

GOTANNA,  or  Goiana,  a  city  of  Brazil  in  the  N.E.  angle  of 
the  state  of  Pemambuco,  about  65  m.  N.  of  the  city  of  Pemam- 
buco.  Pc^.(  1890)  X  5,436.  It  is  built  on  a  fertile  plain  between 
the  rivers  Tracunhaem  and  Capibaribe-mirim  near  their  junction 
to  form  the  Goyanna  river,  and  is  15  m.  from  the  coast.  It  is 
surroundttl  by,  and  is  the  commercial  centre  for,  one  of  the 
richest  agricultural  districts  of  the  state,  which  produces  sugar, 
rum,  coffee,  tobacco,  cotton,  cattle,  hides  and  castor  oU.  The 
Goyanna  river  is  navigable  for  smaU  vessels  nearly  up  to  the 
dty,  but  its  entrance  is  partly  obstructed  and  difficult.  Goyanna 
is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  the  state,  and  was  occupied  by  the 
Dutch  from  1636  to  1654.  It  has  several  old-style  churches, 
an  orphans'  asylum,  hospital  and  some  small  industries. 

GOTA  T  LUCIENTES,  FRANCISCO  (1746-1828),  Spanish 
painter,  was  born  in  1746  at  Fuendetodd^,  a  small  Aragonese 
village  near  Saragossa.  At  an  early  age  he  commenced  his 
artistic  career  under  the  direction  of  Jos6  Luzan  Martinez,  who 
had  studied  painting  at  Naples  under  Mastroleo.  It  is  dear  that 
the  ^curacy  in  drawing  Luzan  is  said  to  have  acquired  by 
diligent  study  of  the  best  Italiian  masters  did  not  much  influence 
his  erratic  pupil.  Goya,  a  true  son  of  his  province,  was  bold, 
capricious,  headstrong  and  obstinate.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  on  more  than  one  occasion  in  those  rival  religious  processions 
at  Saragossa  which  often  ended  in  unseemly  frays;  and  his 
friends  were  led  in  consequence  to  despatch  him  in  his  nineteenth 
year  to  Bifadrid,  where,  prior  to  his  departure  for  Rome,  his  mode 
of  life  i^pears  to  have  been  anything  but  that  of  a  quiet  orderly 
dtizen.  Being  a  good  muaidan,  and  gifted  with  a  voice,  he 
sallied  forth  nightly,  serenading  the  caged  beauties  of  the  capital, 
with  whom  he  seems  to  have  been  a  very  general  favourite. 

Lacking  the  necessary  royal  patronage,  and  probably  scandaliz- 
ing by  his  mode  of  life  the  sedate  court  officials,  he  did  not  receive 
— periiapa  did  not  seek — ^the  usual  honorarium  accorded  to  those 
students  who  visited  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  study.  Finding 
in  convenient  to  retire  for  a  time  from  Madrid,  he  decided  to 
visit  Rome  at  his  own  cost;  and  being  without  resources  he  joined 
a  "  quadrilla  "  of  bull-fighters,  passing  from  town  to  town  until 
he  reached  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  We  next  hear  of 
him  mching  Rome,  broken  in  health  and  financially  bankrupt. 
In  1773  he  was  awarded  the  second  prize  in  a  competition 
initiated  by  the  academy  of  Parma,  styling  himself  "  pupil  to 
Baycu,  painter  to  the  king  of  Spain."  Compelled  to  quit  Rome 
somewhat  suddenly,  he  appears  again  in  Madrid  in  1775.  the 
husband  of  Bayeu's  daughter,  and  father  of  a  son.  About  this 
time  he  appears  to  have  visited  his  parents  at  Fuendetodos, 
no  doubt  noting  much  which  later  on  he  utilized  in  his  genre 
works.  On  returning  to  Madrid  he  commenced  paint ing  canvases 
for  the  tapestry  factory  of  Santa  Barbara,  in  which  the  king 
took  mnch  interest.  Between  1776  and  1 780  he  appears  to  have 
vxpfHied  thirty  examples,  receiving  about  £1200  for  them. 
Soon  after  the  revolution  of  1868,  an  official  was  appointed  to 
take  an  inventory  of  all  works  of  art  belonging  to  the  nation, 
and  in  one  of  the  ceUars  of  the  Madrid  palace  were  discovered 
forty-three  of  these  works  of  Goya  on  rolls  forgotten  and  neglected 
(see  Los  Tapiees  d4  Goya;  por  Crusado  Villaamil,  Madrid,  1870). 

His  originality  and  talent  were  soon  recognized  by  Mengs, 


the  king's  painter,  and  royal  favour  naturally  followed.  .His 
career  now  becomes  intimately  connected  with  the  court  life 
of  his  time.  He  was  commissioned  by  the  king  to  design  a 
series  of  frescoes  for  the  church  of  St  Anthony  of  Florida,  Madrid, 
and  he  also  produced  works  for  Saragossa,  Valencia  and  Toledo. 
Ecclesiastical  art  was  not  his  forte,  and  although  he  cannot 
be  said  to  have  failed  in  any  of  his  work,  his  fame  was  not 
enhanced  by  his  religious  subjects. 

In  portraiture,  without  doubt,  Goya  excelled:  his  portraits 
are  evidently  life-like  and  unexaggerated,  and  he  disdained 
flattery.  He  worked  rapidly,  and  during  his  long  stay  at  Madrid 
painted,  amongst  many  others,  the  portraits  of  four  sovereigns 
of  Spain—Charies  III.  and  IV.,  Ferdinand  VII.  and  "  King 
Joseph."  The  duke  of  Wellington  also  sat  to  him;  but  on  his 
making  some  remark  which  raised  the  artist's  choler,  Goya 
seized  a  plaster  cast  and  hurled  it  at  the  head  of  the  duke.  There 
are  extant  two  pendl  sketches  of  Wellington,  one  in  the  British 
Museum,  the  other  in  a  private  collection.  One  of  his  best 
portraits  is  that  of  the  lovely  Andalusian  duchess  of  Alva. 
He  now  became  the  spoiled  child  of  fortune,  and  acquired,  at 
any  rate  externally,  much  of  the  polish  of  court  manners.  He 
still  worked  industriously  upon  his  own  lines,  and,  while  there 
is  a  stiffness  almost  ungainly  in  the  pose  of  some  of  his  portraits, 
the  stern  individuality  is  always  preserved. 

Including  the  designs  for  tapestry,  Goya's  genre  works  are 
numerous  and  varied,  both  in  style  and  feeling,  from  his  Watteau- 
like  "Al  Fresco  Breakfast,"  '^Romeriade  San  Isidro,"  to  the 
"  Curate  feeding  the  Devil's  Lamp,"  the  "  Meson  del  Gallo  " 
and  the  painfully  realistic  massacre  of  the  "  Dos  de  Mayo  " 
(1808).  Goya's  versatility  is  proverbial;  in  his  hands  the 
pencil,  brush  and  graver  are  equally  powerful.  Some  of  his 
crayon  sketches  of  scenes  in  the  bull  ring  are  full  of  force  and 
character,  slight  but  full  of  meaning.  He  was  in  his  thirty-second 
year  when  he  commenced  his  etchings  from  Velasquez,  whose 
influence  may,  however,  be  traced  in  his  work  at  an  earlier  date. 
A  careful  examination  of  some  of  the  drawings  made  for  these 
etchings  indicates  a  steadiness  of  purpose  not  usually  discovered 
in  Goya's  craft  as  draughtsman.  He  is  much  more  widely  known 
by  his  etchings  than  his  oils;  the  latter  necessarily  must  be 
sought  in  public  and  private  collections,  principally  in  Spain, 
while  the  former  are  known  and  prized  inevery  capital  of  Europe. 
The  etched  collections  by  which  Goya  is  best  known  include 
"  Los  Caprichos,"  which  have  a  satirical  meaning  known  only  to 
the  few;  they  are  bold,  weird  and  full  of  force.  "  Los  Provcrbios  " 
are  also  supposed  to  have  some  hidden  intention.  "Los 
Desastres  de  la  Guerra  "  may  fairly  claim  to  depict  Spain  during 
the  French  invasion.  In  the  bull-fight  series  Goya  is  evidently 
at  home;  he  was  a  skilled  master  of  the  barbarous  art,  and  no 
doubt  every  sketch  is  true  to  nature,  and  from  life. 

Goya  retired  from  Madrid,  desiring  probably  during  his  latter 
years  to  escape  the  trying  climate  of  that  capital.  He  died  at 
Bordeaux  on  the  x6th  of  April  1828,  and  a  monument  has  been 
erected  there  over  his  remains.  From  the  deaths  of  Velasquez 
and  Murillo  to  the  advent  of  Fortuny,  Goya's  name  is  the  only 
important  one  found  in  the  history  of  Spanish  art. 

See  also  the  lives  by  Paul  Lefort  (1877),  and  Vriarte  (1867). 

OOYAZ,  an  inland  state  of  Brazil,  bounded  by  MJatto  Grosso 
and  Pari  on  the  W.,  Maranhio,  Bahia  and  Minas  Geraes  on  the 
E.,  and  Minas  Geraes  and  Matto  Grosso  on  the  S.  Pop.  (1S90) 
227*572;  (1900)  355,284,  including  many  half-civilized  Indians 
and  many  half-brwds.  Area,  288,549  sq.  m.  The  outline  of 
the  state  is  that  of  a  roughly-shaped  wedge  with  the  thin  edge 
extending  northward  between  and  up  to  the  junction  of  the 
rivers  Araguaya  and  Upper  Tocantins,  and  its  length  is  nearly 
15'  of  Utitude.  The  state  lies  wholly  within  the  great  Brazilian 
plateau  region,  but  its  surface  is  much  broken  towards  the  N. 
by  the  deeply  eroded  valleys  of  the  Araguaya  and  Upper 
Tocantins  rivers  and  their  tributaries.  The  general  slope  of 
the  plateau  is  toward  the  N.,  and  the  drainage  of  the  state  is 
chiefly  through  the  above-named  rivers — the  principal  tributaries 
of  the  Araguaya  being  the  Grande  and  Vermelho,  and  of  the 
Upper  Tocantins,  the  Manod  Alves  Grande.  Somno,  Paranan 


304 


GOYEN— GOZLAN 


and  Maranh&o.  A  considerable  part  of  southern  Goyfiz,  however, 
slopes  southward  and  the  drainage  is  through  numerous  small 
streams  flowing  into  the  Paranahyba,  a  large  tributary  of  the 
Paran&.  The  general  elevation  of  the  plateau  is  estimated  to 
be  about  2700  ft.,  and  the  highest  elevation  was  reported  in 
1892  to  be  the  Serra  dos  Pyreneos  (5250  ft.).  Crossing  the 
state  N.N.E.  to  S.S.W.  there  is  a  well-defined  chain  of  mountains, 
of  which  the  Pyreneos,  .Santa  Rita  and  Santa  Martha  ranges 
form  parts,  but  their  elevation  above  the  plateau  is  not  great. 
The  surface  of  the  plateau  is  generally  open  campo  and  scrubby 
arboreal  growth  called  caalingaSf  but  the  streams  are  generally 
bordered  with  forest,  especially  in  the  deeper  valleys.  Towards 
the  N.  the  forest  becomes  denser  and  of  the  character  of  the 
Amazon  Valley.  The  climate  of  the  plateau  is  usually  described 
as  temperate,  but  it  is  essentially  sub-tropicaL  The  vsdley  regions 
arc  tropical,  and  malarial  fevers  are  common.  The  cultivation 
of  the  soil  is  limited  to  local  needs,  except  in  the  production  of 
tobacco,  which  is  exported  to  neighbouring  states.  The  open 
campos  afford  good  pasturage,  and  live  stock  is  largely  exported. 
Gold-raining  has  been  carried  on  in  a  primitive  manner  for  more 
than  two  centuries,  but  the  output  has  never  been  large  and  no 
very  rich  mines  have  been  discovered.  Diamonds  have  been 
found,  but  only  to  a  very  limited  extent.  There  is  a  considerable 
export  of  quartz  crystal,  commercially  known  as  "Brazilian 
pebbles,"  used  in  optical  work.  Although  the  northern  and 
southern  extremities  of  Goy&z  h'e  within  two  great  river  systems — 
the  Tocantins  and  Paran&— the  upper  courses  of  which  are 
navigable,  both  of  them  are  obstructed  by  falls.  The  only 
outlet  for  the  state  has  been  by  means  of  mule  trains  to  the 
railway  termini  of  S&o  Paulo  and  l^Iinas  Geraes,  pending  the 
extension  of  railways  from  both  of  those  states,  one  entering 
Goy&z  by  way  of  CatalSo,  near  the  southern  botmdaryi  and  the 
other  at  some  point  further  N. 

The  capital  of  the  state  is  GovAz,  or  Villa-Boa  de  Goyiz,  a 
mining  town  on  the  Rio  Vcrmclho,  a  tributary  of  the  Araguaya 
rising  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Serra  de  Santa  Rita.  Pop. 
(1890)  6807.  Gold  was  discovered  here  in  1682  by  Bartholomeu 
Bucno,  the  first  European  explorer  of  this  region,  and  the 
settlement  founded  by  him  was  called  Santa  Anna,  which  is 
still  the  name  of  the  parish.  The  site  of  the  town  is  a  barren, 
rocky  mountain  valley,  1900  ft.  above  sea-level,  in  which  the 
heat  is  most  oppressive  at  times  and  the  nights  are  tmpleasantly 
cold.  Goy&z  is  the  see  of  a  bishopric  founded  in  1826,  and 
possesses  a  small  cathedral  and  some  churches. 

OOYEN.  JAN  JOSEPHSZOON  VAN  (1596-1656),  Dutch 
painter,  was  born  at  Leiden  on  the  X3th  of  January  1596,  learned 
painting  under  several  roasters  at  Leiden  and  Haarlem,  married 
in  1618  and  settled  at  the  Hague  about  1631.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  emancipate  himself  from  the  traditions  of  minute 
imitation  embodied  in  the  works  of  Breughel  and  Savery. 
Though  he  preserved  the  dun  scale  of  tone  peculiar  to  those 
painters,  he  studied  atmospheric  effects  in  black  and  white  with 
considerable  skill.  He' had  much  influence  on  Dutch  art.  He 
formed  Solomon  Ruysdael  and  Pieter  Potter,  forced  attention 
from  Rembrandt,  and  bequeathed  some  of  his  precepts  to  Pieter 
de  Molyn,  Coelenbier,  Saftleven,  van  der  Kabel  and  even 
Berghem.  His  life  at  the  Hague  for  twenty-five  years  was  very 
prosperous,  and  he  rose  in  1640  to  be  president  of  his  gild.  A 
friend  of  van  Dyck  and  Bartholomew  van  der  Heist,  he  sat 
to  both  these  artists  for  his  likeness.  His  daughter  Margaret 
married  Jan  Steen,  and  he  had  steady  patrons  in  the  stadtholder 
Frederick  Henry,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  municipality  of  the 
Hague.  He  died  at  the  Hague  in  1656,  possessed  of  land  and 
houses  to  the  amount  of  15,000  florins. 

Between  1610  and  x6i6  van  Goyen  wandered  from  one  school 
to  the  other.  He  was  first  apprenticed  to  Isaak  Swanenburgh; 
he  then  passed  through  the  workshops  of  de  Man,  Klok  and 
de  Hoorn.  In  z6i6  he  took  a  decisive  step  and  joined  Esaias 
van  der  Velde  at  Haarlem;  amongst  his  earlier  pictures,  some 
of  162 1  (Berlin  Museum)  and  1623  (Brunswick  Gallery)  show 
the  influence  of  Esaias  very  perceptibly.  The  landscape  is 
minute.    Details  of  branching  and  foliage  are  given,  and  the 


figures  are  important  in  relation  to  the  distances.  After  1625 
these  peculiarities  gradually  disappear..  Atmospheric  effect  in 
landscapes  of  cool  tints  varying  from  grey  green  to  pearl  or  brown 
and  yellow  dun  is  the  principal  object  which  van  Goyen  holds 
in  view,  and  he  succeeds  admirably  in  light  skies  with  drifting 
misty  doud,  and  downs  with  cottages  and  scanty  shrubbery 
or  stunted  trees.  Neglecting  all  detail  of  foliage  he  now  works 
in  a  thin  diluted  mediiun,  lajring  on  rubbings  as  of  sepia  or 
Indian  ink,  and  finishing  without  loss  of  transparence  or  lucidity. 
Throwing  his  foreground  into  darkness,  he  casts  alternate  light 
and  shade  upon  the  more  distant  planes,  and  realizes  most 
pleasing  views  of  large  expanse.  In  buildings  and  water,  with 
shipping  near  the  banks,  he  sometimes  has  the  strength  if  not 
the  colour  of  Albert  Cuyp.  The  defect  of  his  work  isLchiefly 
want  of  solidity.  But  even  this  had  its  charm  for  van  Goyen's 
contemporaries,  and  some  time  elapsed  before  Cuyp,  who 
imitated  him,  restricted  his  method  of  transparent  tinting  to 
the  foliage  of  foregroimd  trees.    . 

Van  Goyen's  pictures  are  comparatively  rare  in  English  collec- 
tions, but  his  work  is  seen  to  advantage  abroad,  and  chiefly 
at  the  Louvre,  and  in  Berlin,  Gotha,  Vienna,  Munich  and 
Augsburg.  Twenty-eight  of  his  works  were  exUbited  together 
at  Vienna  in  1873.  Though  he  visited  France  once  or  twice, 
van  Goyen  chiefly  confined  himself  to  the  scenery  of  HoUand 
and  the  Rhine.  Nine  timeS  from  1633  to  1655  he  paint«i  views 
of  Dordrecht.  Nimeguen  was  one  of  his  favourite  resorts. 
But  he  was  also  fond  of  Haarlem  and  Amsterdam,  and  he  did 
not  ne^ect  Amheim  or  Utrecht.  One  of  his  largest  pieces  is 
a  view  of  the  Hague,  executed  in  1651  for  the  munidpaUty,  and 
now  in  the  town  collection  of  that  dty.  Most  of  his  panels 
represent  reaches  of  the  Rhine,  the  Waal  and  the  Maese.  But 
he  sometimes  sketched  the  downs  of  Schcveningen,  or  the  sea 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  and  Scheldt;  and  he  liked  to  depict 
the  calm  inshore,  and  rarely  ventured  upon  seas  stirred  by  more 
than  a  curling  breeze  or  the  swell  of  a  coming  squall.  He  often 
painted  winter  scenes,  with  ice  and  skaters  and  sledges,  in  the 
style  familiar  to  Isaac  van  Ostade.  There  are  numerous  varieties 
of  these  subjects  in  the  master's  works  from  1621  to  1653.  One 
historical  picture  has  been  assigned  to  van  Goyen — the  "  Em- 
barkation of  Charles  II."  in  the  Bute  collection.  But  this  canvas 
was  executed  after  van  Goyen's  death.  When  he  tried  this 
form  of  art  he  propcriy  mistrusted  his  own  powers.  But  he 
produced  little  in  partnership  with  his  contemporaries,  and  we 
can  only  except  the  "  Watering-place  "  in  the  ^lUery  of  Vienna, 
where  the  landscape  is  enlivened  with  horses  and  cattle  by 
Philip  Wouvermans.  Even  Jan  Steen,  who  was  his  son-in-law, 
only  painted  figures  for  one  of  his  pictures,  and  it  is  probable 
that  this  piece  was  completed  after  van  Goyen's  death.  More 
than  250  of  van  Goyen's  pictures  are  known  and  accessible. 
Of  this  number  little  more  than  70  are  undated.  None  exist 
without  the  full  name  or  monogram,  and  yet  there  is  no  painter 
whose  hand  it  is  easier  to  trace  without  the  help  of  these 
adjuncts.  An  etcher,  but  a  poor  one,  van  Goyen  has  only 
bequeathed  to  us  two  very  rare  plates. 

GOZLAN,  LfiON  (1806-1866),  French  novelist  and  play- 
writer,  was  born  on  the  xst  of  September  x8o6,  at  Marseilles. 
When  he  was  still  a  boy,  his  father,  who  had  made  a  large 
fortune  as  a  ship-broker,  met  with  a  series  of  misfortunes,  and 
L^n,  before  completing  his  education,  had  to  go  to  sea  in  order 
to  earn  a  living.  In  1828  wc  find  him  in  Paris,  determined  to 
run  the  risks  of  literary  life.  His  townsman,  Joseph  Mfiy, 
who  was  then  making  himself  famous  by  his  pdUtiad  satires, 
introduced  him  to  several  newq;>apers,  and  Gozlan's  brilliant 
articles  in  the  Figaro  did  much  harm  to  the  already  tottering 
government  of  Charles  X.  His  first  novel  was  Les  Mtmoires 
d*uH  apothicaire  (X828),  and  this  was  followed  by  numberless 
others,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  WaskingjUm  Letert 
et  SocraU  Leblanc  (1838),  Le  Notaire  (k  CkantiUy  (1836),  Aristide 
Proissart  (1843)  (one  of  the  most  curious  and  celebrated  of  his 
productions),  Les  NuUs  du  Phre  Laektnse  (X846),  Lt  Tapis  vert 
(1855),  ^  PoUe  du  logis  (1857),  Les  £tttctums  de  Pdydore  Moras- 
guin  (1857),  &C.    His  best-known  works  for  the  theatre 


GOZO— GOZZOLI 


30s 


La  Pluie  a  U  beau  temps  (i86z),  and  Une  TempUe  dans  vn 
terre  d*eau  (1850),  two  curtain-raisers  which  have  kept  the 
stage;  Le  Lion  empaiUi  (1848),  La  Queue  du  ehien  d'Alcibujde 
(1849),  Louise  de  NanUuil  (1854),  Le  Cdieau  des  nines  (1855), 
Les  Paniers  de  la  comtesse  (1852);  and  he  adapted  several  of 
his  own  novels  to  the  stage.  Gozlan  also  wrote  a  romantic 
and  picturesque  description  of  the  old  manors  and  mansions 
of  his  country  entitled  Les  Ckdteaux  de  France  (2  vols.,  1844), 
originally  published  (1836)  as  Les  ToureUes,  which  has  some 
archaeological  value,  and  a  biographical  essay  on  Balzac  (Balzac 
ekes  luif  1862).  He  was  made  a  member  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour  in  1846,  and  in  1859  an  officer  of  that  order.  Gozlan 
died  on  the  14th  of  September  1866,  in  Paris. 

See  also  P.  Audcbrand,  Uon  Gostan  (1887). 

GOZO  (Gozzo),  an  island  of  the  Maltese  group  In  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  second  in  size  to  Malta.  It  lies  N.W.  and  3}  m. 
from  the  nearest  point  of  Malta,  is  of  oval  form,  8f  m.  in  length 
and  4I  m.  In  extreme  breadth,  and  has  an  area  of  neariy  25  m. 
Its  chief  town,  Victoria,  formerly  called  Rabato  (pop.  in  190Z, 
5057)  stands  near  the  middle  of  the  island  on  one  of  a  duster 
of  steep  conical  hilb,  3}  m.  from  the  port  of  Migiarro  Bay, 
on  the  south-east  shore,  below  Fort  Chambray.  The  character 
of  the  island  is  similar  to  that  of  Malta.  The  estimated  popula- 
tion in  1907  was  21,911. 

GOZZI,   CARLO.   Cov^   (1732-1806),    Italian    dramatist, 

ii*as  descended  from  an  old  Venetian  family,  and  was  bom  at 

Venice  in  March  1722.    Compelled  by  the  embarrassed  condition 

of  his  father's  affair^  to  procure  the  means  of  self-support,  he, 

at  the  age  of  sixteen,  joined  the  army  in  Dalmatia;  but  three 

years  afterwards  he  returned  to  Venice,  where  he  soon  made 

a  reputation  for  himself  as  the  wittiest  member  of  the  Granel- 

lescfai  society,  to  which  the  publication  of  several  satirical 

pieces  had  gained  him  admission.    This  society,  nominally 

devoted  to  conviviality  and  wit,  had  also  serious  h'terary  aims, 

and  was  especially  zealous  to  preserve  the  Tuscan  literature 

pure  and  untainted  by  foreign  influences.    The  displacement 

of  the  old  Italian  comedy  by  the  dramas  of  Pietro  Chiari  (1700- 

1 7S8)  and  Goldoni,  founded  on  French  models,  threatened  defeat 

to  all  their  efforts;  and  in  1757  Gozzi  came  to  the  rescue  by 

publishing  a  satirical  poem,   Tarlana  degli  infiussi  per  I*  anna 

bisestile,  and  in  1761  by  his  comedy,  FiabaddP  amoredelle  Ire 

mdaranciet  a  parody  of  the  manner  of  the  two  obnoxious  poets, 

founded  on  a  fairy  tale.    For  its  representation  he  obtained 

the  services  of  the  Sacchi  company  of  players,  who,  on  account 

of  the  popularity  of  the  comedies  of  Chiari  and  Goldoni — which 

afforded  no  scope  for  the  display  of  their  peculiar  talents — ^had 

been  left  without  employment;  and  as  their  satirical  powers 

were  thus  sharpened  by  personal  enmity,  the  play  met  with 

extraordinaiy  success.    Struck  by  the  effect  produced  on  the 

audience  by  the  introduction  of  the  supernatiural  or  mythical 

element,  which  he  had  merely  used  as  a  convenient  medium 

for  his  satirical  purposes,  Gozzi  now  produced  a  series  of  dramatic 

pieces  based  on  fairy  tales,  which  for  a  period  obtained  great 

popularity,  but  after  the  breaking  up  of  the  Sacchi  company 

were  completely  disregarded.    They  have,  however,  obtained 

high  praise  frott  Goethe,  Schlegcl,  Madame  de  StaSl  and  Sis- 

moodi;  and  one  of  them.  Re  Twandote,  was  translated  by 

Schiller.    In  his  later  years  Gozzi  set  himself  to  the  production 

of  tragedies  in  which  the  comic  element  was  largely  introduced; 

but  as  this  innovation  proved  unacceptable  to  the  critics  he  had 

recourse  to  the  Spanish  drama,  from  which  he  obtained  models 

for  various  pieces,  which,  however,  met  with  only  equivocal 

success.    He  died  on  the  4th  of  April  1806. 

His  collected  works  were  published  under  his  own  superintend- 
ence, at  Venice,  in  1792,  in  10  volumes;  and  his  dramatic  works, 
traoBlated  into  German  by  Werthes,  were  published  at  Bern  in 
179$.    See  Gozzi's  work,  iiemcrie  inulUi  delta  vita  di  Carlo  Conzi 


Gozzi  <i82l);  "  Charles  Gozzi,"  by  Paul  de  Mussct.  in  the  Rtvue 
der  d*MX  memdes  for  15th  November  1844;  Magrini,  Carlo  Com 
e  la  fiabe;  sargi  storici,  biogratUi.  e  critici  (Cremona,  1876),  and  the 
same  authorVbook  on  Gozzi  a  lite  and  times  (Bcnevento,  1883). 

X1I.6 


GOZZI,  6ASPAR0,  Count  (1713-1786),  eldest  brother  of 

Carlo  Gozzi,  was  born  on  the  4th  of  December  17 13.    In  1739 

he  married  the  poetess  Luise  Bergalli,  and  she  undertook  the 

management  of  the  theatre  of  Sant'  Angelo,  Venice,  he  supplying 

the  performers  with  dramas  chiefly  translated  from  the  French. 

The  speculation  proved  unfortunate,  but  meantime  he  had 

attained  a  high  reputation  for  his  contributions  to  the  CaaeUa 

Venetat  and  he  soon  came  to  be  known  as  one  of  the  ablest 

critics  and  purest  and  most  elegant  stylists  in  Italy.    For  a 

considerable  period  he  was  censor  of  the  press  in  Venice,  and  in 

1774  he  was  appointed  to  reorganize  the  university  system  at 

Padua.    He  died  at  Padua  on  the  26th  of  December  1786. 

His  principal  writings  are  Osservalore  Veneto  periodico  (1761),  on 
the  model  of  the  Enfelish  Spectator,  and  distinguished  by  its  high 
moral  tone  and  its  light  and  pleasant  satire;  Lettere  famiiliari 
(1755)1  A  collection  of  short  racy  pieces  in  prose  and  verse,  on  subjects 
of  general  interest ;  Sermoni,  poems  in  blank  verse  after  the  manner 
of  Horace;  //  Mondo  morale  (1760),  a  personification  of  human 
passions  with  inwoven  dialogues  in  the  style  o(  Lucian;  and  Giuditio 
degli  anticki  poeli  sopra  la  modema  censura  di  Dante  (1755).  a  defence 
of  the  great  poet  against  the  attacks  of  BettinelU.  He  also  trans- 
lated various  works  from  the  French  and  English,  including  Mar- 
montel's  Tales  and  Pofx's  Essay  on  Criticism.  His  collected  works 
were  published  at  Venice,  z  794-1 798,  In  12  volumes,  and  several 
editions  have  appeared  since. 

GOZZOLI,  BENOZZO,  Italian  painter,  was  bom  in  Florence 
in  1424,  or  perhaps  1420,  and  in  the  early  part  of  his  career 
assisted  Fra  Angeh'co,  whom  he  followed  to  Rome  and  worked 
with  at  Orvieto.  In  Rome  he  executed  in  Santa  Maria  in 
Aracoeli  a  fresco  of  "  St  Anthony  and  Two  Angels."  In  1449 
he  left  Angelico,  and  went  to  Montefalco,  near  FoUgno  in  Umbria. 
In  S.  Fortunato,  near  Montefalco,  he  painted  a  "  Madonna  and 
Child  with  Saints  and  Angels,"  and  three  other  works.  One  of 
these,  the  altar-piece  representing  "  St  Thomas  receiving  the 
Girdle  of  the  Virgin,"  is  now  in  the  Lateran  Museum,  and 
shows  the  affinity  of  Gozzoli's  early  style  to  Angelico's. .  He 
next  painted  in  the  monastery  of  S.  Francesco,  Montefalco, 
filling  the  choir  with  a  triple  course  of  subjects  from  the  life 
of  the  saint,  with  various  accessories,  including  heads  of  Dante, 
Petrarch  and  Giotto.  This  work  was  completed  in  1452,  and 
is  still  marked  by  the  style  of  Angelico,  crossed  here  and  there 
with  a  more  distinctly  Giottesque  influence.  In  the  same  church, 
in  the  chapel  of  St  Jerome,  is  a  fresco  by  Gozzoli  of  the  Virgin 
and  Saints,  the  Crucifixion  and  other  subjects.  He  remained 
at  Montefalco  (with  an  interval  at  Viterbo)  probably  till  1456, 
employing  Mesastris  as  assistant.  Thence  he  went  to  Perugia, 
and  painted  in  a  church  a  "  Virgin  and  Saints,"  now  in  the  local 
academy,  and  soon  afterwards  to  his  native  Florence,  the  head- 
quarters of  art.  By  the  end  of  1459  he  had  nearly  finished 
his  important  labour  in  the  chapel  of  the  Palazzo  Riccardi,  the 
"  Journey  of  the  Magi  to  Bethlehem,"  and,  in  the  tribune  of 
this  chapel,  a  composition  of  "Angels  in  a  Paradise."  His 
picture  in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  a  "  Virgin  and  Child 
with  Saints,"  1461,  belongs  also  to  the  period  of  his  Florentine 
sojourn.  Another  small  picture  in  the  same  gallery,  the  "  Rape 
of  Helen,"  is  of  dubious  authenticity.  In  1464  Gozzoli  left 
Florence  for  S.  Gimignano,  where  he  executed  some  extensive 
works;  in  the  church  of  S.  Agostino,  a  composition  of  St 
Sebastian  protecting  the  City  from  the  Plague  of  this  same 
year,  1464;  over  the  entire  choir  of  the  church,  a  triple  course 
of  scenes  from  the  legends  of  St  Augustine,  from  the  time  of 
his  entering  the  school  of  Tegaste  on  to  his  burial,  seventeen 
chief  subjects,  with  some  accessories;  in  the  Pieve  di  S. 
Gimignano,  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Sebastian,"  and  Other  subjects, 
and  some  further  works  in  the  dty  and  its  vicinity.  Here  his 
style  combined  something  of  Lippo  Lippi  with  its  original 
elements,  and  he  received  co-operation  from  Giusto  d'Andrea. 
He  stayed  in  this  city  till  1467,  and  then  began,  in  the  Campo 
Santo  of  Pisa,  from  1469,  the  vast  series  of  mural  paintings 
with  which  his  name  is  specially  identified.  There  are  twenty- 
four  subjects  from  the  Old  Testament,  from  the  "  Invention  of 
Wine  by  Noah  "  to  the  "  Visit  of  the  Queen  of  Shebalo  Solomon." 
He  contracted  to  paint  three  subjects  per  year  for  about  ten 
ducats  each— a  sum  which  may  be  re^irded  as  equivalent  to 

1« 


3o6 


GRAAFF  REINET— GRABE 


£zoo  at  the  present  day.  It  appears,  however,  that  this  contract 
was  not  strictly  adhered  to,  for  the  actual  rate  of  painting  was 
only  three  pictures  in  two  years.  Perhaps  the  great  multitude 
of  figures  and  accessories  was  accepted  as  a  set-off  against  the 
slower  rate  of  production.  By  January  1470  he  had  executed 
the  fresco  of"  Noah  and  his  FiCmily," — followed  by  the  "  Curse 
of  Ham," the  "Building  of  the  To%irer  of  Babel  "(which  contains 
portraits  of  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  the  young  Lorenzo  Politian  and 
others),  the"  Destruction  of  Sodom,"  the  "Victory  of  Abraham," 
the  "  Marriages  of  Rebecca  and  of  Rachel,"  the  "  Life  of  Moses," 
&c.  In  the  Cappella  Ammannati,  facing  a  gate  of  the  Campo 
Santo,  he  painted  also  an  "Adoration  of  t^  Magi,"  wherein 
appears  a  portrait  of  himself.  All  this  enormous  mass  of  work, 
in  which  Gozzoli  was  probably  assisted  by  Zanobi  MacchiavcUi, 
was  performed,  in  addition  to  several  other  pictures  during  his 
stay  in  Pisa  (we  need  only  specify  the  "  Gloiy  of  St  Thomas 
Aquinas,"  now  in  the  Louvre),  in  sixteen  years,  lasting  up  to 
1485.  This  is  the  latest  date  which  can  with  certainty  be 
asugned  to  any  work  from  his  hand,  although  he  is  known  to 
have  been  alive  up  to  1498.  In  1478  the  Ptsan  authorities  had 
given  him,  as  a  token  of  their  regard,  a  tomb  in  the  Campo 
Santo.  He  had  likewise  a  house  of  his  own  in  Pisa,  and  houses 
and  land  in  Florence.  In  rectitude  of  life  he  is  said  to  have  been 
worthy  of  his  first  master,  Fra  Angelico. 

Tlie  art  of  GoezoU  does  not  rival  that  of  his  greatest  contem- 
poraries either  in  elevation  or  in  strength,  but  is  pre-eminently 
attractive  by  its  sense  of  what  is  rich,  winning,  lively  and 
abundant  in  the  aspects  of  men  and  things.  His  landscapes, 
thronged  with  birds  and  quadrupeds,  especially  dogs,  are  more 
varied,  drcumstantial  and  alluring  than  those  of  any  predecessor; 
his  compositions  are  crowded  with  figures,  more  characteristically 
true  when  happily  and  gracefully  occupied  than  when  the  demands 
of  the  subject  require  tragic  or  dramatic  intensity,  or  turmoil 
of  action;  his  colour  is  bright,  vivacious  and  festive.  Gozzoli's 
genius  was,  on  the  whole,  more  versatile  and  assimilative  than 
vigorously  original;  his  drawing  not  free  from  considerable 
imperfections,  especially  in  the  extremities  and  articxilations, 
and  in  the  perspective  of  his  gorgeously-schemed  buildings. 
In  fresco-painting  he  used  the  methods  of  tempera,  and  the  decay 
of  his  works  has  been  severe  in  proportion.  Of  his  untiring 
industry  the  recital  of  his  labours  and  the  number  of  works 
produced  are  the  most  forcible  attestation. 

Vasari,  Crowe  and  Cavak:aaeUe,  and  the  other  ordinary  authori- 
ties, can  be  consulted  as  to  the  career  of  GozzoU.  A  separate 
Life  oi  him,  by  H.  Stokes,  was  published  in  1903  in  Ncwncs's  Art 
library.  (W.  M.  R.) 

ORAAFF  REINBT,  a  town  of  South  Africa,  185  dl  by  rail 
N.W.  by  N.  of  Port  Elizabeth.  Pop.  (1904)  10,083,  of  whom 
405  s  were  whites.  The  town  lies  2463  ft.  above  the  sea  and  is 
built  on  the  banks  of  the  Sunday  river,which  rises  a  little  farther 
north  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Sneeuwberg,  and  here 
ramifies  into  several  channels.  The  Dutch  church  is  a  handsome 
stone  building  with  seating  accommodation  for  1 500  people.  The 
college  is  an  educational  centre  of  some  importance;  it  was 
rebuilt  in  1906.  Graaff  Reinet  is  a  flourishing  market  for 
agricultural  produce,  the  district  being  noted  for  its  mohair 
industry,  its  orchards  and  vineyards. 

The  town  was  foimded  by  the  Cape  Dutch  in  1786,  being  named 
after  the  then  governor  of  Cape  Colony,  C.  J>  van  de  Graaff, 
and  his  wife.  In  x  795  the  burgheis, smarting  under  the  exactions 
of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  proclaimed  a  republic. 
Similar  action  was  taken  by  the  burghers  of  Swellendam.  Before 
the  authorities  at  Cape  Town  could  take  decisive  measures 
against  the  rebels,  they  were  themselves  compelled  to  capitulate 
to  the  British.  The  burghers  having  endeavoured,  unsuccessfully, 
to  get  aid  from  a  French  warship  at  Algoa  Bay  surrendered  to 
Colonel  (afterwards  General  Sir)  J.  0.  Vandeleur.  In  Januazy 
1799  Marthinus  Prinsloo,  the  leader  of  the  republicans  in  1795, 
again  rebelled,  but  surrendered  in  April  following.  Prinsloo 
and  nineteen  others  were  imprisoned  in  Cape  Town  castle. 
After  trial,  Prinsloo  and  another  conunandant  were  sentenced 
to  death  and  others  to  banishment.    The  sentences  were  not 


carried  out  and  the  prisoners  were  released;  March  1803,  on  the 
retrocession  of  the  Cape  to  Holland.  In  1801  there  had  been 
another  revolt  in  Graaff  Reinet,  but  owing  to  the  conciUatory 
measures  of  General  F.  Dundas  (acting  governor  of  the  Cape) 
peace  was  soon  restored.  It  was  this  district,  where  a  republican 
government  in  South  Africa  was  first  proclaimed,  which  furnished 
large  numbers  of  the  voortrekkers  in  1835-1842.  It  remains  a 
strong  Dutch  centre. 

See  J.  C.  Voight.  Pijty  Years  of  the  History  of  the  RefmUk  in 
South  Africa  1795-1845^  vol.  i.  (London,  1899). 

6RABBB,  CHRISnAN  DIETRICH  (1801-1836),  German 
dramatist,  was  bom  at  Detmold  on  the  nth  of  December  1801. 
Entering  the  university  of  Leipzig  in  18 19  as  a  student  of  law, 
he  continued  the  reckless  habits  which  he  had  begun  at  Detmold, 
and  neglected  his  studies.  Being  introduc^  into  literary 
circles,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  becoming  an  actor  and  wrote 
the  drama  Henog  Theodor  von  Gothland  (1822).  This,  though 
showing  considerable  literary  ts^ent,  lacks  artistic  form,  and 
is  morally  repulsive.  Ludwig  Tledc,  while  encouraging  the 
young  author,  pointed  out  its  faidts,  and  tried  to  reform  Grabbe 
himself.  In  1822  Grabbe  removed  to  Berlin  University,  and  in 
1824  passed  his  advocate's  examination.  He  now  settled  in  his 
native  town  as  a  lawyer  and  in  1827  was  appointed  a  MilitUr" 
audileur.  In  1833  he  married,  but  in  consequence  of  his  drunken 
habits  was  dismissed  from  his  office,  and,  separating  from  his 
wife,  visited  Diisscldorf,  where  he  was  kindly  received  by  Karl 
Immermann.  After  a  serious  quarrel  with  the  latter,  he  returned 
to  Detmold,  where,  as  a  result  of  his  excesses,  he  died  on  the  12th 
of  September  1836. 

Grabbe  had  real  poetical  gifts,  and  many  of  his  dramas  contain 
fine  passages  and  a  wealth  of  original  ideas.  They  largely 
reflect  his  own  life  and  character,  and  are  characterized  by 
cynicism  and  indelicacy.  Their  construction  also  is  defective 
and  little  suited  to  the  requirements  of  the  stage.  The  boldly 
conceived  Don  Juan  und  Faust  (1829)  and  the  historical  dramas 
Friedrich  Barbarossa  (1829),  Heinrich  VI,  (1830),  and  Napd^on 
Oder  die  Hundert  Tage  (1831),  the  last  of  which  places  the  bailie 
of  Waterloo  upon  the  stage,  are  his  best  works.  Among  others 
are  the  unfinished  tragedies  Marius  and  SuUa  (continued  by 
Erich  Kom,  Berlin,  1890);  and  Hannibal  (1835,  supplemented 
and  edited  by  C.  Spielmann,  Halle,  1901);  and  the  patriotic 
Hermannsschlacht  or  the  battle  between  Arminius  and  Varus 
(posthumously  published  with  a  biographical  notice,  by  E. 
Duller,  1838). 

Grabbe's  works  have  been  edited  by  O.  Blunienthal  (4  vols., 
187s).  and  E.  Griicbach  (4  vols.,  1902).  For  further  ifioticct  of  his 
life,  see  K.  Zieglcr,  Grabbes  Lebeu  und  Charakter  (1855);  O. 
Blumenthal,  Beitrdto  nr  Kenntnis  Grabbes  (1875);  C.  A.  Piper, 
Grabbe  (1898),  and  A.  Ploch,  Grabbes  Stellung  in  der  detOsckeu  LiUrw- 
tur  (1905).  

6RABB,  JOHN  ERNEST  (1666-171  x),  Angh'can  divine,  was 
bom  on  the  loth  of  July  1666,  at  KOnigsberg,  where  his  father, 
Martin  Sylvester  Grabe,  was  professor  of  theology  and  history. 
In  his  theological  studies  Grabe  succeeded  in  persuading  himself 
of  the  schismatical  character  of  the  Reformation,  and  accordin^y 
he  presented  to  the  consbtory  of  Samland  in  Prussia  a  memori^ 
in  which  he  compared  the  position  of  the  evangelical  Protestant 
churches  with  that  of  the  Novatlans  and  other  ancient  schis- 
matics. He  had  resolved  to  Join  the  Church  of  Rome  when  a 
commission  of  Lutheran  divines  pointed  out  flaws  in  his  written 
argument  and  called  his  attention  to  the  English  Church  as 
apparently  possessing  that  apostolic  succession  and  manifesting 
that  fidelity  to  ancient  institutions  which  he  desired.  He 
came  to  England,  settled  in  Oidord,  was  ordained  in  1700,  and 
became  ch^lain  of  Christ  Church.  His  inclination  was  towards 
the  party  of  the  nonjurors.  The  learned  labours  to  which  the 
remainder  of  his  life  was  devoted  were  rewarded  with  an  Oxford 
degree  and  a  royal  pension.  He  died  on  the  3rd  of  November 
X71Z,  and  in  1726  a  monument  was  erected  to  him  by  Edward 
Harley,  earl  of  Oxford,  m  Westminster  Abbey.  He  was  buried 
in  St  Pancras  Church,  London. 

Some  account  of  Grebe's  life  is  aiven  in  R.  Nelson's  Life  ef  Ge»rfe 
Bull,  and  by  George  Hickes  in  a  discoufBe  prefixed  to  the  pam^Jet 
against  W.  Whiston's  CoUecSw  ef  Testimonies  afotiuf  ike  Trm 


GRACCHUS 


307 


DHty  tf  Ai  S&m  and  of  tki  H^y  Gkast.  His  works,  which  show  him 
to  have  been  learnra  And  laborious  but  somewhat  deficient  in 
critical  acumen,  include  a  SpiciUgium  SS.  Patrum  et  haereiicorum 
(1698-1699),  which  was  designed  to  cover  the  first  three  centuries 
of  the  Chnstian  church,  but  was  not  continued  beyond  the  close  of 
the  second.  A  second  edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  171^ 
He  brought  out  an  edition  of  Justin  Martyr's  Apologia  prima  (1700), 
of  Irenaeus,  Adversus  omnes  haereses  C1702),  of  the  Septuagint, 
ajid  of  Bishop  Bull's  Latin  works  (1703).  His  edition  of  the  Septua- 
gint was  based  on  the  Codex  AUxatidrtnus;  it  appeared  in  4  volumes 
(ij^-1730),  and  was  completed  by  Francis  Lee  and  by  George 
wrigan. 

GRACCHUl,  in  andent  Rome,  the  name  of  a  plebeian  famfly 
of  the  Sempronlan  gens.  Its  most  distinguished  representatives 
were  the  famous  tribunes  of  the  people,  Tiberius  and  Gaius 
Sempronius  Gracchus,  (4)  and  (5)  bdow,  usually  called  simply 
"  the  Gracchi." 

I.  TtBEUus  Seupbomius  Gsaocbus,  consul  in  938  B.C., 
carried  onsucccssfuloperations  against  theLigurianmountaineecs, 
and,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Carthaginian  mercenary  war, 
was  in  command  of  the  fleet  which  at  the  invitation  of  the 
insurgents  took  possession  of  the  island  of  Sardinia. 

3.  TiBEiuus  Sempsonius  Gracchus,  probably  the  son  of 
(i),  distinguished  himself  during  the  second  Punic  war.  Consul 
in  31$,  be  defeated  the  Capuans  who  had  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  Hannibal,  and  in  214  gained  a  signal  success  over  Hanno 
near  Beneventum,  chiefly  owing  to  the  voUnus  (slave-volunteers), 
to  whom  he  had  promised  freedom  in  the  event  of  victory.  In 
313  Gracchus  was  consul  a  second  time  and  carried  on  the  war 
in  Lucania;  in  the  following  year,  while  advancing  northward 
to  reinforce  the  consuls  in  their  attack  on  Capua,  he  was  betrayed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Carthaginian  Mago  by  a  Lucanian  of  rank, 
who  had  formerly  supported  the  Roman  cause  and  was  connected 
with  Gracchus  himself  by  ties  of  hospitality.  Gracchus  fell 
fighting  bravely;  his  body  was  sent  to  Hannibal,  who  accorded 
him  a  splendid  burial. 

5.  TteEsxns  Seicpsonius  Gkacchus  (c.  2x0- 151  b.c.), 
father  of  the  tribunes,  and  husband  of  Cornelia,  the  daughter 
of  the  elder  Sdpio  Africanus,  was  possibly  the  son  of  a  Publius 
Sempronius  Gracchus  who  was  tribune  in  189.  Although  a 
determined  political  opponent  of  the  two  Scipios  (Asiaticus 
and  Africanus),  as  tribune  in  187  he  interfered  on  their  behalf 
when  they  were  accused  of  having  accepted  bribes  from  the  king 
of  Syria  after  the  war.  In  185  he  was  a  member  of  the  commission 
sent  to  Macedonia  to  investigate  the  complaints  made  by  Eumenes 
11.  of  Pergamum  against  Philip  V.  of  Macedon.  In  his  curule 
aedileship  (182)  he  oelebratcd  the  games  on  so  magnificent  a  scale 
that  the  burdens  imposed  upon  the  Italian  and  extra-Italian 
communities  led  to  the  official  interference  of  the  senate.  In 
i8x  he  went  as  praetor  to  Hither  Spain,  and,  after  gaining 
sifpial  successes  in  the  field,  applied  himself  to  the  pacification 
of  the  country.  His  strict  sense  of  justice  and  sympathetic 
attitude  won  the  respect  and  aflectlon  of  the  inhabitants;  the 
land  had  rest  for  a  quarter  of  a  century.  When  consul  in  277, 
he  was  occupied  in  putting  down  a  revolt  in  Sardinia,  and  brought 
back  so  many  prisoners  that  Sardi  venaks  (Sardinians  for  sale) 
became  a  proverbial  expression  for  a  drug  in  the  market.  In 
169  Gracchus  was  censor,  and  both  he  and  his  colleague  (C. 
Claudius  Pulcher)  showed  themselves  determined  opponents 
of  the  capitalists.  They  deeply  offended  the  equestrian  order 
by  forbidding  any  contractor  who  had  obtained  contracts  under 
the  previous  censors  to  make  fresh  offers.  Gracchus  stringently 
cnfoirced  the  limitation  of  the  frcedmen  to  the  four  dty  tribes, 
which  completely  destroyed  their  influence  in  the  comitia.  In 
X65  and  161  he  went  as  ambassador  to  several  Asiatic  princes, 
with  whom  he  established  friendly  relations.  Amongst  the 
places  visited  by  him  was  Rhodes,  where  he  delivered  a  speech 
in  Greek,  which  he  afterwards  published.  In  163  he  was  again 
consoL 

4.  TiKtMsm  Skmpronius  Graccbv?  (X63-Z33  b.c.),  son  of 
(5),  was  the  elder  of  the  two  great  reformers.  He  and  his  brother 
Were  brottght  np  by  their  mother  Cornelia,  agisted  -by  the 
ibeloiician  Diophanes  of  Mytilene  and  the  Stoic  Blossius  of 
CooMM.   lo  147  be.ferved  imder  hia  bcother-in-law  the  younger  I 


Sdpio  in  Africa  during  the  last  Punic  war,  and  was  the  first 
to  moimt  the  walls  in  the  attack  on  Carthage.  When  quaestor 
in  X37,  he  accompanied  the  consul  C.  Hostilius  Mandnus  to 
Spain.  During  the  Numantine  war  the  Roman  army  was  saved 
from  annihilation  only  by  the  efforts  of  Tiberius,  with  whom 
alone  the  Numantines  consented  to  treat,  out  of  respect  for  the 
memory  of  his  father.  The  senate  refused  to  ratify  the  agree- 
ment; Mandnus  was  handed  over  to  the  enemy  as  a  sign  that 
it  was  annulled,  and  only  personal  popularity  saved  Tiberius 
himself  from  punishment.  In  X33  he  was  tribime,  and  cham- 
pioned the  impoverished  farmer  dass  and  the  lower  orders. 
His  proposals  (see  Agrarian  Laws)  met  with  violent  opposition, 
and  were  not  carried  imtil  he  had,  illegally  and  unconstitutionally, 
secured  the  deposition  of  his  fellow-tribune,  M.  Octavius,  who 
had  been  persuaded  by  the  optimates  to  veto  them.  The  senate 
put  every  obstade  in  the  way  of  the  three  commissioners  ap> 
pointed  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  law,  and  Tiberius,  in 
view  of  the  bitter  enmity  he  had  aroused,  saw  that  it  was  necessary 
to  strengthen  his  hold  on  the  poptilar  favour.  The  legacy  to 
the  Roman  people  of  the  kingdom  and  tieasures  of  Attains  III. 
of  Pergamum  gave  him  an  opportunity.  He  proposed  that  the 
money  realized  by  the  sale  of  the  treasures  should  be  divided, 
for  the  purchase  of  implements  and  stodc,  amongst  those  to 
whom  assignments  of  land  had  been  made  under  the  new  law. 
He  is  also  said  to  have  brought  forward  measures  for  shortening 
the  period  of  military  service,  for  extending  the  right  of  appeal 
from  the  judices  to  the  people,  for  abolishing  the  exdusive 
privilege  of  the  senators  to  act  as  jurymen,  and  even  for  admit- 
ting the  Italian  allies  to  dtizenship.  To  strengthen  his  position 
further,  Tiberius  offered  himself  for  re-dcction  as  tribime  for  the 
following  year.  The  senate  declared  that  it  was  iUegal  to  hold 
this  office  for  two  consecutive  years;  but  Tiberius  treated  this 
objection  with  contempt.  To  win  the  sympathy  of  the  people, 
he  appeared  in  mourning,  and  appealed  for  protection  for  his- 
wife  and  children,  and  whenever  he  left  his  house  he  was  accom- 
panied by  a  bodyguard  of  3000  men,  chiefly  consisting  of  the 
city  rabble.  The  meeting  of  the  tribes  for  the  election  of  tribunes 
broke  up  in  disorder  on  two  successive  days,  without  any  result 
being  attained,  although  on  both  occasions  the  first  divisions 
voted  in  favour  of  Tiberius.  A  rumour  reached  the  senate  that 
he  was  aiming  at  supreme  power,  that  he  had  touched  his  head 
with  his  hand,  a  sign  that  he  was  asking  for  a  crown.  An  appeal 
to  the  consul  P.  Mudus  Scaevola  to  order  him  to  be  put  to  death 
at  once  having  failed,  P.  Sdpio  Nasica  exclaimed  that  Scaevola 
was  acting  treacherously  towards  the  state,  and  called  upon 
those  who  agreed  with  him  to  take  up  arms  and  follow  Um. 
During  the  riot  that  followed,  Tiberius  attempted  to  escape, 
but  stumbled  on  the  slope  of  the  Capitol  and  was  beaten  to  death 
with  the  end  of  a  bench.  At  night  his  body,  with  those  of  300 
others,  was  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  The  aristocracy  boldly 
assumed  the  responsibility  for  what  had  occurred,  and  set  up  a 
commission  to  inquire  into  the  case  of  the  partisans  of  Tiberius, 
many  of  whom  were  banished  and  others  put  to  death.  Even 
the  moderate  Scaevola  subsequently  maintained  that  Nasica 
was  justified  in  his  action;  and  it  was  reported  that  Scipio, 
when  he  heard  at  Numantia  of  his  brother-in-law's  death, 
repeated  the  line  of  Homer — **  So  perish  all  who  do  the  like 
again." 

See  Livy,  Epit.  58 1  Appian,  Be0.  rcr.  i.  9-17;  Plutardi,  Tiherius 
Craukus'tVeU.  Pat.  ii.  2,  3. 

5.  Gaius  Sempronius  Gracchus  (i  53-121  b.c),  younger 
brother  of  (4),  was  a  man  of  greater  abilities,  bolder  and  more 
passionate,  although  possessed  of  tonsiderable  powers  of  self- 
control,  and  a  vigorous  and  impressive  orator.  When  twenty 
years  of  age  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to 
carry  out  the  distribution  of  land  under  the  provisions  of  his 
brother's  agrarian  law.  At  the  time  of  Tiberius's  death,  Gaius 
was  serving  tmder  his  brother-in-law  Scipio  in  Spain,  but 
probably  returned  to  Rome  in  the  following  year  (132).  In 
X31  he  supported  the  bill  of  C.  Papirius  Carbo,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  make  it  legal  for  a  tribune  to  offer  himself  as  candi- 
date for  the  office  in  two  consecutive  years,  and  thus  to  remove 


3o8 


GRACE,  W.  G. 


one  of  the  diid  obstacles  that  had  hampered  Tiberius.  The  bill 
was  then  rejected,  but  appears  to  have  subsequently  passed  in 
a  modified  furmi  as  Gains  himself  was  re-elected  widiout  any 
disturbance.  Possibly,  however,  his  re-election  was  Ulcgal, 
and  he  had  only  succeeded  where  his  brother  had  failed.  For 
the  next  few  years  nothing  is  heard  of  Gains.  Public  opinion 
pointed  him  out  as  the  man  to  avenge  his  brother's  death  and 
carry  out  his  plans,  and  the  aristocratic  party,  warned  by  the 
example  of  Tiberius,  were  anxious  to  keep  him  away  from  Rome. 
In  is6  Gains  accompanied  the  consul  L.  Aurelius  Orestes  as 
quaestor  to  Sardinia,  then  in  a  state  of  revolt.  Here  he  made 
himself  so  popular  that  the  senate  in  alarm  prolonged  the 
command  of  Orestes,  in  order  that  Gains  might  be  obligcd.to 
remain  there  in  his  capacity  of  quaestor.  But  he  returned  to 
Rome  without  the  permission  of  the  senate,  and,  when  called 
to  account  by  the  censors,  defended  himself  so  successfully 
that  he  was  acquitted  of  having  acted  illegally.  The  disappointed 
aristocrats  then  brought  him  to  trial  on  the  charge  of  being 
implicated  in  the  revolt  of  Frcgellae,  and  in  other  ways  unsuccess- 
fully endeavoured  to  undermine  his  influence.  Gains  then 
decided  to  act;  against  the  wishes  of  his  mother  he  became 
a  candidate  for  the  tribuneship,  and,  in  spite  of  the  determined 
opposition  of  the  aristocracy,  he  was  elected  for  the  year  123, 
although  only  fourth  on  the  list.  The  legislative  proposals* 
brought  ionvaid  by  him  had  for  their  object: — the  punish- 
ment of  his  brother's  enemies;  the  relief  of  distress  and  the 
attachment  to  himself  of  the  city  populace;  the  diminution 
of  the  power  of  the  senate  and  the  increase  of  that  of  the  equiies; 
the  amelioration  of  the  political  status  of  the  Italians  and 
provincials. 

A  law  was  passed  that  no  Roman  citizen  should  be  tried  in 
a  matter  affectm^;  his  life  or  political  status  unless  the  people  had 
previously  given  its  assent.  This  was  specially  aimed  at  Popilius 
Laenas,  who  had  taken  an  active  part  in  the  prosecution  01  the 
adherents  of  Tiberius.  Another  law  enacted  that  any  magistrate 
who  had  been  deprived  of  office  by  decree  of  the  people  should  be 
incapacitated  from  holding  office  again.  This  was  directed  against 
M.  Octavius,  who  had  been  illcgalljr  deprived  of  his  tribunate 
through  Tiberius.  This  unfair  and  vindictive  measure  was  with- 
drawn at  the  earnest  request  of  Cornelia. 

He  revived  his  brother's  agrarian  law,  which,  although  it 
had  not  been  repealed,  had  fallen  into  abeyance.  By  his  Lex 
Prumentaria  every  citizen  resident  in  Rome  was  entitled  to  a  certain 
amount  of  com  at  about  half  the  usual  price;  as  the  distribution 
only  applied  to  those  living  in  the  capital,  the  natural  result  was 
that  the  poorer  country  citizens  flocked  into  Rome  and  swelled  the 
number  of  Gaius's  supporters.  No  citizen  was  to  be  obliged  to. 
serve  in  the  army  before  the  commencement  of  his  eighteenth  year, 
and  his  military  outfit  was  to  be  supplied  by  the  state,  instead  of 
being  deducted  from  his  pay.  Gains  also  proposed  the  establishment 
of  colonics  in  Italy  (at  Tarentum  and  Capua),  and  sent  out  to  the 
site  of  Carthage  oCbo  colonists  to  found  the  new  city  of  Junonia, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  were  to  possess  the  rights  of  Roman 
citizens;  thb  was  the  first  attempt  at  over-sea  colonization.    A  new 

S'stcm  of  roads  was  constructed  which  afforded  easier  access  to 
ome.  Havii^  thus  gained  over  the  city  proletariat,  in  order 
to  secure  a  majority  in  the  comitia  by  its  aid,  Gains  did  away  with 
the  system  61  voting  in  the  comitia  centuriata,  whereby  the  five 
property  classes  in  each  tribe  ^ve  their  votes  one  after  another, 
and  introduced  promiscuous  voting  in  an  order  fixed  by  lot. 

The  judices  in  the  standing  commissions  for  the  trial  of  par- 
ticular offences  (the  roost  important  of  which  was  that  dealing 
with  the  trial  of  provincial  magistrates  for  extortion,  de  repetundis) 
were  in  future  to  be  chosen  from  the  equitcs  {q.v.),  not  as  hitherto 
from  the  senate.  The  taxes  of  the  new  province  of  Asia  were  to  be 
let  out  by  the  censors  to  Roman  publicani  (who  belonged  to  the 
equestrian  order),  who  paid  down  a  lump  sum  for  the  right  of 
collecting  them.  It  is  oovious  that  this  afforded  the  equitcs  ex- 
tensive importunities  for  money-making  and  extortion,  while  the 
alteration  in  the  appointment  of  the  judices  gave  them  the  same 
practical  immunity  and  perpetuated  the  old  abuses,  with  the  differ- 
ence that  it  was  no  longer  senators,  but  equitcs,  who  could  look 
forward  with  confidence  to  being  leniently  dealt  with  by  men 
belonging  to  their  own  order;  Gaius  also  expected  that  this  moneyed 
aristocracy,  which  had  taken  the  part  of  the  senate  against  Tibenus, 
would  now  support  him  against  it.  It  was  enacted  that  the  pro- 
vinces  to  be  assigned  to  the  consuls,  should  be  determined  before, 

*  These  measures  cannot  be  arraneed  In  any  definite  chronological 
order,  nor  can  it  be  decided  which  belong  to  his  first,  which  to  his 
second  tribuneship.    Sec  W.  Warde  Fowler  in  Eng.  Hist,  Reritw, 

•995»  PP-  ao9  "qq-i  4«7  "qq* 


instead  of  after  their  election;  and  the  consuls  themselves  had  to 
settle,  by  lot  or  other  arrangement,  which  province  each  of  them 
would  take.' 

These  measures  raised  Gaius  to  the  height  of  his  popularity, 
and  during  the  year  of  his  first  tribuneship  he  may  be  considered 
the  absolute  ruler  of  Rome.  He  was  chosen  tribune  for  the  second 
time  for  the  year  122.  To  this  period  is  probably  to  be  assigned 
his  proposal  that  the  franchise  should  be  given  to  all  the  Latin 
communities  and  that  the  status  of  the  Latins  should  be  con- 
ferred upon  the  Italian  allies.  In  125  M.  Fulvius  Flaccus  had 
brought  forward  a  similar  measure,  but  he  was  got  out  of  the  way 
by  the  senate,  who  sent  him  to  fight  in  Gaul.  This  proposal, 
more  statesmanlike  than  any  of  the  others,  was  naturally  opposed 
by  the  aristocratic  party,  and  lessened  Gaius's  popularity 
amongst  his  own  supporters,  who  viewed  with  disfavour  the 
prospect  of  an  increase  in  the  number  of  Roman  citizens.  Th« 
senate  put  up  M.  Livius  Drusus  to  outbid  him,  and  his  absence 
from  Rome  while  superintending  the  organization  of  the  newly- 
founded  colony,  Junonla-Carthago,  was  taken  advantage  of  by 
his  enemies  to  weaken  his  influence.  On  his  return  he  found  his 
popularity  diminished.  He  failed  to  secure  the  tribuneship 
for  the  third  time,  and  his  bitter  enemy  L.  OpimiuS  was  elected 
consuL  The  latter  at  once  decided  to  propose  the  abandonment 
of  the  new  colony,  which  was  to  occupy  the  site  cursed  -by 
Sdpio,  while  its  foundation  had  been  attended  by  unmistakable 
manifestations  of  the  wrath  of  the  gods.  On  the  day  when  the 
matter  was  to  be  put  to  the  vote,  a  lictor  named  Antyllius,  who 
had  insulted  the  supporters  of  Gaius,  was  stabbed  to  death. 
This  gave  his  opponents  the  dc»red  opportunity.  Gaius  was 
declared  a  public  enemy,  and  the  consitls  were  invested  with 
dictatorial  powers.  The  Gracchans,  who  had  taken  up  their 
position  in  the  temple  of  Diana  on  the  Aventine,  offered  little 
resistance  to  the  attack  ordered  by  Opimius.  Gaius  managed 
to  escape  across  the  Tiber,  where  his  dead  body  was  found  on 
the  following  day  in  the  grove  of  Furrina  by  the  side  of  that 
of  a  slave,  who  had  probably  slain  his  master  and  then  himself. 
The  property  of  the  Gracchans  was  confiscated,  and  a  temple 
of  Concord  erected  in  the  Forum  from  the  proceeds.  Beneath 
the  inscription  recording  the  occasion  on  which  the  temple  had 
been  built  some  one  during  the  night  wrote  the  words:  "The 
work  of  Discord  makes  the  temple  of  Concord." 

Bibliography. — See  Livy,  £^.  60;  Appian,  Bdl.  Ca.  i.  31 ; 
Plutarch,  Gaitif  Gracchus i  Orosius  v.  is;  Aulus  Gellius  x.  3, 
xi.  10.  ror  an  account  of  the  two  tribunes  see  Mommsen,  Hist, 
of  Rome  (Eng.  trans.),  bk.  iv.,  chs.  2  and  3:  C.  Neumann,  Gesckitkte 
Rams  wdkrend  des  VerfaUes  der  Republik  (1881);  A.  H.  J.  Grcenidge, 
History  of  Rome  (1904) :  E.  Meyer,  Untersuckungen  tsar  CesckidUe 
der  Grauhen  (189^);  G.  E.  Undcrhill,  Plutarch's  Lioes  of  the  Gracchi 
(1892);  W.  Warde  Fowler  in  English  Historical  Review  (1905), 
pp.  309  and  417;  Long,  Decline  of  the  Roman  ReptMic,  chs.  10-13, 
17-19,  containing  a  careful  examination  of  the  ancient  authorities; 
G.  F.  Hertzbcrg  in  Ersch  and  Grubcr's  Allgemeine  Enc^dopadiei 
C.  W.  Oman,  Moen  Roman  Statesmen  <^  the  later  Republic  (1902): 
T.  Lau,  Die  Cracchen  und  ihre  Zeit  (1854).  The  exhaustive  mono- 
graph by  C.  W.  Nitzsch,  Die  Gracchen  und  ihre  nickslen  Vorgimger 
(1847),  also  contains  an  account  of  the  other  members  of  the  family, 
with  full  references  to  ancient  authorities  in  the  notes.     Q .  H.  F. ) 

ORACB,  WILUAM  GILBERT  (1848-  ),  English  criaetcr, 
was  bom  at  Downend,  Gloucestershire,  on  the  i8th  of  July 
1848.  He  found  himself  in  an  atmosphere  charged  with  cricket, 
his  father  (Henry  Mills  Grace)  and  his  uncle  (Alfred  Pocock) 
being  as  enthusiastic  over  the  game  as  his  elder  brothers,  Henry, 
Alfr«l  and  Edward  Mills;  indeed,  in  £.  M.  Grace  the  family 
name  first  became  famotis.  A  younger  brother,  George  Frederick, 
also  added  to  the  cricket  reputation  of  the  family.  "  W.  G." 
witnessed  his  first  great  match  when  he  was  hanily  six  years 
old,  the  occasion  being  a  game  between  W.  Clarke's  All-England 
Eleven  and  twenty-two  of  West  Gloucestershire.  He  was 
endowed  by  nature  with  a  splendid  physique  as  well  as  with 
powers  of  self-restraint  and  determination.  At  the  acme  of  his 
career  he  stood  full  6  ft.  2  in.,  being  povrerfully  proportioned, 
loose  yet  strong  of  limb.     A  non-smoker,  and  very  moderate 

*  It  is  suggested  by  W.  Warde  Fowler  that  Gracchus  propoaed 
to  add  a  certain  number  of  equites  to  the  senate,  thereby  ii 
it  to  900,  but  the  plan  was  never  carried  out. 


GRACE 


309 


in  all  matteis,  he  kept  himself  io  coodition  all  the  year  round, 
shooting,  hunting  or  running  with  the  beagles  as  soon  as  the 
cricket  season  was  over.  He  .was  also  a  fine  runner,  440  yds. 
over  30  hurdles  being  his  best  distance;  and  it  may.  be  quoted 
as  proof  of  his  stamina  that  on  the  30th  of  July  x866  he  scored 
314  not  out  for  England  v.  Surrey,  and  two  days  later  won  a 
race  in  the  National  and  Olympian  Association  meeting  at  the 
Crystal  Palace. .  The  title  of  "  champion  "  was  well  earned  by 
one  who  for  thirty-six  years  (1865-1900  inclusive)  was  actively 
engaged-  Ia  first-dass  cricket.  In  each  of  these  years  he  was 
invited  to  represent  the  Gentlemen  in  their  matches  against  the 
Players,  and,  when  an  Australian  eleven  visited  England,  to 
play  for  the  mother  country.  As  late  as  1899  he  played  in  the 
first  of  the  five  internation^d  contests;  in  1900  he  played  against 
the  players  at  the  Oval,  scoring  58  and  3.  At  fifty-three  he 
scored  nearly  1300  runs  in  first-class  cricket,  made  100  runs  and 
over  on  three  different  occasions  and  could  claim  an  average 
of  4J  runs.  Moreover,  his  greatest  triumphs  were  achieved 
when  only  the  very  best  cricket  grounds  received  serious  atten- 
tion; when,  as  some  consider,  bowling  was  maintained  at  a  higher 
staikdard  and  when  all  hits  had  to  be  run  out.  He,  with  his  two 
brothers,  E.  M.  and  0.  F.,  assisted  by  some  fine  amateurs,  made 
Gloucestershire  in  one  season  a  first-class  county;  and  it  was 
be  who  first  enabled  the  amateurs  of  England  to  meet  the  paid 
players  on  equal  terms  and  to  beat  them.  Inhere  was  hardly  a 
"  record  "  connected  with  the  game  which  did  not  stand  to  his 
credit.  Grace  was  one  of  the  finest  fieldsmen  in  England,-  in  his 
eariier  days  generally  taking  long-leg  and  cover-point,  in  later 
times  generally  standing  point.  He  was,  at  his  best,  a  fine 
thrower,  fast  runner  and  safe  "  catch."  As  a  bowler  he  was 
long  in  the  first  flight,  originally  bowling  fast,. but  in  later  times 
adopting  a  slower  and  more  tricky  style,  frequently  very  effective. 
By  profession  he  was  a  medical  man.  In  later  years  he  became 
secretary  and  manager  of  the  London  County  Cricket  Club. 
He  was  married  in  1873  to  Miss  Agnes  Day,  and  one  of  his  sons 
I^ycd  for  jtwo  years  in  the  Cambridge  eleven.  He  was  the 
recipient  of  two  national  testimonials:  the  first,  amounting  to 
£1500,  being  presented  to  him  in  the  form  of  a  clock  and  a 
cheque  at  Lord's  ground  by  Lord  Charles  Russell  on  the  22nd 
of  July  2879;  the  second,  collected  by  the  M.C.C.,  the  county 
of  Gloucestershire!  the  Daily  Telegraph  and  the  Sportsman^ 
amounted  to  about  £10,000,  and  was  presented  to  him  in  1896. 
He  visited  Australia  in  1873-1874  (captain),  and  in  1891-1892 
*ith  Lord  Sheffield's  Eleven  (captain);  the  United  States  and 
Canada  in  1872,  with  R.  A.  Fitzgerald's  team. 

Dr  Grace  played  his  first  great  match  in  1863.  when,  being  only 
fifteen  years  lA  age,  be  scored  32  against  the  All-England  Eleven 
Slid  the  bowlins  of  Jackson,  Tarrant  and  Tinley;  but  the  scores 
vhicb  first  made  hu  name  prominent  were  made  in  1864,  viz. 
170  and  56  not  out  for  the  South  Wales  Club  against  the  Gentlemen 
01  Sussex.  It  was  in  1865  that  he  first  took  an  active  part  in  first- 
dass  cricket.  b«ne  then  6  ft.  in  height,  and  11  stone  in  weight, 
vid  playing  twice  lor  the  Gentlemen  v.  the  Players,  but  his  selection 
vas  nuinly  due  to  his  bowling  powers,  the  best  exposition  of  which 
*as  his  aggregate  of  13  wiclwts  for  84  runs  for  ttie  Gentlemen  of 
the  South  V.  tne  Players  of  the  South.  His  highest  score  was  400 
not  out,  made  in  July  1876  against  twenty-two  of  Grimsby;  but, 
on  three  occasions  ne  was  twice  dismissed  without  scoring  in  matches 
aiainst  odds,  a  fate  that  never  befell  him  in  important  cricket. 
1b  first<las8  matches  his  highest  score  was  344,  made  for  the  M.C.C. 
».  Kent  at  Canterbury,  in  August  1876;  two  days  later  he  made 
177  for  Gloucestershire  v.  Notts,  and  two  days  after  this  318  not 
out  for  Gloucestershire  v.  Yorkshire,  the  two  last-named  opposing 
counties  being  possessed  of  exceptionally  strong  bowling;  thus  in 
three  consecutive  innings  Grace  scored  839  runs,  and  was  only  got 
out  rwioe.  Kis  344  was  the  third  highest  individual  score  made  in 
a  bw  match  in  England  up  to  the  end  of  1901.  He  also  scored  301 
for  Gloooestershire  v.  Sussex  at  Bristol,  in  August  1896.  He  made 
over  200  runs  on  ten  occaMons,  the  most  notable  perhaps  being  in 
i87t>  when  he  performed  the  feat  twice,  each  time  in  bencnt  matches, 
and  each  time  in  the  second  innings,  having  been  each  time  got  out 
io  the  first  over  of  the  first  innings.  He  scored  over  100  runs  on 
121  occasions,  the  hundredth  score  being  388,  made  at  Bristol  for 
Gloucestershire  v.  Somersetshire  in  189^.  He  made  every  figure 
from  o  to  100,  on  one  occasion  "  closing  the  innings  when  he  had 
jBsde  93.  the  cmly  total  he  had  never  made  between  these  limits. 
In  1871  he  made  ten  "  centuries,"  ranging  from  268  to  116.  In  the 
■atchcs  bctwceo  the  Gentlemen  and  Players  he  scored  "  three 


figures  "  fifteen  times,  and  at  every  place  where  these  matches  have 
been  played.  He  made  over  100  in  each  of  his  "  first  appearances  ** 
at  Ouord  and  Cambridge.  Three  times  he  made,  over  100  in  each 
innings  of  the  same  match,  via.  at  Canterbury,  in  1868,  for  South  v. 
North  of  the  Thames.  130  and  102  not  out;  at  Clifton,  in  1887, 
for  Gloucestershire  v.  Kent,  101  and  103  not  out;  and  at  Clifton, 
in  1888,  for  Gloucestershire  v.  Yorkshire.  148  and  153.  In  1869, 
playing  at  the  Oval  for  the  Gentlemen  of  the  South  v.  the  Players 
of  the  south,  Grace  and  B.  B.  Cooper  put  on  283  runs  for  the  brst 
wicket,  Grace  scoring  180  and  Cooper  101.  In  1886  Grace  and 
Scotton  pur  on  170  runs  for  the  first  wicket  of  England  v.  Australia; 
this  occurred  at  the  Oval  in  Au^st,  and  Grace  s  total  score  was 
X70.  In  consecutive  innings  against  the  Players  from  1871  to  1873 
he  scored  217, 77  and  112, 1 17. 163, 158  and  70.  He  only  twice  scored 
over  100  in  a  big  match  in  Australia,  nor  did  he  ever  make  200  at 
Lord's,  his  highest  being  196  for  the  M.C.C.  v.  Cambridge  University 
in  1894.  Hts  highest  Aggregates  were  2739  (1871),  2622  (1876), 
2346  (1895),  2139  (1873),  213^  (1696)  and  2062  (1887).  He  scored 
three  successive  centuries  in  first-class  cricket  in  1871,  1872,  1873, 
1874  and  1876.  Playing  against  Kent  at  Gravesend  in  1895,  he 
was  batting,  bowling  or  fielding  during  the  whole  time  the  game 
was  in  progress,  his  scores  being  2^57  and  73  not  out.  H<*  scored 
over  1000  runs  and  took  over  too  wickets  in  seven  different  seasons, 
viz.  in  1874,  1665  runs  and  129  wickets;  in  1875,  1498  runs,  192 
wickets;  in  1876,  2622  runs.  124  wickets;  in  1877,  1474  runs>  ^79 
wickets;  in  1878,  1151  runs,  153  wickets;  in  1885,  1688  runs, 
118  wickets;  in  1886,  1846  runs,  122  wickets.  He  never  captured 
200  wickets  in  a  season,  his  highest  record  beine  192  in  187;$.  Play- 
ing against  Oxford  University  in  1886,  he  took  all  the  wickets  in 
the  first  innings,  at  a  cost  01  49  runs.  In  1895  he  not  only  made 
his  hundredth  century,  but  actually  scored  1000  runs  in  the  month 
of  May  alone,  his  chief  scores  in  that  month  being  103,  288,  256,  73 
and  169,  he  being  then  forty-seven  years  old.  He  also  made  dfuring 
that  year  scores  <A  125, 119,  118, 104  and  103  not  out,  his  aggregate 
for  the  year  being  2346  and  his  average  51;  his  innings  of  118 
was  made  against  the  Players  (at  Lord's),  the  chief  bowlers  beinjg 
Richardson,  Mold,  Peel  and  Attewell;  he  scored  level  with  hts 
partner,  A.  E.  Stoddart  (his  junior  by  fifteen  years),  the  pair  making 
151  before  a  wicket  fell,  Grace  making  in  all  118  out  01  241.  This 
may  fairly  be  considered  one  of  his  most  wonderful  years.  In  1808 
the  matcn  between  Gentlemen  v.  Players  was,  as  a  special  compli- 
ment, arranged  by  the  M.C.C.  committee  to  take  place  on  his  birth- 
day, and  he  celeorated  the  event  by  scoring  43  and  31  not  out, 
though  handicapped  by  lameness  and  an  injured  hand.  In  twenty- 
six  oifferent  seasons  he  scored  over  1000  runs,  in  three  oi  these 
years  being  the  only  man  to  do  so  and  five  times  being  one  out  of 
two. 

During  the  thirty-six  years  up  to  and  including  1900  be  scored 
nearly  51,000  runs,  with  an  average  of  43;  and  in  oowling  he  took 
more  than  2800  wickets,  at  an  average  cost  of  about  20  runs  per 
wicket.  He  made  his  highest  aggregate  (2739  runs)  and  had  nis 
highest  average  (78)  in  1871 ;  his  average  for  the  decade  1868-1877 
was  57  runs.  His  style  as  a  batsman  was  more  commanding  than 
graceful,  but  as  to  its  soundness  and  efficacy  there  were  never 
two  opinions;  the  severest  criticism  ever  passed  upon  his  powers 
was  to  the  effect  that  be  did  not  play  sk)w  bowling  quite  as  well 
as  fast.  (W.  J.  F.) 

GRACE  (Fr.  grice,  Lat.  gratia,  from  gratus,  beloved,  pleasing; 
formed  from  the  root  era-,  Gr.  x""^-.  cf*  Xo^P«f  X^P/^at  X^ptt), 
a  word  of  many  shades  of  meaning,  but  aJways  connoting  the 
idea  of  favour,  whether  that  in  which  one  stands  to  others 
or  that  which  one  shows  to  others.  The  Nao  Engfisk  Dictionary 
groups  the  meanings  of  the  word  under  three  main  heads: 
(i)  Pleasing  quality,  gracefulness,  (2)  favour,  goodwill,  (3) 
gratitude,  thanks. 

It  is  in  the  second  general  sense  of  "  favour  bestowed  "  that 
the  word  has  its  most  important  connotations.  In  this  sense 
it  means  something  given  by  superior  authority  as  a  concession 
made  of  favour  and  goodwill,  not  as  an  obligation  or  of  right. 
Thus,  a  concession  may  be  made  by  a  sovereign  or  other  public 
authority  "  by  way  of  grace."  Previous  to  the  Revolution  of 
x688  sudi  concessions  on  the  part  of  the  crown  were  known  in 
constitutional  law  as  "  Graces."  "  Letters  of  Grace  "  {gratiae, 
gratiosa  rescripta)  is  the  name  given  to  papal  rescripts  granting 
special  privileges,  indulgences,  exemptions  and  the  like.  In 
the  Janguage  of  the  universities  the  word  still  survives  in  a 
shadow  of  this  sense.  The  word  "grace"  was  originally  a 
dispensation  granted  by  the  congregation  of  the  university, 
or  by  one  of  the  faculties,  from  some  statutable  conditions  re- 
quired for  a  degree.  In  the  English  universities  these  conditions 
ceased  to  be  enforced,  and  the  "  grace  '*  thus  became  an  essential 
preliminary  to  any  degree;  so  that  the  word  has  acquired  the 
meaning  of  (a)  the  li""  congregation  to  take  a 


310 


GRACES,  THE— GRACIAN  Y  MORALES 


degree,  (6)  other  decrees  of  the  governing  body  (originally  dis- 
pensations from  sututes),  all  such  degrees  being  called  "  graces  " 
at  Cambridge,  (c)  the  permission  which  a  candidate  for  a  degree 
must  obtain  from  his  college  or  hall. 

To  this  general  sense  of  exceptional  favoiu:  belong  the  uses 
of  the  word  in  such  phrases  as  "  do  me  this  grace,"  "  to  be  in 
some  one's  good  graces  "  and  certain  meanings  of  "  the  grace  of 
God."  The  style  "  by  the  grace  of  God,"  borne  by  the  king  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  among  other  sovereigns,  though, 
as  implying  the  principle  of  "  legitimacy,"  it  has  been  since  the 
Revolution  sometimes  qualified  on  the  continent  by  the  addition 
of "  and  the  will  of  the  people,"  means  in  effect  no  more  than  the 
"  by  Divine  Providence,"  which  is  the  style  borne  by  archbishops. 
To  the  same  general  sense  of  exceptional  favour  belong  the 
phrases  implying  the  concession  of  a  right  to  delay  in  fulfilling 
certain  obligations,  e.g. "  a  fortnight's  grace."  In  law  the  "  days 
of  grace  "  are  the  period  allowed  for  the  payment  of  a  bill  of 
exchange,  after  the  term  for  which  it  has  been  drawn  (in  England 
three  days),  or  for  the  payment  of  an  insurance  premium,  &c. 
In  religious  Linguage  the  "  Day  of  Grace  "  is  the  period  still 
open  to  the  sinner  in  which  to  repent.  In  the  sense  of  clemency 
or  mercy,  too,  "  grace  "  is  still,  though  rarely  used:  "  an  Act 
oi  Grace  "  is  a  formal  pardon  or  a  free  and  general  pardon  granted 
by  act  of  parliament.  Since  to  grant  favours  is  the  prerogative 
of  the  great,  "  Your  Grace,"  **  His  Grace,"  &&,  became  dutiful 
paraphrases  for  the  simple  "  you  "  and  '*  he.  "  Formerly  used 
in  the  royal  address  ("  the  King's  Grace,"  &c.),  the  style  is  in 
England  now  confineid  to  dukes  and  archbishops,  though  the 
style  of  "  his  most  gradous  majesty  "  is  still  used.  In  Germany 
the  equivalent,  Euer  Gnaden,  is  the  style  of  princes  who  are  not 
DurcUauckt  (».<.  Serene  Highness),  and  is  often  used  as  a  polite 
address  to  any  superior. 

In  the.huiguage  of  theology,  though  in  the  English  Bible  the 
word  is  used  in  several  of  the  above  senses,  "  grace  "  (Gr.  x^P*^) 
has  special  meanings.  Above  all,  it  signifies  the  spontaneous, 
unmerited  activity  of  the  Divine  Love  in  the  salvation  of  sinners, 
and  the  Divine  influence  operating  in  man  for  his  regeneration 
and  sanctification.  Those  thus  regenerated  and  sanctified  are 
said  to  be  in  a  "  state  of  grace."  In  the  New  Testament  grace 
is  the  forgi3inng  mercy  of  God,  as  opposed  to  any  human  merit 
(Rom.  xi.  6;  Eph.  ii.  5;  Col.  i.  6,  &c.);  it  is  applied  also  to 
certain  gifts  of  God  freely  bestowed  ,  «.; ,  miracles,  tongues,  &c. 
(Rom.  XV.  25;  I  Cor.  xv.  zo;  Eph.  iii.  8,  &c.),  to  the  Christian 
virtues,  gifts  of  God  also,  e.g.  charity,  holiness,  &c.  (2  Cor. 
viii.  7;  2  Pet.  iii.  x8).  -It  is  also  used  of  the  Gospel  generally, 
as  opposed  to  the  Law  (John  i.  17;  Rom.  vi.  14;  i  Pet.  v.  12, 
&c.);  connected  with  this  is  the  use  of  the  term  "  year  of  grace  " 
for  a  year  of  the  Christian  era. 

The  word  "  grace "  is  the  central  subject  of  three  great 
theological  controversies:  (i)  that  of  the  nature  of  human 
depravity  and  regeneration  (see  Pelacxus),  (2)  that  of  the 
relation  between  grace  and  free-will  (oee  Calvin,  John,  and 
Arwnius,  Jacobus),  (3)  that  of  the  "  means  of  grace  "  between 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  i.e.  whether  the  efiicacy  of  the 
sacraments  as  channels  of  the  Divine  grace  is  ex  opere  operate 
or  dependent  on  the  faith  of  the  recipient. 

In  the  third  general  sense,  of  thanks  for  favours  bestowed, 
"  grace  "  survives  as  the  name  for  the  thanksgiving  before  or 
after  meals.  The  word  was  originally  used  in  the  plural,  and 
"to  do,  give,  render,  yield  graces"  was  said,  in  the  general 
sense  of  the  French  rendre  prAces  or  Latin  gratics  agere^  of  any 
giving  thanks.  The  close,  and  finally  exclusive,  association 
of  the  phrase  "  to  say  grace  "  with  thanksgiving  at  meals  was 
possibly  due  to  the  formula  "  Gratias  Deo  agamus  "  ("  let  us 
give  thanks  to  God  ")  with  which  the  ceremony  began  in  monastic 
refectories.  The  custom  of  saying  grace,  which  obtained  in 
pre-Christian  times  among  the  Jews,  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
was  adopted  universally  by  Christian  peoples,  is  probably  less 
widespread  in  private  houses  than  it  used  to  be.  It  is,  however, 
stilj  maintained  at  public  dinners  and  also  in  schools,  colleges 
and  institutions  generally.  Such  graces  are  generally  in  Latin 
tod  of  great  antiquity:  they  are  sometimes  short,  e.g.  "  Laus 


Deo,"  "Benedictus  benedicat,"  and  sometimes,  as  at  the 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  colleges,  of  considerable  length.  In 
some  countries  grace  has  sunk  to  a  polite  formula;  in  Germany, 
e.g.  it  b  usual  before  and  after  meals  to  bow  to  one's  neighbours 
and  say  "  Gesegnete  Malzcit  1 "  (May  your  meal  be  blessed), 
a  phrase  often  reduced  in  practice  to  "  Malzeit  "  simply. 

GRACES,  THE.  (Gr.  Xd/xrei,  Lat.  Gratiae),  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  personification  of  grace  and  charm,  both  in  nature  and  in 
moral  action.  The  transition  from  a  ^ngle  goddess,  Chaiis,  to 
a  number  or  group  of  Charites,  is  marked  in  Homer.  In  the 
Iliad  one  Charis  is  the  wife  of  Hephaestus,  another  the  promised 
wife  of  Sleep,  while  the  plural  Charites  often  occurs.  The  Charites 
are  ustially  described  as  three  in  number — Aglaia  (brightness), 
Euphrosyne  (joyfulness),  ThaliU  (bloom) — daughters  of  Zeus 
and  Hera  (or  Eurynome,  daughter  of  Oceanus),  or  of  Helios 
and  Aegle;  in  Sparta,  however,  only  two  were  known,  Ckta 
(noise)  and  PhaSnna  (light),  as  at  Athens  Auxo  (increase)  and 
Hegemone  (queen).  They  are  the  friends  of  the  Muses,  with 
whom  they  live  on  Moimt  Olympus,  and  the  companions  of 
Aphrodite,  of  Peitho,  the  goddess  of  persuasion,  and  of  Hermes, 
the  god  of  eloquence,  to  each  of  whom  charm  is  an  indiqienaable 
adjunct.  The  need  of  their  assistance  to  the  artist  is  indicated 
by  the  union  of  Hephaestus  and  Charis.  The  most  andent 
seat  of  their  cult  was  Orchomenus  in  Boeotia,  where  their  oldest 
images,  in  the  form  of  stones  fallen  from  heaven,  were  set  up 
in  their  temple.  Their  worship  was  said  to  have  been  instituted 
by  Elcoclcs,  whose  three  daughters  fell  into  a -well  while  dancing 
in  their  honour.  At  Orchomenus  nightly  dances  took  i^acc^ 
and  the  festival  Charitesia,  accompanied  by  musical  contests, 
was  celebrated;  in  Paros  their  worship  was  celebrated  without 
music  or  garlands,  since  it  Vras  there  that  Blinos,  while  sacrificing 
to  the  Charites,  received  the  news  of  the  death  of  his  son 
Ahdrogexis;  at  Messene  they  were  revered  together  with  the 
Eumenides;  at  Athens,  their  rites,  kept  secret  from  the  profane, 
were  held  at  the  entrance  to  the  Acropolis.  It  was  by  Auxo^ 
Hegemone  and  Agraulos,  the  daughter  of  Cecrops,  that  young 
Athenians,  on  first  receiving  their  spear  and  shidd,  took  the 
oath  to  defend  their  country.  In  works  of  art  the  Charites  were 
represented  in  early  times  as  beautiful  maidens  of  slender  form, 
hand  in  hand  or  embracing  one  another  and  wearing  dn4>ery; 
later,  the  conception  predominated  of  thzee  naked  figures 
gracefully  intertwined.  Their  attributes  were  the  myrtle,  the 
rose  and  musical  instruments.  In  Rome  the  Graces  were 
never  the  objects  of  special  religious  reverence,  but  were  described 
and  represented  by  poets  and  artists  in  accordance  with  Greek 
models. 

See  F.  H.  Krause,  Jiusen^  Gralient  Horen,  und  Nympke»  (1871), 
and  the  articles  by  StoU  and  Fiirtwaiiglcr  in  Roacher's  Lexikam  der 
Mythologie,  and  by  S.  Gsell  in  Darembergand  SagUo'sDidiraaovis 
des  antiquiUst  with  the  bibliography. 

GRACIAN  T  MORAUB,  BALTASAR  (1601-1658),  Spanish 
prose  writer,  was  born  at  Calatayud  (Aragon)  on  the  8th  of 
January  x6ox.  Little  is  known  of  his  personal  history  except 
that  on  May  14, 1619,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  that 
ultimately  he  became  rector  of  the  Jesuit  college  at  Tarazona, 
where  he  died  on  the  6th  of  December,  1658.  His  principal 
works  are  El  Hiroe  (1630),  which  describes  in  apop^thegmati<; 
phrases  the  qualities  of  the  ideal  man;  the  Arte  de  ingmic, 
tratado  de  la  Agudeza  (1642),  republished  Six  years  afterwards 
under  the  title  of  Agudesa^  y  arte  de  ingenio  (1648),  a  system 
of  rhetoric  in  which  the  principles  of  amceptismo  as  opposed 
to  culteranismo  are  inculcated;  El  Discrelo  (1645),  a  delineation 
of  the  typical  courtier;  El  Orictdo  mamtal  y  arte  de  pmdemcia 
(1647),  a  system  of  rules  for  the  conduct  of  life;  and  Ei  Criticdn 
( 165  i-i 653-1657),  an  ingenious  philosophical  allegory  of  human 
existence.  The  only  publication  which  bears  Gradin's  name  is 
El  Comulgatorio  (1655);  his  more  important  books  were  issued 
under  the  pseudonym  of  Lorenzo  Graci&n  (possibly  a  brother 
of  the  writer)  or  under  the  anagram  of  Gradan  de  Mailones. 
Graciin  was  punished  lot  publishing  without  his  superior's 
permission  El  CritU&n  (in  which  Defoe  is  alleged  to  have  found 
the  germ  of  Robinson  Crusoe);  but  no  objection  was  taken  to 


CRACKLE— GRADUATE 


itiiabituce.     HebubMnenxuivctypniscd  by  ScbopeobuMr, 
wboK  appncution  oi  the  lulboc  indund  him  to  tnniUM  tbe 
Oricalt  HHiiaf,  aod  he  hu  bcto  unduJy  deprecuttd  by  Tickiwr 
ud  otbcn.     He  ii  an  acute  thinker  mil  obsnrvn,  milled  by  ' ' 
lyiumalk  iniiaathiDpy  and  by  hii  lantutic  litcnry  ihcDriei 
Sa  Karl   BoriuU.  BalUiv  CruUn  vul  dw  Haflillmlia 
ScUuUml  (Hilk.  iSm);  B«Kd«io  Ctdci,  /  TroHaHiii  iuiiani 
' amaaitma"  I  Baltaar  Gnuidn  (Napali.  iSwJi  NarciK  Ju 
UUb  y  Hmdia.  Balutar  Grantu  (Madrid,  looi).    ScKoptnhai 
and  jgieph  jiaibt  haw '       -     ■--'-■-- •^'-'-       - 


Ciauilaudtbe  Oriiultm 


OHACKU  (Lat.  Graccalui  or  Gratulia),  ■  woid  much  uied  in 
otnilholDgy,  generally  in  i  vagiw  Kue,' though  mtiictcd  to 
aKmbeti  of  the  famUies  Sfvnidiic  belonginj  to  the  Old  World 
and  Ictcridat  belongiiic  to  the  New.  01  the  former  tbcw  to  which 
it  has  been  moil  coaimDDly  applied  are  the  species  hsowo  at 
myus,  mainas,  aod  minan  of  Iadi4  and  the  adjacent  coustrin, 
aad  eapccially  the  Gracula  rditUna  oi  Linnacui,  who,  according 
to  Jet^B  and  olhen.  wu  probtbly  led  la  confer  this  epithel 
npoo  it  by  coolounding  it  with  the  .S'limiii  or  AcridMerti 
*ii<u.>  which  it  regarded  by  Ibe  Hindus  u  latred  lo  Ram  Deo. 
one  oil  their  deiiiet,  while  the  true  Cnctifa  rtUtiaia  does  iwl 
Kcm  to  be  aoy  where  held  in  veneration.  Thij  lail  i>  about  lo  in. 


in  length  clothed  b  a  plumage  of  glossy  block  wilh  p< 
and  green  reflections,  and  a  consp  cjous  patch  of  wh  Le  oj 
quill.leathen  of  the  win^  The  bill  is  orange  and  the 
yellow,  but  the  bird's  most  charactrrislic  Feature  is  aSc 
by  the  curious  waUles  of  bnght  yeUow,  which,  bcginniiig  b< 
the  eyes,  run  backwards  in  fonn  of  a  lappcl  o 


loltt 


head.  Beneath  ea' 
le  colour.  This  species 
represenled  farther  lo  I 
ol  the  MaUy  IsUnds  I 
vorous,  and.  t>eing  easi 
words  very  distinctly,  a 


eye  also  is  a  ban  patch  of  Ibe  si 

north,  in  Ceylon.  Burma,  and  son 
cognate  Ibnns.  They  are  aL  fru 
tamed  and  learrung  to  pronounce 
lavDurite  cagtf-birds.' 

ra  SaUapKatm  and  ^ucaJiij,  though  th 
ly  called  in  the  United  Slates  and  Can^ 
"  blachbiidl."  and  some  of  them  "  boat-tsila."  They  all  bel< 
lo  the  (anily  lOtridat.  The  best  known  of  these  are  the  ru 
grackk.  S.  frrrupntiu,  which  is  found  in  almost  the  whole 
Notth  Anwiica,  and  Q.  fitrfurm,  tt)e  purple  grackle  or  en 
■  Bv  nnr  writtrs  the  birds  of  the  lenen  Acriialluni  ind  Ttmi 
-^-■— '  -  ■--  -■-;  true  myiH.  and  the  specie,  of  Crtu 


n  called  " 

'  Fw  a  valui 


tfla^thTii'luhri^t^i, 


blackbird,  of  more  limited  range,  for  thou^  abundant  in  most 
parts  to  the  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountaina,  it  leemt  not  to  appear 
on  the  Pacific  side.  There  is  also  Brewer's  or  tlie  blue-heiided 
grackle,  5.  cyaneaflvduj,  which  has  a  more  western  range,  mot 
occurring  to  the  eastward  of  Kansaa  and  Minnesota.    A  fourth 

TJorth  Carolina.  All  these  birds  are  of  exceedingly  omnivorous 
habit,  and  though  destroying  large  numbers  of  pernicious 
insects  are  in  many  places  held  in  bad  repute  from  the  mischief 
they  do  to  the  com-crops.  (A.  N.) 

GBADtSCA.  a  town  ol  Austria,  in  the  province  of  GOn  and 
Gradisca,  lo  m.  S.W.  of  GOn  by  rail.  Fop.  (1900)  3B43,  mostly 
Itallani.  It  is  liluated  on  the  tight  bank  ol  the  Isonio  and  was 
formerly  a  strongly  fortified  place.  Its  ptiadpal  industry  ii  silk 
spinning.  Gradisca  originally  formed  part  of  the  luugraviate 
of  Friuli,  came  under  the  patiiarclute  of  Aqoileia  in  loiS, 
and  in  T(1o  to  Venice.  Between  1471  and  1481  Gradisca  ■>• 
fortified  by  the  Veoeiians,  but  in  jjit  they  lurrendered  it  to 
the  emperor  Mudmilian  I.  In  1647  Gruiisca  and  iU  leiritoiy, 
including  Aquilcia  and  forty-three  smaller  places,  were  erected 
i^to  a  separate  countship  in  favour  of  Johann  Anton  voD 
Eggcaberg,  duke  of  Krumau.    Oi     ' 


pocsled  with  COn 


was  completely  incor- 

rhich  established  the  crownland  of  COn 
and  Gradisca. 

QRADO,  a  town  of  northern  Spain,  In  the  pnivince  of  Oviedo; 
II  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Ibe  dty  ol  Oviedo,  on  the  river  Cubia,  a 
left-hand  tributary  ol  the  Nalon.  Pop.  (1000)  17,115.  Grado 
is  built  in  the  midat  of  a  mountainous,  well-wooded  and  fertile 
region.  It  has  some  trade  in  timber,  Hve  slock,  cider  and 
agricultural  produce.  The  nearest  railway  station  it  that  ol  the 
Fabrica  de  Trubia,  ■  royil  cannoD-touiidry  and  imiU-atmi 
factory,  5  m.  S.E. 

GHADDAL  (Med.  Lat.  padualii,  of  or  belon^ng  to  ilept  01 
degrees;  frodiu,  step),  advancing  or  taking  place  by  degreei 
or  step  by  step;  hence  used  ol  a  slow  progress  or  a  gentle  de- 
elivily  or  slope,  opposed  to  tteep  or  pretipitoui.  As  >  sub- 
stantive, "  gradual "  (Med.  Lit.  froifwilc  or  grajalc)  is  used  of 
a  service  book  or  antipbonil  of  the  Raman  Catholic  Church 
containing  certain  anlipbons,  called  "'  gndimlj."  tung  at  the 
service  of  the  Mass  after  the  reading  or  singing  of  Ibe  Epistle. 
This  aniiphon  received  the  name  either  because  it  was  lung 
on  the  steps  of  the  altar  or  while  the  deacon  was  mounting  the 
steps  of  the  ambo  for  the  reading  or  lining  of  the  Gospel.  For 
the  so-calied  Gradual  Psalms,  cn.^iiiiv.,  the  "songs  of 
degrees,"  LXX.  c^i)  iri  fitSiiur,  see  PsALUS,  Book  or. 

GRADUATE  (Med.  Lat.  padiwrc.  to  sdmit  to  an  academical 
degree,  frodu).  in  Great  Britain  ■  verb  Dow  only  used  in  the 

university  decree."  and  figuratively  of  acquiring  knowledge  of, 
,  anything.  The  original  iiansltive  sense  of 
nit  to  a  degree  "  it,  however,  still  preserved  in 
he  word  is,  moreover,  not  tttictly  confined  to 
1,  but  is  used  also  of.  those  successfully  com- 
ol  study  at  any  educational  eiliblilhment. 
a  "  graduate  "  (Med.  L^t.  gmdnolHi)  it  one 
1  degree  In  a  imiver^iy.  Those  who  have 
.  university,  but  not  yet  laken  a  degree,  arc 
nn  as  "undergraduates."  The  word  "student,"  used  of 
Ergnduaics  e.g.  in  Scoiiith  universities,  it  never  applied 
rally  10  those  of  the  English  and  Irish  universities.  At 
ird  the  only  "  students  "  are  the  "  teniot  ttudenli "  (i.t. 
ws)  and  "  junior  students "  (f.(.  undergtaduitet  on  the 
dation,  or  "  scholars  ")  of  Christ  Chutcb.  The  verb  "  to 
uale  "  is  also  used  of  dividing  anything  into  degreei  or  parts 
:cordance  with  a  given  teak.  For  the  tcienlific  application 
tee  Giunia-noM  below.     It  may  also  mean   "  to  SRange  in 

10  adjust  or  apportion  according  to  a  ^ven 

"a  gradifited  income-tai "  is  meant  the 
tbe  percentage  paid  differs  according  to  the 
on  a  pre-ananged  scale. 


r  proficiency  ir 


pleting  a 


iculated  al 


312 


GRADUATION 


GRADUATION  (aeealso  Gbaduatb),  the  art  of  dividing  straight 
scales,  circular  arcs  or  whole  drdimferences  into  any  required 
number  of  equal  parts.  It  is  the  most  important  and  difiicult 
part  of  the  work  of  the  mathematical  instrument  maker,  and  is 
required  in  the  construction  of  most  physical,  astronomical, 
nautical  and  surveying  instruments. 

The  art  was  first  practised  by  dockmakers  for  cutting  the 
teeth  of  thdr  wheels  at  regular  intervals;  but  so  long  as  it  was 
confined  to  them  no  particular  delicacy  or  accurate  nicety  in 
its  performance  was  required.  This  only  arose  when  astronomy 
began  to  be  seriously  studied,  and  the  exact  position  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  to  be  determined,  which  created  the  necessity 
for  strictly  accurate  means  of  measuring  linear  and  angular 
magnitudes.  Then  it  was  seen  that  graduation  was  an  art  which 
required  spedal  talents  and  training,  and  the  best  artiists  gave 
great  attention  to  the  perfecting  of  astronomical  instruments. 
Of  these  may  be  named  Abraham  Sharp  (1651-1743),  John 
Bird  (1709-1776),  John  Smeaton  (i 724-1 79a),  Jesse  Rsjnsden 
(i 735-1800),  John  Troughton,  Edward  Troughton  (x 753-1835), 
William  Simms  (i  793-1860)  and  Andrew  Ross. 

The  first  graduated  instrument  must  have  been  done  by  the 
hand  and  eye  alone,  whether  it  was  in  the  form  of  a  straight- 
edge with  equal  divisions,  or  a  screw  or  a  divided  plate;  but, 
once  in  th(i  possession  of  one  such  divided  instrument,  it  was  a 
comparatively  easy  matter  to  employ  it  as  a  standard.  Hence 
graduation  divides  itsdf  into  two  distinct  branches,  original 
graduation  and  copying^  which  latter  may  be  done  dther  by  the 
hand  or  by  a  machine  called  a  dividing  engine.  Graduation 
may  therefore  be  treated  under  the  three  heads  of  original 
graduation^  copying  and  machine  graduation. 

Original  Graduation. — In  regard  to  the  graduation  of  straight 

scales  dementary  geometry  provides  the  means  of  dividing 

a  straight  line  into  any  number  of  equal  parts  by  the  method 

of  continual  bisection;  but  the  praclicsil  realization  of  the 

geometrical  construction  is  so  difficult  as  to  render  the  method 

untrustworthy.    This  method,  which  employs  the  common 

diagonal  scale,  was  used  in  dividing  a  quadrant  of  3  ft.  radius, 

which  belonged  to  Napier  of  Mcrchiston,  and  which  only  read 

to  minutes — a  result,  according  to  Thomson  and  Tait  {Nat. 

Phil.),  "  giving  no  greater  accuracy  than  is  now  attainable  by 

the  pocket  sextants  of  Troughton  and  Simms,  the  radius  of 

whose  arc  is  little  more  than  an  inch.'* 

The  original  graduation  of  a  straight  line  is  done  either  by  the 
method  of  continual  bisection  or  by  stepping.  In  continual  bisection 
the  entire  length  of  the  line  is  first  laid  down.  Then,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  half  that  distance  is  taken  in  the  bcam<ompas8  and  marked 
off  by  faint  arcs  from  each  end  of  the  line.  Should  these  marks 
coincide  the  exact  middle  point  of  the  line  b  obtained.  If  not,  as 
will  almost  alwavs  be  the  case,  the  distance  betw(>en  the  marks  is 
carefully  bisected  by  hand  with  the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass.  The 
same  process  is  a^am  applied  to  the  halves  thus  obtained,  and  so  on 
in  succession,  dividing  the  line  into  parts  represented  by  2,  4,  8,  16, 
&c.  till  the  desired  divisions  are  Reached.  In  the  method  of  stepping 
the  smallest  division  required  is  first  taken,  as  accurately  as  possible, 
by  spring  dividers,  and  that  distance  is  then  laid  off,  by  successive 
steps,  from  one  end  of  the  line.  In  this  method,  any  error  at  starting 
will  be  multiplied  at  each  division  by  the  number  of  that  division. 
Errors  so  made  are  usually  adjusted  by  the  dots  being  put  either 
back  or  forward  a  little  by  means  of  the  dividing  punch  guided  by  a 
magnifying  glass.  This  is  an  extremely  tedious  process,  as  the  dots, 
when  so  altered  several  times,  are  apt  to  get  insufferably  large  and 
ihapcless. 

The  division  of  circular  arcs  is  essentially  the  &ame  In  principle 
as  the  graduation  of  straight  lines. 

The  first  example  of  note  is  the  S-ft.  mural  drcle  which  was 
graduated  by  George  Graham  (1673- 1751)  for  Greenwich  Obser- 
vatoiy  in  1725.  In  this  two  concentric  arcs  of  radii  96>85  and 
95*8  in.  respectively  were  first  described  by  the  beam-compass.  On 
the  inner  01  these  the  arc  of  90*  was  to  be  divided  into  degrees  and 
1 2th  parts  of  a  degree,  while  the  same  on  the  outer  was  to  be  divided 
into  96  equal  parts  and  these  again  into  i6th  parts.  The  reason  for 
adopting  the  latter  was  that.  ^  and  16  bdng  both  powers  of  2,  the 
divisions  could  be  got  at  by  continual  bisection  alone,  which,  in 
Graham's  opinion,  who  firvt  employed  it,  »  the  only  accurate 
method,  ana  would  thus  serve  as  a  check  upon  the  accuracy  of  the 
divisions  of  the  outer  arc.  With  the  same  distance  on  the  beam- 
compass  as  was  used  to  describe  the  inner  arc,  laid  off  from  o*. 
the  point  60*  was  at  once  determined.    With  the  poiny  o*  and  60* 


as  centres  successively,  and  a  distance  on  the  beam-compaas  very 
nearly  bisecting  the  arc  of  60*,  two  slight  marks  were  made  oa  the 
arc;  the  distance  between  these  marks  was  divided  by  the  hand 
aided  by  a  lens,  and  this  gave  the  point  30*  The  chord  of  60* 
laid  off  from  the  point  30  gave  the  point  90*,  and  the  quadrant 
was  now  divided  mto  three  equal  parts.  Each  of  these  parts  was 
similariy  bisected,  and  the  resulting  divisions  again  trisected,  giving 
18  parts  of  5*  each.  Each  of  these  quinquesected  gave  degrees,  the 
I2tn  parts  of  which  were  arrived  at  by  bisecting  and  trisecting  as 
before.  The  outer  are  was  divided  by  continual  bisection  alone, 
and  a  table  was  constructed  by  which  the  readings  of  the  one  arc 
could  be  converted  into  those  of  the  other.  After  the  dots  indi- 
cating the  required  divisions  were  obtained,  dther  straight  strokes 
all  directed  towards  the  centre  were  drawn  through  them  by  the 
dividing  knife,  or  sometimes  small  arcs  were  drawn  through  them 
by  the  Deam-compass  havii^  its  fixed  point  somewhere  on  the  line 
which  was  a  tangent  to  the  quadrantal  arc  at  the  pdnt  where  & 
division  was  to  be  marked. 

The  next  important  example  of  graduation  was  done  by  Bird  in 
1767.  His  quadrant,  which  was  also  8-ft.  radius,  was  divided 
into  degrees  and  lath  parts  of  a  degree.  He  employed  the  method 
of  continual  bisection  aided  by  chords  taken  from  an  exact  scale  of 
equal  parts,  which  could  read  to  'ooi  ofttn  inch,  and  which  be  had 
previously  graduated  by  continual  bisections.  With  the  beam- 
compass  an  arc  of  radius  S^'938  in.  was  first  drawn.  From  this 
radius  the  chords  of  y>*,  15  ,  10*  20',  4*  40'  and  aa*  40'  were  com- 
puted, and  each  of  them  t»y  means  of  the  scale  01  equal  parts  laid 


the  chord  of  i^*  laid  off  backwards  from  90*  gave  the  point  75*: 
from  7s"  was  laid  off  forwards  the  chord  of  10*  30';  and  from  00* 
was  laid  off  backwards  the  chord  of  4*  40';  and  these  were  found  to 
coinddc  in  the  point  85*  20^.  Now  85*  20'  bdng  >-5'  X  1024  •■ 
5^X2**,  the  final  divuions  of  85*  20^  were  found  vy  continual  bi- 
sections. Fbr  the  remainder  of  the  quadrant  beyond  8<s*  20', 
containing  56  divisions  of  s'  each,  the  chord  of  64  such  diviaiona 
was  laid  off  from  the  point  85*  40',  and  the  corresponding  arc 
divided  by  continual  bisections  as  before.  There  was  thus  a  severe 
check  upon  the  accuracy  of  the  points  already  found,  via.  i^*,  30*, 
6o^  75  ,  90",  which,  however,  were  found  to  coincide  with  the 
corresponding  points  obtained  by  continual  bisections.  The  riiort 
lines  through  the  dots  were  drawn  in  the  way  already  mentioned. 

The  next  eminent  artists  in  original  graduation  are  the  brothers 
John  and  Edward  Troughton.  Tne  former  was  the  first  to  devise  a' 
means  of  ifraduating  the  quadrant  by  continual  bisection  without 
the  aid  of  such  a  scale  of  equal  parts  as  was  used  by  Bird.  His 
method  was  as  follows:  The  radius  of  the  quadrant  kid  off  from 
o"  gave  the  point  60".  This  arc  bisected  and  the  half  laid  off  from 
do'^gave  the  point  90*.  The  arc  between  60*  and  00*  bisected  gave 
75*;  the  arc  between  7^*  and  00*  bisected  gave  the  point  8a*  30'. 
and  the  arc  between  82^30'  and  90*  bisectedgave  the  point  86*  15'. 
Further,  the  arc  between  82*  30'  and  86*  15'  trisected,  and  two- 
thirds  of  i\  taken  beyond  82*  30',  gave  the  point  85*,  while  the  arc 


divided  by  continual  bisection. 

The  method  of  original  naduation  discovered  by  Edward  Trough- 
ton  is  fully  described  in  tne  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1809,  as 
employed  by  himself  to  divide  a  mendian  circle  of  4  ft.  radius.  The 
circle  was  nrst  accurately  turned  both  on  its  face  and  its  inner  and 
outer  edges.  A  roller  was  next  provided,  of  such  diameter  that  it 
revolved  16  times  on  its  own  axis  while  made  to  roll  once  round 
the  outer  edge  of  the  circle.  This  roller,  made  movable  on  pivots, 
was  attached  to  a  frame-work,  which  could  be  slid  freely,  yet  tightly, 
along  the  circle,  the  roller  meanwhile  revolving,  by  means  of  f  rictional 
contact,  on  the  outer  edge.  The  roller  was  also,  after  having  been 
propcHy  adjusted  as  to  size,  divided  as  accuratelv  as  possible  into 
16  equal  parts  by  lines  parallel  to  its  axis.  While  the  frame  carrying 
the  roller  was  moved  once  round  along  the  drcle,  the  pdnta  of 
contact  of  the  roller-divisions  with  the  circle  were  accurately  ob- 
served by  two  microscopes  attached  to  the  frame,  one  of  which 
(which  we  shall  call  H)  commanded  the  ring  on  the  drcle  near  its 
edge,  which  was  to  receive  the  divisions  and  the  other  viewed  the 
roller-divisions.  The  points  of  contact  thus  ascertained  were  marked 
with  faint  dots,  and  the  meridian  circle  thereby  divided  into  as6 
very  nearly  equal  parts. 

The  next  part  of  the  operation  was  to  find  out  and  tabulate  the 
errors  of  these  dots,  which  are  called  apparnU  errors,  in  conse- 
ouencc  of  the  error  of  each  dot  bdng  ascertained  on  the  suppoaition 
that  its  neighbours  are  all  correct.  For  this  purpose  two  micro- 
scopes (which  we  shall  call  A  and  B)  were  taken,  with  cross  wires 
and  micrometer  adjustments,  consisting  of  a  screw  and  head  divided 
into  100  divisions,  50  of  which  read  in  the  one  and  50  in  the  opposite 
direction.  These  microscopes  were  fixed  so  that  thdr  cross-wires 
respectively  bisected  the  dots  o  and  128,  which  were  supposed  to 
be  diametrically  opposite.  The  drcle  was  now  turned  nalf-way 
found  on  its  axis,  so  that  dot  128  coincided  with  .the  wire  of  A. 


GRADUATION 


313 


and,  shcmld  doc  o  be  found  to  coincide  with  B,  then  the  two  dots 
-were  180*  apart.  If  pot,  the  cron  wire  of  B  was  moved  till  it  coin- 
dded  with  ddt  o,  and  the  number  of  divisions  of  the  micrometer 
head  noted.  Half  this  number  gave  clearly  the  error  of  dot  138, 
and  it  was  tabulated  +  or  —according;  as  the  arcual  distance  between 

0  and  ia8  was  found  to  exceed  or  fall  short  of  the  remaining  pai); 
of  the  ctrcumferenoe.  Hie  microsco^  B  was  now  shifted,  A  re- 
maining opposite  dot  o  as  before,  till  its  wire  bisected  dot  ^  and, 
by  giving;  the  dicle  one  quarter  of  a  turn  on  its  ans,  the  dinerence 
ot  toe  aica  between  dots  o  and  64  and  between  64  and  ia8  was 
obtained.  The  half  of  this  difference  gave  the  apparent  error  of 
dot  64,  which  was  Ubulated  with  its  proper  rien.  ^th  the  micro- 
scope A  still  in  the  same  position  the  error  oi  dot  193  was  obtained, 
aad  in  the  same  way  by  shifting  B  to  dot  ^  the  errors  of  dou  33, 
96,  160  and  334  were  successively  ascertained.  In  this  way  the 
apnarent  errors  of  all  the  356  dots  were  tabulated. 

From  this  table  of  apparent  errors  a  table  of  rtal  errors  was 
drawn  up  by  emoloying  tne  following  formula: — 

i(Xa +««)+<"■  the  real  error  of  dot  b, 
where  Xm  h  the  real  error  of  dot  a,  «•  the  real  error  of  dot  Cf  and  s 
the  apparent  error  of  dot  b  midway  between  a  and  e.    Having  got 
the  rest  errore  <A  any  two  dots,  the  table  of  apparent  errore  gives 
the  means  of  finding  the  real  errors  of  all  the  other  dots. 

The  last  part  of  Troughton's  process  was  to  employ  them  to  cut 
the  final  divisbns  of  the  circle,  which  were  to  be  spaces  of  5'  each. 
Now  the  mean  interval  between  any  two  dots  is  360*7356 -VX 16}, 
and  hence,  in  the  final  division,  this  interval  must  be  divided  into 
i6|  equal  parts.  To  accomplish  this  a  small  instrument,  called  a 
sabcfividing  sector,  was  ^vided.  It  was  formed  of  thin  brass  and 
had  a  radius  about  four  times.that  of  the  roller,  but  made  adjustable 
as  to  Icnffth.  The  sector  was  placed  concentrically  on  the  aads, 
and  rested  on  the  upper  end  of  the  roller.  It  turned  by  frictional 
adhesion  along  with  the  roller,  but  was  sufficiently  loose  to  allow 
of  its  betf^  moved  back  by  hand  to  any  poMtion  without  affecting 
the  roller.  While  the  roller  passes  over  an  angular  space  equal  to 
the  mean  interval  between  two  dots,  any  point  of  the  sector  must 
pass  over  16  times  that  interval,  that  is  to  say,  over  an  angle  re- 
present^ by  36o*X  16/356  ""33*  30'.  This  interval  was  therefore 
divided  by  i6|,  and  a  space  equal  to  16  of  the  parts  taken.  This  was 
laid  off  on  the  arc  of  the  sector  and  divided  into  16  equal  parts,  each 
equal  to  i*  30^;  and,  to  provide  for  the  necessary  {ths  of  a  division, 
there  was  laid  off  at  each  end  <A  the  sector,  and  beyond  the  16 
equal  parts,  two  of  these  parts  each  subdivided  into  8  equal  parts. 
A  rokiuacope  with  cross  wires,  which  we  shall  call  I,  was  placed  on 
the  main  frame,  so  as  to  command  a  view  of  the  sector  divisions, 
lost  as  the  inkroscope  H  viewed  the  final  divisions  of  the  circle. 
Before  the  first  or  sero  mark  was  cut,  the  rero  of  the  sector  was 
brought  under  I  and  then  the  division  cut  at  the  point  on  the  circle 
indicated  by  H,  which  also  coincided  with  the  dot  o.  The  frame 
was  then  slipped  along  the  circle  by  the  slow  screw  motion  provided 
for  the  purpose,  till  the  first  sector-division,  by  the  action  of  the 
teller,  was  brought  under  I.  The  second  mark  was  then  cut  on  the 
circle  at  the  point  indicated  by  H.  That  the  marks  thus  obtained 
sre  5'  apart  is  evident  when  we  reflect  that  the  distance  between 
them  must  be  i^th  <A  a  division  on  the  section  which  by  construction 
b  I*  3(/.  In  this  way  the  first  16  divisions  were  cut;  but  before 
cutting  the  17th  it  was  necessary  to  adjust  the  micrometer- wires 
of  H  to  the  real  error  of  dot  i,  as  indicated  by  the  table,  and  bring 
back  the  sector,  not  to  zero,  but  to  |th  short  of  aero.  Starting 
from  this  position  the  divisions  between  dots  i  and  3  were  filled  in, 
and  then  H  was  adjusted  to  the  rad  error  of  dot  3,  and  the  sector 
brought  back  to  its  proper  divinon  before  commencing  the  third 
course.  Proceeding  in  tnis  manner  through  the  whole  circle,  the 
microscope  H  was  finally  found  with  its  wire  at  sero,  and  the  sector 
with  its  l6th  division  under  its  microscope  indicating  that  the 
circle  had  been  accurately  divided. 

Ccpying. — ^In  gndoation  by  copying  the  pattern  must  be 
eitlwr  an  accurately  divided  straight  scale,  or  an  accurately 
divided  drde,  commonly  called  a  dividing  plcte. 

In  copying  a  straight  scale  the  pattern  and  scale  to  be  divided, 
nsoally  caDed  the  work,  are  first  fixed  side  by  side,  with  their 
upper  faces  in  the  same  plane.  The  dividing  square,  which  dosely 
resembles  an  ordinary  joiner's  square,  is  then  laid  across  both, 
and  the  point  of  the  dividing  knife  dropped  into  the  sero  division 
of  the  pattern.    The  square  is  now  moved  up  close  to  the  point 

01  the  knife;  and,  while  it  is  held  firmly  in  this  position  by  the 
left  hand,  the  first  division  on  the  work  is  made  by  drawing  the 
knife  along  the  edge  of  the  square  with  the  right  hand. 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  divisions  required  on  a  scale 
are  cither  greater  or  less  than  those  on  the  pattern.  To  meet 
this  case,  and  still  use  the  same  pattern,  the  work  must  be  fixed 
at  a  certain  an^e  of  inclination  with  the  pattern.  This  angle 
is  (oond  in  the  following  way.  Take  the  exact  ratio  of  a  division 
on  the  pattern  to  the  required  division  on  the  scale.    Call  this 


ratio  a.  Then,  if  the  required  divisions  are  bnger  than-  those 
of  the  pattern,  the  angle  is  cos'^a,  but,  if  shorter,  tlie  an^e  is 
sec'^'o.  In  the  former  case  two  operations  are  required  before 
the  divisions  are  cut:  first,  the  square  is  laid  on  the  pattern, 
and  the  corresponding  divisions  merely  notched  very  fauntly 
on  the  edge  of  the  work;  and;  secondly,  the  square  is  applied 
to  the  work  and  the  final  divisions  drawn  <^posite  each  faint 
notch.  In  the  second  case,  that  is,  wKen  the  angle  is  sec'^a,  the 
dividing  square  is  applied  to  the  work,  and  the  divisions  cut 
when  the  edge  of  the  square  coincides  with  the  end  of  each 
division  on  the  pattern. 

In  copying  circles  use  is  made  of  the  dividing  plate.  This 
is  a  circular  plate  of  brass,  of  36  in.  or  more  in  diameter,  carefully 
graduated  near  its  outer  edge.  It  is  turned  quite  flat,  and  has 
a  steel  pin  fixed  in  its  ^ntre,  and  at  right  angles  to  its  plane. 
For  guiding  the  dividing  knife  an  instrument  called  an  index 
is  employed.  This  is  a  straight  bar  of  thin  steel  of  length  equal 
to  the  radius  of  the  plate.  A  piece  of  metal,  having  a  V  notch 
with  its  angle  a  ri|^t  angle,  is  riveted  to  one  end  of  the  bar  in 
such  a  position  that  the  vertex  of  the  notch  is  exactly  in  a  line 
with  the  edge  of  the  steel  bar.  In  this  way,  when  the  index  is 
laid  on  the  plate,  with  the  notch  grasping  the  central  pin,  the 
straight  edge  of  the  steel  bar  lies  exactly  along  a  radius.  The 
work  to  be  graduated  is  laid  flat  on  the  dividing  plate,  and  fixed 
by  two  clamps  in  a  position  exactly  concentric  with  it.  The 
index  is  now  laid  on,  with  its  edge  coinciding  with  any  required 
division  on  the  dividing  plate,  and  the  corresponding  division 
on  the  work  is  cut  by  drawing  the  dividing  knife  along  the 
straight  edge  of  the  index. 

Machine  Graduatum, — ^The  first  dividing  engine  was  probably 
that  of  Henry  Hindley  of  York,  constructed  in  1740,  and  chiefly 
used  by  him  for  cutting  the  teeth  of  clock  wheels.  This  was 
foDowol  shortly  after  by  an  en^e-  devised  by  the  due  de 
Chaulncs;but  the  first  notable  engine  was  that  made  byRamsden, 
of  which  an  account  was  published  by  the  Board  of  Longitude 
in  17 77.  He  was  rewarded  by  that  bosrd  with  a  sum  of  £300, 
and  a  further  sum  of  £3  x  5  was  given  to  him  on  condition  that  he 
would  divide,  at  a  certain  fixed  rate,  the  Lostruments  of  other 
makers.  The  essential  principles  of  Ramsden's  machine  have 
been  repeated  in  almost  all  succeeding  engines  for  dividing 
circles. 

Ramsden's  machine  consisted  of  a  large  brsss  plhte  45  in.  In  dia- 
meter, carefully  turned  and  movable  on  a  vertical  axis.  The  edge 
of  the  plate  was  ratched  with  3160  teeth,  into  which  a  tangent 
screw  worked,  by  means  of  which  the  plate  could  be  made  to  turn 
through  any  required  angle.  Thus  six  turns  of  the  screw  moved 
the  pbte  tluough  i*,  and  ^th  of  a  turn  through  rlsth  of  a  degree. 
On  the  axis  of  the  tangent  screw  was  placed  a  cylinder  having  a 
spiral  groove  cut  on  its  surface.  A  ratchet-wheel  containing  60 
teeth  was  attached  to  this  cylinder,  and  was  so  arranged  that,  when 
the  cylinder  moved  in  one  direction,  it  carried  the  tangent  screw 
with  it,  and  so  turned  the  plate,  but  wfcwn  it  moved  in  the  opposite 
direction,  it  left  the  tangent  screw,  and  with  it  the  plate,  stationary. 
Round  the  sfural  groove  of  the  cylinder  a  catgut  band  was  wound, 
one  end  of  which  was  attached  to  a  treadle  and  the  other  to  a  counter- 
poise wdght.  When  the  treadle  was  depressed  the  tangent  screw 
turned  round,  and  when  the  pressure  was  removed  it  returned,  in 
obedience  to  the  weight,  to  its  former  position  without  affecting 
the  screw.  Provisbn  was  also  made  whereby  certain  stops  could  be 
placed  in  the  way  of  the  screw,  which  only  allowed  it  the  requbite 
amount  of  turning.  The  work  to  be  divided  was  firmly  fixed  on  the 
plate,  and  made  concentric  with  it.  The  divisions  were  cut,  while 
the  screw  was  stationary,  by  means  of  a  dividing  kiufe  attached  to 
a  svnng  frame,  which  allowed  it  to  have  only  a  radial  motion.  In 
thb  way  the  artist  could  divide  very  rapidly  oy  alternately  depress* 
ing  the  treadle  and  working  the  dividii^  kmfe. 

Ramsden  also  constructed  alinear dividing  en^e  on  essentially 
the  same  principle.  If  we  imagine  the  rim  of  the  circular 
plate  with  its  notches  stretched  out  into  a  straight  line  and  made- 
movable  in  a  straight  slot,  the  screw,  treadle,  &c.,  remaining 
as  before,  we  get  a  very  good  idea  of  the  linear  engine. 

In  1793  Edward  Troughton  finished  a  circular  di%dding 
engine,  of  which  the  plate  was  smaller  than  in  Ramsden's,  and 
wUch  differed  considerably  in  simplifying  matters  of  detail. 
The  pUte  was  originally  divided  by  Troughton's  own  method, 
already  described,  and  the  divisions  so  obtained  were  employed 


314 

to  ntcb  the  edge  ot  \ht  pUte  f « 


GRADUS— GRAETZ 


nosTliig  the  tasicot  Kiew 
icy.    Aoarew  mm  {Tram.  Ste.  Arts,  iSjo- 

tiDm  tbow  Of  Rimtdea  and  Tnufhloii. 
The  Mntlil  paint  s(  dUcRoce  !•  thit.  ia  Rih'i  engiiH,  tbe 

' '  -' — V  d«a  aat  turn  tbe  eiigbie  |^te;  that  ii  done  by  ma 

.__ —J  .i.  '-uictioB  g|  tfc,  tangent  tcirw  it 

u  paned  thraicfa  the  nquimi 


}lM  loak  ai  if  the  cionirafeRDce  bad  been  divided  uito  u  minv 
deep  and  maeirbat  peculiariy  ihaixd  notdia  or  leeth.  TluougB 
caeb  ol  tbeie  teeth  a  bole  ii  bind  panllcl  to  the  pUne  at  the  plii- 


iMioehof 


d>  and  Sal  enda.  The  la 


ilate.    lUith 


worln  <D  the  tcctb  or  nMcba  ti  the  elate.  Th&  thread  It  pierced 
by  90  eqsally  diaaat  boke,  all  laiallel  to  tbe  aili  of  the  Krew. 
aid  at  ilie  wDe  ifiaan  Inn  it.  Into  oidi  al  ibea  bolei  1.  la- 
■ertcd  a  Kcd  urew  enclly  linHlar  to  thoM  ia  tbe  teeth,  but  vilh 
he  end  mmded.  tt  b  the  inundcd  and  Bat  eodi  ol  dwM  let*  at 
■crewi  omiiw  tognber  that  itap  the  eaftae  plate  at  the  dedred 
poritkn,  and  the  enact  palst  caa  be  nicely  adjiuted  by  iDltably 


Dividinc  Engloe. 
bcoune  connDced  that  to  espy  upon  imaOet  drdn  tbe  dividom 
whidi  bad  been  put  upon  a  large  plate  with  very  gnat  accuncy 
vai  not  only  more  eipcditioiu  but  more  eiact  Hum  origioii] 
graduation.  Uk  machine  involved  essentially  the  same  prm- 
ciple  aa  Ttougbten't.    Tbe  accompanyicg  Gguie  ii  taken  by 


netat    Tbeie 

planofEdnt ^..        ___ 

enint  b  that  the  aide  B  it  (ubulu-, 
biMow  ii  to  receive  the  aiU  ol  tht  ..  . 
cut  be  fixed  flat  to  the  plate  by  the  clar 


ircW  to  be  divided,  h  thi 


log  tbe  leftf  down  the  Krew  can  be  altngether  r 
■Jthtbepbue.  Tbe  ei^  of  tbe  plate  i>  niched 
were  cut  oppuite  the  orl^nal  dHriikm  fay  a  r=- 
tD  tie  ■mr  baiae.   H  &  the  lobal  banel  i 
bandliaDUBd.mendatwhlcTlii--    ' 
end  ol  the  aula  J  and  the  other  1 
On  the  other  end  c<  J  it  apotbe 
IwBd  and  CDunleniotie  wei|bi  • 


luSwd 

IV  «io  teeth"  »*kh 
iiM-  cuiter  atucbed 


aai  J  li  leen  a  pair  of  bevcUcd  whe^  aUefa  wm  tbe  fod  I ;  widik, 
by  another  piu  <4  bevdied  vfaeda  attached  to  tbe  boa  N.  ^yca 

tbo  bent  lever  O.  wfaich  actuatee  tlw  bar  carrying  tfa«  cutter-  Bfr 
twecn  [he  eccentric  and  the  point  ot  the  KTCw  F  ia  an  nndalatiiig 
plate  by  which  long  diviikwi  can  be  cut-  Tha  cutting  apfsntua 
u  npfiorted  upon  the  two  paralld  nila  which  on  be  dmtcd  or 
deprwed  at  pleanje  by  the  nula  Q-  Aho  Fbr  culEinf  apparatua 
can  be  moved  lorward  or  backwaid^upoa  tlieK  nils  10  suit  cirdea 
d(  diltereal  dl'-'w-'-  Th*  hn.  N  I.  .i.n»hl.  ,\„^  ih.  h.r  B  ..^ 
the  rod  I  i> 
JDlnl.    Tl 


\  adjuitabie  aa  to  lengt 
engine  ia  lelf-actiqg.  ai 


may  be  made  of  Donkin'a  lineaf  dividing  engine; 
ia  wiiich  a  compensating  arrangement  is  employed  wbeivJiy 
great  accuracy  is  obtained  nolwithaunding  tbe  inequalitiea  of 
tbe  son*  used  to  advance  the  cutting  tool.  Dividing  cn^nei 
have  alio  bcoi  made  by  ftdchenbach.  Repiold  and  otbeia  in 
Gcrmanyt  Gambey  in  Paris  and  by  several  other  ajtioDomical 

&  Son  It  dewiibed  by  G.  T.  UcCav,  in  the  UmiMy  H<*.  R.A.S.. 
January  loo^. 


4;..  tt,  17. 


DacritHnt  tl  n  Ean'i 
(Lonfcn.  1777):  Trouglit™  .  . 
•f  llu  KlM  Ailnmrmital  S 
Sea  alB  j:  E.  Watkini.  "  On 
Rip.  (iwo).  p.  731;  and  L.  A 
kiii,  (ii»V 

OBADin,  or  GuDCi  ad 
a  Latin  (or  Greek)  dictionary, 


0.  Bl.) 

(a  Mep  to  Panuistni), 
in  which  the  quantiiiet  of  tbt 
rked-  Synonyms,  epitheta  aiKl 
poetical  cipressions  and  extracts  air  also  included  under  the 
more  important  headings,  the  whole  being  intended  as  an  aid 
for  students  in  Creek  and  Latia  vctm  ojmpoailion.  Hie  GnI 
Latin  giadus  was  compiled  In  1701  by  the  Jetuil  Paul  Alet 
(iSja-171;],  a  famous  achoohnaiier-  There  it  a  Latin  gradu* 
by  C-  D.  Yonge  (igjo};  En^ish-Latin  by  A.  C.  Ainget  and 
H-  G-  Wintle  (1S90];  Greek  1^  J.  Biaae  (iSiS}  and  R  Ibkby 
(1S15),  bishop  of  Durham. 

OBAKTZ,  HEIHBICB  (iSiT-iBpi],  tbe  foremost  Jewiab 
bidorian  ot  moden  timet,  was  bom  in  Poien  in  1817  and  died 
at  Munich  in  [S91.  He  received  a  desultory  education,  and 
TBS  largely  self-taught.  An  important  stage  in  hit  developtncnt 
was  the  period  of  three  yeaii  that  he  spent  at  Oldehbur^  aa 
assistant  and  pupil  of  S.  K-  Hinch,  whose  enlightened  ottbodoiy 
HI*  (ot  a  time  very  atlnctive  to  Gneta.  Lata-  ofi  Gracti 
proceeded  to  Brolau,  when  be  maiHculaled  in  1S49.  Breslan 
was  then  becoming  (he  headquartert  of  Abr^am  Geigcr,  tbe 
leader  of  Jewish  retonn.  Graetz  was  repelled  by  Geiger't 
altitude,  and  though  he  subsequently  took  radical  vicwa  of  the 
Bible  and  tndition  (which  made  him  an  opponent  ol  Hinch), 
CneU  remained  a  Ute-long  toe  to  reform.  He  conteaded  lor 
tieedom  of  thoujihi;  he  bad  no  desire  to  hgbl  lor  freedom 
of  ritual  practice.     He  momentarily  thought  ot  entering  the 

he  supported  himself  as  a  tutor-  He  had  previously  won'npute 
by  hia  published  eisayi,  but  in  1S5J  the  pubUcation  of  tbe 
fourth  volume  ol  bis  history  of  the  Jews  made  him  funous.  This 
(ourth  volume  [the  finl  to  be  published]  dealt  with  the  Talmud. 
It  HU  a  brilliant  nsuscitation  ol  the  past.  Graett'a  ikitl  in 
piecing  (ogclhei  detached  fragments  of  information,  ha  vast 
learning  and  extraordinary  critioil  actunen,  were  eqaaUed  by 
hia  vivid  power  ol  presenting  pemnalitle*.  No  Jewish  book 
ot  the  igth  century  produced  such  a  tentatioD  aa  thii,  and 
Graeti  won  at  a  btiund  the  poaition  he  still  occupira  as  recog.- 
nixed  master  ol  Jewish  history.  His  GatJiickU  ia  /iidat, 
begun  in  iBsj,  was  completed  in  1875;  new  editions  of  the 
•everal  voluoiea  were  frequent.  The  work  baa  been  tranalaled 
into  many  languaget;  it  appeated  in  En^ish  in  five  voluniei 
in  1891-1895,  TheHiifDryitdeftttiveloilslackafabicctivityi 
Graeti's  judgraentt  are  aomeiinei  blasted,  ud  in  putkulai  he 
tacks  sympathy  with  myiticiHD.    But  the  UKoiy  il  a  Mvfc 


GRAEVIUS— GRAFE,  K.  F.  VON 


31s 


of  fenios.  SimulUneousIy  with  the  publicatioD  of  voL  iv. 
CnttM  mm  tj^xiinted  on  the  stuff  of  the  new  Bxeslau  Semixuuy, 
of  which  the  first  director  was  Z.  Frankel.  Gnets  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  this  office;  in  1869  he  was  created  pro* 
fessor  by  the  government,  and  also  lectured  at  the  BrnUu 
UniverBity.  Gzaets  attaixMd  considerable  repute  as  a  biblical 
critic.  Be  was  the  author  of  many  bold  conjectures  as  to  the 
dftte  of  Ruth,  Ecdesiastes,  Esther  and  other  biblical  books. 
His  critical  edition  of  the  Psalms  (1882-1883)  was  his  chief  con- 
tribution to  biblical  exegesis,  but  after  his  death  Professor 
Bacher  edited  Graets's  EmeHdaiumet  to  many  parts  of  the 

Hebrew  scriptures. 

A  full  bibliogradiy  of  GraeCs's  works  b  given  in  the  Jewish 
Omarkriy  JZcvmv,  iv.  194;  a  memoir  of  Graetz  is  also  to  be  found 
there.  Another  full  memoir  was  pcefixed  to  the  "  index  "  volume 
of  the  History  in  the  American  re^iaBue  of  the  English  translation 
in  six  volumes  (Philadelphia,  1898).  (I.  A.) 

0RABVIU8  (properly  GbXvk  or  Gxuve),  JOHAIW  6B0R6 
(163S-1703),  German  dassicsl  scholar  and  critic,  was  bom  at 
Naumbuxg,  Saxony,  on  the  39th  of  January  1633.  He  was 
originally  intended  for  the  Uw,  Init  having  made  the  acquaintance 
of  J.  F.  Grooovius  during  a  casual  visit  to  Deventer,  under  his 
influence  he  abandoned  jurisprudence  for  philology.  He  com- 
pleted his  studies  under  D.  Heinsius  at  Ldden,  and  under  the 
Protestant  theologians  A.  Moms  and  D.  Blondel  at  Amsterdam. 
During  his  residence  in  Amsterdam,  under  Blondel's  influence 
be  abaiodoned  Luthefanlstn  and  joined  the  Reformed  Church; 
and  in  1656  he  was  called  by  the  elector  of  ilrandenbuig  to 
the  chair  df  rhetoric  in  the  university  of  Duisbuzg.  Two  years 
afterwards,  on  the  reconunendation  of  Gronovius,  be  was  chosen 
to  succeed  that  scholar  at  Deventer;  in  i66s  he  was  translated 
to  the  university  of  Utrecht,  where  he  occupied  first  the  chair 
of  ihetoiic,  and  from  2667  until  his  death  (January  nth,  1703) 
that  of  histoiy  and  politics.  Graevius  enjoyed  a  veiy  high 
leputatiMi  as  a  teacher,  and  his  lecture-room  was  crowded 
by  pupils,  many  of  them  of  distinguished  rank,  from  all  parts 
of  tlie  d^HUxed  worid.  He  was  honoured  with  special  recogni- 
tion by  Louis  XIV.,  and  was  a  particular  favourite  of  William  III. 
of  TP-"g*«"^,  who  niade  him  historiographer  royaL 

His  two  moat  impoctant  works  are  the  Tktsaitnu  anHiptitahim 
m  (1694-1699,  in  la  volumes),  and  the  T%eaoiirus  anti- 
si  msUnittmtn  IkUias  publisnixi  after  his  death,  and 


oootiniied  by  the  elder  Burmann  (iTO^-iTas)*  His  editions  of  the 
ctawirs,  altnoui^  they  marked  a  distinct  advance  in  scholarahiD, 
are  now  for  the  moet  piut  superseded.  They  include  Hcaiod  (1667),' 
Ludan.  PsemdotoMsIa  (i668)jju8tin,  Historiag  PkOippicas  (1669), 
Suetoabs  (1673;.  Catullus,  l^bullus  et  Propertius  (1680),  awl 
severalof  the  works  of  Cicero  (his  best  pfxidiiction).  Healsoedited 
many  of  the  writings  of  contemporary  scholars.  The  Or^io  ftuubris 
by  P.  Burmann  (1703^  contains  an  exhaustive  list  of  the  works 
of  this  scholar;  see  also  P.  H.  Kfllb  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  AUgemeiM 
EmeyUop^du,  and  J.  E.  Sandys,  HisUny  s/  Oastical  Sckolarskip,iL 
(«90«). 

ORAF»  ARTDRO  (1849-  )j  Italian  poet,  of  German  ex- 
traction, was  bom  at  Athens.  He  was  educated  at  Naples 
University  and  became  a  lecturer  on  Italian  literature  in  Rome, 
tiU  in  x88a  he  was  appointed  professor  at  Turin.  He  was  one 
of  the  foimders  of  the  GiomaU  della  kUeratuta  Ualiana,  and  his 
publications  indude  valuable  prose*  criticism;  but  he  is  best 
known  as  a  poet.  His  various  volumes  of  vene — Poesi*  e 
maodU  (1874),  Dope  U  tramonto  verri  (1893),  ftc—- give  him  a 
high  place  among  the  recent  lyrical  writers  of  his  Country. 

eRAF  KARL  HEINRICH  (1815-1869),  German  Old  Testn- 
nmit  scholar  and  orientalist,  was  bom  at  Mttlhausen  in  Alsace 
on  the  38th  of  February  1815.  He  studied  Biblical  exegesis 
and  oriental  languages  at  the  university  of  Strassburg  under 
E.  Reusa,  and,  after  holding  various  teaching  posts,  was  made 
instructor  in  French  and  Hebrew  at  the  Landesschule  of  Meissen, 
receiving  in  1853  the  title  of  professor.  He  died  on  the  x6th  of 
July  1869.  Graf  was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  Old  Testament 
critictsm.  In  his  prindpal  work,  Die  gesckichUicheH  BUcher 
des  AUm  Testaments  (1866),  he  sought  to  show  that  the  priestly 
legislation  of  Exodus,  Leviticus  and  Numbers  is  of  later  origin 
than  the  book  of  Deuteronomy.  He  still,  however,  held  the 
accepted  view,  that  the  ElohlsUc  naixativei  formed  part  of  the 


Gnmdsckrift  and  therefore  belonged  to  the  oldest  portions  of 
the  Pentateuch.  The  reasons  urged  against  the  contention  that 
the  priestly  legislation  and  the  Elohistic  narratives  were  separ- 
ated by  a  space  of  500  yean  were  so  strong  as  to  induce  Graf, 
in  an  essay,  "  Die  sogenannte  Grundschrift  des  Pentateuchs," 
published  shortly  before  his  death,  to  regard  the  whole  Grund' 
sckrift  as  post-odlic  and  as  the  latert  portion  of  the  Pentateuch. 
The  idea  had  already  been  expressed  by  E.  Reuss,  but  since 
Graf  was  the  fizst  to  introduce  it  into  Germany,  the  theory, 
as  developed  by  Julius  Wellhausen,  has  been  called  the  Graif- 
Wellhausen  hypoUiesis. 


Jeremiai 
CritieisM 
by  J.  F.  SmitE  as  DndopmnU  ^  Thedogy  (1890). 

eRiFB;  ALBRECHT  VOR  (X838-X870),  German  oculist,  son 
of  Karl  Ferdinand  von  Grife,  was  bom  at  Berlin  on  the  sand 
of  May  1828.  At  an  eariy  age  he  msjiifested  a  preference  for  the 
study  of  mathematics,  but  this  was  gradually  superseded  by  an 
interest  in  natural  sdenoe,  which  led  him  ultimatdy  to  the  Study 
of  mrdidne.  After  prosecuting  his  studies  at  Berlin,  Vienna, 
Prague,  Paris,  London,  Dublin  and  Edinbur;^,  and  devoting 
spedal  attention  to  ophthalmology  he,  in  1850,  began  practice 
as  an  oculist  in  Berlin,  where  he  founded  a  private  iiu^tution 
for  the  treatment  of  the  eyes,  which  became  the  modd  of  many 
similar  ones  in  Germany  and  Switxexland.  In  1853  he  was 
appointed  teacher  of  <^>htha]moIogy  in  Berlin  university;  in 
1858  he  became  extraoxdinazy  professor,  and  in  x866  ordLiaxy 
professor.  Gzife  contributed  largdy  to  the  progress  of  the 
sdenoe  of  ophthalmology,  espedally  by  the  establishment  in 
X855  of  his  ArckhJUr  Opktkalmehgie,  in  which  he  had  FenUnand 
Arlt  (x8xa-x887)  and  F.  C  Dondeu  (x8x8-x889)  as  collaborators. 
Perhaps  his  two  moat  important  disoovexies  were  his  method 
of  treating  glauoomn  and  his  new  operation  for  cataract  He 
was  also  regarded  as  an  authority  ia  diseases  of  the  nerves 
and  brain.  He  died  at  Berlin  on  the  aoth  of  July  X870. 
^  See  Bin  Wort  dor  Ensmonmg  an  Albrockt  wra  Grdfe  (Halle,  X870) 
by  his  oouan,  Alfred  Grife  (X830-18Q9),  alsoa  distinguished  ophthal- 
mologist, and  the  author  of  Das  SOin  dor  Schiekndtn  (Wiesbaden. 
1897;;  and  E.  Mkhadis,  AlbrodU  vom  Grtije,  Soim  Lsbon  nnd 
Wirken  (Berihi,  X877). 

ORAFB.  BEUIRICH  (x8o»-x86S),  German  educationist,  wa» 

bom  at  Bttttstidt  in  Saxe-Wdmar  on  the  3rd  of  May  x8o3. 

He  studied  mathematics  and  theology  at  Jena,  and  hi  X893 

obtained  a  curacy  in  the  town  church  of  Wdmar.    He  was 

transferred  to  Jena  as  rector  of  the  town  school  in  x82S;  hi  X840 

he  was  also  appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  the  sdencn 

of  education  (PAdagogik)  in  that  university;  and  in  1849  he 

became  head  of  the  BUrgerscknlo  (middle  dass  school)  in  CasseL 

After  reoiganizing  the  schools  of  the  town,  he  became  director 

of  the  new  ReaUchule  in  X843;  and,  devoting  himadf  to  the 

interests  of  educational  reform  in  dectoral  Hesse,  he  becixne 

in  X849  a  member  of  the  school  commission,  and  also  entered 

the  house  of  representatives,  where  he  made  hixnsdf  somewhat 

formidable  as  an  agitator.    In  1852  for  having  been  imi^cated 

in  the  September  riots  and  in  the  movement  against  the  unpopidar 

mixiister  Hassenpflug,  who  had  dissolved  the  school  oomm^on, 

he  was  condemned  to  three  years'  imptisonment,  a  sentence 

afterwards  reduced  to  one  of  twdve  months.    On  his  rdease  he 

withdrew  to  Geneva,  where  he  engaged  in  educational  wori^ 

till  X855,  when  be  was  appointed  director  of  the  school  of  industry 

at  Bremen.    He  died  in  that  dty  on.  the  sxst  of  July  x868. 

..  Besides  bdng  the  author  of  many  text-books  and  occasional 
papers  on  educational  subjects,  he  wrote  Das  RocktsoorhiUnis  der 


the  ArcktofOr  das  praktueke  VoUusehdwoson  (1828-1835). 

ORiFB;  KARL  FBRDIRAMD  VON  (x  787-1840),  German 
surgeon,  was  bom  at  Warsaw  on  the  8th  of  March  1787.  He 
studied  medidne  at  Halle  and  Ldpsig,  and  after  obtaining 
licence  from  the  Ldpdg  nniverdty,  he  was  in  1807  appointed 
private  physician  to  Duke  Alexius  of  Anhalt-Bembuxg.  In 
x8xi  he  beome  professor  of  surgery  and  director  of  the  suigical 


3i6 


GRAFFITO— GRAFTON,  DUKES  OF 


clinic  at  Bertin,  and  during  the  war  with  N^nteon  be  was  lupcr- 
inlcndcnt  of  the  mllicaiy  bospitali.  When  peace  wai  concluded 
in  iSiJ.lieRiumcdbisprafaiorialdutica,  HewaialMIppoiDted 
physician  lo  the  gcoeral  suff  of  the  ma;,  ind  he  became  a 
director  of  the  Friediich  Wilhelm  Institute  »od  of  the  Medito- 
Chiruisical  Academy.  He  died  suddenly  on  Ilie  4th  of  July  1S40 
at  Hanovcf ,  whiiher  he  had  been  called  to  operate  on  the  eyea 


and  Dia^dngB  on  andcnt  building!, 
re  foroul  ai  delibente  mitingi  known 
:  "  graffiti,"  eiiber  aoaiched  on  Mone 
umenl  luch  as  a  nail,  or,  more  rarely, 
ck  charcoal,  arc  found  in  great  abund- 
monuments  of  ancient  Egypt,  The  best-known 
lose  in  Pompeii  and  in  the  catacombs  and  else- 
They  have  been  collected  by  R.  Cumcd 
{GraSUi  di  Pimpei,  Puis,  iSjfi),  and  L.  Conen  ("  Graffiti  di 
Roma  "  in  Bellttiia  iltila  iMmmutimi  munidpalt  arehualciita, 
Rome,  iSgy,  see  alio  Curp,  Ira.  Lai.  tv.,  BkUo,  iS;i), 
The  Bubject  matter  of  these  scribbllngs  ia  much  the  same  as 
that  of  the  similar  scrawls  made  to-day  by  boys,  streel  idlers 
and  the  casual  '*  tripper."  The  schoolboy  of  Pompeii  wrote  out 
lisu  of  nouns  and  verba,  alphabets  and  lines  from  Virgil  for 
memoriiina.  lovers  wrote  the  names  of  their  beloved,  "  sporta- 
3  they  had  been  "  lipped," 


in  diitinclioi 
as  "  iosdiptioai."  Thi 
or  plaster  by  a  sharp  in 
written  in  red  chalk  or  t 
ance,  t.g.  on  the  monum 


cribbled  the  oames  of 


leof  their 


Petegrious  with  an  enormou)  nose,  or  of  Nua  or  Nasso  with 
hardly  any.  Aulus  Vitiiiu  Finnus  writes  up  his  election  address 
and  appeal)  to  the  piiiaipi  or  ball-players  for  their  votes  for 
him  as  aedile.  lines  of  poetry,  diiefly  suited  for  lovers  in  de- 
jection or  triumph,  are  popular,  and  Ovid  and  ftopentus  appear 
to  be  favourites.     Apparently  private  ownen  of  property  felt 


found  an  inscription  beggin^f 
to  the  palaeographer  and  to 


near  the  Porta  Ptirtveiui 
people  not  to  scribble  (j 

Graffiti  are  of  some  ii  . 
the  philologist  as  illmtiatiDg 
yarious  alphabets  and  languages  used  by  the  people,  and  occasion- 
ally guide  the  archaeologist  to  the  date  of  the  building  on  which 
Ibey  appear,  but  they  tn  chiefly  valuable  for  the  light  they 
throw  on  the  everyday  life  of  the  "  man  in  the  street  "  of  the 
period,  and  (or  the  iutlnute  details  of  cuttomi  and  institutions 
which  no  literature  or  formal  ImcHptions  can  give.  The  graffiti 
dealing  with  the  gladiatorial  shows  at  Pompeii  are  in  this  respect 
particulaily  netevonhy;  the  lude  drawings  such  as  that  of 
the  ucnler  oiught  In  the  net  ol  the  petunu  and  lying  entirely 
at  his  mercy,  give  a  more  vivid  picture  of  what  the  incidents 
of  these  shows  were  like  than  any  account  in  words  (see  Garrucd, 
ep.dl.,V[t.t.-ilv,]A.  Mau,  Pamptii  in  Lebtn  mtd  Kmut,  and 
ed.,  i^oS.ch.  jaa.).  In  1W6  intheTrasteverequarterolRome, 
near  the  church  of  S.  Crisogono,  was  discovered  the  guard-house 
(emUlnrium)  of  the  seventh  cohort  ol  the  city  police  ivipUs), 
(be  nails  being  covered  by  the  scribblings  of  the  guards,  iUuilrat- 
ing  in  detail  the  daily  routine,  the  hardships  and  dangers,  and 
tbe  feeling!  of  the  men  tovaidi  their  oScen  (W.  Henzeo, 


le  Kircheri^ 


(his)   god." 


"  L'  Escubitorio  della  Settmia  owRe  dd  Vigill  "  in  Buff.  /«(. 
IMT,  and  Anniiii  Inst.,  1K741  see  also  R.  Ludani,  Amdaa 
Borne  in  Ikt  Ijgkt.of  Rtcefti  DiscoKrUs,  330,  and  Jiitims  ajtd 
aj  AiKitril  Rane,  1S97.  J4E).  The  most  famous 
iscovered  Is  that  geoenlly  accepted  as  representing 
Df  Christ  upon  the  cross,  found  on  tlie  walls  of  tbe 
liana  on  the  Palatine  in  iSj7,  and  now  preserved 
the  Collegio  Romano.     Deeply 

•Htb  one  band  upraised  in  salutation  to  anolbei  figure,  with 
the  head  of  an  ass,  01  possibly  a  horse,  hanging  on  a  cross; 
In  rude  Greek  letters  "  AnaramcQOS  woiships 
las  been  suggested  that  this  represents  an 
Gnostic  sect  worshipping  one  of  the  animal- 
headed  deities  of  Egypt  (see  Fetd.  Becker,  £>ai  SpBlUndfix 
der  rdmiicken  KaiitrpatHilt,  BresUu,  tVA;  F.  X.  Kraus,  Dot 
SpeUcnuifix  km  Falalm,  Freiburg  in  Breisgau,  1871;  and 
Visconti  and  Landani,  I^Bids  dtl  PaialinB), 

in  the  EiUnbiatlt  Jim™.  October  I8S9.  vol  ciL  (C  ES) 

GRAFLT.  CHARLES  ([S1S2-  ),  American  sculptor,  was 
bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  3rd  of  December 
iSfi!.  He  wasa  pupil  of  the  schoob  of  the  Peniaylvania  Academy 
of  [be  Fine  Arts,  Philadelphia,  and  of  Henri  M.  Chapu  and  Jean 
Dampt,  and  the  Ccolc  des  Beaui  Arts,  Paris.  He  received  ■□ 
Hooomble  Mention  in  the  Paris  Salon  of  1891  for  his  "  Uauvais 
Prisige,"  now  at  the  Delioit  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  a  gold  medal 
at  the  Paris  Exposition,  in  1900,  and  medals  at  Chicago,  i&M, 
Atlanta,  1&9J,  and  Philadelphia  (the  gold  Medal  et  Honor, 
Pennsylvania  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts).  tSM-  In  iS?.  be 
became  instructor  in  sculpture  at  the  Pennsylvania  Aoideray 
of  the  Fine  Arts,  also  filling  the  same  chair  St  the  Drciel  Institute7 
Philadelphia.  He  was  elected  a  full  member  of  the  Maliona] 
Academy  of  Design  in  ry>5.  His  better-known  works  tndude: 
"  General  Reynolds,"  Fairmount  Park,  Philadelphia;  "  Foun- 
tain of  Uan  "  {made  for  the  Ian-American  Eaposilion  mx 
Buffalo);  "From  Generation   to  Generation";   "  Symbol  of 

'"   "  "' )f  War," and  many  portrait  busts. 

in  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Itterbsch, 
VohwinkeL     PopL 


jc    i     vulture  DI  ni 
GRAFRITH,  a  town 


(190s)  go30.     1 

priodpal  IndusI 
o  the  to 


a  Roma 


1  abbey  fat 


CalhoHi 


GRAFT  (a  modified  form  of  the  eaiUer  "grsff,"  thnugb- 
the  French  from  tbe  Late  Lat.  ^a^MiiH,  a  stylus  or  pencil), 
a  small  branch,  shoot  or  "  sdon,"  transferred  from  one  ^ant  or 
tree  to  another,  the  "  stock,"  and  inserted  in  it  so  that  the  tww 
unite  (see  HoiTicniTOBii).  The  name  was  adopted 'from  tbe 
resemblance  in  shape  of  the  "  graft  "  to  a  pcndl.  The  transfer 
of  living  tissue  from  one  portion  of  an  organism  lo  another  part 
of  the  same  or  different  organism  where  it  adheres  and  gran 
il  also  known  as  "grafting,"  and  is  frtijuenlly  practised  'in 
modem  surgery.  The  word  is  applied,  in  earpenlry,  to  an 
attarhment  of  the  ends  of  timbers,  and,  as  a  nautical  term,  to 
the  "  whipping  "  or  "  pointing  "  of  a  rope's  end  with  fine  twitw 
to  prevent  unravelling.  "  Craft  "  is  used  as  a  slang  term,  in 
England,^  for  a  "piece  of  hard  workl"  In  American  usjt^ 
Webster's  Dicliimary  (ed.  1904)  defines  the  word  ss  "  the  act  of 
any  one,  especially  an  official  or  public  employ*,  by  which  he 
procuresmoney  surreptitiously  by  virtueof  his  office  or  position; 
also  the  surreptitious  gain  thus  procured-"  It  is  thus  a  worU 
embracing  blackmail  and  illicit  commissiDO.  The  origin  of  the 
English  use  of  the  word  is  probably  an  obsolete  word  "  graft," 
a  portion  of  earth  thrown  up  by  a  spade,  from  the  Teutonic  root 
meaning  "  to  dig,"  seen  in  German  (roifli,  and  EogUsb  "  grave." 

GHAnOH,  DDRES  OF.  The  English  dukes  <rf  Grafton  are 
descended  from  Hehiv  Frriiov  (166J-1690),  the  natural  son 
of  Charles  II.  by  Barbara  VDliers  (countess  of  Castlemaise  and 
duchess  of  Geveland).  In  1671  he  was  married  10  the  daughter 
and  heiress  of  the  earl  of  Arlington  and  created  eari  ol  Euston ; 
in  1G7S  be  was  created  duke  ol  Ciafloo.    He  wai  brou^ 


GRAFTON,  R.— GRAHAM,  SIR  G. 


317 


cp  as  a  sailor,  and  saw  military  service  at  the  siege  of  Luxemburg 
in  i6£^  At  James  II. 'tf  coronation  he  was  lord  high  constable. 
In  the  rebellion  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth  he  commanded  the 
royal  troops  in  Somersetshire;  but  later  he  acted  with  Churchill 
(duke  of  Marlborough),  and  joined  William  of  Orange  agsiinst 
the  king.  He  died  of  a  wound  received  at  the  storming  0/  Cork, 
while  leading  William's  forces,  being  succeeded  as  and  duke 
by  his  son  Charles  (1682-1757). 

Augustus  Henry  Fitzroy,  3rd  duke  of  Grafton  (1735-1811)1 
one  of  the  leading  politicians  of  his  time,  was  the  grandson  of  the 
3nd  duke,  and  was  educated  a(  Westminster  and  Cambridge.  He 
first  became  known  in  politics  as  an  opponent  of  Lord  Bute;  in 
1765  he  was  secretary  of  state  under  the  marquis  of  Rockingham ; 
but  he  retired  next  year,  and  Pitt  (becoming  carl  of  Chatham) 
formed  a  ministry  in  which  Grafton  was  first  lord  of  the  treasury 
(1766)  but  only  nominally  prime  minister.  Chatham's  illness 
at  the  end  of  1767  resulted  in  Grafton  becoming  the  effective 
leader,  but  political  differences  and  the  attacks  of  "  Junius  " 
led  to  his  resignation  in  January  1770.  He  became  lord  privy 
seal  in  Lord  North's  ministry  (1771)  but  resigned  in  1775,  being 
in  favour  of  conciliatory  action  towards  the  American  colonists. 
In  the  Rockingham  ministry  of  178J  he  was  again  lord  privy 
seal.    In  later  years  he  was  a  prominent  Unitarian. 

Besides  his  successor,  the  4th  duke  (1760-1844),  and  numcr6us 
other  children,  he  was  the  father  of  General  Lord  Charles  Fitz- 
roy (i 764-1829),  whose  sons  Sir  Charles  FitzrOy  (1798-1858), 
governor  of  New  South  Wales,  and  Robert  Fitzroy  {q.v.)f  the 
hydrographer,  were  notable  men.  The  4th  duke's  son,  who 
succeeded  as  5th  duke,  was  father  of  the  6th  and  7th  duke" 

The  3rd  duke  left  in  manuscript  a  Memoir  of  his  public  career, 
of  whicn  extracts  have  been  printed  in  Stanhope's  History,  Wafpolc's 
Memories  of  George  HI.  (Appendix,  vol.  iv.),  and  Campbell's  Lives 
of  the  ChauceUors. 

GRAFTON,  RICHARD  (d.  1572),  English  printer  and  chron- 
icler, was  probably  born  about  15 13.  He  received  the  freedom 
of  the  Grocers'  Company  in  1534.  Miles  Coverdalc's  version 
of  the  Bible  had  first  been  printed  in  1535.  Grafton  was  early 
brought  into  touch  with  the  leaders  of  religious  reform,  and  in 
1537  he  undertook,  in  conjunction  with  Edward  Whitchurch, 
to  produce  a  modified  version  of  Coverdale's  text,  generally 
known  as  Matthew's  Bible  (Antwerp,  1537).  He  went  to  Paris 
t  o  reprint  Coverdale's  revised  edit  ion  ( 1 538).  There  Whitchurch 
and  he  began  to  print  the  folio  known  as  the  Great  Bible  by 
special  licence  obtained  by  Henry  VIII.  from  the  French  govern- 
ment. Suddenly,  however,  the  work  was  officially  stopped  and 
the  presses  seized.  Grafton  fled,  but  Thomas  Cromwell  eventu- 
ally bought  the  presses  and  type,  and  the  printing  was  completed 
in  Enj^nd.  The  Great  Bible  was  reprinted  several  times  under 
his  direction,  the  last  occasion  being  1553.  In  1544  Grafton 
and  Whitchurch  sccurctl  the  exduuve  right  of  printing  church 
service  books,  and  on  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  he  was 
appointed  king's  printer,  an  office  which  he  retained  throughout 
the  reign.  In  this  capacity  he  produced  The  Bookc  of  the  Common 
Prater  aud  Administracion  of  Ute  SacramenUSf  and  other  Rites 
and  Ceremonies  of  the  Churdic:  after  the  Use  of  the  Churche  of 
Engiaade  (1549  fol.),  and  Actes  of  Parliamaii  (1552  and  1553). 
In  1553  he  printed  Lady  Jane  Grey's  proclamation  and  signed 
himself  the  queen's  printer.  For  this  he  was  imprisoned  for  a 
short  time,  and  he  seems  thereafter  to  have  retired  from  active 
business.  His  historical  works  include  a  continuation  (1543) 
of  Hardyng's  Chronicle  from  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Edward 
IV.  down  to  Grafton's  own  times.  He  is  said  to  have  taken 
considerable  liberties  with  the  original,  and  may  practically  be 
regarded  as  responsible  for  the  whole  work.  He  printed  in  1548 
Edward  Hall's  Union  of  the,  .  .Families  of  Lancastre  and 
Yorke^  adding  the  history  of  the  years  from  1532  to  1547.  After 
he  retired  from  the  printing  business  he  published  An  Abridge- 
meni  of  the  Chronicles  of  England  (i  562),  Manuell  of  the  Chronicles 
of  Eugfaad  (1565),  Chronicle  at  large  and  meere  Historye  of  the 
A  f  eyres  of  England  (1568).  In  these  books  he  chiefiy  adapted 
the  work  of  his  predecessors,  but  in  some  cases  he  gives  detailed 
accounts  of  cooteraporary  events.    His  name  frequently  appears 


in  the  records  of  St  Bartholomew's  and  Christ's  hospitals,  and 
in  1 553  he  was  treasurer-general  of  the  hospitals  of  King  Edward's 
foundation.    In  1 553-1 554  and  1556-1557  he  represented  the 

City  ih  Parliament,  and  in  1562-1^(^3  he  sat  for  Coventry. 

An  elaborate  account  of  Grafton  was  written  in  1901  by  Mr  J.  A. 
Kingdon  under  the  auspices  of  the  Grocers'  Company,  with  the  title 
Richard  Grafton,  Citisen  gnd  Grocer  of  London,  ate,  m  continuation 
of  incidents  in  the  Lives  of  T.  Poyntz  and  R,  Grafton  (1895).  His 
Chronicle  at  targe  was  repnnted  by  Sir  Henry  Ellis  in  1809. 

GRAFTON,  a  city  of  Clarence  county,  New  South  Wales, 
Ijring  on- both  sides  of  the  Clarence  river,  at  a  distance  of  4'5  m. 
from  its  mouth,  342  m.  N.E.  of  Sydney  by  sea.  Pop.  (1901) 
4x74,  South  Grafton,  976.  The  two  sections,  North  Grafton 
and  South  Grafton,  form  separate  municipalities.  The  river 
is  navigable  from  the  sea  to  the  town  for  ships  of  moderate 
burden,  and  for  small  vessels  to  a  point  35  m.  beyond  it.  The 
entrance  to  the  river  has  been  artificially  improved.  Grafton 
is  the  seat  of  the  Anglican  joint-bishopric  of  Grafton  and  Armidale, 
and  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishopric  created  in  x888,  both  of  which 
have  fine  cathedrals.  Dairy-farming  and  sugar-growing  are 
important  Industries,  and  there  are  several  sugar-mills  in  the 
neighbourhood;  great  numbers  of  horses,  also,  are  bred  for  the 
Indian  and  colonial  markets.  Tobacco}  cereals  and  fruits  are 
also  grown.  Grafton  has  a  large  shipping  trade  with  Sydney. 
There  is  rail-connexion  with  Brisbane,  &c.  The  city  became  a 
municipality  in  1859. 

GRAFTON,  a  township  in  the  S.E.  part  of  Worcester  county, 
Massachusetts,  U.S.A.  Pop.  (1905)  505a ;  (19x0)  5705.  It  is 
served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  and  the 
Boston  &  Albany  railways,  and  by  intcrurban  electric  lines. 
The  township  contains  several  villages  (including  Grafton,  North 
Grafton,  Saundcrsville,  Fisherville  and  Farnutnsville);  the 
principal  village,  Grafton,  is  about  7  m.  S.E.  of  Worcester.  The 
villages  are  residential  suburbs  of  Worcester,  and  attract  many 
summer  residents.  In  the  village  of  Grafton  there  is  a  public 
library.  There  is  ample  water  power,  from  the  Blackstonc 
river  and  its  tributaries,  and  among  the  manufactures  of  Grafton 
are  cotton-goods,  boots,  and  shoes,  &c.  Within  what  is  now 
Grafton  stood  the  Nipmuck  Indian  village  of  Hassanameslt. 
John  Eliot,  the  "  apostle  to  the  Indians,"  visited  it  soon  after 
165 1,  and  organized  the  third  of  his  bands  of  "  praying  Indians  " 
there;  in  1671  he  established  a  church  for  them,  the  second  of 
the  kind  in  New  England,  and  also  a  school.  In  1654  the  Massa« 
chusetts  General  Court  granted  to  the  Indians,  for  their  exclusive 
use,  a  tract  of  about  4  sq.  m.,  of  which  they  remained  the  sole 
proprietors  untQ  17 18,  when  they  sold  a  small  farm  to  Elisha 
Johnson,  the  first  permanent  white  settler  in  the  neighbourhood. 
In  1728  a  group  of  residents  of  Marlboro,  Sudbury,  Concord  and 
Stowe,  with  the  permission  of  the  General  Court,  bought  from  the 
Indians  7500-acres  of  their  knds,  and  agreed  to  establish  forty 
English  families  on  the  tract  within  three  years,  and  to  maintain 
a  church  and  school  of  which  the  Indikns  should  have  free  use. 
The  township  was  incorporated  in  1735,  and  was  named  in  honour 
of  the  2nd  duke  of  Grafton.  The  last  of  the  pure-blooded 
Indians  died  about  1825. 

GRAFTON,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Taylor  county.  West 
Virginia,  U.S.A.,  on  Tygart  river,  about  100  m.  by  rail  S.E.  of 
Wheeling.  Pop.  (1890)  31 59;  (1900)  5650,  including  226  foreign- 
bom  and  162  negtoes;  (1910)  7563.  It  is  served  by  four  divisbns 
of  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  railway,  which  maintains  extensive  car 
shops  here.  The  city  is  about  xooo  ft.  above  sea-level.  It  has 
a  small  national  cemetery,  and  about  4  m.  W.,  at  Pruntytown, 
is  the  West  Virginia  Reform  School.  Grafton  is  situated  near 
large  coal-fields,  and  is  supplied  with  natural  gas.  Among  its 
manufactures  are  machine-idiop  and  foundry  products,  window 
glass  and  pressed  glass  ware,  and  grist  mill  and  planing-mill 
products.  The  first  settlement  was  made  about  1852,  and 
Grafton  was  incorporated  in  1856  and  chartered  as  a  dty  in 
1 899.  In  1 903  the  population  and  area  of  the  city  were  increased 
by  the  annexation  of  the  town  of  Fetterman  (pop.  in  1900,  796), 
of  Beaumont  (unincorporated),  and  of  other  territory.' 

GRAHAM,  SIR  GERALD  (1831-1899)^  British  genezal,  was 
bom  on  the  27th  of  June  1831  at  Acton,  Middlesex.    He 


3i8 


GRAHAM,  SIR  JAMES— GRAHAM,  T. 


educated  at  Dresden  and  Woolwich  Academy,  and  entered  the 
Royal  Engineers  in  1850.  He  served  wHh  distinction  through 
the  Russian  War  of  i8s4  to  1856,  was  present  at  the  battles  of 
the  Alma  and  Inkerman,  was  twice  woimded  in  the  trenches 
before  Sevastopol,  and  was  awarded  the  •Victoria  Cross  for 
gallantry  at  the  attack  on  the  Redan  and  for  devoted  heroism 
on  numerous  occasions.  He  also  received  the  legion  of  Honour, 
and  was  promoted  to  a  brevet  majority.  In  the  China  War  of 
i860  he  took  part  in  the  actions  of  Sin-ho  and  Tang-ku,  the 
storming  of  the  Taku  Forts,  where  he  was  severely  wounded, 
and  the  entry  into  Peking  (brevet  lieutenant-colonelcy  and  C.B.)* 
Promoted  colonel  in  1869,  he  was  employed  in  routine  duties 
until  1877,  when  he  was  appointed  assistant-director  of  works 
for  barracks  at  the  war  office,  a  position  he  held  until  his  promo- 
tion to  major-general  in  1881.  In  command  of  the  advanced 
force  in  £g>'pt  in  1882,  he  bore  the  brunt  of  the  fighting,  was 
present  at  the  action  of  Magfar,  commanded  at  the  first  battle 
of  Kassassin,  took  part  in  the  second,  and  led  his  brigade  at 
Tell-el-Kcbir.  For  his  services  in  the  campaign  he  received  the 
K.C.B.  and  thanks  of  parliament.  In  1884  he  commanded  the 
expedition  to  the  eastern  Sudan,  and  fought  the  successful 
battles  of  £1  Tcb  and  Tamai.  On  his  return  home  he  received 
the  thanks  of  parliament  and  was  made  a  lieutenant-general 
for  distinguished  service  in  the  field.  In  1885  he  commanded 
the  Suakin  expedition,  defeated  the  Arabs  at  Hashin  and 
Tamai,  and  advanced  the  railway  from  Suakin  to  Otao,  when  the 
expedition  was  withdrawn  (thanks  of  parliament  and  G.C.M.G.). 
In  1896  he  was  made  G.C.B.,  and  in  1899  colonel-commandant 
Royal  Engineers.  He  died  on  the  17th  of  December  1899. 
He  published  in  1875  a  translation  of  Goctxe's  Operations  of 
Uu  German  Engineers  in  1870- 187 1,  and  in  1887  Last  Words 
with  Gordon. 

GRAHAM.  SIR  JAMES  ROBERT  OBORGB,  Bart.  (1792- 
1861),  British  statesman,  son  of  a  baronet,  was  bom  at  Naworth, 
Cumberland,  on  the  1st  of  June  1792,  and  was  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Oxford.  Shortly  after  quitting  the  university, 
while  making  the  "  grand  tour  "  abroad,  be  became  private 
secretary  to  the  British  minister  in  Sicily.  Returning  to  England 
in  x8 18  he  was  elected  to  parliament  as  member  for  Hull  in  the 
Whig  interest;  but  he  was  unseated  at  the  election  of  1820. 
In  1824  he  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy;  and  in  1826  he  re-entered 
parliament  as  representative  for  Carlisle,  a  seat  which  he  soon 
exchanged  for  the  couQty  of  Cumberland.  In  the  same  year 
he  published  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Com  and  Currency,"  which 
brought  him  into  prominence  as  a  man  of  advanced  Liberal 
opinions;  and  he  became  one  of  the  most  energetic  advocates 
in  parliament  of  the  Reform  Bill.  On  the  formation  of  Earl 
Grey's  administration  he  received  the  post  of  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  From  1832  to  1837  he 
sat  for  the  eastern  divbion  of  the  county  of  Cumberland.  Dis- 
sensions on  the  Irish  Church  question  led  to  his  withdrawal 
from  the  ministry  in  1834,  and  ultimately  to  his  joining  the 
Conservative  party.  Rejected  by  his  former  constituents  in 
1837,  he  was  in  1838  elected  for  Pembroke,  and  in  1841  for 
Dorchester.  In  the  latter  year  he  took  office  under  Sir  Robert 
Peel  as  secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department,  a  post  he 
retained  until  1846.  As  home  secretary  he  incurred  considerable 
odium  in  Scotland,  by  his  unconciliating  policy  on  the  church 
question  prior  to  the  "  disruption  "  of  1843;  and  in  1844  the 
detention  and  opening  of  letters  at  the  post-office  by  his  warrant 
raised  a  storm  of  public  indignation,  which  was  hardly  allayed 
by  the  favourable  report  of  a  parliamentary  committee  of 
investigation.  From  1846  to  1852  he  was  out  of  office;  but  in 
the  latter  year  he  joined  Lord  Aberdeen's  cabinet  as  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty,  in  which  capacity  he  acted  also  for  a  short 
time  in  the  Palmerston  ministry  of  1855.  The  appointment  of 
a  select  committee  of  inquiry  into  the  conduct  of  the  Russian 
war  ultimately  led  to  his  withdrawal  from  official  life.  He 
continued  as  a  private  member  to  exercise  a  considerable  in- 
fluence on  parliamentary  opinion.  He  died  at  Netherby, 
Cumberland,  on  the  25th  of  October  z86x. 

His  JJie,  by  C.  Sw  P^ker,  was  published  in  1907. 


GRAHAM,  SYLVESTER  (1794-1851),  American  dieuriaii« 
was  bora  in  Suffield,  Connecticut,  in  1 794.  He  studied  at  Amherst 
College,  and  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry  in  1826^ 
but  he  seems  to  have  preached  but  little.  He  became  an  ardent 
advocate  of  temperance  reform  and  of  vegetarianism,  having 
persuaded  himself  that  a  flesh  diet  was  the  cause  of  abnormal 
cravings.  His  hist  years  were  spent  in  retirement  and  he  died 
at  ^Northampton,  Massachusetts^  on  the  nth  of  September 
1851.  His  name  is  now  remembered  because  of  his  advocacy 
of  unbolted  (Graham)  flour,  and  as  the  originator  of  "  .Graham 
bread.'*  But  his  reform  was  much  broader  than'this.  Hcurged, 
primarily,  physiological  education,  and  in  his  Science  of  Human 
Life  (1836;  republished,  with  biographical  memoir,  1858) 
furnished  an  exhaustive  text-book  on  the  subject. '  He  had 
carefully  planned  a  complete  regimen  including  many  details 
besides  a  strict  diet.  A  Temperance  (or  Graham)  Boarding 
House  was  opened  in  New  York  City  about  1832  by  Mrs  Asenath 
Nicholson,  who  published  ffalure*s  Own  Bock  (2nd  ed.,  1835) 
giving  Graham's  rules  for  boarders;  and  in  Boston  a  Graham 
House  was  opened  in  1837  at  23  Brattle  Street. 

There  were  many  Grahamites  at  Brook  Farm,  and  the  American 
PhysioloKical  Society  published  in  Boston  in  1837  and  1838  a  weekly 
called  The  Graham  Journal  of  Health  and  Louf/nity,  desif^  to 
iUustrate  by  facts  and  sustain  hy  reason  and  princtpUs  the  science  o§ 
human  life  as  tauthl  by  Sylvester  Graham,  edited  by  David  Campbell. 
Graham  wrote  Essay  on  Cholera  (1832);  The  Escutapfan  Tablets 
of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1834) ;  Lectures  to  Young  Men  on  Chastity 
(2nd  ed.,  1837);  and  Bread  and  Bread  Making;  and  projected  « 
work  designed  to  show  that  his  system  was  not  counter  to  the 
Holy  Scriptures. 

GRAHAM,  THOMAS  (1805-1869),  British  chemist,  bom  at 
Glasgow  on  the  20th  of  December  x  805,  was  the  son  of  a  merchant 
oi  that  city.  In  1819  he  entered  the  university  of  Glasgow  with 
the  intention  of  becoming  a  minister  of  the  Established  Church. 
But  under  the  influence  of  Thomas  Thomson  (1773-1852), 
the  professor  of  chemistry,  he  developed  a  taste  for  experimental 
science  and  especially  for  molecular  physics,  a  subject  which 
formed  his  main  preoccupation  throughout  his  life.  After 
graduating  in  1824,  he  spent  two  years  in  the  laboratory  of 
Professor  T.  C.  Hope  at  Edinbuigh,  and  on  retuming  to  Glasgow 
gave  lessons  in  mathematics,  and  subsequently  chemistry, 
until  the  year  1829,  when  he  was  appointed  lecturer  in  the 
Mechanics'  Institute.  In  1830  he  sucqeeded  Dr  Andrew  Ure 
(1778-1857)  as  professor  of  chemistry  in  theAndersonian  Institu* 
tion,  and  in  1837,  on  the  death  of  Dr  Edward  Tumer/  he  was 
transferred  to  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  University  College, 
London.  There  he  remained  till  1855,  when  he  succeeded  Sir 
John  Herschel  as  Master  of  the  Mint,  a  post  he  held  until  his 
death  on  the  i6th  of  September  1869.  The  onerous  duties 
his  work  at  the  Mint  entailed  severely  tried  his  energies,  and 
in  •quitting  a  purely  scientific  career  he  was  subjected  to  the 
cares  of  official  life,  for  which  he  was  not  fitted  by  temperament. 
The  researches,  however,  which  he  conducted  between  1861 
and  1869  were  as  brilliant  as  any  of  those  in  which  he  engaged. 
Graham  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1836, 
and  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Institute  of  France  in  1847, 
while  Oxford  made  him  a  D.  C.  L.  in  185  5.  He  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  foundation  of  the  London  Chemical  and  the  Cavendish 
societies,  and  served  as  first  president  of  both,  in  1841  and  1846. 
Towards  the  close  of  his  life  the  presidency  of  the  Royal  Sodety 
was  offered  him,  but  his  failing  health  caused  him  to  decline 
the  honour. 

Graham's  work  is  remarkable  at  once  for  its  originality  and 
for  the  simplicity  of  the  methods  employed  in  ditaining  most 
important  results.  He  communicated  papers  to  the  Phflosc^hical 
Society  of  Glasgow  before  the  work  of  that  society  was  recorded 
in  Transactions^  but  his  first  published  paper,  "  On  the  Absorp- 
tion of  Gases  by  Liquids,"  appeared  in  the  Annals  of  Philosophy 
for  1826.  The  subject  with  which  his  name  is  most  prominently 
associated  is  the  diffusion  of  gases.  In  his  first  paper  on  this 
subject  (1829)  he  thus  summarizes  the  knowledge  experiment 
had  afforded  as  to  the  laws  which  regulate  the  movement  of 
gases.  "  Fruitful  as  the  misdbility  of  gases  has  been  in  in* 
teresting  speculations,  the  experimental  iaformstion  we 


GRAHAME— GRAHAM'S  TOWN 


319 


00  the  subject  amountt  to  little  more  than  the  well-esUblisbed 
fact  that  gases  of  a  different  nature  when  brought  into  contact 
do  not  arrange  themselves  according  to  their  density,  but  they 
spontaneously  diffuse  through  each  other  so  as  to  remain  in  an 
intimate  stale  of  mixture  for  any  length  of  time."  For  the 
fissured  jar  of  J.  W.  DObereiner  he  substituted  a  glass  tube 
closed  by  a  plug  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  with  this  simple  ap- 
pliance he  developed  the  law  now  known  by  his  name  "  that 
the  diffusion  rale  of  gases  is  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  their 
density.'*  (See  Diffusion.)  He  further  studied  the  passage 
of  gases  by  transpiration  through  fine  tubes,  and  by  effusion 
through  a  minute  hole  in  a  platinum  disk,  and  was  enabled  to  show 
that  gas  may  enter  a  vacuum  in  three  different  ways:  (i)  by  the 
molecular  movement  of  diffusion,  in  virtue  of  which  a  gas  pene- 
trates through  the  pores  of  a  disk  of  compressed  graphite;  (2) 
by  effusion  through  an  orifice  of  sensible  dimensions  in  a  platinum 
disk  the  relative  times  of  the  effusion  of  gases  in  mass  being 
similar  to  those  of  the  molecular  diffusion,  although  a  gas  is 
usually  carried  by  the  former  kind  of  impulse  with  a  velocity 
many  thousand  times  as  great  as  is  demonstrable  by  the  latter; 
and  (3)  by  the  peculiar  rate  of  passage  due  to  transpiration  through 
fine  tubes,  in  which  the  ratios  appear  to  be  in  direct  relation  with 
no  other  known  property  of  the  same  gases— thus  hydrogen  has 
exactly  double  the  transpiration  rate  of  nitrogen,  the  relation  of 
those  gases  as  to  density  being  as  1:14.  He  subsequently 
examined  the  passage  of  gases  through  septa  or  partitions  of  india- 
nibber,  ungkized  earthenware  and  plates  of  metals  such  as 
palladium,  and  proved  that  gases  pass  through  these  septa 
neither  by  diffusion  nor  effusion  nor  by  transpiration,  but  in  virtue 
of  a  selective  absorption  which  the  septa  appear  to  exert  on  the 
gases  in  contact  with  them.  By  this  means  ("  atmolysis  ")  he 
was  enabled  partially  to  separate  oxygen  from  air. 

His  early  work  on  the  movements  of  gases  led  him  to  examine 
the  spontaneous  movements  of  liquids,  and  as  a  result  of  the 
experiments  he  divided  bodies  intq  two  classes — crystalloids, 
such  as  common  salt,  and  colloids,  of  which  gum-arabic  is  a  type 
—the  former  having  high  and  the  latter  low  diffusibilily.  He 
also  proved  that  the  process  of  liquid  diffusion  causes  partial 
decomposition  of  certain  chemical  compounds,  the  potassium 
sulphate,  for  instance,  being  separated  from  the  aluminium 
sulphate  in  alum  by  the  higher  diffusibih'ty  of  the  former  salt. 
He  also  extended  his  work  on  the  transpiration  of  gases  to  liquids, 
adopting  the  method  of  manipulation  devised  by  J.  L.  M.  Poise- 
«iUc.  He  found  that  dilution  with  water  does  not  effect  pro- 
portionate alteration  in  the  transpiration  velocities  of  different 
Uquids,  and  a  certain  determinable  degree  of  dilution  retards 
the  transpiration  velocity. 

With  regard  to  Graham's  more  purely  chemical  work,  in  1833 
be  showed  that  phosphoric  anhydride  and  water  form  three 
distinct  acids,  and  he  thus  established  the  existence  of  polybasic 
adds,  in  each  of  which  one  or  more  equivalents  of  hydrogen  are 
replaceable  by  certain  metals  (see  Acio).  In  1835  he  published 
the  results  of  an  examination  of  the  properties  of  water  of  crys- 
tallixation  as  a  constituent  of  salts.  Not  the  least  interesting 
part  of  this  inquiry  was  the  discovery  of  certain  definite  salts  with 
alcohol  analogous  to  hydrates,  to  which  the  name  of  alcoholates 
was  given.  A  brief  paper  entitled  "  Speculative  Ideas  on  the 
Constitution  of  Matter  "  (1863)  possesses  special  interest  in  con- 
nexion with  work  done  since  his  death,  because  in  it  he  ex- 
pressed the  view  that  the  various  kinds  of  matter  now  lecognized 
as  different  elementary  substances  may  possess  one  and  the  same 
oltimaie  or  atomic  molecule  in  different  conditions  of  movement.. 

Graham's  Elements  of  Chemistry,  first  published  in  1833,  went 
through  several  editions,  and  appeared  also  in  German,  remodelled 
ander  J.  Otto's  direction.  His  Chemical  and  Physical  Researches 
were  colicctcd  by  Dr  James  Young  and  Dr  Angus  Smith,  and 
priotcd  "  for  presentation  only  "  at  Edinburgh  in  1876.  Dr  Smith 
coacributing  to  the  volume  a  valuable  preface  and  analysts  of  its 
contents.    See  also  T.  E.  Thorpe,  Essays  ta  Histoneal  Chemutry 

aBAHAHB.  JAMB  (1765-1811),  Scottish  poet,  was  bom  in 
Glasgow  on  the  aand  of  April  1765,  the  son  of  a  successful 
Iswycr.    After  completing  his  literary  course  at  Glasgow  univer- 


sity, Grahame  went  in  1784  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  qualified 
as  writer  to  the  signet,  and  subsequently  for  the  Scottish  bar, 
of  which  he  was  elected  a  member  in  1795.  But  his  preferences 
had  always  been  for  the  Church,  and  when  he  was  forty-four 
he  took  Anglican  ordera,  and  became  a  curate  first  at  Shipton, 
Gloucester^re,  and  then  at  Sedgefield,  Durham.  His'^  works 
include  a  dramatic  poem,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (1801),  The 
Sabbath  (1804),  British  Georgics  (1804),  The  Birds  of  Scotland 
(1806),  and  Poems  on  the  Abolition  of  the  Slaot  Trade  (i8zo). 
His  principal  work.  The  Sabbath,  a  sacred  and  descriptive  poem 
in  blank  verse,  is  characterized  by  devotional  feeling  and  by 
happy  delineation  of  Scottish  scenery.  In  the  notes  to  his  poems 
he  expresses  enlightened  views  on  popular  education,  the  criminal 
law  and  other  public  questions.  He  was  emphatically  a  friend 
of  humanity — a  philanthropist  as  well  as  a  poet.  He  died  in 
Glasgow  on  the  X4th  of  September  x8iz. 

GRAHAM'S  DYKB  (or  Sheuch- trench),  a  local- name  for  the 
Roman  fortified  frontier,  consisting  of  rampart,  forts  and  road, 
which  ran  across  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Scotland  from  the  Forth 
to  the  Qyde  (about  36  m.),  and  formed  from  aj>.  140  till  about 
185  the  northern  frontier  of  Roman  Britain.  The  name  is 
locally  expUuned  as  recording  a  victorious  assault  on  the  defences 
by  one  Robert  Graham  and  his  men;  it  has  also  been  connected 
with  the  Grampian  Hills  and  the  Latin  surveying  term  groma. 
But,  as  is  shown  by  its  earliest  recorded  spelling,  Grymisdyke 
(Fordun,  a.d.  1385),  it  is  the  same  as  the  term  Grim's  Ditch  which 
occurs  several  times  in  England  in  connexion  with  early  ramparts 
— for  example,  near  Wallingford  in  south  Oxfordshire  or  between 
Berkhampstead  (Herts)  and  Bradenham  (Bucks).  Grim  seems 
to  be  a  Teutonic  god  or  devil,  who  might  be  credited  with  the 
wish  to  build  earthworks  in  unreasonably  short  periods  of  time. 
By  antiquaries  the  Graham's  Dyke  is  usually  styled  the  Wall 
of  Pius  or  the  Antonine  Vallum,  after  the  emperor  Antoninus 
Pius,  in  whose  reign  it  was  constructed.  See  further  Butaxn: 
Roman,  (F.  J.  H.) 

GRAHAM'S  TOWN,  a  city  of  South  Africa,  the  administrative 
centre  for  the  eastern  part  of  the  Cape  province,  106  m.  by  rail 
N.E.  of  Port  Elixabeth  and  43  m-  by  rail  N.N.W.  of  Port  Alfred. 
Pop.  (1904)  13,887,  of  whom  7283  Were  whites  and  1837  were 
electors,  llie  town  is  built  in  a  basin  of  the  grassy  hills  forming 
the  spurs  of  the  Zuurberg,  1760  ft.  above  sea-level.  It  is  a 
pleasant  place  of  residence,  has  a  remarkably  healthy  climate, 
and  is  regarded  as  the  most  English-like  town  in  the  Cape.  The 
streets  are  broad,  and  most  of  them  lined  with  trees.  In  the 
High  Street  are  the  law  courts,  the  Anglican  cathedral  of  St 
George,  built  from  designs  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  and  Commemora- 
tion Chapel,  the  chief  ^ace  of  worship  of  the  Wesleyans,  erected 
by  the  British  emigrants  of  1820.  The  Roman  Catholic  cathedral 
of  St  Patrick,  a  Gothic  building,  is  to  the  left  of  the  Hi^fh  Street. 
The  town  hall,  also  in  the  Gothic  style,  has  a  square  clock  tower 
built  on  arches  over  the  pavement.  Graham's  Town  is  one 
of  the  chief  educational  centres  in  the  Cape  province.  Besides 
the  public  schools  and  the  Rhodes  University  College  (which 
in  Z904  took  over  part  of  the  work  carried  on  since  1855  by  St 
Andrew's  College),  scholastic  institutions  are  maintained  by 
religious  bodies.  The  town  possesses  two  large  hospitals,  which 
receive  patients  from  all  parts  of  South  Africa,  and  the  govern- 
ment bacteriological  institute.  It  is  the  centre  of  trade  for  an 
extensive  pastoral  and  agricultural  district.  Owing  to  the  sour 
quality  of  the  herbage  in  the  surrounding  ZHKneitf,  stock-breeding 
and  wool-growing  have  been,  however,  to  some  extent  replaced 
by  ostrich-farming,  for  which  industry  Graham's  Town  is  the 
most  important  entrep6t.  Dairy  fanning  is  much  practised  in 
the  neighbourhood. 

In  1812  the  site  of  the  town  was  chosen  as  the  headquarters 
of  the  British  troops  engaged  in  protecting  the  frontier  of  Cape 
Colony  from  the  inroads  of  the  Kaffirs,  and  it  was  named  after 
Colonel  John  Graham  (i 778-1821),  then  commanding  the  forces. 
(Graham  had  commanded  the  light  infantry  battalion  at  the 
taking  of  the  Cape  by  the  Briti^  in  the  action  of  the  6th  of 
January  1806.  He  also  took  part  in  campaigns  in  Italy  and 
Holland  during  the  Ni^eonic  wars.)    In  1819  an  attempt  was 


320 


GRAIL,  THE  HOLY 


made  by  the  Kaffirs  to  syrpriae  Crafaam's  Town,  and  10,000 

men  attacked  it,  but  they  were  repulsed  by  the  garrison,  which 

numbered  not  more  than  320  men,  infantry  and  artillery,  under 

Lieut.-Colonel  (afterwards  General  Sir)  Thomas  Willshixe.    In 

1822  the  town  was  chosen  as  the  headquarters  of  the  4000 

British  immigrants  who  had  reached  Cape  Colony  in  z82a    It 

has  maintained  its  position  as  the  most  important  inland  town 

of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Cape  t>rovince.    In  1864  the  Cape 

parliament  met  in  Graham's  Town,  the  only  instance  of  the 

legislature  sitting  elsewhere  than  in  Cape  Town.    It  is  governed 

by  a  municipality.    The 'rateable  value  in  1906  was  £891,536 

and  the  rate  levied  z^d.  in  the  pound. 

See  T.  Shefficld.1  THe  Story  of  Uu  Settkment .  .  .  (2nd  cd., 
Graham's  Tow(i.  1884);  C.  T.  Campbell.  BrUisk  South  Africa  . . . 
foith  notices  ofsdme  of  the  BriHih  Settlers  cf  1820  (London,  1897). 

ORAIU  THE  HOLT,  (hte  famous  talisman  of  Arthurian 
romance,  the  object  vof  quest  pn  the  part  of  the  knights  of  the 
Round  Table.  It  is  mainly,  if  not  wholly,  known  to  English 
readers  through  the  medium  of  Maloiy's  translation  of  the 
French  QuUe  du. Saint  Craait  where  it  is  the  cup  or  chalice  of  the 
Last  Supper,  in  which  the  blood  which  flowed  from  the  wounds 
of  the  crucified  Saviour  has  been  miraculously  preserved. 
Students  of  the  original  romances  are  aware  that  there  is  in  these 
texts  an  extraordinary  diversity  of  statement  as  to  the  nature 
and  origin  of  the  Grail,  and  that  it  is  extremely  difiicult  to 
determine  the  precise  value  of  these  differing  versions.'  Broadly 
speaking  the  Grail  romances  have  been  divided  into  two  main 
classes:  (x)  those  dealing  with  the  search  for  the  Grail,  the 
Questt  and  (2)  those  relating  to  its  early  history.  These  latter 
appear  to  be  dependent  on  the  former,  for  whereas  we  may 
have  a  Quest  romance  wfthout  any  insistence  on  the  previous 
history  of  the  Grail,  that  history  is  never  found  without  some 
allusion  to  the  hero  who  is  destined  to  bring  the  quest,  to  its 
successful  termination.  The  Que^  versions  again  fall  into  three 
distinct  classes,  differentiated  by  the  personality  of  the  hero 
who  is  respectively  Gawain,  Perceval  or  Galahad.  The  most 
important  and  interesting  group  is  that  connected  with  Perceval, 
and  he  was  regarded  as  the  original  Giail  hero,  Gawain  being, 
as  it  were,  his  understudy.  Recent  discoveries,  however,  point 
to  a  different  conclusion,  and  indicate  that  the  Gawain  stories 
represent  an  early  tradition,  and  that  we  must  seek  in  them 
rather  than  in  the  Perceval  versions  for  indications  as  to  the 
ultimate  origin  of  the  GraiL 

The  character  of  this  talisman  or  relic  varies  greatly,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  following  summaty. 

I.  Gawain,  included  in  the  continuation  to  Chr£tien*s  Perceval 
by  Wauchier  de  Denain,  and  attributed  toBleheris  the  Welshman, 
who  is  probably  identical  with  the  Bledhericus  of  Giraldus 
Cambrensis,  and  considerably  earlier  than  Chretien  de  Troyes. 
Here  the  Grail  is  a  food-providing,  self-acting  talisman,  the  pre- 
cise nature  of  which  is  not  specified;  it  is  designated  as  the 
"  rich  "  Grail,  and  serves  the  king  and  his  court  sans  serjant 
el  sans  seneschal,  the  butlers  providing  the  guests  with  wine. 
In  another  version,  given  at  an  earlier  point  of  the  same  con- 
tinuation, but  apparently  deriving  from  a  later  source,  the 
Grail  is  borne  in  procession  by  a  weeping  maiden,  and  is  called 
the  **  holy  "  Grail,  but  no  details  as  to  its  history  or  character 
are  given.  In  a  third  version,  that  of  Diu  Crdne,  a  long  and  con- 
fused romance,  the  origin  of  which  has  not  been  determined, 
the  Grail  appears  as  a  reliquary,  in  which  the  Host  is  presented 
to  the  king,  who  once  a  year  partakes  alike  of  it  and  of  the  blood 
which  flows  from  the  lance.  Another  account  is  given  in  the 
prose  Lancdol,  but  here  Gawain  has  been  deposed  from  his 
post  as  first  hero  of  the  court,  and,  as  is  to  be  expected  from  the 
treatment  meted  out  to  him  in  this  romance,  the  visit  ends 
in  his  complete  discomfiture.  The  Grail  is  here  surrounded  with 
the  atmosphere  of  awe  and  reverence  familiar  to  us  through  the 

•The  etymology  of  the  O.  Fr.  graal  or  great,  of  which  "grail" 
is  an  adaptation, liaa  been  much  discussed.  The  Low  Lat.  original. 
gradate  or  grasale,  a  flat  dish  or  platter,  has  generally  been  taken  to 
represent  a  diminutive  cratelta  of  crater,  tewl,  or  a  lost  craiale, 
formed  from  the  same  word  (see  W.  W.  Skeat,  Preface  to  Joseph 
qfArimathie,  Early  Eng.  Text  Soc.).~Ed. 


QuHe,  and  is  regarded  as  the  chalice  of  the  Last  Supper.    Tlicse 
are  the  Gawain  versions. 

2.  Perceval.— The  most  important  Percetal  text  is  the 
Conte  del  Grael,  or  Perceval  le  Galois  of  Chr6tJen  de  Troyes. 
Here  the  Grail  is  wrought  of  gold  richly  set  with  precious  stones; 
it  is  carried  in  solemn  procession,  and  the  light  issuing  from  it 
extinguishes  that  of  the  candles.  What  it  is  is  not  explained, 
but  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  vehicle  in  which  is  conveyed  the  Host 
on  which  the  father  of  the  Fisher  king  depends  for  nutriment, 
it  seems  not  improbable  that  here,  as  in  Diu  Crdne,  it  is  to  be 
tmderstood  as  a  reliquary.  In  the  Parxioal  of  Wolfram  voii 
Eschenbach,  the  ultimate  source  of  which  is  identical  with  that 
of  Chretien,  on  the  contrary,  the  Grail  is  represented  as  a  precious 
stone,  brought  to  earth  by  angels,  and  committed  to  the  guardian* 
ship  of  the  Grail  king  and  his  descendants.  It  is  guarded  by  a 
body  of  chosen  knights,  or  templars,  and  acts  alike  as  a  life  and 
youth  preserving  talisman — no  man  may  die  within  eight  days 
of  beholding  it,  and  the  maiden  who  bears  it  retains  perennial 
youth — and  an  oracle  choosing  its  own  servants,  and  indicating 
whom  the  Grail  king  shall  wed.  The  sole  link  with  the  Christian 
tradition  is  the  statement  that  its  virtue  is  renewed  every  Good 
Friday  by  the  agency  of  a  dove  from  heaven.  The  discrepancy 
between  this  and  the  other  Grail  romances  is  most  startling. 

In  the  short  prose  romance  known  as  the  "  Didot "  Perceeat 
we  have,  for  the  first  time,  the  whole  history  of  the  relic  logically 
set  forth.  The  Perceval  forms  the  third  and  concluding  section  of 
a  group  of  short  romances,  the  two  preceding  being  the  Joseph 
of  Arimathea  and  the  Merlin.  In  the  first  we  have  the  precise 
Ustory  of  the  Grail,  how  it  was  the  dish  of  the  Last  Supper, 
confided  by  our  Lord  to  the  care  of  Joseph,  whom  he  miraculously 
visited  in  the  prison  to  which  he  had  been  conunittcd  by  the 
Jews.  It  was  subsequently  given  by  Joseph  to  his  brother-in« 
law  Brons,  whose  grandson  Perceval  is  destined  to  be  the  final 
winner  and  guardian  of  the  relief  The  Merlin  forms  the  con- 
necting thread  between  this  definitely  ecclesiastical  romance  and 
the  chlvalric  atmosphere  of  Arthur's  court;  and  finally,  in  the 
Perceval,  the  hero,  son  of  Alain  and  grandson  to  Brons,  is  warned 
by  Merlin  of  the  quest  which  awaits  him  and  which  he  achieves 
after  various  adventures. 

In  the  Perlesvaus  the  Grail  is  the  same,  but  the  working  out  of 
the  scheme  is  much  more  complex;  a  son  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea^ 
Josephe,  is  introduced,  and  we  find  a  spiritual  knighthood  similar 
to  that  used  so  effectively  in  the  Parsival, 

3.  Galahao. — ^The  Quite  du  Saint  Graal,  the  only  romance 
of  which  Galahad  is  the  hero,  is  dependent  on  and  a  comi^etion 
of  the  Lancdot  development  of  the  Arthurian  cycle.  Lancelot, 
as  lover  of  Guinevere,  could  not  be  permitted  to  achieve  so 
spiritual  an  emprise,  yet  as  leading  knight  of  Arthur's  court  ii 
was  impossible  to  allow  him  to  be  surpassed  by  anolbe;-.  Hente 
the  invention  of  Galahad,  son  to  Lancelot  by  the  Grail  king's 
daughter;  predestined  by  his  lineage  to  achieve  the  quest, 
foredoomed,  the  quest  achieved,  to  vanish,  a  sacrifice  to  his 
father's  fame,  which,  enhanced  by  connexion  with  the  Grail- 
winner,  could  not  risk  eclipse  by  his  presence.  Here  the  Grail, 
the  chalice  of  the  Last  Supper,  is  at  the  same  time,  a^  in  the 
Gawain  stories,  self-acting  and  food-supplying. 

The  last  three  romances  unite,  it  will  be  seen,  the  quest  and 
the  early  history.  Introductoiy  to  the  Galahad  quest,  and  deal- 
ing only  with  the  eariy  history,  is  the  Grand  Saint  Graal,  a  work 
of  interminable  length,  based  upon  the  Joseph  of  Arimathea^ 
which  has  undergone  numerous  revisions  and  amplifications: 
its  predse  relation  to  the  Lancdol,  with  which  it  has  now  much 
matter  in  common,  is  not  easy  to  determine. 

To  be  classed  also  tmder  the  head  of  early  history  ^re  certain 
interpolations  ill  the  MSS.  of  the  Perceval,  where  we  find  the 
Joseph  tradition,  but  in  a  somewhat  different  form,  e.g.  he  is 
said  to  have  caused  the  Grail  to  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
ceiving the  holy  blood.  With  this  account  is  also  connected  the 
legend  of  the  VoUo  Santo  of  Lucca,  a  crucifix  said  to  have  been 
carved  by  Nicodemus.  In  the  conclusion  to  Chretien's  poem, 
comp(»ed  by  Manessier  some  fifty  years  later,  the  Grail  is  said 
to  have  foUawd  Joseph  to  Britain,  how»  is  not  explained. 


GRAIL,  THE  HOLY 


32X 


Anotlier  oontimuticm  by  Gerbett,  Interpolated  between  those  of 
Wauduer  and  Manessier,  relates  how  the  Grail  was  brought 
to  Britain  by  Perceval's  mother  in  the  companionship  of  Joseph. 

It  wHl  be  seen  that  with  the  exception  of  the  Grand  Soini 
Craai,  which  has  now  been  practically  converted  into  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  Qutte,  no  two  versions  agree  with  each  other;  indeed, 
with  the  exception  of  the  oldest  G^twatfi-Grail  visit,  that  due  to 
Bleheris,  they  do  not  agree  with  themselves,  but  all  show, 
more  or  kss,  the  influence  of  different  and  discordant  versions. 
Why  should  the  vessel  of  the  Last  Supper,  jealously  guarded  at 
Ca^Ie  Corbenic,  visit  Arthur's  court  independently?  Why 
does  a  sacred  relic  provide  purely  material  food?  What  connexion 
can  there  be  between  a  precious  stone,  a  baetyltis,  as  Dr  Hagen 
has  convincingly  shown,  and  Good  Friday?  These,  and  such 
questions  as  these,  suggest  themselves  at  every  turn. 

Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  solve  these  problems, 
and  to  construct  a  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  Grail  story,  but  so 
far  the  difficulty  has  been  to  find  an  hypothesis  which  would 
admit  of  the  practically  simultaneous  existence  of  apparently 
contradictory  features.  At  one  time  considered  as  an  introduc- 
tion from  the  East,  the  theory  of  the  Grail  as  an  Oriental  talisman 
has  now  been  discarded,  and  the  expert  opinion  of  the  day  may 
be  said  to  fall  into  two  groups:  (i)  those  who  hold  the  Grah 
to  have  been  from  the  first  a  purely  Christian  vessel  which  has 
accidentally,  and  in  a  manner  never  dearly  explained,  acquired 
certain  folk-lore  characteristics;  and  (2)  those  who  hold,  on  the 
contrary,  that  the  Grail  is  aborigine  folk-lore  and  Cdtic,  and 
that  the  Christian  devdopment  is  a  later  and  acddental  rather 
than  an  essential  feature  of  the  story.  The  first  view  is  set  forth 
in  the  work  of  Professor  Birch-Hirschfdd,  the  second  in  that  of 
Mr  Alfred  Nutt,  the  two  constituting  the  only  travoMx  (Fensemblt 
which  have  yet  appeared  on  the  subject.  It  now  seems  probable 
that  both  are  in  a  measure  correct,  and  that  the  ultimate  solution 
win  be  recognized  to  lie  in  a  blending  of  two  ori^nally  inde- 
pendent streams  of  tradition.  The  researches  of  Professor 
Mannhardt  in  Germany  and  of  J.  G.  Frazer  in  England  have 
amply  demonstrated  the  enduring  influence  exercised  on  popular 
thought  and  custom  by  certain  primitive  forms  of  vegetation 
worship,  of  which  the  most  noteworthy  example  is  the  so-called 
mysteries  of  Adonis.  Here  the  ordinary  processes  of  nature 
and  progression  of  the  seasons  were  symbolized  under  the  figure 
of  the  death  and  resusdtation  of  the  god.  These  rites  are  found 
aA  over  the  world,  and  in  his  monumental  work.  The  Golden 
Bough,  Dr  Frazer  has  traced  a  host  of  extant  beliefs  and  practices 
to  this  source.  The  earliest  form  of  the  Grail  story,  the  Gawain- 
Blefacxis  version,  exhibits  a  marked  affinity  with  the  characteristic 
featoTCS  of  the  Adonis  or  Tammuz  worship;  we  have  a  castle 
on  the  sea-shore,  a  dead  body  on  a  bier,  the  identity  of  w^ch  is 
never  revealed,  mourned  over  with  solemn  rites;  a  wasted 
country,  whose  desolation  is  mysteriously  connected  with  the 
dead  man,  and  which  is  restored  to  fruitf ulness  when  the  quester 
asks  the  meaning  of  the  marvds  he  beholds  (the  two  features 
of  the  weeping  women  and  the  wasted  land  being  retained  in 
versions  where  they  have  no  significance) ;  finally  the  mysterious 
lood-fMOviding,  self-acting  talisman  of  a  common  feast — one 
and  all  of  these  features  may  be  explained  as  survivals  of  the 
Adonis  rituaL  Professor  Martin  long  since  suggested  that  a  key 
to  the  problems  of  the  Arthurian  cyde  was  to  be  found  in  a  nature 
myth:  Professor  Rhys  regards  /^ur  as  an  agricultural  hero; 
Dr  Lewis  Mott  has  pointed  out  the  correspondence  between  the 
BO-caOed  Round  Table  sites  and  the  ritual  of  nature  worship;  but 
it  is  only  with  the  discovery  of  the  existence  of  Bleheris  as  reputed 
authority  for  Arthurian  tradition,  and  the  consequent  recogni- 
tioa  that  the  Grail  story  connected  with  his  name  is  the  earliest 
form  of  the  legend,  that  we  have  secured  a  solid  bssis  for  such 


With  regard  to  the  religious  form  of  the  story,  recent  research 
has  again  aided  u»— we  know  now  that  a  legend  similar  in  all 
req>ecu  to  the  Joseph  of  Arimathea  Grail  story  was  widely 
corrent  at  least  a  century  bdore  our  earliest  Grail  texts.  The 
Aory  with  Nicodemns  as  protagonist  is  tdd  of  the  Saint^ang 
icSc  at  FCcamp;   and,  as  stated  already,  a  similar  origin  is 


ascribed  to  the  VoUo  Santa  at  Lucca.  In  this  latter  case  the 
legend  professes  to  date  from  the  8th  century,  and  scholars  who 
have  examined  the  texts  in  their  present  form  consider  that  thcro 
may  be  solid  ground  for  this  attribution.  It  is  thus  demonstrable 
that  the  material  for  our  Grail  legend,  in  its  present  form, 
existed  long  anterior  to  any  extant  text,  and  thero  is  no  impro- 
bability in  holding  that  a  confused  tradition  of  pagan  mysteries 
which  had  assumed  the  form  of  a  popular  folk-tale,  became 
finally  Christianized  by  combination  with  an  equally  popular 
ecdesiastical  legend,  iht  point  of  contact  being  the  vessd  of  the 
common  ritual  feasL  Nor  can  there  be  much  doubt  that  in  this 
process  of  combination  the  F6camp  Iq^end  played  an  important 
r6le.  The  best  and  fullest  of  the  Percenal  MSS.  refer  to  a  book 
written  at  F6camp  as  source  for  certain  Perceoal  adventures. 
What  this  book  was  we  do  not  know,  but  in  face  of  the  fact  that 
certain  spedal  F6camp  rdics,  silver  knives,  sppeu  in  the  Grail 
procession  of  the  Fannval,  it  seems  most  probable  that  it  was  a 
PerccvoZ-Grail  story.  The  relations  between  the  famous  Bene- 
dictine abbey  and  the  English  court  both  before  and  after  the 
Conquest  were  of  an  intimate  character.  Legends  of  the  part 
played  by  Joseph  of  Arimathea  in  the  conversion  of  Britain  are 
dosely  connected  with  Glastonbury,  the  monks  of  which  founda- 
tion diowed,  in  the  12th  century,  considerable  literary  activity, 
and  it  seems  a  by  no  means  improbable  hypothesis  that  the 
present  form  of  the  Grail  legend  may  be  due  to  a  monk  of  Glaston- 
bury elaborating  ideas  borrowed  from  F6camp.  This  much  is 
certain,  that  between  the  Saint-Sang  of  F6camp,  the  Volte  Santa 
of  Lucca,  and  the  Grail  tradition,  there  exists  a  connecting  link, 
the  precise  nature  of  which  has  yet  to  be  determined.  The  two 
former  were  popular  objects  of  pilgrimage;  was  the  third 
originally  intended  to  serve  the  same  purpose  by  attracting 
attention  to  the  reputed  burial-place  of  the  apostle  of  the  GrsH, 
Joseph  of  Arimathea? 

BtBLiOGRAPHY.— For  the  Gawain  Grail  visits  see  the  Potvia 
edition  of  the  Perceval^  which,  however,  only  gives  the  Bleheris 
version;  the  second  visit  la  found  in  the  best  and  most  complete 
MSS.,  such  as  13,576  and  13.577  (Fondsfranfais)  of  the  Paris  library. 
Diu  Crdtu,  edited  b]r  SchoU  (Stuttg^.  1852),  vol.  vi.  of  Arthurian 
Romances  (Nutt),  gives  a  tnnslation  of  the  Bleheris,  Diu  Crtne 
and  Prose  Lancaot  visits. 

The  CoiOe  dd  Graat,  or  Perceoal^  is  only  accessible  in  the  edition 
of  M.  Potvtn  (6  vols.,  1866-1871).  The  Mons  MS.,  from  which  this 
has  been  printed,  has  proved  to  be  an  exceedingly  poor  and  un- 
trustworthy text.  Pariival,  by  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  has  been 
freouently  and  well  edited:  the  edition  by  Bartsch  (1875-1877), 
in  Deutsche  Classiher  des  MittdaUers,  contains  full  notes  and  a 
dossary.  Suitable  for  the  more  advanced  student  are  those  by  K. 
Lachmann  (i8qi),  Leitzmann  (1002-1903)  and  E.  Martin  (1903). 
There  are  inodem  German  transuitions  by  Simrock  (very  close  to 
the  original)  and  Herts  (excellent  notes).  Endish  tnnslation  with 
notes  and  appendices  by  J.  L.  Weston.  *'  Didot  **  Perceval,  ed. 
Hucher,  Le  Saint  Graal  (1875-1878),  vol.  L  Perlesvaus  was  printed 
by  Potvin,  under  the  title  of  Perceval  le  GaUois.  in  vol.  i.  of  the 
edition  above  referred  to;  a  Welsh  version  from  the  Hengwert  MS. 
was  published  with  translation  by  Canon  R.  Williams  (3  vols., 
1876-1893).  Under  the  title  of  The  High  History  of  the  Holy  Gratl 
a  fine  version  was  published  by  Dr  Sebastian  Evans  in  the  Temple 
Classics  (3  vols.,  1898).  The  Grand  Saint  Graal  was  published  by 
Hucher  as  given  above ;  thb  edition  indudes  the  Joseph  of  A  rimathea. 
A  15th  century  metrical  English  adaptation  by  one  Henry  Lovelich, 
was  printed  by  Dr  Furnivdl  for  the  Roxburghe  Club  1861-1863; 
a  new  edition  was  undertaken  for  the  Eariy  Cnfflish  Text  Society. 
(Hilte  du  Saint  Graal  can  best  be  studied  in  Malory's  somewhat 
abridsed  translation,  books  xiil-xviii.  of  the  if  arte  Arthur.  It 
has  also  been  .printed  by  Dr  Furnivall  for  the  Roxburghe  Oub, 
from  a  MS  in  the  British  Museum.  Ndther  of  these  texts  is, 
however,  very  good,  and  the  student  who  can  dedpher  old  Dutch 
would  do  well  to  read  it  in  the  metrical  translation  published  by 
Joenckbloetj  Roman  van  Lancelort,  as  the  original  here  was  con- 
siderably fuller. 

For  generd  treatment  of  the  subject  see  Legend  of  Sir  Perceval, 
by  J.  L.  Weston,  Grimm  Library,  vd.  xvtL  (1906) ;  Studies  on  the 
Legend  of  the  Holy  Grail,  by  A.  Nutt  (1888).  and  a  more  concise 
treatment  of  the  subject  by  the  same  writer  in  Na  14  of  Popular 
Studies  (1003);  Professor  Birch-Hirachfdd's  Die  Sage  vom  Gral 
(1877).  The  late  Professor  Helnxel's  Die  alt-franadsischen  Gral- 
Kmane  contains  a  mass  of  valuable  matter,  but  b  very  confused 
and  ill-arranged.  For  the  Ffcamp  legend  see  Leroux  oe  Lincey's 
Essai  tur  VaJbhaye  de  Pescamp  (1840):  for  the  Volto  Santo  »ai:d 
kindred  legends,  Ernest  von  DobschOtx,  Christns-Bilder  (Ldpng, 

1899).  u.L.wT^ 


322 


GRAIN— GRAIN  TRADE 


ORAIN  (derived  through  the  French  from  Lat.  granum,  seed, 
from  an  Axyan  root  meaning  "  to  wear  down,"  which  abo  appears 
in  the  common  Teutonic  word  "  com  "),  a  word  particularly 
applied  to  the  seed,  in  botanical  language  the  "  fruit,"  of  cereals, 
and  hence  applied,  as  a  collective  term  to  cereal  plants  generally, 
to  which,  in  English,  the  term  "com"  is  also  applied  (see 
Grain  Traos).  Apart  from  this,  the  chief  meaning,  the  word 
is  used  of  the  malt  refuse  of  brewing  and  distilling,  and  of  many 
bard  rounded  small  particles,  resembling  the  seeds  of  plants, 
such  as  "  grains  "  of  sand,  salt,  gold,  gunpowder,  &c.  "  Grain  " 
is  also  the  name  of  the  smallest  unit  of  weight,  both  in  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States  of  America.  Its  origin 
is  supposed  to  be  the  weight  of  a  grain  of  wheat,  dried  and 
gathensd  from  the  middle  of  the  ear.  The  troy  grain*  1/5760 
of  a  lb,  the  avoirdupois  grain  "ix/jooo  of  a  lb.  In  diamond 
weighing  the  grain  »  i  of  the  carat,  ■■  'jgas  of  the  troy 
grain.  The  word  "  grains  "  was  eariy  used,  as  abo  in  French, 
of  the  small  seed-like  insects  supposed  formerly  to  be  the 
berries  of  trees,  from  which  a  scarlet  dye  was  extracted  (see 
CocHDfEAL  and  Kermes).  From  the  Fr.  en  graine,  literally  in 
dye,  comes  the  French  verb  engrainetf  Eng.  "engrain"  or 
"  ingrain,"  meaning  to  dye  in  any  fast  colour.  From  the  further 
use  of  "  grain  "  for  the  texture  of  substances,  such  as  wood, 
meat,  &c,  "  engrained  "  or  "  ingrained  "  means  ineradicable, 
impregnated,  dyed  through  and  through.  The  "  grain "  of 
leather  is  the  side  of  a  skin  showing  the  fibre  after  the  hair  has 
been  removed.  The  imitating  in  paint  of  the  grain  of  different 
kinds  of  woods  is  known  as  "  graining  "  (see  Painter- Work). 
"  Grain,"  or  more  commonly  in  the  plural  "  grains,"  constraed 
as  a  singular,  is  the  name  of  an  instrument  with  two  or  more 
barbed  prongs,  used  for  spearing  fish.  This  word  is  Scandinavian 
in  origin,  and  is  connected  with  Dan.  green,  Swed.  gren,  branch, 
and  means  the  fork  of  a  tree,  of  the  body,  or  the  prongs  of  a  fork, 
&c.  It  is  not  connected  with  "  groin,"  the  inguinal  parts  of  the 
body,  which  in  its  earliest  forms  appears  as  grynde. 

GRAINS  OF  PARADISE.  Guinea  Grains,  or  Melegueta 
Pepper  (Ger.  ParadieskSmert  Fr.  graines  de  Paradis,  mani- 
guetU),  the  seeds  of  Atnomum  Mdegneia,  a  reed-like  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Zingiberaceae.  It  is  a  native  of  tropical  westem 
Africa,  and  of  Prince's  and  St  Thomas's  islands  in  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  is  cultivated  in  other  tropical  countries,  and  may  with 
ease  be  grown  in  hothouses  in  temperate  climates.  The  plant 
has  a  branched  horizontal  rhiromc;  smooth,  nearly  sessile, 
narrowly  IanceolateK>blong  alternate  leaves;  large,  white,  pale 
pink  or  purplish  flowers;  and  an  ovate-oblong  fruit,  ensheathed 
in  bracts,  which  is  of  a  scariet  colour  when  fresh,  and  reaches 
under  cultivation  a  length  of  5  in.  The  seeds  are  contained  in 
the  add  pulp  of  the  fruit,  are  commonly  wedge-shaped  and 
bluntly  angular,  are  about  xi  lines  in  diameter  and  have  a  glossy 
dark-brown  husk,  with  a  conical  light-coloured  membranous 
carande  at  the  base  and  a  white  kemd.  They  contain,  accord- 
ing to  FlQckiger  and  Hanbury,  0*3%  of  a  faintly  yellowish 
neutral  essential  oil,  having  an  aromatic,  not  acrid  taste,  and 
a  spedfic  gravity  at  15-5*  C.  of  0-825,  and  giving  on  analysis  the 
formula  CmHoO,  or  CioHic-|-CioHicO;  also  5-83%  of  an 
intensdy  pungent,  visdd,  brown  resin. 

Grains  of  paradise  were  formerly  officinal  in  British  phar- 
macopodas,  and  in  the  X3th  and  succeeding  centuries  were  used 
as  a  drug  and  a  spice,  the  winct  known  as  hippocras  being 
flavoured  with  them  and  with  ginger  and  dnnamon.  In  1629 
they  were  employed  among  the  ingredients  of  the  twenty-four 
herring  pies  which  were  the  andent  fee-favour  of  the  dty  of 
Norwich,  ordained  to  be  carried  to  court  by  the  lord  of  the 
manor  of  Carleton  (Johnston  and  Church,  Ckem.  of  Common 
I^h*  P*  355>  1879).  Grains  of  paradise  were  andently  brought 
overland  from  West  Africa  to  the  Mediterranean  ports  of  the 
Barbary  states,  to  be  shipped  for  Italy.  They  are  now  exported 
almost  exdusivdy  from  the  Gold  G>ast.  Grains  of  paradise  are 
to  some  extent  used  illegally  to  give  a  fictitious  strength  to  malt 
liquors,  gin  and  cordials.  By  56  Geo.  lU.  c.  58,  no  brewer  or 
dMler  in  beer  shall  have  in  his  possesdon  or  use  grains  of  paradise, 
under  a  penalty  of  £200  for  each  offence;  and  no  drufiiist  shall 


sell  the  same  to  a  brewer  under  a  penalty  of  £5oa    They  are, 

however,  devoid  of  any  injurious  physiological  action,  and  are 

much  esteemed  as  a  ^ice  by  the  natives  of  Guinea. 

See  Bentley  and  Trimen.  Mediemal  Plants,  tab.  268;  Laoeaiaa, 
Hist,  des  Drogues,  pp.  456-460  (1878). 

GRAIN  TRADE.  The  complexity  of  the  conditions  of  life 
in  the  20th  century  may  be  wdl  illustrated  from  the  grain  trade 
of  the  world.  The  ordiiiiuy  bread  sold  in  Great  Britain  represents, 
for  example,  produce  of  nearly  every  country  in  the  worid 
outside  the  tropics. 

Wheat  has  been  cultivated  from  remote  antiquity.  In  a 
wild  state  it  is  practically  unknown.  It  is  alleged  to  hiave  been 
fotmd  growing  wild  between  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris;  but  the  discovery  has  never  been  authenticated, 
and,  unless  the  plant  be  sedulously  cared  for,  the  spedes 
dies  out  in  a  surprisingly  short  space  of  time.  Modem 
experiments  in  cross-fertillzatjon  in  Lancashire  by  the  Gartoa 
Brothers  have  evdved  the  most  extraordinary  "  sports,"  showing, 
it  is  claimed,  that  the  plant  has  probably  passed  through  stages 
of  which  until  the  present  day  there  had  been  no  conception. 
The  tales  that  grains  of  wheat  found  in  the  cerements  of  Egyptian 
mummies  have  been  planted  and  come  to  maturity  are  no  longer 
credited,  for  the  vital  prindple  in  the  wheat  berry  is  extremely 
evanescent;  indeed,  it  is  doubtful  whether  wheat  twenty  years 
old  is  capable  of  reproduction.  The  Garton  artificial  fertiliza- 
tion experiments  have  shown  endless  deviations  from  the  ordinary 
type,  ranging  from  minute  seeds  with  a  dosdy  adhering  busk 
to  big  berries  almost  as  large  as  sloes  and  about  as  worthless. 
It  is  conjectured  that  the  wheat  plant,  as  now  known,  is  a 
degenerate  form  of  something  much  finer  which  flourished 
thousands  of  years  ago,  and  that  possibly  it  may  be  restored 
to  its  pristine  excellence,  yiddlng  an  increase  twice  or  thrice 
as  large  as  it  now  does,  thus  postponing  to  a  distant  period  the 
famine  doom  propheded  by  Sir  W.  Crookes  in  his  preddential 
address  to  the  British  Assodation  in  1898.  Wheat  well  repays 
cardul  attention;  contrast  the  produce  of  a  carelessly  tilled 
Russian  or  Indian  fidd  and  the  bountiful  yidd  on  a  good  Lincoln- 
shire  farm,  the  former  with  its  average  yidd  of  8  bushels,  the 
latter  with  its  50  bushek  per  acre;  or  compare  the  quality, 
as  regards  the  quantity  and  flavour  of  the  flour  from  a  fine 
sample  of  British  wheat,  such  as  is  on  sale  at  almost  every 
agricultural  show  in  Great  Britain,  with  the  produce  of  an 
Egyptian  or  Syrian  field;  the  difference  is  so  great  as  to  cause 
one  to  doubt  whether  the  berries  are  of  the  same  spedes. 

It  may  be  stated  roundly  that  an  average  quartern  loaf  in 
Great  Britain  is  made  from  wheat  grown  in  the  following  countries 
in  the  proportions  named.* — 


U^A. 


Oz. 
26 

40 


U£. 


Oz. 

20 


J 


Ox. 

e; 
14 


Oz. 


4»Ji. 


8 


Oz. 

4 


Oz. 
3 


percent  ages  aa 


Oz. 

a 
follow 

3 


I 


Oz. 
I 


s>- 


For  details  connected  with  grain  and  its  handling  see  Agri- 
culture, Corn  Laws,  Granaries,  Flour,  Baking,  Wheat,  &c 

Wheat  occupies  of  all  <xreals  the  widest  region  of  any  food- 
stuff. Rice,  which  shares  with  millet  the  distinction  of  being 
the  prindpal  food-stuff  of  the  greatest  number  of  human  bdngs, 
is  not  grown  nearly  as  widdy  as  is  wheat,  the  staple  food  of  the 
white  races.  Wheat  grows  as  far  south  as  Patagonia,  and  as 
far  north  as  the  edge  of  the  Arctic  Grde;  it  flourishes  througibout 
Europe,  and  across  the  whole  of  northern  Asia  and  in  Ja{>an; 
it  is  cultivated  in  Persia,  and  raised  largely  in  India,  as  far  south 
as  the  Nizam's  dominions.  It  is  grown  over  nearly  the  whole  of 
North  America.  In  Canada  a  very  fine  wheat  crop  was  raised 
in  the  autumn  of  1898  as  far  north  as  the  miasion  at  Fort 
Providence,  on  the  Mackende  river,  in  a  latitude  above  6s* — 
or  less  than  aoo  m.  south  of  the  latitude  of  Dawson  City — the 
period  between  seed-time  and  harvest  having  been  niaety-gae 


GRAIN  TRADE 


3*3 


dajps.  In  Africa  it  was  an  article  of  oommcrce  in  the  dayi  of 
Jacob,  whose  son  Joseph  may  be  said  to  have  run  the  first  and 
only  successful  ''corner"  in  wheat.  For  numy  centuries 
Egypt  was  famous  as  a  wheat  raiser;  it  was  a  cargo  of  wheat 
bom  Alexandria  which  St  Paul  helped  to  jettison  on  one  of  his 
shipwrecks,  as  was  also,  in  ail  probability,  that  of  the  "  ship  of 
Alexandria  whose  sign  was  Castor  and  FoUux,"  named  in  the 
same  narrative.  General  Gordon  is  quoted  as  having  stated 
that  the  Sudan  if  propaly  settled  would  be  capable  of  feeding 
the  whole  <d  Europe.  Along  the  north  coast  of  Africa  are  areas 
wldch,  if  properiy  irrigated,  as  was  done  in  the  days  of  Carthage, 
could  produce  enough  wheat  to  feed  half  of  the  Caucasian  race. 
For  instance,  the  vilayet  of  Tripoli,  with  an  area  of  400,000 sq.  m., 
cr  three  times  the  extent  of  Great  Britain  and  Irehmd,  according 
to  the  opinion  of  a  British  consul,  could  raise  millions  of  acres  of 
wheat.  The  cereal  flourishes  on  all  the  high  pUteaus  of  South 
Africa,  bom  Cape  Town  to  the  Zambezi  Land  is  being  extens- 
ivdy  put  under  wheat  in  the  pampas  of  South  America  and 
in  the  prairies  of  Siberia. 

In  the  raising  of  the  standard  of  farming  to  an  English  level 

the  volume  of  the  world's  crop  would  be  trebled,  another  fact 

which  Sir  William  Crookes  seems  to  have  overlooked.    The 

experiments  of  the  late  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  in  Hertfordshire  have 

proved  that  the  luitural  fruitf ulness  of  the  wheat  plant  can  be 

increased  threefdd  by  the  application  of  the  pr6per  fertilizer. 

The  results  of  these  experiments  will  be  found  in  a  compendium 

issued  from  the  Rothamsted  Agricultural  Experimental  Station. 

It  is  by  no  means,  however,  the  wheat  which  yields  the  greatest 

BOinber  of  bushds  per  acre  which  is  the  most  valuable  from  a 

miller's  standpoint,  for  the  thinness  of  the  bran  and  the  fineness 

and  strength  of  the  flour  are  with  him  important  considerations, 

too  often  overiooked  by  the  farmer  when  buying  his  seed. 

Nevcrthdess  it  is  the  deficient  quantity  of  the  wheat  raised  in 

the  British  Islands,  and  not  the  quality  of  the  grain,  which  has 

been  the  cause  of  so  much  anxiety  to  economists  and  statesmen." 

Sir  J.  Caird,  writing  in  the  year  x88o,  expressed  the  opinion 

that  arable  land  in  Great  Britain  would  always  command  a 

substantial  rent  of  at  least  30s.  per  acre.    His  figures 

were  based  on  the  assumption  that  wheat  was  imported 

dutyfree.    He  calculatMl  that  the  cost  of  carriage  from 

abroad  of  wheat,  or  the  equivalent  of  the  product  of  an  acre  of 

good  wheat  land  in  Great  Britain,  would  not  be  less  than  30B. 

per  ton.    But  freights  had  come  down  by  1900  to  half  the  rates 

predicated  by  Caird;  indeed,  during  a  portion  of  the  interval  they 

ruled  very  dose  to  sero,  as  far  as  steamer  freights  from  America 

were  concerned.    In  1900  an  all-round  freight  rate  for  wheat 

might  be  taien  at  xss.  ^  /m  (a  ton  representing  approximately 

the  produce  of  an  acre  of  good  wheat  land  in  Eni^nd),  say  from 

loa.  for  Atlantic  American  and  Russian,  to  30s.  for  Padfic 

American  and  Australian;  about  midway  between  these  two 

cKtxemcs  we  find  Indian  and  Argentine,  the  greatest  bulk 

coming  at  about  the  15s.  rate.    Inferior  land  bearing  less  than 

4§  quarters  per  acre  would  not  be  protected  to  the  same  extent, 

and  moreover,  seeing  that  a  portion  of  the  British  wheat  crop 

haa  U>  stand  a  charge  as  heavy  for  land  carriage  across  a  county 

aa  that  borne  by  foreign  wbuit  across  a  continent  or  an  ocean, 

tlie  protection  is  not  nearly  so  substantial  as  Caird  would  make 

ovt.    The  compilation  showing  the  changes  in  the  rates  of  charges 

for  the  railway  and  other  transportation  services  issued  by  the 

Division   of  Statistics,   Department  of  Agriculture,   U.S.A. 

(Miscellaneous  series.  Bulletin  No.  15,  1898),  is  a  valuable 

reference  book.    From  its  pages  are  culled  the  following  facts 

relating  to  the  changes  in  the  rates  of  freight  up  to  the  year 

1897.'    In  Table  3  the  average  rates  per  ton  per  mile  in  cents 

are  shown  since  1846.    For  the  Fitchburg  Railroad  the  rate  for 

that  year  was  4*523  cents  per  ton  per  mOe,  since  when  a  great 

and  almost  continuous  fall  has  been  taking  phux,  until  in  1897, 

■Vafaiable  information  will  also  be  found  ih  Bulletin  No.  ^8 
(>90S)f  **  Crop  Export  Movement  and  Port  Fadlitiea  on  the  Atlantic 
nod  Gulf  Coasts^;  in  Bulletin  No.  49  (1907),  "Cost  of  Hauling 
Cropa  from  Farms  to  Shipping  Poinu  ;  and  in  Bulletin  No.  69 
ii906). "  European  Grain  Trade.*' 


the  latest  year  given,  the  rate  had  dedined  to  •Sjo  of  a  cent  per 
ton  per  mile.  The  railway  which  shows  the  greatest  fall  is  the 
Chesapeake  &  Ohio,  for  the  charge  has  fallen  from  over  7  cents 
in  1863  and  1863  to  •4x9  of  a  cent  in  1897,  whereas  the  Erie  rates 
have  fallen  only  from  1*948  in  185a  to  •609  in  1897.  Putting 
the  rates  of  the  twdve  returning  railways  together,  we  find  the 
average  freight  in  the  two  years  1859-1860  was  3*006  cents  per 
ton  per  mile,  and  that  in  1896-1897  the  average  rate  had  fallen 
to  -797  of  a  cent  per  ton  per  nule.  This  difference  is  very  large 
compared  with  the  small  ness  of  the  unit.  Coming  to  the  rates 
on  grain,  we  find  (in  Table  23)  a  record  for  the  forty  years  X85&- 
1897  of  the  charge  on  wheat  from  Chicago  to  New  York,  via 
all  nul  from  1858,  and  via  lake  and  rail  since  x868,  the  authority 
being  the  secretary  of  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade.  From  1858 
to  x86a  the  rate  varied  between  42*37  and  34*80  cents  per  bushd 
for  the  whde  trip  of  roundly  xooo  m.,  the  average  rate  in  the 
quinquennium  bdng  38*43.  In  the  five  years  immediatdy  prior 
to  the  time  at  which  Sir  J.  Caird  expressed  the  opinion  that  the 
cost  of  carriage  from  abroad  would  always  protect  the  British 
grower,  the  average  all-rail  frdght  from  Chicago  to  New  York 
was  X7*76  cents,  while  the  stunmer  rate  (partly  by  water)  was 
X3*X7  cents.  Tliese  rates  in  1897,  the  last  year  shown  on  the 
table,  had  fallen  to  1 2*50  and  7*42  respectivdy.  The  rates  have 
been  as  f<^ows  in  quinquennial  periods,  via  all  rafl^— 
Chicago  to  New  York  in  Cents  per  Buskd. 


1858- 
1862. 

X863- 
1867. 

1868- 
1872. 

1873- 
1877. 

1878- 
1883. 

1883- 
1887. 

1888- 
1893. 

1*93- 
1897. 

38*43 

ii'A» 

37*91 

3X*'39 

16-77 

1467 

X4-53 

13*88 

Calculating  roundly  a  cent  as  equal  to  a  halfpenny,  and  dght 
bushels  to  the  quarter,  the  above  would  appear  in  English 
currency  as  follows: — 

Chicago  to  New  Yorh  in  Shillings  and  Pence  per  Quarter, 

i85»- 
1862. 

1863- 
1867. 

186&- 
1873. 

1873- 
1877. 

187S- 
1883. 

1883- 
1887. 

l88a- 
1893. 

1893- 
1897. 

a.    d. 
13     8 

a.    d. 
10    6 

a.    d. 
9     3 

a.  d. 
7     J 

a.  d. 
5     7 

a.  d. 
4  loi 

a.    d. 

4    10 

a.  d. 
4     3 

Another  table  (No.  38)  shows  the  average  rates  from  Chicago 
to  New  York  by  lakes,  canal  and  river.  These  in  their  quin- 
quennial periods  are  given  for  the  season  as  follows: — 

In  Cents  per  Bushd  ef  60  lb. 


I857-I86I. 

I876-I880. 

1893-1897- 

33*15 

10*47 

4-9a 

In  Shiilings  and  Pence  per  Quarter  0/  480  Ih. 


I857-186I. 

1876-1880. 

1893-1897. 

a.    d. 

7     4 

a.    d. 
3     6 

a.    d. 
1     7 

In  Shiilings  and  Penu  per  Ton  ef  3340  Ih. 


I857-I86I. 

1876-1880. 

1893-1897. 

a.    d. 
34    6 

a.    d. 
16    6 

a.    d. 
7     6 

This  latter  mode  £1  the  cheapest  by  which  grain  can  be  carried 
to  the  eastern  seaboard  from  the  American  prairies,  and  it  can 
now  be  done  at  a  cost  of  7s.  6d.  per  ton.  The  ocean  freight  has 
to  be  added  before  the  grain  can  be  delivered  free  on  the  quay 
at  liverpooL  A  rate  from  New  York  to  Liverpool  of  2|d. 
per  bushel,  ex  7s.  lod.  per  ton,  a  low  rate,  reached  in  Dec  1900, 
is  yet  sufficiently  high,  it  is  claimed,  to  leave  a  profit;  indeed, 
there  have  frequently  been  times  when  the  rate  was  as  low  as  id. 
per  bushd,  or  3s.  id.  per  ton;  and  in  periods  of  great  trade 
depression  wheat  is  carried  from  New  York  to  Liverpool  as 
bsllast,  being  paid  for  by  the  shipowner.  Another  route  worked 
more  cheaply  than  formeriy  is  that  by  river,  from  the  centre  of 
the  winter  wheat  bdt,  say  at  St  Louis,  to  New  Orleans,  and  thence 
by  steamer  to  LiverpooL    The  river  rate  has  fallen  below  five 


GRAIN  TRADE 


cents  per  biuhd,  i»  7s.  per  ton,  9140  lb.    Id  Table  No.  ; 
coal  of  tnnapontlioD  is  compared  yeu  by  yea  witb  Ibe  export 
pn«of  the  IWD  LeiuUag  cenils  in  ihe  Slita  u  followi: — 
WImI  and  Con—EifM  Pricci  ekI  rnsHS/mbitviH  Suta  amfand. 


^■lK.1 

C«i.. 

rs=- 

j-s-n 

Y- 

^5. 

l7/r,' 

ffii 

Nt^^ 

rH!* 

Si 

-r.'^ 

ik; 

ts 

"i;., 

14-sB 

a 

« 
a 

;g; 

i:'! 

ill 

e 

ifs 

li 

;h 

':;; 

?r 

.I'm 

's-w 

i:a 

;!!i 

I'M 

;;:!; 

w 

IV, 

i3li 

s 

!^ 

IJ:S? 

iSif, 

;« 

il 

i:;s 

7S9 

Tii 

■?. 

.!ii 

1!2 

a 

1 

ili 

■M-o 
■«-8 
■47-9 

la 

1«93 

'S 

I:*; 

lis 

V,i 

i 

2 

i 

■J> 

'B 

Tht!  farmen  of  tbe  United  States  liave  oov  to  meet  a  greatly 
Increased  output  Iiom  Canada — the  cost  of  iransport  from  that 
ccuntiy  to  England  being  mucb  the  same  as  From  the  Uniud 
States.  So  much  improved  is  the  ponlion  of  the  farmer  In  North 
America  compared  with  what  it  was  about  tfi;o,  that  [he  trans- 
port companies  in  rgoi  carried  17^  bushels  of  his  grain  to  the 
seaboard  in  exchange  for  the  value  of  one  bushel,  whereas  in 
1SA7  he  had  to  give  up  one  bushel  in  every  six  in  return  for  the 
service.  As  regards  the  British  farmer,  it  docs  not  appear  as  if 
he  had  improved  liis  position;  for  he  has  to  send  his  wheat  to 
greater  distances,  owing  10  the  collapse  of  many  country  millers 
or  their  removal  to  the  sfAboanl,  while  rtilwsy  rates  have  fallen 
only  to  a  very  small  ertenti  again  the  fanner's  wheat  is  worth 
oolyhalf  of  what  it  was  formerly;  it  may  be  said  that  the  British 
farmer  has  to  give  up  one  bushel  in  nine  to  [be  railway  company 
for  the  purpose  of  transportation,  whereas  in  Lhc  'seventies  he 
gave  up  one  in  eighteen  only.  Enough  has  been  said  to  prove 
thai  the  advantage  of  position  claimed  lor  the  Brilish  farmer 
by  Caird  was  somewhat  iUusoiy.  Speaking  broadly,  tbe  Kansas 
or  Minnesota  farmer's  wheat  does  not  have  to  pay  for  carriage 
to  Liverpool  more  than  >9.  6d.  to  7s,  6d.  per  ton  in  excess  of  Lhc 
rate  paid  by  a  Yorkshire  farmer;  this,  it  will  be  sdmitlcd,  docs 
not  go  very  far  towards  enabling  tbe  latter  to  pay  rent,  tithes 

Tbe  subject  of  tbe,  rates  of  ocean  carriage  at  different  periods 
requires  coniidcratioa  if  a  proper  underslaading  of  the  working 
of  tbe  foreign  grain  trade  is  to  be  obtained.  Only  a  very  small 
proportion  of  the  decline  in  tbe  price  of  wheat  liace  iSSo  is  due 
to  cheapened  transport  rales;  lot  while  tlie  mileage  rate  has 
been  falling,  the  Inigih  of  hauLige  has  been  eitending,  until 
in  1900  the  principal  wheat  fields  of  America  were  Moo  m. 
farther  from  tbe  eastern  seaboard  than  was  the  case  in  1870, 
and  cDnsequently,  DOtwithstandiog  tbe  fall  in  the  milcBge  rate 
of  so  Id  75%,  it  still  costs  tbe  United  Kingdom  neady  *s  much 
to  have  its  quota  of  foraga  wheat  leUbcd  from  abroad  u  it  did 


then.    Tie  differcDCo  in  tbe  cost  of  tbe  operation  is  ibowr 
Ibe  loUowiog  labulsr  statement,  both  the  coat  in  the  aggrcg 
00  a  year's  impoTls  and  the  cost  per  quaiter: — 
CiuiUi^  tf  Wheal  and  Winli*  Flair  (u  shoO  {iiifierlBt  ims 

VniUi  Kintdam  jram  Mrisu  imaas  iurrti  Ikt  laltxiar  < 

1900,  UtfOa  mli  Oh  oktb^  nU  ^fni^ 


Couotries  of  Origin. 


I7M0O 
'loiSo 


Comparing  these  figures  with  a  similar 

will  be  lound  thai  the  actual  total  coj 
rriage  has  not  much  decreased. 
laiMy  af  W»ial  tad  WluiU%  Ftaur  (u 
ie7i.  latOktr  mlk  Uu  OKraiE  rob  Bffi 


Couonles  of  OiigiD. 


Total.  Chief  Cou  I 


9.5 '9. 


10  UniiS       Total  Coa 


is.  id. 


f.B.—A  trifling  quantity  of  Calllonnin  ai 
i  impacted  in  tbe  period  in  question,  but 
ordi  do  not  disLinguiflh  the  quantlliea,  thcTeiore  iney  caonot 

~  ct  diSercocc  between  tbe  average  freight  for  the  yean 

— L  .        *  per  quarter  USo  lb) , 

ia  Ibe  price  of  wheat 

a  selected 


in  comparison  witb  Ibe  actual  fall  in 
followiog  data  bearing  upon  the  subject,  I 


re  partly  taken  from  the  CwK  Trade  Ytar-Bsali:^ 


v„ 

Wh^^LndCw. 
Qrm. 

"srasg- 

IE 

1*94 

Ig 

9,469.000 
Il.SjO.OOO 
l£,139,000 

aj.isSlooo 

li 

3«o,ooo 

GRAM 


325 


In  pasang,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  for  a  period  of  four  years, 
from  187 1  to  1874,  the  price  of  wheat  averaged  56s.  per  quarter 
(or  7s.  per  bushel),  with  the  charge  for  ocean  carriage  at  6s.  sd. 
per  quarter,  whereas  in  1901  wheat  was  sold  in  England  at  28s. 
(or  3s.  6d.  per  bushel),  and  the  charge  for  ocean  carriage  was 
3s.  6d.  per  quarter;  the  ocean  transport  companies  carried  eight 
bushels  of  wheat  across  the  seas  in  1901  for  the  value  of  one 
bushel,  or  exactly  at  the  same  ratio  as  in  1872. 

The  contrast  between  the  case  of  railway  freight  and  ocean 
freight  is  to  be  explained  by  the  greater  length  of  the  presejit 
ocean  voyage,  which  now  extends  to  10,000  miles  in  the  case  of 
Europe's  importation  of  white  wheat  from  the  Pacific  Coast  of 
the  United  States  and  Australia,  in  contrast  with  the  short 
voyage  from  the  Black  Sea  or  across  the  English  Channel  or 
German  Ocean.  It  is  largely  due  to  the  overlooking  of  this  phase 
of  the  question  that  an  American  statistician  has  fallen  into  the 
error  of  slating  that  about  i6s.  per  quarter  of  the  fall  in  the  price 
of  wheat,  which  happened  between  1880  and  1894,  is  attributable 
to  the  lessened  cost  of  transport. 

Thus,  whatever  the  cause  of  the  decline  in  the  price  of  wheat 
may  be,  it  cannot  be  attributed  solely  to  the  fall  in  the  rate  of 

Wheat  Prices 

The  following  figures  show  the  fluctuations  from  year  to  year 
of  English  wheat,  chiefly  according  to  a  record  published  by  Mr  T. 
Smith,  Melford,  the  period  covereq  being  from  1656  to  1905: 

Price  per  Quarter 


656 

«>57 
658 

659 
660 

661 
662 
663 
664 
665 
^j66 
667 
663 
669 
670 
671 
672 
673 
674 
675 
676 

677 
678 
679 
680 
681 
683 
683 
684 
f68s 
686 
687 
688 
689 
690 

691 
692 

693 
694 
695 
696 

697 
698 

699 
700 
701 
702 
703 
704 

Z25. 


38 

41 

57 

?3 

62 
65 
50 
36 
43 
32 
32 
35 
39 
37 
37 
36 

41 
61 

57 
33 
37 
52 
53 
40 

41 

39 
35 
39 
4< 
30 
22 
40  10 
26  8 


d. 

2 

5 
9 
8 

2 
2 

9 
8 
o 
10 
o 
o 
6 

5 
o 

4 
5 
5 
o 

5 
9 

4 
5 

4 
o 

5 

I 

6 
I 

5 

2 

4 


30 
30 
41 
60 


56  10 
47  I 


63 
53 
60 


56  10 
35  6 


33 
26 

32 

41 
26 


ft? 


1706 
1707 
1708 
1709 
1710 
1711 
1712 

1713 
1714 
1715 
1716 

1717 
1718 
1719 
1720 
1721 
1722 

1723 
1724 

1725 
1726 

1727 
1728 
1729 
1730 
I73» 
1732 
1733 
1734 
1735 
1736 

1738 
1739 
1740 
1741 
1742 
1743 
t744 
1745 
1746 

1747 
1748 
1749 
1750 
»75< 
1752 
1753 
1754 


T 
23  I 

25  4 
36  10 
69  9 


69 
48 
41 
45 
44 
38 


42  8 
40  7 
34  6 

31  I 

32  10 

33  4 
32  o 
30  10 
32  10 

43  I 
40  10 

37  4 


48 

4t 
32 
29 


23  8 
25  2 

34  6 
38  2 

35  xo 
33  9 


3V 

34 

45 

41 

30 
22 


22  1 
24 
34 
30  II 
32  10 
32  10 
28  10 
34  2 
37  2 
39  8 
30  9 
30 I 


36  o 


1756 
1757 
1758 
1759 
1760 
1 761 
1762 

1763 
1764 

1765 
1766 

1767 
1768 

1769 
1770 

1771 
1772 

1773 
1774 
1775 
1776 
t777 
1778 

1779 
1780 

1781 
1782 
1783 
1784 
1785 
1786 

1787 
1788 

1789 
1790 
1 791 
1792 
1793 
1794 

»795 
1796 

1797 
1798 

»799 
1800 
1801 
1802 
1803 
1804 
1804 


s.  d. 
40  I 


53 
44 
35 
32 
26 

^ 

41 

48 
43 
57 
53 
40 

43 
47 


50  8 
5t  o 
52  8 
48  4 
38  2 
45  6 
42  o 
33  8 
35  8 
44  8 

47  10 
52  8 

48  10 

51  10 
38  10 
41  2 


45 
51 
54 
48 
43 
49 
52 

II 

53 
51  10 
69  o 

H3  10 

119  6 

69  10 

58  10 

62  3 

89  9 


51  9 


1806 
1807 
1808 
1809 
1810 
1811 
1812 
1813 
1814 
1815 
1816 
1817 
1818 
1819 
1820 
1821 
1822 
1823 
1824 
1825 
1826 
1827 
1828 
1829 
1830 
1831 
1832 

1833 
183* 

1835 
1836 

X837 
1838 

1839 
1840 

1 841 
1842 

1843 
1844 

1845 
1846 

1847 
1848 
1849 
1850 
1851 
1852 

1853 
1854 

182& 


ft.  d. 
79 

84 

97 
106 

.?!  2 

109  9 
74  4 
65  7 
78  6 
96  II 
86  3 

74  6 

67  10 

56  I 

44  7 

53  4 
63  II 

68  6 
58  8 

58 
60 
66 


6 
5 
3 

64  3 
66  4 
58  8 

46  2 

4 
6 
o 

7 
70  8 
66 
64 
57 


n 


4 
4 
3 

50  I 

51  3 
50  10 

8 

9 
6 

3 
3 
6 

9 
3 


n 

50 
44 
40 

38 
40 

53 
72 

-Zl. 


65 10 


856 

857 
858 

859 
860 
861 
862 
863 
864 
865 

866 
867 
868 
869 
870 
871 
872 

873 
874 

875 
876 

877 
878 
879 
880 
881 
882 
883 
884 
885 
886 
887 
888 
889 
890 
891 
892 

893 
894 

895 
896 

897 
898 

899 
900 
901 
902 

903 
904 

321 


s.  d. 
69  2 


56 
44 
43 
53 
55 
55 
44 
40 


41  10 
49  II 
64  5 
6x  9 
48  2 
46  II 

56  8 

57  o 

58  8 
55 
45 
46 
56 
46 


43  10 

44  4 


I 


45 
45 
41 
35 

32  10 

31  o 

32  6 
31  10 

29  9 
31  II 
37  o 

30  3 
26  4 
22  10 


23 
26 

30 

34 


25  8 

26  II 
26  9 
28  I 
26  9 

28  4 

29  8 


>42  7 


*  Average  for  46  years  only. 


rail  or  ocean  freights.  Incidental  charges  arq  lower  than  they 
were  in  1870;  handling  charges,  brokers'  commissions  and 
insurance  premiums  have  been  in  many  instances  reduced,  but 
all  these  economies  when  combined  only  amount  to  about  2S. 
per  quarter.  Now  if  we  add  together  all  these  savings  in  the 
rate  of  rail  and  ocean  freights  and  incidental  expenses,  we  arrive 
at  an  aggregate  economy  of  8s.  per  quarter,  or  not  one-third 
of  the  actual  difference  between  the  average  price  of  wheat 
in  1872  and  1900.  To  what  the  remaining  difference  was  due 
it  is  difl^cult  to  say  with  certitude;  there  are  some  who  argue 
that  the  tendency  of  prices  to  fall  is  inherent,  and  that  the 
constant  whittling  away  of  intermediaries'  profits  is  sufficient 
explanation,  while  bl-metallists  have  maintained  that  the 
phenomenon  is  clearly  to  be  traced  to  the  action  of  the  German 
government  in  demonetizing  silver  in  1872. 

GRAM,  or  Chick-pea,  called  also  Egyptian  pea,  or  Bengal 
gram  (from  Port.  grdOf  formerly  gram,  Lat.  granum^  Hindi 
Chandf  Bengali  Chhold,  Ital.  cece.  Span,  garbanzo),  the 
Ciccr  arietinum  of  Linnaeus,  so  named  from  the  resemblance 
of  its  seed  to  a  ram's  head.  It  is  a  member  of  the  natural  order 
Lcguminosae,  largely  cultivated  as  a  pulse-food  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  Egypt  and  western  Asia  as  far  as  India,  but  is  not  known 
undoubtedly  wild.  The  plant  b  an  annual  herb  with  flexuose 
branches,  and  alternately  arranged  pinnately  compound  leaves, 
with  small,  oval,  serrated  lea'flcts  and  small  eared  stipules.  The 
flowers  are  borne  singly  in  the  leaf-axils  on  a  stalk  about  half 
the  length  of  the  leaf  and  jointed  and  bent  in  the  middle;  the 
corolla  is  blue-purple.  The  inflated  pod,  x  to  1}  in.  long,  contains 
two  roundish  seeds.  It  was  cultivated  by  the  Greeks  in  Homer's 
time  under  the  name  erebirtthos,  and  is  also  referred  to  by 
Dioscorides  as  krios  (rom  the  resemblance  of  the  pea  to  the  head 
of  a  ram.  The  Romans  called  it  cicer,  from  which  is  derived 
the  modem  names  given  to  it  in  the  south  of  Europe.  Names, 
more  or  less  allied  to  one  another,  are  in  vogue  among  the  peoples 
of  the  Caucasus,  the  Caspian  Sea,  Armenia  and  Persia,  and  there 
is  a  Sanskrit  name  and'  several  others  analogous  or  different  in 
modern  Indian  languages.  The  plant  has  been  cultivated  in 
Egypt  from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  but  there  is  no 
proof  that  it  was  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Alphonse  de 
Candolle  (Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants,  p.  325)  suggests  that  the 
plant  originally  grew  wild  in  the  countries  to  the  south  of  the 
Caucasus  and  to  the  north  of  Persia.  "  The  western  Aryans 
(Pelasgians,  Hellenes)  perhaps  introduced  the  plant  into  southern 
Europe,  where,  however,  there  is  some  probability  that  it  was 
also  indigenous.  Thewestern  Aryans  carried  it  to  India."  Gram 
is  largely  cultivated  in  the  East,  where  the  seeds  are  eaten  raw 
or  cooked  in  various  wajrs,  both  in  their  ripe  and  unripe  condition, 
and  when  roasted  and  ground  subserve  the  same  purposes  as 
ordinary  flour.  In  Europe  the  seeds  are  used  as  an  ingredient 
in  soups.  They  contain,  in  100  parts  without  husks,  nitrogcnoiis 
substances  22*7,  fat  3*76,  starch  63-i8,  mineral  matters  2-6 
parts,  with  water  (Forbes  Watson,  quoted  in  Parkes's  Hygiene). 
The  liquid  which  exudes  from  the  glandular  hairs  clothing  the 
leaves  and  stems  of  the  plant,  more  especially  during  the  cold 
season  when  the  seeds  ripen,  contains  a  notable  proportion  of 
oxalic  acid.  In  Mysore  the  dew  containing  it  is  collected  by 
means  of  cloths  spread  on  the  plant  over  night,  and  is  used  in 
domestic  medicine.  The  steam  of  water  in  which  the  fresh  plant 
is  immersed  is  in  the  Deccan  resorted  to  by  the  Portuguese 
for  the  treatment  of  dysmenorrhoea.  The  seed  of  Phaseolus 
Mungo,  or  green  gram  (Hind,  and  Beng.  moong),  a  form  of  which 
plant  with  black  seeds  (P.  Max  of  Roxburgh)  is  termed  black 
gram,  b  an  important  article  of  diet  among  the  labouring  classes 
in  India.  The  meal  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  soap,  and  b 
stated  by  Elliot  to  be  an  invariable  concomitant  of  the  Hindu 
bath.  A  variety,  var.  radiatus  (P.  Roxburghii,  W.  and  Am., 
or  P,  radiatus,  Roxb.)  (vera,  urid,  mdshkaldt),  also  known  as 
green  gram,  is  perhaps  the  most  esteemed  of  the  leguminous 
plants  of  India,  where  the  meal  of  its  seed  enters  into  the  com- 
position of  the  more  delicate  cakes  and  dbhes.  Horse  gram, 
Dolichos  bifiorus  (vem.  kultki),  which  supplies  in  Madras 
the  place  of  the  chick-peai  affords  seed  which,  when  boiled,  b 


326 


GRAMMAR 


extensively  employed  as  a  food  for  hones  and  cattle  in  South 
India,  where  also  it  is  eaten  in  curries. 

See  W.  Elliot,  '*  On  the  Farinaceous  Grains  and  the  various  lands 
of  Pulses  used  in  Southern  India,"  Ediu.  New  Phil.  Joum.  xvi. 

ii862)   i6  sq.;  H.  Drury.   Tlu   Useful  Plants  ef  India    (1873); 
I C.  Dutt,  Mqteria  Medica  of  the  Hindus  (Calcutta.  1877);  G.  Watt, 
Dictionary  of  ihe  Economic  Products  of  India  (1890). 

QRAMIIAR  (from  Lat.  grammatical  sc  ars;  Gr.  yp&iina, 
letter,  from  yp&fhuf,  to  write).  By  the  grammar  of  a  language  is 
meant  either  the  relations  borne  by  the  words  of  a  sentence 
and  by  sentences  themselves  one  to  another,  or  the  systematized 
exposition  of  these.  The  exposition  may  be,  and  frequently  is, 
incorrect;  but  it  always  presupposes  the  existence  of  certain 
customary  uses  of  words  when  in  combination.  In  what  follows, 
therefore,  grammar  will  be  generally  employed  in  its  primary 
sense,  as  denoting  the  mode  in  which  words  are  connected  in 
order  to  express  a  complete  thought,  or,  as  it  is  termed  in  logic, 
a  proposition. 

The  object  of  language  is  to  convey  thought,  and  so  long 
as  this  object  is  attained  the  machinery  for  attaining  it 
is  of  comparatively  slight  importance.  The  way  in 
which  we  combine  our  words  and  sentences  matters 
little,  provided  that  our  meaning  is  clear  to  others. 
The  eiqsressions  "  horseflesh "  and  "  flesh  of  a  horse " 
are  equally  intelligible  to  an  Englishman  and  therefore  are 
equally  recognized  by  English  grammar.  The  Chinese  manner 
of  denoting  a  genitive  is  by  placing  the  defining  word  before 
that  which  it  defines,  as  in  koue  jin^  **  man  of  the  kingdom," 
literally  "  kingdom  man,"  and  the  only  reason  why  it  would  be 
incorrect  in  French  or  Italian  is  that  such  a  combination  would 
be  unintelligible  to  a  Frenchman  or  an  Italian.  Hence  it  is 
evident  that  the  grammatical  correctness  or  incorrectness  of  an 
expression  dependb  upon  its  intelligibility,  that  is  to  say,  upon 
the  ordinary  use  and  custom  of  a  particular  language.  Whatever 
is  so  unfamiliar  as  not  to  be  generally  understood  is  also  un- 
grammatical.  In  other  words,  it  is  contrary  to  the  habit  of  a 
language,  as  determined  by  common  usage  and  consent. 

In  this  way  we  can  explain  how  it  happens  that  the  grammar 
of  a  cultivated  dialect  and  that  of  a  local  dialect  in  the  same 
country  so  frequently  disagree.  Thus,  in  the  dialect  of  West 
Somerset,  Ihee  is  the  nominative  of  the  second  personal  pronoun, 
while  in  cultivated  English  the  plural  accusative  you  (A.-S. 
eow)  has  come  to  represent  a  nominative  singular.  Both 
are  grammatically  correct  within  the  sphere  of  their  respective 
dialects,  but  no  further.  You  would  be  as  ungrammatical  in 
West  Somerset  as  thee  is  in  classical  English;  and  both  you  and 
thee,  as  nominatives  singular,  would  have  been  equally  ungram- 
matical in  Early  English.  Grammatical  propriety  is  nothing 
more  than  the  established  usage  of  a  particular  body  of  speakers 
at  a  particular  time  in  their  history. 

It  follows  from  this  that  the  grammar  of  a  people  changes, 
like  its  pronunciation,  from  age  to  age.  Anglo-Saxon  or  Early 
English  grammar  is  not  the  grammar  of  Modem  English,  any 
more  than  Latin  grammar  is  the  grammar  of  modem  Italian; 
and  to  defend  an  unusual  construction  or  inflexion  on  the  ground 
that  it  once  existed  in  literary  Anglo-Saxon  is  as  wrong  as  to 
import  a  peculiarity  of  some  local  dialect  into  the  grammar 
of  the  cultivated  speech.  It  further  follows  that  different 
languages  will  have  different  grammars,  and  that  the  differences 
will  be  more  or  less  according  to  the  nearer  or  remoter  relation- 
ship of  the  languages  themselves  and  the  modes  of  thought 
of  those  who  speak  them.  Consequently,  to  force  the  gram- 
matical framework  of  one  language  upon  another  is  to  miscon- 
ceive the  whole  natnre  of  the  latter  and  seriously  to  mislead 
the  learner.  Chinese  grammar,  for  instance,  can  never  be  under- 
stood until  we  discard,  not  only  the  terminology  of  European 
grammar,  but  the  veiy  conceptions  which  underlie  it,  while 
the  poljrsynthetic  idioms  of  America  defy  all  attempts  to  discover 
in  them  "  the  parts  of  speech  "  and  the  various  grammatical 
ideas  which  occupy  so  large  a  place  in  our  school-grammars. 
The  endeavour  to  find  the  distinctions  of  Latin  grammar  in  that 
of  English  has  only  resulted  in  grotesque  errors,  and  a  total 
nusapprchcnsion  of  the  usage  of  the  English  language. 


It  is  to  the  Latin  grammarians— or,  more  correctly,  to  the 
Greek  grammarians,  upon  whose  labours  those  of  the  Latin 
writers  were  based — ^that  we  owe  the  clarification  of 
the  subjects  with  which  grammar  is  commonly  sup- 
posed to  deal.  The  grammar  of  Dionysius  Thrax, 
which  he  wrote  for  Roman  schoolboys  in  the  time 
of  Pompey,  has  formed  the  starting-point  for  the  innumer- 
able school-grammars  which  have  since  seen  the  light,  and 
suggested  that  division  of  the  matter  treated  of  which  they  have 
followed.  He  defines  grammar  as  a  practical  acquaintance  with 
the  language  of  literary  men,  and  as  divided  into  six  parts — 
accentuation  and  phonology,explanationof  figurativeexpressions, 
definition,  etymology,  generiJ  rules  of  flexion  and  critical 
canons.  Of  these,  phonology  and  accentuation,  or  prosody, 
can  properly  be  included  in  grammar  only  in  so  far  as  the 
construction  of  a  sentence  and  the  grammatical  meaxiing  of  a 
word  are  determined  by  accent  or  letter-change;  the  accentual 
difference  in  English,  for  example,  between  ittcense  and  ituinse 
belongs  to  the  province  of  grammar,  since  it  indicates  a  difference 
between  noun  and  verb;  and  the  changes  of  vowel  in  the  Semitic 
languages,  by  which  various  nominal  and  verbal  forms  are 
distinguished  from  one  another,  (institute  a  very  important 
part  of  their  grammatical  machinery.  But  where  accent  and 
pronunciation  do  not  serve  to  express  the  relations  of  words 
in  a  sentence,  they  fall  into  the  domain  of  phonology,  not  of 
grammar.  The  explanation  of  figurative  expressions,  again, 
must  be  left  to  the  rhetorician,  and  definition  to  the  lexicographer ; 
t^e  grammarian  has  no  more  to  do  with  them  than  he  has  with 
the  canons  of  criticism. 

In  fact,  the  old  subdivision  of  grammar,  inherited  fo>m  tlie 
grammarians  of  Rome  and  Alexandria,  must  be  given  up  and 
a  new  one  put  in  its  place.  What  grammar  really  deals  with 
are  all  those  contrivances  whereby  the  relations  of  words  and 
sentences  are  pointed  out.  ^Sometimes  it  is  position,  sometimes 
phonetic  symbolization,  sometimes  composition,  sometimes 
flexion,  sometimes  the  use  of  auxiliaries,  which  enables  the 
speaker  to  combine  his  words  in  such  a  way  that  they  ^all  be 
intelligible  to  another.  Grammar  may  accordingly  be  divided 
into  the  three  departments  of  composition  or  "  word-building,'* 
syntax  and  accidence,  by  which  is  meant  an  exposition  of  the 
means  adopted  by  language  for  expressing  the  relations  of 
grammar  when  recourse  is  not  had  to  composition  or  simple 
position. 

A  sjrstematized  exp<»ition  of  grammar  may  be  intended  for 
the  purely  practical  purpose  of  teaching  the  mechanism  of  a 
foreign  language.  In  this  case  all  that  is  necessary 
is  a  correct  and  com{dete  statement  of  the  facts.  But 
a  correct  and  complete  statement  of  the  facts  is  by  no 
means  so  easy  a  matter  as  might  appear  at  first  sight. 
The  facts  will  be  distorted  by  a  false  theory  in  regard  to  them, 
while  they  will  certainly  upt  be  presented  in  a  complete  form  if 
the  grammarian  is  ignorant  of  the  tme  theory  they  presuppose. 
The  Semitic  verb,  for  example,  remains  unintelligible  so  long 
as  the  explanation  of  its  forms  is  sought  in  the  conjugation  of 
the  Aryan  verb,  since  it  has  no  tenses  in  the  Aryan  sense  of  the 
word,  but  denotes  relation  and  not  time. 

A  good  practical  grammar  of  a  language,  therefore,  should  be 
based  on  a  correct  appreciation  of  the  facts  whidi  it  expounds, 
and  a  correct  appreciation  of  the  facts  is  only  possible  where 
they  are  examined  and  coordinated  in  accordance  with  the 
scientific  method.  A  practical  grammar  ought,  wherever  it  is 
possible,  to  be  preceded  by  a  scientific  grammar. 

Comparison  is  the  instrument  with  which  science  works,  and 
a  scientific  grammar,  accordingly,  is  one  in  which  the  comparative 
method  has  been  applied  to  the  relations  of  ^>eech.  If  we  would 
understand  the  origin  and  real  nature  of  grammatical  forms, 
and  of  the  relations  which  they  represent,  we  must  compare  them 
with  similar  forms  in  kindred  dialects  and  languages,  as  «ett 
as  with  the  forms  under  which  they  appeared  themselves  at  an 
earlier  period  of  their  history.  We  shall  thus  have  a  comparative 
grammar  and  an  historical  grammar,  the  latter  being  devoted 
to  tiadng  the  history  of  grammatical  forms  and  usages  in  thft 


GRAMMAR 


327 


same  Ungiuge.  Of  coarse,  an  historical  grammar  is  only 
possible  where  a  succession  of  written  records  exists;  where 
a  language  possesses  no  older  literatufe  we  must  be  content 
with  a  comparative  grammar  only,  and  look  to  cognate  idioms 
to  throw  h'ght  upon  its  granunatical  peculiarities.  In  this  case 
we  have  frequently  to  leave  whole  forms  unexplained,  or  at 
most  conjecturally  interpreted,  since  the  machinery  by  means  of 
which  the  relations  of  grammar  are  symbolized  is  often  changed 
so  completely  during  the  growth  of  a  language  as  to  cause  its 
earlier  shape  and  character  to  be  unrecognizable.  Moreover, 
our  area  of  comparison  must  be  as  wide  as  possible;  where  we 
have  but  two  or  three  languages  to  compare,  we  are  in  danger 
of  building  up  conclusions  on  insufficient  evidence.  The  gram- 
matical errors  pf  the  rlassiral  philologists  of  the  x8th  century 
were  in  great  measure  due  to  the  fact  that  their  areaof  comparison 
was  confined  to  Latin  and  Greek. 

The  historical  grammar  of  a  single  language  or  dialect,  which 
traces  the  grammatical  forms  and  usages  of  the  language  as  far 
back  as  documentary  evidence  allows,  affords  material  to  the 
comparative  grammarian,  whose  task  it  is  to  compare  the 
grammatical  forms  and  usages  of  an  allied  group  of  tongues 
and  thereby  reduce  them  to  their  eariiest  forms  and  senses. 
The  work  thus  carried  out  by  the  comparative  grammarian 
within  a  particular  family  of  languages  is  made  use  of  by  universal 
grammar,  the  object  of  which  is  to  determine  the  ideas  that  under- 
lie all  grammar  whatsoever,  as  distinct  from  those  that  are 
peculiar  to  special  families  of  speech.  Universal  grammar  is 
sometimes  known  as  "the  metaphysics  of  language,"  and  it 
has  to  decide  such  questions  as  the  nature  of  gender  or  of  the 
verb,  the  true  purport  of  the  genitive  reUtion,  or  the  origin  of 
grammar  itself.  Such  questions,  it  is  dear,  can  only  be  answered 
by  comparing  the  results  gained  by  the  comparative  treatment 
of  the  grammars  of  various  groups  of  language.  What  historical 
grammar  is  to  comparative  grammar,  comparative  grammat  is 
to  universal  grammar. 

Universal  grammar,  as  founded  on  theTesults  of  the  scientific 
study  of  q>eech,  is  thus  essentially  different  from  that "  universal 
grammar  "  so  much  in  vogue  at  the  beginning  of  the 
xpth  century,  which  consisted  of  a  series  of  a  priori 
assumptions  based  on  the  peculiarities  of  European 
grammar  and  illustrated  from  the  same  source.  But  universal 
grammar,  as  conceived  by  modem  science,  is  as  yet  in  its  infancy; 
its  materials  are  still  in  the  process  of  being  collected.  The 
comparative  grammar  of  the  Indo-European  languages  is  alone 
in  an  advanced  state,  those  of  the  Semitic  idioms,  of  the  Finno- 
Ugrian  tongues  and  of  the  Bantu  dialects  of  southern  Africa 
are  still  in  a  backward  condition;  and  the  other  families  of 
speech  existing  in  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  the  Malayo- 
Polyncsian  and  the  Sonorian  of  North  America,  have  not  as  yet 
been  treated  scientifically.  Chinese,  it  is  true,  possesses  an 
historical  grammar,  and  Van  Eys,  in  his  comparative  grammar 
of  Basque,  endeavoured  to  solve  the  problems  of  that  interesting 
language  by  a  comparison  of  its  various  dialects;  but  in  both 
cases  the  area  of  comparison  is  too  small  for  more  than  a  hmited 
success  to  be  attainable.  Instead  of  attempting  the  questions 
of  universal  grammar,  therefore,  it  will  be  better  to  confine  our 
attention  to  three  points — the  fundamental  differences  in  the 
grammatical  conceptions  of  different  groups  of  languages,  the 
main  results  of  a  scientific  investigation  of  Indo-European 
grammar,  and  the  light  thrown  by  comparative  philology  upon 
the  grammar  of  our  own  tongue. 

The  proposition  or  sentence  is  the  unit  and  starting-point  of 
speech,  and  grammar,  as  we  have  seen,  consists  in  the  relations 
of  its  several  parts  one  to  another,  together  with  the 
expression  of  them.  These  relations  may  be  regarded 
from  various  points  of  view.  In  the  polysynthetic 
languages  of  America  the  sentence  is  conceived  as  a 
whole,  not  composed  of  independent  words,  but,  like 
the  thought  which  it  expresses,  one  and  indivisible.  What  we 
should  denote  by  a  series  of  words  is  consequently  denoted  by  a 
sini^e  long  compound — kuligalckis  in  Delaware,  for  instance, 
npaiyiag  "  give  me  your  pretty  little  paw,"  and  a^kkif^tor- 


Vmtrwnal 


asuarnipok  in  Eskimo,  "  he  goes  away  hastily  and  exerts  himself 
to  write."  Individual  words  can  be,  and  often  are,  extracted 
from  the  sentence;  but  in  this  case  they  stand,  as  it  were, 
outside  it,  being  represented  by  a  pronoun  within  the  sentence 
itself.  Thus,  in  Mexican,  we  can  say  not  only  m-solsi-temoa,  "  1 
look  for  flowers,"  but  also  ni-k-iemoa  sotsUl^  where  the  inter- 
polated guttural  is  the  objective  pronoun.  As  a  necessary  result 
of  this  conception  of  the  sentence  the  American  languages 
possess  no  true  verb,  each  act  being  expressed  as  a  whole  by  a 
single  word.  In  Cherokee,  for  example,  while  there  is  no  verb 
signifying  "  to  wash  "  in  the  abstract,  no  less  than  thirteen 
words  are  used  to  signify  every  conceivable  mode  and  object  of 
washing.  In  the  incorporating  languages,  again,  of  which 
Basque  may  be  taken  as  a  type,  the  object  cannot  be  conceived 
except  as  contained  in  the  verbal  action.  Hence  every  verbal 
form  embodies  an  objective  pronoun,  even  though  the  object 
may  be  separately  expressed.  If  we  pass  to  an  isolating  language 
like  Chinese,  we  find  the  exact  converse  of  that  which  meets  us 
in  the  polysynthetic  tongues.  Here  each  proposition  or  thought 
is  analysed  into  its  several  elements,  and  these  are  set  over 
against  one  another  as  so  many  independent  words.  The 
relations  of  grammar  are  consequently  denoted  by  position,  the 
particular  position  of  two  or  more  words  determining  the  relation 
they  bear  to  each  other.  The  analysis  of  the  sentence  has  not 
been  carried  so  far  in  agglutinative  langxuiges  like  Turkish. 
In  these  the  relations  of  grammar  are  represented  by  individual 
words,  which,  however,  are  subordinated  to  the  words  expressing 
the  main  ideas  intended  to  be  in  relation  to  one  another.  The 
defining  words,  or  indices  of  grammatical  relations,  are,  in  a 
large  number  of  instances,  placed  after  the  words  which  they 
define;  in  some  cases,  however,  as,  for  example,  in  the  Bantu 
languages  of  southern  Africa,  the  relation  is  conceived  from 
the  opposite  point  of  view,  the  defining  words  being  prefixed. 
The  inflexional  languages  call  in  the  aid  of  a  new  principle. 
The  relations  of  grammar  are  denoted  symbolically  either 
by  a  change  of  vowel  or  by  a  change  of  termination,  more 
rarely  by  a  change  at  the  beginning  of  a  word.  Each 
idea,  together  with  the  relation  which  it  bears  to  the  other 
ideas  of  a  proposition,  is  thus  represented  by  a  single  word; 
that  is  to  say,  the  ideas  which  make  up  the  elements  of  a 
sentence  are  not  conceived  severally  and  independently,  as  in 
Chinese,  but  as  always  having  a  certain  connexion  with  one 
another,  inflexional  languages,  however,  tend  to  become 
analytical  by  the  logical  separation  of  the  flexion  from  the  idea 
to  which  it  is  attached,  though  the  primitive  point  of  view  is 
never  altogether  discarded,  and  traces  of  flexion  remain  even  in 
English  and  Persian.  In  fact,  there  is  no  example  of  a  language 
which  has  wholly  forsaken  the  conception  of  the  sentence  and 
the  relation  of  its  elements  with  which  it  started,  although  each 
class  of  languages  occasionally  trespasses  on  the  grammatical 
usages  of  the  others.  In  language,  as  elsewhere  in  nature,  there 
are  no  sharp  lines  of  division,  no  sudden  leaps;  species  passes 
insensibly  into  species,  class  into  dass.  At  the  same  time  the 
several  types  of  speech — polysynthetic,  isolating,  agglutinative 
and  inflexional — remain  dear  and  fixed;  and  even  where  two 
languages  bdong  to  the  same  general  type,  as,  for  instance,  an 
Indo-European  and  a  SemiUc  language  in  the  inflexional  group, 
or  a  Bantu  and  a  Turkish  language  In  the  agglutinative  group, 
we  find  no  certain  example  of  grammatical  interchange.  A  mixed 
grammar,  in  which  the  grammatical  procedure  of  two  distinct 
families  of  speech  is  intermingled,  is  almost,  if  not  altogether, 
unknown. 

It  is  obvious,  .therefore,  that  grammar  constitutes  the  surest 
and  most  important  basis  for  a  classification  of  languages. 
Words  may  be  borrowed  freely  by  one  dialect  from  another,  or, 
though  originally  unrelated,  may,  by  the  action  of  phonetic 
decay,  come  to  assume  the  same  forms,  while  the  limited  number 
of  articulate  sounds  and  conceptions  out  of  which  language  was 
first  devdoped,  and  the  similarity  of  the  drcumstances  by  which 
the  first  speakers  were  everywhere  surrounded,  naturally  produce 
a  resemblance  between  the  roots  of  many  unconnected  tongues. 
Where,  however,  the  fundamental  conceptions  of  grammar  and 


328 


GRAMMAR 


the  machinery  by  vhich  they  are  expressed  are  the  same,  we 
may  have  no  hesitation  in  inferring  a  common  origin. 

The  main  results  of  scientific  inquiry  into  the  origin  and 
primitive  meaning  of  the  forms  of  Indo-European  grammar 
Forauci  may  be  summed  Up  as  follows.  We  start  with  stems 
lado'  or  themes,  by  which  are  meant  words  of  two  or 
more  syllables  which  terminate  in  a  limited  number 
of  sounds.  These  stems  can  be  classed  in  groups  of 
two  kinds,  one  in  which  the  groups  consist  of  stems  of  similar 
meanings  and  similar  initial  syllables,  and  another  in  which 
the  final  syllables  alone  coincide.  In  the  first  case  we  have 
what  are  termed  roots,  the  simplest  elements  into  which 
words  can  be  decomposed;  in  the  second  case  stems  proper, 
which  may  be  described  as  consisting  of  suffixes  attached  to 
roots.  Roots,  therefore,  are  merely  the  materials  out  of  which 
speech  can  be  made,  the  embodiments  of  isolated  conceptions 
with  which  the  lexicographer  alone  has  to  deal,  whereas  stems 
present  us  with  words  already  combined  in  a  sentence  and 
embodying  the  relations  of  grammar.  If  we  would  rightly 
understand  primitive  Indo-European  grammar,  we  must  conceive 
it  as  having  been  expressed  or  implied  in  the  suffixes  of  the  stems, 
and  in  the  order  according  to  which  the  stems  were  arranged  in 
a  sentence.  In  other  words,  the  relations  of  grammar  were 
denoted  partly  by  juxtaposition  or  syntax,  partly  by  the  suffixes 
of  stems. 

These  suffixes  were  probably  at  first  unmeaning,  or  rather 
clothed  with  vague  significations,  which  changed  according  to 
the  place  occupied  in  the  sentence  by  the  stem  to  which  they 
were  joined.  Gradually  this  vagueness  of  signification  dis- 
appeared, and  particular  suffixes  came  to  be  set  apart  to  represent 
particular  relations  of  grapimar.  What  had  hitherto  been 
expressed  by  mere  position  now  attached  itself  to  the  terminations 
or  suffixes  of  stems,  which  accordingly  became  full-grown  words. 
Some  of  the  suffixes  denoted  purely  grammatical  ideas,  that  is 
to  say,  were  flexions;  others  were  dassificatory,  serving  to 
distinguish  nouns  from  verbs,  presents  from  aorists,  objects 
from  agents  and  the  like;  while  others,  again,  remained  un- 
meaning adjuncts  of  the  root.  This  origin  of  the  flexions  explains 
the  othenvise  strange  fact  that  the  same  suffix  may  symbolize 
wholly  different  grammatical  relations.  In  Latin,  for  instance, 
(he  context  and  dictionary  will  alone  tell  us  that  mus-as  is  the 
accusative  plural  of  a  noun,  and  am-as  the  second  person  singular 
of  a  verb,  or  that  mus-a  is  the  nominative  singular  of  a  feminine 
substantive,  bon-a  the  accusative  plural,  of  a  neuter  adjective. 
In  short,  the  flexions  were  originally  merely  the  terminations  of 
stems  which  were  adapted  to  express  the  various  relations  of 
words  to  each  other  in  a  sentence,  as  these  gradually  presented 
themselves  to  the  consciousness  and  were  extracted  from  what 
had  been  previously  implied  by  position.  Necessarily,  the  same 
suffix  might  be  used  sometimes  in  a  dassificatory,  sometimes  in  a 
flexional  sense,  and  sometimes  without  any  definite  sense  at  alL 
In  the  Greek  dative-locative  «^-<a-<rt,  for  example,  the  suffix 
^s  is  dassificatory;  in  the  nominative  rttb-a  it  is  flexionaL 

When  a  particular  termination  or  suffix  once  acquired  a 
special  sense,  it  would  be  separated  in  thought  from  the  stem  to 
which  it  belonged,  and  attached  in  the  same  sense  to  other  stems 
and  other  terminations.  Thus  in  modem  English  we  can  attach 
the  suffix  -iu  to  almost  any  word  whatsoever,  in  order  to  give 
the  latter  a  transitive  meaning,  and  the  Gr.  irddcaat,  quoted 
above,  reaUy  contains  no  less  than  three  suffixes,  •€(,  -frv  and 
•t,  the  last  two  both  denoting  the  locative,  and  coalescing, 
through  ffft,  into  a  single  syllabic  -ct.  The  latter  instance  shows 
us  how  two  or  more  suffixes  denoting  exactly  the  same  idea  may 
be  tacked  on  one  to  another,  if  the  original  force  and  signification 
of  the  first  of  them  comes  to  be  forgotten.  Thus,  in  O.  £ng. 
sang-estre  was  the  feminine  of  sang-ere^ "  singer,"  but  the  meaning 
of  the  termination  has  so  entirely  died  out  of  the  memory  that 
we  have  to  add  the  Romanic  -ess  to  it  if  we  would  still  distinguish 
it  from  the  masculine  singer.  A  familiar  example  of  the  way 
in  which  the  full  sense  of  the  exponent  of  a  grammatical  idea 
fades  from  the  mind  and  has  to  be  supplied  by  a  new  exponent 
is  afforded  by  the  use  of  expletives  in  conversational  English 


to  denote  the  superlative.*  **'  Very  warm  "  expresses  little  more 
than  the  positive,  and  to  represent  the  intensity  of  his  fedings 
the  Englishman  has  recourse  to  such  expressions  as  "  awfully 
warm  "  like  the  Ger.  "  schrecklich  warm." 

Such  words  as  "  very,"  "  awfuUy,"  "  schieddich,"  iUustiate 
a  second  mode  in  which  Indo-European  grammar  has  found 
means  of  expression.  Words  may  lose  their  true  signification 
and  become  the  mere  exponents  of  grammaticalideas..  Professor 
Earle  divides  all  words  into  presenlive  and  symbolic,  the  former 
denoting  objects  and  conceptions,  the  latter  the  rdations  which 
exist  between  these.  Symbolic  words,  therefore,  are  what  the 
Chinese  grammarians  call "  empty  words  " — words,  that  is,  which 
have  been  divested  of  their  proper  signification  and  serve  a  gram- 
matical purpose  only.  Many  of  the  dassificatory  and  some  of 
the  flexional  suffixes  of  Indo-European  speedi  can  be  shown 
to  have  had  this  origin.  Thus  the  suffix  tar,  which  denotes 
names  of  kinship  and  agency,  seems  to  come  from  the  same  root 
as  the  Lat.  terminus  and  trans,  our  through,  the  Sans  tar-dmi, 
"  1  pass  over,"  and  to  have  primarily  signified  "  one  that  goes 
through  "  a  thing.  Thus,  too,  the  Eng.  head  or  hood,  in  words 
like  godhead  and  brotherhood,  is  the  A.-S.  hdd,  "character" 
or  "rank";  dom,  in  kingdom,  the  A.-S,.ddm,  "judgment"; 
and  loch  or  ledge,  in  wedlock  and  knoud^ge,  the  A.-S.  Idc, "  sport " 
or  "  gift."  In  all  these  cases  the  "  empty  words,"  after  first 
losing  every  trace  of  thdr  original  significance,  have  followed 
the  general  analogy  of  the  langxiage  and  assumed  the  form  and 
functions  of  the  suffixes  with  which  they  had  been  conftised. 

A  third  mode  of  representing  the  relations  of  grammar  is 
by  the  symbolic  use  of  vowels  and  diphthongs.  In  Greek,  for 
instance,  the  distinction  between  the  reduplicated  present  JUw/u 
and  the  reduplicated  perfect  5i&^xa  is  indicated  by  a  distinction 
of  vowel,  and  in  primitive  Aryan  grammar  the  vowd  d  seems 
to  have  been  set  apart  to  denote  the  subjunctive  mood  just  as 
ya  or  i  was  set  apart  to  denote  the  potential.  So,  too,  according 
to  M.  Hovelacque,  the  change  of  a  into  «  or  « in  the  parent  Indo- 
EuTQpean  symbolized  a  change  of  meaning  from  passive  to  active. 
This  symbolic  use  of  the  vowels,  which  is  the  purest  application 
of  the  prindple  of  flexion,  is  far.  less  extensivdy  carrieid  out  in- 
the  Indo-European  than  in  the  Semitic  languages.  The  Semitic 
family  of  speech  is  therefore  a  much  moi%  characteristic  type  of 
the  inflexional  languages  than  is  the  Indo-European. 

The  primitive  Indo-European  noun  possessed  at  least  eight 
cases — ^nominative,  accusative,  vocative,  instrumental, .  dative, 
genitive,  ablative  and  locative.  M.  Bergaigne  has  attempted 
to  show  that  the  first  three  of  these,  the  "  strong  cases  "  as 
they  are  termed,  are  really  abstracts  formed  by  the  suffixes 
-as  (-i),  -an,  -m,  4,  -t,  -A  and  -ya  {-i),  the  plural  bdng  nothing 
more  than  an  abstract  singular,  as  may  be  readily  seen  by 
comparing  words  like  the  Gr.  hro-t,  and  (hre-t,  which  mean 
predsdy  the  same.  The  remaining  "  weak  "  cases,  formed  by 
the  suffixes  ''Sma,'Sya,  -syd,  -yd,  -i,  -an,  -4,  -bhi,  -su,  -i,  -a  and  -d, 
are  really  adjectives  and  adverbs.  Np  distinction,  for  example, 
can  be  drawn  between  "  a  cup  of  gold  "  and  "  a  golden  cup," 
and  the  instrumental,  the  dative,  the  ablative  and  the  locative 
are,  when  dosdy  examined,  merely  adverbs  attached  to  a  verb. 
The  terminations  of  the  strong  cases  do  not  displace  the  accent 
of  the  stem  to  which  they  are  suffixed;  the  suffixes  of  the  weak 
cases,  on  the  other  hand,  generally  draw  the  accent  upon 
themselves. 

According  to  Httbsdimann,  the  nominative,  accusative  and 
genitive  cases  are  purdy  grammatical,  distinguished  ^rom  one 
another  through  the  exigendes  of  the  sentence  only,  whereas 
the  locative,  ablative  and  instrumental  have  a  logical  origin  and 
determine  the  logical  relation  which  the  three  other  cases. bear 
to  each  other  and  the  verb.  The  nature  of  the  dative  is  left 
undedded.  The  locative  primarily  denotes  rest  in  a  place,  the 
ablative  motion  from  a  place,  and  the  instrumental  the  means  or 
concomitance  of  an  action.  The  dative  Hubschmann  regards 
as  "  the  case  of  the  participant  object."  Like  Hiibschmann, 
Holzweissig  divides  the  cases  into  two  classes — the  one  gram- 
matical and  the  other  logical;  end  his  analysis  of  their  primitive 
meaning  is  the  saihe  as  that  ot  Hfibscbmann,  except  as  regards 


GRAMMAR 


329 


the  dative,  the  primary  sense  of  which  he  thinks  to  have-  been 
motion  towards  a  place.  This  is  also  the  view  of  Delbriick,  who 
makes  it  denote  tendency  towards  an  object.  Delbrilck,  how* 
ever,  holds  that  the  primary  sense  of  the  ablative  was  that  of 
separation,  the  instrumental  originally  indicating  concomitance, 
while  there  was  a  double  locative,  one  used  like  the  ablative 
absolute  in  Latin,  the  other  being  a  locative  of  the  object. 

The  dual  was  older  than  the  plural,  and  after  the  development 
of  the  latter  survived  as  a  merely  useless  encumbrance,  of  which 
most  of  the  Indo-European  languTiges  contrived  in  time  to  get 
rid.  There  are  still  many  savage  idioms  in  which  the  conception 
of  plurality  has  not  advanced  beyond  that  of  duality.  In  the 
Bushman  dialects,  for  instance,  the  plural,  or  rather  that  which 
B  more  than  one,  is  expressed  by  repeating  the  word;  thus  lu 
h  *'  mouth,"  tutu  "  mouths."  It  may  be  shown  that  most  of 
the  suflSzes  of  the  Indo-European  dual  are  the  longer  and  more 
primitive  forms  of  those  of  the  plural  which  have  grown  out  of 
them  by  the  help  of  phonetic  decay.  The  plural  of  the  weak  cases, 
on  the  other  hand  (the  accusative  alone  excepted),  was  identical 
with  the  singular  of  abstract  nouns;  so  far  as  both  form  and 
meaning  are  concerned,  no  distinction  can  be  drawn  between 
irrt  and  htos.  Similarly,  humanity  and  men  signify  one  and 
the  same  thing,  and  the  use  of  English  words  like  sheep  or  fish 
for  both  singular  and  plural  shows  to  what  an  extent  our  apprecia- 
tion of  number  is  determined  by  the  context  rather  than  by  the 
form  of  the  noun.  The  so-called  "  broken  plurals  "  of  Arabic 
and  Ethic^ic  are  really  singular  collectives  employed  to  denote 
the  plural. 

Gender  is  the  product  partly  of  analogy,  partly  of  phonetic 
decay.  In  many  languages,  such  as  Eskimo  and  Choctaw,  its 
place  is  taken  by  a  division  of  objects  into  animate  and  inanimate, 
while  in  other  languages  they  are  separated  into  rational  and 
irrational.  There  are  many  indications  that  the  parent  Indo- 
European  in  an  early  stage  of  its  existence  had  no  signs  of  gender 
at  all.  The  terminations  of  the  names  of  ftUher  and  mother, 
pater  and  mater,  for  example,  are  exactly  the  same,  and  in  Latin 
and  Greek  many  diphthong^  stems,  as  well  as  stems  in  t  or  ya 
and  u  (like  vaiJv  and  pinn,  ir6Xis  and  Xts),  may  be  indifferently 
masculine  and  feminine.  Even  stems  in  o  and  a  (of  the  second 
and  first  declensions),  though  the  first  are  generally  masculine 
and  the  second  genorally  feminine,  by  no  means  invariably 
maintain  the  rule;  and  feminines  like  humus  and  6Mf,  or 
masculines  like  advene  and  vokinft,  show  that  there  was  a  time 
when  these  stems  also  indicated  no  particular  gender,  but  owed 
their  subsequent  adaptation,  the  one  to  mark  the  masciiline 
and  the  other  to  mark  the  feminine,  to  the  influence  of  analogy. 
The  idea  of  gender  was  first  suggested  by  the  difference  between 
man  and  woman,  male  and  female,  and, as  in  so  many  languages 
at  the  present  day,  was  represented  not  by  any  outward  sign 
but  by  the  meaning  of  the  words  themselves.  When  once  arrived 
at,  tlM  conception  of  gender  was  extended  to  other  objects  besides 
those  to  which  it  properly  belonged.  The  primitive  Indo- 
European  did  not  distinguish  between  subject  and  object,  but 
personified  objects  by  ascribing  to  them  the  motives  and  powers 
of  living  beings.  Accordingly  they  were  referred  to  by  different 
pronouns,  one  class  denoting  the  masailine  and  another  class 
the  feminine,  and  the  distinction  that  existed  between  these  two 
dasaes  of  pronouns  was  after  a  time  transferred  to  the  nouns. 
As  soon  as  the  preponderant  number  of  stems  in  0  in  daily  use 
had  come  to  be  regarded  as  masculine  on  account  of  their  mean- 
ing, other  stems  in  o,  whatever  might  be  their  signification, 
firere  made  to  follow  the  general  analogy  and  were  similarly 
classed  as  masculines.  In  the  same  way,  the  sufi&z  s  -or  ya 
acquired  a  feminine  sense,  and  was  set  apart  to  represent  the 
feminine  gender.  Unlike  the  Semites,  the  Indo-Europeans  were 
not  satisfied  with  these  two  genders,  masculine  and  feminine. 
As  soon  as  object  and  subject,  patient  and  agent,  were  clearly 
distinguished  from  each  other,  there  arose  a  need  for  a  third 
gender,  which  should  be  neither  masculine  nor  feminine,  but 
denote  things  without  life.  This  third  gender  was  fittingly 
expressed  either  by  the  objective  case  used  as  a  nominative  (e.;. 
regmtm),  or  by  a  stem  without  any  case  ending  at  all  (e.f .  mr lo). 


The  adverbial  n\eaning  of  so  many  of  the  cases  explains  the 
readiness  with  which  they  became  cr>'stallized  into  adverbs  and 
prepositions.  An  adverb  is  the  attribute  of  an  attribute — "  the 
rose  smells  sweetly,"  for  example,  being  resolvable  into  "the 
rose  has  the  attribute  of  scent  with  the  further  attribute  of 
sweetness."  In  our  own  language  once,  twice,  needs,  are  all 
genitives;  sddom  is  a  dative.  The  Latin  and  Greek  humi  and 
XOMof  are  locatives, /tuii/tme  (JaciUumed)  and  tirrvxut  ablatives, 
ir&ynr  and  S4ia  instrumentals,  irdpor,  i^  and  rriKov  gcm'tives. 
The  frequency  with  which  particular  cases  of  particular  nouns 
were  used  in  a  specifically  attributive  sense  caused  them  to 
become,  as  it  were,  petrified,  the  other  cases  of  the  nouns  in 
question  passing  out  of  use,  and  the  original  force  of  those  that 
were  retained  being  gradually  forgotten.  Prepositions  are 
adverbs  employed  to  define  nouns  instead  of  verbs  and  adjectives. 
Their  appearance  in  the  Indo-European  languages  is  compara- 
tively late,  and  the  Homeric  poems  allow  us  to  trace  their  growth 
in  Greek.  The  adverb,  originally  intended  to  define  the  verb, 
came  to  be  construed  with  the  noun,  and  the  government  of 
the  case  with  which  it  was  construed  was  accordingly  transferred 
from  the  verb  to  the  noun.  Thus  when  we  read  in  the  Odyssey 
(iv.  43),  airrodf  6'  cio^ov  Btiw  56imp,  we  see  that  ds  is  still  an 
adverb,  and  that  the  accusative  is  governed  by  the  verb;  it  is 
quite  otherwise,  however,  with  a  line  like  'Arpdhp  6i  fkparroi 
doXXiot  ^rt^  'AxoudT  If  Khoii^p  {11.  i.  89)  where  the  adverb  has 
passed  into  a  preposition.  The  same  process  of  transformation 
is  still  going  on  in  English,  where  we  can  say  indifferently, 
"What  are  you  looking  at?"  using  "at  "as  an  adverb,  and 
governing  the  pronoun  by  the  verb,  and  "At  what  are  you; 
looking?"  where  "at"  has  become  a  preposition.  With  the 
growth  and  increase  oi  prepositions  the  need  of  the  case-endings 
diminished,  and  in  some  languages  the  latter  disappeared 
altogether. 

Like  prepositions,  conjunctions  also  are  primarily  adverbs 
used  in  a  demonstrative  and  relative  sense.  Hence  most  of  the 
conjunctions  are  petrified  cases  of  pronouns.  The  relation 
between  two  sentences  was  originally  expressed  by  simply  setting 
them  side  by  side,  afterwards  by  employing  a  demonstrative 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  clause  to  refer  to  the  whole  pre- 
ceding one.  The  reUtive  pronoun  can  be  shown  to  have  been 
in  the  first  instance  a  demonstrative;  indeed,  we  can  still  use 
that  in  English  in  a  relative  sense.  Since  the  demonstrative 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  clause  represented  the  first  clause, 
and  was  consequently  an  attribute  of  the  second,  it  had  to  stand 
in  some  case,  and  this  case  became  a  conjunction.  How  closely 
allied  the  adverb  and  the  conjunction  are  may  be  seen  from 
Greek  and  Latin,  where  wf  or  quum  can  be  used  as  either  the  one 
or  the  other.  Our  own  and,  it  may  be  observed,  has  probably 
the  same  root  as  the  Greek  locative  adverb  tirt,  and  originally 
signified  "  going  further." 

Another  form  of  adverb  is  the  infinitive,  the  adverbial  force 
of  which  i^pears  clearly  in  such  a  phrase  as  "  A  wonderful  thing 
to  see."  Various  cases,  such  as  the  locative,  the  dative  or  the 
instrumental,  are  employed  in  Vedic  Sanskrit  in  the  sense  of 
the  infinitive,  besides  the  bare  stem  or  neuter  formed  by  the 
suffixes  man  and  van.  In  Greek  the  neuter  stem  and  the  dative 
case  were  alone  retained  for  the  purpose.  The  first  is  found  in 
infinitives  like  idiup  and  ^pctv  (for  an  earlier  ^p%-f&\  the 
second  in  the  infinitives  in  -at.  Thus  the  Gr.  iowai  answers 
letter  for  letter  to  the  Vedic  dative  dOvdne,  "  to  give,"  and  the 
form  }^i<6ta6ai  is  explained  by  the  Vedic  vayodhai,  lot  vayds-dhai, 
literally  "  to  do  living,"  dhai  being  the  dative  of  a  noun  from 
the  root  (fA4,  "  to  place  "  or  "  do."  When  the  form  ^tOioehti 
had  once  come  into  existence,  analogy  was  ready  to  create  such 
false  imitations  as  ypSapaaSai  or  ypa^$^€a$at.  The  Latin 
infinitive  in  -fv  for  -se  has  the  same  origin,  amare,  for  instance, 
being  the  dative  of  an  old  stem  amas.  In  fieri  for  fierei  or  fiesei, 
from  the  same  root  as  our  English  be,  the  original  length  of  the 
final  syllable  is  preserved.  The  suffiiz  in  -urn  is  an  accusative,  like 
the  corre^Mndtng  infinitive  of  rlassiral  SanskriL  This  origin 
of  the  infinitive  explains  the  Latin  construction  of  the  accusative 
and  infinitive.    When  the  Roman  said,  "  Miror  te  ad  me  nihil 


330 


GRAMMAR 


scribere,"  oU  that  he  meant  at  fint  was,  "  I  wonder  at  you  for 
writing  nothing  to  me,"  where  the  infinitive  was  merely  a.  dative 
case  used  adverbially. 

The  history  of  the  infinitive  makes  it  dear  how  little  d^tinction 
must  have  been  felt  at  the  outset  between  the  notm  and  the  verb. 
Indeed,  the  growth  of  the  verb  was  a  slow  process.  There  was  a 
time  in  the  history  of  Indo-European  speech  when  it  had  not  as 
yet  risen  to  the  consciousness  of  the  speaker,  and  in  the  period 
when  the  noun  did  not  possess  a  plural  there  was  as  yet  also  no 
verb.  The  attachment  of  the  first  and  second  personaij>ronouns, 
or  of  suffixes  resembling  them,  to  certain  stems,  was  the  first 
stage  in'  the  development  of  the  latter.  Like  the  Semitic  verb, 
the  Indo-European  verb  seems  primarily  to  have  denoted  relation 
only,  and  to  have  been  attached  as  an  attribute  to  the  subject. 
The  idea  of  time,  however,  was  soon  put  into  it,  and  two  tenses 
were  created,  the  one  expressingapresentorcontinuousaction,the 
other  an  aoristic  or  momentary  one.  The  distinction  of  sens^  was 
symbolized  by  a  distinction  of  pronunciation,  the  root-syllable 
of  the  aorist  being  an  abbreviated  form  of  that  of  the  present. 
This  abbreviation  was  due  to  a  change  in  the  position  of  the  accent 
(which  was  shifted  from  the  stem-syllable  to  the  termination), 
and  this  change,  again  was  probably  occasioned  by  the  prefixing 
of  the  so-called  augment  to  the  aorist,  which  survived  into  his- 
torical times  only  in  Sanskrit,  2^nd  and  Greek,  and  the  origin  of 
which  is  still  a  mystery.  The  weight  of  the  first  syllable  in  the 
aorist  further  caused  the  person-endings  to  be  shortened,  and  so 
two  sets  of  person-endings,  usually  termed  prjmaxy  and  secondary, 
sprang  mto  existence.  By  reduplicating  the  root-syllable  of 
the  present  tense  a  perfect  was  formed;  but  originally  no  dis- 
tinction was  made  between  present  and  perfect,  and  Greek  verbs 
like  f^JScotu  and  ijku  are  memorials  of  a  time  when  the  difference 
between  "  I  am'  come  "  and  "  I  have  come  "  was  not  yet  felt. 
Reduplication  was  further  adapted  to  the  expression  oUntensity 
and  desire  (in  the  so-called  intensive  and  desiderative  forms). 
By  the  side  of  the  aorist  stood  the  imperfect,  which  differed 
from  the  aorist,  so  far  as  outward  form  was  concerned,  only 
in  possessing  the  longer  and  more  original  stem  of  the  present. 
Indeed,  as  Benfey  first  saw,  the  aorist  itself  was  primitively 
an  imperfect,  and  the  distinction  between  aorist  and  im- 
perfect is  not  older  than  the  period  when  the  stem-syllables  of 
certain  imperfects  were  shortened  through  the  influence  of  the 
accent,  and  this  differentiation  of  forms  appropriated  to  denote 
a  difference  between  the  sense  of  the  aorist  and  the  imperfect 
which  was  beginning  to  be  felt.  After  the  analogy  of  the  im- 
perfect, a  pluperfect  was  created  out  of  the  perfect  by  prefixing 
the  augment  (of  which  the  Greek  kt^^iaiKov  is  an  illustration); 
though  the  pluperfect,  too,  was  originally  an  imperfect  formed 
from  the  reduplicated  present. 

Besides  time,  mood  was  also  expressed  by  the  primitive 
Indo-European  verb,  recourse  being  had  to  symbolization  for 
the  purpose.  The  imperative  was  represented  by  the  bare  stem, 
like  the  vocative,  the  accent  being  drawn  back  to  the  first 
syllable,  though  other  modes  of  denoting  it  soon 'came  into 
vogue.  Possibility  was  symbolized  by  the  attachment  of 
the  suffix  -ya  to  the  stem,  probability  by  the  attachment  of 
•a  and  -J,  and  in  this  way  the  optative  and  conjunctive  moods 
first  arose.  The  creation  of  a  future  by  the  help  of  the  suffix 
-iya  seems  to  belong  to  the  same  period  in  the  history  of  the 
verb.  Tias  suffix  is  probably  identical  with  that  used  to  form 
a  large  class  of  adjectives  and  genitives  (like  the  Greek  tnroto 
for  Imato);  in  this  case  future  time  will  have  been  regarded 
as  an  attribute  of  the  subject,  no  distinction  being  drawn,  for 
instance,  between  "  rising  sun  "  and  "  the  sim  will  rise."  It 
is  possible,  however,  that  the  auxiliary  verb  as,  "  to  be,"  enters 
into  the  composition  of  the  future;  if  so,  the  future  will  be 
the  product  of  the  second  stage  in  the  development  of  the  Indo- 
European  verb  when  new  forms  were  created  by  means  of 
a>mposition.  The  sigmatic  or  first  aorist  is  in  favour  of  this 
view,  as  it  certainly  bdongs  to  the  age  of  Indo-European  unity, 
and  may  be  a  compound  of  the  verbal  stem  with  the  auxiliary  as. 

After  the  separation  of  the  Indo-European  languages,  com- 
position was  large^  employed  in  the  formation  of  new  lenses. 


Thus  in  Latin  we  have  perfects  like  script  and  ama^  formed 
by  the  help  of  the  auxiliaries  as  (sum)  txxdfua,  while  such  forma 
as  amaveram  (ama»i-€ram)  or  amarem  (ama-sem)  bear  their 
origin  on  their  face.  So,  too,  the  future  in  Latin  and  Old  Celtic 
(amabo,  Irish  carub)  is  based  upon  the  substantive  verb  /««, 
"  to  be,"  and  the  English  preterite  in  -ed  goes  back  to  a  suffixed 
did,  the  reduph'cated  perfect  of  da.  New  tenses  and  moods, 
however,  were  created  by  the  aid  of  suffixes  as  well  as  by  the 
aid  of  composition,-  or  rather  were  fortaXed  from  nouns  whose 
stems  terminated  in  the  suffixes  in  question.  Thus  in  Greek 
we  have  aorists  and  perfects  in  -ica,  and  the  characteristics  of 
the  two  passive  aorists,  ye  and  the,  are  nu>re  probably  the  suffixes 
of  nominal  stems  than  the  roots  of  the  two  verbs  ya,  "  to  go," 
and  dhd, "  to  place,"  as  Bopp  supposed.  How  late  some  of  these 
new  formations  were  may  be  seen  in  Greek,  where  the  Homeric 
poems  are  still  ignorant  of  the  weak  future  passive,  the  optative 
future,  and  the  aspirated  perfect,  and  where  the  strong  future 
passive  occurs  but  once  and  the  desiderative  but  twice.  On 
the  other  hand,  many  of  the  older  tenses  were  disused  and  lost. 
In  classical  Sanskrit,  for  instance,  of  the  modal  aorist  forma 
the  precatlve  and  benedictive  almost  alone  remain,  whUe  the 
pluperfect,  of  which  Delbrttck  has  found  traces  in  the  Veda, 
has  wholly  disappeared. 

The  passive  voice  did  not  exbt  in  the  parent  Indo-£uropean 
speech.  No  need  for  it  had  arisen,  since  such  a  sentence  as  "  I 
am  pleased  "  could  be  as  well  represented  by  "  This  pleases  me," 
or  "  I  please  myself."  It  was  long  before  the  speaker  was  able 
to  imagine  an  action  without  an  object,  and  when  he  did  so, 
it  was  a  neuter  or  substantival  rather  than  a  passive  verb  that 
he  formed.  The  passive,  in  fact,  grew  out  of  the  middle  or 
reflexive,  and,  except  in  the  two  aorists,  continued  to  be  repre- 
sented by  the  middle  in  Greek.  So,  too,  in  Latin  the  second 
^rson  plural  is  really  the  middle  participle  with  estis  understood, 
and  the  whole  class  of  deponent  or  reflexive  verbs  proves  that 
the  characteristic  r  which  Latin  shares  with  Celtic  a>ald  have 
had  at  the  outset  no  passive  force. 

Much  light  has  been  thrown  on  the  character  and  construction 
of  the  primitive  Indo-European  sentence  by  comparative  syntax. 
In  contradistinction  to  Semitic,  where  the  defining  word  follows 
that  which  is  defined,  the  Indo-European  languages  place  that 
which  is  defined  after  that  which  defines  it;  and  Bergaigne 
has  made  it  dear  that  the  original  order  of  Uie  sentence  was 
(i)  object,  (2)  verb,  and  (3)  subject.  ■  Greater  complication  of 
thought  and  its  expression,  the  connexion  of  sentences  by  the 
aid  of  conjunctions,  .and  rhetorical  inversion  caused  that  dis- 
location of  the  original  order  of  the  sentence  which  reaches  its 
culminating  point  in  the  involved  periods  of  Latin  literature. 
Our  own  language  still  remaiiks  true,  however,  to  the  syntax 
of  the  parent  Indo-European  when  it  sets  both  adjective  and 
genitive  before  the  nouns  which  they  define.  In  course  of  time 
a  distinction  came  to  be  made  between  an  attribute  used  as  a 
mere  qualificative  and  an  attribute  used  predicativdy,  and 
this  distinction  was  expressed  by  pladng  the  predicate  in  op- 
position to  the  subject  and  accordingly  after  it.  The  opposition 
was  of  itself  suffident  to  indicate  the  logical  copula  or  sub- 
stantive verb;  indeed,  the  word  which  afterwards  commonly 
stood  for  the  latter  at  first  signified  "  existence,"  and  it  was  only 
through  the  wear  and  tear  of  time  that  a  phrase  h'ke  Deus  bonus 
est, "  God  exists  as  good,"  came  to  mean  simply  "  God  is  good." 
It  is  needless  to  observe  that  neither  of  the  two  articles  was 
known  to  the  parent  Indo-European;  indeed,  the  definite  article, 
which  is  merely  a  decayed  demonstrative  pronoun,  has  not  yet 
been  devdoped  in  several  of  the  languages  oi  the  Indo-European 
family. 

We  must  now  glance  briefly  at  the  results  of  a  scientific  in- 
vestigation of  English  grammar  and  the  modifications  tbey 
necessitate  in  our  conception  of  it.  The  idea  that  i„rtstfga. 
the  free  use  of  speech  iifticd  down  by  the  rules  of  OMft 
the  grammarian  must  first  be  given  up;  all  that  the 
grammarian  can  do  is  to  formulate  the  current  uses 
of  his  time,  which  are  determined  by  habit  and  custom, 
and  are  accordingly  in  a  perpetual  state  of  flux.    We  must  next 


GRAMMAR 


331 


get  rid  of  the  notion  that  English  grammar  should  be  modelled 
after  that  of  andent  Rome;  until  we  do  so  we  shall  never 
understslnd  even  the  elementary  principles  upon  which  it  is 
based.  We  cannot  speak  of  declensions,  since  English  has  no 
genders  except  in  the  pronouns  of  the  third  person,  and  no 
cases  except  the  genitive  and  a  few  faint  traces  of  an  old  dative. 
Its  verbal  conjugation  is  essentially  different  from  that  of  an 
inflexional  language  like  Latin,  and  cannot  be  compressed  into 
the  same  categories.  In  English  the  syntax  has  been  enlarged 
at  the  expense  of  the  accidence;  position  has  taken  the  place 
of  forms.  To  speak  of  an  adjective  "  agreeing  "  with  its  sub- 
stantive is  as  misleading  as  to  speak  of  a  verb  "  govenung  " 
a  case.  In  fact,  the  distinction  between  noun  and  adjective 
b  inapplicable  to  English  grammar,  and  should  be  replaced 
by  a  d^tinction  between  objective  and  attributive  words.  In 
a  phrase  like  "  this  is  a  cannon,"  cannon  is  objective;  in  a  phrase 
like  "a  cannon-ball,"  it  is  attributive;  and  to  call  it  a  sub- 
stantive in  the  one  case  and  an  adjective  in  the  other  is  only 
to  introduce  confusion.  With  the  exception  of  the  nominative, 
t^  various  forms  of  the  noun  are  all  attributive;  there  is  no 
difference,  for  example,  between  "  doing  a  thing  "  and  "  doing 
badly."  Apart  from  the  personal  pronouns,  the  accusative 
of  the  classical  languages  can  be  represented  only  by  position; 
but  if  we  were  to  say  that  a  noun  which  follows  a  verb  is  in  the 
accusative  case  we  should  have  to  define  "  king  "  as  an  accusative 
in  such  sentences  as  "  he  became  king  "  or  "  he  is  king."  In 
oonveisational  English  "  it  is  me  "  is  as  correct  as  "  c'est  moi " 
in  French,  or  "  det  er  mig  "  in  Danish;  the  literary  "  it  is  I " 
is  due  to  the  influence  of  classical  grammar.  The  combination 
of  noun  or  pronoun  and  preposition  results  in  a  compound 
attribute.  As  for  the  verb,  Sweet  has  well  said  that "  the  really 
characteristic  feature  of  the  English  finite  verb  is  its  inability 
to  stand  alone  without  a  pronominal  prefix."  Thus  "  dream  " 
by  itself  is  a  noun;  "  I  dream  "  is  a  verb.  The  place  of  the 
pronominal  prefix  may  be  taken  by  a  noun,  though  both  poetry 
and  vulgar  English  frequently  insert  the  pronoun  even  when 
the  noun  precedes.  The  number  of  inflected  verbal  forms  is 
but  small,  being  confined  to  the  third  person  singular  and  the 
^xdal  forms  of  the  preterite  and  past  participle,  though  the 
latter  may  with  more  justice  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
province  of  the  lexicographer  rather  than  to  that  of  the  gram- 
marian. The  inflected  subjunctive  (6e,  vere,  save  in  "  God  save 
the  King,"  &c.)  is  rapidly  disappearing.  New  inflected  forms, 
however,  are  coming  into  existence;  at  all  events,  we  have 
as  good  a  right  to  consider  wont,  shanl,  cant  new  inflected  forms 
as  tlie  French  ainurai  {amare  habeo)^  aimer ais  {amare  habebam). 
If  the  ordinary  grammars  are  correct  in  treating  forms  like 
"  I  am  k>ving,"  "  I  was  toving,"  "  I  did  love,"  as  separate 
tenses,  they  are  strangely  inconsistent  in  omitting  to  notice 
the  equally  important  emphatic  form  '*  I  do  love  "  or  the  negative 
form  "  I  do  not  love  "  ("  I  don't  love  "),  as  well  as  the  semi- 
inflexional  "  I'll  love,"  "  he's  loving."  It  is  true  that  these 
latter  contracted  forms  are  heard  only  in  conversation  and  not 
seen  in  books;  but  the  grammar  of  a  language,  it  must  be 
remembered,  is  made  by  those  who  speak  it  and  not  by  the 
printers. 

Our  school  grammars  are  the  inheritance  we  have  received 
from  Greece  and  Rome.    The  necessities  of  rhetoric  obliged  the 

Sophists  to  investigate  the  structure  of  the  Greek 
^  language,  and  to  them  was  accordingly  due  the  first 

analysis  of  Greek  grammar.    Protagoras  distinguished 

the  three  genders  and  the  verbal  moods,  while  Pro- 
diciis  busied  himself  with  the  definition  of  synonyms.  Aristotle, 
taking  the  side  of  Democritus,  who  had  held  that  the  meaning 
of  words  is  put  into  them  by  the  speaker,  and  that  there  is  no 

connexion  between  sound  and  sense,  laid  down  that 
symbolize  "  objects  according  to  the  will  of  those  who 
use  them,  and  added  to  the  h^otxa  or  *'  noun,"  and  the  ^iia  or 
*'  verb,"  the  ^Meo/M  or  '*  partide."  He  also  introduced  the 
term  rrOns,  **  case,"  to  denote  any  flexion  whatsoever.  He 
farther  divided  nouns  into  simple  anid  compound,  invented  for 
the  neuter  another  name  than  that  given  by  Protagoras,  and 


M 


Starting  from  the  termination  of  the  nomiinatiVe  singular,  en- 
deavoured to  ascertain  the  rules  for  indicating  a  difference  of 
gender.  Aristotle  was  followed  by  the  Stoics,  who  separated  the 
ip$pop  or  "  artide  "  from  the  partides,  determined  a  fifth  part 
of  speech, the  raviktcms  or  "  adverb,"  confined  the  term  "case" 
to  the  flexions  of  the  nouns,  distinguishing  the  four  prindpal 
cases  by  names,  and  divided  the  verb  into  its  tenses,  moods 
and  dasses.  Meanwhile  the  Alexandrian  critics  were  studying 
the  language  of  Homer  and  the  Attic  writers,  and  comparing 
it  with  the  language  of  their  own  day,  the  result  being  a  minute 
examination  of  the  facts  and  rules  of  grammar.  Two  schoob  of 
grammarians  sprang  up — theiAnalogists,  headed  by  Aristarchus, 
who  held  that  a  strict  law  of  analogy  existed  between  idea 
and  word,  and  refused  to  admit  exceptions  to  the  grammatical 
rules  they  laid  down,  and  the  Anomalists,  who  denied  general 
rules  of  any  kind,  except  in  so  far  as  they  were  consecrated  by 
custom.  Foremost  among  the  Anomalists  was  Crates  of  Mallos, 
the  leader  of  the  Pergamenian  school,  to  whom  we  owe  the  first 
formal  Greek  grammar  and  collection  of  the  grammatical  facts 
obtained  by  the  labours  of  the  Alexandrian  critics,  as  well  as  an 
attempt  to  reform  Greek  orthography.  The  immediate  cause 
of  this  grammar  seems  to  have  been  a  comparison  of  Latin  with 
Greek,  Crates  having  lectured  on  the  subject  while  ambassador 
of  Attains  at  Rome  in  x  59  B.C.  The  zeal  with  which  the  Romans 
threw  themsdves  into  the  study  of  Greek  resulted  in  the  school 
grammar  of  Dionysius  Thrax,  a  pupil  of  Aristarchus,  which  he 
published  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Pompey  and  which  is  still 
in  existence.  Latin  grammars  were  soon  modelled  upon  it, 
and  the  attempt  to  translate  the  technical  terms  of  the  Greek 
grammarians  into  Latin  was  productive  of  numerous  blunders 
which  have  been  perpetuated  to  our  own  day.  Thus  Unnes 
is  a  mistranslation  of  the  Greek  inXi, "  unaspirated  ";  genetivus 
of  ytvuciit  the  case  "  of  the  genus  ";  accusaihus  of  cUruxruo^, 
the  case  "  of  the  object ";  infiniiimts  of  iarapkit/^aroi,  "  without 
a  secondary  meaning  "  td  tense  or  person.  New  names  were 
coined  to  denote  forms  possessed  by  Latin  and  not  by  Greek; 
ablative,  for  instance,  was  invented  by  Julius  Caesar,  who  also 
wrote  a  treatise  De  analcgio.  By  the  2nd  century  of  the  Christian 
era  the  dispute  between  the  Anomalists  and  the  Analogists  was 
finally  settled,  analogy  bdng  recognized  as  the  prindple  that 
underlies  language,  though  every  rule  admits  of  exceptions. 
Two  eminent  grammarians  of  Alexandria,  Apollonius  Dyscolus 
and  his  son  Herodian,  summed  up  the  labours  and  controversies 
of  thdr  predecessors,  and  upon  their  works  were  based  the  Latin 
grammar  composed  by  Adius  Donatus  in  the  4th  century,  and 
the  eighteen  books  on  grammar  compiled  by  Prisdan  in  the  age 
of  Justinian.  The  grammar  of  Donatus  dominated  the  schools 
of  the  middle  ages,  and,  along  with  the  productions  of  Prisdan, 
formed  the  type  and  source  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  school- 
grammars  of  modem  Europe, 

A  few  words  remain  to  be  said,  in  condusion,  on  the  bearing 
of  a  sdentific  study  of  grammar  upon  the  practical  task  of 
teaching  and  learning  foreign  languages.  The  grammar  ^ 
of  a  language  is  not  to  be  confined  within  the  rules  «/ 
laid  down  by  grammarians,  much  less  is  it  the  creation  ^ 

of  grammarians,  and  consequently  the  usual  mode  ^f^^. 
of  making  the  pupil  learn  by  heart  certain  fixed  rules  '"''■*■•• 
and  paradigms  not  only  gives  a  false  idea  of  what  grammar 
really  is,  but  also  throws  obstacles  in  the  way  of  acquiring  it. 
The  unit  of  speech  is  the  sentence;  and  it  is  with  the  sentence 
therefore,  and  not  with  lists  of  words  and  forms,  that  the  pupil 
should  begin.  When  once  a  suffidcnt  number  of  sentences  has 
been,  so  to  speak,  assimilated,  it  will  be  easy  to  analyse  them 
into  thdr  component  parts,  to  show  the  rdations  that  these 
bear  to  one  another,  and  to  indicate  the  nature  and  varieties  of 
the  latter.  In  this  way  the  learner  will  be  prevented  from 
regarding  grammar  as  a  piece  of  dead  mechanism  or  a  Chinese 
puzzle,  of  which  the  parts  must  be  fitted  together  in  accordance 
with  certain  artifidal  rules,  and  will  realize  that  it  is  a  living 
organism  which  has  a  history  and  a  reason  of  its  own.  The 
method  of  nature  and  sdence  alike  is  analytic;  and  if  we  would 
learn  a  foreign  bngnage  properiy  we  must  learn  it  as  we  did 


GRAMMICHELE— GRAMONT,  COMTE  DE 


our  motlMr-Kingue,  by  fint  m 

picte  thougbt  uid  thai  broking  up  dm  exp  a 

Kveral  clemCDli.  (A  I 

Snintbal,  CkariikUnilik  drr  *uUidc)Uu^ «  TyMn 
hum  (Berlin,  i860):  Schleicher.  CmHpcnd  urn  J  In 
OraHHItAr  of  the  tudo-Etrnpean  Lantvaps  Irvn  U  nl  b 
a^mkin.  1874);  Pczd,  Ar^oii  PiliMaaraaD  inc  In  h 
buardia.  bandilrd  by  E.  S.  RobcrU  (Uadon 

Sfraelifiilaiiipliicilrr  Allot  (Oonn.lSli- »1  S  ei  h 
Jir  SpraekinainiidKift  bei  itn  Cnahn  him  R^merw  m 
KtckjiM  «>/  die  Lufit  (IkrUn,  IMS,  and  hL  e^i 
AUatit  tocaSi  itiln.mnU!ilii  in  AUtnducliin  Uiln 
tUlckni.  Bwl  Dcntidm  (Berlin.  I8S^)  jaUy  £  pi  ii 
fUfinJlr  JyM"  (Munich,  1B73):  Hllbifhnuinn  Zu 
MunBh,  lB7sI;HoliwHS«ig.  lfaQra(i.iid/iT*B»r(£i 

Ciniatini'.   {i^jaig,   1877'      " "- '- 

JalrMtclu*   Sfraclit   (Ldpii 


JaltMnhm  SpnSit  (Uipiic,   1S74-1S76)    Svrn 
Md  Cmwur  {Lonckin,  1876);  P,  CSlo.  j/ana/  n/  tjfn 
(1901):    C    Abel.    Anpl.-imb-rxr.    Sfrathnrwaiii 


etumiiCHEU,  a  t 

SS  n.  S.W.  ol  it  by  ra 


Sicily,  ii 


o!  Ci-tuiui 
°  S 


BtTU  on  by  an  carlJiqua)!) 
ofthcaldtowsofOcchiaiilatbenaTlh  Die  la  e  ouaccaun  o( 
tbe  similaiily  of  name,  is  geonaUy  idcolified  witli  Ecbctlii,  ■ 
bonlicr  dty  betwRs  SyiacuuD  and  Canhaginlfm  tuiitory 
in  the  lime  of  Hiero  II.,  ohicb  appean  (a  have  been  Diiginally 
>  Sicel  dly  in  vhicfa  Cicek  dviliiation  prevailed  frorn  the  stb 
century  omrardi.  To  the  east  of  Cnunniidiele  a  cive  ihrine 
(d  Demeler,  with  £ne  votive  Icrra-cottat,  hu  been  discovired. 

See  Uvn.  U%Hi,  viL  (1897],  UI :  NoL  iitii  ioai  (1901),  3IJ. 

GBAIHOXT  (the  Bcmisb  Dime  Oiaraardittrtai  more 
clearly  leveab  iU  etymology  Cerardi-mimi),  a  town  in  East 
FlandcTi,  Bclgiuoi,  near  the  meeting  point  niih  the  provinos  of 
Brabant  and  Hainsul.  It  i*on  the  Deader  almoit  due  south 
of  Aloil,  and  is  chiefly  famous  because  the  charter  ol  Crammoiit 
0 vcn  by  Baldwin  VI.,  count  of  Flanders,  bi  A.D.  1068  wa>  the  first 
cf  ill  Lind.     This  chaner  has  been  styled  "  the  most  ancient 

siodem  town  is  a  busy  induslrial  centre.     Fop.  (1904!  i',Sjs. 

QBAMONT.  AHTOIHB  AQftNOR  ALFRED.  Due  DI.  Due  de 
CtncHE,  PaiNd  DC  Suncue  (1S117-18S0),  French  diplamaiist 
and  slalsman,  was  bom  at  Faiis  on  the  I4lh  ol  August  1819,  of 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  families  of  the  old  luUoK,  a  cadet 

the  seigniory  of  Gramont  in  Navarre.  His  grandfalhei.  Anlolne 
Louis  Marie,  ducde  Gramont  (1755-1836),  had  emigrated  during 
the  Revolution,  and  his  father,  Anloine  Htradiui  Gtnevitve 
A|tiiot[i7SQ-iSss],ducdeGramontanddeGuiche,  fought  under 
the  British  Bag  in  the  Peninsular  War,  became  a  lieutenint- 
general  in  the  French  army  in  1B13,  and  in  1830  accompanied 
Cbailes  X.  to  Scotland.    The  younger  generation,  however. 

Louis  Raymond,  comte  de  Gramont  (1787-iSiS),  though  aUo 
the  uri  of  an  iMigrI,  served  willi  dislinclion  in  Napolcon'l 
atmiei,  while  Anloine  Agioor,  due  de  Gramont,  owed  his  career 
to  bis  early  friendship  tor  Louis  Napoleon. 

Educated  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  Gramont  early  gave 
tip  the  army  for  diplomacy.  It  •«)  not,  bovever,  till  after  the 
(SHf  iTiliil  of  Lbe  2nd  of  December  i8si,  which  made  Louis 
Napoleon  supreme  In  France,  that  he  became  conspicuous  as 
a  diplomat.  He  was  succesuvety  minister  plenipotentiary  at 
CasKl  and  Stuttgart  (1G51),  at  Turin  (1855],  ambassador  at 
Rome  (1S57)  and  at  Vienna  (iS6t).  On  the  isth  of  May  1870 
be  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  ui  the  OUiviei 
cabinet,  and  wag  thus  brgdy,  though  not  entirety,  responsible 
[or  the  bungling  of  the  negotiations  between  France  and  Prussia 
■lUiagouI  of  (he  candidature  of  Prince  Leopold  of  Hoheniollcm 
(or  the  throne  of  Spain,  which  led  to  the  disastrous  war  of 
1S70-71.  The  exact  share  of  Gramont  in  tfais  responsibility  has 
bMo  the  lubJKt  of  much  conliovcrv-    The  last  word  may  be 


sa  d  to  have  been  uttered  by  H.  £mlle  Ollivlei  bimidf  ia  Ui 

L  Empvc  IMral  (tome  liL,  igo^,  paiiim).  Tlie  famous  detian- 
tion  read  by  Gramont  ui  the  Chamber  on  the  6th  of  July,  tbe 
threat  irilb  the  hand  on  lbe  sword-hilt,"  as  Bismarck  called 
was  the  Joint  work  of  the  whole  cabinet;  the  original  draft 
prescn  ed  by  Gramont  was  judged  to  be  too  "  elliptical "  in  its 
condusiOD  and  not  sufEcienlly  Vigorous;  the   rcfcr«oce  to  a 

evi  al  of  tbe  em^re  of  Charles  V.  was  suggested  by  OUivier; 

be  pangtaph  asserting  that  France  would  not  aQcw  a  loreigii 
powe  0  dblurb  to  ber  own  detriment  the  actual  equilibrium 
of  Europe  was  inierted  by  (he  emperor.  So  far,  then,  as  thit 
dedaia  ion  si  concerned,  it  is  dear  that  Cramont'a  rt^wnsiblity 
mus  be  shared  with  his  sovereign  and  his  colleagues  (Otlivief 
rf  (It  aii.  107;  tee  also  the  two  frirjils  it  dtdaraHat  given 
on  p  S7o).  It  i>  dear,  however  thai  he  did  not  ihate  the 
paasioa"  ol  his  colleagues  for  "peace  with  boDOur,"  dear 
also  hal  he  wholly  misread  the  intentions  of  the  Eutopean 
powers  in  tbe  event  of  war.  That  he  reckoned  upon  tbe  active 
al  lan  e  of  Austria  was  due,  according  to  M.  Ollivier,  to  the  fact 

ha  fo  nine  yaan  he  had  been  a  persona  graia  in  tbe  arrstocralic 
ity  for  revenging  the  humiUa- 


I  dispoaed  than  many  : 
tbe  prince  of  Hobem 


al  faith. 


eagues 


n  behalf  of  bii  son, 
m-Sigmaringcn.    It  was  Crarmnt 
n  lbe  evening  of  tlie  litb. 


of  n 


ming  M.  Ollivier,  despatched  to 
i  telegram  demanding  the  king  of 
;  candidature  would  not  be  revived. 
'  for  Ihii  act  must  rest  with  the 
by  an  eiercise  of^penonal  power  on 
who  could  have  lent  hlmadf  to  such 
entary  cfgimc." 


in  all  good  faith  he  had  do  idea  that 


isclf  a  parllai 


ntaiym 


he  had  associated  himself  with  an  act  destructive  of  the  auiboiity 
of  parliament."'  "On  bit  part,"  adds  M.  Ollivier,  "it  was  the 
result  only  of  obedience,  not  of  warlike  premeditation  "  (>^.  id. 
p.  361),  The  apology  may  be  taken  for  iriiat  it  is  worth.  To 
France  and  to  tbe  world  Gramont  was  responsible  for  the  pcJicy 
which  put  his  country  definitely  into  the  wrong  in  the  eyes  of 
Europe,  and  enabled  Bismarck  la  administer  to  ber  tiM  "slap 
in  tbe  face"  (,m(ffd)—a  Gramont  called  it  in  the  Chamber- 
by  means  of  (be  mutiUted  "  Ems  (elcgiam, 


oHice  with  the  i 


laPruj 


L  apolo, 


Weissenburg  (August  4)  Grai  „     . 

the  Ollivier  ministry  (August  q),  and  alter 
<n  ol  September  hfe  went  to  England,  reluming  after 
Paris,  when:  he  died  on  the  i8lh  of  January  iSSo. 
t  in  1S48  with  Miss  Mackinnon,  a  Scotti^  lady, 

lis  policy  in  1S70,  notably  La  Pn*a  tl 


re(Pai 


,  i8j;). 


u:  Mira  at  itrnpanr.  taneipmilana  .    .    .  tclLartft  rnnt  U. 

1S63  (ind  ed..  1  vols.,  1S89).  A  inull  pamphlcl  canlainini:  his 
Sa-tmi's  iS4«'lSso  -as  published  in  1901  by  his  brother  Antan. 
UOB  Philibtn  AuEUite  de  Cnmonl.  due  de  LnpirTV. 

SRAMOKT,  PHIUBERT.  CauTX  de  (1611-1707),  Ihe  subject 
of  the  famous  UrtKain,  came  of  1  noble  Gascon  family,  said 
to  have  been  of  Basque  origin.  His  grandmolher,  Diane 
d'Andouins,  comlesse  de  Gramont,  was  "  la  belle  Corisande," 
one  of  the  mistresses  of  Heniy  IV.    The  grandson  assumed  that 

>  CompiTP  with  Ihii  Bismarck's  murki  to  Hohenlohe  (Hohcnlnhe. 


}  stupid  a  peiBod  mi 


evil,  o 


Lt  Ihii  indica 


Bcnedctti  rrplied  thai  the  cmpcroT 
eupon  Biimarck  aid  thit  Ibc  cmperct 


GRAMOPHONE— GRAMPOUND 


333 


his  father  Antoine  II.  de  Gnmont,  viceroy  of  Navarre,  was  the 
son  of  Henry  IV.,  and  regretted  that  he  had  not  claimed  the 
privileges  of  royal  birth.  Phih'bert  de  Gramont  was  the  son  of 
Antoine  II.  by  h^s  second  marriage  with  Gaude  de  Montmorency, 
and  was  bom  in  1621,  probably  at  the  family  seat  of  Bidache. 
He  was  destined  for  the  church,  and  was  educated  at  the  collige 
of  Pau,  in  B&m.  He  refused  the  ecclesiastical  life,  however, 
and  joined  the  army  of  Prince  Thomas  of  Savoy,  then  besieging 
Trino  in  Piedmont.  He  afterwards  served  under  his  dder 
half-brother,  Antoine,  marshal  de  Gramont,  and  the  prince 
of  Cond6.  He  was  present  at  Fribourg  and  Nordlingen,  and 
also  served  with  distinction  in  Spain  and  Flanders  in  1647  and 
1648.  He  favoured  Condi's  party  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Fronde,  but  changed  sides  before  he  was  too  severely  com- 
promised. In  spite  of  his  record  in  the  army  he  never  received 
any  important  commission  cither  military  or  diplomatic,  perhaps 
because  of  an  incurable  levity  in  his  outlook.  He  was,  however, 
made  a  governor  of  the  Pays  d'Aunis  and  lieutenant  of  Bfarn. 
During  the  Commonwealth  he  visited  England,  and  in  1662 
be  was  exiled  from  Paris  for  paying  court  to  Mademoiselle  de  la 
Motte  Houdancourt,  one  of  the  king's  mistresses.  He  went  to 
London,  where  he  found  at  the  court  of  Charles  II.  an  atmosphere 
congenial  to  his  talents  for  intrigue,  gallantry  and  pleasure. 
He  married  in  London,  under  pressure  from  her  two  brothers, 
Elizabeth  Hamilton,  the  sister  of  his  future  biographer.  She 
was  one  of  the  great  beauties  of  the  English  court,  and  was, 
according  to  her  brothcr*s  optimistic  account,  able  to  fix  the 
count's  affections.  She  was  a  woman  of  considerable  wit,  and 
held  her  own  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.,  but  her  husband  pursued 
his  gallant  exploits  to  the  dose  of  a  long  h'fe,  being,  said  Ninon 
de  I'Eodos,  the  only  old  man  who  could  affect  the  follies  of 
youth  without  being  ridiculous.  In  1664  he  was  allowed  to 
return  to  France.  He  revisited  England  in  1670  in  connexion 
with  the  sale  of  Dunkirk,  and  again  in  1671  and  1676.  In  1688 
he  was  sent  by  Louis  XIV.  to  congratulate  James  II.  on  the 
birth  of  an  heir.  From  all  these  small  diplomatic  missions  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  considerable  profits,  being  destitute 
of  scruples  whenever  money  was  in  question.  At  the  age  of 
seventy-five  he  had  a  dangerous  illness,  during  which  he  became 
reconciled  to  the  church.  His  penitence  does  not  seem  to  have 
survived  his  recovery.  He  was  eighty  years  old  when  he  supplied 
his  brother-in-hiw,  Anthony  Hamilton  iq.v.),  with  the  materiab 
for  his  Mimoires.  Hamilton  said  that  they  had  been  dictated 
to  him,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  the  real  author.  The 
account  of  Gramont 's  early  career  was  doubtless  provided  by 
himself,  but  Hamilton  was  probably  more  familiar  with  the 
histwy  of  the  court  of  Charles  II.,  which  forms  the  most  interest- 
ing Section  of  the  book.  Moreover  Gramont,  though  he  bad  a 
reputation  for  wit,  was  no  writer,  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  he  was  capable  of  producing  a  work  which  remains 
a  masterpiece  of  style  and  of  witty  portraiture.  When  the 
Mimoires  were  finished  it  is  said  that  Gramont  sold  the  MS. 
for  1 500  francs,  and  kept  most  of  the  money  himself.  Fontenelle, 
then  censor  of  the  press,  refused  to  license  the  book  from  con- 
siderations of  respect  to  the  strange  old  man,  whose  gambling, 
cheating,  and  meannesses  were  so  ruthlessly  expcwcd.  But 
Gramont  himsdf  appealed  to  the  chancellor  and  the  prohibition 
was  removed.  He  died  on  the  loth  of  January  1707,  and  Ihe 
Miimoires  appeared  six  years  later. 

Hamilton  was  far  superior  to  the  comte  de  Gramont,  but  he 
telates'the  story  of  his  hero  without  comment,  and  no  condemna- 
tion of  the  prevalent  code  of  morals  is  allowed  to  appear,  unless 
in  an  occasional  touch  of  irony.  The  portrait  is  drawn  with 
aoch  skin  that  the  count,  in  spite  of  his  bi6grapher*8  candour, 
imposes  by  his  grand  air  on  the  reader  much  as  he  appeai^  to 
havedoneon  his  contemporaries.  The  book  is  the  most  entertain- 
ing of  contemporary  memoirs,  and  in  no  other  book  is  there  a 
description  so  vivid,  truthful,  and  graceful  of  the  licentious  court 
of  Charles  II.  There  are  other  and  less  flattering  accounts  of 
the  count.  His  scandalous  tongue  knew  no  restraint,  and  he 
was  a  privileged  person  who  was  allowed  to  state  even  the  most 
ang  truths  to  Louis  XIV.    Saint-Simon  in  his  memoirs 


describes  the  relief  that  was  felt  at  court  when  the  old  man's 
death  was  announced. 

Mimoires  delaviedu  comte  de  Crammonl  conienatU  parlicuIQrement 
Vkistoire  amoureuse  de  la  cow  d'Angleterre  sous  le rigne de  Charles  II 
was  printed  in  Holland  with  the  inscription  Coloene,  17 13.  Other 
editions  followed  in  171^  and  1716.  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Count  de 
Crammonl . . .  translated  out  of  the  French  by  Mr  I  Abel]  Bqver 
(17x4),  was  supplemented  by  a  "  compleat  Icey  "  m  1719.  The 
Mimoires  "  augmentfes  de  notes  et  d'^lairciasemens  "  wa^  edited 
by  Horace  Walpole  in  177a.  In  1793  appeared  in  London  an  edition 
adorned  with  portraits  engraved  after  originals  in  the  royal  collec- 
tion. An  English  edition  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  published  by 
H.  G.  Bohn  (1846),  and  this  with  additions  was  reprinted  in  1889, 
1890, 1896,  &c.  Among  other  modem  editions  are  an  excellent  one 
in  the  Btbliothique  Charpentier  edited  by  M.  Gustave  Brunet  (1859) ; 
Mimoires  .  .  .  (Paris,  1888)  with  etchings  by  L.  Boisson  after  C. 
Delort  and  an  introduction  by  H.  Gausseron;  Memoirs  .  .  . 
(1889),  edited  by  Mr  H.  Vixetelly;  and  Memoirs  .  .  .  (1903), 
edited  by  Mr  Gordon  Goodwin. 

ORAMOPHONB  (an  invented  word,  formed  on  an  inversion 
of ''phonogram";  ^>'i^,  sound,  YpA;«Ma,  letter),  an  instrument 
for  recording  and  reproducing  sounds.  It  depends  on  the  same 
general  prindples  as  the  phonograph  (q.v.),  but  it  diffcra  in 
certain  details  of  construction,  especially  in  having  the  sound- 
record  cut  spirally  on  a  flat  disk  instead  of  round  a  cylinder. 

GRAMPIANS,  THE*  a  mass  of  mountains  in  central  Scotland. 
Owing  to  the  number  of  ramifications  and  ridges  it  is  difficult 
to  assign  their  precise  h'mits,  but  they  may  be  described  as 
occupying  the  area  between  a  line  drawn  from  Dumbartonshire 
to  the  North  Sea  at  Stonehaven,  and  the  valley  of  the  Spey  or 
even  Glenmore  (the  Caledonian  Canal).  Their  trend  is  from 
south-west  to  north-east,  the  southern  face  forming  the  natural 
division  between  the  Lowlands  and  Highlands.  They  h'e  in  the 
shires  of  Argyll,  Dumbarton,  Stirling,  Perth,  Forfar,  Kincardine, 
Aberdeen,  Banff  and  Inverness.  Among  the  highest  suounits 
are  Ben  Nevis,  Ben  Macdhui,  and  Cairngorms,  Ben  Lawen,  Ben 
More,  Ben  Alder,  Ben  Cruachan  and  Ben  Lomond.  The  principal 
rivers  flowing  from  the  watershed  northward  are  the  Findhom, 
Spey,  Don,  Dee  and  their  tributaries,  and  southward  the  South 
£^,  Tay  and  Forth  with  their  affluents.  On  the  north  the  mass 
is  wild  and  rugged;  on  the  south  the  dope  is  often  gentle,  afford- 
ing  excellent  pasture  in  many  places,  but  both  sections  contain 
some  of  the  finest  deer-forests  in  Scotland.  They  are  crossed 
by  the  Highland,  West  Highland  and  Callander  to  Oban  railways, 
and  present  some  of  the  finest  scenery  in  the  kingdom.  The 
rocks  consist  chiefly  of  granite,  gneiss,  schists,  quartzite,  porphyry 
and  diorite.  Their  fastnesses  were  originally  inhabited  by  the 
northern  Picts,  the  Caledonians  who,  under  Galgacus,  were 
defeated  by  Agricda  in  A.D.  84  at  Mons  Graupius— the  false 
reading  of  which,  Grampius,  has  been  perpetuated  in  the  name 
of  the  mountains — the  site  of  which  has  not  been  ascertained. 
Some  authorities  place  it  at  Ardoch;  othen  near  the  junction 
of  the  Tay  and  Ida,  or  at  Dalginross  near  Comrie;  while  some, 
contending  for  a  podtion  nearer  the  east  coast,  refer  it  to  a  dte 
in  west  Forfarshire  or  to  Raedykes  near  Stonehaven. 

ORAMPOUND,  a  small  market  town  in  the  mid-parliamentary 
dividon  of  Cornwall,  England,  9  m.  E.N.E.  of  Truro,  and  2  m. 
from  its  station  (Grampound  Road)  on  the  Great  Western 
railway.  It  is  dtuated  on  the  river  Fal,  and  has  some  industry 
in  tanning.  It  retains  an  andent  town  hdl;  there  is  a  good 
market  cross;  and  in  the  neighbourhood,  along  the  Fd,  are 
severd  early  earthworks. 

Grampound  (Ponsmure,  Graundpodt,  Gnuntpount,  Graund- 
pond)  and  the  hundred,  manor  and  viU  of  Tibeste  were  formerly 
so  dosely  associated  that  in  1400  the  former  is  found  styled  the 
vill  of  Grauntpond  called  Tibeste.  At  the  time  of  the  Domesday 
Survey  Tibeste  was  amongst  the  most  vduable  of  the  manors 
granted  to  the  count  of  Mortain.  The  burgensic  character  of 
Ponsmure  first  appean  in  1299.  Thirty-five  years  later  John 
of  Eltham  granted  to  the  burgesses  the  whole  town  of  Graunt- 
pount.  This  grant  was  confirmed  io  1378  when  its  extent  and 
jurisdiction  were  defined.  It  was  provided  that  the  hundred 
court  of  Powdershire  should  dways  be  hdd  there  and  two  f drs  at 
the  feasts  of  St  Peter  in  Cathedra  and  St  Barnabas,  both  of 
whidi  are  stUI  hdd,  and  a  Tuesday  market  (now  hdd  on  Friday) 


334- 


GRAMPUS— GRANADA 


and  that  It  should  be  a  free  borough  rendering  a  yearly  rent  to 
the  earl  of  Cornwall.  Two  members  were  summoned  to  parlia- 
ment by  Edward  VI.  in  1553.  The  electors  consisted  of  an 
indefinite  number  of  freemen,  about  50  in  all,  indirectly  nomin- 
ated by  the  mayor  and  corporation,  which  existed  by  prescription. 
The  venality  of  the  electors  became  notorious.  In  1780  £3000 
was  paid  for  a  seat:  in  18x2  each  supporter  of  one  of  the 
candidates  received  £xoa  The  defeat  of  this  candidate  in  x8i8 
led  to  a  parliamentary  inquiry  which  disclosed  a  system  of 
wholesale  corruption,  and  in  182 1  the  borough  was  disfranchised. 
A  former  woollen  trade  is  extinct. 

GRAMPUS  (Orca  gladiator,  or  Orca  area),  a  cetacean  belonging 
to  the  Dclphinidac  or  dolphin  family,  characterixed  by  its  rounded 
head  without  distinct  beak,  high  dorsal  fin  and  large  conical 
teeth.  The  upper  parts  are  nearly  uniform  glossy  black,  and 
the  under  parts  white,  with  a  strip  of  the  same  colour  over 
each  eye.  The  O.  Fr.  word  yras  grapois,  graspcis  or  craspcis, 
from  Med.  Lat.  crassus  piscis,  fat  fish.  This  was  adapted  into 
English  as  grapcys,  graspeys,  &c.,  and  in  the  x6lh  century  becomes 
graunde  pose  as  if  from  grand  poisson.  The  final  corruption  to 
*'gramptis"  appears  in  the  i8th  century  and  ixcas  probably 
nautical  in  origin.  The  animal  is  also  known  as  the  "  killer," 
in  allusion  to  its  ferocity  in  attacking  its  prey,  which  consists 
largely  of  seals,  porpoises  and  the  smaller  dolphins.  Its  fierce- 
ness is  only  equalled  by  its  voracity,  which  is  such  that  in  a 
q>ecimen  measuring  ai  ft.  in  length,  the  remains  of  thirteen 
seals  and  thirteen  porpoises  were  found,  in  a  more  or  less  digested 
state,  while  the  animal  appeared  to  have  been  choked  in  the 
endeavour  to  swallow  another  seal,  the  skin  of  which  was  found 
entangled  in  its  teeth.  These  cetaceans  sometimes  hunt  in  packs 
or  schools,  and  commit  great  havoc  among  the  belugas  or  white 
whales,  which  occasionally  throw  themselves  ashore  to  escape 
their  persecutors.  The  grampus  is  an  inhabitant  of  northern 
seas,  occurring  on  the  shores  of  Greenland,  and  having  been 
caught,  although  rarely,  as  far  south  as  the  Mediterranean. 
There  are  numerous  instances  of  its  capture  on  the  British  coasts. 
(See  Cetacea.) 

GRANADA.  LUIS  DB  (X504-XS88),  Spanish  preache)r  and 
ascetic  writer,  bom  of  poor  parents  named  Sarrii  at  Granada. 
He  lost  his  father  at  an  early  age  and  his  widowed  mother  was 
supponed  by  the  charity  of  the  Dominicans.  A  child  of  the 
Alhambra,  he  entered  the  service  of  the  alcalde  as  page,  and, 
his  ability  being  discovered,  received  his  education  with  the 
sons  of  the  house.  When  nineteen  he  entered  the  Dominican 
convent  and  in  1525  took  the  vows;  and,  with  the  leave  of  his 
prior,  shared  his  daUy  allowance  of  food  with  his  mother.  He 
was  sent  to  Valladolid  to  continue  his  studies  and  then  was 
appointed  procurator  at  Granada.  Seven  years  after  he  was 
elected  prior  of  the  convent  of  Scala  Caeli  in  the  mountains  of 
Cordova,  which  after  eight  years  he  succeeded  in.restoring  from 
its  ruinous  state,  and  there  he  began  his  work  as  a  zealous 
reformer.  His  preaching  gifts  were  developed  by  the  orator 
Juan  de  Avila,  and  he  became  one  of  the  most  famous  of  Spanish 
preachers.  He  was  invited  to  Portugal  in  1555  and  became 
provincial  of  his  order,  declining  the  offer  of  the  archbishopric 
of  Braga  but  accepting  the  position  of  confessor  and  counsellor 
to  Catherine,  the  queen  regent.  At  the  expiration  of  his  tenure 
of  the  provindalship,  he  retired  to  the  Dominican  convent  at 
Lisbon,  where  he  lived  till  his  death  on  the  last  day  of  1588. 
Aiming,  both  in  his  sermons  and  ascetical  writings,  at  develop- 
ment of  the  reUgious  view,  the  danger  of  the  times  as  he  saw  it 
was  not  so  much  in  the  Protestant  reformation,  which  was  an 
outside  influence,  but  in  the  direction  that  religion  had  taken 
among  the  masses.  He  held  that  in  Spain  the  Catholic  faith 
was  not  understood  by  the  people,  and  that  ^eir  ignorance  was 
the  pressing  danger.  He  fell  under  the  suspicion  of  the  In- 
quisition; his  mystical  teaching  was  said  to  be  heretical,  and 
his  most  famous  book,  the  Guia  de  Pucadores,  still  a  favourite 
treatise  and  one  that  has  been  translated  into  nearly  every 
European  tongue,  was  put  on  the  Index  of  the  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion, together  with  his  book  on  prayer,  in  xS59'  His  great 
opponent  was  the  restless  and,  MQbitiouft  Mddiior  Ca&o,  who 


stigmatized  the  second  book  as  containing  grave  errors  smacking 

of  the  heresy  of  the  Alumbrados  and  manifestly  contradicting 

Catholic  faith  and  teaching.    But  in  1576  the  prohibition  was> 

removed  and  the  works  of  Luis  de  Granada,  so  prized  by  St 

Francis  de  Sales,  have  never  lost  their  value.    The  friend  of  St 

Teresa,  St  Peter  of  Alcantara,  and  of  all  the  noble  minds  of  Spain 

of  his  day,  no  one  among  the  three  hundrtMl  Spanish  m3rstics 

excels  Luis  de  Granada  in  the  beauty  of  a  didactic  style,  variety 

of  illustration  and  soberness  of  statement. 

The  last  collected  edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  in  9  vob. 
at  Antwerp  in  1578.  A  bii^raphy  by  L.  Monox,  La  Vida  j  vtrtud*s 
de  Luis  de  Granada  (Madrid,  1639);  a  study  of  his  system  by  P. 
Roussclot  ih  Mystiques  estagndes  (Paris,  1867);  Ticknor,  Hisiorj 
of  Spanish  Literature  (vol.  lii.),  and  Fitzniaurice  Kelly,  History 
of  Spantsk  Literature,  pp.  200-202  (London,  1898),  may  also  be 
consulted. 

GRANADA,  the  capital  of  tl^e  department  of  Granada, 
Nicaragua;  33  m.  by  rail  S.E.  of  Managua,  the  capital  of  the 
republic.  Pop.  (1900)  about  25,000.  Granada  is  built  on  the 
north-western  shore  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  of  which  it  is  the  principal 
port.  Its  houses  are  of  the  usual  central  American  type,  con- 
structed of  adobe,  rarely  more  than  one  storey  high,  and  Sur- 
rounded by  courtyards  with  ornamental  gateways.  The  suburbs, 
scattered  over  a  large  area,  consist  chiefly  of  cane  huts  occupied 
by  Indians  and  half-castes.  There  are  several  ancient  churches 
and  convents,  in  one  of  which  the  interior  of  the  chancel  roof 
is  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl.  An  electric  tramway  connects  the 
railway  station  and  the  adjacent  wharves  with  the  market, 
about  I  m.  distant.  Ice,  cigars,  hats,  boots  and  shoes  are 
manufactured,  but  the  characteristic  local  industry  is  the  pro- 
duction of  "  Panama  chains,"  ornaments  made  of  thin  gold  wire. 
In  the  neighbourhood  there  are  large  cocoa  phuxtations;  and  the 
city  has  a  thriving  trade  in  cocoa,  coffee,  hides,  cotton,  native 
tobacco  and  indigo. 

Granada  was  founded  in  1523  by  Francisco  Fernandez  de 
C6rdoba.  It  became  one  of  the  wealthiest  of  central  American 
cities,  although  it  had  always  a  keen  conunerdal  rival  in  Leon, 
which  now  surpasses  it .  in  size  and  importance.  In  the  17th 
century  it  was  often  raided  by  buccaneers,  notably  in  x6o6, 
when  it  was  completely  sacked.  In  1855  it  was  captured  and 
partly  burned  by  the  adventurer  William  Walker  (see  Centsai. 
America:  History). 

GRANADA,  a  maritime  province  of  southern  Spain,  formed 
in  1833  of  districts  belonging  to  Andalusia,  and  coincicUng  with 
the  central  parts  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Granada.  Pop. 
(1900)  492,460;  area,  4928  sq.  m.  Granada  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Cordova,  Jaen  and  Albacete,  £.  by  Muxda  and  Almexla, 
S.  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  W.  by  Malaga.  It  includes  the 
western  and  loftier  portion  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  iq.v.),  a  vast 
ridge  rising  parallel  to  the  sea  and  attaining  its  greatest  altitudes 
in  the  Cerro  de  Mulhacen  (i  1,421  ft.)  and  Picacho  de  la  Vdeta 
(x  1,148),  which  overlook  the  dty  of  Granada.  Lesser  ranges, 
such  as  the  Sierras  of  Parapanda,  Alhama,  Almijara  or  Harana, 
adjoin  the  main  ridge.  From  this  central  watershed  the  three 
principal  rivers  of  the  provfnce  take  their  rise,  viz.:  the  Guadiana 
Menor,  which,  flowing  past  Guadix  in  a  northeriy  direction,  falls 
into  the  Guadalquivir  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ubeda;  the 
Genii  which,  after  traversing  the  Vega,  or  Plain  of  Granada,  leaves 
the  province  a  little  to  the  westward  ojf  Loja  and  joins  the  Guadal* 
quivir  between  Cordova  and  Seville;  and  the  Rio  Grande  or 
Guadalf^o,  which  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  at  MotriL  The 
coast  is  little  indented  and  none  of  its  three  harbours,  Almufifkar, 
Albufiol  and  Motril,  ranks  high  in  commercial  importance. 
The  climate  in  the  lower  valleys  and  the  luurow  fringe  along  the 
coast  is  warm,  but  on  the  higher  grounds  of  the  interior  is 
somewhat  severe;  and  the  vegetation  varies  acoordinc^y  from 
the  subtropical  to  the  alpine.  The  soil  of  the  plains  is  very 
productive,  and  that  of  the  Vega  of  Granada  is  considered  the 
richest  in  the  whole  peninsula;  from  the  days  of  the  Moors  it 
has  been  systematically  irrigated,  and  it  continues  to  yield  in 
great  abundance  and  in  good  quality  wheat,  bariey,  maize,  wine, 
oil,  sugar,  flax,  cotton,  silk  and  almost  every  variety  of  fruit. 
In  the  mountains  immediately  surrounding  the  dty  ol  Giaoada 


GRANADA 


335 


occar  many  kinds  of  alabaster,  some  very  fine;  there  are  also 
quantities  of  jasper  and  other  precious  stones.  Mineral  waters. 
chiefly  chalybeate  and  sulphurous,  are  abundant,  the  most 
important  springs  being  those  of  Alhama,  which  have  a  tempera- 
ture of  113^  F.  There  are  valuable  iron  mines,  and  small 
quantities  of  zinc,  lead  and  mercury  are  obtained.  The  cane 
and  beet  sugar  industries,  for  which  there  are  factories  at  Loja, 
at  Motril,  and  in  the  Vega,  developed  rapidly  after  the  loss  of 
the  Spanish  West  indies  and  the  Philippine  Islands  in  1898, 
with  the  consequent  decrease  in  competition.  There  are  also 
tanneries,  foundries  and  manufactories  of  woollen,  linen,  cotton, 
and  rough  frieze  stuffs,  cards,  soap,  spirits,  gunpowder  and 
machinery.  Apart  from  the  great  hi^ways  traversing  the  pro- 
vince, which  are  excellent,  the  roads  are  few  and  ill-kept.  The' 
railway  from  Madrid  enters  the  province  on  the  north  and 
bifurcates  north-west  of  Guadix;  one  branch  going  eastwi^rd 
to  Almerik,  the  other  westward  to  Loja,  Malaga  and  Algeciras. 
Baza  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway  from  Lorca.  The  chief  towns 
include  Granada,  the  capital  (pop.  xgoo,  75,960)  with  Alhama 
deGranada(7697),Baza(x3,77o),  Guadix  (i3,652),Loja(i9,x43), 
Montcfrfo  (10,735),  and  Motril  (18,538).  These  are  described  in 
separate  articles.  Other  towns  with  upwards  of  7000  inhabitants 
are  Albufiol  (8646),  Almufi£car  (8022),  CCUlar  de  Baza  (8007), 
Hu^scar  (7763),  Illora  (9496)  and  Puebla  de  Don  Fadrique 
(7430).  llie  history  of  the  ancient  kingdom  is  inseparable  from 
that  of  the  dty  of  Granada  (^.r.). 

OBAItAPA,  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  formerly  of  the 
kingdom  of  Granada,  in  southern  Spain;  on  the  Madrid-Granada- 
Al^dras  railway.  Pop.  (1900)  75,900.  Grahada  is  magnifi- 
cently situated,  2x95  ft.  above  the  sea,  on  the  north-western 
slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  overlooking  the  fertile  lowlands 
known  as  the  Vega  de  Granada  on  the  west  and  overshadowed 
by  the  peaks  of  Veleta  (11,148  ft.)  and  Mulhacen  (11,421  ft.)  on 
the  south-east.  The  southern  limit  of  the  city  is  the  river  Genii, 
the  Roman  SingUis  and  Moorish  Shenii,  a  swift  stream  flowing 
west  ward,  from  the  Sierra  Nevada,  with  a  considerable  volume 
of  water  in  summer,  when  the  snows  have  thawed.  Its  tributary 
the  Darro,  the  Roman  Salon  and  Moorish  Hadivro,  enters 
Granada  on  the  east,  flows  for  upwards  of  a  mile  from  east  to 
west,  and  then  turns  sharply  southward  to  join  the  main  river, 
which  is  spanned  by  a  bridge  just  above  the  point  of  confluence. 
The  waters  of  the  Darro  are  much  reduced  by  irrigation  works 
along  its  lower  course,  and  within  the  city  it  has  been  canalized 
and  partly  covered  with  aToof. 

'  Granada  comprises  three  main  divisions,  the  Antequeruela, 
the  Albajdn  (or  Albaydn),  and  Granada  properly  so-called. 
The  first  division,  founded  by  refugees  from  Antequera  in  14x0, 
consists  of  the  districts  enclosed  by  the  Darro,  besides  a  small 
area  on  its  right,  or  western  bank. '  It  is  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  gardens  and  hill  of  the  Alhambra  (q.v.),  the  most  celebrated 
of  all  the  monuments  left  by  the  Moors.  The  Albaidn(Moorish 
Rabad  ai  Bayaan,  "  Falconers'  Quarter ")  lies  north-west  of 
the  AntequenieU.  Its  name  is  sometimes  associated  with  that 
of  Baeza,  since,  according  to  one  tradition,  it  was  colonized  by 
dtizens  of  Baeza,  who  fled  hither  in  1346,  after  the  capture 
of  thdr  town  by  the  Christians.  It  was  long  the  favourite 
abode  of  the  Moorish  nobles,  but  is  now  mainly  inhabited  by 
gipsies  and  artisans.  Granada,  properly  so-called,  is  north 
of  the  Antequeruela,  and  west  of  the  AlbaidxL  The  origin  of 
its  name  is  obscure;  it  has  been  sometimes,  though  with  little 
probability,  derived  from  granadaf  a  pomegranate,  in  allusion 
to  the  abundance  of  pomegranate  trees  in  the  neighbourhood. 
A  pomegnnate  appears  on  the  city  arms. .  The  Moors,  however, 
called  Granada  Kamaiiak  or  KarnaUah-al-  Yahud,  and  possibly 
the  name  is  composed  of  the  Arabic  words  kurnt  "  a  hill,"  and 
MttaA,  "  stranger,'*— the  "  dty  "  or  "  hill  of  strangers." 
.  Althoogh  the  city  has  been  to  some  extent  modernized,  the 
arcfattecture  of  its  more  ancient  quarters  has  many  Moorish 
characteristics.  The  streets  are,  as  a  rule,  ill-lighted,  ill-pave^ 
and  irregular:  but  there  are  several  fine  squares  and. avenues, 
rach  as  the  Bibarrambla,  where  tournaments  were  held  by  the 
Ifoofs;  the  ffMcioas  Plazft  del  Trionfo,  adjoining  the  bull-ring, 


on  the  north;  the  Alameda,  planted  with  plane  trees,  and  the 
Paseo  del  Salon.  The  business  centre  of  the  dty  is  the  Puerta 
Real,  a  square  named  after  a  gate  now  demolished. 

Granada  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop.  Its  cathedral,  which 
commemorates  the  reconquest  of  southern  Spain  from  the  Moors, 
is  a  somewhat  heavy  classical  building,  begun  in  1529  by  Diego 
de  Siloe,  and  only  finished  in  1703.  It  is  profusely  ornamented 
with  jasper  and  coloured  marbles,  and  surmounted  by  a  dome. 
The  interior  contains  many  paintings  and  jKuIptures  by  Alonso 
Cano  (160X-X667),  the  arcUtect  of  the  fine  west  facade,  and  other 
artists.  In  one  of  the  numerous  chapels,  known  as  the  Chapel 
Royal  {Capitla  Real),  is  the  monument  of  Philip  I.  of  Castile 
(1478^x506),  and  his  queen  Joanna;  with  the  tomb  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  the  first  rulers  of  united  Spain  (1453-1516).  The 
church  of  Santa  Maria  (x 705-1 759),  which  may  be  regarded  as 
an  annexe  of  the  cathedral,  occupies  the  site  of  the  chief 
mosque  of  Granada.  This  was  used  as  a  church  until  766X. 
Santa  Ana  (X54X)  also  repUced  a  mosque;  Nuestra  Scfiora  de 
las  Angiistias  (1664-1671)  is  noteworthy  for  its  fine  towers,  and 
the  rich  decoration  of  its  high  altar.  The  convent  of  San 
Geronimo  (or  Jeronimo),  founded  in  X492  by  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  was  converted  into  barracks  in  1810;  its  church  contains 
the  tomb  of  the  famous  captain  Gonsalvo  or  Gonzalo  de  Cordova 
(x455~i5X5)*  The  Cartuja,  or  Carthusian  monastery  north  of 
the  dty,  was  built  in  1 516  on  Gonzalo's  estate,  and  in  his  memory. 
It  contains  several  fine  paintings,  and  an  interesting  church  of 
the  X7th  and  18th  centuries. 

After  the  Alhambra,  and  such  adjacent  buildings  as  the 
Generalife  and  Torres  Bermejas,  which  are  more  fitly  described 
in  connexion  with  it,  the  prindpal  Moorish  antiquities  of  Granada 
are  the  13th-century  villa  known  as  the  Cuarto  Real  dc  San 
Domingo,  admirably  preserved,  and  surrounded  by  beauUfid 
gardens;  the  Alc&zar  de  Genii,  built  in  the  middle  of  the  14th 
century  as  a  palace  for  the  Moorish  queens;  and  the  C^asa  dd 
Cabildo,  a  university  of  the  same  period,  converted  into  a  ware- 
house in  the  19th  century.  Few  Spanish  dties  possess  a  greater 
number  of  educational  and  charitable  establishments.  The 
university  was  founded  by  Charles  V.  in  1531,  and  transferred 
to  its  present  buildings  in  1769.  It  is  attended  by  about  600 
students.  In  1900,  the  primary  schools  of  Granada  numbered 
32,  in  addition  to  an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  a  training-school 
for  teachers,  schools  of  art  and  jurisprudence,  and  museums  of 
art  and  archaeology.  There  were  t welvehospitals  and  orphanages 
for  both  sexes,  including  a  leper  hospital  in  one  of  the  convents. 
Granada  has  an  active  trade  in  the  agricultural  produce  of  the 
Vega,  and  manufactures  liqueura,  soap,  paper  and  coarse  linen 
and  woollen  fabrics.  Silk-weaving  was  .once  extensively 
carried  on,  and  large  quantities  of  silk  were  exported  to  Italy, 
France,  Germany  and  even  America,  but  this  industry  died 
during  the  19th  century. 

Htitory.— The  identity  of  Granada  with  the  Iberian  dty  of 
Iliberris  or  lUberrif  which  afterwards  became  a  flourishing 
Roman  colony,  has  never  been  fully  established;  but  Roman 
tombs,  coins,  inscriptions,  &c.,  have  been  discovered*  in  the 
ndghbourhood.  With  the  rest  of  Andalusia,  as  a  result  of  the 
great  invasion  from  the  north  in  the  5th  century,  Granada  fell 
to  the  lot  of  the  Vandals.  Under  the  caliphs  of  Cordova,  onwards 
from  the  8th  century,  it  rapidly  gained  in  importance,  and 
ultimately  became  the  seat  of  a  provincial  government,  which, 
after  the  fall  of  the  Omayyad  dynasty  in  1031,  or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  1038,  ranked  with  Seville,  Jaexi  and  others 
as  an  independent  prindpality.  The  family  of  the  Zeri,  Ziri 
or  Zeiri  maintained  itself  as  the  ruling  djmasty  until  1090; 
it  was  then  displaced  by  the  Almohades,  who  were  in  turn 
overthrown  by  the  Almorevides,  in  1154.  The  dominion  of 
the  Almoravides  continued  unbroken,  save  for  an  interval  of 
one  year  (ii6o-ii6x),  until  1229.  From  1229  to  1238  Granada 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Murda;  but  in  the  last-named 
year  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  Abu  Abdullah  Mahommed  Ibn 
Al  Ahmar,  prince  of  Jaen  and  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Nasrides.  Al  Ahmar  was  deprived  of  Jaen  in  1246,  but  united 
Granada,  Almerfa  and  Malaga  under  his  sceptre,  and,  at  the 


336 


GRANADILLA— GRANARIES 


fervour  of  the  Christian  crusad^  against  the  Moors  had  temporarily 
abated,  he  made  peace  with  Castile,  and  even  aided  the  Christians 
to  vanquish  the  Moslem  princes  of  Seville.  At  the  same  time 
he  offered  asylum  to  refugees  from  Valendai  Murda  and  other 
territories  in  which  the  Moors  had  been  overcome.  Al  Ahmar 
and  his  successors  ruled  over  Granada  until  1492,  in  an  unbroken 
line  of  twenty-five  sovereigns  who  maintained  their  independence 
partly  by  force,  and  partly  by  payment  of  tribute  to  their  stronf^r 
neighbours.  Their  encouragement  of  commerce — ^notably  the 
silk  trade  with  Italy — rendered  Granada  the  wealthiest  of 
Spanish  cities;  their  patronage  of  art,  literature  and  science 
attracted  many  learned  Moslems,  such  as  the  historian  Ibn 
Khaldun  and^  the  geographer  Ibn  Batuta,  to  their  court,  and 
resulted  in  a  brilliant  civilization,  of  which  the  Alhambra  is 
the  supreme  monument. 

The  kingdom  of  Granada,  which  outlasted  all  the  other 
Moorish  states  iii  Spain,  fcU  at  last  through  dynastic  rivalries 
and  a  harem  intrigue.  The  two  noble  families  of  the  Zegri  and 
the  Beni  Serraj  (better  known  in  history  and  legend  as  the 
Abencerrages)  encroached  greatly  upon  the  royal  prerogatives 
during  the  middle  years  of  the  15th  century.  A  crisis  arose 
in  1462,  when  an  endeavour  to  control  the  Abencerrages  resulted 
In  the  dethronement  of  Abu  Nasr  Saad,  and  the  accession  of  his 
son,  Mulcy  Abu'l  Hassan,  whose  name  is  preserved  in  that  of 
Mulhacen,  the  loftiest  peak  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  in  a  score 
of  legends.  Muley  Hassan  weakened  his  position  by  resigning 
Malaga  to  his  brother  £z  Zagal,  and  incurred  the  enmity  of 
his  first  wife  Aisha  by  marrying  a  beautiful  Spanish  slave, 
Isabella  do  Solis,  who  had  adopted  the  creed  of  Islam  and  taken 
the  name  of  Zorayah,  "  morning  star."  Aisha  or  Ayesha,  who 
thus  saw  her  sons  Abu  Abdullah  Mahommed  (Boabdil)  and  Yusuf 
in  danger  of  being  supplanted,  appealed  to  the  Abencerrages, 
whose  leaders,  according  to  tradition,  paid  for  their  sympathy 
with  their  lives  (see  Alhambra).  In  1482  Boabdil  succeeded 
in  deposing  his  father,  who  fled  to  Malaga,  but  the  gradual 
advance  of  the  Christians  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  forced 
him  to  resign  the  task  of  defence  into  the  more  warlike  hands 
of  Mulcy  Hassan  and  Ez  Zagal  (1483-1486).  In  1491  after  the' 
loss  of  these  leaders,  the  Moors  were  decisively  beaten;  Boabdil, 
who  had  already  been  twice  captured  and  liberated  by  the 
Spaniards,  was  compelled  to  sign  away  his  kingdom;  and  on 
the  2nd  of  January  1492  the  Spanish  army  entered  Granada, 
and  the  Moorish  power  in  Spain  was  ended.  The  campaign 
had  aroused  intense  interest  throughout  Christendom;  when 
the  news  reached  London  a  special  thanksgivmg  service  was  held 
in  St  Paul's  Cathedral  by  order  of  Henry  VII.. 

GRANADILLA,  the  name  applied  to  Paisifiora  quadrangtUans, 
Linn.,  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Passifioreae,  a  native  of 
tropic^  America,  having  smooth,  cordate,  ovate  or  acuminate 
leaves;  petioles  bearing  from  4  to  6  glands;  an  emetic  and 
narcotic  root;  scented  flowers;  and  a  large,  oblong  fruit, 
containing  numerous  seeds,  imbedded  in  a  subacid  edible  pulp. 
The  granadilla  is  sometimes  grown  in  British  hothouses.  The 
fruits  of  several  other  species  of  Passifiora  are  eaten.  P. 
laurifdia  is  the  "  water  lemon,"  and  P.  maliformis  the  "  sweet 
calabash  "  of  the  West  Indies. 

' .  GRANARIES.  From  ancient  times  grain  has  been  stored  in 
greater  or  lesser  bulk.  The  ancient  Egyptians  made  a  practice 
of  preserving  grain  in  years  of  plenty  against  years  of  scarcity, 
and  probably  Joseph  only  carried  out  on  a  large  scale  an  habitual 
practice.  The  climate  of  Egypt  being  very  dry,  grain  could  be 
stored  in  pits  for  a  long  time  without  sensible  loss  of  quality; 
The  silo  pit,  as  it  has  been  termed,  has  been  a  favourite  way  of 
storing  grain  from  time  immemorial  in  all  oriental  lands.  In 
Turkey  and  Persia  usurers  used  to  buy  up  wheat  or  barley  when 
comparatively  cheap,  and  store  it  in  hidden  pits  against  seasons 
of  dearth.  Probably  that  custom  is  not  yet  dead.  In  Malta 
a  relatively  large  stock' of  wheat  is  always  preserved  in  some 
hundreds  of  pits  (silos)  cut  in  the  rock.  A  single  silo  will  store 
from  60  to  80  tons  of  wheat,  which,  with  proper  precautions, 
will  keep  in  good  condition  for  four  years  or  more..  The  silos 
are  shaped  lUce  a  cylinder  resting  on  a  truncated  cone,  ftf^l 


surmounted  by  the  same  figure.  The  mouth  of  the  pit  is  round 
and  small  and  covered  by  a  stone  slab,  and  the  inside  is  lined 
with  barley  straw  and  kept  very  dry.  Samples  are  occasionally 
taken  from  the  wheat  as  from  the  hold  of  a  ship,  and  at  any 
signs  of  fermentation  the  granary  is  cleared  and  the  wheat 
turned  over,  but  such  is  the  dryness  of  these  silos  that  little 
trouble  of  this  kind  is  experienced. 

Towards  the  dose  of  the  X9th  century  warehouses  specially 
intended  for  holding  grain  began  to  multiply  in  Great  Britain, 
but  America  is  the  ^me  of  great  granaries,  known  there  as 
elevators.  There  are  climatic  difficulties  in  the  way  of  storing 
grain  in  Great  Britain  on  a  large  scale,  but  these  difficulties 
have  been  largely  overcome.  To  preserve  grain  in  good  condition 
it  must  be  kept  as  much  as  possible  from  moisture  and  heat. 
New  grain  when  brought  into  a  warehouse  has  a  tendency  to 
sweat,  and  in  this  condition  will  easily  heat.  If  the  heating  is 
allowed  to  continue  the  quality  of  the  grain  suffers.  An  effectual 
remedy  is  to  turn  out  the  grain  in  layers,  not  too  thick,  on  a 
floor,  and  to  keep  turning  it  over  so  as  to  aerate  it  thoroughly. 
Grain  can  thus  be  conditioned  for  storage  in  silos.  There  is 
reason  to  think  that  grain  in  a  sound  and  dry  condition  can  be 
better  stored  in  bins  or  dry  pits  than  in  the  open  air;  from  a 
series  of  experiments  carried  out  on  behalf  of  the  French  govern- 
ment it  would  seem  that  grain  exposed  to  the  air  is  decomposed 
at  3I  times  the  rate  of  grain  stored  in  silo  or  other  bins. 

In  comparing  the  grain-storage  system  of  Great  Britain  with 
that  of  North  America  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  whereas 
Great  Britain  raises  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  grain, 
which  is  more  or  less  rapidly  consumed,  grain-growing  is  one  of 
the  greatest  industries  of  the  United  States  and  of  Canada. 
The  enormous  surplus  of  wheat  and  maize  produced  in  America 
can  only  be  profitably  dealt  with  by  such  a  system  of  storage 
as  has  grown  up  there  since  the  middle  of  the  X9th  century. 
The  American  farmer  can  store  his  wheat  or  maize  at  a  moderate 
rate,  and  can  get  an  advance  on  his  warrant  if  he  is  in  need  of 
money.  A  holder  of  wheat  in  Chicago  can  withdraw  a  simiUr 
grade  of  wheat  from  a  New  York  elevator. 

Modem  gtanaries  are  all  built  on  much  the  same  plan.  The 
mechanical  equipment  for  receiving  and  discharging  grain  is 
very  similar  in  all  modem  warehouses.  A  granary  is  usually 
erected  on  a  quay  at  which  large  vessels  can  lie  and  discharge. 
On  the  land  side  railway  sidings  connect  the  warehouse  with 
the  chief  lines  in  its  district;  accessibility  to  a  canal  is  an  ad" 
vantage.  Ships  are  usually  cleared  by  budtet  elevators  which  are 
dipped  into  the  cargo,  though  in  some  cases  pneumatic  elevators 
are  substituted  (see  Con veyoss)  .  A  travelling  band  with  throw- 
off  carriage  will  speedily  distribute  a  heavy  load  of  grain. 
Band  conveyors  serve  equally  well  for  charging  or  discharging 
the  bins.  Bins  are  invariably  provided  with  hopper  bottoms, 
and  any  bin  can  be  effectively  cleared  by  the  band,  which  runs 
underneath,  either  in  a  cellar  or  in  a  spedally  constructed 
tunnel.  All  granaries  should  be  provided  with  a  suffidcnt 
plant  of  cleaning  machinery  to  take  from  the  grain  impurities 
as  would  be  likely  to  be  detrimental  to  its  storing  qualities. 
Chief  among  such  machines  are  the  warehouse  separators 
which  work  by  sieves  and  air  currents  (see  Fioua  and  Flour 

MANUTACTVaE). 

The  typical  grain  warehouse  is  furnished  with  a  number  oi 
chambers  for  grain  storage  which  are  known  as  sSLas,  and  may 
be  built  of  wood,  brick,  iron  or  ferroconcrete.  Wood  ska 
are  usually  square,  made  of  flat  strips  of.  wood  nailed  one  on  top 
of  the  other,  and  so  overlapping  each  other  at  the  comers  that 
altemately  a  longitudinal  and  a  transverse  batten  extends 
past  the  comer.  The  gaps  are  filled  by  short  pieces  -of  timber 
securely  nailed,  and  the  whole  silo  wall  is  thus  solid.  This  type 
of  bin  was  formerly  in  great  favour,  but  it  hais  certain  draw- 
backs, such  as  the  possibility  of  dry  rot,  while  weevils  are  apt 
to  harbour  in  the  interstices  unless  lime  washing  is  practised. 
Bricks  and  cement,  are  good  materials  lot  constructing  sks 
of  hexagonal  form,  but  necessitate  deep  foundations  and  sub- 
stantial walls.  Iron  silos  of  circular  form  are  used  to  some 
extent  in  Great  Britain,  but  are  more  common  in  North  aiuS 


GRANARIES 


trith  ur  ollict  nuuilil,  bat  the  coudeiiiuiao  ictiiut  the  uuict 
nil  la  mt  mitbu  ii  &  dmwbick  in  dunp  diniMt*.  Cyliodrial 
tmk.  tika  have  dto  been  mide  oi  Bie-pnof  tilt*.  FoTD-oiDctete 
dloa  bkve  becrx  built  aa  both  ibe  ModIct  uid  the  Hennebique 
•ytletnt  In  tbe  eulier  type  the  bui  wu  mule  of  u  iron  or 
nod  rruoewarlc  flUed  in  «ith  cvncrete,  but  more  recent  itruc- 
tuica  ue  compoied  catircly  o[  ileel  rods  embedded  Id  cement. 
Gnnviei  boIIL  ol  thii  matchAl  bive  the  great  mdvmnuge,  If 
piopsly  conatmcted,  oJ  being  free  from  any  riik  ol  laiiure  even 

crilaptci  thraBgb  pcatUK  oI  tbeatored  material  are  not  unknows. 

One  ti  the  bneflt  aad  mofll  eompTefe  Bni 
•■ — ■  la  the  worid  betoaga  -  -'    '----•■- 


lepf ired  fliKC  tbcy  cao  be  removed  and  replaced  vilbout  aiTectiag 
Ibe  main  bin  walli.  Il  ii  ehimed  thai  Ukk  lam  coulilute  Ibe 
bcA  povible  pratectjon  againit  fiie.  ^  A  iIkI  Iranwwork,  cavrred 
wiib  tilra,  ctdwd*  tbeie  ciicuLar  bina  and  coalaioa  tbe  convryon 
and  ipouu  vhich  are  uied  to  EJI  ibe  bini.  Five  lunndi  in  Ibe 
concrete  beddiDE  that  ftuftportt  the  bini  carry  the  beLl  conveyora 
wbicb  bring  back  Ebe  in^in  ID  the  workine  houte  lor  elouupff  or 
■hjpnien(._  Tbece  are  aliDgethrr  in  each  a  the  Borage  houKa  Ao 

«3  uullei  ioier^Hce  binW^  14J  biu  Ip  al"  ^1  bia**iU  n^ 
gram  in  a  column  S5  II,  deep,  and  the  nholc  group  baa  a  capacity 
.ofljoo.ooobuihela  Tbeae  bini  Hen  alt  ciatllKted  by  tbe  EbmeCE 
&  Record  Companv  ol  MbineapoliL  MinntKita.  U^A..  ia  ac- 
cordance with  the  JohOBn  ft  Rreon]  patent  •ynco  ol  be-prool 
'ile  graia  Morage  coailniciian.  In  cbk  odc  0'  the  workiiig  boiuei 
.  -.- — I — I  L.  e^  -t^  fiie-ptool  itonfe  bouiet  prow*  "*  *-*'■' 
-' -  -■--  ""^ tVing  houK, 


chaJged  ia  weighed,  then  being  te. ._ _._.._ 

upper  part  ol  the  bouie,  Imown  aa  the  cupola.  The  hopper  ol  each 
■TSl"'  cu  lalct  a  chai^  ol  1400  tHuhelt  (14,000  lb|.  Cnin  can 
tm  eoawyvd  ehhcr  vertKaUy  cr  horizoataUy  10  any  part  ol  the 
konae.  IMo  any  of  iba  bini  in  Iheannei  B,  or  into  any  truck  or  lake 
■ecanr,  Tbia  bouK  ia  conatmcted  of  limber  and  roofed  wilh 
ounpted  bm.  Tbc  cmveyor  belti  are  36  in.  wide:  thcK  at  the 
tap  at  cbe  home  are  provided  with  (hrow-ofl  carriagea.  The  duti 
frva  tbv  ckaning  machinery  11  canfuUy  collected  and  ipontrd  to 
ite  lanmx  aDder  Ihg  boiler  hnuie,  whciT  It  it  coniumnL  The 
CT«adrfc>l  wla  Una  in  the  ■«»[  boun  consil  of  hallow  tilca  ol 

n  aad  rewring  the  lateral  preaure  of  the  grain. 
I  Dace  In  poBiimi,  the  groove  ii  eomplelely  hllnlwiih 

..,. ^ —  jy  tAlch  the  Meel  ii  encased  and  protecied.    UuaHy 

the  botuaaa  ol  the  bina  aie  lurouhed  wUb  adf-diKbatr--  '^ 

irf  w^ik  dndcT  or  gravel  concrete  finlibed  wilh  eem 
p-v  atic  Imndatiod  oc  Hoportiag  floor  reislorced  co^ 
ly  ued.    The  tUea  already  deicribed  are  laced 
bck,  which  are  laid  Blid  ui  cement  mortar  cove 
■r  (t  the  bia.    Any  damafe  to  tbe  lacing  tilei 


ThaBeelbi 


srS.? 


If  boppen 


ngtbewLle 


■nka  ThctankiareToli.  bi(li.*iihBdiamcterol4Sfl.i  nrmm. 
andieit  on  foundatioru  ol  concrete  and  iteel.  Eacbhaaa 
Kparate  conical  rod  and  they  are  flat-bottomed,  tbe  grain  reating 
directly  on  tbe  iteel  and  concrete  foundatioa  bed,  A>  tbe  load  ol 
the  full  tank  ia  vey  heavy  iu  even  diniibution  on  the  bed  ia  coa- 
■Idered  a  poiot  ol  importance.  Each  tank  can  hold  about  IJOO  tona 
dI  wheat,  which  five*  a  total  itcinffv  capacity  for  tbe  lour  biu  ol 
over  45,0m  qra.  o)  iSo  lb.  Attached  to  the  mill  waiehoute  k  a  ikip 
elevator  with  a  ditdiargiog  capacity  ol  75  tona  an  hour.  The  graia 
it  Hewed  by  thb  elevauvlnni  the  bokl  or  hoMi  of  tbe  vewel  to  he 


So  working  houie.  Steel  lilo  tanka  hai 
a  beavy  stock  al  wheat  ai  eomparaii 
On  aa  awage  an  nrdiaary  lilo  bia  will 


33» 


GRANARIES 


ttco  qn..  but  arh  of  Ue  b^M  U  Bum  uritl  r 
svB  iioo  qn.  Tbc  uixl  caiumictian  du  nd 
and  COfUbtuenUv  Ihktu  the  file  pmnium. 

The  imporunc  annarin  At  Ibe  Liverpool  do 
but  have  una  twen  brouaht  up  to  motlem 

KDnfe  am  oJ  lij  aero,  wbik  the  i 
Ibc  ffidnbad  kide,  which  «and  on  the  maijl 
havr  an  ana  d(  1 1  tcKS.    Tbi  total  capacity  < 

b  loca]^  kjwaii  u 


■criakofficE 


:hF<ta  dock*  u  Traffnid  wharl 


■   The  toul  capacity  ia  i,uo.o(«lniilKla  or 

.i.;j.  :.  _ 1  I.  ,^  ~»nte  biu.    Tbe 

X  lidriil  the  dock,  ■ 
-  T.  nrhich  fiM  « 


per  hour;  »(hia«  ia  the  tow»l  coaveyiw  B^  fatd  ^  «■■» 
bullae  and  diatribDllBC  it  into  aiijr  of  tbe  116  bum  aovuic  gnia 

Irom  bin  to  Ian  either  lor  aeialing  or  delivwy,  ud  BJ— ' -' 

miihlni  in  bulk  at  the  laiE  of  joo  lou  per  hour-   ~ 
weijihiiig  aod  kadiiME  the  mckt  iato  40  nilviy  tn 
aimultaimuily :    kiwlin(  naia  from  the  mrcbou-  — 

coutini  craft  at  the  nie  of  1^  loaa  per  hour  is  Iwlkor  of  _„ 

per  hour^  Tbii  warvboMae  la  equipped  wilb  «  dryer  of  Anerkai 
conitnictioo,  whidi  can  deal  with  90  tonaeC  ^mp  cnin  at  one  time 
and  it  cofuected  with  tlie  whole  bio  qfitem  ta  int  fnia  eaa  b 
leadily  moved  Irom  anc  bio  to  Ibe  dryer  oc  cmciiely. 

A  inia  warehouK  at  the  Victoria  dock*,  London,  bdongini  to  tbi 
London  and  India  Doclu  Company  (fiff,  2)  baa  a  jtonng  capactt] 
of  about  is.ooi>  qn.  gr  Ma.000  buiEda.  Il  -  "•'—■  - 
ft.  hi(h,  and  ia  built  on  Ibe  Ameikaa  plan  of  in) 


toM*^' 


poeumalic  elevator  <Duci3iani-, 

bour  and  u  ined  chiefly  in  drnlinj^  with  pvceli 


water'a  edie,  by  *  band  conveyor  protected  by  a  gantry.    Tbe 
— :.  L..;ijr.- 1.  ...(.  kinf  bytolt.  wide!  the  whole  of  Ibe 

^^'and  lUcarTbe  leceivin '-' 

eanaj*!,  wilhiB  fairiy  wide  1i 

lioM  to  b* unloaded.  Theelevatorlualhelai^unlaadinEcapadty 
of  5S0  lona  per  hour,  aaaunin^  it  to  be  working  in  a  fuirhold.    It 

^  ™S! 
Siral" 

wcUaatheni 
■onlalCorlim 
Ivtwadllow 
elevaiac  ia  dri 
of  too  H.P.  h 

the  receiving  tower  the  grain  ia  conned  into  the  ' 
it  ia  at  once  elevated  to  the  top  af  a  ceittnl  towb.  ajiu  m  ukir 
diitribuled  Co  any  of  thebina  bybaitdconveyonln  tbeuaual  way. 
Tbv  mechanical  equipment  of  thla  warehouie  ia  very  comr^ete. 
be  followinfliev^iloperaiianafdAbeBimtillaiieouily  eflected; 
'--in  vcaeeta  In  tie  dock  at  tbe  rale  ol  }]a  tone 


!iScel> 

of  hoidt  which  the  iwdiuanr  eCii 
uued  to  wcKk  the  large  devaior 

joo  H.P.  joinlty.  which  ar 


ia  leived  bv  a  larfc  elevator  with  a  opacity  of  J30  tona  jn 
hour,  which  diachar^ea  into  tbe  elevator  well  iniide  the  bouie. 
The  ddivery  cievatora  diacharfe  into  a  receiving  ihed  in  which 
!betc  ia  a  laige  hopper  feeding  tin  automatic  weighing  machines 

,  ... .,-    Eicb  pair  of  waiehouaea  ii  pm- 

•nveyor  hand  u«  ft.  Ion),  uied  atha  for  cairyint 
weighing  ihedi  10  railway  Irueka  or  lor  cairyinc 
<  bargea  or  truck*.    Each  lUa  home  baa  an  identical 

' :  apart  Irom  the  delivery  hand  it  abate*  with 

All  opcniimia  in  conoexioa  with  Ibe  atto 
M  under  cover.    The  ailot  are  BDrtBaUy  led  by  a 

,  _.i  of  Philip^*  iuunl  aclfKliacharginfl  ^hlert.  Tbetc 

hof^xr.batlDDicd  and  fitted  with  tiand  conv^-"-  ^  -*■- 
3^dlaB^y  Ij^pe.  runDinsbelweenlhedoubleheelBonof  th. . 


(bout  100  Ion  ot  pain,  hu  b«o  cleand.  Ooaii  (tnnini  cl  inch 
dntt  u  ID  Jndude  (heir  «ntry  into  any  of  Ihc  up  river  dackt  arc 
cieHrcd  al  TUburv  by  theie  lichtcra.  k  ii  Bid  ihai  Enin  loaded 
uTilbucy  inU  IbeK  lighten  can  bcdeUvtred  Iroinibe  innritiilm 

capacity  o(  the  liln  amounti  to  jifloo  qre.  The  motive  powet  u 
liicniriieil  by  14  gu  tnpna  of  ■  loul  capacity  oT  .^  H.F. 

T«a  d  the  laiiat  iniuirict  on  the  coniineni  of  Europe  (le 
■illlUcd  at  the  nautll  oC  the  Danube,  11  Bnila  and  CalaU.  in 
m^,^^^  RuDaBia,  and  lerw  for  both  the  nctptiananddiKhirTe 
•"^^^  til  pain.  At  the  edge  of  Ibe  quay  oa  which  thetc  ware- 
boOKiarebiillt  thenareiaikwithapuieof  II)  ft-,  up™  which 
run  two  mechaidcal  loadinf  and  unloading  appliance*.  The  Gnt 
emaiiu  el  a  tdcacopic  devator  which  niin  the  pain  and  dcliven 
it  to  one  of  the  two  band  conveyon  at  the  bend  oC  Ihe  appaiatua. 
Each  01  thete  baadi  leeda  intooiuic  weiihini  machinet  with  an 
houriy  capacity  o<  75  1 
ditchufed  thnufh  a  ,.—.^,^~^  »,  „„  ^^^.^ 

ruaaing  ia  a  lunnd  parallel  to  the  quay  vail.  _. ,  _ 

•Kond  devitor  (part  of  the  nme  unloadinf  appoiatut).  let  at  aa 
iiKlineil  ancle,  which  deliven  at  a  uAdeiit  height  to  load  railway 
truck!  ou  the  fldioc  ruaning  parallel  to  the  quay.  A  turning  aar 
is  provided  n  at  to  revn'te^  u  required,  the  operation  of  the  whole 
appuatui.  that  the  portion  overbar^nff  the  water  can  be  turned 
ID  [he  bnd  aide.  The  unloadint;  capaaly  ii  150  tona  of  grain  per 
hour.  IE  it  be  dcaired  to  load  a  ihip  the  teleicopic  elector  hai 
only  to  be  tuned  round  aod  dipped  into  any  one  ol  IJ  wclU.  which 


GRANARIES 

Sty  of  the  ek 


339 


in  the  ground  to  a  band  ce 


Lreyon  is  too  ton*  of  grain  per  h 
complele  that  lour  ai»tincl  op 
^  ship  may  be  unloaded  into  ■ 
ay  limuiunBiiKly  Ik  loaded  <& 


mixed  with  other  grain  already  received,  ai 
ai}y  di^ivd  point-   with  equal  ladiily  grain  n 

Iramfernd  from  one  ihip  to  another. 


:1eancd,  blended 
le  gnnary,  aod 

ii  built  of  S^E 


at  DoRmuod,  Ccirnany,  1^  a  ci>opcraE 
OB  a  bate  of  bewn  atone,  with  beami  ..^  »ui>,i.„  v,  ..^ 
limbn.  U  ia  78  ft-  high  and  eoniUli  of  Kven  floon,  •>"*—* 
including  baaemcnt  and  attic.  Here  again  there  are  two  •Klioni. 
Ihe  larger  being  devoted  to  the  Horage  of  grain  in  low  bin,  while 
the  Bnaller  leclion  convttt  of  an  oidinacy  hIo  houic.  Grain  in 
lacka  may  be  ttocvd  in  the  baiement  of  the  larger  lection  which  hat 
a  apaciry  of  1679  torn  at  compared  with  8t  j  tont  in  the  lilo  depart- 
ment. Thiu  the  total  atoraae  capacity  ia  }5ao  tona.  In  the  lilo 
houv  the  bin*,  comtructed  ol  planlu  aailnl  one  over  the  other,  ore 

"* " ■ "■ Bpable  of  Uoring  grain  to  a  depth  of  4a  to 

have  been  ipecLlly  adapted  ior  leceiving 

ipM  Kctiona.    The  object  of 


-  --,--. .^ble  of 

47  ft.    S«nG  of  Ihe  biiu  have  bcei 


hvdniiUc^  inftaUalioa^ti 


lin  from  the  land  wie.    The  capadty  of 

have  been  built.  In  which  grain  ii  Aorcd 
in  laclu,  A  nouble  loRano:  ii  tbe  warc- 
:ily  of  Siuttcan.  Thi>  Ii  a  nniclure  of 
ncjudjng  a  baiement  and  entrcioL.     An 


whidi  It  ii  carried  by  a  accond  elevator  to  the  top 
it  ii  fed  to  a  hand  running  the  length  of  Ihe  building. 
lipea  runa  from  floor  to  floor,  and  by  meana  of  lu 
r  with  it!  movable  throw^fT  carriage  grain  can  be 


entnal  floor,  and  « 


pnnrided  wilh  a  ti 

iato  lb<  hopper  tc       . 

im^ii  into  a  lecpnd  hopper  ui 

dirvOtV  under  ihia  wdgbcr  the  ^ .. 

A  good  example  of  >  gnUn  warebouie  on  ibe  c 
d  BMC  «r ■■  -' — '-■  ■■■■  ■■■ 


.omalic  weiglier, 

imbined  >ib  bin 
and  inac  nocage  mtcm  i>  aSorded  bv  t" 

.  .    on  ihe  Rhine,  which  hu  the  .... .,    .    _   .. 

"•■•■•^tona.    The  building  11370  ft.  in  length,  78  ft.  wide  and 
7S  ft.  high,  and  by  meani  of  tnuvtne  walk  it  ii  dividid  into  Ihnx 

■mml  on  open  floon.  while  the  third,  which  ii  aitiEilfll  between 


wtiich  VTvea  Ibo  cleaning  oepannieDi 

■HChiaeTy  (pocially  doigned  for  cleai 
The  barley  plant  haa  a  dpacity  of  s  t' 


«lor  d  gi 


in  rapidly  dear  any  ^1 

ig  barl^  aa  well  a>  wheai 
I  per  h<Hr.   There  are  fou 


.    The  uual  band 
Dvidol,  and  are  nip 


Tlic  ^bl  ia  operated  by  electric  molort. 

nd  to  thii  end  a  lilt  with  a  capadly  of  I 
neat  10  the  top  Kony.     The  caaWatd 


depth  than  i  ft.  Tb 
and  damp  grain  ii  ml 
area  of  their  lide  nl 
for  dialribulii^  frain 
unckaned  gram  u  lal 

pancd  through  an  aul 
can  either  be  led  I'oai 


n  and  are  ulighEly  heUcrtrcd  at  Ibe  baae 

air  into  direct  comacl  with  the  giain. 
niary.  The  other  and  brger  lecIion  of 
I  105  Ehu  of  moderate  height  arranged 
lloora  between  the  baiement  and  attic, 
id  the  bottom  flooreach  bin  licaeanctly 
ii  not  ilored  in  theie  bini  to  a  gieater 
an  lilted  with  removable  ude  walla, 


.    Theai 


.The 


s?u 


1  by  Ihe  receiving  elevator 

LOur^,  to  a  warehouie  teparat 

naltc  weigher  and  ii  then  t 

valor  (capMity  IS  lorn  per 

«  Ihe  head  of  thii  main  elc 

>  in  one  or  other  of  the  main 

I  In  Iheiibhouie.   In  the  a..., ^ 

bdl  conveyor  10  one  or  other  of  the  turn- 
may  be  termed,  which  eerve  to  diMiibale 
loanyoneof  the  floor  or  ailo  him.  Alter- 
be  ahot  into  the  bnicnenl  and  there  fol 

iior  by  a  band  conveyor.    In  Ihia  way  the 

er  ai  often  aa  it  b  deemed  neceiaary.  At 
are  four  apenurei  connected  fay  apautt. 


United  Kingdom.    It  ia  probabie  that 
moitture  than  deep  ailr*.  whether  mad 


It  of  moderate  hcighi  ar 


340 


GRANARIES 


Aawmat9i 


In  north  Germany,  u  not  infrequently  harvested  in  a  more  or  less 
damp  condition.  In  the  United  Kingdom,  Messrs  Spencer  &  Co.,  of 
Melksham,  have  erected  several  granaries  on  the  floor-bin  principle, 
and  have  adopted  an  ingenious  systeiA  of  "  telescopic  "  spoutmg, 
by  means  of  .which  grain  may  be  discharged  from  one  bin  to  another 
or  at  any  desired  point.  This  spouting  can  be  applied  to  bins 
either  with  level  floors  or  with  hoppercd  bottoms,  if  they  are  arranged 
one  above  the  other  on  the  different  floors,  and  is  so  constructed  that 
an  opening  can  be  effected  at  certain  points  by  simply  sliding 
upwards  a  section  of  the  spout. 

National  Granaries. — ^Wheat  forms  the  staple  food  of  a  laige 
proportion  of  the  population  of  the  British  Isles,  and  of  the  total 
amount  consiimed  about  four-fifths  is  sea-borne.  The  stdtks 
normally  held  in  the  country  being  limitedi  serious  consequences 
might  result  from  any  interruption  of  the  supply,  such  as  might 
occur  were  Great  Britain  involved  in  war  with  a  power  or  powers 
commanding  a  strong  fleet.  To  meet  this  contingency  it  has 
been  suggested  that  the  State  should  establish  granaries  contain- 
ing a  national  reserve  of  wheat  for  use  in  emergency,  or  should 
adopt  measures  calculated  to  induce  merchants,  millers,  &c.,  to 
hold  larger  stocks  than  at  present  and  to  stimulate  the  production 
of  home-grown  wheat. 

Stocks  of  wheat  (and  of  flour  expressed  in  its  equivalent  weight 
of  wheat)  are  held  by  merchants,  millers  and  farmers.  Merchants' 
stocks  are  kept  in  granaries  at  ports  of  importation 
and  are  known  as  fint-hand  stocks.  Stocks  of  wheat 
and  flour  in  the  hands  of  miUcrs  and  of  flour  held  by 
bakers  axe  termed  second-hand  stocks,  while  farmers'  stocks  only' 
consist  of  native  wheat.  Periodical  returns  are  generally  made 
of  first-hand  or  port  stocks,  nor  should  a  wide  margin  of  error  be 
possible  in  the  case  of  farmers' stocks,  but  second-hand  stocks  are 
more  difficult  to  gauge.  Since  the  last  decade  of  the  19th  century 
the  storage  capacity  of  British  mills  has  considerably  increased. 
As  the  number  of  small  mills  has  diminished  the  capacity  of  the 
bigger  ones  has  increased,  and  proportionately  their  warehousing 
accommodation  has  been  enlarged.  At  the  present  time  first-hand 
stocks  tend  to  diminish  because  a  larger  proportion  of  millers* 
holdings  are  in  mill  granaries  and  silo  houses.  The  immense 
preponderance  of  steamers  over  sailing  vessels  in  the  grain  trade 
has  also  had  the  effect  of  greatly  diminishing  stocks.  With  his 
cargo  or  parcel  on  a  steamer  a  corn  merchant  can  tell  almost  to  a 
day  when  it  will  be  due.  In  fact  foreign  wheat  owned  by  British 
merchants  is  to  a  great  extent  stored  in  foreign  granaries  in 
preference  to  British  warehouses.  The  merchant's  risk  is  thereby 
lessened  to  a  certain  extent.  When  his  wheat  has  been  brought 
into  a  British  port,  to  send  it  farther  afield  means  extra  expense. 
But  wheat  in  an  American  or  Argentine  elevator  may  be'ordered 
wherever  the  best  price  can  be  obtained  for  it.  Options  or 
*'  futures,"  too,  have  helped  to  restrict  the  size  of  wheat  stocks 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  A  merchant  buys  a  cargo  of  wheat  on 
passage  for  arrival  at  a  deiSnite  time,  and,  lest  the  market  value 
of  grain  should  have  depreciated  by  the  time  it  arrives,  he  sells 
an  option  against  it.  In  this  way  he  hedges  his  deal,  the  option 
serving  as  insurance  against  loss.  This  is  why  the  British  com 
trade  finds  it  less  risky  to  linu't  purchases  to  bare  needs,  protecting 
itself  by  option  deals,  than  to  store  large  quantities  which  may 
depreciate  and  involve  their  owners  in  loss. 

Varying  estimates  have  been  made  of  the  number  of  weeks' 
supply  of  breadstuffs  (wheat  and  flour)  held  by  millers  at  various 
seasons  of  the  year.  A  table  compiled  by  the  secretary  of  the 
National  Association  of  British  and  Irish  Millers  from  returns 
for  1Q02  made  by  170  milling  firms  showed  4*7,  4*9,  4-9  and 
5  weeks'  supply  at  the  end  of  March,  June,  September  and 
December  respectively.  These  170  mills  were  said  to  represent 
46%  of  the  milling  capacity  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  claimed 
to  have  ground  12,000,000  qrs.  out  of  25,349,000  qrs.  milled  in 
1902.  These  were  obviously  large  mills;  it  is  probable  that  the 
other  mills  would  not  have  shown  anything  like  such  a  proportion 
of  stock  of  either  raw  or  finished  materiaL  A  fair  estimate  of  the 
stocks  normally  held  by  millers  and  bakers  throughout  the 
United  Kingdom  would  be  about  four  weeks'  supply.  First-hand 
stocks  vary  considerably,  but  the  limits  are  definite,  ranging  from 
1,000,000  to  3,500,000  qn.,  the  latter  being  a  high  figrue.    The 


tendency  is  for  first-hand  stocks  to  dedine,but  two  weeks'  sopidy. 
must  be  a  minimum.  Farmers'  stocks  necessarily  vary  with  the 
size  of  the  crop  and  the  period  of  the  year;  they  will  range  from 
9  or  zo  weeks  on  the  ist  of  September  to  a  half  week  on  the  1st  of 
August,  Taking  all  the  stocks  together,  it  is  very  exceptional 
for  the  stock  of  breadstuffs  to  fall  below  7  weeks'  sui^y.  Be- 
tween the  cereal  years  1893-1894  and  1903-1904,  a  period  of 
570  wedcs,  the  stocks  of  all  kinds  fell  below  7  wedu'  supply  in 
only  9  weeks;  of  these  9  wedu  7  were  between  the  be^ning  of 
June  and  the  end  of  August  1898.  This  was  immediatdy  alter 
the  Leiter  collapse.  In  seven  of  these  eleven  years  there  is  no 
instance  of  stocks  falling  bdow  8  weeks'  supply.  In  si  out  of 
these  570  weeks  and  in  39  weeks  during  the  same  period  stocks 
dropp^  below  7}  and  8  weeks'  supply  respectively.  Roughly 
speaking  the  stock  of  wheat  available  for  bread-making  varies 
from  a  two  to  four  months'  supply  and  is  at  times  weU  above 
the  latter  figure. 

The  formation  of  a  national  reserve  pf  wheat,  to  be  held  at 
the  disposal  of  the  state  in  case  of  urgent  need  during  war,  is 
beset  by  many  practical  difliculties.  The  father  of. 
the  scheme  was  probably  The  MiUert  a  well-known 
trade  JoumaL  In  March  and  April  x886  two  articles 
appeared  in  that  paper  under  the  headings  "  Years  of  Plenty 
and  State  Granaries,"  in  which  it  was  urged  that  to  meet  the 
risk  of  hostile  cruisers  interrupting  the  supplies  it  would  be 
desirable  to  lay  up  in  granaries  on  British  soil  and  under  govern- 
ment control  a  stock  of  wheat  sufficient  for  12  or  alternatively 
6  months'  consumption.  This  was  to  hfi  national  property,  not 
to  be  touched  except  when  the  fortune  of  war  sent  up  the  price 
of  wheat  to  a  famine  level  or  caused  severe  distress.  The  State 
holding  this  large  stock — a  year's  supply  of  foreign  grain  would 
have  meant  at  least  15,000,000  qrs.,  and  have  cost  about 
£25,000,000  exclusive  of  warehousing — ^was  in  peace  time  to  sell 
no  wheat  except  when  it  became  necessary  to  part  with  stock 
as  a  precautionary  measure.  In  that  case  die  wheat  sold  was  to 
be  replaced  by  the  same  amotmt  of.  new  grain.  The  idea  was 
to  provide  the  country  with  a  supply  of  wheat  tmtil  sufficient 
wheat-growing  soil  could  be  broken  up  to  make  it  practi^cally 
self-sufficing  in  respect  of  wheat.  The  original  suggestion  feU 
quite  flat.  Two  years  later  Captain  Warren,  R.N.,  read  a  paper 
on  "  Great  Britain's  Com  Supplies  in  War,"  before  the  London 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  accepted  national  granaries  as  the 
only  practicable  safeguard  against  what  appeared  to  him  a  great 
peril.  The  representatives  of  the  shipping  intesest  opposed  the 
scheme,  probably  because  it  appeared  to  them  likely  to  divert 
the  public  from  insisting  on  an  all-powerful  navy.  The  com 
trade  opposed  the  project  on  account  of  its  great  practical 
difficulties.  But  constant  contraction  of  the  British  wheat 
acreage  kept  the  question  alive,  and  during  the  earlier  half  of  the 
'nineties  it  was  a  favourite  theme  with  agriculturists.  Some 
influential  members  of  parliament  pressed  the  matter  on  the 
government,  who,  acting,  no  doubt,  on  the  advice  of  their  military 
and  naval  experts,  refused  either  a  royal  commission  or  a  depart- 
mental committee.  While  the  then  technical  advisers  of  the 
government  were  divided  on  the  luivisability  of  establishing 
national  granaries  as  a  defensive  measure,  the  balance  of  expert 
opinion  was  adverse  to  the  scheme.  Lord  Wolsdey,  then 
commander-in-chief,  publicly  stigmatized  the  theory  that  Great 
Britain  might  in  war  be  starved  into  submission  as  "  unmitigated 
humbug." 

In  spite  of  official  discouragement  the  agitation  continued, 
and  early  in  1897  the  council  of  the  Central  and  Associated 
Chambers  of  Agriculture,  at  the  suggestion  to  a 
great  extent  of  Mr  R.  A.  Yerburgh,  M.P.,  nominated 
a  committee  to  examine  the  question  of  national 
wheat  stores.  This  committee  held  thirteen  sittings 
and  examined  fifty-four  witnesses.  Its  report,  which 
pubU^ed  (L.  G.  Newman  &  Co.,  12  Finsbuzy  Square,  London, 
E.C.)  with  minutes  of  the  evidence  taken,  practically  recom- 
mended that  a  national  reserve  of  wheat  on  the  lines  already 
sketched  should  be  formed  and  administered  by  the  State,  and 
that  the  government  should  be  stxongjiy  urged  to  obtain  the 


GRANBY 


341 


•ppoihtxneiit  of  a  rdyal  commission,  oomprisfng:  representatives 
of  agriculture,  the  com  trade,  shipping,  and  the  army  and  navy, 
to  conduct  an  e^ihaustive  inquiry  into  the  whole  subject  of  thie 
national  food-«upply  in  case  of  war.  This  recommendation  was 
oitimately  carried  into  effect,  but  not  till  nearly  five  years  had 
dapsed.  01  two  schemes  for  national  granaries  put  before  the 
Yerburgh  committee,  one  was  formulated  by  Mr  Seth  Taylor, 
a  London  miller  and  com  merchant,  who  redkoncd  that  a  store 
ct  10^000,000  qia.  of  wheat  might  be  acctmiulated  at  an  average 
cost  of  40s.  per  qr. — this  was  in  the  Letter  year  of  high  prices — 
and  distributed  in  six  specially  constructed  granaries  to  be 
erected  at  London,  Liverpool,  Hull,  Bristol,  Glasgow  and 
Dublin.  The  cost  of  the  granaries,  was  put  at  £7,500,000.  Mr 
Taylor's  scheme,  all  charges  included,  such  as  a}%  interest  on 
capital,  cost  of  storage  (at  6d.  per  qt.),  and  ss.  per  qr.  for  cost 
of  rq)Iadng  wheat,  involved  an  annual  expenditure  of  £i,a5o,ooa 
The  Yerburgh  committee  also  considered  a  proposal  to  stimulate 
the  home  supply  of  wheat  by  offering  a  bounty  to  farmera  for 
every  quarter  of  wheat  grown.  This  proposal  has  taken  different 
ihapes;  some  have  suggested  that  a  bounty  should  be  given 
00  every  acre  of  land  covered  with  wheat,  while  others  woul4 
only  allow  the  bounty  on  wheat  raised  and  kept  in  good  condition 
op  to  a  certain  date,  say  the  beginning  of  the  following  harvest. 
It  is  obvious  that  a  bounty  on  the  area  of  land  covered  by 
wheat,  irrespective  of  yield,  would  be  a  premium  on  poor  farming, 
sad  might  divert  to  wheat-growing  land  unsuitable  for  that 
poxpose.  The  suggestion  to  pay  a  bounty  of  say  3s.  to  5s.  per  qr. 
for  all  wheat  grown  and  stacked  for  a  certain  time  stands  on  a 
different  basis;  it  is  conceivable  that  a  bounty  of  5s.  might 
expand  the  British  production  of  wheat  from  say  7,000,000  to 
9,000,000  qts.,  which  would  mean  that  a  bounty  of  £3,250,000 
per  annum,  plus  costs  of  administration,  had  secured  an  extra, 
home  production  of  2,000,000  qrs.  Wheth^  such  a  price  would 
be  worth  paying  is  another  matter;  the  Yerburgh  committee's 
Gonduaion  was  decidedly  in  the  negative.  It  has  also  been 
suggested  that  the  State  might  subsidize  millers  ta  the  extent 
of  as.  6d.  per  sack  of  380  lb.  per  annum  on  condition  that  each 
maintained  a  minimum  supply  of  two  months'  flour.  This  may 
be  taken  to  mean  that  for  keeping  a  special  stock  of  flour  over 
and  above  his  usual  output  a  miller  would  be  entitled  to  an 
aanual  subsidy  of  ss.  6d.  per  sack.  An  extra  stock  of  10,000,000 
aacks  might  be  thus  kept  up  at  an  annual  cost  of  £1,250,000, 
plus  the  eq)enditttre  of  administration,  which  would  prolMtbly 
be  heavy.  With  regard  to  this  suggestion,  it  is  very  prpbable 
that  a  few  large  mills  which  have  plenty  of  warehouse  accom- 
modation and  depots  all  over  the  country  would  be  ready  to 
keep  up  a  permanent  extra  stock  of  zoo,ooo  sacksp  Thus  a  mill 
of  10,060  sacks'  capacity  per  week,  which  habitually  maintains 
a  total  stock  of  50,000  sacks,  might  bring  up  its  stock  ta  x  50,000 
sacks.  Such  a  mill,  being  a  good  customer  to  railways,  could 
get  from  them  the  storage  it  zeqmred  for  little  or  nothing.  But 
the  bulk  of  the  mills  have  no  such  advantages.  They  have  little 
or  no  spare  warehousing  room,  and  are  not  accustomed  to  keep' 
any  stock,  sending  their  flour  out  almost  as  fast  as  it  is  milled. 
It  is  doubtful  therefore  if  a  bounty  of  as.  6d.  per  sackwoukl 
have  the  desired  effect  of  keeping  up  a  stock  of  xo,ooo,ooo  sacks, 
sttffident  for  two  to  three  monthi'  bread  consumption. 

The  controversy  reached  a  climax  in  the  royal  commission 
appointed  in  1903^  to  which  was  also  referred  tiie  importation 
of  raw  material  in  war  time.  Its  report  appeared  in 
X905.  To  the  question  whether  the  unquestioned 
dependence  of  the  United  Kingdom  on  an  um'nterrapted 
supply  of  sea-bome  breadstuffs  renders  it  advisable  or 
to  maintain  at  all  times  a  six  months'  stock  of  wheat  and 
it  returned  no  decided  answer,  or  perhaps  it  would  be 
xDore  oorzta  to  say  that  the  commission  was  hopelessly  divided. 
The  main  report  was  distinctly  optimistic  so  far  as  the  liability 
of  Che  country  to  harass  and  distress  at  the  hands  of  a  hostile 
naval  power  or  combination  of  powers  was  concemed.  But 
rete  several  dissentients,  and  there  Was  hardly  any 
of  the  report  in  chief  which  did  not  provoke  some 
or  another.  .  That  a  maritime  war  would  cause 


freights  and  insnhtdce  to  riie  in  a  high  degree  was  freely  admitted, 
and  it  was  also  admiued  that  the  price  of  bread  must  also  rise 
very  appreciably.  But,  provided  the  navy  did  not  break  down, 
the  risk  of  starvation  was  dismissed.  Therefore  all  the  proposals 
for  providing  national  granaries  or  inducing  merchants  and 
millers  to  carry  bigger  stocks  were  put  aside  as  unpractical  and 
unnecessary.  The  commission  was,  however,  inclined  to  consider 
more  favourably  a  suggestion  for  providing  free  storage  fdr 
wheat  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  The  idea  was  that  if  the  State 
would  subsidise  any  huge  granary  company  to  the  extent  of  6d. 
or  5d.  per  qr.,  grain  now  warehoused  in  foreign  lands  would  be 
attracted  to  the  British  Isles.  But  on  the  whole  the  commission 
held  that  the  main  effect  of  the  scheme  would  be  to  saddle  the 
government  with  the  rent  of  all  grain  stored  in  public  waxebouaes 
in  the  United  Kingdom  without  materially  increasing  stocks. 
The  proposal  to  offer  bounties  to  farmers  to  hold  stocks  for  a 
longer  period  and  to  grow  more  wheat  met  with  equally  little 
favour.  • 

To  sum  up  the'  advantages  of  national  granaries,  assuming 
any  sort  of  dissster  to  the  navy,  the  possession  of  a  reserve 
of  even  six  months'  wheat-supply  in  addition  to  ordinary  stocks 
would  prevent  panic  prices.  On  the  other,  hand;  the  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  forming  and  administering  such  a  reserve  are  very 
great.  The  world  grows  no  great  surplus  of  wheat,  and  to  form 
a  six  months',  much  more  a  twelve  months',  stock  would  be 
the  work  of  years.  The  government  in  buying  up  the  wheat 
would  have  to  go  carefully  if  they  would  avoid  sending  up 
prices  with  a  rush.  They  would  have  to  buy  deariy,  and  when 
they  let  go  a  certain  amount  of  stock  they- would  be  bound  to 
sell  cheaply.  A  stock  once  fonned  might  be  held  by  the  State 
with  littie  or  no  disturbance  of  the  com  market,  although  the 
existence  of  such  an  emergency  stock  would  hardly  encourage 
British  farmers  to  grow  xnore  wheat.  The  cost  of  erecting, 
equipping  and  keeping  in  good  order  the  necessary  warehouses 
would  be,  probably,  much  heavier  than  the  most  liberal  estimate 
hitherto  made  by  advocates  of  national  granaries.      (G.  F.Z.) 

GHANBT,  JOHN  MAMIIEBS,  Masquess  of  (X73X-X770), 
British  soldier,  was  the  ddest  son  of  the  third  duke  of  Rutiand. 
He  was  bora  in  X73X  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  was  returned  as  member  of  parliament  for 
Grantham  in  X74X.  Four  years  later  he  received  a  commission 
as  colonel  of  a  regiment  raised  by  the  Rutland  interest  in  and 
about  Leicester  to  assist  in  quelling  the  Highlaiui  revolt  of  X745. 
This  corps  never. got  beyond  Newcastle,  but  young  Granby 
went  to  the  front  as  a  volunteer  on  the  duke  of  Cumberland's 
staff,  and  saw  active  service  in  the  last  stages  of  the  insurrection. 
Very  soon  his  regiment  was  disbanded.  He  continued  in  parlia- 
ment, combining  with  it  military  duties,  making  the  campaign 
of  Flanders  (1747).  Promoted  major-general  in  1755,  three 
years  later  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  Royal  Horse  Guards 
(Blues).  Meanwhile  he  had  married  the  daughter  of  the  duke 
of  Somerset,  and  in  X754  had  begun  his  parliamentary  connexion 
with  Cambridgeshire,  for  which  county  he  sat  untU  his  death. 
The  same  year  that  saw  Granby  made  cdond  of  the  Blues, 
saw  also  the  despatch  of  a  oonsideiable  British  contingent  to 
Germany.  Minden  was  Granby's  first  great  battle.  At  the  head 
of  the  Blues  he  was  one  of  the  cavalry  leaders  halted  at  the 
critical  moment  by  Sackville,  and  when  in  consequence  that 
officer  was  sent  home  in  disgrace,  Lieut.-General  Lord 
Granby  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  British  contingent 
in  Ferdinand's  army,  having  32,000  men  under  his  orders  at 
the  beginning  of  X760.  In  the  remaining  campaigns  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War  the  English  contingent  was  more  conspicuous  by  its 
conduct  than  the  Prussians  themselves.  On  the  3xst  of  July 
1760  Granby  brilliantly  stormed  Warburg  at  the  head  of  the 
British  cavalry,  capturing  1500  men  and  ten  pieces  of  artillery. 
A  year  later  (15th  Of  July  1761)  the  British  defended  the  heights 
of  Vellingfaausen  with  what  Ferdinand  himself  styled  "  indescrib> 
able  braveiy."  In  the  last  campaign,  at  Gravenstein  und 
Wilhdmsthal,  Homburg  and  Cassd,  Granby's  men  bore  the  brunt 
of  the  fighting  and  eamed  the  greatest  share  of  the  glory. 
.  fuming  to  England  .in_x763  the  marquess Jound  himsell 


342 


GRAN  CHACX>— GRAND  ALLIANCE 


tbe  popular  bero  of  the  war.  It  b  said  that  courien  awaited 
bis  arrival  at  all  the  home  porta  to  offer  him  the  choice  of  the 
Ordnance  or  the  Hone  Guards.  Hb  appointment  to  the  Ordnance 
bore  the  date  of  the  ist  of  July  1763,  and  three  years  later  he 
became  commander-in-chief.  In  this  position,  he  was  attacked 
by  "  Junius,"  and  a  heated  discussion  arosei  as  the  writer  had 
taken  the  greatest  pains  in  aiMJling  the  most  popular  member 
of  the  Grafton  ministry.  In  1770  Graztby,  worn  out  by  political 
and  financial  troubki  resigned  ail  his  offices^  except  the  colonelcy 
of  the  Blues.  He  died  at  Scarborough  on  the  18th  of  October 
1770.  He  had  been  made  a  privy  councillor  in  1760,  lord 
lieutenant  of  Derbyshire  in  1763,  and  LLJ>.  of  Cambridge  in 
1769. 

Two  portrsits  of  Gianby  were  painted  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynoldt, 
one  of  which  is  now  in  the  National  Gallery.  Hb  contemporary 
popularity  b  indicated  by  the  number  of  inns  and  pubUc-houtct 
which  took  hb  nanie.and  had  hb  portrait  as  sign-board. 

GRAN  CHAOOt  an  extensive  region  in  the  heart  of  South 
America  belonging  to  the  La  Plata  basm,  stretching  from  ao^ 
to  39^  S.  bt,  and  divided  between  the  republica  of  Argentine, 
Bolivia  and  Paraguay,  with  a  small  dbtrict  of  south-western 
Matto  Groaso  (Brazil).  lu  area  b  estimated  at  from  350,000 
to  435,000  sq.  m.,  but  the  true  Chaco  region  probably  does  not 
exned  300,000  sq.  m.  The  greater  part  b  covered  with  marshes, 
lagoons  and  dense  tropical  jtmgle  and  forest,  and  b  still  un- 
explored. On  its  southern  and  western  borders  there  are  ex- 
tensive tracU  of  open  woodland,  intermingled  with  grassy  plains, 
while  on  the  northern  side  in  Bolivia  are  large  areas  of  open 
country  subject  to  inundations  in  the  rainy  season..  In  general 
terms  the  Gran  Chaco  may  be  described  as  a  great  plain  stoping 
gently  to  the  S.E.,  traversed  in  the  same  direction  by  two  great 
rivers,  the  Pilcomayo  and  Bermejo,  whose  sluggbh  courses  are 
not  navigable  because  of  sand-banks,  barriers  of  overturned  trees 
and  floating  vegetation,  and  confusing  channeb.  Thb  excludes 
that  part  of  eastern  Bolivb  belonging  to  the  Amazon  basin, 
which  b  sometimes  described  as  part  of  the  Chaco.  The  greater 
part  of  its  territory  b  occupied  by  nomadic  tribes  of  Indians, 
some  of  whom  are  still  unsubdued,  while  others,  like  the  Matacos, 
are  sometimes  to  be  found  on  neighbouring  sugar  estates  and 
estandas  as  bbourers  during  the  busy  season.  T^  forest  wealth 
of  the  Chaco  region  is  incalculable  and  apparently  inexhaustible, 
consbting  of  a  great  variety  ol  palms  and  valuable  cabinet 
woods,  building  timber,  &c.  Its  extensive  tracts  of  "  quebracho 
Colorado  "  (Loxopterygium  LoretUni)  are  of  very  great  value 
because  of  its  use  in  taiming  leather.  Both  the  wood  and  its 
extract  are  Urgely  exported.  Civilization  b  slowly  gafaiing 
footholds  in  thb  region  along  the  southern  and  eastern  borders. 

GRAND  ALUANCE.  WAR  OF  THB  (alternatively  called  the 
War  of  the  League  of  Augsburg) ,  the  third  *  of  the  great  aggressive 
wars  waged  by  Loub  XIV.  of  France  against  Spain,  the  Empire, 
Great  Britain;  Holland  and  other  states.  The  two  earlier  wars, 
which  are  redeemed  from  oblivion  by  the  fact  that  in  them 
three  great  captains,  Turenne,  Condi  and  Montecucculi,  played 
leading  parts,  are  described  in  the  article  Dutch  Wars.  In 
the  third  war  the  leading  figures  are:  Henri  de  Montmorency- 
Boutteville,  duke  of  Luxemburg,  the  former  aide-de-camp  of 
Cond£  and  heir  to  hb  daring  method  of  warfare;  William  of 
Orange,  who  had  fought  against  both  Cond6  and  Luxemburg 
in  the  earlier  wars,  and  was  now  king  of  England;  Vauban, 
the  founder  of  the  sciences  of  fortification  and  siegecraft,  and 
Catinat,  the  follower  of  Turenne's  cautious  and  systematic 
strategy,  who  was  the  first  commoner  to  receive  high  command 
in  the  army  of  Loub  XIV.  But  as  soldiers,  these  men— except 
Vauban — are  overshadowed  by  the  great  figures  of  the  preceding 
generation,  and  except  for  a  half-dozen  outstanding  episodes, 
the  war  of  1689-97  ^^  An  affair  of  positions  and  marKSUvres. 

It  was  within  these  years  that  the  art  and  practice  of  wiar 
began  to  crystallize  into  the  form  called  "  linear  "  in  its  strategic 

*  The  name  "  Grand  Alliance  "  b  applied  to  the  coalition  against 
Loub  XIV.  begun  by  the  League  of  Augsburg.  Thb  coalition  not 
only  waged  the  war  dealt  with  in  the  present  article,  but  (with  only 
digbt  modifications  and  with  practically  unbroken  continuity)  the 
war  of  the  SrAMiSH  SucCBssion  (g.s.)  (hat  (oUowed. 


and  tactical  aspect,  and  "  cabinet-war  **  in  its  political  and  nsonl 
aq)ect.  In  the  Dutch  wars,  and  in.  the  minor  wars  that  pre- 
ceded the  formation  of  the  League  of  Augsburg,  there  were 
still  survivab  of  the  loose  organization,  violence  and  wasteful 
barbarity  typical  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  and  even  in  the 
War  of  the  Grand  Alliance  (in  its  earlier  years)  occasional 
brutalities  axul  devastations  showed  that  the  old  ^nrit  died  hard. 
But  outrages  that  would  have  been  borne  in  dumb  misery  in 
the  old  days  now  provoked  loud  indignation,  and  when  the 
fierce  Louvob  disappeared  from  the  scene  it  became  generaUy 
understood  that  barbarity  was  impolitic,  not  only  as  alienating 
popular  sympathies,  but  also  as  rendering  operations  a  physical 
impossibility  for  want  of  supplies. 

Thus  in  1700,  so  far  from  terrorizing  the  country  people 
into  submission,  armiea  systematically  condlbted  than  by 
paying  cash  and  bringing  trade  into  the  country. 
Formerly,  wars  had  been  fought  to  compel  a  people  ^^a^^^ 
to  abjure  their  faith  or  to  change  sides  in  some 
persoiial  or  dynastic  quarreL  But  since  1648  thb  had  no 
longer  been  the  case.  The  Peace  of  Westphalb  est^lished 
the  general  relationship  of  kings,  priests  and  peoples  on  a  basb 
that  was  not  really  shaken  until  the  French  Revolution,  and 
ill  the  intervening  hundred  and  forty  years  the  peoples  at  large, 
except  at  the  bluest  and  gravest  moments  (as  in  Germany  in 
1689,  France  in  1709  and  Prussb  in  1757)  held  aloof  from  active 
participation  in  poUtica  and  war.  Thb  was  the  beginning  of 
the  theory  that  war  was  an  affair  of  the  regular  forces  only, 
and  that  intervention  in  it  by  the  dvO  popuUtion  was  a  punish- 
able offence.  Thus  wars  became  the  business,  of  the  professional 
soldiers  in  the  king's  own  service,  and  the  scarcity  and  costHness 
of  these  soldiers  combined  with  the  purely  political  character 
of  the  quarreb  that  arose  to  teduce  a  campaign  from  an  "  intense 
and  passionate  drama"  to  a  humdrum  albir,  to  which  only 
rarely  a  few  men  of  genius  in&parted  some  degree  of  vigour,  and 
which  in  the  main  was  an  attempt  to  gain  small  ends  ^  a  small 
expenditure  of  force  and  with  the  minimum  of  risk.  As  between 
a  prince  and  hb  subjects  there  were  still  quarreb  that  stirred 
the  average  man — the  Dragonnades,  for  instance,  or  the  F.n|;ikii 
Revolution— but  foreign  wars  were  "  a  stronger  form  of  diplo- 
nnatic  notes,"  as  CUusewitz  called  them,  and  were  waged  widi 
the  object  of  adding  a  codicil  to  the  treaty  of  peace  that  had 
dcsed  the  last  incident. 

Other  causes  contributed  to  stifle  the  former  ardour  of  war. 
Campaigns  were  no  longer  conducted  by  armies  of  ten  to  thirty 
thousand  men.  Large  regular  armies  had  come  into  fashion, 
and,  as  Guibert  points  out,  instead  of  small  armiea  charged  with 
grand  operations  we  find  grand  armies  diaiged  with  small 
operations.  The  average  general,  under  the  prevaOing  conditions 
of  supply  and  armament,  was  not  equal  to  the  task  ci  commaixiing 
such  armies.  Any  real  concentration  of  the  gm^  forces  that 
Loub  XIV.  had  created  was  therefore  out  of  Uie  question,  and 
the  field  armies  split  into  six  or  eight  independent  fractions, 
each  charged  with  operations  on  a  particular  theatre  of  war.^ 
From  such  a  policy  nothing  remotely  resembling  the  crushing 
of  a  great  power  could  be  expected  to  be  gained.  The  one 
tangible  asset,  in  view  of  future  peace  negotbtions,  was  therefore 
a  fortress,  and  it  was  on  the  preservation  or  capture  of  fortresses 
that  operations  in  all  these  wars  chiefly  turned.  The  idea  of 
the  decisive  battle  for  its  own  sake,  as  a  settlement  of  the  quarrd, 
was  far  dbtant;  for,  strictly  speaking,  there  was  no  quarrel, 
and  to  use  up  highly  trained  and  exceedingly  expensive  soldSns 
in  gaining  by  brute  force  an  advantage  that  mi^t  equally  wdl 
be  obtained  by  chicanery  was  regarded  as  foolish. 

The  fortress  was,  moreover,  of  immedbte  as  weO  as  contingent 
value  to  a  state  at  war.  A  century  of  constant  warfare  had 
impoverished  middle  Europe,  and  armies  had  to  ^>read  over  a 
large  area  if  they  desired  to  "  live  on  the  country."  Thb  was 
dangerous  in  the  face  of  the  enemy  (cf.  the  Peninsular  War), 
and  it  was  also  uneconomicaL  The  only  way  to  prevent  the 
country  people  from  sending  their  produce  into  the  fortitsses 
for  safety  was  to  announce  beforehand  that  cash  would  be  paid, 
at  a  high  rate,  for  whatever  the  army  needed.  But  even  pranisea 


GRAND  ALLIANCE 


343 


nrdylnouflit  tHi  iboiil,  ud  la 
brouffat  op  from  the  borne  cou 
<»liidi  bad  to  bd  guuded)  oi 


c  It  kll,  vbetber  on  nippUa 
y  ud  itoitd  In  nufuliic* 
ID  loal  leuuics,  ui  uny  had 
I  capture  ■  Uigc  lorlreB.  ^ega, 
t  the  [eilurs  ol  Ihii  form  of  wu, 
jt  wjtb  the  gUnt  Btrido  of  modern 
wmr,  but  id  h  luccession  ol  uiort  hops  fmm  one  foothold  to  the 
oeit.  This  wu  the  procedure  of  the  sveiige  conunBiidec,  and 
even  vhcD  a  more  lalcDK  Ipirit  of  confiict  was  evoked  by  the 
Luaemburgs  and  Mulbotougha  it  wai  but  momcntaiy  and 
^MaoHHlic. 

The  leneril  chancto'  of  the  wai  bdoj  bonw  Id  mlad,  Dlse- 
tcothi  of  iu  nutchct  and  maoCRivio  can  be  ahsoat  "taken  u 
rod":  the  leoialDiiig  tenth,  tb<  octptional  and  abmrmal 
put  at  It,  alone  powtMU  bd  intcRit  for  moden  mden. 

Id  pumuKC  o(  ■  ocw  agKreMlvc  paHcy  in  CcnDinjrLoidaXIV. 
KDt  Ui  inavi,  ■*  a  diplonutk  meDice  ntba  tbin  for  coDquat, 
into  that  cooDtiy  in  tbe  autiunn  of  1M8.  Some  at  tlwli  nldins 
panic*  phindocd  tlie  caunlrjr  u  far  Mutli  as  Angibun,  (or  t' 
political  Intent  of  Ihclr  advann  suggesed  tent>Tiim  rather  th 
'     ■  ■     ■.     The  league  of  Augsburg 


ook  up  tl 


(Treaty 

Alliance  "  a(  Spain,  HDllaad,  Swedes,  Savoy  and  cenain  Itallai 
Hatci,  Gieat  Brliain,  the  empenr,  the  dectoi  ol  Braodea 

"  Thaw  who  oondtmned  the  king  loi  laiiing  up  to  many 
eucnua,  admired  him  for  having  ao  luUy  prepared  to  defend 
liimiHl  and  even  to  (ortatall  them,"  iaya  Valtain.  Louvoii 
had  in  fact  completed  the  woik  of  ocgaaiiing  tbe  Ftench  tnny 
OB  B  Rgulai  and  pcrmaneat  basis,  aad  had  made  it  Dot  metely 
tbe  liot,  hat  alio  hy  far  the  most  Dumeroua  in  Europe,  lor  Louis 
diipoicd  in  ibSS  ol  no  fewer  than  375,000  soldiers  and  60,000 
aailon.  Tlie  Infantry  wu  uDifonned  and  drilled,  uid  the  socket 
bajanet  and  the  Bint-lock  musket  had  beeo  introduced.  The 
ody  rUc  of  tbe  old  amumeDl  wss  the  pike,  which  was  retained 
b*  0D»4|n>ttet  of  the  foot,  though  fi  had  been  discarded  by  the 
ImptrialiiU  In  tbe  caune  of  tbe  Turkish  wan  described  below. 
Tke  Gnt  anilieTy  recent  was  created  in  1684,  to  replace  the 
fotma  tcml-civiliaii  orgaoiiation  hy  a  body  of  artiUerymen 
nBCiptlbl*  of  unilorm  training  and  ■""■"■"»  to  disdpUne 
and  ordtn. 

Id  tSSf  Loub  bad  iLt  anniea  on  tool.  That  In  Germany, 
wUd  had  eiccuted  the  raid  of  the  prevloua  autumn,  was  not 
t\„tKt  in  a  posiiloa  to  raiit  the  principal  army  of  the  coalition 
Hmm  sf u*  10  far  from  support.  Louvoii  Iherefon  ordered  it 
g******  to  lay  waste  (be  Palatinate,  and  the  devastation  of 
^^  the  country  around  Heidelberg,  Mannhdm,  Spiia, 

Oppenheim  and  Wonm  was  piiilesaly  and  methodically  carried 
into  effect  in  January  and  February.  There  had  been  devaita- 
tiooi  in  previOBi  wars,  even  the  U^-mlnded  Turenne  had 
naed  tbe  arguntent  of  fire  and  tword  to  terrify  a  papulation 
or  a  prince,  while  the  whole  story  of  tbe  last  ten  year*  of  the 
KRBt  war  had  been  one  ol  incendiary  armies  leaving  iiacr* 
tA  tlkdr  passage  that  it  took  a  century  10  remove.  But  here  the 
devaiUiioD  was  a  purely  military  measure,  eaecutcd  tyatemail- 
cally  over  a  given  itnilegic  front  for  no  other  purpote  than  to 
delay  tbe  advance  of  the  enemy'a  army.  It  diHeied  Imm  the 
■cthod  of  Torecne  or  Cromwell  in  that  the  sufferer)  were  not 
tbaae  pea(4c  wlum  it  was  the  purpose  of  the  war  to  reduce  to 
fvboisaioD,  but  other*  who  had  no  inleiat  in  the  quarrel  It 
<KSa«d  from  WeUingtan'!  laying  waste  of  Portugal  in  1810  In 
that  it  wti  lot  done  (or  the  defence  of  the  Palatinate  against 
a  national  eoemy,  but  because  tbe  Palatinate  was  where  it  was. 
Tbe  feudal  tbeory  that  every  lubjecl  ol  a  prince  at  war  was  an 
uncd  *anal,  aad  tber^ore  an  enemy  of  the  prince's  enemy, 
bad  in  ptactice  been  obsolete  for  two  onturles  pait;  by  1690 
Ibe  otgiidaation  of  war,  iti  causes,  Its  methods  and  its  Insiru- 
Beau  bad  polled  tut  of  touch  with  the  people  it  large,  and  it 
bad  become  Iboroughly  nnderilood  thai  the  army  alone  wai 
i      ..4    ..  ,^  business.     Thai  it  was  that  this 

al  reprobation,  and  that,  in  the  words 


of  a  modftn  French  wilier,  tbe  "  idea  of  Germany  came  to 

birth  In  the  flame-    '■'--  "'■' " 

As  a  military  mi 
able;  for  it  became  Impoisihle  f 

commander,  to  bold  out  on  the  east  aide  ol  tbe  middle  Khine, 
and  he  could  think  of  oothing  better  to  do  than  to  go  farther 
■outh  and  to  ravage  Baden  and  Ibe  Breiigau,  which  was  not 
even  8  military  necessity.    The  grand  army  of  the  Allits,  coming 
larther  north,  Wat  practically  unopposed,     Chailei  of  Lorraine 
and  the  elector  of  Baviiia—litcly  comrades  in  the  Turkish  war 
(see  bdow)— invoted  Maioi,  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  Bonn. 
The  latter,  foUowlag  the  evil  precedent  of  his  enemies,  shelled 
tbe  town  ualglessly  Iniiead  of  making  1  breach  in  its  walls  and 
overpowering  its  French  garrison,  an  incident  not  calculated 
to  advance  the  nascent  idea  of  German  unity.     Maini,  valiantly 
defended  by  Nicolas  du  BIE,  mu[|uis  d'Uadles,  bad  to  surrender 
on  the  Sth  of  September.    The  goveroor  of  Bonn,  baron  d'Asf  eld. 
not  in  the  least  Intimidated  by  the  bombardment,  hdd  out  till 
the  army  that  had  taken  Halna  reinforced  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, and  then,  rejecting  the  hard  terms  of  surrender  offered 
bim  by  tbe  latter,  he  fell  in  resisting  a  last  assault  on  the  riih 
of  October.    Only  Sjo  men  out  of  his  6000  were  left  to  lurrender 
on  the  r£th,  and.lhe  duke  of  Lomine,  leas  truculent  than  the 
[lor,  e>»rted  .tliem  safely  to  Thionville.    Boufflets,  witb 
iiher  of  Louis's  aruia,  operated  from  Luxemburg  (captured 
by  the  French  in  1684  and  since  faeld)  and  Trarbach  lowards  tbe 
line,  but  in  qiiCe  of  a  minor  victory  at  Kocbheim  on  the  list 
August,  he  was  unable  to  relieve  either  Maini  or  Bonn. 
tn  the  Low  Countries  the  French  nursbal  d'HumiJrei,  being 
superior  force,  had  obtained  sptaai  pamisam  to  offer  liatlla 
tbe  AlUe*.    Leaving  the  garrison  of  Lille  and  Toumay  to 
line  the  Spaniardi,  he  hurried  Irom  Maubeuge  to  oppose  the 
Dutch,  who  from  Namui  had  advanced  slowly  on  Philippevilte. 
Coming  upon  their  army  (whicb  *u  commanded  by  the  prince 
A  Waldeck)  in  position  behind  tbe  river  Heure,  wiih  an  advanced 
Kut  in  the  little  walled  town  of  WilcoBrt,  be  flung  his  advanced 
the  bridge  and  fortificationi  of  this  plan  10  clear 
Ills  deployment  beyond  the  river  Heure  (i;th 
August).     After  wasting  a  tfaoutand  brave  men  b  this  attempt, 
a  few  days  the  two  armies  remained  face 
J  one  another  st  intervali,  tnit  no  further 
lighting  occurred.     HumKrei  returned  to  the  region. of  the 
Scheldt  fortresica,  and  Waldeck  to  Bnuselt.     For  the  othcn 
ol  Louii'  til  aimies  Ihe  year's  campaign  paiied  off  quite 
uneventfully. 


Simult 


le  operation!. 


le  Jao 


i^un;; 


nonli  and  tbe  friah  ngular  army,  noA  of  1 
of  TyrcDiiDel  had  induced  to  declare  for 

Tl L_„  itnifgle  after  1  time  coiu"~ 

o(  Deny  aod  Enniildlleii . 

i.fJi' 

of  the  Gontinen..  _, 

jnder  the  leBdetihlp  of  the  deriyniai,  <^.^t^^  i.„:.^i.  Uut  tbe 
Ylievtfla  fofce  {coBUCEnf  of  tmolrigalti,  n  .^up^ty  ^hip  And  a  force 
under  Malor,geaeral  Pwy  Kirhe)  wa«  dJlaLtny,  nod  it  was  not 
iniil  tbe  cMeBden  were  In  the  last  enrtmiiy  that  Kiike  actuallv 
icoke  thnogh  tbe  blockade  (July  sxn),  Enniikillcn  wu  l»s 
:1«ely  inveMcd,  and  Its  lohaUtiiila.  oifinniied  by  Colonel  Wolstley 
and  other  officers  sent  by  Kirke,  tctwlly  lieci  the  open  field  and 
deleiiedihejKobiteist  Newtown  Buil<v  (July  J»t)-    A  fcwdiyi 

before  ID  adequate  anpy  coiud  be  lenl  i'<'cr  Iram  England  to  dnl 
with  h.    Marshal  Scbombcnr  (f-n),  ot'.  ..F  the  moti  dutin^lihed 


covered  by  the  Ennit 

TrooKlhistimeexperlcneed  reginienls Fmm  Hails nd, Den n 

randeaburf,  were  sent,  and  in  June,  Sdiomber^  in  Ireland 
MaHT-geoenl  ScnvenoR  in  Chester  having  Ihoniwhly  orjan 
and  iquippid  the  field  amy,  iOng  William  awinHTthe  cooui 


GRAND  ALLIANCE 


No  lUnil  wu  mule  by  tbe  defcatal  put*  dtber  in  the  Dublin 

or  In  the  Witcrford  diMfict.    LaiuuD,  the  conouder  of  •■"  ■=' ■■ 

auiniiiiy  cotpa  in  Juns't  nimy,  ud  Tymnnel  holb 
anai  any  ilHnipt  to  deFeod  Onwrick,  wbcR  the  lie 
hid  naacmbledi  but  Pltricli  9^rtIir\A  IrmA  rl  r.v 


n,  lbaTfarT>  to  iioid  Ijneiick, 


5!^Pt 


oT  Auiint.  The  EilUirc  was,  li 
the  ftrTii>^  in  Ireland  of  on  i 
ivhich  capCund  Ciu-lr  and  Kin' 
laaae  wat  En^ly  cruihcd  by  \ 
tart  or  Alhloncl  in  the  batik 
in  whkh  5l  Ruih,  iho  Firn 
Juo}^IC  trmy  dlnlpatnl.  '' 
•leiedLiiDcrlckalrnli.,  Ty.-' 


to  Calm 


f^  on  tlic  loth 


II-,  ■  gennl  Giockell  UftQ 


Thee 


lOa  tbe 


il  Eun>p«  [i  narlwd 
victory  at  Heurui, 
world!  gieat  balllo.  It  it 
the  present  titicle  only  doll 
a  which  it  wu  fought.  Thew, 
incounter  tint  could,  in  iiielf, 
closer  accord  with  the  general 


ro  battia,  one  ol  whici,  Luier 
bcbngi  10  the  category  of  the  wo: 
daciUied  •mi/a  Fuuins, 
nimmuily  witb  the  condit 
though  they  Is  fact  led  It 
fairiy  be  called  dedsivc,  m 
■[^l  of  the  war  than  was  tne  aeciijon  tnai  arose  out  oi  mem. 

LiuembuTg  had  a  powerful  enemy  in  Louvois,  and  he  had 
conuquently  been  allotted  only  an  iniignificanl  part  in  Che  fint 
campaiga^  But  afier  the  diiastefs  of  16S9  Louis  re-arranged 
Che  commandaon  the  north-east  frontier  so  as  to  allow  Humi^rea, 
Luiembutg  and  Bouflen  to  combine  for  united  action.  "  I 
will  tjjie  care  that  Louvois  playa  fair,"  Louis  said  to  the  duke 
when  he  gave  him  his  letters  of  service.    Though  apparently 


battle,    though   Luii 


Uable  n 


s  probably  di 


anbuig  certainly  practised  the  utmost 
"  ccotunny  01  locce  "  as  this  was  undentood  In  those  dayi  (tee 
also  Nbexwikdin).  On  the  remaining  theatres  of  war,  the 
dauphin,  assisted  by  the  due  de  Lorge,  held  the  middle  Rhine, 
and  Catinat  the  Alps,  while  other  forces  were  in  RoutsiUon,&c.. 
as  before.  Catinat'i  opentiont  are  briefly  de$cribed  below. 
Those  of  the  otben  need  no  description,  for  though  the  Allies 
fanned  a  plan  for  a  grand  conceolric  Hdvance  on  Paris,  the 
preliminarie*  la  this  advance  wen  to  numerous  and  so  closely 
interdependent  that  on  the  most  [avouraUe  estimate  the  winter 
would  necessarily  find  the  Allied  aimici  many  leagues  short  ot 
Paris.  In  fact,  the  Khine  oSenaive  collapsed  when  Charles  of 
Lorraine  died  (ijth  April),  and  the  reconquest  of  his  tost  duchy 
ceaaed  to  be  a  direct  abject  ol  the  war. 

Luxemburg  began  operations  by  drawing  in  from  the  Sambrt 
country,  where  he  had  hitherto  been  stationed,  to  the  Scheldt 
_  and  "  eating  up  "  the  country  between  Oudenarde 

ntintbttace   -    -       ■  ■ 


leftH 


It  the  latter  place  (15th  May-iith  June).    He  th 


to  enomp,  or  G^t."  For  fnor  days  the  amy  mardied  aaam 
country  In  dose  order,  covered  In  all  directions  by  reconnoitring 
cavalry  and  advanced,  flask  and  rest  guards.  Under  these 
conditions  eleven  miles  a  day  was  practicilly  forced  marching, 
and  on  arriving  at  Jeumont-sur-Samhre  the  army  was  given 
three  days'  rest.  Then  followed  a  few  lelsuidy  marches  in  the 
direction  of  Charleroi,  duiiug  which  a  detachment  fA  Btnifflers's 
army  came  in,  and  the  cavalry  explored  the  country  to  the  north. 
On  news  of  the  enemy's  army  being  at  Tmegnies.  Luxemburg 
hurried  across  .a  ford  of  the  Samhre  above  Charleroi,  but  tbil 
proved  to  be  a  detachment  only,  a  ' 
in  that  Waldeck  was  encamped  near-  Fleurus, 
Luxemburg,  without  consulting  his  subordinate  ge 
his  army  to  Velaine.  He  knew  that  the  enemy  w 
tltne  till  the  troopa  of  Li6ge  and  the  Brandenburge 
Rhine  were  near  enough  to  cooperate  In  the  Dinanl 
and  he  was  determined  to  fight  a  battle  at  once.  From  Vdaine, 
therefore,  on  the  morning  of  the  1st  of  July,  (he  amy  B 
forward  to  Fleurus  and  there  won  one  of  ihe  moat  bti 
victories  m  the  history  of  the  R  ^  " 
was  not  allowed  ID  pursue  his  advantage.  He  was  ordeted  tc 
hold  bis  anny  In  readiness  to  besiege  either  Namui,  Hods, 
Charleroi  or  Alh,  according  as  later  orders  dictated;  ukI  to 
send  back  the  borrowed  regiments  to  Boufflen,  who  wu  bdng 
pressed  back  by  the  Brandenburg  and  Lifge  troopa.  Tbu) 
Waldedi  reformed  his  army  in  peace  at  Brussels,  where  Willian 
III.  ol  England  toon  afterward)  assumed  command  <rf  the 
Allied  fortes  In  the  Netherlindi,  and  Luiemburg  and  the  other 
marshals  stood  fast  for  the  rest  of  the  ampsign,  being  fotbiddea 
to  advance  until  Catinat— in  Italy — should  have  woo  a  battle. 

In  this  quarter  the  armed  neutrality  of  the  duke  Ki  Savoy 
had  long  disquieted  the  French  court.  His  personal  ca 
with  the  imperial  family  and  his  resentment  agaii  ' 
Louvois,  who  had  on  some  occasion  treated  hira  w; 
his  usual  patronizing  arrogance,  inclined  him  to  JoId  the 
Allies,  while  on  the  other  hand  he  could  hope  for  exteasiOBS 
of  his  scanty  territory  only  by  aiding  with  Loull.  In  view  of 
this  doubtful  condition  of  aSairs  the  French  anny  under  Catinat 
been  maintained  on  the  Alpine  frontier,  and 
.60a  Louis  XIV.  sent  an  ultimatum  10  Victor 
Amadeus  to  compel  him  to  take  one  side  or  the  otiicx  activdy 
and  openly.  The  result  was  that  Victor  Emmanud  threw  in 
his  lot  with  the  Allies  and  obtained  help  from  the  Spaniards 
and  AustHans  in  the  Uilanesc.  Catinat  thereupon  advanced 
Into  Piedmont,  and  won ,  prindpally  byvirtueofhisown  watchful- 
nees  and  the  high  effidcncy  of  his  troops,  the  important  victory 
0fStaSarda(AuguBt  iSth,  1690).  This  did  not,  however,  enable 
Piedmont,  and  as  the  duke  was  soon  reinforced, 
ontent  wilh  the  methodical  conquest  of  a  few 
frontier  districts.  On  the  side  of  Spain,  a  small  French  army 
ider  the  due  de  NosiUes  passed  into  Catalonia  and  then  lived 
the  enemy's  eipense  lor  (he  duration  of  the  campaign. 
In  these  theatres  of  war,  and  on  the  Rhine,  where  the  dismuoa 
of  the  Geitnia  prince*  prevented  vigorous  action,  (he  fcJlowing 
^■t,  i6«i,  wu  uneventful.  But  in  the  Nethertandi  then 
ne  a  siege,  a  wu  of  manceuvra  and  a  cavalry  eombat,  each 
it*  way  somewhat  reniarkable.  The  siege  was  that  of  Uooii, 
bich  was,  like  many  sieges  In  the  former  wars,  conducted  wit^ 
udi  pomp  by  Louis  XIV.  himsdf,  with  Boufflerx  and  Vaoban 

r  red-hot  shot  (K^A  Sth),  Louis  retunied  to  VersaiOeB  and 
vided  his  army  between  Bouffiers  and  Luxemburg,  the  former 
whom  departed  to  the  Meuse.  There  he  attempted  by  be 
'of  Li£ge,but  hadtode 


■g  force 


nIheE 


hurried  back  to  the  Samhre  to  fnterpoae  between  the  Allied 
army  under  Waldeck  and  the  fortreu  of  Dinanl  which  Waldeck 
wu  credited  with  the  Intention  of  bedeging.  His  march  from 
Tournay  to  Gerplnnet  was  counted  a  modd  of  skill— the  ieaa 
diuaaa  tot  the  maxim  that  ruled  till  the  advent  ol  Napoleon — 
"  nwch  alway*  in  the  ordei  in  which  you  eaomp,  or  purpue 


:  of  Brandenburg  th 


faced  a 

reqjectively  of  William  III.  and  of  Luxemburg.  The  Allits 
ere  first  conceotrated  to  the  south  of  Namnr.  and  Luianbarf 
irried  thither,  butneitherparlyfoundany  lempliDgopportuiul  y 
foe  battle,  and  when  the  cavalry  had  eoniumed  all  the  Forage 
available  in  the  district,  the  two  armies  edged  away  gradosDy 
towards  Fbnden.    The  w        "  


GRAND  ALLIANCE 


345 


•U^t  bdafice  of  advantage  oo  Luzemlnirg's  side,  until  September, 
when  William  returned  to  England,  leaving  Waldeck  in  command 
of  the  Allied  army,  with  orders  to  distribute  it  in  winter  quarters 
amongst  the  garrison  towns.  This  gave  the  momentary  oppor- 
tunity for  which  Luxemburg  had  been  watching,  and  at  Leuze 
(aoth  Sept.)  he  fdl  upon  the  cavalry  of  Waldeck's  rearguard 
and  drove  it  back  in  disorder  with  heavy  losses  until  the  pursuit 
was  diccked  by  the  Allied  infantry. 

la  1693^  the  Rhine  campaign  was  no  more  decisive  than 
before,  although  Lorge  made  a  successful  raid  into  WOrttemberg 
in  September  and  foraged  his  cavalry  in  German  territory  till 
the  approach  of  winter.  The  Spanish  campaign  was  unimportant, 
but  on  the  Alpine  side  the  Allies  under  the  duke  of  Savoy  drove 
back  Catinat  into  Dauphin^,  which  they  ravaged  with  fire  and 
sword.  But  the  French  peasantry  were  quicker  to  take  arms 
than  the  Germans,  and,  inspired  by  the  local  gentry — amongst 
whom  figured  the  heroine,  Philis  de  la  Tour  du  Pin  (164  5-1 708), 
daughter  of  the  marquis  de  la  Charce — they  beset  every  road 
with  such  success  that  the  small  regular  army  of  the  invaders 
was  powerless.  Brought  practically  to  a  standstill,  the  Allies 
soon  consumed  the  provisions  that  could  be  gathered  in,  and 
then,  fearing  lest  the  snow  should  close  the  passes  behind  them, 
they  retreated. 

In  the  Low  Countries  the  campaign  as  before  began  with  a 
great  si^^.  Louis  and  Vauban  invested  Namur  on  the  36th 
of  May.  The  place  was  defended  by  the  prince  de 
Barban(on  (who  had  been  governor  of  Luxemburg 
when  that  place  was  besi^ed  in  1684)  and  Coehoom 
{q.v,)f  Vauban's  rival  in  the  science  of  fortification. 
Luxemburg,  with  a  small  army,  manccuvxed  to  cover  the  siege 
against  William  III.'s  army  at  Louvain.  The  place  fell  on  the 
Sth  of  June,'  after  a  very  few  days  of  Vaubiui's  "  regular  " 
attack,  but  the  dtadel  held  out  until  the  asid.  Then,  as  before, 
Louis  returned  to  V(;rsallles,  giving  injunctions  to  Luxemburg 
to  "  preserve  the  strong  places  and  the  country,  while  opposing 
the  enemy's  enterprises  and  subsisting  the  army  at  his  expense." 
Thia  negative  policy,  contrary  to  expectation,  led  to  a  hard- 
fooght  battle.  William,  employing  a  common  device,  announced 
his  intention  of  retaking  Namur,  but  set  his  army  in  motion 
for  Flanders  and  the  sea-coast  fortresses  held  by  the  French. 
Luxemburg,  warned  in  time,  hurried  towards  the  Schddt,  and 
the  two  armies  were  soon  face  to  face  again,  Luxemburg  about 
Steenkirk,  William  in  front  of  HaL  William  then 
formed  the  plan  of  surprising  Luxemburg's  right 
wing  before  it  could  be  supported  by  the  rest  of  his  army, 
idying  chiefly  on  false  information  that  a  detected  spy 
at  his  headquarters  was  forced  to  send,  to  mislead  the  duke. 
But  Luxemburg  had  the  material  protection  of  a  widespread 
oet  of  outposts  as  well  as  a  secret  service,  and  although  ill  in 
bed  when  William's  advance  was  reported,  he  shook  off  his 
apathy,  mounted  his  horse  and,  enabled  by  his  outpost  reports 
to  divine  his  opponent's  plan,  he  met  it  (3rd  August)  by  a  swift 
cooceatration  of  his  army,  against  which  the  Allies,  whose 
advance  and  dq>loyment  had  been  mismanaged,  were  powerless 
(see  Stkenkixx),  In  this  almost  accidental  battle  both  sides 
suffered  enormous  losses,  and  neither  attempted  to  bring  about, 
or  even  to  risk,  a  second  resultless  trial  of  strength.  Bou£Elers's 
army  returned  to  the  Sambre  and  Liixemburg  and  William 
estaUished  themselves  for  the  rest  of  the  season  at  Lessines 
and  Ninove  respectively,  13  m.  apart.  After  both  armies 
had  broken  up  into  their  winter  quarters,  Louis  ordered 
Bovflkrs  to  attempt  the  capture  of  Charleroi.  But  a  bombard- 
ment failed  to  intimidate  the  garrison,  and  when  the  Allies 
b^an  to  re-assemble,  the  attempt  was  given  up  (xQth-sxst  Oct.). 
This  failure  was,  however,  compensated  by  the  siege  and  capture 
of  Fumes  (38th  Dec.  i693'7th  Jan.  1693). 

In  1693,  the  culminating  point  of  the  war  was  reached.  It 
began,  as  mentioned  above,  with  a  winter  enterprise  that  at 

*  Louvob  died  in  July  1691. 

"  A  few  days  before  this  the  great  naval  reverse  of  La  Ho^e  put 
aa  end  to  the  projects  of  invamng  England  hitherto  entertained  at 


leaat  indicated  the  aggressive  spirit  of  the  French  generals. 
The  king  promoted  his  admiral,  Tourville,  and  Catinat,  the 
roturieTt  to  the  marshalship,  and  founded  the  military  order  of 
St  Louis  on  the  loth  of  AprU.  The  grand  army  in  the  Netherluids 
this  year  numbered  x  30,000,  to  oppose  whom  William  III.  had 
only  some  40,000  at  hand.  But  at  the  very  beginning  of  opera- 
tions Louis,  after  reviewing  this  large  force  at  Gembloux,  broke 
it  up,  in  order  to  send  30,000  under  the  dauphin  to  Germany, 
where  Lorge  had  captured  Heidelberg  and  seemed  able,  if  re- 
inforced, to  overrun  south  Germany.  But  the  imperial  general 
Prince  ^Louis  of  Baden  took  up  a  position  near  Heilbronn  so 
strong  that  the  dauphin  and  Lorge  did  not  venture  to  attack 
him.  Thus  King  Louis  sacrificed  a  reality  to  a  dream,  and  for 
the  third  time  lost  the  opportunity,  for  which  he  always  longed, 
of  commanding  in  chief  in  a  great  battle.  He  himself,  to  judge 
by  his  letter  to  Monsieur  on  the  8th  of  June,  regarded  hii  aaion 
as  a  sacrifice  of  personal  dreams  to  tangible  realities.  And, 
before  the  event  falsified  predictions,  there  was  much  to  be  said 
for  the  course  he  took,  which  accorded  better  with  the  prevailing 
system  of  war  than  a  Fleurus  or  a  Neerwinden.  In  this  system 
of  war  the  rival  armies,  as  armies,  were  almost  in  a  state  of 
equilibrium,  and  more  was  to  be  expected  from  an  army  dealixig 
with  something  diwimilar  to  itself— a  fortress  or  a  patch  of  land 
or  a  convoy— than  from  its  collision  with  another  army  of  equal 
force. 

Thus  Luxemburg  obtained  his  last  and  greatest  opportunity. 
He  was  still  superior  in  numbers,  but  William  at  Louvain  had 
the  advantage  of  position.  The  former,  authorized 
by  his  master  this  year  *'  mm  seukmeni  d*emptchtr  Us 
ennemis  de  rien  enlreprendre,  mats  d^emporkr  qtUlqua 
avantages  sur  eux"  threatened  Li6ge,  drew  William  over  to  its 
defence  and  then  advanced  to  attadc  him.  The  Allies,  however, 
retired  to  another  position,  between  the  Great  and  Little  Geete 
riven,  and  there,  in  a  strongly  entrenched  position  around 
Neerwinden,  they  were  attacked  by  Luxembuilg  on  the  39th  of 
July.  The  long  and  doubtful  battle,  one  of  the  greatest  victories 
ever  won  by  the  French  army,  is  briefly  described  under  Neer- 
winden. It  ended  in  a  brilliant  victory  for  the  assailant,  but 
Luxemburg's  exhausted  army  did  not  pursue;  William  was  as 
unshaken  and  determined  as  ever;  and  the  campaign  closed, 
not  with  a  treaty  of  peace,  but  with  a  few  manoeuvres  which, 
by  inducing  William  to  bdieve  in  an  attack  on  Ath,  enabled 
Luxemburg  to  besiege  and  capture  Charleroi  (October). 

Neerwinden  was  not  the  only  French  victory  of  the  year. 
Catinat,  advancing  from  Fenestrelle  and  Susa  to  the  relief  of 
Pinerolo  (Pignerol),  which  the  duke  of  Savoy  was 
besieging,  took  up  a  position  in  formal  order  of  battle 
north  of  the  village  of  Marsaglia.  Here  on  the  4th  of 
October  the  duke  of  Savoy  attacked  htm  with  his  whole  army, 
front  to  front.  But  the  greatly  superior  regimental  eflidency 
of  the  French,  and  Catmat's  minute  attention  to  details'  in 
arraying  them,  gave  the  new  marshal  a  victory  that  was  a  not 
unworthy  pendimt  to  Neerwinden.  The  Piedmontese  and  their 
allies  lost,  it  is  said,  xo,ooo  killed^  wounded  and  prisoners,  as 
against  Catinat's  x8oo.  But  here,  too,  the  results  were  trifling, 
and  this  year  of  victoxy  is  remembered  chiefly  as  the  year  in 
which  "people  perished  of  want  to  the  accompaniment  of 
Te  Deums." 

In  1694  (late  in  the  season  owing  to  the  prevailing  distress  and 
famine)  Louis  opened  a  fresh  campaign  in  the  Netheriands.  The 
armies  were  larger  and  more  ineffective  than  ever,  and  William 
offered  no  further  opportunities  to  hb  formidable  opponent.  In 
September,  after  inoticing  William  to  desist  from  his  intention  of 
besicsing  Dunkirk  by  appearing  on  hb  flank  with  a  mass  of  cavalry,* 
which  had  ridden  from  the  Meuae,  100  m.,  in  4  days,  Luxemburg 
gave  up  his  command.  He  died  on  the  Ath  of  January  following, 
and  with  him  the  tradition  of  the  Cona6  school  of  warfare  dis- 
appeared from  Europe.  In  Catalonia  the  marshal  de  Noailles  won 
a  victory  (37th  May)  over  the  Spaniards  at  the  ford  of  the  Ter 

'  Marsaglia  is.  if  not  the  first,  at  any  rate,  one  of  the  first,  instances 
of  a  bayonet  charge  by  a  long  deployed  line  of  infantry. 

*  Hussars  figured  here  for  the  first  time  in  western  Europe.  A 
regiment  of  them  had  been  raised  in  169s  from  deserters  from  the 
Austrian  service. 


3+6 


GRAND  ALLIANCE 


(TorroelU,  $  m.  above  the  mouth  of  the  river),  and  in  oonaequenoe 
caotured  a  number  of  walled  towns. 

In  1695  William  found  Marshal  VQlen^  a  far  less  formidable 
opponent  than  Luxemburs  had  been,  and  easily  succeeded  in 
Ifftf^  keeping  him  in  Flanders  while  a  corps  of  the  Allies  in- 
I  ■■■sfciii  ^^^>t^  Namur.  Coehoom  directed  the  siege-works,  and 
•/ttsinir.  BoufBcrs  the  defence.  Gradually,  as  in  1692,  the  de* 
fenders  were  dislodged  from  the  town,  the  citadel 
outworks  and  the  citadel  itself,  the  last  being  assaulted  with 
success  by  the  '*  British  grenadiers,"  as  the  soiw  commemorates, 
on  the  30th  of  August.  Boufflecs  was  rewarded  for  his  sixty-seven 
days'  ddence  by  the  grade  of  marshaL 

By^  1696  necessity  had  compelled  Louis  to  renounce  his  vague 
and  indefinite  offensive  policy,  and  he  now  frankly  restricted  nis 
efforts  to  the  maintenance  ot  what  he  had  won  in  the  preceding 
camraigns.  In  this  new  policy  he  met  with  much  success. 
Boumers,  LoiiB^Ct  Noailles  and  even^  the  incompetent  Villeroi  held 
the  fickl  in  thetf  various  spheres  of  operations  without  allowing  the 
Allies  to  inflict  any  material  injury.-  and  also  (by  having  lecourse 
again  to  the  policy  of  living  by  plunder)  preserving  French  soil 
from  the  burden  of  their  own  maintenance.  In  this,  as  before,  they 
were  powerfully  assisted  by  the  disunion  and  divided  counsels  of 
their  heterogeneous  enemies.  In  Piedmont,  Catinat  crowned  his 
work  by  making  peace  and  alliance  with  the  duke  of  Savoy,  and 
the  two  late  enemies  having  joined  forces  captured  one  of  the 
fortresses  of  the  Milanese.  The  last  campaign  was  in  1697.  Catinat 
and  Vauban  besieged  Ath.  This  ucgc  was  perhaps  the  most  regular 
and  methodical  <»  the  great  engineer's  career.  It  lasted  33  dajrs 
and  cost  the  assailants  only  50  men.  King  William  did  not  stir 
from  his  entrenched  position  at  Brussels,  nor  did  Villeroi  dare  to 
attack  him  there.  Lastly,  in  August  1697  VendOme,  Noailles' 
successor,  captured  Barcelona.  The  peace  of  Ryswijk,  n^ned  on 
the  30th  of  October,  dosed  thu  war  by  practically  restoring;  the 
sUUus  quo  anU;  but  neither  the  ambitions  of  Louis  nor  the  Grand 
Alliance  that  opposed  them  ceased  to  have  force,  and  three  years 
laterthestrugsle  oegananew  (seeSPANiSH  Succession,  War  op  thb). 

Concurrently  with  these  campaigns,  the  emperor  had  been  en- 
gaged in  a  much  more  serious  war  on  his  eastern  marches  against 
the  old  enemy,  the  Turks.  This  war  arose  in  1683  out 
of  internal  disturbances  in  Hungary.  The  campaign  of 
^^^  the  following  vear  is  memorable  lor  all  time  as  the  last 
ig^rTfCpA,  great  wave  01  Turkish  invasion.  Mahomroed  IV.  ad- 
vanced from  Belgrade  in  May,  with  200,000  men,  drove 
back  the  small  imperial  army  of  Pnnce  Charics  of  Lorraine, 
and  early  in  July  invested  Vienna  itself.  The  two  months'  defence 
of  Vienna  by  Count  ROdiger  Starhemberg  (1635-1701)  and  the 
brilliant  vkrtory  of  the  relieving  army  led  by  John  Someski,  Idng  of 
Poland,  and  Ftince  Charies  on  the  I3th  01  September  1683,  were 
events  which,  besides  their  intrinsic  importance,  possess  the  romantic 
interest  of  an  old  knightly  crusade  against  the  heathen. 

But  the  course  of  the  war,  after  the  tide  of  invasion  had  ebbed, 
differed  little  from  the  wars  of  contemporary  western  Europe. 
Turkey  figured  rather  as  a  factor  in  the  balance  of  power  than  as 
the  "  infidel,"  and  although  the  battles  and  sieges  in  Hungary  were 
characterised  by  the  bitter  personal  hostility  of  Christian  to  Turk 
which  had  no  counterpart  in  the  West,  the  war  as  a  whole  was  as 
methodical  and  tedious  as  any  Rhine  or  Low  Countries  campaign. 
In  1684  Charles  of  Lorraine  gained  a  victory  at  Waitxen  on  the  37th 
of  June  and  another  at  Eperies  on  the  i8th  of  September,  and 
unsuccessfully  besieged  Budapest. 

In  i68<$  the  Germans  were  uniformly- successful,  though  a  victory 
at  Gran  (August  i6th)  and  the  storming  of  NeuhaQsel  (August  iQth) 
were  the  only  outstanding  incidents.  In  1686  Charles,  assisted  by 
the  elector  Max  Emanueiof  Bavaria,  besieged  and  stormed  Buda- 
pest (Sept.  3nd).  In  1687  they  followed  up  their  success  by  a  great 
victory  at  Mohacx  (Aug.  I3th).  In  1688  the  Austrians  advuiced 
still  further,  took  Belgrade,  threatened  Widin  and  entered  Bosnia. 
The  margrave  Louis  of  Baden,  who  afterward  became  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  methodical  generals  of  the  day,  won  a  victory 
at  Derbent  on  the  sth  of  September  1688,  and  next  year,  in  spite  of 
the  outbreak  of  aseneral  European  war,  he  managecl  to  win  another 
battle  at  Niach  (Sept.  34th).  to  capture  Widin  ^)ct.  14th)  and  to 
advance  to  the  Balkans,  but  in  1690.  more  troops  having  to  be 
withdrawn  for  the  European  war,  the  imperialist  generals  lost 
Nisch,  Widin  and  Belgrade  one  after  the  other.  There  was,  however, 
no  repetition  of  the  scenes  of  1683,  for  in  1691  Louis  won  the  battle 
of  Sciankamen  (Aug.  19th).  After  two  more  desultory  if  successful 
campaigns  he  was  called  to  serve  in  western  Europe,  and  for  three 
years  more  the  war  dragged  on  without  result,  until  in  1697  the 
young  Prince  Eugene  was  appointed  to  command  the  imperialists 
and  won  a  great  and  decisive  victory  at  Zenta  on  the  Theiss  (Sept. 
t  ith).  This  induced  a  last  general  advance  of  the  Germans  east- 
wara,  which  was  definitively  successful  and  brought  about  the 
peace  of  Cariowitx  (January  1699).  (C.  F.  A.) 

Naval  OpsxAnoNS 

The  naval  side  of  the  war  waged  by  the  powers  of  western 
Europe  from  1689  to  1697,  to  reduce  the  predominance  of  King 


Louis  XIV.,  was  not  marked  by  any  very  conspicuous  exhibitkHi 
of  energy  or  capacity,  but  it  was  stngulariy  decisive  in  its  results. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  struggle  the  French  fleet  kept  the  sea 
in  face  of  the  united  fleets  of  Great  Britain  and  Holland.  It 
displayed  even  in  1690  a  marked  superiority  over  them.  Before 
the  struggle  ended  it  had  been  fairly  driven  into  port,  and  though 
its  failure  was  to  a  great  extent  due  to  the  exhaustion  of  the 
French  finances,  yet  the  inability  of  the  French  admirals  to 
make  a  proper  use  of  their  fleets,  and  the  incapacity  of  the  king's 
ministers  to  direct  the  efforts  of  his  naval  ofi&cers  to  the  most 
effective  aims,  were  largely  responsible  for  the  result. 

When  the  war  began  in  1689,  the  British  Admiralty  was  still 
suffering  from  the  disorders  of  the  reign  of  King  Charics  U., 
which  had  been  only  in  part  corrected  during  the  short  rdgn  of 
James  II.  The  first  squadrons  were  sent  out  late  and  in  in- 
sufiSdent  strength.  The  Dutch,  crushed  by  the  obligation  to 
maintain  a  great  army,  found  an  increasing  difficulty  in  preparing 
their  fleet  for  action  early.  Louis  XIV.,  a  deqx»tic  monar^, 
with  as  yet  unexhausted  resources,  had  it  within  his  power  to 
strike  fint.  The  opportunity  offered  him  was  a  vezy  tempting 
one.  Ireland  was  still  loyal  to  King  James  IL,  and  would  there* 
fore  have  afforded  an  admirable  basis  of  operations  to  a  French 
fleet.  No  serious  attempt  was  made  to  profit  by  the  advantage 
thus  presented.  In  March  1689  King  James  was  landed  and 
reinforcements  were  prepared  for  him  at  Brest.  A  British 
squadron  under  the  command  of  Arthur  Herbert  (afterwards 
Lord  Torrington),  sent  to  intercept  them,  reached  the  French 
port  too  late,  and  on  returning  to  the  coast  of  Ireland  sighted 
the  convoy  off  the  Old  Head  of  ELinsale  on  the  loth  of  May. 
The  French  admiral  Chateaurenault  held  on  to  Bantxy  Bay, 
and  an  indecisive  encounter  took  place  on  the  nth  of  May. 
The  troops  and  stores  for  King  James  were  successfully  landed. 
Then  both  admirals,  the  Briti^  and  the  French,  returned  home, 
and  neither  in  that  nor  in  the  following  year  was  any  serious 
effort  made  by  the  French  to  gain  command  of  the  sea  between 
Irdand  and  England.  On  the  contrary,  a  great  French  fleet 
entered  the  Channel,  and  gained  a  success  over  the  combined 
British  and  Dutch  fleeu  on  the  xoth  of  July  1690  (see  Beacbt 
Head,  Battle  op),  which  was  not  followed  up  by  vigorous 
action.  In  the  meantime  King  William  III.  passed  over  to 
Ireland  and  won  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  During  the  following 
year,  while  the  cause  of  King  James  was  being  finally  ruined 
in  Ireland,  the  main  French  fleet  was  cruising  in  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  principally  for  the  puxpose  of  avoiding  battle.  During 
the  whole  of  T689, 1690  and  1691,  British  squadrons  were  active 
on  the  Irish  coast.  One  raised  the  siege  of  Londonderry  in  July 
1689,  and  another  convoyed  the  first  British  forces  sent  over 
under  the  d\ike  of  Schomberg.  Immediately  after  Beachy 
Head  in  1690,  a  part  of  the  Channel  fleet  carried  out  an  expedition 
under  the  earl  (afterwards  d\ike)  of  Marlborough,  which  took 
Cork  and  reduced  a  hirge  part  of  the  south  of  the  island.  In 
X69X  the  French  did  little  more  than  help  to  carry  away  the 
wreckage  of  their  allies  and  their  own  detachments.  In  169s 
a  vigorous  but  tardy  attempt  was  made  to  employ  their  fleet 
to  cover  an  invasion  of  En^and  (see  La  Hootnt,  Battle  or). 
It  ended  in  defeat,  and  the  allies  remained  masters  of  the  Channel 
The  defeat  of  La  Hogue  did  not  do  so  much  harm  to  the  naval 
power  of  King  Louis  as  has  sometimes  been  suf^xised.  In  the 
next  year,  1693,  he  was  able  to  strike  a  sewe  blow  at  the  AUies. 
The  important  Mediterranean  trade  of  Great  Britain  and 
Hdland,  called  for  convenience  the  Smyrna  convoy,  having 
been  delayed  during  the  previous  year,  anxious  meastucs  were 
taken  to  see  it  safe  on  its  road  in  1693.  But  the  arrangements 
of  the  allied  governments  and  admirals  were  not  good.  They 
made  no  effort  to  blockade  Brest,  nor  did  they  take  ^ective  steps 
to  discover  whether  or  not  the  French  fleet  had  left  the  port. 
The  convoy  was  seen  beyond  the  Sdlly  Isles  by  the  main  fleet. 
But  as  the  French  admiral  TourviUe  had  left  Brest  for  the  StraiU 
of  Gibraltar  with  a  powerful  force  and  had  been  joined  by  a 
squadron  from  Toulon,  the  whole  convoy  was  scattered  or  xtktn 
by  him,  in  the  latter  days  of  June,  near  Lagos.  But  tbou^ 
this  success  was  a  veiy  fair  equivalent  for  the  defeat  at  La 


GRAND  CANARY— GRAND  CANYON 


347 


Hogue,  it  was  the  last  serious  effort  made  by  the  navy  of  Louis 
XIV.  in  this  war.  Want  of  money  compelled  him  to  lay  his 
fleet  up.  The  allies  were  now  free  to  make  full  use  of  their  own, 
to  harass  the  French  coast,  to  intercept  French  commerce,  and 
to  cooperate  with  the  armies  acting  against  France.  Some  of 
the  operations  undertaken  by  them  were  more  remarkable  for 
the  violence  of  the  effort  than  for  the  magnitude  of  the  results. 
The  numerous  bombardments  of  French  Channel  ports,  and  the 
attempts  to  destroy  St  Malo,  the  great  nursery  of  the  active 
French  privateers,  by  infernal  machines,  did  little  harm.  A 
British  attack  on  Brest  in  June  1694  was  beaten  off  with  heavy 
loss.  The  scheme  had  been  betrayed  by  Jacobite  correspondents. 
Yet  the  inability  of  the. French  king  to  avert  these  enterprises 
showed  the  wealuiess  of  his  navy  and  the  limitations  of  his  power. 
The  protection  of  British  and  Dutch  commerce  was  never  com- 
plete, for  the  French  privateers  were  active  to  the  end.  But 
French  commerce  was  wholly  ruined. 

It  was  the  misfortune  of  the  allies  that  their  co-operation 
with  armies  was  largely  with  the  forces  of  a  power  so  languid 
and  so  bankrupt  as  Spain.  Yet  the  series  of  operations  directed 
by  Ruasel  in  the  Mediterranean  throughout  1694  and  1695 
demonstrated  the  superiority  of  the  allied  fleet,  and  checked 
the  advance  of  the  French  in  Catalonia.  Contemporary  with 
the  campaigns  in  Europe  was  a  long  aeries  of  cruises  against  the 
French  in  the  West  Indies,  undertaken  by  the  British  navy, 
with  more  or  len  help  from  the  Dutch  and  a  little  feeble  assistance 
from  the  Spaniards.  They  b^an  with  the  cruise  of  Captain 
Lawrence  Wright  in  X690-1691,  and  ended  with  that  of  Admiral 
NevS  in  1696-1697.  It  cannot  be  said  that  they  attained  to  any 
very  honourable  achievement,  or  even  did  much  to  weaken  the 
French  hold  on  their  possessions  in  the  West  Indies  and  North 
America.  Some,  and  notably  the  attack  made  on  Quebec  by 
Sir  William  Phips  in  1690,  with  a  force  raised  in  the  British 
colonics,  ended  in  defeat.  None  of  them  was  so  tritmiphant 
as  the  plunder  of  Cartagena  in  South  America  by  the  Frenchman 
Pointis,  in  1697,  at  the  head  of  a  semi-piratical  force.  Too  often 
there  was  absolute  misconducL  In  the  buccaneering  and  piratical 
atoMsphere  of  the  West  Indies,  the  naval  officers  of  the  day, 
who  were  still  infected  with  the  corruption  of  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  and  who  calculated  on  distance  from  home  to  secure  them 
immunity,  sank  nearly  to  the  level  of  pirates  and  buccaneers. 
The  indifference  of  the  age  to  the  laws  of  health,  and  iu  ignorance 
of  them,  caused  the  ravages  of  disease  to  be  frightful.  In  the 
case  of  Admiral  Nevil's  squadron,  the  admiral  himself  and  all 
his  captains  except  one,  died  during  the  cruise,  and  the  ships 
were  unmanned.  Yet  it  was  their  own  vices  which  caused 
these  expeditions  to  fail,  and  not  the  strength  of  the  French 
defence.    When  the  war  ended,  the  navy  of  King  Louis  XIV. 

bad  disappeared  from  the  sea. 
See  Burchett.  Memoirs  of  Transactums  at  Su  dwiug  the  War 
itk  France,  1688-1697  (London,  1703);  Lediard,  Naieal  History 


(London,  i73S)f  particuurly  valuable  for  the  quotations  in  his 

For  the  West  Indian  voyages,  Tronde,  BataiUes  navaUs  do 

ia  France  (Paris,  1867) ;  De  Yonghe,  Ceschiedetns  som  hot  Neder- 


note*. 


voyai 
»  ,,^m^  v>— »*  "^t/i  ^«  Yong 
Undsche  Zeemeem  (Haarlem,  i860).  (D.  H.) 

ORAMD  CAIIARY  (Gran  Canaria),  an  island  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  forming  part  of  the  Spanish  archipelago  of  the  (^nary 
Islands  {q.9.).  Pop.  (1900)  137,471;  area  533  sq.  m.  Grand 
Canaiy,  the  most  fertile  bland  of  the  group,  is  nearly  circular 
in  shape,  with  a  diameter  of  34  m.  and  a  circumference  of  75  m. 
The  interiM'  b  a  mass  of  mountain  with  ravines  radiating  to 
the  shore.  Its  highest  peak,  Los  Pexos,  is  6400  ft.  Large 
tncts  are  covered  with  native  pine  (P.  canariensis).  There  are 
aewal  mineral  springs  on  the  island.  Las  Palmas  (pop.  44tSi 7)i 
the  capital,  is  described  in  a  separate  article.  Tdde  (8978), 
the  second  place  in  the  island,  stands  on  a  plain,  surrounded 
by  pfdffl  trees.  At  Atalaya,  a  short  distance  from  Las  Palmas, 
the  making  <rf  earthenware  vessels  employs  some  hundreds 
of  people,  who  inhabit  holes  made  in  the  tufa. 

pBABO  CAITON,  a  profound  gorge  in  the  north-west  comer 
of  Ariiooa,  hi  the  south-western  part  of  the  United  States  of 
Ancrjca,  carved  in  the  plateau  region  by  the  Colorado  river. 
Of  it  Captain  Dutton  says:  **  Those  who  have  long  and  carefully 


studied  the  Grand  Caqyon  of  the  Colorado  do  not  hesitate  for 
a  moment  to  pronounce  it  by  far  the  most  sublime  of  all 
earthly  spectacles  ";  and  this  is  also  the  verdict  of  many  who 
have  only  viewed  it  in  one  or  two  of  its  parts. 

The  C^orado  river  is  made  by  the  junction  of  twblargestreams, 
the  Green  and  Grand,  fed  by  the  rains  and  snows  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  has  a  length  of  about  sooo  m.  and  a  drainage 
area  of  ass,ooo  sq.  m.,  emptying  into  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
California.  In  its  course  the  Colorado  passes  through  a  mountain 
section;  then  a  plateau  section;  and  finally  a  desert  lowland 
section  which  extends  to  iu  mouth.  It  is  in  the  plateau  section 
that  the  Grand  Canyon  is  situated.  Here  the  surface  of  the 
country  lies  from  5000  to  9000  ft.  above  sea-levd,  being  a  table- 
land region  of  buttes  and  mesas  diversified  by  lava  intrurioos, 
flows  and  dnder  cones.  The  region  consists  in  the  main  of 
stratified  rocks  bodily  uplifted  in  a  neariy  horizontal  position, 
though  profoundly  faulted  here  and  there,  and  with  some 
modorate  folding.  For  a  thousand  miles  the  river  has  cut  a 
series  of  canyons,  bearing  different  names,  which  reach  their 
culmination  in  the  Marble  Canyon,  (^  m.  long,  and  the  contiguous 
Grand  Canyon  which  extends  for  a  distance  of  ax7  m.  farther 
down  stream,  making  a  total  length  of  continuous  canyon  from 
3000  to  6000  ft.  in  depth,  for  a  distance  of  383  m.,  the  longest 
and  deepest  canyon  in  the  world.  This  huge  gash  in  the  earth 
is  the  work  of  the  Colorado  river,  with  accompanying  weathering, 
through  long  ages;  and  the  river  is  still  engaged  in  deepening 
it  as  it  rushes  along  the  canyon  bottom. 

The  higher  parts  of  the  enclosing  plateau  have  sufficient 
rainfall  for  forests,  whose  growth  is  also  made  possible  in  part 
by  the  cool  climate  and  consequently  retarded  evaporaUon; 
but  the  less  elevated  portions  have  an  arid  climate,  while  the 
climate  in  the  canyon  bottom  is  that  of  the  true  desert.  Thus 
the  canyon  is  really  in  a  desert  region,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  only  two  living  streams  enter  Uie  river  for  a  distance  of 
Soo  m.  from  the  Green  river  to  the  lower  end  6t  the  Grand 
Canyon;  and  only  one,  the  Kanab  Creek,  enters  the  Grand 
Canyon  itself.  "Diis,  moreover,  is  dry  during  most  of  the  year. 
In  spite  of  this  lack  of  tributaries,  a  large  volume  d  water  flows 
through  the  canyon  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  some  coming 
from  the  scattered  tributaries,  some  from  springs,  but  most 
from  the  rains  and  snows  of  the  distant  mountains  about  the 
headwaters.  Owing  to  enclosure  between  steeply  rising  canyon 
walls,  evaporation  is  retarded,  thus  increasing  the  possibility 
of  the  long  journey  of  the  water  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea 
across  a  vast  stretch  of  arid  land. 

The  river  in  the  canyon  varies  from  a  few  feet  to  an  unknown 
depth,  and  at  times  of  flood  has  a  greatly  increased  volume. 
The  river  varies  in  width  from  50  ft.  in  some  of  the  narrow 
Granite  Gorges,  where  it  bathes  both  rock  walls,  to  500  or  600 
ft.  in  more  open  places.  In  the  383  m.  of  the  Marble  and  Grand 
Canyons,  the  river  falls  3330  ft.,  and  at  one  point  has  a  fall  of 
3ZO  ft.  in  10  m.  The  current  velocity  varies  from  3  to  30  or 
more  miles  per  hour,  being  increased  in  places  by  low  falls  and 
rapids;  but  there  are  no  high  falls  below  the  junction  of  the 
Green  and  Grand. 

Besides  the  canyons  of  the  main  river,  there  are  a  multitude 
of  lateral  canyons  occupied  by  streams  at  intervals  of  heavy 
rain.  As  Powell  says,  the  region  "  is  a  composite  of  thousands, 
and  tens  of  thousands  of  gorges."  There  are  "  thousands  of 
gorges  like  that  below  Niagara  Falls,  and  there  are  a  thousand 
Yosemites."  The  largest  of  all,  the  Grand  Canyon,  has  an 
average  depth  of  4000  ft.  and  a  width  of  4^  to  13  m.  For  a 
long  distance,  where  crossing  the  Kaibab  pJateau,  the  depth 
is  6000  ft.  For  much  of  the  distance  there  is  an  inner  narrower 
gorge  sunk  in  the  bottom  of  a  broad  outer  canyon.  The  narrow 
gorge  is  in  some  places  no  more  than  3500  ft.  wide  at  the  top. 
To  illustrate  the  depth  of  the  Grand  Canyon,  Powell  writes: 
"  Pluck  up  Mount  Washington  (6393  ft.  high)  by  the  roots  to 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  drop  it  head  first  into  the  (>rand  Canyon, 
and  the  dam  will  not  force  its  waters  over  the  wall." 

While  there  are  notable  differences  in  the  Grand  Canyon 
from  point  to  point,  the  main  elements  are  much  alike  throughout 


348 


GRAND-DUKE 


.    _    .  . .      in  ol  lock  itnU  revnkd 

In  the  c>ii)«n  walb.  At  the  but,  fn  •om«  Soo  fL,  Ukk  b  t 
complex  of  oytttlUde  ncki  of  eariy  gcologlal  (g(,  coruiuing 
of  gndu,  Khist,  ilale  uid  other  melt,  gmily  pliatcd  uid 
trtveraed  by  dikes  ind  granite  iotniMni.  Thii  u  in  ucieat 
raouDteill  mass,  which  bu  been  greidy  '       ■   '      ^     ■- 


>D  are*  of  taefloo  w).  bl  u  >vengc  of  e 


bedded  undstone 


Le  beds  iDclined  to  the  boris 
the  lower  caoyon  wiU.  O 
undstoDci  Hod  Chen  foo 


ing  lorm  B  Kriei  of  alcoves.  Thoe  beda, 
■le  in  nearly  boriionlal  position.  Above  this 
limestone — often  a  beautiful  mitble,  as  in  the 
lot  in  the  Grand  Canyon  ttiined  a  brilliant 
e  washed  Irom  oveilying  bedi.  Above  this 
k»  ft.  oI  grey  and  bright  red  sandstone  beds 
It  ribbons  of  landscape."  At  the  top  of  the 
canyon  is  looo  It.  of  limeiloDe  with  gypium  and  chert,  noted 
lor  the  pinnacles  and  towers  which  denudation  baa  devcLapid. 
It  ii  tbese  diSeient  rock  beds,  with  (hni  vadnus  colours,  and 
the  diHerencts  in  the  eSecl  o(  weathering  upon  them,  that  give 
the  great  variety  and  grandeur  to  the  canyon  actneiy.  There 
ara  towers  and  turrets,  pinnacles  and  akovea,  cliffs,  ledges, 
cn^  and  moderate  talus  ilopes,  each  with  its  cbaracteriBtic 
colour  and  form  according  lo  the  act  of  strata  in  which  U  lies. 
The  main  river  has  deft  the  plateau  in  a  huge  gash;  innumerable 
ude  gorges  have  cut  it  to  right  and  left;  and  weaiheting  has 
etched  out  the  cliffs  and  crags  and  helped  to  paint  it  in  the  gaudy 
colour  bands  that  streich  before  the  eye.  There  is  grandeur 
here  and  weirdness  in  abundance,  but  beauty  is  lacking.  Powell 
puts  the  case  graphically  when  he  writes:  "A  wail  of  boiho- 
geneous  granite  like  that  b  the  Yosemite  is  but  a  naked  wall, 
whether  it  be  looo  or  5000  ft.  high.  Hundreds  and  thousands  of 
leet  mean  nothing  to  the  eye  when  they  stand  in  a  meaningless 
front.  A  mquntaia  covered  by  pure  snow  10,000  ft.  hi^  has 
but  little  more  eHect  on  the  Imagination  than  a  inauntaiii  of 
snow  looo  IL  high— it  is  but  more  of  the  same  thing;  but  a 
facade  of  seven  systems  of  rock  has  lis  sublimity  midtiplied 
Kvcnfoid." 

To  the  ordinary  person  most  of  the  Crand  Canyon  is  at 
present  inacceisiUe,  For,  as  Powell  sules,  "  a  year  scarcely 
suffices  to  see  i[  all";  and  "it  is  a  region  more  difficult  10 
traverse  than  the  Alps  or  the  Himalayas."  But  a  part  of  the 
canyon  Is  now  easily  accessble  to  tourists.  A  trail  leads  from 
the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  F*  railway  at  Flagslafl,  Ariiona; 
and  a  branch  line  of  the  lailwny  extends  from  Williams,  Ariiona, 
to  a  hotel  on  the  very  brink  of  the  canyon.  The  plateau,  which 
in  places  beara  an  open  forest,  mainly  of  pine,  varies  in  elevation, 
but  is  for  the  moat  part  a  seria  of  faiil/  level  temce  tops  with 
steep  faces,  with  mesas  aod  buttcshere  and  there,  and,  especially 
Dear  the  huge  eitinct  volcano  of  San  Francisco  mouotsin, 
■'     nuch  evidence  of  foraiet  volcanic  activity,  including 


The  Grand  Canyon  was  pmbablydiscoveted  by  G.L.  de  Cardenas 
1540,  but  for  32Q  years  the  inaccessibiUty  of  the  regun 
'evented  its  exploration.  Various  people  visited  parta  of  U 
'  made  reports  regarding  it;  and  tfie  Ives  Expedition  of  1S5S 
intaina  a  report  upon  the  canyon  written  by  Prof.  J.  S.  Mew- 
berry.  But  it  was  not  until  iS6g  tliat  the  first  real  exploration 
of  the  Grand  Canyon  was  made.  In  that  year  Major  J.  W. 
Powell,  with  Sve  sssodates  (three  left  the  party  in  the  Grand 
1),  made  the  coraidele  journey  by  boat  from  the  joDctlon 
of  the  Green  and  Ctand  riven  to  the  hiwer  end  ol  the  Grand 
lyoo.  This  haiaidous  journey  nnks  as  one  of  the  most 
dating  and  reroaikable  explorations  ever  undertaken  in  North 
America;  and  Powell's  desciipiions  of  the  expedition  are 
among  the  most  fsscinatiog  accounts  ol  travel  luting  to  the 
cot.  Powell  nude  another  expedition  In  1S71.  but  did 
_  the  wliole  length  of  the  canyon.  The  govenunenl  soivey 
conducted  by  LicuL  George  M.  Wlieeler  also  eqilored  parts 
>f  the  canyon,  and  C.  E.  Ihittoa  carried  on  extensve 
itudiei  of  the  canyon  and  the  contiguous  plateau  region. 
[n  iSgo  Kobert  B.  Stanton,  with  six  associates,  went  throu^ 
he  canyon  b  boats,  making  a  survey  to  determine  the 
easibility  of  building  a  nilwiy  along  its  base.  Two  olba 
parties,  one  in  iBg6  (Nat.  Galloway  and  WiUiam  Richmoiid) 
the  otber  in  1B9T  (George  F.  Flavell  and  companioo),  have 
made  the  journey  through  the  canyon.  So  far  as  tiiere  is 
record  these  are  the  only  lour  parties  thxt  have  ever  made 
iplctc  journey  through  the  Grand  CanyoiL  It  has 
' '  that  James  White  made  the  | 


.    The  I 


iruplly  to  the 


edge  of  the  canyon,  at  whose  bottom, 
the  silvery  thread  of  water  where  the  muddy  torrent  rushes 
along.on  its  never-ceasing  task  of  sawing  its  way  into  the  depths 
of  the  earth.  Opposite  rise  the  highly  coloured  and  terraced 
slopes  of  the  other  canyon  wall,  whose  citst  is  fully  11  m.  distant. 
Down  by  the  river  are  the  folded  rocks  of  an  ancient  mountain 
system,  formed  before  vertebrate  life  appeared  on  the  earth, 
then  worn  to  an  almost  level  condition  through  untold  ages  ol 
slow  denudation.  .  Slowly,  then,  the  mountains  sank  beneath  the 
level  ol  Ibe  sea,  and  in  the  Carbonilerous  Period— about  the 
time  of  die  formation  of  the  coal-beds — sediments  began  to 
bury  the  ancient  mountains.  This  lasted  through  other  untold 
ages  until  the  Tertiary  Period — Ihroughmui'  ' "'  "  ' 
and  all  of  the  Mesozoic  time-and  a  total  of  li  . 

ft.  of  sediments  were  deposited.    Since  then  erosion  has  been 
dominant,  and  the  river  has  e«ten  ita  way  down  to,  and 
the  deeply  buried  mountains,  opening  the  slnls  for  us  to  i 
like  (be  pages  of  a  book.    In  some  parts  of  the  plateau  regi< 
much  IS  30,000  ft.  oi  rock  have  been  stripped  away,  and 


CT  6000  ft.  hu  been 


the   canyon 
real  basis. 


c  Powell  did;  1 


:iu[i.  iS7ji:  ].  W.  E'owcll,  Canyimt  rl  iIli  Ctlrmia 
..  iSgih  f.  S.  Dellenbaugh.  til  Samama  ^  Ikt 


i,3,"t!!s.C™k 


jy  F,  P.  >. 


OBAHD-DIIKB  (Fr.  paitd-iti,  Ital.  paxAiua.  Cer.  Oui- 
kinee),  a  title  home  by  princes  ranking  between  king  and  duke. 
"Tie  dignity  wis  first  bestowed  in  1  s6j  by  Pope  Pius  V.  on  Duke 
Tosimo  I.  of  Florence,  his  son  Frauds  obtaining  the  emperor's 
onfirmation  in  1576;  aod  the  predicate  "Royal  Highness" 
las  added  in  ifigij.  In  1S06  Napoleon  created  his  brolher-in-iaw 
oachim  Mutal,  grand-duke  of  Berg,  and  in  the  same  year  the 
itle  was  assumed  by  the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the 
lector  of  Baden,  and  the  new  rula  of  the  secularized  tnslbopric 
f  WOnburg  (formerly  Ferdinand  III.,  grand-duke  of  Tuscany) 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine.    At  the  present  lii 


according  to  the  , 
borne  by  the  sove 

and  Oldenburg  (sin 


lof  tb 
IS  of  Luxe  I 


lof  Vier 
!,  Saxe^W 
n,  Mecklf 


title  is 


Hesse-Darm- 

titles  those  of  grand-duke  of  Cracow  and  Tuscany,  and  the  king 
of  Prussia  (hose  of  grand-duke  of  the  Lower  Rhine  and  Posen. 
The  title  is  also  retained  by  the  diyinssrwrrt  Hatisbutg-Lomine 
dynasty  of  Tuscany. 

Grand-duke  is  also  the  conventional  English  equivalent  ol 
the  Russian  tdikiy  knyta,  more  properly  "  grand-prince  **  (Ger. 
Grosamrsi),  at  one  time  the  title  oi  the  rulen  of  Russia,  who, 
as  the  eldest  bom  oi  the  house  of  Rurik,  exercised  ovetiordship 
over  the  uiytlniyt  jbiyon  or  local  princes.  On  the  partition  of 
the  inheritance  of  Rurik,  (he  eldest  of  each  branch  assumed 
the  title  of  grand-pHnce.  Under  the  domination  of  the  (Mden 
Horde  the  right  to  bestow  the  title  viilkiy  inyu  was  reserved  by 
the  Tatar  Khan,  who  gave  It  to  the  prince  of  Uosko*.  In 
Lithuania  this  title  also  symbohsed  a  similar  overlordship,  and 
it  passed  to  the  kings  of  Poland  on  the  union  of  Lithuania  with 
the  Polish  republic.    The  style  ol  the  empcrot  of  Russia  no* 


GRANDEE— GRANDMONTIKES 


m 


indiidct  the  titkt  of  grand-duke  (vdtt^y  kttyoM)  of  Smolensk, 
Lithuania,  Volhynia,  Podolia  and  Finland.  Until  x886  this 
title  grand-duke  or  grand-duchess,  with  the  style  "  Imperial 
Hi^meas/'  was  borne  by  all  descendants  of  the  imperial  house. 
It  is  now  confined  to  the  sons  and  daughters,  brothers  and  sisters, 
and  male  grandchildren  of  the  emperor.  The  other  members  of 
the  imperial  house  bear  the  title  of  prince  {knyoM)  and  princess 
{kmyagimya,  if  married,  knyaskna,  if  unmarried)  with  the  style  of 
**  Hi^oeas."  The  emperor  of  Austria,  as  king  of  Hungary, 
also  bears  this  title  as  "  grand-duke  "  of  Transylvania,  which 
was  erected  into  a  "  grand-princedom  "  (Grossfttrstentum)  in 
1765  by  Maria  Theresa. 

ORAHDBB  (Span.  Grande)  ^  a  title  of  honour  borne  by  the 
fai^wst  dasB  ol  the  Spanish  nobility.  It  would  appear  to  have 
been  miginally  assumed  by  the  most  important  nobles  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  mass  of  the  rieos  kombres,  or  great  barons 
of  the  realm.  It  was  thus,  as  Selden  points  out,  not  a  general 
tcnn  denoting  a  dass,  but  **  an  additional  dignity  not  only  to 
all  dukes,  but  to  some  marquesses  and  condes  also  *'  {TitUs  of 
HoHOTf  ed.  167  a,  p.  478) .  It  formerly  implied  certain  privileges ; 
notably  that  of  sitting  covered  in  the  royal  presence  Until 
tbe  time  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  when  the  power  of  the 
territorial  nobles  was  broken,  the  grandees  had  also  certain  more 
iaaportant  rights,  e.g.  freedom  from  taxation,  inununity  from 
arrest  save  at  the  king's  express  command,  and  even— in  certain 
raws  the  right  to  renounce  their  allegiance  and  make  war  on 
tbe  king.  Their  number  and  privileges  were  further  restricted 
by  Charles  I.  (the  emperor  Qiarles  V.),  who  reserved  to  the 
crown  the  ri|^t  to  bestow  the  title.  The  grandees  of  Spain  were 
foxther  divided  into  three  daases:  (z)  those  who  tpokt  to  the 
king  and  received  his  reply  with  their  heads  covered;  (2)  those 
who  addressed  him  uncovered,  but  put  on  their  hats  to  hear  his 
answer;  (3)  those  who  awaited  the  permission  of  the  king  before 
onveiing  themsdves.  All  grandees  were  addressed  by  the  king 
aa  "my  cousin"  (mi  primo),  whereas  ordinary  nobles  were 
only  qualified  as  "  my  kinsman  "  (mi  parienU),  The  title  of 
**  grandee,"  abolished  under  King  Joseph  Bonapute,  was  revived 
in  1834,  when  by  the  EOotudo  red  grandees  were  given  precedence 
in  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  The  designation  is  npw,  however, 
purely  titular,  and  implies  neither  privilege  nor  power. 

ORAMD  F01KK8,  a  city  in  the  Boundary  district  of  British 
Cohambia;  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  north  and  south  forks 
of  th^  Kettle  river,  a  m.  N.  of  the  international  boundary.  Pop. 
(1908)  about  asoa  It  is  in  a  good  agricultural  district,  but 
owes  Its  importance  largely  to  the  erection  here  of  the  extensive 
amehing  plant  of  the  Granby  Consolidated  Company,  which 
saadts  the  ores  obtained  from  the  varioua  parts  of  the  Boundary 
ooontry,  but  chiefly  those  from  the  Knob  Hill  and  Old  Ironsides 
minci.  The  Canadian  Pacific  railway,  as  well  as  the  Great 
Northern  railway,  runs  to  Grand  Forks,  which  thus  has  excellent 
smihray  commuidcation  with  the  south  and  east. 
.  ORAND  FOBKBt  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Grand  Forks 
county.  North  Dakota,  U.S.A.,  at  the  junction  of  the  Red  river 
(of  the  North)  and  Red  Lake  river  (whence  its  name),  about 
So  m.  N.  of  Fargo.  Pop.  (kgoo)  7653,  of  whom-  3781  were 
fordgB4ioni;  (X905)  10,197;  (xqxo)  37^88.  It  is  served  by  the 
Nofthem  Pacific  and  the  Great  Northern  raflways,  and  has  a 
oondderable  river  traffic,  the  Red  river  (whoi  dredged)  having  a 
channd  60  ft  wide  and  4  ft.  deep  at  low  water  bdow  Grand 
Foriu.  At  University,  a  small  suburb,  is  the  University  of 
North  Dakota  (co-educational;  opened  X884).  Affiliated  with 
it  is  Wesley  College  (Methodist  Episcopal),  now  at  Grand  Forks 
(with  a  campus  adjoining  that  of  the  University),  but  formerly 
thefied  River  VaUey  University  at  Wahpeton,  North  DakoU. 
In  X907-1908  the  University  had  57  faistructors  and  86x  students; 
its  Kbiary  had  35,000  bound  volumes  and  5000  pamphleta.  At 
Gnuid  Forks,  also,  are  St  Bemard'a  Ursuline  Aaulemy  (Roman 
Catholic)  and  Grand  Forks  College  (Lutheran).  Among  the 
dtjf's  prindpal  buildings  are  the  public  library,  the  Federal 
boflding  and  a  Y.M.C.A.  building.  As  the  centre  of  the  great 
wheat  valley  of  the  Red  river,  it  has  a  busy  trade  in  wheat,  flour 
and  agricultural  machinery  and  implements,  as  well  as  Urge 


jobbing  interests.  There  are  railway  car-shops  here,  and  among 
the  numufactures  are  crackers,  brooms,  bricks  and  tiles  and 
cement.  The  munidpality  owns  its  water-works  and  an  dectric 
lighting  plant  for  street  lighting.  In  x8oi  John  Cameron  (d.  1804) 
erected  a  temporary  trading  post  for  the  North-West  Fur 
Company  on  the  site  of  the  present  city;  it  afterwards  became 
a  trading  post  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  The  first  per- 
manent settlement  was  made  in  1871,  and  Grand  Forks  was 
reached  by  the  Northern  Pacific  and  chartered  as  a  dty  in  x88i. 

GRAND  HAVEN,  a  dty,  port  of  entry,  and  the  county-seat  of 
Ottawa  county,  Michigan,  U.S.A.,  on  Lake  Michigan,  at  the 
mouth  of  Grand  river,  30  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Grand  Rapids  and 
78  m.  E.  of  Milwaukee.  Pop.  (1900)  4743,  of  whom  1 277  were 
foreign-bom;  (1904}  5239,  (19x0)  5856.  It  is  served  by  the 
Grand  Tftink  and  the  P^  Marquette  nilways,  and  by  steamboat 
lines  to  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  other  lake  ports,  and  is  coimected 
with  Grand  Rapids  and  Muskegon  by  an  dectric  line.  The 
dty  manufactures  pianos,  refrigerators,  printing  presses  and 
leather,  is  a  centre  for  the  shipment  of  fruit  and  celery;  and 
has  valuable  fisheries  near — fresh,  salt  and  smoked  fish,  especially 
whitefish,  are  shipped  in  coiisidenble  quantities.  Grand  Haven 
is  the  port  of  entry  for  the  Customs  District  of  Michigan,  and  has 
a  small  export  and  import  trade.  The  munidpality  owns  and 
operates  its  water-works  and  dectric-Ughting  pliant.  A  trading 
post  was  established  here  about  i8ai  by  an  agent  of  the  American 
Fur  Company,  but  the  permanent  settlement  of  the  dty  did  not 
begin  until  1834.  Grand  Haven  was  laid  out  as  a  town  in  1836. 
and  was  chartered  as  a  dty  in  X867. 

GRANDIBR,  URBAN  (x  590-1634),  priest  of  the  church  of 
Sainte  Croix  at  Loudun  in  the  department  of  Vienna,  France,  was 
accused  of  witchcraft  in  1632  by  some  hystericsl  novices  of 
the  Carmelite  Convent,  where  the  trial,  protracted  for  two 
years,  was  hdd.  Grandier  was  found  guilty  and  burnt  alive 
at  Loudun  on  the  x8th  of  August  1634. 

GRAND  ISLAND,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Hall  county, 
Nebraska,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Platte  river,  about  X54  m.  W.  by  S. 
of  Omaha.  Pop.  (1900)  7SS4Xx339  foreign-bom) ;  (19x0)  xo^siS. 
It  is  served  by  the  Union  Padfic,  the  Chicago,  Burlington  & 
(^uincy,  and  the  St  Joseph  &  Grand  Island  railways,  being  the 
western  terminus  of  the  last-iuuned  line  and  a  southern  terminus 
of  a  branch  of  the  Union  Padfic.  The  city  is  situated  on  a  slope 
skirting  the  broad,  levd  bottom-lands  of  the  Platte  river,  in  the 
midst  of  a  fertile  farming  region.  Grand  Island  College  (Baptist ; 
co-educational)  was  established  in  X893  and  the  Grand  Isbmd 
Business  and  Normal  College  in  1890;  and  the  dty  is  the  seat 
of  a  state  Sailors'  and  Soldiers'  Home,  established  in  1888. 
Grand  Island  has  a  huge  wholesale  trade  in  groceries,  fruits,  &c.; 
is  an  important  horse-market,  and  has  large  stock-yards.  There 
are  shops  of  the  Union  Padfic  in  the  dty,  and  among  its  manu- 
factures are  beet-sugar^— Grand  Island  is  in  one  of  the  principal 
beet-«ugar-growing  districts  of  the  state — brooms,  wire  fences, 
confectionery  and  canned  com.  The  most  important  industry 
of  the  county  is  the  raising  and  feeding  of  sheep  and  neat  cattle. 
A  "  Grand  Island  "  was  founded  in  1857,  and  was  named  from 
a  large  island  (neariy  so  m.  long)  in  the  Platte  opposite  its  site; 
but  the  present  dty  was  laid  out  by  the  Union  Pacific  in  x866. 
It  was  chartered  as  a  dty  in  X873. 

ORANDNONTINBS,  a  religioua  order  founded  by  St  Stephen 
of  Thiers  in  Auvergne  towards  the  end  of  the  xxth  century. 
St  Stq>hen  was  so  impressed  by  the  fa'ves  of  the  hermits  whom  he 
saw  in  Calabria  that  he  desired  to  introduce  the  same  manner 
of  life  into  his  native  country.  He  was  ordained,  and  in  X073 
obtained  the  pope's  permission  to  establish  an  order.  He 
betook  himself  to  Auvergne,  and  in  the  desert  of  Muret,  near 
Limoges,  he  made  himself  a  hut  of  branches  of  trees  and  lived 
there  for  some  time  in  complete  solitude.  A  few  disciples 
gathered  round  him,  and  a  commum'ty  was  formed.  The  rule 
was  not  reduced  to  writing  until  after  Stephen's  death,  1124. 
The  life  was  eremitical  and  very  severe  in  regard  to  silence, 
diet  and  bodily  austerities;  it  was  meddled  after  the  rule  of 
the  Camaldolese,  but  various  regulations  were  adopted  from 
the  Augustiniaa  canons.  Thesuperior  was  called  the  "(Corrector." 


350 


GRAND  RAPIDS— GRANET 


About  XI  so  the  hermits,  being  compelled  to  leave  Muret,  settled 
in  the  neighbouring  desert  of  Grandmont,  whence  the  order 
derivi^  its  name.  Louis  VII.  founded  a  house  at  Vincennes 
near  Paris^  and  the  order  had  a  great  vogue  in  France,  as  many 
as  sixty  houses  being  established  by  Z170,  but  it  seems  never  to 
have  found  favour  out  of  France;  it  had,  however,  a  couple  of 
cells  in  England  up  to  the  middle  of  the  xsth  century.  The 
system  of  lay  brothers  was  Introduced  on  a  large  scale,  and  the 
management  of  the  temporals  was  in  great  measure  left  in  their 
hands;  the  arrangement  did  not  work  well,  and  the  quarrels 
between  the  lay  brothers  and  the  choir  monks  were  a  constant 
source  of  weakness.  Later  centuries  witnessed  mitigations  and 
reforms  in  the  life,  and  at  last  the  order  came  to  an  end  just 
before  the  French  Revolution.  There  were  two  or  three  convents  of 
Grandmontine  nuns.    The  order  played  no  great  part  in  history. 


Etatencyktopddit  (ed.  3). 


(E.C.B.) 


GRAND  RAPIDS*  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Kent  county, 
Michigan,  U.S.A.,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Grand  river, 
about  30  m.  from  Lake  Michigan  and  145  m.  W.N.W.  of  Detroit. 
Pop.  (1890)  60,978;  (1900)  87,565,  of  whom  33,896  were 
foreign-bom  and  604  were  negroes;  (19x0  census)  XX3,S7X* 
Of  the  foreign-bom  papulation  in  1900,  xz,x37  were  Hollanders; 
33x8  English-Canadians;  3953  Germans;  1x37  Irish;  xo6o  from 
German  Poland;  and  X026  from  England.  Grand  Rapids  is 
served  by  the  Michigan  Central,  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan 
Southem,  the  Grand  Tnmk,  the  P^e  Marquette  and  the  Grand 
Rapids  &  Indiana  railways,  and  by  electric  interurban  railways. 
The  VMHey  here  is  about  2  m.  wide,  with  a  range  of  hills  on 
either  side,  and  about  midway  between  these  hills  the  river  flows 
over  a  limestone  bed,  falling  about  x8  ft.  in  x  nu  Factories  and 
mills  line  both  banks,  but  the  business  blodcs  are  nearly  all 
along  the  foot  of  the  E.  range  of  hills;  the  finest  residences 
command  picturesque  views  from  the  hills  farther  back,  the 
residences  on  the  W.  side  being  less  pretentious  and  standing 
on  bottom-lands.  .The  principal  business  thoroughfares  are 
Canal,  Monroe  and  Division  streets.  Among  the  important 
buildings  are  the  United  States  Govemment  building  (Grand 
Rapids  is  the  seat  of  the  southem  division  of  the  Federal  judicial 
district  of  westem  Michigan),  the  County  Court  house,  the  city 
hall,  the  public  library  (presented  by  Martin  A.  Ryerson  of 
Chicago),  the  Manufacturer's  buili^ng,  the  Evening  Press 
building,  the  Michigan  Trust  building  and  several  hajidsome 
churches.  The  principal  charitable  institutions  are  the  municipal 
Tubercidosis  Sanatorium;  the  dty  hoqsltal;  the  Union  Benevo- 
lent Association,  which  maintains  a  home  and  hospital  for  the 
indigent,  together  with  a  training  school  for  nurses;  Saint 
John's  orphan  asylum  (under  the  superintendence  of  the 
Dominican  Sisters);  Saint  Mary's  hospital  (in  charge  of  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy);  Butterworth  hospitad  (with  a  training  school 
for  nurses);  the  Woman's  Home  and  Hospital,  maintained 
laxgdy  by  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union;  the 
Aldridb  Memorial  Deaconess'  Home;  the  D.  A.  Blodgett 
Memorial  Children's  Home,  and  the  Michigan  Masonic  Home. 
About  X  m.  N.  of  the  city,  overlooking  the  river,  is  the  Michigan 
Soldien'  Home,  with  accommodation  for  500.  On  the  E. 
limits  of  the  dty  is  Reed's  Lake,  a  popular  resort  during  the 
summer  season.  The  dty  is  the  see  of  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  Episcopal  bishops.  In  X907-X908,  through  the 
efforts  of  a  committee  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  interest  was  aroused 
in  the  improvement  of  the  dty,  appropriations  were  made  lor 
a  "  dty  plan,"  and  flood  walls  were  completed  for  the  protection 
of  the  lower  parts  of  the  dty  from  inundation.  The  large 
quantities  of  fruit,  cereals  and  vegetables  from  the  surrounding 
country,  and  ample  facilities  for  transportation  by  rail  and  by 
the  river,  which  is  navigable  from  bdow  the  rapids  to  its  mouth, 
make  the  commerce  and  trade  of  Grand  Rapids  very  important. 
The  manufacturing  interests  are  greatly  promoted  by  the  fine 
water-power,  and  as  a  furniture  centre  the  dty  has  a  world-wide 
reputation— the  value  of  the  furniture  manufactured  within  its 


UmiU  in  X904  amounted  to  (91409,097,  alMut  5*5%  of  the  value 
of  all  furniture  manutactured  in  the  United  States.  Grand 
Rapids  manufactures  carped  sweepers— a  Urge  proportion  of 
the  whole  world's  product, — flour  and  grist  loill  products, 
foundry  and  machine>shop  products,  planing-mill  products, 
school  seats,  wood-working  tools,  fly  paper,  caldned  plaster, 
barrels,  kegs,  carriages,  wagons,  agricultural  implements  and 
bricks  and  tile.  The  total  factory  product  in  X904  was  valued 
at  $31,039,589,  an  increase  of  39-6%  in  four  years. 

On  the  site  of  Grand  Rapids  there  was  for  a  long  time  a  large 
Ottawa  Indian  village,  and  for  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  a 
Baptist  mission  was  established  in  1834.  Two  years  later  a  trad- 
ing post  joined  the  mission,  in  1833  a  saw  mill  was  built,  and  for 
the  next  few  years  the  growth  was  rapid.  The  settlement  was 
organized  as  a  town  in  X834,  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1838, 
and  was  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1850,  the  dty  charter  bdng  revised 
in  X857, 1871,  1877  and  1905. 

GRAND  RAPIDS,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Wood  county, 
Wisconsin,  U.S.A.,  on  both  sides  of  the  Wisconsin  river,  about 
137  m.  N.W.  of  Milwaukee.  Pop.  (1900)  4493,  of  whom  X073 
were  foreign-bom;  (1905)  6x57;  (x9Xo)  6521.  It  is  swed 
by  the  Minneapolis,  St  Paul  &  Sauk  Ste  Marie,  the  Gxeen  Bay  & 
Westem,  the  Chicago  &  North-Westem,  and  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee k  St  Paul  railways.  It  is  a  railway  and  distributing 
centxe,  and  has  manufactories  of  lumber,  sash,  doors  and  bUnds, 
hubs  and  spokes,  woodenware,  paper,  wood-pulp,  furniture  and 
flour.  The  public  buildings  include  a  post  office,  court  house,  dty 
hall,  dty  hospital  and  the  T.  B.  Scott  Fxee  Public  Library  (1892). 
The  dty  owns  and  operates  its  water-works;  the  electric-lighting 
and  tdephone  companies  are  ooK>perative.  Grand  Rapids  was 
first  chartered  as  a  dty  in  1869.  That  part  of  Grand  Ilapids  oa 
the  west  bank  of  the  Wisconsin  river  was  formeriy  the  dty  of 
Centralia  (pop.  in  1890,  X435);  it  was  annexed  in  X900. 

GRANDSON  (Ger.  Crandsee)^  a  town  in  the  Swiss  canton  of 
Vaud,  near  the  south-western  end  of  the  Lake  of  Neuch&tel, 
and  by  rail  20  m.  S.W.  of  Neuchfttel  and  3  m*  N.  of  .Yyadon. 
Its  population  in  X900  was  X77X,  mainly  French-speakiiig  and 
Protestant.  Its  andent  castle  was  long  the  home  of  a  noted  race 
of  barons,  while  in  the  very  old  church  (once  belonging  to  a 
Benedictine  monastoy)  there  are  a  number  of  Roman  columns^ 
&c.,  from  Avenches  axid  Yverdon.  It  has  now  a  tobacco  factory. 
Its  lords  were  vassals  of  the  house  of  Savoy,  till  in  X47S  the  castle 
was  taken  by  the  Swiss  at  the  beginning  of  their  war  with  Chariet 
the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  whose  ally  was  the  duchess  of  Savoy. 
It  was  retaken  by  Chyles  in  February  X476,  and  the  garrison 
put  to  death.  The  Swiss  hastened  to  revenge  this  deed,  and  in 
a  famous  battle  (2nd  March  X476)  defeated  Charles  with  great 
loss,  capturing  much  booty.  The  scene  of  the  battle  was  between 
Concise  and  Corcelles,  north-east  of  the  town,  and  is  marked  by 
several  columns,  perhaps  andent  menhirs.  Grandson  was  thence- 
forward till  X798  ruled  in  common  by  Beme  and  Fribourg,  and 
then  was  given  to  the  canton  du  L^man,  which  in  X803  becanoe 
that  of  Vaud. 

See  F.  Chabloz,  La  BatatUe  de  Grandson  (Lausanne,  1897). 

GRANET,  FRANCOIS  HARIUS  (X777-X849),  French  painter, 
was  bom  at  Aix  in  Provence,  on  the  X7th  of  December  x 777;  his 
father  was  a  small  builder.  The  boy's  strong  desires  led  his 
parents  to  place  him — after  some  prdiminary  teaching  from 
a  passing  Italian  artist — in  a  free  school  of  art  directed  by 
M.  Constantin,  a  landscape  painter  of  some  reputation.  In  1793 
Granet  followed  the  volunteers  of  Aix  to  the  siege  of  Toulon, 
at  the  dose  of  which  he  obtained  employment  as  a  decorator  in 
the  arsenal.  Whilst  a  lad  he  had,  at  Aix,  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  young  comte  de  Forbin,  and  upon  his  invitation  Granet, 
in  the  year  X797^  went  to  Paris.  De  Forbth  was  one  of  the 
pupils  of  David,  and  Granet  entered  the  same  studio.  Later  he 
got  possession  of  a  cell  in  the  convent  of  Capuchins,  whidi, 
having  served  for  a  manufactory  of  assignats  during  tJh«  Revolu- 
tion, was  afterwards  inhabited  almost  exdusively  by  artists. 
In  the  changing  lights  and  shadows  of  the  corridors  oi  the 
Capuchins,  Granet  found  the  materials  for  that  one  picture  to 
the  painting  of  which,  with  varying  success,  he  devoted  his  life. 


GRANGE— GRANITE 


351 


In  1803  he  left  Paris  for  Rome,  where  he  remained  until  1819, 
when  he  returned  to  Paris,  bringinf;  with  him  besides  various 
other  works  one  of  fourteen  repetitions  of  his  celebrated  Choeur 
dcs  Capudns,  eiecuted  in  x8xx.  The  figures  of  the  monks 
celebrating  mass  are  taken  in  this  subject  as  a  substantive  part 
of  the  architectural  effect,  and  this  is  the  case  with  all  Granet's 
works,  even  with  those  in  which  the  figure  subject  would  seem 
to  assert  its  importance,  and  it»  historical  or  romantic  interest. 
"  Stella  painting  a  Madonna  on  his  Prison  Wall,"  18x0  (Leuchten- 
berg  collection);  "Sodoma  4  I'hdpital,"  18x5  (Louvre); 
"Basilique  basse  de  St  Francois  d' Assise,"  1893  (Louvre); 
"Rachat  de  prisonniers,"  X83X  (Louvre);  "Mort  de  Poussin," 
1834  (ViUa  Demidoff,  Florence),  are  among  his  principal  works, 
an  are  marked  by  the  same  peculiarities,  everything  is  sacrificed 
to  tone.  In  x8x9  Louis  Philippe  decorated  Granet,  and  after- 
wards nam^  him  Chevalier  de  TOrdre  St  Michel,  and  Conser- 
vateur  des  tableaux  de  Versailles  (x836).  He  became  member  of 
the  institute  in  1830;  but  in  spite  of  these  honours,  and  the 
ties  which  bound  him  to  M.  de  Forbin,  then  director  of  the  Louvre, 
Granet  constantly  returned  to  Rome.  After  X848  he  retired  to 
Aix,  immediately  lost  his  wife,  and  died  himself  on  the  sxst  of 
November  1849.  He  bequeathed  to  his  native  town  the  greater 
part  of  his  fortune  and  all  his  collections,  now  exhibited  in  the 
Musfe,  together  with  a  very  fine  portrait  of  the  donor  painted 
by  Inffrca  in  x8xx. 

GRAliaB  (through  the  A.-Fr.  graunget  from  the  Med.  Lat 
§ranea,  a  place  for  storing  grain,  granum),  properly  a  granary 
or  bam.  In  the  middle  ages  a  "  grange  "  was  a  detached  portion 
of  a  manor  with  farm-houses  and  bams  belonging  to  a  k)rd  or  to 
ft  religioas  house;  in  it  the  crops  could  be  conveniently  stored  for 
the  purpose  of  collecting  rent  or  tithe.  Thus,  such  baxiis  are  often 
known  as  "  tithe-bams."  In  many  cases  a  chapel  was  included 
among  the  buUdings  or  stood  apart  as  a  separate  edifice.  The 
word  is  still  used  as  a  name  for  a  superior  kind  of  farm-house, 
or  for  a  country-house  which  has  farm-buildings  and  agricultural 
land  attached  to  it. 

ArchitecturaOy  considered,  the  "  grange  "  was  usually  a  k)ng 
boildiiig  with  high  wooden  roof,  sometimes  divided  by  posts  or 
ddnnins  into  a  sort  of  nave  and  aisles,  and  with  walls  strongly 
buttressed.  Sometimes  these  granges  were  of  very  great  extent , 
one  at  St  Leonards,  Hampshire,  was  originally  225  ft.  long  by 
7  s  ft.  wide,  and  a  still  larger  one  (303  ft.  long)  existed  at  Chertsey. 
Ancient  granges,  or  tithe>barns,  still  exist  at  Glastonbury, 
Bradford-on-Avon,  St  Mary's  Abbey,  York,  and  at  Coxwold. 
A  fiite  example  at  Peterborough  was  pulled  down  at  the  end  of 
the  X9th  century.  In  France  there  are  many  examples  in  stone  of 
the  1 3th,  Z3th  and  X4th  centuries;  some  divided  into  a  central 
and  two  side  aisles  by  arcades  in  stone.  Externally  granges  are 
noticeable  on  account  of  their  great  roofs  and  the  slight  elevation 
of  the  eaves,  from  8  to  zo  ft.  only  in  height.  In  the  x  5th  century 
they  were  sometimes  protected  hy  moats  and  towers.  At 
Ardennes  in  Normandy,  where  the  gnmge  was  ZS4  ft*  long; 
Vauderc  near  Laon,  Picardy,  346  ft.  k)ng  and  in  two  storeys; 
at  PerriSres,  St  Vigor,  near  Bayeux,  and  Ouilly  near  Falaise,  all 
in  Normandy;  and  at  St  Martin-au-Bois  (Oise)  are  a  series  of 
fine  examplei.  Attached  to  the  abbey  of  Longchamps,  near 
Paris,  is  one  of  the  best-preserved  granges  in  France,  with  walls 
Sn  stone  and  internally  divided  into  three  aisles  in  oak  timber 
of  extremely  fine  cpnstraction. 

In  the  sodal  economic  movement  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  which  began  in  7867  and  was  known  as  the  "  Farmers' 
Movement,"  "  grange  "  was  adopted  as  the  name  for  a  local 
chapter  of  the  Order  of  the  Patronsof  Husbandry,  and  the  move- 
ment is  thus  often  known  as  the  "  Grangers'  Movement  "(see 
Fakmxss'  Moveicekt).  There  are  a  National  Grange  at  Wash- 
ington, supervising  the  local  divisions,  and  state  granges  in 
most  Mates.     

6RAHGBH0UTH*  a  police  buigh  and  seaport  of  Stirlingshire, 
Scotkod.  Pop.  (1901)  8386.  It  is  situated  on  the  south  shore 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Forth,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Carron  and  also 
of  Grange  Bum,  tf  right-hand  tributary  of  the  Carron,  3  m.  N.E. 
of  Falkirk  by  the  North  British  and  Caledonian  railways.    It 


is  the  terminus  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  from  the  opening 
of  which  (X789)  its  history  may  be  dated.  The  principal  buildings 
are  the  town  hiXl  (in  the  Greek  style),  public  hall,  public  institute 
and  free  library,  and  there  is  ji  public  park  presented  by  the 
marquess  of  2Setland.  Since  x8zo,  when  it  became  a  head  port,  it 
has  gradually  attained  the  position  of  the  chief  port  of  the  Forth 
west  of  Ldth.  The  first  dock  (opened  in  1846),  the  second 
(1859)  and  the  third  (x883)  cover  an  area  of  s8  acres,  with  timber 
ponds  of  44  acres  and  a  total  quayage  of  3500  yards.  New 
dodcs,  93  acres  in  extent,  with  an  entrance  from  the  firth,  were 
opened  in  X90S  at  a  cost  of  more  than  £x  ,000,000.  The  works 
rendered  it  necessary  to  divert  the  influx  of  the  Grange  from  the 
Carron  to  the  Forth.  Timber,  pig-iron  and  iron  ore  are  the  lead- 
ing imports,  and  coal,  produce  and  iron  the  chief  e]q)orts.  The 
industries  indude  diipbuilding,  rope  and  sail  making  and  iron 
founding.  There  is  regular  steamer  communication  with  London, 
Christiania,  Hamburg,  Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam.  Experi- 
ments in  steam  navigation  were  carried  out  in  1802  with  the 
"  Charlotte  Dundas  "  on  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal  at  Grange- 
mouth. Kersa  House  adjoining  the  town  on  the  S.W.  is  a  seat 
of  the  marquess  of  Zetland. 

GRANOBt*  JAME8  (X723-X776),  English  clergyman  and  print- 
odlector,  was  bom  in  Dorset  in  1733.  He  went  to  Oxford, 
and  then  entered  holy  orders,  becoming  vicar  of  Shiplake;  but 
apart  from  his  hobby  of  portrait-collecting,  which  resulted  in 
the  prindpal  work  associated  with  his  name,  and  the  publication 
of  some  sermons,  his  life  was  uneventf uL  Yet  a  new  word  was 
added  to  the  language — "  to  grangerize" — on  account  of  him. 
In  X769  he  publ^ed  in  two  quarto  volumes  a  Biographical 
History  of  England  "  consisting  of  characters  dispersed  in  different 
classes,  and  adapted  to  a  methodical  catalogue  of  engraved 
British  heads  ";  this  was  "  intended  as  an  essay  towards  re- 
dudng  our  biography  to  a  system,  and  a  help  to  the  knowledge 
of  portraits."  The  work  was  supplemented  in  later  editk>ns  by 
Granger,  and  still  further  editions  were  brought  out  by  the  Rev. 
Mark  Noble,  with  additions  from  Granger's  materisJs.  Blank 
leaves  were  left  for  the  filling  in  of  engraved  portraits  tor  extra 
illustration  of  the  text,  and  it  became  a  favourite  pursuit  to 
discover  such  illustrations  and  insert  them  in  a  Granger,  so  that 
"grangerizing"  became  a  term  for  such  an  extra-illustration 
of  any  work,  especially  with  cuts  taken  from  other  books.  The 
immediate  result  of  the  appearance  of  Granger's  own  work  was 
the  rise  in  value  of  books  containing  portraits,  which  were  cut  out 
and  inserted  in  collector's  copies. 

GRANITB  (adapted  from  the  Ital.  granito,  grained;  Lat. 
granum,  grain),  the  group  designation  for  a  family  of  igneous 
rocks  whose  essential  characteristics  are  that  they  are  of  acid 
composition  (containing  high  percentages  of  silica),  consist 
prindpally  of  quartz  and  fel^)ar,  with  some  mica,  homblende 
or  augite,  and  are  of  holocrystalline  or  "  granitoid  "  structure. 
In  popular  usage  the  term  is  given  to  almost  any  crystalline  rock 
which  resembles  granite  in  appearance  or  properties.  Thus 
syenites,  diorites,  gabbros,  diabases,  porphyries,  gndss,  and  even 
limestones  and  dolomites,  are  bought  and  sold  daily  as  "granites. " 
True  granites  are  common  rocks,  especially  among  the  older 
strata  of  the  earth's  crust.  They  have  great  variety  in  colour 
and  general  appearance,  some  being  white  or  grey,  while  others 
are  pink,  greenish  or  yellow:  this  depends  mainly  on  the  state 
of  preservation  of  thdr  felspais,  which  are  thdr  most  abundant 
minerals,  and  partly  also  on  the  relative  proportion  in  which 
they  contain  biotite  and  other  dark  coloured  silicates.  Many 
granites  have  large  rounded  or  angular  crystals  of  felspar  (Shap 
granite,  many  Cornish  granites),  well  seen  on  polished  faces. 
Others  show  an  elementary  foliation  or  banding  (e.g,  Aberdeen 
granite)  Rounded  or  oval  dark  patches  frequently  appear  in 
the  granitic  matrix  of  many  Cornish  rocks  of  this  group. 

In  the  fidd  granite  usually  occurs  in  great  masses,  covering 
wide  areas,  ^ese  are  generally  elliptical  or  neariy  drcular 
and  may  be  20  ni.  in  diameter  or  more.  In  the  same  district 
separate  areas  or  "  bosses  "  of  granite  may  be  found,  all  having 
much  in  common  in  thdr  mineralogical  and  stractural  features, 
and  such  groups  have  probably  lA  proceeded  from  the  same 


352 


GRANITE 


focus  or  deep-seated  soiiice.  Towards  their  margins  these 
granite  outcrops  often  show  modifications  by  which  they  pass  into 
diorite  or  syenite,  &c.;  they  may  also  be  finer  grained  (like 
porphyries)  or  rich  in  tourmaline,  or  intersected  by  many  veins  of 
pegmatite.  From  the  main  granite  dikes  or  veins  often  run  out 
into  the  surrounding  rocks,  thus  proving  that  the  granite  is 
intrusive  and  has  forced  its  way  upwards  by  splitting  apart  the 
strata  among  which  it  lies.  Further  evidence  of  this  is  afforded 
by  the  alteration  which  the  granite  has  produced  through  a  zone 
which  varies  from  a  few  yards  to  a  mile  or  more  in  breadth 
around  it.  In  the  vicinity  of  intrusive  granites  slates  become 
converted  into  homfelses  containing  biotite,  chiastolite  or 
andalusite,  sillinuukite  and  a  variety  of  other  minerals;  lime- 
stones recrystallise  as  marbles,  and  all  rocks,  according  to  their 
composition,  are  more  or  less  profoundly  modified  in  such  a  way 
as  to  prove  that  they  have  been  raised  to  a  high  temperature  by 
proximity  to  the  molten  intrusive  mass.  Where  exposed  in 
cliffs  and  other  natural  sections  many  granites  have  a  rudely 
columnar  appearance.  Others  weather  into  large  cuboidal 
blocks  which  may  produce  structures  resembling  cydopean 
masonry.  The  tors  of  the  west  of  England  are  of  this  nature. 
These  differences  depend  on  the  disposition  of  the  joint  cracks 
which  traverse  the  tock  and  are  opened  up  by  the  action  of 
frost  and  weathering. 

The  majority  of  granites  are  so  coarse  in  grain  that  their 
principal  component  minerals  may  be  identified  in  the  hand 
specimens  by  the  unaided  eye.  The  felspar  is  pearly,  white 
or  pink,  with  smooth  cleaved  surfaces;  the  quarU  is  usually 
transparent,  glassy  with  rough  irregular  fractures;  the  micas 
appear  as  shining  black  or  white  flakes.  Very  coarse  granites 
are  called  pegmatite  or  giant  granite,  while  very  fine  granites 
are  known  as  microgranites  (though  the  latter  term  has  also  been 
applied  to  certain  porphyries).  Many  granites  show  pearly 
scales  of  white  mica;  others  contain  dark  green  or  black  horn- 
blende in  small  prisms.  Reddish  grains  of  sphene  or  of  garnet 
are  occasionally  visible.  In  the  tourmaline  granites  prisms  of 
black  schorl  occur  either  singly  or  in  stellate  groups.  The 
parallel  banded  structures  of  many  granites,  which  may  be 
original  or  due  to  crushing,  connect  these  rocks  with  the  granite 
gneisses  or  orthogneisses. 

Under  the  microscope  the  felspar  is  mainly  orthodase  with 
perthite  or  microcline,  while  a  small  amount  of  plagiodase 
(ranging  from  oligodase  to  albite)  is  practically  never' absent. 
These  minerals  are  often  douded  by  a  deposit  of  fine  mica  and 
kaolin,  due  to  weathering.  The  quarU  is  transparent,  irregular 
in  form,  destitute  of  deavage,  and  is  filled  with  very  small 
cavities  which  contain  a  fluid,  a  mobile  bubble  and  sometimes 
a  minute  crystal.  The  micas,  brown  and  white,  are  often  in 
parallel  growth.  The  hornblende  of  granites  is  usually  pale 
green  in  section,  the  augite  and  enstatite  nearly  colourless. 
Tourmaline  may  be  brown,  yellow  or  blue,  and  often  the  same 
crystal  shows  sones  of  different  colours.  Apatite,  zircon  and 
iron  oxid^,  in  small  crystals,  are  always  present.  Among  the 
less  common  accessories  may  be  mentioned  pinkish  garnets; 
andalusite  in  small  pleochroic  crystals;  colourless  grains  of 
topaz;  six-sided  compound  crystals  of  cordierite,  which  weather 
to  dark  green  pinite;  blue-black  hornblende  (riebeckite),  beryl, 
tinstone,  orthite  and  pyrites. 

The  sequence  of  crystallization  in  the  granites  is  of  a  normal 
type,  and  may  be  ascertained  by  observing  the  perfection  with 
which  the  different  minerals  have  crystallized  and  the  order  in 
which  they  endose  one  another.  Zircon,  apatite  and  iron  oxides 
are  the  first;  their  crystals  are  small,  very  perfect  and  nearly 
free  from  endosures;  they  are  followed  by  hornblende  and 
biotite;  if  muscovite  is  present  it  succeeds  the  brown  mica. 
Of  the  felspars  the  plagiodase  separates  first  and  forms  well- 
shaped  crystals  of  whidb  the  central  parts  may  be  more  basic 
than  the  outer  zones.  Last  come  orthodase,  quartz,  microcline 
and  micropegmatite,  which  fill  up  the  irregular  spaces  left 
between  the  earlier  minerals.  Exceptions  to  this  sequence  are 
uqusual;  sometimes  the  first  of  the  felspars  have  preceded  the 
hornblende  or  biotite  Irhich  may  cnvdop  them  in  ophitic  manner. 


An  earlier  generation  of  felspar,  and  occasionally  also  of  qoaits* 
may  be  represented  by  large  and  perfect  crystals  of  these  minerals 
giving  the  rock  a  porphyritic  character. 

Many  granites  have  suffered  modification  by  the  action'ol 
vapours  emitted  during  cooling.  Hydrofluoric  and  boric 
emanations  exert  a  profound  influence  on  granitic  rocks;  their 
felspar  is  resolved  into  aggregates  of  kaolin,  muscovite  and 
quartz;  tourmaline  appears,  largdy  replacing  the  brown  mica; 
topaz  also  is  not  uncommon.  In  this  way  the  rotten  granite  or 
china  stone,  used  in  pottery,  originates;  and  over  considerable 
areas  kaolin  replaces  the  felspar  and  forms  valuable  sour^s  of 
china  day.  Veins  of  quartz,  tourmaline  and  chlorite  may 
traverse  the  granite,  containing  tinstone  often  in  workaUe 
quantities.  These  veins  are  the  prindpal  sources  of  tin  in  Corn- 
wall, but  the  same  changes  may  appear  in  the  body  of  the 
granite  without  being  restricted  to  veins,  and  tinstone  occun 
also  as  an  original  constituent  of  some  granite  pegmatites. 

Granites  may  also  be  modified  by  crushing.  Their  crystals 
tend  to  lose  their  original  forms  and  to  break  into  mosaics  off 
interlocking  grains.  The  latter  structure  is  very  well  seen  in  the 
quartz,  which  is  a  brittle  mineral  under  stress.  White  mica 
develops  in  the  felspars.  The  larger  crystals  are  converted  into 
lenticular  or  elliptical "  augen,"  which  may  be  shattered  through^ 
out  or  may  have  a  peripheral  seam  of  small  detached  granules 
surrounding  a  still  undisintegrated  core.  Streaks  of  grann- 
litic  "  or  pulverized  material  wind  irregulariy  through  the  rock, 
giving  it  a  roughly  foliated  character. 

The  interesting  structural  variation  of  granite  In  which  .thde 
are  spheroidal  masses  surroundedi>y  a  granitic  matrix  is'knOwo 
as  "  orbicular  granite."  The  spheroids  range  from  a  f racti^ 
of  an  inch  to  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  may  have  a  felspar  crystal 
at  the  centre.  Around  this  there  may  be  several  zones,  alternately 
lighter  and  darker  ia  colour,  consisting  of  the  essential  minerals 
of  the  rock  in  different  proportions.  Radiate  arrangement  n 
sometimes  visible  in  the  crystals  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
spheroid.  Spheroidal  granites  of  this  sort  are  found  in  Sweden, 
Finland,  Irdand,  &c.  In  other  cases  the  spheroids  are  simply 
dark  rounded  lumps  of  biotite,  in  fine  scales.  These  are  probably 
due  to  the  adhesion  of  the  biotite  cryst'a|s  to  one  another  as 
they  separated  from  the  rock  magma  at  an  early  stage  in  its 
crystallization.  The  Rapakiwi  granites  of  Finland  have  many 
round  or  ovoidal  fdspar  crystals  scattered  through  a  granitic 
matrix.  These  larger  fdspars  have  no  crystalline  outlines  and 
consist  of  orthodase  or  microcline  surrounded  by  borders  of 
white  oligodasei  Often  they  endose  dark  cryst^  of  biotite 
and  hornblende,  arranged  zonally.  Many  of  these  granites 
contain  tourmaUne,  fluorite  and  monazite.  In  most  granite 
masses,  especially  near  thdr  contacts  with  the  surrounding  rocks, 
it  b  common  to  find  enclosures  of  altered  sedimentary  or  igneous 
materials  which  are  more  or  less  dissolved  and  permeated  by 
the  granitic  magma. 

The  chemical  compontion  of  a  few  granites  from  different  parts 
of  the  worid  b  given -below; — 


SiO.. 

A1,0,. 

Fe*Ov 

FeO. 

MgO. 

CaO. 

Na«0. 

K.O. 

I. 

7469 

16-3X 

■  « 

i«l6 

0*48 
6-68 

0*38 

l-i8 

SM 

11. 

71-33 

Ii>i8 

3-96 

1-45 

3*10 

r-is 

3-49 

111. 

71-93 

13-87 
13-18 

1-94 

0-79 

0*51 

0-74 

3-74 

IV. 

76-12 

I*3I 

0-72 

1-13 

1*54 

3-55 

3-31 

V 

VI 

S:?? 

13-65 
J6-62 

••0-38 

0-43 

0-43 
3-73 

0-14 
t-6o 

0-33 
0.71 

t:iK 

im 

I.  Carn  Brea.  Cornwall  (PhiUipe);  II.  Mazarani.  Brit.  Guiana 
(Harrison):  III;  R0d6,  near  Alnd,  Vesternorriand,  Sweden  (Holra- 
quut) :  IV.  Abruzzen.  a  group  of  hiUs  in  the  Riesengebiree  (MIkh); 
V.  Pikes  Peak.  Colorado  (Matthews);  VI.  Wibon's  Creek,  near 
Omeo,  Victorb  (Hewitt). 

Onlv  the  most  important  components  are  shown  in  the  table. 
but  all  granites  contain  also  small  amounts  of  zircoob,  ritamam 
oxide,  phosphoric  acid,  sulphur,  oxides  of  barium,  strontium, 
manganese  and  water.  These  are  in  all  cases  less  than  i  %,  and 
usually  much  less  than  this,  except  the  water,  which  may  be  2  or 
3  %  in  weathered  rocks.  From  the  chemical  composition  it  may  be 
computed  that  granites  contain,  on  an  average,  35  to  55  %  of  quartz, 
30  to  ^0%  of  orthodase,  30  to  30%  of  plagiodase  felspar  (iodudii^ 
the  albite  of  microperthite)  and  5  to>  10%  of  feaonagneMiao 


GRAN  SASSO  D'lTALIA— GRANT,  SIR  F. 


353 


■iBcatet  and  minor  accessories  such  as  apatite,  zircon,  sphene  and 
iixMi  ondcs.  The  apHtes,  pegmatites,  graphic  granites  and  musco- 
vite  gramtcs  are  usually  ricnest  in  silica,  while  with  increase  of  biotite 
and  nomblende,  augite  and  enstatite  the  analyses  show  the  presence 
of  more  magnesia,  iron  and  lime. 

In  the  weatheruig  o£  nanite  the  quartz  suffers  little  change; 
the  felspar  passes  into  diul  cloudy,  soft  aggregates  of  kaolin,  mus- 
covite  and  secondary  quartz,  while  chlorite,  quartz  and  caldte 
repboe  the  biotite,  hornblende  and  au^te.  The  rock  often  assumes 
a  rusty  brown  colour  from  the  liberation  of  the  oxides  of  iron,  and 
the  decomposed  mass  is  friable  and  can  easily  be  dug  with  a  spade; 
where  the  granite  has  been  cut  by  joint  planes  not  too  dose  together 
weathning  proceeds  from  their  surfaces  and  large  rounded  bkxrks 
may  be  lot  embedded  in  rotted  materials.  The  amount  of  water 
in  the  rock  increases  and  part  of  the  alkalis  is  carried  away  in 
•oltttion;  they  form  valuable  sources  of  mineral  food  to  jMnts. 
The  chemical  changes  are  shown  by  the  following  analyses; 


HiO. 

SX).. 

TiOj. 

AW)^ 

FeO. 

FesO,. 

CaO. 

MgO. 

Na,0. 

K,0. 

PlC 

I. 

II. 

in. 

1*33 

3-»7 
4-70 

6569 

n.d. 
n.d. 
0-31 

14-33 

I5-ft3 

15-23 

3-6o 
1*69 

■  • 

1-88 
4-39 

3'3X 

313 

3*63 

3*44 
3*76 
3-64 

3«70 

3*58 

3*13 

3*67 

3.44 

3*00 

O-IO 

n.d. 
o-o6 

Analyees  of  I.,  fresh  grey  granite ;^  II.  brown  moderately  firm 
Cianite;  III.  residual  sand,'  produced'  by  the  weathering  of  -the 
iime  mam  (anal.  G.  P.  MerriUX 

Tbe  differences  'are  siirpriungly  small  and  are  prindpaHy 
an  increase  in  the  water  and  a  diminution  in  the  amount  of 
alkalis  and  lime  together  with  the  oxidation  of  the  ferrous 
oxide.  a.S.F.) 

GRAN  8ASS0  D'iTAUA  ("  Gteat  Rock  of  Italy  '0.  a  mountain 
of  the  Abraxzi,  Italy,  the  culminating  point  of  the  Apennines, 
9560  ft.  in  hdght,  In  formation  it  resembles  the  limestone  Alps 
of  Urol  and  there  are  on  its  derated  plateaus  a  number  of  doline 
or  funnd-sbaped  depressions  into  which  the  mdted  snow  and 
the  rain  ank.  The  summit  is  covered  with  snow  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  Seen  from  the  Adriatic,  Monte  Cqmo,  as  it  is 
iometimes  called,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  horn,  affords  a 
magnificent  spectade;  the  Alpine  region  beneath  its  summit 
is  still  the  home  of  the  wild  boar,  and  here  and  there  are  dense 
woods  of  beech  and  pme.  The  group  has  numerous  other  lofty 
peaks,  o{  which  the  chief  are  the  Pizzo  d  Intcrmesole  (8680  ft.), 
the  Como  Piccolo  (8650  ft.),  the  Pizzo  Cefalone  (8307  ft.)  and 
the  Monte  deUa  Portdla  (7835  ft.).  The  most  convenient 
starting-point  for  the  ascent  is  Assergi,  10  m.  N.E.  of  Aquila, 
at  the  S.  foot  of  the  Gran  Sasso.  The  Italian  Alpine  Qub  has 
erected  a  hut  S.W.  of  the  prindpal  summit,  and  has  published  a 
speciil  guidebook  (£.  Abbate,  Cuida  al  Gran  Sasso  d*  Jtalia, 
Koroe,  188S).  The  view  from  the  summit  extends  to  the 
Tyrrhenian  Sea  on  the  west  and  the  mountains  of  Dalmatia  on 
the  cast  in  dear  weather.  The  ascent  was  first  made  in  1794 
by  Orazio  Delfico  from  the  Teramo  side.  In  Assergi  is  the 
interesting  church  of  Sta.  Maria  Assunta,  dating  from  1x50, 
with  later  alterations  (see  Gavini,  in  L'ArU,  1901,  316,  391). 

GBAHTtf  SIR  ALEXANDER,  8th  Bart.  (1826^1884),  British 
scholar  and  educationalist,  was  bom  in  New  York  on  the  13th  of 
September  1826.  .  After  a  childhood  spent  in  the  West  Indies, 
be  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Oxford.  He  entered  Oxford 
aM  sdiolar  of  Balliol,  and  subsequently  held  a  fellowship  at  Oriel 
from  1849  to  i860.  He  made  a  special  study  of  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy,  and  in  1857  published  an  edition  of  the  Ethics 
(4th  ed.  1885)  which  became  a  standard  text-book  at  Oxford. 
In  185s  he  was  one  of  the  examiners  for  the  Indian  Civil  Service, 
and  in  1856  a  public  examiner' in  classics  at  Oxford.  In -the 
latter  year  he  succeeded  to  thie  baronetcy.  In  1859  he  went  to 
Bfadras  with  Sir  Charles  Trevelyan,  and  was  appointed  inspector 
of  schods;  the  next  year  he  removed  to  Bombay,  to  fill  the  post 
of  Professor  of  History  and  Political  Economy  in  the  Elphinstone 
College.  Of  this  he  became  Prindpal  in  186 a;  and,  a  year 
later,  vice-chancellor  of  Bombay  University,  a  post  he  hdd  from 
1863  to  1865  and  again  from  1865  to  x868.  In  1865  he  took  upon 
litimclf  also  the  duties  of  Director  of  Public  Instruction  for 
Bombay  Presidency.  In  1868  he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Le^ahLtlve  Council.  In  the  same  year,  upon  the  death  of 
Sir  David  Brewster,  be  was'a{^inted  Prindpal  of  Edinburgh 


University,  which  had  conferred  an  honorary  LL.D.  degree  upon 
him  in  1865:  From  that  time  till  his  death  (which  occurred  in 
Edinburgh  on  the  30th  of  November  2884)  his  energies  were 
entirely  devoted  to  the  well-bdng  of  the  Univeisity.  The 
institution  of  the  medical  school  in  the  University  was  almost 
solely  due  to  his  initiative;  and  the  Tercentenary  Festival^ 
celebrated  in  1884,  was  the  result  of  his  wisdy  directedenthu- 
siasm.  In  that  year  he  published  The  Story  of  Ike  UitiversUy  of 
Edinburgh  during  its  First  Three  Hundred  Years,  He  was 
created  Hon.  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  in  x88o.  and  an  honorary  fellow 
of  Orid  College  in  1883. 

GRANT,  ANNE  (X755-1838),  Scottish  writer,  generally  known 
as  Mrs  Grant  of  Laggan,  was  bom  in  Glasgow,  on  the  21st  of 
February  1755.  Her  childhood  was  spent  in  America,  her  father, 
Duncan  MacVicar,  being  an  army  officer  on 
service  there.  In  1768  this  family  returned 
to  Scotland,  and  in  1779  Anne  married 
James  Grant,  an  army  chaplain,  who  was 
also  minister  of  the  parish  of  Laggan,  near 
Fort  Augustus,  Invemess,  where  her  father 
barrack-master.  On  her  husband's  death  in  x8oi  she 
was  left  with  a  large  family  and  a  small  income.  In  x8oa  she 
published  by  subscription  a  volume  of  Original  Poems,  with 
some  TranHaiions  from  the  Ga</ic,  which  was  favourably  received. 
In  x8o6  her  Letters  from  the  Mountains,  with  their  spirited  descrip- 
tion of  Highland  scenery  and  legends,  awakened  much  interest. 
Her  other  works  are  Memoirs  of  an  American  Lady,  with  Sketches 
of  Manners  and  Scenery  in  Amaica  as  they  existed  previous  to 
the  Revolution  (1808),  containing  reminiscences  of  her  childhood; 
Essays  on  the  Superstitions  of  the  Highlanders  of  Scotland  (i8ix) ; 
and  Eighteen  Hundred  and  Thirteen,  a  Poem  (18x4).  In  x8xo 
she  went  to  live  in  Edinburgh.  For  the  last  twdve  years  of  her 
life  she  recdved  a  pension  from  government.  She  died  on  the 
7th  of  November  X838. 

See  Memoir  and  Correspondence  ef  Mu  Grant  of  Laggan,  edited 
by  her  son  J,  P.  Grant  (3  vols.,  X844). 

GRANT,  CHARLES  (1746-X823),  British  poUtician,  was  bom 
at  Aldourie,  Invemess-shire,  on  the  i6th  of  April  1746,  the  day 
on  which  his  father,  Alexander  Grant,  was  killed  whilst  fighting 
for  the  Jacobites  at  Culloden.  When  H  young  man  Charles 
went  to  India,  where  he  became  secretary,  and  later  a  member 
of  the  board  of  trade.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1790,  and  in 
1803  was  dccted  to  parliament  as  member  for  the  county  of 
Invemess.  In  the  House  of  Commons  his  chief  interests  were  in 
Indian  affairs,  and  he  was  espedally  vigorous  in  his  hostility 
to  the  policy  of  the  Marquess  WeUesley.  In  1805  he  was  chosen 
chairman  of  the  directors  of  the  East  India  Company  and  he 
retired  from  parliament  in  x8i8.  A  friend  of  William  Wilberforc^ 
Grant  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  evangelical  party  in  the 
Church  of  England;  he  was  a  generous  supporter  of  the  diureh's 
missionary  undertakings.  He  was  largely  responsible  for  the 
establishment  of  (he  East  India  college,  which  was  afterwards 
erected  at  Haileybury.  He  died  in  London  on  the  3  ist  Of  October 
1823.  His  ddest  son,  Charles,  was  created  a  peer  in  1835  as 
Baron  Glendg. 

See  Henry  Morris,  Life  of  Charles  Grant  (1904). 

GRANT,  SIR  FRANCIS  (1803-1878),  En^ish  portrait-painter, 
fourth  son  of  Francis  Grant  of  Kilgraston,  Perthshire,  was  bora 
at  Edinburgh  in  1803.  He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but  at  the 
age  of  twenty-four  h^  began  at  Edinburgh  systematically  to 
study  the  practice  of  art.  On  completing  a  course  of  instruction 
he  removed  to  London,  and  as  early  as  X843  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy.  At  the  beginning  of  his  career  he  utilized  his 
sporting  experiences  by  painting  groups  of  huntsmen,  horses 
and  hounds,  such  as  the  "  Meet  of  H.M.  Staghounds  '*  and  the 
"  Melton  Hunt ";  but  his  position  in  society  gradually  made 
him  a  fashionable  portrait-painter.  In  drapery  he  had  the  taste 
of  a  connoisseur,  and  rendered  the  minutest  details  of  costume 
with  felidtous  accuracy.  In  female  portraiture  he  achieved 
considerable  success,  although  rather  in  depicting  the  high- 
bom  graces  and  extemal  characteristics  than  the  trae  personality. 
Among  his  portraits  of.  thu  class  may  be  mentioned  Lady 


35+ 


GRANT,  G.  M.— GRANT,  SIR  J.  H. 


Glenlyon,  the  marchioness  of  Wateifbrd,  Lady  Rodney  and  Mrs 
Beauderk.  In  his  portraits  of  generals  and  sportsmen  he 
proved  himsdf  more  equal  to  his  subjects  than  in  those  of  states- 
men and  men  of  letters.  He  painted  many  of  the  principal 
celebrities  of  the  time,  including  Scott,  Macaulay,  Lockhart, 
Disraeli,  Hardinge,  Gough,  Derby,  Palmerston  and  Russell,  his 
brother  Sir  J.  Hope  Giant  and  Ms  friend  Sir  Edwin  Landseer. 
From  the  first  his  career  was  rapidly  prosperous.  In  1843  he 
was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1851  an 
Academician;  and  in  1866  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  Sir  C. 
Eastlake  in  the  post  of  president,  for  which  his  chief  recom- 
mendations were  his  social  distinction,  tact,  urbanity  and 
friendly  and  Vhtral  consideration  of  his  brother  artists.  Shortly 
after  his  election  as  president  he  was  knighted,  and  in  1870  the 
degree  of  D.CX.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the  university  of 
Oxford.    He  died  on  the  5th  of  October  1878. 

GRANT,  GEORGE  MOVRO  (1835-1909),  principal  of  Queen's 
University,  Kingston,  Ontario,  was  bom  in  Nova  Scotia  in  1835. 
He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  university,  where  he  had  a  brilliant 
academic  career;  and  having  entered  the  ministry  of  the 
Presbsrterian  Church,  he  returned  to  Canada  and  obtained  a 
pastoral  charge  in  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  which  he  held  from 
1863  to  1877.  He  quickly  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher 
and  as  an  eloquent  q>eaker  on  political  subjects.  When  Canada 
was  confederated  in  1867  Nova  Scotia  was  the  province  most 
strongly  oi^osed  to  federal  union.  Grant  threw  the  whole 
weight  of  his  great  influence  in  favour  of  confederation,  and  his 
oratory  playmi  an  important  part  in  securing  the  success  of 
the  movement.  When  the  consolidation  of  the  Dominion  by 
means  <A  railway  construction  was  under  discussion  in  1872, 
Grant  travelled  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  with  the  engineers 
who  survQred  the  route  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway,  and  his 
book  Ocean  to  Ocean  (1873)  was  one  of  the  first  things  that  opened 
the  ^yes  of  Canadians  to  the  value  <A  the  immense  heritage 
th^  enjoyed.  He  never  lost  an  opportunity,  whether  in  the 
pulpit  or  on  the  platform,  of  pressing  on  his  hearers  that  the 
greatest  future  for  Canada  lay  in  tmity  with  the  rest  of  the 
British  Empire;  and  his  broad  statesman-like  judgment  made  him 
mn  authority  which  politicians  of  all  parties  were  glad  to  consult. 
In  1877  Grant  was  ^pointed  prindpal  of  Queen's  University, 
Kingston,  Ontario,  which  through  his  exertions  and  influence 
expanded  from  a  smsll  denominational  college  into  a  large  and 
influential  educational  centre;  and  be  attracted  to  it  an  excep- 
tionally able  body  of  professors  whose  influence  in  q>eculation 
and  research  was  widely  f  dt  during  the  quarter  <A  a  century  that 
he  remained  at  its  head.  In  1888  he  visited  Australia,  New 
Zealand  and  South  Africa,  the  effect  of  this  experience  bdng  to 
strengthen  still  further  the  Imperialism  which  was  the  guiding 
prindple  of  his  political  opinions.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  South 
African  War  in  1899  Grant  was  at  first  dl^XMed  to  be  hostile 
to  the  policy  <rf  Lord  Salisbury  and  Mr  Chamberlain;  but  his 
^es  were  soon  opened  to  the  real  nature  <A  President  Kruger's 
government,  and  he  enthusiastically  welcomed  and  supported  the 
national  feeling  which  sent  men  from  the  outlying  portions  of  the 
Empire  to  assist  in  upholding  British  supremacy  in  South  Africa. 
Grant  did  not  live  to  see  the  condusion  of  peace,  his  death  occur- 
ring at  Kingston  on  the  loth  of  May  1902.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  The  Times  observed  that "  it  is  acknowledged  on  all  hands 
that  in  hun  the  Dominion  has  lost  one  of  the  ablest  men  that  it 
has  yet  produced."  He  was  the  author  of  a  nimiber  of  works,  of 
whldi  the  most  notable  besides  Ocean  to  Ocean  are.  Advantages  of 
Imptrial  Federation  {i^\Owr  National  Objects  and  Aims  (1890), 
Rdigions  of  the  World  in  Relation  to  Christianity  (1894)  and 
vdumes  of  sermons  and  lectures.  Grant  married  in  1872  Jesde, 
daughter  of  William  Lawson  of  Halifax. 

GRANT,  JAMBS  (1822-1887),  British  novelist,  was  bom  in 
Edinburgh  on  the  xst  of  August  1822.  His  father,  John  Grant,  was 
a  captain  in  the  92nd  Gordon  Highlanders  and  had  served  through 
the  Peninsular  War.  For  several  years  James  Grant  was  in  New- 
foundland with  his  father,  but  in  1839  he  returned  to  En^^d, 
and  entered  the  62nd  Foot  as  an  ensign.  In  1843  he  resigned 
his  T^""»M'>"  and  devoted  himself  to  writing,  first  magadne 


articles,  but  soon  a  profusion  of  novels,  full  of  vivadty  and 
inddent,  and  dealing  mainly  with  military  scenes  and  characters. 
His  best  stories,  perhaps,  were  The  Romance  of  War  (his  first. 
iS4S)tBotkweUii&si),Franh  Hilton; or,  TheQueen*sOwn(tSss), 
The  Phantom  Regiment  and  Harry  Ogiltie  (1856),  Lncy  Arden 
(1858),  The  White  Cochade  (1867),  Only  an  Ensign  (1872),  Shatt 
I  Win  Her  t  (1874),  Playing  vith  Fire  (1887).  Grant  also  wrote 
British  Battles  on  Land  and  Sea  (1873-1875)  and  valuable  books 
on  Scottish  history.  Permanent  value  attaches  to  hia  great 
work,  in  three  volumes,  on  Old  and  New  Edinburgh  (x88o). 
He  was  the  founder  and  energetic  promoter  of  the  National 
Association  for  the  Vindication  of  Scottish  Ri^ts.  In  1875  he 
became  a  Roman  Catholic    He  died  on  the  5th  of  May  1887. 

GRANT,  JAME8  AUGUSTUS  (i 827-1892),  Scottish  explorer 
of  eastern  equatorial  Africa,  was  bom  at  Nairn,  where  his  father 
was  the  parish  minister,  on  the  nth  of  April  1827.  He  was 
educated  at  the  grammar  school  and  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  in  1846  joined  the  Indian  army.  He  saw  active  service  in  the 
Sikh  War  (1848-49),  served  throughout  the  mutiny  of  1857, 
and  was  wounded  in  the  operations  for  the  relief  of  Lucknow. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1858,  and  in  i860  joined  J.  H.  Speke 
(q.v.)  in  the  memorable  expedition  which  solved  the  problem  of 
the  Nile  sources.  The  expedition  left  Zandbar  in  October  1860 
and  reached  Gondokoro,  where  the  travdlers  were  again  in  touch 
with  dvilization,  in  February  1863.  Speke  was  the  leader,  but 
Grant  carried  out  several  investigations  independently  and  made 
valuable  botanical  collections.  He  acted  throughout  in  absolute 
loyalty  to  his  comrade.  In  x8i54  he  published,  as  supplementary 
to  Speke's  account  of  their  journey,  A  Walk  across  Africa,  in 
whidx  he  dealt  particularly  with  ""the  ordinary  life  and  pursuits, 
the  habits  and  feelings  of  the  natives  "  and  the  economic  value 
of  the  countries  traversed.  In  1864  he  was  awarded  the  patron's 
medal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Sodety,  and  in  1866  given  the 
Companionship  of  the  Bath  in  recognition  of  his  services  in 
the  expedition.  He  served  in  the  intelligence  department  of  the 
Abyssinian  expedition  of  z868;  for  this  he  was  xnade  C.S.I.  and 
received  the  Abyssinian  medaL  At  the  dose  of  the  war  he  re- 
tired  from  the  army  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-coloneL  He  bad 
married  In  1865,  and  he  now  settled  down  at  Nairn,  where  he 
died  on  the  xiUi  of  February  2892.  He  made  contributions  to 
the  journals  of  various  learned  sodeties,  the  most  notable  being 
the  "  Botany  of  the  Speke  and  Grant  Expedition  "  in  voL  xxxx. 
of  the  Transactions  of  the  Unnaean  Society, 

GRANT,  SIR  JAMBS  HOPE  (1808-1875),  En^ish  general, 
ififth  and  youngest  son  of  Francis  (}rant  of  Kilgraston,  Perthshire, 
and-brother  of  Sir  Francis  Grant,  P.R.A.,  was  bom  on  the  22nd 
of  July  x8o8.  He  entered  the  army  in  1826  as  comet  in  the  9th 
Lancers,  and  became  lieutenant  in  1828  and  captain  in  183$. 
In  1842  he  was  brigade-major  to  Lord  Saltoun  in  the  Chinese  War, 
and  spedally  distinguished  himself  at  the  capture  of  Chin-Kiang, 
after  which  he  recdved  the  rank  of  major  and  the  C.B.  In  the 
first  Sikh  War  of  1845-46  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Sobraon; 
and  in  the  Punjab  campaign  of  1848-49  he  commanded 
the  9th  Lancers,  and  won  high,  reputation  in  the  battles  of 
ChillianwaUa  and  Guserat  (Gujarat).  He  was  promoted  brevet 
lieutenant-cok>nd  and  shortly  afterwards  to  the  same  substantive 
rank.  In  1854  he  became  brevet-colonel,  and  in  1856  brigadier 
of  cavalry.  He  ^ook  a  leading  parLin  the  suppression  of  the 
Indian  mutiny  of  1857,  holding  for  some  time  the  f*>mmam^ 
of  the  cavalry  division,  and  afterwards  of  a  movable  column  of 
horse  and  foot.  After  rendering  valuable  service  in  the  operations 
before  Delhi  and  in  the  final  assault  on  the  dty,  he  directed  the 
victorious  march  of  the  cavalry  and  hone  artillery  ^^^patfhfd  in 
the  direction  of  Cawnpore  to  open  up  communication  with  the 
commander-in-diief  Sir  (!olin  Ciunpbell,  whom  he  met  near  the 
Alambagh,  and  who  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general, 
and  placed  the  whole  force  under  his  command  during  what 
remained  of  the  perilous  march  to  Luduiow  for  the  rdief  of  the 
residency.  After  the  retirement  towards  Cawnpore  he  greatly 
aided  in  effecting  there  the  total  rout  of  the  rebd  troops,  by 
making  a  detour  which  threatened  their  rear;  and  foQowiag  in 
_Qiursuit  with  a  flying  column,  he  defeated  them  with'the  kis  of 


GRANT,  SIR  P.— GRANT,  U.  S. 


355 


neuly'aO  thdr  gum  at  Serai  Ghat.  He  also  took  part  in  the 
operations  connected  with  the  recapture  of  Lucknow,  shortly 
after  which  be  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general, 
and  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  force  employed  for  the  final 
pacification  of  India,  a  position  in  which  his  unwearied  energy, 
and  his  vi^lance  and  caution  united  to  high  personal  daring, 
rendered  very  valuable  service.  Before  the  work  of  pacification 
was  quite  completed  he  was  created  K.C.B.  In  1859  he  was 
appointed,  with  the  local  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  British  land  forces  in  the  united  French  and  British 
expedition  against  China.  The  object  of  the  campaign  was 
accomplished  within  three  months  of  the  landing  of  the  forces  at 
Pd-tang  (ist  of  August  i860).  The  Taku  ForU  had  been  carried 
by  assault,  the  Chinese  defeated  three  times  jn  the  open  and 
I'^king  occupied.  For  his  conduct  in  this,  which  has  been  called 
the  **  tofnA  successful  and  the  best  carried  out  of  England's 
Gttle  wars,"  he  received  the  thanks  of  parliament  and  was 
gazetted  G.C.B.  In  i86x  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  and 
appointed  oommander-in<hief  of  the  army  of  Madras;  on  his 
return  to  En^and  in  1865  he  was  made  quartermaster-general 
at  headquarters;  and  in  1870  he  was  transferred  to  the  command 
of  the  camp  at  Aldershot,  where  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
reform  of  the  educational  and  training  systems  of  the  forces, 
which  followed  the  Franco-German  War.  The  introduction  of 
annual  army  mancnivres  was  largely  due  to  Sir  Hope  Grant. 
In  1873  he  was  gazetted  general.    He  died  in  London  on  the 

7th  of  March  1875. 

Inciignis  in  tJu  SePoy  War  tff  tSsZzSS,  compiUd  from  Ike  Prioatt 
Jemmal  t§  General  Sir  Hope  Grants  K.C.B.,  together  with  some  ex- 
ftamatorj  ekapUrs  by  CapL  H.  KnoUys,  Royal  Artillery,  was  published 
u  1873,  and  Incidents  tn  the  China  War  of  i860  appoued  posthum- 
Ottsly  under  the  same  editorship  in  1875. 

ORAHT,  SIR  PATRICK  (x8o4~x89s),  British  field  marshal,  was 
the  second  son  of  Major  John  Grant,  97th  Foot,  of  Auchterblair, 
Inverness-shire,  wh«e  he  was  bom  on  the  nth  of  September 
2804.  He  entered  the  Bengal  native  infantry  as  ensign  in  1820, 
and  became  captain  in  1832.  He  served  in  Oudh  from  1834  to 
1838,  and  raised  the  Hariana  Light  Infantry.  Employed  in  the 
adjuUnt-general's  department  of  the  Bengal  army  from  1838 
until  1854,  he  became  adjutant-general  in  1846.  He  served 
vnder  SSr  Hugh  Gough  at  the  battle  of  Maharajpur  in  1843, 
winning  a  brevet  «majority,  was  adjutant  general  of  the  army 
at  the  battles  of  Moodkee  in  1845  (twice  severely  wounded), 
and  of  Ferozshah  and  Sobraon  in  1846,  receiving  the  C.B.  and  the 
brevet  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  Chillianwalla  and  Gujarat  in  1849,  gaining  further  promotion, 
■and  was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  the  queen.  He  served  also 
in  Kohat  in  1851  under  Sir  Charles  Napier.  Promoted  major- 
genera]  in  1854,  he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Madras  army 
from  1856  to  1861.  He  was  made  K.C.B.  in  1857,  and  on  Generd 
Anson's  death  was  summoned  to  Calcutta  to  take  supreme 
command  of  the  army  in  India.  From  Calcutta  he  dkccted 
the  operations  against  the  mutineers,  sending  forces  under 
Havebdi  and  Outram  for  the  relief  of  Cawnpore  and  Lucknow, 
until  the  arrival  of  Sir  Colin  Campbell  from  England  as  com- 
mander-in-chief, when  he  returned  to  Madras.  On  leaving 
India  in  i86x  he  was  decorated  with  the  G.C.B.  He  was  promoted 
fieutenant-general  in  1863,  was  governor  of  Malta  from  1867  to 
1873,  was  made  G.C.M.G.  in  1868,  promoted  general  in  1870, 
field  marshal  in  1883  and  colonel  of  the  Royal  Horse  Guards 
and  gold-ftick-in-waiting  to  the  queen  in  1885.  He  married  as 
bis  second  wife,  in  1844,  Frances  Maxia,  daughter  of  Sir  Hugh 
(afterwards  Lord)  Gough.  He  was  governor  of  the  Royal 
Hospital,  Chelsea,  from  1874  until  his  death  there  on  the  98th 
of  March  1895. 

ORAMTt  ROBERT  (X8X4-X892),  British  astronomer,  was  bom 
at  Grantown,  Scotland,  on  the  17th  of  Jime  x8x4.  At  the  age 
of  thirteen  the  promise  of  a  brilliant  cascer  was  douded  by  a 
prolonged  iUness  of  such  a  serious  character  as  to  incapacitate 
him  from  all  school-work  for  six  years.  At  twenty,  however, 
his  health  greatly  improved,  and  he  set  himself  resolutely,  without 
assistance,  to  repair  his  earlier  disadvantages  by  the  diligent 
Study  oi  Greek,  Latin,  Italian  and  mathematics.    Astronomy 


also  occupied  his  attention,  and  it  was  stimulated  by  the  return 
of  Halley's  cpmet  in  X835,  as  well  as  by  his  success  in  observing 
the  annular  eclipse  of  the  sun  of  the  xsth  of  May  X836.  After 
a  short  course  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  he  obtained  in  1841 
employment  in  his  brother's  counting-house  in  London.  During 
this  period  the  idea  occurred  to  him  of  writing  a  history  of 
physical  astronomy.  Before  definitely  beginning  the  work  he 
had  to  search,  amongst  other  records,  those  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  for  that  purpose  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris 
in  X845,  supporting  himself  by  giving  lessons  hi  Eni^iah.  He 
returned  to  London  in  1847.  The  History  of  Physital  Astronomy 
from  the  Earliest  Ages  to  the  Middle  1/  the  Nineteenth  Century  was 
first  published  in  parts  in  The  labrary  of  Useful  Knowledge^  but 
after  the  issue  of  the  ninth  part  this  mode  of  publication  was 
discontinued,  and  the  work  appeared  as  a  whole  in  x8s3.  The 
main  object  of  the  work  is,  in  the  author's  words,  "  to  exhibit 
a  view  of  the  labours  of  successive  inquirers  in  establishing  a 
knowledge  of  the  mechanical  principles  which  rqjulate  the 
movements  of  the  celestial  bodies,  and  in  eqilaining  the  various 
phenomena  relative  to  their  physical  constitution  which  observa- 
tion with  the  telescope  has  disclosed."  The  lucidity  and  complete- 
ness with  which  a  great  variety  of  abstruse  subjects  were  treated, 
the  extent  of  research  and  the  maturity  of  jud^nent  it  displayed, 
were  the  more  remarkable,  when  it  is  remembered  that  this  was 
the  first  published  work  of  one  who  enjoyed  no  special  oppor- 
tunities, either  for  acquiring  materials,  or  for  discussing  with 
others  engaged  in  simiUr  pursuits  the  subjects  it  treats  of. 
The  book  at  once  took  a  leacUng  place  in  astronomical  literature, 
and  earned  for  its  author  in  1856  the  award  of  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society's  gold  medaL  In  X859  he  succeeded  John 
Pringle  Nichol  as  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow.  From  time  to  time  he  contributed  astronomical 
papers  to  the  Monthly  Notices^  Astronomische  Nachrichten, 
Comptes  rendus  and  other  scientific  serials;  but  his  principal 
work  at  Glasgow  consbted  in  determining  the  places  of  a  large 
number  of  stars  with  the  Ertel  transit-drcle  of  the  Observatory. 
The  results  of  these  labours,  extending  over  twenty-one  years, 
are  oontained  in  the  Clasgow  Catalogue  of  6415  Stars,  published 
in  ;883.  This  was  followed  hi  189a  by  the  Second  Glasgow 
Catalogue  of  2x56  Stars,  published  a  few  weeks  after  his  death, 
which  took  i^ace  on  the  a4th  of  October  1892. 

See  Month.  Notices  Roy.  AOr.  Society,  liiL.  sio  (E.  Dunkin); 
Nature,  Nov.  10,  itoa;  The  Times,  Nov.  a,  189s;  Roy.  Society t 
Catalogfie  of  Scient.  Papers.  (A.  A.  R.*) 

GRANT,  ULTBSEB  SIMPSOH  (iSif-iSSs),  American  soldier, 
and  eighteenth  president  of  the  United  States,  was  bom  at 
Point  Pleasant,  Ohio,  on  the  37th  of  April  x833.  He  was  a 
descendant  of  Matthew  Grant,  a  Scotchman,  who  settled  in 
Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  in  1630.  His  earlier  years  were 
spent  in  helping  his  father,  Jesse  R.  Grant,  upon  hb  farm  in 
Ohio.  In  X839  he  was  appointed  to  a  |dace  in  the  military 
academy  at  West  Point,  and  it  was  then  tliat  his  name  assumed 
the  form  by  which  it  is  generally  known.  He  was  christened 
Hiram,  after  an  ancestor,  with  Ulysses  for  a  middle  name. 
As  he  was  usually  called  by  his  middle  name,  the  congressman 
who  recommended  him  for  West  Point  supposed  it  to  be  his 
first  name,  and  added  thereto  the  luune  of  his  mother's  family, 
Simpson.  Grant  was  the  best  horseman  of  his  class,  and  took 
a  respectable  place  in  mathematics,  but  at  his  graduation  in 
X843  he  only  ranked  twenty-first  in  a  class  of  thirty-nine.  In 
September  x84s  he  went  with  his  regiment  to  join  the  forces  of 
General  Taylor  in  Mexico;  there  he  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Palo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Palma  and  Monterey,  and,  after  his  transfer 
to  General  Scott's  army,  which  he  joined  in  March  1847,  served 
at  Vera  Cruz,  Cerro  Gordo,  Churabusco,  Molino  del  Rey  and  at 
the  storming  of  Chapultepec.  He  was  breveted  first  lieutenant 
for  gallantry  at  Molino  del  Rey  and  captain  for  gallantry  at 
Chapultepec  In  August  X848,  after  the  dose  of  the  war,  he 
married  Julia  T.  Dent  (1836-X902),  and  was  for  a  while  stationed 
in  California  and  Oregon,  but  in  X854  he  resigned  his  commission. 
His  repuUtion  in  the  service  had  suffered  from  allegations  of 
intemperate  diinking,  which,  whether  well  founded  or  not. 


3S6 


GRANT,  U.  S. 


certainly  impaired  his  iiirfulnfiiii  as  a  soldier.  For  the  next 
six  yean  he  Uved  in  St  Louis,  Missouri,  earning  a  scanty  subsist- 
ence by  farming  and  dealings  in  teal  estate.  In  x86o  he  removed 
to  Galena,  Illinois,  and  became  a  clerk  in  a  leather  store  kept 
by  his  father.  At  that  time  his  earning  capacity  seems  not  to 
have  exceeded  $800  a  year,  and  he  was  regarded  by  liis  friends 
as  a  broken  and  disappointed  man.  He  was  living  at  Galena 
at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between  the  North  and  South. 

[For  the  history  of  the  Gvil  War,  and  of  Grant's  battles  and 
campaigns,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  American  Civil 
War.  To  the  *'  call  to  arms  "  of  1861  Grant  promptly 
2]|J^^  responded.  After  some  delay  he  was  commissioned 
caiMf;  colonel  of  the  21st  Illinois  r^^nent  and  soon  after- 
wards brigadier-general.  He  was  shortly  assigned  to 
a  territorial  command  on  the  Mississippi,  and  first  won  distinction 
by  his  energy  in  seizing,  on  his  own  responsibility,  the  important 
point  of  Padacah,  Kentucky,  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  two  great  waterways  of  the  Tennessee  and  the  Ohio  (6th 
Sept.  1861).  On  the  7th  of  November  he  fought  his  first 
battle  as  a  commander,  that  of  Belmont  (Missouri),  which,  if 
it  failed  to  achieve  any  material  result,  certainly,  diowed  him 
to  be  a  capable  and  skilful  leader.  Early  in  1862  he  was  en- 
trusted by  General  H.  W.  Halleck  with  the  conunand  of  a  large 
force  to  clear  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Cumberland  and  the 
Tennessee,  and,  whatever  criticism  may  be  passed  on  the  general 
strategy  of  the  campaign.  Grant  himself,  by  his  able  and 
energetic  work,  thoroughly  deserved  the  credit  of  his  brilliant 
success  of  Fort  Donelson,  where  15,000  Confederates  were  forced 
to  capitulate.  Grant  and  his  division  commanders  were  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  major-general  U.S.V.  soon  afterwards, 
but  Grant's  own  fortunes  siitffered  a  temporary  eclipse  owing  to  a 
disagreement  with  Halleck.  When,  after  bebg  virtually  under 
arrest,  he  rejoined  his  army,  it  was  concentrated  about  Savannah 
on  the  Tennessee,  preparing  for  a  campaign  towards  Corinth, 
Miss.  On  the  6th  of  April  x86a  a  furious  assault  on  Grant's 
camps  brought  on  the  battle  of  Shiloh  (7.  v.).  After  two  days' 
desperate  fighting  the  Confederates  withdrew  before  the  com- 
bined attack  of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee  under  Grant  and  the 
Army  of  the  Ohio  under  Buell.  But  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee 
had  been  on  the  verge  of  annihilation  on  the  evening  of  the  first 
day,  and  Grant's  leadership  throughout  was  by  no  means  equal 
to  the  emergency,  thou|^  he  displayed  his  usual  personal 
bravery  and  resolution.  In  the  grand  advance  of  Halleck's 
armies  which  followed  Shiloh,  Grant  was  relieved  of  all  important 
duties  by  his  assignment  as  second  in.  command  of  the  whole 
force,  and  was  thought  by  the  army  at  large  to  be  in  disgrace. 
But  Halleck  soon  went  to  Washington  as  general-in-chief,  and 
Grant  took  command  of  his  old  army  and  of  Rosecrans'  Army 
of  the  Mississippi.  Two  victories  (luka  and  Corinth)  were  won 
in  the  autumn  of  1862,  but  the  credit  of  both  fell  to  Rosecrans, 
who  commanded  in  the  field,  and  the  nadir  of  Grant's  military 
fortunes  was  reached  when  the  first  advance  on  Vicksburg  (q.v.), 
planned  on  an  unsound  basis,  and  complicated  by  a  series  of 
political  intrigues  (which  had  also  caused  the  adoption  of  the 
original  scheme),  collapsed  after  the  minor  reverses  of  Holly 
Springs  and  Chickasaw  Bayou  (December  1862). 

It  is  fair  to  assume  that  Grant  would  have  followed  other 
unsuccessful  generals  into  retirement,  had  he  not  shown  that, 
whatever  his  mistakes  or  failures,  and  whether  he  was  or  was 
not  sober  and  temperate  in  his.  habits,  he  possessed  the  iron 
determination  and  energy  which  in  the  eyes  of  Lincoln  and 
Stanton,*  and  of  the  whole  Northern  people,  was  the  first  requisite 
of  their  generals.    He  remained  then  with  his  army  near  Vicks- 

>  President  Lincoln  was  Grant's  most  unwavering  supporter. 
Many  amusing  stories  are  told  of  his  replies  to  various  deputations 
which  waited  upon  him  to  ask  for  Grant's  removal.  On  one  occasion 
he  asked  the  critics  to  ascertain  the  brand  of  whisky  favoured  by 
Grant,  so  that  he  could  send  kegs  of  it  to  the  other  generals.  The 
question  of  Grant's  abstemiousness  was  and  is  of  little  importance. 
The  canse  at  stake  over-rode  every  prejudice  and  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  since  the  war,  have  been  in  general  content  to  leave 
the  question  alone,  as  was  evidenced  by  the  outcry  raised  in  1908, 
when  Preaklent  Talt  reopened  it  in  a  ss>eech  at  Grant's  tomb. 


burg,  trying  one  plan  after  another  without  result,  until  at  last 
after  months  of  almost  hopeless  work  his  perseverance  waa 
crowned  with  success— a  success  directly  consequent  upon  a 
strange  and  bizarre  campaign  of  ten  weelu,  in  wUch  his  daring 
and  vigour  were  more  conspicuous  than  ever  bdore.  On  the 
4th  of  July  1863  the  great  fortress  surrendered  with  29,491  men, 
this  being  one  of  the  most  important  victories  won  by  the  Union 
arms  in  the  whole  war.  Grant  was  at  once  mad6  a  major-general 
in  the  regular  army.  A  few  months  later  the  great  reverse  of 
Chickamauga  created  an  alarm  in  the  North  commensurate  with 
the  ebtion  that  had  been  felt  at  the  double  victory  of  Vicksburg 
and  Gettysburg,  and  Grant  was  at  once  ordered  to  Chattanooga, 
to  decide  the  fate  of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland  In  a  second 
battle.  Four  armies  were  placed  tinder  his  command,  and 
three  of  these  concentrated  at  Chattanooga.  On  the  25th  of 
November  1863  a  great  thrce-da>'s'  battle  ended  with  the 
crushing  defeat  of  the  Conf ederates^  who  from  this  day  had  na 
foothold  in  the  centre  and  west. 

After  this,  in  preparation  for  a  grand  oombmed  effort  of  all 
the  Union  forces.  Grant  was  placed  in  supreme  command,  and 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-genersd  revived  for  him  (March  1864). 
Grant's  headquarters  henceforth  accompanied  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  and  the  lieutenant-general  directed  the  f  mp^ign  {q 
Virginia.  This,  with  Grant's  driving  energy  infused  into  the 
best  army  that  the  Union  possessed,  resolved  itself  into  a 
series,  almost  uninterrupted,  of  terrible  battles.  Tactically  the 
Confederates  were  almost  always  victorious,  strategically,  Grant, 
disposing  of  greatly  superior  forces,  pressed  back  Lee  and  the 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia  to  the  lines  of  Richmond  and  Peters- 
burg, while  above  all,  in  pursuance  of  his  explicit  policy  oC 
"  attrition,"  the  Federal  leader  used  his  men  with  a  merdlesa 
energy  that  has  few,  if  any,  parallels  in  modem  history.  At 
Cold  Harbor  six  thousand  men  fell  in  one  useless  assault  lasting 
an  hour,  and  after  two  months  the  Union  armies  lay  before 
Richmond  and  Petersburg  indeed,  but  had  lost  im>  fewer  than 
72,000  men.  But  Grant  was  unshaken  in  his  determination. 
"  I  purpose  to  fight  it  out  on  this  line,  if  it  takes  all  summer,'* 
was  his  message  from  the  battlefield  of  Spottsylvania  to  the 
chief  of  staff  at  Washington.  Through  many  weary  months  he 
never  relaxed  his  hold  on  Lee's  army,  and,  in  ^>ite  of  repeated 
partial  reverses,  that  would  have  been  defeats  for  his  predece^ 
sors,  he  gradually  wore  down  his  gallant  adversary.  The  terrible 
cost  of  these  operations  did  not  check  him:  only  on  one  occasion 
of  grave  peril  were  any  troops  sent  from  his  lines  to  serve  else- 
where, and  he  drew  to  himself  the  bulk  of  the  men  whom  the 
Union  government  was  recriiiting  by  thousands  for  the  final 
effort.  Meanwhile  all  the  other  campaigns  had  been  dosdy 
supervised  by  Grant,  preoccupied  though  he  was  with  the 
operations  against  his  own  adversary.  At  a  critical  moment 
he  actually  left  the  Virginian  armies  to  their  own  commanders, 
and  started  to  take  personal  conmiand  in  a  threatened  quarter, 
and  throughout  he  was  in  close  touch  with  Sherman  and  Thomas, 
who  conducted  the  campaigns  on  the  south-east  and  the  centre. 
That  he  succeeded  in  the  efficient  exercise  of  the  chief  command 
of  armies  of  a  total  strength  of  over  one  million  men,  operating 
many  thousands  of  miles  apart  from  each  other,  wh3e  at  the 
same  time  he  watched  and  manoeuvred  against  a  great  f«p»«»p 
and  a  veteran  army  in  one  field  of  the  war,  must  be  the  greatest 
proof  of  Grant's  powers  as  a  generaL  In  the  end  complete  succob 
rewarded  the  sacrifices  and  efforts  of  the  Federals  on  every  theatre 
of  war;  in  Virginia,  where  Grant  was  in  personal  control,  the 
merdless  policy  of  attrition  wore  down  Lee's  army  until  a  mere 
remnant  was  left  for  the  final  surrender. 

Grant  had  thus  brought  the  great  Struggle  to  an  end,  and  was 
universally  regarded  as  the  saviour  of  the  Union.  A  carefid 
study  of  the  history  of  the  war  thoroughly  bears  out  the  popular 
view.  There  were  soldliers  more  accomplished,  aswas  McClellan, 
more  brilliant,  as  was  Rosecrans,  and  more  exact,  as  was  Budl, 
but  it  would  .be  difficult  to  prove  that  these  generals,  or  indeed 
any  others  in  the  service,  could  have  accomplished  the  task 
which  Grant  brought  to  complete  sucoss.  Nor  must  it  be  suf^ 
posed  that  Grant  learned  little  from  three  years'  '•*'"i**x"*'*3 


GRANT,  U.  S. 


357 


to  high  command  There  is  leas  in  Gommon  than  is  often  supposed 
between  the  buoyant  energy  that  led  Grant  to  Shilob  and  the 
^m  ploddiog  determination  that  led  him  to  Vicksburg  and 
to  Appomattox.  Shiloh  revealed  to  Grant  the  intensity  of  the 
struggle,  and  after  that  battle,  appreciating  to  the  full  the 
material  and  moral  factors  with  which  he  had  to  deal,  he  gradually 
trained  his  military  character  on  those  lines  which  alone  could 
conduce  to  ultimate  success.  Singleness  of  purpose,  and  relent- 
less vigour  in  the  execution  of  the  purpose,  were  the  qualities 
necessary  to  the  conduct  of  the  vast  enterprise  of  subduing  the 
Confederacy.  Grant  possessed  or  acquired  both  to  such  a  degree 
that  he  proved  fully  equal  to  the  emergency.  If  in  technical 
finesse  he  was  surpassed  by  many  of  his  piedecessors  and  his 
subordinates,  he  had  the  most  important  qualities  of  a  great 
captain,  courage  that  rose  higher  with  each  obstade,  and  the 
dear  judgment  to  distinguish  the  cswntial  from  the  minor 
in  war.— (C.  F.  A.)] 


After  the  assassination  of  President  Lincoln  a  disposition  was 
sliown  by  his  successor,  Andrew  Johnson,  to  deal  severely  with 
the  Confederate  leaders,  and  it  was  understood  that  indictments 
for  treason  were  to  be  brought  against  General  Lee  and  others. 
Grant,  however,  insisted  that  the  United  States  government 
wais  bound  by  the  terms  accorded  to  Lee  and  his  army  at 
Appomattox.  He  went  so  far  as  to  threaten  to  resign  his  com- 
mission if  the  president  disregarded  his  protest.  This  energetic 
action  on  Grant's  part  saved  the  United  States  from  a  foul 
stain  upon  its  eScutdieon.  Li  July  z866  the  grade  of  general  was 
created,  for  the  first  time  since  the  organization  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  Grant  was  promoted  to  that  portion.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  became  involved  in  the  deadly  quarrel  between 
President  Johnson  and  Congress.  To  tie  the  president's  hands 
Congress  had  passed  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  forbidding,  the 
president  to  remove  any  cabinet  officer  without  the  consent  of 
the  Senate;  but  in  August  1867  President  Johnson  suspended 
Secretary  Stanton  and  appointed  Grant  secretary  of  war  ad 
inierim  until  the  pleasure  of  the  Senate  should  be  ascertained. 
Grant  accepted  the  appointment  under  protest,  and  held  it 
until  the  following  January,  when  the  Senate  refused  to  confirm 
the  president's  aaion,  and  Secretary  Stanton  resumed  his 
office.  President  Johnson  was  much  disgusted  at  the  readiness 
with  which  Grant  turned  over  the  office  to  Stanton,  and  a  bitter 
controversy  ensued  between  Johnson  and  Grant.  Hitherto 
Grant  had  taken  little  part  in  politics.  The  only  vote  ^bich 
be  had  ever  cast  for  a  presidential  candidate  was  in  1856  for 
James  Buchanan;  and  leading  Democrats,  so  late  as 
the  beginning  of  1868,  hoped  to  inake  him  their  can- 
didate in  the  election  of  that  year;  but  the  effect  of 
the  controversy  with  President  Johnson  was  to  bring 
Grant  forward  as  the  candidate  of  the  Republican  party.  At  the 
convention  in  Chicago  on  the  aoth  of  May  x868  he  was  unani- 
mously nominated  on  the  first  ballot.  Tht  Democratic  party 
Dominated  the  one  available  Democrat  who  had  the  smallest 
dance  of  beating  him — Horatio  Seymour,  lately  governor  of 
Kew  York,  an  excellent  statesman,  but  at  that  time  hopeless 
as  a  candidate  because  of  his  attitude  during  the  war.  The 
result  of  the  contest  was  at  no  time  in  doubt;  Grant  received 
314  electoral  votes  and  Seymour  80. 

The  most  important  domestic  event  of  Grant's  first  term  zS 
president  was  the  adoption  of  the  fifteenth  amendment  to  the 
Constitution  on  the  30th  of  March  1870,  providing  that  suffrage 
thiougfaout  the  United  States  should  not  be  restricted  on  account 
of  race,  colour  or  previous  condition  of  servitude.  The  most 
imporunt  event  in  foreign  policy  was  the  treaty  with  Great 
Britain  of  the  8th  of  May  1871,  commonly  known  as  the  Treaty 
of  Washington,  whereby  several  controversies  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  including  the  bitter  questions 
as  to  damage  inflicted  upon  the  United  States  by  the  "Alabama" 
and  other  Confederate  cruisers  built  and  equipped  in  England, 
were  referred  to  arbitration.  In  1869  the  government  of  Santo 
Doningo  (or  the  Dominican  Republic)  expressed  a  wish  for 
annexation  by  the  United  States,  and  such  a  step  was  favoured 


by  Grant,  but  a  treaty  negotiated  irith  thu  end  in  view  failed 
to  obtain  the  requisite  two-thirds  vote  in  the  Senate.  In  May 
1873  something  was  done  towards,  alleviating  the  odious  Recon- 
struction la.ws  for  dragooning  the  South,  which  had  been  passed 
by  Congress  in  spite  of  the  vetoes  of  President  Johnson.  The 
Amnesty  Bill  restored  civil  rights  to  all  persons  in  the  South, 
save  from  300  to  500  who  had  held  high  positions  under  the 
Confederacy.  As  early  as  1870  President  Grant  recommended 
measures  of  civil  service  reform,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  an 
act  authorizing  him  to  appoint  a  Civil  Service  commission. 
A  commission  was  created,  but  owing  fo  the  hostility  of  the 
politicians  in  Congress  it  accomplished  little.  During  the  fifty 
years  since  Crawford's  Tenure  of  Office  Aa  Was  passed  in  1820, 
the  country  had  been  growing  more  and  more  familiar  with  the 
spectacle  of  corruption  in  high  places.  The  evil  rose  to  alanning 
proportions  during  Grant's  presidency,  partly  because  of  the 
Immense  extension  of  the  civil  service,  partly  because  of  the 
growing  tendency  to  alliance  between  spoilsmen  and  the  persons 
benefited  by  protective  tariffs,  and  partly  because  the  public 
attention  was  still  so  much  absorbed  in  Southern  affairs  that  little 
energy  was  left  for  curbing  rascality  in  the  North.  The  scandals, 
indeed,  were  rife  in  Wa^ington,  and  affected  persons  in  close 
relations  with  the  president.  Grant  was  ill-fitted  ifor  coping 
with  the  difficulties  of  such  a  situation.  Along  with  hifjti  in- 
tellectual powers  in  certain  directions,  he  had  a  simplicity  of 
nature  charming  in  itself,  but  often  ^culated  to  render  him 
the  easy  prey  of  sharpers.  He  found  it  almost  impossible  to 
believe  that  anything  could  be  wrong  in  persons  to  whom  he 
had  given  his  friend^ip,  and  on  sevnal  occasions  such  friends 
proved  themselves  unworthy  of  him.  The  feeling  was  widely 
prevalent  in  the  spring  of  x87a  that  the  interests  of  pure  govern- 
ment in  the  United  States  demanded  that  President  Grant  should 
not  be  dectcd  to  a  second  term.  Tliis  feeling  led  a  number  of 
high-minded  gentlemen  to  form  themselves  into  an  organization 
under  the  name  of  Liberal  Republicans.  They  held  a  convention 
at  Cincinnati  in  May  with  the  intention  of  nominating  for  the 
presidency  Charles  Francis  Adams,  who  had  ably  represented 
the  United  States  at  the  court  of  St  James's  during  the  Civil 
War.  The  convention,  was,  however,  captured  by  politicians 
who  converted  the  whole  affair  into  a  farce  by  nominating 
Horace  Greeley,  editor  of  the  Ificw  York  Tribune^  who  rq>resentcd 
almost  anything  rather  than  the  object  for  which  the  convention 
had  been  called  together.  The  Democrats  had  despaired  of 
electing  a  candidate  of  their  own,  and  hoped  to  achieve  success 
by  adopting  the  Cincinnati  nominee,  should  he  prove  to  be  an 
eligible  person.  The  event  showed  that  whOe  their  defeat  in 
1868  had  taught  them  despondency,  it  had  not  taught  them 
wisdom;  it  was  still  in  their  power  to  make  a  gallant  fight  by 
nominating  a  person  for  whom  Republican  reformers  could 
vote.  But  with  almost  incredible  fatuity,  they  adopted  Greeley 
as  thdr  candidate.  As  a  natural  result  Grant  was  re-elected 
by  an  overwhelming  majority. 

The  most  important  event  of  his  second  term  was  his  veto 
of  the  Inflation  Bill  in  1874  followed  by  the  passage  of  the 
Resumption  Act  in  the  following  year.  The  country 
was  still  labouring  under  the  curse  of  an  inconvertible 
paper  currency  originating  with  the  Legal  Tender  Act 
of  1862.  There  was  a  considerable  party  in  favour  of 
debasing  the  currency  indefinitely  by  inflation,  and  a  bill  with 
that  object  was  paaoed  by  Congress  in  Aprfl  1874.  It  was 
promptly  vetoed  by  President  Grant,  and  two  months  later  he 
wrote  a  very  sensible  letter  to  Senator  J.  P.  Jones  of  Nevada 
advocating  a  speedy  return  to  specie  payments.  The  passage  of 
the  Resumption  Act  in  January  1875  was  largely  due  to  his  con- 
sistent advocacy,  and  for  these  measures  he  deserves  as  high 
credit  as  for  his  victories  in  the  field.  In  spite  of  these  great 
services,  popular  dissatisfaction  with  the  Republican  party 
rapidly  increased  during  the  years  1874-1876.  The  causes  were 
twofold:  firstly,  there  was  great  dissatisfaction  with  the  troubles 
in  the  Southern  states,  owing  to  the  harsh  Reconstruction 
laws  and  the  robberies  committed  by  the  carpet-bag  govem- 
menu  which  those  laws  kept  in  power;  secondly,  the  scandals  at 


358 


GRANT— GRANTH 


biUoti. 


WaihiigdN),  compritlns  vliafaile  (nuds  on  the  public  revenue, 
awakened  lively  dis^uit.  In  umc  cua  the  cLilpHli  were  »  ncu 
to  PRsideot  Giul  thit  many  pcnou  found  it  difficult  lo  avoid 
the  luspidon  that  he  irtu  himKlI  implicated,  and  oevei  pctiiapt 
va>  hb  hold  upon  popular  favoui  u  alight  as  in  the  lummer 
and  autuma  a(  1876. 

After  the  cIok  of  his  presideiKy  in  the  spring  of  |B;7  Gtant 
Mailed  on  a  journey  round  the  world,  accompanied  by  his  wife 

and  one  son-     He  was  received  with  disLinguisbcd 
gf*        honoun  io  England  and  on  the  continent!  ol  Eun^, 

whence  he  made  bis  way  to  India,  China  and  Japan, 
After  hil  tetum  to  Amer' 
his  old  home  in  Galena.  1 
of  the  Republican  party 
a  third  term  as  pTesidcnt,  and  in  the  convention  at  Chicago  in 
June  1880  he  recdved  a  vote  exceeding  joo  during  36  cooseculive 
IS.  bis  opponents  made  such  eflective  use  of 

dcfeatoi,  and  Garfield  was  named  in  hii  stead.  In  August  iSSi 
General  Grant  bought  ■  bouse  in  the  city  of  New  York.  His 
income  was  insufiidenl  for  the  proper  support  of  his  lamily,  and 
accordingly  he  bad  become  partner  in  >  banking  houae  In  which 
one  d  his  sotu  was  intcreited  along  with  other  persons.  The 
name  of  the  linn  was  Grant  and  Ward.  The  ei-preiident 
Invested  in  It  all  his  avsilable  property,  but  paid  no  attention  to 
the  management  of  the  buiineas.  His  facility  id  giving  his  con- 
Sdence  to  unworthy  people  was  now  to  be  visited  with  dire 
calamity.  In  1S84  the  firm  became  bankrupt,  and  !l  waa  dis- 
coveml  that  two  of  the  partnen  bad  been  perpetrating  systematic 
and  gigantic  frauds.  This  severe  blow  left  Cenenl  GniDt 
penniless,  just  at  the  time  when  he  was  beginning  to  sutler 
acutely  from  the  disease  which  finally  caused  his  dentb.  Down 
to  this  time  he  had  never  made  any  prelentlona  to  literary  skill 
or  talent,  but  on  beinl  approached  by  the  Ctxinry  Uogaine 
with  a  request  for  some  aiticica  he  undciLook  the  work  in  order 
to  keep  the  wolf  Itom  the  door.  It  proved  1  congenial  task,  and 
led  to  the  writing  of  his  Persaiat  Uemoin.  1  frank,  modest 

military  biographies.    The  sales  earned  for  the  general  and  hi 


mdoUais. 


with  any  th»t  Grant  ever  showed  as  a  soldier.  During  most  of 
Ibe  time  be  was  luflering  tortures  from  cancer  in  the  throat,  and 
it  was  only  four  days  before  his  death  thai  he  Rniihed  the  manu- 
script. In  the  spring  of  1SS5  Congrnspasseda  bill  creating  him 
a  genera!  on  Ihc  retired  list  i  and  in  the  summei  he  was  removed 
to  a  cottage  at  Mount  M'Cregor,  near  Ssralogi.  where  he  passed 
the  last  five  weeks  ol  his  life,  and  where  be  died  on  the  ijrd  of 
July  18S5.  His  body  was  placed  in  a  temporary  tomb  in 
Kiverside  Drive,  ia  New  Yoik  Qiy,  overlooking  the  Hudson 

Grant  showed  many  admirable  and  hivaUc  traits.  There  was 
■  charming  side  10  his  trustful  ^mplicity,  which  <n^  at  times 
almost  like  that  of  a  sailor  set  ashore.  He  abounded  in  kindli- 
ness and  generosity,  and  if  there  was  anything  e^Kcially  diliicult 
for  bira  to  endure,  it  was  the  sight  of  human  suHering,  «  was 
ihown  on  the  night  at  Shiloh,  where  he  lay  out  of  doois  in  the 
icy  rain  rather  than  slay  in  a  comfortable  room  where  Ibe 
auigcona  were  at  work.     His  good  sense  wa 


t  ihet 


:  permanent  tomb  ia  of  whi 
ft.  high  with  a  circular  ci.,. 
HI  the  side  and  71  ft.  high: 


.id  by  Presii 
:  »7i1i  of  A 


ll^GinUl 


le  saroopBagus,  in  the  centre 

i.and  the  tomb  waidedicated 
>dKj  parade  and  addtenes  by 


Ceaeta]  Giant's  wd,  Pmniici  Dent  Cunt  (b.  1850), 
graduated  at  the  U.S.  Mililaiy  Academy  in  1871.  was  aide-de- 
camp to  General  FJulip  Sheridan  in  1873-iBfii,  and  rQigned  from 
the  army  in  tSSi,  (Iter  having  aluined  the  rank  of  lieulenant- 
colond.     He  waa  U.S.  minister  to  Austria  in  1SS9-1S4J,  and 
■  commissioner  of  New  York  cily  in  1894-1898.     He  served 
brigadier.gencral  of  volunteeis  in  th«  Spa  lush- American 
of  180S,  and  then  in  the  Philippines,  becoming  brigadier- 
:gular  array  in  February  1901  and  major-general 


iFebiui 


-Adam  Bidean's  l/idtarv  fi 

i  vols..  New  Yorii,  ,lB67-lSSlJ,  and  C'aU  I 

loraiit  Churcf'^v!!;!  .■;  C^'il'"' ";,v'^"! 


ilaryfV.S.Ctv 


-. __.,iiao):  H^ce 

...„,  ^,u-,^.,».««,lUC™iU  (New  York,  1807}.- JansFiml 

liodM'.  HuUfy  of  iCb  Uilud  SUiUi  (vols.  iii-vilTHe*  Voct  iSgfr- 

K>6} :  Jamn  fC  RDinm's  AppttI  Is  rfrmi  and  OMamt  tt lit  OrU 

'■I'   (New   York.    1907):   John   Ealon-i  CrtaU,   LmetlK.   ai*  flit 

■rrdmin  (New  Yoih.  igofi.  and  vaiioiis  w«ks  meolioned  ia  the 

iklcj  Amehcan  Civil  Wsr,  WiLDsawBis  CAMfHCS.  «c 

ORAMT  (from  A.-Fr.  paunltr,  O.  Fr.  peanltr  for  tmnUr, 

populu  Lai,  iranlari.  for  crtdtnlare,  to  entrust,  Lat.  cititti,  (o 

believe,  trust),  originally  permission,  ackpowledgmenl,  hence  the 

gill  of  privileges,  righia,  tic,  specifically  in  law,  the  transfer  of 

property  by  an  instrument  in  writing,  IMmed  1  deed  of  grant. 

'    xirding  lo  the  old  rule  ol  common  taw,  the  Immediare  freehold 

corporeal  heiedilaments  lay  in  Uvciy   (see  FeorrHENT), 

indei,  advowson,  I:c.,  lay  in  grant,  (hat  is,  pased  by  the 

iveiy  of  the  deed  of  conveyance  or  giant  wilboul  further 

smony.  The  disiinclion  between  piopeity  lying  in  liveiy  and 

jranl  is  now  abolished,  the  Real  Property  Act  1845  pioviding 

thai  all  corporeal  tenements  and  hereditaments  shall  be  irans- 

'     ible  OS  well  by  grant  as  by  livery  (see  Conviyuicikg).     A 

„    nt  of  personal  property  is  properly  teimed  an  aisignmeal  or 

biU  of  ssle. 

ORAHTH,  the  holy  icriptuiB  of  the  Sikha,  mntaining  the 

liiilual  and  moral  leaching  of  Sikhism  (t.(-).    The  book  iscalled 

the  Adi  Cranli  SMb  by  the  Sikhs  as  a  title  of  respecl,  because  il 

is  believed  by  Ihcm  to  be  on  embodiment  of  the  gurus.     The  title 

is  generally  applied  to  the  volume  compiled  by  the  fifth  guru 

founder  of  the  Sikh  religion;  of  his  successors.  Gum  Angad, 
Amar  Das,  Ram  Das  and  Arjan;  hymns  of  the  Hindu  bhagals  oc 
saints,  Jaidev,  Nomdev,  Trilochan,  Sain,  Raminand,  Kabir, 
Rai  Das,  Fipa,  Bhikban,  Beni,  Parmanand  Das,  Sur  Das.  Sadhna 
and  Dhanna  Jat;  venes  of  the  Mahommedan  saint  called  Farid; 
of  the  gurus  by  bards  who  dlhei  attended  them  (V 

re  subsequently  added  to  Ihc  ^ifi  CraiUk  by 


Teg  Bahadi 


!d  theii  Chan 


Singh.     One  re 


rnsion  ol  the  sacied  vt 


served  at  Mangat  in  the  Gujr 
posed  by  Miia  Bii,  queen  of  Chiloi,  The  A4i  Grantt'k  contain* 
passages  of  gieat  pictuiesqueneas  and  beauty.  The  original 
copy  ia  said  to  be  in  Kartarpur  in  the  Jullundur  district,  but  the 
chiel  copy  in  use  is  mw  In  the  Har  Mandar  or  Golden  Temple 
at  AmTitsar,  where  it  is  daily  read  aloud  by  the  attendant 
Gianlbis  or  tcriplure  teaden. 

Then  is  also  a  second  Gra<dk  which  was  compiled  by  the 
Sikha  In  1734,  and  popularly  known  as  the  Cranik  ej  llu  leak 
Ctm.but  it  haanoC  (he  same  authority  at  the  Adi  CraiM.  It 
contains  Guru  C^oviudSingh'a  Jd^ifi,  the  ^tdl  I/ifiJ  or  Praise  of 
(he  Creatot.  thirty-three  lamiu  (quatrains  cDntaining  some  of 
the  main  tenets  of  the  guru-and  strong  reprobation  of  idolatry 
and  hypocrisy},  and  the  Veikiiai  fiaiak  or  wonderful  drama,  in 
which  the  guru  gives  an  account  of  his  parentage,  divine  miisioft 
and  the  battles  in  which  he  was  engaged.  Then  come  three 
abrjdaed  traaalatiou  by  difieient  hands  of  (be  Dtti  Itakalntja, 


GRANTHAM,  LORD 


359 


at* 


in  episode  in  tlie  Harkondeya  PuKint  fai  pnise  of  Durga,  the 
^de»  of  war.  Then  follow  the  Cyan  Parbedk  or  awakening  of 
knowledge,  accounts  of  twenty-four  incarnations  ci  the  deity, 
selected  because  of  thdr  wulike  character;  the  Hanare  de 
Skabd;  the  Skaslar  Nam  Mah,  which  b  a  list  of  offensive  and 
defensive  weapons  used  in  the  guru's  time,  with  special  reference 
to  the  attributes  of  the  Creator;  the  Tria  Ckaritar  or  tales  illus- 
trating the  qualities,  but  principally  the  deceit  of  women;  the 
Kalrit,  compositions  of  a  miscellaneous  character;  the  Zafantama 
containing  the  tenth  guru's  epistle  to  the  emperor  Auran^eb,  and 
seversi  metrical  tales  in  the  Persian  language.  This  Granik  is 
only  partially  the  composition  of  the  tenth  guru.  Tlie  greater 
porti<m  of  it  was  written  by  bards  in  his  employ. 

The  two  volumes  are  written  in  several  (UffercDt  languages 
and  dialects.  The  Adi  Granik  is  hugely  in  old  Punjabi  and  Hindi, 
but  Prakrit,  Peisian,  Mahrattl  and  Gujrati  are  also 
represented.  The  CraMh  </  the  Ttntk  Guru  is  written 
in  the  old  and  very  difltcult  Hindi  affected  by  literary 
men  in  the  Patna  district  in  the  z6th  century.  In 
neither  of  these  sacred  volumes  is  there  any  separation  of  words. 
As  there  is  no  separation  of  words  in  Sanskrit,  the  gyanis  or 
intcipicteis  of  the  guru's  hymns  prefer  to  follow  the  ancient 
practice  of  junction  of  words.  This  makes  the  reading  of  the  Sikh 
scriptures  very  difficult,  and  b  one  of  the  causes  of  the  decline 
of  the  Sikh  religion. 

The  hymns  in  the  Adi  Granik  are  arranged  not  according  to 
the  gurus  or  bhagats  who  compose  them,  but  according  to  rags 
or  musical  measures.  There  are  thirty-one  such  measures  in 
the  Adi  Granih,  and  the  hymns  are  arranged  according  to  the 
ncasurcs  to  which  they  are  composed.  The  gurus  who  composed 
hymns,  namely  the  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth  and  ninth 
gurus,  all  used  the  name  Nanak  as  their  nom-de-plume.  Their 
oonipositions  are  dbtingubhed  by  mahallas  or  wards.  Thus  the 
comiiosations  of  Guru  Nanak  are  styled  mahalla  one,  the  com- 
positions of  Guiu  Angad  are  styled  mahalla  two,  aftd  so  on. 
After  the  hymns  of  the  gurus  are  found  the  hymns  of  the  bhagats 
under  their  several  musical  measures.  The  Sikhs  generally  dis- 
like any  arrangement  of  the  Adi  Granik  by  which  the  compod- 
tions  of  each  guru  or  bhagat  should  he  separately  shown. 

All  the  doctrines  of  the  Sikhs  are  found  set  forth  in  the  two 

CranSkt  and  in  compositions  called  Rakil  Namas  and  Tanakkwak 

Nawuu,  which  are  believed  to  have  been  the  utterances 

'^  of  the  tenth  guru.  The  cardinal  principle  of  the  sacred 

books  b  the  unity  of  God,  and  starting  fnun  thb 

premiss  the  rejection  of  idolatry  and  supcntition. 

Thus  Guru  Govind  Singh  writes: 

"  Some  wonhipping  stones,  put  them  on  their  heads; 
Some  suspend  lingams  from  their  necks; 
Some  see  the  God  m  the  South;  some  bow  their  heads  to  the 
West. 
Some  foob  worship  idols,  others  busy  themselves  irith  wor- 
shipping the  dead. 
The  whole  vorkl  enunglcd  in  false  eeremonies  hath  not  found 
God's  secret." 

Nc3(t  to  the  unity  of  God  comes  the  equality  of  all  men  in  Hb 

light,  and  so  tne  abolition  of  caste  dbtinctions.    Guru  Nanak 

says: 

**  Caste  hath  no  power  in  the  next  world ;  there  b  a  new  onSer  of 
beings. 
Thoee  whose  accounts  are  honoured  are  the  good.** 

The  ooncremation  of  widows,  though  practised  In  later  times  by 
Hinduixcd  Sikhs,  b  forbidden  in  the  Crantk,    Guru  Aijan 
writes: 
"  She  who  consldereth  her  beloved  as  her  God, 
Is  the  blessed  sati  who  shall  be  acceptable  in  God's  Court." 

It  b  a  common  bdief  that  the  Sikhs  are  allowed  to  drink  wine 
and  other  intoxicants.  Thb  b  not  the  case  Guru  Nanak 
wrote: 

"  By  dfinking  wine  man  committeth  many  sins." 

Gvm  Arjan  wrote: 

"  The  fo^  who  drioketh  evil  wine  b  involved  in  sin." 
And  in  the  Rahit  Nama  of  Bhai  Desa  Singh  there  b  the  foUow- 


"  Let  a  Sikh  take  no  intoxicant:  it  maketh  the  body  lazy;  it 
diverteth  men  from  their  temporal  and  spiritual  duties,  and  inciteth 
them  to  evil  deeds." 

It  b  slso  generally  believed'  that  the  Sikhs  are  bound  to 

abstain  from  the  flesh  of  kine.    Thb,  too,  b  a  mistake,  arising 

from  the  Sikh  adoption  of  Hindu  usages.    The  two  Cranlks  of 

the  Sikhs  and  all  their  canonical  works  are  absolutely  silent  oo 

the  subject.    The  Sikhs  are  not  bound  to  abstain  from  any  flesh, 

except  that  which  b  obviously  unfit  for  human  food,  or  what  b 

kflled  in  the  Mahommedan  fashion  by  jagging  an  animal's  throat 

withaknife.    Thb  flesh-eating  practice  bone  of  the  main  sources 

of  their  physical  strength.    Smoking  b  strictly  prohibited  by 

the  Sikh  leUgion.    Guru  Teg  Bahadur  preached  to  hb  host  as 

follows: 

"  Save  the  people  from  the  vile  drug,  and  employ  thyself  in  the 
service  of  Sikhs  and  holy  men.  When  the  people  abandon  the 
degrading  smoke  and  cultivate  their  lands,  their  wealth  and  pro- 
sperity shall  increase,  and  they  shall  want  for  nothing  .  .  .  but 
when  they  smoke  the  vile  vegetable,  they  shall  grow  poor  and  lose 
their  wealth." 

Guru  Govind  Singh  also  said: 

"  Wine  b  -bad,  bhang  dcstroyeth  one  generation,  but  tobacco 
destrojreth  all  generations.'.' 

In  addition  to  these  prohibitions  Sikhbm  inculcates  most 
of  the  positive  virtues  of  Chrbtianity,  and  specially  loyalty  to 
rulers,  a  quality  which  has  made  the  Sikhs  valuable  servants  of 
the  British  crown. 

The  Crantk  was  translated  by  Dr  Trum|M>,  a  German  missionary, 
on  behalf  of  the  Punjab  government  in  IS77,  but  hb  rendering  is 
in  many  respects  incorrect,  owing  to  insufnctent  knowledge  of  the 
Punjabi  dUlccts.  The  Sikk  Rdigum,  ftc,  in  6  vols.  (London.  1909)  b 
an  authoritative  version  prepared  by  M.  Macauliffe,  in  concert  with 
the  modem  leaden  of  the  Sikh  sect.  (M.  M.) 

GRANTHAM,  THOMAS  ROBIIISON,  ist  Bakon  (c.  1695-1770), 
English  diplomatbt  and  politician,  was  a  younger  son  of  Sir 
William  Robinson,  Bart.  (1655-1736)  of  Newby,  Yorkshire, 
who  was  member  of  pariiament  for  York  from  1697  to  1732. 
Having  been  a  scholar  and  minor  fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  Thomas  Robinson  gained  hb  earliest  diplomatic 
experience  in  Parb  and  then  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  was 
En^ish  ambassador  from  1730  to  1748.  During  1741  he  sought 
to  make  peace  between  the  empress  Maxia  Theresa  and  Frederick 
the  Great,  but  in  vain,  and  in  1748  he  represented  hb  country 
at  the  Congress  of  Aix-la-ChapeUe.  Returning  to  England  he 
sat  in  parliament  for  Christchurch  from  1749  tio  1761.  In  1754 
Robinson  was  appointed  a  secretary  of  state  and  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons  by  the  prime  minbter,  the  duke  of  Newcastle, 
and  it  was  on  thb  occasion  that  Pitt  made  the  famous  remark 
to  Fox,  "  the  duke  might  as  well  have  sent  us  hb  jackboot 
to  lead  us."  In  November  1755  he  resigned,  and  in  April  1761 
he  was  created  Baron  Grantham.  He  was  master  of  the  wardrobe 
from  X749  to  1754  and  again  from  1755  to  1760,  and  was  joint 
postmaster-general  in  x  ^6$  ftnd  x  766.  He  died  in  London  on  the 
30th  of  September  177a 

Grantham's  elder  son,  l^OiCAS  Robikson  (X738-X786),  who 
became  the  and  baron,  was  bom  at  Vienna  on  the  30th  of 
November  x  738.  Educated  at  Westminster  School  and  at  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge,  he  entered  pariiament  as  member  for  Christ- 
church  in  1761,  and  succeeded  to  the  peerage  in  1770.  In  x  77 1  he 
was  sent  as  ambassadcw  to  Madrid  and  retained  thb  post  until 
war  broke  out  between  EngUnd  and  Spain  in  1779.  From  1780 
to  X782  Grantham  was  first  commissioner  of  the  board  of  trade 
and  foreign  plantations,  and  from  July  1782  to  April  X783 
secretary  for  the  ioreign  department  under  Lord  Shelbume. 
He  died  on  the  soth  of  July  1786,  leaving  two  sons,  Thomas 
Philip,  who  became  the  3rd  baron,  and  Frederick  John  after- 
wards xst  eari  of  Ripon. 

TlioifAS  Phiup  Robxnson,  3nl  Baron  Grantham  (x78i-t8s9)» 
in  1803  took  the  name  of  WeddcU  instead  of  that  Of  Robinson. 
In  May  1833  he  became  Earl  de  Grey  of  Wrest  on  the  death  of 
lus  maternal  aunt,  Amabell  Hume-Campbell,  Countess  de  Grey 
(x 751-1833),  and  he  now  took  the  name  of  de  Grey.  He  was 
first  lord  of  the  adalnlty  under  Sir  Robert  Ped  in  1834- 1835. 


360 


GRANTHAM— GRANULITE 


and  from  1841  to  1844  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland.  On  bis  death 
without  male  issue  his  nephew,  George  Frederick  Samuel  Robin- 
son, afterwards  marquess  of  Ripon  (^.v.),  succeeded  as  Earl  de 
Grey. 

GRANTHAM,  a  rounidpal  and  parliamentary  borough  of 
Lincolnshire,  England;  situated  in  a  pleasant  undulating 
country  on  the  river  Witharo.  Pop.  (xgoi)  17,593.  It  is  an 
important  junction  of  the  Great  Northern  railway,  105  m.  N. . 
by  W.  from  London,  with  luranch  lines  to  Nottingham,  Lincoln 
and  Boston;  while  there  is  communication  with  Nottingham 
and  the  Trent  by  the  Grantham  canal.  The  parish  church  of  St 
Wulfram  is  a  splendid  building,  exhibiting  all  the  Gothic  styles, 
but  mainly  Early  English  and  DecoratMl.  The  massive  and 
ornate  western  tower  and  spire,  about  280  ft.  in  height,  are  of 
early  Decorated  workmanship.  There  is  a  double  Decorated 
crypt  beneath  the  lady  chapel.  The  north  and  south  porches  are 
fine  examples  of  a  later  period  of  the  same  style.  The  delicately 
carved  font  is  noteworthy.  Two  libraries,  respectively  of  the 
i6th  and  17th  centuries,  are  preserved  in  the  church.  At  the 
King  Edward  VI.  gnunmar  school  Sir  Isaac  Newton  received 
part  of  his  education.  A  bronze  statue  commemorates  him. 
The  late  Perpendicular  building  is  picturesque,  and  the  school  was 
greatly  enlarged  in  1904.  The  Angel  Hotel  is  a  hostelry  of  the 
iSth  century,  with  a  gateway  of  earlier  date.  A  conduit  dating 
from  1597  stands  in  the  wide  market-place.  Modem  pubh'c 
buildings  are  a  gild  hall,  exchange  hall,  and  several  churches 
and  chapels.  The  Queen  Victoria  Memorial  home  for  nurses  was 
erected  in  1902-1903.  The  chief  industries  are  malting  and  the 
manufacture  of  agricultural  implements.  Grantham  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  The  borough  falls  within  the  S.  Kesteven 
or  Stamford  division  of  the  county.  Grantham  was  created  a 
suffragan  bishopric  in  the  diocese  of  Lincoln  in  1905.  The 
municipal  borough  is  under  a  mayor«  4  aldermen  and  la 
councillors.    Area,  1726  acres. 

Although  there  is  no  authentic  evidence  of  Roman  occupation, 
Grantham  (Graham,  Granham  in  Domesday  Book)  from  its 
situation  on  the  Ermine  Street,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a. 
Roman  station.  It  was  possibly  a  borough  in  the  Saxon  period, 
and  by  the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey  it  was  a  royal  borough 
with  zli  burgesses.  Charters  of  liberties, existing  now  only  in 
the  confirmation  charter  of  1377  were  granted  by  various  kings. 
From  the  first  the  town  was  governed  by  a  bailiff  appointed 
by  the  lord  of  the  manor,  but  by  the  end  of  the  14th  century  the 
office  of  alderman  had  come  Into  existence.  Finally  government 
under  a  mayor  and  alderman  was  granted  by  Edward  IV.  in 
1463,  and  Grantham  became  a  corporate  town.  Among  later 
charten,  that  of  James  U.,  given  in  1685,  changed  the  titl6  to 
that  of  government  by  a  mayor  and  6  aldermen,  but  this  was 
afterwards  reversed  and  the  old  order  resumed.  Grantham 
was  first  represented  in  parliament  in  1467,  and  returned  two 
members;  but  by  the  Redistribution  Act  of  1885  the  number 
was  reduced  to  one.  Richard  UL  in  1483  granted  a  Wednesday 
market  and  two  fairs  yearly,  namely  on  the  feast  of  St  Nicholas 
the  Bishop,  and  the  two  following  days,  afid  on  Passion  Sunday 
and  the  day  following.  At  the  present  day  the  market  is  held 
on  Saturday,  and  fairs  are  held  on  the  Monday,  Tuesday  and 
Wednesday  following  the  fifth  Sunday  in  Lent;  a  cherry  fair 
on  the  nth  of  July  and  two  stock  fairs  on  the  a6th  of  October 
and  the  Z7th  of  December. 

GRAMTLEY,  FLETCHER  NORTON,  1ST  3asok  (1716-1789), 
English  politician,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Thomas  Norton  of 
Grantley,  Yorkshire,  where  he  was  bom  on  the  23rd  of  June  17x6. 
He  became  a  barrister  in  1739,  and,  after  a  period  of  inactivity, 
obtained  a  large  and  profitable  practice,  becoming  a  K.C.  in 
X754,  and  afterwards  attorney-general  for  the  county  palatine 
of  Lancaster.  In  1756  he  was  elected  meniber  of  parliament  for 
Appleby;  he  represented  Wigan  from  1761  to  1768,  and  was 
appointed  solicitor-general  for  England  and  knighted  in  1762. 
He  took  part  in  the  proceedings  against  John  Wilkes,  and, 
having  become  kttoraey>general  in  1763,  prosecuted  the  5th 
Lord  Byron  for  the  murder  of  William  Chaworth,  losing  his 
office  when  the  marquess  of  Rockingham  came  into  power  in 


Ipole,  Memoirs  of  the  XetM  of  George  ///.."edited  by 
rker  (18^):  Sir  N.  W.  Wraxall.  HtstariaU  and  Post- 


July  1765.  In  X769,  being  now  member  of  parliament  for 
Guildford,  Norton  became  a  privy  councilloir  and  chief  justice 
in  eyre  of  the  forests  south  of  the  Trent,  and  in  1770  was  chosen 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons.  In  1777,  when  presenting 
the  bill  for  the  increase  of  the  dvil  list  to  the  king,  he  told 
George  Ul,  that  parh'ament  has  "not  only  granted  to  your 
majesty  a  large  present  supply,  but  also  a  very  great  additional 
revenue;  great  beyond  example;  great  beyond  your  majesty's 
highest  expense."  This  speech  aroused  general  attention  and 
caused  some  irritation;  but  the  Speaker  was  supported  by  Fox 
and  by  the  city  of  London,  and  received  the  thanks  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  George,  however,  did  not  forget  these  plain  words, 
and  after  the  general  election  of  1780,  the  prime  minister,  Lord 
North,  and  his  followers  declined  to  support  the  re-election  of  the 
retiring  Speaker,  alleging  that  his  health  was  not  equal  to  the 
duties  of  the  office,  and  he  was  defeated  when  the  voting  took 
place.  In  1782  he  was  made  a  peer  as  Baron  Grantley  of 
Markenfield.  He  died  in  London  on  the  ist  of  January  1780. 
He  was  succeeded  as  Baron  Grantley  by  his  eldest  son  William 
(1741-1822).  Wraxall  describes  Norton  as  "a  bold,  able  and 
eloquent,  but  not  a  popular  pleader,"  and  as  Speaker  he  was 
aggressive  and  indiscreet.  Derided  by  satirists  as  "  Sir  Bullface 
Doublefee,"  and  described  by  Horace  Walpole  as  one  who  "  rose 
from  obscure  infamy  to  that  infamous  fame  which  will  long  stick 
to  him/'  his  character  was  also  assailed  by  Junius,  and  the  general 
impression  is  that  he  was  a  hot-tempered,  avaricious  and  un- 
principled man. 

See  H.  Wall 
G.  F.  R.  Bart 

humous  Memoirs,  edited  by  H.  B.  Whcatley  (1884);  and  J.  A. 
Manning,  Lives  of  the  Speakers  (1850). 

GRANTOWN,  the  capital  of  Speyside,  Elginshire,  Scotland. 
Pop.  (1901)  X568.  It  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Spey,  23}  m. 
S.  of  Forres  by  the  Highland  railway,  with  a  station  on  the  Great 
North  of  Scotland's  Speyside  line  connecting  Craigellachie  with 
Boat  of  Garten.  It  was  founded  in  1776  by  Sir  James  Grant  of 
Grant,  and  became  the  chief  scat  of  that  ancient  family,  who  had 
lived  on  their  adjoining  estate  of  Freuchie  (Gaelic,  fraockack, 
"heathery")  since  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  and 
hence  were  usually  described  as  the  lairds  of  Freuchie.  The 
public  buUdings  include  the  town  hall,  court  house  and  orphan 
hospital;  and  the  industries  are  mainly  connected  with  the 
cattle  trade  and  the  distilling  of  whisky.  The  town,  built  of  grey 
granite,  presents  a  handsome  appearance,  and  being  deh'ghtf  ully 
situated  in  the  midst  of  the  most  beautiful  pine  and  birch  woods 
in  Scotland,  with  pure  air  and  a  bracing  climate,  is  an  attractive 
resort.  Castle  Grant,  immediately  to  the  north.  Is  the  principal 
mansion  of  the  earl  of  Seafield,.  the  head  of  the  Clan  Grant. 
In  a  cave,  still  called  "  Lord  Huntly's  Cave,"  in  a  rocky  glen  in 
the  vicinity,  George,  marquess  of  Huntly»  lay  hid  during 
Montrose's  campaign  In  1644-45. 

GRANULITE  (Lat.  granidumj  a  little  grain),  a  name  used  by 
petxographers  to  designate  two  distinct  classes  of  rocks.  Accord- 
ing to  the  terminology  of  the  French  school  it  signifies  a  granite 
In  which  both  kinds  of  mica  (muscovite  and  biotite)  occur,  and 
corresponds  to  the  German  GranU,  or  to  the  English  "  muscovite 
biotite  granite."  This  application  has  not  been  accepted 
generally.  To  the  German  petrologists  "  granulitJe "  means  a 
more  or  less  banded  fine-grained  mctamorphlc  rock,  consisting 
mainly  of  quartz  and  fekpar  In  very  small  irregular  crystals, 
and  containing  usually  also  a  fair  number  of  minute  rounded 
pale-red  garnets.  Afnong  English  and  American  geologists  the 
term  Is  generally  employed  in  this  sense.  The  granulites  are 
very  closely  allied  to  the  gneisses,  as  they  consist  of  nearly  the 
same  minerals,  but  they  are  finer  grained,. have  usually  ks 
perfect  foliation,  are  more  frequently  garoetiferous,  and  have 
itome  special  features  of  microscopic  structure.  In  the  rocks  of 
this  group  the  minerals,  as  seen  in  a  microscopic  slide,  occur  as 
small  rounded  grains  forming  a  mosaic  closely  fitted  together. 
The  individual  crystals  have  never  perfect  form,  and  indeed 
rarely  any  traces  of  it.  In  some  granulites  they  interlock,  with 
irregular  borders;  in  others  they  have  been  drawn  out  and 


GRANVELLA 


36« 


^teoied  into  tapering  lentides  by  crush&ig.  In  most  cases  they 
are  somewhat  round^  with  smaller  grains  between  the  laiger. 
Tliis  is  especially  true  of  the  quartz  and  felspar  which  are  the 
predominant  minerals;  mica  always  appears  as  flat  scales 
(incgular  or  rounded  but  not  heiagonal).  Both  muscdvite  and 
btotite  may  be  present  and  vary  considerably  in  abundance; 
very  commonly  they  have  their  flat  sides  parallel  and  give  the 
rxk  a  rudimentary  schistosity,  and  they  may  be  aggregated 
into  bands — ^in  which  case  the  granulitcs  are  indistinguishable 
from  certain  varieties  of  gneiss.  The  garnets  are  very  generally 
larger  than  the  above-mentioned  ingredients,  and  easily  visible 
with  the  eye  as  pink  qx>ts  on  the  broken  surfaces  of  the  rock. 
They  usually  are  filled  with  enclosed  grains  of  the  other  minerals. 

The  felspar  of  the  granulites  is  mostly  orthodase  or  crypto- 
perthite;  microdine,  oligodase  and  albite  are  also  common. 
Basic  felspars  occur  only  rarely.  Among  accessory  minerals,  in 
addition  to  apatite,  zircon,  and  iron  oxides,  the  following  may 
be  mentioned:  hornblende  (not  common),  riebeckite  (rare), 
epidote  and  zotsite,  calctte,  sphene,  andalusite,  sillimanite, 
kyanitc,  hercynite  (a  green  spinel),  rutile,  orthite  and  tourmaline. 
llMugh  occasionally  we  may  find  larger  grains  of  felspar,  quartz 
or  epidote,  it  is  more  characteristic  of  these  rocks  that  all  the 
minerals  are  in  small,  nearly  uniform,  imperfectly  shaped 
individuals. 

On  account  of  the  minuteness  with  which  it  has  been  described 
and  the  important  controversies  on  points  of  theoretical  geology 
which  have  arisen  regarding  it,  the  granulite  district  of  Saxony 
(around  Rosswcin,  Penig,  &c.)  may  be  considered  the  typical 
region  for  rocks  of  this  group.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
(bough  granulites  are  probably  the  commonest  rocks  of  this 
country,  they  are  mingled  with  granites,  gneisses,  gabbros, 
amphibolites,  mica  schists  and  many  other  pctrographical  types. 
All  of  these  rocks  show  more  or  less  metamorphism  either  of  a 
thermal  diaracter  or  due  to  pressure  and  crusliing.  The  granites 
pass  into  gneiss  and  granulite;  the  gabbros  into  flaser  gabbro  and 
amphibolite;  the  slates  often  contain  andalusite  or  chiastolite, 
and  show  transitions  to  mica  schists.  At  one  time  these  rocks 
were  rq^rded  as  Archean  gneisses  of  a  special  type.  Johannes 
(«eorg  Lehmaim  propounded  the  hypothesis  that  their  present 
state  was  due  prindpally  to  crushing  acting  on  them  in  a  solid 
condition,  grinding  them  down  and  breaking  up  their  minerals, 
Fhile  the  pressure  to  which  they  were  subjected  welded  them 
together  into  coherent  rock.  It  is  now  believed,  however,  that 
they  are  comparatively  recent  and  include  sedimentary  rocks, 
partly  of  Palaeozoic  age,  and  intrusive  masses  which  may  be 
nearly  massive  or  may  have  gneissose,  flaser  or  granulitic 
structures.  These  have  been  developed  largely  by  the  injection 
of  semt'Conaolidated  highly  viscous  intrusions,  and  the  varieties 
of  texture  are  original  or  were  produced  very  shortly  after  the 
crystallization  of  the  rocks.  Meanwhile,  however,  Lehmann's 
advocacy  of  post-consolidation  crushing  as  a  factor  in  the 
development  of  granulites  has  been  so  successful  that  the  terms 
granulitization  and  granulitic  structures  are  widely  employed 
to  indicate  the  results  of  dynamometamorphism  acting  on  rocks 
at  a  period  long  after  their  solidification. 

The  Saxon  granulites  are  apparently  for  the  most  part  igneous 
and  correspond  in  composition  to  granites  and  porphyries. 
There  are,,  however,  many  granulites  which  undoubtedly  were 
originally  sediments  (arkoses,  grits  and  sandstones) .  A  large  part 
oi  the  highlands  of  Scotland  consists  of  paragranulites  of  this 
kind,  which  have  received  the  group  name  of  "  Moine  gneisses." 

Akmg  with  the  typical  add  granulites  above  described,  in 
Saxony,  India,  Scotland  and  other  countries  there  occur  dark- 
cofeured  basic  granulites  ("  trap  granulites  ")•  .  These  are 
fine-grained  rocks,  not  usually  banded,  nearly  black  in  colour 
with  small  red  spots  of  garnet.  Their  essential  minerals  are 
pyroxene,  plagiodase  and  garnet:  chemically  they  resemble 
the  gabbros.  Green  augite  and  hypersthene  form  a  considerable 
part  of  these  rocks,  they  may  contain  also  biotite,  hornblende  and 
quartz.  Around  the  garnets  there  is  often  a  radial  grouping  of 
small  grains  of  pyroxene  and  hornblende  in  a  dear  matrix  of 
Idspir:  tbcM  "centric'*  structuies  are  frequent_in  granu- 


lites. Tlie  locks  of  this  group  accompany  gabbro  and  serpen* 
tine^  but  the  exact  conditions  under  which  they  are  formed 
and  the  significance  of  their  structures  is  not  very  dearly 
understood.  (J.  S.  F.) 

GRANVBUA.  ANTOIJfB  PBRRENOT,  Casoinal  de  (1517- 
X586),  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  influential  of  the  princes  of 
the  church  during  the  great  political  and  ecdesiastical  movements 
which  imiriediately  followed  the  appearance  of  Protestantism 
in  Europe,  was  bom  on  the  20th  of  August  1517  at  Besancon, 
whei:e  his  father,  Nicolas  Perrenot  de  Granvella  (1484-1550), 
who  afterwards  became  chancellor  of  the  empire  under  Charles  V., 
was  practising  as  a  lawyer.  Later  Nicolas  held  an  influentisS 
position  in  the  Netherlands,  and  from  1530  until  his  death  h^ 
was  one  of  the  emperor's  most  trusted  advisers  in  Germany. 
On  the  completion  of  his  studies  in  law  at  Padua  and  in  divinity 
at  Louvain,  Antoine  held  a  canonry  at  Besangon,  but  he  was 
promoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Arras  when  barely  twenty-three 
(1540).  In  his  episcopal  capadty  he  attended  several  diets  of 
the  empire,  as  well  as  the  opening  meetings  of  the  council  of 
Trent;  and  the  influence  of  his  fathbr,  now  chancellor,  led  to 
his  being  entrusted  with  many  difficult  and  delicate  pieces  of 
public  business,  in  the  execution  of  which  he  developed  a  rare 
talent  for  diplomacy,  and  at  the  same  time  acquired  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  most  of  the  currents  of  European  politics. 
One  of  his  specially  noteworthy  performances  was  the  settlement 
of  the  terms  of  peace  after  the  defeat  of  the  league  of  Schmalkalden 
at  Miihlberg  in  1547,  a  settlement  in  which,  to  say  the  least, 
some  particularly  sharp  practice  was  exhibited.  In  1550  he 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  office  of  secretary  of  state;  in  this 
capacity  he  attended  Charles  in  the  war  with  Maurice,  elector 
of  Saxony,  accompanied  him  in  the  flight  from  Innsbruck,  and 
afterwards  drew  up  the  treaty  of  Passau  (August  1553).  In  the 
following  year  he  conducted  the  negotiations  for  the  marriage 
of  Mary  of  England  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  to  whom,  in  1555, 
on  the  abdication  of  the  emperor,  he  transferred  his  services, 
and  by  whom  he  was  employed  in  the  Netherlands.  In  April 
1 559  Granvella  was  one  of  the  Spanish  commissioners  who 
arranged  the  peace  of  Cateau  Cambr£sis,  and  on  Philip's  with- 
drawal from  the  Netherlands  in  August  of  the  same  year  he 
was  appointed  prime  minister  to  the  regent,  Margaret  of  Parma. 
The  policy  of  repression  which  in  this  capadty  he  pursued 
during  the  next  five  years  secured  for  him  many  tangible  rewards, 
in  1560  he  was  elevated  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Malines, 
and  in  1561  he  recdved  the  cardinal's  hat;  but  the  growing 
hostility  of  a  people  whose  religious  convictions  he  had  set 
himself  to  trample  under  foot  ultimately  made  it  impossible 
for  him  to  continue  in  the  Low  Countries;  and  by  the  advice 
pf  his  royal  master  he,  in  March  1564,  retired  to  Franche  Comt£. 
Nominally  this  withdrawal  was  only  of  a  temporary  character, 
but  it  proved  to  be  final.  The  following  six  years  were  H>^nt 
in  comparative  quiet,  broken,  however,  by  a  visit  to  Rome  in 
1565;  but  in  1570  Granvella,  at  the  call  of  Philip,  resumed 
public  life  by  accepting  another  mission  to  Rome.  Here  he 
helped  to  arrange  the  alliance  between  the  Papacy,  Venice  and 
Spain  against  the  Turks,. an  alliance  which  was  responsible  for 
the  victory  of  Lepanto.  In  the  same  year  he  became  viceroy 
of  Naples,  a  post  of  some  difficulty  and  danger,  which  for  five 
years  he  occupied  with  ability  and  success.  He  was  summoned 
to  Madrid  in  1575  by  Philip  II.  to  be  president  of  the  council 
for  Italian  affairs.  Among  the  more  delicate  negotiations  of 
his  later  years  were  those  of  1580,  which  had  for  their  object 
the  ultimate  union  of  the  crowns  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and 
those  of  1 584,  which  resulted  in  a  check  to  France  by  the  marriage 
of  the  Spani^  infanta  Catherine  to  Charles  Emmanud,  duke  of 
Savoy.  In  the  same  year  he  was  made  archbishop  of  Bcsancon, 
but  meanwhile  he  haid  been  stricken  with  a  lingering  disease; 
he  was  never  enthroned,  but  died  at  Madrid  on  the  21st  of 
September  1586.  His  body  was  removed  to  Besancon,  where 
his  father  had  been  buried.  Granvella  was  %  man  of  great 
learning,  which  was  equalled  by  his  industry,  and  these  qualities 
made  him  almost  indispensable  both  to  Charles  V.  and  to 
Philip  IL( 


3*2 


GRANVILLE,  EARLS 


I  mr  rhsbrirt  de  Fiaiu 


aRANVlLLE,     QRAXVILLB    GEOBGB     LEVEBOH-GOWER. 

IND  Eabi.  (1S1S-1B91),  EngUih  lUtcunu,  tlAal  ton  ol  Ihe 
m  Earl  Gnnville  (1771-1846),  b>  his  mimige  w[lh  Lady 
Harriet,  rUughler  of  the  duke  of  Devoruhire,  wu  bom  m  LcMidon 
on  the  11th  o[  May  1S15.  Hii  falhcr,  Gnnvillc  Levcwn-Gower, 
wu  a  younger  un  of  Granville,  jnd  Lord  Cower  and  istmarquesa 
dF  Sisflord  (i7io^iSo}),  by  hli  Ihiid  vu'e;  in  elder  »n  by  the 
Hcond  wife  (a  daughlei  of  Ibe  iit  duke  oI  Biidgwater)  became 
ihc  md  nurqaeu  of  SlaBoid,  and  bis  mairiage  with  Ihedaughlei 
aodbeiccBOl  the  i7ita  earl  ofSuthetlandCoiuntcsi  of  Sutherland 
in  her  oirD  [i|ht)  led  to  the  merging  oI  the  Gower  and  Stafford 
tttia  in  Ibat  ol  the  dukej  ol  Skitherland  (created  iBjj],  who 
teproent  Ibe  elder  branch  ol  the  family.  Ax  Lord  Gnnville 
LevesoB -Gower,  the  iit  Earl  Granville  (created  viscount  in 
iSis  and  earl  in  iBjj)  entered  the  diplomatic  service  and  was 
■mbauador  at  St  Petersburg  (^ia^|-^io^)  and  si  Paiii  (1S14- 
tft^i).  He  was  a  Liberal  in  palitia  and  an  intimate  friend  of 
Canning.  The  title  of  Earl  Granville  had  been  previously  held 
in  Ihe  Cacieiel  family. 

After  being  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  young  Lord 
LeveAon  went  to  Paris  for  a  short  time  under  hb  father,  and  in 
iSjfi  wu  reiuned  to  parliament  in  the  WhiginterestlorMoipcIh. 
For  a  ihort  time  he  wis  under-iecreiary  far  fotrlgn  aSain  in 
Lord  Melbourne's  lainiitiy.  In  1840  he  married  Lady  Acton 
(Marie  Louise  Pellinc  de  Dalberg,  widow  of  Sir  Richard  Acton; 
Ke.Acioti  and  Dalieic).  Fiam  1341  till  hii  father's  death 
in  1846,  when  be  succeeded  to  the  title,  be  sat  for  Lichfield. 
Id  the  House  of  Lords  he  signaliud  himself  as  a  Free  Trader, 
■nd  Lord  John  Russell  made  him  master  of  the  buckhounds 
(1846).  He  proved  a  useful  member  of  the  party,  and  his 
influence  and  amiable  character  were  valuable  in  all  matten 
needing  diplomacy  and  good  breed  big.  He  became  vice- 
preudenl  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  184S,  and  took  a  ptomineBt 
part  in  promotitig  the  great  eihibilion  of  1S51.  In  Ibe  latter 
year,  having  already  been  admitted  to  the  cabinet,  he  succeeded 
Palmerston  a1  the  foreign  ufGce  unld  Lord  John  Russell's  defeat 
in  iSsi;  and  when  Lorrl  Aberdeen  farmed  his  govermnent  at 
the  end  ol  the  year,  he  became  fint  president  of  the  council, 
and  then  chancellor  of  Ibe  duchy  of  Lancaster  (18J4)-  Under 
Lord  Falmerslon  (i8ss]  he  was  preudent  of  Ihe  council.  His 
inlernl  in  education  (a  subject  associated  with  this  office)  led 
to  bis  election  (1856)  as  chancellor  of  the  London  University, 
a  post  he  hebl  for  thirty-five  years;  and  he  was  a  prominenl 
champion  of  Ibe  movement  for  the  admission  of  women,  and 
also  af  Ihe  teaching  of  modem  lingusges.  From  185;  Lord 
Granville  led  Ibe  Libcrak  in  the  Upper  House,  both  in  oflicx, 
and,  alter  Palmenton's  resignation  in  lSs8,  in  opposition. 
He  went  in  iSjS  as  bead  of  (be  British  mission  to  the  tsar's 
coronation  in  Moscow.  In  June  i8jg  Ihc  queen,  embamsscd 
by  the  rival  ambitions  of  Falmerston  and  Rtissell,  sent  for  him 

and  Granville  as  president  of  the  council.  In  1860  hit  wife 
died,  and  to  this  heavy  toss  was  shortly  added  that  of  his  great 
friends  Lord  and  Lady  Canning  and  of  his  mother  (1861);  but 

when,  on  Palmenton's  death  in  i84s,  Ltlrd  Riasell  (now  a  peer) 


became  prime  minister 
^ouse  of  Lord*.    He  a 


n  Ibe 


Ports,  and  in  the  tuot  yev  marrieit  tgiio,  hla  iccond  wUo 
being  Miss  Castatia  Campbell.  From  1866  to  1868  be  waa  IB 
opposition,  but  in  December  1S68  he  became  colaoial  Mcreiaiy 
in  Gladstone's  £ist  ministry.  Hii  tact  H*  Invaluable  ID  the 
govemisent  in  carrying  the  Irish  Cburcb  and  Land  Bills  thiDugh 
the  House  of  Lords.  On  the  17th  of  June  187a,  on  Lord 
Guendon's  death,  be  »s*  tiaulerred  to  the  loreisn  office 
Lord  Granville's  name  is  mainly  assodited  with  his  cartel  as 
foreign  secretary  {1870-1874  and  i88o-i88s)l  but  the  LUwral 
foreign  policy  of  that  period  was  not  dislingui^ed  by  enterprise 
or  "  backbone."  Lord  Granville  personally  was  patient  and 
pohte,  but  his  courteous  and  pacific  methods  were  somewhat 
inadequate  in  dealing  with  the  new  situation  Ibca  arising  in 
Europe  and  outside  ii;  and  foreign  governments  had  little 
scruple  in  creating  embairaunients  for  Great  Britain,  and  rely- 
ing on  the  disindination  of  the  Liberal  leaden  to  lake  stmni 
measures.  The  Franco-German  War  of  1S70  broke  out  within 
a  lew  days  of  Lord  Granville's  quoting  lo  the  House  of  Lotdl 
(nth  of  July)  the  curiously  impropbeiic  opinion  of  the  pec- 


y  (Mr  ] 


1)  thai 


«"t*«e 

of  the  situation  10  denounce  the  Blacit  Sea  clauses  of  the  treaty 
of  Paris,  and  Lord  Granville's  protest  was  ineScctulL  Id  r87I 
an  intermediate  lone  between  Asiatic  Russia  and  Afghanistan 
was  agreed  on  between  bim  and  ^uvUov;  but  in  1S73  Russia 
took  possession  ot  Kbiva,  within  tbe  neutral  lone,  and  Lord 
Gnnville  had  to  accept  tbe  aggression.  When  the  Conservative* 
carne  into  power  in  1874,  his  part  for  Ihe  next  six  years  was  to 
criticise  Disraeli's  '*  spirited  "  foreign  policy,  and  to  defend  hit 
own  more  pliant  methods.  He  relumed  to  Ihe  foreign  office  in 
1880,  only  to  find  an  anti-Btilisb  spirit  developing  in  Cennaa 
policy  which  Ihe  temporising  methods  of  the  Liberal  leaden 
were  generally  powerless  to  deal  with.  Lord  Granville  failed 
to  realise  io  time  the  Importance  of  the  Angia  Pequefla  question 
iij  188J-1S84,  and  he  was  forced,  somewhat  ignominioitsly,  to 
yield  to  Bismarck  over  it.  Whether  in  Egypt,  Atgbjuiistan 
or  equatorial  and  south-west  Afria,  British  foRiga  po&cy  wu 
dominated  by  suavity  rather  than  by  tbe  strength  wblch  com- 
mands respcil.  Finally,  when  Gladstone  took  up  Home  Rule 
for  Ireland,  Lord  Gnnville,  whose  mind  was  umilarly  receptive 
to  new  ideas,  adhered  to  bis  chief  {18S6),  and  gracefully  gave 
waytoLordRosebeiywhen  the  latter  WIS  preferred  lo  the  foreign 
oBicei  the  Liberals  bad  now  realised  that  tbey  bad  lost  ground 
in  Ibe  country  by  Lord  Granville's  occupancy  of  tbe  post.  He 
went  to  tbe  Colonial  Office  for  'lit  months,  and  in  July  16B6 
retiredfmmpuUicUlc.  He  died  in  London  on  the  31st  of  Marcli 
i8i)i.  being  succeeded  In  the  title  by  his  ion,  bom  in  i8;a. 
Lord  Granville  was  a  man  of  much  charm  and  many  friendships, 
and  an  admirable  after-dinner  qxaker.  He  spoke  French  like 
Parisian,  and  was  essentially  a  diplomatist;  bul  be  has  tM 


place  in  history  ai 


laurlcc.  is  full  of 


t  I1905),  by  Lffld  Fiti 

interetlisg  material  for  iSe  hialory  0*  Ibe  period,  uu»  ucu^t  whl^cb 
by  a  Liberal,  hinucif  an  under-trcretary  fur  foreigD  affairs,  it 
ex^ins  rather  than  crilicioa  Lord  Granville'a  wgdt  in  that  depart- 
mtnt.  (H.  CiT 

QRANVILLR,  JOHH  CARTERET,  EaU  (1690-176J).  English 
statesman,  commonly  known  by  his  earlier  title  as  Lord  Carteret, 
bom  on  the  9>nd  of  April  1690,  was  tbe  son  of  George,  ist  Lord 
Cittetet,  by  bis  raarriage  with  Grace  Granville,  daughter  o( 
Sir  John  Granville,  ist  earl  of  Bath,  and  great  grandson  of 
tbe  Eliiabelban  admiral,  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  timoua  for  his 
deslh  in  the  "  Revenge."  Tbe  family  of  Carteret  was  settled 
hi  the  Channel  Islands,  and  was  of  Norman  descent.  J^a 
Carteret  was  educated  at  Westminster,  and  *t  Christ  Church, 
Oiford,  Swift  say*  that  "  with  ■  singularity  scarce  to  be 
justified  he  carried  away  more  Greek,  Laiin  and  phQoKiphy 
than  properiy  became  a  person  of  bis  rank."  Throughout  Kle 
C:artcret  not  only  showed  a  keen  love  of  the  daisies,  bat  a  taste 
for,  and  a  knowledge  of,  modem  languages  and  Uleiatgres. 
He  was  stmost  Ihe  only  Englishman  of  his  tlnM  lAa  knew 
German.  Harte,  Ibe  author  of  tbeli/e  «/C«ui««u  i4«>*«, 
aduKwltdgcd.lhe  aid  which  Carteret  had  given  him.    Od  the 


GRANVILLE 


363 


17th  of  October  1710  be  married  at  Longleat  Lady  Frances 
Wonley,  grand-daughter  of  the  first  Viscount  Weymouth. 
He  took  his  scat  in  the  Lords  on  the  95th  of  May  1711.    Though 
his  family,  on  both  sides,  had  been  devoted  to  the  house  of 
Stuart,  Carteret  was  a  steady  adherent  of  the  Hanoverian 
dynasty.    He  was  a  friend  of  the  Whig  leaders  Stanhope  and 
Sunderland,  took  a  share  in  defeating  the  Jacobite  conspiracy 
of  Bolingbroke  on  the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  and  supported  the 
passing  of  the  Septennial  Act.    Carteret's  interests  were  however 
in  foreign,  and  not  in  domestic  policy.    His  serious  work  in 
public  life  began  with  his  appointment,  early  in   17 19,  as 
ambassador  to  Sweden.    During  this  and  the  following  year 
be  was  employed  in  saving  Sweden  from  the  attacks  of  Peter 
the  Great,  and  in  arranging  the  pacification  of  the  north.    His 
efforts  were  finally  successful.    During  this  period  of  diplomatic 
work  he  acquired  an  exceptional  knowledge  of  the  affairs  of 
Europe,  and  in  particular  of  Germany,  and  displayed  great  tact 
and  temper  in  dealing  with  the  Swedish  senate,  with  Queen 
Ulrica,  with  the  king  of  Denmark  and  Frederick  William  I. 
of  Prussia.    But  he  was  not  qualified  to  hold  his  own  in  the 
intrigues  of  court  and  pariiament  in  London.    Named  secretary 
of  state  for  the  southern  department  on  his  return  home,  he  soon 
became  helplessly  in  conflict  with  the  intrigues  of  Towi»hend 
and  Sir  Robert  WaJpole.    To  Walpole,  who  looked  upon  every 
able  colleague,  or  subordinate,  as  an  enemy  to  be  removed, 
Carteret  was  exceptionally  odious.    His  capacity  to  speak 
Gerxnan  with  the  king  would  alone  have  made  Sir  Robert  detest 
htm.    When,  therefore,  the  violent  agitation  in  Ireland  against 
Wood's  halfpence  (see  Swirr,  Jonathan)  made  it. necessary 
to  replace  the  duke  of  Grafton  as  lord  lieutenant,  Carteret  was 
lent  to  Dublilk.    He  landed  in  Dublin  on  the  93rd  of  October 
1724,  and  mnained  there  till  1730.    fn  the  first  months  of  his 
tenure  of  office  he  had  to  deal  with  the  furious  opposition  to 
Wood's  halfpence,  and  to  counteract  the  effect  of  Swift's 
Drapa'M  Letters.    The  lord  lieutenant  had  a  strong  personal 
Jiking  for  Swift,  who  was  also  a  friend  of  Lady  Carteret's  family. 
It  is  hi^y  doubtful  whether  Carteret  could  have  reconciled 
his  duty  to  the  crown  with  his  private  friendships,  if  government 
bad  persisted  in  endeavouring  to  force  the  detested  coinage 
on  the  Irish  people.    Wood's  patent  was  however  withdrawn, 
and   Ireland   settled   down.    Carteret   was   a  profuse   and 
popular  lord  lieutenant  who  pleased  both  the  "  English  interest  " 
and  the  native  Irish.    He  was  at  all  times  addicted  to  lavish 
bo^iitality,  and  according  to  the  testimony  of  contemporaries 
was  too  fond  of  burgundy.    When  he  returned  to  London  in 
X73O1  Walpole  was  firmly  established  as  master  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  as  the  trusted  minister  of  King  George  II.    He 
had  the  full  confidence  of  Queen  Caroline,  whom  he  prejudiced 
against  Carteret.    Till  the  fall  of  Walpole  in  174a,  Carteret 
could  take  no  share  in  public  affairs  except  as  a  leader  of  opposi- 
tion of  the  Lords.    His  brilliant  parts  were  somewhat  obscured 
fary  his  rather  erratic  conduct,  and  a  certain  contempt,  partly 
aristocratic  and  partly  intellectual,  for  commonplace  men  and 
ways.    He  endeavoured  to  please  Queen  Caroline,  who  loved 
literature,  and  he  has  the  credit,  on  good  grounds,  of  having 
paid  the  expenses  of  the  first  handsome  edition  of  Don  Quixote 
to  please  her.    But  he  reluctantly,  and  most  unwisely,  allowed 
himself  to  be  entangled  in  the  scandalous  family  quarrel  between 
Frederick,  prince  of  Wales,  and  his  parents.    Queen  Caroline 
was  provoked  into  classing  him  and  Bolingbroke,  as  "  the  two 
most  worthless  men  of  parts  in  the  country."    Carteret  took 
the  popular  side  in  the  outcry  against  Walpole  for  not  making 
war  on  Spain.    When  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  ap- 
proached, hb  sympathies  were  entirely  with  Maria  Theresa — 
mainly  on  the  ground  that  the  fall  of  the  bouse  of  Austria  would 
dangerously  increase  the  power  of  France,  even  if  she  gained 
DO  accession  of  territory.    These  views  made  him  welcome  to 
George  II.,  who  gladly  accepted  him  as  secretary  of  state  in  1 742. 
Id  1743  he  accompanied  the  king  of  Germany,  and  was  present 
at  the  battle  of  Dettingen  on  the  27th  of  June.    He  held  the 
secretaryship  till' November  1744.    He  succeeded  in  promoting 
an  agiecment  between  Maria  Theresa  and  Frederick.    He  under- 


stood the  relations  of  the  European  states,  and  the  interests 
of  Great  Britain  among  them.  But  the  defects  which  had 
rendered  him  unable  to  baffle  the  intrigues  of  Walpole  made  him 
equally  unable  to  contend  with  the  Pelhams.  His  support  of 
the  king's  policy  was  denounced  as  subservience  to  Hanover. 
Pitt  called  him  "  an  execrable,  a  sole  minister  who  had  renounced 
the  British  nation."  A  few  years  later  Pitt  adopted  an  identical 
policy,  and  professed  that  whatever  he  knew  he  had  learnt 
from  Carteret.  On  the  i8th  of  October  1744  Carteret  became 
Earl  Granville  on  the  death  of  his  mother.  His  first  wife  died 
in  June  1743  at  AscHaffenburg,  and  in  April  1744  he  married 
Lady  Sophia  Fermor,  daughter  of  Lord  Pomfret — a  fashionable 
beauty  and  "  reigm'ng  toast "  of  London  society,  who  was 
younger  than  his  daughters.  "The  nuptials  of  our  great 
Quixote  and  the  fair  Sophia,"  and  Granville's  ostentatious 
performance  of  the  part  of  lover,  were  ridiculed  by  Horace 
Walpole.  The  countess  Granville  died  on  the  7th  of  October 
1745,  leaving  one  daughter  Sophia,  who  married  Lord  Shelburne, 
I  St  marquis  of  Lansdowne.  This  marriage  may  have  done 
something  to  increase  Granville's  reputation  for  eccentricity. 
In  February  1746  he  allowed  himself  to  be  entrapped  by  the 
intrigQcs  of  the  Pelhams  into  accepting  the  secretaryship,  but 
resigned  in  forty-eight  hours.  In  June  1 7 5 x  he  became  president 
of  the  council,  and  was  still  liked  and  trusted  by  the  king,  but 
his  share  in  government  did  not  go  beyond  giving  advice,  and 
endeavouring  to  forward  ministerial  arrangements.  In  1756 
he  was  asked  by  Newcastle  to  become  prime  minister  as  the 
alternative  to  Pitt,  but  Granville,  who  perfectly  understood 
why  the  offer  was  made,  declined  and  supported  Pitt.  When 
in  October  1761  Pitt,  who  had  information  of  the  signing-  of 
the  "  Family  Compact  "  wished  to  declare  war  on  Spain,  and 
declared  his  intention  to  resign  unless  his  advice  was  accepted, 
Granville  replied  that  "  the  opinion  of  the  majority  (of  the 
Cabinet)  must  decide."  He  spoke  in  complimentary  terms  of 
Pitt,  but  resisted  his  claim  to  be  considered  as  a  "  sole  minister  " 
or,  in  the  modern  phrase, "  a  prime  minister."  Whether  he  used 
the  words  attributed  to  him  in  the  Annual  Register  for  Z761 
is  more  than  doubtful,  but  the  minutes  of  council  diow  that  they 
express  his  meaning.  Granville  remained  in  office  as  president 
till  his  death.  His  last  act  was  to  listen  while  on  his  death-bed 
to  the  reading  of  the  preliminaries  of  the  treaty  of  Paris.  He 
was  so  weak  that  the  under-secret ary,  Robert  Wood,  author 
of  an  essay  on  TJu  Originai  Genius  of  Homers  would  have  post- 
poned the  business,  but  Granville  said  that  it  "  could  not  pro- 
long his  life  to  neglect  his  duty,"  and  quoted  the  speech  of 
Sarpedon  from  Iliad  xii.  322>328,  repeating  the  last  word 
(tb/io')  "  with  a  calm  and  determined  resignation."  He  died 
in  his  house  in  Arlington  Street,  London,  on  the  22nd  of  January 
1763.  The  title  of  Granville  descended  to  his  son  Robert,  who 
died  without  issue  in  1776,  when  the  earldom  of  this  creation 
became  extinct. 

A  somewhat  partisan  Hie  of  Granville  was  published  in  1887,  by 
Archibald  Ballantyne,  under  the  title  of  Lord  Cartertt,  a  pMiiical 
Biography, 

GRANVILLE,  a  town  of  Cumberiand  county.  New  South 
Wales,  13  m.  by  rail  W.  of  Sydney.  Pop.  (1901)  5094.  It  is 
an  important  railway  junction  and  manufacturing  town,  pro- 
ducing agricultural  implements,  tweed,  pipes,  tiles  and  bricks; 
there  are  also  tanneries,  flour-mills,  and  kerosene  and  meat 
export  works.    It  became  a  municipality  in  1885. 

GRANVILLE,  a  fortified  sea-port  and  bathing-resort  of  north- 
western France,  in  the  department  of  Manche,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Bosq,  85  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Cherbourg  by  rail.  Pop.  (1906) 
10,530.  Granville  consists  of  two  quarters,  the  upper  town 
built  on  a  promontory  jutting  into  the  sea  and  surrounded 
by  ramparts,  and  the  lower  town  and  harbour  lying  below  it. 
The  barracks  and  the  church  of  Notre-Dame,  a  low  building 
of  granite,  partly  Romanesque,  partly  late  Gothic  in  style,  are  in 
the  upper  town.  The  port  consists  of  a  tidal  harbour,  two 
floating  basins  and  a  dry  dock.  Its  fleets  take  an  active  part 
in  deep  sea  fishing,  including  the  cod-fishing  off  Newfoundland, 
and  oyster-fishing  is  carried  on.    It  has  regular  communication 


36+ 


GRANVILLE— <;RAPHITE 


With  Gueniaey  and  Jersey,  and  with  the  islknds  of  St  Pierre 
and  Miquelon.  The  principal  exports  are  eggs,  vegetables  and 
fish;  coal,  timber  and  chemical  manuns  are  imported.  The 
industries  include  ship-building,  fish-salting,  thd  manufacture 
of  cod-liver  oil,  the  preserving  of  vegetables,  dyeing,  metal- 
founding,  rope-making  and  the  manufacture  of  chemical 
manures.  Among  the  public  institutions  are  a  tribunal  and 
a  chamber  of  commerce.  In  the  commune  axe  included  the 
lies  Chausey  about  7)  m.  N.W.  of  Granville  (see  Cbannel 
Islands).  Granville,  before  an  insignificant  village,  was  fortified 
by  the  English  in  1437,  taken  by  the  French  in  1441,  bombarded 
and  burned  by  the  English  in  1695,  and  unsuccessfully  besieged 
by  the  Vendean  troops  in  1793.  It  was  again  bombarded  by 
the  English  in  1803. 

GRANVILLBi  a  village  in  Licking  county,  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  in 
the  township  of  Granville,  abotit  6  m.  W.  of  Newark  and  27  m. 
£.  by  N.  of  Columbus.  Pop.  of  the  village  (1910)  1394;  of  the 
township  (loio)  244a.  Granville  is  served  by  the  Toloio  &  Ohio 
Central  and  the  Ohio  Electric  railways,  the  latter  reaching 
Newark  (where  it  connects  with  the  Pittsburg,-  Cincinnati, 
Chicago  &  St  Louis  and  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  railways),Columbus, 
Dayton,  Zanesville  and  Springfield.  Granville  is  the  seat  of 
Denison  University,  founded  in  1831  by  the  Ohio  Baptist 
Education  Society  and  opened  as  a  manual  labour  school,  called 
the  Granville  Literary  and  Theological  Institution.  It  was 
renamed  Granville  College  in  1845,  tfnd  took  its  present  name 
in  1854  in. honour  of  William  S.  Denison  of  Adamsville,  Ohio, 
who  had  given  $10,000  to  the  college.  The  university  comprked 
in  1907-1908  five  departments:  Granville  College  (229  students), 
the  collegiate  department  for  men;  Shepardson  (Allege  (246 
students,  including  82  in  the  preparatory  department),  the  col- 
legiate department  for  women,  founded  as  the  Young  Ladies' 
Institute  of  Granville  in  1859,  given  to  the  Baptist  denomination 
in  1887  by  Dr  Daniel  Shepardson,  its  principal  And  owner, 
and  closely  affiliated  for  scholastic  purposes,  since  1900,  with  the 
university,  though  legally  it  is  still  a  distinct  institution ; 
Doane  Academy  (137  students),  the  preparatory  department 
for  boys,  established  in  1831,  named  Granville  Academy  in 
1887,  and  renamed  in  1895  in  honour  of  William  H.  Doane  of 
Cincinnati,  who  gave  to  it  its  building;  a  conservatory  of  music 
(137  students);  and  a  school  of  art  (38  students). 

In  1805  the  Licking  Land  Company,  organized  in  the  preceding 
year  in  Granville,  Massachusetts,  bou£^t  29,040  acres  of  land 
in  Ohio,  including  the  site  of  Granville;  the  town  was  laid  out, 
aind  in  the  last  months  of  that  year  settlers  from  Granville,  Mass., 
began  to  arrive.  By  January  1806  the  colony  numbered  234 
persons;  the  towtiship  was  incorporated  in  x8o6  and  the  village 
was  incorporated  in  1831.  There  are  several  remarkable  Indian 
mounds  near  Granville,  notablv  one  shaped  like  an  alligator. 

Sec  Henry  Bushnell.  History  of  CranvitU,  Ohio  (Columbus,  0.,  1 889). 

GRAPE,  the  fruit  of  the  vine  (^.v.).  The  word  is  adopted 
from  the  O.  Fr.  grape,  rood,  grapfe,  bunch  or  cluster  of  flowers 
or  fruit,  grappes  de  raisin,  bunch  of  grapes.  The  French  word 
meant  properly  a  hook:  cf.  M.H.G.  krapje,  Eng.  "  grapnel,"  and 
"  cramp."  The  development  of  meaning  seems  to  be  vine-hook, 
cluster  of  grapes  cut  with  a  hook,  and  thence  in  English  a  single 
grape  of  a  cluster.  The  projectile  called  "  grape  "  or  "  grape- 
shot,"  formerly  used  with  smooth-bore  ordnance,  took  its  name 
from  its  general  resemblance  to  a  bunch  of  grapes.  It  consisted 
of  a  number  of  spherical  bullets  (heavier  than  those  of  the  con- 
temporary musket)  arranged  in  layers  separated  by  thin  iron 
plates,  a  bolt  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  plates  binding 
the  whole  together.  On  being  discharged  the  projectile  delivered 
the  bullets  in  a  shower  somewhat  after  the  fsishion  of  case-shot. 

GRAPHICAL  METHODS,  devices  for  representing  by  geometri- 
cal figures  the  numericalMata  which  result  from  the  quantitative 
investigation  of  phenomena.  The  simplest  application  is  met 
with  in  the  representation  of  tabular  data  such  as  occur  in 
statistics.  Such  tables  are  usually  of  single  entry,  i.e.  to  a  certain 
value  of  one  variable  there  corresponds  one,  and  only  one,  value 
of  the  other  variable. '  To  construct  the  graph,  as  it  is  called, 
of  such  a  table,  Cartesian  co-ordinates  are  usually  employed. 


Two  lines  or  axes  at  right  angles  to  each  other  are  cbosea,  inter- 
secting at  a  point  called  the  origin;  the  horizontal  axis  is  the 
atis  of  abscissae,  the  vertical  one  the  axis  of  ordinates.  Aloog 
one,  say  the  axis  of  abscissae,  distances  are  taken  from  the  origin 
corresponding  to  the  values  of  one  of  the  variables;  at  these 
points  perpendiculars  are  erected,  and  along  these  ordinates 
distances  are  taken  corre^wnding  to  the  related  ^ues  of  the 
other  variable.  The  curve  drawn  through  these  points  is  tbe 
graph.  A  general  inspection  of  the  grai^  shows  in  bold  relief 
the  essential  characters  of  the  table.  For  example,  if  the  world's 
production  of  com  over  a  number  of  yean  be  plotted,  a  poor 
yield  is  represented  by  a  depression,  a  rich  one  by  a  peak,  a 
uniform  one  over  sevmd  years  by  a  horizontal  line  and  so  on. 
Moreover,  such  graphs  permit  a  convenient  comparison  of 'two 
or  more  different  phenomena,  and  the  curves  raider  ^parent 
at  first  sight  similarities  or  differences  which  can  be  made  oat  from 
the  tables  only  after  close  examination.  In  making  graphs  for 
comparison,  the  scales  chosen  must  give  a  similar  range  of 
variation,  otherwise  the  correspondence  may  not  be  discerned. 
For  example,  the  scales  adopted  for  the  average  consumption  of 
tea  and  sugar  must  be  ounces  for  the  former  and  pounds  for  tbe 
latter.  Cartesian  graphs  are  almost  always  yielded  by  automatic 
recording  instruments,  such  as  the  barograph,  meteorograph, 
seismometer,  &c  The  method  of  polar  co-ordinates  is  more 
rarely  used,  being  only  specially  applicable  when  one  of  the 
variables  is  a  direction  or  recorded  as  an  angle.  A  simple  case  is 
the  representation  of  photometric  data,  ix:  the  value  of  the 
intensity  of  the  light  emitted  in  different  directions  from  s 
luminous  source  (see  Ligbiing). 

The  eeometrical  solution  of  arithmetical  and  algebraical  problems 
is  usually  termed  graphical  analysts;  the  application  to  (voblems 
in  mechanics  is  treated  in  Mbchakics,  |  5,  Cra^lie  SloHcs,  and 
Diagram.    A  special  phase  is  ixesented  in  Vbctok  Amai«ysis. 

GRAPHTTB,  a  mineral  species  consisting  of  the  element 
carbon  crystallized  in  the  rhombohedral  system.  Chemically, 
it  is  thus  indentical  with  the  cubic  mineral  diamond,  but  between 
the  two  there  are  very  wide  differences  in  physical  characters. 
Graphite  is  black  and  opaque,  whilst  diamond  is  colouriess  and 
transparent;  it  is  one  of  the  softest  (H«i)  of  minerals,  and 
diamond  the  hardest  of  all;  it  is  a  good  conductor  of* electricity, 
whilst  diamond  is  a  bad  conductor.  The  specific  gravity  b  2-2, 
that  of  diamond  is  3*5.  Further,  unlike  diamond,  it  never 
occurs  as  distinctly  developed  crystals,  but  only  as  imperfect 
six-sided  plates  and  scales.  There  is  a  perfect  cleavage  parallel 
to  the  surface  of  the  scales,  and  the  cleavage  flakes  are  flexible 
but  not  elastic  The  material  is  greasy  to  the  touch,  and  soils 
everything  with  which  it  comes  into  contact.  The  lustre  is 
bright  and  metallic.  In  its  external  characters  graphite  is  thus 
strikingly  similar  to  molybdenite  (q.v.). 

The  name  graphite,  given  by  A.  Q.  Werner  in  1789,  is  from 
the  Greek  7pd0c(F,  "  to  write,"  because  the  mineral  is  used  for 
making  pencils.  Earlier  names,  still  in  common  use,  are  plum* 
bago  and  black-lead,  but  since  the  mineral  contains  no  lead  these 
names  are  singularly  inappropriate.  Plumbago  (Lat.  plunUmm, 
lead)  was  originally  used  for  an  artificial  product  obtained  from 
lead  ore,  and  afterwards  for  the  ore  (galena)  itself;  it  was  con- 
fused both  with  graphite  and  with  molybdenite.  The  true 
chemical  nature  of  graphite  was  dctermin^  by  K.  W.  Scbeele 
in  1779. 

Graphite  occurs  mainly  in  the  older  crystalline  rocks— ^eiss, 
granuUte,  schist  and  crystalline  limestone — ^and  also  sometimes  in 
granite:  it  is  found  as  isolated  scales  embedded  in  these  rodis, 
or  as  large  irregular  masses  or  filling  veins.  It  has  also  been 
observed  as  a  product  of  contact-metamorphism  in  carbonaceous 
day-slates  near  their  contact  with  granite,  and  where  igneous 
rocks  have  been  intruded  into  beds  of  coal;  in  these  cases  the 
mineral  has  clearly  been  derived  from  organic  matter.  The 
graphite  found  in  granite  and  in  veins  in  gneiss,  as  well  as  that 
contained  in  meteoric  irons,  cannot  have  had  such  an  origin. 
As  an  artificial  product,  graphite  is  well  known  as  dark  lustitftis 
scales  in  grey  pig-iron,  and  in  the  "  kish  "  of  iron  furnaces: 
it  is  also  producnl  artificially  on  a  large  scale,  together  with 


GRAPTOLITES 


365 


cufKsnmdam,  in  the  elearic  furnace  (sec  bdow).  The  graphite 
ymxa  in  the  older  crystalline  rocks  are  probably  akin  to  metalli- 
ferous vdna  and  the  inaterial  derived  from  deep-seated  sources; 
tlw  decomposition  of  metallic  carbides  by  water  and  the  reduction 
of  hydrocarbon  vapours  have  been  suggested  as  possible  modes 
of  origin.  Such  veins  often  attain  a  thickness  of  several  feet,  and 
sometimes  possess  a  columnar  structure  perpendicular  to  the 
enclosing  walls;  they  are  met  with  in  the  crystalline  limestones 
and  other  Lauientian  rocks  of  New  York  and  Canada,  in  the 
gneisses  of  the  Austrian  Alps  and  the  granulites  of  Ceylon. 
Other  localities  which  have  yielded  the  mineral  in  large  amount 
are  the  Alibert  mine  in  Irkutsk,  Siberia  and  the  Borrowdale 
mine  in  Cumberland.  The  Santa  Maria  minesof  Sonora,  Mexico, 
probably  the  richest  deposits  in  the  world,  supply  the  American 
lead  pendl  manufacturers.  The  graphite  of  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Alabama  is  "  flake  "  and  unsuitable  for  this  purpose. 

Graphite  b  used  for  the  manufacture  of  pencils,  dry  lubricants, 
grate  polish,  paints,  crucibles  and  for  foundry  facings.  The 
material  as  mined  usually  does  not  contain  more  than  20  to 
50%  of  graphite:  the  ore  has  therefore  to  be  crushed  and  the 
graphite  floated  off  in  water  from  the  heavier  impurities.  Even 
the  purest  forms  contain  a  small  percentage  of  volatile  matter 
and  ash.  The  Cumberland  graphite,  which  i&  especially  suitable 
for  pencils,  contains  about  12  %  of  impurities.         (L.  J.  S.) 

Artijkial  Manufacture.— Tht  alteration  of  carbon  at  high 
temperatures  into  a  material  resembling  graphite  has  long  been 
known.  In  1893  Girard  and  Street  patented  a  furnace  and  a 
process  by  which  this  transformation  could  be  effected.  Carbon 
powder  comprened  into  a  rod  was  slowly  passed  through  a  tube 
in  whidi  it  was  subjected  to  the  action  of  one  or  more  electric 
arcs.  £.  G.  Acheson,  in  1896,  patented  an  application  of  his 
caiborundum  process  to  graphite  manufacture,  and  in  1899 
the  International  Acheson  Graphite  Co.  was  formed,  empIo3ring 
dectiic  current  from  the  Niagara  Falls.  TW  procedures  are 
adopted:  (i)  graphiti2ation  of  moulded  carbons;  (3)  graphitiza- 
tion  of  anthndte  en  masse.  The  former  includes  electjodes, 
lamp  carbons,  &c.  Coke,  or  some  other  form  of  amorphous 
carbon, »  mixed  with  a  little  tar,  and  the  required  article  moulded 
in  a  press  or  by  a  die.  The  articles  are  stacked  transversely  in  a 
fniaace,  each  being,  packed  in  granule  coke  and  covered  with 
caxfoonmdum.  At  first  the  current  is  3000  amperes  at  220  volts, 
increasing  to  9000  amperes  at  20  volts  after  20  hoiUrs.  In  graphj- 
tisiiig  en  masse  large  lumps  of  anthracite  are  treated  in  the 
cicctric  furnace.  A  soft,  unctuous  form  results  on  treating 
carbon  with  ash  or  silica  in  special  furnaces,  and  this  gives  the 
so-caUed  "  deflocculated "  variety  when  treated  with  gallo- 
tawiic  add.  These  two  modifications  are  valuable  lubricants. 
The  massive  gn4>hite  is  very  easily  machined  and  is  widely  used 
for  electrodes,  dynamo  brushes,  lead  pencils  and  the  like. 

See  **  Graphite  and  its  Uses,*'  Buff.  Imperial  InstiluU,  (1906) 
pw  559.  (1907)  P-  70:  F.  Cirkd,  GropkiU  (OtUwa,  1907).    (W.  C.  M.) 

OBAPTOUnS*  an  assemblage  of  extinct  zoophytes  whose 
skeletal  remains  are  found  in  the  Palaeozoic  rocks,  occasionally 
in  great  abundance.  Tliey  are  usually  preserved  as  branching 
or  vnbranching  carbonized  bodies,  tree-like,  leaf -like  or  rod-like  in 
iHmipt,  their  edges  regularly  toothed  or  denticulated.  Most 
frequently  they  occur  lying  on  the  bedding  planes  of  black 
shales;  las  commonly  they  are  met  with  in  many  other  kinds  of 
sediment,  and  when  in  limestone  they  may  retain  much  of  their 
relief  and  admit  of  a  detailed  microscopic  study. 
Graptolite  represents  the  common  homy  or  chitinous 
investment  or  supporting  structure  of  a  colony  of  zooids,  each 
tootb-like  projection  marking  the  position  of  the  sheath  or  ikeca 
of  an  individual  moid.  Some  of  the  branching  forms  have  a 
distinct  outward  resemblance  to  the  polyparies  of  Sertularia  and 
among  the  recent  Hydroida  (CalyptoBlastea);  in 
of  the  onbrandiing  forms,  however,  is  the  similarity  by 


TIk  Giaptoiite  polyparies  vary  considerably  hi  size:  the 
majority  range  from  i  in.  to  about  6  in.  in  length;  few  examples 
feave  been  met  with  having  a  length  of  more  than  30  in. 

Vaj  diiiieicnt  views  have  been  hdd  as  'to  the  qrstenatic 


place  and  rank  of  the  Graptolites.  Linnaeus  included  them 
in  his  group  of  false  fossils  (GraptolUhus'^wtiiitn  stone).  At 
ope  time  they  were  referred  by  some  to  the  Polyzoa  (Bryozoa), 
and  later,  by  almost  general  consent,  to  the  Hydroida  (Calypto- 
blastea)  among  the  Hydrozoa  (Hydromedusae).  Of  late  years 
an  opinion  is  gaining  ground  that  they  may  be  regarded  as 
constituting  collectively  an  independent  phylum  of  their  own 
(GraptoiiUnna). 

There  are  two  main  groups,  or  sub-phyla:  the  Crapictaidca 
«tt  Graptolites  proper,  and  the  DendroideaoriKt-VAie  Graptolites; 
the  former  is  typified  by  the  unbranched  genus  Monograptus 
and  the  latter  by  the  many-branched  genus  Dendropraptus. 

A  Monograpins  makes  its  first  appearance  as  a  minute  dagger-like 
body  (the  sicula),  which  represents  the  flattened  covering  o(  the 
primaiy  or  embryonic  zooid  of  the  colony.  This  sicula,  which  had 
ori^nally  the  shape  of  a  hollow  cone,  is  formed  of  two  portions  or 
regions — an  upper  and  smaller  (<^^Ka/ or  embryonic)  portioq,  marked 
by  delicate  longitudinal  linei,  and  having  a  fine  tabubr  thread 
(the  nemd)  proceeding  from  its  apex ;  and  a  lower  (thecal  or  apertural) 
portion,  marked  by  transverse' lines  of  growth  and  widening  in  the 
direction  of  the  mouth,  the  lip  or  apertural  margin  of  which  forms 
the  broad  end  of  the  sicula.  This  margin  is  normall)r  furnished  with 
a  perpendicular  spine  (viridla)  and  occasionally  with  two  shorter 
lateral  Mines  or  lobes. 

A  bua  is  given  off  from  the  sicula  at  a  variable  distance  along  its 
length.  From  this  bud  is  developed  the  first  moid  and  6r8t  serial 
theca  of  the  colony.  This  theca  grows  in  the  direction  of  the  apex  of 
the  sicula,  to  which  it  adheres  by  its  doml  wall.  Thus  while  the 
mouth  of  the  sicula  is  directed  aownwardsj  that  of  the  first  serial 
theca  is  pointed  upwards,  making  a  theoretical  angle  of  about  180* 
with  the  direction  of  that  of  the  sicula. 

From  this  first  theca  originates  a  second,  opening  in  the  saipe 
direction,  and  from  the  second  a  third,  and  so  on,  in  a  continuous  linear 
series  until  the  polypary  is  complete.  Each  zooid  buds  from  the  one 
immediately  precedinR  it  in  the  series,  and  intercommunication  is 
effected  by  all  the  budding  orifices  (including  that  in  the  wall  of  the 
sicula)  remaining  permanently  open.  The  sicula  itself  ceases'to  grow 
soon  after  the  eariiest  theca  have  been  developed:  it  remains 
permanently  attached  to  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  polypary,  of  which  it 
forms  the  proximal  end,  its  apex  rarely  reaching  beyond  the  third 
or  fourth  tneca. 

A  fine  cylindrical  rod  or  fibre  (the  so-called  mild  axis  or 
virgula)  becomes  developed  in  a  median  groove  in  the  dorsal  wal^ 
of  the  polypary,  and  is  mmetimes  continued  distally  as  a  naked 
rod.  It  was  formerly  su|;q308ed  that  a  virgula  was  present  in 
all  the  Graptoloidea;  hence  the  term  RkMophara  mmetimes 
employed  for  the  Graptoloidea  in  general,  and  rhabdostnne  for  the 
individual  polypary;  but  while  the  virgula  is  present  in  many 
(Axonophora)  it  is  absent  as  such  in  others  (Axonolipa). 

The  GsAPTOLOiDEA  are  arranged  in  eight  families,  each  named 
after  a  characteristic  geniA:  (i)  Dicbograptidae;  (2)  Lepto- 
graptidae;  (3)  Dicram^^raptidae;  (4)  Diplograptidae;  (5) 
Glossograptidae  (sub-family,  Lasiograptidae);  (6)  Retiolitidae; 
(7)  Dimorphograptidae;  (8)  Monograptidae. 

In  all  these  families  the  polypary  originates  as  in  M&no^aptus 
from  a  nema-bearing  sicula,  which  invariably  opens  downwards 
and  gives  off  only  a  single  bud,  such  branching  as  may  take 
place  occurring  at  subsequent  stages  in  the  growth  of  the  poly- 
pary. In  mme  q)ecies  young  examples  have  been  met  with  in 
which  the  nema  ends  above  in  a  small  membranous  disk,  which 
has  been  interpreted  as  an  organ  of  attachment  to  the  underside 
of  floating  bodies,  probably  sea  weeds,  from  which  the  young 
polypary  hung  suspended. 

Broadly  speaking,  these  families  make  their  first  appearance 
in  time  in  the  order  given  above,  and  show  a  progressive  morpho- 
logical evolution  along  certain  special  lines.  There  is  a  tendency 
for  the  branches  to  become  reduced  in  number,  and  for  the  serial 
thecae  to  become  directed  more  and  more  upwards  towards  the 
line  of  the  nema.  In  the  oldest  family — Dicbograptidae — in 
which  the  branching  poljrpary  is  bilaterally  symmetrical  and 
the  thecae  uniserial  {moHoprionidian) — there  is  a  gradation 
from  earlier  groups  with  many  branches  to  later  groups  with 
only  two;  and  from  species  in  which  all  the  branches  and  their 
thecae  are  directed  downwards,  through  spedes  in  which  the 
branches  become  bent  back  more  and  more  outwards  and 
upwards,  until  in  mme  the  terminal  thecae  open  almost  vertically. 
In  the  genus  Fkylhgrapius  the  branches  have  become  reduced 


GRAPTOLITES 


1,  l>iphtrapfHt    young  ucuU 

1.  Mmoptplia  JiihKi    ticuU 

indRntKralthrtjCfanly    ..    . -,— . 

RHored).  EJI»  and  Wood). 

J.  Yauni  form  UllaboveiCtcr  aj.  Cicfjwimu  {  (»;Au)^i>U(i- 

4a,  Older  [oriii.  34,  Diilyonema   (-dtndmi)  pd- 

4*.  SKowingvirgula (after Holm).  Mui  ailh  biic  g[  ituch- 


Wim: 


r    JJ,  D.« 


Holm). 


»S,  SyBrhatdcKmc     of     D 

I  tmpluj  faf  rer  Ru«dcma 

S,  SicuIl 

i^m     (after    u,  Upper  or  apical  portion. 


BaK  o\  DSymspaplia  1 
Youne  DklyetrapUa, 

RiKdcnunnV  .,  _ _, _. 

a-i,  BiKandlmniwrKKC-    m.  Mouth. 

tioa,  JtfliiifilciCaiiiltiaiiiii    N,  Ncma. 

(afln  Holcn).  nil,  NenucaulinorvirfulartulM, 

IJ.  Bryapapliu  Kjcnlfi.  V,  Virfula. 

'  ■     Dkliapaplul    otlairatkitlia.    m,  Virgclla. 

...:.i 1  ji-i  _  Stp^i  Rnnda. 

T,  Thna. 

C,  Cacnnwn  cuial   (in   Reiio- 


rs.  Didymapaptiu    Um 
■-    -  i.  PMyUmrapUl  >n 


polypoty.  Id  the  family  of  (be  Diplograptidae  the  bnncbB  arc 
reduced  to  two;  these  also  coalesce  similarly  by  tbcir  dorsal 
valla,  and  the  polypary  thus  becomes  bisfrial  {diprwnidiatCi,  and 
(he  line  of  the  nema  is  taken  by  a  long  axial  (ube-like  ttnicture. 
(be  HCKucakfiu  or  virgulu  tube.  Finally,  in  the  litest  lamity, 
(he  Monogiaplidai,  (he  branchei  ate  (heoietioUy  itduced  to 
one,  the  polypaiy  is  uniierial  tbiDUgbout,  and  all  (be  theae 
are  directed  outwards  Bud  upintdi. 

The  f  hecae  intheearliarfamil  y — DLchocraptidae — an  BO  similar  ie 
form  to  Ibe  koAa  iisell  that  the  polypary  hat  been  compared  to  a 

tho«e  of  the  latest  family — Manogrnptidae — in  some  species  of  which 
the  terminal  paction  of  each  theca  becomes  iiolaled  \Raslttl£i)  and 
in  rome  coiled  into  a  roundtd  lobe.  The  thecae  in  several  ol  the 
families  are  occasionally  provided  with  q>ines  or  lateral  [rocnacs: 
the  spinel  are  espedalfy  conspicuous  at  the  base  in  some  biserial 
forms:  iq  the  unofniptidiie  tfie  lateral  processes  oricinace  a 
mar^nal  meshwork  surmunding  the  polypary. 

UUtiAo^MUy,  the  perisarc  or  frsi  in  the  Graptofudea  appears 
to  be  composed  of  ^^iree  layen,  a  middle  layer  of  vaiiahle  structure. 
and  an  overlyinf  and  an  underlying  layer  of  renurkable  tenuity. 
The  central  byer  is  uaualTy  thick  and  marked  by  litkcs  of  growth; 
but  in  Clnsotrapius  and  Laiiafrapitts  it  is  thiniud  down  to  s  fii>e 
membrane  stretched  upon  a  skeleton  framework  of  lists  and  l^bres. 
and  in  Rttiaiiies  this  membrane  is  reduced  to  a  delicate  network. 
The  groups  typified  hy  these  three  genera  are  sometimes  referred  to, 
collectlTely,  as  the  Eiliatniita,  and  the  structure  as  rtlMaii. 

It  is  the  general  practice  of  palaeontologists  to  regard  eAdk 
graptolite  polypary  {rinbdoiome)  developed  fit>m  a  sioglc  sicula 


ividuol  o(  the  highesi 


order. 


nfon 


are  preserved  as  itellate  groups,  have  been 
inlerpieted  as  camplei  umbrclli-sbaped  colonial  stocks,  indivi- 
duals of  a  (till  higher  order  [xynrkahdotomts],  composed  of  a 
number  of  biuiiai  polypariu  (each  having  a  sicula  at  its  ouier 
eilremity)  attached  by  Iheir  nemacauli  to  a  cocntnon  centre  tS 
origin,  which  is  provided  with  two  disks,  a  asrimming  bladder  and 


the  DCNDKOIDEA 

asarul 

the 

ijolypaiyii 

lon-symonetiical 

hape  and  In 

•e-lik 

e  orsh 

ub-lik 

habit, 

with    PUIT 

rfy  disposed, 

and 

a  distinct  stem-l 

«or 

h^'f^i 

dingbek 

win 

root 

ikefib 

noriQa 

of  a(  ... 

is  conslitoled  by  the  comprehensive  genus  DUIyntema,  which 
embraces  species  composed  nf  a  large  number  of  divergent  and 

a  symmetrical  cone-like  or  funnel-shaped  polypary.  and  includes 
some  forms  (Dklynpaftiu)  which  originate  from  a  nema-beaiing 
licula  and  have  been  dnimcil  as  belongjng  to  the  Graptoloidca. 
Of  tbe  early  development  of  the  polypary  in  the  Dendnudea 
little  ii  known,  but  Ibe  more  nulute  stages  have  been  fully 
worked  out.  In  Dutyoncma  (he  branches  show  ihecae  of  im 
kinds:  (1)  (be  ordinaiy  tuhulu  thecae  answering  to  those  of 
the  Craptoloidea  and  occuined  by  the  oouriihiag  tooids;  and 
(j)  (be  so-called  biiitcae,  birdneal-iike  cups  (regarded  by  their 
discoverers  as  gonolhecae)  opening  altemitdy  right  and  left 
of  [be  ordinary  Ihecae,  Internally,  there  enisled  a  third  set  of 
Ihecae,  held  to  have  been  inhabited  by  tbe  budding  individuals. 
In  the  genus  Drndrograptus  the  gonolhecae  open  within  the  walb 
of  the  ordinary  (hecae,  and  the  branches  prcsen(  an  ontikanl 

general,  (he  budding  orifices  in  the  Dendroidea  become  dosed, 

(be  families  mos(  conspicuous  are  (hose  typified  by  the  genera 
Deadrtpaplia,  Diayonema,  limaulis  and  Thanttmpatlai. 

As  regardH  the  moiei  oj  reproduction  amtnf  Ike  Crapteiittt  little  Is 
known.  In  the  Dendroidea.  as  already  pointed  -"•  •■*-  »-:•».-'— 
were  pouibly  f[onothecaeH  but  tbey  have  been  in 

as  nematophores.    In  the  Graptolnldca  certain  lai. _.... 

apperKlages  of  (he  polypary  in  the  LasioRraplidae  have  been  looked 
upon  at  connrcted  with  tbe  reproductive  system,  and  in  the 
umbrella-shaped  synrhabdasfima  already  referred  to.  the  coamaa 
centre  it  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  what  have  been  regarded  as  ovarian 
capiules.  The  theory  1^  (he  gonaflgial  nature  of  the  vnicular  bodies 
in  the  Craptoloidea  is,  however,  ditputrd  hy  wme  autboritio.  and 
<  it  has  been  uggnled  that  the  aootd  of  the  licula  IdsiL  is  not  the 


interpreted  by  so 


GRASLITZ— GRASS  AND  GRASSLAND 


367 


BRxfcKt  of  the  narmal  or  Ktua]  mode  of  propantioa  in  U^  group^ 
but  owes  its  origio  to  a  peculiar  type  of  buddinc  or  aon-aexual 


icproductioa,  in  which,  as  temporary  resting  or  protectiog  itnictures, 
the  vescttlar  bodies  may  have  had  a  share. 


As  respects  the  made  of  life  of  the  GrapUiUes  there  can  be 
littJe  doi^t  that  the  Dcndroidea  were,  with  some  exceptions, 
temiie  or  benthcmic  animab,  their  polyparies,  like  those  of  the 
recent  Calyptofc^astea,  growing  upwaitls,  their  bases  remaining 
attached  to  the  sea  floor  or  to  foreign  bodies,  usually  fixed.  The 
Grq>toIoidea  have  also  been  regarded  by  aome  as  benthonic 
oiganisnis.  A  more  prevalent  view,  however,  is  that  the  majority 
were  pseudo-planktomc  or  drifting  colonies,  hanging  from  the 
onderaide  of  floating  seaweeds;  their  |x>lyparies  being  each 
tospended  by  the  nema  in  the  earliest  stages  of  growth,  and,  in 
later  stages,  some  by  the  neitiacaulus,  while  others  became 
adherent  above  by  means  of  a  central  dbk  or  by  parts  of  their 
docsalwaUs.  Some  of  these  ancient  seaweeds  may  have  remained 
permanently  rooted  in  the  littoral  regions,  while  others  may 
have  become  broken  off  and  drifted,  like  the  receftt  Sargasaum, 
at  the  mercy  of  the  winds  and  currents,  carrying  the  attached 
GraptoUtes  into  aU  latitudes.  The  more  complex  umbrella- 
shaped  colonies  of  colonies  (synrhabdoaomes)  described  as 
provided  with  a  common  swimming  bladder  (pneumatophore?) 
may  have  attained  a  holo-planktonic  or  free-swimming  mode 
of  existence. 

The  range  ej  Ike  Craplolites  in  Hme  extends  from  the  Cambrian 
to  the  Carboniferous.  The  Dcndroidea  alone,  however,  have 
this  extended  range,  the  Graptoloidea  becoming  extinct  at  the 
dose  of  Sihirian  time.  Both  groups  make  their  first  appearance 
together  near  the  end  of  the  Cunbrian;  but  while  in  the  succeed- 
ing  Ordovidan  and  Silurian  the  Dcndroidea  are  comparatively 
rare,  the  Graptolmdea  become  the  most  characteristic  and, 
beany,  the  most  abundant  fossils  of  these  systems. 

The  ^Mcics  of  the  Graptoloidea  have  individually  a  remarkably 
short  range  in  geological  time;  but  the  geographical  distribution 
of  the  group  as  a  whole,  and  that  of  many  of  its  species,  is  almost 
world-wide.  This  combination  of  drcumstances  has  given  the 
GnptdtoideM  a  paramount  stratigraphical  importance  aspalaeon- 
toiogical  indices  of  the  detailed  sequence  and  correlation  of  the 
Lower  Palae(»oic  rocks  in  general.  Many  Craptolite  MOHes, 
ibowing  a  constant  uniformity  of  succession,  paralleled  in  this 
respect  only  by  the  longer  known  Ammonite  sonesof  the  Jurassic, 
have  been  distinguished  in  Britain  and  northern  Eun^,  each 
marked  by  a  diaracteristic  spedes.  Many  British  spedes  and 
associations  of  genera  and  spedes,  occurring  on  oorreqwnding 
horisons  to  those  on  which  they  are  found  in  Britain,  have  been 
met  with  in  the  graptolite-bearing  Lower  Palaeoxoic  formations 
of  other  parts  of  Europe,  in  America,  Australia,  New  Zealand 
attddsewbere. 

BiBLiocaAnrr. — Linnaeus,  Systemd  naimrae  (»th  cd.  1768); 
Han.  GrapteUles  ef  the  Quebec  Croup  (1865);  Barrande.  GrapielUes 
ie  Behime  (i8So):  Camtthera,  Reeistam  ef  the  British  Craplolites 

ii868);  H.  A.  Nicholaoa,  MeMgraph  of  British  Craptdites,  pt.  i 
tS72);  id.  and  J.  E."Marr,  Phytogeny  of  the  Craplolites  (1895): 
lopkifMoa.  On  British  Craptolites  (1869);  AUman,  Moaograph  of 
Cjmaioblastie  Hydroids  (1872) ;  Lapworth,  An  Improoed  Classijlcatioa 


of  the  Rhabdaphara  (187^) ;  The  Ceologieal  DistributUm  of  the  Rhabdo- 
phora  (1879,  1880);  Walther,  Lebensweise  fossiler  Meerestiero 
(1897):  Tufibefv,  Shdaes  Crapteliter  (1882,  1883):  TOmquist, 
Crapuiilei  SeoMsau  Xastrites  Beds  (1899);  Wiman,  Die  Craptolithen 
(1805):  Holm.  Cottamdt  Craptoliler  (1890);  Pemcr.  Craptolites  do 
BeUme  it99^''tiigo);R.RtacoemAnn,DeoeUipmentamdModeofCro»lh 


6RASLRZ  (Csech,  Krasliee),  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the 
Zwodao,  145  n.  N.W.  of  Prague  by  rafl.  Pop.  (1900)  11,803, 
exdusiTdy  German.  Graslita  is  one  of  the  most  important 
industrial  towns  of  Bohemia,  its  spedah'ties  being  the  manu> 
(actore  of  musical  instruments,  carried  on  both  as  a  factory  and 
a  domestic  industry,  and  lace-making.  Next  In  Importance  are 
cottoO'Spinning  and  weaving,  macUne  embroidery,  brewing, 
and  the  mother-of-pearl  industry. 

GBAnUEB,  a  vfllage  and  lake  of  Westmoriand,  in  the  heart 
cf  the  Engiiah  Lake  District.    The  village  (pop.  of  urban  district 


in  1901,  781)  lies  near  the  head  of  the  lake,  on  the  smaU  river 
Rothay  and  the  Keswick- Ambleside  road,  la}  rn.  from  Keswick 
and  4  from  Ambleside.  The  scenery  is  very  beautiful; the  valley 
about  the  lakes  of  Grasmere  and  Rydal  Water  is  in  great  part 
wooded,  while  on  its  eastern  flank  there  rises  boldly  the  range  ' 
of  hiUs  which  indudes  Rydal  FeU,  Fairfidd  and  Seat  Sandal, 
and,  farther  north,  HdveUyn.  On  the  west  side  are  Loughrigg 
FeU  and  Sflver  How.  llie  village  has  become  a  favourite  centre 
for  tourists,  but  preserves  its  picturesque  and  sequestered 
appearance.  In  a  house  stin  standing  William  Wordsworth 
lived  from  1799  ^  1808,  and  it  waa  subsequekitly  occupied  by 
Thomas  de  Qiiinwy  and  by  Hartley  Coleridge.  Wordsworth's 
tomb,  and  also  that  of  Coleridge,  are  in  the  diurchyard  d  the 
ancient  church  ol  St  Oswald,  which  contains  a  memMial  to 
Wordsworth  with  an  inscription  by  John  KeUe.  A  festival 
called  the  Rushbearing  takes  place  on  the  Saturday  within  the 
octave  of  St  Oswald's  day  (August  5th),  when  a  holiday  is 
observed  and  the  church  decorated  with  rushes,  heath»  and 
flowers.  The  festival  is  of  early  origin,  and  has  been  derived  by 
some  from  the  Roman  Flaralia,  but  appears  alio  to  have  been 
made  the  occasion  for  carpeting  the  floors  of  churches,  unpaved 
in  eariy  times,  with  rushes.  Moreover,  in  a  procession  which 
forms  part  of  the  festivities  at  Grasmere,  certain  Biblical  stories 
are  symbolised,  and  in  this  a  connexion  with  the  andent  mirade 
plays  may  be  found  (see  H.  D.  Raimsley,  A  Rambler's  NoU-Baeh 
at  the  English  Lakes,  Glasgow,  190a).  Grasmere  is  also  itoted  for 
an  athletic  meeting  in  August. 

The  lake  of  Graamere  is  just  under  i  m.  in  length,  and  has 
an  extreme  breadth  of  7166  yds.  A  ridge  divides  the  basin  from 
north  to  south,  and  rises  so  high  as  to  form  an  island  about  the 
middle.  The  greatest  depth  of  the  lake  (75  ft.)  lies  to  the  east 
of  this  ridge. 

•GRASS  AMD  GRA88LAMD,  in  agriculture.  The  natural 
vegetable  covering  of  the  soil  in  most  countries  is  "grass" 
(for  derivation  see  Grasses)  of  various  kinds.  Even  where 
dense  forest  or  other  growth  exists,  if  a  little.daylight  penetrates 
to  the  ground  grass  of  some  sort  or  another  iriU  grow.  On 
ordinary  farms,  or  wherever  farming  of  any  kind  is  carried  out, 
the  proportion  of  the  land  not  actuaUy  cultivated  win  dther 
be  in  grass  or  wiU  revert  naturaUy  to  grass  in  time  if  left  alone, 
after  having  been  cultivated. 

Pasture  land  has  always  been  an  important  part  of  the  farm, 
but  since  the  "  era  of  cheap  com  "  set  in  its  importance  has 
been  increased,  and  mudi  more  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
study  of  the  different  species  of  grass^  their  characteristics,  the 
improvement  ol  a  pasture  generally,  and  the  "  laying  down  " 
of  arable  land  into  graas  where  tfllage  farming  has  not  paid. 
Most  farmers  desire  a  proportion  of  graas-land  on  their  farms— 
from  a  third  to  a  half  of  the  area— and  even  on  whoUy  arable 
farms  there  are  usuany  certain  courses  in  the  rotation  of  crops 
devoted  to  grass  (or  doVer) .  Thus  the  Norfolk  4-course  rotation 
is  com,  roots,  com,  dover;  the  Berwick  s-course  is  com,  roots, 
com,  grass,  grass;  the  Ulster  8-course,  oom,  flax,  roots,  com, 
flax,  grass,  graas,  graas;  and  so  on,  to  the  point  wh^re  the  grass 
remains  down  for  5  years,  or  is  left  indefinitdy. 

Permanent  grass  may  be  grazed  by  live-stock  and  classed 
as  pasture  pure  and  simple,  or  it  may  be  cut  for  hay.  In  the 
latter  case  it  is  usuaUy  classed  as  **  meadow  "  land,  and  often 
forms  an  aUuvial  tract  alongside  a  stream,  but  as  grass  is  often 
grazed  and  hayed  in  alternate  years,  the  distinction  is  not  a  hard 
and  fast  one. 

There  are  two  dasaes  of  pasturage,  temporary  and  permanent 
The  latter  again  conaists  of  two  kinds,  the  permanent  graas 
natural  to  land  that  has  never  been  cultivated,  and  the  pasture 
that  has  been  laid  down  artificiafly  on  land  previously  arable 
and  aUowed  to  remain  and  improve  itself  in  the  course  of  time. 
The  existence  of  ridge  and  furrow  on  many  old  pastures  in 
Great  Britain  shows  that  they  were  cultivated  at  one  time, 
though  perhaps  more  than  a  century  ago.  Often  a  newly  laid 
down  pasture  wiU  decline  markedly  in  thickness  and  quality 
about  the  fifth  and  sixth  year,  and  then  begin  to  thicken  and 
Improve  year  by  year  af termuda.    This  is  usuaUy  attributed 


368 


GRASS  AND  GRASSLAND 


to  the  fact  that  the  unsuitable  varieties  die  out,  and  the  "  natur- 
ally "  suitable  varieties  only  come  in  gradually.  This  trouble 
can  be  largely  prevented,  however,  by  a  judicious  selection 
of  seed,  and  by  subsequently  manuring  with  phosphatic  manures, 
with  farmyard  or  other  b^y  "  topdressings,"  or  by  feeding 
sheep  with  cake  and  com  over  the  field. 

All  the  grasses  proper  belong  to  the  natural  order  Cramineae 
(see  Grasses),  to  which  order  also  belong  all  the  "  corn  "  plants 
cultivated  throughout  the  world,  also  many  others,  such  as 
bamboo,  sugar-cane,  millet,  rice,  &c.  &c.,  which  yield  food  for 
mankind.  Of  the  grasses  which  constitute  pastures  and  hay- 
fields  over  a  himdrcd  species  are  classified  by  botanists  in  Great 
Britain,  with  many  varieties  ip  addition,  but  the  majority  of 
these,  though  often  forming  a  part  of  natural  pastures,  are 
worthless  or  inferior  for  farming  purposes.  The  grasses  of  good 
quality  which  should  form  a  **  sole  "  in  an  old  pasture  and  pro- 
vide the  bulk  of  the  forage  on  a  newly  laid  down  piece  of  grass 
are  only  about  a  dozen  in  number  (see  below) ,  and  of  these  there  are 
only  some  six  species  of  the  very  first  importance  and  indispensable 
in  a  "  prescription  "  of  grass  seeds  intended  for  laying  away  land 
in  temporary  or  permanent  pasture.  Dr  W.  Fream  caused  a 
botanical  examination  to  be  made  of  several  of  the  most  cele- 
brated pastures  of  England,  and,  contrary  to  expectation,  found 
that  their  chief  constituents  were  ordinary  perennial  ryegrass  and 
white  clover.  Many  other  grasses  and  legumes  were  present,  but 
these  two  formed  an  overwhelming  proportion  of  the  plants. 

In  ordinary  usage  the  term  grass,  pasturage,  hay,  &c.,  Includes 
many  varieties  of  clover  and  other  members  of  the  natural  order 
legumincsae  as  well  as  other  "  herbs  of  the  field,"  which,  though 
not  strictly  **  grasses,"  are  always  found  in  a  grass  field,  and 
axe  included  Ic  mixtures  of  seeds  for  pasture  and  meadows. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  desirable  or  valuable  agri- 
cultural grasses  and  clovers,  which  are  either  actually  sown  or,  in 
the  case  of  old  pastures,  encouraged  to  grow  by  draining,  liming, 
manuring,  and  so  on: — 

Crosses. 

Meadow  foxtail. 
Sweet  vernal  grass. 
Tali  oat-grase. 
Golden  oat-grasa. 
Crested  dogstail. 
Cocksfoot. 
Hard  fescue. 
Tall  fescue. 
Sheep's  fescue. 
Meadow  fescue. 
Italian  ryegrass. 
Timothy  or  catstail. 
Wood  meadow-grass. 
Smooth  meadow-grass. 


Alopecurus  pratensis 
Antnoxanthum  odoratum 

Avena  elattor     .     .  . 

Avena  flavescens     .  . 

Cynosurus  cristatus.  . 

Dactylis  glomerata  .  . 

Festuca  duriuscula  .  . 

Fcstuca  elattor  .     .  . 

Festuca  ovina  .  .     .  . 

Festuca  pratensis     .  . 
Lolium  ttalicum. 

Phlcum  pratense      .  . 
Poa  ncmoralis    . 
Poa  pratensis 


Poa  trivialis Rough  meadow-grass. 

Clovers,  Sfc. 

.     .  Trefoil  or  "  Nonsuch." 
.     .  Lucerne  (Alfalfa). 

.  Alsike  clover. 
.     .  Broad  red  clover. 


n 


Medicago  lupultna  . 
Medicago  sativa .  . 
Trifolium  hybridum 

„  pratense  . 
pratense ) 
perenne  ( 
incarnatum 

„        procumbcns 

„  repens 
Achillea  Millefolium. 
Anthyllis  vulneraria. 
Lotus  major  .  . 
Lotus  corniculatus  . 
Carum  petrosclinum 
Plantago  lanceolata. 
Ctchonum  intybus  . 
Poterium  ofiianalc  . 


Perennial  clover. 

Crimson  clover  or  "  Trifolium." 

Yellow  Hop-trefoil. 

White  or  Dutch  clover. 

Yarrow  or  Milfoil. 

Kidney-vetch. 

Greater  Birdsfoot  Trefoil. 

Lesser  „ 

Field  i>arBley. 

Plantain. 

Chicory. 

Burnet. 


•t 


The  predominance  of  any  particular  species  is  largely  deter- 
mined by  climatic  circumstances,  the  natuic  of  the  soil  and  the 
treatment  it  receives.  In  limestone  regions  sheep's  fescue  has 
been  foimd  to  predominate;  on  wet  clay  soil  the  dog's  bent 
{Agrostis  canina)  is  common;  continuous  manuring  with  nitro- 
genous manures  kills  out  the  leguminous  plants  and  stimulates 
such  grasses  as  cocksfoot;  manuring  with  phosphates  stimulates 
the  clovers  and  other  legumes;  and  so  on.    Manuring  with 


basic  slag  at  the  rate  of  from  5  to  10  cwt.  per  acre  has  been  found 
to  give  excellent  results  on  poor  clays  and  peaty  soils.  Basic 
slag  is  a  by-product  of  the  Bessemer  steel  process,  and  is  rich  in  a 
solubleform  of  phosphate  of  lime  (tctra-phosphate)  whichH>edally 
stimulates  the  growth  of  clovers  and  other  legumes,  and  has 
renovated  many  inferior  pastures. 

In  the  Rothamsted  experiments  continuous  manuring  with 
"  mineral  manures  "  (no  nitrogen)  on  an  old  meadow  has  reduced 
the  grasses  from  71  to  64%  of  the  whole,  while  at  the  same  time 
it  has  increased  the  JLeguminosae  from  7%  to  24%.  On  the 
other  hand,  continuous  use  of  nitrogenous  manure  in  addition  to 
"  minerals "  has  raised  the  grasses  to  94%  of  the  total  and 
reduced  the  legumes  to  le»  than  1%. 

As  to  the  best  kinds  of  grasses,  &c.,  to  sow  in  making  a  pasture 
out  of  arable  land,  experiments  at  Cambridge,  England,  have 
demonstrated  that  of  the  many  varieties  offered  by  seedsmen 
only  a  very  few  are  of  any  permanent  value.  A  complex  mixture 
of  tested  seeds  was  sown,  and  after  five  years  an  examination  of 
the  pasture  showed  that  only  a  few  varieties  survived  and  made 
the  "  sole  "  for  either  grazing  or  forage.  These  varieties  in  the 
order  of  their  importance  were:^ 

Cocksfoot .  26 

Perennial  rye  grass 1     .  16 

Meadow  fescue 13 

Hard  fescue    .     .     - 9 

Crested  dogstail 8 

Timothy ;6 

White  clover 4 

Meadow  foxtail »«2 

The  figures  represent  approximate  percentages. 

Before  laying  down  grass  it  is  well  to  examine  the  species  already 
growing  round  the  hedges  and  adjacent  fields.  An  inspection  of 
this  sort  will  show  that  the  Cantbridge  experiments  are  very 
conclusive,  and  that  the  above  species  are  the  only  ones  to  be 
depended  on.  Occasionally  some  other  variety  will  be  pro- 
minent, but  if  so  there  will  be  a  special  local  reason  for  this. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  farmers  when  sowing  down  to  grass 
like  to  have  a  good  bulk  of  forage  for  the  first  year  or  two,  and 
therefore  include  several  of  the  clovers,  lucerne,  Italian  ryegrass, 
evergreen  ryegrass,  &c.,  knowing  that  these  will  die  out  in  the 
course  of  years  and  leave  the  ground  to  the  more  permanent 
species. 

There  are  also  several  mixtures  of  "seeds"  (the  technical 
name  given  on  the  farm  to  grass-seeds)  which  have  been  adopted 
with  success  in  laying  down  permanent  pasture  in  some  localities. 


1 

• 

& 

J3 

1 

Id 

Cambridge 
average. 

General 
mixture. 

Cocksfoot 

8 

•     • 

6 

I 
2 

3 
10 

3 

4 
2 
2 
I 

• 

1 

•  • 

1 

I 
2 

8 

•  • 

2 
I 

•  ■ 

3i 

»  • 

•  • 

8 
6 

5 
3 
3 

2 

1 

4 
10 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

2 
I 
2 

•  • 

5 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

.  2 
2 
2 
8 

2 

Perennial  ryegrass .     .     . 
Meadow  fescue.     .     .     . 
Hard  fescue      .... 
Crested  dogstail     .     .     . 

Timothy 

Meadow  foxtail      .     .     . 
Tall  fescue 

3 

•     • 

Tall  oat  mrass   .... 

Italian  ryegrass      .     .     . 
Smooth  meadow  grass. 

•  • 

Rough  meadow  grass  . 
Golden  oat  grass    .     .     . 
Sheep's  fescue  .... 
Broad  red  clover    .     .     . 
Perennial  red  clover    •     . 
Alsike     ...... 

1 

•  • 

I 
I 
1 

1 

i 

Lucerne  (Alfalfa)   .     ..    . 

White  clover     .... 
Kidney  vetch    .... 
Sheeo  s  oarslev.     .     .■    . 

t 

1 

■  • 

2} 

2 

Yarrow 

Burnet   ...«.'. 

Chicory 

Plantatn 

Total  lb  per  acre         .     . 

I 
8 
4 
4 

I 

•  • 

•  • 
■  * 

i 

30 

40 

»7 

40 

30 

40 

GRASSE,  COMTE  DE— GRASSES 


369 


Artlmr  Young  more  tlum  too  years  ago  made  out  one  to  suit 
chalky  hillsides;  Mr  Faunce  de  Laune  (Sussex)  in  our  days  was 
the  first  to  study  grasses  and  advocated  leaving  out  ryegrass  of 
all  kinds;  Lord  ]>icester  adopted  a  cheap  mixture  suitable  for 
poor  land  with  success;  Mr  Elliot  (Kelso)  has  introduced  many 
deep-rooted  "  herbs  "  in  his  mixture  with  good  results.  Typical 
examines  of  such  mixtures  are  given,  on  preceding  page. 

Temporary  pastures  are  commonly  resorted  to  for  rotation 
purposes,  and  in  these  the  bulky  fast-growing  and  short-lived 
grasses  and  clovers  are  given  the  preference.  Three  examples  of 
tempcnrary  mixtures  are  given  below. 


Italian  ryegrass 
Cocksfoot   . 
Timothy 

Broad  red  clover   . 
Alsike         .     .     . 
TrefoU   .... 
Pereniual  ryegrass 
Meadow  fescue 
Perennial  red  clover 
White  clover    .     . 
Meadow  foxtail 


Total  lb  per  acre 


One 
year. 


14 

2 


8 
3 
3 


30 


Two 
years. 


10 

4 

2 

5 

2 

2 

5 

2 
2 
I 
I 


36 


Three 
or  four 
years. 


6 
6 
3 

3 

2 

2 
10 

2 
2 
2 
2 


40 


Where  only  a  one-year  hay  is  required,  broad  red  clover  is 
often  grown,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  a  little  Italian  ryegrass, 
while  other  forage  oops,  like  trefoU  and  trifolium,  are  often  grown 
alone. 

In  Great  Britain  a  heavy  clay  soil  is  usually  preferred  for 
pasture,  both  because  it  takes  most  kindly  to  grau  and  because 
the  expense  of  cultivating  it  makes  it  unprofitable  as  arable  land 
when  the  price  of  com  is  low.  On  light  soil  the  plant  frequently 
suffers  from  drought  in  summer,  the  want  of  moisture  preventing 
it  from  obtaining  proper  root-hold.  On  such  soil  the  use  of  a 
heavy  ToSlcr  is  advantageous,  and  indeed  on  any  soil  excepting 
heavy  day  frequent  rolling  is  beneficial  to  the  grass,  as  it  pro- 
motes tbe  capillary  action  of  thesoil-partides  and  the  consequent 
ascension  of  ground-water. 

In  addition,  the  grass  on  the  surface  helps  to  keep  the  moisture 
from  being  wasted  by  the  sun's  heat. 

The .  graminaceous  crops  of  western  Europe  generally  are 
limllar  to  those  enimieratcd.  Elsewhere  in  Europe  are  found 
certain  grasses,  such  as  Hungarian  brome,  which  are  suitable  for 
introdoction  into  the  British  Isles.  The  grasses  of  the  American 
prairies  also  indude  many  plants  not  met  with  in  Great  Britain. 
Some  half-doaen  spcdes  are  common  to  both  countries:  Kentucky 
"  blue-grass  "  is  the  British  Poa  pratensis\  couch  grass  {Triticwn 
repens)  grows  plentifully  without  its  underground  runners; 
bent  {A%rtatis  vulgaris)  forms  the  famous  "  red-top,"  and  so  on. 
But  the  American  buffalo-grass,  the  Canadian  buffalo-grass,  the 
**  bunch  "  grasses,  "  squirrel-tail "  and  many  others  which  have 
no  equivalents  in  the  British  Ishinds,  form  a  large  part  of  the 
prairie  pasturage.  There  is  not  a  single  species  of  true  dover 
found  on  the  prairies,  though  cultivated  varieties  can  be  intro- 
duced. (P.  McC.) 

6BA8SB,  FRA1IQ0I8  JOSEPH  PAUL,  Marquis  de  Gaasse- 
mxY,  CoicTE  DE  (1722-1788),  French  sailor,  was  bom  at  Bar, 
ia  the  present  department  of  the  -Alpes  Maritimcs.  In  1734  he 
ttxk  service  on  the  gaUeys  of  the  order  of  Malta,  and  in  1740 
entered  the  service  of  France,  beingpromotedtochief  of  squadron 
in  1779.  He  tock  part  in  the  nava}  operations  of  the  American 
War  of  Independence,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  battles  of 
Dominka  and  Saint  Lucia  (1780),  and  of  Tobago  (1781).  He 
was  less  fortunate  at  St  Kitts,  where  he  was  defeated  by  Admiral 
Hood.  Shortly  afterwards,  in  April  1782,  he  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  Admiral  Rodney.  Some  months  later  he  re- 
tomed  to  France,  published  a  Minunre  justificatif,  and  was 
acquitted  by  a  court-martial  (i  784).  He  died  at  Paris  in  January 
X788. 

XS.7 


Hb  son  Alexandre  de  Grasae,  published  a  NoHct  bibUograpkiqus 
sitr  I'amiral  comU  -de  Crass*  d'afris  Us  documents  itUdils  in  i8i4a 
See  G.  Lacour-Gayet,  La  Marine  militaire  de  la  France  sous  le  rhgm 
de  Louis  XV  (Pans,  1902). 

QRA8SB,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of  the  Alpes 
Maritimes  (till  x86oin  thatof  the  Var),  1 2}  m.  by  rail  N.  of  Cannes. 
Pop.  (1906)  town,  13,958;  commune,  20,305.  It  is  built  in  a 
picturesque  situation,  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre  and  at  a 
height  of  1066  ft.  above  the  sea,  on  the  southern  sk>pe  of  a  hill, 
facing  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  older  (eastem)  part  of  the  town 
the  streets  are  narrow,  steep  and  winding,  but  the  new  portion 
(westem)  is  laid  out  in  accordance  with  modem  French  ideas. 
It  possesses  a  remarkably  mild  and  salubrious  climate,  and  b 
well  supplied  with  water.  That  used  for  the  purpose  of  the 
factories  comes  from  the  fine  spring  of  Foux.  But  the  drinking 
water  used  in  the  higher  portions  of  the  town  flows,  by  means  of 
a  conduit,  from  the  Foulon  stream,  one  of  the  sources  of  the 
Loup.  Grasse  was  from  1244  (when  the  see  was  transferred 
hither  from  Antibes)  to.  1^90  an  episcopal  see,  but  was  then 
included  in  the  diocese  of  Fr6jus  till  z86o,  when  politically  as 
well  as  ecclesiastically,  the  region  was  annexed  to  the  newly- 
formed  department  of  the  Alpes.  Maritimes.  It  still  possesses  a 
13th-century  cathedral,  now  a  simple  parish  churdi;  while  an 
andent  tower,  of  tmcertain  date,  rises  dose  by  near  the  towa 
hall,  which  was  formerly  the  bishop's  palace  .('3^  century). 
There  is  a  good  town  library,  containing  the  muniments  of  the 
abbey  of  L^rins,  on  the  island  of  St  Honorat  of^iosite  Cannes. 
In  the  chapd  of  the  old  hospital  are  three  pictures  by  Rubens. 
The  painter  J.  H.  Fragonard  (1732-1806)  was  a  native  of  Grasse, 
and  some  of  his  best  works  were  formerly  to  be  seen  here  (now 
in  America).  Grasse  b  particulariy  cdebrated  for  its  perfumery. 
Oranges  and  roses  are  cultivated  abundantly  in  the  neighbour* 
hood.  It  b  stated  that  the  preparation  of  attar  of  roses  (which 
costs  nearly  £xOo  per  a  lb)  requires  alone  nearly  7,000,000  roses 
a  year,  llie  finest  quality  of  olive  oil  b  also  manufactured  at 
Grasse.  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

GRASSES.'  a  group  of  plants  possesnng  certain  characters  in 
common  and  constituting  a  family  (Gramineae)  of  the  dass 
Monocotyledons.  It  b  one  of  the  largest  and  most  widesp,read 
and,  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  the  most  important  family 
of  flowering  plants.  No  plant  b  correctly  termed  a  grass  which 
is  not  a  member  of  thb  family,  but  the  word  b  in  common 
language  also  used,  generally  in  combination,  for  many  plants  of 
widely  different  affinities  which  possess  some  resemUance  (often 
slight)  in  foliage  to  tme  grasses;  e.g.  knot^^rass  {Polygonum 
aviculare),  cotton-grass  (JErtapAontm),  rib-grass  (Plantago)f 
scorpion-grass  {MyosoUs),  blue-eyed  grass  {SisyrindHum),  atA- 
grass  (Zostera),  The  grass-tree  of  Australia  (Xanikorrkeea)  b  a 
remarkable  plant,  allied  to  the  rushes  in  the  form  of  its  flower,  but 
with  a  tall,  unbranched,  soft-woody,  palm-like  trank  bearing  a 
crown  of  long,  narrow,  grass-like  leaves  and  stalked  heads  of 
small,  densely-crowded  ^wers.  In  agriculture  the  word  has  an 
extended  signification  to  indude  the  various  fodder-plants, 
chiefly  leguminous,  often  called  "artificial  grasses."  Indeed, 
formerly  grass  (also  sp^  gwrs,  gres^  gyrs  in  the  <Ad  berbab) 
meant  any  green  herbaceous  plant  of  small  size. 

Yet  the  first  attempts  at  a  dassification  of  {dants  recognized 
and  separated  a  group  of  Gramina,  and  thb,  though  bounded  by 
nothing  more  definite  than  habit  and  general  appearance, 
contained  the  Gramineae  of  modem  botanbts.  The  older  group, 
however,  even  with  such  systematists  as  Ray  (1703),  Scheucbser 
(1719),  and  Michel!  (1729),  embraced  in  addition  the  Cyperaceae 

*  The  word  "  erass  "  (O.  Eng.  gars,  gras)  b  common  to  Teutonic 
languages,  cf.  Dutch  Gcr.  Goth,  gras,  Dan.  grtes;  the  root  b  the 
O.  Tcut.  gra%  gro-,  to  increase,  whence  "  grow,"  and  "  green,"  the 
typical  colour  of  growing  vegetation.  The  Indo-European  root  b 
seen  in  Lat.  gramen.  The  O.  Eng.  grasian,  formed  from  grtss,  gives 
*'  to  graze,"  of  cattle  feeding  on  erowing  herbage,  also  "  grazier/* 
one  who  grazes  or  feeds  cattle  tor  the  market;  "  to  graze."  to 
abrade,  to  touch  lightly  in  passing,  may  be  a  development  01  thb 
from  the  idea  of  close  cropping;  if  it  ia  to  be  dtstingubned  a  pos«ble 
connexion  may  be  found  with  "  glace  "  (Fr.  gUuer,  glide,  flip,  Lati 
^acieSt  ice),  to  glance  off,  the  change  in  form  being  influenced  by 
^  grate,"  to  scrape,  scratch  (Fr.  gratters  Ger.  ikralsMj. 


370  UK/ 

(Sedge  lunily),  JuDEiccac  (Ruifa  facaSy),  ud  loine  otlier  mono- 
Cotylcdan*  witb  incoiuiHcuoui  flowcn.  SiDgularly  enough,  the 
•CIUll  lyittm  of  LjniiMui  Ulss)  »rv«l  to  maik  off  moie  dis- 
tinctly the  true  groso  from  thnc  alUes,  unce  very  nearly  all 
o(  the  former  then  known  IcU  under  hii  TriudriB  Digynia,  whitit 
tlie  luter  found  thenuelves  under  hii  olba  tlmaaa  and  ocdcn. 

I.  SnucTUU,— The  general  type  ol  true  gnuea  ij  [sniiliit  in 
the  cdlivated  cerodi  of  tetnpenile  dimiia— when,  barley, 
lye,  oat>,  and  in  the  voaJIer  ptania  which  malie  up  pasture!  and 
meadow*  and  fonn  a  principal  factor  of  the  lurf  ol  natural 
downa.  Lea  f  ajniliai  are 
maize,  millet  and  lorgho,  or  the  iugar-cane. 
moved  ve  the  bambooi  of  the  tropics,  the  coluranar  items  of 
which  reach  to  the  height  of  forat  iceo.    All  are,  however, 

ffosf. — Most  cereali  and  many  other  gnnca  are  aanual,  and 
poneia  a  tuft  of  very  numeioiu  Blender  rool-fibtc*,  much  bnuKhed 
and  ol  gnat  tengtL  Tbe  majority  of  the  member*  ol  the  lamily 
tre  of  longer  duntlOD,  and  have  the  rooti  abo  fibrous,  but  fewer, 
thicker  and  leu  bnnched.  In  nich  caiei  they  are  very  generally 
given  off  froQl  just  above  each  node  [oltcn  in  a  circle^  ol  the  lower 
part  of  the  *tem  or  rhizome,  perforating  the  Jeaf-Bheatbl.  In 
■ome  bamboo«  they  are  very  numerous  from  the  lover  nodes  ol 
the  erect  culms,  and  pasi  downwards  to  the  BOil,  whilst  thoie  frmn 
tiie  upper  nodesshrivel  up  and  lorm  circle*  of  ipiny  fibres 

Sim. — The  underground  Item  or  roolstock  (rhizome)  of 
pereuiia!  psiaa  is  usually  well  developed,  and  oltCD  fonn*  very 


Tm. 


loitg  creeping  or  Bubterranean  rhizomes,  with  elongated  inter' 
node*  and  sheathing  scales;  the  widely-creeping,  slendei 
ihiiomei  in  Marram-grasi  (Piamma),  Ap^tyiitm  juHceum 
Elymut  arinariui,  and  other  sand-loving  plants  render  their 
useful  as  land-bindcn.  Il  la  also  frequently  ahorl,  with  thi 
nodes  crowded.  The  turf-lormation,  which  is  characterislii 
ol  open  utuation*  in  cool  temperate  climates,  results  fmm  ar 
cztensive  production  of  short  stolons,  the  branches  and  tht 
fibrous  roots  developed  from  their  nodes  lorming  the  densi 
"  sod,"  The  very  large  rhiiome  of  the  bambooi  (fig.  1}  ii  alst 
a  striking  eiample  ol  "  definite  "  growth;  it  is  much  branched 
the  abort,  thick,  curved  branches  being  given  oS  below  the  apei 
oltheoldcr  ones  ant' 


re  Ion 


lolct 


Erlyco 


lectedar 


10  leafy  cu 


le  usual  inti 
donous  slem.  In  the  cases  of  branching  ]i 
break  directly  through  the  ahcath  of  the  1< 
which  they  arise.  In  other  casa  the  bn 
lluDugb  the  sheaths 


,.   Thcr 


and  emerging  u 


:lj  split  Iro, 


lulled  bi 


Good  eiampIe*  arc  the  oat,  cock's-loot  {Daclylii)  and  other 
British  graisc*.  TTiis  mode  ol  growth  is  Ihe  cause  ol  the  "  tiller- 
ing "  of  cereals,  or  the  production  ol  a  large  number  o(  erect 
growing  branches  from  the  lower  nodes  of  the  young 
Isohitcd  tufts  or  tuisocks  are  also  chatacleristic  of  sleppe— and 
savanna— vegetalioa  and  open  places  generally  In  the  wi 
[■am  ol  the  eaith. 


The  aerial  leal-bearlog  brancbe*  (culms)  are  a  charactsiitk 
ature  of  grasses.    They  are  generally  numennu,  erect,  cylin- 

rical  (rarely  fiittened}  ud  con^icuouily  jointed  with  eviikot 
ids.  The  nodes  an  solid,  a  strong  ^te  of  tiame  passing 
Toai  the  stem,  but  the  Inlemodes  an  commonly  hollow,  ilthou^ 
[smplesolcoDipleldy  solid  stem*  are  not  uncommon  (i.i.  nuite, 
any  Andn^wgoo*,  *ugar-canel.  The  swollen  node*  are  ■ 
leature.  In  wheat,  barley  and  most  of  the 
grasses  they  are  a  development,  not  of  the  culm, 
le  ol  the  leaf-sheath.  The  lunctiOD  of  the  nodes 
I  which  have  become  bent  down;  tlK7  are 
tpoaed  of  highly  tutgescent  tissue,  the  cells  of  whkb  elongate 
on  the  side  neit  the  earth  when  the  culm  is  placed  in  a  boriiontal 
or  oblique  position,  and  thus  raise  the  culm  again  to  an  erect 
position.    The  intemodcs  continue  to  grow  in  length,  eqwdally 

at  the  entreme  base,  juit  above  the  node.  The  ezlerior  ol  the 
culms  ii  more  dr  less  concealed  by  the  Ical-sheatbs;  it  is  usually 
smooth  and  often  highly  polished,  the  epidermal  cells  containing 
an  amount  of  lilica  BuffuHent  10  leave  after  burning  a  disiiiHt 
skeleton  of  their  structure.  Tahasheer  is  a  white  aubstsnce 
mainly  composed  of  silica,  loimdin  the  joinlsofacveral  bamboo*. 
A  fe«  of  the  lower  intemodes  may  become  enlarged  and  sub- 
globular,  forming  nut rimcnt-it ores,  and  grasses  so  characterized 
are  termed  "  bulbous  "  (ArrkeiwlMertim,  Paa  butbeto,  &c-).  In 
internal  structure  gross-culms,  save  In  being  boUow,  <oidotm 
to  that  usual  in  monocoIytedODS;  the  VMCulai  bundle*  run 
parallel  in  the  intemoda,  but  a  horizontal  jntetiacimeni  occur* 
at  the  nodes.     In  grasses  of  temperate  climates  branching  is 


1  of  the  > 


ly  tro(ncal  grasses.  The  branches  an 
strictly  distichous.  In  many  bamboos  they  art  long  and  Qnead- 
ing  or  drooping  and  coiHOusly  ramified,  in  others  they  are 
reduced  to  hooked  spines,  (tee  genus  (DinacUoa,  a  native 
of  the  Malay  archipelago)  is  icandcnt,  and  climbs  over  tree* 
ISO  ft,  or  more  In  height,  Olyra  lali/elia,  a  widely-qiread 
tropical  Bpcdes,  is  also  a  climber  on  a  humbler  scale. 

Gtass-culms  grow  with  great  rapidity,  as  11  most  sinking 
seen  in  bamboos,  where  a  hej^t  of  over  100  ft.  Is  attained  id 
from  two  to  three  months,  and  many  q>edcs  grow  two,  Ibne  or 
even  more  Icct  in  twenty-four  hours,  Silidc  hardening  doei  not 
begin  till  the  full  height  Is  nearly  attained.  Tlie  laigest  bamlioo 
recorded  is  170  ft.,  and  the  dianietcr  is  usually  reckoned  at  about 
4  in,  to  each  so  ft. 

Ijom, —  These  present  special  characters  usually  tufiidcnl 
for  ordinal  determination.  They  ate  solitary  St  each  node  and 
arranged  in  two  rows,  the  lower  olten  crowded,  forming  a  basal 
tuft.  They  consist  of  two  dlilincl  portioni,  the  sheath  and  Ihe 
blade.  The  sheath  Is  often  of  great  length,  and  generally  mm- 
plelely  surrounds  the  culm,  forming  a  firm  protection  lor  the 
inteniode,  the  younger- basal  portion  of  which,  including  tbe 
zone  of  growth,  remains  lender  lor  some  time.  A>  a  tide  it  is 
split  down  its  whole  length,  thus  diSciing  Irora  that  of  Cypcraceae 
which  is  altnoBt  invariably  {Etioipora  is  an  exception)  a  complete 
tube;  In  some  grasses,  however  (species  of  Poa,  BrenHU  and 
others),  the  edges  are  united.  The  shcnibs  an  much  diUled 
in  Ahptamt  Toptulus  and  in  a  qiedeB  ol  i'sbmucUM,  in  Ibe 
latter,  an  East  Indian  aquatic  grass,  serving  as  flcuts.  At  the 
summit  of  the  sheath,  above  tbc  origin  of  the  blade,  is  the 
titfli,  a  usually  membranous  process  of  small  size  (occsskaially 
reaching  i  in.  in  length)  erect  and  [iressed  around  the  (uln. 
It  is  rarely  quite  absent,  but  may  he  represented  by  a  tuft  of 
hairs  (very  consplcumls  in  Pariana).  It  serves  to  prrvent 
rain-water,  which  has  run  down  the  blade,  from  entoing  tbo 
sheath.  if<Jica  mifera  has  in  addition  to  Ihe  Ugule,  a  gnen 
erect  tongue-like  proceia,  bom  the  line  of  tunctfaw  ol  the  edga 
ol  the  sheath. 

The  blade  fa  Iteqitently  w 
the  basal  leaves,  but  In  Ihe  tei 
at  an  angle.    The  usual  lorm 
ribbon-shaped,  tapering  ti 
The  chief  n 


long  and  act  on  to  the  sheath 
amllisi — •csille,  mote  or  Irs 
Dt,  and  enlite  at  the  edge. 
.tticulatloa  of  Ihe  d   " 


Uid>  in  to  the  tbeilh,  *hich  occnn  In  iH  the  Bambuioe 
(oopt  Pkawtia)  ud  b  Spartina  ilritln;  and  Ibc  inlttposition 
Bf  1  petiole  between  tbe  ihealh  and  the  blade,  ai  in  baaibcvis, 
LipUipii,  Pkam,  Pariana,  Lopkatkatim  and  otben.  In  the 
bller  c*M  the  leal  uiually  beconti  oval,  ovate  or  even  cotdaie 
or  ufitute,  bnt  these  lonni  an  found  in  iicssix  Icavs  alu 
{Olyra,  Paxinm).  Tbe  verutian  a  itiictly  paraltil,  the  midrib 
luiuOy  itraiig,  and  ihe  other  riba  more  ilender.  In  AnmuxUai 
Iboe  an  seven]  nearly  equal  ribi  and  in  lome  bioid-lcaved 
(naio  (£aiB£iuau,  Pkaia,  Ltplaipit)  the  venation  be 


coaaectini    > 


Fie.  I.— MaxnifiAtlraiiiveneteelion  „ 

of  ooe-balf  of  a  l»f-blade  of  FiiMa  face'  the 
nbrt.  The  dark  pDrtioiu  rcprntnt  i:_„'  fn 
nppoftiog  and  tonduclini  linue;    the  ,       jf 


Tbe 


upiXT  Biiface  oF  t] 
tbe  most  frequent 
teeth,    UKuaUy   min 


Tbe  thick  pro 
dm  in  Apt 
P)nim  occupy  the  wbole 
'  leaf.  Epidennal  appcodaga  are  tare, 
being  marginal,  lav-like,  cattilaginoui 
te,  but  occauonally  (AmUdnui  uabra, 
1  large  u  to  give  the  margin  a  Mtrate 
a  are  occavonally  iroolly,  aa  in  Alcfanrui 
o  FonicBi*!.  The  blade  ii  often  iwisted, 
freqaenlly  M  much  lo  that  the  upper  and  under  fica  become 
[evened.  In  dry-country  (rauee  the  blidei  are  olicn  folded 
on  ibe  midrib,  or  rolled  up.  The  ndUng  ii  eBected  by  bandi  of 
large  wedge-ihaped  ceUi—motor-celli— between  the  nenra, 
the  iofla  nf  turgtscencc  by  which,  ts  the  air  driei,  causei  tbe 
blade  to  curl  lowards  the  face  on  which  they  occur.  The  rolling 
up  acta  u  a  pmlection  froro  too  great  lou  of  water,  the  expoicd 
mface  being  qxcially  protected  to  (his  end  by  a  ilrong  cuticle, 
the  majority  or  ail  of  Che  stomata  occurring  on  the  protected 
tuifice.  Tbe  stiSncu  of  the  blade,  which  becomes  very  marked 
b  dry-country  graues.  it  due  to  the  development  of  girden  of 
thick-walled  medmical  tissue  which  fidlow  tbe  course  of  all 
n  the  principal  veins  (fig,  j). 

I%^afattnc€. — This  possesses  an  eicepllonal  importance  in 
grasse*.  since,  their  Ootal  envelopes  being  much  reduced  and  the 
■einal  organs  of  very  great  uniformity,  the  characters  employed 
for  classi&cation  are  mainly  derived  from  the  arrangement  of 
tbe  flowers  and  their  jnvesling  bracts.  Various  bterpretations 
bavc  been  ^ven  to  these  glumaceous  organs 
OBployed  for  them  by  various  wrilen.     It 


Flc.  J— One-Bowered       Flo.  4.— Two-tlowcred  ipikeltt 

spikdec  oC^pgUii.  ofilin. 

t.  Barren  gluniet;  /,  fiowciiiig  glumes.  (Both  eolarEnl.) 
uouideted  o  settled  that  tbe  whole  of  the  bodies  known  as 
Chdies  and  paJeae,  and  distichously  arranged  externally  to 
the  flower,  form  no  part  of  the  floral  envelopes,  but  are  of  the 
nalore  of  bract*.  These  are-  ainnged  so  as  to  form  ipiktiili 
(lociistie),  and  each  siukelet  miy  contain  one,  as  in  Aposlii 
(fig.  3)  two,  as  in  Aira  (fig.  4}  three,  01  a  great  number  of 
flowed  asm  Braa  (Ag.  i)  TrilUum  (fig.  6)1  In  some  species  of 
BnpnUi  there  are  nearly  60.  The  i^owen  are,  as  a  mie,  placed 
blenlly  «a  tbe  aiis(rac*iAi)D(  the  spikelet.  but  in  one-flowered 
liakdeu  iJwy  ^ipeat  to  be  terminal,  and  an  probably  really 


b  Aalkna*Aiim  (Eg.  7)  utd  la  two  awnuloii*  geaeft, 
jmockiea  and  Slriplndiatla. 

n  immediate  relation  with  the  flower  tself  and  Dflea  enuidy 
cealing  it,  is  the  ^ea  01  fii/i("  upper  pale  of  moat  tjftlt' 
icagrpMologist*).  This  organ  (fig.  13  1)  is  peculiar  to  gnsHS 


Fto.  c— Spikelei  of  IVthnBii. 

g  Glumiflorae  (tbe  series  lo  which  belong  the  twofamllh* 
incae  and  Cypeticue),  aod  ii  almost  always  present, 
n  Oryieae  and  PkaiawiJta* 


but  has  two  lateral  one. 

either  side;  the  margins  are  fre' 

quently  folded  in  at  tbe  ribs 

which  thus  become  placed  at  the 

sh»p  angles.   This  stnic  lure  was 

formerly  regarded  as  pointing  to 

tbe  fusion  of  two  otgans,  and 

(he    pale    was    considered    by 

Robert  Brown  (0  rtprejenl  two 

portions  soldered  together  of  ■ 

Itlmcrous    perianth  -  whorl,  the 

third  portion  being  the  "  lower 

pale,"     The  pale  is  now  gener- 
ally considered  to  represent    ' 

single    bracteole,     characteri 

of  Monocotyledons,  the  binerved 

being  the  result  of  the  pressure  of  the  aiit  of  tha 

spikelet  during  the  development  of  the  pale,  as  in  Irit  and  otbeis. 
The  flower  with  its  pale  is  sessile,  and  is  placed  in  the  aiil  of 
noiher  bract  in  lucb  a  way  that  tbe  pale  la  eiaclly  opposed 
o  it,  though  at  a  slightly  higher  level.  It  Is  this  KODnd  bract 
lUy  called  by  sj 


,— Spikelet  of  AnOa- 
glumei  Q) andthe flow. 


onsidcred  « 


"  lower  pale," 


iithe" 


lerly 


in  an  outer  floral  envelope  ("  calyx,"  Jusaieu 


The  flowering  gtun 


lappearai 


r.  (e.r.  r 


or  less  boat^haped 


has  generally  a  more 

rm,  IB  01  torn  cmisistence,  and  possesses  a  welJ-mara«l  central 

idrib  and  frequently  several  lateral  ones.    Tbe  midrib  in  a 

rge  proportion  of  genera  extends  bto  an  appendage  termed 

the  am  (fig.  4),  and  the  lateral  veins  more  rarely  extend  beyond 
'  e  glume  as  sharp  pobta  [e.g.  Puffoplianim).  The  form  of  tbe 
iwering  glume  is  very  various,  this  organ  being  plastic  and 
tensivcly  modified  b  diilerent  genera.  It  frequently  extendi 
iwnwards  a  little  on  the  rachOla,  lormbg  with  the  latter  a 
'oilen  callus,  which  is  separated  fmm  the  free  portion  by  a 
rrow.  In  Ltplaipii  it  is  formed  Into  a  closed  cavity  by  the 
lion  of  its  edges,  and  encloses  the  flower,  the  styles  projecting 

through  the  pervious  summit.  Valuable  characters  for  dis- 
'  iguishing  genera  are  obtained  from  the  awn.  This  presents 
elf  variously  developed  from  a  mere  subulate  point  to  an 
gan  several  inches  in  length,  and  when  complete  (as  in  Anirt- 
lencai,   Avtatai  and  Sllpeat)   ninilltaaf   two   well-marked 

portions,  *  lower  twisted  part  aiid  1  letminaJ  straight  portion, 


372  CKJl 

tmiSy  let  Id  It  ta  ugla  witb  the  fanner,  mmttlmtt  trifid  ind 
occuioiuUy  beutiCully  fcitbeiy  (£e,  8).  Tbe  lower  put  is  mist 
often  EupT^eoed,  And  in  the  Urge  froap  of  the  Paaiceat  swiu 
of  uiy  •OTt  are  very  TBidy  Ken.  Hic  swn  may  be  either  tenninil 
oi  uaty  come  oS  from  the  back  of  the  £oweiiiig  glume,  and 
Dnvil  Jouvc'*  Dbaemliom  have  Bbows  that  it  reproenu  the 
tdide  of  tiK  leaf  of  which  the  ponioa  ol  the 
flowering  iliune  beknr  iu  oiiglu  Ii  the  ahcsth; 
iristed  part  (n  ofteo  surfmsKd)  oim- 
li  with  the  p«tide,  ud  the  portion  of 
Jnme  encDdini  beyond  the  ori^  of 
Ibe  awn  (vsy  long  In  tome  ipedei,  >.;.  of 
VamiAffnia)  with  the  ligule  of  the  developed 
foUage-leaf.  When  terminal  the  awn  haa 
Ihree  fibro-viflcular  bundies,  when  donal 
only  one;  it  is  ceveied  with  Uomate-beaiing 

The  Bowei  with  its  pilea  ti  thia  Ksute  in 
the  uil  of  a  Oorifeious  glume,  and  in  i  few 
(leeriH  (hg.  g),  CelaiiAui,  Nardia) 
the  qjikJelct  consist)  of  nbthtng  mon,  but 
usually  (even  in  uniflorous  (pikelets)  other 
gtuma  are  present.     Of  Iboe  Ibe  two  placed 
distichoiuly  opposite  each  other  at  the  btM 
of  the  ipikelet  never  bear  any  flower  in  their 
**      ijid  aie  called  the  einfily  or  hantti 
fliHwi  (£p.  },  8).    They  ate  the  "  ^umei " 
of  moat  wiiters,  and  together  fonn  what 
Wsl  called  the   "glume"   by   R.   Brown. 
Tbcy  rarely  differ  much  from  one  another, 
but    one    may    be    smallet   or    quite 
absent  IPankum,  Stlaria  (fig.  lo),  Pm- 
'  '■     ■    or  both  be  altogether 
»ve  noticed.    They  are 
ind  strong,  often  enclose 
the  spikclet,  and  ore  rarely  provided  with 
long  poults  or  imperfect  awni.    Gener- 
ally speaking  they  do  not  ahare  In  the 
qxcial  modifications  of  the  flowering 
glumes,  and  rarely  Ibemselves  undergo 
.   chiefly   in   hardening   of 
portiona  [Selimiknc,  Jfmtniru,  Anile- 


pkera,  PdlapkBnim),  so 

a  few  other  empty  ones,  and  these  are 
^likelets  [see  Trilicuiii,  fig.  6)  at  the  to 
ous  ia  LepkalJiinim),  or  in  uniflorous 
ioterposed  lietween  the  floral  glume  ani 

The  ails  d(  Ihe  ^likelet  is  frequenil 
ialo  articulations  above  each  flower,  'i  uiis  or  ooroeis  oi  nairi 
are  frequently  present  ICaJamapBiUi,  PMraimita,  Androfenrni, 
and  are  often  bo  long  as  to  surround  and  conceal  Ibe  flowen 
(hg.  ti).  Tbe  axis  is  often  continued  lieyoad  the  last  flower  or 
glume  ai  a  btiatic  or  stalk. 

ImtUacra  er  otgani  outside  Ibe  ^likelet*  atao  occur,  and  an 


.0  aSord  greater  protection  to  the 
3  (fig,  lo)  below  and 


jointed  and  breaks  np 


these  become  CDSSolidsled,  and  Ihe  inner 

to  form  a  very  hard  globular  qiiay  case  i 

cup-shaped  involucre  oI  ComuDpis 

is   a   dilatation   oC   the   axis   into 

a   twflow   receptacle    with   a   raised 

border,     la   Cytunma   (Dog's  Uil)      \ 

tike  pectinate  fnvcducre  which   con-  ^_| 

cealfl    the   qrikelet    is   a   barren   or 

abortive  ipikelet.    Bracts  of  a  more 

general  character  subtendiag  blanches 

of   the    inflorescence   arc   Kngularly 

rare  in  Gnnmeae,  in  marked  con- 

traai  with  Cypeiaceae,  where  they  ate 

■0  conspicuous.   They  however  occur 

in  a  whole  section  of  AndiofttP"-  in   .„ 

AmmacUoa,  and  at  Itie  base  of  the  mi 

^ke  in  Strata.     Tbe   remarkable  '■ 

ovoid  involucre  of  Ceii,  which  be-  '■' 

comes  of  stony  hardness,  white  and 

polished    (then    kaown    aa    "Job's 

tears,"  q.v.),  is  also  a  modifledbract 

or  leaf-sheatb.     It  ia  closed  oicept 

tbe  apex,   aad   coatains  tbe  fenu 

spikelet,  tbe  stalks  of  Ihe  male  inflorescence  and  Ihe  hmg  ttyle* 

emerging  tbiDUgh  tbe  small  apical  orifice. 

Any  number  of  spikelets  may  compote  Ihe  inflorescence,  and 
their  arrangement  i>  very  various.  In  the  tpicate  forms,  with 
sessile  spikcleis  on  Ihe  maia  aiii,  the  latter  ii  often  dilated  and 
flillened   {Paitalum),  or  is  more  or  Icsa  ,    /  / 

thickened  and  hollowed  out  (^IniMii^Ksi,        ,  I  J  Ml 
SsUtoellia,  Tritiaium),  when  the  Relets  r    /,/  />  |i«        y 
are  sunk  aad  buried  witUn  the  cavities.  ]    \  U  lli\\  / 
Every  varieljr  of  racemose  and  paniculate    1.  ■■V^i'.UvV^.^ 
inflorescence  obtains,  and  the  number  oi  \,    .  ■■"  V^^JK 
spikelels  composing  those  of  the  large  kinds        '  -^  -Je^^ 

consists  of  very  few  flowers;  thus  Lyttmm  Flo.  li.— Saltein 
Spvtum,  the  most  anomalous  of  European  olCtnchnitcinmatmt 
grasses,  has  but  two  or  three  large  uni-  f™^"^ "'  *  '™«'y 
florous  si^kelets,  which  are  fused  logetber  """""crr. 
at  tbe  base,  and  have  no  basal  glumes,  but  are  envek^ied  in  a 
tatge,  hooded,  apaifae-like  bract. 

Pleif. — This  it  cbaractetized  by  reitiariiaMe  naifonnit> 
The  perianth  it  reproented  by  very  rudimentaiy.  imall,  Beahy 
scales  ariaing  below  the  ovary,  called  ladiadoi  Xbiy  ait  elongalcd 


Fio.  1}.— FiDwen  o(  Gnsss  (enlaised).    I,  FiplaOienim,  with  ^ 

palea^;  l.Pta;  i,Oryte,  I.  Lodkute. 
or  truncMe,  sometimes  fringed  with  bain,  and  are  In  contact 
with  the  ovary.  Their  usual  number  is  two,  and  they  are  placed 
collaterally  at  the  anterior  side  of  tbe  Sower  (fig.  ij,)  that  is, 
within  tbe  flowetiag  glume.  They  are  generally  conddBcd  to 
npreaent  the  imer  whori  of  tbe  onUoary  mooocolyledanota 


GRASSES 


a)  (wiUiitli,  tlie  outer  wboil  or  tlmt  bdag  lappisieil 
a  wdlu  tfaeposteriocmcmberof  tbeionaHboii  TMi  Utur 
ii  pcocnt  1101011  nmMiiUly  in  StiftiU  lod  Bawthacat,  vhlcb 
bave  thnc  lodlcuki,  uut  in  the  Utt«  group  they  uc  omulaiuilly 
more  naatno*.  Id  A  nomoddoa  th^  ire  RpRseoted  by  hiirt. 
In  SInflodUeta  then  ire  bx  lodJcuEo,  alienutdy  urui^ed 
la  tuO  vhoriL  Somctlma,  u  in  AniJtoxaniJmm.  ihej  aic 
■hient.  In  tfdica  then  ii  one  taigc  aatnku  lodiculc  nnltiiig 
pKsUBibly  from  tbe  union  ol  (he  im  wblch  are  praent  Id  illleil 
genen.  Pinfoior  E.  Huckd,  hovevei,  ngud)  tUi  tt  u 
nndiviilcd  Kcond  pale,  wbicb  in  the  nujority  ol  the  gruMi  l> 
■put  Id  halves,  uul  the  poiierior  lodicide,  when  prcKnC,  u  ■ 
thin]  pale-  On  thi)  view  tbe  iTSB-flowcr  has  no  perianth^ 
The  htnclion  ol  tbe  lodiculei  ii  the  ■epultion  of  the  pale  and 
^ume  to  allow  tbe  protnidon  of  itamcna  u»l  ititnuui  tbcy 
effect  Ibii  by  iwtUing  and  thus  gteHlB|  prenure  on  the  but  i^ 
iheK  two  stnictnnt.  Where,  uin  italfowiUjhM,  Iheteaieno 
lodiculei,  pak  and  gluDM  do  Dot  becoDW  latenUy  aepkratedi 
vid  tbe  Mtmmi  uid  Mignui  pratiude  only  at  ibe  apea  ol  tbe 
Born  (fi(.  j).  Cn»A>iRn  are  uiually  hermaphnxlite,  but 
there  we  very  many  eiceptiani.  Tbua  it  la  onnnian  to  find  one 
<tr  more  imperfect  (usually  male)  floweii  in  tbe  aame  a^Hkelet 
with  biteiua]  ODCB,  and  thdr  relative  position  b  important 
.  Helcui  and  ArrkenallUnim  are  eiaitipta  in 
a  rule  In  tpedes  of  temperate  refiani 


•epanl 


f  tbe  * 


i  further. 


unlriet  monoedom  and  di 
In  tudk  caiea  the  male  and  tcmale  apikeleta  and  InBoreacence 
may  be  very  dtiaimitai,  ai  in  mala,  Job's  tean.  EnJllatna, 
Spitii/a,  &c;  and  b  some  dioedous  qwdea  thli  dissmilariiy 
baa  led  to  tbe  two  tean  being  referred  to  different  genera  (t.g. 
Aniit/ttra  a^i/tara  I)  the  female  of  BuMh  daOyhida, 
•nd  Sandme  fatadta  ol  a  apedca  of  Spinija).  In  other 
graMet,  however,  with  Ibe  laei  in  diSereal  planti  ((,f.  Brao- 
fynrn,  DiititUa,  Enptilit  (tpiiata,  Cywrim],  do  lucb 
dfrnofphiBn  obtajna.  A  mfUartum  ii  remarkable  in  having 
cMatofamic  tlowen  home  on  long  radical  sublenanean  pedundea 
wbidi  are  fcnik,  wbibl  the  auuiicuoui  upper  panicuJale  anea, 
tlng^  apparently  perfect,  never  produce  IruiL  Something 
aiokilar  occur*  in  Leeriia  oryKidts,  where  Ibe  fettde  qiikeleti 
■le  coocenM  within  the  ieaf-iheatlo. 

Ai^etciHm. — In  the  vait  mtjority  there  are  three  uaraem 
■Itemaiing  with  the  lodiculei,  and  tberelore  one  anterior,  {^. 
oppodte  the  Dowering  glume,  the  other  two  being  poiierior  and 
in  contact  with  the  palea  (£g.  i],  r  and  >).  "niey  are  hypo- 
gyDona,  artd  have  long  and  very  delicate  £lamcnta,  and  large, 
linear  or  djtong  iwo-celled  anihetl,  doni£led  and  ultimately 
TOT  vemtUe,  deeply  indenled  at  each  end,  and  comnunly 
euened  and  pendulous.    SuppteMlon  of  the  anterior  itamen 

onetmay  be  absent  (Umioltt,  Cima,  Pkippiia.FiUiica  imtuidti). 
There  b  in  some  genera  (Orjsa,  moat  Bambuiat)  anolherrow  ol 
three  stamens,  "^py'^f  lix  In  all  [fig,  13,  3};  and  Ancwuddea  and 
TilTarTlmu  poveai  four.  The  atameoi  become  numerous  (ten 
to  forty)  in  the  male  Aowen  of  a  few  moDoedoua  genen  {Pariena, 
LmUa).  In  OMaidia  they  vary  from  Kvea  to  thiny,  and  in 
CigaiilKiUaa  tliey  are  moDaddpboua. 

(Srmaidmm. — Tbe  pistil  rauiiu  of  a  iln^  carpel,  oppoaite  tbe 
paJe  in  tlw  median  plane  of  (be  q>ikeleL  The  ovary  b  email, 
rounded  to  dHptical,  and  one-celled,  and  contains  a  single 
slightly  bent  ovule  sesile  on  the  ventral  anluic  (that  is,  qiiingiiig 
bom  the  back  aS  the  ovary);  the  mioopyle  points  downwards. 

connate  ai  the  base,  sometimes  for  ■  greater  length  (fig.  14,  i), 
eafh  ends  in  a  densdy  hairy  or  leathery  Higraa  (fig.  14).  Occa- 
sionally there  b  but  a  single  style,  at  in  JVimfiii  (fig.  14,  7),  which 
correspoDds  to  tbe  midrib  of  (he  ojpel.  The  very  long  and 
•ppuently  simple  tiigma  of  maiie  arises  from  the  iniloD  of  two. 
Hanjr  of  the  btmbooa  have  a  third,  anterior,  etyle. 

Comparing  the  Sower  of  Gramineae  with  the  general  mono- 
CDtyMMMMU  plan  as  R[Hcsen(ed  by  LlUaceae  aad  other  families 
(£<■  ■  i)*  !■  *iil  be  seen  to  difler  in  the  abaeoce  of  the  outer  row  ud 


whilsl  the  remaining  membert  of  (he  perianth  ar 
ary  oonditloD.  But  each  or  any  of  (be  unialj) 
are    to    be    found  _ 


and  PoKi 


ol  Ibe  tribes  Atdnpttntat,  fig.   18, 

tat),  and  fn  theK  tbe  male  flower  of  ■  splkelet 
loms  later  than  the  hermapbrodite,  to  that  its 
only  effect  cros-lertiliiatian  upon  other  ipikeleu 
le  or  another  plant.  Of  those  with  only  bisexual 
my  are  strongly  protogymus  (the  atlgmaa  protrud- 
ing before  the  antheri  are  lipe).  aucb  aa  Altftcma  and 
AHtkaaiiUnim  (fig.  7),  bat  genenlly  tbe  anther*  protrude  Grtt 
and  discbaige  the  greater  part  of  their  pollen  before  (he  stigmai 
appear,  Tbe  filaments  dongate  npidty  at  Bowcring.time,  and 
the  lightly  vemtUe  anthers  empty  an  abundance  of  findy 
granuUr  amoolh  pollen  through  a  longiludioal  allt.  Soma 
floweis,  such  ai  rye,  have  tost  the  power  o(  eSective  self-fertiliia- 
tion,  but  In  most  cases  both  forms,  sell-  and  croU'lettilliatioa, 
leem  to  be  possibte.  Thua  tbe  ipedes  of  wheat  are  usually  self* 
ferliliied,  but  ciDis-lntiliialion  a  poaiible  since  the  gtuma  sn 
open  above,  the  illgmaa  project  laterally,  and  the  anthers  empty 
only  about  one-tbitd  of  thdr  pollen  In  their  own  Aower  and 
the  rest  Into  the  air.  In  some  cultivated  taca  ol  barley,  odsb- 
feriiliiation  b  precluded,  at  the  floirers  never  open.  Reference 
hat  already  been  made  to  cletKogamic  ^iedt>  wblch  occur  Id 
several  genera. 

Fntii  and  Sad. — The  ovary  ripens  into  a  usually  small  ovoW 
or  rounded  fruit,  which  b  entirdy  occupied  by  the  single  targe 
seed,  fiom  which  it  b  not  to  be  (Anguished,  the  thin  pericarp 
bdng  completely  united  10  Its  surface.  To  thb  peculiar 
fruit  (he  term  aryefsit  bai  been  applied  (mote  (amiliarljr 
"  grain  "i;  It  b  commonly  furrowed  longiludlnilly  down  ooe 
side  (usually  the  Inner,  but  In  Csiz  and  its  aUIei,  the  oulef).  and 
an  additional  covering  la  r»t  unfrequently  provided  by  the 
■dbcKDca  ol  the  persistent  palea,  or  even  also  o(  the  flowoing 


374 


GRASSES 


glume  ("  chaff  "  of  cereals).  Tiom  this  type  are  a  few  deviations; 
thus  in  SporvMuSt  &c.  (fig.  i6),  the  pericarp  is  not  united  with 
the  seed  but  is  quite  distinct,  dehisces,  and  allows  the  loose  seed  to 
escape.  Sometimes  the  pericarp  is  membranous,  sometimes  hard, 
forming  a  nut,  as  in  some  genera  of  Bambuseae,  while  in  other 
Bambuseae  it  becomes  thick  and  fleshy,  forming  a  berry  often  as 

•  large  as  an  apple.  In  Mdocanna  the  berry  forms 
an  Mlible  fruit  3  or  4  in.  long,  with  a  pointed 
beak  of  3  in.  more;  it  is  indehiscent,  and  the 
small  seed  germinates  whilst  the  fruit  is  still 
attached  to  the  tree,  putting  out  a  tuft  of  roots 

p^Q^    ,^ and  a  shoot,  and  not  falling  till  the  latter  is  6  in. 

Fruit  of  5;^o-  long.'  The  position  of  die  embryo  is  plainly 
dohu,  showing  visible  on  the  front  side  at  the  base  of  the  grain, 
the^  dehiscent  Qn  the  other,  posterior,  side  of  the  grain  is  a 
perarp  ana  ^^^  ^^  ^esi  evident,  sometimes  punctiform, 
sometimes  elongated  or  linear  mark,  the  hilum, 
the  place  where  the  ovule  was  fastened  to  the  wall  of  the  ovary. 
The  form  of  the  hilum  is  constant  throughout  a  genus,  and 
sometimes  also  in  whole  tribes. 

The  testa  is  thin  and  membranous  but  occasionally  coloured, 
and  the  embryo  small,  the  great  bulk  of  the  seed  being  occupied 
by  the  hard  farinaceous  endoq>erm  (albumen)  on  which  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  grain  depends.  The  outermost  layer  of 
endosperm,  the  aleuron-layer,  consists  of  regular  cells  filled  with 
small  proteid  granules;  the  rest  is  made  up  of  large  polygonal 
cells  containing  numerous  starch-grains  in  a  matrix  of  proteid 
which  may  be  continuous  (homy  endosperm)  or  granular  (mealy 
endosperm).  The  embryo  presents  many  points  of  interest.  Its 
position  is  remarkable,  closely  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
endosperm  at  the  base  of  its  outer  side.  This  character  is 
absolute  for  the  whole  order,  and  effectually  separates  Gramineae 
from  Cyperaceae.  The  part  in  contact  with  the  endosperm  is 
plate-like,  and  is  known  as  the  scuidlum;  the  surface  in  contact 
with  the  endosperm  forms  an  absorptive  epithelium.  In  some 
grasses  there  is  a  small  scale-like  appendage  opposite  the  scutel- 
lum,  the  epiblast.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  which 
structure  or  structures  represent  the  cotyledon.  Three  must  be 
considered:  (i)  the  scutellum,  connected  by  vascular  tissue 
with  the  vascular  cylinder  of  the  main  axis  of  the  embryo  which 
it  more  or  less  envelops;  it  never  leaves  the  seed,  serving 
merely  to  prepare  and  absorb  the  food-stuff  in  the  endosperm; 
(2)  the  cellular  outgrowth  of  the  axis,  the  epiblast,  small  and 
inconspicuous  as  in  wheat,  or  larger  as  in  Stipa;  (3)  the  pileole 
or  germ-sheath,  arising  on  the  same  side  of  the  axis  and  above  the 
scuteUum,  enveloping  the  plumule  in  the  seed  and  appearing 
above  ground  as  a  generally  colourless  sheath  from  the  apex  of 
which  the  plumule  ultimately  breaks  (fig.  x  7, 4 ,  b).  The  develop- 
ment of  these  structures  (which  wasinvestigated  by  van  Tieghem), 


Fio.  17.— A  Grab  of  Wheat,  i,  back,  and  3,  front  view;  3, 
vertical  section,  showing  (h)  the  endosperm,  and  (a)  embryo;  4, 
beginning  of  germination,  showing  U>)  the  pileole  and  (c)  the  radicle 
and  secondary  rootlets  surrounded  by  their  coleorrhizae. 

especially  in  relation  to  the  origin  of  the  vascular  bundles  which 
supply  them,  favours  the  view  that  the  scutellum  and  pileole  are 
highly  differentiated  parts  of  a  single  cotyledon,and  this  view  is  in 
accord  with  a  comparative  study  of  the  seedling  of  grasses  and 
of  other  monocotyledons.  The  epiblast  has  been,  regarded  as 
representing  a  second  cotyledon,  but  this  is  a  very  doubtful 
interpretation. 

CerminalioH. — ^In  germination  the  coleorhiza  lengthens, 
ruptures  the  pericarp,  and  fixes  \bt  grain  to  the  ground  by 


developing  numerous  hairs.  The  radicle  then  breaks  thtoqgli 
the  coleorhiza,  as  do  also  the  secondary  rootlets  where,  as  in 
the  case  of  many  cereals,  these  have  been  formed  in  the  embryo 
(fig.  Z7,  4).  The  germ-^heath  grows  vertically  upwards,  its 
stiff  apex  pushing  through  the  soil,  while  the  plumule  is  hidden 
in  its  hollow  interior.  Finally  the  plumule  escapes,  its  leaves 
successively  breaking  through  at  the  tip  of  the  germ-sheath. 
The  scutellum  meanwhile  feeds  the  developing  embryo  from 
the  endosperm.  The  growth  of  the  primary  root  is  limited; 
sooner  or  later  adventitious  roots  develop  from  the  axis  above 
the  radicle  which  they  ultimately  exceed  in  growth. 

Means  of  Distribution, — Various  methods  of  scattering  the 
grain  have  been  adopted,  in  which  parts  of  thesptkelet  or  in* 
florescence  are  concerned.  Short  ^>ikes  may  fall  from  the 
culm  as  a  whole;  or  the  axis  of  a  spike  or  raceme  is  jointed  so 
that  one  spikelet  falls  with  each  joint  as  in  many  Andropogontam 
and  Hordeae.  In  many-flowered  spikdets  the  rachilla  is  often 
jointed  and  breaks  into  as  many  pieces  as  there  are  fruits,  each 
piece  bearing  a  glume  and  pale.  One-flowered  spikdets  may 
fall  as  a  whole  (as  in  the  tribes  Paniceae  and  Andropogoneae)^ 
or  the  axis  is  jointed  above  the  barren  glumes  so  that  only  the 
flowering  glume  and  pale  fall  with  the  fruit.  These  arrange- 
ments are,  with  few  exceptions,  lacking  in  cultivated  cereals 
though  present  in  thdr  wild  forms,  so  far  as  these  are  known. 
Such  arrangements  are  disadvantageous  for  the  complete  gather- 
ing of  the  fruit,  and  therefore  varieties  in  which  they  are  not 
present  would  be  preferred  for  cultivation.  The  per^stent 
bracts  (glume  and  pale)  afford  an  additional  protection  to  the^ 
fruit;  they  protect  the  embryo,  which  is  near  the  surface,  from' 
too  rapid  wetting  and,  when  once  soaked,  from  drying  up  again. 
They  also  decrease  the  specific  gravity,  so  that  the  grain  is  more 
readily  carried  by  the  wind,  especially  when,  as  in  Brisa,  the  glume 
has  a  large  surface  compared  with  the  sise  of  the  grain,  or  when, 
as  in  HolcuSf  empty  glumes  also  take  part;  in  Canary  grass 
{Phalaris)  the  large  empty  glumes  bear  a  membranous  wing 
on  the  keel.  In  the  sugar-cane  (5accAari(m)  and  several  allied 
genera  the  separating  joints  of  the  axis  bear  long  hairs  bdow 
the  spikdets;  in  others,  as  in  Arundo  (a  reed-grass),  the  flowering 
glumes  are  enveloped  in  long  hairs.  The  awn  which  is  frequently 
borne  on  the  flowering  glume  is  also  a  very  effident  means  of 
distribution,  catching  into  fur  of  animals  or  plumage  of  birds, 
or  as  often  in  Stipa  (fig.  8)  forming  a  long  feather  for  wind- 
carriage.  In  Trams  the  glumes  bear  numerous  short  hooked 
bristles.  The  fleshy  berries  of  some  Bambuseae  favour  distxibn- 
tion  by  animals. 

The  awn  is  also  of  use  in  burying  the  fruit  in  the  soil.  Thus 
in  Stipa^  species  of  Avena^  Heteropogon  and  others  the  base  of 
the  glume  forms  a  sharp  point  which  will  easily  penetrate  the 
ground;  above  the  point  are  short  stiff  upwardly  pointing  hairs 
which  oppose  its  withdrawal.  The  long  awn,  which  is  bent  and 
closely  twisted  below  the  bend,  acts  as  a  driving  organ;  it  is 
very  hygroscopic,  the  coils  untwisting  when  damp  and  twisting 
up  when  dry.  The  repeated  twisting  and  untwisting,  especi- 
ally when  the  upper  part  of  the  awn  has  become  fixed  in  the 
earth  or  caught  in  surrounding  vegetation,  drives  the  point 
deeper  and  deeper  into  the  ground.  Such  grasses  often  cause 
harm  to  sheep  by  catching  in  the  wool  and  boring  through 
the  skin. 

A  peculiur  method  of  distribution  occurs  in  some  alpine  and 
arctic  grasses,  which  grow  under  conditions  where  ripening  of 
the  fruit  is  often  uncertain.  The  entire  spikelet,  or  sinj^e 
flowers,  are  transformed  into  small-leaved  shoots  which  fall 
from  the  axes  and  readily  root  in  the  ground.  Some  spedes, 
such  as  Poa  stricta,  are  known  only  in  this  viviparous 
condition;  others,  like  our  British  spedes  Fcstuea  09ina 
and  Poa  alpina,  become  viviparous  under  the  spedal  dimatac 
conditions. 

II.  Classification. — Gramineae  are  sharply  defined  horn 
all  other  plants,  and  there  are  no  genera  as  to  which  it  is  possble 
to  fed  a  doubt  whether  they  should  be  referred  to  it  or  noL 
The  only  family  closely  alli^  is  Cyperaceae,  and  the  pohits  of 
difference  between  the  two  may  be  here  brou^t  together.  The 


.  Jound  la  the  po^tioD  or  die  embryo  in 
iclatioa  U  tbe  cndaipHni — liicratingrauM,  bull  in  Cyp«ractw 
— ud  in  the  pouesiOD  by  Giimintjie  of  tfae  i-nerved  pate* 
bekiw  each  flower.  Leu  abulule  chancten,  but  geDerAlly 
trustworthy  and  more  euily  observed,  ue  the  feathery  atjgmu 
the  ilwayi  dia:ichaus  unogemeot  of  the  gJumes,  the  uiuB 
abeence  of  more  ^ncrel  bncli  in  the  indorcsnncc,  the  ipJi 
lof-iheaths,  and  the  hollow,  cylindrical,  jointed  culini--HHiii 
OI  all  of  which  are  waoling  in  all  Cypeiaceae,  The  lalne  char 
acten  will  diilinguish  gias&a  trem  the  other  glumifeTOiia  ardc 


d  Eiiocaulaw 


which  9 


Rmovtd  by  Iheit  capiut) 
moDDODlyledonous  timil 
adaptive  at  vegetative  diaiiclen.  Some  Coi 
Uarantaceae  approach  iiauei  io  foUagt;  ibe  1 
&C.,  poMcn  *  li(ule;  the  habit  of  aome  palm: 
the  bambooai  and  Janacae  and  a  few  Lilii 
iocoD^tlcuoiu  Kanous  pcrianlh.  Thcie  aie  a 
csnuinlnf  about  330a  well-de&aed  ipeciei. 

Tbe  freal  unifotmity  among  the  very  numerc 
vaa<  family  renders  iia  dassifitaiioH  very  diHicul 
baabeenincreajedbytheconfuiionreskilting  fror 
tiop  of  fenera  founded  on  slight  characters,  aod 
Uon  (in  consequence  of  their  wide  dislributi 
planta  uoder  several  different  genera. 

No  characteii  for  main  divisions  can  be  ot 
flower  proper  or  fruit  (with  the  eiception  of 
the  hilum),  and  i 


uithei 


Robert  Btown  suggested  1' 
aad  Foaceae.  according  la  t 
flower  in  the  tpikelet;  t) ' 


ht  first,  whilst  in  the  second 
e  imperiecl  ones  [if  any)  bi 


e  usually  less  important  loSor- 

ro  primary  divisions — Paniceae 
le  position  o[  the  motl  perfect 
[he  upper  (apparently)  terminal 


Panftraf  immediately  below  the  ^umes;  whilst  i 
tllis  does  not  occur,  but  the  axis  of  the  spikelet 
articulatea  abne  the  pair  of  empty  basal  giumes- 
Uwse  great  divisiona  will  well  accommodate  ceiti 
Allied  to  Pkalaris,  for  which  Brown  proposed  ten 
third  group  (since  named  Pkolaridiai);  this,  or  at 
pcaterpart  of  it,  ii  placed  by  Ben tham  under  the  Poat 

The  following  arrangement  has  been  proposed  by 
Eduard  Hackel  in  his  recent  monograph  on  the  order. 

A.  Spilrelcts  oae-Howerrd,  rvtiy^  two-Sowend  as  in  ' 
from  fbr  pedicel  entire  or  with  certain  joints  of  tbe  nchiia 
Bjchilta  not  produced  beyond  the  flowerL 


t.  Kitumalinc:  spikelels laterally co 

B,  Sfakelels  one-  <o  indcGnile-flowere 
rsehitla  frrquniily  producrd  beyond  the 


In  IM  one-flowered  the 
■vr;   rachilb  generally 


L  Snikrlcis  oar-io 
iL  £mpty  glum 


375 


]L  Folile  riumtfl  fEnermlty  lonfer  than  the  empty,  Da- 
awned  or  wju  a  itiaifliti  tcnninal  awn. 


e  Sfrikelets  crowded  in 
1  SpUuleu  In  two  oppo 
•heath,  often  with  a  ihi 


K  earth), 
n  corn)  (f.v.).  rnAumH.^orjapcCKS 
of  the  equBtor;  Tr.  ioc^Miu  (nma 
llliiiaii  and  CosHclkuI :  it  Is  used  for 
d  t^ant.     Cffut  Loajm^  Jsbi  (Job'a 


ct  ^ktlet  at  each  idtnx  of  tike  rachis 
grasees.  in  various  parli  at  the  tropes, 
>  AndrBpetf,  EJwaarsi  and  utlini. 


^m  KdH 


■rrad  troncal   geilus;    one 

l^ds'in  tbe^Mi^y  /^Z 

ten   Boating,  Is  found   fai 
d  tropical  Africa,     la  lb* 


old  worid.  is  rejected  by  cattle  probably 
account  of  its  aromatic  character,  the 

Sikelett  having  a  stnng  balsam-like  smelL 
her  anraalic  raefflbera  are  Audrotcton 
JVirdu,  a  native  of  India,  but  al»  eiiltivalnl, 
the  rhiiome.  leaves  and  eAeeisllv  the  nnke- 
lets  of  which  conuin  a  volaiUe  ail,  which  oo 
distillariiin  yieldi  the  eiironella  col  o<  com- 
meree.  A  ekHelv  allied  qiKin.  A.  &fam. 
imtktu  (lemon-grass),  yields  l«iwn-gnaa  oil; 
a  variety  la  uied  by  the  Degroei  in  wniem 
Africa  for  haemorrhage.  Aher  ■peciea  of 
the  Ane  genui  are  used  ai  Kimulan '  ' 

•tT^iW  awl^^d*^!  k^kt^"  rk^f»ta  y^J^/nM: 

'lediienanean  rrgion  to  South  Africa  a---  "^ 

rais  of  Australia,  where,  ai  in  South 

Tribe  3-  Pamiaat  (about  25  genera,  trofical  to  sobtrofikal; 
-  few  temperare),  a  second  flover,  generally  male,  rarely  herm^ 

ersdite,  is  often  present  behiw  the  leRile  dower.  PUfafniii.  Is  • 
gE  (rcfpieal  genus,  most  abundant  in  America,  e^xcially  on  tha 
pampas  and  campoa;  many  species  are  good  forage  piants.  and  tht 
-rain  is  sometimes  uied  for  food.  f4fifpAiurpvit,nativeln  theioutb- 
ssiem  United  States,  has  fenUe  cleiitofanious  spilideta  00  Glifcrm 
iinners  a(  the  base  of  Che  culm,  those  on  the  terminal  panicle  an 
[crile.  ^anTHHM,  a  very  polymorphic  genus,  and  one  of  the  largest 
1  tKc  order,  ii  widely  spresd  In  all  warm  counlriea;  together  with 
pecies  of  Pajpaium  (hey  form  good  forage  ■raucs  in  the  South 
>nicric*n  aavinnai  and  easipos.  Paiuaim  Crmr-tatti  'a  a  pgly- 
lorphic  cosnwpoliian  grasL  which  ii  often  grown  for  foddrr;  in  one 
Km  (^./noHalafniaO  ills  cidlivBledin^ndia  for  its  grain.  P. 
litalum,  with  bnul  folded  leatn.  Is  an  omamenlal  inenbouiF  grass. 
'.  ■rifiooni  is  millet  («.>.),  and  P.  aUiuimum.  CTuinca  gnu.  In 
M  closely  allied  genus  Diiilaria.  which  is  iiinHiimcs  Rgankd  as 
section  of  ^arnHJir,  ihc_lawnt  barren  ^ume  is  TTdmd  to  a  point; 

iafoDd«rain;itiealsDt1ieciib-gTaitof(he«out hern  United  States. 
hen  it  H  used  for  fodder. 

In  Savia  and  allied  genera  the  tfUlMtt  l>  subtended  by  an 
ivotucnof  bristles  or  s^nes  which  represent  sterile  braocbes  of  tbe 
ifloreseence.  SHvia  ualiia,  Hunprian  grasa.  is  extensively  grown 
>  a  food-grain  both  in  China  and  Japan,  parts  of  India  and  western 
.lis.  ai  well  as  in  Europe,  when  ill  ciiliure  dales  from  prehistoric 
nres:  it  is  found  In  considenble  quantity  in  tbe  lake  dweUiDcs  el 

In  CmXilj  the  bristka  unite  to  fcra  a  tough  ipiny  capnd* 


376 


GRASSES 


fif.  it);CMIiilBUB(bapfnB)ud<i(kri|HJcian _ 

Mcdi  in  Nonk  >Dd  South  Amoica,  u  the  hvoliicn  cUb(i  to  tbt 
wool  at  Amep  uad  ■  roiovhI  irith  iicu  diSailtv.  /'(nutliiiii 
OfMfmiiiHinddiFEultiTUcdHiiniiiintnipiarAfnai.  Spiia- 
fa.  >  ducdoui  (iw.  u  widoinwl  on  the  couu  of  Aiutnlii  ud 
CMtsn  Asia,  fonping  ui  importvu  ■ud-biiida'-   Tlw  female  hoda 

•re  (pIiHts  wiih  long '  ■■ — "  '-"  — ' ' —  - 

OTTwd  ivAy  by  wind 

Tribe  4.    Orjuai  (16  rtom,  nuinly  trofKnl  ud  nibtroFicil). 
""■■*"  ■I    -nd  there  ire  ofltn  u 

.  .iHB,  ooe  ci<  which  X. 
nw  (<  both  okl  ud  new 
CI  uid  Hvupaliin-  Ztujna 
md-Ukt  p^  gnnrinc  dvo- 

„ . -^  ^.Min  for  Food.     Oryto  aaina 

(rice)  Cif.r),  Lnnm  Sparurm,  with  a  rRnHH  slnn  And  MilT  nuh- 
ue  HvH.  is  tomidoji  00  rocky  loiL  oa  the  UgG  plaiu  bordoins  the 

Tribe  i.  P^ata^Su  («  nun, 
three  of  whicb  ire  South  African 
ud  Aiutnluiln;  llie  otbcn  ui 
'  -  ly  diUcibuted,  ud  re- 
in our  Bon).    PkiOaru 

k^  •^'BriCl^ri^rTllnd 

Ilka  :■  nrirt  y  with  Mriped  lea  v« 


known  ■*  rChbon-fraH  li  I 


bird-iii^a^ 

ddoro/inw.  the  tweet  vernel  ETUAof 

our  Hera,  c ""  """" 


og  eepedaily  or 


•n^deot  Dcwu  of  dlqienio^  the  gnln.  Slita  ptniuia 
acteriiCic  ipedH  of  the  RuHn  eteppes.  SL  MparUa  Cpoicapiiie 
(>»•)  tnd  other  ipedei  are  plehtif  III  on  the  Noith  Aoeclaui  pnlrlei. 
SI.  matiiiima  li  the  Sponlih  onula  itu  ((,(.),  kaowa  la  North 
'"  uhdfaoralfa.  JW^n^bi a exUnd^ iplk^Jike laflocet- 
'  '  ^  '-  '^  graiii  a>  alio  la 
large  geniu  la  the 

Iruir  ApaiUt 

|iaiie&   CUBflUfraifu  I 
occunlag  througboaE  tl 

nDuattina  la  the  trop -, ._ _ 

attturi^  (Harfam  fra«)  irithttf  lonr  creeping  Kemi  form*  a  uieful 
HBd-biacler  oa  the  eoaiti  of  Europe,  North  Alrica  and  the  Atlulic 
itaieaof  Antria. 

Tribe  T-  Aanuai  <about  34  tenera.  wen  of  which  are  Briti^). 
HOUat  lauatMt  {Yoduhlre  fog,  anft  granj  li  a  comiilDn  rHadow  and 
vayride  giaia  with  wvolly  or  dawoy  Leavea.  Aira  it  a  genua  of 
delkate  unuala  with  almder  hair-Uke  hranchci  of  the  pankle. 
Dtickampsu  and  Triutum  occur  in  tempermte  ard  cnkf  regiona  or  on 
high  mouAtaina  ia  the  tmpici;  T.  pralnut  [Avna  flaKanu\  wi 
a  looae  paoide  aad  yelbw  ihining  ipikeieti  ii  a  valuable  loddi 


acyllad^ 
TwnHV  iDBDuyt  B  a  V-'— **■*  '— ' 
tnlBuu  yaattuj.    Sf 

'it  fact  that  the  leed  ia  BltimatelylBipdied  {roo*^ 
■■'  ^  "  1"^  .«.u.^^  F*i^  but  eapcctalTy  developr 
R  It  iDCJudea  impcrtant  neadoi 
, tia  are  tall,  often  teed-Ekc  gram 

IE  the  temperate  aixd  arctic  lonea  and  upon  hi| 


■nctlc  aad  alpine  forma)  many  are  important  meadow-graiaea^t5 
•re  Britilh.  CjwrriNiM -offcWrvn  (pampaa  graat)  ia  a  pative  o4 
■Buthem  Brain  and  Argentina,    i^mad*  and  4>krsfiinl«  are  tall 


The'tar^J^^e^a     ^'is^r^^", 

the  genu,  ia  An^oirf.  "™'  '  ""■ 

iota  which  fonni  great 

tufta  6-j  ft.  high  with  kavca  arraagRi  li 

ol  the  (Falkland  and  certain  miaretic  iilai 

luHock  araaa.    Glyana  fuilani.  manna.! 

called  from  the  met  giaik.  ia  Doe  of  the  bi 

fratieiloriwaapymeadowa:  thegrauiiii 

of  food  In  centnl  Europe,    ftinica  (feacu 

•  llr^e  and  widely  diitributed  leaui.  b 

eipeaaUy  [a  the  temperate  and  cold  ' 

includea  valuable  pasture  grataea.  auch  aa  r.  tmna 

l^eep-i  feacue),  P.  nUmi:  nine  medca  are  Britiih. 

The  cloady  allied  gccuf  Bremui  (brome  gtiia)  ii 

north  temperate  nae;  B.  ertOmt  la  a  uKlu]  fonfe 
Draja  on  dry  chalky  poiL 

:o.   Horan9   ^about    19  gencrm,  ^nA^^f 


:  ray-  <or  by  comipnon  rye-)  graaa.  ia 
0  la  waate  placea  and  a  valuable  pattui^ 
L.  Utticum  is  the  Italian  ray-gnni  L. 
(darnel)  contains  a  narcotic  priodple 
m  UK  paui,  Sruft  UHoU.  ryt  (g.v.).  li  cultivated 
mainly  ■  In  northera  Europe.  Atrvpyrvm  rtptms 
(couch  gnaa)  haaaloagereepiiif  undei^Taund  itein, 
and  la  a  troubleaoinc  weed  in  cuhivated  land:  the 
widely  creeping  Aem  id  A.  Jmumm.  fnund  ca 
aandy  Bea-ihorta,  rmderi  it  a  useful  dnd^iinder. 
Triliaim  utinm  ia  ithrac  (fJ>.)  (Gg.  >i].  and  hrr- 
4nn>  U/MM.  bariey  (g.>.),  H.  aianaaM,  wikt 
*---'—  ''  -  '— ' gruH  In  waile  places.    Elymat 


a.  Plaal  in  Flow: 


univenaDy    diffused   of    ail    flowering    plants. 
There  ia  1»  dklrict  in  vhich  Ihey  do  Dot  occur,  and  Id  noriy 
an  Ibey  are  a  leading  feature  of  Ibc  flon.    In  number  of 
■pedc*  Giuniiwu  Coma  auuidciably  dtet  Compotilae  ud 


GRASSHOPPER 


377 


If^minouc,  Ilie  Iwa  hi 

bul  ia  number  of  iDdividiul  plantt  It  piobiblx  (i 
6tlri;  whibl  from  Iht  *ide  tMoitiaii  of  nuay  ol  iti 
ipecio,  the  proponion  of  CnmiMme  to  othep  oider*  in  the 
vihou*  Soru  of  the  world  ii  much  higher  ihu  itA  Dumber  oi 
ip«id  would  lad  odc  to  apect.  In  tropica]  re^u,  where 
LcgumiDoufl  ii  the  lemding  order,  grusa  cloiely  ioUow  m  the 
KODd,  whiUt  in  the  warm  and  temperate  rcgfou  of  the  northern 
bcmiaphere,  in  which  Compoiitae  taka  the  lead,  Gnznineae 
ipjQ  occupies  the  Kcond  poaitjon. 

ViiHt  the  (tntat  number  of  tpcdei  it  fouod  in  the  (rtiplcal 
KoF.  Ihe  Dumber  of  individual*  li  fcater  in  the  temperate 
Mns,  where  they  form  eilended  areas  of  lUff.  Turf- or  meadow- 
[onsiiioa  depend)  upon  uniform  rainfalL  Gruaea  alto  diar- 
aciiiiie  uepptt  and  uvanoiu,  where  they  lorm  icattered  lult>. 
The  lumboos  are  a  feaiuit  of  iroplul  (onsi  vegetal  ion,  especially 
in  Lhe  monioon  region.     Aa  Ihe  colder  lali     ' 


lamiJy  in  Arctic 


Inlbe  whole  phanerogunic  flora  in  di 
lo  vary  from  nearly  ilh  in  the  Arctic 
the  Cape;  in  the  British  Uea  it  it  ab( 
The  principal  dimi  '  '  ' 


ntofm 


e  the  le 


,th.° 

r  number  of  gramir 


faiuieof  Ihe  diiLiibi 
DO  gmt  centres  for  the  order,  at  in  Compooitae,  where  a  marked 
prtpoaderaDce  of  endemic  spedea  eaitta;  and  the  genera, 
cicept  aoote  of  the  amalleit  or  monotypic  onei,  have  utually 

Tbe'diilribution  ol  the  tropical  tribe  BanOustat  it  tnteresting. 
The  ipeciei  are  about  equally  divided  between  the  Indo-Malayan 
regioa  and  tropica]  America,  only  one  ^ledea  being  rammon 
(oboth,  Tlte  tribe  is  very  poorly  repreiented  in  tropical  Africa; 
OK  tpcciet  OiyttnanOcra  aiyaiitko  ha>  a  wide  range,  and  three 
■■"■"lypie  genera  an  endemic  in  western  tiupioil  Africa.  None 
ii  recoiiled  lor  Auiiralia,  (hough  ^lecis  may  perba[w  occur 
HI  lhe  northern  coast.  One  apecira  of  Antndinaria  reachei 
Dorthwardt  at  far  at  Virginia,  and  the  elevation  attained  in  the 
Andta  hy  tome  ipecict  of  ChiuqHia  a  very  remarkable, — one, 
C.ariitaJa,  being  abundant  Irom  15,000  ft.  up  to  nearly  the  level 
of  perpetual  tnow. 

Many  graiaei  an  almott  cotmopolitan,  such  at  the  common 
rctd,  Fkraimiies  tommunij\  and  many  range  throu^nut  the 
■irn  regioBa  of  the  globe,  eg.  Cyyainw  Daclyhn,  EUuiini 
udiid.  ImftraU  anadixaca,  Sptrobalni  indicia,  tic,  and  <uch 
■Ftdi  of  cultivation  at  tpccies  of  Sttaiia,  EiilnocUaa,  Sevenl 
ipecies  td  the  north  temperate  rone,  auch  as  Poa  nemaraiia, 
F-  praltiuii,  Fanua  prina,  F.  ntbra  and  others,  are  absent  in 


PUi.m  alUnum)  appear  i 

inil  m  large  genua  to  an) 
'bu  the  fcpantion  of  the 
The  revbion  of  Ibe  AuXr 
iht  .nde  range  ol  the  gen 

LndiiFDOUs  genera  [many 
ndcmic,  i  eitendt  10  Soi 
Did  New  Zealand.  18  > 


ic  regiot 


,  others  {i.t. 


:!•  of  Ihe  order  in  a  fiora  generally  ■ 
>  that  of  Auslralia.  Thus  of  Ihe  g 
monotypic  or  very  small)  only  14  ai 


ic  Old  and  New  Worldi,  16  being  chiefly 
cal  and  iS  chiefly  eilra-lropical. 

specially   reniarkahle  tpeciea  Lygeum  h  found  on 
tnd  ol  the  eauem  half  of  the  Heditecnnean  basin,  and 
le  ClUaHlllia  occur*  in  three  or  four  isolated  spoil 
Europe  (Norway,  Bohemia,  Auitiia,  Normandy),  In  North-east 
^  {Amur]  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  (Oregor 
<*'uhingIoa).     Many   remarkable   endemic  genera   occur  i 
in>p><:i1  America,  including  AnamaMaa  of  Bruit,  and  most  < 
bt  luge  aquatk,tpcda  wiib  leparated  met  arc  Imud  in  ihi 


re^n.  The  only  genus  of  dowering  plan!*  peculiar  to  the  arctic 
regions  is  the  beautiful  and  rare  grass  PUVMpoin  SaHmii,  of 
MelvUle  Island. 
Fauil  CraiHt. — While  sumerou*  remain*  of  graai-like  [eavei 
proof  that  grasses  wen  widespread  and  abundantly 
led  in  past  geological  ags,  eqieaally  m  Ibe  Tertiary 
,  the  foasLl  remains  ore  in  most  cases  too  fragmentary  and 
badly  preserved  for  the  determination  of  genera,  and  conclusions 
based  thereon  in  eaplanalion  of  existing  geographical  dislrfbniion 


Sc>.  n.  rand£.  A.'Soothworth):andrfiidraMMtHiiiiDdeCaiKMIe'a 
Uc  ^-ipkiot  flummr"unm  (Pari*,  1A9);  K.  S.  Kunth, 
Rt  »  dti  (rarwnto  (Paris,  iBn-iSu)  and  AtnaUprnpliia 
(St  "Hirt,tBi}):i.C.IWU<nMortlutand£3^1er,/7i>ni£nu&^uii, 
■i.^'i.  II.  ii^llt.  (Munch,  lB;i-l«83}!  A.  W.  Eichlcf.  £I«U«- 
4ia'::Kinc  L  119  (l^lpilg,  1S7J):  Benlhara  and  Hooker,  Cmn 
^'.r.ri.'-i.  iiL  1074  tLondoii,  lUi);  K.  BailloB.  Hiilairt  da 
fla-.r.-i.  III.  iiACPuns,  iSaj);  J.  S.  Gamble,  "  fl»iihu«(  of  Brilkh 
Indii  '  in  Antali  Riiyal  BcUwU  Cariimt,  CaleiUlt,  vii.  (1896); 
jofc.i  r.  rr.vjl,  ^(ri^Wr.™*  Bwony  (chipirnofl  "  Cratws,-  and  (d., 


GRASSHOPPER  (Ft.  aiarrdU.  Hal.  frfOo,  Cer.  GrasHpfir. 
'tuickrccla.  Swed.  CrSskiippa),  names  IppHed  to  orthopterous 
.seels  belonging  to  the  families  Locvilidat  and  Atridiidae. 
They  are  especially  remarkable  for  their  sallalocy  powen,  due 
great  development  of  the  hind  legs,  which  are  mucb  longer 
>werful  thighs,  and  also  for 


otheis  and  have  tlou 

iduktion,  which  is  m 
only.  The  diuinctions  between  the  two  families  may  be  briefly 
stated  at  follow*:— The  LodHlidm  have  very  long  thread-like 
antennae,  four-jointed  laisi,  a  long  ovipositor,  the  auditory 
organs  on  the  tibiae  ol  the  fint  leg  and  the  tlridulatoiy  organ 

Jointed  taisi,  a  short  ovipoaiLor,  the  auditory  organs  on  the  hnt 
abdominal  segment,  and  the  atridulatory  organ  between  lhe 
posterior  leg  and  the  wing.    The  term  "  grasshopper  "  is  almost 


h  Locust  (f.i.).     Under  both  " 
of  b   ■    ■ 


1  fan 


hopper  ■■ 


noticed,  bul  lhe  majotiiy  belong  to  lhe  Acridiidat  in  both  cases. 
In  Britain  the  term  is  chiefly  applioble  to  the  large  green 
grasshopper  ILocmla  or  PkaiiaMMra  tiridiiiima)  common  in 
most  parts  of  the  soulh  of  England,  and  10  imaller  and  mUi^h 
hcltcr-known  tpecics  of  Ihe  genera  SlinoMlitiii,  Ctmfhtam 
and  TcUii,  Ihe  bltcr  remarkable  for  the  great  extension  of  the 
pronolum,  which  often  reaches  beyond  the  est remily  of  the  body. 
All  are  vegetable  feeders,  and,  at  in  all  orthopterous  insects, 
have  an  incompleie  mclamotpbosit.  so  that  their  destructive 
powers  an  continuous  from  Ihe  mnmenl  of  emergence  from 
Ihe  egg  till  deilh.  The  migraiory  [ocust  {Padyiytia  liiuruicnu) 
may  be  considered  only  an  eiaggecated  grasshopper,  and  the 
Socky  Mouiitain  locust  (CdfD^an)  If  rciu)  is  slill  more  cniiLled 
to  Ihe  nime.  In  Britain  the  species  an  not  of  tuflicieni  siu, 
nor  of  suSdeDI  numeticil  importance,  to  do  nny  great  damage. 
The  colour*  of  many  ol  them  assimilate  gnally  to  those  of  Iheir 
hahitals;  the  green  of  the  Lccusta  tiridiiiima  is  wonderfully 
'of  the  herbage  amongst  which  '   " 


ipecies 


.    Yet  man; 


1  apols  I 


ected  In  the  sam 
oured  under-winf 


mostly  Lay  their  egp 
rounded  hy  a  glutinnu 
Lecutlidiu  also  lay  Ibei 


378 


GRASS  OF  PARNASSUS— GRATIANUS 


■ppmtiu  dF  vilvu.  Tbc  itriduUtion  or  "  KHig  "  in  Ihe  liltcr 
b  pnxluced  by  Iricliou  of  the  hind  Itgt  igainit  poninns  ol  the 
wiogi  or  wmg'COVeA-  To  t  pntctiied  cu  it  a  pcrHaps  possible 
tadiMinsuiihilw "tone "of  even doKly allied ip«i«,  anduou 
m  nid  to  pnidiia  a  •ound  differing  by  day  ind  night. 

Qitm  OP  PARMASSin,  in  bouay,  (  uiull  berbaccous  plant 
kaan  u  Panaiii*  paluiiru  (lumial  order  Saxtjiafueiu), 
fonnd  on  vet  moon  wd  boga  in  Briiain  but  leu  common  in  the 
icnih.    Tie  white  rcguliu  flower  i>  rendered  yeiy  attnctive 


circlet  of  Ktla,  oppoaile  the  petals,  each  o£  which  bean 

gUuea  in  the  lunshine  and  look  like  a  diop  of  honey.     Honey  ii 
Mcieied  by  the  base  ol  each  ol  the  icilct. 

QRATI  (liom  Lai.  cratei,  a  hurdle],  the  iron  or  (ted  ceccplaclt 
[or  n  dometlic  fire.     When  coal  replaced  logl  and  iront  atere  CoDnd 


(or 


.rated  h( 


coal  it  became  necnury  Id  confine  the  area 
basket  or  cage  come  inla  use,  which,  as  knowledge  ol  the  \ 
principlet  ol  beating  increased,  was  lucceedcd  by  the  small 
gnte  oF  iron  and  Bre-bricli  set  close  into  the  wall  which  bu 
been  in  ordinary  lue  in  England.  In  ihe  early  part  of  the  igth 
century  polished  steel  grates  were  eilensivcly  used,  but  the 
labour  and  difficulty  of  keeping  them  bright  were  considerable, 
and  they  were  gradually  replaced  by  grates  with  a  polished  black 
surface  which  could  be  quickly  renewed  by  an  appUcalion  of 
black-lead.  The  most  frequent  form  of  Ihe  rSih-eenluiy  gtale 
wu  tathcr  high  from  the  hearth,  with  a  small  hob  on  each  side. 

in  ihe  shape  of  movable  baskets  ornamented  with  the  paterae 


>  dial 


itertfit  «f 


!ll-grale"  . 


dog-grate  ia  a 

supported  upon  dogs  or  andiroaSj 
closing  yaji  of  the  I9lh  century  a 
d,  in  which  Ihe  fire  burns  upon  the  beaito, 
belog  aided  by  an  air-cbamber  below. 

GHATIAH  (Fuvius  Cuhands  Auci;9IU^,  Roman  empciin 

375~1^J.  MC  of  Valeniinlan  I.  by  Severa,  was  bom  at  SiruiuD 

n  Pinnonia,  on  the  i8ih  of  April  («  ijrd  of  May}  J5«.     On  tbc 

'4ih  of  August  367  he  received  fnm  bis  filhcr  the  title  of 

Augustus.     On  the  death  of  Valenlinian  (ijih  of  Novcmba  375) 

'.he  troops  in  Pannonia  proclaimed  his  infant  loq  (by  a  Eccond 

irife  JuBlina)  emperor  under  Ihe  title  of  Vahniinian  II.  («.>.). 

jratian  acquiesced  in  their  choice;  reierving  for  himtr^  the 

idminitlration  of  Ihe  Gallic  provinces,  he  handed  over  Itity, 

lUyria  and  Africa  to  Valeotinian  and  his  mother,  who  fixed  their 

'  lence  at  Milan.     The  divisioD,  however,  was  merdy  nominil. 

Ihe  real  authority  remained  in  the  hands  of  Gratian-     The 

em  portion  of  the  empire  was  imder  the  rule  of  bis  unde 

Valcoi.    In  May  378  Gratian  completely  defeated  the  LenlieiHii, 

L  branch  of  tite  Alamanm',  at  Argentaria,  oat 

nodem  Colmar.    When  Valens  met  bis  death 

fighting  against  the  Goths  near  Adrianople  on  the  gtfa  of  Au^m 

"'    same  year,  the  government  of  the  eastern  empire  devolved 

Gratian,  but  feeling  himself  unable  to  resist  unaided  [he 

lions  of  the  barbarians,  he  ceded  it  to  Tbeodosiits  (Jaouiry 

With  Theodosius  he  cleared  the  Balkans  of  barbariios. 

ome  years  Gratian  governed  the  empire  with  coergy  urd 

a,  but  gradually  he  sank  into  indolence,  occupied  himse^ 

chiefly  with  the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  and  became  a  tool  in  ibc 

of  Ihe  Fnnkish  geneisl  Merobaudcs  and  bishop  AmbnsE 

ijng  into  his  personal  service  a  body  of  Alani.  and  ipprinss 

in  public  in  the  dras  of  a  Scythian  warrior,  be  aroused  the 

'  esentmcntof hisRoman tmopa.     ARomaaaaiDcd 

advantage  ol  Ibis  feeling  to  raise  the  standard  of 

revolt  in  Britain  and  invaded  Gaul  with  a  large  array,  upon  wb:() 


isth  of  August  383. 
e  reign  of  Gratian  forms  an  Important  epoch  in  eecksiutic^ 
ry,  since  during  that  period  orthodoi  Chtislianily  for  i!« 
Lime  becacie  dominant  thmughout  the  empire.    In  dcihn; 
pagans  and  heretics  Gratian,  who  during  his  later  yesiM^'    1 
ly  inOucnced  by  Ambrose,  bishop  ol   Milan,  ctbliiin!     [ 
severity  and  injustice  at  variance  with  his  usual  diar 
prohibited  bealhea  worship  at  Rorae^  refused  to 
inugnia  of  the  ponlilei  maiimus  as  unbcElIint  a 
temoved  the  altar  of  Victor]    ' 


of  tbc « 


(.   47;   Zoiimiu 
H!  CnUidrkn  m 

iiti  nnltt  dn 
■HI  (iS6j):  A.  <te  Broelie,  L-fir';''  ■'■  Irmfuttrntitn 
(4thed.,jUj)i  a  Schiller.  &><W..<J..4BU'k>A>ur 

((MHd,  rl 


DklamaFf  ej  f3irMait  3uiiaf*y.  (J.  H  ' 
GRATIANOS,  PRIHCISCUS.  corai»Ier  ol  Iht  Cwo-'i:  ' 
■.otdanliKm  miKniiin  or  Data»m  Cnlitni.  and  [oooin  '■'  ■ 
ras  bora  about  iheendcJtbt  mbw=- 


¥e  tttfl  mdvrJ ' '' 


.t  Chins 


nolberso 


lnearlylifehca„..   .    . 
the  Camaldulian  monastery  of  CUsse  ne 
afterwards  removed  to  that  of  San  Fdia  in  Bodipu.  *'  ^  ■ 
spent  many  yewi  in  the  pneparnion  of  the  Cimri^    ^  I 


GRATRY— GRATTAN 


379 


precise  date  of  this  work  cannot  be  ascertained,  but  it  contains 
references  to  the  decisions  of  the  Lateran  council  of  X139,  f^nd 
there  is  fair  authority  for  believing  that  it  was  completed  while 
Pope  Alexander  III.  was  still  simply  professor  of  theology  at 
Bologna,— in  other  words,  prior  to  x  1 50.  The  labours  of  Gratian 
are  said  to  have  been  rewarded  with  the  bishopric  of  Chiusi,  but 
if  so  he  appears  never  to  have  been  consecrated;  at  least  his 
name  is  not  in  any  authentic  list  of  those  who  luive  occupied 

that  see.    The  year  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

For  some  account  of  the  Decreium  Craiiani  and  its  history  see 
Canon  Law.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  TxKA\xr%  ICorfnu  juris 
eanonieit  Leipzie,  1879).  Compare  Schultze,  Zur  CeschichU  der 
Litieratur  titer  das  Decrtt  Cratians  (1870),  Dii  Gtosse  mm  Dtcret 
Cratians  (187a),  and  CeschkkU  der  QueUen  und  LiUeratur  des  kano- 
'misclun  RtckU  (3  vols..  Stuttgart,  1875). 

GRATRY.  AUGUSTS  JOSEPH  ALPHONSB  (1805-1872), 
French  author  and  theologian,  was  bom  at  Lille  on  the  loth  of 
March  1805.  He  was  educated  at  the  £cole  Polytechnique, 
Paris,  and,  after  a  period  of  mental  struggle  which  he  has 
described  in  Souvenirs  de  ma  jeunesse,  he  was  ordained  priest 
in  1853.  After  a  stay  at  Strassburg  as  professor  of  the  Petit 
S^minaire,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Colldge  Stanislas 
in  Paris  in  1842  and,  in  1847,  chaplain  of  the  £cole  Normalc 
Sup^rieure.  He  became  vicar-general  of  Orleans  in  i86x, 
professor  of  ethics  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1863,  and,  on  the  death  of 
Barante,  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1867,  where  he 
occupied  the  seat  formerly  held  by  Voltaire.  Together  with  M. 
P6t6tot,  curi  of  Saint  Roch,  he  reconstituted  the  Oratory  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  a  society  of  priests  mainly  devoted  to 
education.  Gratry  was  one  of  the  principal  opponents  of  the 
definition  of  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility,  but  in  this  respect 
be  submitted  to  the  authority  of  the  Vatican  Council.  He  died 
at  Montreux  in  Switzerland  on  the  6th  of  February  1872. 

His  chief  works  are:  De  la  connaissance  de  Dieu,  opposing 
Positivism  (1855):  La  Logique  (18^):  JLes  Sources,  conseds  pour 
la  camduiU  de  f esprit  (i 861-1 86a);  La  Philosophie  du  credo  (t86i); 
Commgntaife  sur  I'tvangite  de  Saint  Mattkieu  (1863):  Jisus-Christ, 
leUres  d  M.  Renan  (1864) ;  Les  Sopkistes  el  la  critique  (in  controversy 
vith  E.  Vachcrot)  (1864);  La  Morale  et  la  hi  de  Vhislaire,  setting 
forth  his  social  views  (1868} ;  Mgir.  PMque  d'Orlians  et  Mtr. 
Vartkewimu  de  Malines  (1869),  containing  a  clear  exposition  of  the 
historical  arguments  against  the  doctrine  Of  papal  infallibility. 
There  is  a  selection  of  Gratry's  writings  and  appreciation  of  his  style 
by  the  Abb6  Pichot,  in  Pages  choisies  des  Grands  Ecrivains  scries, 
published  by  Armaml-Colin  (1897).  See  also  the  critical  study  by 
the  oratorian  A.  Chauvin,  VAhhi  Gratry  (1901):  he  Phe  Gratrv 
(1900),  and  Les  Demiers  Jours  du  Phre  Gratry  et  son  testament  spirituel, 
(1873},  by  Cardinal  Adolphe  Perraud,  Gratry's  friend  and  disciple. 

GRATTAM,  HBlfRY  (1746-1820),  Irish  statesman,  son  of 
James  Grattan,  for  many  years  recorder  of  Dublin,  was  born 
in  Dublin  on  the  3rd  of  July  1746. .  He  early  gave  evidence 
of  exceptional  gifts  both  of  intellect  and  character.  At 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  had  a  distinguished  career,  he 
began  a  lifek>ng  devotion  to  classical  literature  and  especially 
to  the  great  orators  of  antiquity.  He  was  called  to  the  Irish 
bar  in  1772,  but  never  seriously  practised  the  law.  Like  Flood, 
with  «riiom  he  was  on  terms  of  friendship,  he  cultivated  his 
natural  genius  for  eloquence  by  study  of  good  models,. including 
Bolingbroke  and  Junius.  A  visit  to  the  English  House  of  Lords 
excited  boundless  admiration  for  Lord  Chatham,  of  whose  style 
of  oratory  Grattan  ^ntributed  an  interesting  description  to 
Baratariana  (see  Flood,  Henry).  The  influence  of  Flood  did 
much  to  five  direction  to  Grattan*s  political  aims;  and  it  was 
through  no  design  on  Grattan's  part  that  when  Lord  Charlemont 
brought  him  into  the  Irish  parliament  in  1 775,  in  the  very  session 
in  which  Flood  damaged  his  popularity  by  accepting  office, 
Gratian  quickly  superseded  his  friend  in  the  leadership  of  the 
national  party.  Grattan  was  well  qualified  for  it .  His  oratorical 
powers  were  unsurpassed  among  his  contemporaries.  He 
conspiciKnisly  lacked,  indeed,  the  grace  of  gesture  which  he  so 
much  admired  in  Chatham;  he  had  not  the  sustained' dignity 
of  Pitt ;  his  powers  of  close  reasoning  were  inferior  to  those  of 
Fox  and  Flood.  But  his  speeches  were  packed  with  epigram, 
and  expressed  with  rare  felicity  of  phrase;  his  terse  and  telling 
sentences  were  richer  in  profound  aphorisms  and  maxims  of 
political  "philosophy  than  those  of  any  other  statesman  save 


Burke;  he  possessed  the  orator's  incomparable  gift  of  conveying 
his  own  enthusiasm  to  his  audience  and  convincing  them  of  the 
loftiness  of  his  aims. 

The  principal  object  of  the  national  party  was  to  set  the  Irish 
parliament  free  from  constitutional  bondage  to  the  En^ish 
privy  coimcil.  By  virtue  of  Poyning's  Act,  a  celebrated  statute 
of  Henry  VII.,  all  proposed  Irish  legislation  had  to  be  submitted 
to  the  English  privy  council  for  its  approval  under  the  great 
seal  of  England  before  being  passed  by  the  Irish  parliament. 
A  bill  so  approved  might  be  accepted  or  rejected,  but  not 
amended.  More  recent  English  acts  had  further  emphasized 
the  complete  dependence  of  the  Irish  parliament,  and  the 
appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  Irish  House  of  Lords  had  also  been 
annulled.  Moreover,  the  English  Houses  claimed  and  exercised 
the  power  to  legislate  directly  for  Ireland  without  even  the 
nominal  concurrence  of  the  parliament  in  Dublin.  This  was 
the  constitution  which  Molyneux  and  Swift  had  denounced, 
which  Flood  had  attacked,  and  which  Grattan  was  to  destroy. 
The  menacing  attitude  of  the  Volunteer  Convention  at  Dungannon 
greatly  influenced  the  decision  of  the  government  in  1783  to 
resist  the  agitation  no  longer.  It  was  through  ranks  of  volunteers 
drawn  up  outside  the  parliament  house  in  Dublin  that  Grattan 
passed  on  the  i6th  of  April  1783,  amidst  unparalleled  popular 
enthusiasm,  to  move  a  declaration  of  the  independence  of  the 
Irish  parliament.  "  I  found  Ireland  on  her  knees,"  Grattan 
exclaimed,  "I  watched  over  her  with  a  paternal  solicitude; 
I  have  traced  her  progress  from  injuries  to  arms,  and  from  arms 
to  liberty.  Spirit  of  Swift,  spirit  of  Molyneux,  your  genius  has 
prevailed!  Ireland  is  now  a  nation!"  After  a  month  of 
negotiation  the  claims  of  Ireland  were  conceded.  The  gratitude 
of  his  countrymen  to  Grattan  found  expres^on  in  a  parliamentary 
grant  of  £100,000,  which  had  to  be  reduced  by  one  half  before 
he  would  consent  to  accept  it. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  "  Grattan's  parliament  "  was  to  prove 
its  loyalty  to  England  by  passing  a  vote  for  the  support  of 
3Oj0oo  sailors  for  the  navy.  Grattan  himself  never  failed  in 
loyalty  to  the  crown  and  the  English  connexion.  He  was, 
however,  anxious  for  moderate  parliamentary  reform,  and, 
unlike  Flood,  he  favoured  Catholic  emancipation.  It  was, 
indeed,  evident  that  without  reform  the  Irish  House  of  Commons 
would  not  be  able  to  make  much  use  of  its  newly  won  independence. 
Though  now  free  from  constitutional  control  it  was  no  less  subject 
than  before  to  the  influence  of  corruption,  which  the  English 
government  had  wielded  through  the  Irish  borough  owners, 
known  as  the  "  undertakers,"  or  more  directly  through  the  great 
executive  officers.  "  Grattan's  parliament "  had  no  control 
over  the  Irish  executive.  The  lord  lieutenant  and  his  chief 
secretary  continued  to  be  appointed  by  the  English  ministers; 
their  tenure  of  office  depended  on  the  vicissitudes  of  English, 
not  Irish,  party  politics;  the  royal  prerogative  was  exercised 
in  Ireland  on  the  advice  of  English  ministers.  The  House  of 
Commons  was  in  no  sense  representative  of  the  Irish  people. 
The  great  majority  of  the  people  were  excluded  as  Roman 
Catholics  from  the  franchise;  two-thirds  of  the  members  of 
the  House  of  Commons  were  returned  by  small  boroughs  at  the 
absolute  disposal  of  single  patrons,  whose  support  was  bought 
by  a  lavish  distribution  of  peerages  and  pensions.  It  was  to 
give  stability  and  true  independence  to  the  new  constitution 
that  Grattan  pressed  for  reform.  Having  quarrelled  with  Flood 
over  "  simple  repeal "  Grattan  also  differed  from  him  on  the 
question  of  maintaining  the  Volunteer  Convention.  He  opposed 
the  policy  of  protective  duties,  but  supported  Pitt's  famous 
commercial  propositions  in  1785  for  establishing  free  trade 
between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  which,  however,  had  to  be 
abandoned  owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  English  mercantile 
classes.  In  general  Grattan  supported  the  government  for  a 
time  after  1783,  and  in  particular  spoke  and  voted  for  the 
stringent  coercive  legislation  rendered  necessary  by  the  Whiteboy 
outrages  in '  1785;  but  as  the  years  passed  without  Pilt^s 
personal  favour  towards  parliamentary  reform  bearing  fruit 
in  legislation,  he  gravitated  towards  the  opposition,  agitated 
for  commutation  of  tithes  in  Ireland,  and  supported  the  Whigs 


38o 


GRATTAN 


on  the  regency 'question  in  1788.  "^  In '1792  he  succeeded  in 
carrying  an  Act  conferring  the  franchise  on  the  Roman  Catholics; 
in  X794  in  conjunction  with  William  Ponsonby  he  introduced 
a  reform  bill  which  was  even  less  democratic  than  Flood's  bill 
of  1783.  He  was  as  anxious  as  Flood  had  been  to  retain  the 
legislative  power  in  the  hands  of  men  of  property,  for  "  he  had 
through  the  whole  of  his  life  »  strong  conviction  that  while 
Ireland  could  best  be  governed  by  Irish  hands,  democracy  in 
Ireland  would  inevitably  turn  to  plunder  and  anarchy."*  At 
the  same  lime  he  desired  to  admit  the  Roman  Catholic  gentry 
of  property  to  membership  of  the  House  of  Commons,  a  proposal 
that  was  the  logical  corollary  of  the  Relief  Act  of  179a.  The 
defeat  of  Grattan's  mild  proposals  helped  to  promote  more 
extreme  opinions,  which,  under  French  revdutionaty  influence, 
were  now  becoming  heard  in  Ireland. 

The  Catholic  question  had  rapidly  become  of  the  first  im- 
portance, and  when  a  powerful  section  of  the  Whigs  joined 
Pitt's  ministry  in  1794,  and  it  became  known  that  the  lord- 
lieutenancy  was  to  go  to  Lord  Fitzwilliam,  who  shared  Grattan's 
views,  expectations  were  raised  that  the  question  was  about  to 
be  settled  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  Irish  Catholics.  Such 
seems  to  have  been  Pitt's  intention,  though  there  has  been  much 
controversy  as  to  how  far  Lord  Fitxwilliam  {q.v.)  had  been 
authorized  to  pledge  the  govemmenL  After  taking  Grattan 
into  his  confidence,  it  was  arranged  that  the  latter  should  bring 
in  a  Roman  Catholic  emancipation  bill,  and  that  it  should  then 
xcceive  government  support.  But  finally  it  appeared  that  the 
viceroy  had  either  misunderstood  or  exceeded  his  instructions; 
and  on  the  19th  of  February  1795  FiUwilliam  was  recalled. 
In  the  outburst  of  indignation,  followed  by  increasing  disaffec- 
tion in  Ireland,  which  this  event  produced,  Grattan  acted  with 
conspicuous  moderation  and  loyalty,  which  won  for  him  warm 
acknowledgments  from  a  member  of  the  English  cabinet.' 
That  cabinet,  however,  doubtless  influenced  by  the  wishes  of 
the  king,  was  now  determined  firmly  to  resist  the  Catholic 
demands,  with  the  result  that  the  country  rapidly  drifted  to- 
wards rebellion.-  Grattan  warned  the  government  in  a  scries 
of  masterly  speeches  of  the  lawless  condition  to  which  Ireland 
had  been  driven.  But  he  could  now  count  on  no  more  than 
some  forty  followers  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  his  words 
were  unheeded.  He  retired  from  parliament  in  May  1797,  and 
departed  from  his  customary  moderation  by  attacking  the  govern- 
ment in  an  inflammatory  "  Letter  to  the  citizens  of  Dublin." 

At  this  time  religious  animosity  had  almost  died  out  in  Ireland, 
and  men  of  different  faiths  were  ready  to  combine  for  common 
political  objects.  Thus  the  Presbyterians  of  the  north,  who  were 
mainly  republican  in  sentiment,  combined  with  a  section  of  the 
Roman  Catholics  to  form  the  organization  of  the  United  Irishmen, 
to  promote  revolutionary  ideas  imported  from  France;  and  a 
party  prepared  to  welcome  a  French  invasion  soon  came  into 
existence.  Thus  stimulated,  the  increasing  disaffection  cul-* 
minated  in  the  rebellion  of  1798,  which  was  sternly  and  cruelly 
repressed.  No  sooner  was  this  effected  than  the  project  of  a 
legislative  union  between  the  British  and  Irish  parliaments, 
which  had  been  from  time  to  time  discussed  since  the  beginning 
of  the  x8th  century,  was  taken  up  in  earnest  by  Pitt's  govern- 
ment. Grattan  from  the  first  denounced  the  scheme  with 
implacable  hostility.  There  was,  however,  much  to  be  said  in 
iu  favour.  The  constitution  of  Grattan's  parliament  offered  no 
security,  as  the  differences  over  the  regency  question  had  made 
evident  that  in  matters  of  imperial. interest  the  policy  of  the 
Irish  parliament  and  that  of  Great  Britain  would  be  in  agreement; 
and  at  a  moment  when  England  was  engaged  in  a  life  and  death 
struggle  with  France  it  was  impossible  for  the  ministry  to  ignore 
the  danger,  which  had  so  recently  been  emphasized  by  the  fact 
that  the  independent  constitution  of  1782  had  offered  no  safe- 
guard against  armed  revolt.  The  rebellion  put  an  end  to  the 
growing  reconciliation  between  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants; 
religious  passions  were  now  violently  inflamed,  and  the  Orange- 
men and  Catholics  divided  the  island  into  two  hostile  factions. 

« W.  E.  H.  Lecky.  Uadtrs  «/  PiMk  Opinitm  in  Ireland,  I  127 
(enlarged  edition,  a  vols..  1903).  *  ^*««-  »•  «»4- 


It  is  a  curious  drcumstance,  in  view  of  the  subsequent  history  of 
Irish  politics,  that  it  was  from  the  Protestant  Established 
Church,  and  particularly  from  the  Orangemen,  that  the  bitterest 
opposition  to  the  union  proceeded;  and  that  the  proposal 
found  support  chiefly  among  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  and 
especially  the  bishops,  while  in  no  part  of  Ireland  was  it  received 
with  more  favour  than  in  the  city  of  Cork.  This  attitude  of  the 
Catholics  was  caused  by  Pitt's  encouragement  of  the  expectation 
that  Catholic  emancipation,  the  commutation  of  tithes,  and  the 
endowment  of  the  Catholic  priesthood,  would  accompany  or 
quickly  follow  the  passing  of  the  measure. 

When  in  1799  the  government  brought  forward  their  bill  it 
was  defeated  in  the  Iri^  House  of  Commons.  Grattan  was  still 
in  retirement.  His  popularity  had  temporarily  declined,  and 
the  fact  that  his  proposals  for  parliamentary  reform  and  Catholic 
emancipation  had  become  the  watchwords  of  the  rebellious 
United  Irishmen  had  brought  upon  him  the  bitter  hostility  of 
the  governing  classes.  He  was  dismissed  from  the  privy  councO; 
his  portrait  was  removed  from  the  hall  of  Trinity  College;  the 
Merchant  Guild  of  Dublin  struck  his  name  off  their  rolls.  But 
the  threatened  destruction  of  the  constitution  of  2782  quickly 
restored  its  author  to  his  former  place  in  the  affections  of  the 
Irish  people.  The  parliamentary  recess  bad  been  effectually 
employed  by  the  government  in  securing  by  lavish  corruption  a 
majority  in  favour  of  their  policy.  On  the  xsth  of  January 
1800  the  Irish  parliament  met  for  its  last  session;  on  the  same 
day  Grattan  secured  by  purchase  a  seat  for  Wicklow;  and  at  a 
late  hour,  while  the  debate  was  proceeding,  he  aj^ieared  to  take 
his  seat.  "  There  was  a  moment's  pause,  an  electric  thrill  passed 
through  the  House,  and  a  long  wild  cheer  burst  from  the 
galleries."'  Enfeebled  by  illness,  Grattan's  strength  gave  way 
when  he  rose  to  speak,  and  he  obtained  leave  to  address  the  House 
sitting.  Nevertheless  his  speech  was  a  superb  effort  of  oratory; 
for  more  than  two  hours  he  kept  his  audience  spellbound  by  a 
flood  of  epigram,  of  sustained  reasoning,  of  eloquent  zppnl 
Aiict  prolonged  debates  Grattan,  on  the  36th  of  May,  spoke 
finally  against  the  committal  of  the  bill,  ending  with  an  im- 
passioned peroration  in  which  he  declared,  "I  will  remain 
anchored  here  with  fidelity  to  the  fortunes  of  my  country, 
faithful  to  her  freedom,  faithful  to  her  fall."^  These  were  the 
last  words  sicken  by  Grattan  in  the  Irish  parliament. 

The  bill  establishing  the  union  was  carried  throu^  its  final 
stages  by  substantial  majorities.  The  people  remained  listless, 
giving  no  indications  of  any  eager  dislike  of  the  government 
policy,  ""^ere  were  absolutely  none  of  the  signs  which  are 
invariably  found  when  a  nation  struggles  passionately  against 
what  it  deems  an  impending  tyranny,  or  rallies  around  some 
institution  which  ft  really  loves."*  One  of  Grattan's  main 
grounds  of  opposition  to  the  union  had  been  his  dread  of  seeing 
the  political  leadership  in  Ireland  pass  out  of  the  bands  of  the 
landed  gentry;  and  he  prophesied  that  the  time  would  come 
when  Ireland  would  send  to  the  united  parliament  **  a  hundred 
of  the  greatest  rascals  in  the  kingdom."*  Like  Flood  before  him, 
Grattan  had  no  leaning  towards  democracy;  and  he  anticipated 
that  by  the  removal  of  the  centre  of  political  interest  from  Ireland 
the  evil  of  absenteeism  would  be  intensified. 

For  the  next  five  years  Grattan  took  no^active  part  in  public 
affairs;  it  was  not  till  1805  that  he  became  a  member  of  tbe 
parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom.  He  modestly  took  his  seat 
on  one  of  the  back  benches,  till  Fox  brought  him  forward  to  1 
seat  near  his  own,  exclaiming,  "  This  is  no  place  for  the  Iri^h 
Demosthenes  1 "  His  first  speech  was  on  the  Catholic  question, 
and  though  some  doubt  had  been  felt  lest  Grattan,  like  Flood, 
should  belie  at  Westminster  the  reputation  made  in  Dublin,  all 
agreed  with  the  description  of  his  speech  by  the  Anmmal  Regisitr 
as  "  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  eloquent  ever  pronounced 
within  the  walls  of  parliament."  When  Fox  and  Grenvilk 
came  into  power  in  x8o6  Grattan  was  offered,  but  refused  to 

• 

>  Tbid.  i.  24T.  *  CraUan*i  Speeches,  w.  2\. 

>  W.  E.  H.  Lccky,  Hufory  of  Enftand  in  the  Eitkteentk  Oaivy. 
viii.  491.  Cf.  Comwailis  Ccfrespcndence,  iii.  250. 

•  WTe.  H.  Lecky,  leoiierj  0/ PiiA^tc  OpMSM  w /rdoa^  L  27a 


GRATTIUS— GRAUN 


381 


accept,  ao  office  in  the  government.  In  the  following  year  he 
ibowed  the  strength  of  his  judgment  and  character  by  supporting, 
in  spite  of  consequent  unpopularity  in  Ireland,  a  measure  for 
increasing  the  powers  of  the  executive  to  deal  with  Irish  disorder. 
Roman  CathoUc  emancipation,  which  he  continued  to  advocate 
with  unflagging  energy  though  now  advanced  in  age,  became 
ooaq>Ucated  after  1808  by  the  question  whether  a  veto  on  the 
appointment  of  Roman  Catholic  bishops  should  rest  with  the 
crown.  Grattan  supported  the  veto,  but  a  more  extreme  Catholic 
party  was  now  arising  in  Ireland  under  the  leadership  of  Daniel 
(yConnell,  and  Grattan's  influence  gradually  declined.  He 
seldom  spoke  in  pariiament  after  1810,  the  most  notable  excep- 
tion being  in  18 15,  when  1^  separated  himself  from  the  Whigs 
and  sui^wrted  the  final  struggle  against  Napoleon.  His  last 
speech  of  all,  in  1819,  contained  a  passage  referring  to  the  union 
be  had  so  passionately  resisted,,  which  exhibits  the  statesmanship 
and  at  the  same  time  the  equable  quality  of  Grattan's  character. 
His  sentiments  with  regard  to  the  policy  of  the  union  remained, 
he  said,  unchanged;  but  "  the  marriage  having  taken  place  it  is 
DOW  the  duty,  as  it  ought  to  be  the  inclination,  of  every  individual 
to  render  it  as  fruitful,  as  profitable  and  as  advantageous  as 
possible.**  In  the  following  summer,  after  crossing  from  Ireland 
to  London  when  out  of  health  to  bring  forward  the  Catholic 
question  once  more,  he  became  seriously  ilL  On  his  death-bed 
be  spoke  generously  of  Castlereagh,  and  with  warm  eulogy  of 
bis  former  rival,  Flood.  He  died  on  the  6th  of  June  1820,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey  close  to  the  tombs  of  Pitt  and 
Fox.  His  statue  is  in  the  outer  lobby  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament 
at  Westminster.  Grattan  had  married  in  1782  Henrietta  Fitc- 
ferald,  a  lady  descended  from  the  andent  family  of  Desmond, 
by  idiom  he  had  two  sons  and  two  daughters. 

Tbe  most  searching  scrutiny  of  his  private  life  only  increases  the 
respect  due  to  the  memory  of  Grattan  as  a  statesman  and  the 
greatest  of  Irish  orators.  His  patriotism  was  untainted  by  self- 
lecking;  he  was  courageous  in  risking  his  popularity  for  what  his 
lound  judgment  showed  him  to  be  the  ri^t  course.  As  Sydney 
Smith  said  with  truth  of  Grattan  soon  after  his  death:  "  No 
g0venuDent  ever  dismayed  him.  The  world  could  not  bribe 
bim.  He  thought  only  of  Ireland;  lived  for  no  other  object; 
dedicated  to  her  his  beautiful  fancy,  his  elegant  wit,  his  manly 
,  and  all  the  splendour  of  his  astonishing  eloquence." ' 


K  E.  H.  Lecky,  Histery  efEmgiand  w  th$  Eitkttentk  Century  (8  vols.. 
LoodoD,  1878-1890)  and  Ltaders  of  PuUie  Opinion  in  Ireland 
(enlarged  edition,  a  volt.,  1903).  For  the  controversy  conceminK  the 
recall  ni  Loffd  Fitiwilliam  see,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing.  Lord 
RoMbery.  Pitt  (London,  1891):  Lord  Aafaboume,  PiU:  Some 
CkafUrt  if  his  LiU  (London,  1898);  Tkt  Petkam  Patters  (Brit.  Mus, 
Ada.  MSS..  331 18);  CartisU  Correspondence;  Beresford  Correspond- 
emee;  Slamiejm  Mtseeltamies;  for  the  Catholic  question,  W.  J. 
Andiiifst.  History  of  Catkelie  Emancipation  (2  vols.,  London,  1886) ; 
Sir  Tbooas  Wyw,  Historical  Sketch  of  the  late  CatkoUc  Association 
«f  Inlaaid  (London,  1829) ;  W.  J.  MacNeven,  Pieces  of  Irish  History 
Mew  York,  1807)  containing  an  account  of  the  United  Irishmen; 
wr  tbe  volunteer  movement  Thomas  MacNevin,  History  of  the 
ef  tJia  (Dublin,  l&4«);  Proceodines  of  the  Volunteer 
f  Ireland  1784  (Anon,  ramph.  Brit.  Mus.).  See  also  F. 
H^rdy,  Mienfoirt  of  Lord  Charkmont  (London,  1812);  Warden 
Flooa,  Momairs  ef  Henry  Flood  (London.  1838):  Fmncia  Ptowden, 
Hietaricai  Rmiom  of  Ike  State  0/  Ireland  (London,  1803);  Alfred 
Webb.  Compendhm^  of  Irish  Biography  (Dublin,  1878);  Sir  Jonah 
Barrincton.  Rise  ondFaUeflh^  Irish  Nation  (London,  1833) ;  W.  J. 
O'NcaU  Daunt,  Irdand  and  her  Agitators;  Lord  Mountmorret. 
History  of  the  Irish  PaHeament  (2  vols.,  London,  1792):  Horace 
Walpoie.  Memoirs  of  the  Reign  ef  Ceorme  III.  (4  vols.,  London.  1845 
and  i8m):  Locd  Stanhope,  tdfe  of  William  PiU  (4  vob.,  London. 
1861);  Tnomas  Davis.  Life  of  J.  P.  Curran  (Dublin.  1846)— this 
fontnfw  a  memoir  of  Grattan  by  D.  O.  Madden,  and  Grattan't  retrfy 
to  Lord  Clare  00  the  question  of  the  Union ;  Charles  Phillips,  Recoaec- 
tions  of  Curram  and  some  of  hit  Contemporaries  (London,  1822); 
T.  A.  FfOttde.  rk  £fifUa  m /rafowf  (London.  1881) :  J.  G.  McCarthy. 
Homry  Grmllan:  an  Historical  Study  (London.  1886) ;  Lord  Mahon^ 
Hitt^ry  of  Bmtfand,  voL  viL  (1838).  With  spedal  reference  to  the 
Union  see  CastlereaA  Correspondence;  ComwaUis  Correspondence; 
Wettmorlamd  PapersXinsk  Sute  Paper  Office). (R.  J.  M.) 

'Sydney  Smith's  Works,  ii.  166-167. 


GRATTIUS  [FAU8CU8],  Roman  poet,  of  the  age  of  Augustus, 

author  of  a  poem  on  hunting  {Cyneidica),  of  which  541  hexa< 

meters  remain.    He  was  possibly  a  native  of  FaleriL    The  only 

reference  to  him  in  any  ancient  writer  is  incidental  (Ovid,  £b 

PontOt  iv.  16.  33).    He  describes  various  kinds  of  game,  methodi 

of  hunting,  the  best  breeds  of  borses  and  dogs. 

There  are  editions  by  R.  Stem  (1832);  E.  Bihrens  In  PoHat 
Latini  Minores  (i.,  1879)  and  G.  G.  Curcto  in  Poeti  Utini  Minori  (i., 
1902),  with  bibliography:  ace  also  H.  Schenkl.  Zur  Kritik  des  C, 
(1898).  There  is  a  translation  by  Christopher  Wase  (1654). 

GRAUDBMZ  (Polish  Gruduadx),**.  town  in  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia,  province  of  West  Prussia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  18  m.  S.S.W.  of  Marienwerder  and  37  m.  by  rail  N.N.E. 
of  Thorn.  Pop.  (1885)  X7i336>  (1905)  35i988.  It  has  two  Pro- 
testant and  three  Roman  Catholic  d^urches,  and  a  synagogue. 
It  is  a  place  of  considerable  manufacturing  activity.  The  town 
possesses  a  museum  and  a  monument  to  Guillaume  Reni  Cour< 
bi^  (1733-18x1),  the  defender  of  the  town  in  1807.  It  has 
fine  promenades  along  the  bank  of  the  Vistula.  Graudenz  is 
an  important  place  in  the  (krman  system  of  fortifications,  and 
has  a  garrison  of  considerable  size. 

Graudenz  was  founded  about  1250,  and  received  dvic  rights  in 
X  29X.  At  the  peace  of  Thorn  in  X466  it  came  under  the  lordship 
of  Poland.  From  1665  to  X759  it  was  held  by  Sweden,  and  in 
1772  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Prussia.  The  fortress  of 
Graudenz,  which  since  X873  has  been  used  as  a  barracks  and 
a  military  depot  and  prison,  is  situated  on  a  steep  eminence  about 
x}  m.  north  of  the  town  and  outside  its  limits.  It  was  completed 
by  Frederick  the  Great  in  1776,  and  was  rendered  famous 
through  its  defence  by  Courbi^  against  the  French  in  X807. 

GRAUN,  CARL  HBIIIRICH  (170X-X759),  (German  musical 
composer,  the  youngest  of  three  brothen,  all  more  or  less  musical, 
was  bom  on  the  7th  of  Bffay  X70X  at  Wahrenbriick  in  Saxony. 
His  father  held  a  small  government  post  and  he  gave  his  childreo 
a  careful  education.  Graun's  beautiful  s(^rano  voice  secured 
him  an  appointment  in  the  choir  at  Dresden.  At  an  early  age  he 
compMed  a  number  of  sacred  cantatas  and  other  pieces  for  the 
church  service.  He  completed  his  studies  under  Johann  Christoph 
Schmidt  (X664-X728),  and  profited  much  by  the  Italian  operas 
which  were  performed  at  Dresden  under  the  composer  Lottl. 
After  his  voice  had  changed  to  a  tenor,  he  made  his  d^but  at 
the  opera  of  Brunswick,  in  a  work  by  Schilrmann,  an  inferior 
composer  of  the  day ;  but  not  being  satisfied  with  the  arias  assigned 
him  he  re-wrote  them,  so  much  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court 
that  he  was  commissioned  to  write  an  opera  for  the  next  season. 
This  work,  Polydonts  (1726),  and  five  other  operas  written  for 
Brunswick,  q>read  his  fame  all  over  Germany.  Other  works, 
mostly  of  a  sacred  character,  including  two  settings  of  the 
Passion,  also  belong  to  the  Brunswick  period.  Frederick  the 
Great,  at  that  time  crown  prince  of  Prussia,  heard  the  singer  in 
Brunswick  in  1735,  and  immediately  engaged  him  for  his  private 
chapel  at  Rheinsberg.  There  Graun  remained  for  five  years, 
and  wrote  a  number  of  cantatas,  mostly  to  words  written  by 
Frederick  himself  in  French,  and  translated  into  Italian  by 
BoltarellL  On  his  accession  to  the  throne  in  X740,  Frederick 
sent  Graun  to  Italy  to  engage  singen  for  a  new  open  to  be 
established  at  Berlin.  Graun  remained  a  jrear  on  his  travels, 
earning  universal  ap|dause  as  a  singer  in  the  chief  cities  of  Italy. 
After  his  return  to  Berlin  he  was  appointed  conductor  of  the 
royal  orchestra  {Kapdlmeister)  with  a  salary  of  aooo  thalen 
(£300).  In  this  c^Mdty  he  wrote  twenty-eight  operas,  all  to 
Italian  words,  of  which  tbe  Ust,  Merope  (1756),  is  perhaps  the 
most  perfect.  It  is  probable  that  Graun  was  subjected  to  con* 
siderable  humiliation  from  the  arbitrary  caprices  of  his  royal 
master,  who  was  never  tired  of  praising  the  operas  of  Haase  and 
abusing  those  of  his  Kapdlmeister,  In  his  oratorio  The  Death 
of  Jesus  Graun  shows  his  skill  as  a  contrapuntist,  and  his  origin* 
ality  of  melodious  invention.  In  the  Italian  operas  he  imitates 
the  florid  style  of  his  time,  but  even  in  these  the  redutives 
occasionally  show  oonnderable  dramatic  power.  Graun  died 
on  the  8th  of  August  1759,  at  Beriin,  in  the  same  bouse  In  which, 
thirty-two  years  later,  Meyerbeer  was  born. 


382 


GRAVAMEN— GRAVELINES 


GRAVAMEN  (from  Lat.  t^avare,  to  weigh  down;  gravis, 
heavy),  a  complaint  or  grievance,  the  ground  of  a  legal  action, 
and  particularly  the  more  serious  part  of  a  charge  against  an 
accused  person.  In  English  the  term  is  used  chiefly  in  ecclesi- 
astical cases,  being  the  technical  designation  of  a  memorial 
presented  from  the  Lower  to  the  Upper  House  of  Convocation, 
setting  forth  grievances  to  be  redressed,  or  calling  attention  to 
breaches  in  church  discipline. 

GRAVE,  (i)  (From  a  common  Teutonic  verb,  meaning  "  to 
dig  ";  in  O.  Eng.  grafan;  cf.  Dutch  graven,  Ger.  graben),  a  place 
dug  out  of  the  earth  in  which  a  dead  body  is  laid  for  burial,  and 
hence  any  place  of  burial,  not  necessarily  an  excavation  (see 
Funeral  Rites  and  Burul).  The  verb  "  to  grave,"  meaning 
properly  to  dig,  is  particularly  used  of  the  making  of  incisions 
in  a  hard  surface  (see  Engraving),  (a)  A  title,  now  obsolete, 
of  a  local  administrative  official  for  a  township  in  certain  parts 
of  Yorkshire  and  Lincolnshire;  it  also  sometimes  appears  in  the 
form  "  grieve,"  which  in  Scotland  and  Northumberland  is  used 
for  sheriff  iq.v.),  and  also  for  a  bailiff  or  under-steward.  The 
origin  of  the  word  ia  obscure,  but  it  is  probably  connected  with 
the  German  graf,  count,  and  thus  appears  as  the  second  part  of 
many  Teutonic  titles,  such  as  landgrave,  burgrave  and  margrave. 
'*<  Grieve,"  on  the  other  hand,  oeems  to  be  the  northern  repre- 
sentative of  O.E.  gertfat  reeve;  cf.  "  sheriff "  and  "  count.". 
(3)  (From  the  Lat.  gravis,  heavy),  weighty,  serious,  particularly 
with  the  idea  of  dangerous,  as  applied  to  diseases  and  the  like, 
of  character  or  temperament  as  opposed  to  gay.  It  is  also  applied 
to  sound,  low  or  deep,  and  is  thus  opposed  to  "  acute."  In 
music  the  term  is  adopted  from  the  French  and  Italian,  and 
applied  to  a  movement  which  is  solemn  or  slow.  (4)  To  clean  a 
ship's  bottom  in  a  specially  constructed  dock,  called  a  "^graving 
dock."  The  origin  of  the  word  is  obscure;  according  to  the 
New  English  Dictionary  there  is  no  foundation  for  the  connexion 
with  "  greaves  "  or  "  graves,"  the  refuse  of  tallow,  in  candle  or 
soap-making,  supposed  to  be  used  in  "  graving  "  a  ship.  It  may 
be  connected  with  an  O.  Fr.  i^ave,  mod.  grhe,  shore. 

GRAVEL,  or  Pebble  Beds,  the  name  given  to  deposits  of 
founded,  subangular,  water-worn  stones,  mingled  with  finer 
material  such  as  sand  and  clay.  The  word  "  gravel "  is  adapted 
from  the  O.  Fr.  gravde,  mod.  graveUe,  dim.  of  grave,  coarse  sand, 
sea-shore,  Mod.  Fr.  frhw.  The  deposits  are  produced  by  the 
attrition  of  rock  fragments  by  moving  water,  the  waves  and 
tides  of  the  sea  and  the  flow  of  rivers.  Extensive  beds  of  gravel 
are  forming  at  the  present  time  on  many  parts  of  the  British 
coasts  where  suitable  rocks  are  exposed  to  the  attack  of  the 
atmosphere  and  of  the  sea  waves  during  storms.  The  flint 
gravels  of  the  coast  of  the  Channel,  Norfolk,  &c.,  are  excellent 
examples.  When  the  sea  is  rough  the  lesser  stones  are  washed  up 
and  down  the  beach  by  each  wave,  and  in  this  way  are  rounded, 
worn  down  and  finally  reduced  to  sand.  These  gravels  are 
constantly  in  movement,  being  urged  forward  by  the  shore 
currents  especially  during  storms.  Large  banks  of  gravel  may 
be  swept  away  in  a  single  night,  and  in  this  way  the  coast  is  laid 
bare  to  the  erosive  action  of  the  sea.  Moreover,  the  movement 
of  the  gravel  itself  wears  down  the  subjacent  rocks.  Hence  in 
many  places  barriers  have  been  erected  to  prevent  the  drift  of 
the  pebbles  and  preserve  the  land,  while  often  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  protect  the  shores  by  masonry  or  cement  work. 
Where  the  pebbles  are  swept  along  to  a  projecting  cape  they  may 
be  carried  onwards  and  form  a  long  spit  or  submarine  bank, 
which  ia  constantly  reduced  in  size  by  the  currents  and  tides 
which  flow  across  it  {e.g.  Spurn  Head  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Humber).  The  Chesil  Bank  is  the  best  instance  in  Britain  of 
a  great  accumulation  of  pebbles  constantly  urged  forward  by 
storms  in  a  definite  direction.  In  the  shallower  parts  of  the  North 
Sea  considerable  areas  are  covered  with  coarse  sand  and  pebbles. 
In  deeper  water,  however,  as  in  the  Atlantic,  beyond  the  zoo 
fathom  line  pebbles  are  very  rare,  and  those  which  are  found 
are  mostly  erratics  carried  southward  by  floating  icebergs,  or 
volcanic  rocks  ejected  by  submarine  volcanoes. 

In  naany  parts  of  Britain,  Scandinavia  and  North  America 
here  are  mvine  graveb,  in  every  essential  resembling  those  of 


the  sea-shore,  at  levels  considerably  above  high  tide.  Thait 
gravels  often  lie  in  flat-topped  terraces  which  may  be  traced 
for  great  distances  along  the  coast.  They  are  indications  that 
the  sea- at  one  time  stood  higher  than  it  docs  at  present,  and 
are  known  to  gcolo^sts  as  "  raised  beaches."  In  Gotland  such 
beaches  are  known  25,  50  and  100  ft.  above  the  present  shores. 
In  exposed  situations  they  have  old  shore  cliffs  behind  them; 
although  their  deposits  are  mainly  gravelly  there  a  much  fine 
sand  and  silt  in  the  raised  beaches  of  sheltered  estuaries  and  near 
river  mouths. 

River  gravels  occur  most  commonly  in  the  middle  and  upper 
parts  of  streams  where  the  currents  in  times  of  flood  are  strong 
enough  to  transport  fairly  large  stones.  In  deltas  and  the  lower 
portions  of  large  rivers  gravel  deposits  are  comparatively  rare 
and  indicate  periods  when  the  volume  of  the  stream  was  tem- 
porarily greatly  increased.  In  the  higher  torrents  also,  gravels 
are  rare  because  transport  is  so  effective  that  no  considerable 
accumulations  can  form.  In  most  countries  where  the  drainage 
is  of  a  mature  type,  river  graveb  occur  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
courses  of  the  rivers  as  banks  or  terraces  which  lie  some  distance 
above  the  stream  level.  Individual  terraces  usually  do  not 
persist  for  a  long  space  but  are  represented  by  a  series  of  benches 
at  about  the  same  altitude.  These  were  once  continuous,  and 
have  been  separated  by  the  stream  cutting  away  the  intervening 
portions  as  it  deepened  and  broadened  its  channel.  Terraces 
of  this  kind  often  occur  in  successive  series  at  different  heights, 
and  the  highest  are  the  oldest  because  they  were  laid  down  at 
a  time  when  the  stream  flowed  at  their*  level  and  mark  the 
various  stages  by  which  the  valley  has  been  eroded.  While 
marine  terraces  are  nearly  always  horizontal,  stream  terraces 
slope  downwards  along  the  course  of  the  river. 

The  extensive  deposits  of  river  gravels  in  many  parts  of 
England,  France,  Switzerland,  North  America,  &c.,  -woukl 
indicate  that  at  some  former  time  the  rivers  flowed  in  greater 
volume  than  at  the  present  day.  Thb  is  believed  to  be  connected 
with  the  glacial  epoch  and  the  augmentation  of  the  streams 
during  those  periods  when  the  ice  was  melting  away.  Many 
changes  in  drainage  have  taken  place  since  then;  consequently 
wide  sheets  of  glacial  and  fluvio-^acial  gravel  lie  spread  out 
where  at  present  there  is  no  stream.  Often  they  are  commingled 
with  sand,  and  where  there  were  temporary  post-gladal  lakes 
deposits  of  silt,  brick  clay  and  mud  have  been  formed.  These 
may  be  compared  to  the  similar  deposits  now  forming  in  Green- 
land, Spitsbergen  and  other  countries  which  are  at  present  in  a 
glacial  condition. 

As  a  rule  gravels  consist  mainly  of  the  harder  kinds  of  stone 
because  these  alone  can  resist  attrition.  Thus  the  gravels  formed 
from  chalk  consist  almost  entirely  of  flint,  which  is  so  hard  that 
the  chalk  is  ground  to  powder  and  washed  away,  while  the  flint 
remains  little  affected.  Other  hard  rockssuch  as  chert,  qxiartzite, 
felsite,  granite,  sandstone  and  volcanic  rocks  very  frequently 
are  largely  represented  in  gravels,  while  coal,  limestone  and 
shale  are  far  less  common.  The  size  of  the  pebbles  varie>  from  a 
fraction  of  an  inch  to  several  feet;  it  depends  partly  on  the 
fissility  of  the  original  Tocks  and  partly  on  the  strength  of  the 
currents  of  water;  coarse  gravels  indicate  the  action  of  powerful 
eroding  agents.  In  the  Tertiary  systems  gravds  occur  on  many 
horizons,  e.g.  the  Woolwich  and  Reading  beds,  Oldhaven  beds 
and  Ba^ot  beds  of  the  Eocene  of  the  London  basin.  They  do 
not  essentially  differ  from  recent  gravel  depo»ts.  But  in  course 
of  time  the  action  of  percolating  water  assisted  by  pressure  tends 
to  convert  gravels  into  firm  masses  of  conglomerate  by  depositing 
carbonate  of  lime,  silica  and  other  substances  in  their  interstices. 
Gravels  are  not  usually  so  foasiliferous  as  finer  deposits  of  the 
same  age,  partly  because  their  porous  texture  enables  organic 
remains  to  be  dissolved  away  by  water,  and  partly  because 
shells  and  other  fosstb  are  comparatively  fragile  and  would  be 
broken  up  during  the  accumulation  of  the  pebbles.  The  rock 
fragments  in  conglomerates,  however,  sometimes  contain  fossils 
which  have  not  been  found  elsewhere.  (J.  S.  F.) 

ORAVBUNES  (Flem.  Cravdingke),  a  fortified  seaport  town  of 
northern  France,  in  the  department  of  Nord  and  arrondissemcnt 


GRAVELOTTE— GRAVINA 


383 


of  Dttnkirk,  1$  m.  S.W.  of  Dunkirk  on  the  nOway  to 
Calais.  Pop.  (1906)  town,  1858;  commune,  6284.  Gravelines 
is  situated  on  the  Aa,  x^  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  North  Sea. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  double  circuit  of  ramparts  and  by  a  tidal 
moat.  The  river  is  canalized  and  opens  out  beneath  the  fortifica- 
tions into  a  floating  basin.  The  situation  of  the  port  is  one  of 
tftue  best  in  France  on  the  North  Sea,  though  its  trade  has  suffered 
owing  to  the  nearness  of  Calais  and  Dimkirk  and  the  silting  up 
of  the  channel  to  the  sea.  It  is  a  centre  for  the  cod  and  herring 
fwhfriftt.  Imports  consist  chiefly-  of  timber  from  Northern 
Europe  and  cosJ  from  England,  to  which  eggs  and  fruit  are 
extorted.  .Gravelines  has  paper-manufactories,  sugar-woriu, 
fish-cuxing  works,  salt-refineries,  chicory-roasting  factories,  a 
cannery  for  preserved  peas  and  other  vegetablesand  an  important 
timber-yard.  The  harbour  is  accessible  to  vessels  drawing  x8  ft. 
at  high  tidesi  Tbe  greater  part  of  the  population  of  the  conunune 
of  Gravelines  dwdls  in  the  maritime  quarter  of  Petit-Fort- 
PhiHppe  at  Uie  mouth  of  the  Aa,  and  in  the  village  of  Les  Huttes 
(to  the  east  of  the  town),  which  is  inhabited  by  the  fisher-folk. 

TIm  canalisation  of  the  Aa  by  a  count  of  Flanders  about  the 
middle  of  the  xath  century  led  to  the  foundation  of  Gravelines 
Jigrawe-Untke,  meaning  **  count's  canal.")'  In  XS58  it  was  the 
scene  of  the  signal  victory  of  the  Spaniards  under  the  count  of 
Egmoot  over  the  French.  It  finally  passed  from  the  Spaniards 
to  tht  Flench  by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  in  1659. 

QBAVILOTTB,  a  village  of  Lorraine  between  Metz  and  the 
French  frontier,  famous  as  the  scene  of  the  battle  of  the  x8th 
of  August  1870  between,  the  Germans  under  King  William  of 
Fmssia  and  the  French  under  Marshal  Baaaine  (see  Metz  and 
FkANOO-GcucAM  Wax).  The  battlefield  extends  from  the 
woods  wbtdb  border  the  Moselle  above  Mets  to  Roncourt,  near 
the  fiver  Ome.  Other  villages  which  played  an  important  part 
in  the  battle  of  Gravdotte  were  Saint  Privat,  Amanweiler  or 
Amanvillers  and  Sainte-Marie-auz-Ch£nes,  all  lying  to  the  N. 
of  Gravelotte. 

GRAVB.  ALFRED  PERCEVAL  (X846-  ),  Irish  writer, 
was  bom  in  Dublin,  the  son  of  the  bishop  of  Limerick.  He  was 
educated  at  Windermere  College,  and  took  high  honours  at 
Dublin  University.  In  1869  he  entered  the  Civil  Service  as 
cleA  in  ibit  Home  Office,  where  he  remained  until  he  became  in 
1874  an  inqwctor  of  schools.  He  was  a  constant  contributor  of 
proee  and  vene  to  the  SptctaUf^  The  Athmaeum^  John  Bull,  and 
PuMck,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the  revival  of  Irish  letters. 
He  was  for  several  years  president  of  the  Irish  Literary  Society, 
and  is  the  author  of  the  famous  ballad  of  "  Father  O'Flynn  " 
and  many  other  songs  and  ballads.  In  collaboration  with  Sir 
C.  V.  Stanford  he  published  Son^s  of  Old  Ireland  (1882),  Irish 
Sougi  and  Ballads  (1895),  the  airs  of  which  are  taken  from  the 
Petxie  MSS: ;  the  airs  of  his  Irish  FolhSongs  (i  897)  were  arranged 
by  Charles  Wood,  with  whom  he  also  collaborated  in  Songs  of 
Erin  (x90x). 

His  brother,  (Hiaries  L.  Graves  (b.  X856),  educated  at  Marl- 
borough and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  also  became  well  known 
as  a  Jcwmalist,  author  of  two  volumes  of  parodies,  The  Hawarden 
Horace  (1894)  and  More  Hawarden  Horace  (1896),  and  of  skits 
in  prose  and  verse.  An  admirable  musical  critic,  his  Life  and 
Leiters  of  Sir  Ceorge  Grove  (1903)  is  a  model  biography. 

6RAVEn9ID,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough, 
river-port  and  market  town  of  Kent,  England,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Thames  opposite  Tilbury  Fort,  23  m.  E.  by  S.  of  London 
by  the  South-Eastem  &  Chatham  railway.  Pop.  (x90x)  S7ti96- 
It  exteiub  about  a  m.  along  the  river  bank,  occupying  a  slight 
acclivity  which  reaches  its  summit  at  Windmill  Hill,  whence 
extensive  views  are  obtained  of  the  river,  with  its  windings  and 
sbipptng.  The  older  and  lower  part  of  the  town  is  irregularly 
built,  with  narrow  and  inconvenient  streets,  but  the  upper  and 
newer  portion  contains  several  handsome  streets  and  terraces. 
Among  several  piers  are  the  town  pier,  erected  in  1832,  and  the 
terrace  pier,  built  in  X84S,  at  a  time  when  local  river-traffic  by 
steamboat  was  specially  prosperous.  Gravesend  Is  a  favourite 
remn  of  the  inhabitants  of  London,  both  for  excursions  and  as 
a  summer  residence;  it  is  also  a  favourite  yachting  centre. 


The  principal  buildings  are  the  town-hall,  the  parish  church  of 
Gravesend,  erected  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  btiilding  destroyed 
by  fire  in  X727;  Milton  parish  church,  a  Decorated  and  Perpen- 
dicular building  erected  in  the  time  of  Edward  n.;  and  the 
county  courts.  Milton  Mount  College  is  a  large  institution  for 
the  daughters  of  Congregational  ministers.  East  of  the  town 
are  the  earthworks  designed  to  assist  Tilbury  Fort  in  obstructing 
the  passage  up  river  of  an  enemy's  force.  They  were  ori^nally 
constructed  on  Vauban's  system  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
Roaherville  Gardens,  a  popular  resort,  are  in  the  western  suburb 
of  Roaherville,  a  residential  quarter  named  after  James  Rosher, 
an  owner  of  lime  works.  They  were  founded  in  X843  by  George 
Jones.  Gravesend,  which  is  within  the  Port  of  London,  has  some 
import  trade  in  coal  and  timber,  and  fishing,  espiedally  of 
shrimps,  is  carried  on  extensively.  The  principal  other  industries 
are  boat-building,  ironfounding*  brewing  and  soap-boiling. 
Fruit  and  vegct^les  are  largely  gro?m  in  the  neighbourhood 
for  the  London  market.  Since  X867  Gravesend  has  returned  a 
member  to  parliament,  the  borough  including  Northfleet  to  the 
west.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayw,  6  aldermen  and  x8 
councillors.    Area,  1259  acres. 

In  the  Domesday  Survey  "  Gravesham  "  is  entered  among  the 
bish<^  of  Bayeux's  lands,  and  a  "  hythe  "  or  landing-place  is 
mentioned.  In  140X  Henry  IV,  granted  the  men  of  Gravesend 
the  sole  right  of  conveying  in  their  own  vessels  all  persons 
travelling  between  London  and  Gravesend,  and  this  ri|^t  was 
confirm^  by  Edward  IV.  in  1463.  In  X56a  the  town  was 
granted  a  charter  of  bcorporation  by  Elisabeth,'  which  vested 
the  govonment  in  a  portreeves  and  xa  jurats,  but  by  a  later 
charter  of  1568  one  portreeve  was  substituted  for  the  two. 
Charles  I.  incorporated  the  town  anew  under  the  title  of  the 
mayor,  jurats  and  inhabitants  of  Gravesend,  and  a  further 
charter  of  liberties  was  granted  by  James  11.  in  X687.  A 
Thursday  mariiet  and  fair  on  the  13th  of  October  were  granted 
to  the  men  of  Gravesend  by  Edward  IIL  in  X367;  Elizabeth's 
charters  gave  them  a  Wednesday  market  and  fairs  on  the  a4th 
of  Jime  and  the  X3th  of  October,  with  a  court  ci  pie-powder; 
by  the  charter  of  Charles  L  Thursday  and  Saturday  were  made 
the  market  days,  and  these  were  changed  again  to  Wednesday 
and  Saturday  by  a  charter  of  1694,  which  also  granted  a  fair 
on  the  a3rd  of  April;  the  fairs  on  these  dates  have  died  out,  but 
the  Saturday  market  is  still  held. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  X7th  century  GraSresend  was  the 
chief  station  for  East  Indiamen;  most  of  the  ships  outward 
bound  from  London  stopped  here  to  victuaL  A  customs  house 
was  built  in  1783.  Queen  Elizabeth  established  Gravesend  as 
the  point  where  the  corporation  of  London  should  welcome  in 
state  eminent  foreign  visitors  arriving  by  water.  State  proces- 
sions by  water  from  Gravesend  to  London  had  previously  taken 
place,  as  in  1522,  when  Henry  VIII.  escorted  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  A  similar  practice  was  maintained  until  modem 
times;  as  when,  on  the  7th  of  March  1863,  the  princess  Alexandra 
was  received  here  by  the  prince  of  Wales  (King  Edward  VII.) 
three  days  before  their  marriage.  Gravesend  parish  church 
contains  memorials  to  "  Princess  "  Pocahontas,  who  died  when 
preparing  to  return  home  from  a  visit  to  England  in  x6t7,  and 
was  buried  in  the  old  church.  A  memorial  pulpit  from  the  state 
of  Indiana,  U.S.A.,  made  of  Virginian  wood,  was  provided  in 
X904,  and  a  fund  was  raised  for  a  stained-glass  window  by  ladies 
of  the  state  of  Virginia. 

GRAVINA.  GIOVANNI  VINCBNZO  (X664-1718).  lUtUftn 
litterateur  and  jurisconsult,  was  bom  at  Roggiano,a  smsU  town 
near  Cosehza,  in  Calabria,  on  the  20th  of  January  1664.  He  was 
descended  from  a  distinguished  family,  and  under  the  direction 
of  his  maternal  uncle,  Gregorio  Caloprese,  who  possessed  some 
reputation  as  a  poet  and  pbilosc^her,  received  a  leamed  educa- 
tion, after  whidi  he  studied  at  Naples  civil  and  canon  law.  In 
1689  he  came  to  Rome,  where  in  1695  he  united  with  several 
others  of  literary  tastes  in  forming  the  Academy  of  Arcadians. 
A  schism  occurred  in  the  academy  in  X7X1,  and  Gravina  and  his 
followers  founded  in  opposition  to  it  the  Academy  of  (^rina. 
From  Innocent  XIL     Gravina  received  the  offer  of  various 


384 


GRAVINA— GRAVITATION 


ecclesiastical  honotin,  but  declined  them  from  a  disinclination 

to  enter  the  clerical  profession.    In  1699  he  was  appointed  to 

the  chair  of  dvil  law  in  the  college  of  La  Sapicnza,  and  in  1703 

he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  canon  law.    He  died  at  Rome 

on  the  6th  of  January  1718.    He  was  the  adoptive  father  of 

Metastasio. 

Gravina  ia  the  author  of  a  number  of  works  of  great  erudition,  the 
princi^  being  his  Origmes  juiris  cmlis,  completed  in  %  vol*.  (1713) 
and  his  De  Romano  imperio  (171a).  A  French  translation  of  the 
former  appeared  in  1775,  of  which  a  second  edition  was  published 
in  1822.  His  collected  works  were  published  at  Leipzig  in  1737, 
and  at  Naples,  with  notes  by  Mascovius,  in  1756. 

GRAVniA,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Apulia,  Italy,  in  the 

province  of  Bari,  from  which  it  is  63  m.  S.  W.  by  rail  (29  m.  direct) , 

1x48  ft.  above  sea-leveL    Pop.  (1901)  18,197.    1^^  town  is 

pirobably  of  medieval  origin,  thou^  some  conjecture  that  it 

occupies  the  site  of  the  andent  Blera,  a  post  station  on  the  Via 

Appia.    The  cathedral  is  a  basilica  of  the  xsth  century.    The 

town  is  surrounded  with  walls  and  towers,  and  a  castle  of  the 

empexor  Frederick  II.  rises  above  the  town,  which  later  bdooged 

to  the  Orsini,  dukes  of  Gravina;  just  outside  it  are  dwellings 

and  a  church  (S.  Michde)  all  hewn  in  the  rock,  and  now 

abandoned. 

Prehistoric  remains  in  the  district  (remains  of  andent  settlements, 
ktmtdir  Ac)  are  described  by  V.  oi  Cicco  in  Notiaie  degfi  setm 
(1901),  p.  2x7. 

GRAVITATION  (from  Lat.  iravis,  heavy),  in  physical  sdence, 
that  mutual  action  between  masses  of  matter  by  virtue  of  which 
every  such  mass  tends  toward  every  other  with  a  force  varying 
directly  as  the  product  of  the  masses  and  inversely  as  the  square 
of  their  distances  apart.  Although  the  law  was  first  dearly  and 
rigorously  formulated  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  the  fact  of  the 
action  indicated  by  it  was  more  or  less  clearly  seen  by  others. 
Even  Ptolemy  had  a  vague  conception  of  a  force  tending  toward 
the  centre  of  the  earth  which  not  only  kept  bodies  upon  its 
surface,  but  in  some  way  upheld  the  order  of  the  universe.  John 
Kepler  inferred  that  the  planets  move  in  their  orbits  under  some 
influence  or  force  exerted  by  the  sun;  but  the  laws  of  motion 
were  not  then  suffidently  devdoped,  nor  were  Kepler's  ideas  of 
force  suffidently  dear,  to  admit  of  a  precise  statement  of  the 
nature  of  the  force.  C.  Huygens  and  R.  Hooke,  contemporaries 
of  Newton,  saw  that  Kepler's  third  law  implied  a  force  tending 
toward  the  sun  which,  acting  on  the  several  planets,  varied 
inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance.  But  two  requirements 
necessary  to  generalize  the  theory  were  still  wanting.  One  was 
to  show  that  the  law  of  the  inverse  square  not  only  represented 
Kepler's  third  law,  but  his  first  two  laws  also.  The  other  was  to 
show  that  the  gravitation  of  the  earth,  following  one  and  the 
same  law  with  that  of  the  s\m,  extended  to  the  moon.  Newton 's 
researches  showed  that  the  attraction  of  the  earth  on  the  moon 
was  the  same  as  that  for  bodies  at  the  earth's  surface,  only 
reduced  in  the  inverse  square  of  the  moon's  distance  from  the 
earth's  centre.  He  also  showed  that  the  total  gravitation  of 
the  earth,  assumed  as  spherical,  on  external  bodies,  would  be 
the  same  as  if  the  earth's  mass  were  concentrated  in  the  centre. 
This  led  at  once  to  the  statement  of  the  law  in  its  most  general 
form. 

The  law  of  gravitation  is  unique  among  the  laws  of  nature, 
not  only  in  its  wide  generaUty,  taking  the  whole  universe  in  its 
scope,  but  in  the  fact  that,  so  far  as  yet  known,  it  is  absolutely 
unmodified  by  any  condition  or  cause  whatever.  All  other  forms 
of  action  between  masses  of  matter,  vary  with  circumstances. 
The  mutual  action  of  dectrified  bodies,  for  example,  is  affected 
by  their  rdative  or  absolute  motion.  But  no  conditions  to 
which  matter  has  ever  been  subjected,  or  under  which  it  has 
ever  been  observed,  have  been  found  to  influence  its  gravitation 
in  the  slightest  degree.  We  might  concdve  the  rapid  motions 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  to  result  in  some  change  either  in  the 
direction  or  amount  of  their  gravitation  towards  each  other  at 
each  moment;  but  such  is  not  the  case,  even  in  the  most  rapidly 
moving  bodies  of  the  solar  system.  The  question  has  also  been 
raised  whether  the  action  of  gravitation  is  absolutely  instant- 
aneous.   If  not,  the  action  would  not  be  exactly  in  the  line 


adjoining  the  two  bodies  at  the  instant,  but  would  be  affected 
by  the  motion  of  the  line  joining  them  during  the  time  required 
by  the  force  to  pass  from  one  body  to  the  other.  The  result  of 
this  would  be  seen  in  the  motions  of  the  planets  around  the  sun; 
but  the  most  refined  observations  show  no  such  effect.  It  is 
also  conceivable  that  bodies  might  gravitate  differently  at 
different  temperatures.  But  the  most  careful  researches  have 
failed  to  show  any  apparent  modification  produced  in  this  way 
except  what  might  be  attributed  to  the  surrounding  conditions. 
The  most  recent  and  exhaustive  experiment  was  that  of  J.  H. 
Poynting  and  P.  Phillips  {Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  76A,  p.  445).  The 
result  was  that  the  change,  if  any,  was  less  than  iV  o^  the  force 
for  one  degree  change  of  temperature,  a  result  too  minute  to  be 
established  by  any  measures. 

Another  cause  which  might  be  supposed  to  modify  the  action 
of  gravitation  between  two  bodies  would  be  the  interposition  of 
masses  of  matter  between  them,  a  cause  which  materially 
modifies  the  action  of  dectrified  bodies.  The  question  whether 
this  cause  modifies  gravitation  admits  of  an  easy  test  from 
observation.  If  it  did,  then  a  portion  of  the  earth's  man  or  of 
that  of  any  other  planet  turned  away  from  the  sun  would  not  be 
subjected  to  the  same  action  of  the  sun  as  if  directly  exposed  to 
that  action.  Great  masses,  as  those  of  the  great  planets,  would 
not  be  attracted  with  a  force  proportional  to  the  mass  because 
of  the  hindrance  or  other  effect  of  the  interposed  portions. 
But  not  the  slightest  modification  due  to  this  cause  is  shown. 
The  general  conclusion  from  everything  we  see  is  that  a  mass  of 
matter  in  Australia  attracts  a  mass  in  London  predsdy  as  it 
would  if  the  earth  were  not  interposed  between  the  two  masses. 

We  must  therefore  regard  the  law  in  question  as  the  broadest 
and  most  fundamental  one  which  nature  makes  known  to  ua. 

It  is  not  yet  experimentally  proved  that  variation  as  the 
inverse  square  is  absolutely  true  at  all  distances.  Astronomical 
observations  extend  over  too  brief  a  period  of  time  to  show  any 
attraction  between  different  stars  except  those  in  each  other's 
ndghbourhood.  But  this  proves  nothing  because,  in  the  case 
of  distances  so  great,  centuries  or  even  thousands  of  years  of 
accurate  observation  will  be  required  to  show  any  action,  (hi 
the  other  hand  the  enigmatical  motion  of  the  periheh'on  of 
Mercury  has  not  yet  found  any  plausible  explanation  except  on 
the  hypothesis  that  the  gravitation  of  the  sun  diminishes  at 
a  rate  slightly  greater  than  that  of  the  inverse  square — ^the  most 
simple  modification  being  to  suppose  that  instead  of  the  exponent 
of  the  distance  being  exactly  -  a,  it  is  -a-ooo  000  x6x  2. 

The  argument  is  extremely  simple  in  form.  It  is  certain  that, 
in  the  general  average,  year  after  year,  the  force  with  which 
Mercury  is  drawn  toward  the  sun  does  vary  from  the  exact 
inverse  square  of  its  distance  from  the  sun.  The  most  plausible 
explanation  of  this  is  that  one  or  more  masses  of  matter  move 
around  the  sun,  whose  action,  whether  they  are  inside  or  outside 
the  orbit  of  Mercury,  would  produce  the  required  modification  in 
the  force.  From  an  investigation  of  all  the  observations  upon 
Mercury  and  the  other  three  interior  planets,  Simon  Newcomb 
found  it  almost  out  of  the  question  that  any  such  mass  of  matter 
could  exist  without  changing  either  the  figure  of  the  sun  itself 
or  the  motion  of  the  planes  of  the  orbits  of  either  Mercury  or 
Venus.  The  qualification  "  almost "  is  necessary  because  so 
complex  a  system  of  actions  comes  into  play,  and  accurate 
observations  have  extended  through  so  short  a  period^  that  the 
proof  cannot  be  regarded  as  absolute.  But  the  fact  that  careful 
and  repeated  search  for  a  mass  of  matter  suflident  to  produce 
the  desired  effect  has  been  in  vain,  affords  additional  evidence  of 
its  non-existence.  The  most  obvious  test  of  the  reality  of  the 
required  modifications  would  be  afforded  by  two  other  bodies, 
the  motions  of  whose  pericentres  should  be  similarly  affected. 
These  are  Mars  and  the  moon.  Newcomb  found  an  exces  of 
motions  in  the  perihelion  of  Mars  amounting  to  about  5'  per 
century.  But  the  combination  of  observations  and  theory  on 
which  this  is  based  is  not  sufficient  fully  to  establish  so  sli^t  a 
motion.  In  the  case  of  the  motion  of  the  moon  around  the  eart  h, 
assuming  the  gravitation  of  the  latter  to  be  subject  to  the 
modification  in  question,  the  annual  motion  of  the  moon's 


GRAVITATION 


385 


perffee  duntM  be  greater  by  1*5"  than  the  theoretical  motion. 
£.  W.  Brown  is  the  first  investigator  to  determine  the  theoretical 
motions  with  this  degree  of  predston;  and  he  finds  that  there 
is  no  such  divergence  between  the  actual  and  the  computed 
motion.  There  fe  therefore  as  yet  no  ground  for  regarding  any 
deviation  from  the  law  of  inverse  square  as  more  than  a  posai- 
bOity.  (S.  N.) 

GiAvnATioN  Constant  and  Mean  Density  op  the  Earth 

The  law  of  gravitation  states  that' two  masses  M|  and  M|, 
distant  d  from  each  other,  are  pulled  together  each  with  a  force 
G.  Ml  M^d*,  where  G  is  a  constant  for  all  kinds  of  matter—the 
ffmUUwn  eoHstani.  The  acceleration  of  Ma  towards  M|  or  the 
force  exerted  on  it  by  Mi  per  unit  of  its  mass  is  therefore  CMiftP. 
Astronomical  observations  of  the  accelerations  of  different 
planets  towards  the  sun,  or  of  different  satellites  towards  the 
same  primary,  give  us  the  most  accurate  confirmation  of  the 
distance  part  of  the  law.  By  comparing  accelerations  towards 
different  bodies  we  obtain  the  ratios  of  the  masses  of  those 
different  bodies  and,  in  so  far  as  the  ratios  arc  consistent,  we 
obtain  confirmation  of  the  mass  part.  But  we  only  obtain  the 
ratios  of  the  masses  to  the  mass  of  some  one  member  of  the 
system,  say  the  earth.  We  do  not  find  the  mass  in  terms  of 
grammes  or  pounds.  In  fact,  astronomy  gives  us  the  product 
GM,  but  neither  G  nor  M.'  For  examine,  the  acceleration  of  the 
earth  towards  the  sun  is  about  o*6  cm/sec.'  at  a  distance  from 
it  about  15X10**  cm.  The  acceleration  of  the  moon  towards 
tiw  earth  is  about  oa?  cm/sec.'  at  a  distance  from  it  about 
4X10^  cm.  If  S  is  the  mass  of  the  sun  and  E  the  mass  of  the 
earth  we  have  o-6-GS/  (isXio««)«  and  oay-CE/  (4Xro»)* 
giving  us  GS  and  GE,  and  the  ratio  S/E» 300,000  roughly; 
but  we  do  not  obtain  either  S  or  E  in  grammes,  and  we  do  not 
find  G. 

The  aim  of  the  experiments  to  be  described  here  may  be 
regarded  either  as  the  determination  of  the  mass  of  the  earth 
in  grammes,  most  conveniently  expressed  by  its  mass -i- its 
volume,  that  is  by  its  "  mean  density  '*  A,  or  the  determination 
of  the  "  gravitation  constant "  G.  Corresponding  to  these  two 
aspects  of  the  problem  there  are  two  modes  of  attack.  Suppose 
that  a  body  of  mass  m  is  suspended  at  the  earth's  surface  where 
it  is  pulled  with  a  force  w  vertically  downwards  by  the  earth—its 
weight.  At  the  same  time  let  it  be  pulled  with  a  force  p  by  a 
measurable  mass  M  which  may  be  a  mountain,  or  some  measur- 
able part  of  the  earth's  surface  layers,  or  an  artificially  prepared 
mass  brought  near  m,  and  let  the  pull  of  M  be  the  same  as  if 
it  were  concentrated  at  a  distance  d.  The  earth  pull  may  be 
regarded  as  the  same  as  if  the  earth  were  all  concentrated  at  its 
centre,  distant  R. 
Xlien  w-C.JrR«Ajii/R«-C.JrRAiii (1) 

and 

^-GMm/J> (2) 

By  divi»on 

»_   3M     w 

If  then  we  can  arrange  to  observe  wfp  we  obtain  A,  the  mean 
density  of  the  earth. 

But  the  same  observations  give  us  G  also.  For,  putting 
m^w/g  in  (s),  we  get 

In  the  second  mode  of  attack  the  pull  p  between  two  artificially 
prepared  measured  masses  Mi,  Mt  is  determined  when  they  are 
a  distance  d  apart,  and  since  p^C.MiMt/d*  we  get  at  once 
G  *  pd'/MfMs.  But  we  can  also  deduce  A.  For  putting  w^mg 
in  (i)  we  get 

ExperimenU  of  the  first  class  in  which  the  pull  of  a  known  mass 
is  compared  with  the  pull  of  the  earth  maybe  termed  experiments 
00  the  mean  density  of  the  earth,  while  experiments  of  the 
second  clsis  in  which  the  pull  between  two  known  masses  is 


directly  measured  may  be  termed  experiments  on  the  gravitation 
constant. 

We  shall,  however,  adopt  a  slightly  different  classification 
for  the  purpose  of  describing  methods  of  experiment,  via: — 
I.  Compariaonof  the  earth  pull  on  a  bodsr  with  the  pull  of  a  natural 

mass  as  in  the  Schiehallion  experiment. 
3.  Determinatran  of  the  attraction  between  two  artificial  masses 

as  in  Cavendish's  experiment. 
3.  Comparison  of  the  eartti  pull  on  a  body  with  the  pull  of  an 
artificial  mass  as  in  experiments  with  the  common  balance. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  possibility  of  gravitation 
experimenU  of  this  kind  was  first  considered  by  Newton,  and 
in  both  of  the  forms  (x)  and  (a).  In  the  System  of  the  World 
(3rd  ed.,  1737,  p.  40)  he  calculates  that  the  deviation  by  a  hemi- 
spherical mountain,  of  the  earth's  density  and  with  radius  3  m., 
on  a  plumb-line  at  its  side  will  be  less  than  2  minutes.  He  also 
calculates  (though  with  an  error  in  his  arithmetic)  the  accelera- 
tion towards  each  other  of  two  spheres  each  a  foot  in  diameter 
and  of  the  earth's  density,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  in 
cither  case  the  effect  is  too  small  for  measurement.  In. the 
Primcipia,  bk.  iii.,  prop,  x.,  he  makes  a  celebrated  estimate 
that  the  earth's  mean  density  is  five  or  six  times  that  of  water. 
Adopting  this  estimate,  the  deviation  by  an  actual  mountain 
or  the  attraction  of  two  terrestrial  spheres  would  be  of  the  orders 
calculated,  and  regarded  by  Newton  as  immeasurably  small. 

Whatever  method  is  adopted  the  force  to  be  measured  is  very 
minute.  This  may  be  realized  if  we  here  antidpate  the  results 
of  the  experiments,  which  show  that  in  round  numbers  A^S'S 
and  G«  1/15,000,000  when  the  masses  are  in  grammes  and  the 
distances  in  centimetres. 

Newton's  mountain,  which  would  probably  have  density  about 
A/2  would  deviate  the  plumb-Une  not  much  more  than  half  a 
minute.  Two  spheres  30  cm.  in  diameter  (about  x  ft.)  and  of 
density  ix  (about  that  of  lead)  just  not  touching  would  pull 
each  other  with  a  force  rather  less  than  2  dynes,  and  their 
acceleration  would  be  such  that  they  would  move  into  contact 
if  starting  i  cm.  apart  in  rather  over  400  secondSs 

From  these  examples  it  will  be  realized  that  in  gravitation 
experiments  extraordinary  precautions  must  be  adopted  to 
eliminate  disturbing  forces  which  may  easily  rise  to  be  com- 
parable with  the  forces  to  be  measured.  We  shall  not  attempt 
to  give  an  account  of  these  precautions,  but  only  seek  to  set 
forth  the  general  principles  of  the  different  experiments  which 
have  been  made. 

I     Comparison  of  the  Earth  Ptdl  with  that  of  a  Natural  Mass. 

Bougucr's  Experiments.— The  eariiest  experiments  were  made 
by  Pierre  Bouguer  about  1740,  and  they  are  recorded  in  his 
Fignre  de  la  terre  (1749)-  They  were  of  two  kinds.  In  the  first 
he  determined  the  length  of  the  seconds  pendulum,  and  thence 
g  at  different  levels.  Thus  at  (^to,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  on  a  table-land  1466  toiscs  (a  toise  is  about  6*4  ft.)  above 
sea-level,  the  seconds  pendulum  was  less  by  1/1331  than  on  the 
Isle  of  Inca  at  sea-level.  But  if  there  were  no  matter  above  the 
sea-level,  the  inverse  square  law  would  make  the  pendulum  less 
by  i/i  1 18  at  the  higher  level.  The  value  of  g  then  at  the  higher 
level  was  greater  than  could  be  accounted  for  by  the  attraction 
of  an  earth  ending  at  sea-level  by  the  difference  x/i  1x8-1/1331 » 
1/6983,  and  this  was  put  down  to  the  attraction  of  the  plateau 
X466  toises  high;  or  the  attraction  of  the  whole  earth  was 
6983  times  the  attraction  of  the  plateau.  Using  the  rule,  now 
known  as  "  Young's  rule,"  for  the  attraction  of  the  plateau, 
Bouguer  found  that  the  density  of  the  earth  was  4*7  times  that 
of  the  plateau,  a  result  certainly  much  too  large. 

In  the  second  kind  of  experiment  he  attempted  to  measure 
the  horizontal  pull  of  Chimborazo,  a  mountain  about  20,000  ft. 
high,  by  the  deflection  of  a  plumb-line  at  a  station  on  its  south 
side.  Fig.  x  shows  the  principle  of  the  method.  Suppose  that 
two  stations  are  fixed,  one  on  the  side  of  the  mountain  due  south 
of  the  summit,  and  the  other  on  the  same  latitude  but  some 
distance  westward,  away  from  the  influence  of  the  mountain. 
Suppose  that  at  the  second  station  a  star  is  observed  to  pass  the 
meridian,  for  simplicity  we  will  say  directly  overhead,  then  a 


386 


GRAVITATION 


plumb-line  will  hang  down  exactly  parallel  to  the  observing 
telescope.  If  the  mountain  were  away  it  would  also  hang  parallel 
to  the  telescope  at  the  first  station  when  directed  to  the  saiite 
star.  But  the  mountain  pulls  the  plumb-line  towards  it  and 
the  star  appears  to  the  north  of  the  zenith  and  evidently 

mountain  pull/earth  pull  >  tan- 
gent of  angle  of  displacement 
of  zenith. 

Bouguer  observed  the  meridian 
altitude  of  several  stars  at  the 
two  stations.  There  was  still 
some  deflection  at  the  second 
station,  a  deflection  which  he 
estimated  as  1/14  that  at  the 
first  station,  and  he  found  on 
allowing  for  this  that  his  observa- 
tions gave  a  deflection  o|  8  seconds 
^  J  at  the  first  station.    From  the 

Ij  form  and  size  of  the  mountain  he 

y\i  I  found  that  if  its  density  were  that 

^    ^^  *Tfc,^^  of  the  earth  the  deflection  should 

be  103  seconds,  or  the  earth  was 


p.^    .     D  •     ni     u    nearly  13  times  as  dense  as  the 

li«"ExiSSS;f'?n'  ^t.  n"""'"".  .~uU  several  tin,« 
traction  of  Chimborazo.  too   large.    But   the   work   was 

carried  on  under  enormous  difli- 
culties  owing  to  the  severity  of  the  weather,  and  no  exactness 
could  be  expected.  The  importance  of  the  experiment  lay  in  its 
proof  that  the  method  was  possible. 

Maskdyne's  Experiment. — In  1774  Nevil  Maskclyne  (Pkil 
Trans.,  1775,  p.  495)  made  an  experiment  on  the  deflection  of  the 
plumb-line  by  Schie)iallion,  a  mountain  in  Perthshire,  which  has 
a  short  ridge  nearly  east  and  west,  and  sides  sloping  steeply  on 
the  north  and  south.  He  selected  two  stations  on  the  same 
meridian,  one  on  the  north,  the  other  on  the  south  slope,  and  by 
means  of  a  zenith  sector,  a  telescope  provided  with  a  plumb-bob, 
he  determined  at  each  station  the  meridian  zenith  distances  of 
a  number  of  stars.  From  a  survey  of  the  district  made  in  the 
years  1 774-1 776  the  geographical  difference  of  latitude  between 
the  two  stations  was  found  to  be  42-94  seconds,  and  this  would 
have  been  the  difference  in  the  meridian  zenith  difference  of  the 
same  star  at  the  two  stations  had  the  mountain  been  away. 
But  at  the  north  station  the  plumb-bob  was  pulled  south  and  the 
zenith  was  deflected  northwards,  while  at  the  south  station  the 
effect  was  reversed.  Hence  the  angle  between  the  zeniths,  or  the 
angle  between  the  zenith  distances  of  the  same  star  at  the  two 
stations  was  greater  than  the  geographical  4a '94  seconds.  The 
mean  of  the  observations  gave  a  difference  of  54-7  seconds,  or 
the  double  deflection  of  the  plumb-line  was  54*a-42-94,  say 
1 1 '26  seconds. 

The  computation  of  the  attraction  of  the  mountain  on  the 
supposition  that  its  density  was  that  of  the  earth  was  made  by 
Charles  Hut  ton  from  the  results  of  the  survey  (Phil.  Trans., 
1778,  p.  689),  a  computation  carried  out  by  ingenious  and 
important  methods.  He  found  that  the  deflection  should  have 
been  greater  in  the  ratio  17804  '.9933  say  9  :  5,  whence  the 
density  of  the  earth  comes  out  at  9/5  that  of  the  mountain. 
Hutton  took  the  density  of  the  mountain  at  2-5,  giving  the  mean 
density  of  the  earth  4-5.  A  revision  of  the  density  of  the  moun- 
tain from  a  careful  survey  of  the  rocks  composing  it  was  made 
by  John  Playfair  many  years  later  (Phil.  Trans.,  181 1,  p.  347), 
and  the  density  of  the  earth  was  given  as  lying  between  4*5588 
and  4*867. 

Other  experiments  have  been  made  on  the  attraction  of 
mountains  by  Francesco  Carlini  (MUano  Efem.  Ast.,  1824, 
p.  28)  on  Mt.  Blanc  in  1821,  using  the  pendulum  method  after 
the  manner  of  Bouguer,  by  Colonel  Sir  Henry  James  and  Captain 
A.  R.  Clarke  (PhU.  Trans.,  1856,  p.  591),  using  the  plumb-line 
deflection  at  Arthur's  Seat,  by  T.  C.  Mendcnhall  (i4wcr.  Jour,  of 
Sci.  xxi.  p.  99),  using  the  pendulum  method  on  Fujiyama  in 
Japan,  and  by  £.  D.  Preston  (U.S.  Coast  and  Ceod.  Survey  Rep., 
1893,  p.  513)  in  Hawaii,  using  both  methods. 


Airys  Experimeht.—ln  1854  Sir  G.  B.  Airy  (PkU.  Trans., 
1856,  p.  297)  carried  out  at  Harton  pit  near  South  Shields  an 
experiment  which  he  had  attempted  many  years  before  in  con- 
junction with  W.  Whewell  and  R.  Sheepshanks  at  Dolcoath. 
This  consisted  in  comparing  gravity  at  the  top  and  at  the  bottom 
of  a  mine  by  the  swings  of  the  same  pendulum,  and  thence  finding 
the  ratio  of  the  pull  of  the  intervening  strata  to  the  pull  of  the 
whole  earth.  The  principle  of  the  method  may  be  understood 
by  assuming  that  the  earth  consists  of  concentric  spherical  shells 
each  homogeneous,  the  last  of  thickness  k  equal  to  the  depth 
of  the  mine.  Let  the  radius  of  the  earth  tu  the  bottom  of  the 
mine  be  R,  and  the  mean  density  up  to  that  point  be  A.  This 
will  not  differ  appreciably  from  the  mean  density  of  the  whole. 
Lit  the  density  of  the  strata  of  depth  A  be  5.  Denoting  -the 
values  of  gravity  above  and  below  by  f «  and  ;»  we  have 


£»-CJ^-C.URA, 


and 


rR*A 


(since  the  attraction  of  a  shell  b  thick  on  a  point  just  outside  it  is 

G.4»(R+A)W(R+/f)«-G.4»M). 

Therefore 

whence 

£4     .    2*  .3*  • 

i-'-R+iiA' 

and 


M?/(-  +^+1:) 


Stations  were  chosen  in  the  same  vertical,  one  near  the  pit 
bank,  another  1250  ft.  below  in  a  disused  working,  and  a  "  com- 
parison "  clock  was  fixed  at  each  station.  A  third  clock  was 
placed  at  the  upper  station  connected  by  an  electric  circuit  to 
the  lower  station.  It  gave  an  electric  signal  every  15  seconds 
by  which  the  rates  of  the  two  comparison  clocks  coiUd  be  accur- 
ately compared.  Two  "  invariable  "  seconds  pendulums  were 
swung,  one  in  front  of  the  upper  and  the  other  in  front  of  the 
lower  comparison  clock  after  the  manner  of  Kater,  and  these 
invariables  were  interchanged  at  intervals.  From  continuous 
observations  extending  over  three  weeks  and  after  api^ying 
various  corrections  Airy  obtained  Cft/j«' 1-00005 185.  Making 
corrections  for  the  irregularity  of  the  neighbouring  strata  he 
found  A16  "  26266.  W.  H.  Miller  made  a  careful  determination 
of  6  from  specimens  of  the  strata,  finding  it  2*5.  The  final 
result  taking  into  account  the  ellipticity  and  rotation  of  the  earth 
is  As 6* 565. 

Von  Sterneck*s  Experiments.— {Mittk.  des  K.U.K.  Mil.  Geot- 
Inst,  tu  Wicn,  11,  1882,  p.  77;  1883,  p.  59;  vi.,  1886,  p.  97). 
R.  von  Sterncck  repeated  the  mine  experiment  in  1882-1883 
at  the  Adalbert  shaft  at  Pribram  in  Bohemia  and  in  1885  at  the 
Abraham  shaft  near  Frdibcrg.  He  used  two  invariable  half- 
seconds  pendulums,  one  swung  at  the  surface,  the  other  below 
at  the  same  time.  The  two  were  at  intervals  interchanged. 
Von  Sterneck  introduced  a  most  important  improvement  by 
comparing  the  swings  of  the  two  invariables  with  the  same  dock 
which  by  an  electric  circuit  gave  a  signal  at  each  station  each 
second.  This  eliminated  clock  rates.  His  method,  of  which  ii 
is  not  necessary  to  give  the  details  here,  began  a  new  era  in  the 
determinations  of  local  variations  of  gravity.  The  values  which 
von  Sterneck  obtained  for  A  were  not  consistent,  but  increased 
with  the  depth  of  the  second  station.  Thb  was  probably  due 
to  local  irregularities  in  the  strata  which  could  not  be  directly 
detected. 

All  the  experiments  to  determine  A  by  the  attraction  of 
natural  masses  are  open  to  the  serious  objection  that  we  cannot 
determine  the  distribution  of  density  in  the  neighbourhood 
with  any  approach  to  accuracy.  The  experiments  with  artificial 
masses  next  to  be  described  give  much  more  consistent  results, 
and  the  experiments  with  natural  masses  are  npw  pnly  of  use 


*< 


GRAVITATION 


u  showing  the  existence  of  irregularities  in  the  earth's  superficial 
strata  when  they  give  results  deviating  largely  from  the  accepted 
value. 

IL  Ddtrwnnaium  of  ike  Atiraclion  between  two  Artificial  Masses. 

Cavendish's  Experiment  {PkiL  Trans.,  1798,  p.  469). — This 
celebrated  experiment  was  planned  by  the  Rev.  John  Michell. 
He  completed  an  apparatus  (or  it  but  did  not  live  to  begin  work 
with  it.  After  Michell's  death  the  apparatus  came  into  the 
possession  of  Henry  Cavendish,  who  largely  reconstructed  it, 
but  still  adhered  to  Michell's  plan,  and  in  1 797-1 798  he  carried 
out  the  experiment.  The  essential  feature  of  it  consisted  in  the 
determination  of  the  attraction  of  a  lead  sphere  1 3  in.  in  diameter 
on  another  lead  sphere  a  in.  in  diameter,  the  distance  between 
the  centres  being  about  9  in.,  by  means  of  a  torsion  balance. 
Fig.  2  shows  how  the  experiment  was  carried  out.  A  torsion 
rod  JU  6  f t.  long,  tied  from  its  ends  to  a  vertical  piece  mg,  was 


387 


on  account  of  the  excellence  of  his  methods.  His  work  was 
undoubtedly  very  accurate  for  a  pioneer  experiment  and  has 
only  really  been  improved  upon  within  the  last  generation. 
Making  various  corrections  of  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  give 
a  description,  the  result  obtained  (after  correcting  a  mistake 
first  pointed  out  by  F.  Baily)  a  A"  5-448.  In  seeking  the  origin 
of  the  disturbed  motion  of  the  torsion  rod  Cavendish  made  a  very 
important  observation.  He  found  that  when  the  masses  were 
left  in  one  position  for  a  time  the  attracted  balls  crept  now  in 
one  direction,  now  in  another,  as  if  the  attraction  were  varying. 
Ultimately  he  found  that  this  was  due  to  convection  currents 
in  the  case  containing  the  torsion  rod,  currents  produced  by 
temperature  inequalities.  When  a  large  sphere  was  heated  the 
ball  near  it  tended  to  approach  and  when  it  was  cooled  |he  ball 
tended  to  recede.  Convection  currents  constitute  the  chief 
disturbance  and  the  chief  source  of  error  in  ail  attempts  to 
measure  small  forces  in  air  at  ordinary  pressure. 

Reick*s  Experiments  ( Versucke  Uber  die  mitUere  Dicktigkeit 
der  Erde  mittelst  der  Drekwage,  Freiberg,  1838;  "  Neue 
Versuche  mit  der  Drchwage,"  Leipng  Abk.  Uatk.  Pkys.  i., 
1852,  p.  383). — In  1838  F.  Reich  published  an  account  of  a 
repetition  of  the  Cavendish  experiment  carried  out  on  the 
same  general  lines,  though  with  somewhat  smaller  apparatus. 
The  chief  differences  consisted  in  the  methods  of  measuring 
the  times  of  vibration  and  the  deflection,  and  the  changes 
were  hardly  improvements.  His  result  after  reviuon  was 
^"  5*49'  In  1852  he  published  an  account  of  further  work 
giving  as  result  A^S'S^-  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  his 
second  paper  he  gives  an  account  of  experiments  suggested 
by  J.  D.  Forbes  in  which  the  deflection  was  not  observed 
directly,  but  was  deduced  from  observations  of  the  time 
of  vibration  when  the  attracting  masses  were  in  different 
positions. 


FiC.  2. — Cavendish's  Apparatus. 
k  kt  torsion  rod  hung  by  wire  /  g,;  x,x,  attracted  balls  hung  from 
its  ends;  WW,  attracting  masses. 

hung  by  a  wire  Ig.  From  its  ends  depended  two  lead  balls  xx  each 
2  in.  in  diameter.  The  position  of  the  rod  was  determined  by  a 
scale  fixed  near  the  end  of  the  arm,  the  arm  itself  carrying  a 
vernier  moving  along  the  scale.  This  was  lighted  by  a  lamp  and 
viewed  by  a  telescope  T  from  the  outside  of  the  room  containing 
the  apparatus.  The  torsion  balance  was  enclosed  in  a  case 
and  outside  this  two  lead  spheres  WW  each  12  in.  in  diameter 
hung  from  an  arm  which  could  turn  round  an  axis  P^  in  the  line 
of  gt.  Suppose  that  first  the  spheres  are  placed  so  that  one  is 
just  in  front  of  the  right-hand  ball  x  and  the  other  is  {ust  behind 
the  left-hand  ball  x.  The  two  will  conspire  to  pull  the  balls  so 
that  the  right  end  of  the  rod  moves  forward.  Now  let  the  big 
SfAeres  be  moved  round  so  that  one  is  in  front  of  the  left  ball 
and  the  other  behind  the  right  ball.  The  pulls  are  reversed 
and  the  right  end  moves  backward.  The  angle  between  its  two 
positions  is  (if  we  nei^ect  cross  attractions  of  right  sphere  on 
left  ball  and  left  sphere  on  right  ball)  four  times  as  great  as  the 
deflection  of  the  rod  due  to  approach  of  one  sphere  to  one  balL 

*  The  principle  of  the  experiment  may  be  set  forth  thus.  Lot  7a 
be  the  length  of  the  torsion  rod.  m  the  mass  of  a  ball,  M  the  mass  of 
a  laurge  sfMicre,  d  the  distance  between  the  centres,  supposed  the  same 
on  each  side.  Let  9  be  the  angle  through  which  the  rod  moves  round 
when  the  nheres  WW  are  moved  from  the  first  to  the  second  of  the 
positions  described  above.  Let  h  be  the  couple  required  to  twist 
the  rod  through  1  radian.  Then  «itf«4GMma/(P.  But  it  can  be 
found  irom  the  time  of  vibration  of  the  torsion  system  when  wc 
know  its  moment  of  inertia  I.  and  this  can  be  determined.  If  T 
b  the  period  II  ">4»'I/T',  whence  G-v'tTIf/PM ma.  or  putting  the 
result  m  terms  of  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  A  it  is  easy  to  show 
thatt.  K  L«  the  length  of  the  seconds  pendulum,  is  put  for  gfw*,  and  C 
for  29R,  the  eartli's  circumference,  then 

.     ,L  Mmo  T« 
The  origioal  account  by  Cavendish  is  still  well  worth  studying 


Let  Ti  be  the  time  of  vibration  when  the  masses  are  in  one 
of  the  usual  attracting  positions.  Let  d  be  the  distance  between 
the  centres  of  attractmg  mass  and  attracted  ball,  and  S  the 
distance  through  which  tne  ball  is  pulled.  If  a  is  the  half  length 
of  the  torsion  rod  and  9  the  deflection,  l>a#.  Now  let  the 
attracting  masses  be  put  one  at  each  end  of  the  torsion  rod 
with  their  centres  in  the  line  through  the  centres  of  the  balls 
and  d  from  them,  and  let  Ti  be  the  time  of  vibration.  Then 
it  is  easy  to  show  that 

•/i-a#/rf-Cr,-TO/(Ti+TO. 

This  gives  a  value  of  9  which  may  be  used  in  the  formula.  The 
cxpenmcnts  by  this  method  were  not  consistent,  and  the  mean 
result  was  A  «  6*25. 

Baity' s  Experiment  (Memoirs  of  tke  Royal  Astron.  Soe.  xiv.).— 
In  1 841-1842  Francis  Baily  made  a  long  series  of  determinations 
by  Cavendish's  method  and  with  apparatus  nearly  of  the  same 
dimensions.  The  attracting  masses  were  12-in.  lead  spheres 
and  as  attracted  balls  he  used  various  masses,  lead,  zinc,  glass, 
ivory,  platinum,  hollow  brass,  and  finally  the  torsion  rod  alone 
without  balls.  The  suq>ension  was  also  varied,  sometimes 
consisting  of  a  single  wire,  sometimes  being  bifilar.  There  were 
systematic  errors  running  throu^  Baily's  work,  which  it  is 
impossible  now  wholly  to  explain.  These  made  the  resulting 
value  of  A  show  a  variation  with  the  nature  of  the  attracted 
masses  and  a  variation  with  the  temperature.  His  final  result 
A  ■•  5-6747  is  not  of  value  compared  with  later,  results. 

Cm'nu  and  Bailie's  Experiment  {jComptes  rendus,  Ixxvi., 
i873t  P-  954;  lxxxvi.,,1878,  pp.  571,  699,  looi;  xcvi.,  1883, 
P'  1493)' — In  1870  MM.  A.  Comu  and  Jf.  Bailie  commenced 
an  experiment  by  the  Cavendish  method  which  was  never 
definitely  completed,  though  valuable  studies  of  the  behaviour 
of  the  torsion  apparatus  were  made.  They  purposely  departed 
from  the  dimensions  previously  used.  The  torsion  balb  were  of 
copper  about  100  gm.  each,  the  rod  was  50  cm.  long,  and  the 
suspending  wire  was  4  metres  long.  On  each  side  of  each  ball 
was  a  hollow  iron  sphere.  Two  of  these  were  filled  with  mercury 
weighing  12  kgm.,  the  two  spheres  of  mercury  constituting  the 
attracting  masses.  When  the  position  of  a  mass  was  to  be 
changed  the  mercury  was  pumped  from  the  sphere  on  one  side 
to  that  on  the  other  side  of  a  ball.    To  avoid  counting  time  a 


388 


GRAVITATION 


method  of  electric  registration  on  a  chronograph  was  adopted. 
A  provisional  result  was  ^"5-56. 

Boys's  Experitnent  {Phil.  Trans.,  A.,  1895,  pt.  i.,  p.  1). — 
Professor  C.  V.  Boys  having  found  that  it  is  possible  to  draw 
quartz  fibres  of  practically  any  degree  of  fineness,  of  great 
strength  and  true  in  their  elasticity,  determined  to  repeat  the 
Cavendish  experiment,  using  his  newly  invented  fibres  for 
the  suspension  of  the  torsion  rod.  He  began  by  an  inquiry 
as  to  the  best  dimensions  for  the  apparatus.  He  saw  that  if 
the  period  of  vibration  is  kept  constant,  that  is,  if  the  moment 
of  inertia  I  is  kept  proportional  to  the  torsion  coufde  per  radian 
/i,  then  the  deflection  remains  the  same  however  the  linear 
dimensions  are  altered  so  long  as  they  are  all  altered  in  the  same 
proportion.  Hence  we  are  driven  to  conclude  that  the  dimen- 
sions shoidd  be  reduced  until  further  reduction  would  make  the 
linear  quantities  too  small  to  be  measured  with  exactness,  for 
reduction  in  the  apparatus  enables  variations  in  temperature 
and  the  consequent  air  disturbances  to  be  reduced,  and  the 
experiment  in  other  ways  becomes  more  manageable.  Professor 
Boys  took  as  the  exactness  to  be  sou^t  for  i  in  10,000.  He 
further  saw  that  reduction  in  length  of  the  torsion  rod  with 
given  balls  is  an  advantage.  For  if  the  rod  be  halved  the  moment 
of  inertia  is  one-fourth,  and  if  the  suspending  fibre  is  made 
finer  so  that  the  torsion  couple  per  radian  is  also  one-fourth 
the  time  remains  the  same.  But  the  moment  of  the  attracting 
force  is  halved  only,  so  that  the  deflection  against  one-fourth 
torsion  is  doubled.    In  Cavendish's  arrangement  there  would 

be  an  early  limit 
to  the  advantage 
in  reduction  of 
rod  in  that  the 
mass  opposite 
one  ball  would 
begin  seriously  to 
attract  the  other 
ball.  But  Boys 
avoided  this 
difliculty  by  sus- 
pending the  balls 
from  the  ends  of 
the  torsion  rod  at 
different  levels 
and  by  placing 
the  attracting 
manes  at  these 
different  levels. 
Fig.  3  represents 
diagrammatic- 
ally  a  vertical 
section  of  the 
arrangement 
used  on  a  scale 
of  about  i/io. 
The  torsion  rod 
was  a  small  rect- 
angular mirror 
about  3*4  cm. 
wide  hung  by  a 
quarts  fibre 
about  43  cm. 
long.  From  the  sides  of  this  mirror  the  balls  were  hung  by  quartz 
fibres  at  levels  differing  by  15  cm.  The  balls  were  of  gold  either 
about  5  mm.  in  diameter  and  weighing  about.! '3  gm.  or  about 
6*5  mm.  in  diameter  and  weighing  2'65  gm.  The  attracting 
masses  were  lead  spheres,  about  10  cm.  in  diameter  and  weighing 
about  7-4  kgm.  each.  These  were  suspended  from  the  top  of 
the  case  which  could  be  rotated  round  the  central  tube,  and  they 
were  arranged  so  that  the  .radius  to  the  centre  from  the  axis  of 
the  torsion  system  made  65^  with  the  torsion  rod,  the  position  in 
which  the  moment  of  the  attraction  was  a  maximum.'  The 
torsion  rod  mirror  reflect^  a  distant  scale  by  yvhich  the  deflection 
could  be  read.    The  time  of  vibratioa  wto  recorded  on  a  chrono- 


Fig.  3. — Diagram  of  a  Section  of  Professor 
Boys's  Apparatus. 


graph.    The  result  of  the  experiment ,  probably  the  best  yet  made, 
was  A«5'527;  G  «  6-658  Xio"*. 

Braun*s  Experiment  {Denksckr.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  wuttk.- 
naturw.  CI.  64,  p.  187, 1896). — In  1896  Dr  K.  Braun,  S.J.,  gave 
an  account  of  a  very  careful  and  excellent  rq>etiiion  of  the 
Cavendish  experiment  with  apparatus  much  smaller  than  was 
used  in  the  older  experiments,  yet  much  larger  than  that  used 
by  Boys.  A  notable  feature  of  the  work  consisted  in  the  suspen- 
sion of  the  torsion  apparatus  in  a  receiver  exhausted  to  about 
4  mm.  of  mercury,  a  pressure  at  which  convection  currents 
almost  disappear  while  "radiometer"  forces  have  hardly 
begun.  For  other  ingenious  arrangements  the  original  paper 
or  a  short  abstract  in  Nature,  Ivi.,  1897,  p.  127,  may  be  con* 
suited.  41ie  attracted  balls  weighed  54  gm.  each  and  were 
35  cm.  apart.  The  attracting  masses  were  spheres  of  mercuiy 
each  weighing  9  kgm.  and  brought  into  position  outude  the 
receiver.  Braun  used  both  the  deflection  method  and  the  time 
of  vibration  method  suggested  to  Reich  by  Forbes.  The  methods 
gave  almost  identical  results  and  his  final  values  are  to  three 
decimal  places  the  same  as  those  obtained  by  Boys. 

G.  K.  Burgesses  Experiment  {Tkises  prisenHes  d  U  facM 
des  scknccs  de  Paris  pour  ohtenir  te  titre  iedocteurde  Puniweniti 
de  Paris,  1901). — This  was  a  Cavendish  experiment  in  which 
the  torsion  system  was  buoyed  up  by  a  float  in  a  merctary  bath. 
The  attracted  masses  could  thus  be  made  large,  and  yet  the 
suspending  wire  could  be  kept  fine.  The  torsion  beam  was  x  2  cm. 
long,  and  the  attracted  balls  were  lead  ^heres  each  2  kgm.  From 
the  centre  of  the  beam  depended  a  vertical  steel  rod  with  a 
varnished  copper  hollow  float  at  its  end,  entirely  immersed  in 
mercuiy.  The  surface  of  the  mercury  was  covered  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  to  remove  irregularities  due  to  varying  surface 
t  cnsion  act  i ng  on  the  steel  rod.  The  size  of  the  float  was  adjusted 
so  that  the  torsion  fibre  of  quartz  35  cm.  long  had  only  to  cany 
a  weight  of  5  to  10  gm.  The  time  of  vibration  was  over  one 
hour.  The  torsion  couple  per  radian  was  determined  by  pre^ 
liminary  experiments.  -  The  attracting  masses  were  each  10  kgm. 
turning  in  a  circle  18  cm.  in  diameter.  The  results  gave  A  -i  5-55 
andG«6-64Xio"«. 

Edtvos*s  Experiment  (Ann.  der  Pkysik  und  Chemie,  1896,  S9i 
P-  354)* — In  the  course  of  investigations  on  local  variatiMis 
of  gravity  by  means  of  the  torsion  balance,  R.  Edtvos  devised 
a  method  for  determining  G  somewhat  like  the  vibration  method 
used  by  Reich  and  Braun.  Two  pillars  were  built  up  of  lead 
blocks  30  cm.  square  in  cross  section,  60  cm.  high  and  30  cm. 
apart.  A  torsion  rod  somewhat  less  than  30  cm.  long  with 
small  weights  at  the  ends  was  enclosed  in  a  double-waOed  brass 
case  of  as  little  depth  as  possible,  a  device  which  secured  great 
steadiness  through  freedom  from  convection  currents.  .  The 
suspension  was  a  platinum  wire  about  150  on.  long.  The 
torsion  rod  was  first  set  in  the  line  joining  the  centres  oC  the 
pillars  and  its  time  of  vibration  was  taken.  Then  it  was  act 
with  its  length  perpendicular  to  the  line  joining  the  centres  and 
the  time  again  taken.  From  these  times  £dtvos  was  able  to 
deduce  G«*6-65Xio~*  whence  A  ">  5.53.  This  is  only  a  pro- 
visional  value.  The  experiment  was  only  as  it  were  a  by-product 
in  the  course  of  exceedingly  ingenious  work  on  the  local  variation 
in  gravity  for  which  the  original  paper  should  be  consulted. 

Wilsing's  Experiment  (PiM.  des  astrcpkysikalischem  Okserw^  a« 
Potsdam,  1887,  No.  22,  vol.  vi.  pt.  ii.;  p^.  iii.  p.  133). — We  may 
perhaps  class  with  the  Cavendish  type  an  experiment  made  by 
J.  Wilaing,  in  which  a  vertical  "  double  pendulum  "  was  used 
in  place  of  a  horizontal  torsion  system.  Two  weights  each  S40 
gm.  were  fixed  at  the  ends  of  a  rod  i  metre  long.  A  knife  edge 
was  fixed  on  the  rod  just  above  its  centre  of  gravity,  and  this 
was  supported  so  that  the  rod  could  vibrate  about  a  vertical 
position.  Two  attracting  masses,  cast-iron  cylinders  each  325 
kgm.,  were  placed,  say,  one  in  front  of  the  top  weight  on  the 
pendulum  and  the  other  behind  the  bottom  weight,  and  the 
position  of  the  rod  was  observed  in  the  usual  mirror  and  scale 
way.  Then  the  front  attracting  mass  was  dropped  to  the  level 
of  the  lower  weight  and  the  back  mass  was  raised  to  that  of  the 
upper  weight,  and  the  consequent  deflection  of  the  rod  was 


GRAVY 


389 


observed.  By  taking  the  time  of  vfl>ration  of  tbe' pendulum 
fint4U  uaed  in  the  deflection  experiment  and  then  when  a  small 
ireii^t  was  removed  from  the  upper  end  a  known  distance  from 
tht  knife  edge,  the  restoring  couple  per  radian  deflection  could 
be  found.    The  final  result  gave  A  «  S*579* 

/.  Jotys  suggested  Expenmenl  {Nature  zli.,  1890,  p.  356). — 
Jdy  has  suggested  that  G  might  be  determined  by  hanging  a 
simple  pendulum  in  a  vacutmi,  and  vibrating  outside  the  case 
two  massive  pendulums  each  with  the  same  time  of  swing  as  the 
simple  pendidum.  The  simple  pendulum  would  be  set  swinging 
by  the  varying  attraction  and  from  jts  amplitude  after  a  known 
number  of  swings  of  the  oCitside  pendulums  G  could  be  found. 

m.  Comparison  aj  the  Earth  PuU  on  a  body  with  the  Putt  of  an 
Artificial  Mass  by  Means  of  the  Common  Balance, 

The  principle  of  the  method  is  as  follows: — Suppose  a  sphere 
of  mass  M  and  weight « to  be  hung  by  a  wire  from  one  arm  of 
a  balance.  Let  the  mass  of  the  earth  be  E  and  its  radius  be  R. 
Then  «  »  GEm/R*.  Now  introduce  beneath  m  a  sphere  of 
mass  M  and  let  c(  be  the  distance  of  its  centre  from  that  of  m. 
Its  pull  increases  the  apparent  weight  of  m  say  by  iw.  Then 
£w-GMot/^.  Dividing  we  obtain  <«;/»- MR>/Ed*,  whence 
E  -  MR*w/d%9;  and  since  g  "  GE/R',  G  can  be  found  when  E  is 
known. 

VonJoU/s  Experiment  {Abhand,  der  k.  bayer.  Akad.  derWiss. 
s  CL  ziii.  Bd.  x  Abt.  p.  157,  and  ziv.  Bd.  2  Abt.  p.  3). — In  the 
first  of  these  papers  Ph.  von  Jolly  described  an  experiment  in 
which  he  sought  to  determine  the  decrease  in  weight  with  increase 
of  height  from  the  earth's  surface,  an  experiment  suggested  by 
Bacon  {Nm.  Org.  Bk.  2,  f  36),  in  the  form  of  comparison  of  rates 
of  two  docks  at  different  levels,  one  driven  by  a  spring,  the  other 
by  weights.  The  experiment  in  the  form  carried  out  by  von 
Jolly  was  attempted  by  H.  Power,  R.  Hooke,  and  others  in  the 
early  dajrs  of  the  Royal  Society  (Mackenzie,  The  Laws  of  Cravita- 
litffi).  Von  Jolly  fixed  a  balance  at  the  top  of  his  laboratory  and 
from  each  pan  depended  a  wire  supporting  another  pan  5  metres 
below.  Two  x-kgm.  weights  were  first  balanced  in  the  upper  pans 
and  then  one  was  moved  from  an  upper  to  the  lower  pan  on  the 
same  side.  A  gain  of  x-5  mgm.  was  observed  after  correction 
for  greater  weight  of  air  displaced  at  the  lower  level.  The  inverse 
square  law  would  give  a  slightly  greater  gain  and  the  deficiency 
was  ascribed  to  the  configuration  of  the  huid  near  the  laboratory. 
In  the  second  paper  a  second  experiment  was  described  in  which 
a  balance  was  fixed  at  the  top  of  a  tower  and  provided  as  before 
with  one  pair  of  pans  just  below  the  arms  and  a  second  pair 
hung  from  these  by  wires  ax  metres  below.  Four  glass  i^obes 
were  prepared  equal  in  weight  and  volume.  Two  of  these  were 
filled  each  with  5  kgm.  of  mercury  and  then  all  were  sealed  up. 
The  two  heavy  globes  were  then  placed  in  the  upper  pans  and 
the  two  light  ones  in  the  lower.  The  two  on  one  side  were  now 
interchanged  and  a  gain  in  weight  of  about  31 '7  mgm.  was 
observed.  Air  corrections  were  eliminated  by  the  use  of  the 
globes  of  equal  volume.  Then  a  lead  sphere  about  x  metre  radius 
was  built  up  of  blocks  under  one  of  the  lower  pans  and  the 
eicperiment  was  repeated.  Through  the  attraction  of  the  lead 
sphere  on  the  mass  of  mercury  when  below  the  gain  was  greater 
by  0*589  mgm.    This  result  gave  A«  5*692. 

Experiment  of  Richarz  and  Krigar-Mensd  (Anhang  mu  den 
Ahhand.  der  h.  preuss,  Akad.  der  Wiss.  su  Berlin^  x8o8).— In 
1884  A  Kdnig  and  F.  Richarz  proposed  a  similar  experiment 
which  was  ultimately  carried  out  by.  Richarz  and  O.  Krigar- 
Menzel.  In  this  experiment  a  balance  was  supported  somewhat 
more  than  s  metres  above  the  floor  and  with  scale  pans  sbove 
and  below  as  in  von  Jolly's  experiment.  Weights  each  x  kgm. 
were  placed,  say,  in  the  top  right  pan  and  the  bottom  left  pan. 
Then  they  were  shifted  to  the  bottom  right  and  the  top  left,  the 
result  being,  after  corrections  for  change  in  density  of  air  dis- 
placed through  pressure  and  temperature  changes,  a  gain  in 
wdght  of  x-2453  mgm.  on  the  right  due  to  change  in  level  of 
a.2628  metres.  Then  a  rectangular  column  of  lead  axo  cm. 
square  cross  section  and  200  cm.  high  was  built  up  under  the 
balance  between  the  pairs  of  pans.    The  column  was  perforated 


with  two  vertical  tunnels  for  the  passage  of  the  wires  supporting 
the  lower  pans.  On  repeating  the  weighings  there  ^as  now  a 
decrease  on  the  right  when  a  kgm.  was  moved  on  that  side  from 
top  to  bottom  while  another  was  nwved  on  the  left  from  bottom 
to  top.  This  decrease  was  O'  x  ax x  mgm.  showing  a  total  change 
due  to  the  lead  mass  of  X'a453  +  o*x2n  «  x>3664  mgm.  and  this 
is  obviously  four  times  the  attraction  of  the  lead  mass  on  one 
kgm.  The  changes  in  the  positions  of  the  weights  were  made 
automatically.    The  results  gave  A  «  5*05  and  G  <-  6*685X  xo"^; 

Poynting's  Experiment  {Phil,  T^ans.,  vol.  x8a.  A,  X89X, 
p.  565).— In  X878  J.  H.  Poynting  published  an  account  of  a 
preliminary  experiment  which  he  had  made  to  show  that  the 
common  balance  was  available  for  gravitational  work.  The 
experiment  was  on  the  same  lines  as  that  of  von  Jolly  but  on  a 
much  smaller  scale.  In  X89X  he  gave  an  account  of  the  fuU 
experiment  carried  out  with  a  larger  balance  and  with  much 
greater  care.  The  balance  had  a  4-ft.  beam.  The  scale  pans 
were  removed,  and  from  the  two  arms  were  hung  lead  spheres 
each  weighing  about  ao  kgm.  at  a  level  about  x2o  cm.  below  the 
beanu  The  balance  was  supported  in  a  case  above  a  horizontal 
turn-table  with  axis  vertically  bdow  the  central  knife  edge,  and 
on  this  turn-table  was  a  lead  sphere  weighing  X50  kgm. — the 
attracting  mass.  The  centre  of  this  sphere  was  30  cm.  bielow  the 
level  of  the  centres  of  the  hanging  weights.  The  turn-table 
could  be  rotated  between  stops  so  that  tlM  attracting  mass  was 
first  immediately  below  the  hanging  weight  on  one  side,  and  then 
immediately  under  that  on  the  other  side.  On  the  same  turn- 
table but  at  double  the  distance  from  the  centre  was  a  second 
sphere  of  hsjf  the  weight  introduced  merely  to  balance  the 
larger  sphere  and  keep  the  centre  of  gravity  at  the  centre  of  the 
turn-table.  Before  the  introduction  of  this  sphere  errors  were 
introduced  through  the  tilting  of  the  floor  of  the  balance  room 
when  the  turn-table  was  rotated.  Corrections  of  course  had 
to  be  made  for  the  attraction  of  this  second  sphere.  The  removal 
of  the  large  mass  from  left  to  right  made  an  increase  in  weight 
on  that  side  of  about  x  mgm.  determined  by  riders  in  a  special 
way  described  in  the  paper.  To  eliminate  the  attraction  on  the 
beam  and  the  rods  supporting  the  hanging  weights  another 
experiment  was  made  in  which  these  Weights  were  moved  up 
the  rods  through  30  cm.  and  on  now  moving  the  attracting 
sphere  from  left  to  right  the  gain  on  the  right  was  only  about 
\  mgm.  The  difference,  \  mgm.,  was  due  entirely  to  change  in 
distance  of  the  attracted  masses.  After  all  corrections  the  roults 
gave  A«  5'493  and  G  »  6-698  X  lo"^. 

Pinal  Remarks, — ^The  earlier  methods  in  which  natural  masses 

were  used  have  disadvantages,  as  already  pointed  out,  which 

render  them   now   quite   valueless.    Of  later   methods  the 

Cavendish  appears  to  possess  advantages  over  the  common 

balance  method  in  that  it  is  more  easy  to  ward  off  temperature 

variations,  and  so  avoid  convection  currents,  and  probably  more 

easy  to  determine  the  actual  value  of  the  attracting  force.    For 

the  present  the  values  determined  by  Boys  and  Braun  may  be 

accepted  as  having  the  greatest  weight  and  we  therefore  take 

Mean  density  of  the  earth  A"  5*527 

Constant  of  gravitation  G  —  6*658  X  xo*^. 

Probably  A  »  5*53  and  G  »  6*66  X  xo~*  are  correct  to  x  in  5001 

AuTBoarriBS.— J.  H.  Poynting,  The  Mean  Density  of  the  Earth 
(1804),  sives  an  account  of  all  work  up  to  the  date  of  publication 
with  a  bibliography ;  A.  Stanley  Mackenzie,  77b«  Lam  of  Gramta- 
tion  (1899),  gives  annotated  extracts  from  various  papers,  some 
historical  notes  and  a  btbliography.  A  BMiopaphy  </  Geodesy, 
Appendix  i.  Report  for  Jf02  efthe  1/.5.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  in- 
cludes a  very  complete  btbUoprSphy  (rf  gravitational  work.  (J.H.P.) 

GRAVT,  a  word  usually  confined  to  the  natural  juices  which 
come  from  meat  during  cooking.  In  early  uses  (in  the  New 
En^ish  Dictionary  the  quotations  date  from  the  end  of  the  X4th 
t6  the  beginning  of  the  x6th  centuries)  it  meant  a  sauce  of  broth 
flavoured  with  spices  and  almonds.  The  more  modem  usage 
seems  to  date  from  the  end  of  the  x6th  century.  The  word  is 
obscure  in  origin.  It  has  been  connected  with  "graves"  or 
"  greaves,"  the  refuse  of  tallow  in  the  nunufacture  of  soap  or 
candles.  The  more  probable  derivation  is  from  the  French. 
In  Old  French  the  word  is  almost  certainly  grani,  and  is  derived 


390 


GRAY,  A.— GRAY,  E. 


from  grain,'"  something  used  in  cooking."  The  vord  was  early 
read  and  spelled  with  a  m  or  v  instead  of  n,  and  the  corruption 
was  adopted  in  English. 

GRA1^  ASA  (x8io-i888),  American  botanist,  was  bom  at 
Paris,  Oneida  county,  N.Y.,  on  the  x8th  of  November  x8xo. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  received  no  formal  education 
except  at  the  Fairfield  (N.Y*.)  academy  and  the  Fairfield  medical 
school.  From  Dr  James  Hadley,  the  professor  of  chemistry  and 
materia  medica  he  obtained  his  first  instruction  in  .science  (1825- 
x8a6).  In  the  spring  of  1837  he  first  began  to  collect  and  identify 
plants.  His  formal  education,  such  as  it  was,  ended  in  February 
X83X,  when  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  His  first  contribution  to 
descriptive  botany  appeared  in  1835,  and  thereafter  an  un- 
interrupted series  of  contributions  to  systematic  botany  flowed 
from  his  pen  for  fifty-three  years.  In  X836  his  first  lA>tanicai 
text-book  appeared  tmder  the  title  ElenunUs  of  Botany,  followed 
in  Z839  by  his  Botanical  Text-Book  for  CottegeSf  Schools,  and 
PrieaU  Students  which  developed  into  hu  Structural  Botany. 
He  published  later  Pirsf  Lessons  in  Botany  and  Vegetable  Physi- 
ology (1857);  How  Plants  Grow  (X858);  Field,  Forest,  and  Garden 
Botany  (1869);  How  Plants  Behave  (1872).  These  books  served 
the  purpose  of  developing  popular  interest  in  botanical  studies. 
His  most  important  work,  howeveir,  was  his  Manual  of  the  Botany 
of  the  Northern  United  States,  the  first  edition  of  which  appeared 
in  X847.  This  manual  has  passed  through  a  large  number  of 
editions,  is  clear,  accurate  and  compact  to  an  extraordinary 
degree,  and  within  its  geographical  limits  is  an  indispensable 
book  for  the  student  of  American  botany. 

Throughout  his  life  Gray  was  a  diligent  writer  of  reviews  of 
books  on  natural  history  subjects.  Often  th^  reviews  were 
elaborate  essays,  for  which  the  books  served  merely  as  texts; 
often  they  were  dear  and  just  summaries  of  extensive  works; 
sometimes  they  were  sharply  critical,  though  never  ill-natured 
or  unfair;  always  they  were  interesting,  lively  and  of  literaiy  as 
wen  as  scientific  excellence.  The  greater  part  of  Gray's  strictly 
scientific  labour  was  devoted  to  a  Flora  of  North  America,  the 
plan  of  which  originated  with  his  early  teacher  and  associate, 
John  Torrey  of  New  York.  The  second  volume  of  Torrey  and 
Gray's  Flora  was  completed  in  1843;  but  for  forty  years  there- 
after Gray  gave  up  a  large  part  of  his  time  to  the  preparation  of 
his  Synoptical  Flora  (1878).  He  lived  at  the  period  when  the  flora 
of  North  America  Was  being  discovered,  described  and  systemat- 
ized; and  his  enthusiastic  labours  in  this  fresh  field  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  American  botanists  and  on  a  level  with  the 
most  famoiis  botanists  of  the  world.  In  X856  h6  published  a 
paper  on  the  distribution  of  plants  under  the  title  Statistia  of 
the  Flora  of  the  Northern  United  States;  and  this  paper  was 
followed  in  1859  by  a  memoir  on  the  botany  of  Japan  and  its 
relations  to  that  of  North  America,  a  paper  of  which  Sir  J.  D. 
Hooker  said  that "  in  point  of  originality  and  far-reaching  results 
[it]  was  iU  author's  opus  magnum,"  It  was  Gray's  study  of 
plant  distribution  which  led  to  his  intimate  correspondence  with 
Charles  Darwin  during  the  years  in  which  Darwin  was  elaborating 
the  doctrines  that  later  became  known  as  Darwinism.  From 
X855  to  X875  Gray  was  both  a  keen  critic  and  a  sympathetic 
exponent  of  the  Darwinian  principles.  His  religious  views  were 
those  of  the  Evangelical  bodies  in  the  Protestant  Church;  so 
that,  when  Darwinism  was  attacked  as  equivalent  to  atheism, 
he  was  in  position  to  answer  effectively  the  unfounded  allegation 
that  it  was  fatal  to  the  doctrine  of  design.  He  taught  that  "  the 
most  puzzling  things  of  all  to  the  old-school  teleologists  are  the 
principia  of  the  Darwinian."  He  openly  avowed  his  conviction 
that  the  present  species  are  not  special  creations,  but  rather 
deriv^l  from  previously  existing  spedes;  and  he  made  his 
avowal  with  frank  courage,  when  this  truth  was  scarcely  recog- 
nized by  any  naturalists,  and  when  to  the  clerical  mind  evolution 
meant  atheism. 

Jn  x84a  Gray  accepted  the  Fisher  professorship  of  natural 
history  in  Harvard  University.  On  his  accession  to  this  chair 
the  university  had  no  herbarium,  no  botanical  library,  few  planU 
of  any  value,  and  but  a  small  garden,  which  for  lack  of  money 
had  never  been  well  stocked  or  well  arranged..  He  ioonjirought 


together,  chiefly  by  widespread  exchanges,  a  valuable  herfauiura 
and  library,  and  arranged  the  garden;  and  thereafter  the 
devdopment  of  these  botanical  resources  was  part  of  his  ceguUr 
labours.  The  herbarium  soon  became  the  largest  and  most 
valuable  in  America,  and  on  account  of  the  numerous  type 
spedmens  it  contains  it  is  likdy  to  remain  a  collection  of  national 
importance.  Nothing  of  what  Gray  did  for  the  botanical 
department  of  the  university  has  been  lost;  on  the  contrary, 
his  labours  were  so  well  directed  that  everything  he  originated 
and  devdoped  has  been  enlarged,  improved  and  placed  on  stable 
foundations.  He  himself  made  large  contributions  to  the 
establishment  by  giving  it  all  his  own  spedmens,  many  books 
and  no  little  money,  and  by  his  will  he  gave  it  the  royalties  on 
his  books.  During  his  long  connexion  with  the  university  he 
brought  up  two  generations  of  botanists  and  he  always  took  a 
strong  personal  interest  in  the  researches  and  the  personal 
prospects  of  the  young  men  who  had  studied  under  him.  His 
sdentific  life  was  mainly  spent  in  the  herbarium  and  garden  in 
Cambridge;  but  his  labours  there  were  relieved  by  numerous 
journeys  to  different  parts  of  the  United'  States  and  to  Europe, 
all  of  which  contributed  to  his  work  on  the  Synoptical  Flora. 
He  lived  to  a  good  age — ^long  enou^,  indeed,  to  recdve  from 
learned  societies  at  home  and  abroad  abundant  evidence  of  their 
profound  respect  for  his  attainments  and  services.  He  died 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  on  the  30th  of  January  x888. 

His  Letters  (1803)  were  edited  by  his  wife;  ^nd  his  SciemHM 
Papers  (x888)  by  C  S.  Sargent.  (C,  W.  E.) 

GRAY.  DAVID  (X838-X861),  Scottish  poet,  the  son  of  a  hand- 
loom  weaver,  was  bom  at  Merkland,  near  Glasgow,  on  the  29th 
of  January  1838.  His  parents  resolved  to  educate  him  for  the 
church,  and  through  thdr  self-denial  arnl  his  own  exertions  as  a 
pupil  teacher  and  private  tutor  he  was  able  to  complete  a  course 
of  four  sessions  at  the  university  of  Glasgow.  He  began  to  write 
poetry  for  The  Qlasgow  Citisen  and  began  his  idyll  on  the  Luggie, 
the  little  stream  that  ran  through  Merkland.  His  most  intimate 
companion  at  this  time  was  Robert  Buchanan,  the  poet;  aiKl  in 
May  ^860  the  two  agreed  to  proceed  to  London,  with  the  idea 
of  finding  literary  employment.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  in 
London  Gray  introduced  himself  to  Monckton  Milnes,  after- 
wards Lord  Houghton,  with  whom  he  had  previously  corre- 
sponded. Lord  Houghton  tried  to  persuade  him  to  return  to 
Scotland,  but  Gray  insisted  on  staying  in  London.  He  was 
unsuccessful  in  his  efforts  to  place  Gray's  poem,  "  The  Luggfe," 
in  The  ComhiU  Maganne,  but  gave  him  some  Ught  literary  work. 
He  also  showed  him  great  kindness  when  a  cold  which  had  seized 
him  assumed  the  serious  form  of  consumption,  and  sent  him  to 
Torquay;  but  as  the  disease  made  rapid  progress,  an  irresistible 
longing  seized  Gray  to  return  to  Merkland,  where  he  arrived  in 
January  x86x,  and  died  on  the  3rd  of  December  following,  having 
the  day  before  had  the  gratification  of  seeing  a  printed  spedmcn 
copy  of  his  poem  "  The  Luggie,"  published  eventually  by  the 
exertions  of  Sydney  DobeU.  He  was  buried  in  the  Auld  Aisle 
Churchyard,  Kirkintilloch,  where  in  1865  a  monument  was 
erected  by  "  friends  far  and  near  "  to  his  memory. 

"  The  Luggie,"  the  prindpal  poem  of  Gray,  is  a  kind  of  reverie 
in  which  the  scenes  and  events  of  his  childhood  and  his  eariy 
aspirations  are  mingled  with  the  music  of  the  stream  which 
he  cdebrates.  The  series  of  sonnets,  "  In  the  Shadows,"  was 
composed  during  the  latter  part  of  his  illness.  Most  of  his  poems 
necessarily  bear  traces  of  immaturity,  and  lines  may  frequently 
be  found  in  them  which  are  mere  echoes  from  Thomson,  Words- 
worth or  Tennyson,  but  they  possess,  neverthdess,  distinct 
individuality,  and  sImw  a  real  appreciation  of  natural  beauty. 

The  Luggie  and  other  Poems,  with  an  introduction  by  R.  Monckton 
Milnes,  and  a  brid  memoir  by  Tames  Heddenrick,  was  published 
in  1 86a;  and  a  new  auid  enlarsed  editbn  of  Gray's  Poaiatl  Works, 
edited  by  Henry  Glassford  Bell,  apoeared  in  187A.  See  also  Daeid 
Gray  and  other  Assays,  bv  Robert  Buchanan  (1808),  and  the  same 
writer's  poem  on  David  Cray,  in  Idyls  and  Legends  of  Inaerbum, 

GRAY.  BUSHA  (X835-X901),  American  dectridan,  was  bom 
in  Bamesville,  Belmont  county,  Ohi6,  on  the  and  of  August 
1835.  He  worked  as  a  carpenter  and  in  a  machine  shop,  reading 


GRAY,  H.  P.— GRAY,  LORD 


391 


{n'ph}rsical  idence  at  the'iame'time,  and  for  five  yean  studied 
at  OberUn  College,  where  he  taught  for  a  time.  He  then  in- 
vestigate the  subject  of  telegraphy,  and  in  1867  patented  a 
telegraphic  switch  and  annunciator.  Experimenting  in  the 
transmittal  of  electro-tones  and  of  musical  tones  by  wire,  he 
utilized  in  1874  animal  tissues  in  his  receivers,  and  filed,  on. 
the  X4th  of  February  1876,  a  caveat  for  the  invention  of  a 
telephone,  only  a  few  hours  after  the  filing  of  an  apph'cation  for  a 
patent  by  Alexander  Graham  Bell.  (SeeTsLEPRONX.)  Thecaveat 
was  disregarded;  letters  patent  No.  174,465  were  granted  to  B^U, 
whose  priority  of  invention  was  upheld  in  x888  by  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  (see  MokcuUv  Tdephone  Co.  v.  AmericoH 
Bell  TeUpkone  Co.,  126  U.S.  x).  Gray's  experiments  won  for  him 
high  praise  and  the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  at  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1878.  He  was  for  a  time  a  manufacturer  of 
dectrical  apparatus,  particularly  of  his  own  inventions;  and 
was  diief  electrical  expert  of  the  Western  Electric  Company  of 
Chicago.  At  the  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893  Gray  was  chair* 
man  of  the  International  Congress  of  Electricians.  He  died  at 
Newtonville,  Massachusetts,  on  the  31st  of  January  xgox. 
Among  his  later  inventions  were  appliances  for  multiplex 
telegraphy  and  the  telautograph,  a  machine  for  the  electric 
transmission  of  handwriting.  He  experimented  in  the  submarine 
use  of  electric  bells  for  signalling. 

Gimy  wrote,  bendes  scientific  addmaes  and  many  monographt, 
Td^rapky  and  Tekpkouy  (1878)  aiid  Ekctrieiiy  and  Magnetism 
(1900). 

ORAT,  UKNHY  PBTBRfl  (18x9-1877),  American  portrait 
and  genre  painter,  was  bom  in  New  York  on  the  23rd  of  June 
x8x9.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Daniel  Huntington  there,  and  sub- 
sequently studied  in  Rome  and  Florence.  Elected  a  member  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1842,  he  succeeded 
Huntington  as  president  in  1870,  holding  the  position  until  187  x. 
The  later  years  of  his  life  were  devoted  to  portrait  work.  He 
was  stron^y  influenced  by  the  old  Itah'an  masters,  painting  in 
mcUow  colour  with  a  classical  tendency.  One  of  bis  notable 
canvases  was  an  allegorical  composition  called  "  The  Birth  of 
our  Flag  '*  (1875).  He  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  X2th  of 
November  1877. 

GRAY.  HORACB  (x828-xgoa),  American  jurist,  was  bom  in 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the  24thof  March  X828.  Hegraduated 
at  Harvard  in  X845;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  X85X,  and  in 
ig54-x86x  was  reporter  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts. 
He  practised  Uw,  first  in  partnership  with  Ebenezer  Rockwood 
Hoar,  and  later  with  Wilder  Dwight  (1823-1862)  and  Charles  F. 
Blake;  was  appointed  associate  justice  of  the  state  Supreme 
Court  on  the  23rd  of  August  X864,  becoming  chief-justice  on  the 
5th  of  September  1873;  and  was  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  from  December  x88x  to  August  1902, 
resigning  only  a  few  weeks  before  his  death  at  Nahant,  Mass., 
on  the  X5th  of  September  X902.  Gray  had  a  fine  sense  of  the 
dignity  of  the  bench,  and  a  taste  for  historical  study.  His 
judgments  were  unmistakably  clear  and  contained  the  essence 
of  earlier  opinions.  A  great  case  lawyer,  he  was  a  much  greater 
judge,  the  variety  of  his  knowledge  and  his  contributions  to 
adxniralty  and  prise  law  and  to  testamentary  law  being  particu- 
larly striking;  in  constitutional  law  he  was  a  "  loose  "  rather 
than  a  "  strict "  constructionist. 

See  Francis  C.  Lowell.  "  Horace  Gray,'*  In  Proceedings  of  Oe 
Amerieam  Academy,  vd.  39,  pp.  637-637  (Boston,  1904). 

QRAT,  JOHN  DB  (d.  X214),  bishop  of  Norwich,  entered 
Prince  John's  service,  and  at  his  accession  (1199)  was  rapidly 
promoted  in  the  church  till  he  became  bishop  of  Norwich  in 
September  x2oo.  King  John's  attempt  to  force  him  into  the 
primacy  in  xaos  started  the  king's  long  and  fatal  quarrel  with 
Pope  Innocent  III.  De  Gray  was  a  hard-working  royal  offidal, 
in  finance,  in  justice,  in  action,  using  his  position  to  enrich  himself 
and  his  family.  In  1209  he  went  to  Ireland  to  govern  it  as 
justiciar.  He  adopted  a  forward  policy,  attempting  to  extend 
the  En^ish  frontier  northward  and  westward,  and  fought  a 
number  of  campaigns  on  the  Shannon  and  in  Fermanagh.  But 
in  X ax  9  he  suffered  a  great  defeat.  He  assimilated  the  coinage  of 


Ireland  to  that' of  England,  and  tried  to'dfect  a  similar  reform 
in  Irish  law.  De  Gray  was  a  good  financier,  and  could  always 
raise  money:  this  probably  explains  the  favour  he  enjoyed  from 
King  John.  In  12x3  he  is  found  with  500  knights  at  the  great 
muster  at  Barham  Downs,  when  Philip  Augustus  was  threatening 
to  invade  England.  After  John's  reconciliation  with  Innocent 
he  was  one  of  those  exempt«l  from  the  general  pardon,  and  was 
forced  to  go  in  person  to  Rome  to  obtain  it.  At  Rome  he  so 
completely  gained  over  Iimocent  that  the  pope  sent  him  back 
with  papal  letters  recommending  his  dectton  to  the  bishopric  of 
Durham  (12x3);  but  he  died  at  St  Jean  d'Audely  in  Poitou 
on  his  homeward  journey  (October  xax4). 

GRAY,  JOHN  BDWARD  (X800-X875),  English  naturalist, 
bora  at  Walsall,  Staffordshire,  in  x8oo,  was  the  eldest  of  the 
three  sons  of  S.  F.  Gray,  of  that  town,  druggist  and  writer  on 
botany,  and  author  of  the  SupplemoHl  to  the  Pharmacopoeia^  &c., 
his  grandfather  being  S.  F.  Gray,  who  translated  the  Philosophia 
Botanica  of  Linnaeus  for  the  Introduction  to  Botany  of  James 
Lee  (X7X5-X795).  Gray  studied  at  St  Bartholomew's  and  other 
hospitals  for  the  medical  profession,  but  at  an  early  age  was 
attracted  to  the  pursuit  of  botany.  He  assisted  his  father  by 
collecting  notes  on  botany  and  comparative  anatomy  and 
zoology  in  Sir  Joseph  Banks's  library  at  the  British  Museum, 
aided  by  Dr  W.  E.  Leach,  assistant  keeper,  and  the  systematic 
synopsis  of  the  Natural  Arrangement  of  British  Plants,  2  vols., 
182X,  was  prepared  by  him,  his  father  writing  the  preface  and 
introduction  only.  In  consequence  of  his  application  for  member- 
ship of  the  Linnaean  Sodety  being  rejected  in  X822,  he  turned 
to  the  study  of  zoology,  writing  on  zoophytes,  shells,  MoUusca 
and  Papilionidae,  still  aided  by  Dr  Leach  at  the  British  Museum. 
In  December  X824  he  obtained  the  post  of  assistant  in  that 
institution;  and  from  that  date  to  December  1839,  when  J.  G. 
Children  retired  from  the  keepership,  he  had  so  soilously  applied 
himself  to  the  study,  classification  and  improvement  of  the 
national  collection  of  zoology  that  he  was  selected  as  the  fittest 
person  to  be  entrusted  with  its  charge.  Immediately  on  his 
appointment  as  keeper,  he  took  in  hand  the  revision  of  the 
-systematic  arrangement  of  the  collections;  scientific  catalogues 
followed  in  rapid  succession;  the  department  was  raised  in 
importance;  its  poverty  as  well  as  its  wealth  became  known, 
and  whilst  increased  grants,  donations  and  exchanges  made 
good  many  deficiencies,  great  numbers  of  students,  foreign  as 
well  as  English,  availed  themselves  of  its  resources  to  enlarge  the 
knowledge  of  zoology  in  all  its  branches.  In  spite  of  numerous 
obstacles,  he  worked  up  the  department,  within  a  few  years  of 
his  appointment  as  keeper,  to  such  a  state  of  excellence  as  to 
make  it  the  rival  of  the  cabinets  of  Leiden,  Paris  and  Berlin; 
and  later  on  it  was  raised  under  his  management  to  the  dignity 
of  the  largest  and  most  complete  zoological  collection  in  the 
WQ^ld.  Although  seized  with  paralysis  in  X870,  he  continued  to 
discharge  the  functions  of  keeper  of  zoology,  and  to  contribute 
papers  to  the  A  nnals  of  Natural  History,  his  favourite  joumal,and 
to  the  transactions  of  a  few  of  the  learned  sodeties;  but  at 
Christmas  1874,  having  completed  half  a  century  of  offidal 
work,  he  resigned  office,  and  died  in  London  on  the  7th  of  March 

1875. 

Gray  was  an  exceedingly  voluminous  writer,  and  his 
interests  were  not  confined  to  natural  history  only,  for  he  took 
an  active  part  in  questions  of  public  importance  of  his  day,  such 
as  slave  emandpation,  prison  disdpline,  aboUtion  of  imprison- 
ment for  debt,  sanitary  and  munidpal  organizations,  the  decimal 
system,  public  education,  extension  of  the  opening  of  museums, 
&c.  He  began  to  publish  in  X820,  and  continued  till  the  year 
of  his  death. 

The  titles  of  the  books,  memoiis  and  miscellaneous  papers  written 
by  htm,  accom|ianied  by  a  few  notes,  fill  a  privately  pnnted  list  of  56 
octavo  pages  with  ii6a  entries. 

QRAY,  PATRICK  GRAY,  6th  Baxon  (d.  x6x  2),  was  descended 
from  Sir  Andrew  Gray  (c.  X390-X469)  of  Broxmouth  and  Foulis, 
who  was  created  a  Scottish  peer  as  Lord  Gray,  probably  in  X445. 
Andrew  was  a  leading  figure  in  Scottish  politics  during  the  rdgns 
of  Jama  I.  and  his  two  successors,  and  visited  England  as  a 


mmx^ 


39* 


GRAY,  R.— GRAY,  THOMAS 


hosUtge,  a  diplomatist  and  a  pilgrim.  The  snd  Lord  Gray  was 
his  grandson  Andrew  (d.  15x4),  and  the  4th  lord  was  the  latter's 
grandson  Patrick  (d.  1582),  a  participant  in  Scottish  politics 
during  the  stormy  time  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots.  Patrick's  son, 
Patridc,  the  sth  lord  (d.  1609),  married  Barbara,  daughter  of 
William,  2nd  Lord  Ruthven,  and  their  son  l*atrick,  known  as 
the  "  Msster  of  Gray,"  is  the  subject  of  this  article.  Educated 
at  Glasgow  University  and  brought  up  as  a  Ihrotestant,  young 
Patrick  was  married  early  in  life  to  Elizabeth  Lyon,  daughter 
of  Lord  Glamis,  whom  he  repudiated  almost  directly;  and 
afterwards  went  to  France,  where  he  joined  the  friends  of  Mary, 
queen  of  Scots,  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  assisted  the 
Frendt  policy  cl  the  Guises  in  Scotland.  He  returned  and  took 
up  his  residence  again  in  Scotland  in  1583,  and  immediately 
began  a  career  of  treachery  and  intrigue,  gaining  James's  favour 
by  disrloning  to  him  his  mother's  secrets,  and  acting  in  agreement 
with  James  Stewart,  earl  of  Arran,  in  order  to  keq>  Mary  a 
prisoner  in  England.  In  1584  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
England,  to  dfect  a  treaty  between  James  and  Elizabeth 
and  to  exclude  Maxy.  His  ambition  incited  him  at  the  same 
time  to  |»omote  a  plot  to  secure  the  downfall  of  Arran. 
This  was  supported  by  Elizabeth,  and  was  finally  accomplished 
by  letting  loose  the  lords  banished  from  Scotland  for  their 
participation  in  the  rebdlion  called  the  Raid  of  Ruthven,  who, 
joining  Gray,  took  possession  of  the  king's  person  at  Stirling  in 
X585,  the  league  with  England  being  ratified  by  the  j^liament 
in  December.  Gray  now  became  the  intermediary  between  the 
English  govenmient  and  James  on  the  great  question  of  Maxy's 
execution,  and  in  1587  he  was  despatched  on  an  embassy  to 
Elizabeth,  ostensibly  to  save  Mary's  life.  Gray  had,  however, 
previously  advised  her  secret  assassination  and  had  endeavoured 
to  overcome  ail  James's  scruples;  and  though  he  does  not  appear 
to  have  carried  treachery  so  far  as  to  advise  her  death  on  this 
occasion,  no  representations  made  by  him  could  have  had  any 
force  or  weight.  The  execution  of  Maxy  caused  his  own  downfall 
and  loss  of  political  power  in  Scotland;  and  after  his  return  he 
was  imprisoned  on  charges  of  plots  against  Protestantism,  of 
endeavouring  to  prevent  the  king's  marriage,  and  oi  having  been 
bribed  to  consent  to  Maxy's  death.  He  plnded  guilty  of  s^ition 
and  of  having  obstructed  the  king's  nuurriage,  and  was  declared 
a  traitor;  but  his  life  was  spared  by  James  and  he  was  banished 
from  the  country,  but  permitted  to  return  in  X589,  whoi  he  was 
restored  to  his  office  of  master  of  the  wardrobe  to  which  he  had 
be«i  appdnted  in  1585.  His  further  career  was  marked  by 
lawlessness  and  misconduct.  In  X592,  together  with  the  5th 
Lord  Bothwdl,  he  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  seize  the 
king  at  Falkland,  and  the  same  year  earned  considerable  dis- 
credit by  bringing  groundless  accusations  against  the  Presby- 
terian minister,  Robert  Bruce;  while  after  the  king's  accession 
to  the  English  throne  he  was  frequently  summoned  before 
the  authorities  on  account  of  his  conduct.  Notwithstanding, 
he  never  lost  James's  fovour.  In  1609  he  succeeded  his  fother  as 
6th  Baron  Gray,  and  died  in  x6x2. 

Gray  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  but,  if  one 
of  the  ablest,  handsomest  and  most  fascinating,  he  was  beyond 
doubt  one  of  the  most  unscrupulous  men  of  his  day.  He  married 
as  his  second  wife  in  1585  Mary  Stewart,  daughter  of  Robert, 
eari  of  Orkney,  and  had  by  her,  besides  six  daughters,  a  son, 
Andrew  (d.  1663),  who  succeeded  him  as  7th  Baron  Gray. 
Andrew^  who  served  (or  a  long  time  in  the  French  army,  was  a 
supporter,  although  not  a  vexy  prominent  one,  of  Charles  I.  and 
afterwards  of  Charles  U.  He  was  succeeded  as  8th  Lord  Gray 
by  Patrick  (d.  1711),  a  son  of  his  daughter  Anne,  and  Patrick's 
successor  was  his  kinsman  and  son-in-law  John  (d.  1724).  On 
the  extinction  of  John's  direct  line  in  1878  the  title  of  Lord  Gray 
passed  to  George  Stuart,  earl  of  Moray.  In  x6o6  Gray  had  been 
ranked  Sixth  among  the  Scottish  baronies. 

BiBLiOGRAPHY.—Article  in  DkL  0/  NaL  Bicg.,  and  authorities 
there  quoted;  Gray's  relation  concerning  the  surprise  at  Stirling 
(BanHotytu  Gub  PuUns.  i.  131,  1827);  Andrew  Lang,  History  0/ 
ScoOandt  vol.  ii.  (1909);  Peter  Gray,  The  Dtscent  and  KinskA  of 
Patrick,  Master  of  Gray  (1903);  Gray  Papers  (Bannatyne  Club, 
1835);  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.,  Marq.  of  Salisbury's  MSS, 


GRAY.  ROBERT  (1809-1872),  first  bishop  of  Cape  Town  and 
metropolitan  of  South  Africa,  was  born  at  Bishop  Wearmouth, 
Durham,  and  was  the  son  of  Robert  Gray,  bishop  of  Bristol 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  took  oxdeis  in  1833. 
After  holding  the  livingi  of  Whitworth,  Duriiam,  X834-X845,  aund 
Stockton-on-Tees  X845-X847,  he  was  consecrated  l»shop  ht  Ciqpe 
Town  in  1847;  the  biidwpric  having  been  endowed  through  the 
liberality  of  Miss  (afterwards  Baroness)  Burdett-Contts.  Until 
X853  he  was  a  suffragan  of  Canterbury,  but  in  that  year  he 
formally  resigned  his  see  axui  was  reappointed  by  letters  patent 
metropditan  of  South  Africa  in  view  of  the  contemplated 
establishment  of  Uie  suffragan  dioceses  of  Graham's  Town  and 
Natal.  In  that  capacity  his  coercive  jurisdiction  was  twice 
called  in  question,  and  in  each  case  the  judicial  committee  of  the 
privy  council  decided  against  him.  The  best-known  case  is  that 
of  Bishop  Colenso,  whom  Gray  deposed  and  excommunicated  in 
1863.  Tlie  spiritual  validity  of  the  sentence  was  uphdd  by  the 
convocation  of  Canterbury  and  the  Pan-Anglican  synod  of  1867, 
but  legally  Colenso  remained  bishc^  of  NataL  The  piivy  ooundl 
decisions  declared,  in  effect,  that  the  Angltran  body  in  South 
Africa  was  on  the  footing  of  a  voluntary  religious  society.  Gray, 
accepting  this  position,  obtained  its  recognition  by  the  mother 
church  as  the  Church  of  the  Province  of  South  Africa,  in  full 
conununion  with  the  Church  of  England.  The  first  provincial 
synod  was  hdd  in  x87a  During  Us  episcopate  Bishop  Gray 
effected  a  much-needed  organization  of  the  South  African  church, 
to  which  he  added  five  new  bishoprics,  all  carved  out  of  the 
origUial  diocese  of  Cape  Towil  It  was  also  chiefly  owing  to  his 
suggestions  that  the  universities'  mission  to  Central  Africa  was 
founded. 

GRAY,  SIR  THOMAS  (d.  e,  1369),  English  chronicler,  was  a 
son  <tf  Sir  Thomas  Gray,  who  was  taken  pxiaoner  by  the  Soots 
at  Baimockbum  and  who  died  about  X344.  The  younger  Thomas 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Neville's  Cross  in  X346;  in  1355, 
whilst  acting  as  warden  of  Norham  Castkr  he  was  made  a  prisoner, 
and  duxing  his  captivity  in  Edinburgh  Castle  he  devoted  his 
time  to  studying  the  English  chromdexs,  Gildas,  Bede,  RanuU 
Higdon  and  others.  Released  in  1357  he  was  appointed  warden 
of  the  east  marches  towards  Scotland  in  X367,  and  he  died  about 
X369.  Gray's  work,  tht;  Scalacromca  (so  called,  perhaps,  from 
the  scaling-ladder  in  the  crest  of  the  Grays),  is  a  chronide  of 
English  hbtory  from  the  earliest  times  to  about  the  year  X362. 
It  is,  however,  only  valuable  for  the  reigns  ci  Edward  I.  and 
Edward  IL  and  part  of  that  of  Edward  HI.,  being  especially 
so  for  the  account  of  the  wars  between  England  and  Scotland,  in 
which  the  author's  father  and  the  author  himself  took  paxt. 
Writing  in  Norman-French,  Gray  tdls  of  Wallace  and  Bruce, 
of  the  fights  at  Baimockbum,  B^btnd  and.Dupplin,  and  makes 
some  mention  of  the  troubles  in  Enc^d  during  the  reign  of 
Edward  II.  He  also  narrates  the  oouxse  of  the  war  in  France 
between  1355  and  X361;  possibly  he  was  present  during  some 
of  these  campaigns. 

The  Scalacronica  was  summarized  by  John  Leland  in  the  x6th 
century;  the  part  dealing  with  the  period  from  1066  to  the  end, 
together  with  the  prologue,  was  edited  for  the  Mattland  Club  by 
J.  Stevenion  (1836) ;  and  the  part  from  1374  to  136a  was  trensbited 
into  English  by  Sir  Herbert  Maxwell  (Glasgow.  1907}.  In  the 
extant  manuacnpt,  whidi  is  in  Corpus  Christi  College,  (Cambridge, 
there  is  a  gap  extending  from  about  1340  to  1355,  and  Gray's 
account  of  this  period  is  only  known  from  Lelafid's  summary. 

GRAY,  THOMAS  (17x6-1771)*  English  poet,  the  fifth  and  sole 
surviving  child  of  Philip  and  Dorothy  Gray,  was  ham  in  London 
on  the  26th  of  December  X7x6.  His  mother's  maiden  name  was 
Antrobus,  and  in  partneiship  with  her  sister  Mary  she  kept  a 
millinery  shop  in  Cornhill.  This  and  the  house  connected  with 
it  were  the  property  of  Philip  Gray,  a  UKmey-scrivener,  who 
married  Dorothy  in  1706  and  lived  with  her  in  the  bouse,  the 
sisters  renting  the  shop  from  him  and  supporting  themsdvea 
by  iu  profits.  Philip  Gray  had  impaired  the  fortune  which  he 
inherited  from  his  father,  a  wealthy  London  merchant;  yet  he 
was  suffidently  well-tordo,  and  at  the  dose  of  his  life  was  building 
a  house  upon  some  property  of  his  own  at  Wanstead.  But  he 
.  was  sdfish  and  brutal,  and  in  1735  his  wife  took  some  abortive 


GRAY,  THOMAS 


393 


Steps  to  obtain  a  separation  fxom  him.  At  this  date  she  had 
given  birth  to  twelve  children,  of  whom  Thomas  was  the  only 
survivor.  He  owed  his  life  as  well  as  his  education  to  this 
**  careful,  tender  mother,"  as  he  calls  her.  The  child  was 
suffocating  when  she  opened  one  of  his  veins  with  her  own  hand. 
He  went  at  her  eapense  to  Eton  in  1727,  and  was  confided 
to  the  care  of  her  brother,  William  Antrobus,  one  of  the  assistant* 
masters,  during  some  part  at  least  of  his  school-life. 

At  Eton  Gray's  closest  friends  were  Hora^' Walpole^  Richard 
West  (son  of  the  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  and  grandson  of  the 
famous  Bishop  Burnet),  and  Thomas  Ashton,  afterwards  fellow 
of  Eton.  This  little  coterie  was  dubbed  "the  Quadruple 
Alliance  ";  its  members  were  studioiis  and  literary,  and  took 
little  part  in  the  amusements  of  their  fellows.  In  1734  Gray 
matriculated  at  PeteThouse,  Cambridge,  of  which  his  unde, 
Robert  Antrobus,  had  been  a  fellow.  At  Cambridge  he  had  once 
more  the  companionship  of  Walpole  and  Ashton  who  were  at 
long's,  but  West  went  to  Christchurch,  Oxford.  Gray  made  at 
this  time  the  firmest  and  most  constant  friendship  of  his  life 
with  Thomas  Wharton  (not  the  poet  Warton)  of  Pembroke 
College.  He  was  mainuined  by  hii  mother,  and  his  straitened 
means  were  eked  out  by  certain  small  exhibitions  from  his 
college.  His  conspicuous  abilities  and  known  devotion  to  study 
perhaps  atoned  in  the  eyes  of  the  authorities  for  his  indifference 
to  the  regular  routine  of  study;  for  mathematics  in  particular 
he  bad  an  aversion  which  was  the  one  exception  to  his  almost 
limitless  curiosity  in  other  directions.  During  his  first  (Cambridge 
period  he  learnt  Italian  "  like  any  dragon,"  and  made  translations 
from  Guarini,  Dante  and  Tasso,  some  of  which  have  been  pre- 
served. In  September  1738  he  is  in  the  agony  of  leaving  college, 
Bor  can  we  trace  his  movements  with  any  certainty  for  a  while, 
though  it  may  be  conjectured  that  he  spent  much  time  with 
Horace  Walpole,  arid  made  in  his  company  some  fashionable 
acquaintances  in  London.  On  the  29th  of  March  1739,  he 
started  with  Walpole  for  a  long  continental  tour,  for  the  expenses 
of  which  it  is  probable  that  his  father,  for  once,  came  in  some 
measure  to  his  assistance.  In  Paris,  Gray  visited  the  great  with 
his  friend,  studied  the  picture-galleries,  went  to  tragedies, 
comedies,  operss  and  cultivated  there  that  taste  for  the  French 
classical  dramatists,  especially  Racine,  whom  he  afterwards  tried 
to  imitate  in  the  fragmentary  "  Agrippina.*'  It  is  characteristic 
of  him  that  he  travels  through  France  with  Caesar  constantly 
in  his  hands,  ever  noting  and  transcribing.  In  the  same  way,  in 
crossing  the  Alps  and  in  Piedmont,  he  has  "  Livy  in  the  chaise 
with  him  and  Siliiis  Italicus  too."  In  Italy  he  made  a  long 
sojottm,  principally  at  Fk>rence,  where  Walpole's  life-long 
correspondent,  Horace  Mann,  was  British  envoy,  and  received 
and  treated  the  travellers  most  hospitably.  But  Rome  and 
Naples  are  also  described  in  Gny's  letters,  sometimes  vividly, 
always  amusingly,  and  in  his  notes  are  almost  catalogued. 
Hcrculaneum,  an  object  of  intense  interest  to  the  young  poet 
and  antiquary,  had  been  discovered  the  year  before.  At 
length  in  April  1741  Gray  and  Walpole  set  out  northwards  for 
Rcggio.  Here  they  quarrelled.  Gray,  "  never  a  boy,"  was  a 
student,  and  at  times  retiring;  Walpole,  in  his  way  a  student 
too,  was  at  this  time  a  very  sodal  being,  somewhat  too  frivolous, 
and,  what  was  worse,  too  patronizing.  He  good-humouredly 
said  at  a  kter  date,  "  Gray  k>ves  to  find  fault,"  and  this  fault- 
finding was  expressed,  no  doubt  with  exaggeration,  in  a  letter 
to  A&ton,  who  violated  Gray's  confidence.  The  rupture 
followed,  and  with  two  friends,  John  Chute  of  the  Vyne,  Hami>- 
shirc,  and  the  young  Frands  Wbithed,  Gray  went  to  Venice  to 
see  the  doge  wed  the  Adriatic  on  Ascension  Day.  Thence  he 
returned  home  attended  only  by  a  Icquais  d*  voyage,  visiting 
once  more  the  Grande  Chartreuse  where  he  left  in  the  album  of 
the  brotherhood  those  beautiful  alcaics,  O  Tu  severa  Religio 
ioci,  which  reveal  his  characteristic  melancholy  (enhanced  by 
solitude  and  estrangement)  and  that  sense  of  the  glory  as  distinct 
from  the  horror  of  mountain  scenery  to  which  perhaps  he  was 
the  first  of  Englishmen  to  give  adequate  expression.  On  the 
i8th  of  September  1741  we  End  him  in  London,  astonishing  the 
street  bpys  inth  his  deep  nifli^  large  bag-wig  and  long  sword. 


and  "  mortified  "  under  the  hands  of  the  EngUsh  barber.  On 
the  6th  of  November  his  father  died;  Philip  Gray  had,  it  i^ 
evident,  been  less  savage  and  niggardly  at  hst  to  those  who 
were  dependent  upon  him,  and  his  death  left  his  wife  and  son 
some  measure  of  assured  peace  and  comfort. 

London  was  Gray's  headquarters  for  more  than  a  yttr,  with 
occasional  visits  to  Stoke  Poges,  to  which  his  mother  and  Mary 
Antrobiis  had  retired  from  business  to  live  with  their  sister, 
Mrs  Rogers.  At  Stoke  he  heard  of  the  death  of  West,  to  whom 
he  had  sent  the  "  Ode  on  Spring,"  which  was  returned  to  him 
unopened.  It  was  an  unexpected  blow,  dioddng  in  all  its 
circumstances,  especially  if  we  believe  the  story  that  his  friend's 
frail,  life  was  brought  to  a  dose  by  the  discovery  that  the  mother 
whom  he  tenderly  loved  had  been  an  unfaithful  wife,  and,  as 
some  say,  poisoned  her  husband.  About  this  tragedy  Gray 
preserved  a  mournful  silence,  broken  only  by  the  pathetic  sonnet, 
and  some  Latin  lines,  in  which  he  laments  his  loss.  The  year 
X743,  was,  for  him,  fruitful  in  poetic  effort,  of  which,  however, 
much  was  incomplete.  The  "Agripptna,"  the  De  princi^is 
CogUandij  the  splenetic  "Hymn  to  Ignorance"  in  which  he 
contemplates  his  return  to  the  university,  remain  fragments; 
but  besides  the  two  poems  already  mentioned,  the  "  Ode  on  a 
Distant  Prospect  of  Eton  College  "  and  the  "  Hymn  to  Adver- 
sity," perhaps  the  most  faultless  of  his  poems,  were  written 
before  the  dose  of  the  summer.  After  hesitating  between 
Trinity  Hall  and  Peterhouse,  he  returned  to  the  latter,  probably 
as  a  feUow-commoner..  He  had  hitherto  neglected  to  read  for  a 
degree;  he  proceeded  to  that  of  LL£.  m  Z744.  In  1745  a 
reconciliation  with  Walpole,  long  desired  probably  on  both  sides, 
was  effeaed  through  the  khid  offices  of  Chute's  sister.  In  1746 
'he  spent  his  time  between  Cambridge,  Stoke  and  London;  was 
much  with  Walpole;  graphically  describes  the  trial  of  the 
Scottish  rebd  lords,  and  studied  Greek  with  avidity;  but  "  the 
muse,"  which  by  this  time  perhaps  had  stimulated  him  to  begin 
the  "  Elegy,"  "  has  gone,  and  left  him  in  much  worse  company." 
In  town  he  finds  hLi  friends  Chute  and  Whithed  returned  to 
England,  and  "flaunts  about"  in  public  places  with  them. 
The  year  1747  produced  only  the  ode  on  Walpole's  cat,  and  we 
gather  that  he  is  mainly  en^iged  in  reading  with  a  very  critical 
eye,  and  interesting  himself  more  in  the  troubles  of  Pembroke 
(College,  in  which  he  almost  seems  to  live,  than  in  the  affairs  of 
Peterhouse.  In  this  year  also  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Mason,  his  future  biographer.  In  1748  he  firat  came  before  the 
public,  but  anonymously,  in  Dodsley's  MisaUany,  in  which 
appeared  the  Eton  ode,  the  ode  on  spring,  and  that  on  the  cat. 
In  the  same  year  he  sent  to  Wharton  the  beginning  of  the  didactic 
poem,  "  The  Alliance  of  Education  and  (government,"  which 
remains  a  fragment.  His  aunt,  Mary  Antrobus,  died  in  1749. 

There  is  little  to  break  the  monotony  of  his  days  till  1750, 
when  from  Stoke  he  sent  Walpole  "  a  thing  to  whidi  he  had  at 
last  put  an  end."  The  "  thing  "  was  the  "  Elegy."  It  was 
shown  about  in  manuscript  by  his  admiring  friend;  it  was 
impudently  pirated,  and  Gray  had  it  printed  by  Dodslcy  in 
self-defence.  Even  thus  it  had  "a  pbch  or  two  in  its  cradle," 
of  which  it  long  bore  the  marks.  The  publication  led  to  the  one 
inddent  in  Gray's  life  which  has  a  touch  of  romance.  At  St<Ae* 
house  had  come  to  live  the  widowed  Lady  Cobham,  who  learnt 
that  (he*  author  of  the  "  Elegy  "  was  her  neit^bour.  At  her 
instance.  Lady  Schaub,  her  visitor,  and  M  iss  Speed,  her  prot^g6e, 
paid  him  a  call;  the  poet  was  out,  and  his  quiet  mother  and 
aunU  were  somewhat  flustered  at  the  apparition  of  these  women 
of  fashion,  whose  acquaintance  Gray  had  already  made  in  town. 
Hence  the  humorous  "Long  Story."  A  platonic  affection 
sprang  up  between  Gray  and  Miss  Speed;  rumour,  upon  the 
death  of  Lady  (^bham,  said  that  they  were  to  be  manied,  but 
the  lady  escaped  this  mild  destiny  to  become  the  Baroness  de  la 
Pe3rri&e,  afterwards  Countess  Viry,  and  a  dangerous  political 
inUigiumU. 

In  X 753  all  Gray's  completed  poems,  except  the  soimct  on  the 
death  of  West,  were  published  by  Dodsley  in  a  handsome  volume 
illustrated  by  Richard  Bcntley,  the  son  of  the  celebrated  master 
of  Trinity.     To  these  designs  we  owe  Uie  verses  to  the  artist 


394 


GRAY,  THOMAS 


whicb  were  posthumously  published  from  a  MS.  torn  at  the  end. 
In  the  same  year  Gray's  mother  died  and  was  buried  in  the 
churchyard  at  Stoke  Poges,  the  scene  of  the  "  Elegy »"  in  the 
same  grave  with  Mary  Antrobus.  A  visit  to  his  friend  Dr 
Wharton  at  Durham  later  in  the  year  revives  his  earlier  impres- 
sions of  that  bolder  scenery  which  is  henceforth  to  be  in  the 
main  the  framework  of  his  muse.  Already  in  1752  he  had 
almost  completed  "  The  Progress  of  Poesy,"  in  which,  and  in 
"  The  Bard/'  the  imagery  is  largely  furnished  forth  by  mountain 
and  torrent.  The  latter  poem  long  held  fire;  Gray  was  stimu- 
lated to  finish  it  by  hearing  the  blind  Welsh  harper  Parry  at 
Cambridge.  Both  odes  were  the  first-fruits  of  the  press  which 
Walpole  had  set  up  at  Strawberry  Hill,  and  were  printed  together 
there  in  1757.  They  are  genuinely  Pindaric,  that  is,  with  corre- 
sponding strophes,  antistrophes  and  epodes.  As  the  Greek 
motto  prefixed  to  them  implies,  they  were  vocal  to  the  intelligent 
only;  and  these  at  first  were  few.  But  the  odes,  if  they  did  not 
attain  the  popularity  of  the  "Elegy,"  marked  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  English  poetry,  and  the  influence  of  "  The  Bard  " 
may  be  traced  even  in  that  great  but  very  fruitful  imposture, 
the  pseudo-Ossian  of  Macpherson.  Gray  yields  to  the  impulse 
of  the  Romantic  movement;  he  has  long  been  an  admirer  of 
ballad  poetry;  before  he  wrote  "  The  Bard  "  he  had  begun  to 
study  Scandinavian  literature,  and  the  two  "  Norse  Odes," 
written,  in  1761,  were  in  style  and  metridd  form  strangely 
antidpative  of  Coleridge  and  Scott.  Meanwhile  his  Cambridge 
life  had  been  vexed  by  the  freaks  of  the  fellow-commoners  of 
Peterhouse,  a  peculiarly  riotous  set.  He  had  suffered  great 
inconvenience  for  a  time  by  the  burning  of  his  property  in 
Corohill,  and  so  nervous  was  he  on  the  subject  of  fire  that  he 
had  provided  himself  with  a  rope-ladder  by  which  he  might 
descend  from  his  college  window.  Under  this  window  a  hunting- 
party  of  these  rude  lads  raised  in  the  early  morning  the  cry 
of  fire;  the  poet's  night-capped  head  appeared  and  was  at 
once  withdrawn.  This,  or  little  more  than  this,  was  the  simple 
fact  out  of  which  arose  the  legend  still  current  at  Cambridge. 
The  servile  authorities'of  Peterhouse  treated  Gray's  complainu 
with  scant  respect,  and  he  migrated  to  Pembroke  College.  "  I 
left  my  lodgings,"  he  said,  "because  the  rooms  were  noisy,  and 
the  people  of  the  house  dirty." 

In  1758  died  Mrs  Rogers,  and  Gray  describes  himself  as 
employed  at  Stoke  in  "  dividing  nothing  "  between  himself  and 
the  surviving  aunt,  Mrs  Oliffe,  whom  he  calls  "  the  spawn  of 
Cerberus  and  the  Dragon  of  Wantlcy."  In  1759  he  availed 
himself  of  the  MS.  treasures  of  the  British  Museum,  then  for  the 
first  time  open  to  the  public,  made  a  very  long  sojourn  in  town, 
and  in  1761  witnessed  the  coronation  of  George  III.,  of  which 
to  his  friend  Brown  of  Pembroke  he  wrote  a  very  vivacious 
account.  In  his  last  years  he  revealed  a  craving  for  a  life  less 
sedentary-  than  heretofone.  He  visited  various  picturesque 
districts  of  Great  Britain,  exploring  great  houses  and  ruined 
abbeys;  he  was  the  pioneer  of  the  modem  tourist,  noting  and 
describing  in  the  spirit  now  of  the  poet,  now  of  the  art-critic, 
now  of  the  antiquary.  In  1762  he  travelled  in  Yorkshire  and 
Derbyshire;  in  1764  in  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  and  thence 
went  to  Southampton  and  its  neighbourhood.  In  1765  he 
revisits  Scotland;  he  is  the  guest  of  Lord  Strathmore  at  Glamif; 
and  revels  in  "  those  monstrous  creatures  of  God,"  the  Highland 
mountains.  His  most  notable  achievement  in  this  direction 
was  his  journey  among  the  English  lakes,  of  which  he  wrote  an 
interesting  account  to  Wharton;  and  even  in  1770,  the  year 
before  his  death,  he  visited  with  his  young  friend  Norton  Nicholls 
"five  of  the  most  beautiful  counties  of  the  kingdom,"  and 
descended  the  Wye  for  40  m.  In  all  these  quests  he  displays  a 
physical  energy  which  surprises  and  even  perplexes  us.  His 
true  academic  status  was  worthily  secured  in  1768,  when  the 
duke  of  Grafton  offered  him  the  professorship  of  modern  history 
which  in  1762  he  had  vainly  endeavoured  to  obtain  from  Bute. 
He  wrote  in  1769  the  "  Installation  Ode  "  upon  the  appointment 
of  Grafton  as  chancellor  of  the  university.  It  was  ahnost  the 
only  instance. in  which  he  successfully  executed  a  task,  not,  in 
the  strictest  sense,  self-imposed;  the  great  founders  of  the 


university  are  tactfully  memorised  and  pass  before  us  III  a  kind 
of  heraldic  splendour.  He  bore  with  indifference  the  taipts 
to  which,  from  Junius  jand  others,  he  was  exposed  for  this 
tribute  to  his  patron.  He  was  contemplating  a  jouroqr  to 
Switzerland  to  visit  his  youthful  friend  de  Bonstetten  when,  in 
the  summer  of  1771,  he  was  conscious  of  a  great  decline  in  his 
physical  powers.  He  was  seized  with  a  sudden  illness  when 
dining  in  his  college  hall,  and  died  of  gout  in  the  stomach  on  the 
30th  of  July  1771.  His  last  moments  were  attended  by  his 
cousin  Mary  Antrobus,  postmistress  throu^  his  influence  at 
Cambridge  and  daughter  of  his  Eton  tutor;  and  he  was  laid 
beside  hiabeloved  mother  in  the  churchyard  of  Stoke  Poges. 

Owing  to  his  shyness  and  reserve  he  had  few  intimate  friends, 
but  to  these  his  loss  was  irreparable;  for  to  them  he  revealed 
himself  either  in  boyish  levity  and  banter,  or  wise  and  sjrmpa- 
thetic  counsel  and  tender  and  yet  manly  consolation;  to  them 
he  imparted  his  quiet  but  keen  observation  of  pissing  events 
or  the  stores  of  his  extensive  reading  in  literature  ancient, 
medieval  or  modem;  and  with  Proteus-like  variety  he  writes 
at  one  time  as  a  speculative  phOosc^her,  at  another  as  a  critic 
in  art  or  music,  at  another  as  a  meteorologist  and  nature-lover. 
His  friendship  with  the  young,  after  his  migratioQ  to  Pembroke 
College,  is  a  noteworthy  trait  in  his  character.  \l^tb  Lord 
Strathmore  and  the  Lyons  and  with  William  Balgrave  he  con- 
versed as  an  elder  brother,  and  Norton  Nicholls  of  Trinity  Hall 
lost  in  him  a  second  father,  who  had  taught  him  to  think  and  feel. 
The  brilliant  young  foreigner,  de  Bonstetten,  looked  back  after 
a  long  and  .chequered  career  with  remembrance  still  vivid  to  the 
days  in  which  the  poet  so  soon  to  die  taught  him  to  read  Shake* 
speare  and  Milton  in  the  monastic  gloom  of  Cambridge.  With 
the  elderly  "  Levites  "  of  the  place  he  was  less  in  sympathy; 
they  dreaded  his  sarcastic  vein;  they  were  conscious  that  he 
laughed  at  them,  and  in  the  polemics  of  the  university  be  was 
somewhat  of  a  free  lance,  fighting  for  his  own  hand.  Lampoons 
of  his  were  privately  circulated  with  effect,  and  that  he  could  be 
the  fiercest  of  satirists  the  "  Cambridge  Courtship  "  on  the 
candidature  of  Lord  Sandwich  for  the  office  of  high  steward,  and 
the  verses  on  Lord  Holland's  mimic  ruins  at  Westgate,  sufficiently 
prove.  The  faculty  which  he  displayed  in  humour  apd  satire 
was  denied  to  his  more  serious  muse;  there  all  was  the  fruit  of 
long  deUy;  of  that  higher  inspiration  he  had  a  thin  but  very 
predous  vein,  and  the  sublimity  which  he  undoubtedly  attained 
was  reached  by  an  effort  of  whidi  captious  and  even  sjrmpathetic 
criticism  can  discover  the  traces.  •  In  his  own  time  he  was 
regarded  as  an  innovator,  for  like  Collins  he  revived  the  poetic 
diction  of  the  past,  and  the  adverse  judgments  of  Johnson  and 
others  upon  his  work  are  in  fact  a  defence  of  the  current  literary 
traditions.  Few  men  have  published  so  little  to  so  much*effect; 
few  have  attained  to  fame  with  so  little  ambition.  His  favourite 
maxim  was  "  to  be  employed  is  to  be  happy,"  but  be  was  alwajrs 
employed  in  the  first  instance  for  the  satisfaction  of  his  own  soul, 
and  to  this  end  and  no  other  he  made  himself  one  of  the  best 
Greek  scholars  at  Cambridge  in  the  interval  between  Bentley 
and  ^orson.  His  genius  was  receptive  rather  than  creative, 
and  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  he  lacked  energy  to  achieve  that 
history  of  English  poetry  which  he  once  projected,  and  for  which 
he  possessed  far  more  knowledge  and  insight  than  the  poet 
Thomas  Warton,  to  whom  he  resigned  the  task.  He  had  a  fine 
taste  in  music,  painting  and  architecture;  and  his  correqx>ndence 
indudes  a  wide  survey  of  such  European  literature  as  was 
accessible  to  him,  with  criticisms,  sometimes  indeed  a  little 
limited  and  insular,  yet  of  a  singularly  fresh  and  modem  cast. 
In  person  he  was  below  the  middle  height,  but  well-made,  and 
his  face,  in  which  the  primness  of  his  features  was  redeemed 
by  his  flashing  eyes,  was  the  index  of  his  character.  There  was 
a  touch  of  affectation  in  his  demeanour,  and  he  was  sometimes 
reticent  and  secretive  even  to  his  best  friends.  He  was  a  refined 
Epicurean  in  his  habits,  and  a  deist  rather  than  a  Christian  in 
his  religious  beliefs;  but  his  friend,  Mrs  Bonfoy,  had  "  taught 
him  to  pray  "  and  he  was  keenly  alive  to  the  dangers  of  a  flippant 
scepticism.  In  a  beautiful  alcaic  stanza  he  pronounces  the  man 
supremdy  happy  who  in  Jthe  depths  of  the  heart  Is  consdous 


GRAY,  W.  DE— GRAZ 


«(  Ibc  "fonst  olleiM," 


d  hb  chanderli^c  melucholy, 
I  it  WIS  bdtcd  black,  wu  not  i 
ODC  Maet  of  tbs  chum  bolfa  ol 


01  of  tbe  pocnu,  acTniivt  of  th 

-  rf  Ony  (1778)  included  iIil 

id  fncmcau.  wiih  1  Kkccioo  Iror 

.i.£..Hr7fli*  Mrtwiotd^  u>«.Hi'»  nl 

hiroit 

_     ionoiOnv.wi.-.^ - 

tbc  Rev.  John  Miciord,  Hill}  fint  did  jDHiccts  Ike  CDfTnDoadFnix 
Ih  Wbutoa  ■«!  Nonon  Nicholli  M^voti.,  PiclnriiK,  Ig36-i8u; 

uitiSTal  tbe  i.'.-..k>  1.,-  E.Jniund  Come  U  vote.  1M4):  the  !-«(• 
bylbeeunein  Ens.  Mm  „[  Uetlen  jlnd«l.,  lUf):  .mne  further 
Idia  ue  livcn  i  n  C-ay  .»u'  Jlii  Frin£bf  D.  C.  Tony  (Cimbridie. 
ia«);  snda  ifc?w  edition  oi  ihelettencojMouilv  HnnoatEd  by  D. 
C.  Towy  it  ia  the  Sundaid  Libniv  (isoo-iw?).  Nkholl'i 
'-  ---Tlmu,  vol.  m.  p.  405,  iiiBCed  by  Fnieaar  Kittmlie  in  the 

,  SeM.  isth,  19™,  »iva  the  true  ■'"v  nf  (irau'.  minTaiion 

ibrpke  Collfsc.     Mjiihew  Anwld'i 


£ltclul  f  MU  it  or 
GSAT  (01  Ctiv), 


a  vl  huniy  cntidim, 

{D.  C.  Ti 

aDB<d.iI55),Engli.bprd.lI 

■  •  ■      ■    "        '  ■  '  ip  of  Ngrr 


r  of  Job 


.  _a  eduMied  at  Oifoid.    He  owed  hit  e«fly  and  rapid 

pnfainait  in  chuich  and  ilatc  to  the  favour  of  King  John, 
bccomiDglhe  king's  chBDcelloi  Id  1105,  and  being  cboKo  bishop 
of  LichGdd  in  mo.  He  wu.  howevcc,  not  allowed  to  keep  thii 
Ushopric,  but  he  bccune  bishop  of  Woicaler  in  1214,  resigning 
his  office  u  chancellor  in  the  ume  year.  Gray  was  with  John 
when  the  king  signed  Ml^gna  Ctcta  in  June  1115;  soon  after 
thii  event  he  left  EngUnd  on  tbe  king's  business,  and  it  was 
during  his  absence  that  he  was  forced  into  the  archbisliopric 
ol  Veik.  owing  hit  election  10  the  good  offices  oI  John  and  of 
Pope  bmocenl  IIL  Be  took  a  leading  put  in  public  affairs 
diiring  the  minoHty  of  Henry  HI,,  and  was  regarded  with  much 
favoiu  by  Ibij  Uag,  who  employed  him  on  important  errand! 
to  foreign  potentates,  and  left  him  as  guardian  of  England  when 
be  went  to  France  In  1141-  Afterwards  the  archbishop  seems 
to  have  been  leu  favourably  disposed  towards  Henry,  and  for  a 
time  he  abtented  himself  from  public  buuness;  however,  in 
I>5S,he  visited  London  to  attend  a  meeting  of^puliai 


died  at 


day  uji-    Cra] 


copal  authority  dvet  Scotland, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  but 
In  Deitliec  at*  was  ne  very  auccesifid.  He  buitl  the  south 
iranaept  ol  the  minster  at  York  and  bought  for  fail  >ee  the 
Tillage,  afterwards  called  6  ishaptboipe,  wbichiisliiltheraideQce 
of  the  archbishop  of  York.  He  wu  also  generou*  to  the  church 
at  Ripon.     Gray  was  regarded  by  bb  coatemponuid  It  an 


SBAY,  a  town  o(  eastern  France,  capital  ol  an  arrondiuement 
£d  tlie  department  of  Haute-SeAne,  situated  on  the  declivity  of 
■  hill  on  the  left  bank  o[  the  SiAne,  ]6  m.  S.W.  of  Vesoul  by  the 
Eaalem  railway.  Fop,  (1906)  S741.  The  ttreeu  of  the  town  are 
narrow  aid  steep,  but  it  potsesiet  broad  and  beautiful  quays 
aod  has  a  busy  port.  Three  bridget,  one  dating  from  the  18th 
ceoLiuy,  unite  it  to  suburbs  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  on 
which  is  Ihe  railway-station  from  whicb  lines  branch  oS  to 
Anxonne,  Di)on,  Besincon  and  Culmont-Chalindrey.  Tbe 
principal  buildings  ue  the  Gothic  cbuich,  restored  in  the  style 
of  tbe  Renaissance  but  with  a  modem  portal,  and  tbe  bAlel  de 
ville,  built  by  the  Spaniards  in  1568.  The  latter  building  baa  a 
baodiome  facade  decorated  with  columns  ol  red  granite.  Cray 
la  the  teat  of  a  subprefect  and  has  tribunals  af  first  instance 


.    It  I 


-mills;  an 


iodtutrid 

Tb«re  it  also  a  considerable  transit  trathc  in  goods  Ire 
(onth  of  France  and  the  colonics,  and  trade  in  iron,  cor 
vUioDs,  vegetables,  wine,  wood,  ftc,  much  of  which  is  1 
1^  river.  Gray  was  founded  in  the  7th  century.  Itsfortifii 
wen  iatmjti  by  Lcnit  XIV.  _Duriiig  tbe  Franco-GetmBO  War 


General  von  Werder  cnnontnted  his  army  corpa  In  tbe  town 
and  held  it  for  a  month,  making  it  the  poi'nl  d'affui  ol  move- 
raents  towards  Dijon  and  Langres,  as  well  aa  toward!  Beiaicon. 

Gray  gave  its  name  to  the  dislinguithed  English  family  of 
de  Gray,  Gray  or  Grey,  Aotcbitel  de  Gray  being  mentioned  as 
an  Oifordsbire  tenant  in  Domesday. 

ORAYUNQ  {TkymaUiu),  Bshes  belonging  to  the  family 
SaJimntidBi,  The  best  known  are  the  "  poisson  bleu  "  of  the 
Canadian  voyageurs,  and  the  European  spedea,  TjlyiiuJJiit 
tyigarii  {the  Asck  or  AuAi  of  Germany,  ambrc  of  France,  and 
trmeia  of  Upper  Italy).  This  tatter  species  is  esteemed  on 
agreeable  colours  (especially  of  the  dorsal  fin),  ilt 
1  Beah,  and  the  sport  it  affords  to  anglers.  The 
grayling  differ  from  the  genus  Salmn  In  the  smaller  mouth  with 
comparatively  feeble  dentition,  in  the  larger  scales,  and  etpedslly 
in  the  much  greater  development  of  the  dorsal  fin,  which  contains 
10  to  14  rays.  Tbete  beautiful  Eihcs,  of  which  five  or  lii  tpedet 
are  known,  inhabit  the  freth  waters  of  Europe,  SibeHa  and  tbe 
northern  parts  of  North  America.  The  European  species, 
T.  ttUgaHi  or  taillifa,  attains,  though  rarely,  a  length  of  >  (t. 
Thecolourtduringliie  are  remarkably  changeable  and  iridescent; 
small  dark  spots  are  sometimes  present  on  the  body;  the  very 
high  dorsal  fin  is  beautifully  marked  with  purplish  bands  and 
ocellL  In  England  and  Scotland  the  grayling  appears  to  have 
had  originally  a  rather  irregular  distribution,  but  It  has  now 
lieen  introduced  into  a  great  number  of  rivers;  it  It  not  found  in 
Ireland.  It  is  more  generslly  distributed  in  Scandinavia  and 
Russia,  and  the  mountain  streams  of  centra]  Europe  southward* 
to  the  Alpine  water  of  Upper  Italy.  Specimens  attaining  to  % 
weight  of  4  lb  are  very  scarce, 

ORAYa  THDRROCK,  or  Gatva,  an  urban  district  in  the  toutb- 
eattem  parliamentary  division  of  Essex,  England,  on  the  Thames. 
10  m.  E.  by  S.  from  London  by  tbe  Londoo,  Tilbury  &  Southend 
railwiy.  Pop.  (1901)  lifin.  The  church  of  St  Peter  and  St 
Paul,  wholly  rebuilt,  lelalni  tome  Norman  work.  The  town 
takes  its  name  from  a  family  ol  Gray  who  held  the  manor  for 
three  centuries  from  1149.  There  are  an  endowed  and  two 
training  ship  schools.  Roman  remains  bave  been  found  in  the 
vicinity;  and  the  geological  formations  eibibiting  Ihe  process 
of  lilting  up  of  a  former  river  channel  are  eipoted  in  the  quarries, 
and  contain  large  mammaliaa  lemaint.  Tlie  town  hat  trade  in 
bricks,  lime  and  cement. 

ORAZ  [GkAit],  the  capita]  of  the  Austrian  duchy  and  crown- 
land  of  Styria,  140  m.  S.W.  ol  Vienna  by  nIL  Fop,  (igeo] 
138,370.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  both  banks  of  tbe  Hur, 
just  where  this  dvtx  entera  a  broad  arul  fertile  valley,  and  the 
beauty  of  its  position  has  given  rise  to  the  putming  French 
detcription.ia  VilUda paiasurlari«ir€<Uramimr.  Themain 
town  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  at  the  foot  of  the  Schlost- 
bcrg  (1S45  ft.)  which  dominates  the  town.  The  beautiful  valley 
traversed  by  the  Mur,  known  as  the  Graier  Feld  and  bounded 
by  the  Wildonerberge,  eitends  to  tbe  south;  to  the  S.W.  rise 
the  Bacher  Gebirge  and  the  Koralpen;  to  the  N.  the  ScbOcke] 
(4745  ft.),  and  to  the  N.W.  the  Alps  of  Upper  Styria.  On  Ihe 
Schlossberg.wbicb  can  be  ascended  hyacable  tram  way,  ticaulilul 
parks  have  been  laid  out,  and  on  its  lop  is  the  bell.tower,  60  ft. 
high,  and  the  quaint  dock-lower,  ji  ft.  high,  which  bears  a 
gigantic  dock-diaL  At  the  foot  oi  the  Schloubeig  it  the  Stadt- 
ParV. 


1-146J  01 


S7.  It  has  been  teveti]  times 
modified  and  redecorated,  more  particularly  in  171S.  The 
present  copper  spire  dates  from  1663.  Tbe  interior  it  ricbly 
adorned  with  stained-glass  windows  of  modem  date,  costly 
shrines,  paintings  and  tombs.  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  the  cathedral  is  the  mausoleum  church  erected  by  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  n.  Worihy  of  mention  also  are  Ihe  parish  church,  a 
Late  Gothic  building,  finished  in  tjjo,  and  restored  in  1875. 
which  possetaet  an  attu  piece  by  Tintoretto;  Ihe  August inlan 
church,  appropriated  to  tbe  service  ol  ll»  university  since  1S171 


39* 


GRAZZINI— GREAT  AWAKENING 


the  inull  Lcccb  Kirctc,  in  IntBaling  buHdlng  in  Early  GotUc 

ilyle,  dating  (torn  the  ijlh  Mniuty,  and  the  Hen  Jau-Kiidit, 
■  building  in  Early  Gothic  ityle,  finiihed  in  iSqi  ,  with  ■  lawn 
360  ft.  htglL  Of  the  Kcular  buUdinp  the  mnt  important  is  tht 
Landhaus,  where  the  local  diet  holdi  iti  littingi,  erected  in  the 
ifitbcentuiylntheRenaiuanceityte.  ItpaneucianEnteniling 
portal  and  a  beautiful  arcadcd  court,  and  amongst  the  curiouties 
pieierved  here  ii  the  Styrian  haL  In  jta  ndghbourhood  ii  the 
Zcughaui  at  inenal,  biult  In  1644,  which  contiini  ■  veiy  rich 
collection  of  weaponi  of  the  I5th-i7th  caturiti,  and  which  ia 
maintained  exactly  In  theume  condition  u  It  wai )  jo  yean  ago. 
The  town  hall,  built  in  1S0T,  ind  rebuilt  in  iSgi  b  the  Genum 
Renaiaaance  ityk,  and  ib;  impoUl  cattle,  dating  from  the  1  ith 
cenluiy^  now  used  aa  govemment  officei,  arc  aUo  worth  naiice. 

At  the  head  of  the  educational  Iniiituiloni  ii  ihe  univenity 
foiuded  in  IJ&6  by  the  Auilrian  aichduke  Charlea  Francli,  and 
ratoted  in  1817  aTtei  an  intemiption  of  4s  yean.  It  la  now 
taotiacd  In  a  magnificent  building,  Gniahed  in  1895,  and  ii  endowed 
with  tiiunenius  adentific  laboratoriea  and  a  rich  libruy.  It 
bad  in  1901  a  teaching  itaff  of  161  profeiaon  and  Iccturen, 
■Dd  1651  atudenti.  Including  many  Italiani  from  the  Kllitenland 
■Dd  Dalmatia.  Thejoanneum  Muieum,foundedlni8ii  by  the 
uchduke  John  Baptiit,  faai  became  very  rich  in  many  depait- 
Dcnti,  and  an  additional  boge  building  in  the  rococo  iiyle  wii 
aectcd  in  iSqs  for  it)  accommodation.  The  technical  college, 
founded  in  1S14  by  the  archduke  John  Baptiit,  bad  in  IQOI 
^bout  400  pupUa. 

An  active  trade,  f  oiteredby  abundant  railway  commnnicatloas, 
II  combined  with  manufacturea  of  iron  and  ateel  wa»,  paper, 
chemicali,  vinegar,  physical  and  optical  inilrumenla,  beilde* 
artiltjc  printing  and  lithography.  The  extenalve  workshopi 
of  Ihe  So'jthtm  railway  are  at  Ciu,  and  alnce  the  opening  of  the 
Tulvay  to  the  rich  coal-fields  of  KOSach  the  number  of  indualrial 
oUhUihmenta  bai  greatly  incceaaed. 

Amongii  the  numerous  interesting  places  In  the  ndghboorhood 
■re:  the  Hilmteich,  with  the  Hi!in»aile,  about  100  ft.  high; 
■nd  the  Rosenberg  (1570  ft.),  whence  the  ascent  of  the  Platte 
{113A  ft.)  with  eileniive  vicK  is  made.  At  the  foot  of  the 
Rasenberg  is  Maria  GrUn,  with  a  large  laaalorlum.  All  these 
[dace*  ate  situated  to  the  N.  of  Gtai.  On  the  left  bank  of  the 
Hur  is  the  pilgrimage  church  of  Muia  Trosi,  built  In  1714; 
on  the  right  bank  Is  the  castle  of  Eggeoberg,  built  b  the  i71h 
fentury.  To theS.W.istheBuchkogel (1150ft.), with amigniG- 
cent  view,  and  ■  little  farther  loutb  is  the  watering-place  of 
Tobelbsd. 

Biliary. — Graz  may  possibly  have  been  a  Roman  site,  but 
the  Erst  menlion  ol  it  under  its  preient  name  is  in  a  document 
ef  a.D.  S81,  after  which  it  hecime  the  ccaidcnce  of  the  lulen 
of  theauiTDundingdIsItict,  knownlaleiaaStyria.  Its  privilege* 
were  confirmed  by  King  Rudolph  I.  in  iiSi.  Surrounded  with 
walls  and  tosses  b  U3S>  i<  was  able  in  1481  to  defend  Ilself 
(gainst  the  Hungaiiaos  under  Matthias  Corvinus,  and  In  1519 
and  1531  the  Turks  attacked  it  with  ai  little  success.  As  early 
as  1 530  the  Lutheran  doctrine  was  preached  b  Grai  by  Seiliied 
and  Jacob  von  Eggenberg,  and  in  1 J40  Eggenbetg  founded  the 
Piradies  or  Lutheran  school,  b  which  Kepter  afterwards  taught. 
But  the  archduke  Charles  burned  J0,ooo  Protestant  lyxjks  m 
the  square  of  the  present  lunatic  asylum,  and  succeeded  by  his 
oppressive  m  easura  In  brbgbg  thedtyagaiDundcrlheauthoriiy 
of  Rome.  From  the  earlier  pan  ol  the  ijth  century  Grai  was 
the  rc«dence  of  one  branch  of  the  family  of  Hataburg,  a  branch 
which  succeeded  to  the  imperial  tbione  b  i6ig  in  the  person 
of  Ferdmand  IL  New  fortifications  were  consimcted  m  the  end 
of  the  i6ih  century  by  Fiaoi  von  Poppeadorf,  and  in  1644  the 
town  aBordcd  an  asylum  to  the  family  of  Ferdinand  lU.  The 
French  were  b  possession  of  the  place  b  1797  and  agabb  rSo;; 
and  in  iKog  Marshal  Macdonald  httvbg,  in  accordance  with  the 
entered  the  dladd  which  he  had 


1,  blew 


>r  clock  ti 


lebeU- 


leceived  extended  dvic  privUcGcs  in  1860. 


SeCHwof  siidPeteii.Gnu,C;uclicb(in<  Ttfc 

^    ,tmltiatUmtltt"ltK.-. _ 

(Gnu.  1897).  and  HdrKhler,  JUiUliat 


iilaytr,  On  SadI  dit' 
«  dii  Virta^inJiiil 


,  ._,/).  4~<  Hjiih.— . 

tCiaa.  iSSs). 

ORAZZan,  ANTOnO  FRUCBKO  (1503-1:83),  luliui 
author,  was  borii  at  Florenceon  theSJndof  March  1503,  of  good 
family  both  by  hii  father's  and  mother'a  aide.  Of  bi*  youth 
and  educitioo  all  lecord  appears  to  be  tost,  but  he  probably 
began  early  to  practise  is  an  apothecary.  In  1540  be  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  ol  the  Humid  (de^  Umkli) 
"'" '-  called  "  della  Fiorentiiui,"  and  iater  took  a  prominent 


nini 


;  ol  the  m 


.  known  a>  II  Laaa  at  Lauisat, 
and  this  pseudonym  Is  still  frequently  substituted  for  bis  proper 
name.  His  temper  was  what  the  French  happily  call  a  difficult 
one,  and  hit  life  was  consequently  enlivened  or  disturbed  by 
various  lileniy  quarrels.  His  Humid  brethren  went  so  fu  u 
to  expel  him  for  a  time  from  the  society — the  chief  ground 
of  oScDce  being  apparently  hia  rulhlaa  criticism  ol  Ihe 
"  Artmcans,"  %  party  of  the  academicians  who  mamtained 
thai  the  Florentbe  or  Tuscan  tongue  wai  derived  from  the 
Hebrew,  tfae  Childee,  or  some  other  branch  of  the  Semitic 
He  was  readmittedb  1566,  when  bis  fiiend  Sal  viati  was  "consul" 
of  the  academy.  Hia  death  took  place  on  Ihe  iSth  d  February 
1SS3.  11  Lasca  ranks  as  one  of  the  great  masters  of  Tuscan 
prase.  His  style  is  coihoux  and  fleiiblei  abundantly  Idiomatic, 
but  without  any  aflectation  of  being  so,  it  carries  with  it  Ihe 
force  and  freshness  of  popular  qwcch,  while  it  lacks  not  at  the 
same  time  a  flavour  of  academic  culture.  His  principal  woAs 
are  £*  Cime  (i7j6),  a  collection  of  atories  in  the  manner  of 
Boccacdo,  and  a  aumbei  of  prose  comedies.  La  Gtlatia  (i  168), Xa 
Stiriliita{is6l),l  ParcnUidi,LoAriiita,LaSMIia,LaPHaaikaa, 
L'Anifoiala.  The  stories,  though  of  no  special  moil  ai  far 
as  the  plots  are  cooceroed,  art  told  with  verve  and  Interol. 
A  number  of  mitctllaneotts  poems,  1  few  letters  and  Fnr 
Oralitnu  la  Ike  Crest  complete  the  list  of  Cmdni'i  extant  woiii 


11  Ihe  Amc 
in  this  se 


-1750. 


The  w 


ras  frequently  (and  pcasibly  first) 
by  Jonathan  Edwards  at  the  lime  of  Ihe  Northampton 
'  a  1734-173S,  which  spread  tluough  the  Conneiiicut 
nd  prepared  the  way  for  the  work  b  Rhode  Island, 
:u3eltsandConnecticut(i740-i74i)o(George  Whit  e£eld, 
1  previously  been  preaching  b  the  South,  especially 
nnah,  Georgia.  He,  hi)  imme<tiale  follower,  Gilbert 
( 1 70 J- 1 J64) ,  other  dergymen.snch  as  James  Davenport , 
and  numy  untrinna]  laymen  who  took  up  the  work,  agreed 
la  the  emotional  and  dnmatic  character  o(  thor  preaching, 

...  j,^],  p^^^  uf  ^|jtcg,a,[^  often 

due  stress  Ihey  put  upon  "  bodily 
effects"  (the  physical  manifestations  of  an'abnormal  psychic 
lis  of  conversion,  and  b  thdr  unrestnbed  attack* 
ny  dergymea  who  did  not  Join  them  and  whom 
they  called  "dead  men,"  tmconverted,  imregenerale  and 
'ritual  condition  of  their  parishes.  Jonathan 
in  Colman  (1673-1747),  and  Joseph  Bellamy, 

inded  Whilefidd  for  presuming  to  say  of  any 
mconverted,  and  in  bis  ThntUs  Cauentimi 
tht  PraoU  Rami  af  Reiitian  devoted  much  space  to  "  showing 
'    '  "'  '  ~    '  reeled,  or  avtuded,  b  promoting  this 

sermon  at  Enfidd  in  1741  so  affected 
hti  audience  thai  Ihcy  cried  and  groaned  aloud,  and  be  found 


GREAT  BARRIER  REEF— GREAT  BASIN 


397 


it  neoataiy  to  bid  them  be  still  that  he  might  go  on;  but 
Davenport  and  many  itinerants  provoked  and  invited  shouting 
and  even  writhing,  and  othv  physical  manifestations.  At  its 
May  session  in  1742  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  forbade 
itinerant  preaching  save  with  full  consent  from  the  resident 
psstor;  in  May  1743  the  annual  ministerial  convention,  by  a 
small  i^urality,  declared  against  "several  errors  in  doctrine 
and  disorders  in  practice  which  have  of  Ute  obtained  in  various 
paru  of  the  land,"  against  lay  preachers  and  disorderly  revival 
meetings;  in  the  same  ycac  Charles  Chauncy,  who  disapproved 
of  the  revival,  published  SeasonabU  Tkougkis  oh  the  State  cf 
ReUiion  in  New  Engfand;  and  in  1 744-1 745  Whitefield,  upon 
his  second  tour  in  New  England,  found  that  the  faculties  of 
Harvard  and  Yale  had  of&dally  "  testified  '*  and  '*  declared^' 
against  him  and  that  most  pulpits  were  closed  to  him.  .Some 
sqwratist  churches  were  formed  as  a  result  of  the  Awakening; 
these  either  died  out  or  became  Baptist  congregations.  To 
the  reaction  against  the  gross  methods  of  the  revival  has  been 
ascribed  the  religious  apathy  of  New  England  during  the  last 
years  of  the  i8th  century;  but  the  martial  and  political  excite- 
oacnt,  beginning  with  King  George's  War  (>.e.  the  American 
part  of  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession)  and  running  through 
the  American  War  of  Independence  and  the  founding  of  the 
American  government,  must  be  reckoned  at  the  least  as  contri- 

butingcauses. 

See  Joseph  Tracy,  Tke  Great  it voikmi'iif  (Boston,  1842):  Samuel 
P.  Hayes.  "  An  Historical  Study  of  the  Edwardeaa  Revivals."  in 
The  American  Jommat  ef  Psyckalogyt  vol.  13  (Worcester,  Mass., 
15^);  and  Frederick  M.  Davenport,  Primittee  Trails  in  Religious 
tumiaU  (New  York,  1905)1  especially  chapter  viii.  pp.  94-i3i> 

OBBAT  BARBIBR  REEF,  a  vast  coral  reef  extending  for 
laoo  m.  ah>ng  the  north-east  coast  of  Australia  {q.t.).  The 
cfcannd' within  it  is  protected  from  heavy  seas  by  the  reef,  and 
is  a  valuable  route  of  communication  for  coasting  steamers. 
The  reef  itself  is  also  traversed  by  a  number  of  navigable  passages. 

6RKAT  BARRINOTON,  a  township  of  Berkshire  county, 
^faaaachttsetts,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Housatonic  river,  in  the  Berkshire 
liiUa,  about  95  bl  S.W.  of  Pittsfield.  Pop.  (1890)  4612;  (1900) 
5854,  of  whom  X187  were  foreign-bom;  (1910  census)  5926. 
Its  axca  is  about  45  sq.  m.  The  township  is  traversed  by 
a  brandi  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railroad,  and 
the  Berkshire  Street  railway  (controlled  by  the  N.Y.,  N.H.  &  H.) 
Kas  hs  southern  terminus  here.  Within  the  townsliip  are 
three  villages— Great  Barrington  (the  most  important),  Housa- 
tonic and  Van  Deusenville;  the  first  two  are  about  5  m.  apart. 
The  village  of  Great  Barrington,  among  the  hills,  is  well  known 
asasommerresort.  The  Congr^ational  church  with  its  magnifi- 
cent organ  (3954  pipes)  is  worthy  of  mention.  There  is  a  public 
librmry  in  the  village  of  Great  Barrington  and  another  in  the 
viflage  of  Housatonic.  Monument  Mt.  (17x0  ft.),  partly  in 
Stockbridge,  commands  a  fine  view  of  the  Berkshires  and  the 
Housatonic  Valley.  The  Sedgwick  School  (for  boys)  was  removed 
from  Hartford,  Connecticut,  to  Great  Barrington  in  1869. 
Tbcre  are  various  manufactures,  including  cotton-goods  (in  the 
village  of  Housatonic),  and  electric  meters,  paper,  knit  goods 
and  ooontcrpanes  (in  the  village  of  Great  Barrington);  and 
marble  and  blue  stone  are  quanied  here;  but  the  township  is 
primarily  given  over  to  fanning.  The  fair  of  the  Housatonic 
Acrictthural  Society  Is  held  here  annuaUy  during  September; 
and  the  district  court  of  South  Berkshire  siu  here.  The  township 
was  incorporatql  in  1761,  having  been,  since  1743,  t)ie  "  North 
Parish  of  Sheflkld  ";  the  township  of  Sheffield,  earlier  known 
as  the  "Lower  Housatonic  Planution"  was  incorporated  in 
1733-  Great  Barrington  was  named  in  honour  of  John  Shute 
(1678-1734),  Viscount  Barrington  of  Ardglass  (the  adjective 
**  Great "  being  added  to  distinguish  it  from  another  township 
of  the  same  name).  In  X76X-X787  it  was  the  shire-town.  Great 
Barrington  was  a  centre  of  the  disaffection  during  Shays's 
rebdlioo,  and  on  the  X3th  of  September  X786  a  riot  here  pre- 
vented the  sitting  of  court.  Samuel  Hopkins,  one  of  the  most 
cauBent  of  American  theologians,  was  pastor  here  in  x743-t769; 
CcBCral  JosqA  Dwight  (x703-x76s)>  a  merchant,  lawyer  and 


brigadier-general  of  Massachusetts  militia,  who  took  part'  in 

the  I^uisburg  expedition  in  X74S  and  later  in  the  French  and 

Indian  War,  lived  here  from  X758  until  his  death;  and  William 

Cullen  Bryant  lived  here  as  a  lawyer  and  town  clerk  in  x8x6-x835. 

See  C.  J.  Taylor,  History  </  Great  Barrington  (Great  Barrington, 
X882). 

GREAT  BASIN,  an  area  in  the  western  Cbrdilleran  region  of 
the  United  Sutes  of  America,  about  aoo,ooo  sq.  m.  in  extent, 
characterized  by  wholly  interior  drainage,  a  peculiar  mountain 
system  and  extreme  aridity.  Its  form  is  approximately  that 
of  an  isosceles  triangle,  with  the  sharp  angle  extending  into 
Lower  California,  W.  of  the  Colorado  river;  the  northern  edge 
being  formed  by  the  divide  of  the  drainage  basin  of  the  Columbia 
river,  the  eastern  by  that  of  the  Colorado,  the  western  by  the 
central  part  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  crest,  and  by  other  high 
mountains.  The  N.  boundary  and  much  of  the  £.  is  not  con- 
spicuously uplifted,  being  plateau,  rather  than  mountain.  The 
W.  half  of  Utah,  the  S.W.  corner  of  Wyoming,  the  S.E.  comer 
of  Idaho,  a  large  area  in  S.E.  Oregon,  much  of  S.  California, 
li  strip  along  the  £.  border  of  the  last-named  state,  and  almost 
the  whole  of  Nevada  are  embraced  within  the  limits  of  the 
Great  Basin. 

The  Great  Basin  b  not,  as  its  name  implies,  a  topographic  cup. 
Its  surface  is  of  varied  character,  with  many' independent  closed 
basins  draining  into  lakes  or  "  playas,"  none  of  which,  however, 
has  outlet  to  the  sea.  The  mountain  chains,  which  from  their 
peculiar  geologic  character  are  known  as  of  the  "  Basin  Range 
type  "  (not  exactly  conterminous  in  distribution  with  the  Basin), 
are  echeloned  in  short  ranges  running  from  N.  to  S.  Many  of 
them  are  fault  block  mountains,  the  crust  having  been  broken 
and  the  blocks  tilted  so  that  there  is  a  steep  face  on  one  side 
and  a  gentle  slope  on  the  other.  This  is  the  fiiasin  Range  type  of 
mountain.  These  mountains  are  among  the  most  recent  in  the 
continent,  and  some  of  them,  at  least,  are  stiU  growing..  In 
numerous  instances  clear  evidence  of  recent  movements  along 
the  fault  planes  has  been  diKovered;  and  frequent  earthquidies 
testify  with  equal  force  to  the  present  uplift  of  the  mountain 
blocks.  The  valleys  between  the  tilted  mountain  blocks  are. 
smooth  and  often  trough-like,  and  are  often  the  sites  of  shallow 
salt  lakes  or  playas.  By  the  rain  wash  and  wind  action  detritus 
from  the  mountains  is  carried  to  these  valley  floors,  raising  their 
level,  and  often  burying  k>W  mountain  spurs,  so  as  to  cause 
neighbouring  valleys  to  coalesce.  The  plateau  "  lowlands  "  in 
the  centre  of  the  Basin  are  approximately  5000  ft.  in  altitude. 
Southward  the  altitude  falls.  Death  valley  and  Coahuila  valley 
being  in  part  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  whole  Basin  is 
marked  by  three  features  of  elevation — the  Utah  basin,  the 
Nevada  basin  and,  between  them,  the  Nevada  plateau. 

Over  the  lowlands  of  the  Basin,  taken  generally,  there  is  an 
average  precipitation  of  perhaps  6-7  in.,  while  in  the  Oregon 
region  it  is  twice  as  great,  and  in  the  southern  parts  even  less. 
The  mountains  receive  somewhat  more.  The  annual  evaporation 
from  water  surfaces  is  from  60  to  x  50  in.  (60  to  80  on  the  Great 
Salt  Lake).  The  reason  for  the  arid  climate  differs  in  different 
sections.  In  the  north  it  Is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  winds  from 
the  Pacific  lose  most  of  their  moisture,  especially  in  winter,  on 
the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada;  in  the  south  it  b  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  region  lies  in  a  zone  of  calms,  and  light, 
variable  winds.  Precipitation  b  largely  confined  to  local  showers, 
often  of  such  violence  as  to  warrant  the  name  "  cloud  bursts," 
commonly  applied  to  the  heavy  down-pours  of  this  desert 
region.  It  b  these  heavy  rains,  of  brief  duration,  when  great 
volumes  of  water  rapidly  run  off  from  the  barren  slopes,  that 
cause  the  deep  channels,  or  arroyas,  which  cross  the  desert. 
Permanent  streams  are  rare.  Many  mountains  are  quite  without 
perennial  streams,  and  some  lack  even  springs.  Few  of  the 
mountain  creeks  succeed  in  reaching  the  arid  plains,  and  those 
that  do  quickly  disappear  by  evaporation  or  by  seepage  into 
the  gravels.  In  the  N.W.  there  are  many  permanent  lakes 
without  outlet  fed  by  the  mountain  streams;  others,  snow  fed, 
occur  among  the  Sierra  Nevada;  and  some  in  the  larger  mountain 
masses  of  the  middle  region.  Ahnost  all  are  saline.  The  largest 


398 


GREAT  BEAR  LAKE— GREATHEAD 


of  all.  Great  Salt  Lake,  is  maintained  by  the  waten  of  the 
Wasatch  and  associated  plateaus.  No  lakes  occur  south  of 
Owens  in  the  W.  and  Sevier  in  the  E.  (39*);  evaporation  below 
these  limits  is  supreme.  Most  of  the  small  closed  basins,  how- 
ever, contain  *'  playas,"  or  alkali  mud  flats,  that  are  overflowed 
when  the  tributary  streams  are  supplied  with  storm  water. 

Save  where  irrigation  has  reclaimed  small  areas,  the  whole 
region  is  a  vast  desert,  though  locally  only  some  of  the  interior 
plains  are  known  as  "  deserts."  Sudh  are  the  Great  Salt  Lake 
and  Carson  deserts  in  the  north,  the  Mohave  and  Colorado  and 
Amargosa  (Death  Valley)  deserts  of  the  south-west.  Straggling 
forests,  mainly  of  conifers,  characterize  the  high  plateaus  of 
central  Utah.  The  lowlands  and  the  lower  mountains,  especially 
southward,  are  generally  treeless.  Cottonwoods  line  the  streams, 
salt-loving  vegetation  margins  the  bare  pbyas,  low  bushes  and 
scattered  bunch-grass  grow  over  the  lowlands,  especially  in  the 
north.  Gray  desert  plants,  notably  cactuses  and  other  thorny 
plants,  partly  repbce  in  the  south  the  bushes  of  the  north. 
Except  on  the  scattered  oases,  where  irrigation  from  springs  and 
mountain  streams  has  reclaimed  small  patches,  the  desert  is 
barren  and  forbidding  in  the  extreme.  There  are  broad  pbins 
covered  with  salt  and  alkali,  and  others  supporting  only  scattered 
bunch  grass,  sage  bush,  cactus  and  other  arid  land  plants. 
There  are  stony  wastes,  or  alluvial  fans,  where  mountain  streams 
emerge  upon  the  plains,  in  time  of  flood,  bringing  detritus  in 
their  torrential  courses  from  the  mountain  canyons  and  depositing 
it  along  the  mountain  base.  The  barrenness,  extends  into  the 
mountains  themselves,  where  there  are  bare  rock  cliffs,  stony 
slopes  and  a  general  absence  of  vegetation.  With  increasing 
altitude  vegetation  becomes  more  varied  and  abundant,  until  the 
tree  limit  is  reached;  then  follows  a  forest  belt,  which  in  the 
highest  mountains  is  limited  above  by  cold  as  it  is  below  by 
aridity. 

The  successive  explorations  of  B.  L.  £.  Bonneville,  J.  C. 
Fremont  and  Howard  Stansbury  (1806-1863)  furnished  a 
general  knowledge  of  the  hydrographic  features  and  geological 
lacustrine  history  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  this  knowledge  was 
rounded  out  by  the  field  work  of  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey  from 
1879  to  1883,  under  the  direction  of  Grove  Karl  Gilbert.  The 
mountains  are  composed  in  great  part  of  Paleozoic  strata, 
often  modified  by  vulcanism  and  greatly  denuded  and  sculptured 
by  wind  and  water  erosion.  The  climate  in  late  geologic  time 
was  very  different  from  that  which  prevails  to-day.  In  the 
Pleistocene  period  many  large  lakes  were  formed  within  the  Great 
Basin;  especially,  by  the  fusion  of  smaU  catchment  basins, 
two  great  confluent  bodies  of  water — Lake  Lahontan  (in  the 
Nevada  basin)  and  Lake  Bonne\'ille  (in  the  Utah  basin).  The 
latter,  the  remnants  of  which  are  represented  to-day  by  Great 
Salt,  Sevier  and  Utah  Lakes,  had  a  drainage  basin  of  some 
54,000  sq.  m. 

Sec  G.  K.  Gilbert  in  Wheeler  Survey,  C/.5.  Geographical  Survey 
West  oj  the  Hundredth  Meridian,  vol.  iii. ;  Clarence  Kingand  others 
in  the  Report  of  the  Fortieth  Parallel  Survey  (U.S.  Gcol.  Exploration 
of  the  Fortieth  Parallel);  G.  K.  Gilbert's  Lahe  Bonneville  (U.S. 
GeolcMical  Survey,  Monographs,  No.  i,  1890),  also  I.  C.  Russell's 
iMke  Lahontan  (Same,  No.  1 1 ,  1885),  with  references  to  other  publica' 
tions  of  the  Survev*.  For  reference  to  later  geological  literature,  and 
discussion  of  the  Basin  Ranges,  see  J.  E.  Spurr,  Bull.  Geol.  Soc.  Amer. 
vol.  12,  1901.  p.  317;  and  G.  D.  Loudcrback,  same,  vol.  15,  1904, 
p.  280:  also  general  bibliographies  issued  by  the  U.S.  Geol.  Survey 
(e.g.  Bull.  301,  372  and  409). 

GREAT  BEAR  LAKE,  an  extensive  sheet  of  fresh  water  in 
the  north-west  of  Canada,  between  65*  and  67*  N.,  and  1x7*  and 
133*  W.  It  is  of  very  irregular  shape,  has  an  estimated  area 
of  IX, 200  sq.  m.,  a  depth  of  270  ft.,  and  is  upwards  of  200  ft. 
above  the  sea.  It  is  175  m.  in  length,  and  from  25  to  45  in 
breadth,  though  the  greatest  distance  between  its  northern  and 
southern  arms  is  about  x8o  m.  The  Great  Bear  river  discharges 
its  waters  into  the  Mackenzie  river.  It  is  full  of  fish,  and  the 
neighbouring  country,  though  barren  and  uncultivated,  contains 
quantities  of  game. 

GREAT  CIRCLE.  The  circle  in  which  a  sphere  is  cut  by  a 
plane  is  called  a  **  great  circle,"  when  the  cutting  plane  passes 
through  the  centre  of  sphere.   Treating  the  earth  a^  a  sphere. 


the  meridians  of  longitude  are  all  great  circles.  Of  the  parsDHs 
of  latitude,  the  equator  only  is  a  great  circle.  The  shortest  line 
joining  any  two  points  is  an  arc  of  a  great  circle.  For  **  great 
drcle  sailing  "  see  Navigation. 

GREAT  FALLS,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Cascade  county, 
Montana,  U.S.A.,  99  m.  (by  rail)  N.£.  of  Helena,  on  the  S.  ba^ 
of  the  Missouri  river,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Sun  river,  at  an 
altitude  of  about  3300  ft.  It  is  xo  m.  above  the  Great  Falls 
of  the  Missouri,  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  Pop.  (1890) 
3979;  (1900)  X4f930i  of  whom  4692  were  foreign-bom;  (19x0 
census)  13,948.  It  has  an  area  of  about  8  sq.  m.  It  is  served 
by  the  Great  Northern  and  the  Billings  &  Northern  (Chicago, 
Burlington  &  Quincy  system)  railways.  The  city  has  a  ^tleixdid 
park  system  of  seven  parks  (about  530  acres)  with  15  m.  of 
boulevards.'  Among  the  principal  buildings  are  a  dty  hall, 
court  house,  high  school,  commercial  college,  Carnegie  library, 
the  Columbus  Ho^ital  and  Training  School  for  Nurses  (under 
the  supervision  of  the  Sifters  of  Charity),  and  the  Montaiui 
Deaconess  hospital  There  is  a  Federal  Und  office  in  the  dty. 
Great  Falls  lies  in  the  midst  of  a  region  exceptionally  rich  in 
minerals— copper,  gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  gypsum,  limestone, 
sapphires  and  bituminous  coal  being  mined  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Much  grain  is  grown  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  dty  is  an  important 
shipping  point  for  wool,  live-stock  and  cereals.  Near  Great 
Falls  the  Missouri  river,  within  7^  m.,  contracts  from  a  width  of 
about  900  to  300  yds.  and  falls  more  than  500  ft.,  the  prindpal 
falls  being  the  Bbck  Eagle  Falls  (50  ft.),  from  which  power  is 
derived  for  the  city's  street  railway  and  lighting  plant,  the 
beautiful  Rainbow  Falls  (48  ft.)  and  Great  Falls  (92  ft.).  Giant 
Spring  Fall,  about  20  ft.  high,  is  a  cascade  formed  by  a  spring 
on  the  bank  of  the  river  near  Rainbow  Falls.  The  river  f unUshcs 
very  valuable  water-power,  partly  utilized  by  large  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  induding  flour  mills,  plaster  mills,  breweries, 
iron  works,  mining  machinery  shops,  and  smelting  and  reduction 
works.  The  Boston  &  Montana  copper  smeller  is  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  world;  it  has  a  chimney  stack  506  ft.  high,  and  in 
X90S  employed  x2oo  men  in  the  smelter  and  2500  in  its  mining 
department.  Great  Falls  ranked  second  (to  Aiuiconda)  annoog 
the  cities  of  the  state  in  the  value  of  the  factory  product  of  1905, 
which  was  1x3,291,979,  showing  an  increase  of  42*4%  since  X900. 
The  city  owns  and  operates  its  water-supply  system.  Great  FaUs 
was  settled  in  X884,  and  was  chartered  as  a  dty  in  x888. 

GREAT  HARWOOD,  an  urban  district  in  the  Darwen  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Lancashire,  England,  4}  m.  N.E.  of  Black- 
burn, on  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  railway.  Pop.  (x9ox) 
x  3,ot  5.  It  is  of  modern  growth,  a  township  of  cotton  operatives, 
with  large  collieries  in  the  vidnity.  An  agricultural  sodety 
is  also  maintained. 

GREATHEAD,  JAMES  HENRY  (1844-1896),  British  engineer, 

was  born  at  Grahamstown,  Cape  Colony,  on  the  6th  of  August 

X844.    He  migrated  to  England  in  1859,  and  in  X864  was  a  pupil 

of  P.  W.  Barlow,  from,  whom  he  became  acquainted  with  the 

shield  system  of  tunnelling  with  which  his  name  is  eapedally 

associated.    Barlow,  indeed,  had  a  strong  bdief  in  the  shield, 

and  was  the  author  of  a  scheme  for  fadlitaling  the  trafliic  of 

London  by  the  construction  of  undeiground  railways  nmning 

in  cast-iron  tubes  constructed  by  its  aid.    To  show  what  the 

method  could  do,  it  was  resolved  to  make  a  subway  under 

the  Thames  near  the  Tower,  but  the  troubles  encountered 

by  Sir  M.  I.  Brunei  in  the  Thames  Tunnd,  where  also  a  shidd  was 

employed,  made  engineers  hesitate  to  undert||ce  the  subway, 

even  though  it  was  of  very  much  smaller  dimensions  (6  ft.  7  iiu 

*  Great  Falls  was  a  pioneer  among  the  cities  of  the  state  in  the 
development  of  a  park  system.  When  the  city  was  first  settled  its 
site  was  a  "  barren  tract  of  sand,  thinly  covered  with  buffalo-grass 
and  patches  of  sage  brush."  The  first  settler.  Paris  Gibson,  of 
Minneapolis,  began  the  planting  of  trees,  which,  though  not  indi- 

E>nous.  grew  wdl.  The  city's  sidewalks  are  bordered  oy  strips  of 
wn,  in  which  there  is  a  row  of  trees,  and  the  dty  maintains  a  urge 
nursery  where  trees  are  grown  for  this  purpose.  A  general  state  law 
(1901)  placing  the  parkmg  of  cities  on  a  sound  financial  basis  is  due 
very,  largely  to  the  impulse  furnished  by  Great  Falls.  See  an  article, 
"  Great  Falls,  the  Pioneer  Park  City  of  Monuna,"  by  C  H.  Forbca- 
Lindsay,  in  the  Craftsman  for  November  1908. 


GREAT  LAKES 


399 


iotemal  diameter)  than  the  tunnel.  At  this  juncture  Greathead 
came  forward  and  offered  to  take  up  the  contract;  and  he 
successfully  carried  it  through  in  1869  without  finding  any 
necessity  to  resort  to  the  use  of  compressed  air,  which  Barlow 
In  1867  had  suggested  might  be  employed  in  water-bearing  strata. 
After  this  he  began  to  practise  on  his  own  account,  and  mainly 
divided  his  time  between  railway  construction  and  taking  out 
patents  for  improvements  in  his  ^ield,  and  for  other  inventions 
such  as  the  "  Ejector  "  fire-hydrant.  Early  in  the  'eighties  he 
began  to  work  hi  conjunction  with  a  company  whose  aim  was 
to  introduce  into  London  from  America  the  Hallidie  system  of 
cable  traction,  and  in  1884  an  act  of  Parliament  was  obtained 
authorizing  what  is  now  the  Qty  &  South  London  Railway — 
a  tube-railway  to  be  worked  by  cables.  This  was  begun  in  1886, 
and  the  tunnels  were  driven  by  means  of  the  Greathead  shield, 
compressed  air  being  used  at  those  points  where  water-bearing 
gravel  was  encountered.  During  the  progress  of  the  works 
electrical  traction  became  so  far  developed  as  to  be  superior 
to  cables;  the  idea  of  using  the  latter  was  therefore  abandoned, 
and  when  the  railway  was  opened  in  1890  it  was  as  an  electrical 
one.  Greathead  was  engaged  in  two  other  important  under- 
ground lines  in  London — the  Waterloo  &  City  and  the  Central 
London.  He  lived  to  see  the  tunnels  of  the  former  completed 
under  the  Thames,  but  the  btter  was  scarcely  begun  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  which  happened  at  Streatham,  in  the  south  of 
London,  on  the  2i8t  of  Okrtober  1896. 

GREAT  LAKES  OP  NORTH  AMERICA.  THE.  The  connected 
string  of  five  fresh-water  inland  seas,  Lakes  Superior,  Michigan, 
Huron,  Erie  and  Ontario,  lying  in  the  interior  of  North  America, 
between  the  Dominion  of  Canada  on  the  north  and  the  United 
States  of  America  on  the  south,  and  forming  the  head-waters  of 
the  St  Lawrence  river  system,  are  collectively  and  generally 
known  as  "  The  Great  Ldces."  From  the  head  of  lake  Superior 
these  lakes  are  navigable  to  Buffalo,  at  the  foot  of  lake  Erie, 
a  distance  of  1023  m.,  for  vessels  having  a  draught  of  20  ft.; 
from  Buffalo  to  Kingston,  191  m.  farther,  the  draught  is  h'mited, 
by  the  depth  in  the  WeUand  canal,  to  14  ft.;  lake  Superior,  the 
largest  and  most  westerly  of  the  lakes,  empties,  through  the  river 
St  Mary,  55  m.  long,  into  lake  Huron.  From  Point  Iroquois, 
which  may  be  considered  the  foot  of  the  lake,  to  Sault  Ste 
Marie,  St  Mary's  Falls,  St  Mary's  Rapids  or  the  Soo,  as  it  is 
Tariously  called,  a  distance  of  14  m.,  there  is  a  single  channel, 
which  has  been  dredged  by  the  United  States  gbvemment,  at 
points  which  required  deepening,  to  give  a  minimum  width 
of  800  ft.  and  a  depth  of  23  ft.  at  mean  stage  water.  Below  the 
Sault,  the  river,  on  its  course  to  lake  Huron,  expands  into  several 
lakes,  and  is  divided  by  islands  into  numerous  contracted 
passages.  There  are  two  navigated  channels;  the  older  one, 
following  the  international  boundary-line  by  way  of  lake  George, 


19}  ft.,  the  height  varying  as  the  lakes  change  in  level.  The 
enormous  growth  of  inter-lake  freight  traffic  has  justified  the 
construction  of  three  separate  locks,  each  overcoming  the  rapids 
by  aaingle  lift—two  side  by  side  on  the  United  States  and  one 
on  the  Canadian  side  of  the  river.  These  locks,  the  largest  in 
the  world,  are  all  open  to  Canadian  and  United  States  vessels 
alike,  and  are  operated  free  from  all  taxes  or  tolls  on  shipping. 
The  Canadian  ship  canal,  opened  to  traffic  on  the  9th  of 
September  1895,  was  constructed  through  St  Mary  Island,  on 
the  north  side  of  the  rapids,  by  the  Canadian  government,  at  a 
cost  of  $3,684,227,  to  facilitate  traffic  and  to  secure  to  Canadian 
vessels  an  entrance  to  lake  Superior  without  entering  United 
States  territory.  The  canal  is  5967  ft.  long  between  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  entrance  piers,  has  one  lock  900  ft.  long  and 
60  ft.  wide,  with  a  depth  on  the  sills  at  the  lowest  known  water- 
level  of  20}  ft.  The  approaches  to  the  canal  are  dredged  to 
x8  ft.  deep,  and  are  well  buoyed  and  lighted.  On  the  United 
States  side  of  the  river  the  length  of  the  canal  is  1}  m.,  the 
channel  outside  the  locks  having  a  width  varying  from  xo8  to 
600  ft.  and  depth  of  25  ft.  The  locks  of  1855  were  closed  in  1886, 
to  give  place  to  the  Poe  lock.  The  Wcitzel  lock,  opened  to 
navigation  on  the  xst  of  September  x88z,  was  built  south  of  the 
old  locks,  the  approach  being  through  the  old  canal.  Its  chamber 
is  51^  ft.  long  between  lock  gates,  and  80  ft.  wide,  narrowing 
to  60  ft.  at  the  gates.  The  length  of  the  masonry  walls  is  717  ft., 
height  39)  ft.,  with  17  ft.  over  mitre  sills  at  mean  stage  of  water. 
The  Poe  lock,  built  because  the  Weitzel  lock,  Urge  and  fully 
equipped  as  it  is,  was  insufficient  for  the  rapidly  growing  traffic, 
was  opened  on  the  3rd  of  August  1 896.  Its  length  between  gates 
is  800  ft.;  width  100  ft.;  length  of  masonry  walls  xxoo  ft.; 
height  43)  to  45  ft.,  with  32  ft.  on  the  mitre  sill  at  mean  stage. 

The  expenditure  by  the  United  States  government  on  the 
canal,  with  its  several  locks,  and  on  improving  the  channel 
through  the  river,  aggregated  fourteen  million  dollars  up  to  the 
end  of  Z906.'  Plans  were  prepared  in  X907  for  a  third  United 
States  lock  with  a  separate  canal  approach. 

The  canals  are  closed  eVery  winter,  the  average  date  of  opening 
up  to  1893  being  the  xst  of  May,  and  of  closing  the  xst  of 
December.  The  pressure  of  business  since  that  time,  aided 
possibly  by  some  slight  climatic  modification,  has  extended 
the  season,  so  that  the  average  date  of  opening  is  now  ten  days 
earlier  and  of  closing  twelve  days  later.  The  earliest  opening 
was  in  X902  on  the  xst  of  April,  and  the  latest  closing  in  1904  on 
the  2oth  of  December. 

The  table  below  gives  the  average  yearly  commerce  for  periods 
of  five  years,  and  serves  to  show  the  rapid  increase  in  freight  growth. 

Around  the  canals  have  grown  up  two  thriving  towns,  one 
on  the  Michigan,  the  other  on  the  Ontario  nde  of  the  river,  with 
manufactories  driven  by  water-po«;ep  derived  from  the  Sault. 


StaUmenl  of  ike  commerc*  through  tho  several  Sault  Ste  Marie  canals,  averaged  for  every  five  years.* 


ages. 


Registered 
Tonnage. 


Pasaen- 
gen. 


Coal. 
Net  Tons. 


Flour. 
Barrels. 


Wheat. 
Bushels. 


Other 

Grains. 

Bushels. 


General 
Merchan 

diie. 
Net  Tons. 


Salt. 
Barrels. 


Iron  Ore. 
Net  Tons. 


Lumber 
M.ft. 
B.M. 


Total 

Freight. 

Net  Tons. 


1880-1884 
1 885-1 889 
1890-1894 
1895-1899 
1900-1904 
1906  akme 


387 

4^57 
7.908 

11.965 
18,352 

19474 
22,155 


192,207 

2,267,166 

4,901,105 

Q.912.589 

lM5>447 

26.199.795 
41.098,324 


6,206 
34.607 

29434 
24,609 
40.289 
54.093 
63.033 


4,672 

463431 

1.398.441 

2,678,805 

3,270.842 

5457.019 
8.739.630 


19.555 

681,726 

1,838,325 

5,764,766 

8.319.699 
7,021.839 

6495.350 


None. 

§,435.601 
18438,085 

34.875.971 
57,227,269 
56,269,265 

84.27 1,35« 


936446 
1,213.815 
1,738.706 

23.349.134 
26,760,533 

54.343.155 


81.966 

74447 

87.540 

164426 

646.277 

1.134.851 


1,248 
107,225 
175.725 
231,178 
262,156 
407.263 
468,162 


27,206 

867,999 
2497403 

4.939.909 
10.728,075 
20.020487 
35457.<H2 


320 

79.144 
197.605 
510482 
832,968 

999.944 
900,631 


55.797 
2,184.731 

5441,297 
10.627,349 
19.354.974 
31.245.565 
51,751,080 


has  a  width  of  150  to  300  ft.,  and  a  depth  of  17  ft.;  it  is  buoyed 
but  not  lighted,  and  is  not  capable  of  navigation  by  modern 
large  freighters;  the  other,  some  X2  m.  shorter,  an  artificial 
channel  dredged  by  the  United  States  government  in  their  own 
territory,  has  a  minimum  width  of  300  ft.  and  depth  of  20  ft. 
It  is  elaborately  lighted  throughout  its  length.  A  third  channel, 
west  of  an  the  islands,  was  designed  for  steamers  bound  down, 
the  older  channel  being  reserved  for  upbound  boats. 

Between  lake  Superior  and  lake  Huron  there  is  a  fall  of  20  ft. 
^  whkh  the  Sault,  in  a  distance  of  \  m.,  absorbs  from  x8  to 


The  outlet  of  lake  Michigan,  the  only  lake  of  the  series  lying 
wholly  in  United  States  territory,  is  at  the  Strait  of  Mackinac, 
near  the  point  where  the  river  St  Mary  reaches  lake  Huron. 
With  lake  Michigan  are  connected  the  Chicago  Sanitary  and 
Ship  canal,  the  Illinois  and  Michigan,  and  the  Illinois  and  Missis- 
sippi canals,  for  which  see  Illinois.   With  lake  Huron  is  always 

*  Statistical  report  of  lake  commerce  passing  through  canals.  Col. 
Chas.  E.  L.  B.  Davis,  U.S.A.,  engineer  in  charge,  1907. 

'  Statistical  report  of  lake  commerce  passing  through  canalSt 
published  annually  by  the  U.S.  ei^neer  officer  in  charge. 

'  The  first  five  years  of  operation. 


400 


GREAT  LAKES 


included  Georgian  Bay  as  well  as  the  channel  north  of  Manitoulin 
Island.  As  it  is  principally  navigated  as  a  connecting  waterway 
between  lakes  Superior  and  Michigan  and  lake  Erie  it  has  no 
notable  harbours  on  it.  It  empties  into  lake  Erie  through  the 
river  St  Clair,  lake  St  Clair  and  the  river  Detroit.  On  these  con- 
necting waters  are  several  important  manufacturing  and  shipping 
towns,  and  through  this  chain  passes  nearly  all  the  traffic  of  the 
lakes,  both  that  to  and  from  lake  Michigan  ports,  and  also  that  of 
lake  Superior.  The  tonnage  of  a  single  short  season  of  navigation 
exceeds  in  the  aggregate  60,000,000  tons.  Extensive  dredging 
and  embankment  works  have  been  carried  on  by  the  United 
States  government  in  lake  St  Clair  and  the  river  Detroit,  and  a 
2o*ft.  channel  now  exists,  which  is  being  constantly  improved. 
Lake  St  Clair  is  nearly  circular,  25  m.  in  diameter,  with  the  north- 
east quadrant  filled  by  the  delta  of  the  river  St  Clair.  It  has  a 
very  flat  bottom  with  a  general  depth  of  only  ^i  ft.,  shoaling  very 
gradually,  usually  to  reed  beds  that  line  the  low  swampy  aJbores. 
To  enter  the  lake  from  river  St  Clair  two  channels  have  been 
provided,  with  retaining  walls  of  cribwork,  one  for  upward,  the 
other  for  downward  bound  vessels.  Much  dredging  has  also  been 
necessary  at  the  outlet  of  the  lake  into  river  Detroit.  A  critical 
point  in  that  river  is  at  Limekiln  crossing,  a  cut  dredged  through 
limestone  rock  above  the  Canadian  town  of  Amberstburg.  The 
normal  depth  here  before  improvement  was  X2i-i5  ft.;  by  a 
project  of  1902  a  channel  600  ft.  wide  and  21  ft.  deep  was  planned; 
there  are  separate  channels  for  up-  and  down-bound  vessels.  To 
prevent  vessels  from  crowding  together  in  the  cut,  the  Canadian 
government  maintains  a  patrol  service  here,  while  the  United 
States  government  maintains  a  similar  patrol  in  the  St  Mary 
channel. 

The  Grand  Trunk  railway  opened  in  X89X  a  single  track 
tunnel  under  the  river  St  Clair,  from  Samia  to  Port  Huron. 
It  is  6026  ft.  long,  a  cylinder  20  ft.  in  diameter,  lined  with 
cast  iron  in  flanged  sections.  A  second  tunnel  was  undertaken 
between  Detroit  and  Windsor,  under  the  river  Detroit. 

From  Buffalo,  at  the  foot  of  lake  Erie,  the  river  Niagara  runs 
northwards  36  m.  into  lake  Ontario.  To  overcome  the  difference 
of  327  ft.  in  level  between  lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  the  Welland 
canal,  accommodating  vessels  of  255  ft.  in  length,  with  a  draught 
of  14  ft.,  was  built,  and  is  maintained  by  Canada.  The  Murray 
canal  extends  from  Presqu'ile  Bay,  on  the  north  shore  of  lake 
Ontario,  a  distance  of  6)  m.,  to  the  headquarters  of  the  Bay  of 
Quinte.  Trent  canal  is  a  term  applied  to  a  series  of  water 
stretches  in  the  interior  of  Ontario  which  are  ultimately  designed 
to  connect  lake  Huron  and  lake  Ontario.  At  Peterboro  a 
hydraulic  balance-lock  with  a  lift  of  65  ft.,  140  ft.  in  length  and 
33  ft.  clear  in  width,  allowing  a  draught  of  8  ft.,  has  been  con- 
structed. The  ordinary  locks  are  134  by  33  ft.  with  a  draught 
of  6  ft.  When  the  whole  route  of  200  m.  is  completed,  there  will 
not  be  more  than  15  m.  of  actual  canal,  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  waterway  being  through  lakes  and  rivers.  For  the  Erie 
canal,  between  that  lake  and  the  Hudson  river,  see  Erie  and 
New  York. 

The  population  of  the  states  and  provinces  bordering  on  the 
Great  Lakes  is  estimated  to  be  over  3  5,000,00a  In  Pennsylvania 
and  Ohio,  south  of  lake  Erie,  there  are  large  coal-fields.  Sur- 
rounding lake  Michigan  and  west  of  lake  Superior  are  vast 
grain-growing  plains,  and  the  prairies  of  the  Canadian  north- 
west are  rapidly  increasing  the  area  and  quantity  of  wheat 
grown;  while  both  north  and  south  of  lake  Superior  are  the 
most  extensive  iron  mines  in  the  world,  from  which  35  million 
tons  of  ore  were  shipped  in  1906.  The  natural  highway  for  the 
shipment  of  all  these  products  is  the  Great  Lakes,  and  over 
them  coal  is  distributed  westwards  and  grain  and  iron  ore  are 
concentrated  eastwards.  The  great  quantity  Of  coarse  freights, 
that  could  only  be  profitably  carried  long  distances  by  water, 
has  revolutionized  the  type  of  vessel  used  for  its  transportation, 
making  large  steamers  imperative,  consolidating  interests  and 
cheapening  methods.  It  is  usual  for  the  vessels  in  the  grain 
trade  and  in  the  iron-ore  trade  to  make  their  up  trip!  empty; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  admirable  facilities  provided  at 
terminal  points,  they  make  very  fjsst  time,  and  carry  freight  very 


cheaply.  The  cost  of  freight  per  ton-mile  fell  from  237100  cent 
in  Z887  to  8/xoo  cent  in  1898;  since  then  the  rate  has  aiigkdy 
risen,  but  keeps  well  below  i/io  cent  per  ton-mile. 

The  traffic  on  the  lakes  may  be  divided  into  three  classes, 
passenger,  package  freight  and  bulk  freight.  Of  passenger 
boats  the  largest  are  380  ft.  long  by  44  ft.  beam,  having  a 
speed  of  over  20  m.  an  hour,  making  the  round  trip  between 
Buffalo  and  Chicago  x8oo  m.,  or  Buffalo  and  Duluth  2000  m., 
every  week.  They  carry  no  freight.  The  Canadian  Pacific 
railway  runs  a  line  of  fine  Tyne-built  passenger  and  freight 
steamers  between  Owen  Sound  and  Fort  WiUUm,  and  these 
two  lines  equal  in  accommodation  transatlantic  passenger 
steamers.  On  lake  Michigan  many  fine  passenger  boats  run  out 
of  Chicago,  and  on  lake  Ontario  there  are  sevml  large  and  fast 
Canadian  steamers  on  routes  radiating  from  Toronto.  The 
package  freight  business,  that  is,  the  transportation  ot  goods 
in  enclosed  parcels,  is  principally  local;  all  the  through  business 
of  this  description  is  controlled  by  lines  run  by  the  great  trunk 
railways,  and  is  done  in  boats  limited  in  beam  to  50  ft.  to  admit 
them  through  bridges  over  the  rivers  at  Chicago  and  Buffalo. 
By  far  the  greatest  number  of  vessels  on  the  lakes  are  bulk 
freighters,  and  the  conditions  of  the  service  have  devdopcd  a 
special  type  of  vesseL  Originally  sailing  vesseb  were  largely 
used,  but  these  have  practically  disappeared,  giving  place  to 
steamers,  which  have  grown  steadily  in  size  with  every  increase 
in  available  draught.  In  1894  there  wai  no  vessel  on  the  lakes 
with  a  capacity  of  over  5000  tons;  in  1906  there  were  254  vessds 
of  a  greater  capacity,  X2  of  them  carrying  over  x  2,000  tons  each. 
For  a  few  years  following  X890  many  large  barges  were  built, 
carrying  up  to  8000  tons  each,  intended  to  be  towed  by  a 
steamer.  It  was  found,  however,  that  the  time  lost  by  one  boat 
of  the  pair  having  to  wait  for  the  other  made  the  plan  unprofit- 
able and  no  more  were  built.  Following  1888  some  40  whale- 
back  steamers  and  barges,  having  oval  cross-sections  .without 
frames  or  decks,  were  built,  but  experience  failed  to  demonstrate 
any  advantage  in  the  type,  and  their  construction  has  ceased. 
The  modem  bulk  freighter  is  a  vessel  600  ft.  long,  $8  ft.  beam, 
capable  of  carrying  X4,ooo  tons  on  20  fL  draught,  built  with  a 
midship  section  practically  rectangular,  the  coefficient  frequently 
as  high  as  '98,  with  about  two-thirds  of  the  entire  length 
absolutely  straight,  giving  a  block  coefficient  up  to  -87.  The 
triple-expansion  machinery  and  boilers,  designed  to  drive  the 
boat  at  a  speed  of  X2  m.  an  hour,  are  in  the  extreme  stem,  and 
the  pilot  house  and  quarters  in  the  extreme  bow,  leaving  all 
the  cargo  space  together.  Hatches  are  spaced  at  multiples 
of  X2  ft.  throughout  the  length  and  are  made  as  wide  as  possible 
athwartships  to  facilitate  loading  and  unloading.  The  vessels 
are  built  on  girder  frames  and  fitted  with  double  bottoms  for 
strength  and  water  ballast.  This  type  of  vessel  can  be  loaded 
in  a  few  minutes,  and  unloaded  by  self-filling  grab  buckets  up  to 
ten  tons  capacity,  worked  hydraulically,  in  six  or  eight  hours. 
The  bulk  freight  generally  follows  certain  well-defined  routes; 
iron  ore  is  shipped  east  from  ports  on  both  sides  of  lake  Superior 
and  on  the  west  side  of  bke  Michigan  to  rail  shipping  points 
on  the  south  shore  of  bke  Erie.  Wheat  and  other  grains  from 
Duluth  find  their  way  to  Buffalo,  as  do  wheat,  com  (maize) 
and  other  grains  from  Chicago.  Wheat  from  the  Canadian 
north-west  is  distributed  from  -Fort  William  and  Port  Arthur 
to  railway  terminals  on  Georgian  Bay,  to  Buffald,  and  to  J^cat 
Colborne  for  trans-shipment  to  canal  barges  for  Montreal, 
and  coal  is  distributed  from  lake  Erie  to  all  western  points.  Tbe 
large  shipping  trade  is  assisted  by  both  governments  by  a  s)rstem 
of  aids  to  navigation  that  mark  every  channel  and  danger. 
There  are  also  life-saving  stations  at  all  dangerous  points. 

The  Great  Lakes  never  freeze  over  completely,  but  the  harbours 
and  often  the  connecting  rivers  are  dosed  by  ice.  The  navigable 
season  at  the  Sault  is  about  7I  months;  in  lake  Erie  it  is 
somewhat  longer.  The  season  of  xuivigation  has  been  slightly 
lengthened  since  X905,  by  using  powerful  tugs  as  ice<br^ers 
in  the  spring  and  autumn,  the  Canadian  government  undertaking 
the  service  at  Canadian  terminal  ports,  chiefly  at  Fort  William 
and  Port  Arthur,  the  moU  northerly  j>orts,  where  the  season 


GREAT  MOTHER  OF  THE  GODS 


401 


k  aatunlly  sboitest,  and  the  Lake  Carriera'  Association,  a 
federation  of  the  freighting  steamship  owners,  acting  in  the  river 
St  Mary.  Car  ferries  run  through  the  winter  across  lake  Michigan 
and  the  Strait  of  Mackinac,  across  the  rivers  St  Clair  and  Detroit, 
and  across  the  middle  of  lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.  The  largest 
of  these  steamers  is  350  ft.  long  by  56  ft.  wide,  draught  14  ft., 
horse  power  3500,  speed  13  knots.  She  carries  on  four  tracks  30 
freight  cars,  with  1350  tonsof  freight.  Certain  passenger  steamers 
run  on  lake  Michigan,  from  Chicago  north,  all  the  winter. 

The  level  of  the  lakes  varies  gradually,  and  is  affected  by  the 
general  character  of  the  season,  and  not  by  individual  rainifalls. 
The  variations  of  level  of  the  several  lakes  do  not  necessarily 
sjmchronize.  There  is  an  annual  fluctuation  of  about  i  ft.  in 
the  upper  lakes,  and  in  some  seasons  over  a  ft.  in  the  lower 
lakes;  the  lowest  point  being  at  the  end  of  winter  and  the  highest 
in  midsummer.  In  lake  Michigan  the  level  has  ranged  from  a 
maximum  in  the  years  1859,  1876  and  1886,  to  a  minimum 
nearly  5  ft.  lower  in  1896.  In  lake  Ontario  there  is  a  range  of 
Sl  ft.  between  the  masdmum  of  May  1870  and  the  minimum  of 
November  1895.  In  consequence  of  the  shallowness  of  lake  Erie, 
iu  levd  is  seriously  disturbed  by  a  persistent  storm;  a  westerly 
gale  lowers  the  water  at  iU  upper  end  exceptionally  as  much 
as  7  ft.,,  seriously  interfering  with  the  navigation  of  the  river 
Detroit,  while  an  easterly  gale  produces  a  similar  effect  at  Buffalo. 
(For  physiographical  detaib  see  articles  on  the  several  kkes, 
and  Umitid  States.) 

There  is  geological  evidence  to  show  that  the  whole  basin  of 
the  lakes  has  in  recent  geological  times  gradually  changed  in 
level,  rising  to  the  north  and  subsiding  southwards;  and  it  is 
claimed  that  the  movement  is  still  in  gradual  progress,  the  rate 
assigned  being  '42  ft.  per  100  m.  per  century.  The  maintenance 
of  the  level  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  a  matter  of  great  importance 
to  the  large  freight  boats,  which  always  load  to  the  limit  of  depth 
at  critical  points  in  the  dredged  channels  or  in  the  harbours. 
Fears  have  been  entertained  that  the  water  power  canals  at 
Sault  Ste  Marie,  the  drainage  canal  at  Chicago  and  the  dredged 
channel  in  the  river  Detroit  will  permanently  lower  the  levels 
respectively  of  lake  Superior  and  of  the  Michigan-Huron-Erie 
group.  An  international  deep-waterway  commission  exists 
for  the  consideration  of  this  question,  and  army  engineers 
appointed  by  the  United  States  government  have  worked  on  the 
problem.'  Wing  dams  in  the  rivers  St  Mary  and  Niagara,  to 
retard  the  discharges,  have  been  proposed  as  remedial  measures. 
The  Great  Lakes  are  practicslly  tidcless,  though  some  observers 
claim  to  find  true  tidal  pulsations,  said  to  amount  to  3I  in.  at 
spring  tide  at  Chicago.  Secondary  undulations  of  a  few  minutes 
in  period,  ranging  from  2  to  4  in.,  are  well  marked. 

The  Great  Lakes  are  well  stocked  with  fish  of  commercial 
value.  These  are  largely  gathered  from  the  fishermen  by 
steam  tenders,  and  taken  fresh  or  in  frozen  condition  to  railway 
distributing  points.  In  lakes  Superior  and  Huron  salmon-trout 
{Sdvdinut  namaycush,  Walb)  are  commercially  most  important. 
They  ordinarily  range  from  10  to  50  lb  in  weight,  and  are  often 
larger.  In  Georgian  Bay  the  catches  of  whitefish  (Caregonus 
clufieifcrmis,  Mitchill)  are  enormous.  In  lake  Erie  whitefish, 
lesser  whitefish,  erroneously  called  lake-herring  (C.  arttdif  Le 
Sueur),  and  sturgeon  {Acipenser  ruMcundus,  Le  Sueur)  are  the 
moat  common.  There  is  good  angling  at  numerous  points  on  the 
lakes  and  their  feeders.  The  river  Nipigon,  on  the  north  shore 
of  lake  Superior,  is  famous  as  a  stream  abounding  in  speckled 
trout  {Saitdinus  fontinalis,  Mitchill)  of  unusual  size.  Black 
basa  {MicTopUnu)  are  found  from  Georgian  Bay  to  Montreal,  and 
the  maskinonge  {Esox  nokUior,  Le  Sueur),  plentiful  in  the  same 
waien,  it  a  very  game  fish  that  often  attains  a  weight  of  70  lb. 

BtBLioCBAFHY.— E.  Channtng  and  M.  F.  Lansing.  Story  of  the 
Grmt  Lakes  (New  York.  1909),  for  an  account  of  the  lalos  in  history; 
and  for  shipping,  ftc..  J.  O.  Curwood,  The  Great  Lakes  (New  Yorlc, 
1909);  U.S.  Hydfegrapkic  effice  fmhlicatien.  No  108.  "SaUing 
directkms  for  the  Great  Lakes,"  Navy  Department  (Washington. 
1901,  aeoq.):  BuUetin  No.  tj,  "Survey  of  Northern  and  North- 
teni  Lakes,"  Corps  of  Engineere,  U.S.  War  Department.  U.S. 


>  Report  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.S.  Army,  in  Report  of  War 
Department,  1^5.  1898.  p.  3776. 

xa.  7* 


I^ke  Survey  Office  (Detroit,   Mich,   1907);  Anmuai  reportt  of 
Canadian  Department  of  Marine  and  Fiskeries  (Ottewa,  iSM  teqq.f. 

(W.P.A) 

GREAT  MOTHER  OP  THE  OOU,  the  andent  Oriental-Greek- 
Roman  deity  commonly  known  as  Cybele  (f .«.)  in  Greek  and 
Latin  literature  from  the  time  of  Pindar.  She  was  also  known 
under  many  other  names,  some  of  which  were  derived  from 
famous  places  of  worship:  as  Dindymene  from  Mt.  Dindymon, 
Mater  Idaea  from  Mt.  Ida,  Sipylene  from  Mt.  Sipylus,  Agdistis 
from  Mt.  Agdistis  or  Agdus,  Mater  Phrygia  from  the  greatest 
stronghold  of  her  cult;  while  others  were  reflections  of  her 
character  as  a  great  nature  goddess:  e.g.  Mountain  Mother, 
Great  Mother  of  the  Gods,  Mother  of  all  Gods  and  all  Men. 
As  the  great  Mother  deity  whose  worship  extended  throughout 
Asia  Minor  she  was  known  as  Ma  or  Ammas.  Cybele  is  her 
favourite  name  in  ancient  and  modern  literature,  while  Great 
Mother  of  the  Gods,  or  Great  Idaean  Mother  of  the  C»ods  {Mater 
Deum  Magna,  Mater  Deum  Magna  Idaea),  the  moat  frequently 
recurring  epigraphical  title,  was  her  ordinary  official  designation. 

The  legends  agree  in  locating  the  rise  of  the  worship  of  the 
Great  Mother  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  region  of  hsosely  defined 
geographical  limits  which  comprised  the  Phrygian  empire  of 
prehistoric  times,  and  was  more  extensive  than  the  Roman 
province  of  Phrygia  (Diod.  Sic.  iii.  58;  Pans.  vii.  17;  Arnob. 
V.  s;  Firm.  Mat.  De  error.,  3;  Ovid,  Fasti,  iv.  223  ff.;  Sallust. 
Phil.  De  diis  et  mundo,  4;  Jul.  Or.  v.  165  ff.).  Her  best-known 
early  seats  of  worship  were  Mt.  Ida,  Mt.  Sipylus,  Cyzicus,  Sardis 
and  Pessinus,  the  hist-named  city,  in  Galatia  near  the  borderf 
of  Roman  Phrygia,  finally  becoming  the  strongest  centre  of 
the  cult.  She  was  known  to  the  Romans  and  Greeks  as  essenti- 
ally Phrygian,  and  all  Phrygia  was  spoken  of  as  sacred  to  her 
(Schol.  Apollon.  Rhod.  Argonautica,  L  X126).  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  Phrygian  race,  which  invaded  Asia  Minor 
from  the  nprth  in  the  9th  century  B.C.,  found  a  great  nature 
goddess  already  universally  worshipped  there,  and  blended  her 
with  a  deity  of  their  own.  The  Asiatic-Phrygian  worship  thus 
evolved  was  further  modified  by  contact  with  the  Syrians  and 
Phoenicians,  so  that  it  acquired  strong  Semitic  characteristics. 
The  Great  Mother  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  was  thus 
mer^y  the  Phrygian  form  of  the  nature  deity  of  all  Asia  Minor. 

From  Asia  Minor  the  adt  of  the  Great  Mother  spread  first 
to  Greek  territory.  It  found  its  way  into  Thrace  at  an  early 
date,  was  known  in  Bocolia  by  Pindar  in  the  6th  century,  and 
entered  Attica  near  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century  (Grant 
Showerman,  Tke  Great  Mother  of  the  Cods,  BuUetin  of  the  Univer' 
sity  of  Wisconsin,  No.  43,  Madison,  1901).  At  Peiraeus,  where 
it  probably  arrived  by  way  of  the  Aegean  islands,  it  existed 
privately  in  a  fully  developed  state,  that  is,  accompanied  by  the 
worship  of  Attis,  at  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century,  and  publicly 
two  centuries  later  (D.  Comparetti,  Annates,  x86a,  pp.  23  fl.). 
The  Greeks  from  the  first  saw  in  the  Great  Mother  a  resemblance 
to  their  own  Rhea,  and  finally  identified  the  two  completely, 
though  the  Asiatic  peculiarities  of  the  cult  were  never  universally 
popular  with  them  (Showerman,  p.  294).  In  her  less  Asiatic 
aspect,  i.e.  without  Attis,  she  was  sometimes  identified  with 
Gala  and  Demeter.  It  was  in  this  phase  that  she  was  worshipped 
in  the  Metrodn  at  Athens.  In  reality,  the  Mother  Goddns 
appears  under  three  aspects:  Rhea,  the  Homeric  and  Heaiodic 
goddess  of  Cretan  origin;  the  Phrygian  Mother,  with  Attis; 
and  the  Greek  Great  Mother,  a  modified  form  of  the  Phrygian 
Mother,  to  be  explained  as  the  original  goddess  of  the  Phrygians 
of  Europe,  communicated  to  the  Greek  stock  before  the  Phrygian 
invasion  of  Asia  Minor  and  consequent  mingling  with  Asiatic 
stocks  (cf.  Showerman,  p.  252). 

In  204  B.C.,  in  obedience  to  the  Sibylline  prophecy  which  said 
that  whenever  an  enemy  from  abroad  should  makt  War  on  Italy 
he  could  be  expelled  and  conquered  if  the  Idaean  Mother  were 
brought  to  Rome  from  Pessinus,  the  adt  of  the  Great  Mother, 
together  with  her  sacred  symbol,  a  small  meteoric  stone  reputed 
to  have  fallen  from  the  heavens,  was  transferred  to  Rome  and 
established  in  a  temple  on  the  Palatine  (Livy  xxix.  10-14). 
Her  identification  by  the  Romans  with  Mala,  Ops,  Rhea,  Tellua 


402 


GREAT  MOTHER  OF  THE  GODS 


and  Ccrct  contributed  to  the  establishment  of  her  worship  on  a 
firm  footing.  By  the  end  of  the  Republic  it  had  attained  promin- 
ence, and  under  the  Empire  it  became  one  of  the  three  most 
important  cults  in  the  Roman  world,  the  other  two  being  those 
of  Mithras  and  Isis.  Epigraphic  and  numismatic  evidence 
prove  it  to  have  penetrated^  from  Rome  as  a  centre  to  the 
remotest  provinces  (Showerman,  pp.  391-293).  During  the  brief 
revival  of  paganism  under  Eugenius  in  a.d.  394,  occurred  the 
last  appearance  of  thi  ailt  in  history.  Besides  the  temple  on 
the  Palatine,  there  existed  minor  shrines  of  the  Great  Mother  near 
the  present  church  of  St  Peter,  on  the  Sacra  Via  on  the  north 
slope  of  the  Palatine,  near  the  junction  of  the  Almo  and  the 
Tiber,  south  of  the  city  {ibid  3x1-314). 

In  all  her  aspects,  Roman,  Grnk  and  Oriental,  the  Great 
Mother  was  characterised  by  essentially  the  same  qualities. 
Most  prominent  among  them  was  her  universal  motherhood. 
She  was  the  great  parent  of  gods  and  men,  as  well  as  of  the  lower 
orders  of  creation.  "  The  winds,  the  sea,  the  earth  and  the 
snowy  seat  of  Olympus  are  hers,  and  when  from  her  mountains 
she  ascends  into  the  great  heavens,  the  son  of  Cronus  himself 
gives  way  before  her  "  (Apollon.  Rhod.  Argonautica,  i.  X098). 
She  was  known  as  the  All-begetter,  the  AU-nourisher,  the  Mother 
of  all  the  Blest.  She  was  the  great,  fruitful,  kindly  earth  itself. 
Especial  emphasis  was  placed  upon  her  maternity  over  wild 
nature.  She  was  called  the  Mountain  Mother;  her  sanctuaries 
were  almost  invariably  upon  mountains,  and  frequently  in  caves, 
the  name  Cybele  itself  being  by  some  derived  from  the  latter; 
lions  were  her  faithful  companions.  Her  universal  power  over 
the  natural  world  finds  beautiful  expression  in  ApoUonius 
Rhodius,  Argonauticaf  i.  11 40  9.  She  was  also  a  chaste  and 
beautiful  deity.  Her  especial  affinity  with  wild  nature  was 
manifested  by  the  orgiastic  character  of  her  worship.  Her 
attendants,  the  Corybantes,  were  wild,  half  demonic  beings. 
Her  priests,  the  Gallt,  were  eunuchs  attired  in  female  garb,  with 
long  hair  fragrant  with  ointment.  Together  with  priestesses, 
they  celebrated  her  rites  with  flutes,  horns,  castanets,  cymbals 
and  tambourines,  madly  yelling  and  dancing  until  their  frenzied 
excitement  found  its  culmination  in  self-scourging,  self-laceration 
or  exhaustion.  Self-emasculation  sometimes  accompanied  this 
delirium  of  worship  on  the  part  of  candidates  for  the  priesthood 
(Showerman,  pp.  234-239).  The  AUii  of  Catullus  (Ixiii.)  is  a 
brilliant  treatment  of  such  an  episode. 

Though  her  cult  sometimes  existed  by  itself,  in  its  fully 
developed  state  the  worship  of  the  Great  Mother  was  accom- 
panied by  that  of  Attis  {g.v.).  The  cult  of  Attis  never  existed 
independently.  Like  Adonis  and  Aphrodite,  Baal  and  Astarte, 
&c.,  the  two  formed  a  duality  representing  the  relations  of  Mother 
Nature  to  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  There  is  no  positive  evidence 
to  prove  the  existence  of  the  cult  publicly  in  this  phase  in  Greece 
before  the  2nd  century  B.C.,  nor  in  Rome  before  the  Empire, 
though  it  may  have  existed  in  private  (Showerman, "  Was  Attis 
at  Rome  under  the  Republic  ?"  in  Transactions  of  the  American 
Philological  Association^  vol.  31,  1900,  pp.  46-59;  Cumont, 
s.v.  "Attis,"  De  Ruggiero's  Dizionaric  epigrafica  and  Pauly- 
Wissowa's  Realencyclopadiet  Supplement;  Hepding,  AUis,  seine 
Mythen  und  seine  /Cu//,  Giessen,  1903,  p.  142). 

The  philosophers  of  the  late  Roman  Empire  interpreted  the 
Attis  legend  as  symbolizing  the  relations  of  Mother  Earth  to  her 
children  the  fruits.  Porphyrius  says  that  Attis  signified  the 
flowers  of  spring  time,  and  was  cut  off  in  youth  because  the  flower 
falls  before  the  fruit  (Augustine,  De  civ.  Dei,  vii.  25).  Matemus 
{De  error.  3)  interprets  the  love  of  the  Great  Mother  for  Attis 
as  the  love  of  the  earth  for  her  fruits;  his  emasculation  as  the 
cutting  of  the  fruits;  his  death  as  their  preservation;  and  his 
resurrection  as  the  sowing  of  the  seed  again. 

At  Rome  the  immediate  direction  of  the  cult  of  the  Great 
Mother  devolved  upon  the  high  priest,  Archigallus^  called  Attis, 
a  high  priestess,  Sacerdos  Maxima^  and  its  support  was  derived, 
at  least  in  part,  from  a  popular  contribution,  the  slips.  Besides 
other  priests,  priestesses  and  minor  officials,  such  as  musicians, 
curator,  &c.,  there  were  certain  colleges  connected  with  the 
administration  of  the  cult,  called  canncphori  (reed-bearers)  and 


dendrophori  (branch-bearers).  The  Quindectrnvirs  ezerdaed  a 
general  supervision  over  this  cult,  as  over  all  other  authorized 
cults,  and  it  was,  at  least  originally,  under  the  special  patronage 
of  a  dub  or  sodality  (Showerman,  pp.  269-276) .  Roman  citizens 
were  at  first  forbidden  to  take  part  in  its  ceremonies,  and  the  baa 
was  not  removed  until  the  time  of  the  Empire. 

The  main  public  event  m  the  worship  of  the  Great  Mother  was 
the  annual  festival,  which  took  place  originally  on  the  4th  of 
April,  and  was  followed  on  the  sth  by  the  Megalesia,  games 
instituted  in  her  honour  on  the  introduction  of  the  cult.  Undtt 
the  Empire,  from  Claudius  on,  the  Megalesia  Usted  ax  days, 
April  4-10,  and  the  onginal  one  day  oi  the  religious  festival 
became  an  annual  cycle  of  festivals  extending  from  the  15th 
to  the  27th  of  March,  in  the  following  order  (i)  The  xsth  of 
March,  Canna  intrat—ihe  sacrifice  of  a  six-year-old  bull  in 
behalf  of  the  mountain  fields,  the  high  priest,  a  priestess  and 
the  cannophori  officiating,  the  Ust  named  carrying  reeds  in 
procession  in  commemoration  of  the  exposure  of  the  infant 
Attis  on  the  reedy  banks  of  the  stream  Gallus  in  Phrygia.  (This 
may  have  been  originally  a  phallic  procession.  Cf.  Showerman, 
American  Journal  of  PhUot.  xxvii.  x,  Classical  Journal  \.  4.) 
(2)  The  22nd  of  March,  Arbor  intral — the  bearing  in  procession 
of  the  sacred  pine,  emblem  of  Attis'  self-mutilation,  death  and 
immortality,  to  the  temple  on  the  Palatine,  the  symbol  of  the 
Mother's  cave,  by  the  dendrophori^  a  gild  of  workmen  who  made 
the  Mother,  among  other  deities,  a  patron.  (3)  The  24th  of 
March,  Dies  sanguinis — a  day  of  mourning,  fasting  and  abstin* 
ence,  especially  sexual,  commemorating  the  sorrow  of  the 
Mother  for  Attis,  her  abstinence  from  food  a^d  her  chastity. 
The  frenzied  dance  and  self-laceration  of  the  priests  in  com- 
memoration of  Attis'  deed,  and  the  submission  to  thef  act  of 
consecration  by  candidates  for  the  priesthood,  was  a  q>ecia] 
feature  of  the  day.  The  taurobiJium  Iq.v.)  was  often  performed 
on  this  day,  on  which  probably  took  place  the  initiation  of 
mystics.  (4)  The  25th  of  March,  Hiiaria — one  of  the  great 
festal  days  of  Rome,  celebrated  by  all  the  people.  All  mourning 
was  put  off,  and  good  cheer  reigned  in  token  of  the  return  of  the 
sun  and  spring,  which  was  symbolized  by  the  renewal  of  Attis' 
life.  (5)  The  26th  of  March,  Requieli^-^e^  day  of  rest  and  qtiiet. 
(6)  The  27th  of  March,  Lavalio — the  crowning  ceremony  of  tbe 
cycle.  The  silver  statue  of  the  goddess,  with  the  sacred  meteoric 
stone,  the  Acus^  set  in  its  head,  was  borne  in  gorgeous  procession 
and  bathed  in  the  Almo,  the  remainder  of  the  day  being  given 
up  to  rejoidng  and  entertainment,  especially  dramatic  repre- 
sentation of  the  legend  of  the  deities  of  the  day.  Other  cere- 
monite,  not  necessarily  connected  with  the  annual  festival, 
were  the  taurobolium  (9.9.),  the  sacrifice  of  a  bull,  and  the  crio- 
bidium  {q.v.)t  the  sacrifice  of  a  ram,  th^  latter  being  the  analogue 
of  the  former,  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  giving  Attis  ^;>edal 
recognition.  Hie  baptism  of  blood,  which  was  the  feature  of 
these  ceremonies,  was  regarded  as  purifying  and  regenerating 
(Showerman,  Great  Mother^  pp.  277-284). 

The  Great  Mother  figures  in  the  art  of  all  periods  both  in 
Asia  and  Europe,  but  is  especially  prominent  in  the  art  of  tbe 
Empire.  No  work  of  the  first  class,  however,  was  inH>ired  by 
her.  She  appears  on  coins,  in  painting  and  in  all  forms  of 
sculpture,  usually  with  mural  crown  and  veil,  well  draped,  seated 
on  a  throne,  and  accompa^ed  by  two  lions.  Other  attributes 
which  often  appear  are  the  patera,  tympanum,  cymbab,  sceptre, 
garlands  and  fruits.  Attis  and  his  attributes,  the  pine,  Phrygian 
cap,  pedum,  syrinx  and  torch,  also  appear.  The  Cybde  of 
Formia,  now  at  Copenhagen,  Is  one  of  the  most  famous  repre- 
sentations of  the  goddess.  The  Niobe  of  Mt.  Sipylus  is  rtaUty  tbe 
Mother.  In  literature  she  is  the  subject  of  frequent  mention, 
but  no  work  of  importance,  with  the  exception  of  CatuDus  Ixiii., 
is  due  to  her  inspiration.  Her  importance  in  the  history  of 
religion  is  very  great.  Together  with  Isis  and  Mithras,  she  was  a 
great  enemy,  and  yet  a  great  aid  to  Christianity.  The  gorgeous 
rites  of  her  worship,  its  mystic  doctrine  of  commtmion  with 
the  divine  through  enthusiasm,  its  promise  of  regeneration 
through  baptism  of  blood  in  the  taurobolium,  were  features 
which  attracted  the  masses  of  the  people  and  made  it  a  strong 


GREAT  REBELLION 


403 


rival  of  Christianity;  and  its  resemblance  to  the  new  religion, 

however  superficial,  made  it,  in  spite  of  the  scandalous  practices 

which  grew  up  around  it,  a  stepping-stone  to  Christianity  when 

the  tide  set  in  against  paganism. 

AvTHORiTiKS.— Orant  Showerman,  "  The  Great  Mother  of  the 
Gods,"  BtilUiin  ojf  lh»  University  of  Wisconsiu,  No.  43:  PUMogy 
and  LiUroiure  Series,  vol.  L  No.  3  (Madison,  1901};  Hugo  Hepdintr, 
Attis,  seine  Mytken  und  seine  KuU  (Giessen,  1903} ;  Rapp,  Roschers 
AusfuhHickes  Lexicon  der  trieckischen  und  rUmiscken  Mythologie 
s.v«  '*  Kybele  " ;  Drexler.  ibid,  f .«.  "  Meter."  See  Roman  Religion. 
Gkebk  Religion,  Attis,  Cobybantes;  for  the  great  "  Hittite '^ 
portrayal  ci  the  Nature  Goddess  at  Pteria,  see  Ptbria.       (G.  Sn.) 

GRBAT  REBELLION  (1642-52),  a  generic  name  for  the  dvil 
wan  in  England  and  Scotland,  which  began  with  the  raising  of 
King  Charles  I.'s  standard  at  Nottingham  on  the  22nd  of  August 
1642,  and  ended  with  the  surrender  of  Dunottar  Castle  to  the 
Parliament's  troops  in  May  1652.  It  is  usual  to  classify  these 
wars  into  the  First  Civil  War  of  1642-46,  and  the  Second  Civil 
War  of  1648-52.  During  most  of  this  time  another  civil  war 
was  raging  in  Ireland.  Its  incidents  had  little  or  no  connexion 
with  those  of  the  Great  Rebellion,  but  its  results  influenced  the 
struggle  in  England  to  a  considerable  extent . 

1 .  Firsi  Civil  War  {1642-46). — ^It  is  impossible  rightly  to  under- 
stand the  events  of  this  most  national  of  all  En^h  wan  without 
Sonne  knowledge  of  the  motive  forces  on  both  sides.  On  the  side 
of  tbe  king  were  enlisted  the  deep-seated  loyalty  which  was  the 
result  of  two  centuries  of  effective  royal  protection,  the  pure 
cavalier  spirit  foreshadowing  the  courtier  era  of  Charles  11.,  but 
still  strongly  tinged  with  the  old  feudal  indiscipline,  the  militarism 
of  an  expert  soldier  nobility,  well  represented  by  Prince  Rupert, 
and  lastly  a  widespread  distrust  of  extreme  Puritanism,  which 
ai^>eaicd  unreasonable  to  Lord  Falkland  and  other  philosophic 
statesmen  and  intolerable  to  every  other  class  of  Royalists. 
Tbe  loot  of  the  Royal  armies  was  animated  in  the  main  by  the 
first  and  last  of  these  motives;  in  the  eyes  of  the  sturdy  rustics 
who  followed  their  squires  to  the  war  the  enemy  were  rebeb  and 
fanatics.  To  the  cavalry,  which  was  composed  largely  of  the 
higher  social  orders,  the  rebels  were,  in  addition,  bourgeois,  while 
the  soldiers  of  fortune  from  the  German  wars  feh  all  the  regular's 
contempt  for  dtiaen  militia.  Thus  in  the  first  episodes  of  the 
First  Civil  War  moral  superiority  tended  to  be  on  the  side  of  the 
kins-  On  the  other  side,  the  causes  of  the  quarrel  were  primarily 
and  apparently  political,  ultimately  and  really  religious,  and  thus 
the  elements  of  resistance  in  the  Parliament  and  the  nation  were 
at  first  confused,  and,  later,  strong  and  direct.  Democracy, 
moderate  republicanism  and  the  simple  desire  for  constitutional 
guarantees  could  hardly  make  head  of  themselves  against  the 
▼arkyus  forces  of  royalism,  for  the  most  moderate  men  of  either 
party  were  sufficiently  in  sympathy  to  admit  compromise.  But 
the  backbone  of  resistance  was  the  Puritan  element,  and  this 
wa^ng  war  at  first  with  the  rest  on  the  political  issue  soon  (as 
the  Royalists  antidpated)  brought  the  religious  issue  to  the  front. 
The  Presbyterian  system,  even  more  rigid  than  that  of  Laud  and 
the  bishops — whom  no  man  on  either  side  supported  save  Charles 
himself— was  destined  to  be  supplanted  by  the  Independents 
and  their  ideal  of  free  conscience,  but  for  a  generation  before  the 
war  broke  out  it  had  disciplined  and  trained  the  middle  classes  of 
the  nation  (who  furnished  the  bulk  of  the  rebel  infantry,  and  later 
<rf  the  cavalry  also)  to  centre  their  whole  will-power  on  the  attain- 
ment of  their  ideals.  The  ideals  changed  during  the  struggle,  but 
not  the  capacity  for  striving  for  them,  and  the  men  capable  of  the 
effort  finally  came  to  the  front  and  imposed  their  ideab  on  the 
rest  by  the  force  of  their  trained  wills. 

Material  force  was  throughouton  the  side  of  the  Parliamentary 
party.  They  controlled  the  navy,  the  nucleus  of  an  army  which 
was  in  process  of  being  organized  for  the  Irish  war,  and  neariy  all 
tbe  finanrial  resources  of  the  country.  They  had  the  sympathies 
of  most  of  the  large  towns,  where  tbe  trained  bands,  drilled  once  a 
inonth,  (MDvided  cadres  for  new  regiments.  Further,  by  recogniz- 
ing the  inevitable,  they  gained  a  start  in  war  preparations  which 
they  never  lost.  The  earls  of  Warwick,  Essex  and  Manchester 
and  other  nobles  and  gentry  of  their  party  possessed  great  wealth 
and  territorial  influence.    Charles,  on  the  other  hand,  although  he 


could,  by  means  of  the  "  press  "  add  the  lords-heutenant,  raise 
men  without  authority  from  ParUament,  could  not  raise  taxes  to 
support  them,  and  was  dependent  on  the  financial  support  of  his 
chief  adherents,  such  as  the  earls  of  Newcastle  and  Derby.  Both 
parties  raised  men  when  and  where  they  could,  each  claiming  that 
the  law  was  on  its  side — for  England  was  already  a  law-abiding 
nation— and  acting  in  virtue  of  legal  instruments.  These 
were,  on  the  side  of  the  Parliament,  its  own  recent  "  Militia 
Ordinance";  on  that  of  the  king,  the  old-fashioned  "  Commissions 
of  Array."  In  Cornwall  the  Royalist  leader,  Sir  Ralph  Hopton, 
indicted  the  enemy  before  the  grand  jury  of  the  county  as 
disturbers  of  the  peace,  and  had  the  posse  comitatus  called  out  to 
expel  them.  The  k>cal  forces  in  fact  were  everywhere  employed 
by  whichever  side  could,  by  produdng  valid  written  authority, 
induce  them  to  assemble. 

2.  The  Royalist  and  Parliamenlarian  Armies.—Ttas  thread 
of  local  feeling  and  respect  for  the  laws  runs  through  the 
earlier  operations  of  both  sides  almost  irrespective  of  the  main 
principles  at  stake.  Many  a  promising  scheme  failed  because 
of  the  reluctance  of  the  militiamen  to  serve  beyond  the  limits 
of  their  own  county,  and,  as  the  offensive  lay  with  the 
king,  his  cause  naturally  suffered  far  more  therefrom  than 
that  of  the  enemy.  But  the  real  spirit  of  the  struggle  was 
very  different.  Anything  which  tended  to  prolong  the  struggle, 
or  seemed  like  want  of  energy  and  avoidance  of  a  decision,  was 
bitterly  resented  by  the  men  of  both  sides,  who  had  their  hearts 
in  the  quarrel  and  had  not  as  yet  learned  by  the  severe  lesson 
of  Edgehill  that  raw  armies  cannot  bring  wars  to  a  speedy 
issue.  In  France  and  Germany  the  prolongation  of  a  war  meant 
continued  employment  for  the  soldiers,  but  in  England  "  we 
never  encamped  or  entrenched  ...  or  lay  fenced  with  rivers 
or  defiles.  Here  were  no  leaguers  in  the  field,  as  at  the  story  of 
Nuremberg,*  neither  had  our  soldiers  any  tents  or  what  they  call 
heavy  ba^age*  'Twas  the  general  maxim  of  the  war — Where  b 
the  enemy?  Let  us  go  and  fight  them.  Or  ...  if  the  enemy 
was  coming  .  .  .  Why,  what  should  be  done  I  Draw  out  into 
the  fields  and  fight  them."  This  passage  from  the  Memoirs  of  a 
Ca9alier,  ascribed  to  Defoie,  though  not  contemporary  evidence, 
is  an  admirable  summary  of  the  character  of  the  Civil  War.  Even 
when  in  the  end  a  regular  professional  army  is  evolved — exactly 
as  in  the  case  of  Napoleon's  army — the  original  dedsion-compel- 
ling  spirit  permeated  the  whole  organization.  From  the  first  the 
professional  soldiers  of  fortune,  be  their  advice  good  or  bad,  are 
looked  upon  with  suspidon,  and  nearly  all  those  Englishmen  who 
loved  war  for  its  own  sake  were  too  closely  concerned  for  the  wel- 
fare of  their  country  to  attempt  the  methods  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  in  England.  The  formal  organization  of  both  armies  was 
based  on  the  Swedish  model,  which  had  become  the  pattern  of 
Europe  after  the  victories  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  gave  better 
scope  for  the  moral  of  the  individual  than  the  old-fashioned 
Spanish  and  Dutch  formations  in  which  the  man  in  the  ranks  was 
a  highly  finished  automaton. 

3.  Campaign  of  1642. — When  the  king  raised  his  standard  at 
Nottingham  on  the  22nd  of  August  1642.  war  was  already  in  pro- 
gress on  a  small  scale  in  many  districts,  each  side  endeavouring  to 
secure,  or  to  deny  to  the  enemy,  fortified  country-houses,  territory, 
and  above  all  arms  and  money.  Peace  negotiations  went  on  in  the 
midst  of  these  minor  events  until  there  came  from  the  Pariiament 
an  ultimatum  so  aggressive  as  to  fix  the  wariike  purpose  of  the 
still  vacillating  court  at  Nottingham,  and,  in  the  country  at  large, 
to  convert  many  thousands  of  waverers  to  active  Royalism. 
Ere  long  Charles — who  had  hitherto  had  less  than  1500  men — was 
at  the  head  of  an  army  which,  though  very  deficient  in  arms  and 
equipment,  was  not  greatly  inferior  in  numbers  or  enthusiasm  to 
that  of  tbe  Parliament.  The  latter  (20,000  strong  exclusive  of 
detachments)  was  organized  during  July,  August  and  September 
about  London,  and  moved  thence  to  Northampton  under  the 
command  of  Robert,  earl  of  Essex. 

At  this  moment  the  military  situation  was  as  follows.  Lord 
Hertford  in  south  Wales,  Sir  Ralph  Hopton  in  Cornwall,  and  the 

>  GusUvut  Adolphhs  before  the  battle  of  the  Xlte  Veste  (1 
THiaTY  YsAts'  Was). 


404 


GREAT  REBELLION 


young  earl  of  Derby  in  Lancashire,  and  small  parties  in  almost 
every  county  of  the  west  and  the  midlands,  were  in  arms  for  the 
king.  North  of  the  Tees,  the  eail  of  Newcastle,  a  great  territorial 
magnate,  was  raising  troops  and  supplies  for  the  king,  while 
Qi^een  Henrietta  Maria  was  busy  in  Holland  arranging  for  the 
importation  of  war  material  and  money.  In  Yorkshire  opinion 
was  divided,  the  royal  cause  being  strongest  in  York  and  the  North 
Riding,  that  of  the  Parliamentary  party  in  the  clothing  towns 
of  the  West  Riding  and  also  in  the  important  seaport  of  HulL 
The  Yorkshire  gentry  made  an  attempt  to  neutralize  the  countyt 
but  a  local  struggle  soon  began,  and  Newcastle  thereupon 
prepared  to  invade  Yorkshire.  The  whole  of  the  south  and  east 
as  well  as  parts  of  the  midlands  and  the  west  and  the  important 
townsof  Bristol  and  Gloucester  wereon  the  side  of  the  Parliament. 
A  small  Royalist  force  was  compelled  to  evacuate  Oxford  on  the 
xoth  of  September. 

On  the  13th  of  September  the  main  campaign  opened.  The 
king — in  order  to  find  recruits  amongst  his  sympathizers  and 
arms  in  the  armouries  of  the  Derbyshire  and  Staffordshire 
trained  bands,  and  also  to  be  in  touch  with  his  disciplined 
regiments  in  Ireland  by  way  of  Chester — moved  westward  to 
Shrewsbury,  Essex  following  suit  by  marching  from  Northampton 
to  Worcester.  Near  the  last-named  town  a  shaip  cavalry 
engagement  (Powick  Bridge)  took  place  on  the  33rd  between  the 
advanced  cavalry  of  Essex's  army  and  a  force  under  Prince 
Rupert  which  was  engaged  in  protecting  the  retirement  of  the 
Oxford  detachment.  The  result  of  the  fight  was  the  in- 
stantaneous overthrow  of  the  rebel  cavalry,  and  this  gave  the 
Royalist  troopea  a  confidence  in  themselves  and  in  their  brilliant 
leader  which  was  not  destined  to  be  shaken  until  they  met 
Cromwell's  Ironsides.  Rupert  soon  withdrew  to  Shrewsbury, 
where  he  found  many  Royalist  officers  eager  to  attack  Essex's 
new  position  at  Worcester.  But  the  road  to  London  now  lay 
open  and  it  was  decided  to  take  it.  The  intention  was  not  to 
av6id  a  battle,  for  the  Royalist  generals  desired  to  fight  Essex 
before  he  grew  too  strong,  and  the  temper  of  both  sides  made  it 
impossible  to  postpone  the  decision;  in  Clarendon's  words, 
"  it  was  considered  more  counsellable  to  march  towards  London, 
it  being  morally  sure  that  the  earl  of  ^sex  would  put  himself  in 
their  way,"  and  accordingly  the  army  left  Shrewsbury  on  the 
X3th  of  October,  gaining  two  days'  start  of  the  enemy,  and 
moved  south-east  via  Bridgnorth,  Birmingham  and  Kcniiworth. 
This  had  the  desired  effect.  Parliament,  alarmed  for  its  own 
safety,  sent  repeated  orders  to  Essex  to  find  the  king  and  bring 
him  to  battle.  Alarm  gave  place  to  determination  when  it  was 
discovered  that  Charles  was  enlisting  papists  and  seeking  foreign 
aid.  The  militia  of  the  home  counties  was  called  out,  a  second 
army  under  the  earl  of  Warwick  was  formed  round  the  nucleus 
of  the  London  trained  bands,  and  ^sex,  straining  every  nerve 
to  regain  touch  with  the  enemy,  reached  Kineton,  where  he  was 
only  7  m.  from  the  king's  headquarters  at  Edgecote,  on  the  22nd. 

4.  Battle  of  EdgehiU. — Rupert  promptly  reported  the  enemy's 
presence,  and  his  confidence  dominated  the  irresolution  of  the 
king  and  the  caution  of  Lord  Lindsey,  the  nominal  commander- 
in-chief.  Both  sides  had  marched  widely  dispersed  in  order  to 
live,  and  the  rapidity  with  which,  having  the  clearer  purpose, 
the  Royalists  drew  together  helped  considerably  to  neutralize 
Essex's  superior  numbers.  During  the  morning  of  the  23rd  the 
Royalists  formed  in  battle  order  on  the  brow  of  Edgehill  facing 
towards  Kineton.  Essex,  experienced  soldier  as  he  was,  had 
distrusted  his  own  raw  army  too  much  to  force  a  decision 
earlier  in  the  month,  when  the  king  was  weak;  he  now  found 
Charles  in  a  strong  position  with  an  equal  force  to  his  own 
14,000,  and  some  of  his  regiments  were  still  some  miles  distant. 
But  he  advanced  beyond  Kineton,  and  the  enemy  promptly 
left  their  strong  position  and  came  down  to  the  foot  of  the 
hill,  for,  situated  as  they  were,  they  had  cither  to  fight  wherever 
they  could  induce  the  enemy  to  engage,  or  to  starve  in  the 
midst  of  hostile  garrisons.  -  Rupert  was  on  the  right  of  the 
king's  army  with  the  greater  part  of  the  horse.  Lord  Lindsey 
and  Sir  Jacob  Astley  in  the.  centre  with  the  foot.  Lord  Wilmot 
(with  whom  rode  the  earl  of  Forth,  the  principal  milltaiy  adviser 


of  the  king)  with  a  smaller  body  of  cavalry  on  the  left.  In  rear 
of  the  centre  were  the  king  and  a  snudl  reserve.  Essex's  order 
was  similar.  Rupert  charged  as  soon  as  his  wing  was  deployed, 
and  before  the  infantry  of  either  side  was  ready.  Taking  ground 
to  his  right  front  and  then  wheeling  inwards  at  full  wpetd  be 
instantly  rode  down  the  Parliamentary  horse  opposed  to  him. 
Some  infantry  regiments  of  Essex's  left  centre  shared  the  same 
fate  as  their  cavalry.  On  the  other  wing  Forth  and  Wilmot 
likewise  swept  away  all  that  they  could  see  of  the  enemy's 
cavalry,  and  the  undisciplined  Royalists  of  both  wings  pursued 
the  fugitives  in  wild  disorder  up  to  Kineton,  where  they  were 
severely  handled  by  John  Hampden's  infantry  brigade  (which  was 
escorting  the  artillery  and  baggage  of  Essex's  army).  Rupert 
brought  back  only  a  few  rallied  squadrons  to  the  battlefield, 
and  in  the  meantime  affairs  there  had  gone  badly  for  the  king. 
The  right  and  centre  of  the  Parliamentary  foot  (the  left  having 
.been  brought  to  a  halt  by  Rupert's  charge)  advanced  with  great 
resolution,  and  being  at  least  as  ardent  as,  and  m^ch  better  armed 
than,  Lindsey's  men,  engaged  them  fiercely  and  slowly  gained 
ground.  Only  the  best  regiments  on  either  side,  however, 
maintained  their  order,  and  the  decision  of  the  infantry  bat  tie 
was  achieved  mainly  by  a  few  Parliamentary  squadrons.  One 
regiment  of  Essex's  rightwing  onlyhad  been  the  target  of  Wilnoot's 
charge,  the  other  two  had  been  at  the  moment  invisible,  and,  as 
every  Royalist  troop  on  the  ground,  even  the  king's  guards, 
had  joined  in  the  mad  ride  to  Kineton,  these,  Essex's  life>guard, 
and  some  troops  that  had  rallied  from  the  effect  of  Rupert's 
charge — amongst  them  Captain  Oliver  Cromwell's — were  the 
only  cavalry  still  present.  All  these  joined  with  decisive  effect 
in  the  attadc  on  the  left  of  the  royal  infantry.  The  king's  line 
was  steadily  rolled  up  from  left  to  right,  the  Parliamentary 
troopers  capttured  his  guns  and  regiment  after  regiment  bn^e  up. 
Charles  himself  stood  calmly  in  the  thick  of  the  fight,  but  he  had 
not  the  skill  to  direct  it.  The  royal  standard  was  taken  and 
retaken,  Lindsey  and  Sir  Edmund  Vemey,  the  standard-bearer, 
being  killed.  By  the  time  that  Rupert  returned  both  sides  were 
incapable  of  further  effort  and  disillusioned  as  to  the  prospect 
of  ending  the  war  at  a  blow. 

On  the  24th  Essex  retired,  leaving  Charles  to  claim  the  victory 
and  to  reap  its  results.  Banbury  and  Oxford  were  reoccupied 
by  the  Royalists,  and  by  the  28th  Charles  was  marching  down 
the  Thames  valley  on  London.  Negotiations  were  reopened, 
and  a  peace  party  rapidly  formed  itself  in  London  and  West- 
minster. Yet  field  fortifications  sprang  up  around  London, 
and  when  Rupert  stormed  and  sacked  Brentford  on  the  X2th 
of  November  the  trained  bands  moved  out  at  once  and  took  up 
a  position  at  Turnham  Green,  barring  the  king's  advance. 
Hampden,  with  something  of  the  fire  and  energy  of  his  cousin 
Cromwell,  urged  Essex  to  turn  both  flanks  of  the  Royal  army 
via  Acton  and  Kingston,  but  experienced  professional  soldiers 
urged  him  not  to  trust  the  London  men  to  hold  their  ground 
while  the  rest  manoeuvred.  Hampden's  advice  was  undoubtedly 
premature.  A  Sedan  or  Worcester  was  not  within  the  power 
of  the  Parliamentarians  of  1642,  for,  in  Napoleon's  words, "  one 
only  manoeuvres  around  a  fixed  point,"  and  the  city  levies  at 
that  time  were  certainly  not,  vis-d-tis  Rupert's  cavaliy,  a  fixed 
point.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  after  a  slight  cannonade  at  Turnham 
Green  on  the  13th,  Essex's  two-to-onc  numerical  superiority  of 
itself  compelled  the  king  to  retire  to  Reading.  Turnham  Green 
has  justly  been  called  the  Valmy  of  the  English  Civil  War.  Lake 
Valmy,  without  being  a  battle,  it  was  a  victory,  and  the  tide  of 
invasion  came  thus  far,  ebbed,  and  never  returned 

5.  The  WinUr  of  1642-43.-111  the  winter,  while  Essex  lay 
inactive  at  Windsor,  Charles  by  degrees  consolidated  his  portion 
in  the  region  of  Oxford.  The  city  was  fortified  as  a  reduit  for 
the  whole  area,  and  Reading,  Walh'ngford,  Abingdon,  Brill, 
Banbury  and  Marlborough  constituted  a  complete  ddfensive 
ring  which  was  developed  by  the  creation  of  smaller  posts  from 
time  to  time.  In  the  north  and  west,  winter  campaigns  were 
actively  carried  on.  "  It  is  summer  in  Yoricshire,  summer  in 
Devon,  and  cold  winter  at  Windsor,"  said  one  of  Euex's  critics. 
At  the  beginning  of  December  Newcastle  crossed  the  Tecs, 


GREAT  REBELLION 


405 


defeated  Hotham,  the  Parlimentaty  commander  in  tlie  North 
Riding,  then  joining  hands  with  the  hard-preaeed  Royalists  at 
York,  established  himself  between  that  dty  and  Pontefrect. 
Lord  Fairfax  and  his  son  Sir  Thomas,  who  commanded  for  the 
Parliament  in  Yorkshire,  had  to  retire  to  the  district  between 
Hull  and  Selby,  and  Newcastle  was  free  to  turn  his  attention 
to  the  Puritan  "  clothing  towns  "  of  the  West  Ridmg— Leeds, 
Halifax  and  Bradford.  The  townsmen,  however,  showed  a 
determined  front,  the  younger  Fairfax  with  a  picked  body  of 
cavalry  rode  through  Newcastle's  lines  into  the  West  Riding 
to  help  them,  and  about  the  end  of  January  1643  the  earl  gave 
up  the  attempt  to  reduce  the  towns.  He  continued  his  march 
southward,  however,  and  gained  ground  for  the  king  as  far  as 
Newark,  so  as  to  be  in  touch  with  the  Royalists  of  Nottingham- 
shire, Derbyshire  and  Leicestershire  (who,  especially  about 
Newark  and  Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  were  strong  enough  to  neutralize 
the  kcal  forces  of  the  Parliament),  and  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  further  advance  of  the  army  of  the  north  when  the  queen's 
convoy  should  arrive  from  over-seas. 

In  the  west  Sir  Ralph  Hopton  and  his  friends,  having  obtained 
a  true  biU  from  the  grand  jury  against  the  Parliamentary  dis- 
turbers of  the  peace,  placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  county 
militia  and  drove  the  rebels  from  Cornwall,  after  which  they 
raised  a  small  force  for  general  service  and  invaded  Devonshire 
(November  1642).  Subsequently  a  Parliamentary  army  under 
the  eari  of  Stamford  was  withdrawn  from  south  Wales  to  engage 
H(^ton,  who  had  to  retire  into  Cornwall.  There,  however, 
the  Royalist  general  was  free  to  employ  the  militia  again,  and 
thus  reinforced  he  won  a  victory  over  a  part  of  Stamford's  forces 
at  Bradock  Down  near  Liskeard  (January  19, 1643)  and  resumed 
the  offensive.  About  the  same  time  Hertford,  no  longer  opposed 
by  Stamford,  brought  over  the  South  Wales  Royalists  to  Oxford, 
and  the  fortified  area  around  that  place  was  widened  by  the 
capture  of  Cirencester  on  the  2nd  of  February.  Gloucester  and 
Bristol  were  now  the  only  important  garrisons  of  the  Roundheads 
in  the  west.  In  the  midlands,  in  q>ite  of  a  Parliamentary 
victory  won  by  Sir  William  Brereton  at  Nantwich  on  the  28th  of 
January,  the  Royalists  of  Shropshire,  Staffordshire  and  Leicester- 
shire soon  extended  their  influence  through  Ashby-de-la-Zouch 
into  Nottinghamshire  and  joined  hands  with  their  friends  at 
Newark.  Further,  around  Chester  a  new  Royalist  army  was 
being  formed  under  Lord  Byron,  and  all  the  efforts  of  Brereton 
and  of  Sir  John  Cell,  the  leading  supporter  of  the  Parliament  in 
Derbyshire,  were  r^uired  to  hold  their  own,  even  before.  New- 
castle's army  was  added  to  the  list  of  their  enemies.  Lord 
Brooke,  who  commanded  for  the  Parliament  in  Warwickshire 
and  Staffordshire  and  was  looked  on  by  many  as  Essex's  eventual 
Ricceasor,  was  killed  in  besi^ing  Lichfield  cathedral  on  the 
and  of  March,  and,  though  the  cathedral  soon  capitulated,  Cell 
and  Brereton  were  severely  handled  in  the  indecisive  battle  of 
Hopton  Heath  near  Stafford  on  the  xpth  of  March,  and  Prince 
Rupert,  after  an  abortive  raid  on  Bristol  (March  7),  marched 
rapidly  northward,  storming  Birmingham  en  route,  and  recap- 
ttned  Lichfield  cathedral.  He  was,  however,  soon  recalled 
to  Oxford  to  take  part  in  the  main  campaign.  The  position  of 
affairs  for  the  Parliament  was  perhaps  at  its  worst  in  January. 
The  Ro^list  successes  of  November  and  December,  the  ever- 
present  dread  of  foreign  intervention,  and  the  burden  of  new. 
taxation  which  the  Parliament  now  found  itself  compelled  to 
impose-,  disheartened  its  supporters.  Disorders  broke  out  in 
London,  and,  while  the  more  determined  of  the  rebels  began 
thm  early  to  think  of  calling  in  the  military  assistance  of  the 
Scots,  the  majority  were  for  peace  on  any  conditions.  But  soon 
the  position  improved  somewhat;  Stamford  in  the  west  and 
Brereton  and  Cell  in  the  midlands,  though  hard  pressed,  were 
at  any  rate  in  arms  and  undefeated,  Newcastle  had  failed  to 
conquer  the  West  Riding,  and  Sir  William  Waller,  who  had 
cleared  Hampshire  and  Wiltshire  of  "  malignants,"  entered 
Gloucestershire  early  in  March,  destroyed  a  small  Royalist 
force  at  Highnam  (March  24),  and  secured  Bristol  and  Gloucester 
for  the  Parliament.  Finally,  some  of  Charles's  own  intrigues 
opportonc^  coming  to  light,  the  waverers,  seeing  the  impossi- 


bility of  plain  dealing  with  the  court,  rallied  again  to  the  party 
of  resistance,  and  the  series  of  negotiations  adled  1^  the  name 
of  the  Treaty  of  Oxford  dosed  in  April  with  no  more  result  than 
those  which  had  preceded  Edgehill  and  Tumham  Green.  About 
this  time  too,  following  and  improving  upon  the  example  of 
Newcastle  in  the  north,  Parlianiient  ordered  the  formation  of 
the  celebrated  "associations"  or  groups  of  counties  banded 
together  by  mutual  consent  for  defence.  The  most  powerful 
and  best  organised  of  these  was. that  of  the  eastern  counties 
(headquarters  Cambridge),  where  the  danger  of  attack  from  the 
north  was  near  enough  to  induce  great  energy  in  the  preparations 
for  meeting  it,  and  at  the  same  time  too  distant  effectively  to 
interfere  with  these  preparations.  Above  all,  the  Eastern 
Association  was  from  the  first  guided  and  inspired  by  Colonel 
Cromwell. 

6.  The  Plan  of  Campaign,  x64j,—The  king's  plan  of  operations 
for  the  next  campaign,  which  w&s  perhaps  inspired  from  abroad, 
was  more  elaborate  than  the  simple  "point"  of  1642.  The 
king's  army,  based  on  the  fortified  area  around  Oxford,  was 
counted  sufficient  to  use  up  Essex's  forces.  On  either  hand, 
therefore,  in  Yorkshire  and  in  the  west,  the  Royalist  armies 
were  to  fight  their  way  inwards  towards  London,  after  whidr 
all  three  armies,  converging  on  that  place  in  due  season,  were 
to  cut  off  its  supplies  and  its  sea-borne  revenue  and  to  starve 
the  rebellion  into  surrender.  The  condition  of  this  threefold 
advance  was  of  course  that  the  enemy  should  not  be  able  to 
defeat  the  armies  in  detail,  t.e.  that  he  should  be  fixed  and  held 
in  the  Thames  valley;  this  secured,  there  was  no  purely  military 
objection  against  operating  in  separate  armies  from  the  cir- 
cumference towards  the  centre.  It  was  on  the  rock  d  local 
feeling  that  the  king's  plan  came  to  grief.  Even  after  the  arrival 
of  the  queen  and  her  convoy ,  Newcastle  had  to  allow  her  to 
proceed  with  a  small  force,  and  to  remain  behind  with  the  main 
body,  because  of  Lancashire  and  the  West  Riding,  and  above 
all  because  the  port  of  Hull,  in  the  hands  of  the  Fairfaxes, 
constituted  a  menace  that  the  Royalists  of  the  East  Riding 
refused  to  ignore.  Hopton's  advance  too,  undertaken  without 
the  Cornish  levies,  was  checked  in  the  action  of  Sourton  Down 
(Dartmoor)  on  the  25th  of  April,  and  on  the  same  day  Waller 
captured  Hereford.  Essex  had  already  left  Windsor  to  under- 
take the  siege  of  Reading,  the  most  important  point  in  the  circle 
of  fortresses  round  Oxford,  which  after  a  vain  attempt  at  relief 
surrendered  to  him  on  the  26th  of  April.  Thus  the  opening 
operations  were  unfavourable,  not  indeed  so  far  as  to  require 
the  scheme  to  be  abandoned,  but  at  least  delaying  the  develop- 
ment until  the  campaigning  season  was  far  advanced. 

7.  Victories  of  Hopton.-^B}xt  affairs  improved  in  May.  The 
queen's  long-expected  convoy  arrived  at  Woodstock  on  the  X3th. 
The  earl  of  Stamford's  army,  which  had  again  entered  Cornwall, 
was  attacked  in  its  selected  position  at  Stratton  and  practically 
annihilated  by  Hopton  (May  x6).  This  brilliant  victory  was 
due  above  all  to  Sir  Bevil  Grenville  and  the  lithe  Comishmen, 
who,  though  but  2400  against  5400  and  destitute  of  artillery, 
■stormed  "  Stamford  Hill, "  kiUed  300  of  the  enemy,  and  captured 
1700  more  with  all  their  guns, colours  and  baggage.  Devon 
wto  at  once  overrun  by  the  victors.  Essex's  army,  for  want  of 
material  resources,  had  had  to  be  content  with  the  capture  of 
Reading,  and  a  Royalist  force  under  Hertford  and  Prince 
Maurice  (Rupert's  brother)  moved  out  as  far  as  Salisbury  to 
hold  out  a  hand  to  their  friends  in  Devonshire,  while  Waller, 
the  only  Parliamentary  commander  left  in  the  field  in  the  west, 
had  to  abandon  his  conquests  in  the  Severn  valley  to  oppose 
the  further  progress  of  his  intimate  friend  and  present  enemy, 
Hopton.  Early  in  June  Hertford  and  Hopton  united  at  Chard 
and  rapidly  moved,  with  some  cavalry  skirmishing,  towards  Bath, 
where  Waller's  army  lay.  Avoiding  the  barrier  of  the  Mendips, 
they  moved  round  via  Frome  to  the  Avon.  But  Waller,  thus 
cut  off  from  London  and  threatened  with  investment,  acted 
with  great  skill,  and  some  days  of  manoeuvres  and  skirmishing 
followed,  after  which  Hertford  and  Hopton  found  themselves 
on  the  north  side  of  Bath  facing  Waller's  entrenched  position 
on  the  top  of  Lansdown  Hill.    This  position  the  Royalists 


4o6 


GREAT  REBELLION 


Stormed  on  the  'sth  of  July.  The  battle  of  Lansdown  was  a 
second  Stratton  for  the  Cornishmen,  but  this  time  the  enemy 
was  of  different  quality  and  far  differently  led,  and  they  had  to 
mourn  the  loss  of  Sir  Bevil  Grenville  and  the  greater  part  of 
their  whole  force.  At  dusk  both  sides  stood  on  the  flat  summit 
of  the  hill,  still  firing  intd  one  another  with  such  energy  as  was 
not  yet  expended,  and  in  the  night  Waller  drew  off  his  men  into 
Bath.  "  We  were  glad  they  were  gone,"  wrote  a  Royah'st 
officer,  *'  for  if  they  had  not,  I  know  who  had  within  the  hour." 
Next  day  Hopton  was  severely  injured  by  the  explosion  of  a  wagon 
containing  the  reserve  ammunition,  and  the  Royalists,  finding 
their  victory  profitless,  moved  eastward  to  Devizes,  closely 
followed  by  the  enemy.  On  the  loth  of  July  Sir  William  Waller 
took  post  on  Roundway  Down,  overlooking  Devizes,  and  cap- 
tured a  Royalist  ammunition  column  from  Oxiord.  On  the  x  ith 
he  came  down  and  invested  Hopton's  foot  in  Devices  itself, 
while  the  Royalist  cavalry,  Hertford  and  Maurice  with  them^ 
rode  away  towards  Salisbury.  But  although  the  siege  was  pressed 
with  such  vigour  that  an  assault  was  fixed  for  the  evening  of  the 
13th,  the  Cornishmen,  Hopton  directing  the  defence  from  his 
bed,  held  out  stubbornly,  and  on  the  afternoon  of  July  xjth 
Prince ,  Maurice's  horsemen  appeared  on  Roundway  Down, 
having  ridden  to  Oxford,  picked  up  reinforcements  there,  and 
returned  at  full  speed  to  save  their  comrades.  Waller's  army 
tried  its  best,  but  some  of  its  elements  were  of  doubtful  quality 
and  the  ground  was  all  in  Maurice's  favour.  The  battle  did  not 
last  long.  The  combined  attack  of  the  Oxford  force  from 
Roundway  and  of  Hopton's  men  from  the  town  practically 
annihilated  Waller's  army.  Very  soon  afterwards  Rupert  came 
up  with  fresh  Royalist  forces,  and  the  combined  armies  moved 
westward.  Bristol,  the  second  port  of  the  kingdom,  was  their 
objective,  and  in  four  days  from  the  opening  of  the  siege  it  was 
in  their  hands  (July  26),  Waller  with,  the  beaten  remnant  of  his 
army  at  Bath  being  powerless  to  intervene.  The  effect  of  this 
blow  was  felt  even  in  Dorsetshire.  Within  three  weeks  of  the 
surrender  Prince  Maurice  with  a  body  of  fast-moving  cavalry 
overran  that  county  almost  unopposed. 

8.  Adwation  Moor, — Newcastle  meanwhile  had  resumed  opera- 
tions against  the  clothing  towns,  this  time  with  success.  The 
Fairfaxes  had  been  fighting  in  the  West  Riding  since  January 
with  such  troops  from  the  Hull  region  as  they  had  been  able  to 
bring  across  Newcastle's  lines.  They  and  the  townsmen  together 
were  too  weak  for  Newcastle's  increasing  forces,  and  an  attempt 
was  made  to  relieve  them  by  bringing  up  the  Parliament's 
forces  in  Nottinghamshire,  Derbyshire,  Lincolnshire  and  the 
Eastern  Association.  But  local  interests  prevailed  again,  in 
spite  of  Cromwell's  presence,  and  after  assembling  at  Notting- 
ham, the  midland  rebels  quietly  dispersed  to  thdr  several 
counties  (June  a).  The  Fairfaxes  were  left  to  their  fate,  and 
about  the  same  time  Hull  itself  narrowly  escaped  capture  by  the 
queen's  forces  through  the  treachery  of  Sir  John  Hotham,  the 
governor,  and  his  son,  the'commander  of  the  Lincoln^ire  Parlia- 
mentarians. The  latter  had  been  placed  under  arrest  at  the 
instance  of  Cromwell  and  of  Colonel  Hutchinson,  the  governor 
of  Nottingham  Castle;  he  escaped  to  Hull,  but  both  father  and 
son  were  seized  by  the  citizens  and  afterwards  executed.  More 
serious  than  an  isolated  act  of  treachery  was  the  far-reaching 
Royalist  plot  that  had  been  detected  in  Parliament  itself,  for 
complicity  in  which  Lord  Conway,  Edmund  Waller  the  poet, 
and  several  members  of  both  Houses  were  arrested.  The -safety 
of  Hull  was  of  no  avail  for  the  West  Riding  towns,  and  the 
Fairfaxes  underwent  a  decisive  defeat  at  Adwalton  (Atherton) 
Moor  near  Bradford  on  the  30th  of  June.  After  this,  by  way 
of  Lincolnshire,  they  escaped  to  Hull  and  reorganized  the 
defence  of  that  place.    The  West  Riding  perforce  submitted. 

The  queen  herself  with  a  second  convoy  and  a  small  army 
under  Henry  (Lord)  Jermyn  soon  moved  via  Newark,  Ashby- 
de-la-Zouch,  Lichfield  and  other  Royalist  garrisons  to  Oxford, 
where  she  joined  her  husband  on  the  X4th  of  July.  But  New- 
castle (now  a  marquis)  was  not  yet  ready  for  his  part  in  the 
programme.  The  Yorkshire  troops  would  not  march  on  London 
while  the  enemy  was  master  of  Hull,  and  by  this  time  there  was 


a  sob'd  barrier  between  the  royal  army  of  the  north  and  tlie 
capital.  Roundway  Down  and  Adwalton  Moor  were  not  after 
all  destined  to  be  fatal,  tbou^  peace-riots  in  London,  dissenstans 
in  the  Houses,  and  quarrels  amongst  the  generals  were  their 
immediate  consequences.  A  new  factor  had  arisen  in  the  war — 
the  Eastern  Association. 

.  9.  Cromwdl  and  the  Eastern  Assaciatum.'—llaB  had  already 
intervened  to  he^  in  the  siege  of  Reading  and  had  sent  troops 
to  the  abortive  gathering  at  Nottingham,  besides  clearing  its 
own  ground  of  "  malignants."  From  the  first  Cromwell  was  the 
dominant  influence.  Fresh  from  Edgehill,  he  had  tdd  Hampden» 
"You  must  get  men  of  a  spirit  that  is  likely  to  go  as  far  as 
gentlemen  ^  go,"  not  "old  decayed  serving-men,  tapsters 
and  such  kind  of  fellows  to  encounter  gendemen  thsA  have 
honour  and  courage  and  resolution  in  them,"  and  in  January 
1643  he  had  gone  to  his  own  county  to  "  raise  such  men  as  had 
the  fear  ot  God  before  them  and  made  some  conscience  of  what 
they  did,"  These  men,  once  found,  were  willing,  for  the  cause, 
to  submit  to  a  rigorous  training  and  an  iron  discipline  such  as 
other  troops,  fighting  for  honour  only  or  for  profit  only,  could 
not  be  brought  to  endure.'  The  result  was  soon  a|^>arent. 
As  early  as  the  13th  of  May,  Cromwell's  regiment  of  horse — 
recruited  from  the  horse-loving  yeomen  of  the  eastern  counties— • 
demonstrated  its  superiority  in  the  field  in  a  skirmish  near 
Grantham,  and  in  the  irregular  fighting  in  Lincolnshire  during 
June  and  July  (which  was  on  the  whole  unfavourable  to  the 
Parliament),  as  previously  in  pacifying  the  Eastern  Association 
itsielf,  these  Puritan  troopers  distinguished  themselves  by  long 
and  rapid  marches  that  may  bear  comparison  with  almost  any 
in  the  histoiy  of  the  mounted  arm.  When  Cromwell's  second 
opportunity  came  at  Gainsborough  on  the  s8th  of  July,  the 
"  Lincolneer  "  horse  who  were  under  his  orders  were  fired  by 
theexampleof  Cromwell's  own  regiment,  and  Cromwell,  directing 
the  whole  with  skill,  and  above  all  with  energy,  utterly  routed 
the  Royalist  horse  and  killed  their  general,  Charles  Cavendish. 

In  the  meantime  the  army  of  Essex  had  been  inactive.  After 
the  fall  of  Reading  a  serious  epidemic  of  sickness  had  reduced 
it  to  impotence.  On  the  x8th  of  June  the  Pariiamentary 
cavalry  was  routed  and  John  Hampden  mortally  wounded  at 
Chalgrove  Field  near  Chiselhampton,  and  when  at  last  Essex, 
having  obtained  the  desired  reinforcements,  moved  against 
Oxford  from  the  Aylesbury  side,  he  found  his  men  demoralized 
by  inaction,  and  before  the  menace  of  Rupert's  cavalry,  to  which 
he  had  nothing  to  oppose,  he  withdrew  to  Bedfordshire  (July). 
He  made  no  attempt  to  intercept  the  march  of  the  queen's 
convoys,  he  had  permitted  the  Oxford  army,  which  he  should 
have  held  fast,  to  intervene  effectually  in  the  midlands,  the  west, 
and  the  south-west,  and  Waller  might  well  complain  that  Essex, 
who  still  held  Reading  and  the  ChUtems,  had  given  him  neither 
active  nor  panive  sui^wrt  in  the  critical  days  preceding  Round- 
way  Down.  Still  only  a  few  voices  were  raised  to  demand  hb 
removal,  and  he  was  shortly  to  have  an  opportunity  of  proving 
his  skill  and  devotion  in  a  great  campaign  and  a  great  battle. 
The  centre  and  the  right  of  thd  three  Royalist  armies  had  for  a 
moment  (Roundway  to  Bristol)  united  to  crush  Waller,  but 
their  concentration  was  short-lived.  Plymouth  was  to  Hopton's 
men  what  Hull  was  to  Newcastle's — they  would  not  march  on 
London  until  the  menace  to  their  homes  was  removed.  Further, 
there  were  dissensions  among  the  generals  which  Charles  was  too 
weak  to  crush,  and  consequently  the  original  plan  re^^>eais— 
the  main  Roydist  army  to  operate  in  the  centre,  Hopton's  (now 
Maurice's  )  on  the  right,  Newcastle  on  the  left  towards  London. 
While  waiting  for  the  fall  of  Hull  and  Plymouth,  Charies  naturally 
decided  to  make  the  best  use  of  his  time  by  reducing  Glqncester, 
the  one  great  fortress  of  the  Parliament  in  the  west. 

xo.  Siege  and  RdieJ  of  Gloucester.'^-'Tha  decision  quickly 
brought  on  a  crisis.  While  the  eari  of  Manchester  (wit|i  Cromwdl 
as  his  lieutenant-general)  was  appointed  to  head  the  forces  of 
the  Eastern  Association  against  Newcastle,  and  Waller  was 

'  *  "  Making  not  money  but  that  which  they  took  to  be  the  pab&e 
felicity  to  be  their  end  they  were  the  more  engaged  to  be  vafiant  ** 
(Baxter). 


GREAT  REBELLION 


407 


^ven  a  new  anny  wherewith  ugun  to  engage  Hopton  and 
Matuice,  the  task  of  saving  Gloucester  from  the  king's  army  fell 
to  Enez,  who  was  heavily  reinforced  and  drew  his  army  together 
Ux  action  in  the  last  days  of  August.  Resort  was  had  to  the 
press-gang  to  fill  the  ranks,  recruiting  for  Waller's  new  army 
was  stopped,  and  London  sent  six  regiments  of  trained  bands 
to  the  front,  closing  the  shc^  so  that  every  man  should  be  free 
to  take  his  part  in  what  was  thought  to  be  the  supreme  trial 
of  strength. 

On  the  26th,  all  being  ready,  Essex  started.  Throu^  Ayles- 
bury and  round  the  north  side  of  Oxford  to  Stow-on-the-Wold 
the  army  moved  resolutely,  not  deterred  by  want  of  food  and 
rest,  or  by  the  attacks  of  Rupert's  and  Wilmot's  horse  on  its 
flank.  On  the  *sth  of  September,  just  as  Gloucester  was  at 
the  end  of  its  resources,  the  siege  was  suddenly  raised  and  the 
Royalists  drew  off  to  Painswick,  for  Essex  had  reached  Chelten- 
ham and  the  danger  was  over.  Then,  the  field  armies  being 
again  f aa  to  face  and  free  to  move,  there  followed  a  series  of 
skilful  manoeuvres  in  the  Severn  and  Avon  valleys,  at  the  end 
of  which  the  Parlian^ntary  army  gained  a  long  start  on  its 
homeward  road  via  Cricklade,  Hungerford  and  Reading.  But 
the  Royalist  cavalry  under  Rupert,  followed  rapidly  by  Charles 
and  the  main  body  from  Evesham,  strained  every  nerve  to 
head  off  Essex  at  Newbury,  and  after  a  sharp  skirmish  on 
Aldbotame  Chase  on  the  x8th  of  September  succeeded  in  doing 
so.  On  the  XQth  the  whole  Royal  army  was  drawn  up,  facing 
west,  with  its  right  on  Newbury  and  its  left  on  Enbome  Heath. 
Essex's  men  knew  that  evening  that  they  would  have  to  break 
through  by  force — there  was  no  suggestion  of  surrender. 

11/  Fust  Battle  of  Newbury^  September  20, 1643. — ^The  ground 
was  densely  intersected  by  hedges  except  in  front  of  the  Royalists' 
left  centre  (Newbury  Wash)  and  left  (Enbome  Heath),  and, 
practically,  Essex's  army  was  never  formed  in  h'ne  of  battle, 
for  each  unit  was  thrown  into  the  fight  as  it  came  up  its  own 
road  or  lane.  On  the  left  wing,  in  spite  of  the  Royalist  counter- 
strokes,  the  attack  had  the  best  of  it,  capturing  field  after  field, 
and  thus  gradually  gaining  ground  to  the  front.  Here  Lord 
Falkland  was  killed.  On  the  Reading  road  itself  Essex  did  not 
succeed  in  deploying  on  to  the  open  ground  on  Newbury  Wash, 
but  victoriously  repelled  the  royal  horse  when  it  charged  up  to 
the  lanes  and  hedges  held  by  his  foot.  On  the  extreme  right 
of  the  Parliamentary  army,  which  stood  in  the  open  ground  of 
Enbome  Heath,  took  place  a  famous  incident.  Here  two  of  the 
London  regiments,  ixtah  to  war  as  they  were,  were  exposed  to  a 
trial  as  severe  as  that  which  broke  down  the  veteran  Spanish 
infantry  at  Rocxoi  in  this  same  year.  Rupert  and  the  Royalist 
horse  again  and  again  charged  up  to  the  squares  of  pikes,  and 
between  each  charge  his  guns  tried  to  disorder  the  Londoners,  but 
it  was  not  until  the  advance  of  the  royal  infantry  that  the  trained 
bands  retired,  slowly  and  in  magnificent  order,  to  the  edge  of  the 
heath.  The  result  of  it  all  was  that  Essex's  army  had  fought 
its  hardest  and  failed  to  break  the  opposing  line.  But  the 
Royalists  had  suffered  so  heavily,  and  above  all  the  valour 
displayed  by  the  rebels  had  so  profoundly  impressed  them,  that 
they  were  ^ad  to  give  up  the  disputed  road  and  withdraw  into 
Newbury.  Essex  thereupon  pursued  his  march,  Reading  was 
reached  on  the  22nd  after  a  small  rearguard  skirmish  at  Alder- 
maston,  and  so  ended  one  of  the  most  dramatic  episodes  of 
English  history. 

12.  Hull  and  VKt'iiM^.— Meanwhile  the  siege  of  Hull  had 
commenced.  The  Eastem  Association  forces  under  Manchester 
promptly  moved  up  into  Lincolnishire,  the  foot  besieging  Lynn 
(which  surrendered  on  the  x6th  of  September)  while  the  horse 
rode  into  the  northem  part  of  the  county  to  give  a  hand  to  the 
Fairfaxes.  Fortunatdy  the  sea  commum'cations  of  Hull  were 
open.  On  the  i8th  of  September  part  of  the  cavahy  in  Hull 
was  ferried  over  to  Barton,  and  the  rest  under  Sir  Thomas 
Fairfax  went  by  sea  to  Saltfleet  a  few  days  later,  the  whole 
Joining  Cromwell  near  Spilsby.  In  retum  the  old  Lord  Fairfax, 
who  remained  in  Hull,  received  infantry  reinforcements  and 
a  quantity  <rf  ammunition  and  stores  from  the  Eastem  Associa- 
tion.   On  the  ixth  of  October  Cromwell  and  Fairfax  together 


won  a  brilliant  cavalry  action  at  Winceby,  driving  the  Royalist 
horse  in  confusion  before  them  to  Newark,  and  on  the  same  day 
Newcastle's  army  around  Hull,  which  had  suffered  terribly 
from  the  hardships  of  continuous  siege  worii,  was  attacked 
by  the  garrison  and  so  severely  handled  that  next  day  the 
siege  was  given  up.  Later,  Manchester  retook  Lincohi  and 
Gainsborough,  and  thus  Lincolnshire,  which  had  been  almost 
entirely  in  Newcastle's  hands  before  he  was  compelled  to  under< 
take  the  siege  of  Hull,  was  added  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name  to  the 
Eastem  Association. 

Elsewhere,  in  the  reaction  after  the  crisis  of  Newbury,  the 
war  languished.  The  city  regiments  went  home,  leaving  Essex 
too  weak  to  hold  Reading,  which  the  Royalists  reoccupied  on  the 
5rd  of  October.  At  this  the  Londoners  offered  to  serve  again, 
and  actually  took  part  in  a  minor  r*"Tp^ign  around  Newport 
Pagnell,  which  town  Rupert  attempted  to  fortify  as  a  menace 
to  the  Eastem  Association  and  its  communications  with  London. 
Essex  was  successful  in  preventing  this,  but  his  London  regiments 
again  went  home,  and  Sir  William  Waller's  new  army  in 
Hampshire  failed  lamentably  in  an  attempt  on  Basing  House 
(November  7),  the  London  trained  bands  deserting  eir  bloc. 
Shortly  afterwards  Arundel  surrendered  to  a  force  under  Sir 
Ralph,  now  Lord  Hopton  (December  9). 

13.  The  "Irish  Ceualiou"  and  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant. — Politically,  these  months  were  the  turning-point  of 
the  war.  In  Ireland,  the  king's  lieutenant,  by  order  of  his 
master,  made  a  truce  with  the  Irish  rebels  (Sept.  15).  Charles's 
chief  object  was  to  set  free  his  army  to  fight  in  England,  but  it 
was  believed  universally  that  Irish  regiments— in  plain  words, 
papists  in  arms— would  shortly  fdUow.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances his  act  united  against  him  nearly  every  dass  in 
Protestant  England,  above  all  brought  into  the  English  quarrel 
the  armed  strength  of  Presbyterian  Scotland.  Yet  Charles, 
still  trusting  to  intrigue  and  diplomacy  to  keep  Scotland  in 
check,  deliberately  rejected  the  advice  of  Montrose,  his  greatest 
and  most  faithful  lieutenant,  who  wished*  to  give  the  Scots 
employment  for  their  army  at  home.  Only  ten  days  after  the 
"  Irish  cessHtion,"  the  Parliament  at  Westminster  swore  to  the 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  and  the  die  was  cast.  It  is  true 
that  even  a  semblance  of  Presbyterian  theocracy  put  the 
"  Independents  "  on  theirguard  and  definitely  raised  the  question 
of  freedom  of  consdence,  and  that  secret  negotiations  were 
opened  betjreen  the  Independents  and  Charles  on  that  basis, 
but  they  soon  discovered  that  the  king  was  merely  using  them 
as  instruments  to  bring  about  the  betrayal  of  Aylesbury  and 
other  small  rebel  posts.  All  parties  found  it  convenient  to  inter- 
pret the  Covenant  liberally  for  the  present,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  1644  the  Parliamentary  i>arty  showed  so  \mited  a  front  that 
even  Pym's  death  (December  8, 1643)  hardly  affected  its  resolu- 
tion to  continue  the  struggle. 

The  troops  from  Ireland,  thus  obtained  at  the  cost  of  an 
enormous  political  blunder,  proved  to  be  untrustworthy  after  all. 
Those  sendng  in  Hopton's  army  were  "  mutinous  and  shrewdly 
infected  with  the  rebellious  humour  of  England."  When  Waller's 
Londoners  surprised'  and  routed  a  Royalist  detachment  at 
Alton  (December  r3,  x6^  3),  half  the  prisoners  took  the  Covenant 
Hopton  had  to  retire,  and  on  the  6th  of  January  1644  Waller 
recaptured  Arundel.  Byron's  Cheshire  army  was  in  no  better 
case.  Newcastle's  retreat  from  Hull  and  the  loss  of  Gainsborough 
had  completely  changed  the  situation  in  the  midlands,  Brereton 
was  joined  by  the  younger  Fairfax  from  Lincolnshire,  and  the 
Roydists  were  severely  defeated  for  a  second  time  at  Nantwich 
(January  25).  As  at  Alton,  the  majority  of  the  prisoners 
(amongst  them  Colonel  George  Monk)  took  the  Covenant  and 
entered  the  Parh'amentary  army.  In  Lancashire,  as  in  Cheshire, 
Staffordshire,  Nottinghamshire  aild  Lincolnshire,  the  cause  of 
the  ParUament  was  in  the  ascendant  Resistance  revived  in  the 
West  Riding  towns.  Lord  Fairfax  was  again  in  the  field  in  the 

*  For  the  third  time  within  the  year  the  London  trained  bands 
turned  out  in  force.  It  was  characteristic  of  the  early  years  of  the 
war  that  imminent  danger  alone  called  forth  the  devotion  of  the 
cttisen  soldier.  If  he  was  employed  in  ordinary  times  {e.g.  at  **'-— 
House)  he  would  neither  ^ht  nor  march  with  spirit. 


4o8 


GREAT  REBELLION 


East  Riding/ and  even  Newark  was  doaely  besieged  by  Sir 
John  Meldrum.  More  important  news  came  in  from  the  north. 
Tlie  advanced  guard  of  the  Scottish  army  had  passed  the  Tweed 
on  the  xpth  of  January,  and  the  marquis  of  Newcastle  with  the 
remnant  of  his  army  would  soon  be  attacked  in  front  and  rear 
at  once. 

14.  Newark  and  Cheritan  (March  164^.— As  in  1643,  Rupert 
was  soon  on  his  way  to  the  north  to  retrieve  the  iortunes  of  his 
side.  Moving  by  the  Welsh  border,  and  gathering  up  garrisons 
and  recruits  snowball-wise  as  he  marched,  he  went  fiist  to 
Cheshire  to  give  a  hand  to  Byron,  and  then,  with  the  utmost 
speed,  he  made  for  Newark.  On  the  soth  of  March  1644  be 
bivouacked  at  Bingham,  and  on  the  axst  he  not  only  relieved 
Newark  but  routed  the  besiegers'  cavahy.  On  the  a  2nd 
Meldrum's  position  was  so  hopeless  that  he  capitulated  on  terms. 
But,  brilliant  soldier  as  he  was,  the  prince  was  unable  to  do  more 
than  raid  a  few  Parliamentary  posts  around  Lincoln,  after 
which  he  had  to  return  his  borrowed  forces  to  their  various 
garrisons  and  go  back  to  Wales— laden  indeed  with  captured 
pikes  and  mulcts — to  raise  a  permanent  field  army.  But 
Rupert  could  not  be  in  all  places  at  once.  Newcastle  was 
clamorous  for  aid.  In  Lancashire,  only  the  countess  of  Derby, 
in  Lathom  House,  held  out  for  the  king,  and  her  husband 
pressed  Rupert  to  go  to  her  relief.  Once,  too,  the  prince  was 
ordered  back  to  Oxford  to  furnish  a  travelling  escort  for  the 
queen,  who  shortly  after  this  gave  birth  to  her  youngest  child 
and  returned  to  France.  The  order  was  countermanded  within 
a  few  hours,  itJs  true,  but  Charles  had  good  reason  for  avoiding 
detachments  from  his  own  army.  On  the  29th  of  March,  Hopton 
had  undergone  a  severe  defeat  at  Cheriton  near  New  Alresford. 
In  the  preliminary  manoeuvres  and  in  the  opening  stages  of  the 
battle  the  advantage  lay  with  the  Royalists,  and  the  earl  of 
Forth,  who  was  present,  was  satisfied  with  what  had  been  achieved 
and  tried  to  break  off  the  action.  But  Royalist  indiscipline 
ruined  everything.  A  young  cavalxy  colonel  charged  in  defiance 
of  orders,  a  fresh  engagement  opened,  and  at  the  last  moment 
Waller  snatched  a  victoiy  out  of  defeat.  Worse  than  this  was 
the  news  from  Yorkshire  and  Scotland.  Charles  had  at  last 
assented  to  Montrose's  plan  and  promised  him  the  title  of 
marquis,  but  the  first  attempt  to  raise  the  Royalist  standard  in 
Scotland  gave  no  omen  of  its  later  triumphs.  In  Yorkshire 
Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  advancing  from  Lancashire  through  the 
West  Riding,  joined  his  father.  Selby  was  stormed  on  the  xxth 
of  April,  and  thereupon  Newcastle,  who  had  been  manoeuvring 
against  the  Scots  in  Durham,  hastily  drew  back,  sent  his  cavalry 
away,  and  shut  himself  up  with  his  foot  in  York.  Two  days 
later  the  Scottish  general,  Alexander  Leslie,  Lord  Leven,  joined 
the  Fairfaxes  and  prepared  to  invest  that  dty. 

i5r  Plans  of  Campaign  for  1644. — The  original  plan  of  the 
Parliamentary  "Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms,"  which  direaed 
the  military  and  civil  policy  of  the  allies  after  the  fashion  of  a 
BDodem  cabinet,  was  to  combine  Essex's  and  Manchester's 
armies  in  an  attack  upon  the  king's  army,  Aylesbury  being 
appointed  as  the  place  of  concentration.  Waller's  troops  were 
to  continue  to  drive  back  Hopton  and  to  reconquer  the  west, 
Fairfax  and  the  Scots  to  invest  Newcastle's  army,  while  in  the 
midlands  Brereton  and  the  Lincolnshire  rebels  could  be  counted 
upon  to  neutralize,  the  one  Byron,  the  others  the  Newark 
Royalists.  But  Waller,  once  more  deserted  by  his  trained  bands, 
was  unable  to  profit  by  his  victory  of  Cheriton,  and  retired  to 
Famham.  Manchester,  too,  was  delayed  because  the  Eastern 
Association  was  still  suffezing  from  the  effects  of  Rupert's 
Newark  exploit— Lincoln,  abandoned  by  the  rebels  on  that 
occasion,  was  not  reoccupied  till  the  6th  of  May.  Moreover, 
Essex  found  himself  compelled  to  defend  his  conduct  and 
motives  to  the  Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms,  and  as  usual  was 
straitened  for  men  and  money.  But  though  there  were  grave 
elements  of  weakness  on  the  other  side,  the  Royalists  considered 
their  own  position  to  be  hopeless.  Prince  Maurice  was  engaged 
4n  the  fruitless  siege  of  Lyme  Regis,  Gloucester  was  again  a 
centre  of  activity  and  count^balancMl  Newark,  and  the  situation 
in  the  north  was  practically  desperate.    Rupert  himself  came 


to  Oxford  (April  35)  to  urge  that  his  new  army  should  be  kept 
free  to  march  to  aid  Newcastle,  who  was  now  tlueatened— owing 
to  the  abandonment  of  the  enemsr's  original  plan — by  Mancfaeatn 
as  well  as  Fairfax  and  Leven.  There  was  no  further  talk  of  the 
concentric  advance  of  three  armies  on  Ixmdon.  The  fieiy 
prince  and  the  methodical  earl  of  Brentford  (Forth)  were  at 
one  at  least  in  recommending  that  the  Oxford  area  with  its 
own  garrison  and  a  mobile  force  in  addition  should  be  the  pivot 
of  the  field  armies'  operations.  Rupert,  needing  above  all  ade- 
quate time  for  the  development  of  the  northern  offensive,  was  not 
in  favour  of  abandoning  any  of  the  barriers  to  Essex's  advance. 
Brentford,  on  the  other  hand,  thought  it  advisable  to  oontraa 
the  lines  of  defence,  and  Charles,  as  usual  undecided,  agreed 
to  Rupert's  scheme  and  executed  Brentford's.*  Reading,  there- 
fore,  was  dismantled  early  in  May,  and  Abingdon  given  up  shortly 
afterwards. 

16.  Cropredy  Bridge.-— It  was  now  possible  for  the  enemy  to 
approach  Oxford^  and  Abingdon  was  no  sooner  evacuated  than 
(May  26)  Waller's  and  Essex's  armies  united  there — still,  un- 
fortunately for  their  cause,  under  separate  commanders.  From 
Abingdon  Essex  moved  direct  on  Oxford,  Waller  towards 
Wantage,  where  he  could  give  a- hand  to  Massey,  the  eiieigetic 
governor  of  Gloucester.  Affairs  seemed  so  bad  in  the  west 
(Maurice  with  a  whole  army  was  still  vainly  besieging  the  sin^ 
line  of  low  breastworks  that  constituted  the  fortress  of  Lyme) 
that  the  king  despatched  Hopton  to  take  charge  of  Bristol. 
Nor  were  thkigs  much  better  at  Oxford;  the  barrien  of  time 
and  space  and  the  supply  area  had  been  delibcratdy  given  up 
to  the  enemy,  and  Chiurles  was  practically  forced  to  undertake 
extensive  field  operations  with  no  hope  of  success  save  in  con- 
sequejkce  of  the  enemy's  mistakes.  The  enemy,  as  it  happened, 
did  not  disappoint  him.  The  king,  probably  advised  by  Brent- 
ford, conducted  a  skilfxd  war  of  manoeuvre  in  the  area  defined 
by  Stourbridge,  Gloucester,  Abingdon  and  Northampton,  at  the 
end  of  which  Essex,  leaving  Waller  to  the  secondary  work,  as  he 
conceived  it,  of  keeping  the  king  away  from  Oxford  and  roludng 
that  fortress,  marched  off  into  the  west  with  most  of  the  general 
service  troops  to  repeat  at  Lyme  Regis  his  Gloucester  exploit 
of  X643.  At  one  moment,  indeed,  Charles  (then  in.  Bcwdley) 
rose  to  the  idea  of  marching  north  to  join  Rupert  and  Newcastle, 
but  he  soon  made  up  his  mind  to  return  to  Oxford.  From 
Bewdley,  therefore,  he  moved  to  Buckingham — the  distant 
threat  on  London  producing  another  evanescent  dtisen  anny 
drawn  from  six  counties  under  Major-General  Browne — ^and 
Waller  followed  him  dosdy.  When  the  king  turned  upon 
Browne's  motley  host.  Waller  appeared  in  time  to  avert  disaster, 
and  the  two  armies  worked  away  to  the  upper  Cherwell.  Brent- 
ford and  Waller  were  excellent  strategists  of  the  X7th  century 
type,  and  neither  would  fight  a  pitched  battle  without  every 
cbadce  in  his  favour.  Eventually  on  the  apth  of  June  the 
Royalists  were  successful  in  a  series  of  minor  fights  about 
Cropredy  Bridge,  and  the  result  was,  in  accordance  with  con- 
tinental custom,  admitted  to  be  an  important  victory,  though 
Waller's  main  army  drew  off  unharmed.  In  the  meantime, 
Essex  had  relieved  Lyme  (June  15)  and  occupied  Weymouth, 
and  was  preparing  to  go  farther.  The  two  nhd  armies  were 
now  indeed  separate.  Waller  had  been  left  tordo  as  best  he  could, 
and  a  worse  fate  was  soon  to  overtake  the  cautious  earl. 

17.  Campaign  of  Marston  Moor. — ^During  these  manoeuvres 
the  northern  campaign  had  been  fou^t  to  an  issue.  Rupert's 
courage  and  energy  were  more  likdy  to  command  success  in  the 
English  Civil  War  than  all  the  consdentious  caution  of  an  Essex 
or  a  Brentford.  On  the  x6th  of  May  he  Idt  Shrewsbury  to  fight 
his  way  through  hostile  country  to  Lancashire,  where  he  Ix^ed 
to  re-establish  the  Derby  influence  and  raise  new  forces.  Stock- 
port was  plundered  on  the  asth,  the  besiegers  of  Lathom  House 
utterly  defeated  at  Bolton  on  the  aSth.  Soon  afterwards  be 
recdved  a  large  reinforcement  under  General  Goring,  wbith 
induded  5000  of  Newcastle's  cavalry.  The'  capture  of  the 
almost  dcfencdess  town  of  Liverpool — ^undertaken  as  usual  to 
allay  local  fears — did  not  delay  Rupert  more  than  three  or  four 
days,  and  he  then  turned  towards  the  Yorkshire  border  with 


GREAT  REBELLION 


409 


greatly  augmented  forces.  On  the  14th  of  June  he  received  a 
despatch  from  the  king,  the  gist  of  which  was  that  there  was  a 
time-limit  imposed  on  the  northern  enterprise.  If  Yprk  were  lost 
or  did  not  need  his  help,  Rupert  was  to  make  all  haste  southward 
via  Worcester.  "  If  York  be  relieved  and  you  beat  the  rebels' 
armies  of  both  kingdoms,  then,  but  otherways  not,  I  may  possibly 
make  a  shift  upon  the  defensive  to  spin  out  time  until  you  come 
to  assist  me." 

Charles  did  manage  to  "  spin  out  time."  But  it  was  of  capital 
importance  that  Rupert  had  to  do  his  work  upon  York  and 
the  allied  army  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  and  that,  according 
to  the  despatch,  there  were  only  two  ways  of  saving  the  royal 
cause, "  having  relieved  York  by  beating  the  Scots,"  or  marching 
with  all  q>eed  to  Worcester.  Rupert's  duty,  interpreted  through 
the  medium  of  his  temperament,  was  clear  enough.  Newcastle 
still  held  out,  his  men  having  been  encouraged  by  a  small  success 
on  the  17th  of  June,  and  Rupert  reached  Knaresborough  on 
the  30th.  At  once  Leven,  Fairfax  and  Manchester  broke  up 
the  siege  of  York  and  moved  out  to  meet  him.  But  the  prince, 
moving  still  at  high  speed,  rode  round  their  right  flank  via 
Boroui^bridge  and  Thornton  Bridge  and  entered  York  on  the 
north  side.  Newcastle  tried  to  dissuade  Rupert  from  fighting, 
but  his  record  as  a  general  was  scarcely  convincing  as  to  the 
value  of  his  advice.  Rupert  curtly  replied  that  he  had  orders  to 
fight,  and  the  Royalists  moved  out  towards  Marston  Moor 
(f.v.)  on  the  morning  of  July  3,  .X644.  The  Parliamentary 
commanders,  fearing  a  fresh  manoeuvre,  had  already  begun  to 
retire  towards  Tadcaster,  but  as  soon  as  it  became  evident  that 
a  battle  was  impending  they  turned  back.  The  battle  of  Marston 
Moor  began  about  four  in  the  afternoon.  It  was  the  first  real 
trial  of  strength  between  the  best  elements  on  either  side,  and  it 
ended  before  night  with  the  complete  victory  of  the  Parliamentary 
armies.  The  Royalist  cause  in  the  north  collapsed  once  for  all, 
Newcastle  fled  to  the  continent,  and  only  Rupert,  resolute  as 
ever,  extricated  6000  cavalry  from  the  dibdcle  and  rode  away 
whence  he  had  come,  still  the  dominant  figure  of  the  war. 

18.  Independency. — ^The  victory  gave  the  Parliament  entire 
control  of  the  north,  but  it  did  not  lead  to  the  definitive  solution 
of  the  political  problem,  and  in  fact,  on  the  question  of  Charles's 
|dace  in  a  new  Constitution,  the  victorious  generals  quarrelled  even 
before  York  had  surrendered.  Within  three  weeks  of  the  battle 
the  great  army  was  broken  up.  The  Yorkshire  troops  proceeded 
to  conquer  the  isolated  Royalist  posts  in  their  county,  the  Scots 
marched  off  to  besiege  Newcastle-on-Tyne  and  to  hold  in  check 
a  nascent  Royalist  army  in  Westmorland.  Rupert  in  Lancashire 
they  neglected  entirely.  Manchester  and  Cromwell,  already 
estranged,  marched  away  into  the  Eastern  Association.  There, 
for  want  of  an  enemy  to  fight,  their  army  was  forced  to  be  idle, 
and  Cromwell  and  the  ever-growing  Independent  element 
quickly  came  to  suspect  their  commander  of  lukewarmness  in  the 
cause.  Waller's  army,  too,  was  spiritless  and  immobile.  On 
the  2nd  of  July,  despairing  of  the  existing  militaiy  system,  he 
made  to  the  Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms  the  first  suggestion 
of  the  New  Model, — "  My  lords,"  he  wrote,  "  till  you  have  an 
army  merely  your  own,  that  you  may  command,  it  is.  .  . 
impossible  to  do  anything  of  importance."  Browne's  trained 
band  army  was  perhaps  the  most  ill-behaved  of  all — once  the 
soldiers  attempted  to  murder  their  own  general.  Parliament  in 
alarm  set  about  the  formation  of  a  new  general  service  force 
(July  12),  but  meantime  both  Waller's  and  Browne's  armies 
(at  Abingdon  and  Reading  respectively)  ignominiously  collapsed 
by  mutiny  and  desertion.  It  was  evident  that  the  people  at 
large,  with  their  respect  for  the  Uw  and  their  anxiety  for  their 
own  homes,  were  tired  of  the  war.  Only  those  men— such  as 
Cromwell— who  has  set  their  hearts  on  fighting  out  the  quarrel 
of  conscience,  kept  steadfastly  to  their  purpose.  Cromwell 
himself  had  already  decided  that  the  king  himself  must  be 
deprived  of  his  authority,  and  his  supporters  were  equally  con- 
vinced. But  they  were  relatively  few.  Even  the  Eastern 
Aaaodation  trained  bands  had  joined  in  the  disaffection  in 
Waller's  army,  and  that  unfortunate  general's  suggestion  of  a 
professional  army,  with  all  its  dangers,  indicated  the  only  means 


of  enforcing  a  peace  such  as  Cromwell  and  his  friends  desired. 
There  was  this  important  difference,  however,  between  Waller's 
idea  and  Cromwell's  achievement— that  the  professional  soldiers 
of  the  New  Model  were  disciplined,  led,  and  in  all  things  inspired 
by  "godly"  officers.  (*odliness,  devotion  to  the  cause,  and 
efficiency  were  indeed  the  only  criteria  Cromwell  applied  in 
choosing  officers.  Long  before  this  he  had  warned  the  Scottish 
major-general  Lawrence  Crawford  that  the  precise  colour  of  a 
man's  religious  opinions  mattered  nothing  compared  with  his 
devotion  to  them,  and  had  told  the  committee  of  Suffolk, "  I 
had  rather  have  a  plain  russet-coated  captain  that  knows  what 
he  fights  for  and  loves  what  he  knows  than  that  which  you  call 
a  '  gentleman '  and  is  nothing  else.  I  honour  a  gentleman  that 
is  so  indeed  .  .  .  but  seeing  it  was  necessary  the  work-  must 
go  on,  better  pUin  men  than  none."  If  "  men  of  honour  and 
birth"  possessed  the  essentials  of  godliness,  devotion,  and 
capacity,  CromweU  preferred  them,  and  as  a  fact  only  seven 
out  of  thirty-seven  oi  the  superior  officers  of  the  original  New 
Model  were  not  of  gentle  birth. 

19.  Lostwithid. — But  all  this  was  as  yet  hi  the  future.  Essex's 
military  promenade  in  the  west  of  England  was  the  subject  of 
immediate  interest.  At  first  successful,  this  general  penetrated 
to  Plymouth,  whence,  securely  based  as  he  thought,  he  could 
overrun  Devon.  Unforttmately  for  him  he  was  persuaded  to 
overrun  Cornwall  as  well.  At  once  the  Comishmen  rose,  as  they 
had  risen  tmder  Hopton,  and  the  king  was  soon  on  the  march 
from  the  Oxford  region,  disregarding  the  armed  mobs  under 
Waller  and  Browne.  Their  state  reflected  the  general  languishing 
of  the  war  spirit  on  both  sides,  not  on  one  only,  as  Charles  dis- 
covered when  he  learned  that  Lord  Wilmot,  the  lijeutenant- 
general  of  his  horse,  was  in  correspondence  with  Essex.  Wilmot 
was  of  course  placed  under  arrest,  and  was  replaced  by  the 
dissolute  General  Goring.  But  it  was  unpleasantly  evident 
that  even  gay  cavaliers  of  the  type  of  Wilmot  had  lost  the  ideals 
for  which  they  fought,  and  had  come  to  believe  that  the  realm 
would  never  be  at  peace  while  Charles  was  king.  Hencef(»ward 
it  will  be  found  that  the  Royalist  foot,  now  a  thoroughly  pro- 
fessional force,  is  superior  in  quality  to  the  once  superb  cavalry, 
and  that  not  merely  because  its  opportunities  for  plunder,  &c., 
are  more  limited.  Materially,  however,  the  immediate  victory 
was  undeniably  with  the  Royalists.  After  a  brief  period  of 
manoeuvre,  the  Parliamentary  army,  now  far  from  Plymouth, 
found  itself  surroimded  and  starving  at  Lostwithid,  on  the 
Fowey  river,  without  hope  of  assistance.  The  horse  cut  its  way 
out  through  the  investing  circle  of  posts,  Essex  himself  escaped 
by  sea,  but  Major-General  Skippon,  his  second  in  command,  had 
to  surrender  with  the  whole  of  the  foot  on  the  and  of  September. 
The  officers  and  men  were  allowed  to  go  free  to  Portsmouth, 
but  their  arms,  guns  and  munitions  were  the  spoil  of  the  victors. 
There  was  now  no  trustworthy  field  force  in  arms  for  the  Parlia- 
ment south  of  the  Humber,  for  even  the  Eastern  Association 
army  was  distracted  by  its  religious  differences,  which  had  now 
at  last  come  definitely  to  the  front  and  absorbed  the  political 
dispute  in  a  wider  issue.  Cromwell  already  proposed  to  abolish 
the  peerage,  the  members  of  which  were  inclined  to  make  a 
hollow  peace,  and  had  ceased  to  pay  the  least  respect  to  his 
general,  Manchester,  whose  scheme  for  the  solution  of  the  quarrel 
was  an  impossible  combination  of  Charies  and  Presbyterianism. 
Manchester  for  his  part  sank  into  a  state  of  mere  obstinacy, 
refusing  to  move  against  Rupert,  even  to  besiege  Newark,  and 
actually  threatened  to  hang  Colonel  Lilbume  for  capturing  a 
Royalist  castle  without  orders. 

20.  Operations  of  Essex* s^  WaUer's  and  Manchester's  Armiee. — 
After  the  success  oi  Lostwithid  there  was  little  to  detain  Charles's 
main  army  in  the  extreme  west,  and  meanwhile  Banbury,  a 
most  important  point  in  the  Oxford  drde,  and  Basing  House 
(near  Basingstoke)  were  in  danger  of  capture.  Waller,  who  had 
organized  a  small  force  of  rehable  troops,  had  already  sent 
cavalry  into  Dorsetshire  with  the  idea  of  assisting  Essex,  and 
he  now  came  himself  with  reinforcements  to  prevent,  so  far  as 
lay  in  his  power,  the  king's  return  to  the  Thames  valley.  Charles 
was  accompam'ed  of  course  only  by  his  permanent  forces  and 


4IO 


GREAT  REBELLION 


by  parts  of  Prince  Maurice's  and  Hopton's  armies — the  Comish 
levies  bad  as  usual  scattered  as  soon  as  the  war  receded  from 
their  borders.  Manchester  slowly  advanced  to  Reading,  Essex 
gradually  reorganized  his  broken  army  at  Portsmouth,  while 
Waller,  far  out  to  the  west  at  Shaftesbury,  endeavored  to  gain 
the  necessary  time  and  space  for  a  general  concentration  in 
Wfltshire,  where  Charies  would  be  far  from  Oxford  and  Basing 
and,  in  addition,  outnumbered  by  two  to  one.  But  the  work  of 
rearming  Essex's  troops  proceectod  slowly  for  want  of  money, 
and  Mimchester  peevishly  refused  to  be  hurried  either  by  his 
more  vigorous  subordinates  or  by  the  Committee  of  Both 
Kingdoms,  saying  that  the  army  of  the  Eastern  Association 
was  for  the  guard  of  its  own  employers  and  not  for  general, 
service.  He  pleaded  the  renewed  activity  of  the  Newark 
Royalists  as  his  excuse,  forgetting  that  Newark  would  have  been 
in  his  hands  ere  this  had  be  chosen  to  move  thither  instead  of 
lying  idle  for  two  months.  As  to  the  higher  command,  things 
had  come  to  such  a  pass  that,  when,  the  three  armies  at  last 
united,  a,  council  of  war,  consisting  of  three  army  commanders, 
several  senior  officers,  and  two  civilian  delegates  from  the' 
Committee,  was  constituted.  When  the  vote  of  the  majority 
had  determined  what  was  to  be  done,  Essex,  as  lord  generd 
of  the  Parliament's  first  army,  was  to  issue  the  necessary  orders 
for  the  whole.  Under  such  conditions  it  was  not  likely  that 
Wallei^s  hopes  of  a  great  battljs  at  Shaftesbury  would  be  realized. 
On  the  8th  of  October  he  fdl  back,  the  royal  army  following 
him  step  by  step  and  finally  reaching  Whitchurch  on  the  20th 
of  October.  Manchester  arrived  at  Basingstoke  on  the  zyth, 
WaUer  on  the  19th,  and  Essex  on  the  21st.  Charles  had  found 
that  he  could  not  relieve  Basing  (a  mile  or  two  from  Basingstoke) 
without  risking  a  battle  with  the  enemy  between  himself  and 
Oxford;*  he  therefore  took  the  Newbury  road  and  relieved 
Donnington  Castle  near  Newbury  on  the  a  2nd.  Three  days 
later  Banbury  too  was  relieved  by  a  force  which  could  now  be 
spared  from  the  Oxford  garrison.  But  for  once  the  councfl  of 
war  on  the  other  side  was  for  fighting  a  battle,  and  the  Parlia- 
mentary armies,  their  spirits  revived  by  the  prospect  of  action 
and  by  the  news  of  the  fall  of  Newcastle  and  the  defeat  of  a 
sally  from  Newark,  marched  briskly.  On  the  26th  they  appeared 
north  of  Newbury  on  the  Oxford  road.  Like  Essex  in  1643, 
Charles  found  himself  headed  o£f  from  the  shelter  of  friendly 
fortresses,  but  beyond  this  fact  there  is  little  similarity  between 
the  two  battles  of  Newbury,  for  the  Royalists  in  the  first  case 
merely  drew  a  barrier  across  Essex's  path.  On  the  present 
occasion  the  eager  Parliamentarians  made  no  attempt  to  force 
the  king  to  attack  them;  they  were  well  content  to  attack 
him  in  his  chosen  position  themselves,  especially  as  he  was  better 
o£f  for  supplies  and  quarters  than  they. 

21.  Second  Newbury. — The  second  battle  of  Newbury  is 
remarkable  as  being  the  first  great  manoeuvre-battle  (as  distinct 
from  "  pitched "  battle)  of  the  Civil  War.  A  preliminary 
reconnaissance  by  the  Parliamentary  leaders  (Essex  was  not 
present,  owing  to  illness)  established  the  fact  that  the  king's 
infantry  held  a  strong  line  of  defence  behind  the  Lamboum 
brook  from  Shaw  (indusive)  to  Donnington  (exclusive),  Shaw 
House  and  adjacent  buildings  being  held  as  an  advanced 
post.  In  rear  of  the  centre,  in  open  ground  just  north  of 
Newbury,  lay  the  bulk  of  the  royal  cavalry.  In  the  left  rear 
of  the  main  line,  and  sq>arated  from  it  by  more  than  a 
thousand  yards,  lay  Prince  Maurice's  corps  at  Speen,  advanced 
troops  on  the  high  ground  west  of  that  village,  bul  Donnington 
Castle,  under  its  energetic  governor  Sir  John  Boys,  formed  a 
strong  post  covering  this  gap  with  artillery  fire.  The  Parlia- 
mentary leaders  had  no  intention  of  flingmg  their  men  away 
in  a  frontal  attack  on  the  line  of  the  Lamboum,  and  a  flank 
attack  from  the  east  side  could  hardly  succeed  owing  to  the 
obstacle  presented  by  the  confluence  of  the  Lamboum  and  the 
Kennet,  hence  they  decided  on  a  wide  turning  movement  via 
Chieveley,  Winterbourae  and  Wickham  Heath,  against  Prince 
Maurice's  position — a  decision  which,  daring  and  energetic 

*  Charies's  policy  was  still,  as  before  Marston  Moor,  to  "  spin  out 
time  "  until  Rupert  came  back  from  the  north. 


as  it  was,  led  only  to  a  modi$ed  success,  for  reasons  which  will 
appear.  The  flank  inarch,  out  of  range  of  the  castle,  was  con- 
ducted with  punctuality  and  precision.  The  troc^  composing 
it  were  drawn  from  all  three  armies  and  led  by  the  best  fighting 
generab.  Waller,  Cromwell,  and  Essex's  subordinates  Balfour 
and  Skippon.  Manchester  at  (Hay  Hill  was  to  stand  fast  until 
the  turning  movement  had  developed,  and  to  make  a  vigorous 
holding  attack  on  Shaw  House  as  soon  as  Waller's  guns  were 
heard  at  Speen.  But  there  was  no  commander-in-chief  to  co- 
ordinate the  movements  of  the  two  widely  separated  ooipa,  and 
consequently  no  co-operation.  Waller's  attack  was  not  unex- 
pected, and  Prince  Maurice  had  made  ready  to  meet  him.  Yet 
the  first  rush  of  the  rebels  carried  the  entrenchments  of  Speen 
HOI,  and  Sp^en  itself,  though  stoutly  defended,  fell  into  their 
hands  within  an  hour,  Essex's  infantry  recapturing  here  some 
of  the  guns  they  had  had  to  surrender  at  Lostwithid.  But  mean- 
time Manchester,  in  spite  of  the  entreaties  of  his  staff,  had  not 
stirred  from  Clay  HilL  He  had  made  one  false  attack  already 
early  in  the  moming,  and  been  severely  handled,  and  he  was 
aware  of  his  own  d^dendes  as  a  genend.  A  year  before  this 
he  would  have  asked  for  and  acted  upon  the  advice  of  a  capable 
soldier,  such  as  Cromwell  or  Crawford,  but  now  his  mind  was 
warped  by  a  desire  for  peace  on  any  terms,  and  he  sought  only 
to  avoid  defeat  pending  a  haj^y  solution  of  the  quarrd.  Those 
who  sought  to  gain  peace  through  victory  were  meanwhfle 
driving  Maurice  back  from  hedge  to  hedge  towards  the  open 
ground  at  Newbury,  but  every  attempt  to  emeige  from  the  lajoes 
and  fidds  was  repulsed  by  the  royal  cavalry,  and  indeed  by 
every  available  man  and  horse,  for  Charles's  officers  had  gauged 
Manchester's  intentions,  and  almost  stripped  the  front  of  its 
ddenders  to  stop  Waller's  advance.  Nightfall  put  an  end  to 
the  straggle  around  Newbury,  and  then — too  late — Manchester 
ordered  the  attack  on  Shaw  House.  It  failed  completdy  in  spite 
of  the  gallantry  of  his  men,  and  darkness  being  then  complete 
it  was  not  renewed.  In  its  general  course  the  battle  dosdy 
resembled  that  of  Freiburg  (9.9.),  fought  the  same  year  on  the 
Rhine.  But,  if  Waller's  part  in  the  battle  corre^Mnded  in  a 
measure  to  Turenne's,  Manchester  was  unequal  to  playing  the 
part  of  Cond£,  and  consequently  the  results,  in  the  case  of  the 
French  won  by  three  days*  hard  fighting,  and  even  then  com< 
parativdy  small,  were  in  the  case  of  the  English  practically  nil. 
During  the  night  the  royal  army  quietly  marched  away  through 
the  gap  between  Waller's  and  Manchester's  troops.  The  heavy 
artillery  and  stores  were  left  in  Donnington  Castle^Charies  himself 
with  a  small  escort  rode  off  to  the  north-west  to  meet  Rupert, 
and  the  main  body  gained  Wallingford  unmolested.  An  attempt 
at  pursuit  was  made  by  Waller  and  Cromwell  with  all  the  cavalry 
they  could  lay  hands  on,  but  it  was  unsupported,  for  the  councfl 
of  ,war  had  dedded  to  content  itself  with  besieging  Doniyngton 
Castle.  A  little  later,  after  a  brief  and  half-hearted  attempt  to 
move  towards  Oxford,  it  referred  to  the  Committee  for  further 
instructions.  Within  the  month  Charles,  having  joined  Rupert 
at  Oxford  and  made  him  general  of  the  Royalist  forces  vice 
Brentford,  reappeared  in  the  ndg^bourhood  of  Newbury. 
Donnington  Castle  was  again  relieved  (November  9)  under  the 
eyes  of  the  Parliamentary  army,  which  was  in  such  a  miserable 
condition  that  even  Cromwell  was  against  fightingj'and  some 
manoeuvres  fdlowed,  in  the  course  of  which  Charles  relieved. 
Basing  House  and  the  Parliamentary  armies  fell  bade,  not  in 
the  belt  order,  to  Reading.  The  season  for  fidd  warfare  was 
now  far  spent,  and  the  royal  army  retired  to  enjoy  good  quartets 
and  plentiful  supplies  around  Oxford. 

1>2.  The  Sdf-denyiHg  Ordinance, — On  the  <^er  side,  the 
dissensions  between  the  generals  had  become  flagrant  and  public, 
and  it  was  no  longer  possible  for  the  Houses  of  Parliament  to 
ignore  the  fact  that  the  army  must  be  radically  rdormed. 
Cromwdl  and  Waller  from  thdr  fUaces  in  parliament  attacked 
Manchester's  conduct,  and  their  attack  ultimatdy  became,  so 
far  as  Cromwell  was  concemed,  an  attack  on  the  Lords,  most 
of  whom  hdd  the  same  views  as  Manchester,  and  on  the  Scots, 
who  attempted  to  bring  Cromwell  to  trial  as  an  "  incendiary." 
At  the  crisis  of  thdr  bitter  controversy  Cromwell  toddexJSy 


GREAT  REBELLION 


411 


proposed  to  ttifle  all  animoBities  by  tbe  resignatloii  of  all  officers 
who  were  members  of  either  House,  a  proposal  which  affected 
himself  not  less  than  Essex  and  Manchester.  The  first  **  self- 
denying  ordinance  "  was  moved  on  the  9th  of  December,  and 
provided  that  *'  no  member  of  either  house  shall  have  or  execute 
any  office  or  command  .  .  ./'  &c.  This  was  not  accepted  by 
the  Lords,  and  in  the  end  a  second  "  self-denying  ordinance  " 
was  agreed  to  (Aprfl  $,  1645)1  whereby  all  the  persons  concerned 
were  to  resign,  but  without  prejudice  to  thdr  reai^intment. 
Simultaneously  with  this,  the  formation  of  the  New  Model  was 
at  last  definitely  taken  into  consideration.  The  last  exploit  of 
Sir  William  WaUer,  who  was  not  re-employed  after  the  passing  of 
the  ordinance,  was  the  relief  of  Taunton,  then  besieged  by  General 
Goring's  army.  Cromwell  served  as  his  lieutenant-general  on 
this  occasion,  and  we  have  Waller's  own  testimony  that  he  was 
in  all  things  a  wise,  capable  and  respectful  subordinate.  Under 
a  leader  of  the  stamp  of  Waller,  Cromwell  was  well  satisfied  to 
Obey,  knowing  the  cause  to  be  in  good  hands. 

2$.  Deding  of  the  Royaiisi  Cause. — ^A  raid  of  Goring's  horse 
from  tbe  west  into  Surrey  and  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  General 
Browne  at  Abingdon  were  the  chief  enterprises  undertaken  on 
the  side  of  the  Royalists  during  the  early  winter.  It  was  no 
longer  "  sunmier  in  Devon,  summer  in  Yorkshire  "  as  in  January 
1643.  An  ever-growing  section  of  Royalists,  amongst  whom 
Rupert  himself  was  soon  to  be  numbered,  were  fw  peace;  many 
scores  of  loyalist  gentkmen,  impoverished  by  tbe  loss  ol  three 
yean'  rents  of  their  estates  and  hopeless  of  ultimate  victory, 
were  making  their  way  to  Westminster  to  give  in  their  sub- 
mission to  the  Parliament  and  to  pay  their  fines.  In  such 
circumstances  the  old  decision-seeking  strategy  was  impossible. 
The  new  plan,  suggested  probably  by  Rupert,  had  already  been 
tried  with  strat^cal  success  in  the  summer  campaign  of  1644. 
As  we  h«ve  seen,  it  consisted  essentially  in  using  Oxford  as  the 
centre  of  a  drde  and  striking  out  radially  at  any  favourable 
target — **  manoeuvring  about  a  fixed  point,"  as  Napoleon  called 
it.  It  was  significant  of  the  decline  of  tht  Royaliit  cause  that 
the  **  fixed  point "  had  been  in  1643  the  king's  field  army,  based 
indeed  on  its  great  entrenched  camp,  Banbury-Cirencester- 
Reading-Oxford,  but  free  to  move  and  to  hold  the  enemy  wherever 
met,  while  now  it  was  the  entrenched  camp  itself,  weakened 
by  the  loss  or  abandonment  of  its  outer  posts,  and  without  the 
power  of  binding  the  enemy  if  they  chose  to  ignore  its  existence, 
that  conditioned  the  scope  and  duration  of  the  single  remaining 
field  army's  enterprises. 

24.  Tke  New  Medd  Ordinance,— Tor  the  present,  however, 
Charles's  cause  was  crumbling  more  from  internal  weakness 
than  from  the  blows  of  the  enemy.  Fresh  negotiations  for  peace 
which  opened  on  the  ipth  of  January  at  Uxbridge  (by  the  name 
of  which  place  they  are  known  to  history)  occupied  the  attention 
of  the  Scots  and  their  Presbyterian  friends,  the  rise  of  Inde- 
pendency and  of  CromweU  was  a  further  distraction,  and  over 
the  new  army  and  the  Self-denying  Ordinance  the  Lords  and 
Commons  were  seriously  at  variance.  But  in  February  a  fresh 
mutiny  in  Waller's  command  struck  alarm  into  the  hearts  of 
the  d^utants.  The  "treaty"  of  Uxbridge  came  to  the  same 
end  as  the  treaty  of  Oxford  in  1645,  *nd  a  settlement  as  to  army 
reform  was  achieved  on  the  15th  of  February.  Though  it  ilras 
only  on  the  35th  of  March  that  the  second  and  modified  form  of 
the  ordinance  was.agreed  to  by  both  Houses,  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax 
and  Philip  Skippon  (who  were  not  members  of  parliament) 
had  been  approved  as  kwd  general  and  major-general  (of  the 
infantry)  icapectively  of  the  new  army  as  early  as  the  aist  of 
January.  The  poet  of  lieutenant-general  and  ca^ndiy  commander 
was  for  the  moment  left  vacant,  but  there  was  little  doubt  as  to 
who  would  eventually  occupy  it. 

35.  Vktcnet  ef  Montrose.— la  Scotland,  meanwhile,  Montrose 
wu  winning  victories  which  amaxed  the  people  of  the  two 
kingdoms.  Montrose's  royalism  differed  from  that  of  English- 
men of  the  17th  century  less  than  from  that  of  their  forefathers 
imder  Henry  Vm.  and  Elisabeth.  To  him  the  king  was  the 
protector  of  his  people  against  Presbyterian  theocracy,  scarcely 
lewoffenrive  to  him  than  the  Inquisition  itself,  and  the  feudal 


oppression  of  the  great  nobles.  Little  as  this  ideal  corresponded 
to  the  Charles  of  reality,  it  inspired  in  Montrose  not  merely 
romantic  heroism  but  a  force  of  leadership  which  was  sufficient 
to  carry  to  victory  the  nobles  and  gentry,  the  wild  Highlanders 
and  the  experienoed  professional  soldiers  who  at  various  times 
and  places  constituted  his  little  armies.  His  first  unsuccessful 
enterprise  has  been  mentioned  above.  It  seemed,  in  the  early 
stages  of  his  second  attempt  (August  1644),  as  if  failure  were  again 
inevitable,  for  the  gentry  of  the  northern  LowLuida  were  over- 
awed by  the  prevailing  party  and  resented  the  leadership  of  a 
lesser  noble,  even  though  he  were  the  king's  lieutenant  over  all 
Scotland.  Disappointed  of  support  where  he  most  expected  it, 
Montrose  then  turned  to  the  Highlands.  At  Bhur  Athol  he 
gathered  his  fint  army  of  Royalist  clansmen,  and  good  fortune 
gave  him  also  a  nucleus  of  trained  troops.  A  force  <^  disciplined 
experienced  soldien  (chiefly  Irish  Macdonalds  and  commanded 
by  Alastair  of  that  name)  had  been  sent  over  from  Ireland 
earlier  in  the  year,  and,  after  ravaging  the  glens  of  their  hereditary 
enemies  the  CampbcUs^  had  attempted  without  success,  now 
here,  now  there,  to  gather  the  other  clans  in  the  king's  name. 
Their  hand  was  against  every  man's,  and  when  he  finally  arrived 
in  Badenoch,  Alastair  Macdonald  was  glad  to  protect  himself 
by  submitting  to  the  authority  of  the  king's  lieutenant. 

There  were  three  hostile  armies  to  be  dealt  with,  besides — 
ultimately — the  main  covenanting  army  far  away  in  England. 
The  duke  of  Argyll,  the  head  of  the  Campbells,  had  an  army 
of  his  own  clan  and  of  Lowland  Covenanter  levies.  Lord  Elcho 
with  anoth^  Lowland  army  lay  near  Perth,  and  Lord  Balfour 
of  Burleigh  was  collecting  a  third  (also  composed  of  LowLuiders) 
at  Aberdeen.  Montrose  turned  upon  Elcho  fint,  and  found  him 
at  Tippermuir  near  Perth  on  the  ist  of  September  1644.  Tbe 
Royalists  were  about  3000  ttrong  and  entirely  foot,  only  Montrose 
hiinself  and  two  others  being  mounted,  while  Elcho  had  about 
7000  of  all  arms.  But  Elcho's  townsmen  found  that  luke  and 
musket  were  clumsy  weapons  in  inexperienced  hands,  and, 
like  Mackay's  regulars  at  Kjlliecrankie  fifty  years  later,  they 
wholly  failed  to  stop  the  rush  of  the  Highland  swordsmen. 
Many  himdreds  were  killed  in  the  pursuit,  and  Montrose  slept  in 
Perth  that  nis^t,  having  thus  accounted  for  one  of  his  enemies. 
Balfour  of  Burleigh  was  to  be  his  next  victim,  and  he  started  for 
Aberdeen  on  the  4th.  As  he  marched,  his  Highlanders  slipped 
away  to  place  their  booty  in  security.  But  the  Macdonald 
regidars  remained  with  him,  and  as  he  passed  along  the  coast 
some  of  the  gentry  came  in,  though  the  great  western  dan  of 
the  (jordons  was  at  present  too  far  divided  in  sefitiment  to  take 
his  part.  Lord  Lewis  Gordon  and  some  Gordon  horse  were  even 
in  Balfour's  army.  On  the  other  hand,  the  earl  of  Airlie  brought 
in  forty-four  horsemen,  and  Montrose  was  thus  aUe  to  constitute 
two  wings  of  cavalry  on  the  day  of  battle.  The  Covenanters 
were  about  2500  strong  and  drawn  Up  on  a  slope  above  the  How 
Bum'  just  outside  Aberdeen  (September  13, 1644).  Montrose, 
after  clearing  away  the  enemy's  skirmishers,  drew  up  his  army 
in  front  of  the  opposing  line,  the  foot  in  the  centre,  the  fotty-fotir 
mounted  men,  with  musketeers  to  support  them,  on  either  flank. 
The  hostile  left-wing  cavahry  charged  piecemeal,  and  some  bodies 
of  troops  did  not  engage  at  alL  On  the  other  wing,  however, 
Montrose  was  for  a  moment  hard  pressed  by  a  force  of  the  enemy 
that  attempted  to  work  round  to  his  rear.  But  he  brought  over 
the  small  band  of  mounted  men  that  constituted  his  ri^t  wing 
cavalry,  and  also  some  musketeers  from  the  centre,  and 
destroyed  the  assailants,  and  when  tbe  ill-led  left  wing  of  the 
Covenanters  charged  again,  during  the  absence  of  the  cavalry, 
they  were  mown  down  by  the  dose-range  volleys  of  Macdonald's 
musketeers.  Shortly  afterwards  the  centre  of  Balfour's  army 
yielded  to  pressure  and  fled  in  disorder.  Aberdeen  was  sacked 
by  order  of  M<mtrose,  irhoae  drummer  had  been  murdered  while 
delivering  a  message  under  a  flag  of  truce  to  the  magistrates. 

s6.  Ineerlocky. — Only  Argyll  now  remained  to  be  dealt  with. 

The  Campbells  were  fighting  men  from  birth,  like  Montrose's 

own  men,  and  had  few  townsmen  serving  with  them.    Still  there 

were  enough  of  the  latter  and  of  the  impedimenta  of  regular 

*The  ground  has  been  entirely  built  over  for  many  years. 


412 


GREAT  REBELLION 


warfare  with  him  to  prevent  Argyll  from  overtaking  his  'agile 
enemy,  and  ultimately  after  a"hide>and-Mek"  in  the  districts 
of  Rothiemurchus,  Blair  Athol,  Banchory  and  Strathbogie, 
Montrose  stood  to  fight  at  Fyvie  Castle,  repulsed  Argyll's  attack 
on  that  place  and  slipped  away  again  to  Rothiemurchua.  There 
he  was  joined  by  Camerons  and  Macdonalds  from  all  quarters 
for  a  grand  raid  on  the  CampbeU  country;  be  himself  wished  to 
march  into  the  Lowlands,  well  knowing  that  he  could  not  achieve 
the  decision  in  the  Grampians,  but  he  had  to  bow,  not  for  the 
first  time  nor  the  last,  to  local  importunity.  The  raid  was  duly 
executed,  and  the  Campbells'  boast, "  It's  a  far  cry  to  Loch  Awe," 
availed  them  little.  In  December  and  January  the  CampbeU 
lands  were  thoroughly  and  mercilessly  devastated,  and  Montrose 
then  retired  slowly  to  Loch  Ness,  where  the  bulk  of  his  army  as 
usual  dispersed  to  store  away  its  plunder.  Argyll,  with  such 
Highland  and  Lowland  forces  as  he  could  collect  after  the  disaster, 
follo^rod  Montrose  towards  Lochaber,  while  the  Seaforths  and 
other  northern  clans  marched  to  Loch  Ness.  Caught  between 
them,  Montrose  attacked  the  nearesL  The  Royalists  crossed 
the  hills  into  Glen  Roy,  worked  thence  along  the  northern  face 
of  Ben  Nevis,  and  descended  like  an  avalanche  upon  Argyll's 
forces  at  Inverlochy  (February  9, 1645).  As  usual,  the  Lowland 
regiments  gave  way  at  once — Montrose  had  managed  in  all  this 
to  keep  with  him  a  few  cavalry— and  it  was  then  the  turn  of  the 
CampbeDs.  Argyll  escaped  in  a  boat,  but  his  clan,  as  a  fighting 
force,  was  practically  annihilated,  and  Montrose,  having  won  four 
victories  in  these  six  winter  months,  rested  his  men  and  ezultingly 
promised  Charles  that  he  would  come  to  his  assistance  with  a 
brave  army  before  the  end  of  the  summer. 

27.  OrganiMotioH  of  Ike  New  Modd  Army. — ^To  return  to  the 
New  Model.  Its  first  necessity  was  regular  pay;  its  first  duty  to 
serve  wherever  it  might  be  sent.  Of  the  three  armies  that  had 
fought  at  Newbury  only  one,  Essex's,  was  in  a  true  sense  a  general 
service  force,  and  only  one,  Manchester's,  was  paid  with  any 
regularity.  Waller's  army  was  no  better  paid  than  Essex's  and 
no  more  free  from  local  ties  than  Manchester's.  It  was  therefore 
broken  up  early  in  April,  and  only  600  of  its  infantry  passed 
into  the  New  Model  Essex's  men,  on  the  other  hand,  wanted  but 
regular  pay  and  strict  officers  to  make  them  excellent  soldiers, 
and  their  own  major-general,  Skippon,  managed  by  tact  and  his 
personal  popularity  to  persuade  the  bulk  of  the  men  to  rejoin. 
Manchester's  army,  in  which  Cromwell  had  been  the  guiding 
influence  from  first  to  last,  was  naturally  the  backbone  of  the 
New  ModeL  Early  in  April  Essex,  Manchester,  and  Waller  re- 
signed their  commissions,  and  such  of  their  forces  as  were  not 
embodied  in  the  new  army  were  sent  to  do  local  duties,  for 
minor  armies  were  still  maintained,  General  Poyntz's  in  the  north 
midlands.  General  Massey's  in  the  Severn  valley,  a  large  force  in 
the  Eastern  Association,  General  Browne's  in  Buckinghamshire, 
&c.,  besides  the  Soots  in  the  north. 

The  New  Model  originally  consisted  of  14,400  foot  and  7700 
horse  and  dragoons.  Of  the  infantry  only  6000  came  from  the 
combined  armies,  the  rest  being  new  recruits  furnished  by  the 
press.'  Thus  there  was  considerable  trouble  during  the  fijrst 
months  of  Fairfax's  command,  and  discipline  had  to  be  enforced 
with  unusual  sternness.  As  for  the  enemy,  Oxford  was  openly 
contemptuous  of  "  the  rebels'  new  brutish  general "  and  his 
men,  who  seemed  hardly  likely  to  succeed  where  Essex  and  Waller 
had  failed.  But  the  effect  of  the  Parliament's  having  "  an  army 
all  its  own  "  was  soon  to  be  apparent. 

98.  Firsl  Operations  of  1645, — On  the  Royalist  side  the  cam- 
paign of  1645  opened  in  the  west,  whither  the  young  prince  of 
•WflJes  (Charles  II.)  was  sent  with  Hyde  (later  earl  of  Clarendon), 
Hopton  and  others  as  his  advisers.  General  (Lord)  Goring, 
however,  now  in  command  of  the  Royah'st  field  forces  in  this 
quarter,  was  truculent,  insubordinate  and  dissolute,  though  on 
the  rare  occasions  when  he  did  his  duty  he  displayed  a  certain 
degree  of  skill  and  leadership,  and  the  influence  of  the  prince's 

'  The  Puritans  had  by  now  disappeared  almost  entirely  from  the 
ranks  of  the  infantry..  Per  contra  tne  officers  and  sergeants  and  the 
troopers  of  the  hone  were  the  sternest  Puritans  of  all,  the  survivors 
«l  three  years  ol  a  disheartening  war.  / 


counsellors  was  but  tmalL  As.osoal,  operatioDs  began  yinXh 
the  sieges  necesskry  to  conciliate  local  feeling.  Plymonth  and 
.Lyme  were  blocked  up,  and  Taunton  again  invested..  The 
reinf orcemoit  thrown  into  the  last  place  by  Waller  and  Cromwell 
was  dismissed  by  Blake  (then  a  colond  in  command  ci  the 
fortress  and  afterwards  the  great  admiral  of  the  (^mmoa wealth), 
and  after  many  adventures  rejoined .  Waller  and  CromwelL 
The  latter  generals,  who  had  not  yet  laid  down  their  conimisstons, 
then  engaged  (joring  for  some  weeks,  but  neither  side  having 
infantry  or  artillery,  and  both  finding  subsistence  difficult  in 
February  and  March  and  in  country  that  had  been  foug^it  over 
for  two  years  past,  no  results  were  to  be  expected.  Taunton 
still  remained  unrelieved,  and  Goring's  horse  stiU  rode  all  oVer 
Dorsetshire  when  the  New  Model  at  last  took  the  field. 

39.  Ruperts  Northern  March. — In  the  midlands  and  Lancft- 
shire  the  Royalist  Jiorse,  as  ill-behaved  even  as  (joiing's  men, 
were  directly  responsible  for  the  ignominious  failure  with  which 
the  king's  main  army  began  its  year's  work.  Prince  Maurice 
was  joined  at  Ludlow  by  Rupert  and  part  of  his  Oxford  army 
early  in  March,  and  the  brothers  drove  off  Brereton  from  the 
siege  of  Beeston  Castle  and  relieved  the  pressure  on  Lord  Byron 
in  Cheshire.  So  great  was  the  danger  of  Rupert's  again  invading 
Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  that  all  available  f<vces  in  the  north, 
English  and  Soots,  were  ordered  to  march  against  him.  But 
at  this  moment  the  prince  was  called  back  to  clear  his  line 
of  retreat  on  Oxford.  The  Herefordshire  and  Worcestenhire 
peasantry,  weary  of  military  exactions,  were  in  arms,  and  though 
they  would  not  join  the  Parliament,  and  for  the  most  part 
dispersed  after  stating  their  grievances,  the  main  enterprise  was 
wrecked.  This  was  but  one  of  many  iU-armed  crowds—-"  Qub- 
men  "  as  they  were  called — that  assembled  to  enforce  peace 
on  both  parties.  A  few  regular  soldiers  were  sufficient  to  dtqierse 
them  in  all  cases,  but  their  attempt  to  establish  a  third  party 
in  England  was  morally  as  significant  as  it  was  materially  futile. 
The  Royalists  were  now  fighUng  with  the  courage  of  despair, 
those  who  still  fought  against  Charles  did  so  with  the  full  deter- 
mination to  ensure  the  triumph  of  their  cause,  and  with  the 
conviction  that  the  only  possible  way  was  the  annihilation  of  the 
enemy's  armed  forces,  but  the  majority  were  so  weary  of  the  war 
that  Uie  earl  of  Manchester's  Presbyterian  royaUsm — whidi  had 
contributed  so  materially  to  the  prolongation  oi  the  strug^e — 
would  probably  have  been  accepted  by  four-fifths  of  aU  England 
as  the  basis  of  a  peace.  It  was,  in  fact,  in  the  face  of  almost 
um'versal  opposition  that  Fairfax  and  Cromwell  and  their  friends 
at  Westminster  guided  the  cause  of  their  weaker  comrades  to 
complete  victory. 

30.  Cromwdl's  Raid. — ^Having  without  difficulty  rid  himself 
of  the  Clubmen,  Rupert  was  eager  to  resume  his  march  into  the 
north.  It  is  unlikely  that  he  wished  to  join  Montrose,  though 
Charles  himself  favoured  that  plan,  but  he  certainly  intended 
to  fight  the  Scottish  army,  more  espedally  as  after  Inverlochy 
it  had  been  called  upon  to  detach  a  large  force  to  deal  with 
Montrose.  But  this  time  there  was  no  Royalist  army  in  th^ 
north  to  provide  infantry  and  guns  fcM-  a  pitched  battle,  and 
Rupert  had  perforce  to  wait  near  Hereford  till  the  main  body, 
and  in  particular  the  artillery  train,  could  come  from  Oxford  and 
join  him.  It  was  on  the  march  of  the  artillery  train  to  Hereford 
that  the  first  operations  of  the  New  Model  centred.  The  infantry 
was  not  yet  ready  to  move,  in  spite  of  all  Fairfax's  and  Skippon '3 
efforts,  and  it  became  necessary  to  send  the  cavalry  by  itself 
to  prevent  Rupert  from  gaining  a  start.  Cromwdl,  then  under 
Waller's  conmumd,  had  come  to  Windsor  to  resign  his  commissioii 
as  required  by  the  Self-denying  Ordinance.  Instead,  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  a  brigade  of  his  own  old  soldiers,  with  orders 
to  stop  the  march  of  the  artillery  train.  On  the  S3rd  of  April 
he  started  from  WatlingtMi  north-westward.  At  dawn  on  the 
24th  he  routed  a  detadhment  of  Royalist  horse  at  Islip.  On 
the  same  day,  though  he  had  no  guns  and  only  a  few  firearms 
in  the  whole  force,  he  terrified  the  governor  of  Bletchxngdon 
House  into  surrender.  Riding  thence  to  Witney,  Cromwell 
won  another  cavalry  fight  at  Bampton-in-the-Bush  on  the  S7tb, 
and  attacked  Faiingdon  House,  though  without  success,  on  the 


GREAT  REBELLION 


413 


sgtli.  Tlwoce  he  maxched  at  letsure  to  Newbury.  He  had  done 
bk  work  thoroughly..  He  had  demoralized  the  Royalist  cavalry, 
aad,  above  all,  had  carried  o£f  every  horse  on  the  country-side. 
To  aU  Rupert's  entreaties  Charles  could  only  reply  that  the  guns 
could  not  be  moved  till  the  7th  of  May,  and  he  even  summoned 
Goring's  cavalry  from  the  west  to  make  good  his  losses. 

31.  CioUian  Strategy. — Cromwell's  success  thus  forced  the 
king  to  concentrate  his  various  armies  in  the  neif^bourhood 
of  Oxford,  and  the  New  Model  had,  so  Fairfax  and  Cromwell 
hoped,  fotmd  its  target.  But  the  Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms 
on  the  one  side,  and  Charles,  Rupert  and  Goring  on  the  other, 
held  different  views.  On  the  ist  of  May  Fairfax,  having  been 
ordered  to  relieve  Taunton,  set  out  from  Windsor  for  the  long 
aurch  to  that  place;  meeting  Cromwell  at  Newbury  on  the  and, 
he  directed  the  lieutenant-general  to  watch  the  movements  of 
the  king's  army,  and  himself  marched  on  to  Blandford,  which 
he  reached  on  the  7th  of  May.  Thus  Fairfax  and  the  main  army 
of  the  Parliament  were  marching  away  in  the  west  while  Crom- 
well's detachment  was  left,  as  Waller  had  been  left  the  previous 
year,  to  hold  the  king  as  best  he  could.  On  the  very  evening 
that  Cromwell's  raid  ended,  the  leading  troops  of  Goring's 
comooand  destroyed  part  of  Cromwell's  own  regiment  near 
Faringdon,  and  on  the  3rd  Rupert  and  Maurice  appeared  with 
a  force  of  all  arms  at  Burford.  Yet  the  Committee  of  Both 
Kingdoms,  though  aware  on  the  29th  of  Goring's  move,  only 
made  up  its  mind  to  stop  Fairfax  on  the  3rd,  and  did  not  send 
off  OTd«s  till  the  5th.  These  orders  were  to  the  effect  that  a 
detachment  was  to  be  sent  to  the  relief  of  Taunton,  and'  that 
the  main  army  was  to  return.  Fairfax  gladly  obeyed,  even 
though  a  siege  of  Oxford  and  not  the  enemy's  field  army  was 
the  objective  assigned  him.  But  long  before  he  came  up  to  the 
Thames  valley  the  situation  was  again  changed.  Rupert,  now 
in  possession  of  the  gtms  and  their  teams,  urged  upon  his  uncle 
the  resumption  of  the  northern  enterprise,  calculating  that  with 
Fairfax  in  Somersetshire,  Oxford  was  safe.  Charles  accordingly 
marched  out  of  Oxford  on  the  7th  towards  Stow-on-the-Wold, 
on  the  very  day,  as  it  chanced,  that  Fairfax  began  his  return 
march  from  Blandford.  But  Goring  and  most  of  the  other 
generals  were  for  a  march  into  the  west,  in  the  hope  of  dealing 
with  Fairfax  as  they  had  dealt  with  Essex  in  1644.  The  armies 
therefore  parted  as  Essex  and  Waller  had  parted  at  the  same 
place  in  1644,  Rupert  and  the  king  to  march  northward.  Goring 
to  return  to  his  independent  command  in  the  west.  Rupert, 
not  unnaturally  wishing  to  keep  hu  influence  with  the  king  and 
his  authority  as  general  of  the  king's  army  unimpaired  by 
Goring's  notorious  indiscipline,  made  no  attempt  to  prevent  the 
separation,  which  in  the  event  proved  wholly  unprofitable.  The 
flying  column  from  Blandford  relieved  Taunton  long  before 
Goring's  return  to  the  west,  and  Colonel  Weldon  and  Colonel 
Graves,  its  commanders,  set  him  at  defiance  even  in  the  open 
country.  As  for  Fairfax,  he  was  out  of  Goring's  reach  preparing 
for  the  siege  of  Oxford. 

3  a.  Charles  in  the  Midlands.— On  the  other  side  also  the 
generals  were  working  by  data  that  had  ceased  to  have  any  value. 
Fairfax's  siege  of  Oxford,  ordered  by  the  Committee  on  the  xoth 
of  May,  and  persisted  in  after  it  was  known  that  the  king  was  on 
the  move,  was  the  second  great  blunder  d(  the  year  and  was 
hardly  redeemed,  as  a  military  measure,  by  the  visionary  scheme 
of  assembling  the  Scots,  the  Yorkshiremen,  and  the  midland 
forces  to  oppose  the  king.  It  is  hard  to  imderstand  how,  having 
created  a  new  model  army  "  all  its  own  "  for  general  service,  the 
Parliament  at  once  tied  it  down  to  a  local  enterprise,  and  trusted 
an  in4>covised  army  of  local  troops  to  fight  the  enemy's  main 
army.  In  reality  the  Committee  seems  to  have  been  misled  by 
false  information  to  the  effect  that  Goring  and  the  governor  of 
Oxlmd  were  about  to  declare  for  the  Parliament,  but  had  they  not 
de^Mtched  Fairfax  to  the  relief  of  Taunton  in  the  first  instance 
the  necessity  for  such  intrigues  would  not  have  arisen.  However, 
Fairfax  obeyed  orders,  invested  Oxford,  and,  so  far  as  he  was  able 
without  a  proper  siege  train,  besieged  it  for  two  weeks,  while 
Charics  and  Rupert  ranged  the  midlands  unopposed.  At  the  end 
of  that  time  came  news  so  alarming  that  the  Committee  hastily 


abdicated  their  control  over  military  operations  and  gave 
Fairfax  a  free  hand.  "Black  Tom"  g^dly  and  insUntly 
abandoned  the  siege  and  marched  northward  to  give  battle  to  the 
king. 

Meanwhile  Charles  and  Rupert  were  moving  northward.  On 
the  nth  of  May  they  reached  Droitwich,  whence  after  two  days' 
rest  they  marched  against  Brereton.  The  latter  hurriedly  raised 
the  sieges  he  had  on  hand,  and  called  upon  Yorkshire  and  the 
Scotti^  army  there  for  aid.  Bvt  only  the  old  Lord  Fairfax 
and  the  Yorkshiremen  responded.  Leven  had  just  heard  of  new 
victories  won  by  Montrose,  and  could  do  no  more  than  draw  his 
army  and  his  guns  over  the  Pennine  chain  into  Westmorland  in 
the  hope  of  being  in  time  to  bar  the  king's  march  on  Scotland 
via  Carlisle. 

33.  DMHdee.-^Aiitr  the  destruction  of  the  Campbells  at 
Inverlochy,  Montrose  had  cleared  away  the  rest  of  his  enemies 
without  difficulty.  He  now  gained  a  respectable  force  of  cavalry 
by  the  adhesion  of  Lord  Gordon  and  many  of  his  clan,  and  this 
reinforcement  was  the  more  necessary  as  detachments  from 
Leven 's  army  under  Baillie  and  Hurry---disdpllned  infantry  and 
cavalrjr — were  on  the  march  to  meet  him.  The  Royalists  marched 
by  Elgin  and  thtough  the  Gordon  country  to  Aberdeen,  and 
thence  across  the  Esk  to  Coupar-Angus,  where  Baillie  and  Hurry, 
were  encountered.  A  war  of  manoeuvre  followed,  in  which  they 
thwarted  every  effort  of  the  Royalists  to  break  through  into  the 
Lowlands,  but  in  the  end  retired  into  Fife.  Montrose  thereupon 
marched  into  the  hills  with  the  intention  of  reaching  the  upper 
Forth  and  thence  the  Lowlands,  for  he  did  not  disguise  from 
himself  the  fact  that  there,  and  not  in  the  Highlands,  would  the 
quarrel  be  decided,  and  was  sanguine — over-sanguine,  as  the 
event  proved — ^as  to  the  support  he  would  obtain  from  those  who 
hated  the  kirk  and  its  system.  But  he  had  called  to  his  aid  the 
semi-barbarous  Highlanders,  and  however  much  the  Lowlands 
resented  a  Presbyterian  inquisition,  they  hated  and  feared  the 
Highland  clans  beyond  all  else.  He  was  equally  disappointed  in 
his  own  army.  For  a  war  of  positions  the  Highlanders  had  neither 
aptitude  nor  inclination,  and  at  Dunkeld  the  greater  part  of  them 
went  home.  If  the  small  remnant  was  to  be  kept  to  its  duty, 
plunder  must  be  fotmd,  and  the  best  objective  was  the  town  of 
Dundee.  With  a  small  force  of  750  foot  aiid  horse  Montrose 
brilliantly  surprised  that  place  on  the  4th  of  April,  but  Baillie  and 
Hurry  were  not  far  distant,  and  before  Montrose''s  men  had  time 
to  plunder  the  prize  they  were  collected  to  face  the  enemy. 
His  retreat  from  Dundee  was  considered  a  model  operation  by 
foreign  students  of  the  art  of  war  (then  almost  as  numerous  as 
now),  and  what  surprised  them  most  was  that  Montrose  could 
rally  his  men  after  a  sack  had  begun.  The  retreat  itself  was 
remarkable  enough.  Baillie  moved  parallel  to  Montrose  on  his 
left  flank  towards  Arbroath,  constantly  heading  him  off  from  the 
hills  and  attempting  to  pin  him  against  the  sea.  Montrose, 
however,  halted  in  the  dark  so  as  to  let  Baillie  get  ahead  of  him 
and  then  turned  sharply  back,  crossed  Baillie's  track,  and  made 
for  the  hills.  Baillie  soon  realized  what  had  happened  and 
turned  back  also,  but  an  hour  too  late.  By  the  6th  the  Royalists 
were  again  safe  in  the  broken  country  of  the  Esk  valley.  But 
Montrose  cherished  no  illusions  as  to  joining  the  king  at  once; 
all  he  could  do,  he  now  wrote,  was  to  neutraUze  as  many  of  the 
enemy's  forces  as  possible. 

34.  Auldearn. — For  a  time  he  wandered  in  the  Highlands 
seeking  recruits.  But  soon  he  learned  that  Baillie  and  Hurry  had 
divided  their  forces,  the  former  remaining  about  Perth  and 
Stirling  to  observe  him,  the  latter  going  north  to  suppress  the 
Gordons.  Strategy  and  policy  combined  to  make  Hurry  the 
objective  of  the  next  expedition.  But  the  soldier  of  fortune  who 
commanded  the  Covenanters  at  Aberdeen  was  no  mean 
antagonist.  Marching  at  once  with  a  large  army  (formed  on  the 
nucleus  of  his  own  trained  troops  and  for  the  rest  composed  of 
clansmen  and  volunteers)  Hurry  advanced  to  Elgin,  took  contact 
with  Montrose  there,  and,  gradually  and  skilfully  retiring,  drew 
him  into  the  hostile  coimtry  round  Inverness.  Montrose  fdl  into 
the  trap,  and  Hurry  took  bis  measures  to  surprise  him  at  Auld- 
earn so  successfully  that  (May  9)  Montrose^  even  though  the 


4H 


GREAT  REBELLION 


inducipline  o(  some  of  Hurry's  young  soldiers  during  the  night 
march  gave  him  the  alarm,  had  barely  time  to  form  up  before  the 
enemy  was  upon  him.  But  the  best  strategy  is  of  no  avail  when 
the  battle  it  produces  goes  against  the  strategist,  and  Montrose's 
tactical  skill  was  never  more  conspicuous  than  at  Auldearn. 
Alastair  Macdonald  with  most  of  the  Royalist  infantry  and  the 
Royal  standard  was  posted  to  the  right  (north)  of  the  village  to 
draw  upon  himself  the  weight  of  Hurry's  attack;  only  enough 
men  were  posted  in  the  village  itself  to  show  that  it  was  occupied, 
and  on  the  south  side,  out  of  sight,  was  Montrose  himself  with  a 
body  of  foot  and  all  the  Gordon  horse.  It  was  the  prototype,  on  a 
small  scale,  of  Austerlitz.  Macdonald  resisted  sturdily  while 
Montrose  edged  away  from  the  scene  of  action,  and  at  the  right 
moment  and  not  before,  though  Macdonald  had  been  driven 
back  on  the  village  and  was  fighting  for  life  amongst  the  gardens 
and  enclosures,  Montrose  let  loose  Lord  Gordon's  cavalry.  These, 
abandoning  for  once  the  pistol  tactics  of  their  time,  charged 
home  with  the  sword.  The  enemy's  right  wing  cavalry  was 
scattered  in  an  instant,  the  nearest  infantry  was  promptly  ridden 
down,  and  soon  Hurry's  army  had  ceased  to  exist. 

35.  Campaign  of  Naseby. — IT  the  news  of  Auldearn  brought 
Leven  to  the  region  of  Carlisle,  it  had  little  effect  on  his  English 
allies.  Fairfax  was  not  yet  released  from  the  siege  of  Oxford,  in 
spite  of  the  protests  of  the  Scottish  representatives  in  London. 
Massey,  the  active  and  successful  governor  of  Gloucester,  was 
placed  in  command  of  a  field  force  on  the  25th  of  May,  but  he  was 
to  lead  it  against,  not  the  king,  but  Goring.  At  that  moment  the 
military  situation  once  more  changed  abruptly.  Charles,  instead 
of  continuing  his  march  on  to  Lancashire,  turned  due  eastward 
towards  Derbyshire.  The  alarm  at  Westminster  when  this  new 
development  was  reported  was  such  that  Cromwell,  in  spite  of  the 
Self-Denying  Ordinance,  was  sent  to  raise  an  army  for  the 
defence  of  the  Eastern  Association.  Yet  the  Royalists  had  no 
intentions  in  that  direction.  Conflicting  reports  as  to  the 
condition  of  Oxford  reached  the  royal  headquarters  in  the  last 
week  of  May,  and  the  eastward  march  was  made  chiefly  to 
"  spin  out  time  "  until  it  could  be  known  whether  it  would  be 
necessary  to  return  to  Oxford,  or  whether  it  was  still  possible  to 
fight  Leven  in  Yorkshire — ^his  move  into  Westmorland  was  not 
yet  known — and  invade  Scotland  by  the  easy  cast  coast  route. 

Goring's  return  to  the  west  had  already  been  countermanded 
and  he  had  been  directed  to  march  to  Harborou^,  while  the 
South  Wales  Royalists  were  also  called  in  towards  Leicester. 
Later  orders  (May  26)  directed  him  to  Newbury,  whence  he  was 
to  feel  the  strength  of  the  enemy's  positions  around  Oxford. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  Goring  found  good  military 
reasons  for  continuing  his  independent  operations,  and  marched 
off  towards  Taimton  regardless  of  the  order.  He  redressed  the 
balance  there  for  the  moment  by  overawing  Massey's  weak  force, 
and  his  purse  profited  considerably  by  fresh  opportunities  for 
extortion,  but  he  and  his  men  were  not  at  Naseby.  Meanwhile 
the  king,  at  the  geographical  centre  of  England,  found  an  im- 
portant and  wealthy  town  at  his  mercy.  Rupert,  always  for 
action,  took  the  opportunity,  and  Leicester  was  stormed  and 
thoroughly  pillaged  on  the  night  of  the  joth-j  ist  of  May.  There 
was  the  usual  panic  at  Westminster,  but,  unfortunately  for 
Charles,  it  resulted  in  Fairfax  being  directed  to  abandon  the 
siege  of  Oxford  and  given  carJe  Idancke  to  bring  the  Royal  army 
to  battle  wherever  it  was  met.  On  his  side  the  king  had,  after 
the  capture  of  Leicester,  accepted  the  advice  of  those  who  feared 
for  the  safety  of  Oxford — Rupert,  though  commander-in-chief, 
was  unable  to  insist  on  the  northern  enterprise — and  had  marched 
to  Daventry,  where  he  halted  to  throw  supplies  into  Oxford. 
Thus  Fairfax  in  his  turn  was  free  to  move,  thanks  to  the  in- 
subordination of  Goring,  who  would  neither  rdieve  Oxford  nor 
join  the  king  for  an  attack  on  the  New  Model.  The  Parliamentary 
general  moved  from  Oxford  towards  Northampton  so  as  to 
cover  the  Eastern  Association.  On  the  xath  of  June  the  two 
armies  were  only  a  few  miles  apart,  Fairfax  at  Kislingbury, 
Charles  at  Daventry,  and,  though  the  Royalists  turned  northward 
again  on  the  13th  to  resume  the  Yorkshire  project  under  the  very 
eyes  of  the  enemy,  Fairfax  followed  dose.    On  the  night  of 


the  13th  Charles  slept  at  Lubenham,  Fairfax  at  Guilsborough. 
Cromwell,  just  appointed  lieutenant-general  of  the  New  Model, 
had  ridden  into  camp  on  the  morning  of  the  X3th  with  fresh 
cavalry  from  the  eastern  counties.  Colonel  Rossiter  c&me  up 
with  more  from  Lincolnshire  on  the  morning  of  the  battle, 
and  it  was  with  an  incontestable  superiority  of  numbers  and  an 
overwhelming  moral  advantage  that  Fairfax  fought  at  Naseby 
(9.9.)  on  the  14th  of  June.  The  result  of  the  battle,  this  time  a 
decisive  battle,  was  the  annihilation  of  the  Royal  army.  Part 
of  the  cavalry  escaped,  a  small  fraction  of  it  in  tolerable  order, 
but  the  guns  and  the  baggage  train  were  taken,  and,  above  all, 
the  splendid  Royal  infantry  were  killed  or  taken  prisoners  to  a 
man. 

36.  Effeds  of  Naseby. — After  Naseby,  though  the  war  dragged 
on  for  another  year,  the  king  never  succeeded  in  raising  an  army 
as  good  as,  or  even  more  numerous  than,  that  which  Fairfax's 
army  had  so  heavily  outnumbered  on  the  14th  of  June.  That 
the  fruits  of  the  victory  could  not  be  gathered  in  a  few  weeks 
was  due  to  a  variety  of  hindrances  rather  than  to  direct  opposi- 
tion— to  the  absence  of  rapid  means  of  communication,  the 
paucity  of  the  forces  engaged  on  both  sides  relatively  to  the  total 
numbers  under  arms,  and  from  time  to  time  to  the  political 
exigencies  of-  the  growing  quarrel  between  Presbyterians  and 
Independents.  As  to  the  latter,  within  a  few  days  of  Naseby, 
the  Scots  rejoiced  that  the  "  back  of  the  malignants  was  broken," 
and  demanded  reinforcements  as  a  precaution  against  "  the 
insolence  of  others,"  i.e.  Cromwell  and  the  Independents — '*  to 
whom  alone  the  Lord  has  given  the  victory  of  that  day."  Leven 
had  by  now  returned  to  Yorkshire,  and  a  fortnight  after  Naseby, 
after  a  long  and  honourable  defence  by  Sir  Thomas  Glemham. 
Carlisle  feU  to  David  Leslie's  besieging  corps.  Leicester  was 
reoccupied  by  Fairfax  on  the  z8th,  and  on  the  aoth  Leven 's 
army,  moving  slowly  southward,  reached  Mansfield.  This  move 
was  undertaken  largely  for  political  reasons,  i^.  to  restore  the 
Presbyterian  balance  as  against  the  victorious  New  Model. 
Fairfax's  army  was  intended  by  its  founders  to  be  a  qwdfically 
English  army,  and  Cromwell  for  one  would  have  employed  it 
against  the  Scots  almost  as  readily  as  against  malignants. 
But  for  the  moment  the  advance  of  the  northern  army  was  of 
the  highest  military  importance,  for  Fairfax  was  thereby  set 
free  from  the  necessity  of  undertaking  sieges.  Moreover,  the 
publication  of  the  king's  papers  taken  at  Naseby  gave  Fairfax's 
troops  a  measure  of  official  and  popular  support  which  a  month 
before  they  could  not  have  been  said  to  possess,  for  it  was  now 
obvious  that  they  represented  the  armed  force  of  England  against 
the  Irish,  Danes,  French,  Lorrainers,  &c.,  whom  Charles  had  for 
three  years  been  endeavouring  to  let  loose  on  English  soiL 
Even  the  Presbyterians  abandpned  for  the  time  any  attempt 
to  negotiate  with  the  king,  and  advocated  a  vigorous  prosecution 
of  the  war. 

37.  Fairfax's  Western  Campaign. — This,  in  the  hands  of  Fairfax 
and  Cromwell,  was  likdy  to  be  effective.  While  the  king  and 
Rupert,  with  the  remnant  of  their  cavalry,  hurried  into  South 
Wales  to  join  Sir  Charles  Gerard's  troops  and  to  raise  fresh  in- 
fantry, Fairfax  decided  that  Goring's  was  the  most  important 
Royalist  army  in  the  field,  and  turned  to  the  west,  reaching 
Lechlade  on  the  a6th,Iess  than  a  fortnight  after  the  battle  of 
Naseby.  One  last  attempt  was  made  to  dictate  the  plan  of 
campaign  from  Westminster,  but  the  Committee  refused  to  pass 
on  the  directions  of  the  Houses,  and  he  remained  free  to  deal 
with  Goring  as  he  desired.  Time  pressed ;  Charles  in  Monmouth* 
shire  and  Rupert  at  Bristol  were  well  placed  for  a  junction  with 
Goring,  which  would  have  given  them  a  united  army  15,000 
strong.  Taunton,  in  ^ite  of  Massey's  efforts  to  keep  the  fidd, 
was  again  besieged,  and  in  Wilts  and  Dorset  numerous  bands 
of  Clubmen  were  on  foot  which  the  king's  officers  were  dmng 
their  best  to  turn  into  troops  for  their  master.  But  the  process 
of  collecting  a  fresh  royal  army  was  slow,  and  Goring  and  bis 
sub^inate.  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  were  alienating  the  king*s 
most  devoted  adherents  by  thdr  rapadty,  crudty  and  de^ 
bauchery.  Moreover,  Goring  had  no  desire  to  lose  the  inde- 
pendent command  be  had  extorted  at  Stow-on-the-Woldin  May. 


GREAT  REBELLION 


415 


sun.  It  was  clear  that  he  must  be  disposed  of  as  quickly  as 
possible,  and  Fairfax  requested  the  Houses  to  take  other 
measures  against  the  king  (June  26) .  This  they  did  by  paying  up 
the  arrears  due  to  Leven's  army  and  bringing  it  to  the  Severn 
valley.  On  the  8lh  of  July  Leven  reach^  Alcester,  bringing 
with  him  a  Parliamentarian  force  from  Derbyshire  under  Sir 
John  GelL    The  design  was  to  besiege  Hereford. 

38.  Langpari. — By  that  time  Fairfax  and  Goring  were  at 
cbie  quarters.  The  Royalist  general's  line  of  defence  faced  west 
along  the  Yeo  and  the  Parrett  between  Yeovil  and  Bridgwater, 
and  thus  barred  the  direct  route  to  Taunton.  Fairfax,  however, 
marched  from  Lechlade  via  Marlborough  and  Blandford — 
hindered  only  by  Clubmen— to  the  friendly  posts  of  Dorchester 
and  Lyme,  and  with  these  as  his  centre  of  operations  he  was 
able  to  turn  the  headwaters  of  Goring's  river-line  via  Beaminster 
and  Crewkeme.  The  Royalists  at  once  abandoned  the  south  and 
west  side  of  the  rivers— the  siege  of  Taunton  had  already  been 
given  up — and  passed  over  to  the  north  and  east  bank.  Bridg- 
water was  the  right  of  this  second  line  as  it  had  been  the  left  of 
the  first;  the  new  left  was  at  Ilchester.  Goring  could  thus 
remain  in  touch  with  Charks  in  south  Wales  through  Bristol, 
and  the  siege  of  Taunton  having  been  given  up  there  was  no 
kHiger  any  incentive  for  renuuning  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
water-line.  But  his  army  was  thoroughly  .demoralized  by  its 
own  licence  and  indiscipline,  and  the  swift,  handy  and  resolute 
regiments  of  the  New  Model  made  short  work  of  its  strong 
positions.  On  the  7th  of  July,  demonstrating  against  the  points 
of  passage  between  Ilchester  and  Langport,  Fairfax  secretly 
occupied  Yeovil.  The  post  at  that  place,  which  had  been  the 
right  of  Goring's  first  position,  had,  perhaps  rightly,  been  with- 
drawn to  Ilchester  when  the  second  position  waiiS  taken  up,  and 
Fairfax  repaired  the  bridge  without  interruption.  Goring 
showed  himself  unequal  to  the  new  situation.  He  might,  if 
sober,  make  a  good  plan  when  the  enemy  was  not  present  to 
disturb  him,  and  he  certainly  led  cavalry  charges  with  boldness 
and  skilL  But  of  strategy  in  front  of  the  enemy  he  was  in- 
capable. On  the  news  from  Yeovil  he  abandoned  the  line  of  the 
Yeo  as  far  as  Langport  without  striking  a  blow,  and  Fairfax, 
having  nothing  to  gain  by  continuing  his  detour  through  Yeovil, 
came  back  and  quietly  crossed  at  Long  Sutton,  west  of  Ilchester 
(July  9).  Goring  had  by  now  formed  a  new  plan.  A  strong  rear- 
guard was  posted  at  Langport  and  on  high  ground  east  and  north- 
east of  it  to  hold  Fairfax,  and  he  himself  with  the  cavalry  rode 
off  early  on  the  8th  to  try  and  surprise  Taunton.  This  place 
was  no  longer  protected  by  Massey's  little  army,  which  Fairfax 
bad  called  up  to  assist  his  own.  But  Fairfax,  who  was  not  yet 
across  Long  Sutton  bridge,  heard  of  Goring's  raid  in  good  time, 
and  sent  Massey  after  him  with  a  body  of  horse.  Massey  sur- 
prised a  large  party  of  the  RoyalisU  at  Ilminster  on  the  9th, 
wounded  Goring  h^nself,  and  pursued  the  fugitives  up  to  the 
south-eastern  edge  of  Langport.  On  the  loth  Fairfax's  ad- 
vanced guard,  led  by  Major  Bethel  of  CromweU's  own  regiment, 
brilliantly  stormed  the  position  of  Goring's  rearguard  east  of 
Langport,  and  the  cavalry  of  the  New  M(^el,  led  by  Cromwell 
himself,  swept  in  pursuit  right  up  to  the  gates  of  Bridgwater, 
where  Goring's  army,  dismayed  and  on  the  point  of  collapse, 
was  more  or  less  rallied.  Thence  Goring  himself  retired  to 
Barnstaple.  His  army,  under  the  regimental  officers,  defended 
itself  in  Bridgwater  resolutely  till  the  93rd  of  July,  when  it 
capitulated.  The  fall  of  Bridgwater  gave  Fairfax  complete  con- 
trol of  Somerset  and  Dorset  from  Lyme  to  the  Bristol  channel. 
Even  in  the  unlikely  event  of  Goring's  raising  a  fresh  army, 
be  would  now  have  to  break  through  towards  Bristol  by  open 
force,  and  a  battle  between  Goring  and  Fairfax  could  only  have 
one  result.  Thus  Charles  had  perforce  to  give  up  his  intention 
of  joining  Goring— his  recruiting  operations  in  south  Wales  had 
not  been  so  successful  as  he  hoped,  owing  to  the  apathy  of  the 
people  and  the  vigour  of  the  local  Parliamentary  leaders— 
and  to  rtsume  the  northern  enterprise  begun  in  the  spring. 

39-  Sfkemes  0/  Lord  Digby.^Tha  time  Rupert  would  not  be 
"With  him.  The  prince,  now  deqiairing  of  success  and  hoping 
only  for  a  peace  on  the  best  terms  procurable,  listlessly  returned 


to  his  governorship  of  Bristol  and  prepared  to  meet  Fairfax's 
impending  attack.  The  influence  of  Rupert  was  supplanted  by 
that  of  Lord  Digby.  As  sanguine  as  Charles  and  far  more 
energetic,  he  was  for  the  rest  of  the  campaign  the  guiding  spirit 
of  the  Royalists,  but  being  a  civilian  he  proved  incapable  of 
judging  the  military  factors  in  the  situation  from  a  military 
standp<Mnt,  and  not  only  did  he  offend  the  officers  by  constituting 
himself  a  sort  of  confidential  military  secretary  to  the  king,  but 
he  was  distrusted  by  all  sections  of  Royalists  for  his  reckless 
optimism.  The  resumption  of  the  northern  enterprise,  opposed 
by  Rupert  and  directly  inspired  by  Digby,  led  to  nothing. 
Charles  marched  by  Bridgnorth,  Lichfield  and  Ashbourne  to 
Doncaster,  where  on  the  x8th  of  August  be  was  met  by  great 
numbers  of  Yorkshire  gentlemen  with  promises  of  fresh  recruits. 
For  a  moment  the  outlook  was  bright,  for  the  Derbyshire  men 
with  Gell  were  far  away  at  Worcester  with  Leven,  the  Yorkshire 
Parliamentarians  engaged  in  besieging  Scarborough  Castle, 
Pontefract  and  other  posts.  But  two  days  later  he  heard  that 
David  Leslie  with  the  cavalry  of  Leven's  army  was  coming 
up  behind  him,  and  that,  the  Yorkshire  sieges  being  now  ended, 
Major-General  Poyntz's  force  lay  in  his  front.  It  was  now  im- 
possible to  wait  for  the  new  levies,  and  reluctantly  the  king  turned 
back  to  Oxford,  raiding  Huntingdonshire  and  other  parts  of  the 
hated  Eastern  Association  en  route, 

40.  Montrose* s  Last  Victories. —  David  Leslie  did  not  pursue  him. 
Montrose,  though  the  king  did  not  yet  know  it,  had  won  two 
more  battles,  and  was  practically  master  c^  all  Scotland.  After 
Auldearn  he  had  turned  to  meet  Baillie's  army  in  Strathspey,  and 
by  superior  mobility  and  skill  forced  that  commander  to  keep  at 
a  Ttspetdvl  distance.  He  then  turned  upon  a  new  army  which 
Lindsay,  titular  earl  of  Crawford,  was  forming  in  Forfarshire, 
but  that  commander  betook  hintfelf  to  a  safe  distance,  and 
Montrose  withdrew  into  the  Highlands  to  find  recruits  (June). 
The  victors  of  Auldearn  had  mostly  dispersed  on  this  usual  errand, 
and  he  was  now  deserted  by  most  of  the  Gordons,  who  were  re- 
called by  the  chief  of.  their  clan,  the  marquess  of  Huntly,  in  spite 
of  thoT  indignant  remonstrances  of  Huntly's  heir.  Lord  Gordon, 
who  was  Montrose's  warmest  admirer.  Baillie  now  approached 
again,  but  he  was  weakened  by  having  to  find  trained  troops 
to  stiffen  Lindsay's  levies,  and  a  strong  force  of  the  Gordons  had 
now  been  persuaded  to  rejoin  Montrose.  The  two  armies  met  in 
battle  near  Alford  on  the  Don;  Uttle.can  be  said  of  the  engage- 
ment save  that  Montrose  hi^  to  figlit^cautiously  and  tentatively 
as  at  Aberdeen, -not  in  .the  dttision-fbrciiig  spirit  of  Atddeam, 
and  that  in  the  end  Baillie's  cavalry  gave  way  and  his  infantry 
was  cut  down  as  it  stood..  Lord  Gordon  was  amongst  the  Royalist 
dead  (July  a).  The  plunder  was  put  away  in  the  glens  before  any 
attempt  was  made  to  go  forward,  and  thus  the  Covenanters  had 
leisure  to  form  a  numerous,  if  not  very  coherent,  army  on  the 
i\ycleus  of  Lindsay's  troops.  Baillie,  much  against  his  will,  was 
continued  in  the  command,  with  a  council  of  war  (chiefly  of  nobles 
whom  Montrose  had  already  defeated,  such  as  Argyll,  Elcho  and 
Balfour)  to  direct  his  every  movement.  Montrose,  when  rejoined 
by  the  Highlanders,  moved  to  meet  him,  and  in  the  last  week  of 
July  and  the  early  part  of  August  there  were  manceuvres  and 
minor  engagements  round  Perth.  About  the  7th  of  August 
Montrose  suddenly  slipped  away  into  the  Lowlands,  heading 
for  Glasgow.  Thereupon  another  Covenanting  army  began  to 
assemble  \n  Clydesdale.  But  it  was  clear  that  Montrose  could 
bMt  mere  levies,  and  Baillie,  though  Without  authority  and 
despairing  of  success,  hurried  after  him.  Montrose  then,  having 
drawn  Baillie's  Fifeshire  militia  far  enough  from  home  to  ensure 
their  being  discontented,  turned  upon  them  on  the  X4th  of  August 
near  Kilsyth.  Baillie  protested  against  fighting,  but  his  aristo- 
cratic masters  of  the  council  of  war  decided  to  cut  off  Montrose 
from  the  bills  by  turning  his  left  wing.  The  Royalist  general 
seized  the  opportunity,  and  his  advance  caught  them  in  the  very 
act  of  making  a  flank  march  (August  15).  The  head  of  the 
Covenanters'  column  was  met  and  stopped  by  the  furioUs  attack 
of  the  Gordon  infantry,  and  Alastair  Macdonald  led  the  men  of 
his  own  name  and  the  Macleans  against  its  flank.  A  breach  wai 
made  in  the  centre  of  Baillie's  army  at  the  first  rush.  £ad  tbeii 


4x6 


GREAT  REBELLION 


MontrosesenlintbeGordoh and Ogflvy horse.  Theleadinghalfof 
the  column  was  surrounded,  broken  up  and  annihilated.  The  rear 
half,  seeing  the  fate  of  its  comrades,  took  to  flight,  but  in  vam, 
for  the  Hi^ilanders  pursued  d  outrance.  Only  about  one  hundred 
Covenanting  infantry  out  of  six  thousand  escaped.  Montrose 
was  now  indeed  the  king's  lieutenant  in  all  Scotland. 

41.  Fall  of  BrisUd. — But  Charies  was  in  no  case  to  resume  his 
northern  march.  Fairfax  and  the  New  Model,  after  reducing 
Bridgwater,  had  turned  back  to  dear  away  the  Dorsetshire 
Clubmen  and  to  besiege  Sherborne  Castle.  On  the  completion 
of  this  task,  it  had  been  decided  to  besiege  Bristol,  and  on  the 
ajrd  of  August — ^while  the  king's  army  was  still  in  Huntingdon, 
and  Goring  was  trying  to  raise  a  new  army  to  replace  the  one  he 
had  lost  at  Langport  and  Bridgwater — ^the  city  was  invested. 
In  these  urgent  circumstances  Charies  left  Oxford  for  the  west 
only  a  day  or  two  after  he  had  come  in  from  the  Eastern  Associa- 
tion raid.  Calculating  that  Rupert  could  hold  out  longest,  he 
first  moved  to  the  relief  of  Worcester,  around  which  place  Lcven's 
Scots,  no  longer  having  Leslie's  cavalry  with  them  to  find  supplies, 
were  more  occupied  with  laundering  their  immediate  neighbour- 
hood for  food  than  with  the  siege  works.  Worcester  was  relieved 
on  the  ist  of  September  by  the  king.  David  Leslie  with  all  his 
cavalry  was  already  on  the  march  to  meet  Montrose,  and  Leven 
had  no  alternative  but  to  draw  ofiF  his  infantry  without  fighting. 
Charies  entered  Worcester  on  the  8th,  but  he  found  that  he 
could  no  longer  expect  recruits  from  South  Wales.  Worse 
was  to  come.  A  few  hours  later,  on  the  night  of  the  9th-ioth, 
Fairfax's  army  stormed  BristoL  Rupert  had  long  realized  the 
hopelessness  of  further  fighting — ^the  very  summons  to  surrender 
sent  in  by  Fairfax  placed  the  fate  of  Bristol  on  the  political  issue, 
—the  lines  of  defence  around  the  place  were  too  extensive  for 
his  snudl  force,  and  on  the  zxth  he  surrendered  on  terms.  He 
was  escorted  to  Oxford  with  his  men,  conversing  as  he  rode  with 
the  officers  of  the  escort  about  peace  and  the  future  of  his  adopted 
country.  Charles,  almost  stunned  by  the  suddenness  of  the 
tatastrophe,  dismissed  his  nephew  from  all  his  ofiices  and  ordered 
him  to  leave  England,  and  for  almost  the  last  time  called  upon 
Goring  to  rejoin  the  main  army — ^if  a  tiny  force  of  raw  infantry 
and  dUheartened  cavalry  can  be  so  called — in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Rag^n.  But  before  Goring  could  be  brought  to  withdraw 
his  objections  Charles  had  again  turned  northward  towards 
Montrose.  A  weary  march  through  the  Welsh  hills  brought  the 
Royal  army  on  the  a  2nd  of  September  to  the  neighbouifhood  of 
Chester.  Charles  himself  with  one  body  entered  the  city,  which 
was  partially  invested  by  the  Parliamentarian  colonel  Michael 
Jones,  and  the  rest  under  Sir  Marmaduke  Langdale  was  sent  to 
take  Jones's  lines  in  reverse.  But  at  the  opportune  moment 
Poyntx's  forces,  which  had  followed  the  king's  movements  since 
he  left  Doncaster  in  the  middle  of  August,  appeared  in  rear  of 
Langdale,  and  defeated  him  in  the  battle  of  Rowton  Heath 
(Septembier  24),  while  at  the  same  time  a  sortie  of  the  king's 
hoops  from  Chester  was  repulsed  by  Jones.  Thereupon  the  Royal 
army  withdrew  to  Denbigh,  and  Chester,  the  only  important 
seaport  remaining  to  connect  Charles  with  Ireland,  was  again 
beideged. 

42.  Pkiliphaugh. — ^Nor  was  Montrose's  position,  even  after 
Kilsyth,  encouraging,  in  spite  of  the  persistent  rumours  of 
fighting  in  Westmorland  that  reached  Charles  and  Digby. 
Glasgow  and  Edinburgh  were  indeed  occupied,  and  a  parliament 
sutnmoned  in  the  king's  name.  But  Montrose  had  now  to  choose 
between  Highlanders  and  Lowlanders.  The  former,  strictly 
kept  away  from  all  that  was  worth  plundering,  rapidly  vanished, 
even  Alastair  Macdonald  going  with  the  rest.  Without  the 
Macdonalds  and  the  Gordons,  Montrose's  military  and  political 
resettlement  of  Scotland  could  only  be  shadowy,  and  when  he 
demanded  support  from  the  sturdy  middle  classes  of  the  Low- 
lands, it  was  not  forgotten  that  he  had  led  Hi^anders  to  the 
sack  of  Lowland  towns.  Thus  his  new  supporters  could  only 
come  from  amongst  the  discontented  and  undisciplined  Border 
lords  and  gentry,  and  long  before  these  moved  to  join  him  the 
romantic  6onquest  of  Scotland  was  over.  On  the  6th  of  September 
David  Leslie  had  recrossed  the  frontier  with  his  cavalry  and  some 


infantry  he  had  picked  up  on  the  way  through  northeni  England. 
Early  on  the  moraing  of  the  13th  he  surprised  Montnwe  at 
Philiphaugh  near  Selldrk.  The  king's  lieutenant  had  only  6so 
men  against  4000,  and  the  b&ttle  did  not  last  long.  Montrose 
escaped  with  a  few  of  his  principal  adherents,  but  fais  little  army 
was  annihilated.  Of  the  veteran  Macdonald  infantry,  500  strong 
that  morning,  250  were  killed  in  the  battle  and  the  remainder 
put  to  death  after  accepting  quarter.  The  Irish,  even  iriien  they 
bore  a  Scottish  name,  were,  by  Scotsmen  even  more  than  English- 
men, regarded  as  beasts  to  be  knocked  on  the  head.  After  Naseby 
the  Irishwomen  found  in  the  king's  camp  were  branded  by  order 
of  Fairfax;  after  Philiphaugh  more  than  300  women,  wives  or 
followers  of  Macdonidd's  men,  were  butchered.  Montrose's 
Highlanders  at  their  worst  were  no  more  cruel  than  the  sober 
soldiers  of  the  kirk. 

43'  Digby's  Northern  Expedition, — Charles  received  the  news 
of  Philiphaugh  on  the  28th  of  September,  and  gave  orders  that 
the  west  should  be  abandoned,  the  prince  of  Wales  should  be 
sent  to  France,  and  Goring  should  bring  up  what  forces  he  could 
to  the  Oxford  region.    On  the  4th  of  October  Charies  himself 
reached  Newark  (whither  he  had  marched  from  Denbigh  after 
revictualling  Chester  and  suffering  the  defeat  of  Rowton  Heath). 
The  intention  to  go  to  Montrose  was  of  course  given  up,  at  any 
rate  for  the  present,  and  he  was  merely  waiting  for  Goring  ax^ 
the  Royalist  militia  of  the  west — each  in  its  own  way  a  broken 
reed  to  lean  upon.    A  hollow  recondliatton  was  patched  up 
between  Charles  and  Rupert,  and  the  court  remained  at  Newark 
for  over  a  month.    Before  it  set  out  to  return  to  Oxford  another 
Royalist  force  had  been  destroyed.    On  the  X4th  of  October, 
receiving  information  that  Montrose  had  raised  a  new  army, 
the  king  permitted  Langdale's  northern  troops  to  make  a  fredi 
attempt  to  reach  Scotland.    At  Langdale's  request  Digby  was 
appointed  to  command  in  this  enterprise,  and,  civilian  though  he 
was,  and  disastrous  though  his  influence  had  been  to  the  discipline 
of  the  army,  he  led  it  boldly  and  skilfully.    His  immediate 
opponent  was  Poyntx,  who  had  followed  the  king  step  by  step 
from  Doncaster  to  Chester  and  back  to  Welbeck  ,and  he  succeeded 
on  the  1 5th  in  surprising  Poynta's  entire  force  of  foot  at  SherlMim. 
Poyntz's  cavaliy  were  soon  after  this  reported  approaching 
from  the  south,  and  Digby  hoped  to  trap  them  also.     At  first 
all  went  well  and  body  after  body  of  the  rebels  was  routed. 
But  by  a  singular  mischance  the  Royalist  main  body  mistook  the 
Parliamentary  squadrons  in  flight  through  Sherbum  for  friends, 
and  believing  all  was  lost  took  to  flight  also.     Thus  Digby's 
cavalry  fled  as  fast  as  Poyntz's  and  in  the  same  direction,  and 
the  latter,  coming  to  their  senses  first,  drove  the  Royalist  horse  in 
wild  confusion  as  far  as  Skipton.    Lord  Digby  was  still  sanguine, 
and  from  Skipton  he  actually  penetrated  as  far  as  Dumfries. 
But  whether  Montrose's  new  army  was  or  was  not  in  the  Low- 
lands, it  was  certain  that  Leven  and  Leslie  were  on  the  Border, 
and  the  mad  adventure  soon  came  to  an  end.    Digby,  with  the 
mere  handful  of  men  remaining  to  him,  was  driven  back  into 
Cumberhmd,  and  on  the  24th  of  October,  his  army  having 
entirely  disappeared,  he  took  ship  with  his  officers  for  the  Isk  of 
Man.    Poyntz  had  not  followed  him  beyond  Skipton,  and  was 
now  watching  the  king  from  Nottingham,  while  Rossiter  with  the 
Lincoln  troops  was  posted  at  Grantham.    The  king's  diances  of 
escaping  from  Newark  were  becoming  smaller  day  by  day, 
and  they  were  not  improved  by  a  violent  dispute  between  him 
and  Rupert,  Maurice,  Lord  Gerard  and  Sit  Richard  Willis,  at 
the  end  of  which  these  officers  and  many  others  rode  away  to 
ask  the  Parliament  for  leave  to  go  over-seas.    The  pretext  of  the 
quarrel  mattered  little,  the  distinction  between  the  views  cl 
Charles  and  Digby  on  the  one  hand  and  Rupert  and  his  friends 
on  the  other  was  fimdamental — ^to  the  latter  peace  had  become 
a  political  as  well  as  a  mih'taxy  'necessity.    Meanwhile  south 
Wales,  with  the  single  exception  of  Ra^an  Castle,  hud  been 
overrun  by  the  Parliamentarians.    Everywhere  the  Royalist 
posts  were  falling.    The  New  Modd,  no  longer  fearing  Goring, 
had  divided,  Fairfax  reducing  the  garrisons  of  Dorset  and 
Devon,  Cromwell  those  of  Hampshire.    Amongst  the  latter  was 
the  famous  Basing  House,  which  was  stormed  at  dawn  00  the 


GREAT  REBELLION 


417 


14th  of  October  and* burnt  to  tbe  ground.  Cromwell,  bis  work 
finiahcd,  returned  to  headquarters,  and  the  army  wintered  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Crediton. 

44.  End  Qf  the  First  War, — The  military  events  of  1646  call 
for  no  comment.  The  only  field  army  remaining  to  the  king 
vas  Goring's,  and  though  Hopton,  who  sorrowfully  accepted  the 
comnaand  after  Goring's  departure,  tried  at  the  last  moment 
to  revive  the  memories  and  the  local  patriotism  of  1643,  it  was 
of  no  use  to  fight  against  the  New  Model  with  the  armed  rabble 
that  Goring  turned  over  to  him.  Dartmouth  surrendered  on 
January  18,  Hopton  was  defeated  at  Torrington  on  February 
16,  and  surrendered  the  remnant  of  his  worthless  army  on 
March  14.  Exeter  fell  on  April  13.  Elsewhere,  Hereford  was 
taken  on  December  17,  1645,  ^^^  the  last  battle  of  the  war 
vas  fought  and  lost  at  Stow-on-the-Wold  by  Lord  Astlcy  on 
March  2  x ,  1646.  Newark  and  Oxford  fell  respectively  on  May  6 
and  June  34.  On  August  3  x  Montrose  escaped  from  the  Highlands. 
On  the  19th  of  the  same  month  Raglan  Castle  surrendered, 
and  the  last  Royalist  post  of  all,  Harlech  Castle,  maintained 
the  useless  struggle  untU  March  X3,  X647.  Charles  himself,  after 
leaving  Newark  in  November  1645,  had  spent  the  winter  in  and 
around  Oxford,  whence,  after  an  adventurous  journey,  he  came 
to  the  camp  of  the  Scottish  army  at  Southwell  on  May  5,  1646. 

45.  Second  Civil  War  {1648-3^).— Tht  ck>se  of  the  First 
CivU  War  left  England  and  Scotland  in  the  hands  potentially  of 
any  one  of  the  four  parties  or  any  combination  of  two  or  more 
that  should  prove  strong  enough  to  dominate  the  rest.  Armed 
political  Royalism  was  indeed  at  an  end,  but  Charles,  though 
practicaUy  a  prisoner,  considered  himself  and  was,  almost  to 
the  last,  conudered  by  the  rest  as  necessary  to  ensure  the  success 
of  whichever  amongst  the  other  three  parties  could  come  to  terms 
with  him.  Thus  he  passed  successively  into  the  hands  of  the 
Scots,  the  Parliament  and  tbe  New  Model,  trying  to  reverse  the 
verdict  of  arms  by  coquetting  with  each  in  turn.  The  Presby- 
terians and  tbe  Scots,  after  Comet  Joyce  of  Fairfax's  horse 
seized  upon  the  person  of  the  king  for  the  army  (June  3,  X647), 
began  at  once  to  prepare  for  a  fresh  dvil  war,  this  time  against 
Independency,  as  embodied  in  the  New  Model — thenceforward 
called  the  Army — ^and  after  making  use  of  its  sword,  its  opponents 
attempted  to  disband  it,  to  send  it  on  foreign  service,  to  cut 
off  its  arrears  of  pay,  with  the  restdt  that  it  was  exasperated 
beyond  control,  and,  lemembering  not  merely  its  grievances 
but  also  the  principle  for  which  it  had  fought,  soon  became  the 
most  powerful  political  party  in  the  realm.  From  1646  to  1648 
the  breach  between  army  and  parliament  widened  day  by  day 
until  finally  the  Presbyterian  party,  combined  with  the  Scots  and 
the  remaining  Royalists,  felt  itself  strong  enough  to  begin  a 
second  civil  war. 

46.  The  Engfisk  War.^ln  February  1648  Colonel  Poyer,  tbe 
Parliamentary  governor  of  Pembroke  Castle,  refused  to  hand 
ove^  his  command  to  one  of  Fairfax's  officers,  and  he  was  soon 
joined  by  some  hundreds  of  officers  and  men,  who  mutinied, 
ostensibly  for  arrears  of  pay,  but  really  with  political  objects. 
At  the  end  of  March,  encouraged  by  minor  successes,  Poyer 
openly  declared  for  the  king.  Disbanded  soldiers  continued 
to  join  him  in  April,  all  South  Wales  revolted,  and  eventually 
he  was  joined  by  Major-General  Laughame,  his  district  com- 
mander, and  C<^nel  Powel.  In  April  also  news  came  that  the 
Scots  were  arming  and  that  Berwick  and  Carlisle  had-  been 
seixed  by  the  English  Royalists.  Cromwell  was  at  once  sent  off 
at  the  head  of  a  strong  detachment  to  deal  with  Laughame  and 
Foyer,  But  before  he  arrived  Laughame  had  been  severely 
defeated  by  Colonel  Horton  at  St  Pagans  (May  8).  The  English 
Presbsrterians  found  it  difficult  to  reconcile  their  principles 
with  their  allies  when  it  appeared  that  the  prisoners  taken 
at  St  Pagans  bore  "  We  long  to  see  our  King  "  on  their  hats; 
very  soon  in  fact  the  English  war  became  almost  purely  a  Royalist 
revolt,  and  the  war  in  the  north  an  attempt  to  enforce  a  mixture 
of  Ro3ralism  and  Presbyterianism  on  Englishmen  by  means  of  a 
Scottish  army.  The  former  were  disturbers  of  the  peace  and  no 
more.  Nearly  all  the  Royalists  who  had  fought  in  the  First 
Civil  War  had  given  their  parole  not  to  bear  arms  against  the 


Parliament,  and  many  honourable  Royalists,  foremost  amongst 
them  the  old  Lord  Astley,  who  had  fought  the  last  battle  for  the 
king  in  1646,  refused  to  break  their  word  by  taking  any.part  in 
the  second  war.  Those  who  did  so,  and  by  implication  those 
who  abetted  them  in  doing  so,  were  likely  to  be  treated  with 
the  utmost  rigour  if  captured,  for  the  army  was  in  a  less  placable 
mood  in  X648  than  in  1645,  and  had  idready  determined  to 
"  call  Charles  Stuart^  that  man  of  blood,  to  an  account  for  tbe 
blood  he  had  shed."  On  the  axst  of  May  Kent  rose  in  revolt  in 
,  the  king's  name.  A  few  days  later  a  most  serious  blow  to  the 
Independents  was  strack  by  the  defection  of  the  navy,  from  com<v 
mand  of  which  they  had  removed  Vice-Admiral  Batten,  as  being 
a  Presbyterian.  Though  a  former  lord  high  admiral,  the  earl  of 
Warwick,  also  a  Presbyterian,  was  brought  back  to  the  service, 
it  was  not  long  before  the  navy  made  a  purely  Royalist  declara- 
tion and  placed  itself  under  the  command  of  the  prince  of  Wales. 
But  Fairfax  had  a  clearer  view  and  a  clearer  purpose  than  the 
distracted  Parliament.  He  moved  quickly  into  Kent,  and  on  the 
evening  of  June  x  stormed  Maidstone  by  open  force,  after  which 
the  local  levies  dispersed  to  their  homes,  and  the  more  determined 
Royalists,  after  a  futile  attempt  to  induce  the  City  of  London  to 
declare  for  them,  fled  into  Euex.  In  Cornwall,  Northampton- 
shire, North  Wales  and  Lincolnshire  the  revolt  collapsed  as 
easily.  Only  in  South  Wales,  Essex  and  the  north  of  England 
was  there  serious  fighting.  In  the  first  of  these  districts  Cromwell 
rapidly  reduced  tJl  the  fortresses  except  Pembroke,  where 
Laughame,  Poyer  and  Powel  held  out  with  the  desperate  courage 
of  deserters.  In  the  north,  Pontefract  was  surprised  by  the 
Royalists,  and  shortly  afterwards  Scarborough  Castle  dedared 
for  the  king.  Fairfax,  after  his  success  at  Maidstone  and  the 
pacification  of  Kent,  turned  northward  to  reduce  Essex,  where, 
under  their  ardent,  experienced  and  popular  leader  Sir. Charles 
Lucas,  the  Royalists  were  in  arms  in  great  numbers.  He  soon 
drove  the  enemy  into  Colchester,  but  the  first  attack  on  the  town 
was  repulsed  and  he  had  to  settle  down  to  a  long  and  wearisome 
siege  en  rtgle.  A  Surrey  rising,  remembered  only  for  the  death 
of  the  young  and  gallant  Lord  Frands  Villiers  in  ai  skirmish  at 
Kingston  Guly  7),  collapsed  almost  as  soon  as  it  had  gathered 
force,  and  its  leaders,  the  duke  of  Buckingham  and  the  earl  of 
Holland,  escaped,  after  another  attempt  to  induce  London  to 
declare  for  them,  to  St  Albans  and  St  Neots,  where  Holland  was 
taken  prisoner.    Buckingham  escaped  over-seas. 

47.  Lambert  in  the  North. — By  the  loth  of  July  therefore  the 
military  situation'was  well  defined.  Cromwell  hdd  Pembroke, 
Fairfax  Colchester,  Lambert  Pontefract  under  siege;  elsewhere 
all  serious  local  risings  had  collapsed,  and  the  Scottish  army  had 
crossed  the  Border.  It  is  on  the  adventures  of  tbe  latter  that 
the  interest  of  the  war  centres.  It  was  by  no  means  the  veteran 
army  of  Leven,  which  had  long  been  disbanded.  For  the  most 
part  it  consisted  of  raw  levies,  and  as  the  kirk  had  refused  to 
sanction  the  enterprise  of  the  Scottish  parliament,  David  Leslie 
and  thousands  of  experienced  officers  and  men  dedined  to  serve. 
The  duke  of  Hamilton  proved  to  be  a  poor  substitute  for  Leslie; 
his  army,  too,  was  so  ill  provided  that  as  soon  as  EngUnd  was 
invaded  it  began  to  plunder  the  countryside  for  the  bare 
means  of  sustenance.  Major-General  Lambert,  a  brilliant  young 
general  of  twenty-nine,  was  more  than  equal  to  the  situation. 
He  had  already  left  the  sieges  of  Pontefract  and  Scarborough 
to  Colonel  Roasiter,  and  hurried  into  Cumberland  to  deal  with  the 
English  Royalists  under  Sir  Marmaduke  Langdale.  With  his 
cavalry  he  got  into  touch  with  the  enemy  about  Carlisle  and 
slowly  fell  back,  fighting  small  rearguard  actions  to  annoy  the 
enemy  and  gain  time,  to  Bowes  and  Bamard  Castle.  Langdale 
.  did  not  follow  him  into  the  mountains,  but  occupied  himself 
in  gathering  recmits  and  supplies  of  material  and  food  for  the 
Scots.  Lambert,  reinforced  from  the  midlands,  reappeared 
early  in  June  and  drove  him  back  to  Carlisle  with  his  work  half 
finished.  About  the  same  time  the  local  horse  of  Durham  and 
Northumberland  were  put  into  the  field  by  Sir  A.  Hesilrige, 
governor  of  Newcastle,  and  under  the  command  of  Colonel 
Robert  Lilburae  won  a  considerable  success  (June  30)  at  the  river 
Coquet.    This  reverse,  coupled  with  the  existence  of  Langdale's 


4i8 


GREAT  REBELLION 


force  on  the  CumbcrUnd  side,  practically  compelled  Hamilton, 
to  choose  the  west  coast  route  for  bis  advance,  and  his  army 
began  slowly  to  move  down  the  long  couloir  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea.    The  campaign  which  followed  is  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  in  English  history. 

48.  Campaign  of  Preston.— On  the  8th  of  July  the  Scots,  with 
Langdale  as  advaiM:ed  guard,  were  about  Carlisle,  and  reinforces* 
ments  from  Ulster  were  expected  daily.  Ljunbert's  horse  were 
at  Penrith,  Hexham  and  Newcastle,  too  weak  to  fight  and  having 
only  skilful  leading  and  rapidity  of  movement  to  enable  them 
to  gain  time.  Far  away  to  the  south  Cromwell  was  still  tied 
down  before  Pembroke,  Fairfax  before  Colchester.  Elsewhere 
the  rebellion,  which  had  been  put  down  by  rapidity  of  action 
rather  than  sheer  weight  of  numbers,  smouldered,  and  Prince 
Charles  and  the  fleet  cruised  along  the  Essex  coast.  Cromwell 
and  Lambert,  however,  imderstood  each  other  perfectly,  while 
the  Scottish,  oommanden  quarrelled  with  Langdale  and  each 
other.  Appleby  Castle  surrendered  to  the  Scots  on  the  31st 
of  July,  whereat  Lambert,  who  was  still  hanging  on  to  the  flank 
of  the  Scottish  advance,  fell  back  from  Barnard  Castle  to  Rich< 
mond  so  as  to  close  Wensleydale  against  any  attempt  of  the 
invaders  to  march  on  Pontefract.  All, the  restless  energy  of 
Langdale's  horse  was  unable  to  disk>dge  him  from  the  passes 
or  to  find  out  what  was  behind  that  impenetrable  cavalry 
screen.  The  crisis  was  now  at  hand.  Cromwell  had  received 
the  surrender  of  Pembroke  on  the  nth,  and  had  marched  off, 
with  his  men  unpaid,  ragged  and  shoeless,  at  full  speed  through 
the  midlands.  Rains  and  storms  delayed  his  march,  but  he 
knew  that  Hamilton  in  the  broken  ground  of  Westmorhwd  was 
still  worse  off.  Shoes  from  Northampton  and  stockings  from 
Coventry  met  him  at  Nottingham,  and,  gathering  up  the  local 
levies  as  he  went,  he  made  for  Doncaster,  where  he  arrived  on 
the  8th  of  August,  having  gained  six  days  in  advance  of  the  time 
be  had  allowed  himself,  for  the  march.  He  then  called  up 
artillery  from  Hull,  exchanged  his  local  levies  for  the  regulan 
who  were  besieging  Pontefract,  and  set  off  to  meet  Lambert. 
On  the  X2th  he  was  at  Wetherby,  Lambert  with  horse  and  foot 
at  Otley,  Langdale  at  -Sklpton  and  Gargrave,  Hamilton  at 
Lancaster,  and  Sir  George  Monro  with  the  Scots  from  Ulster  and 
the  Carlisle  Royalists  (organized  as  a  separate  command  owing 
to  friction  between  Monro  -and  the  generals  of  the  main  army) 
at  Hornby.  On  the  13th,  while  Cromwell  was  marching  to  join 
Lambert  at  Otley,  the  Scottish  leaden  were  still  disputing  as  to 
whether  they  should  ihake  for  Pontefract  or  continue  through 
Lancashire  so  as  to  join  Lord  Byron  and  the  Cheshire  Royalists. 
I  49.  Preston  Pigki,— On.  the  X4th  Cromwell  and  Lambert 
were  at  Sklpton,  on  the  zsth  at  Gisbum,  and  on  the  i6th 
they  marched  down  the  valley  of  the  Ribble  towards  Preston 
with  full  knowledge  of  the  enemy's  dispositions  and  full  deter- 
minatipn  to  attack  him.  They  had  with  them  horse  and  foot 
not  only  of  the  army,  but  also  of  the  militia  of  Yorkshire, 
Durham,  Northumberland  and  Lancashire,  and  withal  were 
heavily  outnumbered,  having  only  8600  men  against  perhaps 
20,000  of  Hamilton's  command.  But  the  latter  were  scattered 
for  convenience  of  supply  along  the  road  from  Lancaster, 
through  Preston,  towards  Wigan,  Langdale's  corps  having  thus 
become  the  left  flank  guard  instead  of  the  advanced  guard.' 
Langdale  called  in  his  advanced  parties,  perhaps  with  a  view 
to  resuming  the  duties  of  advanced  guard,  on  the  night  of 
the  13th,  and  collected  them  near  Longridge.  It  is  not  dear 
whether  he  reported  Cromwell's  advance,  but,  if  he  did,  Hamilton 
ignored  the  report,  for  on  the  17th  Monro  was  half  a  day's  march 
to  the  north,  Langdale  east  of. Preston,  and  the  main  army 
strung  out  on  the  Wigan  road,  Major-Gencral  Baillie  with  a  body 
of  foot,  the  rear  of  the  column,  being  still  in  Preston.  Hamilton, 
yidding  to  the  importunity  of  his  lieutenant-general,  the  earl  of 
Callcndar,  sent  Baillie  across  the  Ribble  to  follow  the  main  body 
just  as  Langdale,  with  3000  foot  and  ^oo  horse  only,  met  the 
first  shock  of  Cromwell's  attack  on  Preston  Moor.  Hamilton, 
like  Charles  at  Edgehill,  passivdy  shared  in,  without  directuig, 
the  battle,  and,  though  Langdale's  men  fought  magnificently, 
they  were  after  four  hours'  struggle  driven  to  the  Ribble.    Baillie 


attempted  to  cover  the  Ribble  and  Darwen  bridges  on  the  Wigan 
road,  but  Cromwell  had  forced  his  way  across  both  before  nighl* 
falL  Punuit  was  at  once  undertaken,  and  not  relaxed  until 
Hamilton  had  been  driven  through  Wigan  and  Winwick  to 
Uttoxeter  and  Ashbourne.  There,  pressed  furiously  in  rear  by 
Cromwell's  horse  and  held  up  in  front  by  the  militia  of  the  mid- 
lands,  the  remnant  of  the  Scottish  army  laid  down  its  arms  on 
the  35th  of  August.  Various  attempts  were  made  to  raise  the 
RoyaUst  standard  in  Wales  and  elsewhere,  but  Preston  Xk'^  the 
death-blow.  On  the  28th  of  August,  starving  and  hopeless  of 
relief,  the  Colchester  Royalists  surrendered  to  Lord  Fairfax. 
The  victon  in  the  Second  Civil  War  were  not  merciful  to  those 
who  had  brought  war  into  the  land  again.  On  the  evening  of 
the  surrender  of  Colchester,  Sir  Charles  Lucas  and  Sir  George 
Lisle  were  shot.  Laughame,  Poyer  and  Powd  were  sentenced  to 
death,  but  Poyer  alone  was  executed  on  the  25th  of  April  1649, 
being  the  viaim  sdected  by  lot.  Of  five  prominent  Royalist 
peen  who  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Parliament^  three, 
the  duke  of  Hamilton,  the  earl  of  Holland,  and  Lord  Capd, 
one  of  the  Colchester  prisonen  and  a  man  of  high  character, 
were  beheaded  at  Westminster  on  the  Qth  of  March.  Above 
all,  after  long  hesitations,  even  after  renewal  of  negotiatiot^ 
the  army  and  the  Independents  "purged"  the  House  of  their 
iU-wishen,  and  created  a  court  for  the  trial  and  sentence  of  the 
king.  The  more  resolute  of  the  judges  nerved  the  rest  to  sign 
the  death-warrant,  and  Charles  was  beheaded  At  A^liitefaaU  on 
the  30th  of  January. 

5a  CrofMU  in  trdand, — ^The  campaign  of  Preston  tras 
undertaken  under  the  direction  of  the  Scottish  pariiamcnt,  not 
the  kirk,  and  it  needed  the  execution  of  the  king  to  bring  about 
a  union  of  all  Scottish  parties  against  the  Engli^  Independents. 
Even  so,  Charles  II.  in  exile  had  to  submit  to  long  negotiations 
and  hard  conditions  before  he  was  allo«[ed  to  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  Scottish  armies.  Tlie  nuirquis  of  Hunlly  iras 
executed  for  taking  up  arms  for  the  king  on  the  22nd  of  March 
1 649.  Montrose,  under  Charles's  directions,  made  a  last  attempt 
to  rally  the  Scottish  Ro^lists  early  in  1650.  But  Charles  merely 
used  Montrose  as  a  threat  to  obtain  better  conditions  for  himself 
from  the  Covenanters,  and  when  the  noblest  of  all  the  Royalists 
was  defeated  (Carbisdale,  April  37),  delivered  up  to  his  pursuers 
(May  4),  and  executed  (May  21,  1650),  he  was  not  ashamed  to 
give  way  to  the  denuinds  of  the  Covenanten,  and  to  place  himself 
at  the  head  of  Montrose's  executioners.  His  father,  whatever 
his  faults,  had  at  least  chosen  to  die  for  an  ideal,  the  Church  of 
England.  Charles  II.  now  proposed. to  regain  the  throne  by 
allowing  Scotland  to  impose  Presbyterianism  on  Engbnd,  and 
dismissed  all  the  faithful  Cavalicn  who  had  followed  him  to 
exile.  Meanwhile,  Ireland,  in  which  a  fresh  war,  with  openly 
anti-English  and  anti-Protestant  objects,  had  broken  out  in 
1648,  was  thoroughly  reduced  to  order  by  Cromwell,  who  beat 
down  all  resistance  by  his  skill,  and  even-jnore  by  his  ruthless 
severity,  in  a  brief  campaign  of  nine  months  (battle  olRathmincs 
near  Dublin,  won  by  Colond  Michad  Jones,  August  2,  1649; 
storming  of  Drogheda,  September  xx,  and  of  Wexford,  October 
XI,  by  Cromwdl;  capttuv  of  Kilkenny,  March  s8,  1650,  and  of 
Clonmel,  May  xo).  Cromwell  returned  to  England  at  the  end 
of  May  x6so,  and  on  June  26  Fairfax,  who  had  been  anziotts 
and  uneasy  since  the  execution  of  the  king,  resigned  the  com* 
mand-in-chief  of  the  army  to  his  lieutenant-generaL  The 
pretext,  rather  than  the  reason,  of  Fairfax's  resignation  was  his 
unwillingness  to  lead  an  English  army  to  reduce  Scotland. 

SX.  The  Invasion  of  Scotland. — ^This  important  step  had  been 
resolved  upon  as  soon  as  it  was  clear  that  Charles  It.  woufd 
come  to  terms  with  the  Covenanters.  From  this  point  the 
Second  Civil  War  becomes  a  war  of  England  against  Scotland. 
Here  at  least  the  Independents  carried  the  whole  of  England 
with  thenu  No  Englishman  cared  to  accept  a  settlement  at  the 
hands  of  a  victorious  fordgn  army,  and  on  the  28th  of  Jane, 
five  days  after  Charles  II.  had  sworn  to  the  Covenant^  the  new 
lord-general  was  on  his  way  to  the  Border  to  take  command  of 
the  English  army.  About  the  same  time  a  new  nulitia  act  was 
passed  that  was  destined  to  give  f uU  and  decisive  effect  to  the 


GREAT  REBELLION 


419 


OAtkmal  spirit  of  England  Ifi  the  gteat  final  campaign  of  the  war. 
Meanwhile  the  motto  frappa  fort,  frappa  viU  was  carried  out 
at  once  by  the  regular  forces.  On  the  19th  of  July  1650  Cromwell 
made  the  final  arrangements  at  Berwick-on-Tweed.  Major- 
General  Harrison,  a  gallant  soldier  and  an  extreme  Independent, 
was  to  command  the  regular  and  auxiliary  forces  left  in  England, 
and  to  secure  the  Commonwealth  against  Royalists  and  Presby- 
terians. Cromwell  took  with  him  Fleetwood  as  lieutenant-general 
and  Lambert  as  major-general,  and  his  forces  numbered  about 
xo,ooo  foot  and  5000  horse.  His  opponent  David  Leslie  (his 
comrade  of  Marston  Moor)  had  a  much  larger  force,  but  its  degree 
of  training  was  inferior,  it  was  more  than  tainted  by  the  political 
dissensions  of  the  people  at  large,  and  it  was,  in  great  part  at 
«ny  rate,  raised  by  forced  enlistment.  On  the  22nd  of  July 
Cromwell  croned  the  Tweed.  He  marched  on  Edinburgh  by 
the  sea  coast,  through  Dimbar,  Haddington  and  Musselburgh, 
living  almost  entirely  on  supplies  landed  by  the  fleet  which 
accompanied  him — ^for  the  country  itself  was  incapable  of 
supporting  even  a  small  army — and  on  the  29th  he  found 
Leslie's  army  drawn  up  and  entrenched  in  a  position  extending 
from  Leith  to  Edinburgh. 

52.  Optrations  around  Edinburgh. — ^The'same  day  a  sharp  but 
indecisive  fight  took  place  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Arthtur's  Seat, 
after  which  Cromwell,  having  felt  the  strength  of  Leslie's  line, 
drew  back  to  Musselburgh.  Leslie's  horse  followed  him  up 
sharply,  and  another  action  was  fought,  after  which  the  Scots 
assaulted  Musselburgh  without  success.  Militarily  Leslie  had 
the  best  of  it  in  these  aflfatrs,  but  it  was  precisely  this  moment 
that  the  kirk  party  chose  to  institute  a  searching  three  days' 
examination  of  the  political  and  religious -sentiments  of  his  army. 
The  result  was  that  the  army  was  "  purged  "  of  80  officers  and 
3000  soldiers  as  it  lay  within  musket  shot  ol  the  enemy.  Crom- 
well was  more  concerned,  however,  with  the  supply  question 
than  with  the  distracted  army  of  the  Scots.  On  the  6th  of 
August  he  had  to  fall  back  as  far  as  Dunbar  to  enable  the  fleet 
to  land  supplies  in  safety,  the  port  of  Musselbiurgh  being  unsafe 
in  the  violent  and  stormy  weather  which  prevaHcd.  He  soon 
returned  to  Musselburgh  and  prepared  to  f<»ce  Leslie  to  battle. 
In  preparation  for  an  extended  naanoeuvre  three  days'  rations 
were  served  out.  Tents  were  also  issued,  perhaps  for  the  first 
lime  in  the  civil  wars,  for  it  was  a  regular  professional  army, 
which  had  to  be  cared  for,  made  comfortable  and  economized, 
that  was  now  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  volunteers  of  the  first 
war.  Even  after  Crom  well  started  on  his  manoeuvre,  the  Scottish 
army  was  still  in  the  midst  of  its  political  troubles,  and,  certain 
thou^  he  was  that  nothing  but  victory  in  the  field  would  give 
an  assured  peace,  he  was  obliged  to  intervene  in  the  confused 
negotiations  of  the  various  Scottish  parties.  At  last,  however, 
Charles  II.  made  a  show  of  agreeing  to  the  demands  of  his 
strange  supporters,  and  Leslie  was  free  to  move.  Cromwell 
had  now  entered  the  hill  country,  with  a  view  to  occupying 
Queensferry  and  thus  blocking  up  Edinburgh.  Leslie  had  the 
shorter  road  and  barred  the  way  at  Corstorphine  Hill  (August 
ax),  .Cromwell,  though  now  far  from  his  base,  manoeuvred 
again  to  his  right,  Leslie  meeting  him  onct  more  at  Gogar 
(August  27).  The  Scottish  lines  at  that  point  were  strong  enough 
to  dismay  even  Cromwell,  and  the  manceuvre  on  (Queensferry 
was  at  last  given  up.  It  had  cost  the  English  army  severe  losses 
in  sick,  and  much  suffering  in  the  autumn  nights  on  the  bleak 
hillsides. 

53.  Dunbar.'-Oti  the  28th  Cromwell  fell  back  on  Musselburgh, 
and  on  the  31st,  after  embarking  his  non-effective  men,  to  Dun- 
bar. Leslie  followed  him  up,  and  wished- to  fight  a  battle  at 
Dunbar  on  Sunday,  the  zst  ojf  September. '  But  again  the  kirk 
intervened,  this  time  to  forbid  Leslie  to  break  the  Sabbath,  and 
the  unfortunate  Scottish  commander  could  only  establish  himself 
on  Doon  JliU  (see  Dunbar)  and  send  a  force  to  Cockbumspatb 
to  bar  the  Bemick  road.  He  had  now  23,000  men  to  Cromwell's 
i  1,000,  and  j>toposed,  Jaute  de  mieux,  to  starve  Cromwell  into 
larrcnder.  But  the  English  army  was  composed  of  "  ragged 
tpidkrs  with  bright  muskets,"  and  had  a  great  captain  of  un- 
diqnlted  authority  at  their  head.    Leslie's,  on  the  other  hand, 


had  lost  such  discipline  as  it  had  ever  possessed,  and  was  now, 
imder  outside  influences,  thoroughly  disintegrated.  Cromwell 
wrote  home,  indeed,  that  he  was  "  upon  an  engagement  very 
difficult,"  but,  desperate  as  his  position  seemed,  he  felt  the 
pulse  of  his  opponent  and  steadily  refused  to  take  his  army  away 
by  sea.  He  had  not  to  wait  long.  It  was  now  the  turn  of  Leslie's 
men  on  the  hillside  to  endure  patiently  privation  and  exposure, 
and  after  one  m'ght's  bivouac,  Leslie,  too  readily  inferring  that 
the  enemy  was  about  to  escape  by  sea,  came  down  to  fight.  The 
battle  of  Dunbar  (q.v.)  opened  in  the  early  morning  of  the  3rd  of 
September.  It  was  the  most  brilliant  of  all  Oliver's  victories. 
Before  the  sun  was  high  in  the  heavens  the  Scottish  army  had 
ceased  to  exisL 

54.  Royalism  in  ScoUand, — ^After  Dunbar  it  was  easy  for  the 
victorious  army  to  overrun  southern  Scotland,  more  especially 
as  the  dissensions  of  the  enemy  were  embittered  by  the  defeat 
of  which  they  had  been  the  prime  cause.  The  kirk  indeed  put 
Dunbar  to  the  account  of  its  own  remissness  in  not  purging  their 
army  more  thoroughly,  but,  as  Cromwell  wrote  on  the  4th  of 
September,  the  kirk  had  "  done  iu  do."  "  I  believe  their  king 
will  set  up  on  his  own  score,"  he  continued,  and  indeed,  now  that 
the  army  of  the  kirk  was  destroyed  and  they' themselves  were 
secure  behind  the  Forth  and  based  on  the  friendly  Highlands, 
Charles  and  the  Oivaliers  were  in  a  position  not  only  to  defy 
Cromwell,  but  also  to  force  the  Scottish  national  spirit  of  resist- 
ance to  the  invader  into  a  purely  Royalist  channel.  Oomwell 
had  only  received  a  few  drafts  and  reinforcements  from  England, 
and  for  the  present  he  could  but  block  up  Edinburgh  Castle 
(which  surrendered  on  Christmas  eve),  and  try  to  bring  up 
adequate  forces  and  material  for  the  siege  of  Stirling — an  attempt 
which  was  frustrated  by  the  badnes  of  the  roads  and  the  violence 
of  the  weather.  .The  rest  of  the  early  winter  of  1650  was  thus 
occupied  in  semi-military,  semi-political  operations  between 
detachments  of  the  English  army  and  certain  armed  forces  of  the 
kirk  party  which  still  maintained  a  precarious  existence  in  the 
western  Lowlands,  and  in  police  work  against  the  moss-troopers 
of  the  Border  coimties.  Early  in  February  1651,  still  in  the 
midst  of  terrible  weather,  Cromwell  made  another  resolute  but 
futile  attempt  to  reach  Stirling.  This  time  he  himself  fell  sick, 
and  his  losses  had  to  be  made  good  by  drafts  of  recruits  from 
England,  many  of  whom  came  most  unwillin^y  to  serve  in  the 
cold  wet  bivouacs  that  the  newspapers  had  graphically  reported.^ 

5$.  The  Enf^ish  Militia. — ^About  this  time  there  occurred 
in  England  two  events  which  had  a  most  important  bearing  on 
the  campaign.  The  first  was  the  detection  of  a  wide^read 
Royaltst-Prnbyterian  oon^ira^ — how  widespread  no  one  knew, 
for  those  of  its  promoters  who  were  captured  and  executed  cer- 
tainly formed  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  whole  number.  Harrison 
was  ordered  to  Lancashire  in  April  to  watch  the  north  WclaJi, 
Isle  of  Man  and  Border  Royalists,  and  militaiy  precautions  were 
taken  in  various  parts  of  England.  The  second  was  the  revival 
of  the  militia.  Since  1644  there  had  been  no  general  emplojrment 
of  local  forces,  the  quarrel  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
regular  armies  by  force  of  circumstances.  The  New  Model, 
though  a  national  army,  resembled  Wellington's  Peninsular 
army  more  than  the  soldiers  of  the  French  Revolution  and  the 
American  Civil  War.  It  was  now -engaged  in  prosecuting  a 
war  of  aggression  against  the  hereditary'  foe  over  the  Border- 
strictly  the  task  of  a  professional  army  with  a  national  basis. 
The  militia  was  indeed  raw  and  untrained.  Some  ci  the  Essex 
men  "  fell  flat  on  their  faces  on  the  sound  of  a  cannon."  In  the 
north  of  England  Harrison  complained  to  Cromwell  of  the 
"  badness  "  of  his  men,  and  the  lord  general  sympathized, 
having  "  had  much  such  stuff  "  sent  him  to  make  good  the 
losses  in  trained  men.  Even  he  for  a  moment  lost  touch  with  the 
spirit  of  the  people.  His  recruits  were  unwilling  drafts  for  foreign 
service,  but  in  England  the  new  levies  were  trusted  to  defend 

*  The  tents  were  evidently  issued  for  regular  marches,  not  for 
cross-country  manoeuvres  against  the  enemy.  These  manceuvrcs, 
as  we  have  seen,  often  took  several  days.  Tne  hon  i6iUral  ordinaire 
of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  framed  his  manceuvrcs  on  a  smaller 
scale  so  as  not  to  expose  his  expensive  and  highly  trained  soldiers 
to  discomfort  and  the  consequent  temptation  to  desert. 


^20r 


GREAT  REBELLION 


their  homes,  and  the  militia  was  soon  triumphantly  to  justify  its 
existence  on  the  day  of  Worcester. 

56.  Inverkeiiking. — ^While  David  Leslie'  organized  and  drilled 
the  Ung's  new  army  beyond  the  Forth,  Cromwell  was,  dowly 
and  with  frequent  relapses,  recovering  from  his  illness.  The 
English  army  marched  to  GUsgow  in  April,  then  returned  to 
Edinburgh.  The  motives  of  the  march  and  that  of  the  return 
are  alike  obscure,  but  it  may  be  conjectured  that,  the  forces  in 
En^nd  under  Harrison  having  now  assembled  in  Lancashire, 
the  £dinl>urgh-Newcast]e-York  road  had  to  be  covered  by  the 
main  army.  Be  this  as  it  may,  Cromwell's  health  again  broke 
down  and  his  life  was  despaired  of.  Only  late  in  June  were 
operations  actively  resumed  between  Stirling  and  Linlithgow. 
At  first  Cromwell  sought  without  success  to  bring  Leslie  to 
battle,  but  he  stormed  Callendar  House  near  Falkirk  on  July  13, 
and  on  the  z6th  of  July  he  began  the  execution  of  a  briUiant 
and  successful  manceuvre.  A  force  from  Queensferty,  covered  by 
the  English  fleet,  was  thrown  across  the  Firth  oi  Forth  to  North- 
ferry.  Lambert  followed  with  reinforcements,  and  defeated  a 
detachment  of  Leslie's  army  at  Inverkeithing  on  the  aoth. 
Leslie  drew  back  at  once,  but  managed  to  find  a  fresh  strong 
position  in  front  of  Stirling,  whence  he  defied  Cromwell  again. 
At  this  juncture  Cromwell  prepared  to  pass  his  whole  army  acrou 
the  firth.  .  His  contemplated  manoeuvre  of  course  gave  up  to  this 
enemy  all  the  roads  into  England,  and  before  undertaking  it  the 
lord  general  held  a  consultation  with  Harrison,  as  the  result  of 
which  that  officer  took  over  the  direct  defence  of  the  whole 
Border.  But  his  mind  was  made  up  even  before  this,  for  on  the 
day  he  met  Harrison  at  Linlithgow  three-quarters  of  his  whole 
army  had  already  crossed  into  Fife.  Burntisland,  surrendered 
to  Lambert  on  the  39th,  gave  Cromwell  a  good  harbour  upon 
which  to  base  his  subsequent  movements.  On  the  30th  of  July 
the  English  marched  upon  Perth,  and  the  investment  of  this 
place,  the  key  to  Leslie's  supply  area,  forced  the  crisis  at  once. 
Whether  Leslie  would  have  preferred  to  manoeuvre  Cromwell 
from  his  vantage-ground  or  not  is  immaterial;  the  young  king 
and  the  now  predominant  Royalist  element  at  headquarters 
seized  the  long-awaited  opportunity  at  once,  and  on  the  31st, 
leaving  Cromwell  to  his  own  devices,  the  Royal  army  marched 
southward  to  raise  the  Royal,  standard  in  Eng^nd. 

57.  The  Third  Scottish  Invasion  of  England, — Then  began  the 
last  and  most  thrilling  campaign  of  the  Great  Rebellion.  Charles 
II.  expected  complete  success.  In  Scotland,  vis-A^is  the  extreme 
Covenanters,  he  was  a  king  on  conditions,  and  he  was  glad  enough 
to  find  himself  in  England  with  some  thirty  solidly  organized  regi- 
ments under  Royalist  officers  and  with  no  regular  army  in  fron: 
of  him.  He  hoped,  too,  to  rally  not  merely  the  old  faithful 
Royalists,  but  also  the  overwhelming  numerical  strength  of  the 
English  Presbyterians  to  his  standard.  His  army  was  kept  well 
in  hand,  no  excesses  were  allowed,  and  in  a  week  the  Royalists 
covered  150  m. — in  marked  contrast  to  the  duke  of  Hamilton's 
ill-fated  expedition  of  1648.  On  the  8th  of  August  the  troops 
were  ^ven  a  well-earned  rest  between  Penrith  and  Kendal. 

But  the  Royalists  were  mistaken  in  supposing  that  the  enemy 
was  taken  aback  by  their  new  move.  Everything  had  been 
foreseen  both  by  Cromwell  and  by  the  Council  of  State  in  West- 
minster. The  latter  had  called  out  the  greater  part  of  the 
militia  on  the  7th.  Lieutenant-General  Fleetwood  began  to 
draw  together  the  midland  rontingents  at  Banbury,  the  London 
trained  bands  turned  out  for  field  service  no  fewer  than  14,000 
strong.  Every  suspected  Royalist  was  closely  watched,  and  the 
magazines  of  arms  in  the  country-houses  of  the  gentry  were  for 
the  most  part  removed  into  the  strong  places.  On  his  part 
Cromwell  had  quietly  made  his  preparations.  Perth  passed  into 
his  hands  on  the  and  of  August,  and  he  brought  back  his  army  to 
Leilh  by  the  5th.  Thence  he  despatched  Lambert  with  a  cavalry 
corps  to  harass  the  invaders.  Harrison  was  already  at  Newcastle 
picking  the  best  of  the  county  mounted  troops  to  add  to  his  own 
regulars.  On  the  9th  Charles  was  at  Kendal,  Lambert  hovering  in 
his  rear,  and  Harrison  marching  swiftly  to  bar  his  way  at  the 
Mersey.-  Fairfax  emerged  for  a  moment  from  his  retirement  to 
organize  the  Yorkshire  levies,  and  the  best  of  these  as  well  as  of 


the  Lancashire,  Cheshire  and  Staffordshire  militias  were  directed 
upon  Warrington,  which  point  Harrison  reached  on  the  15th,  a 
few  hours  in  front  of  Charles's  advanced  guard.  Lambert  too, 
slipping  round  the  left  flank  of  the  enemy,  joined  Harrison,  and 
the  English  fell  back  (i6th),  slowlyand  without  letting  themselves 
be  drawn  into  a  fight,  along  the  London  road. 

58.  Campaign  of  Worcester, — Cromwell  meanwhile,  leaving 
Monk  with  the  least  efficient  regiments  to  carry  on  the  war  in 
Scotland,  had  reached  the  Tyne  in  seven  days,  and  thcn«, 
marching  ao  m.  a  day  in  extreme  heat — ^with  the  country  people 
carrying  their  arms  and  equipment — the  regulars  entered 
Ferrybridge  on  the  X9th,  at  which  date  Lambot,  Harrison  and 
the  north-western  militia  were  about  Congleton.^  It  seemed 
probable  that  a  great  battle  would  take  place  between  Lichfield 
and  Coventry  about  the  a 5th  or  a6th  of  August,  and  that  Crom- 
well, Harrison,  Lambert  and  Fleetwood  would  all  take  part  in  it. 
But  the  scene  and  the  date  of  the  denouement  were  changed  by 
the  enemy's  movements. .  Shortly  after  leaving  Warrington  the 
young  king  had  resolved  to  abandon  the  direct  march  on  London 
and  to  make  for  the  Severn  valley,  where  his  father  had  found  the 
most  constant  and  the  most  numerous  adherents  in  the  first  war, 
and  which  had  been  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  English  Royalist 
movement  of  1648.  Sir  Edward  Massey,  fomeriy  the  Parlia- 
mentary governor  of  Gloucester,  was  now  with  Charles,  and  it  was 
hoped  that  he  would  induce  his  fellow-Presbyterians  to  take  arms. 
The  military  quality  of  the  Welsh  border  Royalists  was  wdl 
proved,  that  of  the  Gloucestershire  Presbyterians  not  less  so,  and, 
based  on  Gloucester  and  Worcester  as  his  father  had  been  based 
on  Oxford,  Charles  II.  hoped,  not  unnaturally,  to  deal  with  an 
Independent  minority  more  effectually  than  Charies  I.  had  done 
with  a  Parliamentary  majority  of  the  people  of  England.  But 
even  the  pure  Royalism  which  now  ruled  in  the  invading  army 
could  not  alter  the  fact  that  it  was  a  Scottish  army,  and  it  was 
not  an  Independent  faction  but  all  England  that  took  arms 
against  it.  Charles  arrived  at  Worcester  on  the  32nd  of  August, 
and  spent  five  days  in  resting  the  troops,  preparing  for  further 
operations,  and  gathering  and  arming  the  few  recruits  wbo<ame 
in.  It  is  unnecessary  to  argue  that  the  delay  was  fatal;  it  was  a 
necessity  of  the  case  foreseen  and  accepted  when  the  march  to 
Worcester  had  been  decided  upon,  and  had  the  other  course, 
that  of  marching  on  London  via  Lichfield,  been  taken  the  battle 
would  have  been  fought  three  days  eariier  with  the  same  result. 
As  affairs  turned. out  Cromwell  merely  shifted  the  area  of  his 
concentration  two  marches  to  the  south-west}  to  Evesham. 
Early  on  the  28th  Lambert  surprised  the  passage  of  the  Severn 
at  Upton,  6  m.  below  Worcester,  and  in  the  action  which  followed 
Massey  was  severely  wounded.  Fleetwood  followed  Lambert. 
The  enemy  was  now  only  x  6,000  strong  and  disheartened  by  the 
apathy  with  which  Ihey  bad  been  received  in  districts  formerly  all 
their  own.  Cromwell,  for  the  first  and  last  time  in  his  military 
career,  had  a  two-to-one  numerical  superiority.' 

59.  The  "  Crowning  Mxrcy." — He  took  h^  measures  ddiber- 
ately.  Lilbume  from  Lancashire  and  Major  Mercer  with  the 
Worcestershire  horie  were  to  secure  Bewdley  Bridge  on  the 
enemy's  line  of  retreat.  Lambert  and  Fleetwood  were  to  force 
their  way  across  the  Teme  (a  little  river  on  which  Rupert  had  won 
his  first  victory  in  1642)  and  attack  St  John's,  the  western  suburb 
of  Worcester.  •  Cromwell  himself  and  the  main  army  were  to 
attack  the  town  itself.  On  the  3rd  of  September,  the  anniversary 
of  Dunbar,  the  programme  was  carried  out  exactly.  Fleetwood 
forced  the  passage  of  the  Teme^  and  the  bridging  train  (whidi  had 
been  carefully  organized  for  the  purpose)  bridged  both  the  Teme 
and  the  Severn.  Then  CromweU  on  the  left  bank  and  Fleetwood 
on  the  right  swept  in  a  semidrdc  4  m.  long  up  to  Worcester. 
Every  hedgerow  was  contested  by  Uie  stubborn  Royalists,  but 
Fleetwood's  men  would  not  be  denied,  and  Cromwell's  extreme 
right  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  town  repelled,  after  three  hoars' 
hard  fighting,  the  last  desperate  attempt  of  the  Royalists  to  break 

*  The  lord  general  had  during  his  march  thrown  out  succcasivdy 
two  flying  columns  under  Colonel  Lilburnc  to  deal  with  the  Lanca- 
shire Royalists  under  the  carl  of  Derby.  Lilbume  entirdy  routed 
the  enemy  at  Wigan  on  the  a5th  of  August, 


GREAT  SALT  LAKE 


♦2« 


oW.  -  It  wi*  todMd,  u  ■  Ccraun  critic>  tun  poinicd  out,  the 
prototTpe  of  Sedui.  EvuyirtwK  tlie  ddCoca  ven  Htonncd  u 
duibcB  CUK  DD,  r^ului  uid  militii  fightinf  with  equal 
pOuiUr,  ud  tlw  lew  tbguundi  of  (be  Royiluu  wbo  nopcd 
diuin^  Uk  m^i  irert  euily  capiumi  by  Ijlbume  md  Meicer,  or 
by  tltc  millEiA  whadi  witdwd  tvay  rotA  in  VarluhiR  ud  Luica- 
ihijc  Even  (be  couD(ry  people  brougjK  in  scora  of  phsoDen, 
kr  o&on  tiid  edcd  abke,  idumed  by  (he  Buddeanets  of  (lie 
dBU(er,  offered  no  resutHli«^  Charlca  ctopcd  jifter  muy 
ulveDlarei,  bu(  be  •ni  one  of  tb«  (ck  men  in  bii  laj  wlio 
repined  •  |dice  of  ufely.  Tbe  F(iliinwn(uy  tnilitit  wcie  lent 
home  iviLhia  a  we«k.  Cromwell,  wbo  hut  ridiculed  "luchMuS  " 
Ml  QuoEhi  ifo,  knew  tbem  be((eT  now,  "  Your  new  raised 
forco,"  be  wnMe  to  (be  Houie,  "  did  perform  lingular  good 
loTice,  for  which  they  dcKTve  a  very  high  atiiDa(ion  and 
atkiavledgnien(."  WorteUer  lacmbled  Sedao  in  much  man 
ihu  outward  t«in.  Both  wen  fought  by  "  aition5bianni,"by 
dtiBaiDkUenwhahMllheiibearuintheilrual'ilBdaiuld  be 
IriiKed  Dot  only  to  figh(  tbeii  bardot  bii(  to  maicb  their  best. 
ObJy  ■i(h  luch  troopa  would  a  general  dare  to  place  a  deep  river 
brtvcen  (be  (wo  halve*  o(  bii  tray  oc  (o  leod  away  deuchmcno 
belcrchand  to  n*p  (he  Iniilt  of  victory,  in  i:cTtaiD  >ntidpi(ioD 
ei  wioaiag  th«  vic(a[y  wiLb  (he  remaindet.  Tbe  lerae  of  duty, 
^ch  (he  nw  mili(ia  poucased  in  u  high  a  degree,  enauml  (he 
urival  and  (he  ac(ioD  of  every  column  a(  the  appointed  time  and 

■hich  a  poiiuil  i>  lupeifluoua— a  "  ctowning  merry,"  uCromwell 
ullcdit.  Tbenitltitleof noieititbedoiingopentiaiii.  Monk 
bd  completed  hia  laik  by  Uay  i6j3;  and  Scotland,  which  had 
IHKX  illemp(ed  (o  impose  i(i  will  on  En^and,  found  iluU 
o  (be  position  of  an  Engliib  province  under  martial 


.    Tbe  d. 


u  o(  Worcater. 

— Eail  of  Clareodoa.  TTu  Hiilery  ol  At  JtrUftn 

HMonl,  iKB-iToa.  ed.  W.  D.  Macnr.  Ojdoid,  leM);  R.  Baillie, 
leiBt  mi  Jttri^  (BauutyBe  Society.  IS4i):T.  Carlyle.  Cttm- 
■dri£i)tin«<£|iHcto(iicwedilion.S.C.  Lomaa.LoKl<>n.  1904); 
Air/u  Cmrafiii—a  (ed.  K.  Bell.  London.  iBm):  E-  Bsrlace, 
Hiilsry  a  On  Iritk  AMfim  (London,  167s):  R.  Belbnii.  Fnu^ 
•WatuMnnM.  or  a(...ll'vfi  /ndiid  (London,  inilij. 
Htitb,  Chrtmidt  if  lb  loir  ItUtOimi  War  (Uoodon.  1676):  Uiiiury 
JTmir  sfCilfHl  Mrc*  (Camden  Sociery.  new  niea.  vol,  vU..  1B7]) ; 
AtlMtpipiy  ^  Cupiala  Jtim  tlodpca  (cditino  of  iKj);  Papcn 
00  Ibr  eirl  at  Mkncb«er.  Camden  SocJeTy,  vd.  viii.,  and  Enililh 
Hia—.!  B~i-^,  vnL  iiL ;  J.  Rimfl,  Sunty  0/  EarioiiJ'j  OiamAnu 
I.  London,   181B);  ed.  E.  Warbunon.  ifnunri  0/ 

-  -_  „, arf  1*1  Catakin  (LundDn.  li^i;  J.  Vkan,  Jiiotak- 

Jini  (1&44),  aad  Eailaio^i  Wtnliia  (1647).  ihelaKer  nprinied  in 
l^);  Amioay  t  Wood,  HiiUry  and  AtliMlia  ^  Hit  Untttrnly 
4  OrM  (ed.  J.  Glitch,  Oidard.  ITM-int) :  Mariaret.  duchea  of 
NeKutlc,  Uf*  ^  WaUam  Omwitiik.  JwW  tf  HmmtVt  (ed.  C.  H. 
r«h.  Loaden.  lW6)i  Lucy  KutchisKui.  Utmta  if  On  Uft  >/ 
CtlfM  Hmekimm  (ed.  C.  H.  Firth.  Oxford.  iM,):  litmtiti  of 
UwatlM^vm  (ed.  C.  H.  Firth.  Oilmd.  1891):  S.  AdK  and  W. 
GoDde,  nr  5rni«i  iif  Ui  Eorf  of  ifsHCJhulir'I  Jrny  (LcHKlafl,  I644) : 
u  ^._. ._,_■' ^  CW  Ifm- (LondiSi.  ia,»)i  P«Sk 

iifUmai,  /4«f(C.'  RFinbf Slxti'i^  tiinorial  Society,  Edlnbil^h' 
1901)1  Laid  HopCoa,  £<ft*M  CariU  (SonenM  Record  Sacieiy. 
Ln^M.  1902} :  /ruik  n'ar  4  tttl  (Camden  Society,  old  eerin.  voL 

—  ■'■-y.lut  CartUnitm,Mi<iiot]aiiaUit.  II)«J-idw (London. 
'  Petera. Jti«gMi^riMlkj4nwiaif  Air/iuurffrflntU 

15-iM):  "  jDvmal  of  (he  Marchei  ot^ Prince  Rupert  " 

'  ^uurKaJXOKir.  iB9«)nI-S(nW.  Jnf^ia 

reprinted  Ojdord.  ilu);  R-^ymandi. 

>> — .  ._..    ....   ■■-- /^.C.  E.  Lon(, 


anUsedny.  old  *eiie>,'~^)"'].  (Corbel.  rCb^iUryCi..  . 
■nU  <f  ClfMuur  {London,  164;):  M.  Caner,  ExptJilint  tj  KriU, 
Ina  atd  Cnlriulrr  (London,  ifijo);  rrocu  r<JiU<n(  la  lit  Cml 


il4f ) ;  DiMturu  ^  iMt  War  in  Idnculin  {ei 


t.TliUil,.... 
T,  Eipeiilitai  a 

ham  Society,  Londar 


!«i«V.  London.  lB64);SirM.  Lan^l^'neloH^^iil'nji'rriUM 
(laodsn.  l6aa);y«ni(J<!riikc5iiii^XAibinnH«ui(Londnn.1l3l}l 
I  RuAwotth.rki&*ml*t^BrulD((Laiidan.  l64S):S.R.G*idinet 
Hiaarj  tj  lit  Crtal  CM  War  (London,  1S86);  aiHf  Hillary  el  tin 


Ik  ami  PtauOarali  (London.  1401) 


ih  and  Hislary  If  Ilia 

1):  C.  H.  Finh.  OiWr 

"■■    '        (Lcndon. 

It-  HiM. 


Saii^;f,  iSm  tod  lOOl;  ftpa\  in  Enfliik  HiiUricnl  Rrritm.  and 
Nalirma  Bitpapkj;  T.  ^TSSd^  "  Cro-wE^  SMiir  0^00. 
(»W)i  F.  rioenig,  (Xwr  Cr-^^rii  (ilerlin.  1867-1889):  Sir  I. 
Maclean.  Utmaiii  rf  At  fam>l,  of  payna  (EicKr,  1886):  Sir  <^ 
Mtrkhain,  L.],  ^  hirjtx  (Li,nd<.n,  iBtoJ;  M.  Napier,  ttf.  uni 
Tau,  fri  UaMrau  (Ed.iibonh,  1640):  W.  B.  Devereux,  ibu  rf 
lit  Etib  if  Eiut  (Landnn,  llivili  W.  G.  Ro«.  Utt.  Ennnonng 
ni  I*.  CW  Wot  (R.E.  Pnrfe™  .n.il  Pipcti.  iSSrti"  The  Battle  a 
Naaeby,"  ErtlUtk  HiltoTKol  ^'nini.  ISM;  Otufr  OnmeU  tut 
kii  Jnmndtt  (Chatham,  1869);  K.  N.  Mtufle.  C^Mfry,  til  Pail  and 
Falarr  (London,  Im):  E.  Seo-,1,  K-Pfl,  PriKi  Palelint  (Lnndao. 
1809):  M.  Stace,  CmnaUiama  (London,  iSjo):  C.  S.  Terry,  iif. 
aji  Campait*!  if  Alaiaxiar  l^,:u:.  Earlaflni*  (London.  1899); 
MarUme  H.  de  Witt,  r*i  Ln.ly  p/  La-I^m  (London,  1869!;  F^ 
Maaerea.  TracU  nUtat  It  lit  C:<tl  War  (London.  l8isl-  P  A. 
ChartiCT,  Crimwtil  (London.  19^5).  aim  paperinSoyiJ  UaSrdStr^t 
I<uiaa^aaJaariul.lio6-.T./u^.l.iindV/.  C.   Ro«, .  ■' Edgehill.- 

^nptoke.  1869);  E.  BroB,|'.  "The  W.  of  Hull,"  EivHik 


(BaHnptoki.  iW,.,  _  . 
aulaficai  JCmiw.  1905;  J. 
'tkire  (Birmiofham,  1909); 


..  .-^Tm  War'ia  ..  . 
la,  HiilBry  i^  gradiar  (L 


ITW I  N.  Diake.  Sit/ftf  Pool 

laoea,  London,  1861);  G.  N.  Gc»d»jn.  JM  L.,.:  j:  j^  1::  :i- 
(rnd  ed.,  London,  1904);  J.  F.  HoUinn,  LtiaiUr  dariai  I 
War  (Leiceater.  1S40);  R.  Halmei,  Sufll  1]  PamUfru. 
(Ponlefiact,  1S87);  A.  Kingnon,  Etui  Aa^a  ■  ■  " 
fLondon,  189T);  H.  E.  Maiden,  "  MaidannF,  r 


L  R.  hjim 

(London,  iB 
H.  Round! 
CaacalLi 


Money,  BaOUi  af  N 


War  «  Waki  ,:■,.:  .'V  ii^,ci«,  (L.,ndDn. 
maUOxfari  (I^■,^l;  G,  Robeni.  Hiilwy 
:  [R.  Robinnnl  ■^■.,.-,,  „f  BriiUt  (Bruiof, 
Ury  af  Cakitur,  I  ,„i,  iCnirt,..!^  iu<i 
ind  Lille." 


of  Lvma  (Lo 

■nd  '''Tte  C 

Satulf.  1894:  R-  R-  Shtrpc.  Lnjim  at!  :r.,  /■:,•,!, 

t8u);  LTullie.  5<tfi<r  ^iib  (1«4q).   !      \ 

HmaHrnuir  (GloueeHer,  itoj);  /.We 
lUri  (London,  1879). 


1  (Lmdoo,  1879). 

GRBAT  SALT  LAKB,  a  dullow  body  of  highly  comxntrated 

brine  in  (he  N.W.  pan  of  Utah,  U.S.A.,  lying  belwcen  iiS'S* 
ud  iij-j"  W.  long,  end  between  (O'T*  and  41S*  lal,  Gtetl 
Salt  Lake  ii  4118  f[.  above  Kt-lrvd.  I(  bai  no  ouUel,  and  b 
led  chiefly  by  (be  Jordan,  the  Weber  tnd  (be  Bear  ilveri,  all 
draining  the  moundiooua  coun(r>r  to  tbe  E.  and  S.E.  Tbe 
irregular  outline  of  tbe  lake  baa  been  comptml  (0  tbe  roughly 
drawn  hand,  pabn  a(  tbe  S.,  thumb  (eaagteratcd  in  breadth) 
pointing  N.E.,  and  tbe  fingen  (crowded  tocelbet  and  drawn 


<N- 


No  bttbymelrii 
maximum  depth  'a  60 


agaii 


ig.,  Iroi 


irvey  ol 

ft.'    Tbe  la: 
N.W.  to  S.E,  t 


naleljr 


ofiyjoaq.m  , 

ratei  a  very  ihillOH  at  (he  margini,  aod  (lie  relation  between 
lupply  from  )ir«ipltation,  &c..  and  loat  by  evaporation  It 
variable,  there  being  an  annual  diflerence  in  tbe  height  of  (ha 
.tterof  15-18  in.  between  June  (bighot)tnd  November  (lowew), 
Lnd  beaidei  a  difference  running  through  longer  cycles:  in  iSjo 
he  water  wu  lower  and  the  lake  amaller  than  by  any  previous 
ibiervaiions  (the  area  and  general  outline  were  nearly  the  tame 
1906);  then  the  water  rose  until  1873;  and. between 
iQoi  the  fall  in  level  was  11  6((.  Tbeianjeof  riteud 
[84s  10  1886  waa  ij  ft.,  thiibeinglbe  riiein  1865-1886. 


With  the 
which  it 


850  the  pioportii 
September  1901  it  wi 
tbe  lolidi  in  t  litre  of  1 


Klnth     . 
t,  and  in  September  1901  1 


»im; 


supply  ol  . 


of  solids  by  wei^t  wna  19181%,  In 
-an;  at  the  earlier  irf  these  dale* 
weighed  i6o'6t  grtmi,  tl  tbe  latter 
■.  1  ne  exact  cause  of  this  cyclic  variation 
jw  level  of  1006  ia  usually  regarded  u  tbe 
IrrigttiDEt  tnd  ploughing  in  the  surTounding 
ve  robbed  tbe  lake.  In  part,  of  it 


level  have  been  coinddenl,  respectively,  wit 
and  dry  cydea.  Tbtt  tbe  lake  will  toon  i 
IS  unlikely,  at  tbere  ii  t  ceottsl  trough,  15  tc 
40  ft.  deep,  running  N.W.  and  S.E.    Tbe  ar 


id  Jan 


422 


GREAT  SLAVE  LAKE^GREAVES 


shore-line  of  the  lake  are  evidently  affected  by  a  slight  surface 
tilt,  for  during  the  same  generation  that  has  seen  the  recent 
fall  of  the  lake  level  the  shore-line  is  in  nuuty  cases  a  m.  from  the 
old,  and  fences  may  be  seen  a  mile  or  more  out  in  the  lake.  The 
lake  bed  is  for  the  most  part  dear  sand  along  the  margin,  and  in 
deeper  water  is  largely  coated  with,  crusts  of  salt,  soda  and 
gypsum. 

The  lake  is  a  novel  and  popular  bathing  resort,  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  water  being  so  great  that  one  cannot  sink  or 
entirely  submerge  oneself.  There  are  well-equipped  bathing 
pavilions  at  Garfield  and  Saltair  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  lake  about 
20  m.  from  Salt  Lake  City.  The  bathing  is  invigorating;  it 
must  be  followed  by  a  freshwater  bath  because  of  the  incrusta- 
tion of  the  body  from  the  briny  water.  The  large  amount  of 
salt  in  the  water  makes  both  fauna  and  flora  of  the  lake  scanty; 
there  are  a  few  algae,  the  larvae  of  an  Epkydra  and  of  a  Tipula 
fly,  specimens  of  what  seems  to  be  Corixa  decolor ^  and  in  great 
quantities,  so  as  to  tint  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  brine 
shrimp,  Artemia  salina  (or  gracilis  or /cr/t/si),  notably  biologically 
for  the  rarity  of  males,  for  the  high  degree  of  parthenogenesis  and 
for  apparent  intcrchangeableness  with  the  Branchipus. 

The  lake  is  of  interest  for  its  generally  mountainous  surround- 
ings, save  to  the  N.W.,  where  it  skirts  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Desert, 
for  the  mountainous  peninsula,  the  JPromontory,  lying  between 
thumb  and  fingers  of  the  hand,  shaped  like  and  resembling  in 
geological  structure  the  two  islands  S.  of  it ,  Fremont  and  Antelope,* 
and  the  Oquirrh  range  S.  of  the  lake.  The  physiography  of  the 
surrounding  country  shows  clearly  that  the  basin  occupied  by 
Great  Salt  Lake  is  one  of  many  left  by  the  drying  up  of  a  large 
Pleistocene  lake,  which  has  been  called  lake  Bonneville.  Well- 
defined  wave-cut  cliffs  and  terraces  show  two  distinct  shore-lines 
of  this  early  lake,  one  the  "  Bonneville  Shore-line,"  about  1000 
It.  above  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  the  other,  the  "  Provo  Shore- 
line," about  625  ft.  higher  than  the  present  lake.  These  shore- 
lines and  the  presence  of  two  alluvial  deposits,  the  lower  and  the 
larger  of  yellow  clay  90  ft.  deep,  and,  separated  from  it  by  a  plane 
of  erosion,  the  other,  a  deposit  of  white  marl,  10-20  ft.  deep, 
clearly  prove  the  main  facts  as  to  lake  Bonneville:  a  dry  basin 
was  first  occupied  by  the  shallow  waters  of  a  small  lake;  then, 
during  a  long  period  of  excessive  moisture  (or  cold),  the  waters 
rose  and.  spread  over  an- area  nearly  as  large  as  lake  Huron  with 
a  maximum  depth  of  xooo  ft.;  a  period  of  great  dryness  followed, 
in  which  the  lake  disappeared;  then  came  a  second,  shorter, 
but  more  intense  period  of  moisture,  and  in  this  time  the  lake 
rose,  covered  a  larger  area  than  before,  including  W.  Utah  and 
a  little  of  S.  Idaho  and  of  E.  Nevada,  about  19,750  sq.  m.,  had 
a  very  much  broken  shore-line  of  2550  m.  and  a  maximum 
depth  of  1050  ft.  and  a  mean  depth  of  800  ft.,  overflowed  the 
basin  at  the  N.,  and  by  a  tributary  sti;eam  through  Red  Rock 
Pass  at  the  N.  end  of  the  Cache  valley  poured  its  waters  into 
the  Columbia  river  system.  The  great  lake  was  then  gradually 
reduced  by  evaporation,  leaving  only  shallow  bodies  of  salt  water, 
of  which  Great  Salt  Lake  is  the  largest.  The  cause  of  the 
climatic  variations  which  brought  about  this  complex  history 
of  the  Salt  Lake  region  h  not  known;  but  it  is  worthy  of 
note  that  the  periods  of  highest  water  leveb  were  coincident 
with  a  great  expansion  of  local  valley  glaciers,  some  oi  which 
terminated  in  the  waters  of  lake  Bonneville. 

Industrially  Great  Salt  Lake  is  of  a  certain  importance.  In 
early  days  it  was  the  source  of  the  salt  supply  of  the  surrounding 
country;  and  the  manufacture  of  salt  b  now  an.  important 
industry.  The  brine  is  pumped  into  conduits,  carried  to  large 
ponds  and  there  evaporated  by  the  sun;  during  late  years  the 
salt  has  been  refined  here,  being  purified  of  the  sulphates  and 
magnesium  compounds  which  formerly  rendered  it  efflorescent 
and  of  a  low  commercial  grade.  Mirabilite,  or  Glauber's  salt, 
is  commercially  valuable,  occurring  in  such  quantities  in  parts 
of  the  lake  that  one  may  wade  knee-deep  in  it;  it  separates 


*  Besides  these  islands  there  are  a  few  small  i^nds  farther  N., 
and  W.  of  Antelope,  StansbuFY  Island,  which,  like  Antelope  and 
Fremont  Islands,  b  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  bar  sometimes 
udQOvered  and  rarely  in  more  than  a  foot  of  water. 


from  the  brine  at  a  temperature  between  30* 'and  so*  F.  The 
lake  b  crossed  £.  and  W.  by  the  Southern  Pacific  rai!way*s 
so-called  "  Lucin  Cut-off,"  which  runs  from  Ogden  to  Lucin 
on  a  trestle  with  more  than  20  m.  of  "  fill ";  the  former  route 
around  the  N.  end  of  the  lake  was  43  m.  long. 

Great  Salt  Lake  was  first  described  in  1689  by  Baron  La 
Hontan,  who  had  merely  heard  of  it  from  the  Indians.  "  Jtm  " 
Bridger,  a  famous  mountaineer  and  scout,  saw  the  lake  in  1824, 
apparently  before  any  other  white  man.  Captain  -Bimneville 
described  the  lake  and  named  it  after  himself,  but  the  name 
was  transferred  to  the  great  Plebtocene  lake.  John  C.  F^F£nM»t 
gave  the  first  description  of  any  accuracy  in  lib  Report  of  1845. 
But-oomparativdy  little  was  known  of  it  before  the  Mormon 
settlement  in  1847.  In  1850  Captain  Howard  Stansbury  com- 
pleted a  survey,  whose  results  were  published  in  1852.  The 
most  extensive  and  important  studies  of  the  region,  however, 
are  those  by  Grove  Karl  Gilbert  of  the  United  States  Geok^'cul 
Survey,  who  in  1879-1890  studied  especially  the  earlier  and 
greater  lake. 

See  T.  E.  Talmage,  ne  Great  Soli  Lake,  Preunt  and  Past  (Salt 
Lake  Gty.  1900) ;  and  Grove  Karl  Gilbert,  Lake  BonmtilU,  mono- 
graph I  of  United  States  Geological  Survey  (Washington,  1890), 
containing  (pp.  ia-19)  references  to  the  earlier  literature 

GREAT  SLAVE  LAKE  (Athapuscow),  a  lake  of  Mackenzie 
district,  Canada.  It  b  situated  between  60*  50'  and  62*  55" 
N.  and  108*  40'  and  117"  W.,  at  an  altitude  of  391  ft.  above 
the  sea.  It  b  325  m.  long,  from  15  to  50  m.  wide,  and  indudes 
an  area  of  9770  sq.  m.  The  water  b  yery  dear  and  deep.  Its 
coast  line  b  irregular  and  deeply  indented  by  large  bays,  and  its 
north-eastern  shores  are  nigged  and  mountainous.  The  western 
shores  are  well  wooded,  chiefly  with  spruce,  but  the  northern 
and  eastern  are  dreary  and  barren.  It  b  navigable  from  &bout 
the  ist  of  July  to  the  end  of  October.  The  YcdUow-knife,  Hoar- 
frost, Lockhart  (discharging  the  waters  of  Aylmer,  Clintott- 
Colden  and  Artillery  Lakes),  Tchzudexeth,  Du  Rocher,  Hay 
(400  m.  in  length),  and  Slave  rivers  empty  into  Great  Slave 
Lake.  The  bulk  of  its  water  empties  by  the  Mackenzie  river 
into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  but  a  small  portion  finds  its  way  by  the 
Ark-i-llnik  river  into  Hudson's  Bay.  It  was  discovered  in  1771 
by  Samuel  Heame. 

GREAT  SOUTHERN  OCEAN,  the  name  given  to  the  bdt  of 
water  which  extends  almost  continuously  round  the  globe 
between  the  parallel  of  40"  S.  and  the  Antarctic  Cirde  (66|*  S.). 
The  fact  that  the  southern  extremity  of  South  America  b  the 
only  land  extending  into  thb  belt  gives  it  special  physical 
importance  in  relation  to  tides  and  currents,  and  its  position 
with  reference  to  the  Antarctic  Ocean  and  continent  makes  it 
convenient  to  regard  it  as  a  separate  ocean  from  which  the 
Atlantic,  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans  may  be  said  to  radiate. 
(See  Ocean.) 

GREAVES,  JOHN  (1602-1652'),  English  mathematician  and 
antiquary,  was  the  eldest  son  ot  John  Greaves,  rector  of  Cole- 
more,  near  Alresford  in  Hampshire.  He  was  educated  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  and  in  1630  was  chosen  professor  d.  geometry 
in  Gresham  College,  London.  After  travelling  in  Europe, 
he  visited  the  East  in  1637,  where  he  collected  a  consi(krahle 
number  of  Arabic,  Persian  and  Greek  manuscripts,  and  made  a 
more  acctirate  survey  of  the  pjrramids  of  Egypt  than  any  traveller 
who  had  preceded  him.  On  hb  return  to  Europe  he  visited  a 
second  time  several  parts  of  Italy,  and  during  hb  stay  at  Rome 
instituted  inquiries  into  the  andent  wdghts*  and  measures.  In 
1643  he  was  appointed  to  the  Savilian  professorship  of  astronomy 
at  Oxford^  but  he  was  deprived  of  hb  Gresham  professorship 
for  having  neglected  its  duties.  In  1645  he  essayed  a  reforma- 
tion of  the  calendar,  but  his  pbui  was  not  ad<^ted.  In  1648  he 
lost  both  hb  fellowship  and  hb  Savilian  chair  on  account  of  hb 
adherence  to  the  royaJbt  party.  But  hb  private  fortune  more 
than  sufficed  for  all  hb  wants  till  hb  death  on  the  8th  of  October 
1652. 

Be«des  his  papers  in  the  PkQasopkkal  T^ansactians^,  the  prindpal 
works  of  Greaves  are  Pyramido^ophiat  or  a  DescripHam  e§  tfc« 
Pyramids  in  Egypt  (1646):  A  Discourse  on  Ike  Romam  Fooi  amd 


GREBE— GRECO,  EL 


423 


B  (F[.  fitc),  the  gCDcnUy  icccpttd  nunc  I 


binlt  of  the  f»mily  Padkittiidat,'  btlongini 
Fytrfsda  of  Uliga,  mEmben  of  whicb  inhabit  tlmoit  ill  pini 
H  Itt  worid.  Some  lytieouiic  wiiten  bive  diitribulcd  Ibcm 
iuo  KvaiJ  to-ciUed  j[Etun,  faul,  witb  one  uaptiOD,  these 
mn  (D  be  inauffidentJy  defined,  and  bere  it  will  be  eoou^  to 
■Uoir  but  tm— Lilhun'i  Podiafi  end  tbe  CttOnpiima  ol 
Schtcr  MB^  SbIvul     Grebei  uc  at  once  dutiDguubable  from 


Ctel  Crcncd  Gnbt. 
•Q  other  mta-birdi  by  their  nidimentuy  llil  ud  tbe  peculiar 
itruaare  of  llieii  feet,  whicb  are  not  only  placed  far  behind,  but 
lave  tbe  tan  flattened  and  elongated  toes  fumiibed  with  bpad 
bbs  of  ihin  and  Sat  blunt  tiaili. 

In  Eurapc  are  £ve  well-maiked  ipedei  of  Pudktfi,  the 
ammaneM  aod  imalle*!  of  nrhich  it  the  very  weU-knawD  dab- 
fhiil  of  Engtiih  pondt,  P.  fiaialili)  oc  miiw,  the  little  (tebe 
of  omithf^DgiKa,  found  throu^honl  the  Britiih  lilandt,  and 
■ilh  a  wide  range  in  tbe  old  vorld.  Next  in  liie  are  two  qiedei 
known  ai  tbe  eared  and  homed  grebei,  tbe  former  of  which, 
P.  nipiattU,  a  a  viiilor  from  the  uuth,  only  occaiionally 
ihowiac  iudl  in  Btitain  and  veiy  rarely  breeding,  while  tbe 
lUlet,  P.  MuriMi,  fau  a  mote  norlbeni  range,  breeding  plentifully 
iotcdand,  and  {>  a  not  uncommon  winler-viuLaIl^  Then  there 
ii  the  lirgcr  nd-necked  grebe,  F.  [riiti[emi,  alao  a  northern  biid, 
ml  a  native  of  ibe  nibaictic  paiti  ol  both  Europe  and  America, 
■bile  laaly  thegreai  crested  grebe,  P.  OTiBftuor  gaunt— known 
u  the  looQ  00  the  mem  and  broads  of  Eut  Anglia  and  lome 
oibei  pan*  ol  England,  it  alio  widely  spread  over  the  old  noild. 
North  Araezica  ii  credited  with  seven  species  of  gtebet,  of  which 
two  {P.  ^iinfflu  and  P^  ouriltii)  arc  admitted  to  be  spedficaily 
inseparable  from  those  already  named,  and  two  {P.  xiidentoiis 
sad  P.  caJi/onitciu) -appear  to  be  but  local  fonni^  the  remaining 
In  (f.  ^MtiiKH  and  P.  tiuSniciaHui)  may,  bowevei,  be 
Bcimnled  good  spedei,  and  the  Iiil  di9crs  so  much  from  other 
gitbes  that  many  syllematiili  make  [L  the  type  of  a  distinct 
rnoi,  Pidilymiiu.  South  America  seemi  to  poiiesi  four  or 
6vi  CDore  ipecie*.  one  of  which,  [be  P.  micrtfltTta  ol  Gould 
[Prte.  Ztol,  SecUly,  iSsS,  p.  >»),  baa  been  deservedly  separated 

'  Often,  but  enmrouily.  writlrn  Peikipiiai.  The  word  Padiaps 
bug  a  cootracted  Eonn  of  Poditiptl  td.  ClDger,  Joumal  far  Omi- 
'■'4>'<  >>H.  P-  *y>-  •o^')-  *  CDmbiiuIion  of  fc4tz,  Mdicil  and  hi, 
Al'u.iUfimbeiconipauiicliinuitbelnBiixinlaDccwJthJlsderimlea. 


from  the  genu)  Ptikcft  under  tbe  name  Ctnlrefdma  by  Sdata 
and  Salvin  {£ul.  {^ilUsfy,  p.  1S9,  pi.  icv.J,  owing  to  the  lomi 
of  iti  bill,  and  the  small  liie  of  it*  wings,  which  renders  It 
absolutely  fiigbilesa.  Lake  TiticKi  In  Bolivia  ii,  10  far  a*  1) 
known  at  present,  iti  only  hatutat.  Greba  in  genenl,  though 
averse  from  taking  wing,  have  much  greater  power  of  Sight 
than  would  seem  posuble  on  eiamination  of  their  aiar  otgani, 
and  are  capable  of  prolonged  aerial  Joumeyi.  Their  plumage  is 
short  and  dose.  Above  it  is  commonly  of  some  shade  of  brown, 
but  beneath  it  is  usually  white,  and  so  glossy  as  to  be  in  much 
request  for  muffs  and  tbe  trimming  of  ladies'  dresses.  Some 
qjedes  are  remarkable  (or  the  cteits  or  tippeta,  generally  tt  a 
gotdea<hestBut  colour,  they  atsume  in  tbe  btnding  season. 
P.  auriha  is  ptiticularly  retnatkable  in  thli  itqiect,  and  when 
in  its  full  nuptial  attire  pieaentt  an  eitraordinary  a^iect,  the 
head  (being  surrounded,  as  it  w«re,  by  a  iiimtia  or  aureide,  such 
aa  that  aith  which  painteti  adorn  saintly  charactert),  reflecting 
the  nys  of  light,  glilten  with  a  ^ty  that  paaae*  detolption. 
All  the  spedes  seem  to  have  similar  habits  of  nidificatlon. 
Water-weeds  are  pulled  from  the  bottom  of  tbe  pool,  and  piled 

bean  (J/nyniMfi),  till  they  form  a  Urge  masl,  in  the  centre  of 
which  a  shaUow  cup  i>  termed,  aod  the  eggs,  with  a  chalky 
■bile  ahell  almoti  equally  pointed  at  each  end.  are  laid— tbe 
parent  covering  them,  whenever  she  has  time  to  do  so,  before 
leaving  the  nest.  Young  grebes  are  beautiful  objects,  dolhed 
'1.  disposed  in  (treaks  add 


their  bill  of 

en  biillianlly  ti 

nted 

When  taken  from 

the  neil 

and  placed  e 

n  dry  ground. 

way  in 

which  they  pmgres*— uaing 

heoingtali: 

noM  u  fore-f. 

Kl,  and 

luggating  the  notion  that  they  n 

uit  be  quadmpedi  in 

slodol 

birds. 

( 

*.N.) 

ORECO,  ELI  tbe  name  commonly  given 

to  Dominlco  Theoto- 

ci^uU  (d.  1 

14}.  Crtian  pa 

architect  and  aculp 

or.     Ha 

wubomin 

Crete,  between 

andiss 

0,  ind  innou 

Cretan  origi 

by  his  tignatu 

Greek  1 

tten  on  hit  mott  Im. 

portantpict 

ires,  specially  0 

'St  Ml 

cice"in<heEico«l. 

Heappean 

0  have  itudied 

11  in  Venice. 

and  on 

aixiving  in  Rome  in  1J70  b 

desc 

ribedai 

having  been 

.pupil 

of  Titian,  in 

a  letter  written 

by 

he  mini 

aovto. 

Cardinal  Aless 

andro  Fames 

,  dated  tbe 

isttacf 

under  Titian,  he  w 


ovember  1570. 
Although  a  slut 

inent  of  hii  maiter'i  ipitil,  and  his  eirly  historical  ptctuiet 

ere  attributed  to  many  other  artists,  but  never  to  TIIiaiL 

Of  his  early  works,  two  pictures  o(  "  Tbe  Healing  ol  the  Bhnd 

1 "  It  Dieaden  and  Palma,  and  the  four  of  "  Christ  dtiviog 

money-cbangen  out  of  the  Temple  "  In  the  Yaiborougb 

action,  the  CoHi  collection,  the  National  Gallery,  and  the 

jete  collection  at  Madrid,  are  the  chief.    His  first  authentic 

rait  is  that  of  fail  fellow-countryman,  Ciuho  Clovio.    It  was 

painted  between  1570  and  r57S,  is  signed  in  Greek  character!, 

and  preserved  at  Naples,  and  tbe  last  portrait  be  painted  under 

'  fluenceof  tbellalianschool  appeantobe  thatof  acardinal 

n  the  National  Calleiy,  of  which  four  replica*  painted  in 

are  kiuwo.     He  appears  to  have  come  to  Spain  io  IS7J, 

m  being  questioned  ivo  yean  later  in  connexion  with  a 

judtdal  suit,  as  10  when  he  arrived  in  the  country,  and  for  what 


probably  attracted  by   iJ 


prospect  of  partidpating  in  tha 
le  £jconu,  and  be  appean  to  have  settled  down 
re  his  £nl  worki  were  the  painiinga  for  the  high 
Domingo,  and  hia  [aaous  picture  of  "  The  Dis- 
it  "  in  tlK  saaisly  of  the  cathedral.  It  was  in 
Ihii  last-named  woik  that  he  proved  refractory, 
and  the  records  of  a  law-suit  respecting  the  price  to  be  paid  to 
him  give  us  tbe  earliest  information  of  the  aniil's  sojourn  in 
Spain.  In  r590,  be  painted  the  "  Histoiy  of  St  Maurice  "  for 
Phili|)  II,  and  in  n;'.  his  i...i-    ri.i. ,.    -niitled  "  Tbe  B 


lit  lie  below  the  masletpiecei  ol  Vduqucj 


BOfth 

in  only  be  put  ■ 


424 


GRECO-TURKISH  WAR 


individual  work,  .representing  Spanish  character  even  more 
truthfully  than  did  any  Spanish  arUat,  and  it  gathers  Ixp  all 
the  fugitive  moods,  the  grace  and  charm,  the  devices  and  defects 
of  a  single  race,  and  gives  them  complete  stability  in  their 
wavering  expressions. 

Between  1595  and  1600,  EI  Greco  executed  two  groups  of 
paintings  in  the  church  of  Sau  Jos6  at  Toledo,  and  in  the  hospital 
of  La  Caridad,  at  Illescas.  Besides  these,  he  is  known  to  have 
painted  thirty-two  portraits,  several  manuscripts,  and  many 
paintings  for  altar-pieces  in  Toledo  and  the  neighbourhood. 
As  an  architect  he  was  responsible  for  more,  than  one  of  thoi 
churches  of  Toledo,  and  as  a  sculptor  for  carvinp  both  in  wood 
and  in  marble,  and  he  can  only  be  properly  understood  in  all 
his  varied  excellences  after  a  visit  to  the  dty  where  most  of 
his  work  was  executed. 

He  died  on  the  7th  of  April  1614,  and  the  date  of  his  death 
is  one  of  the  very  few  certain  facts  which  we  have  respecting  him. 
The  record  informs  us  that  he  made  no  will,  that  he  received  the 
sacraments,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Santo  Domingo. 
The  popular  legend  of  his  having  gone  mad  towards  the  latter 
part  of  his  career  has  no  foundation  in  fact,  but  his  painting 
became  more  and  more  eccentric  as  his  life  went  on,  and  his 
natural  perversity  and  love  of  strange,  cold  colouring,  increased 
towards  the  end  of  his  life.  As  has  been  well  said,  "  Light  with 
him  Was  only  used  for  emotional  appeal,  and  was  focussed  or 
scattered  at  will."  He  was  haughtily  certain  of  the  value  of  his 
own  art,  and  was  determined  to  paint  in  cold,  ashen  colouring, 
with  livid,  startling  effect,  the  gaunt  and  extraordinary  figures 
that  he  beheld  with  his  eccentric  genius.  His  pictures  have 
wonderful  visionary  quality,  admirable  invention,  and  are  full 
of  passionate  fervency.  They  may  be  considered  extravagant, 
but  are  never  commonplace,  and  are  exceedingly  attractive  in 
their  intense  emotion,  marvellous  sincerity,  and  strange,  chilly 
colour. 

El  Greco's  work  is  typically  modem,  and  from  it  the  portrait- 
painter,  J.  S.  Sargent,  claims  to  have  learnt  more  than  from  that 
of  any  other  artist.  It  immortalises  the  character  of  the  people 
amonpt  whom  he  dwelt,  and  he  may  be  considered  as  the  initiator 
of  truth  and  realism  in  art,  a  precursor  and  inq)irer  of  Velazquez. 

In  his  own  time  he  was  exceedingly  popular,  and  held  in 
great  repute.  Sonnets  were  written  in  his  honour,  and  he  is 
himself  said  to  have  written  several  treatises,  but  these  have  not 
come  down  to  our  time.  For  more  than  a  generation  his  work 
was  hardly  known,  but  it  is  now  gaining  rapidly  in  importance, 
and  its  true  position  is  more  and  more  recognized.  Some 
examples  of  the  artist's  own  handwriting  have  been  discovered 
in  Toledo,  and  Seftor  Don  Manuel  Cossia  of  Madrid  has  spent 
many  jrears  collecting  information  for  a  work  dealing  with  the 
artUt.  (G.C.  W.) 

6RBCX>-TnRia8H  WAR,  1807.  This  war  between  Greece 
and  Turkey  (see  Greece:  Modem  History)  involved  two  prac- 
tically distinct  campaigns,  in  Thessaly  and  in  Epirus.  Upon  the 
Thessalian  frontier  the  Turks,  early  in  March,  had  concentrated 
six  divisions  (about  58,000  men),  1500  sabres  and  156  guns, 
under  Edhem  Pasha.  A  seventh  division  was  rendered  available 
a  little  later.  The  Greeks  numbered  about  45,000  infantry, 
800  cavalry  and  96  guns,  under  the  crown  prince.  On  both 
sides  there  was  a  conskierable  dispersion  of  forces  along  the 
frontier.  The  Turidsh  navy,  an  important  factor  in  the  war  of 
1877-78,  had  become  paralytic  ten  years  later,  and  the  Greek 
squadron  held  complete  command  of  the  sea.  Expeditionary 
forces  directed  against  the  Turkish  Une  of  commimications 
might  have  influenced  the  course  of  the  campaign;  but  for 
such  ifork  the  Greeks  were  quite  unprepared,  and  beyond 
bombarding  one  or  two  insignificant  ports  on  the  coast-line,  and 
aiding  the  transport  of  troop^  from  Athens  to  Volo,  the  navy 
practically  accomplished  nothing.  On  the  9th  and  xoth  April 
Greek  irregulars  crossed  the  frontier,  either  with  a  view  to 
provoke  hostilities  or  in  the  hope  of  fomenting  a  rising  in  Mace- 
donia. On  the  x6th  and  17th  some  fighting  occurred,  in  which 
Greek  regulars  took  part;  and  on  the  x8th  Edhem  Pasha, 
whose  headquarters  had  for  some  time  been  ^established  at 


Elassona,  ordered  a  general  advance.    The  Turkish  plan  was 
turn  the  Greek  left  and  to  bring  on  a  decisive  action,  but  d 
was  not  carried  out.  In  the  centre  the  Turks  occupied  the  MdH 
Pass  on  the  X9th,  and  the  way  was  practically  open  to  Lailf 
The  Turkish  right  wing,  however,  moving  on  Damani  aiidf 
Reveni  Pass,  encountered  resistance,  and  the  l^t  wing  I 
temporarily  checked  by  the  Creeks  among  the  mountains  at 
Nezeros.    At  Mati,  covering  the  road  to  Tymavo,  the  Gr« 
entrenched  themselves.    Here  sharp  fighting  occurred  on  1 
axst  and  22nd,  during  which  the  Greeks  sought  to  turn  the  4 
flank  of  the  superior  Turkish  central  column.    On  the  ^ 
fighting  was  renewed,  and  the  advance  guard  of  the  Tuikishl 
column,  which  had  been,  reinforced,  and  had  pressed  backi 
Greeks,  reached  Deliler.    The  Turkish  forces  had  now  dd 
together,  and  the  Greeks  were  threatened  on  both  flanks, 
the  evening  a  general  retreat  was  ordered,  and  the  loose  disdfl 
of  the  Greek  army  was  at  once  manifested.    Rumouxs  of  disil 
spread  among  the  ranks,  and  wild  panic  supervened.    XI 
was  nothing  to  prevent  an  orderiy  retirement  upon  Lait 
which  had  beeii  fortified  and  provisioned,  and  which  offci^ 
good  defensive  position.    The  general  dibSde  could  iK>t,  bowsj 
be  arrested,  and  in  great  disorder  the  mass  of  the  Gredi  dt 
fled  southwards  to  Pharsala.    There  was  no  pursuit,  and' 
Turkish  commander-in-chief  did  not  reach  Larissa  till  the  « 
Thus  ended  the  first  phase  of  the  war,  in  which  the  Gni 
showed  tenacity  in  defence,  which  proved  fruitless  by  ressol 
initially  bad  strategic  dispositions  entailing  far  too  great  di^ 
sion,  and  also  because  there  was  no  plan  of  action  beyofl 
general  desire  to  avoid  risking  a  defeat  which  might  prevent 
expected  risings  in  Macedonia  and  elsewhere.    The  haodliq| 
the  Turicish  army  showed  little  skill  or  enterprise;  but  on  I 
sides  political  considerations  tended  to  prevent  the  applidtf 
of  sound  military  principles. 

Larissa  being  abandoned  by  the  Greeks,  Velestino,  the  jun0 
of  the  Thessalian  railways,  where  there  was  a  strong  pod 
covering  Volo,  seemed  to  be  the  nattual  rallying  point  foe 
Greek  army.    Here  the  support  of  the  fleet  would  have  I 
secured,  and  a  Turkish  advance  across  the  Othrys  range  f 
Athens  could  not  have  taken  place  until  the  flanking  pool 
had  been  captured.    Whether  by  direction  or  by  natur^  impl 
however,  the  mass  of  the  Greek  troops  made  for  Pharsala,  m 
some  order  was  re-established,  and  preparations  were  maq 
resist  attack.    The  importance  of  Velestino  was  recognize! 
sending  a  brigade  thither  by  railway  from  Pharsala,  and 
inferior  Greek  army  was  thus  split  into  two  portions,  sepatf 
by  nearly  40  m.    On  27th  April  a  Turkish  reconnaissanc 
Velestino  was  repulsed,  and  further  fighting  occurred  of 
29th  and  30th,  in  which  the  Greeks  under  Colonel  SmolenskI 
their  own.-    Meanwhile  the  Turks  made  preparations  to  al 
Pharsala,  and  on  5th  May  the  Greeks  were  driven  from 
positions  in  front  of  the  town  by  three  divisions.    Fit 
fighting  followed  on  the  6th,  and  in  the  evening  the  Greeks 
retired  in  fair  order  upon  Domokos.    It  was  intended  to 
the  Greek  left  with  the  first  division  under  Hairi  Pasha,  b« 
flanking  force  did  not  arrive  in  time  to  bring  about  a  dc| 
result.    The  abandonment  of  Pharsala  involved  that  of  Veld 
where  the  Turks  had  obtained  no  advantage,  and  on  the  tf 
of  the  5th  Colonel  Smolensk!  began  a  retirement  upon  Haltf 
Again  delaying,  Edhem  Pasha  did  not  attack  Domokos  t| 
17th,  giving  the  Greeks  time  to  entrench  their  positions, 
attack  was  delivered  in  three  columns,  of  which  the  rigU 
checked  and  the  centre  failed  to  take  the  Greek  trencbc 
suffered  much  loss.    The  left  column,  however,  menace 
line  of  retreat,  and  the  Greek  army  abandoned  the  whole  p9 
during  the  night.    No  effective  stand. was  made  at  the  I 
Pass,  which  was  evacuated  on  the  following  night    0 
Smolenski,  who  arrived  on  the  x8th  from  Halmyros,  was  dft 
to  hold  the  pass  of  Thermopylae.    The  Greek  forces  being 
demoralized,  the  intervention  of  the  tsar  was  invoU 
telegraph;  and  the  latter  sent  a  personal  appeal  to  the  S 
who  directed  a  suspension  of  hostilities.    On  the  aoth  an  ar^ 
was  arranged. 


■ 


CEOCRAFHYl 


GREECE 


425 


In  Epirus  at  the  outbreak  of  war  about  x  5,000  Greeks,  induding 
a  cavalry  regiment  and  five  batteries,  the  whole  under  Colond 
Manos,  occupied  a  line  of  defence  from  Arta  to  Peta.  The 
Turks,  about  98,000  strong,  with  forty-eight  guns,  under  Achmet 
Hlfsi  Pasha,  were  distributed  mainly  at  lannina,  Pentepagadia, 
and  in  front  of  Arta.  On  x8th  April  the  Turks  commenced  a 
three  days'  bombardment  of  Arta;  but  successive  attempts 
to  take  the  bndge  were  repulsed,  and  during  the  night  of  the 
list  they  retired  on  Philippiada,  a6  m.  distant,  which  was 
attacked  and  occupied  by  Colond  Manos  on  the  23rd.  The 
Greeks  then  advanced  to  Pentepagadia,  meeting  with  little 
resistance.  Their  difficulties  now  began.  After  some  skirmishing 
OQ  the  37th,  the  position  hdd  by  thdr  advanced  force  near 
Homopttlos  was  attacked  on  the  28th.  The  attack  was  renewed 
on  the  S9th,  a^d  no  Greek  rdnforcements  were  forthcoming 
when  needed.  The  Euzones  made  a  good  defence,  but  were 
driven  back  by  superior  force,  and  a  retreat  was  ordered,  which 
quickly  degenerated  into  panic-stricken  fli^t  to  and  across 
tlse  Arta.  Reinforcements,  induding  2500  Epixote  volunteers, 
were  sent  to  Arta  from  Athens,  and  on  1 2th  May  another  incursion 
into  Turkish  territory  began,  the  i^parent  object  being  to 
occupy  a  portion  of  the  country  in  view  of  the  bfeakdown  in 
Thenaly  and  the  probability  that  hostilities  would  shortly  end^ 
The  advance  was  made  in  three  columns,  while  the  Epirote 
volunteers  were  landed  near  the  mouth  of  the  Luro  river  with 
the  idea  of  cutting  o£f  the  Turkish  garrison  of  Prevesa.  The 
centre  column,  consisting  of  a  brigaide,  three  squadrons  and 
two  batteries,  which  were  intended  to  take  up  and  hold  a  defensive 
position,  attacked  the  Turks  near  Strevina  on  the  x^th.  The 
Greeks  fought  well,  and  being  reinforced  by  a  battalion  from 
the  left  column,  resumed  the  offensive  on  the  following  day,  and 
fairly  held  their  own.  On  the  night  of  the  xsth  a  retreat  was 
ordered  and  well  carried  out.  Tlie  volunteers  landed  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Luro,  were  attacked  and  routed  with  heavy  loss. 

The  campaign  in  Epirus  thus  failed  as  completely  as  that  in 
Theaaaly.  Under  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  signed,  on 
20th  September,  and  arranged  by  the  European  powers,  Turkey 
obtained  an  indemnity  of  £T4,ooo,ooo,  and  a  rectification  of 
the  Thessalian  frontier,  carrying  with  it  some  strategic  advantage. 
History  records  few  more  unjustifiable  wars  than  that  which 
Greece  gratuitously  provoked.  The  Greek  troops  on  several 
occasions  showed  tenacity  and  endurance,  but  disdpline  and 
cohesion  were  manifestly  wanting.  Many  of  the  officers  were 
incapable;  the  campaign  was  gravely  mismanaged ;  and 
politics,  which  led  to  the  war,  impeided  its  operations.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  fruits  of  the  German  tuition,  which  began  in 
x88o,  and  recdved  a  powerful  stimulus  by  the  aptx>intment 
of  General  von  der  Golts  in  X883,  were  shown  in  the  Turkish 
army.  The  mobilization  was  on  the  whole  smoothly  carried  out, 
and  the  newly  completed  railways  greatly  facilitated  the  con- 
centration on  the  frontier.  The  young  school  of  officers  trained 
by  General  von  der  Golts  disj^yed  ability,  and  t^  artillery  at 
Phazsala  and  Domokos  was  well  handled.  The  superior  leading 
was,  however,  not  conspicuously  successful;  and  while  the  rank 
and  file  again  showed  excdlent  military  qualities,  political 
conditions  and  the  Oriental  predilection  for  half-measures  and 
for  denying  full  responubility  and  full  powers  to  commanders 
in  the  field  enfeebled  the  conduct  of  the  campaign.  On  account 
of  tbe  total  want  of  cardul  and  systematic  peace  training  on  both 
sides,  a  war  which  presented  several  interesting  strategic  problems 
provided  warnings  in  place  of  military  lessons.         (G.  S.  C.) 

QRKBCB,'  an  andent  geographical  area,  and  a  modem 
kingdom  more  or  less  correqwnding  thereto,  dtuated  at  the 
south-eastern  extremity  of  Europe  and  forming  the  most 
southerly  portion  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  The  modem  kingdom 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  European  Turkey  and  on  the  E.,  S.  and 
W.  by  the  Aegean;  Mediterranean  and  Ionian  seas.  The  name 
Craeda,  which  was  more  or  less  vagudy  given  to  the  andent 
country  by  the  Romans,  seems  not  to  have  been  employed  by 
any  native  writer  bdore  Aristotle;  it  was  apparently  derived 

>  See  also  Greek  Art,  Greek  LANGtTAGB,  Grksk  Law,  Grbbx 
Literature,  Greek  Rbug.ion. 


by  the  Romans  fitom  the  Illyrians,  who  applied  th6  name  of  an 
Epirote  tribe  (rpousot,  Graed)  to  all  thdr  southern  ndi^bours. 
The  names  Hdlas,  Hellenes  CEXXof,  "EXXipa),  by  which  the 
andent  Greeks  called  thdr  country  and  their  race,  and  which  are 
still  employed  by  the  modem  Greeks,  originally  designated  a  small 
district  in  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly  and  its  inhabitants,  who  gradu- 
ally spread  over  the  lands  south  of  the  Cambunian  mountains. 
The  luune  Hellenes  was  not  universally  applied  to  the  Giee| 
race  until  the  post-Homeric  epoch  (Thucyd.  i.  3). 

X.  Geogeafhy  AMD  SxATisncs 

The  andent  Greeks  had  a  somewhat  vague  conception  of  the 
northern  limits  of  Hdlas.  Thessaly  was  generally  induded  and 
Epirus  ezduded;  some  writers  induded  some  of  the  _  ^ 
southern  cantons  of  Epiras,  while  others  exduded  not  *■*■<  •* 
only  all  that  country  but  Aetolia.  and  Acaraania. 
Generally  speaking,  the  confines  of  Hellas  in  the  age 
of  its  greatest  distinction  were  represented  by  a  jine  drawn  from 
the  northern  shore  of  the  Ambradan  Gulf  on  the  W.  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Peneus  on  the  E.  Macedonia  and  Thrace  were 
regarded  as  outside  the  pale  of  Hellenic  civilization  till  386  B.C., 
when  after  his  conquest  of  Thessaly  and  Phods,  Philip  of  Macedon 
obtained  a  seat  in  the  Amphictyonic  Council.  In  another  sense, 
however,  the  name  Hellas  expressed  an  ethnological  rather  than 
a  geographical  unity;  it  denoted  every  country  inhabited  by 
Hellenes.  It  thus  embraced  all  the  Greek  settlements  on  the 
coasts  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  shores  of  the 
Hellespont,  the  Bosporus  and  the  Black  Sea.  Nevertheless, 
the  Greek  peninsula  within  the  limits  described  above,  together 
with  the  adjacent  islands,  was  always  regarded  as  Hdlas  far 
excdUnce.  The  continental  area  of  Hellas  proper  was  no  greater 
than  that  of  the  modem  Greek  kingdom,  which  comprises  but 
a  small  portion  of  the  territories  actually  occupied  by  the  Greek 
race.  The  Greeks  have  always  been  a  maritime  people,  and  the 
real  centre  of  the  national  life  is  now,  as  in  antiquity,  the  Aegean 
Sea  or  Archipelago.  Thickly  studded  with  islands  and  bordered 
by  deeply  indented  coasts  with  shdtered  creeks  and  harbours, 
the  Aegean  in  the  earliest  days  of  navigation  invited  the  enter- 
prise of  the  mariner;  its  shores,  both  European  and  Asiatic, 
became  covered  with  Greek  settlements  and  its  islands,  together 
with  Crete  and  Cyprus,  became  Greek.  Trae  to  their  maritime 
instincts,  the  Greeks  rarely  advanced  inland  to  any  distance 
from  the  sea;  the  coasts  of  Macedonia,  Thrace  and  Asia  Minor 
are  still  mainly  Greek,  but,  except  for  some  isolated  colonies,  the 
kinterhtnd  in  each  case  lies  outside  the  limits  of  the  race.  Con- 
tinental Greece  is  divided  by  its  mountain  ranges  into  a  number 
of  natural  cantons;  the  existence  of  physical  barriers  tended 
in  the  earliest  times  to  the  growth  of  isolated  political  com- 
munities, and  in  the  epoch  of  its  andent  independence  the 
country  was  occupied  by  seventeen  separate  states,  none  of 
them  larger  than  an  ordinary  English  county.  These  states,  whicb 
are  noticed  separatdy,  were:  Thessaly,  in  northern  Greece; 
Acamania,  Aetolia,  Locris,  Doris,  Phods,  Megaris,  Boeotia  and 
Attica  in  central  Greece;  and  Corinthia,  Sicyonia,  Achaea,  Elis, 
Messenia,  Laconia,  Argolis  and  Arcadia  in  the  Peloponnesus. 

Modem  Greece,  which  (induding  the  adjacent  islands)  extends 
from  35*  50'  to  39*  54'  N.  and  from  19*  20'  to  26*  xs'  E.,  com- 
prises sJl  the  area  formerly  occupied  by  these  states. 
Under  the  arrangement  condudc^  at  Constantinople  ^^£j* 
on  the  2xst  of  July  X832  between  Great  Britain,  ontm, 
France,  Russia  and  Turkey,  the  northem  boundary 
of  Greece  was  drawn  from  Uie  Gulf  of  Arta  (Sinus  Ambradus) 
to  the  Gulf  of  Volo  (S.  Pagasaeus),  the  line  keeping  to  the  crest 
of  the  Othrys  ran^.  ThMsaly  and  part  of  Acamania  were  thus 
left  to  Turkey.  The  island  of  Euboea,  the  Cydades  and  the 
northem  Sporades  were  added  to  the  new  kingdom.  In  X864 
the  Ionian  Islands  (q.v.)  were  ceded  by  Great  Britain  to  Greece, 
In  x88o  the  Conference  of  Beriin  proposed  a  new  frontier,  which 
transferred  to  Greece  not  only  Thessaly  but  a  considerable 
portion  of  southem  Epirus,  extending  t(^  the  river  Kalamas. 
This,  however,  was  rejected  by  Turkey,  and  the  existing  boundary 
was  traced  in  x88x.    Starting  from  the  Aegean  coast  at  a  point 


426 


GREECE 


(GEOGRAPHY 


near  Platamona,  between  Mount  Olsrmpus  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Salambria  (Peneus),  the  line  passes  over  the  heights  of  Kritiri 
and  Zygos  (Pindus)  and  descends  the  course  of  the  river  Arta 
to  its  mouth.  After  the  war  of  1897  Greece  restored  to  Turkey 
some  strategical  points  on  the  frontier  possessing  no  geographical 
importance.  The  greatest  length  of  Greece  is  about  250  m., 
the  greatest  breadth  180  m.  Tht  country  is  generally  divided 
into  five  parts,  which  are  indicated  by  its  natural  features: — 
(i.)  Northern  Greece,  which  extends  northwards  from  Mount 
Othrys  and  the  gulfs  of  Zeitun(Lamia)and  Arta  to  the  Cambunian 
Mountains,  and  .comprises  Tbessaly  and  a  small  portion  of 
Epirus;  (ii.)  Central  Greece,  extending  from  the  southern  limits 
of  Northern  Greece  to  the  gulfs  of  Corinth  and  Aegina;  (iii.) 
the  peninsula  of  the  Peloponnesus  or  Morea,  attached  to  the 
mainland  by  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth;  (iv.)  the  Ionian  Islands 
on  the  west  coasts  of  Epirus  and  Greece;  (v.)  The  islands  of  the 
Aegean  Sea,  including  Euboea,  the  Cyclades  and  the  northern 
Sporades. 

In  the  complenty  of  its  contour  and  the  variety  of  its  natural 
features  Greece  surpasses  every  country  in  Europe,  as  Europe  sur- 
atm^^mi  passes  every  continent  in  the  world.  The  broken  character 
v^v"*™  of  its  coast-line  is  unique;  ocept  a  few  districts  in  Thes- 
aaty  no  part  of  the  country  is  more  than  50  m.  from  the 
sea,  AlthouKh  the  area  of  Greece  is  considerably  smaller  than  that 
of  Portupd.  Its  coast-line  is  greater  than  that  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
together.  The  mainland  is  penetrated  by  numerous  gulfs  and  inlets, 
and  the  adjoininK  seas  are  studded  with  islands.  Another  character- 
istic is  the  numbcKT  and  complexity  of  the  mountain  chains,  which 
traverse  every  part  of  the  country  and  which,  together  with  their 
ramifications,  cover  four-fifths  of  its  surface.  The  mountain-chains 
interlace,  the  interstices  forming  small  enclosed  basins,  such  as  the 
plain  of  Boeotia  and  the  plateau  of  Arcadia ;  the  only  plain  of  any 
extent  is  that  of  Thessaly.  The  mountains  project  into  the  sea, 
forming  peninsulas,  and  sometimes  reappearing  m  rows  or  groups 
of  islands;  they  descend  abruptly  to  the  coast  or  are  separated 
from  it  by  smallalluvial  plains.  The  portions  of  the  country  suitable 
for  human  colonization  were  thus  isolated  one  from  the  other,  but 
as  a  rule  possessed  easy  access  to  the  sea.  The  earliest  settlements 
were  generally  situated  on  or  around  some  rocky  elevation,  which 
dominated  the  surrounding  (>lain  and  was  suitable  for  fortification 
as  a  citadel  or  acropolis;  owing  to  the  danger  of  piratical  attacks 
they  were  usually  at  some  little  distance  from  the  sea,  but  in  the 
vicmity  of  a  natural  harbour.    The  physical  features  of  the  country 

Playedan  important  part  in  moulding  the  character  of  its  inhabitants, 
rotected  against  foreign  invasion  by  the  mountain  barriers  and  to 
a  great  extent  cut  off  from  mutual  intercourse  except  bv  sea,  the 
ancient  Greek  communities  developed  a  marked  individuality  and  a 
strong  ^ntiment  of  local  patriotism;  their  inhabitants  were  both 
mountameen  and  marinen;  they  possessed  the  love  of  country, 
the  vigour  and  the  courage  which  are  always  found  in  hiehlandcrs, 
together  with  the  spirit  oladventure,  the  versatilityand  the  passion 
for  freedom  characteristic  of  a  seafaring  people.  The  great  variety 
of  natural  products  as  well  as  the  facility  of  maritime  communication 
tended  to  the  early  growth  of  commercial  enterprise,  while  the 
peculiar  beauty  of  the  scenery,  though  little  dwelt  upon  in  ancient 
literature,  unooubtedly  quickened  the  ^tic  and  artistic  instincts 
of  the  race.  The  effects  of  physical  environment  arc  no  less  notice- 
able among  the  modem  Greeks.  The  rural  |x>pulations  of  Attica 
and  Boeotia,  though  descended  from  Albanian  colonists  in  the 
middle  ages,  display  the  same  contrast  in  character  which  marked 
the  inhabitants  of  those  regions  in  ancient  times. 

In  its  general  aspect  the  country  presents  a  series  of  striking  and 
interesting  contrasts.  Fertile  tracts  covered  with  vineyards,  olive 
groves,  corn-fields  or  forests  display  themselves  in  close  proximity 
with  rugged  heights  and  rocky  precipices;  the  landscape  is  never 
monotonous;  its  outlines  arc  graceful,  and  its  colouring,  owing  to 
the  clearness  d  the  air,  is  at  once  brilliant  and  delicate,  while  the 
sea,  in  most  instances,  adds  a  picturesque  feature,  enhancing  the 
charm  and  variety  of  the  scenery. 

The  ruling  feature  in  the  mountain  system  of  northern  Greece  is 
the  great  chain  of  Pindus,  which,  extending  southwards  from  the 
^^^  lofty  Shar  Dagh  (Skardos)  near  Uskub,  forms  the  back- 
TTfr"  bone  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  Reaching  the  frontier 
'""'  of  Greece  a  little  S.  of  lat.  40",  the  Pindus  range  is  inter- 
sected by  the  Cambunian  Mountains  running  E.  and  W.;  the 
eastern  branch,  which  forms  the  northern  boundanr  of  Thessaly, 
extends  to  the  Gulf  of  Salonica  and  culminates  in  Nlount  Olympus 
(9754  ft-)  a  little  to  the  N.  of  the  Greek  frontier;  then  bending  to 
the  9.E.  it  follows  the  coast-line,  forming  a  rampart  between  the 
Thessalian  plain  and  the  sea ;  the  barrier  is  severed  at  one  point 
only  where  the  river  Salambria  (anc.  Peneus)  finds  an  exit  through 
the  narrow  defile  of  Tempe.  South  of  Tcmpe  the  mountain  ridge, 
known  as  the  Mavro  Vouno,  connects  the  pyramidal  Kissovo  (anc. 
OxM,  6400  ft.)  with  Ptessidi  (anc.  Pelion,  5310  ftO:  it  is  prolonged 
in  the  Magnesian  peninsula,  which  separates  the  Gulf  of  Volo  from 


the  Aegean,  and  is  cnitinued  by  the  mountains  of  Euboea  (hi 
summiu,  Dirphys,  5725  ft.,  and  Ocha,  4830  ft.)  and  by  the  islands 
of  Andros  and  Tenos.  West  of  Pindus,  thie  Cambunian  Mountains 
are  continued  by  several  ridges  which  traverse  Epirus  from  north 
to  south,  encloMng  the  plain  and  lake  of  lannina;  the  most  wcsttfly 
of  these,  projecting  into  the  Adriatic,  forms  the  Acrooeraunian 
promontory  terminating  in  Cape  Gknsa.  The  principal  pass  throoi^ 
the  Cambunian  Mountains  is  that  of  Meluna,  through  which  runs 
the  carriage-road  connecting  the  town  of  Elassona  u  Macedonia 
with  Larissa,  the  capital  01  Thessaly;  there  are  horse-paths  at 
Reveni  and  elsewhere.  The  central  chain  of  Pindus  at  tne  point 
where  it  is  intersected  by  the  Cambunian  Mountains  forms  the  mass 
of  Zygos  (anc.  Lacnum,  71 13  ft.)  through  which  a  horse>path  con- 
nects the  town  of  Metxovo  with  Kalabaka  in  Thessaly;  00 
the  declivity  immediately  N.  of  Kalabaka  are  a  series  of  rocky 
pinnacles  on  which  a  number  of  monasteries  are  perehed.  Trending 
to  the  S.,  the  Pindus  chain  terminates  in  the  conical  Mount  Veiouchi 
(anc.  Tymphrestus,  7609  ft.)  in  the  heart  of  the  mountainous  region  Of 
northern  Greece.  From  this  centre-point  a  number  of  mountains 
radiate  in  all  directions.  To  the  E.  runs  the  chain  of  Hdloro  (anc 
Othjys',  highest  summit,  Hagios  Elias,  55^8  ft.)  separating  the  plaia 
of  Thessaly  from  the  valley  of  the  Spercneios  ana  travened  by  the 
Phourka  pass  (2789  ft.);  to  the  S.E.  is  Mount  Kat&vothn  (anc. 
Oeta,  7080  ft.)  extending  to  the  southern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Lamia 
at  Thermopylae;  to  the  S.E.,  S.  and  S.W.  are  the  mountains  of 
Aetolia  and  Acarnania.  The  Aetolian  gnxip,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  the  direct  continuation  of  the  Pindus  raiwe,  includes  Kiona 
(8240  ft.),  the  highest  mountain  in  Greece,  and  Vardusi  (aac  JC«rar, 
8190  ft.).  The  mountains  of  Acarnania  with  *Thi^^  <w^s^  (5^15  ft.) 
rise  to  the  W.  of  the  valley  of  the  Aqiropotanio  (anc.  Achdota).  .  The 
Aetolian  Mountains  are  prolonged  to  the  S.E.  by  the  double-crested 
Liakoura  (anc.  Pamasnu;  8004  ft.)  in  Phods;  by  Palaeo  Vouno 
(anc  Helicon.  5738  ft.)  and  EUteas  (anc.  CUhaercn^  4626  ft.)  respect* 
ively  W.  and  S.  of  the  Boeotian  plain:  and  by  the  mountains  of 
Attica,— Ozea  (anc.  Parneit  4626  It.),  Mendeh  (anc.  PaUdkus  or 
BriUisos,  3639  ft.),  Trellovouno  (anc  Hymeltus,  3369  ft.),  and 
Keratia  (2136  ft.)--Heniiinating  in  the  promontory  oTSumum.  but 
reappearing  in  the  islands  of  Ccoa,  Cytnnos,  Seripnos  and  Siphnas^ 
South  of  Cithaeron  are  Patera  in  Megaris  (3583  ft.)  and  Makri 
Plaei  (anc  Ceraneiat  440S  ft.)  overiooking  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth.. 
The  mountains  of  the  Morea,  grouped  around  the  elevated  central 
plateau  of  Arcadia,  form  an  independent  system  with  ramificationa 
extending  through  the  Argolid  peninsula  on  the  E.  and  the  three 
southern  promontories  of  Malea,  Taenaron  and  Acritas.  At  the 
eastern  end  of  the  northern  chain,  separating  Areadia  from  the  Gulf 
of  Corinth,  is  Ziria  (anc.  Cyllene,  7789  ft.) ;  it  forms  a  counterpan  to 
Parnassus  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  gulf.    A  little  to  the  W. 


Argolid  peninsula  is  Hagios  Elias  (anc.  ArockMoeont  3910  ft.).  The 
senes  of  heights  forming  the  eastern  rampart  of  Anadia,  includti^ 
Artemision  (5814  ft.)  and  Ktenia  ((^46  ft.)  is  continued  to  the  S.  by 
the  Malevo  range  (anc  Pamon^  highest  summit  6365  ft.)  which  ex- 
tends into  the  peninsula  of  Malea  and  reappears  in  the  island  of 
Ccrigo.  Separated  from  Pamon  by  the  Eurotas  valley  to  the  W., 
the  chain  of  Taygetus  (mod.  PenUiaiU^ion',  highest  summit  Hagios 
Elias,  7874  ft.,  the  culminating  point  of  the  Morea)  forms  a  barritf 
between  the  plains  of  Laconia  and  Mesaenia;  it  is  traversed  by  the 
Lang&da  pass  leading  from  Sparta  to  Kaiamata.  The  range  is 
prolonged  to  the  S.  through  the  arid  district  of  Maina  and  terminates 
in  Cape  Matapan  (anc.  Taenarum),  The  mountains  of  western 
Arcadia  are  less  lofty  and  of  a  less  marked  type;  they  include 
Hagios  Petros  (4777  ft.)  and  Palae6caatro  (anc  PkUei,  2257  ft.) 
N.  of  the  Alpheus  valley,  Diaphorti  (anc  LyeaeuSt  4660  ft.),  the 
haunt  of  Pannand  Nomia  (4554  ft.)  W.  of  the  plain  of  MegalopcJis. 
Farther  south,  the  mountains  of  western  Messenia  form  a  detached 
group  (Varvara,  4003  ft. ;  Mathia,  a  140  ft.)  extending  to  Cape  Gallo 
Tanc.  Acritas)  and  the  Genussae  islands.  In  central  Arcadia  are 
Apanokrapa  (anc.  Maenaius^  also  sacred  to  Pan)  and  Roudia  (S072 
ft.);  the  Taygetus  chain  forms  the  southern  continuation  of  uiae 
mountains. 

The  more  noteworthy  fortified  heights  of  andent  Greece  were  the 
Acrocorinthus,  the  citadel  of  Corinth  (1885  ft.);  Ithome  (26ml  ft.)  at 
Mcssene;  Larissa  (9S0  ft.)  at  Argps;  the  Acropolis  of  Mycenae 
(910  ft.) ;  Tiryns  (60  ft.)  near  Nauf^ia,  which  also  possessed  its  own 
citadel,  the  Palamidhi  or  Acro-nauplia  (705  ft.) ;  the  AcropoUs  of 
Athens  (300  ft.  above  the  mean  level  of  the  dty  and  513  ft.  above 
the  sea),  and  the  Cadmea  of  Thebes  (715  ft.). 

Greece  has  few  rivers;  roost  of  these  are  small,  rapid  and  turbk!,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  mountainous  configuration  of  the  country. 
They  are  either  perennial  rivers  or  torrents,  the  white  beds  -^ 
of  the  latter  being  dry  in  summer,  andonly  filled  with  water  <wws> 
after  the  autumn  rains.  The  chief  riven  (none  of  which  is  navigable) 
are  the  Salambria  (PcHtus)  in  Thessaly,  the  Mavropoumo  {Cefinsus) 
in  Phocts.  the  Hellada  (Sperduios)  in  Phthiotts,  the  Aapropotamo 
(Ackelous)  in  Aetolia,  and  the  Ruphia  (Alpknu)  and  Vasiliko 
(Eurotas)  in  the  Morea.  (X  the  famous  riven  of  Athens,  the  one, 
the  Ilissus,  is  only  a  chain  of  pools  all  summer,  and  the  other,  the 
Cephisus,  though  never  absolutely  dry,  does  not  reach  the  sea, 


FAUNA,  FLORA] 


GREECE 


+27 


Eeijif  drawn  off  in  nuraeroot  artificial  channds  to  irrigate  the  neigh- 
bounag  olive  groves.  A  fre9aent  peculiarity  of  the  Greeic  rivers  is 
their  sudden  disappearance  in  subterranean  chasms  and  reappear- 
ance on  the  surface  again,  such  as  gave  rise  to  the  fabled  course  of 
the  Alpheus  under  tte  sea,  and  its  emergence  in  the  fountain  of 
Arethuaa  in  Syracuse.  Some  of  these  chasms — "  Katavothras  " — 
are  merely  sieves  with  herbage  and  gravel  in  the  bottom,  but  others 
sjre  lam  caverns  through  which  the  course  of  the  river  may  some- 
times be  followed.  Floods  are  freauent,  especially  in  autumn,  and 
latural  fountains  abound  and  gusn  out  even  from  the  tops  of  the 
hiUs.  Aganippe  rises  high  up  among  the  peaks  of  Helicon,  and 
Peirene  flows  from  the  summit  of  Acrocorinthus.  The  only  note- 
vorthv  cascade,  however,  is  that  of  the  Styx  in  Arcadia,  which  has  a 
fall  01  500  ft.  During  part  of  the  year  it  is  lost  in  snow,  and  it 
is  at  aU  times  almost  inaccessible,  takes  are  numerous,  but  few  are 
of  cottsidensble  size,  and  many  merely  marshes  in  summer.  The 
hrgest  are  Karia  (Boebeis)  in  Thessal]^ ,  Trichonis  in  Aetolia,  Copals 
in  Boeotia,  Pheneus  and  Stymphalus  in  Arcadia. 

The  valleys  are  generally  narrow,  and  the  plains  small  in  extent, 
deep  basins  walled  in  among  the  hills  or  more  free  at  the  mouths 

— of  the  rivers.    The  principal  plains  are  those  of  Theiaaly, 

"  6oeotia,Measenia,Argoe,tlis  and  Marathon.  The  bottom 
of  these  plains  consirts  of  an  alluvial  soil,  the  most  fertile  in  Greece. 
In  some  of  the  mountainous  regions,  especially  in  the  Morea,  are 
extensive  table-lands.  The  plain  of  Mantinca  is  3000  ft.  hip;h,  and 
the  upland  district  of  Sdritis,  between  Sparta  and  T^ca,  is  in  some 
parts  MOO  ft. 

Sciaoo  said  that  the  guiding  thing  in  the  geography  <^  Greece 
was  the  sea,  which  presses  in  upon  it  at  all  parts  with  a  thousand 
f.  .  arms.  From  the  Gulf  of  Arta  on  the  one  side  to  the  Gulf 
of  Vok>  on  the  other  the  coast  is  indented  with  a  succesuon 
of  natural  bays  and  gulfs.  The  most  important  are  the  Gulfs  of 
Acgina  (Saronieus)  and  Lepanto  (Corinthiaeus),  which  separate 
the  Morea  from  the  northern  mainland  of  Greece, — the  first  an  inlet 
of  the  Aegean,  the  second  of  the  Ionian  Sea, — and  are  now  connected 
by  acaaal  cut  through  the  high  land  of  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Corinth 
{^1  ra.  wide).  The  outer  portion  of  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto  is  called  the 
Gulf  of  Patras,  and  the  inner  part  the  Bay  of  Corinth ;  a  narrow 
inlet  on  the  north  side  of  the  same  rulf ,  called  the  Bay  of  Salona  or 
Itea,  penetrates  northwards  into  rhocis  so  far  that  it  is  within 
^  gec^raphical  miles  of  the.  Gulf  of  Zeitun  on  the  north-east  coast. 
The  width  of  the  entrance  to  the  gulf  of  Lepanto  u  subject  to  singular 
changes,  which  are  ascribed  to  the  formation  of  alluvial  deposits  by 
certain  marine  currents,  and  their  removal  again  by  others.  At 
theiime  of  the  Peloponnenan  war  this  channel  was  1200  yds.  broad ; 
in  the  time  of  Strabo  it  was  only  850;  an4  in  our  own  day  it  has 
again  increased  to  2300.  On  the  coast  of  the  Morea  there  are  several 
lane  gulfs,  that  of  Arcadia  (Cyparissitu)  on  the  west,  Kalamata 
(Museniacus)  and  Kolokythia  (Laccnicus)  on  the  south  and  Nauplia 
(Argplicus)  on  the  east.  Between  Euboea  and  the  mainland  lie  the 
channels  m  Trikeri,  Talanti  {Euboicum  Mare)  and  Enipo;  the  latter 
two  are  connected  by  the  strait  of  E^ripo  (Eurijbul).  Thu  strait, 
which  is  spanned  by  a  swing-bridge,  is  abcnit  180  ft.  wide,  and  is 
remarkable  for  the  unexplained  eccentricity  of  its  tide,  which  has 
punled  andents  and  moderns  alike.  The  current  runs  at  the 
average  s^eed  df  5  m.  an  hour,  but  continues  only  for  a  short  time  in 
one  direction,  changing  its  course,  it  b  said^  ten  or  twelve  times  in  a 
day;  it  is  sometimes  very  violent. 

There  are  no  volcanoes  on  the  mainland  of  Greece,  but  every- 
where traces  of  volcanic  action  and  frequently  visitations  of  eartn- 
(|uakes,  for  It  lies  near  a  centre  01  vokanic  agency,  the 
island  of  Santorin,  which  has  been  within  recent  years  in 
a  state  of  eruption.  There  is  an  extinct  crater  at  Mount 
Laphyttium  (Craniisa)  m  Boeotia.  The  mountain  of  Methane,  on 
the  coast  of  Arj^olis,  was  f>roduced  by  a  volcanic  eruption  in  283  B.C. 
Earthauakes  laid  Thebes  in  ruins  in  1853,  destroyed  every  house  in 
Corinth  in  1858.  filled  up  the  Castalian  spring  in  1870,  devastated 
Zante  ia  1893  >nd  the  district  of  Atalanta  in  1894.  There  are  hot 
qjringi  at  Thermopylae  and  other  places,  which  are  used  for  sanitary 
purposes.  Various  ^rts  of  the  coast  exhibit  indications  of  up- 
heaval within  hutorical  times.  On  the  coast  of  EHs  four  rocky 
islets  are  now  joined  to  the  land,  which  were  separate  from  it  in  the 
days  of  ancient  Greece.  There  are  traces  of  earlier  sea-beaches 
at  Corinth,  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Morea,  and  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Hdlada.  The  land  has  gained  so  much  that  the  pass  of  Ther- 
nopybe  which  was  extremely  narrow  in  the  time  of  Lconidas  and 
kb  three  hundred,  b  now  wide  enough  for  the  motions  of  a  whole 
army.  (J.  D.  B.) 

Stractnrally,  Greece  may  be  divided  into  two  regions,  an  eastern 
ud  a  western.  The  former  includes  Thessaly,  Bocoda,  the  island 
^..^_        of  Euboea,  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  the  peninsula  of 

•^■''  Argotis,  and,  throughout,  the  strike  of  the  beds  is  nearly 
from  west  to  east.  The  western  region  includes  the  Pindus  and  all 
the  paiafld  ranees,  and  the  whole  of  the  Peloponnesus  excepting 
AigoUsL  Here  tne  foMs  which  affect  the  Mesosoic  and  early  Tertiary 
itrata  run  approximately  from  N.N.W.  to  S.S.E. 

Up  to  the  ooae  of  the  19th  century  the  greater  part  of  Greece  was 
believed  to  be  formed  of  Cretaceous  rocks,  but  later  researehcs  have 
ahown  that  the  supposed  Cretaceous  beds  include  a  variety  of  seo- 
.bgical  hoiiaona.    The  geological  sequence  begins  with  crystalline 


schists  and  limestones,  followed  by  Palaeozoic,  Triassic  ahd  Liassic 
rocks.  The  oldest  beds  which  hitherto  have  yielded  fossils  belong 
to  the  Carboniferous  System  (FustUina  limestone  of  Euboea). 
Following  upon  these  older  beds  are  the  great  limestone  masses  which 
cover  most  of  the  eastern  region,  and  which  are  now  known  to  include 
Turassk,  Tithonian,  Lower  and  Upper  Cretaceous  and  Eocene  beds. 
In  the  Pindus  and  the  Peloponnesus  these  beds  are  overlaid  by  a 
series  of  shales  and  platy  limestones  (Olonos  Limestone  of  the 
Peloponnesus),  which  were  formerly  supposed  to  be  of  Tertbry 
age.  It  has  now  been  shown,  however,  that  the  upper  series  df 
limestones  has  been  brought  upon  the  top  of  the  lower  by  a  great 
overthrust.  ^  Triassic  fossils  have  been  found  in  the  Olonos  Lime- 
stone and  it  b  almost  certain  that  other  Mesozoic  horizons  are 
re^esented.  * 

The  earth  movements  which  produced  the  mountain  chains  of 
western  Greece  have  folded  the  Eocene  beds  and  must  therefore 
be  of  post-Eocene  date.  The  Neogene  beds,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
not  affected  by  the  folds,  although  by  faulting  without  folding  they 
have  in  some  places  been  raised  to  a  neight  of  nearly  6000  ft.  They 
lie,  however,  chiefly  along  the  coast  and  in  the  vaUeys,  and  consist 
of  maris,  conglomerates  and  sands,  sometimes  with  seams  of  lignite. 
The  Pikermi  deposits,  of  bte  Miocene  age,  are  famous  for  their  rich 
mammalbn  fauna. 

Although  the  folding  which  formed  the  mountain  chains  appeare 
to  have  ceased,  Greece  b  still  continually  shaken  by  earthquakes, 
and  these  earthquakes  are  closely  connected  with  the  great  lines 
of  fracture  to  which  the  country  owes  its  outline.  Around  the 
narrow  gulf  which  separates  the  Peloponnesus  from  the  mainland, 
earthquakes  are  particularly  frequent,  and  another  region  which  is 
often  shaken  b  the  south-western  comer  of  Greece,  the  peninsula  of 
Messene.!  (P.  La.) 

The  vegetation  of  Greece  in  general  resembles  that  01  southern 
Italy  while  presenting  many  types  common  to  that  of  Asb  Minor. 
Owing  to  the  geographical  configuration  of  the  peninsula  and 
its  mountainous  surface  the  characteristic  flora  of  the 
Mediterranean  regions  b  often  found  in  juxtaposition  with  "on, 
that  of  central  Europe.  In  respect  to  its  vegetation  the  country 
may  be  regarded  as  divided  into  four  zones.  In  the  first,  extending 
from  the  sea-level  t6  the  height  of  1500  ft.,  oranges,  olives,  dates, 
almonds,  pomegranates,  figs  and  vines  flouridi,  and  cotton  and 
tobacco  are  grown.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  streams  are  found 
the  laurel,  myrtle,  oleander  and  lentbk,  together  with  the  pbne  and 
white  poplar:  the  cypress  is  often  a  picturesque  feature  in  the 
landscape,  and  there  is  a  variety  of  aromatic  plants.  The  second 
zone,  from  1500  to  3^  ft.,  b  the  region  of  the  oak,  chestnut  and 
other  British  trees.  In  the  third,  from  3300  to  5500  ft.,  the  beech 
b  the  characteristic  forest  tree:  the  Abtes  cephaumica  and  Pinus 
pinea  now  take  the  place  of  the  Pinus  hakpensis,  which  grows 
everywhere  in  the  lower  regions.  Above  §500  ft.  ia  the  Alpine 
region,  marked  by  small  plants,  lichens  and  mosses.  During  the 
short  period  of  spring  anemones  and  other  wild  flowers  enrich 
the  hiUsidcs  with  magnificent  colouring;  in  June  all  verdure  dis- 
appean  except  in  the  watered  districts  and  elevated  plateaus. 
The  asphodel  grows  abundantly  in  the  dry  rocky  soil;  aloes,  planted 
in  rows,  form  impenetrable  hedges.  Medicinal  pbnts  are  numerous, 
such  as  the  Inula  Heknium,  the  Mandragora  Officinaruntt  the 
Cokkicum  napolitanum  and  the  HeUeborus  orientalis,  which  still 
grows  abundantly  near  Aspraspitb,  the  ancient  Anticyra,  at  the 
foot  of  Parnassus. 

The  fauna  is  similar  to  that  of  the  other  Mediterranean  peninsulas, 
and  includes  some  species  found  in  Asia  Minor  but  not  elsewhere  in 
Europe.  The  lion  existed  in  northern  Greece  in  the  time  0^  ^^ 
Aristotle  and  at  an  earlier  period  in  the  Morea.  The  bear  **■■* 
is  still  found  in  the  Pindus  range.  Wolves  are  common  in  all  the 
mountainous  regions  and  jackals  are  numerous  in  the  Morea.  Foxes 
are  abundant  in  all  parts  of  the  country;  the  polecat  b  found  in  the 
woods  of  Attica  and  the  Morea;  the  lynx  is  now  rare.  The  wild 
boar  is  common  in  the  mountains  of  northern  Greece,  but  b  almost 
extinct  in  the  Peloponnesus.  The  badger,  the  marten  and  the 
weasel  are  found  on  the  mainbnd  and  in  the  islands.  The  red 
deer,  the  fallow  deer  and  the  roe  exbt  in  northern  Greece,  but  are 
becoming  scarce.  The  otter  b  rare.  Hares  and  rabbits  are  abund- 
ant in.  many  parts  of  the  country ,  especially  in  the  Cyclades;  the 
two  species  never  occupy  the  same  district,  and  in  the  Cyclades 
some  islands  (Naxos,  Melos,  Tenos,  &c.)  form  the  escdusive  domain 
of  the  hares,  others  (Seriphos,  Kimdos,  Mykonos,  Ac.)  of  the  rabbits. 
In  Andros  alone  a  demarcation  has  been  arrived  at.  the  hares  retain- 
ing the  northern  and  the  rabbits  the  southern  portion  of  the  island. 

*For  the  Geology  of  Greece  see:  M,  Neumayr.  Ac,  Denhs,  k. 
Akad.Wiss.  Wien,  malk.-nal.  C/.  vol.  xl.  (1880):  A.  Phthppson,  Der 
Pdoponnes  (Berlin,  1802)  and"Beitrigezur  Kenntnisdergritthischen 
Inselwelt,"  Peterm.  iiiO,,  Eiginz.-heft  No.  134  (1901);  R.  Lepsiu% 
Ceolofis  son  AUika  (Berlin,  1893);  L.  Cayeux,  *' Ph6nomdnes  de 
chamage  dans  la  M6diterran^  orientale,"  C.  R.  Acad.  Sci.  Paris, 
vol.  cxxxvi.  (1903)  Pp*  474-476;  J.  Deprat, "  Note  pr^liminaire  sur  la 
de  Vne  d'EuMe,"  Bull.  Soc.  G4d,  France,  ser.  4.  Vol.  iii. 
pp.  229-243,  p.  vii.  and  "  Note  sur  b  gfologie  du  manif 
nnflur ' •  '        •' 


Ju  raion  et  sue  llnfluence  exerc^  par  les  masnfs  afch^ens  sur  la 
tectonique  de  r£g£Ide,"  ib»  vol.  iv.  U904)i  PP*  ^99-^' 


428 


GREECE 


IPOPULATION 


The  chaoK^s  !•  found  in  the  hufnr  numntainft,  cuch  m  Pindus. 
Funasaus  and  Tymphrettus.  Tne  Cretan  agrimi,  or  wild  gcat 
(Cafira  nubiana,  C.  oMafrtu),  found  in  AntimeTos  and  said  to  exist 
in  Ta^^us,  the  jackal,  the  stellion,  and  the  chameleon  are  among 
the  Aaatic  q)ecies  not  found  westward  of  Greece.  There  is  a  great 
variety  of  birds;  of  558  species  catalogued  two>thirds  are  migratory. 
Among  the  birds  of  prey,  which  are  very  numerous,  are  the  golden 
and  imperial  eagle,  the  yellow  vulture,  the  CytaUus  barbatus,  and 
•everal  .species  of  fakona.  The  celebrated  owl  of  Athena  (Athene 
noctua)  is  becoming  rare  at  Athens,  but  still  haunts  the  Acropolis 
and  the  royal  garden ;  it  ua  small  qxdes,  found  everywhere  in  Greece. 
The  wild  goose  and  duck,  the  bustard,  partridge,  woodcock,  snipe, 
wood-|Mf[eon  and  turtle-dove  are  numerous.  Immense  flocks  of 
quails  visit  the  southern  coast  of  the  Moraa,  where  they  are  cap- 
tured in  fireat  numbers  and  exported  alive.  The  stork,  which  was 
common  in  the  Turkish  epoch,  has  now  become  scarce.  There  is  a 
great  variety  of  reptiles,  of  whkh  sixty-one  Bpedm  have  been 
catalogued.  The  saurians  are  all  harmless;  amonf  them  the 
•tdlion  (Stdtio  vulgaris),  commonly  called  KpoMukot  m  Mykonos 
and  Crete,  is  believed  bv  Heldreich  to  have  furnished  a  name  to  the 
crocodile  of  the  Nile  (Herod,  ii.  69).  There  are  five  species  of 
tortoise  and  nine  of  Amphibia.  Of  the  serpents,  which  are  numerous, 
there  are  only  two  dangerous  species,  the  Vipera  ammodyles  and  the 
Vipera  aspis;  the  first-named  ia  common.  Among  the  marine 
fauna  are  the  dolphina,  familiar  in  the  legends  ana  sculpture  of 
antiquity; 'in  the  clear  water  of  the  Ae^n  they  often  afford  a 
beautiful  ^>ectacle  as  they  play  round  ships;  porpoises  and  whales 
are  sometimes-  seen.  Sea-fish,  of  which  240  species  have  been 
ascertained,  are  very  abundant. 

The  climate  of  Greece,  like  that  of  the  other  cduntries  of  the  Balkan 
peninsula,  is  liable  to  greater  extremes  of  heat  and  coki  than  prevail 
^^  .  in  Spain  and  Italy;  the  difference  is  due  to  the  aeneral 
"^  contour  of  the  peninsula,  which  assimilates  its  cRmatic 
conditions  to  those  of  the  European  mainland.  Another  distinctive 
feature  is  the  mat  variety  of  local  contrasts;  the  rapid  transitions 
are  the  naturafeffect  of  diversity  in  the  gewraphioal  configuration  of 
the  country.  Within  a  few  hours  it  is  possible  to  pass  from  winter  to 
spring  and  from  apring  to  summer.  The  spring  is  short ;  the  sun 
is  already  powerful  in  March,  but  the  increasing  warmth  is  often 
checked  by  cold  northeriy  winds;  in  many  place*  the  com  harvest 
is  cut  in  May,  when  southerly  winds  prevail  and  the  temperature 
rises  rapidly.  The  great  heat  of  summer  is  tempered  throughout  the 
whole  region  of  the  archipelago  by  the  Etesian  winds,  which  blow 
rKularly  from  the  N.E.  for  forty  to  fifty  days  in  July  and  August. 
This  current  of  cool  dry  air  from  the  north  is  due  to  the  vacuum 
resulting  from  intense  heat  in  the  region  of  the  Sahara.  The  healthy 
Etesian  winds  are  generally  replaced  towards  the  end  of  summer  by 
the  southerly  Libas  or  sirocco,  whichj  when  blowing  strongly, 
resembles  the  blast  from  a  furnace  and  is  most  injurious  to  health. 
The  sirocco  affects,  though  in  a  less  degree,  the  other  countries  of 
the  Balkan  peninsula  and  even  Rumania.  The  mean  summer 
temperature  is  about  79*  Fahr.  The  autumn  is  the  least  healthy 
season  of  the  year  owing  to  the  great  increase  of  humidity,  especially 
in  October  and  Novemwr.  At  the  end  of  October  snow  reappears  on 
the  hig^her  mountains,  remaining  on  the  summits  till  June.  The 
winter  u  mild,  and  even  in  January  there  are,  as  a  rule,  many  warm 
clear  days;  but  the  recurrence  of  biting  northerly  winds  and  cold 
blasts  from  the  mountains,  as  well  as  the  rapid  transitioiu  from  heat 
to  cold  and  the  difference  in  the  temperature  of  sunshine  and  shade, 
render  the  climate  somewhat  treacherous  and  unsuitable  for  invalids. 
Snow  seldom  falls  in  the  maritime  and  lowland  districts  and  frosty  is 
rare.  The  mean  winter  temperature  is  from  48*  to  55"  Fahr.  The  rain- 
fall varies  greatly  according  to  kxalities;  it  is  greatest  in  the  Ionian 
Islands  (53*34  ins.  at  Corf  uj,  in  Arcadia  and  in  the  other  mountainous 
districts,  and  least  on  the  Aegean  littoral  and  in  the  Cyclades;  in 
Attica,  the  driest  region  in  Greece,  it  is  16*1  ins.  Tne  wettest 
months  are  November,  December  and  lanuary;  the  driest  July 
and  August,  when,  except  for  a  few  thunder-storms,  there  is  practi- 
cally no  rainfall.  The  rain  genoally  accompanies soiftheriy  or .south- 
westeriy  winds.  In  all  the  maritime  districts  the  sea  breeae  greatly 
modifies  theteinperature;it  beginsabout9  a.m.,  attains  its  maximum 
force  soon  after  noon,  and  ceases  about  an  hour  after  sunset.  Greece 
is  renowned  for  the  clearness  of  its  climate;  fogs  and  mists  are 
almost  unknown.  In  most  years,  however,  only  four  or  five  days 
are  recorded  in  which  the  sky  is  perfectly  cloudless.  The  natural 
healthiness  of  the  climate  is  counteracted  in  the  towns,  eq)ecially 
in  Athens,  by  deficient  sanitation  and  by  stifling  clouds  of  dust, 
which  pro^gate  infection  and  are  peculiarly  hurtful  in  cases  of 
oi^thaimia  and  pulmonary  disease.  Malarial  fever  is  endemic  in 
the  marshy  districts,  especially  in  the  autumn. 

The  area  of  the  country  was  18,341  sq.m.  beforethe  acquisition 
of  the  Ionian  Islands  in  1864,  19,381  sq.  m.  prior  to  the  annexa- 
tion of  Thessaly  and  part  of  Epinis  in  x88i,  and 
^'**  '"^    34,55a  sq.  m.  at  the  census  in  1896.    If  we  deduct  153 
sq.  m.,  the  extent  of  territory  Mded  to  Turkey  after 
the  war  of  1897,  the  area  of  Greece  in  1908  would  be 
M$4loo  iq.  m.    Other  authorities  give  25,164. and  25,136  tq.  m. 


as  the  area  prior  to  the  rectification  of  the  frontier  in  1898.* 
The  population  in  1896  was  2^433 i8o6,  or  99-110  the  sq.  m., 
the  population  of  the  territories  annexed  in  i88z  being  approxi- 
mately 350,000;  and  2,631,952  in  1907,  or  xo7'8  to  the  sq.  m. 
(according  to  the  official  estimate  of  the  area),  showing  an 
increase  of  198,146  or  o*8x%  per  annum,  as  compared  with 
z  '61  %  during  the  period  between  XS96  and  1889;  the  diminished 
increase  is  mainly  due  to  emigration.  The  population  by  sex 
in  1907  is  given  as  1,324,942  males  and  1,307,010  femaio  (or 
50-3%  males  to  49*6  females).  The  preponderance  of  males, 
which  was  52%  to  48%  females  in  1896,  has  also  been  reduced 
by  emigration;  it  is  most  marked  in  the  northern  departments, 
especially  in  Larissa.  Only  in  the  departments  of  Arcadia, 
Eurytania,  Corinth,  Cephalonia,  Lacedaemon,  Laconia,  Phods, 
Argolis  and  in  the  Cyclades,  is  the  female  population  In  exceu 
of  the  male. 

Neither  the  census  of  1896  nor  that  of  1880  gave  any  classification 
by  professions,  religion  or  language.  The  K>uowing  figures,  which 
are  only  approximate,  were  denved from  unofficial  sources  in  1901 : — 
agricultural  and  pastoral  employments  444,000;  industries  ^14.200; 
tradere  and  their  employ^  118,000;  bibouren  and  servants  31.300: 
various  professions  15.700;  officials  12,000;  clergy  abtMit  6000; 
lawyera  4000;  physicians  2500.  In  1879,  1,635,698  of  the  popula- 
tion were  returned  as  Orthodox  Christians,  14^77  as  (Catholics  and 
Protestants,  26jC2  as  Jews,  and  740  as  of  other  rriigions.  Tlie 
annexation  of  Tneasaly  and  part  en  Epirus  is  stated  to  nave  added 
24. 165  Mahommedan  subjects  to  the  Hellenic  kingdom.  A  consider- 
able portion  of  these,  however,  emigrated  immediatdv  after  the 
annexation,  and,  although  a  certain  number  subsequently  returned, 
the  total  Mahommedan  popufaition  in  Greece  was  estimated  to  be 
under  5000  in  1908.  A  number  of  the  Christian  inhabitants  of  these 
regions,  estimated  at  about  S0/)00,  reuined  Turldsh  natioiiality  with 
the  object  of  escaping  military  service.  The  Albanian  popuUtion, 
estimated  at  200,000  by  Finlay  in  18^1,  still  probably  exceeds 
120,000.  It  is  gradually  being  absorbed  in  the  Hellenic  population. 
In  1870.  37.598  persons  (an  obviously  untrustworthy  ^nire)  were 
returned  as  speaking  Albanian  only.  In  1879  the  number  is  given  as 
58,858.  The  Vlacn  population,  which  has  been  increased  fay  the 
annexation  of  Thessaly,  numbere  about  60,000.  The  number  of 
foreign  residents  is  unknown.  The  Italians  are  the  most  numerous* 
numberinfl^  about  11.000.  Some  1500  persons,  mostly  Mahcae, 
possess  Bntish  nationality. 

By  a  law  of  27  November  1899,  Greece,  which  had  hitherto  been 
divided  into  axteen  departments  (»4mm)  was  redivided  into  twenty- 
six  departments,  as  follows: — 


Departments, 
t  Attica.     .     . 

a.Boeotia    .     .  . 

3  Phthiotis.      .  . 

4  Phocis 

5  Aetolia  and  Acar- 

nania   .     .  . 

6  Eurytania     ,.  . 

7  Arta   .... 

8  Trikkala  .     .  . 

9  Karditsa  . 

10  Larissa     .     .  . 

11  Magnesia.     .  . 

12  Euboca    .     .  . 

13  Argolis     .     .  . 


Pop. 

65,816 

112,328 

62,246 

141.405 
47.192 
41,280 

90,54* 
9a,94« 
95.066 
102.742 
116,903 
81.943 


Departments, 

14  Corinth     .     .     .     . 

15  Arcadia     .     .     .     . 

16  Achaea  .  .  .  . 
EUs  .  .  •  «  . 
Triphylta        .     .     , 

,  Mesaenia  .     .     .     . 

20  Laconia     .     .     .     . 

21  Lacedaemon        .     . 

22  (^rfu 

23  Cephalonia  .     . 

24  Lcucas  (with  Ithaca) 

25  Zante 

26  Cyclades  .     .     .     . 


19 


Pop. 

71.229 

162.324 

I50,9t8 
103.810 

90.523 
"7»99i 
61,522 
87,106 
99.571 
7i.2iS 
4>Jo6 

42J02 

l3o,37« 


The  populatbn  is  densest  in  the  Ionian  Islands,  exceeding  307  per 
sq.  m.  The  departments  of  Acaraania,  Phocis  and  Euboea  are  the 
most  thinly  inhabited  (about  58^  61  and  66  per  sq.  m.  respectively). 
Very  little  information  is  obtainable  with  regard  to  the  movement 
of  the  population;  no  register  of  births,  deaths  and  marriages  is 
kept  in  Greece.  The  only  official  statistics  are  found  in  the  periodical 
returns  of  the  mortality  in  the  twelve  principal  towns,  according  to 
which  the  yeariy  average  of  deaths  in  these  towns  foe  the  five  yean 
1903-1907  was  approximately  10,253,  or  23*8  per  1000;  of  these 
more  than  a  quarter  are  ascribed  to  pulmonary  consumption,  doe  ia 
the  main  to  defective  sanitation.  Both  the  birth-rate  and  death-xate 
are  low,  being  27'6  and  20*7  per  looo  re^>ectively.  Infant  mortality 
b  slight,  and  in  point  of  longevity  Greece  compares  favourably  with 
most  other  European  countries.  The  number  of  illegitioute  births 
b  I2'25  per  lOOo;  these  are  almost  exclusively  in  the  townsk 
J  Of  the  total  popuUtion  28'5%  are  stated  to  live  in  towns 
population  of  tne  principal  towns  b: — 


towns.    The 


Athens  . 
Peiraeus 
Piatras    . 


1896. 

111^486 

43.«4« 

37.985 


1907. 
167,479 
73^79 
37.724 


*No  state  survey  of  Greece  was  available  in  1908,  though  a 
survey  had  been  undertaken  by  the  ministry  of  war. 


ETHNOLOGY] 


GREECE 


429 


1896. 

Trikkala        ....  21,149 

Hennopoltt  (Syra)  .     .  18,760 

Corfu 18,581 

Volo        16,788 

LariBOi I5i373 

Zante I4i906 

Kalamata  141298 

Pyrgos  12,708 

Tripolift 10465 

Chalds 8i66i 

Laurium        ....  7,926 

No  trustworthy  information  is  obtainable  with  regard  to  immign- 
tk>n  and  emigration,  of  which  no  statistics  have  ever  been  Icept. 
Emigiation,  which  was  formerly  in  the  main  to  Egypt  and  Rumania, 
is  now  almost  exclusively  to  the  United  States  01  America.  The 
principal  exodus  is  from  Arcadia,  Laconia  and  Maina ;  the  emttrants 
m>m  these  districts,  estimated  at  about  14,000  annually,  are  lor  the 
most  partyoungmenapproachingthea^eof  military  service.  Accord- 
ing to  American  statistics  12431  Greeks  arrived  in  the  United 
States  from  Greece  during  the  period  1869-1898  and  130,154  in 
j899'I907;  a  considerable  number,  however,  have  returned  to 
Greece,  and  those  remaining  in  the  United  States  at  the  end  of  1907 
were  estimated  at  between  156,000  and  138,000;  this  number  was 
considerably  reduced  in  190^  by  remigiation.  Since  1896  the 
tendency  to  emigration  has  received  a  notable  and  somewhat 
alarming  imoulse.  There  is  an  increasing  immigration  into  the 
towns  from  tne  rural  districts,  which  are  gradually  becoming  depopu- 
lated. Both  movements  are  due  in  part  to  the  preference  of  the 
Greeks  for  a  town  life  and  in  part  to  distaste  for  military  service, 
but  in  the  main  to  the  poverty  of  the  peasant  population,  whose 
cooditioo  and  interests  have  been  neglected  by  the  government. 

Greece  is  inhabited  by  three  races — ^the  Greeks,  the  Albanians 
and  the  Vlachs.    The  Greeks  who  are  by  far  the  most  numerous, 
have  to  a  large  extent  absorbed  the  other  races;  the 
process  of  assimilation  has  been  especially  rapid  since 
"^~  the  foundation  of  the  Greek  kingdom.    LUce  most 

Euxopeai^  nations,  the  modem  Greeks  are  a  mixed  race.  The 
question  of  their  origin  has  been  the  subject  of  much  learned 
controversy;  their  presumed  descent  from  the  Greeks  of  the 
fU*AW^\  epoch  has  proved  a  national  asset  of  great  value; 
during  the  period  of  their  struggle  for  independence  it  woii 
them  tbe  devoted  zeal  of  the  Philhellenes,  it  inspired  the 
cnthuuasm  of  Byron,  Victor  Hugo,  and  a  host  of  minor  poets, 
and  it  has  furnished  a  pleasing  illusion  to  generations  of  scholarly 
tourists  who  delight  to  discover  in  the  present  inhabitants  of  the 
country  the  mental  and  physical  characteristics  with  which  they 
have  been  familiarized  by  the  literature  and  art  of  antiquity. 
This  amiable  tendency  is  encouraged  by  the  modem  Greelcs, 
who  possess  an  implicit  faith  in  their  illustrious  ancestry.  The 
disctission  of  the  question  entered  a  very  acrimonious  stage  with 
the  appearance  in  1830  of  Fallmerayer's  History  oj  the  Morca 
during  tke  Middle  Ages.  Fallmerayer  maintained  that  after 
the  gxeat  Slavonic  immigration  at  the  close  of  the  8th  century  the 
original  population  of  northern  Greece  and  the  Morea,  which 
had  already  been  much  reduced  during  the  Roman  period,  was 
practically  supplanted  by  the  Slavonic  element  and  that  the 
Greeks  of  modem  tiroes  are  in  fact  Byzantinized  Slavs.  This 
theory  was  subjected  to  exhaustive  criticism  by  Ross,  Hopf, 
Finlay  snd  other  scholars,  and  although  many  of  Fallmerayer's 
conclusions  remain  unshaken,  the  view  is  now  generally  held  that 
the  base  of  the  population  both  in  the  mainland  and  the  Morea 
b  Hellenic,  not  Slavonic.  During  the  5th  and  6th  centuries 
Greece  had  been  subjected  to  Slavonic  incursions  which  resulted 
in  no  permanent  settlements.  After  the  great  plague  of  746-747, 
however,  laxge  tracts  of  depopulated  country  were  colonized 
by  Slavonic  immigrants;  the  towns  remained  in  the  hands  of 
Che  Gredcs,  maiiy  of  whom  emigrated  to  Constantinople.  In 
the  Morea  the  Slavs  established  themselves  principally  in 
Arcadia  and  the  region  of  Taygetus,  extending  their  settlements 
into  Achaia,  Elis,  Lacoma  and  the  promontory  of  Taenaron; 
^  the  mainland  they  occupied  portions  of  Acaraania,  Aetolia, 
Dorui  and  Phods.  Slavonic  place-names  occurring  in  all  these 
districts  confinn  the  evidence  of  history  with  regard  to  this 
Immigration.  The  Slavs,  who  were  not  a  maritime  race,  did 
not  roionise  the  Aegean  Islands,  but  a  few  Slavonic  place-names 

*  Including  suburbs. 


in  Crete  seem  to  indicate  that  some  of  the  invaders  retched  that 
island.  The  Slavonic  settlement^  in  the  Morea  proved  mote 
permanent  than  those  in  northern  Greece,  which  were  attacked 
by  the  armies  of  the  Byzantine  emperois.  But  even  in  the 
Morea  the  Greeks,  or  "  Romans  "  as  they  called  themselves 
CPufMubc),  who  had  been  left  undisturbed  on  the  eastern  aide  of 
the  peninsula,  eventually  absorbed  the  alien  element,  which 
disappeared  after  the  xsth  century.  In  addition  to  the  place- 
names  the  only  remaining  traces  of  the  Slav  immigration  are  the 
Slavonic  type  of  features,  which  occasionally  recurs,  eqtecidly 
among  the  Arcadian  peasants,  and  a  few  customs  and  traditions. 
Even  when  allowance  is  made  for  the  remarkable  power  of 
assimilation  which  the  Greeks  possessed  in  virtue  of  their 
superior  civilization,  it  is  difficult  to  resist  the  conclusion  that  the 
Hellenic  element  must  always  have  been  the  most  numerous  in 
order  to  effect  so  complete  an  absorption.  This  element  has 
apparently  undergone  no  essential  change  since  the  epoch  of 
Roman  domination.  The  destructive  invasions  of  the  Goths  in 
A.O.  267  and  395  introduced  no  new  ethnic  feattire;  the  various 
races  which  during  the  middle  ages  obtained  partial  or  complete 
mastery  in  Greece — the  Franks,  the  Venetians,  the  Ttirks — 
contributed  no  appreciable  ingredient  to  the  mass  of  the  popula- 
tion. The  modern  Greeks  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  in  the 
main  the  descendants  of  the  population  which  inhabited  Greece 
in  the  earlier  centuries  of  Byzantine  rule.  Owing  to  the  opera- 
tion of  various  causes,  historical,  aodal  and  economic,  that 
population  was  composed  of  many  heterogeneous  elements  and 
represented  in  a  very  limited  degree  the  race  which  repulsed 
the  Persians  and  built  the  Parthenon.  The  internecine  conflicts 
of  the  Greek  communities,  wars  with  foreign  powers  and  the 
deadly  struggles  of  factions  in  the  various  cities,  had  to  a  large 
extent  obliterated  the  old  race  of  free  citizens  by  the  beginning 
of  the  Roman  period.  The  extermination  of  the  Plataeans  by 
the  Spartans  and  of  the  Melians  by  the  Athenians  during  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  the  proscription  of  Athenian  citizens  after 
the  war,  the  massacre  of  the  Corcyraean  oligarchs  by  the 
democratic  party,  the  slaughter  of  the  Thebans  by  Alexander 
and  of  the  Corinthians  by  Mummius,  are  among  the  more 
familiar  instances  of  the  catastrophes  which  overtook  the  civic 
element  in  the  Greek  cities;  the  void  can  only  have  been  filled 
from  the  ranks  of  the  metics  or  resident  aliens  and  of  the  descend- 
ants of  the  far  more  numerous  slave  population.  Of  the  latter 
a  portion  was  of  Hellenic  origin;  when  a  city  was  taken  the 
males  of  military  age  were  frequently  put  to  the  sword,  but  the 
women  and  children  were  sold  as  slaves;  in  Laconia  and  Thessaly 
there  was  a  serf  population  of  indigenous  descent.  In  the  dassiad 
period  four-fifths  of  the  population  of  Attica  were  slaves  and  of 
the  remainder  half  were  metics.  In  the  Roman  period  the  number 
of  slaves  enormoudy  increased,  the  supply  being  maintained  from 
the  regions  on  the  borders  of  the  empire;  the  same  influences 
which  in  Italy  extinguished  the  smaU  landed  proprietors  and 
created  the  latifundia  prevailed  also  in  Greece.  The  purely 
Hellenic  population,  now  greatly  diminished,  congregated  in  the 
towns;  the  large  estates  which  replaced  thQ  sm^  freeholds 
were  cultivated  by  slaves  and  managed  or  farmed  by  slaves  or 
freedmen,  and  wide  tracts  of  country  were  wholly  depopulated. 
How  greatly  the  free  citizen  element  had  diminished  by  the  close 
of  the  ist  century  a.d.  may  be  judged  from  the  estimate  of 
Plutarch  that  all  Greece  could  not  furnish  more  than  3000 
hoplites.  The  composite  population  which  replaced  the  andent 
Hellenic  stock  became  completely  Hellenized.  According  to 
craniologists  the  modem  Greeks  are  brachycephalous  while 
the  ancient  race  is  stated  to  have  been  ddichocephalous,  but  it 
seems  doubtful  whether  any  such  generalization  with  regard 
to  the  ancients  can  be  conclusively  established.  The  Aegean 
islanders  are  more  brachycephalous  than  the  inhabitants  of  the 
mainland,  though  apparently  of  purer  Greek  descent.  '  No 
general  conception  of  the  facial  type  of  the  ancient  race  can  be 
derived  from  the  highly-idealized  statues  of  deities,  heroes  and 
athletes;  so  far  as  can  be  judged  from  portrait  statues  it  was 
very  varied.  Among  the  modem  Greeks  the  same  variety  of 
features  prevails;  the  face  is  usually  oval,  the  nose  generally 


430 


GREECE 


[ETHNOLOGY 


long  and  somewhat  aquiline,  the  teeth  regular,  and  the  eyes 
remarkably  bright  and  full  of  animation.  The  country-folk  are, 
as  a  ruICf  tall  and  well-made,  though  sli^tly  built  and  rather 
meagre;  their  form  is  graceful  and  supine  in  movement.  The 
urban  population,  as  elsewhere,  is  physically  very  inferior. 
The  women  ofteil  display  a  refined  and  delicate  beauty  which 
disappears  at  an  early  age.  The  best  physical  types  of  the  race 
are  found  in  Arcadia,  in  the  Aegean  Islands  and  in  Crete. 

The  Albanian  population  extends  over  all  Attica  and  Megaris 
(except  the  towns  of  Athens,  Peiraeus  and  Megara),  the  greater 
part  of  Boeotia,  the  eastern  districts  of  Locris,  the  southern  half 
of  Euboea  and  the  northern  side  of  Andros,  the  whole  of  the 
isUnds  of  Salamis,  Hydra,  Spetsae  and  Poros,  and  part  of  Aegina, 
the  whole  of  Corinthia  and  Argolis,  the  northern  districts  of 
Arcadia  and  the  eastern  portion  of  Achaea.  There  are  also  small 
Albanian  groups  in  Laconia  and  Messenia  (see  Albania).  The 
Albanians,  who  call  themselves  Shkyipetar,  and  are  called  by 
the  Greeks  AnanUae  CAp^oyiroc),  belong  to  the  Tosk  or 
southern  branch  of  the  race;  their  immigration  took  place  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  X4th  century.  Their  first  settlements  in  the 
Morea  were  made  in  1347-1355.  The  Albanian  colonization  was 
first  checked  by  the  Turks;  in  1454  an  Albanian  insurrection  in 
the  Morea  against  Byzantine  rule  was  crushed  by  the  Turkish 
general  Tura  Khan,  whose  aid  had  been  invoked  by  the  Palaeo- 
logi.  With  a  few  exceptions,  the  Albanians  in  Greece  retained 
their  Christian  faith  after  the  Turkish  conquest.  The  failure 
of  the  insurrection  of  1770  was  followed  by  a  settlement  of 
Moslem  Albanians,  who  had  been  employed  by  the  Turks  to 
suppress  the  revolt.  The  Christian  Albanians  have  long  lived 
on  good  terms  with  the  Greeks  while  retaining  their  own  customs 
and  language  and  rarely  intermarrying  with  their  neighbours. 
They  played  a  brilliant  part  during  the  War  of-  Independence, 
and  furnished  the  Greeks  with  many  of  their  most  distinguished 
leaders.  The  process  of  their  Hellenization,  which  scarcely 
began  till  after  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom,  has  been 
somewhat  slow;  most  of  the  men  can  now  speak  Greek,  but 
Albanian  is  still  the  language  of  the  household.  The  Albanians, 
who  are  mainly  occupied  with  agriculture,  are  less  quick-witted, 
less  versatile,  and  less  addicted  to  politics  than  the  Greeks,  who 
regard  them  as  intellectually  theur  inferiors.  A  vigorous  and 
manly  race,  they  furnish  the  best  soldiers  in  the  Greek  army, 
and  also  make  excellent  saik>rs. 

The  Vlachs,  who  call  themselves  AromAni,  i.  e.  Romans,  form 
another  important  foreign  element  in  the  population  of  Greece. 
They  are  found  principally  in  Pindus  (the  Agrapha  district),  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Thessaly,  Othrys,  Oeta,  the  mountains 
of  Boeotia,  Aetolia  and  Acamania;  they  have  a  few  settlements 
in  Euboea.  They  are  for  the  most  part  either  nomad  shepherds 
and  herdsmen  pr  carriers  {kiradjis).  They  apparently  descend 
from  the  Latinized  provincials  of  the  Roman  epoch  who  took 
refuge  in  the  higher  mountains  from  the  incursions  of  the  bar- 
barians and  Slavs  (see  Vlachs  and  Macedonia).  In  the  13th 
century  the  Vlach  principality  of  "  Great  Walachia  "  (Mc^dX^ 
BXaxia)  included  Thessaly  and  southern  Macedonia  as  far  as 
Castoria;  its  capital  was  at  Hypati  near  Lamia.  Acamania 
and  Aetolia  were  known  as  "  Lesser  Walachia."  The  urban 
element  among  the  Vlachs  has  been  almost  completely  Hellenized; 
it  has  always  displayed  great  aptitude  for  commerce,  and  Athens 
owes  many  of  its  handsomest  buildings  to  the  benefactions 
of  wealthy  Vlach  merchants.  The  nomad  population  in  the 
mountains  has  retained  its  distinctive  nationality  and  customs 
together  with  its  Latin  language,  though  most  of  the  men  can 
speak  Greek.  Like  the  Albanians,  the  pastoral  Vlachs  seldom 
intermarry  with  the  Greeks;  they  occasionally  take  Greek  wives, 
but  never  give  their  daughters  to  Greeks;  many  of  them  are 
illiterate,  and  their  children  rarely  attend  the  schools.  Owing 
to  their  deficient  intellectual  culture  they  are  regarded  with 
disdain  by  the  Greeks,  who  employ  the  term  /SXdxof  to  denote 
not  only  a  shepherd  but  an  ignorant  rustic. 

A  considerable  Italian  element  was  introduced  into  the  Ionian 
Islands  during  the  middle  ages  owing  to  their  prolonged  sub- 
jection to  Latin  princes  and  subsequently  (till  1797)  to  the 


Venetian  republic.  The  Italians  mtermarried  with  the  Greeks; 
Italian  became  the  language  of  the  upper  classes,  and  Roman 
Catholicism  was  declared  the  state  rdigion.  The  peasantry, 
however,  retained  the  Greek  language  and  remained  faithful  to 
the  Eastern  Church;  during  the  past  century  the  Italian  dement 
was  completely  absorbed  by  the  Greek  population. 

The  Turkish  population  in  Greece,  which  numbered  about 
70,000  before  the  war  of  liberation,  disappeared  in  the  course 
of  the  struggle  or  emigrated  at  its  conclusion.  The  Turks  in 
Thessaly  are  mainly  descended  either  from  colonists  established 
in  the  country  by  the  Byzantine  emperors  or  from  immigrants 
from  Asia  Minor,  who  arrived  at  the  end  of  the  14th  century; 
they  derive  their  name  Konariots  from  Iconium  (Konia).  Many 
of  the  beys  or  land-owning  dass  are  the  lineal  representatives 
of  the  Seljuk  nobles  who  obtained  fiefs  under  the  feudal  system 
introduced  here  and  in  Macedonia  by  the  Sultan  Bayezid  I. 

Notwithstanding  their  composite  origin,  their  wide  geo- 
graphical distribution  and  their  cosmopolitan  instincts,  the 
modern  Greeks  are  a  remarkably  homogeneous  people, 
differing  markedly  in  character  from .  neighbouring 
races,  united  by  a  common  enthusiasm  in  the  pursuit 
of  thdr  national  aims,  and  profoundly  convinced  of  their 
superiority  to  other  nations.  Their  distinctive  character, 
combined  with  their  traditional  tendency  to  regard  non-Hellenic 
peoples  as  barbarous,  has,  indeed,  to  some  extent  counteracted 
the  results  of  their  great  energy  and  zeal  in  the  assimilation  of 
other  races;  the  advantageous  poution  which  they  attained  at 
an  early  period  under  Turkish  rule  owing  to  thdr  superior 
civilization,  their  versatility,  their  wealth,  and  their  monopoly 
of  the  ecclesiastical  power  would  probably  have  enabled  them  to 
Hellenize  permanently  the  greater  part  of  the  Balkan  peninsula 
had  their  attitude  towards  other  Christian  races  been  more 
sympathetic.  Always  the  most  civilized  race  in  the  East,  they 
have  successively  influenced  their  Macedonian,  Roman  and 
Turkish  conquerors,  and  thdr  remarkable  intdlectual  endow- 
ments bid  fair  to  secure  them  a  brilliant  position  in  the  future. 
The  intense  patriotic  zeal  of  the  Greeks  may  be  compared  with 
that  of  the  Hungarians;  it  is  liable  to  degenerate  into  arrogance 
and  intolerance;  it  sometimes  blinds  thdr  judgment  and  involves 
them  in  ill-considered  enterprises,  but  it  neverthdess  offers  the 
best  guarantee  for  the  ultimate  attainment  of  thdr  national 
aims.  All  Greeks,  in  whatever  country  they  may  reside,  work 
together  for  the  realization  of  the  Great  Idea  (4  MeydX:^  *lSia) — 
the  supremacy  of  Hellenism  in  the  East— and  to  this  object  they 
freely  devote  their  time,  their  wealth  and  their  talents;  the 
large  fortunes  which  they  amass  abroad  arc  often  bequeathed 
for  the  foundation  of  variova  institutions  in  Greece  or  Turkey, 
for  the  increase' of  the  national  fleet  and  army,  or  for  the  spread 
of  Hellenic  influence  in  the  Levant.  This  patriotic  sentiment  is 
unfortunately  much  exploited  by  self-seeking  demagogues  and 
publicists,  who  rival  each  other  in  exaggerating  tbe  national 
pretensions  and  in  pandering  to  the  national  vanity.  In  no  other 
country  is  the  passion  for  politics  so  intense;  "  keen  political 
discussions  are  constantly  going  on  at  the  caf£s;  the  new^>apers, 
which  are  extraordinarily  numerous  and  generally  of  little  value, 
are  literally  devoured,  and  every  measure  of  the  government  is 
violently  criticized  and  ascribed  to  interested  motives."  The 
influence  of  the  journals  is  enormous;  even  the  waiters  in  the 
caf6s  and  domestic  servants  have  their  favourite  newspaper, 
and  discourse  fluently  on  the  political  problems  of  the  day. 
Much  of  the  national  energy  is  wasted  by  this  continued  political 
fever;  it  is  diverted  from  practical  aims,  and  may  be  said  to 
evaporate  in  words.  The  practice  of  independent  critidsm 
tends  to  indiscipline  in  the  organized  public  services;  it  has 
been  remarked  that  every  Greek  soldier  is  a  general  and  every 
sailor  an  admiral.  During  the  war  of  1897  a  young  naval 
lieutenant  telegraphed  to  the  minister  of  war  condemning  the 
measures  taken  by  his  admiral,  and  his  action  was  applauded 
by  several  journals.  There  is  also  little  discipline  in  the  ranks 
of  political  parties,  which  are  held  together,  not  by  any  definite 
principle,  but  by  the  personal  influence  of  the  leaders;  defections 
are  frequent,  and  as  a  rule  each  deputy  in  the  Chamber  makes 


CUSTOMSl 


GREECE 


43  « 


his  tenns  with  his  chief.  On  the  other  hand,  the  independent 
character  of  the  Greeks  is  favourably  illustrated  by  the  circum- 
stance that  Greece  is  the  only  country  in  the  Balkan  peninsula 
in  which  the  government  cannot  count  on  securing  a  majority 
by  official  pressure  at  the  elections.  Few  scruples  are  observed 
in  political  warfare,  but  attacks  on  private  life  are  rare.  The 
love  of  free  discussion  is  inherent  in  the  strongly-rooted  demo- 
cratic instinct  of  the  Greeks.  They  are  in  spirit  the  most  demo- 
cratic of  European  peoples;  no  trace  of  Latin  feudalism  survives, 
and  aristocratic  pretensions  are  ridiculed.  In  social  life  there 
is  no  artificial  distinction  of  classes;  all  titles  of  nobility  are 
forbidden;  a  few  families  descended  from  the  chiefs  in  the 
War  of  Independence  enjoy  a  certain  pre-eminence,  but  wealth' 
and,  still  more,  political  or  literary  notoriety  constitute  the 
principal  claim  to  social  consideration.  The  Greeks  display  great 
intellectual  vivacity;  they  are  clever,  inquisitive,  quick-witted 
and  ingenious,  but  not  profound;  sustained  mental  industry 
and  careful  accuracy  are  distasteful  to  them,  and  their  aversion 
to  manual  labour  is  still  more  marked.  Even  the  agricultural 
class  is  but  moderately  industrious;  abundant  opportunities 
for  relaxation  are  provided  by  the  numerous  church  festivals. 
The  desire  for  instruction  is  intense  even  in  the  lowest  ranks 
of  the  community;  rhetorical  and  literary  accomplishments 
possess  a  greater  attraction  for  the  majority  than  the  fields  of 
modem  science.  The  number  of  persons  who  seek  to  qualify 
for  the  learned  professions  is  excessive;  they  form  a  superfluous 
element  in  the  community,  an  educated  proletariat,  attaching 
themselves  to  the  various  political  parties  in  the  hope  of  obtaining 
state  employment  and  spending  an  idle  existence  in  the  caf^ 
and  the  streets  when  their  party  is  out  of  power.  In  disposition 
the  Greeks  are  lively,  cheerful,  plausible,  tactful,  sympathetic; 
very  affable  with  strangers,  hospitable,  kind  to  their  servants 
and  dependants,  remarkably  temperate  and  frugal  in  their 
habits,  amiable  and  united  in  family  life.  Drunkenne&s  is 
almost  unknown,  thrift  is  universally  practised;  the  standard 
of  sexual  morality  is  high,  especially  in  the  rural  districts,  where 
illegitimacy  is  extremely  rare.  The  faults  of  the  Greeks  must 
in  a  large  degree  be  attributed  to  their  prolonged  subjection  to 
alien  races;  their  cleverness  often  degenerates  into  cunning, 
their  ready  invention  into  mendacity,  their  thrift  into  avarice, 
their  fertility  of  resource  into  trickexy  and  fraud.  Dishonesty 
is  not  a  national  vice,  but  many  who  would  scorn  to  steal  will 
not  hesitate  to  compass  illicit  gains  by  duplicity  and  misrepre- 
sentation; deceit,  indeed,  is  often  practised  gratuitously  for 
the  mere  intellectual  satisfaction  which  it  affords.  In  the 
astuteness  of  their  monetary  dealings  the  Greeks  proverbially 
surpass  the  Jews,  but  fall  short  of  the  Armenians;  their  remark- 
able aptitude  for  business  is  sometimes  marred  by  a  certain 
short-sightedMSs  which  pursues  immediate  profits  at  the  cost 
of  ulterior  advantages.  Their  vanity  and  egoism,  which  are 
admitted  by  even  the  most  favourable  observers,  render  them 
jealous,  exacting,  and  peculiarly  susnptlble  to  flattery.  In 
common  with  other  southern  European  peoples  the  Greeks  are 
extremely  excitable;  their  passionate  disposition  is  prone  to  take 
offence  at  slight  provocation,  and  trivial  quarrels  not  infre- 
quent ly  result  in  homicide.  They  are  religious,  but  by  no  means 
fanatical,  c-xcept  in  regard  to  politico-religious  questions  affecting 
their  national  aims.  In  general  the  Greeks  may  be  described 
as  a*  clever,  ambitious  and  versatile  people,  capable  of  great 
effort  and  sacrifice,  but  deficient  in  some  of  the  more  solid 
qualities  which  make  for  national  greatness. 

The  cuitoms  and  habits  of  the  Greek  peasantry,  in  which 
the  observances  of  the  classical  age  may  often  he  traced,  together 
fatfiiM  ^^^  ^^^^^  legends  and  traditions,  have  furnished  an 
interesting  subject  of  investigation  to  many  writers 
(Me  Bibliography  below).  In  the  towns  the  more  cosmopolitan 
population  has  largely  adopted  the  "  European  "  mode  of  life, 
and  the  upper  classes  show  a  marked  preference  for  French 
manners  and  usages.  In  both  town  and  country,  however,  the 
influence  of  oriental  ideas  is  still  apparent,  due  in  part  to  the 
long  period  of  Turkish  domination,  in  part  to  the  contact  of 
^  Greeks  with  Asiatic  races  at  all  epochs  of  their  history.    In 


the  rural  districts,  especially,  the  women  lead  a  somewhat 
secluded  life  and  occupy  a  subject  position;  they  wait  at  table, 
and  only  partake  of  the  meal  when  the  men  of  the  family  have 
been  served.    In  most  parts  of  continental  Greece  the  women 
work  in  the  fields,  but  in  the  Aegean  Islands  and  Crete  they  rarely 
leave  the  house.    Like  the  Turks,  the  Gredcs  have  a  great 
partiality  for  jcoffee,  which  can  always  be  procured  even  in  the 
remotest  hamlets;  the  Turkish  practice  of  carrying  a  string  of 
beads  or  rosary  {comMoio),  which  provides  an  occupation  for 
the  hands,  is  very  common.    Many  of  the  observances  in  con- 
nexion with  buths,  christenings,  weddings  and  ftmerals  are  very 
interesting  and  in  some  cases  are  evidently  derived  from  remote 
antiquity.    Nuptial  ceremonies  are  elaborate  and  protracted; 
in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  archipelago  they  continue  for  three 
weeks.    In  the  preliminary  negotiations  for  a  marriage  the 
question  of  the  bride's  dowry  plays  a  very  important  part;  a 
girl  without  a  dowry  often  remains  unmarried,  notwithstanding 
the  considerable  excess  of  the  male  over  the  female  population. 
Immediatelyafter  the  christeningofafemalechildher  parents  begin 
to  lay  up  her  portion,  and  young  men  often  refrain  from  marrying 
until  their  sbters  have  been  settled  in  life.    The  dead  are  carried 
to  the  tomb  in  an  open  coffin;  in  the  country  districts  profes- 
sional mourners  are  engaged  to  chant  dirges;  the  body  is  washed 
with  wine  and  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  flowers.    A  valedictory 
oration  is  pronounced  at  the  grave.    Many  superstitions  still 
prevail  among  the  peasantry;  the  belief  in  the  vampire  and  the 
evil  eye  is  almost  universal.    At  Athens  and  in  the  larger  towns 
many  handsome  dwelling-houses  may  be  seen,  but  the  upper 
classes  have  no  predilection  for  rural  Ufe,  and  their  country 
houses  are  usually  mere  farmsteads,  which  they  rarely  visit. 
In  the  more  fertile  districta  two-storeyed  houses  of  the  modem 
type  are  common,  but  in  the  mountainous  regions  the  habita- 
tions of  the  country-folk  are  extremely  primitive;  the  small 
stone-built  hut,  almost  destitute  of  furniture,  shelters  not  only 
the  family  but  its  cattle  and  domestic  animals.    In  Attica  the 
peasants'  houses  are  usually  built  of  cob.    In  Maina  the  villagers 
live  in  fortified  towers  of  three,  or  more  storeys;  the  animals 
occupy  the  ground  floor,  the  family  the  topmost  storey;  the 
intermediate  space  serves  as  a  granary  or  hay-loft.    The  walls 
are  loop-holed  for  purposes  of  defence  in  view  of  the  traditional 
vendetta  and  feuds,  which  in  some  instances  have  been  handed 
down  from  remote  generations  and  are  maintained  by  occasional 
sharp-shooting  from   these  primitive  fortresses.    In  general 
cleanliness  and  sanitation  are  much  neglected;  the  traveller  in 
the  country  districts  is  doomed  to  sleepless  nights  unless  he  has 
provided  l^mself  with  bedding  and  a  hammock.    Even  Athens, 
though  enriched  by  many  munificent  benefactions,  is  still  without 
a  drainage  system  or  an  adequate  water  supi^y;  the  sewers  of 
many  houses  open  into  the  streets,  in  which  mbbish  Is  allowed 
to  accumulate.    The  effects  of  insanitary  conditions  are,  how- 
ever, counteracted  in  some  degree  by  the  excellent  climate. 
The  Aegean  islanders  contrast  favourably  with  the  continentals 
in  point  of  personal  cleanliness  and  the  neatness  of  their  dwellings; 
their  houses  are  generally  covered  with  the  flat  roof,  familiar 
in  Asia,  on  which  the  family,  sleep  in  summer.    The  habits  and 
ctistoms  of  the  isUnders  afford  an  interesting  study.  Propitiatory 
rites  are  still  practised  by  the  mariners  and  fishermen,  and  thank- 
offerings  for  preservation  at  sea  are  hung  up  in  the  churches. 
Among  the  popular  amusements  of  the  Greeks  dandng  holds  a 
prominent  place;  the  dance  is  of  various  kinds;  the  most  usual 
is  the  somewhat  inanimate  round  dance  (<n;pr6  or  rpdra),  in 
which  a  number  of  persons,  usually  of  the  same  sex,  take  part 
holding  hands;  it  seems  indentical  with  the  Slavonic  kolo 
("  circle  ")•    l^^  more  lively  Albanian  fling  is  generally  danced 
by  three  or  four  persons,  one  of  whom  executes  a  series  of  leaps 
and  pirouettes.  The  national  music  is  primitive  and  monotonous. 
All  classes  are  passionately  addicted  to  card-playing,  which  is 
forbidden  by  law  in  places  of  public  resort.    The  picturesque 
national  costume,  which  is  derived  from  the  Albanian  To^i^ 
has  unfortunately  been  abandoned  by  the  upper  classes  and  the 
urban  population  since  the  abdication  of  King  Otho,  who  always 
wore  it;  it  b  maintained  as  the  uniform  of  the  enotus  (highland 


43  2 


GREECE 


(GOVERNMENT 


a» 


regiments).  It  consists  of  a  red  cap  with  dark  blue  tassel,  a 
white  shirt  with  wide  sleeves,  a  vest  and  jacket,  sometimes  of 
velvet,  handsomely  adorned  with  gold  or  black  braid,  a  belt  in 
which  various  weapons  are  carried,  a  white  kilt  or  fustaneila  of 
many  folds,  white  hose  tied  with  garters,  and  red  leather  shoes 
with  pointed  ends,  from  which  a  tanel  depends.  Over  all  is  worn 
the  shaggy  white  capote.  The  islanders  wear  a  dark  blue  costume 
with  a  crimson  waistband,  loose  trousers  descending  to  the  knee, 
stockings  and  pumps  or  long  boots.  The  women's  costume  is 
very  varied;  the  loose-  red  fee  is  sometimes  worn  and  a  short 
velvet  jacket  with  rich  gold  embroidery.  The  more  elderly 
women  are  generally  attired  in  black.  In  the  Megara  district 
and  elsewhere  peasant  girb  wear  on  festive  occasions  a  head- 
dress composed  of  strings  of  coins  which  formeriy  represented 
tlM  dowry. 

Greece  is  a  constitutional  monarchy;  hereditary  in  the  male 
line,  or,  in  case  of  its  extinction,  in  the  female.  Tlie  sovereign, 
bydedsionof  the  conference  of  London  (August  1863), 
is  styled  "king  of  the  HeUenes";  the  Utle  "king 
of  Greece'*  was  borne  by  King  Otho.  The  heir 
apparent  is  styled  66i6ioxoft  "the  successor";  the  title 
"  duke  of  Sparta,"  which  has  been  accorded  to  the  crown  prince, 
is  not  generally  employed  in  Greece.  The  king  and  the  heir 
apparent  must  belong  to  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church;  a  special 
exception  has  been  made  for  ELing  George,  who  is  a  Lutheran. 
The  king  attains  his  majority  on  completing  his  eighteenth  year; 
before  ascending  the  throne  he  must  take  the  oath  to  the  con- 
stitution in  presence  of  the  prindpal  ecclesiastical  and  lay 
dignitaries  of  the  kingdom,  and  must  convoke  the  Chamber 
within  two  months  after  his  accession.  The  civil  list  amounts 
to  z, 225,000  dr.,  in  addition  to  which  it  was  provided  that  King 
George  should  receive  £4000  annually  as  a  personal  allowance 
from  each  of  the  three  protecting  powers.  Great  Britain,  France 
and  Russia.  The  heir  apparent  receives  from  the  state  .an 
annuity  of  aoo,ooo  dr.  The  king  has  a  palace  at  Athens  |ind 
other  residences  at  Corfu,  Tatoi  (on  the  slopes  of  Mt  Fames) 
and  Larissa.  The  present  constitution  dates  from  the  29th  of 
October  1864.  The  legislative  power  is  shared  by  the  king  with 
a  single  chamber  (fiovk^)  elected  by  manhood  suffrage  for  a 
period  of  four  years.  The  election  is  by  ballot;  candidates 
must  have  completed  their  thirtieth  year  and  electors  their 
twenty-first.  The  deputies  (fiovKtinai),  actording  to  the 
constitution,  receive  only  their  travelling  expenses,  but  they 
vote  themselves  a  payment  of  1800  dr.  each  for  the  session  and 
a  further  allowance  in  case  of  an  extraordinary  session.  The 
Chamber  sits  for  a  term  of  not  less  than  three  or  more  than  six 
months.  No  law  can  be  passed  except  by  an  absolute  majority 
of  the  house,  and  one-half  of  the  members  must  be  present  to 
form  a  quorum;  these  arrangements  have  greatly  facilitated  the 
practice  of  obstruction,  and  often  enable  individual  deputies 
to  impose  terms  on  the  government  for  their  attendance.  In 
1898  the  number  of  deputies  was  234.  Some  years  previously 
a  law  diminishing  the  national  representation  and  enlarging 
the  constituencies  was  passed  by  Trikoupis  with  the  object 
of  checking  the  local  influence  of  electors  upon  deputies,  but 
the  measure  was  subsequently  repealed.  The  number  of  deputies, 
however,  who  had  hitherto  been  elected  in  the  proportion  of  one 
to  twelve  thousand  of  the  population,  was  reduced  in  2905, 
when  the  proportion  of  one  to  sixteen  thousand  was  substituted; 
the  Chamber  of  1906,  elected  under  the  new  system,  consisted 
of  177  deputies.  Id  1906  the  electoral  districts  were  diminished 
in  number  and  enlarged  so  as  to  coincide  with  the  twenty-six 
administrative  departments  (v^mh);  the  reduction  of  these 
departments  to  their  former  number  of  sixteen,  which  is  in 
contemplation,  will  bring  about  some  further  diminution  in 
parliamentary  representation.  It  is  hoped  that  recent  legislation 
will  tend  to  check  the  pernicious  practice  of  bartering  personal 
favours,  known  as  awakkay^,  which  still  prevails  to  the  great 
detriment  of  public  morality,  paralysing  all  branches  of  the 
adnunistration  and  wasting  the  resources  of  the  state.  Political 
parties  are  formed  not  for  the  furtherance  of  any  principle  or 
cause,  but  with  the  object  of  obtaining  the  spoils  of  office,  and 


the  various  groups,  possessing  no  party  watchword  or  programme, 
frankly  designate  themselves  by  the  names  of  their  leaders. 
Even  the  strongest  government  is  compdled  to  bargain  with  its 
supporters  in  regard  to  the  distribution  of  patronage  and  other 
favours.  The  consequent  instability  of  successive  ministries 
has  retarded  useful  legislation  and  seriously  checked  the  national 
progress.  In  1906  a  law  was  passed  disqualifying  junior  officers 
of  the  army  and -navy  for  membership  of  the  Chamber;  great 
numbers  of  these  had  hitherto  been  candidates  at  every  dectioo. 
This  much-needed  measure  had  previously  been  passed  by 
Trikoupis,  but  had  been  repealed  by  his  rival  Delyannes.  The 
executive  is  vested  In  the  king,  who  is  personally  irresponsible, 
and  governs  through  ministers  chosen  by  himself  and  responsible 
to  the  Chamber,  of  which  th^  are  ex-officio  members.  He 
appoints  all  public  officials,  sanctions  and  proclaims  laws, 
convokes,  prorogues  and  dissolves  the  Chamber,  grants  pardon 
or  amnesty,  coins  money  and  confers  decorations.  There  are 
seven  ministries  which  respectivdy  control  the  departments 
of  foreign  affairs,  the  interior,  justice,  finance,  education  and 
worship,  the  army  and  the  navy. 

The  26  departments  or  po/hoI,  into  which  the  cotmtry  b  divided 
for  administrative  purposes,  are  each  under  a  prefect  or  nomarcfa 
ip6nafixof)'t  they  are  subdivided  into  69  districts  or 
eparchies,  and  into  445  conununes  or  demes  Q^iuti) 
under  mayors  or  demarchs  {fMjitapxoi).  The  prefects 
and  sub-prefects  are  nominated  by  the  government; 
the  mayors  are  elected  by  the  communes  for  a  period  of  four 
years.  The  prefects  are  assisted  by  a  departmental  councfl, 
elected  by  the  population,  which  manages  local  business  and 
assesses  rates;  that  are  also  communal  councils  under  the 
presidency  of  the  mayors.  There  are  alt<^ether  some  12,000 
state-paid  officials  in  the  country,  most  of  them  inadequately 
remunerated  and  liable  to  removal  or  transferral  upon  a  change 
of  government.  A  host  of  office-seekers  has  thus  been  created, 
and  large  numbers  of  educated  persons  spend  many  years  in 
idleness  or  in  poh'tical  agitation.  A  law  passed  in  1905  secures 
tenure  of  office  to  civil  servants  of  fifteen  years'  standing,  and 
some  restrictions  have  been  placed  on  the  dismissal  and  trans- 
ferral of  schoolmasters. 

Under  the  Turks  the  Greeks  retained,  together  with  their 
ecclesiastical  institutions,  a  certain  measure  of  local  self-govern- 
ment and  judicial  independence.  The  Byzantine  code, 
based  on  the  Roman,  as  embodied  in  the  'E^6ifitfi>^  * 

of  Armenopoulos  (1345),  was  sanctioned  by  royal  decree  inxSjs 
with  some  modifications  as  the  civil  law  of  Greece.'  Further 
modifications  and  new  enactments  were  subsequently  introduced, 
derived  from  the  old  French  and  Bavarian  systems;  The  penaJ 
code  is  Bavarian,  the  commercial  French.  Liberty  of  person 
and  domicile  is  inviolate;  no-  arrest  can  be  made,  no  house 
entered,  and  no  letter  opened  without  a  judicial  warrant.  Trial 
by' jury  is  established  for  criminal,  political  and  press  off^ences. 
A  new  dvil  code,  based  on  Saxon  and  Italian  law,  has  beeh 
drawn  up  by  a' commission  of 'jurists,  but  it  has  not  yet  been 
considered  by  the  Chamber.  A  separate  civil  code,  partly  French, 
partly  Italian,  is  in  force  in  the  Ionian  Islands.  The  law  is 
administered  by  i  court  oT  cassation  (styled  the  "  Areopagus  *'), 
5  courts  of  appeal,  26  courts  of  first  instance,  233  justices  of  the 
peace  and  29  correctional  tribunals.. 

.The  judges,  who  are  appointed  by  the  Crown,  are  liable  to 
removal  by  the  minister  of  justice,  whose  exercise  of  this  right 
is  often  invoked  by  political  partisans.  The  administration  of 
justice  suffers  in  consequence,  more  especially  in  the  tx>untry 
districts,  whc^  the  judges  must  reckon  yrith  the ,  influeatl^ 
politicians  and  their  adherents.  The  pardon  or  release  Of  a 
convicted  criminal  is  not  infrequently  due  to  pressure  on  the  part 
of  some  powerful  patron.  The  lamentable  effects-  of  thb  system 
have  long  been. recognized,  and  in  1906  a  lew  was  introduced 
securing  tenure  of  office  for  two  or  four  yeftis  to  judges  of  the 
courts  of  first  instance  and  of  the  inferior  tribunals.  In  the 
circumstances  crime  is  less  rife  than  might  be  expected;  the 
temperate  habits  of  the  Greeks  have  conduced  to  this  result. 
A  serious  feature  is  the  great  prevalence  of  homicide,  due  In 


EDUCATION] 


GREECE 


433 


part  to  the  passionate  character  of  the  people,.but  still  more  to 
the  almost  universal  practice  of  carrying  weapons.  The  tradi- 
tions of  the  vendetta  are  almost  extinct  in  the  Ionian  Islands, 
but  still  linger  in  Maina,  where  family  feuds  are  transmitted 
from  generation  to  generation.  The  brigand  of  the  old-fashioned 
type  (kjiffrifi,  Ai^rrp)  has  almost  disappeared,  except  in  the 
remoter  country  districts,  and  piracy,  once  so  prevalent  in  the 
Aegean,  has  been  practically  suppressed,  but  numbers  of  outlaws 
or  absconding  criminals  {^vyiiuuH.)  still  haunt  the  moiintains, 
and  the  efforts  of  the  police  to  bring  them  to  justice  are  far  from 
successfuL  Their  ranks  were  considerably  increased  after  the 
war  of  1 897,  when  many  deserters  from  the  army  and  adventurers 
who  came  to  Greece  as  volunteers  betook  themselves  to  a  pre- 
datory life.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  habitually  criminal 
class  in  Greece,  such  as  exists  in  the  large  centres  of  civilization, 
and  professional  mendicancy  is  still  rare. 

Police  duties,  for  which  officers  and,  in  some  cases,  soldiers 
of  the  regular  army  were  formerly  employed,  are  since  1906 
carried  out  by  a  reorganized  gendarmerie  force  of  194  officers 
and  6544  non-commissioned  officers  and  men,  distributed  in 
the  twenty-six  departments  and  commanded  by  an  inspector- 
general  resident  at  Athens,  who  is  aided  by  a  consultative  com- 
mission. There  are  male  and  female  prisons  at  all  the  depart- 
mental centres;  the  number  of  prisoners  in  1906  was  5705. 
Except  in  the  Ionian  Islands,  the  general  condition  of  the  prisons 
is  deplorable;  discipline  and  sanitation  are  very  deficient,  and 
conflicts  among  the  prisoners  are  sometimes  reported  in  which 
knives  and  even  revolvers  are  employed.  A  good  prison  has 
been  built  near  Athens  by  Andreas  Syngros,  and  a  reformatory 
for  juvenile  offenders  (i^ij/Setbr)  has  been  founded  by  George 
Averoff,  another  national  benefactor.  Capital  sentences  are 
usually  commuted  to  penal  servitude  for  life;  executions,  for 
which  the  guillotine  is  employed,  are  for  the  most  part  carried 
out  on  the  island  of  Bourzi  near  Nauplia;  they  are  often  post- 
poned for  months  or  even  for  years.  Iliere  is  no  enactment 
resembling  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  and  accused  persons  may 
be  detained  indefinitely  before  triaL  The  Greeks,  like  the  other 
nations  liberated  from  Turkish  rule,  are  somewhat  litigious,  and 
numbers  of  lawyers  find  occupation  even  in  the  sm'aller  country 
towns. 

The  Greeks,  an  intelligent  people,  have  always  shown  a  remark- 
able zeal  for  learning,  and  popular  education  has  made  great 
strides.  So  eager  is  the  desire  for  instruction  that 
schools  are  often  founded  in  the  rural  districts  on  the 
initiative  of  the  villagers,  and  the  sons  of  peasants, 
artisans  and  small  shopkeepers  come  in  numbers  to  Athens, 
where  they  support  themselves-  by  domestic  service  or  other 
humble  occupations  in  order  to  study  at  the  university  during 
their  spare  hours.  Almost  immediately  after  the  accession  of 
king  Otho  steps  were  taken  to  establish  elementary  schools  in 
all  the  communes,  and  education  was  made  obligatory.  The 
law  is  not  very  rigorously  applied  in  the  remoter  districts,  but 
its  enforcement  is  scarcely  necessary.  In  1898  there  were  3914 
'*  demotic  "  or  primary  schools,  with  3465  teachers,  attended  by 
1 39,210  boys  (5-38%  of  the  population)  and  29,119  girls  (1-19  % 
of  the  population).  By  a  law  passed  in  1905  the  primary  schools, 
which  had  reached  the  number  of  3359  in  that  year,  were  reduced 
to  2604.  The  expenditure  on  primary  schools  is  nominally 
sustained  by  the  communes,  but  in  reality  by  the  government 
in  the  form  of  advances  to  the  communes,  ^hich  ate  not  repaid; 
it  was  reduced  in  1905  from  upwards  of  7,000,000  dr.  to  under 
6,ooo,ooodr.  In  1905  there  were  306  "  Hellenic  "  or  secondary 
schoob,  with  819  teachers  and  21,575  pupils  (boys  only)  main- 
tained by  the  state  at  a  cost  of  1,730,096  dr.;  and  39  higher 
schoob,  or  gymnasia,  with  261  masters  and  6485  pupilsi  partly 
maintained  by  the  state  (expenditure  615,600  dr.)  and  partly 
by  benefactions  and  other  means.  Besides  these  public  schools 
there  are  several  private  educational  institutions,  of  which  there 
are  eight  at  Athens  with  650 pupils.  The  Polytechnic  Institute 
of  Athens  affords  technical  instruction  in  the  departments  of  art 
and  science  to  321  students.  Scientific  agricultural  instruction 
has  been  moch  neglected;  ihere  is  an  agricultural  school  at 
ft 


Aldinion  in  Thessaly  with  40  pupib;  there  are  eight  agricultural 
stations  {qtoBiuI)  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  There  are 
two  theological  seminaries — the  Rizari  School  at  Athens  (120 
pupib)  and  a  preparatory  school  at  Arta;  three  other  seminaries 
have  been  suppressed.  The  Commercial  and  Industrial  Academy 
at  Athens  (about  225  pupib),  a  private  institution,  has  proved 
highly  useful  to  the  country;  there  are  four  commercial  schoob, 
each  in  one  of  the  country  towns.  A  large  school  for  females 
at  Athens,  the  Arsakfon,  is  attended  by  1500  girb.  There  are 
several  military  and  naval  schoob,  including  the  military  college 
of  the  Euelpides  at  Athens  and  the  school  of  naval  cadets  {rC^ 
dod/uop).  The  university  of  Athens  in  1905  numbered  57 
professors  and  2598  students,  of  whom  557  were  from  abroad. 
Of  the  six  faculties,  theology  numbered  79  students,  law  1467, 
medicine  567,  arts  ^206,  physics  and  mathematics  193,  and 
pharmacy  87.  The  university  receives  a  subvention  from  the 
state,  which  in  1905  amounted  to  563,960  dr.;  it  possesses 
a  library  of  over  150,000  volumes  and  geological,  zoological  and 
botanical  museums.  A  small  tax  on  university  education  was 
imposed  in  1903;  the  total  cost  to  the  student  for  the  four  years' 
course  at  the  university  b  about  £25.  Higher  education  u 
practically  gratuitous  in  Greece,  and  there  b  a  somewhat  ominous 
increase  in  the  number  of  educated  persons  who  disdain  agri- 
cultural pursuits  and  manual  bbour.  The  intellectual  culture 
acquired  b  too  often  of  a  superficial  character  owing  to  the 
tendency  to  sacrifice  scientific  thoroughness  and  accuracy,  to 
neglect  the  more  useful  branches  of  knowledge,  and  to  ahn  at  a 
showy  dialectic  and  literary  psofidency.  (For  the  native  and 
foreign  archaeological  institutions  see  Athens.) 

The  Greek  branch  of  the  Orthodox  Eastern  Church  is  practi- 
cally independent,  like  th(»e  of  Servia,  Montenegro  and  Rumania, 
though  nominally  subject  to  the  patriarchate  of  ogogioa 
Constantinople.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  patriarch  "V"" 
was  in  fact  repudiated  in  1833,  when  the  kin^  was  declared  the 
supreme  head  of  the  church,  and  the  severance  was  completed 
in  1850.  Ecclesiastical  affairs  are  under  the  control  of  the 
Minbtry  of  Education.  Church  govemn^ent  b  vested  in  the 
Holy  Synod,  a  council  of  five  ecclesiastics  under  the  presidency 
of  the  metropolitan  of  Athens;  its  sittings  are  attended  by  a 
royal  commissioner.  The  church  can  invoke  the  aid  ol  the  civil 
authorities  for  the  punishment  of  heresy  and  the  suppression  of 
unorthodox  Uterature,  pictures,  &c.  There  were  formerly  3i 
archbishoprics  and  39  bbhoprics  in  Greece,  but  a  law  passed  in 
1899  suppressed  the  archbishoprics  (except  the  metropolitan 
see  of  Athens)  on  the  death  of  the  exbting  preUtes,  and  fixed 
the  total  number  of  sees  at  33.  The  prelates  derive  their  incomes 
partly  from  the  state  and  partly  from  the  church  lands.  There 
are  about  5500  priests,  who  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the 
poorest  classes.  The  parochial  clergy  have  no  fixed  stipends, 
and  often  resort  to  agriculture  or  small  trading  in  order  to 
supplement  the  scanty  fees  earned  by  their  ministrations.  Owing 
to  their  lack  of  education  their  personal  influence  over  their 
parishioners  b  seldom  considerable.  In  addition  to  the  parochial 
clergy  there  are  19  preachers  {UpoK^fivwa)  salaried  by  the  state. 
There  are  170  monasteries  and  4  nunneries  in  Greece,  with  about 
1600  monks  and  350  nuns.  In  regard  to  their  constitution  the 
monasteries  are  either  "  idiorrhythmic  "  or  "  coenobian  "  (see 
Athos);  the  monks  (KaMytpoi)  are  in  some  cases  assisted 
by  lay  brothers  (iioaitutoi).  More  than  300  of  the  snAiller 
monasteries  were  suppressed  in  1839  andVheir  revenues  secular* 
ized.  Among  the  more  important  and  interesting  monasteries 
are  those  of  Megaspelaeon  afld  Lavra  (where  the  standard  of 
insurrection,  unfurled  in  183 1,  is  preserved)  near  Kalavryta, 
St  Luke  of  Stiris  near  Arachova,  Daphne  and  Penteli  near  Athens, 
and  the  Meteora  group  in  northern  Thessaly.  The  bishops,  who 
must  be  unmarried,  are  as  a  rule  selected  from  the  monastic 
order  and  are  nominated  by  the  king;  the  parish  priests  are 
allowed  to  marry,  but  the  remarriage  of  widowers  is  forbidden. 
The  bulk  of  the  population,  about  3,000,000,  belongs  to  the 
Orthodox  Church;  other  Christian  confessions  number  about 
1 5,000,  the  great  majority  being  Roman  Catholics.  The  Roman 
Catholics  (principally  in  Naxos  and  the  Cycbdes)  have  three 


+34 


GREECE 


[AGRICULTURB 


Ajrf- 


archbishoprics(At]ieiis,Ntxos  aiidG>rf u)»five  bishoprics  and  about 
60  churches.  The  Jews,  who  are  regarded  with  much  hostility, 
have  almost  disappeared  from  the  Greek  mainland;  they  now 
number  about  5000,  and  are  found  principally  at  Corfu.  The 
Mahommedans  are  confined  to  Thessaly  except  a  few  at  Chalcis. 
National  sentinfent  is  a  more  powerful  factor  than  personal 
religious  conviction  in  the  attachment  of  the  Greeks  to  the 
Orthodox  Church;  a  Greek  without  the  pale  of  the  church  is 
more  or  less  an  aKen.  The  Catholic  Greeks  of  Syros  sided  with 
the  Turks  at  the  time  of  the  revolution;  the  Mahommedans  of 
Crete,  though  of  pure  Greek  descent,  have  always  been  hostile 
to  their  Christian  fellow-countrymen  and  are  commonly  called 
Turks.  On  the  other  hand,  that  portion  of  the  Macedonian 
pt^ulatton  which  acknowledges  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
is  regarded  as  Greek,  while  that  which  adheres  to  the  Bulgarian 
exarchate,  thouf^  differing  in  no  point  of  doctrine,  has  been 
declared  schismatic.  The  constitution  of  1864  guarantees 
toleration  to  all  creeds  in  Greece  and  imposes  no  dvil  disabilities 
on  account  of  religion. 

Greece  is  essentially  an  agricultural  a>untiy;  its  prosperity 
depends  on  its  agricultural  products,  and  more  than  half  the 
population  is  occu^Med  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil 
and  kindred  punuits.    The  land  in  the  plains  and 
valleys  is  exceedingly  rich,  and,  wherever  there  is 
a  sufficiency  of  water,  produces  magnificent  crops.    Cereals 
nevertheless  furnish  the  principal  figure  in  the  list  of  imports, 
the  annual  value  being  about  30,000,000  fr.    The  country, 
especially  since  the  acquisition  of  the  fertile  province  of  Thessaly, 
might  under  a  well-developed  agricultural  system  provide  a 
food-supply  for  all  its  inhabitants  and  an  abundant  surplus 
for  exporution.    Thessaly  alone,  indeed,  could  furnish  cereals 
for  the  whole  of  Greece.     Unfortxmately,  however,  agriculture 
is  still  in  a  primitive  state,  and  the  condition  of  the  rund  popula- 
tion has  reeved  very  inadequate  attention  from  successive 
governments.    The  wooden  plough  of  the  Hcsiodic  type  is  still 
in  use,  especially  in  Thessaly;  modem,  implements,  however, 
are  being  gradually  introduced.    The  employment  of  manure 
and  the  rotation  of  crops  are  almost  unknown;  the  fields  are 
generally  allowed  to  lie  fallow  in  alternate  years.    As  a  rule, 
countries  dependent  on  agriculture  are  liable  to  sudden  fluctua- 
tions in  prosperity,  but  in  Greece  the  diversity  of  products  is  so 
great  that  a  failure  in  one  class  of  crops  is  usually  compensated 
by  exceptional  abundance  in  another.    Among  the  causes  which 
have  hitherto  retarded  agricultural  progress  are  the  ignorance 
and  conservatism  of  the  peasantry,  antiquated  methods  of 
cultivation,  want  of  capital,  absentee  proprietorship,  sparsity 
of  population,  bad  roads,  the  prevalence  of  usury,  the  uncertainty 
of  boundaries  and  the  land  tax,  which,  in  the  al»ence  of  a  survey, 
is  levied  on  ploughing  oxea;  to  these  may  be  added  the  in- 
security hitherto  prevailing  in  many  of  the  country  districts 
and  the  growing  distaste  for  rural  life  which  has  accompanied 
the  spread  of  education.    Large  estates  are  managed  under  the 
metayer  system;   the  cultivator  paying  the  proprietor  from 
one-third  to  half  of  the  gross  produce;  the  landlords,  who 
prefer  to  live  in  the  larger  towns,  see  little  of  their  tenants,  and 
rarely  interest  themselves  in  their  welfare.     A  great  proportion 
of  the  best  arable  land  in  Thessaly  is  owned  by  persons  who 
reside  permanently  out  of  the  country.     The  great  estates  in 
this  province  extend  over  some  2,500,000  acres,  of  which  about 
500,000  are  cultivated.    In  the  Peloponnesus  peasant  proprietor- 
ship is  almost  universal;  elsewhere  it  is  gradually  supplanting 
the  metayer  system ;  the  small  properties  vary  from  a  or  3  to 
50  acres.    The  extensive  state  lands,  about  one-third  of  the 
area  of  Greece,  were  formerly  the  property  of  Mahommedan 
religious  communities  {vakoufs);  they  are  for  the  most  part 
farmed  out  annually  by  auction.  They  have  been  much  en- 
croached upon  by  neighbouring  owners;  a  considerable  portion 
has  also  been  s<^d  to  the  peasants.    The  rich  plain  of  Thessaly 
suffers  from  alternate  droughts  and  inundations,  and  from  the 
ravages  of  field  mice;  with  improved  cultivation,  drainage 
and  irrigation  it  mi^t  be  rendered  enormously  productive. 
A  oommiscton  has  been  occupied  for  some  years  in  preparing 


a  scheme  of  hydraulic  works.  Usury  Is,  periiap^  a  greater 
scourge  to  the  rural  population  than  any  visitation  of  nature 
the  institution  of  agricultural  banks,  lending  money  at  a  fair 
rate  of  interest  on  the  security  of  their  land,  would  do  much 
to  rescue  the  peasants  (rom  the  clutches  of  local  Shylodis. 
There  is  a  difficulty,  however,  in  establishing  any  system  of 
land  credit  owing  to  the  lack  of  a  survey.  Since  1897  a  law 
passed  in  1883  limiting  the  rate  of  interest  to  8%  (to  9  %  in  the 
case  of  commercial  debts)  has  to  some  extent  been  enforced  by 
the  tribunals.  In  the  Ionian  Islands  the  rate  ol  10%  stfll 
prevails. 

The  following  figures  give  approximatdy  the  acreage  in  1906 
and  the  average  annual  yidd  ol  agricultural  produce,  no  official 
statistics  being  available: — 

Acres. 

Fields  sown  or  lying  fallow 3,000,000 

Vineyards 337>Soo 

Currant  plantations lys^too 

Olives  (10,000.000  trees) 250,000 

Fruit  trees  (fig,  mulberry.  &c.)     ....        125,000 

Meadows  and  pastures 7,500.000 

Forests ».ooo,ooo 

Wastelands 3.875.000 

• 

16.362,500 
The  average  annual  yield  is  as  follows: — 

Wheat 350,000,000  kOograms 

Maixe 100,000.000 

Rye 20,000.000         „ 

Bariey 70^)00.000         „ 

Oats 75,000,000 

Beans,  lentils,  &c 25/xx>,ooo  .. 

Curranu 350.000,000  Venetian  lb 

Sulunina 4.000,000  ., 

Wine 3,000.000  hectolitres 

Olive  oil 300,000.         .. 

Olives  (preserved)     ....  100,000.000  kilograms 
Figs  (exported  only)  ....    12,000,000         „ 

Seed  cotton 6.500.000  „ 

Tobacco 8,000,000  „ 

Vegetables  and  fresh  fruiu  .     .    20,000.000         ., 

Cocoons 1,006,000  „ 

Hesperidiums  (exported  only)   .      4,000,000  ., 

Carobs  (exported  only)  .     .     .    10,000.000         ,. 

Resin 5,000,000  „ 

Beet 13,000,000 

Rice  is  grown  in  the  nnarshy  plains  of  EKs,  Boeotia.  Marathoo 
and  MisfloTonehi;  beet  in  Thessaly.  'The  cultivation  of  vcBctablcs 
is  increasing ;  beans,  peas  and  lentiu  are  the  most  common.  Potatoes 
are  grown  in  the  upland  districts,  but  are  not  a  general  article  of  diet. 
Of  late  years  market-gardening  has  been  uken  up  as  a  new  industry 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Athens.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  fruits. 
Olive  plantations  are  found  everywhere;  in  i860  they  occupied 
about  90,000  acres;  in  1887, 433.701  acres.  The  trees  are  somcuincs 
of  immense  age  and  form  a  picturesque  feature  in  the  landscape. 
In  latter  years  the  groves  in  many  parts  of  the  western  Movea  and 
2[ante  have  been  cut  down  to  make  room  for  currant  plantations: 
the  destruction  has  been  deplorable  in  its  consequences,  for.  as  the 
tree  requires  twenty  years  to  come  into  full  bearing,  replanting 
is  seldom  resorted  to.  4»reservcd  olives,  eaten  with  bread,  are  a 
common  article  of  food.  Excellent  olive  oil  is  produced  in  Attica 
and  elsewhere.  The  value  of  the  oil  and  fruit  exported  varies  from 
five  to  ten  million  francs.  Figs  are  also  abundant,  especially  in 
Mesaenia  and  in  the  Cycbdes.  Mulberry  trees  are  planted  for  the 
purposes  of  sericulture;  they  have  been  cut  down  in  great  numbers 
ui  thecurrant-growing  districts.  Other  fruit  trees  nrethe  orange, 
citron,  lemon,  pomegranate  and  almond.  ^  Pcacms,  apncota.  pears. 
cherries,  &c..  abound,  but  are  seldom  soentifically  cultivated;  the 
fruit  is  generally  gathered  while  unripe.  Cotton  in  1906  oocopted 
about  I2.500acres.chiefly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Livadia.  Tobacco 

Elantations  in  1893  covered  16,320  acres,  yielding  about  3.500,000 
ilograms;  the  yield  in  ioo6  was  9.000.000  falograms.  About ^% 
of  the  produce  is  exported,  principally  to  &prpt  and  Turkey.  Moce 
important  are  the  vineyards,  whKh  occupiedin  1887  an  area  of  306.42 1 
acres.  The  best  wine  is  made  at  Patras,  on  the  royal  esute  at 
Decelea.  and  on  other  estates  in  Attica;  a  peculiar  flavour  is  tm- 
tiarted  to  the  wine  of  the  country  by  the  addition  of  resui.    The 

sey. 


value  5,848,544  fr.;  of  cognac.  363.7«>okes,  value  i  .091.160  fr. 

The  currant,  by  far  the  moat  imporUnt  of  Greek  exports,  is  culto- 
vatcd  in  a  limited  area  extending  along  the  southern  shote  of  the 
Gulf  of  Corinth  and  the  seaboard  of  the  Western  Peloponaeam. 


ACRICITLTUREI 

bt  Zawf,  Cndultmin  «iul  Lcma.  Iind  In  CCTUjd  dji 
Aomuiia  «Dd  Aelalu;  Atlfmpli  to  cultivitF  it  riKwh 
-         ^      tvaerally  prtivrd  unhjccmrui.  Tbe  hutoiy  of  ih 

hvvioildy  to  1^77  (iKcunmnI  wuaporlrd  waMy  foratiTIK  | 
Ihe  •nminU  (or  ihc  ytai.  1871  to  1877  bnni  70,7«  Ion..  71 

ivrly.     la  1B77,  however,  the  Frrncb  vincym'*!*  t-nran  tr.  > 
■rriouriy  from  the  phylkwn,  and  Frrncb  w 


.    The  i 


Fnacc  at  oact  roa  [mm  Ml  tool 

iin|Brbeil  Ibm  En^nd  ialiiit  vtu.  Mcaniiihile  die  toul  amounl 
of  Amwiu  produced  la  Greece  had  neuly  doubled  in  tbeie  thirteen 
)ptmr&  The  country  vu  Kiied  wiEli  a  manie  for  cumnE  pJantiiit;! 
every  other  Induitry  wa  neglected,  and  o]iv«»  orance  and  lemon 
novca  weiv  cut  down  10  nake  room  for  Ibe  more  lucrative  irowth, 
tbc  currant  growera,  in  order  to  incrcaae  tbnr  production  a*  rapidly 
ai  po^ble,  had  leeourae  to  loana  ■■  a  ht|b  rale  o(  iulereM.  and  Ihe 
«»ii  MAfiia  which  tbey  aiade  vrere  dmced  to  further  phnlinr, 
remajned  unpaid.  A  criu  followed  rapidly.  By 
^ 1. 1 — I  —  . .  •••Hii  ncovered  from  Ihc 

nop  ■venfjlig  ItO.om  loni,  only  nmc  I  lo.ooo  now  Found  ■  nurlLrl. 
Ahlwuib  a  fmh  cncniof  for  ciportalnn  ma  (ound  in  Ruuia.  tlie 
ira]i»e_ol  the  fruU  dropped  fron  £15  to  £5  per  lon^  a  price  icanxly 

mtroduced  a  mcaflire.  aincT  known  aa  the  lUienlion  (*v«K^WLr) 
Lav.  by  which  it  vat  enacted  that  every  ibipper  ibould  deliver 
lata  depoti  prwided  by  the  government  a  wei 

leMIo)S%a(the( ■-^-■^'-  i -■-■ 

fiiKd  Ihe  qoaniiiy 


1S91  the  F>«Kh  vineyardi  liad 

difeaae.  and  wine  producera  in  ' 
eompetitwoof  Foreign  vinea  anc 
The  inport  duty  on  tliefe  vai 


b(q^^lM  pRnutiDnahdng  la] 

*ay- TtwpriceofenDrtcaca..-   . ...    _. 

Cfuic  Tbc  Retention  Law,  whicb  after  1(9;  wai  voted  anni 
vaa  paaacd  For  a  period  of  ten  yean  in  1I94.  Tliia  perm 
meaaiire.  which  ia  Uk  defiance  of  all  economic  bwii  perpetva 
■uperfiuaui  production,  retardi  Ibe  developcnenl  of  other  braJ 
of  asrir^uliuie  and  burdena  Ihe  government  with  van  accumuU 
of  an  nnraarkeuble  commodity.  It  might  ucuiably  be  adopt 
a  tcDpinry  expedient  10  meet  a  pmaingcriMi.  but  ai  a  permj 


mt;  it  uBdennok  the  norue  and  ihe 
n  ii4iicb.iltcapilal  wiidmvrd.   The 

part  renulonl  unpaid ;  meantime 
e  trouble,  continued  to  increaw. 
1 1901  a  ayrklicateof  Engliih  and 
oala  lor  a  monopoly  of  the  export , 
niaiaateefiif  lUied  prkn  to  tbc  growera.  The  acfaeme.  which  con- 
■ictad  vkh  AaghyGnek  comnKrcialcDnvenliona.  wiirejecled  by  the 

llieatakk  nbiulry;   aerissa  diUurbance*  foil '  ■- ■' 

■mwiac  dhtricta.  and  M.  Tbeoiokia  resigned 
RaDiaiin  order  to  appcaKlbecullivalort.arrai 
Bank  ibould  offer  them  And  minimum  pricei  foi 
"]atanof6.ooo,aoodr.    Thei 


Ble  of  the  retained  frart.  froi 
bank  aoon  found  itatr  <- — 
tloek.  while  ita  loana  foi 
over-production.  Ihe  a 
■Ad  prioca  further  dimiL. 
er  Idnan  capitaliMi  n 
naatetinc  Br-*  — ' — 


ty  year*,  during  which  pmod 

if  Kapii  is  %r™cciively.  the  company  alma  at  krepjng  up  the 
pricei  of  the  marketable  qualiln  by  employing  proFitably  lor 
uidoiirtil  purpoect  Ihe  uneiported  turplui  and  rriained  inferior 


-.„. ..-,-- i  ibebfginr,   .^,^.         ^, 

■o  quality  ai  tKe  erid  of  Ihc  year  foe  the  uneiported  iurpluB._ 

to  receive  7  dr.  on  every  rODQ  lb  Dfcurranli  produced  and  todiipc 
of  the  whole  retained  amount.   A  special  company  hai  been  Form 


The  foUoa^nf  table  giirta  tha 


Year. 

ftmi)"* 

^.iS!i" 

^SSS" 

;i;i 

looloot 

9,SU 

a 

9>J" 

19.087 

91.JI7 

i«gi 

"■.994 

Sj?s 

•  "-.(OJ 

16.^ 

1M3 

114.080 

»*■*'* 

1884 

».'9t 

iiy 

ii;..'87 

r--;.S7o 

lim 

I--:.  160 

1  ■-■:*» 

III 

11 

1S91 

W.7" 

189] 

<8w 

;;;iK 

■iK 

s 

iLS 

S:™ 

II 

iS 

63.000 

l:SS 

l«'wt 

3.800 

1900 

4?!'36 

im.b™ 

S».ooo 

li^ 

1901 

iSi,I«o 

4.7»» 

179.499 

*1£ 

1,04* 

beginning  of  winle 


!k  vineyinU  in  1B91.  rccurrint  ia  1897 

be  cultivable  arra  of  GrrVce  ja  devotpd  10  paatur.  . 
I.  (I  a  rule,  it  a  diMinct  onupatnn  from  agri- 
the  hnda  are  lent  to  paiture  cm  the     ^^, 

.     TTielarjertmtlleancomparatively      **'""* 

bundin™  B«f  u  ^iSTi^tm  in  Crnce.  the 


nailer  hat  incteaaed.     The  native  breed  of  o: 


employed  in  the  moUw»»*«.-  ...»^».»,  .».  w».  .,,.v  vi  *w.^ 
animal*  it  Found  in  Ibe  iilanda.  The  Bocka  of  long-horned  ibiep  and 
roatt  add  a  pictaireaque  feature  to  Greek  rural  acenery.   The  gooti 

ire  moiT  numerouf  in  proponiofl  to  the  population  than  in  any  other 
European  country  (1J7  per  too  inhabitinii).    The  ihepherda'^  dogi 

[lubliibed  in  190;  the  number*  of  the  vanout  domettic  animali  in 
i899aimai(ollowt:  Oicn and buffaloei, 408.744:  honea,  iji.oM; 
mulea,  88.869;  donfccya,  141,174:  camel*,  si;  theep.  4.s6a,iji; 
[o«t*.  IJ]9-4»!  pig".  79.716.  During  the  four  yean  1899-1903 
Ibe  annual  aveiate  value  of  unporttd  cattle  waa  4JiB,oij  dr.,  of 
eiDotKd  cattle  I09.JI  I  dr. 
The  Form  urea  (about  i.joo.ooa  acre*  or  oae-fifib  d  the  lurface 


'  Forral*  arc  not  only  rmlectcd. 
■hit  great  aourn  ol  national 

miai^^SiT"  "  rf°tta'S^ 
-.-  ...y  ara  converted  into  detnlaic 
Enikm*  ar«  inainl*  Ibe  oork  oF  thcp- 
ited  paMuiagcforthek'flackt:  they  arc 

-  ... Ihe  careleivieia  oF  amokert,  and  ocra- 

Honally,  it  it  takl.  to  umntaneou*  ignition  in  hot  weather.'  Great 

dama^  it  alto  done  by  ihegoa  Ik  which  browae  on  the  young  nplinga; 

'!.«  parte  Ireet  arc  much  injured  by  the  practice  of  acoring  iheir  bark 

'  retin.   With  Ihe  diiappearance  <^  Ifac  Ireeathe  loilcJlhe  mcun- 

in  alopet.  deprived  of  ila  natural  protection,  ia  aoon  wadwd  away 


liMcnKHn.    Thcie  nmflagnii 


436 


GREECE 


rCOMMERCE 


by  the  rain;  the  rapid  descent  of  the  water  causes  inundations  in 
the  plains,  while  the  uplands  become  sterile  and  lose  their  vegetation. 
The  climate  has  been  affected  by  the  change;  rain  falls  less  fre- 
quently but  with  greater  violence,  and  the  process  of  denudation  is 
accelerated.  The  government  has  from  time  to  time  made  efforts 
for  the  protection  of  the  forests,  but  with  little  success  till  recently. 

'  A  staff  of  inspectors  and  forest  guards  was  first  organized  in  1877. 
The  administration  of  the  forests  has  since  1803  been  entrusted  to  a 
department  of  the  Ministry  of  Finance,  which  controls  a  staff  of  4 
inspectors  (hrc9twp^a«),  31  superintendents  (Ao^apx'Oi  52  head 
foresters  (Apj^t^XeuMt)  and  398  foresters  (5a^u^Xa<«t).  The 
foresters  are  aided  during  the  summer  months,  when  fires  are  most 
frequent,  by  about  500  soldiers  and  ^ndarmes.  ^  About  a  third 
ci  these  functionaries  have  received  mstruction  in  the  school  of 
forestry  at  Vythine  in  the  Morea,  open  since  1898.  Owing  to  the 
measures  now  taken,  which  include  excommunication  by  the  parish 
priests  of  incendiaries  and  their  accomplices,  the  conflagrations  have 
considerably  diminished.  The  total  annual  value  of  the  products  of 
the  Greek  forests  averages  15,006,000  drachmae.  Tne  revenue 
accuring  to  the  government  in  1905  was  1418,1^  dr.,  as  compared 
with  583,991  dr.  in  1883.  The  mcrease  is  mainly  due  to  improved 
administration.  The  supply  of  timber  for  house-construction,  ship- 
building, furniture-making,  railway  sleepers,  &c.,  is  insufficient,  and 
is  supplemented  by  importetion  (annual  value  about  13,000,000 
francs):  transport  is  rendered  difficult  by  the  lack  of  roads  and 
navigable  streams.  The  principal  secondarv  products  are  valonca 
(annual  exportation  about  1,350,000  fr.)  and  resin,  which  is  locally 
employed  as  a  preservative  ingredient  in  the  fabrication  of  wine. 
The  administration  of  the  forests  is  still  defective,  and  measures 
for  the  augmentation  and  better  instruction  of  the  staff  of  foresters 
have  been  designed  by  the  government.  In  1900  a  society  for  the  re- 
afforesting  of  tne  country  districts  and  environs  of  the  large  towns 
was  founded  at  Athens  under  the  patronage  of  the  crown  princess. 

The  chief  minerals  are  silver,  lead^  zinc,  copper  manganese, 
magn^sa,  iron,  sulphur  and  coat.  Emery,  salt,  millstone  and 
Mimmm  gypsum,  which  are  found  in  considerable  quantities, 
'  ^  are  worked  by  the  government.  The  important  mines 
at  Laurium,  a  source  of  great  wealth  to  ancient  Athens, were  reopened 
in  1864  by  a  Franco-Italian  company,  but  y/tre  declared  to  be  state 
property  in  1871 ;  they  are  now  worked  by  a  Greek  and  a  French 
company.  The  output  of  marketable  ore  in  1890  amounted  to 
486,760  tons,  besides  389,393  tons  of  dressed  lead  ore.  In  1905 
the  output  was  as  follows:    Raw  and  roasted  manganese  iron  ore, 

'  113.636  tons;  hematite  iron  ore,  94.734  tons;  calamine  or  zinc 
ore,  33,613  tons;  arsenic  and  argentiferous  lead,  1875  tons;  zinc 
blende  and  galena,  443  tons;  total,  333.300  tons,  together  with 
l64,8<^7  tons  of  dsessed  lead,  producing  13,833  t6ns  of  silver  pig  lead 
containing  1657  to  1910  grams  of  silver  per  ton.  It  has  been  found 
profitable  to  resmelt  the  scoriae  of  the  ancient  workings.  The  total 
value  of  the  exports  from  the  Laurium  mines,which  in  i875amounted 
to  only  £150,513,  had  in  1899  increased  to  £837,309,  but  fell  in  1905 
to  £499,883.  The  revenue  accruing  to  the  government  from  all  mines 


Chrome      •'••.. 

Emery 

Gypsum 

Iron  ore 

Fcrromanganesc  ... 
Lead  (argentiferous  pig)  ore 

Lignite 

Magneshc  .... 
Manganese  ore  ... 
Mill  stones       .... 

Salt 

Sulphur 

Zinc  ore 


Tons. 


8.900 
6,972 

185 

465,623 

89.687 

13.729 
11.757 
43.498 

8,171 
13.638 
25.201 

1,136 
33,563 


Francs. 


337.952 
743486 

7.995 
3,387.467 
1,183,653 
6,811,793 

143.814 

864,983 

123,565 

34.660 

1,638,065 
131,000 

2.853,355 


and  quarries,  including  those  worked  by  the  state,  was  estimated 
in  the  budget  for  IQ06  at  1,333,000  dr.  The  emery  of  Naxos,  which 
is  a  state  monopoly,  is  excellent  in  qualitv  and  very  abundant. 
Mine^  of  iron  ore  have  latterly  been  opened  at  Larimna  in  Locris. 
Magriesite  mines  are  worked  by  an  Anglo-Greek  company  in  Euboea. 
There  are  sulphur  and  manganese  mines  in  the  island  of  Melos,  And 
the  volcanic  island  of  Santonn  produces  pozzolana,  a  kind  of  cement, 
which  is  exported  in  considerable  quantities.  The  great  abundance 
of  marble  in  Greece  has  Utterly  attracted  the  attention  of  foreign 
capitalists.  New  quarries  have  been  opened  since  1897  by  an 
English  company  on  the  north  slope  of  Mount  Pentclicus,  and  are 
now  connected  by  rail  with  Athens  and  the  Pciraeus.  The  marble 
on  this  side  of  the  mountain  is  harder  than  that  on  the  south,  which 
alone  was  worked  by  the  ancients.  The  output  in  1905  was  1573 
tons.  Mount  Pentclicus  furnished  material  for  most  of  the  celebrated 
buildings  of  ancient  Athens;  the  marble,  which  is  white,  blue- 
veined,  and  somewhat  transparent,  assumes  a  rich  yellow  hue  after 
long  exposure  to  the  air.  The  famous  Parian  quarries  are  still 
worlced;  white  marble  is  also  found  at  Scyros,  Tenos  and  Naxos; 
"^y  at  Stoura  and  Karystos;  variegated  at  Valaxa  and  Karystos; 


green  on  Tayvettis  and  in  Thessaly;  black  at  Tenos;  and  red 
(porphyry)  in  Maina. 

The  official  statistics  of  the  output  and  value  of  minerals  produced 
in  1905  were  as  in  the  preceding  table. 

The  number  of  persons  empuoyed  in  mining  operationa  in  1905 
was  9934. 

Owing  to  the  natural  aptitude  of  the  Greeks  for  commerce 
and  their  predilection  for  a  seafaring  life  a  great  portion  of  the 
trade  of  the  Levant  has  fallen  into  their  hands.    Im-  • 

portant  Greek  mercantile  colonies  exist  in  all  the 
larger  ports  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Black  Sea, 
and  many  of  them  possess  great  wealth.  In  some  of 
the  islands  of  the  archipelago  almost  every  householder  is  the 
owner  or  joint  owner  of  a  ship.  The  Greek  mercantile  marine, 
which  in  1888  consisted  of  1352  vessels  (70  steamers)  with  a  total 
tonnage  of*2i9,4i5  tons,  numbered  in  1906,  according  to  official 
returns,  1364  vessels  (375  steamers)  with  a  total  tonnage  of 
427,291  tons.  This  figure  is  apparently  too  low,  as  the  ship- 
owners are  prone  to  understate  the  tonnage  in  order  to  diminish 
the  payment  of  dues.  Almost  the  whole  com  trade  of  Turkey 
is  in  Greek  hands.  A  large  number  of  the  sailing  ships,  especially 
the  smaller  vessels  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade,  belong  to  the 
islanders.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  shipping  on  the  Danube 
and  Pruth  is  owned  by  the  inhabitants  of  Ithaca  and  Ccphalonia; 
a  certain  number  of  their  slept  (cXLvul)  have  latterly  been 
acquired  by  Rumanian  Jews,  but  the  Greek  flag  is  still  pre- 
dominant. There  are  seven  principal  Greek  steamship  companies 
owning  40  liners  with  a  total  tonnage  of  31,973  tons.  In  1S47 
there  was  but  one  lighthouse  in  Greek  waters;  in  1906  there 
were  70  lighthouses  and  68  port  lanterns.  Hcrmoupolis  (Syra) 
is  the  chief  seat  of  the  carrying  trade,  but  as  a  commercial  port 
it  yields  to  Peiraeus,  which  is  the  principal  centre  of  distribution 
for  imports.  Other  important  ports  are  Patras,  Volo,  Corfu, 
Kalamata^and  Laurium. 

The  following  tabic  gives  the  total  value  Gn  francs)  of  ^lecal 
Greek  commerce  for  the  given  years:— 


1887. 

1893. 

1897. 

1902. 

Imports 
Exports 

131.849.335 
103.652,487 

1 19.306,007 
83,361,464 

"6.363.348 
81,708,636 

137.239.J64 
79.663473 

The  marked  fluctuations  in  the  returns  are  mainly  attributable 
to  variations  in  the  price  and  quantity  of  imported  cereals  and  in 
the  sale  of  currants.  The  great  excess  of  imports,  caused  by  the 
large  importation  of  food-stuffs  and  manufactured  articles,  is  due 
to  the  neglect  of  agriculture  and  the  undeveloped  condition  of  local 
industries. 

The  imports  and  exports  for  1905  were  distributed  as  follows: — 


Imports  from. 

Exports  to. 

Russia      .... 
Great  Britain      .     . 
Austria-Hungary 
Turkey    .... 
Germany       , 
France     .... 

Italy 

Bulgaria  .... 
Rumania       .     .     . 
America  .... 
Belgium   .... 
Netnerlands  .     .     .• 
Egypt      .... 
Switzerland   .      .     . 
Other  countries 

Total        .     .     . 

Frs. 
37,735,318 
27.5 16.928 
19.44^415 

15.538.370 

13.896.687 

10,101,070 

6.190.25A 

5.135.718 

3.814.641 

2,656,501 

2,276,393 

1,931,763 

634,ot5 

348,381 

4.555.781 

141,756,053 

Frs. 

810.935 

34,436.707 

7.876,806 

4.516403 

7.514.474 
7.078,321 
4.366.310 
133.106 
1.152,207 
6440.648 
3,068.138 
7.180,301 

5.928,55s 
4.288^5 

83.691.166 

An  enumeration  of  the  chief  articles  of  importation  and  exporta- 
tion, together  with  their  value,  will  be  found  in  tabular  form  overleaf. 

Greece  does  not  possess  any  manufacturing;  industries  on  a  br^ 
scale;  the  absence  of  a  native  coal  supply  is  an  obstacle  to  their 
development.  In  1880  there  were  1^5  establishments  empbying 
steam  of  5568  indicated  horse-power;  m  1893  the  total  horse-power 
employed  was  estimated  at  10,000.  In  addition  to  the  smell ing-works 
at  Laurium,  at  which  some  5000  hands  are  employed  by  Greek  and 
French  companies  and  local  proprietors,  there  are  flour  mills,  cloth, 
cotton  and  silk  spinning  mills,  snip-building  and  engineering  w«ics, 
oil-presses,  tanneries,  powder  and  dynamite  mills,  soap  mills  (i^xwt 


Priiuipat  Anklit  tf  ImforUliim, 


CdS^'    . 


v^i:^ 


l.?S0.9s4 


7^10.633 


'■473196s 


iainr 


i'.i".7U. 
11.460,630 

S,073,S4I 
ft.oji.jaj 


61409 


:«■£ 


ClBtS  AHicla  Bf  EiporUlin. 


Cos™ 


a.7S4."4S 
'.V)i.lM 


\l^ 


Enxtncd  (a 
Ihi  Uniinl 


IJ7.S6 


+37 

under  the  Triboiipi>  wJmLninnEicHi, 

roult;  ja  1894  Iben  were  1J9B  nu; 
in  1906,  5775  m^  Ef^tric  tnint  Iuvd 
been  introduced  at  Pairu.  Railwayt 
were  gpen  iq  traffic  in  1900  for  a  lenglb 
ol  5*0  m.;  in  I9o£  (or  a  length  of 
wayi  (4^  m.)  waB  compLeled  in  1907; 

cogwhtd  riil«iy.  liniihcd  in  1S94, 
aiccndt  to  Kauvryu.  A  very  im- 
portant undertaking  ia  the  nun^eliod 


and  the  Eaucm  Railny  EiKniioo 

the  SxUii  t^TCktmimi  it  Fir  MU- 

wilh  Larina  wai  Iwgiin  in  1B90,  but 
jn    1894  the   Enriiih  company  which 

1900  the  lioe  wae  drawn  ihnHish 
Dctpcrli.  in,  the  mlb  of  Theealy.  u 

tinued  through  the  valt  <A  Tenpe  la 
the  Turkiih  Trontier  (about  14«  «.  in 
all).  Branch  line)  bave  been  con- 
uructed  (a  Umia  and  Chakit.  The 
cilabliihment  o(  a  conneiion  with  the 
continental  railway  ayiiem,  by  a 
junction  with  Ibe  line  itDm  Belgiadc 


™l?bB:on«:'an*mportant  |£™oI 
embarlcation  (or  Egypt.  India  and  the 

*ii''&40.    0(  ib^'^110  were  abo  tele- 
graijb     and     89     lelephone      -^ 


IB  the  ne)|hboijrhood  ol  Aibetit  and  Peiraeua.  The  wine  indualry 
(10  (aclonea)  11  of  coniiderable  importance,  and  the  manu(acture 
of  rvgnac  baa  latterly  made  peat  profrea:  there  aic  10  laife  end 
nmneTDma  nuU  cognac  diftilleriea^  bhip-buiiding  ia  carried  on 
actively  at  all  Ibe  poni  on  the  mainland  and  iaUndi;  about  700 
ihipL  nKWly  t4  low  tonnage,  are  launched  annually. 
PMk  »Vij.— The  immrtant  drainage-work,  at  Ufce  Cojai. 

mttre*  in  lenrtb,  and  a  tunnel  of  600  metree  deKendlag  IhniuRh 


culliviied  portion  aSo 
iHkmui  o/Corinth  w 


nder'^am 


libigbly  fertile.    Thean 


■niichpaaemlhnHigh  it,  lefiouily  detract  (TOm  in  u 
There  an  reduced  rates  (or  iltipt  aailing  in  Greek  wi 


tan 


,'7's)"^5 


from  fomcn  ihipa).  In  1905,  39^0  veHctl  (J73S  Grrek)  paued 
thnugh.  the  lecelpli  being  i«i.9V  drachmae  and  34,14a  lianci. 
Thetotalliabilitieaof  thecoflipanyin  1906  were  about  40.doo.ooo  Ir. 
The  canal  muld  be  non  frequentecT  by  foreign  ihiji^ing  if  the 
hirtHMiT  at  in  entrance*  were  improved,  and  iti  eidei,  which  are  of 
■laioAry,  lined  with  beamaielforta  are  being  nade  to  raife  fundi  for 
Ike*  purpoiet.  The  widening  ol  the  Eunpua  (Hunnel  at  Chakii 
tiitbeeitentc<Ii-3«nielreiKuaceon<plidiedin  1S04.  Theopeia- 
tioni  involved  the  deHruclion  of  the  piciuie«iuc  Venetian  tower 
which  gHartled  the  n rait,  A  canal  wai  completed  in  1903  renderinx 
aaviiabk  the  (hallo-  channel  between  Leucai  (Santa  Maura)  anS 
the  mainland  (breadth  rs  metre*,  denih  J  metres).  Large  careening 
docki  mrre  underuken  in  1909  at  Peiraeui  at  an  euimaled  cou  <d 

thou(b  much "-  ■' --"-  -'-  -'- '  -  - 


[o  ■.h'ic  4mriiee:  7,068,125  printed  pane 
to  ..r  tram  foreign  rauntiiei.    Tvlcira 


iBd  187.375  icnt  abroad  1 
i  for  the  interior,  s  J7«^os 
h  luiei  in   1903  eirended 


Dtbeworkofotg^ 


;e  of  political  "^ 
lergency  ii  ha)  never  been 
perience  of  the  irat  o(  1B97 


15,140  non-commiuioned  officen  and  men, 
i  mules;  in  time  of  war  (he  active  army 

The  heavy  enpenditure  entailed  by  the 


ir  five  yean  the  opeial 


il  the  law  of  1904  and  1 


438 


GREECE 


INAVY 


the  resources  tlius  economized  together  with  other  funds  to 
the  immediate  purchase  of  new  armaments  and  equipment. 
Under  this  tempoTsry  arrangement  the  peace  strength  of  the 
army  in  1908  consiAed.of  1939  o^cer^  and  civilians,  19,416 
non-commissioned  dflScers  and  men  and  3661  horses  and 
mules;  it  is  calculated  that  the  reserves  will  furnish  about 
77,000  men  and  the  territorial  army  about  37,000  men  in  time 
of  war. 

MOluiy  service  is  obligatory,  and  liability  to  serve  begins 
from  the  twenty-first  year*  The  term  of  service  comprises 
two  years  in  the  active  army,  ten. years  in  the  active  army 
reserve  (for  cavalry  eight  years),  eight  years  in  the  territorial 
army  (for  cavalry  ten  years)  and  ten  years  for  all  branches  in 
the  territorial  army  reserve. .  As  a.  rule,  however,  the  period 
of  service  in  the  active  army  has  hitherto  been,  considerably 
shortened;  with  a  view  to  economy,  the  men,  under  the  law 
of  X904,  receive  furlough  after  eighteen  months  with  the  colours. 
Exemptions  from  military  service,  which  were  previously  very 
numerous,  are  also  restricted  considerably  by  the  law  of  1904, 
.which  win  secure  a  yearly  contingent  of  about  13,000  men  in 
time  of  peace.  The  conscripts  in  excess  of  the  yearly  contingent 
are  withdrawn  by  lot;  they  are  required  to  receive  six  months' 
training  in  the  ranks  as  supernumeraries  before  passing  into  the 
reserve,  in  which  they  form  a  special  category  of  "  liability  "  men. 
Under  the  temporary  system  of  1906  the  contingent  is  reduced 
to  about  xo,ooo  men  by  postponing  the  abcogation  of  several 
exemptions,  and  the  period  of  service  is  fixed  at  fourteen  months 
for  all  the  conscripts  alike.  The  field  army  as  constituted  by 
the  law  of  1904  consists  of  3  divisions,  each  division  comprising 
a  brigades  of  infantry,  each  of  a  regiments  of  3  battalions  and 
other  units.  There  are  thus  36  battalions  of  infantry  (of  which 
la  are  cadres);  also  6  battalions  of  emones  (highlanders), 
x8  squadrons  of  cavalry  (6  cadres),  33  batteries  of  artillery  (6 
cadres),  3  battalions  of  engineers  and  telegraphists,  3  companies 
of  ambulance,  3  of  train,  &c.  The  artillery  is  composed  of  a4 
field  batteries,  3  heavy  and  6  mountain  batteries;  it  is  mainly 
provided  with  Krupp  7*5  cm.  guns  dating  from  1870  or  earUer. 
After  a  scries  of  trials  in  1907  it  was  decided  to  order  36  field 
batteries  of  7*5  cm.  quick-firing  guns  and  6  mountain  batteries, 
in  all  168  guns,  with  1500  projectiles  for  each  battery  from  the 
Creuzot  factory.  The  infantry,  which  was  hitherto  armed 
with  the  obsolete  Gras  ride  ('433  in.),  was  furnished  in  1907  with 
the  Mannllcher-Schfinauer  (model  1903)  of  which  xoo,ooo  had 
been  delivered  in  May  1908.  Hitherto  the  gendarmerie,  which 
replaced  the  police,  have  formed  a  corps  drawn  from  the  army, 
which  in  1908  consisted  of  194  officers  and  6344  non-conunissioncd 
officers  and  men,  but  a  law  passed  in  1907  provided  for  these 
forces  being  thenceforth  recruited  separately  by  voluntary 
enlistment  in  annual  contingents  of  700  men.  The  participation 
of  the  officers  in  politics,  which  has  proved  very  injurious  to 
discipline,  has  been  checked  by  a  law  forbidding  officers  below 
the  rank  of  colonel  to  stand  for  the  Chamber.  In  the  elections 
of  1905  X15  officers  were  candidates.  The  three  divisional 
headquarters  are  at  Larissa,  Athens  and  Missolonghi;  the  six 
headquarters  of  brigades  are  at  Trikkala,  Larissa,  Athens, 
Chalcis,  Missolonghi  and  Nauplia.  In  1907  annual  manoeuvres 
were  instituted. 

The  Greek  fleet  consisted  in  1907  of  3  armoured  barbette  ships 
of  4885  tons  (built  in  France  in  1890,  reconstructed  1899), 
carr>nng  each  three  io-8-in.  guns,  five  6-in.,  thirteen 
quick-firing  and  smaller  guns,  and  three  torpedo  tubes; 
X  cruiser  of  1770  tons  (built  in  1879),  with  two  6*7-in.  and  six 
light  quick-firing  guns;  1  armoured  central  battery  ship  of 
1774  tons  (built  1867,  reconstructed  X897)  with  two  8-4  in. 
and  nine  small  quick-firing  guns;  a  coast-defence  gunboats 
with  one  io-6-in.  gun  each;  4  corvettes;  x  torpedo  dep6t  ship; 
8  destroyers,  each  with  six  guns  (ordered  in  1905);  3  transport 
steamers;  7  small  gunboats;  3  mining  boats;  5  torpedo  boats; 
I  royal  yacht;  a  school  ships  and  various  minor  vessels.  The 
personnel  of  the  navy  was  composed  in  1907  of  437  officers,  a6 
cadets,  11 18  petty  officers,  237 a. seamen  and  stokers,  60  boys 
and  99  civilians,  together  .with  386  artisans  employed  at  the 


Mny. 


arsenal  The  navy  is  manned  chiefly  by  conscription ;  the  period 
of  service  is  two  years,  with  four  years  in  the  reserve.  The 
headquarters  of  the  fleet  and  arsenal  are  in  the  idand  of  ?>alamis, 
where  there  is  a  dockyard  with  naval  stores,  a  floating  dock  and 
a  torpedo  schooL  Most  of  the  vessels  of  the  Greek  ^t  were  io 
1907  obsolete;  in  1904  a  commission  under  the  presidency 
of  Prince  George  proposed  the  rearmament  of  the  existing  iron- 
clads and  the  purchase  of  three  new  ironclads  and  other 
vessels.  A  different  scheme  of  reorganixation,  providing  almost 
exclusively  for  submarines  and  scout  vessds,  was  suggested 
to  the  government  by  the  French  admiral  Foumier  in  X908,  but 
was  (q>posed  by  the  Greek  naval  officers*  With  a  view  to  the 
augmentation  and  better  equipment  of  the  fleet  a  special  fund 
was  instituted  in.  X9Q0  to  which  certain  revenues  have  been 
assigned;  -it  has  been  increased  by  varioua  donations  and 
bequests  and  by  the  proceeds  of  a  state  lottery.  The  fleet  is  not 
exerdaed  metlmdically  either  in  luivigation  or  gunnery  practice; 
a  long  voyage,  however,  was  undertaken  by  the  ironclad  vessels 
in  1904.  Ilie  Greeks,  eq>ecially  the  islanders  of  the  A^ean, 
make  better  lailoxs  than  aoldieis;  the  personnel  of  the  navy, 
if  trained  by  foreign  officers,  might  be  brought  to  a  high  state 
of  efficiency. 

The  financial  history  of  Greece  has  been  unsatitfactory  from  the 
outset.    Excessive  military  and  naval  expenditure  (mainly  due  to 

repeated  and  hasty  mobiliations),  a  lax  and  inprovident      ^. 

system  of  administntion,  the  corruption  of  political  parties  '"■■■** 
and  the  instability  of  the  government,  w\uch  has  rendered  imponable 
the  continuous  applkation  of  any  achccne  of  fiscal  reform — ail  alike 
have  contributed  to  the  economic  ruin  of  the  countiy.  For  a  long 
series  of  yean  preceding  the  dedaratioa  of  nataoaal  inaolvency  in 
189^  succesitve  budseta  presented  a  deficit,  which  in  yeara  of  potitical 
excitement  and  military  activity  assumed  enormous  proportions: 
the  shortcomings  of  the  budget  were  supplied  by  the  proceeds  of 
foreign  loans,  or  by  means  ol  advances  obtained  m  the  country  at 
a  high  rate  of  interest.  The  two  loans  which  had  been  contracted 
durii^  the  war  of  independence  were  extinguished  by  means  of  a 
conversion  in  1889.  Of  the  existing  foreign  loans  the  f^rliwt  is 
that  of  60.000,000  frs.,  guaranteed  by  the  three  protecting  powers 
in  iS3a ;  owing  to  the  payment  of  interest  and  amortisation  by  the 

S>wers,  the  capital  amounted  in  1871  to  100.393,833  fr. ;  on  this 
reecepays  an  annual  sum  of  900,000  fr.,  of  wbiai  300,000  have  been 
¥  anted  by  the  ^wers  as  a  yearly  subvention  to  King  Geoige. 
he  only  other  existing  foreign  obligation  of  eariy  date  b  the  debt  to 
the  heirs  of  King  Otho  (4.500,000  dr.)  contracted  in  1868.  A  large 
amount  of  internal  debt  was  incurred  between  18^8  and  1880.  but 
a  considerable  proportion  of  this  was  redeemed  with  tbe  proceeds 
of  the  foreign  loans  negotiated  after  this  period.  At  the  endof  1880 
the  entire  national  debt,  external  and  internal,  stood  at  252,652481 
dr.  In  1881  the  era  of  great  foreign  loans  began.  In  that  year  a  5  % 
loan  of  iao,ooo,ooo  fr.  was  raisM  to  defray  the  cxpenaea  of  the 
mobilization  of  l88a  This  was  followed  in  1884  by  a  5%  loan  of 
1^70.000,000  fr.,  of  which  100,000,000  was  actually  issued.  The 
service  of  these  loans  was  guaianteed  by  various  State  revenues.  A 
"  patriotic  loan  "  of  30,000,000  dr.  without  interest.  Issued  during  the 
war  excitement  of  1885.  proved  a  failure,  only  2,723.860  dr.  being 
subscribed.  In  1888  a  a%  loan  of  135.000,000  fr.  was  contracted, 
secured  on  the  receipts  01  the  five  State  monopolies,  the  management 
of  which  was  entrusted  to  a  privileged  company.  In  the  following 
year  (1880)  two  ^%  loans  of  30.000,000  fr.  and  123.000,000  fr. 
reflectively  were  issued  without  guarantee  or  sinking  fund ;  Greek 
credit  had  now  apparently  attained  an  estabiishod  position  in  the 
foreign  money  naarket.  but  a  decline  of  public  confidence  soon 
became  evident.  In  1890,  of  a  5%  loan  of  80,000.000  fr.  effective, 
authorized  for  the  construction  of  the  Pdraett»>LarisiBa  railway, 
only  40,050,000  fr.  was  taken  up  abroad  and  13,900,000  fr.  at  home; 
large  portions  of  the  prpceecls  were  devoted  to  other  puiposes. 
In  189a  the  government  was  compelled  to  make  hum  adcutioos 
to  the  internal  floating  debt,  and  to  borrow  16.500,000 Tr.  from  the 
National  Bank  on  onerous  term*.  In  1893  an  effort  to  obtain  a 
foreign  loan  for  the  reduction  of  the  forced  currency  proved  unsuccess- 
ful. (For  the  events  leading  up  to  the  declaration  of  national 
bankruptcy  in  that  year  see  under  ReeeiU  History.)  A  funding 
convention  was  concluded  in  the  summer,  under  which  the  creditors 
accepted  scrip  instead  of  cash  payments  of  interest.  A  few  months 
later  this  arrangement  was  reversed  by  the  Chamber,  and  on  the 
13th  December  a  law  was  passed  assigning  provisionaUy  to  all  the 
foreign  loans  alike  30%  of  the  stipulated  interest;  tnc  reduced 
coupons  were  made  payable  in  paper  instead  of  gold,  the  sinking 
funds  were  suspended,  and  the  «ums  encashed  by  the  monopoly 
company  were  confiscated.  The  causes  of  the  financial  catastrophe 
may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows:  (i)  The  military  prcpara* 
tions  of  1 885-1 886.  with  the  attendant  disoiganiaation  01  the 
country;  the  extraordinary  expenditure  of  these  ^resurs  amounted  to 
130,987,77a  dr.  (2)  Excessive  borrowing  ahraad,  mvohring  a  charge 


HNANCEI 


GREECE 


439 


for  the  tervicc  of  foreign  loans  altoffcther  disproportionate  to  the 
revenue.     C|)  Remiasness  in  the  collection  of  taxation:    the  total 
iota  through  arrean  in  a  period  of  ten  year*   (i  882-1891)  was 
36.549.20a  dr.,  beiM  in  the  main  attributable  to  non-payment  of 
direct  taxes.    (4)  The  adverse  balance  of  trade,  largely  due  to  the 
nejglcctcd  condition  of  agriculture;  in  the  five  years  preceding  the 
crisis  (1888-1892}  the  exports  were  stated  to  amount  to  £19.578,973. 
while  the  imports  reached  £24,890.146;  foreign  live  stock  and  cereals 
being  imported  to  the  amount  of  £6,193,579.    The  proximate  cause 
of  the  cnsis  was  the  rise  in  the  excnan^  owing  to  the  excessive 
amount  of  paper  money  in  circulation.    Forced  currency  was  first 
introduced  m  1868,  when  15.000.000  dr.  in  paper  money  was  issued; 
it  was  abolished  in  the  following  year,  but  reintroduced  in  187^  with 
a  paper  issue  of  44,000,000  dr.    It  was  abolished  a  second  time  in 
1884,  but  again  put  into  circulation  in  1885,  when  paper  loans  to 
the  amount  of  45,000,000  dr.  were  authorixed.    In  1803  the  total 
authorised  forcedcurrency  was  146,000,000  dr.,  of  whicn  88,000,000 
(inciudinff  14.000,000  dr.  in  small  notes)waa  on  account  of  the  govern^ 
ment.   ^Tiie  gold  and  silver  coinage  had  practically  disappcarra  from 
circulation.    The  rate  of  exchange,  as  a  rule,  varies  directly  with  the 
amount  of  paper  money  in  circulation,  but,  owing  to  speculation,  it 
is  liable  to  violent  fluctuations  whenever  there  is  an  exceptional 
demand  for  gold  in  the  nurleet.    In  1893  the  gold  franc  stood  at 
the  ratio  of  i*6o  to  the  paper  drachma;   the  service  of  the  foreign 
loans  required  upwards  of  31,000,000  dr.  in  gold,  and  any  attempt 
to  realise  this  sum  in  the  market  would  have  involved  an  outlay 
equivalent  to  at  least  half  the  budget.    With  the  failure  of  the 
projected  k»n  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  forced  currency  repudiation 
became  inevitable.  The  law  of  the  13th  of  December  was  not  recog- 
oixcd  by  the  national  creditors:    prolonged  negotiations  followed, 
but  no  arrangement  was  arrived  at  till  ifo7,  when  the  intervention 
of  the  powers  after  the  war  with  Turkey  furnished  the  opportunity 
for  a  definite  settlement.     It  was  stipulated  that  Turkey  should 
receive  an  indemnity  of  £T4,ooo,ooo  contingent  on  the  evacuation 
of  Thessaly;  in  order  to  secure  the  payment  of  this  sum  by  Greece 
without  prejudice  to  the  interests  of  ner  creditors,  and  to  enable 
the  country  to  recover  from  the  economic  consequences  of  the  war. 
Great  Britain,  France  and  Russia  undertook  to  guarantee  a  2^  % 
loan  of  170.000,000  fr.,  of  which  150,000,000  fr.  has  been  issued. 
By  the  |weliminary  treaty  of  peace  (18th  of  September  1897)  an 
Itttemational  Financial  Commission,  composed  of  six  representatives 
of  the  powers,  was  charged  with  the  payment  of  the  indemnity  to 
Turkey,  and  with  "  abMlute  control "  over    the  collection    and 
employinent  of  revenues  sufficient  for  the  service  of  the  foreign  debt. 
A  Law  defining  the  powers  of  the  Commission  was  passed  by  the 
Chamber,  26th  of  February  1898  (o.s.).     The  revenues  assigned 
to  its  supervision  were  the  five  government  monopolies,  the  tobacco 
and  stamp  dutiesr  and  the  import  duties  of  Peiraeus  (total  annual 
value  estimated  at  39,600,000  dr.) :  the  collection  was  entrusted  to  a 
Greek  society,  wjiich  is  unider  the  absolute  control  of  the  Commission. 
The  t«turtts  of  Peiraeus  customs  (estimated  at  10.700,000  dr^  are 
regarded  as  an  extra  guarantee,  and  are  handed  over  to  the  Greek 
government;     when  the  produce  of  the  other  revenues  exceeds 
28.900,000  dr.  the  *'  plus  value  "  or  surplus  is  divided  in  the  propor- 
tion of  50*8  %  ^  the  Greek  government  and  49*2  %  to  the  creditors. 
The  plus  values  amounted  to.  3.301,481  dr.  lit  1898,  3.533.755  dr. 
in  1899.  and  3442.713  dr.  in  1900.  Simultaneously  with  tne  estab- 
lishment of  tne  control  the  interest  for  the  Monopoly  Loan  was 
fixed  nt  43%,  for  the  Funding  Loan  at  40%,  and  for  the  other 
kxins  at  32  %  of  the  original  interest.    With  the  revenues  at  its 
disposal  the  International  Commission  has  already  been  enabled 
to  make  certain  augmentations  in  the  service  of  the  foreign  debt; 
since  1900  it  has  b^un  to  take  measures  for  the  reduction  of  the 
forced  currency,  of  which  2«ooo,ooo  dr.  will  be  annually  bought  up 
jkni  dtatvoyed  till  the  amount  in  circulation  is  reduced  to  4O,000t000 
dr.    On  the  1st  of  January  1901  the  authorized  paper  issue  was 
164.000,000  dr..  of  whkh   92.000,000   (including   18,000,000   in 
fractional  currency)  was  on  account  of  the  government ;  the  amount 
in  actual  circulation  was  148.6191618  dr.    On  the  31st  of  July  1906 
the  paper  issue  had  been  reduced  to  152,775.975  dr.,  and  the  amount 
in  arculation  was  124.668,0^7  dr.  The  financial  commission  retains 
its  powers  until  the  extinction  oi  all  the  foreign  loans  contracted 
since  1881.  Though  its  activity  is  mainly  limited  to  the  administra- 
tioa  of  the  assigned  revenues,  it  has  exercised  a  beneficial  influence 
over  the  whok  domain  of  Greek  finance;  the  effect  may  be  observed 
in  the  ^|reatly  enhanced  value  of  Greek  securities  since  its  institution. 
avcrafiog  25*^6%  in  1906.    No  change  can  be  made  in  its  composi- 
tion or  srodcing  without  the  consent  of  the  six  powers,  and  none  of 
the  officials  emplaj^ed  in  the  collection  of  the  revenues  subject  to  its 
control  can  be  dismissed  or  transferred  without  its  consent.     It 
thus  constitutes  an  element  of  stability  and  order  which  cannot 
fail  to  react  on  the  general  administration.   It  is  unable,  however, 
to  control  the  expenditure  or  to  assert  any  direct  influence  over 
the  government,  with  which  the  responsibility  still  rests  for  an  im- 
proved system  of  collection,  a  more  eflicient  staff  of  functionaries 
and  the  repression  of  smuggling.    The  country  has  shown  a  re- 
markable vitality  in  recovering  from  the  disasters  of  1897,  and 
should   it   in  future  obtain  a  respite  from  paroxysms    of  mili- 
tary and  political  excitement,  its  financial  regeneration  will  be 


The  following  uble  gives  the  actual  expenditure  and  receipts  for 
the  period  1889-1906  inclusive: 


Year. 

Actual 
Receipts. 

Actual 
Expenditure. 

Surplus  or 
Deficit. 

1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 

I893» 
1894 
189s 
1896 

:i?r. 

1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 

1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 

Drachmae. 
83.731.591 
79.931.795 
90^21,872 

95465.569 

96.723418 

102,885,643 

94.657.065 

96,931.726 

92485.82< 

104.949.718 

111.318,273 

112.206,849 

"5.734.159 
123.949.931 
120,194,362 
121,186.246 
126472,580 
125.753.358 

Drachmae. 
110,772,327 

125.932,579 
122,836,385 
107,283,498 

92.133.565 
85.135.752 
91.641.967 
90,890,607 
137,043.929 

"0.341,431 
104.586,504 

112,049,279 

113,646,301 

121,885.707 

117436.549 
120,200,247 
"8,699.761 
124461.577 

Drachmae. 

-27,040,716 

-46,000,784 

-32.514.513 
-11,817,929 

+  4.589.853 
+17.749.891 
+  3.015.098 
+  6,041.119 
-44,558,104 

-  5.391.713 
+  6,731.769 

t  '5''572 
+  2,087,858 

+  2,064,224 

+  a.757.813 
+  985.999 
+  7.772.819 
-h  1,291,781 

The  stcadv  increase  of  receipts  nnce  1898  attests  the  growing 
prosperity  of  the  country,  but  expenditure  has  been  allowed  to  out- 
strip revenue,  and,  notwithstanding  the  official  figures  which 
represent  a  scries  of  surpluses,  the  accumulated  deficit  in  1905 
amounted  to  about  14.000.000  dr.  in  addition  to  treasury  bonds  for 
8.000.000  dr.  A  remarkable  feature  has  been  the  rapid  fall  in  the 
exchange  since  1903 ;  the  gold  franc,  which  stood  at  i  •63  dr.  in  .1902, 
had  fallen  to  1*08  in  October  1906.     The  decline,  a  favourable 

Sirmptom  if  resulting  from  normal  economic  factors,  is  apparently 
ue  to  a  combination  of  exceptional  circumstances,  and  consequently 
may  not  be  maintained :  it  has  imposed  a  considerable  strain  on  the 
financial  and  commercial  situation.  The  purchasing  power  of  the 
drachma  remains  almost  stationary  and  the  price  o(  imported 
commddities  continues  high;  import  dues,  which  since  1904  are 
payable  in  drachmae  at  the  fixed  rate  of  1*45  to  the  franc,  have  been 
practkally  increased  by  more  than  30%.  In  April  1900  a  4  %  loan 
of  43,750,000  francs  for  the  completion  of  the  railway  from  Peiraeus 
to  the  Turkish  frontier,  and  another  loan  of  11,750,000  drachmae 
for  the  construction  of  a  line  from  Pyigos  to  Mcligala,  linking  up 
the  Morea  railway  system,  were  sanctioned  by  the  Chamber;  the 
first-named,  the  "  Greek  Railways  Loan,"  was  taken  up  at  80  by  the 
syndkaite  contracting  for  the  works  and  was  placed  on  the  market 
in  1902.  The  service  of  both  loans  is  provided  by  the  International 
Commission  from  the  surplus  funds  of  the  assigned  revenues.  On 
the  1st  of  January  1906  tne  external  debt  amounted  to  725.939.500 
francs  and  the  internal  (including  the  paper  circulation)  to  1 7 1 ,629436 
drachmae. 

The  budget  estimates  for  1906  were  as  follows :  Civil  list,  i  .325,000 
dr.;  pensions,  payment  of  deputies.  &c.,  7,706,676  dr.|  public  debt, 

t 4.253471  dr.;  foreign  affairs,  3.563.994  dr.;  justice,  6.240,271 
r;  interior,  13,890,927  dr.;  religion  and  education.  7,143,924  dr. ; 
army,  20,618.563  dr.;  navy,  7.583.369  dr.;  finance;  2,362,143 
dr.;  collection  of  revenue,  10,650487  dr.;  various  expenditure, 
9,122,752  dr.;  toul,  124461,577  dr. 

The  two  privileged  banks  in  Greece  are  the  National  Bank, 
fodhded  in  1841 ;  capital  20,000,000  drachmae  in  20,000  shares  of 
1000  dr.  each,  fully  paid  up;  reserve  fund  13,500,000  dr.;  notes 
in  circulation  (September  1906)  126,721,887  dr.,  of  which  76,360,905 
dr.  on  account  of  the  government ;  and  the  Ionian  Bank,  incorporated 
in  1835);  capiul  paid  up  £315.500  in  63,102  shares  of  £5  each; 
notes  in  circulation,  10,200,000  drachmae,  of  which  3,500,000  (in 
fractional  notes  of  1  and  2  dr.)  on  account  of  the  government.  Tne 
notes  issued  by  these  two  banks  constitute  the  forora  paper  currency 
circulating  throughout  the  kingdom.  In  the  case  of  the  Ionian  Bank 
the  privilege  of  issuing  notes,  originally  limited  to  the  Ionian  Islands, 
will  expire  in  1920.  Tne  National  Bank  is  a  private  institution  under 
supervision  of  the  government,  which  is  represented  by  a  royal 
commissioner  on  the  board  of  administration ;  the  central  establish- 
ment is  at  Athens  with  forty-two  branches  throughout  the  country. 
The  headquarters  of  the  Ionian  Bank,  which  is  a  British  institution, 
are  in  London;  the  bank  has  a  central  office  at  Athens  and  five 
branches  in  Greece.  The  privileged  Epiro-Thcssalian  Bank  ceased  to 
exist  from  the  4th  of  January  1900,  when  it  was  amalgamated  with 
the  National  Bank.  There  are  several  other  banking  companies,  as 
well  as  private  banks,  at  Athena.  The  most  important  is  the  Bank 
of  Athens  (capital  40,000,000  dr.),  founded  in  1893;  it  possesses 
five  branches  in  Greece  and  ux  abroad. 

Greece  entered  the  Latin  Monetary  Union  in  1868.  The  monetary 
unit  is  the  new  drachma,  equivalent  to  the  franc,  and  divided  into 

*  Reduction  of  interest  on  foreign  debt  by  70  %. 

•  War  with  Turkey. 

'  International  Financial  Commisuon  Instituted. 


140 

copper  coini  of  10 

JjJJ™'''   ally  disappMrrd  from  Ihc  couoiry.    The  fap=r  ciimncy 

"* dr.  and  5  dr..  ■nd  of  fiactlonaJ  notea  for  1  dr.  and  1  dr. 


■■  Th*dcdiiia1<)'iiEmof  wdahiii 
1  iSTf,  but  nine  of  the  old  TutUih  Ma 
■c.  The  dram  •  A  <!i- '"il^liipoii  appi 


3y  weight.    The  ■ 


Theie  are  idrkEl  coina  of  M. 

Kry.    The  paper 

I.  of  an  imperial  quarter: 
I09J(  ydi.    TTlc  BTCTLUna  (■quare 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


1  ■  lurtbei 
sbouU   Dot 

:onfiiiedtD,o[cven  attempt,  a  namlive  of  evtnUL  A  sketch 
jreek  hiitoiy  is  not  possible  in  Ibe  KnM  in  which  ■  ikdcb  ol 
nan  history,  or  even  of  English  fai&tory.  is  possible.  Greek 
oiy  is  not  the  bisloiy  of  a  tingle  sute.  When  Aristotle 
iposed  hii  work  upon  the  constlluliona  of  the  Greek  stalts. 
be  found  It  necessary  to  extend  his  s^ 


mia^fyl-. 


InlvanMallci's/fimdouiAiIfr  i/diiudiiJi.]/ 
:.  Wotdmorth,  Crate;  PUUtrial,  Diicir: 
.  eA,  rcviKd  by  H.  F.  Tnier,  London,  i.v 
Grh>  (Fbrla,  1884):  C.  Neumann  and  }. 
CtoinipUt  mm  GruciniinHl  (Breiluu.  ih 
C-Mciii**  Reiii  {Berlin.  18*6);  J.  R  ^ 
■fjditi  inCrtta  {London.  tB«7);  It.  A.  II.  1^ 


,^ 


le  vL.  "  La  Grtce  pruniiii 


trans..   London.    iB^BI;   j.   A.   Symonds,  Sludui,  and 
tbJy  and  Grace  (J  voli.,  and  td.,  London,  iM):  V. 


^r  [be  fauna:  Th.  de  Heldreich.  La  F.111 


B^rard.  La 
Xitoi  (Athens. 
Grla  (Athens. 


lii    nwi    K>#aU^il 


1S91}!  "Thessalien  und  trir 
nMliikn  Cnalmlaml)  tB.i\  .. 
iu  iidiidm  Mam  (Berlin,  1 
«Mord,  i8p7):Scliumand  Hn 
5rtrii(LmdoB,i90i);  M.  L.m 

tome  L-,G.  Millet, -'LeMon..  :■ 
the  life,  cuilDnuand  habile  i'(  :' 


nelle  de  Constant.  Lt  Vir  J. 
About,  La  CrJce  cotlmpitjin- 
Bent.  ilaUrn  Lift  fl~f  r/roi,,:.' , 
]   Renn,"-    ■''-    - 


il  Rodd.  r*(  C-jIl. 


^   (GotSa.   ISSJ);  D«  J 
unJ   fllioia    (Gotha.    iS 

W,  J.  ^TJ^house,  .^^-- 
TV  MDJiojIiry  »/  SI  Lh*(  0/ 
I.  -H  N=™U.  fAllieni,  l8^J ; 

■     i^  cieeis:  C^W&mlHh' 
■t  en  C(&  (Wns.  iaiaj:  E. 

't^ci'Kii  ainS^'iLT' 

H  g/  iltdint  Grail  (Lonliinl 
(  ■  ■«  (jrd  ed.,  Leiprig,  lOOS); 
.  ,1  London,  iao;):Macn>illan'> 
I    Ljndon.  1901).        U.  D.  B.) 


1.  IriSroiiutoTy.- 
•cope  and  object  0 
cipecl  to  £nd  in  it 
in  [he  history  of  a. 

"Outlines  of  Grtt 


:h  of  the  b 


;Hi5tnry."    Il  mi 


sni^ 


ncd  whethc 


neoessatily  imposed  in  a  work  of  reference,  would  be  of  utility 
to  any  cUss  of  readers.  At  any  rale,  the  pUn  of  Ihc  pi 
work,  in  which  tbe  subject  of  Greek  bistory  it  (rested  ol 
Urge  number  of  sep*rste  articles,  aUows  of  tbe  narrsti 
events  being  given  in  ■  more  satisfactory  form  under  the 
IBneral  of  tbe  headings  (e.|. 


tbe  history  of  a  sin^  couBliy.  The  area  occupied  by  the  Creek 
tended  from  the  Pyrenea  to  tbe  Caucasus,  and  from 
Tn  Kussia  to  northern  Africa.  It  is  inevitable,  therefore, 
.be  impresi^on  conveyed  by  a  aketch  of  Greek  history 
I  be  a  misleading  one.  A  mere  naiiativc  can  hardly  fail 
IE  a  (lite  perspective.  Eipeiience  sbowi  that  such  a 
L  is  apt  to  resolve  itself  into  tbe  history  of  a  few  great 
oenti  and  of  a  few  leading  states.  What  is  still  none. 
ipt  to  corifine  itself,  at  any  rate  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
period  dealt  with,  to  the  history  of  Greece  in  the  narrower  sense, 
'  r-  of  tbe  Greek  peninsula.  For  the  identi£cation  of  Greece 
Lth  Greece  proper  there  may  be  some  degree  of  excuse  when  we 
ime  to  tbe  jth  and  4th  centuries.  In  the  period  that  lies  behind 
le  year  50a  B.C.  Greece  proper  forms  but  a  inuU  part  of  the 
Greek  world.  In  the  7lh  and  6th  centuries  it  is  outside  Crrece 
itself  that  we  must  look  foe  the  most  active  life  of  the  Creek 
people  and  the  most  brilliant  raanifesutioDs  of  the  Greek  tpiiil. 

md  conditions  of  events,  rather  than  with  the  events  themselves: 
t  will  attempt  analysis  rather  than  narrative.  Its  object  will 
3e  to  indicate  problems  and  to  criticize  views;  to  suggest 
essons  and  parallels,  and  to  estimate  the  importance  of  the 
Hellenic  factor  in  the  development  of  civiliution. 
2.   Tht  Uinaan  and  Uycnatan  ^fei.— When  does  Greek 

lave  been  proposed  a  generation  ago.  Then  the  question  was, 
Efow  ble  does  Greek  history  begin?  To-day  tbe  question  is. 
How  early  does  it  begin?  The  suggestion  made  by  Grote  that 
:he  first  Olympiad  (776  B.C.)  should  be  taken  as  the  starting- 
^int  of  the  bistoiy  of  Greece,  in  the  proper  sense  of  tbe  term 
'  history."  seemed  likely,  not  to  many  yeait  ago,  to  win  genenl 
icceptance.  At  the  present  moment  the  tendency  would  seem 
:o  be  to  go  back  as  far  at  Ibe  jtd  or  4ih  millennium  s.c  in  order 
Lo  reach  a  starting-point.  It  is  to  Uie  results  of  ■[rhaeologica] 
research  during  the  last  thirty  years  that  we  mutt  attribute  so 
ilartling  a  change  in  the  attitude  of  historical  science  towards 
[his  problem.  In  the  days  when  Grote  published  the  first  volumes 
ol  his  Hillary  0/  Grace  archaeology  wis  in  its  infancy.  lis 
results,  so  fat  as  they  aSected  the  earlier  periods  of  Greek  history, 
were  scanty;  its  methods  were  unscientific.  The  methods  have 
been  gradually  perfected  by  numerous  workers  in  the  field;  but 
the  results,  which  have  so  profoundly  modified  our  concepIioDt 
of  the  early  history  of  the  Aegean  area,  are  principally  doe  10  the 
discoveries  of  two  men,  Hnnricb  Schliemann  and  A.  J.  Evans. 
A  full  account  of  tboe  diKovcries  will  be  found  elsewhere  (sec 
Aegean  CTiviUMnoii  and  Csete).  Il  will  be  suSdenl  lo 
mention  here  that  Schliemann'a  labours  began  with  the  excava- 
tions on  the  tile  of  Troy  in  the  years  1870-iS;];  that  he  pasted 
on  to  the  excavations  at  Mycenae  In  1S76  and  to  those  at  TiryDS 
in  1834.  It  was  the  discoveries  of  these  years  thai  revealed 
to  us  the  Mycenaean  age,  and  carried  back  the  history  to  tbe 
middle  of  the  md  millennium.  The  discoveries  of  Dr  A.  J.  Evans 
In  the  island  of  Crete  belong  to  a  later  period,     Tbe  work  of 

years.    It  has  revealed  to  us  Ihc  Minoan  age.  and  enabled  m 

for  a  funber  period  of  1000  or  1500  years.  The  dates  assigned 
by  archaeologists  to  the  different  periods  of  Mycenaean  and 
Minoan  art  must  be  regarded  as  merely  approximate.  EvcD 
tbe  retatioD  of  the  (wo  dvilizalions  Is  stiU,  to  some  extent,  a 
■nalta   ol    omjeclure.     llie   general    chronological    sdicme, 


HBTORYI 


GREECE 


441 


however,  in  the  seme  of  the  relative  order  of  the  various  periods 
and  the  approximate  intervals  between  them,  is  too  firmly 
established,  both  by  internal  evidence,  such  as  the  development 
of  the  styles  of  pottery,  and  of  the  art  in  general,  and  by  external 
evidence,  such  as  the  points  of  contact  with  Egyptian  art  and 
history,  to  admit  of  its  being  any  longer  seriously-  called  in 
question. 

If,  then,  by  "  Greek  history  "  is. to  be  understood  the  history 
of  the  lands  occupied  in  later  times  by  the  Greek  race  (t.e.  the 
Greek  peninsula  and  the  Aegean  basin),  the  beginnings  of  the 
history  must  be  carried  back  some  2000  years  before  Grote's 
proposed  starting-pointy  If,  however, "  Greek  history  "  is  taken 
to  mean  the  history  of  the  Greek  people,  the  determination  of 
the  starting-point  is  far  from  easy.  For  the  question  to  which 
archaeology  does  not  as  yet  supply  any  certain  answer  is  the 
question  of  race.  Were  the  creators  of  the  Minoan  and 
Mycenaean  civilization  Greeks  or  were  they  not?  In  some 
degree  the  Minoan  evidence  has  modified  the  answer  stiggested 
by  the  Mycenaean.  Although  wide  differences  of  opinion  as  to 
the  origin  of  the  Mycenaean  civilization  existed  among  scholars 
when  the  results  of  Schliemann's  labours  were  first  given  to  the 
world,  a  general  agreement  had  gradually  been  arrived  at  in 
favour  of  the  view  which  would  identify  Mycenaean  with  Achaean 
or  Homeric.  In  presence  of  the  Cretan  evidence  it  is  no  longer 
possible  to  maintain  this  view  with  the  same  confidence.  The 
two  chief  difficulties  in  the  way  of  attributing  cither  the  Minoan 
or  the  Mycenaean  civilization  to  an  Hellenic  people  are  connected 
respectively  with  the  script  and  the  religion.  The  excavations 
at  Cnossus  have  yielded  thousands  of  tablets  written  in  the  linear 
script.  There  is  evidence  that  this  script  was  in  use  among  the 
Mycenaeans  as  well.  If  Greek  was  the  language  spoken  at 
Cnossus  and  Mycenae,  how  is  it  that  all  attempts  to  decipher 
the  script  have  hitherto  failed  ?  The  Cretan  excavations,  again, 
have  taught  us  a  great  deal  as  to  the  religion  of  the  Minoan  age; 
they  have,at  the  same  time,  thrown  a  new  light  upon  the  evidence 
supplied  by  Mycenaean  sites.  It  b  no  longer  possible  to  ignore 
the  contrast  between  the  cults  of  the  Minoan  and  Mycenaean 
ages,  and  the  religious  conceptions  which  they  imply,  and  the 
cults  and  religioxis  conceptions  prevalent  in  the  historical  period. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  may  safely  be  asserted  that  the  argument 
derived  from  the  Mycenaean  art,  in  which  we  seem  to  trace  a 
freedom  of  treatment  which  is  akin  to  the  spirit  of  the  later 
Greek  art,  and  is  in  complete  contrast  to  the  spirit  of  Oriental 
art,  has  received  striking  confirmation  from  the  remains  of 
Minoan  art.  The  decipherment  of  the  script  would  at  once 
solve  the  problem.  We  should  at  least  know  whether  the 
dominant  race  in  Crete  in  the  Minoan  age  spoke  an  Hellenic  or 
a  non-Hellenic  dialect.  And  what  could  be  inferred  with  regard 
to  Crete  in  the  Minoan  age  a>uld  almost  certainly  be  inferred 
V)th  regard  to  the  mainland  in  the  Mycenaean  age.  In  the 
meaawhUe,  possibly  until  the  tablets  are  read,  at  any  rate  until 
further  evidence  is  forthcoming,  any  answer  that  can  be  given 
to  the  question  must  necessarily  be  tentative  and  provisionaL 
(See  AzGEAN  Civiuzation.) 

It  has  already  been  Implied  that  this  period  of  the  history 
of  Greece  may  be  subdivided  into  a  Minoan  and  a  Mycenaean 
age.  Whether  these  terms  are  appropriate  is  a  question -of 
comparatively  little  importance.  They  at  least  serve  to  remind 
xxs  of  the  part  played  by  the  discoveries  at  Mycenae  and  Cnossus 
in  the  reconstruction  of  the  history.  The  term  "  Mycenaean," 
it  is  true,  has  other  associations  than  those  of  locality.  It  may 
seem  to  imply  that  the  civilization  disclosed  in  the  excavations 
at  Mycenae  is  Achaean  in  character,  and  that  it  is.to  be  connected 
with  the  Pelopid  dynasty  to  which  Agamemnon  belonged.  In 
its  scientific  use,  the  term  must  be  cleared  of  all  such  associations. 
Further,  as  opposed  to  *^  Minoan  "  it  must  be  understood  in  a 
more  definite  sense  than  that  in  which  it  has  often  been  employed. 
It  has  come  to  be  generally  recognized  that  two  different  periods 
are  to  be  distinguished  in  Schliemann's  discoveries  at  Mycenae 
itself.  There  is  aii  earlier  period,  to  which  belong  the  objects 
found  in  the  shaft -graves,  and  there  is  a  later  period,  to  which 
belong  the  beehive  tombs  and  the  remains  of  the  palaces.    It 


is  the  latter  period  which  is  "  Mycenaean  "  in  the  strict  sense; 
i.e.  it  b  "  Mycenaean  "  as  opposed  to  "  Minoan."  To  this 
period  belong  also  the  palace  at  Tiryns,  the  beehive-tombs 
discovered  elsewhere  on  the  mainland  of  Greece  and  one  of  the 
cities  on  the  site  of  Troy  (Schliemann's  sixth).  The  pottery 
of  this  period  is  as  characteristic  of  it,  both  in  its  forms  {e.g.  the 
"  stirrup  "  or  "  false-necked  "  form  of  vase)  and  in  its  peculiar 
glaze,  as  is  the  architecture  of  the  palaces  and  the  beehive-tombs. 
Although  the  chief  remains  have  been  found  on  the  mainland 
of  Greece  itself^  the  art  of  this  period  is  found  to  have  extended 
as  far  north  as  Ttoy  and  as  far  east  as  Cyprus.  On  the  other 
hand,  hardly  any  traces  of  it  have  been  discovered  on  the  west 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  south  of  the  Troad.  The  Mycenaean  age, 
in  this  sense,  may  be  regarded  as  extending  from  1600  to  x  200  B.C. 
The  Minoan  age  is  of  far  wider  extent.  Its  latest  period  includes 
both  the  earlier  and  the  later  periods  of  the  remains  found  at 
Mycenae.  This  is  the  period  called  by  Dr  Evans  "  Late  Minoan." 
To  this  period  belong  the  Great  Palace  at  Cnossus  and  the 
linear  s)4tem  of  writing.  The  "  Middle  Minoan  "  period,  to 
which  the  earlier  palace  belongs,  is  characterized  by  the  picto- 
graphic  system  of  writing  and  by  polychrome  pottery  of  a 
peculiarly  beautiful  kind.  Dr  Evans  proposes  to  cany  back 
this  period  as  far  as  2500  B.C.  Even  behind  it  there  are  traces 
of  a  still  earlier  civilization.  Thus  the  Minoan  age,  even  if 
limited  to  the  middle  and  later  periods,  will  cover  at  least  a 
thousand  years.  Perhaps  the  most  surprising  result  of  the 
excavations  in  Crete  is  the  discovery  that  Minoan  art  is  on  a 
higher  level  than  Mycenaean  art.  To  the  scholars  of  a  generation 
ago  it  seemed  a  thing  incredible  that  the  art  of  the  shaft-graves, 
and  the  architecture  of  the  beehive-tombs  and  the  palaces,  could 
belong  to  the  age  before  the  Dorian  invasion.  The  most  recent 
discoveries  seem  to  indicate  that  the  art  of  Mycenae  is  a  decadent 
art;  they  certainly  prove  that  an  art,  hardly  inferior  in  its  way 
to  the  art  of  the  classical  period,  and  a  civilization  which  implies 
the  command  of  great  material  resources,  were  flourishing  in  the 
Aegean  perhaps  a  thousand  years  before  the  siege  of  Troy. 

To  the  question,  "  What  is  the  origin  of  this  civilization? 
Is  it  of  foreign  derivation  or  of  native  growth?"  it  is  not 
possible  to  give  a  direct  answer.  It  is  clear,  on  the  one 
hand  that  it  was  developed,  by  a  gradual  process  of 
differentiation,  from  a  culture  which  was  common  to 
the  whole  Aegean  basin  and  extended  as  far  .to  the 
west  as  Sicily.  It  is  equally  clear,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
foreign  influences  contributed  largely  to  the  process  of  develop- 
ment. Egyptian  influences,  in  particular,  can  be  traced  through- 
out the  "  Minoan  "  and  "  Mycenaean  "  periods.  The  developed 
art,  however,  both  in  Crete  and  on  the  mainland,  displays 
characteristics  which  are  the  very  opposite  of  those  which  are 
commonly  associated  with  the  term  "  oriental."  Egyptian 
work,  even  of  the  best  period,  is  stiff  and  conventional;  in  the 
best  Cretan  work,  and,  in  a  less  degree,  in  Mycenaean  work, 
we  find  an  originality  and  a  freedom  of  treatment  which  remind 
one  of  the  spirit  of  the  Greek  artists.  The  civilization  is,  in 
many  respects,  of  an  advanced  type.  The  Cretan  architects 
could  design  on  a  grand  scale,  and  could  carry  out  their  designs 
with  no  small  degree  of  mechanical  skill.  At  Cnossus  we  find  a 
system  of  drainage  in  use,  which  is  far  in  advance  of  anything 
known  in  the  modem  world  before  the  19th  century.  If  the  art 
of  the  Minoan  age  falls  short  of  the  art  of  the  Periclean  age,  it  is 
hardly  inferior  to  that  of  the  age  of  Peisistratus.  It  is  a  civiliza- 
tion, too,  which  has  long  been  familiar  with  the  art  of  writing.' 
But  it  is  one  that  belongs  entirely  to  the  Bronze  Age.  Iron  is  not 
found  until  the  very  end  of  the  Mycenaean  period,  and  then 
only  in  small  quantities.  Nor  is  this  the  only  point  of  contrast 
between  the  ctdture  of  the  earliest  age  and  that of  the  historical 
period  in  Greece.  The  chief  seats  of  the  early  culture  are  to  be 
found  either  in  the  isknd  of  Crete,  or,  on  the  mainland,  at  Tiryns 
and  Mycenae.  In  the  later  history  Crete  plays  no  part,  and 
Tiryns  and  Mycenae  are  obscure.  With  the  great  names  of  a 
later  age,  Argos,  Sparta  and  Athens,  no  great  discoveries  are 
connected.  In  northern  Greece,  Orchomenos  rather  than  Thebes 
is  the  centre  of  influence.    Further  points  of  contrast  readily 


OrleatMi 
la/hf 


4+2 


GREECE 


l.rIISTX>RY 


suggest  themselves.  The  so-called  Phoenician  alphabet,  in 
use  amongst  the  later  Greeks,  is  unknown  in  the  earliest  age. 
Its  systems  of  writing,  both  the  earlier  and  the  later  one,  are 
syllabic  in  character,  and  analogous  to  those  in  vogue  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Cyprus.  In  the  art  of  war,  the  chariot  is  of  more 
importance  than  the  foot-soldier,  and  the  latter,  unlike  the 
Greek  hoplite,  is  lightly  clad,  and  trusts  to  a  shield  large  enough 
to  cover  the  whole  body,  rather  than  to  the  metal  helmet,  breast- 
plate and  greaves  of  later  times  (see  Arms  and  Aruov^  Creek). 
The  political  system  appears  to  have  been  a  despotic  monarchy, 
and  the  realm  of  the  monarch  to  have  extended  to  far  wider 
limits  than  those  of  the  "  city-states "  of  historical  Greece. 
It  is,  perhaps,  in  the  religious  practices  of  the  age,  and  in  the 
ideas  implied  in  them,  that  the  contrast  is  most  apparent.- 
Neither  in  Crete  nor  on  the  mainland  is  there  any  trace  of  the 
worship  of  the  "  Olympian  "  deities.  The  cults  in  vogue  remind 
us  rather  of  Asia  than  of  Greece.  The  worship  of  piUars  and  of 
trees  carries  us  back  to  Canaan,  while  the  double-headed  axe, 
so  prominent  in  the  ritual  of  Cnossus,  survives  in  later  times 
as  the  symbol  of  the  national  deity  of  the  Carians.  The  beehive- 
tombs,  found  on  many  sites  on  the  mainland  besides  Mycenae, 
are  evidence  both  of  a  method  of  sepulture  and  of  ideas  of  the 
future  state,  which  are. alien  to  the  practice  and  the  thought 
of  the  Greeks  of  history.  It  is  only  in  one  region — in  the  island 
of  Cyprus — that  the  culture  of  the  Mycenaean  age  is  found 
surviving  into  the  historical  period.  As  late  as  the  beginning 
of  the  5th  century  B.C.  Cyprus  is  still  ruled  by  kings,  the  alphabet 
has  not  yet  displaced  a  syllabary,  the  characteristic  forms  of 
Mycenaean  vases  still  linger  on,  and  the  chief  deity  of  the  island 
is  the  goddess  with  attendant  doves  whose  images  are  among 
the  common  objects  of  Mycenaean  finds. 

3.  The  Homeric  Age. — Alike  in  Crete  and  on  the  mainland 
the  civilization  disclosed  by  excavation  comes  abruptly  to  an 
end.  In  Crete  we  can  trace  it  back  from  c.  1200  B.C.  to  the 
Neolithic  period.  From  the  Stone  Age  to  the  end  of  the  Minoan 
Age  the  development  is  continuous  and  uninterrupted.*  But 
between  the  culture  of  the  Early  Age  and  the  culture  of  the 
Dorians,  who  occupied  the  island  in  historical  times,  no  connexion 
whatever  can  be  established.  Between  the  two  there  is  a  great 
gulf  fixed.  It  would  be  difficult  to  imagine  a  greater  contrast 
than  that  presented  by  the  rude  life  of  the  Dorian  communities 
in  Crete  when  it  is  compared  with  the  political  power,  the  material 
resources  and  the  extensive  commerce  of  the  earlier  [)eriod. 
The  same  gap  between  the  archaeological  age  and  the  historical 
exists  on  the  mainland  also.  It  is  true  that  the  solution  of 
continuity  is  here  less  complete.  Mycenaean  act  continues,  here 
and  there,  in  a  debased  form  down  to  the  9th  century,  a  date  to 
which  we  can  trace  back  the  beginnings  of  the  later  Greek  art. 
On  one  or  two  lines  (e.g.  architecture)  it  is  even  possible  to 
establish  some  sort  of  connexion  between  them.  But  Greek 
art  as  a  whole  cannot  be  evolved  from  Mycenaean  art.  We 
cannot  bridge  over  the  interval  that  separates  the  latter  art,  even 
in  its  decline,  from  the  former.  It  is  sufficient  to  compare  the 
"  dipylon  "  ware  (with  which  the  process  of  development  begins, 
which  culminates  in  the  pottery  of  the  Great  Age)  with  the 
Mycenaean  vases,  to  satisfy  oneself  that  the  gulf  exists.  What 
then  is  the  relation  of  the  Heroic  or  Homeric  Age  («.e.  the  age 
whose  life  is  portrayed  for  us  in  the  poems  of  Homer)  to  the 
Earliest  Age?  It  too  presents  many  contrasts  to  the  later 
periods.  On  the  other  hand,  it  presents  contrasts  to  the  Minoan 
Age,  which,  in  their  way,'are  not  less  striking.  Is  it  then  to  be 
identified  with  the  Mycenaean  Age?  Schliemann,  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  Mycenaean  culture,  unhesitatingly  identified 
Mycenaean  with  Homeric  He  even  identified  the  shaft-graves 
of  Mycenae  with*  the  tombs  of  Agamemnon  and  Clytemnestra. 
Later  inquirers,  while  refusing  to  discover  so  literal  a  corre- 
^ondence  between  things  Homeric  and  things  Mycenaean, 
have  not  hesitated  to  accept  a  general  correspondence  between 
the  Homeric  Age  and  the  Mycenaean.    Where  it  is  a  case  of 

*  It  would  be  more  accurate  to  say  to  the  year  1500  B.C.     At 

Cnossus  the  palace  is  sacked  soon  after  this  date,  and  the  art,  both 

Crete  and  m  the  whole  Aegean  area,  becomes  lifeless  and  decadent. 


comparing  literary  evidence  with  archaeological,  ao  exact 
coincidence  is  not  of  course  to  be  demanded.  The  most  that 
can  be  asked  is  that  a  general  correspondence  should  be  estab- 
lished. It  may  be  conceded  that  the  case  for  such  a  correspond- 
ence appears  prima  facie  a  strong  one.  There  is  much  in  Homer 
that  seems  to  find  confirmation  or  expbnation  in  SchUemann's 
finds.  Mycenae  is  Agamemnon's  city;  the  plan  of  the  Homeric 
house  agrees  fairly  well  with  the  palaces  at  Tiryns  and  Mycenae; 
the  forms  and  the  technique  of  Mycenaean  art  serve  to  illustrate 
passaged  in  the  poems;  such  are  only  a  few  of  the  arguments 
that  have  been  urged.  It  is  the  great  merit  of  Professor  Ridge- 
way's  work  {The  Early  Age  of  Greece)  that  it  has  demonstrated, 
once  and  for  all,  that  Mycenaean  is  not  Homeric  pure  and  simple. 
He  insists  upon  differences  as  great  as  the  resemblances.  Iron  is 
in  common  use  in  Homer;  it  is  practically  unknown  to  the 
Mycenaeans.  In  place  of  the  round  shield  and  the  metal  armour 
of  tlw  Homeric  soldier,  we  find  at  Mycenae  that  the  warrior  » 
lightly  clad  in  linen,  and  that  he  fights  behind  an  oblong  shield, 
which  covers  the  whole  body;  nor  are  the  chariots  the  same  in 
form.  The  Homeric  dead  are  cremated;  the  Mycenaean  are 
buried.  The  gods  of  Hoiher  are  the  deities  of  Olympus,  of  whose 
cult  no  traces  are  to  be  found  in  the  Mycenaean  Age.  The 
novelty  of  Professor  Ridgeway's  theory  is  that  for  the  accepted 
equation,  Homeric >■  Achaean  ■■  Mycenaean,  he  proposes  to 
substitute  the  equations,  Homeric ■>  Achaean  ■■post-Mycenaean, 
and  Mycenaean*- pre- Achaean Bpelasgian.  The  Mycenaean 
civilization  he  attributes  to  the  Pelasgians,  whom  lie  regards 
as  the  indigenous  population  of  Greece,  the  ancestors  of  the  later 
Greeks,  and  themselves  Greek  both  in  speech  and  blood.  The 
Homeric  heroes  are  Achaeans,  a  fair-haired  Celtic  race,  whose 
home  was  in  the  Danube  valley,  where  they  had  learned  the  uSe 
of  iron.  In  Greece  they  are  newcomers,  a  conquering  dass 
comparable  to  the  Norman  invaders  of  England  or  Ireland. 
and  like  them  they  have  acquired  the  language  of  their  subjects 
in  the  course  of  a  few  generations.  The  Homeric  civilization 
is  thus  Achaean,  i.e.  it  is  Pelasgian  (Mycenaean)  civilization, 
appropriated  by  a  ruder  race;  but  the  Homeric  culture  is  far 
inferior  to  the  Mycenaean.  Here,  at  any  rate,  the  Norman 
analogy  breaks  down.  Norman  art  in  England  is  far  in  advance 
of  Saxon.  Even  in  Normandy  (as  in  Sicily),  where  the  Norman 
appropriated  rather  than  introduced,  he  not  only  assimilated 
but  developed.    In  Greece  the  process  must  have  been  reversed. 

The  theory  thus  outlined  is  probably  stronger  on  its  destructive 
side  than  on  its  constructive.  To  treat  the  Achaeans  as  an 
immigrant  race  is  to  run  counter  to  the  tradition  of  the  Greeks 
themselves,  by  whom  the  Achaeans  were  regarded  as  indigenous 
(cf.  Herod,  viii.  73).  Nor  is  the  Pelasgian  part  of  the  theory 
easy  to  reconcile,  with  the  Homeric  evidence.  If  the  Achaeans 
were  a  conquering  dass  ruling  over  a  Pelasgian  population, 
we  should  expect  to  find  this  diflference  of  race  a  prominent 
feature  in  Homeric  sodety.  We  should,  at  least,  expect  to  find 
a  Pelasgian  background  to  the  Homeric  picture.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  we  find  nothing  of  the  sort.  There  is  no  consdousness 
in  the  Homeric  poems  of  a  distinction  of  race  between  the 
governing  and  the  subject  classes.  There  are,  indeed,  Pdasgians 
in  Homer,  but  the  references  dther  to  the  people  or  the  name 
are  extraordinarily  few.  They  appear  as  a  people,  presumably 
in  Asia  Minor,  in  alliance  with  the  Trojans;  they  tLpftcu  also, 
in  a  single  passage,  as  one  of  the  tribes  inhabiting  Crete.  The 
name  survives  in  "  Pelasgicon  Argos,"  which  is  probably  to  be 
identified  with  the  valley  of  the  SpeixJidus,*  and  as  an  epithet 
of  2^us  of  Dodona.  The  population,  however,  of  Pelasgicon 
Argos  and  of  Dodona  is  no  longer  Pelasgian.  Tlius,  in  the  age 
of  Homer,  the  Pdasgians  belong,  so  far  as  Greece  |»oper  is 
concerned,  to  a  past  that  is  already  remote.  It  is  inadmissible 
to  appeal  to  Herodotus  against  Homer.-  For  the  conditions 
of  the  Homeric  age  Homer  is  the  sole  authoritative  witness. 
If,  however.  Professor  Ridgeway  has  failed  to  prove  that 
"  Mycenaean  "  equals  "  Pelasgian,"  he  has  certainly  proved 
that  much  that  is  Homeric  is  post-Mycenaean.    It  is  possible 

«Sec  T.  W.  AUen  in  the  Oasskat  Rerim,  vol  zx.  (1906).  Na4 
(May). 


HISTORY' 


GREECE 


443 


that  dififerent  strata  are  to  be  distinguished  in  the  Homeric 
poems.  There  are  passages  which  seem  to  assume  the  conditions 
of  the  Mycenaean  age;  there  are  othen  which  presuppose  the 
conditions  of  a  later  age.  It  may  be  that  the  latter  passages 
reflect  the  circumstances  of  the  poet's  own  times,  while  the 
former  ones  reproduce  those  of  an  earlier  period.  If  so,  the 
substitution  of  iron  for  bronze  must  have  been  effected  in  the 
interval  between  the  earlier  and  the  later  periods. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  question  whether 
the  makers  of  the  Minioan  and  Mycenaean  civilisations  were 
Greeks  must  still  be  leguded  as  an  open  one.  No 
such  question  can  be  raised  as  to  the  Homeric  Age. 
The  Achaeans  nuiy  or  may  not  have  been  Greek  in 
bkxxL  What  is  certain  is  that  the  Achaean  Age 
forms  an  inUgral  part  of  Greek  history.  Alike  on  the  linguistic, 
the  religious  and  the  political  sides,  Homer  is  the  starting-point 
of  subsequent  developments.  In  the  Greek  dialects  the  great 
distinction  is  that  between  the  Doric  and  the  rest.  Of  the  non- 
Doric  dialects  the  two  main  groups  are  the  Aeolic  and  Ionic, 
both  of  which  have  been  devekiped,  by  a  gradual  process  of 
differentiation,  from  the  language  of  the  Honieric  poems.  With 
regard  to  religion  it  u  sufficient  to  refer  to  the  judgment  of 
Herodotus,  that  it  was  Homer  and  Hesiod  who  were  the  authors 
of  the  Greek  theogony  (ii.  $$  o^ot  dn  ct  wocVoyrct  dcvyovb^v 
*EXXj|0rft).  It  is  a  conmionplace  that  Homer  was  the  Bible  of  the 
Greeks.  On  the  political  side,  Greek  constitutional  development 
would  be  unintelligible  without  Homer.  When  Greek  history, 
in  the  proper  sense,  begins,  oligarchy  is  almost  universal.  Every- 
where, however,  an  antecedent  stage  of  monarchy  has  to  be 
presupposed.  In  the  Homeric  system  monarchy  is  the  sole 
fonn  of  government;  but  it  js  monarchy  already  well  on  the 
way  to  being  transformed  into  oligarchy.  In  the  person  of  the 
king  are  united  the  functions  of  priest,  of  judge  and  of  leader 
in  war.  He  belongs  to  e  family  which  claims  divine  descent 
and  his  office  is  hereditary.  He  is,  however,  no  despotic  monarch. 
He  is  compelled  by  custom  to  consult  the  poundl  {bouii)  of  the 
ciders,  or  chiefs.  He  must  ask  their  opinion,  and,  if  he  fails 
to  obtain  their  consent,  he  has  no  power  to  enforce  his  wiU. 
Even  when  he  has  obtained  the  consent  of  the  councU,  the 
proposal  still  awaiu  the  approval  of  the  assembly  {agora),  of  the 
peo|^e. 

Thus  in  the  Homeric  state  we  find  the  germs  not  only  of  the 
oligarchy  and  democracy  of  later  Greece,  but  also  of  all  the 
varioua  forms  of  constitution  known  to  the  Western 
world.  And  a  monarchy  such  as  is  depicted  in  the 
Homeric  poems  is  dearly  ripe  for  transmutation 
into  oligarchy.  The  chiefs  are  addressed  as  kings  {fiwt^a) ,  and 
daim,  equaUy  with  the  monarch,  descent  from  the  gods. 
In  Homer,  again,  we  can  trace  the  later  organization  into  tribe 
(^M),  dan  (yipos),  and  phratiy,  which  is  characteristic  .of 
Greek  sodety  in  the  historiod  period,  and  meets  us  in  analogous 
forms  in  other  Aryan  sodeties.  The  yhos  corresponds  to  the 
Roman  tpu^  the  ^vM^  to  the  Roman  tribe,  and  the  phratry  to 
the  curia.  The  importance  of  the  pkratry  in  Homeric  sodety  is 
illustrated  by  the  well-known  passage  {Iliad  ix.  63)  in  which 
the  outcast  is  described  as  '*  one  who  belongs  to  no  phratry  " 
(d^p^rwp).  It  is  a  sodety  that  is,  of  course,  based  upon  slavery, 
but  it  is  slavery  in  its  least  repulsive  aspect.  The  treatment 
which  &imaeus  and  Eurydeia  recdve  at  the  hands  of  the  poet 
of  the  Odyuey  is  highly  creditable  to  the  humanity  of  the  age. 
A  sodety  which  regarded  the  slave  as  a  mere  chattel  would  have 
been  impatient  of  the  interest  shown  in  a  swineherd  and  a  nurse. 
It  is  a  sodety,  too,  that  exhibits  many  of  the  distinguishing 
traits  of  later  Greek  life.  Feasting  and  quarrels,  it  is  true,  are 
of  more  moment  to  the  heroes  than  to  the  contemporaries  of 
Pericles  or  Plato;  but  "music"  and  "gymnastic"  (though 
the  terms  must  be  understood  in  a  more  restricted  sense)  are  as 
distinctive  of  the  age  of  Homer  as  of  that  of  Pindar.  In  one 
respect  there  is  retrogression  in  the  historical  period.  Woman 
in  Homeric  sodety  enjoys  a  greater  freedom,  and  receives  greater 
respect,  than  in  the  Athens  of  Sophocles  and  Pericles. 
*  A.  Tke  Cremlk  of  the  Creek  Stales— The  Gr^  world  at  the 


beginning  of  the  6th  century  B.C.  presents  a  picture  in  many 
respects  different  from  that  of  the  Homeric  Age.  The  Greek 
race  is  no  longer  confined  to  the  Greek  peninsula.  It  occupies 
the  islands  of  the  Aegean,  the  western  seaboard  of  Asia  Minor, 
the  coasts  of  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  of  southern  Italy  and 
Sicily.  Scattered  settlements  are  found  as  far  apart  as  the  mouth 
of  the  Rhone,  the  north  of  Africa,  the  Crimea  and  the  eastern 
end  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  Greeks  arc  called  by  a  national  name, 
HeUenes,  the  symbol  of  a  fully-developed  national  self-consdous- 
ness.  They  are  divided  into  three  great  branches,  the  Dorian, 
the  Ionian  and  the  Aeolian,  names  almost,  or  entirely,  unknown 
to  Homer.  The  heroic  monarchy  has  nearly  everywhere  dis- 
appeared, la  Greece  proper,  south  of  Thermopylae,  it  survives, 
but  in  a  peculiar  form,  in  the  Spartan  state  alone.  What  is  the 
significance  and  the  explanation  of  contrasts  so  profound? 

It  is  probable  that  the  explanation  is  to  be  found,  directly 
or  indirectly,  in  a  single  cause,  the  Dorian  invasion.  In  Homer 
the  Dorians  are  mentioned  in  one  passage  ovly  {Odyssey 
xix.  177).  They  there  appear  as  one  of  the  races  which 
inhabit  Crete.  In  the  historical  period  the  whole 
Peloponnese,  with  the  exception  of  Arcadia,  Elis  and  Achaea, 
is  Dorian.  In  northern  Greece  the  Dorians  occupy  the  little 
state  of  Doris,  and  in  the  A^ean  they  form  the  population 
of  Crete,  Rhodes  and  some  smaller  islands.  Thus  the  chief 
centres  of  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  culture  have  passed  into 
Dorian.hands,  and  the  chid  seats  of  Achaean  power  are  induded 
in  Dorian  states.  Greek  tradition  explained  the  overthrow  of 
the  Achaean  system  by  an  invasion  of  the  Peloponnese  by  the 
Dorians,  a  northern  tribe,  which  had  found  a  temporary  home  in 
Doris.  The  story  ran  that,  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
force  sin  entrance  by  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  they  had  crossed 
from  Naupactus,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  landed 
on  the  opposite  shore,  and  made  thdr  way  into  the  heart  of  the 
Peloponnese,  where  a  single  victory  gave  them  possession  of  the 
Achaean  ■  states.  Their  conquests  were  divided  among  the 
invaders  into  three  shares,  for  which  lots  were  cast,  and  thus 
the  three  states  of  Argos,  Sparta  and  Messenia  were  created. 
There  is  much  in  this  tradition  that  is  impossible  or  improbable. 
It  is  impossible,  e,g.  for  the  tiny  state  of  Doris,  with  its  three 
or  four  "  small,  sad  villages  "  (v6X<is  luKpal  xa2  Xvrp^wpoi, 
Strabo,  p.  427),  to  have  furnished  a  force  of  invaders  suffident 
to  conquer  and  re-people  the  greater  part  of  the'  Pdoponnese. 
It  is  improbable  that  the  conquest  diould  have  been  dther  as 
«udden,  or  as  complete,  as  the  legend  represents.  On  the 
contrary,  there  are  indications  that  the  conquest  was  gradual, 
and  that  the  displacement  of  the  older  population  was  incomplete. 
The  improbability  of  the  details  affords,  however,  no  ground 
for  questioning  the  reality  of  the  invasion.*  The  tradition 
can  be  traced  back  at  Sparta  to  the  7th  century  B.C.  (Tyrtaeus, 
quoted  by  Strabo,  p.  362),  and  there  is  abundant  evidence,  other 
than  that  of  legend,  to  corroborate  it.  There  is  the  Dorian  name, 
to  begin  with.  If,  as  Beloch  supposes,  it  originated  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  where  it  served  to  distinguish  the  settlers  in 
Rhodes  and  the  ndghbouring  islands  from  the  lonians  and 
Aeolians  to  the  north  of  them,  how  came  the  great  and  famous 
states  of  the  Peloponnese  to  adopt  a  name  in  use  among  the 
petty  colonies  planted  by  their  kinsmen  across  the  sea?  Or,  if 
Dorian  is  simply  Old  Pcloponncsian,  how  are  we  to  account  for 
the  Doric  dialect  or  the  Dorian  pride  of  race? 

It  b  true  that  there  are  great  differences  between  the  literary 
Doric,  the  dialect  of  Corinth  and  Argos,  and  the  dialects  of 
Laconia  and  Crete,  and  that  there  are  affinities  between  the 
dialect  of  Laconia  and  the  non-Dorian  dialects  of  Arcadia  and 
Elis.  It  is  equaUy  true,  however,  and  of  far  more  consequence, 
that  all  the  Doric  dialects  are  distinguished  from  all  o|her  Greek 
dialects  by  certain  common  characteristics.  Perhaps  the 
strongest  sentiihent  in  the  Dorian  nature  is  the  pride  of  race. 
Indeed,  it  looks  as  if  the  Dorians  daimed  to  be  the  sole  genuine 
Hellenes.  How  can  we  account  for  an  indigenous  population, 
first  imagining  itself  to  be  immigrant,  and  then  developing  a 

■  It  has  been  impugned  by  J.  Beloch,  Griukisckt  CeschiclUe,  I 
149  ff. 


444 


GREECE 


HISTORY 


contempt  for  the  rest  of  the  race,  equally  indigenous  with  itself, 
on  account  of  a  fictitious  difference  in  origin?  Finally,  there 
is  the  archaeological  evidence.  The  older  civilization  comes  to 
an  abrupt  end,  and  it  does  so,  on  the  mainland  at  least,  at  the 
very  period  to  which  tradition  assigns  the  Dorian  migration. 
Its  development  is  greatest,  and  its  overthrow  most  complete, 
precisely  in  the  regions  occupied  by  the  Dorians  and  the  other 
tribes,  whose  migrations  were  traditionally  connected  with 
theirs.  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  archaeologist  would 
have  been  compelled  to  postulate  an  inroad  into  central  and 
southern  Greece  of  tribes  from  the  north,  at  a  lower  level  of 
culture,  in  the  course  of  the  X2th  and  nth  centuries  B.C.,  if  the 
historian  had  not  been  able  to  direct  him  to  the  traditions  of  the 
great  migrations  (/icroyaorcurctt),  of  which  the  Dorian  invasion 
was  the  chief.  With  the  Dorian  migration  Greek  tradition 
connected  the  expansion  of  the  Greek  race  eastwards  across  the 
Aegean.  In  the  historical  period  the  Greek  settlements  on  the 
western  coast  of  Asia  Minor  fall  into  three  clearly  defined  groups. 
To  the  north  is  the  Aeolic  group,  consisting  of  the  island  of 
Lesbos  and  twelve  towns,  mostly  insignificant,  on  the  opposite 
mainland.  To  the  south  is  the  Dorian  kexapolis,  consisting  of 
Cnidus  and  Halicamassus  on  the  mainland,  and  the  islands  of 
Rhodes  and  Cos.  In  the  centre  comes  the  Ionian  dodccapdis, 
a  group  cpnsisting  of  ten  towns  on  the  mainland,  together  with 
the  islands  of  Samos  and  Chios.  Of  these  three  groups,  the 
Ionian  is  incomparably  the  most  important.  The  lonians  also 
occupy  Euboca  and  the  Cyclades'.  Although  it  would  appear 
that  Cyprus  (and.pwssibly  Pamphylia)  had  been  occupied  by 
settlers  from  Greece  in  the  Mycenaean  age,  Greek  tradition  is 
probably  correct  in  putting  the  colonization  of  Asia  Minor  and 
the  islands  of  the  Aegean  after  the  Dorian  migration.  Both  the 
Homeric  and  the  archaeological  evidence  seem  to  point  to  the 
same  conclusion.  Between  Rhodes  6n  the  south  and  the  Troad 
on  the  north  scarcely  any  Mycenaean  remains  have  been  found. 
Homer  is  ignorant  of  any  Greeks  east  of  Euboea.  If  the  poems 
arc  earlier  than  the  Dorian  Invasion,  bis  silence  u  conclusive. 
If  the  poems  are  some  centuries  later  than  the  Invasion,  they  a( 
least  prove  that,  within  a  few  generations  of  that  event,  it  Was 
the  belief  of  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  that  their  ancestors  had 
crossed  the  seas  after  the  close  of  the  Heroic  Age.  It  is  probable, 
too,  that  the  names  Ionian  and  Aeolian,  the  former  of  which  is 
found  once  in  Homer,  and  the  latter  not  at  all,  originated  among 
the  colonists  in  Asia  Minor,  and  served  to  designate,  in  the  first 
instance,  the  members  of  the  Ionic  and  Aeolic  dodccapcUis, 
As  Curtius^  pointed  out,  the  only  Ionia  known  to  history  is  in 
Asia  Minor.  It  does  not  follow  that  Ionia  is  the  original  home 
of  the  Ionian  race,  as  Curtius  argued.  It  almost  certainly 
follows,  however,  that  it  is  the  original  home  of  the  Ionian 
name. 

It  is  less  easy  to  account  for  the  name  Hdknes.  The  Greeks 
were  profoundly  cdhscious  of  their  common  nationality,  and  of 
the  gulf  that  separated  them  from  the  rest  of  mankind.  They 
themselves  recognized  a  common  race  and  language,  and  a 
common  type  of  religion  and  culture,  as  the  chief  factors  in  this 
sentiment  of  nationality  (see  Herod,  viii.  144  r6  'EXXijyudr  kOiv 
Sftatniv  re  fceU  diibyXuxraw  leal  OtSsv  2Sp6fiar&  rt  kdu^  kxlI 
Bvalax  ^cd  re  hjUnpoKo).  "Hellenes"  was  the  name  of  their 
common  race,  and  "  Hellas "  of  their  common  country.  In 
Homer  there  is  no  distinct  consciousness  of  a  common  nation- 
ality, and  consequently  no  antithesis  of  Greek  and  Barbarian 
(see  Tbuc.  i.  3).  Nor  is  there  a  true  collective  name.  There  are 
indeed  Hellenes  (though  the  name  occurs  in  one  passage  only, 
Iliad  ii.  684),  and  there  is  a  Helbs;  but  his  Hellas,  whatever  its 
precise  signification  may  be,  is,  at  any  rate,  not  equivalent  either 
to  Greece  proper  or  to  the  land  of  the  Greeks,  and  his  Hellenes  are 
the  inhabitants  of  a  small  district  to  the  south  of  Thessaly.  It 
is  possible  that  the  diffusion  of  the  Hellenic  name  was  due  to  the 
Dorian  invaders.  Its  use  can  be  traced  back  to  the  first  half  of 
the  7th  century.  Not  less  obscure  are  the  causes  of  the  fall  of 
dionarchy.    It  cannot  have  been  the  immediate  effect  of  the 

^History  of  Greece  (Eng.  trans.,  L  32  ff.);  cf.  the  same  writCT's 
lontr  vor  der  ionischen  Wanderung. 


Dorian  conquest,  for  the  states  founded  by  the  Dorians  were  at 
first  monarchically  governed.  It  may,  however,  have  been  an  in> 
direct  effect  of  it.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  power  of  the 
Homeric  king  is  more  limited  than  that  of  the  rulers  of 
Cnossus,  Tiryns  or  Mycenae.  In  other  words,  monarchy 
is  already  in  decay  at  the  epoch  of  the  Invasion.  The 
Invasion,  in  its  effects  on  wealth,  commerce  and  civilization,  is 
almost  comparable  to  the  irruption  of  the  barbarians  into  the 
Roman  empire.  The  monarch  of  the  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  age 
has  extensive  revenues  at  his  command;  the  monarch  of  the  early 
Dorian  states  is  little  better  than  a  petty  chief.  Thus  the  interval, 
once  a  wide  one,  that  separates  him  from  the  nobles  tends  to  dis- 
appear. The  decay  of  monarchy  was  gradual;  much  more  gradual 
than  is  generally  recognized,  lliere  were  parts  of  the  Greek  world 
in  which  it  still  survived  in  the  6th  century,  e.g.  Sparta,  Cyrcne, 
Cyprus,  and  possibly  Argos  and  Tarentum.  Both  Herodotas 
and  Thucydides  apply  the  title  "king"  (/^nrcXcut)  to  the  rulers 
of  Thessaly  in  the  sth  century.  The  date  at  which  monarchy 
gave  place  to  a  republican  form  of  government  must  ba\'e 
differed,  and  differed  widely,  in  different  cases.  The  traditions 
relating  to  the  foundation  of  Cyrene  assume  the  existence  of 
monarchy  in  Thera  and  in  Crete  in  the  middle  of  the  7th  century 
(Herodotus  iv.  150  and  154),  and  the  reign  of  Amphicrates 
at  Samos  (Herod,  iii.  59)  can  hardly  be  placed  more  than  a 
generation  earlier.  In  view  of  our  genera!  ignorance  of  the  histoTy 
of  the  7th  and  Sth  centuries,  it  a  hazardous  to  pronounce  these 
instances  exceptional.  On  the  other  hand,  the  change  from 
monarchy  to  oligarchy  was  completed  at  Athens  before  the  end 
of  the  8th  century,  and  at  a  still  earlier  date  in  some  of  the  other 
states.  The  process,  again,  by  which  the  change  was  ^ectcd 
was,  in  all  probability,  less  uniform  than  is  generally  assumed. 
There  are  extremely  few  cases  in  which  we  have  any  trustworthy 
evidence,  and  the  instances  about  which  we  are  informed  refuse 
to  be  reduced  to  any  common  t3rpe.  In  Greece  proper  our 
information  is  fullest  in  the  case  of  Athens  and  Argos.  In  the 
former  case,  the  king  is  gradually  stripped  of  his  powers  by  a 
process  of  devolution.  An  hereditary  king,  ruling  for  life,  is 
replaced  by  three  annual  and  elective  magistrates,  between 
whom  are  divided  the  executive,  military  and  religious  functions 
of  the  monarch  (see  Archon).  At  Argos  the  fall  of  the  monarchy 
is  preceded  by  an  aggrandisement  of  the  royal  prerogatives. 
There  is  nothing  in  common  between  these  two  cases,  and  there 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  process  elsewhere  was  analogous 
to  that  at  Athens.  Everywhere,  however,  oligarchy  is  the 
form  of  government  which  succeeds  to  monarchy.  Political 
power  is  monopolized  by  a  class  of  nobles,  whose  claim  to  govern 
is  based  upon  birth  and  the  possession  of  land,  the  most  valuable 
form  of  property  in  an  early  society.  Sometimes  povcr  is 
confined  to  a  single  clan  {e.g.  the  Bac^iadae  at  Corinth);  more 
commonly,  as  at  Athens,  all  houses  that  are  noble  are  equally 
privileged.  In  every  case  there  is  found,  as  the  adviser  of  the 
executive,  a  Boule,  or  council,  representative  of  the  privileged 
class.  ■  Without  such  a  council  a  Greek  oligarchy  is  inconcdvable. 
The  relations  of  the  executive  to  the  council  doubtless  varied. 
At  Athens  it  is  clear  that  the  real  authority  was  exerdsed  by  the 
archons;'  in  many  states  the  magistrates  were  probably  sub- 
ordinate to  the  council  (cf.  the  relation  of  the  consuls  to  the  senate 
at  Rome).  And  it  b  clear  that  the  way  in  which  the  oligarchies 
used  their  power  varied  also.  The  cases  in  which  the  power  vas 
abused  are  naturally  the  ones  of  which  we*  hear;  for  an  abuse 
of  power  gave  rise  to  discontent  and  was  the  ultimate  cause  d 
revolution.  We  hear  little  or  nothing  of  the  cases  in  which 
power  was  exercised  wisely.  Happy  is  the  constitution  which 
has  no  annals!  We  know,  however,  that  oligarchy  hdd  its 
ground  for  generations,  or  even  for  centuries,  in  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  Greek  states;  and  a  government  which,  like  the 
oligarchies  of  Elis,  Thebes  or  Aegina,  could  maintain  itsdf  for 
three  or  four  centuries  cannot  have  been  merely  oppressive. 

*  If  the  account  of  eariy  Athenian  constitutional  history  eiven  in 
the  AtkenaioH  Politeia  were  accepted,  it  u'ould  follow  that  the 
archons  were  inferior  in  authority  to  the  Eupatrid  BouK,  the 
Areopagus. 


HISTORY) 


GREECE 


4+5 


The  period  of  the  transition  from  monarchy  to  oligarchy 
is  the  period  in  which  commerce  begins  to  develop,  and  trade- 
routes  to  be  organized.  Greece  had  been  the  centre  of 
an  active  trade  in  the  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  epochs. 
The  products  of  Crete  and  of  the,  Peloponnese  had  found  their 
way  to  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor.  The  overthrow  of  the  older 
civilization  put  an  end  to  commerce.  The  seas  became  insecure 
and  intercourse  with  the  East  was  interrupted.  Our  earliest 
glimpses  of  the  Aegean  after  the  period  of  the  migrations  disclose 
the  raids  of  the  pirate  and  the  activity  of  the  Phoenician  trader: 
It  is  not  till  the  8th  century  has  dawned  that  trade  begins  to 
revive,  and  the  Phoenician  has  to  retire  before  his  Greek  com- 
petitor. For  some  time  to  come,  however,  no  clear  distinction  is 
drawn  between  the  trader  and  the  pirate.  The  pioneers  of  Greek 
trade  in  the  West  are  the  pirates  of  Cumae  (Thucyd.  vi.  4). 
The  expansion  of  Greek  commerce,  unlike  that  of  the  commerce 
of  the  modem  world,  was  not  connected  with  any  great  scientific 
discoveries.  There  is  nothing  in  the  history  of  ancient  navigation 
that  is  analogous  to  the  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass  or 
of  the  steam-engine.  In  spite  of  this,  the  development  of  Greek 
commerce  in  the  7th  and  6th  centuries  4ras  rapid.  It  must  have 
been  assisted  by  the  great  discovery  of  the  early  part  of  the 
former  century,  the  invention  of  coined  money.  To  the  Lydians, 
rather  than  the  Greeks,  belongs  the  credit  of  the  discovery; 
but  it  was  the  genius  of  the  latter  race  that  divined  the  import- 
ance of  the  invention  and  spread  its  use.  The  <A>inage  of  the 
Ionian  towns  goes  back  to  the  reign  of  Gyges  (c.  675  B.C.).  And 
it  is  in  Ionia  that  commercial  development  is  earliest  and  greatest. 
In  the  most  distant  regions  the  Ionian  is  first  in  the  field.  Egypt 
and  the  Black  Sea  are  both  opened  up  to  Greek  trade  by  Miletus, 
the  Adriatic  and  the  Western  Mediterranean  by  Phocaea  and 
Samos.  It  is  significant  that  of  the  twelve  states  engaged  in  the 
£g3rptian  trade  in  the  6th  century  all,  with  the  exception  of 
Aegina,  are  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  Aegean  (Herod,  ii.  178). 
On  the  western  side  the  chief  centres  of  trade  during  these 
centuries  were  the  islands  of  Euboea  and  Aegina  and  the  town 
of  Corinth.  The  Aeginetan  are  the  earliest  coins  of  Greece 
proper  (c.  650  b.c:);  and  the  two  rival  scales  of  weights  and 
measures,  in  use  amongst  the  Greeks  of  every  age,  are  the 
Aeginetan  and  the  Euboic.  Commerce  naturally  gave  rise  to 
commercial  leagues,  and  commercial  relatioiu  tended  to  bring 
about  political  alliances.  Foreign  policy  even  at  this  early 
epoch  seems  to  have  been  largely  determined  by  considerations 
of  commerce.  Two  leagues,  the  members  of  which  were  connected 
by  political  as  well  as  commercial  ties^  can  be  recognized.  At 
the  head  of  each  stood  one  of  the  two  rival  powers  in  the  island 
of  Euboea,  Chalcis  and  Eretria.  Their  primary  object  was 
doubtless  protection  from  the  pirate  and  the  foreigner.  Compet- 
ing routes  were  organized  at  an  early  date  imder  their  infhicnce, 
and  their  trading  connexions  can  be  traced  from  the  heart  of 
Asia  Minor  to  the  north  of  Italy.  Miletus,  Sybaris  and  Etruria 
were  members  of  the  Eretrian  league;  Samos,  Corinth,  Rhegium 
and  Zande  (commanding  the  Straits  of  Messina),  and  Cumae, 
on  the  Bay  of  Naples,  of  the  Chalcidian.  The  wool  of  the 
Phrygian  uplands,  woven  in  the  looms  of  Miletus,  reached  the 
Etruscan  markets  by  way  of  Sybaris;  through  Cumae,  Rome 
and  the  rest  of  Latium  obtained  the  elements  of  Greek  culture. 
Greek  trade,  however,  was  confined  to  the  Mediterranean  area. 
The  Phoenician  and  the  Carthaginian  navigators  penetrated 
to  Britain;  they  discovered  the  passa^^  round  the  Cape  two 
thousand  years  before  Vasco  da  Gama's  time.  The  Greek  sailor 
dared  not  adventure  himself  outside  the  Black  Sea,  the  Adriatic 
and  the  Mediterranean.  Greek  trade,  too,  was  essentially  mari- 
time. Ports  visited  by  Greek  vessels  were  often  the  starting 
points  of  trade-routes  into  the  interior;  the  traffic  along  those 
routes  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  natives  (see  e.g.  Herod,  iv.  24). 
One  service,  the  importance  of  which  can  hardly  be  overestimated,, 
was  rendered  to  civilization  by  the  Greek  traders — the  invention 
of  geography.  The  science  of  geography  is  the  invention  of  the 
Greeks.  The  first  maps  were  made  by  them  (in  the  6th  century); 
and  it  was  the  discoveries  and  surveys  of  their  sailors  that  made 
map-making  possible. 


Coloalxm' 


Qosely  connected  with  the  history  of  Greek  trade  is  the 
history  of  Greek  colonization.  The  period  of  colonization,  in 
its  narrower  sense,  extends  from  the  middle  of  the 
8th  to  the  middle  of  the  6th  century.  Greek  coloniza- 
tion is,  however,  merely  a  continuation  of  thp  process 
which  at  an  earlier  epoch  had  led  to  the  settlement,  first  of 
Cyprus,  and  then  of  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Aegean.  From 
the  earlier  settlements  the  colonization  of  the  historical  period 
is  distinguished  by  three  characteristics.  The  later  colony 
acknowledges  a  definite  metropolis  (  "mother-city");  it  is 
planted  by  a  definite  cecUt  (oUurrifi);  it  has  a  definite  date 
assigned  to  its  foundation.^  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  regard 
Greek  colonization  as  commercial  in  origin,  in  the  sense  that  the 
colonies  were  in  all  cases  established  as  trading-posts.  This 
was  the  case  with  the  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian  settlements, 
most  of  which  remained  mere  factories;  and  some  of  the  Greek 
colonies  {e.g.  many  of  those  planted  by  Miletus  on  the  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea)  bore  this  character.  The  typical  Greek  colony, 
however,  was  neither  in  origin  nor  in  development  a  mere 
trading-post.  It  was,  or  it  became,  a  poliSf  a  city-state,  in  which 
was  reproduced  the  life  of  the  parent  state.  Nor  was  Greek 
colonization,  like  the  emigration  from  Europe  to  America  and 
Australia  in  the  19th  century,  simply  the  result  of  over-pwpula- 
tion.  The  causes  were  as  various  as  those  which  can  be  traced 
in  the  history  of  modem  colonization.  Those  which  were 
established  for  the  purposes  of  trade  may  be  compared  to  the 
factories  of  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch  in  Africa  and  the  Far  East. 
Others  were  the  result  of  political  discontent,  in  some  form  or 
shape;  these  may  be  compared  to  the  Puritan  settlements 
in  New  England.  Others  again  were  due  to  ambition  or  the 
mere  love  of  adventure  (see  Herod,  v.  43  if.,  the  career  of 
Dorieus).  But  however  various  the  causes,  two  conditions 
must  always  be  presupposed — an  expansion  of  commerce  and 
a  growth  of  population.  Within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  city- 
state  there  was  a  constant  tendency  for  population  to  become 
jedundant,  until,  as  in  the  later  centuries  of  Greek  life,  its 
growth  was  artificially  restricted.  Alike  from  the  Roman 
colonies,  and  from  those  founded  by  the  European  nations 
in  the  course  of  the  bst  few  centuries,  the  Greek  colonics  are 
distinguished  by  a  fundamental  contrast.  It  is  significant  that 
the  contrast  is  a  political  one.  The  Roman  colony  was  in  a 
position  of  entire  subordination  to  the  Roman  state,  of  which  it 
formed  a  part.  The  modem  colony  was,  in  varying  degrees, 
in  political  subjection '  to  the  home  government.  The  Greek 
colony  was  completely  independent;  and  it  was  independent 
from  the  first.  The  ties  that  united  a  colony  to  its  metropolis 
were  those  of  sentiment  and  interest;  the  political  tie  did  not 
exist.  There  were,  it  is  true,  exceptions.  The  colonies  estab- 
lished by  imperial  Athens  dosely  resembled  the  colonies  of 
imperial  Rome.  The  deruchy  (q.v.)  formed  part  of  the  Athenian 
state;  the  deruchs  kept  their  status  as  dtizcns  of  Athens  and 
acted  as  a  military  garrison.  And  if  the  political  tie,  in  the 
proper  sense,  was  wanting,  it  was  inevitable  that  political 
relations  should  spring  out  of  commercial  or  sentimental  ones. 
Thus  we  find  Corinth  interfering  twice  to  save  her  colony  Syracuse 
from  destruction^  and  Megara  bringing  about  the  revolt  of 
Byzantium,  her  colony,  from  Athens.  Sometimes  it  is  not  easy 
to  distinguish  political  relations  from  a  political  tie  {e.g.  the 
relations  of  Corinth,  both  in  the  Persian  and  Peloponnesian 
Wars,  to  Ambrada  and  the  neighbouring  group  of  colonies). 
When  we  compare  the  development  of  the  Greek  and  the  modem 
colonies  we  shall  find  that  the  development  of  the  former  was 
even  more  rapid  than  that  of  the  latter.  In  at  least  three 
respects  the  Greek  settler  was  at  an  advantage  as  compared 
with  the  colonist  of  modem  times.  The  differences  of  race,  of 
colour  amd  of  climate,  with  which  the  chief  problems  of  modem 
colonization  are  connected,  played  no  part  in  the  history  of  the 
Greek  settlements.    The  races  amongst  whom  the  Greeks  planted 

*  The  dates  before  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  are  in  most  cases 
artificial,  e.g.  those  given  by  Thucydidcs  (book  vi.)  for  the  earlier 
Sicilian  setuementt.  Sec  J.  P.  Mahaffy.  Journal  of  UeUenic  Slvdiefu 
iLi64ff. 


4+6 


GREECE 


{HISTORY 


themselves  were  in  some  cases  on  a  similar  level  of  culture. 
Where  the  natives  were  still  backward  or  barbarous,  they  came 
of  a  stock  either  closely  related  to  the  Greek,  or  at  least  separated 
from  it  by  no  great  ph3fsical  differences.  We  need  only  contrast 
the  Carian,  the  Sicel,  the  Thradan  Or  even  the  Scythian,  with 
the  native  Australian,  the  Hottentot,  the  Red  Indian  or  the 
Maori,  to  apprehend  the  advantage  of  the  Greek.  Amalgama- 
tion with  the  native  races  was  easy,  and  it  involved  neither 
physical  nor  intellectual  degeneracy  as  its  consequence.  Of  the 
races  with  which  the  Greeks  came  in  contact  the  Thracian  was 
far  from  the  highest  in  the  scale  of  culture;  yet  three  of  the 
greatest  names  in  the  Great  Age  of  Athens  are  those  of  men  who 
had  Thradan  blood  in  their  veins,  viz.  Themistodes,  Cimon 
and  the  historian  Thucydides.  In  the  absence  of  any  distinction 
of  colour,  no  insuperable  barrier  existed  between  the  Greek  and 
the  hellenized  native.  The  demos  of  the  colonial  cities  was 
largely  recruited  from  the  native  population,*  nor  was  there 
anything  in  the  Greek  world  analogous  to  the  "  mean  whites  " 
or  the  "black  belt."  Of  hardly  less  importance  were  the 
climatic  conditions.  In  this  respect  the  Mediterranean  area  is 
unique.  There  is  no  other  region  of  the  world  of  equal  extent 
in  which  these  conditions  are  at  once  so  uniform  and  so  favourable. 
Nowhere  had  the  Greek  settler  to  encounter  a  climate  which 
was  either  unsuited  to  his  labour  or  subversive  of  his  vigour. 
That  in  spite  of  these  advantages  so  little,  comparatively 
speaking,  was  effected  in  the  work  of  Hdlenization  before 
the  epoch  of  Alexander  and  the  Diadoch!,  was  the  effect  of  a 
single  counteracting  cause.  The  Greek  colonist,  like  the  Greek 
trader,  dung  to  the  shore.  He  penetrated  no  farther  inland 
than  the  sea-breeze.  Hence  it  was  only  in  islands,  such  as 
Sidly  or  Cyprus,  that  the  process  of  Hdlenization  was  complete. 
Elsewhere  the  Greek  settlements  formed  a  mere  fringe  along  the 
coast. 

To  the  7th  century  there  belongs  another  movement  of  high 
importance  in  its  bearing  upon  the  economic,  religious  and 
literary  development  of  Greece,  as  well  as  upon  its 
constitutional  history.  This  movement  is  the  rise  of 
the  tyrannis.  In  the  political  writers  of  a  later  age  the 
word  possesses  a  clear-cut  connotation.  From  other  forms 
of  monarchy  it  is  distinguished  by  a  twofold  differentiation. 
The  tyrannus  is  an  unconstitutional  ruler,  and  hb  authority 
b  exercised  over  unwilling  subjects.  In  the  7th  and  6th  centuries 
the  line  was  not  drawn  so  distinctly  between  the  t3rrant  and  the 
legitimate  monarch.  Even  Herodotus  uses  the  words  "  tyrant " 
and  "king"  interchangeably  {e.g.  the  princes  of  Csrprus  are 
called  "  kings  "  in  v.  zio  and  "  tyrants  "  in  v.  109),  so  that  it 
b  sometimes  difficult  to  dedde  whether  a  legitimate  monarch 
or  a  tyrant  b  meant  (e.g.  Aristophilides  of  Tarentum,  iii.  136, 
or  Telys  of  Sybaris,  v.  44).  But  the  dbtinction  between  the 
tyrant  and  the  king  of  the  Heroic  Age  is  a  valid  one.  It  is  not 
true  that  hb  rule  was  always  exerdsed  over  unwilling  subjects; 
it  is  true  that  his  position  was  always  unconstitutional.  The 
Homeric  king  is  a  legitimate  monarch;  hb  authority  is  invested 
with  the  sanctions  of  religion  and  immemorial  custom.  The 
tyrant  is  an  illegitimate  ruler;  his  authority  is  not  recognized, 
either  by  customary  usage  or  by  express  enactment.  But  the 
word  "  tyrant "  was  originally  a  neutral  term;  it  did  not 
necessarily  imply  a  misuse  of  power.  The  origin  of  the  tymnnis 
b  obscure.  The  word  tyrannus  has  been  thought,  with  some 
reason,  to  be  a  Lydian  one.  Probably  both  the  name  and  the 
thing  originated  in  the  Greek  colonies  of  Asia  Minor,  though  the 
earliest  tyrants  of  whom  we  hear  in  Asia  Minor  (at  Ephesus  and 
'Miletus)  are  a  generation  later  than  the  earliest  in  Greece  itself, 
where,  both  at  Sicyon  and  at  Corinth,  tyranny  appears  to  date 
back  to  the  second  qiiarter  of  the  7th  century.  It  b  not  unusual 
to  regard  tyranny  as  a  universal  stage  in  the  constitutional 
development  of  the  Greek  states,  and  as  a  stage  that  occurs 
everywhere  at  one  and  the  same  period.  In  reality,  tyranny 
b  confined  to  certain  regions,  and  it  is  a  phenomenon  that  b 
peculiar  to  no  one  age  or  century.    In  Greece  proper,  before  the 

>  At  Syracuse  the  demos  makes  common  cause  with  the  Scd 
•erf-population  against  the  nobles  (Herod.  vU.  155). 


7ft* 


4th  century  B.C.,  it  is  confined  to  a  small  group  of  states  round  the 
Corinthian  and  Saronic  Gulfs.  The  greater  part  of  the  Pdo- 
ponncse  was  exempt  from  it,  and  there  b  no  good  evidence  for  its 
existence  north  of  the  Isthmus,  except  at  Mcgara  and  Athens^ 
It  plays  no  part  in  the  history  of  the  Greek  dties  in  Chalddice 
and  Thrace.  It  appears  to  have  been  rare  in  the  Cydadcs. 
The  regions  in  which  it  finds  a  congenial  soil  are  two,  Asia  Minor 
and  Sicily.  Thus  it  b  incorrect  to  say  that  most  Greek  states 
passed  through  this  stage.  It  b  still  wider  of  the  mark  to 
assume  that  they  passed  through  it  at  the  same  time.  There  b 
no  "  Age  of  the  Tyrants."  Tyranny  began  in  the  Peloponnese 
a  hundred  years  before  it  appears  in  Sidly,  and  it  has  dbappearcd 
in  the  Peloponnese  almost  before  it  begins  in  Sicily.  In  the 
latter  the  great  age  of  tyranny  comes  at  the  beginning  of  the 
5th  century;  in  the  former  it  b  at  the  end  of  the  7th  and  the 
beginning  of  the  6th.  At  Athens  the  hbtoiy  of  tyranny  begins 
after  it  has  ended  both  at  Sicyon  and  Corinth.  There  b,  indeed, 
a  period  in  which  tyranny  b  non-existent  in  the  Greek  states; 
roughly  speaking,  the  last  sixty  years  of  the  5th  century.  But 
with  this  exception,  there  b  no  period  in  which  the  tyrant  is 
not  to  be  found.  The  greatest  of  all  the  tyrannies,  that  of 
Dionysius  at  Syracuse,  belongs  to  the  4th  century.  Nor  must 
it  be  assumed  that  tyranny  ^ways  comes  at  the  same  stage  in 
the  hbtory  of  a  constitution;  that  it  b  always  a  stage  between 
oligarchy  and  democracy.  At  Corinth  it  is  followed,  not  by 
democracy  btft  by  oligarchy,  and  it  b  an  oligarchy  that  lasts, 
with  a  brief  interruption,  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  years.  At 
Athens  it  is  not  immediately  preceded  by  oligarchy.  Between 
the  Eupatrid  oligarchy  and  the  rule  of  Peisistratus  there  comes 
the  timocracy  of  Solon.  These  exceptions  do  not  stand  alone. 
The  cause  of  tyranny  is,  in  one  sense,  uniform.  In  the  easier 
centuries,  at  any  rate,  t3rranny  b  always  the  expression  of 
discontent;  the  tyrant  b  always  the  champion  of  a  cause. 
But  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  discontent  is 
necessarily,  political,  or  that  the  cause  which  he  champions  is 
always  a  constitutional  one.  At  Sicyon  it  b  a  radal  one; 
Cleisthenes  is  the  champion  of  the  older  population  against  their 
Dorian  oppressors  (see  Herod,  v.  67,  68).  At  Athens  the 
discontent  is  economic  rather  than  political;  Peisstratus  b  the 
champion  of  the  Diacrii,  the  inhabitanu  of  the  poorest  region  of 
Attica.  The  party-strifes  of  which  we  hear  in  the  early  bistoiy 
of  Miletus,  which  doubtless  gave  the  tyrant  hb  opportunity, 
are  concerned  with  the  claims  of  rival  industrial  classes.  In 
Sicily  the  tyrant  b  the  ally  of  the  rich  and  the  foe  of  the  dem^s, 
and  the  cause  which  he  champions,  both  in  the  sth  century  and 
the  4th,  is  a  national  one,  that  of  the  Greek  against  the  Cartha- 
ginian. We  mayi  suspect  that  in  Greece  itself  the  tyrannies  of 
the  7  th  century  are  the  expression  of  an  anti-Dorian  reaction. 
It  can  hardly  be  an  acddent  that  the  states  in  which  the  tyrannis 
is  found  at  thb  epoch,  Corinth,  Megara,  Sicyon,  Epidaurus, 
are  all  of  them  states  in  which  a  Dorian  upper  class  ruled  over 
a  subject  population.  In  Asia  Minor  the  tyrannis  assumes  a 
peculiar  character  after  .the  Persian  conquest.  The  tyrant 
rules  as  the  deputy  of  the  Persian  satrap.  Tliusin  the  East  the 
tyrant  b  the  enemy  of  the  national  cause;  in  the  West,  in  Sicfly, 
he  b  its  champion. 

Tyranny  b  not  a  phenomenon  peculiar  to  Greek  histoiy. 
It  is  possible  to  find  analogies  to  it  in  Roman  hbtory,  in  the 
power  of  Caesar,  or  of  the  Caesars;  in  the  despotisms  of  medieval 
Italy;  or  even  in  the  Napoleonic  empire.  Between  the  tyrant 
and  the  Italian  de^>ot  there  b  indeed  a  real  analogy;  but 
between  the  Roman  prindpate  and  the  Gredc  tyrannis  there  are 
two  essential  differences.  In  the  first  place,  the  prindpate  was 
expressed  in  constitutional  forms,  or  veiled  under  constitutional 
fictions;  the  tyrant  stood  altogether  outside  the  constitutioo. 
And,  secondly,  at  Rome  both  Julius  and  Augustus  owed  thdr 
position  to  the  power  of  the  sword.  The  power  of  the  sword, 
it  b  true,  plays  a  large  part  in  the  hbtoiy  of  the  later  tyrants 
{e.g.  Dionysius  of  Syracuse);  the  earlier  ones,  however,  had  no 
mercenary  armies  at  thdr  command.  We  can  hardly  coo^Mkre 
the  bodyguard  of  Peisbtratus  to  the  legions  of  the  fim  or  the 
second  Caesar. 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


447 


The  view  taken  of  the  tyrannis  in  Greek  literature  is  almost 
uniformly  unfavourable.  In  this  respect  there  is  no  difference 
between  Plato  and  Aristotle,  or  between  Herodotus  and  the 
later  historians.^  His  policy  is  represented  as  purely  selfish, 
and  his  rule  as  oppressive.  Herodotus  is  influenced  partly  by 
the  traditions  current  among  the  oligarchs,  who  had  been  the 
chief  sufferers,  and  partly  by  the  odious  associations  which  had 
gathered  round  tyranny  in  Asia  Minor.  The  philosophers  write 
under  their  impressions  of  the  later  tyrannis,  and  their  account 
is  largely  an  a  priori  one.  It  is  seldom  that  we  find  any  attempt, 
either  in  the  philosophers  or  the  historians,  to  do  justice  to  the 
real  services  rendered  by  the  tyrants.*  Their  first  service  was 
a  constitutional  one.  They  helped  to  break  down  the  power 
of  the  old  aristocratic  houses,  and  thus  to  create  the  social  and 
political  conditions  indispensable  to  democracy.  The  tyrannis 
involved  the  sacrifice  of  liberty  in  the  cause  of  equality.  When 
tyranny  falls,  it  is  never  succeeded  by.  the  aristocracies  which 
it  had  overthrown.  It  is  frequently  succeeded  by  an  oligarchy, 
but  it  is  an  oligarchy  in  which  tlw  daim  to  exclusive  power  is 
based,  not  upon  mere  birth,  but  upon  wealth,  or  the  possession 
of  land.  It  would  be  unfair  to  treat  this  service  as  one  that 
was  rendered  unconsciously  and  unwillingly.  Where  the  tyrant 
asserted  the  claims  of  an  oppressed  class,  he  consciously  aiixied  at 
the  destruction  of  privilege  and  the  effaoement  of  class  distinc- 
tions. Hence  it  is  unjust  to  treat  his  power  as  resting  upon 
mere  force.  A  government  which  can  last  eighty  or  a  himdred 
years,  as  was  the  case  with  the  tyraimiea  at  Corinth  and  Sicyon, 
must  have  a  moral  force  behind  it.  It  must  rest  upon  the 
consent  of  its  subjects.  The  second  service  which  the  tyrants 
rendered  to  Greece  was  a  political  one.  Their  policy  tended  to 
break  down  the  barriers  which  isolated  each  petty  state  from 
its  neighbours.  In  their  history  we  can  trace  a  system  of  wide- 
spread alliances,  which  are  often  cemented  by  matrimonial 
connexions.  The  Cypselid  tyrantsof  Corinth  appear  to  have  been 
allied  with  the  royal  families  of  Egypt,  Lydia  and  Phrygia,  as 
*eU  as  with  the  tyrants  of  Miletus  and  Epidaurus,  and  with 
some  of  the  great  Athenian  families.  In  Sicily  we  find  a  league 
of  the  northern  tyrants  opposed  to  a  league  of  the  southern; 
and  in  each  case  there  is  a  corresponding  matrimonial  alliance. 
Anaxilaus  of  Rhegium  is  the  son-in-law  and  ally  of  Terillus  of 
Himera;  Gelo  of  Syracuse  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  Theron 
of  Agrigentum.  Royal  marriages  have  played  a  great  part  in 
the  politics  of  Europe.  In  the  comparison  of  Greek  and  modem 
history  it  has  been  too  often  forgotten  how  great  a  difference 
it  makes,  and  how  great  a  disadvantage  it  involves,  to  a  republic 
that  it  has  neither  sons  nor  daughters  to  give  in  marriage.  In 
commerce  and  colonization  the  tyrants  were  only  continuing 
the  work  of  the  oligarchies  to  which  they  succeeded.  Greek 
trade  owed  its  expansion  to  the  intelligent  efforts  of  the  oligarchs 
who  ruled  at  Miletus  and  Corinth,  in  Samos,  Acgina  and  Euboea; 
but  in  particular  cases,  such  as  Miletus,  Corinth,  Sicyon  and 
Athens,  there  was  a  further  development,  and  a  still  more  rapid 
growth,  under  the  tyrants.  In  ihe  same  way,  the  foundation 
of  the  colonies  was  in  most  cases  due  to  the  policy  of  the  oli- 
garchical governments.  They  can  daim  credit  for  the  colonies 
of  Chalds  and  Eretria,  of  Megkra,  Phocaea  and  Samos,  as  well 
as  for  the  great  Achaean  settlements  in  southern  Italy.  The 
Cypselids  at  Corinth,  and  Thrasybulus  at  Miletus,  are  instances 
of  tyrants  who  colonized  on  a  great  scale. 

In  thdr  religious  policy  the  tyrants  went  far  to  democratize 
Gredi  religion.  The  functions  of  monarchy  had  been  largely 
religious;  but,  while  the  king  was  necessarily  a 
,  priest,  he  was  not  the  only  priest  in  the  community. 
.^~;^^ «- Thgfg  were  special  priesthoods,  hereditary  in  par- 
ticular families,  even  in  the  monarchical  period;  and 
upon  the  fall  of  the  monarchy,  while  the  priestly  functions  of 
the  kings  passed  to  republican  magistrates,  the  priesthoods 
which  were-  in  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  great  families 
tended  to  become  the  important  ones.  Thus,  before  the  rise  of 
tyranny,  Greek  religion  is  aristocratic.    The  cults  recognized 

*  An  exception  should  pcrham  be  made  in  the  case  of  Thucydidcs. 

*  The  Peisiftfiitidae  come  off  better,  however 


by  the  state  are  the  sacra  cf  noble  dans.  The  rdipous  pre- 
rogatives of  the  nobles  hdped  to  confirm  their  political  ones, 
and,  as  long  as  religion  retained  its  aristocratic  character,  it  was 
impossible  for  democracy  to  take  root.  The  policy  of  the  tyrants 
aimed  at  fostering  popular  cults  which  had  ik>  associations  with 
the  old  families,  and  at  establishing  new  festivals.  The  cult 
of  the  wine-god,  Dionysus,  was  thus  fostered  at  Sicyon  by 
Cleisthenes,  and  at  Corinth  by  the  Cypselids;  while  at  Athens 
a  new  festival  of  this  ddty,  which  so  completdy  overshadowed 
the  older  festival  that  it  became  known  as  the  Great  Dionysia, 
probably  owed  its  institution  to  Peisistratus.  Another  festival, 
the  Panathenaea,  which  had  been  instituted  only  a  few  years 
before  his  rise  to  power,  became  under  his  rule,  and  thanks  to  bis 
policy,  the  chief  national  festival  of  the  Athenian  state.  Every- 
where, again,  we  find  the  tyrants  the  patrons  of  literature. 
Pindar  and  Bacchylides,  Aeschylus  and  Simonides  found  a 
welcome  at  the  court  of  Hiero.  Polycrates  was  the  patron  of 
Anacreon,  Periander  of  Arion.  To  Peisistratus  has  been  attri- 
buted, possibly  not  without  reason,  the  first  critical  edition  of 
the  text  of  Homer,  a  work  as  important  in  the  literary  history 
of  Greece  as  was  the  issue  of  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible 
in  English  history.  It  we  would  judge  fairly  of  tyraxmy,  and  of 
what  it  contributed  to  the  devdopment  of  Greece,  we  must 
remember  how  many  states  there  were  in  whose  history  the 
period  of  greatest  power  coincides  with  the  rule  of  a  tyrant. 
This  is  unquestionably  true  ci  Corinth  and  Sicyon,  as  well  as  of 
Syracuse  in  the  5th,  and  again  in  the  4th  century;  it  is  probably 
true  of  Samos  and  Miletus.  In  the  case  of  Athens  it  is  only  the 
splendour  of  the  Great  Age  that  blinds  us  to  the  greatness  of 
the  results  achieved  by  the  policy  of  the  Peisistratids. 

With  the  overthrow  of  this  dyiuisty  tyraxmy  disappears  from 
Greece  proper  for  more  than  a  century.  During  the  century  and 
a  half  which  had  elapsed  since  its  first  appearance  the  whole 
aspect  of  Greek  life,  and  of  the  Greek  worid,  had  changed. 
The  devdopment  was  as  yet  incomplete,  but  the  lines  on  which 
it  was  to  proceed  had  been  clearly  marked  out.  Political  power 
was  no  longer  the  monopoly  of  a  dass.  The  strugg^  between 
the  "  few  "  and  the  "  many  "  had  begun;  in  one  sute  at  least 
(Athens)  the  victory  of  the  "  many  "  was  assured.  The  first 
chapter  in  the  history  of  democracy  was  already  written.  In 
the  art  of  war  the  two  innovations  which  were  ultimatdy  to 
establish  the  military  supremacy  of  Greece,  h(^lite  tactics  and 
the  trireme,  had  already  been  introduced.  Greek  literature  was 
no  longer  S3monymous  with  epic  poetry.  Some  of  n«^^ 
its  most  distinctive  forms  had  not  yet  been  evolved; 
indeed,  it  B  only  quite  at  the  end  of  the  period  that 
prose- writing  begins;  but  both  lyric  and  depac  poetry  had  been 
brought  to  perfection.  In  art,  statuary  was  still  comparatively 
stiff  and  crude;  but  in  other  branches,  in  architecture,  in  vase- 
painting  and  in  coin-types,  the  aesthetic  genius  of  the  race  had 
asserted  its  pre-eminence.  Philosophy,  the  supreme  gift  of  Greece 
to  the  modern  world,  had  become  a  living  power.  Some  of  her 
most  original  thinkers  bdong  to  the  6th  century.  Criticism  had 
been  applied  to  everything  in  turn:  to  the  gods,  to  conduct, 
and  to  the  conception  of  the  universe.  Before  the  Great  Age 
begins,  the  claims  of  intellectual  as  well  as  of  political  freedom 
had  been  vindicated.  It  was  not,  however,  in  Greece  proper 
that  progress  had  been  greatest.  .  In  the  next  century  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  Greek  dvilixation  shifts  to  the  western  side  of  the 
Aegean;  in  the  6th  century  it  must  be  looked  for  at  Miletus, 
rather  than  at  Athens.  In  order  to  estimate  how  far  the  develop- 
ment of  Greece  had  advanced,  or  to  appredate  the  distinctive 
features  of  Greek  life  at  this  period,  we  must  study  Ionia,  rather 
than  Attica  or  the  Peloponnese.  Almost  all  that  is  greatest  and 
most  characteristic  is  to  be  found  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Aegean.  The  great  luimes  in  the  history  of  sdence  and  philosophy 
before  the  beginning  of  the  sth  century — Thalei,  Pythagoras, 
Xenophanes,  Heraditus,  Parmenides,  Anaximander,  Hecatacus; 
names  which  are  representative  of  mathematics,  astronomy, 
geography  and  metaphysics,  are  all,  without  exception,  Ionian. 
In  poetry,  too,  the  most  famous  names,  if  not  so  exclusively 
Ionian,  are  connected  either  with  the  Asiatic  coast  or  with 


448 


GREECE 


IHISTORY 


the  Cyclades.  Against  Archilochus  and  Anacreon,  Sappho  and 
Alcaeus,  Greece  has  nothing  better  to  set,  after  the  age  of  Hesiod, 
than  Tyrtaeus  and  Theognis.  Reference  has  already  been  made 
to  the  greatness  of  the  lonians  as  navigators,  as  colonizers  and 
as  traders.  In  wealth  and  in  population,  Miletus,  at  the  epoch 
of  the  Persian  conquest,  must  have  been  far  ahead  of  any  city 
of  European  Greece.  Sybaris,  in  Magna  Graecia,  can  have  been 
its  only  rival  outside  Ionia.  There  were  two  respects,  however, 
in  which  the  comparison  was  in  favour  of  the  mother-country. 
In  warfare,  the  superiority  of  the  Spartan  infantry  was  un- 
questioned; in  politics,  the  Greek  states  showed  a  greater  power 
of  combination  than  the  Ionian. 

Finally,  Ionia  was  the  scene  of  the  first  conflicts  with  the 
Persian.    Here  were  decided  the  first  stages  of  a  struggle  which 

was  to  determine  the  place  of  Greece  in  the  history 
nllowM.    ®^  ^^*  world.    The  rise  of  Persia  under  Cyrtis  was,  as 

Herodotus  saw,  the  turning-point  of  Greek  history. 
Hitherto  the  Greek  had  proved  himself  indispensable  to 
the  oriental  monarchies  with  which  he  had  been  brought  into 
contact.  In  Egypt  the  power  of  the  Saite  kings  rested  upon  the 
support  of  their  Greek  mercenaries.  Amasis  (569-525  B.C.),  who 
is  raised  to  the  throne  as  the  leader  of  a  reaction  against  the 
influence  of  the  foreign  garrison,  ends  by  showing  greater  favour 
to  the  Greek  soldiery  and  the  Greek  traders  than  all  that  were 
before  him.  With  Lydia  the  relations  were  originally  hostile; 
the  conquest  of  the  Greek  fringe  is  the  constant  aim  of  Lydian 
policy.  Greek  influences,  however,  seem  to  have  quickly  per- 
meated Lydia,  and  to  have  penetrated  to  the  court.  Alyattes 
(610-560  B.C.)  marries  an  Ionian  wife,  and  the  succession  is 
disputed  between  the  son  of  this  marriage  and  Croesus,  whose 
mother  was  a  Carian.  Croesus  (560-546  B.C.)  secures  the  throne, 
only  to  become  the  lavish  patron  of  (}reek  sanctuaries  and  the 
ally  of  a  Greek  state.  The  history  of  Hellenism  had  begun. 
It  was  the  rise  of  Cyrus  that  closed  the  East  to  Greek  enterprise 
and  Greek  influences.  In  Persia  we  find  the  antithesis  of  all 
that  is  characteristic  of  Greece — autocracy  as  opposed  to  liberty; 
a  military  society  organized  on  an  aristocratic  basis,  to  an 
industrial  society,  animated  by  a  democratic  spirit;  an  army, 
whose  strength  lay  in  its  cavalry,  to  an  army,  in  which  the  foot- 
soldier  alone  counted;  a  morality,  which  assigned  the  chief 
place  to  veracity,  to  a  morah'ty  which  subordinated  it  to  other 
virtues;  a  reli^on,  which  ranks  among  the  great  religions  of 
the  world,  to  a  religion,  which  appeared  to  the  most  spiritual 
minds  among  the  Greeks  themselves  both  immoral  and  absurd. 
Between  two  such  races  there  could  be  neither  sympathy  nor 
mutual  understanding.    In  the  Great  Age  the  Greek  had  learned 

to  despise  the  Persian,  and  the  Persian  to  fear  the  Greek. 

In  the  6th  century  it  was  the  Persian  who  despised, 

and  the  Greek  who  feared.  The  history  of  the  conflicts 
between  the  Ionian  Greeks  and  the  Persian  empire  affords  a 
striking  example  of  the  combination  of  intellectual  strength  and 
political  weakness  in  the  character  of  a  people.  The  causes  of 
the  failure  of  the  lonians  to  offer  a  successful  resistance  to  Persia, 
both  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  by  Harpagus  (546-545  B.C.)  and 
in  the  Ionic  revolt  (499-494  B.C.),  are  not  far  to  seek.  The 
centrifugal  forces  always  tended  to  prove  the  stronger  in  the 
Greek  system,  and  nowhere  were  they  stronger  than  in  Ionia. 
The  tie  of  their  tribal  union  proved  weaker,  every  time  it  yras 
put  to  the  test,  than  the  political  and  commercial  interests  of 
the  individual  states.  A  league  of  jealous  commercial  rivals  is 
certain  not  to  stand  the  strain  of  a  protracted  struggle  against 
great  odds.  Against  the  advancing  power  of  Lydia  a  common 
resistance  had  not  so  much  as  been  attempted.  Miletus,  the 
greatest  of  the  Ionian  towns,  had  received  aid  from  Chios  alone. 
Against  Persia  a  common  resistance  was  attempted.  The  Pani- 
onium,  the  centre  of  a  religious  amphictyony,  became  for  the 
moment  the  centre  of  a  political  league.  At  the  time  of  the 
Persian  conquest  Miletus  held  aloof.  She  secured  favourable 
terms  for  herself,  and  left  the  rest  of  Ionia  to  its  fate.  In  the 
later  conflict,  on  the  contrary,  Miletus  is  the  leader  in  the  revolt. 
The  issue  was  determined,  not  as  Herodotus  represents  it,  by 
'ie  inherent  indolence  of  the  Ionian  nature,  but  by  the  selfish 


wan. 


policy  of  the  leading  states.  In  the  sea-fight  at  Lade  (494  b.c) 
the  decisive  battle  of  the  war,  the  Milesians  and  Chians  fought 
with  desperate  courage.  The  day  was  lost  thanks  to  the  treacboy 
of  the  Samian  and  Lesbian  contingents. 

The  causes  of  the  successful  resistance  of  the  Greeks  to  the 
invasions  of  their  country,  first  by  Datis  and  Aitaphernes 
(490  B.C.),  in  ttie  reign  of  Darius,  and  then  by  Xenes  in  person 
(480-479  B.C.),  are  mor6  complex.  Their  success  was  partly 
due  to  a  moral  cause.  And  this  was  realized  by  the  Greeks 
themselves.  They  felt  (see  Herod.  viL  104)  that  the  subjects 
of  a  despot  are  no  match  for  the  dttzcns  of  a  free  state,  who 
yield  obedience  to  a  law  which  is  self-imposed.  But  the  cause 
was  not  solely  a  moral  one.  Nor  was  the  result  doe  to  the 
numbers  and  efiSdency  of  the  Athenian  fleet,  in  the  degree  that 
the  Athenians  claimed  (see  Herod,  vii.  139).  The  truth  is  that 
the  conditions,  both  political  and  military,  were  far  more  favour- 
able to  the  Greek  defence  in  Europe  than  they  had  been  in  Asia. 
At  this  crisis  the  centripetal  forces  proved  stronger  than  the 
centrifugal.  The  moral  ascendancy  of  Sparta  was  the  deter- 
mining factor.  In  Sparta  the  Greeks  haJd  a  leader  whom  all 
were  ready  to  obey  (Herod,  viii.  a).  But  for  her  influence  the 
forces  of  disintegration  would  have  made  themselves  felt  as 
quickly  as  in  Ionia.  Sparta  was  confronted  with  immense 
difficulties  in  a>nducting  the  defence  against  Xerxes.  The  two 
chief  naval  powers,  Athens  and  Aegina,  had  to  be  reconciled 
after  a  long  and  exasperating  warfare  (see  Aegina).  After 
Thermopylae,  the  whole  of  northern  Greece,  with  the  exception 
of  Athens  and  a  few  minor  states,  was  lost  to  the  Greek  cause. 
The  supposed  interests  of  the  Peloponnesians,  who  formed  the 
greater  part  of  the  national  (orces,  conflicted  with  the  supposed 
interests  of  the  Athenians.  A  more  impartial  view  than  yns 
possible  to  the  generation  for  which  Herodotus  wrote  suggests 
that  Sparta  performed  her  task  with  inteUigence  and  patriotism. 
The  claims  of  Athens  and  Sparta  were  about  equally  balanced. 
And  in  spite  of  her  great  superiority  in  numbers,'  the  military 
conditions  were  far  from  favourable  to  Persia.  A  land  so  moun- 
tainous as  Greece  is  was  unsuited  to  the  operations  of  cavalry, 
the  most  efficient  arm  of  the  service  in  the  Persian  Army,  as 
in  most  oriental  ones.  Ignorance  of  local  conditions,  combined 
with  the  dangerous  nature  of  the  Greek  coast,  exposed  their  ships 
to  the  risk  of  destruction;  while  the  composite  character  of  the 
fleet,  and  the  jealousies  of  its  various  contingents,  tended  to 
neutralize  the  advantage  of  numbers.  In  courage  and  discipline, 
the  flower  of  the  Persian  infantry  was  probably  little  inferior 
to  the  Greek;  in  equipment,  they  were  no  match  for  the  Greek 
panoply.  Lastly,  Xerxes  laboured  under  a  disadvantage,  which 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  experience  of  the  British  army  in  the 
South  African  War — distance  from  his  base. 

5.  The  Great  Age  (480-338  Br.).— The  effects  of  the  repulse 
of  Persia  were  momentous  in  their  influence  upon  Greece.  The 
effects  upon  Elizabethan  England  of  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish 
armada  would  afford  quite  an  inadequate  parallel.  It  gave 
the  Greeks  a  heightened  sense,  both  of  their  own  national  unity 
and  of  their  superiority  to  the  barbarian,  while  at  the  same  time 
it  helped  to  create  the  material  conditions  requisite  alike  for 
the  artistic  and  political  development  of  the  5th  century.  Other 
cities  besides  Athens  were  adorned  with  the  proceeds  of  the 
spoils  won  from  Persia,  and  Greek  trade  benefited  both  from  the 
reunion  of  Ionia  with  Greece,  and  from  the  suppresision  of  piracy 
in  the  Aegean  and  the  Hellespont.  Do  these  developments 
justify  us  in  giving  to  the  period,  which  begins  with  the  repulse 
of  Xerxes,  and  ends  with  the  victory  of  Philip,  the  title  of 
"  the  Great  Age  *'?  If  the  title  is  justified  in  the  case  of  the  sth 
century,  should  the  4th  century  be  excluded  from  the  period? 
At  first  sight,  the  difference  between  the  4th  century  and  the 
5th  may  seem  greater  than  that  which  exists  between  the  5th 
and  the  6th.  On  the  political  side,  the  5lh  century  is  an  age 
of  growth,  the  4th  an  age  of  decay;  on  the  literary  side,  the 

*  The  numbers  given  by  Herodotus  (upwards  of  5,000.000)  *« 
enormously  exaggerated.  We  must  divide  by  ten  or  fifteen  to 
arrive  at  a  probable  estinute  of  the  forces  that  actually  croaed 
the  Hellespont. 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


449 


former  is  an  age  of  poetry,  the  latter  an  age  of  prose.  In  spite 
of  these  contrasts,  there  is  a  real  unity  in  the  period  which  begins 
with  the  repulse  of  Xerxes  and  ends  with  the  death  of  Alexander, 
as  compared  with  any  preceding  one.  It  is  an  age  of  maturity 
in  politics,  in  literature,  and  in  art;  and  this  is  true  of  no  earlier 
age.  Nor  can  we  say  that  the  sth  century  is,  in  all  these  aspects 
of  Greek  life,  immature  as  compared  with  the  4th,  or,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  4th  is  decadent  as  compared  with  the 
Sth.  On  the  political  side,  maturity  is,  in  one  sense,  reached 
in  the  earlier  century.  There  is  nothing  in  the  later  century  so 
great  as  the  Athenian  empire'.  In  another  sense,  maturity  is 
not  reached  till  the  4th  century.  It  is  only  in  the  later  century 
that  the  tendency  of  the  Greek  constitutions  to  conform  to  a 
common  ty[)e,  democracy,  is  (at  least  approximately)  realized, 
and  it  is  only  in  this  century  that  the  principles  upon  which 
democracy  is  based  are  carried  to  their  logical  conclusion.  In 
literature,  if  we  confine  our  attention  to  poetry,  we  must  pro- 
nounce the  5th  century  the  age  of  completed  development; 
but  in  prose  the  case  is  different.  The  style  even  of  Thucydides 
is  immature,  as  compared  with  that  of  Isocrates  and  Plato.  In 
philosophy,  however  high  may  be  the  estimate  that  is  formed 
of  the  genius  of  the  earlier  thinkers,  it  cannot  be  disputed  that  in 
Plato  and  Aristotle  we  find  a  more  mature  stage  of  thought. 
In  art,  architecture  may  perhaps  be  said  to  reach  its  zenith  in 
the  5th,  sculpture  in  the  4th  century.  In  its  political  aspect, 
the  history  of  the  Great  Age  resolves  itself  into  the  history  of 
two  movements,  the  imperial  and  the  democratic.  Hitherto 
Greece  had  meant,  politically,  an  aggregate  of  independent 
states,  very  numerous,  and,  as  a  rule,  very  small.    The  principle 

of  autonomy  was  to  the  Greek  the  most  sacred  of  all 
Jj'iJjjJJI"  political  principles;  the  passion  for  autonomy  the 
jwatf.         most  potent  of  political  factors.    In  the  latter  half  of 

the  6th  century  Sparta  had  succeeded  in  combining 
the  majority  of  the  Peloponncsian  states  into  a  loose  federal 
union;  so  loose,  however,  that  it  appears  to  have  been  dormant 
in  the  intervals  of  peace.  In  the  crisis  of  the  Persian  invasion 
the  Pcloponneslan  League  was  extended  so  as  to  include  all  the 
states  which  had  espoused  the  national  cause.  It  looked  on  the 
morrow  of,  Plataca  and  Mycale  (the  two  victories,  won  simul- 
taneously, in  479  B.C.,  by  Spartan  commanders,  by  which  the 
danger  from  Persia  was  finally  averted)  as  if  a  permanent  basis 
for  union  might  be  found  in  the  hegemony  of  Sparta.  The  sense 
of  a  common  peril  and  a  common  triumph  brought  with  it  the 
need  of  a  common  union;  it  was  Athens,  however,  instead  of 
Sparta,  by  whom  the  first  conscious  effort  was  made  to  transcend 
the  isolation  of  the  Greek  political  system  and  to  bring  the  units 
into  combination.  The  league  thus  founded  (the  Dclian  League, 
established  in  477  B.C.)  was  under  the  presidency  of  Athens, 
but  it  included  hardly  any  other  state  besides  those  that  had 
conducted  the  defence  of  Greece.  It  was  formed,  almost  entirely, 
of  the  states  which  had  been  liberated  from  Persian  rule  by 
the  great  victories  of  the  wax.  The  Delian  League,  even  in  the 
form  in  which  it  was  first  established,  as  a  confederation  of 
autonomous  allies,  marks  an  advance  in  political  conceptions 
upon  the  Peloponncsian  League.  Provision  is  made  for  an 
annual  revenue,  for  periodical  meetings  of  the  council,  and  for 
a  permanent  executive.  It  is  a  real  federation,  though  an 
imperfect  one.  There  were  defects  in  its  constitution  which 
rendered  it  inevitable  that  it  should  be  transformed  into  an 
empire.  Athens  was  from  the  first  "  the  predominant  partner." 
The  fleet  was  mainly  Athenian,  the  commanders  entirely  so; 
the  assessment  of  the  tribute  was  in  Athenian  hands;  there 
was  no  federal  court  appointed  to  determine  questions  at  issue 
between  Athens  and  the  other  members;  and,  worst  omission 
of  alt,  the  right  of  secession  was  left  undecided.  By  the  middle 
of  the  century  the  Delian  League  has  become  the  Athenian 
empire.  Henceforward  the  im[)erial  idea,  in  one  form  or  another, 
dominates  Greek  politics.  Athens  failed  to  extend  her  authority 
over  the  whole  of  Greece.  Her  empire  was  overthrown;  but  the 
triumph  of  autonomy  proved  the  triumph  of  imperialism. 
The  Spartan  empire  succeeds  to  the  Athenian,  and,  when  it  is 
finally  ahattered-at  Leuctra  (371  B.C.),  the  hegemony  of  Thebes, 


which  is  established  on  its  ruins,  is  an  empire  in  att  but  name. 
The  decay  of  Theban  power  paves  the  way  for  the  rise  of  Macedon. 

Thus  throughout  this  period  we  can  trace  two  forces  contending 
for  mastery  in  the  Greek  political  system.  Two  causes  divide 
the  allegiance  of  the  Greek  world,  the  cause  of  empire  and  the 
cause  of  autonomy.  The  formation  of  the  confederacy  of  Delos 
did  not  involve  the  dissolution  of  the  alliance  between  Athens 
and  Sparta.  For  seventeen  years  more  Athens  retained  her 
place  in  the  league,  "  which  had  been  established  against  the 
Mede"  under  the  presidency  of  Sparta  in  480  B.C.  (Thuc.  i.  xoa). 
The  ascendancy  of  Cimon  and  the  Philolaconian  party  at  Athens 
was  favourable  to  a  good  understanding  between  the  two  states; 
and  at  Sparta  in  normal  times  the  balance  inclined  in  favour 
of  the  party  whose  policy  is  best  described  by  the  motto  "  quieta 
non  movere.". 

In  the  end,  however,  the  opposition  of  the  two  contending 
forces  proved  too  strong  for  Spartan  neutrality.  The  fall  of 
Cimon  (461  B.C.)  was  followed  by  the  so-called  "  First 
Peloponncsian  War,"  a  conflict  between  Athens  and  IJHiJ^SUlf 
her  maritime  rivab,  Corinth  and  Aegina,  into  which  warp. 
Sparta  was  ultimately  drawn.  Thucydides  regards 
the  hostilities  of  these  years  (460-454  b.c),  which  were  resumed 
for  a  few  months  in  446  B.C.,  on  the  expiration  of  the  Five  Years' 
Truce,  as  preliminary  to  those  of  the  great  Peloponncsian  War 
(43C-404  B.C.).  The  real  question  at  issue  was  in  both  cases  the 
same.  The  tie  that  united  the  opponents  of  Athens  was  found 
in  a  common  hostility  to  the  imperial  idea.  It  is  a  complete 
misapprehension  to  regard  the  Peloponnesian  War  as  a  mere 
duel  between  two  rival  claimants  for  empire.  The  ultimatum 
presented  by  Sparta  on  the  eve  of  the  war  demanded  the  restora- 
tion of  autonomy  to  the  subjects  of  Athens.  There  is  no  reason 
for  doubting  her  sincerity  in  presenting  it  in  this  form.  It  would, 
however,  be  an  equal  misapprehension  to  regard  the  war  as 
merely  a  struggle  between  the  cause  of  empire  and  the  cause  of 
autonomy.  Corresponding  to  this  fundamental  contrast  there 
are  other  contrasts,  constitutional,  racial  and  military.  The 
military  interest  of  the  war  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  Athens 
was  a  sea  power  and  Sparta  a  land  one.  As  the  war  went  on, 
the  constitutional  aspect  tended  to  become  more  marked.  At 
first  there  were  democracies  on  the  side  of  Sparta,  and  ob'garchies 
on  the  side  of  Athens.  In  the  last  stage  of  the  war,  when 
Lysander's  influence  was  supreme,  we  see  the  forces  of  oligarchy 
everywhere  united  and  organized  for  the  destruction  of  demo- 
cracy. In  its  origin  the  war  was  certainly  not  due  to  the  rivalry 
of  Dorian  and  Ionian.  This  racial,  or  tribal,  contrast  counted 
for  more  in  the  politics  of  Sicily  than  of  Greece;  and,  though 
the  two  great  branches  of  the  Greek  race  were  represented 
respectively  by  the  leaders  of  the  two  sides,  the  allies  on  neither 
side  belonged  exclusively  to  the  one  branch  or  the  other.  Still, 
it  remains  true  that  the  Dorian  states  were,  as  a  rule,  on  the 
Spartan  side,  and  the  Ionian  states,  as  a  rule,  on  the  Athenian 
— a  division  of  sentiment  which  must  have  helped  to  widen  the 
breach,  and  to  intensify  the  animosities. 

As  a  political  experiment  the  Athenian  empire  possesses  a 
unique  interest.      It  represents  the  first  attempt  to  fuse  the 
principles  of  imperialism  and  democracy.    It  Is  at 
once  the  first  empire  in  history  possessed  and  admini-    J^„i^ 
stered  by  a  sovereign  people,  and  the  first  which    mmpin. 
sought  to  establish  a  common  S3^tem  of  democratic 
institutions  amongst  its  subjects.^    It  was  an  experiment  that 
failed,  partly  owing  to  the  inherent  strength  of  the  oligarchic 
cause,  partly  owing  to  the  exclusive  character  of  ancient  citizen- 
ship.   The  Athenians  themselves  recognized  that  their  empire 
depended  for  its  existence  upon  the  solidarity  of  democratic 
interests  (see  Thuc.  iii.  47;  Pseudo-Xenophon,  de  Rep.  Ath.  i.  14, 
iii.    10).    An   understanding  existed  between  the  democratic 
leaders  in  the  subject-states  and  the  democratic  party  at  Athens. 

*  It  has  been  denied  by  some  writers  (tf./f.by  A.  H.  J.  Grecnidge  ) 
that  Athens  interfered  with  the  constitutions  of  the  subject-states. 
For  the  view  put  forward  in  the  text,  the  following  passages  may 
be  quoted:  Aristotle,  Politics  1307  b  20;  Isocrates,  Parujfyricus, 
105,  106,  Panalhinaicus,  54  and  68;  Xenophon,  HeiUnica,  ui.  4.  7; 
P9,-Xen«  Athen,  CanstU.  i.  14,  iii.  10., 


450 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


ChATges  were  easily  trumped  up  against  obnoxious  oligarchs, 
and  conviction  as  easily  obtained  in  the  Athenian  courts  of 
law.  Such  a  system  forced  the  oligarchs  into  an  attitude  of 
opposition.  How  much  this  opposition  counted  for  was  realized 
when  the  Sicilian  disaster  (413  B.C.)  gave  thesubjects  their  chance 
to  revolt.  The  organization  of  the  oligarchical  party  throughout 
the  empire,  which  was  effected  by  Lysander  in  the  last  stage 
of  the  war,  contributed  to  the  overthrow  of  Athenian  ascendancy 
hardly  less  than  the  subsidies  of  Persia.  Had  Athens  aimed  at 
establishing  a  community  of  interest  between  herself  and  her 
subjects,  based  upon  a  common  citizenship,  her  empire  might 
have  endured.  It  would  have  been  a  policy  akin  to  that  which 
secured  the  permanence  of  the  Roman  empire.  And  it  was  a 
policy  which  found  advocates  when  the  day  for  it  was  past  (sec 
Aristophanes,  Lynstrata,  574  ff.;  cf.  the  grant  of  dtizen^ip 
to  the  Samians  after  Aegospotami,  C.I. A.  iv.  a,  ib).  But  the 
policy  pursued  by  Athens  in  the  plenitude  of  her  power  was  the 
reverse  of  the  poUcy  pursued  by  Rome  in  her  treatment  of  the 
franchise.  It  is  hardly  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  fate  of  the 
empire  was  sealed  by  the  law  of  Pericles  (451  B.C.),  by  which  the 
franchise  was  restricted  to  those  who  could  establish  Athenian 
descent  on  both  sides.  It  was  not'  merely  that  the  process  of 
amalgamation  through  intermarriage  was  abruptly  checked; 
what  was  more  serious  was  that  a  hard  and  fast  line  was  drawn, 
once  and  for  all,  between  the  small  body  of  privileged  ndersand 
the  great  mass  of  unprivileged  subjects.  Maine  {Early  Institu- 
tions ^  lecture  13)  has  classed  the  Athenian  empire  with  those 
of  the  familiar  Oriental  type,  which  attempt  nothing  beyond  the 
raising  of  taxes  and  the  levying  of  troops.  The  Athenian  empire 
cannot,  indeed,  be  classed  with  the  Roman,  or  with  the  British 
rule  in  India;  it  does  not,  therefore,  deserve  to  be  classed  with 
the  empires  of  Cyrus  or  of  Jenghiz  Khan.  Though  the  basis  of 
its  organization,  like  that  of  the  Persian  empire  under  Darius, 
was  financial,  it  attempted,  and  secured,  objects  beyond  the 
mere  payment  of  tribute  and  the  supply  of  ships.  If  Athens  did 
not  introduce  a  common  religion,  or  a  common  system  of  educa- 
tion, or  a  common  citizenship,  she  did  introduce  a  common  type 
of  political  institutions,  and  a  common  jurisdiction.^  She  went 
some  way,  too,  in  the  direction  of  establishing  a  common  system 
of  coins,  and  of  weights  and  measures.  A  common  language 
was  there  already.  In  a  word,  the  Athenian  empire  marks  a 
definite  stage  of  political  evolution. 

The  other  great  political  movement  of  the  age  was  the  progress 
of  democracy.  Before  the  Persian  invasion  democracy  was  a 
rare  phenomenon  in  Greek  politics.  Where  it  was 
found  it  existed  in  an  undeveloped  form,  and  its  tenure 
of  power  was  precarious.  By  the  beginning  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War  it  had  become  the  prevalent  form 
of  government.  The  great  majority  of  Greek  states  had  adopted 
democratic  constitutions.  Both  in  the  Athenian  sphere  of 
influence  and  in  the  colonial  world  outside  that  sphere,  demo- 
cracy was  all  but  the  only  form  of  constitution  known.  It  was 
only  in  Greece  proper  that  oligarchy  held  its  own.  In  the 
Peloponnese  it  could  count  a  majority  of  the  states;  in  northern 
Greece  at  least  a  half  of  them.  The  spread  of  democratic  insti- 
tutions was  arrested  by  the  victory  of  Sparta  in  the  East,  and 
the  rise  of  Dionysius  in  the  West.  There  was  a  moment  at  the 
end  of  the  5th  century  when  it  looked  as  if  democracy  was  a  lost 
cause.  Even  Athens  was  for  a  brief  period  under  the  nde  of 
the  Thirty  (404-403  B.a).  In  the  regions  which  had  formed 
the  empire  of  Athens  the  decarchies  set  up  by  Lysander  were 
soon  overthrown,  and  democracies  restored  in  most  cases,  but 
oligarchy  continued  to  be  the  prevalent  form  in  Greece  proper 
until  Leuctra  (371  B.C.),  and  in  Sicily  tyranny  had  a  still  longer 
tenure  of  power.  By  the  end  of  the  Great  Age  oligarchy  has 
almost  disappeared  from  the  Greek  world,  except  in  the  sphere 
of  Persian  influence.  The  Spartan  monarchy  still  survives;  a 
few  Peloponnesian  states  still  maintain  the  rule  of  the  few;  here 
'The  evidence  seems  to  indicate  that  all  the  more  important 
criminal  cases  throughout  the  empire  were  tried  in  the  Athenian 
courts.  In  civil  cases  Athens  secured  to  the  citizens  of  the  subject- 
states  the  right  of  suing  Athenian  citizens,  as  well  as  citizens  of  other 
subject-states. 


TA* 


and  there  in  Greece  itself  we  meet  with  a  revival  of  the  tyrannis; 
but,  with  these  exceptions,  democracy  is  everywhere  the  only 
type  of  constitution.  And  democracy  has  developed  as  well 
as  spread.  At  the  end  of  the  5th  century  the  constitution  of 
Cleisthenes,  which  was  a  democracy  in  the  view  of  his  contem- 
poraries, had  come  to  be  regarded  as  an  aristocracy  (Aristot 
Atk.  Pol.  39.  3).  We  can  trace  a  similar  change  of  sentiment 
in  SicQy.  As  compared  with  the  extreme  form  of  constitution 
adopted  at  Syracuse  after  the  defeat  of  the  Athenian  expedition, 
the  democracies  established  two  generations  earlier,  on  the  fall 
of  the  tyrannis t  af^xared  oligarchical.  The  changes. by  which 
the  character  of  the  Greek  democracies  was  revolutionizied  were 
four  in  number:  the  substitution  of  sortition  for  election,  the 
abolition  of  a  property  qtialification,  the  payment  of  officials 
and  the  rise  of  a  ckiss  of  professional  politicians.  In  the  demo- 
cracy of  Cleisthenes  no  payment  was  given  tor  service,  whether 
as  a  magistrate,  a  juror  or  a  member  of  the  Boul€.  Tiie  higher 
magistracies  were  filled  by  election,  and  they  were  held  almost 
exclusively  by  the  members  of  the  great  Athenian  families. 
For  the  highest  office  of  all,  the  archonship,  none  but  Penta- 
cosiomaiimni  (the  first  of  the  four  Solonian  classes)  were  eligible. 
The  introduction  of  pay  and  the  removal  of  the  property  quali* 
fication  formed  part  of  the  reforms  of  Pericles.  Sortition  had  been 
instituted  for  election  a  generation  earlier  (487  B.C.).*  What  is 
perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  these  changes,  the  rise  of  the 
demagogues,  belongs  to  the  era  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
From  the  time  of  Cleisthenes  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  every 
statesman  of  note  at  Athens,  with  the  exception  of  Themistodes 
(and,  perhaps,  of  Ephialtes),  is  of  aristocratic  birth.  Down  to 
the  fall  of  Cimon  the  course  of  Athenian  politics  is  to  a  great 
extent  determined  by  the  alliances  and  antipathies  of  the  great 
clans.  With  the  Peloponnesian  War  a  new  epoch  begins.  The 
chief  office,  the  strategiay  is  still,  as  a  rule,  held  by  men  of  rank. 
But  leadership  in  the  Ecclesia  has  passed  to  men  of  a  different 
class.  The  demagogues  were  not  necessarily  poor  men.  Cleon 
was  A  wealthy  man;  Eucrates,  Lyudes  and  Hyperbotus  were, 
at  any  rate,  tradesmen  rather  than  artisans.  The  first  "  labour 
member"  proper  is  Cleophon  (4x1-404  B.C.),  a  lyre-maker. 
They  belonged,  however,  not  to  the  land-owning,  but  to  the  i;t- 
dustrial  classes;  they  were  distinguished  from  the  dder  race  of 
party-leaders  by  a  vulgar  accent,  and  by  a  violence  of  gesture 
in  public  speaking,  and  they  found  their  supporters  among  the 
population  of  the  dty  and  its  port,  the  Pdraeus,  rather  than 
among  the  farmers  of  the  country  districts.  In  the  4th  century 
the  demagogues,  though  under  another  name,  that  of  orators, 
have  acquired  entire  control  of  the  Ecclesia.  It  is  an  age  of 
professionalism,  and  the  professional  soldier  has  his  coxmtcrpart 
in  the  professional  politician.  Down  to  the  death  of  Perides 
the  party-leader  had  always  held  office  as  Strategus.  His  rival, 
Thucydides,  son  of  Melesias,  forms  a  solitary  exception  to  this 
statement.  In  the  4th  century  the  divorce  between  the  general 
and  the  statesman  is  complete.  The  generals  are  professional 
soldiers,  who  aspire  to  no  political  influence  in  the  state,  and  the 
statesmen  devote  themselves  exdusively  to  politics,  a  career 
for  which  they  have  prepared  themselves  by  a  professional 
training  in  oratory  or  administrative  work.  The  ruin  <^  agri- 
culture during  the  war  had  reduced  the  old  families  to  insigni- 
ficance. Birth  counts  for  less  than  nothing  as  a  political  asset 
in  the  age  of  Demosthenes. 

But  great  as  are  the  contrasts  which  have  been  pointed 
out  between  the  earlier  and  the  later  democracy,  thme  that 
distinguish  the  andent  conception  of  democracy  from 
the  modem  are  of  a  still  more  essential  nature.  The 
differences  that  distinguish  the  democrades  of  andent 
Greece  from  those  of  the  modem  world  have  their  origin, 
to  a  great  extent,  in  the  difference  between  a  dty-state 
and  a  nation-state.    Many  of  the  most  famous  Greek  states 

*  After  this  date,  and  partly  in  oonseouenoe  of  the  change,  the 
archonship,  to  which  sortition  was  applied,  loses  its  importance. 
The  slraUgi  (generals)  become  the  chief  executive  officials.  As  elec- 
tion was  never  replaced  b]f  the  lot  in  their  case,  the  chanfe  had  ka 
gractical  meaning  than  might  appear.At  first  sight.  (See  AacBOW, 
TRATECUS.) 


HISTORY) 


GREECE 


+51 


had  an  area  of  a  few  square  miles;  the  largest  of  them  was  no 
larger  than  an  English  county.    Political  theory  put  the  limit 
of  the  citizen-body  at  xo,oco.    Though  this  number  was  exceeded 
in  a  few  cases,  it  is  doubtful  if  any  state,  except  Athens,  ever 
counted  more  than  30,000  citizens.    In  the  nation-states  of 
modem  times,  democratic  government  is  possible  only  under  the 
form  of  a  representative  system;  in  the  city-state  representative 
government  was  unnecessary,  and  therefore  unknown.    In  the 
ancient  type  of  democracy  a  popular  chamber  has  no  existence. 
The  Ecdesia  is  not  a  chamber  in  any  sense  of  the  term;  it  is  an 
assembly  of  the  whole  people,  which  every  citizen  is  entitled 
to  attend,  and  in  which  every  one  is  equally  entitled  to  vole  and 
speak.    The  question  raised  in  modern  political  science,  as  to 
whether  sovereignty  resides  in  the  electors  or  their  representatives, 
has  thus  neither  place  nor  meaning  in  ancient  theory.    In  the 
same  way,  one  of  the  most  familiar  results  of  modem  analysis, 
the  distinction  between  the  executive  and  the  legislative,  finds 
no  recognition  in  the  Greek  writers.    In  a  direct  system  of 
government   there  can  be  no  executive  in  the  proper  sense. 
Executive  functions  are  discharged  by  the  ecdesia,  to  whose 
decision  the  details  of  administration  may  be  referred.    The 
position  of  the  strategi,  the  chief  officials  in  the  Athenian 
democracy  of  the  5th  century,  was  in  no  sense  comparable  to 
that  of  a  modem  cabinet.    Hence  the  individual  citizen  in  an 
andent  democracy  was  concerned  in,  and  responsible  for,  the 
actual  work  of  government  to  a  degree  that  is  inconceivable  in 
a  modem  state.    Thus  participation  in  the  administrative  and 
judicial  business  of  the  state  is  made  by  Aristotle  the  diCFerentia 
of   the  dtizen    (vdKirrp  karlp  6  utrix^^  Kplatus   <cal  6ipxyh, 
Aristot.  PUitUs,  p.  1 37s  a  20).    A  large  proportion  of  the  citizens 
of  Athens,  in  addition  to  frequent  service  in  the  courts  of  law, 
must  in  the  course  of  their  lives  have  held  a  magistracy,  great 
or  small,  or  have  acted  for  a  year  or  two  as  members  of  the 
Boul&*    It  must  be  remembered  that  there  was  nothing  corre- 
spondiog  to  a  permanent  civil  service  in  the  ancient   state. 
Much  of  the  work  of  a  government  office  would  have  been 
transacted  by  the  Athenian  BoulS.    It  must  be  remembered, 
too,  that  political  and  administrative  questions  of  great  import- 
ance came  before  the  popular  courts  of  law.    Hence  it  follows 
that  the  ordinary  citizen  of  an  ancient  democracy,  in  the  course 
of  his  service  in  the  BoulS  or  the  law-courts,  acquired  an  interest 
in  political  questions,  and  a  grasp  of  administrative  work,  which 
none  but  a  select  few  can  hope  to  acquire  under  the  conditions 
of  the  modem  system.    Where  there  existed  neither  a  popular 
chamber  nor  a  distinct  executive,  there  was  no  opportunity  for 
the  growth  of  a  patty-system.    There  were,  of  course,  political 
parties  at   Athens  and  elsewhere— oligarchs  and  democrats, 
conservatives  and  radicals,  a  peace-party  and  a  war-party, 
according  to  the  burning  question  of  the  day.    There  was, 
however,  nothing  equivalent  to  a  general  election,  to  a  cabinet 
(or  to  that  collective  responsibility  which  is  of  the  essence  of  a 
cabinet),  or  to  the  government  and  the  opposition.    Party 
organization,  therefore,  and  a  party  system,  in  the  proper  sense, 
were  never  developed.    Whatever  may  have  been  the  evils 
incident  to  the  ancient  form  of  democracy,  the  "  boss,"  the 
caucus  and  the  spoils-system  were  not  among  them. 

Besides  these  differences,  which,  directly  or  indirectly,  result 
from  the  difference  of  scale,  there  are  others,  hardly  less  profound, 
which  are  not  connected  with  the  size  of  the  city-state.  Perhaps 
the  most  striking  contrast  between  the  democracies  of  ancient 
and  of  modern  times  is  to  be  found  in  their  attitude  towards 
privilege.  Andent  democracy  implies  privilege;  modern 
democracy  implies  its  destruction.  In  the  more  fully  developed 
democrades  of  the  modem  world  {e.g.  in  the  United  States,  or  in 
Australia),  the  privilege  of  class  is  unknown;  in  some  of  them 
(e.g.  New  Zealand,  Australia,  Norway)  even  the  privilege  of 
sex  has  been  abolished.  Ancient  democracy  was  bound  up  with 
privilege  as  much  as  oligarchy  was.  The  transition  from  the 
laller  to  the  former  was  effected  by  enlarging  the  area  of  privilege 
and  by  altering  its  basis.    In  an  oligarchical  state  citizenship 

'  For  an  estimate  of  the  numbers  annually  engaged  in  the  service 
oC  Athens,  sec  Arist<H.  Alk.  Pol.  34.  3. 


might  be  confined  to  10  %  of  the  free  p<^ulation;  under  a 
democracy  50%  might  enjoy  it.  In  the  former  case  the  qualifica- 
tion might  be  wealth  or  land;  in  the  latter  case  it  might  be, 
as  it  was  at  Athens,  birth,  i.e.  descent,  on  both  sides,  from  a 
citizen  family.  But,  in  both  cases  alike,  the  distinction  between 
a  privileged  and  an  unprivileged  body  of  free-bom  residents 
is  fundamental.  To  the  unprivileged  class  belonged,  not  only 
foreigners  temporarily  resident  ((cj^k)  and  aliens  p<^rmanently 
domiciled  OMroiiaK),bi>t  also  those  native-bora  inhabitants  of 
the  state  who  were  of  foreign  extraction,  on  one  side  or  the 
other.*  The  privileges  attaching  to  citizenship  included,  in 
addition  to  eligibility  for  office  and  a  vote  in  the  assembly,  such 
private  rights  as  that  of  owning  land  or  a  house,  or  of  contracting 
a  marriage  with  one  of  dtizen  status.  The  citizen,  too,  was 
alone  the  rcdpient  of  all  the  various  forms  of  pay  {e.g.  for  attend- 
ance in  the  assembly,  for  service  in  the  BoulC  or  the  law-courts, 
or  for  the  celebration  of  the  great  festivals)  which  are  so  con- 
spicuous a  feature  in  the  developed  democracy  of  the  4th  century. 
The  mctaeci  could  not  even  plead  in  a  court  of  law  in  person, 
but  only  through  a  patron  {wpoarinp).  It  is  intelligible  that 
privileges  so  great  should  be  jealously  guarded.  In  the  demo- 
cracies of  the  modem  world  naturalization  is  easy;  in  those 
of  ancient  Greece  admission  to  the  franchise  was  rarely  accorded. 
In  modem  times,  again,we  are  accustomed  to  connect  democracy 
with  the  emancipation  of  women.  It  is  true  that  only 
a  few  democratic  const  itutions  grant  them  t  he  su  ff  rage ;  ^ 
but  though,  as  a  rule,  they  are  denied  public  rights, 
the  growth  of  popular  government  has  been  almost 
everywhere  accompanied  by  an  extension  of  their  private  ri^ts, 
and  by  the  removal  of  the  restrictions  imposed  by  law,  custom 
or  public  opinion  upon  their  freedom  of  action.  In  ancient 
Greece  the  democracies  were  as  illiberal  in  their  policy  as.  the 
oligarchies.  Women  of  the  respectable  class  were  condemned 
to  comparative  seclusion.  They  enjoyed  far  less  freedom  in 
4th-century  Athens  than  in  the  Homeric  Age.  It  is  not  in  any 
of  the  democracies,  but  in  conservative  Sparta,  that  they 
possess  privilege  and  exercise  influence. 

The  most  fundamental  of  all  the  contrasts  between  democracy 
in  its  ancient  and  in  its  modern  form  remains  to  be  staled. 
The  andent  state  was  inseparable  from  slavery.  In  ^^^ 
this  respect  there  was  no  difference  between  democracy 
and  the  other  forms  of  government.  No  inconsistency  was  felt, 
therefore,  between  this  institution  and  the  democratic  prindple. 
Modem  political  theory  has  been  profoundly  affected  by  the 
conception  of  the  dignity  of  labour;  ancient  political  theory 
tended  to  regard  labour  as  a  disqualification  for  the  exercise 
of  political  rights.  Where  slavery  exists,  the  taint  of  it  will 
inevitably  cling  to  all  labour  that  can  be  performed  by  the 
slave.  In  ancient  Athens  (which  may  be  taken  as  typical  of 
the  Greek  democracies)  unskilled  labour  was  aln^ost  entirely 
slave-labour,  and  skilled  labour  was  largely  so.  The  arts  and 
crafts  were,  to  some  extent,  exercised  by  citizens,  but  to  a  less 
extent  in  the  4th  than  in  the  6th  century.  They  were,  however, 
chiefly  left  to  aliens  or  slaves.  The  citizen-body  of  Athens  in 
the  age  of  Demosthenes  has  been  stigmatized  as  consisting  in 
great  measure  of  salaried  paupers.  There  is,  doubtless,  an 
exaggeration  in  this.  It  is,  however,  true,  both  that  the  system 
of  state-pay  went  a  long  way  towards  supplying  the  simple  wants 
of  a  southem  population,  and  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
citizens  had  time  to  spare  for  the  service  of  the  state.  Had  the 
life  of  the  lower  class  of  citizens  been  absorbed  in  a  round  of 
mechanical  labours,  as  fully  as  is  the  life  of  our  industrial  classes, 
the  working  of  an  ancient  democracy  would  have  been  impossible. 
In  justice  to  the  ancient  democraciesit  must  be  conceded  that, 
while  popular  government  carried  with  it  neither  the  enfranchise- 
ment of  the  alien  nor  the  emandpation  of  the  slave,  the  rights 
secured  td'both  classes  were  more  considerable  in  the  democratic 
states  than  elsewhere.  The  lot  of  the  slave,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
alien,  was  a  peculiarly  favourable  one  at  Athens.  The  pseudo- 
Xenophon  in  the  5th  century  {Derep,  Ath.  i.  10-12)  and  Plato 

*  Foreign  is  not  used  here  as  equivalent  to  non- Hellenic.    It  means 
"  belonging  to  another  state,  whether  Greek  or  barbarian." 


452 


GREECE 


IPISTORY 


Tk9 


in  the  4th  (RepuNie,  p.  563  b),  prove  that  the  spirit  of  liberty, 
with  which  Athenian  life  was  permeated,  was  not  without  its 
influence  upon  the  position  of  these  classes.  When  we  read  that 
critics  complained  of  the  opulence  of  slaves,  and  of  the  liberties 
they  took,  and  when  we  are  told  that  the  slave  could  not  be 
distinguished  from  the  poorer  class  of  citizens  either  by  his  dress 
or  his  look,  we  begin  to  realize  the  difference  between  the  slavery 
of  ancient  Athens  and  the  system  as  it  was  worked  on  the  Roman 
latifundia  or  the  plantations  of  the  New  World. 

It  had  been  anticipated  that  the  fall  of  Athens  would  mean 
the  triumph  of  the  principle  of  autonomy.  If  Athens  had 
surrendered  within  a  year  or  so  of  the  Sicilian  catas- 
trophe, this  anticipation  would  probably  have  been 
fulfilled.  It  was  the  last  phase  of  the  struggle  (412- 
404  B.C.)  that  rendered  a  Spartan  empire  inevitable. 
The  oligarchical  governments  established  by  Lysandcr  recognized 
that  their  tenure  of  power  was  dependent  upon  Spartan  support, 
while  Lysander  himself,  to  whose  genius,  as  a  political  organizer 
not  less  than  as  a  commander,  the  triumph  of  Sparta  was  due, 
was  unwilling  to  see  his  work  undone.  The  Atbem'an  empire 
had  never  included  the  greater  part  of  Greece  proper;  since 
the  Thirty  Years'  Peace  its  possessions  on  the  mainland,  outside 
the  boundaries  of  Attica,  were  limited  to  Naupactus  and  Plataea. 
Sparta,  on  the  other  hand,  attempted  the  control  of  the  entire 
Greek  world  east  of  the  Adriatic.  Athens  had  been  compelled 
to  acknowledge  a  dual  system;  Sparta  sought  to  establish 
uniformity.  The  attempt  failed  from  the  first.  Within  a  year 
of  the  surrender  of  Athens,  Thebes  and  Corinth  had  drifted  into 
an  attitude  of  opposition,  while  Argos  remained  hostile.  It  was 
not  long  before  the  policy  of  Lysander  succeeded  in  uniting 
against  Sparta  the  very  forces  upon  which  she  bad  relied  when 
she  entered  on  the  Peloponnesian  War.  The  Corinthian  War 
(394-387  B.C.)  was  brought  about  by  the  alliance  of  all  the  second- 
class  powers — ^Thebes,  Athens,  Corinth,  Argos — against  the  one 
first-class  power,  Sparta.  Though  Sparta  emerged  successful 
from  the  war,  it  was  with  the  loss  of  her  maritime  empire,  and 
at  the  cost  of  recognizing  the  principle  of  autonomy  as  the  basis 
of  the  Greek  political  system.  It  was  already  evident,  thus 
early  in  the  century,  that  the  centrifugal  forces  were  to  prove 
stronger  than  the  centripetal.  Two  further  causes  may  be 
indicated  which  help  to  explain  the  failure  of  the  Spartan 
empire.  In  the  first  place  Spartan  sea-power  was  an  artificial 
creation.  History  seems  to  show  that  it  is  idle  for  a  state  to 
aspire  to  naval  supremacy  unless  it  possesses  a  great  commercial 
marine.  Athens  had  possessed  such  a  marine;  her  naval 
supremacy  was  due  not  to  the  mere  size  of  her  fleet,  but  to  the 
numbers  and  skill  of  her  seafaring  population.  Sparta  had  no 
commerce.  She  could  build  fleets  more  easily  than  she  could 
man  them.  A  single  defeat  (at  Cnidus,  391  B.C.)  sufficed  for 
the  ruin  of  her  sea-power.  The  second  cause  is  to  be  found  in  the 
financial  weakness  of  the  Spartan  state.  The  Spartan  treasury 
had  been  temporarily  enriched  by  the  spoils  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War,  but  neither  during  that  war,  nor  afterwards,  did  Sparta 
succeed  in  developing  any  scientific  financial  system.  Athens 
was  the  only  state  which  either  possessed  a  large  annual  revenue 
or  accumulated  a  considerable  reserve.  Under  the  conditions 
of  Greek  warfare,  fleets  were  more  expensive  than  armies.  Not 
only  was  money  needed  for  the  building  and  maintenance  of  the 
ships,  but  the  sailor  roust  be  paid,  while  the  soldier  served  for 
nothing.  Hence  the  power  with  the  longest  purse  could  both 
build  the.  largest  fleet  and  attract  the  most  skilful  seamen. 

.  The  battle  of  Leuctra  transferred  the  hegemony  from  Sparta 
to  Thebes,  but  the  attempt  to  unite  Greece  under  the  leadership 
of  Thebes  was  from  the  first  doomed  to  failure.  The 
'*•*"  conditions  were  less  favourable  to  Thebes  than  they 
had  been  to  Athens  or  Sparta.  Thebes  was  even  more 
exclusively  a  land-power  than  Sparta.  She  had  no 
revenue  comparable  to  that  of  Athens  in  the  preceding  century. 
Unlike  Athens  and  Sparta,  she  had  not  the  advantage  of  being 
identified  with  a  political  cause.  As  the  enemy  of  Athens  in  the 
5th  century,  she  was  on  the  side  of  oligarchy;  as  the  rival  of 
Sparta  in  the  4th,  she  was  on  the  side  of  democracy;  but  in  her 


moaty» 


bid  for  primacy  she  could  not  appeal,  as  Athens  and  Spaita 
could,  to  a  great  political  tradition,  nor  had  she  behind  her, 
as  they  had,  the  moral  force  of  a  great  political  principle.  Her 
position,  too,  in  Boeotia  itself  was  insecure.  The  rise  of  Athens 
was  in  great  measure  the  result  of  the  synoecism  ((rvnouoff/ioi) 
of  Attica.  All  inhabitants  of  Attica  were  Athenians.  Bat 
"  Boeotian  "  and  "  Theban  "  were  not  synonymous  terms.  The 
Boeotian  league  was  an  imperfect  form  of  union,  as  compared 
with  the  Athenian  state,  and  the  claim  of  Thebes  to  the  presi- 
dency of  the  league  was,  at  best,  sullenly  acquiesced  in  by  the 
other  towns.  The  destruction  of  some  of  the  most  famous  of 
the  Boeotian  cities,  however  necessary  it  may  have  been  in  order 
to  unite  the  country,  was  a  measure  which  at  once  impaired  the 
resources  of  Thebes  and  outraged  Greek  sentiment.  It  has  been 
often  held  that  the  failure  of  Theban  policy  was  due  to  the  death 
of  Epaminondas  (at  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  362  b.  c).  For  this 
view  there  is  no  justification.  His  poUcy  had  proved  a  failure 
before  his  death.  Where  it  harmonized  mth  the  ^irit  of  the 
age,  the  spirit  of  dissidence,  it  succeeded;  where  it  attempted 
to  run  counter  to  it,  it  failed.  It  succeeded  in  destroying  the 
supremacy  of  Sparta  in  the  Peloponnese;  it  failed  to  unite  the 
Peloponnese  on  a  new  basis.  It  failed  still  more  signally  to  unite 
Greece  north  of  the  Isthmus.  It  left  Greece  weaker  and  more 
divided  than  it  found  it  (sec  the  concluding  words  of  Xenophon's 
Hellenics).  It  would  be  difficult  to  overestimate  the  importance 
of  his  policy  as  a  destructive  force;  as  a  constructive  force  it 
effected  nothing.^  The  Peloponnesian  system  which  Epami- 
nondas overthrew  had  lasted  two  hundred  years.  Und» 
Spartan  leadership  the  Peloponnese  had  enjoyed  almost  complete 
immunity  from  invasion  and  comparative  immunity  from 
stasis  (faction).  The  claim  that  Isocrates  makes  lor  Sparta  is 
probably  well-founded  (Arckidamtis,  64-69;  during  the  period 
of  Spartan  ascendency  the  Peloponnesians  were  ciiScu/ioi^arot 
Tu»  'EXXi^KtfF).  Peloponnesian  sentiment  had  been  one  of  the 
chief  factors  in  Greek  politics;  to  it,  indeed,  in  no  small  degree 
was  due  the  victory  over  Persia.  TheTheban  victory  at  Leuctra 
destroyed  the  unity,  and  with  it  the  peace  and  the  prosperity, 
of  the  Peloponnese.  It  inaugurated  a  period  of  misery,  the 
natural  result  of  stasis  and  invasion,  to  which  no  parallel  can 
be  found  in  the  earlier  history  (See  Isocrates,  Arckidamus,  6$, 
66;  the  Peloponnesians  were  atiaSuTfiiifoi  reus  ov/i^paTt).  It 
destroyed,  too,  the  Peloponnesian  sentiment  of  hostility  to  the 
invader.  The  bulk  of  the  army  that  defeated  Mardonius  at 
Plataea  came  from  the  Peloponnese;  at  Chaeionea  no  Pelopon- 
nesian state  was  represented. 

The  question  remains,  Why  did  the  city-state  fail  to  »ve 
Greece  from  conquest  by  Macedon?  Was  this  result  due  to  the 
inherent  weakness  either  of  the  city-state  itself,  or  of 
one  particular  form  of  it,  democracy?  It  is  clear,  in  **"*• 
any  case,  that  the  triumph  of  Macedon  was  the  effect  j^g^w 
of  causes  which  had  long  been  at  work.  If  neither 
Philip  nor  Alexander  had  appeared  on  the  scene,  Greece  might 
have  maintained  her  independence  for  another  generation  or 
two;  but,  when  invasion  came,  it  would  have  found  her  weaker 
and  more  distracted,  and  the  conquerors  might  easily  have  been 
less  imbued  with  the  Greek  spirit,  and  less  sympathetic  towards 
Greek  ideals,  than  the  great  Macedonian  and  his  son.  These 
causes  are  to  be  found  in  the  tendencies  of  the  age,  political, 
economic  and  moral.  Of  the  two  movements  which  characterize! 
Che  Great  Age  in  its  political  aspect,  the  imperial  and  the 
democratic,  the  one  failed  and  the  other  succeeded.  The  failure 
and  the  success  were  equally  fatal  to  the  chances  of  Greece  in 
the  conflict  with  Macedon.  By  the  middle  of  the  4th  century 
Greek  politics  had  come  to  be  dominated  by  the  theory  of  the 
balance  of  power.  This  theory,  enunciated  in  its  coarsest  form 
by  Demosthenes  (Pro  Megahpolit.  4  (rv/i^tfia  rf  iroXet  «ai 
AaKtbaifiovlovi  AaOtvtit  cTvai  koI  6i}/3oious;  cf.  in  Arislocrd. 
102, 103),  had  shaped  the  foreign  policy  of  Athens  since  the  cod 
of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  As  long  as  Sparta  was  the  stronger. 
Athens  incUned  to  a  Theban  alliance;  after  Leuctra  she  tendd 
in  the  direction  of  a  Spartan  one.    At  the  epoch  of  Philip's 

^  It  failed  even  to  create  a  united  Arcadia  or  a  strong  Messmia- 


mSTORYI 


GREECE 


453 


the  forces  were  everywhere  nicdy  balanced.  The 
Pdoponiiese  was  fairly  equally  divided  between  the  Theban  and 
the  Spartan  interests,  and  central  Greece  was  similarly  divided 
between  the  Theban  and  the  Athenian.  Farther  north  we  get 
an  Athenian,  party  opposed  to  an  Olynthtan  in  Chalcidice,  and 
a  republican  party,  dependent  upon  the  support  of  Thebes, 
opposed  to  that  of  the  tyrants  in  Thessaly.  It  is  easy  to  see  that 
the  political  conditions  of  Greece,  both  in  the  north  and  in  the 
south,  invited  interference  from  without.  And  the  triumph  of 
democracy  in  its  extreme  form  was  ruinous  to  the  military 
cflBciency  of  Greece.  On  the  one  side  there  was  a  monarchical 
state,  in  which  all  powers,  civil  as  well  as  military,  were  concen- 
trated in  the  hands  of  a  single  ruler;  on  the  other,  a  constitutional 
system,  in  which  a  complete  separation  had  been  effected  between 
the  responsibility  of. the  statesman  and  that  of  the  commander.* 

It  could  not  be  doubtful  with  which  side  victory  would  rest. 
Meanwhile,  the  economic  conditions  were  steaslily  growing  worse. 
The  cause  which  Aristotle  assigns  for  the  decay  of  the  Spartan 
state—a  declining  population  (see  Politics,  p.  1370  a  dnbXero 
ii^  xiiKa  Tuv  KataAoxttovUiw  itd  r^'  iHsiritufOptawlajf) — might  be 
extended  to  the  Greek  world  generally.  The  loss  of  population 
was  partly  the  result  of  war  and  stasis — Isocrates  speaks  of  the 
number  of  political  exiles  from  the  various  states  as  enormous — 
but  it  was  also  due  to  a  declim'ng  birth-rate,  and  to  the  exposure 
of  infants.  Aristotle,  while  condemning  exposure,  sanctions  the 
procuring  of  abortion  {Politics,  1335  b).  It  is  probable  that 
both  ante>natal  and  post-natal  infanticide  were  rife  everywhere, 
except  among  the  more  backward  communities.  A  people 
ndiich  has  condemned  itself  to  racial  suicide  can  have  little 
chance  when  pitted  against  a  nation  in  which  healthier  instincts 
prevaiL  The  materiids  for  forming  a  trustworthy  estimate  of 
the  population  of  Greece  at  any  given  epoch  are  not  available; 
there  is  enough  evidence,  however,  to  prove  that  the  military 
population  of  the  leading  Greek  states  at  the  era  of  the  battle 
of  Chaeronea  (338  B.C.)  fell  far  short  of  what  it  had  been  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  The  decline  in  population 
had  been  accompanied  by  a  decline  in  wealth,  both  public  and 
private;  and  while  revenues'  had  shrunk,  expenditure  had 
grown.  It  was  a  century  of  warfare;  and  warfare  had  become 
enormously  more  expensive,  partly  through  the  increased  em- 
ployment of  mercenaries,  partly  through  the  enhanced  cost  of 
material.  The  power  of  the  purse  had  made  itself  felt  even  in 
the  5th  century;  Persian  gold  had  helped  to  decide  the  issue 
of  the  great  war.  In  the  politics  of  the  4th  century  the  power 
of  the  purse  becomes  the  determining  factor.  The  public 
finance  of  the  ancient  world  was  singularly  simple  in  character, 
and  the  expedients  for  raising  a  revenue  were  comparatively  few. 
The  dbtinction  between  direct  and  indirect  taxation  was  recog- 
nized in  practice,  but  states  as  a  rule  were  reluctant  to  submit 
to  the  former  system.  The  revenue  of  Athens  in  the  sth  century 
was  mainly  derived  from  the  tribute  paid  by  her  subjects;  it 
was  only  in  time  of  war  that  a  direct  tax  was  levied  upon  the 
dtixen-body.'  In  the  age  of  Demosthenes  the  revenue  derived 
from  the  Athenian  Confederacy  was  insignificant.  The  whole 
burden  of  the  expenses  of  «  war  fell  upon  the  1200  richest 
citizens,,  who  were  subject  to  direct  taxation  in  the  dual  form  of 
the  Trierarcky  and  the  Eisfkora  (property-tax).  The  revenue 
thtts  raised  was  wholly  insufficient  for  an  effort  on  a  great  scale; 
yet  the  revenues  of  Athens  at  this  period  must  have  exceeded 
those  of  any  other  state. 

It  is  to  moral  causes,  however,  rather  than  to  political  or 
economic  ones,  that  the  failure  of  Greece  in  the  conflict  with 
Macedon  is  attributed  by  the  most  famous  Greek  statesmen 
of  that  age.  Demosthenes  is  never  weary  of  insisting  upon  the 
decay  of  patriotism  among  the  citizens  and  upon  the  decay 
of  probity  among  their  leaders.  Venality  had  always  i>een 
the  besetting  sin  of  Greek  statesmen.    Pericles'  boast  as  to  his 

>  See  Demosthenes,  On  tke  Crown,  335.    Philip  was  «<^«ip&rwp, 

*  Ste  ArckidaMUS,  iA\  Pkilippus,  96,  Ctort  fi^w  cfrat  ourriraat 
0rpar6rttor  iiufov  nal  npurrof  h  rwv  w\aPian^P1tm  A  he  rwf  veXirnwyiiiuF. 

*The  Liturgies  (e.g.  the  trierarchy)  had  much  the  ame  effect  as 
a  direct  tax  levied  upon  the  wealthiest  citizens. 


own  incorruptibility  (Thuc.  ii.  60)  is  significant  as  to  the  reputa- 
tion of  his  contemporaries.  In  the  age  of  Demosthenes  the  level  of 
public  life  in  this  respect  had  sunk  at  least  as  low  as  that  which 
prevails  in  many  states  of  the  modern  world  (see  Demosth.  On  tke 
Crown,  6x  rapd  rois  "EXXiiaty,  oh  rurh  dXX'  firacrty  dfUjUas  ^pA 
irpodarQaf  xal  &wpo56ni>y  <rvi^;  cf.  ({  395,  396).  Corruption  was 
certainly  not  confined  to  the  Macedonian  party.  The  best  that 
can  be  said  in  defence  of  the  patriots,as  wellas  of  their  opponents, 
is  that  they  honestly  believed  that  the  policy  which  they  were 
bribed  to  advocate  was  the  best  for  their  country's  interests. 
The  evidence  for  the  general  decay  of  patriotism  among  the  mass 
of  the  citizens  is  less  conclusive.  The  battle  of  Megalopolis 
(331  B.C.),  in  which  the  Spartan  soldiery  "  went  down  in  a  blaze 
of  glory,"  proves  that  the  spirit  of  the  Lacedemonian  state 
remained  unchanged.  But  at  Athens  it  seemed  to  contemporary 
observers — to  Isocrates  equally  with  Demosthenes — that  the 
spirit  of  the  great  days  was  extinct  (see  Isocr.  On  tke  Peace, 
47, 48).  It  cannot,  of  course,  be  denied  that  public  opinion  was 
obstinately  opposed  to  the  diversion  of  the  Theoric  Fund  to  the 
purposes  of  the  war  with  Philip.  It  was  not  till  the  year  before 
Chaeronea  that  Demosthenes  succeeded  in  persuading  the 
assembly  to  devote  the  entire  surplus  to  the  expenses  of  the  war.* 
Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  mercenaries  were  far  more  largely 
employed  in  the  4th  century  than  in  the  5th.  In  justice,  however, 
to  the  Athenians  of  the  Demosthenic  era,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  burden  of  direct  taxation  was  rarely  imposed,  and  was 
reluctantly  endured,  in  the  previous  century.  It  must  also  be 
remembered  that,  even  in  the  4th  century,  the  Athenian  citizen 
was  ready  to  take  the  field,  provided  that  it  was  not  a  question 
of  a  distant  expedition  or  of  prolonged  service.*  For  distant 
expeditions,  or  for  prolonged  service,  a  citizen-militia  is  unsuited. 
The  substitution  of  a  professional  force  for  an  unprofessional 
one  is  to  be  explained,  partly  by  the  change  in  the  character  of 
Greek  warfare,  and  partly  by  the  operation  of  the  laws  of  supply 
and  demand.  There  had  been  a  time  when  warfare  meant  a 
brief  campaign  in  the  summer  months  against  a  neighbouring 
state.  It  had  come  to  mean  prolonged  operations  against  a 
distant  enemy.*  Athens  was  at  war,  e.g.  with  Pbih'p,  for  eleven 
years  continuously  (357-346  B.C.).  If  winter  campaigns  in 
Thrace  were  unpopular  at  this  epoch,  they^had  been  hardly 
less  unpopular  in  the  epoch  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  In  the 
dajrs  of  her  greatness,  too,  Athens  had  freely  employed  mer- 
cenaries,  but  it  was  in  the  navy  rather  than  the  army.  In  the 
age  of  Pericles  the  supply  of  mercenary  rowers  was  abundant, 
the  supply  of  mercenary  troops  inconsiderable.  In  the  age  of 
Demosthenes  incessant  warfare  and  ceaseless  revolution  had 
filled  Greece  with  crowds  of  homeless  adventurers.  The  supply 
helped  to  create  the  denuuid.  The  mercenary  was  as  cheap  as 
the  citizen-soldier,  and  much  more  effective.  On  the  whole, 
then,  it  may  be  inferred  that  it  is  a  mistake  to  regard  the  preval- 
ence of  the  mercenary  system  as  the  expression  of  a  declining 
patriotism.  It  would  be  nearer  the  mark  to  treat  the  transition 
from  the  voluntary  to  the  professional  system  as  cause  rather 
than  effect:  as  one  among  the  causes  which  contributed  to  the 
decay  of  public  spirit  in  the  Greek  world. 
"*  6.  From  Alexander  to  tke  Roman  Conquest  (336-146  BC). — In 
the  hjstory  of  Greece  proper  during  this  period  the  interest  is 
mainly  constitutional.  It  may  be  called  the  age  of 
federation.  Federation,  indeed,  was  no  novelty  in 
Greece.  Federal  unions  had  existed  in  Thessaly,  in  .MsiT 
Boeotia  and  elsewhere,  and  the  Boeotian  league  can  be 
traced  back  at  least  to  the  6th  century.  Two  newly-founded 
federations,  the  Chalcidian  and  the  Arcadian,  play  no  inconsider- 
able part  in  the  politics  of  the  4th  century.  But  it  is  not  till  the 
3rd  century  that  federation  attains  to  its  full  development  in 
Greece,  and  becomes  the  normal  type  of  polity.    The  two  great 

*  Hit  extreme  caution  in  approaching  the  question  at  an  eariier 
date  is  to  be  noticed.    See,  e.g.,  Olynlhiacs,  i.  19, 30. 

•  e.g.  the  two  expeditions  sent  to  EutMca,  the  cavalry  force  that 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Mantinca,  and  the  army  that  fought  at 
Chaeronea.    The  troops  in  all  these  cases  were  citizens. 

'  For  the  altered  character  of  wariare  see  Deraostheoc*,  Pkilippics, 
m.  48,49. 


454- 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


leagues  of  this  period  are  the  Aetolian  and  the  Achaean.  Both 
had  existed  in  the  4tfti  century,  but  the  latter,  which  had  been 
dissolved  shortly  before  the  beginning  of  the  3rd  century, 
becorbes  important  only  after  its  restoration  in  280  B.C.,  about 
which  date  the  former,  too,  first  begins  to  attract  notice.  The 
interest  of  federalism  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  marks  an  advance 
beyond  the  conception  of  the  city-state.  It  is  an  attempt  to 
solve  the  problem  which  the  Athenian  empire  failed  to  solve,  the 
reconciliation  of  the  claims  of  local  autonomy  with  those  of 
national  union.  The  federal  leagues  of  the  3rd  century  possess 
a  further  interest  for  the  modern  world,  in  that  there  can  be 
traced  in  their  constitutions  a  nearer  approach  to  a  representative 
system  than  is  found  elsewhere  in  Greek  experience.  A  genuine 
representative  system,  it  is  true,  was  never  developed  in  any 
Greek  polity.  What  we  find  in  the  leagues  is  a  sort  of  compromise 
between  the  principle  of  a  primary  assembly  and  the  principle 
of  a  representative  chamber.  In  both  leagues  the  nominal 
sovereign  was  a  primary  assembly,  in  which  every  individual 
citizen  had  the  right  to  vote.  In  both  of  .them,  however,  the 
real  power  lay  with  a  council  (fiov\ii)  composed  of  members 
representative  of  each  of  the  component  states.* 

The  real  interest  of  this  period,  however,  is  to  be  looked  for 
elsewhere  than  in  Greece  itself.    Alexander's  career  is  one  of  the 

turning-points  in  history.    He  is  one  of  the  few  to 
^'Xr*        whom  it  has  been  given  to  modify  the  whole  future 

of  the  human  race.    He  originated  two  forces  which 


have  profoundly  affected  the  development  of  civiliza- 
tion. He  created  Hellenism,  and  he  created  for  the  western 
world  the  monarchical  ideal.  Greece  had  produced  personal 
rulers  of  ability,  or  even  of  genius;  but  to  the  greatest  of  these, 
to  Peisistratus,  to  Dionysius,  even  to  Jason  of  Phcrae,  there 
clung  the  fatal  taint  of  illegitimacy.  As  yet  no  ruler  had  suc- 
ceeded in  making  the  person  of  the  monarch  respectable. 
Alexander  made  it  sacred.  From  him  is  derived,  for  the  West, 
that  '*  divinity  that  doth  hedge  a  king."  And  in  creating 
Hellenism  he  created,  for  the  first  time,  a  common  type  of 
civilization,  with  a  common  language,  literature  and  art,  as 
well  as  a  comtnon  form  of  political  organization.  In  Asia  Minor 
he  was  content  to  reinforce  the  existing  Hellenic  dements 
(cf.  the  case  of  Side,  Arrian,  Anabasis,  i.  26.  4).  In  the  rest  of 
the  East  his  instrument  of  hcUenization  was  the  pdis.  He  is 
said  to  have  founded  no  less  than  seventy  cities,  destined  to 
become  centres  of  Greek  influence;  and  the  great  majority 
of  these  were  in  lands  in  which  city-life  was  almost  unknown. 
In  this  respect  his  example  was  emulated  by  his  successors.  The 
eastern  provinces  were  soon  lost,  though  Greek  influences 
lingered  on  even  in  Bactria  and  acr<MS  the  Indus.  It  was  only 
the  regions  lying  to  the  west  of  the  Euphrates  that  were 
effectively  hellenized,  and  the  permanence  of  this  result  was 
largely  due  to  the  policy  of  Rome.  But  after  all  deductions  have 
been  made,  the  great  fact  remains  that  for  many  centuries  after 
Alexander's  death  Greek  was  the  language  of  literature  and 
religion,  of  commerce  and  of  administration  throughout  the 
Nearer  East.  Alexander  had  created  a  universal  empire  as  well 
as  a  universal. culture.  His  empire  perished  at  his  death,  but 
its  central  idea  survived — that  of  the  municipal  freedom  of  the 
Greek  Polis  within  the  framework  of  an  imperial  system.  Hellen- 
istic civilization  may  appear  degenerate  when  compared  with 
Hellenic;  when  compared  with  the  civilizations  which  it  super- 
seded in  non-Hellenic  lands,  it  marks  an  unquestionable  advance. 
(For  the  history  of  Greek  civilization  in  the  East,seeHELLENiSM.) 
Greece  left  her  mark  upon  the  civilization  of  the  West  as  well 
as  upon  that  of  the  East,  but  the  process  by  which  her  iafluence 
was  diffused  was  essentially  different.  In  the  East  Hellenism 
came  in  the  train  of  the  conqueror,  and  Rome  was  content  to 
build  upon  the  foundations  laid  by  Alexander.  In  the  West 
Greek  influences  were  diffused  by  the  Roman  conquest  of  Greece. 
It  was  through  the  ascendancy  which  Greek  literature,  philosophy 
and  art  acquired  over  the  Roman  mind  that  Greek  culture 
penetrated  to  the  nations  of  western  Europe.    The  civilization 

*  It  is  known  that  the  councillors  Were  appointed  by  the  states 
in  the  Aetolian  league ;  it  is  only  surmised  in  the  case  of  the  Achaean. 


of  the  East  remained  Greek.  The  civilization  of  the  Wcat 
became  and  remained  Latin,  but  it  was  a  Latin  dvitizatum  that 
was  saturated  with  Greek  influences.  The  ultimate  divitton, 
both  of  the  empire  and  the  church,  into  two  halves,  finds  its 
explanation  in  this  original  difference  of  culture. 

Ancient  Aothorities. — (L)  For  the  earliest  periods  of  Greek 
history,  the  so-called  Minoan  and  Mycenaean,  the  evidence  is 
purely  archaeological.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  refer  to  the  article 
Aegean  Civiuzation.  For  the  next  period,  the  Heroic  or 
Homeric  Age,  the  evidence  is  derived  from  the  poems  of  Homer. 
In  any  estimate  of  the  value  of  these  poems  as  historical  evidence, 
much  will  depend  upon  the  view  taken  of  the  authorship,  age 
and  unity  of  the  poems.  For  a  full  discussion  of  these  questions 
see  HoMEJi.  It  cannot  be  questioned  that  the  poems  are  evidence 
for  the  existence  of  a  period  in  the  history  of  the  Greek  race, 
which  differed  from  later  periods  in  political  and  social,  military 
and  economic  conditions.  But  here  agreement  ends.  If,  as  is 
generally  held  by  German  critics,  the  poems  are  not  earlier  than 
the  9th  century,  if  they  contain  large  interpolations  of  con- 
siderably later  date  and  if  they  are  Ionian  in  origin,  the  authority 
of  the  poems  becomes  comparatively  slight.  The  eustence  of 
different  strata  in  the  poems  will  imply  the  existence  of  incon- 
sistencies and  contradictions  in  the  evidence;  nor  will  the 
evidence  be  that  of  a  contemporary.  It  will  also  follow  that  the 
picture  of  the  heroic  age  contained  in  the  poems  is  an  idealix^l 
one.  The  more  extreme  critics,  e.g.  Beloch,  deny  that  the  poems 
are  evidence  even  for  the  existence  of  a  pre-'Dorian  epoch.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  poems  are -assigned  to  the  nth  or  latb 
century,  to  a  Peloponnesian  writer,  and  to  a  period  anterior  to 
the  Dorian  Invasion  and  the  colonization  of  Asia  Minor  (this 
is  the  view  of  the  late  Dr  D.  B.  Munro),  the  evidence  becomes 
that  of  a  contemporary,  and  the  authority  of  the  poems  for  the 
distribution  of  races  and  tribes  in  the  Heroic  Age,  as  well  as  for 
the  social  and  political  conditions  of  the  poet's  time,  would  be 
conclusive.  Homer  recognizes  no  Dorians  in  Greece,  except  in 
Crete  (see  Odyssey,  xix.  177),  and  no  Greek  colonies  in  Asia 
Minor.  Only  two  explanations  are  possible.  Either  there  is 
deliberate  archaism  in  the  poems,  or  else  they  are  earlier  in  date 
than  the  Dorian  Invasion  and  the  colonization  of  Asia  Minor. 

II.  For  the  period  that  extends  from  the  end  of  the  Heroic 
Age  to  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  War*  the  two  principal 
authorities  are  Herodotus  and  Thucydides.  Not  only  ggg^g^g^^ 
have  the  other  historical  works  which  treated  of  this 
period  perished  (those  at  least  whose  date  is  earlier  than 
the  Christian  era),  but  their  authority  was  secondary  and 
their  material  chiefly  derived  from  these  two  writers.  In  one 
respect  then  this  period  of  Greek  history  stands  alone.  Indeed, 
it  might  be  said,  with  hardly  an  exaggeration,  that  there  is 
nothing  like  it  elsewhere  in  history.  Almost  our  sole  authorities 
are  two  writers  of  unique  genius,  and  they  are  writers  whose 
works  have  come  down  to  us  intact.  For  the  period  which  ends 
with  the  repulse  of  the  Persian  invasion  our  authority  is  Hero- 
dotus. For  the  period  which  extends  from  478  to  411  we  are 
dependent  upon  Thucydides'.  In  each  case,  however,  a  distinc- 
t ion  must  be  drawn.  The  Persian  Wars  form  the  proper  subject 
of  Herodotus's  work;  the  Peloponnesian  War  is  the  subject  of 
Thucydides.  The  interval  between  the  two  wars  is  merely 
sketched  by  Thucydides;  while  of  the  period  anterior  to  the 
conflicts  of  the  Greek  with  the  Persian,  Herodotus  does  not 
attempt  either  a  complete  or  a  continuous  narrative.  His 
references  to  it  are  episodical  and  accidental.  Hence  our  know- 
ledge of  the  Persian  Wars  and  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  is 
widely  different  in  character  from  our  knowledge  of  the  rest  of 
this  period.  In  the  history  of  these  wars  the  lacunae  arc  few; 
in  the  rest  of  the  history  they  are  alike  frequent  and  serious.  In 
the  history,  therefore,  of  the  Persian  and  Peloponnesian  Wars 
little  is  to  be  learnt  from  the  secondary  sources.  Elsewhere, 
especially  in  the  interval  between  the  two  wars,  they  become 
relatively  important. 

In  estimating  the  authority  of  Herodotus  (f.v.)  we  must  be 

'Strictly  sfxaking.  to  411  B.C.  For  the  last  seven  yean  of  the 
war  our  principal  authority  is  Xenopbon,  Hdktuatt  i.,  n. 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


455 


careful  to  distinguish  between  the  invasion  of  Xerxes  and  all 
that  is  earlier.    Herodotus's  work  was  published  soon  after 
430  B.C.,  i^,  about  half  a  century  after  the  invasion.    Much  of  his 
information  was  gathered  in  the  course  of  the  preceding  twenty 
years.    Although  his  evidence  b  not  that  of  an  eye-witness,  he 
had  had  c^portunities  of  meeting  those  who  had  themselves 
played  a  part  in  the  war,  on  one  side  or  the  other  (e.g.  Thcrsander 
of  Orchomenos,  ix.  16).    In  any  case,  we  are  dealing  with  a 
tradition  which  is  little  more  than  a  generation  old,  and  the 
events  to  which  the  tradition  relates,  the  incidents  of  the  struggle 
against  Xerxes,  were  of  a  nature  to  impress  themselves  indelibly 
upon  the  minds  of  contemporaries.    Where,  on  the  other  hand, 
he  is  treating  of  the  period  anterior  to  the  invasion  of  Xerxes, 
he  is  dependent  upon  a  tradition  which  is  never  less  than  two 
generations  old,  and  is  sometimes  centuries  old.    His  informants 
were,  at  best,  the  sons  or  grandsons  of  the  actors  in  the  wars 
{e.g.  Archias  the  Spartan,  iii.  55).    Moreover,  the  invasion  of 
Xerxes,  entailing,  as  it  did,  the  destruction  of  cities  and  sanctu- 
aries, especially  of  Athens  and  its  temples,  marks  a  dividing 
fine  in  Greek  history.    It  was  not  merely  that  evidence  [)erished 
and  records  were  destroyed.    What  in  reference  to  tradition  is 
even  naore  important ,  a  new  consciousness  of  power  was  awakened, 
new  interests  were  aroused,  and  new  questions  and  problems 
came  to  the  front.    The  former  things  had  passed  away;  all 
things  were  become  new.    A  generation  that  is  occupied  with 
making  history  on  a  great  scale  is  not  likely  to  busy  itself  with 
th«  history  of  the  past.    Consequently,  the  earlier  traditions 
became  faint  and  obscured,  and  the  history  difficult  to  recon- 
struct.   As  we  trace  back  the  conflict  between  Greece  and 
Persia  to  its  beginnings  and  antecedents,  we  arc  conscious  that 
the  tradition  becomes  less  trustworthy  as  we  pass  back  from 
one  stage  to  another.    The  tradition  of  the  expedition  of  Datis 
and  Artaphemes  is  less  credible  in  its  details  than  that  of  the 
expedition  of  Xerxes,  but  it  is  at  once  fuller  and  more  credible 
than  the  tradition  of  the  Ionian  revolt.    When  we  get  back  to 
the  Scythian  expedition,  we  can  discover  but  few  grains  of 
historical  truth. 

Much  Tecent  crit'idsm  of  Herodotus  has  been  directed  against 
his  veracity  as  a  traveller.  With  this  we  are  not  here  concerned. 
The  criticism  of  him  as  an  historian  begins  with  Thucydidcs. 
Among  the  references  of  the  latter  writer  to  his  predecessor  are 
the  following  passages:  i.  ai;  i.  22  ad  fin.;  i.  20  ad  fin, 
(cf.  Herod,  ix.  53.  and  vi.  57  ad  fin.);  iii.  62  §  4  (cf.  Herod, 
ix.  87);  ii.  2  S§  I  and  3  (cf.  Herod,  vii.  233);  ii.  81  i  (cf.  Herod, 
vi.  98).  Perhaps  the  two  clearest  examples  of  this  criticism  are 
to  be  found  in  Thucydides'  correction  of  Herodotus's  account 
of  the  Cylonian  conspiracy  (Thuc.  i.  126,  cf.  Herod,  v.  71)  and 
in  his  appreciation  of  the  character  of  Themistoclcs— a  veiled 
protest  against  the  slanderous  tales  accepted  by  Herodotus 
(i.  138).  In  Plutarch's  tract  "  On  the  Malignity  of  Herodotus." 
there  b  much  that  is  suggestive,  although  his  general  standpoint, 
viz.  that  Herodotus  was  in  duty  bound  to  suppress  all  that  was 
discreditable  to  the  valour  or  patriotism  of  the  Greeks,  is  not 
that  of  the  modern  critic.  It  must  be  conceded  to  Plutarch 
that  he  makes  good  his  charge  of  bias  in  Herodotus's  attitude 
towards  certain  of  the  Greek  states.  The  question,  however, 
may  fairly  be  asked,  how  far  this  bias  is  [)ersonal  to  the  author, 
or  how  far  it  is  due  to  the  character  of  the  sources  from  which 
his  infonnation  was  derived.  He  cannot,  indeed,  altogether  be 
acquitted  of  personal  bias.  His  work  is,  to  some  extent,  intended 
as  an  apdopa  for  the  Athenian  empire.  In  answer  to  the  charge 
that  Athens  was  guilty  cf  robbing  other  Greek  states  of  their 
freedom,  Herodotus  seeks  to  show,  firstly,  that  it  was  to  Athens 
that  the  Greek  worid,  as  a  whole,  owed  its  freedom  from  Persia, 
and  secondly,  that  the  subjects  of  Athens,  the  Ionian  Greeks, 
were  unworthy  to  be  free.  This  leads  him  to  be  unjust  both 
to  the  services  of  Sparta  and  to  the  qualities  of  the  Ionian  race. 
For  his  estimate  of  the  debt  due  to  Athens  see  vii.  139.  For 
bias  against  the  lonians  see  especially  iv.  142  (cf.  Thuc.  vi.  77); 
cf.  also  L  X43  and  146,  vi.  12-14  (Lade),  vi.  112  ad  fin.  A 
striking  example  ofhis  prejudice  in  favour  of  Athens  is  furnished 
bgr  vL  91.    At  a  moment  when  Greece  rang  with  the  crime  of 


Athens  in  expelUnglhe  Aeginetans  from  their  island,  he  ventures 
to  trace  in  their  expulsion  the  vengeance  of  heaven  for  an  act 
of  sacrilege  nearly  sixty  years  earlier  (see  Aecina).  As  a  rule, 
however,  the  bias  apparent  in  his  narrative  is  due  to  the  sources 
from  which  it  is  derived.  Writing  at  Athens,  in  the  first  years 
of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  he  can  hardly  help  seeing  the  past 
through  an  Athenian  medium.  It  was  inevitable  that  much 
of  what  he  heard  should  come  to  him  from  Athenian  informants, 
and  should  be  coloured  by  Athenian  prejudices.  We  may  thus 
explain  the  leniency  whicli  he  shows  towards  Argos  and  Thessaly, 
the  old  allies  of  Athens,  in  marked  contrast  to  his  treatment  of 
Thebes,  Corinth  and  Aegina,  her  deadliest  foes.  For  Argos 
cf.  vii.  152;  Thessaly,  vii.  172-174;  Thebes,  vii.  132,  vii.  233, 
ix.  87;  Corinth  (especially  the  Corinthian  general  Adeimantus, 
whose  son  Aristeus  was  the  most  active  enemy  of  Athens  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian  War),  vii.  5,  vii.  21,  viii.  29  and 
61,  vii.  94;  Aegina,  ix.  78-80  and  85.  In  his  intimacy  with 
members  of  the  great  Alcmaeonid  house  we  probably  have  the 
explanation  of  his  depreciation  of  the  services  of  Themistodes,  as 
well  as  of  his  defence  of  the  family  from  the  charges  brought 
against  it  in  connexion  with  Cylon  and  with  the  incident  of  the 
shield  shown  on  Pentelicus  at  the  time  of.  Marathon  (v.  71,  vi. 
1 21-124).  His  failure  to  do  justice  to  the  Cypselid  tyrants  of 
Corinth  (v.  92),  and  to  the  Spartan  king  Cleomenes,  is  to  be 
accounted  for  by  the  nature  of  his  sources — in  the  former  case, 
the  tradition  of  the  Corinthian  oligarchy;  in  the  latter,  accounts, 
partly  derived  from  the  family  of  the  exiled  king  Demaratus  and 
partly  representative  of  the  view  of  the  ephorate.  Much  of  the 
earlier  history  is  cast  in  a  religious  mould,  e.g.  the  story  of  the 
Mermnad  kings  of  Lydia  in  book  i.,  or  of  the  fortunes  of  the 
colony  of  Cyrene  (iv.  145-167).  In  such  cases  we  cannot  fail 
to  recognize  the  influence  of  the  Delphic  priesthood.  Grote 
has  pointed  out  that  the  moralizing  tendency  observable  in 
Herodotus  is  partly  to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  much  of  his 
information  was  gathered  from  priests  and  at  temples,  and  that 
it  was  given  in  explanation  of  votive  offerings,  or  of  the  fulfilment 
of  oracles.  Hence  the  determination  of  the  sources  of  his  narrative 
has  becomeoneof  the  principal  tasks  of  Herodotean  criticism.  In 
addition  to  the  current  tradition  of  Athens,  the  family  tradition 
of  the  Alcmaeonidae,  and  the  stories  to  be  heard  at  Delphi  and 
other  sanctuaries,  there  may  be  indicated  the  Spartan  tradition, 
in  the  form  in  which  it  existed  in  the  middle  of  the  5th  century; 
that  of  his  native  Halicarnassus,  to  which  is  due  the  prominence 
of  its  queen  Artemisia;  the  traditions  of  the  Ionian  cities, 
especially  of  Samos  and  Miletus  (important  both  for  the  history 
of  the  Mermnadae  and  for  the  Ionian  Revolt);  and  those  current 
in  Sicily  and  Magna  Graecia,  which  were  learned  during  his 
residence  at  Thurii  (Sybaris  and  Croton,  v.  44,  45;  Syracuse  and 
Gcla,  vii.  153-167).  Among  his  more  special  sources  we  can 
point  to  the  descendants  of  Demaratus,  who  still  held,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  4th  century,  the  principality  in  the  Troad 
which  had  been  granted  tc  iheir  ancestor  by  Darius  (Xen.  Hell. 
iii.  I.  6),  and  to  the  family  of  the  Persian  general  Artabazus, 
in  which  the  satrapy  of  r>dscylium  (Phrygia)  was  hereditary  in 
the  5th  century.*  His  use  of  written  material  is  more  difficult 
to  determine.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  list  of  Persian 
satrapies,  urith  their  respective  assessments  of  tribute  (iii.  89-97), 
the  description  of  the  royal  road  from  Sardis  to  Susa  (v.  52-54), 
and  of  the  march  of  Xerxes,  together  with  the  list  of  the  con- 
tingents that  took  part  in  the  expedition  (vii.  26-131),  are  all 
derived  from  documentary  and  authoritative  sources.  From 
previous  writers  (e.;.  Dionysius  of  Miletus,  Hecataeus,  Charon 
of  Lampsacus  and  Xanthus  the  Lydian)  it  is  probable  that  he 
has  borrowed  little,  though  the  fragments  are  too  scanty  to 
permit  of  adequate  comparison.  His  references  to  monuments, 
dedicatory  offerings,  inscriptions  and  oracles  are  frequent. 

The  chief  defects  of  Herodotus  are  his  failure  too  grasp  the 
principles  of  historical  criticism,  to  understand  the  nature  of 
military   operations,    and    to   appreciate    the  importance   of 

*  Possibly  some  of  hts  information  about  Persian  affairs  mav  have 
been  drnved.  at  first  or  second  hand,  from  Zopynis,sonof  MegaDyzuSk 
whose  flight  to  Athens  is  mentioned  in  iii.  160. 


456 


GREECE 


(HISTORY 


chronology.  In  place  of  historical  criticism  we  find  a  crude 
rationalism  («.^.  ii.  45,  vii.  129,  viii.  8).  Having  no  conception  of 
the  distinction  between  occasion  and  cause,  he  is  content  to  find 
the  explanation  of  great  historical  movements  in  trivial  incidents 
or  personal  motives.  An  example  of  this  is  furnished  by  his 
account  of  the  Ionian  revolt,  in  which  he  fails  to  discover  the 
real  causes  either  oC,  the  movement  or  of  its  result.  Indeed,  it 
is  clear  that  he  regarded  criticism  as  no  part  of  his  task  as  an 
historian.  In  vii.  15a  he  states  the  principles  which  have  guided 
him — cYo;  6i  6^Xb>  "Kkftiv  rd  Xeyd/ioa,  ird9ta0al  7c  fih  ov 
vajrr&jraffi  6<f)d\Uf  koI  /mh  tovto  t6  hros  kxirot  is  irdxra  Xbyoy. 
In  obedience  to  this  principle  he  again  and  agaii)  gives  two  or 
more  versions  of  a  story.  We  are  thus  frequently  enabled  to 
arrive  at  the  truth  by  a  comparison  of  the  discrepant  traditions. 
It  would  have  been  fortunate  if  all  ancient  wfiters  who  lacked 
the  critical  genius  of  Thucydides  had  been  content  to  adopt  the 
practice  of  Herodotus.  His  accounts  of  battles  are  sdways 
unsatisfactory.  The  great  battles,  Marathon,  Thermopylae, 
Salamis  and  Plataea,  present  a  series  of  problems.  This  result 
is  partly  due  to  the  character  of  the  traditions  which  he  follows — 
traditions  which  were  to  some  extent  inconsistent  or  contra- 
dictory, and  were  derived  from  different  sources;  it  is,  however, 
ia  great  measure  due  to  his  inability  to  think  out  a  strategical 
combination  or  a  tactical  movement.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  the  battle  of  Plataea,  as  described  by  Herodotus,  is  wholly 
unintelligible.  Most  serious  of  all  his  deficiencies  is  his  careless 
chronology.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  5th  century,  the  data 
which  he  affords  are  inadequate  or  ambiguous.  The  interval 
between  the  Scythian  expedition  and  the  Ionian  revolt  is 
described  by  so  vague  an  expression  as  furi  6i  06  rclKKbw  XP^^ 
iviffts  KaKuf¥  ^y  (v.  28),  In  the  history  of  the  revolt  itself, 
though  he  gives  us  the  interval  between  its  outbreak. and  the 
fall  of  Miletus  (2«r^  tru,  vi.  18),  he  does  not  give  us  the  interval 
between  this  and  the  battle  of  Lade,  nor  does  he  indicate  with 
sufficient  precision  the  years  to  which  the  successive  phases  of 
the  movement  belong.  Throughout  the  work  profe^ed  syn- 
chronisms too  often  prove  to  be  mere  literary  devices  for  facilitat- 
ing a  transition  from  one  subject  to  another  (cf.  e.g.  v.  81  with 
8<),  90;  or  vi.  51  with  87  and  94).  In  the  6th  century,  as  Grote 
pointed  out,  a  whole  generation,  or  more,  disappears  in  his 
historical  perspective  (cf.  i.  30,  vi.  125,  v.  94,  iii.  47,  48, 
v.  113  contrasted  with  v.  104  and  iv.  162).  I'he  attempts  to 
reconstruct  the  chronology  of  this  century  upon  the  basis  of  the 
data  afforded  by  Herodotus  (e.g.  by  Bcloch,  Rheinisches  Museum, 
xlv.,  1890,  pp.  465-473)  have  completely  failed. 

In  spite  of  all  such  defects  Herodotus  is  an  author,  not  only 
of  unrivalled  literary  charm,  but  of  the  utmost  value  to  the 
historian.  If  much  remains  uncertain  or  obscure,  even  in  the 
history  of  the  Persian  Wars,  it  is  chiefly  to  motives  or  policy, 
to  topography  or  strategy,  to  dates  or  numbers,  that  uncertainty 
attaches.  It  is  to  these  that  a  sober  criticism  will  confine  itself. 
Thucydides  is  at  once  the  father  of  contemporary  history  and 
the  father  of  historical-  criticism.  From  a  comparison  of  i.  i , 
i.  22  and  v.  26,  we  may  gather  both  the  principles  to 
which  he  adhered  in  the  composition  of  his  work  and 
the  conditions  under  which  it  was  composed.  It  is 
seldom  that  the  circumstances  of  an  historical  writer  have  been 
so  favourable  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  task.  Thucydides 
was  a  contemporary  of  the  Twenty-Seven  Years'  War  in  the 
fullest  sense  of  the  term.  He  had  reached  manhood  at  its  out- 
break, and  he  survived  its  close  by  at  least  half-a-dozen  years. 
And  he  was  more  than  a  mere  contemporary.  As  a  man  of  high 
birth,  a  member  of  the  Peridean  circle,  and  the  holder  of  the 
chief  political  office  in  the  Athenian  state,  the  strategia,  he  was 
not  only  familiar  with  the  business  of  administration  and  the 
conduct  of  military  operations,  but  he  possessed  in  addition 
a  personal  koowledge  of  those  who  played  the  principal  part  in 
the  political  life  of  the  age.  His  exile  in  the  year  424  afforded 
him  opportunities  of  visiting  the  scenes  of  distant  operations 
(e.g.  Sicily)  and  of  coming  in  contact  with  the  actors  on  the  other 
side.  He  himself  tells  us  that  he  spared  no  pains  to  obtain  the 
best  information  available  in  each  case.    He  also  tells  us  that 


Tbueyd' 


he  began  collecting  materials  for  his  work  from  the  very  begiimiog 
of  the  war.  Indeed,  it  is  probable  that  much  of  books  i.-v.  24 
was  written  soon  after  the  Peace  of  Nicias  (421),  just  as  it  a 
possible  that  the  history  of  the  Sicilian  Expedition  (books  vi. 
and  vii.)  was  originally  intended  to  form  a  separate  work.  To 
the  view,  however,  which  has  obtained  wide  suf^Mrt  in  recent 
years,  that  books  i.-v.  22  and  books  vi.  and  vii.  were  separately 
published,  the  rest  of  book  v.  and  book  viii.  being  h'ttle  more  than 
a  rough  draught,  composed  after  the  author  had  adopted  the 
theory  of  a  single  war  of  twenty-seven  years'  duration,  of  which 
the  Sicilian  Expedition  and  the  operations  of  the  years  431-421 
formed  integral  parts,  there  seem  to  the  present  writer  to  be 
insuperable  objections.  The  work,  as  a  whde,  appears  to  have 
been  composed  in  the  first  years  of  the  4th  century,  after  his 
return  from  exile  in  404,  when  the  material  already  in  existrace 
must  have  been  revised  and  largely  recast.  There  are  exceed- 
ingly few  passages,  such  as  iv.  48.  5,  which  appear  to  have  bees 
overlooked  in  the  process  of  revision.  It  can  Jiardly  be 
questioned  that  the  impression  left  upon  the  reader's  mind  is 
that  the  point  of  view  of  the  author,  in  all  the  books  alike,  is 
that  of  one  writing  after  the  fall  of  Athens. 

The  task  of  historical  criticism  in  the  case  of  the  Pdoponnesian 
War  is  widely  different  from  its  task  in  the  case  of  the  Persiao 
Wars.  It  has  to  deal,  not  with  facts  as  they  appear  in  the 
traditions  of  an  imaginative  race,  but  with  facts  as  they  appeared 
to  a  scientific  observer.  Facts,  indeed,  are  seldom  in  dispute. 
The  question  is  rather  whether  facts  of  importance  are  omitted, 
whether  the  explanation  of  causes  is  correct,  or  whether  the 
judgment  of  men  and  measures  is  just.  Such  inaccuracies  as 
have  been  brought  home  to  Thucydides  on  the  strength,  e.g.  of 
epigraphic  evidence,  are,  as  a  rule,  trivial.  His  most  serious 
errors  relate  to  topographical  details,  in  cases  where  he  was 
dependent  on  the  information  of  others. .  Sphacteria  (see  Pylos) 
(see  G.  B.  Grundy,  Journal  of  Hdlenic  Studies,  xvi.,  1896.  p.  i) 
is  a  case  in  point.  Nor  have  the  difficulties  connected  with  the 
siege  of  Plataea  been  cleared  up  either  by  Grundy  or  by  others 
(see  Grundy,  Topography  of  ike  Battle  of  Plataea,  &c.,  1894). 
Where,  on  the  contrary,  he  is  writing  at  first  hand  his  descrip- 
tions of  sites  are  surprisingly  correct.  The  most  serious  charge 
as  yet  brought  against  his  authority  as  to  matters  of  fact  relates 
to  his  account  of  the  Revolution  of  the  Four  Hundred,  which 
appears,  at  first  sight,  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  documentary 
evidence  supplied  by  Aristotle's  Constitution  of  Athens  (q.9.).  It 
may  be  questioned,  however,  whether  the  documents  have 
been  correctly  interpreted  by  Aristotle.  On  the  whole,  it  is 
probable  that  the  general  course  of  events  was  such  as  Thucydides 
describes  (see  E.  Meyer,  Forschungen,  ii..  406-436),  though  be 
failed  to  appreciate  the  position  of  Theramenes  and  the  Moderate 
party,  and  was  clearly  misinformed  on  some  important  points  of 
detail.  With  regard  to  the  omission  of  facts,  it  is  unquestionable 
that  much  is  omitted  that  would  not  be  omitted  by  a  modern 
writer.  Such  omissions  are  generally  due  to  the  author's  con- 
ception of  his  task.  Thus  the  internal  history  of  Athens  h 
passed  over  as  forming  no  part  of  the  history  of  the  war.  It 
is  only  where  the  course  of  the  war  is  directly  affected  by  the 
course  of  political  events  (e.g.  by  the  Revolution  of  the  Four 
Hundred)  that  the  internal  history  is  referred  to.  However 
much  it  may  be  regretted  that  the  relations  of  potitical  parties 
are  not  more  fully  described,  especially  in  book  v.,  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  from  his  standpoint  there  is  logical  justification 
even  for  the  omission  of  the  ostradsm  of  Hyperbolus.  There 
are  omissions,  however,  which  are  not  so  easily  eq>Iained. 
Perhai»  the  most  notable  instance  is  that  of  the  raising  of  the 
tribute  in  425  B.C.  (see  Deuan  League). 

Nowhere  is  the  contrast  between  the  historical  methods  of 
Herodotus  and  Thucydides  more  apparent  than  in  the  treatmoat 
of  the  causes  of  events.  The  distinction  between  the  occasion 
and  the  cause  is  constantly  present  to  the  mind  of  Thucydides, 
and  it  is  his  tendency  to  make  too  little  rather  than  too  mocb 
of  the  personal  factor.  Sometimes,  however,  it  may  be  doubled 
whether  his  explanation  of  the  causes  of  an  event  is  adequate  or 
correct.    In  tracing  the  causes  of  the  Pdoponnesiui  War  itsdl 


HBTORVl 


GREECE 


457 


modem  writers  ftie  disposed  to  allow  more  weight  to  the  com> 
mercial  rivalry  of  Corinth;  while  in  the  case  of  the  Sicilian 
expedition,  they  would  actually  reverse  his  judgment  (ii.  65  6  Is 
SuccXIov  vXoCs  8f  ob  tooovtw  ypC^ifi  htiLfnmUk  ^r  rpin  oOs 
kritaajf).  To  us  it  seems  that  the  very  idea  of  the  expedition 
implied  a  gigantic  miscalculation  of  the  resources  of  Athens  and  of 
the  difficulty  of  the  task.  His  judgments  of  men  and  of  measures 
have  been  critidxed  by  writers  of  different  schools*  and  from 
different  points  of  view.  Grote  criticized  his  verdict  upon  Cleon, 
while  be  accepted  his  estimate  of  the  policy  of  Pericles.  More 
recent  writers,  on  the  other  hand,  have  accepted  his  view  of 
Oeon«  while  they  have  selected  for  attack  his  appreciation  alike 
of  the  policy  and  the  strategy  of  Perides.  He  has  been  charged, 
too,  with  failure  to  do  justice  to  the  statesmanship  of  Alcibiades.' 
There  are  cases,  undoubtedly,  in  which  tlie  balance  of  recent 
opinion  will  be  adverse  to  the  view  of  Thucydides.  There  are 
many  more  in  which  the  result  of  criticism  has  been  to  establish 
his  view.  That  he  should  occasionally  have  been  mistaken  in 
his  judgment  and  his  views  is  certainly  no  detraction  from  his 
claim  to  greatness. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  whOe  the  criticism  of 
Herodotus,  since  Grote  wrote,  has  tended  seriously  to  modify 
our  view  of  the  Persian  Wars,  as  well  as  of  the  earh'er  history, 
the  criticism  of  lliucydides,  in  spite  of  its  imposing  bulk,  has 
affected  but  slightly  our  view  of  the  course  of  the  Pdoponnesian 
War.  The  labours  of  recent  workers  in  this  field  have  borne 
most  fruit  where  they  have  been  directed  to  subjects  neglected 
by  Thucydides,  such  as  the  history  of  political  parties,  or  the 
organixation  of  the  empire  (G.  Gilbert's  Innere  GesckichU  Athens 
im  ZciUxUer  des  pd.  Krieges  is  a  good  example  of  such  work). 

In  regard  to  Thucydides'  treatment  of  the  period  between  the 
Persian  and  Pdoponnesian  Wars  (the  so-called  PentecorUaiUris) 
it  should  be  remembered  that  he  does  not  profess  to  give,  even 
in  outline,  the  history  of  this  period  as  a  whole.  The  period  is 
regarded  simply  as  a  prdude  to  the  Peloponnesian  War.  There 
is  no  attempt  to  sketch  the  history  of  the  Greek  world  or  of 
Greece  proper  during  this  period.  There  is,  indeed,  no  attempt 
to  give  a  complete  sketch  of  Athenian  history.  His  object  is  to 
tracx  the  growth  of  the  Athenian  Empire,  and  the  causes  that 
made  the  war  inevitable.  Much  is  therefore  omitted  not  only 
in  the  history  of  the  other  Greek  states,  especiaUy  the  Pdo- 
ponnesian, but  even  in  the  history  of  Athens.  Nor  does  Thucyd- 
ides attempt  an  exact  chronology.  He  gives  us  a  few  dates 
{e.%.  surrender  of  Ithome,  in  the  tenth  year,  i.  103;  of  Thasos, 
in  the  third  year,  i.  loi;  duration  of  the  Egyptian  expedition 
six  years,  L  no;  interval  between  Tanagra  and  Genophyta 
61  days,  i.  108;  revolt  of  Samos,  in  the  sixth  year  after  the 
Thirty  Years'  Truce,  i.  115),  but  from  these  data  alone  it  would 
be  Impossible  to  reconstruct  the  chronology  of  the  period.  In 
spite  of  all  that  can  be  gleaned  from  our  other  authorities,  our 
knowledge  of  this,  the  true  period  of  Athenian  greatness,  must 
remain  dight  and  imperfect  as  compared  with  our  knowledge 
of  the  next  thirty  years. 

Of  the  secondary  authorities  for  this  period  the  two  prindpal 
ones  are  Diodonis  (xi.  38  to  xii.  37)  and  Plutarch.  Diodorus 
^^^^  is  of  value  chiefly  in  relation  to  Sicilian  affairs,  to  which 
he  devotes  about  a  third  of  this  section  of  his  work 
ai^  for  which  he  is  almost  our  sole  authority.  His  source  for 
SIdUan  history  is  the  Sicilian  writer  Timaeus  {q.v),  an  author 
of  the  3rd  century  B.C.  For  the  history  of  Greece  Proper  during 
the  Pentecontaetia  Diodonis  contributes  comparatively  little 
of  importance.  Isolated  notices  of  particular  events  {e.g.  the 
Synceeism  of  Elis,  471  B.C.,  or  the  foundation  of  Amphipolis, 
437  B.C.),  which  appear  to  be  derived  from  a  chronological  writer, 
may  generally  be  trusted.  The  greater  part  of  his  narrative 
is,  however,  derived  from  Ephorus,  who  appears  to  have  had 
before  him  little  authentic  information  for  this  period  of  Greek 
history  other  than  that  afforded  by  Thucydides'  work.  Four  of 
Plutatch's  Lives  are  concerned  with  this  period,  viz.  ThetnistocUsy 
Aristid€s,  Cimon  and  Perides.    From  the  Aristides  little  can 

.  <  For  a  defence  of  Thucydides'  judgment  on  all  three  sUtesmen, 
ne  E.  Meyer,  Forschungen,  U.  296-379. 


neetw 


be  gained.  Plutarch,  in  this  biography,  appears  to  be  mainly 
dependent  upon  Idomeneus  of  Lampsacus,  an  excessively  untrust- 
worthy writer  of  the  3rd  century  B.C.,  who  is  probably  ^ 
to  be  credited  with  the  invention  of  the  oligarchicid 
conspiracy  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Plataea  (ch.  13),  and  of 
the  decree  of  Aristides,  rendering  aU  four  dasses  of  dtizens 
eligihle  for  the  archonship  (ch.  32).  The  Cimon^  on  the  other 
hand,  contains  much  that  is  valuable;  such  as,  e.g.  the  account 
of  the.  battle  of  the  Eurymedon  (chs.  1 2  and  13).  To  the  Perides 
we  owe  several  quotations  from  the  Old  Comedy.  Two  other 
of  the  Uves,  Lycurgus  and  Solon^  are  amongst  our  most  Important 
sources  for  the  early  history  of  Sparta  and  Athens  respectivdy. 
Of  the  two  (besides  Perides)  which  relate  to  the  Peloponnesian 
War,  Aldbiades  adds  little  to  what  can  be  gained  from  Thucydides 
and  Xenophon;  the  NiciaSy  on  the  other  hand,  supplements 
Thucydides'  narrative  of  the  Sidlian  expedition  with  many 
valuable  details,  which,  it  may  safdy  be  assumed,  are  derived 
from  the  contemporary  historian,  Phillstus  of  Syracuse. 
Amongst  the  most  valuable  material  afforded  by  Plutarch  are 
the  quotations,  which  occur  in  almost  all  the  Uves,  from  the 
collection  of  Athenian  decrees  (^^M^rwi*  ovyoTbryi))  formed 
by  the  Macedonian  writer  Craterus,  in  the  3rd  century  b.c. 
Two  other  works  may  be  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the 
history  of  Athens.  For  the  history  of  the  Athenian  Constitution 
down  to  the  end  of  the  5th  century  B.C.  Aristotle's 
Constituium  of  Athens  (q.v.)  is  our  chief  authority. 
The  other  ConstUution  of  A  /A«fu,  erroneously  attribut  ed 
to  Xenophon,  a  tract  of  singular  interest  both  on  literary  and 
historical  grounds,  throws  a  good  deal  of  light  on  the  internal 
condition  of  Athens,  and  on  the  system  of  government,  both  of 
the  state  and  of  the  empire,  in  the  age  of  the  Peloponnesian  War, 
during  the  earlier  years  of  which  it  was  composed. 

To  the  literary  sources  for  the  history  of  Greece,  especially  of 
Athens,  in  the  5th  century  B.C.  must  be  added  the  epigraphic. 
Few  inscriptions  have  been  discovered  which  date 
back  beyond  the  Persian  Wars.  For  the  latter  half 
of  the  5th  century  they  are  both  numerous  and  im- 
portant. Of  espedal  value  are  the  series  of  Quota^lists,  from 
which  can  be  calculated  the  amount  of  tribute  paid  by  the 
subject-allies  of  Athens  from  the  year  454  B.C.  onwards.  The 
great  majority  of  the  inscriptions  of  this  period  are  of  Athenian 
origin.  Their  value  is  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  they  relate,  as 
a  rule,  to  questions  of  organization,  finance  and  administration, 
as  to  which  little  information  is  to  be  gained  from  the  literary 
sources. 

For  the  period  between  the  Persian  and  Pdoponnesian  Wars 
Busolt,  Griechische  Geschichte,  ill.  i,  is  Indispensable.  Hill's 
Sources  of  Greek  History,  bjC.  478-431  (Oxford,  1897)  is  excellent. 
It  gives  the  most  important  inscriptions  in  a  convenient  form. 

III.  The  4th  Century  to  the  Death  of  A  lexander. — Of  the  historia  ns 
who  flourished  In  the  4th  century  the  sole  writer  whose  works 
have  come  down  to  us  Is  Xenophon.  It  is  a  singular  xemomhom, 
accident  of  fortune  that  neither  of  the  two  authors, 
who  at  once  were  most  representative  of  thdr  age  and  did  most 
to  determine  the  views  of  Greek  history  current  In  subsequent 
generations,  Ephorus  (q.v.)  and  Theopompus  (q.v.),  should  be 
extant.  It  was  from  them,  rather  than  from  Herodotus,  Thucyd- 
ides or  Xenophon  that  the  Roman  world  obtained  its  knowledge 
of  the  history  of  Greece  in  the  past,  and  its  conception  of  its 
significance.  Both  were  pupils  of  Isocrates,  and  both,  therefore, 
bred  up  in  an  atmosphere  of  rhetoric.  Hence  their  popularity 
and  their  Influence.  The  scientific  spirit  of  Thucydides  was  alien 
to  the  temper  of  the  4th  century,  and  hardly  more  congenial  to 
the  age  of  Cicero  or  Tadtus.  To  the  rhetorical  spirit,  which  is 
conmion  to  both,  each  added  defects  peculiar  to  himself.  Theo- 
pompus  Is  a  strong  partisan,  a  sworn  foe  to  Athens  and  to 
Democracy.  Ephorus,  though  a  military  historian,  is  ignorant 
of  the  art  of  war.  He  is  also  incredibly  careless  and  uncritical. 
It  is  enough  to  point  to  his  description  of  the  battle  of  the 
Eurymedon  (Diodorus  xl.  60-62),  in  which,  misled  by  an  epigram, 
which  he  supposed  to  relate  to  this  engagement  (it  really  refers 
to  the  Athenian  victory  off  SaUmis  In  Cyprus,  449  B.C.),  he 


458 


GREECE 


(HISTORY 


makes  the  coast  of  Cyprus  the  scene  of  Cimon's  naval  victory, 
and  finds  no  difficulty  in  putting  it  on  the  same  day  as  the 
victory  on  shore  on  the  banks  of  the  Eurymedon,  in  Pamphylia. 
Only  a  few  fragments  remain  of  either  writer,  but  Theopompus 
iq.v.)  was  largely  used  by  Plutarch  in  several  of  the  Lives, 
while  Ephorus  continues  to  be  the  main  source  of  Diodorus' 
history,  as  far  as  the  outbreak  of  the  Sacred  War  (Fragments  of 
Ephorus  in  MiUler's  Pragmenta  kUtoricorum  Craecorutn,  vol.  i.; 
of  Theopompus  in  HeUenica  Oxyrkynckia,  cum  Theopompi 
el  CraHpfi  fmgmerUis,  ed.  B.  P.  Grenfell  and  A.  ^.  Hunt, 
1909). 

It  may  be  at  least  claimed  for  Xenophon  (q.v.)  that  he  is  free 
from  all  taint  of  the  rhetorical  spirit.  It  may  also  be  claimed 
for  him  that,  as  a  witness,  he  is  both  honest  and  well-informed. 
But,  if  there  is  no  justification  for  the  charge  of  deh'berate 
falsification,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  he  had  strong  political 
prejudices,  and  that  his  narrative  has  suffered  from  them.  His 
historical  writings  are  the  Anabasis,  an  account  of  the  expedition 
of  the  Ten  Thousand,  the  HtUenica  and  the  Agesilaus,  a  eulogy 
of  the  Spartan  king.  Of  these  the  HeUenica  is  far  the  most 
important  for  the  student  of  history.  It  consists  of  two  distinct 
parts  (though  there  is  no  ground  for  the  theory  that  the  two 
parts  were  separately  written  and  published),  books  i.  and  ii., 
and  books  lii.  to  vii.  The  first  two  books  are  intended  as  a 
continuation  of  Thucydides'  work.  They  begin,  quite  abruptly, 
in  the  middle  of  the  Attic  year  411/10,  and  they  carry  the 
history  down  to  the  fall  of  the  Thirty,  in  403.  Books  iii.  to  vii., 
the  Hdienica  proper,  cover  the  period  from  401  to  362,  and  give 
the  histories  of  the  Spartan  and  Theban  hegemonies  down  to 
the  death  of  Epaminondas.  There  is  thus  a  gap  of  two  years 
between  the  point  at  which  the  first  part  ends  and  that  at  which 
the  second  part  begins.  The  two  parts  differ  widely,  both  in 
their  aim  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  material.  In  the  first 
part  Xenophon  attempts,  though  not  with  complete  success, 
to  follow  the  chronological  method  of  Thucydides,  and  to  make 
each  successive  spring,  when  military  and  naval  operations  were 
resumed  after  the  winter's  interruption,  the  starting-point  of  a 
fresh  section.  The  resemblance  between  the  two  writers  ends, 
however,  with  the  outward  form  of  the  narrative.  All  that  is 
characteristic  of  Thucydides  is  absent  in  Xenophon.  The 
latter  writer  shows  neither  skill  in  portraiture,  nor  insight  into 
motives.  He  is  deficient  m  the  sense  of  proportion  and  of  the 
distinction  between  occasion  and  cause.  Perhaps  his  worst 
fault  is  a  lack  of  imagination.  To  makt  a  story  intelligible 
it  is  necessary  sometimes  to  put  oneself  in  the  reader's  place, 
and  to  appreciate  his  ignorance  of  circumstances  and  events 
which  would  be  perfectly  familiar  to  the  actors  in  the  scene 
or  to  contemporaries.  It  was  not  given  to  Xenophon,  as  it  was 
to  Thucydides,  to  discriminate  between  the  circumstances  that 
are  essential  and  those  that  are  not  essential  to  the  comprehen- 
sion of  the  story.  In  spite,  therefore,  of  its  wealth  of  detail, 
his  narrative  is  frequently  obscure.  It  is  quite  clear  that  in  the 
trial  of  the  generals,  e.f.,  something  is  omitted.  It  may  be 
supplied  as  Diodorus  has  supplied  it  (ziii.  loi),  or  it  may  be 
supplied  otherwise.  It  is  probable  that,  when  luder  cross- 
examination  before  the  council,  the  generals,  or  some  of  them, 
disclosed  the  commission  given  to  Theramcnes  and  Thrasybulus. 
The  important  point  is  that  Xenophon  himself  has  omitted  to 
supply  it.  As  it  stands  his  narrative  is  unintelligible.  In  the 
first  two  books,  though  there  are  omissions  (e.g.  the  loss  of 
Nisaea,  409  B.C.),  they  are  not  so  serious  as  in  the  last  five,  nor 
is  the  bias  so  evident.  It  is  true  that  if  the  account  of  the  rule 
of  the  Thirty  given  in  Aristotle's  Constitution  of  Athens  be 
accepted,  Xenophon  must  have  deliberately  misrepresented 
the  course  of  events  to  the  prejudice  of  Theramenes.  But  it  is 
at  least  doubtful  whether  Aristotle's  version  can  be  sustained 
against  Xeoophon's,  though  it  may  be  admitted,  not  only  that 
there  are  mistakes  as  to  details  in  the  latter  writer's  narrative, 
but  that  less  than  justice  is  done  to  the  policy  and  motives 
of  the  "  Buskin."  The  HeUenica  was  written,  it  should  be 
remembered,  at  Corinth,  after  362.  More  than  forty  years  had 
thus  elapsed  since  the  events  recorded  in  the  first  two  books. 


and  after  so  long  an  interval  accuracy  of  detail,  even  where  the 
detail  is  of  importance,  is  not  always  to  be  ezpectML*  In  the 
second  part  the  chronological  method  is  abandoned.  A  subject 
once  begun  is  followed  out  to  its  natural  ending,  so  that  sections 
of  the  narrative  which  are  consecutive  in  order  arc  frequently 
parallel  in  point  of  date.  A  good  example  of  this  will  be  found 
in  book  iv.  In  chapters  2  to  7  the  history  of  the  Corinthian 
war  is  carried  down  to  the  end  of  390,  so  far  as  the  operations 
on  land  are  concerned,  while  chapter  8  contains  an  account  of 
the  naval  operations  from  394  to  388.  In  thn  second  part  oi  the 
HeUenica  the  author's  disqualifications  for  his  task  axe  more 
apparent  than  in  the  first  two  books.  The  more  he  is  acquitted 
of  bias  In  his  selection  of  events  and  in  his  omissions,  the  more 
dearly  does  he  stand  convicted  of  lacking  all  sense  of  the  propor- 
tion of  things.  Down  to  Leuctra  (371  b.c.)  Sparta  is  the  centre 
of  interest,  and  it  is  of  the  Spartan  state  alone  that  a  complete 
or  continuous  history  is  given.  After  Leuctra,  if  the  point  of 
view  is  no  longer  exclusively  Spartan,  the  narrative  of  events 
is  hardly  less  incomplete.  Throughout  the  second  part  .of  the 
HeUenica  omissions  abound  which  it  is  difficult  either  to  expUio 
or  justify.  The  formation  of  the  Second  Athenian  Confederacy 
of  377  B.C.,  the  foundation  of  Megalopolis  and  the  restoration 
of  the  Messenian  state  are  all  left  unrecorded.  Yet  the  writer 
who  passes  them  over  without  mention  thioks  it  worth  while 
to  devote  more  than  one-sixth  of  an  entire  book  to  a  cfaroniHe 
of  the  unimportant  feats  of  the  dtixens  <&  the  petty  state  of 
Phlius.  Nor  is  any  attempt  made  to  appraise  the  policy  of 
the  great  Theban  leaders,  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas  The 
former,  indeed,  is  mentioned  only  in  a  single  passage,  relating 
to  the  embassy  to  Susa  in  368;  the  latter  does  not  appear  o& 
the  scene  till  a  year  later,  and  receives  mention  but  twice  bdore 
the  battle  of  Mantinea.  An  author  who  omits  from  his  narrative 
some  of  the  m(»t  important  events  of  his  period,  and  daborates 
the  portraiture  of  an  Agesilaus  while  not  attempting  the  ban 
outline  of  an  Epaminondas,  may  be  honest;  he  may  even 
write  without  a  consdousness  of  bias;  he  certainly  cannot  n&k 
among  the  great  writers  of  history.* 

For  the  history  of  the  4th  century  Diodorus  assumes  a  hi^ier 
degree  of  importance  than  bdongs  to  him  in  the  eariier  periods. 
This  is  partly  to  be  explained  by  the  defidendes  of  - 
Xenophon 's  HeUenica,  partly  by  the  fact  that  for  the 
interval  between  the  death  of  Epaminondas  and  tl»  accession  of 
Alexander  we  have  in  Diodorus  alone  a  continuous  narrative 
of  events.  Books  xiv.  and  xv.  of  his  history  indude  the  period 
covered  by  the  HeUenica,  More  than  half  of  book  xiv.  isdevoted 
to  the  history  of  Sicily  and  the  rdgn  of  Dionysius,  the  tyraaC  of 
Syracuse.  For  this  period  of  Sicilian  history  he  is,  practically, 
our  sole  authority.  'In  the  rest  of  the  book,  as  well  as  in  hook  xv., 
there  is  much  of  value,  espedaUy  In  the  notices  of  Macedonian 
history.  Thanks  to  Diodorus  we  are  enabled  to  supply  many 
of  the  omissions  of  the  HeUenica,  Diodorus  is,  e.f .,  our  sdie 
literary  authority  for  the  Athenian  naval  confederation  of  377. 
Book  xvi.  must  rank,  with  the  Hdknica  and  Anian's  Anabasis, 
as  one  of  the  three  principal  authorities  for  this  century,  so  far, 
at  least,  as  works  of  an  historical  character  are  concerned.  It  is 
our  authority  for  the  Sodal  and  the  Sacred  Wars,  as  well  as 
for  the  reign  of  Philip.  It  is  a  curious  irony  of  fate  that,  for 
what  is  perhaps  the  most  momentous  epoch  in  tl^  hktory 
of  Greece,  we  should  have  to  turn  to  a  writer  of  such  inferiM' 
capacity.  For  this  period  his  material  is  better  and  his  import- 
ance greater:  his  intelligence  is  as  limited  as  ever.  Who  but 
Diodorus  would  be  capable  of  narrating  the  siege  and  capture 
of  Methone  twice  over,  once  under  the  year  354,  and  again  under 
the  year  352  (xvi.  31  and  34;  d.  xii.  35  and  42;  Archidamus  (f.t.) 
dies  in  434,  commands  Peloponnesian  army  in  431);  or  of  giving 
three  different  numbers  of  years  (deven,  ten  and  nine)  in  three 
different  passages  (chs.  14,  33  and  59)  for  the  length  ol  the 

*  On  the  diacrepanctes  between  Xeoophon's  account  of  the  Thirty, 
and  Aristotle's,  see  G.  Busolt,  Hemus  (1898).  pp.  71-86. 

*  The  fragment  of  the  New  Historian  (Oxyrkynehus  P^Py^  vol-  v-) 
affords  excwdingly  important  material  for  the  criticism  of  Aeoaphoa'S 
oarrative.    (See  Thbopom PUS.) 


HisroRYi 


GREECE 


459 


Sacxtd  War;  cr  of  asserting  the  conclusion  of  peace  between 
Alliens  and  Philip  in  340,  after  the  failure  of  his  attack  on 
Perinthus  and  Byxantiuin?  Amongst  the  subjects  which  are 
mu'tted  is  the  Peace  of  Philocrates.  For  the  earlier  chapten, 
which  bring  the  narrative  down  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Sacred  War, 
Ephorus,  as  in  the  previous  book,  is  Diodorus'  main  source. 
His  source  for  the  rest  of  the  book,  t.e.  for  the  greater  part  of 
Philip's  reign,  cannot  be  determined.  It  is  generally  agreed  that 
it  IS  not  the  Fhilip^a  of  Theopompus. 

For  the  reign  of  Alexander  our  earliest  extant  authority  is 
Diodorus,  who  belongs  to  the  age  of  Augustus.    Of  the  others, 
llfciBilni  Q*  Curtius  Rttfus,  who  wrote  in  Latin,  lived  in  the 
mtAMm'      reign  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  Arrian  and  Plutarch 
in  the  and  century  a.d.    Yet  Alexander's  reign  is 
one  of  the  best  known  periods  of  ancient  history. 
The  Peloponnesian  War  and  the   twenty  years  of   Roman 
history  which  begin  with  63  B.C.  are  the  only  two  periods 
which  we  can  be  said  to  know*  more  fully  or  for  which  we 
have  more  trustworthy  evidence.    For  there  is  no  period  of 
ancient  history  which  was  recorded  by  a  larger  number  ^of 
contemporary  writers,  or  for  which  better  or  more  abundant 
materials  were  available.    Of  the  writers  actuaUy  contemporary 
with  Alexander  there  were  five  of  importance — Ptolemy,  Aristo- 
buJus,  Callisthenes,  Oncstcritus  and  Nearchus;  and  ail  of  them 
occupied  positions  which  afforded  exceptional   opportunities 
of   ascertaining  the   facta.    Four  of   them   were  officers  in 
Alexander's  service.    Ptolemy,  the  future  king  of  Egypt,  was 
one  of  the  somatophj^aces  (we  may,  perhai»,  regard  them  as 
correqionding  to  Napoleon's  marshals);  Aristobulus  was  also 
an  officer  of  high  rank  (see  Arrian,  Anab.  vi.  29.  10);  Nearchus 
was  admiral  of  the  fleet  which  surveyed  the  Indus  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  Onesicritus  was  one  of  his  subordinates.    The 
fifth,  Callisthenes,  a  pupil  of  Aristotle,  accompanied  Alexander 
Ob  his  march  down  to  his  death  in  327  and  was  admitted  to  the 
circle  of  his  intimate  friends.    A  sixth  historian,  Cleitarchus, 
was  possibly  also  a  contemporary;  at  any  rate  he  is  not  more 
than  a  generation  later.    These  writers  had  at  their  command  a 
mass  of  official  documents,  such  as  the  /SoalXcuH  k^jupida — the 
Cautte  and  Court  Circular  combined — edited  and  published 
after  Alexander's  death  by  his  secretary,  Eumenes  of  Cardia; 
the  tfratfj^ol,  or  records  of  the  marches  of  the  armies,  which  were. 
carefully  measured  at  the  time;  and  the  official  reports  on  the 
conquered  provinces.    That  these  documents  were  made  use  of 
by  the  historians  is  proved  by  the  references  to  them  which  are 
to  be  found  in  Arrian,  Plutarch  and  Strabo;  e.g.  Arrian,  Anab. 
vii.  as  and  36,  and  Plutarch,  Alexander  76  (quotation  from  the 
fiaaih^toi  A^|icpl5ci);  Strabo  xv.  723  (reference  to  the  tnoBiuol), 
^  69  (reports  drawn  up  on  the  various  provinces).    We  have, 
ia  addition,  in  Plutarch  numerous  quotations  from  Alexander's 
correspondence  with  his  mother,  Olympias,  and  with  his  officers. 
Ilie  contemporary  historians  may  be  roughly  divided  into  two 
gioupa.    On  the  one  hand  there  are  Ptolemy  and  Aristobulus, 
who.  except  in  a  sin^e  instance,  are  free  from  all  suspicion  of 
deliberate  invention.    On  the  other  hand,  there  are  Callisthenes, 
Oneaicritas  and   Cleitarchus,   whose   tendency  is  rhetorical. 
Nearchus  appears  to  have  allowed  full  scope  to  his  imagination 
in  dealing  with  the  wonders  of  India,  but  to  have  been  otherwise 
veradous.    Of  the  extant  writers  Arrian  (9.0.)  is  incomparably 
the  most  valuable.    His  merits  are  twofold.    As  the  commander 
of  Ronsan  legions  and  the  author  of  a  work  on  tactics,  he  com- 
bined a  practical  with  a  theoretical  knowledge  of  the  military  art, 
while  the  writers  whom  he  follows  in  the  Anabasis  are  the  two 
most  worthy  of  credit,  Ptolemy  and  Aristobulus.    We  may  well 
hesitate  to  call  in  question  the  authority  of  writers  who  exhibit 
an  agreement  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  parallel  elsewhere 
in  the  case  of  two  independent  historians.    It  may  be  inferred 
from  Arrian 's  references  to  them  that  there  were  only  eleven 
cases  in  all  in  which  he  found  discrepancies  between  them. 
The  most  serious  drawback  which  can  be  alleged  against  them 
is  an  inevitable  bias  in  Alexander's  favour.    It  would  be  only 
natural  that  they  should  pass  over  in  silence  the  worst  blots  on 
tbcir  great  commander's  fame.    Next  in  value  to  the  Anabasis 


Tke 


comes  Plutarch's  Life  of  Alexander,  the  merits  of  which,  however, 
are  not  to  be  gauged  by  the  influence  which  it  has  exercised  upon 
literature.  The  life  is  a  valuable  supplement  to  the  Anabasis, 
partly  because  Plutarch,  as  he  is  writing  biography  rather  than 
history  (for  his  conception  of  the  difference  between  the  two 
see  the  famous  preface.  Life  of  Alexander,  ch.  i.),  is  concerned 
to  record  all  that  will  throw  light  upon  Alexander's  character 
(e.;.  his  epigrammatic  sayings  and  quotations  from  his  letters); 
partly  because  he  teUs  us  much  about  his  early  life,  before  he 
became  king,  while  Arrian  tells  us  nothing.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  Plutarch  writes  in  an  uncritical  spirit;  it  b  hardly  less 
unfortunate  that  he  should  have  formed  no  clear  conception 
and  drawn  no  consistent  picture  of  Alexander's  diaracter. 
Book  xvii.  of  Diodorus  and  the  Uistoriae  Alexandri  of  Curtius 
Rufus  are  thoroughly  rhetorical  in  spirit.  It  is  probable  that 
in  both  cases  the  ultimate  source  is  the  work  of  Clitarchus. 

It  is  towards  the  end  of  the  5th  century  that  a  fresh  source 
of  information  becomes  available'  in  the  speeches  of  the  oratiH^s, 
the  earliest  of  whom  is  Antiphon  (d.  41  x  B.C.).  Lsrsias 
is  of  great  importance  for  the  history  of  the  Thirty 
(see  the  speeches  against  Eratosthenes  and  Agoratus), 
and  a  good  deal  may  be  gathered  from  Andocides  with  regard 
to  the  last  years  of  the  5th  and  the  opening  years  of  the  next 
century.  At  the  other  end  of  this  period  Lycurgus,  Hyperides 
and  Dinarchus  throw  Ught  upon  the  time  of  Philip  and  Alexander. 
The  three,  however,  who  are  of  most  importance  to  the  historian 
are  Isocrates,  Aeschines  and  Demosthenes.  Isocrates  (9.0.), 
whose  long  life  (436-338)  more  than  spans  the  interval 
between  the  outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  and  mrmtft 
the  triumph  of  Macedon  at  Chaeronea,  is  one  of  the 
most  characteristic  figures  in  the  Greek  world  of  his  day.  To 
comprehend  that  world  the  study  of  Isocrates  is  indispensable; 
for  in  an  age  dominated  by  rhetoric  he  is  the  prince  of  rhetoricians. 
It  is  difficult  for  a  modem  reader  to  do  him  justice,  so  alien  is 
his  spirit  and  the  spirit  of  his  age  from  ours.  •  It  must  be  allowed 
that  he  is  frequently  monotonous  and  prolix;  at  the  same  time 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  as  the  most  famous  representative 
of  rhetoric,  he  was  read  from  one  end  of  the  Greek  world  to  the 
other.  He  was  the  friend  of  Evagoras  and  Archidamus,  of 
Dionysius  and  Philip;  he  was  the  master  of  Aeschines  and 
Lycurgus  amongst  orators  and  of  Ephorus  and  Theopompus 
amongst  historians.  No  other  contemporary  writer  has  left 
so  indelible  a  stamp  upon  the  style  and  the  sentiment  of  his 
generation.  It  is  a  commonplace  that  Isocrates  is  the  apostle 
of  Panhellenism.  It  is  not  so  generally  recognized  that  he  is  the 
prophet  of  Hellenism.  A  passage  in  the  Panegyricus  (§  50 
Affre  t6  n»  'EXX^mum  Svofia  ii^iceri  tov  yiirovs  dXXd  r^  biopoias 
boKtly  dyai  Koi  fiaXKop  'EXXi^yos  KoXtiaBai.  row  r^  jratMeftat 
T^  ^tjurkpas  4  rovs  rnt  nxr^  ^ifotM  fter^xoTos)  is  the  key 
to  the  history  of  the  next  three  centuries.  Doubtless  he  had  no 
conception  of  the  extent  to  which  the  East  was  to  be  hellenized. 
He  was,  however,  the  first  to  recognize  that  it  would  be  hellenized 
by  the  diffusion  of  Greek  culture  rather  than  of  Greek  blood.  His 
Panhellenism  was  the  outcome  of  his  recognition  of  the  new 
forces  and  tendencies  which  were  at  work  in  the  midst  of  a  new 
generation.  When  Greek  culture  was  becommg  more  and  more 
international,  the  exaggeration  of  the  principle  of  autonomy 
in  the  Greek  political  system  was  becoming  more  and  more 
absurd.  He  had  sufficient  insight  to  be  aware  that  the  price 
paid  for  this  autonomy  was  the  domination  of  Persia;  a  domina- 
tion which  meant  the  servitude  of  the  Greek  states  across  the 
Aegean  and  the  demoralization  of  Greek  political  life  at  home. 
His  Panhellenism  led  him  to  a  more  liberal  view  of  the  distinction 
between  what  was  Greek  and  what  was  not  than  was  possible 
to  the  intcnser  patriotism  of  a  Demosthenes.  In  his  later  orations 
he  has  the  courage  not  only  to  pronounce  that  the  day  of  Athens 
as  a  first-rate  power  is  past,  but  to  see  in  Phih'p  the  needful 
leader  in  the  crusade  against  Persia.  The  earliest  and  greatest  of 
his  political  orations  is  the  Panegyricus,  published  in  380  B.C., 
midway  between  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  and  Leuctra.  It  is 
his  apologia  for  Panhellenism.  To  the  period  of  the  Social  War 
belong  the  De  pace  (355  b.c.)  and  the  Areopagiticus  (354  >-C.). 


460 


GREECE 


{HISTORY 


tt9l 


both  of  great  value  as  evidence  for  the  internal  conditions  of 
Athens  at  the  beginning  of  the  struggle  with  Macedon.  The 
Plataicus  (373  B.C.)  and  the  Archidamus  (366  B.C.)  throw  light 
upon  the  politics  of  Boeotia  and  the  Peloponnese  respectively. 
The  Panalhenaicus  (339  B.C.),  the  child  of  his  old  age,  contains 
little  that  may  not  be  found  in  the  earlier  orations.  The 
Philip^  (346  B.C.)  is  of  peculiar  interest,  as  giving  the  views 
of  the  Macedonian  party. 

Not  the  least  remarkable  feature  in  recent  historical  criticism 
is  the  reaction  against  the  view  which  was  at  one  time  almost 
universally  accepted  of  the  character,  statesmanship 
and  authority  of  the  orator  Demosthenes  {q.v.). 
During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  his  character  and 
statesmanship  have  been  attacked,  and  his  authority  impugned, 
by  a  series  of  writers  of  whom  Hohn  and  Beloch  are  the  best 
known.  With  the  estimate  of  his  character  and  statesmanship 
we  are  not  here  concerned.  With  regard  to  his  value  as  an 
authority  for  the  history  of  the  period,  it  is  to  his  speeches,  and 
to  those  of  his  contemporaries,  Aeschines,  Hypereides,  Dinarcbus 
and  Lycurgus,  that  we  owe  our  intimate  knowledge,  both  of 
the  working  of  the  constitutional  and  legal  systems,  and  of  the 
life  of  the  people,  at  this  period  of  Athenian  history.  From  this 
point  of  view  his  value  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  As  a 
witness,  however,  to  matters  of  fact,  his  authority  can  no  longer 
be  rated  as  highly  as  it  once  was,  e.g.  by  Schaefer  and  by  Grote. 
The  orator's  attitude  towards  events,  both  in  the  past  and  in  the 
present,  is  inevitably  a  different  one  from  the  historian's.  The 
object  of  a  Thucydides  is  to  ascertain  a  fact,  or  to  exhibit  it  in 
its  true  relations.  The  object  of  a  Demosthenes  is  to  make 
a  point,  or  to  win  his  case.  In  their  dealings  with  the  past  the 
orators  exhibit  a  levity  which  is  almost  inconceivable  to  a  modem 
reader.  Andocides,  in  a  passage  of  his  speech  On  the  Mysteries 
(§  107),  speaks  of  Marathon  as  the  crowning  victory  of  Xerxes' 
campaign;  in  his  speech  On  the  Peace  (§  3)  ^e  confuses  Miltiades 
with  Cimon,  and  the  Five  Years'  Peace  with  the  Thirty  Years' 
Truce.  Though  the  latter  passage  is  a  mass  of  absurdities  and 
confusions,  it  was  so  generally  admired  that  it  was  incorporated 
by  Aeschines  in  his  speech  On  the  Embassy  (§§  1 7  2-x  76).  If  such 
was  their  attitude  towards  the  past;  if,  in  order  to  make  a  point, 
they  do  not  hesitate  to  pervert  history,  is  it  likely  that  they 
would  conform  to  a  higher  standard  of  veracity  in  their  state- 
ments as  to  the  present — as  to  their  contemporaries,  their  rivals 
or  their  own  actions?  When  we  compare  different  speeches  of 
Demosthenes,  separated  by  an  interval  of  years,  we  cannot  fail 
to  observe  a  marked  difference  in  his  statements.  The  farther 
he  is  from  the  events,  the  bolder  are  his  mis-statements.  It  is 
only  necessary  to  compare  the  speech  On  the  Crown  with  that  On 
the  Embassy,  and  this  latter  speech  with  the  Philippics  and 
Olynlhiacst  to  find  illustrations.  It  has  come  to  be  recognized 
that  no  statement  as  to  a  matter  of  fact  is  to  be  accepted,  unless 
it  receives  independent  corroboration,  or  unless  it  is  admitted 
by  both  sides.  The  speeches  of  Demosthenes  may  be  conveniently 
divided  into  four  classes  according  to  their  dates.  To  the  pre- 
Philippic  period  belong  the  speeches  On  the  Symmories  (3  54  B.  c), 
On  Megalopolis  (352  B.C.),  Against  ArislocraUs  (351  B.C.),  and, 
perhaps,  the  speech  On  Rhodes  (?35x  ex.).  These  speeches 
betray  no  consciousness  of  the  danger  threatened  by  Philip's 
ambition.  The  policy  recommended  is  one  based  upon  the 
prindple  of  the  balance  of  power.  To  the  succeeding  period, 
which  ends  with  the  peace  of  Philocrates  (346  B.C.),  belong  the 
First  Philippic  and  the  three  Olynthiacs.  To  the  period  between 
the  peace  of  Philocrates  and  Chaeronea  belong  the  speech  On 
the  Peace  (346  B.C.),  the  Second  PhUippic  (344  B.C.),  the  speeches 
On  the  Embassy  (344  B.C.)  and  On  the  Chersonese  (341  B.C.),  and 
the  Third  Philippic.  The  masterpiece  of  his  genius,  the  speech 
On  the  Crown,  was  delivered  in  330  B.C.,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander. 
Of  the  three  extant  speeches  of  Aeschines  (q.v.)  that  On  the 
Embassy  is  of  great  value,  as  enabling  us  to  correct  the  mis- 
statements of  Demosthenes.  For  the  period  from  the  death  of 
Alexander  to  the  fall  of  Corinth  (3  23-146  B.C.)  our  literary 
-authorities  are  singularly  defective.  For  the  Diadochi  Diodorus 
(books  zviii.-zx.)  is  out  chief  source.    These  books  form  the 


most  valuable  part  of  Diodorus*  work.  They  are  mainly  based 
upon  the  work  of  Hieronymus  of  Cardia,  a  writer  who  combined 
exceptional  opportunities  for  ascertaining  the  truth  (be  was  in 
the  service  first  of  Eumenes,  and  then  of  Anttgonus)  vkh  an 
exceptional  sense  of  its  importance.  Hieronymus  ended  bis 
history  at  the  death  of  Psrrrhus  (273  B.C.),  but,  ixnfortttnatdy, 
book  XX.  of  Diodorus'  work  carries  us  no  farther  than  303  B.C., 
and  of  the  later  books  we  have  but  scanty  fragments.  The 
narrative  of  Diodorus  may  be  supplemented  by  the  fragments 
of  Arrian's  History  of  the  events  after  Alexander's  death  (which 
reach,  however,  only  to  331  bx.),  and  by  Plutarch's  Lhes  of 
Eumenes  and  of  Demetrius.  For  the  rest  of  the  3rd  century  and 
the  first  half  of  the  2nd  we  have  his  Lives  of  Pyrrhus,  of  Arains, 
of  PhUopoemen,  and  of  Agis  and  Cleomenes.  For  the  period 
from  220  B.C.  onwards  Polybius  (q.v.)  is  our  chief  authority  (see 
RoMB.  Ancient  History,  section  "  Authorities  ").  In  a  period 
in  which  the  literary  sources  are  so  scanty  great  weight  attaches 
to  the  epigraphic  and  numismatic  evidence. 

Bibliography. — ^The  literature  which  dealt  with  the  history  of 
Greece.  In  its  various  periods,  departments  and  aaoects,  is  of  so  vast 
a  bulk  that  all  that  can  be  attempted  here  is  to  inoicate  the  most  im- 
portant and  most  accessible  works. 

General  Histories  of  Crttu. — Down  to  the  middle  of  the  I9tli 
century  the  only  histories  of  Greece  deserving  of  mention  were  the 
products  of  English  schobrship.  The  two  earliest  of  these  weie 
published  about  the  same  date,  towards  the  end  of  the  i6th  century, 
nearly  three^uarters  of  a  century  before  anv  history  of  Greece, 
other  than  a  mere  compendium,  appeared  on  the  Continent.  John 
Gillies'  History  of  Greece  was  published  in  1786.  Mitford's  in  1784- 
Both  works  were  composed  with  a  political  biiuand  a  political  object 
GilUcs  was  a  Whig.  In  the  dedication  (toGeorae  III.)  he  expresses 
the  view  that  "  the  History  of  Greece  eimoses  the  daMenNis  turbu- 
lence of  Democracy,  and  arraigns  the  despotism  of  Tyrants,  while 
it  evinces  the  Inestimable  benefits,  resulting  to  Liberty  itself,  from 
the  steady  operation  of  well-regulated  monarchy."  Mitford  was 
a  Tory,  who  thought  to  demonstrate  the  evils  of  democncy  from 
the  example  of  the  Athenian  stake.  His  History,  in  spite  of  its  bias, 
was  a  work  of  real  value.  More  than  fifty  years  ebpaed  between 
Mitford's  workand Thiriwall's.  Connop  Thirlwall,  fellow  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  afterwards  bishop  of  St  David's,  brought  a 
sound  judgment  to  the  aid  of  ripe  scholarship.  His  History  of  Greece, 
publisbedin  1835-1838  (8  vols,  his  entirely  free  from  the  controversial 
tone  of  Mitford's  volumes.  Ten  years  later  (1846)  George  Grote 
published  the  first  volumes  of  his  histoiy,  which  was  not  completed 
(in  i2  vols.)  till  18^.  Grote,  like  Mitford,  was  a  politidatt— «n 
ardent  Radical,  with  republican  sympathiea.  It  was  in  ocder  to 
refute  the  slanders  of  the  Tory  partisan  that  he  was  tmpdled  to 
write  a  history  of  Greece,  which  should  do  justice  to  the  greatest 
democracy  of  the  ancient  worid,  the  Athenian  state.  Thus,  in  the 
case  of  three  of  these  four  writos,  the  interest  in  their  aubiect  was 

•         •  ••-«•>  ■■■•  <_^-B  ■* 


mainly  political.  Inconiparably  the  greatest  of  these  works  n 
Grote  s.  Grote  had  his  faults  and  his  umitationa.  His  prejudices 
are  strong,  and  his  scholarship  b  weak ;  he  had  never  visited  Crcete. 
and  he  knew  little  or  nothing  of  Greek  art ;  and.  at  the  time  he  wrote, 
the  importance  of  coins  and  inscriptions  was  imperfectly  appre> 
bended.  In  spite  of  evoy  defect,  however,  his  work  is  the  greatest 
history  of  Greece  that  has  yet  been  written.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  nobody  knows  Greek  history  till  he  has  mastered  Grote. 
No  history  of  Greece  has  since  appeared  in  England  on  a  scale  at  all 
comparable  to  that  of  Grote's  work.  The  most  important  of  the 
more  recent  ones  is  that  by  J.  B.  Bury  (i  vol.,  1900).  formerly  feUow 
of  Trinity  College.  Dublin,  afterwards  Regius  Profeaaorof  Modern 
History  at  Cambridge.  Mitford  and  Bury  end  with  the  death  df 
Alexander;  Gillies  and  Grote  carcy  on  the  narrative  a  generatxNi 
farther;  while  Thiriwall's  work  extends  to  the  absorption  of  Greece 
in  the  Roman  Empire  (146  B.C.). 

While  in  France  the  Histoire  des  Grecs  (ending  at  i^  B.c.)  of 
Victor  Duruy  (new  edition,  2  vols.,  1883).  Minister  of  Public  Iostnic< 
tion  under  Napoleon  III.,  is  the  only  one  that  need  be  mentioned, 
in  Germany  there  has  been  a  succession  of  histories  of  Greece  anoe 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century.  KortQm's  GeuUdae  Grieehnkadt 
(3  vols.,  i8m)i  a  work  of  little  merit,  was  followed  by  Max  Duacker's 
Geschichie  der  Griechen  (vols,  i  and  2  published  in  1856:  vols.  1  and 
3,  Neue  Folge,  which  bring  the  narrative  down  to  the  death  <rf 
Pericles,  in  1884;  the  two  lormer  volumes  form  vols.  5.  6  and  7 
of  his  Gesehickte  des  AUertums),  and  by  the  Grieckische  Cesduehie 
of  Ernst  Curtius  (3  vols.,  1837-1867).  An  Englidi  trandation  of 
Duncker.  by  S.  F.  Alleyne.  appeared  in  1883  (2  vols..  Bentley). 
and  of  Curtius.  by  A.  W.  Ward  (5  vols..  Bentley.  i86a>i  873).  AoooK 
more  recent  works  may  be  mentioned  the  Grieekisehe  Gtsckkkte  w 
Adolf  Holm  (4  vols.,  Beriio,  1886-1894;  English  translation  by  F. 
Clarke.  4  vols..  Macmillan,  1894-1898).  and  histories  with  the  1 


title  by  Julius  Beloch  (3  vols^.'Strassburg.  1809-T904)  and  Georg 
Busolt  (2nd  ed..  3  vols.,  Gotha,  1893-1904).  Holm  carries  oa  the 
naixative  to  3P  B.C.,  Beloch  to  317  B.C.,  Busolt  to 


HISTORY) 


GREECE 


461 


(318  B.C.).' '  Buaolt*!  work  is  entirely  diflerent  tncluracter  from  any 
other  history  of  Greece.  The  writer's  object  is  to  refer  in  the  notes 
(which  constitute  five-sixths  of  the  book)  to  the  views  of  every  writer 
in  any  language  upon  evcrv  controverted  question.  It  is  absolutely 
indispensaDie,  as  a  work  01  reference,  for  anv  serious  study  of  Greek 
histoiy.  The  ablesrwork  since  Grote's  is  Eduard  Meyer's  Cesckickie 
des  Altertunu,  of  which  5  vols.  (Stuttgart  and  Berlin.  1884^1903) 
have  appeared,  carrying  the  narrative  down  to  the  death  of  Epami- 
nondas  (363  B.C.).  Vols.  2-5  arc  principally  concerned  with  Ureck 
history.  It  must  be  rememberrd  that,  partly  owing  to  the  literary 
finds  and  the  archaeological  discoveries  of  the  last  thirty  years, 
and  partly  owing  to  the  advance  made  in  the  study  of  epigraphy 
and  numismatics,  all  the  histories  published  before  tnose  of  Busolt, 
Beloch.  Meyer  and  Bu^  are  out  of  date. 

Works  bearing  on  Ike  History  of  Greece. — Earlier  works  and  editions 
are  omitted,  except  in  the  case  of  a  work  which  has  not  been  super- 
seded. 

Introductions. — C.  Wachsmuth.  Einleiltmg  in  das  Studium  der 
atten  Cesckickie  (f  vol.,  Leipzie,  189s);  E.  Meyer,  Forukungen  tur 
alien  Cesckickie  (a  parts,  Halle.  1893-1899;  Quite  indispensable); 
J.  B.  Bury,  Tke  Ancient  Creek  Historians  (London,  1909). 

Constitutional  History  and  Institutions. — G.  F<  SchOmannjCirif- 
ckiscke  AltertHmer  (2  vols..  Berlin,  1855-1859;  vol.  i.,  tr.  by  b.  G. 
Hardy  and  J.  S.  Mann.  Rivingtons,  1880) ;  G.  Gilbert,  Crteckiscke 
StaatsaitertHmer  (znd  ed.,  3  vols..  Leipzig.  1893;  vol.  i.  tr.  by  E.  J. 
Brooks  and  T.  Nkklin,  Swan  Sonnenschein,  1805);  K.  F.  Hermann, 
Lekrbuck  der  grieckiseken  Antiquildlen  (6tb  ea..  4  vols.,  Freiburg, 
1882-1805):  Iwan  MOllcr,  Handbuck  der  klasstscken  AitertumS' 
viuensckaft  (9  vols.,  NOrdtingen,  1886,  in  progress;  several  of  the 
volumes  are  concerned  with  Greek  history);  J.  H.  Lipsius,  Das 
attiscke  Reckl  und  Recktstrrfakren  (Leipzig,  1905,  in  promss); 
A.  H.  J.  Grcenidge,  Handbook  of  Creek  Constitutional  History  (t  vol., 
Macmillan.  1896):  Pauly-Wissou'a.  ReaUncyUopSdie  der  kuusiscken 
AiUrtumswissensckaft  (Stuttgart,  1894  foil.). 

Ceo^apky. — E.  H.  Bunbury,  History  of  Ancient  Ceograpkv 
amontst  tke  Creeks  and  Romans  (3nd  ed.,  3  vols.,  Murray,  1883), 
W.  M.  Leake,  Travels  in  tke  Morea  (3  vols.,  1830),  and  travels  in 
Nortkem  Creece  (4  voU,  1834) ;  H.  F.  Tozer,  Lectures  on  tke  Ceograpky 

?fCreece  (i  vol..  Murray,  1873),  and  History  of  Ancient  Ceograpky 
I  v<^.,  Cambridge,  1897);  J.  P.  MahafTy,  Rambles  and  Studies  in 
Creece  (3rd  ed.,  I  vol.,  Macmillan,  1887,  an  admirable  book);  C. 
Bursian,  CeograMe  von  Crieckenland  (3  vols.,  Leipzig,  1873);  H. 
Bofger,  Ceukicht*  der  trissensckaftlicken  Erdkunae  der  Crucken 
(4  parts,  Leipzig,  1887-1893);  Ernst  Curtlus,  Peloponnesos  (3  vols., 
Gotha,  1850-1851). 

Epigirapky  and  Numismatics.'— Corptis  inscripiionum  Atticarum 
(Berlin.  1875,  in  proness),  Corpus  inscriptionum  Craecarum  (Berlin, 
1892,  in  progress).^Tne  following  selections  of  Greek  inscriptions  may 


be  mentioned:  E.  F.  Hicks  and  C  F.  Hill,  Manual  of  Creek  Historical 


numismatics  the  English  reader  may  refer  to  B.  V.  Head,  Hisioria 
numoruM  (i  voL.  Oxford.  1887);  G.  F.  Hill,  Handbook  of  Creek  and 
Roman  Coins  (1  vol..  Macmillan,  1899).  as  well  as  to  the  Brilisk 
Museum  Catalogue  of  Creek  Coins.  In  French  the  most  important 
general  srork  u  the  Monnaies  grecfues  of  F.  Imhoof*BIumer  (Paris, 

AroHology,  T>ade,  War,  Social  Life,  ^c— H.  F.  Clinton.  Fasti 
HeUenici  (3rd  ed.,  3  vols.,  Oxford,  1841.  a  work  of  which  English 
scholarship  may  well  be  proud;  it  is  still  invaluable  for  the  study 
of  Greek  chronology);  B.  BUchscnschQtz.  Besilt  und  Erwerb  im 
piechiscken  Aliertume  (i  vol.,  Halle.  1869;  this  is  still  the  best 
book  on  Greek  commerce) ;  J.  Beloch,  Die  BevMerung  der  »ieckisck- 
r&miseken  Welt  (i  vol..  Leipzig.  1886);  W.  Rtistow  and  H.  Kdchly. 
Cesekickte  des  grieckiseken  Kriegswesens  (i  vol.,  Aarau.  1852):  J.  P. 
Mahaffy.  Social  Life  in  Creece  (3nd  ed.,  i  vol,  1875).    (E.  M.  W.) 

.  b.  Post-Classical:  146  BjC.-a.d.  1800 

I.  The  Period  or  Roman  Rule.— (i.)  Cruce  under  Ike 
RepubiU  (146-27  B.C.).  After  the  collapse  of  the  Achaean 
League  {q.v.)  the  Senate  appointed  a  commission  to  reorganize 
Greece  as  a  Roman  dependency.  Corinth,  the  chief  centre  of 
resistance,  was  destroyed  and  its  inhabitants  sold  into  slavery. 
In  addition  to  this  act  of  exemplary  punishment,  which  may 
perhaps  have  been  inspired  in  part  by  the  desire  to  crush  a 
commercial  competitor,  steps  were  taken  to  obviate  future 
insurrections.  The  national  and  cantonal  federations  were 
dissolved,  commercial  intercourse  between  cities  was  restricted, 
and  the  government  transferred  from  the  democracies  to  the 
propertied  classes,  whose  interests  were  bound  up  with  Rpman 
suprenacy<  In  other  respects  few  changes  were  made  in  existing 
institutions.  Some  favoured  states  like  Athens  and  Sparta 
retained  their  full  sovereign  rights  as  civitales  liberate  the  other 
*  Vol.  tit.  goes  down  to  the  end  of  the  Pebponnesian  War. 


cities  continued  to  enjoy  local  self-government.  The  ownership 
of  the  land  was  not  greatly  disturbed  by  confiscations,  and 
though  a  tribute  upon  it  was  levied,  this  impost  may  not  have 
been  universal.  General  powers  of  supervision  were  entrusted 
■to  the  governor  of  Macedonia,  who  could  reserve  cases  of  high 
treason  for  his  decision,  and  in  case  of  need  send  troops  into  the 
country.  But  although  Greece  was  in  the  protincia  of  the 
Macedonian  proconsul,  in  the  sense  of  belonging  to  his  sphere  of 
command,  its  status  was  in  faft  more  favourable  than  that  of 
other  provincial  dependencies. 

This  settlement  was  acquiesced  in  by  the  Greek  people,  who 
had  come  to  realize  the  hopelessness  of  further  resistance.  The 
internal  clisorder  which  was  arising  from  the  numerous  disputes 
about  property  rights  consequent  upon  the  political  revolutions 
was  checked  by  the  good  offices  of  the  historian  Polybius,  whom 
the  Senate  deputed  to  mediate  between  the  litigants.  The 
pacification  of  the  country  eventually  became  so  complete  that 
the  Romans  withdrew  the  former  restrictions  upon  intercourse 
and  allowed  some  of  the  leagues  to  revive.  But  its  quiet  was 
seriously  disturbed  during  the  first  Mithradatic  War  (88-84  B.C.), 
when  numerous  Greek  states  sided  with  Mithradates  (q.v.). 
The  success  which  the  invader  experienced  in  detaching  the 
Greeksfrom  Rome  is  partly  to  be  explained  by  the  skilful  way 
in  which  his  agents  incited  the  imperialistic  ambitions  of 
prominent  cities  like  Athens,  partly  perhaps  by  his  promises 
of  support  to  the  democratic  parties.  The  result  of  the  war  was 
disastrous  to  Greece.  Apart  from  the  confiscations  and  exactions 
by  which  the  Roman  general  L.  Cornelius  Sulla  punished  the 
disloyal  communities,  the  extensive  and  protracted  campaigns 
left  Central  Greece  in  a  ruinous  condition.  During  the  last 
decades  of  the  Roman  republic  European  Greece  was  scarcely 
affected  by  contemporary  wars  nor  yet  exploited  by  Roman 
magistrates  in  the  same  systematic  manner  as  most  other 
provinces.  Yet  oppression  by  officials  who  traversed  Greece 
from  time  to  time  and  demanded  lavish  entertainments  and 
presentations  in  the  guise  of  viaticum  or  aurum  coronarium  was 
not  unknown.  Still  greater  was  the  suffering  produced  by  the 
rapacity  of  Roman  traders  and  capitalists:  it  is  recorded  that 
Sic3ron  was  reduced  to  sell  its  most  cherished  art  treasures  in 
order  to  satisfy  its  creditors.  A  more  indirect  but  none  the  less 
far-reaching  drawback  to  Greek  prosperity  was  the  diversion 
of  trade  which  followed  upon  the  establishment  of  direct  com- 
munication between  Italy  and  the  Levant.  The  most  lucrative 
source  of  wealth  which  remained  to  the  European  Greeks  was 
pasturage  in  large  domains,  an  industry  which  almost  exclusively 
profited  the  richec  citizens  and  so  tended  to  widen  the  breach 
between  capitalisiv<ind  the  poorer  classes,  and  still  further  to 
pauperize  the  latter.  The  coast  districts  and  islands  also 
suffered  considerably  from  swarms  of  pirates  who,  in  the  absence 
of  any  strong  fleet  in  Greek  waters,  were  able  to  obtain  a  firm 
footing  in  Crete  and  freely  plundered  the  chief  trading  places 
and  sanctuaries;  the  most  notable  of  such  visitations  was 
experienced  in  69  B.C.  by  the  island  of  Delos.  This  evil  came  to 
an  end  with  the  general  suppression  of  piracy  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean by  Pompey  (67  B.C.),  but  the  depopulation  which  it  had 
caused  in  some  regions  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  the  victorious 
admiral  settled  some  of  his  captives  on  the  desolated  coast 
strip  of  Achaea. 

In  the  conflict  between  Julius  Caesar  and  Pompey  the  Greeks 
provided  the  latter  with  a  large  part  of  his  excellent  fleet.  In 
48  B.C.  the  decisive  campaign  of  the  war  was  fought  on  Greek 
soil,  and  the  resources  of  the  land  were  severely  taxed  by  the 
requisitions  of  both  armies.  As  a  result  of  Caesar's  victory  at 
Pharsalus,  the  whole  country  fell  into  his  power;  the  treatment 
which  it.  received  was  on  the  whole  lenient,  though  individual 
cities  were  punished  severely.  After  the  murder  of  Caesar  the 
Greeks  supported  the  cause  of  Brutus  (42  B.C.),  but  were  too 
weak  to  render  any  considerable  service.  )n  39  B.C.  the  Pclo- 
ponncse  for  a  short  time  was  made  over  to  Sextus  Pompeius. 
During  the  subsequent  period  Greece  remained  in  the  hands  of 
M.  Antonius  (Mark  Antony),  who  imposed  further  exactions  in 
order  to  defray  the  cost  of  his  wars.  The  extensive  levies  which 


462 


GREECE 


{HISTORY 


^mdh 


he  made  in  31  b.c.  for  his  campaign  against  Octavian,  and  the 
contributions  which  his  gigantic  army  required,  exhausted  the 
country's  resources  so  completely  that  a  general  famine  was 
prevented  only  by  Octavian's  prompt  action  after  the  battle  of 
Actium  in  distributing  supplies  of  grain  and  evacuating  the  land 
with  all  haste.  The  depopulation  which  resulted  from  the  civil 
wars  was  partly  remedied  by  the  settlement  of  Ilaliidi  colonists  at 
Corinth  and  Patrae  by  Julius  Caesar  and  Octavian;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  foundation  of  NicopoUs  (q.v.)  by  the  latter  merely  had 
the  effect  of  transferring  the.  people  from  the  country  to  the  city. 

(ii.)  The  Early  Roman  Empire  (a;  B.c  -a.d.  323).— Under  the 
emperor  Augustus  Thessaly  was  incorporated  with  Macedonia; 
the  rest  of  Greece  was  converted  into  the  province  of  Achaca, 
under  the  control  of  a  senatorial  proconsul  resident  at  Corinth. 
Many  stales,  including  Athens  and  Sparta,  retained  their  rights 
as  free  and  nominally  independent  cities.  The  provincials  were 
encouraged  to  send  delegates  to  a  communal  synod  {Kotp6if  rwv 
'Axalup)  which  met  at  Argos  to  consider  the  general  interests 
of  the  country  and  to  uphold  national  Hellenic  sentiment;  the 
Delphic  amphictyony  was  revived  and  extended  so  as  to  represent 
in  a  similar  fashion  northern  and  central  Greece. 

Economic  conditions  did  not-  greatly  improve  under  the 
empire.  Although  new  industries  sprang  up  to  meet  the  needs 
of  Roman  luxury,  and  Greek  marble,  textiles  and 
Sodal  table  delicacies  were  in  great  demand,  the  only  cities 
which  regained  a  really  flourishing  trade  were  the 
Italian  communities  of  Corinth  and  Patrae.  Commerce 
languished  in  general,  and  the  soil  was  mainly  abandoned  to 
pasturage.  Though  certain  districts  retained  a  measure  of 
prosperity,  e.g.  Thessaly,  Phocis,  Elis,  Argos  and  Laconia,  huge 
tracts  stood  depopulated  an^  many  notable  cities  had  sunk 
into  ruins;  Aetolia,  Acarnam'a  and  Epirus  never  recovered 
from  the  effects  of  former  wars  and  from  the  withdrawal  of 
their  surviving  inhabitants  into  Nicopolis.  Such  wealth  as 
remained  was  amassed  in  the  hands  of  a  few  great  landowners 
and  capitalists;  the  middle  class  continued  to  dwindle,  and 
large  numbers  of  the  people  were  reduced  to  earning  a  precarious 
subsistence,  supplementcid  by  frequent  doles  and  largesses. 

The  social  aspect  of  Greek  life  henceforward  becomes  its  most 
attractive  feature.  After  a  long  period  of  storm  and  stress,  the 
European  Hellenes  had  relapsed  into  a  quiet  and  resigned 
frame  of  mind  which  stands  in  sharp  contrast  on  the  one  hand 
with  the  energy  and  ability,  and  on  the  other  with  the  vulgar 
intriguing  of  their  Asiatic  kinsmen.  Seeing  no  future  before 
them,  the  Inhabitants  were  content  to  dwell  in  contemplation 
amid  the  glories  of  the  past.  National  pride  was  fostered  by  the 
undisguised  respect  with  which  the  leading  Romans  of  the  age 
treated  Hellenic  culture.  And  although  this  sentiment  could 
degenerate  into  antiquarian  pedantry  and  vanity,  such  as  finds 
its  climax  in  the  diatribes  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana  against  the 
"  barbarians,"  it  prevented  the  nation  from  sinking  into  some 
of  the  worst  vices  of  the  age.  A  healthy  social  tone  repressed 
extravagant  luxury  and  the  ostentatious  display  of  wealth,  and 
good  taste  long  checked  the  spread  of  gladiatorial  contests 
beyond  the  Italian  community  of  Corinth.  The  most  widespread 
abuse  of  that  period,  the  adulation  and  adoration  of  emperors, 
was  indeed  introduced  into  European  Greece  and  formed  an 
essential  feature  of  the  proceedings  at  the  Delphic  amphictyony, 
but  it  never  absorbed  the  energies  of  the  people  in  the  same 
way  as  it  did  in  Asia.  In  order  to  perpetuate  their  old  culture, 
the  Greeks  continued  to  set  great  store  by  classical  education, 
and  in  Athens  they  possessed  an  academic  centre  which  gradually 
became  the  chief  university  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  highest 
representatives  of  this  type  of  old-world  refinement  are  to  be 
found  in  Dio  Chrysostom  and  especially  in  Plutarch  of  Chaeronela 
iq.t.). 

The  relations  between  European  Greece  and  Rome  were 
practically  confined  to  the  sphere  of  scholarship.  The  Hellenes 
had  so  far  lost  their  warlike  qualities  that  they  supplied  scarcely 
any  recruits  to  the  army.  They  retained  too  much  local  patriot- 
ism to  crowd  into  the  official  careers  of  senators  or  imperial 
•ervants.    Although  in  the  xst  century  a.d.  the  astute  Greek 


man  of  affairs  and  the  Craeeulus  esuriens  of  Juvenal  abounded 
in  Rome,  both  these  cbsscs  were  mainly  derived  from  the 
less  pure-blooded  population  beyond  the  Aegean. 

The  influx  of  Greek  rhetoricians  and  professors  into  Italy 
during  the  and  and  3rd  centuries  was  balanced  by  the  1a^ 
number  of  travellers  who  came  to  Greece  to  frequent  its  sanatoria, 
and  especially  to  admire  its  works  of  art;  the  abundance  in 
which  these  latter  were  preserved  is  strikingly  attested  in  the 
extant  record  of  Pausanias  (about  a.d.  170). 

The  experience  of  the  Greeks  under  their  earliest  governors 
seems  to  have  been  unfortunate,  for  in  aj>.  15  they  petitioned 
Tiberius  to  transfer  the  administration  to  an  imperial  ^^ 
legate.  This  new  arrangement  was  sanctioned,  but  ZmL 
only  lasted  till  A.D.  44,  when  Claudius  restored  the  tnthtm 
province  to  the  senate.  The  proconsuls  of  the  later 
I  St  and  2nd  centuries  were  sometimes  ill  qualified  for  their  posts^ 
but  cases  of  oppression  are  seldom  recorded  against  them. 
The  years  66  and  67  were  marked  by  a  visit  of  the  emperor  Nero, 
who  made  a  prolonged  tour  through  Greece  in  order  to  d^ay 
his  artistic  accomplishments  at  the  various  national  festivals.  In 
return  for  the  flattering  reception  accorded  to  him  he  bestowed 
freedom  and  exemption  from  tribute  upon  the  country.  Bat 
this  favour  was  almost  neutralized  by  the  wholesale  depredations 
which  he  committed  among  the  chief  collections  of  art  A 
scheme  for  cutting  through  the  Corinthian  isthmus  and  so 
reviving  the  Greek  carrying  trade  was  inaugurat«l  in  his  presence, 
but  soon  abandoned. 

As  Nero's  grant  of  self-goVemment  brought  about  a  recrudes- 
cence of  misplaced  ambition  and  party  strife,  Vespasian  revoked 
the  gift  and  turned  Achaca  again  into  a  province,  at  the  same 
time  burdening  it  with  increased  taxes.  In  the  and  century  a 
succession  of  genuinely  phil-HcUcnic  emperors  made  serious 
attempts  to  revive  the  nation's  prosperity.  Important  material 
benefits  were  conferred  by  Hadrian,  who  nutde  a  lengthy  visit  to 
Greece.  Besides  erecting  useful  public  works  in  many  dtl^ 
he  relieved  Achaca  of  its  arrears  of  tribute  and  exempted  it  from 
various  imposts.  In  order  to  check  extravagance  on  the  part 
of  the  free  dties,  he  greatly  extended  the  practice  of  placing 
them  under  the  supervision  of  imperial  functionaries  known  as 
corrcctores.  Hadrian  fostered  national  sentiment  by  establishing 
a  new  pan-Hellenic  congress  at  Athens,  while  he  gave  recognitioa 
to  the  increasing  ascendancy  of  Hellenic  culture  at  Rome  by 
his  institution  of  the  Athenaeum. 

In  the  3rd  century  the  only  political  event  of  important  was 
the  edict  of  Caracalla  which  threw  open  the  Roman  dtlieiiship 
to  large  numbers  of  provincials.  Its  chief  effect  in  Greece  was 
to  diminish  the  preponderance  of  the  wealthy  classes,  who 
formerly  had  used  their  riches  to  purchase  the  franchise  and  so 
to  secure  exemption  from  taxation.  The  chief  feature  of  this 
period  is  the  renewal  of  the  danger  from  foreign  Invasiwis. 
Already  in  175  a  tribe  named  C(»tobod  had  penetrated  into 
central  Greece,  but  was  there  broken  up  by  the  local  militia. 
In  253  a  threatened  attack  was  averted  by  the  stubborn  resistance 
of  Thessalonica.  In  267-268  the  province  was  overrun  by 
Gothic  bands,  which  captured  Athens  and  some  other  towns, 
but  were  finally  repulsed  by  the  Attic  levies  and  exterminated 
with  the  help  of  a  Roman  fleet. 

(iii.)  The  Late  Roman  Empire. — After  the  reorganixatwn of  the 
empire  by  Diocletian,  Achaea  occupied  a  prominent  posilMU 
in  the  "  diocese  "  of  Macedonia.  Under  Constantine  I.  it  was 
included  in  the  "  prefecture  "  of  Illyricum.  It  was  subdivided 
into  the  "  eparchies  "  of  HeUas,  Peloponnesus,  Nicopolis  and 
the  islands,  with  headquarters  at  Thebes,  Corinth,  Nicopolis 
and  Samos.  Thessaly  was  incorporated  with  Macedonia.  A 
complex  hierarchy  of  imperial  offidals  was  now  introduced  and 
the  system  of  taxation  elaborated  so  as  to  yield  a  steady  revcnM 
to  the  central  power.  The  levying  of  the  land-tax  was  imposed 
upon  the  SeiciLirpbrroi  or  "  ten  leading  men,"  who,  like  the  Latin 
decuriones,  were  entrusted  henceforth  with  the  administratioa 
in  most  cities.  The  tendency  to  reduce  all  constitutions  to  the 
Roman  municipal  pattern  became  prevalent  under  the  nikis 
of  this  period,  and  the  greater  number  of  them  was  steneotyped 


HISTORVI 


GREECE 


463 


by  the  general  regulations  of  the  Codex  Theodosianus  (438). 
Although  the  elevation  of  Constantinople  to  the  rank  of  capital 
was  prejudicial  to  Greece,  which  felt  the  competition  of  the 
new  centre  of  culture  and  learning  and  had  to  part  with  numerous 
works  of  art  destined  to  embellish  its  privileged  neighbour,  the 
general  level  of  prosperity  in  the  4th  century  was  rising.  Com- 
mercial stagnation  was  checked  by  a  renewed  expansion  of 
trade  consequent  upon  the  diversion  of  the  trade  routes  to 
the  east  from  Egypt  to  the  Euxine  and  Aegean  Seas.  Agri- 
culture remained  in  a  depressed  condition,  and  many  small 
proprietors  were  reduced  to  serfdom;  but  the  fiscal  interests 
of  the  government  called  for  the  good  treatment  of  this  class, 
whose  growth  at  the  expense  of  the  slaves  was  an  important 
step  in  the  gradual  equalization  of  the  entire  population  under  the 
central  despotism  which  rcstoiied  solidarity  to  the  Greek  nation. 

This  prosperity  received  a  sharp  set-back  by  a  series  of  un- 
usually severe  earthquakes  in  375  and  by  the  irruption  of  a  host 
of  Visigoths  under  Alaric  (395-396),  whom  the  imperial  officers 
allowed  to  overrun  the  whole  land  unmolested  and  the  local 
levies  were  unable  to  check.  Though  ultimately  hunted  down 
in  Arcadia  and  induced  to  leave  the  province,  Alaric  had  time 
to  execute  systematic  devastations  which  crippled  Greece  for 
several  decades.  The  arrears  of  taxation  which  accumulated 
in  consequence  were  remitted  by  Theodosius  II.  in  438. 

The  emperors  of  the  4th  century  made  several  attempts  to 
stamp  out  by  edict  the  old  pagan  religion,  which,  with  its 
accompaniment  of  festivals,  oracles  and  mysteries,  still  main- 
tained an  outward  appearance  of  vigour,  and,  along  with  the 
philosophy  in  which  the  intellectual  classes  found  comfort, 
retained  the  affection  of  the  Greeks.  Except  for  the  decree  of 
Theodosius  I.  by  which. the  Olympian  games  were  interdicted 
(394)1  these  measures  had  no  great  effect,  and  indeed  were  not 
rigorously  enforced.  Paganism  survived  in  Greece  till  about 
600,  but  the  interchange  of  ideas  and  practices  which  the  long- 
continued  contact  with  Christianity  had  effected  considerably 
modified  its  character.  Hence  the  Christian  religion,  though 
slow  in  making  its  way,  eventually  gained  a  sure  footing  among 
a  nation  which  accepted  it  spontaneously.  The  hold  of  the 
Church  upon  the  Greeks  was  strengthened  by  the  judicious 
manner  in  which  the  clergy,  unsupported  by  official  patronage 
and  often  out  of  sympathy  with  the  Arian  emperors,  identified 
itself  with  the  interests  of  the  people.  Though  in  the  days  when 
the  orthodox  Church  found  favour  at  court  corruption  spread 
among  its  higher  branches,  the  clergy  as  a  whole  rendered 
conspicuous  service  in  opposing  the  arbitrary  interferences  of 
the  central  government  and  in  upholding  the  use  of  the  Hellenic 
tongue,  together  with  some  rudiments  of  Hellenic  culture. 

The  separation  of  the  eastern  and  western  provinces  of  the 
empire  ultimately  had  an  important  effect  in  restoring  the 
language  and  customs  of  Greece  to  their  predominant  position 
in  the  Levant.  This  result,  however,  was  long  retarded  by  the 
romanizing 'policy  of  Constantine  and  his  successors.  The 
emperors  of  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  had  no  regard  for  Greek 
culture,  and  Justinian  I.  actively  counteracted  Hellenism  by 
propagating  Roman  law  in  Greece,  by  impairing  the  powers  of 
the  self-governing  cities,  and  by  closing  the  philosophical  schools 
at  Athens  (529).  In  course  of  time  the  inhabitants  had  so  far 
forgotten  their  ancient  culture  that  they  abandoned  the  name 
of  Hellenes  for  that  of  Romans  {Rkomaioi).  For  a  long  time 
Greece  continued  to  be  an  obscure  and  neglected  province,  with 
no  interests  beyond  its  church  and  its  commercial  operations, 
and  its  culture  declined  rapidly.  Its  history  for  some  centuries 
dwindles  into  a  record  of  barbarian  invasions  which,  in  addition 
to  occasional  plagues  and  earthquakes,  seem*to  have  been  the 
only  events  found  worthy  of  record  by  the  contemporary 
chroniclers. 

In  the  5th  century  Greece  was  only  subjected  to  brief  raids 
by  Vandal  pirates  (466-474)  and  Ostrogoths  (482).  In  Justinian's 
reign  irruptions  by  Huns  and  Avars  took  place,  but  led  to  no 
far-reaching  results.  The  em[)eror  had  endeavoured  to  strengthen 
the  country's  defences  by  repairing  the  fortifications  of  cities 
tnd  frontier  posts  (530),  but  his  poUcy  "of  supplanting  the  local 


guards  by  imperial  troops  and  so  rendering  the  nativM  incapable 
of  self-defence  was  ill-advised;  fortunately  it  was  never  carried 
out  with  energy,  and  so  the  Greek  militias  were  occasionally 
able  to  render  good  service  against  invaders. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  century  mention  is  made  for  the  first 
time  of  an  incursion  by  Slavonic  tribes  (581).  These  invaders 
are  to  be  regarded  as  merely  the  forerunners  of  a 
steady  movement  of  immigration  by  which  a  con-  £^*JJJ' 
siderable  part  of  Greece  passed  for  a  time  into  foreign  uoST*' 
hands.  It  is  doubtful  how  far  the  newcomers  won 
their  territory  by  force  of  arms;  in  view  of  the  desolation  of 
many  rural  tracts,  which  had  long  been  in  progress  as  a  result 
of  economic  changes,  it  seems  probable  that  numerous  settle- 
ments were  made  on  unoccupied  land  and  did  not  challenge 
serious  opposition.  At  any  rate  the  effect  upon  the  Greek  popula- 
tion was  merely  to  accelerate  its  emigration  from  the  interior 
to  the  coastland  and  the  cities.  The  foreigners,  consisting  mainly 
of  Slovenes  and  Wends,  occupied  the  mountainous  inland, 
where  they  mostly  led  a  pastoral  life;  the  natives  retained  some 
strips  of  plain  and  dwelt  secure  in  their  walled  towns,  among 
which  the  newly-built  fortresses  of  Monemvasia,  Corone  and 
Calamata  soon  rose  to  prosperity.  The  Slavonic  element,  to 
judge  by  the  geographical  names  in  that  tongue  which  survive 
in  Greece,  is  specially  marked  in  N.W.  Greece  and  Peloponnesus; 
central  Greece  appears  to  have  been  protected  against  them 
by  the  fortress-square  of  Chalcis,  Thebes,  Corinth  and  Athens. 
For  a  long  time  the  two  nations  dwelt  side  by  side  without  either 
displacing  the  other.  The  Slavs  were  too  rude  and  poor,  and 
too  much  distracted  with  cantonal  feuds,  to  make  any  further 
headway;  the  Greeks,  unused  to  arms  and  engrossed  in  com- 
merce, were  content  to  adopt  a  passive  attitude.  The  central 
government  took  no  steps  to  dislodge  the  invaders,  until  in  783 
the  empress  Irene  sent  an  expedition  which  reduced  most' of 
the  tribes  to  pay  tribute.  In  8x0  a  desperate  attempt  by  the 
Slavs  to  capture  Patrae  was  foiled;  henceforth  their  power 
steadily  decreased  and  their  submission  to  the  emperor  was 
made  complete  by  850.  A  powerful  factor  in  their  subjugation 
was  the  Greek  clergy,  who  by  the  xoth  century  had  christianized 
and  largely  hellenized  all  the  foreigners  save  a  remnant  in  the 
pem'nsula  of  Maina. 

II.  The  Byzantine  Period.— In  the  7th  century  the  Greek 
language  made  its  way  into  the  imperial  army  and  civil  service, 
but  European  Greece  continued  to  have  little  voice  in  the 
administration.  The  land  was  divided  into  four  "themes" 
under  a  yearly  appointed  civil  and  military  governor.  Irhperial 
troops  were  stationed  at  the  chief  strategic  points,  while  the 
natives  contributed  ships  for  naval  defence.  During  the  dispute 
about  images  the  Greeks  were  the  backbone  of  the  image- 
worshipping  party,  and  the  iconoclastic  edicts  of  Leo  III.  led 
to  a  revolt  in  727  which,  however,  was  easily  crushed  by  the 
imperial  fleet;  a  similar  movement  in  823,  when  the  Greeks 
sent  350  ships  to  aid  a  pretender,  met  with  the  same  fate.  The 
firm  government  of  the  Isaurian  dynasty  seems  to  have  benefited 
Greece,  whose  commerce  and  industry  again  became  flourishing. 
In  spite  of  occasional  set-backs  due  to  the  depredations  of 
pirates,  notably  the  Arab  corsairs  who  visited  the  Aegean  from 
the  7th  century  onwards,  the  Greeks  remained  the  chief  carriers 
in  the  Levant  until  the  rise  of  the  Italian  republics,  supplying 
all  Europe  with  its  silk  fabrics. ' 

In  the  loth  century  Greece  experienced  a  renewal  of  raids 
from  the  Balkan  tribes.  The  Bulgarians  made  incursions  after 
929  and  sometimes  penetrated  to  the  Isthmus;  but  they  mostly 
failed  to  capture  the  cities,  and  in  995  their  strength  was  broken 
by  a  crushing  defeat  on  the  Spercheius  at  the  hands  of  the 
Byzantine  army.  Yet  their  devastations  greatly  thinned  the 
population  of  northern  Greece,  and  after  1084  Thessaly  was 
occupied  without  resistance  by  nomad  tribes  of  Vlachs.  In 
1084  also  Greece  was  subjected  to  the  first  attack  from  the  new 
nations  of  the  west,  when  the  Sicilian  Normans  gained  a  footing 
in  the  Ionian  islands.  The  same  people  made  a  notable  raid  upon 
the  seaboard  of  Greece  in  1145-1146,  and  sacked  the  cities  of 
Thebcis  and  Corioth.    The  Venetians  also  appear  as  rivals  of 


46+ 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


the  Greeks,  and  after  X122  their  encroachments  in  the  Aegean 
Sea  never  ceased. 

In  spite  ol  these  attacks,  the  country  en  luc  whole  maintained 
its  prosperity.  The  travellers  Idrlsl  of  Palermo  (1153)  AQd 
Benjamin  of  Tudela  (x  161)  testify  to  the  briskness  of  commerce, 
which  induced  many  foreign  merchants  to  take  up  their  residence 
in  Greece.  But  this  prosperity  revived  an  aristocracy  of  wealth 
which  used  its  riches  and  power  for  purely  selfish  ends,  and  under 
the  increasing  laxity  of  imperial  control  the  archonUsot  municipal 
rulers  often  combined  with  the  clergy  in  oppressing  the  poorer 
classes.  Least  of  all  were  these  nobles  prepared  to  become  the 
champions  of  Greece  against  foreign  invaders  at  a  time  when  they 
alone  could  have  organized  an  effectual  resistance. 

III.  The  Latin  Occupation  and  Turkish  Conquest. — The 
capture  of  Constantinople  and  dissolution  of  the  Byzantine 
empire  by  the  Latins  (1204)  brought  in  its  train  an  invasion  of 
Greece  by  Prankish  barons  eager  for  new  territory.  The 
natives,  who  had  long  forgotten  the  use  of  arms  and  dreaded 
no  worse  oppression  from  their  new  masters,  submitted  almost 
without  resistance,  and  only  the  N.W.  corner  of  Greece,  where 
Michael  Angelus,  a  Byzantine  prince,  founded  the  "despotat" 
of  Epirus,  was  saved  from  foreign  occupation.  The  rest  of  the 
country  was  divided  up  between  a  number  of  Prankish  barons, 
chief  among  whom  were  the  dukes  of  Achaea  (or  Peloponnese) 
and  "  grand  signors  "  of  Thebes  and  Athens,  the  Venetians,  who 
held  naval  stations  at  different  points  and  the  Island  of  Crete, 
and  various  Italian  adventurers  who  mainly  settled  in  the 
Cycladcs.  The  conquerors  transplanted  their  own  language, 
customs  and  religion  to  their  new  possessions,  and  endeavoured 
to  institute  the  feudal  system  of  land-tenure.  Yet  recognizing 
the  superiority  of  Greek  civil  institutions  they  allowed  the 
natives  to  retain  their  law  and  internal  administration  and  con- 
firmed proprietors  in  possession  of  their  land  on  payment  of  a 
rent;  the  Greek  church  was  subordinated  to  the  Roman  arch- 
bishops, but  upheld  its  former  control  over  the  people.  The 
commerce  and  industry  of  the  Greek  cities  was  hardly  affected 
by  the  change  of  government. 

Greek  history  during  the  Latin  occupation  loses  its  unity  and 
has  to  be  followed  in  several  threads.  In  the  north  the  "  despots  " 
of  Epirus  extended  their  rule  to  Thcssaly  and  Macedonia,  but 
eventually  were  repulsed  by  the  Asiatic  Greeks  of  Nicaea,  and 
after  a  decisive  defeat  at  Pelagonia  (1250)  reduced  to  a  small 
dominion  round  lannina.  Thessaly  continued  to  change  masters 
rapidly.  Till  1308  it  was  governed  by  a  branch  line  of  the 
Epirote  dynasty.  When  this  family  died  out  it  fell  to  the  Grand 
Catalan  Company;  in  4350  it  was  conquered  along  with  Epirus 
by  Stephen  Dushan,  kmg  of  Servia.  About  1397  it  was  annexed 
by  the  Ottoman  Turks,  who  after  1431  also  gradually  wrested 
Epirus  from  its  latest  possessors,  the  Bcneventinc  family  of 
Tocco  (1390-1469). 

The  leading  power  in  central  Greece  was  the  Burgundian 
house  de  la  Roche,  which  established  a  mild  and  judicious  govern- 
ment in  Bocntia  and  Attica  and  in  1261  was  raised  to  ducal  rank 
by  the  French  king  Louis  IX.  A  conflict  with  the  Grand  Catalan 
Company  resulted  in  a  disastrous  defeat  of  the  Franks  on  the 
Boeotian  Cephissus  (13 11)  and  the  occupation  of  central  Greece 
by  the  Spanish  mercenaries,  who  seized  for  themselves  the  barons' 
fiefs  and  installed  princes  from  the  Sicilian  house  of  Aragon  as 
*•  dukes  of  Athens  and  Neopatras  "  (Thessaly).  After  seventy- 
five  years  of  oppressive  rule  and  constant  wars  with  their 
neighbours  the  Catalans  were  expelled  by  the  Peloponnesian 
baron  Nerio  Acciaiuoli.  The  new  dynasty,  whose  peaceful 
government  revived  its  subjects*  industry,  became  tributary  to 
the  Turks  about  141 5,  but  was  deposed  by  Sultan  Mahommed  II., 
who  annexed  central  Greece  in  1456. 

The  conquest  of  the  Peloponnese  was  effected  by  two  French 
knights,  William  Champlitte  and  Geoffrey  VUlehardouin,  the 
latter  of  whom  founded  a  dynasty  of  "  princes  of  all  Achaea." 
The  rufers  of  this  line  were  men  of  ability,  who  controlled  their 
barons  and  spiritual  vassals  with  a  firm  hand  and  established 
good  order  throughout  their  province.  The  Franks  of  the 
Morea  maintained  as  high  a  standard  of  culture  as  their  com- 


I  patriots  at  home,  while  the  natives  grew  rich  enough  from  their 
industry  to  pay  considerable  taxes  without  discontent.  The 
climax  of  the  Vlllehardouins'  power  was  attained  under  Prince 
William,  who  subdued  the  last  independent  cities  of  the  coast 
and  the  mountaineers  of  Maina  (i 246-x  248). .  In  1259,  however, 
the  same  ruler  was  involved  in  the  war  between  the  rulers  of 
Epirus  and  Nicaea,  and  being  captured  at  the  battle  of  Pela- 
gonia, could  only  ransom  himselif  by  the  cession  of  Laconia 
to  the  restored  Byzantine  empire.  This  new  dependency  after 
1349  was  treated  with  great  care  by  the  Byzantine  monarchs, 
who  sought  to  repress  the  violence  of  the  local  aristocracies  by 
sending  their  kinsmen  to  govern  under  the  title  of  "  despots." 
On  the  other  hand,  with  the  extinction  of  the  Villehardouin 
dynasty  the  Prankish  province  fell  more  and  more  into  anarchy; 
at  the  same  time  the  numbers  of  the  foreigners  were  constantly 
dwindling  through  war,  and  as  they  disdained  to  recruit  them 
by  intermarriage,  the  preponderance  of  the  native  element 
in  the  Morea  eventually  became  complete.  Thus  by  1400  the 
Byzantines  were  enabled  to  recover  control  over  almost  the 
whole  peninsula  and  apportion  it  among  several  "  de^Mts.'* 
But  the  mutual  quarrels  of  these  princes  soon  proved  fatal  to 
their  rule.  Already  in  the  X4th  century  they  had  employed 
Albanians  and  the  Turkish  pirates  who  harried  their  coasts  as 
auxiliaries  in  their  wars.  The  Albanians  largely  remained  as 
settlers,  and  the  connexion  with  the  Turks  could  no  longer  be 
shaken  off.  In  spite  of  attempts  to  fortify  the  Isthmus  (141 5)  an 
Ottoman  army  penetrated  into  Morea  and  deported  many 
inhabitants  in  1 4  23 .  An  invasion  of  cent  ral  Greece  by  t  he  despot 
Consta'ntine  was  punished  by  renewed  raids  in  1446  and  1450. 
In  1457  the  despot  Thomas  withheld  the  tribute  which  he  had 
recently  stipulated  to  pay,  but  was  reduced  to  obedience  by  an 
expedition  under  Mahommed  11.  (1458).  A  renewed  revolt  in 
1459  was  punished  by  an  invasion  attended  with  executions  and 
deportations  on  a  large  scale,  and  by  the  annexation  of  the 
Morea  to  Turkey  (1460). 

IV.  The  Turkish  Dominion  tUl  iSoo.— Under  the  Ottoman 
government  Greece  was  split  up  into  six  sanjaks  or  military 
divisions:  (i)  Morea,  (2)  Epirus,  (3)  Thessaly,  (4)  Euboca, 
Bocotia  and  Attica,  (5)  Aetolia  and  Acarnania,  (6)  the  rest  of 
central  Greece,  with  capitals  at  Nauplia,  Jannina,  Trikkala, 
Negropont  (Chalkis),  Karlili  and  Lepanto;  further  divisions 
were  subsequently  composed  of  Crete  and  the  islands.  In  each 
sanjah  a  number  of  fiefs  was  apportioned  to  Turkish  settlers, 
who  were  bound  in  return  to  furnish  some  mounted  men  for 
the  sultan's  army,  the  total  force  thus  held  in  readiness  being 
over  7000.  The  local  government  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
archonles  or  primates  in  each  community,  who  also  undertook 
the  farming  of  the  taxes  and  the  policing  of  their  districts.  Law 
was  usually  administered  by  the  Greek  clergy.  The  natives 
were  not  burdened  with  large  imposts,  but  the  levying  of  the 
land-tithes  was  effected  in  an  inconvenient  fashion,  and.  the 
capitation-tax,  to  which  all  Christians  were  subjected  was  felt 
as  a  humiliation.  A  further  grievance  lay  in  the  requisitions 
of  forced  labour  which  the  pashas  were  entitled  to  call  for;  but 
the  most  galling  exaction  was  the  tribute  of  children  for  the 
recruiting  of  the  Janissaries  (^.f.),  which  was  often  levied  with 
great  ruthlessness.  The  habitual  weakness  of  the  central  govern- 
ment also  left  the  Greeks  exposed  to  frequent  oppression  by  the 
Turkish  residents  and  by  their  own  magistrates  and  clergy. 
But  the  new  rulers  met  with  singularly  little  opposition.  The 
dangerous  elements  of  the  population  had  been  cleared  away  by 
Mahommed 's  executions;  the  rest  were  content  to  absorb 
their  energies  in  agriculture  and  commerce,  which  in  spite  of 
preferential  duties  and  capitulations  to  foreign  powers  largely 
fell  again  into  the  hands  of  Greeks.  Another  important  instru- 
ment by  which  the  people  were  kept  down  was  their  own  clergy, 
whom  the  Turkish  rulers  treated  with  marked  favour  and  so 
induced  to  acquiesce  in  their  dominion. 

In  the  following  centuries  Greece  was  often  the  theatre  of 
war  in  which  the  Greeks  played  but  a  passive  part.  Several 
wars  with  Venice  (1463-79, 1498-1504)  put  the  Turks  in  poses- 
sion  of  the  last  Italian  strongholds  on  the  mainland.   But  the 


RISTORV] 


GREECE 


465 


issue  was  mainly  fought  out  on  sea;  the  conflicts  which  had 
never  ceased  in  the  Aegean  since  the  coming  of  the  Italians 
DOW  grew  fiercer  than  ever;  Greek  ships  and  sailors  were 
frequently  requisitioned  for  the  Turkish  fleets,  and  the  damage 
done  to  the  Greek  seaboard  by  the  belligerents  and  by  fleets  of 
adventurers  and  corsairs  brought  about  the  depopulation  of 
many  islands  and  coast-strips.  The  conquest  of  the  Aegean 
by  the  Ottomans  was  completed  by  1570;  but  Venice  retained 
Crete  till  1669  and  never  lost  Corfu  until  its  cession  to  France 
in  1797. 

In  1684  the  Venetians  took  advantage  of  the  preoccupation  of 
Turkey  on  the  Danube  to  attack  the  Morea.  A  small  mercenary 
array  under  Francesco  Morosini  captured  the  strong  places 
with  remarkable  ease,  and  by  1687  had  conquered  almost  the 
whole  peninsula.  In  1687  the  invaders  also  captured  Athens 
and  Lepanto;  but  the  former  town  had  soon  to  be  abandoned, 
and  with  their  failure  to  capture  Negropont  (1688)  the  Venetians 
were  brought  to  a  standstill.  By  the  peace  of  Karlowitz  (1699) 
the  Morea  became  a  possession  of  Venice.  The  new  rulers,  in 
spite  of  the  commercial  restrictions  which  they  imposed  in  favour 
df  their  own  traders,  checked  the  impoverishment  and  decrease 
of  population  (from  300,000  to  86,000)  which  the  war  had 
caused.  By  their  attempts  to  cooperate  with  the  native  magis- 
trates and  the  mildness  of  their  administration  they  improved 
the  spirit  of  their  subjects.  But  they  failed  to  make  their 
government  popular,  and  when  in  17x5  the  Ottomans  with 
a  large  and  well-disciplined  army  set  themselves  to  recover 
the  Morea,  the  Venetians  were  left  without  support  from  the 
Greeks.  The  peninsula  was  rapidly  recaptured  and  by  the  peace 
of  Passarowitz  (17x8)  again  became  a  Turkish  dependency. 
The  gaps  left  about  this  time  in  the  Greek  population  were 
largely  made  up  by  an  immigration  from  Albania. 

The  condition  of  the  Greeks  in  the  x8th  century  showed  a 
great  improvement  which  gave  rise  to  yet  greater  hopes.  Already 
in  the  X7th  century  the  personal  services  of  the  subjects  had 
been  Commuted  into  money  contributions,  and  since  1676  the 
tribute  of  children  fell  into  abeyance.  The  increasing  use  of 
Greek  oflSdals  in  the  Turkish  civil  service,  coupled  with  the 
privileges  accorded  to  the  Greek  clergy  throughout  the  Balkan 
countries,  tended  to  recall  the  consciousness  of  former  days  of 
predominance  in  the  Levant.  Lastly,  the  education  of  the 
Greeks,  which  had  always  remained  on  a  comparatively. high 
level,  was  rapidly  improved  by  the  foundation  of  new  schools 
and  academies. 

The  long  neglect  which  Greece  had  experienced  at  the  hands 
of  the  European  Powers  was  broken  in  1764,  when  Russian 
agents  appeared  in  the  country  with  promises  of  a  speedy 
deliverance  from  the  Turks.  A  small  expedition  under  Feodor 
and  Alexis  Orloff  actually  landed  in  the  Morea  in  X769,  but  failed 
to  rouse  natioiuj  sentiment.  Although  the  Russian  fleet  gained 
a  notable  victory  off  Chesme  near  Chios,  a  heavy  defeat  near 
Tripolitza  ruined  the  prospects  of  the  army.  The  Albanian 
troops  in  the  Turkish  army  subsequently  ravaged  the  country 
far  and  wide,  until  in  1779  they  were  exterminated  by  a  force 
of  Turkish  regulars.  In  X774  a  concession,  embodied  in  the 
treaty  of  Kuchuk  Kainarji,  by  which  Greek  traders  were  allowed 
to  sail  under  the  protection  of  the  Russian  flag,  marked  an 
important  step  in  the  rehabilitation  of  the  country  as  an  inde- 
pendent power.  Greek  commerce  henceforth  spread  swiftly 
over  the  Mediterranean,,  and  increased  intercourse  developed  a 
new  sense  of  Hellenic  unity.  Among  the  pioneers  who  fostered 
this  movement  should  be  mentioned  Constantine  Rhigas,  the 
"  modem  Tyrtaeus,"  and  Adamanfios  Cora(!s  (q.v.),  the  reformer 
of  the  Greek  tongue.  The  revived  memories  of  ancient  Hellas 
and  the  impression  created  by  the  French  revolution  combined 
to  give  the  final  impulse  which  made  the  Greeks  strike  for 
freedom.  By  1800  the  population  of  Greece  b^d  increased  to 
1.000,000,  and  although  300,000  of  these  were  Albanians,  the 
common  aversion  to  the  Moslem  united  the  two  races.  The 
military  resources  of  the  country  alone  remained  deficient,  for 
the  armatoli  or  local  militias,  which  had  never  been  quite  dis- 
banded since  Byzantine  times,  were  at  last  suppressed  by  Ali 

jui  ft* 


Pasha  of  lannina  and  found  but  a  poor  substitute  in  the  klephts 
who  henceforth  spring  into  prominence.  But  at  the  first  sign 
of  weakness  in  the  Turkish  dominion  the  Greek  nation  was 
ready  to  rise,  and  the  actual  outbreak  of  revolt  had  become 
merely  a  question  of  time. 

AuTBORmES.-~General:  G.  Finlay,  Bistort  of  Greece  (ed.  Toaer, 
Oxford,  1877),  especially  vols,  i.,  iv.,  v. ;  K.  Papairbieopoulos, 
^IvToptm,  TtA  'EXXqnxoG  Www  (4th  ed.,  Athens,  X903),  vols.  ii.-v. ; 
Histoire  de  la  cmlisaium  Aetf^tgM  (Paris.  1878);  R.  v.  Scala. 
Das  Criechenium  sett  Alexander  dim  Crossen  (Leipxtg  and  Vienna, 
1904) ;  and  specially  W.  Miller,  The  Latins  in  the  Levant  (1908). 

Special— -(a)  The  Roman  period:  Strabo,  bks.  viii.-x.;  niusanias, 
Descriptio  Craeciaa^  G.  F.  Hertsbets,  Die  Gesekickte  Griechentands 
unter  der  Herrsckaft  der  Rdnur  (Halle,  1866-1875);  Sp.  Lampros, 
'Itn-epJa  r^f  *EXX«aot  (Athens.  x888  aqq.).  vol.  ui.;  A  Holm, 
History  of  Greece  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1804-1898),  vol.  iv.,  cha. 
19,  34.  26.  a8  aeq. ;  Th.  Momnuen.  The  Provinces  of  the  Roman 
Empire  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1886,  ch.  7);  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  The 
Greek  World  under  Roman  Sway,  from  Polybius  to  Plutarch  (London, 
1890);  W.  MtUer,  "  The  Romans  in  Greece  "  (Westminster  Review, 
August  1903,  pp.  186-210);  L.  FricdlAnder,  "  Griechenland  unter 
den  Rdmem  "  {peutsche  Rundschau,  1899, Jpp.  25X-274,- 402-430). 
(P)  The  Byzantine  and  Latin  periods:  G.-  F.  Hertzb^v.  Gesckuhte 
Griechentands  seit  dem  Alaterben  des  antiken  Lebens  (CothA,  1876- 
1879),  ^^^  H  "*'  ^'  ^^'  ^^^*^*'«  Griechenlands'im  Mittdalter 
(Leipzig,  1868) ;  J.  A.  Buchon,  Histoire  des  conguites  et  de  ViuMisse- 
ment  des  Prancats  dans  les  Etats  deVandenne  Grice  (Paris,  1846); 
G.  Schmitt.  The  Chronicle  of  Morea  (London,  1904);  W.  Miller. 
"  The  Princes  of  the  Peloponnese  "  (Quarterly  Review,  July  1905, 
pp.  109-iAS) ;  D.  Bikelas,  Seven  Essays  on  Chrtsttan  Greece  (Paisley 
and  London,  X890):  La  Grice  byxantine  et  medeme  (Paris,  1893), 
pp.  X-I93  (f)  The  Turkish  and  Venetian  jperiods:  Hertzbeig, 
oh.  ciL,  vol.  ill. ;  K.  M.  Bartholdy,  Geschichte  Griechenlatids  von  der 
Eroherung  Konstaniinopels  (Lripzig,  X870).  bka.  L  and  iL,  pp.  1-155: 
K.  N.  Sathas.  TouamkmtovMi^  'E\X^  (Athens.  1869) ;  W.  Miller. 
"  Greece  under  the  Turks "   (WestnUnsler  Review,  August  and 


the  Christian  Church  (JLondon,  1690).    Ethnology.    T.  P.  Fallmeraycr, 
Geschichte  der  Haibinsd  Morea  wAhrend  des  MittelaUers  (Stuttgart 


5  (1898),  pp.  404-438.  626^701. 
See  also  Roman  Empiks.  Lai 


atbk;  Athens. 


(M.O.B.C.) 


c.  Modem  History:  jSoo^igoS. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  X9th  century  Greece  was  still  under 
Turkish  domination,  but  the  dawn  of  freedom  was  already 
breaking,  and  a  variety  of  forces  were  at  work  which 
prepared  the  way  for  the  acquisition  of  national  JJj^^JJ" 
independence.  The  decadence  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  r^rtey. 
which  began  with  the  retreat  of  the  Turks  from  Vienna 
in  X683,  was  indicated  in  the  i8th  century  by  the  weakening  of 
the  central  power,  the  spread  of  anarchy  in  the  provinces,  the 
ravages  of  the  janissaries,  and  the  establishment  of  practically 
independent  sovereignties  or  fiefs,  such  as  those  of  Mehemet 
of  Bushat  at  Skodra  and  of  All  Pasha  of  Tepelen  at  lannina; 
the  X9th  century  witnessed  the  first  uprisings  of  the  Christian 
populations  and  the  detachment  of  the  outlying  portions  of 
European  Turkey.  Up  to  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  none  of 
the  subject  races  had  risen  in  spontaneous  revolt  against  the 
Turks,  though  in  some  instances  they  rendered  aid  to  the  sultan's 
enemies;,  the  spirit  of  the  conquered  nations  had  been  broken 
by  ages  of  oppression.  In  some  of  the  remoter  and  more  moun- 
tainous districts,  however,  the  authority  of  the  Turks  bad  never 
been  completely  established;  in  Montenegro  a  small  fragment 
of  the  Serb  race  maintained  its  independence;  among  the  Greeks, 
the  Mainotes  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  Morea  and  the  Sphakiote 
mountaineers  in  Crete  bad  never  been  completely  subdued. 
Resistance  to  Ottoman  rule  was  maintained  sporadically  in  the 
mountainous  districts  by  the  Greek  klephts  or  brigands,  the 
counterpart  of  the  Slavonic  kaiduks,  and  by  the  pirates  of  the 
Aegean;  the  armatoUs  or  bodies  of  Christian  warriors,  recognized 
by  the  Turks  as  a  local  police,  often  differed  little  in  their 
proceedings  from  the  brigands  whom  they  were  appointed  to 
pursue. 


466 


GREECE 


imSTORT 


Of  the  Beriei  of  insurrections  which  took  place  in  the  19th 
century,  the  first  in  order  of  time  was  the  Servian,  which  broke 
out  in  1804;  the  second  was  the  Greek,  which  began 
in  182 1.  In  both  these  movements  the  influence  of 
Russia  played  a  considerable  part.  In  the  case  of 
the  Servians  Russian  aid  was  mainly  diplomatic,  in  that  of  the 
Greeks  it  eventually  took  a  more  material  form.  Since  the  days 
of  Peter  the  Great,  the  eyes  of  Russia  had  been  fixed  on  Con- 
stantinople, the  great  metropolis  of  the  Orthodox  faith.  The 
policy  of  inciting  the  Greek  Christians  to  revolt  against  their 
oppressors,  which  was  first  adopted  in  the  reign  of  the  empress 
Anna,  was  put  into  practical  operation  by  the  empress  Catharine 
II.,  whose  favourite,  Orlov,  appeared  in  the  Aegean  with  a  fleet 
in  1769  and  landed  in  the  Morea,  where  he  organized  a  revolt. 
The  attempt  proved  a'  failure;  Orlov  re-embarked,  leaving  the 
Greeks  at  the  mercy  of  the  Turks,  and  terrible  massacres  took 
place  at  Tripolitza,  Lemnos  and  elsewhere.  By  the  treaty  of 
Kutchuk-Kainarji  (July  21,  1774)  Russia  obtained  a  vaguely- 
defined  protectorate  over  the  Orthodox  Greek  subjects  of  Turkey, 
and  in  1781  she  arrived  at  an  arrangement  with  Austria,  known 
as  the  "  Greek  project,"  for  a  partition  of  Turkish  territory 
and  the  restoration  of  the  Byzantine  empire  under  Constantine, 
the  son  of  Catharine  II.  The  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution 
distracted  the  attention  of  the  two  empires,  but  Russia  never 
ceased  to  intrigue  among  the  Christian  subjects  of  Turkey.  A 
revolt  of  the  inhabitants  of  Suli  in  1790  took  place  with  her 
connivance,  and  in  the  two  first  decades  of  the  19th  century 
her  agents  were  active  and  ubiquitous 

The  influence  of  the  French  Revolution,  which  pervaded 
all  Europe,  extended  to  the  shores  of  the  Aegean.  The  Greeks, 
who  had  hitherto  been  drawn  together  mainly  by  a 
common  religion,  were  now  animated  by  the  sentiment 
of  nationality  and  by  an  ardent  desire  for  political 
freedom.  The  national  awakening,  as  in  th^  case  of 
the  other  subject  Christian  nations,  was  preceded  by  a  literary 
revival.  Literary  and  patriotic  societies,  the  Philhellenes,  the 
Philomousi,  came  into  existence;  Greek  schools  were  founded 
everywhere;  the  philological  labours  of  Corals,  which  created 
the  modem  written  language,  furnished  the  nation  with  a  mode 
of  literary  expression;  the  songs  of  Rhigas  of  Velestino  fired 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  people.  In  1815  was  founded  the  cele- 
brated PhUiki  Hetaerea^  or  friendly  society,  a  revolutionary 
organization  with  centres  at  Moscow,  Bucharest,  Triest,  and  in 
all  the  cities  of  the  Levant;  it  collected  subscriptions,  issued 
manifestos,  distributed  arms  and  made  preparations  for  the 
coming  insurrection.  The  revolt  of  AH  Pasha  of  lannina  against 
the  authority  of  the  sultan  in  1820  formed  the  prelude  to  the 
Greek  uprising;  this  despot,  who  had  massacred  the  Greeks 
by  hundreds,  now  declared  himself  their  friend,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  Hetaerea.  In  March  1821  Alexander  Ypsi- 
lanti,  a  former  aide-de-camp  of  the  tsar  Alexander  I.,  and 
president  of  the  Hetaerea,  entered  Moldavia  from  Russiah 
territory  at  the  head  of  a  small  force;  in  the  same  month 
Archbishop  Germanos  of  Patras  imfurled  the  standard  of  revolt 
at  Kalavryta  in  the  Morea. 

For  the  history  of  the  prolonged  struggle  which  followed 
see  Greek  War  of  I  ndependbnck.  The  warfare  was  practically 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  annihilation  of  the  Egyptian 
fleet  at  Navarino  by  the  fleets  Of  Great  Britain,  France 
and  Russia  on  the  20th  of  October  1827.  Nine  months 
previously,  Count  John  Capo  d'Istria  (9.V.),  formerly 
ministu'  of  foreign  affairs  of  the  tsar  Alexander,  had  been 
elected  president  of  the  Greek  republic  for  seven  years  beginning 
on  January  18, 1828.  By  the  protocol  of  London  (March  22, 
1829)  the  Greek  mainland  south  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  Gulf 
of  Arta  to  the  Gulf  of  Volo,  the  Morea  and  the  Cydades  were 
declared  a  principality  tributary  to  the  sultan  under  a  Christian 
prince.  The  limits  drawn  by  the  protocol  of  London  were 
confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  (September  14,  1829), 
by  which  Greece  was  constituted  an  independent  monarchy. 
The  governments  of  Russia,  France  and  England  were  far 
from  sharing  the  enthusiasm  which  the  gallant  re^tance  of  the 


Greeks  had  excited  among  the  peoples  of  EoKipe,  and  which 
inspired  the  devotion  of  Byron,  Cochrane,  Sir  Richard  Church, 
Fabvier  and  other  distinguished  Philhe&enes;  jeabtisies 
prevailed  among  the  three  protecting  powers,  and  the  newly- 
liberated  nation  was  treated  in  a  niggardly  spirit;  its  narrow 
limits  were  reduced  by  a  new  protocol  (February  3,  1830),  vkidi 
drew  the  boundary  line  at  the  Aspropotamo,  the  Spercheios  and 
the  Gulf  of  Lamia.  Capo  d'Istria,  whose  Russian  proclivities 
and  arbitrary  government  gave  great  offence  to  the  Greeks,  was 
assassinated  by  two  members  of  the  Mavromichalis  family 
(October  9,  1831),  and  a  state  of  anarchy  followed.  Before  his 
death  the  throne  of  Greece  had  been  offered  to  Prince  Leopold 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  afterwards  king  of  the  Belgians,  who 
declined  it,  basing  his  refusal  on  the  inadequacy  of  the  limits 
assigned  to  the  new  kingdom  and  especially  the  exclusion  of 
Crete. 

By  the  convention  of  London  (May  7,  1832)  Greece  was 
declared  an  independent  kingdom  under  the  protection  of 
Great  Britain,  France  and  Russia  with  Prince  Otto,  y,,^  ^^^ 
son  of  King  Louis  I.  of  Bavaria,  as  kini;.  The  frontier  ^^ 
line,  now  traced  from  the  Gulf  of  Arta  to  the  Gtilf  of  Lamis, 
was  fixed  by  the  arrangement  of  Constantinople  (July  31, 1832). 
King  Otto,  who  had  been  brought  up  in  a  dc^x>tjc  court, 
ruled  absolutely  for  the  first  eleven  years  of  his  reign;  be 
surrounded  himself  with  Bavarian  advisers  and  Bavarian  troops, 
and  his  rule  was  never  popular.  The  Greek  chiefs  and  politicians^ 
who  found  themselves  excluded  from  all  influence  and  advance- 
ment, were  divided  into  three  factions  which  attached  themselves 
respectively  to  the  three  protecting  powers.  On  the  15th  of 
September  1843  a  military  revolt  broke  out  which  compdled  the 
king  to  dismiss  the  Bavarians  and  to  accept  a  constitatioa.  A 
responsible  ministry,  a  senate  nominated  by  the  king,  and  a 
chamber  elected  by  universal  suffrage  were  now  instituted. 
Mavrocordatos,  the  leader  of  the  English  party,  became  the  first 
prime  minister,  but  his  government  was  overthrown  at  the 
ensuing  elections,  and  a  coalition  of  the  French  and  Russiaa 
parties  under  Kolettes  and  Metaxas  succeeded  to  power.  The 
warfare  of  factions  was  aggravated  by  the  rivalry  between  the 
British  and  French  ministers,  Sir  Edmond  Lyons  and  M. 
Piscatory;  King  Otto  supported  the  French  party,  and  trouble 
arose  with  the  British  government,  which  in  1847  despatched 
warships  to  enforce  the  payment  of  interest  on  the  loan  coo- 
tracted  after  the  War  of  Independence.  A  JBritish  fleet  subse- 
quently blockaded  the  Peiraeus  in  order  to  obtain  satisfactwn 
for  the  claims  of  Pacifico,  a  Portuguese  Jew  under  British 
protection,  whose  house  had  been  plundered  during  a  riot.  Oa 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1853 
the  Greeks  displayed  sympathy  with  Russia;  armed  bands 
were  sent  into  Thessaly,  and  an  insurrection  was  fomented  ia 
Epirus  in  the  hope  of  securing  an  accession  of  territory.  Ia 
order  to  prevent  further  hostile  action  on  the  part  61  Greece, 
British  and  French  fleets  made  a  demonstration  against  the 
Peiraeus,  which  was  occupied  by  a  French  force  during  the 
Crimean  War.  The  disappointment  of  the  national  hopes 
increased  the  unpopularity  of  King  Otto,  who  had  never 
acquiesced  in  constitutional  rule.  In  1862  a  military  revolt 
broke  out,  and  a  national  assembly  pronounced  his  depoutioo. 
The  vacant  throne  was  offered  by  the  assembly  to  Duke  Nicholas 
of  Leuchtenberg,  a  cousin  of  the  tsar,  but  the  mass  of  the  people 
desired  a  constitutional  monarchy  of  the  British  type;  a 
plebiscite  was  taken,  and  Prince  Alfred  of  England  was  elected 
by  an  almost  unanimous  vote.  The  three  protecting  powers, 
however,  had  bound  themselves  to  the  exclusion  of  any  member 
of  their  ruling  houses.  In  the  following  year  Prince  WilliaiB 
George  of  Schleswig-Holstein^Sonderburg-GlQcksbnig,  whoa 
the  British  government  had  designated  as  a  suitable  candidate, 
was  elected  by  the  National  Assembly  with  the  title  "  George  I., 
king  of  the  Hellenes."  Under  the  treaty  of  London  (July  \h 
1863)  the  change  of  dynasty  was  sanctioned  by  the  three  protect- 
ing powers.  Great  Britain  undertaking  to  cede  to  Greece  the 
seven  Ionian  Islands,  which  since  18x5  had  fornted  a  commtw 
wealth  under  British  protection. 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


467 


On  the  39th  of  October  1863*  the  new  sovereign  arrived  in 
Athens,  and  in  the  following  June  the  British  authorities  handed 
over  the  Ionian  Islands  to  a  Greek  commissioner, 
^1^1^       King  George  thus  began  his  reign  under  the  most 
Qgttgti,    favourable  auspices,  the  patriotic  sentiments  of  the 
Greeks  being  flattered  by  the  acquisition  of  new  territory. 
He  was,  however,  soon  confronted  with  constitutional  diffictdties; 
party  spirit  ran  riot  at  Athens,  the  ministries  which  he  appointed 
proved  short-lived,  his   counsellor,  Coxmt  Sponneck,  became 
the  object  of  violent  attacks,  and  at  the  end  of  1864  he  was 
compelled  to  accept  an  ultra-democratic  constitution,  drawn 
up  by  the  National  Assembly.    This,  the  sixth  constitution  voted 
since  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom,  is  that  which  is  still  in 
force.    In  the  following  year  Count  Sponneck  left  Greece,  and 
the  attention  of  the  nation  was  concentrated  on  the  affairs  of 
Crete.    The  revolution  which  broke  out  in  that  island  received 
moral  and  material  support  from  the  Greek  government,  with 
the    tacit    approval  of    Russia;    military   preparations    were 
pressed  forward  at  Athens,  and  cruisers  were  purchased,  but  the 
king,  aware  of  the  inability  of  Greece  to  attain  her  ends  by 
warlike   means,  discouraged  a  provocative  attitude   towards 
Turkey,   and  eventually  dismissed  the  bellicose  cat»net  of 
Koumoundouros.    The  removal  of  a  powerful  minister  command- 
ing a  large  parliamentary  majority  constituted  an  important 
precedent  in  the  exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative;  the  king 
adopted  a  similar  course  with  regard  to  Delyannes  in  189a  and 
1897.  The  relations  with  the  porte,  however,  continued  to  grow 
worse,  and  Hobart  Pasha,  with  a  Turkish  fleet,  made  a  demonstra- 
tion off  Syra.    The  Cretan  insurrection  was  finally  crushed  in 
the  spring  of  1869,  and  a  conference  of  the  powers,  which 
assembled  that  year  at  Paris,  imposed  a  settlement  of  the 
Turkish  dispute  on  Greece,  but  took  no  steps  on  behalf  of'  the 
Cretans.    In  x  870  the  murder  of  several  Englishmen  by  brigands 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Athens  produced  an  unfavourable 
impression  in  Europe;  in  the  following  year  the  confiscation 
of  the  Laurion  mines,  which  had  been  ceded  to  a  Franco-Italian 
company,  provoked  energetic  action  on  the  part  of  France  and 
Italy.    In  1875,  after  an  acute  constitutional  crisis,  Charilaos 
Trikoupes,  who  but  ten  months  previously  had  been  imprisoned 
for  denouncing  the  crown  in  a  newspaper  article,  was  summoned 
to  form  a  cabinet.  This  remarkable  man,  the  only  great  states- 
man whom  modem  Greece  has  produced,  exercised  an  extra- 
ordinary influence  over  his  countrymen  for  the  next  twenty 
years;  had  he  been  able  to  maintain  himself  uninterruptedly 
in  power  during  that  period,  Greece  might  have  escaped  a  long 
succession  of  misfortunes.    His  principal  opponent,  Theodore 
Delyannes,  succeeded  in  rallying  a  strong  body  of  adherents, 
and  political  parties,  hitherto  divided  into  numerous  factions, 
centred  around  these  two  prominent  figures. 

In  1877  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo-Turkish  War  produced  a 
fever  <A  excitement  in  Greece;  it  was  felt  that  the  quarreb 
of  the  party  leaders  compromised  the  interests  of  the 
country,  and  the  populace  of  Athens  insisted  on  the 
isai,  formation  of  a  coalition  cabinet.    The  '*  great  "  or 

"  oecumenical "  ministry,  as  it  was  called,  now  came 
into  existence  under  the  presidency  of  the  veteran  Kanares;  in 
reality,  however,  it  was  controlled  by  Trikoupes,  who,  recognizing 
the  unpreporedness  of  the  country,  resolved  on  a  pacific  policy. 
The  capture  of  Plevna  by  the  Russians  brought  about  the  fall 
of  the  **  oecumenical "  ministry,  and  Koumoundouros  and 
Delyannes,  who  succeeded  to  power,  ordered  the  invasion  of 
Thessaly.  Their  warlike  energies,  however,  were  soon  checked 
by  the  signing  of  the  San  Stefano  Treaty,  in  which  the  claims 
of  Greece  to  an  extension  of  frontier  were  altogether  ignored. 
At  the  Berlin  congress  two  Greek  delegates  obtained  a  hearing 
on  the  proposal  of  Lord  Salisbury.  The  congress  decided  that 
the  rectification  of  the  frontier  should  be  left  to  Turkey  and 
Greece,  the  mediation  of  the  powers  being  proposed  in  case  of 
non-agreement;  it  was  suggested,  however,  that  the  rectified 
frontier  should  extend  from  the  valley  of  the  Peneus  on  the  east 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Kalamas,  opposite  the  southern  extremity 
of  Corfu,  on  the  west.    In  1879  a  Greco-Turkish  commission 


for  the  ddimitation  met  first  at  Prevesa,  and  subsequently  at 
Constantinople,  but  its  conferences  were  without  result,  the 
Turkish  commissioners  declining  the  boundary  suggested  at 
Berlin.  Greece  then  invoked  the  arbitration  of  the  powers, 
and  the  settlement  of  the  question  was  undertaken  by  a  confer- 
ence of  ambassadors  at  Berlin  (1880).  The  line  approved  by 
the  conference  was  practically  that  suggested  by  the  congress; 
Turkey,  however,  refused  to  accept  it,  and  the  Greek  army  was 
once  more  mobilized.  In  was  evident,  however,  that  nothing 
could  be  gained  by  an  appeal  to  arms,  the  powers  not  being 
prepared  to  apply  coercion  to  Turkey.  By  a  convention  signed 
at  Constantinople  in  July  x88x,  the  demarcation  was  entrusted 
to  a  commission  representing  the  six  powers  and  the  two 
interested  parties.  The  line  drawn  ran  westwards  from  a  point 
between  the  mouth  of  the  Peneus  and  Platamona  to  the  summits 
of  Mounts  Kritiri  and  Zygos,  thence  following  the  course  of 
the  river  Arta  to  its  mouth.  An  area  of  1 3,395  square  kilometres, 
with  a  population  of  300,000  souls, was  thus  added  to  the  kingdom, 
while  Turkey  was  left  in  possession  of  lannina,  Metzovo  and 
most  of  Epirus.  The  ceded  territory  was  occupied  by  Greek 
troops  before  the  close  of  the  year. 

In  x88a  Trikoupes  came  into  power  at  the  head  of  a  strong 
party,  over  which  he  exercised  an  influence  and  authority 
hitherto  unknown  in  Greek  political  life.  With  the 
exception  of  three  brief  intervals  (May  1885  to  May 
1886,  October  X890  to  February  1892,  and  a  few^^^ 
months  in  1893),  he  continued  in  ofiice  for  the  next 
twelve  years.  The  reforms  which  he  introduced  during  this  period 
were  generally  of  an  unpopular  character,  and  were  loudly 
denounced  by  his  democratic  rivals;  most  of  them  were  cancelled 
during  the  intervals  when  his  opponent  Delyannes  occupied  the 
premiership.  The  same  want  of  continuity  proved  fatal  to  the 
somewhat  ambitious  financial  programme  which  he  now  inaugur- 
ated. While  pursuing  a  cautious  foreign  policy,  and  keeping 
in  control  the  rash  impetuosity  of  his  fellow-countrymen,  he 
shared  to  the  full  the  national  desire  for  expansion,  but  he  looked 
to  the  development  of  the  material  resources  of  the  country 
as  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  realization  of  the  dreams  of 
Hellcnbm.  With  this  view  he  endeavoured  to  attract  foreign 
capital  to  the  country,  and  the  confidence  which  he  inspired  in 
financial  circles  abroad  enabled  him  to  contract  a  number  of 
loans  and  to  better  the  financial  situation  by  a  series  of  con- 
versions. Under  a  stable,  wise,  and  economical  administration 
this  far-reaching  programme  might  perhaps  have  been  carried 
out  with  success,  but  the  vicissitudes  of  party  politics  and  the 
periodical  outbursts  of  national  sentiment  rendered  its  realization 
impossible.  In  April  1885  Trikoupes  fell  from  power,  and  a 
few  months  later  the  indignation  excited  in  Greece  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  PhUippopolis  placed  Delyannes  once  more  at  the  head 
of  a  warlike  movement.  The  army  and  fleet  were  again 
mobilized  with  a  view,  to  exacting  territorial  compensation 
for  the  aggrandizement  of  Bulgaria,  and  several  conflicts  with 
the  Turkish  troops  took  place  on  the  frontier.  The  powers, 
after  repeatedly  inviting  the  Delyannes  cabinet  to  disarm, 
established  a  blockade  of  Peiraeus  and  other  Greek  ports  (8th 
May  1886),  France  alone  declining  to  co-operate  in  this  measure. 
Delyannes  resigned  (xxth  May)  and  'Dikoupes,  who  succeeded 
to  power,  issued  a  decree  of  disarmament  (35th  May).  Hostilities, 
however,  continued  on  the  frontier,  and  the  blockade  was  not 
raised  till  7th  June.  Trikoupes  had  now  to  face  the  serious 
financial  situation  brought  about  by  the  military  activity  of  his 
predecessor.  He  imposed  heavy  taxation,  which  the  people, 
for  the  time  at  least,  bore  without  murmuring,  and  he  continued 
to  inspire  such  confidence  abroad  that  Greek  securities  maintained 
their  price  in  the  foreign  market.  It  was  ominous,  however, 
that  a  loan  which  he  issued  in  1890  was  only  partially  covered. 
Meanwhile  the  Cretan  diflficulty  had  become  once  more  a  source 
of  trouble  to  Greece.  In  1889  Trikoupes  was  grossly  deceived 
by  the  Turkish  government,  which,  after  indudng  him  to 
dissuade  the  Cretans  from  opp<Ming  the  occupation  of  certain 
fortified  posts,  Issued  a  firman  annulling  many  important 
provisions  in  the  constitution  of  the  island.    The  indignatkA 


470 


GREEK  ART 


(3  vols.,  Athens,  1889-1892)  ;G.E.Mavit>gianncs,  loropfa  rur  'lorlur 
^<M>,  1797-1815  (2  vols..  Athens,  1889);  P.  Karolidcs,  'Irropla  rw 
a'altM'ot,  1814-1892  (Athens,  1891-1803),  E.  Kynakidcs,  'loropU 
Toiovyxp^y  *EXXi}vtaMoO  1833-1892  (2  vols..  Athens,  1892):  G 
Konstantinides, 'loTop^  rH^  'hBriPw  ixh  Xptarov  yav^iat  mxfii  ^oS  iSzi 
(2nd  cd.,  Athens,  1894) ;  D.  Bikclas.  La  Crice  byzanUne  et  modeme 
(Pans,  1893).  (J.  D.  B.) 

GREEK  ART.  It  is  proposed  in  the  present  article  to  give  a 
brief  account  of  the  history  of  Greek  art  and  of  the  principles 
embodied  in  that  history  In  any  broad  view  of  history,  the 
products  of  the  various  arts  practised  by  a  people  constitute  an 
objective  and  most  important  record  of  the  spml  of  that  people. 
But  all  nations  have  not  excelled  in  the  same  way:  some  have 
found  their  best  expression  in  architecture,  some  in  music,  some 
in  poetry.  The  Greeks  most  fully  embodied  their  ideas  in  two 
ways,  first  in  their  splendid  literature,  both  prose  and  verse,  and 
secondly,  in  their  plastic  and  pictorial  art,  in  which  matter  they 
have  remained  to  our  days  among  the  greatest  instructors  of 
mankind.  The  three  arts  of  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting 
were  brought  by  them  into  a  focus;  and  by  their  aid  they  pro- 
duced a  visible  splendour  of  public  life  such  as  has  perhaps  been 
nowhere  else  attained. 

The  volume  of  the  remains  of  Greek  civilization  is  so  vast,  and 
the  learning  with  which  these  have  been  discussed  is  so  ample, 
that  it  is  hopeless  to  attempt  to  give  in  a  work  like  the  present 
any  complete  account  of  either.  Rather  we  shall  be  frankly 
eclectic,  choosing  for  consideration  such  results  of  Greek  art 
as  are  most  noteworthy  and  most  characteristic.  In  some  cases 
it  will  be  possible  to  give  a  reference  to  a  more  detailed  treat- 
ment of  particular  monuments  in  these  volumes  under  the 
heading  of  the  places  to  which  they  belong.  Architectural 
detail  is  relegated  to  AJtcmTEcruRE  and  allied  architectural 
articles.  Coins  (see  Numismatics)  and  gems  (see  Gems)  are 
treated  apart,  as  are  vases  (Cebamics),  and  in  the  bibliography 
which  closes  this  article  an  effort  is  made  to  direct  those  who 
wish  for  further  information  in  any  particular  branch  of  our 
subject. 

I.  The  Rediscovery  of  Greek  Art. — ^Thc  visible  works  of  Greek 
architect,  sculptor  and  painter,  accumulated  in  the  cities  of 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor  until  the  Roman  conquest.  And  in  spite 
of  the  ravages  of  conquering  Roman  generals,  and  the  more 
systematic  despoilings  of  the  emperors,  we  know  that  when 
Pausanias  visited  Greece,  in  the  age  of  the  Anlonines,  it  was  from 
coast  to  coast  a  museum  of  works  of  art  of  all  ages.  But  the  tide 
soon  turned.  Works  of  originality  were  no  longer  produced,  and 
a  succession  of  disasters  gradually  obliterated  those  of  previous 
ages.  In  the  course  of  the  Teutonic  and  Slavonic  invasions  from 
the  north,  or  in  consequence  of  earthquakes,  very  frequent  in 
Greece,  the  splendid  cities  and  temples  fell  into  ruins;  and 
with  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Franks  in  1204  the  last 
great  collection  of  works  of  Greek  sculpture  disappeared.  But 
while  paintings  decayed,  and  works  in  metal  were  melted  down, 
many  marble  buildings  and  statues  survived,  at  least  in  a 
mutilated  condition,  while  terra-cotta  is  almost  proof  against 
decay. 

With  the  Renaissance  attention  was  directed  to  the  extant 
remains  of  Greek  and  Roman  art;  as  early  as  the  15th  century 
collections  of  ancient  8culpture,coins  and  gems  began  to  be  formed 
in  Italy;  and  in  the  i6th  the  enthusiasm  spread  to  Germany  and 
France.  The  earl  of  Arundel,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  was  the 
first  Englishman  to  collect  antiques  from  Italy  and  Asia  Minor: 
his  marbles  are  now  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford. 
Systematic  travel  in  Greece  for  the  discovery  of  buildings  and 
works  of  art  was  begun  by  Spon  and  Wheler  (1675-1676);  and 
the  discovery  of  Pompeii  in  1748  opened  a  new  chapter  in  the 
history  of  andent  art. 

But  though  kings  delighted  to  form  galleries  of  andent  statues, 
and  the  great  Italian  artist&of  the  Renaissance  drew  from  them 
inspiration  for  their  paintings  and  bronzes,  the  first  really 
critical  appreciation  of  Greek  art  belongs  to  Winckelmann 
'Geschkkto  der  Kunst  des  AlterlumSf  1764).  The  monuments 
cessible  to  Winckelmann  were  but  a  very  small  proportion  of 

se  we  now  possess,  and  in  fact  mostly  works  of  inferior  merit: 


but  he  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  historical  method  into  the 
treatment  of  ancient  art,  and  to  show  how  it  embodied  the 
ideas  of  the  great  peoples  of  the  andent  world.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Lessing,  and  the  waves  of  thought  and  feeling  set 
in  motion  by  these  two  affected  the  cultivated  class  in  all  nations. 
— they  inspired  in  particular  Goethe  in  Germany  and  Lord  Byron 
in  England. 

The  second  stage  in  the  recovery  of  Greek  art  beg;ins  with  the 
permission  accorded  by  the  Porte  to  Lord  Elgin  in  x8oo  to  re- 
move to  England  the  sculptural  decoration  of  the  Parthenon 
and  other  buildings  of  Athens.  These  splendid  works,  after 
various  vicissitudes,  became  the  property  of  the  English  nation, 
and  are  now  the  chief  treasures  of  the  British  Museum  The 
sight  of  them  was'  a  revelation  to  critics  and  artists,  accustomed 
only  to  the  base  copies  which  fill  the  Italian  galleries,  and  a  new 
epoch  in  the  appreciation  of  Greek  art  began.  English  and 
German  savants,  among  whom  Cockerell  and  Stackelberg  were 
conspicuous,  recovered  the  glories  of  the  temples  of  Aegina  and 
Bassae.  Leake  and  Ross,  and  later  Curtius,  journeyed  through 
the  length  and  breadth  of  Greece,  identifying  anaent  sites  and 
studying  the  monuments  which  were  above  ground.  Ross  re- 
constructed the  temple  of  Athena  Nike  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athena 
'from  fragments  rescued  from  a  Turkish  bastion. 

Meantime  more  methodical  exploration  brought  to  light  the 
remains  of  remarkable  civilizations  in  Asia,  not  only  in  the  valley 
of  the  Euphrates,  but  m  Lycia,  whence  Sir  Charles  Fellows 
brought  to  London  the  remains  of  noteworthy  tombs,  among 
which  the  so-called  Harpy  Monument  and  Nereid  Monument 
take  the  first  place.  Still  more  important  were  the  accessions 
derived  from  the  excavations  of  Sir  Charles  Newton,  who  in  the 
years  1852-1859  resided  as  consul  in  Asia  Minor,  and  explored 
the  sites  of  the  mausoleum  at  Halicamassus  and  the  shrine  of 
Demeter  at  Cnidus  Pullan  at  Priene,  and  Wood  at  Ephcsusalso 
made  fruitful  excavations. 

The  next  landmark  is  set  by  the  German  excavations  at 
Olympia  (1876  and  foil ).  which  not  only  were  conducted  with 
a  scientific  completeness  before  unknown,  and  at  great  cost,  but 
also  established  the  principle  that  in  future  all  the  results  of 
excavations  in  Greece  must  remain  in  the  country,  the  right  of 
first  publication  only  remaining  with  the  explorers.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles,  almost  the  only  certain 
original  of  a  great  Greek  sculptor  which  we  possess,  has  fur* 
nishcd  a  new  and  invaluable  fulcrum  for  the  study  of  ancient  art. 
In  emulation  of  the  achievements  of  the  (Germans  at  Olympta, 
the  Greek  archaeological  society  methodically  excavated  the 
Athenian  acropolis,  and  ^ere  rewarded  by  finding  numerous 
statues  and  fragments  of  pediments  belonging  to  the  age  of 
Peisistratus,  an  age  when  the  promise  of  art  was  in  full  bud. 
More  recently  French  explorers  have  made  a  very  thorough 
examination  of  the  site  of  Delphi,  and  have  succeeded  in  recover- 
ing almost  complete  two  small  treasuries,  those  of  the  people  of 
Athens  and  of  Cnidus  or  Siphnos,  the  latter  of  6th-centttry 
Ionian  work,  and  adorned  with  extremely  important  sculpture. 

No  other  site  of  the  same  importance  as  Athens,  Olympia  and 
Delphi  remains  for  excavation  in  Greece  proper.  But  in  afl 
parts  of  the  country,  at  Tegea,  Corinth,  Sparta  and  on  a  number 
of  other  ancient  sites,  striking  and  important  monuments  have 
come  to  light.  And  at  the  same  time  monuments  already  known 
in  Italy  and  Sicily,  such  as  the  temples  of  Paestum,  Selinus  and 
Agrigentum  have  been  re-examined  with  fuller  knowledge  and 
better  system.  Only  Asia  Minor,  under  the  influence  of  Turkish 
rule,  has  remained  a  country  where  systematic  exploration  is 
dtflicult.  Something,  however,  has  been  accomplished  atEphcstts, 
Priene,  Assos  and  Miletus,  and  great  works  of  soilpture  sudi  as 
the  reliefs  of  the  great  altar  at  Pergamum,  now  at  Berlin,  and  the 
splendid  sarcophagi  from  Sidon,  now  at  Constantinople,  show 
what  might  be  expected  from  methodic  investi^tion  of  the 
wealthy  Greek  dties  of  Asia. 

From  further  excavations  at  Herculaneum  we  may  opect  a 
rich  harvest  of  works  of  art  of  the  highest  class,  such  as  have 
already  been  found  in  the  excavations  on  that  site  in  the  past; 
and  the  building  operations  at  Rome  are  constantly  bringing 


GENERAL  PRIMCIFLEq 


GREEK  ART 


471 


to  Il£^t  fine  statues  brou^t  from  Greece  in  tie  time  of  the 
£ii^>ure,  which  are  now  placed  in  the  collections  of  the  Capitol 
and  the  Baths  of  Diodetian. 

The  work  of  explorers  on  Greek  sites  requires  as  its  comple- 
ment and  corrective  much  labour  in  the  great  museums  of 
Europe.  As  museum  work  apart  from  exploration  tends  to 
dilettantism  and  pedantry,  so  exploration  by  itself  does  not 
produce  reasoned  knowledge.  When  a  new  building,  a  great 
original  statue,  a  series  of  vases  is  discovered,  these  have  to  be 
fitted  in  to  the  existing  frame  of  our  knowledge;  and  it  is  by 
such  fitting  in  that  the  edifice  of  knowledge  is  enlarged.  In  all 
the  museums  and  universities  of  Europe  the  fresh  examination 
of  new  monuments,  the  study  of  style  and  subject,  and  attempts 
to  work  out  points  in  the  history  of  ancient  art,  are  incessantly 
going  on.  Such  archaeological  work  is  an  important  element  in 
the  gradual  education  of  the  world,  and  is  fruitful,  quite  apart 
from  the  particular  results  attained,  because  it  encourages  a 
method  of  thought.  Archaeology,  dealing  with  things  which 
can  be  seen  and  handled,  yet  being  a  spedes  of  historic  study, 
lies  on  the  borderland  between  the  province  of  natural  sdence 
and  that  of  historic  science,  and  furnishes  a  bridge  whereby  the 
methods  of  investigation  proper  to  physical  and  biological  study 
may  pass  into  the  hunnn  field. 

Thcie  investieationa  and  studies  are  recorded,  partly  in  books,  but 
more  particularly  in  papers  in  learned  journals  (see  bibliography), 
such  as  the  MiUtilungen  of  the  German  Institute,  and  the  Engbsh 
Journal  oj  Heilenic  Studies, 

An  example  or  two  may  serve  to  give  the  reader  a  clearer 
notion  of  the  recent  progress  in  the  knowledge  of  Greek  art. 

To  begin  with  architecture.  Each  of  the  palmary  sites  of 
which  we  have  spoken  has  rendered  up  examples  of  early  Greek 
temples.  At  Olympia  there  is  the  Heraeum,  earliest  of  known 
temples  of  Greece  proper,  which  clearly  shows  the  process 
whereby  stone  gradually  superseded  wood  as  a  constructive 
material.  At  Delphi  the  explorers  have  been  so  fortunate  as  to 
be  able  to  put  together  the  treasuries  of  the  Cnidians  (or 
Siphnians)  and  of  the  Athenians.  The  former  (see  fig.  17)  is  a 
gem  of  early  Ionic  art,  with  two  (Caryatid  figures  in  front  in  the 
place  of  columns,  and  adorned  with  the  most  delicate  tracery 
and  fine  reliefs.  On  the  Athenian  acropolis  very  considerable 
remains  have  been  found  of  temples  which  were  destroyed  by 
the  Persians  when  they  temporarily  occupied  the  site  in  480  B.C. 
And  recently  the  ever-renewed  study  of  the  Erechtheum  has 
resulted  in  a  restoration  of  its  original  form  more  valuable  and 
trustworthy  than  any  previously  made. 

In  the  field  of  sculpture  recent  discoveries  have  been  too  many 
and  too  important  to  be  mentioned  at  any  length.  One  instance 
may  serve  to  mark  the  rapidity  of  our  advance.  When  the 
remains  of  the  Mausoleum  were  brought  to  London  from  the 
excavations  begun  by  Sir  Charles  Newton  in  1856  we  knew  from 
Pliny  that  four  great  sculptors,  Scopas,  Bryaxis,  Leochares  and 
Timotheus,  had  worked  on  the  sculpture;  but  we  knew  of  these 
artists  little  more  than  the  names.  At  present  we  possess  many 
fragments  of  two  pediments  at  Tegca  executed  under  the  direction 
of  Scopas,  we  have  a  basis  with  reliefs  signed  by  Bryaxis,  we 
have  identified  a  group  in  the  Vatican  museum  as  a  copy  of  the 
Ganymede  of  Leochares,  and  we  have  pedimental  remains  from 
^idaurus  which  we  know  from  inscriptional  evidence  to  be 
either  the  works  of  Timotheus  or  made  from  his  models.  Any  one 
can  judge  how  enormously  our  power  of  criticizing  the  Mausoleum 
sculptures,  and  of  comparing  them  with  contemporary  monu- 
ments, has  increased. 

In  regard  to  ancient  painting  we  can  of  course  expect  no  such 
fresh  illumination.  Many  important  wall-paintings  of  the  Roman 
age  have  been  found  at  Rome  and  Pompeii:  but  we  have  no 
certain  or  even  probable  work  of  any  great  Greek  painter.  We 
have  to  content  ourselves  with  studying  the  colouring  of  reliefs, 
such  as  those  of  the  sarcophagi  at  Constantinople,  and  the 
drawings  on  vases,  in  order  to  get  some  notion  of  the  composition 
and  drawing  of  painted  scenes  in  the  great  age  of  Greece.  As 
to  the  portraits  of  the  Roman  age  painted  on  wood  which  have 
in  considerable  quantities  from  Egypt,  they  stand  at  a  far 


lower  levd  than  even  the  paintings  of  Pompeii.  The  number  of 
our  vase-paintings,  however,  increases  steadily,  and  whole 
dasses,  such  as  the  early  vases  of  Ionia,  are  being  marked  off 
from  the  crowd,  and  so  becoming  available  for  use  in  illustrating 
the  history  of  Hellenic  dvilization. 

'  The  study  of  Greek  art  is  thus  one  which  is  eminently  pro- 
gressive. It  has  over  the  study  of  Greek  literature  the  immense 
advantage  that  its  materials  increase  far  more  rapidly.  And  it 
is  becoming  more  and  more  evident  that  a  sound  and  methodic 
study  of  Greek  art  is  quite  as  indispensable  as  a  foundation  for 
an  artistic  and  archaeological  education  as  the  study  of  Greek 
poets  and  orators  is  as  a  basis  of  literary  education.  "Hie  extreme 
simplicity  and  thorough  rationality  of  Greek  art  make  it  an 
unrivalled  fidd  for  the  training  and  exercise  of  the  faculties 
which  go  to  the  making  of  the  art-critic  and  art  historian. 

2.  The  General  Principles  of  Greek  Art. — Before  proceeding 
to  sketch  the  history  of  the  rise  and  decline  of  Greek  art,  it  is 
desirable  briefly  to  set  forth  the  principles  which  underlie  it 
(see  also  P.  Gardner's  Grammar  of  Greek  Art). 

As  the  literature  of  Greece  is  composed  in  a  particidar  language, 
the  grammar  and  the  syntax  of  which  have  to  be  studied  before 
the  works  in  poetry  and  prose  can  be  read,  so  Greek  works  of  art 
are  composed  in  what  may  be  called  an  artistic  language.  To 
the  acddence  of  a  grammar  may  be  compared  the  mere  technique 
of  sculpture  and  painting:  to  the  syntax  of  a  grammar  corre- 
spond the  principles  of  composition  and  grouping  of  individual 
figures  into  a  relief  or  picture.  By  means  of  the  rules  of  this 
grammar  the  Greek  artist  threw  into  form  the  ideas  which 
belonged  to  him  as  a  personal  or  a  radal  possession. 

We  may  mention  first  some  of  the  more  external  conditions 
of  Greek  art;  next,  some  of  those  which  the  Greek  spirit  posited 
for  itsdf. 

No  nation  is  in  its  works  wholly  free  from  the  domination  of 
climate  and  geographical  position;  least  of  all  a  people  so  keenly 
alive  to  the  influence  of  the  outer  world  as  the  Greeks.  They 
lived  in  a  land  where  the  soil  was  dry  and  rocky,  far  less  hospitable 
to  vegetation  than  that  of  western  Europe,  while  on  all  sides 
the  horizon  of  the  land  was  bounded  by  hard  and  jagged  lines 
of  mountain.  The  sky  was  extremely  dear  and  bright,  sunshine 
for  a  great  part  of  the  year  alm(»t  perpetual,  and  storms,  which 
are  more  than  passing  gales,  rare.  It  was  in  accordance  with  these 
natural  features  that  temples  and  other  buildings  should  be 
simple  in  form  and  bounded  by  dear  lines.  Such  forms  as 
the  cube,  the  oblong,  the  cylinder,  the  triangle,  the  pyramid 
abound  in  their  constructions.  Just  as  in  Switzerland  the  gables 
of  the  chalets  match  the  pine-dad  dopes  and  lofty  summits  of 
the  mountains,  so  in  Greece,  amid  barer  hills  of  less  elevation, 
the  Greek  temple  looks  thoroughly  in  place.  But  its  construction 
is  related  not  only  to  the  surface  of  the  land,  but  also  to  the 
character  of  the  race.  M.  £mile  Boutmy,  in  his  interesting 
Philosopkie  de  Varckitecture  en  Grice,  has  shown  how  the  temple 
is  a  triumph  of  the  senses  and  Uie  intellect,  not  primarily 
emotional,  but  showing  in  every  part  definite  ptirpose  and 
design.  It  also  exhibits  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  love  of 
balance,  of  symmetry,  oi  a  mathematical  proportion  of  parts  and 
correctness  of  curvature  which  belong  to  the  Greek  artisL 

The  purposes  of  a  Greek  temple  may  be  readily  judged  from 
its  plan  Primarily  it  was  the  abode  of  the  ddty,  whose  statue 
dwelt  in  it  as  men  dwell  in  their  own  houses.  Hence  the  cella 
or  naos  is  the  central  feature  of  the  building.  Here  was  placed 
the  image  to  which  worship  was  brought,  while  the  treasures 
belonging  to  the  god  were  disposed  partly  in  the  cella  itself, 
partly  in  a  kind  of  treasury  which  often  existed,  as  in  the 
Parthenon,  behind  the  cella.  There  was  in  large  temples  a 
porch  of  approach,  the  pronaos,  and  another  behind,  the  optstko- 
domos.  Temples  were  not  meant  for,  nor  accommodated  to, 
regular  services  or  a  throng  of  worshippers.  Processions  and 
festivals  took  place  in  the  open  air,  in  the  streets  and  fields,  and 
men  entered  the  abodes  of  the  gods  at  most  in  groups  and 
families,  commonly  alone.  Thus  when  a  place  had  been  found 
for  the  statue,  which  stood  for  the  presence  of  the  god,  for  the 
small  altar  of  incense,  for  the  implements  of  cult  and  the  gifts  of 


47° 


GREEK  ART 


(3  vols.,  Athens.  1889-1892) ;  G.E.Mavit>K{annes.  *Iirrop(a  rur  'lorlur 
¥^<nay,  1797-1815  (3  vols.,  Athens.  1889):  P.  Karolidcs.  'I«rop^  ro5 
a'al&pot,  1814-1892  (Athens.  1891-1803),  E.  Kynakidcs,  'Iin-opJa 
TouavrxP^v  'KXXqvurAioO  1832-1892  (2  vols..  Athens,  1892);  G 
Konsta  n  tintdes, '  laropla  rw»  * AAvm^p  dari  Xpiarov  7Civi^«u>t  /icxp^  toS  jSzt 
(2nd  ed.,  Athens,  1894);  D.  Bikclas,  La  CrUe  byzaiUtne  et  moderne 
(Pans,  1893).  (J.  D.  B.) 

GREEK  ART.  It  is  proposed  in  the  present  article  to  give  a 
brief  account  of  the  history  of  Greek  art  and  of  the  principles 
embodied  in  that  history  In  any  broad  view  of  history,  the 
products  of  the  various  arts  practised  by  a  people  constitute  an 
objective  and  most  important  record  of  the  spmt  of  that  people. 
But  all  nations  have  not  excelled  in  the  same  way:  some  have 
found  their  best  expression  in  architecture,  some  in  music,  some 
in  poetry.  The  Greeks  most  fully  embodied  their  ideas  in  two 
ways,  first  in  their  splendid  literature,  both  prose  and  verse,  and 
secondly,  in  their  plastic  and  pictorial  art,  in  which  matter  they 
have  remained  to  our  days  among  the  greatest  instructors  of 
mankind.  The  three  arts  of  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting 
were  brought  by  them  into  a  focus;  and  by  their  aid  they  pro- 
duced a  visible  splendour  of  public  life  such  as  has  perhaps  been 
nowhere  else  attained. 

The  volume  of  the  remains  of  Greek  civilization  is  so  vast,  and 
the  learning  with  which  these  have  been  discussed  is  so  ample, 
that  it  is  hopeless  to  attempt  to  give  in  a  work  like  the  present 
any  complete  account  of  either.  Rather  we  shall  be  frankly 
eclectic,  choosing  for  consideration  such  results  of  Greek  art 
as  are  most  noteworthy  and  most  characteristic.  In  some  cases 
it  will  be  possible  to  give  a  reference  to  a  more  detailed  treat- 
ment of  particular  monuments  in  these  volumes  under  the 
heading  of  the  places  to  which  they  belong.  Architectural 
detail  is  relegated  to  Architecture  and  allied  architectural 
articles.  Coins  (see  Numismatics)  and  gems  (see  Gems)  are 
treated  apart,  as  are  vases  (Ceramics),  and  in  the  bibliography 
which  closes  this  article  an  effort  is  made  to  direct  those  who 
wish  for  further  information  in  any  particular  branch  of  our 
subject. 

I.  The  Rediscovery  of  Greek  Art. — ^The  visible  works  of  Greek 
architect,  sculptor  and  painter,  accumulated  in  the  cities  of 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor  until  the  Roman  conquest.  And  in  spite 
of  the  ravages  of  conquering  Roman  generals,  and  the  more 
systematic  despoilings  of  the  emperors,  we  know  that  when 
Pausanias  visited  Greece,  in  the  age  of  the  Antonines,  it  was  from 
coast  to  coast  a  museum  of  works  of  art  of  all  ages.  But  the  tide 
soon  turned.  Works  of  originality  were  no  longer  produced,  and 
a  succession  of  disasters  gradually  obliterated  those  of  previous 
ages.  In  the  course  of  the  Teutonic  and  Slavonic  invasions  from 
the  north,  or  in  consequence  of  earthquakes,  very  frequent  in 
Greece,  the  splendid  cities  and  temples  fell  into  ruins;  and 
with  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Franks  in  1204  the  last 
great  collection  of  works  of  Greek  sculpture  disappeared.  But 
while  paintings  decayed,  and  works  in  metal  were  melted  down, 
many  marble  buildings  and  statues  survived,  at  least  in  a 
mutilated  condition,  while  terra-cotta  is  almost  proof  against 
decay. 

With  the  Renaissance  attention  was  directed  to  the  extant 
remains  of  Greek  and  Roman  art;  as  early  as  the  15th  century 
collections  of  ancient  sculpt ure,coins  at^d  gems  began  to  be  formed 
in  Italy;  and  in  the  i6th  the  enthusiasm  spread  to  Germany  and 
France.  The  earl  of  Arundel,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  was  the 
fii^t  Englishman  to  collect  antiques  from  Italy  and  Asia  Minor: 
his  marbles  are  now  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford. 
Systematic  travel  in  Greece  for  the  discovery  of  buildings  and 
works  of  art  was  begun  by  Spon  and  Wheler  (1675-1676);  and 
the  discovery  of  Pompeii  in  1748  opened  a  new  chapter  in  the 
history  of  ancient  art. 

But  though  kings  delighted  to  form  galleries  of  ancient  statues, 
and  the  great  Italian  artists- of  the  Renaissance  drew  from  them 
inspiration  for  their  paintings  and  bronzes,  the  first  really 
critical  appreciation  of  Greek  art  belongs  to  Winckelmann 
(Geschickie  der  Kunsl  des  AlUrlumSf  1764).  The  monuments 
accessible  to  Winckelmann  were  but  a  very  small  proportion  of 
those  we  now  possess,  and  in  fact  mostly  works  of  inferior  merit : 


but  he  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  historical  method  into  the 
treatment  of  ancient  art,  and  to  show  how  it  embodied  the 
ideas  of  the  great  peoples  of  the  ancient  world.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Lcssing,  and  the  waves  of  thought  and  feeling  set 
in  motion  by  these  two  affected  the  cultivated  class  in  all  nations. 
— they  inspired  in  particular  Goethe  in  Germany  and  Lord  Byron 
in  England. 

The  second  stage  in  the  recovery  of  Greek  art  begins  with  the 
permission  accorded  by  the  Porte  to  Lord  Elgin  in  1800  to  re- 
move to  England  the  sculptural  decoration  of  the  Parthenon 
and  other  buildings  of  Athens.  These  splendid  works,  after 
various  vicissitudes,  became  the  property  of  the  English  nation, 
and  are  now  the  chief  treasures  of  the  British  Museum  The 
sight  of  them  was'  a  revelation  to  critics  and  artists,  accustomed 
only  to  the  base  copies  which  fill  the  Italian  galleries,  and  a  new 
epoch  in  the  appreciation  of  Greek  art  began.  English  and 
German  savants,  among  whom  Cockcrell  and  Stackelberg  were 
conspicuous,  recovered  the  glories  of  the  temples  of  Aegina  and 
Bassae.  Leake  and  Ross,  and  later  Curtius,  journeyed  through 
the  length  and  breadth  of  Greece,  identifying  anaent  sites  and 
studying  the  monuments  which  were  above  ground.  Ross  re- 
const  ructed  the  temple  of  Athena  Nike  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens 
'from  fragments  rescued  from  a  Turkish  bastion. 

Meantime  more  methodical  exploration  brought  to  light  the 
remains  of  remarkable  civilizations  in  Asia,  not  only  in  the  valley 
of  the  Euphrates,  but  m  Lycia.  whence  Sir  Charles  Fellows 
brought  to  London  the  remains  of  noteworthy  tombs,  among 
which  the  so-called  Harpy  Monument  and  Nereid  Monument 
take  the  first  place.  Still  more  important  were  the  acce^ons 
derived  from  the  excavations  of  Sir  Charles  Newton,  who  in  the 
years  1852-1850  resided  as  consul  in  Asia  Minor,  and  ex{dorcd 
the  sites  of  the  mausoleum  at  Halicamassus  and  the  shrine  of 
Demeter  at  Cnidus  Pullan  at  Priene,  and  Wood  at  Ephesus  also 
made  fruitful  excavations. 

The  next  landmark  is  set  by  the  German  excavations  at 
01ympia(i876  and  foil ),  which  not  only  were  conducted  with 
a  scientific  completeness  before  unknown,  and  at  great  cost,  but 
also  established  the  principle  that  in  future  all  the  results  of 
excavations  m  Greece  must  remain  in  the  country,  the  right  of 
first  publication  only  remaining  with  the  explorers.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  Hermesk  of  Praxiteles,  almost  the  only  certain 
original  of  a  great  Greek  sculptor  which  we  possess,  has  fur- 
nished a  new  and  invaluable  fulcrum  for  the  study  of  ancient  art. 
In  emulation  of  the  achievements  of  the  Germans  at  Olympia, 
the  Greek  archaeological  society  methodically  excavated  the 
Athenian  acropolis,  and  Were  rewarded  by  finding  numerous 
statues  and  fragments  of  pediments  belonging  to  the  age  of 
Pcisistratus,  an  age  when  the  promise  of  art  was  in  full  bud. 
More  recently  French  explorers  have  made  a  very  thorough 
examination  of  the  site  of  Delphi,  and  have  succeeded  in  recover- 
ing almost  complete  two  small  treasuries,  those  of  the  people  of 
Athens  and  of  Cnidus  or  Siphnos,  the  latter  of  6th-cenlury 
Ionian  work,  and  adorned  with  extremely  important  sculpture. 

No  other  site  of  the  same  importance  as  Athens,  Olympia  and 
Delphi  remains  for  excavation  in  Greece  proper.  But  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  at  Tegea,  (Corinth,  Sparta  and  on  a  number 
of  other  ancient  sites,  striking  and  important  monuments  have 
come  to  light.  And  at  the  same  time  monuments  already  known 
in  Italy  and  Sicily,  such  as  the  temples  of  Paestum,  Selinus  and 
Agrigentum  have  been  re-examined  with  fuller  knowledge  and 
better  system.  Only  Asia  Minor,  under  the  influence  of  Turkish 
rule,  has  remained  a  country  where  systematic  exploration  is 
d  t  flicult.  Something,  however,  has  been  accomplished  at  Ephesus, 
Priene,  Assos  and  Miletus,  and  great  works  of  sculpture  such  as 
the  reliefs  of  the  great  altar  at  Pergamum,  now  at  Berlin,  and  the 
splendid  sarcophagi  from  Sidon,  now  at  (Constantinople,  show 
what  might  be  expected  from  methodic  investigation  of  the 
wealthy  Greek  dties  of  Asia. 

From  further  excavations  at  Herculaneum  we  may  expect  a 
rich  harvest  of  works  of  art  of  the  hi^est  class,  such  as  have 
already  been  found  in  the  excavations  on  that  site  in  the  past; 
and  the  building  operations  at  Rome  are  constantly  bcingmg 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLE^ 


GREEK  ART 


+71 


to  light  fine  statues  brou^t  from  Greece  in  tlie  time  of  the 
Empire,  which  are  now  placed  in  the  collections  of  the  Capitol 
and  the  Baths  of  Diocletian. 

The  work  of  explorers  on  Greek  sites  requires  as  its  comple- 
ment and  corrective  much  labour  in  the  great  museums  of 
Europe.  As  museum  work  apart  from  exploration  tends  to 
dilettantism  and  pedantry,  so  exploration  by  itself  does  not 
produce  reasoned  knowledge.  When  a  new  building,  a  great 
original  statue,  a  series  of  vases  is  discovered,  these  have  to  be 
fitted  in  to  the  existing  frame  of  our  knowledge;  and  it  is  by 
such  fitting  in  that  the  edifice  of  knowledge  is  enlarged.  In  all 
the  museums  and  universities  of  Europe  the  fresh  examination 
of  new  monuments,  the  study  of  style  and  subject,  and  attempts 
to  work  out  points  in  the  history  of  ancient  art,  are  incessantly 
going  on.  Such  archaeological  work  is  an  important  element  in 
the  gradual  education  of  the  world,  and  is  fruitful,  quite  apart 
from  the  particular  results  attained,  because  it  encourages  a 
method  of  thought.  Archaeology,  dealing  with  things  which 
can  be  seen  and  handled,  yet  being  a  species  of  historic  study, 
lies  on  the  borderland  between  the  province  of  natural  sdence 
and  that  of  historic  science,  and  furnishes  a  bridge  whereby  the 
methods  of  investigation  proper  to  physical  and  biological  study 
may  pass  into  the  human  field. 

These  investigations  and  studies  are  recorded,  partly  in  books,  but 
more  particularly  in  papers  in  learned  journals  (sec  bibliography), 
such  as  the  MiUeilungen  of  the  German  Institute,  and  the  Enghsh 
Jomrmal  oj  HeUemc  Studies. 

An  example  or  two  may  serve  to  give  the  reader  a  dearer 
notion  of  the  recent  progress  in  the  knowledge  of  Greek  art. 

To  begin  with  architecture.  Each  of  the  palmary  sites  of 
which  we  have  spoken  has  rendered  up  examples  of  early  Greek 
temples.  At  Olympia  there  is  the  Heraeum,  earliest  of  known 
temples  of  Greece  proper,  which  clearly  shows  the  process 
whereby  stone  gradually  superseded  wood  as  a  constructive 
m^f^War  At  Delphi  the  explorers  have  been  so  fortunate  as  to 
be  able  to  put  together  the  treasuries  of  the  Cnidians  (or 
Siphnians)  and  of  the  Athenians.  The  former  (see  fig.  17)  is  a 
gem  of  early  Ionic  art,  with  two  (Caryatid  figures  in  front  in  the 
place  of  coluoms,  and  adorned  with  the  most  delicate  tracery 
and  fine  reliefs.  On  the  Athenian  acropolis  very  considerable 
remains  have  been  found  of  temples  which  were  destroyed  by 
the  Persians  when  they  temporarily  occupied  the  site  in  480  B.C. 
And  recently  the  ever-renewed  study  of  the  Erechtheum  has 
resulted  in  a  restoration  of  its  originsil  form  more  valuable  and 
trustworthy  than  any  previously  made. 

In  the  field  of  sculpture  recent  discoveries  have  been  too  many 
and  too  important  to  be  mentioned  at  any  length.  One  instance 
may  serve  to  mark  the  rapidity  of  our  advance.  When  the 
remains  of  the  Matisoleum  were  brought  to  London  from  the 
excavations  begun  by  Sir  Charles  Newton  in  1856  we  knew  from 
Pliny  that  four  great  sculptors,  Scopas,  Bryaxis,  Leochares  and 
Hmotheus,  had  worked  on  the  sculpture;  but  we  knew  of  these 
artists  little  more  than  the  names.  At  present  we  possess  many 
fragments  of  two  pediments  at  Tegca  executed  under  the  direction 
of  Scopas,  we  have  a  basis  with  reliefs  signed  by  Bryaxis,  we 
have  identified  a  group  in  the  Vatican  museum  as  a  copy  of  the 
Ganymede  of  Leochares,  and  we  have  pedimental  remains  from 
Epidaurus  which  we  know  from  inscriptional  evidence  to  be 
either  the  works  of  Timotheus  or  made  from  his  models.  Any  one 
can  judge  how  enormously  our  power  of  criticizmg  the  Mausoleum 
sculptures,  and  of  comparing  them  with  contemporary  monu- 
ments, has  increased. 

In  regard  to  ancient  painting  we  can  of  course  expect  no  such 
fresh  illumination.  Many  important  wall-paintings  of  the  Roman 
age  have  been  found  at  Rome  and  Pompeii:  but  we  have  no 
certain  or  even  probable  work  of  any  great  Greek  painter.  We 
have  to  content  ourselves  with  studying  the  colouring  of  reliefs, 
such  as  those  of  the  sarcophagi  at  Constantinople,  and  the 
drawings  on  vases,  in  order  to  get  some  notion  of  the  composition 
and  drawing  of  painted  scenes  in  the  great  age  of  Greece.  As 
to  the  portraits  of  the  Roman  age  painted  on  wood  which  have 
to  considerable  quantities  from  Egypt,  they  stand  at  a  far 


lower  level  than  even  the  paintings  of  Pompeii.  The  number  of 
our  vase-paintings,  however,  increases  steadily,  and  whole 
classes,  such  as  the  early  vases  of  Ionia,  are  being  marked  off 
from  the  crowd,  and  so  becoming  available  for  use  in  illustrating 
the  history  of  Hellenic  civilization. 

'  The  study  of  Greek  art  is  thus  one  which  is  eminently  pro- 
gre»ive.  It  has  over  the  study  of  Greek  literature  the  immense 
advantage  that  its  materials  increase  far  more  rapidly.  And  it 
is  becoming  more  and  more  evident  that  a  sound  and  methodic 
study  of  Greek  art  is  quite  as  indispensable  as  a  foundation  for 
an  artistic  and  archaeological  education  as  the  study  of  Greek 
poets  and  orators  is  as  a  basis  of  literary  education.  The  extreme 
simplicity  and  thorough  rationality  of  Greek  art  make  it  an 
unrivalled  field  for  the  training  and  exercise  of  the  faculties 
which  go  to  the  making  of  the  art-critic  and  art  historian. 

2.  The  General  Principles  of  Greek  Art. — Before  proceeding 
to  sketch  the  history  of  the  rise  and  decline  of  Greek  art,  it  is 
desirable  briefly  to  set  forth  the  principles  which  underlie  it 
(see  also  P.  Gardner's  Grammar  of  Greek  Art). 

As  the  literature  of  Greece  is  composed  in  a  particular  language, 
the  grammar  and  the  syntax  of  which  have  to  be  studied  before 
the  works  in  poetry  and  prose  can  be  read,  so  Greek  works  of  art 
are  composed  in  what  may  be  called  an  artistic  language.  To 
the  accidence  of  a  grammar  may  be  compared  the  mere  technique 
of  sculpture  and  painting:  to  the  syntax  of  a  grammar  corre- 
spond the  principles  of  comi>osition  and  grouping  of  individual 
figures  into  a  relief  or  picture.  By  means  of  the  rules  of  this 
grammar  the  Greek  artist  threw  into  form  the  ideas  which 
belonged  to  him  as  a  personal  or  a  racial  possession. 

We  may  mention  first  some  of  the  more  external  conditions 
of  Greek  art;  next,  some  of  those  which  the  Greek  spirit  posited 
for  itsdf. 

No  nation  is  in  its  works  wholly  free  from  the  domination  of 
climate  and  geographical  position;  least  of  all  a  people  so  keenly 
alive  to  the  influence  of  the  outer  world  as  the  Greeks.  They 
lived  in  a  land  where  the  soil  was  dry  and  rocky,  far  less  hospitable 
to  vegetation  than  that  of  western  Europe,  while  on  all  sides 
the  horizon  of  the  land  was  bounded  by  hard  and  jagged  lines 
of  mountain.  The  sky  was  extremely  clear  and  bright,  sunshine 
for  a  great  part  of  the  year  almost  perpetual,  and  storms,  which 
are  more  than  passing  ^es,  rare.  It  was  in  accordance  with  these 
natural  features  that  temples  and  other  buildings  should  be 
simple  in  form  and  bounded  by  clear  lines.  Such  forms  as 
the  cube,  the  oblong,  the  cylinder,  the  triangle,  the  pyramid 
abound  in  their  constructions.  Just  as  in  Switzerland  the  gables 
of  the  chalets  match  the  pine-dad  slopes  and  lofty  summits  of 
the  mountains,  so  in  Greece,  amid  barer  hills  of  less  devation, 
the  Greek  temple  looks  thoroughly  in  place.  But  its  construction 
is  related  not  only  to  the  surface  of  the  land,  but  also  to  the 
character  of  the  race.  M.  £mile  Boutmy,  in  his  interesting 
Pkilosopkie  de  Vmrckitecture  en  Griu,  has  shown  how  the  temple 
is  a  triumph  of  the  senses  and  the  intellect,  not  primarily 
emotional,  but  showing  in  every  part  definite  purpose  and 
design.  It  also  exhibits  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  love  of 
balance,  of  symmetry,  of  a  mathematical  proportion  of  parts  and 
correctness  of  curvature  which  bdong  to  the  Greek  artist. 

The  purposes  of  a  Greek  temple  may  be  readily  judged  from 
its  plan  Primarily  it  was  the  abode  of  the  deity,  whose  statue 
dwelt  in  it  as  men  dwell  in  their  own  houses.  Hence  the  cdla 
or  naos  is  the  central  feature  of  the  building.  Here  was  placed 
the  image  to  which  worship  was  brought,  while  the  treasures 
belonging  to  the  god  were  disposed  partly  in  the  ceDa  itself, 
partly  in  a  kind  of  treasury  which  often  existed,  as  in  the 
Parthenon,  behind  the  cella.  There  was  in  large  temples  a 
porch  of  approach,  the  pronaos,  and  another  behind,  the  optstko- 
domos.  Temples  were  not  meant  for,  nor  accommodated  to, 
regular  services  or  a  throng  of  worshippers.  Processions  and 
festivals  took  place  in  the  open  air,  in  the  streets  and  fields,  and 
men  entered  the  abodes  of  the  gods  at  most  in  groups  and 
families,  commonly  alone.  Thus  when  a  place  had  been  found 
for  the  statue,  which  stood  for  the  presence  of  the  god,  for  the 
small  altar  of  incense,  for  the  implements  of  cult  and  the  gifts  of 


[ 


472 


GREEK  ART 


[GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 


votaries,  little  space  remained  free,  and  great  spaces  or  subsidiary 
chapels  such  as  are  usual  in  Christian  cathedrals  did  not  exist 
(see  Temple). 

Here  our  concern  is  not  with  the  purposes  or  arrangements 
of  a  temple,  but  with  its  appearance  and  construction,  regarded 
as  a  work  of  art,  and  as  an  embodiment  of  Greek  ideas.  A  few 
simple  and  strildng  principles  may  be  formulated,  which  are 
characteristic  of  all  Greek  buildings: — 

(i.)  Each  member  of  the  building  has  one  function,  and  only 
one,  and  this  function  controls  even  the  decoration  of  that 
member.  The  pillar  of  a  temple  is  made  to  support  the  architrave 
and  is  for  that  purpose  only.  The  flutings  of  the  pillar,  being 
perpendicular,  emphasize  this  fact.  The  line  of  support  which 
runs  up  through  the  pillar  is  continued  in  the  triglyph,  which 
also  shows  perpendicular  grooves.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wall 
of  a  temple  is  primarily  meant  to  divide  or  space  off;  thus  it 
may  well  at  the  top  be  decorated  by  a  horizontal  band  of  relief, 
which  belongs  to  it  as  a  border  belongs  to  a  curtain.  The  base  of 
a  column,  if  moulded,  is  moulded  in  such  a  way  as  to  suggest 
support  of  a  great  weight;  the  capital  of  a  column  is  so  carved 
as  to  form  a  transition  between  the  column  and  the  cornice  which 
it  supports. 

(ii.)  Greek  architects  took  the  utmost  pains  with  the  propor- 
tions, the  symmetry  as  they  called  it,  of  the  parts  of  their 
buildings.  This  was  a  thing  in  which  the  keen  and  methodical 
eyes  of  the  Greeks  delighted,  to  a  degree  which  a  modern  finds 
it  hard  to  understand.  Simple  and  natural  rebtions,  i :  2, 
1 :3,  2 :3  and  the  like,  prevailed  between  various  members  of  a 
construction.  All  curves  were  planned  with  great  care,  to 
please  the  eye  with  their  flow;  and  the  alternations  and  corre- 
spondences of  features  is  visible  at  a  glance.  For  example,  the 
temple  must  have  two  pediments  and  two  porches,  and  on  its 
sides  and  fronts  triglyph  and  metope  must  alternate  with 
unvarying  regularity. 

(iii.)  Rigidity  in  the  simple  lines  of  a  temple  is  avoided  by  the 
device  that  scarcely  any  outline  is  actually  straight.  AU  are 
carefully  planned  and  adapted  to  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  In 
the  Parthenon  the  line  of  the  floor  is  curved,  the  profiles  of  the 
columns  are  curved,  the  comer  columns  slope  inward  from  their 
bases,  the  columns  are  not  even  equidistant.  This  elaborate 
adaptation,  called  entasis,  was  expounded  by  F.  C.  Penrose  in 
his  work  on  Athenian  architecture,  and  has  since  been  obsecved 
in  several  of  the  great  temples  of  Greece. 

(iv.)  Elaborate  decoration  is  reserved  for  those  parts  of  the 
temple  which  have,  or  at  least  appear  to  have,  no  strain  kid  upon 
them.  It  is  true  that  in  the  archaic  age  experiments  were  made 
in  carving  jelicfs  on  the  lower  drums  of  columns  (as  at  Ephesus) 
and  on  the  line  of  the  architrave  (as  at  Assus)  But  such  examples 
were  not  followed.  Nearly  always  the  spaces  reserved  for 
mythological  reliefs  or  groups  are  the  tops  of  walls,  the  spaces 
between  the  triglyphs,  and  particularly  the  pediments  surmount- 
ing the  two  fronts,  which  might  be  left  hollow  without  danger 
to  the  stability  of  the  edifice.  Detached  figures  in  the  round  are 
^  in  fact  found  only  in  the  pediments,  or  standing  upon  the  tops 
of  the  pediments.  And  metopes  are  sculptured  in  higher  relief 
than  friezes. 

"  When  we  examine  in  detail  even  the  amplest  architectural 
decoration,  we  discover  a  combination  of  care,  acnscof  proportion, 
and  reason.  The  flutings  of  an  Ionic  column  are  not  in  section  mere 
arcs  of  a  circle,  but  nude  up  of  a  combination  of  curves  which  produce 
a  beautiful  optical  effect;  the  lines  of  decoration,  as  may  be  best 
seen  in  the  case  of  the  Erechtheuro,  are  cut  with  a  marvellous 
delicacy.  Instead  of  trying  to  invent  new  schemes,  the  mason 
contents  himself  with  improvins;  the  regular  patterns  until  they 
approach  perfection,  and  he  takes  everything  into  consideration. 
Mduldingson  the  outside  of  a  temple,  in  the  full  light  of  the  sun,  are 
differently  planned  from  those  in  the  diffused  lignt  of  the  interior. 
Mouldings  executed  in  soft  stone  are  less  fine  than  those  in  marble. 
The  mason  thinks  before  he  works,  and  while  he  works,  and  thinks 
in  entire  correspondence  with  his  surroundings."  * 

Greek  architecture,  however,  is  treated  elsewhere  (see  Archi- 
tecture), we  will  therefore  proceed  to  speak  briefly  of  the 
principles  exemplified  in  sculpture.    Existing  works  of  Greek 

*  Cramtuar  0/  Greek  ArL 


sculpture  fall  easily  into  two  classes.  The  first  daas  comprises 
what  may  be  called  works  of  substantive  art,  statues  or  groups 
made  for  their  own  sake  and  to  be  judged  by  themselves.  Such 
are  cult-statues  of  gods  and  goddesses  from  temple  and  shrine, 
honorary  portraits  of  rulers  or  of  athletes,  dedicated  groups 
and  the  like.  The  second  dass  comprises  decorative  sculptures, 
such  as  were  made,  usually  in  relief,  for  the  decoration  of  temples 
and  tombs  and  other  buildings,  and  were  intended  to  be  sub- 
ordinate to  architectural  effect. 

Speaking  broadly,  it  may  be  said  that  the  works  of  substantive 
sculpture  in  our  museums  are  in  the  great  maj<Mity  of  cases 
copies  of  doubtful  exactness  and  very  various  merit.  The 
Hermes  of  Praxiteles  is  almost  the  only  marble  statue  which  can 
be  assigned  positively  to  one  of  the  great  sculptors;  we  have  to 
work  back  towards  the  productions  of  the  peers  of  Praxiteks 
through  works  of  poor  execution,  often  so  mach  restored  in  modem 
times  as  to  be  scarcely  recognizable.  Decorative  works,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  very  commonly  originals,  and  their  date  can  often 
be  accurately  fixed ,  as  they  belong  to  known  buildings.  They  are 
thus  infinitely  more  trustworthy  and  more  easy  to  deal  with  than 
the  copies  of  statues  of  which  the  museums  of  Eurt^,  and  more 
especially  those  of  Italy,  are  full.  They  are  also  more  oonunonly 
unrcstorcd.  But  yet  there  are  certain  disadvantages  attaching 
to  them.  Decorative  works,  even  when  carried  out  under  the 
supervision  of  a  great  sculptor,  were  but  seldom  executed  by  him. 
Usually  they  were  the  productions  of  his  pupils  or  masons. 
Thus  they  are  not  on  the  same  level  of  art  as  substantive  sculpturcL 
And  they  vary  in  merit  to  an  extraordinary  extent,  according 
to  the  capacity  of  the  man  who  happened  to  have  them  in  hand, 
and  who  was  probably  but  little  controlled.  Every  one  knows 
how  noble  are  the  pedimental  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon.  But 
we  know  no  reason  why  they  should  be  so  vastly  superior  to  the 
frieze  from  Phigalia;  nor  why  the  heads  from  the  temple  at  Tegea 
should  be  so  fine,  while  those  from  the  contemporary  temple 
at  Epidaurus  should  be  comparatively  insignificant.  From  the 
records  of  payments  made  to  the  sculptors  who  worked  on  the 
Erechlheum  at  Athens  it  appears  that  they  were  ordinary  m«gft»*, 
some  of  them  not  even  citizens,  and  paid  at  the  rate  of  60  dradiras 
(about  60  francs)  for  each  figure,  whether  of  man  or  horse,  which 
they  produced.  Such  piece-work  would  not,  in  our  days,  produce 
a  very  satisfactory  result. 

Works  of  substantive  sculpture  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  statues  of  human  beings  and  those  of  the  gods. 
The  hne  between  the  two  is  not,  however,  very  easy  to  draw, 
or  very  definite.  For  in  representing  men  the  Greek  sculptor 
had  an  irresistible  inclination  to  idealize,  to  represent  what  was 
generic  and  typical  rather  than  what  was  individual,  and  the 
essential  rather  than  the  accidental.  And  in  representing 
deities  he  so  fully  anthropomorphized  them  that  they  became 
men  and  women,  only  raised  above  the  level  of  everyday  life 
and  endowed  with  a  superhuman  stateliness.  Moreover,  there 
was  a  class  of  heroes  represented  largely  in  art  who  covered 
the  transition  from  men  to  gods.  For  example,  if  one  regards 
Heracles  as  a  deity  and  Achilles  as  a  man  of  the  heroic  age  and  of 
heroic  mould,  the  line  between  the  two  will  be  found  to  be  very 
narrow. 

Nevertheless  one  may  for  convenience  speak  first  ot  htuian 
and  afterwards  of  divine  figures.  It  was  the  custom  from  the 
6th  century  onwards  to  honour  those  who  had  done  any  great 
achievement  by  setting  up  their  statues  in  conspicuous  positions. 
One  of  the  earliest  examples  is  that  of  the  tsrranniddcs,  Harmodius 
and  Aristogiton,  a  group,  a  copy  of  which  has  come  down  to  us 
(Plate  I  fig.  50 ').  Again,  people  who  had  not  won  any  distinc- 
tion were  in  the  habit  of  dedicating  to  the  deities  portraits  of 
themselves  or  of  a  priest  or  priestess,  thus  bringing  themselves, 
as  it  were,  constantly  under  the  notice  of  a  divine  fiatron.  The 
rows  of  statues  before  the  temples  at  Miletus,  Athens  and 

*  It  may  here  be  pointed  out  that  it  was  found  impossible,  with 
any  regard  for  the  appearance  of  the  pages,  to  arrange  the  Plates  for 
this  article  so  as  to  preserve  a  chronological  order  in  the  individuai 
figures;  they  arc  not  arranged  consecutively  as  regards  the  history 
or  the  period,  and  are  only  grouped  for  convenience  in  paging.— ^Eo. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES] 


GREEK  ART 


473 


elsewhere  came  thus  into  being.  But  from  the  point  of  view  of 
art,  by  far  the  most  important  class  of  portraits  consisted  of 
athletes  who  had  won  victories  at  some  of  the  great  games  of 
Greece,  at  Olympia,  Delphi  or  elsewhere.  Early  in  the  6th 
century  the  custom  arose  of  setting  up  portraits  of  athletic 
victors  in  the  great  sacred  pbuxs.  We  have  records  of  number- 
less such  statues  executed  by  all  the  greatest  sculptors.  When 
Pausanias  visited  Greece  he  found  them  everywhere  far  too 
numerous  for  complete  mention. 

It  is  the  custom  of  studying  and  copying  the  forms  of  the 
finest  of  the  young  athletes,  combined  with  the  Greek  habit  of 
complete  nudity  during  the  sports,  which  lies  at  the  basis  of 
Greek  excellence  in  sculpture.  Every  sculptor  had  unlimited 
opportunities  for  observing  young  vigorous  bodied  in  every 
pose  and  in  every  variety  of  strain.  The  natural  sense  of  beauty 
which  was  an  endowment  of  the  Greek  race  impelled  him  to  copy 
and  preserve  what  was  excellent,  and  to  omit  what  was  ungainly 
or  poor.  Thus  there  existed,  and  in  fact  there  was  constantly 
accumulating,  a  vast  series  of  types  of  male  beauty,  and  the 
public  taste  was  cultivated  to  an  extreme  delicacy.  And  of 
course  this  taste,  though  it  took  its  start  from  athletic  customs, 
and  waa  mainly  nurtured  by  them,  spread  to  all  branches  of 
portraiture,  so  that  elderly  men,  women,  and  at  last  even  children, 
were  represented  in  art  with  a  mixture  of  ideality  and  fidelity 
to  nature  such  as  has  not  been  reached  by  the  sculpture  of  any 
other  people. 

The  statues  of  the  gods  began  either  with  stiff  and  ungainly 
figures  roughly  cut  out  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  or  with  the 
monstrous  and  8)rmbolical  representations  of  Oriental  art.  In 
the  Greece  of  late  times  there  were  still  standing  rude  pillars, 
with  the  tops  sometimes  cut  into  a  rough  likeness  to  the  human 
form.  And  in  early  decoration  of  vases  and  vessels  one  may 
find  Greek  deities  represented  with  wings,  carrying  in  their  hands 
Koos  or  griflSns,  bearing  on  their  heads  lofty  crowns.  But  as 
Greek  art  progressed  it  grew  out  of  this  crude  symbolism.  In 
the  language  of  Brunn,  the  Greek  artists  borrowed  from  Oriental 
or  Mycenaean  sources  the  letters  used  in  their  works,  but  with 
these  letters  they  spelled  out  the  ideas  of  their  own  nation. 
What  the  artists  of  Babylon  and  Egypt  express  in  the  character 
of  the  gods  by  added  attribute  or  symbol,  swiftness  by  wings, 
control  of  storms  by  the  thunderbolt,  traits  of  character  by 
animal  heads,  the  artists  of  Greece  work  more  and  more  fully 
into  the  sculptural  type;  modtfying  the  himian  subject  by  the 
constant  addition  of  something  which  is  above  thie  ordinary  level 
of  humanity,  until  we  reach  the  Zeus  of  Phddias  or  the  Demeter 
of  Cnidus.  When  the  decay  of  the  high  ethical  art  of  Greece 
acta  in,  the  gods  become  more  and  more  warped  to  the  merely 
human  leveL  They  lose  their  dignity,  but  they  never  lose  their 
charm. 

The  decorative  sculpture  of  Greece  consists  not  of  single 
figures,  but  of  groups;  and  in  the  arrangement  of  these  groups 
the  strict  Gre^  laws  of  symmetry,  of  rhythm,  and  of  baJance, 
cone  in.  We  will  take  the  three  most  usual  forms,  the  pediment , 
the  metope  and  the  frieze,  all  of  which  belong  properly-  to  the 
Icmple,  but  are  characteristic  of  all  decoration,  whether  of  tomb, 
trophy  or  other  monument. 

The  form  of  the  pediment  is  triangular;  the  height  of  the 
triangle  in  proportion  to  its  length  being  about  i :  8.  The 
conditions  of  q>ace  are  here  strict  and  dominant;  to  comply 
with  them  requires  some  ingenuity.  To  a  modem  sculptor  the 
problem  thus  presented  is  almost  insoluble;  but  it  was  dlowable 
in  andent  art  to  represent  figures  in  a  single  composition  as 
ۤ  various  sizes,  in  correspondence  not  to  actual  physical 
measurement  but  to  importance.  As  the  more  important  figures 
naturally  occupy  the  midmost  place  in  a  pediment,  their  greater 
iiae  comes  in  conveniently.  And  by  placing  some  of  the  persons 
of  the  group  in  a  standing,  some  in  a  seated,  some  in  a  reclining 
poattiott,  it  can  be  so  contrived  that  their  heads  are  equidistant 
from  the  upper  line  of  the  pediment. 

Thit  statues  in  a  Greek  pediment,  which  are  after  quite  an 
cariy  period  usually  executed  in  the  round,  fall  into  three,  five 
orievcn  groups,  according  to  the  size  of  the  whole.    As  examples 


to  illustrate  this  expoaition  we  take  the  two  pediments  of  the 
temple  at  Olympia,  the  most  complete  which  have  come  down  to 
us,  which  are  represented  in  figs.  33  and  34.  The  east  pediment 
represents  the  preparation  for  the  diariot  race  between  Pelops 
and  Oenomaus.  The  central  group  consists  of  five  figures,  Zeus 
standing  between  the  two  pairs  of  competitors  and  their  wives. 
In  the  comers  recline  the  two  river-gods  Alpheus  and  Cladeus, 
who  mark  the  locality;  and  the  two  sides  are  filled  up  with  the 
closely  corresponding  groups  of  the  charipts  of  Oenomaus  and 
Pelops  with  their  grooms  and  attendants.  Every  figiire  to  the 
left  of  Zeus  balances  a  corresponding  figure  on  his  right,  and  all 
the  lines  of  the  composition  slope  towards  a  point  above  the 
apex  of  the  pediment. 

In  the  opposite  or  western  pediment  is  represented  the  battle 
between  Lapiths  and  Centaurs  which  broke  out  at  the  marriage 
of  Peiritbous  in  Thessaly.  Here  we  have  no  less  than  nine  groups. 
In  the  midst  is  Apollo.  On  each  side  of  him  is  a  group  of  three, 
a  centaur  trying  to  cany  off  a  woman  and  a  Lapith  striking  at 
him.  Beyond  these  on  each  side  is  a  struggling  pair,  next  once 
more  a  trio  of  two  combatants  and  a  woman,  and  finally  in  each 
comer  two  reclining  female  figures,  the  outermost  apparently 
nymphs  to  mark  locality.  A  careful  examination  of  these 
compositions  will  show  the  reader  more  clearly  than  detailed 
description  how  clearly  in  this  kind  of  group  Greek  artists 
adhered  to  the  rules  of  rhythm  and  of  balance. 

The  metopes  were  the  long  series  of  square  spaces  which  ran 
along  the  outer  walls  of  temples  between  the  upright  triglyphs 
and  the  cornice.  Originally  they  may  have  been  left  open  and 
served  as  windows;  but  the  custom  came  in  as  early  as  the  7th 
century,  first  of  filling  them  in  with  painted  boards  or  slabs  of 
stone,  and  next  of  adorning  them  with  sculpture.  The  metopes 
of  the  Treasury  of  Sicyon  at  Delphi  (Plate  IV.  fig.  66)  are  as 
early  as  the  first  half  of  the  6th  centuty.  This  recurrence  of  a 
long  series  of  square  fields  for  occupation  well  suited  the  genius 
and  the  habits  of  the  sculptor.  As  subjects  he  took  the  successive 
exploits  of  some  hero  such  as  Heracles  or  Theseus,  or  the  con- 
temporary groups  of  a  battle.  His  number  of  figures  was 
limited  to  two  or  three,  and  these  figiures  had  to  be  worked  into 
a  group  or  scheme,  the  main  features  of  which  were  determined 
by  artistic  tradition,  but  which  could  be  varied  in  a  hundred 
ways  so  as  to  produce  a  pleasing  and  in  some  degree  novel  result. 

With  metopes,  as  regards  shape,  we  may  compare  the  reliefs 
of  Greek  tombs,  which  also  usually  occupy  a  space  roughly 
square,  and  which  also  comprise  but  a  few  figures  arranged 
in  a  scheme  generally  traditional.  A  figure  standing  giving 
his  hand  to  one  seated,  two  men  standing  hand  in ^  hand,  or  a 
single  figure  in  some  vigorous  pose  is  sufficient  to  satisfy  the 
simple  but  severe  taste  of  the  Greeks. 

In  regard  to  friezes,  which  are  long  reliefs  containing  figures 
ranged  between  parallel  lines,  there  is  more  variety  of  custom. 
In  temples  the  height  of  the  relief  from  the  background  varies 
according  to  the  Ught  in  which  it  was  to  stand,  whether  direct 
or  diffused.  Almost  all  Greek  friezes,  however,  are  of  great 
simplicity  in  arrangement  and  perspective.  Locality  is  at  most 
hinted  at  by  a  few  stones  or  trees,  never  actually  portrayed. 
There  is  seldom  more  than  one  line  of  figures,  in  combat  or  pro- 
cession, their  heads  all  equidistant  from  the  top  line  <rf  the 
frieze.  They  are  often  broken  up  into  groups;  and  when  this  is 
the  case,  figure  will  often  balance  figure  on  either  side  of  a  central 
point  almost  as  rigidly  as  in  a  pediment.  An  example  of  this 
win  be  found  in  the  section  of  the  Mausoleum  frieze  shown  in 
fig.  70,  Plate  IV.  Some  of  the  friezes  executed  by  Greek  artists 
for  semi-Greek  peoples,  such  as  those  adorning  the  tomb  at 
Trysa  in  Lyda,  have  two  planes,  the  figures  in  the  background 
being  at  a  higher  leveL 

The  rules  of  balance  and  symmetry  in  composition  which  are 
followed  in  Greek  decorative  art  are  still  more  to  be  discerned 
in  the  paintings  of  vases,  which  must  serve,  in  the  absence  of 
more  dignified  compositions,  to  enlighten  us  as  to  the  methods 
of  Greek  painters.  Great  painters  would  not,  of  course,  be  bound 
by  architectonic  rule  in  the  same  degree  as  the  mere  workmen 
who  painted  vases.    Nevertheless  we  must  never  forget  that 


Gteik  pilntlng  of  the  evKet  ages  w 
tl  did  Dot  reprewni  loolicia,  uve  tr 

tven  down  to  ihe  diyi  ol  Apcllo.     Hi 


GREEK  ART 

nc  liraplidly.    whicb  rtpnw 


Hwril  figum  HUB  inttoduccd  tluy 
■cpanlely  Licalcd,  thoujh,  o[  mune,  not  nilhout  rel 
ODC  BDOthcT.  Ideolum  and  ethlcaJ  purpoH  mutt  hi 
dominated  in  painting  u  in  Kulpturc  and  in  tlu  dra 
in  tbe  vrilinc  o[  hiilgiy. 

We  MiU  take  Fmrn  vtwa  a  few  limplc  groupi  (o  iUuil 
tan  of  Greek  drawing;  rolouring  we  cannot  illustrate. 

The  Gelda  offered  to  the  draughUminon  Greek  vasa  n 
(oUov  ihe  form  ol  Ibc  vasC]  but  (bey  nuy  be  Kt  < 
approiimalely 


I    fiUcd    > 


.— Kyliiby  EpiclMua.  J«l     (Bg. 

le  outliiiei  of  Ihc  Ggurei  i 


each  of  these  ipuces  the 
Mtist  carefully  *dapl> 
bia  detlgn.     In  fig.  i  we 

foim  by  the  vase  painla 

In  the  euly  period  ot 
painting  all  the  apace  not 
ocfupicd  by  the  figures 


i;ch  have  no 
q).    In    taUi 


much  the  tame  probl 
i>  presented  by  the  metope  ipacei  of  a  temple.  In  the  c 
of  both  KjuaTe  and  oblong  fidda  tbe  laws  of  balance  are  caiefi 
obaerved.  Thut  if  Ibete  is  an  even  number  of  figures  in 
acheme,  two  of  (hera  will  fomi  a  tort  of  centre-piece,  those 
eithei  lide  balancing  one  another.  If  the  nunibec  of  Ggi 
it  uneven,  dtbei  there  will  be  a  group  of  three  in  Ihe  midst. 
the  midmost  figure  will  be  »  contrived  that  be  belongi  vhi 
to  neitber  side,  but  it  Ihe  balance  between  them.  These  rem! 
le  clear  by  figs,  a  and  3,  whicb  repeat  the 


It  the  Greek 
me  puipoM 


.  the  mask 
the  great  pair 


[GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 
one  ot  these  by  the  other;  tbe 
v  the  leading  away  of  a  captive 


and  often  very  tkilfulZy  varied^ 

lai  be  meant.     They  aem  the- 

the  acting  of  a  pby,  the  first 

tell  the  tpectatoit  whu  th^  have  to 


>robably  found  recogniaed  o 


to  tuppote  ti 
direct  iilustral 


I  vasa  mult  be  warned  m 


actual  contact.  Each  moved  by  the  traditions  of  liit  own  cralL 
Tbe  poet  took  the  accepted  tale  and  enshrined  it  in  a  setting 
of  fnling  and  imaginalion.  Tbe  painier  took  the  tradilioniil 
schemes  which  were  current,  and  altered  or  enlarged  tbem, 
adding  new  iiguret  and  new  motives,  but  not  attempting  to  tct 
aside  the  general  scheme,  fiut  varieties  suitable  to  poetry  were 
not  likely  to  be  suitable  in  painting.  Thus  it  Is  but  leldom  that 
a  vate-painter  Kcema  tohavehadinhismind,aahedrew,passate3 
of  the  Homeric  poems,  though  these  might  well  be  famiUar  10 
him.  And  almost  never  does  a  vase-painting  of  tbe  51b  century 
show  any  sign  of  the  influence  of  tbe  dramatists,  who  were 
brinidDE  before  the  Athenian  public  on  tbe  stage  many  of  the 
papular  with  the  vate-painter.     Only  qa 


et  Italy  of 


ally  discct 

someth 

ngof  Ac 

Khv 

ran  and  Eurip 

aiftylb 

discern  that  tbe  va 

aken  suggeiti 

1  the  theatre. 

3.  H»l- 

B  brief  oulUoe 

he  hittor 

lan  fro 

iM 

rite  to  iU  de< 

y.    We  b>«i>) 

with  the 

Tseol  a 

national 

art. 

after  the  deat 

riKlion  of  the 

of  an  ampbora,  ooe  of  which  bean  a  design  of  three  figures,  the  Minoan 

Other  of  four.  irruptio 

ne  Graek  artist  Dot  only  adhered  to  the  architectonic  laws  and  we 

of  balance  and  lymnietry,  but  be  thought  in  tchemei.     Certain  art  war 

group  atnngements  bad  a  recogniied  signification.    Hiere  are  '~ 
'  ' ' '  g  on  equal  termi,  am 


It  of  early  Cttcce  by  the 
It  is  10  lay,  about  goo  *jc., 
Greece,  after  wUch  Greek 
fiuerors  (see  ROKu  An), 
mo  four  tecliont:  (1)  the 
3-4S0  B.C.;  <>)  the  period 


GREEK  ART 


of  the  culy  ichooli  of  ut,  4&>-4oo  B.C.;  (3)  the  peiiod  of  lite 
litB  pal  icbool],  400-300  B.C.;  (4)  the  period  of  .HeUeoisIic 
•n,  jDo-so  B.C.  In  dealing  witb  lliae  lucceuive  periodi  we 
confine  our  iketcb  to  Ihc  three  gnatei  bnncha  of  lepreHnUUve 
ut,  (rchiieclute,  iculptun  and  painiing,  wbich  in  Giecce  ue 
cloidy  aonecled.  The  letur  uu,  ol  pottery,  gem-engmving, 
coLQ-itaaipJDg  and  the  like,  an  treated  of  iindei  the  head!  of 
CUAWcs,  Geh,  NtnoSHATici,  &c,  while  the  more  techidcti 
treatDicnt  ol  ucbitectural  conitniction  in  dealt  with  under 
AffcuitaciuKE  and  allied  architectunl  aitidcs.  Further,  for 
brief  account!  of  the  chief  aniata  the  leader  ii  refeired  to  blo- 
grajriilcal  ajtidea^  under  auch  heads  bs  PhbioiaSi  pKAXnxLE), 
AriLUS.    We  Hat  here  only  of  the  main  coune  of  art  in  its 

'.  Ptriad  t.  I00-4S0  B.C — The  (act  ii  HOW  geneially  allowed 

that  the  Mycenaean,  or  as  it  is  now  lerined  Aegean.  dvQiiation 

wai  for  the  moal  part  destroyed  by  an  invasion  from 

\ii^ijii    the   north.     This  invasion   appean  to   have   been 

Archaeological  evidence  abundanily  proves  that  it  was  the 
conqgeat  of  a  moie  by  a  leaa  rich  and  civilized  race.  In  tlie  graves 
of  the  period  (900-600  B.C.)  we  fiiid  none  of  the  wealthy  spoil 
which  haimadecelebraLedtheIomlHoiMycenacandVaphia(T.t.). 
The  character  of  the  pottery  and  the  hronzc-woik  which  is  found 
in  Ihoe  later  graves  remindi  us  of  the  art  of  the  necropolis 
of  Hallitalt  in  Austria,  and  other  utea  belonging  to  whit  is 
railed  the  bronze  age  of  North  Europe^  Its  predotninant 
characteristic  is  the  use  of  geometrical  forms,  the  loxenge,  the 
triangle,  the  macandcr,  the  drcte  with  taogeott,  in  plaa  of  the 
elaborate  spirals  and  plant -forau  which  mark  Mycenaean  ware. 
For  this  reason  the  period  from  the  9tli  to  the  7th  century  in 
Greece  passes  by  the  name  of  "  the  Geometric  Age."  II  Is 
eominoBly  held  that  in  the  remains  of  the  Geometric  Age  we 
may  Usee  the  influence  o(  the  Dorians,  who,  coming  in  as  a 
hardy  but  uncultivated  race,  probably  of  purer  Aryan  blood 


tsof  Gm 

end  the  wealth  and  the  lunury  whic 
age,  but  alio  replaced  an  an  which  * 
toulhem  by  one  which  belonged  ral 
west.  The  great  difficulty  Inherent 
which  has  yet  to  be  met.  lies  . 
abuiKlant  and  ch 


ught  to 


d  the  Mycei 
chanclet  euenlially 

is  view,  a  difficulty 


It  part  adorned  with  painted 

'ristic  example,  a  small  two- 

Khodes  in  tbe  Ashmolean  Museum, 


id  lines  of  water  birds,  perhaps  swana. 
SonKtiraes,  however,  especially  in  the  cue  of  large  vases  from 
s,  which  adj'oiiis  the  Dipylon  sale,  •ctsei 


Fm.  4. — GeoBetric  Vase  from  Rhodee.  (Aiknulean  Uuseum,] 
from  Grid  life  are  depicted,  from  daily  life,  not  from  legend  or 
divine  myth.  Especially  scenes  from  the  lying-in-it»te  and  the 
burial  of  the  dead  ate  prevalent.  An  excerpt  from  a  Dipylon 
vaee  (fig.  5)  shows  a  dead  man  on  his  couch  surrounded  by 
moomers,  male  and  lemale.  Both  sexes  are  ippaienily  Ttpce- 
icoted  naked,  and  arc  distinguished  very  aimply;  toine  of  them 
bc4d  tvuchca  lo  ^irinkk  the  tntpK  at  la  keep  away  fliei.    It 


will  be  seen  bow  primitive  lad  conventlooa]  b  the  drae 
this  age,  presenlmg  a  wonderful  contrast  to  the  free  di 
end  modelling  ol  the  Mycenaean  age.  In  the  samo  gravi 
the  pottery  arc  sometimes  found  plaques  of  gold  or  broni 
towards  the  end  of  the  geometric  age  these  somtime 
scenes  from  mythology,  treated  with  tbe  greatest  aimj 


Fio.  5.— C«p«  with  Moumen. 
For  example,  m  the  museum  ol  Berlin  are  the  contenti  of  a 

tomb  found  at  Corinth,  consisting  mainly  of  gdd  work  ol  geo- 
metric decoration.  But  in  tbe  same  tomb  were  also  found  gold 
plates  or  plaques  ol  repoussf  work  bearing  subjects  from  Greek 


10  S— Gold  PUqoes:  Corinth. 

I  these  are  showii  in  fig.  6.     On  one 
aying  tbe  Minotaur  wbde  Ariadne  stands  by  and  < 
!ie  hero    Tbe  tale  could  not  have  been  told  in  a  slmpli 
iraighiforward  way.    On  the  other  we  have    -    - 
■  '.  his  charioteer  in  > 


bones.  Tbetieali 
the  human  body  ji  ben 
more  advanced  than  od 
the  vases  of  the  Dipylon 
On  the  site  of  Olympig 
■here  Mycenaeai 


adorned   with   geometne 

patterns  sad  luimounted 

by  the  figure  of  a  hone. 

It  was  about  the  6lb 


Fic  T 


-HaKile  ol  Tnpod. 


of  tbe  Greeks,  almost  suddenly,  ai 
seems  to  us,  emindpated  itself  from  the  thraldom  ol  irediti 
and  passed  beyond  the  limits  with  which  the  nalians  of 
cast  and  west  had  hitherto  been  content,  in  a  free  I 
bold  effort  lowaidi  the  ideal    Thus  the  6Ih  centuiy  ma 


476 


GREEK  ART 


Itoo-4X>u 


the  iUgt  in  in  in  wbich  it  nuy  be  uid  to  have  bMOmi 
definitdy  Hdlmic     The  Cncki  UiU  bocTDwid  muy  of  tfadt 

decontive  forms,  diliei  from  llic  pichutoilc  renulu  In  (beif 
own  oiuntcy  or,  thnnigh  Fbocnidin  Mcncy,  from  the  oM-worid 
cmpira  of  Egfpl  uid  Bubykia,  but  they  ui«l  thou  formi  freely 
ID  eipreai  ibdr  oho  monSnl.    And  piduilly,  in  the  cour»  of 

a  nitional  ipbit  and  a  nalioiuil  Myle  fonning  under  (be  iofluence 
of  Greek  rcligiDn  and  mytholocy,  GreA  athletic  training,  Greek 
worship  of  beauty.  Wc  must  beie  lay  emphadi  on  the  fact, 
whicb  ii  lomclimea  oveilooked  in  an  agewhicta  ii  greatly  given 
lo  Ibe  Darwinian  Ksicb  after  origins.  Ibal  it  ia  one  tbinglo 
trace  back  tu  its  original  sources  the  nascent  att  of  Greece,  and 
quite  anotber  thing  to  fallow  and  to  unduitand .  Its  gradual 
embodiniFDt  of  Hellenic  ideas  and  dvilization.  The  immense 
aucccss  with  whicb  the  veil  bu  In  lale  yean  been  lifted  from  the 

have  tended  to  £i  our  attention  rather  on  what  GtMce  pouosed 
c  with  all  other  peoples  at  the  ainie  early  stage  of 


laf  Gree 


ock.  In 
of  the  great  inspirati 
mediocrity  and  vulgarity.  And  it  is  the  searcbing 
appreciation  of  Ibis  unique  and  ideal  beauty  in  all  il 
a,  wbich  is  the 


cw  new  Ligbl  on  this  maltet. 

Liry,  they  used  poTLery  oE 
tereral  distinct  but  allied 


and  of  monster*,  and  the 
filling  up  of  the  back- 
grouDd  with  mscltes, 
lorengea  and  olber  forms. 
Fig.  g  shoFS  a  vase  found 

liates  this  Ionian  deona- 
tiou.  The  iphini,  ibe 
deer  and  the  swan  are 
(MotnlneDt  on  it,  the  bst- 
named  serving  as  a  link 
between     ibe     geometric 


species 


Fio.  8.— Jug  from  Rhodes. 


Kalilie: 


Miletus,  Samos,   Phocae 
.    at  difficulty,  wbich  now  closely 

■heir  studies  the  reader  ts  referred  lo  two  recent  German  wDik), 
B6htau's-(iii  imiickiH  Hid  iuaiickta  Ntkropoltn.  Mud  Endfa 
BtHrSgi  tar  ienUckn  Vaitnmnlad.  The  feature  whicb  is  most 
interesting  in  this  poilery  from  our  present  point  of  view  is  tbe 
way  in  which  reprcsenmions  of  Greek  myth  and  legend  gradually 

borderi  and  neck.  One  at  tbe  earliest  examples  of  representation 
otarealty  Greek  subject  is  the  contest  of  Menelaus  and  Euphorbus 
on  a  plate  found  in  Rhodes,  On  the  vases  of  Mclos.  of  the  ;th 
century,  whicb  are,  however,  not  Ionian,  but  raiber  Dorian  in 
duracter,  we  have  a  attain  minbtr  of  myibological  scenes. 


battles  otHomertc  heroes  ud  Ibe  Uke.  One  of  these  ii  shown  in 
fig.  ^  It  repteaenta  Apollo  In  *  chariot  drawn  by  winged  honc^ 
ptaying  on  the  lyre,  and  accompanied  by  a  pair  of  Husea,  mectiiig 
his  sister  Anemis.  It  is  notable  that  ApoUois  bcarikd,ud  (bat 
Artemis  holds  her  stag  by  the  boms,  much  in  the  manner  o(  Ibe 
deitiea  on  Babylonian  cylinden;  in  the  other  hand  abc  canics 

Some  sites  in  Asia  Minor  and  tbe  islandi  adjoining,  tach  cities 


Greek 


a  mass  of  ware  of  the  Ionian 

iting  subjects;  itisoi 

mythology  and  history  we  must  lujn  elsewhere.  The  ce 
of  tbe  great  Etruscan  cities,  Caere  in  particular,  have  praerved 
for  usalar^numberof  vases,  whicb  are  now  generally  recognixed 
as  Ionian  in  design  and  drawing,  though  ihey  may  in  some  case* 
be  only  Ilaliao  imitations  of  Ionian  imported  ware.  Tlins  baa 
been  filled  up  what  was  a  blank  page  in  the  history  of  early 
Greek  art.  The  Ionian  painting  is  unteslr^lned  in  chaiacler, 
chancteriied  by  a  licence  not  foreign  to  the  nature  of  tbe  race, 
the  sell.canlral  and  raoduatloa  whicb  belong  to 


rt  after 


[i  of  Claiomenae.  In  that  dty  in 
d  custom  prevailed  of  burying  the 
n  great  coRina  of  IeTra.i»lta  adorned  with  painted  scene* 
:hariot-racing,  war  and  the  chase.  The  British  Uuseiun 
tes  some  remarkable  spedmens,  wbich  are  publiabed  in 
'  "  i-CnMs  Satctfliap  'J  "^  Brili^  ifweaiiL 
KS  depicted  a  battle  between  Cmmetian 
invaoers  ana  ^reeas,  the  former  accompanied  to  Ibe  field  by 
their  great  war-dogs.  In  some  of  tbe  representations  of  bunting 
on  these  sarctqjbagi  the  bunters  ride  in  chariots,  a  way  of  buoling 
quite  foreign  to  the  Greeks,  but  familiar  to  us  from  Anyrian 
wall-iculptuies.  We  know  that  tbe  life  of  the  Ionian)  before 
Iho  Persian  conquest  was  refined  and  not  imlinged  with  lunuy, 
and  they  bortowed  many  of  tbe  stately  ways  of  the  laUifis  ol 
Ihe  kings  of  Assyria  and  Pcis' 


n  the  >ara 


>l  them  be 


fiihol 


nri  with  !C 


>f  the  Ir 


aflyin. 


rs^^ 


Fic.  lo.'^iih  of  Gold. 

eagle,  lioiii  pulh'ng  down  their  prey,  and  a  man 
among  bis  fishes.  This  retic  is  Ibe  more  valuable 
the  ipot  where  it  was  found— Vettenfetde  ~ 


GREEK  ART 


rurnBhd  a  proof  Ibtt  the  iofluoice  tod  perhipi  Ibe  coninwne 
of  the  Grnk  coEonies  on  lie  BUdt  Sea  ipraij  lu  to  ihe  nonb 
thniuch  Ibe  counliin  of  ihe  Scylhiwit  (Bd  oth«  bubaiiuu. 
The  fiih  ditei  froni  the  6tb  century  b.c. 


h  iho<(  in  Ionian  itndmcy.  pcrhapt  combined 
eleoienti.  On  one  oT  them  {fif.  ir)  we  ice 
tumao  (orelegi  holding  up  a  lawn,  on  Ibe  oiber 
-  lorientalgoddcis 
smibeCi    '    " 


Fic.  II,— CaldOmamcntiEroin        bere wasinCorinthiuid 

figiin  ol  iwans,  lioni.  moniten  and  human  beings,  the  intervals 

betinen  wbicb  are  filled  by  nisellei,  are  found  vheiever 
Corintbian  Inde  pcnetnted,  notibly  in  Ihe  cemMeria  of 
Sit'iy.  For  the  larger  Corinthian  vawe,  which  boie  more 
clibonle  icenct  from  mythology,  we  mut  again  lum  to  Ibe 
gravel  o<  Ihe  citia  of  Etrurii.  Here,  beiidei  the  looiaa 
ware,  of  which  mcnrion  baa  already  been  made,  we  find 
poiiery  of  three  Creek  diia  dearly  defined,  that  of  Corialh. 
that  of  Chaldi  in  Euboea,  and  that  of  Atheni.  Corinthian 
uid  Cbalcidian  ware  ia  mcnt  readily  dliiinguiihed  by  means 
of  the  alphabet!  lued  in  the  inicriptioni  which  have 
diiiinctive  forma  euiiy  to  be  identified.  Whether  in  the  Uytc 
of  the  paidtingi  coming  from  the  various  dtia  any  diilinct 
diRercncei  may  be  traced  is  a  far  more  diAicult  question.  Into 
which  we  cannot  DOW  enter.  The  subjects  are  nwilly  frombenric 
legend,  and  are  treated  with  great  limplicity  and  directneu. 
There  is  a  manly  vigour  about  them  which  dittingulshei  ibem 
■I  a  ^uce  from  Ibe  luer  wgrks  of  Ionian  ityle.  Fig.  ii  sbowi 
Cj  which  represent!  the  conflict 


II.— Fi^ht  over  the  Body  of  Achilles. 
ovet  the  dead  body  of  Achilles.  The  corpse  of  ihe  hero  lies 
the  midM,  Ihe  arrow  in  bli  bed.  The  Trojan  Olaucui  tries 
draw  away  the  body  by  means  of  a  tope  tied  round  the  ankl 
but  in  doing  10  ii  Itansfiied  by  the  spear  of  Ajai,  who  charg 
ondeT  tbe  protection  of  the  godden  Athena.    Paris  on  the  Troj^ 

In  fig.  I],  from  a  Corinthian  vase,  AJii  falls  on  his  sword 
tbe  presence  of  bis  collesguei,  Odysseus  and  Dionuilei.   Theihc 
Mature  ti  Odysseua  is  ■  well-known  Homeric  feature.  These 
VHci  an  bUck-Gfuiedi  the  heroes  are  painted  in  ailbouet 


the  red  ground  of  tbe  vaaea.    Theii  aamea  are  appended  ia 
luehaic  Greek  let  leu. 

The  euly  history  of  viae-paintiog  at  Athens  ii  complicalcd. 
It  was  only  by  degrees  that  tbe  geometric  style  gave  way  lo, 
or  devehiped  into,  what  is  known  as  Ihe  black-figured  j^,-. 
style.  It  would  seem  that  until  theageof  Peisistratui 
Athens  was  noi  notable  in  the  world  of  an,  and  nothing  could 
be  ruder  than  some  of  the  vases  of  Athens  in  tbe  71b  century. 


for  eaampte  that  here  figured,  on  one  lide  of  which  are  represented 
the  winged  Harpies  (Eg.  14)  and  on  the  other  Perseus  accompanied 
by  Athena  flying  from  the  pursuit  of  tbe  Gorgons. '  This  vase 
retains  in  its  decoration  some  Features  of  geometric  style;  but 
Ihe  lotus  and  tosetle,  tbe  ban  and  sphini  which  appear  on  it, 
belong  to  the  wave  of  Ionian  influence.  Although  it  involves  a 
departure  from  strict  chronological  order,  it  will  be  well  here  to 
follow  the  course  of  development  ]n  pottery  at  Athens  until  tbe 
end  of  our  period.  Neighbouring  dties,  and  especially  Corintb, 
seem  to  have  eierdsed  a  iliong  iDfluence  at  Athens  about  tha 


tlariuci:  Attic  Vaae. 


7tb  century.  We  have  even  a  class  of  vases  called  by  archae- 
ologists Coriotho-Attic.  Bat  In  Ibe  course  of  the  filh  ceniaiy 
(here  li  formed  at  Athens  *  distinct  and  marked  black-figured 
style.  Tbe  most  remarkable  example  of  this  ware  is  the  so<alled 
Fnnfois  vase  at  Munich,  by  Clitias  and  Ergolimus,  which 


bears  the  name 

nd  ihefigu 

e  of  Calliis  in  bis 

hariot  (tfi». 

dea-  i«a.  ill.  4s) 

and  Ibis  Ca 

Uiaswon 

victory 

t  Olyorria  in 

S64  B.C.     Fig.  1 

shows  the 

everseof 

t  Uter  btack- 

figured  vase  of  tbe  Fanathenaic  class. 

given  at 

Atbens  aa  > 

Panatbe 

«a,  with  Ihe 

foot-race  (iloJiofl 

represented 

on  it.    A  large  number  of  Athenian 

vases  of  the  6ih 

reached  us,  which  b 

eartbesigna- 

lures  of  the  poll 

"Vtamld'e 

ortbear 

iitswbo 

painted  them; 

liili  of  these  "iU 

be  found  in  t 

e  useful  w 

orkofK1dn,Cri«»i»*< 

Tbcrea 

Dt  ewavallons  on  the 

+78 


AcnpoUa  hive  proved  the  emneDUSDesi  of  tbe  vicv,  itiODgly 
maiiUaiiied  by  Bmim,  tlut  Ibe  niu  of  Ibe  bUck-figuced  vskb 
mre  of  &,l>(e  and  imiutive  Ubric  We  now  know  Uwl,  witb  • 
few  exceptioni,  vaiea  of  Ihii  dan  ue  not  later  than  ilie  euly 
pait  of  the  5lh  cenluiy.  Tbt  ume  ocav&tioiia  have  also 
proved  ihat  led-figuied  vaje-piinting,  thit  is,  vase-pdiminB 
[n  which  the  backgnuiuE  wu  blocked  out  with  black,  »jtd  the 
£gura  left  in  the  natunl  colour  of  the  vase  originated  at  Athetu 
in  the  lilt  quutec  of  the  6th  centuiy.    Wc  cannot  beie  give  a 


GREEK  ART 

ind  the  iculptuie  of  Ic 


4i$g0 


Ftc.  15,— Foot-race;  PaiutheiQic  ViK. 
detiDed  account  of  tbe  beautiful  wries  of  Athcniin  vaao  of  thii 
fabric.  Many  of  the  fineit  of  [hem  ue  in  tbe  British  Muleum. 
As  an  eiunplc,  fig.  i£  presents  a  group  by  the  pliatei  PimiAaeui, 
icpiescnting  Heracles  wicslling  with  Ibe  river-monster  Acheloui, 
which  belongi  to  the  age  of  the  Persian  Wan.  The  clear  piccision 
of  the  figures,  the  vigour  of  the  grouping,  the  correctneu  of  Ibe 
anitomy  and  Ibe  deUcacy  of  the  lines  are  all  marks  of  distinction. 
Tbe  student  of  art  will  perhaps  find  the  nearest  paiallel  to  these 
vue-piaurei  la  Japanese  drawings.  The  Japanese  iitisli  are 
very  inferior  10  (he  Greek  in  theii  love  and  understanding  of 
n  body,  but  equal  ihem  ■     -     ■ 


Acbelous. 
at  Athens  for  the  purpose  of  burial  witb  the  dead, 
found  in  great  quaaiiiies  in  tbe  cemetaiea  of  Atbecu,  of 
lia,  of  Cell  in  Sicily,  and  o(  some  other  cities.  They  ite 
represented  in  the  British  MuMum  and  thai  of  Okford. 
'e  now  return  to  the  early  years  of  the  61I1  century,  and 
eed  to  trace,  by  the  aid  of  recent  discoveries,  the  rise  of 
itecture  and  sculpture.  The  Creek  temple  in  its  chaiacter 
form  gives  tbe  due  to  the  whole  chancter  of  Creek  art, 
:  Ibe  abode  of  the  deity,  wbo  is  represented  by  tus  sacred 
te;  ud  Ibe  fiat  surfaces  of  the  temple  oSer  a  great  field 


jrfor 


^  theUi 


e  Doria 


.    Tlw 


dress,  the  art,  the  tuiEury  ol 
iireMsUhlt  force.     We  may  : 

palaces,  and  that  the  rehefs  ._  .. 

palaces  were  in  part  their  handiwork.  Some  of  tbe  great  lenplei 
of  Ionia  have  been  eicivated  In  recent  yean,  notably  iboae  of 
Apollo  at  Miletus,  of  Hen  at  Samos,  and  of  Artcmi)  at  E(A(SIB. 
Very  little,  however.oflhe  architect ure of  the  6tb-c<oIutytemplei 
of  those  sites  ha*  been  recovered.  Quite  rectniJy,  however,  the 
French  eicavaton  at  De^hi  have  luccessfully  reitortd  the 
treasury  of  the  people  of  Cnidus,  which  is  quite  a  gem  r^-^. 
of  Ionic  slyie,  the  enublalure  beini  Buppotled  in  front 
not  by  pillars  but  by  two  maidens  or  Cone,  and  a  frieie  ninrung 
all  round  the  buib^ng  lUiove.    But  Uiotigh  this  building  i*  of 


capital*,  but  ate  carved  with  curious  relief.  Tbe 
Ionic  capital  proper  is  developed  in  Asia  by  degms  (<ee 
AidUTELTvaz  and  Ctma.;  also  Penot  and  Chipiei,  BitL 
ilVan.m.  di,  4), 

temple  1$  t>ot  wboQy  of  European  orl^  One 
of  the  easiest  eiamples  is  the  old  temple  of  Aaius  in  Tmai, 
Yet  il  wa*  developed  mainly  in  Hellas  and  the  west.  Tbe  most 
andenl  cuimple  is  the  Heraeum  at  Olyraina,  next  Id  which  come 
tbe  fragmentary  temples  of  Corinth  and  of  Selinus  in  Sicily. 
With  the  early  Doric  temple  we  are  familiar  from  example* 

Agrigentum  in  Sidly,  Paeslum  in  Italy,  and  otiiei  sites. 
Of  the  decorative  sculpture  which  adorned  these  early  templet 

It  will  be  best  to  speak  of  them  under  their  districts. 


stof  A^ 


iMioi 


has  come  down  to  us  is  that  which 
s  (fig.  18).  These  were  placed  in  a 
pie,  a  long  ftiete  running  along  the 
itionj  ol  wild  aoiiuals,  of  centaurs, 
,  and  of  men  feasting,  scene  luccted- 
r  or  method,  Tbe  oiily  Cguret  fton 
Miletus  which  can  be  con^deted  as  belonging  to  the  etigiaal 
temple  destroyed  by  Darius,  are  the  dedicated  seated  ttatoes. 
some  of  which,  brought  away  by  Sir  Charles  Newton,  art  now 
preserved  at  the  British  Museum.  At  Ephctus  Mr  Wood  baa 
been  nunc  luccessful,  and  has  recovered  coaiidcnblc  ftafmcDU 


decorative  iculptu 

es  whic 

idomed  the  tempi 

of  As 

thrt' 

of  Hercules  seiring 

Icheteu 

Hxt-Alo  B 


GREEK  ART 


of  the  temple  •>[  Aitemis,  la  which,  15  Heiodolus  (ells  us,  Cronus 
prcKDled  many  columni,  Thclowerparlof  oncolihne  columns, 
bcuing  ficucei  in  relief  of  emly  Joniaa  style,  has  been  pul 
logetbei  at  the  Biitbh  Museum;  and  remains  of  inscriplioni 
rerardinf  the  preMOtaiioa  by  Croesuj  ire  ttUl  lo  be  traced. 
Relief*  from  a  cornice  of  somewhat  later  date  are  also  10  be 
fouod  St  tba  fintisb  iliueum     Among  the  Aegean  isbnds 


Detoa  has  furnished  us  with 
art.  French  eicii 

a  woman  dediciteil  by  one  Nicandra  to  Artemis.a  Bgurewhich 
may  be  instmclively  compared  with  another  Irom  Samui, 
dedicated  la  Hcia  by  Cbcramues.  The  DeUan  statue  is  In  shape 
Lke  a  Hat  bum;  the  Samian,  which  is  headless,  b  like  a  mund 
(ree.  The  amu  of  the  Delian  figure  are  rigid  to  the  Sides;  the 
Samian  lady  hat  one  arm  clasped  to  her  breast.  A  great  im- 
provement on  these  he1pl»j  and  ineipressive  figures  is  marked 
by  another  figure  found  at  Delos.and  eanrected,  though  perhaps 
inconectly,  with  &  buia  recording  the  eiecution  of  a  statue  by 
Atchermus  and  Micciades,  two  sculplois  who  itood,  in  the 
middle  of  the  eth  century,  at  the  head  of  a  sculptural  icboo)  at 
Chio*.  The  tepiewntstion  <fig.  ig)  11  of  a  running  ot  Sying 
figure,  having  six  wings,  like  the  seraphim  in  the  vlsioa  of 


[saiah,  a 


Fio.  [9.— Nikt  of  Delof.  renored. 


am)  dad  in  long  drapery.  It  may  be  a  stilue  of  Nike  or 
Victory,  who  i*  said  to  have  been  represented  in  winged  form 
by  Archermus.  The  ligure,  with  its  neatness  and  precision  of 
work,  its  eipressive  face  and  strong  outlines,  certainly  marks 
great  progrest  In  the  ait  «(  sculpture.    When  we  auiine  Ihe 


early  scu 

plureofA 

len.,  we  find  reason 

tot 

ink 

hal 

heChiaa 

scht»l  hi 

ence  in  that  city  ii 

.y^ 

il  r 

At  All 

n3,inthe 

nil 

edisUnct 

re  and  sculpture. 

Uie  two 

rough  lin 

stone  was  used  ali: 

•fn 

hr 

'alii 

pies 

Ihn 

wh 

her 

impOTte< 

Every  visitor 

[ands  astonished  a 

Ihe 

recovered 

groups  which  deco 

rated   the  pedimen 

Atl 

tetxplea 

^mim 


w  nature,  but  only  ti 


Beat:  Heracles  and  Hydn. 
-groups  of  targe  size,  rudely  cut 
nanship,  and  painted  with  bright 
ion  which  makes  no  attempt  to 
xluce  a  vivid  result.    The  two 

the  early  Slh-cenluiy  temple  of  Athena.  On  other 
ncnls,  perhaps  belonging  to  shrines  of  Heradea 
i.  we  have  conflicts  of  Heracles  with  Triton  or  wili 
lus  foes.  Il  is  notable  how  fond  the  Athenian  artists 
time  are  of  eiiggeiated  muscles  and  of  monstrous 
combine  the  limbs  o(  men  and  of  animals;  ibc 
measure  and  moilention  which  mark  developed  Creek  art  are 
ascomplclcly  abieni  asiteikillineieciiiion  or  power  o(  group- 
ing,  fig.  >o  shows  a  small  pediment  in  which  appears  in  teljel 


the  slaying  of  the  Lf  tnaean  hydra  by  Kernclea.  The  hero  strikes 
at  the  many-headed  walcr-inake,  somewhat  inappropriately, 
with  his  club.  lolaus,  his  usual  compamon,  holds  the  reins  of 
the  chariol  which  awaits  Heracles  after  his  victory.    On  the 


ie  indue] 


I  of  Pi 


of  all  kinds  were  welcome-  We  can  trace  a  gradual  tr 
on  in  sculpture,  in  which  the  influence  of  the  Cbian 
rogttssive  schools  of  sculpture  is  visible,  not  only  in 


and   the  appearance  of  t 


which  ar 


Ihe  sub- 


48a 


GREEK  ART 


belw«n  ihecMer  and  the  newer  b  lutnithedbytht  well-known 
lUiue  oi  ibe  ulf-bcirer,  in  Alhenian  piepaiing  la  tuiiScc  a 
ctU  lo  ibe  deiiies,  whkh  b  made  of  marble  or  Hynuitiu.  and  in 
robuit  dmnjinev  of  formi  a  not  for  removed  from  the  lime' 
■lone  pediments-  The  ucriAcer  has  been 
commonly  ipoken  ot  «s  Hermes  or  TluseuSi 
but  be  seems  ratber  to  be  sn  ordinaiy 

In  the  time  ol  PeisistiUus  or  his  sons  a 


(  Atbeni 


pcepaiMioD  of  (rcth  pedimenli. 
were  of  marble.  In  one  of  Ihcm 
presented    the   batile    between   S9 


Itra 


ipolis,  wbose 
o[  the 


li.-Figui, 


of  Ibe  6lh  century  in 
guceful  tlBugh  corn 
delicate  colouring  make  Ihen 
gteit  aiiraciions  of  the  Acropotii  Museum. 
We  show  a  figure  (Eg.  ii)  which,  if  it  be 
ri^lly  connected  with  tbc  basis  on  whkh 
It  itandi,  is  Ibe  work  of  the  sculptor 
Antenor.who  was  also  author  of  acelcbiated 


Kumodius  and  Arislogilon.     To  ibe  same 

other  votive  reliefs  ol  the  Acropolis,  repi 

•ciibe)  and  other  votaries  of  Athena. 

Fnim  Athens  we  pass  to  the  sealt  of  Di 

miplcte  change  ol  thai 


a^  b. 


draped  goddefisn 

vte  £nd  hard,  rigid  outlined,  s 
1,  a  grciler  love  of  and  fajlhluhu 
—the  inBuence  of  the  pilatiira  n 


lale  figures,  we  £nd  nude 


Fic  23— Bull  (rom  Crete, 
part  of  a  draped  figure  (lig  ij)  whether  c 
certain  wh  cb  should  be  an  example  of 
■chool  whence  the  art  of  Peloponnesus  i 
on  scarcely  venture  to  treat  it  as  a  char 
that  school;  rather  the  bkencss  to  the  d« 
is  Hrikini 


of  the  Pecs 


larkable  | 


is  the  group  of  the  tyiaonkidcs 


Arisiogiton.  set  up  by  the  people  of  Athens,  and  made  by 
sculptors  Critius  and  Nesioles.  These  figures  were  hud  ud 
1  in  outline,  but  showing  some  progress  in  (be  tmlioeiit  oi 
nude.  GipicsarrpreservedintbemuscumolNapteCFllUl. 
jo).  It  should  beobaerved  that  oneof  the  hadadeau 
ing. 

:cil  in  importance  to  Athens,  as  a  &nd4pot  for  iraki  d 
y  Creek  art,  lanks  Otympia.  CHympa,  bowmi,  did  ikk 
:r  like  Athens  trom  sudden  violence,  and  the 


ini,  beginning  with  ll 


of  the  4lh  century  jLCL  1 
among  the  Slh-century  stone-sculpture  of  Olympit  K 
pediment  of  the  treasury  of 
the  people  of  Megan,  in 
which  is  represented  a  battle 
of  gods  and  gianti,  and  a 
huge  rude  bead  of  Hera  (fig. 
14),  whicb  secRD  to  be  part  of 
the  image  woiihippe' 

AnUHig  the  temples  of 


instructed  of  wood. 


e  pillars  Fic.  14.— Head  ol 


degrees,   part   by  part, 
stituted.      In    the      ' 

was  still  ol  Oik,  a. -,. 

present  day  the  varying  diameter  ot  the  columns  and 
structural  incgutaritics  bear  witness  to  ibi 
renewal    whicb    must    have  taken   place. 
bronzes  of  ^ympia  for 


The  «aiiy  iffiH 
,  GgVRI  of  dutia 


ready  to  rec< 

figure  holds  1 
made  at  the 
pomegranate, 


Fic  15.— Spartan  Toabitaae  Brf; 
or  and  ancesties  Kited  side  by  side  (fig.  1; 
ve  the  ^fts  of  tbeir  descendaBii,  •In  app"- 
9f-tbe  relief  on  a  much  smaller  Kale.   Tbt  c-^ 

omb.  The  female  figure  holds  bet  ved  aad  t^ 
Ibe  lecDgniled  food  of  Ihe  dead.  A  ki« 
1  erect  behind  the  pair.  Tlic  ityfc  af  il» 
4  striking  aa  the  lubjcctai  «t  see  Ion   n(J 


GREEK  ART 


— Laocoon  Group.    (Vatican.) 


, — Ganymede  of  Lcochares.     tVatiam.) 


GREEK  ART 


PktU,  Mansell. 
Fib.  S3. — Drum    of    Column    from    Ephes 
(Brit-Mus.) 


Fir.  6o, — Young  Hennes. 
(Mus.  of  Fine  Arts, 
Boston.) 


GREEK  ART 


^m' 


PitU.  CinrnJuH. 
Fig.  6l.— WinBt^    Vic- 
lory  of   Samothrace. 

(LODVRE.) 


Fig.  6j.— Head  of  War- 
rior, Restored,  from 
Tegea. 


Fig.  6a.— Winged   Victory    of 
Samothrace.     (LoimtE.) 


Fiff.  6c.— East  Pediment  ot  the  Parthenon:  left  and  Tight  ends.    (Brit.  Mus.) 


GREEK  ART 


Fig.  66.— Metope  of  the  Treasuiy  of  Skyon  at 

Delphi. 

(From  Fouitlei  de  Delphes.  by  permission  of  A. 

Fontemoing.) 


Fig.  6;. — Greek  Painting  of  Woman's  Head. 

(From  Camptes  Rcndus  of  St.   Petersburg,   iSd;. 

PI.  I.) 


Fig.  68.— Discobolus  of  Myron,  Restored  by  Prof.  Fig.  69.— Fighter  of  Agasia?.     (Lowke.) 

Kurtwanglcr. 


xA»\^!i  ■' 


Fig.  70.— Portion  of  Frieze  of  Mausoleum.    (Brit.  Mus.) 


GREEK  ART 


Frem  a  Call.  Fig.  71. — Bronze  Boxer  of  Termc.        Fijj,  73. — Bronze  of  Cerieotto. 

Fig.  71. — Aphrodite  of  Cnidus.  (Rome.)  (Alhens.)     Found  in  the  sea 

(Vatican.)  near  Cythera. 


FiR.  ;4.— Aeias  at  Delphi  p;,   75.— Cora  (Korfi)  of  Erechlhcu 


GREEK  ART 


Fig.    80. — Dorjphi 
PolycUtus.     (Nat.  Mi 
Kaplta.) 


Phots.  Enilhli  PkUetraphic  Ct. 

Fig.  Si.— Hennes  of  Praii- 
telcs.     (Olympic.) 


4>i>-4(»  ■■c-l 


GREEK  ART 


[onui  wiih  Kvcre  bulline  cuvcd  in  >  voy  Ic"  nlicl, 
the  (uriue  of  wHicb  ii  Dot  TOundcd  but  bl.  Tbe  nunc  «[ 
Sclinui  in  Sidly,  u  cul)'  UcguUo  colony,  hii  lonj  b«n  uiod- 

mtttrptl  of  uidfnt  lemplea,  rqiraenling  the  eiploita  of  HcncLa 

yean  bun  bnii^i  to  Gght,  odc  npTWDliiig  i  leatcd  iphini; 
onv  the  jounKx  of  £un>pa  avrt  the  n  on  the  back  of  Ibe 
imonwi  bull  (fig.  iG),  >  piii  of  dolphini  nrimnung  besidt  bit. 
Id  limpbcity  uid  in  nidcneu  of  work  tboc  relicfa  rcnUnd  \a 
of  Ibe  limcuone  pediments  ol  Atbeu  (fig.  20),  but  yel  Ihey  ut 
of  inothet  ud  ■  severer  Myle;  tbe  loniui  luiiy  is  wuting. 

The  recent  FieDcb  etcinliau  it  Delphi  idd  ft  new  ud 
imponaot  cbtpter  to  the  history  of  6th<entuTy  ut.  Of  thiee 
g,^u.  treiiute-houiei,  those  of  Sicyoo,  Cnidus  and  Athens, 
the  iculptuTal  idomments  havt  been  in  great  part 
tKovend.  These  sculptures  form  1  series  (Imost  covering  the 
century  S7O-470BX.,ind  include  represtnlitions  ol  some  myths 
of  which  we  have  hither- 
imple.    We 


f    '/Wi 


Fio.  j6.— Meic 


To    it    appertain   ■   set    ol   a 
One  lepitsems  Idas  and  Dioscur 

fig.  66);  another,  the  ship  Argo; 
others  mettl)'  animals.  ■  tam  ai 
people  ol  Cnidus  (or  perhapt  Si| 
centurylaierfaeefig.  17)-  Toitbrlongi 
a  variety  of  curious  subjects:  s  battle. 


♦8. 


Castor  and  Pollui;  Aeolus  holding  the  winds  ii 
Treasury  ol  the  Athenians,  erected  at  the  time  of  the  Penian 
Wan,  was  idomcd  with  mRopes  of  aingulatly  clear<ut  and 
beautiful  style,  but  very  Itagnentary,  repmeDting  tbe  deeds 
ol  Heracles  sod  Tbntus. 

We  have  yet  to  tpeak  of  the  nvsl  inlenslint  u>d  impoitaot  oi 
all  Creek  archaic  sculptures,  the  pediments  of  the  temple  at 
Afgina  (^.t.).  These  groups  of  nude  athletes  fighting  ,i^^i^ 
over  the  corpses  of  their  oomradn  are  preseived  at 
T^unich,  and  are  familiar  to  artists  and  students.  Bot  tbe  very 
fruitful  eacavations  of  Professor  Furtwlngler  have  put  them  in 
quite  a  new  light.  Furtwlngler  (Aitimi:  Htilitlum  da  Afkaiii} 
has  entirely  rearranged  these  pediments,  in  s  way  which  removes 
the  extreme  simpUdly  and  rigour  ol  the  composition,  and 
introduces  far  giesler  variety  ol  attitudes  and  motive.  We 
repeat  here  Ihete  new  airangeaienu  (figs.  17  and  iS),  (he  reasons 
' '  '  '  '     sought  in  FurtwiLngler*!  great  publication. 


of  Apollo  at  Erelr 

lig.  sS),  Theseus 

PtriHf  II.  4Sc 


1  piinting  and  sculptun 
I  Tbrapis  lo  the  dram: 


arrying  oH  an  Amazon, 


ol  the  pediments  of  the  ten 
chief  group  of  which  (Plati 


is  the  rapid  progress  to. 


ihisel. 
In  Btchileclure  the  sth  cr 


3c  of  the  most  perfect  productions  of  the 

Lobled  by  tbe  Thesetim, 
tne  rannenoD  ana  me  r.rcc;iineujn,  tbe  temples  of  Zeus  at 
OlymiBa,  of  Apollo  at  Phigalia,  and  many  other  central 
shriius.  ss  ■ell  as  by  the  Hail  ol  the  U>-stie  at  Eleusis       ipJZ. 
and  the  Fropylaea  ol  the  Acic^ulii.    Some  ol  tbe  most 
important  of  the  Creek  temples  of  Italy  And  Sicily,  such  as  those 
of  Segesta  and  Sdinus,  date  from  tbe  same  age.    It  is,  however, 
only  of  their  sculpiuta!  dixorations.  carried  out  by  (be  greatest 
masters  in  Cieece,  (bat  ire  need  here  treat  in  any  detail. 
It  is  the  rule  in  the  history  ol  art  that  innovations  and  technical 

sculpture,  a  fact  easily  cjplatned  by  tbe  greater  ease     p,„amm 
and  rapidity  of  the  brush  compared  witb  the  chisel. 
That  this  was  (be  order  of  development  in  Creek  at 
doubted.     But  our  means  for  judging  of  the  pair: 
very  slight.   Tbe  noble  paintings  of  s 


and  Ttejaat,  with  gods  and  goddi 

muhy  in  whicb  tbe  figures    '  " 

Artemis  and  Cybele  can  be  maoc  oui,  wmi  imu  u[,i^,n,..=,  .  »|.j. 

chariot;  the  carrying  ofl  ol  the  daughiers  of  Leucippus  by  I  helpus 


4.82 

paintinii,  but  the  priiKipIc  at  tbeii  compoailiOD 

PolygDDtui  of  Thaios  wu  re^rded  hy  hb 

great  ethical  painter-  Uia  colouring  and  com] 
very  simple,  his  feum  quirt  and  etatuaqv?,  h 
and  preciie.  He  won  bii  (ime  Largely  by  int 
works  Lhe  beat  current  ideas  as  to  mythology,  re 
In  particular  his  painting  of  Hades  wii ' 


GREEK  ART 


one  (fig.  S")  ■  gn 
figures  in  the  Pa 


middle  of  tbe  s' 


m  the  wails  of  the  imilding  of  the  people  of 
at  Delphi,  might  be  considered  as  a  great  religious  work, 
10  Ihe  paintings  of  tbe  Campo  Santo  *l  I^sa  or  to  the 
windows  of  nich  cburcbcs  as  ibii  ai  Faiifotd.  flul  he 
■oduced  improvemenl!  in  perspective  andgieatetfiecdom 

ccy  careful  and  detailed  dHttiptlans  of  tome  ol  ibemost 
nl  of  the  ItescoH  of  Potygnotui,  notably  of  the  Taking 

and  the  Visit  lo  Hades,  which  were  at  Delphi.  A  com- 
of  these  descriptions  with  vase  paintings  ol  the  middle 
;lh  centuTy  has  enabled  us  to  discern  with  great  pro- 

the  principles  of  Poiygnotan  drawing  and  perspective. 


Uef,  light  a 


«  and  atrial  per- 

■«incs. 


'hich  closely  re 
lalhenalc  fiieie  of  the  Parthenon  (fig.  31)-, 
)  repreunling  Victory  pouring  mler  for  a 
nk.  which  reminds  us  of  the  balustrade  ol  tbe 
Victory  al  Atheus. 

Greek  painting  have  anpposed  thai  after  (be 
century  the  technique  iri  painting  rapidly 


must  be  almple        Fiaji.— FartofFrioeof tbePi 

and  architect- 
onic,— thai  vaies  can  no  longer  be  used  with  confideocc  at 
evidence  for  conlempoiarr  palDling.  The  itories  laid  us  by 
Pliny  of  the  live!  of  Creek  painten  are  mostly  of  a  trivial  and 
untrustwoitby  chatacler.  Some  of  Ihem  are  mentioned  in  this 
Entydopatdia  under  tbe  names  of  individual  artists.  We  can 
only  discern  a  fen  general  facta.  Of  Agalharcbua  ol  Atbcna  we 
learn  that  he  painted,  under  compulsion,  Iheinlerior  ol  the  bouse 
of  Aicibiades.  And  we  are  told  Ibat  be  painted  a  scene  for  the 
tragedies  of  Aeschylus  01  Sophocles.  This  has  led  some  wriien 
to  suppose  that  he  atiempied  illusive  landscape;  but  this  is 
contrary  to  the  possibilities  of  tbe  time;  and  it  is  fairly  certain 
that  what  he  really  did  was  lo  paint  tb 


luilding  in 


I  of  ai 


n  lad 


lintcd 


litcclural  backgroun  ,  .... 

y  particular  play.  01  other  painters  who  Nourished  at  the 
d  of  the  century,  such  as  Zeuiis  and  Aiistidcs,  it  will  be  beit 
speak  under  the  next  period. 

It  is  now  generally  held,  in  consequence  of  endence  turoisbcd 
by  tombs,  that  the  jtb  century  saw  tbe  end  of  the  nuking  ol 


Italy  and' Sicily, 
more  renuitaMe 
wiih  which  vase-painting  at  Alhcni'  Racbrd 
passed  it  on  the  downward  t«ad    Al  tbe 
tury  black-figured  ware  was  scarcely  out 
masicta  of  tbe  severe  red-figured  style, 
Pampbaeus,  Epicteius  and  their  contemporaries,  were  in  vopie. 


480-400  B.C.] 


GREEK  ART 


483 


The  schools  of  Euphronius,  Hiero  and  Duris  belong  to  the  age 
of  the  Persian  wars.  With  the  middle  of  the  century  the  works 
of  these  makers  are  succeeded  by  unsigned  vases  of  most  beautiful 
design,  some  of  them  showing  the  influence  of  Polygnotus.  In 
the  later  years  of  the  century,  when  the  empire  of  Athens  was 
approaching  its  fall,  drawing  becomes  laxer  and  more  careless, 
and  in  the  treatment  of  drapery  we  frequently  note  the  over- 
elaboration  of  folds,  the  want  of  simplicity,  which  begin  to  mark 
contemporary  sculpture.    These  changes  of  style  can  only  be 


stood  Zeus  the  supreme  arbiter.  On  one  side  of  him  stood 
Oenomaiis  with  his  wife  Sterope,  on  the  other  Pelops  and  Hippo- 
dameia,  the  daughter  of  OenomaUs,  whose  position  at  once 
indicates  that  she  is  on  the  side  of  the  newcomer,  whatever  her 
parents  may  feel.  Next  on  either  side  are  the  four-horse  chariots 
of  the  two  competitors,  that  of  OenomaQs  in  the  charge  of  his 
perfidious  groom  Myrtilus,  who  contrived  that  it  should  break 
down  in  the  running,  that  of  Pelops  tended  by  his  grooms. 
At  either  end,  where  the  pediment  narrows  to  a  point,  reclines  a 


Fic.  33. — East  Pediment,  Olympia.  Two  Restorations. 


satisfactorily  followed  in  the  vase  rooms  of  the  British  Museum, 
or  other  treasuries  of  Greek  art  (see  also  A.  B.  Walters,  History 
of  Ancient  Potiery;  and  the  article  Ceramics). 

Among  the  sculptural  works  of  this  period  the  first  place  may 
be  given  to  the  great  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia.   The  statue  by 

Pheidias  which  once  occupied  the  place  of  honour  in 
!^JJ2j*^  that  temple,  and  was  regarded  as  the  noblest  monu- 
2mm.         ment  of  Greek  religion^  has  of  course  disapp>eared,  nor 

are  we  able  with  confidence  to  restore  it.  But  the  plan 
of  the  temple,  its  pavement,  some  of  its  architectural  ornaments, 
remain.  The  marbles  which  occupied  the  pediments  and  the 
metopes  of  the  temple  have  been  in  large  part  recovered,  having 
been  probably  thrown  down  by  earthquakes  and  gradually  buried 
in  the  alluvial  soil.  The  utmost  ingenuity  and  science  of  the 
archaeologists  of  Germany  have  been  employed  in  the  recovery 
of  the  composition  of  these  groups;  and  although  doubt  remains 
as  to  the  places  of  some  figures,  and  their  precise  attitudes,  yet 
we  may  fairly  say  that  we  know  more  about  the  sculpture  of 


river  god,  at  one  end  Alpheus,  the  chief  stream  o(  Olympia,  at 
the  other  end  his  tributary  Cladeus.  Only  one  figure  remains, 
not  noticed  in  the  careful  description  of  Pausanias,  the  figure 
of  a  handmaid  kneeling,  perhaps  one  of  the  attendants  of  Sterope. 
Our  engraving  gives  two  conjectural  restorations  of  the  pediment, 
that  of  Treu  and  that  of  Kekule,  which  differ  principally  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  comers  of  the  composition;  the  position 
of  the  central  figures  and  of  the  chariots  can  scarcely  be  called 
in  question.  The  moment  chosen  is  one,  not  of  action,  but  of 
expectancy,  perhaps  of  preparation  for  sacrifice.  The  arrange- 
ment is  undeniably  stiff  and  formal,  and  in  the  figures  we  note 
none  of  the  trained  perfection  of  style  which  belongs  to  the 
sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  an  almost  contemporary  temple. 
Faults  abound,  alike  in  the  rendering  of  drapery  and  in  the 
representation  of  the  human  forms,  and  the  sculptor  has 
evidently  trusted  to  the  painter  who  was  afterwards  to  colour 
his  work,  to  remedy  some  of  his  clumsiness,  or  to  make  clear  the 
ambiguous.     Nevertheless  there  is  in  the  whole  a  dignity,  a 


Fig.  34. — West  Pediment,  Olympia.    Two  Restorations. 


the  Olympian  temple  of  Zeus  than  about  the  sculpture  of  any 
other  great  Greek  temple.  The  exact  date  of  these  sculptures 
is  not  certain,  but  we  may  with  some  confidence  give  them  to 
470-460  B.C.  (In  speaking  of  them  we  shall  mostly  follow  the 
opinion  of  Dr  Treu,  whose  masterly  work  in  vol.  iii.  of  the  great 
German  publication  on  Olympia  is  a  model  of  patience  and  of 
science.)  In  the  eastern  pediment  (fig.  33),  as  Pausanias  tolls 
IIS,  were  represented  the  preparations  for  the  chariot-race 
between  OenomaQs  and  Pelops,  the  result  of  which  was  to 
determine  whether  Pelops  should  find  death  or  a  bride  and  a 
kiogdoiB.     In  the  midst,  invisible  to  the  contending  heroes, 


sobriety,  and  a  simplicity,  which  reconcile  us  to  the  knowledge 
that  this  pediment  was  certainly  regarded  in  antiquity  as  a  noble 
work,  fit  to  adorn  even  the  palace  of  Zeus.  In  the  other,  the 
western  pediment  (fig.  34),  the  subject  is  the  riot  of  the  Centaurs 
when  they  attended  the  wedding  of  Peirithous  in  Thessaly,  and, 
attempting  to  carry  off  the  bride  and  her  comrades,  were  slain 
by  Peirithous  and  Theseus.  In  the  midst  of  the  pediment, 
invisible  like  Zeus  in  the  eastern  pediment,  stands  Apollo,  while 
on  either  side  of  him  Theseus  and  Peirithous  attack  the  Centaurs 
with  weapons  hastily  snatched.  Our  illustration  gives  two 
possible  arrangements.    The  monsters  are  in  various  attiiudci 


♦8+ 


GREEK  ART 


of  mtlcmptcd  viDlenn,  olmmbat  ud  defeat;  with  each  giapplea 
one  ol  iht  LapiLh  hcnei  in  the  endeavour  to  rob  then  of  thcit 
prey.  In  ihc  lornen  of  the  pediment  redioe  female  £guia, 
perhapi  atlendanl  sliva,  IbODgh  Ihc  futhat  pair  may  best  be 
identified  as  local  Theualian  nymphi,  tooting  on  with  the 
calmneu  of  divine  luperiorily,  yet  not  wholly  unconcerned  in 
what  ii  going  forward.  Though  the  compoulion  of  the  two 
peditnenis  dilfen  notably,  the  one  beuing  the  iinpieu  of  ■ 
parade-like  repe«,  the  other  of  an  ovenlrained  i    '  ' 


action  iiiimplified 
as  possible.    The 
a   m  ii  a  '•'"^  "•■  '^'  "- 

Flo.36.--NiWofPl«oniu.;res.or«f.  ""»*»   ""^"e    ""P.  '!« 


ik  of  Heradet  to  procun 


Alias,  whom  be  has 
the  qiples 


Jbaiing  Victory  hy  Pamnius,  ui 
which  was  set  up  in  all  ptobabilii 
the  Athenians  and  Iheil  McDcniji 


u  dedicated  hy  the  Meweniuu 


'Mi 

■on 
boi 

us,whi 
nebac 

ward,  is 
mflueoce 

lioned  In  the  ioscription. 
BoaUng  down  lhn)i«h  the 
of  abotdaod-ioBovaUog 
n  many  work,  of  the  not 

Among  the  disco 

eria 

1  Delphi 

none  i>  so  Miiking  and 

u  the  Ii 

holding  in  his  hand  the  reins.     This  is  maintained  ot^^ 
hy  M.  HomoUe  to  he  part  of  a  chaiiot-grDup  set  up  ^at^tmr, 
\^  Polyulus,  brother  of  Cek>  and  Hiero  of  Syranae. 

(aincsatI>elphi(Bg,  3;).  The  charioteer  is  evidently  a  higfa4iorTi 
youth,  and  l>  clad  in  the  long  chiton  which  was  ncccsaiy  to 
protect  a  driver  of  >  chariot  from  the  rush  of  air.  The  dale 
would  be   about   480  470   i 


.1  with  ihdr  driven  were  among  tlw  nobksi 
d  most  costly  dedications  of  antiquity;  the  pretent  fi^re 
out  only  salisfaclory  represenutive  of  them.  In  style  the 
lire  ii  very  notable,  tall  and  slight  beyond  all  contonpoiaty 
impks.  The  conlisst  between  the  conventiona]  deconiuiiteii 
face  and  drapery  and  the  lifelike  accuracy  of  hanih  and 


The  three  great  maslen  ol  the  jth  century,  Myton, 
and  Pdyclitus  are  all  in  some  degree  kiuwn  to  u>  from  Ibeir 
works.  Of  Myron  we  have  copies  of  two  w«ks,  ihe  Uarsya* 
(Plate  111.  lig.  64)  and  the  Discobolus.  The  Maisyas  (a  ci^y  in 
the  Lateran  Museum)  represents  the  Satyr  so  named  in  the 
grasp  of  conllicling  emotions,  eiigcr  to  pick  up  the  flutes  which 
Athena  has  thrown  down,  but  at  the  same  lime  dreading  bet 
di^cuure  if  be  does  so.  The  Discobolus  has  usually  been 
judged  Ironi  the  eiamples  in  the  Vailcao  and  the  British  Museum. 
in  which  theanalomyiimodemiied  and  the  head  wrongly  put  OB, 
We  have  now  photographs  of  Ihe  very  tuperioi  replica  in  the 
l^ncelotti  gallery  at  Rome,  the  pose  of  which  is  tnuch  aeaier 
to  the  original.  Our  illustralion  represents  a  resForatioo  made 
at  Munich,  hy  combining  the  Lancdotti  head  with  the  Vatkaa 
body  (PUle  IV.  fig.  68). 

Of  Ihe  works  of  PhddiaS'  we  have  unforlunalely  do  cntain 
copy,  if  we  except  the  small  replicas  at  Athens  ol  his  Atbcfia 
Panhenos.4  The  larger  of  these  (£g.  jS)  was  loond  in  iBSo: 
it  is  very  clumsy,  and  the  wretched  device  hy  wlijch  a  paOar 
is  introduced  to  support  the  Viclpry  in  the  hand  of  Athena  cut 
scarcely  be  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the  great  ocigioaj. 
Tempting  theories  have  been  putdished  hy  Furlwinglec  (UaiUr- 
fitca  ef  Crttk   Sctiplurt)   and  other    aR:haeol(«iiti,    which 


u:.t 


GREEK  ART 


48s 


m;  bat  dcitdit  hup  ove 


b  iiihnidile  UnsU  ud  otbcT  >U1 

A  BUi;e  pertinent  mnd  mon  pnii 
TC  miy  take  tbe  dccontlvc  tciJpti 
Lord  Elsin'l  time  the  pride  oi  the  Britidi  Muxum,  u  tbe 
iciul  work,  of  Pbddiu,  or  **  done  tram  hii  dcsgiii.  Reie 
igiin  we  bive  no  condiuivi  evidence;  but  it  ippesn  bom  tbe 
lalimony  of  isKripliaiu 
BM  eucaled  until  if ler  Fheidiu't  deilb. 

Of  count  the  pedimenti' ind  friue  of  the 
■boK  woilt  Mcvct  they  Dujr  be,  lUBd  st  the  hod  of  4II  CReh 
decontive  iculpiure. 
Wbelhs  we  reginl  the 
gzmce  of  the  compoii' 

of  tbe  Itslues  In  tbe 
nund,  01  the  deUtbtfuI 
Itmovphert  of  poerry 
u^d  tElIgicHi  vblch  lur- 
louDdi  tbcie  iculpture^, 
they   nnk   unong   tbe 

world.  The  Cieeka 
esteemtd  them  f>r  below 
tbe  stilue  which  tbe 
temple  wu  nude  to 
ihcllet;  but  to  u>,  who 
hive  loM  the  gml 
figure  Id  ivory  uid  goJd, 
;  UTViDgi  <^  the  cuket 

:  a  peipctujil  loutce  of 

.truclion  ud  delitht, 

._ie    whole    b    pepro- 

Flc.jS.— Statuette  of  AtbeuPuthenoL   duced'  by  pbolognphy 

bi  A.  S.  Uuiray'i  Sculflura  </  lit  PerllieHim. 

Ab  ibundant  Ulenlure  bai  qimng  up  ii 


_, . a  the  Actopolia  a 

ti.  s?).     The  Wyle  of  Ihi*  work,  however,  i>  cODveolion 
aul  arcbaiuic,  ud  we  cu  Karcely  rcgaid  it  a*  tyirical  of  tl 


Another  noted  eontemponry  who  w. 


inly  for 


Ui  ponnlu 

ponnit  of  Pericles  eiiit,  lud  leMify  to  tbe  lofty  and  tdealiiing 

tlyle  of  portrailute  io  this  great  age. 

We  poBCB  alio  admirable  iculpture  belonging  to  (be  other 
inporlast  tcmplea  of  tbe  Acropolii,  the  Emhlheuni  and  the 
Icnple  of  Nike.  Tbe  temple  of  Nike  i>  the  earlier,  being  pouihly 
a  RKmorlal  of  the  SpartaD  defeat  at  Sphacteria.  The  Er«h- 
ihcum  bdongi  to  the  end  ol  our  period,  ud  embodiei  the 
dilicacy  ud  finiib  of  tbe  coaaervitive  icboot  of  sculpture  at 
Aibeoi  juit  aa  the  Putbenon  illustiatci  tbe  ideal  of  the  more 
pragmaive  icboot.  The  reoinitruclion  of  tbe  Erecbthcum  bai 
been  a  taik  which  hu  long  occupied  the  attention  of  arcbaeo- 
logtiU  (ice  tbe  paper  by  Ur  Slcveni  in  tbe  A  mtrkan  Jounui 
1  A'tkatiiety.  1906).  Our  Dlustntion  (Plate  V.  fig.  75)  ihowi 
one  of  the  Cone  or  maldeni  who  nipport  the  enlablatuR  of  tbe 
•ttiih  porch  of  the  Erecblheum  In  her  ptopn  Kiting.  Tbli 
BM  of  tbe  female  figure  m  place  of  a  piUii  i>  bued  on  old  Ionian 


precedoit  (mc  fig.  it)  and  li  not  altogelher  bappy;  but  tbe 
idea  ii  carried  out  with  remukahle  iklll,  the  perfect  repoae 
ud  lolid  ilrengthof  the  miiden  being  emphiaizcd. 

Bcndc  Pheidiai  of  Atheni  must  be  pliced  the  greatcit  of  early 
Argjve  icutpton,  Polydilus.  His  two  typical  etbletcs,  the 
DoiTphorui  or  tpeai-beam  (Plate  VI,  fig.  So)  and  the  Diadn- 
menua,  have  long  been  Identified,  and  though  the  copla  ate  not 
fini-raie,  they  enable  ui  10  tKOvci  the  priidpleiaf  tbe  ■naiter'i 

Among  the  baiei  diicovend  at  OIym[ria,  whence  tbe  itatuci 
had  been  removed,  are  three  or  four  which  bear  the  name  ol 
Polyditoi,  and  tbe  definite  evidence  fimiihed  by  p^f  ^^ 
these  batet  aa  la  tbe  podtion  of  tfie  feet  of  the  " 
1UIUH  which  they  once  bore  hu  enabled  arcbuologiiti, 
npedaDy  Profcuor  Furtwtn^-r,  to  Identify  C0[hc9  ol  thoae 
■tatua  unong  known  worlu.  Alio  newly  dlicaveied  copies  of 
Folyclitan  works  have  made  their  appearanc«.  At  Deloi  there 
hu  been  found  a  copy  of  the  Siadumenua,  which  is  of  much 
finer  work  thin  the  tiitue  b  the  British  Museum  from  Valaoo- 
The  UuKum  of  Fine  Arti  it  Boiiaa,  U.S.A.,  baisecuted  a  very 
beautiful  italue  of  a  young  f lermea,  who  hut  for  the  winp  on 
the  temples  might  paia  ai  a  boy  athlete  of  Polyclitu  style 
(Plate  II.  fig.  60).  In  fact,  Inilead  of  relying  as  regards  tbe 
manner  of  Polyclitui  on  Roman  copies  of  tbe  Doiyphonii  and 
Diadumeoua,  we  have  quite  1  gallery  of  atbleles,  boyi  ud  men. 
wbo  ill  claim  relitionahip,  nearer  or  mote  remote,  to  (he  school 
of  the  great  Arglve  master.  Il  might  have  been  hoped  that  the 
eicavatians,  made  under  the  leadership  of  Professor  Wildstein 
at  tbe  Argive  Heiaeum,  would  have  enlightened  ui  as  to  tbe 
style  of  Polyditus.  Just  ai  the  sculptures  of  tbe  Parthenon 
are  tbe  best  moaUBient  of  Pbeidias,  so  it  might  seem  likely  thai 
the  aculptunl  dccontioa  of  tbe  great  temple  which  coniiined 
the  Hen  of  Polydiiui  would  show  us  it  large  how  his  school 
worked  in  mirhle.  Unfortunilely  the  fngments  of  iculptuR 
from  the  Heneum  ire  few  The  most  remarkable  is  a  female 
head,  wblcb  may  perhaps  come  from  a  pediment  (fig.  39).  But 
arcbacologisu  are  D«l  in  i^Rement  wbclbct  it  it  in  >tyk  Poly- 


Pio.  39.— Female  Had:  HcratnaL 
dlUn  or  wbetbei  II  rather  resembles  in  jtyle  Attic  works.  Other 
beads   and  some  highly-finished   fragments  of   bodies  come 
appamily  from  tbe  metopa  of  tbe  lame  temple.    (See  «tso 

Another  work  of  Polyctilus  was  bii  Amaion,  made  It  is  tald 
in  compeiiiion  with  bis  great  coDleinpontia,  Pheidliii  CrEiilii 
ud  Phradmon.  all  of  whose  Amaions  were  ptesctved  in  the 
great  temple  of  Artemis  it  Ephetus.  In  our  muicunu  ire  muy 
itatues  of  Amizoni  reprtMOting  51b  century  oHginsls.  These 
have  usually  been  largely  restored,  and  it  is  no  easy  matter  to 
discover  their  anginal  type.    Professor  Micbielii  has  recovered 


486 


GREEK  ART 


BKcarfuDr  Once  tnxi  (Ec-  «o).  The  ttUilnliiia  of  iIkk  ii  ■ 
mMter  of  contravcnjr.  The  fint  hu  been  given  to  the  dusd 
at  Polycliliu;  ibe  aeaind  leemi  to  repnient  the  Waaaded 
Amazon  of  Cia3ui  the  third  hai  by  ume  mbuologitti  been 
given  to  Pbddiu.     It  docs  not  leptdCDI  >  woimded  ■auion, 

ipev  u  a  leipiDg  poJe, 

We  OD  derate  little  man  than  >  pming  mcotioD  lo  the 

£^^        ■hich  nererihelcM  deKTW  cuehd  Miul7.    Tlw  fiieie 

from  the  temple  of  Apollo  U  Pbigilia,  R|seienting 

Centaur  and  Amamn  battles,  b  lamiliai  to  viiiloa  of  the  British 

Uueiun,^  where,  however,  it]  pnnimitj  to  Uh  louini  ti  the 


local 

Ionic  lomb  called  the  Nen 

Fellowa  Itom  Lycia.    He 

of  rcJief  which  ru  round  the  lomb,  but  also  detached  fenu 

figures,  whence  the  name  which  it  bean  is  derived.    A  lect 

view  sees  in  these  women  nth  their  fiuttoing  diaperj  n 

Dymphs  of  the  tea,  but  penonificationi  of  ica-brecaes. 

The  series  of  known  Lydan  tombs  has  been  in  recent  yea 
eBiichrd  thiough  the  acquisition  by  il 
'le  (culpTured  fi' 


[nihem 


dI  the  I 


which  adorned  a 


walls  of  th< 


n  ajid  without  with  a  great 
series  ol  rehefs,  mostly  of  mythologic  purport.  Many  lubji 
which  but  mely  occur  in  early  Greek  an,  the  aiegc  a!  Troy,  the 
adveoluie  o(  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  tlie  carrying  oB  of  the 
ifaufthters  of  Leudppus,' Ulysses  shooting  down  the  Suitors,  are 
here  /epresentcd  in  detail  Professor  Benndorf,  wbo  has  pub- 
lished lhe?e  sculptures  in  aa  idnlirable  volume,  ii  disposed  to 
see  in  them  the  influence  of  the  Thasian  painter  f^ygnotus. 
Any  one  cau  see  t^eir  kinship  to  painting,  and  their  subjects 
recur  in  some  of  the  great  ficscoea  painted  by  PolygnoLus, 
Micon  and  others  for  the  Athenians.  Like  other  Lydan  sctdp- 
tum.  Ihey  contain  non-Hellcnic  elements;  in  fact  Lyda  (oiEU 
a  link  of  the  chain  which  ealcnds  from  the  wiU-palolings  ol 
Assyria  to  works  like  Ibe  columns  ol  Tnian  and  of  Antoninus, 
but  is  not  embodied  in  the  nioie  purely  idealistic  works  ;f  the 
highest  Greek  an.  The  date  at  the  Vienna  lomb  is  not  much 
bier  than  the  middle  of  the  stb  century.  A  unall  pan  of  the 
ftieu  ol  this  monument  is  shown  io  Gg.  41 .  It  wiU  be  Kcn  that 
in  this  fragment  there  are  two  scenes,  one  dircclly  above  the  other, 
tn  the  upper  line  Ulysses,  accompanied  by  his  ton  Teleniacbus, 

in  the  midst  of  a  feast;  a  cup-bearer,  possibly  Melaothius.  is 
escaping  by  a  door  behind  Ulysses.  In  the  lower  line  is  the 
centnl  gnnp  of  a  bieie  which  represents  the  hunting  oi  the 


Calydonian  bou,  which  b  K| 
of  Greek  art ,  as  an  ordinary  an 

to  an  interesting  branch  ol  Greek  art  which  had  uuB  nc^aly 
been  neglected,  that  of  sculptured  pqiiiiils.  The  i^,^^ 
known  poitnils  ol  the  flh  century  do*  iodndc 
Pericles,  Herodotus,  Thucydides.  AnamoB.  Sa|4»da,  Esrqido. 
Socrates  and  others.  As  migbt  he  expected  in  ■  time  whea  tiyie 
in  sculpture  was  so  stron^y  pronounced,  these  poitnka.  whtf  see 
later  unfaithful  copies,  are  notably  ideal.  TIe;  irfmnaa  Ike 
great  men  whom  they  portray  not  in  the  spiril  ti  taibsaL 
Details  are  Deeded,  expresion  s  not  elaborated;  the  scnh^ur 
tries  to  lepnsent  what  it  permanent  in  his  tub)ect  rather  Iba 
what  is  temporary.  Hence  these  ponnits  do  Dot  teem  to  betet 
to  a  particular  time  ot  life;  tfiey  only  tefwesrot  a  vomm  b  i^ 
perfection  of  physical  force  aocf  mental  energy.  And  the  rue 
ot  type  is  dearly  shown  through  individaal  trails.  !■  suee 
case*  It  it  ttiU  disputed  whether  stataes  id  tins  age  rtfurses 
deities  or  monab,  to  notable  arc  the  repoae  aod  digniiy  wkil 

masters.     The  Pericles  after  Ctesilit  in  the  Brush  Waenk 
and  the  athlete-portraits  of  Polychtus,  are  good  -■  ■  i  "^■^'  ■ 

Ftritd  III.  400-joa  Bx:. — The  high  ideal  levrl  attaiaed  t; 
Greet  ait  at  the  end  ol  Ibe  5th  centnry  b  maintained  in  the  u 
There  canoot  be  any  question  of  dec^y  in  it  save  at  Alha^ 
where  undoubleitly  the  loss  of  religioa  and  Ihe  decrease  li 
national  pio^ieTily  acted  piejudidaUj.  Bat  in  Pdopocasa 
the  time  was  one  of  eipaosion;  several  new  and  ixnpoftant  dtii^ 
such  as  Mcssene,  Megalopolis  and  MantiHa.  amc  andp  the 
protection  of  Epamiundas.  And  in  Asia  the  Gre^  cizio  atfc 
stjli  pnxpeious  and  artistic,  as  were  tbe  dties  o<  Italy  and  Sic^ 
which  kept  their  independence.    On  the  whole  we  find  dsrif 


In  tbe  4lh  cenluiy  no  new  temples  ot  it  _ 
Athens;  Ihe  Acmpolii  had  taken  its  hnal  form;  but  at  Ilea 
Teget,  Epidaurus  and  eisewbere,  very  ■HmimKU  boildiiv  an^ 
Tbe  remains  of  the  temple  at  Tegea  are  of  woaderfBl  hesx? 
and  finish ;  as  art  those  of  the  theatre  tod  the  t&called  FAakd 
of  Epidaurus.  In  Asia  Mioor  vul  lemtdes  ol  the  Ionic  nds 
arose,  especially  at  Miletus  and  P^ihisus.  Tbe  coknal  [^ha 
of  Miletus  aslonish  the  visitor!  to  Ihe  Louvre;  whBe  tk 
sculptured  cotunuo  of  Ephetus  in  Ihe  British  Uoseum  {Flitr  0. 
Gg.  sg)  show  a  high  level  of  artistic  skilL  The  HaaBlna 
erected  about  350  B.C.  at  Halicamassus  in  ureanrj  ol  tlVT'**'i 
king  of  Cult,  and  adorned  with  sculpture  bjt  tbe  boa  Bted 


GREEK  ART 


487 


Li  Rckoncd  one  oE  tEie  HOodcra  of  Lhc  world 
slond  in  the  BHlisb  MuKum.  &liOld£tld' 
ion,  published  in  ArOiiuahv<i  for  iSgs 
tivili,  luipuwi  them  )JI  in  the  lightna 
dos*  cortBpondence  to  the  desoriplioo  by 
(null  put  d(  the  Kulptonl  decoinlion, 
bittle  belwHD  Giwki  and  Amuam  (Plus  IV. 


It  hu  been  in  part 

PBV,     WeV 

icpitseniinc 

fiC>  to},  wherein  the  energy  al  the  ution  crid  the  cueful  bUancc 

of  btxm  i«>i[»t  GgUR  are  lemaclufalt.     Wc 

fine  portrait}  al  Mimolua  himself  *nd  bil  wi[* 

nood  in  or  on  the  building,  u  hfI!  u  pin  of  ■  (iguittc  cbukil 

villi  four  hones  which  surmounted  it. 

Another  aithitcctural  work  of  the  4th  centuryj  in  it«  my 
fem,  a  the  structure  set  up  at  Athens  by  Lysicntes,  in  memory 
d(  t.  cbon^c  victory.  This  ilill  survives,  though  ttie  reliefs 
with  which  il  is  uiomed  hsvc  suffered  severely  from  the  weather. 

Tlie  4th  century  is  the  brilliant  period  oi  andeut  painting. 
It  opcm  with  the  ptintcn  of  the  Asiatic  School,  Zeuiis  and  Far- 
itusiia  uid  Pntogeao,  with  their  contemporaries  Nidis  icd 
ApoUodonn  of  Atbcoi,  Tunsnthei  ol  Sicyon  or  Cylhnus,  and 


■nd  probably  the  (teatest  m 

each  of  theie  painten  a  sepante  artii 

place  in  the  history  oltbe  an.    Of  their 


,  are  leu  careful  in  the  4lh  century.    Now 
L  them  figuresadmirably  designed,  or  succest- 

o  fallow  the  tnelhods  and 


these  (ngmcntary  lemains  have  with  ti 

tbeir  colouring;  fwr  are  they  in  any  case  me  voric  or  a  noie- 
worthy  hutd.  We  reproduce  two  eiunplei.  The  bat  !i  from 
■  MOM  of  the  vault  of  a  Crimcin  grave  (Plate  IV.  £g.  bl).  The 
dueof  the  crave  i>  fiied  to  the  4th  century  by  omainenu  found 
is  it.  «iWBg  which  wu  a  gold  coin  olAlennder  the  Great.   The 


representation  is  probably  of  DenNtn  or  hei  prieuesi,  her  hair 
bound  with  poppies  and  other  Bowers.  The  orifiiuil  ii  of  large 
liie.  The  other  Dlusuation  (Gg.  41)  represenu  the  temiuu  of 
a  drawing  on  marble,  representing  a  group  ol  WDQien  pUying 
knuddebones.  It  was  found  at  Herculaneum.  Thou^  ugncd 
by  one  Alexander  of  Athens,  who  was  probably  a  worker  of  the 
Roman  age,  Frofesaor  Robert  is  ri^t  in  maintaining  that 
Aleiander  only  copied  a  design  of  the  age  of  Zemiis  and  Par- 
rhasius.  In  fact  the  drawing  and  grouping  is  so  dosely  like  that 
of  reliefs  o^  about  400  bX-  that  the  drawing  is  of  great  historic 
value,  though  there  be  no  eoburing.  Several  other  drawings 
of  the  same  dass  have  been  found  at  Herculaneum,  and  on  the 
walla  of  the  Transtiberinc  Villa  at  Rome  (now  in  the  Teime 

Until  about  the  year  iBSo,  our  knowledge  of  the  great  Greek 
sculpton  ol  the  4th  century  was  derived  mostly  fiom  the 
■tatementl  of  ancient  wrilers  and  from  Roman 
copies,  or  what  were  supposed  to  be  colnes,  of  J^ 
their  works.  We  are  now  in  a  far  more  satisfaclory 
position.  Wc  now  possess  an  oiigimil  work  of  Piuiteles,  and 
sculptuifs  executed  under  the  ioiineiliate  diiectiOD  of,  ii  not  fiDD], 
the  ham)  of,  other  great  sculptors  of  that  age — Scopas,  Tiraothem 
and  others.  Among  all  the  discovcttcs  made  at  Olympii,  none 
has  become  >o  familial  to  the  utisiic  world  ai  thai  of  the  Hermfs 
of  Praiitcta.  It  is  the  Gut  time  that  we  have  become  posutsed 
of  *  Gnl-r>te  Greek  original  by  one  of  the  greatest  of  sculptors. 
Hitherto  almost  all  the  statues  in  our  museums  have  been  either 
late  copies  of  Creek  works  of  art,  or  else  the  mete  decorative 


lit  the  ni 


rHen 


sure  that  in  every  line  and  touch  we  have  the  work  of  ■  great 
artist.     This  is  more  than  we  on  uy  of  uy  ol  the  Uteniy 

nains  of  antiquity— poem,  play  or  otatioD.    Ketmea  ii  lepre- 

Lted  by  the  sculptor   (hg.  43 


\  the  nymphs  1 
:  charged  with  his  reari 
I  the  journey  he  pauses  1 
luses  himself  by  holding  out  to   I 
e  child.god  a  biuich  of  grapes,   f 


The  Hermes  not  only  adds  lo  out  knowledge  ol  Praiilelts, 
ut  alio  confirms  the  received  views  in  regard  to  him.  Already 
liny  works  in  galleiiet  of  sculpture  had  been  identified  as 
ipies  of  ititues  of  his  sdnol.  Noteworthy  among  these  are, 
u  group  at  Munich  representing  Peace  nur^ng  the  infant 
Wealth,  from  an  original  by  Cephisodotus.  father  of  Fraiiteles; 
of  the  Cnidian  Aphrodite  of  Praxiteles,  especially  one  in 
the  Vnican  which  is  here  iUuilrated  (Plate  V.  fig.  rr);  copies 
Apollo  slaying  a  lizard  (SauroMonus),  of  a  Satyr  (in  tbe 
Capitol  Uuieum),  and  othcra    Theu  works,  which  an  noted 


488 


GREEK  ART 


[400-300  BjC. 


for  thdr  softness  and  chann,  make  ua  understand  the  saying  of 
ancient  critics  that  Praxiteles  and  Scopas  were  noted  for  the 
pathos  of  their  works,  as  Phcidias  and  PolycUtus  for  the  ethical 
quality  of  those  they  produced.  But  the  pathos  of  Prazitdes 
is  of  a  soft  and  dreamy  character;  there  is  no  action,  or  next 
to  none;  and  the  emotions  which  he  rouses  are  sentimental 
rather  than  passionate.  Scopas,  as  we  shall  see,  was  of  another 
mood.  The  discovery  of  the  Hermes  has  naturally  set  archae- 
ologists searching  in  the  nfuseums  of  Europe  {or  other  works 
which  may  from  their  likeness  to  it  in  various  respects  be  set 
down  as  Praxitelean  in  character.  In  the  case  of  many  of  the 
great  sculptors  of  Greece — Strongylion,  SOanion,  Calamls  and 
others— it  is  of  little  use  to  search  for  copies  of  their  works, 
since  we  have  little  really  trustworthy  evidence  on  which  to 
base  our  inquiries.  But  in  the  case  of  Praxiteles  we  really  stand 
on  a  safe  level.  Naturally  it  is  impossible  in  these  pages  to  give 
any  sketch  of  the  results,  some  almost  certain,  some  very  doubtful, 
of  the  researches  of  archaeologists  in  quest  of  Praxitelean  works. 
But  we  may  mention  a  few  works  which  have  been  claimed 
by  good  judges  as  coming  from  the  master  himself.  Professor 
Bruim  claimed  as  work  of  Praxiteles  a  torso  of  a  satyr  ii)  the 
Louvre,  in  scheme  identical  with  the  well-known  satyr  of  the 
CapitoL  Professor  FurtwSngler  puts  in  the  same  category  a 
delicately  beautiful  head  of  Aphrodite  at  Fetworth.  And  his 
translator,  Mrs  Strong,  regards  the  'Aberdeen  head  of  a  young 
man'  in  the  British  Museum  as  the  actual  Work  of  Praxiteles. 
Certainly  this  last  head  does  not  suffer  when  placed  beside  the 
Olympian  head  of  Hermes,  At  Mantinea  has  been  found  a  basis 
whereon  stood  a  group  of  Latona  and  her  two  children,  Apollo 
and  Artemis,  made  by  Praxiteles.  This  base  bears  reliefs 
representing  the  musical  contest  of  ApoUo  and  Marsyas,  with  the 
Muses  as  spectators,  reliefs  very  pleasing  in  ityle,  and  quite 
in  the  manner  of  Attic  artists  of  the  4th  century.  But  of  course 
we  must  not  ascribe  them  to  the  hand  of  Praxiteles  himself; 
great  sculptors  did  not  themselves  execute  the  reliefs  which 
adorned  temples  and  other  monuments,  but  reserved  them  for 
their  pupils.  Yet  the  graceful  figures  of  the  Muses  of  Mantinea 
suggest  how  much  was  due  to  Praxiteles  in  determining  the  tone 
and  character  of  Athenian  art  in  relief  in  the  4th  century. 
Exactly  the  same  style  which  marks  them  belongs  also  to  a  mass 
of  sepulchral  monuments  at  Athens,  and  such  works  as  the 
Sidonlan  sarcophagus  of  the  Mourning  Women,  to  be  presently 
mentioned. 

Excavation  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Alea  at  Tegea 
has  resulted  in  the  recovery  of  works  of  the  school  of  Scopas. 
g^gggg^  Pausanias  tells  us  that  Scopas  was  the  architect  of 
the  temple,  and  so  Important  in  the  case  of  a  Greek 
temple  is  the  sculptural  decoration,  that  we  can  scarcely 
doubt  that  the  sculpture  also  of  the  temple  at  Tegea  was 
under  the  supervision  of  Scopas,  especially  as  he  was  more 
noted  as  a  sculptor  than  as  an  architect.  In  the  pediments 
of  the  temple  were  represented  two  scenes  from  mythology, 
the  hunting  of  the  Calydonian  boar  and  the  combat  between 
Achilles  and  Telephus.  To  one  or  other  of  these  scenes  belong 
several  heads  of  local  marble  discovered  on  the  spot,  which  are 
very  striking  from  their  extraordinary  life  and  animation. 
Unfortunately  they  are  so  much  injured  that  they  can  scarcely 
be  made  InteUigible  except  by  the  help  of  restoration;  we 
therefore  engrave  one  of  them,  the  helmeted  head,  as  restored 
by  a  German  sculptor  (Plate  III.  fig.  63).  The  strong  bony 
frame  of  this  head,  and  its  depth  from  front  to  back,  are  not 
less  noteworthy  than  the  parted  lips  and  deeply  set  and  strongly 
shaded  eye;  the  latter  features  impart  to  the  head  a  vividness 
of  expression  such  as  we  have  found  in  no  previous  work  of  Greek 
art,  but  which  sets  the  key  to  the  developments  of  art  which 
take  place  in  the  Hellenistic  age.  A  draped  torso  of  Atalanta 
from  the  same  pediment  has  been  fitted  to  one  of  these  heads. 
Hitherto  Scopas  was  known  to  us,  setting  aside  literary  records, 
only  as  one  of  the  sculptors  who  bad  worked  at  the  Mausoleum. 
Ancient  critics  and  travellers,  however,  bear  ample  testimony  to 
his  fame,  And  the  wide  range  of  his  activity,  which  extended  to 
northern  Greece,  Pelopennese  and  Asia  Miioor.    His  Maenads 


and  his  Tritons  and  other  beings  of  the  sea  were  much  copied  io 
antiquity.  But  perhaps  he  reached  his  highest  level  in  statues 
such  as  Uiat  of  Apollo  as  leader  of  the  Muses,  clad  in  long  drapery. 

The  interesting  precinct  of  Aesculapius  at  Epidaums  has 
furnished  us  with  H>ecimens  of  the  style  of  an  Athenian  coo- 
temporaiy  of  Scopas,  who  worked  with  him  on  the 
Mausoleum.  An  inscription  which  records  the  sun» ' 
spent  on  the  temple  of  the  Physidan-god,  informs  us^ 
that  the  models  for  the  sculptures  of  the  pediments,  and 
one  set  of  acroteria  or  roof  adornments,  were  the  work  d  Tlxno- 
theus.  Of  the  pedlmental  figures  and  the  acroteria  considerable 
fragments  have  been  recovered^  and  we  may  with  confidence 
assume  that  at  all  events  the  models  for  these  were  by  TImotheus. 
It  is  strange  that  the  unsatisfactory  arrangement  whereby  a 
noted  sculptOT  makes  models  and  some  local  workman  the 
figures  enlarged  from  those  models,  should  have  been  tolerated 
by  so  artistic  a  people  as  the  Greeks.  The  subjects  of  the  pedi- 
ments appeair  to  have  been  the  common  ones  of  battles  between 
Greek  and  Amazon  and  between  Lapith  and  Centaur.  We 
possess  fragments  of  some  of  the  Amazon  figures,  one  of  which, 
striking  downwards  at  the  enemy,  is  here  shown  (6g.  44).  Thdr 
attitudes  are  vigorous  and  alert;  but  the  work  shows  00  delicacy 
of  detaiL  Figures  of 
Nereids  riding  on 
horses,  which  were 
found  on  the  same  site, 
may  very  probably  be 
roof  ornaments  (acro- 
teria) of  the  temple. 
We  have  also  several 
figures  of  Victory, 
which  probably  were 
acroteria  on  some 
smaller  temple,  per- 
haps that  of  Artemis. 
A  base  found  at 
Athens,  sculptured 
with  figures  of  horse- 
men in  relief,  bears  the 
name  of  Bryaxis,  and 
was  probably  made  by 
a  pupil  of  his.  Prob- 
able conjecture  assigns 
to  Leochares  the 
originals  copied  in  the  Fio*  44*r~^°*''o°  ^'^^^  Eptdaoras. 
Ganymede  of  the  Vatican,  borne  aloft  by  an  eagle  (Rate  I. 
fig.  53)  and  the  noble  statue  of  Alexander  the  Great  at  Munich 
(see  LEOCfiAKEs).  Thus  we  may  fairiy  say  that  we  are  now 
acquunted*with  the  work  of  all  the  great  sculpt(»s  who  w<^ed 
on  the  Mausoleum^— Scopas,  Bryaxif,  Leochares  and  TImotheus; 
and  are  in  a  far  more  advantageous  position  than  were  the 
archaeologists  of  x88o  for  determining  the  artistic  problms 
connected  with  that  noblest  of  andent  tombs. 

Contemporary  with  the  Athenian  school  of  Praxitdes  and 
Scopas  was  the  great  school  of  Axgos  and  Siortm,  of  wfakh 
Lysippus  was  the  most  distinguished .  member.  Lyaippus  a»- 
tinued  the  academic  traditions  of  PolycUtus,  but  he  was  far 
bolder  in  his  choice  of  subjects  and  more  innovating  in  st^ 
Gods,  heroes  and  mortals  alike  found  in  him  a  sculptor  who  knew 
how  to  combine  fine  ideality  with  a  vigorous  actuality.  Be 
was  at  the  height  of  his  fame  during  Alexander's  life,  and  the 
grandiose  ambition  of  the  great  Macedonian  found  him  ample 
employment,  especially  in  the  frequent  representation  of  himself 
and  his  marshals. 

We  have  none  of  the  actual  works  of  Lysippus;  but  our  best 
evidence  for  his  style  win  be  found  in  the  statue  of  Agias  an 
athlete  (Plate  V.  fig.  74)  found  at  Ddphi,  and  shown  l^  an 
inscription  to  be  a  marble  copy  of  a  bronze  original  by  Lysippus. 
The  Apoxyomenus  of  the  Vatican  (man  scraping  himsdf  with  « 
strigil)  (Plate  VI.  fig.  79)  has  hitherto  been  regarded  as  a  copy 
from  Ly8in>us;  but  of  this  there  is  no  evidence,  and  the  style 
of  that  statue  bebngs  ruther  to  the  jrd  century  than  the  4tk 


40O-3M  B.C.] 


GREEK  ART 


489 


The  AgUs,  on  the  other  hand,  is  in  style  contemporary  with  the 
works  of  4th-€entury  sculptors. 

Of  the  elaborate  groups  of  combatants  with  which  Lysippus 
enriched  such  centres  as  Oiympia  and  Delphi,  or  of  the  huge  bronze 
statues  which  he  erected  in  temples  and  shrines,  we  can  form  no 
adequate  notion.  Perhaps  among  the  extant  heads  of  Alexander 
the  one  which  is  most  likely  to  preserve  the  style  of  Lysippus 
is  the  head  from  Alexandria  in  the  British  Museum  (Plate  II. 
^S-  56)1  though  this  was  executed  at  a  later  time. 

Many  noted  extant  statues  may  be  attributed  with  probability 
to  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  or  the  earlier  part  of  the  3rd  century. 
We  will  mention  a  few  only.  The  celebrated  group  at  Florence 
representing  Niobe  and  her  children  falling  before  the  arrows  of 
Apollo  and  Artemis  is  certainly  a  work  of  the  pathetic  school, 
and  may  be  by  a  pupil  of  Praxiteles.  Niobe,  in  an  agony  of 
grief,  which  is  in  the  marble  tehipered  and  idealized,  tries  to 
protect  her  youngest  daughter  from  destruction  (Plate  VI.  fig.  78). 
Whether  the  group  can  have  originally  been  fitted  into  the  gable 
of  a  temple  is  a  matter  of  dilute. 

Two  great  works  preserved  in  the  Louvre  are  so  noted  that  it  is 
but  necessary  to  mention  them,  the  Aphrodite  of  Melos  (Plate 
VI.  fig.  77),  in  which  archaeologists  are  now  disposed  to  see  the 
influence  of  Scopas,  and  the  Victory  of  Samothrace  (Plate  III.  figs. 
61  and  63),  an  original  set  up  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  after  a 
naval  victory  won  at  Salamis  in  Cyprus  in  306  B.C.  over  the 
fleet  of  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt. 

Kor  can  we  pass  over  without  notice  two  works  so  celebrated 
as  the  Apollo  of  the  Belvidere  in  the  Vatican  (Plate  II.  fig.  55), 
and  the  Artemis  of  Versailles.  The  Apollo  is  now  by  most 
archaeologists  regarded  as  probably  a  copy  of  a  work  of  Leochares, 
to  whose  Ganymede  it  bears  a  superficial  resemblance.  The 
Artemis  is  regarded  as  possibly  due  to  some  artist  of  the  same 
age.  But  it  is  by  no  means  clear  that  we  have  the  right  to 
remove  either  of  these  figures  from  among  the  statues  of  the 
Hellentttic  age.  The  old  theory  of  PreUer,  which  saw  in  them 
copies  from  a  trophy  set  up  to  commemorate  the  repulse  of  the 
Gauls  at  Delphi  in  278  b.c;,  has  not  lost  its  plausibility. 

This  may  be  the  most  appropriate  place  for  mentioning  the 
remarkable  find  made  at  Sidon  in  x886  of  a  number  of  sarcophagi, 
which  once  doubtless  contained  the  remains  of  kings 
of  Sidon.  They  are  now  in  the  museum  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  are  admirably  published  by  Hamdy  Bey 
and  T.  Rcinach  (Une  NicropoU  royale  d  Sidon^  1892- 
The  sarcophagi  in  date  cover  a  considerable  period. 
The  earlier  are  made  on  Egyptian  models,  the  covers  shaped 
roughly  in  the  form  of  a  human  body  or  mummy.  The  later, 
however,  are  Greek  in  form,  and  are  clearly  the  work  of  skilled 

Greek  sculptors,  who  seem 
to  have  been  employed  by 
the  grandees  of  Phoem'da 
in  the  adornment  of  their 
last  resting-places.  Four 
of  these  sarcophagi  in  par- 
ticular claim  attention, 
and  in  fact  present  us 
with  examples  of  Greek 
art  of  the  sth  and  4th 
centuries  in  several  of  its 
aspects.  To  the  5th 
century  belong  the  tomb 
of  the  Satrap,  the  reliefs  of 
which  bring  before  us  the 
activities  and  glories  of 
some  unknown  king,  and 
the  Lydan'  sarcophagus, 
so  called  from  its  form, 
which  resembles  that  of 
tombs  found  in  Lycia,  and  which  is  also  adorned  with  reliefs 
which  have  reference  to  the  past  deeds  of  the  hero  buried  in  the 
tomb,  though  these  deeds  are  represented,  not  in  the  Oriental 
manner  directly,  but  in  the  Greek  manner,  clad  in  mythological 
forms.    To  the  4th  century  belong  two  other  sarcophagi.    One 


X896). 


Bandr  cl  Rdaach,  NhnppU  A  Sidut^  PI.  7. 

Fic.  45. — ^Tomb  of  Mourning  Women: 
Sidon. 


of  these  is  called  the  Tomb  of  Mourning  Women.  On  all  sides 
of  it  alike  are  ranged  asenes  of  beautiful  female  figures,  separated 
by  Ionic  pillars,  each  in  a  somewhat  different  attitude,  though  all 
attitudes  denoting  grief  (fig.  45).  The  pediments  at  the  ends  of  the 
cover  are  also  closely  connected  with  the  mourning  for  the  loss  of 
a  friend  and  protector,  which  is  the  theme  of  the  whole  decoration 
of  the  sarcophagus.  We  see  depicted  in  them  the  telling  of  the 
news  of  the  death,  with  the  results  in  the  mournful  attitude  of  the 
two  seated  figures.  The  mourning:  women  must  be  taken,  not 
as  the  representation  of  any  persons  in  particular,  but  generally 
as  the  expression  of  the  feeling  of  a  dty.  Such  figur»  are  familiar 
to  us  in  the  art  of  the  second  Attic  school;  we  could  easily  find 
parallels  to  the  sarcophagus  among  the  4th-century  septdchral 
reliefs  of  Athens.  We  can  scarcely  be  mistaken  in  attributing 
the  workmanship  of  this  beautiful  sarcophagus  to  some  sculptor 
trained  in  the  school  of  Praxiteles.  And  it  is  a  conjecture  full  of 
probability  that  it  once  contained  the  body  of  Strato,  king  of 
Sidon,  who  ruled  about  380  B.C.,  and  who  was  proxenos  or  public 
friend  of  the  Athenians. 

More  celebrated  is  the  astonishing  tomb  called  that  of 
Alexander,  though  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  although  it 
commemorates  the  victories  and  exploits  of  Alexander,  it  was 
made  not  to  hold  his  remains,  but  those  of  some  ruler  of  Sidon 
who  was  high  in  his  favour.  Among  all  the  monuments  of  anti- 
quity which  have  come  down  to  us,  none  is  more  admirable  than 
this,  and  none  more  characteristic  of  the  Greek  genius.  We  give, 
in  two  lines,  the  composition  which  adorned  one  of  the  sides  of 
this  sarcophagus.  It  represents  a  victory  of  Alexander,  probably 
that  of  the  Granicus  (fig.  46).  On  the  left  we  see  the  Macedonian 
king  charging  the  Persian  horse,  on  the  right  his  general 
Parmenio,  and  in  the  midst  a  younger  officer,  i^rhaps  Qeitus. 
Mingled  with  the  chiefs  are  foot-soldiers,  Greek  and  Macedonian, 
with  whom  the  Persians  are  mingled  in  unequal  fray.  What 
most  strikes  the  modem  eye  is  the  remarkable  fre^ess  and 
force  of  the  action  and  the  attitudes.  Those,  however,  who 
have  seen  the  originals  have  been  specially  impressed  with  the 
colouring,  whereof,  of  course,  our  engraving  gives  no  hint,  but 
which  is  applied  to  the  whole  surface  of  the  relief  with  equal 
skill  and  delicacy.  There  are  other  features  in  the  relief  on 
which  a  Greek  eye  would  have  dwelt  with  spedal  pleasure — the 
exceedingly  careful  symmetry  of  the  whole,  the  balandng  of 
figure  against  figure,  Uie  slull  with  which  the  result  of  the  battle 
is  hinted  rather  than  depicted.  The  composition  is  one  in  which 
the  most  careful  planning  and  the  most  precise  calculation  are 
mingled  with  freedom  of  hand  and  expressiveness  in  detail. 
The  faces  in  particidar  show  more  expression  than  would  be 
tolerated  in  art  of  the  previous  century.  We  are  unable  as  yet 
to  assign  an  author  or  even  a  school  to  the  sculptor  of  Uiis 
sarcophagus;  he  comes  to  us  as  a  new  and  striking  phenomenon 
in  the  history  of  ancient  art.  The  reliefs  which  adorn  the  other 
sides  of  the  sarcophagus  are  aUnost  equally  interesting.  On 
one  side  we  see  Alexander  again,  in  the  company  of  a  Persian 
noble,  htmting  a  lion.  The  short  sides  also  show  us  scenes  of 
fighting  and  hunting.  In  fact  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that 
if  we  had  but  a  due  to  the  interpretation  of  the  reliefs,  they 
would  be  found  to  embody  historic  events  of  the  end  of  the  4th 
century.  There  are  but  a  few  other  works  of  art,  such  as  the 
Bayeux  tapestry  and  the  Column  of  Trajan,  which  bring  con- 
temporary history  so  vividly  before  our  eyes.  The  battles  with 
the  Persians  represented  in  some  of  the  sculpture  of  the  Parthenon 
and  the  temple  of  Nike  at  Athens  are  treated  conventionally 
and  with  no  attempt  at  realism;  but  here  the  ideal  and  the  actual 
are  blended  into  a  work  of  consummate  art,  which  is  at  the  same 
time,  to  those  who  can  read  the  language  of  Greek  art,  a  historic 
record  The  portraits  of  Alexander  the  Great  which  appear  on 
this  sarcophagus  are  almost  contemporary,  and  the  most 
authentic  likenesses  of  him  which  we  possess.  The  great  Mace- 
donian exerdsed  so  strong  an  influence  on  contemporary  art 
that  a  multitude  of  heads  of  the  age,  both  of  gods  and  men,  and 
even  the  portraits  of  his  successors,  show  traces  of  hb  type. 

We  have  yet  to  mention  what  are  among  the  most  charming 
and  the  most  characteristic  products  of  the  Greek  chisel,  the 


beiutiFuI  UmtH,  adorned  witb  witcd 
wiLh  rtLcfs  which  wen  eiKtcd  la  great 
roads  ol  Gnvx     A  great  number  o[  IheK 
Ccmeteiy  ate  picitrvnl  la  the  Central 


GREEK  ART 

(landing  paitrsi 


uc  (fig.  47),  wluch 

Iesui     This  WDik  bung 

D  pyloa    colounng  and  it  stands  st  a  iai  higher 

AtLeu,  aod  |  Pompeian  paintings  which  are  the  woili 


tbc  victory  cd 
has  preserved  lU 

oidmaiy 


tainly  copied  bom 

sartopha^us  lUustiated 
jirig.46  vhichitcxceZs 
1-1  perspective  and  n 
th  freedom  of  indi 
vidual  figures  though 
the  componi  KpDu  much 
IssoRtuI  and  pnose 
Aleiaiidcrcbaigafnm 
Ihe  left  (hi*  portrait 
being  the  least  aiiccesa< 
f ul  put  ol  the  pictun) 
and  beus  down  ayoung 

cbanotficcs  towards  the 
nghl  mthefotrgriMiDd 
a  >  oung  Lnight  IS  ttymg 

horse     It  nil  be  ob- 


■.uiplucd  Tcmb!  ^ 


impnsi  all  visitors  by  tbe  gentle  g 
grouping  which  they  ditplsy  (  Go 
Bdtai). 

Paiod  I V.  300-so  B.C. — There  can  be  no  qu 
the  period  which  followed  the  death  of  Alexander,  commonly 
called  the  age  of  Hellenism,  was  one  of  great  activity  and  expan.- 
■ion  in  architecture.    Tbe  number  of  cities  founded  by  himscll 

The  remains  of  these  cities  have  in  a  few  uses  (Ephcsus, 
Pergamuni,  Assus,  Pliene,  Aleiandiii)  bfffn  partially  eicavated. 
Bui  the  adaptation  of  Greek  architecture  to  the  needs  of  Ihe 
semi-Greek  peopia  Included  in  the  dominions  of  the  kings  of 
Egypt,  Syria  and  Pergamum  is  too  vast  a  subject  for  us  lo  enter 
upon  here  (see  AJtCBlT£cniK£). 

Fainting  during  tliis  age  ceased  to  be  religious.  It  was  no 
longer  for  temples  and  public  sloae  that  aitiils  worked,  but  for 
private  persons;  especially  they  Diide  frescoes  for  the  decoration 
of  the  vrallt  of  houses,  and  panel  piclurM  for  galleries  set  up  by 
rich  patrons.  The  names  of  very  few  painters  of  the  Hellenistic 
age  have  come  down  10  us.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
character  of  the  art  declined,  and  there  were  no  longer  produced 
great  works  lo  be  the  pride  of  cities,  or  to  form  an  embodiment 
for  all  future  time  of  the  qualities  of  a  deity  or  tbe  circumstances 
of  scenes  mythical  or  historic.  But  at  the  same  time  tbe  mural 
puDlings  of  Pompeii  and  other  works  of  Ibe  Roman  age,  which 
■re  usually  mote  or  less  nearly  derived  from  Hellenistic  models, 
prove  that  in  technical  matters  painting  continued  to  progress. 
Colouring  became  more  varied,  groups  more  eUborale,  per- 
spective was  worked  out  with  greater  accutscy.  and  imagination 
shook  itself  free  from  many  of  the  conventions  of  early  art. 
Pompeian  painting,  however,  must  be  treated  of  under  KomAn, 
not  under  Greek  art.  We  figure  a  single  eiampte,  lo  show  the 
elaboration  of  painting  at  Alexandria  and  clsewbere,  Ibe  wonder- 


Among 
:ulptural 

riy   Hellenistic 

cd  b>  tbe  statue 

unc    typifyuig 

city  oi   AntKch 

d  of  Lysif^nts.  Of 

worthy  of  admiral 

embodiment  of  the  peiMnality  01  inc  aiy,  seatea  on  ■  met, 
holding  ears  of  corn,  whUe  tbe  river  Oronto,  embodied  in  a 
young  male  figure,  springs  forth  at  her  feet. 

This  B,  so  far  as  we  know,  almost  the  only  work  of  tbc  early 
part  of  Ihe  jrd  century  which  shows  imagination.  Sculptors 
often  worked  on  a  co]ds.u1  scale,  producing  such  monsters  as 
Ibe  colossal  Apollo  at  Rhodes,  Ihe  work  of  Chares  of  Lindus, 
which  was  more  than  100  ft.  in  hdghi.  But  Ibey  did  not  show 
fitsbness  or  inveniion;  and  for  the  most  part  content  themselves 


cannot  be  produced  by  m 


the  great  tchooli  ol  the  4th 

ria,  Egypi  and  Asia  Bliaoc 

their  payments;  but 

'  art  that  originali^ 


BOW  usigncd  10  the  HeUcni 

ii  inowD  to  U9  from  hb  acluai  woru.    i 

of  Ihe  Uiilrai  (Dfiporna)  si  Lycoiui 

group  of  figiim  coniisling  of  Dopoci 

uid  the  lltan  Anytui.    Thm  coloiEal  bi 

probably   belong  to   Ibe  three  lul-mi 

UluMiatc  the  head  of  Anylus,  with  wili 

tuibulest  ciptosiOD  (fig.  48).    Dr  BarpfcM  has  argued,  1 


GREEK  ART 

with  X  rrieie  1 


'    sculpture.    Worki  aucb 
.      _  „  Tt  (Plate  IV.  fig.  69),  and  io 

loi  degree  Ibe  Apo«yomenus  (Flatc  VI.  fig.  79),  display 
leraaikable  inteiDiJ  luiowledge  of  Ihe  human  frame,  such 
CDuM  only  come  from  Ibe  habit  of  dissectioD.  Whether  tli 
wai  really  productive  of  improvcmcnl  in  sculpture  may  I 
doubted.  But  it  is  impossible  10  withhold  one's  admiralii 
froni  octki  which  show  an  astonishing  IfDowledge  of  the  body 
of  man  down  to  ils  bony  Iiarufivorlf .  and  a  power  and  masti 
of  tiecuiion  which  have  never  since  been  suipasud. 

With  accuracy  in  theporltayel  of  men's  bodies  goes  of  necen 
t  more  naturalistic  tendency  in  poitriilure.  As  we  have  se 
(he  an  of  portraiture  was  al  a  high  ideal  level  in  the  Fbeidi 
age:  and  even  in  the  age  of  Aleiander  the  Great,  notabls  n 
were  rendered  nther  accordiog  to  the  idea  than  Ibe  fact.  T 
base  and  mechanical  naturalism  Greeic  art  never  al  any  ti 
descended.  But  tioin  sat  B.C.  onwards  we  have  a  raarvelk 
■cries  ol  portraits  which  may  be  tenncd  rather  characteri: 
than  ideal,  which  are  very  iqiaute  in  Iheir  execution,  and  dellj 
in  laying  emphasis  on  the  havoc  wrought  by  time  and  life 
the  (aces  of  nolexorthy  men.  Such  are  Ibe  portraits  of  Demi 
tlwnes,  of  Aniisthenes,  of  '1 
galleries.  And  it  was  no  Ic 
to  the  inveoiion  of  characi 


mages  tc 


Ion 

loothleia  old  wome 

Our  knowledge  1 

received  ■  great  ai 


.  MrikfDg  ID  necution  1 
Zcui,  a  monument  >u 
Ihe  Apocalypte  "  whci 
great  uaificill  allan 


m  these  actual  pottraiit 
ler  and  LycurguSi  or  to 


r  used  for  sacrifices  t 
red  lo  in  the  phiaie  0 
"  ThlsB!lat,likemaii. 


to  the  Christian  world, 
they  oppose  Ibe  gods  ai 
panoply,  "  in  shining  ai 
Itaiida,"  to  use  the  phti 
But  ia  tbe  PetEamene  fii< 
having  the  beada  and  b 
■ometim<9  also  ht 
two  long  serpents, 


if  wild  and  fierce  bajbari 


heads  of  which  take  t 


;  gods  appear  in  the  forms  which  had  been  gradually  made 
them  in  the  coune  o(  Creek  history,  but  tbey  are  uiually 
impaaied  by  the  animals  sacred  to  them  in  culius,  between 
ch  and  Ihe  setpcnt-feel  of  tbe  giants  a  weird  combat  goes  on. 


derived  the  shaggy  hi 
of  bis  giants  (fig.  49] 
from  the  Galatians.  1 


set  I  led  in 


their  savage  devastations  through  all  Asia  Minor.  Tbe  victory 
over  the  giants  clearly  stands  for  tbe  victoiy  0'  Greek  civiliution 
over  Gallic  barbarism ;  and  this  meaning  ia  made  moreemphaiic 
because  the  gods  are  obviously  inferior  in  physical  force  to  their 
its,  indeed,  a  large  proportion  of  the  div' 


who    opposed    tbe  hindl  _ 
the  army  of  Agamemnon 
Asia    Minor   and    «a! 
thrown    by    Achilles, 
tiieie,  whichii  quite  liagmcn 
in  the  Jakrbuck  of  tbe  Getoii 


Since 


uof.Gm 


ogel  hei  by  Dr  Schneider 
jgica]  Institute  for  igoo. 
e  KOme  has  conlinually  produced  a  crop 
of  all  periods,  partly  originals  brought 
partly  copies,  stich  as  the 


lerly  kno 


[Of  the  Greek  child,  a 


m  the  cl. 


lor  Ihc  usthctic  theoiia  of  Losing  uid  Goetlie.  In  our  diys 
the  hiitrionji:  lod  ilriincd  duncler  ol  Ibc  group  li  rcgHrded  u 
greatly  diministuDg  its  inleml,  in  sinle  of  Ihc  utoundinK  alcill 
and  knowledge  o(  Ihe  hmnin  body  ihonn  by  the  »rti«ti.  To 
the  sune  tchool  bdong  the  Iste  Tcpraenlitiaiu  of  Minyu 
being  flayed  by  the  victorioiu  Apollo  (Plate  U.  fig.  m),  »  wme- 
whm  repulsive  subject,  chosen  by  the  utists  oE  (bis  age  as  a 
means  for  displaying  thdr  accurate  knowledge  of  anatomy. 

On  what  a  scale  some  of  the  artists  of  Ajla  Uinot  would  woTk 
i)  shown  us  by  the  enoimous  group,  by  ApoUoniu)  and  Tautiscus 
of  Tralles,  which  is  called  the  Faraeae  BuU  (Pbte  I.  fig.  sO,  and 
which  repicsents  how  Dicce  was  tied  to  a  wild  boll  by  hei  step- 
■oni  Zelhus  and  Amphion. 


GREEK  FIRE 

.  Furl', 
by   E. 


ig  life,  at 


idgestun 


the  boiet  has  fought  already, 
Hii  face  is  cut  and  swollen;  on  his  hands 
here  made  of  leather,  and  not  loaded  wil 
described  by  VirgU.  The  figure  ii  of 
though  the  face  is  brutal  and  the  eipressi 
oi  the  limbs  there  is  nobUily,  even  ideal  beaui 
Greek  artist  could  not  Kt  aside  his  admit 


perlection.    Another  bronie  figure  of  ra 


savage,  in  the  sweep 

U1V.    To  the  last  the 

for  physical 

e-size  is  that 


1  spear. 


tike  the  athletes  of  Folyclilus,  Another 
s  us  with  a  Helleniiitic  type  of  Dionysus. 
a  found  in  Rome  we  may  set  those  recently 
the  coast  o(  Cylhera,  the  contenti  of  a  skip 
to  Rome,  and  lost  on  the  way.  The  date  of 
i  has  been  disputed.  In  any  case,  even  if 
lan  age,  they  go  back  to  ■ 


orihy  a 


ith  hand  upraised. 
If  the  4tfa  century. 


After  146  B.C.  when  Corinth 

worked  mainly  in  the  employ  of  the  Roman  conqueron  [3 
ROMA.-J  Aai). 

IV.  SELBcr  BiBLicxiiAFBT.'— I,  Oeoenl  works  on  Oroek  Alt— 
The  only  lecenl'  genenl  hi>lorie>  oT  Creek  art  ate:  H.  Bninn. 
Criakiicht  KaxiritiMibt.  bks.  1.  and  ii.,  dealing  with  archaic  art^ 
W.  KIrin,  GntHeliU  itr  pteftiicitoi  KuasI,  no  ilfugirationg]  Ptrrot 
et  Chipiu,  Hiitmr*  it  iarl  dam  I'anJigitiU,  voli.  vii.  and  viii. 
(archaic  art  only). 

Iniroductoiy  are:  P.  GardL_.  -,. 

Harriwn,  InlmdiiiUry  Slitiits  in  Cruk  A. 


Uielut  are  alio:  H.  Btunn,  GeiclilcSu  io  piiMsOm  Kinjllir. 
Oav  edition,  Igaq):  J.  Ovetbeck,  Dii  anlilcn  Stltriflqitacn  »' 
ikicUdiU  icr  HUmdai  Kiiiu  tti  dn  GritclicH:  untranslated 

Singes  in  Latin  and  Greek:  the  EJder  Pliny's  ClafUt' 
lUry  «/,>l/l,  edited  by  K.  Jei-Bkke  and  E.  filers;  H.  S 


y  eJArt.  edited  by  VL  Jei-Bkke 

M  WrUm  M  Crai  SlJftiire. 

II.  Pedodieala  dealing  wUh  Greek  Archaeolofr.— Engl 
Jtunial  ef  MtHnat  Sitditt ;  A  nnual  of  Ikt  firilut  S^tl  al  AU 
Oasiital  Rttim.  Fnnce :  Jtnvi  archieliiiifut ;  Gatlu  i 
aloftqiti  Butirtin  di  toTrtipaniarKe  httlfnicue.  Germany:  . 
tiiit  da  K.  dCHlicin  arci.  tmlilult :  ilillnlKiin  dti  arcli,  1 
-  ijclw  Abicilung;  Atilitf  Dnim 
.    Oslrrriic*.    arck.    iKSIiltttl.     I 


Austria:   JakriiktSu   dti 
Publi— : '■•■-  '—-'-- 


_.    :    Bullclinn    a 

arckaioloriU;    Ddlim    v 
■    ■       '^  ■  >1  Society, 


\rckaiolorikk;  Dtltion  arehaiologihon;  /"roift 
f^Tchaeological  Society, 
I  tl.  Creek  Atclilttctar*.^7General :  Parol 

vol.  L;  Ariderson  and  Spiers,  ArckUaiv*  of 
Bouloiy.  FMIosofkii  A  farchitectiin  n  Ci 
ArtUlahm,  nl  i,;  A.  Maraoand.  Crst  nr.~i»«m, 

IV.  Greek  Sculptarc— General :  M,  Collignon.  HUMri  it  la 
Kultltirt  pufur  (1  vols.):  E,  A.  Gardner,  Saadbttk  tf  Cntk  SimI^ 


;ieR;et     Ephtmiru 
of  the  Athenian 

phipiei,  HiiMre  it 


tfulirpimi  efGrak  5»IMv(,  ti 
It^kiKk-remisekeipiojiikdiij]:  von  1 


<  SnJfiidit,  JOB  platei : 

nek  PiLiting  and  Vaiea.— Woh  mann  and  Woemunn ,  Hiitrry 

tUni,  vol  i    translated  and  edited  by  S  Colvin  (iHo):  H.  B. 

■LHulan  lAniiUPoatry  a  vo  i.)   Harrimo  and  MacColl, 

Cuifati  m      Sqi    O  fiaye  er  M  ColliEnon,  ^uuOrifc 

nufp     <u     SaS)    P  Crard  Ijii>nfi/ut(an7(>v(>8ai): 

p  dg    vasti  ficifii    I  tt    It  iutueuti  U  vols-}: 

R     hh    d       C^Fchiich    Vavnmalei^'^  ICtcwr 

/      nr  kiiAipi  kt  VkmMtnt  (  SgT-lggD). 

il  Sehoola  and  Staa.— A.  loubui  Iji  Sedflrrt  pcf 

midiqui  ri   tbMit  di /truOt  C  WakMsia.jEuayi 

PkrHuu     Ms      W    Klein.  PtiaiUf.  C.  Vttta. 

Murray    SailtUra  >/  ftr  Panknm;  W.  KMo. 

E   Pa  Dimrti    P  Gardne     Scnlflvwl  Tm^  tl 

Cardn      Antina  AAtm    A.  BOitichcr.  OfrMui 

itickr  timiapapku  P  Tardner,  T7K  Ty^^Cwt 

b,   A  Gardn       £>!  Grwl  Sn'MS'l. 

H  e  B  ed  to  the  nbjoct.— I    C.  Fnier,  Pmatmm'i 

i  Laoge  Dw  Idliacda  1/mtkimm 

E    Bn    k      Tkr  Hamam  Pit*";  ill 


QREBK    FIRE,    (be 


ConsI 


itinople.    The  c 


name  applied  to  infUmmiUe  and 
used  bi  warfare  during  the  middle 
the  Byianline  Greeks  at  the  liegi 


=f  Lquii 
It  the  liege  of  Plataea  Uiq 


Spartans  atleinpiea  id  oum  tct  town  oy  puing  up  ogainii  ine 
waUs  wood  saturated  with  pitch  and  sulphur  and  setting  it  on 
Gie  (Thuc.  ii.  7;),  and  at  the  liege  of  Delium  (414  B.C.)  a  ouldron 

against  the  walls  and  urged  into  flame  by  the  aid  of  a  bellows. 
Ijie  blast  from  which  was  conveyed  through  a  hallow  tite-trunk 
(Thuc.  iv.  100).     Aeneas  Taclicus  in  the  following  ccDiury 

which  was  packed  in  wooden  vessels  and  thrown  lighted  upon 
the  decka  of  the  enemy's  ships.  Later,  as  In  receipts  given  by 
VegetiuB  (c,  a.d.  350),  paphtha  or  petioleiun  is  added,  asd  aomc 

patt  of  miitUTts  descrilted  in  the  later  receipts  (which  probably 
dale  from  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century)  of  the  coUetllon 
known  aa  the  Libtr  ignium  of  Marcus  Graecus-  In  subsequeni 
receipts  saltpetre  and  lurpenline  make  their  appearance,  and 
the  modem  "  carcass  compoeition,"  coolaimng  suiphui,  tallow, 
rosin,  turpentine,  saltpetre  and  crude  antimony,  is  a  repte- 
sentalive  of  the  same  class  of  miitures,  which  became  known 
to  the  Crusaders  as  Cteek  fire  but  were  mote  usually  called 
wildfire.    Greek  fire,  properly  so-called,  was,  however,  of  a  some- 


it  Chan 


It  is  SI 


Pogonatus  (648-685)  an  architect  named  Calfinicus. 
whohadfledfromHeliapolisinSytia  to  Const  am  ioople,  prepared 
a  wet  file  wltich  was  thrown  out  from  siphons  (rdfiiArtavn^dnv 
tic^tpituvar  Tiip  irfpi^),  and  that  by  its  aid  the  ships  of  the 

The  art  of  compounding  tliis  Inixtiue,  which  is  also  referred  to 
as  nvp  fioMfAor,  or  sea  fire,  was  Jealously  guarded  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  the  possession  of  the  secret  on  several  occasions 
pmved  of  gieal  advantage  to  the  city.  The  nature  of  the 
compound  is  somewhat  obscure.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the 
novelty  introduced  by  Callinicus  was  saitpcire,  but  this  view 
involves  the  difTcculty  that  that  substance  was  apparently  not 
known  till  the  ijlh  century,  even  il  it  were  capable  of  accounting 
for  the  piopertlei  ailrihuted  to  the  wet  fire  Lieui, -Colonel 
H.  W.  L.  Hime.  after  a  dose  euminalion  of  the  available 
evideitce.  concludes  that  what  distinguished  Greek  Gre  from  the 
other  incendiiries  of  the  period  was  the  presence  of  quicklinie, 
which  was  well  known  to  give  rise  to  a  large  development  ol 
heu  when  brought  into  eonlact  with  water.  The  miilure,  Ihen, 
wu  composed  of  sucb  materials  ai  aulpbur  anil  oaphtba  with 


GREEK  INDEPENDENCE,  WAR  OF 


493 


qiiuckfimfc,  uid  took  fire  ftponlaneously  when  wetted — whence 
the  name  of  wet  fire  or  sea  fire;  and  portion^  of  it  were  "  pro- 
jected and  at  the  same  time  ignited  by  applying  the  hose  of  a 
water  engine  to  the  breech  "  of  the  siphon,  which  was  a  wooden 
tube,  cased  with  bronxe. 

See  Lieut.-Col.  H.  W.  L.  Hime,  Gunpowder  and  Ammunitum,  Ikeir 
Origin  and  Progress  (London,  1904). 

GREEK  INDEPENDENCE.  WAR  OF.  the  name  given  to  the 
great  rising  of  the  Greek  subjects  of  the  sultan  against  the 
Ottoman  domination,  which  began  in  182 1  and  ended  in  1833 
with  the  establishment  of  the  independent  kingdom  of  Greece. 
The  circumstances  that  led  to  the  insurrection  and  the  general 
diplomatic  situation  by  which  its  fortunes  were  from  time  to  time 
affected  are  described  elsewhere  (see  Greece:  History;  Tukkey: 
History).  The  present  article  is  confined  to  a  description  of  the 
genera]  character  and  main  events  of  the  war  itself.  If  we 
exclude  the  abortive  invasion  of  the  Danubian  principalities 
by  Prince  Alexander  Ypsilanti  (March  1821),  which  collapsed 
ignominiously  as  soon  as  it  was  disavowed  by  the  tsar,  the 
theatre  of  the  war  was  confined  to  continental  Greece,  the  Morea, 
and  the  adjacent  narrow  seas.  Its  history  may,  broadly  speaking, 
be  divided  into  three  periods:  the  first  (1821-1824),  during 
which  the  Greeks,  aided  by  numerous  volunteers  from  Europe, 
were  successfully  pitted  against  the  sultan's  forces  alone;  the 
second,  from  1824,  when  the  disciplined  troops  «f  Mehemet  Ali, 
pasha  of  Egypt,  turned  the  tide  against  the  insurgents;  the 
third,  from  the  intervention  of  the  European  powers  in  the 
autumn  of  1827  to  the  end. 

When,  on  the  and  of  April  i8ai.  Archbishop  Germanos,  head 
of  the  Hetaeria  in  the  Morea,  raised  the  standard  of  the  cross  at 
Kalavryta  as  the  signal  for  a  general  rising  of  the  Christian 
population,  the  circumstances  were  highly  favourable.  In  the 
Morea  itself,  in  spite  of  plentiful  warning,  the  Turks  were  wholly 
unprepared;  while  the  bulk  of  the  Ottoman  army,  under  the 
seraskier  Rhurshid  Pasha,  was  engaged  in  the  long  task  of 
reducing  the  intrepid  All,  [Mtsha  of  lannlna  (see  Au,  pasha  of 
lannina). 

Another  factor,  and  that  the  determining  one,  soon  came  to  the 
aid  of  the  Greeks.  In  warfare  carried  on  in  such  a  country  as 
Greece,  sea-girt  and  with  a  coast  deeply  indented,  inland  without 
roads  and  intersected  with  rugged  mountains,  victory — as 
Wellington  was  quidc  to  observe — must  rest  with  the  side  that 
has  command  of  the  sea.  This  was  assured  to  the  insurgents  at 
the  outset  by  the  revolt  of  the  maritime  communities  of  the 
Greek  archipelago.  The  Greeks  of  the  islands  had  been  accus- 
tomed from  time  immemorial  to  seafaring;  their  ships — some 
as  Urge  as  frigates — were  well  armed,  to  guard  against  the 
Barbary  pirates  and  rovers  of  their  own  kin;  lastly,  they  had 
furnished  the  bulk  of  the  sailors  to  the  Ottoman  navy  which, 
now  that  this  recruiting  ground  was  closed,  had  to  be  manned 
hastily  with  impressed  crews  of  dock-labourers  and  peasants, 
many  of  whom  had  never  seen  the  sea.  The  Turkish  fleet, 
"  adrift  in  the  Archipelago  "-^as  the  British  seamen  put  it — 
though  (ireatly  superior  in  tonnage  and  weight  of  metal,  could 
never  be  a  match  for  the  Greek  brigs,  manned  as  these  were  by 
trained,  if  not  disdpUned,  crews. 

The  war  was  begun  by  the  Greeks  without  definite  plan  and 
without  any  generally  recognized  leadership.  The  force  with 
ffirfirwt*  which  Germanos  marched  from  Kalavryta  against 
«/<*«  Patras  was  composed  of  peasants  armed  with  scythes, 
laammQ'  clubs  and  slings,  among  whom  the  "  primates  "  exer- 
""^  cised  a  somewhat  honorary  authority.     The  town 

itself  was  destroyed  and  those  of  its  Mussulman  inhabitants 
who  could  not  escape  into  the  dtadel  were  massacred;  but  the 
citadel  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks  till  1828.  Mean- 
while, in  the  south,  leaders  of  another  stamp  had  appeared: 
Petros,  bey  of  the  Maina  (q.v.)  chief  of  the  Mavromichales,  who 
at  the  head  of  his  clan  attacked  Kalamata  and  put  the  Mussul- 
man inhabitants  to  the  sword;  and  Kolokotrones,  a  notable 
brigand  once  in  the  service  of  the  Ionian  government,  who — 
fortifi^l  by  a  vision  of  the  Virgin — captured  Karytacna  and 
slaughtered    its    infidel   population.     Encouraged    by    these 


successes  the  revolt  spread  rapidly;  within  three  weeks  there 
was  not  a  Mussulman  left  in  the  open  country,  and  the  remnants 
of  the  once  dominant  class  were  closely  besieged  in  the  fortified 
towns  by  hosts  of  wild  peasants  and  brigands.  The  flames  of 
revolt  now  spread  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth:  eariy  in  April 
the  Christians  of  Dervenokhoria  rose,  and  the  whole  of  Boeotia 
and  Attica  quickly  followed  suit;  at  the  beginning  of  May  the 
Mussulman  inhabitants  of  Athens  were  blockaded  in  the  Acro- 
polis. In  the  Morea,  meanwhile,  a  few  Mussulman  fortresses  still 
held  out :  Coron,  Modon,  Navarino,  Patras,  Nauplia,  Monem  vasia, 
Tripolitsa.  One  by  one  they  fell,  and  everywhere  were  repeated 
(he  same  scenes  of  butchery.  The  horrors  culminated  in  the 
capture  of  Tripolitsa,  the  capital  of  the  vilayet.  In  Sept- 
ember this  was  taken  by  storm;  Kolokotrones  rode  in  triumph 
to  the  citadel  over  streets  carpeted  with  the  dead;  and  the 
crowning  triumph  of  the  Cross  was  celebrated  by  a  cold-blooded 
massacre  of  3000  prisoners  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes.  This 
completed  the  success  of  the  insurrection  in  the  Morea,  where 
only  Patras,  Nauplia,  and  one  or  two  lesser  fortresses  remained  to 
the  Turks. 

Meanwhile,  north  of  the  Isthmus,  the  fortunes  of  war  had  been 
less  one-sided.  In  the  west  Kliurshid's  lieutenant,  Omar 
Vrioni*(a  Mussulman  Greek  of  the  race  of  the  Palaeologi),  had 
inflicted  a  series  of  defeats  on  the  insurgents,  recaptured  Levadia, 
and  on  the  30th  of  June  relieved  the  Acropolis;  but  the  rout 
of  the  troops  which  Mahommed  Pasha  was  bringing  to  his  aid 
by  the  Greeks  in  the  defile  of  Mount  Oeta,  and  the  news  of  the  fall 
of  Tripolitsa,  forced  him  to  retreat,  and  the  campaign  of  182 1 
ended  with  the  retirement  of  the  Turks  into  Thessaly. 

The  month  of  April  had  witnessed  the  revolt  of  the  principal 
Greek  islands,  Spetsae  on  the  7th,  Psara  on  the  23rd,  Hydra 
on  the  28th  and  Samos  on  the  30th.  Their  fleets  were  divided 
into  squadrons,  of  which  one,  under  Tombazes,  was  deputed 
to  watch  for  the  entrance  of  the  Ottomans  into  the  archipelago, 
while  the  other  under  Andreas  Miaoulis  (q.v.)  sailed  to  blockade 
Patras  and  watch  the  coasts  of  Epirus.  At  sea,  as  on  land,  the 
Greeks  opened  the  campaign  with  hideous  atrocities,  almost 
their  first  exploit  being  the  capture  of  a  vessel  carrying  to  Mecca 
the  sheik-ul-lslam  and  his  family,  whom  they  murdered  with 
every  aggravation  of  outrage. 

These  inauspicious  beginnings,  indeed,  set  the  whole  tone  of 
the  war,  which  was  frankly  one  of  mutual  extermination.    On 
both  sides  the  combatants  were  barbarians,  without 
discipline  or  competent  organization.     At  sea  the^^^lj^^ 
Greeks  rapidly  developed  into  mere  pirates,  and  even  «#  ia«  wot, 
Miaoulis,  for  all  his  high  character  and  courage,  was 
often  unable  to  prevent  his  captains  from  sailing  home  at  critical 
moments,  when  pay  or  booty  failed.    On  land  the  presence  of 
a  few  educated  Phanariots,  such  as  Demetrios  Ypsilanti  or 
Alexander  Maviocordato,  was  powerless  to  inspire  the  rude 
hordes  with  any  sense  of  order  or  of  humanity  in  warfare;  while 
every  lull  in  the  fighting,  due  to  a  temporary  check  to  the  Turks, 
was  the  signal  for  internecine  conflicts  due  to  the  rivalry  of 
leaders  who,  with  rare  exceptions,  thought  more  of  their  personal 
power  and  profit  than  of  the  cause  of  Greece. 

This  cause,  indeed,  was  helped  more  by  the  impolitic  re- 
prisals of  the  Turks  than  by  the  heroism  of  the  insurgents.  AU 
Europe  stood  aghast  at  the  news  of  the  execution  of 
the  Patriarch  Gregorios  of  Constantinople  (April  22, 
1821)  and  the  wholesale  massacres  that  followed, 
culminating  as  these  did  in  the  extermination  of  the 
prosperous  community  of  Sdo  (Chios)  in  March  1822.  The 
cause  of  Greece  was  now  that  of  Christendom,  of  the  Catholic 
and  ProtesUnt  West,  as  of  the  Orthodox  East.  European 
Liberalism,  too,  gagged  and  fettered  under  Metternich's 


TMUb* 


"  system,"  recognized  in  the  Greeks  the  champions  mad  <*• 
of  its  own  cause;  while  even  conservative  states-  ^U^^l 
men,  schooled  in  the  memories  of  ancient  Hellas,  ^aism, 
saw  in  the  struggle  a  fight  of  civilization  against 
barbarism.  This  latter  belief,  which  was,  moreover,  flattering 
to  their  vanity,  the  Greek  leaders  were  astute  enough  to  foster; 
the  propaganda  of  Adamantios  Corais  iq.v.)  had  done  its 


494 


GREEK  INDEPENDENCE,  WAR  OF 


ivork;  and  wily  brigands,  like  Odysseus  of  Ithaka,  assuming 
the  style  and  trappings  of  antiquity,  posed  as  the  champions 
of  classic  culture  against  the  barbarian.  All  Europe,  then, 
bailed  with  joy  the  exploit  of  Constantine  Kanaris,  who  on  tlie 
night  of  June  18-19  succeeded  in  steering  a  fire-ship  among  the 
Turkish  squadron  off  Sdo,  and  burned  the  flag-ship  of  the 
capudan-pasha  with  3000  souls  on  board. 

Meanwhile  Sultan  Mahmud,  now  wide  awake  to  the  danger, 
had  been  preparing  for  a  systematic  effort  to  suppress  the 
rising.  The  threatened  breach  with  Russia  had  been  avoided 
by  Mettemich's  influence  on  the  tsar  Alexander;  Ihe  death  of 
Aii  of  lannina  had  set  free  the  army  of  Khurshid  Pasha,  who  now, 
as  serdskier  of  Rumelia,  was  charged  with  the  task  of  reducing 
the  Morea.  In  the  spring  of  182a  two  Turkish  armies  advanced 
southwards:  one,  under  Omar  Vrioni,  along  the  coast  of  Western 
Hellas,  the  other,  under  Ali,  pasha  of  Drama  (Dramali),  through 
Boeolia  and  Attica.  Omar  was  held  in  check  by  the  mud 
fT,^,riT  ramparts  of  Missolonghi;  but  Dramali,  after  exacting 
fiMof  fearful  vengeance  for  the  massacre  of  the  Turkish 
garrison  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  crossed  the 
Isthmus  and  with  the  over-confidence  of  a  conquering 
barbarian  advanced  to  the  relief  of  the  hard-pressed  garrison 
of  Nauplia.  He  crossed  the  perilotis  defile  of  Dervenaki  un^ 
opposed;  and  at  the  news  of  his  approach  most  of  the  members 
of  the  Greek  government  assembled  at  Aigos  fled  in  panic  terror. 
Demetrios  Ypsilanti,  however,  with  a  few  hundred  men  joined 
the  Mainote  BLarayanni  in  the  castle  of  Larissa,  which  crowns 
the  acropolis  of  andent  Aigos.  This  held  Dramali  in  check, 
and  gave  Kolokotrones  time  to  collect  an  army.  The  Turks^ 
in  the  absence  of  the  fleet  which  was  to  have  brought  them 
supplies,  were  forced  to  retreat  (August  6);  the  Greeks,  inspired 
with  new  courage,  awaited  them  in  the  pass  of  DervenaJd,  where 
the  undisciplined  Ottoman  host,  thrown  into  confusion  by  an 
avalanche  of  boulders  huried  upon  them,  was  annihilated.  In 
Western  Greece  the  campaign  had  an  outcome  scarcely  less 
disastrous  for  the  Turks.  The  death  of  Ali  of  lannina  had  been 
followed  by  the  suppression  of  the  insurgent  Suliotes  and  the 
advance  of  Omar  Vrioni  southwards  to  Missolonghi;  but  the 
town  held  out  gallantly,  a  Turkish  surprise  attack,  on  the  6th  of 
January  1823,  was  beaten  off,  and  Omar  Vrioni  had  to  abandon 
the  siege  and  retire  northwards  over  the  pass  of  Makrynorps. 

The  victorious  outcome  of  the  year's  fighting  had  a  disastrous 
effect  upon  the  Greeks.  Their  victories  had  been  due  mainly 
to  the  guerilla  tactics  of  the  leaders  of  the  type  of 
MMMurita  Kolokotrones;  Mavrocordato,  whose  character  and 
OntkM.  antecedents  had  marked  him  out  as  the  natural  head 
of  the  new  Greek  state,  in  spite  of  his  successful 
defence  of  Missolonghi,  had  been  discredited  by  failures  else- 
where; and  the  Greeks  thus  learned  to  despise  their  dvilized 
advisers  and  to  underrate  the  importance  of  disdpline.  The 
temporary  removal  of  the  common  peril,  moreover,  let  loose  all 
the  sectional  and  personal  jealousies,  which  even  in  face  of  the 
enemy  had  been  with  difficulty  restrained,  and  the  year  1823 
witnessed  the  first  dvil  war  between  the  Greek  parties.  These 
internedne  feuds  might  easily  have  proved  fatal  to  the  cause 
of  Greece.  In  the  Archipelago  Hydriotes  and  Spetsiotea  were 
at  daggers  drawn;  the  men  of  Psara  were  at  open  war  with 
those  of  Samos;  all  semblance  of  disdpline  and  cohesion  had 
vanished  from  the  Greek  fleet.  Had  Khosrev,  the  new  Ottoman 
admiral,  been  a  man  of  enterprise,  he  might  have  regained  the 
command  of  the  sea  and,  with  it,  that  of  the  whole  situation. 
But  the  fate  of  his  predecessor  had  filled  him  with  a  h'vdy  terror 
of  Kanaris  and  his  fire-ships;  he  contented  himself  with  a 
cruise  round  the  coasts  of  Greece,  and  was  happy 
to  return  to  safety  under  the  guns  of  the  Dardanelles 
without  having  accomplished  anything  beyond  throw- 
ing supplies  and  troops  into  Coron,  Modon  and  Patras. 
On  land,  meanwhile,  the  events  of  the  year  before  practically 
repeated  themselves.  In  the  west  an  army  of  Mussulman  and 
Catholic  Albanians,  under  Mustai  Pasha,  advanced  southwards. 
On  the  night  of  the  aist  of  August  occurred  the  celebrated 
exploit  of  Marko  Botzaris  and  his  Suliotes:  a  successful  surprise 


QiUU, 


attack  on  the  camp  of  the  Ottoman  vanguard,  in  which  the 
Suliote  leader  fell.  The  jealousy  of  the  AetoUan  militia  for  the 
Suliotes,  however,  prevented  the  victory  being  decisive;  and 
Mustai  advanced  to  the  siege  of  Anatoliko,  a  little  town  in  the 
lagoons  near  Misaolon^.  Here  he  was  detamed  until,  on  the 
nth  of  -December,  he  was  forced  to  raise  the  siege  and  retire 
northwards.  His  colleague,  Yussuf  Pasha,  in  East  Hellas  fared 
no  better;  here,  too,  the  Turks  gained  some  initial  successes, 
but  in  the  end  the  harassing  tactics  of  Kolokotrones  and  his 
guerilla  bands  forced  them  back  into  the  plain  of  the  Kei^iissos. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  the  Greeks  were  once  more  free  to  renew 
their  internecine  feuds. 

Just  when  these  feuds  were  at  their  height,  In  the  autumn 
of  1823,  the  most  famous  of  the  Philhellenes  who  sacrificed 
themsdves  for  the  cause  of  Greece,  Lord  Byron,  arrived  in 
Greece. 

The  year  1824  was  destined  to  be  a  fateful  one  for  the  Greek 
cause.  The  large  loans  raised  in  Europe,  the  first  «n«*iiimM^» 
of  which  Byron  had  himself  brought  over,  while 
providing  the  Greeks  with  the  sinews'bf  war,  provided 
them  also  with  fresh  material  for  strife.  To  the  JjaiJ^ 
struggle  for  power  was  added  a  strug^  for  a  share  of 
this  booty,  and  a  second  dvQ  war  broke  out,  KoldLOtroncs 
leading  the  attack  on  the  forces  of  the  government.  Eariy  in 
1825  the  government  was  victorious;  Kolokotrones  was  in 
prison;  and  Odysseus,  the  hero  of  so  many  exploits  and  so 
many  crimes,  who  had  ended  by  turning  traitor  and  selling  hb 
services  to  the  Turks,  had  been  capttued,  imprisoned  in  the 
Acropolis,  and  finally  assassinated  by  his  former  lieutenant 
Gouras  (July  x6,  1824).  But  a  new  and  more  terrible  danger 
now  threatened  Greece..  Sultan  Mahmud,  despairing  of  sup- 
pressing the  insurrection  by  his  own  power,  had  rductantly 
summoned  to  his  aid  Mebemet  Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt,  iHboce 
well-equipped  fleet  and  disdplined  army  were  now  tmtntnm 
thrown  into  the  scale  against  the  Greeks.  Already,  Hm  w 
in  June  1823,  the  pasha's  son-in-law  Hussein  Bey  ^Jj*""** 
had  landed  in  Crete,  and  by  April  of  the  following 
year  had  reduced  the  insurgent  islanders  to  submiwion.  Crete 
now  became  the  base  of  operations  against  the  Greeks.  On  the 
19th  of  June  Hussein  appeared  before  Kasos,  a  nest  of  pirates 
of  evil  reputation,  which  he  captured  and  des^yed.  The  same 
day  the  Egyptian  fleet,  under  Ibrahim  Pasha,  sailed  from 
Alexandria.  Khosrev,  too,  emboldened  by  this  new  sense  of 
support,  ventured  to  sea,  surprised  and  destroyed  Psara  Quly  2), 
and  planned  ab  attack  on  Samoa,  which  was  defeated  by  Miaoulis 
and  his  fire-ships  (August  x6,  17).  On  tfie.ist  of  September, 
however,  Khosrev  succeeded  in  effecting  a  junction  with  Ibrahim 
off  Budrun,  and  two  indecisive  engagements  followed  with  the 
united  Greek  fleet  on  the  5th  and  loth.  The  object  of  Ibrahim 
was  to  reach  Suda  Bay  with  his  transports,  which  the  Greeks 
should  at  all  costs  have  prevented.  A  first  attempt  was  defeated 
by  Miaoulis  on  the  x6th  of  November,  and  Ibrahim  was  compdlcd 
to  retire  and  anchor^ off  Rhodes;  but  the  Greek  admiral  was 
unable  to  keep  his  fleet  together,  the  season  was  far  advanced, 
his  captains  were  clamouring  for  arrears  of  pay,  and  the  Greek 
fleet  sailed  for  Nauplia,  leaving  the  sea  unguarded.  On  the 
5th  of  December  Ibrahim  again  set  sail,  and  reached  Suda 
without  striking  a  blow.  Here  he  completed  his  preparations, 
and,  on  the  24th  of  February  1825,  landed  at  Modon  in  the 
Morea  with  a  force  of  4000  regular  infantry  and  500  cavalry. 
The  rest  followed,  without  the  Greeks  making  any  effort  to 
intercept  them. 

The  conditions  of.  the  war  were  now  completdy  dianged. 
The  Greeks,  who  had  been  squandering  the  money  provided 
by  the  loans  in  every  sort  of  sensdcss  extravagance, 
affected  to  despise  the  Egyptian  invaders,  but-  they     i^Sm 
were  soon  undecdved.    On  the  21st  of  March  Ibrahim     mmnm, 
had  laid  siege  to  Navarino,  and  after  some  dday  a 
Greek  force  under  Skourti,  a  Hydriote  sea-captain,  was  scat  to 
its  relief.    The  Greeks  had  in  all  some  7000  men,  Soliotes, 
Albanians,  armatcli  from  Rumelia,  and  some  irregular  Bulgarian 
and  Vlach  cavalry.    On  the  xgth  of  April  they  were  met  by 


GREEK  INDEPENDENCE,  WAR  OF 


+95 


MlU9- 


Ibrahim  at  Kxommydi  with  2000  regular  infantry,  400  cavalry 
and  four  guns.  Tlie  Greek  entrenchments  were  stormed  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet  by  Ibrahim's  fellahin  at  the  first  onset;  the 
defenders  broke  and  fled,  leaving  600  dead  on  the  field.  The 
news  of  this  disaster,  and  of  the  fall  of  Pylos  and  Navarino  that 
followed,  struck  terror  into  the  Greek  government;  and  in 
answer  to  popular  clanu>ur  Kolokotrones  was  taken  from  prison 
and  placed  at  the  head  of  the  army.  But  the  guenlla  tactics 
of  the  wily  klepht  were  powerless  against  Ibrahim,  who  marched 
northward,  and,  avoiding  NaupUa  for  the  present,  seized 
TripoUtsa,  And  made  this  the  base  from  which  his  columns 
marched  to  devastate  the  country  far  and  wide. 

Meanwhile  from  the  north  the  Ottomans  were  making  another 
supreme  efforts  The  command  of  the  army  that  was  to  operate 
Retbu  ^  ^^^  Hellas  had  been  given  to  Reshid  "  Kutahia," 
"iC«6iMf"  pasha  of  lannina,  an  able  general  and  a  man  of  deter« 
hnkgn  mined  character.  On  the  6th  of  April,  after  bribing 
the  Albanian  clansmen  to  neutrality,  he  passed  the 
defile  of  Makrynoros,  which  the  Greeks  had  left 
undefended,  and  on  the  7th  of  May  opened  the  second  siege  of 
Missolonghi.  For  twelve  months  the  population  held  out,  re- 
pulsing the  attacks  of  the  enemy,  refusing  every  offer  of  honour- 
able capitulation.  This  resistance  was  rendered  possible  by  the 
Greek  command  of  the  sea,  Miaoulis  from  time  to  time  entering 
the  lagoons  with  supplies;  it  came  to  an  end  when  this  command 
was  lost.  In  September  1825  Ibrahim,  at  the  order  of  the  sultan, 
had  joined  Reshid  before  the  town;  piecemeal  the  outlying 
forts  and  defences  now  fell,  until  the  garrison,  reduced  by 
starvation  and  disease,  determined  to  hazard  all  on  a  final  sortie. 
This  took  place  on  the  night  of  the  32nd  of  April  1826;  but  a 
mistaken  order  threw  the  ranks  of  the  Greeks  into  disorder, 
and  the  Turks  entered  the  town  pell-mell  with  the  retreating 
crowd.  Only  a  remnant  of  the  defenders  succeeded  in  gaining 
the  forests  of  Mount  Zygos,  where  most  of  them  perished. 

The  fall  of  Missolonghi,  followed  as  this  was  by  the  submission 
of  many  of  the  more  notable  chiefs,  left  Reshid  free  to  turn  his 
attention  to  East  Hellas,  where  Gouras  had  been  ruling 
as  a  practically  independent  chief  and  in  the  spirit 
of  a  brigand.  The  peasants  of  the  open  country 
welcomed  the  Turks  as  deliverers,  and  Reshid 's  conciliatory 
policy  facilitated  his  march  to  Athens,  which  fell  at  the  first 
assault  on  the  asth  of  August,  siege  being  at  once  laid  to  the 
Acropolis,  where  Gouras  and  his  troops  had  taken  refuge. 
Round  this  the  war  now  centred;  for  all  recognized  that  its 
fall  would  involve  that  of  the  cause  of  Greece.  In  these  straits 
the  Greek  government  entrusted  the  supreme  command  of  the 
troops  to  Karaiskakis,  an  old  retainer  of  All  of  lannina,  a  master 
of  the  art  of  guerilla  war,  and,  above  all,  a  man  of  daimtless 
courage  and  devoted  patriotism.  A  first  attempt  to  relieve  the 
Acropolis,  with  the  assistance  of  some  disciplined  troops  under 
the  French  Colonel  Fabvicr,  was  defeated  at  Chaidari  by  the 
Turks.  The  garrison  of  the  Acropolis  was  hard  pressed,  and  the 
death  of  Gouras  (October  13th)  would  have  ended  all,  had  not 
his  heroic  wife  taken  ovor  the  command  and  inspired  the  defenders 
with  new  courage.  For  months  the  siege  dragged  on,  while 
Karaiskakis  fought  with  varying  success  in  the 'mountains,  a 
final  victory  at  Distomo  (February  1827)  over  Omar  Vrioni 
securing  the  restoration  to  the  Greek  cause  of  all  continental 
Greece,  except  the  towns  actually  held  by  the  Turks. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  the  Greek  government,  reinforced 
by  a  fresh  loan  from  Europe,  handed  over  the  chief  command 
at  sea  to  Lord  Cochrane  (earl  of  Dundonald,  q.v.),  and 
that  of  the  land  forces  to  General  (afterwards  Sir 
Richard)  Church,  both  Miaoulis  and  Karaiskakis 
consenting  without  demur  to  serve  under  them. 
Cochrane  and  Church  at  once  concentrated  their  energies  on  the 
task  of  relieving  the  Acropolis.  Already,  on  the  5th  of  February, 
General  Gordon  had  landed  and  entrenched  himself  on  the  hill 
of  Munychia,  near  the  ancient  Piraeus,  and  the  efforts  of  the 
Turks  to  dislodge  |iim  had  failed,  mainly  owing  to  the  fire  of 
the  steamer  "Karteria"  commanded  by  Captain  Hastings. 
^Vhcn  Church  and  Cochrane  arrived,  a  general  assault  on  the 


iftUtWtQ 


Ottoman  camp  was  decided  on.  This  was  preceded,  on  the 
35th  of  April,  by  an  attack,  headed  by  Cochrane,  on  the  Turkish 
troops  established  near  the  monastery  of  St  Spiridion,  the  result 
of  which  was  to  establish  communications  between  the  Greeks 
at  Munychia  and  Phalerum  and  isolate  Reshid's  vanguard  on 
the  promontory  of  the  Piraeus.  The  monastery  held  out  for 
two  days  longer,  when  the  Albanian  garrison  surrendered  on 
terms,  but  were  massacred  by  the  Greeks  as  they  were  marching 
away  under  escort.  For  this  miserable  crime  Church  has,  by 
some  historians,  been  held  responsible  by  default;  it  is  clear, 
however,  from  his  own  account  that  no  blame  rests  upon  him 
(see  his  MS.  Narraiivef  voL  i.  chap.  ii.  p.  34).  The  assault  on 
the  Turkish  main  camp  was  fixed  for  the  6th  of  May;  but, 
unfortunately,  a  chance  skirmish  brought  on  an  engagement 
the  day  before,  in  the  course  of  which  Karaiskakis  was  killed, 
an  irreparable  loss  in  view  of  his  prestige  with  the  wild  armaU^i, 
The  assault  on  the  following  day  was  a  disastrous  failure.  The 
Greeks,  advancing  prematurely  over  broken  ground 
and  in  no  sort  of  order,  were  fallen  upon  in  flank  by  ^Siaf 
Reshid's  horsemen,  and  fled  in  panic  terror.  The  AtM^am, 
English  officers,  who  in  vain  tried  to  rally  them, 
themselves  only  just  escaped  by  scrambling  into  their  boats 
and  putting  off  to  the  war-vessels,  whose  guns  checked  the 
pursuit  and  enabled  a  remnant  of  the  fugitives  to  escape. 
Church  held  Munychia  till  the  27th,  when  he  sent  instructions 
for  the  garrison  of  the  Acropolis  to  surrender.  On  the  5th  of 
June  the  renwant  of  the  defenders  marched  out  with  the 
honours  of  war,  and  continental  Greece  was  once  more  in  the 
power  of  the  Turks.  Had  Reshid  at  once  advanced  over  the 
Isthmus,  the  Morea  also  must  have  been  subdued;  but  he 
was  jealous  of  Ibrahim,  and  preferred  to  return  to  lannina  to 
consolidate  his  conquests. 

The  fate  of  Greece  was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Powers,  who 
after  years  of  diplomatic  wrangling  had  at  last  realized  that 
intervention  was  necessary  if  Greece  was  to  be  saved 
for  European  civilization.  The  worst  enemy  of  the 
Greeks  was  their  own  incurable  iq)irit  of  faction;  in 
the  very  crisis  of  their  fate,  during  the  siege  of  Missolonghi,  rival 
presidents  and  rival  assemblies  struggled  for  supremacy,  and  a 
third  dvil  war  had  only  been  prevented  by  the  arrival  of  Cochrane 
and  Church.  Under  their  influence  a  new  National  Assembly 
met  at  Troezene  in  March  1827  and  dccted  as  president  Count 
Capo  d'  Istria  (q.v.),  formerly  Russian  minister  for  foreign  affairs; 
at  the  same  time  a  new  constitution  was  promulgated  which, 
when  the  very  life  of  the  insurrection  seemed  on  the  point  of 
flickering  out,  set  forth  the  full  ideal  of  Pan-Hellenic  dreams. 
Anarchy  followed;  war  of  Rumeliotes  ajgainst  Moreotcs,  of  chief 
against  chief;  nval  factions  bombarded  each  other  from  the 
two  forts  at  Nauplia  over  the  stricken  town,  and  in  derision  of 
the  impotent  government.  Finally,  after  months  of  inaction, 
Ibrahim  began  once  more  his  systematic  devastation  of  the 
country.  To  put  a  stop  to  this  the  Powers  decided  to  intervene 
by  means  of  a  joint  demonstration  of  their  fleets,  in  order  to 
enforce  an  armistice  and  compel  Ibrahim  to  evacuate  the  Morea 
(Treaty  of  London,  July  6,  1827).  The  refusal  of  Ibrahim  to 
obey,  without  special  instruction  from  the  sultan,  led  to  the 
entrance  of  the  allied  British,  French  and  Russian  fleet  into  the 
harbour  of  Navarino  and  the  battle  of  the  20th  of  October  1837 
(sec  Navarino).  This,  and  the  two  campaigns  of  the  Russo^ 
Turkish  war  <A  1828-29,  decided  the  issue. 

AuTHOaiTiES.— There  Is  no  trustworthy  history  of  the  war,  based 
on  all  the  material  now  available,  and  all  the  existing  works  must  be 
read  with  caution,  especially  those  by  eyc-witncsacs,  who  were  too 
often  prejudiced  or  the  dupes  of  the  Greek  factions.  The  best-known 
works  are:  G.  Fintay,  Hist,  of  the  Greek  Revolution  (a  vols.,  London, 
1861):  T.  Gordon,  Hist,  oj  the  Greek  Revolution  (London.  1833): 
C.  W.  P.  Mendclssohn-Barthotdy,  Geschickte  Grieckenlands,  %fc. 
(Staatengesckichle  der  neuesten  Zeit)  (a  vols.,  Leipzig,  1870-1874): 
F.  C.  H.  L.  Pouqaeville,  Histoire  de  la  riginhatum  ae  la  Criu,  6rc. 
(a  vols.,  Paris,  1824), — the  author  was  French  resident  at  the  court 
01  Ali  of  lannina  and  afterwards  consul  at  Patras;  Count  A. 
Prolcesch-Osten.  Geschickte  des  A  hUUls  der  Griecken  vom  tHrkisehen 
Reich,  6fc.  (6  vols.,  Vienna,  1867),  the  last  four  volumes  consist- 
ing of  piices  justifieatives  of  much  value.  See  also  W.  Alison 
PhiUtps.  The  War  9/  Qreeh  Independenu  (London  and  New  York. 


+96 


GREEK  LANGUAGE 


1897).  a  sketch  compiled  mainly  from  the  above-mentioned  works: 
Spiriaionos  Tricoupi,  *Irra^  rQt  'EXX^Kurirt  lv-aMrr4««M  (Athens, 


The  insurrection  in  Greece  to  i8aa,  with  many  documents.  Of  great 
value  also  are  the  ag  volumes  of  Correspondence  and  Papers  m  Sir 
Richard  Church,  now  in  the  British  Museum  (Add  M^.  36,543- 

36,^71).  Among  these  is  a  Narrative  by  Church  of  the  war  in  Greece 
unng  h»  tenure  of  the  command  (vols.  xxi.-xriii.,  Nos.  36,563- 
36,565),  which  contains  the  material  for  correcting  many  errors  re- 
peated m  most  works  on  the  war,  notably  the  strictures  oiFinlay  and 
others  on  Church's  conduct  before  Athens.  For  further  references 
see  the  bibliography  appended  to  W.  Alison  Phillips's  chapter  on 
"Greece  and  the  Balkan  Peninsula"  ia  the  Camtfridef  Modem 
History*  >•  803.  (W.  A.  P.) 

GREEK  LANOUAGB.  Gceek  is  one  of  the  eight  main 
branches  into  which  the  Indo-Eiin^>ean  languages  {q.v,)  are 
divided.  The  area  in  which  it  is  ^>oken  has  been  curiously 
constant  throughout  its  recorded  history.  These  limits  are, 
roughly  q;>eaking,  the  shores  of  the  Aegean,  on  both  the 
European  and  the  Asiatic  «de,  and  the  intermediate  islands 
(one  of  the  most  archaic  of  Greek  dialects  being  found  on  the 
eastern  side  in  the  island  of  Cyprtis),  and  the  Greek  peninsula 
generally  from  its  southern  promontories  as  far  as  the 
mountains  which  shut  in  Tliessaly  on  the  north.  Beyond 
Mt.  Olympus  and  the  Cambunian  mountains  lay  Macedonia, 
in  whidi  a  closely  kindred  dialect  was  spoken,  so  closely 
related,  indeed,  that  O.  Hoffmann  has  argued  {Die  Makedonen, 
Gfitlingen,  1906)  that  Macedonian  is  not  only  Greek,  but 
a  part  of  the  great  Aeolic  dialect  which  included  Thessalian 
to  the  south  and  Lesbian  to  the  east.  In  the  north-west, 
Greek  included  many  rude  dialects  little  known  even  to  the 
ancient  Greeks  themselves,  ami  it  extended  northwards  beyond 
AetoUa  and  Ambrada  to  southern  Epirus  and  Thesprotia. 
In  the  Homeric  age  the  great  shrine  of  Pelasgian  Zeus  was  at 
Dodona,  but,  by  the  time  of  Thucydides,  Aetolia  and  all  north 
of  it  had  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  most  backward  of  Greek 
lands,  where  men  lived  a  savage  Ufe,  speaking  an  almost  unin- 
telligible language,  and  eating  raw  flesh  (d7MMrr6raroi  6i  y\S»offW 
Kol  dtfio^iyoLt  Thuc  iii.  94,  of  the  Aetolian  Eurytanes).  The 
Greeks  themselves  had  no  memory  of  how  they  came  to  occupy 
this  land.  Tlieir  earliest  legends  connected  the  origin  of  their 
race  with  Tliessaly  and  Mt.  Pindus,  but  Athenians  and  Arcadians 
also  boasted  themselves  of  autochthonous  race,  inhabiting  a 
country  wherein  no  man  had  preceded  their  ancestors.  The 
Greek  language,  at  any  rate  as  it  has  come  down  to  us,  is 
remarkably  perfect,  in  vowel  sounds  being  the  most  primitive 
of  any  of  the  Indo-European  languages,  while  its  verb  system 
has  no  rival  in  completeness  except  in  the  earliest  Sanskrit  of 
the  Vedic  literature.  Its  noon  system,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
much  less  complete,  its  cases  being  more  broken  down  than 
those  of  the  Aryan,  Armenian,  Slavonic  and  Italic  families. 

The  most  remarkable  characteristic  of  Greek  is  one  conditioned 
by  the  geographkral  aspect  of  the  land.  Few  countries  are  so  broken 
up  with  mountains  as  Greece.  Not  only  do  mountain  ranges  as 
elsewhere  on  the  European  continent  run  cast-and  west,  but  other 
raiwes  cross  them  from  north  to  south,  thus  dividing  the  portions 
of  Greece  at  some  distance  from  the  sea  into  hollows  without  outlet, 
every  valley  being  separated  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  year 
from  contact  witn  every  other,  and  inter-communication  at  all 
seasons  being  rendered  difficult.  Thus  till  external  coercion  from 
Macedon  came  into  play  it  was  never  possible  to  establish  a  great 
central  eovcrnmeht  controlling  the  Greek  mainland.  The  geo- 
graphical situation  of  the  islands  in  the  Aegean  equally  led  to  the 
isolation  of  one  little  territory  from  another.  To  these jB;eographk:al 
considerations  may  be  added  the  inveterate  d^ire  oT  the  Creeks 
to  make  the  vi&Xn,  the  city  state,  everywhere  and  at  all  times  an 
independent  unit,  a  desire  which,  orieinating  in  the  geographical 
conditions,  even  accentuated  the  isolating  effect  of  the  natural 
features  of  the  country.  Thus  at  one  time  in  the  little  island  of 
Amorgos  there  were  no  less  than  three  separate  and  independent 
political  units.  The  inevitable  result  of  geographical  and  political 
division  was  the  maintenance  of  a  great  number  of  local  character- 
istics in  language,  differentiating  in  this  respect  also  each  political 
community  from  its  nearest  noighbours.  It  was  only  natural  that 
the  inhabitants  of  a  country  so  little  adapted  to  maintain  a  numerous 
population  should  have  early  sent  off  swarms  to  other  lands.  The 
earliest  stage  of  colontxation  lies  in  the  borderland  between  myth 
and  hbtory.  The  Greeks  themselves  knew  that  a  population  had 
preceded  them  in  the  islands  of  the  Cydades  which  they  identified 


with  the  Carians  of  Asia^  Minor  (Herodotus  i.  171;  Thucvdidcs  L 
4.  8).  The  same  population  indeed  appears  to  have  preoeocd  them 
on  the  mainland  01  Greece,  for  there  are  similar  place-names  in  Caria 
and  in  Greece  which  have  no  etvmology  in  Greek.  ^  Thus  tlie  endtnn 
of  words  like  Parnassus  and  Haticarnassus  seem  identical,  and  t£e 
common  ending  of  place-names  in-wtfot,  Ki^wdot,  np^AXofbt,  ftc, 
seems  to  be  the  same  in  origin  with  the  common  endine  of  Aamiic 
names  in  -iida,  Alinda,  Karyanda,  &c.  Probably  the  earucst  portion 
of  A>ui  Minor  to  be  colonised  by  the  Greeks  was  the  north-west,  to 
which  came  settlers  from  Thessaly,  when  the  eariv  inhabitants  were 
driven  out  by  the  The»rotians,  who  later  controlled  Thessaly.  The 
name  Acolis,  which  after  times  gave  to  the  N.W.  oL  Asia  Minor, 
was  the  old  name  for  Thessaly  (Hdt.  vii.  176).  These  Thesprodans 
were  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Dorians,  to  whose  invasioa  of  the 
Pek>ponnese  the  later  mq^tion,  which  carried  the  looians  to  Asia 
and  the  Cypriot  Greeks  to  Cyprus,  in  all  probabilinr  was  due.  From 
the  north  Aegean  probably  the  Dorians  reached  Crete,  where  alone 
their  existence  is  recorded  Vy  Homer  (Odyssey,  xix.  175  ff. ;  Diodoms 
Sknilus  V.  8a  2) ;  q>.  Fkk«  VPrgrieckiscie  Ortsnasiun  (1906). 

Among  the  Greeks  of  the  pre-Dorian  period  Herodotus  distiii- 

Biishes  various  stocks.  Though  the  name  is  not  Homeric,  both 
erodotus  and  Thucydides  recognise  an  Aeolian  stock  which  must 
have  spread  over  Thosaly  and  far  to  the  west  till  it  was  soppretaed 
and  absorbed  by  the  Dorian  stock  which  came  in  from  the  north- 
west. The  name  of  AeoUa  still  attached  in  Thucydides'  time  to  the 
western  area  of  Calydon  between  the  mountains  and  the  N.  nde  of 
the  entrance  to  the  Corinthian  gulf  (iiL  102).    In  Boeotia  the 


stock  survived  (Thuc.  vii  5^.  5},  overlaid  by  an  influx  of  Dorians, 
and  it  came  down  to  the  isthmus;  for  the  Corinthians,  though 
spoJdn^  in  historical  times  a  Doric  dialect,  were  originally  AtcOutM 
(Thuc.  IV.  42).  In  the  Peloponnese  Heroootus  lecoyniaes  (viiL  73) 
three  original  stocks,  the  Arcadians,  the  lonians  of  Cynuria.  and  the 
Achaeans.  In  Arcadia  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  pre-Dorian 
population  maintained  itself  and  its  language,  just  as  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Wales,  the  Scottish  Highlands  ana  Connemara  the  Celtic 
language  has  maintained  itself  aninst  the  Saxon  invaders.  By 
Herodotus'  time  the  Cynurians  had  oeen  doridced,  «-hile  the  loniana, 
along  the  south  side  of  the  Corinthian  gulf,  were  expdied  by  the 
Achaeans  (vii.  94,  viiL  73),  apparently  themselves  driven  from  their 
own  homes  by  the  Donan  invasion  (Strabo  viii.  p.  333  fim.).  How- 
ever thu  may  be,  the  Achaeans  of  historical  times  spoke  a  dialect 
aldn  to  that  of  northern  Elis  and  of  the  Greeks  on  the  north  side  of 
the  Corinthian  gulf.  How  close  the  relation  may  have  been  between 
the  language  of  the  Achaeans  df  the  Peloponnese  in  the  Homeric  age 
and  thetr  contemporaries  in  Thessaly  we  nave  no  means  of  asoertaio- 
ing  definitely,  tne  documentary  evidence  for  the  history  of  the 
dialects  being  all  very  much  later  than  Homeric  times.  Even  in 
the  Homeric  catalogue  Agamemnon  has  to  lend  the  Arcadians  ships 
to  take  them  to  Troy  (Iltad.  ii.  612).  But  a  population  qxaking  tne 
same  or  a  very  umilar  dialect  was  probably  seated  on  the  eastern 
coast,  and  migrated  at  the  be^nning  of  the  Eroric  invasion  to  Cypru*. 
As  this  population  wrote  not  m  the  Greek  alphabet  but  in  a  peculiar 
syllabary  and  held  little  communication  with  the  rest  of  the  Greek 
worid.  it  succeeded  in  preserving  in  Cyprus  a  very  archaic  dialect 
very  closely  akin  to  that  of  Arcadia,  aiid  also  containing  a  consider- 
able number  of  words  found  in  the  Homeric  vocabolaxy  but  lost  or 
modified  in  later  Greek  elsewhere. 

On  this  historical  foundation  alone  is  it  possible  to  understand 
clearly  the  relation  of  the  dialects  in  historical  times.  The  prehistoric 
movements  oS  the  Greek  tribes  can  to  some  extent  be  realised  in 
their  dialects,  as  recorded  in  their  inscriptions,  though  all  existing 
inscriptions  bek>ng  to  a  much  later  period.  Thus  from  the  ancient 
Aeolis  of  northern  Greece  sprang  the  historical  dialects  of  Thessaly 
and  Lesbos  with  the  neighbouring  coast  of  Asa  Minor.  At  an  eariy 
period  the  Dorians  had  invaded  and  to  some  extent  affected  the 
character  of  the  southern  Thessalian  and  to  a  much  greater  extent 
that  of  the  Boeotian  dialect.  The  dialects  of  Locris,  Phods  and 
Aetolia  were  a  somewhat  uncouth  and  unliterary  form  of  Doric. 
According  to  accepted  tradition,  Elis  had  been  colonised  by  Oxylus 
the  Aetolian,  and  the  dialect  of  the  more  northerly  part  01  Elis,  as 
already  pointed  out,  is,  along  with  the  Achaean  01  the  south  side  of 
the  Corinthian  gulf,  closely  akin  to  those  dialects  north  of  the 
Isthmus.  The  most  southerly  part  of  Eli»— Triphylia — has  a  dialect 
akin  to  Arcadian.  Apart  from  Arcadian  the  other  dialects  of  the 
Peloponnese  In  historical  times  are  all  Doric,  though  in  small  detaib 
they  differ  among  themselves.  Though  we  are  unable  to  check  the 
statements  of  the  historians  as  to  the  area  occupied  by  ionic  in 
prehistoric  times,  it  is  clear  from  the  legends  oS  the  dose  connexion 
between  Athens  and  Troenn  that  the  same  dialect  had  been  ^x>kcn 
on  both  sides  of  the  Saronic  gulf,  and  may  well  have  extended,  as 
Herodotus  says,  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Peloponiiese  and  the 
south  Mde  of  the  Coiinthian  gulf.  According  to  legend,  the  lonians 
expelled  from  the  Peloponnese  collected  at  Athens  before  they 
started  on  their  migrations  to  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  Be  that  as 
it  may,  legend  and  language  alike  connected  the  Athenians  with  the 
lonians,  though  fay  the  5th  century  B.C.  the  Atheniaiui  noJonger 
cared  to  be  kiunm  by  the  name  (Hdt.  i.  143).  Lemnos,  fmbroe  and 
Scyros,  which  had  long  belonged  to  Athens,  were  Athenian  also  in 
language.  The  great  island  of  Euboea  and  all  die  islaiidB  of  the 
oeatrafA^eanbetlreeB  Greece  and  Asia  were  Ionic.  Chioa,  the  most 


GREEK  LANGUAGE 


497 


oortheriv  Ionic Idand  on  the  Asiatic  ooaat,  aeenu  to  have  been  origin- 
ally Aeolic,  and  its  Ionic  retained  some  AeoUc  characteristics.  The 
most  southerly  of  the  mainland  towns  whicl)  were  oriKinalty  AeoUc  was 
Smyrna,  but  thb  at  an  early  date  became  Ionic  (Hdt.  L  149).  The 
last  important  Ionic  town  to  the  south  was  Miletus,  but  at  an  early 

Brriod  ionic  widened  its  area  towards  the  south  also  and  took  in 
alicamassus  from  the  Dorians.  According  to  Herodotus,  there 
were  four  kinds  of  Ionic  O^opoicTfpct  ykiiva-^  ttr94fiu,  i.  143). 
Herodotus  tells  us  the  areas  m  which  these  dialects  were  spoken, 
but  nothing  of  the  differences  between  them.  They  were  (i)  aamos, 
(a)  Chios  and  Emhrae,  (3}  the  towns  in  Lydia,  (4}  the  towns  m  Caria. 
The  language  of  the  inscnptions  unfortunately  u  a  «ou^,  a  conven- 
tional literary  language  which  reveab  no  differences  of  iffloortance. 
Only  recently  has  the  characteristic  so  well  known  in  Herodotus  of  a 
appearing  in  certain  words  where  other  dialects  have  w  (^km  for 
torus,  aov  for  w6v,  &c.)  been  found  in  any  inscription.  It  is,  how- 
ever, dear  that  this  was  a  pm>ular  characteristic  not  considered  to 
be  sufl&ciently  dignified  for  official  documents.  We  may  conjecture 
that  the  native  languages  spoken  on  the  Lydian  and  Caiian  coasts 
had  affected  the  character  of  the  language  spoken  by  the  Greek 
immigrants,  more  especially  as  the  settlers  m>m  Athens  married 
Carian  women,  while  the  settlers  in  the  other  towns  were  a  mixture 
of  Creek  tribes,  many  of  them  not  Ionic  at  all  (Hdt.  i.  146). 

The  more  southedy  isbnds  of  the  Aegean  and  the  most  southerly 
peninsula  of  Asia  Minor  were  Doric  In  the  Homeric  a^  Dorians 
were  only  one  of  many  peoples  in  Crete,  but  in  histoncal  times, 
though  the  dialects  of  the  eastern  and  the  western  ends  of  the  island 
differ  from  one  another  and  from  the  middle  whence  our  most 
valuable  documents  come,  all  are  Doric.  By  Melos  and  Thera'Dwians 
carried  their  language  to  Cos,  Calymnus,  Cnidus  and  Rhodes. 

These  settlements,  Aeolic,  Ionic  and  Doric,  grew  and  prospered, 
and  like  flourishing  hives  themselves  sent  out  fresh  swarms  to  other 
lands.  Most  prosperous  and  energetic  of  all  was  Miletus,  which 
established  its  trading  posts  in  the  Black  Sea  to  the  north  and  in  the 
delta  of  the  Nile  (Naucratis)  to  the  south.  The  isbnds  also  sent  off 
their  colonies,  carrying  their  dialects  with  them,  Paros  to  Thasos, 
Ettboea  to  the  peninsulas  of  Chalcidice;  the  Dorians  of  Me^ra 
guarded  the  entrance  to  the  Black  Sea  at  Chalcedon  and  Byzantium. 
While  Achaean  influence  sproad  out  to  the  more  southeriy  Ionian 
islands,  Corinth  carried  her  dialect  with  her  colonies  to  the  coast  of 
Acamania,  Leucas  and  Corcyra.  But  the  greatest  of  all  Corinthian 
colonics  was  much  farther  to  the  west — at  Syracuse  in  Sicily.  Un- 
fortunately the  continuous  occupation  of  the  same  or  adjacent  sites 
has  kd  to  the  loss  of  almost  all  that  is  eariy  from  Corinth  and  from 
Syracuse.  Corcyra  has  bequeathed  to  us  some  interesting  grave 
inscriptions  from  the  6th  century  B.C.  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily 
were  early  colonized  by  Greeks.  According  to  tradition  Cumae  was 
founded  not  long  after  the  Trojan  War;  even  if  we  bring  the  date 
nearer  the  fountfing  of  Syracuse  in  735  B.C.,  we  have  apparently  no 
record  earlier  than  the  first  half  of  tne  5th  century  B.C.,  though  it  is 
still  the  eariiest  of  Chalcidian  inscriptions.  Tarentum  was  a  L^onian 
foundation,  but  the  longest  and  most  important  document  from  a 
Lacooian  colony  in  Italy  comes  from  Heractca  about  the  end  of  the 
4th  century  B.C. — the  report  of  a  commission  upon  and  the  lease  of 
temple  lands  with  description  and  conditions  almost  of  modem 

Srecision.  To  Achaea  beloraed  the  south  Italian  towns  of  Croton, 
letapontum  and  Sybaris.  "nie  ancestiy  of  the  Greek  towns  of  Sicily 
has  been  explained  by  Thucydides  (vt.  2-%).  Selinus,  a  colony  of 
Megara.  bewrays  its  origin  in  its  dialect.    Gela  and  Agrigentum  no 


deariy  show  their  descent  from  Rhodes.   According  to  tradition 

the  great  city  of  Cyrene  in  Africa  was  founded  from  Thera,  itself  an 
offsMot  from  Sparta. 

Cribf  Charactbustics  of  thb  Greek  Dialects 

I.  Arcadian  and  Cyprian. — As  Cyprian  was  written  in  a  syllabary 
which  could  not  lepreient  a  consonant  by  itself,  did  not  distinguish' 
between  voiced,  unvoiced  and  aspirated  consonants,  did  not  represent 
at  all  a  nasal  before  another  consonant,  and  did  not  distinguish 
between  long  and  short  vowels,  the  interpretation  of  the  symbols  is 
of  the  nature  of  a  conundrum  and  the  answer  is  not  always  certain. 
Thus  the  same  combination  of  two  symbols  would  have  to  stand 
for  rAra,  rMc,  Mrt,  ic9H,  rAi«k,  r«B«,  r6,  H^.  No  inscription  of  more 
than  a  few  words  in  length  is  found  in  other  dialect  earlier  than 
the  5th  century  B.C.  In  both  dialects  the  number  of  important  in- 
scriptions is  steadily  increasing.  Both  dialects  change  final  o  to  v, 
Am6  passioff  into  kwb.  Arcadian  changes  the  verb  ending  -at  into 
.««.  Arcaoian  uses  <  or  f  for  an  original  gv-sound,  which  appears  in 
Attic  Greek  as  ft:  {IXXm,  Attu:  0kSXu,  "  throw."  In  inflexion  both 
acfce  in  changing  -io  of  masculine  •&  stems  into  «»  (Arcadian  carries 
this  form  also  into  the  feminine  •£  stems),  and  in  using  locatives  in 
-a»  and  -M  for  the  dative,  such  locatives  being  governed  by  the 
prepositions  AHf  and  it  (before  a  consonant  it  in  Arcadian).  Verbs 
in  -sw,  fw  and  -ow  are  declined  not  as  •«,  but  as  tit.  verbs.  The  final 
•  of  tlie  ending  of  the  3rd  plural  present  chan^  the  preceding  r 
to  9 :  4Me»vt,  cp.  Laconian  (Doric;  ^ipeim,  Attic  4kpcmt,  Lcsbun 
^kfotmu  Instead  of  the  Atttc  r(r,  the  interrogative  pronoun  appears 
as  rir,  the  initial  9  in  Arcadian  bein^  written  with  a  special  symbol 
^.  The  pronunciation  b  not  certain.  The  original  sound  was  ^, 
as  in  Latin  911U,  whence  Attic  r(f  and  Thessalian  xlt.    In  Arcadian 

'  the  Aeolic  particle  m  and  the  Ionic  ay  seem  to  be  combined. 


2.  Aeolic.— XYkxnogh  Boeotian  b  overlaid  with  a  Docic'element,  it 
nevertheless  agrees  with  Thessalian  and  Lesbian  in  some  character- 
istics. Unlike  Greek  generally,  they  represent  the  or^nal  fw  of  the 
word  for  Jour  by  ir  boore  •,  where  Attic  and  other  dialects  have  r: 
vIrraiMs,  Attic  rlrraptt.  The  correspoodins  voiced  and  aspirated 
sounds  are  similariy  treated :  Bi^^s^M  the  acQective  in  Thessalbn  to 
A*>4olf ^«AHp for HP'  They alltend tochange e to v : fropio,  '*  name" ; 
eufottain Thessalian:  'AirAovr,  "  Apollo ";  and  v  in  Boeotian  for  m: 
fmta  (aLda),  "  house."  They  also  make  the  dative  plural  of  the 
third  declension  in  -«vv^and  the  perfect  participle  active  is  declined 
like  a  present  participle  in  •«».  instead  of  the.  Athenian  method  of 
giving  the  father's  name  in  the  genitive  when  a  citizen  is  described, 
these  dialects  (especially  Thessalian)  tend  to  make  an  adjective: 
thus  instead  of  the  Attic  Ajuutoeh^  AwmvMmw,  Aeolic  would 
rather  have  A.  A«io«My«iM.  Thessalian  stands  midway  between 
Lesbian  and  Boeotian,  agreeing  with  Lesbian  in  the  use  of  double 
consonants,  where  Attic  has  a  single  consonant,  with  or  without 
leni^thening  of  the  previous  syllable:  imdt  Attic  «Uil  for  an 
original  *esmi;  vrAXXa,  Attic  vriKm  Ctn«t  for  an  earlier  fji^ot,  Attic 
(iivt,  Ionic  (m»v»,  Doric  {^ivt.  Where  Attic  has  -ox  from  an  earlier 
-an  or  -aivs,  Lesbian  has  -ais:  rots  fi^x*>(*  accusative  in  Lesbian 
for  older  rAn  fi/^xs"*  Lesbian  has  no  oxyton  words  accordini;  to 
the  grammarians,  the  accent  being  carried  back  to  the  penult  or  ante- 
penultimate syllable.  It  has  also  no  "  rough  breathing,"  but  this 
characteristic  it  shared  with  the  Ionic  of  Asia  Minor,  and  in  the  course 
of  time  with  other  dialects.  The  characteristic  particle  of  the  dialects 
is  m,  whk:h  is  used  like  the  Doric  ca,  the  Arcadian  ccv.  and  the  Attic 
and  Ionic  Ar.  Thessalian  and  Lesbian  agree  in  making  their  long 
voweb  dose,  q  belonging  «»  (a  dose  i,  not  a  diphthoi^),  rar«(p, 
"  father."  The  v  sound  did  not  become  a  as  in  Attk  and  Ionic, 
and  hence  when  the  Ionic  alphabet  was  introduced  it  was  spelt  ov, 
or  when  in  contact  with  dentab  uv,  as  in  Mo«M(a<"&v#ia,  "  name," 
rio^xa^fin,  "chance  ";  the  pronuncution,  therefore,  must  have 
been  like  the  English  sound  in  news,  tune,  Boeotian  developed  eariier 
than  other  dialects  the  changes  in  the  vowels  which  cnatactcrize 
modem  Greek:  at  became  i,  xai  passing  into  jcA:  compare  rartlp 
and  Axfa  above:  ct  became  t  in  fx»,  has."  Thessalian  shows 
some  examples  of  the  Homeric  genitive  in  -mo:  soX^fioio,  Ac; 
its  ordinary  genitive  of  0-  stems  b  m  -ei. 

There  are  some  jpoints  of  connexion  between  thb  group  and 
Arcadun-Cywian:  in  both  Thessalbn  and  Cyprian  the  character- 
istic sriXif  (Attic,  &c.,  wtlKu)  and  iavxva-  for  <A^inr  are  found,  and 
both  groups  form  the  "  contracting  verbs  "  not  in  •«•  but  in  -/u* 
In  the  second  group  as  in  the  first  there  b  little  that  precedes  the 
Sth  century  B.C.  Future  additions  to  our  materials  may  be  expected 
to  lessen  the  gap  between  the  two  groups  and  Homer. 

^.  Ionic-Attic. — One  of  the  earliest  of  Greek  inscriptions— of  the 
century,  at'  least — b  the  Attic  inscription  written  in  two  lines 
from  right  to  left  upon  a  wine  goblet  (oli«x^)  given  as  a  prize: 
A6t  pw  6|>x«eTSr  s^brav  I  AraMrsra  wtdfti  totv  ^fiy  ^ip.  The  last 
words  are  uncertain.  Till  btely  early  inscriptions  in  Ionic  were 
few,  but  recently  an  eariy  inscnption  has  been  found  at  Ephesus 
and  a  bter  copy  of  a  long  eariy  inscription  at  Miletus. 

The  most  noticeable  characteristic  cf  Attic  and  Ionic  b  the  change 
of  a  into  9  which  b  universal  in  hmic  but  does  not  appear  in  Attic 
after  another  vowel  or  a.  Thus  both  dialects  used  j4r9P,  ri|<4  from 
an  earlier  i^t^p,  rt^ia,  but  Attic  had  «re^,  Tpiy/ta  and  x^pa,  not 
M^n,  wpHinrua  and  yi&n  as  in  Ionic.  The  apparent  exception  «4pf 
b  expbined  by  the  tact  that  in  this  word  a  digamma  f  has  been  lost 
after  p,  in  Done  K6pFa.  That  the  change  tock  pUce  after  the  lomans 
came  into  Asb  b  diown  by  the  word  M^t,  which  in  Cyprian  b 
Mifec;  the  Mcdes  were  certainly  not  known  to  the  Greeks  till  long 
after  the  conquest  of  lonb.  While  Aeolic  and  the  greater  part  ol 
Doric  kept  r,  thb  symbol  and  the  sound  w  represented  by  it  had 
disappeared  from  boui  Ionic  and  Attic  before  existing  records  begin — 
in  other  words,  were  certainly  not  in  use  after  800  b.c.  The  symbol 
was  known  and  occurs  in  a  few  isobted  instances.  Both  dialects 
agreed  in  changing  u  into  tf ,  so  that  a  u  sound  has  to  be  represented 
by  ov.  The  short  o  tended  towards  a,  so  that  the  contraction  of 
«+o  gave  ov.  In  the  same  way  short  e  tended  towards  i,  so  that  the 
contraction  <rf  •-!-«  gave  ct,  which  was  not  a  diphthong  but  a  close 
2-sound.  In  Attic  Creek  these  contractions  were  represented  by  O 
and  E  respectively  till  the  official  adoption  of  the  Ionic  alphabet  at 
Athens  in  40^  b.c.  So  also  were  the  lengthened  syUables  which 
represent  in  their  length  the  loss  of  an  earlier  consonant,  as  tiu*»a 
and  bttfta,  Aeolk:  tp»9u,  Mptftpa,  which  stand  for  a  prehistoric 
%u9ea  and  *lf«M9a,  containing  the.  •^  of  the  first  aoiist.  and 
nin,  obon,  fxoivt  representing  ah  earlier  r^,  otnn,  fyovrt 
C)  pi.  present)  or  *lxorrvt  (dative  pL  of  present  jcarticiple).  Both 
duilects  also  agreed  in  changing  r  before  t  into  0  (like  Acohc),  as  in 
fx«wt  above,  and  in  the  3rd  person  singular  of  -|m  verbs,  rtfinvt, 
M&ivi,  &c..  and  in  noun  stems,  as  in  l6otf  for  an  earlier  *Wrti. 
Neither  dblect  used  the  partkJe  m  or  ca,  but  both  have  Ar  instead. 
One  of  the  effects  of  the  change  of  a  into  •  was  that  the  combination 
<o  changed  in  both  dialects  to  90,  which  in  all  Attk  records  and  in 
the  later  Ionic  has  become  <w  by  a  metathesis  in  the  quantity  of  the 
vowels:  vmh,  eariier  rfi^At,  "  temple,"  b  in  Homeric  Greek  r^6t, 
in  bter  Ionic  and  Attic  m^.  In  the  datiVe  (locative)  plural  of  the 
-&  stems,  Ionic  has  generally  -vi^i  on  the  analogy  of  the  singular; 
Attk  had  first  the  old  locative  form  in  -«ot,  -aat,  which  survived 


JOI   9 


+98 


GREEK  LANGUAGE 


ch  buuH  lOttibt  Eke  'A«(r«nud  Nf4n:  bat 
ilieie  inn  Ofitai  by  -«ii.  Mwu,  &C.  Tbc  Ionic 
riuircd  muy  dunts  cuUcr  tbu  Ibit  01  tbe  Cydadct 
It  Ion  the  uplnu  my  arty;  Iwiicc  in  the  Iwic 

iKxd  to  1  Urge  dtsil  Ibc  ^  fay  tha  -B  veitm  TUi 
be  Kpn  b  profiHs  ia  the  Attic  licvituR  d  the  Jib 

'^  Ut««un  p^i^nJy  im  rornu  ^"ifla  lor  Lf*   gnotL): 

'    [im  which  uivived  in  the  Ionic  cl  Euboca 

Iw  the  ead  D<  the  Jth  centiuy.    The  Ionic 

the  lenitive  g<  i4temii  the  cither  lonni  ol 


Ill  Attica  ■!»_, 
uid  tbeCydmlciI 
irfA^Mlinrlin 


lidee  if  Dsric  my  be  aoted  the 

inBec^on  the  most  ooticemble  poim 
yi  Dane  diiiccu  ind  the  BuiiDUc  Poeti). 

he  in  pL  1^  Che  yob  in  t>^ 


'tSS.i,*AS 


n-iv,cp.  [be  Latin  -mu;  thetoriu  ii 

■  -'--' — ta  lievc  -*-,  or  coatnction  from  j ,_ 

Sc  lutfu,  Ac :  the  lutun  purive  with  nctive 

.m.  ...Y      *_.   _j ^    ,^y    ^    jjjj    Doril 

le  perticla  ■!  " 


uc  the  deuili  of  ibe  >> 


I       I  a(  LKonia  Tecenlly  mucb  iw  i .  i 

.jcnYUlou  tl  (he  Britiih  School  ii  Athu  >. 
dedlculou.  the  culini  iuaiptiui  el  importa 


tribei  vUdt  had  repolied  the  Peniuu.    Ilie  column,  origiaally 
Delphi, ia nai* (t Conuutinsple.   TbemoitfUikiiigrnnBaolt,.^ 
dialect  an  the  cetentioa  ol  r  at  the  beilnDlBi  ti  vordi.  ■*  in  the 
dadkuioa  [no  the  «th  century  ftrttVm  Umma  if  BrilM 
SChagJ,  nv.  lu).    Hie  dialect  cbanced  ■*■  bctnen  vowel)  into 

ft  .iri"  '— r^--" "  Later  it  cnaqged  *  inla  «  nund  like  the 

E(itli±l)i.i£lchwurenaenMdby>.  BEfaraHuuiKU •  here  and 
inaome  other  Doric  diakcta  chaqftd  tot:#i^.  nh  tot  $iAt"  god." 
ihe  remit  of  cootnctioa  *nd  "  conpeniatocy  len(Ibeabu  "  wii  not 
audou  in  Attic  and  Ionic,  bat*  andoi  4i«  infinitive -■!>•• 
from  'toam;  pa.  My.  of  mtmiain.i  *A  ace-  pl'  iB-^:tU«: 
ty  na  lepnaentM^  H,  itat  T.  aa  In  Atllclonlc;  |itr>U>- 
liMira.  ThedlalecthadMiiyKranfewoidii  etpecialiy  in  conoeiion 
with  tiKalate  education  andDrianiaation  of  Che  Dova  and  youni  men. 
The  Hetaclian  taUa  f  (ena  Laconlan  colony  in  S.  luly  have  cuiiaui 
forma  in  Hvei  for  the  dat.  pL  of  the  participle  vpatftf^a^n— Attic 
trtrrnn.  Of  the  dialect  of  Mewia  we  know  Utile,  the  lon( 
iBKription  about  myitenea  ftwn  itodania  beinj  only  about  looi-C. 
Fmn  AiToUa  there  are  a  couidenble  number  of  early  uucripiioni. 
and  in  a  biter  form  of  the  dialect  the  cuiea  Rxorded  at  the  temple  of 
Aiklepioa  at  Epidaunia  prneot  many  point,  of  intereB.  Tbeie  i> 
alK  an  inKiiption  ol  the  6tb  century  a.c  from  [be  temple  of 
AphaU  in  A^pna.  r  urvivet  in  tbe  old  inicriptioaa:  ftffv^rt 
('-•I*iliilra);>i, whether origiBal  oraiiMngbyaoiindchangeCrDin-iiIy. 
perwala  till  the  Md  cenlBry  ■.c:  ttrrnxfrnm^  fcrnxrfra.  rin 
Mn-n*f  1*1.  Tha  diakcl  ct  the  Inacbua  valley  acenu  to 
reiemble  LacsniMl  men  cloady  than  dee*  that  of  the  mt  of  tbe 
Aradicarea.  Corinth  and  her eolonica  In  the carUeatlaicr^ontpre- 
•ervefand  '{-LatbQ)be(iire>aBd>Bouoda.aBdwrite{aiulf  byzc 
and  ^,  the  aymbob  n^lcfa  are  uaed  alao  for  tUa  porpoae  In  old  Atiic- 
In  the  Cortyteaa  and  SiciUan  (maa  of  the  dialect,  k  before  a  dental 
appear*  aa  rt  4vrlai-#iATUt:  and  In  Sicilian  tbe  perfect-active 
waa  treated  aa  a  preaent:  liipiwi  Ux  Mpua,  Ac.  From  Megara 
baa  oooio  lately  an  obacnte  iucrlption  from  the  beginmng  of  the  ^th 
century;  ita  colony  Selinua  baa  uucripCiont  from  tbe  middle  of  tbe 
•ame  coituty  i  the  incilptlDB  from  fiyaatium  and  it>  other  Pontic 
cnloniEt  date  only  from  Hellenlitk  tiiaea.  In  Crete,  which  ibowa  a 
conaiderable  variety  nf  mbdialKtit  tba  moit  Important  document  i* 
the  neat  inacriptlnn  fmai  Gortyn  cotnlnlni  twelve  tabica  of  family 
law.  which  waa  dlacsveted  la  lUa.  Tbe^ool  aMiabet  hu  no 
acpvateaymbakfoc  V  and  A  and  theoe.ioiindi  ate  tbenfore  written 
wUh  I  and  a.  Aa  In  Artfve  ifce  conbinathn  -at  waa  kept  both 
medially  and  finally  eicept  before  wonbbe^nniiwmtfa  a  conaonant ; 
.Jy- waarepreaentedbyf,lacerby-fr-,iiainThBiailianand  Boeotian: 
AvArrDi,  Attic  4eint;  and  liiialJy  by  -it-\  X  combined  with  a  pre- 
"  '    '      (:  alU,  Attic  Uia4,  ^,  the  En^iA 


pRBundaclon  of  taU.  Ac.    In  Gsrtyn  apd  Km 
Ik  in  Ik^i  f'Of  Attic  Greek  it  reprcrented  in 


be  Eiuiiih 


teen  found  written  in  an  aliAabet  without  aymboli  i 
which  are  thcnfoR  written  aa  rH.  Bk  ot  ^  k.  ».  ar.  Tbe 
of  ■+■  and  of  a+e  are  repreienled  by  E  ac 

diicovaed.  Tbe  ooB  characuriuic  feature  of  Rhodian  Dmic 
ii  the  Infinitive  in  -»»:  SiiMr.  Ac  ('-Attic  t>iSr*i].  which 
pamd  alio  to  Ccla  and  Airiientum.      Tbe  InKripliona  frun  COa 

(t)  Tbe  dialccta  of  N.W.  Doric.  Loctiin,  Phodan.  AetoKan.  wrtU 
which  HO  Elcan  and  Achaean,  preaent  a  more  uncouth  aHxniance 
than  the  other  Doric  dialect*  except  pobapa  Cretan.    Only  from 

developed,  in  which  tbe  document*  ol  the  Actolian  le^ue  are 

r-Attic  Ii4r0.  At    Pbocianand  the  Locrian  of  Opua  have  alp 

4iarc  need  in  Locrian  and  Phodan.  Generally  north  of  ^Cotintlnaa 
liilE  the  middle  preient  panldDle  fiom  -wvcibt  endaia  _  lyti; 

into  at  nriijia  for  varlfmi  d.  EiqiiA  JCarand  C^,  ktmiii add 
Sanaeaaf.  tr  appcara  for  «f ,  and  P  and  r  an  mHI  inucli  in  ue  In 
tbc  Hh  century  I.e.    Man]MhouBpdi  o(  ini    '    ' 

^"^^    l^^'fc „_     ._    . 

Lawa  of  tbe  Labymd  phratry  (a 

ablative  foaiillied  aa  an  adverb!    The'  nam. 

for  the  acciilmilarfotmt  are  found  in  Eleana 

Tbe  more  important  of  the  older  nuteriali  for  Achaean  come  irom 
the  Achaean  caoniea  of  S  Italy,  and  being  icantir  give  lu  oaly  an 
imperfect  view  of  tbe  dialect,  but  it  u  curly  in  ita  main  feattnea 
Doric  Much  more  remarkable  ia  the  Elean  diaVct  known  chiedy 
'     ""  "  I  found  at  Olynipia,  aome  of  which  are  ai  early  at  the 

Mh  eentury.    The  native  dialect  waa  replacid  ErK 

and  then  by  the  Attic  iiiH.  but  under  the  Caemn  the 
arcnatc  dialect  waa  rcatoreiL  Many  of  ita  chaiacterlalica  ii  ibaiei 
with  the  dialecta  north  of  the  Connlhian  gulf,  but  it  channa  mvina] 
lcol:M4-iie.  Ac.:4waaapparent]y  aapirant.aain  modBnCnek 
(-A  In  EiuUih  Ik,  Ow),  and  i>  repreacRIed  by  r  ia  aoine  of  tbe 
eariieat  intcriptioni.  Final  .r  becaoK  -rt  thit  H  found  aho  in 
Laconlan ;  -ly-  became  -^a-,  but  wat  not  wnplified  ai  in  Atlie  to 

Aa  we  have  leen,  loniana.  Aetoliana  and  Dorianr  tended  to  level 
locsl  peculiaritiH  and  make  a  generally  inteUiglble  dialect  ia  wllil^ 

1o^  d£ect  of  Boeot^  waa  n«  eai!^tSl^ble''in''Mh9^Iricia. 

and  a  writer  like  tender,  wboae  palroni  were  moiCly  not  Boeotiana. 
hadpcrloralowritcinadialecttbatlhtycouiduadanad.  Hence 

of  Corinna.  who  kept  more  or  IcH  doeel* 
For  dillerent  Ulerary  purpoaca  Gntk  bad 

!  on  that  qI  Hanier  and  He^od,  Akaeus 
'■  --  ■  ii.ii.!.'!  l..r  111.  IhV.!  l^ric,  which  wb>  therefore 
liumplul  ode,  iriiich.  at 
..!,.!!  I  I  In  Doric,  IboQ^  l^ndar 
I  in,  .inn  HI  mticr  i-niw  icpreteautivea,  Simonidea  and 
^.(<c  lomni  ImmCKia.  The  cbnal  ode  o(  oucdy 
(onvoolional  Dork,  and  la  the  lambien  ako  ait  Dn 
'4Ur.  \iit,  Ac  Elegy  and  epigram  were  fonnded  on  eiBc: 
ijrnbict  ol  Hipponaiand  Vl  hia  diedple  Hetondaa  arc 
lirat  Greek  pmae  waa  developed  In  Ionia,  of  vhiA  aa 
inLplr  ha*  been  prearr^^  to  iia  In  HcndMua.  Thaey., 
1  .in  Ionian,  but  he  could  not  Aake  hiraidf  free  of  tie 


beglnninaei 


Kiv'''''\','"''\''''r^'''M'™^ 

genenlly  printed  amongK  the 
belongi  to  about  4>5  1.0.    [ 


^dnt),Flataand 
updoo,  who  ordinarily 
>ded  for  the  law<oum 
il  ichod  in  Cot  wrote 
:^ut,  but  in  a  taogvage 
•ooiiaDd  tUafakct 


Iragrnenl  ol  Aiiatophann' 


GREEK  LANGUAGE 


_. ^ ,  ,, ig  the  imU  difficult  al 

the  liuniy  di«kcu  to  tncc  ii  the  eir)>e«~iliC  Hamerx  dulcet. 
Tic  Honsic  qintioil  cwmM  be  diiciuHd  ben.  and  oa  that  quslkm 
It  may  be  lud  fiM  hamiita  lot  xaJnlui.  To  ibe  pfeKut  ■ritet, 
bOHwJI  «■  pnAabk  ibat  [be  poenii  mt  innpaed  la  Chioi 

th*  hcnca  •iuh  an,  octet  {or  tke  Atbenlani  (very  brieSyrefemd 
to).aDdpaiHblyTeUiDoiiUiiAiai,Di>taftlieIoaic>tcidi.  CUotwu 


itadf  aa  lonidied  AmUc  colony  (Diodonjt  v 
c(  a  ireat  poet  writjnc  on  ti     '     ' 
titfm  la  Ola*  «»  to  c 


Of  Doiiaa  Uleruun  wt  knon  little.    The  worka  el  i 

nittea  in  the  Simciuao  dial«t  vere  mucb  altered  in  laaguafe  l 
"--'iKco^^ihtl.   TKumturikinidcvelopm '-■-' ' — '' 


Etry.  which,  like  SpeDier»  [a 
ol  Syracuan  andjniUily 
lemeata  borrowed  frooi  the 


tbcrlaacuai* 

„ .  il  banHMdll .... 

otijeeu  which  It  liaported  Iroin  lamga  Ititim.  aot  only  [nmi  ihoK  of 
Creek-ueakliic  iHipla,  but  aba  (nun  Ecypt.  Fenla.  Lydia.  nac- 
nicia.  Thncc  and  dacwheTi.  The  Ionian  were  Real  lealann,  aod 
IfDO  then  AtboHborTDwedwardafoTeeacraftuiaeven  for  the  (idea: 
•■nira"<fab,"  ^i(a  "hifhlide."  an  Ionic  wonl  fnh  tp^t  in 
AnicIaiMon.  From  the  Dgiiani It  homwed  wotda coniKcted  with 
war  and  toon:  iawiii,  nMyti.  ic  A  loldier  of  fortune  Uke 
Xeaopboa,  who  ipent  moat  of  bii  life  away  from  Athena,  (atndaced 
Bat  only  etniife  wonb  but  Mnnjce  pannatlol  csBUmctkiaa  alas 
iaie  Ml  Uletaty  conpontiona.  With  Arinotle.  aot  a  bocn  AtbcaUa 
but  Idoi  reiident  in  Albnu.  the  ttut  may  be  tald  to  ham  becun. 
SoBTSaiBcteriMia.  of  Atlle  fo-^ • ■  '•  ■— •  ' :^— 


.   Hence  in  Hellcnlnic  Greek 


tUtty  yean  In  AlhcnL    Thoumtui 
priMcr  la  the  Pdoponneuan  War 


ill  mote  com 
d  at-Hvll  pi 


of  the  old  diakcta  bii 


Atheinaa^  after  _Th  hid  fived 

. ...  DenvHthenef'  ^xccb  "  Anbtt 

Jie  miH  there  were  levcral  diviitont,  thouiLthc 

jn  a  fault  and  Irregutir.    there  wai  a  a>>4  of 

Kloant  men  like  Polybiiu  and  of  taretully  prepaicd  atale  dociuDenta. 
••  at  Macseala  or  Ptriainuini  and  a  difteieni  •urt  of  the  vidiar 
*Uch  il  tepteiented  to  hi  in  in  Egyptian  form  la  tk  Pentateuch. 
-        •-  .       .  '  „y  i^leninlaa  form  In  the  Goapeb. 

lage  which  we  End  ia  the  ID^nlten 
Dund  amongat  the  Efyptiaa  papyri. 
.-.  out  of  tMi  nwt  nine  moden  Greek. 

..„  . , .w  leu  bewSderiai  thaa  that  of  aocient 

Cmk.  la  Doe  place  more  rapidly,  in  another  nun  ilovly,  the 
charwnniitki  of  mnkcn  Greek  bt^ia  to  appear.  Ai  h  haw  iccn. 
ip  Bontia  the  vowrli  and  dlphtbcafi  befaa  to  paai  lata  the  cha^ 
actrfutic  lOUBdi  nf  nudera  Greek  fisr  ceatuciea  before  Chrlit. 
Dnian  dialecti  iltuUnle  early  the  paaiini  of  the  old  aaplrale  *, 
On  inind  ol  which  wu  like  the  final  llnEi^hih  Nt.  biw  aaound  Bke 
(he  Ei^uh  tit  in  IMa,  pilk,  which  It  alill  retalaa  fai  ntadm  Greek. 
The  change  of  i  between  voweli  lata  a  y  lound  wai  charpd  by  the 
comic  pact*  acairut  Hyperboliit  the  onnafonie  about  4tS  I.C. 
Only  when  the  Attk  aoniid  chaneca  atood  bolated  amonfit  theCicek 
dialecti  did  they  lite  way  in  the  •H>4  (e  lonk^  Thui  the  lormi 
with  ^v' inilead of  .TT- won  the  day,  while  modem  Greek  ihova  that 
■Daietimn  the  -ft-  whkh  Attic  ihared  with  lome  Dork  dialect*  and 
Arouliu  wu  retained,  and  that  lonietiniea  the  loidc  ■/*•,  which 

w^  abo  Lcibian  and  partly  " — -'  ' — ^  ''-  -' —     ' — '' 

where  Ionic  and  Anic  did  i 
diStnat  Iron  rither:  the  ^i 


.    In  otter  ta 


with  I. 


nak«yo[ 


'.    The  form  hAi  "temple,"  intcad  of 


in  of  the  t«  with  the  jnl  dc 

tku,  the  kaa  of  the  oplat.. .  .^ 

:t  and  aecond  aoriit  endidcB  tA  tli 


499 

only  be  Doric.*  In  the  Gnt  five  centurlea  of 

I  the  oudrTn  Creek  characterialici  of  itacum 

flf  the  pcDnunciition  of  m*  and  rr  iM  mb 

idcfungn,  the  loatof  the  dative  and  the 

™_:  ja 

the  lint  aoriit.' 

..— , , , ivival  ol  the  oM 

lancuafe.  Ladan  wmte  Attk  diakne  with  a  fvilinr  almoM  equal 
to  Plato;  the  old  dialect  wai  revived  ia  the  Inicriptioni  of  Sparta; 
Balbilia,  a  hdy-ln.vaitlnf  on  Hadrlaa'i  emprw.  wrote  eporana 
iBAeoUc.aaddeccveteotherattenipuodheianehiBd.  Butthey 
•^■l-niifira,,^m'AUiiit,w^-- •---• 


lansuage  not  anlika  that  idUch  hai  been  btoiubt  ab .__ 

by  the  devefopoent  ol  the  natuial  ideace^  It  li  hardly  luonianr 
to  My  that  tlwcbanin,  wbctberaf  the  bv|  or  of  auderaGreeib 
j:j..«-f .. :-..  r ---ho  powm  of  the  language  aaaa  ortanaf 


Til  Ckitl  CkamUHaia^Gntk. 

Aa  ia  (Aivlaui  fmn  the  foreteing  UEount  of  the  Greek  dklectL 

-    ■'■' '- of  the  early  hilaty  ol  Greek  ai  hanikd 


I  neak  of  at  arly  h^oty  ol  Creek 

ol  a  ilnfle  uniform  toacue.   Prom __ 

raucfa  variety  of  dialect  aocentuated  by  the  fen- 

...^^..^^.1- _  ■— ariiini.atleaftlnpart, 

'"^  ccuiiln'  ia  leparate 
FortbeUitoryofthc 


oltbei 
"eeeka  


—  befiaalas  the  form  cf  tin  In — 
Cnek  denoded,  as  f ar  ai  It  can  h« 

of  the  Individual  I.E.  tanguagta 
|.   The  Kundi  of  thii  laaniaee. » 

the  following^ 
in)  II  vDweii:  a.  0,1,1,1,1,0,  d,  a,  s,(  (i  ihort  ladiillnet  vnwel). 
li)  Tt  diphthong!:  ni,  u,  if.  n,  n,  tii,di,  fa.  ft,  A>,  M,  fc,  (i.  >«. 

LabialiTjT.  i,  ^,  M  (^  and  M  bong  #  and  »  foUowed  by  u 
andible  breath,  not/ and  l). 

Denlah:  t.i.lk.ik  (M  and  dt  atl  tpiranta  like  the  two  Eoglidt 
loundi  ia  Ikm  and  itn,  but  upinicd  I  and  d). 

Palatab:  1.  J.  U,  Ik  <U  ancijt  aipiraln  ai  eaplabicd  abwe). 

Velan:  {.  ri«t.f*  (velan  diner  (ram  pilitali  by  being  produced 
agalnil  the  aoft  pilale  initnd  of  the  m/ of  the  moulh). 

Labio-velin:  p.  p,  ott.  fttlthnc  differ  from  the  v^in  by  hdw 
combined  with  a  ■£fhtliUi]>.»iindl. 

I>ental  i  1. 1.  pM-^lentat  |.  r,  tnlcrdental  poanbly  i,  tt 

Palatal!  »  (Smwh  dii.  y. 
_      Velar:  itadceplyguiIuiali.beardnowinSwiaidialeclit.t. 
Cloiely  lUn  to  v  and  y  and  often  confwd  with  them  wet* 
the  ■emi.vowdi «  aivt  i- 
W  LiquaiiJ,!;. 


■  (labW,  b( 


<l  (pidatil),  ■  (vebr).  the  bit 


tlHBgt  mote  accunlely  than  any  other  bnguige.  Theioandi 
(  aod  ihott  *  ia  Attic  and  Ionic  were  doie.  lo  (hat  i+t 
1^  to  a  kHH  doie  r  repreiennd  by  (i,  a-fi  to  ■  long  ckne  * 
.. ,  u..  _     ..  ...„  j....^  a.  both  low  and  ihort,  wu 


I,  t&[High  Attic  bai 

...    _„ — _ , — ./ aa  a.  But  under  th- 

iDfljFTHeofanakfy  often  all  and  & 

(i)  TheihcetdiphtlungiaiawholeremabwdniKhaittedbtforea 
r,?UDwine  coEuonant.  Before  a  fdlowlnf  vowel  the  dipfaiboor  wae 
J  Ivided  between  the  two  tytlablei.  the  i  or  >  funning  a  omaananl  at 
Ihe  beginning  of  the  Hcond  lyUible.  which  ultimately  dlmppeared- 

■n  earlier  *iViUy.  Tbe  oorreipandlM  adJcEtivc  ii  tah  "iwift," 
lor  fc-Krr,  Ir.nn  an  earlier  **nH>-i.  Ae  oiaty  dialer:!  which  kept 
l.tie  whole  diibthonf  In  one  lyltable  wai  Aeollc  The  loi^  diph- 
I  tiongi,  eMc(i(  at  the  enda  of  wiinb,  were  ibnrlened  in  Attic  Some 
^  Ihc4  ifip'-ar  merely  aa  long  voweb.  having  loft  their  eecond 
piemen!  in  tT-e  proethiiic  period.  Apparent  ww  dipbthoafi  lifcp 
I  ho<e  in  i.t'O'nU.  .^M  ar£e  by  contraction  of  two  iyOibieZ^ 


HI  {Skt.  ilAmBi)    "      - 


change.   Then 

M,  ik,  Ik.  It,  fit  areeoaf 
-  •'■—  {Sit.  Uardan)  b 


b.  Dit  friakiidit  Sfnchi  it 

i.  141->1J. 

b.  >^.  nl.  p.  149. 


500 

tiHU-}.  Cr.    I(w)-iua-i;   I.E.  'ilimk-   (Skt. 
I.E.  'film-  <Slii.  Ew-).  ~     " "  "   ■ '  ■ 


GREEK  LANGUAGE 

if*-).  J 


ifh-    (Ski.    Kift-J,    Cr.    .r,,. 
gxDbibly).  «irn.    ThF[i..lLO 

n  ibE  diffnrat  Cmk  dulB:t 
■cm  with  ■,  which  led  lo  la 


[roup,  audi  jLa  Sdniltrit,  Zend  or  51a 

«  vdwe1».  nu.il«  and  Uqulik,  tbe  ac 
■nd  >  voweU  a*  '.  ait\.  »s  ia  coaibli 

l,^4^!^i  !""'  ir""  '  ',"-  ,'"''  i*^"  '".,  "!'-■"  ',  "'"iT>h 
Italic  liEIEuai  -ic 

b  parjillel  lo  ti-<  Lac-1  v'lJ.  ii-^  •^f-^'i  fiu.  uM  JfiiJi  ivi,  \\<Ult  pwy, 
"wbof  ■■whit/-;  Atlic  rl^wi,  Ionic  >t»w  "(out*  a 
pu^l  to  Latin  sui'lur,  OKan  nrwn-  old  [riili  cclUr,  old  Wdih 
tttttar;  rini  it  from  ihc  umc  root  u  isu*.    For  the  vinad 

A«  "  Uh,"  from  the  lamc  root  u  Skt.  ilKU.  Litin  (Inu!  OlIt 
''  bMMriiw,"  Sin.  Tja.  *i.  in  Amdi^C/pniii  and  Atolic.  •  ■nd  S 
Oftea  prtccae  '  Ud  ■  nundi.  Tliiu  panllel  (o  Atlic  tJttm<i 
Lablu  hu  itinpH.  tliimcr  ilnjn,  Bomtiui  ilTTapn;  Th»- 
allan  AUU^iai,  Bocolian  0U>wu  >]DnB»dc  of  Atlx;  fiatit^t*. 
LcAlia  MUhih.  Doric  Mkciiu  and  alK  MWu-  1°  Amdiin 
and  Cypnan  ue  fomi  cormpondinc  lo  rir  wu  «ki,  in  ThaoAlun 
ma.  vbcK  Ihe  libUliixtian  wu  lisf  (icc  Ibe  article  on  Q). 

A  pvat  vulety  <A  chaa|«  in  Ibe  atDppect  CDiuonanu  une  in 
coflibiHlitHi  irilh  other  uurfedi,  apecially  | »  kennivDwcl  of  the  oature 
of  EnoNth  v), f  («)indri-Tjf. 4^bKaiBeDnt  4#-  and  lata-*-  in 
Atlic  Greckt  tt^  in  Boeotian  (the  pndie  pronunciation  of  -*#-  and 
-tt-  ii  unnrtain):  Attic  (<r4«<Hf  ndier  ^t4rm,  Boeotian  ^t^tth, 
IroDi  the  eamc  fton  a>  the  Latin  quot,  queiUiui  Komeric  utmt, 
Attic  f4»i  frnn  VA>t.  Ijitin  iwecfini;  -a^.  ^-  becsunc  -«■-. 
Attic  -».-:  Ttm  ''  ptdl,"  Attic  afrra  finm  *il.i».  cp.  Utin 
«u.  fkii,  lUina,  Anie  lUnaa  eooipantivc  to  IXatti.  h  and  Ti 
bKanw  r:  ad  (Ski.  Z>>aH>  Urifw  tnni  tt-Hi,  turn  Or*- 
"  Iuck/*  jBaarlfv  from  jsArrit.  «cn  M^iT- "  la^i" 

i^  The  KHind  ■  wu  repreiented  in  the  Gntli  ilphatiet  by  r,  the 
innma."  but  In  Attic  and  Ionic  the  eound  wai  loot  very  early. 
In  Aeolkc,  particularly  Boeotian  and  I.c9bian,  it  waa  penittcnt,  and 
■o  alao  in  many  Doric  ctiakcta,  capocially  ac  tbe  beginniriK  of  wordi. 
Whan  tbe  lonicnIiAabMvuadDpnd  bv  diMricta  which  lad  maincd 
r.  ii  wH  repreiented  Inr  fii  tfgilir  Aeolic  for  ^Uw,  ij.  fpiiar. 
t  diiurpcu«d»  Hvinf  no  tnce:  in  lopic  it  len[Ibenrd  the 
tylioblB;  thua  in  Horner  twvt4rat  a  acannrd  with  a  ]an% 


preceding  tylU 

bnauae  the  re 


r  I.E.  jHI,-. 


upifm,  Engliab  jam;  IX-i  hoa  the __ 

EfltUib  uPl:  Ai  toe  Mn  ia  the  hiik  aa  the  Latin  rnrf  (*nu^ 
Combiaed  wilh  i  or  a  aim  it  puae*  into  1:  Mr,  Skt.  iftma 
"bind"i  m,.  Doric  IWi.  Ladn  inHiitii.  Eneliih  imcd;  c 
ataiH  for  'fouotffi,  pfh,  Lcabian  raS)ot  ^'  temple.'  through  rmf 
from  'rairs-i  connected  with  p<hi  "  dwell."  Bdare  naiala  ar 
liauidt  J  waa  aiaunilated:  im-ii^,  Latin  nti-rv^,  EngliUi  jaii' 
>Wa.  Latin  ■nm.  Eniliah  tium:  >4^«.  Ulin  lana,  En|]iifa  doc. 

Kfruni  *ireu-0  of  the  aame  origin  aa  En^liih  itnam  (where  t  ia 
:r  iuertiDn).  imperfect  Wav  for  'rrrwM ;  cp.  also  4t^a,Lp4^ 

I  AfIerna»leiiaateiniila»denxpteu!ly:wheniKiniilated,ini 
^alecta  eutpt  Aeolic  the  pnviout  lyliablc  ia  lengthened  il  ik 
already  long:  Attic  tmnmt  I«mu*  lor  the  firat  ■---■   * ' 


pi.  eilberre 


*j«B->.  then  by  analogy  of  the  neuter  *f 
i^ip^  4nd  ao  alao  the  Doric  of  Thera 

■yllable  (ace  the  a. 
fiBt.aEnali.hw 


a-   neiallve  eaitide.  Latm  in,  GofGdi  h; 

MDteAxaitheLallniiia-f<ei(i7).     T&  bmiida 

by  Ibe  loaa  oi  aU 
U^  Latin  ^inl; 

of  Creek  haa  been  ao  well  pteawved 

ioul^  ■  pilch  acmt 

I  tfane  nunbeia,  birt  the  dual 

.  .- .  the  taro  horaea  ID  the  charioc^ 

that  Ihe  original  form  of  the  oblique  caaea 

Somioative,  AccuAtive.  Cenilive. 

le  and  Dative.     TIk  voalioe  waa 

•  11  uaualky  xanda  oaitaidc  tbe  ayntnclical 

n  when  a  diatinctive  form  appean.  h  ia 

leiJ"™''   Greek  ^confoaedfeiiiliire  and  ablative  (tbe  di>- 

i(  IMphi.    Tbe  Inatrumenol,  locative  and  dallve  an  mind  in  one 

i^aje.partlyEorpboiKtic,  partly  forayntaeticalrer '-  '  —  -"-- 

Elean.  Boeoliin.  and  la^  WKkjy  in  »  ''-~~ 

molt  dialecta  ir 

Arcado^^lirian 

Intheploral.tbe 


_. ,  _  dpci]pF  when  hiatocy  bqiina,  and 

jleriod  of  Sanakiit  arrivea  the  nKXida  have  bcokea 
don,  tmd  the  aorial.  peifecl,  and  impectect  tenaca  are  aynuctieally 
confined-  Tbn)U|haut  Ibe  Greek  fjaaaical  period  tbe  mDoda  air 
maintained,  but  in  the  period  of  Ibe  bw4  the  optative  occnra  1^ 
and  leaa  aiul  finally  diaappeara.  The  oririnal  I.E.  had  two  voiceak 
an  active  and  a  middle,  and  to  theae  Greek  haa  added  a  third,  the 
pattive,  dlatinfuiihed  fmm  the  middle  fai  many  vcba  by  aepwale 
lonna  for  tha  future  and  aoriu.  made  with  a  ayOable  fi  .  ,  iriiiiii  . 
tr\i  t^ii.  thoa^  fi  thia  inRance,  TwAaivai,  Ihe  future  middie,  it 
(ften  anad  wilb  ■  paiifVt  leaie.  Other  torma  which  CreA  haa  added 
orifiDal  mtam  an  Ihe  pluperfect — in  form  a  paat  ct  the 
ttam  ntfi  aoriat  endinca.  It  merdy  eap 
Dpaal  time,  and,  tiDceplaa  derived  from  UhEcun  int.  am 
the  notion  of  iriativc  tine  (paat  at  a  time  alieady  jvat). 
which  allachea  Id  Ibe  Latin  locmt  with  Ihe  lame  ntnx^  The  futme 
optative  waa  alaa  a  new  formation,  betraying  itl  origin  la    '      ' 


:leari  the  ^  vabt 
pcrton  in  'an  and  ■ 
Creek  doei  not  end 
iri^theorMu'  ' 

Init  there  bat  been 

The  ayntai  of  the  verb  ii 

oftheve-"' "    --- 


1  (praent^and  imperfectj 

6r  tbedeuil 

BtiuoGuraT. 


of  coafiiaiao  betwven  lb 

on  the  orieinal  I.E.  dtatinctaDa 

i.  but  by  Torma  of  actioii.  pn^ 
.  mnauMiated  actna  (a^l. 

— ,-„ jiLJutcuacn. 

,— ^i.)  A  ifaiiunar  of  Greek,  which  wiD  deal  fully 
wim  ine  wnoie  iDBtcrial  of  ue  language,  ia  at  preaent  a  dtfitJmfnn. 
and  ia  hardly  pottibic  ao  long  at  new  dialect  material  ia  being  cim- 
atantly  added  atui  whiltf  compantively  ao  little  haa  been  dMe  en 
tbe  tyntax  of  the  dialecti.  The  grealetl  caDtction  of  material  it 
be  found  In  the  new  edition  of  KUhner'a  CnKUidH  Cnmmaltt. 
^nt-  Hid  FimaUn,  by  Blam  (i  volt..  Itgo-ttfl);  SyMai,  by 
Cenh<lvdi..  1I96,  1900).  Blam^  {ul  It  uieful  oobr  for  matoial. 
the  eiqdanation  being  entirely  antkiUBted.  Tlie  only  full  bittorictl 
account  of  the  language  (loundt.  forma  and  ayalu)  at  preaent  in 
exiucace  it  K.  Brugmann  t  CiriiBktMkr  CrBiutatd  (]nl  td.,  tfOOX 


GREEK  LAW 

lOrk  wben  il  finL  aplieand  in  IBSO.  mi 
^AphKal   Dutrrii 


fS& 


CuuvMeyer'i 

which  did  onllnii  pu 

a In  Enfiiih  fxrhs-r-  ~ ., ^  — 

t. Tbnnuiion  (LojidofL  igca).  Tbefrtmmuaf  Honxr  mflhindled 
f  O.  B.  Hoan  (lad  ed.,  Oilord.  iSai).  The  •vntu  hu  been  traied 
in  muy  ipteill  serin.  UBDiMit  vkiill  nuy  bemenlioncd  W.  W. 
Ciiadwia.^ilu  <f  On  Crak  Ueedi  and  frnui  (ne*  <d..  1M9I ; 
B.  1.  GiMHilttw  ud  C.  W.  E.  Miller.  Synuu  el  Cbuiiial  Ctckfrm 

id  the  olhn-  l.E?  laiig< 


iff  btwuHilma,  pt,  L 


{•Si: 


tritdiiulm  Spraclu  {Cfittinnn,  1896).    f 
■K  K.  Brntmun  *nil  B.  Ddbrilck.  Cri 

b  itiB  inconplMef  ami  Bmcnunn-i  Kun 

(,iva-iv>i):A.iiaitt.iMfi>i,iMiniriit 

tmda-anfitwta  (2nd  ed..  1908),    Creek  LuHi|j>.t.-u  -i.^i  ^wa.i^i 

SaJtnli  (jBd td..  IQOi,  with  in  appendii CDnulnini (btirf tax 
ud  •peclmtnxrf  ihc  dialeci .^ ;  ^V.,!  .,,U  r,.,V. ,-.  C-j„!,„ 
ttmpinlm  in  Cnt  tl  in  Lai 


Hive  r>' 


ind^l 
HiuCm 

'  Appeared.  b«h  o 


1909);  C.  _    . . 

Cwt  DvOtclt.  Crammtr,  SrUiii^ 

■91a).  WcdDonibrRricalch.r 

by  O.  KoflmviB  and  bv  H.  W.  Smyth.  For  tKc  :....-.  -.  be 
■pccuKy  nKnlnnnl  A.  Thumb.  Die  rnci:*,  SpraiU  i"  /'  .  .  '  ilu 
Sillnii»u(i9oi)!E.  Mr/«-'.  C'0'<K^:<l! /^  t'-.fih- . : .  -  <'.-:-yn 

tiaillrl'UUmiimilrla.'        n  .  .  .    , 

t  Cnmmar  ^  Ik  OU 


OREBXLAW.  Ancient  Creek  U-ii  a  bnncb  of 
jurisp'uden"  the  imponvice  ol  which  bu  beta  lonj  ignaied. 
j^^^  ^^  Jtiriita  hnve  commojily  lett  iii  uudy  ta  fcholui.  * ' 
MMdtmm-    have  gFiiFnily  rcFiained  from  comparing  lb«  Ituii 

T.   been   paniallr  compared   t 


'    Romi 


I  the 


utioDX.    It  (lU/  n 

bm  of  Cattyn;  it*  influeo 

inmu  pmervBl  in  Ejypliu 


e  iul 


entaUy  i] 


e  Germanic 


Hhole  i 


»  ol  tfie  I 


may  be  traced  in  lepil  docu- 
iipyrii  and  it  may  be  lecogniud 
mate  relationa  la  Raman  law  ia 


in  pinfatUenic  pHndpIel  o(  Lav  b  I 
by  the  luilom  of  Milling  a  difTemice  between  two  Greek 
•t  beimcD  members  of  a  ibgle  )iaie,  by  toortinc  to  e 
arbiiralioiL  The  genenl  unity  of  Greek  lin  ii  mainly 
KCn  in  the  lam  ol  inheritance  and  adaption,  in  Ian  of  coi; 
tod  cofltract,_tnd  in  the  publicity  unifoimiy  given  I1 


1  the  ^>eechis  of  the  Attic  onion,  and  we  are  ume-  mr,, 
inus  enabled  to  cbeck  Iboie  Malements  by  the 
niitwortliy,  but  often  imperfect,  aid  ol  inicriptiont  Incidenlal 
Lustrationi  of  the  Eaws  of  Athena  may  be  found  in  the  Laiu 
I  PlilD,  who  deals  with  the  ilieary  of  the  tubject  niihaut 
lerdsing  any  influence  on  actual  practice-  Tlie  Lam  ot 
'bta  aic  criticised  in  the  PstUia  of  Aristotle,  who.  besidet 


nrk  of  I 


^lin  eady  CieA  lawijveis.  The  treatise  on 
•  cj  Atkini  induda  an  account  of  the  juriidictio 
.  public  officials  and  of  the  machinery  of  the  law  coi 
nables  us  to  dispense  with  the  Jecand-hand  lestia 


0!  Theophnatiu  On  lit 
the  Eaws  of  various  bat] 
represented  by  only  a  fei 


the 


fragmenu  (No*.  9j-io4,  ed.  Wimtner). 
is  to  be  sou^t  In  the  Homeric  poems. 
tee  (as  noticed  by  Plato) 


written  laws  wete  necessarily   imLnowu^ 
that  early  period,  they  had  no  Letters^  they  Uved       jttmMi 
by  habit  and  by  the  custom)  of  their  ancestors  "  (Losi, 
6S0  a).    We  find  a  survival  from  a  still  mare  primitive  time  id 
the  aava^  Cyclops,  who  is  *'  unfamiliar  with  dooms  ol  law,  or 
if  rl^t"  (aSn  Slat  tE  itUra  sl^re  M^imu,  Oi.  ii.  ii{ 


rf.). 


■rtbe'HDie 


(Elyni.  ij«)  tn  the  same  not  M 

"  precedenl."     la  the  Honcfic  poemt  it  iDRvrimes  ^^ 

}ihct  a  "  doom  "  of  law,  a  Jeial     f^ht,"  a  "  Lawsuit  "i  while  it 

It  nrdy  sviunymaut  with  "juitia.''^u  La  (M.  liv.  84,  where 

"  the  fods  boQour  justice,''  rtoawi  iU^. 

Oemu  (Nw).  a  term  uSgned  (t(.  au)  to  ibt  •amr'roM  af^.. 

In  its  ninary  seue  Ibmii  b  iJtal  which  "  fau  been  kid      ^ 

down  '*:  hence  a  porticdLv  dediion  or  "  doDin."    The      ■■••* 

pLural  tlflBHlH  implies  a  body  of  such  precedenli.  "  rules  of  right," 

which  the  kirnc  receives  from  Zeui  with  hb  iceptre  UL  is.  99). 

Ill  and  Ml  have  sometimes  been  cooipand  with  the  Ronutn/u 

'   'ig  retarded  as  of  divine,  the 

re  taliifacloiy  than  Ibe  latest 


latter  of  fautnan  grigin;  and 
view  (that  of  HincI),  which 

r*iMi  {I1M.  an  ordii 
not  found  in  "  Homer,"  e> 
origioal  form  of  the  Odyury  ■ 


ii.  196).  where  it  pn^bly    1 
b  lint  foiiiid  in  Heiiad,  ^l  not  in  a  1 


legal  trnse  («,»  Op.  J; 

A  trial  for  homicide  Is  one  of  the  mne*  repiesented  01 
shield  of  Achilles  (//.  iviii.  497-soS}.  The  folk  are  here  1 
seen  thtonging  the  market-place,  where  a  strife  hu 


that  he  has 


The  sbyer  vows  that  he  ha*  paid  all 
twvtaana},   the  kiuman  at  the   slain  protest* 
eceived  naihing  (Imiiero  /piilr  AisVai);  both 


le  is  tried  by  the  ciden 


re  kept  back  by  lb 


polished 
the  midst  there  lie  two  talent* 
lo  give  to  him  who,  among  them  all,  set*  forth  the 
rightly"  (jifUin/  U  litri  nSsi  lU^r  fSirrani  tlm}. 
The  diKutiionf  ol  the  above  passage  have  chiefly  tuned  on  two 
points:  {1)  the  legal  qitestions  at  issue;  and  (3)  the  detlinslion  d 
the  "  two  talents.'  (1)  Intheotdinary  view(a),iIisialelvaquHIion 
whether  the  fine  or  blood-money,  conespandiBg  to  the  WiriM  (kc 
WaaciLD,  TioroNtc  Pom*,  BuiaiH:  Am^  Saum)  c*  the  oM 
Germanic  law  (Grimm,  XtrihlHtoMiIwr,  661 1.},  hot  been  paid  or 
oot-  rniia  is  acrcpied  by  Tfaooisten,  Lipsius,  Sidgwick  attd  Ridge- 
way.J    In  the  other  view_  (i).  It  b  held  ihit  _lbe  slayer  "  claimed  to 

"  two  talcolt  "  (shown  by  Ridgeway  to  be  a  amall  turn,  equal  in 


502 


GREEK  LAW 


value  to  two  oxen)  are  awarded  either  (a)  to  the  litigant  who  "  pleads 
his  cause  most  justly  before  them  "  (so  Thoniaaen,  Shilleto  and 
Lipsius.  in  accordance  with  the  Attic  use  of  phrases  like  ttc^  cIrMv), 
or  (b)  to  the  judge  **  who.  among  all  the  elders,  gives  the  most 
righteous  judgment  **  (so  Maine,  approved  JbySidgwick,  PoUock, 
Leaf  and  Ridgeway). 
On  this  controversy,  cf.  Maine's  Ancient  Law,  chap.  x.  pp.  385  f., 

CS  f.,  ed.  Pollock;  Thoniasen.  Droit  phut  (1875).  37:  P*  M. 
lurence  (on  Shilleto's  view)  in  Journal  of  Plutolent  viiL  (1879), 
I2f  f.;  Ridgeway,  ib.  x.  (i88a),  50  f.,  and  Journal  oj  HdUnie  Sludus, 
viu.  (1887).  153  f.;  and  Leaf,  tb.  viii.  laa  f.,  and  in  his  Commentary 
on  Iliads  it.  (1902).  610-614';  also  J.  H.  Lipsius  in  Ltipnger  Siudien, 
xii.  (1890),  225-231.  criticized  by  H.  Sklgwick  in  Clasncal  Raim, 
ViiL  (1894).  1-4. 

We  are  told  elsewhere  in  Homer  that  aometuacs  a  man  accepted 
blood-money  from  the  slayer  of  his  brother  or  his  son,  and  that 
the  slayer  remained  in  the  land  after  paying  this  penally  (//.  ix. 
633).  As  a  nUe  the  slayer  found  it  safest  to  flee  {Od,  xxiii. 
1x8  f.)>  but  even  so,  he  might  be  pursued  by  the  friends  of  the 
slain  {Od.  xv.  272-278).  If  be  remained,  the  land  was  not  (as 
in  later  ages)  deemed  to  be  polluted  by  hb  presence.  In  Homer, 
Orestes  does  not  slay  Clytaemestra,  and  he  nenls  no  "  purifi^- 
tion  "  for  slaying  Aegisthus. 

The  laws  of  Sparta  are  ascribed  to  the  legislation  of  Lycurgus, 
whose  traditional  date  is  884  b.c.  Written  laws  are  said  to  have 
<k—ktow  been  expressly  forbidden  by  Lycuxgus  (Plutarch, 
jfyww  LycurguSt  13) ;  hence  the  "  laws  of  Sparta  "  are  simply 
Lycurjpn  a  body  of  traditional  observances.  We  learn  that  all 
atSMtu.  ^^1^  f^j.  iiQQticjjf.  (^^me  before  the  Council  of  Elders 
and  lasted  for  several  days,  and  that  all  dvil  causes  were  tried 
by  the  ephors  {q.v.).  We  are  also  told  that  originally  the  land 
was  equally  divided  among  the  citizens  of  Sparta,  and  that  this 
equality  was  enforced  by  law  (Polybius  vi.  45-46).  Early  in  the 
4th  century  the  cphor  Epitadcus,  owing  to  a  disagreement  with 
his  son,  enacted  that  every  Spartan  should  be  allowed  to  transfer 
his  estate  and  his  allotment  to  any  other  person  (Plutarch,  AgjiSf 
5),  while  Aristotle,  in  a  much-debated  passage  of  the  Politics 
(ii.  9. 14-15),  criticizes  the  Spartan  constitution  for  allowing  the 
accumulation  of  property  in  a  few  hands,  an  evil  aggravated  by 
the  large  number  of  **  heiresses";  "  a  man  (he  adds)  may 
bestow  his  heiress  on  any  one  he  pleases;  and,  if  he  dies  intestate, 
this  privilege  descends  to  his  heir." 

Law  was  first  reduced  to  writing  in  the  7th  century  B.C.  A 
written  code  is  a  necessary  condition  of  just  judgment,  and 

such  a  code  was  the  first  concession  which  the  people 
^IH^g  in  the  Greek  cities  extorted  from  the  ruling  aristocracies. 
tuwa,         Tbe  change  was  generally  effected  with  the  aid  of  a 

single  legislator  entrusted  with  complete  authority 
to  draw  up  a  code. 

The  first  communities  to  reach  this  stage  of  progress  were 
the  Greek  colonies  in  the  West.  The  Epizephyrian  Locrians, 
Mahueaa  ^^^  ^be  extreme  south  of  Italy,  received  the  earliest 
at  Loot  written  code  from  Zaleucus  (663  B.C.),  whose  strict 
^J*^  *n<i  severe  legislation  put  an  end  to  a  period  of  strife 
'^'"^  and  confusion,  though  we  know  little  of  his  laws, 
except  that  they  attached  definite  penalties  to  each  offence, 
and  that  they  strictly  protected  the  rights  of  property.    Two 

centuries  later,  his  code  was  adopted  even  by  the 
ffS?y  Athenian  colony  of  Thurii  in  south  Italy  (443  B.C.). 
^c;  Charondas,  the  "  disciple  "  of  Zaleucus,  became  the 

lawgiver,  not  only  of  his  native  town  of  Catana  on  the 
east  coast  of  Sicily,  but  also  of  other  Chalcidion  colonies  in 
Sicily  and  Italy.  The  laws  of  Charondas  were  marked  by  a 
.^^  singular  precision,  but  there  was  nothing  (says  Aristotle) 
j^S!^if#  ^^^^  be  could  claim  as  his  own  except  the  special 
if^9tikau    procedure  against  false  witnesses  (Politics,  ii.  12.  xi). 

In  the  cose  of  judges  who  neglected  to  serve  in  the 
law  courts,  he  inflicted  a  large  fine  on  the  rich  and  a  small  fine 
on  the  poor  (ib.  vi.  (iv.)  13.  2).  Androdamas  of  Rhegium  gave 
f^iffff^f  ^^^  on  homicide  and  on  heiresses  to  the  Chalcidians 
QiCoeiMth,  o^  Thrace,  while  Pbilolaus  of  Corinth  provided  the 

Thebans  with  "laws  of  adoption"  with  a  view  to 
preventing  any  change  in  the  number  oi  the  allotments  of  land 
(ib.  ii.  X2.  8-X4). 


Local  legislation  in  Crete  is  represented  by  the  laws  of  ~the 
important  city  of  Gortyn,  which  lies  to  the  south  of  Ida  in  a 
plain  watered  by  the  Lethaeus.  Part  of  that  stream 
forms  a  sluice  for  a  water-miU,  and  at  or  near  this  mill 
some  fragmentary  inscriptions  were  found  by  French 
archaeologists  in  1857  and  1879.  The  great  inscription,  to 
which  most  of  our  knowledge  of  the  laws  is  due,  was  not  dis- 
covered until  1884.  It  had  been  preserved  on  a  waU  27  ft. 
long  and  5  ft.  highi  the  laiger  part  of  which  was  buried  in  the 
ground,  while  its  farthest  extremity  passed  obUqucly  athwart 
the  bed  of  the  mill-stream.  It  was  necessary  to  divert  the  water 
before  the  last  four  columns  could  be  transcribed  by  the  Italian 
scholar,  Federico  Halbherr,  whose  work  was  completed  in  the 
same  year  by  the  excavation  and  transcription  of  the  first  ci^t 
columns  by  the  (}erman  scholar,  £.  Fabridus.  In  the  following 
year  Halbherr  discovered  more  than  dghty  small  fragments  on 
the  neighbouring  site  of  a  former  temple  of  the  Pythian 
Apollo. 

These  fragments,  which  are  far  earlier  than  the  great  inscripdoo 
above-mentioned,  have  been  assigned  to  about  650  B.C.  They 
precede  the  introduction  of  coined  money  into  Crete,  the  penalties 
being  reckoned,  not  in  coins,  but  in  calorons.  Th<^  deal  with  the 
powers  of  the  magistrates  and  the  observances  of  rclwioo,  but  are 
mainly  concerned  with  private  matters  of  barter  and  sale,  dowry 
and.s[dopti<m,  inheritance  and  succession,  fines  for  trespass  and 
questions  of  blood-money.  As  in  the  code  of  Zaleucus,  we  have  a 
nxed  scale  of  penalties,  induding  the  fine  of  a  single  tripod,  and  rang- 
ingfrom  one  to  a  hundred  caldrons. 

The  j^reat  inscription  b  perhaps  two  centuries  later  (c.  450  B.C.). 
It  consists  of  a  number  of  amendments  or  additions  to  an  eanner  code, 
and  it  deab  cxdusivdy  with  private  law,  in  which  the  family  and 
family  property  occupy  the  lar^t  part.  The  procedure  is  entirdy 
oral;  oaths  and  other  oral  testimony  are  alone  admitted;  there  are 
no  docuroentarY  proofs,  and  no  record  <^  the  veidict  except  in  the 
memory  oS  the^udge  or  of  his  "  remembrancer.*'  All  the  causes  are 
tried  before  a  single  judge,  who  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
suit.  Where  the  law  specially  enjoins  it.  he  is  bound  to  give  judg- 
ment (Zuiiiv)  in  accordance  with  the  law  and  the  "  witnesses  or 
oaths,  but,  in  other  cases,  he  is  permitted  to  take  oath  and  decide 
Uptrur)  in  view  of  "  the  contentions  of  the  parties,"  as  distinguidied 
from  "the  declarations  of  the  witnesses.'  Offences  against  the 
person  are  treated  as  matters  of  private  compensation  accordii^  to 
a  carefully  graduated  tariff.  In  certain  cases  the  ddendant  may 
clear  himseli  by  an  "  oath  of  purgation  "  with  the  support  of  **  co- 
jurors" f<Vu^«t),  the  Eidesketjer  of  old  Germam'c  law  (Grimm 
859  f.),  who  have  no  necessary  knowledge  of  the  facts.  These  is  no 
interference  with  the  exposure  oS  infants,  except  in  the  intemt  of 
the  father  (if  the  child  is  irce-bom)  or  of  the  lord  (in  the  case  of  serfs). 
The  law  of  debt  is  primitive,  though  less  severe  than  that  of  the  eariy 
Romans.  In  contrast  with  these  primitive  dements  we  have  others 
which  are  distinctly  progressive.  The  estates  of  husband,  wife  and 
sons  are  regarded  as  abiolutely  distinct.  Wills  are  unknown,  even 
in  their  most  restricted  form.  Elaborate  provisions  are  made  to 
secure  with  all  speed  the  marriage  of  an  "  heiress  ";  she  is  bound  to 
marry  the  eldest  of  her  paternal  uncles  or  to  surrender  part  of  her 
estate,  and  it  is  only  if  there  are  no  paternal  uncles  that  she  a 
permitted  to  marry  one  (and  that  the  ddest)  of  thdr  sons.  Adoption 
IS  made  by  the  simple  procedure  of  mounting  a  block  of  stone  in  the 
market-place  and  makinga  public  announcement  at  a  time  when  the 
dtizens  are  assembled.  The  adopted  son  docs  not  inherit  any  larger 
share  than  that  of  a  daughter.  Any  one  who  dcdres  to  repudiate  his 
adopted  son  makes  a  public  announcement  as  bdore.  and  the  person 
repudiated  receives,  by  way  of  nominal  compensation,  the  giit  of  a 
small  number  of  staters.  In  these  later  "  laws  of  Gortyn  "  we  have 
reached  the  time  when  payments  are  made,  not  In  "  caldrons,**  but 
in  coins.  In  the  inscription  itself  the  laws  are  simply  described  aa 
"  these  writings." 

The  text  of  the  great  inscription  was  first  published  by  E.  Fabridus 
in  Alk.  Mittk.  ix.  (1885),  362-384:  there  is  a  cast  of  the  whole  in 
the  Cambridge  Museum  of  Classical  Archaeology.  Cf.  Compaietti*s 
Legp  di  Cortyna  (1893);  Bflchder  and  Zittelmann  in  JUnii.  Mus. 
xl.  (1885);  Dareste.  Haussoullier  and  Th.  Rdnach,  Inscr.  juridiques 

{rtcques,  iii.  (1894),  35^-493  (with  the  literature  there  quoted), 
ing.  trans,  by  Roby  in  Xow  Quarterly  Review  (1886),  135*1 5^:  see 


also  E.  S.  Roberts,  Gk.  E 
Headlam  in  Journal  of 


o/>«y,  i.  39  f.,  52  f.,  3^5-33* :  J-  W. 
ic  Studies,  xiii.  (1892-1803).  48^: 


P.  Gardner  and  F.  B.  Jcvons,  Greek  Antiquities  (1895).  5^574: 
W.  Wyse  in  Whitley's  Companion  to  Greek  Studies  (1905).  378-383: 
and  Hermann  Lipsius,  Zum  Reckt  von  Corlyns  (Ldpiig,  1909)* 

A  Roman  writer  ascribes  to  the  Athenians  the  very  invention 
of  lawsuits  (AeUan,  Var.  Hist.  iii.  38),  and  the  Athenians 
themselves  regarded  thdr  tribunals  of  homidde  as 
institutions   of   immemorial    antiquity    (Isocr.    Paneg.    40). 


GREEK  LAW 


503 


On  the  abolition  of  the  single  decennial  archon  *  in  683  b.c,  his 
duties  were  distributed  over  several  officials  holding  office  for 
one  year  only.  The  judicial  duties  thenceforth  discharged  by 
the  chief  archon  {the  archon),  in  the  case  of  citizens, 
_  were  discharged  by  the  polemarch  in  the  case  of  foreign 
k«M.  settlers  or  raetics  Otkroumi);  while  the  king-archon, 
who  succeeded  to  the  religious  functions  of  the  andent 
kings,  decided  cases  connected  with  religious  observances  (see 
Archon).  He  also  presided  over  the  primitive  council  of  the 
state,  which  was  identical  with  the  council  of  the  Areopagus. 
It  was  possibly  with  a  view  to  the  recognition  of  the  rights  of  the 
lower  classes  that,  about  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  B.C.,  the 
three  archons  were  raised  to  the  number  of  nine  by  the  institution 
of  the  joint  board  of  the  six  thesmoikeice,  who  super- 
intended the  judicial  system  in  general,  kept  a  record 
of  all  legal  decisions,  and  drew  attention  to  any  defects 
in  the  laws.  It  is  probable  that  in  their  title  we  have 
the  eariiest  example  in  Attic  Greek  of  the  use  of  Ikamos  in  the 
sense  of  "  law.  " 

The  constitution  was  at  this  time  thoroughly  oligarchicaL 
With  a  view,  however,  to  providing  a  remedy  for  the  conflict 
between  the  several  orders  of  the  state,  the  first  code 
of  Athenian  law  was  drawn  up  and  published  by  Draco 
(strictly  Dracon),  who  is  definitely  described  as  a  tkesmotketis 
(621).  His  laws  were  known  as  thesmci.  The  distinctive  part 
of  his  legislation  was  the  law  of  homicide,  which  was  held  in 
such  high  esteem  that  it  was  left  unaltered  in  the  legislation  of 
Solon  and  in  the  democratic  restoration  of  41X  B.C.  It  is  partly 
preserved  in  an  inscription  of  409,  which  has  been  restored  with 
the  aid  of  quotations  from  the  orators  {CJ.A.  i.  61;  Inscr.jurid. 
g^eegnes,  ii.  1. 1-34;  and  Hicks,  Ck.  Hist,  Inser.  No.  59).  It  drew 
a  careful  distinction  between  different  kinds  of  homicide.  Of 
the  rest  of  Draco's  legislation  we  only  know  that  Aristotle 
{Pditics,  ii.  i3,  13)  was  struck  by  the  severity  of  the  penalties, 
and  that  the  creditor  was  permitted  to  seize  the  person  of  the 
debtor  as  security  for  his  debt. 

The  conflict  of  the  orders  was  not  allayed  until  both  parties 
agreed  in  choosing  Solon  as  mediator  and  as  archon  (594  B.C.). 
.  Sok>n  cancelled  all  mortgages  and  debts  secured  on 

the  person  of  the  debtor,  set  free  all  who  had  become 
sbvcs  for  debt,  and  forbade  such  slavery  for  the  future  (see 
Solon).  Thenceforth  every  dtixen  had  also  "  the  right  of  appeal 
to  the  law-courts,"  and  the  privilege  of  claiming  legal  satisfaction 
on  behalf  of  any  one  who  was  wronged.  Cases  of  ccmslitutional 
law  (JuUer  alia)  came  before  large  law-courts  numbering  hundreds 
of  jurors,  and  the  power  of  voting  in  these  law-courts  made  the 
people  masters  of  the  constitution  (Aristotle's  ConstUiUion  of 
Atkens,  c.  9).  Solon's  I^sbtion  also  had  an  important  effect 
on  the  law  of  property.  In  primitive  times,  on  a  man's  death,  his 
money  or  lands  remained  in  the  family,  and,  even  in  the  absence 
of  direct  dcscen<|ants,  the  owner  could  not  dispose  of  his  property 
by  will.  Permission  to  execute  a  will  was  first  given  to  Athenian 
citizens  by  the  laws  of  Solon.  But "  the  Athenian  Will  was  only 
an  inchoate  Testament  "  (Maine's  Ancient  LaWf  c.  vi.);  for  this 
permission  was  expressly  limited  to  those  citizens  who  had  no 
direct  male  descendants  (Dem.  LePt.  102;  Plutarch,  Solon,  21; 
cl.  Wyse  on  Isaeus,  p.  325). 

The  law  of  intestate  succession  is  imperfectly  preserved  in 
[Dem.)  43,  §  51  (cf.  Wyse,  ib.  p.  562  f.).  In  the  absence  of  direct 
male  descendants,  a  daughter  who  survived  her  father  was 
known  as  an  MxXiipof,  not  an  "  heiress,"  but  a  "  person  who 
went  with  the  estate  ";  and,  in  the  absence  of  a  will,  the  right 
or  duty  of  marrying  the  daughter  foUowed  (with  certain  obvious 
exceptions)  the  same  rules  as  the  right  of  succession  to  the 
estate  (cf.  Wyse,  ib,  p.  348  f.). 

Among  the  reforms  <rf  Qeisthenes  (508)  was  the  law  of 

ostracism  (qv.).    The  privileges  of  the  Areopagus  were 

curtailed  (while  its  right  to  try  certain  cases  of  homicide 

left  untouched)  by  the  reforms  of  Ephialtes  (462), 


*For  further  information  as  to  the  evolution  of  the  Athenian 
constitution  see  Archon.  ARBorAGUs.  BoulS.  Ecclesia.Stratecus. 
and  articles  on  all  the  chief  legislators. 


and  of  Pericles,  who  also  restored  the  thirty  **  local  justices  " 

(453)*  Umlted  the  franchise  to  those  of  dtizen-blood 

by  both  parents  (451),  and  was  the  first  to  assign  to     ckHuh'' 

jurors  a  fee  for  their  services  in  the  law-courts,  which 

was  raised  to  three  obob  by  Cleon  (425). 

In  contrast  to  legislative  reforms  brought  about  by  lawgivers 
entrusted  with  q)ecial  authority,  such  as  Draco,  Solon  and 
Cleisthenes,  there  was  the  regular  and  normal  course  onftoair 
of  public  legislation.  The  legislative  power  was  not  eomnmoi 
exercised  directly  by  the  popular  assembly  (see  '*!'«'•* 
Ecclesxa),  but  the  preliminary  consent  of  that  body  "^^ 
was  necessary  for  the  appointment  of  a  legislative  commission. 

In-  the  5th  century  {e.g.  in  450  and  446  B.C.)  certain  com- 
missioners called  avY7pa^if  were  appointed  to  draw  up  laws 
which,  after  approval  by  the  council,  were  submitted    g^^ 
to  the  assembly.    The  same  term  was  still  in  use 
in  March  4x1  (Tliuc.  viiL  6x).    But  in  October,  on 
the  overthrow  of  the  Four  Hundred,  the  commissioners 
are  for  the  first  time  called  nomotketae  {ib,  97). 

The  procedure  in  ordinary  legislation  was  as  follows:  At  the  first 
meeting  of  the  assembly  in  tne  year,  the  people  was  asked  whether  it 
would  permit  motions  to  be  made  for  altering  or  supplementing  the 
existing  laws.  A  debate  ensued,  and,  if  such  permission  were  granted, 
any  citizen  who  wished  to  make  a  motion  to  the  above  effect  was 
required  to  publish  his  proposals  in  the  market-place,  and  to  hand 
them  to  the  secretary  of  the  council  (BoulC)  to  be  read  aloud  at  more 
than  one  meetine  of  the  assembly.  At^the  third  regular  meeting  the 
people  appointed  the  legislative  commusbners;  who  were  drawn  by 
lot  irom  tnc  whole  number  of  those  then  qualified  to  act  as  jurors. 
The  number,  and  the  duration  of  the  commission,  were  determined  in 
each  case  by  the  people.  The  proceedings  before  the  commission 
were  conducted  exactly  in  the  manner  (H  a  lawsuit.  Those  who 
desired  to  see  old  laws  repealed,  altered  or  reolaced  by  new  laws 
came  forward  as  accusers  oithose  laws;  those  of  tnc  contrary  opinion, 
as  defenders;  and  the  defence  was  formally  entrusted  to  public 
advocates  specially  appointed  for  the  purpose  {vw^yopoi).  The 
number  of  the  commissioners  varied  with  the  number  or  importance 
of  the  laws  in  question ;  there  is  evidence  for  the  number  looi  (Dem. 
xxiv.  27}.  If  a  law  approved  by  the  commission  was  deemed  to  be 
unconstitutional,  the  proposer  was  liable  to  be  prosecuted  (by  a 
Ypa^4  v«pa^Mw»),  just  as  in  the  caise  of  the  proposer  of  an  unconstitu- 
tional decree  in  the  public  assembly.  Formal  proceedings  might 
also  be  instituted  against  laws  on  the  sole  grouna  of  their  inexprai- 
ency  (see  note  on  Aristotle's  Constitution  of  AthenSt  p.  219.  ed. 
Sandys).  A  prosecutor  who  (like  Aeschines  in  his  inaictment  of 
Ctesiphon)  failed  to  obtain  one-fifth  of  the  votes  was  fined  xooo 
drachmae  (£40),  and  lost  the  right  to  adopt  this  procedure  in  future. 
When  a  year  had  elapsed,  the  proposer  01  a  law  or  a  decree  was  free 
from  personal  responsibility.  This  was  the  case  with  Leptines,  but 
the  law  itself  could  still  be  attacked,  and.  in  this  event,  five  advocates 
were  appointed  to  defend  it  {rMum),  cf.  Dam.  Lept.  144, 146. 

Limits  of  space  make  it  impossible  to  include  in  the  present 
artide  any  survey  of  the  purport  of  the  extant  remains  of  the' 
laws  of  Athens.  Such  a  survey  would  begin  with  the 
laws  of  the  family,  including  laws  of  marriage,  adoption  Qfjitheaa, 
and  inheritance,  followed  by  the  law  of  property 
and  contracts,  and  the  laws  for  the  protection  of  life,  the 
protection  of  the  person,  and  the  protection  of  the  constitution. 
The  texts  have  been  collected  and  classified  in  T^lfy's  Corpus 
juris  Auici  (1867),  a  work  which  can  be  supplemented  or 
corrected  with  the  aid  of  Aristotle's  Constitution  of  Athens; 
while  some  of  the  recent  expositions  of  the  subject  are  mentioned 
in  the  bibliography  at  the  end  of  this  article.  We  now  proceed 
to  notice  the  law  of  homicide,  but  solely  in  connexion  with 
jurisdiction. 

The  general  term  for  a  tribunal  is  hiwurriifMOP  (from  2u&f  w), 
Anglicized  "  dicastery."    Of  all  the  tribunals  of  Athens  those 
for  the  trial  of  homicide  were  at  once  the  most  primitive    .^^^ 
and  the  least  liable  to  suffer  change  through  lapse  gf^^.  ^^ 
of  time.    In  the  old  Germanic  law  all  trials  whatsoever  nvtprtmo^ 
were  held  in  the  open  air  (Grimm  793  f.).    At  Athens  "^  c^ 
this  custom  was  characteristic  of  all  the  five  primitive  jTfJiJ^ 
courts  of  homidde,  the  object  being  to  prevent  the  hqm^/^ 
prosecutor  and  the  judges  from  coming  under  the 
same  roof  as  one  who  was  charged  with  the  shedding  of  blood 
(Antiphon,  De  caede  Herodis,  11).    The  place  where  the  trial 
was  held  depended  on  the  nature  of  the  charge.. 


504 


GREEK  LAW 


AHh0 


Ai1h»D9h 


At 


1.  The  rock  of  the  Acfx>polit,  outdde  the  eariiett  of  the  dty«walls, 
was  the  proper  |4aoe  for  the  trial  of  persons  charged  with  prc- 
Q^  ^.        mediuted  homkide,  or  with  wounding  with  intent  to  kill. 

l" The  penalty  for  the  former  crime  was  death ;  for  the  latter 

^^^"^  exile;  and,  in  either  case,  the  property  was  confiscated. 
If  the  votes  were  equal,  the  person  accused  was  acouitted.  The 
proceedings  lasted  for  three  days,  and  each  skie  miEht  make  two 
speeches.  After  the  firrt  speech  the  person  accused  of  premeditated 
homicide  was  mercifully  permitted  to  go  into  exile,  in  which  case  his 
property  was  confiscated,  and  in  the  ordinary  oourae  be  remained  in 
exile  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 

2.  Charges  of  unpremeditated  homkide,  or  of  instigating  another 
to  inflict  bodily  harm  on  a  third  person,  or  of  killing  a  slave  or  a 

resident  alien  or  a  foreigner,  were  tried  at  the  Palladion, 
the  ancient  shrine  of  Paltos,  east  of  the  citv-walls.  The 
punishment  for  unpremeditated  homickie  was  exile 
(without  confiscation)  until  such  time  as  the  criminal  had  propiti- 
ated  the  relatives  of  the  perwn  sbtn,  or  (failing  that)  for  some 
definite  time.  The  punishment  for  instigating  a  cnme  was  the  same 
as  for  actually  committing  it. 

3.  Trials  at  the  Delphinion,  the  shrine  of  Apollo 
Delphinios,  in  the  same  quarter,  were  reserved  for  special 
cases  of  cither  accidental  or  justifiable  homicide.^ 

4.  If  a  man  already  in  exile  for  unpremeditated  homicide  were 
accused  of  premeditated  homicide,  or  of  wounding  with  intent  to 

Idll,  provision  was  made  for  this  rare  contingencv  by  per- 
mittmff  him  to  approach  the  shore  of  Attica  and  conduct 
his  defence  on  board  a  boat,  while  his  judges  heard  the 
cause  on  shore,  at  a  "  place  of  pits  "  called  Phreatto,  near  the 
harbour  of  Zea.  If  the  accused  were  found  guilty,  he  incurred  the 
proper  penalty:  if  acquitted,  he  remained  in  exile. 

5.  Thecourtinthcprecinctsof  thePryUneum,  tothenorthof  the 
Acropolis,  was  only  of  ceremonial  importance.  It  "  solemnly  heard 
Aft^omw.  And  condemned  undiscovered  murderers,  and  animals  or 
tm«M»m  inanimate  objects  that  had  caused  the  loss  of  Ufc."» 
'"'"^  The  writ  ran  "  against  the  doer  of  the  deed,"  and  any 
instrument  of  death  that  was  found  guilty  was  thrown  across  the 
frontier.  The  trial  was  held  by  the  four  "  tnbe-kings"  (^Xo/>atftX«i(), 
an  archaic  survival  from  before  the  time  of  Cleisthenes.  (On  these 
five  courts  see  Aristotle's  Cotutituiion  of  AthaUt  c  57,  and  Dem. 
Aristocr.  65-79.) 

In  all  the  courts  of  homicide  the  president  was  the  archon-basi- 
leus,  or  king-archon,  who  on  these  occasions  lakl  aside  his  crown. 
BaHmiMm  Originally  all  these  courts  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
''P**''^*  an  ancient  body  of  judges  called  the  ephetae  (i^ai), 
whose  institution  was  ascribed  to  Draco.  The  transfer  of  the  first 
of  the  above  courts  to  the  council  of  the  Areopagus  is  attributed 
to  Solon.  In  practice  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ephetae  (sec  also 
Areopagus)  was  probably  confined  to  the  courts  at  the  Palladion 
and  Delphinion;  but  even  there  the  rights  of  this  primitive  body 
became  obsolete,  for  trials  "  at  the  Pallacnon  "  sometimes  came  before 
an  ordinanr  tribunal  of  500  or  700  jurors  (Isocr.  e.  CaUim.  53,  54: 
[Dem.]  c.  r/eaeramt  10). 

Except  in  the  case  of  the  primitive  courts  of  homicide,  the 
right  of  jurisdiction  was  entrusted  to  the  several  archons  until 
f^  the  date  of  Solon  (594).    When  the  direct  jurisdiction 

^ntUtatB  of  the  archons  was  impaired  by  Solon's  institution 
ottt0        of  the  "right  of  appeal  to  Uie  law-courts,"  the 
*'**'■■'■•    dignity  of  those  officials  was  recognized  by  their  having 
the  privilege  of  presiding  over  the  new  tribunals  (^/lovfa 
iucuTTTipLoi^.    A  similar  position   was  assigned  to  the  other 
executive  officers,  such  as  the  strategi  (generals),  the 
'JJi^  '    board  of  police  called  the  "  Eleven,"  and  the  financial 
officers,  all  of  whom  presided  over  cases  connected 
with  their  respective  departments.     In  their  new  position 
as   presidents  of   the  several  courts,   the  archons  received 
plaints,  obtained  from  both  parties  the  evidence  which 
uUmUT    '^*y  proposed  to  present,  formally  presided  at  .the 
trial,  and  gave  instructions  for  the  execution  of  the 
sentence.    The  choice  of  the  presiding  magistrate  in  each  case 
was  determined  by  the  normal  duties  of  his  office.    Thus  the 
chief  archon,  the  official  guardian  of  orphans  and 
'**2r'''   "widows,  presided  in  all  cases,  public  or  private,  con- 
*"      *       nected  with  the  family  property  of  citizens  (Aristotle, 
sf.5.  c.  56).    The  king-archon  had  charge  of  all  offences  against 
religion,  e.g.  indictments  for  impiety,  disputes  within 
the  family  as  to  the  right  to  hold  a  particular  priest- 
hood, and  all  actions  for  homicide  (c.  57).    The  third 

In  the  case  of  *'  animals."  we  mav  compare  the  Mosaic  law  of 
Exod.  xxxi.  28  and  the  old  Germanic  law  (Grimm  664) ;  and  in  that 
of  "  inanimate  objects,"  the  English  law  of  deodands  (Blackstone  i. 
300),  repealed  in  i8d6.   See  also  Frazer  on  Pausanias,  L  28.  la        * 


Th9 

Mtrwttgt. 


archon,  the  i>olem«xch,  dischaxied  in  rdatJon  to  resident 
all  such  legal  duties  as  were  discharged  by  the  chief  arcboo  in 
relation  to  citizens  (c.  58).  The  trial  of  military  oflfenccs  jm 
was  tinder  the  presidency  of  the  strategi,  who  were 
assisted  by  the  other  military  officers  in  preparing 
the  case  for  the  court.  The  six  junior  archons,  the  tkamoUietce, 
acted  as  a  board  which  was  responsible  for  all  cases  not  specially 
assigned  to  any  other  officials  (details  in  c.  59). 

The  Forty,  who  were  aj^Minted  by  k>t,  four  for  each  of  the 
ten  tribes,  acted  as  sole  judges  in  petty  cases  where  the  damages 
claimed  did  not  exceed  ten  drachmae.  Claims  beyond 
that  amount  they  handed  over  to  the  arbitrators. 
The  four  representatives  of  any  given  tribe  received 
notice  of  such  claims  brought  against  members  of  that  tribe.  It 
seems  probable  that  they  dealt  with  all  private  suits  not  other- 
wise assigned,  but,  unlike  the  archons,  they  did  not  prepare  any 
case  for  the  court  but  referred  it,  in  the  first  instance,  to  a  public 
arbitrator  appointed  by  lot  (c.  53).* 

Tbe  public  arbitrators  (Saunp-ai)  were  a  body  including  all 
Athenian  citizens  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  their  age.  The  arbitrator, 
on  re<xiving  the  case  from  the  four  representatives 
of  the  Forty,  first  endeavoured  to  bring  the  parties 
to  an  agreement.  If  this  failed,  he  heard  the  evkience 
and  gave  a  decision.  If  the  decision  were  accepted, 
the  case  was  at  an  end,  but,  if  either  of  the  two  parties  insisted 
on  appealing  to  a  law-coiurt,  the  arbitrator  placed  in  two  caskets 
(one  for  each  party)  copies  of  all  the  depositions,  oaths  and 
challenges,  and  of  aU  the  laws  quoted  in  the  case,  sealed  them  up, 
and,  after  attaching  a  copy  of  his  own  decisk>n,  handed  them 
over  to  the  four  representatives  of  the  Forty,  who  brought  the 
case  into  court  and  presided  over  the  trial.  Documents  which 
had  not  been  brought  before  the  arbitrator  cotild  not  be  produced 
in  court.  The  court  consisted  of  aoi  jurors  where  the  sum  in 
question  was  not  more  than  xooo  drachmae  (£40);  in  other 
cases  the  number  of  jurors  was  401  (c  53). 

A  small  board  of  five  appointed  by  lot,  one  for  each  pair  of 
tribes,  and  known  as  the  "  introducers  "  (cfffoTctfyccs),  brou|^t 
up  certain  of  the  cases  that  had  to  be  decided  within 
a  month  ( imapw.  Kxw^j  such  as  actions  for  restitution 
of  dowry,  repayment  of  capital  for  setting  up  a  business,, 
and  cases  connected  with  banking. 

The  largest  and  most  important  of  the  legal  tribunals,  the 
"  dicastery  "  {par  excdUnce),  was  known  as  the  hdiaea.  The 
name,  which  is  of  uncertain  origin,*  denotes  not  only 
the  place  where  the  court  was  held  but  also  the  members 
of  the  court, — ^the  hdiastae  of  Aristophanes,  the  dicastae,  or 
iv6ptt  JucttOToI,  of  the  Attic  orators.  During  the  palmy  days 
of  the  Athenian  democracy,  in  the  interval  between  the  Persian 
and  the  Peloponncsian  wars,  the  total  number  liable  to  serve 
as  jurors  is  said  to  have  been  6000  (Aristotle,  u.s.  c.  24.  3), 
and  this  number  was  never  exceeded  (Aristoph.  Vesp.  66x  f.). 
Any  Athenian  citizen  in  full  possession  of  his  rights,  and  over 
thirty  years  of  age,  wasentitled  to  be  placed  on  the  list  (Aristotle, 
U.S.  c.  63.  3).  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  whole  body  of 
jurors  assembled  on  the  hill  of  Ardettos  looking  down  on  the 
Panathenaic  Stadium,  and  there  took  a  solemn  oath  to  the 
effect  that  they  would  judge  according  to  the  laws  and  decrees 
of  the  Athenian  people  and  of  the  council  of  the  Five  Hundred 
(Boula),  and  that,  in  cases  where  there  were  no  laws,  they  would 
decide  to  the  best  of  their  judgment;  that  they  would  hear  both 
sides  impartially,  and  vote  on  the  case  actually  before  the  court. 

It  has  been  suggested  that,  as  the  normal  number  of  a  court 
was  500,  the  maximum  number  of  6000  jurors  was  probably 
divided  into  ten  sections  of  500  each,  with  xooo  reserves.  There 
is  evidence  in  the  4th  century  for  courts  of  200, 400,  500,  700  and 

*  Cf .  R.  J.  Bonner,  in  Classical  PhUalogy  ((Hiicago,  X907),  407'4i8» 
who  urges  that  only  cases  belonging  to  the  Forty  were  subject  to 
public  arbitration. 

*  Connected  either  with  iMftoOau,  "  to  assemble,'*  or  4Xmi,  or 
-HXu (cf.Curt  Wachsmuth,  Stadi  Athen,  ii.  (i)  3S9-^6a).  The  fint  » 
possibly  right  (cf .  Rogers  on  Aristoph.  Wasps^  xvii.  1.) ;  the  second 
implicit  that  this  Urge  court  was  held  in  the  ifptn  air  (Lipsiu%  AU, 
Ruht,  172). 


GREEK  LAW 


S05 


On  important  political  ixiab)  varioui  multiples  of  soo,  namely, 
1000,  1500,  aooo  or  2500.    To  some  of  these  numbers  one  juror 
is  added;  it  was  probably  added  to  all,  to  obviate  the  risk  of 
the  votes  being  exactly  equaL 

The  evidence  as  to  the  organization  of  the  jurors  in  the  early 
part  ot  the  4th  century  is  imperfect.  Passages  in  Aristophanes 
lEcdesiazusae,  687-^88;  PtuiuSf  1166  f.)  imply  that  in  392-388 
B.C.  the  total  number  was  divided  into  ten  sections  distinguished 
by  the  first  ten  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  A  to  K.  Every 
juror,  on  his  first  appointment,  received  a  ticket  of  boxwood 
(or  of  bronze)  bearing  his  name  with  that  of  his  father  and  his 
dcme,  and  with  one  of  the  above  letters  in  the  upper  left-hand 
comer.  Of  the  bronze  tickets  many  have  been  found  (see 
notes  on  Aristotle's  Constitution  of  Athens,  c.  63,  and  fig.  i  in 
frontispiece,  ed.  Sandys),  These  tickets  formed  part  of  the 
machinery  for  allotting  the  jurors  to  the  several  courts.  To 
guard  against  the  possibility  of  bribery  or  other  undue  influence, 
the  allotment  did  not  take  place  until  immediately  before  the 
hearing  of  the  case.  Each  court  contained  an  equal  number 
of  jurors  from 'each  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  thus  represented  the 
whole  body  of  the  state.  The  juror,  on  entering  the  court 
assigned  him,  received  a  counter  (see  fig.  3  in  frontispiece,  m.s.)t 
on  presenting  which  at  the  end  of  the  day  he  received  hb  fee. 
The  machinery  for  carrying  out  the  above  arrangements  is 
minutely  described  at  the  end  of  Aristotle's  Constitution  of 
Athens  (for  details,  cf.  Gilbert,  397-399>  Eng.  trans.,  or  Wyse 
in  Whibley's  Companion  to  Creeh  Studia,  387  f.). 

The  law-courts  gradually  superseded  most  of  the  ancient 
judicial  functions  of  the  ooundl  and  the  assembly,  but  the 
council  continued  to  hold  a  strict  scrutiny  (SoKifuurla) 
of  candidates  for  office  or  for  other  privileges,  while 
•/!*•  the  council  itself,  as  well  as  all  other  officiab,  had  to 
give  account  (el!9vva)  on  ceasing  to  hold  office.  The 
council  also  retained  the  right  to  deal  with  extra- 
ordinary crimes  against  the  state.  It  was  open  to  any 
citizen  to  bring  such  crimes  to  the  knowledge  of  the  council  in 
writing.  The  technical  term  for  this  information,  denunciation 
or  impeachment  was  eisangdia  {fAaayyMa),  The 
council  could  inflict «  fine  of  500  drachmae  (£20),  or, 
in  important  cases,  refer  the  matter  either  to  a  law- 
court,  as  in  the  trial  of  Antiphon  (Thuc.  viii.  68),  or  to  the 
ecdesia,  as  in  that  of  Alcibiadcs  (415  B.C.),  and  the  strategi  in 
command  at  Arginusae  (406;  Xen.  Hdl.  L  7.  19).  The  term 
dcaT^iida.  was  also  applied  to  denunciations  brought  against 
persons  who  wronged  the  orphan  or  the  widow, or  against  a  public 
arbitrator  who  had  neglected  his  duty  (Dem.  Metdias^  86  f .). 

A  "  presentation  "  of  criminal  information  (irpo^oX^)  might 
be  laid  before  the  assembly  with  a  view  to  obtaining  its  pre- 
-  liminary  sanction  for  bringing  the  case  before  a 
judicial  tribunal.  Such  was  the  mode  of  procedure 
adopted  against  persons  who  had  brought  malicious,  groundless 
or  vexatious  accusations,  or  who  had  violated  the  sanctity  of 
certain  public  festivals.  The  leading  example  of  the  former 
is  the  trial  of  the  accusers  who  prompted  the  people  to  put  to 
death  the  generals  who  had  won  the  Battle  of  Arginusae  (Xen. 
HeU.  i.  7. 34);  and,  of  the  hitter,  the  proceedings  of  Demosthenes 
against  Meidias. 

Legal  actions  (IMkoi)  were  classified  as  private  (Jliiuu)  or 
public  {8ftifi6cML).  The  latter  were  also  described  as  ypa^  or 
"prosecutions,"  but  some7pa^  were  called  "private," 
when  the  state  was  regarded  as  only  indirectly  injured 
by  a  wrong  done  to  an  individual  citizen  (Dem.  xxi.  47). 
A  private  suit  could  only  be  brought  by  the  man 
directly  interested,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  slave,  a  ward  or  an  alien, 
by  the  master,  guardian  or  patron  respectively;  and,  if  the  suit 
were  successful,  the  sum  claimed  generally  went  to  the  plaintiff. 
Public  actions  may  be  divided  into  ordinary  criminal  cases,  and 
offences  against  the  state.  As  a  rule  they  could  be  instituted 
by  any  person  who  possessed  the  franchise,  and  the  penalty 
was  paid  to  the  state.  If  the  prosecutor  failed  to  obtain  one-fifth 
of  the  votes,  he  had  to  pay  a  fine  of  tooo  drachmae  (£40)1  &nd 
lost  the  right  of  ever  bringing  a  similar  action. 


otitgal 


Lawsuits,  whether  public  or  private,  were  also  distinguished 
as  6Uai  card  ru'ot  or  rphs  rtra,  according  as  the  defeated 
party  could  or  could  not  be  personally  punished.  Actions 
(Ayiaim)  were  also  distinguished  as  &yui^  riM^rof  ("  to  be 
assessed  "),  in  which  the  amount  of  damages  had  to  be  deter- 
mined by  the  court,  because  it  had  not  been  fixed  by  law,  and 
drt/dTTOi  ("  not  to  be  assessed  "),  in  which  the  damages  had  noi 
to  be  determined  by  the  court,  because  they  had  already  been 
fixed  by  law  or  by  special  agreement. 

Among  special  kinds  of  action  were  ianyuy^^  l^ih^ais  and 
Ifffct^s.  These  could  only  be  employed  when  the  offence 
was  patent  and  could  not  be  denied.  In  the  first,  the  person 
accused  was  summarily  arrested  by  the  prosecutor  and  haled 
into  the  presence  of  the  proper  official.  In  the  second,  the 
accuser  took  the  officer  with  him  to  arrest  the  culprit  (Dem. 
xxii.  36).  In 'the  third,  he  lodged  an  information  with  the 
official,  and  left  the  latter  to  effect  the  capture,  ^dair,  a  general 
term  for  many  kinds  of  legal  "information,"  was  a  form  of 
procedure  q>edally  directed  against  those  who  injured  the  fiscal 
interests  of  the  state,  and  against  guardians  who  neglected 
the  pecuniary  interests  of  their  wards.  'Airo7pa^  was  an  action 
for  confiscating  property  in  private  hands,  which  was  claimed 
as  belonging  to  the  state,  the  term  being  derived  from  the 
claimants'  written  inventory  of  the  property  in  question. 

The  ordinary  procedure  in  all  lawsuits,  public  or  private, 
began  with  a  personal  summons  {rpbnkn^v)  of  the 
defendant    by    the   plaintiff   accompanied   by    two    ^JjTfZ. 
witnesses   (xXiyr^pct).      If   the   defendant   failed   to   ca^rai 
appear  in  court,  these  witnesses  gave  proof  of  the 
summons,  and  judgment  went  by  default. 

The  action  was  begun  by  presenting  a  written  statement  of 
the  case  to  the  magistrate  who  presid^  over  trials  of  the  cUa* 
in  question.  If  the  statement  were  accepted,  court-fees  were 
paid  by  both  parties  in  a  private  action,  and  by  the  prosecutor 
alone  in  a  public  action.  The  magistrate  fixed  a  day  for  the 
preliminary  investigation  (dVdxpiatt),  and,  whenever  several 
causes  were  instituted  at  the  same  time,  he  dscw  lots  to  determine 
the  order  in  which  they  should  be  taken.  Hence  the  plaintiff 
was  said  "  to  have  a  suit  assigned  him  by  lot  "  (XaYxdMii'  ^k'^p), 
a  phrase  practically  equivalent  to  "  obtaining  leave  to  bring  an 
action."  At  the  di^&c/xirts  the  plaintiff  and  defendant  both 
swore  to  the  truth  of  their  statements.  If  the  defendant  raised 
no  formal  protest,  the  trial  proceeded  in  regular  course  {tWvduda), 
but  he  might  contend  that  the  suit  was  inadmissible,  and,  to 
prove  his  point,  might  bring  witnesses  to  confront  those  on  the 
side  of  the  plaintiff  (dta/io/n-vpfa),  or  he  might  rely. on  argument 
without  witnesses  by  means  of  a  written  statement  traversing 
that  of  the  plaintiff  (iropaYpa^).  The  person  who  submitted  the 
special  plea  in  bar  of  action  naturally  spoke  first,  and,  if  he 
gained  the  verdict,  the  main  suit  could  not  come  on,  or,  at  any 
rate,  not  in  the  way  proposed  or  before  the  same  court.  A 
cross-action  (diTi7pa^)  might  be  brought  by  the  defendant, 
but  the  verdict  did  not  necessarily  affect  that  of  the  original 
suit. 

In  the  preliminary  examination  copies  of  the  laws  or  other 
documents  bearing  on  the  case  were  produced.  If  any  such 
document  were  in  the  hands  of  a  third  person,  he 
could  be  compelled  to  produce  it  by  an  action  for  that  }^ 
purpose  (tli  ifi^opuv  nariiOTaew).  The  depositions 
were  ordinarily  made  before  the  presiding  officer  and  were 
taken  down  in  his  presence.  If  a  witness  were  compelled  to 
be  absent,  a  certified  copy  of  his  deposition  might  be  sent 
HKiiOfiTVfila),  The  depositions  of  slaves  were  not  accepted, 
unless  made  under  torture,  and  for  receiving  such  evidence 
the  consent  of  both  parties  was  reqxiired.  Either  party  could 
challenge  the  other  to  submit  his  slaves  to  the 
test  {rpbuXitott  cfr  fi6fft»P0»),  and,  in  the  event  of  the 
challenge  being  refused,  could  comment  on  the  fact 
when  the  case  came  before  the  court.  Either  party  could  also 
challenge  the  other  to  take  an  oath  (wpUin^tt  ttt  Spm^, 
and,  if  the  oath  were  declined,  could  similarly  comment  on  the 
fact. 


5o6 


GREEK  LAW 


Mercantile  cases  had  to  be  decided  within  thfr  interv'al  of  a 
month;  others  might  be  postponed  for  due  cause.    If,  on  the 

TtetriaL  ^^^  °^  ^"^'  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  parties  was  absent,  his 
representative  had  to  show  cause  under  oath  (6r- 
dfioffla);  if  the  other  party  objected,  he  did  so  under  oath 
{aySvmiMxrla).  If  the  plea  for  delay  were  refused  by  the  court, 
and  it  were  the  defendant  who  failed  to  appear,  judgment  went 
by  default;  in  the  absence  of  the  plaintiff,  the  case  was  given 
in  favour  of  the  defendant. 

The  official  who  had  conducted  the  preliminary  inquiry 
also  presided  at  the  trial.  The  proceedings  began  with  a  solemn 
sacrifice.  The  plea  of  the  plaintiff  and  the  formal  reply  of  the 
defendant  were  then  read  by  the  clerk.  The  court  was  next 
addressed  first  by  the  plaintiff,  next  by  the  defendant;  in  some 
cases  there  were  two  speeches  on  each  side.  Every  litigant  was 
legally  required  to  conduct  his  own  case.  The  speeches  were 
often  composed  by  professional  experts  for  delivery  by  the 
parties  to  the  suit,  who  were  required  to  speak  in  person,  though 
one  or  more  unprofessional  supporters  {ffw^opa)  might  subse- 
quently speak  in  support  of  the  case.  The  length  of  the  speeches 
was  in  many  cases  limited  by  law  to  a  fixed  time  recorded  by 
means  of  a  water-dock  (clepsydra).  Documents  were  not 
regarded  as  part  of  the  speech,  and,  while  these  were  being  read, 
the  clock  was  stopped  (Goethe  found  a  similar  custom  in^force 
in  Venice  in  October  1786).  The  witnesses  were  never  cross- 
examined,  but  one  of  the  litigants  might  formally  interrogate 
the  other.  The  case  for  the  defence  was  sometimes  finally 
supported  by  pathetic  appeak  on  the  part  of  relatives  and 
friends. 

When  the  speeches  were  over,  the  votes  were  taken.  In  the 
5lh  century  mussel-shells  (xoiptviu)  were  used  for  the  purpose. 
Each  of  the  jurors  received  a  shell,  which  he  placed  in  one  of  the 
two  urns,  in  that  to  the  front  if  he  voted  for  acquittal;  in  that 
to  the  back  if  he  voted  for  condemnation.  If  a  second  vote  had 
to  be  taken  to  determine  the  amount  of  the  penalty,  wax  tablets 
were  used,  on  which  the  juror  drew  a  long  line,  if  he  gave  the 
heavy  penalty  demanded  by  the  plaintiff;  a  short  one,  if  he  de- 
cided in  favour  of  the  lighter  penalty  proposed  by  the  defendant. 

In  the  4th  century  the  mussel-shells  were  replaced  by  disks 
of  bronze.  Each  disk  (hiscribcd  with  the  words  'i'H4>02 
AHMOZIA)  was  about  I  in.  in  diameter,  with  a  short  tube  running 
through  the  centre.  This  tube  was  either  perforated  or  closed 
(sec  figs.  6  and  7  in  frontispiece  to  .\rislotIe's  ConstUuiion  of  A  thcns, 
ed.  Sandys).  One  of  each  kind  was  given  to  every  juror,  who 
was  required  to  use  the  perforated  or  the  closed  disk,  according 
as  he  voted  for  the  plaintiff  or  for  the  defendant.  On  the 
platform  there  were  two  urns,  one  of  bronze  and  one  of  wood. 
The  juror  placed  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand  the  disk,  that  he 
proposed  to  use,  and  closed  his  fingers  on  the  extremity  of  the 
tube,  so  that  no  one  could  see  whether  it  were  a  perforated  disk 
or  not,  and  then  deposited  it  in  the  bronze  urn,  and  (with  the 
same  precaution  to  ensure  secrecy)  dropped  the  unused  disk  into 
the  wooden  urn.  The  votes  were  sorted  by  persons  appointed 
by  lot,  and  counted  by  the  president  of  the  court,  and  the 
result  announced  by  the  herald.  For  any  second  vote  the  same 
procedure  was  adopted  (Aristotle,  u^.,  c.  68  of  Kenyon's  Berlin 
text). 

Pecuniary  penalties  were  inflicted  both  in  public  and  in 
private  suits;  personal  penalties,  in  public  stiits  only.  Personal 
F^umMn.  P*"^^*^  included  sentences  of  death  or  exile,  or 
different  degrees  of  disfranchisement  (dri/iia)  with  or 
without  confiscation.  Imprisonment  before  trial  was  common, 
and  persons  mulcted  in  penalties  might  be  imprisoned 
until  the  penalties  were  paid,  but  imprisonment  was  never 
inflicted  as  the  sole  p>enalty  after  conviction.  Foreigners  alone 
could  be  sold  into  slavery.  Sentences  of  death  were  carried 
out  under  the  supervision  of  the  board  of  police  called  the 
"  Eleven."  In  ancient  times  a  person  condemned  was  hurled 
into  a  deep  pit  (the  barathrum)  in  a  north-western  suburb  of 
Athens.  In  later  times  he  was  compelled  to  drink  the  fatal 
draught  of  hemlock.  Common  malefactors  were  beaten  to 
death  with  clubs.   Fines  were  collected  and  confiscated  property 


sold  by  special  officials,  called  irpdxropcf  and  nohiral  respec- 
tively. In  private  suits  the  sentence  was  executed  by  the  state 
if  the  latter  had  a  share  in  any  fine  imposed,  or  if  imprison- 
ment were  part  of  the  penalty.  Otherwise,  the  execution  of  the 
sentence  was  left  to  the  plaintiff,  who  had  the  right  of  distraint, 
or,  if  this  failed,  could  bring  an  action  of  ejectment  (SUq  l(o^yi)i). 

From  the  verdict  of  the  heliaea  there  was 'no  appeal.  But, 
if  judgment  had  been  given  by  default,  the  person  condemned 
might  bring  an  action  to  prove  that  he  was  not  responsible  for 
such  default,  r^  tp^iionf  {sc.  dtcip)  hjmkorrxjkvaf.  The  corre- 
sponding term  for  challenging  the  award  of  an  arbitrator  was 
riiv  iiii  otaoif  APTtKayx^Pttv.  He  might  also  bring  an  action  for 
fajse  evidence  (dUiy  ^fwHofAaprvptutf)  against  his  opponent's 
witnesses,  and,  on  their  conviction,  have  the  sentence  annulled. 
This  "  denunciation  "  of  false  evidence  was  technically  called 
MffOf^ns  and  trurK^taOau 

The  large  number  of  the  jurors  made  bribery  difficult,  but, 
as  was  first  proved  by  Anytus  (in  409),  not  impossible.    It  also 

diminbhed  the  feeling  of  personal  responsibility,  while 

it  increased  the  influence  of  political  motives.  In  mith» 
addressing  such  a  court,  the  litigants  were  not  above  ^***^|y 
appealing  to  the  personal  interests  of  the  general  **•■■■*• 
public.  We  have  a  striking  example  of  this  in  the  terms 
in  which  Lysias  makes  one  of  his  clients  close  a  ^leech  in 
prosecution  of  certain  retail  corn-dealers  who  have  incurred  the 
penalty  of  death  by  buying  more  than  75  bushels  of  wheat  at 
one  time:  "If  you  condemn  these  persons,  you  will  be  doing 
what  is  right,  and  will  pay  less  for  the  purchase  of  your  com; 
if  you  acquit  them,  you  wiU  pay  more  "  (xxii.  §  2a). 

Speakers  were  also  tempted  to  take  advantage  of  the  popular 
ignorance  by  misinterpreting  the  enactments  of  the  law,  and  the 
jurore  could  look  for  no  aid  from  the  officials  who  formally 
presided  over  the  courts.  The  latter  were  not  necessarily  experts, 
for  they  owed  their  own  original  appointment  to  the  caprice  of 
the  lot.  Almost  the  only  officials  specially  elected  as  experts 
were  the  strategi,  and  these  presided  only  in  their  own  courts. 
Again,  there  was  every  temptation  for  the  informer  to  propose 
the  confiscation  of  the  property  of  a  wealthy  citizen,  who  would 
naturally  prefer  paying  blackmail  to  running  the  risk  of  having 
his  case  tried  before  'a  large  tribunal  which  was  under  every 
temptation  to  decide  in  the  interests  of  the  treasury.  In  con- 
clusion we  may  quote  the  opinions  on  the  judicial  system  of 
Athens  which  have  been  expressed  by  two  en^inent  classic^ 
scholars  and  English  lawyers. 

A  translator  of  Aristophanes,  Mr  B.  B.  Rogers,  records  his  opintoo 
"  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  devise  a  judicial  system  less  adapted 
for  the  due  administration  of  justice  "  (Preface  to  Was^s,  xxxv.  f.), 
while  a  translator  of  Demosthenes,  Mr  C.  R.  Kenned]^,  observes  that 
the  Athenian  jurors  *'  were  persons  of  no  legal  cducatbn  or  karnine; 
taken  at  haphazard  from  the  whole  body  of  citizens,  and  mostly 
belonging  to  the  lowest  and  poorest  class.  On  the  other  hand,  tKe 
Athenians  were  naturally  the  quickest  and  cleverest  people  in  the 
world.  Their  wits  were  sharpened  by  the  habit  ...  of  taking  an 
active  part  in  important  debates,  and  hearing;  the  most  splendid 
orators.  There  was  so  much  litigation  at  Athens  that  they  were 
constantly  either  engaged  as  jurors,  or  present  as  spectators  in  courts 
of  law"  (PrioaU  Orations,  p.  361). 

AuTHORiTiBS.— I.  Greek  Law.  B.  W.  Leist,  CHk»-italische 
Rechtsgeschickte  (Jena,  1884):  L.  Mitteis,  Reichsreckt  tmd  Voiksreckt 


Jakrb. 

,  Reckisvissetuekafl  (Stutt- 

Ert,  1906) ;  R.  Htrzcl,  Themis,  Dike  und  Verwandtes  (Leipzig,  1907) ; 
J.  Thonisscn,  Le  Droit  criminel  de  la  Crice  Ugendaire.  loliowcd  by 
Droit  penal  de  la  ripubtigue  atkinienne  (Brussels.  1875). 
2.  Attic  Law.  (a)  Editions  of  Greek  texts:  I.  B.  Tdlfy.  Corpus 
Juris  AUici  (Pest  and  Leipzig,  1868):  Aristotle's  Constitaiion  0/ 
Athens,  ed.  Kcnyon  (London,  1891,  &c.,  and  esp.  cd.  4.  Berlin,  1903) ; 
ed.  4.  Blass  (Leipzig,  1903) ;  text  with  critical  and  explanatory  notes, 
ed.  Sandys  (London,  1893):  Lysias.  cd.  Frohberger  (Leipzig.  1866- 
1871):  Isaeus,  ed.  V/ysc  (Cambridge,  1904);  Demosthenes,  Pnro£r 
Orations,  ed.  Paley  and  Sandys,  ed.  3  (Cambridge.  1896-1898); 
Against  Midias,  cd.  Goodwin  (Cambridge,  1906):  Darcste.  Hau»- 
soullier,  Th.  Reinach,  Inscr.  juridiques  grecques  (Paris,  1891-1904). 
(6)  Modera  treatises:  K.  F.  Hermann,  De  erj/igm  institaiormm 


AHaENH 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


507 


If  ie  letibui  libtei  iicio^iiJif  (Muburg, 

id.  6.  Thuniier  IFitiinig.  i*b);  Rtcka- 

„   inaincim  (Frritnirg.  18.44).  G.  Buiell.  SliuU- 

iIiMa  umI  Alkm  (Btrlin,   ihii);  C,  Gilbcrl.  Ci. 
itijMlia  (vol.  L,  Eng.  rniri^.,  iHp.^7^416.  London, 

{Beclin,   lfMl-IIM7);  (1)  rd.   4  oT  Srhfimann,  Cr. 

lafigirilfc  (P<r^  isn} :  6.  Qtau,  La  S^-jJrJl  il  la  lamiOi  Auu  U 
iiail  (rimiutt  n  Crta  (Parih  ■9a«):L.  Buuchcl,  DrcU  prai  it  la 
rip.  oIUm.  (4  voU..  Piru.  1S47);  C.  R.  KcniiRly.  ABprmlica  U> 
tFoul.  >/  Dim.  vob.  iii.  and  iv.  (l8«&-lB6l)l  Smith'a  Diclumar,  »/ 
.  .  .  ^nf uiLtifi,  cd.  1  (1B91):  F.  B.JrvcHU,  in  CaidlW  and  tcvoni, 
GrMk  AnUq^ia  (189;.  pp.  Jl6-u;li  W.  Vlytc,  in  Whiblcy'i 
Cnfunin  M  Cm*  5liu(ici  (Cimbn^i.  190]).  pp.  377-4O2. 

SBBSK  lITEItATnRK.--ni*  litcraUn  of  the  Gr«l:'Ung>ucc 


MI>U<»i..[r 
i«9S)i  j"" 


Bya, 


line,  Ci)  Modnn.    Thew  u 


dali  wiih  bete 

C  LiTXUTlJU 


The  ■ 


>  thre 


Eorfr  LUaatim,  to  about  475 

lyiic  poetry  1  Ihe  beginning!  of 

UlBaltn  47S~}<x>  "C;  tragic  and  comic  anna; 

aratoricil  and  philauphical  pnte.     (C)  Tlu  LiUrt 

Dtcadtnctj  300  B.C.  tc 


periodi:  (A)    The 

legiac,  iambic  and 
St.     IB)  TAi  AUii 


1.  jiq. 


-.46   ".C.  i 


The  object  ol  Ihe  U 


(A)  Tit  Eorl/  £ifcafi, 
be  traced  through  all  Ihc 
Creeks  wen  not  literary  imiuion  of  toi 
of  poetry  and  prote  in  which  they  allaii 
Hcellence  were  fint  developed  by  Ihenu 


irpoiiii, 

)f  that  life  in  youih,  r 

icb  iti  Mvcral  fiuilt  a 

:  race  bore  a  character 


itunly  and  decay;  and  the 
produced  ii  not  the  cuult 
■  old  Greek  literature  hai  a 
1  that  each  great  branch  of 
lie  part  in  ili  development. 

Each  dialect  corresponded  10  a  ccnain  aspect  of  KeUcnic  life 

The  loniani  on  the  coasl  of  Alia  Minor— a  Uvcty  and  genial 
people,  ddighting  in  adventure,  and  keenly  senHtive  to  every. 

thing  bright  and  joyoua — created  artijiic  epic  poetry 
^Hif,       out  ol  the  layj  in  which  Aeolicminiireltsingof  the  old 

Achaean  mrs.  And  among  the  Ionian)  arose  ele^ac 
poetry,  Ihe  Grit  variation  on  the  epic  type.  These  found  a 
biting  inilniQicnt  in  Ihe  harmonioui  Ionic  dialect,  Ihe  fleiihie 
ulleiance  of  a  quick  and  veruiile  intelligence.  The  Aeolians  of 
Lesboa  neil  created  the  lyric  of  personal  passion,  in  which  the 
trails  of  their  race — its  chivalroi        ' '  >   ■  >  ■ 


IgVOKCI 

'leDoria 


religi 


ia  then  perfected  ih 


faith,  I 


Ibe  Ionian  ! 
Ihe  other  k 


n  usage  and  renown  had  an  apt  inlerpreler  In 
id  sonorous  Doric.  Finally,  tbe  Attic  branch  of 
'k  produced  the  dniBU.  btending  demenU  ol  all 
:t  kinds,  and  developed  id  attiUic  Uteraiy  proK  in 
oratoiy  and  philosophy.  It  is  in  Ihe  Allic  Uleralucc 
Greek  mind  receives  il>  n»M  complete  inlerprelation, 
A  natural  affinity  w»  fell  lo  eiisl  between  each  dialect  and 
hai  ^lecies  ol  composilion  for  which  it  had  been  specially  used, 
^ence  the  dialecl  ol  ihc  Ionian  epic  poets  would  be  adopted 
(ith  iDOie  01  leal  tboroughnesi  even  by  epic  or  elegiac  poets  who 


weit  not  lonians.  Thus  Ihe  Aeolian  Hesiod  uses  i[  in  epos,  tha 
Dorian  Theognit  in  elegy,  [hough  not  withoul  alloy.  Similarly, 
the  Dorian  Theocrttus  oiote  lovc-songi  in  AeoUc.  Ail  ihe 
faculties  and  tones  ol  Ihe  language  were  thus  gradually  brought 
out  by  ihe  ccMiperaiion  of  the  ditlccta.    Old  Creek  literature 


.    Of  lb 


re^Homf 


glimpwa  ai  we  gel  o 
stages  in  the  religion 
first  ol  these  stages 

ness  that  the  penonal  names  were  only  s 
ancient  Greek  songs  of  which  mcnlion  is 
have  belonged  to  this  stage — as  Ihe  songi 
lalemus  and  Hylaa.  Linus,  the  fair  youll 
doES.  seems  to  be  Ihe  spring  passing  av 
igs  have  been  aptly  called  " : 


X 


The  second 
lively  perse 
Dc  meter,  D 
wilh  clearly 
Ihe  hymni  c 


itage  is  that  in  which  II 
nified  r 


■Hell 


had  lefl  Ihe  Indo-Europe 
yet  taken  full  possession 
Hellenic.    Some  of  their 


Ihe  Greeks  possessed  no 

religions  lilua],  il  may  b 
duration.  Already  in  Ihe 
marriage  hymn  and  to  1 1 
India  were  chanied  by  If 


irship  of  Ihe  Picrito  Muses  and 
rhe  seals  ol  this  early  ucred 
-(.(.on  ihe  bordciBof  northern 


il  Asia,  but  had  nt 
[n  Asia;  others  wci 


d,  which  in  anc 
:  of  Ihc  Creeks 


only  kind  of  eii 

JO0B.C.    Theea 

and  the  Ofyiici 

some  fragments  • 
Alter  the  Dor 

emigrants  «ho  91 

with  then  Ihe  ' 

Achaean  princes 

ballads  ol  the  Ae 

uuthwird  JniD  Innii.  nrhere  Ihe  Ionian  pocis  gradually 

igher  artistic  forms.     AaoDg  the  seveo 

_  to  be  Ihe  birthplace  ol  Homer,  that  which 

he  best  title  is  Smyrna.  Homer  himself  is  called  "  son  ol 
s  "—the  iiream  which  flowed  through  old  Smyrna,  on  the 
cr  between  Aeolia  and  Ionia.  The  Indilion  is  significant  in 
d  to  the  origin  and  character  of  Ihe  Iliad,  foe  ia  Ihe  Iliiul  we 
Achacanballadswoikcdupbylonianart.    Aprepondennca 


',   Hesiod  and 

>l  the  ■■  Cyclic  "  poels. 

an  mnquesi  ol  the  Peloponnesus,  the  AeoUan 

ttled  in  Ihe  north- west  ol  Asia  Minor  brought 

rartike  legends  ol  their  chiefs,  the 

of  old.    These  legends  lived  in  the  2lu?^ 


ibaptd  II 


5o8 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


[ANCIENT 


of  evidence  is  in  favour  of  the  view  that  the  Odyssey  also,  at 
least  in  its  earliest  form,  was  composed  on  the  Ionian  coast 
of  Asia  Minor.  According  to  the  Spartan  account,  Lycurgus 
was  the  first  to  bring  to  Greece  a  complete  copy  of  the  Homeric 
poems,  which  he  had  obtained  from  the  Creophylidae,  a  clan  or 
gild  of  poets  in  Samos.  A  better  authenticated  tradition  connects 
Athens  with  early  attempts  to  preserve  the  chief  poetical  treasure 
of  the  nation.  Peisistratus  is  said  to  have  charged  some  learned 
men  with  the  task  of  collecting  all  "  the  poems  of  Homer  "; 
but  it  is  difficult  to  decide  how  much  was  comprehended  under 
this  last  phrase,  or  whether  the  province  of  the  commission 
went  beyond  the  mere  task  of  collecting.  Nor  can  it  be  deter- 
mined what  exactly  it  was  that  Solon  and^Hipparchus  respec- 
tively did  for  the  Homeric  poems.  Solon,  it  has  been  thought, 
enacted  that  the  poems  should  be  recited  from  an  authorized 
text  (4(  6]ro^oX$t);  Hipparchus,  that  they  should  be  recited 
in  a  regular  order  (l£  inroKifpHai).  At  any  rate,  we  know  that 
in  the  6th  century  B.C.  a  recitation  of  the  poems  of  Homer  was 
one  of  the  established  competitions  at  the  Panathenaea,  held 
4>nce  in  four  years.  The  reciter  was  called  a  rhapsodist — 
properly  one  who  weaves  a  long,  smoothly-flowing  chant,  then 
an  epic  poet  who  chants  his  own  or  another's  poem.  The 
rhapsodist  did  not,  like  the  early  minstrel,  use  the  accompaniment 
of  the  harp;  he  gave  the  verses  in  a  flowing  recitative,  bearing 
in  his  hand  a  branch  of  laurel,  the  symbol  of  Apollo's  inspiration. 
In  the  5th  century  B.C.  we  find  that  various  Greek  cities  had 
their  own  editions  {ol  iroXtruol,  card  v^Xctt  or  4k  iri)tsea¥ 
iKBbatii)  of  the  poems,  for  recitation  at  their  festivals.  Among 
these  were  the  editions  of  Massilia,  of  Chios  and  of  Argolis. 
There  were  also  editions  bearing  the  name  of  the  individual 
editor  (cU  Kor*  &M8pa)— the  best  known  being  that  which 
Aristotle  prepared  for  Alexander.  The  recension  of  the  poems 
by  Aristarchus  (156  B.C.)  became  the  standard  one,  and  is 
probably  that  on  which  the  existing  text  is  based.  The  oldest 
Homeric  MS.  extant,  Venctus  A  of  the  //:W,  is  of  the  loth 
century;  the. first  printed  edition  of  Homer  was  that  edited 
by  the  Byzantine  Demetrius  Chalcondylcs  (Florence,  148S). 

The  ancient  Greeks  were  almost  unanimous  in  believing  the 
Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  to  be  the  work  of  one  man,  Homer,  to  whom 

they  also  ascribed  some  extant  hymns,  and  probably 
yi^^  much  mofe  besides.  Aristotle  and  Aristarchus  seem 
firrti/frii-     ^o  ^Ave  put  Homer's  date  about  1044  B.C.,  Herodotus 

about  850  B.C.  It  is  not  till  about  170  B.C.  that  the 
grapnmarians  Hellanicus  and  Xenon  put  forward  the  view  that 
Homer  was  the  author  of  the  Hiadf  but  not-  of  the  Odyssey. 
Those  who  followed  them  in  assigning  different  authors  to  the 
two  poems  were  called  the  Separators  {ChorizonUs),  Aristarchus 
combated  "  the  paradox  of  Xenon,"  and  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  had  much  acceptance  in  antiquity.  Giovanni  Battista 
Vico,  a  Neapolitan  (1668-1744),  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
modern  to  suggest  the  composite  authorship  and  oral  tradition 
of  the  Homeric  poems;  but  this  was  a  pure  conjecture  in  support 
of  his  theory  that  the  names  of  ancient  lawgivers  and  poets  are 
often  mere  symbols.  F.  A.  Wolf,  in  the  Prolegomena  to  his 
edition  (1795),  was  the  founder  of  a  scientific  scepticism.  The 
lliad^  he  said  (for  he  recognized  the  comparative  unity  and 
consistency  of  the  Odyssey),  was  pieced  together  from  many 
small  unwritten  poems  by  various  hands,  and  was  first  committed 
to  writing  in  the  time  of  Peisistratus.  This  view  was  in  harmony 
with  the  tone  of  German  critidsm  at  the  time;  it  was  welcomed 
as  a  new  testimony  to  the  superiority  of  popular  poetry,  springing 
from  fresh  natural  sources,  to  elaborate  works  of  art;  and  it  at 
once  found  enthusiastic  adherents.  For  the  course  of  Homeric 
controversy  since  Wolf  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article 
Homer. 

The  Ionian  school  of  epos  produced  a  aumber  of  poebus 
founded  on  the  legends  of  the  Trojan  war,  and  intended  as 
^^  introductions  or  continuations  to  the  Iliad' and  the 
2mi»       Odyssey.     The  grammarian  Produs  (a.D.   140)  has. 

preserved  the  names  and  subjects  of  some  of  these; 
but  the  fragments  are  very  scanty.  The  NosUn  or  Homeward 
Voyages,  by  Agias  (or  Hagias)  of  Troezen,  filled  up  the  gap  of 


ten  years  between  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey;  the  Lay  of  Tdegonta, 
by  Eugammon  of  Cyncne,  continued  the  story  of  the  Odytsey 
to  the  death  of  Odysseus  by  the  hand  of  Telegonus,  the  son 
whom  Circe  bore  to  him.  Similarly  the  Cyprian  Lays  by  Stasinus 
of  Cyprus,  ascribed  by  others  to  Hegesiats  (or  Hegeslnus)  ci 
Salamis  or  Halicamassus,  was  introductory  to  the  Iliad;  the 
Aelhiopis  and  the  Sack  of  Troy,  by  Arctinus  of  Miletus,  and  the 
Little  Iliad,  by  Lesches  of  Mylilene,  were  supplementary  to  iL 
These  and  many  other  names  of  lost  epics — some  taken  abo 
from  the  Theban  myths  (Thebais,  Epigoni,  Oedipodea) — serve 
to  show  how  proh'fic  was  that  epic  school  of  which  only  two  great 
examples  remain.  The  name  of  epic  cycle  was  properiy  applied 
to  a  prose  compilation  of  abstracts  from  these  epics,  pi^red 
together  in  the  order  of  the  events.  The  compilers  were  called 
"  cyclic  "  writers;  and  the  term  has  now  be^  transfempd  to 
the  epic  poets  w^om  they  \ised.' 

The  epic  poetry  of  Ionia  celebrated  the  great  deeds  of  heroes 
in  the  old  wars.  But  in  Greece  proper  there  arose  another 
school  of  epos,  which  busied  itself  with  religiotis  lore 
and  ethical  precepts,  especially  in  relation  to  the  rural 
life  of  Boeotia.  This  school  is  represented  by  the  name 
of  Hesiod.  The  legend  spoke  of  him  as  vanquishing  Homer 
in  a  poetical  contest  of  Chalcis  in  Euboea;  and  it  expresses  the 
fact  that,  to  the  old  Greek  mind,  these  two  names  stood  for  two 
contrasted  epic  types.  Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  his  date, 
except  that  it  must  have  been  subsequent  to  the  maturity  of 
Ionian  epos.  He  is  conjecturally  placed  about  850-800  B.C.; 
but  some  would  refer  him  to  the  early  part  of  the  7th  century  B.C. 
His  home  was  at  Ascra,  a  village  in  a  valley  under  Hdicon, 
whither  his  father  had  migrated  from  Cyme  in  Aeolis  on  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  In  Hesiod's  Works  and  Days  we  have  the 
earliest  example  of  a  didactic  poem.  The  seasons  and  the  labours 
of  the  Boeotian  farmer's  year  are  followed  by  a  list  of  the  days 
which  are  lucky  or  unlucky  for  work.  The  Theogony,  or  "  Origin 
of  the  Gods,"  describes  first  how  the  visible  order  of  nature  arose 
out  of  chaos;  next,  how  the  gods  were  born.  Though  it  never 
possessed  the  character  of  a  sacred  book,  it  remained  a  standard 
authority  on  the  genealogies  of  the  gods:  So  far  as  a  corrupt 
and  confused  text  warrants  a  judgment,  the  p6et  was  piedng 
together — not  always  intelligently — the  fragments  of  a  very  old 
cosmogonic  system,  using  for  this  purpose  both  the  hymns 
preserved  in  the  temples  and  the  myths  which  lived  in  folklore. 
The  epic  lay  in  480  lines  called  the  Skidd  of  Heracles — partly 
imitated  from  the  x8th  book  of  the  Iliad — is  the  work  of  an 
author  or  authors  later  than  Hesiod.  In  the  Hcsiodic  poetry, 
as  represented  by  the  Works  and  Days  and  the  Tkcogony,  we 
see  the  influence  of  the  temple  at  Delphi.  Hesiod  recogniies 
the  existence  of  dfli/iovcs — spirits  of  the  departed  who  haunt 
the  earth  as  the  invisible  guardians  of  justice;  and  he  connects 
the  office  of  the  poet  with  that  of  the  prophet.  The  poet  is  one 
whom  the  gods  have  authorized  to  impress  doctrine  and  practical 
duties  on  men.  A  religious  purpose  was  essentially  characteristic 
of  the  Hesiodic  school.  Its  poets  treated  the  old  legends  as 
relics  of  a  sacred  history,  and  not  merely,  in  the  Ionian  manner, 
as  subjects  of  idealizing  art.  Such  titles  as  the  Maxims  tf 
Cheiron  and  the  Lay  of  Melampus,  the  seer — ^lost  poems  of  the 
Hesiodic  school — illustrate  its  ethical  and  its  mystic  tendencies. 

The  Homeric  Hymns  are  a  collection  of  pieces,  some  of  them 
very  short,  .in  hexameter  verse.  Their  traditional  title  ia 
Hymns  or  Preludes  of  Homer  and  Ike  Homeridae.  The 
second  of  the  alternative  designations  is  the  true  one. 
The  pieces  are  not  "  hymns  "  used  in  formal  worship, 
but  "  preludes "  or  prefatory  addresses  (rpooiiua) 
vith  which  the  rhapsodists  ushered  in  their  redtations  of  epic 
poetry.  The  "  prelude  "  might  be  addressed  to  the  presiding 
god  of  the  festival,  or  to  any  local  deity  whom  the  reciter  wished 
to  honour.  The  pieces  (of  which  there  are  33)  range  in  date 
perhaps  from  750  to  500  B.C.  (though  some  authorities  assign 
dates  as  late  as  the  3rd  and  4th  centuries  A.D.;  see  ed.  by  Sikes 
and  Allen,  e.g.  p.  228),  and  it  is  probable  that  the  collection  was 

'  For  authorities  and  crtricisiqs  see  T.  W*  Allen  in   Classicai 
Quarterly  (Jan.  and  April  1908^. 


ANaENTI 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


509 


(onned  m  Atlica,  for  the  me  of  ifaapeodists.  The  style  is  that 
of  the  Ionian  or  Homeric  epos;  but  there  are  also  several  traces 
of  the  Hesiodic  or  Boeotian  school.  The  principal  "  hymns  " 
are  (1)  to  Apollo  (generally  treated  as  two  or  more  hymns 
combined  in  one);  (2)  to  Hermes;  (3)  to  Aphrodite;  and  (4) 
to  Dcmeter.  The  hymn  to  Apollo,  quoted  by  Thucydides  (iii. 
xo«>  as  Homer's,  is  of  peculiar  interest  on  account  of  the  lines 
describing  the  Ionian  festival  at  Delos.  Two  celebrated  pieces 
of  a  sportive  kind  passed  under  Homer's  name.  The  MargUes~~ 
a  comic  poem  on  one  "  who  knew  many  things  but  knew  them 
all  badly  " — is  regarded  by  Aristotle  as  the  earliest  germ  of 
comedy,  and  was  possibly  as  old  as  700  B.C.  Only  a  few  lines 
•remain.  The  Batracko{myo)mackia^  or  BattU  of  the  Progs  and 
Mice  probably  belongs  to  the  decline  of  Greek  literature,  perhaps 
to  the  and  century  B.C.'   About  300  verses  of  it  are  extant. 

In  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  the  personal  opinions  or  sym- 
pathies  of  the  poet  may  sometimes  be  conjectured,  but  they  are 
not  declared  or  even  hinted.  Hesiod,  indeed,  some- 
tiroes  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  his  own  troubles  or  views. 
I  to  Yet  Hesiod  is,  on  the  whole,  essentially  a  prophet. 
The  message  which  he  delivers  is  not  from  himself; 
the  truths  which  he  imparts  have  not  been  discovered 
by  his  own  search.  He  is  the  mouthpiece  of  the  Delphian 
Apollo.  Personal  opinion  and  feeling  may  tinge  his  utterance, 
but  they  do  not  determine  its  general  complexion.  The  egotism 
»  a  single  thread;  it  is  not  the  basis  of  the  texture.  Epic  poetry 
was  in  Greece  the  foundation  of  all  other  poetry;  for  many 
centuries  no  other  kind  was  generally  cultivated,  no  other  could 
tpeak  to  the  whole  people.  Politically,  the  age  was  monarchical 
or  aristocratic;  intellectually,  it  was  too  simple  for  the  analysis 
of  thought  or  emotion.  Kings  and  princes  loved  to  hear  of  the 
great  deeds  of  their  ancestors;  common  men  loved  to  hear  of 
them  too,  for  they  had  no  other  interest.  The  mind  of  Greece 
found  no  subject  of  contemplation  so. attractive  as  the  warUke 
past  of  the  race,  or  so  useful  as  that  lore  which  experience  and 
tradition  had  bequeathed.  But  in  the  course  of  the  8th  century 
B.C.  the  rule  of  hereditary  princes  began  to  disappear.  Monarchy 
gave  place  to  oligarchy,  and  this — often  after  the  intermediate 
phase  of  a  tyrannis — to  democracy.  Such  a  change  was  neces- 
sarily favourable  to  the  growth  of  reflection.  The  private  dtisien 
is  no  longer  a  mere  cipher,  the  Homeric  rtt ,  a  unit  in  the  dim 
multitude  of  the  kiAg-ruled  folk;  he  gains  more  power  of 
independent  action,  his  mental  horizon  is  widened,  his  life 
becomes  fuller  and  more  interesting.  He  begins  to  feel  the  need 
of  expressing  the  thoughts  and  feelings  that  are  stirred  in  him. 
But  as  yet  a  prose  literature  does  not  exist;  the  new  thoughts, 
like  the  old  heroic  stories,  must  still  be  told  in  verse.  The  forms 
of  verse  created  by  this  need  were  the  Elegiac  and  the  Iambic 

The  elegiac  metre  is,  in  form,  a  simple  variation  on  the  epic 
metre,  obtained  by  docking  the  second  -of  two  hexameters  so  as 
j^^^  to  make  it  a  verse  of  five  feet  or  measures.  But  the 
poetical  capabilities  of  the  elegiac  couplet  are  of  a 
whoOy  different  kind  from  those  of  heroic  verse.  iKtyct  seems 
to  be  the  Greek  form  of  a  name  given  by  the  Carians  and  Lydians 
to  a  lament  for  the  dead.  This  was  accompanied  by  the  soft 
music  of  the  Lydian  flute,  which  continued  to  be  associated  with 
Greek  elegy.  The  non-Hellenic  origin  of  elegy  is  indicated  by 
this  veiy  fact.  The  flute  was  to  the  Greeks  an  Asiatic  instru- 
ment— string  instruments  were  those  which  they  made  their  own 
— and  it  would  hardly  have  been  wedded  by  them  to  a  species  of 
poetry  which  had  arisen  among  themselves.  The  early  elegiac 
poetry  of  Greece  was  by  no  means  confined  to  mourning  for  the 
dead.  War,  love,  politics,  proverbial  philosophy,  were  in  turn 
its  themes;  it  dealt,  in  fact,  with  the  chief  interest  of  the  poet 
and  his  friends,  whatever  that  might  be  at  the  time.  It  is  the 
direa  expression  of  the  poet's  own  thoughts,  addressed  to  a 
sympathizing  society.  This  is  its  first  characteristic.  The 
second  is  that,  even  when  most  pathetic  or  most  spirited,  it 
still  preserves,  on  the  whole,  the  tone  of  conversation  or  of 

*  Others  attribute  it,  as  well  as  the  UartiUs,  to  Pisres  of  Hali- 
camamis,  the  suprKMed  brother  of  the  Carian  queen  Artemisia, 
who  foui^t  on  the  side  of  Xerxes  at  the  battle  of  Salamis. 


narrative.  Greek  elegy  stops  shorC  of  lyric  paasiof^'^  EngUsb 
elegy,  whether  funereal  as  in  Dryden  and  Pope,  or  reflective 
as  in  Gray,  is  usually  true  to  the  same  normal  type.  Roman 
elegy  is  not  equally  true  to  it,  but  sometimes  tends  to  trench  on 
the  l3rric  province.  For  Roman  elegy  is  mainly  amatory  or 
sentimental;  and  its  masters  imitated,  as  a  rule,  not  the  early 
Greek  elegists,  not  Tyrt'&eus  or  Theognis,  but  the  later  Alexandrian 
elegists,  such  as  Callimachus  or  Philetas.  Catullus  introduced 
the  metre  to  Latin  literature,  and  used  it  with  more  fidelity  than 
his  followers  to  its  genuine  Greek  inspiration. 

El^y,  as  we  have  seen,  was  the  first  sUght  deviation  from 
epos.  But  almost  at  the  same  time  another  spedes  arose  which 
had  nothing  in  common  with  epos,  either  in  form  or  in 
spirit.  This  was  the  iambic  The  word  fafi/Sor, 
ian^nu  (I6.mtp,  to  dart  or  shoot)  was  used  in  reference 
to  the  licensed  raillery  at  the  festivals  of  Demeter;  it  was  the 
maiden  lambe,  the  myth  said,  who  drew  the  first  smile  from 
the  mourning  goddess.  The  iambic  metre  was  at  first  used  for 
satire;  and  it  was  in  this  strain  that  it  was  chiefly  employed 
by  its  earliest  master  of  note,  Archilochus  of  Paros  (670  B.C.). 
But  it  was  adapted  to  the  expression  generally  of  any  pointed 
thought.  Thus  it  was  suitable  to  fables.  Elegiac  and  iambic 
poetry  both  belong  to  the  borderland  between  epic  and  lyric 
While,  however,  elegy  stands  nearer  to  epos,  iambic  stands 
nearer  to  the  lyric.  Iambic  poetry  can  express  the  personal 
feeling  of  the  poet  with  greater  intensity  than  elegy  does;  on 
the  other  hand,  it  has  not  the  lyric  flexibility,  self-abandonment 
or  glow.  As  we  see  in  the  case  of  Solon,  iambic  verse  could 
serve  for  the  expression  of  that  deeper  thought,  that  more 
inward  self -communing,  for  which  the  elegiac  form  would  have 
been  inappropriate.  ' 

But  these  two  forms  of  poetry,  both  Ionian,  the  elegiac  and 
the  iambic,  belong  essentially  to  the  sam^  stage  of  the  literature. 
They  stand  between  the  loiUan  epos  and  the  lyric  poetry  of  the 
Aeolians  and  Dorians.  The  earliest  of  the  Greek  elegists,  Callinus 
and  Tyrtaeus,  use  el^y  to  rouse  a  warlike  spirit  in  sinking 
hearts.  Archilochus  too  wrote  warlike  elegy,  but  used  it  also 
in  other  strains,  as  in  lament  for  the  dead.  The  elegy  of  Mimner- 
mus  of  Smyrna  or  Colophon  is  the  plaintive  farewell  of  an  ease- 
loving  Ionian  to  the  days  of  Ionian  freedom.  In  Solon  elegy 
takes  a  higher  range;  it  becomes  political  and  ethical.*  Theognis 
represents  the  maturer  union  of  politics  with  a  proverbial 
philosophy.  Another  gnomic  poet  was  Phocylides  of  Miletus; 
an  admonitory  poem  extant  under  his  name  is  probably  the 
work  of  an  /Jexandrine  Jewish  Christian.  Xenophanes  gives 
a  philosophic  strain  to  elegy.  With  Simonides  of  Ceos  it  reverts, 
in  an  exquisite  form,  to  its  earliest  destination,  and  becomes 
the  vehicle  of  epitaph  on  those  who  fell  in  the  Persian  Wars. 
Iambic  verse  was  used  by  Simonides  (or  Semonides)  of  Amorgus, 
as  by  Archilochus,  for  satire — but  satire  directed  against  classes 
rather  than  persons.  Solon's  iambics  so  far  preserve  the  old 
associations  of  the  metre  that  they  represent  the  polemical  or 
controversial  side  of  his  political  poetry.  Hipponax  of  Ephesus 
was  another  iambic  satirist — using  the  OKk^<4¥  ("  limping  ")  or 
choUambic  verse,  produced  by  substituting  a  spondee  for  an 
iambus  in  the  last  place.  But  it  was  not  until  the  rise  of  the 
Attic  drama  that  the  full  capabilities  of  iambic  verse  were  seen. 

The  lyric  poetry  of  early  Greece  may  be  regarded  as  the  final 
form  of  that  effort  at  self-expression  which  in  the  elegiac  and 
iambic  is  still  incomplete.  The  lyric  expression  is 
deeper  and  more  impassioned.  Its  intimate  union 
with  music  and  with  the  rhythmical  movement  of 
the  dance  gives  to  it  more  of  an  ideal  character.  At  the  same 
lime  the  continuity  of  the  music  permits  pauses  to  the  voice — 
pauses  necessary  as  reliefs  after  a  ch'max.  Before  lyric  poetry 
could  be  effective,  it  was  necessary  that  some  progress  shoiUd 
have  been  made  in  the  art  of  music  The  instrument  used  by 
the  Greeks  to  accompany  the  voice  was  the  four-stringed  lyre, 
and  the  first  great  epoch  in  Greek  music  was  when  Terpander 
of  Lesbos  (660  B.C.),  by  adding  three  strings,  gave  the  lyre  the 

*  The  extant  fragments  of  Sdon  have  been  augmented  by  lengthy 
quotations  in  the  ComstUulion  0$  Atkeus, 


Lyrle 


5IO 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


(ANaorr 


compass  of  the  octave.  F^her  improvements  axe  ascribed  to 
Oljrmpus  and  Tlialetas.  By  500  b.c.  Greek  music  had  probably 
acquired  all  the  powers  of  expression  which  the  lyric  poet  could 
demand.  The  period  of  Greek  lyric  poetry  may  be  roughly 
defined  as  from  670  to  440  b.c  Two  different  parts  in  its 
development  were  taken  by  the  AeoUans  and  the  Dorians. 

The  lyric  poetry  6i  the  Aeolian»--especially  of  Lesbosr— was 
essentially  the  utterance  of  personal  feeling,  and  was  usually 
intended  for  a  single  voice,  not  for  a  chorus.  Lesbos, 
in  the  7th  century  B.C.,  had  attained  some  naval 
and  commercial  importance.  But  the  strife  of  oligarchy 
and  democracy  was  active;  the  Lesbian  nobles  were  often 
driven  by  revolution  to  exchange  their  luxurious  home-life 
for  the  hardships  of  exile.  It  is  such  a  life  of  contrasts  and 
excitements,  working  on  a  sensuous  and  fiery  temperament, 
that  is  reflected  in  the  fragments  of  Alcaeus.  In  these  glimpses 
of  war  and  love,  of  anxiety  for  the  storm-tossed  state  and  of 
careless  festivity,  there  is  much  of  the  cavalier  spirit;  if  Archi- 
lochus  is  in  certain  aspects  a  Greek  Byron,  Alcaeus  might  be 
compared  to  Lovelace.  The  other  great  representative  of  the 
Aeolian  lyric  is  Sappho,  the  only  woman  of  Greek  race  who  is 
known  to  have  possessed  poetical  genius  of  the  first  order. 
Intensity  and  melody  are  the  characteristics  of  the  fragments 
that  remain  to  us.'  Probably  no  poet  ever  surpassed  Sappho 
as  an  interpreter  of  passion  in  exquisitely  subtle  harmonies  of 
form  and  sound.  Anacreon  of  Teos,  in  Ionia,  may  be  classed 
with  the  Aeolian  lyrists  in  so  far  as  the  matter  and  form  of  his 
work  resembled  theirs,  though  the  dialect  in  which  he  wrote  was 
mainly  the  Ionian.  A  few  fragments  remain  from  his  hymns 
to  the  gods,  from  love-poems  and  festive  songs.  The  collection 
of  sixty  short  pieces  which  passes  current  under  his  name  date 
only  from  the  xoth  century.  The  short  poems  which  it  comprises 
are  of  various  age  and  authorship,  probably  ranging  in  date 
from  c.  200  B.C.  to  A.D.  400  or  500.  They  have  not  the  pure  style, 
the  flexible  grace,  or  Uie  sweetness  of  the  rlassiral  fragments; 
but  the  verses,  though  somewhat  mechanical,  are  often  pretty. 
The  Dorian  lyric  poetry,  in  contrast  with  the  Aeolian,  had 
more  of  a  public  than  of  a  personal  character,  and  was  for  the 
m(»t  part  choraL  H3rmns  or  choruses  for  the  public 
worship  of  the  gods,  and  odes  to  be  sung  at  festivals  on 
occasions  of  public  interest,  were  its  characteristic 
forms.  Its  central  inspiration  was  the  pride  of  the  Dorians  in 
the  Dorian  past,  in  their  traditions  of  worship,  government  and 
sodal  usage.  Tlie  history  of  the  Dorian  Ijrric  poetry  does  not 
present  us  with  vivid  expressions  of  personal  character,  like 
those  of  Alcaeus  and  Sappho,  but  rather  with  a, scries  of  artists 
whose  names  are  associated  with  improvements  of  form.  Thus 
Alcman  (the  Doric  form  of  Alcmaeon;  660  B.C.)  is  said  to  have 
introduced  the  balanced  movement  of  strophe  and  antistrophe. 
Stesichorus,  of  Himera  in  SicUy,  added  the  epode,  sung  by  the 
chorus  while  stationary  after  these  movements;  Arion  of 
Methynma  in  Lesbos  gave  a  finished  form  to  the  choral  hymn 
("dithyramb")  in  honour  of  Dionysus,  and  organized  the 
"  cydic  "  or  circular  chorus  which  sang  it  at  the  altar.  Ibycus 
of  Rhegium  (c.  540)  wrote  choral  lyrics  after  Stesichorus  and 
glowing  love-songs  in  the  Aeolic  style. 

The  culmination  of  the  lyric  poetry  is  marked  by  two  great 
names,  Simonides  and  Pindar.  Simonides  (556-468)  was  an 
Ionian  of  the  island  of  Ceos,  but  his  lyrics  belonged  by 
form  to  the  choral  Dorian  school  Many  of  his  subjects 
were  taken  from  the  events  of  the  Persian  wars:  his 
epitaphs  on  those  who  fell  at  Thermopylae  and  Salamis 
were  celebrated.  In  him  the  lyric  art  of  the  Dorians  is  interpreted 
by  Ionian  genius,  and  Athens — ^where  part  of  his  life  was  passed — 
is  the  point  at  which  they  meet.    Simonides  is  the  first  Greek 

>  Since  the  above  was  written,  four  constderable  fragments 
generally  assigned  to  Sappho  have  been  discovered:  a  prayer  to 
the  Nereids  for  the  safe  return  of  her  brother  Charaxus;  the  leave- 
taking  of  a  favourite  pupil :  a  greetine  to  Atthis,  one  of  her  friends, 
in  Lydia;  the  fourth,  much  mutilatca,  addressed  to  another  pupil. 
Consyla.  They  are  of  great  beauty  and  throw  considerable  lieht 
on  the  personality  of  Sappho  and  the  language  and  metre  of  her 
poems. 


mad 


lyrist  whose  significance. is  not  merdy  Aediaa  or  Dorian  but 
Panhellenic.  The  same  character  belongs  even  more  completely 
to  his  younger  contemporary.  Pindar  (518-c.  443)  was  bwii 
in  Boeotia  of  a  Dorian  stock;  thus,  as  Ionian  and  Dorian 
elements  meet  in  Simonides,  so  Dorian  and  Aedian  elements 
meet  in  Pindar.  Simonides  was  perhaps  the  most  tender  and 
most  exquisite  of  the  lyric  poets.  Pindar  was  the  boldest,  the 
most  fervid  and  the  most  sublime.  His  extant  fragments* 
represent  almost  every  branch  of  the  lyric  art.  But  he  is  known 
to  us  mainly  by  forty-four  Epinicia,  or  odes  of  victory,  for  the 
Oljrmpian,  Pythian,  Nemean  and  Isthmian  festivals.  The 
general  characteristic  of  the  treatment  is  that  the  particular 
victory  is  made  the  occasion  of  introducing  heroic  legends 
connected  with  the  family  or  city  of  the  victor,  and  of  incukating 
the  moral  lessons  which  they  teach.  No  Greek  lyric  poetry 
can  be  completely  appreciated  apart  from  the  music,  now  kat, 
to  which  it  was  set.  Pindar's  odes  were,  further,  essentially 
occasional  poems;  they  abound  in  allusions  of  whidi  the  effect 
is  partly  or  wholly  lost  on  us;  and  the  glories  which  they  cele- 
brate belong  to  a  life  which  we  can  but  imperfectly  realize. 
Of  all  the  great  Greek  poets,  Pindar  is  perhaps  the  one  to  whom 
it  is  hardest  for  us  to  do  justice;  yet  we  can  at  least  recognite 
his  splendour  of  imagination,  his  strong  rapidity  and  his  soarii^ 
flight. 

Bacchylides  of  Ceos  (c.  504-430),  the  youngest  of  the  three 
great  lyric  poets  and  nephew  of  Simonides,  was  known  only  by 
scanty  fragments  until  the  discovery  of  nineteen  poems  oil  an 
Egyptian  papyrus  in  1896.  They  consist  of  thirteen  (or  fourteen) 
epinicia,  two  of  which  celebrate  the  same  victories  as  two  odes 
of  Pindar.  The  papyrus  also  contains  six  odes  for  the  festivals 
of  gods  or  heroes.  The  poems  contain  valuable  information  on 
the  court  life  of  the  time  and  legendary  history.  Bacchylides, 
the  little  "  Cean  nightingale,"  is  inferior  to  his  great  rival  Pindar, 
"  the  Swan  of  Dirce,"  in  originality  and  splendour  of  language, 
but  he  writes  simply  and  elegantly,  while  his  excellent  yv^uk 
attracted  readers  of  a  philosophical  turn  of  mind,  t^Angff^  them 
the  emperor  Julian. 

Similarly,  the  scanty' fragments  o(  Timotheus  of  MUetns 
(d-  357)1  musical  composer  and  poet,  and  inventor  of  the  eleven- 
stringed  lyre,  were  increased  by  the  discovery  in  1902  of  some 
250  lines  of  his  "  nome  "  the  Persae^  written  after  the  manna  of 
Terpander.  The  beginning  is  k>st;  the  middle  describes  the 
battle  of  Salamis;  the  end  is  of  a  personal  nature.  The  papyrus 
b  the  oldest  Greek  MS.  and  belongs  to  the  age  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  The  language  is  frequently  very  obscure,  and  the  whole 
is  a  specimen  of  lyric  poetry  in  its  decline. 

(B)  Tht  AUic  Literature.— Tilt  lonians  of  Asia  Minor,  the 
AeoUans  and  the  Dorians  had  now  performed  their  special  parts 
in  the  development  of  Greek  literature.  Epic  poetry  had  inter- 
preted the  heroic  legends  of  warlike  deeds  done  by  Zeus-nourished 
kings  and  chiefs.  Then,  as  the  individual  life  became  more  and 
more  elegiac  and  iambic  poetry  had  become  the  social  expression 
of  that  liife  in  all  its  varied  interests  and  feelings.  Lastly,  lytic 
poetry  had  arisen  to  satisfy  a  twofold  need — to  be  the  more 
intense  utterance  of  personal  emotion,  or  to  give  choral  voice,  at 
stirring  moments,  to  the  faith  or  fame,  the  triumph  or  the  sorrow, 
of  a  city  or  a  race.  A  new  form  of  poetry  was  now  to  be  created, 
with  elements  borrowed  from  all  the  rest.  And  this  was  to  be 
achieved  by  the  people  of  Attica,  in  whose  character  and 
language  the  distinctive  traits  of  an  Ionian  descent  were 
tempered  with  some  of  the  best  qualities  of  the  Dorian  stodu 

The  drama  {q.v.)  arose  from  the  festivals  of  Dionysus,  the 
god  of  wine,  which  were  held  at  intervals  from  the  beginning  of 
winter  to  the  beginning  of  spring.  A  troop  of  rustic 
worshippers  would  gather  around  the  altar  of  the  god, 
and  sing  a  hymn  in  his  honour,  telling  of  his  victories 
or  sufferings  in  his  progros  over  the  earth.  "  Tragedy  "  meant 
"  the  goat-song,"  a  goat  {jfAyoa)  being  sacrificed  to  Dionysus 
before  the  hymn  was  sung.  "  Comedy,"  "  the  village* 
song,"  is  the  same  hymn  regarded  as  an  occasion  for 

*  Recently  increased  by  specimens  of  the  Partkeaeia  (ciMial 
songs  for  maidens)  and  paeans. 


ANCIENT] 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


5" 


rustic  jest.  Then  the  leader  of  the  chorus  would  assume  the 
part  of  a  messenger  from  Dionysus,  or  even  that  of  the  god 
himself,  and  recite  an  adventure  to  the  worshippers,  who  made 
choral  response.  The  next  step  was  to  arrange  a  dialogue  between 
the  leader(«>pv^aidf ,  coryphaeus)  and  one  chosen  member  of  the 
chorus,  hence  calleid  "the  answerer"  {'bwo^nHp,  hypocritis, 
afterwards  the  ordinary  word  for  "  actor  ").  This  last  improve- 
ment is  ascribed  to  the  Attic  Thespis  (about  $3^  b.c.)*  The 
elements  of  drama  were  now  ready.  The  choral  hymn  to 
Dionysus  (the  "  dithyramb  ")  had  received  an  artistic  form 
from  the  Dorians;  dialogue,  though  only  between  the  leader 
of  the  chorus  and  a  single  actor,  had  been  introduced  in  Attica. 
Phrynichus,  an  Athenian,  celebrated  in  this  manner  some  events 
of  the  Persian  Wars;  but  in  his  "  drama  "  there  was  still  only 
one  actor.  Choerilus  of  Athens  and  Pratinas  of  Phlius,  who 
belonged  to  the  same  period,  developed  the  satyric  drama; 
Pratinas  also  wrote  tragedies,  dithyrambs,  and  hyporckemata 
(lively  choral  odes  chiefly  in  honour  of  Apollo). 

Aeschylus  (bom  52s  b.c.)  became  the  real  founder  of  tragedy 
by  introducing  a  second  actor,  and  thus  rendering  the  dialogue 
independent  of  the  chorus..  At  the  same  time  the 
choral  song — ^hitherto  the  principal  part  of  the  per- 
formance-^bwame  subordinate  to  the  dialogue;  and  drama 
was  mature.  Aeschylus  is  also  said  to  have  made  various 
impipvements  of  detail  in  costume  and  the  like;  and  it  was 
early  in  his  career  that  the  theatre  of  Dionysus  under  the  acropolis 
was  Commenced — the  first  permanent  home  of  Greek  drama,  in 
place  of  the  temporary  wooden  platforms  which  had  hitherto 
been  used.  The  system  of  the  "  trilogy  "  and  the  "  tetralogy  " 
is  further  astribed  to  Aeschylus, — the  *'  trilogy  "  being  properly 
a  seri^  of  three  tragedies  connected  in  subject,  such  as  the 
AgamemnoKf  Ckoiphorif  Eumenides,  which  together  form  the 
Oresteia,  or  Story  of  Orestes.  The  "  tetralogy  "  i^  such  a  triad 
with  a  "  satyric  drama  "  added — that  is,  a  drama  in  which 
"satyrs,"  the  grotesque  woodland  beings  who  attended  on 
Dionysus,  formed  the  chorus,  as  in  the  earlier  dithyramb  from 
which  drama  sprang.  The  Cyclops  of  Euripides  is  the  only 
extant  specimen  of  a  satyric  drama.  In  the  seven  tragedies 
which  alone  remain  of  the  seventy  which  Aeschylus  is  said  to 
have  composed,  the  forms  of  kinp  and  heroes  have  a  grandeur 
which  is  truly  Homeric;  there  is  a  spirit  of  Panhellenic  patriot- 
ism such  as  the  Persian  Wars  in  which  he  fought  might  well 
quicken  in  a  soldier-poet;  and,  pervading  all,  there  is  a  strain 
of  speculative  thought  which  seeks  to  reconcile  the  apparent 
conflicts  between  the  gods  of  heaven  and  of  the  underworld  by 
the  doctrine  that  both  alike,  constrained  by  necessity,  are  work- 
ing out  the  law  of  righteousness.  Sophocles,  who  was 
bom  thirty  years  after  Aeschylus  (495  b.c),  is  the 
most  perfect  artist  of  the  ancient  drama.  No  one  before  or  after 
him  gave  to  Greek  tragedy  so  high  a  degree  of  ideal  beauty, 
or  appreciated  so  finely  the  possibilities  and  the  limitations  of  its 
sphere.  He  excels  especially  in  drawing  character;  his  AtaigoHCf 
his  Ajax,  his  Oedipus — indeed,  all  the  chief  persons  of  his  dramas 
— are  t3rpical  studies  in  the  great  primary  emotions  of  human 
nature.  He  gave  a  freer  scope  to  tragic  dialogue  by  adding  a 
third  actor;  and  in  one  of  bis  later  plays,  the  Oedipus  at  Cdonus, 
a  fourth  actor  is  required.  From  the  time  when  he  won  the 
tragic  prize  against  Atechylus  in  468  to  his  death  in  405  B.C. 
he  was  the  favourite  dramatist  of  Athens;  and  for  us  he  is  not 
i>n]y  a  great  dramatist,  but  also  the  most  spiritual  representative 
of  the  age  of  Pericles.  The  distinctive  interest  of  Euripides  is  of 
another  kind.  He  was  only  fifteen  years  younger  than 
Sophocles;  but  when  he  entered  on  his  poetical  career, 
the  old  inspirations  of  tragedy  were  already  failing.  Euripides 
marks  a  period  of  transition  in  the  tragic  art,  and  is,  in  fact,  the 
mediator  between  the  classical  and  the  romantic  drama.  The 
myths  and  traditions  with  which  the  elder  dramatists  had  dealt 
no  longer  commanded  an  unquestioning  faith.  Euripides  himself 
was  imbued  with  the  new  intellectual  scepticism  of  the  day; 
and  the  speculative  views  which  were  conflicting  in  his  own  mind 
arc  reflected  in  his  plays.  He  had  much  picturesque  and  pathetic  I 
power;  he  was  a  master  of  expression;  and  he  shows  ingenuity  I 


in  devising  fresh  resources  for  tragedy--especially  in  his  manage- 
ment of  the  choral  sonp.  Aeschylus  is  Panhellenic,  Sophocles 
is  Athenian,  Euripides  is  cosmopolitan.  He  stands  nearer  to  the 
modern  world  than  either  of  his  predecessors;  and  though  with 
him  Attic  tragedy  loses  iu  highest  beauty,  it  acquires  new 
elements  of  familiar  human  interest. 

In  Attica,  as  in  England,  a  period  of  rather  less  than  fifty  years 
sufficed  for  the  complete  development  of  the  tragic  art.  The 
two  distinctive  characteristics  of  Athenian  drama  are  its  origin- 
ality and  its  abundance.  The  Greeks  of  Attica  were  not  the 
only  inventors  of  drama,  but  they  were  the  first  people  who 
made  drama  a  complete  work  of  art.  And  the  great  tragic  poets 
of  Attica  were  remarkably  prolific  Aeschylus  was  the  repute 
author  of  70  tragedies,  Sophocles  of  113,  Euripides  of  9a;  and 
there  were  others  whose  productiveness  was  equally  great. 

Comedy  represented  the  lighter  side,  as  tragedy  the  graver 
side,  of  the  Dionysiac  worship;  it  was  the  joy  of  spring  following 
the  ^oom  of  winter.  The  process  of  growth  was  c^mf^y, 
nearly  the  same  as  in  tragedy;  but  the  Dorians,  not 
the  lonians  of  Attica,  were  the  fint  who  added  dialogue  to  the 
comic  choms.  Susarion,  a  Dorian  of  Megara,  exhibited,  about 
580  B.C.,  pieces  of  the  kind  known  as  "  Megarian  farces." 
Epicharmus  of  Cos  (who  settled  at  Syracuse)  gave  literary  form 
to  the  Doric  farce,  and  treated  in  burlesque  style  the  stories  of 
gods  and  heroes,  and  subjects  taken  from  everyday  life.  His 
Syracusan  contemporary  Sophron  (c.  450)  was  a  famous  writer 
of  mimes,  chiefly  scenes  from  low-dass  life.  The  most  artistic 
form  of  comedy  seems,  however,  to  haye  been  developed  in 
Attica.  The  greatest  names  before  Aristophanes  are  those  of 
Cratinus  and  Eupolis;  but  from  abbut  470  B.C.  there  seems  to 
have  been  a  continuous  succession  of  comic  dramatists,  apiongst 
them  Plato  Comicus,  the  author  of  38  comedies,  political  satires 
and  parodies  after  the  style  of  the  Middle  Comedy. 
Aristophanes  came  forward  as  a  comic  poet  in  427  B.C., 
and  retained  his  popularity  for  about  forty  years.  He 
presents  a  perhaps  unique  union  of  bold  fancy,  exquisite  humour, 
critical  acumen  and  lyrical  power.  His  eleven  extant  comedies  may 
be  divided  into  three  groups,  according  as  the  licence  of  political 
satire  becomes  more  and  more  restricted.  In  the  Achamians, 
Knights f  Clouds f  Wasps  and  Peace  (425-431)  the  poet  uses 
unrestrained  freedom.  In  the  Birds,  Lysisirata,  Thesmophori' 
azusae  and  Frogs  (4x4-405)  a  greater  reserve  may  be  perceived. 
Lastly,  in  the  Eeclesiatusae  and  the  Plutus  (392-388)  personal 
satire  is  almost  wholly  avoided.  The  same  general  tendency 
continued.  The  so-caUed  "  Middle  Comedy  "  (390-320)  repre- 
sents the  transition  from  the  Old  Comedy,  or  political  satire,  to 
satire  of  a  literary  or  social  nature;  its  chief  writers  were  Anti- 
phanes  of  Athens  and  Alexis  of  Thurii.  The  "  New  Comedy  " 
(330-350)  resembled  the  modem  "  comedy  of  manners." 

Its  chief  representative  was  Menander  (343-391 ),  the  author  of 
X05  comedies.  Fragments  have  been  discovered  of  seven  of 
these,  of  sufficient  length  to  give  an  idea  of  their  dramatic  action. 
His  plays  were  produced  on  the  stage  as  hite  as  the  time  of 
Plutarch,  and  his  Yvw/iot,  distingui^ed  by  worldly  wisdom, 
were  issued  in  the  form  of  anthologies,  which  enjoyed  great 
popularity.  Other  prominent  writers  of  this  class  were  Diphilus, 
Philemon,  Posidippus  and  Apollodorus  of  Carystus.  About 
330  B.C.  Rhinthon  of  Tarentum  revived  the  old  Doric  farce  in 
his  Hilarotragoediae  or  travesties  of  tragic  storifs.  These 
successive  periods  cannot  be  sharply  or  precisely  marked  off. 
The  change  which  gradually  passed  over  the  comic  drama  was 
simply  the  reflection  of  the  change  which  passed  over  the  political 
and  social  life  of  Athens.  The  Old  Comedy,  as  we  see  it  in  the 
earlier  plays  of  Aristophanes,  was  probably  the  most  powerful 
engine  of  pubUc  criticism  that  has  ever  existed  in  any  community. 
Unsparing  personality  was  its  essence.  The  comic  poet  used 
this  recognized  right  on  an  occasion  at  once  festive  and  sacred, 
in  a  society  where  every  man  of  any  note  was  known  by  name 
and  sig^t  to  the  rest.  The  same  thousands  who  heard  a  policy 
or  a  character  denounced  or  lauded  in  the  theatre  might  be 
required  to  pass  sentence  on  it  in  the  popular  assembly  or  in 
the  courts  of  law. 


512 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


lANCIENT 


tmlttfuy 


The  development  of  Greek  poetry  bad  been  completed  before 
a  prose  literature  had  begun  to  exist.  The  earliest  name  in 
extant  Greek  prose  literature  is  that  of  Herodotus; 
and,  when  he  «T0te,  the  Attic  drama  had  already 
passed  its  prime.  There  had  been,  indeed,  writers  of 
prose  before  Herodotus;  but  there  had  not  been,  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  term,  a  prose  literature.  The  causes  of  this  compara- 
tively late  origin  of  Greek  literary  prose  are  independent  of 
the  question  as  to  the  time  at  which  the  art  of  writing  began  to 
be  generally  used  for  literary  purposes.  Epic  poetry  exercised 
for  a  very  long  period  a  sovereign  spell  over  the  Greek  mind. 
In  it  was  deposited  all  that  the  race  possessed  of  history,  theology, 
philosophy,  oratory.  Even  after  an  age  of  reflection  had  begun, 
elegiac  poetry,  the  first  offshoot  of  epic,  was,  with  iambic  verse, 
the  vehicle  of  much  which  among  other  races  would  have  been 
committed  to  prose.  The  basis  of  Greek  culture  was  essentially 
poetical.  A  political  cause  worked  in  the.  same  direction.  In 
the  Eastern  monarchies  the  king  was  the  centre  of  all,  and  the 
royal  records  afforded  the  elements  of  history  from  a  remote  date. 
The  Greek  nation  was  broken  up  into  small  states,  each  busied 
with  its  own  affairs  and  its  own  men.  It  was  the  collision 
between  the  Greek  and  the  barbarian  world  which  first  provided 
a  national  subject  for  a  Greek  historian.  The  work  of  Herodotus, 
in  its  relation  to  Greek  prose,  is  so  far  analogous  to  the  Iliad 
in  its  relation  to  Greek  poetry,  that  it  is  the  earh'est  work  of  art, 
and  that  it  bears  a  Panhellenic  stamp. 

The  sense  and  the  degree  in  which  Herodotus  was  original 
may  be  inferred  from  what  is  known  of  earlier  prose-writers. 
For  about  a  century  before  Herodotus  there  had  been 
2j*[  a  series  of  writers  in  philosophy,  mythology,  geography 
writtn,  And  history.  The  earliest,  or  among  the  earliest,  of 
the  philosophical  writers  were  Pherccydcs  of  Syros 
(550  B.C.)  and  the  Ionian  Anaximenes  and  Anaximander.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  Cadmus  of  Miletus,  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  prose  writer,  was  an  historical  personage.  The  Ionian 
writers,  especially  called  Xoyoyp^^,  "  narrators  in  prose " 
(as  distinguished  from  hmrotolf  makers  of  verse),  were  those 
who  compiled  the  myths,  especially  in  genealogies,  or  who 
described  foreign  countries,  their  physical  features,  usages 
and  traditions.  Hecatacus  of  Miletus  (500  B.C.)  is  the  best- 
known  representative  of  the  logographi  in  both  these  branches. 
Hellanicus  of  Mytilene  (450  B.C.),  among  whose  works  was  a 
history  of  Attica,  appears  to  have  made  a  nearer  approach  to 
the  character  of  a  systematic  historian.  Other  logographi  were 
Charon  of  Lampsacus;  Phcrecydcs  of  Leros,  who  wrote  on 
the  myths  of  early  Attica;  Hippys  of  Rhcgium,  the  oldest  writer 
on  Italy  and  Sicily;  and  Acusilaus  of  Argos  in  Boeotia,  author 
of  genealogies  (see  Lococraphi,  and  Greece:  Ancient  History ^ 
"  Authorities  "). 

Herodotus  was  bom  in  484  B.C.;  and  his  history  was  probably 
not  completed  before  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  War 
(431  B.C.).  His  subject  is  the  struggle  between  Greece 
and  Asia,  which  he  deduces  from  the  legendary  rape 
of  the  Argive  lo  by  Phoenicians,  and  traces  down  to  the 
final  victory  of  the  Greeks  over  the  invading  host  of  Xerxes. 
His  literary  kinship  with  the  historical  or  geographical  writers 
who  had  preceded  him  is  seen  mainly  in  two  things.  First, 
though  he  draws  a  line  between  the  mythological  and  the 
historical  age,  he  still  holds  that  myths,  as  such,  are  worthy  to 
be  reported,  and  that  in  certain  cases  it  is  part  of  his  duty  to 
report  them.  Secondly,  he  follows  the  example  of  such  writers 
as  Hecataeus  in  describing  the  natural  and  sodal  features  of 
countries.  He  seeks  to  combine  the  part  of  the  geographer  or 
intelligent  traveller  with  his  proper  part  as  historian.  But  when 
we  turn  from  these  minor  traits  to  the  larger  aspects  of  his  work, 
Herodotus  stands  forth  as  an  artist  whose  conception  and  whose 
method  were  his  own.  His  history  has  an  epic  unity.  Various 
as  arc  thesubordinate  parts,  the  action  narrated  is  one,  great  and 
complete;  and  the  unity  is  due  to  this,  that  Herodotus  refers  all 
events  of  human  history  to  the  principle  of  divine  Nemesis. 
If  Sophocles  had  told  the  atory  of  Oedipus  in  the  Oedipus 
Tyrannus  alone^  and  had  not  added  to  it  the  Oedipus  at  Cohnus, 


it  would  have  been  comparable  to  the  story  of  Xerxes  as  told  by 
Herodotus.  Great  as  an  artist,  great  too  in  the  largeness  of  his 
historical  conception,  Herodotus  fails  chiefly  by  lack  of  insight 
into  political  cause  and  effect,  and  by  a  general  silence  in  regard 
to  the  history  of  political  institutions.  Both  his  strength  and 
his  weakness  are  seen  most  dearly  when  he  is  contrasted  with 
that  other  historian  who  was  strictly  his  contemporazy  and 
who  yet  seems  divided  from  him  by  centuries. 

Thucydides  was  only  thirteen  years  younger  than  Herodotus; 
but  the  intellectual  space  between  the  men  is  so  great  that  they 
seem  to  belong  to  different  ages.  Herodotus  is  the 
first  artist  in  historical  writing;  Thucydides  is  the 
first  thinker.  Herodotus  interweaves  two  threads  of 
causation — human  agency,  represented  by  the  good  or  bad 
qualities  of  men,  and  divine  agency,  represented  by  the  vigilance 
of  the  gods  on  behalf  of  justice.  Thucydides  concentrates  his 
attention  on  the  human  agency  (without,  however,  denjdng  the 
other),  and  strives  to  trace  its  exact  course.  The  subject  of 
Thucydides  is  the  Peloponnesian  War.  In  resolving  to  write 
its  history,  he  was  moved,  he  says,  by  tbese  considerations.  It 
was  probably  the  greatest  movement  which  had  ever  affected 
Hellas  collectively.  It  was  possible  for  him  as  a  contemporary 
to  record  it  with  approximate  accuracy.  And  thb  record  was 
likely  to  have  a  general  value,  over  and  above  its  particular 
interest  as  a  record,  seeing  that  the  pplitical  future  was  likely 
to  resemble  the  political  past.  This  is  what  Thucydides  means 
when  he  calls  his  work  "  a  possession  for  ever."  The  speeches 
which  he  ascribes  to  the  persons  of  the  history  are,  as  regards 
form,  his  own  essays  in  rhetoric  of  the  school  to  whidi  Antiphon 
belongs.  As  regards  matter,  they  are  always  so  far  dramatic 
that  the  thoughts  and  sentiments  are  such  as  he  conceived 
possible  for  the  supposed  speaker.  Thucydides  abstains,  as  a 
rule,  from  moral  comment;  but  he  tells  his  story  as  no  one 
could  have  told  it  who  did  not  profoundly  feel  its  tragic  force; 
and  his  general  claim  to  the  merit  of  impartiality  is  not  invali- 
dated by  the  possible  exceptions — difficult  to  estimate — in  the 
cases  of  Cleon  and  Hyperbolus. 

Strong  as  is  the  contrast  between  Herodotus  and  Thucydides, 
their  works  have  yet  a  character  which  distinguish  both  alike 
from  the  historical  work  of  Xenophon  in  the  Anabasis  ^.__ 
.and  the  Heticnica.  Herodotus  gives  us  a  vivid  <lrama 
with  the  unity  of  an  epic.  Thucydides  takes  a  great 
chapter  of  contemporary  history  and  traces  the  causes  which 
are  at  work  throughout  it,  so  as  to  give  the  whole  a  sdentific 
unity.  Xenophon  has  not  the  grasp  either  of  the  dramatist 
or  of  the  philosopher.  Hts  work  does  not  posse»  the  higher 
unity  either  of  art  or  of  science.  The  true  distinction  of  Xeno- 
phon consists  in  his  thorough  combination  of  the  practical  with 
the  literary  character.  He  was  an  accomplished  soldier,  who 
had  done  and  seen  much.  He  was  also  a  good  writer,  who  could 
make  a  story  both  clear  and  lively.  But  the  several  parts  of 
the  story  are  not  grouped  around  any  'central  idea,  such  as  a 
divine  Nemesis  is  for  Herodotus,  or  such  as  Thucydides  fiads 
in  the  nature  of  political  man.  The  seven  books  of  the  Hdlatica 
form  a  supplement  to  the  history  of  Thucydides,  beginning  in 
41 1  and  going  down  to  362  B.C.  The  chief  blot  on  the  Hdimica 
is  the  author's  partiality  to  Sparta,  and  in  particular  to  Agesilaus. 
Some  of  the  greatest  achievements  of  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas 
are  passed  over  in  silence.  On  the  whole,  Xenophon  is  perhaps 
seen  at  his  best  in  his  narrative  of  the  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Tkoniand 
— ^a  subject  which  exactly  suits  him.  The  Cyropacdeia  is  a 
romance  of  little  historical  worth,  but  with  many  good  passages. 
The  RecoUedions  of  SocraleSf  on  the  other  hand,  derive  their 
principal  value  from  being  uniformly  matter-of-fact.  In  his 
minor  pieces  on  various  subjects  Xenophon  appears  as  the 
earliest  essayist.  It  may  be  noted  that  one  of  the  essays  errone- 
ously ascribed  to  him — that  On  the  Athenian  Polity — is  probably 
the  oldest  specimen  in  existence  of  literary  Attic  prose. 

His  contemporaries  Clesias  of  Cnidus  and  Philtstus  of  Syncuse 
wrote  histories  of  Persia  and  Sicily.  In  the  second  half  of  the 
4th  century  a  number  of  histories  were  compiled  by  b'lcrary 
men  of  little  practical  knowledge,  who  had  been  trained  io  the 


iWaENTl 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


513 


riietorical  ichoob.  Such  were  Ephonis  of  Cyme  and  Thcopompua 
of  Chios,  both  pupils  of  Isocrmtcs;  and  the  writers  of  AUkides 
(chronicles  of  Attic  history),  the  diief  of  whom  were  Androtion 
and  Philochorus.  Timaeus  of  Tauromenium  was  the  author  of 
a  great  work  on  Sidly,  and  intnxiuced  the  system  of  reckoning 
by  Olympiads. 

The  steps  by  which  an  Attic  prose  style  was  developed,  and  the 
principal  forms  which  it  assumed,  can  be  traced  most  clearly 
p^^         in  the  Attic  orators.    Every  Athenian  dtizen  who 

aspired  to  take  part  in  the  affain  of  the  dty,  or  even 
to  be  qualified  for  self-defence  before  a  law-court,  required 
to  have  some  degree  of  skill  in  public  q>eaking;  and  an 
Athenian  audience  looked  upon  public  debate,  whether  political 
or  forensic,  as  a  competitive  trial  of  proficiency  in  a  fine  art. 
Hence  the  speaker,  no  less  than  the  writer,  was  necessarily  a 
student  of  finished  expression;  and  oratory  had  a  more  direct 
influence  on  the  general  structure  of  literary  prose  than  has  ever 
perhaps  been  the  case  elsewhere.  A  systematic  rhetoric  took 
its  rise  in  Sicily,  where  Corax  of  S3rracuse  (466  B.c)  devised  his 
Art  of  Words  to  assist  those  who  were  pleading  before  the  law* 
courts;  and  it  was  brought  to  Athens  by  his  disciple  Tisias. 
The  teaching  of  the  Sophists,  again,  directed  attention,  though 
in  a  superficial  and  imperfect  way,  to  the  elements  of  grammar 
and  logic;  and  Gorgias  of  Leontini — whose  declamation,  however 
turgid,  must  have  been  striking— gave  ^n  impulse  at  Athens 
to  the  taste  for  elaborate  rhetorical  brilliancy. 

Antiphon  represents  the  earliest,  and  what  has  been  called 
the  grand«  style  of  Attic  prose;  its  chief  characteristics  are 
jf^j^f^  *  grave,  dignified  movement,  a  frequent  emphasis 
„,ft^,       on  verbal  contrasts,  and  a  certain  austere  elevation. 

The  interest  of  Andocides  is  mainly  historical;  but 
be  has  graphic  power.  Lysias,  the  representative  of  the  "  plain 
style,"  breaks  through  the  rigid  mannerism  of  the  elder  school, 
and  uses  the  language  of  daily  life  with  an  ease  and  grace  which, 
though  the  result  of  study,  do  not  betray  their  art.  He  is,  in  his 
own  way,  the  canon  of  an  Attic  style;  and  his  speeches,  written 
for  others,  exhibit  also  a  high  degree  of  dramatic  skill.  Isocrates, 
whose  manner  may  be  regarded  as  intermediate  between  that 
of  Antiphon  and  that  of  Lysias,  ^vrote  for  readers  rather  than 
for  hearers.  The  type  of  literary  prose  which  he  founded  is 
distinguished  by  ample  periods,  by  studied  smoothness  and  by 
the  temperate  use  of  rhetorical  ornament.  From  the  middle 
of  the  4th  century  b.c.  the  Isocratic  style  of  prose  became 
general  in  Greek  literature.  From  the  school  of  Rhodes,  in  which 
it  became  more  florid,  it  passed  to  Cicero,  and  through  him  it 
has  helped  to  shape  the  literary  prose  of  the  modem  world.  The 
speeches  of  Isaeus  in  will'Cases  are  interesting, — apart  from 
tbetr  bearing  on  Attic  life, — ^because  in  them  we  see,  as  Dionysius 
says,  "  the  seeds  and  the  beginnings  "  of  that  technical  mastery 
in  rhetorical  argument  which  Demosthenes  carries  to  perfection, 
j^^  Isaeus  has  also,  in  a  degree,  some  of  the  qualities  of 

rftuMi,       Lysias.    Demosthenes  excels  aU  other  masters  of 

Greek  prose  not  only  in  power  but  in  Variety;  his 
political  speeches,  his  orations  in  public  or  private  clauses,  show 
his  consummate  and  versatile  command  over  all  the  resources 
of  the  language.  In  him  the  development  of  Attic  prose  is 
completed,  and  the  best  elements  in  each  of  its  earlier  phases  are 
united.  The  modem  world  can  more  easily  appreciate  Demos- 
thenes as  a  great  natural  orator  than  as  an  elaborate  artist. 
But,  in  order  to  apprehend  his  place  in  the  history  of  Attic  prose, 
we  must  remember  that  the  ancients  felt  him  to  be  both;  and 
that  he  was  even  reproached  by  detractors  with  excessive  study 
of  effect.  Aeschines  is  the  most  theatrical  of  the  Greek  orators; 
be  a  vehement,  and  often  brilliant,  but  seldom  persuasive. 
Hypereides  was,  after  Demosthenes,  probably  the  most  effective; 
he  had  much  of  the  grace  of  Lysias,  but  also  a  wit,  a  fire  and  a 
pathos  which  were  his  own.  Portions  of  six  of  his  speeches, 
fouiwi  in  Eg3i>t  between  1847  and  iSgo,  are  extant.  The  one 
ontbn  of  Lycurgus  which  remains  to  us  is  earnest  and  stately, 
reminding  us  both  of  Antiphon  and  of  Isocrates.  Dinarchus 
was  merely  a  bad  imitator  of  Demosthenes.  There  seems  more 
fcason  to  regret  that  Demades  is  not  represented  by  larger 


fragments.  The  decline  of  Attic  oratory  may  be  dated  from 
Demetrius  of  Phalerum  (318  B.C.),  the  pupil  o(  Aristotle,  and  the 
first  to  introduce  the  custom  of  making  speeches  on  imaginary 
subjects  as  practised  in  the  rhetorical  schools.  Cicero  names  him 
as  the  first  who  impaired  the  vigour  of  the  earlier  eloquence, 
"  preferring  his  own  sweetness  to  the  weight  and  dignity  of  his 
predecessors."-  He  forms  a  connecting  link  between  Athens  and 
Alexandria,  where  he  found  refuge  after  his  downfall  and  pro> 
moted  the  foundation  of  the  famous  library. 

In  bter  times  oratory  chiefly  flourished  in  the  coast  and 
island  settlements  of  Asia  Minor,  especially  Rhodes.  Here  a 
new,  florid  style  of  oration  arose,  calkxi  the  "  Asiatic,*'  which 
owed  its  origin  to  Hegesias  of  Magnesia  {e.  350  B.C.). 

The  pbce  of  Plato  in  the  history  of  Greek  liE^fSture  is  as 
unique  as  his  place  in  the  history  of  Greek  thought.  The  literary 
genius  shown  in  the  dialogues  is  many-sided:  it  pitaoaom 
includes  dramatic  power,  remarkable  skill  in  parody,  ^sjbd 
a  subtle  faculty  of  satire,  and,  generally,  a  command  #mM— 
over  the  finer  tones  of  language.  In  passages  of  ^SJJflf 
continuous  exposition,  where  the  argument  rises  into 
the  higher  regions  of  discussbn,  Pbto's  prose  takes  a  more 
deddedly  poetical  colouring— never  florid  or  sentimental, 
however,  but  lofty  and  austere.  In  Plato's  later  works — such, 
for  instance,  as  the  Laws,  Timaeus,  Critias — we  can  perceive 
that  his  style  did  not  remain  unaffected  by  the  smooth  literary 
prose  which  contemporary  writers  had  developed.  Aristotle's 
influence  on  the  form  of  Attic  prose  literature  would  probably 
have  been  considerable  if  his  Rkdoric  had  been  published  while 
Attic  oratory  had  still  a  vigorous  life  before  it.  But  in  this, 
as  in  other  departments  of  mental  effort,  it  was  Aristotle's 
lot  to  set  in  order  what  the  Greek  intellect  had  done  in  that 
creative  period  which  had  now  o>me  to  an  end.  His  own  chief 
contribution  to  the  original  achievements  of  the  race  was  the 
most  fitting  one  that  could  have  been  made  by  him  in  whose 
lifetime  they  were  dosed.  He  bequeathed  an  instrimient  by 
which  analysis  could  be  carried  further,  he  founded  a  sdence 
of  reasoning,  and  left  those  who  followed  him  to  apply  it  in  all 
those  provinces  of  knowledge  which  he  had  mapped  out.* 
Thcophrastus,  his  pupil  and  his  successor  in  the  Lyceum,  opens 
the  new  age  of  research  and  sdentific  classification  with  his 
extant  works  on  botany,  but  is  better  known  to  modem  readers 
by  his  livdy  Characters,  the  prototypes  of  such  sketches  in 
English  literature  as  those  of  Hall,  Ovcrbury  and  Earle. 

(C)  The  Likrature  of  the  Decadaice, — The  period  of  decadence 
in  Greek  literature  begins  with  the  extinction  of  free  political 
life  in  the  Greek  dties.  So  long  as  the  Greek  common- 
wealths were  independent  and  vigorous,  Greek  life    •/!*• 


rested  on  the  identity  of  the  man  with  the  dtisen.  **** 
The  city  state  was  the  highest  unit  of  social  organiza-  ^'^ 
tion;  the  whole  training  and  character  of  the  man  were  viewed 
relatively  to  his  men^bership  of  the  dty.  The  market-place, 
the  assembly,  the  theatre  were  places  of  frequent  meeting,  where 
the  sense  of  dtizenship  was  quickened,  where  common  standards 
of  opinion  or  feeling  were  formed.  Poetry,  music,  sculpture, 
literature,  art,  in  all  their  forms,  were  matters  <tf  public  interest. 
Every  dtizen  had  some  degree  of  acquaintance  with  them,  and 
was  in  some  measure  capable  of  Judi^hQ^them.  The  poet  and  the 
musician,  the  historian  and  the  sculptor,  did  not  live  a  life  of 
studious  sedusion  or  engrossing  professional  work.  They  were, 
as  a  rule,  in  full  sympathy  with  the  practical  interests  of  their 
lime,  liidr  art,  whatever  its  form  might  be,  was  the  oonccn« 
trated  and  ennobled  expression  of  their  political  existence. 
Aeschylus  breathed  into  tragedy  the  induration  of  one  who  had 
himself  fought  the  great  fight  of  nationid  liberation.  Sophocles 
was  the  colleague  of  Pericles  in  a  high  military  command. 
Thucydides  describes  the  operations  of  the  Peloponnesian  War 
with  the  practical  knowledge  of  one  who  had  been  in  charge  of 
a  fleet.  Ictinus  and  Phddiaa  gave  shape  in  stone,  not  to  mere 
visions  of  the  studio,  but  to  the  more  glorious,  because  more 

<  His  Constitution  of  Athens  (q.v.),  of  which  a  papyrus  MS.  was 
found  in  E^pt  and  published  m  1891.  forms  part  of  a  larger  work 
on  the  constitution  of  i$8  Greek  and  foreign  dties. 


5H 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


lANClENT 


real  and  vivid,  perceptions  which  had  been  quickened  in  them 
by  a  living  communion  with  the  Athenian  spirit,  by  a  daily 
contemplation  of  Athenian  greatness,  in  the  theatre  where 
tragic  poets  idealized  the  legends  of  the  past,  in  the  ecdesia 
where  every  citizen  had  his  vote  on  the  policy  of  the  state,  or  in 
that  free  and  gracious  society,  full  of  beauty,  yet  exempt  from 
vexatious  constraint,  which  belonged  to  the  age  of  Pericles. 
The  tribunal  which  judged  these  works  of  literature  or  art  was 
such  as  was  best  fitted  to  preserve  the  favourable  conditions 
under  which  they  arose.  Criticism  was  not  in  the  hands  of  a 
literary  clique  or  of  a  social  caste.  The  influence  of  Jealousy  or 
malevolence,  and  the  more  fatal  influence  of  affectation,  had 
little  power  to  affect  the  verdict  The  verdict  was  pronounced 
by  the  whole  body  of  the  citizens.  The  success  or  failure  of  a 
tragedy  was  decided,  not  by  the  minor  circumstance  that  it 
gained  the  firist  or  second  prize,  but  by  the  collective  opinion  of 
the  citizens  assembled  in  the  theatre  of  Dionysus.  A  work  of 
architecture  or  sculpture  was  approved  or  condemned,  not  by 
the  sentence  of  a  few  whom  the  multitude  blindly  followed,  but 
by  the  general  judgment  of  some  twenty  thousand  persons,  each 
of  whom  was  in  some  degree  qualified  by  education  and  by  habit 
to  form  an  independent  estimate.  The  artist  worked  for  all  his 
fellow-citizens,  and  knew  that  he  would  be  judged  by  all.  The 
soul  of  his  work  was  the  fresh  and  living  inspiration  of  nature; 
it  was  the  ennobled  expression  of  his  own  Ufe;  and  the  public 
opinion  before  which  it  came  was  free,  intelligent  and  sincere. 

Philip  of  Maoedon  did  not  take  away  the  municipal  inde- 
pendence of  the  Greek  cities,  but  he  dealt  a  death-blow  to  the 
old  political  life.  The  Athenian  poet,  historian,  artist 
;tj»  <f!u-  might  still  do  good  work,  but  he  could  never  again  have 
UtUtaim,  that  which  used  to  be  the  very  mainspring  of  all  such 
activity— the  daily  experience  and  consciousness  of 
participation  in  the  affairs  of  an  independent  sUte.  He  could 
no  longer  breathe  the  invigorating  air  of  constitutional  freedom, 
or  of  the  social  intercourse  to  which  that  freedom  lent  dignity  as 
well  as  grace.  Then  came  Alexander's  conquests ;  Greek  civiliza- 
tion was  diffused  over  Asia  and  the  East  by  means  of  Greek 
colonies  in  which  Asiatic  and  Greek  elements  were  mingled. 
The  life  of  such  settlements,  under  the  monarchies  into  which 
Alexander's  empire  broke  up,  could  not  be  animated  by  the  spirit 
of  the  Greek  commonwealths  in  the  old  days  of  political  freedom. 
But  the  externals  of  Greek  life  were  there— the  temples,  the 
statues,  the  theatres,  the  porticos.  Ceremonies  and  festivals 
were  conducted  in  the  Greek  manner.  In  private  life  Greek 
usages  prev^ed.  Greek  was  the  language  most  used;  Greek 
books  were  in  demand.  The  mixture  of  races  would  always  in 
some  measure  distinguish  even  the  outward  life  of  such  a  com- 
munity from  that  of  a  pure  Creek  state;  and  the  facility  with 
which  Greek  civilization  was  adopted  would  vary  in  different 
places.  Syria,  for  example,  was  rapidly  and  completely  Hellen- 
ized.  Judaea  resisted  the  process  to  the  last.  In  Egypt  a  Greek 
aristocracy  of  office,  birth  and  intellect  existed  side  by  side  with 
a  distinct  native  life.  But,  viewed  in  iU  broadest  aspect,  this 
new  civilization  may  be  called  Hellenism.  Hellenism  (f.v.) 
means  the  adoption  of  Hellenic  ways;  and  it  is  properly  applied 
to  a  civilization,  generally  Hellenic  in  external  things,  pervading 
people  not  necessarily  or  exclusively  Hellenic  by  race.  What  the 
Hellem'c  literature  was  to  Hellas,  that  the  Hellenistic  literature 
was  to  Hellenism.  The  literature  of  Hellenism  has  the  Hellenic 
form  without  the  Hellenic  soul.  The  literature  of  Hellas  was 
creative;  the  literature  of  Hellenism  is  derivative. 

Alexandria  was  the  centre  of  Greek  intellectual  activity  from 
Alexander  to  Augustus.  Its  "  Museum,"  or  college,  and  its 
library,  both  founded  by  the  first  Ptolemy  (Soter), 
'^**^**  gave  it  such  attractions  for  learned  men  as  no  other 
tirtoA  city  could  rival.  The  labours  of  research  or  arrange- 
ment are  those  which  characterize  the  Alexandrian 
period.  Even  in  its  poetry  spontaneous  motive  was  replaced  by 
erudite  skill,  as  in  the  hymns,  epigrams  and  elegies  of  Calli- 
f^fffyy  machus,  in  the  enigmatic  verses  of  Lycophron,  in 
"^"''  the  highly  finished  epic  of  ApoUonius  Rhodtus,  and 
in  the  versified  lore,  astronomical  or  medical,  of  Aratus  and 


Nicander.    The  mimes  of  Herodas  (or  Herondas)  of  Cos  (r.  loo 
B.C.),  written  in  the  Ionic  dialect  and  choliambic  verse,  represent 
scenes  from  everyday  life.    The  papyrus  (published  in  1891) 
contains  seven  complete  poems  and  fragments  of  an  eighth. 
They  are  remarkably  witty  and  full  of  shrewd  observations,  but 
at  times  coarse.    The  pastoral  poetry  of  the  age — Dorian  by 
origin — was  the  most  pleasing;  for  this,  if  it  is  to  please  at  all» 
must  have  its  spring  in  the  contemplation  of  nature.    Theocritus 
is  not  exempt  from  the  artifidalism  of  the  Hellenizing  literature; 
but  his  true  sense  of  natural  beauty  entitles  him  to  a  place  in 
the  first  rank  of  pastoral  poets.    Bion  of  Ionia  and  Moacbus  of 
Syracuse  also  charm  by  the  music  and  often  by  the  pathos  of 
their  bucolic  verse.    Excavations  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of 
Asdepius  at  Epidaurus  have  brought  to  li^t  two  hexameter 
poems  and  a  paean  (in  Ionic  metre)  on  ApoWo  and  Asdepius  by 
a  local  poet  named  Isyllus,  who  flourished  about  280.    Tragedy 
was  represented  by  the  poets  known  as  the  Alexandrian  PUiad. 
But  it  is  not  for  its  poetry  of  any  kind  that  this  period  of  Greek 
literature  is  memorable.  Its  true  woriL  was  in  erudition    _ 
and  science.    Aristarchus  (156  B.C.),  the  greatest  in  a    ^7 
long  line  of  Alexandrian  critics,  set  the  example  of  4 
more  thorough  method  in  revising  and  interpreting  the 
andent  texts,  and  may  in  this  sense  be  said  to  have  beoone 
the  founder  of  sckntific  scholarship.    The  critical  studies  of 
Alexandria,  carried  on  by  the  followers  of  Aristarchus,  gradually 
formed  the  basis  for  a  sdence  of  grammar.    The  earliest  G^cek 
grammar  is  that  of  Dionysius  Thrax  (bom  c,  x66),  a  pupil  of 
Aristarchus.    Translation  was  another  province  of  moA  which 
employed  the  learned  of  Alexandria — where  th^  Septuagint 
version  of  the  CMd  Testament  was  begun.  probaUy  about  300- 
350  B.C.    Chronology  was  treated  sdentifically  by  Eratosthenes, 
and  was  combined  with  history  by  Manetho  in  his  chronicles 
of  Egypt,  and  by  Berossus  in  his  chronicles  of  Chaldaea.    Eudid 
was  at  Alexandria  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Soter.    HerophOus 
and  Erasistratus  were  distinguished  physidans  and  anatomists, 
and  the  authors  of  several  medical  works.    The  general  results 
of  the  Alexandrian  period  might  perhaps  be  stated  smmmmv. 
thus.    Alexandria  produced  a  few  eminent  men  of 
sdence,  some  learned  poets  (in  a  few  cases,  of  great  literary 
merit)  and  many  able  scholars.    The  preservation  of  the  best 
Greek  literature  was  due  chiefly  to  the  unremitting  care  of  the 
Alexandrian  critics,  whose  appreciation  of  it  partly  compensated 
for  the  decay  of  the  old  Greek  percq>tions  in  literature  and  an, 
and  who  did  their  utmost  to  hand  it  down  in  a  form  as  free  as 
possible  from  the  errors  of  copyists.    On  the  whole,  the  patronage 
of  letters  by  the  Ptolemies  had  probably  as  large  a  measure  of 
success  as  was  possible  under  the  existing  conditions;  and  it  vas 
afforded  at  a  time  when  there  was  spedal  danger  that  a  true 
literary  tradition  might  die  out  of  the  worid. 

The  GraecorRoman  period  in  the  literature  of  Hellenism  may 
be  dated  from  the  Roman  subjugation  of  Greece.  "Greece 
made  a  captive  of  the  rough  conqueror,"  but  it  did 
not  follow  from  this  intdlcaual  conquest  that  Athens 
became  onte  more  the  intellectual  centre  of  the  worid. 
Under  the  empire,  indeed,  the  univerrity  of  Athens 
long  enjo3red  a  pre-eminent  reputation.  But  Rome  grsdnaDy 
became  the  point  to  which  the  greatest  workers  in  every  kind 
were  drawn.  Greek  literature  had  already  made  a  home  there 
before  the  dose  of  the  and  century  b.c.  Sulla  brou^t  a  GredK 
library  from  Athens  to  Rome.  Such  men  as  Cicero  and  Atticus 
were  indefatigable  collectors  and  readers  of  Gredi  books.  The 
power  of  speidung  and  writing  the  Greek  language  became  an 
indiqiensaUe  accomplishment  for  highly  educated  Romans. 
The  library  planned  by  Julius  Caesar  and  founded  by  Augustus 
had  two  prindpal  departments,  one  for  Latin,  the  other  for  Greek 
works.  Tiberius,  Vespasian,  Domitian  and  Trajan  contributed 
to  enlarge  the  collectioiL  Rome  became  more  and  more  the 
rival  of  Alexandria,  not  only  as  possessing  great  libraries,  but 
also  as  a  seat  of  learning  at  which  Greek  men  of  letters  found 
appreciation  and  encouragement.  Gredi  poetry,  espedally 
in  its  higher  forms,  rhetoric  and  literary  criticism,  history  and 
philosophy,  were  all  ouldvated  by  Greek  writers  at  Roobc. 


ANCIENT] 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


Tw  fiiH  put  of  the  CtMco-Ronua  peri« 
u  ateodbif  (lua  i^fi  *.C  to  tbi  cIok  dI  tlic 

JJUJ*""   had  moR  ml  iSnity  IhiD  iny  ol  b 

ai(^  with  the  pat  wrilen  (A  oJd  Albcn*,  tsd  who, 

lamc  lime,  sjin  mul  daily  how  (he  empire  of  (he 
world  wu  pauiDg  to  Rome.  ThcKbjectDCFolybi 
wii  (be  hijtory  o(  Romui  tonquat  from  164  to  1 
Rylt,  pUin  t^  itniihllonnid,  ii  rm  from  the 
at  the  time.  Bat  (he  diitlnctioo  of  Polybius  is 
Uit  Greek  writer  hIw  in  tome  meuure  retiini  the  qiliit  U  the 
eld  dliien-lilc.  He  choK  hii  nibject,  oot  beause  it  give  1 
toleamingoilhmiy  (kill,  but  with  i  motive  Dkin  to  thiti 
prompted  the  hiftory  of  Tbucydidei — mmely,  beiaiue. 
Creek  allien,  he  felt  inleniely  the  politicil  imporUnce  of  (hose 
wui  whidi  had  given  Rome  the  mutery  of  (he  workL  The 
chid  hiitorial  work  which  (he  following  century  produced — 
the  Unacral  Hiaory  of  Diodorui  Siculo*  (fl.  c.  so  B.C.) — 
roemblcd  (hit  of  Polybiui  in  rtcofniang  Rome  •>  (be  political 
cRUn  a(  the  einh,  ai  the  point  on  whidi  all  carlia  teria  a( 
evcoti  converged.  In  all  eUe  Diodonu  represent!  the  new 
tgt  Id  which  (be  Creek  hittorian  had  do  longer  tbe  practical 
koowledc*  >nd  jmight  of  a  (laveller,  a  (oldier  or  a  statanun, 
bat  only  the  dOifcnce,  and  usually  (he  dulneM,  U  ■  laborious 
corapDer. 

The  Greek  lilentuie  tt  the  Roman  onpiie.  from  Augustus 
to  Justinian,  was  enormously  prolific  The  area  over  which 
^gf^^  (he  Greek  language  was  diffused — either  as  a  medium 
p^n  oftntercouiseoraiinatablished  bunch  ol  (he  higher 

jaKC>  education — wtt  CD-ettensive  wi(h  (be  empin  Itself. 
**■*"■  An  inunense  More  id  materials  had  now  been 
mccamulMed.  on  which  crilla,  commentators,  compilera, 
iau(atar*,  wen  employed  with  iitcessaot  induauy.  In  very 
many  id  Its  Forms,  (he  work  of  composition  or  adaptation  had 
been  reducedto  a  mechanical  knack.  If  there  Is  any  one  chaiac- 
teiis(ic  which  broadly  distinguishes  (he  Gicd  lileratuie  of  these 
five  centuries,  it  Is  the  absence  of  originality  cither  in  lonn  or  in 
jsatler.  Ludan  is.  In  his  way,  a  rare  ac^lion;  and  his  great 
populaiity — be  is  (he  only  Greek  writer  of  (bis  period,  cicep( 
Plutarch,  who  has  been  widely  populai — illusdMa  ttie  flatnca 
«(  (he  arid  level  above  which  be  sModa  out.  The  luitaincd 
Sundance  of  literary  production  under  the  empire  was  ptnly 
due  to  the  (act  that  there  was  no  open  political  career.  Never, 
probably,  was  Utcrature  u  unponant  as  a  resource  tor  educated 
men;  and  the  habit  of  tedtiog  before  friendly  or  obsequious 
audicBca  swelled  tbe  numbec  <A  wilten  nhose  tu(e  had  been 
culiivaud  (0  n  pdnt  just  ibon  id  peccdring  that  (hey  ought 

In  the  manifold  prose  work  of  this  period,  four  prindpal 
dspartmeatsnaybedislinguiihed.  (1)  Hii/ory,  with  BiDfrn^y, 
lr,f,fj  and  Cnpapliy.  History  Is  represented  by  Dionyjius 
mta  (f  of  Halicamauua — also  memorable  lor  his  criilciims  on 
y  the  orators  and  his  eRort  to  revive  a  true  standard 
*''^"*  of  Attic  prose — by  Casu'us  Dio,  Joiephui,  Aniin, 
Appian,  Herodian,  Eusebiua  and  Zoslmua.  In  biography,  (be 
foretDOtt  nana  an  Plutarch,  Diogena  Lierlius  and  Phila- 
stratua;  In  geography,  Hippaicbus  ol  Ntcua,  Strsbo,  Floleniy 
and  Pausaniat.  (1]  £nHfiMi»iand5iin<f.  The  learned  labours 
oi  ibc  Aleiandiian  schools  were  continued  in  all  their  virioui 
fields.  Under  this  head  may  be  mentioned  such  works 
■1  [be  tccicons  td  Juhus  FoUui,  Haipocn(ion  and  Hesychius, 
Hephaatioo'i  treatise  on  metre,  and  Hetodiaa's  lyitem  of 
■cccntuatioo;  the  commentaria  of  Gilen  on  Plato  and  on 
Hippoctata;  the  learned  miscellanies  of  Athenaeus,  Aeliin 
aad  Stobwui;  and  the  Slnlaemi  of  Folyaenus.  .  C]}  Rktiwk 
■ad  BtBtt-Lamt.  The  most  popular  writers  on  the  (hrory 
ef  Actotic  were  Heimagoras,  Hcrmogenes,  Aphthonlui  and 
Caajui  Lonfiaus — tbe  last  the  reputed  author  of  tbe  essay 
0*SMimUy.  Among  the  most  renowned  (eachen  of  rhe(Dric — 
BOW  disfinclively  called  "  Sophists,"  or  rheiorjoans— were 
bioCbrysoston,  AeUusArittid«.Themis(ius,Himerius,Libaniui 
tad  Heroda  AKicut.    Akin  to  the  rhetorical  eaercises  win 


en,  essays  or  novels.  Ludan,  in  his  dialogua,  exhibiU 
T  of  tbe  i-l»««irjl  style  and  of  (he  classical  spirit  than  any 
Ler  of  the  later  age;  he  has  also  a  remarkable  affinity  with 

prose,  though  necessarily  artificial,  was  a(  least  the  best  that 


a  for  Ic 


Thee 


ic  Julian 


author  both  of  orations  and  of  utirictd  pi 
of  the  Greek  novelist)  (the  foreniimet  of  whom  was  AiiiUda 
of  Miletus,  (.  loe  B.C.,  in  hli  UOaian  Talcs)  an  Xenopbon  ol 
Epbesus  and  Longut,  reptesenting  a  purely  Greek  type  of 
romance,  and  Heliodorut — with  his  imitalon  Achilla  Ittlui 
and  Chariton— representing  a  school  icfluenced  by  Oriental 
fiction.  Then  wen  also  many  Christian  romanca  in  Gre^, 
usually  of  a  nligious  tendency.  Aldphron's  fictitious  Ijtiera — 
founded  largely  on  the  New  Comedy  ol  Athens— represent  the 
same  kind  of  industry  whicb  produced  the  letters  ol  Phalaris, 
Aristaenetus  and  similar  collections.  (4)  PkUaepky  is  rcpr^ 
lentcd  chiefly  by  Eplctetus  and  Marcus  Aurdius,  in  both  of 
whom  the  Stoic  deraen(  is  tbe  prevailing  one;  by  the  Neo- 
pla(onis(s,  such  as  Flotinus,  Porphyry,  lanblicbtn;  and  by 
of  that  eclectic  school  which  arose  at  Athens  in  the 


k  of  high 


sthc      . 

The  Cred  poetry  of  this  period  p 
merit.    Babriu*  veisi£ed  the  Aesopic  fofifei;  Oppian  (ur  two 
poet!  of  this  name}  wrote  didactic  poems  on  Gsfaing         vw. 
and  hunting;  Nonnus  and  Qumtus  Smymaeus  made 
elaborate  essays  In  epic  verse;  and  (be  Orphic  Ion  inspired 
some  poems  and  hymni  of  a  myxlc  chataclet.     The  so-ulled 
SiiyUiht  Oratlti,  in  benuiiEter  verse,  range  in  dale  from  about 
170  B.C.  to  «.D.  700,  and  ace  partly  the  eipnstian  o[  (he  Jewish 
longings  for  the  restoration  of  Israel,  partly  predictions  ol  the 
trium^ofChristianity.  By  far  the  most  plewlng  com- 
positions  la  veiie  whicb  have  come  (0  us  from  tbisage      um^ 
■n  some  of  tbe  short  poems  In  tbe  Greek  Adthology, 
which  includa  tome  pleca  a*   eoriy  as   the  btgjnnjng  of 
the  jtb  century  B.C.  and  tome  u  late  u  the  6tl]  centuiy  ol  the 
Christian  er*. 

The  4th  cenluiy  may  be  said  to  mark  tbe  beginning  of  the 
last  stage  in  tbe  decay  of  li(eraTy  Hellenism.  From  (bat  point 
(he  decline  wai  rapid  and  nearly  continuous.  The  attitude 
of  tbe  church  towards  it  was  no  longer  that  which  bad  been  held 
by  Clement  of  Aleiandrii,  by  Jusiin  Martyr  or  by  Oiigcn. 
Then  was  now  a  Christian  Greek  literature,  and  a  Christian 
Greek  eloquence  ol  amordinary  power.  The  laity  became 
more  and  mon  atranged  from  the  Creek  literature — howeva 
intrinsically  pun  and  noble — of  tbe  pagm  pasL  At  tbe  same 
time  the  Greek  language— which  bad  maintained  its  purity  in 
Italian  seali— was  becoming  corrupted  in  the  new  Greek  Rome 
of  the  East.  In  a.D.  5ig  Juilinlan  put  forth  an  edict  by  which 
(he  schools  of  heathen  philosophy  were  fotmaliy  closed.  The 
act  had  at  least  a  symbob'cal  meaning.  It  is  ncceuary  to  guard 
igiinst  the  supposition  that  such  atsumedlandmarks  in  political 
ic  literary  history  always  mark  a  definite  transition  from  one 
irder  of  thinp  to  another.  Gut  it  is  practically  convenient, 
It  necessary,  to  use  such  landmaiti. 

BiBLiooaArHT.— The  first  ni'        ■  .,-Mry  of 


Greek  lil,.- 
of  J.  A.  Fa 


'jbriciot  (T^VrJm.    1;.  -.  .-.    .    ■■ ..      ■    ■■■  I.'  j/l'i^hy 

vtHft  pttqv  (lAiJl.    iluth  tbcAC  uorkj  begin  wjrli  11^ 

..  .-i  ..  M ..  .L_  i-._^a[  period  of  the  Byuntiiw 

woHu  ihe  lotlowing  iniy  bi 

bvR. 
r.Milu 


l»S(y  conSfitd'to  the  p«rii  C  6.  Hall«,"ltiU»ry  e}C< 

of  Uirful  KnowTtdK.  ami  pubTishtd  «n  Cnalltli  in  1(40 
■         ■      ■     -  -•  il5L«wiiar>d  I.  W.  DonaWiOt 


.,  _ Jin's  tKe -, 

r  Ihe  edilion  of  i8j»;  the  Ctrmin  teil  wai  iwUm 
0tlerin1«4i;4lhed.byE.  Hp^ii. 'Mr-iMj):W.  Mu,r,  „.,. 

S7):  T.   Berek.  Crixkl^k,  LU,:<:..r.A^>\<,  J^-jl^.  v 
J,  (d.  C.  Hinnchs,  voL  4  Ly  H.  lV)>pinltl||lMH">a<w  ti 


5i6 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


{BYZANTINE 


lyric,  drama  down  to  Euripides,  and  the  begtniungs  oC  prose;  R. 
Nicolai,  CrUckische  LUeratitrgtsckkhte  (2nd  cd^  1873-1878),  useful 
for  bibliography,  but  in  other  respects  unsatisfactory;  J.  P.  MahafTy, 
Hist,  of  Classical  Creek  Literature  (4th  ed.,  1903) ;  A.  and  M.  Croiset, 
Hist,  de  la  literature  grecque  (1887-189^.  2nd  ed.  1896);  W. 
Christ,  Ceuhichte  der  erieckiscben  Literatur  Ins  aufdie  Zeit  JusHnians 
(4th  ed..  1905;  5th  CO.,  pt.  i.,  by  O.  St&hlin  and  W.  Schmid.  1908), 
by  far  the  most  serviceable  handbook  for  the  student.  F.  Suaemihl  s 
Cesckichte  der  grieckisehen  Literatur  in  der  Alexandrineneit  (1891- 
1802)  is  especially  valuable  for  its  notes.  Of  smaller  manuals  the 
following  will  be  found  most  useful:  G.  G.  Murray,  History  of 
Ancient  Creek  Literature  (1897);  F.  B.  Jevons,  History  of  Greek 
Literature  (3rd  ed.,  looo)  down  to  the  time  of  Demosthenes;  A.  and 
M.  Croiset,  Manud  d'hist.  de  la  littiralure  grecque  (1900;  Eng.  trans., 
by  G.  F.  Hcffclbower,  N.Y.,  1904);  also  the  general  sketches  by 
if.  von  Wilamowitz-M&llendorfl  in  Die  KuUur  der  Gegenwartf  L  8 
(1905),  by  A.  Cvcrcke  in  the  Sammlung  C6sc1ten  (Lcipzuf,  and  ed., 
1905),  and  by  R.  C.  Jcbb  in  Companion  to  Creek  Studies  (Cambridge, 
15^5).  Other  works  generally  connected  with  the  subject  are: 
HQbner,    Bibliograpkie  der   klassiscken   AUertumswissensckaft 


(2nd  ed.,  1889),  pp.  161-171 ;  W.  Engelmann,  Bf6/to/A«ca  scriptorum 
classicorum  (8th  ed.,  by  £.  Prcuss,  1880);  J.  B.  Mayor.  Cuide  le 
Ike  Ckoice  of  Classical  Books  (1896},  p.  86;  W.  Kroll,  Die  Alter- 


DeHtth 


tumswissensckafl  im  letxten  Vierteljahrkundert  187S-1900  (1905), 
p.  465  foil. ;  Jf.  E.  Sandys,  History  of  Classical  Scholarship  (1906- 
1908);  "  Bibliothcca  philologica  cbssica,"  in  C.  Bursian's  Jakres' 
berickt  Hber  die  Forlsckritte  der  klassiscken  Aliertumsudssensckaft; 
articles  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Realencydopddie  der  klassiscken  Alter- 
Umswissensckafl  (1894—).  (R.  C.  J.;  X.) 

n.  BvZAliTINE   LXTERATUUE 

By  "Byzantine  literature"  is  generally  meant  the  literature, 
written  in  Greek,  of  the  so-called  Byzantine  period.  There  is  no 
justification  whatever  for  the  inclusion  of  Latin  works 
of  the  time  of  the  East  Roman  empire.  The  dose  of 
the  Byzantine  period  is  clearly  marked  by  the  year 
14  53 1  At  which  date,  with  the  fall  of  the  Eastern  empire,  the 
peculiar  culture  and  literary  life  of  the  Byzantines  came  to  an 
end.  It  is  only  as  regards  the  beginning  of  the  Byzantine  period 
that  any  doubts  exist.  There  arc  no  sufficient  grounds  for  dating 
it  from  Justinian,  as  was  formerly  often  done.  In  surveying  the 
whole  development  of  the  political,  ecclesiastical  and  literary 
life  and  of  the  general  culture  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  pilrticu- 
larly  of  its  eastern  portion,  we  arrive,  on  the  contrary,  at  the 
conclusion  that  the  actual  date  of  the  beginning  of  this  new  era — 
ix.  the  Christian-Byzantine,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Pagan- 
Greek  and  Pagan-Roman — falls  within  the  reign  of  Constantine 
the  Great.  By  the  foundation  of  the  new  capital  city  of  Con; 
stantinople  (which  lay  amid  Greek  surroundings)  and  by  the 
establishment  of  the  Christian  faith  as  the  state  religion,  Con- 
stantine finally  broke  with  the  Roman-Pagan  tradition,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  Christian-Byzantine  period  of  develop- 
ment. Moreover,  in  the  department  of  language,  so  closely 
allied  with  that  of  literature,  the  4th  century  marks  a  new  epoch. 
About  this  time  occurred  the  final  disappearance  of  a  character- 
istic of  the  ancient  Greek  language,  important  alike  in  poetry 
and  in  rhythmic  prose,  the  difference  of  "  quantity."  Its  place 
was  henceforth  taken  by  the  accent,  which  became  a  determining 
principle  in  p)octry,  as  well  as  for  the  rhythmic  conclusion  of  the 
prose  sentence.  Thus  the  transition  from  the  old  musical 
language  to  a  modern  conversational  idiom  was  complete. 

The  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great  undoubtedly  marks  the 
beginning  of  a  new  period  in  the  most  important  spheres  of 
national  life,  but  it  is  equally  certain  that  in  most  of 
2^52*"  them  ancient  tradition  long  continued  to  exercise  an 
ptrio^  influence.  Sudden  breaches  of  continuity  are  less 
common  in  the  general  culture  and  literary  life  of  the 
world  than  in  its  political  or  ecclesiastical  development.  This 
is  true  of  the  transition  from  pagan  antiquity  to  the  Christian 
middle  ages.  Many  centuries  passed  before  the  final  victory  of 
the  new  religious  ideas  and  the  new  spirit  in  public  and  private 
intellectual  and  moral  life.  The  last  noteworthy  remnants  of 
paganism  disappeared  as  late  as  the  6th  and  7ih  centuries.  The 
laiA  great  educational  establishment  which  rested  upon  pagan 
foundations — the  university  of  Athens— was  not  abolished  till 
A.D.  529.  The  Hellenizing  of  the  seat  of  empire  and  of  the  state, 
which  was  essential  to  the  independent  development  of  Byzantine 


literature,  proceeds  yet  more  slowly.  The  first  purdy  Crak 
emperor  was  Tiberius  11.  (578-582);  but  the  complete  Hellen- 
izing- of  the  character  of  tlxe  state  had  not  been  accomplished 
until  the  7th  century.  We  shall,  therefore,  regard  the  period 
from  the  4th  to  the  7th  century  as  that  of  the  transition  between 
ancient  times  and  the  middle  ages.  This  period  coincides  with 
the  rise  of  a  new  power  in  the  worid's  history— Islam.  But 
thou^,  in  this  transitional  period,  the  old  and  the  new  elements 
are  both  to  a  large  extent  present  and  are  often  inenricably 
interwoven,  yet  it  is  certain  that  the  new  dements  are,  both  as 
regards  their  essential  force  and  their  influence  upon  the  succeed- 
ing' period,  of  infinitely  greater  moment  than  the  decrepit  and 
mostly  artificial  survivals  of  the  antique. 

In  order  to  estimate  rightly  the  character  of  Byzantine 
literature  and  its  distinctive  peculiarities,  in  contradistincti<»i 
to  ancient  Gredt,  it  is  imperative  to  examine  the  great    ^tnt 
difference  between  the  civilizations  that  produced    ctaracftr 
them.    The  Byzantine  did  not  possess  the  homo-    ^J^ 
geneous,  organically  constructed  system  of  the  andent    *'^^ 
civilization,  but  was  the  outcome  of  an  amalgamation 
of  which  Hellenism  formed  the  basis.    For«  although  the  Latin 
character  of  the  empire  was  at  first  completely  retained,  even 
after  its  final  division  in  395,  yet  the  dominant  position  bl  Greek 
in  the  Eastern  empire  gradually  led  to  the  Hellenizing  of  the 
state.    The  last  great  act  of  the  Latin  tradition  was  the  codifica- 
tion, in  the  Latin  language,  of  the  law  by  Justinian  (527-565). 
But  it  is  significant  that  the  Noeds  of  Justinian  were  composed 
partly  in  Greek,  as  were  all  the  laws  of  the  succeeding  period. 
Of  the  emperors  in  the  centuries  following  Justinian,  many  o( 
course  were  foreigners,  Isaurians,  Armenians  and  others;  but  in 
language  and  education  they  Were  all  Greeks.    In  the  last  five 
centuries  of  the  empire,  under  the  Comneni  an<^the  Palaeologi, 
court  and  state  are  ptudy  Greek. 

In  spite  of  the  dominant  position  of  Gredc  in  the  Eastern 
empire,  a  linguistic  and  national  uniformity  such  as  formed  the 
fotmdation  of  the  old  Latin  Imperium  Romanum  never  existed 
there.  In  the  West,  with  the  expansion  of  Rome's  pc^tical 
supremacy,  the  Latin  language  and  Latin  culture  were  every- 
where introduced — first  into  the  non-Latin  provinces  of  Italy, 
later  into  Spain,  Gaul  and  North  Africa,  and  at  last  -even  into 
certain  parts  of  the  Eastern  empire.  This  T.atiniring  was  so 
thorough  that  it  weathered  all  stonns,  and,  in  the  countries 
affected  by  it,  was  the  parent  of  new  and  vigorous  nationalities, 
the  French,  the  Spaniards,  the  Portuguese  and  the  Rumanians. 
Only  in  Africa  did  "  Latinism  **  fail,  to  take  root  permanently. 
From  the  6th  century  that  province  relapsed  into  the  hands  of 
the  native  barbarians  and  of  the  immigrant  Arabs,  and  both  the 
Latin  and  the  Greek  influences  (which  had  grown  in  strength 
during  the  period  of  the  Eastern  empire)  were,  together  with 
Christianity,  swept  away  without  leaving  a  trace  behind.  It 
might  have  been  expected  that  the  Hellenizing  of  the  political 
system  of  the  Eastern  empire  would  have  likewise  entailed  the 
Hellenizing  of  the  non-Greek  portions  of  the  empire.  Such, 
however,  was  not  the  case;  for  all  the  conditions  precedent 
to  such  a  development  were  wanting.  The  non-Gredk  portions 
of  the  Eastern  empire  were  not,  from  the  outset,  gradually 
incoiporated  into  the  state  from  a  Greek  centre,  as  were  the 
provinces  in  the  West  from  a  Latin  centre.  They  had  been 
acquired  in  the  old  period  of  the  homogeneous  Latin  Imperium. 
In  the  centuries  immediately  following  the  division  of  the  empire, 
the  idea  of  Hellenizing  the  Eastern  provinces  could  not  take 
root,  owing  to  the  fact  that  Latin  was  retained,  at  least  in 
principle,  as  the  state  language.  During  the  later  centuries, 
in  the  non-Greek  parts,  centrifugal  tendencies  and  the  destructive 
inroads  of  barbarians  began  on  all  sides;  and  the  government 
was  too  much  occupied  with  the  all  but  impossible  task  of 
preserving  the  politiad  unity  of  the  empire  to  entertain  seriously 
the  wider  aim  of  an  assimilation  of  language  and  culture.  More- 
over, the  Greeks  did  not  possess  that  enormous  political  energy 
and  force  which  enabled  the  Romans  to  assimilate  foreign  races; 
and,  finally,  they  were  confronted  by  stun!|y  Oriental,  mostly 
Semitic,  pec^plcs^  who  were  by  no  means  so  easy  to  subjugate  as 


ByZANTINEI 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


S17 


wcrethencially  related  in&abitjuiu  of  Gaul  and  Spain.  Their 
impotence  against  the  peoples  of  the  East  will  be  still  less  hardly 
judged  if  we  remember  the  fact  already  mentioned,  that  even 
the  Romans  were  within  a  short  period  driven  back  and  over- 
whelmed by  the  North  African  Semites  who  for  centuries  had 
been  subjected  to  an  apparently  thorough  process  of  Latin- 
ization. 

*  The  influence  of  Greek  culture  then,  was  very  sh'gbt;  how 
little  indeed  it  penetrated  into  the  oriental  mind  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that,  after  the  violent  Arab  invasion  in  the  south-east 
corner  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  Copts  and  Syrians  were  able 
to  retain  their  language  and  their  national  characteristics, 
while  Greek  culture  almost  completely  disappeared.  The  one 
great  instance  of  assimilation  of  foreign  nationalities  by  the 
Greeks  is  the  Hellenizing  of  the  Slavs,  who  from  the  6tb  century 
had  migrated  into  central  Greece  and  the  Peloponnese.  All 
other  non-Greek  tribes  of  any  importance  which  came,  whether 
for  longer  or  for  shorter  periods,  within  the  sphere  of  the  Eastern 
empire  and  its  civilization — such  as  the  Copts,  Syrians, 
Armenians,  Georgians,  Rumanians,  Serbs,  Bulgarians,  Albanians 
—one  and  all  retained  their  nationality  and  language.  The 
complete  Latiniring  of  the  West  has,  accordingly,  no  counterpart 
in  a  similar  Hellenizing  of  the  East.  This  is  clearly  shown  during 
the  Byzantine  period  in  the  progress  of  Christianity.  Every- 
where in  the  West,  even  among  the  non-Romanized  Anglo- 
Saxons,  Irish  and  Germans,  Latin  maintained  its  position  in  the 
church  services  and  in  the  other  branches  of  the  ecclesiastical 
system;  down  to  the  Reformation  the  church  remained  a 
complete  organic  unity.  In  the  East,  at  the  earliest  period  of 
its  conversion  to  Christianity,  several  foreign  tongues  competed 
with  Greek,  i.e.  Syrian,  Coptic,  Armenian,  Georgian,  Gothic, 
Oid-BuJgarian  and  others.  The  sacred  books  were  translated 
into  these  languages  and  the  church  services  were  held  in  them 
and  not  in  Greek.  One  noticeable  effect  of  this  linguistic  division 
in  the  church  was  the  formation  of  various  sects  and  national 
churches  (cf.  the  Coptic  Nestorians,  the  Syrian  Monophysites, 
the  Armenian  and,  in  more  recent  times,  the  Slavonic  national 
churches).  The  Church  of  the  West  was  characterized  by 
uniformity  in  language  and  in  constitution.  In  the  Eastern 
Giurch  parallel  to  the  multiplicity  of  languages  developed  also 
a  correqranding  variety  of  doctrine  and  constitution. 

Though  the  character  of  Byzantine  culture  is  mainly  Greek, 
and  Bysantine  literature  is  attached  by  countle^  threads  to 
andent  Greek  literature,  yet  the  Roman  element 
forms  a  very  essential  part  of  it.  The  whole  political 
character  of  the  Byzantine  empire  is,  despite  its 
Greek  form  and  colouring,  genuinely  Roman.  L^jislation  and 
administration,  the  military  and  naval  traditions,  are  old  Roman 
work,  and  as  such,  apart  from  immaterial  alterations,  they 
continued  .to  exist  and  operate,  even  when  the  state  in  head  and 
Gmbs  had  become  Greek.  It  is  strange,  indeed,  how  strong 
was  the  p<rfitica]  conception  of  the  Roman  state  {Slaatsgedanke)^ 
and  with  what  tenacity  it  held  its  own,  even  under  the  most 
adverse  conditions,  down  to  the  btter  days  of  the  empire.  The 
Greeks  even  adopted  the  name  "  Romans,"  which  gradually 
became  so  closely  identified  with  them  as  to  supersede  the  name 
*'  Hellenes  ";  and  thus  a  political  was  gradually  converted  into 
an  ethnographical  and  linguistic  designation.  ShomaiM  was 
the  most  common  popular  term  for  Greeks  during  the  Turkish 
period,  and  remains  so  stifl.  The  old  glorious  name  "  Hellene" 
was  used  under  the  empire  and  even  during  the  middle  ages 
in  a  contemptuous  sense — "  Heathen  " — and  has  only  in  quite 
modem  times,  on  the  fonnation  of  the  kingdom  of  "  Hellas," 
been  artificially  revived.  The  vast  organization  of  the  Roman 
political  system  could  not  but  exerdse  in  various  ways  a  profound 
influence  upon  Byantine  civilization;  and  it  often  seemed 
as  if  Roman  political  principles  had  educated  and  nerved  the 
unpolitical  Greek  people  to  great  political  enterprise.  Tile 
Roman  InflneBoe  has  left  distinct  traces  in  the  Greek  language, 
Greek  of  the  Byzantine  and  modem  period  is  rich  in  LiUin 
terms  for  conceptions  connected  with  the  departments  ot  Justice, 
sdministnitioD  and  the  imperial  oouit.    In  litemtvre  mdi 


"  barbarisms  "  were  avoided  as  far  as  possible,  and  were  replaced 
by  Greek  periphrases. 

But  by  far  the  most  momentous  and  radical  change  wrought 
on  the  old  Hdlenism  was  effected  by  Christianity;  and  yet 
the  transition  was,  in  fact,  by  no  means  so  abrupt  as 
one  might  be  led  to  believe  by  comparing  the  Pagan- 
Hellenic  culture  of  Plato's  day  with  tlw  Christian- 
Byzantine  of  the  time  of  Justinian.  For  the  path  had  been 
most  effectually  prepared  for  the  new  religion  by  the  crumbling 
away  of  the  ancient  belief  in  the  gods,  by  the  humane  doctrine 
of  the  Stoics,  and,  finally,  by  the  mystic  intellectual  tendencies 
of  Neoplatonism.  Moreover,  in  many  respects  Christianity  met 
paganism  halfway  by  adapting  itself  to  popular  usages  and 
ideas  and  by  adopting  important  parts  of  the  pagan  literature. 
The  whole  educational  system  especially,  even  in  Christian  times, 
was  in  a  very  remarkable  manner  based  almost  entirely  on  the 
methods  and  material  inherited  from  paganism.  Next  to  the 
influences  of  Rome  and  of  Christianity,  that  of  the  East  was  of 
importance  in  developing  the  Byzantine  civilization,  and  in 
lending  Byzantine  literature  its  distinctive  character. 
Much  that  was  oriental  in  the  Eastern  empire  dates 
back  to  ancient  times,  notably  to  the  period  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  and  his  successors.  Since  the  Greeks  had 
at  that  period  Hellenized  the  East  to  the  widest  extent,  and 
had  alrndy  founded  everywhere  flourishing  dties,  they  them- 
sdves  fell  under  the  manifold  influences  of  the  soil  they  occupied. 
In  Egypt,  Palestine  and  Syria,  in  Asia  Minor  as  far  inland 
as  Mesopotamia,  Greek  and  oriental  characteristics  were  often 
blended.  In  respect  of  the  wealth  and  the  long  duration  of 
its  Greek  intellectual  life,  Egypt  stands  supreme.  It  covers 
a  period  of  nearly  a  thousand  years  from  the  foundation  oi 
Alexandria  down  to  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Arabs  (aj>. 
643).  The  real  significance  of  Egyptian  Hellenism  during 
this  long  period  can  be  properly  estimated  only  if  a  practical 
attempt  be  made  to  eliminate  from  the  history  of  Greek  literature 
and  science  in  pagan  and  in  Christian  times  all  that  owed  its 
origin  to  the  land  of  the  Nile.  The  soil  of  Egypt  proved  itself 
espedally  productive  of  Greek  literature  under  the  Cross  (Origen, 
Athanasius,  Arius,  Synesius),  in  the  same  way  as  the  soil  of 
North  Africa  -was  productive  of  Latin  literature  (TertuUian, 
Cyprian,  Lactantius,  Augustine).  Monastic  life,  which  is  one 
of  the  chief  characteristic  elements  of  Christian-Byzantine 
dvilization,  had  its  birth  in  Egypt. 

Syria  and  Palestine  came  under  the  influence  of  Greek  dviliza- 
tion at  a  later  date  than  Egypt.  In  these,  Greek  literature  and 
culture  attained  their  highest  devdopment  between  the  srd  and 
the  8th  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  Antioch  rose  to  great 
influence,  owing  at  first  to  its  pagan  school  of  rhetoric  and 
later  to  its  Christhm  school  of  exegesis.  Gaza  was  renowned  for 
its  school  of  rhetoric;  Berytus  for  its  academy  of  law.  It  is 
no  mere  acddent  that  saoed  poetry,  aesthetically  the  most 
valuable  class  of  Byzantine  literature,  was  bom  ill  Syria  and 
Palestine. 

.  In  Asia  Minor,  the  dties  of  Tarsus,  Caesarea,  Nicaea,  Smyrna, 
Ephesus,  Nicopolis,  &c.,  were  all  influential  centres  of  Greek 
culture  and  literature.  For  instance,  the  three  great  fathers 
of  Cappadoda,  Basil,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  Gregory  of  Nazianzus 
all  belonged  to  Asia  Minor. 

If  all  the  greater  Greek  authors  of  the  first  eight  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era,  i.e.  the  period  of  the  complete  development 
of  Byzantine  culture,  be  classified  according  to  the  countries 
of  thdr  birth,  the  significant  fact  becomes  evident  that  nine- 
tenths  come  from  the  African  and  Asiatic  districts,  which  were 
for  the  most  part  opened  up  only  after  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  only  one-tenth  from  European  Greece.  In  other  words, 
the  old  original  European  Greece  was,  under  the  emperors, 
oompletdy  outstripped  in  intellectual  productive  force  by  the 
newly  founded  African  and  Asiatic  Greece.  This  huge  tide 
of  conquest  which  surged  from  Greece  over  African  and  Ssrrian 
territories  occupied  Ivgely  by  foreign  races  and  andent 
dvOizsftions,  could  not  fafl  to  be  fraught  with  serious  oon- 
SfgnwiffT  for  the  Greeks  themselves.    The  experience  of  the 


5i8 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


rBYZANTINB 


^xnAns  in  their  conquest  of  Greece  (Qraseia  captaferum  tklorem 
cepU)  repeated  itself  in  the  conquest  of  the  East  by  Greece, 
though  to  a  minor  extent  and  in  a  different  way.  The  whole 
literature  of  Egypt,  Syria  and  Asia  Minor  cannot,  despite 
its  international  and  cosmopolitan  character,  disavow  the 
influence  of  the  Orientalsoil  on  which  it  was  nourished.  Yet  the 
growth  of  too  strong  a  local  colouring  in  its  literature  was 
repressed,  partly  by  the  checks  impmed  by  ancient  Greek 
tradition,  partly  by  the  spirit  of  Christianity  which  reconciled 
all  national  distinctions.  Even  more  dearly  and  unmistakably 
is  Oriental  influence  shown  in  the  province  of  Byzantine  art, 
as  Joseph  Stnygowski  has  condusivdy  proved. 

The  greater  portion  of  Greek  literature  from  the  dose  of 
indent  times  down  to  the  threshold  of  modem  history  was 
l^^^_^  written  in  a  language  identical  in  its  prindpal  features 
with  the  common  literary  language,  the  so-called 
Koini,  which  had  its  origin  in  the  Alexandrian  age.  This  is  the 
literary  form  of  Greek  as  a  universal  language,  though  a  form 
that  scintillates  with  many  facets,  from  an  almost  Attic  diction 
down  to  one  that  appnuiches  the  language  of  everyday  life 
such  as  we  have,  for  instance,  in  the  New  Testament.  From 
what  has  been  already  said,  it  follows  that  this  stable  literary 
language  cannot  always  have  remained  a  language  of  ordinary 
life.  For,  like  every  living  tongue,  the  vernacular  Greek  continu- 
ally changed  in  pronunciation  and  form,  as  well  as  .in  vocabulary 
and  grammar,  and  thus  the  living  language  surdy  and  gradually 
separated  itself  from  the  rigid  written  language.  This  gulf  was, 
moreover,  considerably  widened  owing  to  the  fact  that  there 
took  place  in  the  written  language  a  retrograde  movement, 
the  so-called  "  Atticism."  Introduced  by  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
camassus  in  the  ist  century  before  Christ,  this  linguistic- 
literary  fashion  attained  its  greatest  height  in  the  and  century 
AJ>.,  but  still  continued  to  flourish  in  succeeding  centuries,  and, 
indirectly,  throughout  the  whole  Byzantine  period.  It  is  true 
that  it  often  seemed  as  though  the  living  language  would  be 
gradually  introduced  into  literature;  for  several  writers,  such 
as  the  chronider  Malalas  in  the  6th  century,  Leontius  of  Neapolis 
(the  author  of  Lites  of  SainU)  in  the  7th  century,  the  chronider 
Theophanes  at  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century,  and  the  emperor 
Constantine  Porphyrogenltus  in  Uie  loth  century,  made  in 
thdr  writings  numerous  concessions  to  the  living  language. 
This  progressive  tendency  might  well  have  led,  in  the  zxth  and 
1 2th  centuries,  to  the  founding  in  the  Greek  vernacular  of  a  new 
literary  language  similar  to  the  promising  national  languages 
and  literature  which,  at  that  period,  in  the  Romance  countries, 
developed  out  of  the  despised  popular  idiom.  In  the  case  of  the 
Byzantines,  unforturuitely,  such  a  radical  change  never  took 
placed  All  attempts  in  the  direction  of  a  popular  reform  of  the 
Uteraiy  language,  which  were  occasionally  made  in  the  period 
from  the  6th  to  the  zoth  centuries,  were  in  turn  extinguished 
by  the  resusdtation  of  rlsMiral  studies,  a  movement  which, 
begun  in  the  9th  century  by  Photius  and  amtinued  in  the  nth 
by  Psellus,  attained  its  full  devdopment  under  the  Comneni 
and  the  PalaeologL  This  Hssiiral  renaissance  turned  back  the 
literary  langtiage  into  the  old  ossifled  forms,  as  had  previously 
happened  in  the  case  of  the  Atticism  of  iht  early  centuries  of 
the  empire.  In  the  West,  humanism  (so  dos^y  connected 
with  thie  B3rsantine  renaissance  under  the  Cbmneni  and  the 
Palaeologi)  also  artificially  reintroduced  the  "Ciceronian" 
Latin,  but  was  unable  seriously  to  endanger  the  development 
of  the  national  languages,  which  had  already  attamed  to  full 
vitality.  In  Byzantium,  the  humanistic  movement  came 
prematurdy,  and  crushed  the  new  language  before  it  had  fairly 
established  itself.  Thus  the  language  of  the  Byzantine  writers 
of  the  iith-isth  centuries  is  almoit  Old  Greek. in  colour;  iutifid- 
ally  learnt  by  grammar,  lexicon  and  assiduoutf  reading,  it 
foUowed  Attic  models  more  and  more  slavishly;  to  such  an 
extent  that,  in  determining  the  date  of  works,  the  paradoxical 
prindple  holds  good  that  the  more  ancient  the  language,  the 
more  recent  the  author. 

Owing  to  this  artificial  return  to  andent  Greek,  the  contrast 
that  had  long  existed  with  the  vernacular  was  now  for  the  first 


time  fully  revealed.  The  gulf  between  the  two  forma  of  language 
could  no  longer  be  bridged;  and  this  fact  found  its  expression 
in  literature  dso.  While  the  vulgarizing  authors  of  the  6th-ioUi 
centuries,  like  the  Latin-writing  Franks  (such  as  Gregory  of 
Tours),  still  attempted  a  compromise  between  the  language  of 
the  schools  and  th&i  of  conversation,  we  meet  after  the  12th 
century  with  authors  who  freely  and  naturally  employed  the 
vemacuTar  in  their  literary  works.  They  accordinj^y  form  the 
Greek  counterpart  of  the  oldest  writers  in  Italian,  French  and 
other  Romance  languages.  That  they  could  not  succeed  like 
their  Roman  colleagues,  and  always  remained  the  pariahs  of 
Greek  literature,  is  due  to  the  all-powerful  philological-anti- 
quarian tendency  which  existed  under  the  Comneni  and  the 
Palaeologi.  Yet  once  more  did  the  vernacular  attempt  to  assert 
its  literary  rights,  i.e.  in  Crete  and  some  other  islands  in  the 
x6th  and  xyth  centuries.  But  this  attempt  also  was  foiled  by 
the  damiral  reaction  of  the  XQth  century.  Hence  it  comes  about 
that  Greek  literature  even  in  the  20th  century  employs  gram- 
matical forms  which  were  obsolete  long  before  the  loth  century. 
Thus  the  Greeks,  as  regards  their  literary  language,  came  into 
Aculie sae similar  to  that  in  which  certain  rigidly  coisaervativc 
Oriental  nations  find  themsdves,  e.g.  the  Arabs  and  Chinese,  who, 
not  possessing  a  literary  language  suited  to  modem  requirements, 
have  to  content  themsdves  with  the  dead  Old-Arabic  or  the 
ossified  Mandarin  language.  The  divorce  of  the  written  and 
spoken  languages  is  the  most  prominent  and  also  tlie  most  fatal 
heritage  that  the  modem  Greeks  have  received  fnun*  their 
Byzantine  forefathers. 

The  whole  Byzantine  intdlectual  life,  like  that  of  the  Wcatero 
medieval  period,  is  dominated  by  theological  interests.  Theokgy 
acoordini^y,  in  literature  too,  occupies  the  chief  place, 
in  regard  to  both  quantity  and  quality.  Next  to  it 
comes  the  writing  of  history,  which  the  Byzantines 
cultivated  with  great  conscientiousness  until  after 
the  fall  of  the  empire.  All  other  kinds  of  prose  writing, 
e.g.  in  geography,  philosophy,  rhetoric  arid  the  tcchnioli 
were  comparatively  neglected,  and  such  works  are  of  value  for 
the  most  part  only  in  so  far  as  they  preserve  and  interpret  dd 
material.  In  poetry,  again,  theology  takes  the  lead.  Tlie  poetry 
of  the  Church  produced  works  of  high  aesthetic  merit  and  endur- 
ing value.  In  sectilar  poetry,  the  writing  of  q>igrams  tapedaSly 
was  cultivated  with  assiduity  and  often  with  ability.  In  popular 
literature  poetry  predominates,  and  many  productions  worthy  of 
notice,  new  both  in  matter  and  in  form,  are  here  met  with. 

The  great  classical  period  of  Greek  theological  literature  is 
that  of  the  4th  century.  Various  factors  contributed  to  this 
result — some  of  them  positive,  particularly  the 
establishment  of  Christianity  as  the  official  religion 
and  the  protection  accorded  to  it  by  the  state,  others  negative, 
i.e.  the  heretical  movements,  especially  Arianism,  whidi  at  this 
period  arose  in  the  east  of  the  empire  and  threatened  the  unity 
of  the  doctrine  and  organization  of  the  church.  It  was  diiefly 
against  these  that  the  subtle  Athanasius  of  Alexandria  directed 
his  attacks.  The  learned  Eusebius  founded  a  new  department 
of  literature,  church  history.  In  Egypt,  Antonius  (St  Anthony) 
founded  the  Greek  monastic  system;  Synesius  of  Cyrene,  like 
his  greater  contemporary  Augustine  in  the  West,  reprtsents 
both  in  his  life  and  in  his  writings  the  difficult  transition  from 
Plato  to  Christ.  At  the  centre,  in  the  forefront  of  the  great 
intellectual  movement  of  this  century,  stand  the  three  great 
Cappadodans,  Basil  the  Great,  the  subtle  dogmatist,  hh  brother 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  the  phflosophically  trained  defender  of  the 
Christian  faith,  and  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  the  distinguished 
orator  and  poet.  Closdy  allied  to  them  was  St  Chryaottom, 
the  courageous  champion  of  ecclesiastical  liberty  and  of  mora! 
purity.  To  modem  readers  the  greater  part  of  this  literature 
appears  strange  and  fordgn;  but,  in  order  to  be  ^)predated 
rightly,  it  must  be  regarded  as  the  outcome  of  the  period  in 
which  it  was  produced,  a  period  stirred  to  its  depths  by  tdigious 
emotions.  For  the  times  in  which  they  lived  and  for  their 
readers,  the  Greek  fathers  reached  the  highest  attainabk; 
though,  of  course,  they  produced  nothing  of  such  general  homaa 


BYZAMTINEI 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


519 


interest,  nothing  so  deep  and  true,  as  the  Confessions  of  St 
Augustine,  with  which  the  poetical  autobiography  of  Gregory 
of  Nazianzus  cannot  for  a  moment  be  compared. 

The  glorious  bloom  of  the  4th  century  was  followed  by  a 
perceptible  decay  in  theological  intellectual  activity.    Inde- 
pendent production  was  in  succeeding  centuries  almost  solely 
prompted  by  divergent  dogmatical  views  and  heresies,  for  the 
refutation  of  which  orthodox  authors  were  impelled  to  take  up 
the  pen.    In  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  a  more  copious  literature 
was  called  into  existence  by  the  Monophysites,  who  maintained 
that  there  was  but  one  nature  in  Christ;  in  the  7th  century  by 
the  Monothelites,  who  acknowledged  but  one  will  in  Christ; 
in  the  8th  century  by  the  Iconoclasts  and  by  the  new  teaching 
of  Hahomet.    One  very  eminent  theologian,  whose  importance 
It  has  been  reserved  for  modem  times  to  estimate  aright — 
Leontlus  of  Byzantium  (6th  century) — ^was  the  first  to  introduce 
Aristotelian  definitions  into  theology,  and  may  thus  be  called 
the  first  scholastic.    In  his  works  he  attacked  the  heretics  of 
htt  age,  particularly  the  Monophysites,  who  were  also  assailed 
by  his  contcmporaxy  Anastasius  of  Antioch.    The  chief  adver- 
saries of  the  Monothelites  were  Sophronius,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem 
(whose  main  importance,  however,  is  due  to  his  woric  in  other 
fieUs,  in  hagiography  and  homiletics),  Biaximus  the  Confessor, 
and  Anastasius  Sinaltes,  who  also  composed  ^  interpretation 
of  the  Hesalmeron  in  twelve  books.    Among  writers  in  the 
departments  of  critical  interpretation  and  asceticism  in  this 
period  must  be  enumerated  Procoplus  of  Gaza,  who  devoted 
himself  principally  to  the  exegesis  of  the  Old  Testament; 
Johaimes  Climax  (6th  century),  named  after  his  much-read 
ascetic  work  Klimax  (Jacob's  ladder);  and  Johannes  Moschus 
(d.  619),  whose  chief  work  Leimon  ("  spiritual  pasture  ")  describes 
monastic  life  in  the  form  of  statements  and  narratives  of  their 
experiences  by  monks  themselves.    The  last  great  heresy,  which 
shook  the  GredL  Church  to  its  very  foundations,  the  Iconoclast 
movement,  summoned  to  the  fray  the  last  great  Greek  theologian, 
John  of  Damascus  (Johannes  Damascenus).    Yet  his  chief  merit 
fies  not  so  much  in  his  polemical  speeches  against  the  Iconoclasts, 
and  in  his  much  admired  but  over-refined  poetry,  as  in  his  great 
dogmatic  work,  The  Fountain  of  Knawiedge^  which  contains  the 
first  comprehensive  exposition  of   Christiam   dogma.    It  has 
remamcd  the  standard  work  on  Greek  theology  down  to  the 
present  day.    Just  as  the  internal  development  of  the  Greek 
Church  in  all  essentials  reached  its  limit  with  the  Iconoclasts, 
so  also  its  productive  intellectual  activity  ceased  with  John  of 
Damascus.    Such    theological    works   as   were   subsequently 
produced,  consisted  mostly  in  the  interpretation  and  revision 
of  old  materials.    An  extremely  copious,  but  unfruitful,  literature 
was  produced  by  the  disputes  about  the  retmion  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Churches.    Of  a  more  independent  character  is  the 
literature  which  in  the  14th  century  centred  round  the  dissensions 
of  the  Hesycbasts. 

Among  theologians  after  John  of  Damascus  must  be  mentioned: 
the  emperor  Leo  VI.,  the  Wise  (88(^911)1  who  wrote  numerous 
homilies  and  church  hymns,  and  Theodorus  of  Studium  (7S9~ 
826),  who  in  his  numerous  writings  affords  us  instructive  glimpses 
of  monastic  life.  Pre-eminent  stands  the  figure  of  the  patriarch 
Photius.  Yet  his  importance  consists  less  in  his  writings,  which 
often,  to  a  remarkable  extent,  lack  independence  of  thought 
and  judgment,  than  in  his  activity  as  a  prince  of  the  church. 
For  he  it  was  who  carried  the  differences  which  had  already 
repeatedly  arisen  between  Rome  and  Constantinople  to  a  point 
at  which  reconciliation  was  impossible,  and  was  mainly  instru- 
mental in  preparing  the  way  for  the  separation  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Churches  accomplished  in  1054  under  the  patriarch 
Miciiael  Cerularius.  In  the  nth  century  the  polyhistor  Michael 
Fsellus  also  wrote  polemics  against  the  Euchites,  among  whom 
the  Syrian  Gnosis  was  reviving.  All  literature,  including 
theology,  experienced  a  considerable  revival  under  the  Comneni. 
In  the  reign  of  Alexius  I.  Cbmnenus  (1081-1118),  Euthymius 
2gabenus  wrote  his  great  dogmatic  work,  the  Dogmatic  Panoplyt 
which,  like  The  Fountain  of  Knowledge  of  John  of  Damascus  in 
times,  was  partly  positive,  furnishing  an  armoury  of 


theology,  partly  negative  and  directed  against  the  sects.  In 
addition  to  attacking  the  dead  and  buried  doctrines  of  the 
Monothelites,  Iconoclasts,  &c.,  to  fi|^  which  was  at  this  time 
a  mere  tilting  at  windmills,  Zigabenus  also  carried  on  a  polemic 
against  the  heretics  of  his  own  day,  the  Armenians,  Bogomils 
and  Saracens.  Zigabenus's  Panoply  was  continued  and  enlarged 
a  century  later  by  the  historian  Nicetas  Acominatus,  who 
published  it  under  the  title  Treasure  of  Orthodoxy,  To  the 
writings  against  andent  heresies  were  next  added  a  flood  of 
tracts,  of  all  shapes  and  sixes,  "  against  the  Latins,"  Le.  against 
the  Roman  Church,  and  among  their  authors  must  also  be 
enumerated  an  emperor,  the  gifted  Theodore  II.  Lascaris  (1254- 
1 358).  The  chief  champion  of  the  union  with  the  Roman  Church 
was  the  learned  Johannes  Beccus  (patriarch  of  Cbnstantinople 
X375-X382).  Of  his  opponents  by  far  the  most  eminent  was 
Gregory  of  Cyprus,  who  succeeded  him  on  the  patriarchal  throne. 
The  fluctuations  in  the  fortunes  of  the  two  ecclesiastical  parties 
are  reflected  in  the  occupation  of  the  patriarchal  throne.  The 
battles  round  the  question  of  the  union,  which  were  waged  with 
southern  passion,  were  for  a  while  checked  by  the  diuensions 
aroused  by  the  mystic  tendency  of  the  Hesychasts.  The  impetus 
to  this  great  literary  movement  was  given  by  the  monk  Barlaam, 
a  native  of  Calabria,  who  came  forward  in  Constantinople  as  an 
opponent  of  the  Latins  and  was  in  1539  entrusted  by  Andronicus 
III.  with  a  mission  to  Pope  Benedict  XII.  at  Avignon.  He 
condemned  the  doctrine  of  the  Hesychasts,  and  attacked  them 
both  orally  and  in  writing.  Among  those  who  shared  his  views 
are  conspicuous  the  historian  Nicephorus  Gregoras  and  Gregorius 
Adndynus,  the  latter  of  whom  ckwdy  followed  Thomas  Aquinas 
in  his  writings.  In  fact  the  struggle  against  the  Hesychasts  was 
essentially  a  struggle  between  sober  western  scholasticism  and 
dreamy  Graeco-Oriental  mystidsm.  On  theside  of  the  Hesychasts 
fought  Gregorius  Palamas,  who  tried  to  give  a  dogmatic  founda- 
tion to  the  mysticism  of  the  Hesychasts,  Cabuilas,  and  the 
emperor  John  VI.  Cantacusenus  who,  after  his  deposition, 
sought,  in  the  peaceful  retreat  of  a  monastery,  consolation  in 
theological  stu<Ues,  and  in  his  literary  works  refuted  the  Jews 
and  the  Mahommedans.  For  the  greatest  Byzantine  "  apologia  " 
against  Islamism  we  are  indebted  to  an  emperor,  Manud  II. 
Palaeologus  (x39x-x435),  who  l^^  learned  discussions  tried  to 
make  up  for  the  defidency  in  martial  prowess  shown  by  the 
Byzantines  in  their  struggle  with  the  Turks.  On  the  whole, 
theological  literature  was  in  the  last  century  of  the  empire 
almost  completdy  occupied  with  the  struggles  for  and  against 
the  union  with  Rome.  The  reason  lay  in  the  political  oonditions. 
The  emperors  saw  more  and  more  cleariy  that  without  the  aid 
of  the  West  they  would  no  longer  be  able  to  stand  their  grouAd 
against  the  Turks,  the  vanguard  of  the  armies  of  the  Crescent; 
while  the  majority  of  Byzantine  theologians  feared  that  the 
assistance  of  the  West  would  force  the  Greeks  to  unite  with 
Rome,  and  thereby  to  forfdt  their  ecdesiastical  independence. 
Considering  the  supremacy  of  the  theological  party  in  Byzantium, 
it  was  but  natural  that  religious  considerations  should  gain  the 
day  over  political;  and  th^  was  the  view  almost  universally 
held  by  the  Byzantines  in  the  later  centuries  of  the  empire; 
in  the  words  of  the  chronicler  Ducas:  "it  is  better  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  Turks  than  mto  those  of  the  Franks."  The 
chid  opponent  of  the  union  was  Marcus  Eugemcus,  metropolitan 
of  Ephesus,  who,  at  the  Council  of  Florence  in  1439,  denounced 
the  union  with  Rome  accomplished  by  John  VIII.  Palaeologus. 
Conspicuous  there  among  the  partisans  of  the  union,  by  reason 
of  his  erudition  and  general  literary  merit,  was  Bessarion,  after- 
wards cardinal,  whose  chid  activity  already  falls  under  the 
head  of  Graeco-Italian  humanism. 

Hagiography,  i.e.  the  literature  of  the  acts  of  the  martyrs 
and  the  lives  of  the  saints,  forms  an  independent  group  and 
one  comparativdy  unaffected  by  dogmatic  struggles. 
The  main  interest  centres  here  round  the  objects 
described,  the  personalities  of  the  martyrs  and  saints 
themselves.  The  authors,  on  the  other  hand — the  Acts  of  the 
Martyrs  are  mostly  anonsrmous— keep  more  in  the  background 
than  in  other  branches  of  literature.    The  man  whose  name  Is 


520 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


[BYZANTINE 


portly. 


mainly  identified  with  Greek  hagiogriphy ,  S3rmeon  Metaphrastes, 
is  important  not  as  an  original  author,  but  only  as  an  editor. 
Symeon  revised  in  the  loth  century,  according  to  the  rhetorical 
and  linguistic  piindi^  of  his  day,  numerous  old  AOs  of  tk$ 
Martyrs,  and  incorporated  them  in  a  collection  consisting  of 
several  volumes,  which  was  circulated  in  innumerable  Copies, 
and  thus  to  a  great  extent  superseded  the  older  original  texts. 
These  Ads  of  the  Martyrs,  in  point  of  time,  are  anterior  to  our 
period;  but  of  the  Lives  of  Saints  the  greater  portion  belong 
to  Byzantine  literature.  Tliey  began  with  biographies  of  monks 
distinguished  for  their  saintly  living,  such  as  were  used  by 
PaUadius  about  420  in  his  Historian Lausiaca.  The  most  famous 
work  of  this  description  is  that  by  Athanasius  of  Alexandria, 
viz.  the  biography  of  St  Anthony,  the  founder  of  monachism. 
In  the  6th  century  Cyril  of  Scythopolis  wrote  several  lives  of 
saints,  distinguished  by  a  simple  and  straightforward  style. 
More  expert  than  any  one  else  in  r^produdng  the  naive  popular 
style  was  Leontius  of  Neiqxjlis  in  Cyprus  who,  in  the  7th  century, 
wrote,  among  other  works,  a  life  of  St  John  the  Merdful,  arch- 
bishop of  Alexandria,  which  is  very  oemarkable  as  illustrating 
the  social  and  intellectual  conditions  of  the  time.  From  the 
popular  Lives  of  Saints,  which  for  the  reading  public  of  the 
middle  ages  formed  the  chief  substitute  for  modem  "belles 
Icttres,"  it  is  easy  to  trace  the  transition  to  the  religious  novel. 
The  most  famous  work  of  this  class  is  the  history  of  Barlaam 

AND  JOSAPHAT  iq.V.). 

The  religious  poetry  of  the  Greeks  primarily  suffered  from 
the  influence  of  the  ancient  Greek  form,  which  was  fatal  to 
original  devebpment.  The  oldest  work  of  this  dass  is 
the  hymn,  composed  in  anapaestic  monometers  and 
dimeters,  which  was  handed  down  in  the  manuscripts 
with  the  Paedagogus  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  (d.  about  215), 
but  was  probably  not  his  work.  The  next  piece  of  this  class 
is  the  famous  "  Maidens'  Song  "  in  the  Banquet  of  St  Methodius 
(d.  about  5x1),  in  which  many  striking  violations  of  the  old 
rules  of  quantity  are  already  apparent.  More  faithful  to  the 
tradition  of  the  schools  was  Gregory  of  Nazianzus.  But,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  he  generally  employed  antiquated  versification 
and  very  erudite  language,  his  poems  failed  to  reach  the  people 
or  to  find  a  place  in  the  services  of  the  church.  Just  as  little 
could  the  artificial  paraphrase  of  the  Psalms  composed  by  the 
younger  ApoUinaris,  or  the  subtle  poems  of  Synesius,  become 
popular.  It  became  more  and  more  patent  that,  with  the  archaic 
metre  which  was  out  of  keeping  with  the  character  of  the  living 
language,  no  genuine  poetry  suited  to  the  age  could  possibly  be 
produoed.  Fortunately,  an  entirely  new  form  of  poetical  art 
was  discovered,  which  conferred  upon  the  Greek  people  the 
blessings  of  an  intelligible  religious  poetry — the  rhythmic  poem. 
This  no  longer  depended  on  difference  of  quantity  in  the  syllables, 
which  had  disappeared  from  the  living  language,  but  on  the 
accent.  Yet  the  transition  was  not  effected  by  Uw  substitution 
of  accent  for  the  old  long  syllables;  the  ancient  verse  form  was 
entirely  abandoned,  and  in  its  stead  new  and  variously  con- 
structed lines  and  strophes  were  formed.  In  the  history  of  the 
rhythmic  sacred  poetiy  three  periods  are  clearly  marked^the 
preparatory  period;  that  of  the  h3rnms;  and  that  of  the  Canones. 
About  the  first  period  we  know,  unforttmately,  comparatively 
lit  tie.  It  appears  that  in  it  church  music  was  in  the  main  confin^ 
to  the  insertion  of  short  songs  between  the  Psalms  or  other 
portions  of  Holy  Writ  and  the  acclamations  of  the  congregation. 
The  oldest  rhythmic  songs  date  from  Gregory  of  Nazianzus — 
his  "Maidens'  Song"  and  his  "Evening  Hymn."  Church 
poetry  reached  its  highest  expression  in  the  sea>nd  period,  in 
the  grrnd  development  of  the  hymns,  i.«.  lengthy  songs  compris- 
ing from  twenty  to  thirty  similarly  constructed  stropha,  each 
connected  with  the  next  in  acrostic  fashion.  Hymnology, 
again,  attained  its  highest  perfection  in  the  first  half  of  the  6th 
century  with  Romanos,  who  in  the  great  number  and  ezceUence 
of  his  hymns  dominated  this  species  of  poetry,  as  Homer  did 
the  Greek  epic.  From  this  period  dates,  moreover,  the  most 
famous  song  of  the  Greek  Church,  the  so-called  Acaikistus,  an 
anonymous  hymn  of  praise  to  the  Virgin  Maxy,  which  has 


sometimes,  but  erroneously,  been  attributed  to  the  patziaich 
Sergius. 

Church  poetry  entered  upon  a  new  stage,  characterized  by  an 
increase  in  artistic  finish  and  a  falling  off  in  poetical  vigour, 
with  the  composition  of  the  Canones,  songs  artfully 
built  up  out  of  ei^t  or  nine  lyrics,  all  differently 
constructed.  Andreas,  archbiiUiop  of  Crete  {c.  6^>-73o),  is 
regarded  as  the  inventor  of  this  new  dass  of  song.  His  chief 
work,  "  the  great  Canon,"  comprises  no  las  than  250  strophes. 
The  most  cdebrated  writers  of  Canones  are  John  of  Damascus 
and  Cosmas  of  Jerusalem,  both  of  whom  flourished  in  the  fint 
half  of  the  8th  century.  The  "  vulgar  "  simplidty  of  Rosoanos 
was  regarded  by  them  as  an  obsolete  method;  they  again 
rjcsorted  to  the  classical  style  of  Gregory •«f  Nazianzus,  and  John 
of  Damascus  even  took  a  special  ddight  in  the  most  elaborate 
tricks  of  expression.  In  spite  of  this,  or  perii^js  on  that  very 
account,  both  he  and  Cosmas  were  much  admixed  in  later  times, 
were  much  read,  and — ^as  was  very  necessarjr — ^much  commen- 
tated. Later,  sacred  poetry  was  more  parUcukriy  cultivated 
in  the  monastery  of  the  Studium  at  Constantinople  by  the  abbot 
Theodorus  and  others.  Again,  in  the  9th  century,  Joseph,  "  the 
hymn-writer,"  excelled  as  a  writer  of  songs,  and,  finally,  John 
Mauropus  (nth  century),  bishop  of  Euchaita,  John  Zonaras 
(x2th  century),  and  Nicephorus  Blemlnydet  (xjth  century), 
were  also  distinguished  as  authors  of  sacred  poems,  »a  Cismones. 
The  Basilian  Abbey  of  Grotta  Femta  near  R<«ie,  founded  in 
X004,  and  still  existing,  was  also  a  nursery  of  reli^us  poetiy. 
As  regards  the  rhythmic  church  poetry,  it  may  now  be  regarded 
as  certain  that  its  origin  was  in  the  East  Old  Helnew  and 
Syrian  models  mainly  stimulated  it,  and  Rnmanos  (q.v.)  was 
espedally  influenced  by  the  metrical  homilies  of  the  great  Syrian 
father  Ephraem  (d.  about  373). 

In  profane  literature  the  writing  of  hotory  takes  the  first 
place,  as  regards  both  form  and  substance.  The  Greeks  have 
always  been  deoply  interested  in  history,  and  they  have 
never  omitted,'  amid  all  the  vicissitudes  of  their 
existence,  to  hand  down  a  record  to  posterity.  Thus, 
they  have  produced  a  literature  extending  from  the 
Ionian  logographers  and  Herodotus  down  to  the  times  of 
Sultan  Mahommed  II.  In  the  Byzantine  period  all  historical 
accounts  fall  under  one  of  two  groups,  entirdy  different,  b<^  in 
form  and  in  matter,  (i)  historical  works,  the  authors  of  which 
described,  as  did  most  historians  of  andent  times,  a  period  of 
history  in  which  they  themsdves  had  lived  and  moved,  or  one 
which  only  immediately  preceded  their  own  times;  and  (3) 
chronides,  shortly  recapitulating  the  history  of  the  world.  This 
latter  dass  has  no  exact  counterpart  in  andent  literature.  The 
most  dearly  marked  stage  in  the  devdopment  of  a  Christian- 
Byzantine  universal  history  was  the  chronide  (unfortunatdy 
lost)  written  by  the  Hellenized  Jew,  Justus  of  Tiberias,  at  tl^ 
beginning  of  the  2nd  century  of  the  Christian  en;  this  wMk 
began  with  the  story  of  Moses. 

Byzantine  histories  of  contemporary  events  do  not  differ 
substantially  from  andent  historical  works,  except  in  their 
Christian  colouring.  Yet  even  this  is  often  very  faint  and  blurred 
owing  to  dose  adherence  to  andent  methods.  Apart  from  this, 
neither  a  new  style  nor  a  new  critical  method  nor  any  radically 
new  views  appredably  altered  the  main  character  of  Byzantine 
historiography.  In  their  style  most  Byzantine  oompQers  of 
contemporary  history  followed  the  beaten  track  of  older  his- 
torians, e,g.  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  and,  in  some  details,  also 
Polybius.  But,  in  spite  of  thdr  often  excessive  tendency  to 
imitation,  they  displayed  considerable  power  in  the  deUnealion 
of  character  and  were  not  wanting  in  independent  judgmoit. 
As  regards  the  selection  of  thdr  matter,  they  adhered  to  the 
old  custom  of  beginning  thdr  narrative  where  their  predecesson 
left  off. 

The  outstripping  of  the  Latin  West  by  the  Greek  East,  which 
after  the  dose  of  the  4th  century  was  a  self-evident  fact,  is 
reflected  in  historiography  also.  After  Constantine  the  Great, 
the  history  of  the  empire,  although  its  Latin  character  was 
maintained  until  the  6th  century,  was  mostly  written  by  Greeks^ 


BVZANTINEI 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


521 


e.g.  Eanapius  (c.  400),  Olympiodorus  {c.  450),  Priscus  (e,  450), 
Malchus  {c.  490),  and  Zosimxis,  the  last  pagan  historian  (c.  500), 
all  of  whom,  with  the  exception  of  Zosimus,  are  unfortunately 
preserved  to  us  only  in  fragments.  Historiography  received  a 
great  impulse  in  the  6th  century.  The  powerful  Procopius  and 
Agathias  (q.v.),  tinged  with  poetical  rhetoric,  described  the 
stirring  and  eventful  times  of  Justinian,  while  Theophanes  ot 
Byzantium,  Menander  Protector,  Johannes  of  Epiphaneia  and 
Theophylactus  of  Simocatta  described  the  second  half  of  the 
6th  century.  Towards  theclose  of  the  6th  century  also  flourished 
the  last  independent  ecclesiastical  historian,  Evagrius,  who 
wrote  the  history  of  the  church  from  431  to  593.  There  now 
followed,  however,  a  lamentable  falling  off  in  production. 
From  the  7th  to  the  loth  century  the  historical  side  is 
represented  by  a  few  chronicles,  and  it  was  not  until  the  loth 
century  that,  owing  to  the  revival  of  ancient  classical  studies, 
the  art  of  writing  history  showed  some  signs  of  life.  Several 
historical  works  are  associated  with  the  name  of  the  emperor 
Constant ine  VII.  Porphyrogenitus.  To  his  learned  circle  be- 
longed  also  Joseph  Genesius,  who  at  the  emperor's  instance 
compiled  the  history  of  the  period  from  813  to  886.  A  little  work, 
interesting  from  the  point  of  view  of  historical  and  ethnographical 
science,  is  the  account  of  the  taking  of  Thessalonica  by  the  Cretan 
Corsairs  (a.o.  904).  which  a  priest,  Johannes  Cameniata.  an 
eyewitness  of  the  event,  has  bequeathed  to  posterity.  There 
is  also  contained  in  the  excellent  work  of  Leo  Diaconus  (on  the 
period  from  959  to  975)  a  graphic  account  of  the  bloody  wars  of 
the  Byzantines  with  the  Arabs  in  Crete  and  with  the  Bulgarians. 
A  continuation  was  undertaken  by  the  philosopher  Michael 
Psellus  in  a  work  covering  the  period  from  976  to  1077.  A 
valuable  supplement  to  the  latter  (describing  the  period  from 
1034  to  1079)  was  supplied  by  the  jurist  Michael  Attaliata. 
The  history  of  the  Eastern  empire  during  the  Crusades  was 
written  in  four  considerable  works,  by  Nicephorus  Bryennius, 
his  learned  consort  Anna  Comnena,  the  "  honest  Aetolian," 
Johannes  Cinnamus,  and  finally  by  Nicetas  Acominatus  in  an 
exhaustive  work  which  is  authoritative  for  the  history  of  the 
4t h  Crusade.  The  melancholy  conditions  and  the  ever  i ncreasing 
decay  of  the  empire  under  the  Palaeologi  (i3th-i5th  centuries) 
are  described  in  the  same  lofty  style,  though  with  a  still  closer 
following  of  classical  models.  The  events  which  took  place 
between  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins  and  the 
restoration  of  Byzantine  rule  (1203-1261)  are  recounted  by 
Georgius  AcropoUta,  who  emphasizes  his  own  share  in  them. 
The  succeeding  period  was  written  by  the  versatile  Georgius 
Pachymeres,  the  erudite  and  high-principled  Nicephorus 
Gregoras,  and  the  emperor  John  VI.  Cantacuzenus.  Lastly, 
the  death-struggle  between  the  East  Roman  empire  and  the 
mighty  rising  power  .of  the  Ottomans  was  narrated  by  three 
historians,  all  differing  in  culture  and  in  style,  Laonicus  Chaloo- 
condyles,  Ducas  and  Georgius  Phrantzcs.  With  them  may  be 
classed  a  fourth  (though  he  lived  outside  the  Byzantine  period), 
Critobulus,  a  high-born  Greek  of  Imbros,  who  wrote,  in  the  style 
of  the  age  of  Pericles,  the  history  of  the  times  of  the  sultan 
Mahommed  II.  (down  to  1467). 

The  essential  importance  of  the  Byzantine  chronides  (mostly 
chronicles  of  the  history  of  the  world  from  the  Creation)  consists 
in  the  fact  that  they  in  part  replace  older  lost  works, 
and  thus  fill  up  many  gaps  in  our  historical  survey 
(e.g.  for  the  period  from  about  600  to  800  of  which 
very  few  records  remain).  They  lay  no  claim  to  literary  merit, 
but  are  often  serviceable  for  the  history  of  language.  Many  such 
chronicles  were  furnished  with  illustrations.  The  remains  of 
one  such  illustrated  chronicle  on  papyrus,  dating  from  the 
banning  of  the  5th  century,  has  been  preserved  for  us  by  the 
soil  of  Egypt.*  The  au  thors  of  the  chronicles  were  mostly  monks, 
who  wished  to  compile  handbooks  of  universal  history  for  their 
brethren  and  for  pious  laymen;  and  this  explains  the  strong 
clerical  and  popular  tendency  of  these  works.    And  it  is  due  to 

*  See  Ad.  Bauer  and  J.  Strzygowski,  "  Eine  alexandriniflche 
Weltchnmik"  (1905)  {Denkscknjt  ier  kuserlick.  Atademie  der 
Wusauehtifttn,  ti.). 


these  two  qualities  that  the  chronicles  obtained  a  drculation 
abroad,  both  in  the  West  and  also  among  the  peoples  Christian- 
ized from  Byzantium,  e.g.  the  Slavs,  and  in  all  of  them  sowed  the 
seeds  of  an  indigenous  historical  literature.  Thus  the  chronides, 
despite  the  jejuneness  of  their  style  and  their  uncritical  treatment 
of  material  were  for  the  general  culture  of  the  middle  ages  of  far 
greater  importance  than  the  erudite  contemporary  histories 
designed  only  for  the  highly  educated  circles  in  Byzantium. 
The  oldest  Byzantine  chronide  of  universal  history  preserved 
to  us  is  that  of  Malalas  (6th  century),  which  is  also  the  purest 
type  of  this  dass  of  literature.  In  the  7th  century  was  completed 
the  famous  Easier  or  Pasckai  CkronUie  {Chronicon  Pasckale). 
About  the  end  of  the  8th  or  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century 
Georgius  Syncellus  compiled  a  concise  chronide,  which  began 
with  the  Creation  and  was  continued  down  to  the  year  384. 
At  the  request  of  the  author,  when  on  his  death-bed,  the  con- 
tinuation of  this  work  was  undertaken  by  Theophanes  Confessor, 
who  brought  down  the  account  from  a.o.  384  to  his  own  times 
(a.d.  813).  This  exceedingly  valuable  work  of  Theophanes 
was  again  continued  (from  8x3-961)  by  several  anonymous 
chroniclers.  A  contemporary  of  Theophanes,  the  patriarch 
Nicephorus,  wrote,  in  addition  to  a  Short  History  of  the  period 
from  602  to  769,  a  chronological  sketch  from  Adam  down  to  the 
year  of  his  own  death  in  829.  Of  great  influence  on  the  age  that 
followed  was  Georgius  Monachus,  only  second  in  importance 
as  chronicler  of  the  early  Byzantine  period,  who  compiled  a 
chronicle  of  the  world's  history  (from  Adam  until  the  year  843, 
the  end  of  the  Iconoclast  movement),  far  more  theological  and 
monkish  in  character  than  the  work  of  Theophanes.  Among 
later  chroniclers  Johannes  Scylitza  stands  out  conspicuously. 
His  work  (covering  the  period  from  81  x  to  1057),  as  regards  the 
range  of  its  subject-matter,  is  something  between  a  universal 
and  a  contemporary  history.  Georgius  Cedrenus  (c.  iioo) 
embodied  the  whole  of  Scylitza's  work,  almost  unaltered,  in 
his  Universal  Chronide.  In  the  1 3th  century  the  general  increase 
in  literary  production  was  evident  also  in  the  department  of 
chronicles  of  the  world.  From  this  period  dates,  for  instance, 
the  most  distinguished  and  learned  work  of  this  class,  the  great 
universal  chronide  of  John  Zoiuiras.  In  the  same  century 
Michael  Glycas  compiled  his  chronide  of  the  world's  history,  a 
work  written  in  the  old  popular  style  and  designed  for  the 
widest  circles  of  readers.  Lastly,  in  the  •!  3th  century,  Con- 
stantine  Manasses  wrote  a  universal  chronicle  in  the  so-called 
"  political  "  verse.  With  this  verse-chronicle  must  be  classed 
the  imperial  chronicle  of  Ephraem,  written  in  Byzantine  trimeters 
at  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century. 

Geography  and  topography,  subjects  so  closely  connected 
with  history,  were  as  much  neglected  by  the  Byzantines  as  by 
their  political  forerunners,  the  Romans.  Of  purely  ^^ 
practical  importance  are  a  few  handbooks  of  navigation,  gn^iy, 
itineraries,  guides  for  pilgrims,  and  catalogues  of 
provinces  and  dties,  metit^Mlitan  sees  and  bishoprics.  The 
geogrs^hical  work  of  Stephanus  of  Byzantium,  which  dates 
from  Justinian's  time,  has  l>een  lost.  To  the  same  period  belongs 
the  only  large  geographical  work  which  has  been  preserved  to  us, 
the  Christian  Topography  of  Onmas  Indicopleustes.  For  the 
topography  of  Constantinople  a  work  entitled  Ancient  History 
(Patria)  of  Constantinople^  which  may  be  compared  to  the 
medieval  Mirabilia  urbis  Romae,  and  in  late  manuscripts  has 
heen  wrongly  attributed  to  a  certain  Codlnus,  is  of  great  import- 
ance. 

Andent  Greek  philosophy  uxuler  the  empire  sent  forth  two 
new  shoots — Nec^ythagoreanism  and  Neoplatonism.  It  was 
the  latter  with  which  moribund  paganism  essayed  to 
stem  the  advancing  tide  ot  diristlanity.  The  last  great 
exponent  of  this  philosophy  was  Produs  in  Athens 
(d,  485).  The  dissolution,  by  order  of  Justinian,  of  the  school 
of  philosq>hy  at  Athens  in  539  was  a  fatal  blow  to  this  nebulous 
system,  which  had  long  since  outlived  the  conditions  that  made  it 
a  living  force.  In  the  succeeding  period  philosophical  activity 
was  of  two  main  kinds;  on  the  one  hand,  the  old  philosophy, 
«.f .  that  of  Aristotle,  was  employed  to  systematize  Christian 


522 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


[BYZANTINE 


doctrine,  while,  on  the  other,  the  old  works  were  furnished  with 
copious  commentaries  and  paraphrases.  Leontius  of  Byzantium 
had  already  introduced  Aristotelian  definitions  into  Christology; 
but  the  real  founder  of  medieval  ecclesiastical  philosophy  was 
John  of  Damascus.  Owing,  however,  to  his  having  early  attained 
to  canonical  authority,  the  independent  progress  of  ecclesiastical 
philosophy  was  arrested;  and  to  this  it  is  due  that  in  this 
respect  the  later  Byzantine  period  is  far  poorer  than  is  the  West. 
Byzantium  cannot  boast  a  scholastic  like  Thomas  Aquinas. 
In  the  nth  century  philosophical  studies  experienced  a  satis- 
factory revival,  mainly  owing  to  Michael  Psellus,  who  brought 
Plato  as  well  as  Aristotle  again  into  fashion. 

Ancient  rhetoric  was  cultivated  in  the  Byzantine  period  with 
greater  ardour  than  scientific  philosophy,  being  regarded  as  an 
indispensable  aid  to  instruction.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  imagine  anything  more  tedious  than  the  numerous 
theoretical  writings  on  the  subject  and  the  examples  of  their 
practical  application:  mechanical  school  essays,  which  here 
count  as  "  literature,"  and  innumerable  letters,  the  contents  of 
which  are  wholly  insignificant.  The  evil  effects  of  this  were 
felt  beyond  the  proper  sphere  of  rhetoric.  The  anxious  attention 
paid  to  the  laws  of  rhetoric  and  the  unrestricted  use  of  its 
withered  flowers  were  detrimental  to  a  great  part  of  the  rest  of 
Byzantine  literature,  and  greatly  hampered  the  development 
of  any  individuality  and  simplicity  of  style.  None  the  less, 
among  the  rhetorical  productions  of  the  time  are  to  be  found  a 
few  interesting  pieces,  such  as  the  Pkilopatris^  in  the  style  of 
Lucian,  which  gives  us  a  remarkable  picture  of  the  times  of 
Nicephorus  Phocas  (loth  century).  In  two  other  smaller  works 
a  journey  to  the  dwellings  of  the  dead  is  described,  after  the 
pattern  of  Lucian's  Nekyomanteia,  viz.  in  Timarion  ( i  ath  century) 
and  in  Mazaris'  Journey  to  the  Underworld  (c.  14x4).  A  very 
charming  representative  of  Byzantine  rhetoric  is  Michael 
Acominatus,  who,  in  addition  tp  theological  works,  wrote 
numerous  occasional  speeches,  letters  and  poems. 

In  the  field  of  scientific  production,  which  can  be  accounted 
literature  in  the  modern  acceptation  of  the  term  only  in  a  limited 
sense,  Byzantium  was  dominated  to  an  extravagant 
and  even  grotesque  extent  by  the  .rules  of  what  in 
modern  times  b  termed  "  classical  scholarship." 
The  numerous  works  which  belong  to  this  category,  such  as 
grammars,  dictionaries,  commentaries  on  ancient  authors, 
extracts  from  ancient  literature,  and  metrical  and  musical 
treatises,  are  of  little  general  interest,  although  of  great  value 
for  special  branches  of  philological  study,  e.g.  for  tracing  the 
influences  through  which  the  ancient  works  handed  down  to 
us  have  passed,  as  well  as  for  their  interpretation  and  emenda- 
tion; for  information  about  and^nt  authors  now  lost;  for  the 
history  of  education;  and  for  the  underlying  prindples  of  in- 
tellectual life  in  Byzantium.  The  most  important  monument  of 
Byzantine  philology  is,  perhaps,  the  Library  of  the  patriasch 
Photius.  The  period  from  about  650  to  850  is  marked  by  a 
general  decay  of  culture.  Photius,  who  in  the  year  850  was 
about  thirty  years  of  age,  now  set  himself  with  admirable 
energ>'  to  the  task  of  making  ancient  literature,  now  for  the  most 
part  dead  and  forgotten,  known  once  more  to  his  contemporaries, 
thus  contributing  to  its  preservation.  He  gave  an  account 
of  all  that  he  read,  and  in  this  way  composed  280  essays,  which 
were  collected  in  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  Library 
ox '  MyriohiUon,  The  character  of  the  individual  sketches  is 
somewhat  mechanical  and  formal;  a  more  or  less  complete 
account  of  the  contents  is  followed  by  critical  discussion,  which 
is  nearly  always  confined  to  the  linguistic  form.  With  this 
work  may  be  compared  in  importance  the  great  Lexikon  of 
S^idas,  which  appeared  about  a  century  later,  a  sort  of  enC3rclo- 
paedia,  of  which  the  main  feature  wa5  its  artidcs  on  the  history 
of  literature.  A  truly  sympathetic  figure  is  Eustathius,  the 
famous  archbishop  of  Theualonica  ( 1 2th  century) .  His  volumin- 
ous commentaries  on  Homer,  however,  rivet  the  attention  less 
than  his  enthusiastic  devotion  to  sdence,  his  energetic  action 
on  behalf  of  the  preservation  of  the  literary  works  of  antiquity, 
and  last,  not  least,  his  frank  'knd  heroic  character,  which  had 


Tl* 


nothing  in  it  of  the  Byzantine.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  acquaint- 
ance with  a  caricature  of  Byzantine  philology  be  desired,  it  is 
afforded  by  Johannes  TzeUes,  a  contemporary  of  Eusuihius, 
a  Creek  in  neither  name  nor  spirit,  narrow-minded,  angular, 
superficial,  and  withal  immeasurably  conceited  and  ridiculously 
coarse  in  his  polemics.  The  transition  to  Western  humanism 
was  effected  by  the  philologists  of  the  period  of  the  Palaeologi. 
such  as  Maximus  Planudes,  whose  translations  of  numerous 
works  renewed  the  long-broken  ties  between  Byzantium  and  the 
West;  Manud  Moschopulus,  whose  grammatical  works  and 
commentaries  were,  down  to  the  i6th  century,  used  as  school 
text-books;  Demetrius  Tridinius,  distinguished  as  a  textual 
critic;  the  versatile  Theodorus  Metochites,  and  others. 

Originally,  as  is  well  known,  Latin  was  the  exdusive  language 
of  Roman  law.  But  with  Justinian,  who  codified  the  laws  in  his 
Corpus  juris,  the  Hellenizing  of  the  legal  language 
also  began.  The  Institutes  and  the  Digest  were  trans- 
lated into  Greek,  and  the  Novels  also  were  issued  in 
a  Greek  form.  Under  the  Macedonian  dynasty  there  began,  after 
a  lojng'  stagnation,  the  resusdtation  of  the  code  of  Justinian. 
The  emperor  Basilius  I.  (867-886)  had  extracts  made  from  the 
existing  law,  and  made  preparations  for  the  codifying  of  all  laws. 
But  the  whole  work  was  not  completed  till  the  time  of  Leo  \X 
the  Wise  (886-913),  and  Constantine  VII.  Porphyrogenitus 
(912-950),  when  it  took  the  form  of  a  grand  compilation  from 
the  Digests,  the  Codex,  and  the  Novds,  and  is  commonly  known 
as  the  Basilica  (Td  /SacrtXud).  In  the  East  it  completely  super- 
seded the  old  Latin  Corpus  juris  of  Justinian.  More  that  was 
new  was  produced,  during  the  Byzantine  period,  in  canon  law 
than  in  secular  legislation.  The  purely  ecclesiastical  rules  of 
law,  the  Canones,  were  blended  with  those  of  dvil  law,  and  thus 
arose  the  so-called  Nomocanon,  the  most  important  edition  of 
which  is  that  of  Theodorus  Bestes  in  1090.  The  alphabetical 
handbook  of  canon  law  written  by  Matthaeus  Blastaits  about 
the  year  1335  also  exercised  a  great  influence. 

In  the  province  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  the  remarkable 
fact  must  be  recorded  that  the  revival  among  the  Greeks  of 
these  long  forgotten  studies  was  primarily  due  to 
Perso-Arabian  influence.  The  Great  Syntaxis  of 
Ptolemy  operated  in  the  oriental  guise  of  the  Almagest,  f^f^ 
The  most  important  direct  source  of  this  intellectual  ^'***^* 
loan  was  not  Arabia,  however,  but  Persia.  Towards  the  dose 
of  the  13th  century  the  Greeks  became  acquainted  with  Peisiaa 
astronomy.  At  the  beginning  of  the  14th  oentury  Gcorgius 
Chrysococca  and  Isaac  Argyrus  wrote  astronomical  treatises 
based  on  Persian  works.  Then  the  Byzantines  themsdves, 
notably  Theodorus  Metochites  and  Nicephorus  Gregoias,  at 
last  had  recourse  to  the  original  Greek  sources. 

The  Byzantines  did  much  independent  work  in  the  fidd  of 
military  science.    The  most  valuable  work  of  the 
period  on  this  subject  is  one  on  tactics,  which  has 
come  down  to  posterity  assodated  with  the  name  of 
Leo  VI.,  the  Wise. 

Of  profane  poetry — in  complete  contrast  to  sacred  poetry— 
the  general  characteristic  was  its  dose  imitation  of  the  antique 
in  point.of  form.  All  works  bdonging  to  this  category 
reproduce  the  ancient  style  and  are  framed  after 
ancient  models.  The  metre  is,  for  the  most  part, 
dther  the  Byzantine  regular  twdve-syllable  trimeter,  or  the 
"  political "  verse;  more  rardy  the  heroic  and  Anacreontic 
measures. 

Epic  popular  poetry,  in  the  andent  sense,  begins  only  with 
the  vernacular  Greek  literature  (see  below);  but  among  the 
literary  works  of  the  period  there  are  several  which  can  ^^ 
be  comp>ared  with  the  epics  of  the  Alexandrine  age. 
Nonnus  (c.  400)  wrote,  while  yet  a  pagan,  a  fantastic  epic  on  the 
triumphal  progress  of  the  god  Dionysus  to  India,  and,  as  a 
Christian,  a  voluminous  commentary  on  the  gospd  of  St  John. 
In  the  7th  century,  Georgius  Pisides  sang  in  several  lengthy 
iambic  poems  the  martial  deeds  of  the  emperor  Heradius,  while 
the  deacon  Theodosius  (loth  century)  immortalized  in  extmva- 
gant  language  the  victories  of  the  brave  Nicephorus  Phocas. 


BYZAimNEl 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


523 


From  the  iitb  century  onwards,  religious,  grammatical, 
astrological,  medical,  historical  and  allegorical  poems,  framed 
partly  in  duodecasyllables  and  partly  in  "  political " 
verse,  made  their  appearance  in  large  quantities. 
Didactic  religious  poems  were  composed,  for  example, 
by  Philippus  (6  Uovir point t  Solitarius,  c.  iioo),  grammatico- 
phiJologicaJ  poems  by  Johannes  Tzetxes,  astrological  by  Johannes 
Camatenis  (xath  century),  others  on  natural  adtoct  by  Manuel 
Philes  (r4th  century)  uid  a  great  moral,  allegorical,  didactic 
epic  by  Georgius  Lapithes  (x4th  century). 

To  these  may  be  added  some  voluminous  poems,  which  in 
style  and  matter  must  be  regarded  as  imitations  of  the  andent 

^ Greek  romances.    They  all  date  from  the  xath  century, 

a  fact  evidently  connected  with  the  general  revival  of 
cultun  which  characterizes  the  period  of  the  ComneilL  Two 
of  these  romances  are  written  in  the  duodecasyllable  metre, 
viz.  the  story  of  Rodanthe  and  Dosides  by  Theodoras  Prodromus, 
and  an  imitation  of  this  work,  the  story  of  DrusiUa  and  Charides 
by  Nicctas  Eugenianus;  one  in  "  political  *'  verse,  the  love  story 
of  Aristander  and  CalHthea  by  Constantine  Manasses,  which  has 
only  been  preserved  in  fragments,  and  lastly  one  in  prose,  the 
story  of  Hysmine  and  Hysminias,  by  EustatUus  (or  Eumatluus) 
MacremboUta,  which  is  the  most  insipid  of  all. 

The  objective  point  of  view  which  dominated  the  whole 
Byzantine  period  was  fatal  to  the  development  of  a  profane 
l^flgg^  lyrical  poetry.  At  most  a  few  poems  by  Johannes 
Geometres  and  Christophonis  of  Mytilene  and  others, 
in  which  personal  experiences  are  recorded  with  some  show  of 
taste,  may  be  placed  in  this  category.  The  dominant  form 
for  all  subjective  poetry  was  the  epigram,  which  was  employed 
in  all  its  variations  from  playful  trifles  to  long  elegiac  and 
narrative  poems.  Georgius  Pisides  (7th  century)  treated  the 
most  diverse  themes.  In  the  9th  century  Theodoras  of  Sludium 
had  lighted  upon  the  happy  idea  of  immortalizing 
monastic  life  in  a  series  of  epigrams.  The  same 
century  produced  the  only  poetess  of  the  Byzantine 
period,  Casia,  from  whom  we  have  several  epigrammatic-  pro- 
ductions and  church  hymns,  all  characterized  by  originality. 
Epigrammatic  poetry  reached  its  highest  development  in  the 
loth  and  ixth  centuries,  in  the  productions  of  Johannes  Geo- 
metres, Christophorus  of  Mytilene  and  John  Mauropus.  Less 
happy  are  Theodoras  Prodromus  (lath  century)  and  Manuel 
Philes  (14th  century).  From  the  beginning  of  the  loth  century 
also  dates  the  most  valuable  collection  of  andent  and  of  Byzantine 
epigrammatic  poems,  the  Antkologia  Falalina  (see  Antrology). 
Dramatic  poetry,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  was  as 
completely  lacking  among  the  Byzantine  Greeks  as  was  the 
^  condition  precedent  to  its  existence,  namely,  public 

"^'  performance.  Apart  from- some  moralizing  allegorical 
dialogues  (by  Theodoras  Pzodromus,  Manud  Philes  and  others), 
we  possess  only  a  single  work  of  the  Byzantine  period  that,  at 
least  in  ottemal  form,  resembles  a  drama:  the  Sufferings  of 
Christ  (.Xptffrit  Ila^uy).  This  work,  written  probably  in  the 
X  3th  century,  or  at  all  events  not  earlier,  is  a  cento,  i.e.  a  in  great 
measure  composed  of  verses  culled  from  andent  writers,  e.g. 
Aeschylus,  Euripides  and  Lycophron;  but  it  was'  certainly 
not  written  with  a  view  to  the  dramatic  production. 

The  vernacular  literature  stands  alone,  boll)  in  form  and  in 
contents.  We  have  here  remarkable  originality  of  conception 
and  probably  also  entirely  new  and  genuindy  medieval 
matter.  While  in  the  artifidal  literature  prose  is 
pre-eminent,  in  the  vernacular  literature,  poetry, 
both  in  quantity  and  quality,  Ukes  the  first  place,  as 
also  the  cose  among  the  Latin  nations,  where  the  vulgar 
tongue  first  invaded  the  field  of  poetry  and  only  later  that  of 
prose.  Though  a  few  preliminary  at  tempts  were  made  (proverbs, 
acclamations  addressed  by  the  people  to  the  emperor,  &c.),  the 
Creek  vernacular  was  employed  for  larger  works  only  from  the 
i2tb  century  onwards;  at  first  in  poems,  of  which  the  major 
portion  were  cast  in  "  political  "  verse,  but  some  in  the  trochaic 
eight-^Ilabled  line.  Towards  the  dose  of  the  xsth  century 
rixyme  came  into  use.    The  subjects  treated  in  this  vernacular 


poetry  are  exceedingly  diverse  In  the  capital  dty  a  mixture 
of  the  learned  and  the  popular  language  was  first  used  in  poems 
of  admonition,  praise  and  supplication.  In  this  oldest  dass 
of  "  vulgar  "  works  must  be  redkoned  the  SpaneaSj  an  admoni- 
tory poem  in  imitation  of  the  letter  of  Pseudo-Isocrates  addressed 
to  Demonicus;  a  supplicatory  poem  composed  in  prison  by  the 
cbronider  Mi<±ad  Glycas,  and  several  begging  poems  of  Theo- 
doras Prodromus  (Ptochoprodromos).  In  the  succeeding  period 
erotic  poems  are  met  with,  such  as  the  Rhodian  love  songs 
preserved  in  a  MS.  in  the  British  Museum  (ed.  W.  Wagner, 
Ldpzig,  X879),  faixy-tale  like  romances  such  as  the  Story  of 
Ptoch^eon,  oraides.  prayers,  extracts  from  Holy  Writ,  lives  of 
saints,  &c  Great  epic  poems,  in  which  antique  subjects  are 
treat«l,  such  as  the  legends  of  Troy  and  of  Alexander,  form  a 
separate  group.  To  these  may  be  added  romances  in  verse  after 
the  nxanner  of  the  works  written  in  the  artificial  classical 
language,  e.g.  CaUimackus  and  Ckrysorrkoit  BeUkandrus  and 
CkrysantUt  Lybi^rus  and  Rkodamne^  also  romances  in  verse 
after  the  Westem  pattern,  such  as  PUorius  and  Flatsiapklora 
(the  old  French  story  of  Flore  et  Bianckefieur).  Curious  are 
also  simdry  legends  connected  with  animals  and  plants,  such 
as  an  adiaptation  of  the  famous  medieval  animal  fables 
of  the  Fkysiologgs,  a  history  of  quadrapeds,  and  a  book 
of  birds,  both  written  with  a  satirical  intention,  and,  lastly,  a 
rendering  of  the  story  of  Reyxuird  the  Fox.  Of  quite  peculiar 
originality  also  are  several  legendary  and  historical  poems,  in 
which  famous  heroes  and  historical  events  are  celebrated. 
There  are,  for  instance,  poems  on  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  the 
taking  of  Athens  and  Trebizond,  the  devastating  campaign  of 
Timur,  the  plague  in  Rhodes  in  X498,  &c.  In  respect  of  import- 
ance and  antiquity  the  great  heroic  epic  of  Digenis  Akritas 
stands  pre-eminent. 

Among  prose  works  written  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  or  at  least 
in  a  compromise  with  it,  may  be  mentioned  the  Greek  rendering 
of  two  works  from  an  Indian  source,  the  Book  of  the 
Seven  Wise  Masters  (as  SynHpas  the  Fkilosopher  by 
Michad  Andreopulus),  and  the  Hitcpadera  or  Mirror 
of  Frinces  (through  the  Arabic  Kalilak  and  Dimnak 
by  Simeon  Sethus  as  Zrc^ayfnfc  ittd  'IxnyXdnis ),  a  fish  book,  a 
frait  book  (both  skits  on  the  Byzantine  court  and  official  drdes). 
To  these  must  be  added  the  Greek  laws  of  Jerusalem  and  of 
Cyprus  of  the  xath  and  xjth  centuries,  chronides,  &c.  In  spite 
of  many  individual  successes,  the  literature  written  in  the 
vulgar  tongue  succumbed,  in  the  race  for  existence,  to  its  dder 
sister,  the  literature  written  in  classical  and  polished  Greek. 
This  was  mainly  due  to  the  continuous  emplojrment  of  the 
andent  language  in  the  state,  the  schoob  and  the  church. 

The  importance  of  Byzantine  culture  and  literature  in  the 
history  of  the  worid  is  beyond  di^mte.    The  Christians  of  the 
East  Roman  empire  guarded  for  more  than  a  thousand  onarmi 
years  the  intellectual  heritage  of  antiquity  against  the  afewM^ 
violent  onslaught  of  the  barbarians.    They  also  called  «J^  ** 
into  life  a  peculiar  medieval  culture  and  literature.  mUtimm, 
They  communicated  the  treasures  of  the  old  pagan 
as  well  as  of  thdr  own  Christian  h'terature  to  neighbouring 
nations;  fiVst  to  the  Syrians,  then  to  the  Copts,  the  Armenians, 
the  Georgians;  later,  to  the  Arabians,  the  Bulgarians,  the  Serbs 
and  the  Russians.    Through  thdr  teaching  they  created  a  new 
East  European  culture,  embodied  above  all  in  the  Russian 
empire,  which,  on  its  religious  side,  is  included  in  the  Orthodox 
Eastero  Church,  and  from  the  point  of  view  of  nationality 
touches  the  two  extremes  of  Greek  and  Slav.    Finally  the  learned 
men  of  the  dying  Byzantine  empire,  fledng  from  the  barbarism 
of  the  Turks,  transplanted  the  treasures  of  old  Hellenic  wisdom 
to  the  West,  and  thereby  fertiUzed  the  Western  peoples  with 
rich  germs  of  cidture. 

Btbliocrapry.— I.  General  sources:  K.  Krambacher,  GesckichU 
der  tfytantiniseken  Lileratur  (2nd  ed.,  1897),  supplemented  in  Du 
bytantiniscke  Zeitsckrtfl  (i8oa  •«!.),  and  the  Bytaniiniuhes  Arckt9 
(1898  acq.),  which  is  intended  for  the  publication  of  more  exhaurtive 
matter.  The  RuBsian  works  in  this  department  are  comprised  m 
the  ViMniiisky  Vremennik  (1894  k<1)' 

2.  Language:    Grammar:    A.    N.    Jannaris    (Giaaoafu).    An 


52+ 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


taf  (t897>;  a. 


(I6S8),  In  vtikh  putJEul-tr  oiMjniii  it  paid  u 
bnEUBge:  E,  A.  SopbodiB.  Cnth  LrxuBm  a/UHtiiwta 
Pcnoii  utd  cd,.  iSSa). 

3.  Tlcology !  CbW  i^ork,  A.  Ehrhard  in  Kninib«lier'i  CtjtiitliW 

fc  1™.  tj/  pp,         S     For  th         len   ptriod  cf.  the  worki  on 

Greet  ptfoogy     nd      n  d  F  o     hi        bch).  Collective 

ed  n(  F  Ve  ce    uiv) ;  Fatriilara. 

S;      8U      Church  pueiry^ 

j^p    luhed  by  W. Chriu 


ed 

he      mu 

»ed 

ickS. 

i).    A  com^Jele 

oumI       0- 

A        Kt  ve  ed         of  Ihe  Byamine 

bffu       nder  Loin.  XIV..  »nd  eon- 

er  (164^ 

r 

(Bon™  II 

Bwlin^ 

sppsred  iii  the  Bit 
orvnul  hiuoriol  wc 

;^ 

re  >l^  conuin^ 

A  le-  Bvaniine  and 
in  ihe  cfOlectioii  edited 

byJ.B. 

^J;^ 

't'i'i 

ralure:  The  mort  importinl  collective 

ilrdU^d  Creel 

TdU  li87n),  Cirmim 

E^Lktu  d.'coUKlio 

i*; 

(ioBvol. 

fra^,^."- 

Tis;!;r»-v.r^^E;». 

ptoplc, 


J  cffacemeni  of  Greek  dviLiz&Lio 


e  land;  Ihey  ipoke  the  linguBgel  ol 


iiinfluci 


i.  lilin 


1  Europe.  The  cniuda  had 
already  brought  the  Creeks  and  Wntnn:  togetbn.  and  the  rule 
a[  the  Frank!  at  Conttunbaple  and  in  the  Levant  hid  rendeied 
Ihe  contact  closer.  Greeka  and  Idtini  hul  Wanlj'  discuucd  the 
dogmai  which  divided  the  Eastern  and  Waletn  Chuichu] 
aome  Greeks  bad  adopted  the  Latin  faith  or  bad  endeavouted 
to  reconcile  (he  two  CDinniimiona.  some  bad  attained  prefetmeni 
in  the  Roman  Church.  Many  had  become  conaected  by  mairiagf 
or  other  ties  with  Ihe  Italian  nobles  who  luled  in  the  Aegein 
or  the  Keptanesoi,  and  ciicumstances  led  them  to  settle  in  Italy. 
Of  the  wtilen  whn  thus  found  their  way  lo  the  Wat  before  the 
taking  of  Contiantinople  the  most  prominent  were  Leon 
Leonlios  Pilitos,  Georgiui  Gtmistus,  or  Pletho,  Manuel  and 
John  Chryaolorai.  Th»dore  Cues.  George  of  Tlebiiond  and 
Cardinal  Bssarion. 

The  Ottoman  conquest  hid  reduced  the  Christian  races  !i 

the  plains  to  a  condition  of  leifdom,  Init  the  spirit  of  liberty 

continued  to  breathe  in  the  mountains,  whete  sroups 

*"'  '    "  ■  t  Klephti  and  the  Hs" 


niggle  agiiiH 


■lien  I 


c  life  of  these  chi 
freedom,  spent  amid  Ihe  noblest  soliiudes  of  nature  at 
nged  withthe  deepest  tragedy,  naturally  produced  a  poetry 


liiely  ii 


Tbi 


Klephtic  biltads. . 
of  Ihe  people,  are  unquestionably  Ihe  beat  and  most  genuine 
Creek  poetry  ol  thii  epoch.  They  breathe  the  aroma  of  ihe 
foresli  and  mounlalns:  like  Ihe  early  rhapsodies  of  antiquity, 
which  peopled  nalure  with  a  thousand  forms,  they  lend  a  voice 
lo  Ihe  trees.  Ibe  rocks.  Ihe  riven  and  lo  the  mountaina  themselves, 
which  slag  the  prowess  ol  the  Klepht,  bewiil  his  death  and 
comfotl  hii  dbcimsolite  wile  or  moiber.    Oiympia  boaita 


3  deicctlled  its 


Ossa  that  the  fooislep  of  the  Turk  has  a 

"?ys;  the  standard  of  freedom  floats  over  its  sprinp;  tnoe 
Klepht  beneath  every  tree  of  its  foreats;  an  ea^  tils  on  ill 
mil  with  the  head  of  ■  warrior  in  its  laloo*.  The  dyini 
Klepht  bids  his  compiniona  make  him  a  large  ind  lofty  tonb 
Ik  miy  itind  therein  ud  loid  hia  mnsk^:  "  Make  a 
w  in  the  aide  thai  Ibe  iwiUowi  miy  tell  me  that  spline  has 
that  the  nightingales  nay  ling  me  Ibe  ippnwdi  of  floceiy 
'  The  wDUnded  Vervoi  is  addressed  by  his  boise:  "  Rise, 
aater.  let  us  go  and  And  our  comiades-"  "  Uy  bay  hone, 
lot  rise;  I  am  dying;  dig  me  a  tomb  with  tby  silva-sbod 
hoof;  take  me  in  thy  teeth  and  lay  me  therein.  Bear  my  arms 
J  companioDs  and  ibis  handkerchief  to  ray  beloved,  tiut 
she  may  see  it  and  lament  me."  Another  type  of  the  popular 
/  is  presented  by  the  folk-songs  of  the  Aegean  JsUndeis 
he  maritime  population  of  the  Asiatic  coast.  In  many  dI 
Ihe  former  the  infiuence  of  the  Frankisfa  conquest  is  appucnL 
~  s  of  the  ancient  mythology  are  often  to  be  found  in  the 
popular  songs.  Death  is  commonly  persomfied  by  Cbsion,  wbo 
itruggles  with  "  "'  .-  j  v. .  ._ 


In  Cret 


h  tor 


i^y  t« 


poetry  aroi 

with  its  large  idm'iiture  of  Venetian  words.  The 
first  product  of  this  somewhat  hybiid  Literature  was  E/MoUa, 
ID  epic  poem  in  fivecantos,  which  relates  the  love  story  of  AretC. 
daughter  of  Meicuks,  king  of  Athens,  and  Emiocrilos,  the  nn 
of  his  minister.  The  poem  presents  an  interesting  pictote  cJ 
Greece  under  the  feudal  Frankish  princes,  though  profoaing 
lo  describe  an  episode  of  thij  classical  epoch;  not>ilbslandia| 
some  tedious  passages,  it  possesses  considermUe  bwiit  and 
contains  some  charming  scenes.  The  metre  is  Ibe  ihymed 
■ieundiioe.  Ol  Ihe  aulhnr,  Vicenci  Coraarv,  who  lived  in  ibe 
middle  or  end  of  the  i6lh  century,  little  i>  known;  be  probably 
belonged  to  the  ducal  family  of  thit  name,  from  which  Tasto 
was  descended.  The  second  poem  is  the  Bvpkile  o{  Ceorp 
Cbottakis,  a  Cretan,  also  written  in  the  Cindiote  dialect.  Il  it 
a  tragic  drama,  Ihe  scene  ol  which  is  laid  in  Egypt.  The  diikifW 
is  poor,  but  there  are  some  fine  choral  interludes,  which  pcrhapi 
are  by  a  different  hand.  Cbortakis,  who  was  broughl  u]t  il 
Retimo,  lived  at  the  end  of  the  ifilh  and  beginning  of  the  i;tl> 
centuries.  The  third  Cretan  poem  worthy  of  notict  is  the 
Sluplardai,  i  charming  and  graceful  idyll  written  by  Ninlii 
Drimyticos.  a  native  of  Apokoiona,  early  in  the  ryth  century. 
Other  Cretan  poets  were  J.  Cregoropoulos  and  G.  MdiWDOl 
(1500),    who    wrote    epignms,    and    Marouloc    (i4gi),   "!« 

Among  the  Creeks  who  were  prominent  In  spreading  ■  know- 
ledge of  Greek  in  Europe  afur  the  fill  ol  Constantinople  wen 
John   Argyropulos,    Demetrius   Chalcondyles.    Con- 
stantine  and  John  Lascaris  and  Marcus  Musurus,  ■    ^^ 
Cretan.    These  men  wrote  in  the  accepted  literary    afliriw 


tethan 


n  gaged  in  produci 


I  the  Vatican  and  ol  the  National  Library  in  Paris.    Bui  iwm 

ueslion  which  most  deeply  interested  them  was  thai  of  the  rivil 
9  ol  Ihe  Pialonic  and  Aristotelian  philosophies,  over  »hnh 


>Diei 


lotdinai 


of  Iheistheenlury.  Tlieditpute  was  in  reality  Iheokiiicil 
rather  than  philosophicil;  Ihe  ciuw  of  Plato  was  champiHHl 
by  the  advocates  of  a  union  betweeo  Ibe  Eastern  and  Wrslcn 
Churches,  that  of  Aristotle  was  upheld  by  the  opposing  pinv. 
and  all  Ihe  fury  of  Ihe  old  Byiantine  dogmatic  conltovnsio 
wt*  revived.  The  patriarch.  George  KuitesiM  or  GenudiA 
whom  Mabommed  II.  had  appointed  aftei  tbe  capHvc  <l 


MODERN] 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


525 


ittttmrie^ 


Constantinople,  wrote  a  treatise  in  favour  of  Aristotle  and  ex- 
communicated Gemistus'  Pletho,  the  principal  i^ter  among 
the  Platonists.  On  the  other  hand,  George  of  Trebleond,  who 
attacked  Pletho  with  unmeasuced  virulence,  was  compelled 
to  resign  his  po^t  of  secretary  to  Pope  Nicholas  V.  and  was 
imprisoned  by  Pope  Paul  I.  Scholarship  was  not  wholly  extinct 
in  Greece  or  among  the  Greeks  for  a  considerable  time  after  the 
Turkjsh  conquest.  Araenius,  who  succeeded  Musurus  as  bishop  of 
Monemvasia  (15x0),  wrote  commentaries  on  Aristophanes  and 
Euripides;  his  father,  Apostoles,  made  a  collection  of  Greek 
proverbs.  Aemilius  Portos,  a  Cretan,  and  Leo  Allatios  (x6oo- 
1650)  of  Chios  edited  a  number  of  works  of  the  classical  and 
later  periods  with  commentaries  and  translations;  Allatios 
also  wrote  Greek  verses  showing  skill  and  devemess.  Constan- 
tine  Rhodokanakes,  physician  to  Charles  II.  of  England,  wrote 
verses  on  the  return  of  that  monarch  to  England.  About  the 
time  of  the  fall  of  Constantinople  we  meet  with  some  versifiers 
who  wrote  poems  in  the  spoken  dialect  on  historical  subjects; 
among  these  were  Papaspondylos  Zotikos  (1444),  Georgilas 
Limcnitis  (1450-1500)  and  Jacobos  Trivolcs  (beginning  of  the 
i6lb  century);  their  poems  have  little  merit,  but  are  interesting 
as  specimens  of  the  popular  language  of  the  day  and  as  illustrating 
the  manners  and  ideas  of  contemporary  Greeks. 

Among  the  prose  writers  of  the  i6th  century  were  a  number 
of  chroniclers.  At  the  end  of  the  isth,  Kritobulos  of  Imbros, 
who  had  been  private  secretary  of  Mahommed  II., 
wrote  the  history  of  his  master,  Emmanuel  Melaxos 
a  history  of  the  patriarchate,  and  Phranzes  a  history 
of  the  Palaeolo^  Theodosius  ZygomaUu  (1580)  wrote  a 
history  of  Constantinople  from  1391  to  1578.  In  the  xjth 
century  Demetrius  Cantemir,  a  Moldavian  by  birth,  wrote  a 
history  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  G.  Kontares  tales  of  ancient 
Athens.  Others  composed  chronicles  of  Cyprus  and  Crete, 
narratives  of  traveb  and  biographies  of  saints.  Most  of  these 
works  are  written  in  the  literafy  language,  the  study  of  which 
was  kept  alive  by  the  patriarchate  and  the  schools  which  it 
maintained  at  Constantinople  and  elsewhere.  Various  theo- 
logical and  philosophical  works,  grammars  and  dictionaries 
were  written  during  this  period,  but  elegant  literature  practically 
disappears.* 

A  literary  revival  followed  in  the  i8th  century,  the  precursor 
of  the  national  uprising  which  resulted  in  the  independence  of 
Greece.  The  efforts  of  the  great  Phanariote  families 
at  Constantinople,  the  educational  zeal  of  the  higher 
Greek  clergy  and  the  munificence  of  wealthy  Greeks 
in  the  provinces,  chiefly  merchants  who  had  acquired 
fortunes  by  commerce,  combined  to  promote  the  spread  of 
education  among  a  people  always  eager  for  instruction.  The 
Turks,  indifferent  to  educational  matters,  failed  to  discern  the 
significance  of  the  movement.  Schools  were  established  in 
every  important  Greek  town,  and  school-books  and  translations 
from  Western  languages  issued  from  the  presses  of  Venice,  Tricst, 
Vienna  and  other  cities  where  the  Greeks  possessed  colonies. 
Young  men  completed  their  studies  in  the  Western  universities 
and  returned  to  the  East  as  the  missionaries  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion. For  the  greater  part  of  the  18th  century  the  literature  was 
mainly  theological.  Notable  theological  writers  of  this  epoch 
were  Ellas  Miniates,  an  elegant  preacher,  whose  sermons  are 
written  in  the  popular  language,  and  Meletios  of  lannina, 
metropolitan  of  Athens,  whose  principal  works  urere  an  ecclesi- 
astical history,  written  in  ancient  Greek,  and  a  descriptive 
geography  of  Greece  in  the  modem  language,  composed,  like  the 
work  of  Pausanias,  after  a  series  of  tours.  The  works  of  two 
distinguished  prelates,  both  natives  of  Corfu  and  both  ardent 
partisans  of  Russia,  Nikephoros  Theotokes  (1731  ?'-i8oo)  and 
Eugenios  Bulgares  (17 15-1806),  mark  the  beginning  of  the 
national  and  literary  renaissance.    They  wrote  much  in  defence 

»  The  patriarch  Cyrillos  Lucares  (i  572-1638),  who  had  studied  for 
•  tiiae  in  England  and  whose  sympathies  with  Protestantism  made 
btm  many  enemies,  established  a  Greek  printing-press  at  Constanti- 
nofrfe,  from  which  he  had  the  temerity  to  issue  a  work  condemning 
the  faith  of  Mahomet:  he  was  denounced  to  the  Turks  by  the 
Jesuits,  and  his  printing-press  was  suppressed. 


of  Greek  orthodoxy  against  Latin  heresy.  Theotokes,  famous 
as  a  preacher,  wrote,  besides  theological  and  controversial  works, 
treatises  on  mathematics,  geography  and  physics.  Bulgares 
was  a  most  prolific  author;  be  wrote  numerous  translations  and 
works  on  theology,  archaeology,  philosophy,  mathematics, 
physics  and  astronomy;  he  translated  the  Amdi  and  Georgics 
of  Virgil  into  Homeric  verse  at  the  request  of  Catherine  n.  His 
writings  exerdaed  a  considerable  influence  over  his  omtem- 
poraries. 

The  poets  of  the  earlier  period  of  the  Greek  r^val  were 
Constantinos  Rhigas  (7.9.),  the  Alcman  of  the  revolutionary 
movement,  whose  songs  fired  the  spirit  of  his  fellow-  ^_^_ 
countrymen;  Christopoulos  (i77a-i847),  a  Phanariote,  Jjj^jj^ 
who  wrote  some  charming  Anacreontics,  and  Jacobos  nHrat 
Rizos  Neroulos  (1778-1850),  also  a  Phanariote,  author 
of  tragedies,  comedies  and  lyrics,  and  of  a  work  in  French  on 
modern  Greek  literature.  They  are  followed  in  the  epoch  of 
Greek  independence  by  the  brothers  Panagiotes  and  Alexander 
Soutzos  (1800-1868  and  1803-1863)  and  Alexander  Rhizos 
Rhangabfe  (Rhankaves,  1810-1892),  all  three  Phanariotes.  Both 
Soutzos  had  a  rich  command  of  musical  language,  were  highly 
ideal  in  their  conceptions,  strongly  patriotic  and  possessed  an 
ardent  love  of  liberty.  Both  imitated  to  some  extent  Byron, 
Lamartine  and  Bdranger;  they  tried  various  forms  of  poetry, 
but  the  genius  of  Panagiotes  was  essentially  lyrical,  that  of 
Alexander  satirical.  The  other  great  poet  of  the  Greek  revival, 
Alexander  Rizos  RhangabC,  was  a  writer  with  a  fine  poetic 
feeling,  exqui^te  diction  and  singular  beauty  and  purity  of 
thought  and  sentiment.  Besides  numerous  odes,  hymns, 
ballads,  narrative  poems,  tragedies  and  comedies,  he  wrote 
several  prose  works,  including  a  history  of  andent  Greece,  a 
history  of  modem  Greek  literature,  several  novels  and  works  on 
ancient  art  and  archaeology.  Among  the  numerous  dramatic 
works  of  this  time  may  be  mentioned  the  Mopfa  ^o^trarp^  of 
Demetrios  Beroardakes,  a  Cretan,  the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in 
the  Morea  at  the  time  of  the  crusades. 

In  prose  composition,  as  in  poetry,  the  national  revival  was 
marked  by  an  abundant  output.  Among  the  historians  the 
greatest  is  Spiridon  Trikoupis,  whose  History  of  ike  pp^^ 
Revolution  is  a  monumental  work.  It  is  distinguished  wrkan 
by  beauty  of  style,  dearaess  of  exposition  and  an  •j^*** 
impartiality  which  is  all  the  more  remarkable  as  the  "** 
author  played  a  leading  part  in  the  events  which  he  narrates. 
Almost  all  the  chiefs  of  the  revolutionary  movement  left  their 
memoirs;  even  Kolokotrones,  who  was  illiterate,  dictated  his 
recollections.  John  Philemon,  of  Constantinople,  wrote  a  history 
of  the  revolution  in  six  volumes.  He  was  an  ardent  partisan 
of  Russia,  and  as  such  was  opposed  to  Trikoupis,  who  was 
attached  to  the  English  party.  K.  Paparrhegopoulos's  History 
of  the  Creek  Nation  is  especially  valuable  in  regard  to  the  later 
periods;  in  regard  to  the  earlier  he  largely  follows  Gibbon  and 
Grote.  With  him  may  be  mentioned  Moustoxides  of  Corfu, 
who  wrote  on  Greek  history  and  literature;  Sakellarios,  who 
dealt  with  the  topography  and  history  of  Cyprus;  N.  Dragoumes, 
whose  historical  memoirs  treat  of  the  period  which  followed 
the  revolution;  K.  Assopios,  who  wrote  on  Greek  literature 
and  history.  In  theology  Oeconomos  fills  the  place  occupied 
by  Miniates  in  the  x 7th  century  as  a  great  preacher.  Kontogones 
is  well  known  by  his  History  of  Patristic  Literature  of  tke  First 
Tkree  Centuries  and  his  Ecclesiastical  History,  and  Philotheos 
Bryennios,  bishop  of  Serres,  by  his  elaborate  edition  of  Clemens 
Romanus,  Kastorches  wrote  well  on  Latin  literature.  Great 
literary  activity  in  the  domains  of  law,  political  economy,  mathe- 
matics, the  physical  sdences  and  archaeology  di^laycd  itself 
in  the  generation  after  the  establishment  of  the  Greek  kingdom. 

But  the  writer  who  at  the  time  of  the  national  revival  not 
only  exercised  the  greatest  influence  over  his  contemporaries 
but  even  to  a  large  extent  shaped  the  future  course  cumit 
of  Greek  literature  was  Adamantios  CoraCs  (Korais) 
of  Chios.  This  remarkable  man,  who  devoted  his  life  to 
philological  studies,  was  at  the  same  time  an  ardent  patriot, 
and  in  the  prolegomena  to  his  numerous  editions  of  the  rlawiral 


526 


GREEK  LITERATURE 


{MODERN 


writers,  written  in  Greek  or  French,  be  strove  to  awake  the 
interest  of  bis  countrymen  in  the  past  Tories  of  their  race  or 
administered  to  them  sage  counsels,  at  the  same  time  addressing 
ardent  appeals  to  dvilixed  Europe  on  their  behalf.  The  great 
importance  of  Corals,  however,  lie^  in  the  fact  that  he  was 
practically  the  founder  of  the  modem  literary  language. 

In  contemporary  Greek  literature  two  distinct  forms  oi  t^ 
modem  language  present  themselves — the  vernacular  (A 
KoiontKovfiiF^)  and  the  purified  (^  KoBoLptimfaa). 
The  former  is  the  oral  language,  spoken  by  the  whole 
Greek  world,  with  local  dialectic  variations;  the 
latter  is  based  on  the  Greek  of  the  Hellenistic  writers, 
modified,  but  not  essentially  altered,  in  successive  ages  by  the 
popular  speech.  At  the  time  of  the  War  of  Independence  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Philhellenes  was  fired  by  the 
memory  of  an  illustrious  past,  and  at  its  close  a  classical  reaction 
follow^:  the  ancient  nomenclature  was  introduced  in  every 
department  of  the  new  state,  towns  and  districts  received  their 
former  names,  and  children  were  christened  after  Greek  heroes 
and  philosophers  instead  of  the  Christian  saints.  In  the  literary 
revival  which  attended  the  national  movement,  two  schools 
of  writers  made  their  appearance — the  purists,  who,  rejecting 
the  spoken  idiom  as  degenerate  and  oormpt,  aimed  at  the 
restoration  of  the  classical  language,  4uid  the  vulgarists,  who 
regarded  the  vernacular  or  "Romaic"  as  the  genuine  and 
legitimate  representative  of  the  ancient  tongue.  A  controversy 
which  had  existed  in  former  times  was  thus  revived,  with  the 
result  that  a  state  of  confusion  still  prevails  in  the  national 
literature.  The  classical  scholar  who  is  as  yet  unacquainted 
with  modem  Greek  will  find,  in  the  pages  of  an  ordinary  periodical 
or  newspaper,  specimens  of  the  conventional  literary  language 
which  he  can  read  with  ease  side  by  side  with  poems  or  even 
prose  in  the  vernacular  which  he  indll  be  altogether  unable  to 
interpret. 

The  vernacular  or  oral  language  is  never  taught,  but  is  univers- 
ally spoken.  It  has  been  evolved  from  the  ancient  language  by 
a  natural  and  regular  process,  similar  to  that  which 
has  produced  the  Romance  languages  from  the  Latin, 
or  the  Russian,  Bulgarian  and  Servian  from  the 
old  Slavonic.  It  has  developed  on  parallel  lines  with 
the  modem  European  languages,  and  in  obedience  to  the  same 
laws;  like  them,  it  might  have  grown  into  a  literary  language 
had  any  great  writers  arisen  in  the  middle  ages  to  do  for  it  what 
Dante  and  his  successors  of  the  trecento  did  for  Italian.  But 
the  effort  to  adapt  it  to  the  requirements  of  modem  literature 
could  hardly  prove  successful.  In  the  first  place,  the  national 
sentiment  of  the  Greeks  prompts  them  to  imitate  the  classical 
writers,  and  so  far  as  possible  to  appropriate  their  diction. 
The  beauty  and  dignity  of  the  ancient  tongue  possesses  such  an 
attraction  for  cultivated  writers  that  they  are  led  insensibly  to 
adopt  its  forms  and  borrow  from  its  wealth  of  phrase  and  idiom. 
In  the  next  place,  a  certain  literary  tradition  and  usage  has 
already  been  formed  which  cannot  easily  be  broken  down.  For 
more  than  half  a  century  the  generally  accepted  written  language, 
half  modem  half  ancient,  has  been  in  use  in  the  schools,  the 
university,  the  parliament,  the  state  departments  and  the 
pulpit,  and  its  influence  upon  the  speech  of  the  more  educated 
classes  is  already  noticeable.  It  largely  owes  its  present  form — 
though  a  fixed  standard  is  still  lacking — ^to  the  influence  and 
teaching  of  CoraSs.  As  in  the  time  of  the  decadence  a  itot»^ 
iidXcjcrot  stood  midway  between  the  classical  language  and  the 
popular  speech,  so  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  there 
existed  a  common  literary  dialect,  largely  influenced  by  the 
vernacular,  but  retaining  the  characteristics  of  the  old  Hellenistic, 
from  which  it  was  derived  by  an  unbroken  literary  tradition. 
This  written  language  CoraCs  took  as  the  basis  of  his  reforms, 
purging  it  of  foreign  eleinents,  preserving  its  classical  remnants 
and  enlarging  its  vocabulary  with  words  borrowed  from  the 
ancient  lexicon  or,  in  case  of  need,  invented  in  accordance  with 
a  fixed  principle.  He  thus  adopted  a  middle  course,  discounten- 
ancing alike  the  pedantry  of  the  purists  and  the  over-confident 
optimism  of  the  vulgarists,  who  found  in  the  uncouth  popular 


0/ 


speech  all  the  material  for  a  ImfM  MSiMfc  Hie  tankage 
which  he  thus  endeavoured  to  shape  and  reconstruct  is,  of 
course,  conventional  and  artifidaL  In  course  of  time  it  viO 
probably  tend  to  approach  the  vernacular,  while  tlw  Utter 
will  gradually  be  modified  by  the  spread  of  education.  The 
spokni  and  written  languages,  however,  will  always  be  separated 
by  a  wide  intervaL 

Many  of  the  best  poets  of  modem  Greece  have  writtenm  the 
vemacular,  which  is  best  adapted  for  the  natural  and  spontaneous 
expression  of  the  feelings.  Dionysios  Solomos  (179&- 
1857),  the  greatest  of  them  all,  employed  the  dialect 
of  the  Ionian  Islands.  Of  his  lyrics,  which  are  full  of 
poetic  fire  and  inspiration,  the  most  celebrated  is  hit 
"  Ode  to  Liberty."  Other  poets,  of  what  may  be 
described  as  the  Ionic  school,  sudi  as  Andreas  Kalvos  (1796- 
1869),  Julius  Typaldos  (X814-X883),  John  Zampelios  (x  787-1856), 
and  GerasimoB  Markoras  (b.  1826),  followed  hn  example  in 
using  the  Heptanesian  dialect.  On  the  othe^  hand,  Georgios 
Tenetcs  (1806-1874),  Aristotle  Valaorites  (x8a4-x879)  and 
Gerasimos  Mavrogisnnes,  though  natives  of  tlw  Ionian  Island^ 
'adopted  in  their  lyrics  the  language  of  the  KJephtic  ballads— 
in  other  words,  the  vemacular  of  the  Pindus  range  and  the 
mountainous  district  of  .Epirus.  This  dialect  had  at  least  ihc 
advantage  of  being  generally  current  throughout  the  mainland, 
while  it  derived  distinction  from  the  heroic  exploits  of  the 
champions  of  Greek  liberty^  Thepoemsof  Valaorites,  which  aie 
characterized  by  vivid  imagination  and  gran  of  style,  have  najdt 
a  deep  impression  on  the  nation.  Other  poets  who  largely 
employed  the  Epirotic  dialect  and  drew  their  inspiration  from 
the  Klephtic  songs  were  John  Vilaraa  (x  771-1823),  George 
Zalokostas  (1805-1857)  in  his  lyric  pieces,  and  Theodore  Aphen- 
toulcs,  a  Cretan  (d.  1893).  With  the  poems  of  this  group  may 
be  classed  those  of  Demetrius  Bikelas  (b.  1835).  The  popnlar 
language  has  been  generally  adopted  by  the  younger  generatioa 
of  poets,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Aristomcnes  Frobdegiot 
(b.*i85o),  George  Bizyenos  (1853-1896),  George  Drosinea,  Kostes 
Palamas  (b.  1859),  John  PoUmes,  Axgyres  Bpii^tnlifttes,  and 
Jacob  PolyUs  (d.  1896). 

Contemporary  with  the  first-mentioned  or  look  group,  there 
existed  at  Constantinople  a.  school  of  poets  who  wrote  in  the 
accepted  literary  language,  and  whose  writings  serve 
as  models  for  the  later  group  which  gathered  at  Athens 
after  the  emancipation  of  Greece.  The  literary 
traditions  founded  by  Alexander  Risos  Rhangabb 
(X8XO-X892)  and  th^  brothers  Alexander  and  Fanagiotis 
Soutaos  (1803-1863  and  x8oo-x868),  who  bebnged 
to  Fhaiuuiot  families,  were  maintained  in  Athens  by  Spiridioo 
Basiliades  (1843-1874)  AngekM  Vlachos  (b.  X838),  John  Kaa- 
soutzas  (1824-1873),  Demetrios  Paparrhegopoulos  (X843-1873), 
and  Achilles  Paraschos  (b.  1838).  The  last,  a  poet  of  fine  fceliog, 
has  also  employed  the  popular  language.  In  general  the  prsctioe 
of  versification  in  the  conventional  literary  language  has  declined, 
though  sedulously  encouraged  by  the  university  of  Athens,  and 
fostered  by  annual  poetic  competitions  with  prises  provided  by 
patriotic  citizens.  Greek  lyric  poetry  during  the  first  half  df 
the  century  was  mainly  in^ired  by  the  patriotic  sentiment 
aroused  by  the  stmggle  for  independence,  but  In  the  present 
generation  it  often  shows  a  tendency  tomds  the  philosiHihic 
and  contemplative  mood  under  the  influence  of  Western  modeb. 

There  has  been  an  abundant  production  of  dramatic  literature 
in  recent  years.  In  succession  to  Alexander  RhangabCs,  John 
Zampelios  and  the  two  Soutzos,  who  belong  to  the 
past  generation,  Kleon  RhangabCs,  Angdos  Vlachot, 
Demetrios  Koromelas,  Basfliades  and  Bemadakes 
are  the  most  prominent  among  modem  dramatic 
writers.  Numerous  translations  of  foreign  master- 
pieces have  appeared,  among  which  the  metrical  versions  of 
Rtmeo  and  Jvlut,  OtheOc,  King  Lear,  BamUi,  Maddk  and  The 
Merchant  of  Venice,  by  Demetrios  Bikdas,  deserve  mcntkm  as 
examples  of  artistic  excellence.  Goethe's  Fniul  has  beea 
rendered  into  verse  by  Probdegios,  and  HamUt,  Antony  end 
Cleopatra,  Coriolanus  tuid  Julius  Caotar,  into  prose  by  Damiroles. 


GREEK  RELIGION 


527 


Among  recent  satirists,  George  Soures  (b.  1853)  occupies  a  unique 
position.  He  reviews  social  and  political  events  in  the  'Pufi^oc, 
a  witty  little  newspaper  written  entirely  in  verse,  which  is  read 
with  delight  by  all  classes  of  the  population. 

Almost  all  the  prose  writers  have  employed  the  literary 

language.    In  historical  research  the  Greeks  continue  to  display 

much  activity  and  erudition,  but  no  great  work 

comparable  to  Spiridion  Trikoupis's  History  of  the 

Rg9olutum  has  appeared  in  the  present  generatioiL 

A  history  of  the  Greek  nation  from  the  earliest  times 

to  the  present  day,  by  Spiridion  Lampros,  and  a  general  history 

of  the  zpth  century  by  Karolides,  have  recently  l^n  published. 

The  valuable  Mmj/ccca  of  Sathas,  the  ficX^ot  Bvj'oiru'qt  laropita 

of  Spiridion  Zampelios  and  Mavrogiannes's  History  of  the 

lomoM  Islands  deserve  special  mention,  as  well  as  the  essays 

of  Bikelas,  which  treat  of  the  Byzantine  and  modem  epochs  of 

Greek  history.    Some  of  tbe  last-named  were  translated  into 

Engliah  by  the  late  marquis  of  Bute.    Among  the  writers  on 

jurisprudence  are  Peter  Paparrhegbpoulos,  Kalligas,  Basileios 

Oekonomedes  and  Nikolaos  Saripolos.    Brailas-Armenes  and 

John  Skaltaounes,  the  latter  an  opponent  of  Darwin,  have 

written  philosophical  works.    The  JScclesiastical  History  of 

Diomedes  Kyriakos  and  the  Tkeohgieal  Treatises  of  Archbishop 

Latas  should  be  noted.    The  best-known  writers  of  philologiod 

works  are  Constantine  Kontos,  a  strong  advocate  of  literary 

purism,  George  Hatzidakes,  Theodore  Papademetrakopoulos 

and  John  Psichari;  in  archaeology,  Stephen  Koumanoudes, 

Panagjotes  Kawadias  and  Christos  Tsountas  have  won  a 

rrrognisfd  position  among  scholars.    John  Svoronos  is  a  high 

authority  on  numismatics.    The  works  of  John  Hatzidakes 

on   mathematics,   Anast.    Christomanos  on   chemistry,   and 

0emetrio8  Aeginetes  on  astronomy  are  well  known. 

The  earlier  works  of  fiction,  written  in  the  period  succeeding 
the  emancipation  of  Greece,  were  much  affected  by  foreign 
fTlflP,  influence.  Modem  Greece  has  dot  produced  any  great 
novelist.  The  Kpnrniaol  yiiiMi  of  Spiridion  Zampelios, 
the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  Crete,  and  the  Tkanos  Bleckas 
of  KalHgst  are  interesting,  the  former  for  accuracy  of 
historical  detail,  the  latter  as  a  picture  of  peasant  life  in  the 
mountains  of  Greece.  Original  novel  writing  has  not  been  much 
cultivated,  but  translations  of  foreign  romances  abound.  In 
later  times  the  short  story  has  come  into  vogue  through  the 
example  of  D.  Bikelas,  whose  tales  have  acquired  great  popu- 
larity; one  of  them,  Loukis  Loras,  has  been  translated  into 
many  languages.  The  example  of  Bikelas  has  been  followed  by 
Drosines  Karkavitzas,  Ephthaliotis,  Xenopoulos  and  many 
others. 

The  most  distinguished  of  the  writers  who  adhere  to  the 
vernacular  in  prose  is  John  Psichari,  professor  of  the  £cole  des 
Hautes  £tudes  in  Paris.  He  is  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  vulgarists.  Among  the  best  known  of  his  works 
are  Td  ri^tU  yaOf  a  narrative  of  a  joumey  in  Greek 
lands,  T&«po  rw  TiaMpni,  *H  Zo6Xea,  and  6  Wljois. 
The  tales  of  Karkavitzas  and  Ephthaliotis  are  also  in 
tbe  vernacular.  Among  the  younger  of  M.  Psichari's  followers 
is  M.  Palli,  who  has  recently  published  a  translation  of  the  Iliad, 
Owing  to  the  limited  resources  of  the  popular  language,  the 
writers  of  this  school  are  sometimes  compelled  to  employ  strange 
and  little-known  words  borrowed  from  the  various  dialects. 
The  vernacular  has  never  been  adopted  by  writers  on  scientific 
subjects,  owing  to  its  inherent  unsuitability  and  the  incongruity 
arising  from  the  introduction  of  technical  terms  derived  from 
the  ancient  language.  Notwithstanding  the  zeal  of  its  adherents, 
it  seems  unlikdy  to  maintain  its  place  in  literature  outside  the 
domain  of  poetry;  nor  can  any  other  result  be  expected,  unless 
its  advocates  succeed  in -reforming  the  system  of  public  instruc- 
tion in  Greece. 

Many  periodicals  are  published  at  Athens,  among  which 
tMy  be  mentioned  the  Athena^  edited  by  Constantine  Kontos, 
the  Eikniki  Agoge^  a  Continuation  of  the  old  Hestid,  the 
Harmcnia  and  the  ^UlvKoou  tuv  raiiuv,  an ,  educational 
review. .  Tbe  Pamassos,  the  Archaeological  Society  and  other 


learned  bodies  issue  annual  or  quarterly  reports.  The  Greek 
journals  are  both  numerous  and  widely  read.  They  contain 
much  clever  writing,  which  is  often  marred  by  inac- 
curacy and  a  deficient  sense  of  responsibility.  Their  ^^^^ 
tendency  to  exaggerated  patriotic  sentiment  sometimes  SSLy 
borders  on  the  ludicrous.  For  many  years  the  Nea 
Hemira  of  Trieste  exerted  a  considerable  influence  over  the  Greek 
world,  owing  to  the  able  political  reviews  of  its  editor,  Anastasios 
Byzantios  (d.  1898),  a  publicist  of  remarkable  insight  and 
judgment. 

Authorities.— ConsUntinc  Sathas,N«o<XXi|n<4  ^XoXoyfaCAthens, 
1868);  D.  Bikelas,  n«y>l  Pw>Xv^u^f^ika\oylntoKlfuc¥(London,  1871), 
reprinted  in  AMX^^tttccU  4y«fiy4<rc(f  (Athens.  1893);  J.  S.  Blackie, 
Horae  HdUnicat  (London,  1874);  R*  Nicolai,  Ccsckiche  der  neutrie- 
ckisduH  Literatur  (Leipsig,  1876);  A.  R.  Rhangabd, //tstotVe  litti- 
raire  do  la  Grkco  modenu  (Paris,  1877);  C.  Cidcl,  Etudes  sur  la 
lilttratmre  pecquo  modenu  (Paris,  1878);  E.  Legrand.  Bibliothbque 
grecqiu  jnOgaire  (vol.  t.,  Paris,  1880);  J.  Lafflber,  Pontes  pecs  con' 
lemporains  (Paris,  1881);  Kontos,  rXbaovundvaaarwintut  (Athens, 
1882);  Rhan^b6  and  Sanders,  Cesckichte  aer  neupieckischen 
Literatur  von  tkren  Anfdnien  bis  avf  die  neuesle  Zeit  (Leipzig,  1885) ; 
J.  Psichari,  Essais  de  grmnmaire  kistorique  n6o-iruque  (Ji  vols., 
Paris,  1886  and  1889);  Etudes  do  pkilOotie  nio-grecque  (Paris, 
1802);  F.  Blass,  Die  Ausspracke  des  Criecktscken  (3rd  ed.,  Berlin, 
1888);  Papademetrakopoulos,  Bd^oiot  AXXjindft  rpo^op&t  (Athens. 
1880) ;  M.  Konstantinides,  Neo-kellenica  (Diiilogues  in  Modern  Creek, 
wUk  Appendix  on  the  Cypriot  Dialect)  (London,  1893);  Rholdcs, 
Td  YUulKfu  T\ucn»^  tttXkni  (Athens,  1893);  Polites,  McXcroi  rtpl  reu 
/Hov  Kol  T^  YXWffiTt  'EXXirnxov  Xiov  (2  vols.,  Athens,  1899). 

For  the  Klephtic  ballads  and  folk-songs:  C.  Fauricl,  Chants 
fop>ulaires  de  la  Crlce  moderne  (Paris,  1824,  1826);  Passow,  Potu- 
laria  carmina  Craeciae  recentioris  (Leipzig,  i860);  von  Hann, 
Grieckiscke  und  albanesiuke  Mdrchen  (Leipzig,  1864);  Tc^aplait, 
AioMrrf  ArovSa  (3nd  ed.,  Athens,  1868) ;  E.  Legrand,  Recueilde chansons 
poptJaires  grecques  (Paris,  1874) ;  Kecueil  de  conies  populaires  grecs 
(Paris,  1881);  Paul  de  Lagardc,  Neugrieckisches  aus  Kleinasien 
(Gdttinecn,  1886);  A.  Jannaris,  'Aeiiaf.  KfinirucA  (Kreta's  VdkS' 
lieder)  (Leipzig,  1876);  A.  Sakcllariou,  Td  Kvwpiwtk  (Athens, 
1891);  Zuypa^ot  'At^,  published  by  the  'EXXipw^  '(^XoKayuit 
viXXoyoc  (Constantinople,  1891).  Translations:  L.  Garnett, Grrri 
Folksongs  from  tke  Turkish  Provinces  of  Creeu  (London,  1885): 
E.  M .  Ccldartf  Folklore  of  Modem  Crewe  (London,  1 884).    Lexicons : 


A.  N.  Jannans,  A  Concise  Dictionary  of  the  English  and  Modern 


S.  Koumanoudes.  ZvraTwv^  i>iwr  Xi^Mw  (Athens,  1900).  Grammars : 
Mitsotakes,  Praktiscke  Crammaiik  der  neurriecktseken  Sckrift-  und 
Umganessprache  (Stuttgart,  1891);  M.  Gardner,  A  Practical  Modem 
Greek  Grammar  (London,  1892)^  G.  N.  Hatzidakes,  Einleitung  in 
die  neugrieckiscke  Grammatik  (Leipzig,  1892);  E.  Vincent  and  T.  G. 
Dickson,  Handbook  to  Modem  Creek  (JLondon,  1893):  A.  Thumb, 
Handbnck  der  neugrieckiscken  Volkssfmuko  ^dassburg,  1895); 
C.  Wied,  Die  Kunst  der  neugrieckiscken  VoUtsspraaie  durck 
Selbstunterrickt  scknell  und  leickt  mu  lernen  (2nd  ed.,  undalcd, 
Vienna):  A.  N.  Jannaris^  Historical  Greek  Grammar  -(London, 
1897).  a.  D.  B.) 

GREEK  RELIGION.  The  recent  development  of  anthropo- 
logical science  and  of  the  .comparative  study  of  religions  has 
enabled  us  at  last  to  assign  to  ancient  Greek  religion  its  proper 
place  in  the  classification  of  creeds  and  to  appreciate  its  import- 
ance for  the  history  of  civilization.  In  spite  of  all  the  diversities 
of  local  cults  we  may  find  a  general  definition  of  the  theological 
system  of  the  Hellenic  communities,  and  with  suflicient  accuracy 
may  describe  it  as  an  anthropomorphic  polytheism,  preserving 
many  traces  of  a  pre-anthropomoiphic  period,  unchecked  by 
any  exacting  dogma  or  tradition  of  revelation,  and  therefore 
pliantly  adapting  itself  to  all  the  changing  circumstance  of  the 
social  and  poh'tiod  history  of  the  race,  and  easily  able  to  assimilate 
alien  ideas  and  forms.  Such  a  religion,  continuing  in  whole  or 
in  part  throughout  a  period  of  at  least  2000  years,  was  more 
capable  of  progress  than  others,  possibly  higher,  that  have 
crystallized  at  an  early  period  into  a  fixed  dogmatic  type;  and 
as,  owing  to  its  essential  character,  it  could  not  be  convulsed 
by  any  inner  revolution  that  might  obliterate  the  deposits  of 
its  earUer  life,  It  was  likely  to  preserve  the  imprints  of  the  succes- 
sive ages  of  culture,  and  to  reveal  more  clearly  than  any  other 
testimony  the  evolution  of  the  race  from  savagery  (o  civilization, 
lience  it  is  that  Greek  reb'gion  appears  to  teem  with  incongruities, 
the  highest  forms  of  religious  life  being  often  confronted  with  the 
most  primitive.    And  for  this  reason  the  student  of  savage 


528 


GREEK  RELIGION 


anthropology  and  the  student  of  the  higher  religions  of  the 
irorld  are  equally  rewarded  by  its  study. 

Modern  ethnology  has  arrived  at  the  conviction  that  the 
Hellenic  nation,  like  others  that  have  played  great  parts  in 
history,  was  the  product  of  a  blend  of  populations,  the  conquering 
tribes  of  Aryan  descent  coming  from  the  north  and  settling  among 
and  upon  certain  pre-Hellenic  Mediterranean  stocks.  The  conclu- 
sion that  is  naturally  drawn  from  this  is  that  Hellenic  religion 
is  also  the  product  of  a  blend  of  early  Aryan  or  Indo-Germanic 
beliefs  with  the  cult-ideas  and  practices  of  the  Mediterranean 
area  that  were  from  of  old  indigenous  in  the  lands  which  the 
later  invaders  conquered.  But  to  disentangle  these  tw6  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  whole,  which  might  seem  to  be  the  first 
problem  for  the  history  of  the  development  of  this  religion,  is 
by  no  means  an  easy  task;  tire  may  advance  further  towards 
its  solution,  when  the  mysterious  pre-Hellcnic  Mediterranean 
language  or  group  of  languages,  of  which  traces  remain  in 
Hellenic  place-names,  and  which  may  be  lying  uninterpreted 
on  the  brick-tablets  of  the  palace  of  Cnossus,  has  found  its 
interpreter.  For  the  first  question  Is  naturally  one  of  language. 
But  the  comparative  study  of  the  Indo-European  speech-group, 
great  as  its  philological  triumphs  have  been,  has  been  meagre 
in  its  contributions  to  our  positive  knowledge  of  the  original 
belief  of  the  primitive. stock.  It  is  not  possible  to  reconstruct 
a  common  Indo-European  religion.  The  greater  part  of  the 
separate  Aryan  cult-systems  may  have  developed  after  the 
diffusion  and  may  have  been  the  result  of  contact  in  prehistoric 
days  with  non-Aryan  peoples.  And  many  old  religious  etymo- 
logical equations,  such  as  0^pay65»  Sanskrit  Varuna,  'Ep/<^s= 
Sarameyas,  Athena  ^Ahana,  y/cre  uncritically  made  and  have 
bcei\  abandoned.  The  chief  fact  that  philology  has  revealed 
concerning  the  religious  vocabulary  of  the  Aryan  peoples  is  that 
many  of  them  are  found  to  have  designated  a  high  god  by  a  word 
derived  from  a  root  meaning  "  bright,"  and  which  appears  in 
Zeus,  Jupiter,  Sanskrit  Dyaus.  This  is  important  enough, 
but  we  should  not  exaggerate  its  importance,  nor  draw  the 
unwarranted  inference  that  therefore  the  primitive  Indo- 
Europeans  worshipped  one  supreme  God,  the  Sky-Father. 
Besides  the  word  "  Zeus,"  the  only  other  names  of  the  Hellenic 
pantheon  that  can  be  explained  wholly  or  partly  as  words  of 
Aryan  formation  are  Poseidon,  Demeter,  Hestia,  Dionysus 
(whose  name  and  cult  were  derived  from  the  Aryan  stock  of  the 
Thraco-Phrygians)  and  probably  Pan.  But  other  names,  such 
as  Athena,  Ares,  Apollo,  Artemis,  Hera,  Hermes,  have  no 
discovered  affinities  with  other  Aryan  speech-groups;  and  yet 
there  is  nothing  suspiciously  non-Aryan  in  the  formation  of  these 
words,  and  they  may  all  have  belonged  to  the  earliest  Hellenic- 
Aryan  vocabulary.  In  regard  to  others,  such  as  Rhea, 
Hephaestus  and  Aphrodite,  it  is  somewhat  more  probable  that 
they  belonged  to  an  older  pre-Hellenic  stock  that  survived  in 
Crete  and  other  islands,  and  here  and  there  on  the  mainland; 
while  we  know  that  Zeus  derived  certain  unintelligible  titles 
in  Cretan  cult  from  the  indigenous  Eteo-cretan  speech. 

A  minute  consideration  of  a  large  mass  of  evidence  justifies 
the  conclusion  that  the  main  tribes  of  the  Aryan  Hellenes, 
pushing  down  from  the  north,  already  possessed  certain  deities 
in  common  such  as  Zeus,  Poseidon  and  Apollo  with  whom  they 
associated  certain  goddesses,  and  that  they  maintained  the  cult 
of  Hestia  or  "  Holy  Hearth."  Further,  a  comparison  of  the 
developed  religions  of  the  respective  Aryan  peoples  .suggests 
that  they  tended  to  give  predominance  to  the  male  divinity, 
although  we  have  equally  good  reason  to  assert  that  the  cult  of 
goddesses,  and  especially  of  the  earth-goddess,  is  a  genuinely 
"  Aryan  "  product.  But  when  the  tribes  of  this  family  poured 
into  the  Greek  peninsula,  it  is  probable  that  they  would  find 
in  certain  centres  of  a  very  ancient  civilization,  such  as  Argolls 
and  Crete,  the  dominant  cult  of  a  female  divinity.*    The  recent 

^This  has  often  been  explained  as  a  result  of  MuUerrechtt  or 
reckoning  'descent  through  the  female:  for  reasons  against  this 
hypothesis  see  L.  R.  FamcU  in  Archw  fur  verfjlekhende  Relitums- 
wisseruchaft  (1904) ;  cf.  A.  J.  Evans,  "  Mycenaean  Tree  and  Pillar 
Cult."  in  Jowm.  ojBelknic  Studies  (1901). 


excavations  on  the  site  of  the  Hera  temple  at  Argos  prove  that  a 
powerful  goddess  was  worshipped  here  many  centuries  before  it 
is  probable  that  the  Hellenic  invad^  appeared.  He  may  have 
even  found  the  name  Hera  there,  or  may  have  brought  it  vitfa 
him  and  applied  it  to  the  indigenous  divinity.  Again,  we  are 
certain  that  the  great  mother-goddess  of  Crete,  discovered  by 
Dr  Arthur  Evans,  is  the  ancestress  of  Rhea  and  of  the  Greek 
"  Mother  of  the  gods  ":  and  it  is  a  reasonable  conjecture  that 
she  accounts  for  many  of  the  forms  of  Artemis  and  perhaps  for 
Athena.  But  the  evidence  by  no  means  warrants  us  in  assuming 
as  an  axiom  that  wherever  we  find  a  dominant  goddess-cull, 
as  that  of  Demeter  at  Eleusis,  we  are  confronted  with  a  non- 
Hellenic  religious  phenomenon.  The  very  name  "  Demeter " 
and  the  study  of  other  Aryan  religions  prove  the  prominence 
of  the  worship  of  the  earth-goddess  in  our  own  family  oi  the 
nations.  Finally,  we  must  reckon  with  the  possibility  that  the 
other  great  nations  which  fringed  the  Mediterranean,  Hittite, 
Semitic  and  Egyptian  peoples,  left  their  impress  on  early  Gred: 
religion,  although  former  scholars  may  have  made  rash  use  of 
this  hypothesis.* 

Recognizing  then  the  great  perplexity  of  these  problems 
concerning  the  ethnic  origins  of  Hellenic  religion,  we  may  at 
least  reduce  tfie  tangle  of  facts  to  some  order  by  ^-._.-^ 
distinguishing  its  lower  from  its  higher  forms,  and 
thus  provide  the  material  for  some  theory  of  evolution.  We 
may  collect  and  sift  the  phenomena  that  remain  over  from  a 
pre-anthropomorphic  period,  the  imprints  of  a  savage  past, 
the  beliefs  and  practices  that  belong  to  the  animistic  or  even  the 
pre-animistic  period,  fetishism,  the  worship  of  animals,  human 
sacrifice.  We  shall  at  once  be  struck  with  the  contrast  between 
such  civilized  cults  as  those  of  Zeus,  Athena,  Apollo,  high  personal 
divinities  to  whom  the  attributes  of  a  progre^ve  morality  could 
be  attached,  and  practices  that  long  survived  in  backward 
communities,  such  as  the  Arcadian  worship  of  the  thunder  and 
the  winds,  the  cult  of  Zeus  Ktfioupiis  "  the  thunder  "  at  Manti^ea 
and  Zeus  Karruras  in  Laconia,  who  is  none  other  than  the 
mysterious  meteoric  stone  that  falls  from  heaven.  These 
are  examples  of  a  religious  view  in  which  certain  natural  pheno- 
mena or  objects  are  regarded  as  mysteriously  divine  or  sacxed 
in  their  own  right  and  a  personal  divinity  has  not  yet  emerged 
or  been  separated  from  them.  A  noteworthy  product  of  primitive 
animistic  feeling  is  the  universally  prevalent  ctxlt  fd  Hestia, 
who  is  originally  "  Holy  Hearth  "  pure  and  simple,  and  who 
even  under  the  developed  polytheism,  in  which  she  played  no 
small  part,  was  never  established  as  a  separate  anthropomorphic 
personage. 

The  animistic  belief  that  certain  material  objects  can  be 
charged  with  a  divine  potency  or  spirit  gives  rise  to  fetishian, 
a  term  which  properly  denotes  the  worshipful  or 
superstitious  use  of  objects  made  by  art  and  invested 
with  mysterious  power,  so  as  to  be  used  like  amulets  for 
the  purposes  of  protective  magic  or  for  higher  purp(»es  of 
communion  with  the  divinity.  From  the  earliest  discoverable 
period  down  to  the  present  day  fetishism  has  been  a  powerful 
factor  in  the  religion  of  the  Graeco-Roman  world.  The  import- 
ance of  the  sacred  stone  and  pillar  in  the  "Mycenaean"  or 
"  Minoan  "  perio<f  which  preceded  Homer  has  been  impressively 
shown  by  Dr  Arthur  Evans,  and  the  same  fetishistic  worship 
continued  throughout  the  historic  ages  of  classic  paganism,  the 
rude  aniconic  emblem  of  pillar  or  tree-trunk  surviving  oftea 
by  the  side  of  the  iconic  masterpiece.  It  is  a  reasonable  oin- 
jecture  that  the  earliest  anthropomorphic  images  of  divinities, 
which  were  beginning  to  make  their  appearance  by  the  time  of 
Homer,  were  themselves  evolved  by  ^ow  transformation  fnan 
the  upright  sacred  column.  And  ^e.  alt&r  itself  may  have 
arisen  as  another  form  of  this;  the  simple  heap  of  agones,  vadi 

*  V.  B^rd  has  recently  revived  tde  discredited  theory  et  a 
prevalent  Phoenician  influence  in  his  ingenious  but  uncritkal 
work,  L' Origin*  des  cuiUs  arcadinu.  M.  r.  Foucart  believes,  <a 
very  early  borrowinjs  from  Egypt,  as  explainine  much  in  the  idiiptn 
of  Demeter  and  Dionysus;  see  Lu  Craads  JmysArts  d^&ktuis M^ 
Li  CuUe  d«  Dionysos  en  Attiqi$€.' 


GREEK  RELIGION 


529 


as  those  erected  to  Hermes  by  the  way-side  and  called  'Ep^atM 
X6^,  may  have  served  both  as  a  place  of  worship  and  as  an 
agalma  that  could  attract  and  absorb  a  divine  potency  into 
itself.  Hence  the  fetishistic  power  of  the  altar  was  fully 
recognized  in  Greek  ritual,  and  hence  also  in  the  cult  of 
Apollo  Agyieus  the  god  and  the  altar  are  called  by  the  .same 
name. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  ancestors  of  the  historic  Greeks, 
before  they  were  habituated  to  conceive  of  their  divinities  as  in 
human  form,  may  have  been  accustomed  to  invest  them  with 
animal  attributes  and  traits.  We  must  net  indeed  suppose  it 
to  be  a  general  law  of  religious  evolution  that "  theriomorphism  " 
must  always  precede  anthropomorphism  and  that  the  latter 
transcends  and  obliterates  the  former.  The  two  systems  can 
exist  side  by  side,  and  savages  of  low  religious  development  can 
conceive  of  their  deities  as  assuming  at  one  time  human,  at 
another  bestial,  shape.  Now  the  developed  Greek  religion  was 
devotedly  anthropomorphic,  and  herein  lay  its  strength  and  its 
weakness;  nevertheless,  the  advanced  Hellene  could  imagine 
his  Dionysus  entering  temporarily  into  the  body  of  the  sacrificial 
bull  or  goat,  and  the  men  of  Phigalia  in  Arcadia  were  attached  to 
their  horse-headed  Demeter,  and  the  primitive  Laconians 
possibly  to  a  ram-headed  Apollo.  Theriolatry  in  itself,  i.e.  the 
worship  of  certain  animals  as  of  divine  power  in  their  own  right, 
apart  from  any  association  with  higher  divinities,  can  scarcely 
be  traced  among  the  Greek  communities  at  any  period.  They 
are  not  found  to  have  paid  reverence  to  any  species,  though 
individual  animals  could  acquire  temporarily  a  divine  character 
through  communion  with  the  altar  or  with  the  god.  The  wolf 
ought  at  one  time  have  been  regarded  as  the  incarnation  of 
Apollo,  the  wolf-god,  and  here  and  there  we  find  faint  traces  of 
a  wolf-sacrifice  and  of  offerings  laid  out  for  wolves.  But  the 
occasional  propitiation  of  wild  beasts  may  fall  short  of  actual 
worship.  The  Athenian  who  slew  a  wolf  might  give  it  a  sumpt  u- 
ous  funeral,  probably  to  avoid  a  blood-feud  with  the  wolf's 
relatives,  yet  the  Athenian  state  offered  rewards  for  a  wolf's 
bead.  Nor  did  any  Greek  individual  or  state  worship  flics  as  a 
class,  although  a  small  oblation  might  be  thrown  to  the  flics 
before  the  great  sacrifice  to  Apollo  on  the  Leucadian  rock,  to 
please  them  and  to  persuade  them  not  to  worry  the  worshippers 
at  the  great  solemnity,  where  the  reek  of  roast  flesh  would  be 
likely  to  attract  them. 

Theriolatry  suggests  totemism;  and  though  we  now  know 
that  the  former  can  arise  and  exist  quite  indepehdently  of  the 

^^ Utter,  recent  anthropologists  have  interpreted  the 

^y*  apparent  sanctity  or  prestige  of  certain  animals  in 
parts  of  Greek  mythology  and  religion  as  the  deposit 
of  an  earlier  totemistic  systenL  But  this  interpretation, 
originated  and  maintained  with  great  acumen  by  Andrew  Lang 
and  W.  Robertson  Smith,  appears  now  somewhat  hazardous; 
and  as  a  scientific  hypothesis  there  are  many  flaws  in  it.  The 
more  observant  study  of  existing  totem-tribes  has  weakened 
our  impression  of  the  importance  of  totemism  as  a  primitive 
rdigious  phenomenon.  It  is  in  reality  more  important  as  a 
aocial  than  as  a  religious  factor.  If  indeed  we  choose  to  regard 
totemism  as  a  mere  system  of  nomenclature,  by  which  a  tribe 
names  itself  after  some  animal  or  plant,  then  we  might  quote  a 
few  examples  of  Hellenic  tribes  totemistic  in  this  sense.  But 
totemism  is  a  fact  of  importance  only  when  it  affects  the  tribal 
marriage  laws  or  the  tribal  religion.  And  the  tribal  marriage 
Jaws  of  ancient  Greece,  so  far  as  they  are  known,  betray  no  dear 
mark  of  totemistic  arrangements;  nor  does  the  totemism  of 
contemporary  savages  appear  to  affect  their  religion  in  any  such 
way  as  to  suggest  a  natural  explanation  for  any  of  the  peculiar 
phenomena  of  early  Hellenic  polytheism.  Here  and  there  we 
have  traces  of  a  snake-tribe  in  Greece,  the  'O^tcir  in  Aetolia, 
the  *0^toyfPt!i  in  Cyprus  and  Parium,  but  we  are  not  told  that 
these  worshipped  the  snake,  though  the  latter  clan  were  on  terms 
of  intimacy  with  it.  Where  the  snake  was  actually  worshipped 
in  Hellenic  cult — the  cases  arc  few  and  doubtful— it  may  have 
been  regarded  as  the  incarnation  of  the  ancestor  or  as  the  avatar 
of  the  under-world  divinity. 
xn  9* 


IflM 


Finally,  among  the  primitive  or  savage  phenomena  the 
practice  of  human  sacrifice  looms  large.  Encouraged  at  one 
time  by  the  Delphic  orade,  it  was  becoming  rare  and 
repellent  to  the  consdence  by  the  6th  century  B.C.; 
but  it  was  not  wholly  extinct  in  the  Greek  world  even 
by  the  time  of  Porphyry.  The  facts  are  very  complex 
and  need  critical  handling,  and  a  satisfying  sdentlfic  explanation 
of  them  all  is  still  to  be  sought. ' 

We  can  now  observe  the  higher  aspects  of  the  advanced 
pdytheism.  And  at  the  outset  we  must  distinguish  between 
mythology  and  religion  strictly  understood,  between  the  stories 
about  the  divinities  and  the  private  or  public  religious  service. 
No  doubt  the  former  are  often  a  reflection  of  the  latter,  in  many 
cases  being  suggested  by  the  ritual  which  they  may  have  been 
invented  to  interpret,  and  often  envisaging  important  cult-idcas. 
Such  for  example  are  the  myths  about  the  purification  and  trial 
of  Orestes,  Theseus,  Ixion,  the  story  of  Dcmeter's  sorrow,  of  the 
sufferings  and  triumph  of  Dionysus,  and  those  about  the  abolition 
of  human  sacrifice.  Yet  Greek  mythology  as  a  whole  was  irre- 
sponsible, without  reserve,  and  unchecked  by  dogma  or  sacerdotal 
prohibition;  and  frequently  it  sank  below  the  level  of  the 
current  religion,  which  was  almost  free  from  the  impurities 
which  shock  the  modem  reader  of  Hellenic  myths.  Nor  again 
did  any  one  fed  himself  called  upon  to  believe  any  particular 
myth;  in  fact,  faith,  understood  in  the  sense  in  which  the  term 
is  used  in  Christian  theology,  as  the  will  to  bdieve  certain 
dogmatic  statements  about  the  nature  and  action  of  divinily, 
is  a  concept  which  was  neither  named  nor  recognized  in  Hellenic 
ethics  or  religious  doctrine;  only,  if  a  man  prodatmed  his 
disbelief  in  the  existence  of  the  gods  and  refused  to  join  in  the 
ritual  of  the  community,  he  would  become  "suspect,"  and 
might  at  times  be  persecuted  by  his  fellows.  Greek  religion 
was  not  so  much  an  affair  of  doctrine  as  of  ritual,  rch'gious 
formulae  of  which  the  cult-titles  of  the  divinities  were  an  im- 
portant component,  and  prayer;  and  the  most  illuminative 
sources  of  our  knowledge  of  it  are  the  ritual-inscriptions  and 
other  state-documents,  the  private  dedications,  the  monuments 
of  religious  art  and  certain  passages  in  the  literature,  philology 
and  archaeology  being  equally  necessary  to  the  equipment  of 
the  student. 

We  are  tempted  to  turn  to  Homer  as  the  earliest  authority. 
And  though  Homer  is  not  primitive  and  docs  not  present  even 
an  approximately  complete  account  of  Greek  religion, 
we  can  gather  from  his  poems  a  picture  of  an  advanced 
polytheism  which  in  form  and  structure  at  least  is 
that  which  was  presented  to  the  world  of  Aeschylus. 
We  discern  a  pantheon  already  to  some  extent  systematized, 
a  certain  hierarchy  and  family  of  divinities  in  which  the 
supremacy  of  Zeus  is  established  as  incontestable.  And  the 
anthropomorphic  impulse,  the  strongest  trend  in  the  Greek 
religious  imagination,  which  filled  the  later  world  with  fictitious 
parsonages,  generating  transparent  shams  such  as  an  Ampi- 
dromus  for  the  ritual  of  the  Ampidromia,  Amphiction  for  the 
Amphictiones,  a  hero  Kkpattct  for  the  gild  of  potters,  is  already 
at  its  height  in  the  Homeric  poems.  The  deities  arc  already 
clear-cut,  individual  personalities  of  distinct  ethos,  plastically 
shaped  figures  such  as  the  later  sculpture  and  painting  could 
work  upon,  not  vaguely  conceived  numina  like  the  forms  of  the 
old  Roman  religion.  Nor  can  we  call  them  for  the  most  part 
nature-deities  like  the  personages  of  the  Vcdic  system,  thinly 
disguised  "  personifications  "  of  natural  phenomena.  Athena 
is  not  the  blue  sky  nor  Apollo  the  sun;  they  are  simply  Athena 
and  Apollo,  divine  personages  with  certain  powers  and  character, 
as  real  for  their  people  as  Christ  and  the  Virgin  for  Christendom. 
By  the  side  of  these,  though  generally  in  a  subordinate  position, 
we  find  that  Homer  recognized  certain  divinities  that  we  may 
properly  call  nature-powers,  such  as  Helios,  Gaia  and  the  river- 
deities,  forms  descending  probably  from  a  remote  animistic 
period,  but  maintaining  thcmscltcs  within  the  popular  religion 
till  the  end  of  Paganism.  Again,  though  Homer  may  talk  and 
think  at  times  with  levity  and  hancliti  about  his  deities,  his 
deeper  utterances  impute  an  advanced  morality  to  the  supreme 


ntaghm 

im 


Cod.  Hb  Zcu*  iioa  Ibe  vIk^  i  power  of  righl«otuneB,  doling 
with  men  by  i  rightnui  law  ol  Bcmsis,  never  beiog  hinueli  ihe 
aulhor  of  cvl[^ — ui  idu  rcvcAled  in  the  opening  pouige  of  the 
(Mysiey — but  protecting  tbc  good  ud  puniflhing  the  wicked, 

tor  Homer  ind  the  (Venge  Gieek  of  Ihc  lat»  petiod,  u  il  ii  in 
Judaic  ud  Christian  theology,  ilwu^  Plalo  and  Euripides 
piDteBled  strongly  igainit  luch  i  view.  Bui  Ihe  Homeric  Zeus 
il  equaJly  i  god  of  pity  and  mercy,  and  the  man  who  negEccIs 
the  prayen  of  the  aariowful  and  afflicted,  who  violates  Ihe 
MDCtity  of  the  suppliant  and  guest,  or  oppreuei  the  poor  or 
the  wanderer,  may  look  for  divine  punishinent.  Tliough  not 
Rgarded  ai  the  physical  author  of  the  univene  ot  the  Creator, 
be  is  in  a  moral  leose  the  Cilher  of  godt  and  men. .  And  though 
the  lense  ol  sin  and  the  need  of  piacular  lacriEce  are  eipiosed 
in  the  Homeric  poerat,  the  relations  between  gods  and  men  that 
tbey  reveal  are  on  the  whole  genial  and  social;  the  deity  sits 
unseen  M  (he  good  man's  festal  sacrifice,  and  there  is  a  simple 
apprehension  of  the  idea  of  divine  communion.  There  is  alv> 
indeed  a  gUmmering  of  the  dark  bicliground  of  the  nelher 
mxld,  and  the  chlhonian  powen  that  might  send  up  the  Erinya 
to  fulfil  the  curse  oi  the  wronged.  Yel  on  the  whole  the  religious 
blight;  fi       


GREEK  RELIGION 

imily  duties,  (he 


oubled  B 


ot  Ihe  ghoal- 

IlwelocA 
public  and  p 


m  Iheti 
nuch  ah 
It  of  the  dead,'  lad  is 


[e  alter 


bioadly  over  the  salient  faci^  of  the  Creek 
private  worship  of  the  historic  period  we  find  much 
L  il  that  agrees  with  Homeric  theology.  Hig 
j^^  '■  Olympian  "  system  retains  a  ceiUin  life  almost  to 
pKi,4  ihe  end  of  Paganism,  and  it  Is  a  (erious  mistake  to 
suppose  that  It  had  tott  iis  hold  upon  the  people  ol 
the  Jlh  and  tlb  century  n.c.  We  find  it,  indeed,  enriched  in 
Ihe  poil-Homerie  period  with  new  figures  of  prestige  and  power ; 
Dionysus,  of  whom  Homn  had  only  faintly  heard,  bccomei  a 
high  god  with  a  worship  full  of  pr 


i  Kore,  the  mother 


n  Hon 


aScclions  and  hopes  ot  the  people;  and  Asclcpiui,  wno 
old  poet  did  not  recognize  a*  a  god,  wins  a  conspicuous 
in  Ihe  later  shrines.     But  much  that  has  been  said  of  the  Hi 
may  be  said  of  the  later  classical  theology.     The  d 
anthropomorphic,  and  appear  as  clearly  defined 
A  eertain  hierarchy  is  recognized;  Zeus  is  supre 
the  city  of  Athena,  but  each  of  the  higher  divi 
many  parts,  and  local  enlhgsiasn  could  frustrate 

pantheon  had  a  preference  for  the  life  of  theficid 
felii  emerged  from  the  villai 


the  arden 


matkct^pl^e 


imply  at 


n  of  the  < 
.s  that  ' 


■d  by  culi-r 


ol  the  husi 

:il-chanibM- 

e  find  in  the  13 


ords  of  til 


levengelulif  wiongedornegleci*d;tbe  .     . 

wbicb  more  than  any  other  wiioesses  reveal  the  Ibou^l  and 
wish  ol  the  worshipper,  are  nearly  always  euphemistic,  Ibe 
doubtful  (iile  of  Demeter  Erinys  being  possibly  >n  exception. 
The  important  cults  of  Zeus  'Itiaiat  and  Ilfiairr^iuiH,  Ibe 
.embodytheidcajof  pity  and  mercy 


the  development  c 
■susted  by  the  si 

was  originally  ■  religious  sane 

liave  been  prone  lo  perjury,  j 

Rligious  ethic*  legaiiled  it  as 

'This  became  very  powerful 

ud  Mauii,  fii  Uyauaan  At 


iralily  and  law  were  either  suggested  o 

religion.     For  eiample.  the  sanctity  c 

irce  of  the  secular  virtue  of  tniihfulnes! 

on,  and  though  the  Greek  ma. 


development  ot  th 
with  the  ApolUne  i 
the  ghost-world,  tti 

And  (he  beginning 
rooted  in  religious 
life  was  indebted  i 
study  of  Ihe  Greek  c 


doctrine  of  purity,  which  was  associate 

itigion,  combining  witb  a  growing  dread  i 
auUledand  inSuenced  in  many  importu 
1  of  ihc  Gicelc  law  concerning  homicide 
L  of  international  law  and  morality  wej 
anctions  and  taboo.  In  fact,  Greek  slat 
manifold  ways  to  Creek  religion,  and  tl 
acleswouldalone  supply  suBicienI  lestinbon 
origin  of  (he  state  was  religion 


of  this.  .  ,       , 

the  euliest  fiiU  sometimei  having  ai 
ot  Ibe  temple. 

Yet  a*  Creek  cetigian  was  always  in  the  service  of  the  stale, 
andtheprieatastate-afficial,sodety  was  Ibe  reverse  of  theocratic. 
Secular  advance,  moral  progress  and  the  march  of  sdence, 
could  never  long  be  thwarted  by  religious  tradition;  on  the 
contrary,  speculative  thought  and  artistic  creation  were  con- 
tidercd  as  aitributci  of  divinity.  We  may  say  that  ihe  religion 
ol  HeUas  penetttted  the  whole  lif e  of  tlie  people,  bul  riiher 


.d  apart  from  these  public 


tiered  b 


worships 
lis  of  £Ii 
1  of Ihe  D 


ic  bcolhcr- 


T  Hellas, 


former  wasstrengthi 
inlFoufied  by  Ibe  wave  of  myilidsra  Ihal  spnad  al  first  iron 
the  north  from  Ihe  beginning  of  the  )Ih  cenluiy  onwards,  am 
derived  its  strength  from  the  power  of  Dionysus  and  Ihe  Oiphi 
brotherhoods.  New  Ideals  and  hopes  begs 
religious  consciousness,  and  we  finda  strong  sal^ 
the  piomite  of  salvation  relying  on  mystic  communioa  wit 
the  deity.  Also  a  new  and  vital  juinciplc  is  at  work;  Orphisi 
is  the  only  force  in  Greek  religion  of  a  clear  apostolic  purpose 
for  il  broke  the  barriers  of  the  old  tribal  and  dvic  cults,  an 
preached  its  message  to  bond  and  free,  Hellene  and  barbaiian. 

The  later  history  of  Creek  paganism  is  m 
wiih  ill  gradual  penetration  by  Oriental  idea 
and  the  results  nf  this  Bian/HiBLa  are  discerned  in 


Ihc 


led 


ngmysti. 
IS  Ihe  oil 


I  HeUcn. 


Icncyl 


olheis 


Obliter 


eitie)  remain 

nevertheless  retained  a  certain  h 

individuals. 

the  new  creed  to  which  ilUntm 

mc,  even  in 

nilies  played 

the  deparl- 

paiative   religion;   and   for  an 

ber*  ol  Ihe 

knowledge  of  the  fitual  and  the 

s,  but  as  Ihe 

the  essential  conditions. 

let,  Hermes, 
husbandmen 

BiBi,io6>ATBr,— Older   Author 

id  in  ce^ro  10 


Mylhi'l  '.  iiri'l  liFNKian<«;s:luchU'  "inTwanvanMHIleT'itfurftxit 
ier  jkl'.-  :r  i^jr  Atarlamxmiamsdufi,  v.  a.  1  {toax-Kjob) :  L. 
R.  FiTx'.!'^  Clf]  >/  Uh  Grak  Suiu.  4  vob.  118^1006.  toI.  s. 
IwM):  Ml  .  J.iiie  Haniion'i  /'ntefSMiM  to  Mi  Saij  tj  Crai 
Ktliiu  '  I  "I  l<l->8)jChjnlepiedeh<SauiElye'>Le*rtiK4toA'Ji>iim- 
IlIcIi,'..-'<ii,>'kvrlTrpr.,  ■»|1^»)!Hwil1  Works  or  DiiKTT>i»««: 

Imme-^'ilir.  ^.■|'l.■w  «wt..:  -l.t^;:,,,,  (1B91):  Wide. /S«iii.l« 
Xnton-.,'  ■!.  Vi-' ',  ;'- '.iJ(.w„*  J.'ii  Ma  nrfnn.litu  j^iVifM 
li,mat  .-.  ;.-i.  .,,[■,.-. I  (■.^■■i.K,i.,il.u.dF«tivali— A.Mon.im«. 
Fisle  dir  ^iidl  Aihra  :  1  ^vs;  j  I*.  SLcngtI.  "  Die  Eriechifcben  Sicral. 
altenamer"  in  Iwan  von  Mailer's  HtmdImiJi,  v.  3  (il>oa); 
W.  H.  D.  Rouse,  Crat  Vtl^  O/tnuii  (l«u).  Greek  RcNaious 
ThnuihisiidSpKulatiiHi— L.CaniDtKll'sSE(i|i«iii{>ic»JilrTinuT 
(1893);  Ducharme.  td  CrUint  ia  Iniilitmi  n<i(iiiisii  lin  Ici 
Cinr  dti  annivi  u  ImU  it  PlUmqi^  (Parii.  I^OO-  5t<  *1» 
sriiclti  on  individual  deilieh and  cf.RoiuiiRu4CiOH;MTSI»lcl; 
Mmi..s. (L.lt.F.) 


GREELEY,  HORACE 


531 


6RBBLBT,  HORACE  (iBn-iBja),  American  statesman  and 

man  of  letters,  was  born  at  Amherst,  New  Hampshire,  on  the 

3rd  of  February  x8i  x .    His  parents  were  of  Scottish-Irish  descent, 

but  the  ancestors  of  both  had  been  in  New  England  for  several 

generations.    He  was  the  third  of  seven  children.    His  father, 

Zaccheus  Greeley,  owned  a  farm  of  50  acres  of  stony,  sterile 

land,  from  which  a  bare  support  was  wrung.    Horace  was  a 

feeble  and  precocious  lad,  taking  little  interest  in  the  ordinary 

sports  of  childhood,  learning  to  read  before  he  was  able  to  talk 

plainly,  and  the  prodigy  of  the  neighbouriiood  for  accurate 

spelling.    Before  Horace  was  ten  years  old  (1820),  his  father 

became  bankrupt,  his  home  was  sold  by  the  sheriff,  and  Zaccheus 

Greeley  himself  fled  the  state  to  escape  arrest  for  debt.    The 

family  soon  removed  to  West  Haven,  Vermont,    where,  all 

working  together,  they  made  a  scanty  living  as  day  labourers. 

Horace  from  childhood  desired  to  be  a  printer,  and,  when  barely 

eleven  years  old,  tried  to  be  taken  as  an  apprentice  in  an  office 

at  Whitehall,  New  York,  but  was  rejected  on  account  of  his 

youth.    After  three  years  more  with  the  family  as  a  day  labourer 

at  West  Haven,  he  succeeded,  with  his  father's  consent,  in  being 

apprenticed  in  the  office  of  The  Northern  Spectator,  at  Sast 

Poultney,  Vermont.    Here  he  soon  became  a  good  workman, 

developed  a  passion  for  politics  and  espedally  for  political 

statistics,  came  to  be  depended  upon  for  more  or  less  of  the 

editing  of  the  paper,  and  was  a  figure  in  the  village  debating 

society.    He  received  only  $40  a  year,  but  he  sent  most  of  his 

money  to  his  father.    In  June  1830  The  Northern  Spectator  was 

suspended.    Meantime  his  father  had  removed  t6  a  small  tract 

of  wild  land  in  the  dense  forests  of  Western  Pennsylvania, 

30  m.  from  Erie.    The  released  apprentice  now  visited  his  paren  ts, 

and  worked  for  a  little  time  with  them  on  the  farm,  meanwhile 

seeking  employment  in  various  printing  offices,  and,  when  he 

got  it,  giving  nearly  all  his  earnings  to  his  father.    At  last,  with 

no  further  prospect  of  work  nearer  home,  he  started  for  New 

York.    He  travelled  on  foot  and  by  canaJ-boat,  entering  New 

York  in  August  183 1,  with  all  his  clothes  in  a  bimdle  carried 

over  his  back  with  a  stick,  and  with  but  Sxo  in  his  pocket. 

More  than  half  of  this  sum  was  exhausted  while  he  made  vain 

efforts  to  find  employment.    Many  refused  to  employ  him,  in 

the  belief  that  he  was  a  runaway  ai^rentice,  and  his  poor, 

iD-fitting  apparel  and  rustic  look  were  everywhere  greatly  against 

him.    At  last  he  found  work  on  a  32mo  New  Testament,  set 

in  agate,  double  columns,  with  a  middle  column  of  notes  in 

pcari.    It  was  so  difficult  and  so  poorly  paid  that  other  printers 

had  all  abandoned  it.    He  barely  succeeded  in  making  enough 

to  pay  his  board  bill,  but  he  finished  the  task,  and  thus  fotmd 

subsequent  employment  easier  to  get. 

In  January  1833  Greeley  formed  a  partnership  with  Francis 
V.  Story,  a  fellow-workman.  Their  combined  capital  amounted 
to  about  S150.  Procuring  their  type  on  credit,  they  opened  a 
small  office,  and  undertook  the  printing  of  the  Morning  Post;^he 
first  cheap  paper  published  in  New  York.  Its  projector,  Dr 
Horatio  D.  Shepard,  meant  to  sell  it  for  one  cent,  but  under  the 
arguments  of  Greeley  he  was  persuaded  to  fix  the  price  at  two 
cents.  The  paper  failed  in  less  than  three  wedcs,  the  printers 
losing  only  $50  or  $60  by  the  experiment.  They  still  had  a  Banh 
Note  Reporter  to  print,  and  soon  got  the  printing  of  a  tri-weekly 
paper,  the  ConstUutionalUt^  the  organ  of  some  lottery  dealers. 
Within  six  months  Story  was  drowned,  but  his  brother-in-law, 
Jonas  Winchester,  took  his  plan  in  the  firm.  Greeley  was  now 
asked  by  James  Gordon  Bennett  to  go  into  partnership  with  him 
in  starting  The  Herald.  He  decIinedtheventure,butrecommended 
the  partner  whom  Bennett  subsequently  took.  On  the  and  of 
March  1834,  Greeley  and  Winchester  issued  the  first  number  of 
The  New  Yorher,  a  weekly  literary  and  news  paper,  the  firm  then 
supposing  itself  to  be  worth  about  I3000.  Of  the  first  number 
they  sold  about  xoo  copies;  of  the  second,  nearly  aoo.  There 
was  an  average  increase  for  the  next  month  of  about  100  copies 
per  week.  Tlie  second  volume  began  with  a  drculation  of  about 
4550  copies,  and  with  a  loss  on  the  first  year's  publication  of 
$3000.  The  second  year  ended  with  7000  subscribers  and  a 
further  loss  of  Saooa    By  the  end  of  the  third  year  The  New 


Yorher  had  reached  a  circulation  of  9500  copies,  and  had  sustained 
a  total  loss  of  I7000.  It  was  published  seven  years  (until  the 
20th  of  September  184X),  and  was  never  profitable,  but  it  was 
widely  popular,  and  it  gave  Greeley,  who  was  its  sole  editor, 
much  prominence.  On  the  5th  of  July  1836  Greeley  married 
Miss  Mary  Y.  Cheney,  a  Connecticut  school  teacher,  whom  he  had 
met  in  a  Grahamite  (vegetarian)  boarding-house  in  New  York. 

During  the  publication  of  The  New  Yorher  he  added  to  the 
scanty  income  which  the  job  printing  brought  him  by  supplying 
editorials  to  the  short-lived  Daily  Whig  and  variousothcrpublica* 
tions.  In  1838  he  had  gained  such  standing  as  a  writer  that  he 
was  selected  by  Thurlow  Weed,  William  H.  Seward,  and  other 
leaders  of  the  Whig  Party,  for  the  editorship  of  a  campaign  paper 
entitled  The  Jejersonian,  published  at  Albany.  He  continued 
The  New  Yorher,  and  travelled  between  Albany  and  New  York 
each  week  toedit  the  two  papers.  The  Jefersonian  was  a  quiet  and 
instructive  rather  than  a  vehement  campaign  sheet,  and  the 
Whigs  believed  that  it  had  a  great  effect  upon  the  elections  of 
the  next  year.  When,  on  the  2nd  of  May  1840,  some  time  after 
the  nomination  by  the  Whig  party  of  William  Henry  Harrison 
for  the  Presidency,  Greeley  began  the  publication  of  a  new 
weekly  campaign  paper,  The  Log  Cabin,  it  sprang  at  once  into  a 
great  circulation;  40,000  copies  of  the  first  number  were  sold, 
and  it  finally  rose  to  80,000.  It  was  considered  a  brilliant 
political  success,  but  it  was  not  profitable,  and  in  September 
1841  was  merged  in  the  Weekly  Tribune.  On  the  3rd  of  April 
1841,  Greeley  aimounced  that  on  the  following  Saturday  (April 
xoth)  he  would  begin  the  publication  of  a  daily  newspaper  of  the 
same  general  principles,  to  be  called  The  Tribune.  He  was  now 
entirely  without  money.  From  a  personal  friend,  James  Cogges- 
hall,  he  borrowed  fiooo,  on  which  capital  and  the  editor's  reputa- 
tion The  Tribune  was  founded.  It  began  with  500  subscribers. 
The  first  week's  expenses  were  S525  and  the  receipts  $92.  By 
the  end  of  the  fourth  week  it  had  run  up  a  circulation  of  6000,  and 
by  the  seventh  reached  xx,ooo,  which  was  then  the  full  capacity 
of  its  press.  It  was  alert,  cheerful  and  aggressive,  was  greatly 
helped  by  the  attacks  of  rival  papexB,  and  promised  success 
almost  from  the  start. 

From  this  time  Greeley  was  popularly  identified  with  The 
Tribune,  and  its  share  in  the  public  discussion  of  the  time  is  his 
history.  It  soon  b^ame  moderately  prosperous,  and  his  assured 
income  should  have  placed  him  beyond  pecuniary  worry.  His 
income  was  long  above  Sx  5,000  per  year,  frequently  as  much  as 
$35,000  or  more.  But  he  lacked  business  thrift,  inherited  a 
disposition  to  endorse  for  his  friends,  and  was  often  unable  to 
distinguish  between  deserving  applicants  for  aid  and  adventurers. 
He  was  thus  frequently  straitened,  and,  as  his  necessities  pressed, 
he  sold  successive  interests  in  his  newspaper.  At  the  outset  he 
owned  the  whole  of  it.  When  It  was  already  firmly  established 
(in  July  X84X),  he  took  in  Thomas  McElrath  as  an  equal  partner, 
upon  the  contribution  of  $2000  to  the  common  fund.  By  the 
ist  of  January  1849  he  had  reduced  his  interest  to  31)  shares  out 
of  xoo;  by  July  and,  x86o,  to  15  shares;  in  x868  he  owned  only 
9;  and  in  1872,  only  6.  In  1867  the  stock  sold  for  $6500  per 
share,  and  his  last  sale  was  for  S9600.  He  bought  wild  lands, 
took  stock  in  mining  companies,  desiccated  egg  companies, 
patent  looms,  photo-lithographic  companies,  gave  away  pro- 
fusely, lent  to  plausible  rascals,  and  was  the  ready  prey  of  every 
new  inventor  who  chanced  to  find  him  with  money  or  with 
property  that  he  could  readily  convert  into  money. 

In  September  1841  Greeley  merged  his  weekly  papers.  The 
Log  Cabin  and  The  New  Yorher,  into  The  Weekly  Tribune,  which 
soon  attained  as  wide  circulation  as  its  predecessors,  and  was 
much  more  profitable.  It  rose  in  a  time  of  great  political  excite- 
ment to  a  total  drculation  of  a  quarter  of  a  million,  and  it  some- 
times had  for  successive  years  140,000  to  x  50,000.  For  several 
years  it  was  rarely  much  below  100,000.  Its  subscribers  were 
found  throughout  all  quarters  of  the  northern  half  of  the  Union 
from  Maine  to  Oregon,  large  packages  going  to  remote  districts 
beyond  the  Mississippi  or  Missouri,  whose  only  connexion  with 
the  outside  world  was  through  a  weekly  or  semi-weekly  mail. 
The  readers  of  this  weekly  paper  acquired  a  personal  affection  for 


532 


GREELEY,  HORACE 


its  editor,  and  he  was  thus  for  many  years  the  American  writer 
most  widely  known  and  most  popular  among  the  rural  classes. 
The  circulation  of  The  Daily  Tribune  was  never  proportionately 
great — its  advocacy  of  a  protective  tariff,  prohibitory  liquor 
legislation  and  other  peculiarities,  repelling  a  large  support 
which  it  might  otherwise  have  commanded  in  New  York.  It 
rose  within  a  short  time  after  its  establishment  to  a  circulation  of 
20,000,  reached  50,000  and  60,000  during  the  Civil  War,  and 
thereafter  ranged  at  from  30,000  to  45,000.  After  May  1845  a 
semi-weekly  edition  was  also  printed,  which  ultimately  reached 
a  steady  circulation  of  from  15,000  to  25,000. 

From  the  outset  it  was  a  cardinal  principle  with  Greeley  to 
hear  all  sides,  and  to  extend  a  special  hospitality  to  new  ideas. 
In  March  1842  The  Tribune  began  to  give  one  column  daily  to  a 
discussion  of  the  doctrines  of  Charles  Fourier,  contributed  by 
Albert  Brisbane.  Gradually  Greeley  came  to  advocate  some  of 
these  doctrines  editorially.  In  1846  he  had  a  sharp  discussion 
upon  them  with  a  former  subordinate,  Henry  J.  Raymond,  then 
employed  upon  a  rival  journal.  It  continued  through  twelve 
articles  on  each  side,  and  was  subsequently  published  in  book 
form.  Greeley  became  personally  interested  in  one  of  the 
Fourieritc  associations,  the  North  American  Phalanx,  at  Red 
Bank,  N.  J.  (1843-1855),  while  the  influence  of  his  discussions 
doubtless  led  to  or  gave  encouragement  to  other  socialistic 
experiments,  such  as  that  at  Brook  Farm.  When  this  was 
abandoned,  its  leader  George  Ripley,  with  one  or  two  other 
members,  sought  employment  from  Greeley  upon  The  Tribune. 
Greeley  dissented  from  many  of  Fourier's  propositions,  and  in 
later  years  was  careful  to  explain  that  the  principle  of  association 
for  the  common  good  of  working  men  and  the  elevation  of  labour 
was  the  chief  feature  which  attracted  him.  Co-o[>eration  among 
working  men  he  continued  to  urge  throughout  his  life.  In  1850 
the  Fox  Sisters,  on  his  wife's  invitation,  spent  several  weeks  in  his 
house.  His  attitude  towards  their  "rappings"  and  "spiritual 
manifestations"  was  one  of  observation  and  inquiry;  and  in  his 
Recollections  he  wrote  concerning  these  manifestations:  "  That 
some  of  them  are  the  result  of  juggle,  collusion  or  trick  I  am 
confident;  that  others  are  not,  I  decidedly  believe." 

From  boyhood  he  had  believed  in  a  protective  tariff,  and 
throughout  his  active  life  he  was  its  most  trenchant  advocate 
and  propagandist.  Besides  constantly  urging  it  in  the  columns 
of  The  Tribune,  he  appeared  as  early  as  1843  in  a  public  debate 
on  "  The  Grounds  of  Protection,"  with  Samuel  J.  Tilden  and 
Parke  Godwin  as  his  opponents.  A  scries  of  popular,  essays 
on  the  subject  were  published  over  his  own  signature  in  The 
Tribune  in  1869,  and  subsequently  republished  in  book  form, 
with  a  title-page  describing  protection  to  home  industry  as  a 
system  of  national  co-operation  for  the  elevation  of  labour. 
He  opposed  woman  suffrage  on  the  ground  that  the  majority 
of  women  did  not  want  it  and  never  would,  and  declared  that 
until  woman  should  "emancipate  herself  from  the  thraldom 
to  etiquette,"  he  "  could  not  sec  how  the  '  woman's  rights 
theory  '  is  ever  to  be  anything  more  than  a  logically  defensible 
abstraction."  He  aided  practical  efforts,  however,  for  extend- 
ing the  sphere  of  woman's  employments.  He  opposed  the 
theatres,  and  for  a  time  refused  to  publish  their  advertisements. 
He  held  the  most  rigid  views  on  the  sanctity  of  marriage  and 
against  easy  divorce,  and  vehemently  defended  them  in  con- 
troversies with  Robert  Dale  Owen  and  others.  He  practised 
and  pertinaciously  advocated  total  abstinence  from  spirituous 
liquors,  but  did  not  regard  prohibitory  laws  as  alwa3rs  wise. 
He  denounced  the  repudiation  of  state  debts  or  the  failure  to 
pay  interest  on  them.  He  was  zealous  for  Irish  repeal,  once 
held  a  place  in  the  "  Directory  of  the  Friends  of  Ireland,"  and 
contributed  liberally  to  its  support.  He  used  the  occasion  of 
Charlei  Dickens's  first  visit  to  America  to  urge  international 
copyright,  and  was  one  of  the  few  editors  to  avoid  alike  the 
ffunkcyism  with  which  Dickens  was  first  received,  and  the 
ferocity  with  which  he  was  assailed  after  the  publication  of  his 
American  Notes.  On  the  occasion  of  Dickens's  second  visit  to 
America,  Greeley  presided  at  the  great  banquet  given  him 
by  the  press  of  the  country.    He  nudo  the  first  cLiborate  reports 


of  popular  scientific  lectures  by  Louis  Agassis  and  other  authori- 
ties. He  gave  ample  hearing  to  the  advocates  of  phonograi^y 
and  of  phonographic  spelling.  He  was  one  of  the  most  ooiiq>icu* 
ous  advocates  of  the  Pacific  railroads,  and  of  many  other  internal 
improvements. 

But  it  is  as  an  anti-slavery  leader,  and  as  perhaps  the  chief 
agency  in  educating  the  mass  of  the  Northern  peopk  to  that 
opposition  through  legal  forms  to  the  extension  of  slavery 
which  ctilminated  in  the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  and  the 
Civil  War,  that  GrMley's  main  work  was  done.  laddents  in 
it  were  his  vehement  opposition  to  the  Mexican  War  as  a  scheme 
for  more  slavery  territory,  the  assault  made  upon  him  in  Washing- 
ton by  Congressman  Albert  Rust  of  Arkansas  in  1856,  an  indict- 
ment in  Virginia  in  the  same  year  for  circulating  incendiary 
documents,  perpetual  denunciation  of  him  in  Southern  news- 
papers and  speeches,  and  the  hostility  of  the  Abolitionists, 
who  regarded  his  course  as  too  conservative.  His  anti-slaveiy 
work  culminated  in  his  appeal  to  President  Lincoln,  entitled 
"  The  Prayer  of  Twenty  Millions,"  in  which  he  urged  "  that  all 
attempts  to  put  down  the  rebellion  and  at  the  same  time  uphokl 
its  inciting  cause "  were  preposterous  and  futile,  and  that 
"  every  hour  of  deference  to  slavery  "  was  "  an  hour  of  added 
and  deepened  peril  to  the  Union."  President  Lincoln  in  his 
reply  said:  "  My  paramount  object  is  to  save  the  Unkm, 
and  not  either  to  save  or  destroy  slavery. . . .  What  I  do 
about  slavery  and  the  coloured  race,  I  do  because  I  believe  it 
helps  to  save  this  Union;  and  what  I  forbear,  I  forbear  because 
J  do  not  believe  it  would  help  to  save  the  Union ...  I  have  here 
stated  my  purpose  according  to  my  views  of  official  duty;  and 
I  intend  no  modification  of  my  oft-expre^ed  personal  wish 
that  all  men  everywhere  could  be  free."  Precisely  one  month 
after  the  date  of  this  reply  thq  Emancipation  Prockmation  was 
issued. 

Greeley's  political  activity,  first  as  a  Whig,  and  then  as  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Republican  party,  was  incessant;  but  he 
held  few  offices.  In  1848-1849  he  served  a  three  months'  terra 
in  Congress,  filling  a  vacancy.  He  introduced  the  first  bill  Itx 
giving  small  tracts  of  government  land  free  to  actual  settlers, 
and  published  an  exposure  of  abuses  in  the  allowance  of  mileage 
to  members,  which  corrected  the  evil,  but  brought  him  much 
personal  obloquy.  In  the  National  Republican  Convention  in 
x86o,  not  being  sent  by  the  Republicans  of  his  own  state  00 
account  of  his  opposition  to  William  Seward  as  a  candidate, 
he  was  made  a  delegate  for  Oregon.  His  active  hostility  to 
Seward  did  much  to  prevent  the  success  of  that  statesman, 
and  to  bring  about  instead  the  nomination  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 
This  was  attributed  by  his  opponents  to  personal  motives,  and 
a  letter  from  Greeley  to  Seward,  the  publication  of  which  he 
challenged,  was  produced,  to  show  that  in  his  struggling  days 
he  had  been  wounded  at  Seward's  failure  to  offer  him  office.  In 
1 86 1  he  was  a  candidate  for  United  States  senator,  his  principal 
opponent  being  William  M.  Evarts.  When  it  was  clear  that 
Eyarts  could  not  be  elected,  his  supporters  threw  their  votes 
for  a  third  candidate,  Ira  Harris,  who  was  thus  chosen  over 
Greeley  by  a  small  majority.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he 
favoured  allowing  the  Southern  states  to  secede,  provided  a 
majority  of  their  people  at  a  fair  election  should  so  dedde, 
declaring  "  that  he  hoped  never  to  live  in  a  Republic  whereof 
one  section  was  pinned  to  the  other  by  bayonets."  When  the 
war  began  he  urged  the  most  vigorous  prosecution  <tf  iL  The 
"  On  to  Richmond  "  appeal,  which  appeared  day  after  day  in 
The  Tribune^  was  incorrectly  attributed  to  him,  and  it  did  i»>t 
wholly  meet  his  approval;  but  after  the  defeat  in  the  first  battle 
of  Bull  Run  he  was  widely  blamed  for  it.  In  1864  he  urged 
negotiations  for  peace  with  representatives  of  the  Soutbera 
Confederacy  in  Canada,  and  was  sent  by  Presi<)ent  Lincoln  to 
confer  with  them.  They  were  found  to  have  no  suffidcnt 
authority.  In  1864  he  was  one  of  the  Lincoln  {^residential 
electors  for  New  York.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  contrary  to 
the  general  feeling  of  his  party,  he  urged  universal  amnesty  and 
impartial  suffrage  as  the  basis  of  reconstruction.  In  1867  his 
friends  again  wished  to  elect  him  to  the  Senate  df  the  Uoiicd 


GREELEY 


533 


Sutcs,  and  the  iodicatloiii  wen  all  in  his  favour.  But  he  refused 
to  be  elected  under  any  misapprehension  of  his  attitude,  and 
with  what  his  friends  thought  iftmenssary  candour  re-stated 
his  obnoxious  views  on  universal  anuiesty  at  length,  just  before 
the  time  for  the  election,  with  the  certainty  that  this  would  pre- 
vent his  success.  Some  months  later  he  signed  the  bail  bond  of 
Jefferson  Davis,  and  this  provoked  a  torrent  of  public  indigna- 
tion. He  had  written  a  popular  history  of  the  late  war,  the  first 
volume  having  an  immense  sale  and  bringing  him  unusually 
large  profits.  The  second  was  just  issued,  and  the  subscribers, 
in  their  anger,  refused  by  thousands  to  receive  it.  An  un- 
successful attempt  was  also  made  to  expel  him  from  the  Union 
League  Club  of  New  York. 

In  1867  he  was  a  delcgate-at-laige  to  the  convention  for  the 
revision  of  the  state  constitution,  and  in  1869  and  1870  he  was 
the  Republican  candidate  for  controller  of  the  state  and  member 
of  Congress  respectively,  but  in  each  case  was  defeated. 

He  was  dissatisfied  with  General  Grant's  administration,  and 
became  its  sharp  critic.  The  discontent  which  he  did  much  to 
develop  ended  in  the  oiganization  of  the  Liberal  Republican 
party,  which  held  its  National  Convention  at  Cincinnati  in 
1872,  and  nominated  Greeley  for  the  presidency.  For  a  time 
the  tide  of  feeling  ran  strongly  in  his  favour.  1 1  was  first  checked 
by  the  action  of  his  life-long  opponents,  the  Democrats,  who 
abo  nominated  him  at  their  National  Convention.  He  expected 
their  support,  on  account  of  his  attitude  toward  the  South 
and  hostility  to  Grant,  but  he  thought  it  a  mistake  to  give  him 
their  formal  nomination.  The  event  proved  his  wisdom.  Many 
RepubUcans  who  had  sympathized  with  his  criticisms  of  the 
administration,  and  with  the  declaration  of  principles  adopted 
at  the  first  convention,  were  repelled  by  the  coalition.  This 
feeUng  grew  stronger  until  the  election.  His  old  party  associates 
regarded  him  as  a  renegade,  the  Democrats  gave  him  a  half- 
hearted support.  The  tone  of  the  canvass  was  one  of  unusual 
bitterness,  amounting  sometimes  to  actual  ferodty.  In  August, 
on  representations  of  the  alarming  state  of  the  contest,  he  took 
the  field  in  person,  and  made  a  series  of  campaign  speeches, 
beginning  in  New  England  and  extending  throughout  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio  and  Indiana,  which  aroused  great  enthusiasm, 
and  were  regarded  at  the  time  by  both  friends  and  opponents 
as  the  most  brilliant  continuous  exhibition  of  varied  intdlectual 
power  ever  made  by  a  candidate  in  a  presidential  canvass. 
General  Grant  received  in  the  election  3,597,070  votes,  Greeley 
*.834,079.  The  only  states  Greeley  carried  were  Georgia, 
Kentucky,  Maryland,  Missouri,  Tennessee  and  Texas. 

He  had  resigned  his  editorship  of  The  Tribum  immediately 
after  the  nomination;  he  now  resumed  it  cheerfully;  but  it 
was  soon  apparent  that  his  powers  had  been  overstrained. 
For  years  he  had  suffered  greatly  from  sleeplessne».  During 
the  intense  excitement  of  the  rampaign  the  difficulty  was 
increased.  Returning  from  his  campaign  tour,  he  went  immedi- 
ately to  the  bedside  of  his  dying  wife,  and  for  some  weeks  had 
practically  no  sleep  at  aU.  This  resulted  in  an  inflammation 
of  the  upper  membrane  of  the  brain,  delirium  and  death.  He 
expired  on  the  39th  of  November  1872.  His  funeral  was  a 
simple  but  impressive  public  pageant.  The  body  lay  in  state 
in  the  City  Hall,  where  it  was  surrounded  by  crowds  ot  many 
thousands.  The  ceremonies  were  attended  by  the  President 
and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  the  Chief-Justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  and  a  large  number  of  eminent  public  men 
of  both  parties,  who  followed  the  hearse  in  a  solemn  procession, 
preceded  by  the  mayor  and  other  dvic  authorities,  down 
Broadway.  He  had  been  the  target  of  constant  attack  during 
bis  life,  and  his  personal  foibles,  careless  dress  and  mental 
eccentricities  were  the  theme  of  endless  ridicule.  But  his 
death  revealed  the  high  regard  in  which  he  was  generally  held 
as  a  leader  of  opinion  and  faithful  public  servant.  "  Our  later 
Franklin  "  Whittier  called  him,  and  it  is  in  some  such  light  his 
oountrsrmen  remember  him. 

In  185 1  Greeley  visited  Europe  for  the  first  time,  serving 
a*  a  juryman  at  the  Crystal  Palace  Exhibition,  appearing  before 
a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  on  newspaper  taxes. 


and  urging  the  repeal  of  the  stamp  duty  on  advertisements. 
In  1855  he  made  a  second  trip  to  Europe.  In  Paris  he  was 
arrested  on  the  suit  of  a  sculptor,  whose  statue  had  been  injured 
in  the  New  York  World's  Fair  (of  which  he  had  been  a  director), 
and  spent  two  days  in  Clichy,  of  which  he  gave  an  amusing 
account.  In  1859  he  visited  California  by  the  overland  route, 
and  bad  numerous  public  receptions.  In  1871  he  visited  Texas, 
and  his  trip  through  the  southern  country,  where  he  had  once 
been  so  hated,  was  an  ovation.  About  1853  he  purchased  a 
farm  at  Chappaqua,  New  York,  where  he  afterwards  habitually 
spent  his  Satutdays,  and  experimented  in  agriculture.  He 
was  in  constant  demand  as  a  lecturer  from  1843,  when  he  made 
his  first  appearance  on  the  platform,  always  drew  large  audiences, 
and,  in  spite  of  his  bad  management  in  money  matters,  received 
considerable  sums,  sometimes  $6000  or  S7000  for  a  single 
winter's  lecturing.  He  was  also  much  sought  for  as  a  con- 
tributor, over  his  own  signature,  to  the  weekly  newspapers, 
and  was  sometimes  largely  paid  for  these  articles.  In  rdigio<» 
faith  be  was  from  boyhood  a  Univcrsalist,  and  for  many  years 
was  a  conspicuous  member  of  the  leading  Univcrsalist  church 
in  New  York. 

His  published  works  are:  Hints  Toward  Reforms  (1850); 
Glances  at  Europe  (1851);  History  of  the  Struggle  for  Slavery 
Extension  (1856);  Overland  Journey  to  San  Francisco  (i860); 
The  American  Conflict  (2  vols.,  1864-1866);  Recollections  of  a 
Busy  Life  (x868;  new  edition,  with  appendix  containing  an 
account  of  his  later  years,  his  aigument  with  Robert  Dale  Owen 
on  Marriage  and  Divorce,  and  Miscellam'es,  1873);  Essays 
on  Political  Economy  (1870);  and  What  I  hnow  of  Farming 
(1871).  He  also  assisted  his  brother-in-Uw,  John  F.  Cleveland, 
in  editing  A  Political  Text-booh  (i860),  and  supervised  for  many 
years  the  annual  issues  of  The  Whig  Almanac  and  The  Tribuna 
Almanac,  comprising  extensive  political  statistics. 

The  best  Lives  of  Greeley  are  those  by  Tames  Parton  (New  York, 
1855;  new  ed.,  Boston,  1873)  and  W.  A.  Linn  (N.Y.  1903).  Lives 
have  also  been  written  by  L.  U.  Reavis  (New  York,  1873),  and  L. 
D.  IngersoH  (Chicago,  1873);  and  there  is  a  Memorial  of  Horace 
Greeley  (New  York,  1873).  (W.  R-) 

0REBLB7,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Weld  county, 
Colorado,  U.S.A.,  about  50  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Denver.  Pop.  (1890) 
339s;  (1900)  3033  (386  foreign-bom);  (1910)  8179.  It  is 
served  by  the  Union  Pacific  and  the  Colorado  &  Southern  railways. 
In  1908  a  franchise  was  granted  to  the  Denver  &  Greeley  Electric 
railway.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  the  State  Normal  School  of 
Colorado  (1889).  There  are  rich  coal-fields  near  the  city.  The 
county  is  naturally  arid  and  unproductive,  and  its  agricultural 
importance  is  due  to  an  elaborate  system  of  irrigation.  In 
1899  Weld  county  bad  under  irrigation  336,6x3  ^cres,  repre- 
senting an  increase  of  xo3«3%  since  1889,  and  a  much  larger 
irrigated  area  than  in  any  other  county  of  the  state.  Irrigation 
ditches  are  supplied  with  water  chiefly  from  the  Cache  la  Poudre, 
Big  Thompson  and  South  Platte  rivers,  near  the  foothills. 
The  principal  oops  are  potatoes,  sugar  beets,  onions,  cabbages 
and  peas;  in  1899  Weld  county  raised  3,831,385  bushels  of 
poutoes  on  33,195  acres  (53%  of  the  potato  acreage  for  the 
entire  state).  The  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  is  a  growing 
industry,  a  laxge  factory  having  been  established  at  Greeley 
in  1903.  Beets  are  also  grown  as  food  for  live  stock,  especially 
sheep.  Peas,  tomatoes,  cabbages  and  onions  are  canned  here. 
Greeley  was  founded  in  1870  by  Nathan  Cook  Meeker  (181 7- 
1879),  agricultural  editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  With  the 
support  of  Horace  Greeley  (in  whose  honour  the  town  was  named), 
he  began  in  1869  to  advocate  in  The  Tribune  the  founding  of  an 
agricultural  colony  in  Colorado.  SubsequenUy  President  Hayes 
appointed  him  Indian  agent  at  White  River,  Colorado,  and  he 
was  killed  at  what  is  now  Meeker,  Colorado,  in  an  uprising  of  the 
Ute  Indians.  Under  Meeker's  scheme,  which  attracted  mainly 
people  from  New  EngUnd  and  New  York  state,  most  of  whom 
were  able  to  contribute  at  least  a  litUe  capital,  the  Union  Colony 
of  Colorado  was  oiganixed  and  chartered,  and  bought  originally 
It, 000  acres  of  land,  each  member  being  entitled  to  buy  from  it 
one  residence  lot,  one  business  lot,  and  a  tract  of  farm  land. 


534 


GREEN,  A.  H.— GREEN,  M. 


The  funds  thus  acquired  were,  to  a  laxige  extent,  expended 
in  making  public  improvements.  A  clause  inserted  in  all  deeds 
forbade  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  on  the  land  concerned, 
under  pain  of  the  reversion  of  such  property  to  the  colony. 
The  initiation  fees  (I5)  were  used  for  the  expenses  of  locating  the 
colony,  and  the  membership  certificate  fees  ($150)  were  ex- 
pended in  the  construction  of  irrigating  ditches,  as  was  the 
money  received  from  the  sale  of  town  lots,  except  about  $13,000 
invested  in  a  school  building  (now  the  Meeker  Building).  Greeley 
was  organized  as  a  town  in  1871,  and  was  chartered  as  a  dty  of  the 
second  class  in  x886.  The  "Union  Colony  of  Colorado"  still  exists 
as  an  incorporated  body  and  holds  reversionary  rights  in  streets, 
alleys  and  public  groimds,  and  in  all  places  "  where  intoxicating 
liquors  are  manufactured,  sold  or  given  away,  as  a  beverage." 

See  Richard  T.  Ely,  "  A  Study  of  a  '  Decreed  *  Town/'  Harptr's 
Magaane,  vol.  106  (1902-1903),  p.  390  aqq. 

GREEN*  ALEXANDER  HENRT  (1839-1896),  English  geolo- 
gist, son  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Sheldon  Green,  master  of  the 
Ashby  Grammar  School,  was  bom  at  Maidstone  on  the  loth  of 
October  1833.  He  was  educated  partly  at  his  father's  school, 
Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  and  afterwards  at  Gonville  and  Caius 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  as  uxth  wrangler 
in  1855  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  his  college.  In  x86i  he 
joined  the  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain,  and  surveyed 
large  areas  of  the  midUnd  counties,  Derbyshire  and  YorksUre. 
He  wrote  (wholly  or  in  part)  memoirs  on  the  Geology  of  Banbury 
(1864),  of  Stockport  (1866),  of  North  Derbyshire  (1869,  2nd  ed. 
1887),  and  of  the  Yorkshire  Coal-field  (1878).  In  1874  he  retired 
from  the  Geological  Survey,  having  been  appointed  professor 
of  geology  in  the  Yorkshire  College  at  Leeds;  in  1885  he  became 
also  professor  of  mathematics,  while  for  many  years  he  held 
the  lectureship  on  geology  at  the  school  of  military  engineering 
at  Chatham.  He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1886,  and  two  years  later 
was  chosen  professor  of  geology  in  the  university  of  Oxford. 
His  manual  of  Physical  Geology  (1876, 3rd  ed.  1882)  isan excellent 
book.    He  died  at  Boar's  Hill,  Oxford,  on  the  x9thof'August  1896. 

A  portrait  of  him,  with  brief  memoir,  was  published  in  Proc. 
Yorksh.  Ceol.  and  Polytechnic  Soc.  xiiL  232. 

GREEN,  DUFF  (1791-187 5),  American  politician  and  journalist, 
was  bom  in  Woodford  county,  Kentucky,  on  the  xsth  of  August 
X  791 .  He  was  a  school  teacher  in  his  native  state,  served  during 
the  War  of  1812  in  the  Kentucky  nulitia,  and  then  settled  in 
Missouri,  where  he  worked  as  a  schoolmaster  and  practised  law. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Missouri  Constitution^  Convention 
of  1820,  and  was  elected  to  the  state  House  of  Representatives 
in  1820  and  to  the  state  Senate  in  1822,  serving  one  term  in  each 
house.  Becoming  interested  in  journalism,  he  purchased  and 
for  two  years  edited  the  St  Louis  Enquirer,  In  1825  he  bought 
and  afterwards  edited  in  Washington,  D.C.,  The  United  Stales 
Telegraphy  which' soon  became  the  principal  organ  of  the  Jackson 
men  in  opposition  to  the  Adams  administration.  Upon  Andrew 
Jackson's  election  to  the  presidency,  the  Tdegraph  became  the 
principal  mouthpiece  of  the  administration,  and  received  printing 
patronage  estimated  in  value  at  $50,000  a  year,  while  Green 
became  one  of  the  coterie  of  unofficial  advisers  of  Jackson 
known  as  the  "  Kitchen  Cabinet."  In  the  quarrel  between 
Jackson  and  John  C.  Calhoun,  Green  supported  the  latter,  and 
through  the  columns  of  the  Tdegraph  violently  attacked  the 
administration.  In  consequence,  his  paper  was  deprived  of  the 
government  printing  in  the  spring  of  1831.  Green,  however, 
continued  to  edit  it  in  the  Calhoun  interest  until  1835,  and  gave 
vigorous  support  to  that  leader's  nullification  views.  From  1835 
to  1838  he  edited  The  Reformalion,  a  radically  partisan  publica- 
tion, devoted  to  free  trade  and  the  extreme  states'  rights  theory. 
In  X841-1843  he  was  in  Europe  on  behalf  of  the  Tyler  administra- 
tion, and  he  is  said  to  have  been  instrumental  in  causing  the 
appointment  of  Lord  Ashburton  to  negotiate  in  Washington 
concerning  the  boundary  dispute  between  Maine  and  Canada. 
In  January  1843  Green  established  in  New  York  City  a  short-lived 
journal,  The  Republic^  to  combat  the  spoib  system  and  to 
advocate  free  trade.  In  September  1844  Calhoun,  then  secretary 
of  state,  sent  Green  to  Texas  ostensibly  as  consul  at  Galveston, 


but  actually,  it  appears,  to  report  to  the  administration,  then 
considering  the  question  of  the  annexation  of  Texas,  cooceniing 
the  politiod  situation  in  Texas  and.  Mexico.  After  the  dooe  of 
the  war  with  Mexico  Green  was  sent  to  that  country  in  1849 
by  President  Taylor  to  negotiate  concerning  the  moneys  which, 
by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  the  United  States  had 
agreed  to  pay;  and  he  saved  his  country  a  considerable  sum  by 
arranging  for  payment  in  exchange  instead  of  in  spodit.  Subse- 
quently Green  was  engaged  in  railway  building  in  Georgia  and 
Alabama.  On  the  xoth  of  Jime  1875  he  died  in  Dalton,  Geoxpa, 
a  city  which  in  1848  he  had  helped  to  found. 

GREEN,  JOHN  RICHARD  (1837-X883),  EngUsh  historian, 
was  bora  at  Oxford  on  12th  December  1837,  and  educated  at 
Magdalen  College  School  and  at  Jesus  College,  where  he  obtained 
an  open  scholarship.  On  leaving  Oxford  he  took  ocdeis  and 
became  the  incumbent  of  St  Philip's,  Stq>ney.  ICs  preaching 
was  eloquent  and  able;  he  worked  diligently  among  his  poor 
parishioners  and  won  their  affectbn  by  his  ready  sympathy. 
Meanwhile  he  studied  history  in  a  scholarly  fashion,  and  wxote 
much  for  the  Saturday  Rniew,  Partly  because  his  healtJi  was 
weak  and  partly  because  he  ceased  to  agree  with  the  tfarhing 
of  the  Church  of  England,  he  abandoned  clerical  life  and  devoted 
himself  to  history;  in  x868  he  took  the  post  of  librarian  at 
Lambeth,  but  his  health  was  already  breaking  down  and  be 
was  attacked  by  consumption.  His  5Aarf  Hilary  of  the  Em^isk 
Peopie  (1874)  At  once  attained  extraordinary  popularity,  and 
wasafterwardsexpandedinaworkof  four  volumes  (X877-X880). 
Green  is  pre-eminently  a  picturesque  historian;  he  had  a  vivid 
imagination  and  a  keen  eye  for  oolouc.  His  chief  aim  was  to 
depict  the  progressive  life  of  the  English  people  rather  than  to 
write  a  political  history  of  the  English  state.  In  accomplishing 
this  aim  he  worked  up  the  results  of  wide  reading  into  a  series 
of  brilliant  pictures.  While  generally  accurate  in  his  statement 
of  facts,  and  showing  a  firm  gra^>  of  the  main  tendency  of  a 
period,  be  often  builds  more  on  his  authorities  than  is  warrant^ 
by  their  words,  and  is  apt  to  overlook  points  which  would  have 
forced  him  to  modify  his  representations  and  lower  the  tone  ol 
his  coh)urs.  From  his  animated  pages  thousands  have  learned 
to  take  pleasure  in  the  history  of  their  own  peof^,  but  oouU 
scarcely  learn  to  appreciate  the  complexity  inherent  in  all 
historical  movement.  His  style  is  extremely  brigjit,  but  it 
lacks  sobriety  and  presentssomeaffectations.  His  later  histories. 
Th«  Making  of  Englaud  (1882)  and  The  Conquest  of  En^ond 
(1883),  are  more  soberly  written  than  his  earlier  books,  and  are 
valuable  contributions  to  historical  knowledge.  Green  died  at 
Mentone  on  the  7th  of  March  1883.  He  was  a  singulariy  attxac* 
tive  man,  of  wide  intellectual  S3rmpathie3  and  an  enthusiastic 
temperament;  his  good-humour  was  unfailing  and  he  was  a 
brilliant  talker;  and  his  work  was  done  with  admirable  courage 
in  spite  of  ill-health.  It  is  said  that  Mis  Humphry  Ward's 
Robert  Elsmere  a  largely  a  portrait  of  him.  In  X877  Green 
married  Miss  Alice  Stopford;  and  Mrs  Green,  besides  writing 
a  memoir  of  her  husband,  prefixed  to  the  x888  edition  of  his 
Short  History^  has  herself-  done  valuable  work  as  an  historian, 
particularly  in  her  Henry  II.  in  the  "  English  Statesmen  ** 
series  (1888),  her  Town  Life  in  the  xsth  Century  (1894),  and  The 
Mdking  of  Ireland  and  its  Undoing  (1908). 

See  the  Letters  ofJ.'R.  Green  (1901),  edited  by  Leslie  Stnhen. 

(WTHo.) 

GREEN,  MATTHEW  (X696-X737),  Engilish  poet,  was  bona  of 
Nonconformist  parents.  He  had  a  post  in  the  customhouse, 
and  the  few  anecdotes  that  have  been  preserved  of  him  show  hxra 
to  have  been  as  witty  as  his  poems  would  lead  one  to  expect. 
He  died  unmarried  at  his  lodging  in  Nag's  Head  Court,  Grace- 
church  Street,  in  X737.  His  GrottOf  a  poem  on  Queen  Caroline*! 
grotto  at  Riclunond,  was  printed  in  1732;  and  his  diief  poem. 
The  Spleen,  in  X737  with  a  preface  by  his  friend  Richard  Glover. 
These  and  some  other  short  poems  were  printed  in  I>odsley*s 
collection  (1748),  and  subsequently  in  various  editions  of  the 
British  poets.  They  were  edited  in  X796  with  a  preface  by  Dr 
Aikin  and  in  1883  by  R.  E.  A.  Willmott  with  the  poems  of  Gray 
and  others.     The  Spleen  is  an  epistle  to  Mr  Cuthbert  Jackson, 


GREEN,  T.  H. 


535 


Advocating  cheerfulness,  exercise  and  a  quiet  content  as  remedies. 
It  is  full  of  witty  sayings.  Thomas  Gray  said  of  it:  "  There 
is  a  profusion  of  wit  everywhere;  reading  would  have  formed 
his  judgment,  and  harmonized  his  verse,  for  even  his  wood-notes 
often  break  out  into  strains  of  real  poetry  and  music." 

GRBBN,  THOMAS  HILL  (1836-1883),  English  philosopher, 
the  most  typical  English  representative  of  the  school  of  thought 
called  Nto-Kaniian,  or  Nto-Hegeltau,  was  bom  on  the  7th  of 
April  1836  at  Birkin,  a  village  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
of  which  his  father  was  rector.  On  the  paternal  side  he  was  de- 
scended from  Oliver  Cromwell,  whose  honest,  sturdy  independence 
of  character  he  seemed  to  have  inherited.  His  education  was 
conducted  entirely  at  home  until,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he 
entered  Rugby,  where  he  remained  five  years.  In  1855  he 
became  an  undergraduate  member  of  BalLol  College,  Oxford, 
of  which  society  he  was,  in  x86o,  elected  fellow.  His  life,  hence- 
forth, was  devoted  to  teaching  (mainly  philosophical)  in  the 
university — first  as  college  tutor,  afterwards,  from  1878  until  his 
death  (at  Oxford  on  the  36th  of  March  1882)  as  Whyte's  Professor 
of  Moral  Philosophy.  The  lectures  he  delivered  as  professor  form 
the  substance  of  his  two  most  important  works,  viz.  the  Pro- 
legomena to  Ethics  and  the  Lectures  on  the  Principles  of  Political 
ObligaUon^  which  contain  the*  whde  of  his  positive  constructive 
teaching.  These  works  were  not  published  until  after  his  death, 
but  Green's  views  were  previously  known  indirectly  through  the 
introduction  to  the  standard  edition  of  Hume's  works  by  Green 
and  T.  H.  Grose  (d.  1906),  fcUow  of  Queen's  College,  in  Which 
the  doarine  of  the  "English"  or  "empirical"  philosophy 
was  exhaustively  examined. 

Hume's  empiricism,  combined  with  a  belief  in  biological 
evolution  (derived  from  Herbert  Spencer),  was  the  chief  feature 
in  F.n^ish  thought  during  the  third  quarter  of  the  XQth  century. 
Green  represents  primarily  the  reaction  against  doctrines  which, 
when  carried  out  to  their  logical  conclusion,  not  only  "  rendered 
all  phHosc^by  futile,"  but  were  fatal  to  practical  life.  By 
reducing  the  human  mind  to  a  series  of  unrelated  atomic  sensa- 
tions, this  teaching  destroyed  the  possibility  of  knowledge,  and 
further,  by  representing  man  as  a  "  being  who  is  simply  the  result 
of  natural  forces,"  it  made  conduct,  or  any  theory  of  conduct, 
unmeaning;  for  life  in  any  himian,  intelligible  sense  implies  a 
personal  seU  which  (x)  knows  what  to  do,  (2)  has  power  to  do  it. 
Green  was  thus  driven,  not  theoretically,  but  as  a  practical 
necessity,  to  raise  again  the  whole  question  of  man  in  relation- 
to  nature.  When  (he  held)  we  have  discovered  what  man  in  him- 
self is,  and  what  his  relation  to  his  environment,  we  shall  then 
know  his  function — what  he  is  fitted  to  do.  In  the  light  of  this 
knowledge  we  shall  be  able  to  formulate  the  moral  code,  which, 
in  turn,  will  serve  as  a  criterion  of  actual  civic  and  social  institu- 
tions. These  form,  naturally  and  necessarily,  the  objective 
exprettion  oi  moral  ideas,  and  it  is  in  some  dvic  or  social  whole 
that  the  moral  ideal  must  finally  take  concrete  shape. 

To  ask  "What  is  man?"  is  to  ask  "What  is  experience?" 
for  experience  means  that  of  which  I  am  conscious.  The  facts 
of  consdousncss  are  the  only  facts  which,  to  begin  with,  we  are 
justified  in  asserting  to  exist.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  valid 
e\'idence  for  whatever  is  necessary  to  their  own  explanation, 
f.r.  for  whatever  is  logically  involved  in  them.  Now  the 
most  striking  characteristic  of  man,  that  in  fact  which  marks  him 
specially,  as  contrasted  with  other  animals,  is  je/Z-consciousness. 
The  simplest  mental  act  into  which  we  can  analyse  the  operations 
of  the  human  mind— the  act  of  sense-perception — is  never 
merely  a  change^  physical  or  psychical,  but  is  the  consciousness  of 
a  change.  Human  experience  consists,  not  of  processes  in  an 
animal  organism,  but  of  these  processes  recognized  as  such. 
That  which  we  perceive  is  from  the  outset  an  apprehended  fact^ 
that  is  to  say,  it  cannot  be  analysed  into  isolated  elements  (so- 
called  sensations)  which,  as  such,  are  not  constituents  of  con- 
sciousness at  all,  but  exists  from  the  first  as  a  synthesis  of  relations 
in  a  consciousness  which  keeps  distinct  the  "self  "  and  the  various 
clemenu  of  the  "object,"  though  holding  all  together  in  the 
unity  of  the  act  of  perception.  In  other  words,  the  whole  mental 
structttie  we  call  knowledge  consists,  in  its  simplest  equally  with 


its  most  complex  constituents,  of  the  "  work  of  the  mind."  Locke 
and  Hume  held  that  the  work  of  the  mind  was  eo  ipso  unreal 
because  it  was  "  made  by  "  man  and  not  "  given  to  "  man 
It  thus  represented  a  subjective  creation,  not  an  objective  fact. 
But  this  consequence  follows  only  upon  the  assumption  that  the 
work  of  the  mind  is  arbitrary,  an  assumption  shown  to  be  un- 
justified by  the  results  of  exact  sdence,  with  the  distinction 
universally  recognized,  which  such  science  draws  between  truth 
and  falsehood,  between  the  real  and  "mere  ideas."  This 
(obviously  valid)  distinction  logically  involves  the  consequence 
that  the  object,  or.  content,  of  knowledge,  viz.  reality,  is  an 
intelligible  ideal  reality,  a  system  of  thought  relations,  a  spiritual 
cosmos.  How  is  the  existence  of  this  ideal  whole  to  be  accounted 
for?  Only  by  the  existence  of  some  "  principle  which  renders  all 
relations  possible  and  is  itself  determined  by  none  of  them  ";  an 
eternal  sdf-consdousness  which  knows  in  whole  what  we  know 
inparL  To  God  the  world  if,  to  man  the  world  6eomiei.  Human 
experience  is  God  gradually  made  manifest. 

Carrying  on  the  same  analytical  method  into  the  special 
department  of  moral  philosophy,  Green  held  that  ethics  applies 
to  the  peculiar  conditions  of  social  life  that  investigation  into 
man's  nature  which  metaphysics  began.  The  faculty  employed 
in  this  further  investigation  is  no  "separate  moral  faculty," 
but  that  same  reason  which  is  the  source  of  all  our  knowledge- 
ethical  and  other.  Self-reflection  gradually  reveals  to  us  human 
capacity,  human  function,  with,  consequently,  human  responsi- 
bility. It  brings  out  into  dear  consciousness  certain  potentialities 
in  the  realization  of  which  man's  true  good  must  consist.  As 
the  result  of  this  analysis,  combined  with  an  investigation  into 
the  surroundings  man  lives  in,  a  "  content " — a  moral  code — 
becomes  gradually  evolved.  Personal  good  is  perceived  to  be 
realizable  only  by  making  actual  the  conceptions  thus  arrived  at. 
So  long  as  these  remain  potential  or  ideal,  they  form  the  motive 
of  action;  motive  consisting  always  in  the  idea  of  some  "  end  " 
or  "  good  "  which  man  presents  to  himself  as  an  end  in  the  attain- 
ment of  which  he  would  be  satisfied,  that  is,  in  the  realization  of 
which  he  would  find  his  true  self.  The  determination  to  realize 
the  self  in  some  definite  way  constitutes  an  "act  of  will,"  which,  as 
thus  constituted,  is  neither  arbitrary  nor  externally  determined. 
For  the  motive  which  may  be  said  to  be  its  cause  lies  in  the  man 
himself,  and  the  identification  of  the  self  with  such  a  motive 
is  a  xe//-determination,  which  is  at  once  both  rational  and  free. 
The  "  freedom  of  man  "  is  constituted,  not  by  a  suppo^  ability 
to  do  anything  he  may  choose,  but  in  the  power  to  identify  him- 
self with  that  true  good  which  reason  reveals  to  him  as  his  true 
good.  This  good  consists  in  the  realization  of  personal  character ; 
hence  the  final  good,  >.«.  the  moral  ideal,  as  a  whole,  can  be 
realized  only  in  some  sodety  of  persons  who,  while  remaining  ends 
to  themselves  in  the  sense  that  their  individuality  is  not  lost  but 
rendered  more  perfect,  find  this  prcfection  attainable  only  when 
the  separate  individualities  are  integrated  as  part  of  a  social 
whole.  Sodety  is  as  necessary  to  form  persons  as  persons  are 
to  constitute  society.  Social  union  is  the  indispensable  condition 
of  the  development  of  the  special  capacities  of  the  individual 
members.  Human  self-perfection  cannot  be  gained  in  isola- 
tion; it  is  attainable  only  in  inter-relation  with  fellow-dtizens 
in  the  social  community. 

The  law  of  our  being,  so  revealed,  involves  in  its  turn  dvic  or 
political  duties.  Moral  goodness  cannot  be  limited  to,  still  less 
constituted  by,  the  cultivation  of  self-regarding  virtues,  but  con- 
sists in  the  attempt  to  realize  in  practice  that  moral  ideal  which 
self-analysis  has  revealed  to  us  as  our  ideal.  From  this  fact 
arises  the  ground  of  political  obligation,  for  the  institutions  of 
political,  or  civic  h'fe  are  the  concrete  embodiment  of  moral 
ideas  in  terms  of  our  day  and  generation.  But,  as  sodety  exists 
only  for  the  proper  development  of  persons,  we  have  a  criterion 
by  which  to  test  these  institutions,  viz.  do  they,  or  do  they  not, 
contribute  to  the  development  of  moral  character  in  the  individual 
dlizens?  It  is  obvious  that  the  final  moral  ideal  is  not  realized 
in  any  body  of  dvic  institutions  actually  existing,  but  the  same 
analysis  which  demonstrates  this  deficiency  points  out  the 
direction  which  a  true  development  will  take.    Hence  arises  the 


53* 


GREEN,  v.— CREENAWAY 

I  1S05,  (nd  coDtiauid  1 


rdve  (ulbDrily  impowd  upon 
litu  in  tbe  spiriiual  rtragnitui 
M  which  coulituia  Uictr  uuc 
uiinftbeUUi  ' 


e  iudf,  [bit  13 
liich  coDititute 

BOB  good.     IL 
ic  dLi»D>  [ran 


ophiol  iDRucpcTin  Englind 

, —  jentun'.  while  hii  enlhusiasm  ._.  

a  penoiul  example  In  pnciical  municipal  U 
In  cSon  nude,  (a  the  ytm  suoctding  hit 


d  phllouphkil  doctrine  proper,  the  i 
thought  ind  in  rcJily.  "  That  which  19  "  u  i  ink 


succeeding  hit  duth,  to  bring  tlw 
'ith  tlic  people,  ud  Co  bntk  down 

,S"U"in 


b^iC- 


Uicoutrucliveiheecyhuppoited 
thekn.CRca'*  lUienaenl  of  hii 

whole  ef  nhikHu  wUcb  ire  relit 
kction  la  perbipi  largely  verbal), 
IICI  (obviou  in  eipenence)  thic  tl 
Unlvcne  i<  compned  appivr  mitt 


w  admit  Eedly  vi 
nerally  recofniied, 
pouibility  oi  coDCd 


em  In  icmu  nl  ihoughE, 
a  ptnanalily  u  1  fundi 

u  fmoB  li  Ml  VI 


of  (he 

^"1',.™,,..  «™" 

I'hile.  igain,  Icgilimalily 
rntal  comliiucnt  la  any 
en  hiuiaan  indivldkalitia 

ate  now  the  nhtence  of  levenl  indivldualitie*— human  oc  divine— 
in  OH  counoa  la  Iheoretkilly  poniblc.  It  ii  ai  the  •alulicn  o(  theae 
two  queationi  thit  philovopBy  in  the  immediKe  lutune  nly  be 

^«n'a  mort  impooint  treaiiie— the  Pralrtiimtna  Id  Eftfcj— 
practically  complcle  in  manmcripl  at  hit  dealh — wia  publiihed 
in  ihe  year  (otlowine,  under  the  nU'onhip  of  A.  C.  Bradley  U<I>  ed.. 
IB«),  Shortly  aflerw.rde  R.  L.  N«He>h!p'.  .lardard  edition  oI 
hit  Ww*'  (e>clu«veo(  the  f™^™™!)  aopeaied  in  three  volumn: 


S 


I    .1  1684)  by  A.  J. 

lie  PriiuifUi  «/ 

i,  TU^Smia  0/ 
of  T.  It.  Crm 
ilXlk  Cmliry 


ly  ■s.  Aleiimler.  and  in  the  ftiuinst 

S.  Laurie;  W.  H.  Fairbrother,  F>~<l.- 

ind  New  York.  189*11  D.  G.  T',:. 


legai  piofeision  and  bccimeapupiloralineengnvertl  Worceitei. 
In  1 76J  he  Riigiatcd  10  London  and  began  work  u  1  neziotint 
engraver,  having  taugbthimwlf  ihetKbnicalitiaof  thisart,  and 
quickly  row  10  a  poiliion  In  abH>lutdy  the  front  rank  of  Biitiih 
mgiavtrt.  Hebeumea  member  of  tbelncoipantedSodeiy  d 
Ani>l>  in  i;6;,  an  uiocdate-engrivtr  ol  the  Royal  Academy 
in  1715,  and  for  tome  forty  yean  he  foUowcd  hii  profatioii  with 
the  gtealeil  tucccis.  The  eiclusive  right  of  engraving  and 
publishing  plates  (rom  the  pictures  in  the  DUucIdorf  gallery  wag 
grinled  him  by  the  duke  of  Bavaria  in  i;&o,  but,  aiier  he  had 
issued  more  than  l«eniy  oI  these  plates,  the  siege  of  that  city  by 
the  French  put  an  end  id  this  undertaking  ud  caused  him 
Mtlous  finaocial  loss.  From  ihii  cause,  and  through  Ihe  failure 
of  certain  other  ipeculiiioni,  he  was  reduced  to  poveriy;  and  in 
■nMuequeiKC  he  took  the  post  of  keeper  of  the  British  I  niltiutioD 


o(Ut 

four  hundred  plates  alter  portraits  by  Reynolds,  RDmney. 
and  oLhcT  Biiiiib  utlsts,  after  the  compositigns  of  Benjunio 
West,  and  liter  pictures  by  Vin  Dyck,  Rubens,  UnriUo,  and 
other  old  masters.  It  is  claimed  for  him  that  be  was  one  of  the 
Gist  cnstiventDthowhowadminblymeuotint  could  be  applied 
to  the  iraniUtion  of  piciotiil  compotitioni  ai  well  as  portraits, 
but  at  the  present  lime  it  ia  to  bis  portraits  thai  most  Iltenlion 
is  given  by  collectors.  His  engravings  ire  distinguished  by 
ejcceptional  richness  ind  subtlety  of  tone,  ind  by.  very  judidous 
mimgement  of  reJatioiis  of  light  and  shade;  aiul  Ihey  have, 
almott  without  accptioo.Dotablefreihnessindgnce  of  hssdliDg. 

See  Vtintau  Crtai,  by  Allird  Whitman  (London,  1903]. 

aRSEH.  WILUAM  HEHKY  (1815-1,00),  American  Hebrew 
scholar,  WIS  born  in  Groveville,  neu  Bordentown,  New  Jersey, 
on  the  ayth.of  January  iBij.    He  was  descended  in  the  siilh 

College  of  New  Jersey  (now  Frincelon  University),  and  bis 
ancestan  bad  been  closely  connected  with  the  Presbyterian 
church.  He  graduated  in  1840  ftom  Lafayette  College,  where  be 
was  tutor  In  malbemiLics  (1840-1841)  and  adjunct  pnifessoe 
(1S4J-1S44].  In  1S46  he  graduated  from  Princeton  Theologicil 
Seminary,  and  wasinslnicLorin  Hebrew  there  in  i&46~i84g.  He 
WIS  ordained  in  i&48ind  was  pastor  of  the  Central  Presbyterian 
church  of  Philadelphia  in  i$4^iSsi.  From  August  iSji  untB 
his  death,  in  Princeioa,  Ne*  Jersey,  on  the  isdi  ol  Februaiy 
1,00,  he  was  professor  ol  Biblical  and  Oriental  Literature  in 
Princeton  Theological  Seminiry.  From  1859  the  title  of  hischair 
was  Oriental  and  Old  Testament  Litenture.  In  1S6S  he  RTiued 
the  presidency  of  Princeton  College;  as  senior  professor  be  was 
long  acting  head  of  the  Theological  Seminary.  He  wis  a  great 
Hebrew  teacber:  bis  Cramjiuir  cj  tit  Htlrew  Idnfuge  (iMi, 
revised  iSSS)  wasi  distinct  improvemenl  in  method  on  CBeniis. 
Rocdiger,  Ewold  and  Nordheuner.  All  his  kno«1«l«t  of  Semitic 
languages  he  used  in  a  "  conservative  Higher  Ctitlcisin,"  which  is 
maintained  in  the  following  works:  The  PmbUaici  YMiutld 
from  Uu  Aipasimi  ef  Bishst  Colnso  (1S63),  Uaia  and  Ite 
Prepktli  IsSBi),  The  Hebrew  Fetili  in  (Jtcir  gtlalitH  la  Seoul 
Criiiml  HypBiJieiaCmctntiiiillit  PttilaUiukUEis),Tlii  Umly^ 
IbeBink  cfCnuiit  (.895),  Tke  HifkcrCrilkitm  ef  UaPalalalli 
(iSq5),  and  A  General  InlrodtUieit  UUiOU  Tettamtml.  ToLi. 
CjMi»(iS«e),vol.ii.T'ei«(iSqq).  He  wis  Ihe  schoUrly  leader  <i< 
theorlbodos  wing  of  the  Preabyleriin  church  in  America,  ukd  was 

miD  of  Ihe  Old  Testament  committee  of  the  Aiiglo.Aniericaa 


See  the  inidet  by  John  D.  Divli  In  Tlu.Balial  ITcrU.  new 
■eiici.  vol.  IV..  pp.  406-411  (Chingo.  1900),  and  Tke  PrrAj^rtam 
and  Bifcrmld  Raua,  vol.  xi.  pp.  377-396  (Philadelphia,  19DO). 

OREEHAWAT,  KATE  (ia46-i9Bi),  Englisfa  irlist  ii>d  boot 
illusiralDi,  was  the  daughter  of  John  Greenaway,  ■  weO-kinwD 
draugbiiman  and  engraver  on  wood,  ind  oii  born  in  London  00 
the  i7Lh  of  March  iW-  After  ■  course  of  stndy  11  South 
Kensington,  at  "HeaLbetley't  "  life  classes,  and  at  the  Slade 
School,  Kate  Greenaway  began.  In  1S6S,  10  eihibil  mtet-cnkui 
drawings  at  the  Dudley  Gallery.  London.  Her  more  lemarkiUe 
early  work,  however,  consisted  of  Christmas  cards,  which,  by 
reason  of  ihdr  quaint  beauty  of  design  and  charm  of  draughts- 
minsbip,  enjoyed  an  eilracO'dinaiy  vogue.  Her  subjects  woe, 
in  the  tnain,  young  girls,  children,  flowen,  ind  landscape;  and 
the  air  of  artless  siraplldly,  freshness,  humour,  ind  purity  c4 
these  lillle  woiks  so  appealed  to  public  and  artists  alike  that  the 


itually  ic 


coungedby  K.  Sticy  Marks, 
hose  friends  who  urged  her  to 


ustrations  for  children  (such  as  for  Ulllt  Folit,  iSjj,  a  uf.) 
I lacted  much  attention.  In  1S77  her  drawings  at  the  Dudley 
illery  were  sold  forfS4.  and  her  Royal  Academy  picture  for 
[hleen  guineis;  ind  in  Iheume  ycartbebefu  lodnwiocibc 


GREENBACKS— GREENCASTLE 


537 


nustraled  LondotiNtm*  In  the  year  1879  she  produced  Und^ 
ike  Windam^  of  which  150,000  copies  are  said  to  have  been  sold, 
and  of  which  French  and  German  editions  were  also  issued. 
Then  followed  The  Birthday  Bock,  Mother  Goose,  Little  Ann,  and 
other  books  for  children  which  were  appreciated  not  less  by 
adults,  and  were  to  be  found  on  sale  in  the  bookshops  of  every 
capital  in  Europe  and  in  the  dties  of  America.  The  extraordinary 
success  achieved  by  the  young  girl  may  be  estimated  by  the 
amounts  paid  to  her  as  her  share  of  the  profits:  for  Under  the 
Window  she  received  £1130;  for  Tke  Birtkday  Book,  £1250; 
for  ilotker  Goose,  £905;  and  for  UtiU  Ann,  £567.  These  four 
books  alone  produced  a  clear  return  of  £8000.  "  Toy-books  " 
though  they  were,  these  little  worics  created  a  revolution  in 
illustration,  and  so  were  of  real  importance;  they  were  loudly 
applauded  by  John  Ruskin  (Art  of  England  and  Fors  Clangera), 
by  Ernest  Chesneau  and  Ars&ie  Alexandre  in  France,  by  Dr 
Muther  in  Germany,  and  by  leading  art-critics  throughout  the 
world.  In  1890  Kate  Greenaway  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Institute  of  Painters  in  Water  Colours,  and  in  1891,  x894and 
X898  she  exhibited  water-colour  drawings,  including  illustrations 
lor  her  books,  at  the  gallery  of  the  Fine  Art  Society  (by  which  a  re- 
presentative selection  was  exhibited  in  i902),wherethey  surprised 
the  world  by  the  infinite  delicacy.tendemess,  and  grace  which  they 
displayed.  A  leading  feature  in  Miss  Greenaway's  work  was  her 
revival  of  the  delightfully  quaint  costume  of  the  beginning  of  the 
X9th  century;  this  lent  humour  to  her  fancy,  and  so  captivated 
the  public  taste  that  it  has  been  said,  with  poetic  exaggeration, 
that  "  Kate  Greenaway  dressed  the  children  of  two  continents." 
Her  drawings  of  children  have  been  compared  with  Stothard's 
lor  grace  and  with  Reynolds's  for  naturalness,  and  thoseof  flowers 
with  the  work  of  van  Huysum  and  Botticelli.  From  1883  to 
1897,  with  a  break  only  in  1896,  she  issued  a  series  of  Kate 
Greenaway's  Almanacs.  Although  she  illustrated  The  Pied 
Piper  of  Hamelin  and  other  works,  the  artist  preferred  to  pro- 
vide her  own  text;  the  numerous  verses  which  were  found  among 
her  papers  after  her  death  prove  that  she  might  have  added  to  her- 
reputation  with  her  pen.  She  had  great  charm  of  character,  but 
was  extremely  shy  of  public  notice,  and  not  less  modest  in  private 
life.  She  died  at  Hampstead  on  the  6th  of  November  1901/ 
See  the  Life,  by  M.  H.  Spidmann  and  G.  S.  Layard  (1905). 

ORBBRBACKS,  a  form  of  paper  currency  in  the  United 
States,  so  named  from  the  green  colour  used  on  the  backs  of 
the  notcsr«4hey  are  treasury  notes,  and  were  first  issued  by 
the  government  in  1862,  "as  a  question  of  hard  necessity," 
to  provide  for  the  expenses  of  the  Civil  War.  The  government, 
following  the  example  of  the  banks,  had  suspended  specie  pay- 
ment. The  new  notes  were  therefore  for  the  time  being  an 
inconvertible  paper  currency^  and,  since  they  were  made  legal 
tender,  were  really  a  form  of  fiat  money.  The  first  act,  providing 
for  the  issue  of  notes  to  the  amount  of  $150,000,090,  was  that 
of  the  asth  February  1862;  the  acts  of  nth  July  1862  and 
3rd  March  1863  each  authorized  further  issues  of  $150,000,000. 
The  notes  soon  depreciated  in  value,  and  at  the  lowest  were 
worth  only  35  cents  on  the  dollar.  The  act  of  xath  April  x866 
authorized  the  retirement  of  $10,000,000  of  notes  within  six 
months  aiul  of  $4,000,000  per  month  thereafter;  this  was  dis- 
continued by  act  of  4th  February  x868.  On  xst  Januaiy  1879 
spede  payment  was  resumed,  and  the  nominal  amount  of  notes 
then  stood  at  $346,681,000,  which  is  still  outsUnding. 

The  lo-calted  Greenback  party  (also  called  the  Independent^  and  the 
NaUenat  party)  first  appeared  in  a  presidential  campaign  in  1876, 
when  its  candidate,  Peter  Cooper,  received  81,740  votes.  It  advo- 
cated increaung  the  volume  01  greenbacks,  forDtdding  bank  issues, 
and  the  paying  in  greenbacks  of  the  principal  of  afl  government 
bonds  not  expressly  payable  in  coin.  In  1870  the  party,  by  various 
fusions,  cast  over  1,000,000  votes  and  elected  14  Congressmen:  and 
in  x88o  there  was  fusion  with  labour  reformere  and  it  cast  308.578 
YC^f  lor  Its  presidential  candidate.  J.  B.  Weaver,  and  elected  8 
CongresBnien:  I n  1 884  their  candidate  Benjamin  F.  Butler  (also  the 
candidate  of  the  Anu-Monopoly  party)  received  175,370  votes. 
Subsequently  the  party  went  out  of^  existence. 

OHOni  BAT,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Brown  county, 
WiaoouiD,  VJSA,f  at  the  S.  extremity  of  Green  Bay,  at  the 


mouth  of  the  Fox  river,  1x4  m.  N.  of  Bfilwaukee.  *  Pop.  (X890) 
9069;  (1900)  x8,684,  of  whom  4022  were  foreign-bom  and  33 
were  negroes;  (1910  census)   25,236.  The  dty  is  served 

by  the  Chicago  &  North-Westem,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
&  St  Paul,  the  Kewaunee,  Green  Bay  &  Western,  and  the 
Green  Bay  &  Western  railways,  by  an  Inter-urban  electric 
railway  connecting  with  other  Fox  River  Valley  dties,  and 
by  lake  and  river  steamboat  lines.  Green  Bay  lies  on  high 
levd  ground  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  which  is  here  crossed 
by  several  bridges.  The  dty  has  the  Kellogg  Public  Library, 
the  Brown  County  Court  House,  two  high  schools,  a  business 
college,  several  academies,  two  ho^itals,  an  orphan  asylum 
and  the  State  Odd  Fellows'  Home.  It  Is  the  seat  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  the  bishopric  being  the  eariiest  established 
in  the  North-west.  The  so-caOed  "Tank  Cottage,"  now  in 
Washington  Park,  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  house  in  Wisconsin; 
it  was  built  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  river  near  its  mouth  by  Joseph 
Roy,  a  French-Canadian  voyageur,  in  1766,  was  subsequently 
somewhat  modified,  and  in  X908  was  bcught  and  removed  to 
its  present  ute  by  the  Green  Bay  Historical  Sodety.  Midway 
between  Green  Bay  and  De  Pere  (5  m.  S.W.  of  Green  Bay) 
is  the  state  reformatory,  opened  in  X899-X90X.  Green  Bay's 
fine  hart>our  accommodates  a  considerable  lake  commerce,  and 
the  dty  is  the  most  important  railway  and  wholesale  distributing 
centre  In  N.£.  Wisconsin.  Its  manufactures  indude  lumber 
and  lumber  products,  furniture,  wagons,  woodenware,  farm 
implements  and  machinexy,  flour,  beer,  caimed  goods,  brick 
and  tile  and  dairy  products;  and  it  hais  lumber  yards,  grain 
elevators,  fish  warehouses  and  railway  rq>air  shops.  The 
total  value  of  the  factory  product  in  X905  was  $4,873,027,  an 
increase  of  79-9%  since  X900.  The  first  recorded  visit  of  a 
European  to  Uie  vicinity  of  what  is  now  Green  Bay  is  that  of 
Jean  Nicolet,  who  was  sent  vest  by  Champlain  in  1634,  and 
found,  probably  at  the  Red  Banks,  some  10  m.  below  the  present 
dty,  a  village  of  Winnebago  Indians,  who  he  thought  at  first 
were  Chinese.  Between  x 654  and  1658  Radisson  and  GroseilUexs 
and  other  coureurs  des  bois  were  at  Green  Bay.  Claude  Jean 
Allouez,  the  Jesuit  missionary,  established  a  mission  on  the  W. 
shore  of  the  bay,  about  20  m.  from  the  present  dty.  Later 
he  removed  his  mission  to  the  Red  Banks,  and  in  the  winter 
of  X67X-X672  established  it  permanently  5  m.  above  the  present 
dty,  at  Rapides  des  P^res,  on  the  E.  shore  of  the  Fox  river. 
In  X673  Joliet  and  Marquette  visited  the  spoL  In  1683-1685 
Le  Sueur  and  Nicholas  Pexrot  traded  with  the  Indians  here. 
In  X 7x8^x720  Fort  St  Francis  was  erected  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  on  the  W.  bank,  and  after  being  several  times  deserted 
was  permanently  re-established  in  X732.  About  X745  Augustin 
de  Langlade  established  a  trading  post  at  La  Baye  and  later 
brought  his  family  there  from  Mackinac  This  was  the  first 
permanent  settlement  at  Green  Bay  and  In  Wisconsin.  The 
British  garrison  which  occupied  the  fort  from  X76X  to  X763^ 
during  which  time  the  fort  received  the  name  of  Fort  Edward 
Augustus,  was  removed  at  the  time  of  Pontiac's  rising,  and  the 
fort  was  never  re-garrisoned  by  the  English,  except  for  a  short 
time  during  the  War  of  x8x2.  The  inhabitanu  of  La  Baye 
were,  however,  acknowledged  subjects  of  Great  Britain,  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  being  practically  a  dead  letter 
until  the  American  fort  (Fort  Howard)  was  garr^ned  in  x8x6. 
As  early  as  18x0  fur  traders,  employed  by  John  Jacob  Astor, 
were  stationed  here;  about  X820  /^tor  erected  a  warehouse 
and  other  buildings;  and  for  many  years  Green  Bay  consisted 
of  two  distinct  settlements,  Astor  and  Navarino,  which  were 
finally  united  in  X839  as  Green  Bay.  The  dty  was  chartered 
in  X854.  In  X893  Fort  Howard  was  consolidated  with  it  The 
Green '  Bay  Intdligencer,  the  first  newspaper  in  Wisconsin, 
began  publication  here  in  X833. 

See  Neville  and  Martin,  Historic  Green  Bay  (Green  Bay.  1893); 
and  Martin  and  Beaumont,  Old  Green  Bay  (Green  Bay,  1900). 

GRBBNCASTL^  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Putnam 
county,  Indiana,  U.S.A.,  about  38  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Indianapolis 
and  on  the  Big  Walnut  river.  Pop.(x9oo)  3661;  (19x0)  3790.' 
It  is  served, by  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St.  Louis* 


538 


GREENE,  G.  W.— GREENE,  N. 


the  Chicago,  Indianapolis  &  LouisviUe,  the  Vandalia,  and  the 
Terre  Haute,  Indianapolis  &  Eastern  (electric)  railways.  It  has 
manufactures  of  some  importance,  including  lumber,  pumps, 
kitchen-cabinets,  drag-saws,  lightning-rods  and  tin-plate,  is  in 
the  midst  of  a  blue  grass  region,  and  is  a  shipping  point  for  beef 
cattle.  The  city  hiui  a  Carnegie  library  and  is  the  seat  of  the 
de  Pauw  University  (co-educational),  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
institution,  founded  as  Indiana  Asbury  University  in  1837, 
and  renamed  in  1884  in  honour  of  Washington  Charles  de  Pauw 
(X822-X887),  a  successful  capitalist,  banker  and  glass  manu- 
facturer. The  total  gifts  of  Mr  de  Pauw  and  his  family  to  the 
institution  amount  to  about  $600,000.  Among  the  presidents 
of  the  university  have  been  Bishop  Matthew  Simpson,  Bishop 
Thomas  Bowman  (b.  18x7),  and  Bishop  Edwin  Holt  Hughes 
(b.  x866),  all  of  the  Methodust  Episcopal  church.  The  university 
comprises  the  Asbury  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  a  School  of  Music, 
t  School  of  Art  and  an  Academy,  and  had  in  xgo^igio 
43  instructors,  a  library  of  37,000  volumes,  and  10x7  students. 
Greencastle  was  first  settlni  about  X820,  and  was  chartered 
as  a  dty  in  x86x. 

GREENE,  OEOROB  WASHINGTON  (x8xx-x883),  American 
historian,  was  born  at  East  Greenwich,  Rhode  Island,  on  the 
8th  of  April  x8xi,  the  grandson  of  Major-General  Nathanael 
Greene.  He  entered  Brown  University  in  X824,  left  in  his  junior 
year  on  account  of  iU-health,  was  in  Europe  during  the  next 
twenty  years,  except  in  1833-1834,  when  he  was  principal 
of  Kent  Academy  at  East  Greenwich,  and  was  the  United  States 
consul  at  Rome  from  X837  to  X845.  He  was  instructor  in 
modern  languages  in  Brown  University  from  1848  to  X852; 
and  in  X87X-X875  was  non-resident  lecturer  in  American  history 
in  Cornell  University.  He  died  at  East  Greenwich,  Rhode 
Island,  on  the  and  of  February  1883.  His  published  works 
include  French  and  Italian  text-books;  Historical  Studies 
(X850);  Biographical  Studies  (i860);  Historical  View  of  the 
American  RevoluiioH  (x8^5);  Life  of  Nathanael  Greene  (3  vols., 
X867-187O;  The  German  ElemetU  in  the  War  of  American 
Independence  (1876);  and  a5Aor/  History  of  Rhode  Island  (1877). 

GREENE,  MAURICE  (1695-1755)  English  musical  composer, 
was  born  in  London.  He  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman  in  the 
city,  and  soon  became  a  chorister  of  St  Paul's  cathedral,  where 
be  studied  under  Charles  King,  and  subsequently  under  Richard 
Brind,  organist  of  the  cathedral  from  X707  to  X718,  whom,  on 
his  death  in  the  last-named  year,  he  succeeded.  Nine  years 
later  he  became  organist  and  composer  to  the  chapel  royal, 
on  the  death  of  Dr  Croft.  In  X730  he  was  elected  to  the  chair 
of  music  in  the  university  of  Cambridge,  and  had  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  music  conferred  on  him.  Dr  Greene  was  a 
voluminous  composer  of  church  music,  and  his  collection  of 
Forty  Select  Anthems  became  a  standard  work  of  its  kind.  He 
wrote  a  "  Te  Deum,"  several  oratorios,  a  masque.  The  Judgment 
of  Hercules f  and  a  pastoral  opera,  Phod>e  (1748);  also  glees  and 
'catches:  and  a  collection  of  Catches  and  Canons  for  Three  and 
Pour  Voices  is  amongst  his  compositions.  In  addition  he  com- 
posed many  occasional  pieces  for  the  king's  birthday,  having 
been  appointed  master  of  the  king's  band  in  X735.  But  it  is 
as  a  composer  of  church  music  that  Greene  is  chiefly  remembered. 
It  is  here  that  hb  contrapuntal  skill  and  his  sound  musical 
scholarship  are  chiefly  shown.  With  Handel,  Greene  was 
originally  on  intimate  terms,  but  his  equal  friendship  for 
Buonondni,  Handel's  rival,  estranged  the  German  master's 
feelings  from  him,  and  all  personal  intercourse  between  them 
ceased.  Greene,  in  conjunctiim  with  the  violinist  Michael 
Christian  Festing  (i7a7-i752)  and  others,  originated  the  Society 
of  Musicians,  for  the  support  of  poor  artists  and  their  families. 
He  died  on  the  ist  of  December  X755. 

GREENE,  NATHANAEL  (1742-X786),  American  general,  son 
of  a  (^aker  farmer  and  smith,  was  bom  at  Potowomut,  in 
the  township  of  Warwick,  Rhode  Island,  on  the  7th  of  August 
(not,  as  has  been  stated,  6th  of  June)  1742..  Though  his  father's 
sect  discouraged  "  literary  accomplishments,"  he  acquired  a 
large  amount  of  general  information,  and  made  a  special  study 
of  mathematics,  history  and  law.    At  Coventry,  R.I.,  whither 


he  removed  in  x  7  70  to  take  charge  of  a  forge  built  by  his  father 
and  his  uncles,  he  was  the  first  to  urge  the  establishment  of  a 
public  school;  and  in  the  same  year  he  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  legislature  of  Rhode  Island,  to  which  he  was  re-elected 
in  X77X,  X772  and  X775.  ^  sympathized  strmigly  with  the 
Whig,  or  Patriot,  element  among  the  colonists,  and  m  1774 
joined  the  local  militia.  At  this  time  he  began  to  study  the  ait 
of  war.  In  December  1774  he  was  on  a  committee  appointed 
by  the  assembly  to  revise  the  militia  laws.  His  zta\  in  attending 
to  military  duty  led  to  his  expulsion  from  the  Society  of  Friends. 

In  1775,  in  command  of  the  contingent  raised  by  Rhode  Island, 
he  joined  the  American  forces  at  Cambridge,  and  on  the  23nd 
of  June  was  appointed  a  brigadier  by  Congress.  To  him 
Washington  assigned  the  command  of  the  dty  of  Boston  after 
it  was  evacuated  by  Howe  in  March  X776.  Greene's  letters  of 
October  X775  and  January  1776  to  Samuel  Ward,  then  a  delegate 
from  Rhode  Island  to  the  Continental  Congress,  favoured  a 
declaration  of  independence.  On  the  9th  of  August  1776  he 
was  promoted  to  be  cme  of  the  four  new  major-generals  and  was 
put  in  command  of  the  Continental  troops  on  Long  Island; 
he  chose  the  placx  for  fortifications  (practically  the  same  as  that 
picked  by  General  Charles  Lee)  and  built  the  redoubts  and 
entrenchments  of  Fort  Greene  on  Brooklyn  Hd^ts.  Severe 
illness  prevented  his  taking  part  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island. 
He  was  prominent  among  those  who  advised- a  retreat  from  New 
York  and  the  burning  of  the  dty,  so  that  the  British  might  not 
use  it.  Greene  was  placed  in  command  of  Fort  Lee,  and  on  the 
25th  of  October  succeeded  General  Israel  Putnam  in  command 
of  Fort  Washington.  He  recdved  orders  from  Washington  to 
defend  Fort  Washington  to  the  last  extremity,  and  on  the  xxth  of 
October  Congress  had. passed  a  resolution  to  the  same  effect;  but 
later  Washington  wrote  to  him  to  use  his  own  discretion.  Greene 
ordered  Colonel  Magaw, whowas  in  immediate  command,to  defend 
the  place  until  he  should  hear  from  him  again,  and  rdnforced 
it  to  meet  (jeneral  Howe's  attack.  Nevertheless,  the  Uame  for 
the  losses  of  Forts  Washington  and  Lee  was  put  upon  Greene, 
but  apparently  without  his  losing  the  confidence  of  Washington, 
who  indeed  himself  assumed  the  req>onsibility.  At  Treotmi 
Greene  commanded  one  of  the  two  American  columns,  .his  own, 
accompanied  by  Washington,  arriving  fiirst;  and  after  the 
victory  here  he  urged  Washington  to  push  on  immediately  to 
Princeton,  but  was  over-ruled  by  a  council  of  war.  At  the 
Brandywine  Greene  conmianded  the  reserve.  At  Germantown 
Greene's  command,  having  a  greater  distance  to  march  than  the 
right  wing  under  Sullivan,  failed  to  arrive  in  good  time — a  failure 
which  Greene  himsdf  thought  (without  cause)  would  cost  him 
Washington's  regard;  on  this,  with  the  affair  of  Fort  Washington, 
Bancroft  based  his  unfavourable  estimate  of  Greene's  ability. 
But  on  their  arrival,  Greene  and  his  troops  dfstinguishrd  them- 
selves greatly. 

At  the  urgent  request  of  Washington,  on  the  and  of  Mardi 
X778,  at  Valley  Forge,  he  accepted  the  office  of  quartermaster- 
general  (succeeding  Thomas  Mifflin),  and  of  his  conduct  in  this 
difficult  work,  which  Washington  heartily  i4>proved,  a  HMxleni 
critic,  Colonel  H.  B.  Carrington,  has  said  that  it  was'  **  as  good 
as  was  possible  under  the  circumstances  of  that  flactnating 
uncertain  force."  He  had  become  quartermaster-general  on 
the  understanding,  however,  that  he  diould  retain  the  right  to 
command  troops  in  the  field;  thus  we  find  him  at  the  hnd  of 
the  right  wing  at  Monmouth  on  the  28th  of  June.  In  August 
Greene  and  Lafayette  commanded  the  land  forces  sent  to  Rhode 
Island  to  co-operate  with  the  French  admiral  d'Estaing,  in  an 
expedition  which  proved  abortive.  In  June  1780  Greene  com- 
manded in  a  skirmish  at  Springfield,  New  Jersey.  In  August 
he  resigned  the  office  of  quartermaster-general,  after  a  long  aivi 
bitter  struggle  with  Congress  over  the  interference  in  army 
administration  by  the  Treasury  Board  and  by  conumssuHis 
appointed  by  Congress.  Before  his  resignation  became  effective 
it  fell  to  hb  lot  to  preside  over  the  court  which,  on  the  99th  of 
September,  condemned  Major  John  Andr€  to  death. 

On  the  X4th  of  October  he  succeeded  Gates  as  commandoHB* 
chief  of  the  Sou  them  army,  and  took  command  at  Charlotte,  N.C« 


GREENE,  ROBERT 


539 


on  the  and  of  December.  The  army  was  weak  and  badly 
equipped  and  was  opposed  by  a  superior  force  under  Comwallis. 
Greene  dedded  to  divide  his  own  troops,  thus  fordng  the  division 
of  the  British  as  well,  and  creating  the  possibility  of  a  strategic 
interplay  of  forces.  This  strategy  led  to  General  Daniel  Morgan's 
victory  of  Cowpens  (just  over  the  South  Carolina  line)  on  the 
17th  of  January  178X,  and  to  the  battle  at  Guilford  Cotut 
House,  N.C.  (March  15),  in  which  after  having  weakened  the 
British  troops  by  continual  movements,  and  drawn  in  reinforce- 
ments for  his  own  army,  Greene  was  defeated  indeed,  but  only 
at  such  cost  to  the  victor  that  Tarleton  called  it  "  the  pledge  of 
ultimate  defeat."  Three  dliys  after  this  battle  Comwallis 
withdrew  toward  Wilmington.  Greene's  generalship  and  judg- 
ment were  again  consfricuously  illustrated  in  the  next  few  weeks, 
in  which  he  albwed  ComwalUs  to  march  north  to  Virgmia  and 
himself  turned  swiftly  to  the  reconquest  of  the  inner  country 
of  South  Carolina.  This,  in  spite  of  a  reverse  sustained  at  Lord 
Rawdon's  hands  at  Hobkirk's  Hill  (3  m.  N.  of  Camden)  on  the 
35th  of  April,  he  achieved  by  the  end  of  June,  the  British  retiring 
to  the  coast.  Greene  then  gave  his  forces  a  six  weeks'  rest  on 
the  High  Hills  of  the  Santee,  and  on  the  8th  of  September,  with 
3<3oo  men,  engaged  the  British  under  Lieut.-Colonel  James 
Stuart  (who  had  succeeded  Lord  Rawdon)  at  Eutaw  Springs; 
the  battle,  although  tactically  drawn,  so  wekkened  the  British 
that  they  withdrew  to  Charleston,  where  Greene  penned,  them 
during  the  remaining  months  of  the  war.  Greene's  Southern 
campaign  showed  remarkable  strategic  features  that  remind  one 
of  those  of  Turenne,  the  commander  whom  he  had  taken  as  his 
model  in  his  studies  before  the  wair.  He  excelled  in  dividing, 
eluding  and  tiring  his  opponent  by  long  marches,  and  in  actual 
conffict  forcing  hLn  to  pay  for  a  temporary  advantage  a  price 
that  he  could  not  afford.  He  was  greatly  assisted  by  able 
subordinates,  including  the  Polish  engineer,  Tadeuss  Kosdusko, 
the  brilliant  cavalry  captains,  Henry  ("  Light-Horse  Harry  ") 
Lee  and  William  Washington,  and  the  partisan  leaders,  Thomas 
Sumter  and  Frauds  Marion. 

South  Carolina  and  Georgia  voted  Greene  liberal  grants  of 
lands  and  money.  The  SouUi  Carolina  estate,  Boone's  Barony, 
S.  of  Edisto  in  Bamberg  County,  he  sold  to  meet  bills  for  the 
rations  of  his  Southern  army.  On  the  Georgia  estate.  Mulberry 
Grove,  14  m.  above  Savannah,  on  the  river,  he  settled  in  178$, 
after  twice  refusing  (1781  and  1784)  the  post  of  secretary  of  war, 
and  there  he  died  of  sunstroke  on  the  19th  of  June  1 786.  Greene 
was  a  singularly  able,  and— like  other  prominent  generals  on 
the  American  side  —  a  self -trained  soldier,  and  was  second 
only  to  Washington  among  the  officers  of  the  American  army 
in  military  ability.  Like  Washington  he  had  the  great  gift  of 
using  small  means  to  the  utmost  advantage.  His  attitude 
towards  the  Tories  was  humane  and  even  kindly,  and  he 
generously  defended  Gates,  who  had  repeatedly  intrigued 
against  hLn,  when  Gates's  conduct  of  the  campaign  in  the  South 
was  critidaed.  There  is  a  monument  to  Greene  in  Savannah 
(1839).  His  statue,  with  that  of  Roger  Williams,  represents  the 
state  of  Rhode  Island  in  the  National  Hall  of  Sutuary  in  the 
Capitol  at  Washington;  in  the  same  dty  there  is  a  bronze 
equestrian  statue  of  him  by  H.  K.  Brown. 

See  the  Lift  cf  Nathanad  Greene  (3  vols..  1 867-1871}.  by  his  grand- 
ion.  Geoige  W.  Greene,  and  the  biography  (New  York,  1893).  by 
Brig.-Gen.  F.  V.  Greene,  in  the  "  Great  Commanders  Series. 

ORJUWB*  ROBERT  {c.  1560-1593),  English  dramatist  and 
misceDaneous  writer,  was  bom  at  Norwich  about  1560.  The 
identity  of  his  father  has  been  disputed,  but  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  he  belonged  to  the  tradesmen's  class  and 
had  small  means.  It  is  doubtful  whether  Robert  Greene  attended 
Norwich  grammar  school;  but,  as  an  eastern  counties  man 
(to  one  of  whose  plays,  Friar  Bacon^  the  Norfolk  and  Suffolk 
borderland  owes  a  lasting  poetic  commemoration)  he  naturally 
found  his  way  to  Cambridge,  nhtxt  he  entered  St  John's  College 
as  a  sizar  in  1575  and  took  his  B.A.  thence  in  1579,  proceeding 
M.A.  in  1583  from  Clare  Hall.  His  life  at  the  university  was, 
according  to  his  own  account,  spent  "  among  wags  as  lewd  as 
himself,  with  whom  he  consumed  the  flower  of  his  yOuth."    In 


1588  he  was  incorporated  a£  Qtford,  so  that  on  some  of  his  title* 
pages  he  styles  himself  "utriusque  Academiae  in  Artibus 
Magister  ";  and  Nashe  humorously  refers  to  him  as  "  utriusque 
Academiae  Robertus  Greene."  Between  the  years  1578  and 
1583  he  had  travelled  abroad,  according  to  his  own  account 
very  extensively,  visiting  France,  Germany,  Poland  and  Deimiark, 
besides  learning  at  first-hand  to  "hate  the  pride  of  Italie" 
and  to  know  the  taste  of  that  poet's  frHiit,  "  Spanish  mirabolones." 
The  grounds  upon-  which  it  has  been  suggested  that  he  took  holy 
orders  are  quite  insufficient;  according  to  the  title-page  of  a 
pamphlet  published  by  him  in  1585  he  was  then  a  "  student  in 
phisicke."  Already,  however,  after  taking  his  M.A.  degree,  he 
had  according  to  his  own  account  begun  h^  London  life,  and  his 
earliest  extant  literary  production  was  in  hand  as  early  as  1580. 
He  now  became  "  an  author  of  playes  and  a  penner  of  love- 
pamphlets,  so  that  I  soone  grew  famous  in  that  qualitie,  that 
who  for  that  trade  growne  so  (vdinary  about  London  as  Robin 
Greene?"  "  GUul  was  that  printer,"  says  Nashe, "  that  might 
bee  so  blest  to  pay  him  deare  for  the  very  dregs  of  his  wit." 
By  his  own  account  he  rapidly  sank  into  the  worst  debaucheries 
.of  the  town,  though  Na^e  declares  that  he  never  knew  him 
guilty  of  notorious  crime.  He  was  not  without  passing  impulses 
towards  a  more  righteous  and  sober  life,  and  was  derided  in 
consequence  by  his  assodates  as  a  "  Puritane  and  Presiztan." 
It  is  possible  that  he,  as  well  as  his  bitter  enemy,  Gabriel  Harvey, 
exaggerated  the  looseness  of  his  conduct.  His  marriage,  which 
took  place  in  1585  or  1586,  failed  to  steady  him;  if  Frannsco, 
in  Greene's  pamphlet  He9»  too  late  to  mend  (1590),  is  intended 
for  the  author  Imnseif,  it  had  been  a  runaway  match;  but  the 
fiction  and  the  autobiographical  sketch  in  the  Repentance  agree 
in  their  account  of  the  unfaithfulness  which  followed  on  the  part 
of  the  husband.  He  lived  with  his  wife,  whose  name  seems  to 
have  been  Dorothy  ("  Doll ";  and  d.  Dorothea  in  Jamet  IV.), 
for  a  while; "  but  forasmuch  as  she  would  perswade  me  from  my 
wilful  wickednes,  after  I  had  a  child  by  her,  I  cast  her  off,  having 
spent  up  the  marriage-money  which  I  obtained  by  her.  Then 
left  I  her  at  six  or  seven,  who  went  into  Lincolnshire,  and  I  to 
London,"  where  his  reputation  as  a  playwright  and  writer  of 
pamphlets  of  "  lave  and  vaine  fantasyes  "  continued  to  increase, 
and  where  his  life  was  a  feverish  alternation  of  labour  and 
debauchery.  In  his  last  years  he  took  it  upon  himself  to  make 
war  on  the  cutpuraes  and  "  conny-catchers  "  with  whom  he  came 
into  contact  in  the  slums,  and  whose  doings  he  fearlessly  exposed 
in  his  writings.  He  tells  us  how  at  last  he  was  friendless  "  except 
it  were  in  a  fewe  alehouses,"  where  he  was  respected  on  account 
of  the  score  he  had  run  up.  When  the  end  came  he  was  a 
dependant  on  the  charity  of  the  poor  and  the  pitying  love  of  the 
unfortunate.  Henri  Murger  has  drawn  no  picture  more  sickening 
and  more  pitiful  than  the  story  of  Greene's  death,  as  told  by  his 
Puritan  adversary,  Gabrid  Harvey — a  veradous  though  a  far 
from  unprejudic^  narratw.  Greene  had  taken  up  the  cudgds 
provided  by  the  Harvey  brothers  on  their  intervention  in  the 
Marprelate  controversy,  and  made  an  attack  (immediately 
suppressed)  upon  Gabrid's  father  and  family  in  the  prose-tract 
A  Quip  for  an  Upstart  Courtier^  or  a  Quaint  Dispute  between 
Velvet  Breeches  and  Clotk  Breeches  (1593).  After  a  banquet 
where  the  chief  guest  had  been  Thomas  Nashe — ^an  old  associate 
and  perhaps  a  college  friend  of  Greene's,  any  great  intimacy  with 
whom,  however,  he  seems  to  have  been  anxious  to  disclaim — 
Greene  had  fallen  sick  "of  a  surfdt  of  pickle  herringe  and 
Rennish  wine."  At  the  house  of  a  poor  shoemaker  near  Dowgate, 
deserted  by  all  except  his  compassionate  hostess  (Mrs  Isam)  and 
two  women — one  of  them  the  sister  of  a  notorious  thid  named 
"  Cutting  Ball,"  and  the  mother  of  his  illegitimate  son,  Fortunatus 
Greene  he  died  on  the  3rd  of  September  1593.  Shortly  bdore 
his  death  he  wrote  under  a  bond  for  £xo  which  he  had  given  to 
the  good  shoemaker,  the  following  words  addressed  to  his  k>ng- 
forsaken  wife:  "  DoU,  I  charge  thee,  by  the  loue  of  our  youth 
and  by  my  soules  rest,  that  thou  wilte  see  this  man  paide;  for 
if  hee  and  his  wife  had  not  succoured  me,  I  had  died  in  the 
streetes. — Robert  Greene." 
Pour  LOters  and  Certain  Sonnets,  Harvey's  attack  on  Greene. 


540 


GREENE,  ROBERT 


appeared  almost  immediately  after  his  death,  as  to  the  drcum- 
stances  of  which  his  relentless  adversary  had  taken  care  to  inform 
himself  personally.  Nashe  took  up  the  defence  of  his  dead  friend 
and  ridiculed  Harvey  in  Strange  News  (xs93)>  and  the  diqmte 
continued  for  some  years.  But,  before  this,  the  dramatist  Henry 
Qiettle  published  a  pamphlet  from  the  hand  of  the  unhappy 
man,  entitled  Greene's  Groai's-wortk  of  Wit  bouiht  with  a  MiUion 
of  Repentance  (1592),  containing  the  story  of  Roberto,  who  may 
M  regarded,  for  practical  purposes,  aa  representing  Greene 
himself.  This  ill-starred  production  may  almost  be  said  to  have 
done  more  to  ezdte  the  resentment  of  posterity  against  Greene's 
name  than  all  the  errors  for  which  he  professed  his  repentance. 
For  in  it  he  exhorted  to  repentance  three  of  his  quondam  acquaint- 
ance. Of  these  three  Marlowe  was  one — ^to  whom  and  to  whose 
creation  of  "that  Atheist  TaAiberlaine 'V he  had  repeatedly 
alluded.  The  second  was  Peele,  the  third  probably  Nashe. 
But  the  passage  addressed  to  Peele  contained  a  transparent 
allusion  to  a  fourth  dramatist,  who  was  an  actor  likewise,  as 
**  an  vpstart  crow  beautified  with  our  feathers,  that  with  his 
Tygres  heart  wrapt  in  a  player's  Hyde  supposes  hee  is  as  well  able 
to  bombast  out  a  blanke-verse  as  the  best  of  you;  and  being  an 
absolute  lohannea-fac-totum.  Is  in  his  owne  conceyt  the  onely 
jihake-scene  in  a  countrey."  The  phrase  italicized  parodies 
a  passage  occurring  in  The  True  Tragedie  of  Richardf  Duhe  of 
York,  &C.,  and  retained  in  Part  III.  of  Henry  VI.  If  Greene 
(as  many  eminent  critics  have  thought)  had  a  hand  in  The  True 
Tragedie^  he  must  here  have  intend&d  a  charge  of  plagiarism 
against  Shakespeare.  But  while  it  seems  more  probable  that 
(as  the  late  R.  Simpson  suggested)  the  upstart  crow  beautified 
with  the  feathers  of  the  three  dramatists  is  a  sneering  description 
of  Ihe  actor  who  declaimed  their  verse,  the  animus  of  the  whole 
attack  (as  explained  by  Dr  Ingleby)  is  revealed  in  its  concluding 
phrases.  This  "  shake-scene,"  i.e,  this  actor  had.  ventured  to 
intrude  upon  the  domain  of  the  regular  staff  of  playwrights — 
their  monopoly  was  in  danger  I 

Two  other  prose  pamphlets  of  an  autobiographical  nature  were 
issued  posthumously.  Of  these,  The  Repentance  of  Robert 
Greene,  Master  of  Arts  (1592),  must  originally  have  been  written 
by  him  on  his  death-bed,  under  the  influence,  as  he  says,  of 
Father  Parsons's  Boohe  of  Resoluium  {The  Christian  Directories 
tppertayning  to  Resoluiion,  2582,  republished  in  an  enlarged 
form,  which  became  very  popular,  in  X58S);  but  it  bears  traces 
6f  having  been  improved  from  the  original;  while  Greene* s 
Vision  was  certainly  not,  as  the  title-page  avers,  written  during 
his  last  illness. 

•  Altogether  not  less  than  thirty-five  prose-tracts  are  ascribed 
to  Greene's  prolific  pen.  Nearly  all  of  them  are  interspersed 
with  verses;  in  their  themes  they  range  from  the  "  misticall " 
wonders  of  the  heavens  to  the  familiar  but "  pemitious  sleights  " 
of  the  sharpers  of  London.  But  the  most  widely  attractive  of 
his  prose  publications  were  his  "  love-pamphlets,"  which  brought 
upon  him  the  outcry  of  Puritan  censors.  The  earliest  of  his 
novels,  as  they  may  be  called,  ilamillia,  was  licensed  in  1583. 
This  interesting  story  may  be  said  to  have  accompanied  Greene 
through  life;  for  even  part  ii.,  of  which,  though  probably  com- 
pleted several  years  earh'er,  the  earliest  extant  edition  bars  the 
date  1593,  had  a  sequel,  The  Anatomic  of  Line's  PlatterieSf  which 
contains  a  review  of  suitors  recalling  Portia's  in  The  Merchant 
of  Venice.  The  Myrrour  of  Modestic  (the  story  of  Susanna) 
(1584);  The  Historic  of  Arhasto,  King  of  Denmarhe  (1584); 
Moranda,  the  TrilanUron  ofLcne  (a  rather  tedious  imitation  of. the 
i7ecaffwnm  (1584);  P/ane/omo^Ata  (1585)  (a  contention  in  story- 
telling betweien  Venus  and  Saturn);  Pendope's  Web  (1587) 
(another  string  of  stories);  Alcida,  Greeners  Metamorphosis 
(1588),  and  others,  followed.  In  these  popular  productions  he 
appears  very  distinaly  as  a  follower  of  John  Lyly;  indeed,  the 
first  part  of  Mamiliia  was  entered  in  the  Stationers'  Registers 
in  the  year  of  the  appearance  of  Euphues,  and  two  of  Greene's 
novels  are  by  their  titles  announced  as  a  kind  of  sequel  to  the 
parent  romance:  Euphues  his  Censure  to  PhUautus  (1587), 
Menaphon.  Camilla's  Alarum  to  Slumbering  Euphues  (x589)t 
lamed  in  some  later  editions  Greene's  Arcadia,  This  pastoral 


romance,  written  in  direct  emulation  of  Sdne/s,  with  a  heroine 
called  Samila,  contains  St  Sephestia's  charming  luUaby,  with 
its  refrain  "  Father's  sorowe,  father's  joy."  But,  thou^  Greene's 
style  copies  the  balanced  osdUation^  and  his  diction  the  omate- 
ness  (including  the  proverbial  philosophy)  of  Lyly,  he  oontxives 
to  interest  by  the  matter  as  well  as  to  attract  attention  by  the 
manner  of  his  narratives.  Of  his  highly  moral  intentions  he 
leaves  the  reader  in  no  doubt,  since  they  are  exposed  on  the 
title-pages.  The  full  title  of  the  JfyrrMtr^/ifdtfe^  for  instance 
continues:  "  wherein  appeareth  as  in  a  perfect  glasse  how  the 
Lord  deliveretb  the  innocent  from  all  imminent  perils,  and 
plagueth  the  blood-thirsty  hypocrites  with  deserved  punidi- 
ments,"  &&  On  his  Pandosto,  The  Triumph  of  Tima  (1588) 
Shakespeare  founded  A  Winter's  Tale;  in  fact,  the  novd  contains 
the  entire  plot  of  the  comedy,  except  the  device  of  the  living 
statue;  though  some  of  the  subordinate  characters  in  the  play, 
including  Autolycus,  were  added  by  Shakespeare,  tofether  with 
the  pastoral  fragrance  of  one  of  its  q>iaodes. 

In  Greene's  Never  too  Late  (1590),  announced  ms%**  Powder 
of  Experience:  sent  to  all  youthfull  gentlemen  "  for  their 
benefit,  the  hero,  Francesco,  is  in  all  probability  intended  for 
Greene  himself,  the  sequel  or  second  part  is,  however,  pure  fiction. 
This  episodical  narrative  has  a  vivacity  and  truthfulneas  of 
manner  which  savour  of  an  x8th  century  novd  rather  than  of 
an  Elizabethan  tale  concerning  the  days  of  **  Palmerin,  King 
Of  Great  Britain."  Philador,  the  prodigal  of  The  Moundmg 
Garment  (1590),  is  obviously  also  in  some  respects  a  portrait  of 
the  writer.  The  experiences  of  the  Roberto  of  Greeners  Groats- 
worth  of  Wit  (1592)  are  even  more  palpably  the  experiencca  of 
the  author  himself,  though  they  are  possibly  overdrawn — for  a 
bom  rhetorician  exaggerates  everything,  even  his  own  sins. 
Besides  these  and  the  posthumous  pamphlets  on  his  repentance, 
Greene  left  realistic  pictures  of  the  very  disrepiitable  society 
to  which  he  finally  descended,  in  his  pamphlets  on  "ooiuy- 
catching  ":  A  Notable  Discopery  of  Coosnage  (1591),  The  Blache 
Boohes  Messenger.  Laying  open  the  Life  and  Death  of  Ned 
Browne,  one  of  the  most  Notable  Cutpurses,  Crassbilers,  and 
Conny<atchers  that  ever  lived  in  En^and  (xs9>)>  Much  in 
Greene's  manner,  both  in  his  rbmances  and  in  h^  pictures  of 
low  life,  anticipated  what  proved  the  slow  course  of  the  actual 
development  of  the  English  novel;  and  it  is  probable  that  his 
true  m£tier,  and  that  which  best  suited  the  bright  fancy,  ingenuity 
and  wit  of  which  his  genius  was  compounded,  was  pamphlet- 
spinning  and  stoxy-teUing  rather  than  dramatic  oon^Msitioii. 
It  should  be  added  that,  euphuist  as  Greene  was,  few  of  his 
contemporaries  in  their  lyrics  warbled  wood-notes  whidi  like 
his  resemble  Shakespeare's  in  their  native  freshness. 

Curiously  enough,  as  Mr  Churton  Collins  has  pdnted  out, 
Greene,  except  in  the  two  pamphlets  written  just  before  his 
death,  never  refers  to  his  having  written  plays;  uid  before  1592 
his  contemporaries  are  equally  silent  as  to  his  laboun  as  a 
playwright.  Only  four  plays  remain  to  us  of  which'  be  was 
indisputably  the  sole  author.  The  earliest  of  these  teems  to 
have  been  the  ComicaU  History  of  Alphonsus,  King  of  Arragen, 
of  which  Henslowe's  Diary  contains  no  trace.  But  it  can  hardly 
have  been  first  acted  long  after  the  production  of  Marlowe's 
Tamburiaine,  which  had,  in  all  probability,  beta  brou^t  on  the 
stage  in  XS87.  For  this  play,  comical  "  only  in  the  negative 
sense  of  having  a  happy  ending,  was  manifestly  written  in 
emulation  as  well  as  in  direct  imitation  of  Marlowe's  tragedy. 
While  Greene  cannot  have  thought  himself  capable  of  surpassing 
Marlowe  as  a  tragic  poet,  he  very  probably  wi^ed  to  outdo  him 
In  "  business, "  and  to  equal  him  in  the  rant  which  was  sure  to 
bring  down  at  least  part  of  the  house.  Alphonsus  is  a  history 
proper— a  dramatized  chronicle  or  narrative  of  warUke  events. 
Its  fame  could  never  equal  that  of  Mariowe's  tragedy;  but  its 
composition  showed  that  Greene  could  seek  to  rival  the  most 
popular  drama  of  the  day,  without  falling  very  far  short  of  his 
model. 

In  the  Honourable  History  ^  Prior  Bacon  and  Prior  Bungay 
(not  known  to  have  been  acted  before  February,  1592.  bat 
probably  written  in  1 589)  Greene  once  more  attempted  to  emulate 


GREENFIELD— GREENHEART 


541 


Marlowe;  and  be  succeeded  in  producing  a  masterpiece  of  his 
own.  Marlowe's  Doctor  Faustus,  which  doubtless  suggested  the 
composition  of  Greene's  comedy,  reveals  the  mighty  tragic 
genius  of  its  author;  but  Greene  resolved  on  an  altogether 
distinct  treatment  of  a  cognate  theme.  Interweaving  with  the 
popular  tale  of  Friar  Bacon  and  his  wondrous  doings  a  charming 
idyl  (so  far  as  we  know,  of  his  own  invention),  the  story  of  Prince 
Edward's  love  for  the  Fair  Maid  of  Fressingfield,  he  produced  a 
comedy  brimful  of  amusing  action  and  genial  fun.  Friar  Bacon 
remains  a  dramatic  picture  of  English  Elizabethan  life  with 
which  Tke  Merry  Wives  alone  can  vie;  and  not  even  the  ultra- 
classicism  in  the  similes  of  its  diction  can  destroy  the  naturalness 
which  constitutes  its  perennial  charm.  Tke  History  of  Orlando 
Fnrioso,  one  of  Ike  Tweive  Peeres  of  France  has  on  unsatisfactory 
evidence  been  dated  as  before  1586,  and  is  known  to  have  been 
acted  on  the  sist  of  February  1592.  It  is  a  free  dramatic 
adaptation  of  Ariosto,  Harington's  translation  of  whom  appeared 
in  1 591,  and  who  in  one  passage  is  textually  quoted;  and  it 
contains  a  large  variety  of  characters  and  a  superabundance  of 
action.  Fairly  lucid  in  arrangement  and  fluent  in  style,  the 
treatment  of  the  madness  of  Orlando  lacks  tragic  power.  Very 
few  dramatists  from  Sophocles  to  Shakespeare  have  succeeded 
in  subordinating  the  grotesque  effect  of  madness  to  the  tragic; 
and  Greene  is  not  to  be  included  in  the  list. 

In  Tke  Scottisk  Historie  of  James  IV,  (acted  1592,  licensed 
for  publication  1594)  Greene  seems  to  have  reached  the  climax 
of  his  dramatic  powers.  The  "  historical  "  character  of  this  play 
is  pure  pretence.  The  story  is  taken  from,  one  of  Giraldi 
Cinthio's  tales.  Its  theme  is  the  illicit  passion  of  King  James  for 
the  chaste  lady  Ida,  to  obtain  whose  hand  he  endeavours,  at  the 
suggestion  of  a  villain  called  Ateukin,  to  make  away  with  his  own 
wife.  She  escapes  in  doublet  and  hose,  attended  by  her  faithful 
dwarf;  but,  on  her  father's  making  war  upon  her  husband  to 
avenge  her  wrongs,  she  brings  about  a  reconciliation  between 
them.  Not  only  is  this  well-constructed  story  effectively  worked 
out,  but  the  characters  are  vigorously  drawn,  and  in  Ateukin 
there  is  a  touch  of  lago.  The  fooling  by  Slipper,  the  clown  of  the 
piece,  Is  unexceptionable;  and,  lest  even  so  the  play  should  hang 
heavy  on  the  audience,  its  action  is  carried  off  by  a  "  pleasant 
conedie  " — i.e.  a  prelude  and  some  dances  between  the  acts — 
*'  presented  by  Oboram,  King  of  Fayeries,"  who  is,  however,  a 
very  different  person  from  the  Obeion  of  A  MidsuMwur  Nigkt's 
Dream. 

CeoTie-a-Creene  tke  Pinner  of  Wakefield  (acted  iS93,  printed 
1599),  a  delightful  picture  of  English  life  fully  worthy  of  the 
author  of  Fri<^  Bungay ^  has  been  attributed  to  him;  but  the 
external  evidence  is  very  slight,  and  the  internal  unconvincing. 
Of  the  comedy  of  Fair  Em,  which  resembles  Friar  Bacon  in  more 
than  one  point,  Greene  cannot  have  been  the  author;  the 
question  as  to  the  priority  between  the  two  plays  is  not  so  easily 
solved.  The  conjecture  as  to  his  supposed  share  in  the  plays  on 
which  the  second  and  third  parts  of  Henry  VI.  are  founded  has 
been  already  referred  to.  He  was  certainly  joint  author  with 
Thomas  Lodge  of  the  curious  drama  called  A  Looking  Classefor 
London  and  En^and  (acted  in  1593  and  printed  in  1594) — a 
dramatic  apologue  conveying  to  the  living  generation  of  English- 
men the  warning  of  Nineveh's  corruption  and  prophesied  doom. 
The  lesson  was  frequently  repeated  in  the  streets  of  London  by 
the  "  Ninevitical  motions  "  of  the  puppets;  but  there  are  both 
fire  and  wealth  of  language  in  Greene  and  Lodge's  oratory.  The 
comic  element  is  not  absent,  being  supplied  in  abundance  by 
Adam,  the  clown  of  the  piece,  who  belongs  to  the  family  of 
Slipper,  and  of  Friar  Bacon's  servant,  Miles. 

Greene's  dramatic  genius  has  nothing  in  it  of  the  intensity  of 
Marbwe's  tragic  muse;  nor  perhaps  does  he  ever  equal  Peele  at 
his  best.  On  the  other  hand,  his  dramatic  poetry  is  occasionally 
animated  with  the  breezy  freshness  which  no  artifice  can  simulate. 
He  had  considerable  constructive  skill,  but  he  has  created  no 
character  of  commanding  power^unless  Ateukin  be  excepted; 
but  his  personages  are  living  men  and  women,  and  marked  out 
from  one  another  with  a  vigorous  but  far  from  rude  hand.  His 
comic  humour  is  undeniable,  and  he  had  the  gift  of  light  and 


graceful  dialogue.  His  diction  ts  overloaded  with  classical 
ornament,  but  his  versification  is  easy  and  fluent,  and  its  cadence 
is  at  times  singularly  sweet.  He  creates  his  best  effects  by  the 
simplest  means;  and  he  is  indisputably  one  of  the  most  attractive 
of  eariy  English  dramatic  authors. 

Greene's  dramatic  works  and  poems  were  edited  by  Alexander 
Dyce  in  1831  with  a  life  of  the  author.  This  edition  was  reissued 
in  one  volume  in  1858.  His  complete  works  were  edited  for  the 
Huth  Library  by  A.  B.  Grosart.  This  issue  (1881 -1886)  contains  a 
translation  of  Nicholas  Storojhenko'smonograph  on  Greene  (Moscow, 
1878).  Greene's  plays  and  poems  were  edited  with  introductions 
and  notes  by  J.  Churton  Collins  in  2  vols.  (Oxford,  1905);  the 
general  introduction  to  this  edition  has  superseded  previous  accounts 
of  Greene  and  his  dramatic  and  lyrical  writines.  An  account  of 
his  pamphlets  is  to  be  found  in  J.  J.  Jusaerand's  English  Nmd  in 
Ike  Time  of  Skakes^re  (Eng.  trans.,  i  foo).  Sec  also  W.  Bcrnhardi. 
Robert  Greenes  Leoen  und  Sckriflen  (1874);  F.  M.  Bodcnstedt,  in 
Skakespeare's  Zeiltenossen  und  ikre  Werke  (1858):  and  an  intro- 
duction by  A.  W.  Ward  to  Friar  Bacon  and  Friar  Bungay  (Oxford, 
1886,  4th  cd..  1901}.  (A.  W.  W.)   ^ 

GREENFIELD,  a  township  and  the  county-scat  of  Franklin 
county,  in  N.E.  Massachusetts,  U.S.A.,  including  an  area  of 
20  sq.  m.  of  meadow  and  hill  country,  watered  by  the  Green 
and  Dcerficld  rivers  and  various  small  tributaries.  Pop.  (1890) 
5352,  (1900)  7937,  of  whom  1431  were  foreign-born;  (1910 
census)  10,427.  The  principal  village,  of  the  same  name  as 
the  township,  is  situated  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Dcerfield  river, 
and  on  the  Boston  &  Maine  railway  and  the  Connecticut  Valley 
street  railway  (electric).  Among  Greenfield's  manufactures  are 
cutlery,  machinery,  and  taps  and  dies.  Greenfield,  originally 
part  of  Dcerfield,  was  settled  about  1683,  was  established  as  a 
"  district  "  in  1753,  and  on  the  33rd  of  August  1775  was,  by  a 
general  Act,  separated  from  Dcerfield  and  incorporated  as  a 
separate  township,  although  it  had  assumed  full  township  rights 
in  1774  by  sending  delegates  to  the  Provincial  Congress.  In 
1 793  part  of  it  was  taken  to  form  the  township  of  Gill;  in  1838 
part  of  it  was  annexed  to  Bernardston;  and  in  1896  it  annexed 
a  part  of  Dcerfield. .  It  was  much  disaffected  at  the  time  of 
Shays's  Rebellion. 

Sec  F.  M.  Thompson,'  History  of  Greenfield  (a  vols.,  Greenfield. 
1904). 

GREENFINCH  (Ger.  CrUnfink),  or  Green  Linnet,  as  it  is  very 
often  called,  a  common  European  bird,  the  Fringilla  chloris  of 
Linnaeus,  ranked  by  many  systematists  with  one  section  of  haw- 
finches, CoccoikrausteSf  but  apparently  more  nearly  allied  to  the 
other  section  Hespcripkona,  and  perhaps  justifiably  deemed  the 
type  of  a  distinct  genus,  to  which  the  name  Ckloris  or  Ligurinus 
has  been  applied.  The  cock,  in  his  plumage  of  yellowish-green 
and  yelk>w  is  one  of  the  most  finely  coloured  of  common  English 
birds,  but  he  is  rather  heavily  built,  and  his  song  is  hardly  com- 
mended. The  hen  is  much  less  brightly  tinted.  Throughout 
Britain,  as  a  rule,  this  species  is  one  of  the  most  plentiful  birds, 
and  is  found  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  It  pervades  almost  the 
whole  of  Europe,  and  in  Asia  reaches  the  river  Ob.  It  visits 
Palestine,  but  is  unknown  in  Egypt.  It  is,  however,  abundant 
in  Mauritania,  whence  specimens  are  so  brightly  coloured  that 
they  have  been  deemed  to  form  a  distinct  species,  the  Ligurinus 
anranliiventris  of  Dr  Cabanis,  but  that  view  is  new  generally 
abandoned.  In  the  north-east  of  Asia  and  its  adjacent  islands 
occur  two  allied  Species— the  Fringilla  sinica  of  Linnaeus  and  the 
F.  kawarahiba  of  Temminck.  (A.  N.) 

GREENHEART,  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  timbers,  the 
produce  of  Nectandra  Rodiaei,  natural  order  Lauraceac,  a  large 
tree,  native  of  tropical  South  America  and  the  West  Indies.  The 
Indian  name  of  the  tree  is  sipiri  or  bibiru,  and  from  its  bark  and 
fruits  is  obtained  the  febrifuge  principle  bibirine.  Greenhcart 
wood  is  of  a  dark-green  colour,  sap  wood  and  heart  wood  being  so 
much  alike  that  they  can  with  difficulty  be  distinguished  from 
each  other.  The  heart  wood  is  one  of  the  most  durable  of  all 
timbers,  and  its  value  Is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  it  is 
proof  against  the  ravages  of  many  marine  borers  which  rapidly 
destroy  piles  and  other  submarine  structures  of  most  other 
kinds  of  wood  available  for  such  purposes.  In  the  Kelvingrove 
Museum,  Glasgow,  there  are  two  pieces  of  planking  from  a  wreck 
submerged  during  eighteen  years  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland. 


542 


GREENLAND 


The  one  specimen — greenheart — is  merely  slightly  pitted  on  the 
surface,  the  body  of  the  wood  being  perfectly  sound  and  untouched, 
while  the  other — teak — is  almost  entirely  eaten  away.  Green- 
heart,  tested  either  by  transverse  or  by  tensile  strain,  is  one  of 
the  strongest  of  all  woods,  and  it  is  also  exceedingly  dense,  its 
specific  gravity  being  about  1150.  It  is  included  in  the  second 
line  of  Lloyd's  Register  for  shipbuilding  purposes,  and  it  is  exten- 
sively used  for  keelsons,  beams,  fcngine-bearers  and  planking,  &c., 
as  well  as  in  the  general  engineering  arts,  but  its  excessive  weight 
unfits  it  for  many  purposes  for  which  its  other  properties  would 
render  it  eminently  suitable. 

GREENLAND  (Danish,  kc,  Crdnland),  a  large  continental 
island,  the  greater  portion  of  which  lies  within  the  Arctic  Circle, 
while  the  whole  is  arctic  in  character.  It  is  not  connected  with 
any  portion  of  Europe  or  America  except  by  suboceanic  ridges; 
but  in  the  extreme  north  it  is  separated  only  by  a  narrow  strait 
from  EUesmere  Land  in  the  archipelago  of  the  American  continent. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  North  Atlantic,  the  Norwegian 
and  Greenland  Seasr— Jan  Mayen,  Iceland,  the  Faeroe  Islands 
and  the  Shetlands  being  the  only  Uinds  between  it  and  Norway. 
Denmark  Strait  is  the  sea  between  it  and  Iceland,  and  the 
northern  Norwegian  Sea  or  Greenland  Sea  separates  it  from 
Spitsbergen.  On  the  west  Davis  Strait  and  Baffin  Bay  separate 
it  from  Baffin  Land.  The  so-called  bay  narrows  northward  into 
the  strait  successively  known  as  Smith  Sound,  Kane  Basin, 
Kennedy  Channel  and  Robeson  Channel.  A  submarine  ridge, 
about  300  fathoms  deep  at  its  deepest,  unites  Greenland  with 
Iceland  (across  Denmark  Strait),  the  Faeroes  and  Scotland.  A 
similar  submarine  ridge  unites  it  with  the  Cumberland  Peninsula 
of  Baffin  Land,  across  Davis  Strait.  Two  large  islands  (with 
others  smaller)  lie  probably  off  the  north  coast,  being  apparently 
divided  from  it  by  very  narrow  channels  which  are  not  yet  ex- 
plored. If  they  be  reckoned  as  integral  parts  of  Greenland,  then 
the  north  coast,  fronting  the  polar  sea,  culminates  about  83^40'  N. 
Cape  Farewell,  the  most  southerly  point  (also  on  a  small  island), 
is  in  59**  45'  N.  The  extreme  length  of  Greenland  may  therefore 
be  set  down  at  about  1650  m.,  while  its  extreme  breadth,  which 
occurs  about  77^  30'  N.,  is  approximately  800  m.  The  area 
is  estimated  at  827,275  sq.  m.  Greenland  is  a  Danish  colony, 
inasmuch  as  the  west  coast  and  also  the  southern  east  coast 
belong  to  the  Danish  crown.  The  scattered  settlements  of 
Europeans  on  the  southern  parts  of  the  coasts  are  Danish,  and  the 
trade  is  a  monopoly  of  the  Danish  government. 

The  southern  and  south-western  coasts  have  been  known, 
as  will  be  mentioned  later,  since  the  xoth  century,  when  Norse 
settlers  appeared  there,  and  the  names  of  many  famous  arctic 
explorers  have  been  associated  with  the  exploration  of  Greenland. 
The  communication  between  the  Norse  settlements  in  Greenland 
and  the  motherland  Norway  was  broken  off  at  the  end  of  the  14th 
and  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  and  the  Norsemen's 
knowledge  about  their  distant  colony  was  gradually  more  or 
less  forgotten.  The  south  and  west  coast  of  Greenland  was  then 
re-discovcrcd  by  John  Davis  in  July  1585,  though  previous  ex- 
plorers, as  Cortereal,  Frobisher  and  others,  had  seen  it,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  i6th  and  the  beginning  of  the  X7th  century  the  work 
of  Davis  (1586-1588),  Hudson  (1610)  and  Baffin  (1616)  in  the 
western  seas  afforded  some  knowledge  of  the  west  coast.  This 
was  added  to  by  later  explorers  and  by  whalers  and  sealers. 
Among  explorers  who  in  the  19th  century  were  specially  con- 
nected with  the  north-west  coast  may  be  mentioned  E.  A. 
Ingleficld  (1852)  who  sailed  into  Smith's  Sound,*  Elisha  KentKane 
(1853-1855)'  who  worked  northward  through  Smith  Sound  into 
Kane  Basin,  and  Charles  Francis  Hall  (1871)  who  explored  the 
strait  (Kennedy  Channel  and  Robeson  Channel)  to  the  north  of 
this.' 

The  northern  east  coast  was  sighted  by  Hudson  (1607)  in  about 
73^  30'  N.  (C.  Hold  with  Hope),  and  during  the  i7tb  century  and 

*  Ingleficld,  Summer  Search  for  Franklin  (London,  1853).. 

^Second  Crinnell  Expedition  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  i8$6). 

>  Davis.  Polaris  (Hall's)  North  Polar  Expedition  (Washington, 
1876).  See  also  Bessels,  Die  anurikanisclle  Nordpol-ExpMition 
(Uipxig,  1879). 


later  this  northern  coast  was  probably  visited  by  many  Dutch 
whalers.  The  first  who  gave  more  accurate  information  was  the 
Scottish  whaler,  Captain  William  Scoresby,  jun.  (1822),  who, 
with  his  father,  explored  the  coast  between  69^  and  75*  N.,  and 
gave  the  first  fairly  trustworthy  map  of  it.* '  Captains  Edward 
Sabine  and  Clavering  (1823)  visited  the  coast  between  72*  5'  and 
75*  12'  N.  and  met  the  only  Eskimo  ever  seen  in  this  part  of 
Greenland.  The  second  German  polar  expedition  in  1870, 
under  Carl  Christian  Koldewey*  '  (1837-190)3),  reached  77*  N. 
(Cape  Bismarck);  and  the  duke  of  Orleans,  in  1905,  ascertained 
that  this  point  was  on  an  island  (the  Dove  Bay  of  the  German 
expedition  being  in  reality  a  strait)  and  penetrated  farther  north, 
to  about  78°  16'.  From  this  point  the  north-east  coast  remained 
unexplored,  though  a  sight  was  reported  in  1670  by  a  whaler 
named  Lambert,  and  again  in  1775  as  far  north  as  79*  by  Daines 
Barrington,  until  a  Danish  expedition  under  Mylius  Erichsen  in 
1906-1908  explored  it,  discovering  North-East  Foreland,  the 
easternmost  point  (see  Polar  Regions  and  map).  The 
southern  part  of  the  east  coast  was  first  explored  by  the  Dane 
Wilhelm  August  Graah  (1829-1830)  between  Cape  FareweR  and 
65**  x6'  N.*  In  1 883-1 885  the  Danes  G.  Holm  and  T.  V.  Garde 
carefully  explored  and  mapped  the  coast  from  Cape  Farewell 
to  Angmag»alik,  in  66*  N.'  F.  Nansen  and  his  companions 
also  travelled  along  a  part  of  this  coast  in  x888.*  A.  E.  Nordens- 
ki5ld,  in  the  "  Sophia,"  landed  near  Angmagssalik,  in  65*  36'  N., 
in  X883.*  Captain  C.  Ryder, in  X891-1892, explored  and  mapped 
the  large  Scoresby  Sound,  or,  more  correctly,  Scoresby  Fjord.** 
Lieutenant  G.  Amdrup,  in  X899,  explored  the  coast  from  Ang- 
magssalik north  to  67*  22'  N."  A  part  of  this  coast,  about 
67°  N.,  had  also  been  seen  by  Nansen  in  X882.*'  In  X899  Professor 
A.  G.  Nathorst  explored  the  land  between  Franz  Josef  Fjord 
and  Scoresby  Fjord,  where  the  large  King  Oscar  Fjord,  connecting 
Davy's  Sound  with  Franz  Joseph  Fjord,  was  discovered."  In 
1900  Lieutenant  Amdrup  explored  the  still  unknown  east  coast 
from  69*  10'  N.  south  to  67*  N." 

From  the  work  of  explorers  in  the  north-vest  it  had  been 
possible  to  infer  the  approximate  latitude  of  the  northward 
termination  of  Greenland  long  before  it  was  definitely  known. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  X9th  century  several  explorers  gave 
attention  to  this  question.  Lieutcxumt  (afterwards  Admiral) 
L.  A.  Beaumont  (X876),  of  the  Nares  Expedition,  explored  the 
coast  north-east  of  Robeson  Channel  to  82*  ao'  N.**  In  1882 
Lieut.  J.  B.  Lockwood  and  Sergeant  (afterwards  Captain) 
D.  L.  Brainard,  of  the  U.S.  expedition  to  Lady  Franklin 
Bay,**  explored  the  north-west  coast  beyond  Beaumont's  farthest 
to  a  promontory  in  83*  24'  N.  and  40*  46'  E.  and  they  saw 
to  the  north-east  Cape  Washington,  in  about  83"  38'  N.  and 
39*  30'  E.,  the  most  northerly  point  of  land  till  then  observed. 
In  July  X892  R.  E.  Peary  and  £.  Astrup,  crossing  by  land  from 
Inglefield  Gulf,  Smith  Sound,  discovered  Independence  Bay  on 

the  north-east  coast  in  8x'*  37'  N.  and  34*  5'  W."    In  May  1895  it 
« Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  ike  Northern  Whale  Fishery  (i«23). 

*  Die  wweile  deutsche  Nordpolarfahrt  (i 873-1875). 

^Reise  til  Osthvsten  af  Gr&nland  (183a;  tians.  by  G.  Gordon 
Macdougall,  1837;. 
'  MeddddseromGrHnlani,  parts  ix.  and  x.  (Copenhagen,  1888). 

*  The  First  Crossint  of  Greenland,  vol.  i.  (London,  i^).  H.  M<d» 
and  F.  Nansen;  "  wissenschaftliche  Eraebntsae  von  Dr  F.  Nausea 
Durchquerung  von  Grfinland  "  (1888),  Erginxungsheft  Na  105  m 
Petermanns  MiUeilungen  (Gotha,  1892). 

'A.  F.  Nordenski6ld,  Den  andra  Dichsensha  Bxpeditiomeu  til 
Gr&nland  (Stockholm,  1885). 

>*  MeddeMseromGrdnland,  pts.  xvii.-xix.  (Copenhagen.  1895-1896). 

**  Geoerafish  Tidskrift,  xv.  53-71  (Copenhagen.  1899). 

^  Ibil  vii.  76-79.  (Copenhagen,  X884). 

^Tlu  Geofraphical  Journal,  nv.  »4  (1899);  xvii.  48 
7M  Somrar  t  Norra  Ishajhet  (Stockholm,  1901). 

**  Meddeldser  em  Crdnland,  parts  xxvi.-xxvii. 

**  Narea,  Vo^f*  to  the  Polar  Sea  (3  vols.  London,  1877).  See 
also  Blue  Book,  journals, &c, (Nares)  Expedition,  1675-1876  (Loodoa, 
1877). 

*•  A.  W.  Greely.  Report  on  the  Proctodinis  of  the  United  SkOa 
Expedition  to  Lady  FranUin  Bay,  Crinndl  Land,  vols.  i.  and  n. 
(Washington,  1885);  Three  Years  of  Arctic  Service  (2  vols.  Lomkm. 
1886). 

"  R.  E.  Peary.  Northward  ooerthe"  Great  lee  "  (3  vols.  New  York. 
1898) ;  E.  Astrup,  Blandt  NordpoUn's  Naboer  (Chrisciania,  1895). 


(1901).; 


GREENLAND 


543 


was  revisited  by  Petty,  who  supposed  this  bay  to  be  a  sound  com- 
municating with  Victoria  Inlet  on  the  north-west  coast.  To  the 
north  Heilprin  Land  and  Melville  Land  were  seen  stretching 
northwards,  but  the  probability  seemed  to  be  that  the  coast  soon 
trended  north-west.  In  190X  Peary  rounded  the  north  point,  and 
penetrated  as  far  north  as  83**  50'  N.   The  scanty  exploration  of 


the  great  ice-cap,  or  inland  ice,  which  may  be  asserted  to  cover  the 
whole  of  the  interior  of  Greenland,  has  been  prosecuted  chiefly 
from  the  west  coast.  In  1751  Lars  Dalager,  a  Danish  trader, 
took  some  steps  in  this  direction  from  Frederikshaab.  In  1870 
Nordenskidid  and  Berggren  walked  35  m.  inland  from  the  head 
of  Aulatsivik  Fjord  (near  Disco  Bay)  to  an  elevation  of  2200  ft. 
The  Danish  captain  Jens  Arnold  Dietrich  Jensen  reached,  in 
7878,  the  Jensen  Nunataks  (5400  ft.  above  the  sea),  about  45  m. 


from  the  western  margin,  in  6  2^  50'  N.>  Nordenskidid  penetrated 
in  1883  about  70  m.  inland  in  68**  20'  N.,  and  two  Lapps  of  his 
expedition  went  still  farther  on  skis,  to  a  point  nearly  under  45* 
W.  at  an  elevation  of  6600  ft.  Peary  and  Maigaard  reached  in 
1886  about  xoo  m.  inland,  a  height  of  7500  ft.  in  69**  30'  N. 
Nansen  with  five  companions  in  x888  made  the  first  complete 
crossing  of  the  inland  ice,  working  from  the  east 
coast  to  the  west,  about  64°  25'  N.,  and  reached 
a  height  of  8922  ft.  Peary  and  Astrup,  as 
already  indicated,  crossed  in  1892  the  northern 
part  of  the  inland  ice  between  78"  and  82"  N., 
reaching  a  height  of  about  8000  ft.,  and  deter- 
mined the  northern  termination  of  the  ice- 
covering.  Peary  made  very  nearly  the  same 
journey  again  in  1895.  Captain  T.  V.  Garde 
explored  in  1893  the  interior  of  the  inland  ice 
between  61"  and  62°  N.  near  its  southern 
termination,  and  he  reached  a  height  of  7080  ft 
about  60  m.  from  the  margin.* 

Coasts. — The  coasts  of  Greenland  are  for  the 
most  part  deeplv  indented  with  fjords,  being  in- 
tensely glaciated.  The  coast-line  of  Melville  Bay 
(the  northern  part  of  the  west  coast)  is  to  some 
degree  an  exception,  though  the  fjords  may  here 
be  somewhat  filled  with  glaciers,  and,  for  another 
example,  it  may  be  noted  that  Peary  observed 
a  marked  contrast  on  the  north  coast.  Eastward 
as  far  as  Cape  Morris  Jesup  there  are  precipitous 
headlands  and  islands,  as  elsewhere,  with  deep 
water  close  inshore.  East  of  the  same  cape  there 
is  an  abrupt  chan^;  the  coast  is  unbroxen,  the 
mountains  recede  mland,  and  there  is  shoal-water 
for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  coast. 
Numerous  islands  lie  off  the  coasts  where  they 
are  indented;  but  these  are  in  no  case  large, 
excepting  those  off  the  north  coast,  and  that  of 
Disco  off  the  west,  which  is  crossed  by  the  parallel 
of  70*  N.  This  island,  which  is  separated  by 
Waigat  Strait  from  the  Nugsuak  peninsula,  is 
lofty,  and  has  an  area  of  3005  sq.  m.  Stcenstnip 
in  1898  discovered  in  it  the  warmest  sprinc  known 
in  Greenland,  having  a  temperature  of  66  F. 

The  unusual  glaciation  of  the  east  coast  is 
evidently  owing  to  the  north  polar  current  carry- 
ing the  ice  masses  from  the  north  polar  basin 
south-westward  along   the  land,  ana  giving  it 
an  entirely  arctic  climate  down  to  Ca^  Farewell. 
In  some  parts  the  interior  ice-coycring  extends 
down  to  the  outer  coast,^  while  in  other  parts 
its  margin  is  situated  more  inland,  and  the  ice-bare 
coast-land  is  deeply  intersected  by  fjords  extend- 
ing far  into  the  mtcrior,  where  they  are  blocked 
by  enormous  glaciers  or  "  ice<urrents  "  from  the 
interior  icc<ovcring  which  discharge  masses  of 
icebergs  into  them.    The  cast  coast  of  Grcenbnd 
is  in  this  respect  highly  interesting.    All  coasts 
in  the  world  which  are  much  intersected  by  deep 
fjords  have,  with  very  few  exceptions,  a  western 
exposure,  e.g.  Norway,  Scotland,  British  Columbia 
and    Alaska,    Patagonia   and    Chile,    and   even 
Spitsbergen  and   Novaya   Zcmlya,   whose   west 
coasts  are  far  more  indented  than  their  east  ones. 
Greenland  forms  the  most  prominent  exception, 
its  eastern  coast  being  quite  as  much  indented  as 
its  western.    The  reason  is  to  be  found  in  its  geo- 
graphical position,  a  cold  icc-covercd  polar  current 
running  south  along  the  land,  while  not  far  out- 
side there  is  an  open  warmer  sea,  a  circumstance 
which,  while  producing  a  cold  climate,  must  also 
give  rise  to  much  precipitation,  the  land  being 
thus  exposed  to  the  alternate  erosion  of  a  rough 
J  atmosphere   and    large    glaciers.     On    the   east 
'*'  coast  of  Baffin  Land  and  Labrador  there  are 
similar  conditions.     The  result  is  that  the  east 
coast  of  Greenland  has  the  largest  system  of  typical  fjords  known 
on  the  earth's  surface.    Scorcsby    Fjord  has  a  length  of  about 
180  m.  from  the  outer  coast  to  the  pomt  where  it  is  blocked  by  the 
glaciers,  and   with   its  numerous  branches  covers  an  enormous 
area.    Franz  Josef  Fjord,  with  iu  branch  King  Oscar  Fjord,  com- 
municating with  Davy's  Sound,  forms  a  system  of  fjords  on  a 
similar  scale.     These  fjords  are  very  deep;     the  greatest 


t».'l,*.JMl  ' 


depth 


»  MeddeUlset  om  Grdnland.  part  I.  (Copenhagen,  1879). 
"  Jlyid.  part  xvi.  (Copenhagen.  1896). 


54+ 


GREENLAND 


found  by  Ryder  in  Scorcsby  Sound  was  300  fathoms,  but  there  are 
certainly  still  greater  depths;  like  the  Norwegian  fiords  they  have, 
however,  probably  all  of  them,  a  threshold  or  sill,  with  shallow 
water,  near  their  mouths.  A  few  soundings  made  outside  this 
coast  seem  to  indicate  that  the  fiords  continue  as  deep  submarine 
valleys  far  out  into  the  sea.  On  the  west  coast  there  are  also 
many  great  fjords.  One  of  the  best  known  from  earlier  days  is 
the  great  Godthaab  Fjord  (or  Baals  Revier)  north  of  64"  N.    Along 


high."  At  the  bottom  of  Mogens  Ueinesen  Tjord,  63*  30'  N.,  the 
pealu  are  6300  ft.,  and  in  the  region  of  Umanak,  63*  N.,  they  even 
exceed  6600  ft.  At  Umivik,  where  Nansen  began  his  journey 
across  the  inland  ice,  the  highest  peak  projecting  through  the  ice> 
covering  was  Camel's  Nunatak,  6440  ft.,  in  64*  34'  N.  In  the 
region  of  Angmagssalik,  which  is  very  mountainous,  the  mountains 
rise  to  6500  ft.,  the  most  prominent  peak  being  Ingolf's  Field,  in 
66"  20'  N.,  about  6000  ft.,  which  is  seen  from  far  out  at  sea,  and  forms 
an  excellent  landmark.  This  is  probably  the  Blaaserk  U^.  Blue 
Sark  or  blue  shirt)  of  the  old  Norsemen,  their  first  landmark  on 
their  way  from  Iceland  to  the  Oster  Bygd,  the  present  Julianehaab 
district,  on  the  south-west  coast  of  Greenland.  A  little  farther 
north  the  coast  is  much  lower,  rising  only  to  heights  of  2000  ft., 
and  just  north  of  67*  10'  N.  only  to  500  tt.  or  less.^  The  highest 
mountains  near  the  inner  branches  of  Scoresby  Fjord  are  about 

J 000  ft.  The  Pctcrmann  Spitze,  near  the  shore  of  Franz  losef 
jord,  measured  by  Payer  and  found  to  be  11,000  ft.,  has  hitherto 
been  considered  to  be  the  highest  mountain  in  Greenland,  but 
according  to  Nathorst  it  *'  is  probably  only  two-thirds  as  high  as 
Payer  supposed,"  perhaps  between  8000  and  9000  ft. 

Along  the  west  coast  of  Greenland  the  mountains  are  generally 
not  quite  so  high,  but  even  here  peaks  of  5000  and  6000  ft.  are  not 
uncommon.  As  a  whole  the  coasts  are  unusually  mountainous,  and 
Greenland  forms  in  this  respect  an  interesting  exception,  as  there 
is  no  other  known  land  of  such  a  size  so  filled  alons  its  coasts  on  all 
sides  with  high  mountains  and  deep  fjords  and  vafleys. 

The  Inland  Ice. — The  whole  interior  of  Greenland  is  completely 
covered  by  the  so-called  inland  ice,  an  enormous  {[lacier  forming  a 
regular  shield-shaped  expanse  of  snow  and  glacier  ice,  and  burying 
all  valleys  and  mountains  far  below  its  surface.  ^  Its  area  is  about 
715.400  sq.  m..  and  it  is  by  far  the  greatest  glacier  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  Only  occasionally  there  emerge  lofty  rocks,  isolated  but 
not  completely  covered  by  the  iceK:ap:  such  rocks  are  known  as 
nunaioks  (an  Eskimo  woro).  The  inland  ice  rises  in  the  interior  to 
a  level  of  9000,  and  in  places  perhaps  10,000  ft.  or  more,  and  descends 
gradually  by  extremely  gentle  dopes  towards  the  coasts  or  the 
bottom  of  the  fjords  on  ail  sides,  discharging  a  great  part  of  its 
yearly  drainage  or  surplus  of  precipitation  in  thelorm  of  icebergs 
in  the  fjords,  the  so-called  ice-fjords,  which  are  numerous  both  on 
the  west  and  on  the  east  coast.  These  icebergs  float  away,  and  are 
gradually  melted  in  the  sea,  the  temperature  ofwhich  is  thus  lowered 
by  cold  stored  up  in  the  interior  of  Greenland.  The  last  remains  of 
these  icebergs  arc  met  with  in  the  Atlantic  south  of  Newfoundland. 
The  surface  of  the  inland  ice  forms  in  a  transverse  section  from  the 
west  to  the  east  coast  an  extremely  regular  curve,  almost  approach- 
ing an  arc  of  a  wide  circle,  which  along Tttansen's  route  has  its  highest 
ridge  somewhat  nearer  the  east  than  the  west  coast.  The  same  also 
seems  to  be  the  case  farther  south.  The  curve  shows,  however, 
slight  irregularities  in  the  shape  of  undulations.  The  anj^le  of  the 
slope  decreases  gradually  from  the  margin  of  the  inland  ice,  where 
it  may  be  i  *  or  more,  towards  the  interior,  where  it  is  o*.  In  the 
interior  the  surface  of  the  inland  ice  is  composed  of  dry  snow  which 
never  melts,  and  is  constantly  packed  ana  worked  smooth  by  the 
winds.  It  extends  as  a  completely  even  plain  of  snow,  with  long, 
almost  imperceptible,  undulations  or  waves,  at  a  height  of  7000  to 
10,000  ft.,  obliterating  the  features  of  the  underlying  land,  the 
mountains  and  valleys  of  which  are  completely  interred.  Over  the 
deepest  valleys  of  the  land  in  the  intenor  this  ice-cap  must  be  at 
least  6000  or  7000  ft.  thick  or  more.  Approaching  the  coasts  from 
the  interior,  tne  snow  of  the  surface  gradually  changes  its  structure. 
At  first  it  becomes  more  coarse-grained,  like  the  Ftm  Scknet  oS  the 
Alps,  and  is  moist  by  melting  during  the  summer.  Nearer  the  coast, 
where  the  melting  on  the  surface  is  more  considerable,  the  wet 
snow  freezes  hard  during  the  winter  and  is  more  or  less  transformed 
into  ice.  on  the  surface  of  which  rivers  and  lakes  are  formed,  the 
water  of  which,  however,  soon  finds  its  way  through  crevasses  and 
holes  in  the  ice  down  to  its  under  surface,  and  reaches  the  sea  as  a 
sub-glacial  river.  Near  its  margin  the  surface  of  the  inland  ice  is 
broken  up  by  numerous  large  crevasses,  formed  by  the  outward 
motion  of^  the  glacier  covering  the  underlying  land.  The  steep  ice- 
walls  at  the  margin  of  the  inland  ice  snow,  especially  where  the 
motion  of  the  ice  is  slow,  a  distinct  striation,  which  indicates  the 
strata  of  annual  precipitation  with  the  intervening  thin  seams  of 
dust  (Nordenskidld's  kryokonite).    This  is  partly  dust  blown  on 

»See  C.   Kruuse  in  Ceografisk   Tidskrift,  xv.  64  (Copenhagen, 
1809).     See  also  F.  Nansen,  "  Die  OstkUsteGronlands,"  Ergilnzungs- 
heft  No.  105  zu  Petertnanns  MiUeUungen  (Goth^,  1892),  p.  55  and 
V  iv.,  sketch  No.  xi. 


to  the  surface  of  the  ice  from  the  ice-bare  coast-land  and  partly  the 
dust  of  the  atmosphere  brought  down  by  the  falling  aoow  and 
accumulated  on  the  surface  of  the  glacier's  covering  by  the  naduag 
during  the  summer.  In  the  rapidly  moving  glacten  «f  the  ice- 
fjords  this  striation  b  not  distinctljr  visible,  being  evidently 
obliterated  by  the  strong  motion  of  the  ice  masses. 

The  ice-cap  of  Greenland  must  to  some  extent  be  conaadered  as  a 
viscous  mass,  which,  by  the  vertical  pressure  in  its  interior,  is  pressed 
outwards  and  slowly  flows  towards  the  coasts,  just  as  a  mass  of 

Sitch  placed  on  a  table  and  left  to  itself  will  in  the  course  of  time 
ow  outwards  towards  all  sides.  The  motion  of  the  outwards- 
creeping  inland  ice  will  naturally  be  more  independent  of  the  con- 
figurations of  the  underiying  land  in  the  interior,  where  its  thickness 
is  so  enormous,  than  near  the  margin  where  it  is  thinner.  Here  the 
ice  converges  into  the  valleys  and  moves  with  incrcaaiiig  velocity 
in  the  form  of  glaciers  into  the  fjords,  where  they  break  off  as  ice> 
bergs.  The  drainage  of  the  interior  of  Greenland  is  thus  partly 
given  off  in  the  solid  form  of  icebergs,  partly  by  the  melting  of  tlie 
snow  and  ice  on  ^he  surface  of  the  ice-cap,  especially  near  its  western 
margin,  and  to  some  slight  extent  also  1^  the  meUing  produoed  on 
its  under  side  by  the  interior  heat  of  the  earth.  /Jter  Professor 
Amund  Hclland  had,  in  July  1875,  discovered  the  amazingly  great 
velocity,  up  to  64}  ft.  in  twenty-four  hours,  with  which  the  glaciers 
of  Greenland  move  into  the  sea.  the  margin  of  the  inland  ice  and  its 

Slaciers  was  studied  by  several  expeditions.  K.  J.  V.  Steenstrup 
uring  several  years.  Captain  Hammer  in  1879-1880,  Captain  Ryder 
in  1886-1887.  Dr  Drygalski  in  1891-1893.*  and  several  Amencan 
expeditions  in  later  years,  all  examined  the  question  closely.  The 
highest  known  velocities  of  glaciers  were  measured  by  Ryder  in  the 
Upemivik  glacier  (in  73*  N.;,  where,  between  the  13th  and  14th  of 
August  of  1886,  he  found  a  velocity  of  125  ft.  in  twenty-four  boun. 
andf  an  average  velocity  during  several  days  of  loi  ft.  (Oanish).* 
It  was,  however,  ascertained  that  there  is  a  great  difference  between 
the  velocities  of  the  glaciers  in  winter  and  in  summer.  For  instance. 
Ryder  found  that  tne  Upemivik  glacier  had  an  average  vdodty 
ot^only  33  ft.  in  April  1887.  There  seem  to  be  periodkal  oscillations 
in  the  extension  of  the  glaciers  and  the  inland  ice  wmilar  to  those 
that  have  been  observed  on  the  glaciers  of  the  Alps  and  elsewhere. 
But  these  interesting  phenomena  have  not  hitherto  been  subject  to 
systematic  observation,  and  our  knowledge  of  them  is  therefore 
uncertain.  Numerous  glacial  marks,  however,  such  as  polished 
striated  rocks,  moraines,  erratic  blocks,  &c.,  prove  that  the  whde 
of  Greenland,  even  the  small  islands  and  skerries  outside  the  coast, 
has  once  been  covered  by  the  inbnd  ice. 

Numerous  raised  beaches  and  terraces,  containing  shells  of  mariae 
mollusca,  &c.,  occur  along  the  whole  coast  of  Greenland,  and  indicate 
that  the  whole  of  this  large  island  has  been  raised,  or  the  sea  has 
sunk,  in  post-glacial  times,  after  the  inland  ice  covered  its  now  ice- 
bare  outskirts.  In  the  north  along  the  shores  of  Smith  Sound  these 
traces  of  the  gradual  upheaval  of  tne  land,  or  sinking  of  the  sea,  are 
very  marked ;  but  they  are  also  very  distinct  in  the  south,  although 
not  found  so  high  above  sea-level,  which  seems  to  show  that  the 
upheaval  has  been  greater  in  the  north.    In  Uvkusigsat  Fjord 

i72*  20'  N.)  the  highest  terrace  is  480  ft.  above  the  sea.*  On  Manitsok 
65*  30'  K.)  the  highest  raised  beach  was  360  ft.  above  the  sea.' 
n  the  Isortok  Fjord  (67*  1 1'  N.)  the  highest  raised  beach  is  380  fL 
above  sea-level.*  In  the  Ameralik  Fjord  (64*  14'  N.)  the  highest 
marine  terrace  is  about  340  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  at  llivemlik 
(63*  14'  N.),  north  of  Fiskemaes.  the  highest  terrace  b  about  32$  ft. 
above  the  sea.  At  Kakarsuak,  near  the  Bjfimesund  (62*  30'  K.). 
a  terrace  b  found  at  615  ft.  above  the  sea,  but  it  b  doubtful  whether 
this  is  of  marine  origin.'  In  the  Julianehaab  district,  between  60* 
and  61  *  N.,  the  highest  marine  terraces  are  found  at  about  160  ft. 
above  the  sea.'  The  highest  marine  terrace  observed  in  Scoresby 
Fjord,  on  the  east  coast,  was  240  ft.  above  sea  level.*  There  b  a 
common  belief  that  during  guite  recent  times  the  west  and  south- 
west coast,  within  the  Danish  possessions,  has  been  sinking.  Al- 
though there  are  many  indications  which  may  make  thb  probable, 
none  of  them  can  be  said  to  be  quite  decisive." 

\Ceoloty. — So  far  as  made  out,  the  structure  of  explored  Grtenlaad 
is  as  follows: 

I.  Laurentian  gneiss  forms  the  greatest  mass  of  the  exposed 
rocks  of  the  country  bare  of  ice.  They  are  found  on  both  stoes  of 
Smith  Sound,  rising  to  heights  of  2000  ft.,  and  underlie  the  Miocene 
and  Cretaceous  rocks  of  Disco  Island,  Noursoak  Peninsula  and  the 

>  E.  v.  Dry)galski,  Grdnlani-ExpedUion  ier  CeselUckaft  fir  EH- 
kunde  tu  Berlin,  iSgi-iSgj  (2  vols.,  Beriin,  1897). 

*  Medddelser  om  CrrAiwaa^,  part  viii.  pp.  203-270  (Copenhagen, 
1889). 

*  Ibid.,  part  iv.  p.  230  (Copenhagen,  1883);  see  also  part  xiv.  pp. 
317  ct  seq.,  323. 

*  Ibid,  part  xiv.  p.  323  (Copenhagen,  1898). 
*Ibid.  part  ii.  pp.  I8i-i88  (Copenhagen.  1881). 
'  Ibid,  part  i.  pp.  99-101  (Copenhagen,  1879). 

*Ibid.  part  11.  p.  39  (Copenhagen,  1881);  pait  zvi.  pp> 
150-154  (1896). 

*  Ibid.,  part  xix.  p.  175  (1896). 

^Ibid.  part  i.  p.  ^4:  part  ii.  p.  40;  part  aav.  pp^  343*347i 
part  iv.  p.  237;  part  vtii.  p.  26. 


GREENLAND 


S4S 


Oolites  of  Pendulum  Island  in  East  Greenland.  Ancient  schists 
occur  on  the  cast  coast  south  of  An^ma^^ssalik,  and  basalts  and 
schkts  are  found  in  Scoresby  Fjord.  It  is  possible  that  some  of 
these  rocks  are  also  of  Huronian  age,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
rocks  so  designated  by  the  seologtsts  of  the  "  Alert  "  and  "  Dis- 
covery "  expedition  are  really  the  rocks  so  known  in  Canada,  or 
are  a  continuous  portion  of  the  fundamental  or  oldest  gneiss  of  the 
nonb-west  of  Scotland  and  the  western  isles. 

a.  SUmrian. — Upper  Silurian,  having  a  strong  relation  to  the 
Wenlock  group  of  Britain,  but  with  an  American  tacics,  and  Lower 
Silurian,  with  a  succession  much  the  same  as  in  British  North 
America,  are  found  on  the  shores  of  Smith  Sound,  and  Nathorst  has 
discovered  them  in  King  Oscar  Fjord,  but  not  as  yet  so  far  south 
as  the  Danish  possessions. 

3.  De9oniaM  rocks  are  believed  to  occur  in  Igaliko  and  Tunnu> 
diorfoik  Fjords,  in  S.W.  Greenland,  but  as  they  are  unfossiliferous 
sandstone,  rapidly  disintegrating,  this  cannot  be  known.  It  is, 
however,  likely  that  this  formation  occurs  in  Greenland,  for  in 
Dana  Bay,  Captain  Feilden  found  a  species  of  Spirifera  and  Pro- 
duUus  mesolobus  or  costatus,  though  it  is  possible  that  these  fossils 
represent  the  "  Ursa  stage  "  (Hcer)  of  tne  Lower  Carboniferous. 
A  few  Devonian  forms  have  also  been  recorded  from  the  Parry 
Archipelago,  and  Nathorst  has  shown  the  existence  of  Old  Red 
Sandstone  facies  of  Devonian  in  Traill  Island,  Geographical  Society 
Island,  Ymer  Island  and  Gauss  Peninsula. 

4.  Carboniferous. — In  erratic  blocks  of  sandstone,  found  on  the 
Disco  shore  of  the  Waigat  have  been  detected  a  SiiiUaria  and  a 
species  of  either  Ptcopteris-oc  GUickenia^  perhaps  of  this  age;  and 
probably  much  of  the  extreme  northern  coast  of  Ellesmere  Land, 
and  therefore,  in  all  likelihood,  the  opposite  Greenland  shore, 
contains  a  clearly  developed  Carboniferous  Limestone  fauna, 
identical  with  that  so  widely  distributed  over  the  North  American 
ooatinent,  and  referable  also  to  British  and  Spitsbergen  species. 
Of  the  Coal  Measures  above  these,  if  they  occur,  we  know  nothing 
at  present.  Capt.  Feilden  notes  as  suj^estive  that,  though  the 
explorers  have  not  met  with  this  formation  on  the  northern  shores 
<rf  Greenland,  yet  it  was  observed  that  a  continuation  of  the  direction 
of  the  known  strike  of  the  limestones  of  Feilden  peninsula,  carried 
over  the  polar  area,  passes  through  the  neighbourhood  of  SfMtsber^n, 
where  tm  formation  occurs,  and  contains  certain  species  identical 
with  those  of  the  Grinnell  Land  rocks  of  this  horizon.  The  facies  of 
the  fossils  is,  according  to  Mr  Etheridge,  North  American  and 
Canadian,  though  many  of  the  species  are  British.  The  corals  are 
few  in  number,  but  the  MMuscoida  {Pi^ywoa)  are  more  numerous 
in  species  and  individuals.  No  Secondary  rocks  have  been  dis- 
covered in  the  extreme  northern  parts  of  West  Greenland,  but  they 
are  present  on  the  east  and  west  coasts  in  more  southerly  latitudes 
than  Smith  Sound. 

5.  Jurassic. — These  do  not  occur  on  the  west  coast,  but  on  the 
^st  coast  the  German  expedition  discovered  marls  and  sandstones 
on  Kuhn  Island,  resembling  those  of  the  Russian  Jurassic,  charac- 
teriaed  by  the  presence  of  tne  genus  AucMa^  (HcosUphanus  Payeri, 
O.  striolarist  Bdemnites  Fatuurianus,  B.  veltensiSt  B.  absolutus, 
and  a  Cyprina  near  to  C.  syssolae.  On  the  south  coast  of  the  same 
idand  are  coarse-grained,  brownish  micaceous  and  light-coloured 
calcareous  sandstone  ana  marls,  containing  fossils,  which  render 
it  protMibie  that  they  are  of  the  same  age  as  the  coal-buring  Jurassic 
rocks  of  Brora  (Scotland)  and  the  Middle  Dogger  of  Yorkshire. 
Tbere  is  also  coal  on  Kuhn  Island. 

The  Danish  expeditions  of  1 899-1900  have  added  considerably  to 
our  knowledge  01  the  Jurassic  rocks  of  East  Greenland.  Rhaetic- 
Lias  cdants  have  been  described  by  Dr  Hartz  from  Cape  Stewart 
and  VardekUtft.  Dr  Madsen  has  recognized  fossils  that  correspond 
with  those  from  the  Inferior  oolite,  Cornbrash  and  Callovian  of 
England.    Upper  Kimmeridge  and  Portlandian  beds  also  occur. 

6.  Cretaeeoiu. — Beds  of  tnis  age,  consisting  of  sandstones  and 
coal,  are  found  on  the  northern  coast  of  Disco  Island  and  the 
soutbcm  side  of  the  Nouraoak  Peninsula,  the  beds  in  the  former 
locality,  "  the  Kome  strata  "  of  Nordenski5Id,  being  the  oldest. 
They  reach  looo  ft.  in  thickness,  occupying  undulatinjr  hollows  in 
the  underiying  gneiss,  and  dip  towards  the  Noursoak  Peninsula  at 
30*,  when  the  overlying  Atanakerdluk  strata  come  in.  Both  these 
series  contain  numerous  plant  remains,  evergreen  oaks,  magnolias, 
aralias,  Ac.,  and  seams  of  lignite  (coal),  wnich  is  burnt;  but  in 
neither  occur  the  marine  beds  of  the  United  States.  Still,  the 
presence  of  dicotyledonous  leaves,  such  as  Magnolia  altemansAa  the 
Atanakerdluk  strata,  proves  their  close  alliance  with  the  Dakota 
■erics  of  the  United  Sutcs.  The  underlying  Kome  beds  are  not 
present  in  the  American  series.  They  are  characterized  by  fine 
cycads  <ZaMtfe5  arcticus  and  GlossotamiUs  Hoheneueri),  which  also 
occur  in  the  Urgonian  strata  of  Wernsdorff. 

7.  Mioeene.--Thi$  formation,  one  of  the  most  widely  spread  in 
polar  lands,  though  the  most  local  in  Greenland,  is  also  the  best 
known  feature  in  its  geolon^.  It  is  limited  to  Disco  Island,  and 
perhaps  to  a  small  part  of  tne  Noursoak  Peninsula,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring country,  and  consists  of  numerous  thin  beds  of  sandstone, 
shale  and  coal — the  sideritic  shale  containing  immense  quantities 
of  leaves,  stems,  fruit,  Ax.,  as  well  as  some  insects,  and  the  coal 
pieces  of  retinite.  The  study  of  these  plant  and  insect  remains 
shows  that  forests  containing  a  vegetation  very  similar  to  that  of 


California  and  the  southern  United  States,  in  some  instances  even 
the  species  of  trees  being  all  but  identical,  flourished  in  70*  N. 
during  geological  periods  comparatively  recent.  These  beds,  as 
well  as  the  Cretaceous  series,  from  whicn  they  are  as  yet  only  im- 
perfectly distinguished,  are  associated  with  sheets  of  basalt,  which 
penetrate  them  in  great  dikes,  and  in  some  places,  owing  to  the 
wearing  away  of  the  softer  sedimentary  rocksy  stand  out  in  long 
walls  running  across  the  beds.  These  Miocene  strata  have  not  been 
found  farther  north  on  the  Greenland  shore  than  the  region 
mentioned;  but  in  Lady  Franklin  Bay,  on  the  Grinnell  Land  side 
of  Smith  Sound,  they  again  appear,  so  that  the  chances  are  they 
will  be  found  on  the  opposite  coast,  though  doubtless  the  great 
disintegration  Greenland  has  undergone  and  is  undergoing  has 
destroyed  many  of  the  softer  beds  c«  fossiliferous  rocks.  On  the 
east  coast,  more  parttculariy  in  Hochstetter  Foreland,  the  Miocene 
beds  again  appear,  and  we  may  add  that  there  are  traces  of  them 
even  on  the  west  coast,  between  Sonntag  Bay  and  Foulke  Fjord,  at 
the  entrance  to  Smith  Sound.  It  thus  appears  that  since  early 
Tertiary  times  there  has  been  a  great  change  in  the  climate  of 
Greenland. 

Nathorst  has  suggested  that  the  wholeof  Greenland  is  a  "horst,** 
in  the  subordinate  folds  of  which,  as  well  as  in  the  deeper  "  graben,^* 
the  younger  rocks  are  preserved,  often  with  a  covering  of  Tertiary 
or  later  lava  flows.* — J.  A.  H.) 

Minerals. — Native  iron  was  found  by  NordensIdAld  at  Ovifak, 
on  Disco  Island,  in  1870,  and  brought  to  aweden(i87l)as  meteorites. 
The  heaviest  nodule  weighed  over  ao  tons.  Similar  native  iron  has 
later  been  found  by  K.  J.  V.  Steenstrup  in  several  places  on  the 
west  coast  enclosed  as  smaller  or  larger  nodules  in  the  basalt.  TUs 
iron  has  very  often  beautiful  Widmannatfttten  figures  like  those  of 
iron  meteontes,  but  it  is  obviously  of  telluric  origin.*  In  1895 
Peary  found  native  iron  at  Cape  York;  since  John  Ross's  voyage 
in  1818  it  has  been  known  to  exist  there,  and  from  it  the  Ealdmo  got 
iron  for  their  weapons.  In  1897  Peary  brought  the  largest  nodiile 
to  New  York;  it  was  estimated  to  weigh  nearly  100  tons.  This 
iron  is  considered  by  several  of  the  first  authorities  pn  the  subject 
to  be  of  meteoric  ori^n,*  but  no  evidence  hitherto  given  seems  to 
prove  decisively  that  it  cannot  be  telluric.  That  the  nodules  found 
were  lying  on  gneissic  rock,  with  no  basaltic  rocks  in  the  neighbour- 
hood,  does  not  prove  that  the  iron  may  not  originate  from  basalt, 
for  the  nodules  may  have  been  transpovted  by  the  gladers,  like 
other  erratic  blocks,  and  will  stand  erosion  much  longer  than  the 
basalt,  which  may  long  ago  have  disappeared.  This  iron  seems* 
howeven  in  several  respects  to  be  unlike  tne  celebrated  large  nodules 
of  iron  found  by  Nordenskidld  at  Ovifak,  but  appears  to  resemble 
much  more  closely  the  softer  kind  of  iron  nodules  found  by  Steenstrup 
in  the  basalt;*  it  stands  exposure  to  the  air  equally  well,  and  hail 
similar  WidmannstAtten  figures  veiv  sharp,  as  u  to  be  eiqiected  in 
such  a  large  mass.  It  contains,  however,  more  nickel  and  also 
phosphorus.  A  few  other  minerals  may  be  noticed,  and  some  have 
Been  worked  to  a  small  extent — graphite  is  abundant,  particulariy 
near  Upemivik;  cryolite  is  found  almost  exclusively  at  Ivigtut: 
copper  has  been  observed  at  several  places,  but  only  in  nodules  and 
lamtnae  of  limited  extent;  and  coal  of  poor  quality  is  found  in  the 
districts  about  Disco  Bay  and  Umanak  Fjord.  Steatite  or  soapstone 
has  long  been  used  by  tne  natives  for  the  manufacture  of  lamps  and 
vessels. 

Ciijffofe.— The  climate  b  very  uncertain,  the  weather  changing 
suddenly  from  bright  sunshine  (when  mosquitos  often  swarm)  to 
dense  fog  or  heavy  falls  of  snow  and  icy  winds.  At  Julianebaab 
in  the  extreme  south-west  the  winter  is  not  much  colder  than  that 
of  Norway  and  Ssreden  in  the  same  locality;  but  its  mean  tempera- 
ture for  the  whole  year  probably  approximates  to  that  on  the 
Norwegian  coast  600  m.  farther  north.  The  climate  of  the  interior 
has  been  found  to  be  of  a  continental  character,  with  large  ranges 
of  temperature,  and  with  an  almost  permanent  anti-cyclonic  re|pon 
over  the  interior  of  the  inland  ice,  from  which  the  prevailing  winds 
radiate  towards  the  coasts.  On  the  64th  parallel  tne  mean  annual 
temperature  at  an  elevation  of  6560  ft.  is  supposed  to  be  -i^*  F., 
or  reduced  to  sea-level  5*  F.  The  mean  annual  temperature  in  the 
interior  farther  north  is  supposed  to  be  -10"  F.  reduced  to  sea-leveL 
The  mean  temperature  of  the  wannest  month,  July,  in  the  interior 
should  be,  reduced  to  sea-lcvcl,  on  the  64th  parallel  ^2*  P.,  and 
that  of  the  coldest  month,  January,  about  -22  F.,  while  in  North 
Greenland  it  is  probably  -40*  reduced  to  sea-level.  Here  we  may 
probably  find  the  lowest  temperatures  of  the  northern  hemisphere. 
The  interior  of  Greenland  cpnuins  both  summer  and  winter  a  pole 
of  cold,  situated  in  the  opposite  longitude  to  that  of  Siberia,  with 
which  it  is  well  able  to  compete  in  extreme  severity.  On  Nansen's 
expedition  temperatures  of  about  -49*  F.  were  experienced  during 


>  See  A.  G.  Nathont,  "  Bidrag  tUI 
with    map  '  Ceoloiiska    Foreningens 
No.  257.   Bd,  23.  Heft  a,  1901 ;  O, 
(7  vols.,  1868-1883),  and  especially 
numerous  papers  on  the  geology  and 

'  Medd.  om  Cronl.,  part  iv.  pp.  115 

>See  Peary,  Northward  nor  tka 
(New  York.  1898). 

*Setloc.  cit.  pp.  127-128. 


norddstra  GrOnlands  geologi," 
«    Stockholm    FUrhandlingart 

,  Heer,  Flora  fossilis  Arctica 
MeddeMser  om  CrUniand  for 


palaeontology, 
riji  (Copenhagen,  1883). 
"  Great  Ice,"  u.  604  et  seq 


5+6 


GREENLAND 


the  n^hts  in  the  beginning  of  September^  and  the  minimum  during 
the  winter  may  probably  lank  to— 90*  F.  in  the  interior  of  the  inland 
ice.  These  low  temperatures  arc  evidently  caused  by  the  radiation 
of  heat  from  the  snow-surface  in  the  rarefied  air  in  the  interior. 
The  daily  range  of  temperature  is  therefore  very  considerable, 
sometimes  amounting  to  40*.  Such  a  range  b  elsewliere  found  only 
in  deserts,  but  the  surface  of  the  inland  ice  may  be  considered  to  bie 
an  elevated  desert  of  snow.^  The  climate  of  the  east  coast  is  on  the 
whole  considerably  more  arctic  than  that  of  the  west  coast  on 
corresponding  latitudes:  the  land  is  much  more  completclv  snow- 
covered,  and  the  snow-line  goes  considerably  lower.  The  probability 
also  is  that  there  is  more  precipitation,  and  that  the  mean  tempera- 
tures are  lower.'  The  well-known  strangely  warm  and  dry  John- 
winds  of  Greenland  occur  both  on  the  west  and  the  east  coast; 
they  are  more  local  than  was  formerly  believed,  and  are  formed  by 
cyclonic  winds  passing  either  over  mountains  or  down  the  outer 
■fope  of  the  inland  ice.*  Mirage  and  similar  phenomena  and  the 
aurora  are  common. 

Fauna  and  Fl<na. — It  was  long  a  common  belief  that  the  fauna 
and  flora  of  Greenland  were  essentially  European,  a  circumstance 
which  would  make  it  probable  that  Greenland  has  been  separated 
by  sea  from  America  durine  a  longer  period  of  time  than  from 
Europe.  The  correctness  of  this  hypothesis  may,  however,  be 
doubted.  The  land  mammals  of  Greenland  are  decidedly  more 
American  than  European;  the  musk-ox,  the  banded  lemming 
ijCunicvlus  torguatus),  the  white  polar  wolf,  of  which  there  seems  to 
have  been  a  new  inva»on  recently^  round  the  northern  part  of  the 
country  to  the  east  coast,  the  Eskimo  and  the  dog — probably  also 
the  reindeer — have  all  come  from  America,  while  the  other  land 
mammals,  the  polar  bear,  the  polar  fox,  the  Arctk  hare,  the  stoat 
(Mustela  erminea),  are  perfectly  circumpolar  forms.  The  species  of 
•eals  and  whales  are,  'a  anything,  more  American  than  European, 
and  so  to  some  extent  are  the  fishes.  The  bladder-nose  seal 
{Cyslopkora  cristaia),  for  instance,  may  be  said  to  be  a  Greenland- 
Ameriain  species,  while  a  Scandinavian  species,  such  as_the  srey 

la    * 


1  (Halichoenu  trypus),  appears  to  be  very  rare  both  in  Greenland 

and  America.  Of  the  sixty-one  species  of  birds  breeding  in  Grcen> 
land,  eight  are  European- Asiatic,  four  are  American,  and  the  rest 
circumpolar  or  North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific  in  their  distribu- 
tion.* About  310  species  of  vascular  plants  are  found,  of  which 
about  forty  species  are  American,  forty-four  European-Asiatic, 
fifteen  endemic,  and  the  rest  common  both  to  America  and  Europe 
or  A^.  We  thus  see  that  the  American  and  the  European- Asia  tic 
elements  of  the  flora  are  nearly  eouivalcnt;  and  if  the  flora  of 
Arctic  North  America  were  better  known,  the  number  of  plants 
common  to  America  might  be  still  more  enlarged.' 

In  the  south,  a  few  ^oats,  sheep,  oxen  and  pigs  have  been  intro- 
duced. The  whalins  industry  was  formerly  prolific  off  the  west 
coast  but  decayed  wnen  the  right  whale  neariy  disappeared.  The 
white  whale  fishery  of  the  Eskimo,  however,  continued,  and  sealing 
is  important:  walruses  are  also  caught  and  sometimes  narwhal. 
There  are  also  important  fisheries  for  cod,  caplin,  halibut,  red  fish 
(SebasUs)  and  nepisak  {Cyclopterus  lumfnu);  a  shark  {Somniosus 
microcepkalus)  is  taken  for  the  oil  from  its  liver;  and  sea-trout  are 
found  in  the  streams  and  small  lakes  of  the  south.  On  land  reindeer 
were  formerly  hunted,  to  their  practical  extinction  in  the  south, 
but  in  the  districts  of  Godthaab,  Sukkertoppen  and  Holstensborg 
there  are  still  many  reindeer.  The  eider-duck,  guillemot  and  other 
sea-birds  are  in  some  parts  valuable  for  food  in  winter,  and  so  is 
the  ptarmigan.  Eggs  of  sea-birds  are  collected  and  eider-down. 
Valuable  fur  is  obtained  from  the  white  and  blue  fox,  the  skin  of 
the  eider-duck  and  the  polar  bear. 

At  Tasiusak  (73°  aa'  N.),  the  most  northern  civiliied  settlement 
in  the  world,  gardening  has  been  attempted  without  success,  but 
sevf^l  plants  do  well  in  forcing  frames.  At  Umanak  (70*  40'  N.) 
is  the  most  northern  garden  in  the  world.  Broccoli  and  radishes 
grow  well,  turnips  (but  not  every  year),  lettuce  and  chervil  suc- 
ceed sometimes,   but   parsley  cannot  be  reared.     At  Jacobshavn 

>  H.  Mohn,  *•  The  Climate  of  the  Interior  of  Greenland,"  Thg 
ScoU.  Gcogr.  Magazine,  vol.  ix.  (Edinburgh,  1893),  pp.  I4^-145>  »99; 
H.  Mohn  and  F.  Nansen,  "  Wissenscnaftliche  Ergebnisse,"  &c. 
Erganzungsheft  No.  10^  zu  Petermanns  MiUriJungen  (1892),  p.  51. 

'On  the  climate  of  the  east  coast  of  Greenland  ace  V.  Wiliaume* 
Jantzen.  Meddtlelser  om  Gr&ntandt  part  ix.  (1889),  pp.  385-310, 
part  xvii.  (1895),  pp.  171-180. 

»  See  A.  Paulsen,  Mettorolog.  Zeitschrift  (1880).  p.  74(1 ;  F.  Nanaen, 
The  First  Crossing  of  Greenland  (London,  1890),  vol.  ii.  pp.  496-407; 
H.  Mohn  and  r.  Nansen,  "  Wisaenschaftlichc  Ergebnisse,"  «c. 
Erg&nzuneshcft  No.  105  zu  Petermanns  MiUeilungen  (1892),  p.  51. 

«H.  Wlngc,  "Grdnlands  Fugle,"  MeddeUfser  om  Gronland, 
part  xxi.  pp.  62-63  (Copenhagen,  1899). 

*  Sec  J.  Lange,  "  Con.spectus  florae  Groenlandicae,"  Meddeleber 
om  GrOnland,  part  iii.  (Copenhagen,  1880  and  1887);  E.  Warming, 
"Om  GrOnbnds  Vegetation,"  Meddtlelser  om  Grdnland,  part  xii. 
(Copenhagen,  1888);  and  in  Bolanische  JahrbUcher,  vol.  x.  (1888- 
I886>  See  also  A.  BIytt,  Englers  Jakrbucher,  ii.  (1882),  pp.  1-50; 
A.  G.  Nathorst.  Otversigt  af  K  Vetenskap.  Akad.  Forkandl.  (Stock- 
holm, 1884);  "  Kritische  Bemerkungeo  fiber  die  Geschkhte  der 
Vegetation  Grdnlands,"  Botaniscke  J^bicker,  voL  xiv.  (1891) 


(69*  12' N.),  only  acme  xs  m.  from  the  inland  ice.  gardeaisc 
very  well:  broccoli  and  lettuce  grow  willingly:  the  spinach  pro- 
duces large  leaves;  chervil,  pepper-grass., leeks,  narsley  and  turnips 
grow  very  well ;  the  radishes  are  sown  and  gathered  twice  dunog 
the  summer  (June  to  August).  In  the  south,  in  the  JuUanehaab 
district,  even  flowering  plants,  such  as  aster,  nemophilia  and 
mignonette,  are  cultivated,  and  broccoli,  spinach,  sorrd,  chervil, 
parsley,  rhubarb,  turnips,  lettuce,  radishes  grow  welL  Potatoes 
give  fair  results  when  they  are  taken  good  care  of,  carrots  grow  to 
a  thickness  of  i|  in.,  while  cabbage  does  pooriy.  Strawberries 
and  cucumbers  have  been  ripened  in  a  forcing  frame.  In  the 
"  Kongespeil  "  (King's  mirror)  of  the  13th  century  it  is  stated 
that  the  old  Norsemen  tried  in  vain  to  raise  barley. 

The  wild  vegetation  in  the  height  of  summer  is.  In  Cavouable 
situations,  profuse  in  individual  plants,  though  scanty  in  ^lecies. 
The  plants  are  of  the  usual  arctic  type,  and  icurntical  with  or  allied 
to  those  found  in  Lapland  or  on  the  summits  of  the  highest  British 
hills.  Forest  there  is  none  in  all  the  country.  In  the  north,  where 
the  lichen-covered  or  ice-shaven  rocks  do  not  protrude,  the  ground 
is  covered  with  a  carpet  of  mosses,  creeping  dwarf  willows,  crow- 
berries  and  similar  plants,  while  the  flowers  most  common  are  the 
andromeda,  the  yellow  poppy,  pedicularis.  pyrola,  Ac  besides  the 
flowering  mosses;  but  in  SMith  Greenland  there  is  something  in 
the  shape  of  bush,  the  dwarf  birches  even  rising  a  few  feet  in  very 
sheltered  places,  the  willows  may  grow  higher  than  a  man,  and  the 
vegetation  is  less  arctic  and  more  abundant. 

Covernmeni  and  Trade.— Tht  trade  of  GreenUnd  is  a  moBopoIy 
x)f  the  Danish  crown,  dating  from  1774,  and  is  administered  in 
Copenhagen  by  a  government  board  {Kon^ige  CrSnianiskt 
Handel)  and  in  the  country  by  various  government  officials 
In  order  to  meet  the  double  purposes  of  government  and  trade 
the  west  coast,  up  to  nearly  74**  N.,  is  divided  into  two  inspec- 
torates, the  southern  extending  to  67^  40'  N.,  the  northern  com- 
prising  the  re^t  of  the  country;  the  respective  seats  of  govern* 
mcnt  being  at  Godthaab  and  Godhavn.    These  inspectorates 
are  ruled  by  two  superior  officials  or  governors  re^xMiaible  u> 
the  director  of  the  board  in  Copenhagen.    Each  of  the  inspec- 
torates is  divided  into  districts,  each  district  having,  in  additioa 
to  the  chief  settlement  or  colonic  several  outlying  posts  and 
Eskimo  hunting  stations,  each  presided  over  by  an  mdligger^ 
who  is  responsible  to  the  cdonibestyrert  or  superintendent  of  the 
district.    These  trading  settlements,  which  dot  the  coast  for 
a  distance  of  1000  m.,  are  about  sixty  In  number.    From  the 
Eskimo  hunting  and  fishing  stations  blubber  is  the  chief  artide 
received,  and  is  forwarded  in  casks  to  the  colonit  where  it  a  boikd 
into  oil,  and  prepared  for  being  de^iatchcd  to  Copenhagen  by 
means  of  the  government  ships  which  arrive  and  leave  between 
May  and  November.    For  the  rest  of  the  year  navigation  is 
stopped,  though  the  winter  months  form  the  busy  seal-kiUieg 
season.    The  principle  upon  which  the  government  acts  is  to 
give  the  natives  low  prices  for  their  produce,  but  to  sell  them 
European  articles  of  necessity  at  prime  cost,  and  other  slotes. 
such  as  bread,  at  prices  which  will  scarcely  pay  for  the  purchase 
and  freight,  while  no  merchandise  is  charged,  on  an  avaa^e, 
more  than  20%  over  the  cost  price  in  Denmark.    In  addition 
the  Greenlanders  are  allowed  to  order  goods  hom  private  deaJm 
on  paying  freight  for  them  at  the  rate  of  2|d.  per  10  lb.  or  is.  M. 
per  cub.  ft.    The  prices  to  be  paid  for  European  and  native 
articles  arc  fixed  every  year,  the  prices  current  in  Danish  sod 
Eskimo  being  printed  and   distributed  by  the  govemsKCt 
Oit  of  the  payment  five-sixths  are  given  to  the  sellers,  and  <ne- 
sixth  devoted  to  the  Greenlanders'  public  fund,  spent  in  "  pub& 
works,"   in   charity,  and  on  other  unforeseen  contingendcs. 
The  object  of  the  monopoly  is  solely  for  the  good  of  the  Giecc- 
landers — to  prevent  spirits  being  sold  to  them,  and  the  vice, 
disease  and  misery  which  usually  attend  the  collision  between 
natives  and  civilization  of  the  trader's  type  being  introduced 
into  the  primitive  arctic  community.  The  inspectors,  in  additioa 
to  being  trade  superintendents,  arc  magistrates,  but  sericcs 
crime  is  very  rare.    Ihough  the  officials  are  all-powerful,  local 
councils  or  parsissaei  were  organised  in  1857  in  every  dbttict. 
To  these  parish  parliaments  delegates  axe  sent  from  every  statioc. 
These  parsissoks,  elected  at  the  rate  of  about  one  icpicacntatNe 
to  X  20  voters,  wear  a  cap  with  a  badge  (a  bear  rampant^ .  and  aid 
the  European  members  of  the  council  in  distributing  the  surphs 
profit  apportioned  to  each  district,  and  generally  in  advising^ 
to  the  welfare  of  that  part  of  Greenland  under  thdr  partial 


GREENLAND 


5+7 


contioL  The  municipal  ooondl  has  the  disposal  of  3o%  of  the 
annual  profits  made  on  produce  purchased  within  the  confines 
of  each  district.  It  holds  two  sessions  every  year,  and  the 
discussions  are  entirely  in  the  Eskimo  language.  In  addition 
to  their  functions  as  guardians  of  the  poor,  the  parish  members 
have  to  investigate  crimes  and  punish  misdemeanours,  settle 
litigations  and  divide  inheritances.  They  can  impose  fines  for 
small  offences  not  worth  sending  before  the  inspector,  and,  in 
cases  of  high  misdemeanour,  have  the  power  of  inflicting  corporal 
punishment. 

A  Danish  colcni  in  Greenland  might  seem  to  many  not  to  be 
a  cheerful  place  at  best;  though  in  the  long  summer  days  they 
would  certainly  find  some  of  those  on  the  southern  fjords  com- 
paratively plnsant.  The  fact  is,  however,  that  most  people 
who  ever  lived  some  time  in  Greenland  always  long  to  go  back. 
There  are  generally  in  a  coloni  three  or  four  Danish  houses, 
built  of  wood  anil  pitched  over,  in  addition  to  storehouses  and 
a  blubber-boiling  establishment.  The  Danish  residents  may 
include,  besides  a  coloni-bestyrer  and  his  assistant,  a  missionair 
or  dcrgyman,  at  a  few  places  also  a  doctor,  and  perhaps  a 
carpenter  and  a  schoolmaster.  In  addition  there  are  generally 
from  twenty  to  several  hundred  Eskimo,  who  live  in  huts  built 
of  stone  and  turf,  each  entered  by  a  short  tunneL  Lately  their 
houses  in  the  ctdams  have  also  to  some  extent  been  built  of 
imported  wood.  Following  the  west  coast  northward,  the 
trading  centres  are  these:  in  the  south  inspectorate,  Juliane- 
baab,  near  which  are  remains  of  the  «vly  Norse  settlements  of 
Eric  the  Red  and  his  companions  (the  Oster-Byg^f);  Frederiks- 
haab,  in  which  district  are  the  cryolite  mines  of  Ivigtut;  Godt- 
haab,  the  principal  settlement  of  all,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
which  are  also  early  Norse  renuins  (the  VeOet'Bygff);  Sukker- 
toppen,  a  most  picturesque  locality;  and  Holstenborg.  In  the 
north  inspectorate  the  centres  are:  Egedesminde,  on  an  islet 
at  the  mouth  of  Disco  Bay;  Christianshaab,  one  of  the 
pleasantest  settlements  in  the  north,  and  Jacobshavn,  on  the 
inner  shores  of  the  same  bay;  Godhavn  (or  Lievely)  on  the 
iouth  coast  of  Disco  Island,  formerly  an  important  seat  of 
the  whaling  industry;  Ritenbenk,  Umanak,  and,  most  northerly 
of  all,  Upemivik.  On  the  east  coast  there  is  but  one  coloni, 
Angmagssalik,  in  65**  30'  N.,  only  established  in  1894.  For 
ecclesiastical  purposes  Danish  Greenland  is  reckoned  in  the 
province  of  the  bishop  of  Zttlaxid.  The  Danish  mission  in 
Greenland  has  a  yearly  grant  of  £2000  from  the  trading  revenue 
of  the  colony,  besides  a  contribution  of  £880  from  the  state. 
The  Moravian  mission,  which  had  worked  in  Greenland  for  a 
century  and  a  half,  retired  from  the  coimtry  in  1900.  The 
trade  of  Greenland  has  on  the  whole  much  decreased  in  modem 
times,  and  trading  and  missions  cost  the  Danish  state  a  com- 
paratively large  sum  (about  £xx,ooo  every  year),  although  this 
is  partly  covered  by  the  income  from  the  royalty  of  the  cryolite 
mines  at  Ivigtut.  There  is,  however,  a  yearly  deficiency  of  more 
than  £6000.  The  decline  in  the  value  of  the  trade,  which  was 
formerly  \«ry  profitable,  has  to  a  great  extent  been  brought 
about  by  the  fall  in  the  price  of  seal-oiL  It  might  be  expected 
that  there  should  be  a  decrease  in  the  Greenland  seal  fisheries, 
caused  by  the  European  and  American  sealers  catching  larger 
quantities  every  year,  especially  along  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland 
and  Labrador,  and  so  actually  diminishing  the  number  of  the 
animals  in  the  Greenland  seas.  The  statistics  of  South  Greenland, 
however,  do  not  seem  to  demonstrate  any  such  decrease.  The 
averafe  number  of  scab  killed  anntially  is  abput  33,000.*    The 

*  Owing  to  representations  of  the  Swedish  government  in  1874 
as  to  the  Killing  of  seals  at  breeding  time  on  the  east  coast  of  Green- 
laod,  and  the  conieotient  loos  of  young  seals  left  to  die  of  starvation, 
the  Seal  Fisheries  Act  1875  was  pasaed  in  England  to  provide  for 
the  catabUahoient  of  a  close  time  for  seal  fishery  in  the  seas  in 
question.  This  act  empowered  the  crown,  by  order  in  council,  to 
put  its  provisions  in  force*  when  any  foreign  state,  whose  ships 
or  anbjects  were  ei^aged  in  the  seal  fishery  m  the  area  mentioned 
to  the  schedule  thereto,  had  made,  or  was  about  to  make,  similar  pro- 
visions with  respect  to  its  ships  and  subjects.  An  order  in  council 
nnder  the  act,  oedaring  the  season  to  begin  on  the  3rd  of  April  in 
each  year,  wu  issued  February  8,  1876.  Rescinded  February  15, 
tg76»  at  «as  re-enacted  00  November  28, 1876,  and  is  still  operative. 


annual  value  of  imports,  consisting  of  manufactured  goods, 
foodstuffs,  &c.,  may  be  taken  somewhat  to  exceed  £40,000. 
The  chief  articles  of  export  (together  with  those  that  have 
lapsed)  have  been  already  indicated;  but  they  may  be  sum- 
marized as  including  seal-oil,  seal,  fox,  bird  and  bear  skins, 
fish  products  and  eiderdown,  with  some  quantity  of  worked 
skins.  Walrus  tusks  and  walrus  hides,  which  in  the  days  of  the 
old  Norse  settlements  were  the  chief  articles  of  export,  are  now 
of  little  importance. 

Population. — ^The  area  of  the  entire  Danish  colony  is  estimated 
at  45,000  sq.  m.,  and  its  population  in  igoi  was  11,893.  The 
Europeans  number  about  300.  The  Eskimo  population  of 
Danish  Greenland  (west  coast)  seems  to  have  decreased  since 
the  middle  of  the  x8th  century.  Hans  Egede  estimated  the 
population  then  at  30,000,  but  this  is  probably  a  large  over- 
estimate. The  decrease  may  chiefly  have  been  due  to  infectious 
diseases,  especially  a  very  severe  epidemic  of  smallpox.  During 
the  last  half  of  the  X9th  century  there  was  on  the  whole  a  sli^t 
increase  of  the  native  population.  The  popiilation  fluctuates 
a  good  deal,  owing,  to  some  extent,  to  an  immigration  of  natives 
from  the  east  to  the  west  coast.  The  population  of  the  east 
coast  seems  on  the  whole  to  be  decreasing  in  number,  several 
hundreds  chiefly  Hving  at  Angmagssalik.  In  the  north  part  of 
the  east  coast,  in  the  region  of  Scoresby  Fjord  and  Franz  Josef 
Fjord,  numerous  ruins  of  Eskimo  settlements  are  found,  and  in 
X823  Clavering  met  Eskimo  there,  but  now  they  have  either 
completely  died  out  or  have  wandered  south.  A  little  tribe  of 
Eskimo  living  in  the  region  of  Cape  York  near  Smith  Sound — 
the  so-called  "  Arctic  Highlanders  "  or  Smith  Sound  Eskimo — 
number  about  240. 

History. — In  the  beginning  of  the  xoth  century  the  Norwegian 
Guimbjdm,  son  of  Ulf  Krfcka,  is  reported  to  have  found  some 
islands  to  the  west  of  Iceland,  and  he  nuty  have  seen,  without 
landing  upon  it,  the  southern  part  of  the  east  coast  of  Greenland. 
In  98a  the  Norwegian  Eric  the  Red  sailed  from  Iceland  to  find 
the  land  which  Gunnbjdm  had  seen,  and  he  spent  three  years 
on  its  south-western  coasts  exploring  the  country.  On  his  return 
to  Iceland  in  985  he  called  the  land  Greenland  in  order  to  nuke 
people  more  willing  to  go  there,  and  reported  so  favourably  on 
its  possibilities  that  he  had  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  followers. 
In  986  he  started  again  from  Iceland  with  25  ships,  but  only 
14  of  them  reached  Greenland,  where  a  colony  was  founded  on 
the  south-west  coast,  in  the  present  Jultanehaab  district.  Eric 
built  his  house  at  Brattalld,  near  the  inner  end  of  the  fjord 
'ninugdliarfik,  just  north  of  the  present  Julianehaab.  Other 
settlers  followed  and  in  a  few  years  two  colonies  had  been  formed, 
one  called  Osterbygd  in  the  present  district  of  Julianehaab 
comprising  later  about  190  farms,  and  another  called  Vester- 
bygd  farther  north  on  the  west  coast  in  the  present  district 
of  Godthaab,  comprising  later  about  90  farms.  Numerous  ruins 
in  the  various  fjords  of  these  two  districts  indicate  now  where 
these  cok>nies  were.  Wooden  coffins,  with  skeletons  wrapped 
in  coarse  hairy  cloth,  and  both  pagan  and  Christian  tombstones 
with  runic  inscriptions  have  been  found.  On  a  voyage  from 
Norway  to  Greenland  Leif  Ericsson  (son  of  Eric  the  Red)  dis- 
covered America  in  the  year  xooo,  and  a  few  years  later  Torfinn 
Karisefne  sailed  with  three  ships  and  about  x  50  men,  from  Green- 
land to  Nova  Scotia  to  form  a  colony,  but  returned  three  years 
later  (see  Vinland). 

When  the  Norsemen  came  to  Greenland  they  found  various 
remains  indicating,  as  the  old  sagas  say,  that  there  had  been 
people  of  a  similar  kind  as  those  they  met  with  in  Vinland,  in 
America,  whom  they  called  Skraeling  (the  meaning  of  the  word 
is  uncertain,  it  means  possibly  weak  people);  but  the  sagas 
do  not  report  that  they  actually  met  the  natives  then.  But 
somewhat  later  they  have  probably  met  with  the  Eskimo 
farther  north  on  the  west  coast  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Disco 
Bay,  where  the  Norsemen  went  to  catch  seals,  walrus,  &c. 
The  Norse  colonists  penetrated  on  these  fishing  expeditions  at 
least  to  73^  N.,  where  a  small  runic  stone  from  the  14th  century 
has  been  found.  On  a  voyage  in  1367  they  penetratnl  even  stfll 
farther  north  into  the  Melville  Bay. 


548 


GREENLAW— GREENOCK 


Christianity  was  introduced  by  Leif  Ericsson  at  the  instance 
df  Olaf  Trygvasson,  king  of  Norway,  in  looo  and  following  years. 
In  the  Ix^nning  of  the  12th  century  Greenland  got  its  own 
bishop,  who  resided  at  Garolar,  near  the  present  Eskimo  station 
Igoiiko,  on  an  isthmus  between  two  fjords,  Igaliksfjord  (the  old 
Einarsfjord)  and  Tunugdliarfik  (the  old  Eriksfjord),  inside  the 
present  colony  JuUanehaab.  Tlie  Norse  colonies  had  twelve 
churches,  one  monastery  and  one  nunnery  in  the  Osterbygd, 
and  four  churches  in  the  Vesterbygd.  Greenland,  like  Iceland, 
had  a  republican  organization  up  to  the  years  1247  to  1261, 
when  the  Greenlanders  were  induced  to  swear  allegiance  to  the 
king  of  Norway.  Greenland  belonged  to  the  Norwegian  crown 
till  1814,  when,  at  the  dissolution  of  the  union  between  Denmark 
and  Norway,  neither  it  nor  Iceland  and  the  Faeroes  were  men- 
tioned, and  they,  therefore,  were  kept  by  the  Danish  king  and 
thus  came  to  Denmark.  The  settlements  were  called  respectively 
Oster  Bygd  (or  eastern  settlement)  and  Vester  (western)  Bygd, 
both  being  now  known  to  be  on  the  south  and  west  coast  (in  the 
districts  of  Julianehaab  and  Godthaab  xespectively),  though 
for  long  the  view  was  persistently  held  that  the  first  was  on  the 
east  coast,  and  numerous  expeditions  have  been  sent  in  search 
of  these  "  lost  colonies  "  and  their  imaginary  survivors.  These 
settlements  at  the  height  of  their  prosperity  are  estimated  to  have 
had  10,000  inhabitants,  which,  however,  is  an  over-estimate,  the 
number  having  probably  been  nearer  one-half  or  one-third  of 
that  number.  "Hie  last  bishop  appointed  to  Greenland  died  in 
1540,  but  long  before  that  date  those  appointed  had  never 
reached  their  sees;  the  last  bishop  who  resided  in  Greenland 
died  there  in  1377.  After  the  middle  of  the  X4th  century  very 
little  is  heard  of  the  settlements,  and  their  communication  with 
the  motherland,  Norway,  evidently  gradaally  ceased.  This 
may  have  been  due  in  great  part  to  the  fact  that  the  shipping 
and  trade  of  Greenland  became  a  monopoly  of  the  king  of 
Norway,  who  kept  only  one  ship  sailing  at  long  intervals  (of 
years)  to  Greenland;  at  the  same  time  the  shipping  and  trade 
of  Norway  came  more  and  more  in  the  hands  of  the  Hanseatic 
League,  which  took  no  interest  in  Greenland.  The  last  ship  that 
is  known  to  have  visited  the  Noise  colony  in  Greenland  returned 
to  Norway  in  14x0.  With  no  support  from  home  the  settlements 
seem  to  have  decayed  rapidly.  It  has  been  supposed  that  they 
were  destroyed  by  attacks  of  the  Eskimo,  who  about  this  period 
seem  to  have  become  more  numerous  and  to  have  extended 
southwards  along  the  coast  from  the  north.  This  seems  a  less 
feasible  explanation;  it  is  more  probable  that  the  Norse  settlers 
intermarried  with  the  Eskimo  and  were  gradually  absorbvl. 
About  the  end  of  the  xsth  or  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century 
it  would  appear  that  all  Norse  colonization  had  practically 
disappeared.  When  in  1585  John  Davis  visited  it  there  was  no 
sign  of  any  people  save  the  Eskimo,  among  whose  traditions  arc  a 
few  directly  relating  to  the  old  Norsemen,  and  several  traces  of 
Norse  influence.*  Fox  more  than  two  hundred  years  Greenland 
seems  to  have  been  neglected,  almost  forgotten.  It  was  visited 
by  whalers,  chiefly  Dutch,  but  nothing  in  the  form  of  permanent 
European  settlements  was  established  until  the  year  1721,  when 
the  first  missionary,  the  Norwegian  clergyman  Hans  Egede, 
landed,  and  established  a  settlement  near  Godthaab.  Amid 
many  hardships  and  discouragements  he  persevered;  and  at 
the  present  day  the  native  race  is  civilized  and  Christianized. 
Many  of  the  colonists  of  the  x8th  century  were  convicts  and 
other  offenders;  and  in  X750  the  trade  became  a  monopoly  in 
the  hands  of  a  private  company.  In  1733-1734  there  was  a 
dreadful  epidemic  of  smallpox,  which  destroyed  a  great  number 
of  the  people.  In  1774  the  trade  ceased  to  be  profitable  as  a 
private  monopoly,  and  to  prevent  it  being  abandoned  the 
government  took  it  over.  Julianehaab  was  founded  in  the 
following  year.  In  x8o7-x8x4,  owing  to  the  war,  communication 
was  cut  off  with  Norway  and  Denmark;  but  subsequently  the 
colony  prospered  in  a  languid  fashion 

Au£korities,—Aa  to  the  discovery  of  Greenland  by  the  Norsemen 
and  its  early  history  see  Konrad  Maurer's  excellent  paper,  "  Ge- 
fr|«M«hty  der  Entdeckung  OstgrOnlands  "  in  the  report  of  Die  aoeite 

>  Cf.  F.  Nanaen,  Eskimo  Lije  (London,  1895). 


deutsche  Nardpolarfahrt  1860-1870  (Leipcig.  1874),  vcL  L;  G. 
Studies  on  the  "  Vtneland  ^'  Voyages  (Copenhagen,  1889):  ExIndU 
des  Mimoires  de  la  Sociili  Royale  des  AiUimuiires  du  Nerd  (1888); 
K.  J.  V.  Steenstnip,  "  Om  Osterbygden.*'  Medddelser  om  Grimland, 
part  ix.  (1883),  jpp.  1-51;  Ftnnur  JAnssoa,  "  GrOnlaods  gamk 
Topoffrafi  efter  IGldcme  "  in  MeddMser  am  GrOmUmd,  part  xs. 
(1899),  pp.  265-320;  Joacph  Fischer,  The  Discooeries  of  the  iforseme* 
in  Amencat  translated  from  German  b^  B.  H.  Soiusby  (Loadon, 
1903).  As  to  the  general  literature  on  Greenland,  a  number  of  the 
more  important  modem  works  have  been  noticed  in  footaoces. 
The  often-quoted  Moddddsar  om  Grihiland  Is  of  especial  vnlue;  it 
ispublbhedin  parts  (Copenhagen)  since  18^9,  and  is  chiefly  written 
in  Danish,  but  each  part  has  a  summary  m  French.  In  pan  xitL 
there  is  a  roost  valuable  list  of  literature  about  Greenland  up  to 
1880.    See  also  Geographical  Journal,  pumm. 

Amongst  other  important  books  on  Greenland  may  be  raentSooed: 
Hans  Egede,  Description  of  Greenland  (London,  1745);  Crano, 

"  IMS 


History  of  Greenland  (2  vols.,  London,  1820);  Grinlat 
Mindesmerker  (%  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1838-1845);  H.  Rink«  Data^ 
Greenland  (London,  1877);  H.  Rmk,  Tales  of  the  Eshimo  (Loodoo« 
187^):  (see  also  same,  ''Eskimo  Tribes"  in  Meddelehtr  mm  Grim- 
land,  part  xt.);  Johnstnip,  Giesecke's  Mimeratogisha  Reite  i  Cr&mlasid 
(Copenhagen.  1878).  (F.  N.) 

ORBBirLAW  (a  "  grassy  hiU  "),  a  town  of  Berwickshire,  Scot- 
land. Pop.  (1901)  61 X.  It  is  situated  on  the  Blackadder,  6x1  m. 
S.E.  of  Edinburgh  by  the  North  British  railway  company's  braodi 
line  from  Reston  Junction  to  St  Boswells.  The  town  was  built 
towards  the  end  of  the  X7th  century,  to  take  the  place  of  an  older 
one,  which  stood  about  a  mile  to  the  S.E.  It  was  the  county  tova 
from  1696  to  1853,  when  for  several  years  it  shared  this  dignity 
with  Duns,  which,  however,  is  now  the  sole  capitaL  The  chidf 
manufactures  are  woollens  and  agricultural  implements.  About 
3  m.  to  the  S.  the  ruin  of  Hume  Castle,  founded  in  the  13th 
century,  occupies  a  commanding  site.  Captured  by  the  ^"g'k** 
in  X547,  in  spite  of  Lady  Home's  gallant  defence,  it  was  retaken 
two  yean  afterwards,  only  to  UXl  again  in  1569.  After  Its 
surrender  to  Cromwell  in  X650  it  gradually  decayed.  Towards 
the  dose  of  the  i8th  century  the  3rd  eari  of  Marchmoot  had  the 
walls  rebuilt  out  of  the  old  stones,  and  the  castle,  tbou^  a  mere 
shell  of  the  original  structure,  is  now  a  picturesque  ruin. 

QREENLBAF,  SIMON  (1783-1853),  American  jurist,  was 
bom  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts,  on  the  5th  of  December 
X  783.  When  a  child  he  was  taken  by  his  father  to  Maine,  where 
he  studied  law,  and  in  1806  began  to  practise  at  Stand ish.  He 
soon  removed  to  Gray,  where  he  practised  fw  twelve  3rears,  and 
in  x8i8  removed  to  Portland.  He  was  r^Mrter  of  the  suinenae 
court  of  Maine  from  1820  to  1832,  and  published  nine  volumes  of 
Reports  of  Cases  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Maine  (1822-1835). 
In  1833  he  became  Royall  professor,  and  in  1846  succeeded 
Judge  Joseph  Story  as  Dane  professor  of  law  in  Harvard  Univer- 
sity; in  X848  he  retired  from  hts  active  duties,  and  becaxne 
professor  emeritus.  After  being  for  many  ytzn  president  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bible  Society,  he  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  on 
the  6th  of  October  1853.  Greenleaf's  principal  work  is  a  Treatise 
OH  Ike  Law  of  Evidence  (3  vols.,  1842-1853).  He  also  puUished 
A  Full  ColUction  of  Cases  Overruled,  Denied,  Doubted,  or  Liwdtei 
in  their  Apfdicaiion,  taken  from  American  and  English  Repmis 
(1821),  and  Examination  oftke  Testimony  of  tke  Pour  Boangdi^ 
hy  the  Rules  of  Evidence  admini^ered  in  tke  Courts  «f  Justke, 
vfitk  an  account  of  the  Trial  of  Jesus  (1846;  London,  1847).  He 
revised  for  the  American  courts  William  Cruise's  Digest  of  Lams 
respecting  Real  Property  (3  vob.,  x849-'i8so). 

GREEN  MONKBY,  a  west  African  represenUtive  of  the  typical 
group  of  the  guenon  monkeys  technically  known  as  Cercaptikecus 
caUitrichus,  taking  its  name  from  the  oUve-greeiush  hue  of  the  fur 
of  the  back,  which  forms  a  marked  contrast  to  the  white  whiskeis 
and  belly. 

ORBBNOCK*  a  municipal  and  police  burgh  and  seJ^Kitt  of 
Renfrewshire,  Scotland,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Fiith  of 
Clyde,  23  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Glasgow  by  the  Caledonian  and  the 
Glasgow  &  South- Western  railways,  21  m.  by  the  river  and 
firth.  Pop.  (1907)  68,142.  The  town  has  a  watar  frontage  of 
nearly  4  m.  and  rises  gradually  to  the  hills  behind  the  town  in 
which  are  situated,  about  3  m.  distant.  Loch.  Thom  axtd  Loch 
Gryfe,  from  both  of  which  is  derived  the  water  supply  for  domestic 
use,  and  for  driving  several  mills  and  factories.    The  streets  are 


GREENOCKITE— GREENORE 


5+9 


hid  out  on  the  compantively  levd  tract  behind  the  firth,  the 
older  thoroughfares  and  buildings  lying  in  the  centre.  The  west 
end  contains  numerous  handsome  villas  and  a  fine  esplanade,  xim. 
long,  running  from  Prince's  Pier  to  Fort  Matilda,  which  is  supplied 
with  submarine  mines  for  the  defence  of  the  river.  The  capacious 
bay,  formerly  koovm  as  the  Bay  of  St  Lawrence  from  a  religious 
bouse  long  since  demolished ,  is  protected  by  a  sandbank  that  ends 
here,  and  is  hence  known  as  the  Tail  of  the  Bank.  The  fairway 
between  this  bank,  which  begins  to  the  west  of  Dumbarton,  and 
the  southern  shore tbostitutes  the  safest  anchorage  in  the  upper 
firth.  There  is  a  continuous  line  of  electric  tramways,  connecting 
with  Port  GUsgow  on  the  east  and  Courdck  on  the  west,  a  total 
distance  of  7)  ifa.  The  annual  rainfall  amounts  to  64  in.  and 
Greenock  thus  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  wettest  town  in 
Scotland. 

Many  of  the  public  buildings  are  fine  structures.  The  muni- 
dpftl  buildings,  an  ornate  example  of  Italian  Renaissance,  with 
atowers44ft.  high,  were  opened  in  1887.  The  custom  house  on 
the  old  steamboat  quay,  in  classic  style  with  a  Doric  portico, 
dates  from  x8i8.  The  county  buildings  (1867)  have  a  tower  and 
spire  xxs  ft.  high.  The  Walt  Institution,  founded  in  1837  by  a 
son  of  the  famous  engineer,  James  Watt,  contains  the  public 
library  (established  in  X785),  the  Watt  scientific  library  (pre- 
sented in  x8i6  by  Watt  himselO.  and  the  marble  sutuc  of  James 
Watt  by  Sir  Francis  Chantrey.  Adjoining  it  are  the  museum  and 
lecture  hall,  the  gift  of  James  McLean,  opened  in  1876.  Other 
buildings  are  the  sheriff  court  house,  and  tl»  Spence  Library, 
founded  by  the  widow  of  William  Spence  the  mathematician. 
In  addition  to  numerous  board  schoob  there  are  the  Greenock 
academy  for  secondary  education,  the  technical  college  (1900), 
the  school  of  art,  and  a  school  of  navigation  and  engineering. 
The  charitable  institutions  include  the  infirmary;  the  cholera 
hospital;  the  eye  infirmaiy;  the  fever  reception  house;  Sir 
Gabriel  Wood's  mariners'  asylum,  an  Elizabethan  buflding 
erected  in  xSsx  for  the  accommodation  of  aged  merchant  sea- 
men; aiid  the  Smithson  poorhouse  and  lunatic  asylum,  built 
beyond  the  southern  boundary  in  X879.  Near  Albtit  Harbour 
stands  the  old  west  now  the  north  parish  church  (a  Gothic 
edifice  dliting  from  xspx)  containing  some  sta5ned-g1aas  windows 
by  WmMxa  Morris;  in  iu  kirkyard  Bums's  "  Highland  Mary  " 
was  buried  (1786).  The  west  parish  church  in  Nicholson  Street 
(1839)  is  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  style  and  has  a  campanile. 
The  middle  parish  church  (1759)  in  Cathcart  Square  is  in  the 
Classic  style  with  a  fine  spire.  Besides  burial  grounds  near  the 
infirmary  and  attached  to  a  few  of  the  older  churches,  a  beauti- 
ful cemetery,  90  acres  in  extent,  has  been  laid  out  in  the  south- 
western distria.  The  parks  and  open  spaces  include  Wellington 
Park,  Well  Park  in  the  heart  of  the  town  (these  were  the  gift  of 
Sir  Michael  Shaw-Stewart),  Whin  Hill,  Lyle  Road— a  broad  drive 
winding  over  the  heighu  towards  Gourock,  constructed' as  a 
"  relief  work  '*  in  the  severe  winter  of  X879-X880. 

Greenock  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  town  council  with 
provost  and  bailies.  It  is  a  parliamentary  burgh,  represented  by 
one  mewher.  The  corporation  owns  the  supplies  of  water  (the 
equipment  of  works  and  reservoirs  is  remarkably  complete),  gas, 
electric  li^^t  and  power,  and  the  tramways  (leased  to  a  company). 
The  staple  industries  are  shipbuilding  (esUblished  in  X760)  and 
sugar  refitting  (x  765).  Greenock-built  vessels  have  always  been 
esteemed,  and  many  Cunard,  P.  &  O.  and  AUan  linexs  have  been 
coQstnicted  in  the  yards.  The  town  has  been  one  of  the  chief 
centres  of  the  sugar  industry.  Other  important  industries 
include  the  making  of  boilers,  steam-engines,  k)comotives, 
anchors,  chain-cables,  sailcloth,  ropes,  paper,  woollen  and 
worsted  goods,  besides  general  engineering,  an  aluminium 
factory,  a  flax-spinning  mill,  distilleries  and  an  oO-refinery.  The 
seal  and  whale  fisheries,  once  vigorously  prosecuted,  are  extinct, 
but  the  fishing-fleets  for  the  home  waters  and  the  Newfoundland 
grounds  are  considerable.  Till  X77a  the  town  leased  the  first 
harbour  (finished  in  17 10)  from  Sir  John  Shaw,  the  superior,  but 
acquired  it  in  that  and  the  foIk>wing  year,  and  a  graving  dock 
Was  opened  in  X786.  Since  then  additions  and  improvements 
have  been  periodically  in  progress,  and  there  are  now  Kveral 


tidal  harbours — among  them  Victoria  harbour,  Albert  harbour, 
the  west  harbour,  the  east  harbour,  the  northern  tidal  harbour, 
the  western  tidal  harbour,  the  great  harbour  and  James  Walt 
dock  (completed  jn  x886  at  a  cost  of  £650,000  with  an  area  of 
aooo  ft.  by  400  ft.  with  a  depth  at  low  water  of  33  ft  J,  Garvel 
graving  dock  and  other  dry  docks.  The  quayage  exceeds  xoo 
acres  in  area  and  the  quay  walls  are  over  3  m.  in  length.  Both 
the  Caledonian  and  the  Glasgow  &  South-Westem  railways 
(in  Prince's  Pier  the  latter  company  possesses  a  landing-stage 
nearly  X400  ft.  long)  have  access  to  the  quays.  From  first  to  last 
the  outlay  on  the  harbour  has  exceeded  £1,500,000. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  the,x7th  century  Greenock  was  a  fishing 
village,  consisting  of  one  row  of  thatched  cottages.  A  century 
later  there  were  only  six  slated  houses  in  the  place.  In  1635  it 
was  erected  by  Charles  I.  into  a  burgh  of  barony  imder  a  charter 
granted  to  John  Shaw,  the  government  being  administered  by  a 
baron-bailie,  or  magistrate,  ai^inted  by  the  superior.  Its 
commercial  prosperity  received  an  enormous  impetus  from  the 
Treaty  of  Union  (1707),  under  which  trade  with  America  and  the 
West  Indies  rapidly  developed.  The  American  War  of  Independ- 
ence suH>ended  progress  for  a  brief  interval,  but  revival  set  in 
in  X783,  and  within  the  following  seven  years  shipping  trebled  in 
amount.  Meanwhile  Sir  John  Shaw — to  whom  and  to  whose 
descendants,  the  Shaw-Stewarts,  the  town  has  always  been 
indebted~by  charter  (dated  1741  and  X75X)  had  empowered  the 
householders  to  elect  a  council  of  nine  members,  which  proved  to 
be  the  most  liberal  constitution  of  any  Scots  burgh  prior  to  the 
Reform  Act  of  1832,  when  Greenock  was  raised  to  the  status  of 
a  parliamentary  burgh  with  the  right  to  return  one  member  to 
parliament.  Greenock  was  the  birthplace  of  James  Watt, 
William  Spence  (X777-X8X5)  and  Dr  John  Caird  (X820-X898), 
principal  of  GUsgow  University,  who  died  in  the  town  and  was 
buried  in  Greenock  cemetery.  John  Gait,  the  novelist,  was 
educated  in  Greenock,  where  he  also  served  some  time  in  the 
custom  house  as  a  clerk.  Rob  Roy  is  said  to  have  raided  the 
town  in  X7xs^ 

QRBBIfOCkiTit,  a  rare  mineral  composed  of  cadmium 
sulphide,  CdS,  occurring  as  snudl,  brilliant,  honey-yellow  crystals 
or  as  a  canary-yellow  powder.  Crystals  are  hexagonal  with 
hemimorphic  devebpment,  being  differently  terminated  at  the 
two  ends.  The  faces  of  the  hexagonal  prism  and  of  the  numerous 
hexagonal  pyramids  are  deeply  striated  lK>risontally.  The  crys- 
tals are  txanslucent  to  transparent,  and  have  an  adamantine 
to  resinous  lustre;  hardness  3-3!;  specific  gravity  4*9.  Crystals 
have  been  found  only  in  ScotUind,  at  one  or  two  places  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Glasgow,  where  they  occur  singly  on  prehnite 
in  the  amygdaloidal  cavities  of  basaltic  igneous  rocks — a  rather 
unusual  mode  of  occurrence  for  a  metallic  sulphide.  The  first, 
and  largest  crystal  (about  i  in.  across)  was  found,  about  the 
year  x8io,  in  the  dolerite  quarry  at  Bowling  in  Dumbartonshire, 
but  thb  was  thought  to  be  blende.  A  larger  number  of  crystals, 
but  of  smaller  sise,  were  found  in  1840  during  the  cutting  of  the 
Bishopton  tunnel  on  the  Glasgow  &  Greenock  railway;  they 
were  detected  by  Lofd  Greenock,  afterwards  the  and  earl  of 
Cathcart,  after  whom  the  mineral  was  named.  A  third  locality 
is  the  Boyleston  quarry  near  Barrhead.  At  all  other  localities — 
Prsibram  in  Bohemia,  Laurion  in  Greece,  Joplin  in  Missouri,  &c. 
— the  mineral  is  represented  only  as  a  powder  dusted  over  the 
surface  of  zinc  minerals,  especiaUy  blende  and  calamine,  which 
contain  a  smaU  amount  of  cadmium  replacing  zinc. 

Isomorphous  with  greenockite  is  the  hexagonal  zinc  sulphide 
(ZnS)  known  as  wurtzite.  Both  minerals  have  been  prepared 
artificially,  and  are  not  uncommon  as  furnace  products.  Previous 
to  the  recent  discovery  in  Sardinia  of  cadmium  oxide  as  small 
octahedral  crystals,  greenockite  was  the  only  known  mineral 
containing  cadmium  as  an  essential  constituent.       (L.  J.  S.). 

QRBBNORBi  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of  county  Louth, 
Ireland,  beautifully  situated  at  the  north  of  Carlingford  Lough  on 
its  western  shore.  It  wss  brought  to  unportance  by  the  action 
of  the  London  &  North-Wcstem  railway  company  of  Enghind, 
which  owns  the  pier  and  railways  joining  the  Great  Northern 
^tem  at  Dundalk  (x3|  m.)  and  Newry  (14  m.).    A  regular 


5  so 


GREENOUGH,  G.  B.— GREEN  RIBBON  CLUB 


service  of  passenger  steamers  controlled  by  the  company  runs 
to  Holyhead,  Wales,  80  m.  S.E.  A  steam  ferry  crosses  the  Lough 
to  Greencastle,  for  Kilkeel,  and  the  southern  watering-places  of 
county  Down.  The  company  also  owns  the  hotel,  and  laid  out 
the  golf  links.  In  the  vidnity  a  good  example  of  raised  "beach, 
some  10  ft.  above  present  sea-level,  is  to  be  seen. 

ORBBNOUOH,  QEORGB  BELLAS  (177^1855).  English  geo- 
logist, was  born  in- London  on  the  i8th  of  January  2778.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton,  and  afterwards  (1795)  entered  Pem- 
broke College,  Oxford,  but  never  graduated.  In  1798  he  pro- 
ceeded to  GOttingen  to  prosecute  legal  studies,  but  having 
attended  the  lectures  of  Blumenbach  he  was  attracted  to  the 
Btudy  of  natural  history,  and,  coming  into  the  possession  of  a 
fortune,  he  abandoned  law  and  devoted  hts  attention  to  science. 
He  studied  mineralogy  at  Freiburg  under  Werner,  travelled' in 
various  parts' of  Europe  and  the  British  Isles,  and  worked  at 
chemistry  at  the  Royai  Institution.  A  visit  to  Ireland  aroused 
deep  interest  in  political  questions,  and  he  was  in  1807  elected 
member  of  parliament  for  the  borough  of  Gatton,  continuing  to 
hold  his  seat  until  18x2.  MeanwUle  his  interest  in  geology 
increased,  he  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1807,  and  he  was  the  chief 
founder  with  others  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London  in  1807. 
He  was  the  first  diairman  of  that  Society,  and  in  x8ii,'wneo  it 
was  more  regularly  constituted,  he  was  the  first  president:  and 
in  this  capacity  be  served  on  two  subsequent  occasions*  and 
did  much  to  promote  the  advancement  of  geology.  In  1819 
he  published  A  Critical  Examination  of  the  First  Principles  of 
Cedogyf  a  work  which  was  useful  mainly  in  refuting  erroneous 
theories.  In  the  same  year  was  published  his  famous  Geological 
Map  of  England  and  Wales,  in  six  sheets;  of  which  a  second 
edition  was  issued  in  1839.  This  map  was  to  a  large  extent  based 
on  the  original  map  of  William  Smith;  but  much  new  informa- 
tion was  embodied.  In  1843  he  commenced  to  prepare  a  geo- 
logical map  of  India,  which  was  published  in  1854.  He  died  at 
Naples  on  the  2nd  of  April  2855. 

ORBBNOUOH,  HORATIO  (1805-2852),  American  sculptor, 
son  of  a  merchant,  was  bom  at  Boston,  on  the  6th  of  September 
2805.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  Harvard,  but  he  devoted 
his  prindpal  attention  to  art,  and  in  the  autumn  of  2825  he  went 
to  Rome,  where  he  studied  under  Thorwaldsen.  After  a  short 
visit  in  2826  to  Boston,  where  he  executed  busts  of  John  Quincy 
Adams  and  other  people  of  distinction,  he  returned  to  Italy  and 
took  up  his  residence  at  Florence.  Here  one  of  his  first  com- 
missions was  from  James  Fcnimore  Cooper  for  a  group  of  Chant- 
ing Cherubs;  and  he  was  chosen  by  the  American  government 
to  execute  the  colossal  statue  of  Washington  for  the  national 
capital.  It  was  unveiled  in  2843,  and  was  really  a  fine  piece  of 
work  for  its  day;  but  in  modem  times  it  has  been  sharply 
criticized  as  unworthy  and  incongruous.  -  Shortly  afterwards 
he  received  a  second  government  commission  for  a  colossal 
group,  the  "  Rescue,"  intended  to  represent  the  conflict  between 
the  ^iglo-Saxon  and  Indian  races.  In  2852  he  returned  to 
Washington  to  superintend  its  erection,  and  in  the  autumn  of 
2852  he  was  attacked  by  brain  fever,  of  which  he  died  in  Somer- 
ville  near  Boston  on  the  2 8th  of  December.  Among  other  works 
of  Greenough  may  be  mentioned  a  bust  of  Lafayette,  the  Medora 
and  the  Venus  Victrix  in  the  gallery  of  the  Boston  Athenaeum. 
Greenough  was  a  2nan  of  wide  culture,  and  wrote  well  both  in 
prose  and  verse. 

See  H.  T.  Tuckerxnan,  Memoir  of  Horatio  Greenough  (New  York. 
1853). 

ORBBNOUOH,  JAMES  BRAD8TREBT  (2833-2902),  American 
classical  scholar,  was  bom  in  Portland,  Maine,  on  the  4th  of  May 
2833.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  2856,  studied  one  year  at 
the  Harvard  Law  School,  was  admitted  to  the  Michigan  bar, 
and  practised  in  Marshall,  Michigan,  until  2865,  when  he  was 
appointed  tutor  in  Latin  at  Harvard.  In  2873  he  became 
assistant  professor,  and  in  2883  professor  of  Latin,  a  post  which 
he  resigned  hardly  six  weeks  before  his  death  at  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  on  the  xith  of  October  2902.  Following  the 
lead  of  Goodwin's  Moods  and  Tenses  (i860),  he  set  himself  to 
itudy  Latin  historical  syntax,  and  in  1870  published  Analysis 


of  the  Latin  Snbjunciite,  a  brief  treatise,  privately  prixUed«  of 
much  originality  and  value,  and  in  many  ways  coinciding  wttJb 
Berthold  Delbrilck's  Gebrauch  des  Conjunetiw  und  Optatits  m 
Sanskrit  und  Griechischen  (2872),  which,  however,  quite  ovpr- 
shadowed  the  Analysis.  In  2872  appeared  A  Latin  Gra 
for  Schools  and  Colleges,  founded  on  Comparatsee  Cr{ 
by  Joseph  A.  Allen  and  James  B.  Greenou^,  a  work  of  great 
critical  carefulness.  His  theory  of  Ofin-constnictions  is  thai 
adopted  and  devel(^>ed  by  Wilh'am  Gardner  Hale.  In  2  87^-2880 
Greenough  offered  the  first  courses  in  Sanskrit  and  comparative 
philology  given  at  Harvard.  His  fine  abilities  for  advanced 
scholanhip  were  used  outside  the  classroom  in  editing  the  ADen 
and  Greenough  Latin  Series  of  text-books,  althougji  be  occsr 
sionally  contributed  to  Harvard  Studies  in  Classical  PkSei^y 
(founded  in  2889  and  endowed  at  his  instance  by  his  own  dass) 
papers  on  Latin  syntax,  prosody  and  etymology^ — a  subject 
on  which  he  plaxmed  a  long  work — on  Roman  archaeoiogy  and 
on  Greek  religion  at  the  time  qf  the  New  Coxxiedy.  He  assisted 
largely  in  the  founding  of  Raddiffe  College.  An  able  Engtish 
scholar  and  an  exceltent  etymologist,  he  cdlaborated  with 
Professor  George  L.  Kittredge  on  Words  and  their  Ways  m 
English  Speech  (2902),  one  of  the  best  books  on  the  subject  ia 
the  language.  He  wrote  dever  light  verse,  induding  The  Black- 
birds, a  comedietta,  first  puUidbed  in  The  Atlantic  MmUUy 
(vol.  xxxix.  2877);  The  Rose  and  the  Ring  (2880),  a  pantomime 
adapted  from  Thackeray;  TheQueen  of  Hearts  (2885),  adxaxnatic 

fantasia;  and  Old  King  Cole  (1880)^  an  operetta. 

See  the  sketch  by  George  L.  Kittredge  in  Harvard  Studies  «• 
Classical  Philology,  voL  xiv.  (2903),  pp.  2-27  (abo  printed  in  Harvard 
Graduates''  Magoune,  vol.  x.,  Dec.  290X,  pp.  296-202). 

ORBEN  RIBBON  CLUB,  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  loosely 
combined  associations  which  met  from  time  to  time  in  London 
taverns  or  coffee-houses  for  political  purposes  in  the  1 7th  century. 
It  had  its  meeting-place  at  the  King's  Head  tavern  at  Cfaanccxy 
Lane  End,  and  was  therefore  known  as  the  "  King's  Head  Qub.* 
It  seems  to  have  been  founded  about  the  year  2675  as  a  resort 
for  members  of  the  political  party  hostile  to  the  court,  and  as 
these  associates  were  in  the  habit  of  wearing  in  their  hats  a  bow, 
or  "bob,"  of  green  ribbon,  as  a  disringnishing  badge  usd^ul 
for  the  purpose  of  mutual  recognition  in  street  bnwis,  the  name 
of  the  club  became  changed,  about  2679,  to  the  Green  Ribbon 
Club.  The  frequenters  of  the  dub  were  the  extreme  faction  of  the 
country  party,  the  men  who  supported  Tftus  Oates,  aiKl  wfaa 
were  concerned  in  the  Rye  House  Plot  and  Monmouth's  rebeOioii. 
Roger  North  tells  us  that "  they  admitted  all  strangers  that  were 
confidingly  introduced,  for  it  was  a  main  end  of  thdr  institntioBS 
to  make  proselytes,  especially  of  the  raw  estated  youth  newly 
come  to  town."  Accoixiing  to  Dryden  {Absalom  and  AckitopkeO 
drinking  was  the  chief  attraction,  and  the  members  talked  and 
organized  sedition  over  their  cups.  Thoxnas  Dangetfield  supplied 
the  court  with  a  list  of  forty-dght  members  of  the  Green  Ribbon 
Club  in  2679;  and  although  Dangerfield's  numerous  pexjuries 
make  his  unsupported  evidence  worthless,  it  recdves  confirma- 
tion as  regards  several  names  from  a  list  given  to  James  II.  by 
Nathan  Wade  in  2885  (Harleian  MSS,  6845),  while  a  number 
of  more  eminent  peisonages  are  mentioned  in  The  Cahai,  a  satire 
published  in  2680,  as  also  frequenting  the  dub.  From  these 
sources  it  would  appear  that  the  duke  of  Monmouth  himsdf, 
and  statesmen  like  Halifax,  Shaftesbury,  Buckingham,  Maccles- 
field, Cavendish,  Bedford,  Grey  of  Waxke,  Herbert  of  Cherbuiy, 
were  among  those  who  fraternised  at  the  King's  Head  Tavern 
with  third-rate  writers  such  as  Scroop,  Mulgrave  and  Shadwell, 
with  remnants  of  the  Cromwellian  r^me  like  Fakonbridge, 
Henry  Ircton  and  Claypole,  with  such  profligates  as  Lord  Howard 
of  Escrik  and  Sir  Henry  Blount,  and  with  scoundreb  of  the 
type  of  Dangerfield  and  Oates.  An  allusion  to  Dangerfidd. 
notorious  among  his  other  crimes  and  treacheries  for  a  seditious 
paper  found  in  a  meal-tub,  is  found  in  connexion  with  the  dub 
in  The  Loyal  Subjects*  Litany,  one  of  the  ixmumeraUe  satires 

of  the  period,  in  which  occur  the  lines: 

"  From  the  dark-lanthom  Plot,  and  the  Green  RBiboa  dab 
From  brewing  teditbn  in  a  nnctified  Tub, 
Xrwov  nost  Domine,** 


GREENSAND 


551 


The  dub  was  the  beadquarten  of  tbe  Whig  opposition  to  the 
court,  and  its  members  were  active  promoters  of  conspiracy  and 
sedition.  The  president  was  either  Lord  Shaftesbury  or  Sir 
Robert  Peyton,  M.P.  for  Middlesex,  who  afterwards  turned 
informer.  The  Green  Ribbon  Club  served  both  as  a  debating 
society  and  an  intelligence  department  for  the  Whig  faction. 
Questions  under  discussion  in  parliament  were  here  threshed 
out  by  the  members  over  their  tobacto  and  ale;  the  latest  news 
from  Westminster  or  the  city  was  retailed  in  the  tavern,  "  for 
some  or  otheis  were  continuidly  coming  and  going,"  says  Roger 
North,  "  to  import  or  export  news  and  stories."  Slander  of  the 
court  or  the  Tories  was  invented  in.  the  dub  and  sedulously 
spread  over  the  town,  and  measures  were  there  concerted  for 
pushing  on  the  Exdusion  Bill,  or  for  promoting  the  pretensions 
of  the  duke  of  Monmouth.  The  popular' credulity  as  to  Catholic 
outrages  in  the  days  of  the  Popish  Plot  was  stimulated  by  the 
scandalmongers  of  the  dub,  whose  members  went  about  in  silk 
armour,  supposed  to  be  bullet  proof, "  in  which  any  man  dressed 
up  was  as  safe  as  a  house,"  says  North,  "  for  it  was  impossible 
to  strike  him  for  laughing  ";  while  m  their  pockets,  "  for  street 
and  crowd-work,"  they  carried  the  weapon  of  offence  invented 
by  Stephen  College  and  known  as  the  "  Protestant  Flail." 

The  genius  of  Shaftesbury  found  in  the  Green  Ribbon  Qub 

the  means  of  constructing  the  first  systematized  political  organiza- 

tioo  in  En^and.    North  relates  that  "every  post  conveyed 

the  news  and  tales  legitimated  there,  as  also  the  malign  oonstruc- 

tioDS  of  all  the  good  actions  of  the  government,  especially  to 

plains  where  elections  were  depending,  to  shape  men's  characters 

into  fit  qualifications  to  be  chosen  or  rejected."    In  the  general 

dectlon  of  January  and  February  1679  the  Whig  interest 

throughout  the  country  was  managed  and  controlled  by  a 

committee  sitting  at  the  dub  in  Chancery  Lane.    The  dub's 

oigamxing  activity  was  also  notably  effective  in  the  agitation 

of  the  Petitioners  in  1679.    This  cdebrated  movement  was 

engineered  from  the  Green  Ribbon  Club  with  aU  the  skill  and 

energy  of  a  modem  caucus.    The  petitions  were  prepared  in 

London  and  sent  down  to  every  part  of  the  country,  where  paid 

canvassers  took  them  from  house  to  house  collecting  signatures 

with  an  air  of  authority  that  made  refusal  difficult.    The  great 

"  pope-burning  "  processions  in  1680  and  1681,  on  the  anniversary 

of  Queen  Elizabeth's  accession,  were  also  orgamzed  by  the  club. 

They  ended  by  the  lighting  of  a  huge  bon-fire  in  front  of  the  dub 

windows;  and  as  they  proved  an  effective  means  of  inflaming 

the  religious  passions  of  the  populace,  it  was  at  the  Green  Ribbon 

Oub  that  the  mobiU  valgus  first  received  the  nickname  of  "  the 

mob."    The  activity  of  the  dub  was,  however,  short-lived. 

The  failure  to  carry  the  Exclusion  Bill,  one  of  the  favourite 

projects  of  the  faction,  was  a  blow  to  its  influence,  which  declined 

rapidly  after  the  flight  of  Shaftesbury,  the  confiscation  of  the 

city  of  London's  charter,  and  the  discovery  of  the  Rye  House 

Plot,  in  which  many  of  its  members  were  implicated.    In  1685 

John  Ayloffe,  who  was  found  to  have  been  "  a  dubber  at  the 

King's  Head  Tavern  and  a  green-ribon  man,"  was  executed 

in  front  of  the  premises  on  the  spot  where  the  "  pope-burning  " 

bon-fires  had  been  kindled;  and  although  the  tavern  was  stOl 

in.  existence  in  the  time  of  Queen  Anne,  the  Green  Ribbon  Dub 

which  made  it  famous  did  not  survive  the  accession  of  James  II. 

The  precise  situation  of  the  King's  Head  Tavern,  described  by 

North  as  "  over  against  the  Inner  Temple  Gate,"  was  at  the 

comer  of  Fleet  Street  and  Chancery  Lane,  on  the  east  side  of  the 

latter  thoroughfare. 

See  Sir  Georn  SItwdl,  The  First  Wktr  (Scarborough.  1894). 
cx>nutning  an  illustration  of  the  Green  Ribbon  Club  and  a  pope- 
burning  procession :  Roger  North.  Examen  (London,  1740); 
Anchitcll  Grey,  Debates  of  the  House  of  Commons,  1667-1684,  vol. 
viti.  (10  vols..  London,  1 769);  Sir  John  Bramston,  Autobiography 
(Camden  Soc..  London,  1845).  (R.  J.  M.) 

GREENSAIID.  in  geology,  the  name  that  has  been  applied  to 
no  fewer  than  three  distinct  members  of  the  Cretaceous  System, 
viz.  the  Upper  Greensand  (see  Gault),  the  Lower  Greensand 
and  the  so-called  Cambridge  Greensand,  a  local  phase  of  the  base 
of  the  Chalk  {g.v.).  The  term  was  introduced  by  the  early 
English  geologists  for  certain  sandy  rocks  which  frequently 


exhibited  a  greenish  colour  on  account  of  the  presence  of  minute 
grains  of  the  green  mineral  glauconite.  Until  the  fossils  of  these 
rocks  came  to  be  carefully  studied  there  was  much  confusion 
between  what  is  now  known  as  the  Upper  Greensand  (Selbornian) 
and  the  Lower  Greensand.  Here  we  shall  confine  our  attention 
to  the  latter. 

The  Lower  Greensand  was  first  examined  in  detail  by  W.  H. 
Fitton  {QJ.G^.  iii.,  1847),  who,  in  1845,  had  proposed  the  name 
"  Vectine  "  for  the  formation.  The  name  was  revived  under  the 
form  '-'Vectian"  in  1885  by  A.  J.  Jukes-Browne,  because, 
although'  sands  and  sandstones  prevaD,  the  green  colour  has 
often  changed  by  oxidation  of  the  iron  to  various  shades  of  red 
and  brown,  and  other  lithological  types,  days  and  limestones 
represent  thu  horizon  in  certain  areas.  The  Lower  Greensand 
is  typically  devdoped  in  the  Wealden  district,  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  in  Dorsetshire  about  Swanage,  and  it  appears  again 
beneath  the  northern  outcrop  of  the  Chalk  in  Berkshire,  Oxford- 
shire and  Bedfordshire,  and  thence  it  is  traceable  through 
Norfolk  and  Lincolnshire  into  east  Yorkshire.  It  rests  conform- 
ably upon  the  Wealden  formation  in  the  south  of  England,  but 
it  is  clearly  separable  from  the  beds  beneath  by  the  occurrence 
of  marine  fossils,  and  by  the  fact  that  there  is  a  marked  overlap 
of  the  Lower  Greensand  on  the  Weald  in  Wiltshire,  and  derived 
pebbles  are  found  in  the  basal  beds.  The  whole  series  is  800  ft. 
thick  at  Atherfield  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  but  it  thins  rapidly 
westward.  It  is  usually  dearly  marked  off  from  the  overlying 
Gault. 

In  the  Wealden  area  the  Lower  Greensand  has  been  sub- 
divided as  follows,  although  the  several  members  are  not  every- 
where  recognizable: — 

Isle  of  Wight. 
Folkestone  Beds  (70-100  ft.)  .  Carstone  and  Sand  rock  series. 
Sandgate  Beds  (75-100  ft.)    .  Ferruginous  Sands  (Shanklin  sands). 
Hylhe  Beds  (80-^00  ft.)   .     .  Femieinous  Sands  (Walpen  sands). 
Atherfield  Clay  (20-90  ft.).    .  Atherfield  Clay. 

The  Atherfield  Clay  is  usually  a  sandy  clay,  fossiliferous.  Tbe 
basal  portion,  5-6  ft.,  is  known  as  the  "  Pema  bed  "  from  the 
abundance  of  Pema  MuUeti;  other  fossils  are  Hoplites  Deshayesii, 
Exogyra  sinuata,  Ancyioceras  Mathesonianum.  The  Hythe  beds 
are  interstratified  thin  limestones  and  sandstones;  the  former 
are  bluish-grey  in  colour,  compact  and  hard,  with  a  certain 
amount  of  quartz  and  glauconite.  The  limestone  is  known 
locally  as  "  rag  ";  the  Kentish  Rag  has  been  largdy  employed 
as  a  building  stone  and  roadstone;  it  frequently  contains  layers 
of  chert  (known  as  Sevenoaks  stone  near  that  town).  The  sandy 
portions  are  very  variable;  the  stone  is  often  clayey  and  calcare- 
ous and  rarely  hard  enough  to  make  a  good  building  stone; 
locally  it  is  called  "  hassock  "  (or  Calkstone).  The  two  stones 
are  well  exposed  in  the  Iguanodon  (^rry  near  Maidstone  (so 
called  from  the  discovery  of  the  bones  of  that  reptile).  South- 
west of  Dorking  sandstone  and  grit  become  more  prevalent,  and 
it  is  known  there  as  **  Bargate  stone,"  much  used  around  Godal- 
ming.  Pulborough  stone  is  another  local  sandstone  of  the  Hythe 
beds.  FuUer's  earth  occurs  in  parts  of  this  formation  in 
Surrey.  The  Sandgate  beds,  mainly  dark,  argillaceous  sand  and 
clay,  are  wdl  devdoped  in  east  Kent,  and  about  Midhurst, 
Pulborough  and  Petworth.  At  Nutfidd  the  cdebrated  fuller's 
earth  deposits  occur  on  this  horizon;  it  is  also  found  near 
Maidstone,  at  Bletchingley  and  Red  HiU.  The  Fdkestone  beds 
are  light-coloured,  rather  coarse  sands,  endosing  layers  of  siliceous 
limestone  (Folkestone  stone)  and  chert;  a  phosphatic  bed  is  found 
near  the  top.  These  beds  are  well  seen  in  the  cliffs  at  Folkestone 
and  near  Rdgate.  At  Ightham  there  is  a  fine,  hard,  white  sand- 
stone along  with  a  green,  quartzitic  variety  (Ightham  stone).  In 
Sussex  the  limestone  and  chert  are  usually  lacking,  but  a  fer- 
ruginous grit, "  carstone,"  occurs  in  lenticular  masses  and  layers, 
which  is  used  for  road  metal  at  Pulborough,  Fittleworth,  &c 

The  Lower  Greensand  usually  forms  picturesque,  healthy 
country,  as  about  Leith  Hill,*Hindhead,  Midhurst,  Petworth,  at 
Wobum,  or  at  Shanklin  and  Sandown  in  the  Isle  of  Wight. 
Outside  the  southern  area  the  Lower  Greensand  is  represented  by 
the  Faringdon  sponge-bearing  beds  in  Berkshire,  the  Sandy  and 


552 


GREENSBORO— GREENVILLE 


Potton  beds  in  Bedfordstdre,  the  Shotover  iron  sands  of  Oxford- 
shire, the  sands  and  fuller's  earth  of  Woburn,  the  Lcighton 
Buzzard  sands,  the  brick  days  of  Snettisham,  and  perhaps  the 
Sandringham  sands  of  Norfolk,  and  the  carstone  of  that  county 
and  Lincolnshire.  The  upper  ironstone,  limestone  and  clay  of  the 
Lincolnshire  Tealby  beds  appear  to  belong  to  this  horizon  along 
with  the  upper  part  of  the  Speeton  beds  of  Yorkshire.  The  sands 
of  the  Lower  Greensand  are  largely  emplcyed  for  the  manufacture 
of  gUss,  for  which  purpose  they  are  dug  at  Aylesford,  Godstone, 
near  Rdgate,  Hartshill,  near  Aylcsbuiy  and  other  places;  the 
ferruginous  sand  is  worked  as  an  iron  ore  at  Seend. 

Ttds  formation  is  continuous  across  the  channd  into  France, 
where  it  is  well  developed  in  Boulonnais.  According  to  the 
continental  classification  the  Athcrfield  Gay  is  equivalent  to  the 
Urgonian  or  Barremian;  the  Sandgate  and  Hythe  beds  bdong  to 
the  Aptian  {q.v.);  while  the  upper  part  of  the  Folkestone  beds 
would  fall  within  the  lower  Albian  (f  .v.). 

See  the  Memoirs  of  the 
(i875)t  "  GeoloEV  of  the 
of  the  Isle  of  Purbeck 
Geologists*  Association  (London,  X891).  '  (J.  A.  H.) 

ORBENSBORO,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Guilford  county, 
North  Carolina,  U.  S.  A.,  about  80  m.  N.  W.  of  Raleigh.  Pop. 
(1890)  3317,  (1900)  10,035,  of  whom  4086  were  negroes; 
(1910  census),  x  5,895.  Greensboro  is  served  by  several  lines 
of  the  Southern  railway.  It  is  situated  in  the  Pfedmont  region 
of  the  state  and  has  an  excellent  dimate.  The  city  is  the  seat  of 
the  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College  (1892)  for  girls;  of  the 
Greensboro  Female  Collie  (Methodist  Episcopal,  South; 
chartered  in  1838  and  opened  in  1846),  of  which  the  Rev.  Charles 
F.  Deems  was  president  in  1850-1854,  and  which,  owing  to  the 
burning  of  its  buildings,  was  suspended  from  1863  to  1874;  and  of 
two  institutions  for  negroes — a  State  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College,  and  BennettCollege(Methodist  Episcopal,co^ucational, 
1873).  Another  school  for  negroes,  Immanucl  Lutheran  College 
(Evangelical  Lutheran,  co-educational),  Was  opened  at  Concord, 
N.C.,  in  1903,  was  removed  to  Greensboro  in  1905,  and  in  1907 
was  established  at  Lutherville,  £.  of  Greensboro.  About  6  m.  W. 
of  Greensboro  is  Guilford  CoUcge  (co-educational;  Friends), 
founded  as  "  New  Garden  Boarding  School "  in.  1837  and  re- 
chartered  under  its  present  name  in  x888.  Greensboro  has  a 
Carnegie  library,  St  Leo,  hospital  and  a  large  auditorium.  It  is 
the  shipping-point  for  an  agricultural,  lumbering  and  trucking 
region,  among  whose  products  Indian  com,  tobacco  and  cotton 
are  cspedally  important;  is  an  important  insurance  centre;  has 
a  large  wholesale  trade;  and  has  various  manufactures,  induding 
cotton  goods  ^  (especially  blue  denim),  tobacco  and  dgafs, 
lumber,  furniture,  sash,  doors  and  blinds,  machinery,  foundry 
products  and  terra-cotta.  The  value  of  the  factory  products 
increased  from  $925,4x1  in  X9C0  to  $x,828,837  in  X905,  or  97-6%. 
The  municipality  owns  and  operates  the  water-works.  Greensboro 
was  named  in  honour  of  General  Nathanael  Greene,  who  on  the 
X  5th  of  March  1 781  fought  with  Comwallis  the  battle  of  Guilford 
Court  House,  about  6  m.  N.W.  of  the  dty,  where  there  is  now  a 
Battle-Ground  Park  ot  xoo  acres  (induding  Lake  Wilfong) ;  this 
park  contains  a  Revolutionary  musetun,  and  twenty-nine  monu- 
ments, including  a  (Colonial  (Column,  an  arch  (1906)  in  memory 
of  Brig.-Cxencral  Francis  Nash  (1720-X777),  of  North  Carolina, 
who  died  in  October  1777 of  wounds  recdvedatGermantown,  and 
Davidson  Arch  (1905),  in  honour  of  William  Lee  Davidson  (1746- 
Z781),  a  brigadier-general  of  North  Carolina  troops,  who  was  killed 
at  (^tawba  and  in  whose  honour  Davidson  College,  at  Davidson, 
N.C.,  was  named.  Greensboro  waft  founded  and  became  the 
county-seat  in  x8o8,  was  organized  as  a  town  in  X829,  and  was 
first  chartered  as  a  dty  in  X870. 

*One  of  the  first  cotton  mills  in  the  South  and  probably  the 
first  in  this  state  was  established  at  Greensboro  in  18^.  It  closed 
about  20  yeare  afterwards,  and  in  1889  new  mills  were  built.  Three 
very  large  mills  were  built  in  the  decade  after  1895.  and  three  mill 
villagea.  Proximity,  Rex'olution  and  White  Oak,  named  from  these 
three  mills,  lie  immediatdv  N.  of  the  dty;  in  1008  their  population 
was  estimated  at  8000.  The  owners  of  these  mills  maintain  schools 
for  thechikipen  of  operatives  and  carry  on  "  welfare  wwk  "  in  these 
illages. 


GRBBHSBURO,  a  borough  and  the  county-«at  of  W«stinofe> 
land  county,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.,  3X  m.  E.S.E.  of  Pittsbtus. 
Pop.  (X890)  4202;  (1900)  6508  (484  foreign-bom);  (1910)  54JOW 
It  is  served  by  two  lines  of  the  Pennsylvania  railway.  It  b  an 
important  coal  centre,  and  manufactures  engines,  iron  and  brass 
goods,  flour,  lumber  and  bricks.  In  addition  to  its  public  school 
system,  it  has  several  private  schoob,  induding  St  Mary's 
Academy  and  St  Joseph's  Academy;  both  Roman  CaUiolic.  About 
3  m.  N.E.  of  what  is  now  Greensbuxg  stood  the  villace  of  Haana's 
Town,  settled  about  X770  and  almost  completdy  destroyed 
by  the  Indians  on  the  X3th  of  July  X78a;  here  what  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  court  hdd  west  <rf  the  Allrghanics  opened  on 
the  6th  of  April  x  773,  and  the  county  oouits  continued  to  be  held 
here  until  X787.  Greensburg  was  settled  in  1784-1785,  imine- 
diately  after  the  opening  of  the  state  road,  not  far  from  the  trail 
followed  by  (jeneialjohn  Forbes  on  his  march  to  Fort  Doqacsoe 
in  X758;  it  was  made  the  county-seat  in  1787,  and  was  incor- 
porated in  X  799.  In  X  905  the  boroughs  of  Lud wick  (pop.  in  xgoo, 
901),  East  (jreensburg  (X050),  and  South-east  Green^urg  (620) 
were  merged  with  Greensburg. 

See  John  N,  Boucher's  History  of  Westmoriiand  Commfy,  Pa. 
(3  vols.,  New  York,  1906). 

ORBENSHAHK,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  birds  oommonly 
known  as  sandpipers,  the  TtOoMus  ^oUis  of  most  ornithological 
writers.  Some  exercise  of  the  imagination  Is  however  needed  to 
see  in  the  dingy  olive-cokmred  legs  of  this  Mpcda  a  justification 
of  the  English  name  by  which  it  goes,  and  tlw  application  of  that 
name,  which  seems  to  be  due  to  Pennant,  was  probably  by  way 
of  distinguishing  it  from  two  allied  but  perfectly  distinct  spcdcs 
of  ToUuuu  {T,  ailidris  and  T.  fuscus)  having  red  legs  and  usually 
called  redshanks.  The  greenshank  is  a  native  <rf  the  northeni 
parts  of  the  Old  World,  but  in  winter  it  wanders  far  to  the  sooth, 
and  occurs  regularly  at  the  Ope  of  («ood  Hope,  in  India  and 
thence  throughout  the  Indo-Malay  Archipelago  to  Australia. 
It  has  also  been  recorded  from  North  America,  but  its  appearance 
there  must  be  considered  acddcntaL  Almost  as  bulky  as  f. 
woodcock,  it  is  of  a  much  nkore  slender  build,  and  its  kmg  legs 
and  neck  give  it  a  graceful  appearance,  whidi  is  enhanced  by 
the  activity  of  its  actions.  Disturbed  from  the  moor  or  marsh, 
where  it  has  its  nest,  it  rises  swiftly  Into  the  air,  amspicoons 
by  its  white  back  and  ramp,  and  uttering  shrill  cries  flies  roosd 
the  intrader.  Jt  will  perch  on  the  topmost  boug^  of  a  tree, 
if  a  tree  be  near,  to  watch  his  pro^edings,  and  the  cock  exhibits 
aU  the  astounding  gesticulations  In  which  the  males  of  so  many 
other  lAmkolae  indulge  during  the  breeding-season — ^with 
certain  variations,  however,  that  are  pecuUariy  its  own.  It 
breeds  in  no  small  numbers  in  the  Hebrides,  and  parts  of  the 
Scottish  Highlands  from  Argyllshire  to  Sutherland,  as  wdl  as 
in  the  more  devated  or  more  northern  districts  of  Norway, 
Sweden  and  Finland,  and  probably  also  thence  to  Kam- 
chatka. In  North  America  it  is  represented  by  two  q)edea, 
Totanus  semipalmatus  and  T.  mdanoleucuSf  there  called  wHlets, 
telltales  or  tattlers,  which  in  general  habits  resemble  the  green- 
shank  of  the  Old  World.  (A.  N.) 

GRBENVILLB,  a  dty  and  the  oounty-aeat  of  Washington 
county,  Mississippi,  U.S.A.,  on  the  £.  bank  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  about  75  m.  N.  of  Vicksburg.  Pop.  (1890)  6658;  (1900) 
7642  (4987  negroes);  (X910)  96x0.  Greenville  is  served  by  the 
Southern  and  the  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  railways,  and  by 
various  passenger  and  frdght  steamboat  lines  on  the  Mississippi 
river.  It  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  Yaaoo  Ddta,  a  rich 
cotton-produdng  region,  and  its  industries  are  almost  exdosivc{y 
connected  with  that  staple.  There  are  large  warehouses,  com- 
presses and  gins,  extensive  cotton-seed  oil  works  and  sawmills. 
Old  Greenville,  about  x  m.  S.  qf  the  present  site,  was  the  county 
seat  of  Jefferson  county  until  X825  (when  Fayette  succeeded  it), 
and  later  became  the  county-seat  of  Washington  county.  Much 
of  the  old  town  caved  into  the  river,  and  during  the  CivQ  War  it 
was  bumed  by  the  Federal  forces  soon  after  the  capture  of 
Memphis.  The  present  site  was  then  adopted.  The  town  ol 
Greenville  was  Incoiporated  in  1870;  in  1886  it  was  chartered 
as  a  dty. 


GREENVILLE— GREENWICH 


553 


6IIEBIIVILLB;Ka  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Darke  county, 
Ohio.  U.S^.,  on  Greenville  Creek,  36  m.  N.W.  of  Dayton. 
Pop.  (1900)  5Sox;  (19x0)  6337.  It  is  served  by  the  Pittsburg, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St  Louis  and  the  Cincinnati  Northern 
railways,  and  by  interurban  electric  railways.  It  is  situated 
about  1050  ft.  above  sea-level  and  is  the  trade  centre  of  a  large 
and  fertile  agricultural  district,  producing  cereals  and  tobacco. 
It  manufactures  lumber,  foundry  products,  canned  goods  and 
creamery  products  and  has  grain  elevators  and  tobacco  ware- 
houses. In  the  city  is  a  Carnegie  library,  and  3  m.  distant  there 
is  a  county  Children's  Home  and  Infirmary.  The  municipality 
owns  and  operates  its  water-woriu.  Greenville  occupies  the  site 
of  an  Indian  village  and  of  Fort  Greenville  (built  by  General 
Anthony  Wayne  in  1793  and  burned  in  1796).  Here,  on  the 
3rd  of  August  X795,  General  Wayne,  the  year  after  his  victory 
over  the  Indians  at  Fallen  Timbers,  concluded  with  them  the 
treaty  of  Greenville,  the  Indians  agreeing  to  a  cessation  of 
hostflities  and  ceding  to  the  United  States  a  considerable  portion 
of  Ohio  and  a  number  of  small  tracts  In  Indiana,  Illinois  and 
Michigan  (including  the  sites  of  Sandusky,  Toledo,  Defiance, 
Fort  Wayne,  Detroit,  Mackinac,  Peoria  and  Chicago),  and  the 
United  States  agreeing  to  pay  to  the  Indians  Sao.ooo  worth  of 
goods  immediately  and  an  annuity  of  goods,  valued  at  $9500, 
for  ever.  The  tribes  concerned  were  the  Wyandots,  the  Dcla- 
wares,  the  Shawnees,  the  Ottawas,  the  Chippewas,  the  Pottawa- 
tomies,  the  Miamis,  the  Weeas,  the  Kickapoos,  the  Piankashas, 
the  Kaskaskias  and  the  Eel-river  tribe  Tecumseh  lived  at 
Greenville  from  1805  to  X809,  and  a  second  Indian  treaty  was 
negotiated  there  in  July  x  8x4  by  General  W.  H  Harrison  and 
Lewis  Caas,  by  which  the  Wyandots,  the  Delawares,  the  Shawnees, 
the  (Ohio)  Senecas  and  the  Miamis  agreed  to  aid  the  United 
States  in  the  war  with  Great  Britain.  The  first  permanent  white 
settlement  of  Greenville  was  established  in  x8o8  and  the  town 
was  laid  out  in  the  same  year  It  was  made  the  county-seat  of 
the  newly  erected  county  in  1809,  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
1838  and  chartered  as  a  dty  in  X887. 

OREBNVILLBi  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Greenville 
county,  South  Carolina,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Reedy  river,  about  140  m. 
N.W  of  Columbia,  in  the  N.W.  part  of  the  state.  Pop.  (1890) 
8607;  (1900)  xx,86o,  of  whom  54x4  were  negroes;  (x9XO,  oen- 
nis)  X5,74X.  It  is  served  by  the  Southern,  the  Greenville  & 
Knozviile  and  the  Charleston  &  Western  Carolina  railways. 
It  lies  976  ft.  above  sea-level,  near  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
Mountains,  its  climate  and  sceqery  attracting  summer  visitors. 
It  is  in  an  extensive  cotton-growing  and  cotton-manufacturing 
district  Greenville's  chief  interest  is  in  cotton,  but  it  has 
various  other  manufactures,  including  carriages,  wagons,  iron 
and  fertilizers.  The  total  value  of  the  factory  products  of  the 
dty  in  1905  was  |x, 676,7 74,  an  increase  of  73'5%  since  X900. 
The  dty  is  the  seat  of  Furman  University,  Chicora  College  for 
girb  (1893;  Presbyterian),  and  Greenville  Female  College  (1854; 
Baptist),  which  in  X907-1908  had  379  students,  and  which, 
besides  the  usual  departments,  has  a  conservatory  of  music, 
a  school  at  art,  a  school  of  expression  and  physical  culture  and 
a  kindergarten  normal  training  school.  Furman  University 
(Baptist;  opened  in  1853)  grew  out  of  the  "  Furman  Academy 
and  Theological  Institution,"  opened  at  Edgefield,  S.C.,  in  1827, 
and  named  in  honour  of  Richard  Furman  (X755-X82S),  a  well- 
known  B^tist  dergyman  of  South  Carolina,  whose  son,  James 
C.  Funnan  (X809-189X),  was  long  president  of  the  University. 
In  1907-Z908  the  university  had  a  faculty  of  xs  and  350  students, 
of  whom  xox  were  in  the  Furman  Fitting  SchooL  Greenville 
was  laid  out  in  1797,  was  originally  known  as  Pleasantbuig  and 
was  first  chartered  as  a  dty  in  x868. 

OREBNVILLB,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Hunt  county, 
Tens,  U.S.A.,  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Sabine  river,  48  m. 
N.E.  of  Dallas.  Pop.  (r9oo)  6860,  of  whom  XX4  were  fordgn- 
bora  and  X75X  were  negroes;  (1910)  8850.  It  is  served  by  the 
Misaouxi,  Kusas  &  Texas,  the  St  Louis  South- Western  and  the 
Texas  Midland  railways^  It  is  an  important  cotton  market, 
has  gins  and  compresses,  a  large  cotton  seed  oil  refinery, 
and  other  mamifactorics,  and  is  a  trade  centre  for  a  rich  agri- 


cultural district  The  city  owns  and  operates  its  dectnc-Ughtmg 
plant  It  is  the  seat  of  Burieson  College  (Baptist),  founded  in 
1893,  and  X  m.  from  the  dty  limits,  in  the  village  of  Peniel 
(pop.  X908,  about  500),  a  community  of  "  Holiness  "  people,  are 
the  Texas  Holiness  University  (1898),  a  Holiness  orphan  asylum 
and  a  Holiness  press.  Greenville  was  settled  in  1844,  and  was 
chartered  as  a  dty  in  1875.  In  1907  the  Texas  legislature 
granted  to  the  city  a  new  charter  establishing  a  commission 
government  similar  to  that  of  Galveston. 

OREENWICH,  a  township  of  Fahrfield  county,  Connecticut, 
U.S.A.,  on  Long  Island  Sound,  in  the  extreme  S.W.  part  of  the 
sute,  about  28  m.  N.E.  of  New  York  Qty.  It  contains  a  borough 
of  the  same  name  and  the  villages  of  Cos  Cob,  Riverside  and 
Sound  Beach,  all  served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hart- 
ford Railway;  the  township  has  steamboat  and  dectric  railway 
connexions  with  New  York  City.  Pop.  of  the  township  (1900) 
12,172,  of  whom  3371  were  fordgn-bom;  (1910)  16,463;  of 
the  borough  (19x0)  3886.  Greenwich  is  a  summer  resort, 
principally  for  New  Yorkers.  Among  the  residents  have  been 
Edwin  Thomas  Booth,  John  Henry  Twachtman,  the  landscape 
painter,  and  Henry  Osborne  Havemeyer  (X847-X907),  founder 
of  the  American  Sugar  Company.  There  are  several  fine  churches 
in  the  township;  of  one  in  Sound  Beach  the  Rev.  William  H.  H. 
Murray  (1840-1904),  called  "Adirondack  Murray,"  from  his 
Camp  Life  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains  (r868),  was  once  pastor. 
In  the  borou^  are  a  public  library,  Greenwich  Academy  (1827; 
co-educationd),  the  Brunswick  School  for  boys  (1901),  with 
which  Betts  Academy  of  Stamford  was  united  in  X908,  and  a 
hoq)ital.  The  prindpal  manufactures  are  belting,  woollens, 
tinners'  hardware,  iron  and  gasolenemotors.  Oysters  are  shipped 
from  Greenwich.  The  first  settlers  came  from  the  New  Haven 
Colony  in  X640;  but  the  Dutch,  on  account  of  the  explora- 
uon  of  Long  Island  Sound  by  Adrian  Blok  in  16x4,  laid 
daim  to  Greenwich,  and  as  New  Haven  did  nothing  to  assist 
the  settlers,  they  consented  to  union  with  New  Netherland  in 
1643.  Greenwidi  then  became  a  Dutch  manor.  By  a  treaty 
of  X650,  which  fixed* the  boundary  between  New  Netherland  and 
the  New  Haven  Colony,  the  Dutch  relinquished  thdr  claim  to 
Greenwich,  but  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  rdused  to  submit 
to  the  New  Haven  Colony  until  October  1656.  Six  years  later 
Greenwich  was  one  of  the  first  towns  of  the  New  Haven  Colony 
to  submit  to  Connecticut.  The  township  suffered  severely 
during  the  War  of  Independence  on  account  of  the  frequent 
quartering  of  American  troops  within  its  borders,  the  depreda- 
tions of  bands  of  lawless  men  after  the  occupation  of  New  York 
by  the  British  in  1778  and  its  invasion  by  the  British  in  X779 
(February  25)  and  X78X  (December  5).  There  was  also  a  strong 
loyalist  sentiment  On  the  old  post-road  in  Greenwich  is  the 
inn,  built  about  X729,  at  which  I^ad  Putnam  was  surprised  in 
February  1779  by  a  force  under  General  Tryon;  according  to 
tradition  he  escaped  by  riding  down  a  flight  of  steep  stone  steps. 
The  inn  was  purchased  in  1901  by  the  Dau^ters  of  the  American 
Revolution,  who  restored  it  and  made  it  a  Putnam  Memorial 
The  township  government  of  Greenwich  was  instituted  in  the 
colonial  period.  The  borough  of  Greenwich  was  incorporated  in 
X858. 

See  D.M.  Mead,  History  oftks  Town  ofGretmrickiScw  York.  X857). 

ORBBHWICH,  a  south-eastern  metropolitan  borough  of 
London,  England,  bounded  N.  by  the  river  Thames,  E.  by 
Woolwich,  S.  by  Lewisham  and  W.  by  Deptford.  Pc^.  (X90X) 
95,770.  Area,  38sr*7  acres.  It  has  a  river-frontage  of  4}  m., 
the  Thames  rnaking  two  deep  bends,  endosing  the  Isle  of  Dogs 
on  the  north  and  a  dmikr  peninsula  on  the  Greenwich  side. 
Greenwich  is  connected  with  Poplar  pn  the  north  shore  by  the 
Greenwich  tunnd  (X902),  for  foot-pasaengers,  to  the  Isle  of  Dpgs 
(Cubitt  Town),  and  by  the  Blackwall  Tunnd  (X897)  for  street 
traffic,  crossing  to  a  point  between  the  East  and  West  India 
Docks  (see  Popxuli).  The  main  thoroughfares  from  W.  to  E. 
are  Woolwich  and  Shooter's  Hill  Roads,  the  second  representing 
the  old  high  road  through  Kent,  the  Roman  Watlhig  Street 
Greenwich  is  first  noticed  in  the  reign  of  Ethelred,  when  it  was 
a  station  of  the  Danish  fleet  (xoxx-xox4). 


55+ 


GREENWOOD,  F. 


The  most  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  hospital  and  the 
observatory     Greenwich  Hospital,  as  it  is  still  called,  became 
in  1873  a  Royal  Naval  College.    Upon  it  or  its  site  centre  nearly 
all  the  historical  associations  of  the  place.    The  noble  buildings, 
contrasting  strangely  with  the  wharves  adjacent  and  opposite 
to  it,  make  a  striking  picture,  standing  on  the  low  river-bank  with 
a  backgrotmd  formed  by  the  wooded  elevation  of  Greenwich 
Park.    Thty  occupy  the  site  of  an  ancient  royal  palace  called 
Greenwich  House,  which  was  a  favourite  royal  residence  as 
early  as  1300,  but  was  granted  by  Henry  V.  to  Thomas  Beaufort, 
duke  of  Exeter,  from  whom  it  passed  to  Humphrey,  duke  of 
Gloucester,  who  h&rgely  improved  the  property  and  named  it 
PlacenHa.    It  did  not  revert  to  the  crown  till  his  death  in  1447 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  Henry  VIII.,  Queen  Mary  and  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  here  Edward  VI.  died.    The  building  was  enlarged 
by  Edward  IV.,  by  Henry  VIII.,  who  made  it  one  of  his  chief 
residences,  by  James  I.  and  by  Charles  I.,  who  erected  the 
"  Queen's  House  "  for  Henrietta  Maria.    The  tenure  of  land 
from  the  crown  "  as  of  the  manor  of  East  Greenwich  •"  became  at 
this  time  a  recognized  formtila,  and  occurs  in  a  succession  of 
American  colonial  charters  from  those  of  Virginia  in  1606,  1609 
and  161 2  to  that  of  New  Jersey  in  1674.    Along  with  dth'er  royal 
palaces  Greenwich  was  at  the  Revolution  appropriated  by  the 
Protector,  but  it  reverted  to  the  crown  on  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.,  by  whom  it  was  pulled  down,  and  the  west  wing  of 
the  present  hospital  was  erected  as  part  Of  an  extensive  design 
which  was  not  further  carried  out.    In  its  tmfinished  state  it 
was  assigned  by  the  patent  of  WiUiam  and  Mary  to  certain  of 
the  great  officers  of  state,  as  commissicAiers  for  its  conversion 
into  a  hospital  for  seamen;  and  it  was  opened  as  such  in  1705. 
The  building  consists  of  four  blocks.    Behind  a  terrace  860  ft. 
in  length,  stretching  along  the  river  side,  are  the  buildings 
erected  in  the  time  of  Charles  II.  from  Inigo  Jones's  designs,  and 
in  that  of  Queen  Anne  from  designs  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren; 
and  behind  these  buildings  are  on  the  west  those  of  King  William 
and  on  the  east  those  of  Queen  Mary,  both  from  Wren's  designs. 
In  the  King  William  range  is  the  painted  hall.    Here  in  1806  the 
remains  of  Nelson  lay  in  state  before  their  burial  in  St  Paul's 
Cathedral.    Its  walls  and  ceiling  were  painted  by  Sir  James 
ThornhUl  with  various  emblematic  devices,  and  it  is  hung  with 
portraits  of  the  most  distinguished  admirals  and  paintings  of 
the  chief  naval  battles  of  England.    In  the  Queen  Anne  range  is 
the  Royal  Naval  Museum,  containing  models,  relics  of  Nelson 
and  of  Franklin ,  and  other  objects.    In  the  centre  of  the  principal 
quadrangle  of  the  hospital  there  is  a  statue  of  George  II.  by 
Rysbrack,  sculptured  out  of  a  single  block  of  marble  taken  from 
the  French  by  Admiral  Sir  George  Rooke.  In  the  upper  quad- 
rangle is  a  bust  of  Nelson  by  Chantrey,  and  there  are  various 
other  memorials  and  relics.    The  oldest  part  of  the  building  was 
in  some  measure  rebuilt  in  18x1,  and  the  present  chapel  was 
erected  to  replace  one  destroyed  by  fire  in  1779.    The  endow- 
ments of  the  hospital  were  increased  at  various  periods  from 
bequttts  and  forfeited  estates.    Formerly  2700  retired  seamen 
were  boarded  within  it,  and  5000  or  6000  others,  called  out- 
pensioners,  received  stipends  at  various  rates  out  of  its  funds; 
but  in  1865  an  act  was  passed  empowering  the  Admiralty  to 
grant  liberal  pensions  in  lieu  of  food  and  lodging  to  such  of  the 
inmates  as  were  willing  to  quit  the  hospital,  and  in  1869  another 
act  was  passed  making  their  leaving  on  these  conditions  com- 
pulsory.   It  was  then  devoted  to  the  accommodation  of  the 
students  of  the  Royal  Naval  College,  the  Infirmary  being  granted 
to  the  Seamen's  Hospital  Society.    Behind  the  College  is  the 
Royal  Hospital  School,  where  zooo  boys,  sons  of  petty  officers 
and  seamen,  are  boarded. 

To  the  south  of  the  hospital  is  Greenwich  Park  (185  acres), 
lying  high,  and  commanding  extensive  views  over  London,  the 
Thames  and  the  plain  of  Essex.  It  was  enclosed  by  Humphrey, 
duke  of  Gloucester,  and  laid  out  by  Charles  II.,  and  contains 
a  fine  avenue  of  Spanish  chestnuts  planted  in  his  time.  In  it  is 
situated  the  Royal  Observatory,  built  in  1675  ^^^  the  advance- 
ment of  navigation  and  nautical  astronomy.  From  it  the  e.xact 
time  is  conveyed  each  day  at  one  o'clock  by  electric  signal  to 


the  chief  towns  througliout  the  country;  British  And  the  majority 
of  foreign  geographers  reckon  longitude  from*  its  meridian.  A 
standard  clock  and  measures  are  seen  at  the  entrance.  A  new 
building  was  completed  in  1899,  the  magnetic  pavilion  lying 
some  400  yds.  to  the  east,  so  placed  to  avoid  the  disturbance 
of  instruments  which  would  be  occasioned  by  the  iron  used  in 
the  principal  building.  South  of  the  park  lies  the  open  common 
of  Blackheath,  mainly  within  the  borough  of  Lewisham,  and  in 
the  east  the  borough  includes  the  greater  part  of  Woolwich 
Common 

At  Greenwich  an  annual  banquet  of  cabinet  ministers,  known 
as  the  whitebait  dinner,  formerly  took  place.  This  ceremony 
arose  out  of  a  dinner  held  annually  at  Dagenham,  on  the  Essex 
shore  of  the  Thames,  by  the  commissioners  for  engineering 
works  earned  out  therein  170S-X720— a  remarkable achievemoit 
for  this  penod — to  save  the  lowlands  from  fkMding.  To  <»e  d 
these  dinners  Pitt  was  invited,  and  was  subsequently  accom- 
panied by  some  of  his  colleagues.  Early  in  the  19th  century  the 
venue  of  the  dinner,  which  had  now  become  a  ministerial  function, 
was  transferred  to  Greenwich,  and  though  at  first  not  always 
held  here,  was  later  celebrated  regulariy  at  the  *'  Ship,"  an 
hotel  of  ancient  foundation,  closed  in  1908.  The  liquet 
continued  till  x868,  was  revived  in  1874-1880,  and  was  hdd  for 
the  last  time  in  1894. 

The  parish  church  of  Greenwich,  in  Church  Street,  is  dedicated 
to  St  Alphege,  archbishc^,  who  was  martyred  here  by  the 
Danes  in  X012  In  the  church  Wolfe,  who  died  at  Quebec 
(i759)>  And  Tallis,  the  musician,  are  buried.  A  modem  stained- 
glass  window  commemorates  Wolfe. 

The  parbamentary  borough  of  Greenwich  returns  one  member. 
Two  burgesses  were  returned  in  1577,  but  it  was  not  again  repre- 
sented till  the  same  privilege  was  oonfored  on  it  in  1832. 
The  borough  council  consists  of  a  mayor,  five  aldermen  and 
thirty  councillors. 

GREENWOOD,  FREDERICK  (1830-1909),  English  journalist 
and  man  of  letters,  was  bom  in  April  1830.  He  was  one  of  three 
brothers — the  others  being  James  and  Charles — ^who  all  gained 
reputation  as  journalists.  Frederick  started  life  in  a  printing 
house,  but  at  an  early  age  began  to  write  In  periodicals.  In 
X853  he  contributed  a  sketch  of  Napoleon  III.  to  a  volume 
called  The  NapoUon  Dynasty  (2nd  ed.,  X855).  He  also  wrote 
several  novels:  The  Laves  of  an  Apothecary  (1854),  The  Pdh 
oj  Roses  (1859)  and  (with  his  brother  James)  Under  «  Ckwi 
(i860).  To  the  second  number  of  the  ComkiU  Magaane  be 
contributed  "  An  Essay  without  End,"  and  this  led  to  an  intro- 
duction to  Thackeray.  In  X862,  when  Thackeray  resigned  the 
editorship  of  the  ComhiU,  Greenwood  became  joint  editor  with 
G.  H.  Lewes.  In  1864  he  was  a{^)ointed  sole  editor,  a  post 
which  he  held  until  1868.  While  at  the  ComkiU  he  wrote  an 
article  in  which  he  suggested,  to  some  extent,  how  Thackeray 
might  have  intended  to  conclude  his  unfinished  work  Denis 
Duval,  and  in  its  pages  appeared  Jdargaret  DensU*s  HiOery^ 
Greenwood's  most  ambitious  work  of  ficticm,  published  in 
volume  form  in  1864.  At  that  time  Greenwood  had  conceived 
the  idea  of  an  evening  newspaper,  which,  while  containing  "  all 
the  news  proper  to  an  evening  journal,"  should,  for  the  most 
part,  be  made  up  "  of  original  articles  upon  the  many  things 
which  engage  the  thoughts,  or  employ  tl^  energies,  or  amuse 
the  leisure  of  mankind."  Public  affairs,  literature  and  an, 
"  and  all  the  influences  which  strengthen  or  dissipate  society  " 
were  to  be  discussed  by  men  whose  independence  and  authority 
were  equally  unquestionable.  Canning's  Anti-JacoHn  and  the 
Saturday  Review  of  1864  were  the  joint  modds  Greenwood  had 
before  him.  The  idea  was  taken  up  by  Mr  George  Smith,  and 
the  Pall  Matt  GauUe  (so  named  aifter  Thackemy's  imaginary 
paper  in  Pendennis)  was  launched  in  Fd>ruary  1865,  with 
Greenwood  as  editor.  Within  a  few  years  he  had  come  to 
exercise  a  great  influence  on  public  affairs.  His  views  somewhat 
rapidly  ripened  from  what  was  described  as  philo9(4>hic  Liberal- 
ism into  Conservatism.  No  minister  in  Great  Britain,  Mr 
Gladstone  declared,  ever  had  a  more  able,  a  more  xealous,  a 
more  effective  supporter  for  his  policy  than  Lord  Beaconsodd 


GREENWOOD,  J.— GREGARINES 


555 


had  in  Greenwood.  It  was  on  the  suggestion  of  Greenwood 
that  Beaconsfield  purchased  in  1875  the  Sues  Canal  shares  of  the 
Khedive  Ismail;  the  British  government  being  ignorant,  until 
informed  by  Greenwood,  that  the  shares  were  for  sale  and  likely 
to  be  bought  by  France.  It  was  characteristic  of  Greenwood 
that  he  declined  to  publish  the  news  of  the  purchase  of  the  shares 
in  the  Fall  Mall  bdfore  the  official  announcement  was  made. 

Early  in  x88o  the  Fall  Mall  changed  owners,  and  the  new 
proprietor  required  it  to  support  Liberal  policy.  Greenwood 
at  once  resigned  his  editorship,  but  in  May  a  new  paper,  the 
St  Jatme^s  GauUe,  was  started  for  him  by  Mr  Henry  Hucks 
Gibbs  (afterwards  Lord  Aldenham),  axKl  Greenwood  proceeded 
to  carry  on  in  it  the  tradition  which  he  had  established  in  the 
Pall  Mali.  At  the  St  Jame^s  Greenwood  remained  for  over 
eight  years,  continuing  to  ezerdse  a  marked  influence  upon 
political  affaizs,  notably  as  a  pungent  critic  of  the  Gladstone 
administration  (1880-1885)  and  an  independent  supporter  of 
Lord  Salisbury.  His  connexion  with  the  paper  ceased  in  August 
x888,  owing  to  disagreements  with  the  new  proprietor,  Mr  E. 
Stetnkopff,  who  had  bought  the  St  Jama's  at  Greenwood's 
own  suggestion.  In  January  1891  Greenwood  brought  out  a 
weekly  review  which  he  named  the  Anti-Jacobin,  It  failed, 
however,  to  gain  public  support,  the  last  number  appearing  in 
Jannafy  1892.  In  1893  he  published  The  Lover's  Lexicon  and 
in  X894  Imagination  in  Dreams.  He  continued  to  express  his 
views  on  pditical  and  social  questions  in  contributions  to 
newquipers  and  magaxines,  writing  frequently  in  the  Westminster 
GautU,  the  PaU  Mall,  Blackwood,  the  Comhill,  &c.  Towards 
the  end  of  his  life  his  political  views  reverted  in  some  respects 
to  the  liberalism  of  his  eariy  days. 

In  the  wofds  of  Geoige  Meredith  "  Greenwood  was  not  only  a 
great  journalist,  he  had  a  statesman's  head.  The  national 
interests  were  always  urgent  at  his  heart."  He  was  remarkable 
to€  securing  for  his  papers  the  services  of  the  ablest  writers  of 
the  day,  and  for  the  ^t  of  recognizing  merit  in  new  writers, 
such,  for  instance,  as  Richard  Jeffries  and  J.  M.  Barrie.  His 
instinct  for  capacity  in  others  was  as  sure  as  was  his  journalistic 
judgment.  In  1905,  on  the  occasion  of  his  75th  birthday,  a 
dinner  was  given  in  his  honour  by  leading  statesmen,  journalists, 
and  men  of  letters  (with  John  Moriey — ^who  had  succeeded  him 
as  editor  of  the  Pall  Mall — ^in  the  chair).  In  May  1907  he 
contributed  to  Blackwood  an  article  on  "  The  New  JoumaJism," 
in  which  he  drew  a  sharp  contrast  between  the  old  and  the  new 
conditions  under  which  the  work  of  a  newq>aper  writer  is  con- 
ducted.   He  died  at  Sydenham  on  the  14th  of  December  1909. 

See  Honouring  Frederick  Greenwood,  being  a  report  of  the  speeches 
at  the  dinner  on  the  8th  of  April  1905  (London,  privately  printed, 
1905);  "  Birth  and  Infancy  of  the  Pail  Mall  Gazette,"  an  article 
contributed  by  Greenwood  to  the  PaU  Mall  of  the  14th  of  April 
1897;  "  The  Blowing  of  the  Trumpet  "  in  the  introduction  to  the 
51  James's  (May  31,  1880):  obituary  notices  in  the  Alkenaeum 
(Dec  35,  1909)  and  r^  Times  (Dec.  17, 1909)* 

OREBIIWOOD,  JOHN  (d.  1593),  English  Puritan  and 
Separatist  (the  date  and  place  of  his  birth  are  unknown),  entered 
as  a  sizar  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  on  the  i8th  of 
Mardh  1577-1578,  and  commenced  B.A.  1581.  Whether  he  was 
directly  influenced  by  the  teaching  of  Robert  Browne  {q.v.), 
a  graduate  of  the  same  college,  is  uncertain;  in  any  case  he  held 
strong  Puritan  opinions,  which  ultimately  led  him  to  Separatism 
of  the  most  rigid  type.  In  1581  he  was  chaplain  to  Lord  Rich, 
at  Rochford,  Essex.  At  some  unspecified  time  he  had  been 
made  deacon  by  John  Ayhner,  bishop  of  London,  and  priest 
by  Thomas  Cooper,  bishop  of  Lincoln;  but  ere  long  he  re- 
nounced this  ordination  as  "  wholly  unlawful."  Details  of  the 
next  few  years  are  lacking;  but  by  1586  he  was  the  recognized 
leader  of  the  London  Separatists,  of  whom  a  considerable  number 
had  been  imprisoned  at  various  times  since  1567.  Greenwood 
was  arrested  early  in  October  1586,  and  the  foUowing  May  was 
committed  to  the  Fleet  prison  for  an  indefinite  time,  in  default 
of.  bail  for  conformity.  During  his  imprisonment  he  wrote  some 
controversial  tracts  in  conjunction  with  his  fellow-prisoner 
Henry  Barrowe  (q.v.).  He  is  understood  to  have  been  at  liberty 
in  the  autumn  of  1588;  but  this  may  have  been  merely  "  the 


liberty  <A  the  prison."  However,  he  was  certainly  at  large  in 
September  1592,  when  he  was  elected  "teacher"  of  the 
Sejparatist  church.  Meanwhile  he  had  written  (1590)  "  An 
Answer  to  George  Gifford's  pretended  Defence  of  Read  Prayers." 
On  the  5th  of  December  he  was  again  arrested;  and  the  foUowing 
March  was  tried,  together  with  Barrowe,  and  condemned  to 
death  on  a  charge  of  "  devising  and  circulating  seditious  books." 
After  two  recites,  one  at  the  foot  of  the  gallows,  he  was  hanged 
on  the  6th  of  April  1593. 

Authorities. — H.  M.  Dexter,  Congregationalism  during  Ike  last 
three  hundred  years'.  The  England  and  Holland  of  Ike  Pilgrims; 
F.  J.  Powickc,  Henry  Barrowe  and  the  Exiled  Ckurch  of  Amsterdam', 
B.  Brook,  Lives  of  the  Puritans;  C.  H.  Cooper,  Atkenae  Canta- 
brigienses,  vol.  iL 

GREG.  WILUAH  RAYHBONB  (1809-1881),  English  essayist, 
the  son  of  a  merchant,  was  bom  at  Manchester  in  1809.  He  was 
educated  at  the  univeiaity  of  Edinburgh  and  for  a  time  managed 
a  mill  of  his  father's  at  Bury,  and  in  1832  began  business  on  his 
own  account.  He  entered  with*  ardour  into  the  struggle  for 
free  trade,  and  obtaihied  in  184a  the  prize  offered  by  the  Anli- 
Com  Law  League  for  the  best  essay  on  "  Agriculture  and  the 
Com  Laws."  He  was  too  much  occupied  with  political,  economi- 
cal and  theological  ^)eculations  to  give  undivided  attention  to 
his  business,  wUch  he  gave  up  in  1 850  to  devote  himself  to  writing. 
His  Creed  of  Ckrislendom  was  published  in  1851,  and  in  1853  he 
contributed  no  less  than  twdve  articles  to  four  leading  qimrterlies. 
Disraeli  praised  him;  Sir  Geoige  Comewall  Lewis  bestowed 
a  Commissioneiship  of  Customs  upon  him  in  1856;  and  in  1864 
he  was  made  Comptroller  of  the  Stationery  Office.  Besides 
contributions  to  periodicals  he  produced  several  volumes  of 
essays  on  political  and  social  philosophy.  The  general  spirit 
of  these  is  indicated  by  the  titles  of  two  of  the  best  known, 
Tke  Enigmas  of  Life  (1872)  and  Rocks  Akead  (1874).  They 
rq>resent  a  reaction  from  the  high  hopes  of  the  author's  youth, 
when  wise  legislation  was  assumed  to  be  a  remedy  for  every 
public  ill.  Greg  was  a  man  of  dcq>  moral  earnestness  of  character 
and  was  interested  in  many  philanthropic  works.  He  .died  at 
Wimbledon  on  the  xsth  of  November  1881.  His  brother, 
Robert  Hydk  Greg  (X795-X875),  was  an  economist  and 
antiquary  of  s(»ne  distinction.  Another  brother,  Samuel  Greg 
(1804-1876),  became  well  known  in  Lancashire  by  his  philan- 
thropic efforts  on  behalf  of  the  working-pec^le.  Percy  Greg 
(1836-1889),  son  of  William  Rathbone  Gr^,  also  wrote,  like  his 
father,  on  politics,  but  his  views  were  violently  reactionary. 
His  History  of  tke  United  States  to  Ike  Reconstruction  of  tke  Union 
(1887)  is  a  polemic  rather  than  a  history. 

GREGARINES  (mod.  Lat.  (^e^artiki,  from  ^reiofmr,  collecting 
in  a  flock  or  herd,  grex)  a  large  and  abundant  order  of  Sporozoa 
Ectospora,  in  which  a  very  hi^  degree  of  morphological  ^)edal» 
ization  and  cytological  differentiation  of  the  cell-body  is  frequently 
found.  On  the  other  hand,  the  life-cycle  is,  in  general,  fairly 
simple.  Other  principal  characters  which  distinguish  Gregarines 
from  allied  Sporozoan  parasites  are  as  follows: — ^The  fully- 
gcawn  adult  (trophozoite)  is  always  "  free  "  in  some  internal 
cavity,  i.e.  it  is  extracellular;  in  nea^y  all  cases  prior  to  spomla- 
tion  two  Gregarines  (associates)  become  attadied  to  one  another, 
forming  a  couple  (sy^gy),  and  are  surrounded  by  a  common 
cyst;  inside  the  cyst  the  body  of  each  associate  becomes 
s^mented  up  into  a  number  of  sexual  dements  (gametes, 
primary  sporoblasts),  which  then  conjugate  in  pairs;  the 
resulting  copula  (zygote,  definitive  sporoblast)  becomes  usually 
a  spore  by  the  secretion  of  spore-membranes  (sporocyst),  its 
protoplasm  (sporoplasm)  dividing  up  to  form  the  germs  (sporo- 
zoites). 

F.  Redi  (1684)  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  observe  a 
Gregarine  parasite,  but  his  claim  to  this  honour  is  by  no 
means  certain.  Much  later  (1787)  Cavolini  described  tOatorkoL 
and  figured  an  indubitable  Gregarine  (probably  the 
form  now  known  as  Aggregata  conformis)  from  a  Crustacean 
(Packygrapsus),  which,  however,  he  regarded  as  a  tapeworm. 
Leon  Dufour,  who  in  his  researches  on  insect  anatomy  came 
across  several  species  of  these  parasites,  also  considered  them  as 
allied  to  the  worms  and  proposed  the  generic  name  of  Gregarina. 


556 


GREGARINES 


u  uture  of  Gngtrioe*  wu  fint  i 
KoUikcr  who  from  1845-1848  utdid  considcn 
ledge  of  die   re  ue      occurrence  and  wid    di3 

Furthe    progRU     u    uc  to  P  : 


<if  Uk      pac  I 


of  our  knowledge  regarding  the  rcUtJc 

ctlll  of  tbcLr  hut  during  their  eirly  development. 

Greguincs  are  oscDtially  pinsitei  of  InverttbrfcteSi  tbey  vt 
nol  known  to  occur  in  any  true  Vcnebme  altboiigh  met  vnLh  io 
^TPT^t-  Aacidians.  By  far  the  greatest  Dumber  of  hosts  is 
rtmm  fuToished  by  the  Anhropods.  Many  members  of  Ihi 
JJ*"'      various  groups  of  wonns  (ctpecially  the  Annelids) 

[otms  are  found  in  Echiwdccou;  ia  the  other  clasxs,  they 
fllber  occuT  only  sporadically  or  else  are  absent.  Infection 
i>  invaiiabl]-  of  Ibc  acddental  (cuual)  type,  by  way  of  the  ili- 
ncotaiy  caJial,  the  spore  being  usually  twallowed  by  the  host 
when  Icedzag;  '     '' 


f  this  tntlhod   hu  beci 


the  pubbsher,  Crtiiiav  Fuchei,  Jena- 


y  ((.J.  DiflKyaay,  or 


and  ultimately  fall  into  tb 

Ihcy  may  pa»  straighlway  into  tbc  bi 

there  come  into  relation  with»toeortaiioitiBue{f 

if  Mocyifii  of  the  euthwom.  which  is  for  a  lime  inli 

lellular  in  the  spcrmiEoblasts  (fig.  4,  c)-    Ip  the  ci 

>f  intestinal  Gregaiincs,  the  behaviour  of  the  young  tr 

vilh  respect  to  the  epithelial  cells  of  iu  host  varies  szrauy 

The  parasite  may  remain  only  attached  to  the  boat-cell,  ftevci 

xcoming    actually    intracellular    (e.f.    FUnafialai);     DBR 

jsually  it  penetrates  partially  into  It,  (he  ctracetlulu  portion 

>1  (he  Gregarine,  however,  pving  tise  aubaeqtierily  10  nun  ct 

he  adult  {e-g.  Gniarina)i  or  lastly,  [a  a  few  fortna,  tbc  early 

The  effects  on  the  host  are  confined  t«  the  paraiitixed  aSh, 
rhcse  generally  undergo  at  fint  marked  hypertioidiy  and  aheia- 
ionin  character;  this  condition  is  succeeded  by  one  of  atni|diy. 
then  the  substance  of  the  cell  b- 
piiclically  absorbed  by  tbc 


very  small  pert«ntage  of  the  whole.    In  short  tt 
as  a  rule,  sufier  any  appreciable  inconvenience  fn 
of  the  parasites. 
Ibe  bcdy  of  ■  Gf^lrioe  ia  always  eI  a  dcfimlc  A 


GREGARINES 

it  hfpbsical, 


li  t  he  ETOWITIR  nrm. 

HRion  of   1^   bod 

Fio  J.— Part  of » tec  on  ihrorah  Ibe  "™f"      "ij™.    ■ 

ippanliu  of  liMHor.  of  a  PlaxTpkaltu    1"  i^lf^  M  ""<  '"i"; 

inowiag    ro«  Ukv    proccteei    ct  end  he   reil  t  hecKlracplI 

'    aitheGr«tn«hnKi-fnthr»p  thriial   Pa">   nioiTori™ii 

-  ..»»i!.9™™i...i£«-ii.a;J3ASid 


attadung  ornndlc^  Tlie  cxtnonular  pvt  of 
nwt  npadrVi  ud  n  traruvcnt  Kptuni  il  l^iui..-u  ■>«  ■  •■■^-^ 
dktma  away  Inm  (outiidrl  tbr  point  whoe  the  body  penc- 
tralB  into  Ibe  tdl  (£(■  6) :  ibii  nurkt  off  tlw  Urn  dcutomcritt 
poamiortr,  Mbullr).    Liccr  ihlnb  that  tut  piniiion  mou  likdy 


ttacuulicd.  u  Aaplalint  or  .IsrfliUa  (ffojiJiiriilii.  Afsnsc^ijiilii).  u 
roi^inK  to  whk-h  character  it  rpTwwd  to,  from  the  otbcn,  tcrriw 
CrfkoBna  at  SiflaU  {PatycjilidSj. 


J,  i'lJu-fptilflii  atini. 

4,  Slytorkyiuhai  tongkgUii, 

5,  Btloiitt  finam. 

penetratci  mto  the  hottKcll,  an 


tnientc  i*  (onned^  Inatcad.a 
ne  devdoped  from  near  tli« 
H  ho«<FU>  (fie.  5)  aad  tbiu 


compaiablc  Id  pKUdopodia,  to  Khich  Ihcy  were  rormcrly  Ukeoed. 

A  very  inlemtiH  and  remarkable  motpMogkaX  peculianty  haa 
beenreccnllydcactibedbyLfcerflS)  in  the  caae  of  a  new  Cresarine, 
Totmiteyitit,  In  thia  form  the  body  ia  rtongatrd  and  mctamencaUy 
•ecmenud.  recallinc  that  of  a_wcinenE«J  worm,  thcaduh  tropboHH 

to  ibe  aeptum  between  the  proio-  and  onilo-nwitc  Ld  an  ocdlnaiy 
._, .__  r leiite  remaining  imall  and  lindividHj.     Tho 

Wnii  (e.[.  Diptadina).  In  the  lornwr  cue  it  may  thow  long<- 
udinil  Hiiitioni.  The  culide  alw  rormi  ihe  hooki  or  tpinea 
A  many  c^mciiia>   Tht  ectopUsn  uniaUy  ibowt  (hg.  9AJ  a  differ- 


5S8 


llitdeti,a{i 

^    '  tbe  dHpty-Aaininf,   more  or  lets 

vdcuDlaud     qibencil     karyo*ocn« 

<c«iwKiiig  ol  chromalin  Enunutcly 

nif    bouod  up  wiih  ■  plaiiinDid  Uua) 

'^      whkh  14  invviably  prejcin.    In  one 

7         or  wo  mttiDoa  (•.f.  DiplxyslU 

jcJuvftd«n]   cbe  pucleui  bas  rnort 

miiin  cJ  the  — '- — -    ■■ — 


GREGARINES 

.rophdiaitci  beeamgiduh.,  ThlilMdioil 


tpnsiuted  wit 

fpiDiucyULd 

'iS^il%]),  tht , 

led  for  thit  rvuor,  ia  which  ■chitofDnouB  fiuion  cake* 
dirin;  the  <«,  trophic  condicion.  UmaUy,  the  body 

oi  multiple  fii^OB  (fig.  lo),  into.-  ' —  '■'-  '- 

_  eahi)     dii 


ki'larC^X 


daughter- in 


li  Ihc  parallel 

mciation  may  be  end-Io^nft  (icrminal),  chher  by 
iniike  po1ea»  or  it  may  be  Bide-Io-ud^  (lateral) 
■  couple  fayzygy)  thm  lormed  may  proceed  forthwith 
;  ■M  kpfirDbiaat-iormatioQ  {LanktiUria,  Jtf*— ^-'-"-^ 
It  in  the  trophic  phuc  lor  »omc  time  longer  (& 
iulanco  ii^iotyUii),  aMociation  ooun  at  w 


duciive  (nual)  lifniG-  Fic.  II.— EinMiyifuiM.s.i.ABOcia- 
caBce,  in  aoiDe  caiet,  Ihii  lioiiB  of  two  and  ihiee  GnprinB;  c. 
luBctloB  may  be  delayed  Chain  ct  five  puaiiui:  f.  Primiie;  i, 

_  ,. ;. temporaiiljr  SauJIilea. 


.^mblaiu   ;iei.«n>)  IhenudvEi  are  co- 

^„.Jted,  their  nuclei  may  yet  undervo  a  final  matuiatioo  U-t- 
CUpsyirim  ntu);  and  Sn  UnBCyi&.  indeed.  Braiil  0)  (n& 
.L..  _.!...  i.  ^poitiitn\y  a  timilar  procen  if  dcla^-ed  uiitu  alter 
ind  lormaiion  of  the  iy|oIe  (dc£tiitlve  iporobbat)' 


GREGARINES 


rule,  men  tbbanK  Ib  the  earlier  than  In  llic  Iii 
adnclion-tphcRt  ace  EefKraUy  tarft«  and  coup 
coniuling  Of  a  v«ll-<levfekt|xd  antrotphcrc.  with 
■Dmic  [ranulH,  al  otbcr  tima  of  very  large  ccntr 
aunt  rayi.     Id  thaw  cah  wSov  Ihe  kaTyoaoir 


NevrrthekB,  Ibr  later  diviucm. 

By  tbe  lime  nucbeir  muLUplinI 
(he  Win  -"  -'■ '•- 


I  [f.i.  Dipialimi),  or  In  a  kind  d 
on  ia  well  advanced  orconttileled, 


IPipMimii 


le  wry  iircEular  iq  fhape,  anj  pfYKjuccd  into  nL 

SirLirkymklu,)  the  two  individuals  nmain  fairly  icpar 
pendnit  ti  each  other,  in  otheia  (LuaJkUerid)  thnr  1 
i>iiied  and  interlocked,  often  to  a  RmarkaUe  cUem 

T**  teiual  nuclei  nen  paia  lo  Ibe  Brlacc  of  (ha  y 

■etmenta.  where  Ibey  take  up  a  poahioD  of  UDllflrm  distfibution^ 
Arour^  each,  a  iniaU  aiea  of  cytoplajm  becamea  acgnaaled,  the 
wb^  often  projecting  ai  a  little  Inid  or  hillock  from  lEc  nncral 
ufface.  Thraeuninij^carpmtulKnactaareal  length  cut  on  aa  the 
tporoblaati  or  Bamctd.  Frequently  a  large  amount  o(  the  general 
protoplaim  of  each  parent-indk^ual  it  left  over  unuted.  fonatituting 
rvo  eynal  reaidua,  which  may  lubaequently  iw,  in  Dipiodina, 
however,  pracIicaUy  the  whole  cytopUam  ja  used  up  in  the  Eorniation 


The 


tbemadvea  ahotf  all  aradatloni  fnn 

.^..i..  i.„  „t  and  ' '-  '— ■— 


d(  markeij  diffcmitiatioa  inla  male  and  female  (aniioaamy),  lo  one 
ol  complete  equality  fiaogamy).  Aniaonmy  ia  moat  highly  developed 
in  PUrnaftaiia.  Keie,  IM  male  demeiita  (laicngametca)  are 
minute,  elongaud  aad  i^iidle>like  in  ahape,  with  a  minute  roatnim 
'  '  '  '  a  loDf  flagelliun  pcateriony,  and  very  artiwi  t1u» 
I  (nengametea)  are  much  laroK,  obk 
ive.     In  Sl^ihriyitiliia  the  dinetenc* 


JJ.'^Developfnenl  ol  the  Gametea  a 
UndHerentiated  "gamete,  /.  (.  Stijea  i 
rodividuai.  ''  ""  S!f^l 


point  alxAit  Ihii  paraiile  ia  that  certain  highly  motile  and 
toxoon-liLe  male  Bametea  are  formed  {6e.   t^>.  which  are, 

appearaace,  the  chief  diatinction  beinf  in  the  midei,  thoae  of  the  mate 
elementa  baaf  amalkr  and  chromatically  denier  than  thoae  ot  the 

thfltiiti  tonipfeto  iioi'r —  ■-  '~'-'    •■■ —  '^■- 


■eauality  and  not  merely  ol 
pmy,  thrDugh  a  iia^e  auc 


htaboi 

ue^dts  JporohioiUi 


GumiiptiTa,  Ac.     And, 


.-Cyat  pt  V««yHU  cpii,. 

plaam  in  the  cyat.  (From  l^keater-) 

cauaea.    In  tbecaaeofhighly-diSerentiated  nnietea(PttraEifta'Ki), 

out  the  [emale  element!.  In  SlyiixliyjitlHii,  ii^a  haa  ihown  that 
(be  function  of  the  iterile  male  gametea  ii  to  bnna  about,  by  their 

gamete*  are  ttogamoua  or  only  slightly  dilTerenliared  and  (probably) 
not  of  Ihemaelvet  motile  other  laclDn  aid  in  produdng  ihe  neceaaary 
eooiininflillg,  Tbua  in  CrcfarilH  if.  In>m  the  mealwarm,  the 
unoaed  ioaala  or  cyital  residua  become  amaeboid  and  send  out 
procetaeavhichdrive  the  pcfiphenlly-utuatedgamefei  round  in  the 

(t/rupm)  the  tnovemcnuol  the  host  are  consldcird  lo  be  sufficient ; 
and  laitly,  in  Difltiin,  owing  to  the  eitent  to  which  the  inter- 
twining proccaa  la  carried,  if  eadi  gamete  ia  not  actually  contigvoua 
Lo  a  Buitable  felkHF-eonjiigant,  a  very  slight  movement  or  mutual 
atuaclion  wilt  briiu  two  such,  when  Ubcnted.  into  contact- 

Ad  unuaual  nKxtibcalion  of  the  procesa  oi  sporoblaic-fonDatloa 
— J  _ — jiijaiiga^  ti4tkh  occurs  in  OpkryttyitUt  must  be  mentioned. 


-.onlydivtd 
achdivisioi 


iDdoneoflhedaughter- 
ntea.    Henoe  only  one 


peniats  in  each  half.    Around  this  some  of  the  cytopUim 
,  the  jest  fonaina  a  retidiniDi.    The  ipoeoblaat  or  pmel* 

ne  f nnn  the  other  aasociatei  when  a  sinflle  aysote  resulu 
omB  a  ipore  containing  eight  sporosofteai  In  lAe  ordinarT 

il  doea  not  break  doni.  In  which  case  partbenogeneiia 

;h  spomblasl  developing  by  itielt  iau  a  email  spon. 

1  conjugating  elementa  unite  camplciely,  cytoplasm  with 


r  r>'gf>te.    The  pnKopI 


.,, ^void  or  barrel,  and  i 

^ha  subsequently  beconv. 

apinea  or  proceasea,  civiog  riae  lo  the  chancteristi 
Gi^garinc  apore.  Intemal  to  the  ectocyst.  ar 
b[;inc.  Ihe  endocyH,  ia  alio  laid  down.   Thcie 

been  undergoing  diviMo.    By 


generally  that 

Ihickencd,  and  often 

■      ■  ist,.-,^, 

ihiie IhenHilenla of  the  spi 

aucceisive  dlviaionn.  usually _. 

eight  daughler.nuclei,  each  of  which 


iL'ped°7lai^  Uormf '  sj 


.    Nexi^  the  spofoplaam  becomes 

nucteui.  and  thui  eiEhi  aicklr- 

»  are  formed.     Tliere  ia  usually  a 


560 


GREGARINES 


\  oiutituting  the  bpora^  reudumn.   ll  ia  Lmf 
I  known  Grcgariii»»  with  doc  tuaptioD.  tbe  m 

■  in  (be  ipon  ii  aiht;    Ibe  occpdon  it  Stlt* 

■  Ut(nm  tyfAal.  when  Ihentinbcr  19  half,  vii.  .-_ 
-  — i-.^^^  *_^m  jiu  general  mode  oC  tpore-fornutio 

■- ' '-"t  Crattacean  CrqphDH.  Ui 

AumaUJat  aod  tlie  Pon 
sporijv.    Tlw  ipom  i 

rniiFded  m  EynnuMpon 
-(rukedj.  bcQnc  tlic  cr 

L     [fpOTOCyn)  frf  tlie  oniinary 
I ^^    ji^    Bporn- 

devclopcd 


ka»r)     a.   Chjn«lj   l«d.ng  JO   .he  ;   -J^   WiiK  ngard  to  Ihc 

CVit:    f,  Endocys*;    d.  Tlie  everted   „.,  iii  Iftplv  ihat  ihi- 
■wroducti:  (.  Gdalinoui  ectocvK.  i.' '*„„.;  ZZT.  ,.. 


niUi  10  AirrtfU ;  is  nhich  cue  tbe  true  tpon 

, et  to  be  identified. 

In  the  inlntine  o(  >  lieih  boH  tlie  cyHi  nipt ute  and  the  ipom  •• 
lihinted.   Tliii  ii  uiiully  largely  brouolit  about  by  the  rtelling  c 

Outptnnlu,  known  ai  •poroducll  (^.  is),  are  developed  [tool  111 
reHaualprolopliim.  lot  the  puageof  iheaporM  10  the  c«erior. 

familici.  chntacleciied.  for  the  mon  part,  by  the  fon 

H**-  utually  icpaiainl  off  ftoin  the  reit  ag  a  distiDct  tub-ordc 


u.  with  Ptroipcra  ritaJiua.  at  pnaeat  ihoucht  to  bv 
out;  Ctifaiitiitt  lOipijirtniiati.  with  Grttarimi. 
.  1,  Eu^uxyiiii.  Uynlvpara.  Cipie»i4tiftnt.  Slm^iktirm: 
JhdymopkytJar,  witti  Dutymopkytt;  Daityiapktn4at,  with  Da^tyio- 
fkerui.  Plcnaplalta.  Eikivoimtra,  Biopairmt:  Aaintaphtlidar 
■■'■'*■  '  '*^ — apkalmj,  Pmnia,  CaUorkyuciui,  SupkoMtpktn,  Ltttrvl^ 
Pitaxifkaim,  Sitadcfkim:  ilwUlwpliriJu  wilh  ilcaa- 


I  Ihe  Stflaln.    l^a  ha 


(pianioUysqiiiviIest  to  Atifiala,  ga^arjM). 
neisei  so  epunerite  and  ii  noiwtilUB.    Chiefly 

'.  \>rra  ft>  completdv  ■nac^fcd  in  f»*»*Jtt*t 
B  distinpiidied  two  wcU-nianed  ODe«»  faoc 

i1  want  clatufyim  more  in  dct«U.     Faa- 

CaiiaipErn,  /XfiMiiu:     ai  '   "            " 
.     ,           ,  Utkjjcyilii,  Ccrat6lpora ;  tl     , 
DiptocyslU  Cankatma  and  Z^oeyttis  probahiy  co 
PUrospora  and,  again,  SytKyitit  are  dinincl ;    lastly,  co 
I.r  ZyjijMiB.  Aiukara  MiKjliirtaa).  are  incoinnletely  b       

'*    1  by  J.  t^aabaum  (24)  inider  tbe  approwiale  vaai«  <x 
■Kj/d£nil(ae,  which  iahabita  tbe  isteitiae  of  Hnibaliftarffria. 


oot'cert^^n  it  regarded  aa  the  more  primary  arid  lundanxntu^ 
Tribe  A.— (i^Wino  (pranically  equivalent  to  SipUM). 
Save  e«eptionally,  the  body  ytmeaa  an  tpimeriie.  at  any  rate 

j._: L ...  BagM  a[  fTowlS,  ajid  ii  typkally  aeptaie.    Moally 

taol  Anhropoda. 


ditring  thi 
iDKiUna] 


Ibii^a,  CprjaOa.  Onmilinia;  Uimufmldi  with  ifawiAara 
Huflerliyiickui;  St]lmkynMtt.vi\it^yCfKky*ikiu.Upluat»!almi 
Dalixyaiiiu  with   Diivxyilii ;     and   TWniiryili^Sf.  with    rilBII 


sporoioitet  arc  lonpcd  in  each  eygotc.  tt  will  be  leen  uiai  .xubua- 
ditiulla  ■•  •  pnctkally  unique  lorm.  While,  on  the  atK  hand,  it 
recalls  the  Gregadnca  m  many^waya,  on  the  other  hand  it  diSera 
widely  frtHn  th«D  in  aeveral  charactcriat- t  fraturea,  being  priaitiw 
in  ionie  retpecta,  but  highly  aprcUliied  io  oihera,  lo  that  it  cuutcc 
be  properly  included  in  the  order.  .^/laudtiiacUa  nther  reperacnf 
a  primitive  Ectouioraa  paraaite,  whith  haa  proceeded  upon  «  line 
of  ilBown.  intermediate  between  the  Gregarirva  and  Cocodia. 

rinei  aie  tlie  iDliowing:  1.  A.  BemdI.  "l^triE  bis  Kenstnii 
dec  .  .  .  Crttarioen,"  4rtJi.  ProlisieHk.  I.  p.  37s.  3  pi>^  U993); 
Z.  L.  Brazil.  "  Recherchea  anr  la  reproductioD  dei  Gr^cmrinc* 
monocynid^,"  Anil.  ad.  up.  U)  3.  p.  17- p)-  >  O^OS).  utirf.  at. 
4,  p.  69.  I  pb.  (toos)!  i.  L,  Bmail.  "  ebicDkogithm  Jafair.i. 
pnraiile  nouHau,  Ac.,"  M.  nl.  (N.  et  R.)  U).  p.  ivii.,  S  Sc>.  (IQO«); 
V  M.CauUeryandF.  Mtanil.  "  SuruneCrigariiK  .  ,  .  pitiEiitaat 
.  .  .  une  phaae  dc  multi[^ication  aaporul&."  C.R.  Ac.  So.  116. 
p,  3(a  {tWiy.  i.  M.  Caulltry  and  F.  Meenil. "  Le  FaraHtiime  intn- 
ccllulainraeiGrteariiK),"iif.<:il.  tp.  p.iiodvoi):  a.  M.  CauUerr 
and  F.  Meaoik  "Sur  use  mode  paninilitK  de  divinon  nudfainy 
chei  lea  Gr*garinev"  Aitii.  anal.  mvrnK.  ).  p.  146,  1  pl-  (19") :  T. 
M.  Caullery  and  F.  Meinil.  "  Sur  quelquei  panutei  imerm  <lca 
Aoo6lidea,''MiK.  ii^.  {.Tna.  Sua.  Wimrmi^.^.g.  80. 1  ^  (iS99>: 
7a.  J.CectoIu."Surl',4iKfalrtM»ipUaU.*c.'',1nlL  >™iiaewiu 
6.  p.  130,  JjtJa.  (190S);  8.  H.  Crawley.  "  Progieaiivr  Movement  <d 
Greganocfc"  P.  Ac.  Pkilai.  Jl.  p.  4,  J  pU.  (1901).  aljo  rp.  aU.  57. 
P-8o{i90s)!  ft  H.  CrawleylT'' tm  ol  the  Fulycynid  Gregari=«  <J 
the  II.S..''^  •».«(.»,  pp.41. 6j»,  4  pll.  (t^oj);  10.  1- CuCnoi. 
-  RedKidiei  tut  I'^ution  ct  la  caniugaiun  de>  Gr<>gaTinei.'-  .^nt. 
Mo/.  I7,p.Sgi.4pl>.(l.9aO:  II.  A.  Lavtrao  and  F.  Heaml.  ••  s«ir 
quelquei  partiniwilta  de  I'tvolution  d'unc  Gr^riw  et  la  tCacIioa 
3e  U  cellule-hOle,-  C.J!.  Sat.  Bui.  sa,  p.  SH-  f  ^  ('9") :  1*-  U 
LiSger.  ■'  Rechercliea  lur  lej  Gr*saSnefc"  Tabl.  toV.  3-  P-  i-.  »  pU. 
iiSa);  11.  L.Uee(.  "CantriGiiiianilaconnaiiiaKede*S(«Ti>. 
ioairo.Sc.."Bi£jl.5ri.Fra«(.}n,p.j4o,}pR(i»97):  14.  t-L^cn, 
'■  Sot  un  nouveou  Sporoioiite  (Siiiuctuu).  Sic."  CJt.  Ac  5iC  131. 
0.721(1900)!  IS.  L.  Uget.  ■' La  Reproduction  aeiofc  the.  1« 
Op(iryocytti!,"'(.  e.  p  761  (I900);  16.  L.  L(^.  "  Sur  one  DOuvrll* 
Grfgarine  {.A%pti<aa  au^wica.},  «c.."  tp.  t«.  iji.  P-  '343  (i?ai(; 
17.  L.L*ser.  "la  Reproduction  eeiuSecheale.  SylotKaefita^" 
^rit.  PiMiiKcnt.  3.  p.  304,  apla-(i904):  >■■  I- I^gei.  "  Etude  .ur 
J'MnwcyiJu  mini  (L*Ecry,  &c„"  t^.  cU.  7,  p.  307,  a  pli.  (19c*)  ;  19. 
L.  Lfger  and  O.  DuboM.  "La  Feproduetion  tmrfe  dva  fin. 
«B*aIi,i."  ^rc*.  amJ.  h6.  (N.  el  R.)  (4)  1.  P-  14'-  "  hfa-  t'?"3); 
20.  L.  lAet'and  O,  DuT>oacq. "  Atfip''  «tB"i.  n  "P-  *r-.  t  i. 
p.  147,6  fis'.  (1903);  II.  L.  LdgtrsndO.  Duboicq,  Lea  Grtcmiina 
el  I'ipiihflium  intcKinal.  «c.,''  Ani.  fonmle).  6.  p.  37J.  4  ph. 
(190») ;  U.   L.  Ltget  and  O.  Duboacq, ''  Nouvtllea  Kec&nba  w 


GREGOIRE 


S6r 


let  Gr^arines,  Ac,"  Arch.  ProlisienJk'.  47P:  335i  >  pts.  (1004):  23. 
M.  tOfie.  "  Bau  und  Entwtckdung  der  Cr^rinen."  I.  *«.  p.  88. 
•evcralfigs.  (I904):24.  J.  Nusbaum, "  Oberdie  .  .  .  Fortpflaiuung 
dner  .  .  .  Cregarine,  Sckaudinndla  kenUat"  Zeii.  wiss.  Zool.  75, 
p.  281,  pi.  aa  (1903):  25.  F.  Paehler,  "  Ober  die  Morphologic, 
rortpnaiuung  .  .  .  von  Cregarina  oaata"  Arch.  ProiisUnk.  4, 
p.  64, 2  pis.  (1904) ;  26.  S.  Prowazek,  "  Zur  Entwickelung  der  Grega- 
rinen."  op^  cit.,  i,  p.  397,  pi.  o  (1902);  27.  A.  Schneider  (Various 
memoirs  on  Gresarines).  rabl.  tool,  i  and  3  (1886-1892);  28. 
H.  Schnitsler,  "Uber  die  FortpfUnzung  von  CUpsydrina  ooata" 
Arch.  ProtisUnk.  6,  p.  30Q,  3  pis.  (IQOS);  29.  M.  Siedlccki.  "  Ober 
die  geschlechtliche  Vermenrung  der  Monocystis  aseidiae, "  BuU.  Ac. 
Cracovie,  p.  515.  2  pis.  (1900);  30.  M.  Siedlecki,  "Contribution  k 
r^tude  des  cnangements  cellulaires  provoqudcs  par  Ics  Grtearines," 
Arch.  anat.  microsc.  4.  p.  87,  9  figs.  (1901):  31.  H.  M.  Woodcock, 
"  The  Life-Cycle  of  Cysiobia  irregularis,  Ac,"  Q.J.ii.  Set.  50,  p.  i. 
6  pis.  (1906).  (H.  M.  Wp.) 

GRicOIRB,  HENRI  (1750-183 1),  French  revolutionist  and 
constitutional  bishop  of  Blois,  was  born  at  V^ho  near  Lunevtilc, 
on  the  4th  of  December  1750,  the  son  of  a  peasant.  Educated 
at  the  Jesuit  college  at  Nancy,  he  became  cur6  of  Emhcrmcnil 
and  a  teacher  at  the  Jesuit  school  at  Pont-i-Mousson.  In  1783 
he  was  crowned  by  the  academy  of  Nancy  for  his  £loge  dc  la 
poisir,  and  in  1788  by  that  of  Metz  for  an  Essaisurla  riginiration 
physique  el  morale  des  Juifs.  He  was  elected  in  1789  by  the 
clergy  of  the  haUliage  of  Nancy  to  the  states-general,  where  he 
soon  became  conspicuous  in  the  group  of  clerical  and  lay  deputies 
of  Jansenist  or  Gallican  sympathies  who  supported  the  Revolu- 
tion. He  was  among  the  first  of  the  clergy  to  join  the  third 
estate,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  union  of  the  three  orders; 
he  presided  at  the  permanent  sitting  of  sixty-two  hours  while 
the  «BastiUe  was  being  attacked  by  the  people,  and  made  a 
vehement  speech  against  the  enemies  of  the  nation.  He  sub- 
sequently took  a  leading  share  in  the  abolition  of  the  privileges 
of  the  nobles  and  the  Church.  Under  the  new  civil  constitution 
of  the  dergy,  to  which  he  was  the  first  priest  to  take  the  oath 
(December  27, 1790),  he  was  elected  bishop  by  two  departments. 
He  selected  that  of  Loire-et-Cher,  taking  the  old  title  of  bishop 
of  Blois,  and  for  ten  years  (1791-1801)  ruled  hb  diocese  with 
exemplary  zeal.  An  ardent  republican,  it  was  he  who  in  the 
first  session  of  the  National  Convention  (September  21,  1793) 
proposed  the  motion  for  the  abolition  of  the  kingship,  in  a  speech 
in  which  occurred  the  memorable  phrase  that  "  kings  are  in  the 
moral  order  what  monsters  are  in  the  natural."  On  the  15th  of 
November  he  delivered  a  q)eech  in  which  he  demanded  that  the 
king  should  be  brought  to  trial,  and  immediately  aftenvards 
was  elected  president  of  the  Convention,  over  which  he  presided 
in  htt  episcopal  dress.  During  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI.»  being 
absent  with  other  three  colleagues  on  a  mission  for  the  union  of 
Savoy  to  France,  he  along  with  them  wrote  a  letter  urging  the 
condemnation  of  the  king,  but  omitting  the  words  d  mort\  and 
he  endeavoured  to  save  the  life  of  the  king  by  proposing  in  the 
Convention  that  the  penalty  of  death  should  be  suspended. 

When  on  the  7th  of  November  1793  Gobel,  bishop  of  Paris, 
was  intimidated  into  resigning  his  episcopal  office  at  the  bar  of 
the  Convention,  Gr^oire,  who  was  temporarily  absent  from  the 
sitting,  hearing  what  had  happened,  hurried  to  the  hall,  and  in 
the  face  of  a  howling  mob  of  deputies  refused  to  abjure  either  his 
religion  or  his  office.  He  was  prepared  to  face  the  death  which 
be  expected;  but  his  courage,  a  rare  quality  at  that  time,  won 
the  day,  and  the  hubbub  subsided  in  cries  of  "  Let  Grigofre 
have  his  way!  **  Throughout  the  Terror,  in  spite  of  attacks 
in  the  Convention,  in  the  press,  and  on  placards  posted  at  the 
street  comers,  he  appeared  in  the  streets  in  his  episcopal  dress 
and  daily  read  mass  in  his  house.  After  Robespierre's  fall  he 
was  the  first  to  advocate  the  reopening  of  the  churches  (speech 
ol  December  21,1794).  He  also  exerted  himself  to  get  measures 
put  in  execution  for  restraining  the  vandalistic  fury  against  (he 
monuments  of  art,  extended  his  protection  to  artists  and  men 
of  letters,  and  devoted  much  of  his  attention  to  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  public  libraries,  the  establishment  of  botanic  gardens. 
and  the  improvement  of  technical  education.  He  had  taken 
during  the  Constituent  Assembly  a  great  interest  in  Negro 
emancipation,  and  it  was  on  his  motion  that  men  of  colour  in 
the  French  colonies  were  admitted  to  the  same  rights  as  whites. 

AS    10 


On  the  establishment  of  the  new  constitution,  Gr^ire  was 
elected  to  the  Coundl  of  500,  and  after  the  xSth  Brumaire  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Corps  L^gislatif,  then  of  the  Senate 
(1801).  He  took  the  lead  in  the  national  church  coundb  of 
1797  and  1801;  but  he  was  strenuously  opposed  to  Napoleon's 
poUcy  of  recondliation  with  the  Holy  See,  and  after  the  signature 
of  the  concordat  he  resigned  his  bishopric  (October  8,  1801). 
He  was  one  of  the  minority  of  fivie  in  the  Senate  who  votni 
against  the  proclamation  of  the  empire,  and  he  opposed  the 
creation  of  the  new  nobility  and  the  divorce  of  Napoleon  from 
Josephine;  but  notwithsunding  this  he  was  subsequently 
created  a  count  of  the  empire  and  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
During  the  later  years  of  Napoleon's  rdgn  he  travdled  in  England 
and  Germany,  but  In  1814  he  had  returned  to  France  and  was 
one  of  the  chief  instigators  of  the  action  that  was  taken  against 
the  empire. 

To  the  clerical  and  ultra-royalist  faction  which  was  supreme 
in  the  Lower  Chamber  and  in  the  circles  of  the  court  after  the 
second  Restoration,  Gr^goire,  as  a  revolutionist  and  a  schismatic 
bishop,  was  an  object  of  double  loathing.  He  was  expelled  from 
the  Institute  and  forced  into  retirement.  But  even  in  this  period 
of  headlong  reaction  his  influence  was  felt  and  feared.  In  1814 
he  had  published  a  work,  De  la  constitution  franqaise  de  Van  1814, 
in  which  he  commented  on  the  Charter  from  a  Liberal  point  of 
view,  and  this  reached  its  fourth  edition  in  1819.  In  this  latter 
year  he  was  elected  to  the  Lower  Chamber  by  the  department 
of  Iserc.  By  the  powers  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance  this  event 
was  regarded  as  of  the  most  sinister  omen,  and  the  question  was 
even  raised  of  a  fresh  armed  intervention  in  France  under  the 
terms  of  the  secret  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  To  prevent  such 
a  catastrophe  Louis  XVIII.  dedded  on  a  modification  of  the 
franchise;  the  DcssoUe  ministry  resign^;  and  the  first  act  of 
Dccazcs,  the  new  premier,  was  to  carry  a  vote  in  the  chamber 
annulling  the  election  of  Gr^goire.  From  this  time  onward  the 
exrbishop  lived  in  retirement,  occupying  himself  in  literary  pur- 
suits and  in  correspondence  with  most  of  the  eminent  savants  of 
Europe;  but  as  he  had  been  deprived  of  his  pension  as  a  senator 
he  was  compelled  to  sell  his  library  to  obtain  means  of  support. 
He  died  on  the  20th  of  May  1831. 

To  the  last  Gr^ire  remained  a  devout  Catholic,  exactly 
fulfilling  all  his  obligations  as  a  Christian  and  a  priest;  but  he 
refused  to  budge  an  inch  from  his  revolutionary  principles. 
During  his  last  illness  he  confessed  to  his  parish  cwi,  a  priest 
of  Jansenist  sympathies,  and  expressed  hb  desire  for  the  last 
sacraments  of  the  Church.  These  the  archbishop  of  Paris  would 
only  concede  on  condition  that  he  would  retract  his  oath  to  the 
civil  constitution  of  the  dergy,  which  he  peremptorily  refused 
to. do.  Thereupon,  in  defiance  of  the  archbishop,  the  abb6 
Barad^re  gave  him  the  viaticum,  while  the  rite  of  extreme  unction 
was  administered  by  the  abb^  GuiUon,  an  opponent  of  the  civil 
constitution,  without  consulting  the  archbishop  or  the  parish 
cur^.  The  attitude  of  the  archbishop  roused  great  excitement 
in  Paris,  and  the  government  had  to  take  precautions  to  avoid 
a  repetition  of  the  riots  which  in  the  preceding  February  had 
led  to  the  sacking  of  the  church  of  St  Germain  I'Auxerrois  and 
the  archiepiscopal  palace.  On  the  day  after  his  death  Grigoire's 
funeral  was  celebrated  at  the  church  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Bois; 
the  clergy  of  the  church  had  absented  themselves  in  obedience 
to  the  archbishop's  orders,  but  mass  was  sung  by  the  abb^ 
Grieu  assisted  by  two  clergy,  the  catafalque  bdng  decorated 
with  the  episcopal  insignia.  After  the  hearse  set  out  from  the 
church  the  horses  were  unyoked,  and  it  was  dragged  by  students 
to  the  cemetery  of  Montparnasse,  the  cortege  bdng  followed  by  & 
sympathetic  crowd  of  some  20,000  people. 

Whatever  his  merits  as  a  writer  or  as  a  philanthropist, 
Gr^goire's  name  lives  in  history  mainly  by  reason  of  his  whole- 
hearted effort  to  prove  that  Catholic  Christianity  is  not  irre- 
concilable with  modern  conceptions  of  political  liberty.  In  this 
effort  he  was  defeated,  mainly  because  the  Revolution,  for  lack 
of  experience  in  the  right  use  of  liberty,  changed  into  a  military 
despotism  which  allied  itself  with  the  spiritual  despotism  of 
Rome;  partly  because,  when  the  Revolution  was  overthrown. 


562 


GREGORAS— GREGORY,  ST 


th«  parties  of  reaction  sought  salvatioa  in  the  "  union  of  altar 
and  throne."  Possibly  Gr£goire's  Gallicanism  was  fundamentally 
irreconcilable  with  the  Catholic  idea  of  authority.  At  least  it 
made  their  traditional  religion  possible  for  those  many  French 
Catholics  who  clung  passionately  to  the  benefits  the  Revolution 
had  brought  them;  and  had  it  prevailed,  it  might  have  spared 
France  and  the  world  that  fatal  gulf  between  Liberalism  and 
Catholicism  which  Pius  IX/s  Syllabus  of  1864  sought  to  make 
impassable. 

Besides  several  poUtical  pamphlets,  GrCgoire  was  the  author  of 
Histoirt  des  sectes  rdigietues,  depuii  U  commenctmctU  du  siicU  denUer 
jusqu'd  Vipomte  actwdU  (a- vols.,  tSio);  EMai  hisUtrique  tur  Us 
JiberUs d€ I Mise gaUieaHe  (1818):  DeVinjluenuduCkrishanismesur 
la  condition  des  femmes  ( 1 82 1 ) ;  Histoire  des  confesseurs  des  empereurs, 
des  roist  el  d'autres  princes  (1824) ;  Histoire  du  mariate  des  Pritres  en 
Prance  (1826).  Grigoireana,  ou  risume  gimbral  dela  conduite,  des 
aetionst  el  des  icrits  de  M.  le  comte  Henri  Crigoire,  preceded  by  a 
biographical  notice  by  Cousin  d'Avalon,  was  puolidied  in  1821 ;  and 
the. Mimoires  . ,  .de  Crigoirtt  with  a  bicwraphical  notice  by  H. 


fabbi  Crigoire  (Nancy,  1884),  and  numerous  articles  in  La  Rtoolulion 
Pranfaise;  E.  Mcaumc,  Etude  hist,  et  bioz-  sur  les  Lorraius  riwdution* 
naires  (Nancy,  1882):  and  A.  Goztcr,  Etudes  sur  V histoire  religieuse 
de  la  Rhdution  Fran^aise  (1887). 

GREGORAS,  NICBPHORUS  {e.  x  295-1360),  Byzantine 
historian,  man  of  learning  and  religious  controversialist,  was 
born  at  Heradea  in  Pontus.  At  an  early  age  he  settled  at 
Constantinople,  where  his  reputation  for  learning  brought  him 
under  the  notice  of  Andronicus  II.,  by  whom  he  was  appointed 
Chartophylax  (keeper  of  the  archive).  In  1326  Grcgoras  pro- 
posed (in  a  still  extant  treatise)  certain  reforms  in  the  calendar, 
which  the  emperor  refused  to  carry  out  for  fear  of  disturbances; 
nearly  two  hundred  years  later  they  were  introduced  by  Gregory 
XIII.  on  almost  the  same  lines.  When  Andronicus  was  de- 
throned (1328)  by  his  grandson  Andronicus  III.,  Gregoras 
shared  his  downfall  and  retired  into  private  life.  Attacked  by 
Barlaam,  the  famous  monk  of  Calabria,  he  was  with  difticulty 
persuaded  fo  come  forward  and  meet  him  in  a  war  of  words,  in 
which  Barlaam  was  worsted.  This  greatly  enhanced  his  reputa- 
tion and  brought  him  a  large  number  of  pupils.  Grcgoras 
remained  loyal  to  the  elder  Andronicus  to  the  last,  but  after 
his  death  he  succeeded  in  gaining  the  favour  of  his  grandson,  by 
whom  he  was  appointed  to  conduct  the  unsuccessful  negotiations 
(for  a  union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches)  with  the  ambas- 
sadors of  Pope  John  XXII.  (1333).  Gregoras  subsequently  took 
an  important  part  in  the  Hcsychast  controversy,  in  which 
he  violently  opposed  Gregorius  Palamas,  the  chief  supporter 
of  the  sect.  After  the  doctrines  of  Palamas  had  been  recognized 
at  the  synod  of  13SI1  Grcgoras,  who  refused  to  acquiesce,  was 
practically  imprisoned  in  a  monastery  for  two  years.  Nothing 
is  known  of  the  end  of  his  life.  His  chief  woric  is  his  Roman 
History^  in  37  books,  of  the  years  1204  to  1359.  It  thus  partly 
supplements  and  partly  continues  the  work  of  George  Pachy- 
meres.  Gregoras  shows  considerable  industry,  but  his  style  is 
pompous  and  affected.  Far  too  much  space  is  devoted  to 
religious  matters  and  dogmatic  quarrels.  This  work  and  that 
of  John  Cantacuzene  supplement  and  correct  each  other,  and 
should  be  read  together.  The  other  writings  of  Gregoras,  which 
(with  a  few  exceptions)  still  remain  unpublished,  attest  his  great 
versatility.  Amongst  them  may  be  mentioned  a  history  of 
the  dispute  with  Palamas;  biographies  of  his  unde  and  early 
instructor  John,  metropolitan  of  Heradea,  and  of  the  martyr 
Codratus  of  Antioch;  funeral  orations  for  Theodore  Metochita, 
and  the  two  emperors  Andronicus;  conmienlaries  on  the  waji- 
derings  of  Odysseus  and  on  Synesius's  treatise  on  dreams; 
tracts  on  orthography  and  on  words  of  doubtful  meaning;  a 
philosophical  dialogue  called  Florentius  or  Concerning  Wisdomi 
astronomical  treatises  on  the  date  of  Easter  and  the  preparation 
of  the  astrolabe;  and  an  extensive  correspondence. 

Editions:  in  Bonn  Corpus  scriptorum  hist.  Bjn.,  by  L.  Schopen 
and  1.  Bckkcr,  with  life  and  list  of  works  by  J.  Boivin  (1829-18^5); 
J.  P.  Mignc,  Patr<^ogfti  graeca,  cxiviit.,  cxlix. ;  sec  also  C.  KruiQbacner, 
Ceschichte  der  bysantinischen  Litteratur  (1897). 


6RBG0R0VIUS.  FERDINAMD  (182 1-1891).  German  historian* 
was  bom  at  Neidenburg  on  the  19th  of  January  1821,  and 
studied  at  the  university  of  K6nigsbeig.  After  spending  some 
years  in  teaching  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Italy  in  1852, 
remaining  in  that  country  for  over  twenty  yean.  He  was  made 
a  dtizen  of  Rome,  and  he  died  at  Munich  on  the  xst  of  >Iay  xSqi. 
Gregorovius's  interest  in  and  acquaintance  with  Italy  and 
Italian  history  is  mainly  responsible  for  his  great  book,  Gexkicku 
der  Stadt  Rom  im  MilldaUer  (Stuttgart,  X859-X872,  and  other 
editions),  a  work  of  much  erudition  and  interest,  which  has  been 
translated  into  English  by  A.  Hamilton  (13  v«ds.,  1894- X900), 
and  also  into  Italian  at  the  expense  of  the  Romans  (Venice, 
1874-X876).  It  deals  with  the  history  of  Rome  from  about 
A.D.  400  to  the  death  of  Pope  Clement  VII.  in  1534,  and  in  the 
words  of  its  author  it  describes  "  how,  from  the  time  of  Charies 
the  Great  to  that  of  Charles  V.,  the  historic  system  of  the  papacy 
remained  insq>arable  from  that  of  the  Empire."  The  other 
works  of  Gregorovius  include:  CesckickU  des  Kaisers  Hadrian 
und  seiner  Zeil  (Kfinigsberg,  1851),  English  translation  by  M.  E. 
Robinson  (1898);  Corsica  (Stuttgart,  X854),  English  translation 
by  R.  Martineau  (1855);  Lucraia  Borgia  (Stuttgart,  1874), 
English  translation  by  J.  L.  Garner  (X904);  Die  Crabdaikmsler 
der  Pdpsle  (Ldpzig,  i88x),  English  translation  by  R.  W.  Seton- 
Watson  (1903);  Wanderjahre  in  Ilalien  (5  vols.,  Ldpzig,  1S88- 
X892);  C€UhickU  der  Stadt  AtJten  im  Milldatter  (1889);  KUine 
Schriften  zur  Ceschichte  der  Kultur  (Ldpzig,  1887-1892);  and 
Urban  VIII.  im  Widcrspruch  xit  Spanicn  und  dem  Kaiser 
(Stuttgart,  1879).  This  last  work  was  translated  into  Itaiiaa 
by  the  author  himself  (Rome,  1879).  Gregorovius  was  also 
something  of  a  poet ;  he  wrote  a  drama,  Der  Tod  des  Tiberius 
(1851),  and  some  Cedichte  (Leipzig,  1891). 

His  Rdmische  TagebQrher  were  edited  by  F.  Althaus  (Stuttgart. 
1892),  and  wtrrc  tninsUitcd  into  English  as  the  Roman  Joumals  of 
P.  CregoroviuSfhy  A.  Hamilton  (1907). 

GREGORY,  ST  (r.  213-c.  270),  surnamed  in  later  ecdesiastical 
tradition  Thaumaturgus  (the  miracle -worker),  was  bom  ol 
noble  and  wealthy  pagan  parents  at  Keocaesarea  in  Pontus, 
about  A.D.  2 1  J.  His  original  name  was  Theodorus.  He  took 
up  the  study  of  civil  law,  and,  with  hb  brother  Athenodorus, 
was  on  his  way  to  Berytus  to  complete  his  training  when  at 
Caesarea  he  met  Origen,  and  became  his  pupil  and  then  ha 
convert  (a.d.  233).  In  returning  to  Cappadoda  somo  five  years 
after  his  conversion,  it  had  been  his  original  intuition  to  live 
a  retired  ascetic  life  (Eus.  H.E.  vi.  30),  but,  tuged  by  Qrigeo. 
and  at  last  almost  compelled  by  PhaedimusoC  Amasia,  fail 
metropolitan,  neither  of  whom  was  willing  to  see  so  much 
learning,  piety  and  masculine  energy  practically  lost  to  the 
church,  he,  after  many  attempts  to  evade  the  dignity, 
was  consecrated  bishqp  of  his  native  town  (about  240).  His 
episcopate,  which  lasted  seme  thirty  years,  was  characterized  by 
great  missionary  zeal,  and  by  so  much  success  that,  according 
to  the  (doubtless  somewhat  rhetorical)  statement  of  Gregoiy 
of  Nyssa,  whereas  at  the  outset  of  his  labours  there  were  only 
'seventeen  Christians  in  the  dty,  there  were  at  his  death  only 
seventeen  persons  in  all  who  had  not  embraced  Christianity. 
This  result  he  achieved  in  spite  of  the  Decian  persecution  (250- 
251),  during  which  he  had  felt  it  to  be  his  duty  to  absent  himself 
from  his  diocese,  and  notwithstanding  the  demoralizing  effects 
of  an  irruption  of  barbarians  ((}oths  and  Boranians)  who  laid 
waste  the  diocese  in  a.d.  253-254.  Gregory,  although  he  has 
not  always  escaped  the  charge  of  SabeUianism,  now  hdds  an 
undisputed  place  among  the  fathers  d  the  church;  and  although 
the  turn  of  his  mind  was  practical  rather  than  q>ecuUtive,  he 
is  known  to  have  taken  an  energetic  part  in  most  of  the  doctrinal 
controversies  of  his  time.  He  was  active  at  the  first  synod  of 
Antioch  (a.o.  264-265),  which  investigated  and  condemned  the 
heresies  of  Paul  of  Samosata;  and  the  rapid  spread  in  Pontus  of 
a  Trinltarianism  approaching  the  Nicene  type  battributed  in  large 
measure  to  the  weight  of  hb  influence.  Gregory  b  believed  to  have 
died  in  the  reign  of  Aurelian,  about  the  year  270,  thou|^  perhaps 
an  earlier  dale  is  more  probable.  H  b  festival  (semidupla)  b  al>- 
served  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  on  the  X7th  of  November. 


GREGORY  OF  NAZIANZUS 


563 


For  tile  facts  of  hi*  biography  we  have  an  outline  of  his  early 
years  in  his  euloey  on  Origcn,  and  incidental  notices  in  the  writincs 
of  Euaebius.  of  Basil  of  Cacsarea  and  Jerome.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  s 
untrustworthy  panegyric  represents  htm  as  having  wrought  miracles 
of  a  very  startling  description;  but  nothing  related  by  him  comes 
near  the  astounding  narratives  given  in  the  MortyrohiieSt  or  even  in 
the  Brmarium  RomoHMm,  in  conitexion  with  hb  name. 

The  principal  works  of  Gregory  Thaumaturgus  are  the  Patuiyrkus 
im  Oriitnem  (Elt  'Qptybnm  rop^yvpu&t  X^vw),  which  he  wrote  when 
on  the  point  of  leaving  the  school  of  that  great  master  (it  contains 
a  valuaole  minute  description  of  Origen's  mode  of  instruction),  a 
Melafkrasis  in  Ecd$siast€n,  characterized  by  Jerome  as  "  short  but 
useful":  and  an  Episiota  canonica,  which  treats  of  the  discipline 
to  be  undergone  by  those  Christians  who  under  pressure  of  pcrsecu- 
cioD  had  relapsed  into  paganism,  but  desired  to  be  restored  to  the 
privflcgcs  of  the  Church.  It  gives  a  good  picture  of  the  conditions  of 
the  time,  and  shows  Gregory  to  be  a  true  shepherd  (cf .  art  Penance). 
The  "fttft^u  9lfT9ut  (Expositio  Adei),  a  short  creed  usually  attri-' 
buted  to  Gregory,  and  traditionally  alleged  to  have  been  received  by 
him  immediately  in  vbion  from  the  apostle  John  himself,  is  probably 
authentic.  A  sort  of  Platonic  dialosue  of  doubtful  authenticity  "  on 
the  impassivity  and  the  passivity  of  God  "  in  Syriac  is  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Editions:  Gerhard  Voss  (Mainz,  1604),  Fronto  Duc&us  (Paris, 
i6aa),  Migne,  Patr.  Grace,  x.  963. 

Trandations:  S.  D.  F.  Salmond  in  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  vi.;  Lives, 
by  Pallavicini  (Rome,  1644);  J.  L.  Boye  Gen^'  1709):  H.  R. 
Reynolds  {Diet.  Ckr.  Biog.  it.);  G.  KrOgcr,  Early  Ckr.  IM. 
aa6;  Herzog-Hauck,  ReaUncyk.  viL  (where  lull  bibliographies  are 
given). 

ORIOORT.    ST,    OP    NAZIAMZU8    (329-389),  ~  surnamed 
Tleologus,  one  of  the  four  great  fathers  of  the  Eastern  Church, 
was  bom  about  the  year  a.o.  339,  at   or  near  Nazianzus, 
Cai^Midoda.    His  father,  also  named  Gregory,  had  lately  be- 
come bishop  ol  the  diocese;  his  mother,  Nonna,  exercised  a 
powerful  influence  4>ver  the  religious  convictions  <rf  both  father 
and  son.    Gregory  visited  successively  the  two  Caesareas, 
Alexandria  and  Athens,  as  a  student  of  grammar,  mathematics, 
rhetoric  and  philosophy;  at  Athens  he  had  for  fellow-students 
Basil  (f.v.),  who  afterwards  became  bishop  of  Caesarea,  and 
Julian,  afterwards  emperor.    Shortly  after  his  return  to  his 
father's  house  at  Nazianzus  (about  the  year  360)   Gregory 
received  baptism.    He  resolved  to  give  himself  to  the  service  of 
religion;  but  for  some  time,  and  indeed  more  or  less  throughout 
his  whole  life,  was  in  a  state  of  hesitation  as  to  the  form  which 
that  service  ought  to  take.    Strongly  inclined  by  nature  and 
education  to  a  contemplative  life  spent  among  books  and  in  the 
society  of  congenial  friends,  he  was  continually  urged  by  outward 
circumstances,  as  well  as  by  an  inward  call,  to  active  pastoral 
labour.    The  spirit  of  refined  intellectual  monasticism,  which 
clung  to  him  through  life  and  never  ceased  to  struggle  for  the 
ascendancy,  was  about  this  time  strongly  encouraged  by  his 
intercourse  with  Basil,  who  induced  him  to  share  the  exalted 
pleasures  of  his  retirement  in  Pontus.    To  thb  period  belongs 
the  preparation  of  the  <^i\o«aX£a,  a  sort  of  chrestomathy  com- 
piled by  the  two  friends  from  the  writings  of  Origcn.    But  the 
events  which  were  stirring  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  life  of 
Cappadocia,  and  indeed  of  the  whole  Roman  world,  made  a  career 
of  learned  lebure  diflicult  if  not  impossible  to  a  man' of  Gregory's 
position  and  temperament.    The  emperor  Constantius,  having 
by  intrigue  and  intimidation  succeeded  in  thrusting  a  semi- 
Arian  formula  upon  the  Western  bishops  assembled  at  Ariminum 
in  Italy,  had  next  attempted  to  follow  the  same  course  with  the 
Eastern  episcopate.    The  aged  bishop  of  Nazianzus  having 
yielded  to  the  imperial  threats,  a  great  storm  arose  among  the 
monks  of  the  diocese,  which  was  only  quelled  by  the  influence 
of  the  younger  Gregory,  who  shortly  afterwards  (about  361)  was 
ordained  to  the  priesthood.    After  a  vain  attempt  to  evade  hb 
new  duties  and  responsibilities  by  flight,  he  appears  to  have 
continued  to  act  as  a  presbyter  in  hb  father's  diocese  without  in- 
terruption for  some  considerable  time;  and  it  b  probable  that 
hb  two  Imectives  against  Julian  are  to  be  assigned  to  thb  period. 
Subsequently  (about  372),  under  a  pressure  which  he  somewhat 
resented,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  nominated  by  Basil  as  bbhop 
of  Sasima,  a  miserable  little  village  some  32  m.  from  Tyana; 
but  he  seems  hardly,  if  at  all,  to  have  assumed  the  duties  of  thb 
djoceie,  for  after  another  interval  of  "  flight "  we  find  him  once 


more  (about  373-373)  s^t  Nazianzus,  assbting  hb  aged  father, 
on  whose  death  (374)  he  retired  to  Seleucia  in  Isauria  for  a  period 
of  some  years.     Meanwhile  a  more  important  fieldfor  hb  activities 
was  opening  up.    Towards  378-379  the  small  and  depressed 
remnant  of  the  orthodox  party  in  Constantinople  sent  him 
an  urgent  summons  to  undertake  the  task  of  resuscitating  their 
cause,  so  long  persecuted  and  borne  down  by  the  Arians  of  the 
capital.    With  the  accession  of  Theodosius  to  the  imperial 
throne,  the  prospect  of  success  to  the  Nicene  doctrine  had  dawned, 
if  only  it  could  find  some  courageous  and  devoted  champion. 
The  fame  of  Gregory  as  a  learned  and  eloquent  disciple  of  Origen, 
and  still  more  of  Athanasius,  pointed  him  out  as  such  a  defender; 
nor  could  he  resist  the  appeal  made  to  him,  although  he  took  the 
step  reluctantly.    Once  arrived  in  Constantinople,  he  laboured 
so  zealously  and  well  that  the  orthodox  party  ^cedOy  gathered 
strength;  and  the  small  apartment  in  which  they  had  been 
accustomed  to  meet  was  soon  exchanged  for  a  vast  and  celebrated 
church  which  received  the  significant  name  of  Anastasia,  the 
Church  of  the  Resurrection.    Among  the  hearers  of  Gregory 
were  to  be  found,  not  only  churchmen  like  Jerome  and  Evagrius, 
but  also  heretics  and  pagans;  and  it  says  much  for  the  sound 
wisdom  and  practical  tact  of  the  preacher  that  he  set  himself 
less  to  build  up  and  defend  a  doctrinal  position  than  to  urge 
hb  flock  to  the  cultivation  of  the  loving  Chrbtian  spirit  which 
cherishes  higher  aims  than  mere  heresy  hunting  or  endless  dis- 
putation.   Doctrinal,  nevertheless,  he  was,  as  b  abundantly 
shown  by  the  famous  five  discourses  on  the  Trinity,  which  earned 
for  him  the  distinctive  appellation  of  $eok6yc9.    These  orations 
are  the  finest  exposition  of  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
as  conceived  by  the  orthodox  teachers  of  the  East,  and  they 
were  directed  especially  against  theEunomiansand  &f  acedonians. 
"There  is  perhaps  no  single  book  in  Greek  patrbtic  literature 
to  which  the  student  who  desires  to  gain  an  exact  and  com- 
prehensive  view  of  Greek  theology  can  be  more  confidently 
referred."    With  the  arrival  of  l^eodosius  in  380  came  the 
visible  triumph  of  the  orthodox  cause;  the  metnqMlitan  see 
was  then  conferred  upon  Gregory,  and  after  the  assembling 
of  the  second  ecumenical  council  in  381  he  received  consecration 
from  Meletius.    In  consequence,  however,  of  a  spirit  of  discord 
and  envy  which  had  manifested  itself  in  connexion  with  thb 
promotion,  he  soon  afterwards  resigned  hb  digm'ty  and  withdrew 
into  comparative  retirement.    The  rest  of  hb  days  were  spent 
partly  at  Nazianzus  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  partly  on  hb 
neighbouring  patrimonial  estate  at  Arianzus,  where  he  followed 
hb  favourite  literary  pursuits,  especially  poetical  composition, 
untO  hb  death,  which  occurred  in  389  or  390.    Hb  festival  b 
celebrated  in  the  Eastern  Church  on  the  35th  and  30th  of  January, 
in  the  Western  on  the  9th  of  May  (duplex). 

His  extant  works  conust  of  poems,  epistles  and  orations.  '  The 
poems,  which  include  epigrams,  elegies  and  an  autobiographical 


by  Dronke  (1840).  The  tragedy  entitled  Xpiwrit  «-d»x(<*  usually 
included  is  certainly  not  genume.  Gregory's  poetry  did  not  absorb 
his  best  energies:  it  was  adopted  in  hb  later  years  as  a  recreation 
rather  than  as  a  serious  pursuit;  thus  it  b  occasionally  delicate, 

Eraphic,  beautiful,  but  it  b  not  sustained.  Of  the  hymns  none 
ave  passed  into  ecclesiastical  use.  The  letters  are  entitled 
to  a  higher  place  in  literature.  They  are  always  easy  and  natural; 
and  there  b  nothing  forced  in  the  manner  in  which  their  acute,  witty 
and  profound  sayings  arc  introduced.  Those  to  Basil  introduce  us 
to  tht  story  of  a  most  romantic  friendship,  those  to  Cledonius  have 
theological  value  for  their  bearing  on  the  Apollinarian  controversy. 
As  an  orator  he  was  so  facile,  vigorous  and  persuasive,  that  men 
forgot  his  small  stature  and  emaciated  countenance.  FortV'five 
orations  arc  extant.  Gregory  was  less  an  independent  theologtan 
than  an  interpreter.  He  was  influenced  by  Athanasius  in  his  Christ- 
ology.  by  Ongcn  .in  his  anthropologv,  for,  though  teaching  original 
sin  and  deriving  human  mortality  from  the  Fall,  he  inusts  on  the 
ability  of  the  human  will  to  choose  the  good  and  to  co-operate  in  the 
work  of  salvation  with  the  will  of  God.  ThouKh  possessed  neither  of 
Basil's  gift  of  government  nor  of  Gtegorv  of  Nyssa 's  power  of  specu- 
lative thought,  he  worthily  takes  a  place  in  that  triumvirate  of 


56+ 


GREGORY  OF  NYSSA— GREGORY  OF  TOURS 


first  published  by  Hcrvagius  (Basel,  1550) ;  the  subsequent  editions 
have  been  those  of  Billius  (Paris,  1609,  161 1;  aucta  ex  tnterpreta- 
tionc  Morelli,  1630),  of  the  Benedictines  (begun  in  1778,  but 
intcrruptc<l  bv  the  French  Revolution  and  not  completed  until 
1840,  Caillau  Dcinfl;  the  final  editor)  and  of  Mizne.  The  Tkedogkal 
Orations  (edited  by  A.  J.  Mason)  were  published  separately  at 
Cambridge  in  1899. 

Scattered  notices  of  the  life  of  Gregory  Nazunxen  are  to  be  found 
in  the  writings  of  Socrates,  Sozomen,  Thcodoret  and  Rufinus,  as  well 
as  in  his  own  letters  and  poems.  The  data  derived  from  these  sources 
do  not  alwavs  harmonize  with  the  account  of  Suidas.  The  earlier 
modern  authorities,  such  as  Tillemont  iiiem.  Eccl.  t.  ix.)  and 
Leclerc  {Bib.  Univ.  t.  xviii.),  were  used  by  Gibbon.  See  also  C. 
Ullmann.  Cretorius  von  Nazianz,  der  Theologe  (1825:  Eng.  trans,  by 
G.  F.  Coxe,  M.A..  1857):  A.  B^noit,  Si  Crigoire  de  ifauanze;  sa  vie, 
set  envres,  et  son  ipoque  (1877);  Montaut,  Revue  critique  ie  qnelques 

rsiions  historiqtus  se  rapportant  d  St  Crigoire  de  Nazianse  (1879^; 
W.  Farrar.  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  i.  491-582,  and  T.  Loofs  in 
Hauck-Herzog's  Realencyk.  fOr  prot.  Theotogie,  vii.  138. 

6RE00BT,  ST,  OP  NTSSA  (c.$ii-<.  396),  one  of  Che  four 
great  fathers  of  the  Eastern  Church,  designated  by  one  of  the 
later  ecumenical  councils  as  '*  a  father  of  fathers,"  was  a  youn^r 
brother  of  Basil  (the  Great),  bishop  of  Caesarea,  and  was  bom 
(probably)  at  Neocaesarea  about  a.o.  331.  For  his  education 
he  was  chiefly  indebted  to  his  elder  brother.  At  a  comparatively 
early  age  he  entered  the  church,  and  held  for  some  time  the  office 
of  anagnost  or  reader;  subsequently  he  manifested  a  desire,  to 
devote  himself  to  the  secular  life  as  a  rhetorician,  an  impulse 
which  was  checked  by  the  earnest  remonstrances  of  Gregory  of 
Na7Janztis.  Finally,  in  371  or  372  be  was  ordained  by  his  brother 
Basil  to  the  bishopric  of  Nyssa,  a  small  town  in  Cappadocia. 
Here  he  is  usually  said  (but  on  inadequate  data)  to  have  adopted 
the  opinion  then  gaining  groimd  in  favour  of  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy,  and  to  have  separated  from  his  wife  Theoscbia,  who 
became  a  deaconess  in  the  church.  His  strict  orthodoxy  on  the 
subject  of  the  Trinity  and  tbe  Incarnation,  together  with  his 
vigorous  eloquence,  combined  to  make  him  peculiarly  obnoxious 
to  the  Arian  faction,  which  was  at  that  time  in  the  ascendant 
through  the  protection  of  the  emperor  Valcns;  and  in  375, 
the  synod  of  Ancyra,  convened  by  Demetrius  the  Arian  governor 
of  Pontus,  condemned  him  for  alleged  irregularities  in  his 
election  and  in  the  administration  of  the  finances  of  his  diocese. 
In  376  he  was  deprived  of  his  see,  and  Valcns  sent  him  into  exile, 
whence  he  did  not  return  till  the  publication  of  the  edict  of 
Gratian  in  378.  Shortly  afterwards  he  took  part  in  the  procee<lings. 
of  the  synod  which  met  at  AAtioch  in  Caria,  prindpally  in 
connexion  with  the  Melctian  schism.  At  the  great  ecumenical 
council  held  at  Constantinople  in  381,  he  was  a  conspicuous 
champion  of  the  orthodox  faith;  according  to  Nicephorus, 
indeed,  the  additions  made  to  the  Nicenc  creed  were  entirely  due 
to  his  suggestion,  but  this  statement  is  of  doubtful  authority. 
That  his  eloquence  was  highly  appreciated  is  shown  by  the  facts 
that  he  pronounced  the  discourse  at  the  consecration  of  Gregory 
of  Nazianzus,  and  that  he  was  chosen  to  deliver  the  funeral 
oration  on  the  death  of  Meletius  the  first  president  of  the  council. 
In  the  following  year,  moreover  (38a),  he  was  commissioned 
by  the  council  to  inspect  and  set  in  order  the  churches  of  Arabia, 
in  connexion  with  which  mission  he  also  visited  Jerusalem. 
The  impressions  he  gathered  from  this  journey  may,  in  part  at 
least,  be  gathered  from  his  famous  letter  Dc  euntihus  HierO' 
solyma,  in  which  an  opinion  strongly  unfavourable  to  pilgrimages 
is  expressed.  In  383  he  was  probably  again  in  Constantinople; 
where  in  385  he  pronounced  the  funeral  orations  of  the  princess 
Pulchcria  and  afterwards  of  the  empress  Placilla.  Once  more 
we  read  of  him  in  394  as  having  been  present  in  that  metropolis 
at  the  synod  held  under  the  presidency  of  Ncctarius  to  settle 
a  controversy  which  had  arisen  among  the  bishops  of  Arabia; 
in  the  same  year  he  assisted  at  the  consecration  of  the  new  church 
of  the  apostles  at  Chalccdon,  on  which  occasion  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  his  discourse  commonly  but  wrongly  known  as  that 
Eb  T^p  iavTov  xMporoWar  was  delivered.  The  exact  date  of  his 
death  is  unknown;  some  authorities  refer  it  to  376,  others  to  400. 
His  festival  is  observed  by  the  Greek  Church  on  the  xoth  of 
January;  in  the  Western  martyrologies  he  is  commemorated 
on  the  9th  of  March. 


Gregory  of  Nyssa  was  not  so  firm  and  able  an  adminiatiator 
as  his  brother  Basil,  nor  so  magnificent  an  orator  as  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus,  but  he  excelled  them  both,  alike  as  a  speculative 
and  constructive  theologian,  and  in  the  wide  extent  of  his 
acquirements.  His  teaching,  though  strictly  trinitarian,  shows 
considerable  freedom  and  originality  of  thought;  in  many 
points  his  mental  and  spiritual  aflSinities  with  Origen  ibow 
themselves  with  advantage,  as  in  his  doctrine  of  iirosarArrans 
or  final  restoration.  There  are  marked  pantheistic  tendencies, 
e.g.  the  inclusion  of  sin  as  a  necessary  part  of  the  cosmical  process, 
which  make  him  akin  to  the  pantheistic  monophysites  and  to 
some  modern  thinkers. 

His  style  has  been  frequently  praised  by  o>mpetent  authorities  for 
sweetness,  richness  and  el»ance.  His  numerous  works  may  be 
classified  under  five  heads:  (I)  Treatises  in  doctrinal  and  polemical 
theology.  Of  these  the  most  important  is  that  Against  Eaaiomins 
in  twelve  books.  Its  doctrinal  thesis  (which  b  supported  with 
great  philosophic  acumen  and  rhetorical  power)  is  the  divinity  and 
consubstantiality  of  the  Word;  incidentally  the  character  ol 
Ba«l,  which  Eunomius  had  aspersed,  is  vindicated,  and  the  heretic 
himself  is  held  up  to  scorn  ana  contempt.  This  is  the  work  which, 
most  probably  m  a  shorter  draft,  was  read  by  its  author  when 
at  Constantinople  before  Gregory  Nazianzen  and  Jerome  in  381 
(Jerome.  De  pit.  ilt.  128).  To  the  same  class  belong  the  treatise 
To  Ablatius,  against  the  tritheists:  On  Faith,  a^inst  the  Arkas; 
On  Common  Notions,  in  explanation  of  the  terms  m  current  employ* 
ment  with  rcnrd  to  the  Trinity;  Ten  Syilofismu,  ftptjnrt  the 
Manichaeans;T(9  Theopkilus,  agamst  the  ApoUtnarians;  an  AnHr- 
rhetic  against  the  same;  Against  Fate,  a  disputation  with  a  heathen 
philosopher;  De  anima  et  resurrutione,  a  dialogue  with  his  dying 
sister  Macrina ;  and  the  Oratio  catecketica  magna^  an  argument  for  the 
incarnation  as  the  best  possible  form  of  redemption,  intended  to 
convince  educated  pagans  and  Jews..  (2)  Practical  treatises.  To 
this  category  belong  the  tracts  On  Virginity  and  Ou  Pilpiimagies;  as 
also  the  Canonical  Epistle  upon  the  rules  of  penance.  (3)  Expository 
and  homiletical  works,  including  the  Hexaimeron,  and  several  series 
of  discourses  On  the  Workmanship  of  Man,  On  the  Insert ptipms  ef  the 
Psalms,  On  the  Sixth  Psalm,  On  the  first  three  Chapters  ofEcdesiastes, 
On  Canticles,  On  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  On  the  EiiffU  BeaiH^des. 
(4)  Biographical,  conusting  chiefly  of  funeral  orations.     (5)  Letters. 

The  only  complete  editions  of  the  whole  worics  are  those  by 
Fronton  le  Due  (Fronto  Ducftus,  Paris,  1615;  with  additions,  1618 
and  1638)  and  by  Migne.  G.  H.  Forbes  begun  an  excellent  critic^ 
edition,  but  only  two  parts  of  the  first  volume  appeared  (Burntisland, 
i8S5  and  1861)  containing  the  Explicatio  opeUf^ica  in  hexobneron 
and  the  De  opificia  hominis.  Of  the  new  edition  projected  by  F. 
Oehler  only  the  first  volume,  containing  the  Opera  dogntatias,  has 
appeared  (1865).  There  have  been  numerous  editions  of  several 
single  treatises,  as  for  example  of  the  Oratio  eatecheties  (J.  G. 
Krabinger,  Munich,  1838;  J.  H.  Crawley,  Cambridge,  1903),  De 
preeatione  and  De  anima  et  resurrectione. 

See  F.  W.  Farrar,  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  ii.  56-83,  the  monograph  by 
T.  Rupp  (Cregors,  des  Bisckofs  von  Nyssa,  Loins  mnd  Meinmngtn, 


J.  N.  Stigler,  Die  PsychoUtgie  des  h.  Cregors  von  Nyssa  (Regensbutf, 
1857),  and  many  smaller  monographs  dted  in  Hauck-Herzog  s 
RuUencyk.  f^ir  proL  Tked.  vii.  149. 

GREGORY,  ST,  OF  TOURS  (538-594),  historian  of  the  Franks, 
was  bom  in  the  chief  city  of  the  Arverni  (the  modem  Clermont- 
Ferrand)  on  the  30th  of  November  538.  His  real  name  was 
Georgius  Florentius,  Gcorgius  being  his  grandfather's  name  and 
Florentius  his  father's.  He  was  called  Gregory  after  his  maternal 
great-grandfather,  the  bishop  of  Langres.  Gregory  belonged  to 
an  illustrious  senatorial  family,  many  of  whose  members  hcki 
high  office  in  the  church  and  bear  honoured  names  in  the  history 
of  Christianity.  He  was  descended,  it  is  said,  from  Vettius 
Epagathus,  who  was  martyred  at  Lyons  in  177  with  St  Pothinus; 
bis  patcrasJ  uncle,  Gallus,  was  bishop  of  Clermont;  his  maternal 
grand-uncle,  Nicetius  (St  Nizier),  occupied  the  see  of  Lyons; 
and  he  was  a  kinsman  of  Euphronius,  bishop  of  Tours. 

jGregory  lost  his  father  early,  and  his  mother  Armentaria 
settled  in  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  on  an  estate  belonging  to 
her  near  Cavaillon ,  where  her  son  often  viuted  her.  Gregory  was 
brought  up  at  Clermont-Ferrand  by  his  uncle  Gallus  and  by  his 
successor,  Avitus,  and  there  he  received  his  education.  Among 
profane  authors  he  read  the  first  six  books  of  the  Aemesd  and 
SaJlust's  history  of  the  Catiline  conspiracy,  but  his  education 
was.  mainly  religious.    The  principles  of  religion  be  learnt  from 


GREGORY  THE  ILLUMINATOR 

tbe  Biblt,  Sulpidiu  Sevciui  and  lOmc  live!  of  uinls,  but  lo 

fus  ordained 
«k  ■  cun  It 

Euphronius, 


565 


deicon.  Falling!  seriously  ill,  be  went  loToui 
tbe  tomb  at  St  Mutui.  At  Toun  he  lived 
and  to  jiMl  ■«  the  young  man's  populatily 
ol  Euphronius  m  S73,  the  people  luaniizlously  doignaled  him 

Al  (hit  lime  Toun  belonged  to  Auitiuia,  and  King  Sigebcit 
hulentd  to  confttm  Gregoty'i  election.  Alter  the  uusinalion 
ol  Sigebert  (575),  the  provinc*  was  ruled  by  ChUperic  lor  nine 
yeart,  during  which  period  Gregory  displiyed  the  greatest  ener^ 

had  to  tontend  with  Count  Leudisl,  Ihe  governor  of  Toun; 
despite  all  the  king's  threats,  he  reruied  to  give  up  Chilpcric's 
■|0  had  wught  reiuge  from  bis  father's  wialh 


>l  the  SI 


it  Man 


n  he  had  tx 


It  Chilpei 
for  celebrating  the  mirri 
In  5S0  Gregory  WM  bim; 
using  sbusive  language  against  Queen  Fredegond,  but  he  cleared 
himself  of  the  charge  by  an  oath  and  was  acquitted.  On  Ihe 
deatfa  of  Chilpeiic,  Toun  remained  for  two  years  (s8*-sSs)  in 
the  hands  ol  Cuntram,  hut  when  Guntram  adopted  his  nephew 
Childebcit,  Sigetien's  ion,  itagam  became  AuitnuiiD.  This 
change  wis  welcome  to  Gregory,  who  often  visited  the  court. 
Id  s86  he  ""  »t  CobleM,  ind  on  his  return  10  Yvoii  (Ihe 
modem  CirigoaD)  visited  the  alylile  WuliiUlc:  In  5SS  ve  heir 
ol  him  at  Meti  and  also  at  ChilOD-iur-SaAne.whithei  he  was  sent 
10  obtain  ftvm  King  Guntram  the  n1i£ca1ion  of  the  pact  of 
Andelot;  in  J^J  he  wis  at  Orleans,  where  Cbildebert  bid  just 
succeeded  liis  1 


med  Tour 
and  reducing  the  i 
Uw  I7lh  of  XovcRi 

Gregory  left  ma 

Ubros  Historianim, 
scripsi;  in  Psaltetii 


died  on 


le  Vita  Pati 


_, .■cclesiaaticis  unum  librum  condidi."     The 

MD  books  of  history  ire  discussed  below.  The  seven  books  ol 
miracles  are  divided  into  the  De  tforia  martymmr  the  De 
tutulihia  soMli  /uiitni,  loui  books  ol  Uiracula  landi  Marlini, 
and  Ibe  Di  ^tria  aifaionim,  the  last  dealing  mninly  with 
coofesson  who  had  dwelt  in  the  cities  ol  Touit  and  Clermont. 
The  Viloe  fiitriim  consists  of  twenty  biographies  rf  bishops, 
abbots  and  hermiU belonging  to  Giul,  The  commentary  on  the 
Psalms  is  lost,  the  preface  and  the  titles  of  the  thaptcis  alone 
being  eilint.  The  treatise  Dc  curiilmt  tuiiiieslicii,  discovered 
in  iSsj,isaUtutgicaI  manual  for  determining  the  hour  of  divers 
poctumal  offices  by  the  position  of  the  stars.  Gregory  also  left 
a  life  of  St  Andrew,  tianslited  from  Ihe  Creek,  and  a  history  of 
u  Seven  Sleepers  ol  Epbesus,  translated  Irom  Syriac. 


His  I 


K  parts.    The  Gtst  lout  books,  which 

of  the  world  to  the  deith  of  Sigebert  in  S7S-  Th*  <•"'  ^'°°^' 
which  b  a  mere  compilalian  Irom  the  chronicles  of  St  Jerome 
and  Orosius,  is  of  no  value.  The  second  book,  from  39;  10 
jii,  deals  with  the  invasions  of  the  Franks,  and  is  based  on 
Ihe  histories  ol  Sulpidus  Aleunder  and  Kenatus  Froluturui 
Frigeridus,  now  lost;  on  Ihe  catalogues  ol  the  bishops  ol  Cler- 
mont and  Touts;  on  some  lives  ol  saints,  r.{.  Kemigius  and 
Uuenliui,  now  losli  on  Ihe  annals  of  Ailes  and  Angers,  non 
kal:  and  on  legends,  either  collected  by  Gregory  himself  from 
-  ■         ■      'le  Latin  and 


part  is  based  on 
of  Ihe  later  ev< 
siilh  books,  u; 
within  his  own 
ia  Ihe  HSS., 


<urth  b( 


materials  collected  from  men  ojuer  tnan  nimscji; 
Is  he  WHS  himself  an  eye-witness.  The  ftflh  and 
lo  the  death  ol  Chilperic  (sB<), 


To  the  hnl  six  books  Gregory  subsequently  added  chapters  on 
.he  bisho[B  Salonius  and  Sigittirius,  and  on  his  quarrels  with 
Felii  of  Kantes.  The  authenticity  of  these  chapters  has  been 
jndeservedly  attacked  by  Catholic  writers.  Books  viL  to  x.. 
irom  jS*  to  jgr,  were  written  in  Ihe  form  ol  a  diaiy;  ol  etch 
important  event,  is  it  occurred,  he  Insened  an  acojunt  in  his 
book.    The  last  sii  books  are  ol  great  biscorical  value. 

Gregory  bad  an  ialimate  knowledge  ol  contemporary  event*. 

e  was  Irequenily  al  court,  and  he  found  Tours  an  eicellent 
place  lot  collecting  information.    The  shrine  ol  Si   Martin 

L  favourite  sanctuary '  for  political  relugecs.  Moreover, 
i  was  on  the  higb  road  between  the  north  and  south  of 
e,  and  was  a  convenient  stage  lor  travellers,  the  am- 
bassadors going  to  and  from  Spain  frequently  halting  there- 
Gregory  plied  every  one  wit  h  questions,  and  in  this  way  gathered 
a  great.mass  of  detailed  infotmatiDn.  '  He  was,  besides,  at  great 
pains  to  be  in  impartial  writer,  but  was  not  always  successful. 
His  devotion  to  Auslrasa  made  him  very  bitter  against,  aiul 
perbaiH  unjust  to,  the  sovereigns  ol  Keuslria,  Chilperic  and 
Fredegond.     As  in  orthodox  Christian,  he  bad  no  good  word 

the  church,  such  as  Clovis,  Clotaire  I.  and  Guntram,  but  had 
no  mercy  for  those  who  violatedeccleaiastlcal  privileges..  This 
attitude,  no  doubt,  expliliu  bis  hitred  for  ChUperic.  Biil  if 
Gregory's  historical  judgments  are  suspect,  he  at  least  concealed 
nothing  and  invented  nothing;  and  we  can  correct  his  judgment! 
by  his  own  narrative.     His  history  Is  a  curious  compound  ol 


indcasi 

3,  and  wrote  in  the  vemaeulir 

n  pissiges  which  are  esped- 

thpoe 

ningab 

is  an  exceedingly  attractive 

earto 

narrative  his  euned  for  hini 

-omplei 

rditinn  of  Gretoty'l  wotll  SI 

mplete  edition  Is  that  o(  W. 

.Gmw" 

*W.  BTtft  «>■.  Vtrn.  (vd.  i.. 

nuDc  iD  the  5i>c-  lb  rtiiJ.  lU 

"flhc 

M-M'ifij.tes.ii:.- 

g!K  I  rr  , .'.  -.aiepiDducIianDrthe  SiubcIiMS.  No.  0,401). 
I  -  nic  works  were  published  by  H.  Boidier  in  ihe 

S,.  ;i..:*(4™<fc.''ilhFreochlramtalion.i8si-iB64). 

CP  I  ''''  '  <''*wr  t0M  rnri  bitdfniH  Zfif  (2ad  ed..  Leipiig, 
IF  ',  "JEludea  critiques  sur  le«  sourcea  de  I'hiKoire 

m  «•  fl<t  BiU.  it  eEalt  iu  aatUHEtiiin  li»73)\ 

CI  .     ir.deTounetksttudaclasHquesauVfiUde'' 

in  1:.^  .L...^  ^1  gunHm  Idilarifa  (xxiv.  586  •cq.,  l8?8)i  Max 
Oonnrt,  Lc  Latin  it  Gritfin  it  Tawt  IParis.  1890).  F«  details,  •« 
lll)we  Chevalier.  fiu«&iii(rii^i(Iiaded.).  [C.  Pr.}    , 

flRKOORr  THB  ILLUMINATOR,  the  reputed  founder  of  the 
Armenian  Church.  His  legend  is  briefly  is  follows.  Hisfalher 
Anak,  bead  of  the  Panhian  dan  ol  Suren,  was  bribed  about 
Ihe  time  of  his  hiith  (c,  1J7)  by  the  Sassinid  king  of  Persia  to 
assassinate  Ihe  Armenian  king,  Chosrocs,  who  wis  ol  the  old 
Arsacid  dyniaty,  and  lather  of  Tiridaies  or  Trdat ,  Erst  Christian 
king  of  Armenia.  Anak  was  skin  by  bis  victim's  soldieia; 
Gregory  was  rescued  fay  his  Chriatiin  nunc,  carried  to  Caesaiea 
in  Cappadocia,  and  brought  up  a  Christian.  Grown  to  oitnhood 
he  took  service  under  Tiridatcs,  now  king  of  Armenia,  in  order 
by  his  own  fidelity  to  atone  lor  bis  father's  lieacbery.  Presently 
at  a  least  of  Anahite  Gregory  refused  to  assist  his  sovereign  in 
offering  pagan  sacrifice,  and  his  parentage  being  now  revealed, 
was  thrown  into  a  deep  pit  at  Artisfiat,  where  he  linguished 


Thes 


ovely  n, 


V  shifts  t 


gratify  his  pission,  flees  with  her  abbess  Gaiana  and  several 
priests  to  Armenia.  Diocletian  asks  her  hick  of  Tiridites,  who 
meanwhile  his  fillen  in  love  with  her  himself.  He  loo  is  Bouled, 
and  in  his  rage  tortures  and  slays  her  *nd  her  companiona. 
The  Iradittonai  dale  of  Ibis  inas>acic^Is_lhe_jlli  of  October, 


566 


GREGORY  (POPES) 


A.O.  30X.  Providence,  incensed  mt  sadi  cruelty,  turns  Tiridatcs 
into  a  wild  boar,  and  afflicts  his  subjects  with  madness;  but  his 
sister,  Chosrowidukht,  has  a  revelation  to  bring  Gregory  back 
out  of  his  pit.  The  king  consents,  the  saint  is  acclaimed,  the 
bodies  of  the  thirty-seven  martyrs  solemnly  interred,  and  the 
king,  after  fasting  five,  and  listening  to  Gregory's  homilies  for 
sixty  days,  is  healed.  This  all  took  pUce  at  Valarshapat,  wl)ere 
Gregory,  anxious  to  fix  a  site  on  which  to  build  shrines  for  the 
relics  of  Ripsim^  and  Gaiana,  saw  the  Son  of  God  come  down  in 
a  sheen  of  light,  the  stars  of  heaven  attending,  and  smite  the 
earth  with  a  golden  hammer  till  the  nether  world  resounded 
to  his  blows.  Three  chapels  were  built  on  the  spot,  and  Gregory 
raised  his  cross  there  and  elsewhere  for  the  people  to  worship, 
just  as  St  Nino  was  doing  about  the  same  time  in  Georgia.  There 
followed  a  campaign  against  the  idols  whose  temples  and  books 
were  destroyed..  The  time  had  now  come  for  Gregory,  who  was 
still  a  layman  and  father  of  two  sons,  to  receive  ordination; 
so  he  went  to  Caesarea,  where  Leontius  ordained  and  consecrated 
him  cathoUcos  or  vicar-general  of  Armenia.  This  was  sometime 
about  ?90,  when  Leontius  may  have  acceded,  though  we  first 
hear  of  him  as  bishop  in  314. 

Gregory's  ordination  at  Caesarea  is  historical.^  The  Vision 
at  Valarshapat  was  invented  later  by  the  Armenians  when'they 
broke  with  the  Greeks,  In  order  to  give  to  their  church  the 
semblance,  if  not  of  apostolic,  at  least  of  divine  origin: 

According  to  Agathangelus,  Tiridates  went  to  Rome  with 
Gregory,  Aristaces,  son  of  Gregory,  and  Albianos,  head  of  the 
other  priestly  family,  to  make  a  pact  with  Constantine,  newly 
converted  to  the  faith,  and  receive  a  pallium  from  Silvester, 
lie  better  sources  make  Sardica  the  scene  of  meeting  and  name 
Eusebius  (of  Nicomedia)  as  the  preh&te  who  attended  Constantine. 
There  b  no  reason  to  doubt  that  some  such  visit  was  made  about 
the  year  3x5,  when  the  death  of  Maximin  Daza  left  Constantine 
supreme.  Eusebius  testifies  (H.E.  ix..  8)  that  the  Armenians 
wiere  ardent  Christians,  and  ancient  friends  and  allies  of  the 
Roman  empire  when  Maximin  attacked  them  about  the  year 
308.  The  conversion  of  Tiridates  was  probably  a  matter  of 
policy.  His  kingdom  was  honeycombed  wjth  Christianity,  and 
he  ^rished  to  draw  closer  to  the  West,  where  he  foresaw  the 
victory  of  the  new  faith,  in  order  to  fortify  his  realm  against 
the  Sassanids  of  Persia.  Following  the  same  policy  he  sent 
Aristaces  in  335  to  the  council  of  Nice.  Gregory  is  Velated  to 
have  added  a  clause  to  the  creed  which  Aristaces  brought  back; 
he  became  a  hermit  on  Mount  Sebuh  about  the  year  332,  and 
died  there. 

.  Is  the  Ripsim£  episode  mere  legend?  The  story  of  the 
conversion  of  Georgia  by  St  Nino  in  the  same  age  is  so  full  of 
local  colour,  and  coheres  so  closely  with  the  story  of  Ripsim^ 
and  Gaiana,  that  it  seems  over-sceptical  to  expUdn  the  latter 
away  as  a  mere  doublet  of  the  legend  of  Prisca  and  Valeria. 
The  historians  Faustus  of  Byzant  and  Lazar  of  Pharp  in  the  5th 
century  already  attest  the  reverence  with  which  their  memory 
was  invested.  We  know  from  many  sources  the  prominence 
assigned  to  women  prophets  in  the  Phrygian  church.  Nino's 
story  reads  like  that  of  such  a  female  missionary,  and  something 
similar  must  underlie  the  story  of  her  Armenian  companions. 

The  history  of  Gregory  by  Agathangelus  is  a  compilation  of 
about  450,  which  was  rendered  into  Greek  550.  Professor  Marr 
has  lately  published  an  Arabic  text  from  a  MS.  in  Sinai  which 
seems  to  contain  an  older  tradition.  ^  letter  of  Bishop  George 
of  Arabia  to  Jeshu,  a  priest  of  the  town  Anab,  dated  714  (edited 
by  Dashian,  Vienna,  1891),  contains  an  independent  tradition  of 
Gregory,  and  styles  him  a  Roman  by  birth. 

In  q>ite  of  legendary  accretions  we  can  still  discern  the  true 
outlines  and  significance  of  his  life.  He  did  not  really  illumine 
or  convert  great  Armenia,  for  the  people  were  in  the  main  already 
converted  by  Syrian  missionaries  to  the  Adoptionist  or  Ebionite 
type  of  faith  which  was  dominant  in  the  far  East,  and  was 
afterwards  known  as  Nestorianism.  Marcionites  and  Montanists 
had  also  worked  in  the  field.  Gregory  persuaded  Tiridates 
to  destroy  the  last  relics  of  the  old  paganism,  and  carried  out 
in  the  reUgious  sphere  his  sovereign's  poliqr  of  detaching  Great 


Armenia  from  the  Sasianid  realm  and  allying  it  with  tlie  Grteo$i 
Roman  empire  and  civilization.  He  set  himself  to  Hellentio 
or  Catholicize  Armenian  Christianity,  and  in  furtherance  ci  this 
aim  set  up.a  hierarchy  officially  dependent  on  the  Ca^iadociaa. 
He  in  effect  turned  his  country  into  a  province  of  the  Gredc  see 
of  Cappadoda.  This  hierarchical  tie  was  soon  snapped,  but  the 
Hellenizing  influence  continued  to  wor^,  and  boce  its  most 
abundant  fruit  in  the  5th  century.  His  career  was  thus  analogous 
to  that  of  St  Patrick  in  Ireland. 

AUTHORITIBS.— S.  Weber,  Die  Cathdixk*  Kircke  im  Anuma 
(Frciburs,  1^3,  with  biblio^phy) ;  Bollandii,  Acta  sanctorum  sepL 
torn.  8 ;  A.  Carri^re,  Les  Huti  Sancluaires  d€  VArminie  (Paris,  1899) ; 
"  ChryKMtom  "  in  Migne,  P.  Gr.  torn.  63.  col.  943  fdl. ;  C.  Fortesctte. 
TlU  Armnuan  Church  (London,  1872}:  H.  Geber,  Die  Anfdmti  da 
armeuischen  Kircke  (Leipzig.  1895)  (sdchs.  GeseUs.  der  Wixi€*xh.)\ 
and  ft. v.  "  Armenien  "  in  ^erzog-Hauck  fLeiazig,  1897);  v.  Cut- 
•chroid.  Kleine  Schriften  '(Leipzig.  X892);  Himpd,  Grmr  ier 
Erteuchter,  Kl.  v.;  lanverdenz,  HisL  of  Arm.  Church  (Venice. 
1875)  J  de  Lagarde.  Aiothautelos  (G6ttingen.  1888):  Anhak  Ter 
Mtlcdian,  Die  arm.  Kirche  (Lei^g,  1892) ;  Pidmieri,  **  La  Coaver- 
stone  ufficiale  degli  Iberi,"  Ortens  Christ.  (Rome,  1902);  Ryvel. 
Ein  Brief  Cretors,  Hbersetst,  Studieu  und  KriHkeu,  56.  Bd.  (1883): 
Samuelian,  Bekehrmu  Armeniens  (Vienna,  1844) ;  Vetter,  '*  Dk  arm. 
Vflter,"  in  NiKhl's  LArhuch  der  Patrol,  iit.  215-262.  (Mainz.  1881- 
1885};  Malan.  S.  Gregory  the  lUuminator  (Rivingtona,  1868). 

(F.  C  C) 

QRBQORT  {Gregmus)t  the^name  of  sixteen  popes  and  tmt 

anti-rpope. 

Saimt  Gkecosy,  sumamed  the  Great  (c.  540-604)1  the  first 
pope  of  that  name,  and  the  last  of  the  four  doctors  of  the  Latin 
Church,  was  bom  in  Rome  about  the  year  54a  His  father  was 
Gordianus  "  the  regionary,"  a"  wealthy  num  of  senatorial  rank, 
owner  of  large  estates  in  Sicily  and  of  a  palace  on  the  Cacliaa 
Hill  in  Rome;  his  mother  was  Silvia,  who  is  oommemfvated  as 
a  saint  on  the  3rd  of  November.  Of  Gregory's  eariy  period  «e 
know  few  details,  and  almost  ail  the  dates  are  conjecturaL  He 
received  the  best  education  to  be  had  at  the  time,  and  was  noted 
for  his  proficiency  in  the  arts  of  grammar,  rhetoric  and  dialectic 
Entering  on  a  public  career  he  held,  about  573,  the  hig^  office  of 
prefect  of  the  dty  of  Rome;  but  about'  574,  feeling  irresistibly 
attracted  to  the  "  religious ''  Ufe,  he  resigned  his  post,  founded 
six  monasteries  in  Sicily  and  one  in  Rome,  and  in  the  last— the 
famous  monastery  of  St  Andrew — became  himself  a  monL 
This  grateful  seclusion,  however,  he  was  not  permitted  kag  to 
enjoy.  About  578  he  was  ordained  "  seventh  deacon  '*  (or 
possibly  archdeacon)  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  in  the  following 
spring  Pope  Pelagius  II.  appointed  him  "  apocrisiarius,"  or 
resident  ambassador,  at  the  imperial  court  in  Constantinople. 
Here  he  represented  the  interests  of  his  church  till  about  5S6, 
when  he  returned  to  Rome  and  was  made  abbot  of  St  Andrew's 
monastery.  His  rule,  though  popular,  wai  characterized  by 
grelt  severity,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  story  of  the  monk 
Justus,  who  was  denied  Christian  burial  because  he  had  secreted 
a  small  sum'  of  money.  About  this  time  Gregory  completed  and 
published  his  well-known  exposition  of  the  book  of  Job,  com- 
menced in  Constantinople:  he  also  delivered  lectures  on  the 
Heptateuch,  the  books  of  Kings,  the  Pn^ihets,  the  book  of 
Proverbs  and  the  Song  of  Songs.  To  this  period,  moreover, 
Bede's  incident  of  the  English  slave-boys  (if  indeed  it  be  acxepted 
as  historical)  ought  to  be  assigned.  Passing  one  day  throns^ 
the  Forum,  Gregory  saw  some  handsome  slaves  offered  for  sale, 
and  inquired  their  nation.  "  Angles,"  was  the  reply.  *'  Good," 
said  the  abbot,  "  they  have  the  faces  of  angels,  and  shoukl  be 
coheirs  with  the  angels  in  heaven.  From  what  proving  do  they 
come?"  "FromDeira."  "Deira.  Yea,  verily,  they  shall  be 
saved  from  God's  ire  {de  ira)  and  called  to  the  noercy  of  Christ. 
How  is  the  king  of  that  country  named  V*  "  iCIla."  "  Thea 
must  Allelulia  be  sung  in  iElla's  land."  Gregory  deCenniscd 
personally  to  undertake  the  conversion  of  Britain,  and  with  the 
pope's  consent  actually  set  out  upon  the  mission,  but  on  the 
third  day  of  his  journey  he  was  overtaken  by  messengers  recalfiog 
him  to  Rome..  In  the  year  S90  Pelagius  IL  died  of  the  plague 
that  was  raging  in  the  dty;  whereupon  the  dergy  and  ptop^ 
unanimously  chose  Gregory  as  his  successor.  The  aJbhoL  did  his 
bot^to  avoid  the  dignity,  petitioned  tlie.cmpcror  Mauxioe  Pot 


GREGORY  (POPES) 


567 


to  ratify  his  election,  and  even  nfeditated  going  into  hiding; 
but,  "  while  he  was  preparing  (or  flight  and  concealment,  he  was 
seized  and  carried  off  and  dragged  to  the  basilica  of  St  Peter/' 
and  there  consecrated  bishop,  on  the  3rd  of  September  590. 

The  fourteen  years  of  Gregory's  pontificate  were  marked 
by  extraordinary  vicour  and  activity.  "  He  never  rested," 
writes  a  biographer,  he  was  always  engaged  in  providing  for 
the  interests  of  his  people,  or  in  writing  some  composition 
worthy  of  the  diurch,  or  in  searching  out  the  secrets  of  heaven 
by  the  grace  of  omtemplation."  His  mode  of  life  was  simple 
and  ascetic  in  the  extreme.  Having  banished  all  lay  attendants 
from  his  palace,  he  surrotmded  himself  with  derio  and  monks, 
with  whom  he  lived  as  though  he  were  still  in  a  monastery.  To 
the  spiritual  needs  of  his  people  he  ministered  with  pastoral 
wal,  frequently  appointing  "stations"  and  delivering  sermons; 
nor  was  be  less  aoUdtous  in  providing  for  their  physical  neces- 
sities. Deaconries  (offices  of  alms)  and  guest-houses  were 
liberally  endowed,  and  free  distributions  of  food  were  made  to 
the  poor  in  the  convents  and  basilicas.  The  funds  for  these 
and  similar  purposes  were  supplied  from  the  Patrimony  of 
St  Peter — the  papal  estates  in  Italy,  the  adjacent  islands,  Gaul, 
Dalmatia  and  AJfrica.  These  extensive  domains  were  usually 
administered  by  spedally  appointed  agents, — rectors  and 
defensors, — who  resided  on  the  spot;  but  the  general  superin- 
toidence  devolved  upon  the  pope.  In  this  sphere  Gregory 
manifested  rare  capacity.  He  was  one  of  the  best  of  the  papal 
landlords.  During  his  pontificate  the  estates  increased  in 
value,  while  at  the  same  time  the, real  grievances  of  the  tenants 
were  redressed  and  thdr  general  position  was  materially  improved. 
Gregory's  prindpal  fault  as  a  man  of  business  was  Uiat  he  was 
inclined  to  be  too  lavish  of  bis  revenues.  It  is  said  that  he  even 
impoverished  the  treasury  of  the  Roman  Church  by  his  unlimited 
charities. 

Within  the  strict  bounds  of  his  patriarchate,  ».e.  the  churches 
of  the  suburbicarian  provinces  and  the  islands,  it  was  Gregory's 
policy  to  watch  with  particular  .care  over  the  election  and 
disdpline  of  the  bishops.  With  Wise  tderation  he  was  willing 
to  recognize  local  deviations  from  Roman  usage  (e.g.  in  the 
ritual  <rf  baptism  and  confirmation),  yet  he  was  resolute  to 
withstand  any  unauthorized  usurpation  of  rights  and  privileges. 
The  following  rules  he  took  pains  to  enforce:  that  derics 
in  holy  orders  should  not  cohabit  with  their  wives  or  permit  any 
women,  except  those  allowed  by  the  canons,  to  live  m  their 
houses;  that  clerics  accused  on  ecdesiastical  or  lesser  criminal 
charges  should  be  tried  only  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts;  that 
clerics  in  holy  orders  who  had  lapsed  should  "  utterly  forfeit 
their  orders  and  never  again  approach  the  ministry  of  the  altar  "; 
that  the  revenues  of  each  church  should  be  divided  by  its  bishop 
into  four  equal  parts,  to  be  assigned  to  the  bishop,  the  clergy, 
the  poor  and  the  repair  of  the  fabric  of  the  church. 

In  his  relations  with  the  churches  which  lay  outside  the  strict 
limits  of  his  patriarchate,  in  northern  Italy,  Spain,  Gaul,  Africa 
and  Ulyricum  and  also  in  the  East,  Gregory  consistently  used 
his  influence  to  increase  the  prestige  and  authority  of  the  Roman 
See.  In  his  view  Rome,  as  the  sce'of  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles, 
was  by  divine  right "  the  head  of  all  the  churches."  The  decrees 
ol  councils  would  have  no  binding  force  "  without  the  authority 
and  consent  of  the  apostolic  see  ":  appeals  might  be  made  to 
Rome  against  the  decisions  even  of  the  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople: all  bishops,  including  the  patriarchs,  if  guilty  of  heresy 
or  uncanonical  proceedings,  were  subject  to  correction  by  the 
pope.  *'  If  any  fault  b  discovered  in  a  bishop,"  Gregory  wrote, 
*'  I  know  of  no  one  who  is  not  subject  to  the  apostolic  see." 
It  ta  true  that  Gregory  respected  the  rights  of  metropolitans  and 
disapproved  of  unnecessary  interference  within  the  sphere  of 
their  jurisdiction  canonically  exercised;  also  that  in  his  relations 
with  certain  churches  (e.g.  those  in  Africa)  he  found  it  expedient 
to  abstain  from  any  obtrusive  assertion  of  Roman  claims.  But 
of  his  jgencral  principle  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Hb  sincere  belief 
in  the  apostolic  authority  of  the  see  of  St  Peter,  his  outspoken 
assertion  of  it,  the  consistency  and  firmness  with  which  in 
practice  he  maintained  it  (e.|.  in  his  controversies  with  the  I 


bishops  of  Ravenna  concerning  the  use  of  the  pallium,  with 
Maximus  the  "  usurping "  bishop  of  Salona,  and  with  the 
patriarchs  of  Constantinople  in  respect  of  the  title  "  ecumenical 
bishops  "),  contributed  greatly  to  build  up  the  system  of  papal 
absolutbm.  Moreover  thb  consolidation  of  spiritual  authority 
coindded  with  a  remarkable  development  of  the  temporal 
power  of  the  papacy;  In  Italy  Gregory  occupied  an  almost 
regal  position.  Taldng  advantage  of  the  opportunity  which 
circumstances  offered,  he  boldly  stepped  into  the  place  which 
the  emperors  had  left  vacant  and  the  Lombard  kings  had  not  the 
strength  to  seize.  For  the  first  time  in  history  the  pope  appeared 
as  a  political  power,  a  temporal  prince.  He  appointed  governors 
to  dties,  Issued  orders  to  generaU,  provided  munitions  of  war, 
sent  hb  ambassadors  to  negotiate  with  the  Lombard  king  and 
actually  dared  to  condude  a  private  peace.  In  thb  direction 
Gregory  went  farther  than  any  of  hb  predecessors:  he  iaid 
the  foundation  of  a  political  influence  which  endured  for  centuries. 
"Of  the  medieval  papacy,"  says  Milman,  "the  real  father  b 
Gregory  the  Great." 

The  first  monk  to  become  pope,  Gregory  was  naturally  a 
strong  supporter  of  monastidsm.  He  kiid  himself  out  to  diffuse 
the  system,  and  also  to  carry  out  a  reform  of  its  abuses  by  en- 
forcing a  strict  observance  of  the  Rule  of  St  Benedict  (of  whom, 
it  may  be  noted,  he  was  the  earliest  biographer).  Two  slight 
innovations  were  introduced:  the  minimum  age  of  an  abbess 
was  fixed  at  sixty,  and  the  period  of  novitiate  was  prolonged 
from  one  year  to  two.  Gregory  sought  to  protect  the  monks 
from  episcopal  oppression  by  issuing  prhiUgia,  or  charters 
in  restraint  of  abuses,  in  accordance  with  which  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  bishops  over  the  monasteries  was  confined  to  spiritual 
matters,  all  illegal  aggressions  being  strictly  prohibited.  The 
documents  are  interesting  as  marking  the  beginning  of  a  revolu- 
tion which  eventually  emancipated  the  monks  altogether  from 
the  control  of  thdr  diocesans  and  brought  them  under  the  direct 
authority  of  the  Holy  Sec.  Moreover  Gregory  strictly  forbade 
monks  to  minister  in  parish  churches,  ordaining  that  any  monk 
who  was  promoted  to  such  ecdesiastical  cure  should  lose  all 
rights  in  hb  monastery  and  should  no  longer  reside  there. 
"  The  duties  of  each  office  separately  are  so  weighty  that  no  one 
can  rightly  discharge  them.  It  b  therefore  very  improper  that 
one  man  should  be  considered  fit  to  discharge  the  duties  of 
both,  and  that  by  thb  means  the  ecclesiastical  order  should 
interfere  with  the  monastic  life,  and  the  rule  of  the  monastic 
life  in  turn  interfere  with  the  interests  of  the  churches." 

Once  more,  Gregory  b  remembered  as  a  great  organizer  of 
missionary  enterprise  for  the  conversion  of  heathens  and  heretics. 
Mose  important  Was  the  two-fold  mission  to  Britain — of  St 
Augustine  in  596,  of  Mellitus,  Paulinus  and  others  in  601 ;  but 
Gregory  also  made  strenuous  efforts  to  uproot  paganbm  in  Gaul, 
Italy,  Sicily,  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  Apanism  in  Spain,  Donatism 
in  Africa,  Manichaeism  in  Sicily,  the  heresy  of  the  Three  Chapters 
in  Istria  and  northern  Italy.  In  respect  of  the  methods  of 
conversion  which  he  advocated  he  was  not  less  intolerant  than 
hb  contemporaries.  Towards  the  Jews,  however,  he  acted  with 
exceptional  lenity,  protecting  them  from  persecution  and 
securing  them  the  enjoyment  of  thdr  legal  privileges.  The 
so-called  "  simoniacal  heresy,"  particularly  prevalent  in  Gaul, 
Ulyricum  and  the  East,  he  repeatedly  attacked;  and  against  the 
Gallican  abuse  of  promoting  laymen  to  bishoprics  he  protested 
with  vigour. 

The  extent  and  character  of  Gregory's  works  in  connexion 
with  the  liturgy  and  the  music  of  the  church  b  a  subject  of 
dispute.  If  we  are  to  credit  a  9th  century  biographer,  Gregory 
abbreviated  and  otherwise  simplified  the  Sacramentary  of 
Gelasius,  producing  a  revised  edition  with  which  his  own  name 
has  become  associated,  and  which  represents  the  groundwork 
of  the  modem  Roman  Missal.  But  though  it  is  certain  that  he 
introduced  three  changes  in  the  liturgy  itself  (viz.  the  addition 
of  some  words  in  the  prayer  Hone  igiiWy  the  recitation  of  the 
Pater  Noster  at  the  end  of  the  Canon  immediately  before  the 
fraction  of  the  bread,  and  the  chantingof  the  Allelulia  after  the 
Gradual  at  other  times  besides  the  season  of  Easter)  and  two 


568 


GREGORY  (POPES) 


olben  In  the  umnonial  coDnedcd  tlitRwith  (forbidding 
duconi  (o  pnionn  any  niuica)  portkiD  d(  ihe  lervice  accp 
(he  chuiling  ol  C&e  gcapd,  ind  uibdeacons  to  war  cbuubla 
neither  the  cxter ntl  noi  the  inteiu]  evidence  ippetn  to  wimiD 
belief  thit  the  GregDriin  Sacrunentiry  ii  bii  norii,  Ecde«»8- 
ticaJ  tradition  further  ucriba  to  Gregory  tbe  compilittioa  of  an 


lolib 


irch,  Gregory 


It  it  highly  doubtful,  howevei 

either  with  tbe  Aaliphonuy 

of  the  cenJu  flanm;  it  i>  cer 

of  the  Roman  tioging-icboal, 

himieK  in  !t>  endowment  and 

.     Finilly,  sa  Fourth  Doetoi 

clainu  1b(  iltention  ol  theologiuu.     He  13  tne  linK  ocurce 

two  epochl.     The  lul  ol  tbe  great  Latin  Falhen  and  Ihe  finl 

ttproentative  ol  medieval  Catboliciun  be  biinp  the  dogmat 

theoiogy  ol  TertuUian,  Ambrose  and  Augustine  into  relatio 

with  the  Scholastic  speculation  of  later  ages.     **  He  connects  tb 

His  teaching,  indeed,  is  neither  philosophical,  systematic  n 
truly  original.     Its  importance  lies  mainly  in  its  simple,  poptdar 
hedoclrineofAugustine(whDse  works  Gregory 


had  SI 


detailed  eiposition 


;y  of  lel 


I  advai 


n  purgatory,  the  Euchari 
1).     In  his  enwsilian  ol  su 

e  older   thnl 


.iroloundly  the  dogmtlic  development  ol  the  future.  He  im- 
parted a  life  and  impube  to  prevailing  tendencies,  helping  on  the 
tonitruction  of  the  syslem  heieajier  Id  be  completed  in  Scholasiic- 
ism.  He  gave  to  theology  a  tone  and  emphasis  which  could  not 
be  disregarded.  .  From  his  lime  10  that  of  Anselm  no  teacher 
of  equal  eminence  arose  in  the  Church. 

Gregory  died  on  the  11  tb  of  March  Ao4,~and~na>  buried  the. 
same  day  in  [he  portico  of  the  basilica  ol  St  PeleV,  in  liont  ol 
Ihe  sacristy.  Translations  look  place  in  the  «tb,  islh  and  ilth 
centuries,  and  the  remains  now  rest  beneath  the  altar  in  the 
chapel  ol  Clement  VIII.     In  respect  of  his  chaiacler,  while  most 

adulatory  congratulation  of  the  murderous  usurper  Phocas; 
though  bis  correspondence  with  the  Frankish  queen  Brunhilda, 
and  tbe  secies  of  letlen  to  and  concerning  Ihe  renegade  monk 


nduly  su 


to  Ihe  V 


LO  that 


ank;  yet  it  cannot  [airly 
as  a  wnoie  was  singularly  noble  and  unsellish.  His  lile  was 
enlirely  dominated  by  the  religioui  motive.  His  sole  desire  was 
10  promote  the  glory  ol  God  and  of  his  chureh.  At  all  times  he 
strove  honestly  to  live  up  to  the  light  that  was  in  him.  "  Hia 
goal,"  lays  Lau, "  was  always  that  which  he  acknowledged  as  the 
beat."  Physically,  Gregory  was  ol  medium  height  and  good 
figure.  His  bead  was  targe  and  bald,  surrounded  with  a  Iringe 
of  dark  hair.  His  lace  was  well-proportioned,  with  brown  eyes, 
aquiline  nose,  thick  and  red  lips,  high-coloured  cheeks,  and 
prominent  chin  sparsely  covered  with  a  tawny  heard.  His  hands, 
with  tapering  fingen,  were  remarkable  for  their  beauty.' 


Cm") 


ne:— £pii 
irgfii    ]it 


llowiiH  are  now  universally  admit t 
in    liln    ih..    Ucr^itm    Ubri    m 


I MK  an  all  pnntcd  in  N"      '    ~ 

however,  have  been  publi 

Hanmann  in  Ihe  Utnun 

lB99>.  and  iMs  aplendid 

question  of  the  chronologi,.a,  ,n.v,Hi,ui«n„i  »  ■., 

with  bv  Ewald  in  his  cclebfaled  article  in  the 

CaraKlia}lfiirUitrt4naduGeukicUik*mit.  iu,  ,^.  , . 

briefly  by  T.  Hodgkin,  Mj  tut  lur  imsAri,  v.  JJJ-JU.    For' 


T"  «S^  ^ 

ord        Tbey 

,„^"#, 

Ue                904     Bed 

/Tulirx.     Lfaluiha, 

s-"  '£. 

C-.e^u.'*"'^£S? 

Crqp^        te&SH  <k 

'%^n 

145 

1W 

madr> 

k-           -fuL^r  a. 

Const  antine  I.. 

1.  Gregory  did 
all  in  nispowerto  promote  tne  spread  01  <-Unslianity  inCeimany, 
and  gave  special  encouragement  to  Ihe  mission  of  St  Bouifue, 

of  lEefast  Roman  empire,  which  still  eiercisedsovereignlysrcr 
Rome,  Ravenna  and  some  other  parts  of  Italy,  and  he  impe<ied 
as  far  as  possible  the  progress  of  the  Lombards.     About  7tA, 

Leo  the  luutian  on  account  ol  the  eicessive  taxation  ol  Ihe 
Italians,  and,  later,  on  the  question  of  image  wonhip,  which 
bad  been  proscribed  by  Ihe  govenunenl  ol  Constantinople.  Leo 
endeavoured  to  rid  himscll  of  the  pope  by  violence,  but  Gregory, 
supported  by  the  people  ol  Rome  and  also  by  the  Lombaids. 
'     ittacks.  and  died  peacdully 


1  the  II 


ol  Februi 


'73'- 


DBY  III.,  pope  from  jjr  I 

IIS  of  St  Bonifaci . 
irds  the  Lombanls  hi 
art  ol  which  he  in  vain  ii 
e  Charics  Maclel. 

n  December  817,  c 


He  c< 


e  aid  of  the  Frsskilh 


suprem 


:y  ol  til 


:hiefly  associated  with  the  qnarrdi 
between  Lothair  and  Louis  tbe  nous,  in  which  he  espousal 
the  cau$e  of  the  former,  for  whom,  in  the  Campus  Meodscii 
[LtltntJrU,  field  of  lies).  *i  it  it  usually  called  (8j)).  he  secured 
by  his  treachery  a  temporary  advantage.  The  institution  ol  tie 
feast  of  All  Saioti  is  usually  attributed  to  Ibis  pope.  Hedied 
on  the  2jth  ol  January  844,  and  was  succeeded  by  Seigim  II- 
Ghecdiv  V.  (Bruno),  pope  from  006  to  999.  a  greal-graidiia 
oltheempcior  Otto  the  Great,  succeeded  John  XV. «'  '' 
twenty-lnur  years  of  age,  i     '         ■    '  -     '  "- 

had  a  rival  in  the  perse 

peolJe  of  Rome,  in  revolt  against  iqe  wiu  01  ineyouuuuimip" 
Olto  III.,  had  choKn  after  having  eipelled  Gregory.    The  m 

contumacy  ol  the  French  king.  Robert,  who  was  ultiniii 
bnusbt  U  lubouNioD  by  the  rijorous  inflictioo  oi  a  lenm 


GREGORY  (POPES) 


569 


of  excommunication.  Gregory  died  suddenly,  and  not  without 
tuq>icion  of  foul  play,  on  the  x8th  of  February  999.  His  successor 
was  Silvester  II. 

Oeegory  VI.,  pope  from  X045  to  X046.  As  Johannes  Gratianus 
he  had  earned  a  hi^  reputation  for  learning  and  probity,  and  in 
1045  ^c  bought  the  Roman  pontificate  from  his  godson  Benedict 
IX.  At  a  council  held  by  the  emperor  Henry  III.  at  Sutri  in 
1046,  he  was  accused  of  simony  and  deposed.  He  was  banished 
into  Germany,  where  he  died  in  1047.  He  was  accompanied  into 
exile  by  his  young  prol^g£  Hildebrand  (afterwards  pope  as 
Gregory  VII.),  and  was  succeeded  by  Clement  II.         (L.  D.*) 

Gbecoey  VII.,  pope  from  1073  to  1085.  Hildebrand  (the 
future  pope)  would  seem  to  have  been  bom  in  Tuscansr — ^perhaps 
Raovacum — early  in  the  third  decade  of  the  z  ith  century.  The 
son  of  a  plain  citizen,  Bunicus  or  Bonizo,  he  came  to  ftomeatan 
early  age  for  his  education;  an  unde  of  his  being  abbot  of  the 
convent  of  St  Mary  on  the  Aventine.  His  instructors  appear 
to  have  included  the  archpriest  Johannes  Gratianus,  who,  by 
disbursing  a  considerable  sum  to  Benedict  IX.,  smoothed  his 
way  to  the  papal  throne  and  actually  ascended  it  as  Gregory  VI. 
But  when  the  emperor  Henry  III.,  on  his  expedition  to  Rome 
(1046),  terminated  the  scandalous  impasse  in  which  three  popes 
laid  claim  to  the  chair  of  Peter  by  deposing  all  three,  Gregory  VI. 
was  banished  to  Germany,  and  Hildebrand  found  himself 
obliged  to  accompany  him.  As  he  himself  afterwards  admitted, 
it  was  with  extreme  reluctance  that  he  crossed  the  Alps.  But 
his  residence  in  Germany  was  of  great  educative  value,  and  full 
of  significance  for  his  later  official  activity.  In  Cologne  be  was 
enabled  to  pursue  his  studies ;  he  came  into  touch  with  the  circles 
of  Lorraine  where  interest  in  the  elevation  of  the  Church  and  her 
life  was  highest,  and  gained  acquaintance  with  the  political 
and  ecclesiastical  circumstances  of  that  country  which  was 
destined  to  figure  so  largely  in  his  career.  Whether,  on  the 
death  of  Gregory  VI.  in  the  beginning  of  X048,  Hildebrand 
proceeded  to  Cluny  is  doubtful.  His  brief  residence  there,  if  it 
actually  occurred,  is  to  be  regarded  as  no  more  than  a  visit;  for 
he  was  never  a  monk  of  Cluny.  His  contemporaries  indeed 
describe  him  as  a  monk;  but  his  entry  into  the  convent  must  be 
assigned  to  the  period  preceding  or  following  his  German  travels 
and  presumably  took  place  in  Rome.  He  returned  to  that  city 
with  Bishop  Bruno  of  Toul,  who  was  nominated  pope  under  the 
title  of  Leo  IX.  (1048-1054).  Under  him  Hildebrand  found  his 
first  employment  in  the  ecclesiastical  service,  becoming  a  sub- 
deacon  and  steward  in  the  Roman  Church.  He  acted,  moreover, 
as  a  legate  in  France,  where  he  was  occupied  tHter  alia  with  the 
question  of  Berengarius  of  Tours,  whose  views  on  the  Lord's 
Supper  had  excited  opposition.  On  the  death  of  Leo  IX.  he 
was  commissioned  by  the  Romans  as  their  envoy  to  the  German 
court,  to  conduct  the  negotiations  with  regard  to  bis  successor. 
The  emperor  pronounced  in  favour  of  Bishop  Gebhard  of  Eich- 
st&dt,  who,  in  the  course  of  his  short  reign  as  Victor  II.  (1055- 
1057),  again  employed  Hildebrand  as  his  legate  to  France. 
When  Stephen  IX.  (Frederick  of  Lorraine)  was  raised  to  the 
papacy,  without  previous  consultation  with  the  German  court, 
Hildebrand  and  Bishop  Anselm  of  Lucca  were  despatched  to 
Germany  to  secure  a  belated  recognition,  and  he  succeeded  in 
gaining  the  consent  of  the  empress  Agnes.  Stephen,  however, 
died  before  his  return,  and,  by  the  hasty  elevation  of  Bishop 
Johannes  of  Velletri,  the  Roman  aristocracy  made  a  last  attempt 
to  recover  their  lost  influence  on  the  appointment  to  the  papal 
throne — a  proceeding  which  was  charged  with  peril  to  the  Church 
as  it  implied  a  renewal  of  the  disastrous  patrician  regime.  That 
the  crisis  was  surmounted  was  essentially  the  work  of  Hildebrand. 
To  Benedict  X.,  the  aristocratic  nominee,  he  opposed  a  rival 
pope  in  the  person  of  Bishop  Gerhard  of  Florence,  with  whom 
the  victory  rested.  The  reign  of  Nicholas  II.  (1059-1061)  was 
distinguished  by  events  which  exercised  a  potent  influence  on 
the  policy  of  the  Curia  during  the  next  two  decades — the 
rapprochement  with  the  Normans  in  the  south  of  Italy,  and  the 
alliance  with  the  democratic  and,  subsequently,  anti-German 
movement  of  the  Patarenes  in  the  north.  It  was  also  under  his 
pontificate(to59)  that  the  law  was  enacted  which  transferred  the 


papal  election  to  the  College  of  Cardial,  thus  withdrawing  it 
from  the  nobility  and  populace  of  Rome  and  thrusting  the 
German  influence  on  one  side.  It  would  be  too  much  to  maintain 
that  these  measures  were  due  to  Hildebrand  alone,  but  it  is 
obvious  that  he  was  already  a  dominant  personality  on  the  Curia, 
through  he  still  held  no  more  exalted  office  than  that  of  arch- 
deacon, which  was  indeed  only  conferred  on  him  in  1059.  Again, 
when  Nicholas  II.  died  and  a  new  schism  broke  out,  the  dis- 
comfiture of  Honorius  II.  (Bishop  Cadalus  of  Parma)  and  the 
success  of  his  rival  (Anselm  of  Lucca)  must  be  ascribed  princi- 
pally, if  not  entirely,  to  Hildcbrand's  opposition  to  the  former. 
Under  the  sway  of  Alexander  II.  (1061-1073)  this  man  loomed 
larger  and  larger  in  the  eye  of  his  contemporaries  as  the  soul  of 
the  Curial  policy.  It  must  be  confessed  the  general  political 
conditions,  especially  in  Germany,  were  at  that  period  exception- 
ally favourable  to  the  Curia,  but  to  utilize  them  with  the  sagacity 
actually  shown  was  nevertheless  no  slight  achievement,  and  the 
position  of  Alexander  at  the  end  of  his  pontificate  was  a  brilliant 
justification  of  the  Hildebrandine  statecraft. 

On  the  death  of  Alexander  II.  (April  si,  1073),  Hildebrand 
became  pope  and  took  the  style  of  Gregory  VU.  The  mode  of 
his  election  was  bitterly  assailed  by  his  opponents.  True,  many 
of  the  charges  preferred  are  obviously  the  emanations  of  scandal 
and  personal  dislike,  liable  to  suspicion  from  the  very  fact  that 
they  were  not  raised  to  impugn  his  promotion  till  several  years 
had  elapsed  {e.  1076) ;  still  it  is  plain  from  his  own  account  of 
the  circumstances  of  his  elevation  that  it  was  conducted  in 
extremely  irregular  fashion,  and  that  the  forms  prescribed  by  the 
law  of  1059  were  not  observed.  But  the  sequel  justified  his 
election — of  which  the  worst  that  can  be  said  is  that  there  was 
no  general  suffrage.  And  this  sequel  again  owed  none  of  its 
success  to  chance,  but  was  the  fruit  of  his  own  exertions.  In  his 
character  were  united  wide  experience  and  great  energy  tested 
in  difficult  situations.  It  is  proof  of  the  popular  faith  in  his 
qualifications  that,  although  the  circumstances  of  his  election 
invited  assault  in  1073,  no  sort  of  attempt  was  then  made  to  set 
up  a  rival  pontiff.  When,  however,  the  opposition  which  took 
head  against  him  had  gone  so  far  as  to  produce  a  pretender  to  the 
chair,  his  long  and  undisputed  possession  tended  to  prove  the 
original  legality  of  his  papacy;  and  the  appeal  to  irregularities 
at  its  beginning  not  only  lost  all  cogency  but  assumed  the 
appearance  of  a  mere  biased  attack.  On  the  asnd  of  May  he 
received  sacerdotal  ordination,  and  on  the  30th  of  June  episcopal 
consecration;  the  empress  Agnes  and  the  duchess  Beatrice  of 
Tuscany  being  present  at  the  ceremony,  in  addition  to  Bishop 
Gregory  of  Vcrcelll,  the  chancellor  of  the  German  king,  to  whom 
Gregory  would  thus  seem  to  have  communicated  the  result  of 
the  election. 

The  focus  of  the  ecclesiastico-political  projects  of  Gregory  VII. 
is  to  be  found  in  his  relationship  with  Germany.  Since  the  death 
of  Henry  III.  the  strength  of  the  monarchy  in  that  country  had 
been  seriously  impaired,  and  his  son  Henry  IV.  had  to  contend 
with  great  internal  difficulties.  This  state  of  affairs  was  of 
materUl  assistance  to  the  pope.  His  advantage  was  still  further 
accentuated  by  the  fact  that  in  1073  Henry  was  but  twenty-three 
years  of  age  and  by  temperament  inclined  to  precipitate  action. 
Many  sharp  lessons  were  needful  before  he  learned  to  bridle  his 
impetuosity,  and  he  lacked  the  support  and  advice  of  a  dis- 
interested and  experienced  statesman.  Such  beingtheconditions, 
a  conflict  between  Gregory  VII.  and  Henry  IV.  could  have  only 
one  issue — the  victory  of  the  former. 

In  the  two  following  years  Henry  was  compelled  by  the  Saxon 
rebellion  to  come  to  amicable  terms  with  the  pope  at  any  cost. 
Consequently  in  May  1074  he  did  penance  at  Nuremberg  in 
presence  of  the  legates  to  expiate  his  continued  intimacy  with 
the  members  of  his  council  banned  by  Gregory,  took  an  oath  of 
obedience,  and  promised  his  support  in  the  work  of  reforming 
the  Church.  This  attitude,  however,  which  at  first  won  him  the 
confidence  of  the  pope,  he  abandoned  so  soon  as  he  gained  the 
upper  hand  of  the  Saxons:  this  he  achieved  by  his  victory  at 
Hohenburg  on  the  Unstrut  (June  9,  1075).  He  now  attempted 
to  reassert  his  rights  of  suzerain  in  upper  Italy  without  delay. 


57° 

He  sent  Count  Eberhard  to  Lombardy  to  (»mbat  the  Patarcnes; 
nominated  the  cleric  Tedaldo  to  the  archbishopric  of  Milan, 
thus  settling  a  prolonged  and  contentious  question;  and  finally 
endeavoured  to  establish  relations  with  the  Norman  duke, 
Robert  Guiscard.  Gregory  VII.  answered  with  a  rough  letter,, 
dated  December  8,  in  which — ^among  other  charges — ^he  re- 
proached the  German  king  with  breach  of  his  word  and  with 
his  further  countenance  of  the  excommunicated  councillors; 
while  at  the  same  time  he  sent  by  word  of  mouth  a  brusque 
message  intimating  that  the  enormous  crimes  which  would  be 
laid  to  his  account  rendered  him  liable,  not  only  to  the  ban  of  the 
church,  but  to  the  deprivation  of  his  crown.  Gregory  ventured 
on  these  audacious  measures  at  a  time  when  he  himself  was 
confronted  by  a  reckless  opponent  in  the  person  of  Cencius,  who 
on  Christmas-night  did  not  scruple  to  surprise  him  in  church 
and  carry  him  off  as  a  prisoner,  though  on  the  following  day 
he  was  obliged  to  surrender  his  captive.  The  reprimands  of 
the  pope,  couched  as  they  were  in  such  an  unprecedented  form, 
infuriated  Henry  and  his  court,  and  their  answer  was  the  hastily 
convened  national  council  in  Worms,  which  met  on  the  a4th 
of  January  1076.  In  the  higher  ranks  of  the  German  clergy 
Gregory  had  many  enemies,  and  a  Roman  cardinal,  Hug^ 
Candidus,  once  on  intimate  terms  with  him  but  now  at  variance, 
had  made  a  hurried  expedition  to  Germany  for  the  occasion  and 
appeared  at  Worms  with  the  rest.  All  the  gross  scandals  with 
regard  to  the  pontiff  that  this  prelate  could  utter  were  greedily 
received  by  the  assembly,  which  committed  itself  to  the  ill- 
considered  and  disastrous  resolutioti  that  Gregory  had  forfeited 
his  papal  dignity.  In  a  document  full  of  accusations  the  bishops 
renounced  their  allegiance.  In  another  King  Henry  pronounced 
him  deposed,  and  the  Romans  were  required  to  choose  a  new 
occupant  for  the  vacant  chair  of  St  Peter.  With  the  utmost 
haste  two  bishops  were  despatched  to  Italy  in  company  with 
Count  Eberhard  under  commission  of  the  council,  and  they  suc- 
ceeded in  procuring  a  similar  act  of  deposition  from  the  Lombard 
bishops  in  the  synod  of  Piacenza.  The  communication  of  these 
decisions  to  the  pope  was  tmdertaken  by  the  priest  Roland  of 
Parma,  and  he  was  fortunate  enough  to  gain  an  opportunity 
for  speech  in  the  synod,  which  had  barely  assembled  in  the 
Lateran  church,  and  there  to  deliver  his  message  announcin^^ 
the  dethronement  of  the  pontiff.  For  the  moment  the  members 
were  petrified  with  horror,  but  soon  such  a  storm  of  indignation 
was  aroused  that  it  was  only  due  to  the  moderation  of  Gregory 
himself  that  the  envoy  was  not  cut  down  on  the  spot.  On  the 
following  day  the  pope  pronounced  the  sentence  of  excommunica- 
tion against  the  German  king  with  all  formal  solemnity,  divested 
him  of  his  royal  dignity  and  absolved  his  subjects  from  the  oaths 
they  had  sworn  to  him.  This  sentence  purported  to  eject  the 
king  from  the  church  and  to  strip  him  of  his  crown.  Whether 
it  would  produce  this  effect,  or  whether  it  would  remain  an  idle 
threat,  depended  not  on  the  author  of  the  verdict,  but  on  the 
subjects  of  Henry — before  all,  on  the  German  princes.  We 
know  from  contemporary  evidence  that  the  excommunication 
of  the  king  made  a  profound  impression  both  in  Germany  and 
Italy.  Thirty  years  before,  Henry  III.  had  deposed  three  popes, 
and  thereby  rendered  a  great  and  acknowledged  service  to  the 
church.  When  Henry  IV.  attempted  to  copy  this  summary 
procedure  he  came  to  grief,  for  he  lacked  the  support  of  the 
people.  In  Germany  there  was  a  speedy  and  general  revulsion 
of  sentiment  in  favour  of  Gregory,  and  the  particularism  of  the 
princes  utilized  the  auspicious  moment  for  prosecuting  their 
anti-regal  policy  under  the  cloak  of  respect  for  the  papal  decision. 
When  at  Whitsuntide  the  king  proposed  to  discuss  the  measures 
to  be  taken  against  Gregory  in  a  council  of  his  nobles  at  Mainz, 
only  a  few  made  their  appearance;  the  Saxons  snatched  at  the 
golden  opportunity  for  renewing  their  insurrection  and  the 
anti-royalist  party  grew  in  strength  from  month  to  month.  The 
situation  now  became  extremely  critical  for  Henry.  As  a  result 
of  the  agitation,  which  was  zealously  fostered  by  the  papal  legate 
Bishop  Altmann  of  Passau,  the  princes  met  in  October  at  Tribur 
to  elect  a  new  German  king,  and  Henry,  who  was  stationed  at 
Oppenheim  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  was  only  saved  from 


GREGORY  (POPES) 


the  loss  of  his  sceptre  by  the  failure  of  the  assembled  prinoei 
to  agree  on  the  question  of  his  successor.  Thdr  dissensi(»i, 
however,  merely  induced  them  to  postpone  the  verdict.  Henry, 
they  declared,  must  make  reparation  to  the  pope  and  pledge 
himself  to  obedience;  and  they  settled  that,  if,  on  the  anni- 
versary of  his  excommunication,  he  still  lay  under  the  ban,  the 
throne  should  be  considered  vacant.  At  the  same  time  they 
determined  to  invite  Gregory  to  Augsburg,  there  to  decide  the 
conflict.  These  arrangements  showed  Henry  the  course  to  be 
pursued.  It  was  imperative,  under  any  circumstances  and  at 
any  price,  to  secure  his  absolution  from  Gregory  before  the  period 
named,  otherwise  he  could  scarcely  foil  his  opponents  in  their 
intention  to  pursue  their  attack  against  himself  and  justify  their 
measures  by  an  appeal  to  his  excommunication.  At  first  be 
attempted  to  attain  his  ends  by  an  embassy,  but  when  Gregory 
rejected  his  overtures  he  took  the  cdebrated  step  of  going  to 
Italy  in  person.  The  pope  had  already  left  Rome,  and  had 
intimated  to  the  German  princes  that  he  would  expect"  thdr 
escort  for  his  journey  on  January  8  in  Mantua.  But  this  escort 
had  not  appeared  when  he  received  the  news  ol  the  king's 
arrival.  Henry,  who  travelled  through  Burgundy,  had  been 
greeted  with  wild  enthusiasm  by  the  Lombards,  but  resisted  i}» 
temptation  to  employ  force  against  Gregory.  He  chose  ioatead 
the  tmexpected  and  unusual,  but,  as  events  proved,  the  safest 
course,  and  determined  to  compel  the  pope  to  grant  him  absolu- 
tion by  doing  penance  before  him  at  CsLnossa,  where  he  had  taken 
refuge.  This  occurrence  was  quickly  embellished  and  inwoven 
by  legend,  and  great  uncertainty  still  prevails  with  regard  to 
several  important  points.  The  reconciliation  was  only  effected 
after  prolonged  negotiations  and  definite  pledges  on  the  part 
of  the  king,  and  it  was  with  reluctance  that  Gregory  at  length 
gave  way,  for,  if  he  conferred  his  absolution,  the  diet  of  princes 
in  Augsburg,  in  which  he  might  reasonably  hope  to  aa  as 
arbitrator,  would  either  be  rendered  purposeless,  or,  if  it  met  at 
all,  would  wear  an  entirely  different  character.  It  was  impoaible, 
however,  to  deny  the  penitent  re-entrance  into  the  church,  and 
the  politician  had  in  this  case  to  be  subordinated  to  the  priest. 
Still  the  removal  of  the  ban  did  not  imply  a  genuine  reconciliatioa, 
and  no  basis  was  gained  for  a  settlement  of  the  great  questions 
at  issue — notably  that  of  investiture.  A  new  conflict  was 
indeed  inevitable  from  the  very  fact  that  Henry  IV.  naturafly 
considered  the  sentence  of  deposition  repealed  with  that  ^ 
excommunication;  while  Gregory  on  the  other  hand,  intent  od 
reserving  his  freedom  of  action,  gave  no  hint  on  the  subject  at 
Canossa. 

That  the  excommunication  of  Henry  IV.  was  simply  a  pretext 
— not  a  motive — for  the  opposition  of  the  rebelUoxis  Gcnnan 
nobles  is  manifest.  For  not  only  did  they  persist  in  their  policy 
after  his  absolution,  but  they  took  the  more  decided  step  of 
setting  up  a  rival  king  in  the  person  of  Duke  Rudolph  of  Svahia 
(Forchheim,  March  1077).  At  the  election  the  papal  legates 
present  observed  the  appearance  of  neutrality,  and  Gregory 
himself  sought  to  maintain  this  attitude  during  the  foUowiog 
years.  His  task  was  the  easier  in  that  the  two  parties  were  ol 
fairly  equal  strength,  each  endeavouring  to  gain  the  ui^r  hand 
by  the  accession  of  the  pope  to  their  side.  But  his  hopes  and 
labours,  with  the  object  of  receiving  an  appeal  to  act  as  arbitrator 
in  the  dynastic  strife,  were  fruitless,  and  the  result  of  his  non- 
committal policy  was  that  he  forfeited  in  large  measure  the 
confidence  of  both  parties.  Finally  he  decided  for  Rudolph  of 
Swabia  in  consequence  of  his  victory  at  Flarchheim  (January  37. 
1080).  Under  pressure  from  the  Saxons,  and  misinformed  as 
to  the  significance  of  this  battle,  Gregory  abandoned  his  waiting 
policy  and  again  pronounced  the  excommunication  and  d^xisi- 
tion  of  King  Henry  (March  7,  xo8o),  unloosing  at  the  same  time 
all  oaths  sworn  to  him  in  the  past  or  the  future.  But  the  papal 
censure  now  proved  a  very  different  thing  from  the  papal  censure 
four  years  previously.  In  wide  circles  it  was  felt  to  be  an  in- 
justice, and  men  began  to  put  the  question — so  dangerous  to  the 
prestige  of  the  pope — ^whether  an  excommunication  pronoonced 
on  frivolous  grounds  was  entitled  to  respect.  To  make  matters 
I  worse,  Rudolph  of  Swabia  died  on  the  z6tb  of  October  of  the 


GREGORY  (POPES) 


nine  year.  True,  a  new  claimant— Hermann  of  Luxembuxg— 
was  put  forward  in  August  xo8i|  but  his  peisonality  was  ill 
adapted  for  a  leader  of  the  Gregorian  party  in  Germany,  and  the 
power  of  Henry  IV.  was  in  the  ascendant.  The  king,  who  liad 
now  been  schooled  by  experience,  took  up  the  struggle  thus 
forced  upon  him  with  great  vigour.  He  refused  to  acknowledge 
the  ban  on  the  ground  of  illegality.  A  council  had  been  sum- 
moned at  Brizen,  and  on  the  25th  of  June  xo8o  it  pronounced 
Gr^ory  deposed  and  nominated  the  archbishop  Guibert  of 
Ravenna  as  his  successor— a  policy  of  anti-king,  anti-pope.  In 
X081  Henry  opened  the  conflict  against  Gregory  in  Italy.  The 
Utter  had  now  fallen  on  evil  days,  and  he  lived  to  see  thirteen 
ftMt**wW  desert  him,  Rome  surrendered  by  the  Romans  to  the 
German  king,  Guibert  of  Ravenna  enthroned  as  Clement  III. 
(March  34,  1084),  and  Henry  crowned  emperor  by  his  rival, 
while  he  himself  was  constrained  to  flee  from  Rome. 

The  relations  of  Gregory  to  the  remaining  European  states 
were  powerfxilly  influenod  by  his  German  policy;  for  Germany, 
by  engrossing  the  bulk  of  his  powers,  not  infrequently  compelled 
him  to  diow  to  other  rulers  that  moderation  and  forbearance 
which  he  withheld  from  the  German  king.  The  attitude  of  the 
Normans  brought  him  a  rude  awakening.  The  great  concessions 
made  to  them  under  Nicholas  II.  were  not  only  powerless  to 
stem  their  advance  into  central  Italy  but  failed  tc»  secure  even 
the  expected  protection  for  the  papacy.  When  Gregory  was 
hard  prened  by  Henry  IV.,  Robert  Guiscard  left  him  to  his  fate, 
and  only  interfered  when  he  himself  was  menaced  with  the 
German  arms.  Then,  on  the  capture  of  Rome,  he  abandoned 
the  city  to  the  tender  mercies  of  bis  warriors,  and  by  the  popular 
indignation  evoked  by  his  act  brought  about  the  banishment  of 
Gregory. 

In  the  case  of  several  countries,  Gregory  attempted  to  establish 
ft  claim  of  suzerainty  on  the  part  of  the  see  of  St  Peter,  and  to 
secure  the  recognition  of  its  self-asserted  rights  of  possession. 
On  the  ground  of  "  immemorial  usage  "  Corsica  and  Sardinia 
were  assumed  to  belong  to  the  Roman  Church.  Spain  and 
Hungary  were  also  dainued  as  her  property,  and  an  attempt  was 
made  to  induce  the  king  of  Denmark  to  hold  his  realm  as  a  fief 
from  the  pope.  PhUip  I.  of  France,  by  his  simony  and  the 
violenoe  df  his  proceedings  against  the  church,  provoked  a 
threat  of  summary  measures;  and  excommunication,  deposition 
and  the  interdict,  appeared  to  be  imminent  in  1074.  Gregory, 
however,  refrained  from  translating  his  menaces  into  actions, 
although  the  attitude  of  the  king  showed  no  chknge,  for  he 
wished  to  avoid  a  dlH>ersion  of  his  strength  In  the  conflict  soon 
to  break  out  in  Germany.  In  England,  again,  William  the 
Conqueror  derived  no  less  benefit  from  this  state  of  affairs. 
He  fdt  himself  so  safe  that  he  Interfered  autocratically  with  the 
management  of  the  church,  forbade  the  bishops  to  visit  Rome, 
filled  bishoprics  and  abbeys,  and  evinced  little  anxiety  when  the 
pope  expatiated  to  him  on  the  different  principles  which  he 
entertained  as  to  the  relationship  of  church  and  state,  or  when 
he  prohibited  him  from  commerce  or  oonunanded  him  to 
acknowledge  himself  a  vassal  of  the  apostolic  chair.  Gregory 
had  no  power  to  compel  the  English  king  to  an  alteration  in  his 
ecclesiastical  poUcy,  so  chose  to  ignore  what  he  could  not  approve, 
and  even  considered  it  advisable  to  assure  him  of  his  particular 
affection. 

Gregory,  in  fact,  established  relations— if  no  more— with 
every  laiui  in  Christendom;  though  these  relations  did  not 
invariably  realize  the  ecdesiastico-political  hopes  connected 
with  them.  His  correspondence  extended  to  Poland,  Russia  and 
Bohemia.  He  wrote  In  friendly  terms  to  the  Saracen  king  of 
Mauretania  in  north  Africa,  and  attempted,  though  without 
succett,  to  bring  the  Armenians  into  doser  contact  with  Rome. 
The  East,  especially,  claimed  his  interest.  The  ecclesiastical 
rupture  between  the  bishops  of  Rome  and  Byzantium  was  a 
severe  bk>w  to  him,  and  he  laboured  hard  to  restore  the  former 
amicable  relationship.  At  that  period  it  was  impossible  to 
suspect  that  the  schism  impUed  a  definite  separation,  for  pro- 
longed schisms  had  existed  in  past  centuries,  but  had  always 
been  surmounted  in  the  end.    Both  sides,  moreover,  had  an 


57' 

interest  in  repairing  the  breach  between  the  churches.  Thus, 
immediatdy  on  his  accession  to  the  pontificate,  Gregory  sought 
to  come  into  touch  with  the  emperor  Michad  VU.  and  succeeded. 
When  t)ie  news  of  the  Saracenic  outrages  on  the  Christians  in  the 
East  filtered  to  Rome,  and  the  political  embarrassments  of  the 
Byzantine  emperor  increased,  he  conceived  the  project  of  a 
great  military  expedition  and  exhorted  the  faithful  to  partidpa- 
tion  in  the  task  of  recovering  the  sepulchre  of  the  Lon!  (1074). 
Thus  the  Idea  of  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land  already  floated 
before  Gregory's  vision,  and  his  Intention  was  to  place  himself 
at  the  head.  But  the  hour  for  such  a  gigantic  enterprise  was 
not  yet  come,  and  the  impending  struggle  with  Henry  IV.  turned 
his  energies  into  another  channeL 

In  his  treatment  of  ecclesiastical  poliqr  and  ecdeslastical 
reform,  Gvt^ry  did  not  stand  alone,  but  on  the  contrary  found 
powerful  support.  Since  the  middle  of  the  nth  century  the 
tendency — mainly  represented  by  Guny — towards  a  stricter 
morality  and  a  more  earnest  attitude  to  life,  eq>ecially  on  the 
part  of  the  clergy,  had  converted  the  papacy;  and,  from  Leo  DC. 
onward,  the  popes  had  taken  the  lead  in  the  movement.  Even 
before  his  dection,  Gregory  had  gained  the  confidence  of  these 
drdes,  and,  when  he  assumed  the  guidance  of  the  church,  they 
laboured  for  him  with  extreme  devotion.  From  hurletters  we  see 
how  he  fostered  his  connexion  with  them  and  stimulated  their 
zeal,  how  he  strove  to  awake  the  oonsdousness  that  his  cause 
was  the  cause  of  God  and  that  to  further  it  was  to  render  service 
to  God.  By  this  means  he  created  a  personal  party,  uncbn- 
dltlonalty  attadied  to  himself,  and  he  had  his  confidants  in  every 
country.  In  Italy  Bishop  Ansdm  of  Lucca,  to  take  an  example, 
belonged  to  their  number.  Again,  the  duchess  Beatrice  of 
Tuscany  and  her  daughter  the  Margravine  Matilda,  who  put  her 
great  wealth  at  his  disposal,  were  of  inestimable  service.  The 
empress  Agnes  also  adhered  to  his  cause.  In  upper  Italy  the 
Patarenes  had  worked  for  him  in  many  ways;  and  aU  who  stood 
for  their  objects  stood  for  the  pope.  In  Germany  at  the  begin- 
ning of  his  rdgn  the  hij^er  ranks  of  the  clergy  stood  doof  from 
him  and  were  confirmed  in  their  attitude  by  some  of  his  regula- 
tions. But  Bishop  Altmann  of  Passau,  who  has  already  been 
mentioned,  and  Archbishop  Gebhard  of  Salzburg,  were  among 
his  most  zealous  followers.  That  the  convent  of  HIrschau  in 
Swabia  was  hdd  by  Gregory  was  a  fact  of  much  significance, 
for  its  monks  spread  over  the  land  as  itinerant  agitators  and 
accomplished  much  for  him  in  southern  Gernuuy.  In  England 
Archbishop  Lanfranc  of  Canterbury  probably  stood  dosest  to 
him;  in  France  his  champion  was  Bishop  Hugo  oJF  Di6,  who 
afterwards  ascended  the  arehiepiscopal  chair  of  Lyons. 

The  whole  life-work  of  Gregory  VII.  was  based  on  his  convic- 
tion that  the  chureh  has  been  founded  by  God  and  entrusted 
with  the  task  of  embradng  all  mankind  in  .a  single  sodety  In 
which  His  will  Is  the  only  law;  that,  in.  her  capadty  as^  divine 
institution,  she  outtops  aJl  human  structures;  and  that  the  pope, 
qua  head  c^  the  church,  is  the  vice-regent  of  God  on  earth,  so 
that  disobedience  to  him  implies  disobedience  to  God— or,  in 
other  words,  a  defection  from  Christianity.  Elaborating  an 
idea  discoverable  in  St  Augustine,  he  looked  on  the  worldly 
state — a  purely  human  creation — as  an  unhallowed  edifice  whose 
character  is  suffidently  manifest  from  the  fact  that  It  abolishes 
the  equality  of  man,  and  that  it  is  built  up  by  violence  and 
injustice.  He  devdoped  these  views  in  a  famous  series  of  letters 
to  Bishop  Hermann  of  Metz.  But  it  Is  clear  from  the  outset 
that  we  are  only  dealing  with  reflections  of  strictly  theoretical 
importance;  for  any  attempt  to  interpret  them  In  terms  of 
action  would  have  bound  the  church  to  annihilate  not  merely 
a  single  definite  state,  but  all  states.  Thus  Gregory,  as  a 
politidan  desirous  of  achieving  some  result,  was  driven  In 
practice  to  adopt  a  different  standpoint.  He  acknowledged 
the  existence  of  the  state  as  a  dispensation  of  Providence, 
described  the  coexistence  of  chureh  and  state  as  a  divine  ordin- 
ance, and  emphasized  the  necessity  of  union  between  the  sacer- 
dotium  and  the  imperiuM.  But  at  no  period  would  he  have 
dreamed  of  putting  the  two  powen  on  an  equality;  the 
superiority  of  church  to  state  was  to  him  a  fact  which  admitted 


572 

of  no  discussion  and  which  he  had  never  doubted.  Again,  this 
very  superiority  of  the  church  implied  in  his  eyes  a  superiority 
of  the  papacy,  and  he  did  not  shrink  from  drawing  the  extreme 
conclusions  from  these  premises.  In  other  words,  he  claimed 
the  right  of  excommunicating  and  deposing  incapable  mbnarchs, 
and  of  confimiing  the  choice  of  their  successors.  This  habit  of 
thought  needs  to  be  appreciated  in  order  to  understand  his 
efforts  to  bring  individual  states  into  feudal  subjection  to  the 
chair  of  St  Peter.  It  was  no  m«re  question  of  formality,  but  the 
first  step  to  the  realization  of  bis  ideal  theocracy  comprising  each 
and  every  state. 

Since  this  papal  conception  of  the  state  involved  the  exclusion 
of  independence  and  autonomy,  the  history  of  the  relationship 
between  church  and  state  is  the  history  of  one  continued  struggle. 
In  the  time  of  Gregory  it  was  the  question  of  appointment  to 
spiritual  offices — the  so-called  investiture — ^which  brought  the 
theoretical  controversy  to  a  head.  The  preparatory  steps  had 
already  been  taken  by  Leo  DC.,  and  the  subsequent  popes  had 
advanced  still  further  on  the  path  he  indicated;  but  it  was 
reserved  for  Gregory  and  his  enactments  to  provoke  the  outbreak 
of  the  great  conflict  which  dominated  the  following  decades. 
By  the  first  law  (1075)  ^^  ^^^  ^^  investiture  for  churches  was 
in  general  terms  denied  to  the  laity.  In  1078  neglect  of  this 
prohibition  was  made  punishable  by  excommunication,  and,  by 
a  further  decree  of  the  same  year,  every  investiture  conferred 
by  a  layman  was  declared  invalid  and  its  acceptance  pronounced 
liable  to  penalty.  It  was,  moreover,  enacted  that  every  lajrman 
should  restore,  under  pain  of  exconunimication,  all  lands  of  the 
church,  held  by  him  as  fiefs  from  princes  or  clerics;  and  that, 
henceforward,  the  assent  of  the  pope,  the  archbishop,  &c.,  was 
requisite  for  any  investiture  of  ecclesiastical  property.  Finally 
in  Z080  the  forms  regulating  the  canonical  appointment  to  a 
bishopric  were  promulgated.  In  case  of  a  vacancy  the  election 
was  to  be  conducted  by  the  people  and  clergy  under  the  auspices 
of  a  bishop  nominated  by  the  pope  or  metropolitan;  after 
which  the  consent  of  the  pope  or  archbishop  was  to  be  procured; 
if  any  violation  of  these  injunctions  occurred,  the  election  should 
be  null  and  void  and  the  ri^t  of  choice  pass  to  the  pope  or 
metropolitan.  In  so  legislating,  Gregory  had  two  objects:  in 
the  first  place,  to  withdraw  the  appointment  to  episcopal  offices 
from  the  influence  of  the  king;  in  the  second,  to  replace  that 
influence  by  his  own.  The  intention  was  not  to  increase  the  power 
of  the  metropolitan:  he  simply  desired  that  the  nomination  of 
bishops  by  the  pope  should  be  substituted  for  the  prevalent 
nomination  of  bishops  by  the  king.  But  in  this  course  of  action 
Gregory  had  a  still  more  ambitious  goal  before  his  eyes.  If 
he  could  once  succeed  in  abolishing  the  lay  investiture  the  king 
would,  ipso  facU),  be  deprived  of  his  control  over  the  great 
possessions  assigned  to  the  church  by  himself  and  his  predecessors, 
and  he  could  have  no  security  that  the  duties  and  services 
attached  to  those  possessions  would  continue  to  be  discharged 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Empire.  The  bishops  in  fact  were  to 
retain  their  position  as  princes  of  the  Empire,  with  all  the  lands 
and  ri^ts  of  supremacy  pertaining  to  them  in  that  capacity, 
but  the  bond  between  them  and  the  Empire  was  to  be  dissolved: 
they  were  to  owe  allegiance  not  to  the  king,  but  to  the  pope — 
a  non-German  sovereign  who,  in  consequence  of  the  Italian 
policy  of  the  German  monarchy,  found  himself  in  perpetual 
opposition  to  Germany.  Thus,  by  his  ecclesiastical  legislation, 
Gregory  attempted  to  shake  the  very  foundations  on  which  the 
constitution  of  the  German  empire  rested,  while  completely 
ignoring  the  historical  development  of  that  constitution  (see 
Investiture). 

That  energy  which  Gregory  threw  into  the  expansion  of  the 
papal  authority,  and  which  brought  him  into  collision  with  the 
secular  powers,  was  manifested  no  less  in  the  internal  government 
of  the  church.  He  wished  to  see  all  important  matters  of  dispute 
referred  to  Rome ;  appeals  were  to  be  addressed  to  himself,  and 
he  arrogated  the  right  of  legblation.  The  fact  that  his  laws  were 
usually  promulgated  by  Roman  synods  which  he  convened  during 
Lent  does  not  imply  that  these  possessed  an  independent  position; 
on  the  contrary,  they  were  entirely  dominated  by  his  influence, 


GREGORY  (POPES) 


and  were  no  more  than  the  instruments  of  his  will.  The  central- 
ization of  ecclesiastical  government  in  Rome  naturally  involved 
a  curtailment  of  the  powers  of  the  bishops  and  metropolitans. 
Since  these  in  part  refused  to  submit  voluntarily  and  attempted 
to  assert  their  traditional  independence,  the  pontificate  of 
Gregory  is  crowded  with  struggles  against  the  hij^her  ranks  of 
the  prelacy.  Among  the  methods  he  employed  to  break  thdr 
power  of  resistance,  the  despatch  of  legates  proved  peculiarly 
effective.  The  regulation,  again,  that  the  metropolitans  shouh) 
apply  at  Rome  in  person  for  the  pallium — pronounced  essential 
to  their  qualifications  for  office— served  to  school  them  in 
humility. 

This  battle  for  the  foxmdation  of  papal  omnipotence  within  the 
church  is  connected  with  his  championship  of  compulsory  celibacy 
among  the  clergy  and  his  attack  on  simony.    Gregory  VIL  did 
not  introduce  the  celibacy  of  the  priesthood  into  the  church, 
for  even  in  antiquity  it  was  enjoined  by  numerous  laws. 
He  was  not  even  the  first  pope  to  renew  the  injunction  in  the 
nth  century,  for  legisUtion  on  the  question  begins  as  eariy  as 
in  the  reign  of  Leo  IX.    But  he  took  up  the  struggle  with  greater 
energy  and  persistence  than  his  pxedecessors.     In  1074  be 
published  an  encyclical,  requiring  all  to  renounce  their  obedience 
to  those  bishops  who  showed  indulgence  to  their  clergy  in  the 
matter,  of  celibacy.    In  the  following  year  he  commanded  the 
laity  to  accept  no  official  ministrations  from  married  priests  and 
to  rise  against  all  such.    He  further  deprived  these  clerics  <tf 
their  revenues.    Wherever  these  enactments  were  proclaimed 
they  encountered  tenacious  oppoation,  and  violent  scenes  were 
not  infrequent,  as  the  custom  of  marriage  was  widely  diffused 
throughout  the  contemporary  priesthood.    Other  decrees  were 
issued  by  Gregory  in  subsequent  years,  but  were  now  couched  in 
milder  terms,  since  it  was  no  part  of  his  interest  to  increase  the 
numbers  of  the  German  faction.    As  to  the  objectionable  nature 
of  simony — the  transference  or  acquisition  of  a  ^iritnal  office 
for  monetary  considerations — ^no  doubt  could  exist  in  the  miod 
of  an  earnest  Christian,  and  no  theoretical  justification  was 
ever  attempted.     The  practice,  however,  had  attained  great 
dimensions  both  among  the  clergy  and  the  laity,  and  the  sharp 
campaign,  which  had  been  waged  since  the  days  of  Leo  IX.,  bad 
done  little  to  limit  its  scope.    The  reason  was  that  in  many 
cases  it  had  assumed  aa  extremely  subtle  form,  and  deteaioa 
was  difficult  when  the  simony  took  the  character  of  a  tax  or  an 
honorarium.    The  fact,  again,  that  lay  investiture  was  described 
as  simony,  inevitably  brought  with  it  an  element  of  confusiont 
and,  in  the  case  of  a  charge  of  simoniacal  practices,  enonnously 
accentuates  the  difficulty  of  determining  the  actual  state  ai 
affairs.    The  war  against  simony  in  its  original  form  was  uo- 
doubtedly  necessary,  but  it  led  to  highly  complicated  and  pro- 
blematic issues.    Was  the  priest  or  bi^op,  whose  ordination  was 
due  to  simony,  actually  in  the  possessbn  of  the  sacerdotal  or 
episcopal  power  or  not?  If  the  answer  was  in  the  affinnattvc, 
it  wotdd  seem  possible  to  buy  the  Holy  Ghost;  if  in  the  negative, 
then  obviously  all  the  official  acts  of  the  respective  pri^  <ff 
bishop — which,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  the  church,  pre- 
supposed the  possession  of  a  spiritual  quality — were  invalid. 
And,  since  the  number  of  simoniacal  bishops  was  at  that  peiicd 
extremely  large,  incalculable  consequences  resulted.    The  diffi- 
culty of  the  problem  accounts  for  the  diversity  of  solutiocs 
propounded.    The  perplexity  of  the  situation  was  aggravated 
by  the  fact  that,  if  the  stricter  view  was  adopted,  it  foUowed  that 
the  sacrament  of  ordination  must  be  pronounced  invalid,  eves 
in  the  cases  where  it  had  been  unconsciously  sought  at  the  hands 
of  a  simoniac,  for  the  dispenser  was  in  point  of  fact  no  histtcp^ 
although  he  exercised  the  episcopal  functions  and  his  traiis^ 
gressions  were  unknown,  and  consequently  it  was  impossible  fa: 
him  to  ordain  others.    In  the  time  of  Gregory  the  conflict  was 
still  swaying  to  and  fro,  and  he  himself  in  1078  declared  oooseaa- 
tion  by  a  simoniac  null  and  void. 

The  pontificate  of  Gregory  VIL  came  to  a  mdancholy  dose, 
for  he  died  an  exile  in  Salerno;  the  Romans  and  a  numbtf  of  his 
most  trusted  coadjutors  had  renounced  him,  and  the  faithful 
band  in  Germany  had  shrunk  to  scant  pr(^>ortions>    Tbo  ai^h 


GREGORY  (POPES) 


the  poUtidan,  too  rough  in  his  methodsi'too  exclusively  the 
representative  of  the  Roman  see  and  its  interests,  he  had  gained 
more  enemies  than  friends.  He  was  of  course  a  master  of  state- 
craft; he  had  pursued  political  ends  with  consummate  skill, 
causing  them  to  masquerade  as  requirements  of  religion;  but 
he  forgot  that  incitement  to  civil  war,  the  preaching  of  rebellion, 
and  the  release  of  subjects  from  their  oaths,  were  methods  which 
must  infallibly  lead  to  moral  anarchy,  and  tend,  with  justice,  to 
stifle  the  conGdence  once  felt  in  him.  The  more  he  accustomed 
his  contemporaries  to  the  belief  that  any  and  every  measure — 
so  long  as  it  opened  up  some  prospect  of  success — was  good  in  His 
sight,  no  matter  how  dangerous  the  fruits  it  might  mature,  the 
fainter  grew  their  perception  of  the  fact  that  he  was  not  only  a 
statesman  but  primarily  the  head  of  the  Christian  Church.  That 
the  frail  bonds  of  piety  and  religious  veneration  for  the  chair  of 
St  Peter  had  given  way  in  the  struggle  for  power  was  obvious 
to  «dl,  when  he  himself  lost  that  power  and  the  star  of  hbopponent 
was  in  the  ascendant.  He  had  given  the  rein  to  his  splendid 
gifts  as  a  ruler,  and  in  his  capacity  of  pope  he  omitted  to  provide* 
an  equivalent  counterpoise. '  We  »re  told  that  he  was  once  an 
impressive  preacher,  and  he  could  write  to  hb  faithful  countesses 
in  terms  which  prove  that  he  was  not  wanting  in  religious  feeling; 
but  in  the  whirlpool  of  secular  politics  this  phase  of  his  character 
was  never  sufficiently  developed  to  allow  the  vice-gereht  of 
Christ  to  be  heard  instead  of  the  hierarch  in  his  official  acts. 

But  to  estimate  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  by  the  disasters 
of  its  closing  years  would  be  to  misconceive  its  significance  for 
the  history  of  the  papacy  entirely.  On  the  contrary,  his  reign 
forms  an  important  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  popedom  as  an 
institution;  it  contains  the  germs  of  far-reaching  modifications 
of  the  church,  and  it  gave  new  impulses  to  both  theory  and 
practice,  the  value  of  which  may  indeed  be  differentlyestimated, 
but  of  which  the  effects  are  indubitable.  It  was  he  who  conceived 
and  formulated  the  ideal  of  the  papacy  as  a  structure  embracing 
all  peoples  and  lands.  He  took  the  first  step  towards  the  codifica- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  law  and  the  definite  ratification  of  the  claims 
of  the  apostolic  chair  as  corner-stones  in  the  church's  foundation. 
He  educated  the  clergy  and  the  lay  world  in  obedience  to  Rome; 
and,  finally,  it  was  due  to  his  efforts  that  the  duty  of  the  priest 
with  regard  to  sexual  abstinence  was  never  afterwards  a  matter 
of  doubt  in  the  Catholic  Christianity  of  the  West. 

On  the  asth  of  May  1085  he  died,  unbroken  by  the  misfortunes 
of  his  last  years,  and  unshaken  in  his  self-certainty.  Dilexi 
juslitiam  et  odin  iniquitatem:  propiena  morior  in  exilio—^te  said 
to  have  been  his  last  words.  In  1584  Gregory  XIII.  received  him 
into  the  Mariyrologium  Romanum;  in  1606  he  was  canonized 
by  Paul  V.  The  words  dedicated  to  him  in  the  Breviarium 
Romanum,  for  May  25,  contain  such  an  apotheosis  of  hb  ponti- 
ficate that  in  the  i8th  and  19th  centuries  they  were  prohibited 
by  tht  governments  of  several  countries  with  Roman  Catholic 
p<^ulations. 

Bibliography. — A  comprehensive  survey  of  the  sources  and 
literature  for  the  history  of  Gregory  VII.  is  given  by  C.  Mirbt,  cv. 
"  Grecor  VII."  in  Herzog*HaucK.  ReaJenc^khpadie,  3rd  cd.  vol.  vii. 
pp.  96  iqq.  The  main  source  for  the  reign  of  Gregoiy  consists  of 
ni9  letters  and  decrees,  the  greater  part  of  which  arc  collected  in  the 
Repstntm  (ed.  P.  Jaff£.  BiMiotheca  rerum  Cermanicarum,  ii..  Berlin, 
1865).  The  letters  preserved  in  addition  to  this  official  collection 
are  alto  reprinted  by  Jaffd  under  the  title  of  EpisUdae  colUcUu. 
The  Dktatus  Papae — a  list  dt  twenty-seven  short  sentences  on  the 
rights  of  the  pope, — which  is  given  in  the  Regutrum,  is  not  the  work 
oiGregory  vll.,  but  should  probably  be  ascribed  to  Cardinal  Dcus- 
dcdit.  Further:  A.  Potthast,  BibliothKC  historica  medii  am,  i. 
(2nd  ed.,  Bcriin.  1896).  pp.  541  sq.,  ii.  1351 :  P-  J^ff^*  Regesta  ponti- 
fiemm  (2nd  ed..  186^),  tome  1.  pp.  S94-o49i  Nr-  477<-S^i3.  tome  ii. 
p.  731.  The  most  important  letters  and  decrees  of  Grceory  VII. 
are  reprinted  by  C.  Mirbt.  QueUen  tur  CackickU  des  PapsUums 
(2nd  ted^  TQbinfjen,  1901),  Nr.  183  sqq..  pp.  loo'sqq.  The  oldest 
life  of  Gregory  u  that  by  Paul  von  Bermried,  reprinted,  e.g.  by 
Watterich,  Kt<M  pcniificum,  i.  474-546.  Among  the  historians  the 
following  are  of  especial  importance:  Bcrthold.  Bernold,  Lambert 
von  Henfeld,  Bruno,  Marianus  Scotus.  Leo  of  Ostia,  Peter  of  Marte 
Canino,  Sigebert  of  Gembloux,  Hugo  of  Flavigny.  Amulph  and 
Landnlf  of  Milan,  Donizo — their  works  being  reprinted  in  the  section 
**Scriptores"  in  the  Monumenta  Ctrmaniae  hulorica,  vols,  v.,  vi., 
vii.,  vuL,  xii.    The  struggles  which  broke  out  under  Gregory  VIL 


57J 

and  were  partially  continued  in  the  subsequent  decades  gave  rise  to 
a  pamphlet  literature  which  is  of  extreme  importance  for  their 
internal  history.  The  extant  materials  vary  greatly  in  extent, 
and  display  much  diversity  from  the  literary-historical  point  of  view. 
Most  of  them  are  printed  in  the  MonumetUa  Cermaniae,  under  the 
title.  Libdlide  lite  imperatorum  et  pontiJUum  saeaUts  XI,  et  XII. 
consaipti,  tome  i.  (Hanover.  1801).  tome  ii.  (1892).  tome  iii.  (1897). 
The  scientific  investigation  of  the  Gregorian  age  has  received  enor- 
mous benefit  from  the  critical  editions  of  the  sources  in  the  itemu' 
maOa  Cermaniae,  so  that  the  old  literature  is  for  the  most  part 
antiquated.  This  is  true  even  of  the  great  monograph  on  this  pope 
— A.  F.  GfrArer.  Pa^  Cretorius  Vll.  und  sein  Zeilalter  (7  vols., 
Schaffhausen.  1859-1861^.  which  must  be  used  with  extreme  caution. 
The  Dcesent  state  of  criticism  is  represented  by  the  following  works: 
G.  Meyer  von  Knonau.  JakrbiUherdesdeutsckai  Reicks  unter  Heinrick 
IV,  und  Heinrick  V.,  vol.  L  (Leipzig,  1890),  ii.  (1804).  tti.  (1900).  iv. 
(1903) ;  W.  Martens.  Cregi»r  Vll.,  sein  Leben  und  Werken  (2  vols.. 
Leipzig.  1904);  C.  Mirbt.  Die  PuUiastik  im  Zeitatter  Oregon  VII. 
(Leipzig.  i89d);  A.  Hauck,  Kirehengesckickte  Deutscklands  (3  vols., 
Leipzig,  1894).  The  special  literature  on  individual  events  during 
the  Gregorian  pontificate  b  so  extensive  that  no  list  can  be  given  here. 
On  Gregory's  elevation  to  the  chair,  cf.  C.  Mirbt,  Die  Wakl  Cregors 
VII.  (Marburg.  1802).  See  also  A.  H.  Mathew.  D.D.,  Life  and 
Times  of  HiUebrand,  Pope  Gregory  VIL  (1910).  (C.  M.) 

Gregory  VIII.  (iiauriiius  Bwdinus),  antipope  from  11 18 
to  1121,  was  a  native  of  southern  France,  who  had  crossed  the 
Pyrenees  while  young  and  had  later  been  made  archbbhop  of 
Braga.  Suspended  by  Paschal  II.  in  i  z  14  on  account  of  a  dispute 
with  the  Spanish  primate  and  papal  legate,  the  archbishop  of 
Toledo,  he  went  to  Rome  and  regained  favour  to  such  an  extent 
that  he  was  employed  .by  the  pope  on  important  legations.  He 
opposed  the  extreme  Hildebrandine  policy,  and,  on  the  refusal 
of  Gelasius  II.  to  concede  the  emperor's  claim  to  investiture, 
he  was  proclaimed  pope  at  Rome  by  Henry  V.  on  the  8th  of 
March  11 18.  He  was  not  universally  recognized,  however,  and 
never  fully  enjoyed  the  papal  office.  He  was  excommunicated 
by  Gelasius  II.  in  April  1118,  and  by  Calixtus  II.  at  the  synod 
of  Reims  (October  11 19).  He  was  driven  from  Rome  by  the 
latter  in  June  11 21,  and,  having  been  surrendered  by  the  citizens 
of  Sutri,  he  wa<  forced  to  accompany  in  ridiculous  guise  the 
triumphal  procession  of  Calixtus  through  Rome.  He  was  exiled 
to  the  convent  of  La  Cava,  where  he  died. 

The  life  of  Gregory  VIII.  by  Baluzius  in  BaluxH  miscdlanea, 
vol.  I .  ed.  by  J.  D.  Mansi  (Lucca.  1 761 ),  is  an  excellent  vindication  of 
an  antipope.  The  chief  sources  are  in  Monumenta  Cermaniae 
historica,  Scriptores,  vols.  5  and  20,  and  in  J.  M.  Watterich,  Pontif. 
Roman,  vitae,  vol.  2.  See  C.  Mirbt.  Die  Publizistik  im  Zeilalter 
Cregors  VIL  (Leipzig,  1894);  I.  Langen,  Gesckickte  der  rdmiscken 
Kircke  von  Cregor  VIL  bts  Innocent  III.  (Bonn.  1893);  Jaff6, 
Regesta  pontif.  Roman.,  2nd  ed.,  (1885-1888):  K.  J.  von  Hcfclc. 
Concilienieschickte,  Bd.  5.  and  ed.;  F.  Gregorovius,  Rome  in  Ike 
Middle  Ages,  vol.  4.  trans,  by  Mrs  G.  W.  Hamilton  (London. 
1900-1902);  P.  B.  Gams,  Kirckengesckichle  von  Spamien,  vol  3 
(Rcgensburg,  1876). 

Gregory  VIII.  (Alberto  de  Mora),  pope  from  the  21st  of 
October  to  the  17th  of  December  1187,  \a  native  of  Benevcnto 
and  Praemonstratensian  monk,  successively  abbot  of  St  Martin 
at  Laon,  cardinal-deacon  of  San'  Adriano  al  foro,  cardinal-priest 
of  San  Lorenzo  in  Lucina,  and  chancellor  of  the  Roman  Church, 
was  elected  to  succeed  Urban  III.  Of  amiable  dbposition,  he 
hastened  to  make  peace  with  Henry  VI.  and  promised  not  to 
oppose  the  latter's  claim  to  Sicily.  He  addressed  general  letters 
both  to  the  bbhops,  reminding  them  of  their  duties  to  the 
Roman  Church,  especially  of  their  required  vbits  ad  limina, 
and  to  the  whole  Chrbtian  people,  urging  a  new  crusade  to 
recover  Jerusalem.  He  died  at  Pisa  while  engaged  in  making 
peace  between  the  Pisans  and  Genoese  in  order  to  secure  the 
help  of  both  cities  in  the  crusade.  Hb  successor  was  Clement  III. 

His  letters  are  in  J.  P.  Migne,  Palrcl.  Lai.  vol.  202.  Consult  also 
J.  M.  Watterich.  Pontif.  Roman,  vitae,  vol.  2  (Leipzig.  1862).  and 
laff^Wattenbach,  Regesta  Pontif.  Roman.  (1885-1888).  See  J. 
Langen,  Cesckickte  der  r6miscken  Kircke  von  Cregor  VII.  bis  Innocens 
III.  (Bonn.  1893):  P.  Nadig,  Cregors  VIII.  SJtagiges  Pontifikal 
(Basel,  1890);  P.  Scheffer-Boichorst.  Friedricks  I.  Utxier  Streit  mil 
der  Kurie  (Berlin.  1866) ;  F.  Gregorovius.  Rome  in  Ike  Middle  Ages, 
voL  4.  trans,  by  Mrs  G.  W.  Hamilton  (London,  1896). 

Gregory  DC.  {Ugotino  Conti  de  Segni),  pope  from  the  19th  of 
March  1^27,  to  the  asnd  of  August  1241,  was  a  nobleman  of 
Anagni  and  probably  a  nq>hcw  of  Innocent  III.    He  studied 


GREGORY  (POPES) 


at  Pufi  ind  Bologni,  ukI,  hiving  been  succcuivety  arcbpdeit 
of  5t  Peter's,  papilctuplaJn.c&rdinaL-deuon  oESut'  Euicachjo, 
arduul-bubop  oJ  Ostil.  tbe  fial  proteclOT  of  tbc  Fnociican 
order,  tod  papal  legate  in  Gtcnany  under  loDoceat  III.,  and 
Honoriuj  III.,  he  lucceeded  the  latter  in  the  papacy.  He  had  long 
been  on  (tiendiy  tern*  with  the  emperor  Frederick  II.,  but  now 
acomnuintcated  him  (>glh  of  September  1117)  for  continued 
negJect  of  his  vows  and  refusal  to  undertake  the  crusade.  When 
Frederick  finally  srt  out  the  foJJowing  June  without  making 
Buhmission  to  the  pope,  Gregory  raised  an  insurrection  against 
him  in  Germany,  and  forced  him  in  iijo  to  bet  for  abwlution. 
The  Romans,  howevtr,  mod  begin  a  very  hitler  wit  ig>'i')'  the 
lemporil  power  ind  exiled  the  pope  fist  of  June  itji).  Hardly 
had  ibis  contest  been  brought  toan  end  favourable  10  ihe  papacy 
(May  113s)  *henGregoiycameinto  fresh  conlUct  with  Frederick 
II.  He  again  ncommunicalcd  the  emperor  and  released  his 
tubjeclsfmm  their  allegiance  (j«ih  ol  March  ii]o).  Frederick, 
on  his  iide,  invaded  the  Papal  Stain  and  prevented  (he  asscn- 
bling  of  a  general  council  convoked  for  Easier  1941.  The  work 
of  Gregory,  hoviever,  was  by  no  means  limited  to  his  telalions 
with  emperor  and  Romans.'  He  systematiaed  the  Inqubition 
and  cntnisled  it  to  the  Dooiinicaos;  his  rules  igilnit  hneiira 
remained  in  (orne  until  (he  time  of  Siitus  V.  He  supported 
Heniy  III.  against  (he  English  baroni,  and  pioteslcd  against 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Louis  IX.  of  Fniice.  He  sent 
monks  to  Constantinople  lo  negoliale  with  the  Greeks  for  church 
unity,  but  without  result.  He  canoniied  Sainls  Elizabeth  of 
Thuringii,  Dominic.  Amhony  of  Fadua  and  Francis  of  Aasisi. 
He  permitted  free  study  of  the  Aristotelian  wrilingi,  and  iuued 
Ci>34),  through  his  chaplain,  Raymond  of  Pennaforte,  an 
important  new  compilation  ol  decretals  which  he  prescribed  in 
the  bull  Ra  tatificnt  should  be  the  sundard  leit-book  in  catun 
law  at  the  univeniiiet  of  Bologna  and  Paris.  Gregory  was 
famed  for  his  learning  and  eloquence,  his  blameless  life,  and  his 
great  atrength  of  character.  He  tiled  on  the  sind  of  August 
1741,  while  Frederick  II.  waa  advancing  against  him,  and  wu 
nicceeded  by  Celestine  IV. 
Fur  the  lile  of  Crtxory  IX.,  consult  hit  Letters  in  Vnimuitla 

Hlitut  (Berlin.  iBS.]^'-I.ei  Reiistrei  de  Grteolre  IX."  cd.  l! 
Auvny  In  BMialU^M  ta  tola  jmnviiui  d-Atiiiii  il  dc  Kdw 
(i^ris.  lBgO-1005)^  A.  Ponhait.  StftiU  tmhi.  Reman.  (BiTlin. 
iSiil  .nd  "  Rxiluri  cM  r-indinili  LTtolinii  d'  Osiii  »  OiiavUno 
il  Fnli  firr  la  ilaria  i'  Italia  (1890). 


t.  Felwn.  Popa  C»(ir  IX.  (Freiburf 
Vila  CrttuH  tX.  jiir----  -' 

'u'idiarAKI.yo}.  J,  trani.  by  AiX 
'    H.  HTMilmia,  Lalin  CknUi 


Hamilton  (LoiHlon,  1900-1001):  H.  H.  Milmia,  Lalin  Ctnilianily. 
vol  J  (London,  ■a9«}i  R.  Honig,  Fatptli  Ira  ft^rUa  II  4 
Crntrie  IX  nsfrlltaOa  ifrdiaoiu  in  Pabitiia  (i««6);  P.  T. 
Maviii.  /  Fimufiti  Oiofio  III.  Griiorit  IX  ti  l*»Ktna  IV  • 
(tnu  itW  Impnalort  FBliria  If  m  itctta  XIII  (i«84ll  T. 
FuMi.  Dir  imu  Kamff  itniittn  Kaiitrliim  ■.  PapHlum  tar  Zril 
del  MiAaaUnUn  Ffitdrak  II.  (Berlis,  1901):  W.  Norden.  Dat 
Papulim  K.  JB»gu  (Beriin.  1903).  An  eiEiunive  biMioftapby 
and  an  cxcellml  article  oa  Gregory  by  Cart  Mirbl  an  la  be  found  in 
Hauck's  KtalaeyUiliidil.  yd  editioB. 

GaccoayX.  (reiaUa  l'ti[giili),popetromIhei  si  of  September 
1171,  to  Ihe  10th  of  January  1176,  was  born  at  Piiceuain  iioS, 
studied  for  tbe  church,  and  became  archdeacon  of  Li^c.  The 
eighteen  cardinals  who  met  lo  elect  1  successor  to  Clement  IV. 
were  divided  into  French  and  Iialiin  factiont.  which  wrangled 
over  the  election  for  nearly  three  yean  in  the  midst  of  great 
popular  eidteoieiit,  until  finally,  stirred  by  the  eloquence  of  St 
Bonaventura.  Ihe  FcaodKaD  monk,  they  entrusted  Ihe  choice 
to  ^  electDis,  who  hit  on  Visconti,  at  ihat  time  accompanying 


on  the  17th.     He  at  once  s 

council  ol  the  Cathdic  Chur 

with  an  atiendance  of  some 

considering  the  euutn  schism,  the  condition  ol 

and  Ihc  abuses  in  Ihc  church.     The  Greeks 

the  tiae  beiug,  and  Rudolph  of  Hababuig  ri 


Gregory  was  the 
lemained  ever  til 


clions,  which  in  large  m 


nessolagre 

at  mission 

He  has  been 

as  a  saint  by  the 

nhabilants 

of  Ateuo 

and  Piacen 

a.     His 

.  iTlti^  Tp^L 

>.'.■  t^,  j. 

Ti'^'-yi 

F.nl<..  A- 

L-'  ",'■ ''.' 

'^2T\m 

^V^L 

''"'fun  ... 

■i¥^x^£ 

's'/J^/a^, 

r^5.  tj 

«.  Il.^^f.   „. 

'/,;■ 

ij);    A    ZUltiK. 

c. 

Sr' 

'.™_^^ 

■d-.-^i.trc 

Zidi. 

,  Lo«-'nh. 

Akten  ijbe 

in  An^'xr*.,; 

«L     (.89S| 

Hi^ch-Cr-ru 

h.     "Die 

Grrjo™  X." 

ft«*.J.X-« 

stv. 

:!U^f^j: 

ckwlss 

GaECOBV 

XI.  (Pier, 

&ier  it  Bayfarl),  pope  from  tbe  jolh 

of  Decembf 

IJJD  to  lb 

.;lholM 

rch  1378, 

n  ij30,cr< 

aledcardi 

al-deacon  o 

SlaMar 

»  Nuov,  by  hi. 

uncle,  Clem 

nl  VI.,  wai 

the  success 

or  of  Urban  V.   Hb  eSoiti 

Eaaiem  Christians  against  the  Turks  were  fmiilcss.  bin  hi 
prevented  Ihe  Visconti  of  Milan  from  m^klns  further  encmch 
menta  00  (he  Slates  of  (he  Church.  He  iotioduttd  uunj 
reforma  in  the  various  monastic  orders  and  took  vigorov 
meisuiti  against  .(be  heresies  of  the  time.  His  eneigy  n: 
stimulated  by  (he  stirring  words  of  Catherine  of  Siena,  to  whan 
in  panicutat  the  itinaterence  of  (he  papal  see  back  10  lial) 
(17th  of  January  ijj?)  was  almost  enlirely  due.  Whilit  «■ 
Rome  he  issued  several  bulls  to  the  atihbiilioo  of  Cantcrburv 
theli 


ofE 

glan 

.an 

(be  unive 

Tily  of  Oafori 

■gali 

nofWydiBe'tdoctn 

nes.  Cicgory* 

asmediiillu 

oAv 

gno 

whe 

he  died. 

■fe  was  the  last  of  the  French 

10  tor 

my  years 

ad  made  Avignon  their  see. 

and 

ical  for  I 

e  church,  but 

iresoluIcsiKl 

The 

great  tchis 

m.  which  wu 

0  endure  fifiy 

keoi 

r  I  he  elect 

nofhissuccei 

J.  .7 

maa 

111,  ' 

DieBejiB 

er  u.  Srcrelire 

UrhiB  V.  I 

xUiUibriilUiiit  U»9»)]  BSadat.  Vtlgt faf.  Aenim.  ml  I  (Pini. 
l69l}:llPaitor.i/iil»'yt>/Uli'<>pcJ,VDiri.trari.byF.  lAnliLiiwi 
ILoiukM.  1690)1  F.  Cret«oviiii.  Xamr  u  Ikt  UuUU  Arri.  vsl.  6. 
trao9.byMrtC.W.  Hamilton  (London.  1900-1901);  J.V.KjisI. 
Dh  Riittttr  in  PipM  (Man  V.  >.  Cittt'  XI.  con  Jufhi  wl 
Ksm  (Paderbotn,  iHtg):  J.  B.'Chrittoptae.  IHiUirt  i,  U  Mfnu' 
a»ia.f  k  XIV  .ad,,  wf.  I  (Pari..  lajj).  There  It  a  goodanitk 
by  3.  N.  BriKhar  in  the  KirittiUaami.  and  edition. 

GucMjiy  XII.  (Anfh  Cariare,  or  Currtr).  pope  from  the 
joth  of  November  1406,  to  the  4th  of  July  t4ts,  was  boin  of  a 
noble  family  at  Venice  about  iji6.  Succesiivdy  bisbop  d 
Castello,  Latin  patriarch  of  Const  anlinople,  cardinai-prior  of 
San  Marco,  and  papal  secretaty,  he  was  elected  (0  succeed 
Innocent  VII.,  after  an  interregnum  al  twenty-four  days,  umfci 
the  enpresa  condition  that,  should  the  inlipope  Benedict  Xlll- 
>l  Avignon  renounce  *I!  claim  lo  the  papacy,  he  also  wwld 
renounce  his,  m  that  the  long  schism  might  be  termiDSinl 
As  pope,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  bis  rival  it  Mirteillck  by 
ich  a  general  council  was  to  be  held  at  Savona  in  Septemtci, 
"  '    '  "■      '     •-  •         .  -.     I         »    t^>poaed  ihepbnfma 


policy. 


J t  King  Ladislau 


and  hcDughi  Ihe  » 
140S,  his  former  cardinals  d 


GREGORY  (POPES) 


Pisa,  which,  despite  its  irregularity,  proclaimed  in  June  1409 

the  deposition  of  both  popes  and  the  election  of  Alexander  V. 

Gregory,  still  supported  by  Naples,  Hungary,  Bavaria,  and  by 

Rupert,  king  of  the  Romans,  found  protection  with  Ladislaus, 

and  in  a  synod  at  Cividale  del  Friuli  banned  Benedict  and 

Alexander  as  schismatical,   perjured  and  scandalous.    John 

XXIXL,  having  succeeded  to  the  claims  of  Alexander  in  Z410, 

conduded  a  treaty  with  Ladislaus,  by  which  Gregory  was 

banished  from  Naples  on  the  31st  of  October  141 1.   The  pope 

then  took  refuge  with  Carlo  Malatcsta,  lord  of  Rimini,  through 

whom  he  presented  his  resignation  to  the  council  of  Constance 

on  the  4th  of  July  1415.  A  weak  and  easily-influenced  old  man, 

his  resignation  was  the  noblest  act  of  his  pontificate.     The 

rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  peaceful  obscurity  as  cardinal-bishop 

of  Porto  and  legate  of  the  mark  of  Ancona.  He  died  at  Recanati 

on. the  1 8th  of  October  141 7.  Some  writers  reckon  Alexander  V. 

and  John  XXIII.  as  popes  rather  than  as  antipopes,  and  accord- 

iogly  count  Gregory's  pontificate  from  1406  to  1409.    Roman 

Catholic  authorities,  however,  incline  to  the  other  reckoning. 

See  L.  Patter.  History  of  the  Popes,  vol.  i.,  trans,  by  F.  I.  Antrobus 
(London,  1890);  M.  Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy,  vol.  1 
(London,  1899):  N.  Valois,  La  Prance  et  le  grand  schisme  (fouident 
(Paris,    1896-1902);   Louis  Gayct,   Le  Grand  Schisme  d'occident 


(Paris.  1898):  J.  von  Haller.  Patsttum  u.  Kirchenreform  (Berlin. 
roojX;  J.  Loscrth,  Ceschichte  des  spdteren  MittetaUers  (ipo^): 
Thnderui  do  Syem  de  schismate  libri  tres,  cd.  by  G.  Erlcr  (Leipzig. 


1 890).    There  is  an  excellent  article  by  J.  N.  Brischar  in  the  Kirchen- 
lextkon  2nd  cd..  vol.  5.  (C.  H.  Ha.) 

Gregory  XIII.  (Ugo  Buoncompagno)^  pope  from  1572  to  1585, 
was  born  on  the  7th  of  January  1502,  in  Bologna,  where  he 
received  his  education,  and  subsequently  taught,  until  called 
to  Rome  (1539)  by  Paul  III.,  who  employed  him  in  various 
offices.  He  bore  a  prominent  part  in  the  council  of  Trent,  1562- 
1563.  In  1564  he  was  made  cardinal  by  Pius  IV.,  and,  in  the 
following  year,  sent  to  Spain  as  legate.  On  the  13th  of  May 
1572  he  was  chosen  pope  to  succeed  Pius  V.  His  previous  life 
had  been  rather  worldly,  and  not  wholly  free  from  spot;  but 
as  pope  he  gave  no  occasion  of  offence.  He  submitted  to  the 
infhience  of  the  rigorists,  and  carried  forward  the  war  upon 
heresy,  though  not  with  the  savage  vehemence  of  his  predecessor. 
However,  he  received  the  news  of  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew 
(23rd  of  August  1572)  with  joy,  and  publicly  celebrated  the 
event,  having  been  led  to  beUcve,  according  to  his  apologists, 
that  France  had  been  miraculously  delivered,  and  that  the 
Huguenots  had  suffered  justly  as  traitors.  Having  failed  to  rouse 
Spain  and  Venice  against  the  Turks,  Gregory  attempted  to  form 
a  general  coalition  against  the  Protestants.  He  subsidized 
Philip  II.  in  his  wars  in  the  Netherlands;  aided  the  Catholic 
League  in  France;  incited  attacks  upon  Elizabeth  by  way  of 
Ireland.  With  the  aid  of  the  Jesuits,  whose  privileges  he  multi- 
plied, he  conducted  a  vigorous  propaganda.  He  established 
or  endowed  above  a  score  of  colleges,  among  them  the  Collegium- 
Romanum  (founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola  in  1550),  and  the 
Collegium  Gcrmanicum,  in  Rome.  Among  his  noteworthy 
achievements  are  the  reform  of  the  calendar  on  the  24th  of 
February  1582  (se«  Calendar);  the  improved  edition  of  the 
Corpus  juris  canonici,  1582;  the  splendid  Gregorian  Chapel 
in  St  Peter's;  the  fountains  of  the  Piazza  Navona;  the  (^irinal 
Palace;  and  many  other  public  works.  To  meet  the  expenses 
entailed  by  his  liberality  and  extravagance,  Gregory  resorted 
to  confiscation,  on  the  pretext  of  defective  titles  or  long-standing 
arrearages.  The  result  was  disastrous  to  the  public  peace: 
nobles  armed  in  their  defence;  old  feuds  revived;  the  country 
became  infested  with  bandits;  not  even  in  Rome  could  order  be 
maintained.  Amid  these  disturbances  Gregory  died,  on  the  loth 
o7  April  1585,  leaving  to  his  successor,  Sixtus  V.,  the  task  of 

pacifying  the  state. 

Sec  the  contemporary  lives  by  Cicarella,  continuator  of  Ptatina, 
Do  vitis  pontiff.  Pom.;  Ciaconius,   Vitae  et  res  testae  summorum 
\l  — 


pontiff.  Kom.  iRome.  1601-1602);  and  Ciappi,  Comp.  deU*  attioni 
e  sania  tHa  di  Gregorio  XIII  (Rome,  1591).    See  also  Bompiano. 


rre^orya 
Co  the  naaaacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  CamMdit  Mod,  HtsL  lii.  771  leq. 


575 

Grecory  XIV.  {Nicoid  Sfondrato),  pope  1590-1591,  was  born 
in  Cremona,  on  the  nth  of  February  1535,  studied  in  Perugia, 
and  Padua,  became  bishop  of  his  native  place  in  1560,  and  took 
part  in  the  council  of  Trent,  1 562-1 563.  Gregory  XIII.  made 
him  a  cardinal,  1583,  but  ill-health  forbade  his  active  participa- 
tion in  affairs.  His  election  to  the  papacy,  to  succeed  Urbair  VIL, 
on  the  5th  of  December  1590,  was  due  to  Spanish  influence. 
Gregory  was  upright  and  devout,  but  utterly  ignorant  of  politics. 
During  his  short  pontificate  the  States  of  the  Church  suffered 
dire  calamities,  famine,  epidemic  and  a  fresh  outbreak  of  brigand- 
age. Gregory  was  completely  subservient  to  Philip  II.;  he 
aided  the  league,  excommunicated  Henry  of  Navarre,  and 
threatened  his  adherents  with  the  ban;  but  the  effect  of  his 
intervention  was  only  to  rally  the  moderate  Catholics  to  the 
support  of  Henry,  and  to  hasten  his  conversion.  Gregory  died 
on  the  15th  of  October  1591,  aind  was  succeeded  by  Innocent  IX. 

See  Ciaconius,  Vitae  et  res  gestae  summorum  Pontiff.  Rom.  (Rome, 
1601-1602) :  Cicarella,  continuator  of  Platina,  De  vtlis  pontiff.  Rom. 
(both  contemporary) ;  Broach, Gesck. des  Kirckenstaates  (i88o),L300: 
Ranke,  Popes  (Eng.  trans.,  Austin),  iL.  228  seq. 

Gregory  XV.  {Alessandro  Ludovisi)  was  bom  on  the  9th  of 

January  2554,  in  Bologna,  where  he  also  studied  and  taught. 

He  was  made  archbishop  of  his  native  place  and  cardinal  by 

Paul  v.,  whom  he  succeeded  as  pope  on  the  9th  of  February  162 1 . 

Despite  his  age  and  feebleness,  Gregory  displayed  remarkable 

energy.    He  aided  the  emperor  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and 

the  king  of  Poland  against  the  Turks.  He  endorsed  the  daims 

of  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  to  the  electoral  dignity,  and  was 

rewarded  with  the  gift  of  the  Heidelberg  library,  which  was 

carried  off  to  Rome.   Gregory  founded  the  Congregation  of  the 

Propaganda,  encouraged  missions,  fixed  the  order  to  be  observed 

in  conclaves,  and  canonized  Ignatius  Loyola,  Francis  Xavier, 

Philip  Neri  and  Theresa  de  Jesus.   He  died  on  the  8th  of  July 

1623,  and  was  succeeded  by  Urban  VIIL 

See  the  contemporary  life  by  VitorclH,  continuator  of  Ciaconius. 
Vitae  et  res  gestae  summorum  pontiff.  Rom.;  Ranke's  excellent 
account.  Popes  (Eng.  trans..  Austm),  ii.  468  scq. ;  v.  Reumont.  Gesck. 
der  StadI  Rom,  iii.  2,  609  scq.:  Brosch.  Gesch.  des  Kirckenstaates 
(1880).  i.  370  seq.;  and  the  extended  bibliography  in  Herzog-Hauck, 
ReaUncyUopddU,  s.v.  "  Grcgor  XV."  (T.  F.  C.) 

Gregory  XVI.  {BarUdommco  Alberto  Capprllari),  pope  from 
1 83 1  to  1846,  was  bom  at  Belluno  on  the  i8th  of  September  1 765, 
and  at  an  early  age  entered  the  order  of  the  Camaldoli,  among 
whom  be  rapidly  gained  distinction  for  his  theological  and 
linguistic  acquirements.  His  first  appearance  before  a  wider 
public  was  in  1799,  when  he  published  against  the  Italian 
Jansenists  a  controversial  work  entitled  //  Trionjo  ddia  Sauta 
Scde,  which,  besides  passing  through  several  editions  in  Italy, 
has  been  translated  into  several  European  knguages.  In  1800 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  the  Catholic  Religion, 
founded  by  Pius  VII.,  to  which  he  contributed  a  number  of 
memoirs  on  theological  and  philosophical  questions  and  in  1805 
was  made  abbot  of  San  Gregorio  on  the  Caelian  Hill.  When 
Pius  VII.  was  carried  off  from  Rome  in  1809,  Cappellari  withdrew 
to  Murano,  near  Vem'ce,  and  in  1814,  with  some  other  members 
of  his  order,  he  removed  to  Padua;  but  soon  after  the  restoration 
of  the  pope  he  was  recalled  to  Rome,  where  he  received  successive 
appointments  as  vicar-gcncral  of  the  Camaldoli,  councillor  of  the 
Inquisition,  prefect  of  the  Propaganda,  and  exanuner  of  bishops. 
In  March  1825  he  was  created  cardinal  by  Leo  XII.,  and  shortly 
afterwards  was  entrusted  with  an  important  mission  to  adjust 
a  concordat  regarding  the  interests  of  the  Catholics  of  Belgium 
and  the  Protestants  of  Holland.  On  the  2nd  of  February  1831 
he  was,  after  sixty-four  days'  conclave,  unexpectedly  chosen  to 
succeed  Pius  VIIL  in  the  papal  chair.  The  revolution  of  1830 
had  just  inflicted  a  severe  blow  on  the  ecclesiastical  party  in 
France,  and  almost  the  first  act  of  the  new  government  there 
was  to  seize  Ancona,  thus  throwing  all  Italy,  and  particularly 
the  Papal  States,  into  an  excited  condition  which  seemed  to 
demand  strongly  repressive  measures..  In  the  course  <rf  the 
struggle  which  ensued  it  was  more  than  once  necessary  to  call 
in  the  Austrian  bayonets.  The  reactionaries  in  power  put 
off  their  promised  reforms  so  persistently  as  to  anger  eveti 


576 


GREGORY 


Metternich;  nor  did  the  replacement  of  Bemetti  by  Lambruschini 
in  1836  mend  matters;  for  the  new  cardinal  secretary  of  state 
objected  even  to  railways  and  illuminating  gas,  and  was  liberal 
chiefly  in  his  employment  of  spies  and  of  prisons.  The  embar 
rassed  financial  condition  in  which  Gregory  left  the  States  of  the 
Church  makes  it  doubtful  how  far  his  lavish  expenditure  in 
architectural  and  engineering  works,  and  his  magnificent  patron- 
ageof  learning  in  the  handsof  Mai, Mezzofanti,Caetano,  Moroni 
and  others,  were  for  the  real  benefit  of  his  subjects.  The  years 
of  his  pontificate  were  marked  by  the  steady  development  and 
diffusion  of  those  ultramontane  ideas  which  were  ultimately 
formulated,  under  the  presidency  of  his  successor  Pius  IX.,  by 
the  council  of  the  Vatican.  He  died  on  the  ist  of  June  1846. 

See  A.  M.  Bernasconi,  Acta  Cregorii  Papae  XVI.  scilicet  constiiu- 
tiones,  bullae,  liUeroe  apoitolicae,  episUdae,  vols.  1-4  (Rome,  tool  ff.) ; 
Cardinal  Wiseman,  Recollections  of  the  Last  Four  Po^s  (London, 
1858);  Herzog-Hauck.  Realencyklopddie,  vol.  vii.  (Leipzig.  1899).  127 
t!.  (gives  literature);  Frcdcrik  Nielsen,  History  of  the  Papacy  in  the 
19th  Century,  ii.  (London.  1906).  (W.  W.  R.*) 

GREGORY,^  the  name  of  a  Scottish  family,  many  members 
of  which  attained  high  eminence  in  various  depart  ments  of  science, 
fourteen  having  held  professorships  in  mathematics  or  medicine. 
Of  the  most  distinguished  of  their  number  a  notice  is  given 
below. 

I.  David  Gregory  (16  2  7- 17  20),  eldest  son  of  the  Rev.  John 
Gregory  of  Drumoak,  Aberdeenshire,  who  married  Janet 
Anderson  in  162 1.  He  was. for  some  time  connected  with  a 
mercantile  house  in  Holland,  but  on  succeeding  to  the  family 
estate  of  Kinardie  returned  to  Scotland,  and  occupied  most  of  his 
time  in  scientific  pursuits,  freely  giving  his  poorer  neighbours  the 
benefit  of  his  medical  skill.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
possessor  of  a  barometer  in  the  north  of  Scotland;  and  on 
account  of  his  success  by  means  of  it  in  predicting  changes  in 
the  weather,  he  was  accused  of  witchcraft  before  the  presbytery 
of  Aberdeen,  but  he  succeeded  in  convincing  that  body  of  his 
innocence. 

IL  James  Gregory  (1638-1675),  Scottish  mathematician, 

younger  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  educated  at  the  grammar 

school  of  Aberdeen  and  at  Marischal  College  of  that  city.  At  an 

early  period  he  manifested  a  strong  inclination  and  capacity  for 

mathematics  and  kindred  sciences;  and  in  1663  he  published  his 

famous  treatise  Optica  promota,  in  which  he  made  known  his 

great  invention,  the  Gregorian  reflecting  telescope.  About  1665 

he  went  to  the  university  of  Padua,  where  he  studied  for  some 

years,  and  in  1667  published  Vera  circuli  et  hyperbolae  quadra- 

turOf  in  which  he  discussed  infinite  convergent  series  for  the  areas 

of  the  circle  and  hyperbola.  In  the  following  year  he  published 

also  at  Padua  Geometriae  pars  universalis,  in  which  he  gave 

a  series  of  rules  for  the  rectification  of  curves  and  the  mensuration 

of  their  solids  of  revolution.   On  his  return  to  England  in  this 

year  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society;  in  1669  he 

became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  university  of  St  Andrews; 

and  in  1674  he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  mathematics  in 

Edinburgh.    In  October  1675,  while  showing  the  satellites  of 

the  planet  Jupiter  to  some  of  his  students  through  one  of  his 

telescopes,  he  was  suddenly  struck  with  blindness,  and  he  died 

a  few  days  afterwards. 

He  was  also  the  author  of  Exerdtationes  geomelricae  (1668}.  and, 
it  is  alleged,  of  a  satirical  tract  entitled  Tne  Great  and  New  Art  of 
Weighing  Vanity,  intended  to  ridicule  certain  fallacies  of  a  con- 
temporarv  writer  on  hydraulics,  and  published  at  Glasgow  in  1672, 

trofcssedly  by  "  Patrick  Mathers,  archbeadle  of  the  university  of 
t  Andrews.*' 

III.  David  Gregory  (1661-1708),  son  of  David  Gregory 
(1627-1720),  was  bom  in  Aberdeen  and  educated  partly  in  his 
native  city  and  partly  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  became  professor 
of  mathematics  in  1683.  From  1691  till  his  death  he  was  Savilian 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford.  His  principal  works  are 
ExerciUUio  geomeirica  de  dimensianefigurarum  (1684),  Catoptricae 
el  diopiricae  sphaericae  demerUa  (1695),  and  Aslronomiae 
physicae  et  geomelricae  elemcnla  (1702) — the  last  a  work 
highly  esteemed  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  of  whose  system  it  is  an 
illustration  and  a  defence.  A  Treatise  on  Practical  Geometry 
■  See  A.  G.  Stewart,  The  Academic  Cregories. 


which  he  left  in  manuscript  was  translated  from  the  Latin 
and  published  in  1745.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  chair  of  mathe- 
matics in  Edinburgh  by  his  brother  Jam»;  another  brother, 
Charles,  was  in  1707  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
university  of  St  Andrews;  and  his  eldest  son,  David  (i6g6- 
1767),  became  professor  of  modem  history  at  Oxford,  and  canoo 
and  subsequently  dean  of  Christ  Church. 

IV.  John  Gregory  (1724-1773).  Scottish  physician,  grandson 
of  James  Gregory  (1638-167  5)  and  youngest  son  of  Dr  Janes 
Gregory  (d.  1731),  professor  of  medicine  in  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  was  bora  at  Aberdeen  on  the  3rd  of  June  1724.  He 
received  his  early  education  at  the  grammar  school  of  Aberdeen 
and  at  King's  College  in  that  city,  and  in  1741  be  attended  the 
medical  classes  at  Edinburgh  university.  In  1745  he  went  to 
Leiden  to  complete  his  medical  studies,  and  during  his  stay 
there  he  received  without  solicitation  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
medicine  from  King's  College,  Aberdeen.  On  his  return  from 
Holland  he  was  elected  professor  of  philosophy  at  King's  College, 
but  in  1 740  he  resigned  his  professorship  on  accoimt  of  its  duties 
interfering  too  much  with  his  private  practice.  In  1754  he  pro- 
ceeded to  London,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  maoy 
persons  of  distinction,  and  the  same  year  was  chosen  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society.  On  the  death  in  November  1755  of  his 
brother  Dr  James  Gregory,  who  had  succeeded  his  father  u 
professor  of  medicine  in  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  he  was 
appointed  to  that  office.  In  1764  he  removed  to  Edinburgh  in 
the  hope  of  obtaining  a  more  extended  field  of  practice  as  a 
physician,  and  in  1766  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  practice 
of  medicine  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  to  whose  eminence 
as  a  medical  school  he  largely  contributed.   He  died  of  gout  on 

the  loth  of  February  1773. 

Me  is  the  author  of  i4  Comparative  View  of  the  State  and  Faculties 
of  Man  with  those  of  the  Antmal  World  (1765);  Obsertalieus  on  the 
Duties t  Offices  and  Quali/ications  of  a  Physician  (1772);  Elements 
of  the  Practice  of  Physic  (1772);  and  A  Fathers  Legacy  to  his 
Daughters  (i 774).  His  Whcie  Works,  with  a  life  by  Mr  Tytler  (af ter> 
wards  Lord  Woodhouselec),  were  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1788. 

V.  James  Gregory  (1753-1821),  Scottish  physician,  eldest 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Aberdeen  in  January  1753. 
He  accompanied  his  father  to  Edinburgh  in  1764,  and  after 
going  through  the  usual  course  of  literary  studies  at  that  uni- 
versity, he  was  for.  a  short  time  a  student  at  Christ  church* 
Oxford.  It  was  there  probably  that  he  acquired  that  taste  for 
classical  teaming  which  afterwards  distinguished  him.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  and,  after  graduating  doctw  of 
medicine  in  1774,  spent  the  greater  part  of  the  next  two  yean 
in  Holland,  France  and  Italy.  Shortly  after  his  return  to 
Scotland  he  was  appointed  in  1776  to  the  chair  his  father  bad 
formeriy  held,  and  in  the  following  year  he  also  entered  on  the 
duties  of  teacher  of  clim'cal  medicine  in  the  Royal  Infirmary. 
On  the  illness  of  Dr  William  Culicn  in  1700  he  was  appointed 
joint-professor  of  the  practice  of  medicine,  and  he  became  the 
head  of  the  Edinburgh  Medical  School  on  the  death  of  Dr  Culka 
in  the  same  year.  He  died  on  the  2nd  of  April  182 1.  As  a  medical 
practitioner  Gregory  was  for  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  at  the 
head  of  the  profession  in  Scotland.  He  was  at  one  time  prcsidou 
of  the  Edinburgh  College  of  Physicians,  but  his  indiscretioo  in 
publishing  certain  private  proceedings  of  the  college  led  to  bis 
suspension  on  the  13th  of  May  1809  from  all  rights  and  privileges 

which  pertained  to  the  fellowship. 

Besides  his  Conspectus  medicinae  theoretteae,  published  in  1788  as 
a  text-book  for  his  lectures  on  the  institutes,  I>r  Gregory  was  the 
author  of  "  A  Theory  of  the  Moods  of  Verbs."  published  ia  the 
Edin.  Phil.  Trans.  (1787).  and  of  Literary  and  Pkilosopkicat  Essap' 
published  in  two  volumes  in  1792. 

VI.  WiLUAM  Gregory  (1803-1858),  son  of  James  Gregory 
(1753-1821),  was  born  on  the  25th  of  December  1803.  In  183? 
he  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Andcrsonian  Institutioa, 
Glasgow,  in  1839  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  and  in  1844  *^ 
Edinburgh  University.  He  died  on  the  24th  of  April  iSs8. 
Gregory  was  one  of  the  first  in  England  to  advocate  the  theories 
of  Justus  von  Liebig,  and  translated  several  of  his  works.  He 
is  also  the  author  of  Outlines  of  Chemistry  (1845),  and  an  £2«- 
mentary  Treatise  on  Chtmiflry   (1853). 


GREGORY,  E.  J.— GREISEN 


Vn.  Duncan  Fasqithakson  Gsegory  (1813-1844),  brother 

of  the  preceding,  was  bom  on  the  ijtb  of  April  18x3.     After 

studying  at  the  university  of  Edinbur^  he  in  1833  entered 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  for  a  time  assistiint 

professor  of  chemistry,  but  he  devoted  his  attention  cMefly 

to  mathematics.    He  died  on  the  33rd  of  February  1844. 

The  Cambridge  Mathematical  Journal  was  originated,  and  for  some 
time  edited,  by  him;  and  he  also  published  a  CoUeetion  oj  ExampUs 
of  Proussts  %n  the  Differential  and  ItUegral  Calenlus  (1841).  A 
Treatise  on  the  Applicatum  of  Analysis  to  Solid  Geometry,  which  he 
left  unfinished,  was  completed  by  W.  Walton,  and  published  posthum- 
ously in  1846.  His  Malhemattcal  Writings,  edited  by  W.  Walton, 
with  a  biographicai  memoir  by  Robert  Leaue  Ellis,  appeared  in  1865. 

GREGORY.  EDWARD  JOHN  (1850-1909),  British  painter, 
bom  at  Southampton,  began  work  at  the  age  of  fifteen  in  the 
engineer's  drawing  office  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company. 
Afterwards  he  studied  at  South  Kensington,  and  about  1871 
entered  on  a  successful  career  as  an  illustrator  and  as  an  admir- 
able painter  in  oil  and  water  colour.  He  was  elected  associate  of 
the  Rojral  Academy  in  1883,  academician  in  1898,  and  president 
of  the  Royal  Institute  of  Painters  in  Water  Colours  in  1898. 
His  work  is  distinguished  by  remarkable  technical  qualities, 
by  exceptional  firmness  and  decision  of  draughtsmanship  and 
by  unustial  certainty  of  handling.  His  "  Marooned,"  a  water 
colour,  is  in  the  National  Gallery  of  British  Art.  Many  of  his 
pictures  were  shown  at  Burlington  House  at  the  winter  exhibi- 
tion of  X909-Z9Z0  after  his  death  in  June  1909. « 

ORBQORT,  OUNTHUS  GILBERT  (1774-1841),  English 
mathematician,  was  bom  on  the  29th  of  January  1774  at  Yaxley 
in  Huntingdon^re.  Having  been  educated  by  Richard  Weston, 
a  Leicester  botanist,  he  published  in  1793  a  treatise.  Lessons 
Astronomical  and  Philosophical.  Having  settled  at  Cambridge 
in  1796,  Gregory  first  acted  as  sub-editor  on  the  Cambridge 
Intelligencer^  and  then  opened  a  bookseller's  shop.  In  1802  he 
obtained  an  appointment  as  mathematical  master  at  Woolwich 
through  the  influence  of  Charles  Hutton,  to  whose  notice  he  had 
been  brou^t  by  a  manuscript  on  the  "  Use  of  the  Sliding 
Rule  ";  and  when  Hutton  resigned  in  1807  Gregory  succeeded 
him  in  the  profeuorship.  Failing  health  obliged  him  to  retire 
in  1 8381  and  he  died  at  Woolwich  on  the  2nd  of  February  1841. 

Gregory  wrote  Hints /or  the  Use  of  Teachers  of  Elementary  Mathe- 
matics (1840,  new  edition  1853),  and  Mathematics  for  Practical 
Men  iiSJS),  which  was  revised  and  enbrged  by  Henrv  Law  in  1848, 
and  again  by  '  "  "         '    "''     '"    '  '  "  '^  ' 

Christianity  ( 

ment  was  pu  .  _  ,  __ 

will  probably  be  longest  remembered  for  his  Biography  of  Robert  Hall, 
which  first  appeared  in  the  collected  edition  of  Hairs  works,  was 
published  separately  in  1833,  and  has  since  passed  throueh  several 
editiona.  The  minor  importance  of  his  Memoir  of  John  Mason  Good 
(1838)  is  due  to  the  narrower  fame  of  the  subject.  Gregory  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Rcyal  Astronomical  Society.  In  180a  he  was 
appointed  editor  of  the  Gentlemen's  Diary,  and  in  1818  editor  of  the 
Ladies*  Diary  and  superintendent  of  the  almanacs  of  the  Stationers' 
Company. 

GRSIFENBERG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Pomerania,  on  the  Rega,  45  m.  N.E.  of  Stettin  on  the  railway 
to  Kolberg.  Pop.  ( 1905)  7  208.  It  has  two  Evangelical  churches 
(among  them  that  of  St  Mary,  dating  from  X3th  century),  two 
aadent  gateways,  a  powder  tower  and  a  gymnasium.  The 
manufacture  of  machines,  stoves  and  bricks  are  the  principal 
industries.  Greifenberg  possessed  municipal  rights  as  early  as 
zs6a,  and  in  the  14th  and  zsth  centuries  had  a  considerable 
shipping  trade,  but  it  lost  much  of  its  prosperity  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War. 

See  Rlemann,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Greifenberg  (i86a). 

ORBIFEIfHAGBN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Pomerania,  on  the  Reg^,  la  m.  S.S.W.  of  Stettin 
by  rail.  Pop.  (1905)  6473.  Its  prosperity  depends  chiefly  on 
agrioilture  and  it  has  a  considerable  trade  in  cattle.  There  are 
also  felt  manufaaures  and  saw  mills.  Greifenhagen  was  built 
in  U30,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  town  and  fortified  about 
1250.  In  the  Thirty  Years'  War  it  was  taken  both  by  the 
imperiah'sts  and  the  Swedes,  and  in  1675  it  was  captured  by  the 
Brandenburgcrs,  into  whose  possession  it  came  finally  in  1679. 


577 

GRBIFSWALD,  a  town  of  (jermany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Pomerania,  on  the  navigable  Ryk,  3  m.  from  its  mouth  on 
the  Baltic  at  the  little  port  of  Wyk,  and  20  m.  S.E.  from  Stralsund 
by  rail.  Pop.  (1875)  28,022,  (1905)  23,750.  It  has  wide  and 
regular  streets,  flanked  by  numerous  gabled  houses,  and  is 
surroxmded  by  pleasant  promenades  on  the  site  of  its  old  ram- 
parts. The  three  Gothic  Protestant  churches,  the  Marienkirche, 
the  Nikolaikirche  and  the  Jakobikirche,  and  the  town-hall 
(Rathaus)  are  the  principal  edifices,  and  these  with  their  lofty 
spires  are  very  picturesque.  There  is  a  statue  of  thtf  emperor 
Frederick  III.  and  a  war  memorial  in  the  town.  The  industries 
mainly  consbt  in  shipbuilding,  fish-curing,  and  the  manufacture 
of  machinery  (particularly  for  agriculture),  and  the  commerce  in 
the  export  of  com,  wood  and  fish.  Tliere  is  a  theatre,  an 
orphanage  and  a  municipal  library.  Greifswald  is,  however, 
best  known  to  fame  by  reason  of  its  university.  This,  founded 
in  1456,  is  well  endowed  and  is  largely  frequented  by  students 
of  medicine.  Connected  with  it  are  a  library  of  150,000  volumes 
and  800  MSS.,  a  chemical  laboratory,  a  zoological  museum,  a 
gynaecological  institute,  an  ophthalmological  school,  a  botanical 
garden  and  at  Eldena  (a  seaside  resort  on  the  Baltic)  an  agri- 
cultural schooL  In  front  of  the  university,  which  had  775 
students  and  about  xoo  teachers  in  2904,  stands  a  montiment 
commemorating  its  four  hundredth  anniversary. 

Greifswald  was  foxmded  about  X240  by  traders  from  the 
Netherlands.  In  X250  it  received  a  town  constitution  and 
Ldbeck  rij^ts  from  Duke  Wratislaw  of  Pomerania.  In  1270  it 
joined  the  Hanse  towns,  Stralsund,  Rostock,  Wismar  and 
LUbeck,  and  took  part  in  the  wars  which  they  carried  on  against 
the  kings  of  Denmark  and  Norway.  During  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  it  was  formed  into  a  fortress  by  the  imperialists,  but  they 
vacated  it  in  1631  to  the  Swedes,  In  whose  possession  it  remained 
after  the  peace  of  Westphalia.  In  X678  it  was  captured  by  the 
elector  of  Brandenburg,  but  was  restored  to  the  Swedes  in  the 
following  year;  in  1713  it  was  desolated  by  the  Russians;  in 
X715  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Denmark;  and  in  X721  it 
was  again  restored  to  Sweden,  under  whose  protection  it  remained 
till  18x5,  when,  along  with  the  whole  of  Swedish  Pomerania, 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  Pnissia. 

See  J.  G.  L.  Kosegarten,  Geschichte  der  Untoersitdt  Greifswald 
(1^6) ;  C.  Gesterding.  Beiirag  tur  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Greifswald 
(3  vols.,  1827-1829);  and  I.  Zlegler,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Greifswald 
(Greifswald.  X897). 

GREISEN  (in  French,  kyalomicte)t  a  modification  of  granite, 
consisting  essentially  of  quartx  and  white  mica,  and  distinguished 
from  granite  by  the  absence  of  felspar  and  biotite.  In  the  hand 
specimen  the  rock  has  a  silvery  glittering  appearance  from  the 
abundance  of  lamellar  crystals  of  musoovite,  but  many  gretsens 
have  much  of  the.  appearance  of  granite,  except  that  they  are 
paler  in  colour.  The  commonest  accessory  minerals  are  tourma- 
line, topax,  apatite,  fluorspar  and  iron  oxides;  a  little  felspar 
more  or  less  altered  may  also  be  present  and  a  brown  mica  which 
is  biotite  or  Uthioixite.  The  tourmaline  in  section  is  brown, 
green,  blueor  colourless,  and  often  the  same  crystal  shows  many 
different  tints.  The  white  mica  forms  mostly  large  plates  with 
imperfect  crystalline  outlines.  The  quartz  is  rich  in  fluid 
endosures.  Apatite  and  topax  are  both  colourless  and  of 
irregular  foniL  Felspar  if  present  may  be  orthodase  and 
oligodase. 

Greisen  occurs  typically  in  belts  or  veiia  intersecting  granite. 
At  the  centre  of  each  vein  there  is  usually  a  fissure  which  may 
be  open  or  filled  with  quarts.  The  greisen  bands  are  from  x  in. 
up  to  2  ft.  or  more  in  thickness.  At  their  outer  edges  they  pass 
gradually  into  the  granite,  for  they  contain  felspar  crystals  tnore 
or  less  completdy  altered  into  aggregates  of  white  mica  and 
quartz.  The  transition  between  the  two  rocks  is  perfectly 
gradual,  a  fact  which  shows  that  the  greisen  has  been  produced 
by  alteration  of  the  granite.  Vapotus  or  fluids  rising  through 
the  fissure  have  been  the  agents  which  effected  the  transmutation. 
They  must  have  contained  fluorine,  boron  and  probably  also 
lithium,  for  topaz,  mica  and  tourmaline,  the  new  minerals  of  the 
granite,  contain  these  dements.    The  change  is  a  post-vokanic 


578 


GREIZ— GRENADE 


or  pneumatolytic  one  induced  by  the  vapoun  set  free  by  the 
granite  magma  when  it  cools.  Probably  the  rock  was  at  a 
relatively  high  temperature  at  the  time.  A  similar  type  of 
alteration,  the  development  of  white  mica,  quartz  and  tourmaline, 
is  found  sometimes  in  sedimentary  rocks  around  granite  masses. 
Greisen  is  closely  connected  with  schorl  rock  both  in  its  minera- 
logical  composition  and  in  its  mode  of  origin.  The  latter  is  a 
pneumatolytic  product  consbting  of  quartz  and  tourmaline; 
it  often  contains  white  mica  and  thus  passes  by  all  stages  into 
greisen.  Both  of  these  rocks  carry  frequently  small  percentages 
of  tin  oxide  (cassiterite)  and  may  be  worked  as  ores  of  tin.  They 
are  common  in  Cornwall,  Saxony,  Tasmania  and  other  districts 
which  are  centres  of  tin-mining.  Many  other  greisens  occur 
in  which  no  tin  is  found.    The  analyses  show  the  composition 


SiOi. 

AliO,. 

FciOi. 

FeO. 

CaO. 

MgO. 

K«0. 

Na^. 

Fl. 

B,0,. 

Granite 
Greisen 

7017 
69.42 

15.07 
1565 

'88 

125 

1-79 

3*y> 

113 
•63 

I'll 
1^02 

5-73 
4'06 

2*69 

'27 

3-36 

tr. 
•59 

of  Cornish  granite  and  greisen.  They  make  it  clear  that  there 
has  been  an  introduction  of  fluorine  and  boron  and  a  diminution 
in  the  alkalies  during  the  transformation  of  the  granitic  rock 
into  the  greisen.  (J.  S.  F.) 

OREIZ,  a  town  of  Germany,  capital  of  the  principality,  of 
Reuss-Greiz  (Reuss  the  Elder),  in  a  pleasant  valley  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  White  Elster,  near  the  borders  of  Saxony,  and  66  m. 
by  rail  S.  from  Leipzig.  Pop.  (1875)  12,657;  (1905)  23,1x4. 
It  consists  of  two  parts,  the  old  town  on  the  right  bank  and  the 
new  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river;  it  is  rapidly  growing 
and  is  regularly  laid  out.  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
palace  of  the  prince  of  Reuss-Greiz,  surrounded  by  a  fine  park, 
the  old  chAteau  on  a  rocky  hill  overlooking  the  town,  the  summer 
palace  with  a  fine  garden,  the  old  town  church  dating  from  1225 
and  possessing  a  beautiful  tower,  the  town  hall,  the  govern- 
mental buildings  and  statues  of  the  emperor  William  I.  and 
of  Bismarck.  There  are  classical  and  modem  schools  and  a 
school  of  textile  industry.  The  industries  are  considerable, 
and  include  dyeing,  tanning  and  the  manufacture  of  woollen, 
cotton,  shawls,  coverlets  and  paper.  Greiz  (formerly  Crnoa)  is 
apparently  a  town  of  Slav  origin.  From  the  X2th  century  it 
was  governed  by  advocati  (,Vdgte)f  but  in  1236  it  came  into  the 
possesion  of  Gera,  and  in  1550  of  the  younger  line  of  the  house 
of  Plauen.  It  was  wholly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1494,  and  almost 
totally  in  1802. 

See  Wilke,  Grei»  wid  seine  Umgebung  (1875).  and  Jahresberkkte 
des  VereittsfUr  Greizer  Gesckichte  (1894,  seq.) 

GRENADA,  the  southernmost  of  the  Windward  Islands, 
British  West  Indies.  It  lies  between  xi"  58'  and  X2*  15'  N. 
and  between  6x"  35'  and  6x'*  50'  W.,  being  X40  m.  S.W.  of 
Barbados  and  85  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Trinidad.  In  shape  oval,  it  is 
21  m.  long,  X2  m.  broad  at  its  maximimi  and  has  an  area  of  133 
sq.  m.  It  owes  much  of  its  beauty  to  a  well-wooded  range  of 
mountains  traversing  the  bland  from  N.  to  S.  and  throwing  off 
from  the  centre  spurs  which  form  picturesque  and  fertile  valleys. 
These  mountains  attain  their  highest  elevation  in  MountCatharine 
(2750  ft.).  In  the  S.E.  and  N.W.  there  are  stretches  of  low  or 
undulating  ground,  devoted  to  fruit  growing  and  cattle  raising. 
The  island  is  of  volcanic  origin;  the  only  signs  of  upheaval  are 
raised  limestone  beaches  in  the  extreme  N.  Red  and  grey 
sandstones,  hornblende  and  argillaceous  schist  are  found  in  the 
mountains,  porphyry  and  basaltic  rocks  also  occur;  sulphur 
and  fuller's  earth  are  worked.  In  the  centre,  at  the  height  of 
1740  ft.  above  the  sea,  is  the  chief  natural  curiosity  of  Grenada, 
the  Grand  Etang,  a  circular  lake,  13  acres  in  extent,  occupying 
the  site  of  an  ancient  crater.  Near  it  is  a  large  sanatorium, 
much  frequented  as  a  health  resort.  In'  the  north-east  is  a  larger 
lake,  Lake  Antoine,  also  occupying  a  crater,  but  it  lies  almost  at 
the  sea  level.  The  island  is  watered  by  severid  short  rivers,  mainly 
on  the  east  and  south;  there  are  numerous  fresh  water  springs, 
as  well  as  hot  chalybeate  and  sulphurous  springs.  The  south- 
eastern coast  is  much  indented  with  bays.    The  climate  is  good. 


the  temperature  eqtiable  and  epidemic  diseases  are  rare.  In  the 
low  country  the  average  yearly  temperature  is  82"  F.,  but  it  is 
cooler  in  the  heights.  The  rainfall  is  very  heavy,  amounting  in 
some  parts  to  as  much  as  200  in.,  a  year.  The  rainy  season  lasts 
from  May  to  December,  but  refreshing  showers  frequently  occur 
during  other  parts  of  the  year.  The  average  aiu^ual  rainfall 
at  St  Georges  is  79*07  in.,  and  at  Grand  Etang  X64  in.  The 
excellent  climate  and  good  sea-bathing  have  made  Grenada  the 
health  resort  of  the  neighbouring  islands,  especially  of  Trinidad. 
Good  roads  and  byeways  intersect  it  in  every  direction.  The  soil 
is  extraordinarily  fertile,  the  chief  products  being  cocoa  and 
spices,  especially  nutmegs.  The  exports,  sent  chiefly  to  Great 
Britain,  are  cocoa,  spices,  wool,  cotton,  coffee,  live  stock,  hides, 
turtles,  turtle  shdl,  kola  nuts,  vanilla  and  timber.    Barbados 

is  dependent  on  Grenada  for  the  majority  ol 
its  firewood.  Sugar  is  still  grown,  and  rum 
and  molasses  are  made,  but  the  consump- 
tion of  these  is  confined  to  the  island. 

Elementary  education  is  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  the  various  denominations,  whose 
schools  are  assisted  by  government  grants-in-aid.  There  are, 
however,  a  few  secular  schools  conducted  by  the  govenunent, 
and  government-aided  secondary  schools  for  girls  and  a 
grammar  school  for  boys.  The  schools  are  controlled  by  a 
board  of  education,  the  members  of  which  are  nominated 
by  the  government,  and  small  fees  are  charged  in  all  schools. 
Tlie  governor  of  the  Windward  Ishmds  resides  in  Grenada  and 
is  administrator  of  it.  The  Legislative  Council  comusts  of  14 
members;  7  including  the  ^vemor  are  ex-officic  members  and 
the  rest  are  nominated  by  the  Crown.  English  is  uni\'cisa]ly 
spoken,  but  the  negroes  use  a  French  paiois,  ^ihich,  however, 
is  gradually  dying  out.  Only  s%  of  the  inhabitants  are  whiu, 
the  rest  being  negroes  and  mulattoes  with  a  few  East  Indians. 
The  capital,  St  George,  in  the  south-west,  is  built  upon  a  kva 
peninsula  jutting  into  the  sea  and  forming  one  side  of  its  laod- 
locked  harbour.  It  is  surrounded  by  an  amp^theatre  of  hilb, 
up  the  sides  of  which  climb  the  red-brick  bouses  of  the  tovn. 
At  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula  is  Fort  St  George,  with  a 
saluting  battery.  The  ridge  cozmecting  Fort  St  George  vrith 
Hospital  Hill  is  tunnelled  to  give  access  to  the  two  parts  of  the 
town  lying  on  either  side.  Tht  population  in  190X  was  siQ^- 
There  are  four  other  towns — on  the  west  coast  Gouyave,  or 
Charlotte  Town,  and  4  m.  N.  of  it  Victoria;  on  the  north  coast 
Sauteurs;  and  Grenville  at  the  head  of  a  wide  bay  on  the  east. 
They  are  all  in  frequent  communication  with  the  cafutal  by 
steamer.  The  population  of  the  entire  colony  in  1901  was  6343S. 
History. — Grenada  was  discovered  in  1498  by  Columbus, 
who  named  it  Conception.  Neither  the  Spaxiish  nor  the  British, 
to  whom  it  was  granted  in  1627,  settled  on  the  island.  The 
governor  of  Martinique,  du  Parquet,  purchased  it  m  X650, 
and  the  French  were  wdl  received  by  the  Caribs,  whom  they 
afterwards  extirpated  with  the  greatest  crudty.  In  1665 
Grenada  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  French  West  India  Com- 
pany, and  was  administered  by  it  until  its  dissolution  in  1674, 
when  the  island  passed  to  the  French  Crown.  Cocoa,  coffee  and 
cotton  were  introduced  in  x  7x4.  During  the  wars  between  Great 
Britain  and  France,  Grenada  capitulated  to  the  British  forces  in 
X762,  and  was  fonnally  ceded  next  year  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris. 
Tlie  French,  under  Count  d'Estaing,  re-captured  the  island  in 
X779,  but  it  was  restored  to  Great  Britain  by  the  T^«aty  of 
Versailles  in  x  783.  A  rebellion  against  the  Britidi  rule,  instigated 
and  assisted  by  the  French,  occurred  in  X795,  but  was  quelled  by 
Sir  Ralph  Abocromby  in  the  following  year.  The  emancipation 
of  the  slaves  took  place  in  X837,  and  by  1877  it  was  found  necessary 
to  introduce  East  Indian  labour.  Grenada,  with  cocoa  as  its 
staple,  has  not  experienced  similar  deprenioo  to  that  which 
overtook  the  sugar-growing  islands  of  the  West  Indies. 
See  Grenada  Handbook  (London,  1905). 
ORBNADB  (from  the  French  word  for  a  pomegranate,  from  a 
resemblance  in  shape  to  that  fruit),  a  small  q^rical  tx^aSxe 
vessel  thrown  by  band.  Hand-grenades  were  used  in  war  in 
the  x6th  century,  but  the  word  "  grenade  **  was  also  from  (be 


GRENADIER— GRENOBLE 


579 


first  used  to  Imply  an  explosive  shell  fired  from  a  gun;  this 
survives  to  the  present  day  in  the  German  GratuiU,  These 
"weapons  were  employed  after  about  1660,  by  special  troops 
called  "  grenadiers  "  (^.v.)*  *nd  in  the  wars  of  the  zyth  and  x8th 
centuries  they  are  continually  met  with.  They  became  obsolete 
in  the  19th  centuryi  but  were  given  a  new  lease.of  life  in  the  30th, 
owing  to  their  employment  in  the  si^e  of  Port  Arthur  in  1904, 
where  hand-grenades  of  a  modem  type,  and  containing  powerful 
modem  explosives,  proved  very  effective  (see  Aian7NniON,5A«tf). 
Hand-grenades  filial  with  chemicals  and  made  of  glass  are  used 
as  a  method  of  fire«ctinction,  and  similar  vessels  containing  a 
liquid  with  a  very  strong  smell  are  used  to  discover  defects  in  a 
drain  or  sewer. 

ORINADIBR,  originally  a  soldier  whose  special  duty  it  was 
to  throw  hand-grenades.  Hie  latterwere  in  use  fora  considerable 
time  before  any  special  organization  was  given  to  the  troops 
who  were  to  use  them.  In  1667  four  men  per  company  in  the 
French  Xigmeni  du  Rot  were  trained  with  grenades  (siege  of 
Lille),  and  in  1668-1670  grenadier  companies  were  formed  in 
this  regiment  and  In  about  thirty  othos  of  the  French  line. 
Eve^yb,  In  his  Diary,  tells  us  that  on  the  29th  of  June  1678  he 
saw  at  Houndow  "  a  new  sort  of  soldiers  called  granadiers,  who 
were  dexterous  in  flinging  hand-granades."  As  in  the  case  of 
the  fusiliea,  the  French  practice  was  therefore  qtiickly  copied 
in  England.  Eventually  each  English  battalion  had  a  grenadier 
company  (see  for  illustrations  Arcikaedogieal  Journal,  zxiii.  222, 
and  xhdL  321-324).  Besides  their  grenades  and  the  firelock, 
grenadiers  carried  axes  which,  with  the  grenades,  were  employed 
in  the  assault  of  fortresses,  as  we  are  told  In  the  celebrated  song, 
-  The  British  Grenadiers." 

The  grenadier  companies  were  formed  alwajrs  of  the  most 
powerfvd  men  in  the  regiment  and,  when  the  grenade  ceased 
to  be  used,  they  maintained  their  existence  as  the  "  crack  " 
companies  of  their  battalions,  taking  the  right  of  the  line  on 
parade  and  wearing  the  distinctive  jgrenadier  headdress.  This 
system  was  almost  universal,  and  the  typical  infantry  regiment 
of  the  z8th  and  early  19th  century  had  a  grenadier  and  a  light 
company  besides  its  "  line  "  companies.  In  the  British  and  other 
armies  these  HiU  companies  were  frequently  taken  from  their 
regiments  and  combined  in  grenadier  and  light  infantry  battalions 
for  special  service,  and  Napoleon  carried  tUs  practice  still  further 
in  the  French  army  by  organizing  brigades  and  divisions  of 
grenadien  (and  correspondingly  of '  voltigeurs).  Indeed  the 
companies  thus  detached  from  the  line  practically  never  returned 
to  it,  and  this  was  attended  with  serious  evils,  for  the  battalion 
at  the  outbreak  of  war  lost  perhaps  a  quarter  of  its  best  men, 
the  average  men  only  remaining  with  the  line.  Thb  special  organ- 
ization of  grenadiers  and  light  companies  lasted  in  the  British 
army  until  about  1858.  In  the  Prussian  service  the  grenadiers 
became  permanent  and  independent  battalions  about  1740,  and 
the  gradual'  adoption  of  the  four<ompany  battalion  by  Prassia 
and  other  nations  tended  still  further  to  place  the  grenadiers  by 
themselves  and  apart  from  the  line.  Thus  at  the  present  day 
in  Germany,  Russia  and  other  cotmtries,  the  title  of  "grenadiers" 
is  bome  by  line  regiments,  indistinguishable,  except  for  details 
of  uniform  and  often  the  esfirii  de  corps  inherited  from  the  old 
Hite  companies,  from  the  rest.  In  the  British  service  the  only 
girenadiers  remaining  are  the  Grenadier  Guards,  originally  the 
1st  regiment  of  Foot  Guards,  which  was  formed  in  1660  on  the 
nucleus  of  a  regiment  of  English  royalists  which  followed  the 
fortunes  of  Charles  II.  in  exile.  In  Russia  a  whole  army  corps 
(headquarters  Moscow),  inclusive  of  its  artilleiy  units,  bous  the 
title. 

The  special  headdress  of  the  grenadier  was  a  pointed  cap,  with 
peak  and  fl^>8,  of  embroidered  doth,  or  a  loose  fur  cap  of  similar 
shape;  both  these  were  light  field  service  caps.  The  fur  cap 
tuui  in  the  course  of  time  developed  into  the  tall  "  bearskin  ** 
worn  by  British  guards  and  various  corps  of  other  armies;  the 
embroidered  field  cap  survives,  transformed,  however,  into  a 
heavy  brass  headdress,  in  the  uniform  of  the  ist  Prussian  Foot 
Guards,  the  ist  Prussian  Guard  Grenadiers  and  the  Russian 
pianl  (Pavfevsky)  Grenadier  Guards. 


ORBNADINES,  a  chain  of  isleU  b  the  Windward  Islands, 
West  Indies.  They  stretch  for  60  m.  between  St  Vincent  and 
Grenada,  following  a  N.E.  to  S.W.  direction,  and  consist  of  some 
600  islets  and  rocks.  Some  are  a  f^w  square  miles  in  extent, 
others  are  merely  rocky  cones  projecting  from  the  deep.  For 
purposes  of  administration  they  are  divided  between  St  Vincent 
and  Grenada.  Bequia,  the  chief  island  in  the  St  Vincent  group, 
is  long  and  narrow,  with  an  area  6  sq.  m.  Owing  to  a  lack  of 
water  it  is  only  slightly  cultivated,  but  game  is  plentiful 
Admiralty  Bay,  on  the  W.  side,  is  a  safe  and  commodious 
harbour.  Carriacou,  belonging  to  Grenada,  is  the  largest  of  the 
group,  bebg  7  m.  long,  2  m.  wide  and  13  sq.  m.  in  extent.  A  ridge 
of  hills,  rising  to  an  altitude  of  700  ft.,  traverses  the  centre  from 
N.E.  to  S.W.;  here  admirable  building  stone  is  found. .  There 
are  two  good  harbours  on  the  west  coast,  Hillsborough  Bay  on 
which  stands  Hillsborough,  the  chief  town,  and  TyreU  Bay, 
farther  south.  The  isluid  is  thickly  populated,  the  negro 
peasantry  occupying  small  lots  and  working  on  the  metayer 
system.  Excellent  oysters  are  found  along  the  coast,  and  cotton 
and  cattle  are  the  chief  exports.  Pop.  of  the  group,  mostly  on 
Carriacou  (1901)  6497. 

ORBNOBLB.  the  andent  capital  of  the  Dauphin^  hi  S.E. 
France,  and  now  the  chief  town  of  the  Is^re  department,  75  m. 
by  rail  from  Lyons,  38I  m.  from  Chamb6ry  and  85)  m.  from 
Gap.  Pop.  (1906),  town,  58,641;  commune,  73,022.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  beautifully  situated,  and  also  one  of  the  most  strongly 
f ortifi^,  dties  in  Europe.  Built  at  a  height  of  702  ft.  on  both 
banks  of  the  river  laitt  just  above  its  junction  with  the  Drac, 
the  town  occupies  a  considerable  plain  at  the  south-western  end 
of  the  fertile  Graisivaudan  valley.  To  the  north  rise  the  moun* 
tains  of  the  Grande  Chartreuse,  to  the  east  the  range  of  Belle- 
donne,  and  to  the  south  those  of  Taillcfer  and  the  Moucherotte, 
the  higher  summits  of  these  ranges  being  partly  covered  with 
snow.  From  the  Jardin  de  Ville  and  the  quays  of  the  banks  of 
the  Isdre  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc  itself  is  visible.  The  greater 
part  of  the  town  rises  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Is^,  which  is 
bordered  by  broad  quays.  The  older  portion  has  the  tortuous 
and  narrow  streets  usual  in  towns  that  have  been  confined  within 
fortifications,  but  in  modem  times  these  hindrances  have  been 
demolished.  The  newer  portion  of  the  town  has  wide  thorough- 
fares and  buildings  of  the  modem  French  type,  solid  but  not 
picturesque.  The  original  town  (of  but  small  extent)  was  built 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Isdre  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  Mont 
Rachais,  now  covered  by  a  succession  of  fortresses  that  rise 
picturesquely  on  the  slope  of  that  hill  to  a  very  considerable 
hdght  (885  ft.  above  the  town). 

Grenoble  is  the  seat  of  a  bi^opric  which  was  founded  in  the 
4th  century,  and  now  comprises  the  department  of  the  Is^re — 
formedy  a  suffragan  of  Vienne  it  now  forms  part  of  the  ecdesi- 
astical  province  of  Lyons.  The  most  remarkable  building  in  the 
town  is  the  Palais  de  Justice,  erected  (late  15th  century  to  i6th 
century)  on  the  site  of  the  old  palace  of  the  Parlcmcnt  of  the 
Dauphin£.  Opposite  is  the  most  noteworthy  church  of  the  dty, 
that  of  St  Andt€  (13th  century),  formeriy  the  chapd  of  the 
dauphins  of  the  Viennob:  in  it  is  the  17th  century  monument 
of  Bayard  (i476-r524),  the  ckeoalier  sans  peur  et  sans  reprocke, 
whidi  was  removed  hither  in  1822;  but  it  is  uncertain  whose 
bones  are  thcrdn.  The  cathedral  church  of  Notre  Dame  is  a 
heavy  building,  dating  in  part  from  the  nth  century.  The 
churdi  of  St  Laurent,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Isdre,  is  the  oldest 
in  the  dty  (xxth  century)  and  has  a  remarKable  crypt,  dating 
from. Merovingian  times.  The  town  hall  is  a  mainly  modem 
building,  constracted  on  the  site  of  the  palace  of  the  dauphins, 
while  the  prefecture  is  entirdy  modem.  The  town  library 
contains  a  considerable  collection  of  paintings,  mainly  of  the 
modem  French  school,  but  is  more  remarkable  for  its  very  rich 
collection  of  MSS.  (7000)  and  printed  books  (250,000  vols.) 
which  in  great  part  belonged  till  1793  to  the  monastery  of  the 
Grande  Chartreuse.  .  The  natural  history  museum  houses  rich 
collections  <^  various  kinds,  which  contain  {inter  alia)  numerous 
geological  spedmens  from  the  neighbouring  districts  of  the 
Dauphin£  and  Savoy.    The  university,  revived  in  modem  times 


58o 


GRENVILLE,  SIR  B.— GRENVILLE,  G. 


after  a  long  abeyance,  occupies  a  modern  building,  as  does  also 
the  hospital,  though  founded  as  far  back  as  the  xsth  century. 
There  are  numerous  societies  in  the  town,  including  the  Acadimie 
Delphinale  (founded  in  1772),  and  many  charitable  institutions. 

Tlie  staple  industry  of  Grenoble  is  the  manufacture  of  kid 
gloves,  most  of  the  80<alled  gatUs  Jpurin  being  made  here — ^they 
are  named  after  the  reviver  of  the  art,  X.  Jouvin  (1800-1844). 
There  are  about  80  glove  factories,  which  employ  18,500  persons 
(of  whom  15,000  are  women),  the  annual  output  being  about 
800,000  dosen  pairs  of  gloves.  Among  other  articles  produced 
at  Grenoble  are  artificial  cements»  liqueurs,  straw  hats  and 
carved  furniture. 

Grenoble  occupies  the  site  of  CuJaro,  a  village  of  the  Allobroges, 
whidi  only  became  of  importance  when  fortified  by  Diocletian 
and  Maximian  at  the  end  of  the  3rd  century.  Its  present  name 
Is  a  corruption  of  Gratlanopolis,  a  title  assumed  probably  in 
honour  of  Gratian  (4th  century),  who  raised  it  to  the  rank  of  a 
cimias.  After  passing  under  the  power  t>f  the  Burgundians 
(c.  440)  and  the  Franks  (533)  it  became 'part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Provence  (879-ro33).  On  the  break-up  of  that  kingdom  a 
long  struggle  for  supremacy  ensued  between  the  bishops  of 
the  city  and  the  counts  of  /dbon,  the  latter  finally  winning  the 
day  in  the  lath  century,  and  taldbog  the  title  of  Dauphins  of  the 
Viennois  in  the  X3th  century.  In  1349  Grenoble  was  ceded  with 
the  rest  of  the  Dauphin6  to  France,  but  retained  various  municipal 
privileges  which  had  been  granted  by  the  dauphins  to  the  town, 
originally  by  a  charter  of  1242.  In  1562  it  was  sacked  by  the 
Protestants  under  the  baron  des  Adrets,  but  in  1572  the  fitmness 
of  its  governor,  Bertrand  de  Gordes,  saved  it  from  a  repetition 
of  the  Massacre  of  St  Bartholomew.  In  1590  Lesdigui8res 
(1543-1636)  took  the  town  in  the  name  of  Henry  IV.,  then  still 
a  Protestant,  and  during  his  long  governorship  (which  lasted 
to  his  death)  did  much  for  it  by  the  construction  of  fortifications, 
quays,  &c.  In  1788  the  attempt  of  the  king  to  weaken  the  power 
of  the  parlement  of  Grenoble  (which,  though  strictly  a  judicial 
authority,  had  preserved  traditions  of  independence,  since  the 
suspension  of  the  states-general  of  the  Dauphin6  in  1628)  roused 
the  people  to  arms,  and  the  "  day  of  the  tiles  "  (7th  of  June  1788) 
is  memorable  for  the  defeat  of  the  royal  forces.  In  1790,  on  the 
formation  of  the  department  of  the  Isdre,  Grenoble  beoune  its 
capitaL  Grenoble  was  the  first  important  town  to  open  its  gates 
to  Napoleon  on  his  return  from  Elba  (7th  of  March  1815),  but 
a  few  months  later  (July)  it  was  obliged  to  surrender  to  the 
Austrian  army.  Owing  to  its  situation  Grenoble  was  formerly 
much  subject  to  floods,  particularly  in  the  case  of  the  wild  Drac. 
One  of  the  worst  took  place  ini  219,  while  that  of  x  778  was  known 
as  the  dtiuge  de  la  Saint  Cripin.  Among  the  celebrities  who 
have  been  bom  at  Grenoble  are  Vaucanson  (1709-1783),  Mably 
(r709-i785),  CondDlac  (X71S-1780),  Beyle,  best  known  as 
Stendhal,  his  nom  de  guerre  (X783-1843),  Bamave  (176X-X793) 
and  Casimir  Perier  (i777-x833). 

See  A.  Prudhomme,  HisUnre  de  Grenoble  (1888):  X.  Roux,  La 
Corporation  des  gantiert  de  Grenoble  (1887);  H.  DuhameL  Grenoble 
considiri  comme  centre  d^excursione  (1902);  J.  Marion,  Cartulaires 
de  Viglue  catkidrale  drGrenobU  (Paris,  1869),  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

ORBNVILLB,  SIR  BEVIL  (x596-x643)>  Royalist  soldier  in  the 
English  Civil  War  (see  Gkeat  Rzbeluon),  was  educated  at 
Exeter  College,  Oxford.  As  member  of  Parliament,  first  for 
Cornwall,  then  for  Launccston,  Grenville  supported  Sir  John 
Eliot  and  the  opposition,  and  his  intimacy  with  Eliot  was  lifelong. 
In  1639,  however,  he  appears  as  a  royalist  going  to  the  Scottish 
War  in  the  train  of  Charles  I.  The  reasons  of  this  change  of 
front  are  unknown,  but  Grenville's  honour  was  above  suspicion, 
and  he  must  have  entirely  convinced  himself  that  he  was  doing 
right.  At  any  rate  he  was  a  very  valuable  recruit  to  the  royalist 
cause,  being  "  the  most  generally  loved  man  in  Cornwall."  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  and  others  of  the  gentry  not 
only  proclaimed  the  king's  O>mmisnon  of  Array  at  Launceston 
assizes,  but  also  persuaded  the  grand  jury  of  the  county  to 
6tdut  thdr  opponents  guilty  of  riot  and  unlawful  assembly, 
whereupon  the  Passe  comitatus  was  called  out  to  expel  them. 
Under  the  command  of  Sir  Ralph  Hopton,  Sir  Bevil  took  a 


distinguished  part  in  the  action  of  Brado^  Down,  and  it 

Stratton  (x6  May  1643),  where  the  parliamentary  eari  o(  Scamford 

was  completely  routed  by  the  Cornishmen,  led  one  of  the  stonning 

parties  which  captured  Chudlcigh's  lines  {Clarendon^  vii.  89).    A 

month  later,  the  endeavour  of  Hopton  to  unite  with  Maurice  and 

Hertford  from  Oxford  brought  on  the  battle  of  Lansdown,  near 

Bath.    Here  Grenville  was  killed  at  the  head  of  the  Comisb 

infantry  as  it  reached  the  top  of  the  hill.    His  death  was  a  Uow 

from  which  the  king's  cause  in  the  West  never  recovered,  for 

he  alone  knew  how  to  handle  the  ComishmeiL    Hopton  they 

revered  and  re^>ected,  but  Grenville  they  loved  as  peculiarly  thdr 

own  commander,  and  after  his  death  there  is  little  more  hesrd 

of  the  reckless  valour  which  had  won  Stratton  and  Laasdovn. 

Grenville  is  the  type  of  all  that  was  best  in  English  royahsm. 

He  was  neither  rapacious,  dnmken  nor  dinolute,  but  his  loyskj 

was  unoelfish,  his  life  pure  and  his  skill  no  less  than  his  bravery 

unquestionable.    A  monument  to  him  has  been  erected  «i  the 

field  of  Lansdown. 

See  Lloyd,  Memoirs  of  Excellent  Personages  (1668) ;  S.  R.  GordlBer, 
History  of  the  English  Civil  War  (vol.  L  passim). 

ORBNVILLB.  GEORGE  (X7X2-X770),  English  .statesman, 
second  son  of  Richard  Grenville  and  Hester  Temple,  afterwards 
Countess  Temple,  was  bom  on  the  X4th  of  October  X7X2.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  vas 
called  to  the  bar.  in  1735.  He  entered  parliament  in  x 741  as 
member  for  Buckingham,  and  continued  to  represent  that 
borough  till  his  death.  In  parliament  he  was  a  member  of 
the  "  Boy  Patriot "  party  which  opposed  Sir  Robert  Walpole. 
In  December  1744  he  became  a  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  the 
Pelham  administration.  He  allied  himself  with  h»  broUKf 
Richard  and  with  William  Pitt  in  forcing  their  feeble  chief  to  give 
them  promotion  by  rebelling  against  his  authority  and  obstmctiag 
business.  In  June  X747  he  l>ecame  a  lord  of  the  treasury,  and 
in  1 754  treasurer  of  the  navy  and  privy  councillor.  As  treasnnr 
of  the  navy  in  1758  he  introduced  and  carried  a  biH  vhick 
established  a  less  unfair  system  of  paying  the  wages  of  the 
seamen  than  had  existed  before.  He  remained  in  office  in  1761, 
when  his  brother  Lord  Temple  and  his  brother-in-law  Pitt 
resigned  upon  the  question  of  the  war  with  Spain,  and  in  tbe 
adxninistration  of  Lord  Bute  he  was  entrusted  with  the  leadcnkip 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  In  May  X762  he  was  ^>poiDtcd 
secretary  of  state,  and  in  October  first  lord  of  the  admiraky; 
and  in  April  X763  he  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury  aad 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  The  most  prominent  meaam 
of  his  administration  were  the  prosecution  of  Wilkes  and  the 
passing  of  the  American  Stamp  Act,  which  led  to  tbe  fist 
symptoms  of  alienation  between  America  and  the  motber 
country.  During  the  latter  period  of  his  torm  of  office  be  vas 
on  a  very  unsatisfactory  footing  with  the  young  king  George  IIL, 
who  gnidiully  came  to  feel  a  kind  of  horror  of  the  interminable 
persistency  of  his  conversation,  and  whom  he  endeavoured  to 
make  use  of  as  the  mere  puppet  of  the  ministry.  The  king  made 
various  attempts  to  induce  Pitt  to  come  to  his  rescue  by  fonning 
a  ministry,  but  without  success,  and  at  last  had  recourse  to  tke 
marquis  of  Rockingham,  on  whose  agreeing  to  accept  office 
GrenviUe  was  dismissed  July  1765.  fie  never  again  hdd  of&oe, 
and  died  on  the  X3th  of  Novemba  1770. 

The  nickname  of  "  gentle  shepherd  "  was  given  him  because 
he  bored  the  House  by  asking  over  and  over  again,  duiiog  tbe 
debate  on  the  Cider  BiU  of  X763,  that  somebody  should  teQ  kirn 
**  where  "  to  lay  the  new  tax  if  it  was  not  to  be  put  00  cider. 
Pitt  whistled  the  air  of  the  popular  tune  "  Gentle  Shepherd,  teQ 
me  where,"  and  the  House  laughed.  Though  few  excelled  bin 
in  a  knowledge  of  the  forms  of  the  House  or  in  mastery  «f 
administrative  details,  his  tact  in  dealing  with  men  and  vitb 
aflairs  was  so  defective  that  there  is  perhaps  no  one  wbo  bas 
been  at  the  head  of  an  English  administration  to  whom  akiwtr 
place  can  be  assigned  as  a  statesman. 

In  X749  he  married  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Sir  William  Wynd- 
ham,  by  whom  he  had  a  large  family.  His  son,  the  second  £sri 
Temple,  was  created  marquess,  and  his  grandson  dvkc,  of 
Buckingham.    Another  son  was  William,  afterwards  X^ 


GRENVILLE,  SIR  R.— GRENVILLE,  LORD 


581 


Grenvilk.  Another,  Thomas  Grenville  (x7S5rx846),  who  was, 
with  one  interval,  a  member  of  parliament  from  1780  to  x8i8, 
and  for  a  few  months  during  x8o6  and  1807  president  of  the 
board  of  control  and  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  is  perhaps  more 
famous  as  a  book*coUector  than  as  a  statesman;  he  bequeathed 
his  laxsc  and  valuable  library  to  the  British  Museum. 

The  CrtnviUe  Papers,  being  Ae  Correspondence  of  Richard  GrennUe, 
Earl  Temple,  K.G.,  and  the  kif/U  Hon.  George  Grenville,  their  Friends 
and  Contemporaries,  were  published  at  London  in  1852,  and  afford 
\\i'  


the  chief  authority  for  his  life.    But  see  also  H.  Walpole's  Memoirs 


(Washinieton,  1904). 

ORENVILLB  (or  Gseynvilr),  SIR  RICHARD  (c.  1541-1591), 
British  naval  commander,  was  born  of  an  old  Cornish  family 
about  X541.  His  grandfather,  Sir  Richard,  had  been  marshal  of 
Calais  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  his  father  commanded 
and  was  lost  in  the  "  Mary  Rose  "  in  1545.  At  an  early  age 
Grenville  is  supposed  to  have  served  in  Hungary  under  the 
emperor  Maximilian  against  the  Turks.  In  the  years  X57X  and 
X584  he  sat  in  parliament  for  Cornwall,  and  in  1583  and  X584 
he  was  commissioner  for  the  works  at  Dover  harbour.  He  appears 
to  have  been  a  man  of  much  pride  and  ambition.  Of  his  bravery 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  In  1 585  he  commanded  the  fleet  of  seven 
vessels  by  which  the  colonists  sent  out  by  his  cousin,  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  were  carried  to  Roanoke  Island  in  the  present  North 
Carolina.  Grenville  himself  soon  returned  with  the  fleet  to 
England,  capturing  a  Spanish  vessel  on  his  way,  but  in  X586  he 
carried  provisions  to  Roanoke,  and  finding  the  colony  deserted, 
left  a  few  men  to  maintain  possession.  He  then  held  an  im- 
portant post  in  charge  of  the  defences  of  the  western  counties  of 
England.  When  a  squadron  was  despatched  in  x  59X ,  under  Lord 
Thomas  Howard,  to  intercept  the  homeward-bound  treasure-fleet 
of  Spain,  Grenville  was  appointed  as  second  in  command  on  board 
the  "  Revenge,"  a  ship  of  500  tons  which  had  been  commanded 
by  Drake  against  the  Armada  in  X588.  At  the  end  of  August 
Howard  with  16  ships  Uy  at  anchor  to  the  north  of  Flores  in  the 
Azores.  On  the  last  day  of  the  month  he  received  news  from  a 
pinnace,  sent  by  the  earl  of  Cumberland,  who  was  then  off  the 
Portugal  coast,  that  a  Spanish  fleet  of  53  vessels  was  then 
bearing  up  to  the  Azores  to  meet  the  treasure-ships.  Not  being  in 
a  position  to  fight  a  fleet  more  than  three  times  the  size  of  his 
own,  Howard  gave  orders  to  weigh  anchor  and  stand  out  to 
•ea.  But,  cither  from  some  misunderstanding  of  the  order,  or 
from  some  idea  of  Grenville's  that  the  Spanish  vessels  rapidly 
approaching  were  the  ships  for  which  they  had  been  waiting, 
the  "  Revenge  "  was  delayed  and  cut  off  from  her  consorts  by 
the  Spaniards.  Grenville  resolved  to  try  to  break  through  the 
middle  of  the  Spanish  line.  His  ship  was  becalmed  under  the  lee 
of  a  huge  galleon,  and  after  a  hand-to-hand  fight  lasting  through 
fifteen  hours  against  fifteen  Spanish  ships  and  a  force  of  five 
thousand  men,  the  "  Revenge  "  with  her  hundred  and  fifty  men 
was  captured.  Grenville  himself  wascarriedon  board  the  Spanish 
6ag-ship  "  San  Pablo,"  and  died  a  few  days  later.  The  incident 
is  commemorated  in  Tennyson's  ballad  of  "  The  Revenge." 

The  ^selling  of  Sir  Richard's  name  has  led  to  much  controversy. 
Four  different  families,  each  of  which  claim  to  be  descended  from 
him,  spdl  it  Granville,  Grenville,  Grcnfell  and  Greenfield.  The 
spelling  usually  accepted  is  Grenville,  but  his  own  signature, 
in  a  bold  dear  handwriting,  among  the  Taimer  MSS.  in  the 
Bodleiaa  library  at  Oxford,  is  Greynvile. 

ORENVILLB  (or  Granvixxe),  SIR  RICHARD  (1600-1658), 
En^ish  royalist,  was  the  third  smi  of  Sir  Beriutrd  Grenville 
(1559-X636),  and  a  grandson  of  the  famous  seaman,  Sir  Richard 
Grenville.  Having  served  in  France,  Germany  and  the  Nether- 
lands, Grenville  gained  the  favour  of  the  duke  of  Buckingham, 
took  part  in  the  expeditions  to  Cadiz,  to  the  island  of  Rh^  and 
to  La  Rochelle,  was  knighted,  and  in  1628  was  chosen  member 
of  parliament  for  Fowey.  Having  married  Mary  Fitz  (X596- 
167 1) ,  widow  of  Sir  Charles  Howard  (d.  1623)  and  a  lady  of  fortune, 
Grenville  was  made  a  baronet  jn  1630;  his  violent  temper, 
bowever,  made  the  marriage  an  unhappy  one,  and  be  was  ruined 


and  imprisoned  as  the  result  of  two  lawsuits,  one  with  his  wife, 
and  the  other  with  her  kinsman,  the  earl  of  Suffolk.  In  1633  he 
escaped  from  prison  and  went  to  Germany,  returning  to  England 
six  years  later  to  join  the  army  which  Charles  I.  was  collecting 
to  inarch  against  the  Scots.  Early  in  1641,  just  after  the  out- 
break of  the  Irish  rebellion,  Sir  Richard  led  some  troops  to  IrcUnd, 
where  he  won  some  fame  and  became  governor  of  Trim,  then 
returning  to  England  in  1643  he  was  arrested  at  Liverpool 
by  an  officer  of  the  parliament,  but  was  soon  released  and  sent 
to  join  the  parliamentary  army.  Having,  however,  secured  men 
and  money,  he  hurried  to  Chaiies  I.  at  Oxford  and  was  despatched 
to  take  part  in  the  siege  of  Plymouth,  quickly  becoming  the  leader 
of  the  forces  engaged  in  this  enterprise.  Compellml  to  raise 
the  siege  he  retiied  into  Cornwall,  where  he  helped  to  resist  the 
advancing  Parliamentarians;  but  he  quickly  showed  signs  of 
insubordination,  and,  whilst  sharing  in  the  siege  of  Taunton, 
he  was  wound«l  and  obliged  to  xcsign  his  command.  About 
thb  time  loud  complaints  were  brought  against  Grenville.  He 
had  behaved,  it  was  said,  in  a  very  arbitrary  fashion;  he  had 
hanged  some  men  and  imprisoned  others;  he  had  extorted 
money  and  had  used  the  contributions  towards  the  cost  of  the 
war  for  his  own  ends.  Many  of  these  charges  were  undoubtedly 
true,  but  upon  his  recovery  the  councillors  of  the  prince  of  Wales 
gave  him  a  position  under  Lord  Goring,  whom,  however,  he 
refused  to  obey.  Equally  recalcitrant  was  his  attitude  towards 
Goring's  successor,  Sir  Ralph  Hopton,  and  in  January  X646  he  was 
arrested.  But  he  was  soon  released ;  he  went  to  France  and  Italy, 
and  after  visiting  England  in  disguise  passed  some  time  in 
Hdland.  He  was  excepted  by  parliament  from  pardon  in  1648, 
and  after  the  king's  execution  he  was  with  Charles  II.  in  France 
and  elsewhere  until  some  unfounded  accusation  which  he  brought 
against  Edward  Hyde,  afterwards  earl  of  Ckrendon,  led  to  his 
removal  from  court.  He  died  in  1658,  and  was  buried  at  Ghent. 
In  X644,  when  Grenville  deserted  the  parliamentary  party,  a 
prodamation  was  put  out  against  him;  in  this  there  were  at- 
tached to  his  luune  several  offensive  epithets,  among  them  being 
skellum,  a  word  probably  derived  from  the  German  Sckeim, 
a  scoundrel    Heiioe  he  is  often  called  "  skellum  Grenville." 

Grenville  wrote  an  account  of  affairs  in  the  west  of  England,  which 
was  printed  in  T.  Carte's  Original  Letters  (173Q).  To  this  partisan 
account  Clarendon  drew  up  an  answer,  the  bulk  of  which  he  after- 
wards incorporated  in  his  History.  In  1654  Grenville  wrote  his  Single 
dej[ence  against  all  aspersions  of  oU  mtUignant  persons.  This  is 
printed  in  the  Works  01  Georve  Granville,  Lord  Lansdowne  CLondon, 
1736),  where  Lansdowne's  Vindication  of  his  kinsman.  Sir  Richard, 
against  Clarendon's  charges  is  also  found.  See  also  Clarendon, 
History  of  the  Rebellion,  edited  by  W.  D.  Macray  (Oxford.  1888); 
and  R.  Granville.  The  King's  General  in  the  West  (1908). 

GRENVILLE.  WILUAM  WTNDHAM  ORENVILLB,  Baron 
(1759-1834),  English  statesman,  youngest  son  of  George  Gren- 
ville, was  bom  on  the  35th  of  October  1759.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  gaining  the  chancellor's 
prize  for  Latin  verse  in  X779«  In  February  1782  Grenville  was 
returned  to  parliament  as  member  for  the  borough  of  Bucking- 
ham, and  in  the  following  September  he  became  secretary  to  the 
lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  who  at'  this  time  was  his  brother. 
Earl  Temple,  afterwards  marquess  of  Buckingham.  He  left 
office  in  June  X783,  but  in  the  following  December  he  became 
paymaster-general  of  the  forces  under  his  cousin,  William  Pitt, 
and  in  1786  vice-president  of  the  committee  of  trade.  In  X787 
he  was  sent  on  an  important  mission  to  the  Hague  and  Versailles 
with  reference  to  the  affairs  of  Holland.  In  January  1789  he 
was  chosen  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  but  he  vacated  the 
chair  in  the  same  year  on  being  appointed  secretary  of  state  for 
the  home  department;  about  the  same  time  he  resigned  his  other 
offices,  but  he  became  president  of  the  board  of  control,  and  in 
November  X790  was  created  a  peer  as  Baron  Grenville.  In  the 
House  of  Lords  he  was  very  active  in  directing  the  business  of  the 
government,  and  in  1791  he  was  transferred  to  the  foreign  office, 
retaining  his  post  at  the  board  of  control  until  1793.  He  was 
doubtless  re^rded  by  Pitt  as  the  man  best  fitted  to  carry  out 
his  policy  with  reference  to  France,  but  in  the  succeeding  years 
be  and  his  chief  were  frequently  at  variance  on  important 


582 


CRESHAM,  SIR  T. 


questions  of  foreign  policy.  In  spite  of  his  multifarious  duties 
at  the  foreign  office  Grenville  continued  to  take  a  lively  interest 
in  domestic  matters,  which  he  showed  by  introducing  various 
bills  into  the  House  of  Lords.  In  February  1801  he  resigned 
ofhce  with  Pitt  because  George  III.  would  not  consent  to  the 
introduction  of  any  measure  of  Roman  Catholic  relief,  and  in 
opposition  he  gradually  separated  himself  from  his  former  leader. 
When  Pitt  returned  to  power  in  1804  Grenville  refused  to  join 
the  ministry  unless  his  political  ally,  Fox,  wis  also  admitted 
thereto;  this  was  impossible  and  he  remained  out  of  office  until 
February  1806,  when  just  after  Pitt's  death  he  became  the 
nominal  head  of  a  coalition  government.  This  ministry  was  very 
unfortunate  in  its  conduct  of  foreign  affairs,  but  it  deserves  to 
be  remembered  with  honour  on  account  of  the  act  passed  in  1807 
for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade.  Its  influence,  however, 
was  weakened  by  the  death  of  Fox,  and  in  consequence  of  a 
minute  drawn  up  by  Grenville  and  some  of  his  colleagues  the 
king  demanded  from  his  ministers  an  assurance  that  in  future 
they  would  not  urge  upon  him  any  measures  for  the  relief  of 
Roman  Catholics.  They  refused  to  give  this  assurance  and  in 
March  1807  they  resigned.  Grenville's  attitude  in  this  matter 
was  somewhat  aggressive;  his  colleagues  were  not  unanimous 
in  supporting  him,  and  Sheridan,  one  of  them,  said  "  he  had 
known  many  men  knock  their  heads  against  a  wall,  but  he  had 
never  before  heard  of  any  man  who  collected  the  bricks  and  built 
the  very  wall  with  an  intention  to  knock  out  his  own  brains 
against  it." 

Lord  Grenville  never  held  office  again,  although  he  was 
requested  to  do  so  on  several  occasions.  He  continued,  however, 
to  take  part  in  public  life,  being  one  of  the  chief  supporters  of 
Roman  Catholic  emancipation,  and  during  the  remaining  years  of 
his  active  political  career,  which  ended  in  1823,  he  generally  voted 
with  the  Whigs,  although  in  18x5  he  separated  himself  from  his 
colleague,  Charles  Grey,  and  supported  the  warlike  policy  of 
Lord  Liverpool.  In  1819,  when  the  marquess  of  Lsinsdowne 
brought  forward  his  motion  for  an  inquiry  into  the  causes  of  the 
distress  and  discontent  in  the  manufacturing  districts,  Grenville 
delivered  an  alarmist  speech  advocating  repressive  measures. 
His  concluding  years  were  spent  at  Dropmore,  Buckinghamshire, 
where  he  died  on  the  Z2th  of  January  1834.  His  wife,  whom  he 
married  in  1792,  was  Anne  (177 2-1864),  daughter  of  Thomas  Pitt, 
ist  Baron  Camdford,  but  he  had  no  issue  and  his  title  became 
extinct.    In  1809  he  was  elected  chancellor  of  Oxford  university. 

Though  Grenville's  talents  were  not  of  the  highest  order  his 
straightforwardness  and  industry,  together  with  his  knowledge 
of  politics  and  the  moderation  of  his  opinions,  secured  for  him 
considerable  political  influence.  He  may  be  enrolled  among  the 
band  of  English  statesmen  who  have  distinguished  themselves 
in  literature.  He  edited  Lord  Chatham's  letters  to  his  nephew, 
Thomas  Pitt,  afterwards  Lord  Camelford  (London,  1804,  and 
other  editions);  he  wrote  a  small  volume,  Nugae Metricae {1^74)^ 
being  translations  into  Latin  from  English,  Greek  and  Italian,  and 
an  Essay  on  the  Supposed  Advantages  of  a  Sinking  Fund  (1828). 

The  Dropmore  MSS.  contayi  much  of  Grenville's  correspondence, 
and  on  this  the  Historical  Manuscripts  Commission  has  published  a 
report. 

GRESHAM,  SIR  THOMAS  (15x9-1 579)*  London  merchant, 
the  founder  of  the  Royal  Exchange  and  of  Gresham  College, 
London,  was  descended  from  an  old  Norfolk  family;  he  was  the 
only  son  of  Sir  Richard  Gresham,  a  leading  London  merchant, 
who  for  some  time  held  the  office  of  lord  mayor,  and  for  his 
services  as  agent  of  Henry  VIII.  in  negotiating  loans  with  foreign 
merchants  received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  Though  his  father 
intended  him  to  folbw  his  own  profession,  he  jicvertheless  sent 
him  for  some  time  to  Caitis  College,  Cambridge,  but  there  is  no 
information  as  to  the  duration  of  his  residence.  It  is  uncertain 
also  whether  it  was  before  or  after  this  that  he  was  apprenticed 
to  his  uncle  Sir  John  Gresham,  who  was  also  a  merchant,  but 
we  have  his  own  testimony  that  he  served  an  apprenticeship  of 
eight  years.  In  x  543,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  he  was  admitted 
a  member  of  the  Mercers'  Company,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
went  to  the  Low  Countries,  where,  either  on  his  own  account  or 


on  that  of  his  father  or  uncle,  he  both  carried  on  bu^ne»  as  a 
merchant  and  acted  in  various  matters  as  an  agent  for  Ucniy 
VIII.    In  X544  he  married  the  widow  of  William  Read,  a  London 
merchant,  but  he  still conlipued to  reside  principally  in  the  Low 
Countries,  having  his  headquarters  at  Antwerp.     When  in  xsji 
the  mismaiuLgement  of  Sir  William  Danscll,  "  king's  merchant  " 
in  the  Low  Countries,  had  brought  the  English  government  into 
great  financial  embarrassment,  Gresham  was  called  in  to  give 
his  advice,  and  chosen  to  carry  out  his  own  proposals.    Their 
leading  feature  was  the  adoption  of  various  methods — ^highly 
ingenious,  but  quite  arbitrary  and  unfair — ^for  raising  the  value 
of  the  pound  sterling  on  the  "  bourse  "  of  Antwerp,  and  it  was 
so  successful  that  in  a  few  years  nearly  all  King  Edward's  debts 
were  discharged.    The  advice  of  Gresham  was  likewise  sought 
by  the  government  in  all  their  money  difficulties,  and  he  was 
also  frequently  employed  in  various  diplomatic  missions.    He 
had  no  stated  salary,  but  in  reward  of  his  services  received  from 
Edward  various  grants  of  lands,  the  annual  value  of  which  at  that 
time  was  ultimately  about  £400  a  year.      On  the  accession  of 
Mary  be  was  for  a  short  time  in  disfavour,  and  was  displaced 
in  his  post  by  Alderman  William  Dauntsey.    But  Dauntscy's 
financial  operations  were  not  very  successfiU  and  Gresham  was 
soon  reinstated;  and  as  he  prof e^ed- his  zealous  desire  to  serve 
the  queen,  and  ma'nifested  great  adroitness  both  in  negotiating 
loans  and  in  smuggling  money,  arms  and  foreign  goods,  iK>t  oaiy 
were  his  services  retained  throughout  her  reign,  but  besides  hb 
salary  of  twenty  shillings  per  diem  he  received  grants  of  church 
lands  to  the  yearly  value  of  £200.    Under  Queen  Elizabeth, 
besides  continuing  in  his  post  as  financial  agent  of  the  crown, 
he  acted  temporarily  as  ambassador  at  the  court  of  the  duchess  of 
Parma,  being  knighted  in  1559  previous  to  his  dqiarture.    By 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  the  Ia>w  Countries  he  was  compelled 
to  leave  Antwerp  on  the  X9th  of  March  X567;  but,  though  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  London,  be  continued  his 
business  as  merchant  and  financial  agent  of  the  government 
in  much  the  same  way  as  formerly.    Elizabeth  also  found  him 
useful  in  a  great  variety  of  other  ways,  among  which  was  that 
of  acting  as  jailer,  to  Lady  Mary  Grey,  who,  as  a  pimishment  for 
marrying  Thomas  Keys  the  sergeant  porter,  remained  a  prisoner 
in  his  house  from  June  x  569  to  the  end  of  x  57  a.    In  1 565  Gresham 
made  a  proposal  to  the  cqurt  of  aldermen  of  London  to  build 
at  his  own  expense  a  bouraib  or  exchange,  on  condition  that  they 
purchased  for  this  purpose  a  piece  of  suitable  ground.    In  th^ 
proposal  he  seems  to  have  had  an  eye  to  his  own  interest  is  wdl 
as  to  the  general  good  of  the  merchants,  for  by  a  yeariy  rental 
of  £700  obtained  for  the  shops  in  the  upper  part  of  the  building 
he  received  a  sufficient  return  for  his  trouble  and  expense. 
Gresham  died  suddenly,  apparently  of  apoplexy,  on  the  sisi 
of  November  1579.    His  only  son  predecttsed  him,  and  his 
illegitimate  daughter  Anne  he  married  to  Sir  Nathanid  Bacon, 
brother  of  the  great  Lord  Bacon.    With  the  exception  d  a 
number  of  small  sums  bequeathed  to  the  support  of  vaiioiB 
charities,  the  bulk  of  his  property,  consisting  of  estates  in  vaiioiis 
parts  of  England  of  the  annual  value  of  more  than  £2300^  was 
bequeathed  to  his  widow  and  her  heirs  with  the  ^ipulation  that 
after  her  decease  his  residence  in  Bishopsgate  Street,  as  well  is 
the  rents  arising  from  the  Royal  Exchange,  should  be  vested 
in  the  hands  of  the  corporation  of  London  and  the  Maters' 
Company,  for  the  purpose  of  instituting  a  college  in  whidi  seven 
professors  should  read  lectures — one  each  day  of  the  week— 00 
astronomy,  geometry,  physic,  law,  divinity,  rhetoric  and  music. 
The  lectures  were  begun  in  x  597,  and  were  delivered  in  theoiiginal 
building  until  1768,  when,  on  the  ground  that  the  trustees  wen 
losers  by  the  gift,  it  was  made  over  to  the  crown  for  a  yearly  rent 
of  £500,  and  converted  into  an  excise  office.    From  that  time 
a  room  in  the  Royal  Exdiange  was  Used  for  the  lectures  until  io 
X843  the  present  building  was  erected  at  a  cost  of  £7ooa 

A  notice  of  Gresham  is  contained  in  Fuller's  Worthies  and  WanTi 
Gresham  Professors;  but  the  fullest  account  of  him.  as  well  as  dim 
history  of  the  Exchange  and  Gresham  CoUecie  a  that  by  J.  M.  Bofea 
in  his  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  Thomas  Creslam  (2  vols.,  i939)-  ^ 
aim  a  Brief  Memoir  of  Sir  Thomas  Gresham  (1833) ;  and  ThtLifi^ 
Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  Ponmder  of  tho  Royal  BxekoMgs  (i845>- 


GRESHAM,  W.  Q.— GRETRY 


583 


GRBSHAM,  WALTER  QUIMTON  (X832-X89S),  American 
sUtesman  and  jurist,  was  bom  near  LanesviUe,  Harrison  county, 
Indiana,  on  the  17th  of  March  183  a.  He  spent  two  years  in  an 
academy  at  Corydon,  Indiana,  and  one  year  at  the  Indiana  State 
University  at  Bloomington,  then  studied  law,  and  in  1854  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  He  was  active  as  a  campaign  speaker  for 
the  Republican  ticket  in  1856,  and  in  z^6o  was  dected  to  the 
State  House  of  Representatives  as  a  Republican  in  a  strong 
Democratic  district  In  the  House,  as  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  military  affairs,  he  did  much  to  prepare  the  Indiana  troops 
for  service  in  the  Federal  army;  in  x86x  he  became  colonel 
of  the  53rd  Indiana  Volunteer  Infantry,  and  subsequently  took 
port  in  Grant's  Teimessee  campaign  of  X862,  and  in  the  operations 
against  Corinth  and  Vicksburg,  where  be  commanded  a  brigade. 
In  August  X863  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
and  was  placed  in  command  of  the  Federal  forces  at  Niftchex. 
In  X864  he  commanded  a  division  of  the  X7th  Army  Corps 
in  Sherman's  Atlanta  campaign,  and  before  Atlanta,  on  the 
20th  of  July,  he  received  a  wound  wHich  forced  him  to  retire 
from  active  service,  and  left  him  lame  for  life.  In  1865  he  was 
brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers.  After  the  war  he  practised 
law  at  New  Albany,  Indiana,  and  in  X869  was  appointed  by 
President  Grant  United  States  District  Judge  for  Indiana. 
In  April  1883  he  succeeded  Timothy  O.  Howe  (x8x6-z883)  as 
postmaster-general  in  President  Arthur's  cabinet,  taking  an 
active  part  in  the  suppression  of  the  Louisiana  Lottery,  and  in 
September  X884  succeeded  Charles  J.  Folger  as  secretary  of  the 
treasury.  In  the  following  month  he  resigned  to  accq>t  an 
appointment  as  United  States  Judge  for  the  Seventh  Judicial 
Circuit.  Gresham  was  a  candidate  for  the  Republican  presi- 
dential nomination  in  1884  and  x888,  in  the  latter  year  leading 
for  some  time  in  the  balloting.  Gradually,  however,  he  grew 
out  of  83rmpathy  with  the  Republican  leaders  and  policy,  and  in 
189a  advocated  the  election  of  the  Democratic  candidate,  Grover 
Cleveland,  for  the  presidency.  From  the  7th  of  March  X893 
until  his  death  at  Washington  on  the  28th  of  May  1895,  he  was 
secretary  of  state  in  President  Cleveland's  cabinet 

6RBSHAII*S  LAW,  in  economics,  the  name  suggested  in  x8s7 
by  H.  D.  Madeod  for  the  principle  of  currency  which  may  be 
briefly  summarized — "  bad  money  drives  out  good."  Madeod 
gave  it  this  name,  which  has  been  universally  adopted,  under  the 
impression  that  the  prindple  was  first  explained  by  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham  in  x  5 58.  In  reality  it  had  been  well  set  forth  by  earlier 
economic  writers,  notably  Oresme  and  Copernicus.  Madeod 
states  the  law  in  .these  terms:  the  worst  form  of  currency  in 
drculaticm  regulates  the  value  of  the  whole  currency  and  drives 
all  other  fonns  of  airrency  out  of  drculation.  Gresham 's  law 
applies  where  there  is  under-wdght  or  debased  coin  in  circubtion 
with  fuU-wdght  coin  of  the  same  metal;  where  there  are  two 
metals  in  circulation,  and  one  is  undervalued  as  compared  with 
the  other,  and  where  inconvertible  paper  money  is  put  into 
drculation  side  by  side  with  a  metallic  currency.  See  further 
BncETALLisu;  Money. 

GRESSET,  JEAN  BAPTISTS  LOUIS  (i 709-1 777),  French 
poet  and  dramatist,  was  bom  at  Amiens  on  the  29th  of  August 
1 709.  His  poem  Vert  Vert  is  his  main  title  to  fame.  He  spent, 
however,  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life  in  regretting  the 
frivolity  which  enabled  him  to  produce  this  most  charming  of 
poeixts.  He  was  brought  up  by  the  Jesuits  of  Amiens.  He  was 
accepted  as  a  novice  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  sent  to  pursue  his 
studies  at  the  College  Louis  le  Grand  in  Paris.  After  completing 
his  course  he  was  appointed,  bdng  then  under  twenty  years  of 
age,  to  a  post  as  assbtant  master  in  a  college  at  Rouen.  He  pub- 
lished Vert  Vert  at  Rouen  in  1734.  It  b  a  story,  in  itself  exceed- 
ingly humorous,  showing  how  a  parrot,  the  delight  of  a  convent, 
whose  talk  was  all  of  prayers  and  pious  ejaculations,  was 
conveyed  to  another  convent  as  a  visitor  to  please  the  nuns.  On 
the  way  he  falls  among  bad  companions,  forgets  his  convent 
language,  and  shocks  the  sisters  on  arrival  by  profane  swearing. 
He  is  sent  back  in  disgrace,  punished  by  solitude  and  plain 
bread,  presently  repents,  reforms  and  is  killed  by  kindness.  The 
story,  however,  is  nothing.    The  treatment  of  the  subject,  the 


atmosphere  which  surrounds  it,  the  delicacy  in  which  the  little 

prattling  ways  of  the  nuns,  their  jealousies,  their  tiny  trifles,  are 

presented,  tiJces  the  reader  entirdy  by  surprise.  The  poem  stands 

absolutdy  unrivalled,  even  among  French  eontes  en  vers. 

Gresset  found  himself  famous.    He  left  Rouen,  went  up  to 

Paris,  where  he  found  refuge  in  the  same  garret  which  had 

sheltered  him  when  a  boy  at  the  CoU^  Louis  le  Grand,  and 

there  wrote  his  second  poem,  La  Chartreuse.    It  was  followed 

by  the  Carbne  imprompt«t  the  Lutrin  vivant  and  Les  Ombres. 

Then  trouble  came  upon  him;  complaints  were  made  to  the 

fathers  of  the  alleged  licentiousness  of  his  verses,  the  real  cause 

of  complaint  bdng  the  ridicule  which  Vert  Vert  seemed  to  throw 

upon  the  whde  race  of  nuns  and  the  anti-dcrical  tendency  of 

the  other  poems.    An  example,  it  was  urged,  must  be  made; 

Gresset  was  expelled  the  order.   Men  of  robust  mind  would  have 

been  glad  to  get  rid  of  such  a  yoke.     Gresset ,  who  had  never  been 

taught  to  stand  alone,  went  forth  weeping.    He  went  to  Paris 

in  X740  and  there  produced  £d(mard  II I ^  a  tragedy  (1740) 

and  Sidnei  ( x  745) ,  a  comedy.  These  were  followed  by  Le  MtchatU 

which  still  keeps  the  stage,  and  is  qualified  by  Brunetidre 

as  the  best  verse  comedy  9f  the  French  x8th  century  theatre, 

not  excepting  even  the  Mitromanie  of  Alexis  Piron.    Gresset 

was  admitted  to  the  Academy  in  1748.    And  then,  still  young, 

he  retired  to  Axniens,  where  his  rdapse  from  the  disdpline  of  the 

church  became  the  subject  of  the  deepest  remorse.    He  died 

at  Amiens  on  the  x6th  ol  June  1777. 

The  best  edition  of  hb  poems  b  A.  A.  Rdnouard*8(x8ii).  See  Jules 
Wogue,  /.  B.  L.  Gresset  (1894). 

ORBTHA  OREEN,  or  Graitney  Gkeen,  a  village  in  the  south- 
east of  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland,  about  8  m.  £.  of  Annan,  9  m. 
N.N.W.  of  Carlisle,  and  |  m.  from  the  river  Sark,  here  the 
dividing-line  between  England  and  Scotland,  with  a  station  on 
the  Glaogow  &  South-Westem  railway.  The  Caledonian  and 
North  British  railways  have  a  station  at  Gretna  on  the  Englbh 
side  of  the  Border.  As  the  nearest  village  on  the  Scottbh  side, 
Gretna  Green  was  notorious  as  the  resort  of  doping  couples, 
who  had  failed  to  obtain  the  consent  of  parents  or  guardians  to 
thdr  union.  Up  till  1754,  when  Lord  Hardwicke's  act  abolishing 
clandestine  marriages  came  into  force,  the  ceremony  had  com- 
monly been  performed  in  the  Fleet  prison  in  London.  After 
that  date  runaway  couples  were  compelled  to  seek  the  hospitality 
of  a  country  where  it  sufficed  for  them  to  declare  thdr  wish 
to  many  in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  At  Gretna  Green  the 
ceremony  was  usually  performed  by  the  blacksmith,  but  the  toll- 
keeper,  ferryman  or  in  fact  any  person  might  officiate,  and  the 
toll-house,  iht  inn,  or,  after  X826,  Gretna  Hall  was  the  scene  of 
many  such  weddings,  the  fees  varying  from  half  a  guinea  to  a 
sum  as  large  as  impudence  could  extort  or  extravagance  bestow. 
As  many  as  two  hundred  couples  were  married  at  the  toll-house 
in  a  year.  The  romantic  traffic  was  practically,  though  not 
necessarily,  put  an  end  to  in  x8s6,  when  the  bw  required  one  of 
the  contracting  parties  to  reside  in  Scotland  three  weeks  previous 
to  thcevent.  

0R£TRY,  ANORA  ERNEST  MODESTB  (x74x-x8x3),  French 
composer,  was  bom  at  Li6ge  on  the  8th  of  February  X74X,  his 
father  being  a  poor  musician.  He  was  a  choir  boy  at  the  church 
of  St  Denb.  In  X753  he  became  a  pupil  of  Leclerc  and  later  of 
Renekin  and  Moreau.  But  of  greater  importance  was  the 
practical  tuition  he  received  by  attending  the  performance  of 
an  Italian  opera  company.  Here  he  heard  the  operas  of  Galuppi, 
Pcrgolesi  and  other  masters;  and  the  desire  of  completing  his 
own  studies  in  Italy  was  the  immediate  result.  To  find  the 
necessary  means  he  composed  in  X750  a  mass  which  he  dedicated 
to  the  canons  of  the  Li6ge  cathedral,  and  it  was  at  the  cost  of 
Canon  Hurley  that  he  went  to  Italy  in  the  March  of  X759.  In 
Rome  he  went  to  the  CoU^  de  Li6ge.  Here  Gretry  resided  for 
five  years,  studiously  employed  in  completing  his  musical 
education  under  Casali.  His  proficiency  in  harmony  and  counter- 
point was,  however,  according  to  hb  own  confession,  at  all  times 
very  moderate.  His  first  great  success  was  achieved  by  La 
Vendcmmiairice,  an  Italian  intermezzo  or  operetta,  composed  (or 
the  Aliberti  theatre  in  Rome  and  received  with  universal 


584 


GREUZE,  J.  B. 


applause.  It  is  said  that  the  study  of  the  score  of  one  of  Mon- 
signy's  operas,  lent  to  him  by  a  secretary  of  the  French  embassy 
in  Rome,  decided  Gr^try  to  devote  himself  to  French  comic 
opera.  On  New  Year's  day  1767  he  accordingly  left  Rome, 
and  after  a  short  stay  at  Geneva  (where  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Voltaire,  and  produced  another  operetta)  went  to  Paris. 
There  for  two  years  he  had  to  contend  with  the  difficulties 
incident  to  poverty  and  obscurity.  He  was,  however,  not  without 
friends,  and  by  the  intercession  of  Count  Creutz,  the  Swedish 
ambassador,  Gr£try  obtained  a  libretto  from  Marmontel,  which 
he  set  to  music  in  less  than  six  weeks,  and  which,  on  its  perform- 
ance in  August  1768,  met  with  unparalleled  success.  The  name 
of  the  opera  was  Le  Huron.  Two  others,  LuciU  and  Le  Tableau 
parlarU,  soon  followed,  and  thenceforth  Gr6try's  position  as  the 
leading  composer  of  comic  opera  was  safely  established.  Alto- 
gether he  composed  some  fifty  operas.  His  masterpieces  are 
Zimire  et  Ator  and  Richard  Caur  de  Lum^ — the  first  produced  in 
1 771,  the  second  in  1784.  The  latter  in  an  indirect  way  became 
connected  with  a  great  historic  event.  In  it  occurs  the  celebrated 
romance,  O  Richard^  d  man  roi^  Vunivers  t'abandonne,  which  was 
sung  at  the  banquet — "fatal  as  that  of  Thyestes,"  remarks 
Carlyle— given  by  the  bodyguard  to  the  officers  of  the  Versailles 
garrison  on  October  3,  1789.  The  Marseillaise  not  long  after- 
wards became  the  reply  of  the  people  to  the  expression  of  loyalty 
borrowed  from  Gritry's  opera.  The  composer  himself  was  not 
uninfluenced  by  the  great,  events  he  witnessed,  and  the  titles  of 
some  of  his  operas,  such  as  La  Rosiire  ripublicaine  and  La  FtU 
de  la  raison,  sufficiently  indicate  the  epoch  to  which  they  belong; 
but  they  axe  mere  pUces  de  circonstance,  and  the  republican 
enthusiasm  displayed  is  not  genuine.  Little  more  successful 
was  Gr6try  in  his  dealings  with  classical  subjects.  His  genuine 
power  lay  in  the  delineation  of  character  and  in  the  expression 
of  tender  and  typically  French  sentiment.  The  structure  of  his 
concerted  pieces  on  the  other  hand  is  frequently  flimsy,  and  his 
instrumentation  so  feeble  that  the  orchestral  parts  of  some  of  his 
works  had  to  be  rewritten  by  other  composers,  in  order  to  make 
them  acceptable  to  modem  audiences.  During  the  revolution 
Gr^try  lost  much  of  his  property,  but  the  successive  governments 
of  France  vied  in  favouring  the  composer,  regardless  of  political 
differences.  From  the  old  court  he  received  distinctions  and 
rewards  of  all  kinds;  the  republic  made  him  an  inspector  of  the 
conservatoire;  Napoleon  granted  him  the  cross  of  the  legion  of 
honour  and  a  pension.  Gr6try  died  on  the  24th  of  September 
1813,  at  the  Hermitage  in  Montmorency,  formerly  the  house 
of  Rousseau.  Fifteen  years  after  his  death  Gr6try's  heart  was 
transferred  to  his  birthplace,  permission  having  been  obtained 
after  a  tedious  lawsuit.  In  184a  a  colossal  bronze  statue  of  the 
composer  was  set  up  at  Li^ge. 

See  Michael  Brcnct.  Vie  de  Critry  (Paris,  1884):  Joach.  le  Breton, 
Notice  historique  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrates  de  Grilry  (Paris.  1814); 
A.  Grtftry  (his  nephew),  Gritry  en  famUle  (Paris,  1814);  Felix  van 
Hulst,  Gritry  (Li^e,  1 842);  L.  D.  b.  Notice  biographique  sur  Grilry 
(BruxcUes,  1869). 

GREUZE,  JEAN  BAFTISTE  (1725-1805),  Trench  painter,'  was 
bom  at  Tournus,  in  Burgundy,  on  the  21st  of  August  1725,  and 
is  generally  said  to  have  formed  his  own  talent;  this  is,  however, 
true  only  in  the  most  limited  sense,  for  at  an  early  age  his  in- 
clinations, though  thwarted  by  his  father,  were  encouraged  by  a 
Lyonnese  artist  named  Grandon,  or  Grondom,  who  enjoyed 
during  his  b'fctime  considerable  reputation  as  a  portrait-painter. 
Grandon  not  only  persuaded  the  father  of  Greuze  to  give  way 
to  his  son's  wishes,  and  permit  the  lad  to  accompany  him  as  his 
pupil  to  Lyons,  but,  when  at  a  later  date  he  himself  left  Lyons 
for  Paris— where  his  son-in-law  Gr6try  the  celebrated  composer 
enjoyed  the  height  of  favour — Grandon  carried  young  Greuze  with 
him.  Settled  in  Paris,  Greuze  worked  from  the  living  model  in 
the  school  of  the  Royal  Academy,  but  did  not  attract  the  attention 
of  his  teachers;  and  when  he  produced  his  first  picture,  "  Le  Pire 
de  familie  expliquant  la  Bible  k  ses  enfants,"  considerable  doubt 
was  felt  and  shown  as  to  his  share  in  its  production.  By  other 
and  more  remarkable  works  of  the  same  class  Greuze  soon 
established  his  claims  beyond  contest,  and  won  for  himself  the 


notice  and  support  of  the  well-known  connoisseur  La  Live  de 
JuUy,  the  brother-in-law  of  Madame  d'£pinay.    In  1755  Greuze 
exhibited  his  "  Aveugle  tromp6,"  upon  which,  presented  by 
Pigalle  the  sculptor,  he  was  immediately  agrH  by  the  Academy. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  same  year  he  left  France  for  Italy,  in 
company  with  the  Abb6  Louis  Gougenot,  who  had  deserted  from 
the  magistrature — ^although  he  had  obtained  the  post  of  **  cod- 
seillier  au  Ch&telet "— in  order  to  take  the  *■  petit  coUet." 
Gougenot  had  some  acquaintance  with  the  arts,  and  was  highly 
valued  by-  the  Academicians,  who,  during  his  journey  with 
Greuze,  elected  him  an  honorary  member  of  their  body  on 
account  of  his  studies  in  mythology  and  allegory;  his  acqtxire- 
ments  in  these  respects  are  said  to  have  been  largely  utilized  by 
them,  but  to  Greuze  they  were  of  doubtful  advantage,  and  he 
lost  rather  than  gained  by  this  visit  to  Italy  in  Gougenot's 
company.    He  had  undertaken  it  probably  in  order  to  silence 
those  who  taxed  him  with  ignorance  of  "  great  models  of  style," 
but  the  Italian  subjects  which  formed  the  entirety  of  his  contri- 
butions to  the  Salon  of  1757  showed  that  he  had  been  put  on  • 
false  track,  and  he  speedily  resumed  to  the  source  of  ha  first 
inspiration.    In  1759, 1761  ("  L'Accordfe  de  village  " — ^Louvre), 
and  1763  Greuze  exhibited  with  ever-increasing  success;  in  1765 
he  reached  the  zenith  of  his  powers  and  reputation.    In  that  year 
he  was  represented  with  no  less  than  thirteen  works,  amongst 
which  may  be  cited  "  La  Jeune  Fille  qui  pleure  son  oiseau  mort," 
"  La  Bonne  Mire,"  "  Le  Mauvais  fib  pum" "  (Louvre)  and  "  U 
Malediction  patemelle  "  (Louvre) .  The  Academy  took  occasion  to 
press  Greuze  for  his  diploma  picture,  the  execution  of  which  had 
been  long  delayed,  and  forbade  him  to  exhibit  on  their 'walls 
until  he  had  complied  with  their  regulations.    "  J 'ai  vu  la  lenre," 
says  Diderot,  "  qui  est  un  module  d'honnitet^  et  d'estimc; 
j'ai  vu  la  r^ponse  de  Greuze,  qui  est  un  module  de  vacit£ 
et  d'impertinence:  il  fallait  appuyer  cela  d'un  chef-d'oravre, 
et  c'est  ce  que  Greuze  n'a  pas  fait."     Greuze  wished  to  be 
received  as  a  historical  painter,  and  produced  a  work  which  he 
intended  to  vindicate  his  right  to  despise  his  qualifications  35  a 
peintre  de  genre.  This  unfortunate  canvas — "  Severe  et  Caracalla  " 
(Louvre) — was  exhibited  in  1769  side  by  side  with  Greuze's 
portrait  of  Jeaurat  (Louvre)  and  his  admirable  "  Petite  Fille  au 
chien  noir."   The  Academicians  received  their  new  member  witb 
all  due  honours,  but  at  the  close  of  the  ceremonies  the  DirecKK 
addressed  Greuze  in  these  words — "  Monsieur,  TAcad^mie  \'oie 
a  recu,  mais  c'est  comme  peintre  de  genre;  elle  a  eu  ^rd  a  vos 
anciennes  productions,  qui  sont  excellentes,  et  elle  a  (ami  les 
yeux  sur  celle-ci,  qui  n'est  digne  ni  d'elle  ni  de  vous."    Greua, 
greatly  incensed,  quarrelled  with  his  confrhcs,  and  ceased  to 
exhibit  until,  in  1804,  the  Revolution  had  thrown  open  the  doois 
of  the  Academy  to  all  the  world.    In  the  following  year,  on  the 
4th  of  March  1805,  he  died  in  the  Louvre  in  great  poverty.  He 
had  been  in  receipt  of  considerable  wealth,  which  be  had  dissi- 
pated by  extravagance  and  bad  management,  so  that  during 
his  closing  years  he  was  forced  even  to  solicit  commissions  which 
his  enfeebled  powers  no  longer  enabled  him  to  carry  out  vith 
success.    The  brilliant  reputation  which  Greuze  acquired  seems 
to  have  been  due,  not  to  his  acquirements  as  a  painter— for 
his  practice  is  evidently  that  current  in  his  own  day — but  to  the 
character  of  the  subjects  which  he  treated.     That  return  to 
nature  which  inspired  Rousseau's  attacks  upon  an  artiferiAl 
civilization  demanded  expression  in  art.    Diderot,  in  Le  FUs 
naiurel  ei  le  pire  de  familie^  tried  to  turn  the  vein  of  domestic 
drama  to  account  on  the  stage;  that  which  he  tried  and  failed 
to  do  Greuze,  in  painting,  achieved  with  extraordinary  success, 
although  his  works,  like  the  plays  of  Diderot,  were  affected  by 
that  very  artificiality  against  wWch  they  protested.    The  touch 
of  melodramatic  exaggeration,  however,  which  runs  through 
them  finds  an  apology  in  the  firm  and  brilliant  play  of  Unc,  in  the 
freshness  and  vigour  of  the  flesh  tints,  in  the  enticing  softness  0; 
expression  (often  obtained  by  almost  an  abuse  of  mi  plats),  by  the 
alluring  air  of  health  and  youth,  by  the  sensuous  altradioie,  in 
short,  with  which  Greuze  invests  his  lessons  of  bourgeois  nK>nlit>j- 
As  Diderot  said  of "  La  Bonne  Mire,"  "  ja  prftcbe  la  populatjoa;" 
and  a  certain  piquancy  of  contrast  is  the  result  which  ne^'^ 


GREVILLB— GREW 


585 


Cafls  to  obtain  admirers.  **  La  Jeune  FiDo  k  Tagneau  "  fetched, 
indeed,  at  the  Pourtal^  sale  in  1865,  no  less  than  1,000,200  francs. 
One  of  Greuze's  pupils,  Madame  Le  Doux,  imitated  with  success 
the  manner  of  her  master;  his  daughter  and  granddaughter j 
Madame  dc  Valory,  also  inherited  some  traditions  of  his  talent. 
Madame  de  Valory  published  in  1813  a  com6die-vaudeviUc, 
Creuze^  oh  Vaccordie  de  village,  to  which  she  prefixed  a  notice 
of  her  grandfather's  life  and  works,  and  the  Salons oi  Diderot  also 
contain,  besides  many  other  particulars,  the  story  at  full  length 
of  Greuze's  quarrel  with  the  Academy.  Four  of  the  most 
distinguished  engravers  ot  that  date,  Massard  pire,  Flipart, 
Gaillard  and  Levasseur,  were  specially  entrusted  by  Greuze 
with  the  reproduction  of  his  subjects,  but  there  are  also  excellent 
prints  by  other  engravers,  notably  by  Cars  and  Le  Bas. 
Sec  also  Nnrmand,  /.  B.  Cretae  (1893).  (E.  F.  S^  D.) 

GREVILLB.  CHARLES  CAVENDISH  FULKE  (1794-1865), 
English  diarist,  a  great-grandson  by  his  father  of  the  sth  earl  of 
Warwick,  and  son  of  Lady  Charlotte  Bentinck,  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Portland,  formerly  a  leader  of  the  Whig  party,  and 
first  minister  of  the  crown,  was  born  on  the  and  of  April  1794. 
Much  of  his  childhood  was  spent  at  his  grandfather's  house 
at  Bulstrode.  He  was  one  of  the  pages  of  George  III.,  and  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  but  he  left  the 
university  early,  having  been  appointed  private  secretary  to 
Earl  Bathurst  before  he  was  twenty.  The  interest  of  the  duke 
of  Portland  had  secured  for  him  the  secretaryship  of  the  island 
of  Jamaica,  which  was  a  sinecure  office,  the  duties  being  per- 
formed by  a  deputy,  and  the  reversion  of  the  clerkship  of  the 
council.  Greville  entered  upon  the  discharge  of  the  duties  of 
clerk  of  the  council  in  ordinary  in  1821,  and  continued  to  perform 
them  for  nearly  forty  years.  He  therefore  served  under  three 
successive  sovereigns, — George  IV.,  William  IV.  and  Victoria, — 
and  although  no  political  or  confidential  functions  are  attached 
to  that  office,  it  is  one  which  brings  a  man  into  habitual  inter- 
course with  the  chiefs  of  all  the  parties  in  the  state.  Well-born, 
well-bred,  handsome  and  accomplished,  Greville  led  the  easy 
life  of  a  man  of  fashion,  taking  an  occasional  part  in  the  transac- 
tions of  his  day  and  much  consulted  in  the  affairs  of  private  life. 
Until  1855  when  he  sold  his  stud  he  was  an  active  member  of 
the  turf,  and  he  trained  successively  with  Lord  George  Bentinck, 
and  with  the  duke  of  Portland.  But  the  celebrity  which  now 
attaches  to  his  name  is  entirely  due  to  the  posthumous  publication 
of  a  portion  of  a  Journal  or  Diary  which  it  was  his  practice  to 
keep  during  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  These  papers  were 
given  by  htm  to  his  friend  Mr  Henry  Reeve  a  short  time  before 
his  death  (which  took  place  on  the  i8th  of  January  1865),  with 
an  injunction  that  they  should  be  published,  as  far  as  was 
feasible,  at  not  too  remote  a  period  after  the  writer's  death.  The 
journals  of  the  reigns  of  George  IV.  and  William  IV.  (extending 
from  i8ao  to  1837)  were  accordingly  so  published  in  obedience 
to  his  directions  about  ten  years  after  that  event.  Few  publica- 
tions have  been  received  with  greater  interest  by  the  public; 
five  large  editions  were  sold  in  little  more  than  a  year,  and  the 
demand  in  America  was  as  great  as  in  England.  These  journals 
were  regarded  as  a  faithful  record  of  the  impressions  made  on 
the  mind  of  a  competent  observer,  at  the  time,  by  the  events  be 
witnessed  and  the  persons  with  whom  he  associated.  Greville 
did  not  stoop  to  collect  or  record  private  scandal.  His  object 
appears  to  have  been  to  leave  behind  him  some  of  the  materials 
of  history,  by  which  the  men  and  actions  of  his  own  time  would 
be  judged.  He  records  not  so  much  public  events  as  the  private 
causes  which  led  to  them;  and  perhaps  no  English  memoir- 
writer  has  left  behind  him  a  more  valuable  contribution  to  the 
history  of  the  19th  century.  Greville  published  anonymously,  in 
1845,  a  volume  on  the  Past  and  Present  Policy  of  En^nd  to 
Ireland,  in  which  he  advocated  the  payment  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  clergy;  and  he  was  also  the  author  of  several  pamphlets 
on  the  events  of  his  day. 

His  brother,  Henry  Greville  (180X-1872),  attache  to  the 
British  embassy  in  Paris  from  1834  to  1844,  also  kept  a  diary, 
of  which  part  was  published  by  Viscountess  Enfield,  Leaves  from 
the  Diary  of  Henry  CreviUe  (London,  1883-1884). 


See  the  preface  and  notes  to  the  QrevUte  Memoirs  by  Heniy  Reeve. 
The  mcmoirB  appeared  in  three  sets— one  from  181 7  to  1837  (London, 
1875. 3  vols.),  and  two  for  the  period  from  1837  to  i860,  three  volumes 
in  1885  and  two  in  1887.  When  the  first  series  appeared  in  1875  some 
passages  caused  extrenfe  offence.  The  copies  issued  were  as  far  as 
possible  recalled  and  passages  suppressed. 

QRfiVIN,  JACQUES  {c.  1 539-1 570),  French  dramatist,  was  bom 
at  Clermont  about  1539.  He  studied  medicine  at  the  university 
of  Paris.  He  became  a  disciple  of  Ronsard,  and  was  one  of  the 
band  of  dramatists  who  sought  to  introduce  the  classical  drama 
in  France.  As  Saintc-Bcuve  points  out,  the  comedies  of  Gr6vin 
show  considerable  affinity  with  the  farces  and  solies  that  preceded 
them..  His  first  play.  La  Mauberline,  was  lost,  and  formed  the 
basis  of  a  new  comedy,  La  Trisoriire,  first  performed  at  the 
college  of  Beauvais  in  1558,  though  it  had  been  originally  com- 
posed at  the  desire  of  Henry  II.  to  celebrate  the  marriage  of 
Claude,  duchess  of  Lorraine.  In  1560  followed  the  tragedy  of 
Jules  Cisar,  imitated  from  the  Latin  of  Muret,  and  a  comedy, 
Les  £bdns,  the  most,  important  but  also  the  most  indecent  of 
his  works.  Gr6vin  was  also  the  author  of  some  medical  works 
and  of  miscellaneous  poems,  which  were  praised  by  Ronsard 
until  the  friends  were  separated  by  religious  differences.  Gr£vin 
became  in  1561  physician  and  counsellor  to  Margaret  of  Savoy, 
and  died  at  her  court  in  Turin  in  1570. 

The  Thidire  of  Jacques  Gr6vln  was  printed  in  1563,  and  in  the 
Ancien  Tkidtre  franfais,  vol.  iv.  (i8$5-x8s6).  See  L.  Pinvcrt. 
Jacqwts  Crbfin  (1899). 

ORdVY,  FRANCIS  PAUL  JULES  (1813-1891),  President 
of  the  French  Republic,  was  born  at  Mont-sous- Vaudrey  in  the 
Jura,  on  the  xsth  of  August  181 3.  He  became  an  advocate  in 
1837,  and,  having  steadily  maintained  republican  principles 
undier  the  Orleans  monarchy,  was  elected  by  his  native  depart- 
ment to  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  1848.  Foreseeing  that 
Louis  Bonaparte  would  be  elected  president  by  the  people,  he 
proposed  to  vest  the  chief  authority  in  a  president  of  the  Council 
elected  and  removable  by  the  Assembly,  or  in  other  words,  to 
suppress  the  Presidency  of  the  Republic.  After  the  Mup  dUtat 
this  proposition  gained  Gr6vy  a  reputation  for  sagacity,  and  upon 
his  return  to  public  life  in  1868  he  took  a  prominent  place  in 
the  republican  party.  After  the  fall  of  the  Empire  he  was 
chosen  president  of  the  Assembly  on  the  i6th  of  February  1871, 
and  occupied  this  position  till  the  and  of  April  1876,  when  he 
resigned  on  account  of  the  opposition  of  the  Right,  which' 
blamed  him  for  having  called  one  of  its  members  to  order  in  the 
session  of  the  previous  day.  On  the  Sth  of  March  1876  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  a  post  which  he 
filled  with  such  efficiency  that  upon  the  resignation  of  Marshal 
MacMahon  he  seemed  to  step  naturally  into  the  Presidency  of 
the  Republic  (30th  January  1879),  and  was  elected  without 
opposition  by  the  republican  parties  (see  France:  History). 
Quiet,  shrewd,  attentive  to  the  public  interest  and  his  own, 
but  without  any  particular  distinction,  he  would  have  left  an 
unblemished  reputation  if  he  had  not  unfortunately  accepted 
a  second  term  (i8th  December  1885).  Shortly  afterwards  the 
traffic  of  his  son-in-law  (Daniel  Wilson)  in  the  decorations  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour  came  to  light.  Grivy  was  not  accused  of 
personal  participation  in  these  scandals,  but  he  was  somewhat 
obstinate  in  refusing  to  realize  that  he  was  responsible  indirectly 
for  the  use  which  his  relative  had  made  of  the  £l>*s6e,  and  it  had 
to  be  unpleasantly  impressed  upoA  him  that  his  resignation  was 
inevitable  (2nd  December  1887).  He  died  at  Mont-sous- Vaudrey 
on  the  9th  of  September  1891.  He  owed  both  his  success  and 
his  failure  to  the  completeness  with  which  he  represented  the 
particular  type  of  the  thrifty,  generally  sensible  and  patriotic, 
but  narrow-minded  and  frequently  egoistic  bourgeois. 

See  his  Disconrs  polUiques  et  Judiciaires,  rapports  «t  messages 
.  .  .  accompagnis  do  notices  histortques  et  prieidis  d'une  introduction 
par  L.  Delabrousse  (3  vols.,  1888). 

GREW,  NEHEMIAH  (1641-1712),  Engh'sh  vegetable  anatomist 
and  physiologist,  was  the  only  son  of  Obadiah  Grew  (1607-1688), 
Nonconformist  divine  and  vicar  of  St  Michael's,  Coventry,  and 
was  bom  in  Warwickshire  in  164 1.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge 
in  1661,  and  ten  years  later  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Leiden, 


586 


GREY,  2ND  EARL 


'hi&thcsah^n^DisptUatiomedico-pkysica  .  .  .  deliquore nervosa. 
He  be^n  observations  on  the  anatomy  of  plants  in  1664,  and  in 
1670  his  essay.  The  Anatomy  of  Vegetables  begun,  was  communi- 
cated to  the  Royal  Society  by  Bishop  Wilklns,  on  whose  recom- 
mendation he  was  in  the  following  year  elected  a  fellow.  In 
1672,  when  the  essay  was  published,  he  settled  in  London,  and 
soon  acquired  an  extensive  practice  as  a  physician.  In  1673 
he  published  his  Idea  of  a  Phytological  History ^  which  consisted 
of  papers  he  had  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  in  the 
preceding  year,  and  in  1677  he  succeeded  Henry  Oldenburg  as 
secretary  of  the  society.  He  edited  the  'Philosophical  Transac- 
tions in  1678-1679,  and  in  i68x  he  published  "  by  request  "  a 
descriptive  catalogue  of  the  rarities  preserved  at  Gresham 
College,  with  which  were  printed  some  papers  he  had  read  to 
the  Royal  Society  on  the  Comparative  Anatomy  of  Stomachs  and 
Cuts.  In  1682  appeared  his  great  work  on  the  Anatomy  of 
Plants,  which  also  was  largely  a  collection  of  previous  publications. 
It  was  divided  into  four  books,  Anatomy  of  Vegetables  begun, 
Anatomy  of  Roots,  Anatomy  of  Trunks  and  Anatomy  of  Leaves, 
Flowers,  Fruits  and  Seeds,  and  was  illustrated  with  eighty-two 
plates,  while  appended  to  it  were  seven  papers  mostly  of  a 
chemical  character.  Among  his  other  publications  were  'Sear 
water  made  Fresh  (1684),  the  Nature  and  Use  of  the  Salt  contained 
in  Epsom  and  such  other  Waters  (1697),  which  was  a  rendering 
of  his  Tractatus  de  salts  .  .  .  usu  (1695),  s^<)  Cosmdogia  sacra 
( 1 701 ) .  He  died  suddenly  on  the  2  5th  of  March  171a.  Linnaeus 
named  a  genus  of  trees  Crewia  (naL  ord.  TiUaceae)  in  his 
honour. 

QREY.  CHARLES  QREY,  2ND  Eakl  (i  7^4-1845)1  English 
statesman,  was  the  eldest  surviving  son  of  General  Sir  Charles 
Grey;  afterwards  ist  Earl  Grey.  He  was  bom  at  his  father's 
residence,  Fallodon,  near  Alnwick,  on  the  13th  of  March  1764. 
General  Grey  (i 729-1807),  who  was  a  younger  son  of  the  house 
of  Grey  of  Howick,  one  of  the 'most  considerable  territorial 
families  in  Northumberbnd,  had  already  begun  a  career  of  active 
service  which,  like  the  political  career  of  his  son,  covered  nearly 
half  a  century.  Before  the  latter  was  born,  General  Grey  had 
served  on  the  staff  of  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  in  the  Seven 
Years*  War  and  had  been  wounded  at  Minden.  While  the  son 
was  making  verses  at  Eton,  the  father  was  serving  against  the 
revolted  colonists  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  and  while 
the  young  member.. for  Northumberland  was  denoundng  Pitt's 
war  against  the  Convention,  the  veteran  soldier  was  destroying 
the  remnant  of  the  French  colonial  empire  by  the  capture  of 
Martinique  and  Guadeloupe.  When  Napoleon  threatened  an 
invasion,  General  Grey  took  the  command  of  the  southern  dis- 
trict, and  at  the  peace  of  Amiens  he  was  rewarded  with  a  peerage, 
as  Baron  Grey  of  Alnwick,  being  created  in  1806  Earl  Grey  and 
Viscount  Howick.  His  elder  brother,  Sir  Henry  Grey  of  Howick, 
the  head  of  the  family,  had  supported  the  government  in  parlia- 
ment«  But  the  political  career  of  young  Grey,  who  was  heir- 
presumptive  to  the  family  estates,  took  a  different  complexion. 

Young  Grey  expected  to  reoccupy  the  seat  which  had  been 
his  uncle's;  and  his  early  years  were  spent  in  preparation  for 
a  parliamentary  career.  He  was  sent  to  Eton,  and  proceeded 
thence  to  Cambridge.  William  Pitt,  a  youth  five  years  older, 
was  then  in  residence  as  a  master  of  arts,  studiously  paying  court 
to  the  Whigs  of  the  university;  and  at  the  general  election  of 
1780  he  came  forward  as  a  candidate  for  the  academical  seat. 
His  name  stood  last  on  the  poll,  but  he  was  brought  in  elsewhere, 
and  his  ^rst  speech  proved  him  a  man  of  the  first  mark.  The 
unparalleled  successes  which  followed  portended  grave  changes. 
Pitt's  elevation  to  the  premiership,  his  brilliant  and  hard-fought 
battle  in  the  house,  and  his  complete  rout  of  the  Whig  party  at 
the  general  election  of  1784,  when  he  came  in  for  Cambridge 
at  the  head  of  the  poll,  threatened  the  great  territorial  interest 
with  nothing  less  than  extinction.  It  was  to  this  interest  that 
Grey  belonged;  and  hence,  when  at  length  returned  for  North- 
umberiand  in  1 786,  he  at  once  came  forward  as  a  vigorous  assailant 
of  the  government  of  Pitt.  He  was  hailed  by  the  opposition, 
and  associated  with  Fox,  Burke  and  Sheridan  as  a  manager  in  the 
Haftinjp  impeachment.     During  the  nineteen  yean  which 


remained  of  the  career  lof  Fox,  he  foHowed  the  great  Whig 
statesman  with  absolute  fidelity,  and  succeeded  him  as  leader 
of  the  party.  The  shortcomings  of  Fox's  statesmanship  were 
inherited  by  Grey.  Both  were  equally  devoid  o(  ptriitical 
originality,  shunned  the  severer  labours  of  the  poUtkUn,  and 
instinctively  feared  any  deviation  from  the  traditions  of  their 
party.  Such  men  cannot  save  a  party  in  its  decadence,  and  the 
history  of  Fox  and  Grey  has  been  aptly  termed  the  history  of 
th?  decline  and  fall  of  Whiggism. 

The  stunning  blow  of  1 784  was  the  first  incident  in  this  history. 
Its  full  significance  was  not  at  once  perceived.  An  of^xisitioQ, 
however  weak  in  the  beginning,  generally  has  a  tendency  to 
revive,  and  Grey's  early  successes  in  the  hotise  helped  to  revive 
the  Foxites.  The  European  situation  became  favourable  to  tka 
revival  The  struggle  in  France  for  popular  rights,  culminatiog 
in  the  great  Revolution,  was  watched  by  Fox  with  interested 
sympathy.  He  affected  to  regard  the  domination  of  Pitt  as  the 
domination  of  the  crown,  and  as  leading  logically  to  absolutism, 
and  saw  in  that  popular  sympathy  for  the  French  RevotutioD 
which  naturally  arose  in  England  an  instrument  which  might 
be  employed  to  overthrow  this  domination. 

But  Fitt  gathered  the  fruits  of  the  windfall  The  spread  of 
"  Jacobinism,"  or  "  French  principles,"  became  the  pretext 
on  which  the  stronger  half  of  the  opposition  went  over  to  the 
government,  Burke  led  the  movement  in  the  Commois,  the  duke 
of  Portland  and  Lord  Fitzwilliam  in  the  Lords,  and  with  thk 
second  incident  in  the  Whig  decline  began  the  difficulties  of 
Grey's  career.  The  domination  of  the  premier  had  already 
stirred  the  keenest  resentment  in  the  younger  and  more  amlutiotts 
members  of  the  Whig  party.  Freed  from  the  restraint  of  the 
steadier  politicians  under  Burke  and  Portland,  the  reuduun 
under  Fox  fell  into  a  series  of  grave  mistakes.  Of  this  restdaon 
Grey  became  the  moving  spirit,  for  though  Fox  did  not  d^ 
their  activity,  he  disclaimed  the  responsibility  of  their  policy. 
Fox  had  refuised  to  condemn  "  French  principles,"  and  denounced 
the  war  with  France;  but  he  would  take  no  part  in  exciting 
agitation  in  EngUnd.  It  was  otherwise  with  the  restless  spirits 
among  whom  Grey  was  found.  Enraged  by  the  attitude  of  Piit. 
which  was  grounded  on  the  support  of  the  constituencies  as  they 
then  stood,  the  residuum  plotted  an  ill-timed  agitation  for 
parliamentary  reform. 

The  demand  for  parliamentary  reform  was  as  yet  in  a  nitfi* 
mentary  stage.  Forty  years  later  it  had  become  the  demand  of 
an  unenfranchised  nation,  disabused  by  a  sudden  spread  of 
political  and  economical  knowledge.  It  was  as  yet  but  the 
occasional  instrument  of  the  scheming  politician.  Chatham 
had  employed  the  cry  in  this. sense.  The  Middlesex  agitaton 
had  done  the  same;  even  the  premier  of  the  time,  after  his 
accession  to  power,  had  sought  to  strengthen  his  hainds  in  the 
same  way.  But  Pitt's  hands  were  now  strengthened  abandantly; 
whereas  the  opposition  had  nothing  to  lose  and  mudi  to  gain  by 
such  a  measure.  The  cry  for  reform  thus  became  thdr  natural 
expedient.  Powerless  to  carry  reform  in  the  House,  they  sou^t 
to  overawe  parliament  by  external  agitation,  and  formed  the 
Society  of  the  Friends  of  the  People,  destined  to  unite  the  forces 
of  all  the  "  patriotic  "  societies  which  already  existed  in  the 
country,  and  to  pour  their  violence  irresbtibly  on  a  terrified 
parliament.  Grey  and  his  f  rirads  were  enroUed  in  this  portentous 
association,  and  presented  in  parliament  its  menacing  petltioos. 
Such  petitions,  which  were  in  fact  violent  impeachments  of 
parliament  itself,  proceeding  from  voluntary  associations  havi&g 
no  corporate  existence,  had  been  hitherto  unknown  in  the  English 
parliament.  They  had  been  well  known  in  the  French  assembly. 
They  had  heralded  and  furthered  the  victory  of  the  Jacobtos, 
the  dissolution  of  the  constitution,  the  calling  of  the  Conventioa 
and  the  fall  of  the  monarchy. 

The  Society  of  the  Friends  of  the  People  was  oiipnaBy  sb 
after-dinner  folly,  extemporized  at  the  house  of  a  man  who  after- 
wards gained  an  earidom  by  denouncing  It  as  seditious.  Fox 
discountenanced  it,  though  he  did  not  directly  condemn  it;  hot 
Grey  was  overborne  by  the  fierce  Jacobinism  of  Lauderdale,  asd 
avowed  himself  the  parlitunentaiy  mouthpiece  of  this  dangeiwa 


GREY,  2ND  EARL 


587 


agiUtioii.  But  Pitt,  itrODg  in  his  position,  cut  the  ground 
from  under  Gre/s  feet  by  suppiressing  the  agitation  with  a  strong 
hand.  The  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  the  Gagging 
Acts  and  the  state  prosecutions  form  a  painful  liistorical  episode. 
But  the  discredit  belongs  as  much  to  Grey  and  Lauderdale  as  to 
Pitt.  Grey  alwaysspokeregretf  ully  of  his  share  in  the  movement. 
"  One  word  from  Fox,  "  he  said,  "  would  have  kept  me  out  of 
all  the  mess  of  the  Friends  of  the  People.  But  he  nevtr  spoke  it." 

It  was  Grey  who  moved  the  impeachment  of  Pitt,  and  he  next 
promoted  the  equally  foolish  "  Secession."  Since  the  parliament 
did  not  properly  represent  the  nation,  and  refused  to  reform  itself 
w  to  impeach  the  minister,  nothing  remained  but  to  disown  it; 
and  the  opposition  announced  their  intention  of  "  seceding," 
or  systematically  absenting  themselves  from  their  places  in 
parliament.  This  futile  movement  was  origiiuted  by  Grey, 
Lauderdale  and  the  duke  of  Bedford.  It  obtained  a  somewhat 
wider  support.  It  suited  the  languor  of  some  dispirited 
politicians  like  Fox,  and  the  avarice  of  some  lawyers  in  larg^ 
practice  like  Erskine;  but  sensible  politicians  at  once  condemned 
it.  It  directly  ignored  parliamentary  government,  and  amounted 
to  nothing  but  a  pettish  threat  of  revolution.  **  Secession," 
said  Lord  Lansdowne,  with  characteristic  shrewdness,  "  either 
means  rebellion,  or  it  is  nonsense."  Pitt  easily  dashed  this  feeble 
weapon  from  the  hands  of  his  opponents.  He  roused  jealousy 
in  the  absent  by  praising  the  parts  and  the  patriotism  of  the  rest, 
and  thus  gradually  brought  them  back.  Grey  himself  reappeared 
to  protest  against  the  union  with  Ireland. 

When  Pitt  died  in  1806  nothing  could  prevent  the  reunited 
opposition  from  coming  into  power,  and  thus  the  Broad-bottom 
ministry  was  formed  under  Fox.  On  his  death  Grenville  became 
premier,  and  Grey,  now  Lord  Howick,  foreign  secretary,  and 
leader  of  the  House  of  Conmions.  Dbunion,  always  the  bane  of 
English  Liberalism,  lurked  in  the  coalition,  and  the  Foxitcs 
and  Grenvillites  were  only  ostensibly  at  one.  Grey  opposed  the 
war  policy  of  Grenville;  and  this  policy  was  not  more  successful 
than  it  had  been  in  the  hands  of  Pitt.  And  the  change  from  the 
leadership  of  Fox  to  that  of  Grenville  was  only  too  pereeptible. 
Both  in  court  and  country  Grenville  affected  the  role  of  Pitt,  and 
assumed  a  stiff  and  peremptory  attitude  which  ill  became  him. 
An  ill-advised  dissolution  weakened  their  majority;  they  lost 
ground  by  the  "  delicate  investigation  "  into  the  conduct  of  the 
princess  of  Wales;  Lord  Henry  Petty's  budget  was  too  specious 
to  command  confidence;  and  the  king,  fully  aware  of  their 
weak  situation,  resolved  to  get  rid  of  them.  When  they  proposed 
to  concede  a  portion  of  the  CathoUc  claims,  George  rdfused 
and  demanded  of  them  an  undertaking  never  to  propose  such 
a  measure  again.  This  was.  refused,  and  the  Grenville-Grey 
cabinet  retired  in  March  1807.  In  the  same  year  Grey's  father 
died,  and  Grey  went  to  the  Upper  House.  Opposition  united 
Grey  and  Grenville  for  a  time,  but  the  parties  finally  split  on 
the  old  war  question.  When  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba 
in  181 5,  and  once  more  seized  the  government  of  France,  the 
same  question  arose  which  had  arisen  in  1792,  Was  England  to  go 
fto  war  for  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons?  Grenville  followed 
the  traditions  of  Pitt,  and  supported  the  ministry  in  at  once 
renewing  hostilities.  Grey  followed  those  of  Fox,  and  maintained 
the  right  of  France  to  choose  her  own  governors,  and  the  im- 
poasibiUty  of  checking  the  reaction  in  the  emperor's  favour. 
The  victory  of  Waterloo  put  an  end  to  the  dispute,  but  the 
disruption  became  permanent.  The  termination  of  the  war,  and 
the  cessation  of  all  action  in  common,  reduced  the  power  of  the 
opposition  to  nothings  Grenville  retired  from  public  life,  and  his 
adherents  reinforced  the  ministry.  Little  remained  for  the  Whigs 
to  do.  But  the  persecution  of  the  queen  afforded  an  opportunity 
of  showing  that  the  ministry  were  not  omnipotent;  and  the  part 
taken  on  that  occasion  by  Grey  won  him  at  once  the  increased 
respect  of  the  nation  and  the  undying  aversion  of  George  IV. 
It  sealed  the  exclusion  of  himself  and  his  few  friends  from  office 
during  the  king's  life;  and  when  in  1827  Grey  came  forth  to 
denounce  the  ministry  of  Canning,  he  declared  that  he  stood 
alone  in  the  political  world.  His  words  were  soon  justified,  for 
when  Lord  Goderich  resigned,  the  remnant  which  bad  hitherto 


supported  Grey,  hastened  to  support  the  ministry  of  the  duke  of 
Wellington. 

We  now  reach  the  principal  episode  in  Grey's  career.  In  1827 
he  seemed  to  stand  forth  the  solitary  and  powerless  relic  of  an 
extinct  party.  In  1832  we  find  that  party  restored  to  its  old 
numbers  and  activity,  supreme  in  parliament,  popular  in  the 
nation,  and  Lord  Grey  at  its  head.  The  duke  of  Wellington's 
foolish  declaration  against  parliamentary  reform,  made  in  a 
season  of  great  popular  excitement,  suddenly  deprived  him  of 
the  confidence  of  the  ootmtry,  and  a  coalition  of  the  Whigs  and 
Canningites  became  inevitable.  The  Whigs  had  in  S827  sup- 
ported the  Canningites;  the  latter  now  supported  the  Whigs, 
of  whom  Grey  remained  the  traditional  head.  George  IV.  was 
dead,  and  no  obstacle  existed  to  Grey's  elevation.  Grey  was 
sent  for  by  William  IV.  in  November  1830,  and  formed  a  coalition 
cabinet,  pledged  to  carry  on  the  work  in  which  the  duke  of 
Wellington  had  faltered.  But  Grey  himself  was  the  mere  instru- 
ment of  the  times.  An  old-fashioned  Whig,  he  had  little  personal 
sympathy  with  the  popular  cause,  though  he  had  sometimes 
indicated  a  certain  measure  of  reform  as  necessary.  When  he 
took  office,  he  guessed  neither  the  extent  to  which  the  Reform 
Act  would  go,  nor  the  means  by  which  it  would  be  carried.  That 
he  procured  for  the  country  a  measure  of  constitutional  reform 
for  which  he  had  agitated  in  his  youth  was  little  more  than  a 
coincidence.  In  his  youth  he  had  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a 
frantic  agitation  against  parliament,  because  he  there  found 
himself  powerless.  In  his  old  age  the  case  was  reversed. 
Suddenly  raised  to  a  position  of  authority  in  the  country,  he 
boldly  stood  between  parliament,  as  then  constituted,  and  the 
formidable  agitation  which  now  threatened  it  and  by  a  forced 
reform  saved  it  from  revolution.  In  his  youth  he  had  assailed 
Pitt's  administration  because  Pitt's  administration  threatened 
with  extinction  the  political  monopoly  of  that  landed  interest 
to  which  he  belonged.  In  his  old  age,  on  the  contrary,  unable 
to  check  the  progress  of  the  wave^he  swam  with  it,  and  headed 
the  movement  which  compelled  that  landed  interest  to  surrender 
its  monopoly. 

The  second  reading  of  the  first  Reform  Bill  was  carried  in  the 
Commons  by  a  majority  of  one.  This  was  equivalent  to  a  defeat, 
and  further  failures  precipitated  a  dissolution.  The  confidence 
which  the  bold  action  of  the  minbtry  had  won  was  soon  plainly 
proved,  for  the  second  reading  was  carried  in  the  new  parliament 
by  a  majority  of  136.  When  the  bill  had  at  length  passed  the 
Commons  after  months  of  debate,  it  was  Grey's  task  to  introduce 
it  to  the  Lords.  It  was  rejected  by  a  majority  of  4 1 .  The  safety 
of  the  country  now  depended  on  the  prudence  and  courage  of 
the  ministry.  The  resignation  of  Grey  and  his  colleagues  was 
dreaded  even  by  the  opposition,  and  they  remained  in  office 
with  the  intention  of  introducing  a  third  Reform  Bill  in  the  next 
session.  The  last  months  of  183 1  were  the  beginning  of  a  political 
crisis  such  as  England  had  not  seen  since  1 688.  The  two  extreme 
parties,  the  Ultra-Radicals  and  the  Ultra-Tories,  were  ready  for 
civil  war.  Between  them  stood  the  ministry  and  the  majority  of 
intelligent  peace-loving  Englishmen;  and  their  course  of  action 
was  soon  decided.  The  bill  must  be  passed,  and  there  were  but 
two  ways  of  passing  it.  One  was  to  declare  the  consent  of  the 
House  of  Lords  unnecessary  to  the  measure,  the  other  to  create, 
if  necessary,  new  peers  in  sufficient  number  to  outvote  the 
opposition.  These  two  expedients  did  not  in  reality  differ.  To 
swamp  the  house  in  the  way  proposed  would  have  been  to  destroy 
it.  The  question  whether  the  ministry  should  demand  the  king's 
consent  to  such  a  creation,  if  necessary,  was  debated  in  the 
cabinet  in  September.  Brougham  proposed  it,  and  gradually  a 
majority  of  the  cabinet  were  won  over.  Grey  had  at  first  refused 
to  employ  even  the  threat  of  so  unconstitutional  a  device  as  a 
means  to  the  proposed  end.  But  his  continued  refusal  would 
have  broken  up  the  ministry,  and  the  breaking  up  of  the  ministry 
must  now  have  been  the  signal  for  revolution.  '  The  second 
reading  in  the  Commons  was  passed  in  December  by  a  majority 
of  162,  and  on  New- Year's  day  1832  the  majority  of  the  cabinet 
resolved  on  demanding  power  to  carry  it  in  the  Lords  by  a 
creation  of  peers.    Grey  carried  the  resolution  to  the  king. 


588 


GREY,  SIR  E.— GREY,  SIR  G, 


Some  time  still  remained  before  the  bill  could  be  committed  and 
read  a  third  time.  It  was  not  until  the  9th  of  April  that  Grey 
moved  the  second  reading  in  the  Lords.  A  suffident  number  of 
the  opposition  temporized;  and  the  second  reading  was  allowed 
to  pass  by  a  majority  of  nine.  Their  intention  was  to  mutilate 
the  bill  in  committee.  The  Ultra-Tories,  headed  by  the  duke  of 
WeUington,  had  entered  a  protest  against  the  second  reading, 
but  they  were  now  politically  powerless.  The  struggle  had 
become  a  struggle  on  the  one  hand  for  the  whole  bill,  to  be 
carried  by  a  creation  of  peers,  and  on  the  other  for  some  mutilated 
measure.  Grey's  instinct  divined  that  the  crisis  was  approaching. 
Either  the  king  must  consent  to  swamp  the  House,  or  the  ministry 
must  cease  to  stand  in  the  breach  between  the  peers  and  the 
country.  The  king,  a  weak  and  inexperienced  politician,  had 
in  the  meantime  been  wrought  upon  by  the  temporizing  leaders 
in  the  Lords.  He  was  induced  to  believe  that  if  the  Commons 
should  reject  the  mutilated  bill  when  it  was  returned  to  them, 
and  the  ministry  should  consequently  retire,  the  mutilated  bill 
might  be  reintroduced  and  passed  by  a  Tory  ministry.  He  was 
deaf  to  all  representations  of  the  state  of  public  opinion;  and  to 
the  surprise  of  the  ministry,  and  the  terror  and  indignation  of 
every  man  of  sense  in  the  country,  he  rejected  their  proposal 
and  accepted  their  resignation,  May  9,  1832.  The  duke  of 
Wellington  undertook  the  hopeless  task  of  constructing  a 
ministry  which  should  pass  a  restricted  or  sham  Reform  Bill. 
The  only  man  who  could  have  made  the  success  of  such  a  ministry 
even  probable  was  Peel,  and  Peel's  conscience  and  good  sense 
forbade  the  attempt.  He  refused,  and  after  a  week  of  the  pro- 
foundest  agitation  throughout  the  country/  the  king,  beaten 
and  mortified,  was  forced  to  send  for  Grey  and  Brougham.  On 
being  told  that  his  consent  to  the  creation  of  peers  was  the  only 
condition  on  which  they  could  undertake  the  government, 
he  angrily  and  reluctantly  yielded.  The  chancellor,  with  cool 
forethought,  demanded  this  consent  in  writing.  Grey  thought 
such  a  demand  harsh  and  unnecessary.  "  I  wonder/'  he  said 
to  Brougham,  when  the  interview  was  over, "  you  could  haVb  had 
the  heart  to  press  it."  But  Brougham  was  inexorable,  and  the 
king  signed  the  following  paper:  "  The  king  grants  permission 
to  Earl  Grey,  and  to  his  chancellor.  Lord  Brougham,  to  create 
such  a  number  of  peers  as  will  be  sufficient  to  ensure  the  passing 
of  the  Reform  Bill,  first  calling  up  peers'  eldest  sons.r-WXLUAM 
R.,  Windsor,  May  17,  1832." 

Grey  had  now  won  the  game.  There  was  no  danger  that  he 
would  have  to  resort  to  the  expedient  which  he  was  authorized 
to  employ.  The  introduction  of  sixty  new  peers  would  have 
destroyed  the  opposition,  but  it  would  have  been  equivalent 
to  the  abolition  of  the  House.  The  king's  consent  made  known, 
a  sufficient  number  of  peers  were  sure  to  withdraw  to  enable  the 
bill  to  pass,  and  thus  the  dignity  of  both  Icing  and  peerage  would 
be  saved.  The  duke  of  WeUington  headed  this  movement  on 
the  part  of  the  opposition;  and  the  third  reading  of  the  bill  was 
carried  in  the  Lords  by  a  majority  of  84. 

It  is  well  known  that  in  after  years  both  Grey  and  Brougham 
disclaimed  any  intention  of  executing  their  threat.  If  this  were 
so,  they  must  have  merely  pretended  to  brave  a  danger  which 
they  secretly  feared  to  face^  and  intended  to  avoid;  and  the 
credit  of  rescuing  the  country  would  belong  to  the  duke  of 
WellAigton  and  the  peers  who  seceded  with  him.  To  argue  such 
cowardice  in  them  from  statements  made  when  the  crisis  was 
long  past,  and  when  they  were  naturally  willing  to  palliate  the 
rough  policy  which  they  were  forced  to  adopt,  would  be  to  set  up 
a  needless  and  unjustifiable  paradox.  Nothing  else  in  the  career 
of  either  Grey  or  Brougham  leads  us  to  suppose  them  capable 
of  the  moral  baseness  of  yielding  up  the  helm  of  state,  in  an  hour 
of  darkness  and  peril,  to  reckless  and  unskilled  hands.  Such 
would  have  been  the  result  if  they  had  lackmi  the  determination 
to  carry  out  their  programme  to  the  end.  The  influence  of  every 
statesman  in  the  country  would  then  have  been  extinguished, 
\nd  the  United  Kingdom  would  have  been  absolutely  in  tbe 
ands  of  O'Connell  and  Orator  Hunt. 

Grey  took  but  little  part  in  directing  the  lepslation  of  the 
cformed  parliament.    Never  anxious  for  power,  he  bad  executed 


the  arduous  task  of  i83i-x83i  rather  as  a  matter  of  duty  than  of 
inclination,  and  wished  for  an  opportunity  of  retiring.  Such  an 
opportunity  very  shortly  presented  itself.  The  Irish  policy  of 
the  minbtry  had  not  conciliated  the  Irish  people,  and  Q'ConncU 
denounced  them  with  the  greatest  bitterness.  On  the  renewal 
of  the  customary  Coercion  Bill,  the  ministry  was  divided  on  the 
question  whether  to  continue  to  the  lord-lieutenant  the  power 
of  suppressing  public  meetings.  Littleton,  the  Irish  secretary, 
was  for  aboUshing  it;  and  with  the  view  6f  conciliating  O'Connell, 
he  informed  him  that  the  ministry  intended  to  abandon  it.  But 
the  result  proved  him  to  have  been  mistaken,  and  O'Connell, 
with  some  reason  supposing  himself  to  have  been  dipped,  called 
on  Littleton  to  resign  his  secretaryship.  It  had  also  transpired 
in  the  discussion  that  Lord  Althorp,  the  leader  of  tbe  House  of 
Commons,  was  privately  opposed  to  retaining  those  clauses 
which  it  was  his  duty  to  push  through  the  house.  Lord  Althorp 
therefore  resigned,  and  Grey,  who  had  lately  passed  his  seventieth 
year,  took  the  opportunity  of  resigning  also.  It  was  his  opinion, 
it  appeared,  which  had  overborne  the  cabinet  in  favour  of  the 
public  meeting  clauses;  and  his  voluntary  withdrawal  enaUed 
Lord  Althorp  to  return  to  his  post  and  to  proceed  with  tbe  bill 
in  its  milder  form.  Grey  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Melbourne; 
but  no  other  change  was  made  in  the  cabinet.  Grey  took  no 
further  part  in  politics.  During  most  of  his  renuuning  years  he 
continued  to  live  in  retirement  at  Howick,  where  he  died  on  the 
17th  of  July  1845,  in  his  eighty-second  year.  By  his  wife  Mary 
Elizabeth,  only  daughter  of  the  first  Lord  Ponsonby,  whom  he 
married  on  the  i8th  of  November  1794,  he  became  the  father  of 
ten  sons  and  five  daughters.  Grey's  eldest  son  Henry  (q.v.)  be- 
came the  3rd  earl,  and  among  his  other  sens  were  General  Charles 
Grey  (1804-1870)  and  Admiral  Frederick  Grey  (1805-1878). 

In  public  life.  Grey  could  always  be  upon  occasion  Udd, 
strenuous  and  self-sacrificing;  but  he  was  little  disposed  for  tbe 
active  work  of  the  politician.  He  was  not  one  of  those  who  took 
the  statesman's  duty  "  as  a  pleasure  he  was  to  enjoy."  A  certain 
stiffness  and  reserve  ever  seemed  in  the  popular  eye  to  hedge  him 
in;  nor  was  his  oratory  of  the  kind  which  stirs  enthusiasm  and 
delight.  A  tall,  stately  figure,  fine  voice  and  calm  aristocratk 
bearing  reminded  the  listener  of  Pitt  rather  than  of  Fox,  and  bis 
speeches  were  constructed  on  the  Attic  rather  than  the  Asiatic 
model.  Though  simple  and  straightforward,  they  never  lacked 
either  point  or  dignity;  and  they  were  admirably  adapted  to  the 
audience  to  which  they  were  addressed.  The  scrupulous  up- 
rightness of  Grey's  political  and  private  character  completed  tbe 
ascendancy  which  he  gained;  and  no  politician  could  be  named 
who,  without  being  a  statesman  of  the  highest  class,  has  left  a 
name  more  enviably  placed  in  English  history.  (£.  J.  P.) 

GREY,  SIR  EDWARD,  3rd  Bart.  (1863-  ),  English 
statesman,  was  educated  at  Winchester  and  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  and  succeeded  his  grandfather,  the  and  baronet,  at  tbe 
age  of  twenty.  He  entered  the  House  of  Commons  as  Liberal 
member  for  Berwick-on-Tweed  in  1885,  but  he  was  best  kno«-n 
as  a  country  gentleman  with  a  taste  for  sport,  and  .as  amatear 
champion  tennis-player.  His  interest  in  politics  was  rather 
languid,  but  he  was  a  disciple  of  Lord  Rosebery,  and  in  the 
1892-1895  Liberal  ministry  he  was  Under-Secretary  for  foreiga 
affairs.  In  this  position  he  earned  a  reputation  as  a  pdilician 
of  thorough  straightforwardness  and  grit,  and  as  one  who  wouM 
maintain  British  interests  independently  of  party;  and  be  shared 
with  Mr  Asquith  the  reputation  of  being  the  ablest  of  tbe 
Imperialbts  who  followed  Lord  Rosebery.  Though  outside 
foreign  affairs  ^e  played  but  a  small  part  in  the  period  of  Liberal 
opposition  between  1895  and  1905,  he  retained  public  confidence 
as  one  who  was  indispensable  to  a  Liberal  administratioo. 
When  Sir  Henry  Campbell-Baonerman's  cabinet  was  formed 
in  December  1905  he  became  foreign  minister,  and  he  retained 
this  office  when  in  April  1908  Mr  Asquith  became  pnn» 
minister. 

QREY.  SIR  GEORGE  (181 2-1898),  British  colonial  governor 

and  statesman,  only  son  of  Lieutenant-Colond  Grey  (tf  th< 

30th  Foot,  was  bom  in  Lisbon  on  tlw  X4th  of  AprihxSia,  o^ 

i  days  aft^r  the  death  of  his  father  at  the  storming  of  Badajoc. 


GREY,  SIR  G. 


589 


He  passed  through  Sandhurst  with  credit,  and  received  his  com- 
mission in  1829.  His  lieutenancy  was  dated  1833,  and  his 
captaincy  1839,  in  which  year  he  sold  out  and  left  the  army. 
In  the  early  'thirties  he  was .  quartered  in  Ireland,  where  the 
wretchedness  of  the  poorer  classes  left  a  deep  impression  on  his 
mind.  In  1836  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  accepted  his 
offer  to  explore  the  north-west  region  of  West  Australia,  and 
accordingly  he  landed  at  Hanover  Bay  at  the  end  of  1837. 
The  su^unding  country  he  found  broken  and  difficult,  and  his 
hardships  were  aggravated  by  the  tropical  heat  and  his  ignorance 
of  the  continent.  In  a  skirmish  with  the  natives,  in  which  he 
was  speared  near  the  hip,  he  showed  great  courage,  and  put  the 
assailants  to  flight,  shooting  the  chief,  who  had  wounded  him. 
After  a  brave  endeavour  to  continue  his  journey  his  wound 
forced  him  to  retreat  to  the  coast,  whence  he  sailed  to  Mauritius 
to  recruit.  Next  year  he  again  essayed  exploration,  thb  time 
on  the  coast  to  the  north  and  south  of  Shark's  Bay.  He  had 
three  whale-boats  and  an  ample  supply  of  provisions,  but  by  a 
series  of  disasters  his  stores  were  spoilt  by  storms,  his  boats 
wrecked  in  the  surf,  and  the  party  had  to  tramp  on  foot  from 
Gantheaume  Bay  to  Perth,  where  Grey,  in  the  end,  walked  in 
alone,  so  changed  by  suffering  that  friends  did  not  know  him. 
In  1839  he  was  appointed  governor-resident  at  Albany,  and 
during  his  stay  there  married  Harriett,  daughter  of  Admiral 
Spencer,  and  also  prepared  for  publication  an  account,  in  two 
.  volumes,  of  his  expeditions.  In  1840  he  returned  to  England,  to 
be  immediately  appointed  by  Lord  John  Russell  to  succeed 
Colonel  Gawler  as  governor  of  South  Australia.  Reaching  the 
colony  in  May  1841,  he  found  it  in  the  depths  of  a  depression 
caused  by  mismanagement  and  insane  land  speculation.  By 
rigorously  reducing  public  expenditure,  and  forcing  the  settlers 
to  quit  the  town  and  betake  themselves  to  tilling  their  lands, 
and  with  the  opportune  help  of  valuable  copper  discoveries, 
Grey  was  able  to  aid  the  infant  colony  to  emerge  from  the  slough. 
So  striking  were  his  energy  and  determination  that  when,  in 
1845,  the  little  settlements  in  New  Zealand  were  found  to  be 
Involved  in  a  native  war,  and  on  the  verge  of  ruin,  he  was  sent 
to  save  them.  The  Maori  chiefs  in  open  rebelUon  were  defeated, 
and  made  their  submission.  Another  powerful  leader  suspected 
of  fomenting  discontent  was  arrested,  and  friendly  chieftains 
were  subsidized  and  honoured.  Bands  of  the  natives  were 
employed  in  making  government  roads,  and  were  paid  good 
wages.  The  governor  gained  the  veneration  of  the  Maori  tribes, 
in  whose  welfare  he  took  a  close  personal  interest,  and  of  whose 
legends  and  myths  he  made  a  valuable  and  scholarly  collection, 
published  in  New  Zealand  in  1855  and  reprinted  thirty  years 
afterwards.  With  peace  prosperity  came  to  New  2^aland,  and 
the  colonial  office  desired  to  give  the  growing  settlements  full 
self-government.  Grey,  arguing  that  this  would  renew  war 
with  the  Maori,  returned  the  constitution  to  Downing  Street. 
But  though  the  colonial  office  sustained  him,  he  became  involved 
in  harassing  di-sputes  with  the  colonists;  who  organized  an  active 
agitation  for  autonomy.  In  the  end  a  second  constitution, 
partly  framed  by  Grey  himself,  was  granted  them,  and  Grey, 
after  eight  years  of  despotic  but  successful  rule,  was  transferred 
to  Cape  Colony.  He  had  been  knighted  for  his  services,  and  had 
undoubtedly  shown  strength,  dexterity  and  humanity  in  dealing 
with  the  whites  and  natives.  In  South  Africa  his  success  con- 
tinued. He  thwarted  a  formidable  Kaffir  rebellion  in  the  Eastern 
Provinces,  and  pushed  on  the  work  of  settlement  by  bringing  out 
men  from  the  German  Legion  and  providing  them  with  homes. 
He  gained  the  respect  of  the  British,  the  confidence  of  the  Boers, 
the  admiration  and  the  trust  of  the  natives.  The  Dutch  of  the 
Free  State  and  the  Basuto  chose  him  as  arbitrator  of  their 
quarreb.  When  the  news  of  the  Indian  Mutiny  reached  Cape 
Town  he  strained  every  nerve  to  help  Lord  Canm'ng,  despatching 
men,  hofMS,  stores  and  £60,000  in  specie  to  Bombay.  He  per- 
suaded a  detachment,  then  on  its  way  round  the  Cape  as  a  rein- 
forcement for  Lord  Elgin  in  China,  to  divert  its  voyageto  Calcutta. 
Finally,  in  1859,  Grey  almost  reached  what  would  have  been  the 
culminating  point  of  his  career  by  federating  South  Africa. 
Persuaded  by  him,  the  Orange  Free  State  passed  resolutions  in 


favour  of  this  great  step,  and  their  action  was  welcomed  by  Cape 
Town.  But  the  colonial  office  disapproved  of  the  change,  and 
when  Grey  attempted  to  persevere  with  it  Sir  Edward  Bulwer 
Lytton  recalled  him.  A  change  of  ministry  during  his  voyage  to 
England  displaced  Sir  Edward  Bulwer  Lytton.  But  though  the 
duke  of  Newcastle  reinstated  Grey,  it  was  with  instructions  to 
let  federation  drop.  In  i86x  the  colonial  office  sent  him,  for  the 
fourth  time  in  succession,  to  take  up  a  post  of  exceptional  diffi- 
culty by  again  entrusting  him  with  the  governorship  of  New 
Zealand,  where  an  inglorious  native  war  in  Taranaki  had  just 
been  succeeded  by  an  armed  truce.  Grey  did  his  best  to  make 
terms  with  the  rebels  and  to  re-establi^  friendship  with  the 
Maori  king  and  the  land  league  of  tribes  formed  to  stop  further 
sales  of  land  to  the  whites.  But  the  Maori  had  got  guns  and 
powder,  and  were  suspicious  and  truculent.  In  vain  Grey, 
supported  by  Bishop  Selwjm  and  by  Fox  and  the  peace  party 
among  the  settlers,  strove  to  avert  war.  It  came  in  1863,  and 
spread  from  province  to  province.  Ten  thousand  regulars  and 
as  many  colonial  riflemen  were  employed  to  put  it  down.  The 
imperial  troops  were  badly  handled,  and  Grey,  losing  patience, 
became  involved  in  bitter  disputes  with  their  commanders. 
As  an  example  to  the  former  he  himself  attacked  and  captured 
Wcraroa,  the  strongest  of  the  Maori  stockades,  with  a  handful 
of  militia,  a  feat  which  delighted  the  colonists,  but  made  him  as 
much  disliked  at  the  war  office  as  he  now  was  at  Downing  Street. 
Moreover,  Grey  had  no  longer  real  control  over  the  islands. 
New  Zealand  had  become  a  self-governing  colony,  and  though 
he  vindicated  the  colonists  generally  when  libellous  imputations 
of  cruelty  and  land-grabbing  were  freely  made  against  them  in 
London,  he  crossed  swords  with  his  ministers  when  the  latter 
confiscated  three  million  acres  of  tribal  land  belonging  to  the 
insurgent  Maori.  Yet  through  all  these  troubles  progress  was 
made;  many  successes  were  gained  in  x866,  chiefly  by  the 
colonial  militia,  and  a  condition  of  something  like  tranquillity 
had  been  reached  in  1867,  when  he  received  a  curt  intimation 
from  the  duke  of  Buckingham  that  he  was  about  to  be  superseded. 
The  colonists,  who  believed  he  was  sacrificed  for  upholding  their 
interests  and  good  name,  bade  farewell  to  him  in  x868  in  an  out- 
burst of  gratitude  and  ssrmpathy;  but  his  career  as  a  colonial 
governor  was  at  an  end.  Returning  to  Eng^land,  he  tried  to  enter 
public  life,  delivered  many  able  speeches  advocating  what  later 
came  to  be  termed  Imperialism,  and  stood  for  Newaric.  Dis- 
couraged, however,  by  the  official  Liberals,  he  withdrew  and 
turned  again  to  New  Zealand.  In  1872  he  was  given  a  pension 
of  £1000  a  year,  and  settled  down  on  the  island  of  Kawau,  not 
far  from  Auckland,  which  he  bought,  and  where  he  passed  his 
lebure  in  planting,  gardening  and  collecting  books.  In  1875, 
on  the  invitation  of  the  Auckland  settlers,  he  became  super- 
intendent of  their  province,  and  entered  the  New  Zealand  House 
of  Representatives  to  resist  the  abdition  of  the  provincial 
councils  of  the  colony,  a  change  then  being  urged  on  by  Sir  Julius 
Vogel  in  alliance  with  the  Centralist  Party.  In  this  he  failed, 
but  his  eloquence  and  courage  drew  round  him  a  strong  Radical 
following,  and  gave  him  the  premiership  in  1877.  Manhood 
suffrage,  triennial  parliaments,  a  land-tax,  the  purchase  of  large 
estates  and  the  popular  election  of  the  governor,  were  leading 
points  of  his  policy.  All  these  reforms,  except  the  last,  he  lived 
to  see  carried;  none  of  them  were  passed  by  him.  A  commercial 
depression  in  1879  shook  his  pc^ularity,  and  on  the  fall,  of  his 
ministry  in  1879  he  was  deposed,  and  for  the  next  fifteen  years 
remained  a  solitary  and  pathetic  figure  in  the  New  Zealand 
parliament,  reH>ectfully  treated,  courteously  listened  to,  but  never 
again  invited  to  lead.  In  1891  he  came  before  Australia  as  one  of 
the  New  Zealand  delegates  to  the  federal  convention  at  Sydney, 
and  characteristically  made  his  mark  by  standing  out  almost 
alone  for  "  one  man  one  vote  "  as  the  federal  franchise.  This 
point  he  carried,  and  the  Australians  thronged  to  hear  him,  so 
that  his  visits  to  Victoria  and  South  Australia  were  personal 
triumphs.  When,  too,  in  1894,  he  quitted  New  Zealand  for 
London,  some  reparation  was  at  last  made  him  by  the  imperial 
government;  he  was  called  to  the  privy  council,  and  graciously 
received  by  Queen  Victoria  on  his  visit  to  Windsor.    Thereafter 


59° 


GREY,  3RD  EARL— GREY,  LADY  JANE 


he  lived  in  London,  and  died  on  the  aoth  of  September  i8q8.    He 

was  given  a  public  funeral  at  St  Paul's.    Grey  was  all  his  life 

a  collector  of  books  and  manuscripts.    After  leaving  Cape 

Colony,  he  gave  his  library  to  Cape  Town  in  1863 ;  his  subsequent 

collection,  which  numbered  12,000  volumes,  he  presented  to  the 

citizens  of  Auckland  in  1887.   In  gratitude  the  people  of  Cape 

Town  erected  a  statue  of  him  opposite  their  library  building. 

Lives  of  Sir  George  Grey  have  been  written  by  W.  L.  and  L.  Keen 
(1893),  Professor  G.  C.  Henderson  (1907)  and  J.  Collier  (1009). 

(W.  P.  R.) 

QREY,  HENRY  GREY,  3S0  Earl  (1802-1894),  English 
statesman,  was  bom  on  the  38th  of  December  1803,  the  son  of 
the  3nd  Earl  Grey,  prime  minister  at  the  time  of  the  Reform 
Bill  of  1832.  He  entered  parliament  in  1826.  under  the  title  of 
Viscount  Howick,  as  member  for  Winchilsca,  which  constituency 
he  left  in  1831  for  Northumberland.  On  the  accession  of  the 
Whigs  to  power  in  1830  he  was  made  under-secretary  for  the 
colonies,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  his  intimate  acquaintance 
with  colonial  questions.  He  belonged  at  the  time  to  the  more 
advanced  party  of  colonial  reformers,  sharing  the  views  of 
Edward  Gibbon  Wakefield  on  questions  of  land  and  emigration, 
and  resigned  in  1834  from  dlssatbf action  that  slave  emancipation 
was  made  gradual  instead  of  immediate.  In  1835  he  entered 
Lord  Melbourne's  cabinet  as  secretary  at  war,  and  effected 
some  valuable  administrative  reforms,  especially  by  suppressing 
malpractices  detrimental  to  the  troops  in  India.  After  the  partial 
reconstruction  of  the  ministry  in  1839  he  again  resigned,  dis- 
approving of  the  more  advanced  views  of  some  of  his  colleagues. 
These  repeated  resignations  gave  him  a  reputation  for  crotcheti- 
ness,  which  he  did  not  decrease  by  his  disposition  to  embarrass  his 
old  colleagues  by  his  action  on  free  trade  questions  in  the  session 
of  1841.  During  the  exile  of  the  Liberals  from  power  he  went 
still  farther  on  the  path  of  free  trade,  and  anticipated  Lord 
John  Russell's  dedaration  against  the  com  laws.  When,  on 
Sir  Robert  Peel's  resignation  in  December  1845,  Lord  John 
Russell  was  called  upon  to  form  a  ministry,  Howick,  who  had 
become  Earl  Grey  by  the  death  of  his  father  in  the  preceding 
July,  refused  to  enter  the  new  cabinet  if  Lord  Palmerston  were 
foreign  secretary  (see  J.  R.  Thursfield  in  vol.  i.  and  Hon.  F.  H. 
Baring  in  voL  xxiii.  of  the  Engjlish  Historical  Review).  He  was 
greatly  censured  for  perverseness,  and  particularly  when  in  the 
following  July  he  accepted  Lord  Palmerston  as  a  colleague 
without  remonstrance.  His  conduct,  nevertheless,  afforded  Lord 
John  Russell  an  escape  from  an  embarrassing  situation.  Be- 
coming colonial  secretary  in  1846,  he  foimd  himself  everywhere 
confronted  with  arduous  problems,  which  in  the  main  he  en- 
countered with  success.  His  administration  formed  an  epoch. 
He  w^  the  first  minister  to  proclaim  that  the  colonies  were  to 
be  governed  for  their  own  benefit  and  not  for  the  mother- 
country's;  the  first  systematically  to  accord  them  self-govern- 
ment so  far  as  then  seemed  possible;  the  first  to  introduce  free 
trade  into  their  relations  with  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The 
concession  by  which  colonies  were  allowed  to  tax  imports  from 
the  mother-country  ad  libitum  was  not  his;  he  protested  against 
it,  but  was  overruled.  In  the  West  Indies  he  suppressed,  if  he 
could  not  overcome,  discontent;  in  Ceylon  he  put  down  rebellion; 
in  New  Zealand  he  suspended  the  constitution  he  had  himself 
accorded,  and  yielded  everything  into  the  masterful  hands  of 
Sir  George  Grey.  The  least  successful  part  of  his  administration 
was  his  treatment  of  the  convict  question  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  which  seemed  an  exception  to  his  mle  that  the  colonies 
were  to  be  governed  for  their  own  benefit  and  in  accordance  with 
their  own  wishes,  and  subjected  him  to  a  humiliating  defeat. 
After  his  retirement  he  wrote  a  history  and  defence  of  his  colonial 
policy  in  the  form  of  letters  to  Lord  John  Russell,  a  dry  but 
instructive  book  {Colonial  Policy  of  Lord  John  Russell's  Admini- 
stration, 1853).  He  resigned  with  his  colleagues  in  1852.  No 
room  was  found  for  him  in  the  Coalition  Cabinet  of  1853,  and 
although  during  the  Crimean  struggle  public  opinion  pointed 
to  him  as  the  fittest  man  as  minister  for  war,  he  never  again 
held  office.  During  the  remainder  of  his  long  life  he  exercised 
a  vigilant  criticism  on  public  affairs.    In  1858  he  wrote  a  work 


(republished  in  1864)  on  parliamentary  reform;  in  1888  he  wrote 
another  on  the  state  of  Ireland;  and  in  1893  one  on  the  United 
States  tariff.  In  his  latter  years  he  was  a  frequent  contributor 
of  weighty  letters  to  The  Times  on  land,  tithes,  currency  and 
other  public  questions.  His  principal  parliamentary  appearances 
were  when  he  moved  for  a  committee  on  Irish  affairs  in  1S66, 
and  when  in  1878  he  passionately  opposed  the  policy  of  the 
Beaconsfield  cabinet  in  India.  He  nevertheless  supported  Lord 
Beaconsficld  at  the  dissolution,  regarding  Mr  Gladstone's  acces- 
sion to  power  with  much  greater  alarm.  He  was  a  determined 
opponent  of  Mr  Gladstone's  Home  Rule  policy.  He  died  on  the 
9th  of  October  1894.  None  ever  doubted  his  capacity  or  his 
conscientiousness,  but  be  was  generally  deemed  impracticable 
and  disagreeable.  Prince  Albert,  however,  who  expressed 
himself  as  ready  to  subscribe  to  all  Grey's  prindpla,  and 
applauded  him  for  having  principles,  told  Stockmar  that,  although 
dogmatic,  he  was  amenable  to  argument;  and  Sir  Henry 
Taylor  credits  him  with  "  more  freedom  from  littlenesses  of 
feeling  than  I  have  met  before  in  any  public  man."  His  chief 
defect  was  perceived  and  expressed  by  his  original  tutor  and 
subsequent  adversary  in  colonial  affairs,  Edward  Gibbon  Wake- 
field, who  wrote,  "  With  more  than  a  conunon  talent  for  under- 
standing principles,  he  has  no  originality  of  thou^t,  which 
compels  him  to  take  all  his  ideas  from  somebody;  and  no  power 
of  working  out  theory  in  practice,  which  compels  him  to  be 
always  in  somebody's  hands  as  respects  decision  and  action." 

The  earl  had  no  sons,  and  he  was  followed  as  4th  earl  by  his 
nephew  Albert  Henry  George  (b.  1851),  who  in  1904  becuie 
governor-general  of  Canada. 

QREY,  LADY  JANE  (i537-iS54)>  a  lady  remarkable  00 
less  for  her  accomplishments  than  for  her  misfortunes,  was  the 
great-granddaughter  of  Henry  VII.  of  England.  Her  descent 
from  that  king  was  traced  through  a  line  of  females.  His 
second  daughter  Mary,  after  being  left  a  widow  by  Louis  XII. 
of  France,  married  Charles  Brandon,  duke  of  Suffolk,  who  ms 
a  favourite  with  her  brother  King  Henry  VIII.  Of  this  roaniaie 
came  two  daughters,  the  elder  of  whom.  Lady  Frances  Brandoa. 
was  married  to  Henry  Grey,  marquess  of  Dorset;  and  their 
issue,  again,  consisted  of  daughters  only.  Lady  Jane,  the 
subject  of  this  article,  was  the-eldest  of  three  whom  the  marquess 
had  by  Lady  Frances.  Thus  it  will  appear  that  even  if  the  ctowd 
of  England  had  ever  fallen  into  the  female  line  of  descent  from 
Henry  VII.,  she  could  not  have  put  in  a  rightful  claim  unless  the 
issue  of  his  elder  daughter,  Margaret,  had  become  extinct. 
But  Margaret  had  married  James  IV.  of  Scotland;  and,  though 
her  descendant,  James  VI.,  was  ultimately  odled  to  the  English 
throne,  Henry  VIII.  had  placed  her  family  after  thai  of  his  second 
sister  in  the  succession;  so  that,  failing  the  lawful  issue  of  Henry 
himself.  Lady  Jane  would,  according  to  this  arrangemmt, 
have  succeeded.  It  was  to  these  circumstances  that  she  owed 
her  exceptional  position  in  history,  and  became  the  victim  of  an 
ambition  which  was  not  her  own. 

She  was  bora  at  her  father's  seat  named  Bradgate  in  Leicester* 
shire  about  the  year  1537.  Her  parents,,  though  scv<er«  disciplin- 
arians, bestowed  more  than  ordinary  care  upon  her  educatioe, 
and  she  herself  was  so  teachable  and  delighted  so  much  in  study 
that  she  became  the  marvel  of  the  age  for  her  acquiremenis- 
She  not  only  excelled  in  needlework  and  in  music,  both  vtxal 
and  instrumental,  but  while  still  very  young  she  had  thoroughly 
mastered  Latin,  Greek,  French  and  Italian.  She  was  able  10 
speak  and  write  both  Greek  and  Latin  with  an  accuracy  thai 
satisfied  even  such  critics  as  Asdiam  and  her  tutor  Dr  Aylroef. 
afterwards  bisliop  of  London.  $he  also  acquired  some  knowledge 
of  at  least  three  Oriental  tongues,  Hebrew,  Chaldee  and  Anbtc. 
In  Ascham's  Schoolmaster  is  given  a  touching  account  of  iHe 
devotion  with  which  she  pursued  her  studies  and  the  harshness 
she  experienced  from  her  parents.  The  love  of  learning  was  her 
solace;  in  reading  Demosthenes  and  Plato  she  found  a  rcfu^ 
from  domestic  unhappineas.  When  about  ten  years  old  she 
was  placed  for  a  time  in  the  household  of  Thomas,  Lord  Seymoor, 
who,  having  obtained  her  wardship,  induced  her  parents  to  kt 
I  her  stay  with  him,  even  after  the  death  of  his  wife.  QattB 


GREY  DE  WILTON 


591 


Catherine  Parr,  by  promising  to  many  her  to  his  nephew,  King 
Edward  VI.  Lord  Seymour,  however,  was  attainted  of  high 
treason  and  beheaded  in  1549,  and  his  brother,  the  duke  of 
Somerset,  made  some  overtures  to  the  marquess  of  Dorset  to 
marry  her  to  his  son  the  eaii  of  Hertford.  These  projects, 
however,  came  to  nothing.  The  duke  of  Somerset  in  his  turn 
fell  a  victim  to  the  ambition  of  Dudley,  duke  of  Northumberland, 
and  was  beheaded  three  years  after  his  brother.  Meanwhile, 
the  dukedom  of  Suffolk  having  become  extinct  by  the  deaths 
of  Charles  Brandon  and  his  two  sons,  the  title  was  conferred 
upon  the  marquess  of  Dorset,  Lady  Jane's  father.  Northumber- 
land, who  was  now  all-powerful,  fearing  a  great  reverse  of  fortune 
in  case  of  the  king's  death,  as  his  health  began  visibly  to  decline, 
endeavoured  to  strengthen  himself  by  marriages  between  his 
family  and  those  of  other  powerful  noblemen,  especially  of  the 
new-made  duke  of  Suffolk.  His  three  eldest  sons  being  already 
married,  the  fourth,  who  was  named  Lord  Guilford  Dudley, 
was  accordingly  wedded  to  Lady  Jane  Grey  about  the  end  of 
May  1553.  The  match  received  the  full  approval  of  the  king, 
who  furnished  the  wedding  apparel  of  the  parties  by  royal 
warrant.  But  Edward's  state  of  health  warned  Northumberland 
that  he  must  lose  no  time  in  putting  the  rest  of  his  project  into 
execution.  He  persuaded  the  king  that  if  the  crown  should 
descend  to  his  sister  Mary  the  work  of  the  Reformation  would 
be  undone  and  the  liberties  of  the  kingdom  would  be  in  danger. 
Besides,  both  Mary  and  her  sister  Elizabeth  had  been  declared 
illegitimate  by  separate  acts  of  parliament,  and  the  objections 
to  Mary  queen  of  Scots  did  not  require  to  be  pointed  out, 
Edward  was  easily  persuaded  to  break  through  his  father's  will 
and  make  a  new  settlement  of  the  crown  by  deed.  The  document 
was  witnessed  by  the  signatures  of  all  the  council  and  of  all  but 
one  of  the  judges;  but  those  of  the  latter  body  were  obtained 
only  with  difficulty  by  threats  and  intimidation. 

Edward  VL  died  on  the  6th  July  1553,  and  it  was  announced 
to  Lady  Jane  that  she  was  queen.  She  was  then  but  axtecn 
years  of  age.  The  news  came  upon  her  as  a  most  unwelcome 
surprise,  and  for  some  time  she  resisted  all  persuasions  to  accept 
the  fat^  dignity;  but  at  length  she  yielded  to  the  entreaties 
of  her  father,  her  father-in-law  and  her  husband.  The  belter 
to  mature  their  plans  the  cabal  had  kept  the  king's  death  secret 
for  some  days,  but  they  proclaimed  Queen  Jane  in  the  city  on 
the  loth.  The  people  received  the  announcement  with  manifest 
coldness,  and  a  vintner's  boy  was  even  so  bold  as  to  raise  a  cry 
for  Queen  Mary,  for  which  he  next  day  had  his  ears  nailed  to  the 
pillory  and  afterwards  cut  off.  Mary,  however,  had  received 
eariy  intimation  of  her  brother's  death,  and,  retiring  from 
Hunsdon  into  Norfolk,  gathered  round  her  the  nobility  and 
commons  of  those  parts.  Northumberland  was  despatched 
thither  with  an  army  to  oppose  her;  but  after  reaching  New- 
market he  complained  that  the  council  had  not  Sent  him  forces 
in  sufficient  numbers  and  his  followers  began  to  desert.  News 
also  came  that  the  earl  of  Oxford  had  declared  for  Queen  Mary; 
and  as  most  of  the  council  themselves  were  only  seeking  an 
opportunity  to  wash  their  hands  of  rebellion,  they  procured  a 
meeting  at  Baynard's  Castle,  revoked  their  former  acts  as  done 
under  coercion,  and  caused  the  lord  mayor  to  proclaim  Queen 
Mary,  which  he  did  amid  the  shouts  of  the  citizens.  The  duke  of 
Suffolk  was  obliged  to  tell  his  daughter  that  she  must  lay  aside 
her  royal  dignity  and  become  a  private  person  once  more.  She 
replied  that  she  relinquished  most  willingly  a  crown  that  she 
had  only  accepted  out  of  obedience  to  him  and  her  mother, 
and  her  nine  days'  reign  was  over. 

The  Iciding  actor^  in  the  conspiracy  were  now  called  to 
answer  for  their  deeds.  Northumberland  was  brought  up 
to  London  a  .prisoner,  tried  and  sent  to  the  block,  along  with 
some  of  his  partisans.  The  duke  of  Suffolk  and  Lady  Jane  were 
also  committed  to  the  Tower;  but  the  former,  by  the  influence 
of  his  duchess,  procured  a  pardon.  Lady  Jane  and  her  husband 
Lord  Guilford  Dudley  were  also  tried,  and  received  sentence 
of  death  for  treason.  This,  however,  was  not  immediately 
carried  out;  on  the  contrary,  the  queen  seems  to  have  wished 
to  ^wre  their  lives  and  mitigated  the  rigour  of  their  confinement. 


Unfortunately,  owing  to  the  general  dislike  of  the  queen's 
marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain,  Sir  Thomas  Wyat  soon  after 
raised  a  rebellion  in  which  the  duke  of  Suffolk  and  his  brothers 
took  part,  and  on  its  suppression  the  queen  was  persuaded  that 
it  was  unsafe  to  spare  the  lives  of  Lady  Jane  and  her  husband 
any  longer.  On  hearing  that  they  were  to  die,  Lady  Jane 
declined  a  parting  interview  with  her  husband  lest  it  should 
increase  their  pain,  and  prepared  to  meet  her  fate  with  Christian 
fortitude.  She  and  her  husband  were  executed  on  the  same  day, 
on  the  1 2th  of  February  1554,  her  husband  on  Tower  Hill,  and 
herself  within  the  Tower  an  hour  afterwards,  amidst  universal 
sympathy  and  compassion. 

See  Ascham's  Schwdmastar;  Burnet's  History  of  (he  Reformatiou; 
Howard's  Lady  Jane  Grey;  Nicolas's  Literary  Remains  of  Lady  Jane 
Creyi  Ty tier's  England  under  Edward  VI.  and  Mary;  The  Chronicles 
of  Queen  Jane,  ed.  J.  G.  Nichols;  The  Accession  of  Queen  Mary 
(Guaras's  narrative  J,  ed.  R.  Garnett  (189a);  Foxe^  Acts  and 
Monuments. 

GREY  DE  WILTON  and  Grey  de  Ritihyn.  The  first  Baron 
Grey  de  Wilton  was  Reginald  de  Grey,  who  was  summoned  to 
parliament  as  a  baron  in  1 295  and  who  died  in  1308.  Reginald's 
son  John,  the  2nd  baron  (i  268-1323),  was  one  of  the  lords 
ordainers  in  1310  and  was  a  prominent  figure  in  English  politics 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  The  later  barons  Grey  de  Wilton 
were  descended  from  John's  eldest  son  Henry  (d.  1342),  while  a 
younger  son  Roger  (d.  1353)  was  the  ancestor  of  the  barons 
Grey  de  Ruthyn. 

WiLUAM,  13TH  Loso  Grey  de  Wilton  (d.  :562),  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  title  on  the  death  of  his  brother  Richard,  about 
1520,  won  great  fame  as  a  soldier  by  his  conduct  in  France 
during  the  concluding  years  of  Henry  VIII.'s  reign,  and  was  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  victorious  English  army  at  the  battle  of 
Pinkie  in  1547.  He  was  then  employed  on  the  Scottish  marches 
and  in  Scotland,  and  in  1549  he  rendered  good  service  in  sup- 
pressing the  rebellion  in  Oxfordshire  and  in  the  west  of  England; 
in  X551  he  was  imprisoned  as  a  friend  of  the  fallen  protector, 
the  duke  of  Somerset,  and  he  was  concerned  in  the  attempt  made 
by  John  Dudley,  duke  of  Northumberland,  to  place  Lady  Jane 
Grey  on  the  English  throne  in  1553.  However,  he  was  pardoned 
by  Queen  Mary  and  was  entrusted  with  the  defence  of  Gutnes. 
Although  indifferently  supported  he  defended  the  town  with 
groat  gallantry,  but  in  January  1558  he  was  forced  to  surrender 
and  for  some  time  he  remained  a  prisoner  in  France.  Under 
Elizabeth,  Grey  was  again  employed  on  the.  Scotti^  border, 
and  he  was  responsible  for  the  pertinacious  but  unavailing 
attempt  to  capture  Leith  in  May  1560.  He  died  at  Chcshunt 
in  Hertfordshire  on  the  i4th/25th  of  December  1562. 

He  was  described  by  William  Cecil  as  "  a  noble,  valiant,  painful 
and  careful  gentleman,"  and  his  son  and  successor,  Arthur,  wrote 
A  Commentary  of  the  Services  and  Charges  ofWiUiam,  Lord  Grey  of 
Wilton,  K.G.  Thu  has  been  edited  by  Sir  P.  de  M.  Grey  Egerton 
for  tbe  Camden  Society  (1847). 

Grey's  elder  son  Arthur,  14TB  Lord  Grey  de  Wilton  (i  536- 
1 593)*  w^  during  early  life  with  his  father  in  France  and  in 
Scotland;  he  fought  at  the  battle  of  St  Quentin  and  helped  to 
defend  Gulnes  and  to  assault  Leith.  In  July  1580  he  was 
appointed  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  and  after  an  initial  defeat  in 
Wicklow  was  successful  in  reducing  many  of  the  rebels  to  a 
temporary  submission.  Perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  event 
during  his  tenure  of  this  office  was  the  massacre  of  600  Italians 
and  Spaniards  at  Smerwick  in  November  1580,  an  action  for 
which  he  was  responsible.  Having  incurred  a  heavy  burden  of 
debt  Grey  frequently  implored  the  queen  to  recall  him,  and  in 
August  1582  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  England  (see  E. 
Spenser,  View  of  the  State  of  Ireland,  edited  by  H.  Morley,  1890, 
and  R.  Bagwell.  Ireland  under  the  Tudors,  vol.  iii.,  1890).  While 
in  Ireland  Grey  was  served  as  secretary  by  Edmund  Spenser, 
and  in  book  v.  of  the  Faerie  Queene  the  poet  represents  his 
patron  as  a  knight  of  very  noble  qualities  named  Artegall.  As 
one  of  the  commissioners  who  tried  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  Grey 
defended  the  action  of  Elizabeth's  sccAtary,  William  Davison, 
with  regard  to  this  matter,  and  he  Cook  part  in  the  preparations 
for  the  defence  of  England  against  the  Spaniards  in  1588.    His 


592 


GREYMOUTH— GRIBEAUVAL 


account  of  the  defence  -of  Gulnes  was  used  by  Holinsbed  in  his 
CkronicUs. 

When  he  died  on  the  14th  of  October  1593  he  was  succeeded 
as  15th  baron  by  his  son  Thouas  (d.  1614),  who  while  serving  in 
Ireland  incurred  the  enmity  of  Robert  Devereux,  earl  of  Essex, 
and  of  Henry  Wriotbeslcy,  earl  of  Southampton;  and  after 
fighting  against  Spain  in  the  Netherlands  he  was  a  member  of 
the  court  which  sentenced  these  two  noblemen  to  death  in  i6ox. 
On  the  accession  of  James  I.  he  was  arrested  for  his  share  in  the 
"  Bye  "  plot,  an  attempt  made  by  William  Watson  and  others 
to  seize  the  king.  He  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  death,  but  the 
sentence  was  not  carried  out  and  he  remained  in  prison  until  his 
death  on  the  9th  of  July  1614.  He  displayed  both  ability  and 
courage  at  his  trial,  remarking  after  sentence  had  been  passed, 
"  the  house  of  Wilton  hath  spent  many  lives  in  their  prince's 
service  and  Grey  cannot  beg  his."  Like  his  father  Grey  was  a 
strong  Puritan.    He  left  no  children  and  his  barony  became 

extinct 

In  1784  Sir  Thomas  Egcrton,  Bart.,  a  descendant  in  the  female 
line  of  the  14th  baron,  was  created  Baron  Grey  dc  Wilton.  He  died 
without  sons  in  September  181 4,  when  his  barony  became  extinct; 
but  the  titles  of  Viscount  Grey  de  Wilton  and  carl  of  Wilton,  which 
had  been  conferred  upon  him  in  1801,  passed  to  Thomas  Grosvenor 
(I790>i882),  the  second  son  of  his  daughter  Eleanor  (d.  1846).  and 
her  husband  Robert  Grosvenor,  1st  marquess  of  Wcstmmstcr. 
Thomas  took  the  name  of  Egcrton  and  his  descendants  still  hold  the 
titles. 

Roger  Gbey,  ist  Bason  Grey  de  Ruthyn,  who  was  sum- 
moned to  parliament  as  a  baron  in  1324,  saw  much  service  as  a 
soldier  before  his  death  on  the  6th  of  March  1353.  The  second 
baron  was  his  son  Reginald,  whose  son  Reginald  (c.  1362-1440) 
succeeded  to  the  title  on  his  father's  death  in  July  1388.  In 
X410  after  a  long  dispute  the  younger  R^'nald  won  the  right  to 
bear  the  arms  of  the  Hastings  family.  He  enjoyed  the  favour 
both  of  Richard  II.  and  Henry  IV.,  and  his  chief  military  exploits 
were  against  the  Welsh,  who  took  him  prisoner  in  1402  and  only 
released  him  upon  payment  of  a  heavy  ransom.  Grey  was  a 
member  of  the  council  which  governed  England  during  the 
absence  of  Henry  V.  in  France  in  14x5;  he  fought  in  the  French 
wars  in  1420  and  1421  and  died  on  the  30th  of  September  1440. 
His  eldest  son,  Sir  John  Grey,  K.G.  (d.  X439),  who  predeceased 
his  father,  fought  at  Agincourt  and  was  deputy  of  Ireland  in  X427. 
He  was  the  father  of  Edmund  Grey  (d.  1489),  who  succeeded 
his  grandfather  as  Lord  Greyde  Ruthyn  in  X440  and  was  created 

earl  of  Kent  in  1465. 

One  of  Reginald  Grey's  younger  sons,  Edward  (141^-1457), 
succeeded  his  maternal  grandfather  as  Baron  Ferrers  of  Grobv  in 
1445.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  earls  of  Stamford  and  also  01  the 
Greys,  marquesses  of  Dorset  and  dukes  of  Suffolk. 

The  barony  of  Grey  de  Ruthyn  was  merged  in  the  earldom  of 
Kent  until  the  death  of  Henry,  the  8th  earl,  in  November  1639. 
It  then  devolved  upon  Kent's  nephew  Charles  Longucville  (1612- 
164A).  through  whose  daughter  Susan  (d.  1676)  it  came  to  the  family 
of  Yelverton,  who  were  carls  of  Sussex  from  1717  to  1799.  The  next 
holder  was  Henry  Edward  Gould  (1 780-1810).  a  grandson  of  Henry 
Yelverton,  earl  of  Sussex ;  and  through  Gould's  daughter  Barbara, 
marchioness  of  Hastings  (d.  1858),  it  passed  to  the  last  marquess  of 
HastingBSon  whose  death  in  1868  the  barony  fell  into  abeyance,  this 
being  terminated  in  1885  in  favour  of  Hastings's  sister  Bertha 
(d.  1887).  the  wife  of  Augustus  Wykeham  Clifton.  Their  son, 
Rawdon  George  Grey  Clifton  (b.  1858),  succeeded  his  mother  as  24th 
holder  of  the  barony. 

ORBYMOUTH,  a  seaport  of  New  Zealand,  the  principal  port 
on  the  west  coast  of  South  Island,  jn  Grey  county.  Pop.  (X906) 
4569.  It  stands  on  the  small  estuary  of  the  Grey  or  Mawhera 
river,  has  a  good  harbour,  and  railway  communication  with 
Hokitika,  Reef  ton,  &c.,  while  the  construction  of  a  line  to  connect 
with  Christchurch  and  Nelson  was  begun  in  1887.  The  district 
is  both  auriferous  and  coal-bearing.  Gold-dredging  is  a  rich 
industry,  and  the  coal-mines  have  attendant  industries  in  coke, 
bricks  and  fire-clay.  The  timber  trade  is  also  well  developed. 
The  neighbouring  scenery  is  picturesque,  espedally  among  the 
hills  surrounding  Lake  Brunner  (i  5  m.  S.E.). 

GRBYTOWN  (San  Juan  del  Norte),  the  principal  seaport  on 
the  Caribbean  coast  of  Nicaragua,  in  the  extreme  south-eastern 
corner  of  the  republic,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  northern  channel 
of  the  San  Juan  river  delta.  Pop.  (1905)  about  2500.    The  town 


occupies  the  seaward  side  of  a  narrow  peninsula,  formed  by  the 
windings  of  the  river.  Most  of  its  houses  are  raised  on  piles 
2  or  3  ft.  above  the  ground.  The  neighbourhood  is  unhealthy 
and  unsuited  for  agriculture,  bo  that  almost  all  food-stuffs  must 
be  imported,  and  the  cost  of  living  is  high.  Greytown  has 
suffereid  severely  from  the  accumulation  of  sand  in  its  ooce  fine 
harbour.  Between  1832  and  1848  Point  Arenas,  the  seaward 
end  of  the  pexiinsula,  was  enlarged  by  a  sandbank  more  than 
X  m.  long;  between  1850  and  X875  the  depth  of  water  over  the 
bar  decreased  from  about  25  ft.  to  5  ft.,  and  the  entrance  cbaiu)d, 
which  had  been  nearly  fm.  wide,  was  almost  dosed.  Subsequent 
attempts  to  improve  the  harbour  by  dredging  and  building 
jetties  have  only  had  partial  success;  but  Greytown  remains 
the  headquarters  of  Nicaraguan  commerce  with  Europe  and 
eastern  America.  The  village  called  America,  z  m.  N.,  was 
built  as  the  eastern  terminus  of  a  proposed  interoceaxiic  canil. 

The  harbour  of  San  Juan,  discovered  by  Columbus,  was 
brought  into  further  notice  by  Captain  Diego  Machuca,  who  in 
1529  sailed  down  the  river  from  Lake  Nicaragua.  The  date  of 
the  first  Spanish  settlement  on  the  spot  is  not  known,  but  in  the 
X7th  century  there  were  fortifications  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
In  1796  San  Juan  was  made  a  port  of  entry  by  royal  diaiter, 
and  new  defences  were  erected  in  x82X.  In  virtue  of  the  pro- 
tectorate claimed  by  Great  Britain  over  the  Mosquito  Coast 
iq.v.)t  the  Mosquito  Indians,  aided  by  a  British  force,  seized  the 
town  in  1848  and  occupied  it  until  x86o,  when  Great  Britain 
ceded  its  protectorate  to  Nicaragua  by  the  treaty  of  Managua. 
This  treaty  secured  religious  liberty  and  trial  by  juiy  for  aO 
dvil  and  criminal  charges  in  Greytown;  its  seventh  artide 
declared  the  port  free,  but  was  never  enforced. 

QREYWACKB.  or  Grauwacke  (a  German  word  signifyiag 
a  grey  earthy  rock),  the  designation,  formerly  more  generally 
used  by  English  geologists  than  at  the  present  day,  for  impure, 
highly  composite,  gritty  xocks  bdonging  to  the  Palaouoic 
systems.  "They  correspond  to  the  sandstones,  grits  and  fiae 
conglomerates  of  the  later  periods.  Greywackcs  are  mostly 
grey,  brown,  yellow  or  black,  dull-coloured,  sandy  rocks  whfdi 
may  occur  in  thick  or  thin  beds  along  with  slates,  llmestooes,  &c, 
and  are  abundant  in  Wales,  the  south  of  Scotland  and  the  Lake 
district  of  England.  They  contain  a  veiy  great  variety  of 
minerals,  of  which  the  principal  are  quartz,  orthodase  sad 
plagtodase,  caldte,  iron  oxides  and  graphitic  carbonaceoa 
matters,  together  with  (in  the  coarser  kinds)  fragmcnta  of  sudli 
rocks  as  felsite,  chert,  slate,  gneiss,  various  schists,  quartiitc. 
Among  other  minerab  found  in  them  are  biotite  and  chlorite, 
tourmaline,  epidote,  apatite,  garnet,  hornblende  and  augite, 
sphene,  pyrites.  The  cementing  material  may  be  siliceous  or 
argillaceous,  and  is  sometimes  calcareous.  As  a  rule  greywa^es 
are  not  fossiliferous,  but  organic  remains  may  be  omxmoa  ia 
the  finer  beds  assodated  with  them.  Thdr  component  partidcs 
are  usually  not  much  rounded  by  attrition,  and  the  rocks  have 
often  been  considerably  indurated  by  pressure  and  mineral 
changes,  such  as  the  introduction  of  interstitial  silica.  In  some 
districts  the  greywackes  are  cleaved,  but  they  show  phoiomeDS 
of  this  kind  much  less  perfectly  than  the  slates.  Although  the 
group  is  so  diverse  that  it  is  difficult  to  characterize  mincra- 
logically,  it  has  a  wdl-established  pkicc  in  petrographical 
classifications,  because  these  peculiar  composite  arenaceous 
deposits  are  very  frequent  among  Silurian  and  Cambrian  rocks, 
and  rarely  occur  in  Secondary  or  Tertiary  systems.  Tbdr 
essential  features  are  their  gritty  character  and  their  compkt 
composition.  By  increasing  metamorphism  greywackes  in- 
quently  pass  into  mica-schists,  chioritic  schists  and  sediroeataiT 
gneisses.  (J*  S-  F.) 

GRIBEAUVAU  JEAN  BAPTISTB  DE  (X7X5-1789),  Fceock 
artillery  general,  was  the  son  of  a  magistrate  of  Amiens  and  vas 
bom  there  on  the  xsth  of  September  xyxs.  He  entered  tke 
French  royal  artillery  in  x  73  2  as  a  volunteer,  and  became  aa 
officer  .in  1735.  For  nearly  twenty  years  regimental  duty  and 
sdentlfic  work  occupied  him,  and  in  1752  he  became  captain  of  b 
company  of  miners.  A  few  years  later  he  was  employed  in  a 
ffiiUtaxy  mission  in  Prussia.    In  X757,  being  then  a  UeotcsaBt- 


GRIBOYEDOV— GRIEG 


593 


colonel,  he  was  lent  to  the  Austrian  army  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  and  served  as  a  general  oflficcr  of  artillery. 
The  siege  of  Glatz  and  the  defence  of  Schweidnitz  were  his 
principal  exploits.  Hie  empress  Maria  Theresa  rewarded  him 
for  his  work  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  field-marshal  and  the 
cross  of  the  Maria  Theresa  order.  On  his  return  to  France  he 
was  made  martckal  de  camp^  in  1764  inspector  of  artillery,  and 
in  1765  lieutenant-general  and  commander  of- the  order  of  St 
Louis.  For  some  years  after  this  he  was  in  disfavour  at  court, 
and  be  became  first  inspector  of  artillery  only  in  1776,  in  which 
yeai*  also  he  received  the  grand  cross  of  the  St  Louis  order.  He 
was  now  able  to  carry  out  the  reforms  in  the  artillery  arm  which 
are  his  chief  title  to  fame.  See  Artillery;  and  for  full  details 
Gribeauval's  own  Talde  des  construciions  des- pHncipaux  aiiirails 
d€  I*  artiUerie  .  .  ,de  M,de  Cribeauval,  and  the  reglemerU  for  the 
French  artillery  issued  in  1776.    He  died  in  1789. 

See  Puys£ffur  in  Journal  d*  Paris t  supplement  of  the  8th  of  July 
1789;  Chevauerde  Passac,  Pricis  sur  M.de  Cribeauval  (Paris,  1816); 
Veyrines,  Cribeauval  (Paris,  1889).  and  HGnn6bert,  Cribeauval f 
lietdenant-ffMral  des  armies  du  roy  (Paris,  1896). 

GRIBOYEDOV.  ALEXANDER  SERGUEEVICH  (1795-Z829), 
Russian  dramatic  author,  was  bom  in  1795  at  Moscow,  where 
he  studied  at  the  university  from  1810  to  181 2.  He  then  obtained 
a  commission  in  a  hussar  regiment,  but  resigned  it  in  x8i6. 
Next  year  he  entered  the  civil  service,  and  in  1818  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  Russian  legation  in  Persia,  whence  he  was 
transferred  to*  Georgia.  He  had  commenced  writing  early,  and 
had  produced  on  the  stage  at  St  Petersburg  in  i8t6  a  comedy 
in  verse,  translated  from  the  French,  called  The  Young  Spouses, 
which  was  followed  by  other  pieces  of  the  same  kind.  But 
neither  these  nor  the  essays  and  verses  which  he  wrote  would 
have  been  long  remembered  but  for  the  immense  success  gained 
by  his  comedy  in  verse,  Cori  oi  uma,  or  "  Misfortune  from 
Intelligence  "  (Eng.  trans,  by  N.  Bcnardaky,  1857).  A  satire 
upon  Russian  society,  or,  as  a  high  official  styled  it,  "A  pasquin- 
ade on  Moscow,"  its  plot  is  slight,  its  merits  consisting  in  its 
accurate  representation  of  certain  sodal  and  official  types — 
such  as  FamousofT,  the  lover  of  old  abuses,  the  hater  of  reforms; 
his  secretary,  Molchanin,  servile  fawner  upon  all  in  office;  the 
aristocratic  young  liberal  and  Anglomaniac,  Repetiloff;  con-' 
trasted  with  whom  is  the  hero  of  the  piece,  Tchatsky,  the  ironical 
satirist,  just  returned  from  the  west  of  Europe,  who  exposes  and 
ridicules  the  weaknesses  of  the  rest,  his  words  echoing  that  outcry 
of  the  young  generation  of  1820  which  reached  its  climax  in  the 
military  insurrection  of  1825,  and  was  then  sternly  silenced  by 
Nicholas.  Griboyedov  spent  the  summer  of  1823  in  Russia, 
completed  his  play  and  took  it  to  St  Petersburg.  There  it  was 
rejected  by  the  censorship.  Many  copies  were  made  and  privately 
circulated,  but  Griboyedov  never  saw  it  published.  The  first 
edition  was  printed  in  1833,  four  years  after  his  death.  Only 
once  did  he  see  it  on  the  stage,  when  it  was  acted  by  the  officers 
of  the  garrison  at  Erivan.  Soured  by  disappointment  he  returned 
to  Georgia,  made  himself  useful  by  his  linguistic  knowledge  to 
his  relative  Count  Paskievitch-Erivansky  during  a  campaign 
against  Persia,  and  was  sent  to  St  Petersburg  with  the  treaty 
of  1828.  Brilliantly  received  there,  he  thought  of  devoting 
himself  to  h'terature,  and  commenced  a  romantic  drama,  A 
Georgian  Night.  But  he  was  suddenly  sent  to  Persia  as  minister- 
plenipotentiary.  Soon  after  his  arrival  at  Teheran  a  tumult 
arose,  caused  by  the  anger  of  the  populace  against  some  Georgian 
and  Armenian  captives — Russian  subjects — who  had  taken 
refuge  in  the  Russian  embassy.  It  wasslormed,  Griboyedov  was 
killed  (February  11,  1829),  and  his  body  was  for  three  days  so 
all-treated  by  the  mob  that  it  was  at  last  recognized  only  by  an 
old  scar  on  the  hand,  due  to  a  wound  received  in  a  dueL  It  was 
taken  to  Tidis,  and  buried  in  the  monastery  of  St  David.  There 
a  momument  was  erected  to  his  memory  by  his  widow,  to  whom 
he  had  been  but  a  few  months  married. 

GRIEO,  EDVARD  HAGERUP  (1843-1907),  Norwegian  musical 
composer,  was  bom  on  the  15th  of  June  1843  in  Bergen,  where 
bis  father,  Alexander  Greig  (sic),  was  English  consul.  The  Greig 
family  were  of  Scottish  origin,  but  the  composer's  grandfather, 

XD    10* 


a  supporter  of  the  Pretender,  left  his  home  at  Aberdeen  after 
Charles  Edward's  defeat  at  Culloden,  and  went  lo  Bergen,  where 
he  carried  on  business.  The  composer's  mother ,  Gesine  Hagcrup, 
belonged  to  a  pure  Norwegian  peasant  family;  and  it  is  from 
the  mother  rather  than  from  the  father  that  Edvard  Grieg 
derived- his  musical  talent.  She  had  been  educated  as  a  pianist 
and  began  to  give  her  son  lessons  on  the  pianoforte  when  he  was 
six  years  of  age.  His  first  composition,  '*  Variations  on  a  German 
melody,'*  was  written  at  the  age  of  nine.  A  summer  holiday  in 
Norway  with  his  father  in  1858  seems  to  have  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  child's  musical  imagination,  which  was  easily 
kindled  at  the  sight  of  mountain  and  fjord.  In  the  autumn  of 
the  same  year,  at  the  recommendation  of  Ole  Bull,  young  Grieg 
entered  the  Leipzig  Conservatorium,  where  he  passed,  like  all 
his  contemporaries,  under  the  influence  of  the  Mendelssohn  and 
Schumann  school  of  romantics.  But  the  curriculum  of  academic 
study  was  too  narrow  for  him.  He  dreamed  half  his  time  away 
and  overworked  during  the  other  half.  In  1862  he  completed 
his  Leipzig  studies,  and  appeared  as  pianist  and  composer 
before  his  fellow-citizens  of  Bergen.  In  1863  he  studied  in 
Copenhagen  for  a  short  time  with  Gade  and  Emil  Hartmann, 
both  composers  representing  a  sentimental  strain  of  Scandinavian 
temperament,  from  which  Grieg  emancipated  himself  in  fayour 
of  the  harder  inspiration  of  Richard  Nordraak.  **  The  scales 
fell  from  my  eyes,"  says  Grieg  of  his  acquaintance  with  Nordraak. 
"  For  the  first  time  I  learned  through  him  to  know  the  northern 
folk  tunes  and  my  own  nature.  We  made  a  pact  to  combat  the 
effeminate  Gade-Mendelssohn  mixture  of  Scandinavism,  and 
boldly  entered  upon  the  new  path  along  which  the  nolthem 
school  at  present  pursues  its  course."  Grieg  now  made  a  kind  of 
crusade  in  favour  of  national  music.  In  the  winter  of  1864- 
r865  he  founded  the  Copenhagen  concert-sodety  Euterpe, 
which  was  intended  to  produce  the  works  of  young  Norwegian 
composers.  During  the  winters  of  1865-1866  and  1869-1870 
Grieg  was  in  Rome.  In  the  autumn  of  1866  he  settled  in 
Christiania,  where  from  1867  till  x88o  he  conducted  a  musical 
union.  From  1880  to  1882  he  directed  the  concerts  of  the 
Harmonic  Society  in  Bergen.  In  1872  the  Royal  Musical 
Academy  of  Sweden  made  Grieg  a  member;  in  1874  the 
Norwegian  Storthing  granted  him  an  annual  stipend  of  1600 
kronen.  He  had  already  been  decorated  with  the  Olaf  order  in 
1873.  In  1888  he  played  hb  pianoforte  concerto  and  conducted 
his  "  two  melodies  for  strings  "  at  a  Philharmonic  concert  in 
London,  and  visited  England  again  in  1891,  1894  and  1896, 
receiving  the  degree  of  Mus.D.  from  the  university  of  Cambridge 
in  1894.    He  died  at  Bergen  on  the  4th  of  September  1907. 

As  a  composer  Grieg's  distinguishing  quality  is  lyrical. 
Whether  his  orchestral  works  or  his  songs  or  his  best  pianoforte 
works  are  submitted  to  examination,  it  is  almost' always  the  note 
of  song  that  tells.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  music  to  Ibsen's  Peer 
Cyntf  or  in  the  suite  for  stringed  orchestra,  Aus  Holbergs  Zeit, 
this  characteristic  is  combined  with  a  strong  power  for  raising 
pictures  in  the  Ibtener's  mind,  and  the  romantic  "  programme  " 
tendency  in  Grieg's  music  becomes  clearer  the  farther  writers 
like  Richard  Strauss  carry  this  movement.  Grieg's  songs  may 
be  said  to  be  generally  the  more  spontaneous  the  more  closely 
they  conform  to  the  simple  model  of  the  Volkslied;  yet  the 
much  sung  "  Ich  h'ebe  dich  "  is  a  song  of  a  different  kind,  which 
has  hardly  ever  been  surpassed  for  the  perfection  with  which  it 
depicts  a  strong  momentary  emotion,  and  it  is  difficult  to  ascribe 
greater  merits  to  songs  of  Grieg  even  so  characteristic  as  "  Sol- 
vcjg's  Lied  "  and  "  Ein  Schwan."  The  pianoforte  concerto  is 
brilliant  and  spontaneous;  it  has  been  performed  by  most 
pianists  of  the  first  rank,  but  its  essential  qualities  and  the  pure 
nationah'ty  of  its  themes  have  been  brought  out  to  their  perfec- 
tion by  one  player  only—the  Norwegian  pianist  Knudsen.  The 
first  and  second  of  Grieg's  violin  sonatas  are  agreeable,  so  free 
and  artless  is  the  flow  of  their  melody.  In  his  numerous  piano 
pieces  and  in  those  of  his  songs  which  are  devoid  of  a  definitely 
national  inspiration  the  impression  made  is  less  permanent. 
BUlow  called  Grieg  the  "  Chopin  of  the  North."  The  phrase 
is  an  exaggeration  rather  than  an  expression  of  the  truth,  for 


594 


GRIESBACH— GRIFFENFELDT 


the  range  of  the  appeal  in  Chopin  is  far  wider,  nor  has  the  national 
movement  Inaugurated  by  Grieg  shown  promise  of  great  develop- 
ment.   He  is  rather  to  be  regarded  as  the  pioneer  of  a  musical 
mission  which  has  been  perfectly  carried  out  by  himself  alone. 
See  La  Mara.  Edmud  Crieg  (Leip2ig,i898). 

GRIESBACH,  JOHANN  JAKOB  (1745-1812).  German  biblical 
critic,  was  born  at  Butzbach.  a  small  town  of  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
where  his  father,  Konrad  Kaspar  (1705-1777),  was  pastor,  on 
the  4th  of  January  1745.  He  was  educated  at  Frankforl-on-the- 
Main,  and  at  the  universities  of  Tubingen,  Leipzig  and  Halle, 
where  he  became  one  of  J.  S.  Semler's  most  ardent  disciples. 
It  was  Semler  who  induced  him  to  turn  his  attention  to  the 
textual  criticism  of  the  New  Testament.  At  the  close  of  his 
undergraduate  career  he  undertook  a  literary  tour  through 
Germany,  Holland,  France  and  Eng^land.  On  his  return  to 
Halle,  he  acted  for  some  time  as  Privatdozcnt^  but  in  1773  was 
appointed  to  a  professorial  chair;  in  1775  he  was  translated  to 
Jena,  where  the  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  (though  he  received  calls 
to  other  universities).  He  died  on  the  24th  of  March  181 2. 
Griesbach's  fame  rests  upon  his  work  in  New  Testament  criticism, 
in  which  he  inau^rated  a  new  epoch. 

His  critical  cdirion  of  the  New  Testament  first  appeared  at  Halle, 
in  three  volumes,  in  1774-1775.  The  first  volume  contained  the  first' 
three  Gospels,  synoptically  arranged;  the  second,  the  Epistles  and 
the  book  of  Revelation.  All  the  historical  books  were  reprinted 
in  one  volume  in  1777.  the  synoptical  arrangement  of  the  Gospels 
having  been  abandoned  as  inconvenient.  Of  the  second  edition, 
consioerably  enlarged  and  improved,  the  first  volume  appeared  in 
1796  and  the  second  in  1806  (Halle  and  London).  Of  a  third  edition, 
edited  by  David  Schulz.  only  the  first  volume,  containing  the  four 
Gospels,  appeared  (1827). 

For  the  construction  of  his  critical  text  Gricsbach  took  as  his  basis 
the  Elzevir  edition.  Where  he  differed  from  it  he  placed  the  Elzevir 
reading  on  the  inner  niargin  alone  with  other  readings  he  thought 
worthy  of  special  consideration  (tnesc  last,  however,  being  printed 
in  smaller  tvpe).  , To  all  the  readings  on  this  margin  he  attached 
special  marks  indicatins  the  precise  degree  of  probability  in  his 
opinion  attaching  to  each,  in  weighing  these  probabilities  he  pro< 
cccded  upon  a  particular  theory  which  in  its  leading  features  he  had 
derived  from  J.  A.  Behgel  and  I.  S.  Semlcr.  dividing  all  the  MSS. 
into  three  main  groups — the  Alexandrian,  the  Western  and  the 
Byzantine  (sec  Bible:  New  Testament^  "Textual  Criticism"). 
A  reading  supported  by  only  one  recension  he  considered  as  having 
only  one  witness  in  its  favour;  those  readings  which  were  supported 
by  all  the  three  recensions,  or  even  by  two  of  them,  especially  if 
these  two  were  the  Alexandrian  and  the  Western,  he  unhesitatingly 
accepted  as  genuine.  Only  when  each  of  the  three  recensions  gives 
a  diltcrent  reading  does  he  proceed  to  discuss  the  question  on  other 
grounds.  See  his  Symtwlae  critic ae  ad  supplendas  et  corrigendas 
variorum  N.T.  Uctionum  coUectiones  (Halle,  1785,  1793),  and  his 
Comnuniarius  criticus  in  Uxtum  Craecum  N.T.^  which  extends  to 
the  end  of  Mark,  and  discusses  the  more  important  various  readings 
with  great  care  and  thoroughness  (Jena,  1794  ff.).  Among  the  other 
works  of  Gricsbach  (which  are  comparatively  unimportant)  may  be 
mentioned  his  university  thesis  De  codicibus  quatuor  evangdiitarum 
Origenianis  (Halle,  1771)  and  a  work  upon  systematic  theology 
(AnUituHg  xur  Kenniniss  der  poputdren  Dogmalik,  Jena,  1779). 
His  OpuKula,  consisting  chiefly  of  university  "Programs"  and 
addresses,  were  edited  by  Gabter  (3  vols.,  Jena,  1824). 

See  the  article  in  Herzc^-Hauck,  ReaUncyklopddie,  and  the 
AUgemeiHe .deutuhe  Biograpkie. 

QRIESBACH,  a  watering-pbce  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Rench,  1550  ft.  above  the  sea,  6  m.  W.  from 
Freudenstadt  in  Wiirttemberg.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  saline 
chalybeate  waters  (twelve  springs),  which  are  specific  in  cases 
of  anaemia,  feminine  disorders  and  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system,  and  were  used  in  the  i6th  century.  The  annual  number 
of  visitors  is  nearly  2000.  Pop.  (1900)  800.  From  1665  to  1805 
Gricsbach  was  part  of  the  bishopric  of  Strassburg. 

See  Haberer,  Die  Renckbdder  Petersthal  und  Gricsbach  (WQrzburg. 
1866). 

QRIFFB  (French  for  "daw"),  an  architectural  term  for  the 
spur,  an  ornament  carved  at  the  angle  of  the  square  base  of 
columns. 

GRIFFENFELDT,  PEDER,  Count  {Peder  Sckumacher)  (1635- 
1699),  Danish  statesman,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  on  the  24th 
of  August  1635,  of  a  wealthy  trading  family  connected  with  the 
leading  civic,  clerical  and  learned  circles  in  the  Danish  capital. 
His  tutor,  Jens  Vorde,  who  prepared  him  in  his  eleventh  year 
for  the  university,  praises  his  extraordinary  gifts,  his  mastery 


of  the  classical  languages  and  his  almost  disquieting  (filigesoe. 
The  brilliant  way  in  which  he  sustained  his  preliminary  ezamina* 
tion  won  him  the  friendship  of  the  examiner,  Bish<^  Jasper 
Brokman.  at  whose  palace  he  first  met  Frederick  III.  Ttie  king 
was  struck  with  the  lad's  bright  grey  eyes  and  pleasant  humorous 
face;  and  Brokman,  proud  of  his  pupil,  made  him  translate  a 
chapter  from  a  Hebrew  Bible  first  into  Latin  and  then  into 
Danish ,  for  the  entertainment  of  the  scholarly  monarch.  In  1654 
young  Schumacher  went  abroad  for  eight  years,  to  complete 
his  education.  From  Germany  he  proceeded  to  the  Netherlands, 
staying  at  Leiden,  Utrecht  and  Amsterdam,  and  passing  in  i6sr 
to  (Queen's  College,  Oxford,  where  he  lived  three  years.  The 
epoch-making  events  which  occurred  in  England,  while  he  was 
at  Oxford  profoundly  interested  him.  and  coinciding  with  the 
Revolution  in  Denmark,  which  threw  open  a  career  to  the  middle 
classes,  convinced  him  that  his  proper  sphere  was  politics.  In 
the  autumn  of  i(M^  Schumacher  visited  Paris,  Portly  after 
Mazarin's  death,  when  the  young  Louis  XIV.  first  seized  the 
reins  of  power.  Schumacher  seems  to  have  been  profoundly 
impressed  by  the  administrative  superiority  of  a  strong  central- 
iscd  monarchy  in  the  hands  of  an  energetic  monarch  who  knew 
his  own  mind;  and,  in  politics,  as  in  manners,  France  ever 
afterwards  was  his  model  The  last  year  .of  his  travels  was 
spent  in  Spain,  where  be  obtained  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
Castilian  language  and  literature.  His  travels,  however,  if  they 
enriched  his  mind,  relaxed  his  character,  and  be  brou|sht  bome 
easy  morals  as  well  as  exquisite  manners. 

On  his  return  to  Copenhagen,  in  1662,  Schumacher  found  the 
monarchy  established  on  the  ruins  of  the  aristocracy,  and  eager 
to  buy  the  services  of  every  man  of  the  middle  classes  who  had 
superior  talents  to  offer.  Determined  to  make  his  way  in  this 
"  new  Promised  Land,"  the  young  adventurer  contri\'ed  to 
secure  the  protection  of  Kristoffer  Gabel,  the  king's  confidant, 
and  in  1663  was  appointed  the  royal  librarian.  A  romantic 
friendship  with  the  king's  bastard.  Count  Ulric  Frederick 
Gyldenldve,  consolidated  his  position.  In  1665  Schumacher 
obtained  his  first  political  post  as  the  king's  secretary,  and  the 
same  year  composed  the  memorable  Kcngeiov  (see  DENiiAtK, 
History).  He  was  now  a  personage  at  court,  where  he  won  all 
hearts  by  his  amiability  and  gaiety;  and  in  political  matters 
also  his  influence  was  beginning  to  be  fell. 

On  the  death  of  Frederick  III.  (February  9th,  1670) 
Schumacher  was  the  most  trusted  of  all  the  royal  counsellon. 
He  alone  was  aware  of  the  existence  of  the  new  throne  of  walrus 
ivory  embellished  with  three  silver  life-site  lions,  and  of  the  new 
regalia,  both  of  which  treasures  he  had,  by  the  king's  command, 
concealed  in  a  vault  beneath  the  royal  castle.  Frederick  IIL 
had  also  confided  to  him  a  sealed  packet  containing  the  KcngHet, 
which  was  to  be  delivered  to  his  successor  alone.  Schumacher 
had  been  recommended  to  his  son  by  Frederick  III.  on  his  death- 
bed. "  Make  him  a  great  man,  but  do  it  slowly  1"  said  Frederick, 
who  thoroughly  understood  the  characters  of  his  son  and  of  his 
minister.  Christian  V.  was,  moreover,  deeply  impressed  by  the 
confidence  which  his  father  had  ever  shown  to  Schumacher. 
When,  on  the  9th  of  February  1670,  Schumacher  delivered 
the  Kangehv  to  Christian  V.,  the  king  bade  all.  those  about  lam 
withdraw,  and  after  being  closeted  a  good  hour  with  Schumacher, 
appointed  him  his  "  Obergcheiraesekreter."  His  promotioB 
was  now  alnv>st  disquietingly  rapid.  In  May  1670  he  received 
the  titles  of  excellency  and  privy  councillor;  in  July  of  the  sanK 
year  he  was  ennobled  under  the  name  of  (jriflenfeldt ,  deriving 
his  title  from  the  gold  griffin  with  outspread  wings  which  sur- 
mounted his  escutcheon;  in  November  1673  he  was  created  a 
count,  a  knight  of  the  Elephant  and,  finally,  imperial  chancellor. 
In  the  course  of  the  next  few  months  he  gathered  into  his  hanb 
every  branch  of  the  government:  he  had  reached  the  apofee 
of  his  short-lived  greatness. 

But  if  his  ofiices  were  manifold,  so  also  were  his  talents. 
Seldom  has  any  man  united  so  many  and  such  various  gifts  ia 
his  own  person  and  carried  them  so  easily — a  playful  wit,  i 
vivid  imagination,  oratorical  and  literary  eloquence  and,  above 
all,  a  profound  knowledge  of  human  natpce  both  male  nnd  lemal^ 


GRIFFIN 


595 


fl(  every  dass  and  rank,  from  the  king  to  the  meanest  dtlzen. 
He  had  captivated  the  accomplished  Frederick  III.  by  his 
Uterazy  graces  and  ingenious  speculations;  he  won  the  obtuse 
and  ignorant  Christian  V.  by  saving  him  trouble,  by  acting  and 
thinking  for  him,  and  at  Uie  same  time  making  him  bdieve 
that  he  was  thinking  and  acting  for  himself.  Moreover,  hb 
commanding  qualities  were  coupled  with  an  organizing  talent 
which  made  itself  felt  in  every  department  of  the  state,  and 
with  a  marvellous  adaptability  which  made  him  an-  ideal 
diplomatisL 

On  the  25th  of  May  1671  the  dignities  of  count  and  baron 
were  introduced  into  Denmark  "  to  ^ve  lustre  to  the  court "; 
a  few  months  later  the  order  of  the  Danebrog  was  instituted  as  a 
fresh  means  of  winning  adherents  by  marks  of  favour.  Griffen- 
feldt  was  the  originator  of  these  new  histitutions.  To  him 
monarchy  was  the  ideal  form  of  government.  But  he  had  also 
a  politicsd  object.  The  aristocracy  of  birth,  despite  its  reverses, 
still  remained  the  flite  of  society;  and  Griffenfeldt,  the  son  of 
a  burgess  as  well  as  the  protagonist  of  monarchy,  was  its  most 
determined  enemy.  The  new  baronies  and  countships,  owing 
their  existence  entirely  to  tl^e  crown,  introduced  a  strong  solvent 
into  aristocratic  circles.  Griffenfeldt  saw  that,  in  future,  the 
first  at  court  would  be  the  first  everywlKre.  Much  was  also  done 
to  promote  trade  and  industry,  notably  by  the  revival  of  the 
Kammer  K^gium,  or  board  of  trade,  and  the  abolition  of  some 
of  the  most  luirmful  monopolies.  Both  the  higher  and  the 
provincial  administrations  were  thoroughly  reformed  with  the 
view  of  making  them  more  centralized  and  efficient;  and  the 
positions  and  duties  of  the  various  magistrates,  who  now  also 
received  fixed  salaries,  were  for  the  first  time  exactly  defined. 
But  what  Griffenfeklt  could  create,  Griffenfeldt  could  dispense 
with,  and  it  was  not  long  before  he  began  to  encroach  upon  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  new  departments  of  state  by  private  con- 
ferences with  their  chiefs.  Nevertheless  it  is  indl^utable  that, 
under  the  single  direction  of  this  master-mind,  the  Danish  state 
was  now  able,  for  a  time,  to  utiUze  all  its  resources  as  it  had 
never  done  before. 

In  the  last  three  years  of  his  administration,  Griffenfeldt  gave 
himself  entirely  to  the  conduct  of  the  foreign  policy  of  Denmark. 
It  is  difficult  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  this,  first,  because  his  influence 
was  perpetually  traversed  by  opposite  tendencies;  in  the  second 
place,  because  the  force  of  circumstances  compelled  him, 
again  and  again,  to  shift  his  standpoint;  and  finally  because 
personal  oon^dcrations  largely  intermin^ed  with  Us  foreign 
policy,  and  made  it  more  elusive  and  ambiguous  than  It  need  have 
been.  Briefly,  Griffenfeldt  aimed  at  restoring  Denmark  to  the 
rank  of  a  great  power.  He  proposed  to  accomplish  this  by 
carefully  nursing  her  resources,  and  in  the  meantime  securing 
and  enriching  her  by  alliances,  which  would  bring  in  large  sub- 
sidies while  imposing  a  minimum  of  obligations.  Such  a  con- 
ditional and  tentative  policy,  on  the  part  of  a  second-rate  power, 
in  a  period  of  universal  tension  and  turmoil,  was  most  difficult; 
but  Griffe^ifeldt  did  not  regard  it  as  impossible.  The  first 
postulate  of  such  a  policy  was  peace,  especially  peace  with 
Denmark's  most  dangerous  ndghbour,  Sweden.  The  second 
postulate  was  a  sound  financial  basis,  which  he  expected  the 
wealth  of  France  to  supply  in  the  shape  of  subsidies  to  be  spent 
on  armaments.  Above  all  things  Denmark  was  to  beware  of 
making  enemies  of  France  and  Sweden  at  the  same  time.  An 
alliance,  on  fairly  equal  terms,  between  the  three  powers,  would, 
in  these  circumstances,  be  the  consummation  of  Griffenfeldt's 
''  system  ";  an  alliance  with  France  to  the  exclusion  of  Sweden 
w<Mild  be  Uie  next  best  policy;  but  an  alliance  between  France 
and  Sweden,  without  the  admission  of  Denmark,  was  to  be 
avoided  at  all  hazards.  Had  Griffenfeldt's  poUcy  succeeded, 
Denmark  might  have  recovered  her  ancient  possessions  to  the 
louth  and  east  comparatively  che^ly.  But  again  and  again  he 
WAS  overruled.  Despite  his  open  protests  and  subterraneous 
counter-mining,  war  was  actually  declared  against  Sweden  in 
1675,  and  his  subsequent  policy  seemed  soobscure  and  hazardous 
to  those  who  did  not  possess  the  clue  to  the  periiaps  purposely 
tangled  skein,  that  the  numerous  enemies  whom  his  arrogance 


and  superdliousness  had  raised  up  against  him,  resdved  to 
destroy  him. 

On  the  ixth  of  March  1676,  wUle  on  his  way  to  the  royal 
apartments,  Griffenfeldt  was  arrested  in  the  king's  name  and 
conducted  to  the  citadel,  a  prisoner  of  state.  A  minute  scrutiny 
of  his  papen,.lasting  nearly  six  weeks,  revealed  nothing  treason- 
able; but  It  provide!  the  enemies  of  the  fallen  statesman  with 
a  dtn/dly  wei^n  against  him  In  the  shape  of  an  entry  in  his 
private  diary,  in  wUch  he  had  imprudently  noted  that  on  one 
occasion  Christian  V.  In  a  conversation  with  a  foreign  ambassador 
had  "  spoken  like  a  chUd."  On  the  3rd  of  May  Griffenfeldt  was 
tried  not  by  the  usual  tribunal,  in  such  cases  the  Hdjesterety  or 
supreme  court,  but  by  an  extraordinary  tribunal  of  xo  dignitaries, 
none  of  whom  was  particulariy  welldi^wsed  towards  the  accused. 
Griffenfeldt,  who  was  charged  with  sunony,  bribery,  oath-breaking, 
malversation  and  Use-^najestS,  conducted  his  own  defence  under 
every  Imaginable  difficulty.  For  forty-six  days  before  his 
trial  he  had  been  closely  confined  in  a  dungeon  without  lights, 
books  or  writing  materials.  Every  legal  assistance  was  illegally 
denied  him.  Nevertheless  he  proved,  more  than  a  match  for  the 
forensic  ability  arrayed  against  him,  and  his  first  plea  in  defence 
is  in  a  high  degree  dignified  and  manly.  Finally,  he  was  con- 
demned to  degradation  and  decapitation;  though  one  of  the  ten 
judges  not  only  refused  to  sign  the  sentence,  but  remonstrated 
in  private  with  the  king  against  its  injustice.  And  indeed  its 
injustice  was  flagrant.  The  primary  offence  of  the  ex-chancellor 
was  the  taking  of  bribes,  which  no  twisting  oS  the  law  could 
convert  into  a  capital  offence,  while  the  charge  of  treason  had  not 
been  substantiated.  Griffenfeldt  was  pardoned  on  the  scaffold, 
at  the  very  moment  when  the  axe  was  about  to  descend.  On. 
hearing  that  the  sentence  was  commuted  to  life-long  imprison* 
ment,  he  declared  that  the  pardon  was  harder  than  the  punish- 
ment, and  vainly  petitioned  for  leave  to  serve  his  king  for  the  rest 
of  his  life  as  a  common  soldier.  For  the  next  two  and  twenty 
years  Denmark's  greatest  statesman  lingered  out  his  life  in  a 
lonely  state-prison,  first  In  the  fortress  of  Copenhagen,  and 
finally  at  Munkholm  on  Trondh  jem  fiord.  He  died  at  Trondh  jem 
on  the  12th  of  March  1699.  Griffenfeldt  married  Kitty  Nansen, 
the  granddaughter  of  the  great  Burgomaster  Hans  Nansen, 
who  brou^t  him  half  a  million  rix-doUars.  She  died  in  1673, 
after  bearing  him  a  daughter. 

See  DanmarVs  Riges  HUtoirt,  vol.  v.  (Copenhagen,  1897-1905) ; 
TOrgenson.  Peter  Schumacker-Criffenfeldt  (Copenhagen,  1893-1894): 
O.  Vaupell,  RigskansUr  Crew  Cnffenfeldi  (Copenhagen,  l88o-i88a); 
Bain,  Sccndimuia,  cap.  x.  (Cambridge,  1905;.  (R.  N.  B.) 

GRIFFIK  [O'GuoBTA,  O'Greeva],  GERALD  (x8o3>x84o), 
Irish  novelist  and  dramatic  writer,  was  bom  at  Limerick  of  good 
family,  on  the  x  2th  of  December  1803.  His  parents  emigrated  in 
1820  to  America,  but  he  was  left  with  an  elder  brother,  who  was 
a  medical  practitioner  at  Adare.  As  early  as  his  eighteenth 
year  he  undertook  for  a  short  time  the  editorship  o^  a  newspaper 
in  Limerick.  Having  written  a  tragedy,  A  ptirCf  which  was  highly 
praised  by  his  friends,  he  set  out  in  x8a3  for  London  with  the 
purpose  of  "  revolutionizing  the  dramatic  taste  of  the  time  by 
writing  for  the  stage."  In  spite  of  the  recommendations  of 
John  Banim,  he  had  a  hard  struggle  with  poverty.  It  was  only 
by  degrees  that  his  literary  work  obtained  any  favour.  The 
Noyades,  an  opera  entirely  in  recitative,  was  produced  at  the 
En^ish  Opera  House  in  1826;  and  the  success  of  HoUand  Tide 
Tales  (X827)  led  to  TcUes  of  the  Munstcr  Festivals  (3  vols.,  1827), 
whidi  were  still  more  popular.  In  1829  appeared  his  fine  novel, 
The  CoUepans^  afterwards  successfully  adapted  for  the  stage 
by  Dion  Boudcault  under  the  title  of  The  Colleen  Bawn,  Ho 
followed  up  this  success  with  The  Invasion  (1832),  Tales  of  my 
Neighbourhood  (1835),  The  Duke  of  Monmouth  (1836),  and 
Talis  Qualis^  or  Talcs  of  the  Jury-room  (X842).  He  also  wrote  a 
nimiber  of  lyrics  touched  with  his  native  melancholy.  But  he 
became  doubtful  as  to  the  moral  influence  of  his  writings,  and 
ultimately  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  his  tme  sphere  of  duty 
was  to  be  found  within  the  Church.  He  was  admitted  into  a 
society  of  the  Christian  Brothers  at  Dublin,  in  September  1838; 
under  the  name  of  Brother  Joseph,  and  in  the  following  summer 


596 


GRIFFIN— GRILLPARZER 


he  removed  to  Cork,  where  he  died  of  typhus  fever  on  the  z  2ih 
of  June  1840.  Before  adopting  the  monastic  habit  he  burned 
all  his  manuscripts;  but  Gisippus^  a  tragedy  which  he  had 
composed  before  he  was  twenty,  accidentally  escaped  destruction, 
and  in  1842  was  put  on  the  Drury  Lane  stage  by  Macready  with 
great  success. 

The  collected  works  of  Gerald  Griffin  were  published  in  1842- 
184^  in  eight  volumes,  with  a  Life  by  his  brother  William  Grimn, 
M.D.;  an  edition  of  his  Poetical  and  Dramatic  Works  (Dublin,  1895) 
by  C.  G.  Duffy ;  and  a  aetection  of  his  lyrics,  with  a  notice  by  George 
Sigerson,  u  included  in  the  Treasury  of  Irish  Poetry,  edited  by 
Stopford  A.  Brooke  and  T.  W.  Rolleston  (London,  1900). 

GRIFFIN,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Spalding  county, 
Georgia,  U.S.A.,  43  m.  S.  of  Atlanta,  and  about  970  ft.  above 
the  sea.  FOp.  (1890)  4503;  (1900)  6857  (3258  negroes);  (1910) 
7478.  It  is  served  by  the  Southern  and  the.  Central  of  Georgia 
railways,  and  is  the  southern  terminus  of  the  Griffin  &  Chat- 
tanooga Division  of  the  latter.  The  city  is  situated  in  a  rich 
agricultural  region,  and  just  outside  the  corporate  limits  is  an 
agricultural  experiment  station,  established  by  the  state  but 
maintained  by  the  Federal  government.  Griffin  has  a  large 
trade  in  cotton  and  fruit.  The  principal  industr>'  is  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  and  cotton-seed  oil.  Buggies,  wagons,  chairs 
and  harness  are  among  the  other  manufactures.  The  munici- 
pality owns  and  operates  the  water  and  electric-lighting  systems. 
Griffin  was  founded  in  1840  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1846. 

QRIFFIN,  Griffon  or  Gryphon  (from  Fr.  grijon,  Lat. 
gjryphus,  Gr.  ypvtf^)^  in  the  natural  history  of  the  ancients,  the 
name  of  an  imaginary  rapacious  creature  of  the  eagle  species, 
represented  with  four  legs,  wings  and  a  beak, — the  fore  part 
resembling  an  eagle  and  the  hinder  a  lion.  In  addition,  some 
writers  describe  the  tail  as  a  serpent.  This  animal,  which  was 
supposed  to  watch  over  gold  mines  and  hidden  treasures,  and  to 
be  the  enemy  of  the  horse,  was  consecrated  to  the  Sun;  and  the 
ancient  painters  represented  the  chariot  of  the  Sun  as  drawn 
by  griffins.  According  to  Spanheim,  those  of  Jupiter  and 
Nemesis  were  similarly  provided.  The  griffin  of  Scripture  is 
probably  the  osprey,  and  the  name  is  now  given  to  a  species  of 
vulture.  The  griffin  was  said  to  inhabit  Asiatic  Scythia,  where 
gold  and  precious  stones  were  abundant;  and  when  strangers 
apt>roached  to  gather  these  the  creatures  leapt  upon  them  and 
tore  them  in  pieces,  thus  chastising  human  avarice  and  greed. 
The  one-eyed  Arimaspi  waged  constant  war  with  them,  according 
to  Herodotus  (iii.  16).  Sir  John  de  Mandeville,  in  his  Travels, 
described  a  griffin  as  eight  times  larger  than  a  lion. 

The  griffin  is  frequently  sten  as  a  charge  in  heraldry  (see 
Heraldry,  fig.  163);  and  in  architectural  decoration  is  usually 
represented  as  a  four-footed  beast  with  wings  and  the  head  of  a 
leopard  or  tiger  with  horns,  or  with  the  head  and  beak  of  an 
eagle;  in  the  latter  case,  but  very  rarely,  with  two  legs.  To 
what  extent  it  owes  its  origin  to  Persian  sculpture  is  not  known, 
the  capitals  at  Persepolis  have  sometimes  leopard  or  lion  heads 
with  horns,  and  four-footed  beasts  with  the  beaks  of  eagles  are 
represented  in  bas-reliefs.  In  the  temple  of  Apollo  Branchidae 
near  Miletus  in  Asia  Minor,  the  winged  griffin  of  the  capitals  has 
leopards'  heads  with  horns.  In  the  capitals  of  the  so-called 
lesser  propylaca  at  Eleusis  conventional  eagles  with  two  feet 
support  the  angles  of  the  abacus.  The  greater  number  of  those 
in  Rome  have  eagles'  beaks,  as  in  the  frieze  of  the  temple 
of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  and  their  tails  develop  into 
conventional  foliage.  A  similar  device  was  found  in  the  Forum 
of  Trajan.  The  best  decorative  employment  of  the  griffin  is 
found  in  the  vertical  supports  of  tables,  of  which  there  are 
two  or  three  examples  in  Pompeii  and  others  in  the  Vatican 
and  the  museums  in  Rome.  In  some  of  these  cases  the  head 
is  that  of  a  Hon  at  one  end  of  the  support  and  an  eagle  at  the 
other  end,  and  there  is  only  one  strongly  developed  paw;  the 
wings  circling  round  at  the  top  form  conspicuous  features  on 
the  sides  of  these  supports,  the  surfaces  below  being  filled  with 
conventional  Greek  foliage. 

GRIFFITH,  SIR  RICHARD  JOHN  (i  784-1878),  Irish  geologist, 
was  born  in  Dublin  on  the  20th  of  September  1 784.  He  obtained 
io  1799  a  commission  in  the  Royal  Irish  Artilleiy,  but  a  year 


later,  when  the  corps  was  incoirporated  with  that  of  Ei^land, 
he  retired,  and  devoted  his  attention  to  civil  engineering  and 
mining.     He  studied  chemistry,  mineralogy  and  mining  for  t«-o 
years  in  London  under  William  Nicholson  (editor  of  the  Jomrna! 
of  Nat.  Phil.),  and  afterwards  examined  the  mining  districts 
in  various  parts  of  England,  Wales  and  Scotland.    While  in 
Cornwall  he  discovered  ores  of  nickel  and  cobalt  in  material  that 
had  been  rejected  as  worthies.    He  completed  his  studies  under 
Robert  Jameson  and  others  at  Edinburgh,  was  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  in  1807,  a  member  of  the 
newly  established  Geological  Society  of  London  in  1808,  and  io 
the  same  year  he  returned  to  Ireland.    In  1 809  be  was  appointed 
by  the  commissioners  to  inquire  into  the  nature  and  extent  of 
the  bogs  in  Ireland,  and  the  means  of  improving  them.    In  181 2 
he  was  elected  professor  of  geology  and  mining  engineer  to  the 
Royal  Dublin  Society.    During  subsequent  years  he  made  many 
surveys  and  issued  many  reports  on  mineral  districts  in  IreUod, 
and  these  formed  the  foundation  of  his  first  geological  map  6i  the 
country  (181 5).    In  1822  Griffith  became  engineer  of  public 
works  in  Cork,  Kerry  and  Limerick',  and  was  occupied  until  1830 
in  repairing  old  roads  and  in  laying  out  many  miles  of  new  roads. 
Meanwhile  in  1825  he  was  appointed  to  carry  out  the  perambula- 
tion or  boundary  survey  of  Ireland,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
ascertain  and  mark  the  boundaries  of  every  county,  barooy, 
parish  and  townland  in  preparation  for  the  ordnance  survey. 
This  work  was  finished  in  1844.    He  was  also  called  upon  to  assist 
in  preparing  a  bill  for  the  general  valuation  of  IrelaiMl;  the  act 
was  passed  in  1826,  and  he  was  appointed  commissioner  of 
valuation,  in  which  capacity  he  continued  to  act  until  186& 
On  "  Griffith's  valuation  "  the  various  local  and  public  assess- 
ments were  made.    His  extensive  investigations  furnished  him 
with  ample  material  for  improving  hb  geological  map.  and  the 
second  edition  was  published  in  1835.    A  third  edition  oa  a 
larger  scale  (i  in.  to  4  m.)  was  issued  under  the  Board  of  Ordnance 
in  1839,  and  it  was  further  revised  in  1855.    For  this  great  vork 
and  his  other  services  to  science  he  was  awarded  the  WoQasloa 
medal  by  the  Geological  Society  in  1854.    In  1850  be  was  made 
chairman  of  the  Irish  Board  of  Works,  and  in  1 858  he  was  created 
a  baronet.    He  died  in  Dublin  on  the  22nd  of  September  1878. 

Among  hb  many  geological  works  the  following  may  be  mentioned: 
Outline  of  the  Geology  of  Ireland  (1838) ;  Notice  respecting  the  FossHs 
of  the  Mountain  Limestone  of  Irdand,  as  compared  with  those  ^  Great 
Britain,  and  also  with  the  Devonian  System  (1842) ;  A  Synopsis  tfii 
Characters  of  the  Carboniferous  Limestone  Fossils  of  Irdaod  (i&u) 
(with  F.  McCoy) ;  A  Synopsis  of  the  Silurian  Fossils  of  Ireland  (1846) 
(with  F.  McCoy).  See  memoirs  in  Quart.  Joum.  ueoL  Soc.  xuv. 
39;  and  Ceol.  Mag.,  1878,  p.  524,  with  bibliography. 

GRILLE,  a  French  term  for  an  enclosure  in  either  iron  or 
bronze;  there  is  no  equivalent  in  English,  *'  grating  "  apfdying 
more  to  a  horizontal  frame  of  bars  over  a  sunk  area,  and  "  grate  " 
to  the  iron  bars  of  an  open  fireplace.  The  finest  examples  of 
the  grille  are  those  known  as  the  rejas,  which  in  Spanish  churches 
form  the  enclosures  of  the  chapels,  such  as  the  reja  in  the  CapilU 
Real  at  Granada  in  wrought  iron  partly  gilt  (1532).  Similar 
grilles  are  employed  to  protect  the  ground-floor  windows  tA 
mansions  not  only  in  Spain  but  in  Italy  and  (krmany.  Io 
England  the  most  beautiful  example  is  that  in  front  of  Qactn 
Eleanor's  tomb  in  Westminster  Abbey,  in  wrought  iron.  The 
finest  grilles  in  Italy  are  the  enclosures  of  the  tombs  of  the 
Delia  Scalas  at  Verona  (end  of  13th  century),  in  Germany  the 
grille  of  the  cenotaph  of  Maximilian  at  Innsbruck  (early  i^l> 
century)  and  in  France  those  which  enclose  the  Place  Stanislaus, 
the  Place  de  la  Carricre  and  the  churches  of  Nancy,  which  were 
wrought  by  Jean  Lamour  in  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century 
Generally,  however,  throughout  Germany  the  wrought  iroo 
grilles  arc  fine  examples  of  forging,  and  they  are  empbyed  for 
the  enclosures  of  the  numerous  fountains,  in  the  tympana  ef 
gateways,  knd  for  the  protection  of  windows.  At  Danzig  in  the 
Marienkirche  are  some  fine  examples  in  brass. 

GRILLPARZER.  FRANZ  (1791-1872),  the  greatest  dramaik 
poet  of  Austria,  was  born  in  Vienna,  on  the  15th  of  Jaouazy 
Z791.  His  father,  severe,  pedantic,  a  staunch  upholoer  of  the 
liberal-  traditions  of  the  reign  of  Joseph  11.,  was  ao  advocate 


GRILLPARZER 


597 


of  tone  iUimUiv;  hit  mother,  t  nervous,  findy-^tmag  woman, 
belonged  to  the  wdl-known  musical  family  of  Sonnleithner. 
After  a  desultory  education,  Grillparser  entered  in  1807  the 
nnivernty  of  Vienna  as  a  student  of  jurisprudence;  but  two 
years  later  his'  father  died,  leaving  the  family  in  straitened 
circumstances,  and  Franx,  the  eldest  son,  was  obliged  to  turn 
to  private  tutoring.  In  18x3  he  received  an  ai^intment  in  the 
court  library,  but  at  this  was  unpaid,  he  accepted  after  some 
months  a  derkship  that  offered  more  solid  prospects,  in  the 
lower  Austrian  revenue  administration.  Through  the  influence 
of  Graf  Stadion,  the  minister  of  finance,  he  was  in  x8x8  appointed 
poet  to  the  Hofburgtbeater,  and  promoted  to  the  Hof hammer 
(exchequer);  in  x83a  he  became  director  of  the  archives  of  that 
department,  and  in  1856  retired  from  the  civil  service  with  the 
title  of  Ht^rat.  Grillparser  had  little  capacity  for  an  official 
career  and  regarded  his  office  merely  as  a  means  of  independence. 

In  x8x7  the  first  representation  of  bis  tragedy  Die  Aknfrau 
made  him  famous,  but  before  this  he  had  written  a  long  tragedy 
in  iambics,  Bianca  von  Castilien  (1807-1809),  Which  was  obviously 
modelled  on  Schiller's  Don  Carlos;  and  even  more  promising 
were  the  dramatic  fragments  Spartacus  and  Alfred  der  Crosse 
(xSoq).  Die  Aknfrau  is  a  gruesome  "  fate>tragedy  "  in  the 
trochaic  measure  of  the  Spanish  drama,  already  made  popular 
by  Adolf  MOllner  in  his  Schuld;  but  Grillparzer's  work  is  a  play 
of  real  poetic  beauties,  and  revekis  an  instinct  for  dramatic 
as  opposed  to  merely  theatrical  effect,  which  distinguishes  it 
from  other  "fate-dramas"  of  the  day.  Unfortunately  its 
success  led  to  the  poet's  being  classed  for  the  best  part  of  bis 
life  with  playwrights  like  MQllner  and  Houwald.  Die  Aknfrau 
was  followed  by  Sappho  (1818),  a  drama  of  a  veiy  different  type; 
in  the  classic  spirit  of  Goethe's  Tasso,  Grillparzcr  unrolled  the 
tragedy  of  poetic  genius,  the  renunciation  of  earthly  happiness 
imposed  upon  the  poet  by  his  higher  mission.  In  1821  appeared 
Das  goldene  Vliess,  a  trilogy  which  had  been  interrupted  in  181 9 
by  the  death  of  the  poet's  mother — in.  a  fit  of  depression  she  had 
taken  her  own  life — ^and  a  subsequent  visit  to  Italy.  Opening 
with  a  powerful  dramatic  prelude  in  one  act,  Der  Gastfreund, 
Grillparzcr  depicts  in  Die  Argonauten  Jason's  adventures  in  his 
quest  for  the  Fleece;  while  Medea,  a  tragedy  of  noble  classic 
proportions,  contains  the  culminating  events  of  the  stoiy  which 
had  been  so  often  dramatized  before.  The  theme  is  similar 
to  that  of  Sappho,  but  the  scale  on  which  it  is  represented  is 
larger;  it  is  again  the  tragedy  of  the  heart's  desire,  the  conflict 
of  the  simple  happy  Ufe  with  that  sinister  power — be  it  genius, 
or  ambition — wbidi  upsets  the  equilibrium  of  life.  The  end  is 
bitter  disillusionment,  the  only  consolation  renunciation. 
Medea,  her  revenge  stilled,  her  children  dead,  bears  the  fatal 
Fleece  back  to  Delphi,  while  Jason  is  left  to  realize  the  nothing- 
ness of  human  striving  and  earthly  happiness. 

For  his  historical  tragedy  Kdnig  OUokars  ClUck  und  Ende 
(1823,  but  owing  to  difficulties  with  the  censor,  not  performed 
until  1835),  Grillparzer  chose  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
events  in  Austrian  domestic  history,  the  conflict  of  Ottokar 
of  Bohemia  with  Rudolph  von  Habsburg~  Witii  an  almost 
modern  realism  he  reproduced  the  motley  world  of  the  old 
chronicler,  at  the  same  time  not  losing  sight  of  the  needs  of  the 
theatre;  the  fall  of  Ottokar  is  but  another  text  from  which  the 
poet  preached  the  futility  of  endeavour  and  the  vanity  of 
worldly  greatness.  A  second  historical  tragedy,  Ein  treuer 
Diener  seines  Herm  (i8a6,  performed  1828),  attempts  to  embody 
a  more  heroic  gospel;  but  the  subject — the  superhuman  self- 
effacement  of  Bankbanus  before  Duke  Otto  of  Meran — proved 
too  uncompromising  an  illustration  of  Kant's  categorical  impera* 
tive  of  duty  to  be  palatable  in  the  theatre.  With  these  historical 
tragedies  began  the  darkest  ten  years  in  the  poet's  life.  They 
brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  Austrian  censor — ^a  conflict 
which  grated  on  Grillparzer's  sensitive  soul,  and  was  aggravated 
by  his  own  position  as  a  servant  of  the  state;  in  1826  he  paid  a 
visit  to  Goethe  in  Weimar,  and  was  able  to  compare  the  en- 
lightened conditions  which  prevailed  in  the  little  Saxon  duchy 
with  the  intellectual  thraldom  of  Vienna.  To  these  troubles 
were  added  more  serious  personal  worries.    In  the  winter  of 


x82o-i8ax  be  had  met  for  the  ^sA  time  Katharina  FrGhlich 
(X80X-1879),  and  the  acquaintance  rapidly  ripened  into  love 
on  both  sides;  but  whether  owing  to  a  presentiment  of  mutual 
incompatibility,  or  merely  owing  to  Grillparzer's  conviction  that 
life  had  no  happiness  in  store  for  him,  he  shrank  from  marriage. 
Whatever  the  cause  may  have  been,  the  poet  was  plunged  into 
an  abyss  of  misery  and  de^Mtir  to  which  his  diary  beam  heart- 
rending witness;  his  sufferings  found  poetic  expression  in  the 
fine  cyde  of  poems  bearing  the  significant  title  Tristia  ex  Ponto 

(t835). 

Yet  to  these  years  we  owe  the  completion  of  two  of  Grillpaxzer's 
greatest  dramas,  Des  Metres  und  der  Liebe  Wdlen  (X83  j)  and  Der 
Traum,  ein  Leben  (1834).  In  the  former  tragedy,  a  dramatization 
of  the  story  of  Hero  and  Leander,  he  returned  to  the  Hellenic 
worid  of  Sappho,  and  produced  what  is  perhaps  ihe  finest  of  all 
German  bve-tragedies.  His  mastery  of  dramatic  technique 
is  here  combined  with  a  ripeness  of  poetic  expression  and  with 
an  insight  into  motive  which  suggests  the  modem  psychological 
drama  of  Hebbel  and  Ibsen;  the  old  Greek  love-story  of  Musaeus 
is,  moreover,  endowed  with  something  of  that  ineffable  poetic 
grace  which  the  poet  had  borrowed  from  the  great  Spanish 
poets,  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon.  Der  Traum,  ein  Leben, 
Grillparzer's  technical  masterpiece,  is  in  form  perhaps  even  more 
Spanish;  it  is  also  more  of  what  Goethe  called  a  "  confession." 
llie  aspirations  of  Rustan,  an  ambitious  young  peasant,  are 
shadowed  forth  in  the  hero's  dream,  which  takes  up  nearly  three 
acts  of  the  play;  ultimately  Rustan  awakens  from  his  nightmare 
to  realize  the  truth  of  Grillparzer's  own  pessimistic  doctrine 
that  all  earthly  ambitions  and  aspirations  are  vanity;  the  oiUy 
true  happiness  is  contentment  with  one's  lot,  "  des  Innem  stiUer 
Frieden  und  die  schuldbefreite  Brust."  Der  Traum,  ein  Leben 
was  the  first  of  Grillparzer's  dramas  which  did  not  end  tragically, 
and  in  1838  he  produced  his  only  comedy,  If'eA'  dem,  der  lUfJi. 
But  IKeA'  dem,  der  lUgt,  in  spite  of  its  humour  of  situation,  its 
sparkling  dialogue  and  the  originality  of  its  idea — namely,  that 
the  hero  gains  his  end  by  invariably  telling  the  truth,  where  his 
enemies  as  invariably  expect  him  to  be  lying — was  too  strange 
to  meet  with  approval  in  its  day.  Its  failure  was  a  blow  to  the 
poet,  who  turned  his  back  for  ever  on  the  German  theatre.  In 
1S36  Grillparzer  paid  a  visit  to  Paris  and  London,  in  1843  to 
Athens  and  Constantinople.  Then  came  the  Revolution  which 
struck  off  the  intellectual  fetters  under  which  Grillparzer  and 
his  contemporaries  had  groaned  in  Austria,  but  the  liberation 
came  too  late  for  him.  Honours  were  heaped  upon  him;  be 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences;  Heinrich 
Laube,  as  director  of  the  Burgt heater,  reinstated  his  plays  on 
the  repertory ;  he  was  in  186 1  elected  to  the  Austrian  Herrenhaus; 
his  eightieth  birthday  was  a  national  festival,  and  when  he  died 
in  Vienna,  on  the  21st  of  January  1872,  the  mourning  of  the 
Austrian  people  was  universaL  With  the  exception  of  a  beautiful 
fragment,  Esther  (1861),  Grillparzer  published  no  more  dramatic 
poetry  after  the  fiasco  of  Weh*  dem,  der  lUgt,  but  at  his  death  three 
completed  tragedies  were  found .  among  his  papers.  Of  these, 
Die  JUdin  von  Toledo,  an  admirable  adaptation  from  the  Spanish, 
has  won  a  permanent  place  in  the  German  classical  repertory; 
£tii  Brudemnst-im  House  Habsburg  is  a  powerful  historical 
tragedy  and  Libussa  is  perhaps  the  ripest,  as  it  b  certainly  the 
deepest,  of  all  Grillparzer's  dramas;  the  latter  two  plays  prove 
how  much  was  lost  by  the  poet's  divorce  from  the  theatre. 

Although  Grillparzer  was  essentially  a  dramatist,  his  lyric 
poetry  is  in  the  intensity  of  its  personal  note  hardly  inferior 
to  Lenau's;  and  the  bitterness  of  his  later  years  found  vent  in 
biting  and  stinging  q>lgrams  that  spared  few  of  his  greater  con- 
temporaries. As  a  prose  writer,  he  has  left  one  powerful  short 
story,  Der  arme  Spidmann  (1848),  and  a  volume  of  critical 
studies  on  the  Spanish  drama,  which  shows  how  completely 
he  had  succeeded  in  identifying  himself  with  the  Spanish  point 
of  view. 

Grillparzer's  brooding,  unbalanced  temperament,  his  lack  of 
will-power,  his  pessimistic  renunciation  and  the  bitterness  which 
his  self-imposed  martyrdom  produced  in  him,  made  htm  peculiarly, 
adapted  to  txpstu  the  mood  of  Austria  in  the  epoch  of  intellectualj 


598 


GRIMALD— GRIMK6 


thnldom  tbit  lay  between  Ihe  Napoleonic  nn  ud  tie  Revolu- 
tion of  iS4Si  hitpoeLry  reBecu  exactly  Ihe  ^>intoE  ba  people 
undc'  the  Mettcnuch  regime,  and  there  ii  a  deep  trutb  behind 
the  description  of  Dir  Traum,  rin  Leben  ai  the  Auitriaa  FatiiL 
Hi)  lame  vai  in  acconUnce  nilb  the  genenl  lenot  ol  bit  lile; 
even  in  Auatiu  a  true  underatuidinc  For  hia  genius  wa»  late  in 
coining,  and  not  until  the  ccntenajy  of  ifigi  did  the  Gennan- 
qtcaking  world  realize  that  it  poueued  in  him  a  dramatic  poet 
ol  Ihe  Ural  tank;  in  other  wordi,  that  Grillpaizer  was  no  mere 
'■  Epigone  "  o(  the  daaiic  period,  but  a  poet  who,  by  a  rare 
usimilalioa  o(  Ihe  atrenglh  of  the  Greelu,  Ibe  una^oaLive 
depth  of  German  daasicism  and  the  delicacy  and  grace  of  the 
Spaniards,  bad  opened  up  new  patba  for  the  higher  dramatic 
poetry  of  Europe. 

CrilloarRi's  SamUUkt  Wtrlu  are  edited  by  A.  Sauer,  in  »  vol)., 
Slh  edfiioD  (Stuttpirt.  te9J-i894):  "I".  Knee  iSe  t.pify  of  ihe 

Wttn-.cdi-  n.  r  ,.j). 

JllohMchi..  <.'..::■..■  ■  ..       ..r.:-,'l       .  .^i,,  ;.,■,..:>- 

Lanbe.  />DBi""iViUMtK"'"ii'A.\jf»'ii'^W^'  ISiiIirt,"^  i  -I): 
J.  Volkeh,  FnaaOrmtanir als  Dtaiit  io  rVufurln  (»v'.il,<,  'i, 
ISN):  E.  Rekb.  Frata  Cnllfarvri  Dnmai  (Umilin,  i.-,0; 
A.  Ehrbaid,  FriuuCriUfantr  (EurU.  IQH)  (Gennan  tnin^li:...i'  [>y 
M.Neeker.  Munith.  i9(»>iH-SlneObeiiH.  CriUfarar,  .'IN  ( ■ '« 
mi  Ififtfn  (Bnlin,  10D4);  Gunav  PolEk,  F.  driltpur^-  ■.-:  (A« 
XuManOnnu  (New  Voii:,  1907).  Of  Grnlparur'i »»ik  . ' .  > .  la- 
tloHlnve  apprtnd  in  Eaillih  of  Safflie  (iBio,  by  J.  I'r.i  .  n; 
1R4«.  bv  e.  B.  L«;  tBjS,  by  L.  C.  CuRiminf :  1S76.  Cy  1-,  I  >  h- 
li«hBin):Bnd  tf  Mtiia  11879,  by  F.  W,  ■DiutMin  and  ]   A   \\  .11- 

dtnun  Ptari'r-Stlili  |i too),  ii  iDlm«iiiB  u  npia^m  Ihe  jijiirally 
aceeined  euimale  of  Crillpaner  in  the  fine  halt  of  the  toth  centuiy. 
See  the  bihliocrapliy  is  K.  Cocdtke'i  GnaidriH  tar  Gnckidilt  &i 
dniidm  Pi1l1b.1t.  ind  cd„  vol.  viii.  (1903).  U-  C.  R.) 

ORtNAUl  (or  Cuhoald),  MCHOLAS  (tsio-ise>),  Engliih 
poet,  was  bom  in  Huniingdonihire.  the  son  probdbly  of  Ciovanni 
Bsplicta  Gilmaldi,  who  bad  been  a  deik  in  the  service  of  Empson 
and  Dudley  in  the  icign  of  Henry  VII.  He  was  educated  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  bit  B^.  degree  in 


fellow  ol  Merton  College  ii 
rhetoric  at  Christ  Chun 
chaplain  to  Bishop  Ridley, 
Crimald  10  translate  Laure 
Deia  -  - 


i  shortly  ilterwardi  t 


tslate  Laurentius  Valla's  book  against  the  alleged 

U9(l>iusli.).  Htsconneiion  with  Ridl^  brought 
him  under  suspicion,  and  be  was  imprisoned  in  the  Marahilsea. 
It  is  said  Ibal  he  escaped  the  penalliea  ol  hcce«y  by  recanting 
his  errors,  and  was  despised  accordingly  by  his  l^iestant  con- 
lemponries.  Grimald  coniribuicd  to  the  original  edition 
(June  1S57)  of  Sont'l  and  SanilUs  (commonly  known  as  ToUtl'i 
UiiuUnHy),  forty  poems,  only  ten  of  which  are  retained  in  the 
second  edition  pubti^ed  in  the  next  monih.  He  translated 
dSSj)  Ciceio'i  Dt  i#ciii  as  Marcus  TuUiui  Ckrrm  ttre  Utti 
tidiilia  (nid  ed.,  155^}:  a  Latin  paraphrase  of  Virgil's  Cewgiri 
(printed  1591)  it  iltribuled  lohim.  but  moil  of  Ihe  works  assigned 
to  him  by  Bak  are  losl.  Two  Ijlin  tragedies  are  eilanl, 
'Arckipraplala  liaJokaanei  BaflUla,  printed  at  Cologne  in  1 54S. 
probably  performed  at  Oiford  the  year  hcfore,  and  Ciriilui  re- 
rfi'»'»u(ColDgne.rJ4j),edi1edbyFrof.J.M.Han(forIhcModcm 
Language  Association    '  '       '-    "'"  '" '       ■"  "-' 


:r  Crima 


with 


Buchanan's  Baplisla  UMi),  or  with  J.  Schoeppe's  Juki 
Jlcullalai  k1  Eilrailiclislts  (1S46).     Crimald  provides  a  purely 
tomaniic  motive  for  the  catastrophe  in  the  patwiniie  attach. 

methods.  Ai  a  poet  Crimald  is  memorable  as  the  earliest 
follower  ol  Surrey  in  Ihe  production  of  blank  vene.  He  writes 
(omeiimes  simply  enough,  at  in  the  lines  on  hit  own  childhood 
addressed  to  hbmolber,  but  in  general  his  style  is  more  artificial, 
and  his  metaphors  more  studied  ibon  is  ibe  case  with  ibe  other 


leUiiccli 


His< 


I  of  hi 


See  C.  H.  Herfoid,  Studitt  in  Ut  LiUnry  (Ualuiu  at'Etfami  ami 
Grnnaiy  (pp.  Ill-Tiq,  iBSbl.  A  Caliiiiinu  aj  frinUd  htBti  .  .  .  hy 
wriUri  iunne  llu  HW  b}  G-imalii  (ed.  A.  &.  Crinukli),  priaud 
18S3 ;  and  ArEcr's  reprint  ol  TolUfi  MiiaOamy. 


m  ibe  place  of  hb 


ORIMALDI.   OIOVAMHI   PBAMCESCO   (1 

architect  and  painter,  named  11  Bolognese  (1 
birth,  was  a  relative  of  the  Caracd  family,  unoer  wnom  it  t 
presumed  he  studied  hist.  He  was  aflerwardi  ■  pupil  of  Atbani 
He  went  to  Rome,  and  was  appointed  ucbilecl  to  Pope  Paul  V 
and  was  also  patronized  by  succeeding  popei.  Towards  1&4S 
he  was  invited  to  France  by  Catdinal  Macarin.  and  for  ib 
two  years  was  employed  In  buildings  for  that  minister  and  for 
Louis  XIV.,  and  in  [tMco-painting  in  the  Louvre.  Hla  etOour 
as  strong,  somewhat  excessive  in  the  use  ol  greeny  his  loach 
(ht.  He  painted  history,  portraits  and  landscapes— tlie  last 
ith  predilection,  especially  in  his  advanced  years — and  earcvied 
igravings  and  etchings  from  bis  own  Undscipei  and  [mm 
lose  ol  Titian  and  the  CaraccL  Returning  to  Rome,  be  was 
ade  president  of  the  Academy  of  St  Luke;  and  in  that  dty  he 
.ed  on  the  agth  of  November  16S0.  In  high  repute  ml  only 
II  his  artistic  skill  but  lor  his  upright  and  charitable  deeds. 
is  son  Alessandro  assisted  him  both  in  painting  and  in  engraving. 
aintings  by  Crimaldi  are  preserved  in  the  (^liiinal  and  Vaiku 
palaces,  and  in  the  church  of  S.  Martino  a' Monti;. there  it  ibo 
a  series  of  his  landscapes  in  the  Coloima  (raliery. 

GRIMALDI,  JOSEPH  (1779-1837).  |he  most  cclebntcd  Oi 
English  downs,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  iStfa  of  December 
1779,  the  son  of  an  Italian  actor.  When  less  than  two  yean 
old  he  was  brought  upon  the  ttage  at  Drury  I.ane;  at  Ibe  age 
appear  at  Sadler's  Wells;  and  he  did  sot 


finaUy  n 


il  iSiS. 


ul  an 

iaiht,  Gmk.  a 

Cov 

nt  Carden  (iSoS  and  often  twivwl) 

Srinuldi  died  0 

St  of  May  183;. 

HI.  w™«>.  i 

■wo 

volumes  (iSlt)  wen  edited  by  Chailes 

ORIIIK&  SARAH  MOORE  (17QI-1S7J)  and  AMQBLnA 
EMILY  {igos-ia70),  American  reformers,  bora  in  Charleston. 
South  Camtina— Sarah  on  the  6th  ol  November  1791.  and 
Angelina  on  the  loth  ol  February  1&15— were  daughters  ol 
John  Fachereau  GrimkC  (1751-1819),  an  anillery  officer  in  Ibe 
Continental  army,  a  jurist  of  tome  distinction,  a  man  of  wealth 

Thdr  older  brother.  Trouas  Sum  CaiHEt  (i78e-iB34). 


ihes 


e,  opposed  nulhhcal 


Id  her  thirteenth  year  Saiah  "at  godmother  to  her  tisiet 
Angelina.  Sarah  in  1811  teviuted  Pbiladdpbia,  whither  she 
bad  accompanied  her  falber  on  his  last  illness,  and  there,  having 
been  already  dissatisfied  with  the  Episcopal  Church  and  nth 
the  Presbyterian,  she  became  a  Quaker;  so,  loo.  did  Angelina, 
who  joined  her  in  1S19,  Bolh  sislers  (Angelina  Gisl)  koi  grew 
into  a  beliel  in  immediate  abolilion,  strongly  censured  by  many 
Quakers,  who  were  even  more  shocked  by  a  sympathetic  Iclrrr 
daled  '■  Slh  Month,  joth,  1835  "  written  by  ^igelina  to  W.  U 
Garrison,  followed  in  1836  by  her  rfffedlo  (Ac  DhriifHit  If  flwi 
cj  Ike  Soulk,  and  at  the  end  of  Ibal  yeu.  by  an  BpisUt  In  Ik 
Clergy  af  Ike  Stulktrn  Slala,  written  by  Saiah,  wbo  noa 
thoroughly  agreed  with  her  younger  sister.  In  the  same  yrax. 
at  the  inviuliOD  of  Elizur  Wrighl  (iSot-iSSs).  conespoaiduig 
secretary  of  the  American  Anti-^avery  Society.  Antdina. 
accompanied  by  Sarah,  began  giving  talks  on  slavery,  bst  in 
private  and  then  in  public,  so  that  in  i8j7.  when  ibey  set  » 
work  in  Massachusetts,  they  had  lo  secure  the  use  of  la^  hab. 
Their  speaking  from  public  plallotmt  resulted  in  a  lelter  tEoed 
by  some  members  of  the  C^neial  Association  of  Caagregatioatl 
Ministers  of  Massachusetts,  calling  on  the  deisy  10  doM  thor 


GRIMM,  BARON  VON 


599 


churches  to  women  ezhorters;  Garrison  denounced  the  attack 
on  the  Grimk£  sisters,  and  Whittier  ridiculed  it  in  his  poem 
"  The  Pastoral  Letter."  Angelina  pointedly  answered  Miss 
Beecher  on  ihe  Slave  Question  (1837)  in  letters  in  the  Liberator. 
Sarah,  who  had  never  forgotten  that  her  studies  had  been 
curtailed  because  she  was  a  girl,  rontributed  to  the  Boston 
Spectator  papers  on  "  The  Province  of  Woman  "  and  published 
Letters  on  the  Condition  of  Women  and  the  Equaiity  of  the  Sexes 
(1838) — the  real  beginning  of  the  "  woman's  rights  "  movement 
in  America,  and  at  the  time  a  ckuse  of  anxiety  to  Whittier  and 
others,  who  urged  upon  the  sisters  the  prior  importance  of  the 
anti-slavery  cause.  In  1838  Angelina  married  Theodore  Dwight 
Weld  (1803-1895),  a  reformer  and  abolition  orator  and  pam- 
phleteer, who  had  taken  part  in  the  famous  Lane  Seminiiry 
debates  in  1834,  had  left  the  Seminary  for  the  lecture  platform 
when  the  anti-slavery  society  was  broken  up  by  the  Lane  trustees, 
but  had  lost  his  voi^e  in  1836  and  had  become  editor  of  the 
publications  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society.^  They 
lived,  with  Sarah,  at  Fort  Lee,  New  Jersey,  in  1838-1840,  then 
on  a  farm  at  Belleville,  New  Jersey,  and  then  conducted  a  school 
for  black  and  white  alike  at  Eagleswood,  near  Perth  Amboy, 
New  Jersey,  from  1854  to  1864.  Removing  to  Hyde  Park, 
Massachusetts,  the  three  were  employed  in  Dr  Lewis's  school. 
There  Sarah  died  on  the  a3rd  of  December  1873,  and  Angelina 
on  the  36th  of  October  1879.  Both  sisters  indulged  in  various 
"  fads  " — Graham's  diet,  bloomer-wearing,  absolute  non-resist- 
ance. Angelina  did  no  public  speaking  after  her  marriage, 
save  at  Pennsylvania  Hall  (Philadelphia),  destroyed  by  a  mob 
immediately  after  her  address  there;  but  besides  her  domestic 
and  school  duties  she  was  full  of  tender  charity.  Sarah  at  the 
age  of  63  was  still  eager  to  study  law  or  medicine,  or  to  do  some- 
thing to  aid  her  sex;  at  75  she  translated  and  abridged  Lamar- 
tine's  life  of  Joan  of  Arc 

See  Cathenne  H.  Bimey,  The  Grimhi  Sisters  (Boston.  1885). 

GRIMM,  FRIEDRICH  MELCHIOR,  Bason  von  (1723-1807), 
French  author,  the  son  of  a  German  pastor,  was  bom  at  Ratisbon 
on  the  36th  of  December  1733.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Leipzig,  where  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Gottsched  and 
of  J.  A.  Ernesti,  to  whom  he  was  largely  indebted  for  his  critical 
appreciation  of  classical  literature.  When  nineteen  he  produced 
a  tragedy,  Banise,  which  met  with  some  success.  After  two  years 
of  study  he  returned  to  Ratisbon,  where  he  was  attached  to  the 
household  of  Count  Sch5nberg.  In  1 748  he  accompanied  August 
Heinrich,  Count  Friesen,  to  Paris  as  secretary,  and  he  is  said 
by  Rousseau  to  have  acted  for  some  time  as  reader  to  Frederick, 
the  young  hereditary  prince  of  Saxe-Gotha.  His  acquaintance 
with  Rousseau,  throu^  a  mutual  sympathy  in  regard  to  musical 
matters,  soon  ripened  into  intimate  friendship,  and  led  to  a  close 
association  with  the  encyclopaedists.  He  rapidly  obtained  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  French  langiuige,  and  acquired  so 
perfectly  the  tone  and  sentiments  of  the  society  in  which  he 
moved  that  aU  marks  of  his  foreign  origin  and  training  seemed 
effaced.  A  wiUy  pamphlet  entitled  Le  Petit  ProphkU  de  Boek- 
mischbroda  (1753),  written  by  him  in  defence  of  Italian  as  against 
French  opera,  established  his  literary  reputation.  It  is  possible 
that  the  origin  of  the  pamphlet  is  partly  to  be  accounted  for  by 
his  vehement  passion*  for  Mile  Fel,  the  prima  donna  of  the 
Italian  company.  In  1753  Grimm,  following  the  example  of  the 
abb^  Raynal,  began  a  literary  correspondence  with  various 
German  sovereigns.  Ra]mal's  letters,  NouoeUts  lUtiraireSf  ceased 
early  in  175J:.  With  the  aid  of  friends,  especially  of  Diderot 
and  Mme  d'Epinay,  during  his  temporary  al»ences  from  France, 
Grimm  himself  carried  on  the  correspondence,  which  consisted 
of  two  letters  a  month,  until  1773,  and  eventually  counted  among 
bis  subscribers  Catherine  II.  of  Russia,  Stanislas  Poniatowski, 
king  of  Poland,  and  many  princes  of  the  smaller  German  States. 

■  Weld  was  the  author  of  several  anti-slavery  books  which  had 
considerable  influence  at  the  time.  Amona  them  are  The  Bibl* 
atainst  Slavery  (1837),  American  ^aoery  as  Ills  (1839),  a  collection 
ol  extracts  from  Southern  papers,  and  Slavery  and  the  Internal  Slave 
Trade  in  the  C/.5.  (1841). 

'  Rousseau's  account  of  this  affair  {Confessions,  and  part,  8th 
book)  must  he  received  with  caution. 


It  was  probably  in  1754  that  Grimm  was  introduced  by  Rousseau 
to' Madame  d'£pinay,  with  whom  he  soon  formed  a  liaison 
which  led  to  an  irrecondlable  rupture  between  him  and  Rousseau. 
Rousseau  was  induced  by  his  resentment  to  give  in  his  Confessions 
a  wholly  mendacious  portrait  of  Grimm's  character.  In  1755, 
after  the  death  of  Count  Friesen,  who  was  a  nephew  of  Marshal 
Saxe  and  an  officer  in  the  French  army,  Grimm  became  secritaire 
des  commandemenis  to  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  in  this  capacity 
he  accompanied  Marshal  d'Estr^eson  the  campaign  of  Westphalia 
in  1756-57.  He  was  named  envoy  of  the  town  of  Frankfort 
at  the  court  of  France  in  1759,  but  was  deprived  of  his  office  for 
criticizing  the  comte  de  Broglie  in  a  despatch  intercepted  by* 
Louis  XV.  He  was  made  a  baron  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire 
in  X 775.  His  introduction  to  Catherine  II.  of  Russia  took  place 
tX  St  Petersburg  in  1773,  when  he  was  in  the  smte  of  Wilhehnine 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt  on  the  occasion  of  her  marriage  to  the 
czarevitch  Paul.  He  became  minister  of  Saxe-Gotha  at  the 
court  of  France  in  1776,  but  in  1777  he  again  left  Paris  on  a  visit 
to  St  Petersburg,  where  he  remained  for  neariy  a  year  in  daily 
intercourse  with  Catherine.  He  acted  as  Paris  agent  for  the 
empress  in  the  purchase  of  works  of  art,  and  executed  many 
confidential  commissions  for  her.  In  1783  and  the  following 
years  he  lost  his  two  most  intimate  friends,  Mme  d'£pinay  and 
Diderot.  In  1793  he  emigrated,  and  in  the  next  year  settled 
in  Gotha,  where  his  poverty  was  relieved  by  Catherine,  who  in 
1796  appointed  him  minister  of  Russia  at  Hamburg.  On  the 
death  of  the  empress  Catherine  he  took  refuge  with  Mme 
d'^pinay's  granddaughter,  £milie  de  Belsuncc,  comtesse  de 
Bueil.  Grimm  had  always  interested  himself  in  her,  and  had 
procured  her  dowry  from  the  empress  Catherine.  She  now 
received  him  with  the  utmost  kindness.  He  died  at  Gotha  on 
the  19th  of  December  1807. 

The  correspondence  of  Grimm  was  strictly  confidential,  and 
was  not  divulged  during  his  lifetime.  It  embraces  nearly  the 
whole  period  from  1750  to  1790,  but  the  later  volumes,  1773  to 
X790,  were  chiefly  the  work  of  his  secretary,  Jakob  Heinrich 
Meister.  At  first  he  contented  himself  with  enumerating  the 
chief  current  views  in  literature  and  art  and  indicating  very 
slightly  the  contents  of  the  principal  new  books,  but  gradually 
his  criticisms  became  more  extended  and  trenchant,  and  he 
touched  on  nearly  every  subject — political,  literary,  artistic, 
social  and  religious — which  interested  the  Parisian  society  of 
the  time.  His  notices  of  contemporaries  are  somewhat  severe, 
and  he  exhibits  the  foibles  and  selfishness  of  the  society  in  which 
he  moved;  but  he  was  unbiassed  in  his  literary  judgments,  and 
time  has  only  served  to  confirm  his  criticisms.  In  style  and 
manner  of  expression  he  is  thoroughly  French.  He  is  generally 
somewhat  cold  in  his  appicdation,  but  his  literary  taste  is  delicate 
and  subtle;  and  it  was  the  opinion  of  Sainte-Beuve  that  the 
quality  of  his  thought  in  his  best  moments  will  compare  not 
unfavourably  even  with  that  of  Voluire.  His  religious  and 
philosop)iicaI  opinions  were  entirely  negative. 

Gntatn**' Correspondanee  Kttiraire,  phiJosophiqne  et  critique  .  .  ., 
depuis  175^  jusqu'en  I760i  was  edited,  with  many  excisions,  by 
J.  B.  A.  Suard  and  published  at  Paris  in  1813,  in  6  vols.  8vo; 
deuxikme  parlie,  de  iTft  d  17^2^  in  181 3  in  5  vols.  8vo:  and  Irotn'ime 
porti€.  pendant  une  partie  des  annies  177$  et  1776^  d  pendant  Us  annies 
1782  a  i7go  industvement,  in  1 813  in  5  vols.  8va  A  supplementary 
volume  appeared  in  1814:  the  whole  correspondence  was  collected 
and  published  by  M.  Jules  Taschereau,  with  the  assistance  of  A. 
Chaudi,  in  a  Notaelle  Edition,  revue  et  mise  dans  nn  meilUur  ordre,  avee 
des  notes  et  des  tclaircissements,  et  oH  se]trouoent  ritaUies  pour  la 
premtitre  fois  les  phrases  supprimies  par  la  censure  impiriale  (Paris, 
1839,  15  volsk  8vo);  and  the  Correspondance  inidite,  etrecueil  de 
lettres,  poisies,  morceaux,  et  fragments  re^anchis  par  la  censure 
impMaU  en  1812  et  18 13  was  published  in  1839.  The  standard 
edition  is  that  of  M.  Toumeux  (16  vols.,  1877-1883).  Grimm's 
Mimoirehistorique  sur  Foripne  el  les  suites  de  mon  attachement  pour 
VimptrtUrke  Guherine  II  lusqu'  an  dichs  de  sa  majesti  impiriale, 
and  Catherine*s  correspondence  with  Grimm  (1774- 1796)  were  pub- 
lished by  J.  Grot  in  1880,  in  the  CoUecUon  of  the  Russian  Imperial 
Hbtorical  Society.  She  treats  him  very  familiarly,  and  calls  hint 
H6raclite.  Gcoraes  Dandin,  Ac.  At  the  time  of  the  Revolution  she 
begged  him  to  ^troy  her  letters,  but  he  refused,  and  after  his  death 
they  were  returned  to  St  Petersbuiv.  Grimm's  side  of  the  corre- 
spondence, however,  is  only  .partially  preserved.    He  signs  himself 


6oo 


GRIMM,  J.  L.  C. 


"  Pleureur.'*  Some  of  Grimm's  letters,  besdes  the  official  coire- 
tpondtace,  are  included  in  the  edition  of  M.  Tourneux;  others  are 
contained  in  thtErinnerungfHeiner  UrffOSsmuUeroi  K.  von  Bcchtols- 
heim,  edited  (Berlin,  1903)  by  Count  C.  Obemdorff.  See  also  Mme 
d'^pinay's  Mimoires;  Rousseau's  Confessions^  the  notices  con- 
tained in  the  editions  quoted;  E.  Scherer,  Mekhior  Grimm  (1887); 
Sainte-Beuve.  Causeries  du  lundi,  vol.  vii.  For  further  works  bearing 
on  the  subject,  see  K.  A.  Georges,  Friedrich  Mdchior  Crimm  (Hanover 
and  Leipzigi  1904)* 

ORIMM,  JACOB  LUDWia  CARL  (1785-1863).  German 
phildogist  and  mythologist,  was  bom  on  the  4th  of  January 
1785  at  Hanau,  in  Hesse-Cassel.  His  father,  who  was  a  lawyer, 
died  while  he  was  a  child,  and  the  mother  was  left  with  very 
small  means;  but  her  sister,  who  was  lady  of  the  chamber  to 
the  landgravine  of  Hesse,  helped  to  support  and  educate  her 
numerous  family.  Jacob,  with  his  younger  brother  Wilhelm 
(bom  on  the  24th  of  February  1786),  was  sent  in  1798  to  the 
public  school  at  Cassel.  In  1802  he  proceeded  to  the  university 
of  Marburg,  where  he  studied  law,  a  profession  for  which  he  had 
been  destined  by  his  father.  His  brother  joined  him  at  Marburg 
a  year  later,  having  just  recovered  from  a  long  and  severe  illness, 
and  likewise  began  the  study  of  law.  Up  to  this  time  Jacob 
Grimm  had  been  actuated  only  by  a  general  thirst  for  knowledge 
and  his  energies  had  not  found  any  aim  beyond  the  practical  one 
of  making  himself  a  position  in  life.  The  first  definite  impulse 
came  from  the  lectures  of  Savigny,  the  celebrated  investigator 
of  Roman  law,  who,  as  Grimm  himself  says  (in  the  preface  to 
the  Deutsche  Crammatik)^  first  taught  him  to  realiie  what  it 
meant  to  study  any  science.  Savigny's  lectures  also  awakened 
in  him  that  love  for  historical  and  antiquarian  investigation 
which  forms  the  basis  of  all  his  work.  Then  followed  personal 
acquaintance,  and  it  was  in  Savigny's  well-provided  library  that 
Grimm  first  tumed  over  the  leaves  of  Bodmcr's  edition  of  the 
Old  German  minnesingers  and  other  eariy  texts,  and  felt  an  eager 
desire  to  penetrate  further  into  the  obscurities  and  half-revcalcd 
mysteries  of  their  language.  In  the  beginning  of  1805  he  re- 
ceived an  invitation  from  Savigny,  who  had  removed  to  Paris, 
to  help  htm  in  his  Uterary  work.  Grimm  passed  a  very  happy 
time  in  Paris,  strengthening  his  taste  for  the  literatures  of  the 
middle  ages  by  his  studies  in  the  Paris  libraries.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  year  he  returned  to  Cassel,  where  his  mother  and 
Wilhelm  had  settled,  the  latter  having  finished  his  studies. 
The  next  year  he  obtained  a  situation  in  the  war  office  with 
the  very  small  salary  of  100  thalers.  One  of  his  grievances  was 
that  he  had  to  exchange  bis  stylish  Paris  suit  for  a  stiff  uniform 
and  pigtail.  But  he  had  full  leisure  for  the  prosecution  of  his 
studies.  In  1808,  soon  after  the  death  of  his  mother,  he  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  private  library  of  Jerome 
Buonaparte,  king  of  Westphalia,  into  which  Hesse-Cassel  had 
been  incorporated  by  Napoleon.  Jerome  ^>pointed  him  an 
auditor  to  the  state  council,  while  he  retained  his  other  post. 
His  salary  was  increased  in  a  short  interval  from  2000  to  4000 
francs,  and  his  official  duties  were  hardly  more  than  nominal 
After  the  expulsion  of  Jerome  and  the  reinstalment  of  an  elector, 
Grimm  was  appointed  in  18 13  secretary  of  legation,  to  accompany 
the  Hessian  minister  to  the  headquarters  of  the  allied  army. 
In  1814  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  demand  restitution  of  the  books 
carried  off  by  the  French,  and  in  1814-1815  he  attended  the 
congress  of  Vienna  as  secretary  of  legation.  On  his  return  he 
was  agafai  sent  to  P&ris  on  the  same  errand  as  before.  Meanwhile 
Wilhelm  had  received  an  appointment  in  the  Cassel  library,  and 
in  1 816  Jacob  was  made  second  librarian  under  V5lkel.  On  the 
death  of  Vdlkel  in  1828  the  brothers  expected  to  be  advanced 
to  the  first  and  second  librarianships  respectively,  and  were 
much  dissatisfied  when  the  first  place  was  given  to  Rommd, 
keeper  of  the  archives.  So  they  removed  next  year  to  G5ttingen, 
where  Jacob  received  the  appointment  of  professor  and  librarian, 
Wilhelm  that  of  under-librarian.  Jacob  Grimm  lectured  on 
legal  antiquities,  historical  grammar,  literary  history,  and 
diplomatics,  explained  Old  German  poems,  and  commented  on 
the  Cnmania  of  Tadtus.  At  this  period  he  is  described  as  small 
and  lively  in  figure,  with  a  harsh  voice,  speaking  a  broad  Hessian 
dialecL    His  powerful  memory  enabled  him  to  dispense  with  the 


manuscript  which  most  German  professors  rely  on.  and  be  spoke 
extempore,  referring  only  occasionally  to  a  few  names  and  dates 
written  on  a  slipof  paper.  He  himself  regretted  that  he  had  begun 
the  work  of  teaching  so  late  in  life;  and  as  a  lecturer  he  was  not 
successful:  be  had  no  idea  of  digesting  his  facts  and  suiting 
them  to  the  comprehension  of  his  hearers;  and  even  the  brilliant, 
terse  and  eloquent  passages  which  abound  in  his  writings  lost  much 
of  their  effect  when  jerked  out  in  the  midst  of  a  long  array  of  dry 
facts.  In  1837,  being  one  of  the  seven  professors  who  «gned  a 
protest  against  the  king  of  Hanover's  abrogation  of  the  con- 
stitution established  some  years  before,  he  was  dismissed  from  his 
professorship,  and  banished  from  the  kingdom  of  Hanover. 
He  returned  to  Cassel  together  with  his  brother,  who  had  also 
signed  the  protest,  and  remained  there  till,  in  1840,  they  accepted 
an  invitation  from  the  king  of  Prussia  to  remove  to  B^in, 
where  they  both  received  professorships,  and  were  elected 
members  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Not  being  under  any 
obligation  to  lecture,  Jacob  seldom  did  so,  but  t<^ether  with  his 
brother  worked  at  the  great  dictionary.  During  t^eir  stay  at 
Cassel  Jacob  regularly  attended  the  meetings  of  tbe  academy, 
where  he  read  papers  on  the  most  varied  subjects.  Thx  best 
known  of  these  are  those  on  Lachmann,  Schiller,  and  his  brother 
Wilhelm  (who  died  in  1859),  on  old  age,  and  on  the  origin  of 
language.  He  also  described  his  impressions  of  Italian  and 
Scandinavian  travel,  interspersing  his  more  general  observations 
with  linguistic  details,  as  is  the  case  in  all  his  works. 

Grimm  died  in  1863,  working  up  to  the  last.  He  was  never  fll, 
and  worked  on  all  day,  without  haste  and  without  pause.  He  was 
not  at  all  impatient  of  intermption,  but  seemed  rather  to  be 
refreshed  by  it,  returning  to  his  work  without  effort.  He  wrote 
for  the  press  with  great  rapidity,  and  hardly  ever  made  correc- 
tions. He  never  revised  what  he  had  written,  remariung  with 
a  certain  wonder  of  his  brother, "  Wilhelm  reads  his  manuscr^ 
over  again  before  sending  them  to  press !  "  His  temperameoi 
was  uniformly  cheerful,  and  he  was  easily  amused.  Outside  his 
own  special  work  he  had  a  marked  taste  for  botany.  The 
spirit  which  animated  his  work  is  best  described  by  himsdf  &t  the 
end  of  his  autobiography.  "  Nearly  all  my  labours  have  beeo 
devoted,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  to  the  Investigation  of  our 
earlier  language,  poetry  and  laws.  These  studies  may  ha^ 
appeared  to  many,  and  may  still  appear,  usdess;  to  me  they 
have  always  seoned  a  noble  and  earnest  task,  definitely  and 
inseparably  connected  with  our  common  fatherland,  sikI  cal- 
culated to  foster  the  love  of  it.  My  principle  has  always  been  io 
these  investigations  to  under-value  nothing,  but  to  utilize  the 
small  for  the  illustration  of  the  great,  the  popular  tradltkw  for 
the  elucidation  of  the  written  monuments." 

The  purely  scientific  side  of  Grimm's  diaracter  devdoped 
slowly.  He  seems  to  have  felt  the  want  of  definite  principles  of 
etymology  without  being  able  to  discover  them,  and  indeed  even 
in  the  first  edition  of  his  grammar  (1819)  he  seems  to  be  oftea 
groping  in  the  dark.  As  early  as  18x5  we  find  A.  W.  ScUcgd 
reviewing  the  AUdeutsche  WdUer  (a  periodical  pfiblished  by  the 
two  brothers)  very  severely,  condemning  the  lawless  etymological 
combinations  it  contained,  and  Insisting  on  the  necessity  of  strict 
philological  method  and  a  fundamental  investigation  of  the  hm 
of  language,  especially  in  the  correspondence  of  sounds.  This 
criticism  is  said  to  have  had  a  considerable  influence  on  the  direc- 
tion of  Grimm's  studies. 

The  first  work  he  published.  Oher  den  altdevisckm  Meiskr- 
gesang  (181  x),  was  of  a  purely  literary  character.  Yet  eves  in 
this  essay  Grimm  showed  that  Minnesang  and  MeisUrse»t 
were  really  one  form  of  poetry,  of  which  they  merely  represented 
different  stages  of  development,  and  also  announced  his  important 
discovery  of  the  invariable  division  of  the  Lied  into  three  strophk 
parts. 

His  text-editions  were  mostly  prepared  in  ccmmcn  with 
his  brother.  In  x8x2  they  puMi^ed  the  two  andent  ftignents 
of  the  HUdebranddied  and  the  Weissenbrumur  COet,  jKob 
having  discovered  what  till  then  had  never  been  saspectcd-'the 
alliteration  in  these  poems.  However,  Jacob  had  little  taste  for 
text-«!((iiting,  and,  as  he  himself  confesed,  the  evdying  of  » 


GRIMM,  J.  L.  C. 


601 


critical  text  gave  him  little  pleasme.  He  therefore  left  this 
department  to  others,  especially  lAchmanii,  who  soon  turned 
hisbriUiant  critical  genius,  trained  in  the  severe  school  of  classical 
philology,  to  Old  and  Middle  High  German  poetry  and  metre. 
Both  brothers  were  attracted  from  the  beginning  by  all  national 
poetry,  whether  in  the  form  of  epics,  ballads  or  popular  tales. 
They  published  in  x8i6-x8i8  an  analysis  and  critical  sifting  of 
the  oldest  epic  traditions  of  the  Germanic  races  under  the  title  of 
Deutsche  Sagen,  At  the  same  time  they  collected  aU  the  popular 
tales  they  could  find,  partly  from  the  mouths  of  the  people, 
partly  from  manuscripts  and  books,  and  published  in  1812-1815 
the  first  edition  of  those  Kindar-Mtid  liausmlUrchen  which  have 
carried  the  name  of  the  brothers  Grimm  into  every  household. 
of  the  civilized  world,  and  founded  the  science  of  folk-bre.  The 
dcMtely  allied  subject  of  the  satirical  beast  epic  of  the  middle  ages 
also  had  a  great  charm  for  Jacob  Grimm,  and  he  published  an 
edition  of  the  Reinkart  Fuchs  in  1834.  His  first  contribution  to 
mythology  was  the  first  volume  of  an  edition  of  the  Eddaic  songs, 
undertaken  conjointly  with  his  brother,  published  in  i8x$,  which, 
however,  was  not  followed  by  any  more.  The  first  edition  of  his 
DeiUscke  Mytholcgie  appeared  in  1835.  This  great  work  covers 
the  whole  range  of  the  subject,  tracing  the  mjrthology  and 
superstitions  of  the  old  Teutons  back  to  the  very  dawn  of  direct 
evidence,  and  following  their  decay  and  loss  down  to  the  popular 
traditions,  tales  and  expressions  in  which  they  stiU  linger. 

Although  by  the  introduction  of  the  Code  Napoleon  into 
Westphalia  Grimm's  legal  studies  were  made  practiodly  barren, 
be  never  loai  his  interest  in  the  scientific  study  of  law  and 
national  institutions,  as  the  truest  exponents  of  the  life  and 
character  of  a  people.  By  the  publication  (in  1828)  of  his 
RtchtsaUertkUmer  he  laid  the  foundations  of  that  historical  study 
of  the  old  Teutonic  laws  and  constitutions  which  was  continued 
with  brilliant  success  by  Georg  L.  Maurer  and  others.  In  this 
work  Grimm  showed  the  importance  of  a  linguistic  study  of  the 
old  laws,  and  the  light  that  can  be  thrown  on  many  a  dark 
passage  in  them  by  a  comparison  of  the  corresponding  words  and 
expressions  in  the  other  old  cognate  dialects.  He  also  knew 
how — and  this  is  perhaps  the  most  original  and  valuable  part  of 
his  work— to  trace  the  spirit  of  the  laws  in  countless  allusions 
and  sayings  which  occur  in  the  old  poems  and  sagas,  or  even 
survive  in  modem  colloquialisms. 

Of  all  his  more  general  works  the  boldest  and  most  far-reaching 
is  his  CesckichU  dfr  detUsckett  Spacke,  where  at  the  same  time 
the  linguistic  element  is  most  distinctly  brought  forward.  The 
subject  of  the  work  is,  indeed,  nothing  less  than  the  history  which 
lies  hidden  in  the  words  of  the  German  language — the  oldest 
national  history  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  determined  by  means  of 
language.  For  this  purpose  he  laboriously  collects  the  scattered 
words  and  allusions  to  be  found  in  classical  writers,  and  endeavours 
to  determine  the  relations  in  which  the  German  language  stood, 
to  those  of  the  Getae,  Thracians,  Scythians,  and  many  other 
nations  whose  languages  are  known  only  by  doubtfully  identified, 
often  extremely  corrupted  remains  preserved  by  Greek  and 
Latin  authors.  Grimm's  results  have  been  greatly  modified 
by  the  wider  range  of  comparison  and  improved  methods  of 
investigation  which  now  characterize  linguistic  science,  and 
many  of  the  questions  raised  by  him  will  probably  for  ever 
remain  obscure;  but  his  book  will  always  be  one  of  the  most 
fruitful  and  suggestive  that  have  ever  been  written. 

Grirtkm's  famous  Deutscke  Grammatik  was  the  outcome  of  his 
purely  philological  work.  The  labours  of  past  generations — 
from  the  humanists  onwards — ^had  collected  an  enormous 
ma»  of  materials  in  the  shape  of  text-editions,  dictionaries 
and  grammars,  although  most  of  it  was  uncritical  and  often 
untrustworthy.  Something  had  even  been  dbne  in  the  way 
of  cotaparison  and  the  determination  of  general  laws,  and  the 
conception  of  a  comparative  Teutonic  grammar  had  been  clearly 
grasped  by  the  illustrious  Englishman  George  Hickes,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  and  partly  carried  out  by  him 
in  his  Tkesaurus.  Ten  Kate  in  Holland  had  afterwards  made 
valuable  contributions  to  the  history  and  comparison  of  the 
Tentonic  languages.    Even  Grimm  himself  did  not  at  first  intend 


to  include  all  the  languages  in  his  grammar;  but  he  soon  found 
that  Old  High  German  postulated  Gothic,  that  the  later  stages 
of  German  could  not  be  understood  without  the  help  of  the  Low 
German  dialects,  including  English,  and  that  the  rich  literature 
of  Scandinavia  could  as  little  be  ignored.  The  first  edition  of  the 
first  part  of  the  Grammar,  which  appeared  in  1819,  and  is  now 
extremely  rare,  treated  of  the  inflections  of  all  these  languages, 
together  with  a  general  introduction,  in  which  he  vindicated  the 
importance  of  an  historical  study  of  the  German  language  against 
the  a  priori,  quasi-philosophical  methods  then  in  vogue. 

In  1822  this  volume  appeared  in  a  second  edition — ^really  a 
new  work,  for,  as  Grimm  himself  says  in  the  preface,  it  cost  him 
little  reflection  to  mow  down  the  first  crop  to  the  ground.  The 
wide  distance  between  the  two  stages  of  Grimm's  development 
in  these  two  editions  is  significantly  shown  by  the  fact  that  while 
the  first  edition  gives  only  the  inflections,  in  the  second  volume 
phonology  takes  up  no  fewer  than  600  pages,  more  than  half  of  the 
whole  volume.  Grimm  had,  at  last,  awakened  to  the  full 
conviction  that  all  sound  philology  must  be  based  on  rigorous 
adhesion  to  the  laws  of  sound-change,  and  he  never  afterwards 
swerved  from  this  principle,  which  gave  to  all  his  investigations, 
even  in  their  boldest  flights,  that  iron-bound  consistency,  and 
that  force  of  conviction  which  distinguish  science  from  dilettante- 
ism;  up  to  Grimm's  time  philology  was  nothing  but  a  more  or 
less  laborious  and  conscientious  dilettantcism,  with  occasional 
flashes  of  scientific  inspiration;  he  made  it  into  a  science.  His 
advance  must  be  attributed  mainly  to  the  influence  of  his 
contemporary  R.  Rask.  Rask  was  bom  two  years  later  than 
Grimm,  but  his  remarkable  precocity  gave  him  somewhat  the 
start.  Even  in  Grimm's  first  editions  bis  Icelandic  paradigms  are 
based  entirely  on  Rask's  grammar,  and  in  his  second  edition  he 
relied  almost  entirely  on  Rask  for  Old  English.  His  debt  to 
Rask  can  only  be  estimated  at  its  true  value  by  comparing  his 
treatment  of  Old  English  in  the  two  editions;  the  difference 
is  very  great.  Thus  in  the  first  edition  he  dech'nes  dag,  dages, 
plural  dagos,  not  having  observed  the  law  of  vowel-change 
pointed  out  by  Rask.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  appear- 
ance of  Rask's  Old  English  grammar  was  a  main  inducement 
for  him  to  vecast  his  work  from  the  l:Cginning.  To  Rask  also 
belongs  the  merit  of  having  first  distinctly  formulated  the  laws 
of  sound-correspondence  in  the  different  languages,  especially 
in  the  vowels,  those  more  fleeting  elements  of  speech  which  had 
hitherto  been  ignored  by  etymologists. 

This  leads  to  a  question  which  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
controversy, — Who  discovered  what  is  known  as  Grimm's  law? 
This  law  of  the  correspondence  of  consonants  in  the  older  Indo- 
germanic.  Low  and  High  German  languages  respectively  was 
first  fully  stated  by  Grimm  in  the  second  edition  of  the  first 
part  of  his  grammar.  The  correspondence  of  single  consonants 
had  been  more  or  less  clearly  recognized  by  several  of  his  pre- 
decessors; but  the  one  who  came  nearest  to  the  discovery  of  the 
complete  law  was  the  Swede  J.  Ihre,  who  established  a  consider- 
able number  of  "  literamm  permutationcs,"  such  as  b  for  /, 
with  the  examples  bora" ferre,  befwer^ fiber.  Rask,  in  his  essay 
on  the  origin  of  the  Icelandic  language,  gives  the  same  com- 
parisons, with  a  few  additions  and  corrections,  and  even  the  very 
same  examples  in  most  cases.  As  Grimm  in  the  preface  to  his 
first  edition  expressly  mentions  this  essay  of  Rask,  there  is  tvtry 
probability  that  it  gave  the  first  impulse  to  his  own  investigations. 
But  there  is  a  wide  difference  between  the  isolated  permutations 
of  his  predecessors  and  the  comprehensive  generalizations  under 
which  he  himself  ranged  them.  The  extension  of  the  law  to 
High  German  is  also  entirely  his  own.  The  only  fact  that 
can  be  adduced  in  support  of  the  assertion  that  Grimm  wished 
to  deprive  Rask  of  his  claims  to  priority  is  that  be  does  not 
expressly  mention  Rask's  results  in  his  second  edition.  But 
this  is  part  of  the  plan  of  his  work,  viz.  to  refrain  from  all 
controversy  or  reference  to  the  works  of  others.  In  his  first 
edition  he  expressly  calls  attention  to  Rask's  essay,  and  praises 
it  most  ungmdgingly.  Rask  himself  refers  as  little  to  Ihre, 
merely  alluding  in  a  general  way  to  Ihre's  permutations,  although 
his  own  debt  to  Ihre  is  infinitdy  greaiter  than  that  of  Grimm  to 


6o2 


GRIMM,  W.  C— GRIMMA 


ftask  or  any  one  dse.  It  is  true  thit  a  certain  bitterness  of 
feeling  afterwards  sprang  up  between  Grimm  and  Rask,  but  this 
was  the  fault  of  t^e  latter,  who,  impatient  of  contradiction  and 
irritable  in  controversy,  refused  to  acknowledge  the  value  of 
Grimm's  views  when  they  involved  modification  of  his  own. 
The  importance  of  Grimm's  generalization  in  the  history  of 
philology  cannot  be  overestimated,  and  even  the  mystic  com- 
pleteness and  symmetry  of  its  formulation,  although  it  has  proved 
a  hindrance  to  the  correct  explanation  of  the  causes  of  the 
changes,  was  well  calculated  to  strike  the  popular  mind,  and 
give  it  a  vivid  idea  of  the  paramount  importance  of  law,  and  the 
necessity  of  disregarding  mere  superficial  resemblance.  The 
most  lawless  etymologist  bows  down  to  the  authority  of  Grimm's 
law,  even  if  he  honours  it  almost  as  much  in  the  brau:h  as  in  the 
observance. 

The  grammar  was  continued  in  three  volumes,  treating 
principally  of  derivation,  composition  and  syntax,  which  last 
was  left  unfinished.  Grimm  then  began  a  third  edition,  of  which 
only  one  part,  comprising  the  voweb,  appeared  in  1840,  his 
time  being  afterwards  taken  up  mainly  by  the  dictionary.  The . 
grammar  stands  alone  in  the  annals  of  science  for  compr^ensive- 
ness,  method  and  fullness  of  detaiL  Every  Utw,  every  letter, 
eycry  syllable  of  inflection  in  the  different  languages  is  illustrated 
by  an  almost  exhaustive  mass  of  material.  It  has  served  as  a 
model  for  all  succeeding  investigators.  Diez's  grammar  of  the 
Romance  languages  is  founded  entirely  on  its  methods,  which 
have  also  exerted  a  profound  influence  on  the  wider  study  of  the 
Indo-Germanic  languages  in  general. 

In  the  great  German  dictionary  Grimm  undertook  a  task  for 
which  he  was  hardly  suited.  His  exclusively  historical  tendencies 
made  it  impossible  for  him  to  do  justice  to  the  individuality  of  a 
living  language;  and  the  disconnected  statement  of  the  facts 
of  language  in  an  ordinary  alphabetical  dictionary  fatally 
mars  its  scientific  character.  It  was  also  undertaken  on  so  large 
a  scale  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  him  and  his  brother  to  com- 
plete it  themselves.  The  dictionary,  as  far  as  it  was  worked  out 
by  Grimm  himself,  may  be  described  as  a  collection  of  discon- 
nected antiquarian  essayp  of  high  value. 

Grimm's  scientific  character  is  notable  for  its  combination 
of  breadth  and  unity.  He  was  as  far  removed  from  the  narrow- 
ness of  the  specialist  who  has  no  ideas,  no  sympathies  beyond 
some  one  author,  period  or  corner  of  science,  as  from  the  shallow 
dabbler  who  feverishly  attempts  to  master  the  details  of  half-a- 
dozcn  discordant  pursuits.  Even  within  his  own  special  studies 
there  is  the  same  wise  concentration;  no  Mezzofanti-like  parrot 
display  of  useless  polyglottism.  The  very  foundations  of  his 
nature  were  harmonious;  his  patriotism  and  love  of  historical 
investigation  received  their  fullest  satisfaction  in  the  study  of  the 
language,  traditions,  mythology,  laws  and  literature  of  his  own 
countrymen  and  their  nearest  kindred.  But  from  this  centre 
his  investigations  were  pursued  in  every  direction  as  far  as  his 
unerring  instinct  of  healthy  limitation  would  allow.  He  was 
equally  fortunate  in  the  harmony  that  subsisted  between  his 
intellectual  and  moral  nature.  He  made  cheerfully  the  heavy 
sacrifices  that  science  demands  from  its  disciples,  without  feeling 
any  of  that  envy  and  bitterness  which  often  torment  weaker 
natures;  and  although  he  lived  apart  from  his  fellow  men,  he 
was  full  of  human  sympathies,  and  no  man  has  ever  exercised 
a  profounder  influence  on  the  destinies  of  mankind.  His  was 
the  very  ideal  of  the  noblest  type  of  German  character. 

The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  his  separately  published  works, 

those  which  he  published  in  common  with  his  brother  being  marked 

with  a  star.  For  a  list  of  his  essays  in  periodicals,  &c.,  see  vol.  v.  of 

his  KUinerc  Schriften,  from  which  the  present  list  is  taken.     H is  life  is 

best  studied  in  his  own  "  Sclbstbtographie,"  in  vol.  i.  of  the  KUinere 

Schriften.    There  is  also  a  brief  memoir  by  K.  G6dcke  in  Cdltinger 

Professortn  (Gotha  (Perthes),  1872):  Ober  den  alldeutschen  Meister- 

gesang    (Gottingcn,    181 1);    *Ktnder-    und    Hausmdrchen  (Berlin, 

^812-1815)  (many  editions);   *Das  Lied  von  Hildebrand  und  das 

Weissenhrunner  Gebet  (Cassct,  1812);  Altdeutscke    Wdlder  (Casscl, 

^rankfort,  1811-1816,  %  vols.);  *Der  arme  Heinrich  von  Hartmann 

>0H  der  Aue  (Berlin,  181 5);  Irmenslrasse  und  Irmmsdule  (Vienna, 

1815);  *Die  Lieder  der  alten  Edda  (Berlin,  1815),  SUva  de  romances 

"ifjos  (Vienna,  1815);  *l)tutschg  $agen  (Beriin,  181&-1818,  2nd  ed.. 


Berlin,  1865-1866) ;  Deutsche  Grammatik  (G6ttingen,  1819,  2Rd  cd., 
Gdttingen.  1822-1840)  (reprinted  1870  by  W.  Scherer,  Berlin);  Wuk 
SupkanovUsch's  Uetne  serbiscke  CrammaHk,  verdeutsckt  mit  etna 
Vorrede  ^Lei^ng  and  Berlin.  1824^;  Zur  RecnuioK  der  deulscken 
Cramwuittk  (Canel,  1826) ;  *Jrische  Elfenmdrckemt  aus  dem  En^isckn 
(Leipzig,  1826)-;  DeuUche  Recktsaltertumer  (Gfittingen.  1828.  2Dd 
cd.,  1854);  Hymnarum  veleris  ecdesiae  XXVI.  inUrptettUio  tkeediua 
(G6ttingen.  1830);  Reinkart  Fucks  (Beriin,  18x4);  Deutsche 
Mytkalogie  (GAtttngen,  1835, 3rd  ed.,  1854. 2  vols.) ;  Taciti  Germeata 
edidit  (C;dttingen,  183^);  Ober  meine  EnOassume  (Basel,  1838): 
(together  with  Schmeller)  Lateiniseke  Gcdickle  aes  X.  und  XI. 
Janrkunderts  (G(}ttingen,  1838);  Sendukreiben  an  Kail  Lackmann 
uber  Reinkart  Fucks  (Beriin,  1840)*^  Weistikmer,  Th.  i.  (GOttingea, 
1840)  (continued,  partly  by  others,  m  5  parts,  1840-1869):  Andreas 
und  Eiene  (Casiel,  1841^;  Frau  Aventure  (Beriin.  1842):  Cesckuku 
der  deutscken  Spracke  (Leipzig,^  1848,  3rd  ed.,  1868.  2  vols.):  Das 
Wort  des  Besitzes  (Berlin,  1850);  *Deutsckes  Wdrterbuck,  Bd.  L 
(Leipzig,  i8<4);  Rede  auf  Wilkelm  Grimm  und  Red*  ikber  das  Alter 
(Berlin,  1868,  yd  ed.,  i86s);  KUinere  Sckriftm  (Berlin,  1864-1870^ 
5  vols.).  (H.  Sw.) 

GRIMM,  WILHBLM  CARL  (1786-1859).  For  the  chief  evcnu 
in  the  Life  of  Wilhdm  Grimm  see  article  on  Jacob  Grimm  abo^'e. 
As  Jacob  himself  said  in  his  celebrated  address  to  the  Berlin 
Academy  on  the  death  of  his  brother,  the  whole  of  their  lives 
were  passed  together.  In  their  schooldays  they  had  one  bed 
and  one  table  in  common,  as  students  they  had  two  beds  and 
two  tables  in  the  same  room,  and  they  always  lived  under  one 
roof,  and  had  their  books  and  property  in  common.  Nor  did 
Wilhelm's  marriage  in  any  way  disturb  their  harniony.  As 
Cleasby  said  ("Life  of  Cleasby,"  prefixed  to  his  Icdeniic 
Dictionary f  p.  Ixix.),  "  they  both  live  in  the  same  bouse,  and  in 
such  harmony  and  community  that  one  might  almost  imagine 
the  children  were  common  property."  Wilhelm's  character 
was  a  complete  contrast  to  that  of  his  brother.  As  a  boy  he  was 
strong  and  healthy,  but  as  he  grew  up  he  was  attacked  by  a  long 
and  severe  illness,  which  left  him  weak  all  his  life.  His  was  a  lea 
comprehensive  and  energetic  mind  than  that  of  his  brother,  and 
he  had  less  of  the  spirit  of  investigation,  preferring  to  confine 
himself  to  some  limited  and  definitely  bounded  field  of  wodc; 
he  utilized  everything  that  bore  directly  on  his  own  studies,  and 
ignored  the  rest.  These  studies  were  almost  always  <^  a  Uteraiy 
nature.  It  is  characteristic  of  his  more  aesthetic  nature  ihat  he 
took  great  delight  in  muuc,  for  which  his  brother  had  but  a 
moderate  liking,  and  had  a  remarkable  ipft  of  stoty-telling. 
Cleasby,  in  the  account  of  his  visit  to  the  brothers,  quoted  above, 
tells  that  "  Wilhelm  read  a  sort  of  farce  written  in  the  Frankfort 
dialect,  depicting  the  '  malheurs '  of  a  rich  Frankfort  tradesman 
on  a  holiday  jaunt  on  Sunday.  It  was  very  droU,  and  he  read 
it  admirably."  Cleasby  describes  him  as  '*  an  uncommonly 
animated,  jovial  fellow."  He  was,  accordingly,  much'sought  in 
society,  which  he  frequented  much  more  than  his  brother. 

His  first  work  was  a  spirited  translation  of  the  Danish  KMupenser, 
AUddniscke  Ueldenlieder,  published  in  1811-1813.  which  made  his 
name  at  first  more  widely  known  than  that  of  his  brotli«'.  The 
most  important  of  his  text  editions  are — Ruclanddied  (Gottingen, 
1838);  Konrad  von  WUrxburt's  Goldene  Sckmiede  (Berlin,  iSlo): 
Grave  Ruodolf  (Gdttingen,  1844.  2nd  ed.);  Atkis  und  Propkdias 
(Berlin,  1846);  Altdeutscke  Cfspr&cke  (Berlin,  1851):  Freidank 
.(Gdttingen,  i860, 2nd  ed.).  Of  his  other  works  the  most  iihporuat  is 
Deutsche  Heldensate  (Berlin,  1868.  2nd  ed.).  Hb  Deutsche  Jbracs 
((}Ottingen,  1821)  nas  now  only  an  historical  interest.      (H.  Sw.) 

GRIMMA,  a  town  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  on  the  Left  bank 
of  the  Mulde,  19  m.  S.E.  of  Leipzig  on  the  railway  Ddbcln- 
Dresden.  Pop.  (1905)  11,182.  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic  Mud 
three  Evangelical  churches,  and  among  other  principal  buOdings 
are  the  Schloss  built  in  the  X2th  century,  and  long  a  residence  of 
the  margraves  of  Meissen  and  the  electors  ci  Saxony;  the  town- 
hall,  dating  from  1442,  and  the  famous  school  Furstcnschuk 
(lilustre  Moldanum),  erected  by  the  elector  Maurice  on  the  site 
of  the  former  Augustinian  monastery  in  1550,  having  provision 
for  104  free  scholars  and  a  library  numbering  10,000  volamci. 
There  are  also  a  modem  school,  a  teachers'  seminary,  a  ooo' 
mercial  school  and  a  school  of  brewing.  Among  the  industries  of 
the  town  are  ironfounding,  machine  building  and  dyeiroiks, 
while  paper  and  gloves  are  naanufactured  there.  Gardesiing 
and  agriculture  generally  are  also  important  branches  of  industry. 
In  the  immediate  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of  the  Qsterdaa 


GRIMMELSHAUSEN— GRIMSTON 


603 


nniinery  from  which  Catherine  von  Bora  fled  in  1523,  and  the 

villai^e  of  Dfiben,  with  an  old  castle.    Grimma  is  of  Sorbian 

origin,  and  is  first  mentioned  in  1203.    It  passed  then  into 

possession  of  Saxony  and  has  remained  since  part  of  that 

country. 

SetContatDieSladtCrimmatlUstorisckhesckruben  (Lripzig,  1871); 
Rdssler,  Gexkickte  <br  kitnitlick  gOcJuiscken  ParsteH-  umd  LamUs- 
sckuU  Grimma  (Lesptig,  1891);  L.  Schmidt,  UrkutuUnbtiek  Atr 
Sladi  Grimma  (Leipeig.  1895);  and  Fraustadt,  Crimmauar  Sfafnm- 
bmek  (Grimma,  1900}. 

ORIMMELSHADSEir.   HAHS  JAKOB   CHRI8T0FFBL  VON 

(c,  1625-1676),  German  author,  was  bom  at  Gehihausen  in  or 
about  1625.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  kidnapped  by  Hessian 
sddiery,  and  in  their  midst  tasted  the  adventures  of  military 
life  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  At  iu  dose,  Grimmelshausen 
entered  the  service  of  Frans  Egon  von  Fttrstenberg,  bishop 
of  Strassburg  and  in  1665  was  made  SckuUkeiss  (magistrate) 
at  Rendien  in  Baden.  On  obtaining  this  appointment,  he 
devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits,  and  in  1669  published 
Dtr  obenkMerliche  SimpUcissimus,  Teutsckf  d.k.  die  Beschrtibung 
des  Lebens  tines  seamen  VaganUn,  genannt  iidcJnor  StemfeU 
«ms  Fuekdmm,  the  greatest  German  novel  of  the  xyth  century. 
For  this  work  he  took  as  his  model  the  picaresque  romances  of 
Spain,  already  to  some  extent  known  in  Germany.  Simplicissi- 
mus  is  in  great  measure  its  author's  autobiogrcphy;  he  begins 
with  the  childhood  of  his  hero,  and  describes  the  latter's  adven- 
tures amid  the  stirring  scenes  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  The 
realistic  detail  with  which  these  pictures  arc  presented  makes  the 
book  one  of  the  most  valuable  documents  ci  its  time.  In  the 
later  parts  Grimmelshausen,  however,  over-indulges  in  allegory, 
and  finally  loses  himself  in  a  Robinson  Crusoe  story.  Among 
his  other  works  the  most  important  are  the  scxalled  Simplicia- 
niscke  Sckriften:  Die  EnbeUUgerin  und  LandstMurin  Courascke 
{e.  1669);  Der  sdUame  SpringinsfM  (1670)  and  Das  wunderbar- 
licke  Yo^nest  (1672).  His  satires,  such  as  Der  teutsehe  Michel 
(1670),  and  "gallant"  novels,  like  Dietmald  umd  Amelinde 
(1670)  are  of  inferior  interest.  He  died  at  Renchen  on  the 
17th  of  August  1676,  where  a  monument  was  erected  to  him  in 

1879- 

Editiom  of  Simplkissimms  and  the  SimpUeianiseke  Sckriflen  have 
been  published  by  A.  von  Keller  (i8M)t  H.  Kurc  (1863-1864). 
J.  Tittmann  (1877)  uid  F.  Bobertair  (1882).  A  reprint  of  the  first 
edition  of  the  novel  was  edited  by  R.  Kteel  for  the  lencs  of  Neudrucke 
des  16.  umd  17.  Jakrkunderts  (1880).  bee  the  introductions  to  these 
edidons;  also  F.  Antoine,  Etude  sur  le  Simplicissimus  de  CrimmelS' 
kamsem  (1882)  and  E.  Schmidt  in  his  CkaraklerisHkeu,  vol.  L  (1886). 

GRfMOARll,  PHIUPPB  HENRI,  Cohte  de  (x7S3-i8x5), 

French  soldier  and  military  writer,  entered  the  royal  army  at 

the  age  of  sixteen,  and  in  1775  published  his  Essai  tkforique  et 

practiqtie  sw  les  batailles.    Shortly  afterwards  Louis  XVI. 

placed  him  in  his  own  military  cabinet  and  employed  him 

tspeoMhy  in  connexion  with  schemes  of  army  reform.    By  the 

year  of  the  Revolution  he  had  become  one  of  Louis's  most 

valued  counsellors,  in  political  as  well  as  military  matters,  and 

was  marked  out,  though  only  a  colonel,  as  the  next  Minister  of 

War.    In  1791  Grimoard  was  entrusted  with  the  preparation 

of  the  scheme  of  defence  for  France,  which  proved  two  years 

later  of  great  assistance  to  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety. 

The  events  of  1792  put  an  end  to  his  military  career,  and  the 

remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  writing  military  books. 

The  following  works  by  him.  besides  his  first  essay,  have  retained 
some  importance:  Histoire  des  demises  campafttes  de  Turenne 
(Paris,  1780),  Latres  et  mhnoires  de  Turenne  (Pans,  1780),  Troupes 
Utiles  et  leur  emploi  (Paris.  1782),  ConmiiUs  de  Gustaee-Adolpke 
(Stockhcrfm  and  Ncutchatcl,  1782-1701);  Uimeires  de  Custave 
Adcipke  (Paris,  1790),  Corresponaence  01  Marshal  Richelieu  (Paris, 
1780),  St  Germain  (1789),  and  Bemis  (1790),  Vie  et  rigne  de  Pridhic 
le  Grand  (London,  1788),  LeUres  et  mimoires  du  marickal  de  Saxe 
(Paris,  1794),  VExpidition  de  Minor^  en  S7K6  (Paris,  1798), 
Reckerekes  sur  la  force  de  rarmie  fraufatse  depuis  Henri  tVjusau'em 
180S  (Puis,  1806),  Mimoires  du  marickal  de  Tessi  (Paris,  x8o6), 
Lettres  de  Bolingbroke  (Paris,  1808),  Traiti  sur  le  service  d^itai-major 
(Paris.  1809).  and  (with  Servan)  Tableau  kislorique  de  la  guerre  de 
la  RteUuUon  1799-1794  (Paris,  1808). 

6RI1UBT,  or  Great  Gumsby,  a  mum'dpal,  county  and 
prKamrnfary  borough  of  Lincolnshire,  England;  an  important 


seaport  near  the  mouth  of  the  Humber  on  the  south  shore. 
Pop.  (1901)  63,138.  It  is  155  m.  N.  by  E.  from  London  by  the 
Great  Northern  railway,  and  is  also  served  by  the  Great  Central 
railway.  The  church  of  St  James,  situated  in  the  older  part  of  the 
town,  is  a  cruciform  Early  English  building,  retaining,  in  spite 
of  injudicious  restoration,  many  beautiful  details.  The  chief 
buildings  are  that  contaim'ng  the  town  hall  and  the  grammar 
school  (a  foundation  of  1547),  the  exchange,  a  theatre,  and  the 
customs  house  and  dock  offices.  A  sailors'  and  fishermen's 
Harbour  of  Refuge,  free  libraiy,  constitutional  club  and  technical 
scho(^  are  maintained.  The  duke  of  York  public  gardens  were 
opened  in  1894.  Adjacent  to  Grimsby  on  the  east  is  the  coastal 
watering-place  of  Cleethotpes. 

The  dock  railway  station  lies  a  mile  from  the  town  station. 
In  1849  the  Great  Central  (then  the  ManchesUr,  Sheffield 
and  Lincolnshire)  railway  initiated  a  scheme  of  reclamation 
and  dock-construction.  This  was  completed  in  1854,  and  sub- 
sequent extensions  were  made.  There  are  two  large  fish-docks, 
and,  for  general  traffic,  the  Royal  dock,  communicating  with  the 
Humber  through  a  tidal  basin,  the  small  Union  dock,  and  the 
extensive  Alexandra  dock,  together  with  graving  docks,  timber 
yards,  a  patent  slip,  &c.  These  docks  have  an  area  of  about 
X04  acres,  but  were  found  insufficient  for  the  growing  traffic  of 
the  port,  and  in  1906  the  construction  of  a  large  new  dock,  of 
about  40  acres'  area  and  30  to  35  ft.  depth,  was  undertaken  by 
the  Great  Central  Company  at  Immingham,  5  m.  above  Grimsby 
on  the  Humber.  The  principal  imports  arc.  butter,  woollens, 
timber,  cereals,  eggSf  glass,  cottons,  preserved  meat,  wool, 
sugar  and  bacon.  The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  woollen  yam, 
woollens,  cotton  goods,  cotton  yam,  machinery,  &c.  and  coal. 
It  is  as  a  fishing  port,  however,  that  Grimsby  is  chiefly  famous. 
Two  of  the  docks  are  for  the  acconmiodation  of  the  fishing  fleet, 
which,  consisting  principally  of  steam  trawlers,  numbers  up^ 
wards  of  500  vessels.  Regular  passenger  steamers  mn  from 
Grimsby  to  Dutch  and  south  Swedish  ports,  and  to  Esbjerg 
(Denmark),  chiefly  those  of  the  Wilson  line  and  the  Great  Centrsi 
railway.  The  chief  industries  of  Grimsby  are  shipbuilding, 
brewing,  tanning,  manufactures  of  ship  tackle,  ropes,  ice  for 
preserving  fish,  tumeiy,  flour, 'linseed  cake,  artificial  manure; 
and  there  are  saw  mills,  bone  and  com  mills,  and  creosote  works. 
The  municipal  borough  is  under  a  mayor,  12  aldermen  and  36 
councillors.    Area,  2852  acres. 

Grimsby  {Grimesbi)  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  landing-place 
of  the  Danes  on  their  first  invasion  of  Britain  towards  the  close 
of  the  8th  century.  It  was  a  borough  by  prescription  sa  early 
as  120X,  in  which  year  King  John  granted  the  burgesses  a  charter 
of  liberties  according  to  the  custom  of  the  burgesses  of  North- 
ampton. Henry  UI.  in  1227  granted  to  "  the  mayor  and  good 
men  "  of  Grimsby,  that  they  should  hold  the  town  for  a  yearly 
rent  of  £izx,  and  confirmed  the  same  in  1271.  These  charters 
were  confirmed  by  later  sovereigns.  A  governing  charter, 
under  the  title  of  mayor  and  burgesses,  was  given  by  James  II. 
in  x688,  and  under  tMs  the  appointment  of  officers  and  other  of 
the  corporation,  arrangements  are  to  a  great  extent  regulated. 
In  120X  King  John  granted  the  burgesses  an  aimual  fair  for 
fifteen  days,  b^iming  on  the  25th  of  May.  Two  annual  fairs 
are  now  held,  namely  on  the  first  Monday  in  April  and  the  second 
Monday  in  (>ctober.  No  early  grant  of  a  market  can  be  found, 
but  in  X792  the  market-day  was  Wednesday.  In  1888  it  had 
ceased  to  exist.  Grimsby  retumed  two  members  to  the  parlia- 
ment of  X298,  but  in  1833  the  number  was  reduced  to  one. 

In  the  time  of  Edward  III.  Grimsby  was  an  important  seaport, 
but  the  haven  became  obstructed  by  sand  and  mud  deposited 
by  the  Humber,  and  so  the  access  of  large  vessels  was  prevented. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  X9th  century  a  subscription  was  raised 
by  the  proprietors  of  land  in  the  neighbourhooid  for  improving 
the  harbour,  axul  an  act  was  obtained  by  which  they  were 
incorporated  under  the  title  "  The  Grimsby  Haven  Co."  The 
fishing  trade  had  become  so  important  by  x8oo  that  it  was 
necessary  to  constract  a  new  dock. 

GRIMSTON,  SIR  HARBOTOE  (X603-1685).  English  politician, 
second  .son  of  Sir  Harbottle  Grimston,  Bart.  (d.  X648),  was  born 


6o4 


GRIMTHORPE,  BARON— GRINDAL 


at  Bradfield  Half,  near  Manningtree,  on  the  37th  of  January 
1603.  Educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  he  became 
a  barrister  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  then  recorder  of  Harwich  and 
recorder  of  Colchester.  As  member  for  Colchester,  Grimston 
sat  in  the  Short  Parliament  of  1640,  and  he  represented  the  same 
borough  during  the  Long  Parliament,  8p<^'ly  becoming  a 
leading  member  of  the  popular  party.  He  attacked  Archbishop 
Laud  with  great  vigour;  was  a  member  of  the  important 
committees  of  the  parliament,  including  the  one  appointed 
in  consequence  of  the  attempted  seizure  of  the  five  members; 
and  became  deputy  lieutenant  of  Essex  after  the  passing  of  the 
militia  ordinance  in  January  1642.  He  disliked  taking  up  arms 
against  the  king,  but  remained  nominally  an  adherent  of  the 
parliamentary  party  during  the  Civil  War.  In  the  words  of 
Clarendon,  he  *'  continued  rather  than  concurred  with  them." 
Grimston  does  not  appear  to  have  taken  the  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant,  but  after  the  conclusion  of  the  first  period  of  the 
war  he  again  became  more  active.  He  was  president  of  the 
committee  which  investigated  the  escape  of  the  king  from 
Hampton  Court  in  1647,  and  was  one  of  those  who  negotiated 
with  Charles  at  Newport  in  1648,  when,  according  to  Burnet, 
he  fell  upon  his  knees  and  urged  the  king  to  come  to  terms. 
From  this  time  Grimston's  sympathies  appear  to  have  been  with 
the  Royalists.  Turned  out  of  the  House  of  Commons  when  the 
assembly  was  "  purged  "  by  colonel  Pride,  he  was  imprisoned; 
but  was  released  after  promising  to  do  nothing  detrimental  to 
the  parliament  or*  the  army,  and  spent  the  next  few  years  in 
retirement  Before  this  time,  his  elder  brother  having  already 
died,  he  had  succeeded  his  father  as  2nd  baronet.  In  1656 
Sir  Harbottle  was  returned  to  Cromwell's  second  parliament 
as  member  for  Essex;  but  he  was  not  allowed  to  take  his  seat; 
and  with  97  others  who  were  similarly  treated  he  issued  a 
remonstrance  to  the  public.  He  was  among  the  secluded  members 
who  re-entered  the  Long  Parliament  in  February  1660,  was  then 
a  member  of  the  council  of  state,  and  was  chosen  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons  in  the  Convention  Parliament  of  1660. 
As  Speaker  he  visited  Charles  II.  at  Breda,  and  addressed  him 
in  very  flattering  terms  on  his  return  to  London;  but  he  refused 
to  accede  to  the  king's  demand  that  he  should  dismiss  Burnet 
from  his  position  as  chaplain  to  the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  and  in 
parliament  he  strongly  denounced  any  relaxation  of  the  laws 
against  papists.  Grimston  did  not  retain  the  office  of  Speaker 
after  the  dissolution  of  the  Convention  Parliament,  but  he  was 
a  member  of  the  commission  which  tried  the  regicides,  and  in 
November  x66o  he  was  appointed  Master  of  the  Rolls.  Report 
says  he  paid  Clarendon  £8000  for  the  office,  while  Burnet  declares 
he  obtained  it  "  without  any  application  of  his  own."  He  died 
on  the  2nd  of  January  1685.  His  friend  and  chaplain,  Burnet, 
speaks  very  highly  of  his  piety  and  impartiality,  while  not 
omitting  the  undoubted  fact  that  he  was  "  much  sharpened 
against  popery."  He  translated  the  law  reports  of  his  father-in- 
law,  the  judge,  Sir  George  Croke  (i  560-1642),  which  were  written 
in  Norman-French,  and  five  editions  of  this  work  have  appeared. 
Seven  of  his  parliamentary  speeches  were  published,  and  he 
also  wrote  Strena  Christiana  (London,  1644,  and  other  editions). 
Grimston's  first  wife,  Croke's  daughter  Mary,  bore  him  six  sons 
and  two  daughters;  and  by  his  second  wife,  Anne,  daughter 
and  heiress  of  Sir  Nathaniel  Bacon,  K.B.,  a  grandson  of  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon,  he  had  one  daughter. 

Of  his  sons  one  only,  Samuel  (1643-1700),  survived  his  father, 
and  when  he  died  in  October  1700  the  baronetcy  became  extinct. 
Sir  Harbottle's  eldest  daughter,  Mary,  married  Sir  CapclLuckyn, 
Bart.,  and  their  grandson,  William  Luckyn,  succeeded  to  the 
estates  of  his  great-uncle.  Sir  Samuel  Grimston,  and  took  the 
name  of  Grimston  in  1700.  This  William  Luckyn  Grimston 
( 1683-1 7  56)  was  created  Baron  Dunboyne  and  Viscount  Grimston 
in  the  peerage  of  Ireland  in  17x9.  He  was  succeeded  as  2nd 
viscount  by  his  son  James  (171 1-1773),  whose  son  James  Bucknall 
(1747-1808)  was  made  an  English  peer  as  baron  Verulam  of 
Gorhambury  in  1790.  Thcnin  1815  his  son  James  Walter  (1775- 
1845),  2nd  baron  Verulam,  was  created  earl  of  Verulam,  and  the 
present  peer  is  his  direct  descendant.    Sir  Harbottle  Grimston 


bought  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon's  estate  at  Gorhambury,  which  is 

still  the  residence  pf  his  descendants. 

See  G.  Burnet,  History  of  My  Otan  Time,  edited  by  O.  Airy  (Oxford. 
1900). 

ORIMTHORPE,  EDMUND  BECKETT,  XST  Bakon  (18x6-1905), 
son  of  Sir  Edmund  Beckett  Denison,  was  bora  on  the  xath  of 
May  X  816.  He  was  educated  at  !lDoncaster  and  Eton,  whence  he 
proceeded  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  graduated  thirtietk 
wrangler  in  1838.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Izm 
in  X84X.  Upon  succeeding  to  the  baronetcy  in  1874  be  dn^pped 
the  name  of  Dem'son,  which  his  father  had  assumed  in  x8i& 
From  X877  to  X900  he  was  chancellor  and  vkrar-geiieral  of  York, 
and  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  x886.  He  was  made  a  Q.C 
in  1854,  and  was  for  many  years  a  leader  of  the  Parliamentary 
Bar.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  astronomy,  horology 
and  architecture,  more  especially  Gothic  ecclesiastical  architec- 
ture. As  early  as  X850  be  had  become  a  recognized  authority 
on  clocks,  watdies  and  bells,  and  in  particular  on  theconstructioo 
of  turret  clocks,  for  he  had  designed  Dent's  Great  ExhibitioD 
clock,  and  his  Rudimentary  Treatise  had  gone  through  many 
editions.  In  185  x  he  was  called  upon,  in  conjunction  with  the 
astronomer  royal  (Mr,  afterwards  Sir,  G.  B.  Airy)  and  Mr  Dent, 
to  design  a  suitable  clock  for  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament. 
The  present  toWer  clock,  popuUtrly  known  as  "  Big  Ben,'*  was 
constructed  after  Lord  Grimthorpe's  designs.  In  a  number 
of  burning  questions  during  his  time  Lord  Giimthoipe  toc^ 
a  prominent  part.  It  is,  however,  in  connexion  with  the  restora- 
tion of  St  Albans  Abbey  that  he  is  most  widely  known.  The 
St  Albans  Abbey  Reparation  Committee,  which  had  be«i  ia 
existence  since  1871,  and  for  which  Sir  Gilbert  Scott  had  carried 
out  some  admirable  repairs,  obtained  a  faculty  from  the  Diocesan 
Court  in  1877  to  repair  and  restore  the  church  and  fit  it  for 
cathedral  and  parochial  services.  Very  soon,  however,  the 
committee  found  itself  unable  to  raise  the  necessary  funds, 
and  it  was  at  this  juncture  that  a  new  faculty  was  granted  to 
Lord  Grimthorpe  (then  Sir  Edmund  Beckett)  to  "  restore,  rq>air 
and  refit  "  the  abbey  at  his  own  expense.  Lord  Gximthoipe 
made  it  an  express  stipulation  that  the  work  should  be  done 
according  to  his  own  designs  ax^d  under  his  own  supervision. 
His  publfc  spirit  in  undertaking  the  task  was  undeniable,  but 
his  treatment  of  the  roof,  the  new  west  front,  and  the  window^ 
inserted  in  the  terminations  of  the  transepts,  exdted  a  storm  of 
adverse  criticism,  and  was  the  subject  of  vigorous  protests  from 
the  professional  world  of  architecture.  He  died  on  the  79th 
of  April  1905,  being  succeeded  as  and  baron  by  hn  nei^iew, 
E.  W.  Beckett  (b.  1856),  who  had  sat  in  pariiamcnt  as  conserva- 
tive member  for  the  Whitby  division  of  Yorkshire  from  iSSs- 

GRINDAL,  EDMUND  (c.  X519-X583),  successively  bishop  of 
London,  archbishop  of  York  and  archbishop  of  Canterbuiy, 
bora  about  X5X9,  was  son  of  William  Grindal,afarmerof  Hensiog- 
ham,  in  the  parish  of  St  Bees,  Cumberland.  He  was  educated  at 
Magdalene  and  Christ's  Colleges  and  then  at  Pembroke  Hall, 
Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  and  was  elected  fellow  in 
X  538.  He  proceeded  M.A.  in  1 54X,  was  ordained  deacon  in  x  544 
and  was  proctor  and  Lady  Margaret  preacher  in  1548-1 549- 
Probably  through  the  influence  of  Ridley,  who  had  been  master 
of  Pembroke  Hall,  Grindal  was  selected  as  one  of  the  Protestant 
disputants  during  the  visitation  of  x  549.  He  had  a  considenble 
talent  for  this  work  and  was  often  employed  on  similar  occasions. 
When  Ridley  became  bishop  of  London,  be  made  Grindal  one 
of  his  chaplains  and  gave  him  the  precentorship  of  St  Paul's. 
He  was  soon  promoted  to  be  one  of  Edward  VI.'s  chafdains 
and  prebendary  of  Westminster,  and  in  October  155a  was  one 
of  the  six  divines  to  whom  the  Forty-two  articles  were  submiLted 
for  examination  before  being  sanctioned  by  the  Privy  ConndL 
According  to  Knox,  Grindal  distinguished  himself  from  most  of 
the  court  preachers  in  X5S3  by  denouncing  the  worldEiiess<J 
the  courtiers  and  foretelUng  the  evils  to  follow  on  the  king's 
death. 

That  event  frustrated  Grindal's  proposed  devatioa  to  the 
episcopal  bench  and  he  did  not  consider  himself  bound  to  await 
the  evils  which  he  had  foretold.    He  abandoned  his  prefennests 


GRINDELWALD— GRINGOIRE 


605 


00  Mai3r'a  accession  and  made  his  way  to  Stnssburg.  Thence, 
like  so  many  of  the  Marian  exiles,  he  proceeded  to  Frankfurt, 
where  he  endeavoured  to  compose  the  disputes  between  the 
*'  Cozians  "  (see  Cox,  Richard),  who  regarded  the  155a  Prayer 
Book  as  the  perfection  of  reform,  and  the  Rnoxians,  who  wanted 
further  simplification.  He  returned  to  England  in  January  x  559, 
was  appointed  one  of  the  committee  to  revise  the  liturgy,  and 
one  of  the  Protestant  representatives  at  the  Westminster  con- 
ference. In  July  he  was  also  elected  Master  of  Pembroke  Hall 
in  succession  to  the  recusant  Dr  Thomas  Young  (i 514-1580) 
and  Bishop  of  London  in  succession  to  Bonner. 

Grindal  himself  was,  however,  inclined  to  be  recalcitrant  from 
di£ferent  motives.  He  had  qualms  about  vestments  and  other 
traces  of  "  popery  "  as  well  as  about  the  Erastianism  of  Eliza- 
beth's ecclesiastical  government.  His  Protestantism  was  robust 
enough;  he  did  not  mind  recommending  that  a  priest  "  might 
be  put  to  some  torment  "  (Hatfield  MSS.  i.  269) ;  and  in  October 
1562  he  wrote  to  Cecil  begging  to  know  "  if  that  second  Julian, 
the  king  of  Navarre,  is  killed;  as  he  intended  to  preach  at  St 
Paul's  Cross,  and  might  take  occasion  to  mention  God's  judge- 
ments on  him  "  {DomtstU  Cat.,  1547-1 580,  p.  209).  But  be  was 
loth  to  execute  judgments  uix>n  English  Puritans,  and  modem 
high  churchmen  complain  of  his  infirmity  of  purpose,  his  oppor- 
tunism and  his  failure  to  give  Parker  adequate  assistance  in 
rebuilding  the  shattered  fabric  of  the  English  Church.  Grindal 
lacked  that  firm  faith  in  the  supreme  importance  of  uniformity 
and  autocracy  which  enabled  Whitgift  to  persecute  with  a  clear 
conscience  nonconformists  whose  theology  was  indistinguishable 
from  his  own.  Perhaps  he  was  as  wise  as  his  critics;  at  any 
rate  the  rigour  which  he  repudiated  hardly  brought  peace  or 
strength  to  the  Church  when  practised  by  his  successors,  and 
London,  which  was  alwasrs  a  difficult  see,  involved  Bishop  Sandys 
in  similar  tronbles  when  Grindal  had  gone  to  York.  As  it  was, 
although  Parker  said  that  Grindal "  was  not  resolute  and  severe 
enough  for  the  government  of  London,"  his  attempts  to  enforce 
the  use  of  the  surplice  evoked  angry  protests,  especially  in  1565, 
when  considerable  numbers,  of  the  nonconformists  were  sus- 
pended; and  Grindal  of  his  own  motion  denounced  Cartwright 
to  the  Council  in  1570.  Other  anxieties  were  brought  upon  him 
by  the  burning  of  his  cathedral  in  1561,  for  although  Grindal 
himself  is  said  to  have  contributed  £1200  towards  its  rebuilding, 
the  laity  of  his  diocese  were  niggardly  with  their  subscriptions 
and  even  his  clergy  were  not  liberal. 

In  1570  Grindal  was  transited  to  the  archbishopric  of  York, 
where  Puritans  were  few  and  coercion  would  be  reqtiired  mainly 
for  Roman  Catholics.  His  first  letter  from  Cawood  to  Cedl 
told  that  he  had  not  been  well  received,  that  the  gentry  were  not 
"  wdl-affected  to  godly  religion  and  among  the  common  people 
many  superstitious  practices  remained."  It  is  admitted  by  his 
Anglican  critics  that  he  did  the  work  of  enforcing  uniformity 
against  the  Roman  Catliolics  with  good-will  and  considerable 
tact.  He  must  have  given  general  satisfaction,  for  even  before 
Parker's  death  two  persons  so  different  as  Burghley  and  Dean 
Nowdl  independently  recommended  Grindal's  appointment  as 
his  successor,  and  Spenser  speaks  warmly  of  him  in  the  Shepherd* s 
CaUHdar  as  the  "  gentle  shepherd  Algrind."  Burghley  wished 
to  conciliate  the  moderate  Puritans  and  advised  Grindal  to 
mitigate  the  severity  which  had  characterized  Parker's  treatment 
of  the  nonconformists.  Grindal  indeed  attempted  a  reform  of 
the  ecclesiastical  courts,  but  his  metropolitical  activity  was  cut 
short  by  a  conflict  with  the  arbitrary  temper  of  the  queen. 
Elizabeth  required  Grindal  to  suppress  the  "  prophesyings  " 
or  meetings  for  discussion  which  had  come  into  vogue  among  the 
Puritan  dergy,  and  she  even  wanted  him  to  discourage  preaching; 
she  would  have  no  doctrine  that  was  not  inspired  by  her  authority., 
Grindal  remonstrated,  claiming  some  voice  for  the  Church,  and' 
in  June  1577  was  suspended  from  his  jurisdictional,  though  not 
his  spiritual,  functions  for  disobedience.  He  stood  firm,  and 
in  January  1578  Secretary  Wilson  informed  Burghley  that  the 
queen  widied  to  have  the  archbishop  deprived.  She  was  dis- 
suaded from  this  extreme  course,  but  Grindal's  sequestration 
was  continued  in  spite  of  a  petition  from  Convocation  in  1581 


for  his  reinstatement.    Elizabeth  then  suggested  that  he  should 

resign ;  this  he  declined  to  do,  and  after  making  an  apology  to  the 

queen  he  was  reinstated  towards  the  end  of  1582.    But  his 

infirmities  were  increasing,  and  while  making  preparations  for 

his  resignation,  he  died  on  the  6th  of  July  1 583  and  was  buried  in 

Croydon  parish  church.    He  left  considerable  benefactions  to 

Pembroke  Hall,   Cambridge,  Queen's  College,  O^ord,    and 

Christ's  College,  Cambridge;  he  also  endowed  a  free  school  at 

St  Bees,  and  left  money  for  the  poor  of  St  Bees,  Canterbury, 

Lambeth  and  Croydon. 

Stfype's  Life  cf  Crindai  is  the  principal  authority;  see  also  Dkt. 
N<U»  Biop.  and,  besides  the  authorities  there  cited.  Cough's  General 
Index  to  Parker  Soc.  Publ.;  Acts  of  the  Privy  Council;  Cal.  of 
Hatfield  MSS.;  Duwn's  Hia.  of  the  Church  of  Entfand;  Fiere's 


(A.  F."??' 

GRINDBLWALD,  a  valley  in  the  Bernese  Oberland,  and  one 
of  the  chief  resorts  of  tourists  in  Switzerland.  It  is  shut  in  on 
the  south  by  the  precipices  of  the  Wetterhom,  Mettenberg 
and  Eiger,  between  which  two  famous  gladers  flow  down.  On 
the  north  it  is  sheltered  by  the  Faulhom  range,  while  on  the 
east  the  Great  Scheidegg  Pass  leads  over  to  Meiringen;  and  on 
the  south-west  the  Little  Scheidegg  or  Wengem  ^p  (railway 
X 1 1  m.  across)  divides  it  from  Lauterbrtmnen.  The  main  village 
is  connected  with  Interlaken  by  a  rack  railway  (13  m.).  The 
valley  is  very  green,  and  possesses  excellent  pastures,  as  well  as 
fruit  trees,  though  little  com  is  grown.  It  is  watered  by  the 
Black  LUtschine,  a  tributary  of  the  Aar.  The  height  of  the 
parish  church  above  the  sea-level  is  3468  ft.  The  population 
in  iQoowas  3346,practically  all  Protestant  and  German-speaking, 
and  living  in  558  houses.  The  glacier  guides  are  among  the  best 
in  the  Alps.  The  valley  was  originally  inhabited  by  the  serfs 
of  various  great  lords  in  summer  for  the  sake  of  pasturage.  A 
chapel  in  a  cave  was  superseded  about  1 146  by  a  wooden  church, 
replaced  about  1x80  by  a  stone  church,  which  was  pulled  down 
in  X793  to  erect  the  present  building.  Gradually  the  Austin 
canons  of  Interlaken  bought  out  all  the  other  owners  in  the 
valley,  but  when  that  house  was  suppressed  in  x  5 28  by  the  town 
of  Bem  the  inhabitants  gained  their  freedom.  The  houses  near 
the  hotel  Adler  bear  the  name  of  Gydisdorf,  but  there  is  no 
village  of  Grinddwald  properly  speaking,  though  that  name  is 
usually  given  to  the  assemblage  of  hotels  and  shops  between 
Gydisdorf  and  the  railway  station.  Grinddwald  is  now  very 
much  frequented  by  visitors  in  winteir. 

See  W.  A.  B.  Coolidge,  Walhs  and  Excurnons  in  the  Vattey  of 
Crindelfoald  (a\ao  in  French  and  German)  (Grinddwald,  1900); 
Emmanud  Friedli,  Bdrnddlsch  als  Spieiu  Umischen  VolhstnmSt 
vol.  ii.  (Grinddwald,  Bem,  1908) ;  E.  F.  von  Mtklinen,  Beitrdge  stir 
Heimatkunde  des  Kantons  Bern,  deuischen  Teils,  vol.  i.  (Bern,  1879)1 
pp.  24-36;  G.  Stiasser,  Der  CUtKhermann  (Grindelwald,  1888-1890). 
Scattered  notices  may  be  found  in  the  edition  (London,  1899)  of  the 
"  General  Introduction  "  (entitled  "  Hinu  and  Notes  for  Travellers 
in  the  Alps  ")  to  John  Ball's  Alpine  Guide.  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

GRINGOIRE  (or  Gsingorx),  PIBRRB  (c.  1480-1539),  French 
poet  and  dramatist,  was  bora  about  the  year  1480,  probably  at 
Caen.  Inhisfirst  work,  LeCAof/eaiK^^oftMir  (1499),  a  didactic 
poem  in  praise  of  diligence,  he  narrates  the  troubles  following 
on  marriage.  A  young  couple  are  visited  by  Care,  Need,  Dis- 
comfort, &c.;  and  other  personages  conunpn  to  medieval  alle- 
gories take  part  in  the  action.  In  November  1501  Gringoire 
was  in  Paris  directing  the  production  of  a  mystery  play  in  honour 
of  the  archduke  Philip  of  Austria,  and  in  subsequent  years 
be  recdved  many  similar  commissions.  The  fraternity  of  the 
Enfans  sans  Souci  advanced  him  to  the  dignity  of  Mhre  SoUe 
and  afterwards  to  the  highest  honour  of  the  gild,  that  of 
Prinu  des  Sots.  For  twenty  years  Gringoire  seems  to  have  been 
at  the  head  of  this  illustrious  confr6rie.  As  Prince  des  Sots  he 
exercised  an  extraordinary  influence.  At  no  time  was  the  stage, 
rade  and  coarse  as  it  was,  more  popular  as  a  true  exponent  of 
the  popular  mind.  Gringoire's  success  lay  in  the  fact  that  he 
followed,  but  did  not  attempt  to  lead;  on  his  stage  the  people 
saw  exhibited  thdr  passions,  thdr  judgments  of  the  moment, 
their  jealousies,  thdr  hatreds  and  their  ambitions.  Brotherhoods 


6o6 


GRINNELI^-GRIQUALAND 


of  the  kind  existed  all  over  France.  In  Paris  there  were  the 
Enfans  sans  Soucif  the  Basockiens,  the Confririe  dela  Passion 
and  the  SottBerain  Empire  de  CalUie;  at  Dijon  there  were  the 
Mhe  FoUe  and  her  family;  in  Flanders  the  SociiU  des  ArbaUtriers 
played  comedies;  at  Rouen  the  Carnards  or  Canards  yielded 
to  none  in  vigour  and  fearlessness  of  satire.  On  Shrove  Tuesday 
151a  Gringoire,  who  was  the  accredited  defender  of  the  policy 
of  Louis  XII.,  and  had  already  written  many  political  poems, 
represented  the  Jeu  du  Prince  des  Sots  et  Mire  Sotte.  It  was  at 
the  moment  when  the  French  dilute  with  Julius  II.  was  at  its 
height  Mire  SoUe  was  disguised  as  the  Church,  and  disputed 
the  question  of  the  temporal  power  with  the  prince.  The  political 
meaning  was  even  more  thinly  veiled  in  the  second  part  of  the 
entertainment,  a  morality  named  L* Homme  obstini,  the  principal 
personage  representing  the  pope.  The  performance  concluded 
with  a  farce.  Gringoire  adopted  for  his  device  on  the  frontis- 
piece of  this  trilogy.  Tout  par  RaisoHt  Raison  par  Toutj  Par  tout 
Raison.  He  has  been  called  the  Arisiopkane  des  Halles.  In  one 
respect  at  least  he  resembles  Aristophanes.  He  is  serious  in  his 
merriment;  there  is  purpose  behind  his  extravagances.  The 
Church  was  further  attacked  in  a  poem  printed  about  15x0, 
La  Chasse  du  cerf  des  cerfs  {serf  des  serfs^  Ijc.  servus  servorum), 
under  which  title  that  of  the  pope  is  thinly  veiled.  About  1514 
he  wrote  his  mysteiy  of  the  Vie  de  Monseigneur  Saint-Louis 
par  personnages  in  nine  books  for  the  confririe  of  the  masons  and 
carpenters.  He  became  In  15x8  herald  at  the  court  of  Lorraine, 
with  the  title  of  Vaudemont,  and  married  Catherine  Roger, 
a  lady  of' gentle  birth.  During  the  last  twenty  years  of  a  long 
life  he  became  orthodox,  and  dedicated  a  Blason  des  kMtiques 
to  the  duke  of  Lorraine.  There  is  no  record  of  the  payment 
of  his  salary  as  a  herald  after  Christmas  1538,  so  that  he  died 
probably  in  1539. 

His  works  were  edited  by  C.  d'H4ricault  and  A.  de  Monuiglon 
for  the  BiHiotMque  eltioirienne  in  1858.  This  editbn  was  incom- 
plete, and  was  supplemented  by  a  second  volume  in  1877  ^^  Mon- 
taiglon  and  M.  James  de  Rothschild.  These  volumes  mclude  the 
works  already  mentioned,  except  Le  Ckasteau  de  labour^  and  in 
addition,  Lts  FoUes  EntrePrises  (1505),  a  collection  of  didactic  and 
satirical  poems,  ch!cfl)r  ballades  and  rondcaux,  one  section  of  which 
u  devoted  to  the  exposition  of  the  tyranny  of  the  nobles,  and  another 
to  the  vices  of  the  clergy;  L'EtUreprise  de  Venise  (c.  1509)1  a  po«ni 
in  seven-lined  stanzas,  gtving  a  list  of  the  Venetian  fortresses  which 
belonged,  according  to  Gringoire,  to  other  powers;  L'Espoir  de  paix 
(1st  ea.  not  dated;  another,  1510),  a  verse  treatise  on  the  deeds  of 
"  certain  popes  of  Rome,"  dedicated  to  Louis  XII.;  and  La  Coque- 
luche  (1510),  a  verse  description  of  an  epidemic,  apparently  influenza. 
For  details  of  his  other  satires,  LesAbusdu  monde  (1509),  ComUainU 
de  trap  lard  marii,  Les  Fantasies  du  monde  mii  rkgne;  01  his  religious 
verse.  Chants  royaux  (on  the  Passion,  15^7),  Heures  de  Notre  Dame 
(1535);  and  a  collection  of  tales  in  prose  and  verse,  taken  from 
the  Cesta  Romanorum,  entitled  Les  Fantasies  de  Mire  SotU  (1516), 
see  G.  Brunet,  Manud  du  libraire  {s.v.  Gringore).  Most  of  Gringoire  s 
works  conclude  with  an  acrostic  giving^  the  name  of  the  author. 
The  Ckasteau  de  labour  was  transited  into  English  by  Alexander 
Barclay  and  printed  by  Wynkyn  dc  Worde  in  1506.  Barclay's 
translation  was  edited  (1905)  with  his  original  for  the  Roxburghe 
Club  by  Mr  A.  W.  PolIard,wno  provided  an  account  of  Gringoire,  and 
a  bibliography  of  the  book.  See  also,  for  the  Jeu  du  Prince  des  Sots, 
Petit  de  JuHeville,  La  Comidie  el  les  meeurs  en  France  au  moyen  Age, 
>p.   1^1-168    (Paris,   1886);  for  Saint  Louis,  the  same  author's 


Mystires,  L  331  et  seq.,  ii.  583-597  (1880),  with  further  biblio- 
graphical references;  and  E.  ricot,  Gringore  et  les  comSdiens 
ttaltens  (1877).  The  real  Gringoire  cannot  be  said  to  have  manv 
points  01  resemblance  with  the  poet  described  in  Victor  Hugos 
Ifi^e'Dame  de  Paris,  nor  is  there  more  foundation  in  fact  for  the  one- 
act  prose  comedy  of  Theodore  dc  Banville. 

GRINNELIi,  a  dty  in  Poweshiek  county,  Iowa,  U.S.A.,  55  m. 
E.  by  N.  of  Des  Moines.  Pop..  (1900)  3860,  of  whom  274  were 
foreign-bom;  (1905)  4634;  (X910)  5036.  Grinnell  is  served  by 
the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Padfic,  and  the  Iowa  Central  rail- 
ways. It  is  the  seat  of  Iowa  Collie  (co-educational),  founded 
in  X847  by  the  Iowa  Band  (Congregationalists  and  graduates 
of  New  England  colleges  and  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
who  had  devoted  themselves  to  home  missionary  educational 
work  in  Iowa,  and  who  came  to  Iowa  in  1843),  and  by  a  few 
earlier  pioneers  from  New  England.  The  college  opened  in  1848 
t  Davenport,  and  in  1859  removed  to  Grinnell,  where  there  was 
school  oiled  GrinncU  University,  which  it  absorbed.    Closely 


affiliated  with  the  college  are  the  Grinnell  Academy  and  the 
Grinnell  School  of  Music  In  1907-1908  the  College  had  463 
students,  the  Academy  had  129  students,  and  the  School  of 
Music  had  141  students.  Among  the  manujfactares  are  carriages 
and  gloves.  The  city  was  named  in  honour  of  one  of  its  foundcn, 
Josiah  Buahnell  Grinnell  (182X-X89X),  a  Congregational  cleigy- 
man,  friend  of  and  sympathizer  with  John  Brown,  and  from 
X863  to  1867  a  member  of  the  National  House  of  Representatives. 
Grinnell  was  settled  in  X854,  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1865, 
and  in  1882  was  chartered  as  a  dty  of  the  second  class.  In  i88a 
it  suffered  severdy  from  a  ^clone. 

GRIQUALAITD  BAST  and  GRIQUALAND  WBST.  territorial 
divisions  of  the  Cape  Province  of  the  Union  of  South  Alrica. 
Griqualand  East,  which  h'es  south  of  Basutoland  aikl  west  of 
Natal,  is  so  named  from  the  settlement  there  in  1862  of  Griqiias 
under  Adam  Kok.  It  forms  part  of  the  Ttanskeian  Territories 
of  the  C^ape,  and  is  described  under  KAvrsAtiA.  Griqualand 
West,  formerly  Griqualand  simply,  also  named  after  its  Giiqaa 
inhabitants,  is  part  of  the  great  tabldand  of  South  Africa. 
It  is  bounded  S.  by  the  Orange  river,  W.  and  N.  by  Bechuaxtalaad, 
E.  by  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State  Province,  and  has 
an  area  of  15,197  sq.  m.  It  has  a  general  elevation  oif  5000  to 
4000  ft.  above  the  sea,  low  ranges  of  rocky  hills,  the  Kaap, 
Asbestos,  Vansittart  and  Langeberg  moontains,  traversing  iu 
western  portion  in  a  general  N.E.-S.W.  direction.  The  only 
pereimial  rivers  are  in  the  eastern  district,  throu^  which  the 
Vaal  flows  from  a  point  a  little  above  Fourteen  Streams  to  its 
junction  with  the  Orange  (x6o  m.).  In  this  part  of  its  course  the 
Vaal  recdvcs  the  Harts  river  from  the  north  and  the  Riet  from 
the  east  The  Riet,  4  m.  within  the  Griqualand  frontier,  is 
joined  by  the  Modder.  The  banks  of  the  rivers  are  shaded  by 
willows;  elsewhere  the  only  tree  is  the  mimosa.  The  greater 
part  of  the  country  is  barren,  merging  N.W.  into  absolute 
desert.  The  soil  is,  however,  wherever  irrigated,  extremely 
fertile.  The  day  climate  is  hot  and  dry,  but  the  nights  art  fre- 
quently cold.  Rain  rarely  falls,  though  thunderstorms  of  great 
severity  occasionally  sweep  over  the  land,  and  sandstorms  are 
prevalent  in  the  summer.  A  portion  of  the  country  is  adapted 
for  sheep-farming  and  the  growing  of  cxopSj  horse-breeding  is 
carried  on  at  Kimberley,  and  asbestos  is  worked  in  the  south- 
western districts,  but  the  wealth  of  Griqualand  West  lies  in  its 
diamonds,  which  are  found  along  the  banks  of  the  Vaal  and  in  the 
district  between  that  river  and  the  Riet.  From  the  first  dis- 
covery of  diamonds  in  1867  up  to  the  end  of  1905  the  total 
yidd  of  diamonds  was  estimated  at  X3I  tons,  worth  £95,000,000. 

The  chid  town  is  Kimberley  {q.v.),  the  centre  of  the  diainood 
mining  industry.  It  is  situated  on  the  railway  from  Cape  Town 
to  the  Zambezi,  which  crosses  the  country  near  its  eastern 
border.  Three  miles  south  of  Kimberiey  is  Beaconsfidd  (f.v.). 
On  the  banks  of  the  Vaal  are  Barkly  West  (f  .a.),  Windsottoa 
(pop.  800)  and  Warrenton  (pop.  1500);  at  all  these  {daces  are 
river  diggings,  diamonds  being  found  al<Mig  the  river  from 
Fourteen  Streams  to  the  Harts  confluence.  Warrenton  is  44  m. 
N.  by  rail  from  Kimberley.  Dou^as  (pop.  300),  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Vaal,  X2  m.  above  its  confluence  with  the  Orange, 
is  the  centre  of  an  agrictdtural  district,  a  canal  9I  m.  long  serving 
to  irrigate  a  considerable  area.  Thirty-five  miles  N.W.  of 
Douglas  is  Griquatown  (pop.  401),  the  headquarters  of  the 
first  Griqua  settlers.  Campbell  (pop.  250)  is  30  m.  E.  of  Griqua- 
town, and  Postmasbuxg  42  m.  N.  by  W.  A  census  taken  in  1877 
showed  the  population  of  Griqualand  West  to  be  45,277,  of  vdiom 
12,347  were  whites.  At  the  census  of  1891  the  popidation  was 
83,215,  of  whom  39,602  were  whites,  and  in  1904  the  population 
was  108,498,  of  whom  32,570  were  whites. 

History. — ^Bdore  the  settlement  in  it  of  Griqua  dans  the 
district  was  thinly  inhabited  by  Bushmen  and  Hottentots. 
At  the  end  of  the  x8th  century  a  horde  known  as  Bastaards, 
descendants  ot  Dutch  farmers  and  Hottentot  wixnen.  led  a 
nomadic  life  on  the  plains  south  of  the  Orange  river.  In  1803 
a  missionary  named  Anderson  induced  a  number  of  the  Bastaards 
with  their  chid  Barend  Barends  to  settle  north  of  the  river,  and 
a  mission  station  was  formed  at  a  place  where  there  was  a  strong 


GRISAILLE— GRISELDA 


607 


flowing  fountain,  which  has  now  disappeared,  which  gave  the 
name  of  KJaarwater  to  what  is  now  linown  as  Griquatown  or 
Giiquastad.  Rlaarwater  became  a  retreat  for  other  Bastaards, 
Hottentot  refugees,  Kaffirs  and  Bechuanas.  From  little 
Namaqualand  came  a  few  half-breeds  and  othen  under  the 
leadership  of  Adam  Kok,  son  of  Cornelius  Kok  and  grandson 
of  Adam  Kok  (e.  1 7x0-1 795),  a  man  of  mixed  white  and  Hottentot 
blood  who  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  modem  Griquas. 
The  settlement  prospered,  and  in  18x3,  at  the  instance  of  the 
Rev.  John  Campbell,  who  had  been  sent  by  the  London  Mission- 
ary Society  to  inspect  the  country,  the  tribesmen  abandoned 
the  name  of  Bastaards  in  favour  of  that  of  Griquas,^  some 
of  them  professing  descent  from  a  Hottentot  tribe,  originally 
settled  near  Saldanha  Bay,  called  by  the  early  Dutch  settlers 
at  the  Cape  Chariguriqua  or  Grigriqua.  Under  the  guidance 
of  missionaries  the  Griquas  made  some  progress  in  civilization, 
and  many  professed  Christianity.  Adam  Kok  and  Baxends 
having  moved  eastward  in  1820,  those  who  remained  behind 
elected  as  their  head  man  a  teacher  in  the  mission  school  named 
Andries  Waterboer,  who  successfully  administered  th^  settle- 
ment, and  by  defeating  the  Makololo  raiders  greatly  increased 
the  prestige  of  the  tribe.  Meanwhile  Adam  Kok  and  his  com- 
panions had  occupied  part  of  the  country  between  the  Modder 
and  Orange  rivers.  In  X825  Kok  settled  at  the  mission  station 
of  Philippolis  (founded  two  years  previously),  and  in  a  short  time 
bad  exterminated  the  Bushmen  inhabiUng  that  region.  He 
died  about  1835,  and  after  a  period  of  civil  strife  was  succeeded 
by  his  younger  son,  Adam  Kok  III.  This  chief  in  November 
1843  signed  a  treaty  placing  himself  under  British  protection. 
Many  Dutch  farmers  were  settled  on  the  land  he  claimed.  In 
X845  he  received  British  mHitaiy  aid  in  a  contest  with  the  white 
settlers,  and  in  1848  helped  the  British  under  Sir  Harry  Smith 
against  the  Boers  (see  Orangk  Free  State:  History).  Eventu- 
ally finding  himself  straitened  by  the  Boers  of  the  newly  estab- 
lished Orange  Free  State,  be  removed  in  X861-X863  with  his 
people,  some  3000  in  number,  to  the  regicm  (then  depopulated 
by  Kaffir  wars)  now  known  as  Griqualand  East.  His  sovereign 
rights  to  all  territory  north  of  the  Orange  he  sold  to  the  Free 
State  for  £4000.  He  founded  Kokstad  (q.  v.)  and  died  in  1876. 
Waterboer,  the  principal  Griqua  chief,  had  .entered  into  treaty 
relations  with  the  British  government  as  early  as  1834,  and  he 
received  a  subsidy  of  £150  a  year.  He  proved  a  stanch  ally  of 
the  British,  and  kept  the  peace  on  the  Cape  frontier  to  the  day 
of  his  death  in  x85a.  "He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Nicholas 
Waterboer,  under  whom  the  condition  of  the  Griquas  declined — 
a  decline  induced  by  the  indolence  of  the  people  and  intensified 
by  the  drying  up  of  the  water  supplies,  cattle  plague  and  brandy 
drinking.  During  this  period  white  settlers  acquired  farms  in 
the  country,  and  the  loss  of  their  independence  by  the  Griquas 
*  became  inevitable.  The  discovery  of  diamonds  along  the  banks 
of  the  Vaal  in  X867  entirely  alter^  the  fortunes  of  the  country, 
and  by  the  endof  1869  the  rush  to  the  alluvial  diggings  had  begun. 
At  the  diggers'  camps  the  Griquas  exercised  no  authority,  but 
over  part  of  the  district  the  South  African  Republic  and  the 
Orange  Free  State  claimed  sovereignty.  At  Kiip  Drift  (now 
Barkly  West)  the  diggers  formed  a  regular  government  and 
elected  Theodore  Parker  as  their  president.  Most  of  the  diggers 
being  British  subjects,  the  high  commissioner  of  South  Africa 
interfered,  and  a  Cape  official  was  appointed  magistrate  at 
Klip  Drift,  President  Parker  resigning  office  in  February  X87X. 
At  .this  time  the  "  dry  diggings,"  of  which  Kimberley  is  the 
centre,  had  been  discovered,*  and  over  the  miners  there  the 
Orange  Free  State  asserted  jurisdiction.  The  land  was,  however, 
daimed  by  Nicholas  Waterboer,  who,  on  the  advice  of  his  agent, 
David  Amot,  petitioned  the  British  to  take  over  his  country. 
This  Great  Britain  consented  to  do,  and  on  the  a7th  of  October 
X87X   proclamations  were  'issued  by  the  high  commissioner 

1  The  Griquas,  as  a  diiRioct  tribe,  numbered  at  the  Cape  census  of 
1904  but  6289.  They  have  largely  intermarried  with  Kaffir  and 
Mcnoana  trioes. 

*The  order  of  discovery  ct  the  chief  mines  was:— Dutoitspan, 
Sept.  1870:  Bultfontein,  Nov.  1870:  De  Beers,  May  1871;  Coles- 
Wg  Kop  (lamberiey).  July  1871. 


receiving  Waterboer  and  his  Griquas  as  British  subjects  and 
defining  the  limits  of  his  territory.  In  addition  to  the  Kimberley 
district  this  territory  included  that  part  of  the  diamondiferous 
area  which  had  been  claimed  by  the  Transvaal,  but  which  had 
been  declared,  as  the  result  of  the  arbitration  of  R.  W.  Keate, 
lieutenant-governor  of  Natal,  part  of  Waterboer's  land.  On  the 
4th  of  November  a  small  party  of  C^pe  Mounted  Police  took 
possession  of  the  dry  diggings  and  hoisted  the  British  flag. 
Shortly  afterwards  the  representative  of  the  Orange  Free  State 
withdrew.  The  Free  State  was  greatly  incensed  by  the  action 
of  the  British  government,  but  the  dispute  as  to  the  sovereignty 
was  settled  in  1876  by  the  payment  of  £90,000  by  the  British 
to  the  Free  State  as  compensation  for  any  injury  looted  on  the 
state. 

The  diggers,'  who  under  the  nominal  rule  of  the  Thmsvaal  and 
Free  State  had  enjoyed  practical  indq)endence,  found  the 
new  government  did  little  for  their  benefit,  and  a  period  of  dis- 
order ensued,  which  was  not  put  an  end  to  by  the  appointment 
in  January  1873  of  Mr  (afterwards  Sir)  Richard  Southey'  as 
sole  administrator,  in  place  of  the  three  commissioners  who 
had  previously  exercised  authority.  In  the  July  folbwing  the 
territory  was  made  a  crown  colony  and  Southey's  title  changed 
to  that  of  lieutenant-governor.  The  govenmient  remained 
unpopular,  the  diggers  complaining  of  its  unrepresentative 
character,  the  heavy  taxation  exacted,  and  the  inadequate 
protection  of  property.  They  formed  a  society  for  mutual 
protection,  and  the  discontent  was  so  great  that  an  armed  force 
was  sent  (eariy  in  1875)  from  the  Cape  to  overawe  the  agitators. 
At  the  same  time  measures  were  taken  to  render  the  government 
more  popular.  The  settlement  of  the  dispute  with  the  Free 
State  paved  the  way  for  the  annexation  of  Griqualand  to  the  (ri4>e 
Colony  on  the  xsth  of  October  1880. 

See  KmBERLBY,  Cape  Colony.  Teansvaal  and  Oiance  Free. 
State.    For  the  early  history  of  the  country  and  an  account  of  life 


at  the  diggings,  1871-1875,  consult  G.  M'Call  Theal's  Compendium 
ef  the  History  and  Geography  cf  South  Africa  (London,  1 878) ,  chapters 
xl.  and  xlL:  Gardner  F.  WUUams,  The  Diamond  Mines  of  South 


Africa  (New  York  and  London,  IQ02) ;  and  the  work*  bearing  on  the 
subject  quoted  in  that  book.  See  also  Theal's  History  tf  South 
Africa  .  .  .  1834-1854  (London,  1893);  J.  Campbell.  Traeds  in 
South  Africa  (London,  1815),  Traeels  ,  .  ,  A  Second  Journey  .  .  . 
(2  vols.,  London,  i8as) ;  the  Blue  Books  C.  459  of  X871  and  C.  j^  of 
187a  (the  last-named  containing  the  Keate  award,  Ac.) ;  the  Griqua- 
land West  report  in  Papers  relating  to  Her  McAesty's  Colonial 
Possessions,  part  ii.  (1873)1  and  the  idfr  of  Sir  iGckard  Southey, 
K.C.M.G.,  by  A.  >^mot  (London,  1904).  For  the  Griqua  people 
consult  G.  W.  Stow,  The  Native  Races  of  SouUi  Africa,  chapters  xvii.- 
XX.  (London,  1905). 

grisaille;  a  French  term,  derived  from  gris,  grey,  for 
painting  in  monochrome  in  various  shades  of  grey,  particularly 
used  in  decoration  to  represent  objects  in  relief.  The  frescoes 
of  the  roof  of  the  Sistine  chapel  have  portions  of  the  design  in 
ffisaHle,  At  Hampton  Court  the  lower  part  of  the  decoration 
of  the  great  staircase  by  Verrio  is  in  grisaOle,  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  monochrome  painting  in  enamels,  and  also  to  stained 
glass;  a  fine  example  of  grisaiUe  glass  is  in  the  window  known 
as  the  Five  Sisters,  at  the  end  of  the  north  tnuiaq>t  in  York 
cathedral. 

GRISBLDA,  a  heroine  of  romance.  She  is  said  to  have  been 
the  wife  of  Walter,  marquis  of  Saluces  or  Saluxzo,  in  the  xxth 
century,  and  her  misfortunes  were .  considered  to  belong  to 
history  when  they  were  handled  by  Boccaccio  and  Petrarch, 
although  the  probability  is  that  Boccacdo  borrowed  his  narrative 
from  a  Provencal  fabliau.  He  included  it  in  the  recitations 
of  the  tenth  day  (Decamerone),  and  must  have  written  it  about 
1350.  Petrarch  related  it  in  a  Latin  letter  in  1373,  and  his 
translation  formed  the  basis  of  much  of  the  later  literature. 
The  letter  was  printed  by  Ulrich  Zd  about  X470,  and  often 
subsequently.    It  was  translated  into  French  as  La  Patience  de 

•Sir  Richard  Southey  (1809-1901)  was  the  son  of  one  of  the 
emigrants  from  the  west  of  England  to  Cape  Colony  (1820).  He 
ofganised  and  commanded  a  corps  of  Guides  in  the  Kaffir  war  of 
1834-35.  and  was  with  Sir  Harry  Smith  at  Boomplaats  (i  848).  From 
1804  to  1872  he  was  colonial  secretary  at  the  Cape.  He  gave  up  his 
ap^ntmeat  in  Griqualand  West  in  1875^  and  lived  thereafter  in 
retuwment.    In  1891  he  was  created  a  K.C.M.G. 


6o8 


GRISI— ORISONS 


Crisdidis  aod  printed  at  Brdhan-Loud^ac  in  1484,  and  its 
popularity  is  shown  by  the  number  of  eariy  editions  quoted  by 
Brunet  {Manud  du  Ubraire,  s.v.  Pctrarca).  The  story  was 
dramatized  in  1395,  and  ti_MysUre  dt  Grisdidis^  marquise  de 
Saluses  par  personnaiges  was  printed  by  Jehan  Bonfons  (no  date). 
Chaucer  followed  Petrarch's  version  in  the  Canterbury  Tales. 
Ralph  Raddiffe,  who  flourished  under  Henry  VIII.,  is  said  to 
have  written  a  play  on  the  subject,  and  the  story  was  dramatized 
by  Thomas  Dekker,  Henry  Chettle  and  W.  Haughton  in  1603. 

An  example  of  the  many  ballads  of  Griselda  is  given  in  T.  Deloney 's 
Garland  0/  Good  Will  (1083),  and  the  lyth-century  chap-book,  the 
History  0/ Patient  Grisel  (1619).  was  edited  by  H.  B.  Wheatley  (1885) 
for  the  Villoa  Society  with  a  bibUographicaland  literary  introduction. 

GRI8I,  GIUUA  (X8XX-X869),  Italian  opera-singer,  daughter 
of  one  of  Napoleon's  Italian  officers,  was  bom  in  Milan.  She 
came  of  a  family  of  musical  gifts,  her  maternal  aunt  Josephina 
Grassini  (1773-1850)  being  a  favourite  opera-singer  both  on  the 
continent  and  in  London;  her  mother  had  also  been  a  singer, 
and  her  elder  sister  Giudetta  and  her  cousin  Carlotta  were  both 
exceedingly  talented.  Giulia  was  trained  to  a  musical  career, 
and  made  her  stage  d6but  in  X838.  Rossini  and  Bellini  both 
took  an  interest  in  her,  and  at  Milan  she  was  the  first  Adalgisa 
in  Bellini's  NomuSf  in  which  Pasta  took  the  title-part.  Grisi 
appeared. in  Paris  in  1833,  as  Semiramidc  in  Rossini's  opera, 
and  had  a  great  success;  and  in  1834  she  appeared  in  London. 
Her  voice  was  a  brilliant  dramatic  soprano,  and  her  established 
position  as  a  prima  donna  continued  for  thirty  years.  She 
was  a  particularly  fine  actress,  and  in  London  opera  her  associa- 
tion with  such  singers  as  Lablache,  Ruhini^  Tamburini  and  Mario 
was  long  remembered  as  the  palmy  days  of  Italian  opera.  In 
1 854  she  toured  with  Mario  in  America.  She  had  married  Count 
de  Melcy  in  X836,  but  this  ended  in  a  divorce;  and  in  X856  «he 
married  Mario  {q.v.).  She  died  in  Berlin  on  the  29th  of  November 
1869. 

ORISON  {Galictis  vittata),  a  carnivorous  mammal,  of  the 
family  MustdidaCy  common  in  Central  and  South  America  and 
Mexico.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  marten,  and  has  the  upper 
surface  of  a  bluish-grey  tint,  and  the  under  surface  is  dark 
brown.  The  grison  lives  on  small  mammals  and  birds,  and  in 
settled  districts  is  destructive  to  poultry.  AUamand's  grison . 
((?.  allamandt) ,  with  the  same  range,  is  somewhat  larger.  Another 
member  of  the  genus  is  the  tayra  or  taira  {G.  barbara),  about  as 
large  as  an  otter,  with  a  range  from  Mexico  to  Argentina.  This 
species  hunts  in  companies  (see  Carnivora). 

ORI80N8  (Ger.  CraubUnden),  the  most  easterly  of  the  Swiss 
cantons  and  also  the  largest  in  extent,  though  relatively  the 
most  q>arsely  populated.  Its  total  area  is  3753-2  sq.  m.,  of 
which  x634'4  sq.  m.  are  classed  as  "  productive "  (forests 
covering  503 'X  sq.  m.  and  vineyards  x>3  sq.  m.),  but  it  has  also 
138-6  sq.  m.  of  glaciers,  ranking  in  this  respect  next  after  the 
Valats  and  before  Bern.  The  whole  canton  is  mountainous,  the 
principal  glacier  groups  being  those  of  the  Tddi,  N.  (x  1,887  ft.), 
of  Medels,  S.W.  (Piz  Medel,  xo,509  ft.),  of  the  Rheinwald  or  the 
Adula  Alps,  S.W.  (Rheinwaldhom,  11,149  't*)>  with  the  chief 
source  of  the  Rhine,  of  the  Bemina,  S.E.  (Piz  Bemina,  X3,304  ft.), 
the  most  extensive,  of  the  .\lbula,  £.  (Piz  Kesch,  x  1,228  ft.), 
and  of  the  Silvretta,  N.E.  (Piz Linard,  x  x ,2ox  ft.).  The  principal 
valleys  are  those  of  the  upper  Rhine  and  of  the  upper  Inn  (or 
Engadine,  q.v.).  The  three  main  sources  of  the  Rhine  are  in 
the  canton.  The  valley  of  the  Vorder  Rhine  is  called  the  Bdndner 
Oberland,  that  of  the  Mittel  Rhine  the  Val  Medels,  and  that  of 
the  Hinter  Rhine  (the  principal),  in  different  parts  of  its  course, 
the  Rheinwald,  the  Schams  valley  and  the  Domleschg  valley, 
while  the  upper  valley  of  the  Julia  is  named  the  Oberhalbstein. 
The  chief  affluents  of  the  Rhine  in  the  canton  are  the  Glenner 
(flowing  through  the  Lugnetz  valley),  the  Avers  Rhine,  the 
Albula  (swollen  by  the  Julia  and  the  Landwasser),  the  Plessur 
(Schanfigg  valley)  and  the  Landquart  (coming  from  the  Pr&t- 
tigau).  The  Rhine  and  the  Inn  flow  respectively  into  the  North 
and  the  Black  Seas.  Of  other  streams  that  of  Val  Mesocco  joins 
the  Ticino  and  so  the  Po,  while  the  Maira  or  Mera  (Val  Bregaglia) 
ind  the  Poschiavino  join  the  Adda,  and  the  Rambacb  (Mttnster 


valley)  the  Adlge,  all  four  thus  ultimately  reaching  the  Adriatic 
Sea.  The  inner  valleys  are  the  highest  in  Central  Europe,  and 
among  the  loftiest  villages  are  Juf,  6998  ft.  (the  highest  per- 
manently inhabited  village  in  the  Alps),  at  the  head  of  the  Avers 
glen,  and  St  Moritz,  6037  ft.,  in  the  Upper  Engadine.  The 
lower  courses  of  the  various  streams  are  rent  by  remarkable 
gorges,  such  as  the  Via  Mala,  the  Rofna,  the  Schyn,  and  those 
in  the  Avers,  Medels  and  Lugnetz  glens,  as  well  as4hat  of  the 
ZOge  in  the  Landwasser  glen.  Below  Coire,  near  Malans,  good 
wine  is  produced,  while  in  the  Val  Mesocco,  ftc,  maize  and  chest- 
nuts flourish.  But  the  forests  and  the  mountain  pasturages  are 
the  chief  source  of  wealth.  The  lower  pastures  maintain  a  fine 
breed  of  cows,  while  the  upper  are  let  out  in  summer  to  Berga- 
masque  shq>herds.  There  are  many  mineral  springs,  such  as 
those  of  St  Moritz,  Schuls,  Alvaneu,  Fideris,  Le  Prese  and  San 
Bernardino.  The  climate  and  v^etation,  save  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Alps,  are  alpine  and  severe.  But  ycariy  vast  numbeia 
of  strangers  visit  different  spots  in  the  canton,  especsaliy  Davos 
(9.9.),  Arosa  and  the  Engadine.  As  yet  there  are  comparatively 
few  railwasrs.  There  is  one  from  Maienfdd  (continued  north 
to  Constance  and  north-west  to  Ziirich)  to  Coire  (xx  m.),  which 
sends  off  a  branch  line  from  Landquart,  E.,  past  Klosters  to 
Davos  (31  m.).  From  Coire  the  line  bears  west  to  Rdchcnau 
(6  m.),  whence  one  branch  runs  S.S.E.  beneath  the  Albida  Pass 
to  St  Moritz  (50  m.),  and  another  S.W.  up  the  Hinter  Rhine 
valley  to  Uanz  (2o|  m.).  There  are,  however,  a  number  of  fine 
carriage  roads  across  the  passes  leading  to  or  towards  Italy. 
Besides  those  leading  to  the  Engadine  may  be  noted  the  roads 
from  Uanz  past  Disentis  over  the  Oberalp  Pass  (67x9  ft.)  to 
Andermatt,  from  Disentis  over  the  Lukmanier  Pass  (6289  ft.)  to 
Biasca,  on  the  St  Gotthard  railway,  from  Rdchenau  past 
Thusis  and  SplOgen  over  the  San  Bernardino  Pass  (6769  ft.)  to 
Bdlinzona  on  the  same  railway  line,  and  from  SfdOgen  over  the 
SplOgen  Pass(6946  ft.)to  Chiaveima.  The  Septimer  Pass(7583  ft.) 
from  the  JuUer  route  to  the  Maloja  route  has  now  only  a  mule 
path,  but  was  probably  known  in  Roman  times  (as  was  possibly 
the  SpIUgen),  and  was  much  frequented  in  the  middle  ages. 

The  population  of  the  canton  in  X900  was  104,520.    Of  this 
number  55,X55  (mainly  near  Coire  and  Davos,  in  the  Prtttigau 
and  in  the  Schanfigg  valley)  were  Protestants,  while  49,142 
(mainly  in  the  Bttndner  Oberland,  the  Vail  Mesocco  and  the 
Oberhalbstein)  were  Romanists,  while  there  were  also  x  X4  Jews 
(8x  of  whom  lived  in  Davos).    In  point  of  language  48.76a 
(mainly  near  Coire  and  Davos,  in  the  Prftttigau  and  in  the 
Schanfigg  valley)  were  German-speaking,  while  17,539  (nnstly 
in  the  Val  Mesocco,  the  Val  BregagUa  and  the  valley  of  Poschiavo^ 
but  induding  a  number  of  Italian  labourers  engaged  on  the 
construction  of  the  Albula  railway)   were  ItaJian-qjeaking. 
But  the  characteristic  tongue  of  the  Grisons  is  a  survival  of  an 
andent  Romance  language  (the  fingua  rustica  of  the  Roman 
Empire),  which  has  lagged  behind  its  sisters.    It  has  a  scanty  ' 
printed  literature,  but  is  stUl-  widely  spoken,  so  that,  of  tltf 
38,651  persons  in  the  Swiss  Confederation  who  ^>eak  it,  no  fewer 
than  36,473  are  in  the  Grisons.    It  is  distinguished  into  two 
dialects:  the  Romonsch  (sometimes  wrongly  called  Romansch), 
which  prevails  in  the  BQndner  Oberland  and  in  the  Hinter  Rhioe 
valley  (Schams  and  Domleschg),  and  the  Ladin  (closely  reUted 
to  the  tongue  spoken  in  parts  of  the  South  Tyrol),  that  survives 
in  the  Engadine  and  in  the  ndghbouring  valleys  of  BcrgOn, 
Oberhalbstein  and  MOnster.    (See  F.  Rausch's  CesckkhU  der 
LUeratur    des    rhaeio-romaniscken    Volkes,    Frankfort,    1870, 
and  Mr  Coolidge's  bibliography  of  this  language,  given  on 
pp.  22-23  o^  Lorria  and  Martd's  Le  Massif  de  la  Bemina^  Zftridu 
X894.)    Yet  in  the  midst  of  this  Romance-speaking  popttIatx» 
are  islets  (mostly,  if  not  entirdy,  due  to  immigration  in  the 
X3th  century  from  the  German-speaking  Upper  Valais)  of 
German-speaking  inhabitants,  so  in  the  Vals  and  Safico  glens, 
and  at  Obersazen  (all  in  the  BOndner  Oberland),  in  the  Rhdo- 
wald  (the  highest  part  of  the  Hinter  Rhine  valley),  and  in  the 
Avers  glen  (middle  reach  of  the  Hinter  Rhine  valley),  as  wdl  ss 
in  and  around  Davos  itsdf. 

There  is  not  much  industrial  activity  i&  the  Gmoaa.   A 


ORISONS 


609 


considerable  portion  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  attending 
to  the  wants  of  the  foreign  visitors,  but  there  b  a  considerable 
trade  with  Italy,  particularly  in  the  wines  of  the  Valtellina, 
while  many  young  men  seek  their  fortunes  abroad  (returning 
home  after  having  accumulated  a  small  stock  of  money)  as 
confectioners,  pastry-cooks  and  coffee-house  keepers.  A  certain 
number  of  lead  and  silver  mines  were  formerly  worked,  but  are 
now  abandoned.    The  capital  of  the  canton  is  Coire  (q.v.). 

The  canton  is  divided  into  14  administrative  districts,  and 
includes  324  communes.  It  sends  2  members  (elected  by  a 
popular  vote)  to  the  Federal  SUUideralkj  and  5  members  (also 
elected  by  a  popular  vote)  to  the  Federal  NaUonalratk,  The 
existing  cantonal  constitution  was  accepted  by  the  people  in  189^, 
and  came  into  force  on  ist  January  1894.  The  legislature 
iprossraik — no  numbers  fixed  1^  the  constitution)  is  elected 
for  3  years  by  a  popular  vote,  as  are  the  5  members  of  the 
executive  {Kleinr<Uh)  for  3  years.  The  "  obligatory  referendum  " 
obtains  in  the  case  of  all  laws  and  important  matters  of  expendir 
tuie,  while  3ooodtizens  can  demand  ("  facultative  referendtmi ") 
a  popular  vote  as  to  resolutions  and  ordinances  made  by  the 
l^islature.  Three  thousand  dtizens  also  have  the  right  of 
"  initiative  "  as  to  legislative  projects,  but  5000  signatures  are 
required  for  a  proposed  revision  of  the  cantonal  constitution. 
In  the  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  canton  the  taxes  are  never 
counted.  This  causes  an  apparent  deficit  which  is  carried  to 
the  capital  account,  and  is  met  by  the  land  tax  (art.  19  of  the 
constitution),  so  that  there  is  never  a  real  defidt,  as  the  amount 
of  the  land  tax  varies  annually  according  to  the  amount  that 
must  be  provided.  In  the  pre-X799  constitution  of  the  three 
Raetian  Leagues  the  system  of  the  "  referendum "  was  in 
working  as  early  as  the  i6th  century,  not  merdy  as  between 
the  three  Leagues  themselves,  but  as  between  the  bailiwicks 
(HockgericMte),  the  sovereign  units  within  each  League,  and 
aomrtimfs  (as  in  the  Upper  Engadine)  between  the  vfllages 
composing  each  bailiwick. 

The  greater  part  (exduding  the  three  valleys  where  the 
inhabitants  speak  Italian)  of  the  modem  canton  of  the  Grisons 
formed  the  southern  part  of  the  province  of  Raetia  (probably  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants,  the  Raeti,  were  Celts  rather  than,  as 
was  formeriy  believed,  Etruscans),  set  up  by  the  Romans  after 
their  conquest  of  the  region  in  15  b.c.    The  Romanized  inhabi- 
tants were  to  a  certain  extent  (The  Romonsch  or  Ladin  tongue 
b  a  survival  of  the  Roman  dominion)  Teutonized  under  the 
Ostrogoths  (aj>.  493-537)  and  under  the  Franks  (from  537 
onwards).    Governors  called  Praesiies  are  mentioned  in  the 
7th  and  8th  centuries,  while  members  of  the  same  family  occupied 
the  episcopal  see  of  Coire  (founded  4th-5th  Mnturies).    About 
806  Charles  the  Great  made  this  region  into  a  county,  but  in 
831  the  bishop  procured  for  his  dominions  exemption  ("  im- 
munity ")  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  counts,  while  before  847 
his  Bee  was  transferred  from  the  Italian  province  of  Milan  to  the 
German  {Hovince  of  Mainz  (Mayence)  and  was  thus  cut  off  from 
Italy  to  be  joined  to  Germany.    In  9x6  the  region  was  united 
with  the  duchy  of  Alamannia,  but  the  bishop  still  retained 
practical  indq>endence,  and  his  wide-spread  dominions  placed 
him  even  above  the  abbots  of  Disentis  and  Pfllfers,  who  likewise 
enjo3red  "  immunity."    In  the  zoth  century  the  bishop  obtained 
fresh  privileges  from  the  emperors  (besides  the  Val  Bregaglia  in 
960),  and  so  became  the  chief  of  the  many  feudal  nobles  who 
strugi^  for  power  in  the  region.    He  became  a  prince  of  the 
empire  in  1x70  and  later  allied  himself  with  the  rising  power 
(in  the  region)  of  the  Habsburgera.    This  led  in  X367  to  the 
fbiiiMlation  of  the  League  of  God's  House  or  the  GoUeskausbund 
(composed  of  the  dty  and  chapter  of  Coire,  and  of  the  bishop's 
subjarts,  espedally  in  the  Engadine,  Val  Bregaglia,  Domleschg 
and  ObCThalbstein)  in  order  to  stem  his  rising  power,  the  bishop 
entering  it  in  1393.    In  X39S  the  abbot  of  Disentis,  the  men  of 
the  Luj^etz  valley,  and  the  great  feudal  lords  of  Rjlzuns  and 
Sax  (in  1399  the  counts  of  Werdenberg  came  in)  formed  another 
League,  called  the  Oher  Bund  (as  comprising  the  highlands  in 
the  Vorder  Rhine  valley)  and  also  wrongly  the  "  Grey  League  " 
Ow  the  word  intexpreted  "grey"  is  simply  a  misreading  of 


grmcn  or  counts,  though  the  false  view  has  given  rise  to  the  name 
of  Grisons  or  Graubttnden  for  the  whole  canton),  their  alliance 
being  strengthened  in  1434  when,  too,  the  free  men  of  the 
Rheinwald  and  Schams  came  in,  and  in  X480  the  Val  Mesocco 
also.    Finally,  in  X436,  the  third  Raetian  League  was  founded, 
that  of  the  ZehngerUhtenbund  ox  League  of  the  Ten  Jurisdictions, 
by  the  former  subjects  of  the  count  of  Toggenburg,  whose 
dynasty  then  became  extinct;  they  indude  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Prilttigau,  Davos,  Maienfeld,  the  Schanfigg  valley,  Chur- 
walden,  and  the  lordship  of  Belfort  (»*.«.  the  region  round  Alvancu), 
and  formed  ten  bailiwicks,  whence  the  name  of  the  League.    In 
X450  the  ZekngerichtetUmnd  conduded  an  alliance  with  the 
CoUeskausbund  and  in  X47X  with  the  Oba^  Bund;  but  of  the 
so-called  perpetual  alliance  at  Vazerol,  near  Tiefenkastels, 
there  exists  no  authentic  evidence  in.  the  oldest  chronides,  though 
diets  were  hdd  there.    By  a  succession  of  purchases  (X477-1496) 
nearly  all  the  possessions  of  the  extinct  dynasty  of  the  counts  of 
Toggenburg  in  the  Prttttigau  had  come  to  the  junior  or  Tyrolese 
line  of  the  Habsburgers.    On  its  extinction  (X496)  in  turn  they 
passed  to  the  dder  line,  the  head  of  which,  Maximilian,  was 
already  emperor-dect  and  desired  to  maintain  the  rights  of  his 
family  there  and  in  the  Lower  Engadine.    Hence  in  1497  the 
Ober  Bund  and  in  X498  the  CoUeskausbund  became  allies  of  the 
Swiss  Confederation.    War  broke  out  in  X499,  but  was  ended  by 
the  great  Swiss  victory  (33nd  May  X499)  at  the  battle  of  the 
Calven  gorge  (above  Mais)  which,  added  to  another  Swiss  victory 
at  Domach  (near  Basd),  compelled  the  emperor  to  recognize 
the  practical  independence  of  the  Swiss  and  their  allies  of  the 
Empire.    The  religious  Rdormation  brought  disunion  into  the 
three  Leagues,  as  the  Oba^  Bund  -dung  in  the  main  to  the  old 
faith,  and  for  this  reason  their  coimexion  with  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation was  much  weakened.    In  1536,  by  the  Artides  of 
Ilanz,  the  last  remaining  traces  of  the  temporal  jurisdiction 
of  the  Inshop  of  Coire  was  abolished.    In  X486  Poschiavo  had  at 
last  been  secured  from  Milan,  and  Maienfeld  with  Malans  was 
bought  in  X509,  while  in  1549  the  Val  Mesocco  (included  in  the 
Ober  Bund  since  1480)  purchased  its  freedom  of  its  lords,  the 
Trivulzi6  family  of  Milan.    In  x  5  x  3  the  three  Leagues  conquered 
from  Milan  the  rich  and  fertile  Valtellina,  with  Bormioand 
Chiaveima,  and  hdd  these  districts  as  subject  lands  tUl  in  X797 
they  were  aimexed  to  the  Cisalpine  Republic    The  struggle 
for  lucrative  offices  in  these  lands  further  sharpened  the  long 
rivalry  between  the  families  of  Planta  (Engadine)  and  Salis 
(Val  Bregaglia),  while  in  the  17th  century  this  rivalry  was 
complicated  by  political  enmities,  as  the  Plantas  favoured  the 
Spanish  side  and  the  Salis  that  of  France  during  the  long  struggle 
(X630-X639)  for  the  Valtellina  (see  Jenatscb  and  Valtellina). 
Troubles  arose  (x633)  also  in  the  Pr&ttigau  through  the  attempts 
of  the  Habsburgers  to  force  the  inhabitants  to  give  up  Pro- 
testantism.   FinaUy,  after  the  emperor  had  formally  recognized, 
by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  (X648),  the  independence  of  the 
Swiss  Confederation,  the  rights  of  the  Habsburgers  in  the 
Pr&ttigau  and  the  Lower  Engadine  were  bought  up  (1649  and 
1652).    But  the  Austrian  enclaves  of  Tarasp  (Lower  Engadine) 
and  of  RjLziins  (near  Rdchenau)  were  only  annexed  to  the  Grisons 
in  X809  and  18x5  respectively,  in  each  case  France  holding  the 
lordship  for  a  short  time  after  its  cession  by  Austria.    In  X748 
(finally  in  X763)  the  three  Leagues  secured  the  upper  portion 
of  the  v^ey  of  Mttnster.    In  1799  the  French  invaded  the 
canton,  which  became  the  scene  of  a  fierce  conflict  (1799-X900) 
between  them  and  the  united  Russian  and  Austrian  army,  in  the 
course  of  which  the  French  burnt  (May  X799)  the  andent  convent 
of  Disentis  with  all  its  literary  treasures.    In  A|xil  X799  the 
provisional  government  agreed  to  the  incorporation  of  the  three 
Leagues  in  the  Hdvetic  Republic,  though  it  was  not  till  June 
xSox  that  the  canton  of  Raetia  became  formally  part  of  the 
Helvetic  Republic.    In  1803,  by  Napoleon's  Act  of  Mediation, 
it  entered,  under  the  name  of  Canton  of  the  Grisons  or  Grau- 
biinden,  the  reconstituted  Swiss  Confederation,  of  which  it 
then  first  became  a  full  member. 

AuTBORiTiBS. — A    Andrea,    Das   Bergdl    (Frauenfeld,    190Z): 
BUndnergesckickte  in  11  Vortrdeen,  by  various  writers  (Coire,  1902); 


6io 


GRISWOLD 

(j  vdIl,  Ctitt.  iB4«-iBS6):  W.  i 
:.  o(  thE  1 7B9  LomlDit  edition ;  E.  Du 

u  PrdUiiau  (indcd.,  DaVDi,  1S97);  P,  Foffi, 
ifiliuJcrMaJ  (Coin.  1864);  F.  Fouati,   Ciniiu  < 


GROCYN 

by  Divid  II.  inijjS.    Id  Icdtod  it  ma  Gnt  itruck  b] 


IV.  ii 


G.  Lnnbatdi,  Diu  Pmtliianiielliiit  (Leipii*.  iSn):  A.  L  rr 
E.  A.  Marwl.  U  Main/  lit  la  Btmimi  (Upoct  En^djn:  0 
Biniilii)(Zaru:h,  1894):^' C- von  Plapu.OoialUTtn'ir'n  1 
lBtl);DUc,irrallilclll»HirrHSaJlaii<fl.FimldKit{Ti,,u. 
Oackidilt  Km  Gniiiiimlni  (Bern,  la^J^:  iiid  Ctrmi*  d.  /-.;.^: 
ffaula  fZoridi,  IS91I:  W. 


GRISWOIH.  RCFUt  WtLMOT  (i8i;'igj;),  Ameriun  ediior 
and  compUer,  wu  bom  In  Beiuon.  VermoDt.  on  the  ijth  of 
Fet>ruAiy  1815.  He  InveUed  extenaively,  worked  in  nevapapei 
oFlicei,  Ki>  1  BapLiit  deigyman  for  i  time,  and  Gualiy  became 
a  Jouniaiist  in  New  Yoit  City,  where  be  wai  successively  a 
number  t>f  tbe  slaHs  ol  Tie  Bralier  JinuHhan.  The  New  Werld 
(1830-1840)  and  Tki  Hea  Yarier  (1840).  From  1S41  to  1S4J 
he  edited  Craiam'i  UaiaifU  [Philadelpliia),  and  added  to 

i8sa  to  l8j]  he  edited  the  Inlcrnalimai  llitaine  (New  York], 
which  in  iSji  »u  meiged  Into  Harfn's  UagaifH.  He  died  in 
New  York  Cily  on  the  17th  of  August  1857.  He  is  best  known 
a>  the  compiler  and  editor  of  viriouj  antholo^es  (with  brief 
biographies  and  ciitiquei),  such  as  Pctli  attd  Pociry  cf  Atneriia 
(1S4]),  his  most  popular  and  vaiuable  book;  Proie  Wrilai  aj 
Ameritu  (1846);  Feoale  Ptnti  sj  Amttua  (1848);  andSartd 
Petit  of  En^nd  and  AmtrUa  (1819).  Of  his  own  writings  his 
RepublicanCourt:  or  American  Society  in  Ike  Dayt  0/  Woskinttm 
(1S54)  <s  tlic  only  one  ol  peimaDent  value.  H«  edited  the  litst 
American  edition  of  Milton's  prose  works  (1845),  and,  as  literary 
ciccutor,  edited,  with  James  R.  Lowell  and  N.  P.  WUlis,  the 
works  (iSso)a(EdgarAI]anPoe.    Gtiswold's  great  con  temporary 

reiidered  a  valuable  service  in  making  ADicricans  better  ac- 


McCrillii  Cr 

OHIVET,  a  monkey,  Ceriefiiiecui  labaem,  of  the  gocnon 
group,  nearly  allied  to  the  green  monkey.    It  is  common  through- 


;  head  and  back   o 


The  groat  w 


rably,  u 


rssUy  a  silvei 


countries.    The  English  groat  was  first  coined  in  i3s>,o[av 
somewhat  higber  than  a  penny.    The  continuous  dcbasen 
o(  both  the  penny  and  tbe  groat  left  the  kltcr  finally  worlh 
pennies,    llie  issue  ol  the  gioat  was  discontinued  after  iMi, 
Lut  a  coin  worth  fouipence  was  again  struck  in  1S3A.    Although 
frequtatly  refernd  to  as  a  groat,  tC  had  no  other  oSidal  desigi 
tlon  than  a  "  lourpenny  piece."    Its  issue  was  again  dbcontinu 
'a  lisfi.    The  gnwt  was  imitkted  In  Scotland  by  a  coin  sini 


1460. 


terally  01 


dealer;  the  word  is  derived  through  the  O.  Ft.  form,  fnaiu. 

from    the    Med.    Lat.    grossariitSj    defined    by    du    Cange, 

Giasiarium,  s.v.  Gnisarts,  ai  alidat  mtrcii  prupolt.    Tbe  name, 

1  general  one  for  dealers  by  wholesale,  "  engrossen  "  is 

osed  to  "  regratoiSi"  tbe  retail  dealers,  is  found  with  tbe 

imodity  attached ;  thus  in  tbe  MmtnnUo  CAJtallae  ("  Ri^  " 

3)  ii.  1.J04  (quoted  id  tbe  iVew  Eti^iik  Dielieaary)  a  found 

dlusion  to  frHiwri  ie  tin,  d.  gnser  o/fyukt.  Siirlixs  Hue. 

(1888)  6],  for  the  customs  of  Malton  (quoted  I'i.}.    The  qksi&c 

of  the  word  to  one  who  deals  dlher  by  wholesale 

tea,  coBei,  cocoa,  dried  (rails,  spices,  sugar  and  all 

kinds  of  articles  of  use  orconsumption  in  abousebold  Is  connecied 

Company  of  London,  one  of  the 

ies.    In  IJ4S  the  peppersi  and 

_rocin  "  fiist  ai^Kan  in  IJ7]  in 

the  records  of  the  company.    In  1386  the  assodalioD  was 

Lted  a  right  of  search  over  ail  "  spicers  "  In  Loodoo,  and  in 

\  they  obtained  the  right  to  In^xct  or  "  garhle  "  tficts  and 

r  "  subtil  wares."    Their  first  charter  was  obtained  in  14181 

■IS  patent  in  1447  granted  an  eitension  ol  tt  e  right  of  search 

over  the  whole  county,  but  removed  the  "  libeiiies "  of  the 

ty  of  London.    They  sold  all  kinds  of  drugs,  medidnca,  oint- 

lenli,   plasters,  and   medicated  and  other  waters.    Far  tbe 

^paration  of   tbe  apothecaries   from   the  grocers  in  1617  see 

pOTKECaav,    (See  further  Livexv  Cohfjuoes.) 

OROCYH,  WILUAM  (i4t6?-isig),  English  scholar,  was  bora 
t  Colerne,  Wiltshire,  about  1446,  Intended  by  bis  parents 
>t  the  church,  he  wai  sent  to  Winchester  College,  and  id  n6i 
ai  elected  to  a  scholarship  at  New  CoUege,  Oilord.  In  1467 
e  became  a  fellow,  and  had  among  his  pupils  William  Wubsm, 
iterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  In  1470  hfe  accepted  tbe 
:cI0iv  of  Newton  Loogvillc,  in  Buckinghamshire,  but  continued 
}  i«ide  at  Oxford.  As  leader  in  divinity  in  Magdalen  Ci£tge 
1  1481,  he  held  a  disputation  with  John  Taylor,  profesaoi  of 
ivinily,  in  presence  of  King  Richard  III.,  and  the  king  acknow- 
ledged his  skill  as  a  debater  by  the  present  of  a  buck  and  fire 
In  148s  he  became  prebendary  of  Lincoln  cathedral. 
14SB  Grocyn  lelt  England  for  Italy,  and  before  his  return 
he  had  visited  Florence,  Rome  and  Fidui,  and  studied 
ind  Latin  under  Demetrius  Chalchondyla  and  Politian. 
urer  in  Eieler  College  he  found  an  opportunity  of  in. 

!  of  hi 


t  Oxford  before  his  visit  u 


all  who  impugned  tbe  authenticity  of  tbe  Hierarckia  ecdaiaukt 
ascribed  to  Dionysius  tbe  Amqiagiie,  but,  being  led  to  modify 
his  views  by  further  investigation,  he  openly  declared  that  he 
bad  been  completely  mistaken.  He  also  counted  Lioacrc. 
William  Lily,  William  Latimer  and  More  among  bis  friends, 
and  Erasmus  writing  in  1514  says  that  be  was  luppnted  by 
Grocyn  in  London,  and  cnUs  him  "  tbe  frieod  and  preceptor  of 
us  all."  He  held  several  preferments,  but  his  generouty  to  fail 
friends  involved  him  in  continual  diSculiiet,  and  Ihon^  is 
1506  be  was  appointed  on  Aidibishop  Watham's  tttomnends- 
tion  master  or  warden  of  All  Hallows  Colltge  at  MiidstDU 
in  Kent,  he  wu  still  obliged  to  borrow  from  hit  Irieods.  and 
even  to  pledge  his  plate  as  a  security.  He  died  in  1519,  and  wu 
buried  in  the  collegiate  church  at  Maidstone,  lintctc  acted 
as  his  eiecutor,  and  expended  tlie  money  be  Tt^civtd  in  gilts 


GRODNO— GROLMANN 


6ii 


to  the  poor  and  the  purchase  of  books  for  poor  scholars.  With 
the  exception  of  k  few  lines  of  Latin  verse  on  a  lady  who  snow- 
balled him,  and  a  letter  to  Aldus  Manutius  at  the  head  of  Linacre's 
translation  of  Produs's  Sphaera  (Venice,  1499),  Grocyn  has 
left  no  literary  proof  of  his  scholarship  or  abilities.  His  proposal 
to  execute  a  translation  of  Aristotle  in  company  with  Linacre 
and  Latimer  was  never  carried  out.  Wood  assigns  some  Latin 
works  to  Grocyn,  but  on  insufficient  authority.  By  Erasmus 
he  has  been  described  as  "  vir  severissimae  castissimae  vitae, 
ecdesiasticarum  constitutionum  observantissimus  pene  usque 
ad  superstitionem,  scholasticae  theologiae  ad  unguem  doctus 
ac  natura  etiam  acerrimi  judicii,  demum  in  omni  disciplinarum 
genere  exacte  versatus  "  (Declarationes  ad  eensuras  facuUatis 
tkeolcgiae  Parisianaet  1522). 

An  account  of  GFocyn  by  Professor  BurrowB  appeared  in  the 
Oxford  Historical  Society's  CoiUctanea  (1890). 

GRODNO,  one  of  the  Lithuanian  governments  of  western 
Russia,  lying  between  51'  40'  and  52°  N;  and  between  22°  12'  and 
26*  £.,  and  bounded  N.  by  the  government  of  Vilna,  E.  by  Minsk, 
S.  by  Volhynia,  and  W.  by  the  Polish  governments  of  Lomza 
and  Siedlce.  Area,  14,926  sq.  m.  Except  for  some  hills  (not 
exceeding  925  ft.)  in  the  N.,  it  is  a  uniform  plain,  and  is  drained 
chiefly  by  the  Bug,  Niemen,  Narev  and  Bobr,  all  navigable. 
There  are  also  several  canals,  the  most  important  being  the 
Augustowo  and  Oginsky.  Granites  and  gneisses  crop  out  along 
the  Bug,  Cretaceous,  and  especially  Tertiary,  deposits  elsewhere. 
The  sou  is  mostly  sandy,  and  in  iht  district  of  Grodno  and  along 
the  riven  is  often  drift-sand.  Forests,  principally  of  Conifcrae, 
cover  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  area.  Amongst  them  are  some 
of  vast  extent,  e.g.  those  of  Grodno  (410  sq.  m.)  and  Byelovitsa 
(Bialowice)  (376  sq.  m.),  embracing  wide  areas  of  marshy  ground. 
In  the  last  mentioned  forest  the  wild  ox  survives,  having  been 
jealously  preserved  since  1803.  Peat  bogs,  sometimes  as  much 
as  4  to  7  ft.  thick,  cover  extensive  districts.  The  climate  is  wet  and 
cold;  the  annual  mean  temperature  being  44*  5*  F.,  the  January 
mean  22*5'  and  the  July  mean  64•s^  The  rainfall  amounts  to 
21 1  in.;  hail  is  frequent.  Agriculture  is  the  predominant 
industry.  The  peasants  own  42!  %  of  the  land,  that  is,  about 
4,000,000  acres,  and  of  these  over  2|  million  acres  are  arable. 
The  crops  principally  grown  are  potatoes,  rye,  oats,  wheat,  flax, 
hemp  and  some  tobacco.  Horses,  cattle  and  sheep  are  bred  in 
fairiy  large  numbers.  There  is,  however,  a  certain  amount  of 
manufacturing  industry,  especially  in  woollens,  distilling  and 
tobacco.  In  woollens  this  government  ranks  second  (after 
Moscow)  in  the  empire,  the  centre  of  the  industry  being  Byclostok. 
Other  factories  produce  silk,  shoddy  and  leather.  The  govern- 
ment is  crossed  by  the  main  lines  of  railway  from  Warsaw  to 
St  Petersburg  and  from  Warsaw  to  Moscow.  The  population 
numbered  1,008,521  in  1870  and  1,616,630  in  1897;  of  these 
last  789,801  were  women  and  255,946  were  urban.  In  1906 
it  was  estimated  at  1,826,600.  White  Russians  predominate 
(54  %)>  then  follow  Jews  (174  %),  Poles  (10  %),  Lithuanians 
and  Germans.  The  government  is  divided  into  nine  districts, 
the  chief  towns,  with  their  populations  in  1897,  being  Grodno 
iq.v.)f  Brest-Litovsk  (pop.  421812  in  1901),  Byelsk  (7461), 
Byelostok  or  Bial3rstok  (65,781  in  1901),  Kobrin  (10,365), 
Pruzhany  (7634),  Slonim  (i5,893)>  Sokolsk  (7S95)  and  Volkovysk 
(10,584).  In  1795  Grodno,  which  had  been  Polish  for  ages,  was 
annexed  by  Russia. 

GRODNO,  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of  the 
same  name  in  53**  40'  N.  and  23'  50'  E.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Niemen,  x6o  m.  by  rail  N.E.  of  Warsaw  and  98  m.  S.W.  of  Vilna 
on  the  main  line  to  St  Petersburg.  Pop.  (1901)  41.736,  neariy 
two-thirds  Jews.  It  is  an  episcopal  see  of  the  Orthodox  Greek 
church  and  the  headquarters  of  the  II.  Army  Corps.  It  has  two 
old  castles,  now  converted  to  other  uses,  and  two  churches 
(i6th  and  17th  centuries).  Tobacco  factories  and  distilleries 
are  important;  machinery,  soap,  candles,  vehicles  and  firearms 
are  also  made.  Built  in  the  i2th  century,  Grodno  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed  by  the  Mongols  (1241)  and  Teutonic  knights 
(1284  and  1391).  Stephen  Bathory,  king  of  Poland,  made  it  his 
capital,  and  <fied  there  i^  1586.    The  Polish  Esutes  frequently 


met  at  Grodno  after  1673,  and  there  in  1793  they  signed  the 
second  partition  of  Poland.  It  was  at  GrcKhio  that  Stanislaus 
Poniatowski  resigned  the  Polish  crown  in  1795. 

ORGEN  VAN  PRINSTERER,  GUILUUMB  (1801-X876), 
Dutch  politician  and  historian,  was  bom  at  Voorburg,  near 
the  Hague,  on  the  2xst  of  August  x8oi;  He  studied  at  Leiden 
university,  and  graduated  in  X823  both  as  doctor  of  literature 
and  LL.D.  From  1829  to  X833  he  acted  as  secretary  to  King 
William  I.  of  Holland,  afterwards  took  a  prominent  part  in 
Dutch  home  politics,  and  gradually  became  the  leader  of  the 
so<alled  anti-revolutionary  party,  both  in  the  Second  Chamber, 
of  which  he  was  for  many  years  a  member,  and  outside.  In  Groen 
the  doctrines  of  Guizot  and  Stahl  found  an  eloquent  exponent. 
They  permeate  his  controversial  and  pohtical  writings  and 
historical  studies,  of  which  his  Handbook  of  Dutch  History  (in 
Dutch)  and  Maurice  et  BamaeU  (in  Frendi,  1875,  a  criticism 
of  Motley's  Life  of  Van  Otden^BameveU)  are  the  principal. 
Groen  was  violently  opposed  to  Thorbecke,  whose  principles 
he  denounced  as  tmgodly  and  revolutionary.  Although  he  lived 
to  see  these  principles  triumph,  he  never  ceased  to  oppose  them 
until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  the  Hague  on  the  19th  of  May 
1876.  He  is  best  known  as  the  editor  of  the  Archives  et  corre- 
spimdance  de  la  maison  d'Orange  (x2  vols.,  X835-X845),  a  great 
work  of  patient  erudition,  which  procured  for  him  the  tiUe  of 
the  "  Dutch  Gachard."  J.  L.  Motley  acknowledges  his  indebted- 
ness to  Groen's  Archives  in  the  preface  to  his  Rtse  of  the  Dutch 
Republic,  at  a  time  when  the  American  historian  had  not  yet 
made  the  acquaintance  of  King  William's  archivist,  and  also 
bore  emphatic  testimony  to  Groen's  worth  as  a  writer  of  history 
in  the  correspondence  published  after  his  death.  At  the  first 
reception,  in  1858,' of  Motley  at  the  royal  palace  at  the  Hague, 
the  king  presented  him  with  a'copy  of  Groen's  Archives  as  a  token 
of  appreciation  and  admiration  of  the  work  done  by  the"  worthy 
vindicator  of  William  I.,  prince  of  Orange."  This  copy,  bearing 
the  king's  autograph  inscription,  afterwards  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  Sir  William  Vernon  Harcourt,  Motley's  aon-in-Iaw. 

GROIN,  (x)  An  obsolete  word  for  the  grunting  of  swine, 
from  Lat.  grunnire,  and  so  applied  to  the  snout  of  a  pig;  it 
is  probably  the  origin  of  the  word,  more  commonly  spdled 
"  groyne,"  for  a  small  timber  framework  or  wall  of  masonry  used 
on  sea  coasts  as  a  breakwater  to  prevent  the  encroachment  of 
sand  and  shingle.  (2)  (Of  uncertain  origin;  from  an  older  form 
grynde  or  grinde;  the  derivation  from  "  grain,"  an  obsolete  word 
meaning  "  fork,"  cannot,  according  to  the  New  English  Dictionary , 
be  accepted),  in  anatomy  the  folds  or  grooves  formed  between 
the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  and  the  thighs,  covering  the 
inguinal  glands,  and  so  applied  in  architecture  to  the  angle 
or  "  arris  "  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  vaults  crossing  one 
another,  occasionally  called  by  workmen  "  groin  point."  If  the 
vaults  are  both  of  the  same  radius  and  height,  their  intersections 
lie  in  a  vertical  plane,  in  other  cases  they  form  winding  curves 
for  which  it  is  diflicult  to  provide  centering.  In  early  medieval 
vaulting  this  was  sometimes  arranged  by  a  slight  alteration  in  the 
geometrical  curve  of  the  vault,  but  the  problem  was  not  satis- 
factorily solved  until  the  introduction  of  the  rib  which  hence- 
forth ruled  the  vaulting  surface  of  the  web  or  cell  (see  Vault). 
The  name  "  Welsh  groin  "  or  "  underpitch  "  is  generally  given 
to  the  vaulting  surface  or  web  where  the  main  longitudinal 
vault  is  higher  than  the  cross  or  transverse  vaults;  as  the  trans- 
verse rib  (of  much  greater  radius  than  that  of  the  wall  rib), 
projected  diagonally  in  front  of  the  latter,  the  filling-in  or  web 
has  to  be  carried  back  from  the  transverse  to  the  wall  rib. 
The  term  "  groin  centering  "  is  used  where,  in  groining  without 
ribs,  the  whole  surface  is  supported  by  centering  during  the  erec- 
tion of  the  vaulting.  In  ribbed  work  the  stone  ribs  only  are 
supported  by'timb^  ribs  during  the  progress  of  the  work,  any 
light  stuff  being  used  while  filling  in  the  spandrils.     (See  Vault.) 

GROLMANN,  KARL  WILHELM  GBORG  VON  (i777'x843)> 
Prussian  soklier,  was  bom  in  Berlin  on  the  30th  of  jfuly  1777. 
He  entered  an  infantry  regiment  when  scarcely  thirteen,  became 
an  ensign  in  X795,  secon^f  lieutenant  X797,  first  lieutenant  1804 
and  staff-captain  in  1805.    As  a  subaltern  he  had  become  one  of 


6l2 


GROMATICI— GRONINGEN 


Scharnhorst's  intimates,  and  he  was  distinguished  for  his 
energetic  and  fearless  character  before  the  war  of  1806,  in  which 
he  served  throughout,  from  Jena  to  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  as  a 
stafF  officer,  and  won  the  rank  of  major  for  distinguished  service 
in  action.  After  the  peace,  and  the  downfall  of  Prussia,  he  was 
one  of  the  most  active  of  Schamhorst's  assistants  in  the  work 
of  reorgani2ation  (1809),  joined  the  Tugendbund  and  endeavoured 
to  take  part  in  Schill's  abortive  expedition,  after  which  he 
entered  the  Austrian  service  as  a  major  on  the  general  staff. 
Thereafter  he  journeyed  to  Cadiz  to  assist  the  Spaniards  against 
Napoleon,  and  he  led  a  corps  of  volunteers  in  the  defence  of  that 
port  against  Marshal  Victor  in  1810.  He  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Albuera,  at  Saguntum,  and  at  Valencia,  becoming  a 
prisoner  of  war  at  the  surrender  of  the  last-named  place.  Soon, 
however,  he  escaped  to  Switzerland,  whence  early  in  1813  be 
returned  to  Prussia  as  a  major  on  the  general  staff.  He  served  suc- 
cessively under  Colonel  von  Dolfis  and  General  von  Kleist,  and  as 
commissioner  at  the  headquarters  of  the  Russian  general  Barclay 
de  Tolly.  He  took  part  with  Kleist  in  the  victory  of  Kulm,  and 
recovered  from  a  severe  wound  received  at  that  action  in  time 
to  be  present  at  the  battle  of  Leipzig.  He  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  campaign  of  1814  in  France,  after  which  he  was  made 
a  major-general.  In  this  rank  he  was  appointed  quartermaster- 
general  to  Field  Marshal  Prince  BlQcher,  and,  after  his  chief  and 
Gneisenau,  Grolmann  had  the  greatest  share  in  directing  the 
Prussian  operations  of  1815.  In  the  decision,  on  the  i8th  of 
June  18x5,  to  press  forward  to  Wellington's  assistance  (see 
Waterloo  Campaign),  Grolmann  actively  concurred,  and  as 
the  troops  approached  the  battle-field,  he  is  said  to  have  over- 
come the  momentary  hesitation  of  the  commander-in-chief  and 
the  chief  of  staff  by  himself  giving  the  order  to  advance.  After 
the  peace  of  181 5,  Grolmann  occupied  important  positions  in 
the  ministry  of  war  and  the  general  staff.  His  last  public 
services  Were  rendered  in  Poland  as  commander-in-chief,  and 
practically  as  civil  administrator  of  the  province  of  Posen.  He 
was  promoted  general  of  infantry  in  1837  and  died  on  the  ist  of 
June  1843,  at  Posen.  His  two  sons  became  generals  in  the 
Prussian  army.  The  Prussian  i8th  infantry  regiment  bears  his 
name. 

General  von  Grolmann  supervised  and  provided  much  of  the 
material  for  von  Damitz's  Gesch.  des  Feldtugs  1815  (Berlin, 
1837-1838),  and  Gesch.  des  Pcldzugs  1814  in  Prankreich  (Berlin, 
1 84  2-1843). 

See  v.  Conrady,  Leben  und  Wirken  des  Generals  Karl  von  Cridmann 
(Berlin.  1894-1896). 

GROMATICI  (from  grama  or  gruma^  a  surveyor's  pole),  or 
Agrimensores,  the  name  for  land-surveyors  amongst  the  Romans. 
The  art  of  surveying  was  probably  at  first  in  the  hands  of  the 
augurs,  by  whom  it  was  exercised  in  all  coses  where  the  demarca- 
tion of  a  Umplum  (any  consecrated  space)  was  necessary.  Thus, 
the  boundaries  of  Rome  itself,  of  colonies  and  camps,  were  air 
marked  out  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  augural  procedure. 
The  first  professional  surveyor  mentioned  is  L.  Decidius  Saxa, 
who  was  employed  by  Antony  in  the  measurement  of  camps 
(Cicero,  PkUippicSf  xi.  12,  xiv.  10).  During  the  empire  their 
number  and  reputation  increased.  The  distribution  of  land 
amongst  the  veterans,  the  increase  in  the  number  of  military 
colonies,  the  settlement  of  Italian  peasants  in  the  provinces, 
the  general  survey  of  the  empire  under  Augustus,  the  separation 
of  private  and  state  domains,  led  to  the  establishment  of  a 
recognized  professional  corporation  of  surveyors.  During  later 
times  they  were  in  receipt  of  large  salaries,  and  in  some  cases 
were  even  honoured  with  the  title  darissimus.  Their  duties 
were  not  merely  geometrical  or  mathematical,  but  required  legal 
knowledge  for  consultations  or  the  settlement  of  disputes.  This 
led  to  the  institution  of  special  schools  for  the  training  of  sur- 
veyors and  a  special  literature,  which  lasted  from  the  ist  to 
the  6th  century  a.d.  The  earliest  of  the  gromatic  writers  was 
Frontinus  (9. v.),  whose  De  agrorum  qualitate,  dealing  with  the 
legal  aspect  of  the  art,  was  the  subject  of  a  commentary  by 
Aggenus  Urbicus,  a  C^hristian  schoolmaster.  Under  Trajan 
a  certain  Balbus,  who  had  accompanied  the. emperor  on  his 


Dadan  campaign,  wrote  a  still  extant  manual  of  geometry  for 
land  surveyors  {Expositio  et  ratio  omnium  formarum  or  mm- 
surarum,  probably  after  a  Greek  original  by  Hero),  dedicatc4 
to  a  certain  Celsus  who  had  invented  an  improvement  in  a 
gromatic  instrument  (perhaps  the  dioptra,  resembling  the 
modem  theodolite) ;  for  the  treatises  of  Hyginus  see  that  name. 
Somewhat  later  than  Trajan  was  Siculus  Flaccus  {De  con- 
dicionibus  agrorum,  extant),  while  the  most  curious  treatise  on 
the  subject,  written  in  barbarous  Latin  and  entitled  Casae 
liUerarum  (long  a  school  textbook)  is  the  work  of  a  certain 
Innocentius  (4th-5th  century).  It  is  doubtful  whether  Bo£tias 
is  the  author  of  the  treatises  attributed  to  him.  The  Cromctici 
veteres  also  contains  extracts  from  official  registers  (pzobaUy 
belonging  to  the  5th  century)  of  colonial  and  other  land  surveys, 
lists  and  descriptions  of  boundary  stones,  and  extracts  from  the 
Theodosian  Codex.  According  to  Mommsen,  the  collection  had 
its  origin  during  the  sth  century  in«the  office  of  a  vicarims  (dio- 
cesan governor)  of  Rome,  who  had  a  number  of  survesrors  under 
him.  The  surveyors  were  known  by  various  names:  decern- 
pedator  (with  reference  to  the  instrument  uscd);finitor,  melalor 
or  mensor  castrorum  in  republican  times;  logaii  Augusionam 
as  imperial  civil  officials;  professor,  auUor  as  professional 
instructors. 

The  best  edition  of  the  Gromatici  is  by  C.  Lachmann  and  others 
(18^8)  with  supplementary  volume.  Die  Schrifien  der  r&mtixkem 
Felamesser  (1852);  see  also  B.  G.  Niebuhr,  Roman  History,  n., 
appendix  (Eng.  trans.),  who  first  revived  interest  in  the  subject;  M. 
Cantor,  Die  rdmiscken  Agrimensoren  (Leipzig,  1875):  P.  de  Ttasot. 
La  Condition  des  Agrimensores  dans  I'ancienne  Rome  (1879):  G. 
Rossi,  Croma  e  sguadro  (Turin,  1877);  articles  by  F.  Hultsch  in 
Ersch  and  Grubor's  AUkm.  Encyklofiidie,  and  by  G.  Humbert  ia 
Darcmbcrg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire  aes  aatt^if^;  Teuffel-Scfawabe. 
HisU  oj  Roman  Literature,  58. 

GRONINGEN,  the  most  northeriy  province  of  HoOand, 
bounded  S.  by  Drente,  W.  by  Friesland  and  the  Lauwers  Zee, 
N.  and  N.E.  by  the  North  Sea  and  the  mouth  of  the  Ems  with 
the  DoUart,  and  on  the  S.E.  by  the  Prussian  province  of  Hanover. 
It  includes  the  islands  of  Boschplaat  and  Rottumeroog,  bdoogiDg 
to  the  group  of  Frisian  islands  iq.v.).  Area,  887  sq.  m.;  popu 
(iQco)  299,602.  Groningen  is  connected  with  the  Drente  plateau 
by  the  sandy  tongue  of  the  Hondsrug  which  extends  almost  up  to 
the  capital.  West,  north  and  north-east  of  this  the  province  is 
flat  and  consists  of  sea-clay  or  sand  and  clay  mixed,  except 
where  patches  of  low  and  high  fen  occur  on  the  Frisian  b(»tlerv 
Low  fen  predominates  to  the  east  of  the  capital,  between  the 
Zuidlardermeer  and  the  Schildmeer  or  lakes.  The  south-eastern 
portion  of  the  province  consists  of  high  fen  Testing  on  diluvial 
sand.  A  large  part  of  this  has  been  reclaimed  and  the  sandy  soil 
laid  bare,  but  on  the  Drente  and  Prussian  borders  areas  of  fen 
still  remain.  The  so-called  Boertanger  Mora»  on  the  Prussian 
border  was  long  considered  as  the  natural  protection  of  the 
eastern  frontier,  and  with  the  view  of  preserving  its  impassable 
condition  neither  agriculture  nor  cattle-rearing  might  be  practised 
here  until  1824,  and  it  was  only  in  x868  that  the  building  of 
houses  was  sanctioned  and  the  work  of  reclamation  begun.  The 
gradual  extension  of  the  seaward  boundaries  of  the  province 
owing  to  the  process  of  littoral  deposits  may  be  easily  traced,  a 
triple  line  of  sea-dikes  in  places  marking  the  successive  stages 
in  this  advance.  The  rivers  of  Groningen  descending  from  the 
Drente  plateau  meet  at  the  capital,  whence  they  are  continued 
by  the  Reitdiep  to  the  Lauwers  Zee  (being  discharged  through 
a  lock),  and  by  the  Ems  canal  (1876)  to  Delfzyl.  The  south- 
eastern comer  of  the  province  is  traversed  by  the  Westcrvcride 
Aa,  which  discharges  into  the  Dollart.  The  railway  system 
belongs  to  the  northern  section  of  the  State  railways,  and  affords 
communication  with  Germany  via  Winschoten.  Steam-traza- 
ways  also  serve  many  parts  of  the  province.  Agriculture  is  the 
main  industry.  The  proportion  of  landowners  is  a  very  large  aM^ 
and  the  prosperous  condition  of  the  Groningen  farmer  is  attested 
by  the  style  of  his  home,  his  dress  and  his  gig.  As  a  result, 
however,  partly  of  the  usual  want  of  work  on  the  ^nssr 
lands  in  certain  seasons,  there  has  been  a  considerable  emigratioa 
to  America.    The  ancient  custom  called  the  beklcm-reckl,  or 


GRONINGEN 


613 


kaae>rigfat,  doubtless  accounts  for  the  extended  ownership  of  the 
Und.  By  this  law  a  tenant-farmer  is  able  to  bequeath  his 
farm,  that  is  to  say,  he  holds  his  lease  in  perpetuity. 

The  chief  agricultural  products  are  barley,  oats,  wheat,  and 
in  the  north-east  flax  is  also  grown,  and  exported  to  South 
Holland  and  Belgium.  On  the  higher  day  grounds  cattle-rearing 
and  horse>breeding  are  also  practised,  together  with  butter  and 
cheese  making.  Tlie  cultivation  of  potatoes  on  the  sandgrounds 
in  the  south  and  the  fen  colonies  along  the  Stads-Canal  invite 
general  comparison  with  the  industries  of  Drente  (q.v.),  Hooge- 
zand  and  Sappemeer,  Veendam  and  Wildervank,  New  and  Old 
Pekela,  New  and  Old  Stads-Canal  are  instances  of  villages  which 
have  extended  until  they  overlap  one  another  and  are  similar 
in  this  respect  to  the  industrial  villages  of  the  Zaan  Streek  in 
North  Holland.  The  coast  fisheries  are  considerable.  Groningen 
(f  .9.)  is  the  chief  and  only  large  town  of  the  province.  Delf^l, 
which  was  formerly  an  important  fortress  for  the  protection  of 
the  ancient  sluices  on  the  little  river  DeU  (hence  its  name),  has 
greatly  benefited  by  the  construction  of  the  Ems  (Eems)  ship- 
canal  connecting  it  with  Groningen,  and  has  a  good  harbour 
with  a  considerable  import  trade  in  wood.  Appingedam  and 
Winschoten  are  very  old  towns,  having  important  cattle  and 
horse  markets.  The  pretty  wood  at  Winschoten  was  laid  out 
by  the  Society  for  Public  Welfare  {T<4  Nut  van  hH  Algenucn) 
in  1836. 

GRONINGEN,  a  town  of  Holland,  capital  of  the  province  of 
the  same  name,  at  the  confluence  of  the  two  canalized  rivers 
the  Drentsche  Aa  and  the  Hunse  (which  are  continued  to  the 
Lauwers  Zee  as  the  Reit  Diep),  16  m.  N.  c^  Assen  and  ^z  m.  £. 
of  Lceuwarden  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  67,563.  Groningen  is  the 
centre  from  which  several  important  canals  radiate.  Besides 
the  Reit  Diep,  there  are  the  Ems  Canal  and  the  Damster  Diep, 
connecting  it  with  Delfzyl  and  the  DoUart,  the  Kolonel's  Diep 
with  Leeuwarden,  the  Nord  WiUem's  Canal  with  Assen  and  the 
south  and  the  Stads-Canal  south-east  with  the  Ems.  Hence 
steamers  ply  in  all  directions,  and  there  is  a  regular  service  to 
Emden  and  the  island  of  Borkum  via  Delfsyl,  and  via  the 
Lauwers  Zee  to  the  island  of  Schiermonnikoog.  Groningen  is 
the  most  important  town  in  the  north  of  Holland,  with  its  fine 
shops  and  houses  and  wide  clean  streets,  while  brick  houses  of 
the  i6th  and  17th  centuries  help  it  to  retain  a  certain  old-world 
air.  The  ancient  part  of  the  town  is  still  surrounded  by  the 
former  moat,  and  in  the  centre  lies  a  group  of  open  places,  of 
which  the  Groote  Markt  is  one  of  the  largest  market-squares 
in  Holland.  Pleasant  gardens  and  promenades  extend  on  the 
north  side  of  the  town,  together  with  a  botanical  garden.  The 
chief  church  is  the  Martini-kerk,  with  a  high  tower  (432  ft.) 
dating  from  1477,  and  an  organ  constructed  by  the  famous 
scholar  and  musician  Rudolph  Agricolo,  who  was  bom  near 
Groningen  in  1443.  The  Aa  church  dates  from  1465,  but  was 
founded  in  1253.  The  Roman  Catholic  BroedcrkerlL  (rebuilt 
at  the  end  of  the  19th  century)  contains  some  remarkable 
pictures  of  the  Passion  by  L.  Hendricx  (1865).  There  is  also  a 
Jewish  synagogue.  The  large  town  hall  (in  classical  style), 
one  of  the  finest  public  buildings,  was  built  at  the  beginning  of  the 
XQth  century  and  enlarged  in  1873.  The  provincial  government 
offices  also  occupy  a  fine  building  which  deceived  a  splendid 
front  in  1871.  Other  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  provincial 
museum  of  antiquities,  containing  interesting  Germanic  anti- 
quities, as  well  as  medieval  and  modem  collections  of  porcelain, 
pictures.  &c.:  the  courts  of  justice  (transformed  in  the  middle 
of  the  i8th  century);  the  old  Ommelanderhuis,  formerly  devoted 
to  the  administration  of  the  surrounding  district,  built  in  1509 
and  restored  in  1899;  the  weigh-house  (1874);  the  civil  and 
miliury  prison;  the  arsenal;  the  military  hospital;  and  the 
concert  hall. 

The  univeraty  of  Groningen,  founded  in  1614,  received  ^ts 
present  fine  buHdings  in  rlassiral  style  in  1850.  Among  its 
auxiliary  establishments  are  a  good  natural  history  museum, 
an  observatory,  a  laboratory,  and  a  library  which  contains  a 
copy  of  Erasmus'  New  Testament  with  marginal  annotations 
by  Luther.    Other  educational  institutions  are  the  deaf  and 


dumb  institution  founded  by  Hoiri  Daniel  Guyot  (d.  x8a8)  in 
1790,  a  gymnasium,  and  schools  of  navigation,  art  and  music. 
Tliere  are  learned  societies  for  the  study  of  law  (1761)  and 
natural  science  (1830);  an  academy  of  fine  arts  (1830);  an 
archaeological  society;  and  a  central  bureau  for  collecting 
information  concerning  the  province. 

As  capital  of  the  province,  and  on  account  of  the  advan- 
tages of  its  natural  position,  Groningen  maintains  a  very  con- 
siderable trade,  chiefly  in  oil-seed,  grain,  wood,  turf  and  cattle, 
with  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Scandinavia  and  Russia.  The 
chief  industries  are  flax-binning,  rope-making,  sugar  refining, 
book  printing,  wool  combing  and  dyeing,  and  it  ako  manufactures 
beer,  tobacco  and  cigars,  cotton  and  woollen  stufis,  furniture, 
organs  and  pianos;  besides  which  there  are  saw,  oil  and  grain 
mills,  machine  works,  and  numerous  goldsmiths  and  silversmiths. 

History. — ^The  town  of  Groningen  belonged  originally  to  the 
pagust  or  gotao,  of  Triantha  (Drente),  the  countship  of  which 
was  bestowed  by  the  emperor  Henry  II.  on  the  bishop  and 
chapter  of  Utrecht  in  1024.  In  1040  Henry  IIL  gave  the  dburch 
of  Utrecht  the  royal  domain  of  Groningen,  and  in  the  deed  of 
gift  the  "  viUa.  Cruoninga  "  is  mentioned.  Upon  this  charter 
the  bishops  of  Utrecht  based  their  claim  to  the  overlordship  of 
the  town,  a  claim  which  the  dtizens  hotly  disputed.  At  the 
time  of  the  donation,  indeed,  the  town  can  hardly  be  said  to 
have  existed,  but  the  royal  "  villa  "  rapidly  developed  into  a 
community  which  strove  to  assert  the  rights  of  a  free  imperial 
dty.  At  first  the  bishops  were  too  strong  for  the  townsmen; 
the  defences  built  in  zzio  were  pulled  down  by  the  bishop's 
order  two  years  later;  and  during  the  X2th  and  Z3th  centuries 
the  see  of  Utrecht,  in  spite  of  frequent  revolts,  succeeded  in 
maintaining  its  authority.  Down  to  the  1 5th  century  an  episcopal 
prefect,  or  burgrave,  had  his  seat  in  the  dty,  his  authority 
extending  over  the  neighbouring  districts  known  as  the  Gorecht. 
In  1x43  Heribert  of  Biemm,  bish<^  of  Utrecht,  converted  the 
office  into  an  hereditary  fief  in  favour  of  his  brother  Liffert, 
on  the  extinction  of  whose  male  line  it  was  partitioned  between 
the  families  of  Koevorden  (or  Coevorden)  and  van  den  Hove. 
Gradually,  however,  the  burghers,  aided  by  the  neighbouring 
Frisians,  succeeded  in  freeing  themselves  from  the  episcopal 
yoke.  The  dty  was  again  walled  in  1255;  before  1284  it  had 
become  a  member  of  the  Hanscatic  league;  and  by  the  end  of 
the  Z4th  century  it  was  practically  a  powerful  independent 
republic,  which  exercised  an  effective  control  over  the  Frisian 
Ommelande  between  the  Ems  and  the  Lauwers  Zee.  At  the 
close  of  the  14th  century  the  heirs  of  the  Koevorden  and  van  den 
Hove  families  sold  their  rights,  first  to  the  town,  and  then  to  the 
bishop.  A  struggle  followed,  in  which  the  city  was  temporarily 
worsted;  but  in  1440  Bishop  Dirk  11.  finally  sold  to  the  dty 
the  rights  of  the  see  of  Utrecht  over  the  Gorecht. 

The  medieval  constitution  of  Groningen,  unlike  that  of 
Utrecht,  was  aristocratic.  Merchant  gild  there  was  none; 
and  the  craft  gilds  were  without  direct  influence  on  the  city 
government,  which  held  them  in  subjection.  Membership 
of  the  governing  council,  which  selected  from  its  own  body  the 
four  rationales  or  burgomasters,  was  confined  to  men  of  approved 
"  wisdom,"  and  wisdom  was  measured  in  terms  of  money.  This 
Road  of  wealthy  burghers  gradually  monopolized  all  power. 
The  bishop's  bailiff  (schout),  with  his  nominated  assessors 
(scabini),  continued  to  exercise  jurisdiction,  but  members  of  the 
Raad  sat  on  the  bench  with  him,  and  an  appeal  lay  from  his 
court  to  the  Raad  itself.  The  council  was,  in  fact,  supreme 
in  the  city,  and  not  in  the  dty  only.  In  1439  it  decreed  that  no 
one  might  trade  in  all  the  district  between  the  Ems  and  the 
Lauwers  Zee  except  burghers,  and  those  who  had  purchased  the 
bunoal  (right  of  residence  in  the  dty)  and  the  freedom  of  the 
gilds.  Maximilian  I.  assigned  Groningen  to  Albert  of  Saxony, 
hereditary  podestat  of  Friesland,  but  the  dtizens  preferred 
to  accept  the  protection  of  the  bish<^  of  Utrecht;  and  when 
Albert's  son  George  attempted  in  1505  to  seize  the  town,  they 
recognized  the  lordship  of  Edzart  of  East  Frisia.  On  George's 
renewal  of  hostilities  they  transferred  their  allegiance  to  Duke 
Charles  of  Gelderland,  in  15x5.    In  x 536  the  dty  passed  into  the 


6l4 


GRONLUND— GROOT 


hands  of  Charles  V.,  and  in  the  great  wan  of  the  x6th  century 
suffered  all  the  miseries  of  siege  and  military  occupation.  From 
1581  onwards,  Groningen  still  held  by  the  Spaniards,  was  con- 
stantly at  war  with  the  "  Ommelanden  "  which  had  declared 
against  the  king  of  Spain.  This  feud  continued,  in  spite  of  the 
capture  of  the  dty  in  1594  by  Maurice  of  Nassau,  and  of  a  decree 
of  the  States  in  1597  whidi  was  intended  to  set  them  at  rest. 
In  167  a  the  town  was  besieged  by  the  bishop  of  Mttnster,  but 
it  was  successfully  defended,  and  in  1698  its  fortifications  were 
improved  under  Coehoom's  direction.  The  French  Republicans 
phuited  their  tree  of  liberty  in  the  Great  Market  on  the  Z4th  of 
February  1795,  and  they  continued  in  authority  till  the  i6th 
of  November  18x4.  The  fortifications  of  the  city  were  doomed 
to  destruction  by  the  law  of  the  x8th  of  April  1874. 

See  C.  Hegel.  SUdk  und  GtUen  (Leipzig,  1891):  Scokvis.  Manud 
d'histffire,  iii.  496  (Leiden,  1890-1893):  also  t-v.  in  Chevalier, 
lUpertoir§  des  sowcu  hist,  du  moyen  dge  {Topo-hUdioirapkie). 

ORONLUND,  LAURENCE  (1846-1899),  American  socialist, 
was  bom  in  Copenhagen,  Denmark,  on  the  13th  of  July  1846. 
He  graduated  from  the  unlvenity  of  Copenhagen  in  1865,  began 
the  study  of  law,  removed  to  the  United  States  in  1867,  taught 
(German  in  Milwaukee,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1869,  and 
practised  in  Chicago.  He  became  a  writer  and  lecturer  on 
socialism  and  was  dosely  connected  with  the  work  of  the  Socialist 
Labor  party  from  X874  to  .X884,  then  devoted  himself  almost  ex- 
clusively to  lecturing  until  his  appointment  to  a  post  in  the 
bureau  of  labour  statistics.  He  again  returned  to  the  lecture 
field,  and  was  an  editorial  writer  for  the  ^ew  York  and  Chicago 
American  from  1898  until  his  death  in  New  York  City  on  the 
15th  of  October  1899.  His  principal  works  are:  The  Coming 
RevoiutUm  (1880) ;  The  Co-cperative  Commonwealth  in  its  Outlines , 
An  Exposition  of  Modern  Socialism  (1884);  C<>  fr<it  ^  Danton 
in  the  French  Revolution  (1888),  a  rehabilitation  of  Danton; 
Our  Destiny,  The  Influence  of  Socialism  on  Morals  and  Religion 
(1890);  and  The  New  Economy  (1898). 

0R0N0VIU8  (the  latinized  form  of  GaoNOv),  JOHANN 
PRIBDRICH  (x6i  1-1671),  (krman  classical  scholar  and  critic, 
was  bom  at  Hamburg  on  the  8th  of  September  x6ii.  Having 
studied  at  several  universities,  he  travelled  in  England,  France 
and  Italy.  In  1643  he  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
history  at  Deventer,  and  in  1658  to  the  Greek  chair  at  Leiden, 
where  he  died  on  the  38th  of  December  167 1 .  (See  also  Fabketti, 
Raphabl.)  Besides  editing,  with  notes,  Statius,  Plautus,  Livy, 
Tacitus,  Aulus  Gellius  and  Seneca's  tragedies,  Gronovius  was 
the  author,  amongst  numerous  other  works,  of  Commentarius 
de  sestertiis  (X643)  and  of  an  edition  of  Hugo  Grotius'  De  jure 
belli  et  pacts  (x66o).  His  Observationes  contain  a  number  of 
brilliant  emendations.  His  son,  Jakob  Gronovius  (1645-1716), 
is  chiefly  known  as  the  editor  of  the  Thesaurus  antiquiiatum 
Craecarum  (1697-Z702,  in  X3  volumes). 

Sec  J.  E.  Sandys,  Hist,  of  Class.  Sckol.  ii.  (1908) ;  F.  A.  Eckstein  in 
Ersch  and  Gniber's  AUgemeine  Encyklopddie. 

OROOM,  in  modem  usage  a  male  servant  attached  to  the 
stables,  whose  duties  are  to  attend  to  the  cleaning,  feeding, 
currying  and  care  generally  of  horses.  The  earliest  meaning 
of  the  word  appears  to  be  that  of  a  boy,  and  in  x6th  and  :7th 
century  literature  it  frequently  occurs,  in  pastorals,  for  a  shepherd 
lover.  Later  it  is  used  for  any  male  attendant,  and  thus  survives 
in  the  name  for  several  officials  in  the  royal  household,  such  as  the 
grooms-in-waiting,  and  the  grooms  of  the  great  chamber.  The 
groom-porter,  whose  office  was  abolished  by  George  III.,  saw 
to  the  preparation  of  the  sovereign's  apartment,  and,  during  the 
x6th  and  X7th  centuries,  provided  cards  and  dice  for  playing,  and 
was  the  authority  to  whom  were  submitted  all  questions  of 
gaming  within  the  court.  The  origin  of  the  word  is  otKscure.  The 
O.  Fr.  gromet,  shop  boy,  is  taken  by  French  etymologists  to 
be  derived  from  the  English.  From  the  application  of  this 
word  to  a  wine-taster  in  a  wine  merchant's  shop,  is  derived 
gourmet,  an  epicure.  According  to  the  New  English  Dictionary, 
thou^  there  are  no  instances  of  groom  in  other  Teutonic 
languages,  the  word  may  be  ultimately  connected  with  the 
root  of  "  to  grow."    In  "  bridegroom,"  a  newly  married  man, 


"  grom  "  in  the  x6th  ccatnry  took  the  place  of  an  older  ».— ., 
a  common  old  Teutonic  word  meaning  '*  man,"  and  connected 
with  the  Latin  homo.    The  Old  EngUsh  word  was  brydgaum^, 
later  bridegome.    The  word  survives  in  the  German  Brdtttigam, 
OROOT,  GERHARD  (1340-1384),  otherwise  Gerrit  or  Gent 
Groet,  in  Latin  Gerardus  Magnus,  a  preacher  and  fotixider  of 
the  society  of  Brothers  of  Common  Life  (f.s.),  was  bom  in  1340 
at  Deventer  in  the  diocese  of  Utrecht,  where  his  father  hdd  n 
good  civic  position.    He  went  to  the  university  of  Paris  wbcn 
only  fifteen.   Here  he  studied  scholastic  philosophy  and  tbeoloBr 
under  a  pupil  of  Occam's,  from  whom  he  imbibed  the  nomixudist 
conception  of  philosophy;  in  addition  he  studied  canon  Inw, 
medicine,  astronomy  and  even  magic,  and  apparently  Bocne 
Hebrew.    After  a  brilliant  course  he  graduateid  in  1358,  and 
possibly  became  master  in  X363.    He  pursued  his  studies  still 
further  in  Cologne,  and  perhaps  in  Prague.    In  1366  he  visited 
the  papal  court  at  Avignon.    About  thu  time  he  was  appointed 
to  a  canonry  in  Utrecht  and  to  another  in  Aiz-la-ChapeOe,  askd 
the  life  of  the  brilliant  young  scholar  was  rapidly  becoming 
luxurious,  secular  and  selfish,  when  a  great  ^>iritual  change 
pa»ed  over  him  which  resulted  in  a  final  renunciation  of  every 
worldly  enjoyment.    This  conversion,  which  took  place  in  i374« 
appears  to  have  been  due  partly  to  the  effects  of  a  dangerous 
illness  and  partly  to  the  influence  of  Henry  de  (^Icar,  the  learned 
and  pious  prior  of  the  Carthusian  monastery  at  Mnnnikhniarrn 
near  Arahem,  who  had  remonstrated  with  him  on  the  inanity 
of  his  life.    About  X376  Gerhard  retired  to  this  monastery  ajid 
there  spent  three  years  in  meditation,  prayer  and  study,  witbcmt, 
however,  becoming  a  Carthusian.    In  X379,  having  received 
ordination  as  a  deacon,  he  became  missionary  preacher  thiou|E;h- 
out  the  diocese  of  Utrecht.    The  success  which  followed  his 
labours  not  only  in  the  town  of  Utrecht,  but  also  in  Zwolle, 
Deventer,   Kampen,   Amsterdam,   Haarlem,    (jouda,    Leiden, 
Delft,  ZQtphen  and  elsewhere,  was  immense;  according    to 
Thomas  ft  Kempis  the  people  left  their  business  and  their  meals 
to  hear  his  sermons,  so  that  the  diurches  could  not  hold  the 
crowds  that  flocked  together  wherever  he  came.    The  bishop 
of  Utrecht  supported  him  warmly,  and  got  him  to  preach  '>ip*^^ 
concubinage  in  the  presence  of  the  clergy  assembled  in  synod. 
The  impartiality  of  his  censures,  which  he  directed  iK>t  only 
against  the  prevailing  sins  of  the  laity,  but  also  against  heresy, 
simony,  avarice,  and  impurity  among  the  secular  and  regular 
clergy,  provoked  the  hostility  of  the  clergy,  and  accusaticMis  of 
heterodoxy  were  brought  against  him.    It  was  in  vain  that 
Groot  emitted  a  Fublica  Proleslatio,  in  which  he  declared  that 
Jesus  Christ  was  the  great  subject  of  his  discourses,  that  in  all 
of  them  he  believed  himself  to  be  in  harmony  with  Catholic 
doctrine,  and  that  he  willingly  subjected  them  to  the  candid 
judgment  of  the  Roman  Church.    The  bishop  was  indiu»d  to 
issue  an  edict  which  prohibited  from  preaching  all  who  were  not 
in  priest's  orders,  and  an  appeal  to  Urban  VI.  was  without  effect. 
There  is  a  difficulty  as  to  the  date  of  this  prohibitioo;  either  it 
was  only  a  few  months  before  Groot's  death,  or  else  it  must  have 
been  removed  by  the  bishop,  for  Groot  seems  to  have  preached 
in  public  in  the  last  year  of  his  life.    At  some  period  (perhaps 
1381,  perhaps  earlier)  he  paid  a  visit  of  some  days*  doratioo 
to    the  famous  my;|tic   Johann    RuyU>n)eck,   prior    erf    the 
Augustinian  canons  at  Groenendael  near  Brusseb;  at  this  visit 
was  formed  Groot 's  attraction  for  the  rule  and  life  of  the  August- 
inian canons  which  was  destined  to  bear  such  notable  fruit. 
At  the  close  of  his  life  he  was  asked  by  some  of  the  derics  who 
attached  themselves  to  him  to  form  them  into  a  religious  order, 
and  Groot  resolved  that  they  should  be  canons  regular  off  St 
Augustine.  No  time  was  lost  in  the  effort  to  carry  out  the  project, 
but  Groot  died  before  a  foundation  could  be  made.    In  X5S7. 
however,  a  site  was  secured  at  Windesheim,  some  20  m.  iM>rtb  of 
Deventer,  and  here  was  established  the  monastery  that  became 
the  cradle  of  the  Windesheim  congregation  of  canons  regular. 
embracing  in  course  of  time  neariy  one  hundred  houses,  and 
leading  the  way  in  the  series  of  reforms  undertaken  during  the 
X5th  century  by  all  the  religious  orders  in  Germany.    The 
initiation  of  this  movement  was  the  great  achievement  of  Groot 'a 


GROOVE-TOOTHED  SQUIRREL— GROSART 


6iS 


life;  be  lived  to  preside  over  the  birth  and  first  days  of  his 

other  creation,  the  society  of  Brothers  of  Common  Life.    He 

died  of  the  plague  at  Deventer  in  1384,  at  the  age  of  44. 

The  chief  authority  for  Groot's  life  is  Thomas  k  Keropis,  Vita 
Ctrardi  Magmi  (translated  into  English  by  J.  P.  Arthur,  The  rowtders 
of  Ike  New  Devotion,  1905);  also  the  Ckromieen  Windeskemense 
of  Johann  Busch  (ed.  K.  Grube,  1886).  An  account,  based  on  these 
sources,  will  be  found  in  S.  Kettlewell,  Thomas  i  Kempii  and  Uie 
Brothers  of  Common  Life  (1882},  i.  c.  5;  and  a  shorter  account  in 
F.  R.  Crutse,  Thomas  a  Kempis,  1887.  pt.  tL  An  excellent  sketch, 
with  an  account  of  Groot's  writings,  is  given  by  L.  Schulae  in  Henog* 
Hauck.  ReaiencyUopddie  (ed.  3) ;  he  insists  on  the  fact  that  Groot  s 
theological  and  ecclesiastical  ideas  were  those  oonunonly  current  in 
hb  day.  and  that  the  attempts  to  make  him  "  a  reformer  before  the 
Reformation  "  are  unhutoncal.  (E.  C.  B.) 

OROOVB-TOOTHBD  8QUIRRBL,  a  large  and  brillianUy 
coloured  Bomean  squirrel,  Rkitkrosciunu  macroHs,  representing 
a  genus  by  itself  distinguished  from  all  other  members  of  the 
family  Sciuridae  by  having  numerous  longitudinal  grooves  on 
the  front  surface  of  the  incisor  teeth;  the  molars  being  of  a 
simpler  type  than  in  other  members  of  the  family.  The  tail  is 
large  and  fox-like,  and  the  ears  are  tufted  and  the  flanks  marked 
by  black  and  white  bands. 

6R0S,  ANTOINB  JEAN,  Babon  (1771-1835),  French  painter, 
wss  born  at  Paris  in  1771.    His  father,  who  was  a  miniature 
painter,  began  to  teach  him  to  draw  at  the  age  of  six,  and  showed 
himself  from  the  first  an  exacting  master.    Towards  the  dose 
of  1785  Gros,  by  his  own  choice,  entered  the  studio  of  David, 
which  he  frequented  assiduously,  continuing  at  the  same  time 
to  follow  the  classes  of  the  College  Mazarin.    The  death  of  his 
father,  whose  circumstances  had  been  embarrassed  by  the  Revolu- 
tion, threw  Gros,  in  1791,  upon  his  own  resources.    He  now 
devoted  himself  wholly  to  his  profession,  and  competed  in  179a 
for  the  irand  prix,  but  unsuccessfully.    About  this  time,   how- 
ever, on  the  recommendation  of  the  Ccole  des  Beaux  Arts,  he 
was  employed  on  the  execution  of  portraits  of  the  members  of 
the  Convention,  and  when — disturbed  by  the  development  of 
the  Revolutiott---Gros  in  1793  left  France  for  Italy,  he  supported 
himself  at  Genoa  by  the  same  means,  producing  a  great  quantity 
of  miniatures  and  Jixis.    He  visited  Florence,  but  returning  to 
Genoa  made  the  acquaintance  of  Josephine,  and  followed  her  to 
Milan,  where  he  was  well  received  l^  her  husband.   On  November 
15*  17961  Gros  was  present  with  the  army  near  Areola  when 
Bonaparte  planted  the  tricolor  on  the  bridge.    Gros  seised  on 
this  incident,  and  showed  by  his  treatment  of  it  that  he  had  found 
his  vocation.    Bonaparte  at  once  gave  him  the  post  of  "  in- 
specteur  aux  revues,"  which  enabled  him  to  follow  the  army, 
and  in  1797  nominated  him  on  the  commission  charged  to  select 
the  spoils  which  should  enrich  the  Louvre.    In  1799,  having 
escaped  from  the  besieged  dty  of  Genoa,  Gros  made  his  way  to 
Paris,  and  in  the  beginning  of  i8ox  took  up  his  quarters  in  the 
Capudns.    His  "  esquisse  "  (Muste  de  Nantes)  of  the  "  Battle  of 
Nazareth  "  gained  the  prise  offered  in  i8oa  by  the  consuls,  but 
was  not  carried  out,  owing  it  is  said  to  the  Jealousy  of  Junot  felt 
by  Napoleon;  but  be  Indemnified  Gros  by  commissioning  him 
to  paint  his  own  visit  to  the  pest-house  of  Jaffa.    "  Les  Pestif6r6s 
de  Jaffa  "  (Louvre)  was  followed  by  the  "  Battle  of  Aboukir  " 
1806  (Versailles),  and  the  "  Battle  of  Eylau,"  1808  (Louvre). 
These  three  subjects — the  popular  leader  fadng  the  pestilence 
unmoved,  challenging  the  splendid  instant  of  victory,  heart-sick 
with  the  bitter  cost  of  a  hard-won  field— gave  to  Gros  his  chief 
title  to  fame.    As  long  as  the  military  element  remained  bound 
up  with  French  national  life,  Gros  received  from  it  a  fresh  and 
energetic  inspiration  which  carried  him  to  the  very  heart  of  the 
events  which  he  depicted;  but  as  the  army  and  its  general 
separate  from  the  people,  Gros,  called  on  to  illustrate  episodes 
representative  only  of  the  fulfilment  of  personal  ambition,  ceased 
to  find  the  nourishment  necessary  to  his  genius,  and  the  defect 
of  his  artistic  position  became  evident.    Trained  in  the  sect  of 
the  Classicists,  he  was  shackled  by  their  rules,  even  when— by  his 
naturalistic  treatment  of  types,  and  appeal  to  picturesque  effect 
In  colour  and  tone — he  seemed  to  run  counter  to  them.    In  x8xo 
his  "  Madrid  "  and  "  Napoleon  at  the  Pyramids  "(Versailles)  show 
that  his  star  had  deserted  him.    Hit "  Fnmds  I."  and  "  Charles 


v.,"  z8xa  (Louvre),  had  considerable  success;  but  the  decoration 
of  the  dome  of  St  (Senevi^ve  (begun  in  x8zi  and  completed  in 
1824)  is  the  only  work  of  Gros's  later  years  whidi  shows  his 
eariy  force  and  vigour,  as  well  as  his  skill.  The  "  Departure  of 
Louis  XVIU."  (Veisailles),  the  "  Embarkation  of  Madame 
d'Angoul^me  "  (Bordeaux),  the  plafond  of  the  Egyptian  room  in 
the  Louvre,  and  finally  his  "  Hercules  and  Diomedes,"  exhibited 
in  1835,  testify  only  that  Gros's  efforts — in  accordance  with  the 
frequent  counsels  of  his  old  master  David— to  stem  the  rising  tide 
of  Romanticism,  served  but  to  damage  his  once  brilliant  reputa- 
tion. Exasperated  by  criticism  and  the  consciousness  of  failure, 
Gros  sought  refuge  in  the  grosser  pleasures  of  life.  On  the  25th  of 
June  1835  he  was  found  drowned  on  the  shores  of  the  Seine  near 
Sdvres.  From  a  paper  which  he  had  placed  in  his  hat  it  became 
known  that  "  las  de  la  vie,  et  trahi  par  les  demiires  facultis  qui 
la  lui  rendaient  supportable,  il  avait  risolu  de  s'en  difaire." 
The  number  of  Gros's  pupils  was  very  great,  and  was  considerably 
augmented  when,  in  18x5,  David  quitted  Paris  and  made  over 
his  own  dasses  to  him.  Gros  was  decorated  and  named  baron 
of  the  empire  by  Napoleon,  after  the  Salon  of  x8o8,  at  which 
he  had  exhibited  the  "  Battle  of  Eylau."  Under  the  Restora- 
tion he  became  a  member  of  the  Institute,  professor  at  the 
£cole  des  Beaux  Arts,  and  was  named  chevalier  of  the  order 
of  St  MicheL 

M.  Delfcluae  gives  a  brief  notice  of  hu  life  in  Louis  Damd  et  son 
tem^St  and  Julius  Meyer's  GeuhiclUe  der  modemen  frantHsischen 
Muerei  contains  an  excellent  criticism  on  his  works. 

0R08ART,  ALBXANDBR  BALLOCH  (1827-1899),  Scottish 
divine  and  literary  editor,  the  son  of  a  buildinig  contractor,  wss 
bom  at  Stirling  on  the  i8th  of  June  1827.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh  University,  and  in  1856  became  a  Presbyterian 
minister  at  Kinross.  In  X865  he  went  to  Liverpool,  and  three 
years  later  to  Blackburn.  He  resigned  from  the  ministry  in 
1892,  and  died  at  Dublin  on  the  i6th  of  March  1899.  Dr  Grosart 
is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  exertions  in  reprinting  much  rare 
Elizabethan  literature,  a  work  which  he  undertook  in  the  first 
instance  from  his  strong  interest  in  Puritan  theology.  Among 
the  first  writers  whose  works  he  edited  were  the  Puritan  divines, 
Richard  Sibbes,  Thomas  Brooks  and  Herbert  Palmer.  Editions 
of  Michad  Bruce's  Poems  (1865)  and  Richard  Gilpin's  Demono- 
iogia  sacra  (1867)  followed.  In  1868  he  brought  out  a  biblio- 
graphy of  the  writings  of  Richard  Baxter,  and  from  that  year 
until  1876  he  was  occupied  In  reprodudng  for  private  subscribers 
the  "  Fuller  Worthies  Library,"  a  series  of  thirty-nine  volumes 
which  induded  the  works  of  Thomas  Fuller,  Sir  John  Davies, 
Fulke  Greville,  Henry  Vaughan,  Andrew  Marvell,  George  Herbert, 
Richard  Crashaw,  John  Donne  and  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  The  last 
four  volumes  of  the  series  were  devoted  to  the  works  of  many 
little  known  and  otherwise  inaccessible  authors.  His  Occational 
Issues  of  Unique  and  Very  Rare  Books  (1875-1881)  is  of  the 
utmost  interest  to  the  book-lover.  It  induded  among  other 
things  the  Annalia  Dubrensia  of  Robert  Dover.  In  1876  still 
another  series,  known  as  the  "  Chertsey  Worthies  Library,"  was 
begun.  It  included  editions  of  the  works  of  Nicholas  Breton, 
Frands  (^uarles,  Dr  Joseph  Beaumont,  Abraham  Cowley, 
Henry  More  and  John  Davies  of  Hereford.  Grosart  was  untiring 
in  his  enthusiasm  and  energy  for  this  kind  of  work.  The  two 
last-named  series  were  being  produced  simultaneously  until  1881, 
and  no  sooner  had  they  been  completed  than  Grosart  began 
the  "  Huth  Library,"  so  called  from  the  bibliophile  Henry  Huth, 
who  possessed  the  originals  of  many  of  the  reprints.  It  induded 
the  works  of  Robert  Greene,  Thomas  Nash,  Gabrid  Harvey, 
and  the  prose  tracts  of  Thomas  Dekker.  He  also  edited  the 
complete  works  of  Edmund  Spenser  and  Samuel  Daniel.  From 
the  Townley  Hall  collection  he  reprinted  several  MSS.  and 
edited  Sir  John  Eliot's  works,  Sir  Richard  Boyle's  Lismore 
Papers,  and  various  publications  for  the  Chetham  Sodety,  the 
Camden  Sodety  and  the  Roxburghe  Club.  Dr  Grosart's  faults 
of  style  and  occasional  inaccuracy  do  not  seriously  detract  from 
the  immense  value  of  his  work.  He  was  unwearied  in  searching 
for  rare  books,  and  he  brought  to  light  much  interesting  literature, 
formerly  almost  inaccessible. 


6i6 


GROSBEAK— GROSS 


GROSBEAK  {FT^Groshec)^  a  name  very  indefinitely  applied 
to  many  birds  belonging  to  the  families  PringUlidae  and  Ploceidae 
of  modem  omitbologisls,  and  perhaps  to  some  members  of  the 
£mhermiat  and  Tanagridae,  but  always  to  birds  distinguished 
by  the  great  size  of  their  bill.  Taken  alone  it  is  commonly  a 
sjmonym  of  hawfinch  iq.9.),  but  a  prefix  is  usually  added  to 
indicate  the  species,  as  pine-grosbeak,  cardinal-grosbeak  and 
the  like.  By  early  writers  the  word  was  generally  given  as  an 
equivalent  of  the  Linnaean  LoxiOf  but  that  genus  has  been 
found  to  include  many  forms  not  now  placed  in  the  same  family. 

The  Pine-grosbeak  {Pinicola  enucleator)  inhabits  the  conifer- 
zone  of  both  the  Old  and  the  New  Worlds,  seeking,  in  Europe 
and  probably  elsewhere,  a  lower  latitude  as  winter  approaches — 
often  journeying  in  large  flocks;  stragglers  have  occasionally 
reached  the  British  Islands  (Yarrell,  Br.  Birds,  ed.  4,  ii.  177- 
179).  In  structure  and  some  of  its  habits  much  resembling 
a  bullfinch,  but  much  exceeding  that  bird  in  size,  it  has  the 
plumage  of  a  crossbill  and  appears  to  undergo  the  same  changes 
as  do  the  members  of  the  restricted  gentis  Z^xta— the  young 
being  of  a  dull  greenish-grey  streaked  with  brownish-black, 
the  adult  hens  tinged  with  golden-green,  and  the  cocks  glowing 
with  crimson-red  on  nearly  all  the  body-feathers,  this  last 
colour  being  replaced  after  moulting  in  confinement  by  bright 
yellow.  Nests  of  this  species  were  found  in  iSai  by  Johana 
Wilhdm  Zetterstedt  near  Juckasj&rwi  in  Swedish  Lapland, 
but  little  was  known  concerning  its  nidification  until  1855,  when 
John  Wolley,  after  two  years'  ineffectual  search,  succeeded  in 
obtaining  near  the  Finnish  village  Muonioniska,  on  the  Swedish 
frontier,  well-authenticated  specimens  with  the  eggs,  both  of 
which  are  like  exaggerated  bullfinches'.  The  food  of  this  species 
seems  to  consist  of  the  seeds  and  buds  of  many  sorts  of  trees, 
though  the  staple  may  very  possibly  be  those  of  some  kind  of 
pine. 

Allied  to  the  pine-grosbeak  are  a  number  of  species  of  smaller 
size,  but  its  eqiuils  in  beauty  of  plumage.*  They  have  been 
referred  to  several  genera,  such  as  Carpodaius,  Propasser, 
Bycaneles,  Uragus  and  others;  but  possibly  Carpodacus  is 
sufficient  to  contain  all.  Most  of  them  are  natives  of  the  Old 
World,  and  chiefly  of  its  eastern  division,  but  several  inhabit 
the  western  portion  of  North  America,  and  one,  C.  gUhagineus 
(of  which  there  seem  to  be  at  least  two  local  races),  is  an  especial 
native  of  the  deserts,  or  their  borders,  of  Arabia  and  North 
Africa,  extending  even  to  some  of  the  Canary  Islands — a  singular 
modification  in  the  kahttat  of  a  form  which  one  would  be  apt  to 
associate  exdusivdy  with  forest  trees,  and  cspedally  conifers. 

The  cardinal  grosbeak,  or  Virginian  nightingale,  Cardinalu 
virginianus,  claims  notice  here,  though  doubts  may  be  entertained 
as  to  the  family  to  which  it  really  belongs.  It  is  no  less  remarkable 
for  its  bright  carmine  attire,  and  an  dongated  crest  of  the  same 
colour,  than  for  its  fine  song.  Its  ready  adaptation  to  confine- 
ment has  made  it  a  popular  cage-bird  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic.  The  hen  is  not  so  good  a  songster  as  the  cock  bird. 
Her  plumage,  with  exception  of  the  wings  and  tail,  which  are 
of  a  dull  red,  is  light-oUve  above  and  brownish-yellow  beneath. 
This  spedes  inhabits  the  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States 
southward  of  40°  N.  lat.,  and  also  occurs  in  the  Bermudas. 
It  is  represented  in  the  south-west  of  North  America  by  other 
forms  that  by  some  writers  are  deemed  spedes,  and  in  the  northern 
parts  of  South  America  by  the  C.  phoenicettSt'wYdch  would 
really  seem  entitled  to  distinction.  Another  kindred  bird 
placed  from  its  short  and  broad  bill  in  a  different  genus,  and 
known  as  Pyrrkuloxia  sinuata  or  the  Texan  cardinal,  is  found  on 
the  southern  borders  of  the  United  States  and  in  Mexico;  while 
among  North  American  ^'  grosbeaks  "  must  also  be  named  the 
birds  4>donging  to  the  genera  Guiraca  and  Hedymdes — the 
former  espedally  exemplified  by  the  beautiful  blue  G.  caeruUa, 
and  the  latter  by  the  brilliant  rose-breasted  H,  ludavicianuSf 
which  last  extends  its  range  into  Canada. 

>  Many  of  them  are  described  and  illustrated  in  the  MenopaphU 
dss  loxiens  of  Prince  C.  L.  Bonaparte  and  Professor  Schlegel  (185a). 
though  it  exdudes  many  birds  which  an  English  writer  would  call 
"Slt>8beaks." 


The  spedes  of  the  Old  World  which,  though  commonly 
"grosb^ks,"  certainly  bdong  to  the  family   Phceidae,  are 
treated  under  Weavck-biro.  (A.  N.) 

GROSE,  FRANCIS  {c.  1750-1791),  English  antiquary »  was 
bom  at  Greenford  in  Middlesex,  about  the  year  1730.  His 
father  was  a  wealthy  Swiss  jeweller,  settled  at  Richmond,  Surrey. 
Grose  eariy  showed  an  interest  in  heraldry  and  antiquities,  and 
his  father  procured  him  a  position  in  the  Heralds'  CoUei^.  In 
1763,  being  then  Richmond  Herald,  he  sold  his  tabard,  and 
shortly  afterwards  became  adjutant  and  paymaster  of  the 
Hampshire  militia,  where,  as  he  himself  humorously  observed, 
the  only  account  books  he  kept  were  his  right  and  left  pockets, 
into  the  one  qf  which  he  recdved,  and  from  the  other  <^  which 
he  paid.  This  cardessnen  exposed  him  to  serious,  finanoai 
difficulties;  and  after  a  vain  attempt  to  repair  them  by  acc^tiog 
a  captaincy  in  the  Surrey  militia,  the  fortune  Idt  him  by  his 
father  bdng  squandered,  he  began  to  turn  to  account  hb  excellent 
education  and  his  powers  as  a  draughtsman.  In  1757  be  had 
been  elected  fellow  of  the  Sodety  of  Antiquaries.  In  1773  lie 
began  to  publish  his  Antiquities  of  En^nd  and  Walts,  a  work 
which  brought  him  money  as  well  as  fame.  This,  with  its 
supplementary  parts  rdaling  to  the  Channd  Islands,  was  not 
completed  till  1787.  In  1789  fie  set  out  on  an  antiquarian  tour 
through  Scotland,  and  in  the  course  of  this  journey  met  Bums, 
who  composed  in  his  honour  the  famous  song  be^nning  **  Ken 
ye  aught  o'  Captain  Grose,"  and  in  that  other  poem,  still  more 
famous,  "  Hear,  land  o'  cakes,  and  brither  Scots,"  warned  all 
Scotsmen  of  this  **  chield  amang  them  taking  notes."  In  1790 
he  began  to  publish  the  results  of  what  Bums  called  *'  his 
peregrinations  through  Scotland;"  but  he  had  iK>t  fintsbed 
the  work  when  he  bethought  himsdf  of  going  over  to  Irdand 
and  doing  for  that  country  what  he  had  already  done  for  Gveat 
Britain.  About  a  month  after  his  arrival,  while  in  Dublin, 
he  died  in  an  apoplectic  fit  at  the  dinner-table  of  a  friend,  on  the 
X2th  of  June  1791. 

Grose  was  a  sort  of  antiquarian  FalstafI — at  least  he  possessed 
in  a  striking  degree  the  knight's  phyacal  peculiarities;  but 
he  was  a  man  of  true  honour  and  charity,  a  valuable  friend. 
"overlooking  little  faults  and  seeking  out  greater  virtues," 
and  an  inimitable  boon  companion.  His  humour,  his  varied 
knowledge  and  his  good  nature  were  all  eminently  calculated 
to  make  him  a  favourite  in  society. .  As  Bums  says  of  hii 

"  But  wad  ye  see  him  in  his  glee. 
For  meikfe  glee  and  fun  has  he. 
Then  set  him  down,  and  twa  or  three 

Gude  fdlows  wi'  him; 
And  port,  0  port!  shine  thou  a  wee. 

Ana  THEM  ye'U  see  him!  *' 


Grose's  works  include  Tk€  Antiquities  of  England  and  Wates 
(6  vols.,  1773-1787) :  Advice  to  the  Omcers  o/lhe  Briiish  Army  {i7^h 
a  satire  in  the  manner  of  Swift's  I'trer/tons  to  Servants',  A  Uuide 
to  Hsaltk,  Beauty,  Riches  and  Honour  (1783),  a  collection  of  advertise^ 
ments  of  the  period,  with  characteristic  satiric  cffeface;i4  Ctonaurf 
Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue  (1785);  A  Treatise  om,  Ande^ 
Armour  and  Weapons  (1785-1789) ;  Darreirs  History  ofDooer  (1786) ; 
Military  Antiquities  (2  vols.,  1786-1788):  A  Provincial  Glossarjr 
(1787);  Rules  for  Drawing  Cariratures  (1788):  The  AtOiqmiiies 
of  Scotland  (a  vols.,  178^1791) ;  Antiquities  of  Irdand  (2  vols.,  1791). 
Mited  and  partly  written  by  Ledwich.  The  Gnmbler,  nzteea 
humerous  eaavs,  appeared  in  I7()i  after  his  death;  and  in  1793 
The  Olio,  a  collection  of  essays,  lests  and  sbiall  pieces  of  poetry, 
highly  characteristic  of  Grose,  tnoug^h  certainly  not  all  fay  bim, 
was  put  together  from  hu  papers  by  his  puUisher,  «iM>  was  also  his 
executor. 

A  capital  full-length  portrait  of  Grose  by  N.  Dance  b  in  the  first 
volume  of  the  A  ntiquities  of  England  and  Wales^  and  another  is  among 
Kay's  Portraits.  A  versified  sketch  of  him  appeared  in  the  GeMleman's 
Magavine,  Ixt.  660.  See  Gentleman's  Magastne,  bd.  4^,  s8a ;  N<4>le*s 
Hist,  of  the  College  of  Arms,  p.  434;  Notes  and  Queries,  1st  arr.,  ix. 
350;  3rd  ser.,  i.  64,  X.  280-281;  uh  ser.,  auL  148;  6Ch  ser^  fi.  47, 
257i  39 1 1  Hone,  Every-day  Booh,  1.  655. 

GROSS,  properly  thick,  bulky,  the  meaning  of  the  Late  Lat. 
grossus.  The  Latin  word  has  usually  been  taken  as  mgnatc 
with  crassus,  thick,  but  this  is  now  doubted.  It  also  apptu% 
not  to  be  connected  with  the  Ger.  gross,  a  Teutonic  word  repre*- 
sented  in  English  by„"  great."    Apart  from  iu  direct 


GROSSE— GROSSETESTE 


617 


and  sttch  figurative  senses  as  coane,  vulgar  or  flagrant,  the  chief 
uses  are  whole,  entire,  without  deduction,  as  opposed  to  "  net/' 
or  as  applied  to  that  which  is  sold  in  bulk  as  opposed  to  "  retail " 
(cf.  "  grocer  '*  and  "  engrossing  ").  As  a  unit  of  tale,  "gross" 
equals  12  dozen,  144,  sometimes  known  as  "small  gross,"  in 
contrast  with  "great  gross,"  i.e.  12  gross,  144  dozen.  As  a 
technical  expression  in  English  common  law,  "  in  gross "  is 
applied  to  an  incorporeal  hereditament  attached  to  the  person 
of  an  owner,  in  contradistinction  to  one  which  lis  appendant 
or  appurtenant,  that  is,  attached  to  the  ownership  of  land  (see 
Commons). 

GROSSB.  JUUUS  WALDEHAR  (iSza-igoz),  German  poet, 
the  son  of  a  military  chaplain,  was  bom  at  Erfurt  on  the  asth  of 
April  1828.  He  received  his  early  education  at  the  gymnasium 
in  Magdeburg,  and  on  leaving  school  and  showing  disinclination 
for  the  ministry,  entered  an  architect's  office  But  his  mind  was 
bent  upon  literature,  and  in  1849  he  entered  the  university 
of  Halle,  where,  although  inscribed  as  a  student  of  law,  he  devoted 
himself  almost  exclusively  to  letters.  His  first  poetical  essay 
was  with  the  tragedy  Cola  di  Rienst  (18 51),  followed  m  the  same 
year  by  a  comedy,  Eine  Nachtpartu  ShaJuspcares^  which  was 
at  once  produced  on  the  stage.  The  success  of  these  first  two 
pieces  encouraged  him  to  follow  literature  as  a  profession, 
and  proceeding  in  1852  to  Munich,  he  joined  the  circle  of  young 
poets  of  whom  Paul  Heyse  {q.v.)  and  Hermann  Lingg  (1820- 
1905)  were  the  chief  For  six  years  (1855-1861)  he  was  dramatic 
critic  of  the  Nau  MUnckener  ZcUung,  and  was  then  for  a  while 
on  the  staff  of  the  Leipziger  lUustrierte  Zeitung,  but  in  1862  he 
returned  to  Munich  as  editor  of  the  Bayrische  Zeitung^  a  post  he 
retained  until  the  paper  ceased  to  exist  in  1867  In  1869  Grosse 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  SchillerStiftung,  and  lived  for 
the  next  few  years  alternately  in  Weimar,  Dresden  and  Munich, 
until,  in  1890,  he  took  up  his  permanent  residence  in  Weimar. 
He  was  made  grand-ducal  Hofrdt  and  had  the  title  of "  professor." 
He  died  at  Torbole  on  the  Lago  di  Garda  on  the  9th  of  May  1902. 

Grosse  was  a  most  prolific  writer  of  novels,  dramas  and  poems. 
As  a  lyric  poet,  especially  in  Cedkhfe  (1857)  and  Aus  bewegUn 
Tagetty  a  volume  of  poems  (1869),  he  showed  himself  more  to 
advantage  than  in  his  novels,  of  which  latter,  however,  Untreu 
CHS  MiOeid  (2  vols.,  1868);  Vox  populi,  tox  dei  (1869);  Maria 
iiatuini  (1871);  Neue  EnOhlungen  (1875);  Sophie  Monnier 
(1876),  and  Ein  Frauenht  (1888)  are  remarkable  for  a  certain 
elegance  of  style.  His  tragedies,  Die  YngUnger  (1858) ;  Tiberius 
(1876);  Johann  tim  Sckwaben;  and  the  comedy  Die  steineme 
Bratdf  had  considerable  success  on  the  stage. 

GroMe's  CesammeiU  dramatiscke  Werke  appeared  in  7  vols,  in 
Leipzig  (1870),  while  his  EnAhlend*  DtcMtitngen  were  published  at 
Berlin  (6  vols..  1871-1873).  An  edition  of  his  tdected  works  by 
A.  Battels  is  in  preniration.  See  also  his  autobiography,  Lilerartscke 
Ursaeken  und  Wvkunten  (1896):  R.  Prutc.  Dte  LUeraiur  der 
CegjtKwcrt  (1859);  J.  Eth^  /.  Crosse  als  eptscker  Dtckkr  (1872). 

OROSSBNHAIN,  a  town  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  ao  m.  N. 
from  Dresden,  on  the  main  line  of  railway  (via  Hsterwerda) 
to  Berlin  and  at  the  junction  of  lines  to  Priestewitz  and  Frankfort- 
on-Oder.  P<^.  (1905)  12,015.  It  has  an  Evangelical  church, 
a  modem  and  a  commercial  school,  a  library  and  an  extensive 
public  park.  The  industries  are  very  important,  and  embrace 
manufactures  of  woollen  and  cotton  stuffs,  buckskin,  leather, 
glass  and  machinery.  Grosaenhain  was  originally  a  Sorb  settle- 
ment. It  was  for  a  time  occupied  by  the  Bohemians,  by  whom 
it  was  strongly  fortified.  It  afterwards  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  margraves  of  Meissen,  from  whom  it  was  taken  in  131a 
by  the  margraves  of  Brandenburg.  It  suffered  considerably  in 
aU  the  great  German  wars,  and  in  1744  was  nearly  destroyed 
by  fire.  On  the  i6th  of  May  1813,  a  battle  took  place  here 
between  the  French  and  the  Russians. 

See  G.  W.  Schuberth,  Ckronik  der  Stadi  Crossenhain  (Groiienhain, 
1887-1892). 

OROSSBTBSTBi  ROBERT  (c.  1x75-1253),  English  statesman, 
theologian  and  bishop  of  Lincoln,  was  bom  of  humble  parents 
at  Stradbrook  in  Suffolk.  He  received  his  education  at  Oxford 
where  he  became  proficient  in  law,  medicine  and  the  natural 
sdenccs.    Gtraldus  Cambrensis,  whose  acquaintance  he  had 


made,  introduced  him,  before  1199,  to  Wniiam  de  Vere,  bishop 
of  Hereford.  Grosseteste  aspired  to  a  post  in  the  bishop's  house- 
hold, but  being  deprived  by  death  of  this  patron  betook  himself 
to  the  study  of  theology  It  is  possible  that  he  visited  Pans 
for  this  purpose,  but  he  finally  settled  in  Oxford  as  a  teacher 
His  first  preferment  of  importance  was  the  chancellorship  of 
the  university.  He  gained  considerable  distinction  as  a  lecturer, 
and  was  the  first  rector  of  the  school  which  the  Franciscans 
established  in  Oxford  about  1424,  Grosseteste's  learning  ts 
highly  praised  by  Roger  Bacon,  who  was  a  severe  critic.  Accord- 
ing to  Bacon,  Grosseteste  knew  little  Greek  or  Hebrew  and  paid 
slight  attention  to  the  works  of  Aristotle,  but  was  pre-eminent 
among  his  contemporanes  for  his  knowledge  of  the  natural 
sciences.  Between  12x4  and  1231  Grosseteste  held  in  succession 
the  archdeaconries  of  Chester,  Northampton  and  Leicester. 
In  1232,  after  a  severe  illness,  he  resigned  all  his  benefices  and 
preferments  except  one  prebend  which  he  held  at  Lincoln. 
His  intention  was  to  spend  the  rest  of  his  life  in  contemplative 
piety  But  he  retained  the  office  of  chancellor,  and  in  1235 
accepted  the  bishopric  of  Lincoln.  He  undertook  without  delay 
the  reformation  of  morals  and  clerical  discipline  throughout 
his  vast  diocese.  This  scheme  brought  him  into  conflict  with 
more  than  one  privileged  corporation,  but  in  particular  with  his 
own  chapter,  who  vigorously  disputed  his  claim  to  exercise  the 
nght  of  visitation  over  their  community.  The  dispute  raged 
holly  from  1239  to  1245.  It  was  conducted  on  both  sides  with 
unseemly  violence,  and  those  who  most  approved  of  Grosseteste's 
main  purpose  thought  it  needful  to  wam  him  against  the  mistake 
of  over-zeal.  But  in  1245,  by  a  personal  visit  to  the  papal  court 
at  Lyons,  he  secured  a  favourable  verdict.  In  ecclesiastical 
politics  the  bishop  belonged  to  the  school  of  Becket.  His  zeal 
for  reform  led  him  to  advance,  on  behalf  of  the  courts-Christian, 
pretensions  which  it  was  impossible  that  the  secular  power  should 
admit.  He  twice  incurred  a  well-merited  rebuke  from  Henry  III 
upon  this  subject ;  although  it  was  left  for  Edward  I.  to  settle 
the  question  of  principle  in  favour  of  the  state.  The  devotion  of 
Grosseteste  to  the  hierarchical  theories  of  his  age  is  attested  by 
hb  correspondence  with  his  chapter  and  the  king.  Against  the 
former  he  upheld  the  prerogative  of  the  bishops;  against  the 
latter  he  asserted  that  it  was  impossible  for  a  bishop  to  disregard 
the  commands  of  the  Holy  See.  Where  the  liberties  of  the 
national  church  came  into  conflict  with  the  pretensions  of  Rome 
he  stood  by  his  own  countrymen.  Thus  in  1238  he  demanded 
that  the  king  should  release  certain  Oxford  scholars  who  had 
assaulted  the  legate  Otho.  But  at  least  up  to  the  year  1247  he 
submitted  patiently  to  papal  encroachments,  contenting  himself 
with  the  protection  (by  a  special  papal  privilege)  of  his  own 
diocese  from  alien  derks.  Of  royal  exactions  he  was  more 
impatient;  and  after  the  retirement  of  Archbishop  Saint 
Edmund  (q.v.)  constituted  himself  the  spokesman  of  the  clerical 
estate  in  the  Great  Council.  In  1244  he  sat  on  a  committee 
which  was  empanelled  to  consider  a  demand  for  a  subsidy. 
The  committee  rejected  the  demand,  and  Grosseteste  foiled  an 
attempt  on  the  king's  part  to  separate  the  clergy  from  the 
baronage.  "  It  is  written,"  the  bishop  said,  "  that  united  we 
stand  and  divided  we  fall." 

It  was,  however,  soon  made  dear  that  the  king  and  pope 
were  in  alliance  to  cr\ish  the  independence  of  the  English  clergy; 
and  from  1250  onwards  Grosseteste  openly  criticized  the  new 
financial  expedients  to  which  Innocent  IV.  had  been  driven  by 
his  desperate  conflict  with  the  Empire.  In  the  course  of  a  visit 
which  he  made  to  Innocent  in  this  year,  the  bishop  laid  before 
the  pope  and  cardinals  a  written  memorial  in  which  be  ascribed 
all  the  evils  of  the  Church  to  the  malignant  influence  of  the  Curia. 
It  produced  no  effect,  although  the  cardinals  felt  that  Grosseteste 
was  too  influential  to  be  punished  for  his  audadty.  Much 
discouraged  by  his  failure  the  bishop  thought  of  resigning.  In 
the  end,  however,  he  decided  to  continue  the  unequal  struggle. 
In  1251  he  protested  against  a  papal  mandate  enjoining  the 
English  dergy  to  pay  Henry  III.  one-tenth  of  their  revenues  for 
a  crusade;  and  called  attention  to  the  fact  that,  under  the 
system  of  provisions,  a  sum  of  70,000  marks  was  annually  drawn 


6i8 


GROSSETO— GROSSI,  T. 


from  England  by  the  alien  nominees  of  Rome.  In  1353,  upon 
being  commanded  to  provide  in  his  own  diocese  for  a  papal 
nephew,  he  wrote  a  letter  of  expostulation  and  refusal,  not  to 
the  pope  lumself  but  to  the  commissioner,  Master  Innocent, 
through  whom  he  revived  the  mandate.  The  text  of  the 
remonstrance,  as  given  in  'the  Burton  Annals  and  in  Matthew 
Paris,  has  possibly  been  altered  by  a  forger  who  had  less  respect 
than  Grosseteste  for  the  papacy.  The  language  is  more  violent 
than  that  which  the  bishop  elsewhere  employs.  But  the  general 
argument,  that  the  papacy  may  command  obedience  only  so  far 
as  its  commands  are  consonant  with  the  teaching  of  Christ  and 
the  apostles,  is  only  what  should  be  expected  from  an  ecdesi- 
astiaU  reformer  of  Grosseteste's  time.  There  is  much  more 
reason  for  suspecting  the  letter  addressed  "  to  the  nobles  of 
England,  the  dtizcns  of  London,  and  the  community  of  the 
whole  realm,"  in  which  Grosseteste  is  represented  as  denouncing 
in  tmmeasured  terms  papal  finance  in  all  its  branches.  But  even 
in  this  case  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  difference  between 
modem  and  medieval  standards  of  decorum. 

Grosseteste  numbered  among  his  most  intimate  friends  the 
Franciscan  teacher,  Adam  Marsh  iq.v.\.  Through  Adam  he 
came  into  close  relations  with  Simon  de*  Montfort.  From  the 
Franciscan's  letters  it  appears  that  the  earl  had  studied  a  political 
tract  by  Grosseteste  on  the  difference  between  a  monarchy  and 
a  tyranny;  and  that  he  embraced  with  enthusiasm  the  bishop's 
projects  of  ecclesiastical  reform.  Their  alliance  began  as  early 
as  1339,  when  Grosseteste  exerted  himself  to  bring  about  a 
reconciliation  between  the  king  and  the  earl.  But  there  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  political  ideas  of  Montfort  had  matured 
before  the  death  of  Grosseteste;  nor  did  Grosseteste  busy  him- 
self overmuch  with  secular  politics,  except  in  so  far  as  they 
touched  the  interest  of  the  Church.  Grosseteste  realized  that 
the  misrule  of  Henry  III.  and  his  unprincipled  compact  with  the 
papacy  largely  accounted  for  the  degeneracy  of  the  English 
hierarchy  and  the  laxity  of  ecclesiastical  disdph'ne.  But  he  can 
hardly  be  termed  a  constitutionalist. 

Grosseteste  died  on  the  Qth  of  October  1353.  He  must  then 
have,  been  between  seventy  and  eighty  years  of  age.  He  was 
already  an  elderly  man,  with  a  firmly  established  reputation, 
when  he  became  a  bishop.  As  an  ecclesiastical  statesman  he 
showed  the  same  fiery  zeal  and  versatility  of  which  he  had  given 
proof  in  his  academical  career;  but  the  general  tendency  of 
modern  writers  has  been  to  exaggerate  his  political  and  ecclesi- 
astical services,  and  to  neglect  his  performances  as  a  scientist  and 
scholar.  The  opinion  of  his  own  age,  as  expressed  by  Matthew 
Paris  and  Roger  Bacon,  was  very  different.  His  contemporaries, 
while  admitting  the  excellence  of  his  intentions  as  a  statesman, 
lay  stress  upon  his  defects  of  temper  and  discretion.  But  they 
see  in  him  the  pioneer  of  a  literary  and  scientific  movement; 
not  merely  a  great  ecclesiastic  who  patronized  learning  in  his 
leisure  hours,  but  the  first  mathematician  and  physicist  of  his 
age.  It  is  certainly  true  that  he  anticipated,  in  these  fields  of 
thought,  some  of  the  most  striking  ideas  to  which  Roger  Bacon 
subsequently  gave  a  wider  currency. 

See  the  Epistolae  RoberU  Grosseteste  (Rolls  Series.  1861)  edited  with 
a  valuable  introduction  by  H.  R.  Luard.  Grosseteste's  famous 
memorial  to  the  pope  is  printed  in  the  appendix  to  E.  Brown's 
Fasciculus  rerum  expelenaarum  et  fugiauurum  (1690).  A'  tract 
De  phisicis,  lineis,  angulis  etjiguris  was  printed  at  Nuremberg  in 
150^.  A  French  poem,  Le  Ckastel  d' amour,  sometimes  attributed 
to  him ,  has  been  pnnted  by  the  Caxton  Society.  Two  curious  tracts, 
the  "  De  moribus  pueri  ad  mcnsam  "  (printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Wordc) 
and  the  "  Statuta  familiae  Roberti  Grosseteste  "  (printed  by  J.  S. 
Brewer  in  Monumenta  Franciscana,  i.  ^83),  may  be  from  his  pen; 
but  the  editor  of  the  latter  work  ascribes  it  to  Adam  de  Marsh. 
There  is  less  doubt  respecting  the  Reules  Sevnt  Robert,  a  tract  giving 
advice  for  the  management  of  the  household  of  the  countess  m 
Lincoln.  For  Grosseteste's  life  and  work  see  Roger  Bacon's  Opus 
majus  (ed.  T.  H.  Bridecs,  1897,  3  vols.)  and  O^a  ouaedam  ineaita 
fed.  T.  S.  crewer,  Rolls  Scries,  1859);  M.  Paris's  Chronica  majora 
(ed.  H.  R.  Luard,  Rolls  Series,  1873-1883,  5  vols.);  and  the  Lives 
by  S.  Pegge  ( 1 793)  and  F.  S.  Stevenson  (1 899).  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 

GROSSETO,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Tuscany,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Grosseto,  90  m.  S.S.E.  of  Pisa  by  rail.  Pop. 
(1901)  5856  (town),  8843  (commune).  It  is  38  ft.  above  sea-level, 


and  is  almost  circular  in  shape,  it  is  surrounded  by  fbttificttioiiSi 
constructed  by  Francis  I.  (1574-1587)  and  Ferdinand  L  (1587- 
1609),  which  form  a  hexagonal  enceinte  with  projecting  bastions, 
with  two  gates  only.  The  small  cathedral,  begun  in  1394.  is 
built  of  red  and  white  marble  alternating,  in  the  Italian  Gothic 
^tyle,  it  was  restored  in  1855.  The  citadel  was  built  in  13x1  by 
the  Sienese.  Grosseto  is  on  the  maia  line  from  Pisa  to  Rome, 
and  is  also  the  starting-point  (Montepescali,  8  m.  to  the  N.,  is  the 
exact  point  of  divergence)  of  a  branch  line  to  Asciano  and 
Siena. 

The  town  dates  from  the  middle  ages.  In  X138  the  c{»soqpal 
see  was  transferred  thither  from  Rusellae.  In  1330  it,  with  the 
rest  of  the  Maremma,  of  which  it  is  the  capital,  came  under  the 
domimon  of  Siena.  By  the  peace  of  1559,  however,  it  passed 
to  Cosimo  I.  of  Tuscany.  In  1 745  the  malaria  had  grown  to  such 
an  extent,  owing  to  the  neglect  of  the  dramage  works,  that 
Grosseto  had  only  648  inhabitants,  thodgh  m  1334  it  had  3000 
mefl  who  bore  arms.  ,  Leopold  L  renewed  drainage  operatiozis, 
and  by  1836  the  population  had  risen  to  3393.  The  malaiia  is 
not  yet  entirely  conquered,  however,  and  the  official  headquarters 
of  the  province  are  in  summer  transferred  to  Scansano  (1837  ft), 
20  m.  to  the  S.E.  by  road. 

GROSSI.  GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO  (^-x699),  one  of  the 
greatest  Italian  singers  of  the  age  of  hd  canto,  better  known  as 
Siface,  was  born  at  Pescia  in  Tuscany  about  the  middle  of  the 
X7th  century;  He  entered  the  papal  chapel  in  1675,  and  later 
sang  at  Venice.  He  derived  his  nickname  of  Siface  from  his 
impersonation  of  that  character  in  an  opera  of  Cavalli.  It  has 
generally  been  said  that  he  appeared  as  Siface  in  Alessandro 
Scarlatti's  Mitridate,  but  the  confusion  is  due  to  his  having  sung 
the  part  of  Mitridate  in  Scarlatti's  Pompeo  at  Naples  in  16S3. 
In  1687  he  was  sent  to  London  by  the  duke  of  Modena,  to  becomfe 
a  member  of  the  chapel  of  James  II.  He  probably  did  nauch 
for  the  introduction  of  Italian  music  into  England,  but  soon 
left  the  country  on  account  of  the  climate.  Among  Purcdl's 
harpsichord  music  is  an  air  entitled  "  Sefauchi's  Farewell." 
He  was  murdered  in  1699  on  the  road  between  Bologna  and 
Ferrara,  probably  by  the  agents  of  a  nobleman  with  whose  wife 
he  had  a  liaison. 

Sec  Corrado  Ricci's  Vita  Barocea  (Milan,  1904). 

GROSSI,  TOHHASO  (1791-1853),  Lombard  poet  and  novelist, 
was  born  at  Bellano,on  the  Lake  of  Como,on  the  30th  of  January 
1791.  He  took  his  degree  in  law  at  Pavia  in  x8io,  and  proceeded 
thence  to  Milan  to  exercise  his  profession;  but  the  Austrian 
government,  suspecting  his  loyalty,  interfered  with  his  prospects, 
and  in  consequence  Grossi  was  a  simple  notary  all  his  life.  That 
the  suspicion  was  well  grounded  he  soon  showed  by  writing  in  the 
Milanese  dialect  the  battle  poem  La  Prineide,  in  which  be 
described  with  vivid  colours  the  tragical  death  of  Prina,  chief 
treasurer  during  the  empire,  whom  the  people  of  Milan,  instigated 
by  Austrian  agitators,  had  torn  to  pieces  and  dragged  through 
the  streets  of  the  tovm  (1814).  The  poem,  being  anonymous, 
was  first  attributed  to  the  celebrated  Porta,  but  Grossi  of 
his  own  accord  acknowledged  himself  the  author.  In  1816  be 
published  other  two  poems,  written  h'kewisc  in  Milanese — Tkt 
Golden  Rain  (La  Pioggia  d'  oro)  and  The  Fugitive  (La  Fuggitiva). 
These  compositions  secured  him  the  friendship  of  Porta  and 
Manxoni,  and  the  three  poets  came  to  form  a  sort  of  romantic 
literary  triumvirate.  Grossi  took  advantage  of  the  popularity 
of  his  Milanese  poems  to  try  Italian  verse,  into  which  he  sought 
to  introduce  the  moving  realism  which  had  given  such  satisfactkui 
in  his  earliest  compositions;  and  in  this  he  was  entirely  soccessial 
with  his  poem  Ildegonda  (18x4).  He  next  wrote  an  epic  poem, 
entitled  The  Lombards  in  the  First  Crusade^  a  work  of  vhicfa 
Manzoni  makes  honourable  mention  in  /  Promessi  SposL  This 
composition,  which  was  published  by  subscription  (1836),  at- 
tained a  success  unequalled  by  that  of  any  other  Italian  poem 
within  the  century.  The  example  of  Manzoni  induced  Gross 
to  write  an  historical  novel  entitled  Marco  Vixonii  (1834)— 
a  work  which  contains  passages  of  fine  description  and  deep 
pathos.  A  little  lat^r  Grossi  published  a  tale  in  verse,  Ulrito  ami 
Lida,  but  with  this  publication  his  poetical  activity 


GROSSMITH— GROTE 


619 


After  his  marriage  in  1838  he  continued  to  employ  himself  as 
a  Dotaiy  in  Milan  tiU  ha  death  on  the  loth  of  December  1853. 
Hit  Lijt  by  Cantu  appeared  at  Milan  in  1854. 

OROSSMTTH,  OEORGB  (1847-  ),  English  comedian,  was 
bom  on  the  9th  of  December  1847,  the  son  of  a  law  reporter  and 
entertainer  of  the  same  name.  After  some  years  of  journalistic 
work  he  started  about  1870  as  a  public  entertainer,  with  songs 
and  recitations;  but  in  1877  he  b^gan  a  long  connexion  with  the 
Gilbert  and  Sullivan  operas  at  the  Savoy  Theatre,  London,  in 
Tht  Sorcerer,  For  twelve  years  he  had  the  leading  part,  his 
capacity  for  "  patter-songs,"  and  his  humorous  acting,  dancing 
and  singing  marlring  his  creations  of  the  chief  characters  in  the 
Gilbert  and  Sullivan  operas  as  the  expression  of  a  highly  original 
individuality.  In  1889  he  left  the  Savoy,  and  again  set  up  as  an 
entertainer,  visiting  all  the  cities  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  but  retiring  in  1901.  Among  other  books  he  wrote  The 
Reminiscences  of  a  Society  Clown  (z888);  and,  with  his  brother 
Weedon,  The  Diary  of  a  Nobody  (1894).  His  humorous  songs 
and  sketches  numbered  over  six  hundred.  His  younger  brother, 
Weedon  Grossmith,  who  was  educated  as  a  painter  and  exhibited 
at  the  Academy,  also  took  to  the  stage,  his  £rst  notable  succcm 
being  in  the  Pantomime  Rehearsal\  in  1894  he  went  into  manage- 
ment on  his  own  account,  and  had  much  success  as  a  comedian. 
George  Grossmith's  two  sons,  Laurence  Grossmith  and  George 
Grossmith,  jun.,  were  both  actors,  the  latter  becoming  a  weU- 
known  figure  in  the  musical  comedies  at  the  Gaiety  Theatre, 
London. 

GROS  VEHTRES  (Fr.  for  "  Great  Bellies  "),  or  Atsina,  a 
tribe  of  North  American  Indians  of  Algonquian  stock.  Tlie 
name  is  said  to  have  reference  to  the  greediness  of  the  people, 
but  more  probably  originated  from  their  prominent  tattooing. 
They  are  settled  at  Fort  Belknap  agency,  Montana.  The  name 
has  also  been  given  to  other  tribes,  e.g.  the  Hidatsa  or  Minitari, 
now  at  Fort  Berthold,  North  DakoU. 

OROTB.  GEORQB  (1794-1871),  English  historian  of  Greece, 
was  bom  on  the  X7th  of  November  1794,  at  Clay  Hill  near 
Beckenham  in  Kent.  His  grandfather,  Andreas,  originally  a 
Bremen  merchant,  was  one  of  the  founders  (ist  of  January  1766) 
of  the  banking-house  of  Grote,  Prescott  &  Company  in  Thread- 
needle  Street,  London  (the  name  of  Grote  did  not  disappear 
from  the  firm  till  1879).  His  father,  also  George,  married  (1793) 
Selina,  daughter  of  Henry  Peckwell  (1747-1787),  minister  of  the 
countess  of  Huntingdon's  chapd  in  Westminster  (descended 
from  a  Huguenot  family,  the  de  Blossets,  who  had  left  Tourainc 
on  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes),  and  had  one  daughter 
and  ten  sons,  of  whom  the  historian  was  the  eldest.  Educated 
at  first  by  his  mother,  George  Grote  was  sent  to  the  Sevenoaks 
grammar  school  (1800-1804)  *nd  afterwards  to  Charterhouse 
(1804-1810),  where  he  studied  under  Dr  Raine  in  company 
with  Connop  Thlriwall,  George  and  Horace  Waddington  and 
Henry  Havelock.  In  spite  of  Grote's  school  successes,  his 
father  refused  to  send  him  to  the  university  and  put  him  in  the 
bank  in  1 810.  He  spent  all  his  vpaat  time  in  the  study  of  classics, 
history,  metaphysics  and  political  economy,  and  in  learning 
German,  French  and  Italian.  Driven  by  his  mother's  Puritanism 
and  his  father's  contempt  for  academic  learning  to  outside 
society,  he  became  intimate  with  Charles  Hay  Cameron,  who 
strengthened  him  in  his  love  of  philosophy,  and  George  W. 
Norman,  through  whom  he  met  his  wife,  Miss  Harriet  Lewin 
(see  below).  After  various  difficulties  the  qiarriage  took  place 
on  the  5th  of  March  1820,  and  was  in  all  respects  a  happy  union. 

In  the  meanwhile  Grote  had  finally  decided  his  philosophic 
and  political  attitude.  In  181 7  he  came  under  the  influence 
of  David  Ricardo,  and  through  him  of  James  Mill  and  Jeremy 
Bentham.  He  settled  in  1820  in  a  house  attached  to  the  bank 
in  Threadneedle  Street,  where  his  only  child  died  a  week  after 
its  birth.  During  Mrs  Grote's  slow  convalescence  at  Hampstead, 
he  wrote  his  first  published  work,  the  Statement  of  the  Question 
of  Parliamentary  Refdrm  (1821),  in  reply  to  Sir  James 
Mackintosh's  article  in  the  Edinburgh  Review,  advocating 
popular  representation,  vote  by  ballot  and  short  parliaments. 
In  xSas  be  published  in  the  Morning  Chronicle  (April)  a  letter 


against  (Manning's  attack  on  Lord  John  Russell,  and  edited,  or 
rather  re-wrote,  some  discur^ve  papers  of  Bentham,  which  he 
published  under  the  title  Analysis  of  the  Influence  of  Natural 
Religion  on  the  Temporal  Happiness  of  Mankind  by  Philip 
Beauchamp  (1822).  Hie  book  was  published  in  the  name  of 
Richard  Carlile,  then  in  ^aol  at  Dorchester.  Though  not  a 
member  of  J.  S.  Mill's  Utilitarian  Society  (1822-1823),  he  took 
a  great  interest  in  a  society  for  reading  and  discussion,  which 
met  (from  1823)  in  a  room  at  the  bank  before  business  hours 
twice  a  week.  From  the  Posthumous  Papers  (pp.  92,  34)  it  is 
dear  that  Mrs  Grote  was  wrong  in  asserting  that  she  &nt  in 
1823  (autunm)  suggested  the  History  of  Greece;  the  book  was 
ahready  in  preparation  in  1822,  though  what  was  then  written 
was  subsequently  reconstracted.  In  1826  Grote  published  in 
the  Westminster  Review  (April)  a  criticism  of  Mitford's  History 
of  Greece,  which  shows  that  his  ideas  were  already  in  order. 
From  1826  to  1830  he  was  hard  at  work  with  J.  S.  Mill  and 
Henry  Brougham  in  the  organization  of  the  new  "  university  " 
in  Gower  Street.  He  was  a  member  of  the  council  which  organ- 
ized the  faculties  and  the  curriculum;  but  in  1830,  owing  to  a 
difference  with  Mill  as  to  an  appointment  to  one  of  the  philo- 
sophical chairs,  he  resigned  his  position. 

In  1830  he  went  abroad,  and,  attracted  by  the  political  crisis, 
spent  some  months  in  Paris  in  the  society  of  the  Liberal  leaders. 
Recalled  by  his  father's  death  (6th  of  July),  he  not  only  became 
manager  of  the  bank,  but  took  a  leading  position  among  the  city 
Radioils.  In  1831  he  published  his  important  Essentials  of 
Parliamentary  Reform  (an  elaboration  of  his  previous  StatenwiU), 
and,  after  refusing  to  stand  as  parliamentary  candidate  for  the 
dty  in  1 83 1,  changed  his  mind  and  was  elected  head  of  the  poll, 
with  three  other  Liberals,  in  December  1832.  After  serving  in 
three  parliaments,  he  resigned  in  1 841,  by  which  time  his  party 
("  the  philosophic  Radicals  ")  had  dwindled  away.  During  these 
years  of  active  public  life,  his  interest  in  Greek  history  and 
philosophy  had  increased,  and  after  a  trip  to  Italy  in  1842,  he 
severed  his  connexion  with  the  bank  and  devoted  himself  to 
literature.  In  z  846  the  first  two  volumes  of  the  History  appeared, 
and  the  remaining  ten  between  1847  and  the  spring  of  1856. 
In  1845  with  Molesworth  and  Raikes  Currie  he  gave  monetary 
assistance  to  Auguste  Comte  {q.v.),  then  in  financial  difficulties. 
The  formation  of  the  Sonderbund  (20th  of  July  1847)  led  him  to 
visit  Switzerland  and  study  for  himself  a  condition  of  things 
in  some  sense  analogous  to  that  of  the  andent  Greek  states. 
This  visit  resulted  in  the  publication  in  the  Spectator  of  seven 
weekly  letters,  collected  in  book  form  at  the  end  of  1847  (see  a 
letter  to  de  Tocqueville  in  Mrs  Grote's  reprint  of  the  Seven 
Letters,  1876). 

In  1856  Grote  began  to  prepare  his  works  on  Plato  and 
Aristotle.  Plato  and  the  Other  Companions  of  Sokrates  (3  vols.) 
appeared  in  1865,  but  the  work  on  Aristotle  he  was  not  destined 
to*  complete.  He  had  finished  the  Organon  and  was  about  to 
deal  with  the  metaphysical  and  physical  treatises  when  he  died 
on  the  x8th  of  June  1871,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
He  was  a  man  of  strong  character  and  self<ontrol,  unfailing 
courtesy  and  unswerving  devotion  to  what  he  considered  the 
best  interests  of  the  nation.  To  colleagues  and  subordinates 
alike,  he  was  considerate  and  tolerant;  he  was  unassuming, 
trustworthy  in  the  amallest  detail,  accurate  and  comprehensive 
in  thought,  energetic  and  consdentious  in  action.  Yet,  hidden 
under  his  calm  exterior  there  was  a  burning  enthusiasm  and  a 
depth  of  passion  of  which  only  his  intimate  friends  were  aware. 

His  work  may  best  be  considered  under  the  following  heads: 

I.  Groins  Services  to  Education. — He  took,  as  already  stated, 
an  important  part  in  the  foundation  and  organization  of  the 
original  university  of  London,  which  began  its  public  work  in 
Gower  Street  on  the  28th  of  ()ctober  1828,  and  in  1836,  on  the 
incorporation  of  the  university  of  London  proper,  became  known 
as  University  College.  In  1849  he  was  re-elected  to  the  council, 
in  i860  he  became  treasurer,  and  on  the  death  of  Brougham 
(1868)  president.  He  took  a  keen  interest  in  all  the  work  of  the 
college,  presented  to  it  the  Marmor  Homericum,  and  finally 
bequeathed  the  reversion  of  £6000  for  the  endowment  of  a  chair 


620 


GROTEFEND 


ol  philosophy  of  mind  and  logic.  The  emoluments  of  this  sum 
were,  however,  to  be  held  over  and  added  to  the  principal  if  at 
any  time  the  holder  of  the  chair  should  be  "  a  minuter  of  the 
Church  of  England  or  of  any  other  religious  persuasion."  In 
1850  the  senate  of  the  university  was  reconstituted,  and  Grote 
was  one  of  seven  eminent  men  who  were  added  to  it.  Eventually 
he  became  the  strongest  advocate  for  open  examinations,  for  the 
claims  not  only  of  philosophy  and  d^^cs  but  also  of  natural 
science,  and,  as  vice-chancellor  in  1862,  for  the  admission  of 
women  to  examinations.  This  latter  reform  was  carried  in  1868. 
He  succeeded  hb  friend  Henry  Hallam  as  a  trustee  of  the  British 
Museum  in  1859,  and  took  part  in  the  reorganization  of  the 
departments  of  antiquities  and  natural  sdence. 

The  honours  which  he  received  in  recognition  of  these  services 
were  as  follows:  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  (1853);  LL.D.  Cambridge 
(x86i);  F.R.S.  (185^);  honorary  professor  of  ancient  history 
in  the  Royal  Academy  (2859).  By  the  French  Academy  of 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences  he  was  made  correspondent  (1857) 
and  foreign  associate  (the  first  Englishman  since  Macaulay) 
(1864).  In  1869  he  refused  Gladstone's  offer  of  a  peerage. 

2.  Political  Career. — In  politics  Grote  belonged  to  the  "  philo- 
sophic  Radicals  "  of  the  school  of  J.  S.  Mill  and  Bentham,  whose 
chief  principles  were  representative  government,  vote  by  ballot, 
the  abolition  of  a  state  church,  frequent  elections.  He  adhered 
to  these  principles  throughout,  and  refused  to  countenance  any 
reforms  which  were  incompatible  with  them.  By  this  uncom- 
promising attitude,  he  gradually  lost  all  his  supporters  save  a 
few  men  of  like  rigidity.  As  a  speaker,  he  was  clear,  logical 
and  impressive,  and  on  select  committees  his  common  sense 
was  most  valuable.  For  his  speeches  see  A.  Bain  in  the  Mimtr 
Works;  see  also  Ballot. 

3.  The  History  oj  Greece. — It  is.  on  this  work  that  Grate's 
reputation  mainly  rests.  Thou^  half  a  century  has  passed 
since  its  production,  it  is  still  in  some  sense  the  text-book. 
It  consbts  of  two  parts,  the  "  Legendary  "  and  the  "  Hbtorical  " 
Greece.  The  former,  owing  to  the  development  of  comparative 
mythology,  b  now  of  little  authority,  and  portions  of  part  ii. 
are  obsolete  owing  partly  to  the  immense  accumulations  of  epi- 
graphic  and  archaeological  research,  partly  to  the  subsequent 
dbcovery  of  the  Aristotelian  ConstitiUion  of  Athens,  and  partly 
also  to  the  more  careful  weighing  of  evidence  which  Grote  himself 
misinterpreted.  The  interest  of  the  work  b  twofold.  In  the 
first  place  it  contains  a  wonderful  mass  of  information  carefully 
collected  from  all  sources,  arranged  on  a  simple  plan,  and  ex- 
pressed in  direct  forcible  language.  It  b  in  thb  respect  one  of 
the  few  great  comprehensive  hbtories  in  our  possession,  great  in 
scope,  conception  and  accomplbhment.  But  more  than  thb  it  b 
interesting  as  among  the  first  works  in  which  Greek  hbtory 
became  a  separate  study,  based  on  real  evidence  and  governed 
by  the  criteria  of  modem  hbtorical  science.  Further  Grote, 
a  practical  man,  a  rationalbt  and  an  enthusiast  for  democracy, 
was  the  first  to  consider  Greek  political  development  with  a 
sympathetic  interest  (see  Greece:  History ,  Ancient,  section 
"  Authorities  "),  in  opposition  to  the  Tory  attitude  of  John 
GilUes  and  Mitford,  who  had  written  under  the  influence  of  horror 
at  the  French  Revolution.  On  the  whole  hb  work  was  done  with 
impartiality,  and  more  recent  study  has  only  confirmed  hb 
general  conclusions.  Much  has  been  made  of  hb  defective 
accounts  of  the  tyrants  and  the  Macedonian  empire,  and  his 
opinion  that  Greek  history  ceased  to  be  interesting  or  instructive 
after  Chaeronea.  It  b  true  that  he  confined  hb  interest  to  the 
fortunes  of  the  city  state  and  neglected  the  wider  diffusion  of  the 
Greek  culture,  but  thb  is  after  all  merely  a  criticism  of  the  title 
of  the  book.  The  value  of  the  History  consists  to-day  primarily 
in  its  examination  of  the  Athenian  democracy,  its  growth  and 
decline,  an  examination  which  b  still  the  most  inspiring,  and  in 
general  the  most  instructive,  in  any  language.  In  the  descrip- 
tion of  battles  and  military  operations  generally  Grote  was  handi- 
capped by  the  lack  of  personal  knowledge  of  the  country.  In  this 
respect  he  b  inferior  to  men  Ukc  Ernst  Curtius  and  G.  B.  Grundy. 

4.  In  Philosophy  Grote  was  a  follower  of  the  Mills  and 
Bentham.  J.  S.  Mill  paid  a  tribute  to  him  in  the  preface  to  the 


third  edition  of  hb  ExanUtuaum  of  Sir  Wm.  HamiU&n*s  PMUsopky, 

and  there  b  no  doubt  that  the  empirical  schod  owed  a  great  deal 

to  hb  sound,  accurate  thinking,  untrammelled  by  any  reverence 

for  authority,  technique  and  convention.   In  dealing  with  Plato 

he  was  handicapped  by  thb  very  common  sense,  which  prevented 

him  from  appreciating  the  theory  of  ideas  in  its  wulest  rela.tiotts. 

Hb  Plato  b  important  in  that  it  emphasizes  the  generally 

neglected  passages  of  Plato  in  which  he  seems  to  indulge  in  mere 

Socratic  dialectic  rather  than  to  seek  knowledge;  it  is,  tbercCore, 

to  be  read  as  a  corrective  to  the  ordinary  criticism  of  Plato. 

The  more  congenial  study  of  Aristotle,  though  incomplete,  b 

more  valuable  in  the  positive  sense,  and  has  not  received  the 

attention  it  deserves.  Perhaps  Grate's  most  distinctive  oontriba- 

tion  to  the  study  of  Greek  philosophy  b  hb  chapter  in  the 

History  of  Greece  on  the  Sophbts,  of  whom  he  took  a  view  some> 

what  more  favourable  than  has  been  accepted  before  or  since. 

Hb  wife,  Harsiet  Lewin  (i 792-1878),  was  the  daoghto-  of 

Thomas  Lewin,  a  retired  Indian  dviUan,  settled  in  SouthamptcML 

After  her  marriage  with  Grate  in  1820  she  devoted  hersdf  to  the 

subjects  in  which  he  was  interested  and  was  a  prominent  figure  in 

the  literary,  political  and  philosophical  circle  in  which  he  lived. 

She  carefully  read  the'  proofs  of  hb  work  and  relieved  iiiin  <rf 

anxiety  in  connexion  with  hb  property.  Among  her  WTitings  are: 

Memoir  of  Ary  Schefer  (i860);  Collected  Papers  (1862);  and 

her  biography  of  her  husband  (1873).     Another  puUicatioa, 

The  Philosophical  Radicals  of  1832  (privately  circulated  in  1866), 

is  interesting  for  the  light  it  throws  on  the  Reform  movement  of 

1832  to  1842,  especially  on  Molesworth. 

Bibliography. — Iht  History  of  Greeup^i^ed  through  fiveeditloak 
the  fifth  (10  vob.,  1888)  being  nnal.  An  edition  covcnng  the  period 
from  Solon  to  403,  with  new  notes  and  excursuses,  was  piibttsfoed  by 
J.  M.  Mitchell  and  M.  O.  B;  Caspari  in  1907.  The  Plato  was  6naiiy 
edited  by  Alexander  Bain  in  4  vols.  See  Mrs  Grote's  Prrsomal 
Life  0/  George  Grote,  and  article  in  DicL  NaL  Biog.  by  G.  Croos 
Robertson.  (J.  M.  M.) 

GROTEFEND,  OBORO  FRIBDRICH  (z775-x8s3),  German 
epigraphist,  was  born  at  MOnden  in  Hanover  on  the  9th  of  Ju]» 
1775.  He  was  educated  partly  in  hb  native  town,  partly  at 
Iffeld,  where  he  remained  till  1 795,  when  he  entered  the  university 
of  Gdttingen,  and  there  became  the  friend  of  Heyne,  lydssea 
and  Heeren.  Heyne's  recommendation  procured  for  him  an 
assbtant  mastership  in  the  G6ttingen  gymnasium  in  1797. 
While  there  he  publbhed  hb  work  De  pasigrapUa  xtm  scrifimn 
universali  (1799),  which  led  to  hb  appointment  in  1803  as 
prorector  of  the  gymnasium  of  Frankfort-on-Main,  and  ^Kuiiy 
afterwards  as  conrector.  Grotefend  was  best  known  during  kb 
lifetime  as  a  Latin  and  Italian  philologbt,  though  the  attentkHi 
he  paid  to  his  own  language  b  shown  by  hb  Anfangsgrmmde  der 
deutschen  Poesie,  published  in  1815,  and  hb  foundation  of  a 
sodety  for  investigating  the  German  tongue  in  1817.  In  1S21 
he  became  director  of  the  gymnasium  at  Hanover,  a  post  which 
he  retained  till  hb  retirement  in  1849.  In  1823-1824  appeared 
his  revised  edition  of  Wenck's  Latin  grammar,  in  two  vcJumes. 
followed  by  a  smaller  grammar  for  the  use  of  schoob  in  1826; 
in  1835-1838  a  systematic  attempt  to  explain  the  fragmentary 
remains  of  the  Umbrian  dialect,  entitled  Rudimenta  limgmae 
Umbricae  ex  inscriptionibus  antiquis  ertodata  (in  eig^t  parts) ;  and 
in  1839  a  work  of  similar  character  upon  Oscan  {RadimumU 
linguae  Oscae).  In  the  same  year  he  publbhed  an  important 
memoir  on  the  coins  of  Bactria,  under  the  name  of  Die  MMnsen  der 
griechischen,  parlhischen,  und  indoskythischen  Konige  aoa  B^ctriem 
und  den  Ldndern  am  Indus.  He  soon,  however,  returned  to  his 
favourite  subject,  and  brought  out  a  work  in  five  parts,  Zmr 
Geographie  und  Geschichle  vonAllitalien  (1840-1842).  Previously, 
in  1836,  he  had  written  a  preface  to  Wagcnfeld's  translation  of  the 
spurious  Sanchoniathon  of  Philo  Bybiius,  which  was  alleged  10 
have  been  dbcovered  in  the  preceding  year  in  the  Portuguese 
convent  of  Santa  Maria  de  Mcrinhao.  But  it  was  in  the  East 
rather  than  in  the  West  that  Grotefend  did  his  greatest  work. 
The  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Persia  had  for  some  time  been 
atthicting  attention  in  Europe;  exact  copies  of  them  had  been 
published  by  the  elder  Niebuhr,  who  lost  his  eycsi^t  over  the 
work;  and  Grotefend 's  friend,  Tychsen  of  Rostock,  bc&evcd 


GROTESQUE— GROTIUS 


621 


tliat  he  had  ascerUined  the  characters  in  the  column,  now  known 
to  be  Penian,  to  be  alphabetic.  At  this  point  Grotefend  took 
the  matter  up.  His  first  discovery  was  communicated  to  the 
Royal  Sodcty  of  GOttingen  in  1800,  and  reviewed  by  Tychsen 
two  years  afterwards.  In  1815  he  gave  an  account  ol  it  in 
Hccren's  great  work  on  ancient  history,  and  in  1837  published 
his  Ntme  Btitrdg^  Mwr  EHSMltnmg  dtr  persepclitoHiscken  KeU- 
sckrifi.  Three  years  later  appeared  his  Neue  BettrSg^  %w 
ErUtuUmmg  ier  babyiomseken  KeUsckrift.  His  discovery  may 
be  summed  up  as  follows:  (i)  that  the  Persian  inscriptions 
contain  three  different  forms  of  cuneiform  writing,  so  that  the 
decipherment  of  the  one  would  give  the  key  to  the  decipherment 
of  the  others;  (a)  that  the  characters  of  the  Persian  column  are 
alphabetic  and  not  syllabic;  (3)  that  they  must  be  read  from 
left  to  right;  (4)  that  the  alphabet  consists  of  forty  letters, 
including  signs  for  long  and  short  voweb;  and  (5)  that  the 
PersepoUtan  inscriptk>ns  are  written  in  Zend  (which,  however, 
is  not  the  case),  and  must  be  ascribed  to  the  age  of  the  Achae- 
menian  princes.  The  process  whereby  Grotefend  arrived  at 
these  CMdusions  is  a  prominent  illustntion  of  persevering 
genius  (see  Cdnkxvobii).  A  solid  basis  .had  thus  been  laid  for 
the  interpretation  of  the  Peruan  inscriptions,  and  all  that 
remained  was  to  work  out  the  results  of  Grotefend's  brilliant 
discovery,  a  task  ably  performed  by  Bumouf,  Lassen  and 
lUwIinaon.  Grotefend  died  on  the  X5th  of  December  1853. 

GBflnrnQUB,  strictly  a  form  of  decorative  art,  in  painting 
or  sculpture,  consbting  of  fantastic  shapes  of  human  beings, 
animals  and  the  like,  joined  together  by  wreaths  of  flowers, 
garlands  or  arabesques.  The  word  is  also  applied  to  any  whim- 
sical design  or  decorative  style,  if  characterised  by  unnatural 
distortjoo,  and,  generally,  to  anything  ludicrous  or  extravagantly 
fanciful.  "  Grotesque  "  comes  throuf^  the  French  from  the 
Ital.  grottttec,  an  adjective  formed  from  greUo,  which  has  been 
corrupted  in  English  to  "grotto."  The  commonly  accepted 
explanation  of  the  spedal  use  of  the  term  "  grotesque  "  is  that 
this  particular  form  of  decorative  art  was  most  frequently  found 
in  the  excavated  ancient  Roman  and  Greek  dwellings  found  in 
Italy,  to  which  was  applied  the  name  grotU,  The  derivation  of 
grata  is  through  popular  Lat.  erupla  or  gntpt^  (cf.  *'  crypt  "), 
from  Gr.  Kpirmit  a  vault,  tcplnmtp,  to  hide.  Such  a  term  would 
be  applicable  both  to  the  buried  dwellings  of  ancient  Italy,  and 
to  a  cavern,  artificial  or  natural,  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word. 
An  interesting  parallel  with  this  origin  of  the  word  is  found  in 
that  of  "  antic,"  now  meaning  a  freak,  a  jest,  absurd  fancy,  &r. 
Thtt  word  is  the  same  as  "  antique,"  and  was,  like  *'  grotesque," 
first  applied  to  the  fanciful  decorations  of  ancient  art. 

OROTH,  KLAUS  (18x9-1899),  Low  German  poet.  Was  bom 
at  Hdde  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  on  the  24th  of  April  1819.  After 
studying  at  the  seminary  in  Tondem  (i83S-i84x>,  he  became  a 
teacher  at  the  girls'  school  in  his  native  village,  but  in  1847  went 
to  Kid  to  qualify  for  a  higher  educational  post.  Ill-health 
interrupted  his  studies  and  it  was  not  until  1853  that  he  was  able 
to  resume  them  at  KieL  In  1856  he  took  the  degree  Of  doctor 
of  phikMopby  at  Bonn,  and  in  1858  settled  as  ^rivatdoctnt  in 
German  literature  and  languages  at  Kiel,  where,  in  x866,  he  was 
made  professor,  and  where  he  lived  until  his  death  on  the  xst 
of  June  1899.  In  his  Low  German  (PlaUdeiUsck)  lyric  and  epic 
poems,  which  reflect  the  influence  of  Johann  Peter  Hebel  (?.».)• 
Groth  gives  poetic  expression  to  the  country  life  of  his  northern' 
home;  and  though  his  descriptions  may  not  always  reflect  the 
»  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  peasantry  of  Holstdn  as  faithfully 
as  those  of  F.  Renter  {q.vX  yet  Groth  is  a  lyric  poet  of  genuine 
inspiration.  His  chief  works  are  Qwickbam,  VolksUbm  in 
plalUnOichm  Gedkkten  DUmarscker  Mundart  (1852;  asth  ed. 
X900;  and  in  High  German  translations,  notably  by  M.  J. 
Berchcm,  Krefeld,  1896);  and  two  volumes  of  stories,  VtrUUn 
(1855-1859,  3ni  ed.  i88x);  also  Votr  de  Gotm  (X858)  and  Ut 
Jmngiparadia  (1875). 


Groth't  CesawimeUt  Werke  appeared  in  4  vob.  (1893).  His  Ubens- 
trinnemnien  were  edited  by  E.  Wolff  in  1891 ;  tec  also  K.  Enen, 
K.  Grolh  und  du  ptollientKke  DidUuHt  (1885):  and  biographies  by 
A.  Bartcb  (1899)  and  H.  Swrcks  (i899> 


GRlOTH,  PAUL  HmfRICH  VOH  (1843-  ),  German 
mineralogbt,  was  bom  at  Magdeburg  on  the  33rd  of  June  X843. 
He  was  educated  at  Frdbeig,  Dresden  and  Beriin,  and  took 
the  degree  of  Ph.D.  in  x868.  After  holding  from  1872  the  chair 
of  mineralogy  at  Strasburg,  he  was  in  1883  appointed  professor 
of  mineralogy  and  curator  of  minerals  in  the  state  museum 
at  Munich.  He  carried  on  extensive  researches  on  crystals  and 
minerals,  and  |Jso  on  rocks;  and  published  Tabdlarisckt 
ObersiehS  dtr  einfackm  MiMeraliem  (X874-1898),  and  Physi- 
kaliscke  KryOattograpkie  (X876-X895,  ed.  4,  X905).  He  edited  for 
some  years  the  ZeiiscknfifUr  Kryslailograpkie  und  Mimeralogie. 

QROnUS,  HUGO  (x 583-1645),  in  his  native  country  Huig  van 
Groot,  but  known  to  the  rest  of  Europe  by  the  latinized  form 
of  the  name,  Dutch  publicist  and  statesman,  was  bom  at  Delft 
on  Easter  day,  the  xoth  of  April  X583.  The  Groots  were  a  branch 
of  a  famfly'of  distinction,  which  had  been  noble  in  France,  but 
had  removed  to  the  Low  Countries  more  than  a  century  before. 
Their  French  naxne  was  de  Comets,  and  this  cadet  branch  had 
taken  the  mune  of  Groot  on  the  marriage  of  Hugo's  great-grand- 
father with  a  Dutch  hdress.  The  father  of  Hugo  was  a  lawyer 
in  considerable  practice,  who  had  four  times  served  the  office 
of  burgomaster  of  Leiden,  and  was  one  of  the  three  curators 
of  the  university  of  that  place. 

In  the  aimals  of  precodous  genius  there  is  no  greater  prodigy 
on  record  than  Hugo  Grotlus,  who  was  able  to  make  good  Latin 
verMS  at  nine,  was  ripe  for  the  university  at  twdve,  and  at 
fifteen  edited  the  encydopaedic  work  of  Martianus  Capella. 
At  Ldden  he  was  mudi  noticed  by  J.  J.  Scaliger,  whose  habit 
it  was  to  engage  his  young  friends  in  the  editing  of  some  dassical 
text.  At  fifteen  Grotius  accompanied  Count  Justin  of  Nassau, 
and  the  grand  pensionary  J.  van  Olden  Bamevddt  on  their 
special  embassy  to  the  court  of  France.  After  a  year  spent  in 
acquiring  the  language  and  making  acquaintance  with  the 
leading  men  of  France,  Grotius  returned  home.  He  took  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  law  at  Ldden,  and  entered  on  practice  as  an 
advocate. 

Notwithstanding  his  successes  in  his  profession,  his  inclination 
was  to  literature.  In  x6oo  he  edited  the  remains  of  Aratus, 
with  the  versions  of  Cicero,  Germanicus  and  Avienus.  Of  the 
Cermamcut  Scaliger  say»— "A  better  text  than  that  which 
Grotius  has  given,  it  is  impossible  to  give  ";  but  it  is  probable 
that  Scaliger  had  himself  been  the  reviser.  Grotius  vied  with 
the  Latinists  of  his  day  in  the  composition  of  Latin  verses. 
Some  lines  on  the  siege  of  Ostend  spread  his  fame  beyond  the 
drcle  of  the  leamed.  He  wrote  three  dramas  in  Latin: — 
Chrisius  fatitms;  Sopkompkaneas,  on  the  story  of  Joseph  and 
his  brethren;  and  Adamus  extdf  a  production  still  remembered 
as  having  given  hints  to  Milton.  The  Sopkomphaneas  was 
translated  into  Dutch  by  Vondel,  and  into  English  by  Francis 
Goldsmith  (X652);  the  ChriUiu  paiietu  into  Ei^lish  by  George 
Sandys  (X640). 

In  X603  the  United  Provinces,  desiring  to  transmit  to  posterity 
some  account  of  thdr  struggle  with  Spain,  determined  to  appoint 
a  historiographer.  The  choice  of  the  states  fell  upon  Grotius, 
though  he  was  but  twenty  years  of  age,  and  had  not  offered 
himself  for  the  post.  There  was  some  talk  at  this  time  in  Paris 
of  calling  Grotius  to  be  librarian  of  the  royal  library.  But  it  was 
a  ruse  of  the  Jesuit  party,  who  wished  to  persuade  the  public 
that  the  opposition  to  the  appointment  of  Isaac  Casaubon  did 
not  proceed  from  theological  motives,  since  they  were  ready 
to  appoint  a  Protestant  in  the  peison  of  Grotius. 

Hb  next  prderment  was  that  of  advocate-general  of  the 
fisc  for  the  provinces  of  Holland  and  Zeeland.  Thb  was  followed 
by  his  marriage,  in  x6o8,  to  Marie  Rdgersberg,  a  lady  of  family 
in  Zeeland,  a  woman  of  great  capadty  and  noble  dbposition. 

Grotius  had  already  passed  from  occupation  with  the  classics 
to  studies  more  immediately  connected  with  hb  profession. 
In  the  winter  of  1604  he  composed  (but  did  not  publbfa)  a  treatise 
entitled  Dejitre  praedae.  The  MS.  remained  unknown  till  x868, 
when  it  was  brought  to  light,  and  printed  at  the  Hague  under  the 
auspices  of  Professor  Fmln.  It  shows  that  the  prindples  and  the 
plan  of  the  cdebratcd  Dejure  belli,  which  was  not  composed 


622 


GROTIUS 


till  i625,iiu>re  than  twenty  yean  after,]uul  already  been  conceived 
by  a  youth  of  twenty-K>ne.  It  has  alwayt  been  a  question 
what  it  was  that  determined  Grotius,  when  an  exile  in  Paris  in 
1625,  to  that  particular  subject,  and  various  explanations  have 
been  offered;  among  others  a  casual  suggestion  of  .Peiresc  in  a 
letter  of  early  date.  The  discovery  of  the  MS.  of  the  De  jure 
pro«da€  discloses  the  whole  history  of  Grolius's  ideas,  and  shows 
that  from  youth  upwards  he  had  steadily  read  and  meditated 
in  one  direction,  that,  namely,  of  which  the  famous  Dejure  bdli 
was  the  mature  product.  In  the  Dejure  praedae  of  1604  there  is 
much  more  thui  the  germ  of  the  later  treatise  De  jftre  betti. 
Its  main  principles,  and  the  whole  system  of  thought  implied 
in  the  later,  are  anticipated  in  the  earlier  woilc.  The  arrangement 
even  is  the  same.  The  chief  difference  between  the  two  treatises 
is  one  which  twenty  years'  eiq)erience  in  affairs  cotdd  not  but 
bring — the  substitution  of  more  cautious  and  guarded  language, 
less  dogmatic  affirmation,  more  allowance  for  exceptions  and 
deviations.  The  Jus  pads  was  an  addition  introduced  first 
in  the  later  work,  an  insertion  which  is  the  cause  of  not  a  little 
of  the  confused  arrangement  which  has  been  found  fault  with 
in  the  De  jure  beOi. 

The  De  jure  praedae  further  demonstrates  that  Grotius  was 
originally  determined  to  this  subject,  not  by  any  speculative 
intellectual  interest,  but  by  a  special  occasion  presented  by  his 
professional  engagements.  He  was  retained  by  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company  as  their  advocate.  One  of  their  captains, 
Heemskirk,  had  captured  a  rich  Portuguese  galleon  in  the  Straits 
of  Malacca.  The  right  of  a  private  company  to  make  prizes 
was  hotly  contested  in  Holland,  and  denied  by  the  stricter 
religionists,  especially  the  Mennoni^es,  who  considered  all  war 
unlawful.  Grotius  undertook  to  prove  that  Heemskirk's  prize 
had  been  lawfully  captured.  In  doing  this  he  was  led  to  in- 
vestigate the  grounds  of  the  lawfulness  of  war  in  general.  Such 
was  the  casual  origin  of  a  book  which  long  enjoyed  such  celebrity 
that  it  used  to  be  said,  with  some  exaggeration  indeed,  that  it 
had  founded  a  new  science. 

A  short  treatise  which  was  printed  in  1609,  Grotius  says 
without  his  permission,  under  the  title  of  Mare  liherum,  is 
nothing  more  than  a  chapter— the  z  3th— of  the  Dejure  praedae. 
It  was  necessary  to  Grotius's  defence  of  Heemskirk  that  he 
should  show  that  the  Portuguese  pretence  that  Eastern  waters 
were  their  private  property  was  untenable.  Grotius  maintains 
that  the  ocean  is  free  to  all  nations.  The  occasional  character 
of  this  piece  explains  the  fact  that  at  the  lime  of  its  appearance 
it  made  no  sensation.  It  was  not  till  many  years  afterwards 
that  the  jealousies  between  England  and  Holland  gave  import- 
ance io.tht  novel  doctrine  broached  in  the  tract  by  Grotius, 
a  doctrine  which  Selden  set  himself  to  refute  in  his  Mare  clausum 

(i63«). 

Equally  due  to  the  circumstances  of  the  time  was  his  small 
contribution  to  constitutional  history  entitled  De  antiquiiate 
reipublicae  Batavae  (16x0).  In  this  he  vindicates,  on  grounds 
of  right,  prescriptive  and  natural,  the  revolt  of  the  United 
Provinces  against  the  sovereignty  of  Spain. 

Grotius,  when  he  was  only  thirty,  was  made  pensionary  of  the 
city  of  Rotterdam.  In  16x3  he  formed  one  of  a  deputation 
to  England,  in  an  attempt  to  adjust  those  differences  which 
gave  rise  afterwards  to  a  naval  struggle  disastrous  to  Holland. 
He  was  received  by  James  with  every  mark  of  distinction. 
He  also  cultivated  the  acquaintance  of  the  Anglican  ecclesiastics 
John  Overall  and  L.  Andrewes,  and  was  much  in  the  society 
of  the  celebrated  scholar  Isaac  Casaubon,  with  whom  he  had 
been  in  correspondence  by  letter  for  many  years.  Though  the 
mediating  views  in  the  great  religious  conflict  between  Catholic 
and  Protestant,  by  which  Grotius  was  afterwards  known,  had 
been  arrived  at  by  him  by  independent  reflection,  yet  it  could 
not  but  be  that  he  would  be  confirmed  in  them  by  finding  in 
England  a  developed  school  of  thought  of  the  same  character 
already  in  existence.  How  highly  Casaubon  esteemed  Grotius 
appears  from  a  letter  of  his  to  Daniel  Heinsius,  dated  London, 
X3th  of  April  X613.  "  I  caimot  say  how  happy  I  esteem  myself 
in  having  seen  so  much  of  one  so  truly  great  as  Grotius.    A 


wonderful  man!  This  I  knew  him  to  be  before  I  had 
but  the  rare  excellence  of  that  divine  genius  no  ooecaasafficieii^y 
feel  who  does  not  see  his  face,  and  hear  him  apeak.  Prolnty 
is  stamped  on  his  features;  his  conversation  saTooxs  of  trae 
piety  and  profound  learning.  It  is  not  imly  upon  me  that  he 
has  made  this  impression;  all  the  pious  and  learned  to  whom 
he  has  been  here  introduced  have  felt  the  same  towards  him; 
the  king  especially  sot" 

After  Grotius's  return  from  England  the  exasperation  of 
theological  parties  In  Holland  rose  to  such  a  pitch  that  it  *»''«-am* 
clear  that  an  appeal  to  force  would  be  made.  Grotius  sought 
to  find  some  mean  term  in  which  the  two  hostile  parties  of 
Remonstrants  and  Anti-remonstrants,  w  as  they  were  subse- 
quently called  Arminians  and  Gomarists  (see  Remonstrastts), 
might  agree.  A  form  of  edict  drawn  by  Grotius  was  pubUshed 
by  the  states,  recommending  mutual  toleration,  and  forfaklding 
ministers  in  the  pulpit  from  handling  the  disputed  dogmas. 
To  the  orthodox  Calvinists  the  word  toleration  wasinstqiportable. 
They  had  the  popuUce  on  their  side.  This  fact  determiaed  tht 
stadtholder,  Maurice  of  Nassau,  to  support  the  orthodox  party 
—A  party  to  which  he  inclined  the  more  readily  that  Otden 
Bameveldt,  the  grand  pensionary,  the  man  whose  upri^ktaeas 
and  abilities  he  most  dreaded,  sided  with  the  Remonstrants. 

In  x6i8  Prince  Maurice  set  out  on  a  sort  of  pacific  f  iwp*^^ 
disbanding  the  dvic  guards  in  the  various  cities  of  Gueiden, 
HoUand  and  Zeeland,  and  occupying  the  places  with  traqs 
on  whom  he  could  rely.  The  states  of  Holland  sent  a  comml^km, 
of  which  Grotius  was  chairman,  to  Utrecht,  with  the  view  of 
strengthening  the  hands  of  their  friends,  the  Remonstrant 
party,  in  that  city.  Feeble  plans  were  fonned,  but  not  carried 
into  effect,  for  shutting  the  gates  upon  the  stadthotdcr,  who 
entered  the  city  with  troops  on  the  night  of  the  a60i  of  July 
z6i8.  There  were  conferences  in  which  Grotius  met  Prince 
Maurice,  and  taught  him  that  Olden  Bameveldt  was  not  the  cmly 
man  of  capacity  in  the  ranks  of  the  Remonstrants  whom  he  had 
to  fear.  On  the  early  morning  of  the  31st  of  July  the  prince's 
coup  d^ikU  against  the  liberties  of  Utrecht  and  of  Holland  was 
carried  out;  the  civic  guard  was  disarmed — Grotius  nad  his 
colleagues  saving  themselves  by  a  precipitate  flight.  But  it 
was  only  a  reprieve.  The  grand  pensionary,  Olden  Banieveldi. 
the  leader  of  the  Remonstrant  party,  Grotius  and  Hoogetbeets 
were  arrested,  brou^t  to  trial,  and  condemned — Okies 
Bameveldt  to  death,  and  Grotius  to  imprisonment  for  life  and 
confisc^ion  of  his  property.  In  June  16x9  be  was  immured 
in  the  fortress  of  Louvestein  near  Gorcum.  His  confinemal 
was  rigorous,  but  after  a  fime  his  wife  obtained  pecmiaaiaB  to 
share  his  captivity,  on  the  condition,  that  if  she  came  out,  she 
should  not  be  suffered  to  return. 

Grotius  had  now  before  him,  at  thirty-six,  no  pio^>eci  but 
that  of  a  lifelong  captivity.  He  did  not  abandon  Kim^»if  to 
despair,  but  sought  refuge  in  returning  to  the  Haiwiral  poxsuits 
of  bis  youth.  Several  of  his  translations  (into  Latin)  from  the 
Greek  tragedians  and  other  writers,  made  at  this  time,  ha«c 
been  printed.  "  The  Muses,'*  he- writes  to  Voss,  "  were  now  his 
consolation,  and  am>eared  more  amiable  than  ever.'^ 

The  ingenuity  of  Madame  Grotius  at  length  devised  &  mode  ctf 
escape.  It  had  grown  into  a  custom  to  send  the  boohs  which 
he  had  done  with  in  a  chest  along  with  his  linen  to  be  wrashed  at 
Gorcum.  After  a  time  the  warders  began  to  let  the  chest  pass 
without  opening  it.  Madame  Grotius,  perceiving  this,  prevxSed 
on  her  husband  to  allow  himsdf  to  be  shut  up  in  it  at  the  u»al 
time.  The  two  soldiers  who  carried  the  chest  out  complamed 
that  it  was  so  heavy  "  there  must  be  an  Arminian  in  it.'*  "  There 
are  indeed,"  said  Madame  Grotius,  "  Arminian  books  in  tt/' 
The  chest  was  carried  lo  the  house  of  a  friend,  where  Grotiis  ra 
released.  He  was  then  dressed  like  a  mason  with  hod  axtd  irowci, 
and  so  conveyed  over  the  frontier.  His  first  place  of  refuge  wis 
Antwerp,  from  which  he  proceeded  to  Paris,  wh»e  he  arrived 
in  April  1621.  In  October  he  was  joined  by  his  wife.  Then 
he  was  presented  to  the  king,  Louis  XIII.,  and  a  p^nnfrw  of  joos 
livres  conferred  upon  him.  French  pensions  were  easily  graxtfed, 
all  the  more  so  as  they  were  never  paid.    Grotius 


GROTIUS 


623 


fcduced  to  gremt  straits.  He  looked  about  for  any  opening 
through  which  he  might  earn  a  living.  There  was  talk  of  some- 
thing in  Denmark;  or  he  would  settle  in  Spires,  and  practise 
in  the  court  there.  Some  little  relief  he  got  through  the  interven- 
tion of  £tlenne  d'Aligre,  the  chancellor,  who  procured  a  royal 
mandate  which  enabled  Grotius  to  draw,  not  all,  but  a  large 
part  of  his  pension.  In  1623  the  president  Henri  de  M^me  lent 
him  his  chiteau  of  Balagni  near  Senlis  (dep.  Oise),  and  there 
Grotius  passed  the  spring  and  summer  of  that  year.  De  Thou 
gave  him  facilities  to  borrow  books  from  the  superb  library 
formed  by  his  father. 

In  these  drcumstanccs  the  Dtjure  bdU  et  pacts  was  composed. 
That  a  work  of  such  immense  reading,  consisting  in  great  part  of 
quotation,  should  have  been  written  in  little  more  than  a  year 
was  a  source  of  astonishment  to  his  biographers.  The  achieve- 
ment would  have  been  impossible,  but  for  the  fact  that  Grotius 
had  with  him  the  first  draft  oi  the  work  made  in  1604.  He  had 
also  got  his  brother  William,  when  reading  his  classics,  to  mark 
down  all  the  passages  which  touched  upon  law,  public  or  private. 
In  March  1625  the  printing  of  the  De  jwe  bdli,  which  had 
taken  four  months,  was  completed,  and  the  edition  despatched  to 
the  fair  at  Frankfort.  His  own  honorarium  as  author  consisted 
of  aoo  copies,  of  which,  however,  he  had  to  give  away  many  to 
friends,  to  the  king,  the  principal  courtiers,  the  papal  nundo,  &c. 
What  remained  he  sold  for  his  own  profit  at  the  price  of  a  crown 
each,  but  the  sale  did  not  recoup  him  his  outlay.  But  though 
his  book  brought  him  no  profit  it  brought  him  reputation,  so 
widely  spread,  and  of  such  long  endurance,  as  no  other  legal 
treatise  has  ever  enjoyed. 

Grotius  hoped  that  his  fame  would  soften  the  hostility  of  his 
fqes,  and  that  his  country  would  recall  him  to  her  service.  Theo- 
logical rancour,  however,  prevailed  over  all  other  sentiments, 
and,  after  fruitless  attempts  to  re-establish  himself  in  Holland, 
Grotius  accepted  service  under  Sweden,  in  the  capadty  of 
ambanador  to  France.  He  was  not  very  successful  in  negotiating 
the  treaty  on  behalf  of  the  Protestant  interest  in  Germany, 
Richelieu  having  a  special  dislike  to  him.  He  never  enjoyed  the 
confidence  of  the  court  to  which  he  was  accredited,  and  frittered 
away  his  influence  in  diq>utes  about  precedence.  In  1645  he 
denxanded  and  obtained  his  recall.  He  was  honourably  received 
at  Stockhdffl,  but  ndther  the  climate  nor  the  tone  of  the  court 
suited  him,  and  he  asked  permission  to  leave.  He  was  driven 
by  a  storm  on  the  coast  near  Dantzig.  He  got  as  far  as  Rostock, 
where  he  found  himself  very  ill.  Stockman,  a  Scottish  physician 
who  was  sent  for,  thought  it  was  only  weakness,  and  that  rest 
would  restore  the  patient.  But  Grotius  sank  rapidly,  and  died 
on  the  a9th  of  August  1645. 

Grotius  combined  a  wide  drde  of  general  knowledge  with  a 
profound  study  of  one  branch  of  law.  History,  theology, 
jurisprudence,  politics,  classics,  poetry, — all  these  fields  he 
cultivated.  His  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures  were  the  first 
application  on  an  extensive  scale  of  the  prindple  affirmed  by 
Scaliger,  that,  namely,  of  interpretation  by  the  rules  of  grammar 
without  dogmatic  assumptions.  Grotitis's  philological  skill, 
however,  was  not  suffident  to  enable  him  to  work  up  to  this  ideaL 
As  in  many  other  points  Grotitis  inevitably  recalls  Erasmus, 
so  be  does  in  his  attitude  towards  the  great  schism.  Grotius 
waa,  however,  animated  by  an  ardent  desire  for  peace  and  con- 
cord. He  thought  that  a  basis  for  recondliation  of  Protestant 
and  Catholic  might  be  found  in  a  common  piety,  combined  with 
reticence  upon  discrepandes  of  doctrinal  statement.  His  D$ 
weritaU  rdigicms  CkrisUanat  (1627),  a  presentment  of  the 
evidences,  is  so  written  as  to  form  a  code  of  common  Christianity, 
irrespective  of  sect.  The  little  treatise  became  widely  popular, 
gaining  rather  than  losing  popularity  in  the  i8th  century.  It 
became  the  classical  manual  of  apologetics  in  Protestant  coUeges, 
and  was  translated  for  missionary  purposes  into  Arabic  (by 
Pococke,  1660),  Persian,  Chinese,  &c.  His  Via  a  vehtm  ad 
pacem  eedesiasticam  (1642)  was  a  detailed  proposJ  of  a  scheme 
of  accommodation.  Like  all  men  of  moderate  and  mediating 
views,  he  was  charged  by  both  sides  irith  vadllation.  An 
Amsterdam  minister,  .lames  Laurent,  published  his  CrcHus 


Papuans  (1642) »  ud  it  was  continually  being  announced  from 
Paris  that  Grotius  had  "  gone  over."  Hallam,  who  has  coUected 
all  the  passages  from  Grotius's  letters  in  which  the  prejudices 
and  narrow  tenets  of  the  Reformed  dergy  are  condonned,  thought 
he  had  a  "  bias  towards  popery  **  {Lit.  of  Europg,  ii.  312).  The 
true  interpretation  of  Grotius's  mind  appears  to  be  an  indifference 
to  dogmatic  propositions,  produced  by  a  profound  sentiment  of 
piety.  He  approached  parties  as  a  statesman  approaches  them, 
as  facts  which  have  to  be  dealt  with,  and  governed,  not  sup- 
pressed in  the  interests  of  some  one  of  thdr  number. 

His  editions  and  translations  of  the  classics  were  dther  juvenile 
exercises  prescribed  by  Scaliger,  or  "  lusus  poetid,"  the  amuse- 
ment of  vacant  hours.  Grotius  read  the  classics  as  a  humanist, 
for  the  sake  of  thdr  contents,  not  as  a  professional  scholar. 

His  Annals  of  the  Law  Countries  was  begun  as  an  official  duty 
while  he  hdd  the  appointment  of  historiographer,  and  was  being 
continued  and  retouched  by  him  to  the  last.  It  was  not  published 
till  1657,  by  his  sons  PMer  and  Cornelius. 

Grotius  was  a  great  jurist,  and  his  Dejnre  betti  ei  pads  (Paris, 
1625),  though  not  the  first  attempt  in  modem  times  to  ascertain 
the  prindples  of  jurisprudence,  went  far  more  fundamentally 
into  the  diacus^on  than  any  one  had  done  before  him.  The 
title  of  the  work  was  so  far  «ii«WH;ng  that  the  jus  bdli  was  a 
very  smaU  part  of  his  comprehensive  Kheme.  In  his  treatment 
of  this  narrower  question  he  had  the  works  of  Alberico  Gentili 
and  Ayala  before  him,  and  has  acknowledged  his  obligations  to 
them.  But  it  is  in  the  larger  questions  to  which  he  opened  the 
way  that  the  merit  of  Grotius  consists.  His  wis  the  first  attempt 
to  obtain  a  prindple  of  right,  and  a  basis  for  sodety  and  govern- 
ment, outside  the  churdi  or  the  Bible.  The  distinction  between 
religion  on  the  one  hand  and  law  and  morality  on  the  other  is  not 
indeed  clearly  concdved  by  Grotitis,  but  he  wrestles  with  it  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  it  easy  for  those  who  followed  him  to  seixe 
it.  The  law  of  nature  is  unalterable;  God  Himself  cannot  alter 
it  any  more  than  He  can  alt^er  a  mathematical  axiom.  This  law 
has  its  source  in  the  nature  of  man  as  a  sodal  being;  it  would 
be  valid  even  were  there  do  CSod,  or  if  CSod  did  not  interfere  in 
the  government  of  the  world.  These  positions,  though  Grotius's 
religious  temper  did  not  allow  him  to  rely  unreservedly  upon 
them,  yet,  even  in  the  partial  application  they  find  in  his  book, 
entitle  him  to  the  honour  of  being  hdd  the  founder  of  the  modem 
sdence  of  the  law  of  nature  and  nations.  The  De  jure  exerted 
little  influence  on  the  practice  of  belligerents,  yet  its  publication 
was  an  epoch  in  the  sdence.  De  Quincey  has  said  that  the  book 
is  equally  divided  between  "empty  truisms  and  time-serving 
Dutch  falsehoods."  Fw  a  saner  judgment  and  a  brief  abstract 
of  the  contents  of  the  Dejure,  consult  J.  K.  Bluntschli,  Geuhiihte 
des  aUgemeinen  SlaaisredUs  (Munich,  1864).  A  fuller  analysis, 
and  some  notice  of  the  predecessors  of  Grotius,  will  be  found  in 
H£ly,  £tude  sur  le  droit  de  la  guerre  de  Grotius  (Paris,  1875). 
The  writer,  however,  had  never  heard  of  the  Z>«  jure  praedae, 
published  in  x868.  Hallam,  Lit.  of  Europe^  ii.  p.  543,  has  an 
abstract  done  with  his  usual  conadentious  pains.  Dugald 
Stewart  {CoUected  Works,  i.  370)  has  dwdt  upon  the  confusion 
and  defects  of  Grotius's  theory.  Sir  James  Mackintosh  {MisceU, 
Works,  p.  166)  has  defended  Grotius,  affirming  that  his  work 
"  is  perhaps  the  most  complete  that  the  world  has  yet  owed,  at 
so  early  a  stage  in  the  progress  of  any  sdence,  to  the  genius  and 
Ifaming  of  one  man." 

The  chief  writing  of  Grotius  have  been  named.  For  a  complete 
bibHogrsphy  of  his  worksj  tee  Lebmann,  Hutpnis  Cr<aii  manes 
tindicaH  (Delft,  1727},  whxh  alto  contains  a  full  biography.  Of 
this  Latin  life  De  Bungny  published  a  r6cbauffte  in  French  (2  vols., 
8vo,  Paris,  I7S3)«  Other  lives  are:  Van  Brandt,  Historie  van  het 
ff.  de  Groot  (sr  vols.,  8vo,  Dordrecht,  1727);  Von  Luden, 


Hugo  Grotius  nock  seinen  Sckicksalen  und  Schrifien  dargesleOl  (Svo^ 
Berlin,  1806):  Life  of  Bugp  Grotius^  by  Charies  Butler  of  Lincoln's 
Inn  (8vo,  London,  i8a6).  The  work  of  the  Abb6  H%  contains  a 
life  of  Grotius.  See  also  HttfoGrotfut,  by  L.  Neumann  (Berlin,  1884); 
Opinions  ef  Grotius^  by  D.  P.  de  Bruyn  (London.  189^). 

Grotius's  theological  wmlcs  were  collected  in  3  vols.  fd.  at  Amster- 
dam (1644-1646;  reprinted  London,  1660;  Axnaterdam,  1679; 
and  again  Amsterdam,  1698).  His  letters  were  printed  fint  in  a 
selection,  Episkdae  ad  GaUos  (lamo,  Leiden,  1048),  aboundii 
though  an  Elaevir,  in  errors  of  the  press.    They  were  collected  in  * 


624 


GROTTAFERRATA— GROUND-ICE 


CrotH  episUia*  quolgtM  nptnri.  pqfiunmi  (fol..  Amsterdam,  1687). 
A  few  may  be  found  acattered  in  other  coUcctiona  of  BpistoUu. 
Supplements  to  the  hrge  collection  of  1687  were  published  at 
Haarlem,  1806;  Leiden.  1809:  and  Haarlem,  1829.  The  D*  jure 
bdli  was  translated  into  English  by  Whewell  (3  vols..8vo.  Cambridge, 
1853);  into  French  by  Barbeyrsc  (a  vols.  4to.  Amsterdam.  1724); 
into  German  in  Kirchmann's  PililoM^MreAc  Biblidkek  (3  vols.  i2mo, 
LeipBf.  1879).  (M.  P.) 

GROTTAFERRATA,  a  vOIage  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Rome, 
from  whidi  it  is  13  m.  S.E.  by  electric  tramway,  and  a\m.  S. 
of  Fraacati,  xoSo  ft.  above  sea-level,  in  the  Alban  Hills.  Pop. 
(1901)  2645.  It  is  noticeable  for  the  Greek  monastery  of  Basilians 
founded  by  S.  Nilus  in  1002  under  the  Emperor  Otho  III.,  and 
which  occupies  the  site  of  a  large  Roman  villa,  possibly  that  of 
Cicero.  It  was  fortified  at  the  end  of  the  1 5th  century  by  Cardinal 
Giuliano  della  Rovere  (afterwards  Pope  Julius  II.),  whose  arms 
may  be  seen  about  it.  The  massive  towers  added  by  him  give 
it  a  picturesque  appearance.  The  church  belongs  to  the  12th 
century,  and  the  original  portal,  with  a  mosaic  over  it,  is  still 
preserved;  the  interior  was  restored  in  1574  and  in  1754,  but 
there  are  some  remains  of  frescoes  of  the  13th  century.  The 
chapel  of  S.  Nilus  contains  frescoes  by  Domenico  2Uunpieri 
(Domenichino)  of  1610,  illustrating  the  life  of  the  saint,  which 
are  among  his  most  important  works.  The  abbot's  palace  has 
a  fine  Renaissance  portico,  and  contains  an  interesting  museum 
of  local  antiquities.  The  library  contains  valuable  MSS.,  among 
them  one  from  the  hand  of  S.  Nilus  (965);  and  a  palaeographical 
school,  for  the  copying  of  MSS.  in  the  ancient  style,  is  maintained. 
An  omophorion  of  the  xith  or  X2th  century,  with  scenes  from  the 
Go^wl  in  needlework,  and  a  chah'ce  of  the  15th  century  with 
enamels,  given  by  Cardinal  Bcssarion,  the  predecessor  of  Giuliano 
della  Rovere  as  commendatory  of  the  abbey,  are  among  its 
treasures.  An  important  exhibition  of  Italo-Byzantine  art  was 
bdd  here  in  1905-1906. 

See  A.  Rocchi.  La  Badia  di  GroUafemta  (Rome.  1884):  A. 
Mufioc,  L'Art  bymniin  6  Vexposilum  d$  GroUaferrata  (Rome.  100;) : 
T.  Ashby  in  Papers  ofths  Brmsk  School  at  Homo,  iv.  (1907).  (T.  As.) 

QROUCHT,  BMIIAIIURL,  Maxquxs  de  (1766-1847),- marshal 
of  France,  was  bom  in  Paris  on  the  23rd  of  October  1766.  He 
entered  the  French  artillery  in  1779,  transferred  to  the  cavalry 
in  1782,  and  to  the  Gardes  du  corps  in  1786.  In  spite  of  his 
aristocratic  birth  and  his  connexions  with  the  coxirt,  he  was  a 
convinced  supporter  of  the  principles  of  the  Revolution,  and  had 
in  consequence  to  leave  the  Guards.  About  the  time  of  the 
outbreak  of  war  in  1792  he  became  colonel  of  a  cavalry  regiment, 
and  soon  afterwards,  as  a  martchai  de  camp^  he  was  sent  to  serve 
on  the  south-eastern  frontier.  In  1793  he  distinguished  himself 
in  La  Vendue,  and  was  promoted  general  of  division.  Grouchy 
was  shortly  aiterwaids  deprived  of  his  rank  as  being  of  noble 
birth,  but  in  1795  he  was  again  placed  on  the  active  list,  fie 
served  on  the  staff  of  the  Army  of  Ireland  (1796-1797),'  and  took 
a  conspicuous  part  in  the  Irish  opedition.  .  In  1798  he 
administered  the  dvil  and  military  government  of  Piedmont  at 
the  time  of  the  abdication  of  the  king  of  Sardinia,  and  in  1799  he 
distinguished  himself  greatly  as  a  divisional  commander  in  (he 
campaign  against  the  Austriana  and  Russians.  In  covering 
the  retreat  of  the  French  after  the  defeat  of  Novi,  Grouchy  re- 
ceived fourteen  wounds  and  was  taken  prisoner.  On  his  rdease 
he  returned  to  France.  In  spite  of  his  having  protested  against  the 
coup  d'itat  of  the  x8th  of  Brumaire  he  was  at  once  re-employed  by 
the  First  Consul,  and  distinguished  himself  again  at  HohenUnden. 
It  was  not  long  before  he  accepted  tbe  new  regime  in  France, 
and  from  x8ox  onwards  he  was  employed  by  Napdeon  in  military 
and  political  positions  of  importance.  He  served  in  Austria  in 
1805,  in  Prussia  in  1806,  Poland  in  X807,  Spain  in  x8o8,  and  com- 
manded the  cavalry  of  the  Army  of  Italy  in  1809  in  the  Viceroy 
Eugtoe's  advance  to  Vieima.  In  x8i2  he  was  made  commander 
of  one  of  the  four  cavalry  corps  of  the  Grand  Army,  and  during 
the  retreat  from  Moscow  Napoleon  appointed  him  to  command 
the  escort  squadron,  which  was  composed  entirely  of  (Hcked 
officers.  His  almost  continuous  service  with  the.  cavalry  led 
Napdeon  to  decline  in  18x3  to  place  Grouchy  at  the  head  of  an 
army  corp*,  and  Grouchy  tkeieupoo  retired  to  France.   4n 


x8i4,  however,  he  hastened  to  take  part  in  the  defensive  nrnpaiigr 
in  France,  and  he  was  severely  wounded  at  Craonne.    At  the 
Restoration  he  was  deprived  of  the  post  of  colonel-feaenl  of 
chasseurs  d  cheval  and  retired.     He  joined  Napoleon  on  bb 
return  from  Elba,  and  was  made  marshal  and  peer  of  Fraace. 
In  the  campaign  of  Waterloo  he  commanded  the  reserve  cavalry 
of  the  army,  and  after  Ligny  he  was  appointed  to  command 
the  right  wing  to  pursue  the  Prussians.  The  inarch  on  Wavie, 
its  influence  on  the  result  of  the  campaign,  and  the  conuovcisy 
to  which  Grouchy's  conduct  on  the  day  of  Waterioo  baa  piscn 
rise,  are  dealt  with  briefly  in  the  article  Watexloo  Campaign, 
and  at  length  in  nearly  every  woik  on  the  campaign  of  18x5. 
Here  it  is  only  necessary  to  say  that  00  the  17th  Gxtnicby  was 
unable  to  dose  with  the  Prussians,  and  on  the  x8th,  tliough 
wged  to  march  towards  the  sound  of  the  guns  of  Waterloo, 
he  permitted  himself,  from  whatever  cause,  to  be  held  ap  by  a 
Prussian .  rearguard  while  the  Prussians  and  £ng^  united 
to  crush  Napoleon.   On  the  19II1  Grouchy  won  a  smart  victocy 
over  the  Prussians  at  Wavre,  but  it  was  then  too  late.     So  far 
as  resistance  was  possible  after  the  great  disaster,  Cfoucfay 
made  it.    He  gathered  up  the  wrecks  of  Napoleon's  army  and 
retired,  swiftly  and  unbroken,  to  Paris,  where,  after  intcxposing 
his  reorganized  forces  between  the  enemy  and  the  capital,  be 
resigned  his  command  into  the  hands  of  Marshal  Davout.   Tbe 
rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  defending  himself.   An  attempt  to 
have  him  condemned  to  death  by  a  court-martial  failed,  but 
he  was  exiled  and  lived  in  America  till  amnestied  in  lEat.    On 
his  return  to  France  be  was  reinstated  as  general,  but  not  as 
marshal  nor  as  peer  of  France.     For  many  years  thereafter 
he  was  equally  an  object  of  aversion  to  tbe  court  party,  as  a 
member  of  their  own  caste  who  had  followed  the  Revolutioa 
and  Napoleon,  and  to  his  comrades  of  the  Grand  Army  aa  tbe 
supposed  betrayer  of  Napoleon.    In  1830  Louis  Philippe  gave 
him  back  the  marshal's  b&ton  and  restored  him  to  tbe  Chamhrr 
of  Peers.   He  died  at  St-£tienne  on  tbe  29th  of  May  1847. 

See  Marquis  de  Grouchv,  Mimoires  du  marichal  MarqmU  de 
Grouchy  (Paris,  1 873-1 874):  General  Marquis  de  Grcmcby.  Le 
GhUrd  Grouchy  en  IrUuide  (Fkris,  x866).  and  U  Martchai  Orvmcky 


du  16  au  iSjufn,  1815  (Pkris,  1864) ;  Ap^  d  Fkistoire  sur  lev  faH 
de  I'aiie  droite  de  Varmie  fram^aise  inne,  n.d.);  Siekre  Justice  s» 
les  faits  .  .  .  du  »8  jmu  au  3  i«M^  ''{5  (P^^S.  i8^>:  <uk1  tbe 
literature  of  the  Waterloo  campaign.    Marshal  Groucby 


wrote  the  following:  ObsermUens  sur  la  rdaOou  de  la  cammpagme  de 
m8is  par  le  tJbuM  de  Gourgaud  (Philadelphia  and  Pkria.  1818I; 
RifiOatum  de  quelques  artieles  des  mimoires  de  M.  le  Due  da  Roeim 
(Paris,  1829):  Fragments  histerifues  relates  d  la  campagme  at  d  ta 
bataiUe  de  Waterloo  (Pkris,  1829-1830,  in  reply  to  BarthSeny  asd 
M^.  and  to  Marshal  Ginxd)iRMamaliou  du  martckal  dm  Gromckj 
(Paris,  1834) ;  Plaiute  centre  le  ^niral  Baron  Bertheatne  (Bcrtbeaise. 
fonnerly  a  divisional  commander  under  Onrd,  stated  in  reply  to 
this  defaioe  that  he  had  no  intention  of  accusing  Groucby  oC  ill  lutbX 

QROnifI>-ICB,*  ice  formed  at  the  boUom  of  streams  vh3e 
the  temperature  of  the  water  is  above  freeaing-point.  Every- 
thing points  to  radiation  as  tbe  prime  cause  of  the  formatiain  a( 
ground-ice.  It  is  formed  only  under  a  dear  sky,  never  in  dondy 
weather;  it  is  most  readily  formed  on  dark  rocks,  and  oevtr 
imder  any  covering  such  as  a  bridge,  and  rarely  under  snxtace- 
ice.  Professor  Howard  T.  Barnes  of  McGill  Um'versity  cosdndcs 
that  the  radiation  from  a  river  bed  in  cold  and  dear  nights  goo 
through  the  water  in  long  rays  that  penetrate  much  more  easily 
from  below  upwards  than  the  sim's  heat  rays  from  above  dowa- 
wards,  which  are  mostly  absorbed  by  the  first  few  feet  of  watc. 
On  a  cold  dear  night,  therefore,  the  radiation  from  the  bottoe 
is  excessive,  and  loosdy-grown  spongy  masses  of  aacbor-ke 
form  on  tbe  bottom,  wUch  on  tbe  following  bright  sttnoy  dsv 
recdve  just  suflident  beat  from  the  sun  to  detacb  the  mass  of 

1  The  O.  Eng.  word  mnMf  .ground.is  common  to  Teutonic 
cf.  Du.  t^ond,  Ger.  Crund,  but  has  no  cognates  outside  1 
The  suggestion  that  the  oi^pn  b  to  be  found  in  "  ^nd."  to 
small,  reduce  to  powder,  u  plausible,  but  the  primary 


seems  to  be  the  lowest  part  or  bottom  of  anything  rather  tfaaa  mi 
sand  or  gravel.  The  main  bmncbes  in  sense  appear  to  be.  Sra. 
bottom,  as  of  the  sea  or  a  river,  d.  the  use,  in  the  plural,  for  <facfr» . 
second,  base  or  foundation,  actual,  as  of  the  first  or  maia  ■urfuc  ol  s 
painting,  fabric.  Ac.,  or  figumtive,  as  of  a  prindple  or  reaaoa;  third 
the  suxface  of  the  earth,  or  a  particular  part  of  that  cuHaoe, 


GROUND  NUT-AGROUND  RENT 


625 


ke,  whidi  riaet  to  the  nurface  with  considerable  force;  It  is  prob- 
able that  owing  to  surface  tension  a  thin  film  of  stationary  water 
rests  upon  the  boulders  and  sand  over  which  a  stream  flows, 
and  that  this,  becoming  frozen  owing  to  radiation,  forms  the 
foundation  for  the  anchor-ice  and  produces  a  surface  upon  which 
the  descending  fnuil-ice  (see  below)  can  lodge.  The  theory 
of  radiation  from  the  boulders  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  as 
the  ice  is  formed  upon  them  in  response  to  a  sudden  fall  in  the 
air  temperature,  it  is  only  released  under  the  influence  of  a  strong 
rise  of  temperature  during  the  morning.  It  may  not  rise  for 
several  days,  but  the  advent  of  bright  sunlight  is  followed  by 
the  appearance  on  the  surface  of  masses  of  ground-ice.  This 
ice  has  a  spongy  texture  and  frequently  carries  gravel  with  it 
when  it  rises.  It  is  said  that  the  bottom  of  Lake  Erie  is  strewn 
with  gravel  that  has  been  floated  down  in  this  way.  This 
"  anchor-ice,"  as  it  was  called  by  Canadian  trappers,  frequently 
forms  dams  across  narrow  portions  of  the  river  where  the 
floating  masses  are  caught.  Dr  H.  Landor  pointed  out  that  the 
Mackenzie  and  Mississippi  rivers,  which  rise  in  the  same  region 
and  flow  in  opposite  directions,  carry  ground-ice  from  their 
head- waters  for  a  considerable  distance  down  stream,  and 
suggested  that  here  and  in  Siberia  many  forms  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life  may  be  distributed  from  a  centre  by  this  agency, 
since  the  material  carried  by  the  floating  ice  woiild  contain  the 
seeds  and  eggs  or  larvae  of  many  forms. 

Besides  ground-ice  and  anchor-ice  this  formation  is  called 
also  bottom-ice,  ground-gni  and  lappered  ice,  the  two  Ust  names 
being  Scottish.  In  France  it  is  called  glace  du  fondf  in  Germany 
Crundeitt  and  in  French  Canada  moutonne  from  the  appearance 
of  sheep  at  rest,  since  the  ice  formed  at  the  bottom  grows  in 
woolly,  spongy  masses  upon  boulders  or  other  projections. 

**  Frazil-ice  "  is  a  Canadian  term  from  the  French  for  "  forge- 
cinders."  It  is  surface  ice  formed  in  spicules  and  carried  down- 
wards in  water  agitated  by  winds  or  rapids.  The  frazil-ice  may 
render  swiftly  moving  water  turbid  with  ice  crjrstals,  it  may  be 
swirled  downwards  and  accumulated  upon  the  ground  ice,  or 
it  may  be  swept  under  thesheet  of  surface-ice,  coating  the  under 
surface  of  the  sheet  to  a  thickness  as  great  as  80  ft.  of  loose 
spicuUr  ice. 

See  W.  G.  Thompton,  in  Nahtn,  i.  ^'^$  (1870):  H.  Landor,  In 
GeolegUal  Magatine^  decade  II.,  vol.  111.,  p.  450  (1876);  H.  T. 
Barnes,  Ice  Formation  wiik  special  Referenu  to  Anaur-tce  and  FratU 
(1906), 

OROUND  NUT  (Earth  Nut,  Pistache  de  Terre,  Monkey  Nut, 
Pea  Nut,  Manilla  Nut),  in  botany,  the  fruit  or  pod  of  Arachis 
kypogaea  (nat.  ord.  Leguminosae).  The  plant  is  an  annual  of 
diffuse  habit,  with  hairy  stem,  and  two-paired,  abruptly  pinnate 
leaflets.  The  pods  or  legumes  are  stalked,  oblong,  cylindrical, 
about  t  in.  in  length,  the  thin  reticulated  shell  containing  one  or 
two  irregularly  ovoid  seeds.  After  the  flower  withers,  the  stalk 
of  the  ovary  has  the  peculiarity  of  elongating  and  bending  down, 
forcing  the  young  pod  underground,  and  thus  the  seeds  become 
matured  at  some  distance  below  the  surface.  Hence  the  specific 
and  venucular  names  of  the  plant.  Originally  a  native  of 
South  America,  it  is  extensively  cultivated  in  all  tropical  and 
subtropical  countries.  The  phint  affecu  a  light  sandy  soil,  and 
is  very  prolific,  yielding  in  some  instances  30  to  38  bushels  of  nuts 
per  acre.  The  pods  when  ripe  are  dug  up  and  dried.  The  seeds 
« hen  fresh  are  largely  eaten  in  tropical  countries,  and  in  taste 
are  almost  equal  to  almonds;  when  roasted  they  are  used  as  a 
substitute  for  chocolate.  In  America  they  are  consumed  in 
large  quantities  as  the  "  pea-nut ";  but  are  not  much  appreciated 
in  England  except  by  the  poorer  children,  who  know  them  as 
"  monkey-nuts."  By  expression  the  seeds  yield  a  large  quantity 
of  oil,  which  is  used  by  natives  for  lamps,  as  a  fish  or  curry  oil 
and  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  leaves  form  an  excellent  food 
for  cattle,  being  very  like  clover. 

Large  quantities  of  seeds  are  imported  to  Europe,  chiefly  to 
Marseilles,  London  and  Hamburg,  for  the  sake  of  their  contained 
oiL  The  seeds  yield  from  4a  to  50%  of  oil  by  cold  expression, 
but  a  larger  quantity  b  obtained  by  heat,  although  of  an  inferior 
quality.    The  seeds  being  soft  facilitate  mechanical  expression, 

XII   n 


and  where  bisulphide  of  carbon  or  other  aolvent  is  used,  a  very 
pure  oil  i^  obtained. 

The  expressed  oil  is  limpid,  of  a  light  yeUowish  or  straw  colour, 
having  a  faint  smell  and  bland  taste;  it  forma  an  excellent 
substitute  for  olive  oil,  although  in  a  slight  degree  more  prone 
to  rancidity  than  the  latter.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0*916  to 
0*918;  it  becomes  turbid  at  3**  C,  concretes  at  -I-3'*  to  -  4*  C, 
and  hardens  at  -t-?**  C.  It  is  a  non-drying  oil.HSround  nut  oil 
consisu  of  (x)  oleic  acid  (Ci«HM()t);  (2)  hypogaeic  add 
(CmHmOi),  by  some  supposed  to  be  identical  with  a  fatty. add 
found  in  whale  oil;  (3)  palmitic  add  (CuHmOi);  and  (4) 
arachic  acid  (CmHJDi).  The  oU  is  used  in  the  adulteration  of 
gingelly  oil. 

QROUND-PBARL,  the  glassy  secretion  forming  the  pupacase 
of  coccid  insects  of  the  genus  Margarodes,  belonging  to  the 
homopterous  division  of  the  Hemiptera. 

GROUND  RENT.  In  Roman  law,  ground  rent  (solaritim) 
was  an  annual  rent  payable  by  the  lessee  of  a  SMperficies  or 
perpetual  lease  of  building  knd.  In  English  law,  it  appears  that 
the  term  was  at  one  time  popularly  used  for  the  houses  and  lands 
out  of  which  ground  rents  issue  as  well asfor  the  rents  themselves 
(cf.  Maundy  v.  Maundy,  2  Strange,  xoao);  and  Lord  Eldon 
observed  in  18x5  that  the  context  in  which  the  term  occurred 
may  materially  vary  its  meaning  {Stewart  v.  AUistcn,  i  Mer.  a6). 
But  at  the  present  time  the  accepted  meaning  of  ground  rent  is 
the  rent  at  which  land  is  let  for  the  purpose  of  improvement  by 
building,  t.e.arent  charged  in  respect  of  the  land  only  and  not  in 
respect  of  the  buildings  to  be  placed  thereon.  It  thus  conveys 
the  idea  of  something  lower  than  a  rack  rent  (see  Rent);  and 
accordingly  if  a  vendor  described  property  as  property  for  which 
he  paid  a  "  ground  reiU,"  without  any  further  explanation  of  the 
term,  a  purchaser  would  not  be  obliged  to  accept  the  property 
if  it  turned  out  to  be  hdd  at  a  rack  rent.  But  while  a  rack  rent 
is  generally  higher  in  amount  than  a  ground  rent,  the  latter  is 
usually  better  secured,  as  it  carries  with  it  the  reversionary 
interest  in  buildings  and  improvements  put  on  the  ground  after 
the  date  at  whiph  the  ground  rent  was  fixed,  and  accordingly 
ground  rents  have  been  regarded  as  a  good  investment.  Trustees 
empowered  to  invest  money  on  the  security  of  freehold  or 
copyhold  hereditaments,  nuty  invest  upon  freehold  ground  rents 
reserved  out  of  house  property.  In  estimating  the  amount  that 
may  be  so  invested,  account  may  be  taken  of  the  value  of  the 
houses,  as,  if  the  ground  rents  are  not  paid,  the  landlord  can 
re-enter.  Again,  where  a  settlement  authorizes  trustees  to 
purchase  lands  or  hereditaments  in  fee-simple  or  possession,  a 
purchase  of  freehold  ground  rents  has  been  held  to  be  proper. 
A  devise  of  "  ground  rent "  carries  not  only  the  rent  but  the 
reversion.  Where  a  tenant  is  compelled,  in  order  to  prbtect 
himself  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  land  in  respect  of  which  his  rent 
is  payable,  to  pay  ground  rent  to  a  superior  landlord  (who  is 
of  course  in  a  position  to  distrain  on  him  for  it),  he  is  considered 
as  having  been  authorized  by  his  immediate  landlord  to  apply 
his  rent,  due  or  accruing  due,  in  this  manner,  and  the  payment 
of  the  ground  rent  will  be  held  to  be  payment  of  the  rent  itself 
or  part  of  it.  A  lodger  should  make  any  payment  of  this  char- 
acter under  the  Law  of  Distress  Amendment  Act  1908  (s.  3; 
and  see  Rent).  Ground  rents  are  apportionable  (see  Appor- 
tionment). 

In  Scots  law,  the  term  "  ground  rent "  is  not  employcdi  but  its 
place  it  taken,  for  practical  purposes,  by  the  "  ground-annual, " 
which  bean  a  double  meaninK.  (L)  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation 
in  Scotland,  the  lands  of  the  Church  were  parcelled  out  by  the  crown 
into  various  lordships — the  grantees  being  called  Lords  of  Erection. 
In  the  17th  century  these  Loratof  Erection  resigned  thdr  superiorities 
to  the  crown,  with  the  exception  of  the  feu-duties,  which  were  to  be 
retained  till  a  price  agreed  upon  for  their  redemption  had  been  paid. 
This  reserved  power  of  redemption  was.  however,  resigned  by  the 
crown  on  the  eve  of  the  Union  and  the  feu-duties  became  payable  in 
perpetuity  to  the  Lords  of  Erection  as  a  "  ground-annual."  (ii.) 
Speculators  in  building  ground  usually  grant  sub-feus  to  builders  at 
a  high  feu-duty.  But  where  aub-feus  are  prohibited — as  they  might 
be,  prior  to  the  Conveyancing  (Scotlano)  Act  1874 — and  there  is 
much  demand  for  butldins  ground,  the  feuars  frequently  itipubte  for 
an  annual  rent  from  the  ouildert  rather  than  for  a  pnce  payable  at 
once.   This  annual  rent  is  called  a  "  ground-annual.     1  nterest  is  not 


626 


GROUNDSEL— GROUPS,  THEORY  OF 


due  on  arrears  of  ground<aiinttaU.  Like  other  real  burdens,  ground- 
annuals  nuiy  now  be  freely  assigned  and  conveyed  (Conveyancing 
(Scotbnd)  Act  1874.  s.  30}. 

The  term  "  ground  rent "  in  the  English  tense  does  not  aeem 
to  be  generally  used  in  the  United  States,  but  is  applied  in 
Pennsylvania  to  a  kind  of  tenure,  created  by  a  grant  in  fee  simple, 
the  grantor  reserving  to  himself  and  his  heLm  a  certain  rent, 
whi^  is  the  interest  of  the  money  value  of  the  land.  These 
"  ground  rents  "  are  real  estate,  and,  in  cases  of  intestacy,  go  to 
the  heir.  They  are  rent  services  and  not  rent  charges— the 
statute  Quia  Empires  never  having  been  in  force  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  are  subject  to  all  the  incidents  of  such  rents  (see  Rent). 
The  grantee  of  such  a  "  ground  rent "  may  mortgage,  seU,  or 
otherwise  dispose  of  the  grant  as  he  pleases;  and  while  the  rent 
is  paid  the  laud  cannot  be  sold  or  the  value  of  the  improvements 
lost. 

A  ground  rent  being  a  freehold  estate,  created  by  deed  and 
perpetual  in  duration,  no  presumption  could,  at  common  law, 
arise  from  lapse  of  tune,  that  it  had  been  released.  But  now, 
by  statute  (Act  of  a7th  of  April  1855,  s.  7),  a  presumption  of 
release  or  extinguishment  is  created  where  no  payment,  claim 
or  demand  has  been  made  for  the  rent,  nor  any  declaration  or 
acknowledgment  of  its  existence  made  or  given  by  the  owner 
of  the  premises  subject  to  it,  for  the  period  of  ax  years.  Ground 
rents  were  formerly  irredeemable  after  a  certain  time.  But  the 
creation  of  irredeemable  ground  rents  is  now  forbidden  (Pennsyl- 
vania Act  7  Assembly,  sand  of  April  1850). 

For  English  Law  see  Foa.  Landtord  and  Tenant  hrd  ed..  London, 
1901);  Scots  Law,  Bell's  Princi^s  (loth  ed.,  Edinbuigh,  1899): 
American  Law,  Bouvier,  Law  DtcL  (Biaston  and  London,  1807). 

OROUmMBL  (Ger.  Kremkraui't  Fr.  senecMi),  Senecio  vtd- 
garu,  an  annual,  glabrous,  or  more  or  less  woolly  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Compositae,  having  a  branched  succulent  stem 
6  to  X  5  in.  in  height,  pinnatifid  irregularly  and  coarsely-toothed 
leaves,  and  small  cylindrical  heads  of  yellow  tubular  florets 
enveloped  in  an  involucre  ol  numerous  narrow  bracts;  the 
ribbed  fruit  bears  a  soft,  feathery,  hoary  tuft  of  hairs  (pappus). 
The  plant  is  indigenous  to  Europe,  whence  it  has  been  introiduced 
Into  all  temperate  climates.  It  is  a  troublesome  weed,  flowering 
throughout  the  year,  and  propagating  itself  rapidly  by  means 
of  its  light  feathery  fruits;  it  hiui  its  use,  however,  as  a  food 
for  cage-birds.  Senecio  Jacabaea,  ragwort,  is  a  showy  plant  with 
heads  of  bright  yellow  flowers,  conunon  in  pastures  and  by 
roadsides.  I^e  genus  Senecio  is  a  very  large  one,  widely  distri- 
buted in  temperate  and  cold  climates.  The  British  species  are 
all  herbs,  but  the  genus  also  includes  shrubs  and  even  arborescent 
forms,  which  are  characteristic  features  of  the  vegetation  of 
the  higher  levels  on  the  mountains  of  tropical  Africa.  Many 
species  of  the  genus  are  handsome  florists'  (jants.  The  groundsel 
tree,  BaccJioris  kalimifoliat  a  native  of  the  North  American 
sea-coast  from  Massachusetts  southward,  is  a  Composite  shrub, 
attaining  6  to  x  a  ft.  in  height,  and  having  angular  branches, 
obovate  or  oblong-cuneate,  somewhat  scurfy  leaves,  and  flowers 
larger  than  but  similar  to  those  of  common  groundsel.  The 
long  white  pappus  of  the  female  plant  renders  it  a  conspicuous 
object  in  autumn.    The  groundsel  tree  has  been  cultivated  in 

British  gardens  since  1683. 

The  old  English  word,  represented  by  "  groundsel,'*  appears  in 
two  forms,  fpntdetwylige  and  giindteswapet',  of  the  first  form  the 


mean  "  pu»*absorber  "  (O.E.  gwii,  filthy  matter),  with  reference  to  its 
use  in  poultices  for  abscesses  and  the  like. . 

OROUND-SQUIRRBL,  one  of  the  names  for  a  group  of  (chiefly) 
North  American  striped  terrestrial  squirrel-like  rodents,  more 
generally  known  as  chipmunks.  They  are  dcsely  allied  to 
squirrels,  from  which  they  are  distinguished  by  the  possession 
of  cheek-pouches  for  the  storage  of  fooid.  The  sides,  or  the  sides 
and  back,  are  marked  with  light  stripes  bordered  by  dark  bands; 
the  ears  are  small,  and  without  tufts;  and  the  tail  is  relatively 
short.  With  the  exception  of  one  Siberian  species  {Tamias 
QtiaUcus)t  ground-squirrels  are  confined  to  North  America, 


where  they  are  represented  by  a  large  mimber  of  species  and 
races,  all  referable  to  the  genus  Tamiae.  In  North  America 
ground-squirrels  are  migratory,  and  may  be  abundant  ia  a 
district  one  year,  and  absent  the  next.  They  feed  on  nuts, 
beechnust,  com  and  roots,  and  also  on  grubs.  With  the  assist- 
ance of  their  cheek-pouches  they  accumulate  large  sopfkiies 
of  food  for  the  winter,  during  which  season  they  lie  dormant 
in  holes.  Although  generally  keeping  to  the  gnniad,  wbea 
hunted  they  take  to  trees,  which  they  climb  in  search  of  food. 
One  of  the  longest  known  American  species  is  T.  siriatms, 

GROUPS,*  THEORY  OF.  The  conception  of  an  opcratioa 
to  be  carried  out  on  some  object  or  set  of  objects  underlies  aB 
mathematical  science.  Thus  in  elementary  arithmetic  there  axe 
the  fundamental  operations  of  the  addition  and  the  multiplicatioB 
of  integers;  in  algebra  a  linear  transformation  is  an  operation 
which  may  be  carried  out  on  any  set  of  variables;  wkuHe  in 
geometry  a  translation,  a  rotation,  or  a  projective  transfonnatioo 
are  operations  which  may  be  carried  out  on  any  figure. 

In  speaking  of  an  operation,  an  object  or  a  set  of  objects  to 
which  it  nuty  be  applied  is  postulated;  and  the  operation  may, 
and  generally  will,  have  no  meaning  except  in  regard  to  soch  a 
set  of  objects.  If  two  operations,  which  can  be  perfonned  as 
the  same  set  of  objects,  are  such  that,  when  carried  out  in 
succession  on  any  possible  object,  the  restilt,  whichever  operatioo 
is  performed  first,  is  to  produce  no  change  in  the  object,  then 
each  Of  the  operations  is  spoken  of  as  a  definile  operation,  and 
each  of  them  is  called  the  imerse  of  the  other.  Thus  the  opera- 
tions which  consist  in  replacing  «  by  sx  and  by  x/a  respectively, 
in  any  rational  function  of  x,  are  definite  invert  oper&tioos, 
if  a  is  any  assigned  number  except  xero.  On  the  oontraiy,  the 
operation  of  replacing  x  by  an  assigned  number  in  any  rational 
function  of  x  is  not,  in  the  present  sense,  although  it  leads  to  a 
unique  restdt,  a  ddfinite  operation;  there  is  in  fact  no  unique 
inverse  operation  corresponding  to  it.  It  is  to  be  noticed  that 
the  question  whether  an  operation  is  a  definite  operatiosi  or  no 
may  depend  on  the  range  of  the  objects  on  which  it  operates. 
For  example,  the  operations  of  squaring  and  extracting  the 
square  root  are  definite  inverse  operations  if  the  objects  are 
restricted  to  be  real  positive  numbos,  but  not  othenrise. 

If  O,  (y,  0',. .  .is  the  totality  of  the  objects  00  which  a  defimce 
opwation  S  and  its  inverse  S'  may  be  carried  out,  and  if  the  result  of 
carrytnff  out  S  on  O  is  represented  by  OS,  then  O.S.S',O.S'.S..  uid 
O  are  the  same  obtect  whatever  object  of  the  set  O  may  be.  Tlii* 
will  be  representea  by  the  equations  SS' "S'S *  i.    Now  O.S 


O.S^'kas 


represented  by  the  equations 

a  meaning  only  if  O.S  is  an  object  on  which  S'  roav  be  perfi 

Hence  whatever  object  of  the  set  O  may  be.  both  OS  sad  QlS' 
belong  to  the  set.  Similariy  O.S.S,  O.SwS.S,. .  .are  objects  of  the 
set.  These  will  be  represented  by  0.9,  0.5*,...  Suppose  aov 
that  T  b  another  definite  operatbn  with  the  ame  set  01  objects  as 
S,  and  that  T'  is  its  inverse  operation.  Then  O.S.T  is  a  defiaite 
cperation  of  the  set,  and  therefore  the  result  of  carrying  oat  S  sad 
tnen  T  on  the  set  of  objects  is  some  operation  U  with  a  uoioae  revuk. 
Represent  by  U'  the  result  of  carrymg  out  T*  and  then  S'.  Then 
O.  UU'  -  O.S.T.T'.S'  -  O.SS'  -  O,  and  O.  UU  -  aX'.S'.ST 
-O.TT-O,  whatever  object  O  may  be.  Hence  UU'«  U'U  « 1 ; 
and  U,  U'  are  definite  inverse  operations. 
If  S,  U,  V  are  definite  operations,  and  if  S'  itthe  invcrssoC  S, 

su-sv 

implies  S'SU-S'SV, 

or  U-V. 

Similariy  US-VS 

implies  U«V. 

Let  S,  T.  U,. .  .be  a  set  of  definite  operations,  capable  of 
carried  out  on  a  common  object  or  set  of  objects,  ana  let  - 
the  set  contain — 

(L)  the  operation  ST,  S  and  Tbdng  any  two  opctatioos 
of  the  set; 

QL)  the  inverse  operation  of  S,  S  being  any  operatioa  of  the  set ; 
the  set  of  operations  b  then  called  a  group. 

The  number  of  operations  in  a  group  may  be  either  fiaiae  or  ta 
finite.    When  it  is  nnite,  the  number  is  called  the  order  of  the  crotqa, 

^  The  word  "  group,"  which  appeare  first  in  English  in  tbe 
of  an  assemblage  of  figures  in  an  artistic  design,  ptctnre,   ' 
adapted  from  the  Fr.  groupe,  which  is  to  be  referred  to  the  X* 
word  meanimi;  "  knot,"  "  mass."  "  bunch,"  represented  in 
by  "  crop  "  ^.r.).    The  technical  mathematical  sense  is 
than  187a 


GROUPS,  THEORY  OF 


627 


and  the  (roup  is  spoken  of  as  a  group  of  finit*  ordtr.  If  the  number 
of  operations  u  infinite,  there  are  three  poesible  cases.  When  the 
group  is  represented  by  a  set  of  ^metrical  operations,  for  the  speci- 
fication of  an  individual  operation  a  number  of  measurements  will 
be  necessary.  In  more  analytical  bnguage,  each  operation  will  be 
specific  by  the  values  of  a  set  of  parameters.  If  no  one  of  these 
parameters  is  capable  of  continuous  variation,  the  group  is  called  a 
aiicoiUinuous  group.  If  all  the  parameters  are  capable  oc  continuous 
variation,  the  group  is  called  a  amtinuous  group.  If  some  of  the 
parameters  are  capable  of  continuous  variation  and  some  are  not,  the 
group  is  called  a  mixid  group. 

If  S'  is  the  inverse  operation  of  S,  a  group  which  contains  S  must 
contain  SS',  which  produces  no  change  on  any  possible  object. 
This  tM  called  the  idaUieal  operfOion^  and  will  alwa^rs  be  represented 
by  I.  Since  S'S^'-S'**  when  p  and  9  are  positive  integers,  and 
S^S'a-S''*  while  no  mieaning  at  present  has  been  attached  toS> 
when  q  is  negative,  S'  may  be  consistently  represented  by  S"*.  The 
set  of  operations . . .,  S~*,  S"*,  i,  S,  S*. . . .  obviously  constitute  a 
group.    Such  a  group  is  called  a  cydkal  group. 

It  will  be  convenient,  before  giving  some  illustrations  of  the 
general  group  idea,  to  add  a  number  of  further  definitions  and  ex- 
planations which  apply  to  all  groups  alike.  If  from  among 
the  set  of  operations  S,  T,  U, . . .  which  constitute  a  group 
G,  a  smaller  set  S',  T',  U', . . .  can  be  chosen  which  them- 
selves constitute  a  group  H,  the  group  H  is  called  a  sub- 
^  group  of  G.  Thus,  in  particular,  if  S  is  an  operation  of  G, 
'"  the  cyclical  group  constituted  by . . .  .S*^,  S~^  i,  S,  S", . . . 
is  a  subgroup  01  G,  except  m  the  special  case  when  it  coincides  with 
G  itself. 

If  S  and  T  are  any  two  operatbiu  of  G.  the  two  operations  S  and 
T-*ST  are  called  conjugate  operations,  and  T~*ST  is  spoken  of  as  the 
result  of  InnsformiHt^  by  T.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  since  ST- 
T^.  TS.  T,  ST  and  Id  are  always  conjugate  operations  in  any  group 
containing  both  S  and  T.  If  i  transforms  S  into  itself,  that  is,  if 
S -T-'ST  or  TS- ST,  Sand  Tare  called  ^snnaloMs  operations.  A 
group  whose  operations  are  all  permutable  with  each  other  b  called 
an  Abdiau  group.  If  S  is  tranatormed  into  itself  by  every  operation 
oi  G,  or,  in  other  words,  if  it  is  permutable  with  every  operation  of  G, 
it  is  called  a  self-coHJugato  operation  of  G. 

The  conception  of  operations  being  conjugate  to  each  other  is 
extended  to  subgrpupSL  If  S',  T,  Ir, ...  are  the  operations  of  a 
subgroup  H,  and  if  K  is  any  operation  of  G,  then  the  operations 
R-'S'R,  R-^T'R.  R-^U'R. . . .  bek>ng  to  G,  and  constitute  a  sub- 
group of  G.  For  if  ST'-U'  then  R-^S'R.R-'T'R-R-'ST'R- 
R-'U'R.  Thb  subgroup  may  be  identical  with  H.  In  particular, 
it  is  necessarily  the  same  as  H  if  R  bebngs  to  H.  If  it  is  not  identical 
with  H.  it  b  said  to  be  conjugaU  to  H ;  and  it  b  in  any  case  repre- 
sented by  the  symbol  R-^HR.  If  H«R'>HR,  the  operation  R  is 
said  to  be  permutable  with  the  subgroup  H.  (It  b  to  be  noticed  that 
thb  does  not  imply  that  R  is  permutable  with  each  operation  of  H.) 
If  H  —R'^HR,  when  f or  R  u  taken  in  turn  each  of  the  operations 
of  G,  then  H  b  called  a  sdj-amjumu  subgroup  of  G. 

A  group  b  qx>ken  of  as  timpit  when  it  has  no  self'Conjugate 
subgroup  other  than  that  constituted  by  the  identi<^  operation 
alone.  A  group  which  has  a  self  •conjugate  subgroup  b  called 
composiU. 

Let  G  be  a  group  constituted  of  the  operations  S,  T,  U. . . .,  and  g 
a  second  group  constituted  of  f ,  /,  a, . . ..  and  suppose  that  to  each 
operation  of  C  there  corresponds  a  single  operation  of  g  in  such  a 
way  that  if  ST-U,  then  ji—a,  where  s,  I,  u  are  the  operations 
corresponding  to  S,  T,  U  respectively.  The  groups  are  then  said  to 
be  isomorpku,  and  the  correspondence  between  their  operations  is 

Soken  of  as  an  isomorphism  between  the  groups.  It  b  clear  that 
ere  may  be  two  distinct  cases  of  such  isomorphism.  To  a  siiyle 
operation  of  g  there  may  correspond  either  a  single  operation  oiG 
or  more  than  one.  In  the  first  case  the  isomorphism  is  ^loken  of  as 
simfU,  in  the  second  as  multiple. 

Two  simply  isomorphic  groups  considered  abstractly — that  b  to 
say.  in  regard  only  to  the  way  in  which  their  operations  combine 
among  themselves,  and  apart  from  any  concrete  representation  of 
the  operations — are  clearly  indistinguishable. 

If  C  b  multiply  isomorphic  with  g,  let  A,  B.  C, ...  be  the  opera- 
tKMis  of  G  which  correspond  to  the  identical  operation  of  g.  Then  to 
the  operations  A"*  and  AB  of  G  there  corresponds  the  identical 
operation  of  f;  so  that  A,  B^  C, . .  constitute  a  subgroup  H  of  G. 
Moreover,  if  K  b  any  operation  of  G,  the  identical  operation  of  c 
corresponds  to  every  operation  of  R~'HR,  and  therefore  H  is  a  sell- 
conjugate  subgroup  of  G.  Since  S  corresponds  to  s,  and  every  opera- 
tion c«  H  to  the  identical  operation  of  f.  therefore  every  operation  of 
the  set  SA,  SB,  SC, . . .,  which  is  represented  by  SH,  corresponds  to  s. 
Also  these  are  the  only  operations  that  correspond  to  s.  The  opera- 
tions of  G  may  therefore  be  divided  into  sets,  no  two  of  which  contain 
a  common  operation,  such  that  the  correspondence  between  the 
operations  of  G  and  g  connects  each  of  the  sets  H,  SH,  TH,  UH. . . . 
with  the  single  operations  i , «,  I. », . .  written  below  them.  The  sets 
into  which  the  operations  of  G  are  thus  divided  combine  among 
themselves  by  exactly  the  same  Uws  as  the  operations  ol  g.  For  u 
si^Ut  then  SH.TH  *  UH,  in  the  sense  that  any  operation  of  the  set 
SH  followed  by  any  operation  of  the  set  TH  gives  an  operation  of  the 
ietUH. 


The  group  g,  abstractly  conddered.  b  therefore  completely  defined 
by  the  divbion  of  the  operations  of  G  into  sets  in  rea^tct  01  the  self- 
conjugate  sutwroup  H.  From  this  point  of  view  it  b  spoken  of  as  the 
factor-group  of  G  in  respect  of  H,  and  b  represented  by  the  symbol 
G/H.  Any  composite  group  in  a  simiUr  way  defines  abstractly  a 
factor-group  in  respect  of  each  of  its  self'Conjugate  subgroups. 

It  follows  from  the  definition  of  a  group  that  it  must  always  be 
possible  to  choose /rom  its  operations  a  set  such  that  every  operation 
of  the  group  can  be  obtained  bv  combining  the  operatioiu  of  the  set 
and  their  inverses.  If  the  set  b  such  that  no  one  of  the  operations 
belonging  to  it  can  be  represented  in  terms  of  the  others,  it  ts  callcda 
set  ofindepeudeni  generoHnj^  opoatlons.  Such  a  set  of  generating 
operations  may  be  either  fimte  or  infinite  in  number.  If  A,  B, . . .,  E 
are  the  genoating  operations  of  a  group«  the  group  generated  by 
them  b  represented  by  the  symbol  (A,  B. . . .,  Ef.  An  obvious 
extension  of  thb  symbolb  used  such  that  {\  H)  rq>resents  the  group 
generated  by  combining  an  operation  A  with  every  operation  of  a 
group  H ;  (Hi,  Hi)  represents  the  sroup  obtained  by  combining  in  all 
possible  ways  the  operations  of  the  poups  Hi  and  Hi:  and  so  on. 
The  independent  generating  operations  01  a  group  may  be  subject  to 
certain  rebtions  connecting  them,  but  these  must  be  such  that  it  b 
impossible  by  combining  them  to  obtain  a  rebtion  expressing  one 
operation  in  terms  of  the  others.  For  Instance,  AB  ■■  B  A  b  a  relation 
condidoning  the  group  (A,  B) ;  it  does  not,  however,  enable  A  to  be 
expressed  in  terms  of  B,  so  that  A  and  B  are  independent  generating 
operations. 

Let  O,  (y,  O', ...  be  a  set  of  objects  which  are  interchanged  among 
themselves  by  the  operatioiu  of  a  group  G,  so  that  if  S  b  any  opera- 
tion of  the  group,  and  O  any  one  of  the  objects,  then  O.S 
b  an  object  occurring  in  the  set.  If  it  is  possible  to  find  an 

operation  S  of  the  group  such  that  O.  S  b  any  assigned  one 

ot  the  set  of  objects,  the  group  b  called  iyaimltw  in  respect  m^T 
of  this  set  of  objects.  When  thb  b  not  possible  the  group  ^^* 
b  called  it^ransiHoe  in  respect  of  the  set.  If  it  b  possible  to  find  S  so 
that  any  arbit'rarily  chosen  u  objects  of  the  set,  Oi,  Ok, . . .,  0«  are 
changed  by  S  into  Ci,  O^t, . . .,  0\  respectively,  the  btter  being  also 
arbitrarily  chosen,  the  group  b  said  to  be  n-ply  transitive. 

If  O,  Or,  O', ...  b  a  set  01  objects  in  respect  of  which  a  group  G  is 
transitive,  it  may  be  possible  to  divide  the  set  into  a  number  of 
subsets,  no  two  of  which  contain  a  common  object,  such  that  every 
operation  of  the  group  either  interchajoges  the  objects  of  a  sufaaet 
among  themselves,  or  changes  th«n  all  into  the  objects  of  some  other 
subset.  When  thb  b  the  case  the  group  b  caued  imprimitioe  in 
respect  of  the  set;  otherwise  the  group  is  called/riimfsM.  A  group 
which  is  doubly-transitive,  in  respect  of  a  set  oTobjects,  obviously 
cannot  be  imprimitive. 

The  forming  general  definitions  and  expbnations  will  now  be 
illustrated  by  a  consideration  of  certain  particular  groups.  To  begin 
with,  as  the  operations  involved  are  qf  the  most  familiar  n-  . 
nature,  thegroup  of  rational  arithmetic  may  be  considered.  ™^'a 
The  fundamental  operations  of  elementary  arithmetic 
consist  in  the  addition  and  subtraction  of  integers,  and 
multiplication  and  division  by  integers,  division  by  sero 
alone  omitted.  Multiplication  by  sero  b  not  a  definite  operation, 
and  it  must  therefore  be  omitted  in  dealing  with  those  operations  of 
elementary  arithmetic  ^ich  form  a  group.  The  opomtion  that 
results  from  carrying  out  additions,  subtractions,  multiplications  and 
divisions,  of  and  by  integenm  finite  number  of  times,  is  represented 
by  the  relation  z'—ox+ft,  whereaand  ban  rational  numbenof  which 
a  is  not  sero,  x  b  the  object  of  the  operation,  and  x'  is  the  result. 
The  totality  of  operations  of  thb  form  obviously  constitutes  a  mt>up. 

If  S  and  T  represent  respectively  the  operations  z'»ax<4-ft-and 
x'^cx-i-d,  then  T^ST  represents  r^ax-^-d-ad-k-bc.  When  a  and  b 
are  given  rational  numben,  c  and  d  may  be  chosen  in  an  infinite 
number  of  ways  as  rational  numbers,  so  that  d-ad-^bc  shall  be  any 
assigned  rational  number.  Hence  the  operations  given  by  x' —ox+v. 
where  a  is  an  assigned  rational  number  and  b  b  any  rational  number, 
are  all  conjugate;  and  no  two  such  operations  for  which  the  a*%  are 
different  can  be  conjugate.  If  a  b  unity  and  b  aero,  S  b  the  identical 
operation  which  is  necessarily  self^conjugate.  If  a  is  unity  and  b 
different  from  sero,  the  operation  x'-x+fr  b  an  addition.  The 
totality  of  additions  forms,  therefore,  a  single  conjugate  set  of  opera- 
tions. Moreover,  the  totality  of  additions  with  the  identical  opera- 
tion, t.e.  the  totality  of  operations  of  the  form  x'  «x+fr,  where  b  may 
be  any  rational  number  or  zero,  obviously  constitutes  a  group.  The 
operations  of  this  group  are  interchanged  among  themselves  when 
transformed  by  any  operation  of  the  original  group.  It  is  therefore 
a  self-conjugate  subgroup  of  the  originafgroup. 

The  totality  of  multiplications,  with  the  identical  operation,  t.«.  all 
operations  of  the  form  x'—ox,  where  a  b  any  rational  number  other 
than  sero.  again  obviously  constitutes  a  group.  This,  however,  b  not 
a  self-conjugate  subgroup  of  the  original  group.  In  fact,  if  the 
operations  3?  *ax  are  all  transformed  by  x'—cx-htf,  they  give  rise 
to  the  set  x'-ax+ d(i  -a).  When  d\%a.  given  rational  number,  the 
set  constitutes  a  subgroup  which  is  conjugate  to  the  group  of  multi- 
plications. It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  <^)erations  of  this  latter  sub- 
group may  be  written  in  the  form  x'-tf — a(x-tf). 

The  totality  of  rational  numbers,  including  sero,  forms  a  set  of 
objects  which  are  interchanged  among  themselves  by  all  operations 
of  thegroup. 


628 


GROUPS,  THEORY  OF 


If  xi  and  xh  are  any  pair  of  distinct  rational  numbers,  and  yi  and  yt 
any  other  pair,  there  is  just  one  operation  of  the  group  which  changes 
XI  and  xt  into  yi  and  yt  respectively.  For  the  equations  yi^axi+b, 
yi^axi-^b  determine  a  and  b  uniquely.  The  group  u  therefore 
doubly  transitive  in  respect  of  the  set  oi  rationatl  numbers.  If  H  is 
the  subgroup  that  leaves  unchan^  a  given  rational  number  xi, 
and  S  an  operation  channng  xi  into  xt,  then  every  operation  of 
S~*HS  leaves  xt  unchangeo.  The  subgroups,  each  of  which  leaves  a 
single  rational  number  unchanged,  therefore  form  a  single  conjugate 
set.  The  group  of  multiplications  leaves  zero  unchanged;  and,  as 
has  been  seen,  this  is  conjugate  with  the  subgroup  formed  of  all 

?3erations  x'-d —aCz-J),  where  d  is  a  given  rational  number, 
his  subgroup  leaves  d  unchanged. 

The  group  of  multiplications  is  clearly  generated  b;^  the  operations 
x'''Px,  where  for  p  nc^tive  unity  and  each  prime  is  taken  in  turn. 
Every  addition  is  obtained  on  transforming  jr^x+i  by  the  diiFerent 
operations  of  the  group  (^  multiplications.  Hence  ir  *x+l,  and 
x^px^  ip^  -It  3>  St  7*  •  •  •)*  form  a  set  <^  independent  generating 
operations  of  the  group.    It  is  a  discontinuous  jsroup. 

As  a  second  example  the  group  of  motions  in  three-dimensional 
space  will  be  con«dered.  The  totality  of  motions,  «.e.  of  s{>ace 
displacements  which  leave  the  distance  of  eveiy  pair  of  points 
unaltered,  obviously  constitutes  a  set  of  operations  which  satis- 
fies the  group  definition.  From  the  elements  of  kinematics  it  is 
known  that  every  motion  is  either  (i.)  a  translation  which  leaves  no 
point  unaltered,  but  changes  each  of  a  set  of  parallel  lines  into 
Itself ;  or  (ii.)  a  rotation  which  leaves  every  point  of  one  line  unaltered 
and  changes  every  other  point  and  line;  or  (iii.)  a  twist  which  leaves 
no  point  and  only  one  line  (its  axis)  unaltered,  and  may  be  regarded 
as  a  translation  along,  combined  with  a  rotation  round,  the  axis. 
Let  S  be  any  motion  consisting  of  a  translation  /  along  and  a  rotation 
a  round  a  line  AB,  and  let  T  be  any  other  motion.  There  is  some  line 
CD  into  which  T  changes  AB;  and  therefore  T~*ST leaves  CD  un- 
changed. Moreover,  T^ST  clearly  effects  the  same  translation  along 
and  rotation  round  CD  that  S  effects  for  AB.  Two  motions,  there- 
fore, are  conjugate  if  and  only  if  the  amplitudes  of  their  translation 
and  rotation  components  are  respectively  equal.  In  particular,  all 
translations  of  equal  amplitude  are  conjugate,  as  also  are  all  rotations 
of  equal  amplitude.  Any  two  translations  are  permutable  with  each 
other,  and  give  when  combined  another  translation.  The  totality 
of  translations  constitutes,  therefore,  a  subgroup  of  the  general  group 
of  motions;  and  this  subgroup  is  a  self-conjugate  subgroup,  since  a 
translation  is  alwavs  conjugate  td  a  translation. 

All  the  points  ot  space  constitute  a  set  of  objects  which  are  inter- 
changed among  themselves  by  all  operations  of  the  sroup  of  motions. 
So  also  do  all  the  lines  of  space  and  all  the  planes.  In  respect  of  each 
of  these  sets  the  group  is  simply  transitive.  In  fact,  there  is  an 
infinite  number  of  motions  which  change  a  point  A  to  A',  but  no 
motion  can  change  A  and  B  to  A'  and  B'  respectively  unless  the 
distance  AB  is  equal  to  the  distance  A'B'.  ^ 

The  totality  of  motions  which  leave  a  point  A  unchanged  forms  a 
sub^up.  1 1  is  clearly  constituted  of  all  posable  rotations  about  all 
possible  axes  through  A,  and  is  known  as  the  group  of  rotations  about 
a  point.  Every  motion  can  be  represented  as  a  rotation  about  some 
axis  through  A  followed  by  a  translation.  Hence  if  G  is  the  group  of 
motions  and  H  the  group  of  translations,  G/H  is  simply  isomorphic 
with  the  group  of  rotations  about  a  point. 

The  totality  of  the  motions  which  bring  a  eiven  solid  to  congruence 
with  itself  again  constitutes  a  subgroup  of  the  group  of  motions. 
Thb  will  in  general  be  the  trivial  subgroup  formed  oi  the  identical 
operation  above,  but  may  in  the  case  of  a  symmetrical  body  be  more 
extensive.  For  a  sphere  or  a  right  circular  cylinder  the  subgroups 
are  those  that  leave  the  centre  and  the  axis  respectively  unaltered. 
For  a  solid  bounded  by  plane  faces  the  subgroup  is  clearly  one 
of  finite  order.  In  particular,  to  each  of  the  regular  solids  there 
corresponds  such  a  sroup.  That  for  the  tetrahedron  has  la  for  its 
order,  for  the  cube  (or  octahedron)  24,  and  for  the  icosahedron  (or 
dodecahedron^  60. 

The  determination  of  a  particular  operation  of  thegroupof  motions 
involves  six  distinct  measurements;  namely,  four  to  give  the  axis 
of  the  twist,  one  for  the  magnitude  of  the  translation  along  the  axis, 
and  one  for  the  magnitude  of  the  rotation  about  it.  Each  of  the  ux 
quantities  involved  may  have  any  value  whatever,  and  the  group  of 
motions  is  therefore  a  continuous  group.  On  the  other  hand,  a  sub- 
poup  of  the  group  of  motions  which  leaves  a  line  or  a  plane  unaltered 
is  a  mixed  group. 

We  shall  now  discuss  (i.)  continuous  groups,  (ii.)  discontinuous 
groups  whose  order  is  not  finite,  and  (iii.)  groups  of  finite  order. 
For  proofs  of  the  statements,  and  the  general  theorems,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  bibliography. 

Continued  Croups. 

The  determination  of  a  particular  operation  of  a  given  con- 
tinuous group  depends  on  assigning  special  values  to  each  one 
of  a  set  of  parameters  which  are  capable  of  continuous  variation. 
The  first  distinction  regards  the  number  of  these  parameters 


If  this  number  is  finite,  the  group  is  called  a  jKnsIc  amtinuoBs 
group;  if  infinite,  it  is  called  an  infinite  continuous  group. 
In  the  latter  case  arbitrary  functions  must  appear  in  the  equations 
defining  the  operations  of  the  group  when  these  are  reduced  to 
an  analytical  form.  The  theory  of  infinite  continuous  groups 
is  not  yet  so  completely  developed  as  that  of  finite  continuous 
groups.  The  latter  theory  will  mainly  occupy  us  here. 

Sophus  Lie,  to  whom  the  foundation  and  a  great  part  of  the 
development  of  the  theory  of  continuous  groups  are  due,  un- 
doubtedly approached  the  subject  from  a  geometrical  standpoint. 
His  conception  of  an  operation  is  to  regard  it  as  a  geometrical 
transformation,  by  means  of  which  each  point  of  (ii-dimensional) 
space  is  changed  into  some  other  definite  point. 

The  representation  of  such  a  transformation  in  analytical  form 
involves  a  system  of  equations, 

x'«"/»(xi,  x^, . . .,  x«).  (*•  '•  3 »), 

expressing  x'l,  xft, . . .,  x'.,  the  co-ordinates  of  the  transfomicd  point 
in  terms  of  xi,  Xt.  .  .  .,  x»,  the  co-ordinates  of  the  original  point. 
In  these  equations  the  functions/,  are  analytical  functions  01  their 
arguments.  Within  a  p/bperly  limited  r^ion  the^  must  be  oae- 
valued,  and  the  equations  must  adroit  a  unique  solution  with  respect 
to  Xi,  Xi,.. .,  Xm  since  the  operation  would  not  otherwise  be  a 
definite  one. 

From  this  point  of  view  the  operations  of  a  .continuous  gioop. 
which  depends  on  a  set  of  r  parameters,  will  be  defined  analytkaJty 
by  a  system  of  equations  of  the  form 

x',  -/.(xi,  Xk, . . .,  X, ;  fli,  at. . . ..  Or),  («  - 1.  3, . . ., «),    (i.) 

where  Ou  0%, . .  .,0,  represent  the  parameters.  If  this  operation  be 
represented  by  A,  and  that  in  which  61,  ba,  ...,br  are  the  parantetcts 
by  B,  then  the  operation  AB  is  represented  by  the  eliminatton 
(assumed  to  be  possible)  of  x't,  x't, . . .,  x'»  between  the  equatk>as<L) 
and  the  equations 

x"«"/i(x'i,  x't, .  .  ..x*.;  (],  &i,  . .  .,  Wi  (*■■  I,  a, . . .,  «). 

Since  AB  belongs  to  the  group,  the  result  of  the  eliminatioo  must  be 

x*  ••/•(xi,  Xi, . . .,  x«;  Cu  Ci, . .  .,  Cr), 

where  Cu  e»,  .  .  .,  c,  represent  another  definite  set  of  values  <rf  the 
parameters.    Moreover,  since  A"^  belongs  to  the  group,  the  result 
of  solving  equations  (i.)  with  respect  to  xi,  xi, . .  .,  x«  must  be 
x«"/i(x'i, x't, . . .. x'»; di, dtt..., dr),  (* "  1, 2, . . ., «). 

Conversely,  if  equations  (t.)  are  such  that  these  two  conditions  are 
satisfied,  they  do  in  fact  define  a  finite  continuous  group. 

It  will  be  assumed  that  the  r  parametera  which  enter  la  equataoas 
(i.)  are  independent.  f.e.  that  it  is  impossible  to  choose 

r'  (<r)  quantities  in  terms  of  which  Oi,  Ou Or  can  tmMm 

be  expressed.    Where  this  is  the  case  the  group  will  mutli 
be  spoken  of  as  a  "  group  of  order  r."    Lie  uses  the 
term  "  r-tliedrige  Cruppe.      It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the 
word  order  is  used  in  quite  a  different  sense  from  that 
given  to  it  in  connexion  with  groups  of  finite  order. 

In  regard  to  equations  (L),  which  define  the  general  opera tloa  of 
the  group,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that,  since  the  gmup  contains  the 
identical  operation,  these  equations  must  for  some  definite  aet  of 

values  of  the  parametera  reduce  to  x'l-xi,  affx^ x'.—x* 

This  set  of  values  may,  without  loss  of  generality,  be  assumed  to  be 
simultaneous  rero  values.  For  if  t|,  I't,  ....  ir  be  the  values  of  the 
parametera  which  give  the  identical  operation,  and  if  we  write 

a,"««-|-o,  (*- 1, 2 r), 

then  zero  values  of  the  new  paremeteraot,  ot. . . .  .Or  give  the  identacal 
operation. 

To  infinitesimal  values  of  the  parameters,  thus  chosen,  will  corre- 
spond operations  which  cause  an  infinitesimal  change  in  each  of  the 
variables.  These  are  called  infinitesimal  operations.  The  most 
general  infinitesimal  operation  of  the  group  is  that  gives  by  tiw 
system 

:c',_x,-«x.-^«ax-|-^+  .  . .  -f^.  (*-i.  a «), 

where,  in  dfj^t,  zero  values  of  the  para  metera  are  to  be  taken.  Sicce 
Oi,  di,  .  .  .  ,  Or  arc  independent,  the  ratios  of  tei.  ta%.  .  .  .  ,  fa,  are 
arbitrary.  Hence  the  roost  general  infinitesimal  operatioa  of  the 
group  may  be  written  in  the  form 

**•-  ('»^+'^+  •  •  •  +*^*''  ^""'  ^';  •  •  *  "^^ 

where  ci,  0k, . . . ,  Cr  are  arbitrary  constants,  and  it  is  an  infisttesiiBaL 
If  F(xi,  xi,  .  .  .  .  X.)  is  any  function  of  the  variables,  and  3  as 
infinitesimal  operation  of  the  group  be  carried  out  on  the 
F,  the  resulting  increment  of  F  wul  be 

If  the  differential  operator 


gt  Sl+S^^^ 


ikudxi  '(^ 


GROUPS,  THEORY  OF 


629 


te  Rpnmtid  by  X>,  (<•>■.  a r].  tb«  tbe  Lk 

^™^  (r.X,+«X.+  ...+*X.)FM. 

WbtD  ihcwiiuiau  (i.)  definioi  thcRnenJ  opentk 
mn  givm,  UK  coefficient*  itfjtti  watch  ^ttr  in  tt 

»iX,+*J^+...  +*X, 


Tbc  dida«dtid  cp«ra 
Tl+ WX)F''i>  the'rcHlt  of 


openlim  u  Rpnducal.  By  i  vcr) 
lurdlv  juni^Dlc  phrucotof;^  thii 
■pokBi  et  u  the  leiienl  jnfinitoiiTuI 
mK  in  which  thli  pIvucoJory  u  tc 


vrnimt,  tboiijh  (»rtup« 
I  th«  ^Toup,   ThF 


■li<E«dr  utmluced,  It 


+i,X,  «  X  in  in&nilc  Dumber  of  tims 

... he  fttoup.  Ttie  effect  oT  thit  finite  opers- 

ECIiyalculited.  Infut.illliatlie  infiniloimll 

S.X-F.g-XXF... 

-F+(X.F+j^X.X.F+  . . . 
e.  bt  undentDod  thit  in  Ihia  anAlyticii  repmenta- 


Wbea  n,  >b  -  - .  an  written  in  turn  (or  F.  the  •yaeio  of  miutior 

ii'.-(i+IX+^X.X+, . .  )i„  (i-I,J J       (U.) 

repmedt  tlie  finite  opention  completely.  If  ( it  hen  reiirdetj  u 
pnrmiaetert  thia  let  of  operationB  mutt  in  ihenuelve*  conftituic 
croup,  HDCe  they  iriie  by  the  rrpetiiicKi  of  a  aingie  infiniteainu 
opmiioa.  That  thu  ii  mILy  ihc  cue  mulii  immecliiiely  tim 
■BCicint  that  t)ie  mult^  dimiiutiiii  F'  between 
F'-F+IX.F+^X.X.F+... 
4011  P*  -P'+CX.F'+7^X.X.F'+  . . . 

i.  F'-F+(i+nX.F+li±^X.X.F+... 

Hie  fKMp  lliiu  Eenented  by  the  npeiicion  of  An  id 
..  -----^  ji  cnlled  A  cydkal  group;     ■>  that  ■  nntinL 
I A  cycUcaJ  Hitigroup  cormponding  to  euih  of  id  I'n 


dependon  ... 

CDuatioiv.    A<  A  vay  limple  exAmpLe  we  nwy  et 

■  only  A  HiiEle  vAiiAble.  Tbe  reliitai  between  r  iBU  f  n  pm 

dl'/A-i'Twith  tbemadiliaiilhlt  I'-i  irtn  l-a,    Thiifive 
'  -j/(i-AtJ,  which  mifht  alio  Im  obtained  by  the  direct  ui 


■nd  (hat  tbe  u 


•Ji**   SMnTcoeflicSiu.    hCoS 


te  opentjod  of  the  gronp 


{(at  iutance.  to  the  tbcoty  of  diflefi 


liaev  Jiffetential  o| 
Y  (Lie  UKi  the  e>, 
(XV).    If  X,  Y,  Z 


t,XY-VXiaalaaa 


Z  Ant  Any  tbi 

■^((■zJh-O^czxh+czwy))-. 


x.x,)-2^|^..„x.. 


The  (undAmentAl'thKKTm  of  the  theory  of  finite  conlinuoui  iroupa 
ii  now  IbAt  lhe«  cDnditiani,  which  art  aecoun  Id  order  j^^^^^ 

Dpentii^  a '  ^QB^t^\T^^^"i,^  'r.  II^T'Si  S'^'*' 

Hifficlenl.  *"— . 

For  the  otoof  of  ikii  (undaniental  theorem  •«  Lie'i  l^." 

worlo  (cf.  Lie-EnEeJ,  i.  chjp.  9;    iii.  cbAp.  aj).  ~™^p 


'"■fi^onlii 


X.  end  Yi.  Yi. . . . ,  Y,  cah  be  Sokx..  ■ 

■       ■itioni 

(X,)^)-K.,JC.  CV.Y,)-EA„Y. 


lupa  of  order  r,  whoee  bifinitetifnAl  Qp«*6oiia 

..  ihe  ^mb^tl  J™wS'  for  Ihc'^  niATbe 

from  that  for  Ihe  other.   Tbey  ur,  hawever,  laid  to  be  al 

iSe  probleiD  of^determinbia  all  dL 


in  the  piuely  aigebrAical  pnibLem  of  fiz 
ntitiet  r,f«  wnicn  latiify  the  relttioaa 


igaUth 


il  problem. 


of(,ftam)(.  Totwod 


■pond.  Infacl,  X,.  X„ 


pendent  panmeEen.      Thb.  bDwever,doeaData]( 

For  a  Huie  paraDteter  there  la,  of  count,  only 
which  hu  btfti  called  cyciical. 

Fnr  a  omtin  nf  nrHrp  two  Iheie  ia  a  ainffic  irial 

(X,x.)-AX,+a\K_ 

.-'xT 

(X',X' 


lypea  of  group  wHi  not 
. .  A.  may  be  replaced  by 

rmadvet,  and  tbe  c'i  wilt 


H  •  and  0  are  not  both  ».., . 

le  written  (.X,+aXi,  a-X,1  -.X,+flX,.  Hence  if  ,X,+aX,^X;. 
>nd  •->X,-X'.,  then  (X',X'il-X',.  Tbere  ate.  Iheiefore.  lual  twn 
ypeaoffTDupof  order  two.  the  one  liven  by  [be  lela Lion  laatwrinen. 


id  All'type.  ornw-lnitS^b'lt'lrouprS  wrm 
—      , iniinKfUlelyjDlordirtfiveADdaCrici.  Lie- 

A  problem  offundAnienlAiimportAnce  in  connexion  arith  any  ^vm 

Buhgrnupa  whicn  it  containa-     It  X  ii  An  infinileaiRia]  *"'.'*" 
□peTATinn  of  a  group,  and  Y  any  other.  Ihe  gencnj  lonn  ^5I|^^ 

X+T(XV)+^!(XY)Y)+  ...  »«» 

ttJ^tirr  cmuio'all™  nil^mal  o^wb^^JI^XYlY)". .. 

Hence  if  X'l.  X'l X'.  arc  1  linearly  independent  Dperationa  of 

^.cvniueale  aubEroup  of  order  r,  then 
Y  of  the  (COUP  telatiooB  of  the  form 


630 


GROUPS,  THEORY  OF 


mutt  be  tatiified.  Convefsely,  if  mich  a  set  of  rriations  is  tatisSed, 
X'l,  X't, . .  .f  X'a  geoeFate  a  Mibnoup  of  order  j,  which  contains 
every  operation  conjugate  to  eauca  of  the  infinitesimal  generating 
operations,  and  is  therefore  a  self-conjugate  subgroup. 

A  specially  important  self-conjugate  subgroup  is  that  generated 
by  the  oombuants  of  the  r  infiniccstmal  generating  operations.  That 
these  generate  a  self-conjugate  subgroup  follows  from  tte  relations 
QiL).    In  fact, 

((X<X0X*)-2Ci,.(X.X4). 
s 
Of  the  |f(r-i)  eombinants  not  more  than  r  can  be  linearly  inde- 
pendent, when  exactly  r  of  them  are  linearly  independent,  tne  self- 
conjugate  group  generated  by  them  coincides  with  the  original  group. 
If  the  number  that  are  linearly  independent  is  less  than  r,  the  self- 
conjugate  subgroup  generated  by  them  is  actually  a  subgroup;  i^. 
its  order  b  less  than  that  of  the  original  group.  This  subgroup  is 
known  as  the  derived  group,  and  Lie  nas  called  a  group  perfect  when 
it  coincides  with  its  derivea  group.  A  simple  Roup,  since  it  contains 
no  self-conjugate  subgroup  distinct  from  itself,  is  necessarily  a  per- 
fect group. 

If  G  is  a  given  continuous  group,  Gi  the  derived  group  of  G,  Gi 
that  of  Gi,  and  so  on,  the  series  of  groups  G,  Gi,  Gi, . .  wilf  terminate 
either  with  the  identical  operation  or  with  a  perfect  group;  for  the 
order  of  G^a  >•  less  than  that  of  Gi  unless  G«  w  a  perfect  ^up. 
When  the  series  terminates  with  the  identical  operation,  G  is  said 
to  be  an  intezrabU  group;  in  the  contrary  case  G  is  called  n^n- 
inlefrabU. 

If  G  is  an  int^rable  ^up  of  order  r,  the  infinitesimal  opera- 
tions Xi,  Xs, . . .,  Xr  which  generate  the  group  may  be  chosen  so 
that  Xi,  ^, . . .,  Xrif  (ri<r)  generate  the  first  derived  group, 
Xi,  Xa, . . .,  Xrt,  (ri<ri)  the  second  derived  group,  and  so  on. 
When  they  are  so  chosen  the  constants  dj,  are  clearly  such  that  if 
r,<i£rp^,  r^<js£.r^^,  p'Hq,  then  c</«  vanishes  unless  r^r^a. 

In  particular  the  generating  operations  may  be  chosen  so  that  cu, 
vanisnes  unless  s  b  equal  to  or  less  than  tne  smaller  of  the  two 
numbers  t,  ji  and  conversely,  if  the  c's  satisfy  these  relations,  the 
group  w  integrable. 

A  nmple  group,  as  already  defined,  is  one  which  has  no  self- 
conjugate  subgroup.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  determination 
of  all  distinct  types  of  simple  continuous  groups  has  been 
made,  for  in  the  case  of  discontinuous  groups  and  ^ups 
of  finite  order  this. is  far  from  being  tne  case.  Im  has 
demonstrated  the  existence  of  four  great  classes  of  simple  groups: — 

(i.)  The  groups  simply  isomorphic  with  the  general  projective 
group  in  space  01  n  dimensions.  Such  a  group  is  defined  analytically 
as  the  totality  of  the  transformations  of  the  form 

•»  —  <*«»  i*i'l~<'t»  taPi-H . . .  "Hflw  ■yn+gfi  »t.i    /,_,  ^         _v 

where  the  a's  are  parameters.  The  order  of  this  group  is  clearly 
niH+2). 

(ii.)  The  groups  simply  isomorphic  with  the  totality  of  the  pro- 
jective transiormatiotts  which  transform  a  non-special  linear  complex 
in  space  of  3»-i  dimensions  with  itself.  The  order  of  this  group  is 
ii(2n-i-i). 

(iii.)  and  (iv.)  The  groups  nmply  isomorphic  with  the  totality  of 
the  projective  transformations  which  change  a  quadric  of  non- 
vanishing  discriminant  into  itself.  These  fall  into  two  distinct 
classes  o?  types  according  as  11  b  even  or  odd.  In  either  case  the 
order  b  in(n+i).  The  case  »»3  forms  an  exception  in  which  the 
corresponding  ^up  b  not  rimpLe.  It  b  also  to  be  noticed  that  a 
cyclical  group  is  a  simple  group,  since  it  has  no  continuous  self- 
confugate  sulwroup  distinct  from  itself. 

W.  iC  J.  Killing  and  E.  J.  Cartan  have  separately  proved  that 
outnde  these  four  great  classes  there  exist  only  five  dbtinct  types  of 
rimple  ^ups,  whose  orders  are  14,  m,  78,  133  and  348;  thus 
completing  the  enumeration  of  all  posable  types. 

To  prevent  any-  misapprehension  as  to  the  bearing  <^  these  very 
seneral  results,  it  b  well  to  point  Out  explicitly  that  there  are  no 
limitations  on  the  parameters  of  a  continuous  group  as  it  has  been 
defined  above.  They  are  to  be  regarded  as  taking  in  general  complex 
values.  If  in  the  fimte  equations  of  a  continuous  group  the  imaginary 
symb^  does  not  explicitly  occur,  the  finite  ecjuations  will  usually 
define  a  group  (in  the  general  sense  of  the  original  definition)  when 
both  parameters  and  variables  are  limited  to  real  values,    such  li 

E>up  b,  in  a  certain  sense,  a  continuous  group;  and  such  groups 
ve  been  considered  shortly  by  Lie  (cf.  Lie-Engel,  iii.  360-393), 
who  calb  them  real  continuous  groups.  To  these  real  continuous 
groups  the  above  statement  as  to  the  totalty  of  simple  groups  does 
not  apply;  and  indeed,  in  all  probability,  the  number  of  types  of 
real  simple  continuous  ^up«  admits  of  no  such  complete  enumera- 
tion. The  effect  of  limitation  to  real  transformations  may  be  illus- 
trated by  considering  the  groups  of  projective  transformations  which 
change 

«^+/+^i  -o  and  3fi+^-^t  -o 

respectively  Into  themselves,  ^nce  one  of  these  quadrics  b  dtangcd 
into  the  other  by  the  imaginary  transformation 


the  general  continuous  groups  which  transform  the  two  qoadcics 
respectively  into  themsdves  are  simply  isomorphic  This  b  not. 
however,  the  case  for  the  real  continuous  groups.  In  fact,  the  seoond 
quadric  has  two  real  sets  of  generators;  and  therefore  the  real  groap 
which  transforms  it  into  itself  has  two  self-conjugate  subgiottpab 
either  of  which  leaves  unchanged  each  of  one  set  <x  genetators.  Tlae 
first  quadric  having  imaginary  eenerators.  m>  su^  sdf-ooBJngate 
subgroups  can  exist  for  the  real  group  which  transforms,  it  into 
itself;  and  thb  real  group  b  in  fact  simple. 

Among  the  groups  isomorphic  with  a  given  continuoas  group  tliere 
b  one  of  s(>ecbl  importance  which  b  known  a»  the  adjund 
group.  Thb  b  a  homogeneous  linear  group  in  a  number  of 
variables  equal  to  thecmierof  thegroup,whose  infinitcsinial 
operations  are  defined  by  the  relation 

X,  -  ZciiipcJ-,  0*  - 1,  a.  •  •  .0. 
i,s      •*• 
where  c%i,  are  the  often-used  constants,  which  give  thecombuaats  off 
the  infinitesimal  operations  in  terms  of  the  infinitesimal  ofMsataoss 
themselves. 

That  the  r  infiniteumal  operations  thus  defined  actttaUy  geoenafee  a 
group  isomorphic  with  the  given  group  b  verified  by  forming  cbeir 
eombinants.    It  b  thus  found  that  (XyX«)«ZcM«X^    The  X*a. 

however,  are  not  necessarily  tineariy  independent.  In  Cact.  the 
sufficient  condition  that  Zo^Xj  should  be  identicatty  aero  b  that 

Za^ut  should  vanish  for  all  values  of  t  and  <.  Hence  if  the  eqnacioos 

ZafCiin^o  tor  all  values  of  •  and  «,  have  r'  linearly  isdependeat 

solutions,  only  r^r*  ci  the  X's  are  Gneariy  independent,  and  tbe 
isomorphism  of  the  two  groups  b  multiple.    If  Yt,  Yi. . . .,  Y*.  are 
the  infinitesimal  operations  of  the  given  group,  the  eqaatiaos 
Zateu,mo,  U,  t-i,  2,. . .,  f) 

express  the  condition  that  the  operations  of  the  cydical  group 
generated  by  Za/Y/  should  be  permutable  whh  every  operation  cit 

the  group;  in  other  words,  that  they  should  be  aelf-ooBJv^ate 
operations.  In  the  case  supposed,  therefore,  the  given  groap 
contains  a  subgroup  of  order  r*  each  <^  whose  operatkiaa  b  aelf- 
conjugate.  The  adjunct  group  of  a  given  group  will  therefore  be 
simply  isomorphic  with  the  group,  unless  the  latter  '•**"?^*!*^  aetf* 
conjugate  Operations;  and  when  thb  b  the  case  the  order  of  tbe 
adjunct  will  be  less  than  that  of  the  given  group  by  the  order  of  tbe 
suc«roup  formed  ot  the  self-conjugate  operations. 

We  have  been  thus  far  mainly  concerned  with  the  abstnct  theory  of 
continuous  groups,  in  which  no  distinction  b  made  be-  ^    ^ 
tween  two  simply  isomorphic  groups.    We  proceed  to  """""^TT. 
discuss  the  claiMtficatk>n  and  theory  of  groups  when  Zm^^^^* 
their  form  b  regarded  as  essential;  and  this  b  ^  letum  '■**"■> 
to  a  more  geometrical  point  of  view. 

It  b  natural  to  b^n  with  the  projective  groupe, 
which  are  the  simplest  in  form  and  at  the  same  tune  are 
of  supreme  importance  in  geometry.  The  genoral  pro* 
jective  group  of  the  straight  line  b  the  group  of 
given  by 

where  the  parameters  are  the  ratios  of  a,  ft,  c,  dL    Siaoe 

*'»— x'r*'— »'t"*«— xi  *— *i 

b  an  operation  of  the  above  form,  the  group  b  triply  

Every  subgroup  of  order  two  leaves  one  point  unchanged^  and  aB 
such  subgroups  are  conjugate.  A  cyclical  subgroup  leaves  cttber  two 
dbtinct  points  or  two  coincident  points  unchanged.  A  subcrodp 
which  mher  leaves  two  points  unchanged  or  interchaqfes  t^seaa  » 
an  example  of  a  "  mixed     group. 

The  analysb  of  the  general  projective  group  must  obvioa^ 
increase  very  rapidly  in  complenty,  as  the  dimemions  of  the  apsMre 
to  which  it  applies  increase.  Tnts  analysu  has  been  ooaptecdy 
carried  out  for  the  projective  group  of  the  plane,  widi  tbe  rescdt  off 
showii^  that  there  are  thirty  distinct  types  off  sufagiDup.  Exduding 
the  general  group  itself,  every  one  <^  these  leaves  either  a  poiat.  a 
line,  or  a  conic  section  unaltered.  For  space  of  three  dimeoawtt»  Lie 
has  also  carried  out  a  similar  investigation,  but  the  results  are  c9b> 
tremdy  comi^icated.  One  general  result  of  great  importance  at 
which  Lie  arrives  in  this  connexion  b  that  every  projective  gronp  ra 
space  of  three  dimensioiis,  other  than  the  general  group,  leaven 
either  a  point,  a  curve,  a  surface  or  a  linear  complex  unaltered. 

Returning  now  to  the  case  of  a  single  variaMe,  it  can  be  dwwn  tliat 
any  finite  continuous  group  in  one  variable  b  either  cyclical  or  off 
order  two  or  three,  and  that  by  a  suitable  transfbmiatioa  any 
group  may  be  changed  into  a  projective  group. 

The  genesis  of  an  infinite  as  distinguished  from  a  finite  1 
group  may  be  well  illustrated  by  considering  it  in  the  case  off  a  anrie 
variabk.    The  infinitenmal  operations  of  the  projective  gnnm  in 

(Mie  variable  are  -^^  %^  7^^.    If  these  ooolKaed  with  s^  be 


[It,  ku 


li  tht  froup.    TIk 


guvT^  infiailnuniil  Dpcration  of  the  fniup  ii  ibcnfon/Cr)^^  when 
JM  but  urbEtrvy  LntcsTml  function  of  >:. 

Id  4be  diMftcjtwm  of  cbc  Eroup»»  projective  or  EKa-projectivc 
of  two  or  more  vuiabln,  the  diHinclioii  betwecti  pnmitlve  and 
impriaiilive  tRHipi  imsieiJIiIelr  prEHiili  ludl.  For  gnupt  oT  the 
pfauK  the  foUowiiiE  queitim  arbei.  Ii  there  or  li  there  not  a  aii^y- 
■DGniu  fUiJI)'  of  armfd,  >)  -C.  where  C  it  u  ubltiwy  connun 
euch  that  evATT  operetton  01  the  frodp  InterehuiH  the  curve*  of  the 
linuly  ■moM  theoajetva?  In  accordance  with  the  prevlouiiy  flveB 
ikfiniliaa  of  iDpriokitivHy,  the  |foup  k  called  bBprioitive  or 

Siueaiioiu  then  are  two  soeiibilitia;  BamriVi  there  may  either  be 
■  lincly  Inlolte  lyueD  ol  Hrface*  F(c,  r.  i)-C,  whii^areiater- 
chanacd  anoni  themielvei  by  the  opezatioBi  oC  the  HTOitp;  or 
then  may  be  a  douMynnfinlte  lyKeni  oC  earn  C<i,  y.  ■)-!, 
B(f,r.ii—t,  whkk  an  ■>  intetcliaiied. 

Ib  rcnrd  to  prinutin  Rwpe  Lie  baa  iliawB  that  any  primitive 
fimp  «  tbc  plane  can.  by  a  luitaUy  chosee  ttanrformaEioa,  be 
traniformed  into  one  9  timt  definite  type*  of  projective  iroupt; 
and  that  any  primitiw  |1tHip  of  ipace  of  three  dimeiuioni  can  be 
tianifonned  uitootie  of  Bchl  definite  t>;pe«i  which,  honrever,  cannot 

The  renlti  wliich  uve  been  arrived  at  for  imprimitcve  froupein 


nnation™  y'be  defioed  a>  a  ^nfTnnrfornuIkin  i™.+ 1' 

a,  1,  a,  Ii,  . . .,  r.,  pi.  fi p.  which  Ifavo  unaltered 

imtioadM^pfdii—ptdxt—  ...  — p^»-o.    Such  a  definition 
liowevcT,  pve$  no  direct  clue  to  the  geoinMncal  propcrtin 


in  apacf  of  thrre  dimentiDni  ia  completdy  Ipecified. 
ap«n  jrum  lu  HZF,  by  itt  poHtion  mnd  oFicntatkn.    U  i.  y,  j  are  the 

adandtiea  wbkh  completely  iiKciEy  i1k  element.  There  afe» 
Aenfore,  a'  HufAce  elementB  in  tpree-dimeasioiial  ipace'    The 

are  «'  PouiEb  oa  the  lurf ace.  and  at  cac±  a  definite  lurface-elernent. 
The  lurticulemtnli  of  a  cnrve  form,  atiain.  ■  Mem  of  s<  elenenta. 
fof  thoT  aie  gel  pdnti  on  the  cuEvr.  aji3  It  each  «■  anrface-elementi 


•I  if  (i, 


a,  p.  S)  ind  (.+ii,  ^+d,.  I+ii,  f 
a  ■>vcm  of  the  fint  ki 


arepcDportHnial  totliediRction^Deincaaf  auniedl  Uncat^jioiniof 
the earface, and ^, f .  —late  proportianal  to  thtdircction-coiincaQf 
tha  normaL    For  a  aytten  of  the  aeoond  kind  Jx,  ^,  ^  are  pro- 

Pt  i.  -1  ^ve  the  direclioB-codnea  of  the  oormjl  to  a  plane  touching 
Ihc  carve;  and  for  a  ayiten  of  the  third  kind  dx,  dy.  di  are  icto- 
Nov  the  Doet  genera!  way  in  which  a  lyncmof  ae'furface^lementa 
can  be  alven  b  by  three  independenl  rquatioqa  between  x,  y.  i,  p 
and  f-  If  theie  equationi  do  not  contain  p^  q,  ihfy  determine  one 

of  wrface-deaenticonulifriihcekmeniiconuinl'ng  ibeie  point! ; 


BUffacr-^leiDcata  lie  oc 


*  lf"the  equa'tkr- 


in  be  derived  front  tlien 
lie  OB  a  wrface.  A(ai 

>-0  wOl  hold  for  a,. 

)  element  toucKei  [he  eurface  at 


].  the  equation  i*-fdx-aty-o  i>  chancteriKic  of  thi 
liallypa  in  which  tW  denenu  bekmc.  in  the  leue  ei 

r  BOW  the  ffonetrical  bearina  of  any  I 
d. . .  -  C -/.(*.  J.  I.  C  Jj-rf  the  fi« 


GROUPS,  THEORY  OF 

tahtnufnfiiiiBcHniaf  operadoni from  which  to cener 
■roup  amaai  the  infiniteBmil  uperatiau  t/  the  rr 
oceaTtbemmbinantofa^andi^  Ttwiii^ 
of  thii  and  j^s^  it  ajcS^  and  ao  c 


will  chante  any  ^yamn  u 
stementa.   A  tpecial  syiter 


tbatthia  la 


itbc*.  tboufh  in  panicuUr  mn  thn  may  becsnc 

icqci^  a  curvv  or  point;  and  ■unUar  Matementa 

mav  be  made  with  nipcci  [a  a  cwc  or  pdnt.  The  tianformatloB 
ii  thenfon  a  mitable  leomnrical  nwulonsatiofl  In  nacc  of  three 
"         '  "  of  Hrface^leiiicnta 

onBed  Into  two  new 
Hem  two  cunm  or 


where  t  :p  tiveathedi 
tbeHifau^mealiai 

which  beloni  lo  a  cur« 


It  ia  thii  pnpBty  wbich  leada 
•■  udng  callecf  caniact-tjuufarma' 

but  that  a  contacI-tnnifonnat|on 


^  th^ 

"^^a. . 

ni).  though  it  nuy  all 


ution  eti.  y  and  p  which  leaven 


'whicEin 


mationa  point  Panda  plane  pi 
lane  p*  and  a  point  ?■  upon  it  :t     -  , 
p  it  changed  into  a  definite  t .  ' .. 

face  ia  known  f ram  gcometficaJ  

'totality  which  .belong!  to  am.-l.ir 
the  other  hand,  the  totality  of  il  . 
icurveiichanrtd  intoanotner     i  v 


-,.,[j.,.-d.-™rnt"J^£nedby 
•  !■  :ni-ni  defined  by  E",  f. 
'■lie  loa  fnon-dcveLopabIt) 

.  :'.'"Jtmtmt  which  bek^ 
■.  ^l  li-long  In  a  developable. 


contaci-tntnirfDrTnatun  la  verified  !'y  r 

i^-p'i^-ity--  Ht-ps-tJI-'dp-ydq 
A  iccond  limple  eiample  ii  that  in  which  eve 
diaplacedt  without  change  of  orienution.  norm 
contunl  diuance  1.    The  analytical  equatiuni 

That  thlj  ia  a  cDniact<tnBifofmat  ion  laaecn  geometrkafly  by  naiidi 
that  it  chanfH  a  wrface  into  a  parallel  wrface.  Every  point 
changed  by  it  intn  a  apben  of  ndiu*  t,  and  when  t  l<  rrgantd  an 
pnramctg  tha  cqualiona  define  a  cyclical  ^oup  gf  contacl-tnn 

Tbe  formal  theory  of  continuoiu  gnwpaofcootact-Cnmronnaliai 


'  TTTJT?- 


theory  of  jntMpt  of  c 
ven  conMerabte  del 

To  the  manifold  applicatkma  o(  tbe  theory  of  a 

[n  virioiia  braochei  of  pure  and  api^ied  malhcmatica 

it  i>  impoiaible  here  to  referin  any  detail.     It  milK  *\ 

■uffice  to  indicate  a  few  of  Ehem  very  bricRy.     In  Hme  ". 

of  tbe  older  tbeoHea  a  Be*  point  of  view  ia  obtained  which  ^ 

preieali  the  reiulli  in  a  Icnfa  light,  and  siggcMi  tbe  £ 

natural  ^eoeralialion.     Ai  an  example,  the  theory  of  " 

ibjectedto     -      -      -     ■      '"*^+ 


632 


GROUPS,  THEORY  OF 


the  same  limitations  on  «,  0,  y»  i  the  totality  of  the  aabstitutjons 
(ii.)  forms  a  simply  isomorphjc  continuous  group  of  order  3,  which  is 
generated  by  the  two  tnfimteumal  transformations 

and  a  a  a 

~.g5;+(»-i)«ig5;+(«-^)««g5;+- •  •+*'35i:- 
The  invariants  of  the  binary  form,  tjt.  those  functions  of  the  co- 
efficients which  are  unaltered  by  all  homogeneous  substitutions  on 
x,yol  d^erminant  unity,  are  therefore  identical  with  the  functions 
of  the  coefficients  whicK  are  invariant  for  the  continuous  group 
generated  by  the  two  inJiniteamal  operations  last  written.  In  other 
words,  they  are  given  by  the  common  solutions  of  the  differential 
equations 

^r  %r  a*' 

•0. 


Both  this  result  and  the  method  by  which  it  is  arrived  at  are  well 
known,  but  the  point  of  view  by  which  we  pass  from  the  transforma- 
tion group  of  the  variables  to  the  isomorphic  transformation  group 
of  the  coefficients,  and  regard  the  invariants  as  invariants  rather  of 
the  group  than  of  the  forms,  is  a  new  and  a  fruitful  one. 

The  general  theory  of  curvature  of  curves  and  surfaces  may  in  a 
similar  way  be  regarded  as  a  theory  of  their  invariants  for  the  group 
of  motions.  That  something  more  than  a  mete  change  of  phraseolo^ 
is  here  implied  will  be  evident  in  dealing  with  minimum  curves,  t^. 
with  curves  such  that  at  every  point  of  them  <ix"+<fj^+i2*-o. 
For  such  curves  the  ordinary  theoiyof  curvature  has  no  meaning, 
but  they  nevertheless  have  invariant  properties  in  regard  to  the 
^roup  ot  motions.  .        .       #        .. 

The  curvature  and  toruon  of  a  curve,  which  arc  invariant  for  all 
transformations  by  the  group  of  motions,  are  special  instances  of 

what  are  known  as  differenlial  invariants.    If  t^  \  h^  is  the 

general  infinitesimal  transformation  of  a  group  of  point-transforma- 
tions in  the  plane,  and  if  yi,  ji. . . .  represent  the  successive  differential 
coefficients  of  y,  the  infinitesimal  transformation  may  be  written  in 
the  extended  form 

where  «iif,  ijsU, ...  are  the  increments  of  yt,  3%, . . .  By  including 
a  sufficient  number  of  these  variables  the  group  must  be  intransitive 
in  them,  and  must  therefore  have  one  or  more  invariants.  Such 
invariants  are  known  as  differential  invariants  of  the  original  group, 
being  necessarily  functions  of  the  differential  coefficients  of  the 
original  variables.  For  groups  of  the  plane  it  may  be  shown  that  not 
more  than  two  of  these  differential  invariants  are  independent,  all 
others  beingformed  from  these  by  algebraical  processes  and  differ- 
entiation, r  or  groui»  of  point-transformations  in  more  than  two 
variables  there  will  be  more  than  one  set  of  differential  invariants. 
For  instance,  with  three  variables,  one  may  be  regarded  as  inde- 
pendent and  the  other  two  as  functions  m  it,  or  two  as  inde- 
pendent and  the  remaining  one  as  a  function.  Corresponding  to 
these  two  points  of  view,  uie  differential  invariants  for  a  curve  or 
for  a  surface  will  arise, 

If  a  differential  invariant  of  a  continuous  group  of  the  plane  be 
equated  to  zero,  the  resulting  differential  equation  remains  unaltered 
when  the  variables  undergo  any  transformation  of  the  group.  Con- 
versely, if  an  ordinary,  differential  equation /(x,  y,  yu  yi,  .  • .  )"0 
admits  the  transformations  of  a  continuous  group,  i.e.  if  the  equation 
is  unaltered  when  x  and  y  undergo  any  transformation  of  the  group, 
thcn/(x,  y,  yi.  yi. . .  . )  or  some  multiple  of  it  must  be  a  differential 
invariant  of  the  group.  Hence  it  must  be  possible  to  find  two  inde- 
pendent differential  invariants  a.  0  of  the  grou^,  such  that  when 
these  are  taken  as  variables  the  differential  equation  takes  the  form . 

F(a,  /9,T^t  T-^ . . . )  -o.    This  equation  in  a,  fi  will  be  of  lower  order 

than  the  original  equation,  and  in  general  simpler  to  deal  with. 
Supposing  it  solved  in  the  form  /9=^(a),  where  for  «,  0  their  values 
in  terms  of  x,  y,  yi.  yit  •  •  •  are  written,  this  new  equation,  containing 
arbitrary  constants,  is  necessarily  again  of  lower  order  than  the 
original  equation.  The  integration  of  the  original  equation  is  thus 
divided  into  two  steps.  This  will  show  how,  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary 
differential  equation,  the  fact  that  the  equation  admits  a  continuous 
group  of  transformations  may  be  taken  advantage  of  for  its  integra- 
tion. 

The  most  important  of  the  applications  of  continuous  groups  are 
to  the  theory  01  systems  of  differential  equations,  both  ordinary  and 
partial ;  in  fact.  Lie  states  that  it  was  with  a  view  to  systematizing 
and  advancing  the  general  theory  of  differential  equations  that  he 
was  led  to  the  development  of  the  theory  of  continuous  noups.  It 
is  quite  impossible  here  to  give  any  account  of  all  that  Lie  and  his 
followers  have  done  in  this  direction.  An  entirely  new  mode  of 
regarding  the  problem  of  the  integration  of  a  differential  equation 


has  been  opened  up.  and  in  the  daasificatioa  that  arises  from  it  aB 
those  apparentJy  isolated  types  of  equations  which  in  the  older  seaae 
are  said  to  be  integrable  take  their  proper  place.  It  may.  for  instance, 
be  mentioned  that  the  question  as  to  vriiether  Monge  s  method  wSl 
apply  to  the  integration  of  a  partial  differentia]  cquatioa  of  the 
second  order  is  shown  to  depend  on  whether  or  not  a  contact-trans- 
formation can  be  found  which  will  reduce  the  equatioa  to  cither 

n«oor^r»o.    It  bin  this  direction  that  farther  advance  m  the 

theory  of  partial  differential  equations  must  be  \oolked  for.  Lasthf, 
it  may  be  remarked  that  one  ol  the  most  thorough  dtsawaons  of  tae 
axioms  of  geometry  hitherto  undertalnn  is  founded  eittirely  upon  tbe 
theory  of  continuous  groups. 

Discontinfunis  Croups, 

We  go  on  now  to  the  consideration  of  discontinaoos  sroopa. 
Although  groups  of  finite  order  are  necessarily  contained  under 
this  generd  head,  it  is  convenient  for  many  reasoiks  to  deal  with 
them  separately,  and  it  will  therefore  be  assumed  in  the  present 
section  that  the  number  of  operations  in  the  group  »  not  finite. 
Many  large  classes  of  discontinuous  groups  have  formed  the 
subject  of  detailed  inv»tigation,  but  a  general  formal  theory 
of  discontinuous  groups  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist  as  yet  It 
will  thus  be  obvious  that  in  conudeiing  disconUnuous  groups 
it  is  necessary  to  proceed  on  different  lines  from  those  followed 
with  continuous  groups,  and  in  fact  to  deal  with  the  subject 
almost  entirely  by  way  of  example. 

The  consideration  of  a  discontinuous  group  as  arisiitf  from  a  sK 
of  independent  generating  operations  suggests  a  purely  abstract  poiitt 
of  view  in  which  any  two  simply  isomorphic  groups  are 
indistinguishable.  The  numb«r  of  generating  operations 
may  be  either  finite  or  infiqite,  but  the  former  case  alone 
wUf  be  here  considered.  Suppose  then  that  Si,  Ss, . . .,  S* 
is  a  set  of  independent  operations  from  which  a  group  G  is  geoented. 
The  geiural  operation  ot  the  group  will  be  repreaeoted  by  the  symlxil 
S^  .  . .  Sj,  (M*  Z,  where  a,  6, . . .,  d  are  chosen  from  z,  3, . . .,  % 
and  a,  ^, . . .,  <  are  any  positive  or  negative  int^ers.  It  nay  be 
assunied  that  no  two  successive  suffixes  in  S  are  the  same,  forif  a"*a, 
then  S^  may  be  replaced  by  S^.  If  there  are  no  rdations  con- 
necting the  generating  operations  and  the  identical  operaticm,  every 
distinct  symbol  Z  represents  a  distinct  operation  of  the  groups    for  if 

2-2,.orS:sJ. .  .Sj-SJJSf}. .  .S};,  then  Sj. .  .SjfS^^. .  .Sj 

•  i;andun]essa-ai,fr>"6i, ...,a"airi'~Ai>-*(tlus  is  a  idatkm 
connecting  the  generating  operaticms. 

Suppose  now  that  Tt,  Ti, . . .  are  operations  of  G.  and  that  H  b 
that  8elf<onju^te  subgroup  of  G  which  is  generated  by  Ti,  T^ . . . 
and  the  operations  conjugate  to  them.  Then,  of  the  operatituis  thst 
can  be  formed  from  Si,  S|, . . .,  S.,  the  set  2H,  and  no  others,  reduce 
to  the  same  operation  2  when  the  conditions  Ti  ••  I,  Ti"  E, . . .  are 
satbfied  by  tnc  generating  operations.  Hence  the  group  which  is 
^nerated  by  the  given  operations,  when  subjected  to  the  cooditioitt 
lust  written,  b  simply  isomorphic  with  the  factor-group  G/H. 
Moreover,  this  is  obviously  true  even  when  the  ccmditions  are  sncfa 
that  the  generating  operations  are  no  longer  independent.  Hence 
any  discontinuous  group  may  be  defined  abstractly,  that  is,  in  regard 
to  the  laws  of  combination  of  its  operations  apart  from  their  actoal 
form,  by  a  set  of  generating  operations  and  a  system  ol  reUtioas 
connecting  them.  Conversely,  when  such  a  set  of  operations  and 
system  of  relations  are  given  arbitrarily  they  define  in  abstract 
form  a  angle  discontinuous  group.  It  may,  01  course,  happen  that 
the  ^roup  so  defined  is  a  eroup  of  finite  order,  or  that  it  reduces  to 
the  identical  operation  only;  but  in  reeud  to  the  general  stateoeot 
these  will  be  particular  and  exceptionafcases. 

An  operation  of  a  discontinuous |;roup  must  necessarily  beqwdfied 
analytically  by  a  system  of  equations  of  the  form 


x\' 


'f»(.*U  X«t  .  •  .,  *■;  fll,  Ot,  •",  Or)»  (*  » I,  2,  — ,  n)t 


and  the  different  operations  of  the*  group  will  be  given  by 
different  sets  of  values  of  the  parameters  oi,  ot.  • .  •  f  Or- 
No  one  of  these  parameters  is  susceptible  ojf  oontinltous 
variations,  but  at  least  one  must  be  capable  of  taking  a 
number  of  values  which  is  not  finite,  if  the  group  b  not  one 
of  fi  nite  order.  Among  the  sets  of  values  oithe  parameten 
there  must  be  one  which  ^vcs  the  identical  transormation. 
No  other  transformation  makes  each  of  the  differences  zV^ 
x'<-xs,  .  .  .,  x'n-Xn  Vanish.  Let  d  be  an  arlMtrary  assigned  posittve 
quantity.  Then  if  a  transformation  of  the  group  can  be  fonod  such 
tnat  the  modulus  of  each  of  these  differeirces  b  lesa  than  d  when  the 
variables  have  arbitrary  values  within  an  assigned  range  of  variatioA. 
however  small  d  may  be  chosen,  the  group  b  said  to  be  impnpe^y 
discontinuous.  In  the  contrary  case  the  group  b  called  proptrij 
discontinuous.  The  range  within  which  the  vanables  are  aHoved  b> 
vary  may  clearly  affect  the  question  whether  a  given  gronp  ^ 
property  or  improperiy  discontinuous.    For  instance,  the  groop 


GROUPS,  THEORY  OF 


633 


defined  by  the  equation  x'  »as+b,  where  a  and  b  are  any  ratimial 
numbers,  it  improperly  discontinuous:  and  the  group  defined  by 
xf^x+a,  where  a  is  an  integer,  is  properly  discontmuous,  whatever 
the  range  o(  the  variable.  On  the  other  hand,  the  group,  to  be  later 

considered,  defined  by  the  equation  g*-^^  .  ^.  where  a,  6,  c,  i  are 

integers  satisfying  the  relation  ad-bc»i,  is  properly  discontinuous 
when  X  may  take  any  complex  value,  and  improperly  discontinuous 
when  the  range  of  x  is  limited  to  real  values. 

Among  the  discontinuous  groups  that  occur  in  analysis,  a  large 
number  may  be  regarded  as  arising  bv  imposing  limitations  on  the 
nnge  of  variation  of  the  parameters  of  continuous  groups.  If 
^'•"/•(*ii  *j, . . .,  «■:  Ot.  Ot, . . ..  Or),  (*-i,  a, . . .,  i»), 
are  the  finite  equations  of  a  continuous  group,  and  if  C  with  para- 
meters Ci,ct, .,.  tCr\%  the  operation  which  results  from  carrying  out 
A  and  J3  with  corresponding  parameters  in  succession,  then  the  c'% 
are  determined  uniquely  by  the  a'sand  the  b'%.  If  the  c'%  arc  rational 
functions  of  the  as  and  6's,  and  if  the  a's  and  fr's  are  arbitrary 
rational  numbers  of  a  given  corpus  (see  Numbbr),  the  c'%  will  be 
rational  numbers  of  the  same  corpus.  If  the  c'%  are  rational  integral 
functions  of  the  a's  and  b'%,  and  the  latter  are  arbitrarily  chosen 
integers  of  a  corpus,  then  thec's  are  integers  of  the  same  corpus. 
Hence  in  the  first  case  the  above  equations,  when  the  a's  are  limited 
to  be  rational  numbers  of  a  given  corpus,  will  define  a  discontinuous 
group;  and  in  the  second  case  they  will  define  such  a  group  when 
the  a's  are  further  limited  to  be  integers  of  the  corpus. 
A  most  important  class  of  discontinuous  j;roups  are  those 
that  arise  in  this  way  from  the  general  hnear  continuous 
sroup  in  a  given  set  of  variables.  For  n  variables  the 
finite  equations  of  this  continuous  group  are 

x'.-attXi+Ort*i+  .  .  .  +0mXiii  (j.-i.  2f . .  M  «). 
where  the  determinant  of  the  a's  must  not  be  xero.  In  this  case  the 
c*%  are  clearly  integral  Uneo-linear  functions  of  the  a's  and  b'%: 
Moreover,  the  determinant  of  the  c'%  is  the  product  of  the  determinant 
of  the  a's  and  the  determinant  of  the  b  s.  Hence  equations  (ii.), 
where  the  parameters  are  restricted  to  be  integers  of  a  given  corpus, 
define  a  discontinuous  group;  and  if  the  determinant  of  the  co> 
efficients  is  limited  to  the  value  unity,  they  define  a  discontinuous 
group  which  is  a  (self-conjugate)  subgroup  of  the  previous  one. 

The  simplest  case  which  tnusprescnts  itself  is  thatnn  which  there 
are  two  variables  while  the  coefficients  are  rational  integers.  This  is 
the  group  defined  by  the  equations 

ac'-ox+ftjf, ) 

y^cx-^dy,  \ 

where  a.  b,  e,  d  are  integers  such  that  ad-bc  ■■  t.  To  every  operation 
of  this  group  there  corresponds  an  operation  of  the  set  dcfinea  by 

in  such  a  way  that  to  the  product  of  two  operations  of  the  group 
there  corresponds  the  product  of  the  two  analogous  operations  of 
the  set.  The  operations  of  the  set  (iv.),  where  ad-bc^i,  therefore 
constitute  a  group  which  is  isomorphic  with  the  previous  group. 
The  isomorphism  is  multiple,  since  to  a  single  operation  of  the  second 
set  there  correspond  the  two  operations  of  the  first  for  which  o,  b,  c,  d 
and  -a,  -b,  -<,  -d  are  parameters.  These  two  groups,  which  are 
of  fundamental  importance  in  the  theory  of  Quadratic  forms  and  in 
the  theory  of  modular  functions,  have  been  tnc  object  of  very  many 
investigations. 

Anotner  large  class  of  discontinuous  groups,  which  have  far- 
reaching  applications  in  analysis,  are  those  which  arise  in  the  first 
mstance  from  purely  geometrical  considerations.  By  the 
combination  and  repetition  of  a  finite  number  of  geo- 
metrical operations  such  as  displacements,  projective 
transformations,  inversions,  &c.,  a  discontinuous  group  of 
such  operations  will  arise.  Such  a  group;  as  regards  the 
points  of  the  plane  (or  of  space),  will  in  general  be  im- 
l»roperiy  discontinuous;  but  when  the  generating  opera- 
tions are  suitably  chosen,  the  group  may  be  properly 
discontinuous.  In  the  latter  case  the  group  ma/  be 
represented  in  a  graphical  form  bv  the  division  of  the  plane  (or  space) 
into  regions  such  that  no  point  ot  one  region  can  be  transformed  into 
another  point  of  the  same  region  by  any  operation  of  the  group, 
while  any  given  reg^v  can  bie  transformed  into  any  other  by  a 
suitable  transformation.  Thus,  let  ABC  be  a  triangle  bounded  by 
three  circular  arcs  BC,  CA,  AB ;  and  connder  the  figure  produced 
from  ABC  by  inversions  in  the  three  circles  of  which  BC,  CA,  AB  are 
part.  By  inversion  at  BC,  ABC  becomes  an  eouiangular  triangle 
A'BC  An  inversion  in  AB  changes  ABC  and  A'BC  into  equiangular 
triangles  ABC'  and  A'BC.  Successive  inversions  at  AB  and  BC 
then  will  change  ABC  into  a  series  of  equiangular  triangles  ^th  B 
for  a  common  vertex.  These  will  not  overlap  and  will  just  fill  in  the 
apace  round  B  if  the  *ngle  ABC  is  a  submultiple  of  two  right  angles^ 
It  then  the  anglM  of  ABC  are  submultiples  of  two  right  ancles  (or 
xero),  the  triangles  formed  by  any  number  of  invereions  will  never 
overlap,  and  to  each  operation  consisting  of  a  definite  aeries  of 
invcnKma  at  BC,  CA  and  AB  will  correspond  a  distinct  triangle  into 
wbidi  ABC  is  changed  by  the  operation.  The  network  of  triangles  so 


tfi 


formed  gives  a  graphical  representation  of  the  group  that  arises  from 
the  three  inversions  in  BC,  CA,  AB.  The  triangles  may  be  divided 
into  two  sets,  those,  namely,  like  A'BC,  which  arc  derivwl  from  ABC 
by  an  even  number  of  inversions,  and  those  like  A'BC  or  ABC  pro- 
duced by  an  odd  number.  Each  set  are  interchanged  among  them- 
sdves  fay  any  even  number  of  inversions.  Hence  the  operations 
consisting  of  an  even  number  of  inversions  form  a  group  oy  them- 
sdves.  For  this  group  the  quadrilateral  formed  by  ABC  andA'BC  con- 
stitutes a  regiop,  which  is  changed  by  every  operation  of  the  group  into 
a  distinct  region  (formed  of  two  adjacent  triangles),  and  these  regions 
clearly  do  not  overlap.  Their  distribution  presents  in  a  graphical 
form  the  group  that  arises  bv  pairs  of  inveruons  at  BC,  C A.  AB ;  and 
this  group  is  generated  by  tne  operation  which  consists  of  successive 
inversions  at  A  B,  BC  anci  that  which  consists  of  successive  inversions 
at  BC,  CA.  The  group  defined  thus  geometrically  may  be  presented 
in  many  analytical  forms.  If  x,  y  and  x',  y  are  the  rectangular  co- 
(wdinates  of  two  points  which  are  inverse  to  each  other  with  respect 
to  a  given  circle,  x'  and  y  are  rational  functions  of  x  and  y,  and  con- 
vcrsdy.  Thus  the  group  may  be  presented  in  a  form  in  which  each 
operation  gives  a  birational  transformation  of  two  variables.  If 
x-l-iy-s,  ar-H^y — «*,  and  if  x*.  /  is  the  point  to  which  x.  y  is  trans- 
formed by  any  even  number  of  inversions,  then  ^  and  s  are  connected 

by  a  linear  relation  «'"^if.  where  m,  fi,  t,  h  %xtt  constants  (in 

general  complex)  depending  on  the  circles  at  which  the  inversions  are 
taken.  Hence  the  group  may  be  presented  in  the  form  of  a  group 
of  linear  transformations  of  a  single  variable  generated  by  the  two 

ff+A    g/.-Si+l,  which  correspond 


linear  transformations  •'■■- 


to  pairs  of  inversions  at  AB,  BC  and  BC.  CA  respectively.  In 
particular,  if  the  sides  of  the  trianjgle  are  taken  to  be  x«o,  i^-^-y- 
i"0,  x'+y+ax-'O,  the  generating  operations  are  found  to  be 
s'*s-hi,  r  *  -r*';    and  the  group  is  that 


group  is  that  consisting  of  all  trans- 

where  airhc^i,  a,  ft,  c,  d  bdng 

integers.   This  is  the  group  already  mentioned  which  underlies  the 


fonnatrans  of  the  form  ''""^^x^t 


a  modular  function  being 
subgroup  of  finite  index  of 


theory  of  the  elliptic  modular  functions; 
a  function  of  s  which  is  invariant  for  soum 
the  group  in  question. 
■  The  triangle  ABC  from  which  the  above  geometrical  construction 
started  may  be  replaced  by  a  polygon  whose  sides  are  circles.  If 
each  angle  is  a  submultiple  of  two  right  angles  or  zero,  the  construc- 
tion is  rtill  effective  to  give  a  set  of  non-overlapping  regions,  which 
represent  graphically  the  group  which  arises  from  pain  of  inversions 
in  the  sides  of  the  polygon.  In  their  analytical  form,  as  groups  of 
linear  transformations  of  a  single  variable,  the  groups  are  those  on 
which  the  theory  of  automorphic  functions  depends.  A  similar 
construction  in  space,  the  polygons  bounded  by  circular  arcs  being 
replaced  by  polynedra  bounded  by  spherical  faces,  has  been  used  by 
F.  Klein  ana  Fricke  to  give  a  geometrical  representation  for  groups 
which  are  improperly  discontinuous  when  represented  as  groups  of 
the  plane.  > 

Tne  special  classes  of  discontinuousgroupsthat  have  been  dealt  with 
in  the  previous  paragraphs  arise  directly  from  geometrical 
considerations.    As  a  final  example  we  shall  refer  briefly    <*«•#  •/ 
to  a  class  of  groups  whose  origin  is  essentially  analyticaL 
Let 


^+Pi^+  . .  .  +Pi^aJ+P^- 


be  a  linear  differential  equation,  the  coefficients  in  which  are 
rational  functions  of  x,  and  let  yi.  yt, . . .,  >•  be  a  linearly  inde- 
pendent set  of  integrals  of  the  equation.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  a 
finite  value  x«  of  x,  which  is  not  a  singularity  of  any  o7  the  coefficients 
in  the  equation,  these  integrals  are  ordinary  power-series  in  x-x*. 
If  the  analytical  continuations  of  yu  yi. .  • .,  y»  be  formed  for  any 
closed  path  starting  from  and  returning  to  x^  the  final  values  arrived 
at  when  xo  is  again  reached  will  be  anotner  set  of  linearly  independent 
integrals.  When  the  dowd  path  contains  no  singular  point  of  the 
coefficients  of  the  differential  eouation.  the  new  set  of^integrats  is 
identical  with  the  original  set.  If.  however,  the  closed  path  encloses 
one  or  more  lingular  points,  this  will  not  in  general  be  the  case. 
Let  Vi,  /t. . . .,  yu  be  the  new  integrals  arri^^  at.  Since  in  the 
neighbourhood  01  x%  eveiy  integral  can  be  represented  linearly  in 
terms  of  yi,  yi, . . . ,  y^  ,  there  must  be  a  system  of  equations 

y'l-aiiyi -1-0113% -h  •  •  •  +«»•>•. 
y'i-a«yi+a«yi-h  . . .  +at«y.. 


y«*ai4yi+«i4>!i+  •  •  •  +fl^-. 
where  the  a's  are  constants,  expresMUg  the  new  intcigrak  in  terms  of 
the  original  ones.  To  each  closed  path  described  by  x%  there  therefore 
corresponds  a  definite  linear  substitution  pecfonned  on  the  y's. 
Further,  if  Si  and  St  are  the  substitutions  that  correspond  to  two 
closed  paths  Lt  and  Li,  then  to  any  closed  path  which  can  be  con- 
tinuously deformed,  without  crossing  a  singular  point*  into  Li 
followed  by  Ls,  there  oorresponda  the  substitutkm  S^      1  .*  i . 

Li Lr  be  arbitrarily  chosen  doaed  paths  starting' 

ing  to  the  same  point,  and  cadi  of  them  endoainr 


^3+ 


GROUPS,  THEORY  OF 


(r)  finite  singular  points  of  the  equation.  Every  closed  path  in  the 
plane  can  be  formed  by  combinations  of  these  r  paths  taken  either 
in  the  positive  or  in  the  negative  direction.  Also  a  closed  path  which 
does  not  cut  itself,  and  encloses  all  the  r  singular  points  within  it,  is 
e<iuivalent  to  a  path  enclosing  the  point  at  infinity  and  no  finite 
singular  point.  Ii  Si,  Sii  Ss, . . . ,  Sr  are  the  linear  substitutions  that 
correspond  to  these  r  paths,  then  the  substitution  corresponding  to 
every  possible  path  can  be  obtained  by  combination  and  repetition 
of  these  r  substitutions,  and  they  therefore  generate  a  discontinuous 

¥x>up  each  of  whose  operations  corresponds  to  a  definite  closed  path, 
he  group  thus  arrived  at  b  called  the  group  of  the  equation.  For 
a  given  Miuation  it  b  unique  in  type.  In  tact,  the  only  effect  of 
starting  from  another  set  of  independent  integrals  is  to  transform 
every  operation  of  the  group  by  an  arbitrary  substitution,  while 
choosing  a  different  set  <m  paths  u  eciuivalent  to  taking  a  new  set  of 
generating  operations.  The  great  Importance  of  the  group  of  the 
equation  ^i  connexion  with  tiie  nature  of  its  integrals  cannot  here 
be  dealt  with,  but  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  if  all  the  integrals  of 
the  equation  arc;  algebraic  functions,  the  group  must  be  a  group  of 
finite  order,  since  the  set  of  quantities  yi,  ya,.. .»  ym  can  then  only 
take  a  finite  number  of  distinct  values. 

Groups  of  Finite  Order. 

We  shall  now  pass  on  to  groups  of  finite  order.  It  b  dear 
that  here  we  must  have  to  do  with  many  properties  which  have 
no  direct  analogues  in  the  theory  of  continuous  groups  or  in 
that  of  discontinuous  ^ups  in  general;  those  properties, 
namely,  which  depend  on  the  fact  that  the  number  of  distinct 
operations  in  the  group  b  finite. 

Let  Si,  Si,  Si,  ....  Sn  denote  the  operations  of  a  group  Gof  finite 
order  N,  Si  being  the  identical  operation.    The  tableau 


s,. 

Si, 

Si. 

•  f  ^if» 

SiS,, 

s,s„ 

SiSa, . . 

•  ,  SmSi, 

SiS«, 

SiS,; 

SjSs, . . 

. ,  SttS«, 

«5l5|if  3t^ili     3jS|i»»  •  •  ,  ^H^Vi 

when  in  it  each  compound  symbol  S^  is  replaced  by  the  single 
symbol  Sr  that  is  e<^uivalcnt  to  it,  is  called  the  multiplication  table 
of  the  group.  It  indicates  directly  the  result  of  multiplying  together 
in  an  assigned  se()uence  any  number  of  operations  of  tne  group. 
In  each  line  (and  in  each  column)  of  the  tableau  every  operation  of 
the  group  occurs  just  once.  If  the  letters  in  the  tableau  are  regarded 
as  merp  symbols,  the  operation  of  replacing  each  symbol  in  the  first 
line  by  the  symbol  which  stands  under  it  in  the  pth  line  is  a  permuta> 
tion  performed  on  the  set  of  N  symbols.  Thus  to  the  N  lines  of  the 
tableau  there  corresponds  a  set  of  N  permutations  performed  on  the 
N  symbols,  which  includes  the  identic^  permutation  that  leaves  each 
uncnanged.  Moreover,  if  ^Sf  "Sr.  then  the  result  of  carrying  out  in 
succession  the  permutations  which  correspond  to  the  <>th  and  ^h 
lines  gives  the  permutation  which  corresponds  to  the  nh  line. 
Hence  the.  set  of  permutatbns  constitutes  a  group  which  b  simply 
isomorphic^ with  the  given  group. 

Every  group  of  finite  order  N  can  therefore  be  represented  in 
concrete  form  as  a  transitive  group  of  permutations  on  N  symbols. 

The  Older  of  any  subgroup  or  operation  of  G  is  necessarily  finite. 

If  Ti(-Si),  Ti T«  are  the  operations  of  a  subgroup  H  of  G, 

_  and  if  Z  b  any  operation  of  G  which  b  not  contained  in  H, 

^^'^P*^"—  the  set  of  operations  2Ti,  XTi, ....  2T«,  or  2H,  are  all 
•f»Mnmp  distinct  from  each  other  and  from  the  operations  of  H. 
^y^^  If  the  sets  H  and  ZH  do  not  exhaust  the  operations  of  G, 
ff^*^**  and  if  Z'  b  an  operation  not  belonging  to  them,  then  the 
tt«  snm^.  operations  of  the  set  Z'H  are  distinct  m>m  each  other  and 
from  those  of  H  and  ZH.  This  process  may  be  continued  till  the 
operations  of  G  are  exhausted.  The  order  n  oi  H  must  therefore  be  a 
factor  of  the  order  N  of  G.  The  ratio  N/»  is  called  the  index  of  the 
sub^up  H.  By  takins  for  H  the  cyclical  subgroup  generated  by 
any  operation  S  of  G,  it  follows  that  the  order  of  S  must  oe  a  factor  of 
the  order  of  G. 

Every  operation  S  b  permutable  with  its  own  powers.  Hence 
there  must  be  some  subgroup  H  of  G  of  greatest  possible  order,  such 
that  every  operation  of  H  is  permutable  with  S.  Every  operation  of 
H  transforms  S  into  itself,  and  every  operation  of  the  set  HZ  trans- 
forms S  into  the  same  operation.  Hence,  when  S  is  transformed  by 
every  operation  of  G,  just  N/m  distinct  operations  arise  if  »  b  the 
order  of  H.  These  operations,  and  no  others,  are  conjugate  to  S 
within  G;  they  are  said  to  form  a  set  of  conj  urate  operations. 
The  number  of  operations  in  every  conjugate  set  is  therefore  a  factor 
of  the  order  of  G.  In  the  same  way  it  may  be  shown  that  the  number 
of  subgroups  which  are  conjugate  to  a  given  subgroup  is  a  factor  of 
the  order  of  G.  An  operation  which  b  permuuble  witn  every  opera- 
tion  of  the  group  b  called  a  self-conjugaie  operation.  The  toUlity 
of  the  self-conjugate  operations  of  a  group  forms  a  self-conjugate 
Abelbn  suberoup.  each  of  whose  operations  is  permuUble  with  every 
operation  ot  the  group. 

An  Abelian  group  contains  subgroups  whose  orders  are  any  given 
factors  of  the  order  of  the  group.    In  fact,  since  every  subgroup  H 


of  an  Abelbn  group  G  and  the  corresponding  factor  groups  G/H  are 
Abelbn,  this  result  follows  immedbtely  by  an  induction  from  the 
case  in  which  the  order  contains  n  prime  factors  to  that  io  iriuch  it 
contains  M+ 1.  For  a  group  which  is  not  Abelian  no  general 
law  can  be  stated  as  to  the  existence  or  non-existence  of  a 
subgroup  whose  order  is  an  arbitrarily  assigned  factor 
of  the  order  of  the  group.  In  this  connexion  the  most  important 
general  result,  which  is  independent  of  any  supposition  as  to  the 
order  of  the  group,  is  known  as  Sylow's  theorem,  which  states  that  'd 
p*  is  the  hi^est  power  of  a  pnme  p  which  divides  the  order  of  a 
group  G,  then  G  contains  a  single  conjugate  set  of  subgroups  of 
order  p*,  the  number  in  the  set  being  of  the  form  i  -{-kp.  Syiov's 
theorem  may  be  extended  to  show  that  if  ^  is  a  factor  oi  the  order 
of  a  group,  the  number  of  subgroups  of  order  ^  b  of  the  form  i  -i-kp. 
If,  howevn-,  p*^  b  not  the  highest  power  of  p  which  divides  the  order, 
these  groups  do  not  in  general  form  a  single  conjugate  set. 

The  importance  of  Sylow's  theorem  in  discussmg  the  stracture  of 
a  group  OI  given  order  need  hardly  be  insisted  on.  Thus,  as  a  very 
simple  instance,  a  group  whose  order  b  the  product  PtP»  of  two 
primes  (pi  <^)  must  have  a  self -conjugate  subgroup  of  oixiier  p%,  since 
the  order  of  thegroup  contains  no  factor,  other  than  unity,  of  the 
form  i+kp^  The  samtf  again  b  true  for  a  group  of  oroer  Pi^p^ 
udless  Pi">a,  ana^«3. 

There  b  one  other  numerical  property  of  a  group  connected  with 
its  order  which  b  quite  generaL  If  N  b  the  order  of  G,  and  n  a 
factor  of  N,  the  number  of  operations  of  G,  whose  orders  are  equal  to 
or  are  factors  of  m,  b  a  multiple  of  n. 

As  already  defiiied,  a  composite  group  b  a  group  whidi  oontaios 
one  or  more  self-conjugate  subgroups,  wnose  orders  are  greater  than 
unity.  If  H  b  a  self-conjugate  subgroup  of  G,  the  factor- 
group  G/H  may  be  either  simple  or  componte.  In  the 
former  case  G  can  contain  no  self -conjugate  subgroup  K« 
which  itsdf  contains  H ;  for  if  it  did  K/H  would  be  a  self- 
conjugate  suberoup  of  G/H.  When  G/H  is  simple,  H  b  said  to  be  a 
maximum  self -conjugate  subgroup  of  G.     Suppose  now  that  G 

being  a  given  composite  group.  G.  Gi,  Gi Cm,  i  b  a  series  of 

subgroups  of  G,  such  that  each  is  a  maximum  self-conjugate  sub- 
group OI  the  preceding;  the  last  term  of  the  series  oonsiscing  of  the 
identical  operation  oruy.  Such  a  series  is  called  a  anmpasitiem-tenes 
of  G.  In  general  it  is  not  unique,  since  a  group  may  have  two  or 
more  maximum  self-conjugate  subgroups.  A  composition-seties  of 
a  group,  however  it  may  be  chosen,  has  the  property  that  the  number 
of  terms  of  which  it  consists  is  atwavs  the  same,  while  the  factor- 
groups  G/Gi.  Gi/G« Gfi  differ  only  in  the  sequence  in  which 

they  occur.  It  should  be  noticed  that  though  a  group  dcfinesuniquciy 
the  set  of  factor-groups  that  occur  in  its  composition-series,  the  set 
of  factor-groups  do  not  conversely  in  general  define  a  single  type  of 
group,  when  the  orders  of  all  the  factor-groups  are  primes  the  giroop 
IS  said  to  be  soluble. 

If  the  scries  of  subgroups  G,  H,  K, . . .,  L,  i  b  chosen  so  that  eadi 
is  the  greatest  self -con  jugate  subgroup  of  G  contained  in  the  previous 
one,  the  series  is  called  a  chief  composition-series  of  G.  All  nch 
series  derived  from  a  given  group  may  be  shown  to  consist  of  the  same 
number  of  terms,  and  to  give  rise  to  the  same  set  of  factor-groups, 
except  as  regards  sequence.  The  factor-groups  of  such  a  senrs  viU 
not.  however,  necessarily  be  simple  groups.  From  any  chief  com- 
position-series a  composition-series  may  be  formed  by  interpohtiag 
between  any  two  terms  H  and  K  of  the  series  for  which  H/K  is  not 
a  simple  group,  a  number  of  terms  ki,  A|, . . .,  k,;  and  it  may  be 
shown  that  the  factor-groups  H/ik|,  kjk^ . . .,  k,fK  are  all  aimpiy 
isomorphic  with  each  other. 

.  A  group  may  be  represented  as  isomorphic  with  itsdf  by  traav 
forming  all  its  operations  by  any  one  of  tnem.    In  fact,  if  S^"^ 

then   5"'S^.S-*StS— S~*S*a.      An   isomorphism  of  the  ^ 

group  with  itself,  established  in  this  way,  is  called  an  ./JlTl*, 
*nner  isomorphism.   It  may  be  regarded  as  an  operation  f!!!!JvM 
carried  out  on  the  symbob  of  the  operations,  being  indeed  ^S 
a  permutation  performed  on  these  symbols.  The  totality 
of  these  operations  clearly  constitutes  a  group  isomorphic  with  the 

S'ven  group,  and  this  group  b  called  the  group  of  inner  isonorpbisau. 
group  is  simply  or  multiply  isomorphic  with  its  group  of  ioner 
isomorphisms  according  as  it  does  not  or  does  contain  self-ooojusate 
operations  other  than  identity.  It  may  be  possible  to  esubli^  a 
correspondence  between  the  operations  oi  a  group  other  than  tbo« 
given  by  the  inner  isomorphisms,  such  that  if  a'  b  the  operatioe 
corresponding  to  S,  then  S'yS'«"S'r  b  a  consequence  of  ^«",Sh« 
The  substitution  on  the  symbols  of  the  operations  of  a  group  resulrinf 
from  such  a  correspondence  b  called  an  outer  isomorpfaisn.  The 
totality  of  the  isomorphisms  of  both  kinds  constitutes  the  group  of 
isomorphisms  of  the  given  group,  and  within  thb  the  group  of  ianer 
isomorphisms  is  a  self-conjugate  subgroup.  Every  set  of  ooniosate 
operations  of  a  group  is  necessarily  transformed  into  itself  by  ao 
inner  isomorphism,  but  two  or  more  seta  may  be  interchanged  t^ao 
outer  isomorphism. 

A  subgroup  of  a  group  G,  which  is  transformed  into  itsdf  by  evtrv 
isomorpnbm  of  G,  b  called  a  ckonuterisiic  subgroup.  A  aeritf  o> 
groups  G,  G},  Gs, . . .,  t.  such  that  each  is  a  maximum  diaracteristir 
subgroup  of  G  contained  in  the  preceding,  may  be  shown  to  have  tbt 
same  invariant  properties  as  the  subgroups  of  a  compositioa  sRi» 
A  group  which  has  no  characteristic  subgroup  must  be  either  a  amp* 


GROUPS,  THEORY  OF 


^«iip  or  tbc  direct  product  ti  a  miubcr  of  hDply  iBaiorpbk 

li  lu>  been  Kvn  thai  «very  fTDUp  of  Knile  ofder  can  be  Rpmented 

MM  ■  EFOup  of  permvlAfioiu  performed  on  a  tct  oF  lymboli  whote 

numbn-iirqual talheorderol the[roiip.  Tn^enH^auch 

!..T  •  njHwmution  it  poiHble  with  ■  •malln'  pumbcr  of 

""^       ot  G  be  divided,  in  rctpect  ol  H.  into  tlw  Kti  H,  S,H. 

SiH S.H.    If  S  ■•  >ny  aprntion  of  C,  the  mi  SH.  5S,H. 

SS,H SS_H  differ  Imm  the  pnvioui  Ktl  oiUy  in  the  irquencF 

in  which  Ihey  occur.  In  dn,  if  S^belong  to  the  w  V<.  then  linix 

lofmsl  on  the  ■yinboli  of  tlie  m  arts,  And  to  the'  product  of  two 

tionL  The  let  of  pernutainni.  thereforr.  rorou  n  iroup  iiomorpbic 
■ith  the  pvta  (roup.  MtKmvcr.  the  inmorphiim  b  Hinpk  ualc» 
for  OBC  or  miirs  operuiom.  other  than  Identity,  the  eeu  alt  remain 
unahemL  Thia  can  ooly  be  tlie  caK  lor  S,  when  every  opcratioo 


ieveral  way^  aa  a  iroup  of  permiitatiou,  rivea  ipcciai 
tomchfraup^  Themtmberof  iymbofainvolvediq web 
tioolacaDedtlkedffwof  thafimp.  Id  accotdaticc  with 
tba  fvwal  Je6nitiona  alnady  nven,  ■  pcrraiitatiaii^rDap  it  called 

pcnmiuiiont  dia^nf  any  one  oTthe  flfmbelt  into  aay  other.  It  it 
tailed  bnpriraitive  or  primitive  accortfing  at  the  aymbolt  can  or 
cannot  be  ananfed  in  tctt.  Hfch  that  every  permutation  of  the  group 
cluDfes  tbc  rymbc^t  of  any  one  let  eitlker  amonv  themielvet  or  into 
tbc  aymbolt  of  another  tct.  When  a  group  It  impriraitive  the 
Dumber  of  Bynbolt  ID  each  act  muR  ckatfy  be  the  lame. 

vymbolt  it  ■  I,  and  thw  ncccteai 
attbefTMwtnf  group  of  decree  Hh  the  only  r 
lymboli  vhich  tre  untltcrcd  by  ali  pottiblc 


iteaETOup-  Ititlrnow 
rational  funclkmt  of  tk 


ing  iToup  it.a  limple  group 

lubgToup  of  indcH  3,  coniii 
belong  to  the  alternating  gr 

can  be  preiented  tlie  mott 


'  thoae  of  iti  pcnnutatiofit  which 

ni  in  which  a  group  of  finite  order 
lant  it  that  of  a  group  of  linenr 


let  of  ■■  variable!.  luehlhatif  5T-U,  thenil-a.    The  linear 

whether  iIk  itomorphitm  u  siiwiple  or  miilliple  t  it 
cpiticnutioa  "  of  G  at  a  group  ol  linear  ubKitu- 


equivalent."  or  "  dittinct." 
fanned  iato  the  other- 

ducjble  "  when  it  it  pottibL 
the  v^riablea  which  an  Ir 

ailed  "  i(T«locible.''™l'ai 
tuiiani,of  finite  order,  it  al 
vtriil^  when  auitably  d> 


.  Thiibeiagio.it 
of  a  group  of  &AiIc 


alterrd  by  every  lulwlLUIion  of  the  grou^     The  fundafnenral 
thcoflvn  in  connexjon  with  the  repretentaliont.  ai  an  irrcdudble 

(roup,  then,  when  the  group  of  N  permutationt  it  completely 


c4  tj^bolt  01 

ineducibie  repretcDtationt  < 


63s 

iber  of  timet  equal  to  the  DDtaber 

repretentationa  eahauti  all  the  tUiti^ 

what  it  called  the  "identical" 

inia  tingle qwbol  unchanged.   II 

»  gruup  aa  a  group  of  linear  lobitjtutiont,  or  in 
Hjp  of  pcrmutaliont.  may  be  uniquely  reprctcntcd 


called  the  invene  of  the  ^h  if  it  contilU  of  th 
1  which  every  group  of  finite  order  can  be  rrpn 


r  coelftcienti.    The  toUlity  of  thcie 


It  totality  of.ihe  operaliont  of  the 
k  the  determinant  of  the  coHliden 
iftroup.  Other  tubgroupa  ariie  by  contitkring  ihoie  open 
li  lenv*  a  functitm  of  the  variablea  unchanged  (mod.  ■] 
nibffroupt  ai*  known  aa  linear  homogeneoiu  grovpa. 
lien  the  rat  ioa  only  of  the  variablea  are  contidrrrd,  (bete  a: 
r  fracOcnal  group,  with  which  the  correuonding  linear  ] 
nil  group  it  liamiirphic.  Tbut.  if  p  ita  prime  the  totality 

•'m^^.  ad-hc  +0.  (mod,  f) 


636  GRC 

vaIihi  dT  ^  b  HlmcMt  Ehe  gnfy  orw  which  luB  bem  u  yet  «ili*u»tively 


-. . —  ^_.„jKntB  0,,  ATF  ifittcraL  (uoctioiu  with  rial  inlccnl 

:oel¥icienti  cl  a  root  ol  an  irmjucible  coi^nitncc  to  a  prime  mod  uTut 
bm  of  CDngniFiice*  ii  obviously  limited  in  mimbcn  and 
lup  wbkh  contHiiH  u  ■  tubfniup  rbe  ^roup  defined  by 
n^rucDcea  with  onlinuy  inlegi^l  coeSoents. 
Hptdkation  ot  the  theocy  ol  croupt  of  fioite  order  ii  to 
f  ftl^rair  equalionL     Tbe  ataktgy  ol  ecjidtior 


Such 


he  theory  of  ftfifebrair  eqt 


I.  Ihiid  ii 


nth 


(ouation  could  be  kIvi 
Abel  fnd  C^oifli  ia  not 

be  eipreved  by  mcani 
equatioD  c«n  be  tolved 
Tne  theory  of  etdupb  i 


lives  the  neaia  of  determiniu  vbecber  Kn 
Ihi«  eucpcionil  cue»  and  of  tolviof  the 
Wbcn  it  does  not,  [he  theory  providu  the 


f  the  rooli. 


Cilcns  (lee  Equation)  ihowed  that,  con 
leducible  equation  of  ihe  nth  Aetm.  there 
HiliitiDn-Kroup  of  dmee  n.  Auch  that  every 
the  numericAl  value  oL  which  n  unaltered  by 
the  (roup  can  be  expmied  rationally  in  lei 

while  coiivendy  every  funclion  of  Ibe  roo._     -_^,„__., 

rationally  imcma  of  the  coelBcicnf  is  unaltered  by  the  aub«Ututioni 
of  the  Enup-  TUi  fnvp  ia  oiled  the  fronp  of^Lbe  equation.  In 
BtrwralT  if  the  oquatuiq  v  [iven  arbitrarily,  the  emufi  will  be  the 
■ymmetric  (roup-    The  neceuaiy  and  rufficient  coodilion  that  the 

auiion  may  be  aolubie  by  ndicalt  a  that  its  group  ihould  be  a 
ubie  iroup.  When  the  coeHkieau  in  an  equation  an  rational 
Inteccrf.  the  determinarion  of  iti  group  may  be  made  by  a  hnite 
numberof  peocearea  each  of  which  involves  only  rational  axithmetical 
operations.    These  processes  consist  in  formirtg  mdventa  of  the 

ip  whose  decree  ia  that  of  the  eq 


(^tn  +Illt+Illl+I<lt  +H'tl  C*^  +  *•!.  + 


problem  of  rcduc 


'  The  too'it'ol  the  oii^^  equntJon 
>e  e,trMiion  of  a  hr.h  root.  The 
n  of  Ihc  lillh  dFcrce,  when  not 


arc  algebraic  lunctibni.     It  has  h™  alreidy  seen,  in  t 
nofdiaconlinuousgrtnipsinKenertil,  that  the  groups  of  so 


aljebnic.    The  complete  deleri 


sod  Older  with  all  tkeir  ini 


— Coatiiniou  gximp       Lie   odEiKel  TTtarit  dtr 

aai/sm         raSf«>    U  pM  MS  »9o:  nL 

ii)  anj  Scheff  n,VfrUiiaitm  iirr  gneUnficiU  pUf 

n^epnf     89^      di  (»  ilkr  omitm  u^it  Cnpprm 


•i 


^j%„ 


Catm        t/rUnaifBt   'iba  tit 
im   vol       Leipng.    S97:  vol.  b. 
general     heory  of     neonnaDoiB  B«qiil; 
taUsy  Itmt   ad  KijUaJUtrtiklia  Lopai*,   ^ij  |lv 

psof  IDO     ni     n Ill  iif  nulla  niiai     naliai 

(Paris,     tm,  Rpnu)      ofdaa,  TwtM  in 

^wUiflLT  a^<«rfff«iai   ^ana,       70  t  Netti^ 

awWknf  uf  ifftrm  CLAuif, 

Ad     AiborlI.SJi__  Sal  :  lCfe£ 

dn-  Oapiig      tH    Eat    tniu.  by 

<^  iisunr/irlKMHiialHkn^ 

ber  UMmcliiB    IfchnfSaaB^ 

S96       second  edmoB  appeared  ■■ 

Oria  CamhiHEe,  tloTl: 

L—        p  ,pu  bii Ei Imuwii (f lit Cofau 

)eStgu      ^Ukmi  it  la  Mmi  ia 


ORO     E. 

aiiutholopsts  lo  include  lU  the     rougb-fool 

birds,  but  in  common  speech  applied  almost  exdusjvdy,  whea 

SiotUks  of  modern  syslemalists— more  particularly  called  io 
English  the  led  giouie,  but  till  Ibe  end  of  the  iSth  ceoliiiy 
almost  invarinbly  ipakeB  of  as  the  Moor-fo<rl  or  Moor^game. 
The  eHect  which  this  species  is  supposed  lo  have  had  on  the 
Brilish  legislatuic,  and  tberclore  on  history,  is  well  kBOWB.  for 


ise-ihooi 


rn  (Aug 
Jonaeus,  p. 

JtinCailhnesBinlh. 
iud  OB  moors  from  J 
Lo  the  Orkneys,  as  wi 


iih);" 


tolhem.  The* 
easy  dhgnosis. 


;e  geogiaphieal  ra; 
n/^inaiott.tofice 


...      _,   _  Eltham,  m.  .   ,_  .    __ 

lui,  and  conuderini  the  locality  must  refer  to  black  eanc  Ir  a 
found  in  an  Act  ol  F^Uament  I  Jac'l-'cap.  17-  1  '.  ■>.  1^.  "^^ 
ai  reprinted  in  the  StotMUi  at  LarfCt  standi  as  now  commotily  «(vh. 

and  iSih  ceniurici.  In  1611  Cotrrave  had  "  i^iub  tiicichi.  A 
Moore-henne:  the  bonne  of  the  C.«r  (in  ed.  1673  "CriKen  " 
Mooregame"    IDiclWMrU   »/  /*«    Frmck   and    £eg/ili    T—[fi. 

French  word  tritscke,  peoeke  or  i«flir  (meaning  KpecLled.  ind 
cognate  with  fn^xi.  grisly  or  grey),  which  was  apphcd  to  wmekuvl 

Biail.  "  porce  que  ele  fu  pnm^cfi  tiovto  en  Ciece."'  The  Oit«d 
iclionary  repudiatn  the  pouibiUty  of  "  grouse  "  being  a  sporiM* 
singular  or  an  alleged  plural  "  grice."  and,  with  regard  to  thr  p^h- 

Mr  Oa:ar  Dickson  on  a  tract  of  land  near  Gotlenburg  in  Snden 
iSmiiia  JatarftrliuMlrU  Kya  TidikriJI.  IB6S,  p.  6^  c/  allii. 


CDQtInaiti  of  Eonpc  ud  A^  u  mil  u  North  Araetki  ftam 
tlbc  Alniiitn  bUndi  to  NewfoundUnd.  Tbe  red  grouw  Indeed 
is  r&nly  or  never  found  iway  from  Um  bealher  on  which  chiefly 
it  subeiits^  vhile  the  willow-gfoiae  in  many  parts  of  the  Old 
WorU  Kcmi  to  prefer  the  ahrubby  cmrth  of  bcny-bcAiing 
pluti  IVaainium  ud  others)  ihnt,  olten  thickly  inlcnpened 
with  vdlom  and  birches,  clotbc*  the  bigber  li  ih  loner 
nxninuin-ilapei,  tai  it  Souriibc*  la  the  New  W  d  obei 
beailur  larcelj'  oiita,  uid  m  "heath"  in    u  msm  ii 

unkrwim.  It  ji  true  that  the  wllJoi'-grDuM  ■  yi  becoinei 
white  in  winter,  wbith  the  red  groiaenevci  does  b  m  mm 
there  is  a  coiuiderable  naerablanfe  belwee  b  w  pecics 
the  cock  wiUow-grooae  ha 


iritishre 


thoB^bisbackbelighterincolour,  ai  is  ■]»  be  whole  phinage 
a(  his  rnait,  than  i<  found  in  the  red  grouse,  i  ther  re^Kci  be 
tvo  specie*  are  prtdidy  alike.   No  dislinctio     an  be  diKO  ercd 


ren  investigated  and  compared,' 
grouic,  mtricled  is  is  its  nuigc,  vatiet  ii 
rrabiy  according  to  locality, 
[rouK  docs  not,  after  the  manner  of  othei 
IS  Lagofia,  become  while  in  tiHnler,  Scotland 


mi^an,  L.  muittj  or  L.  alfinui,  which  differs  far 
elation  and  habits  from  the  red  grouse  than  I 
Kiilow-grouse,  and  in  Scotland  is  far  less  at 


i  both.     Looking  to  (be  iat 


Tbeie  are  dropped  whei 


course  c4  iapngntt  lo  matuhly  indicate  the  phiscs  thmiKh  which 
Ihe  tpccica  has  pafaed,  ihere  may  have  bren  a  tiiue  when  all  Inr 

vhiie  drvaAdonoed  -\a  wipter  baa  ben  jjnip«ed_upon  the  wearen 

Inrdt  of  this  grovp  protects  them  from  dan^r  durina  i 
•  proiracled  winter.    But  the  red  iro™.  innead  olj 

Jntestfy  f"™  "*  widely.™  nji 
H^?n?and  left  de«^«»  ! 

el  Ibc  primal  Larefw. 


luubtliiy  eiKoually  the  lanw  as  thai 


only  the  highest  and  meat  bantn 
formeriy  Inhabited  both  Wales  and  Entttai,  but  thei 
evidence  of  its  appearance  in  IrtUnd.  On  the  contl 
Europe  it  is  found  most  numeroudy  in  Nomay,  bul 

Pyrenees  and  on  Ihe  Alps.    It  also  inhabit*  nottbem 


637 


PtatmiEao. 

K  rtb  Amen  1  G  cenland  a  d  ce  d  is  reprcscn  ed  by  & 
ry  ear  al  ed  rm — so  m  h  so  uideed  ha  is  n  y  at 
certain  seasons  that  (he  slight  difierence  between  Ihcn  caD  be 
dclccletl.  TTiis  form  is  the  L.  rupnlris  of  authors,  and  it  would 
appear  lo  be  found  also  in  Siberia  (/Wj,  iS?^,  p.  148).  Spiti- 
bergen  is  inhabited  by  a  large  lorm  which  has  reci '     " 


d  Ibe  noithem  end  of  the  < 
anted  by  a  very  distinct  spei 
St  beautiful  of  the  genus,  L.  A 


belong)  is  probably  the  Trtrao  t 
and  greybcn,  as  tbe  aeies  are  1 
buied  over  most  of  the  heath 
East  Anglia.  where  attempts  I 
partially  luccnsful.     It  also  01 


Linnaeus— tbe  blackcock 
ively  called.  It  it  diltti- 
ly  ol  Engbind,  eicept  in 

o  North  Wales  and  very 


638 


GROVE,  SIR  G.— GRUB 


generally  throagfaoat  Scotland,  though  not  in  Orkney,  Shetland 
or  the  Outer  Hebrides,  nor  in  Ireland.  On  the  continent  of 
Europe  it  has  a  very  wide  range,  and  it  extends  into  Siberia. 
In  Georgia  its  place  is  taken  by  a  distinct  species,  on  which  a 
Polish  naturalist  (Pftfc.  Z00/.  Society,  i875,p.  267)  has  conferred 
the  name  g(  T*  mlokosietncn.  Both  these  birds  have  much  in 
common  with  their  larger  congener  the  capercally  and  its  eastern 
representative. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Bonasa,  of  which  the  European 
B.  sylvestris  is  the  type,  does  not  inhabit  the  British  Islands. 
It  is  perhaps  the  most  delicate  game-bird  that  comes  to  table. 
It  is  the  gdinotte  of  the  French,  the  Hasdhuhn  of  Germans, 
and  Hjerpe  of  Scandinavians.    Like  its  transatlantic  congener 

B.  umbeUus,  the  ruffed  grouse  or  birch-partridge  (of  which  there 
are  two  other  local  forms,  B.  umbdloiies  and  B.  sabinit),  it  is 
purely  a  forest-bird.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  species  of 
Canace,  of  which  two  forms  are  found  in  America,  C.  canadensis, 
the  spruce-partridge,  and  C.  franklini,  and  also  of  the  Siberian 

C.  fatcipennis.  Nearly  allied  to  these  birds  is  the  group  known 
as  Dendragapus,  a>ntaining  three  large  and  fine  forms  D.  obsctirus, 
D.fuligiHosus,aLnd  D,  richardsoni — all  peculiar  to  North  America. 
Then  there  are  Centrocercus  urophasianus,  the  sage-cock  of  the 
plains  of  Columbia  and  California,  and  Pedioecetes,  the  sharp- 
tailed  grouse,  with  its  two  forms,  A  phasiandlus  and  P,  cotum- 
bianuSf  while  finally  Cupidonia,  the  prairie-hen,  also  with  two 
local  forms,  C.  cupido  and  C.  paUidicinctaf  is  a  bird  that  in  the 
United  States  of  America  possesses  considerable  economic  value, 
enormous  numbers  being  consumed  there,  and  also  exported 
to  Europe. 

The  various  Borts  of  grouse  are  nearly  all  figured  in  Elliot's  Mono- 
graph 0^  tiie  Tetraoninae,  and  an  excellent  account  of  the  American 
species  is  given  in  Baird,  Brewer  and  Rldgway's  Naik  American 
Birds  (iii.  414-465).    See  also  Shooting.  (A.  N.) 

GROVE,  SIR  GEORQB  (1820^x900),  English  writer  on  music, 
was  bom  at  Clapham  on  the  13th  of  August  1820.  He  was 
articled  to  a  civil  engineer,  and  worked  for  two  years  in  a  factory 
near  Glasgow.  In  1841  and  1845  he  was  employed  in  the  West 
Indies,  erecting  lighthouses  in  Jamaica  and  Bermuda.  In  1849 
he  became  secretary  to  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  in  1852  to  the 
Crystal  Palace.  In  this  capacity  hb  natural  love  of  music  and 
enthusiasm  for  the  art  found  a  splendid  opening,  and  he  threw 
all  the  weight  of  his  influence  into  the  task  of  promoting  the  best 
music  of  all  schools  in  connexion  with  the  weekly  and  daily 
concerts  at  Sydenham,  which  had  a  long  and  honourable  career 
under  the  direction  of  Mr  (afterwards  Sir)  August  Manns. 
Without  Sir  George  Grove  that  eminent  conductor  would  hardly 
have  succeeded  in  doing  what  he  did  to  encourage  young  com- 
posers and  to  educate  the  British  public  in  music.  Grove's 
analyses  of  the  Beethoven  symphonies,  and  the  other  works 
presented  at  the  concerts,  set  the  pattern  of  what  such  things 
should  be;  and  it  was  as  a  result  of  these,  and  of  the  fact  that 
he  was  editor  of  Macmillan^s  Magazine  from  1868  to  1883,  that 
the  scheme  of  his  famous  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians, 
published  from  1878  to  1889  (new  edition,  edited  by  J.  A.  Fuller 
Maitland,  1904-1907),  was  conceived  and  executed.  His  own 
articles  in  that  work  on  Beethoven,  Mendelssohn  and  Schubert 
are  monuments  of  a  special  kind  of  learning,  and  that  the  rest 
of  the  book  is  a  little  thrown  out  of  balance  owing  to  their  great 
length  is  hardly  to  be  regretted.  Long  before  this  he  had  con- 
tributed to  the  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  and  had  promoted  the 
foundation  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  On  a  journey  to 
Vienna,  undertaken  in  the  company  of  his  lifelong  friend.  Sir 
Arthur  Sullivan,  the  important  discovery  of  a  large  number  of 
compositions  by  Schubert  was  made,  including  the  music  to 
Rosamunde.  When  the  Royal  College  of  Music  was  founded  in 
1882  he  was  appointed  its  first  director,  receiving  the  honour  of 
knighthood.  He  brought  the  new  institution  into  line  with  the 
most  useful  European  conservatoriums.  On  the  completion  of 
the  new  buildings  in  1894  he  resigned  the  directorship,  but 
retained  an  active  interest  in  the  institution  to  the  end  of  his 
life.   He  died  at  Sydenham  on  the  28th  of  May  1900. 

His  life,  a  most  interesting  one,  was  written  by  Mr  Charies  Graves. 

O.A.F.M.) 


GROVE.  SIR  WILUAM  ROBERT  (1811-1896),  Eagliah  judge 
and  man  of  science,  was  bom  on  the  nth  of  July  1811  at  Swansea, 
South  Wales.  After  being  educated  by  privaU  tutocs,  he  went 
to  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  an  ordinary  d^ree 
in  1832.  Three  years  later  he  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincob's 
Inn.  His  health,  however,  did  not  allow  him  to  devote  himself 
strenuously  to  practice,  and  he  occupied  his  leisure  with  scientific 
studies.  About  1839  he  constmcted  the  platinum-zinc  voltaic 
cell  that  bears  his  name,  and  with  the  aid  of  a  number  of  these 
exhibited  the  electric  arc  light  in  the  London  Institutioo, 
Finsbury  Circus.  The  result  was  that  in  1840  the  managers 
appointed  him  to  the  professorship  of  experimental  philosophy, 
an  office  which  he  held  for  seven  years.  His  researches  dealt  very 
largely  with  electro-chemistry  and  with  the  voltaic  cell,  of  which 
he  invented  several  varieties.  One  of  these,  the  Grove  gas- 
battery,  which  is  of  special  interest  both  intrinsically  and  as 
the  foremnner  of  the  secondary  batteries  now  in  use  for  the 
"  storage  "  of  electricity,  was  based  on  his  observation  that  a 
current  is  produced  by  a  couple  of  platinum  plates  standing 
in  acidulated  water  and  immersed,  the  one  in  hydrogen,  the 
other  in  oxygen..  At  one  of  his  lectures  at  the  Institution  he 
anticipated  the  electric  lighting  of  to-day  by  illuminating  the 
theatre  with  incandescent  el^tric  lamps,  the  filaments  being  of 
platinum  and  the  current  supplied  by  a  battery  of  his  nitric  add 
cells.  In  1846  he  published  his  famous  book  on  The  Ccrrdatien 
of  Physical  Forces,  the  leading  ideas  of  which  he  had  already 
put  forward  in  his  lectures:  its  fundamental  concqstion  was 
that  each  of  the  forces  of  nature— light,  heat,  electricity,  &c— is 
definitely  and  equivalently  convertible  into  any  other,  and  that 
where  experiment  does  not  give  the  full  equivalent,  it  is  because 
the  initial  force  has  been  dissipated,  not  lost,  by  conversion  uto 
other  unrecognized  forces.  In  the  same  year  he  received  a  Royal 
medal  from  the  Royal  Society  for  his  Bakerian  lecture  on 
**  Certain  phenomena  of  voltaic  ignition  and  the  decompositioD 
of  water  into  its  constituent  gases."  In  1866  he  preuded  over 
the  British  Association  at  its  Nottingham  meeting  and  dehvered 
an  address  on  the  continuity  of  naturaJ  phenomena.  But  while  he 
was  thus  engaged  in  scientific  research,  his  legal  work  was  not 
neglected,  and  his  practice  increased  so  greatly  that  in  i8s3  he 
became  a  Q.  C.  One  of  the  best-known  cases  in  which  he  appeared 
as  an  advocate  was  that  of  William  Palmer,  the  Rugdey  poisonei, 
whom  he  defended.  In  187  x  he  was  made  a  judge  of  the  Conunoo 
Pleas  in  succession  to  Sir  Robert  Collier,  and  remained  on  the 
bench  till  1 887.  He  died  in  London  on  the  ist  of  August  1896^ 

A  selection  of  his  scientific  papers  w  given  in  the  nxth  editioD  of 
The  Cerrdalion  of  Physical  Forces,  published  in  1874. 

GROVE  (O.E.  graf,  cf .  O.E.  gr^a,  brushwood,  later  "  greave  "; 
the  word  does  not  appear  in  any  other  Teutonic  language,  and 
the  New^  English  Dictionary  finds  no  Indo-European  root  to 
which  it  can  be  referred;  Skeat  considers  ft  connected  with 
"  grave,"  to  cut,  and  finds  the  original  meaning  to  be  a  ^de 
cut  through  a  wood),  a  small  group  or  cluster  of  tre»,  growing 
naturally  and  forming  something  smaller  than  a  wood,  or  planted 
in  particular  shapes  or  for  particular  purposes,  in  a  park,  &c 
Groves  have  been  connecteid  with  reh^ous  worship  from  the 
earliest  times,  and  in  many  parts  of  India  every  village  has  its 
sacred  group  of  trees.  For  the  connexion  of  religion  with  sacred 
groves  see  Tree-Wokship. 

The  word  "  grove  "  was  used  by  the  authors  of  the  Anthorijed 
Version  of  the  Bible  to  translate  two  Hebrew  words:  (t)  'HhH,  as 
inCen.  xxi.  3^,  and  I  Sara.  xxii.  6;  this  is  rightly  given  in  the 
Revised  Version  as  "tamarisk";  (2)  asherak  in  many  piacts 
throughout  the  Old  Testament.  Here  the  translaton  foHoved  the 
Septuagint  AXras  and  the  Vulgate  lucus.  The  *ishir6h  was  a 
wooden  post  erected  at  the  Canaanitish  places  oi  worship,  and  also 
by  the  altars  of  Vahweh.    It  may  have  represented  a  tree. 

GROZNTI,  a  fortress  and  town  of  Russia,  North  Caucasia, 
in  the  province  of  Terek,  on  the  Zunzha  river,  82  m.  by  rail  N.E. 
of  Vladikavkaz,  on  the  railway  to  Petrovsk.  There  are  na{Aths 
wells  close  by.  The  fortifications  were  constructed  in  iSi9> 
Pop.  (1897)  15,599-  _. 

GRUB,  the  larva  of  an  insect,  a  caterpillar,  maggot  ine 
word  is  formed  from  the  verb  "  to  grub,"  to  dig,  break  up  the 


GRUBER— GRUN 


639 


turfaoe  of  tlie  ground,  and  dear  of  stumps,  roots,  weeds,  &c. 
■  According  to  the  New  English  Dictionary^  "  grub  "  may  be 
referred  to  an  ablaut  variant  of  the  Old  Teutonic  grab-,  to  dig, 
d.  **  grave."  Skeat  (Eiym,  Diet,  1898)  refers  it  rather  to  the  root 
seen  in  "  grope,"  "  grab,"  &c.,  the  original  meaning  "  to  search 
for."  The  earliest  quotation  of  the  slang  use  of  the  word  in  the 
sense  of  food  in  the  New  English  Dictionary  is  dated  i6s9  from 
Aucieni  Poems,  Ballads^  &c.,  Percy  Society  Publications.  "  Grub- 
street,"  as  a  collective  term  for  needy  hack-writers,  dates  from 
the  X7th  century  and  is  due  to  the  name  of  a  street  near  Moorfidds, 
London,  now  Milton  Street,  which  was  as  Johnson  says  "  much 
inhabitcKl  by  writers  of  small  histories,  dictionaries  and  temporaiy 

poems."  

QRUBBR,  JOHANN  OOITFRISD  (1774-1851),  German  critic 
and  Uteraiy  historian,  was  bom  at  Naumburg  on  the  Saale,  on 
the  apth  of  November  1774.  He  recdved  his  education  at  the 
town  school  of  Naumburg  and  the  university  of  Leipzig,  after 
which  he  resided  successively  at  GOttingen,  Leipzig,  Jena  and 
Wdmar,  occupying  himself  partly  in  teaching  and  partly  in 
various  literary  enterprises,  and  enjoying  in  Wdmar  the  friend- 
ship of  Herder,  Wieland  and  Goethe.  In  181  x  he  was  appointed 
professor  at  the  university  of  Wittenberg,  and  after  the  division 
of  Saxony  he  was  sent  by  the  senate  to  Berlin  to  negotiate  the 
onion  of  the  university  of  Wittenberg  with  that  of  Halle.  After 
the  union  was  effected  he  became  in  1815  professor  of  philosophy 
at  HaUe.  He  was  assodated  with  Jobann  Samuel  Ersch  in  the 
editorship  of  the  great  work  AUgemeine  EncyUopudie  der  Wissen^ 
tchaften  und  KUnste]  and  after  the  death  of  Ersch  he  continued 
the  first  section  from  vol.  icviiL  to  voL  liv.  He  also  succeeded 
Ersch  in  the  editorship  of  the  AUgemeine  JJkratuneitung,  He 
died  on  the  7th  of  August  1851. 

Gniber  was  the  author  of  a  large  number  of  works,  the  |>riiicipal 
of  which  are  CharakUristik  Herders  (Leipzig:,  1805),  in  conjunction 
with  Johann  T.  L.  Danz  (1769-1851),  afterwards  profesKM'  of 
tfewok^  at  Tena;  Ceschiehte  des  menscklichen  Geschlechts  (2  vols., 
Leipzig,  1806);  Wdrterbiuh  der  aliUessischen  Mythotogie  (3  vols., 
Wetmar.  1810-1815);  Widands  Leben  (z  parts,  Weimar,  1815-1816), 
and  Ktopsiocks  Uhsn  (Wdmar.  1833).  He  also  edited  Wieland's 
SdmUiche  Wtrke  (Ldpzig.  1818-1828). 

GRUMBACH.  WILHELM  VON  (1505*1567),  German 
adventurer,  chiefly  known  through  his  connexion  with  the 
so<alled  "  Grambach  feuds  "  {Grumbacksche  Handel),  the  last 
attempt  of  the  German  knights  to  destroy  the  power  of  the 
territorial  princes.  A  member  of  an  old  Franconian  family, 
he  was  born  on  the  ist  of  June  1503,  and  having  passed  some 
time  at  the  court  of  Casimir,  prince  of  Bayreuth  (d.  1527),  fought 
against  the  peasants  during  the  rising  in  1524  and  1525.  About 
1540  Gnxmbach  became  associated  with  Albert  Alcibiades,  the 
turbulent  prince  of  Bayreuth,  whom  he  served  both  in  peace 
and  war.  After  the  condusion  of  the  peace  of  Passau  in  1552, 
Grumbach  assisted  Albert  in  his  career  of  plunder  in  Franconia 
and  was  thus  able  to  take  some  revenge  upon  his  enemy,  Melchior 
von  Zobd,  bishop  of  WUrzburg.  As  a  landholder  Grumbach 
was  a  vassal  of  the  bishops  of  Wttrzbuzg,  and  had  held  office 
at  the  court  of  Conrad  of  Bibra,  who  was  bishop  from  1540 
to  1544.  When,  however,  Zobd  was  chosen  to  succeed  Conrad 
the  harmonious  relations  between  lord  and  vassal  were  quickly 
disturbed.  Unable  to  free  himself  and  his  associates  from  the 
suzerainty  of  the  bishop  by  appealing  to  the  imperial  courts  he 
dedded  to  adopt  more  violent  measures,  and  his  friendship  with 
Albert  was  very  serviceable  in  this  connexion.  Albert's  career, 
however,  was  checked  by  his  defeat  at  Sievershausen  in  July 
X553  and  his  subsequent  flight  into  France,  and  the  bishop  took 
advantage  of  this  state  of  affairs  to  seize  Grumbach's  lands. 
The  knight  obtained  an  order  of  restitution  from  the  imperial 
court  of  justice  (Reichskammergericht),  but  he  was  unable  to 
carry  this  into  effect;  and  in  April  1558  some  of  his  partisans 
seized  and  killed  the  bishop.  Grumbach  declared  he  was 
innocent  of  this  crime,  but  his  story  was  not  believed,  and  he 
fled  to  France.  Returning  to  Germany  he  pleaded  his  cause  in 
person  before  the  diet  at  Augsburg  in  1559,  but  without  success. 
Meanwhile  be  had  found  a  new  patron  in  John  Frederick, 
duke  of  Saxony,  whose  father,  John  Frederick,  had  been  obliged 


to  surrender  the  dectoral  dignity  to  the  Albertine  branch  of  his 
family.  Chafing  under  this  deprivation  the  duke  listened 
readily  to  Grumbach's  plans  for  recovering  the  lost  dignity, 
induding  a  general  rising  of  the  German  knights  and  the  deposi- 
tion of  Frederick  II.,  king  of  Denmark.  Magical  charms  weze 
employed  against  the  duke's  enemies,  and  a>mmunications 
from  angels  were  invented  which  hdped  to  stir  up  the  zeal  of 
the  people.  In  1563  Grumbach  attacked  WOrzburg,  seized  and 
plundeied  the  dty  and  compelled  the  chapter  and  the  bishop  to 
restore  his  landL  He  was  a)nsequentiy  placed  under  the 
imperial  ban,  but  John  Frederick  refused  to  obey  the  order  of  the 
emperor  Maximilian  IL  to  withdraw  his  protection  from  him. 
Meanwhile  Grumbach  sought  to  compass  the  assassination  of  the 
Saxon  elector,  Augustus;  prodamations  were  issued  calling 
for  assistance;  and  alliances  both  without  and  within  Germany 
were  condudcd.  In  November  1566  John  Frederick  was  placed 
under  the  ban,  which  had  been  renewed  against  Grumbach 
earlier  in  the  year,  and  Augustus  marched  against  Gotha. 
Assistance  was  not  forthcoming,  and  a  mutiny  led  to  the  capitula- 
tion of  the  town.  Grumbach  was  delivered  to  his  foes,  and, 
after  bdng  tortured,  was  executed  at  Gotha  on  the  x8th  of  April 
X567. 

See  F.  Ortloff,  CesckichU  der  Crumbachscken  Hdndet  (Jena, 
1868-1870).  and  J.  Voigt.  WUhdm  von  Grumbach  und  seine  Hdndel 
(Uipzig,  1846-1847). 

GRUMBNTini,  an  andent  town  in  the  centre  of  Lucania, 
53  m.  SI  of  Potentia  by  the  direct  road  through  Anxia,  and  52  m. 
by  the  Via  Herculia,  at  the  point  of  divergence  of  a  road  eastward 
to  Heradea.  It  seems  to  have  bran  a  native  Lucanian  town, 
not  a  Greek  settlement.  In  9x5  B.C.  the  Carthaginian  general 
Hanno  was  defeated  under  its  walls,  and  in  207  b.c.  Hannibal 
made  it  his  headquarters.  In  the  Social  War  it  appears  as  a 
strong  fortress,  and  seems  to  have  been  hdd  by  both  sida  at 
different  time^  It  became  a  colony,  perhaps  in  the  time  of 
Sulla,  at  latest  under  Augustus,  and  seems  to  have  bran  of  some 
importance.  Its  site,  identified  by  Holste  from  the  description 
of  the  martyrdom  of  St  Laverius,  is  a  ridge  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Adris  (Agri)  about  i960  ft.  above  sea-levd,  }  m.  bdow 
the  modem  Saponaia,  which  lies  much  higher  (2533  ft.).  Its 
ruins  (all  of  the  Roman  period)  indude  those  of  a  large  amphi- 
theatre (arena  205  by  X97  ft.),  the  only  one  in  Lucania,  except 
that  at  Paestum.  There  are  abo  remains  of  a  theatre.  Inscrip- 
tions record  the  repair  of  its  town  walls  and  the  construction 
of  thermae  (of  which  remains  were  found)  in  57-51  b.c,  the 
construction  in  43  b.c.,  of  a  portico,  remains  of  which  may  be 
seen  along  an  andent  road,  at  right  angles  to  the  main  road, 
which  traversed  Grumentum  from  S.  to  N. 

See  F.  P.  Caput!  in  NoHsie  degli  scam  (1877).  X29.  and  G.  Patroni, 
iUrf.(i897)  I8a  CT.As.) 

GRON.  Hans  Balduno  (c.  X470-X545),  commonly  called 
GrUn,  a  German  painter  of  the  age  of  Darer,  was  bom  at  GmUnd 
in  Swabia,  and  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  at  Strsssburg  and 
Frdburg  in  -Breisgau.  The  earliest  pictures  assigned  to  him  are 
altarpieces  with  the  monogram  H.  B.  interlaced,  and  the  date 
of  X496,  in  the  monastery  chapd  of  Lichtenthai  near  Baien. 
Another  early  work  is  a  portrait  of  the  emperor  Maximilian, 
drawn  in  150  x  on  a  leaf  of  a  sketch-book  now  in  the  print-room  at 
Carlsruhe.  The  "Martyrdom  of  St  Sebastian"and  the  "Epiphany" 
(Berlin  Museum),  fruits  of  his  labour  in  1507,  were  painted  for 
the  market-church  of  Halle  in  Saxony.  In  X509  Grfin  purchased 
the  freedom  of  the  dty  of  Strassburg,  and  resided  there  till  15x3, 
when  he  moved  to  Freiburg  in  Breisgau.  There  he  began  a 
series  of  lazge  compositions,  which  he  finished  in  X5  x6,  and  placed 
on  the  high  altar  of  the  Frdburg  cathedral.  He  purchased  anew 
the  freedom  of  Strassburg  in  15x7,  resided  in  that  dty  as  his 
domidle,  and  died  a  member  of  its  great  town  council  1545. 

Though  nothing  is  known  of  Grfin's  youth  and  education, 
it  may  be  inferred  from  his  style  that  he  was  no  stranger  to 
the  school  of  which  Dilrer  was  the  chief.  Gmdnd  is  but 
50  m.  distant  on  dther  side  from  Augsburg  and  Nuremberg. 
Grfln's  prints  were  often  mistaken  for  those  of  DQrer;  and 
Diirer  himself  was  well  acquainted  with  Grfin's  woodcuts  and 


640 


GRUNBERG— GRUNDY,  S. 


copper-pUles  in  which  he  traded  during  bis  trip  to  the  Nether- 
lands ( X  530).  But  Grtin's  prints,  though  DUrercsque,  are  far  below 
DQrer,  and  his  paintings  are  below  his  prints.  Without  absolute 
correctness  as  a  draughtsman,  his  conception  of  human  form  is 
often  very  unpleasant,  whilst  a  questionable  taste  is  shown  in 
ornament  equally  profuse  and  "  baroque."  Nothing  is  more 
remarkable  in  his  pictures  than  the  pug-like  shape  of  the  faces, 
unless  we  except  the  coarseness  of  the  extremities.  No  trace  is 
apparent  of  any  feeling  for  atmosphere  or  light  and  shade, 
"niough  Grttn  has  been  commonly  called  the  Correggio  of  the 
north,  his  compositions  are  a  curious  medley  of  glaring  and 
heterogeneous  colours,  in  which  pure  black  is  contrasted  with  pale 
yellow,  dirty  grey,  impure  red  and  glowing  green.  Flesh  is  a 
mere  glaze  under  which  the  features  are  indicated  by  lines. 
His  works  are  mainly  interesting  because  of  the  wild  and  fantastic 
strength  which  some  of  them  display.  We  may  pass  lightly  over 
the  "Epiphany"  of  1507,  the  "Crucifixion"  of  1512,  or  the 
"  Stoning  of  Stephen  "  of  1522,  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  There  is 
some  force  in  the  "  Dance  of  Death  "  of  1517,  in  the  museum  of 
Basel,  or  the  "Madonna"  of  1530,  In  the  Liechtenstein  Gallery 
at  Vienna.  GrUn's  best  effort  is  the  altarpiece  of  Freiburg, 
where  the  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  and  the  "  Twelve 
Apostles,"  the  "  Annunciation,  Visitation,  Nativity  and  Flight 
into  Egypt,"  and  the  "  Crucifixion,"  with  portraits  of  donors, 
are  executed  with  some  of  that  fanciful  power  which  Martin 
Schdn  bequeathed  to  the  Swabian  school.  As  a  portrait  painter 
he  is  well  known.  He  drew  the  likeness  of  Charles  V.,*  as  well 
as  that  of  Maximilian;  and  his  bust  of  Margrave  Philip  in  the 
Munich  Gallery  tells  us  that  he  was  connected  with  the  reigning 
family  of  Baden  as  early  as  15 14.  At  a  later  period  he  had 
sittings  from  Margrave  Christopher  of  Baden,  Ottilia  his  wife, 
and  all  their  children,  and  the  picture  containing  these  portraits  is 
still  in  the  grand-ducal  gallery  at  Carlsruhe.  Like  Dttrer  and 
Cranach,  Griin  became  a  hearty  supporter  of  the  Reformation. 
He  was  present  at  the  diet  of  Augsburg  in  1518,  and  one  of  his 
woodcuts  represents  Luther  under  the  protection  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  which  hovers  over  him  in  the  shape  of  a  dove. 

GRONBERG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Prussian  Silesia,  beauti- 
fully situated  between  two  hills  on  an  affluent  of  the  Oder, 
and  on  the  railway  from  Breslau  to  Stettin  via  Kiistrin,  36  m. 
N.N.W.  of  Glogau.  Pop.  (1905)  20,987.  It  hasa  Roman  Catholic 
and  two  Evangelical  churches,  a  modem  school  and  a  technical 
(textiles)  school.  There  are  manufactures  of  doth,  paper, 
machinery,  straw  hats,  leather  and  tobacco.  The  prosperity 
of  the  town  depends  chiefly  on  the  vine  culture  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, from  which,  besides  the  exportation  of  a  large  quantity 
of  grapes,  about  700,000  gallons  of  wine  are  manufactured 
annually. 

GRUNDTVIG,  NIKOLAI  FREDERIK  SEVERIN  (1783-1872), 
Danish  poet,  statesman  and  divine,  was  born  at  the  parsonage 
of  Udby  in  Zealand  on  the  8th  of  September  1783.  In  1791  he 
was  sent  to  live  at  the  house  of  a  priest  in  Jutland,  and  studied 
at  the  free  school  of  Aarhuus  untU  he  went  up  to  the  university 
of  Copenhagen  in  1800.  At  the  close  of  his  university  life  he 
made  Icelandic  his  special  study,  until  in  1805  he  took  the  position 
of  tutor  in  a  house  on  the  island  of  Langeland.  The  next  three 
years  were  spent  in  the  study  of  Shakespeare,  Schiller  and  Fichte. 
His  cousin,  the  philosopher  Henrik  Steffens,  had  returned  to 
Copenhagen  in  1802  full  of  the  teaching  of  Schelling  and  his 
lectures  and  the  early  poetry  of  Ohlenschliger  opened  the  eyes 
of  Grundtvig  to  the  new  era  in  literature.  His  first  work,  On  the 
Songs  in  the  Edda,  attracted  no  attention.  Returning  to  Copen- 
hagen in  x8o8  he  achieved  greater  success  with  his  Northern 
Mythology,  and  again  in  1809-1811  with  a  long  epic  poem,  the 
Decline  of  the  Heroic  Life  in  the  North.  The  boldness  of  the 
theological  views  expressed  in  his  first  sermon  in  x8io  offended 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  he  retired  to  a  country  i>arish 
as  his  father's  assbtant  for  a  while.  From  181 2  to  18x7  he  pub- 
lished five  or  six  works,  of  which  the  Rhyme  of  RoskUde  is  the 
most  remarkable.  From  x8i6  to  18x9  he  was  editor  of  a  polemical 
journal  entitled  Dannemrke,  and  in  x8i8  to  1822  appeared  his 
Danish  paraphrases  (6  vols.)  of  Saxo  Grammaticus  and  Snorri. 


During  these  years  he  was  preaching  aipunst  rationalism  to  an 
enthusiastic  congregation  in  Copenhagen,  but  he  aorepted  in 
1821  the  country  living  of  Praestd,  only  to  return  to  the  metropolis 
the  year  after.  In  1825  he  published  a  pamphlet.  The  Churches 
Reply,  against  H.  N.  Clausen,  who  was  professor  of  theology  in 
the  university  of  Copenhagen.  Grundtvig  was  publicly  prose> 
cuted  and  fined,  and  for  seven  years  he  was  forbidden  to  preach, 
years  which  he  spent  in  publishing  a  collection  of  his  theological 
works,  in  pa3ring  two  visits  to  England,  and  in  8tud3dng  An^ 
Saxon.  In  1832  he  obtained  permission  to  preach  again,  and  in 
1839  he  became  priest  of  the  workhouse  church  of  Vartov 
hospital,  Copenhagen,  a  post  he  continued  to  hold  until  his  death. 
In  1837-184X  he  published  Songs  for  the  Danish  Church,  a  rich 
collection  of  sacred  poetry;  in  1838  he  brought  out  a  sdectioQ 
of  early  Scandinavian  verse;  in  1840  he  edited  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  poem  of  the  Phoenix,  with  a  Danish  translation.  He 
visited  England  a  third  time  in  1843.  From  1844  until  after  the 
first  German  war  Grundtvig  took  a  very  prominent  pan  ia 
politics.  In  x86i  he  received  the  tituhir  rank  of  bishop,  bnt 
without  a  see.  He  went  on  writing  occasional  poems  till  1866, 
and  preached  in  the  Vartov  every  Sunday  until  a  month  before 
his  death.  His  preaching  attracted  large  a)ngregatioits,  and  he 
soon  had  a  following.  His  hymn-book  effected  a  great  diange 
in  Danish  church  services,  substituting  the  hymns  of  the  Datioiul 
poets  for  the  slow  measures  of  the  orthodox  Lutherans.  The 
chief  characteristic  of  his  theology  was  the  substitution  of  the 
authority  of  the  "  living  word  "  for  the  apostolic  cximmentariei, 
and  he  desired  to  see  each  congregation  a  practically  independent 
community.  His  patriotism  was  almost  a  part  of  his  rdigion, 
and  he  established  popular  schools  where  the  national  poetiy 
and  history  should  form  an  essential  part  of  the  instruction. 
His  followers  are  known  as  Grundtvigians.  He  was  married  three 
times,  the  last  time  in  his  seventy-sixth  year.  He  died  on  the 
2nd  of  September  1872.  Grundtvig  holds  a  unique  position  in 
the  literature  of  his  country;  he  has  been  styled  the  Dsmish 
Carlyle.  He  was  above  all  things  a  man  of  action,  iK>t  an  artet; 
and  the  formless  vehemence  of  his  writings,  which  have  had  a 
great  influence  over  his  own  countrymen,  is  hardly  agreeable 
or  intelligible  to  a  foreigner.  The  best  of  his  poetical  works  were 
published  in  a  selection  (7  vols.,  X880-1889)  by  his  ddest  son, 
Svend  Hersleb  Grundtvig  (1824-1883),  who  was  an  authority  <» 
Scandinavian  antiquities,  and  made  an  admirable  cx>Uection  of 
old  Danish  poetry  {Danmarks  gamU  Folkeeiser,  X853-1SS3, 
5  vols.;  completed  in  X89X  by  A.  Olrik). 

His  correspondence  with  Ineemann  was  edited  by  Si.  Gniadtv^ 
(1882);  his  correspondence  with  Christian  Molboch  by  L.  Schrdder 
(1888);  see  also  F.  Winkd  Horn,  Crundtvigs  Liv  og  Cjermimg  (1SS3); 
and  an  article  by  F.  Nielsen  in  Bricka's  Dansk  Biogre^h  '  — *"- 


GRUNDY,  SYDNEY  (1848-  „  English  dramatist,  was  bc^o 
at  Manchester  on  the  23rd  of  March  1848,  son  of  Aldermas 
Charles  Sydney  Grundy.  He  was  educated  at  Owens  CoO^^ 
Manchester,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1869,  practising  ia 
Manchester  until  1876.  His  farce,  A  Little  Change,  was  produced 
at  the  Hay  market  Theatre  in  1872.  He  becaune  wdl  kxK>v:} 
as  an  adapter  of  plays,  among  his  early  successes  in  this  direction 
being  The  SnotMl  (Strand  Theatre,  1879)  from  Osa^,  on  It 
mari  qui  trompe  sa  femme  by  MM.  Scribe  and  Duvogne,  zoi 
In  Honour  Bound  (z88o)  from  Scribe's  Une  ChaUte,  In  iSS; 
he  made  a  popular  success  with  The  Bells  of  Hasiemere,  wiittec 
with  Mr  H.  Pettitt  and  produced  at  the  Adclphi.  In  1889-1  Sao 
he  produced  two  ingenious  original  comedies,  A  White  Lu 
(Court  Theatre)  and  A  Fool's  Paradise  (Gaiety  Theatre),  vhkb 
bad  been  played  two  years  earlier  at  Greenwich  as  The  Mmt- 
Trap.  These  were  followed  by  Saving  the  Wind  (Comedy,  x8ci>\ 
An  Old  Jew  (Garrick,  1894),  and  by  an  adaptation  ol  Ocui« 
Feuillet's  Monljoye  as  A  BuMch  of  Vu^ets  (Haymarket,  x894>.  Is 
1894  he  produced  The  New  Woman  and  The  Slaves  of  the  Rvtr 
in  1895,  The  Greatest  of  These,  played  by  Mr  and  Mrs  Ktadd 
at  the  Garrick  Theatre;  The  Degenerates  (Haymarket,  xSoqK 
and  A  Debt  of  Honour  (St  James's  1900).  Among  Mr  Gnsndr^ 
most  successful  adaptations  were  the  charming  Pair  efSpeeissio 
(Garrick,  1890)  from  Les  Petits  Oiseoux  of  MM.  Labicfae  asA 


GRUNDY,  MRS— GRUYERE 


641 


Ddacoor.  Others  were  A  VUhge  Priest  (Haymarket,  1890) 
from  Le  Secret  de  la  lerreusei  a  melodrama  by  MM.  Busnach  and 
Cauvin;  A  Marriage  of  Comenience  (Haymarket,  1897)  from 
Uu  Mariage  de  Louis  XV,  by  Alex.  Dumaa,  pire,  The  Silver 
Key  (Her  Majesty's,  1897)  from  his  MIU  de  Belle-isU,  and  Tke 
Musqueteers  (1899)  from  the  same  author's  novel;  Frocks  and 
Frills  (Haymarket,  1903)  from  the  Doigts  defies  of  MM.  Scribe 
and  Legouv6;  The  Garden  of  Lies  (St  James's  Theatre,  1904)- 
from  Mr  Justus  Miles  Forman's  novel;  Business  is  Business 
(His  Majesty's  Theatre,  1905),  a  rather  free  adaptation  from 
Octave  Mirbeau's  Les  Affaires  sont  les  af  aires;  and  Tke  Diph' 
matists  (Royalty  Theatre,  1905)  from  La  Poudre  aux  yeux, 
by  Labiche. 

ORUNDT,  MRS,  the  name  of  an  imaginary  English  character, 
who  typifies  the  disciplinary  control  of  the  conventional  "  pro- 
prieties" of  society  over  conduct,  the  tyrannical  pressure  of 
the  opinion  of  neighbours  on  the  acts  of  others.  The  name 
mppears  in  a  play  of  Thomas  Morton,  Speed  the  Plough  (1798), 
in  which  one  of  the  characters.  Dame  Ashfield,  continually  refers 
to  what  her  neighbour  Mrs  Grundy  will  say  as  the  criterion 
of  respectability.  Mrs  Grundy  is  not  a  character  in  the  play, 
but  is  a  kind  of "  Mrs  Harris  "  to  Dame  Ashfield. 

QRUNBR,  OOTTUEB  SIGMUND  (x 7x7-1778),  the  author  of 
the  first  coimected  attempt  to  describe  in  detail  the  snowy 
mountains  of  Switzerland.  His  father,  Johann  Rudolf  Gruner 
(X68&-X761),  was  pastor  of  Trachselwald,  in  the  Bernese 
Emmenthal  (1705),  and  later  (1725)  of  Burgdorf,  and  a  great 
collector  of  information  relating  to  historical  and  scientific 
matters;  his  great  Thesaurus  topographico-historicus  totius 
ditionis  Bemensis  (4  vols,  folio,  x 729-1730)  still  remains  in  MS., 
but  in  1732  he  published  a  small  work  entitled  Ddieiae  urbis 
Bernaef  while  he  possessed  an  extensive  cabinet  of  natural 
history  objects.  Naturally  such  tastes  had  a  great  influence 
on  the  mind  of  his  son,  who  was  bom  at  Trachselwald,  and 
educated  by  his  father  and  at  the  Latin  school  at  Burgdorf,  not 
going  to  Berne  much  before  1736,  when  he  published  a  dissertation 
on  the  use  of  fire  by  the  heathen.  In  1739  be  qualified  as  a 
notary,  in  X74X  became  the  archivist  of  Hesse-Homburg,  and  in 
1743  accompanied  Prince  Christian  of  Anhalt-Schaumburg  to 
Silesia  and  the  university  of  Halle.  He  returned  to  his  native 
land  before  1749,  when  he  obtained  a  post  at  Thorberg,  being 
transferred  in  1764  to  Landshut  and  Fraubrunnen.  It  was  in 
X760  that  he  published  in  3  vols,  at  Berne  his  chief  work,  Die 
EisgeMrge  des  Schweiserlandes  (bad  French  translation  by  M. 
de  Ktralio,  Paris,  1770).  The  first  two  volumes  arefilleiby 
a  detailed  description  of  the  snowy  Swiss  mountains,  based  not 
so  much  on  personal  experience  as  on  older  works,  and  a  very 
large  number  of  communications  received  by  Gruner  from 
numerous  friends;  the  third  volume  deals  with  glaciers  in 
general,  and  their  various  properties.  Though  in  many  respects 
imperfect,  Gruner's  book  sums  up  all  that  was  known  on  the 
subject  in  his  day,  and  forms  the  starting-point  for  later  writers. 
The  illustrations  are  very  curious  and  interesting.  In  1778  he 
republished  (nominally  in  London,  really  at  Berne)  much  of 
the  information  contained  in  his  larger  work,  but  thrown  into 
the  form  of  letters,  supposed  to  be  written  in  1776  from  various 
spots,  under  the  title  of  Reisen  durch  die  merkwHrdigsten  Cegenden 
Hdvetiens  (2  vols.).  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

GRONEWALD,  MATHIAS.  The  accounts  which  are  given  of 
this,  German  painter,  a  native  of  Aschaffenburg,  are  curiously 
contradictory.  Between  1 5 1 8  and  2  530,  according  to  statements 
adopted  by  Waagen  and  Passavant,  he  was  commissioned  by 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  elector  and  archbishop  of  Mains,  to 
produce  an  altarpiece  for  the  collegiate  church  of  St  Maurice 
and  Mary  Magdalen  at  Halle  on  the  Saale;  and  he  acquitted 
himself  of  this  duty  with  such  cleverness  that  the  prelate  in 
after  years  caused  the  picture  to  be  rescued  from  the  Reformers 
and  brought  back  to  Aschaffenburg.  From  one  of  the  churches 
of  that  dty  it  was  taken  to  the  Pinakothek  of  Munich  in  X836. 
It  represents  St  Maurice  and  Mary  Magdalen  between  four 
saints,  and  displays  a  style  so  markedly  characteristic,  and  so 
like  that  of  Lu^  Cranach.  that  Waagen  was  induced  to  call 


Grdnewald  Cranach's  master.  He  also  traced  the  same  hand 
and  technical  execution  in  the  great  altarpieces  of  Aimaberg 
and  Heilbronn,  and  in  various  panels  exhibited  in  the  museums 
of  Mainz,  Darmstadt,  Aschaffenburg',  Vieima  and  Berlin.  A 
later  race  of  critics,  dedining  to  accept  the  statements  of  Waagen 
and  Passavant,  affirm  that  there  is  no  documentary  evidence  to 
connect  Grtknewald  with  the  pictures  of  Halle  and  Annaberg, 
and  they  quote  Sandrart  and  Bemhard  Jobin  of  Strassburg 
to  show  that  Grilnewald  is  the  painter  of  pictures  of  a  different 
class.  They  prove  that  he  finished  before  X5x6  the  large  altar- 
piece  of  Issenheim,  at  present  in  the  museum  of  Colmar,  and 
starting  from  these  premises  they  connect  the  artist  with  Altdorier 
and  DOrer  to  th^  exclusion  of  Cranach.  That  a  native  of  the 
Palatinate  should  have  been  asked  to  execute  pictures  for  a 
church  in  Saxony  can  scarcely  be  accounted  strange,  since  we 
observe  that  Hans  Baldung  (Griln)  was  entrusted  with  a  com- 
mission of  this  kind.  But  that  a  painter  of  Aschaffenburg  should 
display  the  style  of  Cranach  is  strange  and  indeed  incredible, 
unless  vouched  for  by  first-dass  evidence.  In  this  case  documents 
are  altogether  wanting,  whilst  on  the  other  hand  it  is  beyond 
the  possibility  of  doubt,  even  according  to  Waagen,  that  the 
altarpiece  of  Issenhdm  is  the  creation  of  a  nuin  whose  teaching 
was  altogether  different  from  that  of  the  painter  of  the  pictures 
of  HaUe  and  Annaberg.  The  altarpiece  of  Issenheim  is  a  fine 
and  powerful  work,  completed  as  local  records  show  before 
1 5x6  by  a  Swabian,  whose  distinguishing  mark  is  that  he  followed 
the  traditions  of  Martin  Schongauer,  and  came  under  the  in- 
fluence  of  Altdorfer  and  Dllrer.  As  a  work  of  art  the  altarpiece 
is  important,  bdng  a  poliptych  of  deven  panels,  a  carved  central 
shrine  covered  with  a  double  set  of  wings,  and  two  side  pieces 
containing  the  Temptation  of  St  Anthony,  the  hermits  Anthony 
and  Paul  in  converse,  the  Virgin  adored  by  Angels,  the  Resurrec- 
tion, the  Aimundation,  the  Crudfixion,  St  Sebastian,  St  Anthony, 
and  the  Marys  wailing  over  the  dead  body  of  Christ.  The  author 
of  these  compositions  is  also  the  painter  of  a  series  of  mono- 
chromes described  by  Sandrart  in  the  Dominican  convent,  and 
now  in  part  in  the  Saalhof  at  Frankfort,  and  a  Resurrection  in 
the  museum  of  Basel,  registered  in  Amerbach's  inventory  as 
the  work  of  Grdnewald. 

GRUTBR  (or  GsuYrisE),  JAN  (1560-1627),  a  critic  and 
scholar  of  Dutch  parentage  by  his  father's  side  and  English  by 
his  mother's,  was  bom  at  Antwerp  on  the  3rd  of  December 
X560.  To  avoid  religious  persecution  his  parents  while  he  was 
still  young  came  to  England;  and  for  some  years  he  prosecuted 
his  studies  at  Cambridge,  after  which  he  went  to  Ldden,  where 
he  graduated  M.  A.  In  1 586  he  was  appointed  professor  of  history 
at  Wittenberg,  but  as  he  refused  to  subscribe  the  formula  con- 
cordiae  he  was  unable  to  retain  his  office.  From  1589  to  X592 
he  taught  at  Rostock,  after  which  he  went  to  Heidelberg,  where 
in  i6o2  he  was  appointed  librarian  to  the  university.  He  died 
at  Hdddberg  on  the  20th  of  September  1627. 

Gruter's  chief  works  were  hit  Inscriptiones  anHquae  toHus  orhis 
Remain  (a  vols.,  Heidelberg,  1603),  and  Lam  pas »  siee  fax  orHum 
liberaHum  (7  vols.,  Frankfort,  1609-1634). 

GRUY&RE  (Ger.  Creyen),  a  district  in  the  south-eastern 
portion  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  Fribourg,  famed  for  its  cattle 
and  its  cheese,  and  the  original  home  of  the  "  Ranz  des  Vaches," 
the  mdody  by  which  the  herdsmen  call  thdr  cows  home  at 
milking  time.  It  is  composed  of  the  middle  reach  (from  Mont- 
bovon  to  beyond  Bulle)  of  the  Sarine  or  Saane  valley,  with  its 
tributary  glens  of  the  Hongrin  Geft),  the  Jogne  (right)  and  the 
Tr6me  (Idt),  and  is  a  delightful  pastoral  region  (in  1901  it 
contained  17,364  cattle).  It  forms  an  administrative  district 
of  the  canton  of  Fribourg,  its  population  in  1900  being  23,1  xx, 
mainly  French-speaking  and  Romanists.  From  Montbovon 
(xx  m.  by  rail  from  Bulle)  there  are  mountain  railways  lead- 
ing S.W.  past  Les  Avants  to  Montreux  (x4  m.),  and  E.  up  the 
Serine  valley  past  ChAteau  d'Oex  to  Saanen  or  Gessenay  (14  m.), 
and  by  a  tuimd  bdow  a  low  pass  to  the  Simme  valley  and  ^ies 
on  the  Ldie  of  Thun.  The  modem  capital  of  the  district  is  the 
small  town  of  Bulle  [Ger.  BoU\,  with  a  X3th-century  castle  and  in 
X900  3330  inhabitants,  French-speaking  and  Romanists.    But 


642 


GRYNAEUS,  J  J.— GRYPHIUS 


the  historical  capital  is  the  very  picturesque  little  town  of 
Gruytres  (which  keeps  its  final "  s  "  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  district),  perched  on  a  steep  hill  (S.E.  of  Bulle)  above  the 
left  bank  of  the  Sarine,  and  at  a  height  of  8713  ft.  above  the 
sea-levd.  It  is  only  accessible  by  a  rough  carriage  road,  and 
boasts  of  a  very  fine  old  castle,  at  the  foot  of  which  is  the  soUtary 
street  of  the  town,  which  in  1900  had  1389  inhabitants. 

Hie  castle  was  the  seat  of  the  counts  of  the  Gruy^re,  who  are 
first  mentioned  in  ro73.  The  luuue  is  said  to  come  from  the 
word'^wyer,  meaning  the  officer  of  woods  and  forests,  but  the 
counts  bore  the  cantfiig  arms  of  a  crane  {ffue),  which  are  seen 
all  over  the  castle  and  the  town.  That  valiant  family  ended 
(in  the  legitimate  line)  with  Count  Michel  (d.  1575)  whose  eztra" 
vagance  and  consequent  indebtedness  compelled  him  in  1555  to 
sell  his  domains  to  Bern  and  Fribourg.  Bern  took  the  upper 
Sarine  valley  (it  still  keeps  Saanen  at  its  head,  but  in  1798  lost 
the  Pays  d'En-Haut  to  the  c^ton  du  L^man,  which  in  Z803 
became  the  canton  of  Vaud).  Fribopzg  took  the  rest  of  the 
county,  which  it  added  to  BuUe  and  Albeuve  (taken  in  1537  from 
the  bishop  of  Lausanne),  and  to  the  lordship  of  Jaun  in  the  Jaun 
or  Jogne  valley  (bought  in  1502-1504  from  its  lords),  in  order  to 
form  the  present  administrative  district  of  Gruydre,  which  is 
not  co-extensive  with  the  historical  county  of  that  name. 

See  the  roateriab  collected  by  T.  J.  Hiaely  and  publiihed  |n  luc- 
cetaive  vols,  of  the  MSmoires'^n  aoeiments  de  la  tuitse  romatid*  . . . 
inirod.  i  fkist.  (1851);  HisMrt  (a  volt.,  1855-1857);  and  Mouit- 
ments  de  Fhutctr$  (a  vols.,  1867-1869);  K.  v.  von  Bonstetten, 
Brieft  iber  ein  sckwei*^  Hirlmland  (1781)  (Ens.  trans.,  1784);  J. 
Rdchleii,  La  Gruykre  iUustrit  (1890),  leq.;  H.  Raemy,  La  Gruyht 
(1867):  and  Les  AlPes  fribourgtoists,  by  many  authors  (Lausanne, 
1908).  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

GRYNAEUS  (or  G&ynes),  JOHANN  JAKOB  (Z540-Z6Z7), 
Swiss  Protestant  divine,  was  bom  on  the  zst  of  October  Z540  at 
Bern.  His  father,  Thomas  (z5za-z564),  was  for  a  time  professor 
of  ancient  languages  at  Basel  and  Bern,  but  afterwards  became 
pastor  of  ROtdn  in  Baden.  He  was  nephew  of  the  more  eminent 
Simon  Grynacus  (^.9.).  Johann  was  educated  at  Basel,  and  in 
z 559  received  an  appointment  as  curate  to  his  father.  In  z  563  he 
proceeded  to  Tubingen  for  the  purpose  of  completing  htt  theo- 
logical studies,  and  in  Z565  he  returned  to  Rdteln  as  successor 
to  lus  father.  Here  he  felt  compelled  to  abjure  the  Lutheran 
doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  to  renounce  the  formula 
eancordiae.  Called  in  Z575  to  the  chair  of  Old  Testament 
exegesis  at  Basel,  he  became  involved  in  unpleasant  controversy 
with  Simon  Sulzer  and  other  champions  of  Lutheran  orlhodoxy{ 
and  in  1584  he  was  glad  to  accept  an  invitation  to  assist  in  the 
restoration  of  the  university  of  Heidelberg.  Returning  to  Basel 
in  1586,  after  Simon  Sulzer's  death,  as  antisUs  or  superintendent 
of  the  church  there  and  as  professor  of  the  New  Testament,  he 
exerted  for  upwards  of  twenty-five  years  a  mnsiderable  influence 
upon  both  the  church  and  the  state  affairs  of  that  community, 
and  acquired  a  wide  reputation  as  a  skilful  theologian  of  the 
school  of  Ulrich  ZwinglL  Amongst  other  Ubours  he  helped  to 
fiorganize  the  gymnasium  in  Z588.  Five  3rears  before  his  death 
he  became  totally  blind,  but  omtinued  to  preach  and  lecture 
till  his  death  on  the  ztth  of  August  z6i 7. 

Hb  many  works  include  commentaries  on  various  books  of  the 
Old  and  New  Tesument,  TTuolotica  tkeoremaia  «l  probUmata  (1588), 
and  a  collection  of  patrbtic  literature  entitled  Monumenta  S.  patrum 
4frthodoxoffrapha  (a  vob.,  fol.,  1569). 

GRYNAEUS*  SIMON  (1493-Z54Z),  German  scholar  and  theo- 
logian of  the  Reformation,  son  of  Jacob  Gryner,  a  Swabian 
peasant,  was  bom  in  Z493  at  V^ringen,  in  Hohenxollera- 
Sigmaringen.  He  adopted  the  name  Grynaeus  from  the  epithet 
of  Apollo  in  Virgil.  He  was  a  schoolfdlow  with  Melanchthon 
at  Pforzheim,  whence  he  went  to  the  university  of  Vienna, 
dbtinguishing  himself  there  as  a  Latinist  and  Grecian.  His 
appointment  as  rector  of  a  school  at  Buda  was  of  no  long  con- 
tinuance; hb  views  excited  the  seal  of  the  Dominicans  and  he 
was  thrown  into  prison.  Gaining  hb  freedom  at  the  instance 
of  Hungarian  magnates,  he  visited  Melanchthon  at  Wittenberg, 
and  in  1534  became  professor  of  Greek  at  the  university  of 
Heidelberg,  being  in  addition  professor  of  Latin  from  1526. 
}ii»  Zwinglian  view  of  the  Eucharbt  dbturbed  hb  relations  with 


hu  Catholic  colleagues.  From  Z526  be  had  tunesponded  witK 
Oecolampadius,  who  in  Z529  invitMl  him  to  Baad,  wUch  Erasmus 
had  just  left.  The  tmiversity  being  dborganiscd,  Grynaeus 
pursued  hb  studies,  and  in  Z53Z  visited  England  for  reseaxch 
in  libraries.  A  commendatory  letter  from  Erasmus  gained  him 
the  good  offices  of  Sir  Thomas  More.  He  returned  to  Basd 
charged  with  the  task  of  collecting  the  opinions  of  continental 
reformers  on  the  subject  of  Henry  VIII.'s  divorce,  and  was 
present  at  the  death  of  OecoUmpadius  (Nov.  24,  z  53Z).  He  now, 
while  holding  the  chair  of  Greek,  was  appointed  extraordinary 
professor  of  theology,  and  gave  exegetical  lectures  on  the  New 
Testament.  In  Z534  Duke  Ulrich  called  him  to  Wiirtteffibctg  ia 
aid  of  the  reformation  there,  as  well  as  for  the  reconstitution  of 
the  university  of  Tubingen,  which  he  carried  out  in  concert  with 
Ambrosius  Blazer  of  Constanz.  Two  years  Uter  he  had  an  active 
hand  is  the  so<alled  First  Helvetic  Confession  (the  woric  of 
Swiss  divines  at  Basel  in  January  Z536){  also  in  the  conferences 
which  urged  the  Swiss  acceptance  of  the  Wittenberg  Concord 
(Z536).  At  the  Worms  inference  (1540)  between  Catholia 
and  Protestants  he  was  the  sole  representative  of  the  Swiss 
churches,  being  deputed  by  the  authorities  of  BaseL  He  was 
carried  off  suddenly  in  hb  prime  by  the  plague  at  Baad  aa  the 
zst  of  August  154Z.  A  brilliant  scholar,  a  mediating  theolopao, 
and  personally  of  lovable  temperament,  hb  influence  was  great 
and  wisely  exercised.  Erasmus  and  Calvin  were  among  hb 
correspondents.  Hbchief  works  were  Latin  versiona  of  Plutarch, 
Arbtotle  and  Chrysostom. 

Hb  son  Sakitel  (Z539-Z599)  was  professor  ci  jnnapmdaKt 
at  Basell  Hb  nephew  Tbomas  (z5ia?-z564)  was  professor  u 
Basel  and  minbter  in  Baden,  and  left  four  distinguishH  uoa 
of  whom  Johann  Jakob  (Z540-16Z7)  was  a  leader  in  the  religloos 
affairs  of  BaseL  The  last  of  the  direct  descendants  of  Stmon 
Grynaeus  was  hb  namesake  SncoN  (172S-Z799),  trmnsUtor  into 
German  of  French  and  English  antiniebtical  works,  and  author 
of  a  version  of  the  Bible  in  modem  German  (1776). 

See  Bayle*s  Dictionnaire;  W.  T.  Streuber  in  Hauck's  KedoK^ 
UopadU  (1899);  and  for  bibliography,  Streuber's  5.  Crymati  tpt*' 
toUu  (1847).  (A.  Ga') 

GRTPHIUS,  ANDREAS  (z6z6-z664),  (German  lyric  poet  and 
dramatbt,  was  bora  on  the  1  zth  of  October  z6i6,  at  Grossgbgaa 
in  Silesia,  where  hb  father  was  a.  dergsrman.    llie  famOy  name 
was  Gre^,  latinized,  according  to  the  prevailing  &shion,  as 
Gryphius.    Left  early  an  orphan  and  driven  from  hb  native 
town  by  the  troubles  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  he  received  hb 
schooling  in  various  places,  but  notably  at  Fraustadt,  where  he 
enjoyed  an  excellent  cissstcal  education.    In  Z634  he  became 
tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  eminent  jurbt  Georg  von  Schdnbora 
(1579-Z637),  a  man  of  wide  culture  and  considerable  wealth, 
who,  after  filling  various  adminbtrative  posts  and  writing  many 
emdite  volumes  on  law,  had  been  rewarded  by  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  II.  with  the  title  and  office  of  imperial  count-psbtfne 
{Pfaltgraf),     Schdnbora,  who  recognized  Gryphius's  genius, 
crowned  him  poila  laureatus^  gave  him  the  diploma  of  mister 
of  philosophy,  and  bestowed  on  him  a  patent  of  nobility,  thoogli 
Gryphius  never  used  the  title.    A  month  later,  on  the  23rd  U 
December  Z637,  Schdnbora  died;  and  next  year  Gryphius  vent 
to  continue  his  studies  at  Leiden,  where  he  remained  six  yeajs, 
both  hearing  and  delivering  lectures.    Here  be  fdl  under  the 
influence  of  the  great  Dutch  dramatbts,  Pieter  Coraelissen  Hotrft 
(Z58Z-1647)  and  Joost'van  den  Vondd  (Z587-Z679),  wholared/ 
determined  the  character  of  hb  later  dramatic  works.    After 
travelling  in  Fhmce,  Italy  and  South  Germany,  Gryphius  settled 
in  1647  &^  Fraustadt,  where  he  began  his  dramatic  work,  azul  in 
Z650  was  appointed  syndic  of  Glogau,  a  post  he  held  until  his 
death  on  the  i6th  of  July  Z664.  A  short  time  previously  he  had 
been  admitted  under  the  title  of  "  The  Immortal "  into  the 
Pruckthringende  GeseUsckaJt,  a  literary  society,  founded  in  1617 
by  Ludwig,  prince  of  Anhalt-KGthen  on  the  model  of  the  Itafias 
academies. 

Gryphius  was  a  man  of  morbid  disposition,  and  hb  melancholjr 
temperament,  fostered  by  the  misfortunes  of  hb  childhood, 
b  largely  reflected  in  hb  lyrics,  of  which  the  nnoat  famous  are  the 


GUACHARO— GUACO 


643 


KirckkofsgedankeH  (1656).  His  best  works  are  his  comedies, 
one  of  whkh,  Absurda  Comica,  oder  Hen  Peter  SguentM  (1663), 
is  evidently  based  on  the  comic  episode  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe 
in  The  Midsummer  Nighl*s  Dream.  Die  gelieble  Domrose  (x66o), 
which  is  written  in  a  Silesian  dialect,  contains  many  touches  of 
natural  simplicity  and  grace,  and  ranks  high  among  the  o>mpara- 
tively  small  number  of  German  dramas  of  the  17th  century. 
Horrihilicribrifax  (2663),  founded  on  the  Miies  ^riosus  of 
Plautus,  is  a  rather  laboured  attack  on  pedantry.  Besides 
these  three  comedies,  Gryphius  wrote  five  tragedies.  In  all  of 
them  his  tendency  is  to  become  wild  and  bombastic,  but  he 
had  the  merit  of  at  least  attempting  to  work  out  artisUoedly 
conceived  plans,  and  there  are  occasional  flashes  both  of  passion 
and  of  imagination.  His  models  seem  to  have  been  Seneca  and 
VondeL  He  had  the  courage,  in  Carolm  Stuardus  (1649)  to  deal 
with  events  of  his  own  day;  his  other  tragedies  are  Leo  Armenius 
(1646);  Katkarina  von  Ceorgien  {i6s7)t  Cardenio  und  Celinde 
(1657)  and  Papinianus  (1663).  No  German  dramatic  writer 
before  him  had  risen  to  so  high  a  level,  nor  had  he  worthy 

successors  until  about  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century. 

A  complete  edition  of  Gryphius't  dramas  and  lyric  poetry  has 
been  published  by  H.  Palm  in  the  aeries  of  the  Stuttgart  Literariache 
Verein  (3  vols..  1878,  1882,  1884).  Volumes  of  selected  works  will 
be  found  in  W.  MuUer's  Biblioliek  der  deuhchen  DicfUer  des  ijten 
Jahrhunderts  (182a)  and  in  J.  Tittmann's  Deutsche  Diekler  des  iTten 
Jahrkunderis  (1870).  There  u  also  a  good  selection  by  H.  Palm  in 
Kurschner's  Deutsche  NatumaUiteratur, 

See  O.  Kk>pp,  Andreas  Gryphius  als  Dnunatiker  (1851);  J.  Her- 
mann, Cher  Andreas  Cryphtus  (1851);  T.  Wisaowa,  Deitrdre  tur 
Kenntnis  won  Andreas  Gryphius'  Leben  und  Schriften  (1876):  T. 
Wysockt,  Andreas  Gryphius  et  la  tragidie  aUemande  au  XVfl* 
sieae;  and  V.  Mannhdmer,  Die  Lyrih  des  Andreas  Gryphius  (1904). 

QUACHARO  (said  to  be  an  obsolete  Spanish  word  signifying 
one  that  cries,  moans  or  laments  loudly),  the  Spanish-American 
name  of  what  English  writers  call  the  oil-bird,  the  Steatomis 
caHpensis  of  ornithologists,  a  very  remarkable  bird,  first  described 
by  Alexander  von  Humboldt  {Voy.  mtx  fig.  iqmnoxiales 
i.  4x3,  Eng.  trans,  iii.  Z19;  Obs.  Zoologie  ii.  141,  pi.  zliv.) 
from  his  own  observation  and  from  examples  obtained  by 
Aim6  J.  A.  Bonpland,  on  the  visit  of  those  two  travellers,  in 
September  1799,  to  a  cave  near  Carip6  (at  that  time  a  monastery 
of  Aragonese  Capuchins)  some  forty  miles  S.E.  of  CumanA 
on  the  northern  coast  of  South  America.  A  few  years  later  it 
was  discovered,  says  Latham  {Gen,  Hist.  Birds,  i833i  vii.  365), 
to  inhabit  Trinidad,  where  it  appears  to  bear  the  name  of  />£s- 
biiftin;^  but  by  the  receipt  of  specimens  procured  at.Sarayacu 
in  Peru,  Cajamarca  in  the  Peruvian  Andes,  and  Antioquia 
in  Colombia  {Proe.  Zool.  Sodety,  1878,  pp.  139,  240;  1879, 
P<  533)>  its  range  has  been  shown  to  be  much  greater  than  had 
been  supposed.  The  singularity  of  its  structure,  its  curious 
habits,  and  its  peculiar  economical  value  have  naturally  attracted 
no  little  attention  from  zoologists.  First  referring  it  to  the  genus 
Ccprimulgus,  its  original  dcscriber  soon  saw  that  it  was  no  true 
goatsucker.  It  was  subsequently  separated  as  forming  a  sub- 
family, and  has  at  last  been  regarded  as  the  type  of  a  distinct 
family,  Steatomilhidae — a  view  which,  though  not  put  forth  till 
1870  {Zool.  Record,  vi.  67),  seems  now  to  be  generally  deemed 
correct.  Its  systematic  position,  however,  can  scarcely  be 
considered  settled,  for  though  on  the  whole  its  predominating 
alliance  may  be  with  the  Caprimulgidae,  nearly  as  much  affinity 
may  be  traced  to  the  Slrigidae,  while  it  possesses  some  characters 
in  which  it  differs  from  both  {Proc.  Zool.  Society,  1873,  pp. 
5 '6-53 s)*  About  as  big  as  a  crow,  its  plumage  exhibits  the 
blended  tints  of  chocolate-colour  and  grey,  barred  and  pencilled 
with  dark-brown  or  black,  and  spotted  in  places  with  white, 
that  prevail  in  the  two  families  just  named.  The  beak  is  hard, 
strong  and  deeply  notched,  the  nostrils  are  prominent,  and  the 
gape  i%  furnished  with  twelve  long  hairs  on  each  side.  The  legs 
and  toes  are  comparatively  feeble,  but  the  wings  are  large.  In 
habits  the  guacharo  is  wholly  nocturnal,  slumbering  by  day 
in  deep  and  dark  caverns  which  it  frequents  in  vast  numbers. 
Towaitb  evening  it  arouses  itself,  and,  with  croaking  and 

*  Not  to  be  confounded  with  the  bird  ao  called  in  the  French 
Aatillet.  which  is  a  petrel  {(ksirelata). 


clattering  which  has  been  likened  to  that  of  castanets,  it 
approaches  the  exit  of  its  retreat,  whence  at  nightfall  it  issues 
in  search  of  its  food,  which,  so  far  as  is  known,  consists  entirely 
of  oily  nuts  or  fruits,  belonging  especially  to  the  genera  Achras, 
Aiphanas,  Laurus  and  Psicholria,  some  of  them  sought,  it  would 
seem,  at  a  very  great  distance,  for  Funck  {Butt.  Acad.  Sc.  Bruxelles 
xi.  pt.  9,  pp.  371-377)  states  that  in  the  stomach  of  one  he 
obtained  at  Carip6  he  found  the  seed  of  a  tree  which  he  believed 
did  not  grow  nearer  than  80  leagues.  The  hard,  indigestible 
seed  swallowed  by  the  guacharo  are  found  in  quantities  on  the 
floor  and  the  ledges  of  the  caverns  it  frequents,  where  many  of 
them  for  a  time  vegetate,  the  plants  thus  growing  being  etiolated 
from  want  of  light,  and,  according  to  travellers,  forming  a 
singular  feature  of  the  gloomy  scene  which  these  places  present. 
The  guacharo  b  said  to  build  a  bowl-like  nest  of  clay,  in  which 
it  lays  from  two  to  four  white  eggs,  with  a  smooth  but  lustreless 
surface,  resembling  those  of  some  owls.  The  young  soon  after 
they  are  hatched  become  a  perfect  mass  of  fat,  and  while  3ret  in 
the  nest  are  sought  by  the  Indians,  who  at  Carip6,  and  perhaps 
elsewhere,  make  a  special  business  of  taking  them  and  extracting 
the  oil  they  contain.  Thb  is  done  about  midsummer,  when 
by  the  aid  of  torches  and  long  poles  many  thousands  of  the 
young  birds  are  slaughtered,  while  their  parents  in  alarm  and 
rage  hover  over  the  destroyers'  heads,  uttering  harsh  and 
deafening  cries.  The  grease  is  melted  over  fires  kindled  at  the 
cavern's  mouth,  run  into  earthen  pots,  and  preserved  for  use 
in  cooking  as  well  as  for  the  lighting  of  lamps.  It  is  said  to  be 
pure  and  limpid,  free  from  any  disagreeable  taste  6r  smell,  and 
capable  of  being  kept  for  a  year  without  turning  rancid.  In 
Trinidad  the  young  are  esteemed  a  great  delicacy  for  the  table 
by  many,  though  some  persons  object  to  their  peculiar  scent, 
which  resembles  that  of  a  cockroach  (Blatta),  and  consequently 
refuse  to  eat  them.  The  old  birds  also,  according  to  E;  C. 
Taylor  {Ibis,  X864,  p.  90),  have  a  strong  crow-like  odour.  But 
one  species  of  the  genus  Stcatomis  is  known. 

In  addition  to  the  works  above  quoted  valuable  information  about 

this  curious  bird  may  be  found  under  the  following  references; 

L'Herminier,  Ann.  Sc.  NaL  (1836),  p.  60,  and  Nou».  Amn.  Mus. 

1838),  p.  321:  Hautessier.  Rev.  Zool.  (i8t8).  p.  164;  J.  MQller, 

'onatsb.  Berl.  Acad.  (1841).  p.  172,  and  Archie JOr  Anat.  (1862), 


(1869),  pp.  124-128;  Murie,  Ibis  (1873),  pp.  81-86. 


(AN.) 


QUAOOf  HuACO  or  Guao,  also  Vejuoo  and  Bejuco,  terms 
applied  to  various  Central  and  South  American  and  West  Indian 
plants,  in  repute  for  curative  virtues.  The  Indians  and  negroes 
of  Coloifibia  believe  the  plants  known  to  them  as  guaco  to 
have  been  so  named  after  a  spedes  of  kite,  thus  desi^iated  in 
imitation  of  its  cry,  which  they  say  attracts  to  it  the  snakes 
that  serve  it  principally  for  food;  they  further  hold  the  tradition 
that  their  antidotal  qualities  were  discovered  through  the 
obMrvation  th<t  the  bird  eats  of  their  leaves,  and  even  spreads 
the  juice  of  the  same  on  its  wings,  during  contests  with  its 
prey.  The  disputes  that  have  arisen  as  to  what  is  "  the  true 
guaco  "  are  to  be  attributed  mainly  to  the  fact  that  the  names 
of  the  American  Indians  for  all  natural  objects  are  generic,  and 
their  goiera  not  always  in  coincidence  with  those  of  naturdists. 
Thus  any  twining  plant  with  a  heart-shaped  leaf,  white  and  green 
above  and  purple  beneath,  is  called  by  them  guaco  (R.  Spruce, 
in  Howard's  Neueva  Quinologia,  "  Cinchona  succirubra,"  p.  22, 
note).  What  is  most  commonly  recognised  in  Colombia  as 
guaco,  or  Vejuco  del  guaco,  would  appear  to  be  Mikania  Guaco 
(Humboldt  and  Bonpland,  PI.  iquinox.  ii.  84,  pi.  X05,  X809), 
a  climbing  Composite  plant  of  the  tribe  Eupatoriaceae,  affecting 
moist  and  shady  situations,  and  having  a  much-branched  and 
deep-growing  root,  variegated,  serrate,  opposite  leaves  and  dull- 
white  flowers,  in  axillary  clusters.  The  whole  plant  emiu  a 
disagreeable  odour.  It  is  sUted  that  the  Indians  of  Central 
America,  after  having  "  guaconised  "  themselves,  i.t.  taken 
gtiaco,  catch  with  impunity  the  most  dangerous  snakes,  which 
writhe  in  their  hands  as  though  touched  byahotiron(B.  Seemann, 
Hooker's  Joum.  of  Bot.  v.  76, 1853).   The  odour  alone  of  guaco 


644- 


GUADALAJARA— GUADALQUIVIR 


has  been  said  to  cause  in  snakes  a  state  of  stupor  and  torpidity; 
and  Humboldt,  who  observed  that  the  near  approach  of  a  rod 
steeped  in  guaco-juice  was  obnoxious  to  the  venomous  Coluber 
eoraUinus,  was  of  opinion  that  inoculation  with  it  imparts  to  the 
perspiration  an  odour  which  makes  reptiles  unwilling  to  bite. 
The  drug  is  not  used  in  modem  therapeutics. 

GUADALAJARA,  an  inland  city  of  Mexico  and  capital  of  the 
state  of  Jalisco,  375  m.  (direct)  W.N.W.  of  the  Federal  capital, 
in  lat.  20"  41'  lo*  N.,  long.  103"  ai'  15'  W.  Pop.  (1895) 
83,934;  (1900)  xoi,ao8.  Guadalajara  is  served  by  a  short 
branch  of  the  Mexican  Central  railway  from  Irapuato. 
The  dty  is  in  the  Antemarac  valley  near  the  Rio  Grande  de 
Santiago,  509a  ft.  above  sea-level.  Its  climate  is  dry,  mild  and 
healthy,  though  subject  to  sudden  changes.  The  dty  is  well 
built,  with  straight  and  weU-paved  streets,  numerous  plazas, 
public  gardens  and  shady  promenades.  Its  public  services 
indude  tramways  and  electric  lighting,  the  Juanacatl&n  falls 
of  the  Rio  Grande  near  the  dty  fumia^ing  the  dectric  power. 
Guadalajara  is  an  episcopal  see,  and  its  cathedral,  built  between 
1571  and  x6i8,  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  elaborately 
decorated  churches  in  Mexico.  The  government  palace,  which 
like  the  cathedral  faces  upon  the  plata  mayor,  is  generally 
considered  one  of  the  finest  spedmens  of  Spanish  architecture 
in  Mexico.  Other  important  edifices  and  institutions  are  the 
university,  with  its  schools  of  Uw  and  medicine,  the  mint,  built 
in  z8xz,  the  modem  national  college  and  high  schools,  a  public 
library  of  over  a8,ooo  volimies,  an  episcopal  seminary,  an 
academy  of  fine  arts,  the  Teatro  Degollado,  and  the  large  modem 
granite  building  of  the  penitentiary.  There  are  many  interesting 
churches  and  deven  conventual  establishments  in  the  dty. 
Charitable  institutions  of  a  high  character  are  also  prominent, 
among  which  are  the  Hospido,  which  indudes  an  asylum  for 
the  aged,  infirm,  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  foundlings  and  orphans, 
a  primary  school  for  both  sexes,  and  a  girls'  training  school, 
and  the  Hospital  de  San  Migud  de  Bden,  which  is  a  hospital, 
an  insane  asylum,  and  a  school  for  little  children.  One  of  the 
most  popular  public  resorts  of  the  dty  is  the  Paseo,  a  beautiful 
drive  and  promenade  extending  along  both  banks  of  the  Rio  San 
Juan  de  Dios  for  x}  m.  and  terminating  in  the  alameda^  or  public 
garden.  The  dty  has  a  good  water-supply,  derived  from  springs 
and  brought  in  through  an  aqueduct  8  m\  long.  GuadaJajara 
is  surrounded  by  a  fertile  agricultural  district  and  is  an  important 
commercial  town,  but  the  dty  is  chiefly  distinguished  as  the 
centre  of  the  iron,  steel  and  glau  industries  of  Mexico.  It  is  also 
widdy  known  for  the  artistic  pottery  manufactured  by  the 
Indians  of  the  dty  and  of  its  suburb,  San  Pedro.  Among  other 
prominent  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woollen 
goods,  leather,  furniture,  hats  and  sweetmeats.  Guadalajara 
was  founded  in  x  531  by  Nufio  de  Guzman,  and  became  the  seat 
of  a  bishop  in  1549.  The  Calderon  bridge  near  the  dty  was  the 
scene  of  a  serious  defeat  of  the  revolutionists  under  *HidaIgo  in 
January  xSxz.  The  severe  Earthquake  of  the  31st  of  May  x8i8 
partially  destroyed  the  two  cathedral  steeples;  and  that  of  the 
X  ith  of  March  X875  damaged  many  of  the  larger  buUdings.  The 
population  includes  large  Indian  and  mestizo  dements. 

GUADALAJARA,  a  province  of  central  Spain,  formed  in  X833 
of  districts  taken  from  New  Castile;  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Segovia,  Soria  and  Saragossa,  E.  by  Saragossa  and  Terud, 
S.  by  Cuenca  and  W.  by  Madrid.  Pop.  (1900)  3oo,x86;  area, 
4676  sq.  m.  Along  the  north^n  frontier  of  Guadalajara  rise  the 
lofty  Guadarrama  mountains,  culminating  in  the  peaks  of  La 
Cebollera  (6955  ft.)  and  Ocejon  (6775  't.);  the  rest  of  the 
province,  apart  from  several  lower  ranges  in  the  east,  belongs 
to  the  elevated  plateau  of  New  Castile,  and  has  a  levd  or  slightly 
undulating  suriace,  which  forms  the  upper  basin  of  the  river 
Tagus,  and  is  watered  by  its  tributaries  the  Tajufia,  Henares, 
Jarama  and  Gallo.  The  climate  of  this  region,  as  of  Castile 
generally,  is  marked  by  the  extreme  severity  of  its  winter  cold 
and  summer  heat;  the  soil  varies  very  much  in  quality,  but 
is  fertile  enough  in  many  districts,  notably  the  comUnds  of  the 
Alcarria,  towards  the  south.  Few  of  the  o>rk  and  oak  forests 
which  formeriy  covered  the  mountains  have  escaped  destruction; 


and  the  higher  tracts  of  land  are  mainly  pasture  for  the  sheep 
and  goats  which  form  the  principal  w«dth  of  the  peasantry. 
Grain,  olive  oil,  wine,  saffron,  silk  and  flax  are  produced,  but 
agrictdture  makes  little  progress,  owing  to  ddective  com> 
municatioxu  and  unsdentific  farming.  In  1903,  the  only 
minerals  worked  were  common  salt  and  silver,  and  the  total 
output  of  the  mines  was  valued  at  £25,000.  Deposits  of  iron, 
lead  and  gold  also  exist  and  were  worked  by  the  Romans;  but 
their  exploitation  proved  unprofitable  when  renewed  in  the 
X9th  century.  Trade  is  stagnant  and  the  local  industries  art 
those  common  to  almost  all  Spanish  towns  and  villages,  such  as 
the  manufacture  of  coarse  doth  and  pottery.  The  Madrid- 
Saragossa  railway  traverses  the  province  for  70  m.;  the  roadt 
are  ill-kept  and  insuffident.  Guadalajara  (x  1,144)  is  the  capital, 
and  the  only  town  with  more  than  5000  inhabitants;  Molina 
de  Aragon,  a  fortified  town  built  at  the  foot  of  the  Farameras 
de  Molina  (a5oo-35oo  ft.),  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gallo, 
a  tributary  of  the  Tagus,  is  of  some  importance  as  an  agricultural 
centre.  SiguSnza,  on  the  railway,  is  an  episoc^al  dty,  with  a 
fine  Romanesque  cathedral  dating  from  the  zxth  century.  It 
is  probably  the  andent  SegonliOy  founded  in  axS  b.c.  by  rdi^ecs 
from  Saguntum.  The  population  of  the  province;  which  numbers 
only  4a  per  sq.  m.,  decreased  slightly  between  1870  and  X900, 
and  extreme  poverty  compels  many  families  to  emigrate  (see 
also  Castile). 

GUADALAJARA,  the  capital  of  the  Spanish  province  of 
Guadalajara,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Henares,  and  <»i 
the  Madrid-Sarago^a  railway,  35  m.  E.N.E.  of  MadrkL  P(^ 
(X900)  X  1,144.  Guadalajara  is  a  picturesque  town,  occupying 
a  somewhat  sterile  plain,  aioo  ft.  above  the  sea.  A  Roman 
aqueduct  and  the  Roman  foundations  of  the  bridge  built  in 
1758  across  the  Henares  bear  witness  to  its  antiquity.  Under 
Roman  and  Visigothic  rule  it  was  known  as  Arriaca  or  Caracs; 
its  present  name,  which  sometimes  appears  in  medieval  chronicles 
as  Godelfare,  represents  the  Wad-iU-kajarab,  or  "Villey  oi 
Stones,"  of  the  Moors,  who  occupied  the  town  from  7x4  until 
xoSx,  when  it  was  c^tiued  by  Alvar  YaAez  de  Minaya,  a  comrade 
of  the  more  famous  Cid.  The  church  of  Santa  Maria  contains 
the  image  of  the  "  Virgin  of  Battles,"  which  accompanied 
Alphonso  VI.  of  Castile  (1072-X109)  on  his  campaigns  against 
the  Moors;  and  there  are  several  other  andent  and  ioterestifig 
churches  in  Guadalajara,  besides  two  palaces,  dating  from  the 
X5th  century,  and  built  with  that  blend  of  Christian  anid  Moorish 
architecture  which  Spaniards  call  the  Mud^'ar  style.  The  more 
important  of  these  is  the  palace  of  the  ducal  house  dd  Infanta<b^ 
formerly  owned  by  the  Mendoza  family,  whose  panieam^  €x 
mausoleum,  added  between  1696  and  x  7  20  to  the  X3th-century 
church  of  San  Francisco,  is  remarkable  for  the  ridb  sculpture 
of  its  tombs.  The  town  and  provincial  halls  date  from  1585, 
and  the  college  of  engineers  was  originally  built  by  Philip  V.. 
early  in  the  x8th  century,  as  a  doth  factory.  Manufacture  cf 
soap,  leather,  woollen  fabrics  and  bricks  have  superseded  tbt 
original  doth-weaving  industry  for  which  Guadalajara  was  locg 
cdebrated;  there  is  also  a  considerable  trade  in  agricultoial 
produce. 

GUADALQUIVIR  (andent  Baetis,  Moorish  Wadi  a!  KeUf,"tfae 
Great  River  "),  a  river  of  southern  Spain.  What  is  regarded  u 
the  main  stream  rises  4475  ft.  above  sea-level  between  \be 
Serra  de  Cazorla  and  Sierra  del  Pozo,  in  the  province  of  Jacc 
It  does  not  become  a  large  river  until  it  is  joined  by  the  Guadiisa 
Menor  (Guadianamenor)  on  the  left,  and  the  Guadalimar  on  ibe 
right.  Lower  down  it  recdves  many  tributaries,  the  diid  bei?4 
the  Gexul  or  Jenil,  from  the  left.  The  general  direction  of  tk 
river  is  west  by  south,  but  a  few  miles  above  Seville  it  chains 
to  south  by  west.  Below  Coria  it  traverses  the  series  of  bn»J 
fens  known  as  Las  Marismas,  the  greatest  area  of  swamp  in  tht 
Iberian  Peninsula.  Here  it  forms  two  subsidiary  channds,  the 
western  3x  M.,  the  eastern  la  m.  long,  which  rejoin  the  naffl 
stream  on  the  borders  of  the  province  of  Cadiz.  Below  Sanl&csr 
the  river  enters  the  Atlantic  after  a  total  course  of  360  c^ 
It  drains  an  area  of  2 1 ,865  sq.  m.  Though  the  shortest  of  tfaegrcai 
rivers  of  the  peninsula,  it  is  the  only  one  which  flows  at  all 


GUADELOUPE— GUADET 


64s 


with  a  full  stream,  being  fed  in  winter  by  the  rains,  in  summer  by 
the  melted  snows  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  In  the  time  of  the  Moors 
it  was  navigable  up  to  Cordova,  but  owing  to  the  accumulation 
of  sUt  in  its  lower  reaches  it  is  now  only  navigable  up  to  Seville 
by  vessels  of  1200  to  1500  tons. 

GUADELOUPE*  a  French  colony  in  the  West  Indies,  lying 
between  the  British  islands  of  Montserrat  on  the  N.,  and  Dominica 
on  the  S.,  between  15*  59'  and  16*  20'  N.  and  61'  31'  and  61*  50' 
W.  It  consists  of  two  entirely  distinct  islands,  separated  by  a 
narrow  arm  of  the  sea,  Rividre  Sal6e  (Salt  river),  varying  from 
100  ft.  to  400  ft.  in  width  and  navigable  for  small  vessels.  The 
western  island,  a  rugged  mass  of  ridges,  peaks  and  lofty  uplands, 
is  called  Basse-Terre,  while  the  eastern  and  smaller  island,  the 
real  low-land,  is  known  as  Grande-Terre.  A  sinuous  ridge  runs 
through  Basse-Terre  from  N.  to  S.  In  the  north-west  rises  the 
peak  of  Grossc  Montague  (3370  ft.),  from  which  sharp  spurs  radiate 
in  all  directions;  near  the  middle  of  the  west  coast  are  the  twin 
heights  of  Les  Mamelles  (2536  ft.  and  2368  ft.).  Farther  south 
the  highest  elevation  is  attained  in  La  Soufriire  (4900  ft.).  In 
1797  this  volcano  was  active,  and  in  1843  its  convulsions  laid 
several  towns  in  ruins;  but  a  few  thermal  springs  and  solfataras 
emitting  vapour  are  now  its  only  signs  of  activity.  The  range 
terminates  in  the  eictreme  south  in  the  jagged  peak  of  Caraibe 
(3300  ft.).  Basse-Terre  is  supremely  boiutiful,  its  cloud-capped 
mountains  being  clothed  with  a  mantle  of  luxuriant  vegetation. 
On  Grande-Terre  the  highest  elevation  is  only  450  ft.,  and  this 
island  is  the  seat  of  extensive  sugar  plantations.  It  consists  of 
a  pUin  composed  nuinly  of  limestone  and  a  conglomerate  of  sand 
and  broken  shells  known  as  maconne  de  hon  duu,  much  used  for 
building.  The  bay  between  the  two  sections  of  Guadeloupe 
on  the  north  is  called  Grand  Cul-de-Sac  Marin,  that  on  the 
south  being  Petit  Cul-de-Sac  Marin.  Basse-Terre  (364  sq.  m.) 
is  38  m.  long  by  13  m.  to  15  m.  wide;  Grande-Terre  (255  sq.  m.) 
is  23  m.  k>ng  from  N.  to  S.,  of  irregular  shape,  with  a  long 
peninsula,  Chateaux  Point,  stretching  from  the  south-eastern 
extremity.  Basse-Terre  is  watered  by  a  considerable  number 
of  streams,  most  of  which  in  the  rainy  season  are  liable  to  sudden 
floods  (locally  called  galiatu),  but  Grande-Terre  is  practically 
destitute  of  springs,  and  the  water-supply  is  derived  almost 
entirely  from  ponds  and  dstems. 

The  west  half  of  the  island  consists  of  a  foundation  of  old 
eruptive  rocks  upon  which  rest  the  recent  accumulations  of  the 
great  volcanic  cones,  together  with  mechanical  deposits  derived 
from  the  denudation  of  the  older  rocks.  Grande-Terre  on  the 
other  hand,  consists  chiefly  of  nearly  horizontal  limestones 
lying  conformably  upon  a  series  of  fine  luffs  and  ashes,  the  whole 
belonging  to  the  early  part  of  the  Tertiary  system  (probably 
Eocene  and  OUgocene).  Occasional  depositsof  marl  and  limestone 
of  late  Pliocene  age  rest  unconformably  upon  these  older  beds; 
and  near  the  coast  there  are  raised  coral  reefs  of  modem  date. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  is  78*  F.,  and  the  minimum 
61*  F.,  and  the  maximum  lox^  F.  From  July  to  November 
heavy  rains  fall,  the  aimual  average  on  the  coast  being  86  in., 
while  in  the  interior  it  is  much  greater.  Guadeloupe  is  subject 
to  terrible  storms.  In  1825  a  hurricane  destroyed  the  town  of 
Basse-Terre,  and  Grand  Bourg  in  Marie  Galante  suffered  a 
like  fate  in  1865.  The  soil  is  rich  and  fruitful,  sugar  having  long 
been  its  staple  product.  The  other  crops  include  cereals,  cocoa, 
cotton,  manioc,  yams  and  rubber;  tolMurco,  vanilla,  coffee  and 
bananas  are  grown,  but  in  smaller  quantities.  Over  30%  of  the 
total  area  is  under  cultivation,  and  of  this  more  than  50%  is 
under  sugar.  The  centres  of  this  industry  are  St  Anne,  Pointe-4- 
Pitre  and  Le  Moule,  where  there  are  well-equipped  usitus,  and 
there  is  also  a  large  usine  at  Basse-Terre.  Tlie  forests,  confined 
to  the  island  of  Basse-Terre,  are  extensive  and  rich  in  valuable 
woods,  but,  being  difficult  of  access,  are  not  worked.  Salt  and 
sulphur  are  the  only  minerals  extracted,  and  in  addition  to  the 
sugar  MsiruSt  there  are  factories  for  the  making  of  rum,  liqueurs, 
chocolate,  besides  fruit-canning  works  and  tanneries.  France 
takes  most  of  the  exports,  and  next  to  France,  the  United 
Sutcs,  Great  Britain  and  India  are  the  countries  most  interested 
IB  the  import  trade. 


The  inhaUtants  of  Guadebupe  consist  of  a  few  white  officials 
and  planters,  a  few  East  Indian  immigrants  from  the  French 
possessions  in  India,  and  the  rest  negroes  and  mulaltoes.  These 
mulattoes  are  famous  for  their  grace  and  beauty  of  both  form 
and  feature.  The  women  greatly  outnumber  the  men,  and  there ' 
is  a  very  largfe  percentage  of  illegitimate  births.  Pop.  (1900) 
182,1 1 3. 

The  governor  is  assisted  by  a  privy  council,  a  director  of  the 
interior,  a  procurator-general  and  a  paymaster,  and  there  is 
also  an  elected  legislative  council  of  30  members.  The  colony 
forms  a  department  of  France  and  is  represented  in  the  French 
parliament  by  a  senator  and  two  deputies.  Political  elections 
are  very  eagerly  contested,  the  mulatto  element  always  striving 
to  gain  the  preponderance  of  power. 

The  seat  of  government,  of  the  Apostolic  administration  and 
of  the  court  of  appeal  is  at  Basse-Terre  (7762),  which  a  situated 
on  the  south-west  coast  of  the  island  of  that  name.  It  is 
a  picturesque,  healthy  town  standing  on  an  open  roadstead. 
Pointe-i-Pitre  (17,342),  the  largest  town,  lies  in  Grande-Terre 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Riviire  Sal£e.  Its  excellent  harbour  has 
made  it  the  chief  port  and  commercial  capital  of  the  colony. 
Le  Moule  (10,378)  on  the  east  coast  of  Grande-Terre  docs  a 
considerable  export  trade  in  sugar,  despite  its  poor  harbour. 
Of  the  other  towns,  St  Anne  (9497),  Mome  k  I'Eau  (8442),  Petit 
Canal  (6748),  St  Francois  (5265),  Petit  Bourg  (51 10)  and  Trois 
Rivieres  (5016),  are  the  most  important. 

Round  Guadeloupe  are  grouped  its  dependendes,  namely. 
La  Desirade,  6  m.  E.,  a  narrow  rugged  island  10  sq.  m.  in  area; 
Marie  Galante  16  m.  S.E.  Les  Saintes,  a  group  of  seven  small 
islands,  7  m.  S.,  one  of  the  strategic  points  of  the  Antilles, 
with  a  magnificent  and  strongly  fortified  naval  harbour;  St 
Martin,  142  m.  N.N.W.;  and  St  Bartholomew,  130  m.  N.N.W. 

History. — Guadeloupe  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493, 
and  received  its  lutme  in  honour  of  the  monastery  of  S.  Maria 
dc  Guadalupe  at  Estremadura  in  Spain.  In  1635  I'Olive  and 
Duplessis  took  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  the  French  Company 
of  the  Islands  of  America,  and  I'Olive  exterminated  the  Carit» 
with  great  cruelty.  Four  chartered  companies  were  ruined  in 
their  attempts  to  o>loniz«  the  island,  and  in  X674  it  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  French  crown  and  long  remained  a 
dependency  of  Martinique.  After  unsuccessful  attempts  in  1666, 
1691  and  1703,  the  British  captured  the  island  in  1759,  and 
held  it  for  four  years.  Guadeloupe  was  finally  separated  from 
Martinique  in  1775,  but  it  remained  under  the  governor  of  the 
French  Windward  Islands.  In  1 782  Rodney  defeated  the  French 
fleet  near  the  island,  and  the  British  again  obtained  possession 
in  April  1794,  but  in  the  following  stunmcr  they  were  driven  out 
by  Victor  Hugues  with  the  assistance  of  the  slaves  whom  he  had 
liberated  for  the  purpose.  In  1803  Bonaparte,  then  first  consul, 
sent  an  expedition  to  the  island  in  order  to  re-establish  slavery, 
but,  after  a  heroic  defence,  many  of  the  negroes  preferred  suicide 
to  submission.  During  the  Hundred  Days  in  x8io,  the  British 
once  more  occupied  the  island,  but,  in  spite  of  its  cession  to 
Sweden  by  the  treaty  of  18x3  and  a  French  invasion  in  1814, 
they  did  not  withdraw  till  x8x6.  Between  1816  and  1835  the 
code  of  laws  pecxUiar  to  the  island  was  introduced.  Municipal 
institutions  were  established  in  1837;  and  slavery  was  finally 
abolished  in  X848.  

OUADET,  MAROUBRITB  tUE  (i 758-1 794),  French  Revolu- 
tionist, was  bom  at  St  £milion  near  Bordeaux  on  the  30th 
of  July  X758.  When  the  Revolution  broke  out  he  had  already 
gained  a  reputation  as  a  brilliant  advocate  at  Bordeaux.  In 
1790  he  was  made  administrator  of  the  Gironde  and  in  X791 
president  of  the  criminal  tribunaL  In  this  year  he  was  elected 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly  as  one  of  the  brilliant  group  of 
deputies  known  subsequently  as  Girondins  or  Girondists.  As 
a  supporter  of  the  constitution  of  X79X  he  joined  the  Jacobin 
club,  and  here  and  in  the  Assembly  became  an  eloquent  advocate 
of  all  the  measures  directed  against  real  or  supposed  traitors  to 
the  constitution.  He  bitterly  attacked  the  ministers  of  Louis 
XVI.,  and  was  largely  instmmental  in  forcing  the  king  to  accept 
the  Girondist  ministry  of  the  15th  of  March  1792.    He  was 


646 


GUADIANA— GUAIACUM 


an  ardent  advocate  of  the  policy  of  forcing  Louis  XVI.  into 
harmony  with  the  Revolution;  moved  (May  3)  for  the  diamitsal 
of  the  king's  non-juring  confessor,  for  the  banishment  o|  all 
non-juring  priests  (May  16),  for  the  dist>andment  of  the  royal 
guard  (May  30),  and  the  formation  in  Paris  of  a  camp  otfidMs 
(June  4).  He  remained  a  royalist,  however,  and  with  Genaonn6 
and  Veigniaud  even  addressed  a  letter  to  the  king  soliciting  a 
private  interview.  Whatever  negotiations  may  have  resulted, 
however,  were  cut  short  by  the  insurrection  of  the  loth  of 
August.  Guadet,  who  presided  over  the  Assembly  during  part 
of  this  fateful  day,  put  himself  into  vigorous  opposition  to  the 
insurrectionary  Commune  of  Paris,  and  it  was  on  his  motion 
that  on  the  30th  of  August  the  Assembly  voted  its  dissolution — 
a  decision  reversed  on  the  following  day.  In  September  Guadet 
was  returned  by  a  large  majority  as  deputy  to  the  (invention. 
At  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI.  he  voted  for  an  appeal  to  the  people 
and  for  the  death  sentence,  but  with  a  respite  pending  appeal. 
In  March  1793  he  had  several  inferences  with  Danton,  who  was 
anxious  to  bring  about  a  rapprochement  between  the  (}irondists 
and  the  Mountain  during  the  war  in  La  Vendue,  but  he  un- 
conditionally  refused  to  join  hands  with  the  man  whom  he  held 
responsible  for  the  massacres  of  September.  Involved  in  the  fall 
of  the  Girondists,  and  his  arrest  being  decreed  on  the  snd  of 
June  1793,  he  fled  to  Caen,  and  afterwards  hid  in  his  father's 
house  at  St  fimilion.  He  was  discovered  and  taken  to  Bordeaux, 
where,  after  his  identity  had  been  established,  he  was  guillotined 
on  the  17th  of  June  1794. 

See  J.  Guadet,  Les  Girondins  (Paris,  1889);  and  F.  A.  Aulard, 
Les  Orateurs  de  la  Ugidative  ctdeifi  convention  (Paris,  and  ed.,  1906). 

OUADIANA  (anc.  Anas,  Moorish  Wadi  Ana),ai  river  of  Spain 
and  Portugal.  The  Guadiana  was  long  believed  to  rise  in  the 
lowland  known  as  the  Campo  de  Mootid,  where  a  chain  of  small 
lakes,  the  Lagunas  de  Ruidcra  (partly  in  Ciudad  Real,  partly 
in  Albacete),  are  linked  together  by  the  Guadiana  Alto  or  Upper 
Guadiana.  This  stream  flows  north-westward  from  the  last 
lake  and  vam'shes  underground  within  3  m.  of  the  river  Zancara 
or  Giguela.  About  22  m.  S.W.  of  the  point  of  disappearance, 
the  Guadiana  Alto  was  believed  to  re-emerge  in  the  form  of 
several  brge  springs,  which  form  numerous  lakes  near  the 
Zancara  and  are  known  as  the  "  eyes  of  the  Guadiana  "  (los 
ojos  de  Guadiana).  The  stream  which  connects  them  with  the 
Zancara  is  called  the  Guadiana  Bajo  or  Lower  Guadiana.  It  is 
now  known  that  the  Guadiana  ^to  has  no  such  course,  but 
flo?ra  underground  to  the  Zancara  itself,  which  is  the  true 
"  Upper  Guadiana."  The  Zancara  rises  near  the  source  of  the 
J6car,  in  the  east  of  the  tableland  of  La  Mancha;  thence  it 
flows  westward,  assuming  the  name  of  Guadiana  near  Ciudad 
Real,  and  reaching  the  Portuguese  frontier  6  m.  S.W.  of  Badajoz. 
In  piercing  the  Sierra  Morena  it  forms  a  series  of  foaming  rapids, 
and  only  begins  to  be  navigable  at  Mertola,  42  m.  from  its  mouth. 
From  the  neighbourhood  of  Badajoz  it  forms  the  boundary 
between  Spain  and  Portugal  as  far  as  a  point  near  Monsaraz, 
where  it  receives  the  small  river  Priega  Mufioz  on  the  left,  and 
passes  into  Portuguese  territo.ry,  with  a  southerly  direction. 
At  Pomarfto  it  again  becomes  a  frontier  stream  and  forms  a 
broad  estuary  25  m.  long.  It  enters  the  Gulf  of  C^diz  between 
the  Portuguese  town  of  Villa  Real  de  Santo  Antonio  and  the 
Spanish  Ayamonte,  after  a  total  course  of  510  m.  Its  mouth 
is  divided  by  sandbanks  into  many  channels.  The  Ciuadiana 
drains  an  area  of  31,940  sq.  m.  Its  principal  tributaries  are 
the  Zujar,  Jabal6n,  Matacbel  and  Anlila  from  the  left;  the 
Bullaque,  Ruecas,  Botoa,  Degebe  and  Cobres  from  the  right. 

The  GUADUNA  Menor  (or  CuadianamenoTf  i.e.  "Lesser 
Guadiana")  rises  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  receives  two  large 
tributaries,  the  Fardes  from  the  right  and  Barbata  from  the  left, 
and  enters  the  Guadalquivir  near  Ubeda,  after  a  course  of  95  m. 

GUADIZ,  a  dty  of  southern  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Granada; 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Guadix,  a  subtributary  of  the 
Guadiana  Menor,  and  on  the  Madrid- Valdepef^as-Almeria  railway. 
Pop.  (1900)  1 2,652.  Guadix  occupies  part  of  an  elevated  plateau 
among  the  northern  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  ancient  walls,  and  was  formerly  dominated  by  a 


Moorish  castle,  now  in  mins.  It  is  an  episcopal  see  of  great 
antiquity,  but  its  cathedral,  built  in  the  i8th  century  on  the  ste 
of  a  mosque,  possesses  little  architectural  meriL  The  dty  «u 
once  famous  for  its  cutlery;  but  its  modem  manufactures 
(chiefly  earthenware,  hempen  goods,  and  hats)  are  inconsiderabie. 
It  has  some  trade  in  wool,  cotton,  flax,  com  and  liqucius.  The 
warm  mineral  springs  of  Graena,  mudi  frequented  during  Ike 
summer,  are  6  m.  W,  Guadix  d  Viejo,  5  m.  N.W.,  was  the 
Roman  Acci,  and,  according  to  tradition,  the  seat  of  the  first 
Iberian  bishopric,  in  the  2nd  century.  After  7 1 1  it  rose  to  some 
importance  as  a  Moorish  fortress  and  trading  station,  and  was 
renamed  Wad  Ash, "  Water  of  Life."  It  was  surrendered  without 
a  siege  to  the  Spaniards,  under  Ferdinand  and  Isahdla,  in  1489. 

GUADUAS*  a  town  of  the  department  of  Condinamarca, 
(Colombia,  53  m.  N.W.of  Bogotionthe  old  road  between  that 
dty  and  the  Magdalena  river  port  of  Honda.  Pop.  (1900^ 
estimate)  9000,  cbiefly  Indians  or  of  mixed  blood.  It  stands 
in  a  narrow  and  picturesque  valley  formed,  by  spurs  of  the 
Eastern  Cordillera,  and  on  a  small  stream  bearing  the  same  naxDS, 
which  is  that  of  the  South  American  bamboo  (piadmas),  found 
in  great  abundance  along  its  banks.  Sugar-cane  and  coffee  are 
cultivated  in  the  vfdnity,  and  fruits  of  various  kinds  are  prodaced 
in  great  abundance.  The  devation  of  the  town  is  3353  fL  above 
the  sea,  and  it  has  a  remarkably  uniform  temperature  thiougboin 
the  whole  year.  Guaduas  has  a  pretty  church  fadng  upm  iu 
plata,  and  an  old  monastery  now  used  for  secular  purposes. 
The  importance  of  the  town  sprang  from  its  position  on  the  old 
camino  real  between  Bogoti  and  Honda,  an  importance  that  has 
passed  away  with  the  completion  of  the  railway  from  Girardot 
to  the  Bogoti  plateau.    Guaduas  was  founded  in  x  6 14. 

GUAIACUM,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  Zyfs- 
phyttaceae.  The  guaiacum  or  lignum^vitae  tree  (Ger.  Gtugak- 
banm,  FranMoset^um,  PochenhobbaMm;  Ft.  Ccfoc,  GsZoc), 
G.  officinale^  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies  and  the  nonh  coast 
of  South  America,  where  it  attains  a  heic^t  of  20  to  30  ft.  Its 
branches  are  numerous,  flexuous  and  knotted;  the  leaves 
oppoute  and  pinnate,  with  caducous  (falling  early)  stipules, 
and  entire,  glabrous,  obovate  or  oval  leaflets,  arranged  in  2  or, 
more  rardy,  3  pairs;  the  flowers  are  in  axillary  dusters  (cymes), 
and  have  5  oval  pubescent  sepals,  5  distinct  pale-blue  petals 
three  times  the  length  of  the  sepals,  xo  stamens,  and  a  2'CeDed 
superior  ovary.  The  fruit  is  about  f  in.  long,  with  a  leatheqr 
pericarp,  and  o>ntains  in  each  of  its  two  odk  a  single  seed 
(see  fig.).  G.  sanctum  grows  in  the  Bahamas  and  Cuba,  and  at 
Key  West  in  Florida.  It  is  distinguished  from  C.  cjficimale  by 
its  smaller  and  narrow  leaflets,  which  are  in  4  to  5  pairs,  by  its 
shorter  and  glabrous  sepals,  and  s-celled  and  s-winged  fruit. 
C.  arboreum,  the  guaiacum  tree  of  (Colombia,  is  found  in  the  valley 
of  the  Magdalena  up  to  altitudes  800  metres  (2625  ft.)  above 
sea-levcl,  and  reaches  considerable  dimensons.  Its  wood  is  of  a 
yellow  colour  merging  into  green,  and  has  an  almost  pulvenlent 
fracture;  the  flowers  are  yellow  and  conqucoous;  and  the  fruit 
is  dry  and  4-winged. 

The  lignum  vitae  of  commerce,  so  named  on  aooount  of  its  U^ 
repute  as  a  medidnal  agent  in  past  times,  when  abo  it  was  kneva 
as  lignum  sanctum  and  lignum  Indicum,  lignum  gueycmtmmt  or 
simply  guayacan,  is  procured  from  G.  officinale,  and  in  smsBer 
amount  from  G.  sanctum.  It  Is  exported  in  large  logs  ot  blocks, 
generally  divested  of  bark,  and  presents  in  transverse  sectka 
very  slightly  marked  concentric  lings  of  growth,  and  scarce^ 
any  traces  of  pith;  with  the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass  the 
medullary  rays  are  seen  to  be  equidistant  and  very  nnxneroiK. 
The  outer  wood,  the  sapwood  or  alburnum,  is  of  a  pale  yeUo« 
hue,  and  devoid  of  resin;  the  inner,  the  heartwood  or  duramcD, 
which  is  by  far  the  larger  proportion,  is  of  a  dark  greenish-broini, 
contains  in  its  pores  26%  of  resin,  and  has  a  q)edfic  gravity  of 
^'SSSt  uid  therdore  sinks  In  water  on  which  the  albwnna 
floats.  Owing  to  the  diagonal  and  oblique  arrangement  of  the 
successive  layers  of  its  fibres,  the  wood  cannot  be  split;  and  oa 
account  of  its  hardness,  density  and  durability  it  is  much  valued 
for  the  manufacture  of  ships'  pulleys,  rulen,  akittfe-hsU^ 
mallets  and  other  articles. 


GUALDO  TADINO— GUALEGUAYCHU 


CUps  or  tumiflgt  of  the  beftrtwood  of  G.  aficinait  {juaiaci 
litKUm)  are  employed  in  the  picpAntion  oE  the  liquor  taruu 
ttmpcntuj  amaUroiut  of  Briliah  pbamucy-  They  nuy  be 
recagniicd  by  bcinc  either  yellow  ol  Eneniih-brewn  to  cdour. 
ud  by  lurninf  bluiib-green  when  IrellHl  with  oilflc  (dd.  01 
■hen  healed  *itta  comoive  iublin»le,  ud  (reea  wiifa  lolulioD 


•o4itary  pendulocn 


ol  chloride  at  lime.  Tfaey  ire  ocoiioully  adultenled  with 
boxwood  ihiviiip.  Lignum  vilae  i>  imparted  chieBy  (nuD 
Si  DomingD,  the  Bihunu  uid  Junaic*. 

The  bark  wtm  formerly  Died  In  medidnc:  It  oniciine  much 
calaum  oivbte,  and  ywldi  nn  inciaention  J3%olitli.  Cualuum 
Rfin,  the  fwiitfi  nsina  of  pharmacopoeiai.  ii  obtained  fram  the 

beatini  tnlleta  about  ]  ft.  in  Itniih.  boied  u  petnil  of  the  oulBow 
of  Ibe  iwn;  v  by  bbiLiaB  chipe  and  raiplafti  in  water  to  bhicb 
all  b»  b«  added  a  taiK  the  lempeiuure  ol  ebuUitioii.  [I 
occnn  in  nuaded  or  oval  lean,  eommonly  coated  witb  a  (nviih- 
yndiiit,  md  aapfoeed  to  be  the  produce  oC  C.  mchun.  or  in  laife 

luiea  at  ej*  C;  !•  brittle,  and  ha>  a  vftteoiu  (tactun.  and  a  tli|;lit1y 
tiai— wA-  odoQT,  idCRaied  by  pulveriiation  and  by  beat;  and  la  at 
bat  taatiteia  wbca  chewed,  bat  producei  Kilieeqiienlly  a  teiue  of 
heat  in  the  tbioat.  It  ii  reidilyaaluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  ehlorolomi. 
creoaote,  ott  of  cIovtb  and  loiuiiDia  of  niuiic  alkallea:  and  ita 
■alution  noia  >  Uiw  colour  with  f  lulen.  raw  poUto  parinti  and  the 
mntaoCCone-ndiih,  caiTDi  and  viriouiolber  planta.  ThealcohoUc 


{70%).  (Mia;  «nj,  wl 
fmaartOt  tuid.    Uke  all 


in  Spain  bad  alnady  be 

Tlwaiat  Paynel'i  tniul 
p.9.,ed.of  IM».of  Ul         -"H  I 

wood:  "  There  loloveth  fro  li.  wb 
wrc  yet  kiio«e  not.  for  wlut  pourf 
Kanbury  (yhanwurrapiio.  p.  95 
the  Lttilt*  Plarmaaipmi  in  whic 
i>  that  o(  I&T7.  The  ditociion  of  ib 


'I'V^.';. 


^^,". 


decay  Ihejv  ■■•  (Paj 


be  lowett  pcHaible  diet,  and,  after  libenl  nirEation,  waa 
aday  todrink  a  milk-warai  dciaictionaflhewaid.   The 


{Otitnatitml  <m  Ml  £/c«l  >/  Varum  ArMit  ff  Ikt  llnl.  Mid.  B 
Ikt  Curt  ft  Lmti  Vtmtrte,  c.,  i.,  and  *d..  iSo?!  nyar^"  I  never 


medjciiully  in  doiei  of  yi^  fraina.    tti 
lhJaraiiiDnia\rf^h^!^"  -"-'"""' 

of  rheumatic  oriiin.   Powdered  ^u — — 

GuakacuA  Emn  difiera  ohanaacotDfically  from  other  reilna  in 
beinf  leia  irritant,  aa  that  It  ii  abaorbed  fma  the  bowel  and  eitrta 
nnaie  itiaiiilani  actloaa.  notably  apoB  the  >Un  and  Iddneya.    It 
I  h.-  dMMly.  aun  k  containa  m  voUtUe  1^ 
xMh  in  ncate  and  chtoidc  aoic  Ihnu,  the 
Sir  Lwider  Bninloo.  beii«  noie  effective 

aperient  action,  wfaicb  it  enrtakiamarkedly 

than  other  member!  of  ita  claat,  imden  it  ueful  in  the  trealmeot 
of  chronic  coutipadon.  Sir  Alfred  Ganod  haa  nired  the  ctaima  ol 
thia  drill  Id  tbc  tnatneot  of  chronic  fouL  Both  in  tbii  diaeaae  and 
fai  other  fdma  ol  chronic  arthritia  guaJacnm  may  be  given  in  com- 
UnatioBvIlh  iodidca,  which  it  often  enablea  the  patient  to  toleiate. 
Cualacum  la  not  now  wed  in  the  tttument  of  anihilia. 

The  tincture  of  fualaciim  la  univenally  need  aa  a  teat  for  the 
pmenceof  blood,  or  mtberof  haemoflobui,  theredcolauriiumi" 
ol  the  blood,  in  urine  or  other  anntioni.  Thia  teat  waa  Gnt  _ 
gnted  by  Dr  John  Dayof  Ceeloni,  Aiutnlia.  A  ria^  draf  of  th 
rincEure  abouid  be  added  lih  iay.  an  inch  of  urine  in  a  teft.tube- 
he  retin  ii  at  once  precipitated.  yieUini  a  milky  ftuid.  If  "  oionic 
[her  " — an  etbercafiotution  of  hydrogen  penuide — be  now  poured 
cntly  into  the  tett-Iubc.  a  deep  blue  colomtioR  it  produced  along 


of*itEi 


r,w 


lation  occurring  only  if  haemoglobui  be  prraent 


the  W.),  a 


anUJW  TADIHO  (anc.  Tadiiaim,  i  m. 
and  epiacopal  aee  of  Umbria,  Italy,  175;  ft.  above  aea-JeveL,  id 
the  pmviiice  of  Ferupa,  12  m.  N.of  Folignoby  ralL   Pop.  (igoi), 
town,  4440;  commune,  io,7j£.    The  auSi  Tadiao  diilinguiihea 

S.W.  of  FoUgno.  The  catbcdnl  hal  a  good  nBC-window  and 
poaaeiaet,  UIu  Icveial  oi  the  other  churtfaa,  istfa-cenLuiy 
painlingi  by  Umbrian  arliitti  espcdatly  WDtki  by  NiccolA  Alunno. 
The  town  a  itill  wtTounded  by  walli.  The  andent  Tadiaum 
lay  1  m.  to  Ibe  W.  of  the  modem  town.  It  i>  ncDtianed  in  the 
EugubiiK  tableu  («e«  Icuyiuh}  aa  a  hoitile  dty  acaiut  which 
impieattons  an  directed.  In  iia  neighbourhood  Nanea  defeated 
and  ikw  Totiia  in  ss>.  No  niina  are  now  viaible,  though  they 
Mcm  to  bivo  been  eitant  in  Ibe  17th  century.  The  new  town 
MCQU 10  have  been  founded  in  UJT.  It  vaaat  fiiat  independent, 
but  paaied  under  Perugia  in  1391.  aAd  laler  becune  dependent 
oa  the  duchy  of  Spoleio. 

ODALEOUAT.  a  flouiiibing  town  ud  river  port  of  tfae  praviDM 
of  Entre  Rios,  Aigenline  Republic,  on  tbe  Gualeguay  river, 
Jim.  above  itaconSuence  with  the  Ibicuy  bmncholthe  Panai, 
and  about  110  m.  N.N.W.  of  Bueno*  Alri^  Pop.  (1895)  7B10. 
Tbe  Cualcguay  ia  Ibe  laigeil  of  the  Entre  Riot  riven,  tiavening 
altnosi  tbe  whole  lengtb  of  tbe  province  ftom  N.  to  S.,  but  it  i> 
of  but  alight  Ktvice  in  the  tnuuporution  ol  produce  eictpt  Ibe 
lew  milei  bdow  Guileguiy,  wboae  port,  known  ai  Puerto  Ruia, 
ii  7  m.  lowei  down  itrtim.  A  iteam  tramway  coniwcti  tbe 
town  and  port,  and  ■  bruch  line  connects  with  Entie  Rko 
lailwayi  at  tbe  Hatioa  of  Tala.  The  prindpal  industry  in  thia 
region  il  that  ol  ilock-raising,  and  there  it  a  large  exportation  of 
calllc,  jerked  becl,  hides,  tallow,  mulion,  wool  and  ibeep-tkins. 
Wood  ud  chamMl  are  also  eipaned  to  Bueno*  Aire*.     Tbe 

ODALEOOATCHC,  ■  pTOSpenui  commcrdal  and  indutrial 
town  and  port  of  the  province  of  Entre  Rios,  Argentine  Republic, 
on  the  Idt  bank  of  tbe  UualegiuydiA  river.  11  n.  above  ita 
conduence  witb  the  Uruguay,  and  tio  m.  N.  of  Buenoa  Airea. 
Pop.  (iSq9,  est.)  14,000.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  1  department 
of  Ibe  lame  name,  the  largest  in  the  province.  A  bu  at  the 
\  of  the  river  preveoti  the  eatnnce  of  larger  vessels  and 


648 


GUALO— GUAN 


compels  the  transfer  of  cargoes  to  and  from  lighters.  The  town 
is  surrounded  by  a  rich  grazing  country,  and  exports  cattle, 
jerked  beef,  mutton,  hides,  pelts,  tallow,  wool  and  various 
by-products.  A  branch  line  running  N.  connects  with  the  Entre 
Rios  railways  at  Basavilbaso.     Tlie    town  was  founded  in 

1783. 
OUALO,  CARDINAL  (fl.  12x6),  was  sent  to  England  by  Pope 

Innocent  III.  in  X2x6.  He  supported  John  with  all  the  wei^t 
of  papal  authority.  After  John's  death  he  crowned  the  infant 
Henry  III.  and  played  an  active  part  in  organizing  resistance 
to  the  rebels  led  by  Louis  of  France,  afterwards  king  Louis  VIII. 
As  representing  the  pope,  the  suzerain  of  Henry,  he  claimed  the 
regency  and  actually  divided  the  chief  power  with  William 
Marshal,  earl  of  Pembroke.  He  proclaimed  a  crusade  against 
Louis  and  the  French,  and,  after  the  peace  of  Lambeth,  he  forced 
Louis  to  make  a  public  and  humiliating  profession  of  penitence 
(12 1 7).  He  punished  the  rebellious  clergy  severely,  and  ruled 
the  church  with  an  absolute  hand  till  his  departure  from  England 
in  1 2 18.  Gualo's  character  has  been  severely  criticized  by  English 
writers;  but  his  duef  offence  seems  to  have  been  that  of  repre- 
senting unpopular  papal  claims. 

GUAM  (Span.  Cuajan;  Guakan^  in  the  native  Chamorro), 
the  largest  and  most  populous  of  the  Ladrone  or  Mariana  Islands, 
in  the  North  Pacific,  in  if  26'  N.  kt.  and  144**  39'  £.  long., 
about  1833  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Hong  Kong,  and  about  1450  m.  E. 
of  Manila.  Pop.  ( 1 908)  about  1 1 ,36o,of  whom  363  were  foreigners, 
140  being  members  of  the  U.S.  naval  force.  Guam  extends  about 
30  m.  from  N.N.E.  to  S.S.W.,  has  an  average  width  of  about 
6|  m.,  and  has  an  area  of  207  sq.  m.  The  N.  portion  is  a  plateau 
from  300  to  600  fl.  above  the  sea,  lowest  in  the  interior  and 
highest  along  the  E.  and  W.  coast,  where  it  terminates  abruptly 
in  bluffs  and  headlands;  Ml  Santa  Rosa,  toward  the  N. 
extremity,  has  an  elevation  of  840  ft.  A  range  of  hills  from 
700  to  nearly  X300  ft.  in  height  traverses  the  S.  portion  from 
N.  to  S.  a  liltle  W.  of  the  middle — Mt  JumuUong  Mangloc,  the 
highest  peak,  has  an  elevation  of  1 274  ft.  Between  the  foot  of  the 
steep  W.  slope  of  these  hills  and  the  sea  is  a  belt  of  rolling 
lowlands  and  to  the  £.  the  surface  is  broken  by  the  valleys  of 
five  rivers  with  a  number  of  tributaries,  has  a  general  slope 
toward  the  sea,  and  terminates  in  a  coast-line  of  bluffs.  Apra 
(formerly  San  Luis  d'Apra)  on  the  middle  W.  coast  is  the  only  good 
harbour;  it  is  about  3!  m.  across,  has  a  depth  of  4-27  fathoms, 
and  is  divided  into  an  inner  and  an  outer  harbour  by  a  peninsula 
and  an  island.  It  serves  as  a  naval  station  and  as  a  port  of  transit 
between  America  and  the  Philippines,  at  which  army  transports 
call  monthly.  Deer,  wild  hog,  duck,  curlew,  snipe  and  pigeon 
are  abundant  game,  and  several  varieties  of  fish  are  caughL 
Some  of  the  highest  points  of  the  island  are  nearly  bare  of  vegeta- 
tion, and  the  more  elevated  plateau  surface  is  covered  with 
sword  grass,  but  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  Iowcf  portions  of  the 
plateaus  there  is  valuable  timber.  The  lowlands  have  a  rich 
soil;  in  lower  parts  of  the  highlands  raised  coralliferous  limestone 
wilh  a  light  covering  of  soil  appears,  and  in  the  higher  parts  the 
soil  is  entirely  of  clay  and  sUt.  Tlie  climate  is  agreeable  and 
healthy.  From  December  to  June  the  N.E.  trade  winds  prevail 
and  the  rainfall  is  Telatively  light ;  during  the  other  six  months 
the  monsoon  blows  and  produces  the  rainy  season.  Destructive 
typhoons  and  earthquakes  sometimes  visit  Guam.  The  island 
is  thought  to  possess  little  if  any  mineral  wealth,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  coaL  Only  a  small  part  of  Guam  is  under 
cultivation,  and  most  of  this  lies  along  the  S.W.  coast,  its  chief 
products  being  cocoanuts,  rice,  sugar,  coffee  and  cacao.  A 
United  States  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  in  Guam  (at 
Agafia)  was  provided  for  in  1908.' 

The  inhabitants  are  of  the  Chamorro  (Indonesian)  stock, 
strongjiy  intermixed  wiih  Philippine  Tagals  and  Spaniards; 
their  speech  is  a  dialect  oi  Malay,  corrupted  by  Tagal  and 
Spanish.  There  are  very  few  fidl-blood  Chamorros.  The 
aboriginal  native  was  of  a  very  dark  mahogany  or  chocolate 
colour.  A  majority  of  the  total  number  of  natives  live  ki  Agafia. 
The  natives  are  nearly  all  farmers,  and  most  of  them  are  poor,  but 
their  condition  has  been  improved  under  American  rule.    Public 


Bchoob  have  been  established;  in  1908  the  enrolment  was  170a 
On  the  island  there  is  a  small  colony  of  lepers,  segregated  only 
after  American  occupation.  Gangrosa  is  a  disease  said  to  be 
peculiar  to  Guam  and  the  neighbouring  islands;  it  is  due  to 
a  specific  bacillus  and  usually  destroys  the  nasal  septum.  The 
victims  of  this  disease  also  are  segregated.  There  isa  good  general 
hospital 

Agafia  (or  San  Ignadb  de  Agafia)  is  the  cajMlal  and  principal 
town;  under  the  Spanish  regime  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
Ladrones.  It  is  about  5  m.  N.E.  of  Piti,  the  landing-place  of 
Apra  harbour  and  port  of  entry,  with  which  it  b  connected  by 
an  excellent  road.  Agafia  has  paved  streets  and  sewer  and  water 
systems.  Other  villages,  all  small,  are  Asan,  PIti,  Sumay, 
Umata,  Merizo  and  Inarajan.  Guam  is  governed  by  a  **  navai 
governor,"  an  officer  of  the  U.S.  luivy  who  is  commandant  of 
the  naval  station.  The  island  is  divided  into  four  administrati\'e 
districts,  each  with  an  executive  head  called  a  gobemadornSo 
(commissioner),  and  there  are  a  court  of  appeak,  a  court  of  fint 
instance  and  courts  of  justices  of  the  peace.  Peonage  was 
abolished  in  the  island  by  the  United  States  in  February  190a 
Telegraphic  communication  wilh  the  Caroline  Islands  was 
established  in  1905;  in  1908  there  were  four  cables  ending  at 
the  relay  station  at  Sumay  on  the  Shore  of  Apra  harbour. 

Guam  was  discovered  by  Magellan  in  1521,  was  occupied 

by  Spain  in  x688,  was  captured  by  the  United  States  cruiser 

"  Charleston  "  in  June  1899,  and  was  ceded  to  the  United  Stales 

by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  on  Uie  loth  of  December  1898. 

See  A  List  <>/  Books  (with  References  to  Periodicals)  on  Samoa  and 
Guam  (ipoi ;  issued  by  the  Library  of  Congress) ;  L.  M.  Cox,  **  The 
Island  of  Guam."  in  BuUetin  of  ike  Amertcan  Ceogra^ueal  Societv, 
vol.  36  (New  Yoric,  1904);  Gen.  Joseph  Wheeler,  Report  m  m 
Island  of  Guantt  June  1900  (War  Department,  Document  No.  123): 
F.  W.  Christiam  Tlu  CaroUne  Islands  f  London.  1899):  an  accottnt 
of  the  flora  of  Guam  by  W.  E.  Safford  in  the  publications  of  the 
National  Herbarium  (Smithsonian  Institution):  and  the  ceporu 
of  the  naval  governor. 

GUAN,  a  word  apparently  first  introduced  into  the  ornitho- 
logist's vocabulary  about  1743  by  Edwards,^  who  said  that  a 
bird  he  figured  (Nat.  Hist.  Uncommon  Birds,  pL  xiii.)  was 
"  so  called  in  the  West  Indies,"  and  the  name  has  hence  been 
generally  applied  to  all  the  members  of  the  subfamily  Pemdopinae, 
which  are  distinguished  from  the  kindred  subfamQy  Cracinae 
or  curassows  by  the  broad  postacetabular  area  of  the  pdvis 
as  pointed  out  by  Huxley  (Proc.  ZoU.  Society^  1868,  p.  297) 
as  well  as  by  their  maxilla  being  wider  than  it  b  high,  with  its 
culmen  depressed,  the  crown  feathered,  and  the  nostrils  bare— 
the  last  two  characters  separating  the  Pendopinae  from  the 
Oreophasinae^  which  form  the  third  subfamily  of  the  Cractdae*  a 
family  belonging  to  that  taxonomer's  division  Peristeropoda 
of  the  order  Gallinae. 

The  Pendopinae  have  been  separated  into  seven  genera,  of 
which  Penelope  and  OrtaliSt  containing  respectively  about 
sixteen  and  nineteen  spedes,are  the  largest,  the  others  numbenos 
from  one  to  three  only.  Into  their  minute  differences  it  would  be 
useless  to  enter:  nearly  all  have  the  throat  bare  of  fe^hers,  aod 
from  that  of  many  of  them  hangs  a  wattle;  but  one  fonn, 
Ckamaepetes,  has  neither  of  these  features,  and  Slepulaem:, 
thou^  watded,  has  the  throat  clothed.  With  few  exceptioss 
the  guans  are  confined  to  the  South-American  continent;  ooe 
species  of  Penelope  is  however  found  in  Mexico  (e.g.  at  Mazatlac). 
Pipile  cumanensis  inhabits  Trinidad  as  well  as  the  maiclacd. 
whhe  three  species  of  Ortalis  occur  in  Mexico  or  Texas,  and  one. 
which  is  also  common.to  Venezuela,  in  Tobago.  like  curassovs, 
guans  are  in  great  measure  of  arboreal  habit.    Tb^  also  resdilT 

*  Edwards  also  gives  "  auan  "  a«  an  alternative  spelling,  aod  ti  is 
may  be  nearer  the  original  lormt  since  we  find  Dampier  in  1676  vniirs 
(  Vi9v.  ti.  pt.  a,  p.  66)  of  what  was  doubtless  an  allied  if  not  the  sarx 
bird  as  the  '*  quam."  The  spedcs  represented  by  Edwanis  <!«£ 
not  seem  to  have  been  identified. 

*  See  the  excellent  Synopsis  by  Sdater  and  Salvin  in  the  A^ 
ceedings  trf  ike  Zoohneal  Society  for  1670  (pp.  504>54^,  whik  fuit!>er 
information  on  the  Cracinae  was  given  byScUtcr  in  the  rroasaditns 
of  the  same  society  (ix.  ppc  373-288.  pis.  xI.-luL).  Someadditioai 
havs  aiooe  been  made  to  the  -knowledge  of  the  famBy,  but  ooie  a 

I  very  great  Importance.  ' 


GUANABACOA— GUANAJUATO 


649 


become  tame,  but  all  attempts  to  domesticate  them  in  the  full 
sense  of  the  word  have  wholly  failed,  and  the  cases  in  which  they 
have  even  been  induced  to  breed  and  the  young  have  been 
reared  in  confinement  are  very  few.  Yet  it  would  seem  that 
guans  and  curassows  will  interbreed  with  poultry  {Ibis,  1866, 
p.  34;  Bull.  Soc.  Imp.  d*Acclimatation,  1868,  p.  559;  1869, 
p.  357),  and  what  is  more  extraordinary  is  that  in  Texas  the 
hybrids  between  thechiacalacca  {Ortalis  vetula)  and  the  domestic 
fowl  are  asserted  to  be  far  superior  to  ordinary  game-cocks  for 
fighting  purposes.  (A.  N.) 

OUANABAOOA  (an  Indian  name  meaning  "site  of  the 
waters  "),  a  town  of  Cuba,  in  Havana  province,  about  6  m.  E. 
of  Havana.  Pop.  (1907)  14,368.  Guanabacoa  is  served  by  railway 
to  Havana,  wiUi  which  it  is  connected  by  the  Regla  ferry  across 
the  bay.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  amid  woods,  on  high  hills 
which  furnish  a  fine  view.  There  are  medicinal  springs  in  the 
town,  and  deposits  of  liquid  bitumen  in  the  neighbouring  hills. 
The  town  is  essentially  a  residence  suburb  of  the  capital,  and  has 
some  rather  pretty  streets  and  squares  and  some  old  and  interest- 
ing diuiches  (including  Nuestra  Sefiora  de  la  Asuncion,  X714- 
1721).  Just  outside  the  city  is  the  church  of  Potosi  with  a 
famous  "wonder-working"  shrine  and  image.  An  Indian 
pueblo  of  the  same  name  existed  here  before  1555,  and  a  church 
was  established  in  1576.  Already  at  the  end  of  the  X7th  century 
Guanabacoa  was  the  fashionable  summer  residence  of  Havana. 
It  enjoyed  its  greatest  popularity  in  this  respect  from  the  end 
of  the  18th  to  the  middle  of  the  Z9th  century.  It  was  created 
a  villa  with  an  ayuntamiento  (city  coimcil)  in  1743.  In  176a  its 
fort,  the  Little  Monro,  on  the  N.  shore  near  Gojimar  (a  bathing 
beach,  where  the  Key  West  cable  now  lands),  was  taken  by  the 
English. 

OUANACO,  sometimes  spelt  Huanaca,  the  kirgcr  of  the  two 
wild  representatives  in  South  America  of  the  camel  tribe;  the 
other  being  the  vicugfia.  The  guanaco  {Lama  huanacus),  which 
stands  nearly  4  ft.  at  the  shoulder,  is  an  elegant  creature,  with 
gracefully  curved  neck,  and  long  slender  legs,  the  hind-pair  of  the 
latter  bearing  two  naked  patches  or  callosities.  The  head  and 
body  are  covered  with  long  soft  hair  of  a  fawn  colour  above  and 

almost  pure  while 
beneath.  Guanaco 
are  found  throughout 
the  southern  half  of 
South  America,  from 
Peru  in  the  north  to 
Cape  Horn  in  the 
south,  but  occur  in 
greatest  abundance 
in  Patagonia.  They 
live  in  herds  usually 
of  from  six  to  thirty, 
although  these  occa- 
sionally contain 
several  hundreds, 
while  solitary  indi- 
viduals are  sometimes 
met.  They  are  ex- 
ceedingly timid,  and 
therefore  wary  and 
difficult  of  approach;  like  many  other  ruminants,  however, 
their  curiosity  soo&etimcs  overcomes  their  timidity,  so  as 
to  bring  them  within  range  of  the  hunter's  ri6e.  Their  cry 
is  peculiar,  being  something  between  the  belling  of  a  deer 
and  the  neigh  of  a  horse.  The  chief  enemies  of  the 
guanaco  are  the  Patagom'an  Indians  and  the  puma,  as  it  forms 
the  principal  food  of  both.  Its  flesh  is  palatable  although 
wanting  in  fat,  while  its  skin  forms  the  chief  clothing  material 
of  the  Patagonians.  Guanaco  are  readily  domesticated,  and  in 
this  state  become  very  bold  and  will  attack  man,  striking  him 
from  behind  with  both  knees.  In  the  wild  state  they  never 
defend  themselves,  and  if  approached  from  different  points, 
according  to  the  Indian  fashion  of  hunting,  get  completely 
bewildered  and  fall  an  easy  prey.    They  take  readily  to  the 


Head  of  Guanaco. 


water,  and  have  been  observed  swimming  from  one  island  to 
another,  while  they  have  been  seen  drinking  salt-water.  They 
have  a  habit  of  depositing  their  droppings  during  successive 
days  on  the  same  spot — a  habit  appreciated  by  the  Peruvian 
Indians,  who  use  those  deposits  for  fuel.  Guanaco  also  have 
favourite  localities  in  which  to  die,  as  appears  from  the  great 
heaps  of  their  bones  found  in  particular  spots. 

OUANAJAY*  a  town  of  western  Cuba,  in  Pinar  del  Rio  province, 
about  36  m.  (by  rail)  S.W.  oi  Havana.  Pop.  (1907)  6400. 
Guanajay  is  served  by  the  W.  branch  of  the  United  railways 
of  Havana,  of  which  it  is  the  W.  terminus.  The  town  lies  among 
hills,  has  an  exceUent  climate,  and  in  colonial  times  was  (like 
Holgufn)  an  acclimatization  station  for  troopis  fresh  from  Spain; 
it  now  has  considerable  repute  as  a  health  resort.  The  surround- 
ing country  is  a  fertile  sugar  and  tobacco  region.  Guanajay 
has  always  been  important  as  a  distributing  point  in  the  commerce 
of  the  western  end  of  the  island.  It  was  an  ancient  pueblo, 
of  conaderable  size  and  importance  as  eariy  as  the  end  of  the 
x8th  century. 

OUAKAJUATO,  or  Guamaxuato,  an  inland  state  of  Mexico, 
bounded  N.  by  Zacatecas  and  San  Luis  Potosi,  £.  by  Quer6taro, 
S.  by  Michoacan  and  W.  by  Jalisco.  Area,  11,370  sq.  m.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  densely  populated  states  of  the  republic; 
pop.  (189s)  if047iSi7;  (1900)  z,o6i,734'  The  state  lies 
wholly  within  the  limits  of  the  great  central  plateau  of  Mexico, 
and  has  an  average  elevation  of  about  6000  ft.  The  surface 
of  its  northern  half  is  broken  by  the  Sierra  Gorda  and  Sierra 
de  Guanajuato,  but  its  southern  half  is  covered  by  fertile  plains 
Urgely  devoted  to  agriculture.  It  is  drained  by  the  Rio  Grande 
de  Lerma  and  its  tributaries,  which  in  places  flow  through  deeply 
eroded  valleys.  The  climate  is  semi-tropical  and  healthy, 
and  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  to  Insure  good  results  in  agriculture 
and  stock-raising.  In  the  warm  valleys  sugar-cane  is  grown, 
and  at  higher  elevations  Indian  com,  beans,  barley  and  wheat. 
The  southern  plains  are  largely  devoted  to  stock-raising.  Guana- 
juato has  suffered  much  from  the  destruction  of  its  forests, 
but  there  remain  some  small  areas  on  the  higher  elevations  of 
the  north.  The  principal  industry  of  the  state  is  mining,  the 
mineral  wealth  of  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  north  being 
enormous.  Among  its  mineral  products  are  silver,  gold,  tin, 
lead,  mercury,  copper  and  opals.  Silver  has  been  extracted 
since  the  early  days  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  over  $800,000,000 
having  been  taken  from  the  mines  during  the  subsequent  three 
and  a  half  centuries.  Some  of  the  more  productive  of  these 
lAlnes,  or  groups  of  mines,  are  the  Veta  Madre  (mother  lode), 
the  San  BemaM  lode,  and  the  Rayas  mines  of  Guanajuato,  and 
the  La  Valenciana  mine,  the  output  of  which  is  said  to  have 
been  $226,000,000  between  1766  and  1826.  The  manufacturing 
establishments  include  fiour  mQb,  tanneries  and  manufactories 
of  leather,  cotton  and  wooUen  mills,  distilleries,  foundries  and 
pottenes.  The  Mexican  Central  and  the  Mexican  National 
railway  lines  cross,  the  state  from  N.  to  S.,  and  the  former 
operates  a  short  branch  from  Silao  to  the  state  capital  and 
another  westward  from  Irapuato  to  Guadalajara.  The  capital 
19  Guanajuato,  and  other  important  cities  and  towns  are  Le6n, 
or  Le6n  de  Ua  Aldamas;  "Celaya  (pop.  25,565  in  1900),  an 
important  railway  junction  22  m.  by  rail  W.  from  Quet^taro, 
and  known  for  its  manufactures  of  broadcloth,  saddlery,  soap 
and  sweetmeats;  Irapuato  (18,593  in  1900),  a  railway  junction 
and  commerdal  centre,  21  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Guanajuato;  Silao 
(iS»355)»  ^  railway  junction  and  manufacturing  town  (woollens 
and  cottons),  14  m.  S.W.  of  Guanajuato;  Salamanca  (13,583), 
on  the  Mexican  Central  railway  and  Lerma  river,  25  m.  S.  by  £.  of 
Guanajuato,  with  manufactures  of  cottons  and  porcelain; 
Allende  ( 10,547),  a  commercial  town  30  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Guanajuato, 
with  mineral  springs;  Valle  de  Santiago  (12,660),  50  m.  W.  by  S. 
of  Quer6taro;  Salvatierra  (10,393),  60  m.  S.E.  of  Guanajuato; 
Cortazar  (8633);  La  Luz  (8318),  in  a  rich  mining  district; 
Pinjamo  (8262);  Santa  Cruz  (7239);  San  Francisco  del  Rinc6n 
(10,904),  39  m.  W.  of  Guanajuato  in  a  rich  mining  district; 
and  Acambaro  (8345),  a  prosperous  town  of  the  plain,  76  m. 
S.S.E.  of  Guanaiuato. 


650 


GUANAJUATO— GUANCHES 


GUANAJUATO,  or  Samta  F£  db  GuANAmATO,  a  dty  of  Mexico 
and  capita]  of  the  above  state,  255  m.  (direct)  N.W.  of  the 
Federal  capital,  on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Rio  Grande  de  Lerma 
or  Santiago.  Pop.  (1895)  39,404;  (1900J  41,486.  The  dty  is 
built  in  the  Cafiada  de  Mai^  at  the  junction  of  three  ravines 
about  6500  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  its  narrow,  tortuous  streets 
rise  steeply  as  .they  follow  the  ravines  upward  to  the  mining 
villages  clustered  about  the  opening  of  the  mines  in  the  hillsides. 
Guanajuato  is  sometimes  described  as  a  collection  of  mining 
villages;  but  in  addition  there  is  the  central  dty  with  its  crowded 
winding  streets,  its  substantial  old  Spanish  buildings,  its  fifty 
ore-crushing  mills  and  busy  factories  and  its  bustling  commerdal 
life.  Enclosing  the  city  are  the  steep,  barren  mountain  sides 
honeycombed  with  mines.  The  climate  is  semi-tropical  and  is 
considered  healthy.  The  noteworthy  public  buildings  and 
institutions  are  an  interesting  old  Jesuit  church  with  arches 
of  pink  stone  and  delicate  carving,  eight  monasteries,  the 
government  palace,  a  mint  dating  from  181 2,  a  national  college, 
the  fine  Teatro  Juirez,  and  the  Pantheon,  or  public  cemetery, 
with  catacombs  below.  The  Alh6ndiga  de  Granaditas,  originally 
a  public  granary,  was  used  as  a  fort  during  the  War  of  Independ- 
ence, and  is  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the  first  battle  (1810)  in 
that  long  struggle.  Among  the  manufactures  are  cottons,  prints, 
soaps,  chemicals,  pottery  and  silverware,  but  mining  is  the 
principal  interest  and  occupation  oi  the  population.  The  silver 
mines  of  the  vidnity  were  long  considered  the  richest  in  Mexico, 
the  celebrated  Veta  Madre  (mother  lode)  even  being  described 
as  the  richest  in  the  world;  and  Guanajuato  has  the  largest 
reduction  works  in  Mexico.  The  railway  outlet  for  the  city 
consists  of  a  short  branch  of  the  Mexican  Central,  which  joins 
the  trunk  line  at  Silao.  Guanajuato  was  founded  in  1554.  It 
attained  the  dignity  of  a  dty  in  174 1.  It  was  celebrated  for  its 
vigorous  resistance  to  the  invaders  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
conquest,  and  was  repeatedly  sacked  during  that  war. 

GUANCHES,  GuANcms  or  Guanchos  (native  Guanchinet; 
Gflfan* person,  CAincl -Teneriffe, — "man  of  Teneriflfe,"  cor- 
rupted, according  to  Nufies  de  la  Pefla,  by  Spaniards  into 
Guanchos),  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands. 
Strictly  the  Ouanches  were  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Teneriffe, 
where  they  seem  to  have  preserved  racial  purity  to  the  time  of 
the  Spanish  conquest,  but  the  name  came  to  be  applied  to  the 
indigenous  populations  of  all  the  islands.  The  Guanches,  now 
extinct  as  a  distinct  people,  appear,  from  the  study  of  skulls 
and  bones  discovered,  to  have  resembled  the  Cro-Magnon  race 
of  the  (^atemary  age,  and  no  real  doubt  is  now  entertained  that 
they  were  an  offshoot  of  the  great  race  of  Berbers  which  from 
the  dawn  of  history  has  occupied  northern  Africa  from  Egypt 
to  the  Atlantic.  Pliny  the  Elder,  deriving  his  knowledge  from 
the  accounts  of  Juba,  king  of  Mauretania,  states  that  when 
visited  by  the  Carthaginians  under  Hanno  tJhe  archipelago  was 
found  by  them  to  be  uninhabited,  but  that  they  saw  ruins  of 
great  buildings.  This  would  suggest  that  the  Guanches  were  not 
the  first  inhabitants,  and  from  the  absence  of  any  trace  of 
Mahommedanism  among  the  peoples  found  in  the  archipelago 
by  the  Spaniards  it  would  seem  that  this  extreme  westerly 
migration  of  Berbers  took  place  between  the  time  of  which  Pliny 
wrote  and  the  conquest  of  northern  Africa  by  the  Arabs.  Many 
of  the  Guanches  feU  in  resisting  thr  Spaniards,  many  were  sold 
as  slaves,  and  many  conformed  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  and 
married  Spaniards. 

Such  remains  as  there  are  of  their  language,  a  few  expressions 
and  the  proper  names  of  andent  chieftains  stHl  borne  by  certain 
families,  connect  it  with  the  Berber  dialects.  In  many  of  the 
islands  signs  are  engraved  on  rocks.  Domingo  Vandewalle, 
a  military  governor  of  Las  Palmas,  was  the  first,  in  1753,  to 
investigate  these;  and  it  is  dut  to  the  perseverance  of  D.  Aquilino 
Padran,  a  priest  of  Las  Palmas,  that  anything  about  the  inscrip- 
tion on  the  island  Hierro  has  been  brought  to  light.  In.  1878 
Dr  R.  Verneau  .discovered  in  the  ravines  of  Las  Balos  some 
genuine  Libyan  inscriptions.  Without  exception  the  rock 
inscriptions  have  proved  to  be  Numidic.  In  two^of  the  islands 
(Teneriffe  and  Ck>mera)  the  Guanche  type  has  been  retained  with 


more  purity  than  in  the  others.  No  inscriptions  have  been  found 
in  these  two  islands,  and  therefore  it  would  seem  that  the  true 
Guanches  did  not  know  how  to  write.  In  the  other  islands 
numerous  Semitic  traces  are  found,  and  in  all  of  them  are  the 
rock-signs.  From  these  facts  it  would  seem  that  the  Numidianv 
travelling  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Carthage  and  intermixing 
with  the  dominant  Semitic  race,  landed  in  the  Canary  Islands, 
and  that  it  is  they  who  have  written  the  inscriptions  at  Hierro 
and  Grand  Canary. 

The  political  and  sodal  institutions  of  the  Guanches  varied. 
In  some  islands  hereditary  autocracy  prevailed;  in  others  the 
government  was  dective.    In  Teneriffe  all  the  land  bekmged  to 
the  chiefs  who  leased  it  to  their  subjects.    In  Grand  Canary 
suidde  was  regarded  as  honourable,  and  on  a  chief  inheriting, 
one  of  his  subjects  willingly  honoured  the  occasion  1^  throw- 
ing himself  over  a  predpice.    In  some  islands  polyandry  was 
practised;  in  others  the  natives  were  monogamoui>.    But  eveiy 
where  the  women  appear  to  have  been  rcq)ected,  an  insult 
offered  any  woman  by  an  armed  man  being  a  capital  offence. 
Almost  all  the  Guanches  used  to  wear  garments  of  goat-skins, 
and  others  of  vegetable  fibres,  which  have  been  foiud  in  the 
tombs  of  Grand  Canary.    They  had  a  taste  for  ornaments, 
necklaces  of  wood,  bone  and  sheUs,  worked  in  different  designs. 
Beads  of  baked  earth,  cylindrical  and  of  all  shapes,  with  smooth 
or  polished  surfaces,  mostly  bUck  and  red  in  o^ur,  were  chiefly 
in  use.    They  painted  thdr  bodies;  the  pimladeras,  baked  day 
objects  like  seals  in  shape,  have  been  explained  by  Dr  Verneau 
as  having  been  used  solely  for  painting  the  body  in  various  coknuv 
They  manufactured  rough  pottery,  mostly  without  decorations, 
or  ornamented  by  means  of  the  finger-nail.    The  Guanches' 
weapons  were  those  of  the  ancient  races  of  south  Europe.    The 
polished  battle-axe  was  more  used  in  Grand  Canary,  while  stone 
and  obsidian,  roughly  cut,  were  commoner  in  Teneriffe.    They 
had,  besides,  the  lance,  the  club,  sometimes  studded  with  pebbks, 
and  the  javelin,  and  they  seem  to  have  known  the  shield.    They 
lived  in  natural  or  artifidal  caves  in  their  mountains.    In 
districts  where  cave-dwellings  were  impossible,  they  built  small 
round  houses  and,  according  to  the  Spaniard*,  they  even  practised 
rude  fortification.    In  Palma  the  old  people  were  at  their  own 
wish  left  to  die  alone.    After  bidding  thdr  family  farewell  they 
were  carried  to  the  sepulchral  cave,  nothing  but  a  bowl  of  milk 
being  left  them.    The  Guanches  embalmed  their  dead;  many 
mummies  have  been  found  in  an  extreme  state  of  desiccation, 
each  weighing  not  more  than  6  or  7  lb.    Two  almost  inaccessible 
caves  in  a  vertical  rock  by  the  shore  3  m.  from  Santa  Gnu 
(Teneriffe)  are  said  still  to  contain  bones.  The  process  of  embalm- 
ing seems  to  have  varied.    In  Teneriffe  and  Grand  Canary  the 
corpse  was  «mply  wrapped  up  in  goal  and  sheep  skins,  vhik 
in  other  islands  a  resinous  substance  was  used  to  pecserve  the 
body,  which  was  then  placed  in  a  cave  diffictdt  of  access,  or  baried 
under  a  tumulus.    The  work  of  embalming  was  reserved  for  a 
spedal  class,  women  for  female  corpses,  men  ior  nak.    £o>* 
balming  seems  not  to  have  been  universal,  and  bodies  were  of  tea 
simply  hidden  in  caves  or  buried. 

little  is  kru)wn  of  the  religion  of  the  GuandieSb  They  appear 
to  have  been  a  distinctly  religious  race.  There  was  a  genenl 
bdief  in  a  supreme  being,  called  Acoran,  in  Grand  (Canary, 
Achihuran  in  Teneriffe,  Eraoranhan  in  Hierro,  and  Aboia  io 
Palma.  The  women  of  Hierro  woxshii^ped  a  goddess  called 
Mondba.  According  to  tradition  the  male  and  female  gods  fived 
in  mountains  whence  they  descended  to  hear  the  prayers  of  the 
people.  In  other  ishmds  the  natives  venerated  the  sun,  nooa. 
earth  and  stars.  A  belief  in  an  evil  q>irit  was  generaL  The 
demon  of  Teneriffe  was  called  Guayota  and  lived  in  the  peak  of 
Teyde,  which  was  the  hell  called  Echeyde.  In  times  of  drougbt 
the  Guanches  drove  their  flocks  to  consecrated  grounds,  when 
the  lambs  were  separated  from  their  mothers  in  the  belief  thai 
their  plaintive  bleatings  would  mdt  the  heart  of  the  Great 
Spirit.  During  the  religioua  feasts  all  war  and  even  peoonal 
quatids  were  stayed. 


Bibuographt.^Sw   Berthdot.  Anliquia$  tamanaua  (Buit. 
1839);  Baker  Webb  and  S.  Berthetot,  HiOoin  matanOt  4ts  ta 


GUANIDINE— GUARANIS 

Bma,  An  fanOnpalarU,  iv.  (1874) : 

_ _    _.  .. QmlaumslinirrtaniiilctUJieimliipa 

Mnann  <P»rit.  ISJS);  Chi!  y  NinDJo,  Siliiifui  kisUrrlal.  dtmaU- 
hptni  y  FaUUtuaiai  loj  lHai  Caxariai  [L<i  Palmai.  lB7fr^lSe9)l 

Sac.  Anlirtt,  Parii,  l»li;  "  iii 


tt.  AnlkM. 
labiunli  Art 


inllrc^..  1879:  R.  \ 


■iHn«n 


dc  la   IiliU,  Gnude  CmirH 

jg^^'c^'T.^rsr.tsr'; "'' '  .  ■■-.'," 

Meyer,  Dtt  Inid  Tnurfi  (Leii 

F.  wm  LnidiiB.  Anhiiit  Sbtr  (iw  ^adiiduni^ 
(dnlni^K:  R.  Vlrcbow.  "  Schtdtl  mil  Cinonr 
ncend,"  Ctrtn^Bin  Ar  Btrlintr  A  nikinfi.  1 
C.  Soii.  n<  Utdiitmanm  Jtna  Oandoii,  19 

ftirUum'!  wi'ih'bi£li<ici^by*(HiiIit™Sadcty. 
enAMIDIH^  CNA  or  HN:  C{NH,)^  the  1 
carbonic  idd.  11  occurs  in  beet  juice.  It  wu  finl  prepared 
in  iS6t  by  A.  Slreckcr,  wbo  oxidized  guanine  with  hydrochtoric 
add  and  poUAsium  cbJoTXIe.     It  may  be  obtained  syntbelicaLly 

NHJ-CNiHi-HI'i  by  huiing  ortbo-caiboi 
■(nmDniaIoijo°C.;butbe<tbybc     ' 


It  i)  a  coiouclc 
alcohol^  it  deiii 


It  for 


yanaIe,2CS(NHt)i-IlN:C(NHdrHCNS-l-H,S. 
IS  ciyililliDE  solid,  readily  soluble  in  wsler  and 

,     .  orfaa  carbon  dioxide  rcadQy,  and  [orms  well- 

deSned  crystalline  salts.  Baryta  ■■tec  bydiolyscs  it  to  urea. 
By  direct  union  with  glycocdl  ndd,  it  yields  glycocysmine, 
NH,-(HN}:  C'NH'CHi'COiH.  whilst  wilb  mcthyt  glycocoll 
(larcostne)  it  forms  oealine,  NHr(NH];  C'N(CU,)'CHi'CO,H. 
Many  derivative*  olgusiildine  were  obDincd  by  J.  Thirie  {Ann.. 
1B9I,  >70,  p.  '■j'^JvJ'Juj?-  'M;  Btr-.  iBqj.  16.  pp.  3S9S,  I64S). 
p^uric  ■od!'°i>itioiuanidiBe.  H^(NH^''NH'N£''h*Mb>u'ilU 
iiimiisiiia  Icid  rntjpcnia}  h  obtaioed;  fnaa  wliidi,  by  reducljon 
^>h  d»- riua  •niClwnldiDe.  HNiC(NH>1'NH'NH>,  is  formed. 
dccompoie*  on  bydrolyiu  whb  tbe  Eornuiion 
ide,  NHrC(>>lirNHh  which,  in  its  turn,  bmli 

_,-^  — ,-  . lioii  dioKicle,  aoiDKMiia  and  hydiasioe.    Anido^iuni. 

dine  is  s  body  ot  hydrasoe  type,  for  it  reduces  gold  aitd  sllwr  bIii 
and  yields  a  beuylidine  denvalive.  On  oodation  milli  potaiiiuiii 
permainiiiK.  il  lives  aiodkaibaiidianiidine  nitrate.  KH.-(HN): 
ON7N^;(NHJ'lfHi-lHN0i,  >hicb, when  reduced  by  sulph<irei»d 
hydmim,  u  convened  into  the  correspondinc  hydrasodirarbondL- 
amidine.  NH,'(HNJ:C-NH-NH'C:(NH)'NKi.  By  tbc  aellon  of 
niuYHis  BCki  on  a  nitric  add  solution  of  aniidDEuankdine,d(sioduani> 
dine  niiimie.  NKr(HN):CNtl-Ni'NO.,  is  obuinod.    This  dijio 


hnSI^'iii' 


>dhydrsi 


,H+CN-NHi 
yields  additii 


QUAHO  {(  Spanish  word  from  the  Peruvian  *iuhi>,  dung),. 
the  excremeatofbirdSifound  as  large  deposits  on  certain  islands 
off  the  coast  ol  Peru,  and  on  others  situated  in  the  Southern 
ocean  and  oS  the  wot  coast  of  Africa.  The  large  proportions 
ot  phosphoiut  in  the  form  of  phosphates  and  of  nitrogen  as 
ammonium  oulate  and  urate  renders  it  a  valuable  Ceniliier. 
Bat's  guana,  composed  of  the  excrement  of  bsts,  is  found  in 
certain  caves  In 'New  Ztalaad  and  elsewhere;  it  is  similar  in 
composition  to  Pttuvian  guaao.  (See  MANtJXES  a«)M*jidxinc.) 

GUAHTi.  1  port  on  (he  Caribbean  coast  of  the  stale  of  Ber- 
mfidei.  Veneiuela,  11  m.  N.E.  of  Barcdon*.  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  rail.  It  dates  [rom  the  completion  of  the  railway 
10  the  coal  mines  of  Nancual  and  Capiricuil  neatly  11  D.  beyond 
Bsrcelona,  and  was  created  for  the  shipment  of  coal.  Tbe 
harbour  is  horseshoe-shaped,  with  its  entrance.  1998  It.  wide. 
protected  by  an  island  less  Iban  1  m.  off  ibe  shore.  The  entrsnce 
i*  itty  and  safe,  and  the  harbour  aSoids  secure  anchorage  lor 
lust  veuels,  with  deep  water  sloogiide  the  iron  railway  what!. , 


651 

in  this  part  ol 


These  advantateshsve  made  Guanta  the  best  port  on 
the  coast,  and  the  trade  at  Baicelona  and  that  of  a  large  inund 
district  have  beea  transferred  to  it.  A  prominent  feature  in  its 
tradeii  tbe  sblpDient  of  live  cattle.  Among  it*  eipoits  are  sugar, 
coffee,  cacdn.  tobacco  and  fruit. 

GUAMTiHAlfO.  the  eaitemmoU  traportut  town  of  the  S. 
coast  of  Cuba,  in  the  province  of  Santiago,  about  40  m.  E.  ol 
Santiago.  Pop.  (1407)  ■4,JJ<1.  It  is  situsled  by  the  Guam 
(or  Cuaso)  river,  on  a  little  open  plain  between  the  mountains. 
The  beauiiful.  hmd-locked  harbour,  10  m.  long  from  N.  to  S. 
and  4  m.  wide  in  places,  has  an  outer  and  ao  inoer  basin.  The 
latter  has  a  very  narrow  entrance,  and  >  to  i'5  fathoms  depth 
oi  water.  From  the  port  of  Caimantta  to  the  city  of 
Guantinamo,  ij  m.  N.,  there  is  "  ...... 


if  the 


two  parU  leased  by  Cubs  to  the  United 

States  fo 

a  navd 

stalion.     It  b  the  sbipiang-pon  and  cent 

-e  of 

Tounding 

coffee-,  sugar-  and  time-growing  district. 

Ini 

n  English 

orce  under  Admind  Edwaid  Vemon  an 

d  G< 

nera 

Thomas 

Wentworth  landed  hereto  attack  Santiago 

T 

leyn 

harbour  Cumberland  bay.     Altec  thdr  r 

ifications 

begun.  The  history  of  the  region  ptactioUly  di 
ever,  from  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  wheo  it  gained  prosperity 
from  tbe  MLilemrat  of  French  refugee*  ftom  Santo  Domingo; 
the  toim,  as  such,  dates  only  from  igii.  Almost  all  the  old 
familiei  are  of  French  descent,  and  French  wu  the  language 
locally  most  used  ss  Tate  as  the  last  third  of  the  iQth  century. 
In  recent  years.  especiaUy  since  the  Spanish- American  War  of 
rS^S,  the  region  has  greatly  changed  socially  and  economically. 
Guantinamo  was  once  a  fashionable  summer  residence  resort 
lor  wealthy  Cubans. 

ODABAH  A  (so  called  from  the  Guaranis,  anaboriginalA  mericaD 
tribe),  the  plant  PatMniaCmpami  (or  P.  miUit)  ol  the  natunl 
order  Sapindaaac,  isdigenous  1 0  tbe  north  and  srest  of  BrixiL  II 
has  a  smooth  erect  item;  bugs  pinnate  alterD*le  leaves,  com- 
posed of  3  obtoog-oval  leaflets;  narrow  panicles  of  short-stalked 
Howersjandovtrid  or  pyrifonn  fruit  about  as  large  as  a  grape, 
and  containing  usually  one  seed  only,  which  b  shaped  like  a 
minute  boisc-cbestnut.  What  is  commonly  known  as  guarana, 
guarana  bread  or  Brazilisn  cocoa,  is  prepared  from  the  seeds 
ss  follows.  In  October  and  November,  at  which  time  they 
become  ripe,  the  seeds  are  removed  from  their  capsules  and 
sun-dried,  so  as  to  admit  of  the  ready  removal  by  band  of  tbe 
while  aril;  Ihey  are  next  ground  fa  a  stone  mortar  or  deep  dish 
of  hard  sandstone;  the  powder,  moistened  by  the  addition  of  a 
small  quantity  of  water,  or  by  exposure  to  the  dews,  is  then 
paste  with  a  certain  proportion  ol  whole  or  broken 


forked  up 


re  Germ 


drying  by 
packed  between  broad  leaves  ii 
pared,  it  Is  of  extreme  hardness, 
■   tent  taste,  and  an  odour  faL 
An  inferior  kind,  softer  a: 


Sin.i 


.  length,  and  ri  to  16  01. 
solar  heat,  tbe  guarana 
or  baskets.     Thus  pre- 


id  of  a  Lghter  colour, 

is  a  beverage  largdy 
:,  originally  conGoi 


d  oil  (Foiinuer.  Jm.' it  t 


rrival  of  the  Spaniards,  and  being  a  peaceable  pc 
y  suhmilted.     They  form  to-day  the  chief  element  in 
populations  ol  Paraguay  and  Uruguay.  Owing  to  iu  patroi 


652 


GUARANTEE 


widespread  medium  of  communication,  and  in  a  corrupted  form 
is  still. the  common  language  in  Paraguay. 

OUARANTEB  (sometimes  spelt  "  guarantie  "  or  "  guaranty  "; 
an  O.  Fr.  form  of  "  warrant,"  from  the  Teutonic  word  which 
appears  in  German  as  wahren,  to  defend  or  make  safe  and  binding) , 
a  term  more  comprehensive  and  of  higher  import  than  either 
"  warrant "  or  "  security,"  and  designating  either  some  inter- 
national treaty  whereby  claims,  rights  orpossessions  are  secured, 
or  moxe  commonly  a  mere  private  transaction,  by  means  of  which 
one  person,  to  obtain  some  trust,  confidence  or  credit  for  another, 
engages  to  be  answerable  for  him. 

In  Eni^'sh  law,  a  guarantee  is  a  contract  to  answer  for  the 
payment  of  some  debt,  or  the  performance  of  some  duty,  by 
a  third  person  who  is  primarily  liable  to  such  payment  or  per- 
formance. It  is  a  collateral  contract,  which  does  not  extinguish 
the  original  liability  or  obligation  to  which  it  is  accessory,  but 
on  the  contrary  is  itself  rendered  null  and  void  should  the  latter 
fail,  as  without  a  principal  there  can  be  no  accessory.  The 
liabilities  of  a  surety  are  in  law  dependent  upon  those  of  the 
principal  debtor,  and  when  the  latter  cease  the  former  do  so 
likewise  (per  Collins,  LJ.,  in  Stacey  v.  Hill,  190X,  i  K.B.,  at 
p.  666;  see  per  Willes,  J.,  in  Baiesan  v.  Gosling,  187 1,  L.R.  7  C.P., 
at  p.  14),  except  in  certain  cases  where  the  discharge  of  the 
prindpwl  debtor  is  by  operation  of  law  (see  In  re  FUzgeorge — 
ex  parte  Robson,  1905,  x  K.B.  p.  46a).  If,  therefore,  persons 
wrongly  suppose  that  a  third  person  is  liable  to  one  of  them, 
and  a  guarantee  is  given  on  that  erroneous  supposition,  it  is 
invalid  ab  initio,  by  virtue  of  the  lex  contractus,  because  its 
foundation  (which  was  that  another  was  taken  to  be  liable) 
has  failed  (^r  Willcs,  J.,  in  Mounlstephen  v.  Ijikeman,  L.R. 
7  Q.B.  p.  202).  According  to  various  existing  codes  civil, 
a  suretyship,  in  respect  of  an  obligation  "  non-valablc," 
is  null  and  void  save  where  the  invalidity  is  the  result 
of  personal  incapacity  of  the  principal  debtor  (Codes  Civil, 
France  and  Belgium,  2012;  Spain,  1824;  Portugal,  822;  Italy, 
1899;  Holland,  1858;  Lower  Canada,  1932).  In  some  countries, 
however,  the  mere  personal  incapacity  of  a  son  under  age  to 
borrow  suffices  to  vitiate  the  guarantee  of  a  loan  made  to  him 
(Spain,  1824;  Portugal,  822,  s.a,  1535,  X5!s6).  The  Egyptian  codes 
sanction  guarantees  expressly  entered  into  "  in  view  of  debtor's 
want  of  legal  capacity  "  to  contract  a  valid  principal  obligation 
(Egyptain  Codes,  Mixed  Suits,  605;  Native  Tribunak,  496). 
The  Portuguese  code  (art.  822,  s.  i)  retains  the  surety's  liability, 
in  respect  of  an  invalid  principal  obligation,  until  the  latter  has 
been  legally  rescinded. 

The  giver  of  a  guarantee  is  called  "  the  surety,"  or  "  the 
guarantor  ";  the  person  to  whom  it  is  given  "  the  creditor," 
or  "  the  guarantee ";  while  the  person  whose  payment  or 
performance  is  secured  thereby  is  termed  "  the  prindpal  debtor," 
or  simply  "  the  prindpaL"  In  America,  but  not  apparently 
elsewhere,  there  is  a  recognized  distinction  between  "  a  surety  " 
and  "  a  guarantor  ";  the  former  being  usually  bound  with  the 
principal,  at  the  same  time  and  on  the  same  consideration,  while 
the  contract  of  the  latter  is  his  own  separate  undertaking,  in 
which  the  prindpal  does  not  join,  and  in  respect  of  which  he  is 
not  to  be  hdd  liable,  until  due  diligence  has  been  exerted  to 
coropd  the  principal  debtor  to  make  good  his  default.  There 
is  no  privity  of  contract  between  the  surety  and  the  prindpal 
debtor,  for  the  surely  contracts  with  the  creditor,  and  they  do 
not  constitute  in  law  one  person,  and  are  not  jointly  liable  to 
ihc  creditor  {per  Baron  Parke  in  Bain  v.  Cooper,  i  Dowl.  R. 
(N.S.)  II,  14). 

No  special  phraseology  is  necessary  to  the  formation  of  a 
guarantee;  and  what  really  distinguishes  such  a  contract  from 
one  of  insurance  is  not  any  essential  difference  between  the  two 
forms  of  words  insurance  and  guarantee,  but  the  substance  of 
the  contract  entered  into  by  the  parties  in  each  particular  case 
{per  Romer,  L.J.,  in  Seaton  v.  Heath — Seaton  v.  Burnand,  x899» 
I  Q.B.  782,  792,  C.A.;  per  Vaughan  Williams,  L.J.,  in  In  re 
Denton's  Estate  Licenses  Insurance  Corporation  and  Guarantee 
Fund  Ltd.  V.  Denton,  1904,  2  Ch.,  at  p.  188;  and  see  Dane  v. 
Mortgage  Insuranu  Corporation,  1894,  i  Q.B.  54  C.A.)    In  this 


connexion  it  may  be  moitloned  that  the  diffnent  kinds  d 
suretyships  have  been  classified  as  follows:  (i)  Those  in  vhlcb 
there  is  an  agreement  to  constitute,  for  a  particular  purpose, 
the  relation  of  prindpal  and  surety,  to  which  agreement  ibe 
creditor  thereby  secured  is  a  party;  (2)  those  in  wlucfa  there 
is  a  similar  agreement  between  the  prindpal  and  surety  only,  to 
which  the  creditor  is  a  stranger;  and  (3)  those  in  which,  witbrat 
any  such  contract  of  suretyship,  there  is  a  primary  andt 
secondary  liability  of  two  persons  for  one  and  the  same  debt, 
the  debt  being,  as  between  the  two,  that  of  one  of  thoae  persons 
only,  and  not  equally  of  both,  so  that  the  other,  if  be  slKnild  be 
compelled  to  pay  it,  would  be  entitled  to  reimbursement  frrai 
the  person  by  whom  (as  between  the  two)  it  ought  to  have  beeo 
paid  (^ Earl  of  Sdbome,  L.C., in  ZHtMcan Ftfxastf  Co.  v.  i\r«rl& osrf 
South  Wales  Bank,  6  App.  Cas.,  at  p.  ix).  According  to  seven! 
codes  dvil  sureties  are  made  divi^le  into  convaitiooal,  legal 
and  judicial  (Fr.  and  Bel.,  2015,  2040  et  seq.;  Spain,  1873; 
Lower  Canada,  1930),  while  the  Spanish  code  further  diWdes 
them  into  gratuitous  and  for  valuable  consideration  (art.  i,  823). 
In  England  the  common-law  requisites  of  a  guarantee  in  no 
way  differ  from  those  essential  to  the  formation  o(  any  other 
contract.  That  is  to  say,  they  a>mprisc  the  mutual  assnit 
of  two  or  more  parties,  competency  to  contract,  and,  unkss 
the  guaranty  be  under  seal,  valuable  consideraticm.  Ad  offer 
to  guarantee  is  not  binding  until  it  has  been  accepted,  being 
revocable  till  then  by  the  party  making  it.  Unless,  however, 
as  sometimes  happens,  the  offer  contemplates  an  express  accept- 
ance, one  may  be  implied,  and  it  nuiy  be  a  question  for  a  jury 
whether  an  offer  of  guarantee  has  in  fact  been  accepted.  When 
the  surety's  assent  to  a  guarantee  has  been  procured  by  fraud 
of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  given,  there  is  no  binding  contract. 
Such  fraud  may  consist  of  suppression  or  concealment  or  mis- 
representation. There  is  some  conflict  of  authorities  as  to  what 
facts  must  be  spontaneously  disclosed  to  the  surety  by  the 
creditor,  but  it  may  be  taken  that  the  rule  on  the  subject  is 
less  stringent  than  that  governing  insurances  upon  marine, 
life  and  other  risks  {The  North  British  Insurance  Co.  v.  Lbjd, 
10  Exch.  523),  though  formerly  this  was  denied  {Otpen  v.  Homen, 
3  Mac.  Jk  C.  378,  397).  Moreover,  even  where  the  contract 
relied  upon  is  in  the  form  of  a  policy  guaranteeing  the  solvency 
of  a  surety  for  another's  debt,  and  is  therefore  governed  by  the 
doctrine  of  uberrima  fides,  only  such  facts  as  are  really  material 
to  the  risk  undertaken  need  be  spontaneously  disdosed  {Seaton  v. 
Burnand — Burnand  v.  Seaton,  1900,  A.C.  135).  As  regards 
the  competency  of  the  parties  to  enter  into  a  contract  of 
guarantee,  this  may  be  affected  by  insanity  or  intoxicatioo  of 
the  surety,  if  known  to  the  creditor,  or  by  disi^ility  of  any  kind. 
The  ordinary  disabilities  arc  those  of  infants  and  married  wonxB 
— now  in  England  greatly  mitigated  as  regards  the  latter  by  iht 
Married  Women's  Property  Acts,  1870  to  XS93,  which  enahle  a 
married  woman  to  contract,  as  a  feme  sole,  to  the  extent  of  her 
separate  property.  Every  guarantee  not  under  seal  must 
according  to  English  law  have  a  consideration  to  suppcot  it, 
though  the  least  spark  of  one  suffices  {per  Wilmot,  J.,  in  PilleM  t- 
van  Mierop  and  Hopkins,  3  Burr.,  at  p.  x666;  Haigk  v.  Breoks, 
10  A.  &  E.  309;  Barren  v.  TrusscU,  4  Taunt.  1x7),  whidi,  as 
in  other  cases,  may  consist  dther  of  some  right,  interest,  pro&t 
or  benefit  accruing  to  the  one  party,  or  some  forbearance,  detri- 
ment, loss  or  responsibility  given,  suffered  or  undertaken  by  t^ 
other.  In  some  guarantees  the  consideration  is  entire — as  where, 
in  consideration  of  a  lease  bdng  granted,  the  surety  bectuccs 
answerable  for  the  performance  of  the  covenants;  inotfcer 
cases  it  is  fragmentary,  t.e.  supplied  from  time  to  time— as 
where  a  guarantee  is  given  to  secure  the  balance  <A  a  runsicg 
account  at  a  banker's,  or  a  balance  of  a  running  account  for 
goods  supplied  {per  Lush,  L.J.,  in  Lloyd's  v.  Harper,  16  Ch.  Div  • 
at  p.  3 19).  In  the  former  case,  the  moment  the  lease  is  granted 
there  is  nothing  more  for  the  lessor  to  do,  and  such  a  gaaiaotee 
as  that  of  necessity  runs  on  throughout  the  duration  of  tltf 
lease  and  is  irrevocable.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  unlcs 
the  guarantee  stipulates  to  the  contrary,  the  surety  may  at  any 
time  terminate  his  liability  under  the  guarantee  as  to  1*1''* 


GUARANTEE 


f>52 


advances,  &c.  The  consideration  for  a  guarantee  must  not  be 
past  or  execulai,  but  on  the  other  hand  it  need  not  comprise  a 
direct  benefit  or  advantage  to  either  the  surety  or  the  creditor, 
but  may  solely  consist  of  anything  done,  or  any  promise  made, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  principal  debtor.  It  is  more  frequently 
executory  than  concurrent^  taking  the  form  either  of  forbearance 
to  sue  the  principal  debtor,  or  of  a  future  advance  of  money  or 
supply  of  goods  to  him. 

By  the  Indian  Contract  Act  1872,  sect.  127,  it.is  provided  that 
the  consideration  for  a  guarantee  may  consist  of  anything  done 
or  any  promise  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  principal  debtor  by 
the  creditor.  Total  failure  of  the  consideration  stipulated  for 
by  the  party  giving  a  guarantee  will  prevent  its  being  enforced, 
as  will  also  the  existence  of  an  illegal  consideration.  Though  in 
all  countries  the  mutual  assent  of  two  or  more  parties  is  essential 
to  the  formation  of  any  contract  (see  e.g.  Codes  Civil,  Fr.  and  Bel. 
1 108;  Port.  643,  647  et  seq.;  Spain,  1258,  1261;  Italy,  1104; 
HoU.  1356;  Lower  Canada,  984),  a  consideration  u  not  every- 
where regarded  aA  a  necessary  element  (see  Pothicr's  Law  of 
Obligations,  Evans's  edition,  vol.  ii.  p.  19).  Thus  in  Scotland 
a  contract  may  be  binding  without  a  consideration  to  support  it 
(Stair  t.  10.  7). 

The  statutory  requisites  of  a  guarantee  are,  in  England, 
prescribed  by  (i)  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  which,  with  reference 
to  guarantees,  provides  that  *'  no  action  shall  be  brought  whereby 
to  charge  the  defendant  upon  any  special  promise  to  answer 
for  the  debt,  default  or  miscarriages  of  another  person,  unless  the 
agreement  upon  which  such  action  shall  be  brought,  or  some 
memorandum  or  note  thereof,  shall  be  in  writing  and  signed  by 
the  party  to  be  charged  therewith,  or  some  other  person  thereunto 
by  him  lawfully  authorized,"  and  (2)  Lord  Tenterden's  Act 
(9  Geo.  IV.  c.  14).  which  by  §  6  enacts  that  "  no  action  shall  be 
brought  whereby  to  charge  any  person  upon  or  by  reason  of  any 
representation  or  assurance  made  or  given  concerningor  relating 
to  the  character,  conduct,  credit,  ability,  trade  or  dealings  of 
any  other  person,  to  the  intent  or  purpose  that  such  other  person 
may  obtain  credit,  money  or  goods  upon"  («.«.  "  upon  credit," 
see  per  Parke,  B.,  in  Lyde  v.  Barnard,  x  M.  &  W.,  at  p.  104), 
"  unless  such  representation  or  assurance  be  made  in  writing 
signed  by  the  party  to  be  charged  therewith."  This  latter 
enactment,  which  applies  to  incorporated  companies  as  well  as 
to  individual  persons  {Hirst  v.  West  Riding  Union  Banking  Co.^ 
1 901,  2  K.B.  560  C.A.),  was  rendered  necessary  by  an  evasion 
of  the  4th  section  of  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  accomplished  by 
treating  the  special  promise  to  answer  for  another's  debt,  default 
or  miscarriage,  when  not  in  writing,  as  required  by  that  section, 
as  a  false  and  fraudulent  representation  concerning  another's 
credit,  solvency  or  honesty,  in  respect  of  which  damages,  as  for 
a  tort,  were  held  to  be  recoverable  {Pasley  v.  Freeman,  3  T.R.  51). 
In  Scotland,  where,  it  should  be  stated,  a  guarantee  Is  called 
a  "  cautionary  obligation,"  similar  enactments  to  those  just 
specified  are  contained  in  §  6  of  the  Mercantile  Law  Amendment 
Act  (Scotland)  1856,  while  in  the  Irish  Statute  of  Frauds  (7  Will. 
III.  c.  12)  there  is  a  provision  {\  2)  identical  with  that  found  in 
I  he  English  Statute  of  Frauds.  In  India  a  guarantee  may  be 
cither  oral  or  written  (Indian  Contract  Act,  {  126),  while  in  the 
Australian  colonies,  Jamaica  and  Ceylon  it  roust  be  in  writing. 
The  German  code  civil  requires  the  surety's  promise  to  be  verified 
by  writing  where  he  has  not  executed  the  principal  obligation 
(art.  766),  and  the  Portuguese  code  renders  a  guarantee  provable 
by  all  the  modes  established  by  law  for  the  proof  of  the  principal 
contract  (art.  826).  According  to  most  codes  civil  now  in  force 
a  guarantee  like  any  other  contract  can  usually  be  made  verbally 
in  the  presence  of  i^ilnesses  and  in  certain  cases  (where  for  in- 
stance considerable  sums  of  money  are  involved)  sous  signature 
privU  or  else  by  judicial  or  notarial  instrument  (see  Codes  Civil, 
Fr.  and  Bel.  1341;  Spain,  1244;  Port.  2506,  2513;  Italy, 
1 341  et  seq.;  Pothier's  Law  of  Obligations,  Evans's  ed.' i.  257; 
Burge  on  Suretyship,  p.  19;  van  der  Linden's  Institutes  of 
Holland,  p.  i2o);  the  French  and  Belgian  Codes,  moreover, 
provide  that  suretyship  is  not  to  be  presumed  but  must  always 
be  expressed  (art.  2015). 


The  Statute  of  Frauds  does  not  invalidate  a  verbal  guarantee, 
but  renders  it  unenforceable  by  action.  It  may  therefore  be 
available  in  support  of  a  defence  to  an  action,  and  money  paid 
under  it  cannot  be  recovered.  An  indemnity  is  not  a  guarantee 
within  the  statute,  unless  it  contemplates  the  primary  liability 
of  a  third  person.  It  need  not,  therefore,  be  in  writing  when  it  is 
a  mere  promise  to  become  liable  for  a  debt,  whenever  the  person 
to  whom  the  promise  is  made  should  become  liable  (Wildes  v. 
Dudlow^  L.R.  19  £q.  198;  per  Vaughan  Williams,  L.J.  in  Harburg 
India-Rubher  Co.  v.  Martin,  1902,  i  K.B.  p.  786;  Guild  v. 
Conrad,  1894,  2  Q.B.  885  C.A.).  Neither  does  the  statute  apply 
to  the  promise  ot  &  dd  credere  agent,  which  binds  him,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  higher  commission  he  receives,  to  make  no 
sales  on  behalf  of  his  principal  except  to  persons  who  are 
absolutely  solvent,  and  renders  him  liable  for  any  loss  that  may 
result  from  the  non-fulfilment  of  his  promise.  A  promise  to 
give  a  guarantee  is,  however,  within  the  statute,  though  not  one 
to  procure  a  guarantee. 

The  general  principles  which  determine  what  are  guarantees 
within  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  as  deduced  from  a  multitude  of 
decided  cases,  are  briefly  as  follows:  (i)  the  primary  liability 
of  a  third  person  must  exist  or  be  contemplated  as  the  foundation 
of  the  contract  {Birktnyrv.  Darnell,  i  Sm.  L.C.  nth  ed.  p.  299; 
Mountstephen  v.  Lakeman,  L.R.  7  Q.B.  196;  L.R.  7  H.L.  17); 
(2)  the  promise  must  be  made  to  the  creditor;  (3)  there  must  be 
an  absence  of  all  liability  on  the  part  of  the  surely  independently 
of  his  express  promise  of  guarantee;  (4)  the  main  object  of  the 
transaction  between  the  parties  to  the  guarantee  must  be  the 
fulfilment  of  a  third  party's  obligation  (see  Harburg  India- 
rubber  Comb  Co.  v.  Martin,  1902,  i  K.B.  778,  786);  and  (5) 
the  contract  entered  into  must  not  amount  to  a  sale  by  the 
creditor  to  the  promiser  of  a  security  for  a  debt  or  of  the  debt 
itself  (see  de  Colyar's  Law  of  Guarantees  and  of  Principal  and 
Surety,  3rd  ed.  pp.  65-161,  where  these  principles  are  discussed 
in  detail  by  the  light  of  decided  cases  there  cited). 

As  regards  the  kind  of  note  or  memorandum  of  the  guarantee 
that  will  satisfy  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  it  is  now  provided  by  §  3 
of  the  Mercantile  Law  Amendment  Act  1856,  that  "  no  special 
promise  to  be  made,  by  any  person  after  the  passing  of  this  act, 
to  answer  for  the  debt,  default  or  miscarriage  of  another  person, 
being  in  writing  and  signed  by  the  party  to  be  charged  therewith, 
or  some  other  person  by  him  thereunto  lawfully  authorized, 
shall  be  deemed  invalid  to  support  an  action,  suit  or  other  pro- 
ceeding, to  charge  the  person  by  whom  such  promise  shall  have 
been  made,  by  reason  only  that  the  consideration  for  such 
promise  does  not  appear  in  writing  or  by  necessary  inference  from 
a  written  document."  Prior  to  this  enactment,  which  is  not 
retrospective  in  its  operation,  it  was  held  in  many  cases  that  as 
the  Statute  of  Frauds  requires  "  the  agreement  "  to  be  in  writing, 
all  parts  thereof  were  required  so  to  be,  including  the  considera- 
tion moving  to,as  wellas  the  promise  by,  the  party  to  be  charged 
(Wain  V.  Walters,  5  East,  10;  Saunders  v.  Wakefield,  4  B.  & 
Aid.  595).  These  decisions,  however,  proved  to  be  burdensome 
to  the  mercantile  commum'ty,  especially  in  ScotUnd  and  the 
north  of  England,  and  ultimately  led  to  the  alteration  of  the  law, 
so  far  as  guarantees  are  concerned,  by  means  of  the  enactment 
already  specified.  Any  writing  embodying  the  terms  of  the  agree- 
ment between  the  parties,  and  signed  by  the  party  to  be  charged, 
is  sufficient;  and  the  idea  of  agreement  need  not  be  present  to 
the  mind  of  the  person  signing  (per  Lindley,  L.  J.,  in  In  re  Hoyle — 
Ho^  V.  Hoyle,  1893,  x  Ch.,  at  p.  98).  It  is,  however,  necessary 
that  the  names  of  the  contracting  parties  should  appear  some- 
where in  writing;  that  the  party  to  be  charged,  or  his  agent, 
should  sign  the  memorandum  or  note  of  agreement,  or  else 
should  sign  another  paper  referring  thereto;  and  that,  when  the 
note  or  memorandum  is  made,  a  complete  agreement  shall  exist. 
Moreover,  the  memorandum  must  have  been  made  before  action 
brought,  though  it  need  not  be  contemporaneous  with  the 
agreement  itself.  As  regards  the  stamping  of  the  memorandum 
or  note  of  agreement,  a  guarantee  cannot,  in  England,  be  given  in 
evidence  unless  properly  stamped  (Stamp  Act  1891).  A  guarantee 
for  the  payment  of  goods,  however,  requires  no  stamp,  bdng 


654 


GUARANTEE 


within  the  exception  contained  in  the  first  schedule  of  the  act. 
Nor  is  it  necessary  to  stamp  a  written  representation  or  assurance 
as  to  character  within  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  14,  supra.  If  under  seal,  & 
guarantee  requires,  sometimes  an  ad  valorem  stamp  and  some- 
times a  ten-shilling  stamp;  in  other  cases  a  sixpenny  stamp 
generally  suffices;  Jind,  on  certain  prescribed  terms,  the  stamps 
can  be  affixed  any  time  after  execution  (Stamp  Act  1891^  $  15, 
amended  by  §  15  of  the  Finance  Act  1895). 

The  liability  incurred  by  a  surety  under  his  guarantee  depends 
upon  its  terms,  and  is  not  necessarily  coextensive  with  that  of 
the  principal  debtor.  It  is,  however,  obvious  that  as 
CxiMiaf  iijg  surety's  obligation  is  merely  accessory  to  that  of 
iS3iJ|  the  principal  it  cannot  as  such  exceed  it  (de  Colyar,^ 
Low  of  Guarantees,  3rd  cd.  p.  233;  Burge,  Sureiyiftip, 
p.  5).  By  the  Roman  law,  if  there  were  any  such  excess  the 
surety's  obligation  was  rendered  wludly  void  and  not  merely 
void  pro  lanto.  By  many  existing  codes  dvil,  however,  a 
guarantee  which  imposes  on  the  surety  a  greater  liability  than 
that  of  the  principal  is  not  thereby  invalidated,  but  the  liability 
is  merely  reducible  to  that  of  the  principal  (Fr.  and  Bel.  2013; 
Port.  823;  Spain,  1826;  Italy,  1900;  Holland,  x8s9;'  Lower 
Canada,  1933).  By  sec.  228  of  the  Indian  Contract  Act  1872 
the  liability  of  the  surety  is,  unless  otherwise  provided  by 
contract,  coextensive  with  that  of  the  prindpall  Where  the 
liability  of  the  surety  is  less  extc«isive  in  amount  than  that  of  the 
principal  debtor,  difficult  questions  have  arisen  in  England  and 
America  as  to  whether  the  surety  b  liable  only  for  pari  of  the 
debt  equal  to  the  limit  of  his  liability,  or,  up  to  such  limit,  for 
thewAofo  debt  (Ellis  v.  Emmanuel,  i  Ex.  Div.  157;  Hobson  v. 
Bass,  6  Ch.  App.  792;  Brandt,  Suretyship,  sec.  219).  The 
surety  cannot  be  made  liable  except  for  a  loss  sustained  by  reason 
of  the  default  guaranteed  against.  Moreover,  in  the  case  of  a 
joint  and  several  guarantee  by  several  sureties,  unless  all  sign 
it  none  are  liable  thereunder  {National  Pro.  Bk.  of  England  v. 
Brackenbury,  1906,  22  Times  L.R.  797).  It  was  formerly 
considered  in  England  to  be  the  duty  of  the  party  taking  a 
guarantee  to  see  that  it  was  couched  in  bnguage  enabling  the 
party  giving  it  to  understand  clearly  to  what  extent  he  was 
binding  himself  {Nicholson  v.  Paget,  x  C.  &  M.  48,  52).  This 
view,  however,  can  no  longer  be  sustained,  it  being  now  recog- 
nixed  that  a  guarantee,  like  any  other  contract,  must,  in  cases 
of  ambiguity,  be  construed  against  the  party  bound  thereby 
and  in  favour  of  the  party  receiving  it  {Mayer  v.  Isaac^  6  M.  & 
W.  60s,  612;. Wood  V.  Priestner,  L.R.  2  Exch.  66,  71).  The 
surety-  is  not  to  be  changed  beyond  the  limits  prescribed  by  his 
contract,  which  must  be  construed  so  as  to  give  effect  to  what 
may  fairly  be  inferred  to  have  been  the  intention  of  the  parties, 
from  what  they  themselves  have  expressed  in  writing.  In  cases 
of  doubtful  import,  recourse  to  parol  evidence  is  permissible, 
to- explain,  but  not  to  contradict,  the  written  evidence  of  the 
guarantee.  As  a  general  rule,  the  surety  b  not  liable  if  the 
principal  debt  cannot  be  enforced,  because,  as  already  explained, 
the  obligation  of  the  surety  b  merely  accessory  to  that  of  the 
principal  debtor.  It  has  never  been  actually  decided  in  England 
whether  thb  rule  holds  good  in  cases  where  the  principal  debtor 
b  an  infant,  and  on  that  account  is  not  liable  to  the  creditor. 
Probably  in  such  a  case  the  surety  might  be  held  liable  by 
estoppel  (see  KimhaU  s\.  NeweU,  7  HiU  (N.Y.)  116).  When 
directors  guarantee  the  performance  by  their  company  of  a 
contract  which  b  uUra  vires,  and  therefore  not  binding  on  the 
latter,  the  directors'  suretyship  liability  is,  nevertheless,  enforce- 
able against  them  ( Yorkshire  Railway  Wa^on  Co.  v.  Maclure, 
21  Ch.  D.  309  C.A.). 

It  b  not  always  easy  to  determine  for  how  long  a  time  liability 
under  a  guarantee  endures.  Sometimes  a  guarantee  is  limited 
to  a  single  transaction,  and  s  obviously  intended  to  be  security 
against  one  specific  default  only.  On  the  other  hand,  it  as  often 
happens  that  it  b  not  exhaust«l  by  one  transaction  on  the  faith 
of  it,  but  extends  to  a  series  of  transactions,  and  remains  a 
standing  security  until  it  b  revoked,  either  by  the  act  of  the 
parties  or  else  by  the  death  of  the  surety.  It  b  then  termed  a 
^ntinuing  guarantee.    No  fixed  rules  of  inteipretaUon  determine 


whether  a  guarantee  b  a  omtinuing  one  or  not,  but  each  case 
must  be  judged  on  iu  individual  merits;  and  frequently,  in  order 
to  achieve  a  correct  construction,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
examine  the  surrounding  circumstances,  which  often  reveal  what 
was  the  subject-matter  which  the  parties  contemplated  who 
the  guarantee  was  given,  and  likewise  what  was  the  scope  and 
object  of  the  transaction  between  them.    Most  continuing 
guarantees  are  either  ordinary  mercantile  securities,  in  respect 
of  advances  made  or  goods  supplied  to  the  principal  debtor  or 
else  bonds  for  the  good  behaviour  of  persons  in  public  or  private 
offices  or  employments.    With  regard  to  the  lattor  dass  of 
continuing  guarantees,  the  surety's  liability  b,  generally  speak- 
ing, revoked  by  any  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  persons 
to  or  for  whom  the  guarantee  b  given.    On  thb  subject  it  is 
now  provided  by  section  x8  of  the  Partnership  Act  1890,  which 
applies  to  Scotland  as  well  as  England,  that  "a  continuing 
guarantee  or  cautionary  obligation  given  either  to  a  firm  or  to 
a  third  person  in  respect  of  the  transactions  of  a  firm,  b,  in  the 
absence  of  agreement  to  the  contrary,  revoked  as  to  fuloit 
transactions. by  any  chaqge  in  the  constitution  of  the  firm  to 
which,  or  of  the  firm  in  respect  of  the  transactions  of  which  the 
guaranty  or  obligation  was  given."    Thb  section,  like  the 
enactment  it  replaces,  namely,  sec  4  of  the  Mercantile  Law 
Amendment  Act  1856,  b  mainly  declaratory  of  the  English 
common  law,  as  embodied  in  decided  cases,  which  indicate  that 
the  changes  in  the  persons  to  or  for  whom  a  guarantee  b  gi^^o 
may  consist  either  of  an  increase  in  their  number,  of  a  diminution 
thereof  caused  by  death  or  retirement  from  business,  or  erf  the 
incorporation  or  consolidation  of  the  persons  to  wfaom*  the 
guarantee  b  given.    In  thb  connexion  it  may  be  stated  that  the 
Government  Offices  (Security)  Act  1875,  which  has  been  amended 
by  the  Statute  Law  Revision  Act  1883,  contains  certain  provisions 
with  regard  to  the  acceptance  by  the  heads  of  public  departments 
of  guarantees  given  by  companies  for  the  due  performance  of 
the  duties  of  an  office  or  employment  in  the  pubh'c  service,  sod 
enables  the  Commissioners  of  Hb  Majesty's  Treasury  to  vary  the 
character  of  any  security,  for  good  behaviour  by  public  savants, 
given  after  the  passing  of  the  act. 

Before  the  surety  can  be  rendered  liable  <m  hb  guarantee, 
the  prindpol  debtor  must  have  made  default.  When,  however, 
this  has  occurred,  the  creditor,  in  the  absence  of  express  agree- 
ment to  the  contrary,  may  sue  the  surety,  without  even  informing 
him  of  such  default  having  taken  place,  or  requiring  him  to  pay, 
and  before  proceeding  against  the  principal  debtor  or  resorting 
to  securities  for  the  debt  recdved  from  the  latter.  In  those 
countries  where  the  municipal  law  b  based  on  the  Roman  dvil 
law,  sureties  usually  possess  the  right  (which  may,  however, 
be  renounced  by  them)  originally  conferred  by  the  Roman 
law,  of  compelling  the  creditor  to  insist  on  the  goods,  &c  (if  any) 
of  the  prindpal  debtor  being  first  "  dbcussed,"  «.e.  appraised 
and  sold,  and  appropriated  to  the  liquidation  oi  the  debt 
guaranteed  (see  Codes  Civil,  Fr.  and  BeL  2021  et  seq.;  Spain, 
1830,  X831;  Port.  830;  Germany,  771,  772,  773;  Holland, 
1868;  Italy,  1907;  Lover  Canada,  1941-1942;  Egypt  [mixed 
suits]  612;  ibid,  [native  tribunab]  502),  before  having  recoune 
to  the  sureties.  This  right,  according  to  a  great  American 
jurist  (Chancellor  Kent  in  Hayes  v.  Ward,  4  Johns.  New  York, 
Ch  Cas.  p.  132),  "  accords  with  a  common  sense  of  justice  and 
the  natural  equity  of  mankind."  In  EngUnd  thb  right  has 
never  been  fully  recognized.  Neither  does  it  prevail  in  America 
nor,  since  the  passing  of  the  Mercantile  Law  Amendment  Act 
(Scotland)  1856,  s,  8,  is  it  any  longer  available  in  Scotland  where, 
prior  to  the  last-named  enactment,  the  benefit  of  discussion,  as 
it  b  termed,  axbted.  In  England,  however,  before  any  demand 
for  payment  has  been  made  by  the  creditor  on  the  surety,  the 
latter  can,  as  soon  as  the  prindpal  debtor  has  made  defaoU. 
compel  the  creditor,  on  giving  him  an  indemzuty  against  costs 
and  expenses,  to  sue  the  prindpal  debtor  if  the  latter  be  solx'eot 
and  able  to  pay  {per  A.  L.  Smith,  L.J.,  in  Rouse  v.  Bredferi 
Banking  Company,  1894,  2  Ch.  75;  ^  Lord  Eldon  in  Wri^  v. 
Simpson,  6  Ves.,  at  p.  733),  and  a  similar  remedy  b  abo  open 
to  the  surety  in  America  (see  Brandt  on  Suretyship,  par.  90s. 


GUARANTEE 


65s 


p.  »9o)  though  in  neither  of  these  countries  nor  in  Scotland  can 
one  of  several  sureties,  when  sued  for  the  whole  guaranteed 
debt  by  the  creditor,  compel  the  latter  to  divide  his  claim 
amongst  all  the  solvent  sureties,  and  reduce  it  to  the  share  and 
proportion  of  each  surety.  However,  this  benefieium  divUionis, 
as  it  is  called  in  Roman  law,  is  recognized  by  many  existing 
codes  (Fr.  and  BeL  3035-3027;  Spain,  1837;  Portugal,  855- 
836;  Germany,  436;  Holland,  1873-1874;  Italy,  zqii-zqis; 
Lower  Canada,  1946;  Egypt  [mixed  suits),  615,616). 

The  usual  mode  in  England  of  enforcing  liability  under  a 
guarantee  is  by  action  in  the  Hi^  Court  or  in  the  county 
court.  It  4S  also  permissible  for  the  creditor  to  obtain  redress 
by  means  of  a  set-off  or  counter-claim,  in  an  action  brought 
against  him  by  the  surety.  On  the  ether  hand,  the  surety 
may  now,  in  any  court  in  which  the  action  on  the  guarantee  is 
pending,  avail  himself  of  any  set-off  which  may  exist  between 
the  principal  debtor  and  the  creditor.  Moreover,  if  one  of 
several  sureties  for  the  same  debt  is  sued  by  the  crnlitor  or  his 
guarantee,  he  can,  by  means  of  a  proceeding  termed  a  third-party 
notice,  daim  contribution  from  his  co-surety  towards  the 
common  liability.  Independent  proof  of  the  surety's  liability 
under  his  guarantee  must  always  be  given  at  the  trial;  as  the 
creditor  cannot  rely  either  on  admissions  made  by  the  principal 
debtor,  or  on  a  judgment  or  award  obtained  against  him  {Ex 
parte  Young  In  re  Kitckin,  17  Ch.  Div.  668).  Should  the  surety 
become  bankrupt  either  before  or  after  default  has  been  made 
by  the  principal  debtor,  the  creditor  will  have  to  prove  against 
his  estate.  This  right  of  proof  is  now  in  England  regulated  by 
the  37th  section  of  the  Bankruptcy  Act,  1883,  which  is  most 
comprehensive  in  its  terms. 

A  person  liable  as  a  surety  for  another  under  a    guarantee 

possesses  various  rights  against  him,  against  the  person  to 

whom  the  guarantee  is  given,  and  also  against  those 

^StSa    ^^^  °^y  ^^^  become  co-sureties  in  respect  of  the 

same  debt,  default  or  miscarriage.    As  regards  the 

surety's  rights  against  the  principal  debtor,  the  latter  may, 

where  the  guarantee  was  made  with  his  consent  but  not  otherwise 

(see  Hodgson,  v.  Shaw,  3  Myl.  &  K.  at  p.  190),  after  he  has 

made  default,  be  compelled  by  the  surety  to  exonerate  him  from 

liability  by  payment  of  the  guaranteed  debt  {per  Sir  W.  Grant, 

M.R.,  in  AfUrobus  v.  Davidson^  3  Meriv.  569,  579;  per  Lindley, 

L.J.,  in  Johnstony.  Salvage  Association,  19  Q.B.D.  460, 461;  and 

see  Wolmerskttusen  v.  Cvttick,  1893,  3  Ch.  514).    The  moment, 

moreover,  the  surety  has  himself  paid  any  portion  of  the 

guaranteed  debt,  he  is  entitled  to  rank  as  a  creditor  for  the 

amount  so  paid,  and  to  compel  repayment  thereof.    In  the 

event  of  the  principal  debtor's  bankruptcy,  the  surety  can 

in  England,  if  the  creditor  has  not  already  proved  in  respect 

of  the  guaranteed  debt,  prove  against  the  bankrupt'^   estate, 

not  only  in  respect  of  payments  made  before  the  bankruptcy 

of  the  principal  debtor,  but  also,  it  seems,  in  respect  of  the 

contingent  liability  to  pay  under  the  guarantee  (see  Ex  parte 

Dettnar  re  Herepath,  1889,  38  W.R.  753),  while  if  the  creditor 

has  already  proved,  the  surety  who  has  paid  the  guaranteed 

debt  has  a  right  to  all  dividends  received  by  the  cr^tor  from 

the  bankrupt  in  respect  thereof,  and  to  stand  in  the  creditor's 

place  as  to  future  dividends.    This  right  is,  however,  often 

waived  by  the  guarantee  stipulating  that,  until  the  creditor 

has  received  full  payment  of  all  sums   over  and  above  the 

guaranteed  debt,  due  to  him  from  the  principal    debtor,  the 

surely  shall  not  participate  in  any  dividends  distributed  from 

the  bankrupt's  estate  amongst  his  creditors.    As  regards  the 

rights  of  the  surety  against  the  creditor,  they  are  in  EngUnd 

exercisable  even  by  one  whQ  in  the  first  instance  was  a  principal 

debtor,  but  has  since  become  a  surety,  by  arrangement  with 

his  creditor,  duly  notified  to  the  creditor,  though  not  even 

sanctioned  by  him.    This  was  decided  by  the  House  of  Lords  in 

the  case  of  Rouse  v.  The  Bradford  Banking  Co.,  1894,  A.C>  586, 

removing  a  doubt  created  by  the  previous  case  of  Swire  v. 

Redman,  i  Q.B.D.  536,  which  must  now  be  treated  as  overruled. 

The  surety's  princft>al  right  against  the  creditor  entitles  him, 

after  payment  of  the  guaranteed  debt,  to  the  benefit  of  all 


securities,  whether  known  to  him  (the  surety)  or  not,  which 
the  creditor  held  against  the  principal  debtor;  and  where,  by 
default  or  laches  of  the  creditor,  such  securities  have  been  lost, 
or  rendered  otherwise  unavailable,  the  surety  is  discharged 
pro  tanto.  This  right,  which  is  fu><  in  abeyance  till  the  surety 
is  called  on  to  pay  {Dixon  v.  Sled,  1901,  3  Ch.  603),  extends  to 
all  securities,  whether  satisfied  or  not,  given  before  or  after  the 
contract  of  suretyship  was  entered  into.  Oa  this  subject  the 
Mercantile  Law  Amendment  Act,  1856,  {  5,  provides  that "  every 
person  who  being  surety  for  the  debt  or  duty  of  another,  or  being 
liable  with  another  for  any  debt  or  duty,  shall  pay  such  debt  or 
perform  such  duty,  shall  be  entitled  to  have  assigned  to  him, 
or  to  a  trustee  for  him,  every  judgment,  specialty,  or  other 
security,  which  shall  be  held  by  the  creditor  in  respect  of  such 
debt  or  duty,  whether  such  judgment,  specialty,  or  other  security 
shall  or  shall  not  be  deemed  at  law  ta  have  been  satisfied  by  the 
payment  of  the  debt  or  performance  of  the  duty,  and  such  person 
shall  be  entitled  to  stand  in  the  place  of  the  creditor,  and  to  use 
all  the  remedies,  and,  if  need  be,  and  upon  a  proper  indemnity, 
to  use  the  luime  of  the  creditor,  in  any  action  or  other  proceeding 
at  law  or  in  equity,  in  order  to  obtain  from  the  principal  debtor, 
or  any  co-surety,  co-contractor,  or  co-debtor,  as  the  case  may  be, 
indemnification  for  the  advances  made  and  loss  sustained  by 
the  person  who  shall  have  so  paid  such  debt  or  performed  such 
duty;  and  such  payment  or  performance  so  made  by  such 
surety  shall  not  be  pleadable  in  bar  of  any  such  action  or  other 
proceeding  by  him,  provided  always  that  no  co-surety,  co- 
contractor,  or  co-debtor  shall  be  entitled  to  recover  from  any 
other  co-surety,  co-contractor,  or  co-debtor,  by  the  means 
aforesaid,  more  than  the  just  proportion  to  which,  as  between 
those  parties  themselves,  such  last-mentioned  person  shall  be 
justly  liable."  This  enactment  is  so  far  retrospective  that  it 
applies  to  a  contract  made  before  the  act,  where  the  breach 
thereof;  and  the  payment  by  the  surety,  have  taken  place 
Subsequently.  The  right  of  the  surety  to  be  subrogated,  on 
payment  by  him  of  the  guaranteed  debt,  to  all  the  rights  of  the 
creiditor  against  the  prindpal  debtor  is  recognized  in  America 
{Tobin  v.  Kirk,  80  New  York  S.C.R.  329),  and  many  other 
countries  (0)des  Civil,  Fr.  and  Bd.  3029;  Spain,  1839;  Port. 
839;  Germany,  774;  Holland,  1877 ;  Italy,  1916;  Lower 
Canada,  3959;  Egypt  [mixed  suits],  617;  ibid,  [native  tribunals], 

505). 

As  regards  the  rights  of  the  surety  against  a  co-surety,  he  is 
entitled  to  contribution  from  him  in  respect  of  their  common 
liability.  This  particular  right  is  not  the  result  of  any  contract, 
but  is  derived  from  a  generd  equity,  on  the  ground  of  equality 
of  burden  and  benefit,  and  exists  whether  the  sureties  be  bound 
jointly,  or  jointly  and  severally,  and  by  the  same,  or  different, 
instruments.  There  is,  however,  no  right  of  contribution  where 
each  surety  is  severally  bound  for  a  given  portion  only  of  the 
guaranteed  debt ;  nor  in  the  case  of  a  surety  for  a  surety; 
(see  In  re  Denton's  Estate,  1904,  3  Ch.  278  C.A.);  nor  where  a 
person  becomes  a  surety  jointly  with  another  and  at  the  latter*s 
request.  Contribution  may  be  enforced,  either  before  payment, 
or  as  soon  as  the  surety  has  paid  more  than  his  share  of  the 
common  debt  {JVolmerskausen  v.  CuUick,  1893,  3  Ch.  514); 
and  the  amount  recoverable  is  now  always  regulated  by  the 
number  of  solvent  sureties,  though  formerly  this  rule  only 
prevailed  in  equity.  In  the  event  of  the  bankruptcy  of  a  surety, 
proof  can  be  made  against  his  estate  by  a  co-surety  for  any 
excess  over  the  latter's  oontributive  share.  The  right  of  con- 
tribution is  not  the  only  right  possessed  by  co-sureties  against 
each  other,  but  they  are  also  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  all  securities 
which  have  been  taken  by  any  one  of  them  as  an  indemnity 
against  the  liability  incurred  for  the  prindpal  debtor.  The 
Roman  law  did  not  recognize  the  right  of  contribution  amongst 
sureties.  It  is,  however,  sanctioned  by  many  existing  codes 
(Fr.  and  BeL  3033;  (krmany,  436,474;  Italy,  1920;  Holland, 
z88i;  Spain,  1844;  Port.  845;  Lower  Canada,  1955;  Egypt 
[mixed  suits],  618,  ibid,  [native  tribunals],  506),  and  also  by  the 
Indian  (Contract  Act  1872,  ss.  146-147. 

The  discharge  of  a  surety  from  liability  under  his  guarantee 


6s6 


GUARATINGUETA— GUARDS 


may  be  accomplished  in  various  ways,  he  being  regarded, 
especially  in  England  and  America,  as  a  "  favoured  debtor  " 
{per  Turner,  L.J.,  in  Wkeatley  v.  Bastow,  7  De  G.  M.  &  G.  279, 
aSo;  per  Earl  of  Selbome,  L.C.,  in  In  re  Shetry — London  and 
County  Banking  Co,  v.  Terry ^  2$  Ch.  D.,  at  p.  703;  and  see 
Brandt  on  Suretyship,  sees.  79,  80).  Tlius,  fraud  subsequent 
to  the  execution  of  the  guarantee  (as  where,  for  example,  the 
creditor  connives  at  the  principal  debtor's  default)  will  certainly 
discharge  the  surety.  Again,  a  material  alteration  made  by  the 
creditor  in  the  instrument  of  guarantee  after  its  execution  may 
also  have  this  effect.  The  most  prolific  ground  of  discharge, 
however,  is  usually  traceable  to  causes  originating  in  the  creditor's 
laches  or  conduct,  the  governing  principle  being  that  if  the 
creditor  violates  any  rights  which  the  surety  possessed  when  he 
entered  into  the  suretyship,  even  though  the  damage  be  nominal 
only,  the  guarantee  cannot  be  enforced.  On  this  subject  it 
suffices  to  state  that  the  surety's  discharge  may  be  accomplished 
(i)  by  a  variation  of  the  terms  of  the  contract  'between  the 
creditor  and  the  principal  debtor,  or  of  that  subsisting  between 
the  creditor  and  the  surety  (see  Richaby  v.  Lewis,  22  T.L.R.  130); 
(2)  by  the  creditor  taking  a  new  security  from  the  principal 
debtor  in  lieu  of  the  original  one;  (3)  by  the  creditor  discharging 
the  principal  debtor  from  liability;  (4)  by  the  creditor  binding 
himself  to  give  time  to  the  principal  debtor  for  payment  of 
the  guaranteed  debt;  or  (5)  by  loss  of  securities  received  by 
the  creditor  in  respect  of  the  guaranteed  debt. 

In  this  connexion  it  may  be  stated  in  general  terms  that 
whatever  extinguishes  the  principal  obligation  necessarily  deter- 
mines that  of  the  surety  (which  is  accessory  thereto),  not 
only  in  England  but  elsewhere  also  (Codes  Civil,  Fr.  and  Bel. 
2034,  2038;  Spain,  1847;  Port.  848;  Lower  Canada,  1956; 
X960;  Egypt  [mixed  suits],  623,  ibid,  [native  tribunals],  509; 
Indian  Contract  Act  1872,  sec.  134),  and  that,  by  most  of  the 
codes  civil  now  in  force,  the  surety  is  discharged  by  laches  or 
conduct  of  the  creditor  inconsistent  with  the  surety's  rights 
(see  Fr.  and  Bel.  2037;  Spain,  1852;  Port.  853;  Germany, 
776;  Italy,  1928;  Egypt  [mixed  suits],  623),  though  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  rule  prevailing  in  England,  Scotland, 
America  and  India  which  releases  the  surety  from  liability 
where  the  creditor,  by  binding  contract  with  the  principal, 
extends  without  the  surety's  consent  the  time  for  fulfilling  the 
principal  obligation,  while  recognized  by  two  existing  codes 
civil  (Spain,  1851;  Port.  852),  is  rejected  by  the  majority  of 
them  (Fr.  and  Bel.  2039;  Holland,  1887;  Italy,  1930;  Lower 
Canada,  1961;  Egypt  [mixed  suits],  613;  ib.  [native  tribunals], 
S03);  and  see  Morice,  English  and  Dutch  Law,  p.  96;  van  der 
Linden,  Institutes  of  Holland,  pp.  x 20-1 21).  A  revocation  of 
the  contract  of  suretyship  by  act  of  the  parties,  or  in  certain 
cases  by  the  death  of  the  surety,  may  also  operate  to  discharge 
the  surety.  The  death  of  a  surety  does  not  per  se  determine  the 
guarantee,  but,  save  where  from  its  nature  the  guarantee  is 
irrevocable  by  the  surety  himself,  it  can  be  revoked  by  express 
notice  after  his  death,  or,  it  would  appear,  by  the  creditor 
becoming  affected  with  constructive  notice  thereof;  except 
where,  under  the  testator's  will,  the  executor  has  the  option  of 
continuing  the  guarantee,  in  which  case  the  e;cecutor  should, 
it  seems,  specifically  withdraw- the  guarantee  in  order  to  determine 
it.  Where  one  of  a  number  of  joint  and  several  sureties  dies, 
the  future  liability  of  the  survivors  under  the  guarantee  continues, 
at  all  events  until  it  has  been  determined  by  express  notice. 
Moreover,  when  three  persons  joined  in  a  guarantee  to  a  bank, 
and  their  liability  thereunder  was  not  expressed  to  be  several, 
it  was  held  that  the  death  of  one  surety  did  not  determine  the 
liability  of  the  survivors.  In  such  a  case,  however,  the  estate  of 
the  deceased  surety  would  be  relieved  from  liability. 

The  Statutes  of  Limitation  bar  the  right  of  action  on  guarantees 
under  seal  after  twenty  years,  and  on  other  guarantees  after 
six  years,  from  the  date  when  the  creditor  might  have  sued  the 
surety. 

AuTHORiTiBs. — De  Colyar,  Law  of  Guarantees  and  of  Principal 
and  Surely  (3rd  ed.,  1897):  American  edition,  by  J.  A.  Morgan 
(1875);  Throop,    Validity  of  Verbal  Agreements;  Fell,  Guarantees 


(2nd  ed.) ;  Theobald,  Law  of  Principal  and  Surety,  Bnndt.  Lam  tf 
Surety  ski f»  and  Guarantee;  article  by  de  Colyar  in  Jeumtd  tf 
Comparatioe  Legislation  (1905).  on  "  Suretyship  from  the  Sundpoint 
of  Comparative  Jurisprudence."  (H.  A.  de  C) 

GUARATINGUETA,  a  city  of  Brazil  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  state  of  Sio  Paulo,  124  m.  N.E.  of  the  city  of  Sio  Paulo. 
Pop.  (1890)  of  the  municipality,  which  includes  a  Urge  rural 
district  and  the  villages  of  Apparecida  and  Rosdra,  30,690. 
The  city,  which  was  founded  in  1651,  stands  on  a  fertile  plair. 
3  m.  from  the  Parahyba  river,  and  is  the  commercial  centre  cl 
one  of  the  oldest  agricultural  districts  of  the  state.  The  district 
produces  large  quantities  of  coffee,  and  some  sugar,  Indian  com 
and  beans.  Cattle  and  pigs  are  raised.  The  city  dwellings  are 
for  the  most  part  constructed  of  rough  wooden  frames  covered 
with  mud,  called  iaipa  by  the  natives,  and  roofed  with  curved 
tiles.  The  S&o  Paulo  branch  of  the  Brazilian  Central  railway 
passes  through  the  city,  by  which  it  is  connected  with  Rio  de 
Janeiro  on  one  side  and  Sao  Paulo  and  Santos  on  the  other. 

6UARDA,  an  episcopal  city  and  the  capital  of  an  administra- 
tive district  bearing  the  same  name,  and  formerly  in  the  province 
of  Beira,  Portugal;  on  the  Guarda-Abrantcs  and  Lisbon- 
Villar  Formoso  railways.  Pop.  (1900)  6124.  Guarda  is  situated 
3370  ft.  above  sea-level,  at  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the 
Serra  da  Estrella,  overlooking  the  fertile  valley  of  the  river  Cda. 
It  is  surrounded  by  ancient  walls,  and  contains  a  niined 
castle,  a  fine  x6th-century  cathedral  and  a  sanatorium  foe 
consumptives.  Its  industries  comprise  the  manufacture  of 
coarse  doth  and  the  sale  of  grain,  wine  and  live  stock.  In  1199 
Guarda  was  founded,  on  the  site  of  the  Roman  Lcncia  Oppidaiu, 
by  Sancho  I.  of  Portugal,  who  intended  it,  as  its  name  implies, 
to  be  a  "  guard  "  against  Moorish  invasion.  The  admini^rative 
district  of  Guarda  coincides  with  north-eastern  Beira;  pop. 
(1900),  261,630;  area,  1065  sq.  m. 

QUARDI,  FRANCESCO  (1712-1793),  Venetian  painter,  was 
a  pupil  of  Canaletto,  and  foUowed  his  style  so  closely  that  his 
pictures  are  very  frequently  attributed  to  his  more  celebrated 
master.  Nevertheless,  the  diversity,  when  once  perceived,  b 
sufficiently  marked — Canaletto  being  more  firm,  solid,  distinct, 
well-grounded,  and  on  the  whole  the  higher  master,  while 
Guardi  is  noticeable  for  spirited  touch,  sparkling  colour  and 
picturesquely  sketched  figures — in  these  respects  being  fully 
equal  to  Canaletto.  Guardi  sometimes  coloured  Canalclto's 
designs.  He  had  extraordinary  facility,  three  or  four  days  being 
enough  for  producing  an  entire  work.  The  number  ol  bis 
performances  is  large  in  proportion  to  this  facility  and  to  tfac 
love  of  gain  which  characterized  him.  Many  of  his  works  arc  to 
be  found  in  England  and  seven  in  the  Louvre. 

GUARDIAN,  one  who  guards  or  defends  another,  a  protector. 
The  O.  Fr.  guarden,  garden,  mod.  gardien,  from  guarder,  gcrdtr, 
is  of  Teutonic  origin,  from  the  base  war-,  to  protect,  cf.  O.H.  Ger. 
warlen,  and  Eng.  "  ward  ";  thus  "guardian"  and  *'  warden  " 
are  etymologicaily  identical,  as  are  *'  guard  '*  and  "  ward "; 
cf.  the  use  of  the  correlatives  "  guardian  "  and  "  ward,"  i^c.  a 
minor,  or  person  incapable  of  managing  his  affairs,  under  tbc 
protection  or  in  the  custody  of  a  guardian.  For  the  position 
of  guardians  of  the  poor  see  Poor  Law,  and  for  the  legal  relations 
between  a  guardian  and  his  ward  see  Infant,  Maxuace  and 
RouAN  Law. 

GUARDS,  AND  HOUSEHOLD  TROOPS.  The  wx>rd  guard  is 
an  adaptation  of  the  Fr.  guarde,  mod.  garde,  O.  Ger.  ward;  see 
Guardian.  The  practice  of  maintaining  bodyguards  is  of 
great  antiquity,  and  may  indeed  be  considered  the  beginning  cl 
organized  armies.  Thus  there  is  often  no  clear  distinaion 
between  the  inner  ring  of  personal  defenders  and  the  sdect  corps 
of  trained  combatants  who  are  at  the  chief's  entire  disposal- 
Famous  examples  of  corps  that  fell  under  one  or  both  ihcsr 
headings  are  the  "  Immortals "  of  Xerxes,  the  Maniehik«5, 
Janissaries,  the  Huscarles  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings,  and  the 
Russian  Strelitz  {StrycUsi).  In  modem  times  the  distirictioo 
of  function  is  better  marked,  and  the  fighting  men  who  are 
more  intimately  connected  with  the  'sovereign  than  the  bulk  of 
the  army  can  be  classified  as  to  duties  into  "  Household  Troo|}S,'* 


GUARDS 


657 


who  are  in  a  sense  personal  retainers,  and  **  Guards,"  who  are 
a  corps  d'ilUe  of  combatants.  But  the  dividing  line  is  not  so 
clear  as  to  any  given  body  of  troops.  Thus  the  British  Household 
Cavalry  is  part  of  the  combatant  army  as  well  as  the  sovereign's 
escort. 

The  oldest  of  the  household  or  bodyguard  corps  in  the  United 
Kingdom  is  the  King's  Bodyguard  of  the  Yeomrn  of  the  Guard 
(q.v^t  formed  at  his  accession  by  Henry  VII.  The  "  nearest 
guard,"  the  personal  escort  of  the  sovereign,  is  the  "  King's 
Bodyguard  of  the  Honourable  Corps  of  CcntUmen-at-Arms," 
created  by  Henry  VIII.  at  his  accession  in  1509.  Formed 
possibly  on  the  pattern  of  the  "  Pensionnaires  "  of  the  French 
kings — retainers  of  noble  birth  who  were  the  predecessors  of 
the  Maiion  du  Rot  (see  below) — the  new  corps  was  originally 
called  "  the  Pensioners."  The  importance  of  such  guards 
regiments  in  the  general  development  of  organized  armies  is 
illustrated  by  a  declaration  of  the  House  of  Commons,  made  in 
1674,  that  the  militia,  the  pensioners  and  the  Yeomen  of  the 
Guard  were  the  only  lawful  armed  forces  in  the  realm.  But 
with  the  rise  of  the  professional  soldier  and  the  corresponding 
disuse  of  arms  by  the  nobles  and  gentry,  the  Gent lemen-at- Arms 
(a  title  which  came  into  use  in  James  II. 's  time,  though  it  did  not 
become  that  of  the  corps  until  William  IV.'s)  retaining  their 
noble  character,  became  less  and  less  military.  Burke  attempted 
without  success  in  17S2  to  restrict  membership  to  officers  of  the 
army  and  navy,  but  the  necessity  of  giving  the  corps  an  eflfcctive 
military  character  became  obvious  when,  on  the  occasion  of 
a  threatened  Chartist  riot,  it  was  called  upon  to  do  duty  as  an 
armed  body  at  St  James's  Palace.  The  corps  was  reconstituted 
on  a  purely  military  basis  in  1862,  and  from  that  date  only 
military  officers  of  the  regular  services  who  have  received  a  war 
decoration  are  eligible  for  appointment.  The  office  of  captain, 
however,  is  political,  the  holder  (who  is  always  a  peer)  vacating 
it  on  the  resignation  of  the  government  of  which  he  is  a  member. 
The  corps  consists  at  present  of  captain,  lieutenant,  standard 
bearer,  clerk  of  the  cheque  (adjutant),  sub-officer  and  39 
gentlemen-at-arms.  The  uniform  consists  of  a  scarlet  swallow- 
tailed  coat  and  blue  overalls,  with  gold  epaulettes,  brass  dragoon 
helmet  with  drooping  white  plume  and  brass  box-spurs,  these 
last  contrasting  rather  forcibly  with  the  partisan,  an  essentially 
infantry  weapon,  that  they  carry. 

T%e  Royal  Company  of  Archers. — ^The  king's  bodyguard  for  Scot- 
land was  constituted  in  its  present  form  in  the  year  1670.  by  an  act  of 
the  privy  council  of  Scotland.  An  earlier  origin  has  been  claimed 
for  the  company,  some  connecting  it  with  a  supposed  archer  guard 
of  the  kings  of  Scotland.  In  the  above-mentioned  year.  1676,  the 
minutes  of  the  Royal  Company  bej^n  by  stating,  that  owing  to 
"  the  noble  and  utefull  recreation  otarrhery  being  for  many  years 
much  neglected,  several  noblemen  and  gentlemen  did  associate 
themselves  in  a  company  for  encouragement  thereof  .  .  .  and  did 
apply  to  the  privy  council  for  their  approbation  .  .  .  which  was 
granted."-  For  about  twenty  years  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century, 
perhaps  owing  to  the  adhesion  of  the  majority  to  the  Stuart  cause, 
Its  existence  seems  to  have  been  suspended.  But  in  1703  a  new 
capcatn-^eneral.  Sir  George  Mackenzie,  Viscount  Tarbat.  afterwards 
earl  of  Cromarty  (1630-1714),  was  elected,  and  he  procured  for  the 
companv  a  new  charter  from  Queen  Anne.  The  rights  and  privileges 
rencwea  or  confemd  by  this  charter  were  to  be  held  of  tne  crown 
for  the  reddendo  of  a  pau"  of  barbed  arrows.  This  reddtndo  «as  paid 
to  George  IV.  at  HoiYiood  in  1833,  to  Queen  Victoria  in  184a  and 
to  King  bdward  VII.  m  1903.  The  history  of  the  Royal  Company 
•tnce  1703  has  been  one  of  ^reat  prosperity.  Large  (arades  were 
frequently  held,  and  many  distinguished  men  marched  in  the  ranks. 
Several  df  the  leading  insurgents  in  17^5  were  members,  but  the 
company  was  not  at  that  time  suspended  in  anv  way. 

In  183a  when  King  George  IV.  visited  Scotland,  it  was  thought 
appropriate  that  the  Royal  Com|>any  should  act  as  his  majesty's 
bodyguard  during  his  stay,  especially  as  there  was  a  tradition  of 
a  former  archer  bodyguard.  They  therefore  performed  the  duties 
usuallv  assigned  to  the  gentlemen-at-arms.  When  Queen  Victoria 
visited  the  Scottish  capital  in  1843.  the  Royal  Company  again  did 
duty:  the  last  time  they  were  called  out  in  her  reign  in  their  capacity 
of  royal  bodyguard  was  in  i85o  on  the  occasion  of  the  great  volunteer 
review  in  the  Queen's  Park,  Edinburgh.  They  acted  in  the  same 
capacity  when  King  Edward  VII.  reviewed  the  Scottish  Volunteers 
there  on  the  i8th  01  September  IQ05. 

King  George  IV.  authorized  the  company  to  take,  in  addition 
to  their  former  name,  that  of  "  The  King's  Body  Guard  for  Scot- 
land," and  ptmntsQ  to  the  captaia-gueral  a  gold  stick,  thus 

Ui  n* 


constituting  the  company  part  of  the  royal  household.  In  virtue 
of  this  stick  the  captain-general  of  the  Royal  Company  takes  hjs 
place  at  a  coronation  or  similar  pageant  immediately  behind  the 
gold  stick  of  England.  The  lieutenants-^encral  of  the  company 
have  silver  sticks;  and  the  council,  which  is  the  executive  body  of 
the  companv,  possess  seven  ebony  ones.  George  IV  further  ap> 
pointed  a  full  dress  uniform  to  be  worn  by  members  of  the  company 
at  court,  when  not  on  duty  as  guards,  in  which  latter  case  the 
ordinary  field  dress  is  used.  The  court  dress  is  green  with  green 
velvet  facings,  gold  epaulettes  and  lace,  crimson  silk  sash,  and 
cocked  hat  with  green  plume.  The  officers  wear  a  gold  sash  in 
place  of  a  crimson  one.  and  an  atgutUette  on  the  left  shoulder  All 
ranks  wear  swords.  The  field  dress  at  present  consists  o(  a  dark- 
green  tunic,  shoulder- wings  and  gauntlcted  cuffs  and  trousers 
trimmed  with  black  and  crimson ;  a  bow-caae  worn  as  a  sash,  of  the 
same  colour  as  the  coat,  bbck  waistbcle  with  sword,  and  Balmoral 
bonnet  with  thistle  ornament  and  eagle's  feather.  The  officers  of 
the  company  arc  the  captain-general,  4  capuins,  4  lieutenants, 
4  ensigns,  la  brigadiers  and  adjutant. 

Corps  of  the  gentlemen-at-arms  or  yeoman  type  do  not  of 
course  count  as  combatant  troops— if  for  no  other  reason  at 
least  because  they  are  armed  with  the  weapons  of  bygone  tiroes. 
Colonel  Clifford  Walton  states  in  his  History  of  tke  British 
Standing  Army  that  neither  the  Yeomen  of  the  Guard  nor  the 
Pensioners  were  ever  subject  to  martial  law.  The  British  gtiards 
and  household  troops  that  are  armed,  trained  and  organized 
as  part  of  the  army  are  the  Household  Cavalry  and  the  Foot 
Guards, 

The  Household  Cavalry  consists  at  the  present  day  of  three 
regiments,  and  has  its  origin,  as  have  certain  of  the  Footguard 
regiments,  in  the  ashes  of  the  "  New  Model  "  army  disbuided 
at  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  in  1660.  In  that  year  the 
"  ist  or  His  Majesty's  Own  Troop  of  Guards  "  formed  during 
the  king's  exile  of  his  cavalier  followers,  was  taken  on  the  strength 
of  the  army.  The  and  troop  was  formerly  in  the  Spanish  service 
as  the  "  Duke  of  York's  Guards,"  and  was  also  a  cavalier  unit. 
In  1670,  on  Monk's  death,  the  original  3rd  troop  (Monk's  Life 
Guards,  renamed  in  1660  the  "  Lord  General's  Troop  of  Guards  ") 
became  the  and  (the  queen's)  troop,  and  the  duke  of  York's 
troop  the  3rd.  In  1685  the  ist  and  and  troops  were  styled  Life 
Guards  of  Horse,  and  two  years  later  the  blue-uniformed  "  Royal 
Regiment  of  Horse,"  a  New  Model  regiment  that  bad  been 
disbanded  and  at  once  re-raised  in  1660,  was  made  a  household 
cavalry  corps.  Later  under  the  colonelcy  of  the  earl  of  Oxford 
it  was  popularly  called  "  The  Oxford  Blues."  There  were  also 
from  time  to  time  other  troops  {e.g.  Scots  troops  1700-1746) 
that  have  now  disappeared.  In  1746  the  and  troop  was  dis- 
banded, but  it  was  revived  in  1788,  when  the  two  senior  a>rps 
were  given  their  present  title  of  ist  and  and  Life  Guards.  From 
1750  to  1819  the  Blues  bore  the  name  of  "  Royal  Horse  Guards 
Blue,"  which  in  1819  was  changed  to  "  Royal  Horse  Guards 
(The  Blues)."  The  general  distinction  between  the  uniforms 
of  the  red  Life  Guard  and  the  blue  Horse  Guard  still  exists. 
The  ist  and  the  and  regiments  of  Life  Guards  wear  scarlet  tunica 
with  blue  collars  and  cuffs,  and  the  Royal  Horse  Guards  blue 
timics  with  scarlet  collars  and  cuffs.  All  three  wear  steel 
cuirasses  on  state  occasions  and  on  guard  duty.  The  head-dress 
is  a  steel  helmet  with  drooping  horse-hair  plume  (white  for  Life 
Guards,  red  for  Horse  Guards).  In  full  dress  white  bucksUn 
pantaloons  and  long  knee  boots  are  worn.  Amongst  the 
peculiarities  of  these  corps  d^ilite  is  the  survival  of  the  old  custom 
of  calling  non  -  commissioned  officers  "  corporal  of  horse  " 
instead  of  sergeant,  and  corporal-major  instead  of  sergeant-major, 
the  wearing  by  trumpeters  and  bandsmen  in  full  dress  of  a  black 
velvet  cap,  a  richly  laced  coat  with  a  full  skirt  extending  to  the 
wearer's  knees  and  long  white  gaiters.  There  is  little  distinction 
between  the  two  Life  Guards  regiments'  imiforms,  the  most 
obvious  point  being  that  the  cord  running  through  the  white 
leather  pouch  belt  is  red  for  the  ist  and  blue  for  the  and. 

The  Foot  Guards  comprise  the  Grenadier  Guards,  the  Cold- 
stream Guards,  the  Scots  Guards  and  the  Irish  Guards,  each 
(except  the  last)  of  three  battalions.  The  Grenadiers,  originally 
the  First  Foot  Guards,  represent  a  royalist  infantry  regiment 
which  served  with  the  exiled  princes  in  the  Spanish  army  and 
returned  at  the  Restoration  in  1660.    The  Coldstream  Guards 


658 


GUARDS 


are  a  New  Model  regiment,  and  were  •riginally  called  the  Lord 
General's  (Monk's)  regiment  of  Foot  Guards.  Their  popular 
title,  which  became  their  oflfidal  designation  in  1670,  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  the  army  with  whicl^  Monk  restored  the 
monarchy  crossed  the  Tweed  into  England  at  the  village  of 
Coldstream,  and  that  his  troops  (which  were  afterwards,  except 
the  two  units  of  horse  and  foot  of  which  Monk  himself  was 
colonel,  disbanded)  were  called  the  Coldstreamers.  The  two 
battalions  of  Scots  Foot  Guards,  which  regiment  was  separately 
raised  and  maintamed  in  Scotland  after  the  Restoration,  marched 
to  London  in  1686  and  1688  and  were*brought  on  to  the  English 
Establishment  in  1707.  In  George  III.'s  reign  they  were  known 
as  the  Third  Guards,  and  from  1831  to  1877  (when  the  present 
title  was  adopted)  as  the  Scots  Fusilier  Guarch. 

The  Irish  Guards  (one  battalion)  were  formed  in  1902,  after 
the  South  African  War,  as  a  mark  of  Queen  Victoria's  apprecia- 
tion of  the  services  rendered  by  the  various  Irish  regiments  of 
the  linc.^  The  dress  of  the  Foot  Guards  is  generally  similar 
in  all  four  regiments,  scarlet  tunic  with  blue  collars,  cuffs  and 
shoulder-straps,  blue  trousers  and  high,  rounded  bearskin  cap. 
The  regimental  distinctions  most  easily  noticed  are  these.  The 
Grenadiers  wear  a  small  white  plume  in  the  bearskin,  the  Cold- 
streams  a  similar  red  one,  the  Scots  none,  the  Irish  a  blue-green 
one.  The  buttons  on  the  tunic  are  spaced  evenly  for  the 
Grenadiers,  by  twos  for  the  Coldstrcams.by  threes  for  the  Scots 
and  by  fours  for  the  Irish.  The  band  of  the  modern  cap  is  red 
for  the  Grenadiers,  white  for  the  Coldstreams,  "  diced  "  red  and 
white  <chequers)  for  the  Scots  and  green  for  the  Irish.  Former 
privileges  of  foot  guard  regiments,  such  as  higher  brevet  rank 
in  the  army  for  their  regimental  officers,  are  now  abolished,  but 
Guards  are  still  subject  exclusively  to  the  command  of  their 
own  officers,  and  the  officers  of  the  Foot  Guards,  like  those  of  the 
Household  Cavalry,  have  special  duties  at  court.  Neither  the 
cavalry  nor  the  infantry  guards  serve  abroad  in  peace  time  as 
a  rule,  but  in  1907  a  battalion  of  the  Guards,  which  it  was  at 
that  time  proposed  to  disband,  was  sent  to  Egypt.  "  Guards' 
Brigades"  served  in  the  Napoleonic  Wars,  in  the  Crimea,  in 
Egypt  at  various  times  from  1887  to  1898  and  in  South  Africa 
1899-1902.  The  last  employment  of  the  Household  Cavalry 
as  a  brigade  in  war  was  at  Waterloo,  but  composite  regiments 
made  up  from  officers  and  men  of  the  Life  Guards  and  Blues  were 
employed  in  Egypt  and  in  S.  Africa. 

The  sovereigns  of  France  had  euards  in  their  service  In  Mero- 
vingian times,  and  their  household  forces  appear  from  time  to  time 
in  the  history  of  medieval  wars.  Louis  XI.  was,  however,  the  first 
to  regularize  their  somewhat  loose  organization,  and  he  did  so  to 
such  good  purpose  that  Francis  I.  had  no  less  than  8000  guardsmen 
organued,  subdivided  and  permanently  under  arms.  The  senior 
unit  of  the  Gardes  du  Corps  was  the  famous  company  of  Scottish 
archers  {Compatnie  icossaue  de  la  Garde  du  Corps  du  Rot),  which 
was  originally  formed  (1418)  from  the  Scottish  contingents  that 
assisted  the  French  in  the  Hundred  Years'  War.  Scott  s  Quentin 
Durtoard  gives  a  picture  of  life  in  the  corps  as  it  was  under  Louis  XI. 
In  the  following  century,  however,  its  regimental  history  becomes 
somewhat  confused.  Two  French  companies  were  added  by  Louis 
XI.  and  Francis  I.  and  the  Gardes  du  Corps  came  to  consist  ex- 
clusively of  cavalry.  About  1614  nearly  all  the  Scots  then  serving 
went  into  the  "  regiment  d'Hebron  "  and  thence  later  into  the 
British  regular  army  (see  Hepburn,  Sir  Tohn).  Thereafter,  though 
the  titles,  distinctions  and  privileges  of  the  original  Archer  Guard 
were  continued,  it  was  recruited  from  native  Frenchmen,  preference 
being  (at  any  rate  at  first)  given  to  those  of  Scottish  descent.  At 
its  disbandment  in  1791  along  with  the  rest  of  the  Gardes  du  Corps, 
it  contained  few,  if  any,  native  Scots.  There  was  also,  for  a  short 
time  (1643-1660),  an  infantry  regiment  of  Gardes  icossaises. 

In  1671  the  title  of  Maison  Militaire  du  Rot  was  applied  to  that 
portion  of  the  household  that  was  distinctively  military.  It  came 
to  consist  of  4  companies  of  the  Gardes  du  Corps,  a  companies 
of  Mousquetaires  (cavalry)  (formed  1632  and  1660),  i  company  of 
Ckeoauxligers  (1570),  i  of  Gendarmes  de  la  Maison  Route,  and  i  of 
Grenadiers  d  Cheval  (1676),  with  i  company  of  Gardes  de  Ta  Porte  and 
one  called  the  Cent-Sutsses,  the  last  two  being  semi-military.  This 
large  establishment,  which  did  not  include  all  the  guard  regiments, 
was  considerably  reduced  by  the  Count  of  St  Germain's  reforms  in 

>  The  "  Irish  Guards  "  of  the  Stuarts  took  the  side  of  James  II.. 
fought  against  William  III.  in  Ireland  and  lost  their  regimental 
identity  in  the  French  service  to  which  the  officers  and  soldiers 
transferred  themselves  on  the  abandonment  of  the  struggle. 


177s.  all  except  the  Gardes  du  Corps  and  the  Cent-Smuses  bciai 
disbanded.  Ine  whole  of  the  Matson  du  Rot,  with  the  caceptioe 
of  the  semi-military  bodies  referred  to.  was  cavalry. 

The  Gardes  franfatsrs,  formed  in  1563,  did  not  form  oartof  tbc 
Matson.  They  were  an  infantry  regiment,  as  were  the  faniooi 
Gardes  sutsses,  originally  a  Swiss  mercenary  regiment  in  the  Wan 
of  Religion,  which  was,  for  good  conduct  at  the  combat  of  Araues, 
incorporated  in  the  permanent  establishment  by  Henry  IV.  id 
1589  and  in  the  guards  in  161 5.  At  the  Revolution,  contrary  10 
expectation,  the  Mvnch  Guards  sided  openly  with  the  Constitutional 
movement  and  were  disbanded  The  bwiss  Guards,  hovever, 
being  foreigners,  and  therefore  unaffected  by  civil  troubles,  retained 
their  exact  discipline  and  devotion  to  the  court  to  the  day  on  which 
they  were  sacrtnccd  by  their  master  to  the  bullets  of  the  MarseSUts 
and  the  pikes  of  the  mob  (August  10,  1792).  Their  tragic  fate  is 
commemorated  by  the  well-known  monument  called  the  "  Lion  d 
Lucerne."  the  work  of  Thorvaldsen,  erected  near  Lucerne  in  1821. 
The  "  Constitutional,"  "  Revolutionary  "  and  other  guards  that 
were  created  after  the  abolition  of  the  Matson  and  the  slaughter  d 
the  Swiss  are  unimportant,  but  through  the  *'  Directory  Guards  " 
they  form  a  nominal  link  between  tne  household  troops  of  the 
monarchy  and  the  corps  which  is  perhaps  the  most  famous  "  Guard  " 
in  history  The  Imperial  Guard  of  Napoleon  had  its  beginnii^  ia 
an  escort  squadron  called  the  Corps  of  Guides,  which  accompaoird 
him  in  the  lulian  campaign  of  I7S>6-I797  and  in  Egypt.  Cta 
becoming  First  Consul  in  1799  he  built  up  out  of  this  and  of  the 
guard  of  the  Directory  a  small  corps  of  horse  and  foot,  called  the 
Consular  Guard,  and  this,  which  was  more  of  a  fighting  unit  tkaa 
a  personal  bodyguard,  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Marengo.  The 
Imperial  Guard,  into  which  it  was  converted  on  the  estabiishmeiit 
of  the  Empire,  was  at  first  of  about  the  strength  of  a  division. 
As  such  it  took  part  in  the  Austerlitz  and  Jena  campawns,  but  after 
the  conquest  of  Prussia  Napoleon  augmented  it,  and  cfivided  it  into 
the  "  Old  Guard  "  and  the  "  Young  Guard."  SulMeqaeatly  the 
"  Middle  Guard  "  was  created,  and  by  successive  augnentatiom 
the  corps  of  the  guard  had  grown  to  be  57,000  strong  in  1811-1812 
and  81,000  in  1813.  It  preserved  its  general  character  as  a  corps 
d'titU  of  veterans  to  the  last,  but  from  about  1813  the  "Young 
Guard  "  was  recruited  directlv  from  the  best  of  the  annual  conscript 
contingent.  The  officers  held  a  higher  rank  in  the  army  than  their 
regimental  rank  in  the  Guards.  At  the  first  Restoration  an  attempt 
was  nude  to  revive  the  Maison  du  Rot,  but  in  the  constitutional 
nSgime  of  the  second  Restoration  this  semi-medieval  form  of  body- 
guard was  given  up  and  replaced  by  the  Garde  RoyaU,  a  selected 
fighting  corps.    This  took  part  in  the  short  war  with  Spain  and  a 

K>rtion  of  it  fought  in  Algeria,  but  it  was  disbanded  at  the  Jaly 
evolution.  Louis  Philippe  had  no  real  guard  troops,  but  the 
memories  of  the  Imperial  Guard  were  revived  by  Napoleon  III.. 
who  formed  a  large  guard  corps  in  1853-1854.  This,  however, 
was  open  to  an  even  greater  degree  than  Napoleon  I.'s  suardto  the 
objection  that  it  took  away  the  beat  soldiers  from  the  line.  Since 
the  fall  of  the  Empire  in  1870  there  have  been  no  guard  troops  to 
France.  The  duty  of  watching  over  the  safety  of  the  j»readeat  b 
taken  in  the  ordinary  roster  of  duty  by  the  troopa  stationed  in  the 
capital.  The  "  Republican  Guard "  is  the  Paris  gendanaerie. 
recruited  from  old  soldiers  and  armed  and  trained  as  a  military  body. 
In  Attstria-Hungary  there  are  only  small  bodies  of  household 
troops  (Archer  Body  Guard,  Trabant  Guard,  Hungarian  Crova 
Guards,  &c.)  analogous  to  the  British  Gentlemen  at  Arms  or  Yeomen 
of  the  Guard.  Similar  forces,  the  "  Noble  Guard  "  and  the  "  Sviss 
Guard,"  are  maintained  in  the  Vatican.  The  court  troops  of  Spoia 
are  called  "  halberdiers  "  and  armed  with  the  halbert.  ^ 


In  Russia  the  Guard  is  organized  as  an  army  corps.    It . 
special  privileges,  particularly  as  regards  officers*  advaaccraent. 

In  Cermaiiy  the  aistinction  between  armed  retainersand  "Guard*  ** 
is  well  marked.  The  army  is  for  practical  purposes  a  unit  under 
imperial  control,  while  household  troops  ("  castle>-guards  "  as  they 
are  usually  called)  belong  individually  to  the  various  sovereigw 
within  the  empire.  The  "  Guards,"  as  a  combatant  force  ia  the 
army  are  those  of  the  king  of  Prussia  and  constitute  a  strong  amy 
corps.  This  has  grown  gradually  from  a  bodyguard  of  archen. 
ana,  as  in  Great  Bntain.  the  functions  of  the  heavy  cavalry  regimeats 
of  the  Guard  preserve  to  some  extent  the  name  and  character  cf  a 
body  guard  (Gardes  du  Corps).  The  senior  foot  guard  tegiaent  is 
also  personally  connected  with  the  royal  family.  The  convcnioa 
of  a  palace<guard  to  a  combatant  fcMce  is  doe  chieflv  to  Frederics 
William  I.,  to  whom  drill  was  a  ruling  passion,  and  who  substitattd 
effective  regiments  for  the  ornamental  "  Tmbant  Guards  '\  of  his 
father.  A  further  move  was  made  by  Frederick  the  Great  in  nh- 
stituting  for  Frederick  William's  expensive  **  giant "  regiment  d 
guards  a  larger  number  of  ordinary  soldiers,  whom  he  sub/ccted 
to  the  same  rigorous  training  and  made  a  corps  d'Uile,  Freoenck 
the  Great  also  formed  ihe  Body  Guard  alluded  to  above.  Neveitbe> 
less  in  1806  the  Guard  still  consisted  only  of  two  cavalry  reginenrs 
and  four  infantry  regiments,  and  it  was  the  example  of  Napoleoa  i 
imperial  gtiard  which  converted  this  force  into  a  corps  of  all  ann 
In  1813  Its  strength  was  that  of  a  weak  diviskm*  but  in  itto  tj 
slight  but  frequent  augmentations  it  had  come  to  consst  of  *< 
army  corps,  complete  with  all  auxiliary  ser\ices.    A  few  gasm 


GUARD-SHIP— GUARINI 


659 


resiments  bdonging  to  tlie  minor  sovereigns  are  counted  in  the 
line  of  the  German  army.  In  war  the  Guard  is  employed  as  a  unit, 
like  other  army  corps.  It  is  recruited  by  the  assignment  of  selected 
young  men  01  each  annual  contingent,  and  is  thus  free  from  the 
reproach  of  the  French  Imperial  Guard,  which  took  the  beat-trained 
soldiers  from  the  regiments  of  the  line. 

GUARD-SHIP,  a  warship  stationed  at  some  port  or  harbour 
to  act  as  a  guard,  and  in  former  times  in  the  British  navy  to 
receive  the  men  impressed  for  service.  She  usually  was  the 
flagship  of  the  admiral  commanding  on  the  coast.  A  guard-boat 
is  a  boat  which  goes  the  round  pf  a  fleet  at  anchor  to  see  that 
due  watch  is  kept  at  night. 

OUARIOO,  a  large  inland  state  of  Venezuela  created  by  the 
territorial  red! vision  of  1904,  bounded  by  Aragua  and  Miranda 
on  the  N.,  Berm6dez  on  the  E.,  BoUvar  on  the  S.,  and  Zamora  on 
the  W.  Pop.  (1905  estimate),  78,117.  It  extends  across  the 
northern  Uanos  to  the  Orinoco  and  Apure  rivers  and  is  devoted 
almost  wholly  to  pastoral  pursuits,  exporting  cattle,  horses  and 
mules,  hides  and  skins,  cheese  and  some  other  products.  The 
capital  is  Calabozo,  and  the  other  principal  towns  are  Camagu&d 
(pop.  3648)  on  the  Portugueza  river,  Guayabal  (pop.  3146), 
on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Gu&rico  river,  and  2^ra2a  (pop. 
X4f546)  on  the  Unare  river,  nearly  150  m.  S.E.  of  Cardcas. 

GUARIBMTO.  sometimes  incorrectly  named  Guerriero,  the 
first  Paduan  painter  who  distinguished  himself.  The  only  date 
distinctly  known  in  his  career  is  1365,  when,  having  already 
acquired  high  renown  in  his  native  city,  he  was  invited  by  the 
Venetian  authorities  to  paint  a  Paradise,  and  some  incidents 
of  the  war  of  Spolcto,  in  the  great  council-hall  of  Venice.  These 
works  were  greatly  admired  at  the  time,  but  have  long  ago 
disappeared  under  repaintings.  His  works  in  Padua  have 
suffered  much.  In  the  church  of  the  Eremitani  are  allegories 
of  the  Planets,  and,  in  its  choir,  some  small  sacred  histories  in 
dead  colour,  such  as  an  Ecce  Homo;  also,  on  the  upper  walls, 
the  life  of  St  Augustine,  with  some  other  subjects.  A  few 
fragments  of  other  paintings  by  Guariento  are  still  extant  in 
Padua.  In  the  gallery  of  Bassano  is  a  Crucifixion,  carefully 
executed,  and  somewhat  superior  to  a  merely  traditional  method 
of  handling,  although  on  the  whole  Guariento  must  rather  be 
classed  in  that  school  of  art  which  preceded  Cimabue  than  as 
having  advanced  in  his  vestiges;  likewise  two  other  works  in 
Bassano,  ascribed  to  the  same  hand.  The  painter  is  buried  in 
the  church  of  S.  Bernardino,  Padua. 

GUARINI,  CAMILLO-GUARINO  (1624-1683),  Italian  monk, 
writer  and  architect,  was  born  at  Modena  in  1624.  He  was  at 
once  a  learned  mathematician,  professor  of  literature  and 
philosophy  at  Messina,  and,  from  the  age  of  seventeen,  was 
architect  to  Duke  Philibert  of  Savoy.  He  designed  a  very  large 
number  of  public  and  private  buildings  at  Turin,  including  the 
palaces  of  the  duke  of  Savoy  and  the  prince  of  Cacignan,  and 
many  public  buildings  at  Modena,  Verona,  Vienna,  Prague, 
Lisbon  and  Paris.    He  died  at  Milan  in  1683. 

GUARINI,  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA  (1537-1613),  Italian  poet, 
author  of  the  Pastor  fide,  was  bom  at  Ferrara  on  the  10th  of 
December  1537,  just  seven  years  before  the  birth  of  Tasso.  '  He 
was  descended  from  Guarino  da  Verona.  The  young  Battista 
studied  both  at  Pisa  and  Padua,  whence  he  was  called,  when  not 
yet  twenty,  to  profess  moral  philosophy  in  the  schools  of  his 
native  city.  He  inherited  considerable  wealth,  and  was  able  early 
in  life  to  marry  Taddea  de'  Bendedei,  a  lady  of  good  birth.  In 
1567  he  entered  the  service  of  Alphonso  II.,  duke  of  Ferrara, 
thus  beginning  the  court  career  which  was  destined  to  prove  a 
constant  source  of  disappointment  and  annoyance  to  him. 
Though  he  cultivated  poetry  for  pastime,  Guarini  aimed  at 
state  employment  as  the  serious  business  of  his  life,  and  managed 
to  be  sent  on  various  embassies  and  missions  by  his  ducal  master. 
There  was,  however,  at  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  no  oppor- 
tunity for  a  man  of  energy  and  intellectual  ability  to  distinguish 
himself  in  the  petty  sphere  of  Italian  diplomacy.  The  time  too 
had  passed  when  the  profession  of  a  courtier,  painted  in  such 
Rowing  terms  by  Castiglione,  could  confer  either  profit  or 
honour.  It  is  true  that  the  court  of  Alphonso  presented  a 
brilliant  spectacle  to  Europe,  with  Tasso  for  titular  poet,  and 


an  attractive  circle  of  accomplished  ladies.    But  the  last  duke 
of  Ferrara  was  an  illiberal  patron,  feeding  his  servants  with 
promises,  and  ever  ready  to  treat  them  with  the  brutality  that 
condemned  the  author  of  the  GtrusaUmme  liberala  to  a  mad- 
house.   Guarini  spent  his  time  and  money  to  little  purpose, 
suffered  from  the  spite  and  ill-will  of  two  successive  secretaries, — 
Pigna  and  Montecatini, — quarrelled  with  his  old  friend  Tasso, 
and  at  the  end  of  fourteen  years  of  service  found  himself  half- 
ruined,  with  a  large  family  and  no  prospects.    When  Tasso  was 
condemned  to  S.  Anna,  the  duke  promoted  Guarini  to  the  vacant 
post  of  court  poet.    There  is  an  interesting  letter  extant  from 
the  latter  to  his  friend  Comelio  Bentivoglio,  describing  the  efforts 
he  made  to  fill  this  place  appropriately.    "  I  strove  to  transform 
myself  into  another  person,  and,  like  a  player,  reassumcd  the 
character,  costume  and  feelings  of  my  youth.    Advanced  in 
manhood,  I  forced  myself  to  look  young;  I  turned  my  natural 
melancholy  into  artificial  gaiety,  affected  loves  I  did  not  feel, 
exchanged  wisdom  for  folly,  and,  in  a  word,  passed  from  a 
philosopher  into  a  poet."    How  ill-adapted  he  felt  himself  to 
this  masquerade  life  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  sentence: 
"  I  am  already  in  my  forty-fourth  year,  the  father  of  eight 
children,  two  of  whom  are  old  enough  to  be  my  censors,  while 
my  daughters  are  of  an  age  to  marry."     Abandoning  so  un- 
congenial a  strain  upon  his  faculties,  Guarini  retired  in  1582  to 
his  ancestral  farm,  the  Villa  Guarina,  in  the  lovely  country  that  lies 
between  the  Adige  and  Po,  where  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  cares 
of  his  family,  the  nursing  of  his  dilapidated  forttmes  and  the 
composition  of  the  Pastor  fido.    He  was  not  happy  in  his 
domestic  lot;  for  he  had  lost  his  wife  yotmg,  and  quarrelled 
with  his  elder  sons  about  the  division  of  his  estate.    Litigation 
seems  to  have  been  an  inveterate  vice  with  Guarini;  nor  was 
he  ever  free  from  legal  troubles.    After  studying  his  biography, 
the  conclusion  is  forced  upon  our  minds  that  he  was  originally 
a  man  of  robust  and  virile  intellect,  ambitious  of  greatness, 
confident  in  his  own  powers,  and  well  qualified  for  serious  affairs, 
whose  energies  found  no  proper  scope  for  their  exercise.    Literary 
work  offered  but  a  poor  sphere  for  such  a  character,  while  the 
enforced  inactivity  of  court  life  soured  a  naturally  caprick>us 
and  choleric  temper.    Of  poetry  he  spoke  with  a  certain  tone  of 
condescension,  professing  to  practise  it  only  in  his  leisure 
moments;  nor  are  his  miscellaneous  verses  of  a  quality  to  secure 
for  their  author  a  very  lasting  reputation.    It  is  therefore  not  a 
little  remarkable  that  the  fruit  of  his  retirement — ^a  disappointed 
courtier  past  the  prime  of  early  manhood — should  have  been  a 
dramatic  masterpiece  worthy  to  be  ranked  with  the  classics  of 
Italian  literature.    Defeiring  a  further  account  of  the  Pastor 
fide  for  the  present,  the  remaining  incidents  of  Guarini's  restless 
life  may  be  briefly  told.    In  1585  he  was  at  Turin  superintending 
the  first  public  performance  of  his  drama,  whence  Alphonso 
recalled  him  to  Ferrara,  and  gave  him  the  office  of  secretary  of 
state.    This  reconciliation  between  the  poet  and  his  patron  did 
not  last  long.    Guarini  moved  to  Florence,  then  to  Rome,  and 
back  again  to  Florence,  where  he  established  himself  as  the 
courtier  of  Ferdinand  de'  Medici.    A  dishonourable  marriage, 
pressed  upon  his  son  Guarino  by  the  grand-duke,  roused  die 
natural  resentment  of  Guarini,  always  scrupulous  upon  the  point 
of  honour.    He  abandoned  the  Medicean  court,  and  took  refuge 
with  Francesco  Maria  of  Urbino,  the  last  scion  of  the  Montefeltro- 
della-Rovere  house.    Vet  he  found  no  satisfaction  at  Urbino. 
"  The  old  court  is  a  dead  institution,"  he  writes  to  a  friend; 
"  one  may  see  a  shadow  of  it,  but  not  the  substance  in  Italy  of 
to-day.  Ours    is    an    age    of    appearances,    and    one    goes 
a-masquerading  all  the  year."    This  was  true  enough.    Those 
dwindling  deadly-lively  little  residence  towns  of  Italian  ducal 
families,  whose  day  of  glory  was  over,  and  who  were  waiting 
to  be  slowly  absorbed  by  the  capacious  appetite  of  Austria, 
were  no  fit  places  for  a  man  of  energy  and  independence.    Guarini 
finally  took  refuge  in  his  native  Ferrara,  which,  since  the  death 
of  Alphonso,  had  now  devolved  to  the  papal  see.    Here,  and  at 
the  Villa  Guarina,  his  last  years  were  passed  in  study,  lawsuits, 
and  polemical  disputes  with  his  contemporary   critics,   until 
161 3,  when  he  died  at  Vtfkice  in  his  seventy-fifth  year. 


66o 


GUARINO— GUASTALLA 


The  Pallor  fido  (first  published  in  1590)  is  a  pastoral  drama 
composed  not  without  reminiscences  of  Tasso's  AmirUa.  The 
scene  is  laid  in  Arcadia,  where  Guarini  supposes  it  to  have  been 
the  custom  to  sacrifice  a  maiden  yearly  to  Diana.  But  an 
oracle  has  declared  that  when  two  scions  of  divine  lineage  are 
united  in  marriage,  and  a  faithful  shepherd  has  atoned  for  the 
ancient  error  of  a  faithless  woman,  this  inhuman  rite  shaU  cease. 
The  plot  turns  upon  the  unexpected  fulfilment  of  this  prophecy, 
contrary  to  all  the  schemes  which  had  been  devised  for  bringing 
it  to  accomplishment,  and  in  despite  of  apparent  improbabilities 
of  divers  kinds.  It  is  extremely  elaborate,  and,  regarded  as  a 
piece  of  cunning  mechanism,  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.  Each 
motive  has  been  carefully  prepared,  each  situation  amply 
developed.  Yet,  considered  as  a  play,  the  Pastor  fido  disap- 
points a  reader  trained  in  the  school  of  Sophocles  or  Shakespeare. 
The  action  itself  seems  to  take  place  off  the  stage,  and  only  the 
results  of  action,  stationary  tableaux  representing  the  movement 
of  the  drama,  are  put  before  us  in  the  scenes.  Tlie  art  is  lyrical, 
not  merely  in  form  but  in  spirit,  and  in  adaptation  to  the  re- 
quirements of  music  which  demands  stationary  expressions  of 
emotion  for  development.  The  characters  have  been  well 
considered,  and  are  exhibited  with  great  truth  and  vividness; 
the  cold  and  eager  hunter  Silvio  contrasting  with  the  tender 
and  romantic  Mirtillo,  and  Corisca's  meretricious  arts  enhancing 
the  pure  affection  of  AmariUi.  Dorinda  presents  another  type 
of  love  so  impulsive  that  it  prevails  over  a  maiden's  sense  of 
shame,  while  the  courtier  Carino  brings  the  corruption  of  towns 
into  comparison  with  the  innocence  of  the  country.  In  Carino 
the  poet  painted  his  own  experience,  and  here  his  satire  upon  the 
court  of  Ferrara  is  none  the  less  biting  because  it  is  gravely 
measured.  In  Corisca  he  delineated  a  woman  vitiated  by  the 
same  town  life,  and  a  very  hideous  portrait  has  he  drawn. 
Though  a  satirical  element  was  thus  introduced  into  the  Pastor 
fido  in  order  to  relieve  its  ideal  picture  of  Arcadia,  the  whole 
play  is  but  a  study  of  contemporary  feeling  in  Italian  society. 
There  is  no  true  rusticity  whatever  in  the  drama.  This  corre- 
spondence with  the  spirit  of  the  age  secured  its  success  during 
Guarini's  lifetime;  this  made  it  so  dangerously  seductive  that 
Cardinal  Bellarmine  told  the  poet  he  had  done  more  harm  to 
Christendom  by  his  blandishments  than  Luther  by  his  heresy. 
Without  anywhere  transgressing  the  limits  of  decorum,  the 
Pastor  fido  is  steeped  in  sensuousncss;  and  the  inunodcsty 
of  its  pictures  is  enhanced  by  rhetorical  concealments  more 
provocative  than  nudity.  Moreover,  the  love  described  is 
effeminate  and  wanton,  felt  less  as  passion  than  as  lust  en- 
veloped in  a  veil  of  sentiment.  We  divine  the  coming  age  of 
cUisbei  and  castrati.  Of  Guarini's  style  it  would  be  difficult  to 
speak  in  terms  of  too  high  praise.  The  thought  and  experience 
of  a  lifetime  have  been  condensed  in  these  five  acts,  and  have 
found  expression  in  language  brilliant,  classical,  chiselled  to 
perfection.  Here  and  there  the  taste  of  the  17th  century  makes 
itself  felt  in  frigid  conceits  and  forced  antitheses;  nor  does 
Guarini  abstain  from  sententious  maxims  which  reveal  the 
moralist  rather  than  the  poet.  Yet  these  are  but  minor  blemishes 
in  a  masterpiece  of  diction,  glittering  and  faultless  like  a  polished 
bas-relief  of  hard  Corinthian  bronze.  That  a  single  pastoral 
should  occupy  so  prominent  a  place  in  the  history  of  literature 
seems  astonishing,  until  we  reflect  that  Italy,  upon  the  close  of 
the  16th  century,  expressed  itself  in  the  Pastor  fido,  and  that 
the  influence  of  this  drama  was  felt  through  all  the  art  of  Europe 
till  the  epoch  of  the  Revolution.  It  is  not  a  mere  play.  The 
sensual  refinement  proper  to  an  age  of  social  decadence  found 
in  it  the  most  exact  embodiment,  and  made  it  the  code  of 
gallantry  for  the  next  two  centuries. 

The  best  edition  of  the  Pastor  fido  is  the  20th,  published  at  Venice 
(Ciotti)  in  1602.  The  most  convenient  is  that  01  BarWra  (Florence, 
1866).  For  Guarini's  miscellaneous  Rime,  the  Ferrara  edition,  in 
4  vols.,  1737,  may  be  consulted.  His  polemical  writings,  Verato 
primo  ana  secondo,  and  his  prose  comedy  called  Idropica,  were 
published  at  Venifx,  Florence  and  Rome,  between  15M  and  i6ia. 

O.A.S.) 

OUARINO.  also  known  as  Varinus,  and  sumamed  from 
his  birthplace  Favownus,  Phavounxjs  or  Caicers  (c.  1450- 


X537)i  Italian  lexicographer  and  sdiolar,  was  bam  at  Faveta 

near  Camerino,  studied  Greek  and  Latin  at  Florence  nnder 

Politian,  and  afterwards  became  for  a  time  the  pupil  of  Lascaxis. 

Having  entered  the  Benedictine  order,  he  now  gave  himsdf 

with  great  seal  to  Greek  lexicography;  and  in  1496  poblisfaed 

his  Tkesaturus  comucopiae  el  korti  Adonidis,  a  coUectioo  of 

thirty-four  grammatical  tracts  in  Greek.    He  for  some  time 

acted  as  tutor  to  Giovanni  dei  Medici  (afterwards  Leo  X.),  and 

also  held  the  appointment  of  keeper  of  the  Mcdicean  library  at 

Florence.    In  15x4  Leo  appointed  him  bishop  of  Nocera.    In 

Z517  he  published  a  translation  of  the  Apophthegmata  of  Joannes 

Stobaeus,  and  in  1523  appeared  his  Etymolopcum  imapium,  ast 

thesaurus  universae  linguae  Graecae  ex  muUis  tariisque  autoHbms 

cottectus,  a  compilation  which  has  been  frequently  reprinted, 

and  which  has  hdd  subsequent  scholars  under  great  though  net 

alwajrs  acknowledged  obligations. 

GUARINO    [QUARINUS]    DA    VEROHA   (1370-1460),   one 

of  the  Italian  restorers  of  classical  learning,  was  bom  in  1370 

at  Verona,  and  studied  Greek  at  Constantinople,  where  f<M'  fiir 

years  he  was  the  pupil  of  Manuel  Chrysoloras.    When  he  set 

out  on  his  return  to  Italy  he  was  the  happy  possessor  of  two 

cases  of  precious  Greek  MSS.  which  he  had  been  at  great  pains 

to  collect;  it  is  said  that  the  loss  of  one  of  these  by  shipwreck 

caused  him  such  distress  that  his  hair  turned  grey  in  a  singk 

night.    He  supported  himself  as  a  teacher  of  Gredc,  first  at 

Verona  and  afterwards  in  Venice  and  Florence;  in  1436  be 

became,  through  the  patronage  of  Lionel,  marquis  of  Este, 

professor  of  Greek  at  Ferrara;  and  in  1438  and  following  years 

he  acted  as  interpreter  for  the  Greeks  at  the  councils  of  Ferrara 

and  Florence.    He  died  at  Ferrara  on  the  X4th  of  December  146a 

His  principal  works  are  translations  of  Strabo  and  of  some  of  the 
Lives  of  Plutarch,  a  compendium  of  the  Greek  grammar  of  Chry- 
soloras, and  a  series  of  commentaries  on  Pcrsius,  Juvenal,  Man^ 
and  on  some  of  the  writings  of  Aristotle  and  Cicero.  See  Rosmioi. 
Vita  e  disciplina  di  Cuarino  (1805-1806);  Sabbadini,  Gmantto 
Veronese  (1885):  Sandys,  Hisl.  Class.  Sckol.  iL  (1908). 

GUARNIERI,  or  Guarnerius,  a  celebrated  family  of  violin- 
makers  of  Cremona.  The  first  was  Andreas  (c.  X626-X698), 
who  worked  with  Antonio  Stradivari  in  the  workshop  of  Nicolo 
Amati  (son  of  Geronimo).  Violins  of  a  model  original  to  him 
are  dated  from  the  sign  of  "  St  Theresa  "  in  Cremona.  His  son 
Joseph  (1666-C.  X739)  made  instruments  at  first  like  his  fatJ^r's, 
but  later  in  a  style  of  his  own  with  a  narrow  waist;  his  son, 
Peter  of  Venice  (b.  X695),  ^f^  ^^  '^  fi°c  maker.  Arother  son 
of  Andreas,  Peter  (Pietro  Giovanni),  commonly  known  as 
"  Peter  of  Cremona "  (b.  x6s5),  moved  from  Cremona  and 
settled  at  Mantua,  where  he  too  worked  *'  sub  signo  Sanctae 
Teresae."  Peter's  violins  again  showed  considerable  variations 
from  those  of  the  other  GuamierL  Hart,  in  his  work  on  the 
violin,  says,  "  There  is  increased  breadth  between  the  soond- 
holes;  the  sotmd-hole  is  rotmder  and  more  perpendicular; 
the  middle  bouts  are  more  contracted,  and  the  model  is  more 
raised." 

The  greatest  of  all  the  Guamieri,  however,  was  a  nephew  of 
Andreas,  Joseph  del  Gesu  (1687-X745),  whose  title  originates 
in  the  I.H.S.  inscribed  on  his  tickets.  His  master  was  Ga^>B7 
di  Salo.  His  conception  follows  that  of  the  early  Bresdaa 
makers  in  the  boldness  of  outline  and  the  massive  constnicti<Mi 
which  aim  at  the  production  of  tone  rather  than  visual  perfection 
of  form.  The  great  variety  of  his  work  in  slse,  model.  &C., 
represents  his  various  experiments  in  the  direction  of  discovering 
this  tone.  A  stain  or  sap-mark,  parallel  with  the  finger-board 
on  both  sides,  appears  on  the  bellies  of  most  of  his  instruments. 
Since  the  middle  of  the  x8th  century  a  great  many  spurious 
instruments  ascribed  to  this  master  have  poured  over  Europe. 
It  was  not  until  Paganini  played  on  a  "  Joseph  "  that  the  taste 
of  amateurs  turned  from  the  sweetness  of  the  Amati  and  the 
Stradivarius  violins  in  favour  of  the  robuster  tone  of  the  Josqih 
Guarnerius.    See  Violin. 

GUASTALLA,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Emilia,  Italy. 
in  the  province  of  Reggio,  from  which  it  i%  x8  m.  N.  by  road, 
on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Po,  79  ft.  above  sea-Ievd.  It  u  also 
connected  by  rail  with  Parma  and  Mantua  (via  Suzzara).    Pi^ 


GUATEMALA 


66 1 


(xgoi),  3658  (town);  11,091  (commune).  It  has  16th-century 
fortifications.  The  cathedral,  dating  from  the  loth  century, 
has  been  frequently  restored.  Guastalla  was  founded  by  the 
Lombards  in  the  7th  century;  in  the  church  of  the  Pieve  Pope 
Paschal  II.  held  a  council  in  1x06.  In  1307  it  was  seized  by 
Giberto  da  Correggio  of  Parma.  In  1403  it  passed  to  Guido 
Torello,  cousin  of  Filippo  Maria  Visconli  of  Milan.  In  1539  it 
was  sold  by  the  lost  female  descendant  of  the  Torclli  to  Ferrante 
Gonzaga.  In  1621  it  was  made  the  scat  of  a  duchy,  but  in  1748 
It  was  added  to  those  of  Parma  and  Piacenza,  whose  history  it 
subsequently  followed. 

GUATEMALA  (sometimes  incorrectly  written  Guatimala), 
a  name  now  restricted  to  the  republic  of  Guatemala  and  to  its 
chief  city,  but  formerly  given  to  a  captaincy-general  of  Spanish 
America,  which  included  the  fifteen  provinces  of  Chiapas, 
Suchitepeques,  Escuintla,  Sonsonate,  San  Salvador,  Vera  Paz 
and  Peten,  Chiquimula,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica, 
Totonicapam,  Quczaltenango,  Sololi,  Chimaltenango  and 
Sacatepeques, — or,  in  other  words,  the  whole  of  Central  America 
(except  Panama)  and  part  of  Mexico.  The  name  is  probably 
of  Aztec  origin,  and  is  said  by  some  authorities  to  mean  in  its 
native  form  Quauhtematlan,  **  Land  of  the  Eagle,"  or  "  Land 
of  Forest  ";  others,  writing  it  U-ha-tez-ma-la,  connect  it  with 
the  volcano  of  Agua  {i.e. "  water  "),  and  interpret  it  as  ■"  mountain 
vomiting  water." 

The  republic  of  Guatemala  is  situated  between  13°  42'  and 
17"  49'  N.,  and  88*  10'  and  92*  30'  W.  (For  map,  see  Central 
AuKSJCA.)  Pop.  (1903),  1,842,134;  area  about  48,250  sq.  m. 
Guatemala  is*  bounded  on  the  W.  and  N.  by  Mexico,  N.E.  by 
British  Honduras,  E.  by  the  Gulf  of  Honduras,  and  the  republic 
of  Honduras,  S.E.  by  Salvador  and  S.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  frontier  towards  Mexico  was  determined  by  conventions 
of  the  27th  of  September  1882,  the  17th  of  October  1883,  the 
ist  of  April  1895,  and  the  8th  of  May  1899.  Starting  from  the 
Pacific,  it  ascends  the  river  Suchiate,  then  follows  an  irregular  line 
towards  the  north-east,  till  it  reaches  the  parallel  of  17°  49'  N., 
along  which  it  runs  to  the  frontier  of  British  Honduras.  This 
frontier,  by  the  convention  of  the  9th  of  July  1893,  coincides  with 
the  meridian  of  89*  ao'  W.,  till  it  meets  the  river  Sarstoon  or 
Sarstun,  which  it  follows  eastwards  to  the  Gulf  of  Honduras. 

Physical  Description. — Guatemala  is  naturally  divided  into  five 
regions — the  lowlands  of  the  Pacific  coast,  the  volcanic  mountains 
of  the  Sierra  Madre,  the  so-called  plateaus  immediately  north  of 
these,  the  mountains  of  the  Atlantic  versant  and  the  plain  of  Peten. 
(i)  The  coastal  plains  extend  along  the  entire  soutncrn  seaboard, 
with  a  mean  breadth  of  50  m.,  and  Rnk  together  the  belts  of  similar 
territory  in  Salvador  and  the  district  oT  Soconusco  in  Chiapas. 
Owing  to  their  tropical  heat,  low  elevation  above  sea-lcvcl,  and 
marshy  soil,  they  are  thinly  peopled,  and  contain  few  important 
towns  except  the  seaports.  (2)  The  precipitous  barrier  of  the 
Sierra  Madre,  which  closes  in  the  coastal  plains  on  the  north,  is 
similarly  prolonged  into  Salvador  and  Mexico.  It  is  known  near 
Guatemala  city  as  the  Sierra  de  las  Nubes,  and  enters  Mexico  as  the 
Sierra  de  Istatan.  It  forms  the  main  watershed  between  the 
Pacific  and  Atlantic  river  systems.  Its  summit  is  not  a  well-defined 
crest,  but  is  often  rounded  or  flattened  into  a  table-land.  The 
direction  of  the  great  volcanic  cones,  which  rise  in  an  irregular  line 
above  it,  is  not  identical  with  the  main  axis  of  the  Sierra  itself, 
except  near  the  Mexican  frontier,  but  has  a  more  southerly  trend, 
especially  towards  Salvador;  here  the  baac  of  many  of  the  igneous 
peaks  rests  among  the  southern  foothills  of  the  range.  It  is,  however, 
impossible  to  subdivide  the  Sierra  Madre  into  a  northern  and  a 
volcanic  chain;  for  the  volcanoes  are  isolated  by  stretches  of  com- 

Saratively  low  country;  at  least  thirteen  considerable  streams 
ow  down  between  them,  from  the  main  watershed  to  the  sea. 
Viewed  from  the  coast,  the  volcanic  cones  seem  to  rise  directly 
from  the  central  heights  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  above  which  they 
tower:  but  in  reality  their  bases  are.  as  a  rule,  farther  south. 
East  of  Tacana,  which  marks  the  Mexican  frontier,  and  is  variously 
estimated  at  13.976  ft.  and  13,090  ft.,  and  if  the  higher  estimate 
be  correct  is  the  loftiest  peak  in  Central  America,  the  principal 
volcanoes  are — ^Tajaroulco  or  Tajumuico  (13.517  ft.);  Santa  Maria 
(12.467  ft.),  which  was  in  eruption  during  1902,  after  centuries  of 
Quiescence,  in  which  its  slopes  nad  been  overgrown  by  dense  forests; 
AtitUin  (11.719),  overlooking  the  lake  of  that  name;  Acatenango 
(13.615),  which  shares  the  claim  of  Tacana  to  be  the  highest  mountain 
of  Central  America ;  Fuego  (*.«.  "  fire,"  variously  estimated  at 
i3f79S  ft*  and  12.582  ft.),  which  received  its  name  from  its  activity 
at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest;  Agua  («.«.  "  water,"  12,139  ft.). 


so  named  in  iMi  because  it  destroyed  the  former  capiul  of  Guate- 
mala with  a  deluge  of  water  from  its  flooded  crater;  and  Pacaya 
(H390),  a  group  01  igneous  peaks  which  were  in  eruption  in  1870. 
(3)  The  so-called  plateaus  which  extend  north  of  the  Sierra  Madre 
are  in  fact  high  valleys,  rather  than  table-lands,  enclosed  by  moun- 
tains. A  better  idea  01  this  region  is  conveyed  by  the  native  name 
AltoB,  or  highlands,  although  that  term  includes  the  northern 
declivity  of  tne  Sierra  Madre.  The  mean  elevation  is  greatest  in 
the  west  (Altos  of  Quczaltenango)  and  least  in  the  east  (Altos  of 
Guatenuib).  A  few  of  the  streams  of  the  Pacific  slope  actually 
rise  in  the  Altos,  and  force  a  way  through  the  Sierra  Madre  at  the 
bottom  of  deep  ravines.  One  large  river,  the  Chixoy,  escapes  north- 
wards towards  the  Atlantic.  (4)  The  relief  of  the  mountainous 
country  which  lies  north  of  the  Altos  and  drains  into  the  Atlantic 
is  varied  by  innumerable  terraces,  ridges  and  underfalls;  but  its 
general  configuration  is  admirably  compared  by  E.  Rcclus  with  the 
appearance  of  "  a  stormy  sea  breaking  into  parallel  billows  "  (Uni- 
versal Geography,  ed.  E.  G.  Ravensteinj  div.  xxxiii.,  p.  a  12).  The 
parallel  ranges  extend  east  and  west  with  a  slight  southerly  curve 
towards  their  centres.  A  range  called  the  Sierra  de  Chama,  which, 
however,  changes  its  name  frequently  from  place  to  place,  strikes 
eastward  towards  British  Honduras,  and  is  connectecf  by  low  hUls 
with  the  Cockscomb  Mountains;  another  similar  range,  the  Sierra 
de  Santa  Cruz,  continues  east  to  Cape  Cocoli  between  the  Pokxhic 
and  the  Sarstoon;  and  a  third,  the  Sierra  de  las  Minas  or,  in  its 
eastern  portion.  Sierra  del  Mkx>,  stretches  between  the  Polochic 
and  the  Motagua.  Between  Honduras  and  Guatemala  the  frontier 
is  formed  by  the  Sierra  de  Merendon.  (5)  The  great  plain  of  Peten, 
which  compri|cs  about  one-third  of  the  whole  area  of  Guatemala, 
belongs  geographically  to  the  Yucatan  Peninsula,  and  consists  01 
level  or  unduLating  country,  covered  with  grass  or  forest.  Its 
populatbn  numbers  less  than  two  per  sq.  m.,  although  many  districts 
nave  a  wonderfully  fertile  soil  and  abundance  of  water.  Tne  greater 
part  of  this  region  is  uncultivated,  and  only  utilized  as  pasture  by 
the  Indians,  who  form  the  majority  of  its  inhabitants. 

Guatemala  is  richly  watered.  On  the  western  side  of  the  nerras 
the  versant  is  short,  and  the  streams,  while  very  numerous,  are 
consequently  small  and  rapid;  but  on  the  eastern  side  a  number 
of  the  rivers  attain  a  very  considerable  development.  The  Motagua, 
whose  principal  head  stream  is  called  the  Rio  Grande,  has  a  course 
of  about  250  m.,  and  is  navigable  to  within  90  m.  ol  the  capital, 
which  is  situated  on  one  of  its  confluents,  the  Rio  de  las  Vacas.  It 
forms  a  delta  on  the  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Honduras.  (K  similar 
importance  is  the  Polochic,  which  is  about  180  m.  in  length,  and 
navigable  about  20  m.  above  the  river-port  of  Telemdn.  Before 
reaching  the  Golfo  Amatioue  it  passes  through  the  Golfo  Dulce, 
or  Izabal  I^ke,  and  the  G<Mfete  Duke.  A  vast  number  of  streams, 
among  which  are  the  Chixoy,  the  Guadalupe,  and  the  Rio  de  la 
Pasion.  unite  to  form  the  Usumacinta,  whose  noble  current  passes 
along  the  Mexican  frontier,  and  flowing  on  through  Chiapas  and 
Tabasco,  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Campeche.  The  Chiapas  follows  a 
similar  course. 

There  are  several  extensive  lakes  in  Guatemala.  The  Lake  of 
Peten  or  Laguna  de  Flores,  in  the  centre  of  the  department  of 
Peten,  is  an  irregular  basin,  about  27  m.  loi^.  with  an  extreme 
breadth  of  13  m.  In  an  island  in  the  western  portion  stands  Flores, 
a  town  well  known  to  American  antiquaries  for  the  number  of  ancient 
idols  which  have  been  recovered  from  its  soil.  On  the  shore  of  the 
lake  is  the  stalactite  cave  of  Jobitsinal,  of  great  local  celebrity; 
and  in  its  depths,  according  to  the  popular  legend,  may  still  be  dis- 
cerned the  stone  image  of  a  horse  that  belonged  to  Cortes.  The 
Golfo  Dulce  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a  fresh-water  lake,  although  so 
near  the  Atlantic.  It  is  about  36  m.  long,  and  would  be  oTcon- 
siderable  value  as  a  harbour  if  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Dulce  did  not  prevent  the  upward  passage  of  seafaring  vesaeU. 
As  a  contrast  the  Lake  of  Atitlin  (e.t.)  is  a  land-locked  basin  en- 
compassed with  lofty  mountains.  Aoout  9  m.  S.  of  the  capital  lies 
the  Lake  of  AmatitULn  (q.9.)  with  the  town  of  the  same  name'.  On 
the  borden  of  Salvador  and  Guatemala  there  is  the  Lake  of  Guija, 
about  ao  m.  long  and  12  broad,  at  a  height  of  2100  ft.  above  the 
sea.  It  is  connected  by  the  river  Ostuma  with  the  Lake  of  Ayaria 
which  lies  about  1000  ft.  higher  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Madre. 

The  geology,  fauna  and  flora  of  Guatemala  are  discussed  under 
Central  America.  The  bird-life  of  the  country  is  remarkably 
rich;  one  bird  of  magnificent  plumage,  the  quetzal,  quiial  or  quesal 
{Troton  respUndens),  has  been  chosen  as  the  national  emblem. 

CRnuUe, — ^The  climate  is  healthy,  except  on  the  cwits,  where 
malarial  fever  is  prevalent.  The  rainy  season  in  the  interior  lasts 
from  May  to  October,  but  on  the  coast  sometimes  continues  till 
December.  The  coldest  month  b  January,  and  the  warmest  is 
May.  Theaverage  temperatures  for  these  months  at  places  of  different 
altitudes,  as  given  bv  Dr  Kari  Sapper,  are  shown  on  tne  f^lowing  page. 

The  average  rainfall  is  very  heavy,  especially  on  the  Atlantic  slope, 
where  the  prevailing  winds  are  charged  with  moisture  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  or  the  Caribbean  Sea;  at  Tual,  a  high  station  on  the 
Atlantic  slope,  it  reaches  195  in. ;  in  central  Guatemala  it  is  only 
27  in.  Towards  the  Atlantic  rain  often  occurs  in  the  dry  season, 
and  there  is  a  local  saying  near  the  Golfo  Dulce  that  it  rains 
thirteen- months  in  the  year."    Fogs  are  not  rare.    In  Guatemala, 


662 


GUATEMALA 


Locality. 


Puerto  Barrios 

Salami 

Campur 

Chimax 

Guatemala 

Quczaltcnango 


Altitude 
(Feet). 


6 
3020 
3050 
4380 
4870 
7710 


Fahrenheit  Degrees. 


January. 


64 

61 
60 
50 


May 


81 
77 

u 

67 

62 


as  in  other  parts  of  Central  America  (q.v.),  each  of  the  three  climatic 
zones,  cold,  temperate  and  hot  {tierra  Jria,  lierra  Umplada,  iterra 
taHenle)  has  its  special  characteristics,  and  it  b  not  easy  to  generalize 
about  the  climate  of  the  country  as  a  whole. 

Natural  Products. — ^The  minerals  discovered  in  Guatemala  include 
gold,  silver,  lead,  tin,  copper,  mercury,  antimon)r,  coal,  salt  and 
sulphur:  but  it  is  uncertain  if  many  of  these  exist  in  quantities 
•umcicnt  to  repay  exploitation.  Gold  is  obtained  at  Las  Quebradas 
near  Izabal,  silver  in  the  departments  of  Santa  Rosa  and  Cmquimula, 
salt  in  those  of  Santa  Rosa  and  Alta  Vera  Paz.  During  tne  17th 
century  gold-washing  was  carried  on  bv  Enelish  miners  in  the 
Motagua  valley,  and  is  said  to  have  yielded  ricn  profits;  hence  the 
name  of  "  Gold  Coast  "  was  not  infrequently  given  to  the  Atkntic 
littoral  near  the  mouth  of  the  Motagua. 

The  area  of  forest  has  only  been  seriously  diminished  in  the 
west,  and  amounted  to  3030  sq.  m.  in  1904.  Besides  rubber,  it 
yields  many  valuable  dye-woods  and  cabinet-woods,  such  as  cedar, 
mahogany  and  logwood.  Fruits,  grain  and  medicinal  plants  are 
obtained  in  great  abundance,  especially  where  the  soil  is  largely  of 
volcanic  origin,  as  in  the  Altos  and  Sierra  Madre.  Parts  of  the 
Peten  district  are  equally  fertile,  maize  in  this  region  yielding  two 
hundredfold,  from  unmanured  soil.  The  vegetable  products  of 
Guatemala  include  coffee,  cocoa,  sugar-cane,  bananas,  oranges, 
vanilla,  aloes,  agave,  ipecacuanha,  castor-oil,  sarsaparilla,  cinchona, 
tobacco,  indigo  and  the  wax-plant  (Myrica  cerifera). 

Ittkabitants. — The  inhabitants  of  Guatemala,  who  tend  to 
increase  rapidly  owing  to  the  high  birth-rate,  low  mortality, 
and  low  rate  of  emfgration,  numbered  in  1903  1,842,134,  or 
more  than  one-third  of  the  entire  population  of  Central  America. 
Fully  60%  are  pure  Indians,  and  the  remainder,  classed  as 
Ladinos  or  "  Latins  "  {i.e.  Spaniards  in  speech  and  mode  of  life), 
comprise  a  large  majority  of  half-castes  {mcslixos)  and  civilized 
Indians  and  a  smaller  prop>ortion  of  whites.  It  includes  a 
foreign  population  of  about  12,000  Europeans  and  North 
Americans,  among  them  being  many  Jews  from  the  west  of  the 
United  States.  There  are  important  German  agricultural 
settlements,  and  many  colonists  from  north  Italy  who  are  locally 
called  Tirolcses,  and  despised  by  the  Indians  for  their  industry 
and  thrift.  About  half  the  births  among  the  Indians  and  one- 
third  among  the  whites  are  illegitimate. 

No  part  of  Central  America  contains  a  greater  diversity  of 
tribes,  and  in  1883  Otto  Stoll  estimated  the  number  of  spoken 
languages  as  eighteen,  although  east  of  the  meridian  of  Lake 
Amatitl&n  the  native  speech  has  almost  entirely  disappeared 
and  been  replaced  by  Spanish.  The  Indians  belong  chiefly 
to  the  Maya  stock,  which  predominates  throughout  Peten,  or 
to  the  allied  Quich6  race  which  is  well  represented  in  the  Altos 
and  central  districts.  The  Itzas,  Mopans,  Lacandons,  Chols, 
Pokonchi  and  the  Pokomans  who  inhabit  the  large  settlement 
of  Mixco  near  the  capital,  all  belong  to  the  Maya  family;  but 
parts  of  central  and  eastern  Guatemala  are  peopled  by  tribes 
distinct  from  the  Mayas  and  not  found  in  Mexico.  In  the  x6th 
century  the  Mayas  and  Quicb£s  had  attained  a  high  level  of 
civilization  (see  Central  Auekica,  Arckaeology)^  and  at  least 
two  of  the  Guatemalan  languages,  Quich6  and  Cakchiquel, 
possess  the  rudiments  or  the  relics  of  a  b'terature.  The  Quichi 
Popol  Vuh^  or  "  Book  of  History,"  which  wa&  translated  into 
Spanish  by  the  Dominican  friar  Ximenes,  and  edited  with  a 
French  version  by  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  is  an  important 
document  for  students  of  the  local  myths.  In  appearance  the 
various  Guatemalan  tribes  differ  very  little;  in  almost  all  the 
characteristic  type  of  Indian  is  short  but  muscular,  with  low 
forehead,  prominent  cheek-bones  and  straight  black  hair.  In 
character  the  Indians  are,  as  a  rule,  peaceable,  though  consdous 
of  their  numerical  superiority  and  at  times  driven  to  join  In  the 
revolutions  which  so  often  disturb  the  course  of  local  politics; 
they  are  often  intensely  religious,  but  with  a  few  exceptioBS 


are  thriftless,  indolent  and  inveterate  gamUen.  Their 
/radios,  or  brotherhoods,  each  with  its  patron  saint  and  male 
and  female  chiefs,  exist  largely  to  organize  public  festivals,  aod 
to  purchase  wooden  masks,  costumes  and  decorations  for  the 
dances  and  dramas  in  which  the  Indians  delight.  Thee  dramas, 
which  deal  with  religious  and  historical  subjects,  are  of  Indian 
origin,  and  somewhat  resemble  the  mystery-plays  of  medieiMl 
Europe,  a  resemblance  heightened  by  the  introduction,  doe  to 
Spanish  missionaries,  of  Christian  saints  and  heroes  such  as 
Charlemagne.  The  Indians  are  devoted  to  bull-fighting  and 
cock-fighting.  Choral  singing  is  a  popular  amusement,  and  is 
accompanied  by  the  Spanish  guitar  and  native  wind-instruments. 
The  Indians  have  a  habit  of  consuming  a  yellowish  edible  earth 
containing  sulphur;  on  pilgrimages  they  obtain  images  amukled 
of  this  earth  at  the  shrines  they  visit,  and  cat  the  images  as  a 
prophylactic  against  disease.  Maize|  beans  and  bananas,  varied 
occasionally  with  dried  meat  and  fresh  pork,  form  their  stapk 
diet;  drunkenness  is  common  on  pay-days  (and  festivals,  when 
large  quantities  of  a  fiery  brandy  called  chicka  are  consuiDcd. 

Chief  Timms. — ^The  capital  of  the  republic,  Guatemala  or  Guate- 
mala la  Nueva  (pop.  I90<S  about  97,000)  and  the  cities  of  QaeaA- 
tcnango  (31,000),  Totonicapam  (28,000),  Coban  (25,000).  SokA 

517,000),  Eacuintia  (12,000),  Huehuetanango  (12,000).  Amatitlia 
10,000)  and  AtitI4n  (9000)  are  described  umler  sepante  headings. 
Lll  the  chief  towns  except  the  seaports  are  ntuatcd  within  the 
mountainous  region  where  the  climate  is  temperate.  Retalhuleo, 
among  the  southern  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Madre.  b  ootd  the 
centres  of  coffee  production,  and  is  connected  bv  rail  with  the 
Pacific  port  of  Cnampcrico,  a  very  unhealthy  inacc  in  the  vet 
season.  Ek>th  Rctalhuleu  and  Champerico  were,  lilce  Quexaltenangow 
SoloUi,  and  other  towns,  temporarily  ruined  by  the  earthquake  of 
the  l8th  of  April  1902.  Santa  Cruz  Quichd.  3S  m.  N.E.  of  Totoai- 
capam,  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Qutch6  kings,  but  has  now 
a  Ladino  population.  Livingston,  a  seaport  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Polochic  (here  called  the  Rto  Dulce),  was  fcwnded  in  1806,  and 
subsequently  named  after  the  author  of  a  code  of  Guatemalan  laws; 
few  vestiges  remain  of  the  S^ntsh  settlement  of  Sevilla  la  Nueva. 
founded  m  1844,  ^nd  of  the  English  colony  of  Abbotsville,  founded 
in  1825, — both  near  Livingston.  La  Libcrtad,  also  called  fay-  its 
Indian  name  of  Sacluc,  is  the  princiral  town  of  Peten. 

Shipping  and  Communications. — ^Thc  republic  is  in  regular  steaai 
communication  on  the  Atlantic  side  with  New  Oriouts,  New  York 
and  Hamburg,  by  vessels  which  visit  the  ports  of  ^rrios  (Santo 
Tomas)  and  Livmgston.  On  the  southern  side  the  ports  oC  San 
I096,  Champerico  and  Oc6s  arc  visited  by  the  Pacific  mail  steamers, 
oy  the  vessels  of  a  Hamburg  company  and  by  those  Of  the  South 
American  (Chilean)  and  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Coonpaair&. 
Iztapa,  formerly  the  principal  harbour  on  the  south  coast,  has  been 
almost  entirely  abandoned  since  1853.  Gualan.  on  the  Motagua. 
and  Panzos,  on  the  Polochic,  are  small  river-ports.  The  principal 
towns  are  connected  by  wagon  roads,  towards  the  construction  and 
maintenance  of  which  each  male  inhabitant  is  required  to  pay  two 
pesos  or  give  four  days'  work  a  year.  There  are  coach  routes  be- 
tween the  capital  and  Quezaltcnango,  but  over  a  neat  portion  of 
the  country  transport  is  still  on  mule-back.  All  the  rail«ray  lines 
have  been  built  since  1875.  The  main  lines  are  the  Southern, 
belonging  to  an  American  company  and  running  from  San  Joa6 
to  the  capital ;  the  Northern,  a  government  line  from  the  capital 
to  Puerto  Barrios,  which  completes  the  interoceanic  railroad;  and 
the  Western,  from  Champerico  to  Quezaltenango,  belonging  to  a 
Guatemalan  company,  but  largely  under  German  management. 
For  local  traffic  there  are  several  Imes;  one  from  Iztapa,  near  Saa 
Jot6t  to  Naranjo,  and  another  from  Oc6s  to  the  western  coffee 
plantations.  On  the  Atlantic  slope  transport  is  effected  mainly  by 
river  tow-boats  from  Livingston  along  the  Golfo  Dulce  and  ocImt 
lakes,  and  the  Polochic  river  as  far  as  Panms-N  The  narrov-gaoge 
railway  that  serves  the  German  plantations  in  the  Vera  Pas  restoa 
is  largely  owned  by  Germans. 

Guatemala  joined  the  Postal  Union  in  1881 ;  but  its  postal  and 
telegraphic  services  have  suffered  greatly  from  financial  difficultMs. 
The  telephonic  systems  of  Guatemala  la  Niwva,  Quezaltenango  and 
other  cities  are  owned  by  private  companies. 

Commerce  and  Industry. — The  natural  resources  of  Guatemala 
are  rich  but  undeveloped;  and  the  capital  necessary  for  tbesr 
development  is  not  easily  obtained  in  a  country  where  war,  re- 
volution and  economic  crises  recur  at  frequent  intervab^  wiiere  the 
premium  on  gold  has  varied  by  no  less  than  500%  m  a  sii^^ 
year,  and  where  many  of  the  wealthiest  cities  and  agricnttaral 
districts  have  been  destroyed  by  earthquake  in  one  day  (i8tb  of 
April  1902).  At  the  beginning  cm  the  19th  century,  Guatemala  had 
practically  no  export  trade;  but  between  1825  and  1850  cochineal 
was  largelyexported,  the  centre  of  production  betni^tlw  Amatitlaa 
district.  This  industry  was  ruined  oy  the  competition  of  daemiaU 
dyes,  and  a  substitute  was  found  m  the  cuitivatioa  of       ' 


GUATEMALA 


663 


Cuatcnula  h  wirpaiaed  only  by  BruU  and  the  East  Indies  in  the 
quantity  of  coffee  it  exports.  The  chief  plantations  are  owned  and 
oianafed  by  Germans;  more  than  half  of  the  crop  is  sent  to  Ger- 
many, while  three-fifths  of  the  remainder  go  to  the  United  States  and 
one-nfth  to  Great  Briuin.  The  average  yearly  product  is  about 
70,000,000  lb,  worth  approximately  £1,300,000,  and  subject  to  an 
export  duty  of  one  gold  dollar  (4s.)  per  quintal  (loi  lb).  Sugar, 
bananas,  tobacco  and  cocoa  are  also  cultivated;  but  much  of  the 
sugar  and  bananas,  most  of  the  cocoa,  and  all  the  tobacco  are  con- 
sumed in  the  country.  During  the  colonial  period,  the  cocoa  of 
western  Guatemala  and  Soconusco  was  reserved  on  account  of  its 
fine  flavour  for  the  Spanish  court.  The  indigo  and  cotton  planta- 
tions yield  little  pront,  owing  to  foreign  competition,  and  have  in 
most  cases  been  converted  to  other  uses.  The  cultivation  of  bananas 
tends  to  increase,  though  more  slowly  than  in  other  Central  American 
countries.  Grain,  sweet  potatoes  and  beans  are  grown  for  home 
consumption.  Cattle-farming  is  carried  on  in  the  high  pasture- 
lands  and  the  plains  of  Peten;  but  the  whole  number  of  sheep 
(77,000  in  1900)  and  p^s  (10,000)  in  the  republic  is  inferior  to  the 
number  kept  in  many  single  English  counties.  Much  of  the  wool 
b  sold,  like  the  native  cotton,  to  IjMlian  and  Ladino  women,  who 
manufacture  coarse  cloth  and  linen  in  their  homes. 

By  the  Land  Act  of  189^  the  state  domains,  except  on  the  coasts 
and  frontiers,  were  divided  into  lots  for  sale.  The  largest  holding 
tenable  by  one  person  under  this  act  was  fixed  at  50  caballcrias,  or 
5625  acres;  the  price  varies  from  £^0  to  £80  per  caballeria  of  112I 
acres.  Free  grants  of  uncultivated  land  are  sometimes  made  to 
immi^nts  (including  foreign  companies),  to  persons  who  undertake 
to  build  roads 'or  railways  through  their  allotments,  to  towns, 
villages  and  schools.  The  condition  of  the  Indians  on  the  planta- 
tions u  often  akin  to  slavery,  owing  to  the  system  adopted  by  some 
planters  of  making  payments  in  advance;  for  the  Indians  soon  spend 
their  earnings,  and  thus 'contract  debts  which  can  only  be  repaid 
by  long  service. 

In  addition  to  the  breweries,  mm  and  brandy  distilleries,  sugar 
mills  and  tobacco  factories,  which  are  sometimes  worked  as  adjuncts 
to  the  plantations,  there  are  many  purely  urban  industries,  such  as 
the  manufacture  of  woollen  and  cotton  goods  on  a  large  scale,  and 
manufactures  of  building  material  andf  furniture;  but  these  in- 
dustries are  far  less  important  than  a^culture. 

During  the  five  years  1^00  to  1^)04  inclusive,  the  average  value  of 
GuatemaJan  imports,  which  consisted  chiefly  of  textiles,  iron  and 
machinery,  .sacks,  provisions,  flour,  beer,  wine  and  spirits,  amounted 
to  £776,000:  about  one-half  came  from  the  United  Sutcs,  and 
nearly  one-fourth  from  the  United  Kingdom.  The  exports  during 
the  same  period  had  an  average  value  of  £1,538,000,  and  ranked  as 
follows  in  order  of  value:  coffee  (£1*300,000),  timber,  hides*  rubber. 
surar,  bananas,  cocoa. 

riiuuue. — Within  the  republic  there  are  six  banks  of  issue,  to 
which  the  government  is  deeply  indebted.  There  is  practically 
neither  gold  nor  silver  in  circulation,  and  the  value  of  the  bank- 
notes u  so  fluctuating  that  trade  is  seriously  hampered.  On  the 
25th  of  June  1903,  the  issue  of  bank-notes  without  a  guarantee 


?. 


any  appreciable  extent,  rendered  more  stable  the  value  of  the 
notes  issued.  The  silver  peso,  or  dollar,  of  too  ccnuvas  is  the 
monetary  unit,  weighs  35  grammes  '900  fine,  and  has  a  nominal 
value  of  4a.  Being  no  longer  current  it  has  been  replaced  by  the 
paper  peso.  The  nickel  coins  include  the  real  (nominal  value  6d.)« 
balf-rcttl  and  quarter-real.  The  metric  system  of  weights  and 
measures  has  been  adopted,  but  the  old  Spanish  standanu  remain 
in  general  use. 
Of  the  revenue,  about  64%  is  derived  from  customs  and  excise: 
%  from  property,  road,  military,  slaughter  and  salt  taxes;  17% 
rom  the  gunpowder  monopoly,  and  the  remainder  from  various 
taxes,  stamps,  government  lands,  and  postal  and  telegraph  ser- 
vices. The  estimated  revenue  for  1905-1906  was  23,000,000  pesos 
(about  £338,500),  the  estimated  expenditure  was  27,317,659  pesos 
0390,200).  df  which  £242,800  were  allotted  to  the  pubhc  debt. 
£42,000  to  internal  development  and  iustice.  £39.000  to  the  army 
and  the  remainder  largely  to  education.  The  gold  value  of  the 
currency  peso  (75"£«  .»«  >903.  70-£i  in  1904,  58 -£i  in  1905) 
fluctuates  between  limits  so  wide  that  conversion  into  sterling 
(especially  for  a  series  of  years),  with  any  pretension  to  accuracy, 
is  impnctkable.  In  1899  the  rate  of  exchange  moved  between 
710%  and  306%  premium  on  gold.  According  to  the  oflicial 
stttement,  the  sold  debt,  which  runs  chiefly  at  4  %  and  is  held  in 
Germany  and  bngland.  amounted  to  ^1,987,005  on  the  1st  of 
January  1905;  the  currency  debt  (note  issues,  internal  loans.  &c.) 
amounted  to  £704,730,  toul  £2,692,635,  a  decrease  since  1900  of 
about  £300,000. 

GoveriiMM/.— Acoordiog  to  the  constitution  of  December 
1879  (modified  in  1885,  1887,  1889  and  1903)  the  legislative 
power  i*  vested  in  a  national  assembly  of  69  deputies  (i  for  every 
30,000  inhabitants)  chosen  for  4  yean  by  direct  popular  vote, 
under  univefBal  manhood  sttffnfe.    The  president  of  the  republic 


is  elected  in  a  siniilar  manner,  but  for  6  years,  and  be  is  theoretic- 
ally not  eligible  for  the  following  term.  He  is  assisted  by  6 
ministers,  heads  of  government  departments,  and  by  a  council 
of  state  of  13  members,  partly  appointed  by  himself  and  partly 
by  the  national  assembly. 

Local  dmmmetU. — Each  of  the  twenty-two  departments  is 
administered  by  an  official  called  a  jcfe  polUico^  or  political 
chief,  appointed  by  the  president,  and  each  is  subdivided  into 
municipal  districts.  These  districts  are  administered  by  one 
or  more  alaUdes  or  mayors,  assisted  by  municipal  councils,  both 
alcaldes  and  councils  being  chosen  by  the  people. 

Justice. — ^The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court, 
consisting  of  a  chief  justice  and  four  associate  justices  elected 
by  the  people;  six  appeal  courts,  each  with  three  judges,  also 
elected  by  the  people;  and  ]twenty-six  courts  of  first  instance, 
each  consisting  of  one  judge  appointed  by  the  president  and  two 
by  the  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court. 

Religion  and  Instmciion. — ^The  prevailing  form  of  religion 
is  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  the  state  recognizes  no  distinction 
of  creed.  The  establishment  of  conventual  or  monastic  institu- 
tions is  prohibited.  Of  the  population  in  1893,  qo%  coidd 
neither  read  nor  write,  2%  could  only  read,  and  8%  could  read 
and  write.  Primary  instruction  is  nominally  compulsory,  and, 
in  government  schools,  is  provided  at  the  cost  of  the  state. 
In  1Q03  there  were  1064  government  primary  schools.  There 
arc  besides  about  128  private  (occasionally  aided)  schools  of 
similar  character,  owners  of  plantations  on  which  there  are  more 
than  ten  children  being  obliged  to  provide  school  accommodation. 
Higher  instruction  is  given  in  two  national  institutes  at  the 
capital,  one  for  men  with  500  pupils  and  one  for  women  with 
300.  At  (^ezaltcnango  there  are  two  similar  institutes,  and 
at  Chiquimula  there  are  other  two.  To  each  of  the  six  there 
is  a  school  for  teachers  attached,  and  within  the  republic  there 
are  four  other  schools  for  teachers.  For  professional  instruction 
Oaw,  medicine,  engineering)  there  are  schools  supported  by 
private  funds,  but  aided  occasionally  by  the  government. 
Other  educational  establishments  are  a  school  of  art,  a  national 
conservatory  of  music,  a  commercial  college,  four  trades'  schools 
with  more  than  600  pupils  and  a  national  library.  There  Is  a 
German  school,  endowed  by  the  German  government. 

Defence. — For  the  white  and  mixed  population  military 
service  is  comptilsory;  from  the  eighteenth  to  the  thirtieth 
year  of  age  in  the  active  anny,  and  from  the  thirtieth  to  the 
fiftieth  in  the  reserve.  The  effective  force  of  the  active  army 
u  56,900,  of  the  rtserve  29,400.  About  7000  officers  and  men 
are  kept  in  regular  service.  Military  training  is  given  in  all 
public  and  most  private  schools. 

History. — Guatemala  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  under 
Pedro  de  Alvarado  between  1522  and  1524.  Up  to  the  years 
1837-1839  its  history  difTers  only  in  minor  details  from  that  of 
the  neighbouring  slates  of  Central  America  (g.v.).  The  colonial 
period  was  marked  by  the  destruction  of  the  andent  Indian 
civilization,  the  extermination  of  many  entire  tribes,  and  the 
enslavement  of  the  survivors,  who  were  exploited  to  the  utmost 
for  the  benefit  of  Spanish  officials  and  adventurers.  But  although 
the  administration  was  weak,  corrupt  and  cruel,  it  succeeded 
in  establishing  the  Roman  CatboUc  religion,  and  in  introducing 
the  Spanish  hnguage  among  the  Indians  and  Ladlnos,  who  thus 
obtained  a  tincture  of  civilization  and- ultimately  a  desire  for 
more  liberal  institutions.  The  Central  American  provinces 
revolted  in  182 1,  were  annexed  to  the  Mexican  empire  of  Iturbide 
from  1822  to  1823,  and  united  to  form  a  federal  republic  from 
1833  to  1839.  In  Guatemala  the  Clerical,  Conservative  or  anti- 
Fcdcral  party  was  supreme;  after  a  protracted  struggle  It  over- 
threw the  Liberals  or  Federalists,  and  declared  the  country  an 
independent  republic,  with  Rafael  Carrera  (1814-1865)  as  pre- 
sident. In  X845  an  attempt  to  restore  the  federal  union  failed; 
in  1851  Carrera  defeated  the  Federalist  forces  of  Honduras  and 
Salvador  at  La  Arada  near  Chiquimula,  and  was  recognized  as 
the  pacificator  of  the  republic.  In  1851  a  new  constitution  was 
promulgated,  and  Carrera  was  appointed  president  till  1856,  a 
dignity  which  was  in  1854  bestowed  upon  him  for  life.    His 


664 


GUATEMALA 


rivalry  with  Gerardo  Barrios  (d.  1865),  president  of  Salvador, 
resulted  in  open  war  in  1863.    At  Coatepeque  the  Guatemalans 
suffered  a  severe  defeat,   which   was  followed  by  a  truce. 
Honduras  now  joined  with  Salvador,  and  Nicaragua  and  Costa 
Rica  with  Guatemala.    The  contest  was  finally  settled  in  favour 
of  Carrcra,  who  besieged  and.  occupied  San  Salvador  and  made 
himself  dominant  also  in  Honduras  and  Nicaragua.    During 
the  rest  of  his  rule,  which  lasted  till  his  death  in  April  1865,  he 
continued  to  act  in  concert  with  the  Clerical  party,  and  en- 
deavoured to  maintain  friendly  relations  with  the  European 
governments.    Carrera's  successor  was  General  Cema,  who  had 
been  recommended  by  him  for  election.    The  Liberal  party 
began  to  rise  in  influence  about  1870,  and  in  May  187 1  Cema 
was  deposed.    The  archbishop  of  Guatemala  and  the  Jesuits  were 
driven  into  exile  as  intriguers  in  the  interests  of  the  Clericab. 
Fres.  Rufino  Barrios  (1835-1885),  elected  in  1873,  governed  the 
country  after  the  manner  of  a  dictator;  he  expelled  the  Jesuits, 
confiscated  their  property  and  disestablished  and  disendowed 
the  church.     But  though  he  encouraged  education,  promoted 
railway  and  other  enterprises,  and  succeeded  in  settling  difficulties 
as  to  the  Mexican  boundary,  the  general  result  of  his  policy  was 
baneful.    Conspiracies  against  him  were  rife,  and  in  1884  he 
narrowly  escaped  assassination.    His  ambition  was  to  be  the 
restorer  of  the  federal  union  of  the  Central  American  states,  and 
when  his  efforts  towards  this  end  by  peaceful  means  failed 
he  had  recourse  to  the  sword.     Counting  on  the  support  of 
Honduras  and  Salvador,  he  proclaimed  himself,  in  February 
1885,  the  supreme  military  chief  of  Central  America,  and  claimed 
the  command  of  all  the  forces  within  the  five  states.    President 
Zaldivar,  of  Salvador,  had  been  his  friend,  but  after  the  issue  of 
the  decree  of  union  he  entered  into  a  defensive  alliance  with 
Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua.    In  March  Barrios  invaded  Salvador, 
and  on  the  2nd  of  April  a  battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  Guate- 
malan president  was  killed.    He  was  succeeded  by  General 
Manuel  Barillas.     No  further  effort  was  made  to  force  on  the 
union,  and  on  the  i6th  of  April  the  war  was  formally  ended. 
Peace,  however,  only  provided  opportunity  for  domestic  con- 
spiracy, with  assassination  and  revolution  in  view.    In  1892 
General  Jose  Maria  Reina  Barrios  was  elected  president,  and  in 
1897  he  was  re-elected;  but  on  the  Sth  of  February  i8q8  he  was 
anassinated.    Seftor  Morales,  vice-president,  succeeded  him; 
but  in  the  same  year  Don  Manuel  Estrada  Cabrera  (b.  1857)  was 
elected  president  for  the  term  ending  1905.    Cabrera  promoted 
education,  commerce  and  the  improvement  of  communications, 
but  his  re-election  for  the  term  IQ05-1Q11  caused  widespread 
discontent.    He  was  charged  with  aiming  at  a  dictatorship,  with 
permitting  or  even  encouraging  the  imprisonment,  torture  and 
execution  without  trial  of  political  opponents,  with  maladmini- 
stration of  the  finances  and  with  aggression  against  the  neigh- 
bounng  states.    A  well-armed  force,  which  included  a  body  of 
adventurers  from  San  Francisco   (U  S.A.)  was  organized  by 
General  Barillas,  the  cx-president,  and  invaded  Guatemala  in 
March  1906  from  Mexico,  British  Honduras   and    Salvador 
Barillas   (1845-1907)    proclaimed  his  intention  of  establishing 
a  silver  currency,  and  gained,  to  a  great  extent,  the  sympathy  of 
the  German  and  British  residents;  he  had  been  the  sole  Guate- 
malan president  who  had  not  sought  to  prolong  his  own  tenure 
of  office.    Oc6s  was  captured  by  his  lieutenant,  General  Castillo, 
and  the  revolution  speedily  became  a  war,  in  which  Honduras, 
Costa  Rica  and  Salvador  were  openly  involved  against  Guate- 
mala, while  Nicaragua  was  hostile.    But  Cabrera  held  his  ground, 
and  even  gained  several  indecisive  victories.    The  intervention 
of  President  Roosevelt  and  of  President  Diaz  of  Mexico  brought 
about  an  armistice  on  the  Z9th  of  July,  and  the  so-called  "  Marble- 
bead  Pact"  was  signed  on  the  following  day  on  board  the 
United  States  cruiser  "  Marblchcad."    Its  terms  were  embodied 
in  a  treaty  signed  (28th  of  September)  by  representatives  of  the 
four  belligerent  states,  Nicaragua  taking  no  part  in  the  negotia- 
tions.   The  treaty  included  regulations  for  the  improvement  of 
commerce  and  navigation  in  the  area  affected  by  the  war,  and 
provided  for  the  settlement  of  subsequent  disputes  by  the 
arbitration  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico 


BiBLiOGKAPRY.— Besides  the  works  cited  under  CevraAX. 
America  see  the  interesting  narrative  of  Thomas  Gage,  the  EagJiA 
missionary,  in  Juarros,  Compendia  de  la  kistaria  die  Gmalemda 
(1808-1818,  a  vols.;  new  ed.,  1857),  which  in  Bailly's  Ei^iiA 
translation  (London.  1623)  long  formed  the  chief  authority  Sec 
also  C.  Tuan  Anino,  La  RepuHica  de  Guatemala  (Guatemala,  1894); 
T.  Bricham,  Guatemala,  The  Land  of  the  Quetzal  (London.  1887): 
J.  M.  Caceres,  Geoerafia  de  Centro-America  (Paris,  i88a);  G.  Leoale, 
Guia  geografica  de  Jos  centres  de  pMacum  de  la  republtca  de  Guaiemaia 
(Guatemala,  1883);  F.  A.  de  Fuentes  y  Guzman,  Histona  de 
Guatemala  o  Recordaeion  Florida  (Madrid.  1882) ;  A.  C.  and  A.  P. 
Maudslay,  A  Glimpse  at  Guatemala,  and  some  Notes  om  tke  Aueiemt 
Monuments  of  Central  America  (London,  1809) ;  Gustavo  Niedtfleia, 
The  Republic  of  Guatemala  (Philadelphia,  1898):  Ramon  A.  SaUar, 
Historia  del  disenoohimiento  tntdaOual  de  Guatemala,  voL  L  (Guate- 
mala. 1897):  Otto  Stoll,  Reisen  und  Schilderungen  ams  den  Jakrem 
1878-1883  (Leipzig.  1886);  J.  Mendcs,  Guia  del  immiermUe  em  la 
republica  de  Guatemala  (Guatemala,  1895);  Kari  Sapper.  **  Graad- 
sQge  dcr  phystkalischen  Geographie  von  Guatemala.  ErigaimiKS- 
hcft  No.  115,  Petermann's  Mitteilungm  (Gotha.  i8qa);  A\ 
de  estadistica  de  la  republica  de  Guatemala  (Guatemab); 

de  la  Secretaria  de  Instruuion  PuUiea  (Guatemala.  1899);  i^.. - 

of  Guatemala,  revised  (Bureau  of  the  American  RepuMtcs.  WashW- 
ton,  1897):  United  SlaUs  Consular  Reports  (Washington)  rBrduft 
Foreign  Office  DipUmaHc  and  Consular  Reports  (London). 

GUATEMALA,  or  Guatekala  la  Nueva  {tjc,  "  New  Guate- 
mala," sometimes  written  Nueva  Guatemala,  and  fonneily 
Santiago  de  los  Caballeros  de  Guatemala),  the  capital  of  the 
republic  of  Guatemala,  and  until  1821  of  the  Spanish  captaincy* 
general  of  Guatemala,  which  comprised  Chiapas  in  Mexico  ^wd 
all  Central  America  except  Panama.  Pop.  (1905)  about  97,000^ 
Guatemala  is  built  more  than  5000  ft.  above  sea-level,  in  a  vide 
Uble-land  traversed  by  the  Rio  de  las  Vacas,  or  Cow  Rjver,  so 
called  from  the  cattle  introduced  here  by  Spanish  colonists  in 
the  x6th  century.  Deep  ravines  mark  the  edge  of  the  table-land, 
and  beyond  it  lofty  mountains  rise  on  every  ade,  the  hig^icst 
peaks  being  on  the  south,  where  the  volcanic  summits  of  the 
Sierra  Madre  exceed  x  2,000  ft.  Guatemala  has  a  station  cm  the 
transcontinental  railway  from  Puerto  Bairios  on  the  Atlantic 
(190  m.  N.E.)  to  San  Jos^  on  the  Pacific  (75  m.  S.  by  W.).  It 
is  thrice  the  size  of  any  other  dty  in  the  republic,  and  has  a 
corresponding  commercial  superiority.  Its  aidibishop  is  tbe 
primate  of  Central  America  (excluding  Panama).  like  most 
Spanish-American  towns  Guatemala  is  laid  out  in  vide  and 
regular  streets,  often  planted  with  avenues  of  trees,  axKl  it  has 
extensive  suburbs.  The  houses,  though  usually  of  only  one 
storey,  are  solidly  and  comfortably  constructed;  many  of  tlteiii 
are  surrounded  by  large  gardens  and  courts.  Among  tbe  open 
spaces  the  chief  are  the  Plaza  Mayor,  which  contains  the 
cathedral,  erected  in  1730,  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  tbe  govci&- 
ment  buildings,  the  mint  and  other  public  offices;  and  the  moce 
modem  Reforma  Park  and  Plaza  de  la  Cononrdia,  now  the 
favourite  resorts  of  the  inhabitants.  There  are  many  tai^e 
schools  for  both  sexes,  besides  hospitals  and  an  orphaiuice. 
Mdh]^  of  the  principal  buildings,  such  as  the  military  acadoBy, 
were  originally  convents.  The  theatre,  founded  in  1858,  is  ooc 
of  the  best  in  Central  America.  A  mtiseum,  founded  in  1831. 
is  maintained  by  the  Sodedad  Economica,  whidi  in  varxna 
ways  has  done  great  service  to  the  dty  and  the  country.  There 
are  two  fortresses,  the  Castello  Matamoros,  bult  by  Rafad 
Carrera  (see  Guatemala  [rq>ublic]  under  History),  and  the 
Castello  de  San  Jos6.  Water  is  brou^t  from  a  distance  of  abooi 
8  m.  by  two  old  aqueducts  from  the  towns  of  Mixco  and  PinnU, 
fuel  and  provisions  are  largely  supplied  by  the  Pokoman  IndiaBS 
of  Mixco.  The  general  prosperity,  and  to  some  extent  the 
appearance,  of  Guatemala  have  procured  it  the  name  of  the  Faiis 
of  Central  America.  It  is  lighted  by  electridty  and  has  a  good 
telephone  service.  Its  trade  is  chiefly  in  cdffee,  but  it  afao 
possesses  cigar  factories,  wool  and  cotton  factories,  breweries, 
tanneries  and  other  industrial  establishments.  The  foegn 
trade  is  chiefly  controlled  by  Germans. 

The  first  dty  named  Guatemala,  now  called  Gudad  Vicja 
or  "  Old  City,"  was  founded  in  1527  by  Pedro  de  Alvando,  the 
conqueror  of  the  country,  on  the  banks  of  tbe  Rio  Peosatxvo^ 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  volcano  of  Agua  (i.e. "  Water").  la 
1541  it  was  overwhebned  by  a  deluge  of  water  from  the  flooded 


GUATOS— GUAYAQUIL 


665 


enter  ol  Agua;  and  in  1543  Alvarado  founded  Santiago  die  loa 
Caballeros  la  Nueva,  now  Antigua.  This  dty  flourished  greatly, 
and  by  the  middle  of  the  x8th  century  had  become  the  most 
populous  place  in  Central  America,  with  60,000  inhabitants  and 
more  than  100  churches  and  convents.  But  in  1773  it  was 
ruined  by  an  earthquake.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  ultimately  became 
capiul  of  the  department  ci  Sacatepeques,  and  a  health-resort 
locally  celebrated  for  its  thermal  springs.  But  the  Guatemalans 
determined  to  found  a  new  capital  on  the  site  occupied  by  the 
hamlet  of  Ermita,  27  m.  N.E.  Here  the  third  and  last  city  of 
Guatemala  was  built,  and  became  the  seat  of  government  in 
1779.  The  remarkable  regularity  of  the  streets  is  due  to  the 
construction  of  the  city  on  a  uniform  plan.  The  wide  area 
covered,  and  the  lowness  of  the  houses,  were  similarly  due  to 
an  ordinance  which,  in  order  to  minimize  the  danger  from  earth- 
quakes, forbade  the  erection  of  any  building  more  than  30  ft. 
high.  Many  of  the  belfries  of  convents  or  churches,  added  after 
the  ordinance  had  fallen  into  abeyance,  were  overthrown  by  the 
earthquake  of  1874,  which  also  destroyed  a  large  part  of  Antigua. 

QUATOS*  a  tribe  of  South  American  Indians  of  the  upper 
Paraguay.  They  are  of  a  European  fairness  and  wear  beards. 
They  live  almost  entirely  in  canoes,  building  rough  shelters 
in  the  swamps.  They  aided  the  Brazilians  in  the  war  with 
Paraguay  1865-70.    Very  few  survive. 

QUATUSOS,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians  of  Costa  Rica..  They 
are  an  active,  hardy  people,  who  have  always  maintained 
hostility  towards  the  Spaniards  and  retain  their  independence. 
From  their  language  they  appear  to  be  a  distinct  stock.  They 
were  described  by  old  writers  as  being  very  fair,  with  flaxen 
hair,  and  these  reports  led  to  a  belief,  since  exploded,  that  they 
were  European  hybrids.    There  are  very  few  surviving. 

QUAVA  (from  the  Mexican  ptayaba)^  the  name  ai^ed  to 
the  fruits  of  ^>cdcs  of  Psidium,  a  genus  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Myrtaceat.  The  species  which  produces  the  bulk  of  the 
guava  fruits  of  commerce  is  Psidium  Cuajava,  a  small  tree  from 
IS  10  20  ft.  high,  a  native  of  the  tropical  parts  of  America  and 
the  West  Indies.  It  bears  short-stalked  ovate  or  oblong  leaves, 
with  strongly  marked  veins,  and  covered  with  a  soft  tomentum 
or  down.  The  flowers  are  borne  on  axillary  stalks,  and  the  fruits 
vary  much  in  size,  shape  and  colour,  numerous  forms  and 
varieties  being  known  and  cultivated.  The  variety  of  which  the 
fruits  are  most  valued  Is  that  which  is  sometimes  called  the 
white  guava  {P.  Cuajava,  yar.  pyriferum).  The  fruits  are  pear- 
shaped,  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  covered  with  a  thin  bright 
yellow  or  whitish  skin  filled  with  soft  pulp,  also  of  a  light  yellowish 
tinge,  and  having  a  pleasant  sweet^cid  and  somewhat  aronuitic 
flavour.  P.  Cuajava,  var.  pomifcrum,  produces  a  more  globular 
or  apple-shaped  fruit,  sometimes  called  the  red  guava.  The 
pulp  of  this  variety  is  mostly  of  a  darker  colour  than  the  former 
and  not  of  so  fine  a  flavour,  therefore  the  first  named  is  most 
esteemed  for  eating  in  a  raw  state;  both,  however,  are  used 
in  the  preparation  of  two  kinds  of  preserve  known  as  guava 
jelly  and  guava  cheese,  which  are  made  in  the  West  Indies 
and  imported  thence  to  England;  the  fruits  are  of  much  too 
perishable  a  nature  to  allow  of  their  importation  in  their  natural 
state.  Both  varieties  have  been  introduced  into  various  parts 
of  India,  as  well  as  in  other  countries  of  the  East,  where  they 
have  become  perfectly  naturalized.  Though  of  course  much  too 
tender  for  outdoor  planting  in  England,  the  guava  thrives  there 
in  hothouses  or  stoves. 

Psidium  variabilc  (also  known  as  P.  CattUyanum),  a  tree  of 
from  10  to  }o  ft.  high,  a  native  of  Brazil  (the  Ara^i  or  Arac&  de 
Praya),  is  known  as  the  purple  guava.  The  fruit,  which  is  very 
abundantly  produced  in  tliciixils  of  the  leaves,  is  large,  ^hcrical, 
of  a  fine  deep  claret  colour;  the  rind  is  pitted,  and  the  pulp 
is  soft,  fleshy,  purplish,  reddish  next  the  skin,  but  becoming 
paler  towards  the  middle  and  in  the  centre  almost  or  quite  white. 
It  has  a  very  agreeable  acid-sweet  flavour,  which  has  been 
likened  to  that  of  a  strawberry. 

6UAYAHA.  a  small  city  and  the  capital  of  a  municipal 
district  and  department  of  the  same  name,  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Porto  Rico,  53  m.  S.  of  San  Juan.    Pop.  (1899)  of  the 


rfty,  S334;  (1910)  8321;  (1899)  of  the  district,  l>,749v  "Hie 
district  (x  56  sq.  m.)  includes  Arroyo  and  Salinas.  The  dty  stands 
about  230  ft.  above  the  sea  and  has  a  mild,  healthy  climate.  It  is 
connected  with  Ponce  by  railway  (1910),  and  with  the  port  of 
Arroyo  by  an  excellent  road,  part  of  the  military  road  extending  to 
Cayey,  and  it  exports  sugar,  rum,  tobacco,  coffee,  cattle,  fruit 
and  other  products  of  the  department,  which  is  very  fertile. 
The  city  was  founded  in  1736,  but  was  completdy  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1 83  2.  It  was  rebuilt  on  a  rectangular  plan  and  possesses 
several  buildings  of  note.  Drinking-water  is  brought  in  through 
an  aqueduct. 

GUAYAQUIL,  or  Santiago  de  Guayaquil,  a  dty  and  port 
of  Ecuador,  capital  of  the  province  of  Guayas,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Guayas  river,  S3  <n.  above  its  entrance  into  the  Gulf 
of  Guayaquil,  in  2**  12'  S.,  79*  51'  W,  Pop.  (1890)  44,772; 
(1897,  estimate)  S'lOoo,  mostly  half-breeds.  The  dty  is  built 
on  a  comparativdy  level  pajonal  or  savanna,  extending  south- 
ward from  the  base  of  three  low  hills,  called  Los  Cerros  de  la 
Cruz,  between  the  river  and  the  partially  filled  waters  of  the 
Estero  Salado.  It  is  about  30  ft  above  sea-levd,  and  the  lower 
parts  of  the  town  are  partially  flooded  In  the  rainy  season. 
The  old  town  is  the  upper  or  northern  part,  and  is  inhabited 
by  the  poorer  classes,  its  streets  being  badly  paved,  crooked, 
undrained,  dirty  and  pestilential.  The  great  fire  of  1896 
destroyed  a  large  part  of  the  old  town,  and  some  of  its  insanitary 
conditions  were  improved  in  rebuilding.  The  new  town,  or 
southern  part,  is  the  business  and  residential  quarter  of  the 
better  classes,  but  the  buildings  are  chiefly  of  wood  and  the 
streets  are  provided  with  surface  drainage  only.  ^  Among  the 
public  buildings  are  the  governor's  and  bishop's  palaces,  town- 
hall,  cathedral  and  9  churches,  national'  college,  q>isc<^>al 
seminary  and  scho(^  of  law  and  medidne,  theatre,  two  hospitals, 
custom-house,  and  several  asylums  and  charitable  institutions. 
Guayaquil  is  also  the  seat  of  a  university  corporation  with 
faculties  of  law  and  medicine.  A  peculiarity  of  Guayaquil  is 
that  the  upper  floors  in  the  business  streets  project  over  the 
walks,  forming  covered  arcades.  The  year  Is  divided  into  a  wet 
and  dry  season,  the  former  from  January  to  June,  when  the  hot 
days  are  followed  by  nights  of  drenching  rain.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  about  82"  to  83^  P.;  malarial  and  bilious  fevers 
are  common,  the  latter  being  known  as  "  Guayaquil  fever," 
and  epidemics  of  ydlow  fever  are  frequent.  The  dry  or  summer 
season  is  considered  pleasant  and  healthy.  The  water-supply 
is  now  brought  in  through  iron  mains  from  the  Cordilleras 
53  m.  distant.  The  mains  pass  under  the  Guayas  river  and 
discharge  into  a  large  distributing  reservoir  on  one  of  the  hills 
N.  of  the  city.  The  city  is  provided  with  tramway  and  telephone 
services,  the  streets  are  lighted  with  gas  and  electricity,  and 
telegraph  communication  with  the  outside  world  is  maintained 
by  means  of  the  West  Coast  cable,  which  lands  at  the  small  port 
of  Santa  Elena,  on  the  Padfic  coast,  about  65  m.  W.  of  Guayaquil. 
Railway  connexion  with  Quito  (290  m.)  was  established  in  June 
1908.  There  is  also  steamboat  connexion  with  the  producing 
districts  of  the  province  on  the  Guayas  river  and  its  tributaries, 
on  which  boats  run  regularly  as  far  up  as  Bodegas  (80  m.)  in 
the  dry  season,  and  for  a  distance  of  40  m.  on  the  Daule.  For 
smaller  boats  there  are  about  200  m.  of  navigation  on  this 
system  of  rivers.  The  exports  of  the  province  are  almost  wholly 
transported  on  these  rivers,  and  are  shipped  either  at  Guayaquil, 
or  at  Puna,  its  deep-water  port,  6|  m.  outside  the  Guayas  bar, 
on  the  E.  end  of  Puna  Island.  The  Guayas  river  is  navigable 
up  to  Guayaquil  for  steamers  drawing  32  ft.  of  water;  larger 
vessels  anchor  at  Puna,  40  m.  from  Guayaquil,  where  cargoes  and 
passengers  are  transferred  to  lighters  and  tenders.  There  is  a 
quay  on  the  river  front,  but  the  depth  alongside  does  not  exceed 
18  ft.  The  prindpal  exports  are  cacao,  rubber,  coffee,  tobacco, 
hides,  cotton,  Panama  hats,  cinchona  bark  and  ivory  nuts,  the 
value  of  all  exports  for  the  year  1905  being  14,148,877  sucres,  in 
a  total  of  18,565,668  sucrts  for  the  whole  republic  In  1908  the 
exports  were:  cacao,  about  64,000,000  lb,  valued  at  $6,400,000; 
hides,  valued  at  lz3S,ooo;  rubber,  valued  at  $235,000;  coffee, 
valued  at  $273,000;  and  vegetable  ivory,  valued  at  $102,000. 


666 


GUAYAS— GUBBIO 


There  are  some  small  industries  in  the  dty,  induding  a  shipyard, 
saw-mills,  foundry,  sugar  refineries,  cotton  and  woollen  mills, 
brewery,  and  manufactures  of  soap,  cigars,,  chocolate,  ice,  soda- 
water  and  liqueurs, 

Santiago  de  Guayaquil  was  founded  on  St  James's  day,  the 
25th  of  July  1535,  by  Sebastian  de  Benalcazar,  but  was  twice 
abandoned  before  its  permanent  settlement  in  1537  by  Francesco 
de  Orellana.  It  was  captured  and  sacked  several  times  in  the 
17th  and  i8th  centuries  by  pirates  and  freebooters — by  Jacob 
Clark  in  1624,  by  French  pirates  in  1686,  by  English  freebooters 
under  Edward  David  in  1687,  by  William  Dampier  in  1707 
and  by  Clapperton  in  1709.  Defensive  works  were  erected  in 
1730,  and  in  1763,  when  the  town  was  made  a  governor's  residence, 
a  castle  and  other  fortifications  were  constructed.  Owing  to 
the  flimsy  construction  of  its  buildings  Guayaquil  has  been 
repeatedly  burned,  the  greater  fires  occurring  in  1707,  1764, 
186$,  1896  and  1899.  -  The  dty  was  made  the  see  of  a  bishopric 
In  1837. 

GUAYAS,  or  El  Guayas*,  a  coast  province  of  Ecuador, 
bounded  N.  by  ManabI  and  Pichincha,  E.  by  Los  Rios,  CafUir 
and  Azuay,  S.  by  £1  Oro  and  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  and  W. 
by  the  same  gulf,  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  province  of  Manabf. 
Pop.  (1893,  estimate)  98,100;  area,  x  1,504  sq.  m.    It  is  very 
irregular  in  form  and  comprises  the  low  alluvial  districts  sur- 
rounding the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  between  the  Western  Cordilleras 
and  the  coast.    It  includes  (since  1885)  the  Gal&pagos  Islands, 
lying  600  m.  off  the  coast.    The  province  of  Guayas  is  heavily 
forested  and  traversed  by  numerous  rivers,  for  the  most  part 
tributaries  of  the  Guayas  river,  which  enters  the  gulf  from  the 
N.    This  river  system  has  a  drainage  area  of  about  14,000  sq.  m. 
and  an  aggregate  of  200  m.  of  navigable  channels  in  the  rainy 
season.    Its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Daule  and  Babahoyo 
or  Chimbo  (also  called  Bodegas),  and  of  the  latter  the  Vinces 
and  Yaguachi.    The  dimate  is  hot,  humid  and  unhealthy, 
bilious  and  malarial  fevers  being  prevalent.    The  rainfall  is 
abundant  and  the  soil  is  deep  and  fertile.    Agriculture  and  the 
collection  of  forest  products  are  the  chief  industries.    The  staple 
products  are  cacao,  coffee,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  tobacco  and  rice. 
The  cultivation  of  cacao  is  the  principal  industry,  the  exports 
forming  about  one-third  the  world's  supply.    Stock-raising  is 
also  carried  on  to  a  limited  extent.    Among  forest  products  are 
rubber,  cinchona  bark,  toquilla  fibre  and  ivory  nuts.    The 
manufacture  of  so-called  Panama  hats  from  the  fibre  of  the 
toquilla  palm  (commonly  called  jt^ja^a,  after  a  town  in  Manabf 
famous  for  this  industry)  is  a  long-established  domestic  industry 
among  the  natives  of  this  and  other  coast  provinces,  thehiunidity 
of  the  climate  greatly  facilitating  the  work  of  plaiting  the  delicate 
straws,  which  would  be  broken  in  a  dry  atmosphere.    Guayas 
IS  the  chief  industrial  and  commerdal  province  of  the  republic, 
al)out  nineteen-twcntieths  of  the  commerce  of  Ecuador  passing 
through  the  port  of  its  capital,  Guayaquil.    There  are  no  land 
transport  routes  in  the  province  except  the  Quito  &  Guayaquil 
railway,  which  traverses  its  eastern  half.     The  sluggish  river 
channels  which  intersect  the  greater  part  of  its  territory  afford 
excellent  facilities  for  transporting  produce,  and  a  large  number 
of  small  boats  are  regularly  engaged  in  that  traffic.    Thiere  are 
no  large  towns  in  Guayas  other  than  Guayaquil.    Dur&n,  on  the 
Guayas  river  opposite  Guayaquil,  is  the  starting  point  of  the 
Quito  railway  and  contains  the  shops  and  oflices  of  that  line. 
The  port  of  Santa  Elena  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  about  65  m. 
W.  of  Guayaquil,  is  a  landing-point  of  the  West  Coast  cable, 
and  a  port  of  call  for  some  of  the  regular  steamship  lines.    Its 
exports  arc  chiefly  Panama  hats  and  salt. 

GUAYCURUS,  a  tribe  of  South  American  Indians  on  the 
Paraguay.  The  name  has  been  used  generally  of  all  the  mounted 
Indians  of  Gran  Chaco.  The  Guaycurus  are  a  wild,  fierce  people, 
who  paint  their  bodies  and  go  naked.  They  are  feariess  horse- 
men and  arc  occupied  chiefly  in  cattle  rearing. 

GUAYMAS,  or  San  Jos£  de  Guaymas,  a  seaport  of  Mexico, 
in  the  state  of  Sonora,  on  a  small  bay  opening  into  the  Gulf  of 
California  a  few  miles  W.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Yaqui  river,  in 
lat.  27°  58'  N.,  long.  I  lo*"  58'  W.    Pop.  (1900)  8648.  The  harbour 


is  one  of  the  best  on  the  W.  coast  of  Mexico,  and  the  pctft  is  a 
prindpal  outlet  for  the  products  of  the  large  state  of  Scntora. 
The  town  stands  on  a  small,  arid  plain,  neariy  shut  in  by  moun- 
tains, and  has  a  very  hot,  dry  climate.  It  is  connected  with  the 
railways  of  the  United  States  by  a  branch  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  from  Benson*  Arizona,  and  is  230  m.  S.  by  \V.  of  the 
frontier  town  of  Nogales,  where  that  line  enters  Mexico.  The 
exports  include  gold,  silver,  hides  and  pearls. 

GUBBIO  (anc.  Iguvium^  q.v.;  med.  Eugubinm),  a  town  and 
episcopal  see  of  Umbria,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Perugia,  from 
which  it  is  23  m.  N.N.E.  by  road;  by  rail  it  is  13  m.  N.W.  of 
Fossato  di  Vico  (on  the  line  between  Foligno  and  Ancona) 
and  70  m.  E.S.E.  of  Arezzo.    Pop.  (1901)  5783  (town);  26,718 
(commune).    Gubbio  is  situated  at  the  foot  and  on  the  steep 
slopes  of  Monte  Calyo,  from  1568  to  1735  ft.  above  sca-ievd, 
at  the  entrance  to  the  gorge  which  ascends  to  Scheggia,  probably 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Umbrian  town.    It  presents  a  znarkediy 
medieval  appearance.    The  most  prominent  building  is   the 
Palazzo  dei  Conaoli,-on  the  N.  side  of  the  Piazza  delia  Signoria; 
it  is  a  huge  Gothic  edifice  vrith  a  tower,  erected  in  1332-1546, 
according  to  tradition,  by  Matteo  di  GiovaneUo  of  Gubbio; 
the  name  of  Angelo  da  Orvieto  occurs  on  the  arch  of  the  main 
door,  but  his  work  may  be  limited  to  the  sculptures  of  this 
arch.    It  has  two  stories  above  the  ground  floor,  and,  being  on 
the  slope  of  the  hill,  is,  like  the  whole  piazza,  raised  on  arched 
substructures.    On  the  S.  side  of  the  piazza  is  the  Palazzo 
Pretorio,  or  della  Podcsta,  begun  in  1349  and  now  the  municipal 
palace.    It  contains  the  famous  Tabulae  Igtainae,  and  a  collec- 
tion of  paintings  of  the  Umbrian  school,  of  furniture  andol 
majolica.    On  the  E.  side  is  the  modern  Palazzo  Ranghiasci- 
Brancaleone,  which  until  1882  contained  fine  collections,-  no«r 
dispersed.    Above  the  Piazza  della  Signoria,  at   the  hig,he!St 
point  of  the  town,  is  the  Palazzo  Ducale,  erected  by  the  dukes 
of  Urbino  in  1474-1480;  the  architect  was,  in  all  probability, 
Lucio  da  Laurana,  to  whom  is  due  the  palace  at  Urbiim,  which 
this  palace  resembles,  especially  in  its  fine  colonnaded  court. 
The  Palazzo  Beni,  lower  down,  bdongs  to  a  somewhat  earlier 
period  of  the  15th  century.    Pope  Martin  V.  lodged  here  for  a 
few  days  in  1420.    The  Palazzo  Accoraraboni,  on  the  c^her 
hand,  is  a  Renaissance  structure,  with  a  fine  entrance  arch. 
Here  Vitloria  Accoramboni  was  born  in  1557.    Opposite  the 
Palazzo  Ducale  is  the  cathedral,  dedicated  to  SS.  Mariano  e 
Jacopo,  a  structure  of  the  I7th  century,  with  a  facade,  adorned 
with  contemporary  sculptures,  partly  restored  in  1 514-1 550W 
The  interior  contains  some  good  pictures  by  Umbrian  artists, 
a  fine  episcopal  throne  in  carved  wood,  and  a  fine  Flemish  cx^k 
given  by  Pope  Marcellus  II.  (1555)  in  the  sacristy.    The  ex> 
terior  of  the  Gothic  church  of  S.  Francesco,' in  the  lower  part 
of  the  town,  built  in  1259,  preserves  its  original  style,  but  the  ir»- 
terior  has  been  modernized;  and  the  same  fate  has  overtaken  the 
Gothic  churches  of  S.  Maria  Nuova  and  S.  Pietro.    S.  .AgostiriO, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  its  Gothic  interior  better  preserved.     The 
whole  town  is  full  of  specimens  of  medieval  architecture,  the 
pointed  arch  of  the  13th  century  being  especially  prevalent. 
A  remarkable  procession  lakes  place  in  Gubbio  on  the  tsth  of 
May  in  each  year,  in  honour  of  S.  Ubaldo,  when  three  colossal 
wooden  pedestals,  each  over  30  ft.  high,  and  crowned  by  statues 
of  SS.  Ubaldo,  Antonio  and  Giorgio,  are  carried  through  the 
town,  and  then,  in  a  wild  race,  up  to  the  church  of  S.  UbakJo 
on  the  mountain-side  (2690  ft.).    See  H.  M.  Bower,  The  Eicsaiian 
and  Processim  of  the  Ceri'tUCuhbio  (Folk-lore  Society,  London, 

1897). 

After  its  reconstruction  with  the  help  of  Narses  (ace  Icuvivm) 
the  .town  remained  subject  to  the  exarchs  of  Ravenna,  and, 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Lombard  kingdom  in  774.  ftxrmed 
part  of  the  donation  of  Charlemagne  to  the  pope.  In  the  xith 
century  the  beginnings  of  its  independence  may  be  traced.  In 
the  struggles  of  that  lime  it  was  generally  on  the  Ghibelline  si<te. 
In  1x51  it  repdied  an  attack  of  several  neighbouring  dtiea,  and 
formed  from  this  time  a  republic  governed  by  consuls.  In  1 155 
it  was  besieged  by  the  emperor  Frederick  I.,  but  saved  by  the 
intervention  of  its  bishop,  S.  Ubaldo,  and  was  granted  privileges 


GUBEN— GUDGEON 


667 


by  the  emperor.  In  1 203  it  had  its  first  podesti,  and  from  this 
period  dates  the  rise  of  its  importance.  In  1387,  after  various 
political  changes,  it  surrendered  to  Antonio  da  Montefeltro  of 
UrbinOf  and  remained  under  the  dominion  of  the  dukes  of 
Urbino  until,  in  1624,  the  whole  duchy  was  ceded  to  the  pope. 

Gubbio  was  the  birthplace  of  Oderisio,  a  famous  miniature 
painter  (1240-1299),  mentioned  by  Dante  as' the  honour  of  his 
native  town  {Purg.  xi.  80  "  /'  onor  d'Agobbio  "}» hut  no  authentic 
works  by  him  exist.  In  the  14th  and  15th  centuries  a  branch 
of  the  Umbrian  school  of  painting  flourished  here,  the  most 
famous  masters  of  which  were  Guido  Palraerucd  (i  280-1345?) 
and  several  members  of  the  Neili  family,  particularly  Ottaviano 
(d.  1444),  whose  best  work  is  the  "  Madonna  del  Belvedere  " 
in  S.  Maria  Nuova  at  Gubbio  (1404),  extremely  well  preserved, 
with  bright  cok>uring  and  fine  details.  Another  work  by  him 
is  the  group  of  frescoes  including  a  large  "  Last  Judgment," 
and  scenes  from  the  life  of  St  Augustine,  in  the  church  of 
S.  Agostino,  discovered  in  1902  under  a  coating  of  whitewash. 
These  painters  seem  to  have  been  Influenced  by  the  contemporary 
masters  of  the  Sienese  school. 

Gubbio  occupies  a  far  more  important  place  in  the  history 
of  majolica.  In  a  decree  of  1438  a  vasarius  tasorum  pictorum  is 
mentioned,  who  probably  was  not  the  first  of  his  trade.  The  art 
was  brought  to  perfection  by  Giorgio  Andreoli,  whose  father  had 
emigrated  hither  from  Pavia,  and  who  in  1498  became  a  citizen 
of  Gubbio.  The  works  by  his  hand  are  remarkable  for  their 
ruby  tint,  with  a  beautiful  metallic  lustre;  but  only  one  small 
Uaxa  remains  in  Gubbio  itself.  His  art  was  carried  on  by  his  sons, 
Cencio  and  Ubaldo,  but  was  afterwards  lost,  and  only  recovered 
in  1853  by  Angelico  Fabbri  and  Luigi  Carocd. 

Two  miles  outside  Porta  Metauro  to  the  N.E.  is  the  Bottac- 
cione,  a  large  water  reservoir,  constructed  in  the  12th  or  14th 
century;  the  water  is  collected  in  the  bed  of  a  stream  by  a 
massive  dam. 

See  A.  CoUsanti,  Cuhbio  (BerKamo,  1905);  L.  McCracken,  GMio 
(London,  1905).  (T.  As.) 

GUBEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Lubb  with  the  Neisie,  38  m.  S.S.E.  of 
Frank  fort -on-Oder,  at  the  junction  of  railways  to  Breslau, 
Halle  and  Forst.  Pop.  (1875)  33>704;  (1905)  3^.666.  It  pos- 
sesses three  Evangelical  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  church, 
a  synagogue,  a  gymnasium,  a  modem  school,  a  museum  and  a 
theatre.  The  principal  industries  are  the  spinning  and  weaving 
of  wool,  dyeing,  tanning,  and  the  manufacture  of  pottery  ware, 
hats,  doth,  paper  and  machinery.  The  vine  Is  cultivated  in  the 
neighbourhood  to  some  extent,  and  there  b  also  some  trade  in 
fruit  and  vegetables.  Guben  is  of  Wendish  origin.  It  is  men- 
tioned In  1207  and  received  civic  rights  in  1235.  It  was  sur- 
rounded by  walls  in  131 1,  about  which  time  it  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  margrave  of  Brandenburg,  from  whomlt 
passed  to  Bohemia  in  1368.  It  was  twice  devastated  by  the 
Hussites,  and  in  1631  and  1643  it  was  occupied  by  the  Swedes. 
By  the  peace  of  Prague  in  1635  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  elector  of  Saxony,  and  in  1815  it  was,  with  the  rest  of  Lower 
Lusatia.  united  to  Prussia. 

QUBERNATIS.  ANOELO  DE,  Count  (1840-  ),  Italian  man 
of  letters,  was  born  at  Turin  and  educated  there  and  at  Berlin, 
where  he  studied  philology.  In  1862  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  Sanskrit  at  Flurenre,  but  having  married  a  cousin  of  the 
Socialist  Bakunin  and  become  interested  m  his  views  he  resigned 
his  appointment  and  spent  some  years  in  travel.  He  was 
reappointed,  however,  in  1867;  and  in  1891  he  was  transferred 
to  the  university  of  Rome.  He  became  prominent  both  as  an 
orientalist,  a  publicist  and  a  poet.  He  founded  the  Italia 
ietleraria  (1862),  the  Rivisla  orienUik(iS67),  the  Civilta  Uah'ana 
and  Rivisia  europea  (1869),  the  BolUUino  Ualiano  degli  studii 
orientali  (1876)  and  the  Rivue  iniemationale  (1883),  and  in 
1887  became  director  of  the  Ciornale  delta  socield  asiatica.  In 
1878  he  started  the  Dixionario  biografico  degli  siriUori  contem- 
paranei.  His  Oriental  and  mythological  works  include  the 
Piccola  enciclopedia  indiona  (1867),  the  FotUi  vediche  (1868), 
a  famous  work  on  zoological  mythology  (1873),  and  another  on 


plant  mythology  (1878).  He  also  edited  the  encydopaedic 
Storia  universale  deUa  letUraiura  (1882-1885).  His  work  in 
verse  includes  the  dramas  Calo,  Ronu^^  II  re  ATo/a,  Don  Rodrigo, 
Saviiri,  &c. 

QUDBRANDSDAL.  a  district  in  the  midlands  of  southern 
Norway,  comprising  the  upper  course  of  the  river  Lougen  or 
Laagen  from  Lillehammer  at  the  head  of  Lake  Mjdsen  to  its 
source  in  Lake  Lesjekogen  and  tributary  valleys.  Lillehammer, 
the  centre  of  a  rich  timber  district,  is  114  m.  N.  of  Christiania 
by  rail.  The  railway  continues  through  the  well-wooded  and 
cultivated  valley  to  Otta  (70  m.).  Several  tracks  run  westward 
into  the  wild  district  of  the  Jotunhdm.  From  Otto  good  driving 
routes  run  across  the  watershed  and  descend  the  western  slope, 
where  the  scenery  is  incomparably  finer  than  in  Gudbrandsdal 
itself— (a)  past  S5rum,  with  the  X3th-century  churches  of 
Vaagen  and  Lom  (a  fine  spedmen  of  the  Stavekirke  or  timber- 
built  church),  Aanstad  and  Polfos,  with  beautiful  falls  of  the 
Otta  river,  to  Groilid,  whence,  roads  diverge  to  Stryn  on  the 
Nordfjord,  and  to  Marok  on  the  Geirangerfjord;  (b)  past 
Domaas  (with  branch  road  north  to  StOren  near  Trondhjem, 
skirting  the  Dovrefjeld),  over  the  watershed  formed  by  Lesje- 
kogen Lake,  which  drains  in  both  directions,  and  down  through 
the  magnificent  RonisdaL 

GUDB  (GuDius).  MARQUARD  (1635-1689),  German  archaeo- 
logist an(l  classical  scholar,  was  bom  at  Rendsburg  in  Hoist ein 
on  the  ist  of  February  1635.  He  was  originally  intended  for 
the  law,  but  from  an  early  age  showed  a  deddcd  preference  for 
dasacal  studies.  In  1658  he  went  to  Holland  in  the  hope  of 
finding  work  as  a  teacher  of  classics,  and  in  the  following  year, 
through  the  influence  of  J.  F.  Gronovius,  he  obtained  the  post  of 
tutor  and  travelling  companion  to  a  wealthy  young  Dutchman, 
Samud  Schars.  During  his  travels  Gude  seized  the  opportunity 
of  copying  inscriptions  and  MSS.  At  the  earnest  request  of  his 
pupi^  who  had  become  greatly  attadied  to  him,  Gude  refused 
more  than  one  prof essional  appointment,  and  it  was  not  until 
167  X  that  he  accepted  the  post  of  librarian  to  Duke  Christian 
Albert  of  Holstein-Gottorp.  Schars,  who  had  accompanied 
Gude,  died  in  1675,  and  left  him  the  greater  part  of  his  property. 
In  1678  Gude,  having  quarrelled  with  the  duke,  retired  into 
private  life;  but  in  1682  he  entered  the  service  of  Christian  V. 
of  Denmark  as  counsellor  of  the  Schleswig-Holstein  chancellery, 
and  remained  in  it  almost  to  the  time  of  his  death  on  the  26th 
of  November  1689.  Gude's  great  life-work,  the  collection  of 
Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions,  was  not  published  till  1731. 
Mention  may  also  be  made  of  his  edUio  princrps  (1661)  of  the 
treatise  of  Hippolytus  the  Martyr  on  Antichrist,  and  of  his  notes 
on  Phaedrus  (with  four  new  fables  discovered  by  him)  published 
in  P.  Bunnann's  edition  (1698). 

His  correspondence  (ed.  P.  Burmann,  1697)  is  the  most  important 
authorit)^  for  the  events  of  Gude's  life,  besides  containing  valuable 
information  on  the  learning  of  the  times.  Sec  also  J.  Moller,  Cimbria 
literata,  UL,  and  C.  Bursian  in  AUgemeiue  deutsche  Biograpkie,  x. 

GUDBIIAN,  ALFRED  (1863-  ),  American  dassical  scholar, 
was  born  in  Atlanta,  Georgia,  on  the  26th  of  August  1862. 
He  graduated  at  Columbia  University  in  1883  and  studied  under 
Hermann  Diels  at  the  University  of  Berlin.  From  1890  to  1893 
he  was  reader  in  classical  philology  at  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
from  1893  to  1902  professor  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  from  1902  to  1904  professor  in  Cornell  University.  In  1904 
he  became  a  member  of  the  corps  of  scholars  preparing  the 
Wolfflin  Thesaurus  linguae  Latinae — a  unique  distinction  for  an 
American  Latinist,  as  was  the  publication  of  his  critical  edition, 
with  German  commentary,  of  Tacitus'  AgricUa  in  1902  by  the 
Weidmannsche  Buchhandlung  of  Berlin.  He  wrote  Latin 
Literature  of  the  Empire  (2  vols..  Prose  and  Poetry ^  1898-1899), 
a  History  of  Classical  PhiMogy  (1902)  and  Sources  of  Plutarch's 
Life  of  Cicero  (1902);  and  edited  Tacitus'  Dialogus  de  oratoribus 
(text  with  commentary,  1894  and  1898)  and  Agricola  (1899; 
with  Cermania,  1900),  and  Sallust's  Catiline  (1903). 

GUDGEON  {Gobio  fluviatUis),  a  small  fish  of  the  Cyprinid 
family.  D.  is  nearly  related  to  the  barbel,  and  has  a  small  barbel 
or  fleshy  appendage  at  each  comer  of  the  mouth.    It  is  the 


668 


GUDRUN— GUELPHS  AND  GHIBELLINES 


gobione  of  Italy,  goujon  of  France  (whence  adapted  in  M.  English 
as  gojon),  and  Crissling  or  CriiniUmg  of  Germany.  Gudgeons 
thrive  in  streams  and  lakes,  keeping  to  the  bottom,  and  seldom 
exceeding  8  in.  in  length.  In  China  and  Japan  there  are  varieties 
differing  only  slightly  from  the  common  European  type. 

GUDRUN  (K.UDBUN),  a  Middle  High  German  epic,  written 
probably  in  the  early  years  of  the  13th  century,  not  long  after 
the  Nibdungeniitdt  the  influence  of  which  may  be  traced  upon 
it.  It  is  preserved  in  a  single  MS.  which  was  prepared  at  the 
command  of  Maximilian  I.,  and  was  discovered  as  late  as  1820 
in  the  Castle  of  Ambras  in  Tirol.  The  author  was  an  unnamed 
Austrian  poet,  but  the  story  itself  belongs  to  the  cycle  of  sagas, 
which  originated  on  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea.  The  epic  falls 
into  three  easily  distinguishable  parts— the  adventures  of  King 
Hagen  of  Ireland,  the  romance  of  Hettel,  king  of  the  Hegelingen, 
who  woos  and  wins  Hagen's  daughter  Hilde,  and  lastly,  the 
more  or  less  parallel  story  of  how  Herwig,  king  of  Seeland,  wins, 
in  opposition  to  her  father's  wishes,  Gudrun,  the  daughter  of 
Hettel  and  Hilde.  Gudrun  is  carried  off  by  a  king  of  Normandy, 
and  her  kinsfolk,  who  are  in  pursuit,  are  defeated  in  a  great 
battle  on  the  island  of  WUlpensand  off  the  Dutch  coast.  The 
finest  parts  of  the  epic  are  those  in  which  Gudrun,  a  prisoner  in 
the  Norman  caslle,  refuses  to  become  the  wife  of  her  captor, 
and  is  condemned  to  do  the  most  menial  work  of  the  household. 
Here,  thirteen  years  later,  Herwig  and  her  brother  Ortwin  find 
her  washing  clothes  by  the  sea;  on  the  following  day  they 
attack  the  Norman  castle  with  their  army  and  carry  out  the 
long-delayed  retribution. 

The  epic  of  Cudrun  b  not  unworthy  to  stand  beside  the 
greater  Nibdungenlitd^  and  it  has  been  aptly  compared  with 
it  as  the  Odyssey  to  the  liiad.  Like  the  Odyssey,  Gudrun  is  an 
epic  of  the  sea,  a  story  of  adventure;  it  does  not  turn  solely 
round  the  conflict  of  human  passions;  nor  is  it  built  up  round 
one  all-absorbing,  all-dominating  idea  like  the  N ibclungenlied. 
Scenery  and  incident  are  more  varied,  and  the  poet  has  an 
opportunity  for  a  more  lyric  interpretation  of  motive  and 
character.  Gudrun  is  composed  in  stanzas  similar  to  those 
of  the  NibdungaUiedy  but  with  the  essential  difference  that  the 
last  line  of  each  stanza  is  identical  with  the  others,  and  does 
not  contain  the  extra  accented  svllable  characteristic  of  the 
Nibdungm  metre. 

Cudmn  was  first  edited  by  von  der  Haeen  in*  vol.  1.  of  his 
Heldenbueh  (i8ao).  Subsequent  editions  by  A.  Zicmann  and  A.  J. 
Vollmer  followed  in  18^7  and  1845.  The  best  editions  are  those 
by  K.  Barttch  (4th  eo.,  1880),  who  has  also  edited  the  poem 
for  Ktkrschner's  Deutsche  NaiionaUUeraiur  (vol.  6,  itiSO,  by  B. 
Symons  ^i88a)  and  by  E.  Martin  (3nd  cd.,  1901).  L.  EitrnQller 
first  applied  Lachmaiin's  ballad-theory  to  the  poem  (1841),  and  K. 
MiUlcnhoff  {Kudrun,  die  echten  Teile  des  Cedichts,  1845)  rejected 
more  than  three-quarters  of  the  whole  as  "  not  genuine."  There  are 
many  translations  of  the  epic  into  modern  German,  the  best  known 
being  that  of  K.  SimrocK  (isth  ed.,  1884).  A  translation  into 
English  by  M.  P.  Nichols  appeared  at  Boston,  U.S.A.,  in  1880. 

See  K.  Bartsch,  Beilraee  zur  CeschicUte  utid  Krilik  der  Kudrun 
(1865):  H.  Keck.  Die  Cudrunsage  (1867):  VV.  Wilmanns.  Die 
Entwickdung  der  Kudrundicktung  (1873):  A.  Fecamp,  Le  Pdtme 
de  Cudrun,  ses  origines,  saformation  el  son  histoire  (1892);  F.  Panzer, 
Hilde-Cudrun  (1901).  For  later  versions  and  adaptations  of  the 
saga  see  O.  Benedict,  Die  Cudrunsage  in  der  ncueren  Liieratur  (1902.) 

0U6bRIANT,  jean  BAPTISTE  BUDES.  Comte  de  (1602- 

1643),  marshal  of  France,  was  born  at  Plessis-Budes,  near  St 

Brieuc,  of  an  old  Breton  family.    He  served  first  in  Holland,  and 

in  the  Thirty  Years'  War  he  commanded  from  1638  to  163Q  the 

French  contingent  in  the  army  of  his  friend  Bernard  of  Saxe- 

Weimar,  distinguishing  himself  particularly  at  the  siege  of 

Breisach  in  1638.    Upon  the  death  of  Bernard  he  received 

the  command  of  his  army,  and  tried,  in  conjunction  with  J. 

Baner  (i  596-1641),  the  Swedish  general,  a  bold  attack  upon 

Regensburg   (1640).    His   victories  of   WolfenbUttel   on   the 

29th  of  June  164 1  and  of  Kempen  in  1642  won  for  him  the 

marshal's  bSLton.    Having  failed  in  an  attempt  to  invade  Bavaria 

in  concert  with  Torstensson  he  seized  Rottweil,  but  was  mortally 

wounded  there  on  the  17th  of  November  1643. 

A  biography  was  published  by  Le  Labotireur,  Histoire  du  maresckal 
de  Guwrianl,  in  16^  See  A.  Brinzinger  in  WilrUembergische 
Viertdjakrukriji  fir  landesgesckickU  (1902). 


GUELDER  ROSB»  so  called  from  GueMcrUMd,  iu  wppoaed 
source,  termed  also  marsh  elder,  rose  elder,  water  elder  (Ger. 
Wasserkolder,  ScknubaU;  Fr.  viornt'Ohier^  Vobier  d'Esirope), 
known  botanically  as  Viburnum  Opulus^  a  shrub  or  small  tree 
of  the  natural  order  Caprifoliaceae,  a  native  of  Britain,  and 
widely  distributed  in  the  temperate  and  colder  parts  of  Euiope, 
Asia  and  North  America.  It  is  common  in  Ireland,  but  rare 
in  Scotland.  In  height  it  is  from  6  to  i  z  ft.,  and  it  thrives  best 
in  moist  situations.  The  leaves  are  smooth,  z  to  j  In.  broad,  with 
3  to  5  unequal  serrate  lobes,  and  glandular  stipules  adoate  to 
the  stalk.  In  autumn  the  leaves  change  their  nomwl  bright 
green  for  a  pink  or  crimson  hue.  The  flowers,  which  appear  in 
June  and  July,  are  small,  white,  and  arranged  in  cymes  z  to  4  in. 
in  diameter.  The  outer  blossoms  in  the  wild  plant  have  an 
enlarged  corolla,  \  in.  in  diameter,  and  are  devoid  of  stamcas 
or  pistils;  in  the  common  cultivated  variety  all  the  flowers  are 
sterile  and  the  inflorescence  is  globular,  hence  the  term  "  snow- 
ball tree  "  applied  to  the  plant,  the  appearance  eA  which  at  the 
time  of  flowering  has  been  prettily  described  by  Cowper  in  his 
Winter  Walk  at  Noon.  The  guelder  rose  bears  juicy,  red,  elliptical 
berries,  \  in.  long,  which  ripen  in  September,  and  cootaio  each  a 
single  compressed  seed.  In  northern  Europe  these  are  eaten, 
and  in  Siberia,  after  fermentation  with  flour,  they  are  distilled 
for  spirit.  The  plant  has,  however,  emetic,  purgative  and  nar- 
cotic properties;  and  Taylor  {Med.  Jurisp.  i.  448,  2nd  ed.,  1873) 
has  recorded  an  instance  of  the  fatal  poisoning  of  a  chiM  by 
the  berries.  Both  they  and  the  bark  contain  valerianic  act(L 
The  woody  shoots  of  the  guelder  rose  are  manufactured  into 
various  small  articles  in  Sweden  and  Russia.  Another  member 
of  the  genus,  Viburnum,  Lantana,  wayfaring  tree,  is  found  in  dry 
copses  and  hedges  in  England,  except  in  the  north. 

GUELPH,  a  city  of  Ontario,  Canada,  45  m.  \V.  of  ToronlOw 
on  the  river  Speed  and  the  Grand  Trunk  and  Canadian  Pacific 
railways.  Pop.  (1901)  11,496.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  fine  agri- 
cultural district,  and  exports  grain,  fruit  and  live-stock  in  large 
quantities.  It  contains,  in  addition  to  the  county  and  munidpial 
buildings,  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  which  draws  students 
from  all  parts  of  North  and  South  America.  The  river  affords 
abundant  water-power  for  flour-mills,  saw-mills,  woollen-mills 
and  numerous  factories,  of  which  agricultural  implerocttls, 
sewing  machines  and  musical  instruments  are  the  chief. 

GUELPHS  AND  GHIBELUNES.  These  names  are  doubtless 
Italianized  forms  of  the  German  words  Welf  and  WaiblingcD. 
although  one  tradition  says  that  they  are  derived  from  Guelph 
and  Gibcl,  two  rival  brothers  of  Pistoia.  Another  theory  derives 
Ghibclline  from  Gibello,  a  word  used  by  the  Sicilian  Arabs  to 
translate  Hohcnstaufen.  However,  a  more  popular  story  tells 
how,  during  a  fight  around  Weinsberg  in  December  1 140  between 
the  German  king  Conrad  III.  and  Welf,  count  of  Bavzria.  a 
member  of  the  powerful  family  to  which  Henry  the  Lion,  duke 
of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  belonged,  the  soldiers  of  the  latter 
raised  the  cry  "  Hie  Welfl"  to  which  the  king's  troops  replied 
with  "  Hie  Waiblingen ! "  this  being  the  name  of  one  of  Conrad's 
castles.  But  the  rivalry  between  Welf  and  Hohensiaufen,  d 
which  family  Conrad  was  a  member,  was  anterior  to  thb  event. 
and  had  been  for  some  years  a  prominent  fact  in  the  history  of 
Swabia  and  Bavaria,  although  its  introduction  into  Italy— no  a 
slightly  modified  form,  however — only  dates  from  the  time  of 
the  Italian  expeditions  of  the  emperor  Frederick  I.  It  is  about 
this  time  that  the  German  chronicler.  Otto  of  Frdsing,  si)'S, 
"  Duae  in  Romano  orbe  apud  Galliae  Germaniaeve  fines  famosae 
famtliae  actcnus  fuere,  una  Heinriconim  de  Gueibelinga,  sliz 
Guelforum  de  Aldorfo.  altera  imperatores,  altera  magnos  duces 
producere  solita."  Chosen  German  king  in  11 52,  Frederick 
was  not  only  the  nephew  and  the  heir  of  Conrad,  be  was  rdaled 
also  to  the  Wcifs;  yet.  although  his  election  abated  to  some 
extent  the  rivalry  between  Welf  and  Hohcnstaufen  in  Germsny, 
it  opened  it  upon  a  larger  and  fiercer  scale  in  Italy. 

During  the  long  and  interesting  period  covered  by  Frederick's 
Italian  campaigns,  his  enemies,  prominent  among  whom  wtie 
the  cities  of  the  Lombard  League,  became  known  as  Weils, 
or  Guelphs,  while  his  partisans  seised  upon  the  rival  tem  of 


GUENEVERE 


669 


Waiblingen,  or  GhibeDin^,  and  the  contest  between  these  two 
parties  was  carried  on  with  a  ferocity  unknown  even  to  the 
inhabitants  of  southern  Germany.  The  distracted  state  of 
northern  Italy,  the  jealousies  between  various  pairs  of  towns, 
the  savage  hatred  between  family  and  family,  were  some  of  the 
causes  which  fed  this  feud,  and  it  reached  its  height  during  the 
momentous  struggle  between  Frederick  II.  and  the  Papacy  in 
the  X3th  century.  The  story  of  the  contest  between  Guelph 
and  Ghibelline,  however,  is  little  less  than  the  history  of  Italy 
in  the  middle  ages.  At  the  opening  of  the  13th  century  it  was 
intensified  by  the  fight  for  the  Gennan  and  imperial  thrones 
between  Philip,  duke  of  Swabia,  a  son  of  Frederick  I.,  and  the 
Well,  Otto  of  Brunswick,  afterwards  the  emperor  Otto  IV., 
a  fight  waged  in  Italy  as  well  as  in  Germany.  Then,  as  the  heir 
of  Philip  of  Swabia  and  the  rival  of  Otto  of  Brunswick,  Frederick 
11.  was  forced  to  throw  himself  into  the  arms  of  the  Ghibellines, 
while  his  enemies,  the  popes,  ranged  themselves  definitely  among 
the  Guelpbs,  and  soon  Guelph  and  Ghibelline  becamesynonymous 
with  supporter  of  pope  and  emperor. 

After  the  death  of  Frederick  II.  in  1250  the  Ghibellines 
looked  for  leadership  to  his  son  and  successor,  the  German  king, 
Conrad  IV.,  and  then  to  his  natural  son,  Manfred,  while  the 
Guelphs  called  the  French  prince,  Charles  of  Anjou,  to  their  aid. 
But  the  combatants  were  nearing  exhaustion,  and  after  the 
execution  of  Conradin,  the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  in  1268, 
this  great  struggle  began  to  lose  force  and  interest.  Guelph 
and  Ghibelline  were  soon  found  representing  local  and  family 
rather  than  papal  and  imperial  interests;  the  names  were 
taken  with  little  or  no  regard  for  their  original  significance, 
and  in  the  15th  century  they  began  to  die  out  of  current  politics. 
However,  when  Louis  XII.  of  France  conquered  Milan  at  the 
beginning  of  the  i6th  century  the  old  names  were  revived; 
the  French  king's  supporters  were  called  Guelphs  and  the 
friends  of  the  emperor  Maximilian  L  were  referred  to  as 
Ghibellines. 

The  feud  of  Guelph  and  Ghibelline  penetrated  within  the 
walls  of  almost  every  city  of  northern  Italy,  and  the  contest 
between  the  parties,  which  practically  makes  the  history  of 
Florence  during  the  zjth  century,  is  specially  noteworthy. 
First  one  side  and  then  the  other  was  driven  into  exile;  the 
Guelph  defeat  at  the  battle  of  Monte  Aperto  in  1 260  was  followed 
by  the  expulsion  of  the  Ghibellines  by  Charles  of  Anjou  in  1266, 
and  on  a  smaller  scale  a  similar  story  may  be  told  of  many  other 
dties  (see  Florence). 

The  Guelph  cause  was  buttressed  by  an  idea,  yet  very 
nebulous,  of  Italian  patriotism.  Dislike  of  the  German  and  the 
foreigner  rather  thaii  any  strong  affection  for  the  Papacy  was 
the  feeling  which  bound  the  Guelph  to  the  pope,  and  so  enabled 
the  latter  to  defy  the  arms  of  Frederick  II.  The  Ghibelline 
cause,  on  the  other  hand,  was  aided  by  the  dislike  of  the  temporal 
power  of  the  pope  and  the  desire  for  a  strong  central  authority. 
This  made  Dante  a  Ghibelline,  but  the  hopes  of  this  party, 
kindled  anew  by  the  journey  of  Henry  VII.  to  Italy  in  13 10, 
were  extinguished  by  his  departure.  J.  A.  Symonds  thus  de- 
scribes the  constituents  of  the  two  parties:  '*  The  Guelph  party 
meant  the  burghers  of  the  consular  Communes,  the  men  of 
industry  and  commerce,  the  upholders  of  dvil  liberty,  the 
friends  of  democratic  expansion.  The  Ghibelline  party  in- 
cluded the  naturalized  nobles,  the  men  of  arms  and  idleness,  the 
advocates  of  feudalism,  the  politicians  who  regarded  constitu- 
tional progress  with  disfavour.  That  the  banner  of  the  church 
floated  over  the  one  camp,  while  the  standard  of  the  empire 
rallied  to  itself  the  hostile  party,  was  a  matter  of  comparatively 
superficial  moment."  In  another  passage  the  same  writer  thus 
describes  the  sharp  and  universal  division  between  Guelph  and 
Ghibelline:  "  Ghibellines  wore  the  feathers  in  their  caps  upon 
one  side,  Guelphs  upon  the  other.  Ghibellines  cut  fruit  at  table 
crosswise,  Guelphs  straight  down  .  .  .  Ghibellines  drank  out 
of  smooth  and  Guelphs  out  of  chased  goblets.  Ghibellines  wore 
white  and  Guelphs  red  roses."  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
while  Dante  was  a  Ghibelline,  Petrarch  waa  a  Guelph. 

See  J.  A.  Symonds,  Tk€  Renaissance  in  Italy,  voL  i.  (1875). 


GUENEVERE  (Lat.  Guankumara\  Welsh,  Cwenhwyfar; 
O.  Eng.  Caynore),  in  Arthurian  romance,  the  wife  of  King 
Arthur.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  who  calls  her  Guanhumara, 
makes  her  a  Roman  lady,  but  the  genend  tradition  is  that  she 
was  of  Cornish  birth  and  daughter  to  King  Leodegrance. 
Wace,  who,  while  translating  Geoffrey,  evidently  knew,  and 
used,  popular  tradition,  combines  these  two,  asserting  that  she 
was  of  Roman  parentu^  on  the  mother's  side,  but  cousin  to 
Cador  of  Cornwall  by  whom  she  was  brought  up.  The  tradition 
relating  to  Guenevere  is  decidedly  confused  and  demands 
further  study.  The  Welsh  triads  know  no  fewer  than  three 
Gwenhwyfars;  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  relating  the  discovery  of 
the  royal  tombs  at  Glastonbury,  speaks  of  the  body  found  as 
that  of  Arthur's  second  wife;  the  prose  Merlin  gives  Guenevere 
a  bastard  half-sister  of  the  same  name,  who  strongly  resembles 
her;  and  the  Lanulat  relates  how  this  lady,  trading  on  the 
likeness,  persuaded  Arthur  that  she  was  the  true  daughter  of 
Leodegrance,  and  the  queen  the  bastard  interloper.  Thise(MSode 
of  the  false  Guenevere  is  very  perplexing. 

To  the  majority  of  English  readers  Guenevere  Is  best  known 
in  connexion  with  her  liaison  with  Xancelot,  a  story  which,  in 
the  hands  of  Malory  and  Tennyson,  has  assumed  a  form  widely 
different  from  the  original  conception,  and  at  once  more  pictur- 
esque and  more  convincing.  In  the  French  romances  Lancelot 
is  a  late  addition  to  the  Arthurian  cycle,  his  birth  is  not  recorded 
till  long  after  the  marriage  of  Arthur  and  Guenevere,  and  be  is 
at  least  twenty  years  the  junior  of  the  queen.  The  rdations 
between  them  are  of  the  most  conventional  and  courtly  char- 
acter, and  are  entirely  lacking  in  the  genuine  dramatic  passion 
which  marks  the  love  story  of  Tristan  and  Iseult.  The  Lancdoi- 
Guenevere  romance  took  form  and  shape  in  the  artificial  atmo- 
sphere encouraged  by  such  patronesses  of  literature  as  Eleanor 
of  Aquitaine  and  her  daughter  Marie,  Comtcsse  de  Champagne 
(for  whom  Chretien  de  Troyes  wrote  his  Chevalier  de  la  Ckarrdte), 
and  reflects  the  low  sodal  morality  of  a  time  when  love  between 
husband  and  wife  was  declared  impossible.  But  though  Guene- 
vere has  changed  her  lover,  the  tradition  of  her  infidelity  is  of 
much  earlier  date  and  formed  a  part  of  the  primitive  Arthurian 
legend.  Who  the  original  lover  was  is  doubtful;  the  Vita 
Gildae  relates  how  she  was  carried  off  by  Melwas,  king  of  Aestiva 
Regis,  to  Glastonbury,  whither  Arthur,  at  the  head  of  an  army, 
pursued  the  ravisher.  A  fragment  of  a  Welsh  poem  seems  to 
confirm  this  tradition,  which  certainly  lies  at  the  root  of  her 
later  abduction  by  Meleagaunt.  la  the  Langdet  of  Ulrich  von 
Zatzikhoven  the  abductor  is  Faleiln.  The  story  in  these  forms 
represents  an  other-world  abduction.  A  curious  fragment  of 
Welsh  dialogues,  printed  by  Professor  Rh^^  in  his  Studies  on 
the  Arthurian  Legend,  appears  to  represent  Kay  as  the  abductor, 
In  the  pseudo-Chronicles  and  the  romances  based  upon  them 
the  abductor  is  Mordred,  and  in  the  chronicles  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  lady  was  no  unwilling  victim.  On  the  final  defeat  of 
Mordred  she  retires  to  a  nunnery,  takes  the  veil,  and  is  no  more 
heard  of.    Wace  says  emphatically — 

Ne  fu  aie  ne  tine, 

Nefu  trc^t  ne  shte, 

Por  la  vergogne  dd  merfait 

Et  dd  pea*  gu  de  avmtfait  (il.  13627-30). 

Layamon,  who  in  his  translation  of  Wace  treats  his  original 
much  as  Wace  treated  Geoffrey,  says  that  there  was  a  tradition 
that  she  had  drowned  herself,  and  that  her  memory  and  that 
of  Mordred  were  hateful  in  every  land,  so  that  none  would  offer 
prayer  for  their  souls.  On  the  other  hand  certain  romances, 
e.g.  the  Perceval,  give  her  an  excellent  character.  The  truth  is 
probably  that  the  tradition  of  his  wife's  adultery  and  treachery 
was  a  genuine  part  of  the  Arthurian  story,  whidi,  neglected  for 
a  time,  was  brought  again  into  prominence  by  the  sodal  con- 
ditions of  the  courts  for  which  the  later  romances  were  com- 
posed; and  it  is  in  this  later  and  conventionalized  form  that 
the  tale  has  become  familiar  to  us  (see  also  Lancsxx>t). 

See  Studies  on  the  Afthnriats  Legend  by  ProfcMor  Rhys;  The 
Legend  ef  Sir  Lanedot,  Grimm  Ubrsry,  zii.«  JesHe  L.  We^toa: 
Der  Karrenritter,  ed.  Fnitavoe  Foenter.  (J.  U  W.) 


670 


GUENON— GUERIN,  BARON 


6UEN0N  (from  the  French,  ■«  one  who  grimaces,  hence  an 
ape),  the  name  applied  by  naturalists  to  the  monkeys  of  the 
African  genus  Cercopiihecus,  the  Ethiopian  representative  of 
the  Asiatic  macaques,  from  which  they  differ  by  the  absence  of 
a  posterior  heel  to  the  last  molar  in  the  lower  jaw. 

GUfofiT,  a  town  of  central  France,  capital  of  the  department 
of  Creuse,  situated  on  a  mountain  declivity  48  m.  N.E.of  Limogds 
on  the  Orleans  railway.  Pop.  (1906),  town,  6042;  commune 
(including  troops,  &c.) ,  8058.  Apart  from  the  Hdtel  des  Monney- 
rouz  (used  as  prefecture),  a  picturesque  mansion  of  the  15th 
and  x6t|)  centuries,  with  mansard  roofi  and  mullioned  windows, 
Gu£ret  has  little  architectural  interest.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
prefect  and  a  court  of  assizes,  and  has  a  tribunal  of  first  instance, 
a  chamber  of  commerce  and  lyc£es  and  training  colleges,  for 
both  sexes.  The  industries  include  brewing,  saw-miUlng, 
leather-making  and  the  manufacture  of  basket-work  and 
wooden  shoes,  and  there  is  trade  in  agricultural  produce  and 
cattle.  Gu6ret  grew  up  round  an  abbey  founded  in  the  7th 
century,  and  in  later  times  became  the  capital  of  the  district  of 
Marche. 

GUEREZA,  the  iiative  name  of  a  long-tailed,  black  and  white 
Abyssinian'  monkey,  Cohbus  luereza  (or  C.  t^sinicus),  char- 
acterized by  the  white  hairs  forming  a  long  pendent  mantle. 
Other  east  African  monkeys  with  a  similar  type  of  colouring, 
which,  together  with  the  wholly  black  west  African  C.  satanaSf 
collectively  constitute  the  subgenus  CuereM,  may  be  included 
under  the  .same  title;  and  the  name  may  be  further  extended 
to  embrace  all  the  African  thumbless  monkeys  of  the  genus 
Colohus.  These  monkeys  are  the  African  representatives  of 
the  Indo-Malay  langurs  iSemnopUhecus)^  with  which  they  agree 
in  their  slender  build,  long  limbs  and  tail,  and  complex  stomachs, 
although  differing  by  tire  rudimentary  thumb.  The  members 
of  the  subgenus  Cuereza  present  a  transition  from  a  wholly 
black  animal  (C.  sataruu)  to  one  (C.  caudatus)  in  which  the  sides 
of  the  face  are  white,  and  the  whole  flanks,  as  well  as  the  tail, 
clothed  with  a  long  fringe  of  pure  white  hairs. 

QUERICKB,  HEINRICH  ERNST  FERDINAND  (1803-1878), 
German  theologian,  was  bom  at  Wettin  in  Saxony  on  the  a 5th 
of  February  1803  and  studied  theology  at  Halle,  where  he  was 
appointed  professor  in  1829.  He  greatly  disliked  the  union 
between  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  churches,  which  had 
been  accomplished  by  the  Prussian  government  in  181 7,  and  in 
1833  he  definitely  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Old  Lutherans.  In 
183  5  he  lost  his  professorship,  but  he  regained  it  in  2840.  Among 
his  works  were  a  Life  of  August  Hermann  Prancke  (1827,  Eng. 
trans.  1837),  Church  History  (1833,  Eng.  trans,  by  W.  T.  Shedd, 
New  York,  1857-1863),  AUgemHne  christliche  Symbolih  (1839). 
In  1840  he  helped  to  found  the  Zeitschrift  filr  die  gesamnUe 
lutherische  Theologie  und  Kirche,  and  he  died  at  Halle  on  the 
4th  of  February  1878. 

GUERICKB,  OTTO  VON  (i6oa-x686),  German  experimental 
philosopher,  was  bom  at  Magdeburg,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  on 
the  aoth  of  November  1602.  Having  studied  law  at  Leipzig, 
Helmstadt  and  Jena,  and  mathematics,  especially  geometry 
and  mechanics,  at  Leiden,  he  visited  France  and  England,  and 
in  1636  became  engineer-in-chief  at  Eriurt.  In  1627  he  was 
elected  alderman  of  Magdeburg,  and  in  1646  mayor  of  that  city 
and  a  magistrate  of.  Brandenburg.  His  leisure  was  devoted  to 
scientific  pursuits,  especially  in  pneumatics.  Incited  by  the 
discoveries  of  Galileo,  Pascal  and  Torricelli,  he  attempted  the 
creation  of  a  vacuum.  He  began  by  experimenting  with  a  pump 
on  water  placed  in  a  barrel,  but  found  that  when  the  water 
was  drawn  off  the  air  permeated  the  wood.  He  theA  took  a 
globe  of  copper  fitted  with  pump  and  stopcock,  and  discovered 
that  he  could  pump  out  air  as  well  as  water.  Thus  he  became 
the  inventor  of  the  air-pump  (1650).  He  illustrated  his  discovery 
before  the  emperor  Ferdinand  III.  at  the  imperial  diet  which 
assembled  at  Regensburg  in  1654,  by  the  experiment  of  the 
"Magdeburg  hemispheres."  Taking  two  hollow  hemispheres 
of  copper,  the  edges  of  which  fitted  nicely  together,  he  exhausted 
the  air  from  between  them  by  means  of  his  pump,  and  it  is 
recorded  that  thirty  horses,  fifteen  back  to  baick,  were  unable 


to  pull  them  asunder  until  the  air  was  readmitted, 
investigating  other  phenomena  connected  with  a  vacauvi,  he 
constructed  an  electrical  machine  which  depended  on  the  excita- 
tion of  a  rotating  ball  of  sulphur;  and  he  made  succxs^ul 
researches  in  astronomy,  predicting  the  periodicity  of  the  zetum 
of  comets.    In  1681  he  gave  up  office,  and  retired  to  Hamburg, 

where  he  died  on  the  nth  .of  May  1686. 

His  principal  observations  are  given  in  his  woric,  Experimenia 
IMM,  ut  vocant,  Magdeburgica  de  vacuo  spatio  (Amsteixlam,  167a). 
He  is  also  the  author  of  a  Ceschichie  dtr  Bdagjtrtmg  und  Eraberung 
von  Magdeburg.  See  F.  W.  Hoffmann,  OXI0  van  Guencke  (Ma^Seburg, 
1874). 

GUBRIDON,  a  small  table  to  hold  a  lamp  or  vase,  snjpported 
by  a  tall  column  or  a  human  or  mythological  figure.  This  piece 
of  furniture,  often  very  graceful  and  elegant,  originated  in  Fxaxu« 
towards -the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  In  the  beginning  the 
table  was  supported  by  a  negro  or  other  exotic  figure,  and  there 
is  some  reason  to  believe  that  it  took  its  name  from  the  generic 
appellation  of  the  young  African  groom  or  "  tiger,"  who  vai 
generally  called  "  Gu£ridon,"  or  as  we  should  say  in  FngHsh 
"  Sambo."  The  swarthy  figure  and  brilliant  costume  of  the 
"  Moor  "  when  reproduced  in  wood  and  picked  out  in  ocdouis 
produced  a  very  striking  effect,  and  when  a  small  table  was 
supported  on  the  head  by  the  upraised  hands  the  idea  of  passive 
service  was  suggested  with  completeness.  The  gu£ridon  is  still 
occasionally  seen  in  something  approaching  its  original  form; 
but  it  had  no  sooner  been  introduced  than  the  artistic  instinct 
of  the  French  designer  and  artificer  converted  it  into  a  far 
worthier  object.  By  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  there  were  several 
hundreds  of  them  at  Versailles,  and  within  a  generation  or  two 
they  had  taken  an  infinity  of  forms — columns,  tripods,  termini 
and  mythological  figures.  Some  of  the  simpler  and  more  artistic 
forms  were  of  wood  carved  with  familiar  decorative  motives  and 
gilded.  Silver,  enamel,  and  indeed  almost  any  material  from 
which  furniture  can  be  made,  have  been  used  for  their  oon- 
struction.  A  variety  of  small  "occasional"  tables  are  now 
called  in  French  g^iridons, 

GUERIN.  JEAN  BAPTISTS  PAUUN  (i78l-x8S5)>  French 
painter,  was  bora  at  Toulon,  on  the  25th  of  March  1785,  of  poor 
parents.  He  leamt,  as  a  lad,  his  father's  trade  of  a  locksmith, 
whilst  at  the  same  time  he  followed  the  classes  of  the  free  school 
of  art.  Having  sold  some  copies  to  a  local  amateur,  Gu£rin 
started  for  Paris,  where  he  came  under  the  notice  of  Vincent, 
whose  cotmsels  were  of  material  service.  In  18x0  Gu£rin  made 
his  first  appearance  at  the  Salon  with  some  portraits,  which  had 
a  certain  success.  In  1812  he  exhibited  "  Oun  after  the  murder 
of  Abel "  (formerly  in  Luxembourg),  and,  on  the  return  of  the 
Bourbons,  was  much  employed  in  works  of  restoration  and  de- 
coration at  Versailles.  His  "  Dead  Christ "  (Cathedral,  Baltimore) 
obtained  a  medal  in  1817,  and  this  sucxess  was  followed  up  by 
a  long  series  of  works,  of  which  the  following  are  the  more  note- 
worthy: "  Christ  on  the  knees  of  the  Virgin  "  (1819); "  Anduses 
and  Venus"  (1822)  (formerly  in  Luxembourg);  "Ulysses  and 
Minerva  "  (1824)  (Mus£e  de  Rennes) ; "  the  Holy  Family  "  (1829) 
(Cathedral,  Toulon);  and  '^ Saint  Catherine"  (i838)(St  Roch). 
In  his. treatment  of  subject,  Gu£rin  attempted  to  realize  rococo 
graces  of  conception,  the  liveliness  of  which  was  lost  in  the 
strenuous  effort  to  be  correct.  His  chief  successes  were  attained 
by  portraits,  and  those  of  Charies  Nodia  and  tl^  Abbi  Lanwn- 
nais  became  iriddy  popular.    He  died  on  the  xgth  of  Jannary 

1855. 

GUfiRIH,  PIERRB  NARCISSB,  Bason  (1774-1833)1  French 
painter,  was  bom  at  Paris  on  the  13th  of  May  1774.  Becoming 
a  pupil  of  Jean  Baptiste  Regnault,  he  carried  off  one  tA  the  three 
"  grands  prix  "  offered  in  1796,  in  coioequence  of  the  competition 
not  having  taken  place  since  1793.  The  pension  was.not  indeed 
re-established,  but  Gu6rin  fulfilled  at  Paris  the  conditions  imposed 
upon  a  pensionnaire^  and  produced  various  works,  one  of  which 
brought  him  prominently  before  the  public.  This  work, "  Mascos 
Sextus  "  (Louvre),  exhibited  at  the  Salon  of  1799,  exdtcd  wild 
enthusiasm,  partly  due  to  the  8ubject,---a  victim  of  Solla's 
proscription  returning  to  Rome  to  find  his  wife  dead  and  his 
bouse  in  mourning— in  which  an  allusion  was  found  to  the  actnal 


GUERIN,  MAURICE  DE— GUERNSEY 


671 


stuation  of  tbe  imiiris.  Guirin  on  this  occasion  was  publicly 
crowned  by  the  president  of  the  Institute^  and  before  hh 
departure  for  Rome  (on  the  re-estabUshment  of  the  £cole  under 
Suv6e)  a  banquet  was  given  to  him  by  the  most  distinguished 
artists  of  Paris.  In  1800,  unable  to  remain  in  Rome  on  account 
of  his  health,  he  went  to  Naples,  where  he  painted  the  "  Grave  of 
Amyntas."  In  1803  Gu6rin  produced  "  Phaedra  and  Htppolytus" 
(Louvre);  in  1810,  after  his  return  to  Paris,  he  again  achieved 
a  great  success  with  *'  Andromache  and  Pyrrhus  *'  (Louvre);  and 
in  the  sameyearalsoexhibited"Cephalus  and  Aurora"  (Collection 
Sommariva)  and"  Bonaparte  and  the  Rebels  of  C^ro*'  (Versailles) . 
The  Restoration  brought  to  Gu^rin  fresh  honours;  he  had  received 
from  the  first  consul  in  1803  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour, 
and  in  1815  Louis  XVIII.  named  him  Academician.  The  success 
of  Gu^rin's  "  Hippolytus  "  of  "  Andromache,"  of  "  Phaedra  " 
and  of  *'  CHytaemnestra"  (Louvre)  had  been  ensured  by  the  skilful 
selection  of  highly  melodramatic  situations,  treated  with  the 
strained  and  pompous  dignity  proper  to  the  art  of  the  first  empire; 
in  "  Aeneas  relating  to  Dido  the  disasters  of  Troy"  (Louvre), 
which  appeared  side  by  side  with  **  Clytaemnestra  "  at  the  Salon 
of  1817,  the  influence  of  the  Restoration  is  plainly  to  be  traced. 
In  this  work  Gu^rin  sou|^t  to  captivate  the  public  by  an  appeal 
to  those  sensuous  charms  which  he  had  previously  rejected, 
and  by  the  introduction  of  picturesque  dements  of  interest. 
But  with  this  work  Gu£rin's  public  successes  came  to  a  dose. 
He  was,  indeed,  commissioned  to  paint  for  the  Madeldne  a 
scene  from  the  history  of  St  Louis,  but  his  health  prevented  him 
from  accomplishing  what  he  had  begun,  and  in  182a  he  accepted 
the  post  of  director  of  the  £cole  de  Rome,  which  in  1816  he  had 
refused.  On  returning  to  Paris  in  1828,  Gufrin,  who  had  pre- 
viously been  made  chevalier  of  the  order  of  St  Michd,  was 
ennobled.  He  now  attempted  to  complete  "  Pyrrhus  and  Priam," 
a  work  which  he  had  begun  at  Rome,  but  in  vain;  his  health  had 
finally  broken  down,  and  in  the  hope  of  improvement  he  returned 
to  Italy  with  Horace  Vemet.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  at  Rome 
Baron  Gu6rin  died,  on  the  6th  of  July  1833,  and  was  buried 
in  the  church  of  La  Triniti  de'  Monti  by  the  side  of  Claude 
Lornune. 

A  careful  analysis  and  critidsm  of  liis  princtpal  works  irill  be 
found  in  Meyer's  Ceuhichte  <Ur  franzihiscken  Mourn. 

OUtelM  DU  CATLA,  OBORGES  MAURICE  DB  (1810-1839), 
French  poet,  descended  from  a  noble  but  poor  family,  was  bom 
at  the  chiteau  of  Le  Cayla  in  Languedoc,  on  the  4th  of  August 
i8ia  He  was  educated  for  the  church  at  a  religious  seminary 
at  Toulouse,  and  then  at  the  College  Stanislas,  Paris,  after 
which  he  entered  the  sodety  at  La  Chesnaye  in  Brittany,  founded 
by  Lamenhais.  It  was  only  after  great  hesitation,  and  without 
bdng  satisfied  as  to  his  religious  vocation,  that  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Lamennais  he  joined  the  new  reUgious  order  in  the 
autumn  of  1832;  and  when,  in  September  of  the  next  year, 
Lamennais,  who  had  come  under  the  displeasure  of  Rome, 
severed  connexion  with  the  sodety,  Maurice  de  Gu6rin  soon 
f<^wed  his  example.  Early  in  the  following  year  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  for  a  short  time  a  teacher  at  the  College 
Stanislas.  In  November  1838  he  married  a  Creole  lady  of  some 
fortune;  but  a  few  months  afterwards  he  was  attacked  by 
consumption  and  died  on  the  xgth  of  July  1839.  In  the  Renu 
des  deux  mondes  for  May  X5th,  1840,  there  appeared  a  notice 
of  Maurice  de  Gu£rin  by  George  Sand,  to  which  she  added  two 
fragments  of  his  writings— one  a  composition  in  prose  entitled 
the  C«ff/atfr,  and  the  other  a  short  poem.  His  Rdiquiae  (2  vols., 
1861),  induding  the  Ceniauff  hb  journal,  a  number  of  his  letters 
and  several  poems,  was  edited  by  G.  S.  TrSbuUen,  and  accom- 
panied with  a  biographical  and  critical  notice  by  Sainte>Beuve; 
a  new  edition,  with  the  title  Journal,  UUres  et  poimeSy  followed 
in  1862;  and  an  En^ish  translation  of  it  was  published  at  New 
York  in  1867.  Though  he  was  essentially  a  poet,  his  prose  is 
more  striking  and  original  than  his  poetry.  Its  peculiar  and 
unique  charm  arises  from  his  strong  and  absorbing  pasuon  for 
nature,  a  passion  whose  intensity  reached  almost  to  adoration 
and  worship,  but  in  which  the  pagan  was  more  prominent  than 
tbe  monl  dement.    According  to  Sainte-Beuve,  "no  French 


poet  or  painter  has  rendered  so  weU  the  feeling  for  nature — the 
feeling  not  so  much  for  details  as  for  the  ensemble  and  the  divine 
universality,  the  feeling  for  the  origin  of  things  and  the  sovereign 
prindple  of  life." 

The  name  of  EucfiHE  db  GciBm  (1805-1848),  the  sister 
of  Maurice,  cannot  be  omitted  from  any  notice  of  him. 
Her  Journals  (x86x,  Eng.  trans.,  x86s)  and  her  LeUres 
(1864,  Eng.  trans.,  1865)  indicated  the  possession  of  gifts 
of  as  rare  an  order  as  those  of  her  brother,  thou^  of  a 
somewhat  different  kind.  In  her  case  mysticism  assumed  a 
form  more  strictly  religious,  and  she  continued  to  mourn  her 
brother's  loss  of  his  early  (^tholic  faith.  Five  years  older  than 
he,  she  cherished  a  love  for  him  which  was  blended  with  a 
somewhat  motherly  anxiety.  After  his  death  she  began  the 
collection  and  publication  of  the  scattered  fragments  of  his 
writings.  She  died,  however,  on  the  3xst  of  May  X848,  bdore 
her  tuk  was  completed. 

See  the  notices  by  George  Sand  and  Sainte-Beuve  referred  to 
above;  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries  du  lundi  (vol.  xii.)  and  Nouoeaux 
Lundis  (vol.  iii.) ;  G.  Meriet,  Causeries  sur  les  femmes  a  les  Iwres 
(Paris,  1865);  Sdden.  L'Esprit  des  femmes  de  notre  temps  (Paris. 
1864):  Mardlc,  Eu^ie  et  Maurice  de  Gutrin  Ji^tsMn,  1869); 
Harriet  Parr,  M.  ana  E.  de  Guirin,  a  wumog^a^  (London,  1870); 
and  Matthew  Arnold's  essays  on  Maurice  and  Eug6nie  de  Guerin, 
in  hu  Essays  in  Criticism, 

QUBRKIERI,  or  Wernei,  a  celebrated  mercenary  captain  who 
lived  about  the  middle  of  the  14th  century.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  family  of  the  dukes  of  Urslingen,  and  probably  a  de- 
scendant of  the  dukes  of  Spoleto.  From  X340  to  1343  he  was 
in  the  service  of  the  dtizens  of  Pisa,  but  afterwards  he  col- 
lected a  troop  of  adventurers  which  he  called  the  Great  Company, 
and  with  which  he  plundered  Tuscany  and  Lombardy.  He  then 
entered  the  service  of  Louis  I.  the  Great,  king  of  Hungary  and 
Poland,  whom  he  assisted  to  obtain  possession  of  Naples;  but 
when  dismissed  from  this  service  his  ravages  became  more 
terrible  than  ever,  culminating  in  the  dreadful  sack  of  Anagni 
in  X358,  shortly  after  which  Guemieri  disappeared  from  history. 
He  is  said  to  have  worn  a  breastplate  with  the  inscription, 
"  The  enemy  of  (kid,  of  pity  and  of  mercy." 

OUBRNSBY  (Fr.  Cuemesey),  one  of  the  Channd  Islands, 
belonging  to  Britain,  the  second  in  sise  and  westernmost  of  the 
important  memben  of  the  group.  Its  chief  town,  St  Peter  Port, 
on  the  east  coast,  is  in  2"  33'  W.,  49^  27'  N.,  74  m.  S.  of  Portland 
Bill  on  the  En^sh  coast,  and  30  m.  from  the  nearest  French 
coast  to  the  east.  The  island,  roughly  tiiangular  in  form,  is 
9i  m.  long  from  N.E.  to  S.W.  and  has  an  extreme  breadth  of 
si  m.  and  an  area  of  X5,69x  acres  or  24*5  sq.  m.  Pop.  (x90x), 
40,446,  the  density  bdng  thus  X62  per  sq.  m. 

The  surface  of  the  island  rises  gradually  from  north  to  south, 
and  reaches  its  greatest  devation  at  Haut  Nez  (349  ft.)  above 
Point  Icart  on  the  south  coast.  The  coast  scenery,  which  forms 
one  of  the  prindpal  attractions  to  the  numerous  summer  visitors 
to  the  island,  is  finest  on  the  south.  This  coast,  between  Jerbourg 
and  Pleinmont  Points,  reH>cctivdy  at  the  south-eastern  and 
south-western  comers  of  the  island,  is  bold,  rocky  and  indented 
with  many  exquisite  little  bays,  df  these  the  most  notable  are 
Moulin  Huet,  Saint's,  and  Petit  Bot,  all  in  the  eastern  half  of 
the  south  coast.  The  diffs,  however,  culminate  in  the  ndgb- 
boorhood  of  Pleinmont.  Picturesque  caves  occur  at  several 
points,  such  as  the  Cieux  Mahie.  On  the  west  coast  there  is  a 
succession  of  larger  bays— Rocquaine  Perelle,  Vason,  and  Cobo. 
Off  the  first  lies  Libou  Island,  the  Hanois  and  other  islets,  and 
all  three  bays  are  sown  with  rocks.  The  coast,  however, 
diminishes  iii  height,  until  at  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the 
island  the  land  is  so  low  across  the  Vale  or  Braye  du  Val,  from 
shore  to  shore,  that  the  projection  of  L'Anaesse  is  within  a 
few  feet  of  bdng  isolated.  The  east  coast,  on  which,  besides  the 
town  and  harbour  of  St  Peter  Port,  is  that  of  St  Sampson,  pre- 
sents no  physical  feature  of  note.  Hie  interior  of  the  island 
is  generally  undulating,  and  gains  in  beauty  from  its  rich  vegeta- 
tion. Picturesque  ^ens  descend  upon  some  of  the  southern 
bays  (the  two  converging  upon  Petit  Bot  are  notable),  and  the 
hi^baoked  paths,  arched  with  foliagci,  which  follow  the  mail 


672 


GUERRAZZI— GUESDE 


liUs  down  to  Moulin  Huet  Bay,  are  much  admired  under  the 
name  of  water-lanes. 

The  soil  is  generally  light  sandy  loam,  overlying  an  angular 
gravel  which  rests  upon  the  weathered  granite.  This  soil 
requires  much  manure,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  total  area 
(about  three-fifths)  is  under  careful  cultivation,  producing  a 
considerable  amount  of  grain,  but  more  famous  for  market- 
gardening.  Vegetables  and  potatoes  are  exported,  with  much 
fruit,  including  grapes  and  flowers.  Granite  is  quarried  and 
exported  from  St  Sampson,  and  the  fisheries  fonn  an  important 
i|idu8txy. 

.  For  administrative  purposes  Guernsey  is  united  with  Aldemey, 
Sark,  Herm  and  the  adjacent  islets  to  form  the  bailiwick  of 
Guernsey,  separate  from  Jersey.  The  peculiar  constitution, 
machinery  of  administration  and  justice,  finance,  &c.,  are  con- 
sidered under  the  heading  Channel  Islands.  Guernsey  is 
divided  into  the  ten  parishes  of  St  Peter  Port,  St  Sampson,  Vale, 
Gltel,  St  Saviour,  St  Andrew,  St  Martin,  Forest,  St  Peter  du 
Bois  and  TortevaJ.  The  population  of  St  Peter  Port  in  1901 
was  18,364;  of  the  other  parishes  that  of  St  Sampson  was  56x4 
and  that  of  Vale  5083.  The  population  of  the  bailiwick  of 
Guernsey  nearly  doubled  between  i8ai  and  190X,  and  that  of 
the  island  increased  from  35,343  in  xSgx  to  40,446  in  xqox. 
The  island  roads  are  excellent,  Guernsey  owing  much  in  this 
respect  to  Sir  John  Doyle  (d.  X834),  the  governor  whose  monu- 
ment stands  on  the  promontory  of  Jerbourg-  Like  Jersey  and 
the  neighbouring  part  of  France,  Guernsey  retains  considerable 
traces  of  eariy  habitation  in  cromlechs  and  menhirs,  of  which 
the  most  notable  is  the  cromlech  in  the  north  at  L'Ancresse. 
As  regards  ecclesiastical  architecture,  all  the  parish  churches 
retain  some  archaeological  interest.  There  is  good  Norman 
work  in  the  church  of  St  Michael,  Vale,  and  the  church  of  St 
Peter  Port  is  a  notable  building  of  various  periods  from  the  early 
X4th  century.  Small  remains  of  monastic  buildings  are  seen  at 
Vale  and  on  Lihou  Island. 

GUERRAZZI,  FRANCESCO  DOMENIOO  (1804-X873),  Italian 

publicist,  born  at  Leghorn,  was  educated  for  the  law  at  Pisa, 

and  began  to  practise  in  his  native  place.    But  he  soon  took  to 

politics  and  literature,  under  the  influence  of  Byron,  and  his 

novel,  the  BaUagU  di  Btfff«v«n<0(i827),  brought  him  into  notice. 

Maxzini  made  his  acquaintance,  and  with  Carlo  Bin!  they  started 

a  paper,  the  Indicatorct  at  Leghorn  in  1829,  which  was  quickly 

suppressed.    Guerrazzi  himself  had  to  endure  several  terms  of 

imprisonment  for  his  activity  in  the  cause  of  Young  Italy,  and 

it  was  in  Portoferrato  in  X834  that  he  wrote  his  most  famous 

novel  Assidio  di  Firenxe.    He  was  the  most  powerful  Liberal 

leader  at  Leghorn,  and  in  X848  became  a  minister,  with  some 

idea  of  exercising  a  moderating  influence  in  the  difiiculties 

with  the  grand-duke  of  Tuscany.    In  X849,  when  the  latter 

fled,  he  was  first  one  of  the  triumvirate  with  Mazzini  and 

Montanelli,  and  then  dictator,  but  on  the  restoration  he  was 

arrested  and  imprisoned  for  three  years.    His  Apologia  was 

published  in  X852.    Released  from  prison,  he  was  exiled  to 

Corsica,  but  subsequently  was  restored  and  was  for  some  time  a 

deputy  at  Turin  (X863-X870),  dying  of  apoplexy  at  Leghorn 

on  the  35th  of  September  1873.    He  wrote  a  number  of  other 

works  beudes  the  novels  already  mentioned,  notably  Isabella 

Ortini  (1845)  and  Beatrice  Cenci  (X854),  and  his  Opere  were 

collected  at  Milan  (1868). 

See  the  Life  and  Works  by  Bosio  (1877),  and  Carducci's  edition  of 
his  letters  (1880). 

GUERRERO,  a  Padfic  coast  sUte  of  Mexico,  bounded  N.W. 
by  Michoacan,  N.  by  Mexico  (slate)  and  Morelos,  N.E.  and  E. 
by  Puebla  and  Oaxaca,  and  S.  and  W.  by  the  Pacific.  Area, 
34,996  sq.  m.  Pop.,  largely  composed  of  Indians  and  mestizos 
(1895),  4i7i886;  (1900)  479,205.  The  state  is  roughly  broken 
by  the  Sierra  Madre  and  its  spurs,  which  cover  its  entire  surface 
with  the  exception  of  the  low  coastal  plain  (averaging  about 
30  m.  in  width)  on  the  Pacific.  The  valleys  are  usually  narrow, 
fertile  and  heavily  forested,  but  difficult  of  access.  The  state 
u  divided  into  two  distinct  zones — the  tierras  calierUes  of  the 
coast  and  lower  river  courses  where  tropical  conditions  prevail. 


and  the  tierras  templadas  of  the  mountain  regioii  where  tbt 
conditions  are  subtropical.  The  latter  is  celebrated  for  its 
agreeable  and  healthy  climate,  and  for  the  variety  and  character 
of  its  products.  The  principal  river  of  the  st*te  is  the  Rio  de  las 
Balsas  or  Mescala,  which,  having  its  source  in  Tla^ada,  floiws 
entirely  across  the  state  from  W.  to  £.,  and  then  southirard  to 
the  Pacific  on  the  frontier  of  Michoacan.  This  rivo-  is  439  m. 
long  and  receives  many  a£3uents  from  the  mountainous  ttpxm 
through  which  it  passes,  but  its  course  is  very  pirecipitoas  and 
its  mouth  obstructed  by  sand  bars.  The  agricultural  products 
include  cotton,  coffee,  tobacco  and  cereals,  and  the  forests  pfodnoe 
rubber,  vanilla  and  various  textile  fibres.  Miningis  undeveloped, 
although  the  mineral  resources  of  the  state  indnde  silver,  gold, 
mercury,  lead,  iron,  coal,  sulphur  and  precious  sUmes.  The 
capital,  Chilpandngo,  or  Chilpandngo  de  los  Bravos  (pop.  7497 
in  X900),  is  a  small  town  in  the  Sierra  Madre  about  ixo  m.  from 
the  coast  and  200  m.  S.  of  the  Federal  capital  It  is  a  healthy 
well-built  town  on  the  old  Acapuloo  road,  is  Ughted  by  dectricxty 
and  is  temporarily  the  western  terminus  of  the  Interooeaiiic 
railway  from  Vera  Cruz.  It  is  cdebrated  in  the  history  off 
Mexico  as  the  meeting-place  of  the  revolutionary  congress  of 
x8x3,  which  issued  a  declaration  of  independence,  rhilpannngo 
was  badly  damaged  by  an  earthquake  in  January  1903,  and 
again  on  the  x6th  of  April  X907.  Other  important  towns  of  the 
state  are  Tixtla,  or  Tixtla  de  Guerrero,  formerly  the  capital 
(pop.  63x6  in  X900),  3  m.  N.£.  of  Chilpandngo;  Chilapa  (8256  in 
X895),  the  most  populous  town  of  the  state,  partially  d»troycd 
by  a  hurricane  in  X889,  and  again  by  the  earthquake  of  XQ07; 
Iguala  (663  X  in  1895);  and  Acapulco.  Guerrero  was  ozganiacd 
as  a  state  in  X849,  its  territory  being  taken  from  the  states  off 
Mexico,  Michoacan  and  Puebla. 

GUERRILLA  (erroneously  written  "guerilla,"  being  the 
diminutive  of  the  Span,  fttara,  war),  a  term  currently  used  to 
denote  war  carried  on  by  bands  in  any  irregular  and  unoxganised 
manner.  At  the  Hague  Conference  of  X899  the  position  of 
irregular  combatants  was  one  of  the  subjects  dealt  with,  and  the 
rules  there  adopted  were  reaffirmed  at  the  Conference  of  X907. 
They  provide  that  irregular  bands  in  order  to  enjoy  recognition 
as  belligerent  forces  ^all  (a)  have  at  their  head  a  person 
responsible  for  his  subordinates,  {h)  wear  some  fixed  distinctive 
badge  recognizable  at  a  distance,  (c)  carry  arms  openly,  and  id) 
conform  in  their  operations  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  war. 
The  rules,  however,  also  provide  that  in  case  of  invasi<»  the 
inhabitants  of  a  territory  who  on  the  approach  of  the  invading 
enemy  spontaneously  take  up  arms  to  resist  it,  shall  be  regarded 
as  belligerent  troops  if  they  carry  arms  openly  and  respect  the  laws 
and  customs  of  war,  although  they  may  not  have  had  time  to 
become  organized  in  accordance  with  the  above  provisions. 
These  rules  were  borrowed  almost  word  for  word  from  the  project 
drawn  up  at  the  Brussels  international  conference  of  XS74, 
which,  though  never  ratified,  was  practically  incorporated  in  tl»e 
army  regulations  issued  by  the  Russian  government  incoimcxion 
with  the  war  of  X877-78.  (T.  Ba-) 

GUERRINI,  OLINDO  (1845-  ),  Italian  poet,  was  boni 
at  Sant'  Alberto,  Raveima,  and  after  studying  law  to<A  to  a 
life  of  letters,  becoming  eventually  librarian  at  Bologna  Univer- 
sity. In  X877  he  published  Poauma^  a  volume  of 
under  the  name  of  Lorenzo  Stechetti,  following  this  with 
(X878),  CanU  popdari  romagnoli  (x88o)  and  other  poetical 
works,  and  becoming  known  as  the  leader  of  the  "  verist " 
school  among  Italian  lyrical  writers. 

GUESDE,  JULES  BASILE  (1845-  ),  French  socialist, 
was  born  in  Paris  on  the  xxth  of  November  1845.  He  had 
begun  his  career  as  a  clerk  in  the  French  Home  OfBce,  but  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German  War  he  was  editing  Lex 
Droits  de  I'komme  at  Montpelh'er,  and  had  to  take  refuge  at 
Geneva  in  1871  from  a  prosecution  instituted  on  account  off 
articles  which  had  appeared  in  his  paper  in  defence  of  the 
Commune.  In  X876  he  returned  to  France  to  become  one  off 
the  chief  French  apostles  of  Marxian  collectivism,  and  was 
imprisoned  for  six  months  in  X878  for  taking  part  in  the  first 
Parisian  Interxutional  Congress.    He  edited  at  different  times 


GUEST,  E.— GUEVARA,  A.  DE 


673 


Les  Droits  de  l*komme,  Le  Cri  du  j^euptCf  Le  SocialisUf  but  his 
best-known  organ  was  the  weekly  EgdiU.  He  had  been  in  close 
association  with  Paul  Lafargue,  and  through  him  with  Karl  Marx, 
whose  daughter  he  married.  It  was  in  conjunaion  with  Marx 
and  Lafargue  that  he  drew  up  the  programme  accepted  by  the 
national  congress  of  the  Labour  party  at  Havre  in  1880,  which 
laid  stress  on  the  formation  of  an  international  labour  party 
working  by  revolutionary  methods.  Next  year  at  the  Reims 
congress  the  orthodox  Marxian  programme  of  Gucsde  was 
opposed  by  the  "  possibilists,"  who  rejected  the  intransigcant 
attitude  of  Gucsde  for  the  opportunist  policy  of  Bcnoit  Malon. 
At  the  cx>ngress  of  St-£tienne  the  diilcrence  developed  into 
separation,  those  who  refused  all  compromise  with  a  capitahst 
government  following  Guesde,  while  the  opportunists  formed 
several  groups.  Guesde  took  hb  full  share  in  the  consequent 
discussion  between  the  Guesdists,  the  Blanquists,  the  possibilists, 
&c.  In  1893  he  was  returned  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for 
Lille  (7th  circonscription)  withalargc  majority  over  the  Christian 
Socialist  and  Radical  candidates.  He  brought  forward  various 
proposals  in  social  legislation  forming  the  programme  of  the 
Labour  party,  without  reference  to  the  divisions  among  the 
Socialists,  and  on  the  3oth  of  November  1894  succeeded  in 
raising  a  two  days'  discussion  of  the  coUectivist  principle  in  the 
Chamber.  In  1903  he  was  not  re-elected,  but  resumed  his  seat 
in  1906.  In  1903  there  was  a  formal  reconciliation  at  the  Reims 
congress  of  the  sections  of  the  party,  which  then  took  the  name 
of  the  Socialist  party  of  France.  Gucsde,  nevertheless,  continued 
to  oppose  the  opportunist  policy  of  Jaur^,  whom  he  denounced 
for  supporting  one  bourgeois  party  against  another.  His  defence 
of  the  principle  pf  freedom  of  association  led  him,  incongruously 
enough,  to  support  the  religious  Congregations  against  £mile 
Combes.  Besides  his  numerous  political  and  socialist  pamphlets 
he  published  in  T901  two  volumes  of  his  speeches  in  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  entitled  Quatre  ans  de  luUe  de  classe  J8gj-i8if8. 

GUEST,  EDWIN  (1800-1880),  Englbh  antiquary,  was  bom  in 
1800.  He  was  educated  at  King  Edward's  school,  Birmingham, 
and  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  as  eleventh 
wrangler,  subsequently  becoming  a  fellow  of  his  college.  Called 
to  the  bar  in  1828,  he  devoted  himself,  after  some  years  of  legal 
practice,  to  antiquarian  and  literary  research.  In  1838  he 
published  his  exhaustive  History  of  English  Rhythms.  He  also 
wrote  a  very  large  number  of  papers  on  Roman-British  history, 
which,  together  with  a  mass  of  fresh  material  for  a  history  of 
early  Britain,  were  published  posthumously  under  the  editorship 
of  Dr  Stubbs  under  the  title  Origines  Ccllicae  (1883).  In  1852 
Guest  was  elected  master  of  Caius  College,  becoming  LL.D.  in 
the  following  year,  and  in  1854-1855  he  was  vice-chancellor  of 
Cambridge  University.  Guest  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  an  honorary  member  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  He 
died  on  the  33rd  of  November  x8So. 

GUEST  (a  word  common  to  Teutonic  languages;  cf.  Ger. 
Gastf  and  Swcd.  gSst;  cognate  with  Lat.  hostis,  originally  a 
stranger,  hence  enemy;  cf.  "  host "  ),  one  who  receives  hos- 
pitality in  the  house  of  another,  his  "  host  ";  hence  applied  to 
a  parasite. 

GUBTTARD,  JEAN  ^TIENNB  (17 15-1786),  French  naturalist 
and  mineralogist,  was  born  at  £tampc5,on  the  a  2nd  of  September 
1715.  In  boyhood  he  gained  a  knowledge  of  plants  from  his 
grandfather,  who  was  an  apothecary,  and  later  he  qualified  as  a 
doctor  in  medicine.  Pursuing  the  study  of  botany  in  various 
parts  of  France  and  other  countries,  he  began  to  take  notice  of 
the  relation  between  the  distribution  of  plants  and  the  soils  and 
subsoils.  In  this  way  his  attention  came  to  be  directed  to 
minerals  and  rocks.  In  z  746  he  communicated  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  Paris  a  memoir  on  the  distribution  of  minerals  and 
rocks,  and  this  was  accompanied  by  a  map  on  which  he  had 
recorded  his  observations.  He  thus,  as  remarked  by  W.  D. 
Conybeare,  "  first  carried  into  execution  the  idea,  proposed  by 
(Martini  Lister  years  before,  of  geological  maps."  In  the  course 
of  his  journeys  he  made  a  large  collection  of  fossils  and  figured 
many  of  them,  but  he  had  no  dear  ideas  about  the  sequence 
of  strata.    He  made  observations  also  on  the  degradation  of 


mountains  by  rain,  rivers  and  sea;  and  he  was  the  first  to 
ascertain  the  existence  of  former  volcanoes  in  the  district  of 
Auvergnc.    He  died  in  Paris  on  the  7th  of  January  1786. 

His  publications  include:  Observations  sur  les  pCanles  (2  vols., 
1747);  Hutotre  de  la  dicouverte  JatU  en  France  de  matibres  sem- 
biables  A  celles  dont  la  porcdatne  de  la  Cktne  est  compos6e  (1765}; 
Mimotres  tut  diffirenles  parties  des  sciences  et  arts  (5  vols.,  1769- 
1783);  Mlmotre  sur  la  minir<Uogie  du  Daupktni  (3  vols.,  1 779}. 
Sec  The  Founders  o/Ceotogyt  by  Sir  A.  Gcikie  (1897). 

GUEUX,  LES,  or  "  The  Beggars,"  a  name  assumed  by  the 
confederacy  of  nobles  and  other  malcontents,  who  in  1566 
opposed  Spanish  tyranny  in  the  Netherlands.  The  leaders  of 
the  nobles,  who  signed  a  solemn  league  known  as  "  the  Com- 
promise," by  which  they  bound  themselves  to  assist  in  defending 
the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  Netherlands  against  the  civil  and 
religious  despotism  of  Philip  II.,  were  Louis,  count  of  Nassau, 
and  Henry,  count  of  Brederode.  On  the  5th  of  April  1566 
permission  was  obtained  for  the  confederates  to  present  a  petition 
of  grievances,  called  "  the  Request,"  to  the  regent,  Margaret, 
duchess  of  Parma.  About  250  nobles  marched  to  the  palace 
accompanied  by  Louis  of  Nassau  and  Brederode.  The  regent 
was  at  first  alarmed  at  the  appearance  of  so  large  a  body,  but 
one  of  her  councillors,  Berlaymont  by  name,  was  heard  to 
exclaim,  "What,  madam,  is  your  highness  afraid  of  these 
beggars  (ces  gueux)?"  The  appellation  was  not  forgotten.  At 
a  great  feast  held  by  some  300  confederates  at  the  H6tel  Culem- 
burg  three  days  later,  Brederode  in  a  speech  declared  that  if  need 
be  they  were  all  ready  to  become  "  beggars  "  in  their  country's 
cause.  The  words  caught  on,  and  the  hall  resounded  with  loud 
cries  of  "  Vivent  les  gueuxl"  The  name  became  henceforward  a 
party  appellation.  The  patriot  party  adopted  the  emblems  of 
beggarhood,  the  wallet  and  the  bowl,  as  trinkets  to  be  worn  on 
their  hats  or  their  girdles,  and  a  medal  was  struck  having  on  one 
side  the  head  of  Philip  IL,  on  the  other  two  clasped  hands  with 
the  motto  "  Ftdtle  au  roy,  jusques  d  porter  la  besace."  The 
original  league  of  "  Beggars  "  was  short-lived,  crushed  by  the 
iron  hand  of  Alva,  but  its  principles  survived  and  were  to  be 
ultimately  triumphanL 

In  the  3rear  1569  the  prince  of  Orange,  who  bad  now  openly 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  party  of  revolt,  granted  letters 
of  marque  to  a  number  of  vessels  manned  by  crews  of  desperadoes 
drawn  from  all  nationalities.  These  fierce  corsairs  under  the 
command  of  a  succession  of  daring  and  reckless  leaders — the 
best-known  of  whom  is  William  de  la  Marck,  lord  of  Lumcy — 
were  called  "  Cueux  de  mer"  or  "  Sea  Beggars."  At  first  they 
were  content  with  plundering  both  by  sea  and  land  and  carrying 
their  booty  to  the  English  ports  where  they  were  able  to  refit 
and  replenish  their  stores.  This  went  on  till  1573,  when  Queen 
Elizabeth  suddenly  refused  to  admit  them  to  her  harbours. 
Having  no  longer  any  refuge,  the  Sea  Beggars  in  desperation 
made  an  attack  upon  Brill,  which  they  seized  by  surprise  in  the 
absence  of  the  Spanish  garrison  on  the  xst  of  April  1573.  En- 
couraged by  their  unhoped-for  success,  they  now  sailed  to 
Flushing,  which  was  also  taken  by  a  coup  de  main.  The  capture 
of  these  two  towns  gave  the  signal  for  a  general  revolt  of  the 
northern  Netherlands,  and  is  regarded  as  the  real  beginning  of 
the  War  of  Dutch  Independence. 

GUEVARA,  ANTONIO  DE  {c.  1490-1544),  Spanish  chronicler 
and  moralist,  was  a  native  of  the  province  of  Alava,  and  passed 
some  of  his  earlier  years  at  the  court  of  Isabella,  queen  of  Castile. 
In  1528  he  entered  the  Franciscan  order,  and  afterwards  accom- 
panied the  emperor  Charles  V.  during  his  journeys  to  Italy  and 
other  parts  of  Europe.  After  having  held  successively  the  offices 
of  court  preacher,  court  historiographer,  bishop  of  Guadiz  and 
bishop  of  Mondofiedo,  he  died  in  1544.  His  earliest  work, 
entitled  Rd(^  de  principcs^  published  at  Valladolid  in  1539,  and, 
according  to  its  author,  the  fruit  of  eleven  years'  labour,  is  a 
didactic  novel,  designed,  after  the  manner  of  Xenophon's  Cyro- 
paediOt  to  delineate,  in  a  somewhat  ideal  way  for  the  benefit 
of  modem  sovereigns,  the  life  and  character  of  an  ancient  prince, 
Marcus  Aurelius,  distinguished  for  wisdom  and  virtue.  It  was 
often  reprinted  in  Spanish;  and  before  the  close  of  the  century 
had  also  been  translated  into  Latin,  Italian,  French  and  English, 


674 


GUEVARA,  L.  V.  DE— GUIANA 


an  English  translation  being  by  J.  Bourchier  (London,  1546) 
and  another  being  by  T.  North.  It  is  difficult  now  to  account  for 
its  extraordinary  popularity,  its  thought  being  neither  just  nor 
profound,  while  its  style  is  stiff  and  affected.  It  gave  rise  to  a 
literary  controversy,  however,  of  great  bitterness  and  violence, 
the  author  having  ventured  without  warrant  to  claim  for  it  an 
historical  character,  appealing  to  an  imaginary  "  manuscript 
in  Florence."  Other  works  of  Guevara  are  the  Decada  de 
los  Clsares  (Valladolid,  1539),  or  "Lives  of  the  Ten  Roman 
Emperors,"  in  imitation  of  the  manner  of  Plutarch  and  Suetonius; 
and  the  Epistolas  familiares  {ViXizdoM^f  1 539-1 54 s)>  sometimes 
called  "The  Golden  Letters,"  often  printed  in  Spam,  and 
translated  into  all  the  principal  languages  of  Europe.  They  are 
in  reality  a  collection  of  stiff  and  formal  essays  which  have  long 
ago  fallen  into  merited  oblivion.  Guevara,  whose  influence  upon 
ihe  Spanish  prose  of  the  i6th  century  was  considerable,  also 
wrote  Libro  de  los  inventara  dd  arte  de  tnarear  (Valladolid,  1539, 
and  Madrid,  1895). 

GUEVARA.  LUIS  VELEZ  DB  (1579-1644),  Spanish  dramatist 
and  novelist,  was  bom  at  £cija  on  the  ist  of  August  1579. 
After  graduating  as  a  sizar  at  the  university  of  Osuna  in  1 596, 
he  joined  the  household  of  Rodrigo  de  Castro,  cardimd-arch- 
bishop  of  Seville,  and  celebrated  the  marriage  of  Philip  II.  in 
a  poem  signed  "  Veles  de  Santander,"  a  name  which  he  con- 
tinued to  use  till  some  years  later.  He  appears  to  have  served 
as  a  soldier  in  Italy  and  Algiers,  returning  to  Spain  in  x6o2  when 
he  entered  the  service  of  the  count  de  Saldafia,  and  dedicated 
himself  to  writing  for  the  stage.  He  died  at  Madrid  on  the 
loth  of  November  1644.  He  was  the  author  of  over  four  hundred 
plays,  of  which  the  best  are  Reinat  despues  de  morir,  MAs  pesa  d 
rey  que  la  sangre,  La  Luna  de  la  Sierra  and  El  Diablo  estd  en 
Cantillana;  but  he  is  most  widely  known  as  the  author  of  El 
Diablp  cojuelo  (1641),  a  fantastic  novel  which  suggested  to  Le 
Sage  the  idea  of  his  DiaMe  hoUeux. 

GUGLIELMI,  PIETRO  (1727-1804),  Italian  composer,  was 
bom  at  Massa  Carrara  in  May  1727,  and  died  in  Rome  on  the 
X9th  of  November  1804.  He  received  his  first  musical  education 
from  his  father,  and  afterwards  studied  under  Durante  at  the 
Conservatorio  di  Santa  Maria  di  Loreto  at  Naples.  His  first 
operatic  work,  produced  at  Turin  in  1755,  established  his 
reputation,  and  soon  his  fame  spread  beyond  the  limits  of  his 
own  country,  so  that  in  1762  he  was  called  to  Dresden  to  con- 
duct the  opera  there.  He  remained  for  some  years  in  Germany, 
where  his  works  met  with  much  success,  but  the  greatest  triumphs 
were  reserved  for  him  in  England.  He  went  to  London,  ac- 
cording to  fiumey,  in  1768,  but  according  to  Florimo  in  1772, 
returning  to  Naples  in  1777.  He  still  continued  to  produce 
operas  at  an  astounding  rate,  but  was  unable  to  compete  suc- 
cessfully with  the  younger  masters  of  the  day.  In  1793  he 
became  maestro  di  cappeUa  at  St  Peter's,  Rome.  He  was  a  very 
prolific  composer  of  Italian  comic  opera,  and  there  is  in  most 
of  his  scores  a  vein  of  humour  and  natural  gaiety  not  surpassed 
by  Cimarosa  himself.  In  serious  opera  he  was  less  successfuL 
But  here  also  he  shows  at  least  the  qualities  of  a  competent 
musician.  Considering  the  enormous  number  of  his  works,  his 
unequal  workmanship  and  the  frequent  instances  of  mechanical 
and  slip-shod  writing  in  his  music  need  not  surprise  us.  The 
following  are  among  the  most  celebrated  of  his  operas:  /  Due 
Gemelli,  La  Serva  inamorata,  La  Pastorella  nobUe,  La  Bella  Pu- 
catrice,  Rinaldo,  Artaserse,  Didone  and  Ertea  e  Lavinia,  He  also 
wrote  oratorios  and  miscellaneous  pieces  of  orchestral  and 
chamber  music.  Of  his  eight  sons  two  at  least  acquired  fame  as 
musicians— Pietro  Carlo  (1763-1827),  a  successful  imitates  of 
his  father's  operatic  style,  and  Giacomo,  an  excellent  singer. 

GUIANA  {Guyana,  Guayana^),  the  general  name  given  in  iu 

*The  origin  of  the  name  is  somewhat  obscure,  and  has  been 
variously  interpreted.  But  the  late  Cot.  G.  E.  Church  supplies  the 
following  note,  which  has  the  weight  of  his  great  authority:  "  I 
cannot  confirm  the  suggestion  of  Schomburgk  that  Guayaiut  '  re- 
ceived its  name  from  a  small  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Orinoco', 
supposed  to  be  the  Walni  or  Guainia.  In  South  America,  cast  of 
the  Andes,  it  was  the  common  custom  of  any  tribe  occupying  a 
length  of  river  to  call  it  simply  '  the  river ';  but  the  other  tribes 


widest  acceptation  to  the  part  of  South  America  lying  to  the 
north-east  from  8*  40'  N  to  j*  30'  S.  and  from  50*  W.  to  68*  30^ 
W  Its  greatest  length,  from  Cabo  do  NcMte  to  tlie  coolhieiice 
of  the  Rio  Xie  and  Rio  Negro,  is  about  1250  in.,  its  greatest 
breadth,  from  Banma  Point  in  the  mouth  of  the  Onnooo  to 
the  confluence  of  the  Rio  Negro  and  Amazon,  800  m.  Its  area 
is  roughly  690,000  sq.  m.  Comprised  in  this  vast  tefritoiy  are 
Venexuelan  (formerly  Spanish)  Guiana,  lying  <ni  both  sides  ol 
the  Orinoco  and  extending  S.  and  S.W.  to  the  Rio  Negro  and 
Brazilian  settlements;  British  Guiana,  extending  from  Veaei- 
uela  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Corent3m  river,  Dutch  Cniana 

designated  any  section  of  it  by  the  name  of  the  people  living  on  iu 
banks.  Many  streams,  therefore,  had  more  than  a  dooaea  names. 
It  is  probable  that  no  important  river  had  one  name  alone  throa^b* 
out  its  course,  prior  to  the  time  of  the  ConouesL  The  radical  wtm, 
watnt,  wayni,  is  found  as  a  prefix,  and  very  Irequently  as  a  tcmiaa- 
tion,  to  the  names  of  numerous  rivers,  not  only  throughout  Guayud 
but  all  over  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon  valleys.  For  instance.  Faynury 
I  ndians  called  the  portion  of  the  Purttt  nver  wtdA  they  ooaipied  the 
Waini.  It  simply  means  water,  or  a  fountain  of  water,  or  a  river. 
The  alternative  suggestion  that  Guayani  is  an  Indian  word  clgaify- 
ing  '  wild  coast,'  I  also  think  untenable.  This  term,  applied  to  the 
north-east  frontage  of  South  America  between  the  Orinoco  and  the 
Amason,  is  found  on  the  old  Dutch  map  of  Hartsinck,  w1k>  calls  it 
'  Guiana  Caribania  of  de  Wilde  Kust,  a  name  whicli  must  have 
well  described  it  when,  in  1580,  some  Zodandcrs.  of  the  Netherlands, 
sent  a  ship  to  cruise  along  it,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amaxoo  to 
that  of  the  Orinoco,  and  formed  the  first  settlement  near  the  river 
Pomeroon.  The  map  of  Fimao  Vaz  Dourado,  1564,  calls  the 
northern  rart  of  South  America,  indodin^  the  present  British 
Guiana,  *  East  Peru.'  An  anonymous  Spanuli  nap,  about  1566, 
gives  Guayani  as  lying  on  the  east  side  of  the  OriiMoo  just  above 
Its  mouth.  About  1660,  Sebastien  de  Ruesta,  cosmographcr  of  the 
Casa  de  Contractaeum  de  Seville^  shows  Guavaai  covering  the 
Bntish,  French  and  Dutch  Guayan4s.  Accoraing  to  the  nap  of 
Nicolas  de  Fer,  I719»  a  tribe  of  Guayazis  (Goyanas)  occupied  the 
south  side  of  the  Amazon  river,  front  of  the  island  of  Tupinambari, 
east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Madeira.  Aristides  Rojas,  an  eminent 
Venezuelan  scholar,  says  that  the  Mariches  Indians,  near  Cancas. 
inhabited  a  site  called  Guayani  long  before  the  disoovcryof  South 
America  by  the  Spaniards.  Coudreau  in  his  Chex  nes  Imdaeus 
mentions  tnat  the  Roucouyenmes  of  Guayani  take  their  naae  fron 
a  large  tree  in  their  forests,  '  which  appears  to  be  the  or^n  of  the 
name  Guayane.'  Accordii^  to  MkheUna  y  Roias,  in  their  lepoit 
to  the  Venezuelan  government  on  their  voyages  m  the  basin  01  the 
Orinoco,  '  Guyana  derives  its  name  from  the  ImUana  who  Eve 
between  the  Caroni  river  and  the  Sierra  de  I  mataca.  called  Goayaaoa.' 
My  own  studies  of  aboriginal  South  America  lead  me  to  support  the 
statement  of  Michetona  y  Rojas.  but  with  the  r<dlowiag  r-» ' 


of  it:  The  Portuguese,  in  the  eariy  part  of  the  i6th  centuxv.  fond 
that  the  coast  and  mountain  district  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  bctvcen 
Cape  Sio  Thome  and  Angra  dos  Reis.  belonged  to  the  formidable 
Tamoyos.  South  of  these,  for  a  distance  of  aboot  m  m.  of  the 
ocean  slope  of  the  coast  range,  were  the  Gmamd  tnbes,  called  bv 
the  eariy  writers  Guiands,  Goyand,  Guaynti,  Goamd  and,  plinal. 


GoaynAtis,  Goayandaes  and  Guayandaes.  They  were  constand)'  «t 
feud  with  the  tamoyos  and  with  their  neighbours  on  the  south,  the 
Carijos,  as  well  as  with  the  vast  Tapuya  hordes  of  the  Sertio  of  the 
interior.  Long  before  the  discovery,  they  had  been  forced  to 
abandon  their  beautiful  tends,  but  had  recuperated  their  icreagtb. 
returned  and  reconquered  their  ancient  habiut.  Mcsmwhilc.  bov- 
ever,  many  of  them  had  migrated  northward,  some  had  settled  ia 
the  Sertio  back  oi  Bahia  and  Pemambuco,  others  on  the  middk 
Amazon  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Orinoco,  but  a  large  miaber  had 
crossed  the  lower  Amazon  and  occupied  an  extensive  area  of  oauacry 
to  the  north  of  it,  about  thesizeof^Belgium, along  the  Tumudiiim&c 
range  of  highlands,  and  the  upper  Paron  and  Marooi  rivers,  as  veil 
as  a  laige  aistrict  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  above-named  range. 
In  their  new  home  they  became  known  as  Jtomeomyemmes,  becsoae. 
like  the  Mundurucus  of  the  middle  Amazon,  tbey  mbfaed  and 
painted  themselves  with  romc9u  or  unum  (Bixa  Orellana):  ont 
other  surrounding  tribes  called  them  (Xttyanis,  that  b  Gua]«B&»-> 
the  Gua,  so  common  to  the  Guarani-Tupi  tongue,  having  beoone 
corrupted  into  Oua.  Porto  Seguro  says  of  the  aoKaOed  Inpis,  rt 
other  times  they  gave  themselves  the  name  of  Guayd  or  Gaajem, 
which  probably  means  "  brothers,"  from  which  coaaetCn^yameM 
Guayanaaes. ...  The  latter  occupied ,  the  country  jutt  sooth  <i 
Rio  de  Janeiro. . . .  The  masters  of  the  Capitania  d  St  Vinoeatt 
called  themsdves  Gmfanas.'  Guinila,  referring  to^  north  esifr rn 
South  America  (i745)»  "pe^ks  of  five  missions  bemg  fonned  10 
civilize  the  '  Nadon  Cuayana,'  In  view  of  the  above,  it  any  be 
thought  reasonable  to  assume  that  the  vast  territonr  now  fcaowa 
as  Guayand  (British,  Dutch,  French,  Brazilian  and  Venezadaa) 
derives  its  name  from  iu  aborigines  who  were  found  Acre  at  the 
time  of  the  discovery,  and  whose  original  borae  was  the  ttffo^  * 
have  indkated." 


GUIANA 

675 

rf                  A                  ».•                   B                  ...'                    C                 ^-                    D                 ..-El 

\\< /S)r. «:U>->^«Psw;;-s .  ■ '   - 1 

GUIANA    . 

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Vi=S^J^^i^ 

^         Z'  / 

tif — ■ — ■ — V  -    .^:-..^,^.rk-:..  ' r ^ — ? ■  1 

(or  Soiliuin),  from  (be  Conntyn  to  the  Huoni  river:  Frencb 
Guiau  (or  Ctytnne).  Inm  the  Miratii  (B  the  Oyipock  riveti  ■ 
BiuUiui  ([Dtmeriy  Ponugwie)  Guian*,  eitendiiii  (rom  (he 
■oulhcm  bouaduiei  of  Fcesrh,  Dutch,  Biitiih  ud  put  of 
VeDciudia  Guiuie,  (o  [he  Amuon  ud  the  Negro.  Of  theu 
divisioot  the  £nt  and  last  ue  Daw  included  in  Veoezuela  end 
BniU  reapectively;  Britiih,  Dutch  and  French  GuLini  ue 
described  in  oidei  belair,  uid  ut  iloBe  couidered  here. 
In  (heir  physical  geography  the  three  Guiicas  preMot  certain 


ach  colony 


norther 


L  fluvionurine  deposit 

1  height  of  10  to  15  ft.  aho've  the  wa.  Thii 
in  width  from  50  m.  10  iS  m.  and  ii  travcned 
Lnd  ihelli»  roughly  parallel  (0  vhat  is  no* 
toe  ctaai,  inoicaunf  the  trend  of  former  shore  hnes.  By  the 
draining  and  diking  of  these  lands  the  plantations  have  been 
farmed  aJoDg  (he  coast  and  up  (he  livera.  These  low  landi  ue 
a(Uched  to  a  somewhat  higher  platau,  which  towards  the 
coaat  is  traversed  by  numerous  huge  sand-dunes  and  inland  by 
nngei  of  hills  tisiog  in  placet  to  as  much  as  1000  ft.  The 
greater  part  a{  this  belt  of  country,  in  which  the  autifctoui 
districts  principally  occur,  is  caveied  with  a  dense  grosrth  of 
jungle  and  high  forest,  but  uvaiuuhs,  growing  only  a  long 

S.E.  much  nearer  (o  the  coi^t  thin  Id  Ihe  N.W.  The  hinlerUndi 
undulating  open  savannahs  rising  into  hills  and 

visa  and  eryital- 


GrerfPDF '.'-Guiana  is  formed  almoat  enlirrly 

■  See''c!  B.  Bfwn  ao/jTc.  L'^m,  Rif 
Vutriptm  9^  EtenemM  Gf^tJ  "/  Britiik  G%' 
C^  Vtiaia*  "  Eaquisse  ^eologique  de  la  Guyi 


}\  ""T»" 


>.  the  >clvi{e( 

k  a.   3  oi.  of 

rates,  nd 


larkable  (able-topped  mo 


dinf  Id  Bnim  aod  Sawkina, 
niHve  and  partly  content- 


panlyCr 

Hillwy,— The  coast  of  Guio 
1498  when  he  discovered  Ihe  itli 
of  Paria,  and  in  (he  foUowint 
Amerigo  Vespucd;  and  in  tjoa 


uncertain,  but  tbey  evideptly  co 
In  Dutch  Guiana  there' areatew 


I  was  sighted  by  Coin 
dot  Trinidad  ai  '    ' 


discovered  the  Ai 


isoo  Vincente  Yafiei  Pinion  ventured 
I  sailing  nortb-Ncst  along  (he  coast 
ic  it  believed  to  have  also  entered 
)f  Guiana,  one  of  which,  now  called 
arly  maps  as  RJo  Pinion.  Little, 
iuiana  unUl  the  fame  of  (he  fabled 
gotden  dly  Minoa  or  El  Dorado  tempted  idventureis  (0  explore 
i(i  riven  aod  forests.  From  IcKers  of  tliesc  eiploren  found  in 
basiins  du  Panni  et  du  Yari  (altluenli  de  rAmatone)  d'apr^  les 
i>plorations  du  Dt  Crevaui,"  fliJI.  5ot.  C^p.  ser  7,  vol  vi. 
(Pariv  188SI.  pp.  45J-49I  l-ilh  leolojiial  map);  E.  Mar-i-  r.«^ 

Guvanaiy^W.'i.  CfW."'x;)^liJ*«."'(L — .    -.   -- 

Heft  >.  pp.  «i-t6.  (wiih  ]  map.):  and  for  Biiirsh  Guiana,  t 
official  reports  on  the  traloty  of  various  districli,  by  J.  B.  Harrito 
C.  W.  Andenon.  K.  I,  fWkina.  published  at  Georgetown. 


676 


GUIANA 


captured  ships,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  induced  to  ascend  the 
Orinoco  in  search  of  £1  Dorado  in  1595,  to  send  Lawrence 
R^mis  on  the  same  quest  in  the  following  year,  and.  in  161 7 
to  try  once  again,  with  the  same  intrepid  lieutenant,  an  ex- 
pedition fraught  with  disaster  fur  both  of  them.  As  early  as 
1580  the  Dutch  had  established  a  systematic  t;ade  with  the 
Spanish  main,  but  so  far  as  is  known  their  first  voyage  to  Guiana 
was  in  1598.  By  x6z3  they  had  three  or  four  settlements  on 
the  coast  of  Demerara  and  Esscquibo,  and  in  about  16 16  some 
21eelanders  settled  on  a  small  island,  called  by  them  Kyk  ober  al 
i"  see  over  all "),  in  the  confluence  of  the  Cuyimi  and  Mazaruni 
rivers.  While  the  Dutch  traders  were  struggling  for  a  footing 
in  Essequibo  and  Demerara,  English  and  French  traders  were 
endeavouring  to  form  settlements  on  the  Oyapock  river,  in 
Cayenne  and  in  Surinam,  and  by  1652  the  English  had  large 
interests  in  the  latter  and  the  French  in  Cayenne.  In  1663 
Charles  II.  issued  letters  patent  to  Lord  Willoughby  of  Parham 
and  Lawrence  Hyde,  second  son  of  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  grant- 
ing them  the  district  between  the  Copenam  and  Maroni  rivers, 
a  province  described  as  extending  from  E.  to  W.  some  120  m. 
This  colony  was,  however,  formally  ceded  to  the  Netherlands 
in  1667  by  the  peace  of  Breda,  Great  Britain  taking  possession 
of  New  York.  Meanwhile  the  Dutch  West  India  Company, 
formed  in  1621,  had  taken  possession  of  Essequibo,  over  which 
colony  it  exercised  sovereign  rights  until  1791.  In  1624  a  Dutch 
settlement  was  effected  in  the  Berbice  river,  and  from  this  grew 
Berbice,  for  a  long  time  a  separate  and  independent  colony. 
In  1657  the  Zcelanders  firmly  established  themselves  in  the 
Pomeroon,  Monica  and  Demerara  rivers,  and  by  1674  the  Dutch 
were  colonizing  all  the  territory  now  known  as  British  and 
Dutch  Guiana.  The  New  Dutch  West  Indian  Company,  founded 
in  th;*^  year  to  replace  the  older  company  which  had  failed, 
received  Gniana  by  charter  from  the  states-general  in  1682. 
In  the  following  year  the  company  sold  one-third  of  their  territory 
to  the  city  of  Amsterdam,  and  another  third  to  Comelis  van 
Aerssens,  lord  of  Sommelsdijk.  The  new  owners  and  the 
company  incorporated  themselves  as  the  Chartered  Society  of 
Surinam,  and  Sommelsdijk  agreed  to  fill  the  post  of  governor  of 
the  colony  at  his  own  expense.  The  lucrative  trade  in  slaves 
was  retained  by  the  West  Indian  Company,  but  the  society 
could  import  them  on  its  own  account  by  paying  a  fine  to  the 
company.  Sommelsdijk's  rule  was  wise  and  energetic.  He 
repressed  and  pacified  the  Indian  tribes,  erected  forts  and 
disciplined  the  soldiery,  constructed  the  canal  which  bears  his 
name,  established  a  high  court  of  justice  and  introduced  the 
valuable  cultivation  of  the  cocoa-nut.  But  on  the  17th  of  June 
x688  he  was  massacred  in  a  mutiny  of  the  soldiers.  The  "  third  " 
which  Sommelsdijk  possessed  was  offered  by  his  widow  to  William 
III.  of  England,  but  it  was  ultimately  purchased  by  the  city  of 
Amsterdam  for  700,000  fl.  The  settlements  m  Esscquibo  pro- 
gressed somewhat  slowly,  and  it  was  not  until  immigration  was 
attracted  in  1740  by  offers  to  newcomers  of  free  land  and  im- 
munity for  a  decade  from  taxation  that  anything  like  a  colony 
could  be  said  to  exist  there.  In  1732  Berbice  placed  itself  under 
the  protection  of  the  states-general  of  Holland  and  was  granted 
a  constitution,  and  in  1773  Demerara,  till  then  a  dependency  of 
Essequibo,  was  constituted  as  a  separate  colony.  In  1781  the 
three  colonics,  Demerara,  Essequibo  and  Berbice,  were  captured 
by  British  privateers,  and  were  placed  by  Rodney  under  the 
governor  of  Barbados,  but  in  1 782  they  were  taken  by  France, 
then  an  ally  of  the  Netherlands,  and  retained  until  the  peace 
of  1 783,  when  they  were  restored  to  Holland.  In  1 784  Essequibo 
and  Demerara  were  placed  under  one  governor,  and  Georgetown 
— then  called  Stabrock — was  fixed  on  as  the  scat  of  government. 
The  next  decade  saw  a  series  of  struggles  between  the  colonies 
and  the  Dutch  West  India  company,  which  ended  in  the  company 
being  wound  up  and  in  the  three  colonies  being  governed  directly 
by  the  states-general.  In  1796  the  British  again  took  possession, 
and  retained  the  three  colonies  until  the  |>eace  of  Amiens  in 
1802,  when  they  were  once  again  restored  to  Holland,  only  to 
be  recaptured  by  Great  Britain  in  1803,  in  which  year  the 
history  proper  of  British  Guiana  began. 


Venez- 

Guiana 


I.  British  Gitiana,  the  only  British  possessum  in  S, 
was  formally  ceded  in  X8X4-1815.  The  three  colonies 
1831  consolidated  into  one  colony  divided  into  three 
counties,  Berbice  extending  from  the  Corentyn  xiver 
to  the  Abary  creek,  Demerara  from  the  Abary  to  the 
Boerasirie  creek,  Essequibo  from  the  Boerasirie  to  the 
uelan  frontier.  This  boundary-line  between  British 
and  Venezuela  was  for  many  years  the  subject  of  dispitttc  The 
Dutch,  while  British  Guiana  was  in  their  posesslon,  dalined  the 
whole  watershed  of  the  Essequibo  river,  while  the  Venezuelass 
asserted  that  the  Spanish  province  of  Guayana  had  extended 
up  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Essequibo.  In  1840  Sir  Robert 
Schomburgk  had  suggested  a  demarcation,  afterwards  known 
as  the  "  Schomburgk  line  ";  and  subsequently,  tboogh  no 
agreement  was  arrived  at,  certain  modifications  were  made  ia 
this  British  claim.  In  1886  the  government  of  Great  Britaia 
declared  that  it  would  thenceforward  exerdse  jurisdiction  up  to 
and  within  a  boundary  known  as  "  the  modified  Schombui]^ 
line."  Outposts  were  located  at  points  on  this  line,  mod  for  some 
years  Guianese  police  and  Venezuelan  soldiers  faced  one  another 
across  the  Amacura  creek  in  the  Orinoco  mouth  and  at  Yuruaa 
up  the  Cuyuni  river.  In  1897  the  dispute  formed  the  subject 
of  a  message  to  congress  from  the  president  of  the  United  Sutes, 
and  in  consequence  of  this  intervention  the  matter  was  sub- 
mitted to  an  international  commission,  whose  award  was  issued 
at  Paris  in  1899  (see  Venezuela).  By  this  decision  ncitba 
party  gained  its  extreme  claim,  the  line  laid  down  differing 
but  little  from  the  original  Schomburgk  line.  The  demarcation 
was  at  once  undertaken  by  a  joint  commission  appointed  by 
Venezuela  and  British  Guiana  and  was  completed  in  1904. 
It  was  not  found  practicable,  owing  \o  the  impassable  nature 
of  the  country,  to  lay  down  on  earth  that  part  of  the  boundary 
fixed  by  the  Paris  award  between  the  head  of  the  Wenamu  crtdc 
and  the  summit  of  Mt.  Roraima,and  the  boundary  commissio&cn 
suggested  a  deviation  to  follow  the  watersheds  of  the  Caxocd, 
Cuyuni  and  Mazaruni  rivers,  a  suggestion  accepted  by  the  two 
governmenu.  In  1902  the  delimiution  of  the  boundary  between 
British  Guiana  and  Brazil  was  referred  to  the  arbitration  of  the 
king  of  Italy,  and  by  his  reward,  issued  in  June  1904,  the  sub- 
stantial area  in  dispute  was  conceded  to  British  GuiaxuL  The 
work  of  demarcation  has  since  been  carried  out. 

Tovms,  brc. — The  capital  of  British  Guiana  is  Georgetown,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Demerara  river,  on  its  right  bank,  with  a 
population  of  about  50,000.  New  Amsterdam,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Berbice  river,  has  a  population  of  about  750a 
Each  possesses  a  mayor  and  town  council,  with  statutory  povcn 
to  impose  rates.  There  are  nineteen  incorporated  villages,  and 
ten  other  locally  governed  areas  known  as  country  districts,  the 
affairs  of  which  are  controlled  by  local  authorities,  known  as 
village  councils  and  country  authorities  respectively. 

Population, — The  census  of  1891  gave  the  population  of 
British  Guiana  as  278,328.  There  was  no  census  taken  in  X901. 
By  official  estimates  the  population  at  the  end  of  1904  was 
301,923.  Of  these  6ome  x  20,000  were  negroes  and  124,000 
East  Indians,  4300  were  Europeans,  other  than  Portugoese, 
estimated  at  about  11,600,  and  some  30,000  of  mixed  race. 
The  abongines — Arawaks,  Caribs,  Wapisianas,  Warraws,  &C' 
who  numbered  about  10,000  in  1891.  are  now  estimated  at 
about  6500.  In  1904  the  birth-rate  for  the  whole  colony  was 
30*3  per  1000  and  the  death-rate  28-8. 

Physical  Geography. — The  surface  features  of  Brittd  Cuboa 
may  be  divided  roughlv  into  four  reeions:  first,  the  alluvial  sea* 
board,  flat  and  below  the  level  of  hign-water:  secondly,  the  forest 
belt,  swampy  along  the  rivers  but  rising  into  undulating  land*  and 
hills  between  them,  thirdly,  the  savannahs  in  and  inland  of  the 
forest  bolt,  elevated  table-lands,  grass-covered  and  practtralFr 
treeless,  and  fourthly,  the  mountain  ranges.  The  eastern  portion 
of  the  colony,  from  the  source  of  its  two  largest  rivers,  the  Corrat)^ 
and  Essequibo,  is  a  rough  inclined  plain,  starting  at  some  900  iz. 
above  sea-level  at  the  source  of  the  Takutu  in  the  west,  but  only 
some  400  at  that  of  the  Corentyn  in  the  west,  and  slopuw  dona 

f;radually  to  the  tow  alluvial  flats  about  3  ft.  bek>w  hign*«atcr 
ine.    The  eastern  part  is  generallv  forested;  the  western  is  as 
almost  level  savannah,  with   woodlands  along  the  riven.    The 


GUIANA 


677 


northern  portion  of  Briti^  Guiana,  the  alluvial  flats  aQuded  to 
already,  consists  <tf  a  fluviomarine  deposit  extending  inland  from 
35  m.  to  30  m.,  sradually  rising  to  about  13  ft.  above  high-water 
mark  and  ending  against  oeds  of  sandy  clay,  the  residua  <x  igneous 
rocks  dccompowd  in  siiUt  which  fcM'm  an  extensive  undulating 
region  rising  to  150  ft.  above  the  sea  and  stretching  back  to  the 
forest-covered  'hills.  Roughly  parallel  to  the  existing  coast-line  are 
narrow  reefs  of  sand  and  sea-shells, -which  are  dupes  indicating  the 
trend  of  former  liniits  of  the  sea,  and  still  farther  back  are  the 
higher  "  sand  hills,"  hills' of  granite  or  diabase  with  a  thick  stratum 
of  coarse  white  sand  superimposed.  From  the  coast-line  seawards 
the  ocean  deepens  very  gradually,  and  at  low  tide  extensive  flats 
of  sand  and  of  mixed  clay  and  sand  (called  locally  "  caddy  ")  are 
left  bare,  these  flats  being  at  times  covered  with  a  deposit  pf  thin 
drift  mud. 

Two  great  parallel  mountain  systems  cross  the  colony  from  W. 
to  E.,  the  greater  being  that- of  the  Pacaraima  and  Menuo6  Mts., 
and  the  lesser  including  the  Kanuku  Mts.  (aooo  ft.),  while  the 
Acarai  Mts.,  a  densely-wooded  range  rising  to  2500  ft.,  form  the 
southern  boundary  of  British  Guiana  and  the  watershed  between 
the  Eaequibo  and  the  Amazon.  These  mountauis  rise  generally 
in  a  succession  of  terraces  and  broad  plateaus,  with  steep  or  even 
sheer  sandstone  escarpments.  They. are  mostly  flat-topped,  and 
their  average  height  is  about  3500  ft.  The  Pacaraima  Mts.,  how- 
ever, reach  863s  ft.  at  Roraima,  and  the  latter  remarkable  mountain 
rises  as  a  perpendicular  wall  of  red  rock  1500  ft.  in  height  springing 
out  of  the  forest-clad  slopes  below  the  summit,  and  was  considered 
inaccessible  until  in  December  1884  Messrs  im  Thurn  and  Perkins 
found  a  ledge  by  which  the  top  could  De  reacl^.  ■  The  summit  a 
a  table-land  some  13  sq.  m.  in  area.  Mt.  Kukenaam  is  of  similar 
structure  and  also  rises  above  8'500  fL  Other  conspicuous  summits 
(about  7000  ft.)  are  Iwalkarima,  Eluwarima,  Ilutipu  and  Waiaka- 
piapu.  The  southern  portion  -of  the  Pacaraima  range  comprises 
rugged  hills  and  rock-strewn  valleys,  but  to  the  N.,  where  the  sand- 
stone assuines  the  table-shaped  form,  there  are  dense  forests,  and 
the  scenery  is  of  extraordinary  grandeur.  Waterfalls  frequently 
descend  the  cliffs  from  a  great  height  (nearly  3000  ft.  sheer  at 
Roraima  and  Kukenaam).  The  sandstone  formation  can  be  traced 
from  the  northern  Pacaraiina  range  on  the  N.W.  to  the  Corentyn 
in  the  S.E.  It  is  traversed  in  places  by  dikes  and  sills  of  diabase  or 
dolerite,  while  bosses  of  more  or  less  altered  gabbro  rise  through  it. 
The  surface  of  a  large  inrt  <^  the  colony  is  composed  of  gneiss,  and 
of  gnetssoee  granite,  which  is  seen  in  large  water-worn  IxMses  in  the 
river  beds.  Intmsive  granite  is  of  somewhat  rare  occurrence; 
where  found,  it  gives  rise  to  long  low  rolls  of  hilly  country  and  to 
cataracts  in  the  rivers.  Extensive  areas  of  the  country  consist  of 
quartz-porphyry,  porphyrites  and  felstone,  and  of  more  or  less 
schbtose  rocks  derived  from  them.  These  rocks  are  closely  con- 
nected with  the  gncissose  granites  and  gneiss,  and  there  are  reasons 
for  believing  that  the  latter  are  the  deep-seated  portions  of  them 
and  are  only  visible  where  they  have  beea  exposed  by  denudation. 
Long  ranges  of  hills,  varying  m  elevation  from  a  few  hundreds  to 
from300olt.  to  3000  ft.,  traverse  the  plains  of  the  gneissose  districts. 
These  are  caused  either  by  old  intrusions  of  diabase  and  gabbro 
which  have  undergone  modifications,  or  by  later  ones  of  dolerite. 
These  ranges  are  m  high  importance,  as  the  rocks  comprising  them 
arc-  the  main  source  of  gold  m  British  Guiana. 

Risers. — ^The  principal  physical  features  of  British  Guiana  are 
its  rivers  and  their  branches,  which  form  one  vast  network  of 
waterways  all  over  it,  and  are  the  principal,  indeed  practically  the 
only,  highways  inland  from  the  coast.  Chief  among  them  are  the 
Waini,  the  Essequibo,  and  its  tributaries  the  Mazaruni  and  Cuyuni, 
the  £>emerara,  the  Berbice  and  the  Corentyn.  The  Essequibo 
rises  in  the  Acarai  Mts.,  in  o*  41'  N.  and  about  850  ft.  above  the 
sea,  and  flows  northwards  for  about  600  m.  until  it  discharges  itself 
into  the  ocean  by  4n  estuary  nearly  15  m.  in  width.  ^  In  this 
estuary  are  several  large  and  fertile  islands,  on  four  of  which  sugar 
used  to  be  grown.  Now  but  one.  Wakenaara,  can  boast  of  a  factory. 
The  Essequibo  can  be  entered  only  by  craft  drawing  less  than 
30  ft.  and  is  luivigable  for  these  vessels  for  not  more  than  50  m., 
its- subsequent  course  upwards  being  frequently  broken  by  cataracts 
and  rapids.  Some  7  m.  below  the  first  series  of  rapids  it  is  joined 
by  the  Mazaruni.  itself  joined  b^  the  Cuyuni  some  4  m.  farther  up. 
It  has  a  remarkable  course  from  its  source  in  the  Merume  Mountains, 
about  3400  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  flows  first  south,  then  west,  north- 
west, north,  and  finally  south-east  to  within  30  m.  of  its  own  source, 
forming  many  fine  falls,  and  its  course  thereafter  is  still  very  tortuous. 
In  4*  N-  and  58*  W.,  the  Essequibo  is  joined  by  the  Rupununi, 
which,  rising  in  a  savannah  at  the  foot  of  the  Karawaimento  Mts., 
has  a  northerly  and  easterly  course  of  fully  300  m.  In  3*  37'  N. 
the  Awaricura  joins  the  Rupununi,  and  by  this  tributary  the  Pirara, 
a  tributary  of  the  Amazon,  may  be  reached, — ^an  example  of  the 
interesting  Aeries  of  itabos  connecttn|(  nearly  all  S.  American  rivers 
with  one  another.  Another  large  tnbutary  of  the  Esscouibo  is  the 
Potaro,  on  which,  at  1130  ft.  above  sea-level  and  in  5  8'  N.  and 
59*  19'  W.,  is  the  celebrated  Kaieteur  fall,  discovered  in  1870  by  Mr 
C.  Barrington  Brown  while  engaged  on  a  geological  survey.  This 
fall  is  produced  by  the  river  flowing  from  a  tableland  of  sandstone 
and  conglomerate  into  a  deep  valley  833  ft.  below.  For  the  first 
741  ft.  the  waur  falls  as  a  perpendicular  column,  thence  as  a  sloping 


cataract  to  the  still  reach  bdow.  The  river  aoo  yds.  above  the  fall 
is  about  400  ft.  wide,  while  the  actual  waterway  of  the  fall  itself 
varies  from  k30  ft.  in  dry  weather  to  nearly  400  ft.  in  rainy  seasons. 
The  Kaieteur,  which  it  took  Mr  Brown  a  fortnight  to  reach  from 
the  coast,  can  now  be  reached  on  the  fifth  day  from  (Georgetown. 
Among  other  considerable  tributaries  of  the  Essequibo  are  the 
Siparuni,.  Burro-Burro,  Rewa,  Kuyuwini  and  KaMi-Kudji.  The 
Demerara  river,  the  head-waters  of  which  are  known  only  to  Indians, 
rises  probably  near  5*  N.,  and  after  a  winding  northerly  course  of 
some  300  m.  enters  the  ocean  in  6*  so'  N.  and  58*  30'  W.  A  bar 
of  mud  and  sand  prevents  the  entrance  <^  vessels  drawing  more 
than  10  ft.  The  river  is  from  its  mouth,  which  is  nearly  3  m.  wide, 
i^vigaole -for  70  m.  to.  all  vessels  which  can  enter.  The  Berbice 
nver  rises  in  about  3*  40'  N.,  and  in  3*  53'  N.  is  within  9  m.  of  the' 
Essequibo.  At  its  mouth  it  is  about  3}  m.  wide,  and  a  navigable 
for  vessels  drawing  not  more  than  13  ft.  for  about  105  m.  and  for 
vessels  drawing  not  more  than  7  ft.  for  fully  1 75  m.  Thence  upwards 
it  is  brokeii  by  great  cataracts.  The  Canje  creek  joins  the  Berbice 
river  close  to  the  sea.  Hie  Corentyn  river  rises  in  i*  48'  30'  N.,- 
about  140  m.  E.  of  the  Essequibo,  and  flowing,  northwards  enters 
the  Atlantic  by  an  estua^  some  14  m.  wide.  The  divide  between  its 
head- waters  and  those  01  streams  belonging  to  the  Amazon  system 
is  only  somtf  400  ft.  in  elevatbn.  It  is  navigable  for  about  150  m., 
some  of  the  reaches  being  of  great  width  ami  beauty.  The  upper 
reaches  are  broken  by  a  series  of  great  cataracts,  some  of  which, 
until  the  discovery  of  Kaieteur,  Vere  believed  to  be  the  grandest  in 
British  Guiana.  Among  other  rivers  are  the  Pomeroon,  Monica 
and  Barima,  while  several  large  streams  or  creeks  fall  directly  into 
the  Atlantic,  the  largot  being  the  Abary,  Mahaicony  and  Mahaica. 
between  Berbice  andUemerara,  and  the  Boerasirie  between  Demerara 
and  Essequibo^  The  colour  of  the  water  of  the  rivers  and  creeks 
is  in  general  a  dark  brown,  caused  by  the  infusion  of  vesetable 
matter,  but  where  the  streams  run  for  a  long  distance  tnrough 
savannahs  they  are  of  a  milky  colour. 

Climate. — ^The  climate  is,  as  tropical  countries  go,  not  unhealthy. 
Malarial  fevers  are  common  but  i>reventible;  and  phthisis  is  pre- 
valent, not  because  the  climate  is  unsuitable  to  sufferers  from 
pulmonary  complaints,  but  because  of  the  ignorance  of  the  common 
people  of  the  elementary  principles  of  hygiene,  an  ignorance  which 
the  state  is  endeavouring  to  lessen  by  including  the  teaching  of 
hygiene  in  the  syllabus  of  the  primary  schools.  The  temperature  is 
uniform  on  the  coast  for  the  ten  months  from  October  to  July,  the 
regular  N.E.'  trade  winds  keeping  it  down  to'  an  average  of  80*  F. 
In  August  and  September  the  trades  die  away  and  the  heat  becomes 
oppressive.  In  the  interior  the  nights  are  cold  and  damp.  Hurri- 
canes, indeed  even  strong  gales,  are  unknown;  a  tidal  wave  Is  an 
imposnbility;  and  the  nature  of  the  soil  of  the  coast  lands  renders 
earthouakes  practically  harmless.  Occasionally  there  are  severe 
drouents,  and  the  rains  are  sometimes  unduly  prolonged,  but 
usually  the  year  is  clearly  divided  into  two  wet  and  two  dry  seasons. 
The  long  wet  season  begins  in  mid-April  and  lasts  until  mid-August. 
The  long  dry  season  is  from  September  to  the  last  week  in  November. 
DecemMT  and  January  constitute  the  short  rainy  season,  and 
February  and  March  the  short  dry  season.  The  rainfall  varies 
greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  colony;  on  the  cdast  it  averages 
about  80  in.  annually. 

Fhra, — ^The  vegetation  is  most  luxuriant  and  its  growth  per- 
petual. Indigenous  trees  and  plants  abound  in  the  utmost  variety, 
while^many  exotics  have  readily  adapted  themselves  to  local  con^ 
ditions..  Along  the  coast  is  a  belt  01  courida  and  mangrove — the 
bark  of  the  latter  being  used  for  tanning — forming  a  natural  barrier 
to  the  inroads  of  the  sea,  but  one  which — ^very  unwisely — ^has  been 
in  parts  almost  ruined  to  allow  of  direct  drainage.  The  vast  forests 
afford  an  almost  inexhaustible  supply  of  valuable  timbers;  green- 
heart  and  mora,  largely  used  in  shipbuilding  and  for  wharves  and 
dock  and  lock  gates;  sfl verbally,  yielding  magnificent  planks  for  all 
kinds  of  boats;  and  cabinet  woods,  such  as  cedar  and  crabwood. 
There  may  be  seen  great  trees,  struggling  for  life  one  with  the 
other,  covered  with  orchids— some  of  great  oeauty  and  value — and 
draped  with  falling  lianas  and  vines.  Giant  palms  fringe  the  river- 
banks  and  break  the  monotony  of  the  mass  of  smaller  folbge. 
Many  of  the  trees  yield  gums,  oils  and  febrifuges,  the  bullet  tree 
being  bled  extensively  for  6oXaAi,  a  gum  used  largely  in  the  manu- 
facture of  belting.  Valuable  variSties  of  rubber  nave  also  been 
found  in  several  aistricts,and  since  early  in  1905  have  attracted  the 
attention  of  experts  from  abroad.  On  the  coast  plantains,  bananas 
and  mangoes  grow  readily  and  are  largely  used  fiv  food,  while 
several  districts  are  admirably  adaptea  to  the  growth  o(  limes. 
Oranges,  pineapples,  star-apples,  granadillas,  guavas  are  anwng  the 
fruits;  Indian  corn,  cassava,  yams,  eddocs,  tannias,  sweet  potatoes 
and  ochroes  are  among  the  vegetables,  while  innumerable  varieties 
of  pepfjers  are  grown  and  used  in  lar^e  quantities  by  all  classes. 
The  dainty  avocado  pear,  purple  and  green,  grows  readily.  In  the 
lagoons  and  trenches  many  varieties  of  water-lilies  grow  wild,  the 
largest  being  the  famous  Vicieria  reria, 

rauna. — Guiana  b  full  of  wild  animals,  birds,  insects  and 
reptiles.  Among  the  wild  animals,  one  and  all  nocturnal,  are 
the  mipourrie  or  tapir,  manatee,  acouri  and  labba  (both  ex- 
cdleot  eating),  sloth,  ant-eater,  armadillo,  several  kinds  of  deer, 
baboons,  monkeys  and  the  puma  and  jaguar.    The  last  ia 


678 


GUIANA 


frequently  dowq  on  the  cdaat,  attracted  from  the  forest  by  the 
cattle  grazing  on  the  front  and  back  pasture  lands  of  the  esutes. 
Among  the  buds  may  be  mentioned  the  carrion  crow  (an  invaluable 
scavenger),  vicissi  and  muscovy  ducks,  snipe,  teal,  -plover,  pigeon, 
the  ubiquitous  kiskadee  or  ou  est  que  dU^  a  species  of  shriKe--his 
name  derived  from  his  shrill  call — the  canary  and  the  twa-twa, 
both  charming  whistlers.  These  are  all  found  on  the  coast.  In  the 
forest  are  ma^m  (partridge),  maroudi  (wild  turkev),  the  beautiful 
bell-bird  with  note  like  a  silver  gong,  the  quadrille  bind  with  its 
tuneful  oft-repeated  bar.  great  flocks  of  macaws  and  parrots,  and 
other  birds  of  plumage  of  almost  indescribable  richness  and  variety. 
On  the  coast  the  trenches  and  canals  are  full  of  alligators,  but  the 
great  cayman  is  found  only  in  the  rivers  of  the  interior.  Among  the 
many  varieties  of  snakes  are  huge  constricting  camoudies,  deadly 
bushmasters,  labarrias  and  ratUesnakes.  Among  other  reptiles 
are  the  two  large  lizards,  the  salumpenta  (an  active  enemy  of  the 
barn-door  fowl),  and  the  iguana,  whose  flesh  when  cooked  resembles 
tender  chicken.  The  rivers,  streams  and  trenches  abound  with 
fishes,  crabs  and  shrimps,  the  amount  d  the  latt^  consumed  b6ing 
enormous,  running  into  tons  weekly  as  the  coolies  use  them  in  their 
curries  and  the  blacks  in  their  f oo*foo. 

GovernmetU  end  Administration. — Executive  power  is  vested 
in  a  governor,  who  is  advised  in  all  administrative  matters  by 
an  executive  council,  consisting  ^f  five  official  and  three  un- 
official members  nominated  by  the  crown.  Legislaitive  authority 
is  vested  in  the  Court  of  Policy,  consisting  of  the  governor,  who 
presides  and  without  whose  permission  no  legislation  can  be' 
initiated,  seven  other  official  members  and  eight  elected  members. 
This  body  has,  however/  no  financial  authority,  all  taxation  and 
expenditure  being  dealt  with  by  the  Combined  Court,  consisting 
of  the  Court  of  Policy  combined  with  six  financial  representatives. 
The  elected  members  of  the  Court  of  Policy  and  the  financial 
representatives  are  elected  by  their  several  constituencies  for 
five  years.  Qualification  for  the  Court  of  Policy  is  the  owner- 
ship, or  possession  under  lease  for  a  term  of  twenty-one  years, 
of  eighty  acres  of  land,  of  which  at  least  forty  acres  are  under 
cultivation,  or  of  house  property  to  the  value  of  $7500.  A 
financial  representative  must  be  similarly  qualified  or  be  in 
receipt  of  a  clear  income  of  not  less  than  £300  per  annum. 
Every  male  is  entitled  to  be  registered  as  a  voter  who  (in  addition 
to  the  usual  formal  qualifications)  owns  (during  six  months  prior 
to  registration)  three  acres  of  land  in  cultivation  or  a  house  of 
the  annual  rental  or  value  of  £20;  or  is  a  secured  tenant  for 
not  less  than  three  years  of  six  acres  of  land  in  cultivation  or 
for  one  year  of  a  house  of  £40  rental;  or  has  an  income  of  not 
less  than  £100  per  annum;  or  has  during  the  previous  twelve 
months  paid  £4,  3s.  4d.  in  direct  taxation.  Residence  in  the 
electoral  district  for  six  months  prior  to  registration  is  coupled 
.with  tht  last  two  alternative  qualifications.  Plural  voting  is 
legal  but  no  plumping  is  allowed.  The  combined  court  is  by 
this  constitution,  which  was  granted  in  1891,  allowed  the  use 
of  all  revenues  due  to  the  crown  in  return  for  a  civil  list  voted 
for  a  term  now  fixed  at  three  years.  English  b  the  official  and 
common  language.  The  Roman-Dutch  law,  modified  by  ordcrs- 
in-councU  and  local  statutes,  governs  actions  in  the  civil  courts, 
but  the  criminal  law  is  founded  on  that  of  England.  Magis- 
trates have  in  civU  cases  jurisdiction  up  to  £20,  while  an  appeal 
lies  fron^  their  decisions  in  any  criminal  or  civil  case.  The 
supreme  court  consists  of  a  chief  justice  and  two  puisne  judges, 
and  has  varioiis  jurisdictions.  The  full  court,  consisting  of  the 
three  judges  or  any  two  of  them,  has  jurisdiction  over  all  civil 
matters,  but  an  appeal  lies  to  His  Majesty  in  privy  council  in 
cases  involving  £506  and  upwards.  A  single  judge  sits  in  in- 
solvency, in  actions  Involving  not  over  £520,  and  in  appeals  from 
magistrates'  decisions.  The  appeal  full  court,  consisting  of 
three  judges,  sits  to  hear  appeals  from  decisions  of  a  single  judge 
in  the  limited  civil,  appellate  and  insolvcrncy  courts.  Criminal 
courts  are  held  four  times  a  year  in  each  county,  a  single  judge 
presiding  in  each  court.  A  court  of  crown  cases  reserved  is 
formed  by  the  three  judges,  of  whom  two  iorm  a  qvorum  pro- 
vided the  chief-justice  is  one  of  the  two.  There  are  no  imperial 
troops  now  stationed  in  British  Guiana,  but  there  is  a  semi- 
mtlitary  police  force,  a.  small  militia  and  two  companies  of 
volunteers.  The  Church  of  England  and  the  Church  of  Scotland 
are  both  established,  and  grants-in-aid  are  also  given  to  the 


Roman  Catholic  and  Wesleyan  churches  and  to  seven!  other 
denominations. 

The  revenue  and  expenditure  now  each  amount  annually  to  an 
average  of  a  Uule  over  £500,000.  About  one-half  ol  the  revenue  vi 
produced  by  import  duties,  and  about  £90,000  by  excsae.  The 
public  debt  on  the  ^ist  of  March  1905  stood  at  f<)l^jf>2ti. 

The  system  of  primary  education  is  denominational  and  b  maioly 
supported  from  the  ^neral  revenue.  During  1904-1905. 213  scfaooU 
received  grants-in-aid  amounting  to  £23,500,  the  average  cost  per 
scholar  being  a  little  over  £1.  These  grants  are  calculated  on  tb< 
results  of  examinations  held  annually,  an  allowance  varying  frora 
4s.  4H*  to  is.  oid.  being  made  for  each  pass  in  reading,  writinz. 
arithmetic,  school-garden  woric,  nature  study,  singing  and  driS. 
English,  geography,  elementary  hygiene  and  sewing.  Secondary 
education  is  provided  in  Georgetown  at  some  private  estabUshments 
and  for  boys  at  Queen's  College,  an  undenominational  govemtnent 
institution  where  the  course  oFinstruction  b  the  sadie  as  at  a  pubic 
school  in  England,  and  the  boys  are  prepared  for  the  Cambridgt 
local  examinations,  on  the  result  of  which  annually  depend  the 
Guiana  scholarship-^pen  to  boysand  girls,ahd  carrying  jruni\'er»ity 
or  professional  traimng  in  England — and  two  scholarships  at 
Queen's  College. 

Industries  and.  Trade. — At  the  end  o(  the  third  decade  of  the 
19th  century  the  principal  exports  were  s^ar,  rum,  molasses,  cottoo 
and  coffee.  In  1830,  9,500,000  lb  of  conee  were  sent  abroad,  but 
after  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  it  almost  ceased  as  an  export, 
and  the  little  that  b  now  g^wn  b  practically  entirely  consumed 
in  the  colony.  The  cultivation  of  cotton  ceased  in  1844,  and,  but 
for  a  short  revival  during  the  American  civil  war,  has  never  |sospercd 
since.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  resuscitate  its  growth,  but  the 
experiments  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  have  only  shown  Uiat  Sea 
Island  cotton  b  not  adaptable  to  local  conditions,  and  that  no 
other  known  variety  can  as  yet  be  recommended.  To-day  the 
principal  exports  are  sugar,  rum,  molasses,  molascuit — a  cattle  food 
made  from  molasses — gold,  timber,  balata,  shingles  and  cattle. 
The  abntuil  value  of  the  total  exports  b  just  under  £2,ooo/x>o,  d 
which  about  two-thirds  go  to  Great  Britain  and  British  possesbions. 
The  cultivation  of  rice  has  made  'great  strides  in  recent  years,  and. 
where  difficulties  of  drainage  and  irrigation  can  be  eoooonucaDy 
overcome,  promises  to  increase  rapidly.  In  1673,  '32,000,000  lb  « 
rice  were  imported,  whereas  in  1904-1905,  the  quantity  unported 
having  fallen  to  30,^,000  lb.  there  were  over  18,000  acres  andcf 
rice  cultivation,  and  exportaticm,  principally  to  the  British  West 
Indies,  had  commenced.;  The  <^ltivatioa.of  the  sugarcane,  and  its 
manufacture  into  su^r  and  its  by-products,  still  remains,  in  ^te 
of  numerous  fluctuations,  the  staple  industry.  TIm  provisiofl  of  a 
trustworthy  labour  supply  for  the  estates  b  <^  great  tmport&nce. 
and  local  acarcitv  has  made  it  necessary  since  1840  to  unpcxt  it 
under  a  system  of  indenture.  In  that  year  and  until  1867,  liberated 
Africans  were  brought  from  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Havana,  SMTxa  Leow 
and  St  Helena,  and  in  1845  systematic  immigration  from  India 
commenced  and  has  since  been  carried  on  annualty-^aave  in  1S49- 
1850.  In  1853  immigration  from  China  was  tried,  and  was  earned 
on  by  the  government  from  18^  to  1866,  when  it  ceased  owing  to 
a  convention  arranged  at  Peking,  stipulating  that  all  immigrants 
should  on  the  expiry  of  their  term  of  indenture  be  entitled  to  be  seer 
back  at  the  expense  of  the  colony,  a  liability  it  could  not  afford  to 
incur.  To  reduce  the  cost  of  supervision  and  kindred  expenirs. 
and  consequently  of  the  cane  and  its  manufacture  into  sugar,  the 
policy  of  centralization  has  been  universally  adopted,  and  forty-six 
estates  now  produce  as  much  sugar  as  three  times  that  number  did 
in  1875.  During  recent  years  Canada  has  come  forward  as  a  laife 
buyer  of  Guiana  s  sugar,  and  in  1904-1905  the  same  amount  went 
there  as  to  the  United  States,  in  each  case  over  44,000  tons,  wbere£s 
in  1901-1902  the  United  States  took  85,000  tons  and  Canada  uo<fer 
8000  tons.  Practically  all  the  rum  aiKl  molascuit  go  to  Engbnd. 
and  the  molasses  to  Holland  and  Portuguese  posscsdons.  ThebiMis 
on  the  coast  and  on  the  river  banks  up  to  the  sand  hilU  are  of  aariied 
fertility,  and  can  produce  almost  any  tropical  vegetable  or  fruit. 
Cultivation,  however,  save  on  the  sugar,  coffee  and  cocoa  estates, 
and  by  a  few  exceptional  small  farmers,  b  carried  on  in  a  haphazard 
and  half-hearted  manner,  and  the  problem  of  agricultural  aevek»- 
ment  is  one  of  great  difficulty  for  the  government.  Much  of  the 
privately-owned  land  b  not  beneficially  occupied,  and  in  many  cases 
It  b  not  possible  even  to  learn  to  whom  it  belongs,  and  though  there 
are  vast  tracts  of  uncultivated  crown  land  whoe  a  large  fun  or  a 
small  homestead  can  be  easily  and  cheaply  acqubed,  the  difficulties 
involved  in  clearing,  draining,  and  in  some  cases  of  protecting  it  by 
dams,  are  prohibitive  to  all  but  the  exceptionally  determined. 

Prospecting  for  gold  began  in  1880,  and  from  iS&i  to  1893-1894 
the  output,  chiefly  from  alluvbl  workings,  increaaea  from  250  ox. 
to  nearly  iio,ooo  oz.  annually.  The  industry  then  received  a  serious 
check  by  the  failure  of  several  mines,  and  for  nearly  a  decade  was 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  sinall  tributor,  known  locally  as 
a  pork-knocker.  There  has  been  some  revival,  chiefly  due  to  (orrisn 
enterprise.  At  Omai  on  the  Eaaequibo  river  a  German  syndicate 
worked  a  large  concesuon  on  the  hydraulic  process  of  placer  mining 
with  considerable  success,  and  more  reoeatly  took  to  dredgii^^Mi  iu 


GUIANA 


679 


flats.  In  the  Purani  (a  tributary  of  the  Macanim)  American  capita- 
lists, working  the  Peters'  mine,  have  established  their  workinn  to  a 
considerable  depth,  besides  constructing  a  road,  60  m.  in  length, 
from  Kartabo  point,  at  the  confluence  01  the  Guyuni  and  Majanini. 
to  the  Punini  river  opposite  the  mine.  An  English  sjrndicate  started 
dredging  in  the  Conawarook,  a  tributary  of  the  tssequibo.  The 
principal  gold  districts  are  on  the  Esscquibo  and  its  tributaries — 
the  chief  being  the  Cuyuni.  Mazaruni,  Potaro  and  Conawarook— 7 
and  on  the  Barima.  Barama  and  Waini^  riven  in  the  north-west 
district.  There  have  been  nnaUer  workings,  mostly  unsuccessful, 
in  the  Demerara  and  Berbicc  rivers. 

Diamonds  and  other  precious  stones  have  been  found  in  small 
quantities,  and  since  1900  efforts  have  been  made  to  extend  the 
output,  nearly  11,000  carats  weight  of  diamonds  being  exported  in 
1904.  But  tnough  the  small  stones  found  were  of  good  water,  the 
cost  of  transport  to  the  diamond  fields,  on  the  Masarunt  river,  was 
heavy,  and  after  1904  the  industry  declined.  Laws  dealing  with 
gold  and  precious  stones  passed  in  1880, 1886  and  1887,  and  regula- 
tions in  18^.  were  codified  in  lOos  and  amended  in  1905. 

Timber  is  cut,  and  batata  and  rubber  collected,  from  crown  lands 
by  licences  issued  from  the  department  of  Lands  and  Mines.  Wood- 
cutting, save  on  concessions  held  by  a  local  company  owning  an 
up-country  line  of  railway  connecting  the  Demerara  and  Esscquibo 
nvers,  b  limited  to  those  parts  of  the  forest  which  are  close  to  the 
lower  stretches  of  the  rivers  and  creeks,  the  overland  haulage  of 
the-  heavy  logs  being  both  difficult  and  costly,  while  transport 
through  the  upper  reaches  of  the  rivers  is  impossible  on  account  of 
the  many  cataracts  and  rapids.  The  avera^  annual  value  of  im- 
ports is  £1,500,000,  of  which  about  two-thirds  are  from  Great  Britain 
and  British  possessions.  Of  the  vessels  trading  with  the  colony, 
most  are  under  the  British  flag,  the  remainder  being  principally 
American  and  Norwegian. 

The  money  of  account  is  dollars  and  cents,  but,  with  the  exception 
of  the  notes  of  the  two  local  banks,  the  currency  is  British  sterling. 
The  unit  of  land  measure  is  the  Rhynland  rood,  roughly  equal  to 
12  ft.  4  in.    A  Rhynland  acre  contains  300  square  roods. 

Inland  Communtcation,  €fe. — The  public  roads  extend  along  the 
coast  from  the  Corentyn  river  to  some  ao  m.  N.  of  the  Essequibo 
mouth  on  the  Aroabisci  coast,  and  for  a  short  distance  up  each  of 
the  principal  rivers  and  creeks  entering  the  sea  between  these 
points.  A  line  of  railway  6oi  m.  in  length  runs  from  Gecvgetown 
to  Rosignol  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Berbice  river  opposite  New 
Amsteroam:  and  another  line  15  m.  long  starts  from  Vreed-en-hoop. 
pn  the  left  bank  of  the  Demerara  river  opposite  Georgetown,  and 


river  some  70  m.  from  its  mouth)  with  Rockstone  (on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Essequibo,  and  above  the  first  series  of  cataracts  in  that  river). 
Steamers  run  daily  to  and  from  Georgetown  and  Wismar,  and 
launches  to  and  from  Rockstone  and  Tumatumari  Fall  on  the 
Potaro,  and  all  expeditions  for  the  goldfields  of  the  Essequibo  and 
its  tributaries  above  Rockstone  travel  by  thu  route.  Another 
steamer  goes  twice  a  week  to  Bartica  at  the  confluence  oS  the 
Essequibo  and  Mazaruni,  and  another  wockly  to  Mt.  Everard  on 
the  Barima,  from  which  termini  expeditions  start  to  the  other 

Stld  and  diamond  fields:  Steamers  also  run  from  Georgetown  to 
ew  Amsterdam  and  up  the  Berbice  river  for  about  100  m.  Above 
the  termini  of  these  steamer  routes  all  travelling  is  done  in  kedless 
baieanxt  propelled  by  paddlcrs  and  steered  when  coming  through 
the  rafuds  at  tx>th  bow  and  stem  by  certificated  bowiaen  and 
steersmen.  Owing  to  the  extreme  dangers  of  this  inland  travelling, 
stringent  regulations  have  been  framed  as  to  the  loading  di  boafei,. 
•upply  d[  ropes  and  qualifications  of  men  in  charge,  and  the  shooting, 
of  certain  falls  is  prohibited.  Voyages  up<ountry  are  of  necessity 
slow,  but  the  return  journey  is  made  with  com{iarativeIy  great 
rapidity,  distances  laboriously  covered  on  the  up-trip  in  thxtt  days 
.being  done  easily  in  seven  hours  when  coming  bock. 

From  England  British  Guiana  is  reached  in  sixteen  days  fay  the 
steamers  of  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company,and  in  nineteen 
days  by  those  of  tne  direct  line  from  London  and  Glasgow.  There 
are  also  regular  services  from  Canadar  the  United  Sutes,  Fiance 
and  Holland. 

Hist0ry.'-''Whta  taken  over  in  1803  the  prospects  of  three 
British  colonies  were  by  no  means  promising,  and  during  the 
next  decade  the  situation  became  verjr critical.  Owing  to  the 
increased  output  of  sugar  by  conquered  Dutch  and  French 
colonies  the  English  market  was  glutted  and  the  markets  of 
the  continent  of  Europe  were  not  available,  Bonaparte  having 
closed  the  ports.  The  years  181 1  and  iSxa  were  peculiarly 
disastrous,  especially  to  those  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
sugar,  and  at  a  public  meeting  held  in  Georgetown  eariy  in  the 
latter  year  it  was  stated  that  the  produce  of  the  colony  ordinarily 
worth  £x  ,860,000  had  on  account  of  deteriorated  value  decreased 
by  fully  one-third.  At  this  meeting  it  was  resolved  to  petition 
the  imperial  pftiliament  to  allow  the  fnteidiaage  of  produce 


with  the  United  States;  a  resolution  which  was  unfortunately 
rendered  abortive  by  the  outbreak  of  war  between  England  and 
the  States  in  x8i3,  the  trade  of  British  Guiana  being  instead 
actually  harried  by  American  privateers.  In  his  address  to 
the  Combined  Court  on  the  aoth  of  October  181  a  the  governor 
(General  Oirmichael)  stated  that  a  vessel  with  government 
stores  had  been  captured  by  an  American  privateer,  and  in 
February  1813  the  imperial  government  sent  H.M.S. "  Peacock  " 
to  protect  the  coast.  On  the  a3rd  of  that  month  in  cruising 
along  the  east  coast  of  Demerara  the  **  Peacock  "  .met  the 
American .  privateer  "  Hornet,"  and  thotigh,  after  a  gallant 
struggle,  in  which  Captain  Peake,  R.N.,  was  killed,  the  English 
ship  was  sunk  with  nearly  all  her  crew,  the  colony  did  not  suffer 
from  any  further  depredations.  •  In  the  following  years  news' 
of  the  agitation  in  England  in  favour  of  emancipation  gradually 
became  known  to  the  slaves  and  caused  considerable  unrest 
among  them,  culminating  in  1823  in  a  serious  outbreak  on  the 
estates  on  the  east  coast  of  Demerara.  Negroes,  demanding 
their  freedom,  attacked  the  houses  of  several  managers,  and 
although  at  most  points  these  attacks  were  repulsed  with  but 
little  loss.on  either  side,  the  situation  was  so  serious  as  to  neces- 
sitate the  calling  out  of  the  military.  The  ringleaders  were 
arrested  and  promptly  and  vigorously  dealt  with,  while  a  special 
court-martial  was  appointed  to  try  the  Rev.  John  Smith,  of 
the  London  Missionary  Society,  who  it  was  alleged  had  fostered 
the  rising  by  his  teachings  to  the  slave  congregation  at  his 
chapel  in  Le  Resson'venir.  This  trial  was  stigmatized  as  unfair 
by  the  missionary  party  in  England,  but  on  the  whole  appears 
to  have  been  conducted  decently  by  an  undoubtedly  unbiassed 
court.  It  is  difficult  now  to  form  any  very  definite  conclusion. 
Mr  Smith  certainly  had  great  influence  over  the  slaves,  and 
whUe  his  teaching  prior  to  the  outbreak  was  at  least  ill-advised, 
he  made  no  efforts  while  the  disturbances  were  going  on  to  use 
his  influence  on  the  side  of  law  and  order;  indeed  all  he  could 
say  in  his  own  defence  was  that  he  was  ignorant  of  what  was 
going  on,  a  statement  it  is  impossible  to  beUeve  to  have  been 
strictly  veracious.  He  was  found  guilty  and  sentenced  to  be 
hanged.  It  is  obvious  that  it  was  never  intended  to  carry  out 
this  sentence,  and  on  the  29th  of  November  the  governor  an- 
nounced that  he  felt  it  imperative  on  him  to  transmit  the  findings 
of  the  court  for  His  Majesty's  consideration.  The  question  of 
Smith's  guilt  or  innocence  created  a  great  deal  of  feeling  in 
England,  the  anti-slavery  and  missionary  societies  making  it 
a  basis  for  increased  agitation  in  favour  of  the  slaves;  but 
the  imperial  government  evidently  agreed  with  the  colonial 
executive  in  holding  that  he  could  not  be  exonerated  of  grave 
responsibility,  as  the  order  of  the  king  was  that  while  the  sentence 
of  death  was  remitted  Mr  Smith  was  to  be  dismissed  from  the 
colony  and  to  enter  -into  a  recognizance  in  £2000  not  to  return 
to  British  Guiana  or  to  reside  in  any  other  West  Indian  colony. 
This  order  reached  Georgetown  in  April  1824,  but  Mr  Smith 
had  died  in  the  dty  jail  on  the  6th  of  February  of  a  pul- 
monary complaint  from  which  be  had  been  suffering  for  some 
time. 

Sir  Benjamin  d'Urban  was  governor  from  April  1824  to  May 
X833,  the  principal  event  of  his  administration  being  the  con- 
solidation in  183  X  of  the  three  colom'es  into  one  colony  divided 
into  three  counties,  Berbice,  Demerara  and  Essequibo. 

Governor  d'UrtMn  was  succeeded  in  June  1833  by  Sir  James 
Carmichad  Smyth,  who  began  his  administration  by  a  pro- 
clamation to  the  slaves  stating  that  while  the  king  intended  to 
improve  their  condition,  the  details  of  his  plans  were  not  as  yet 
completed,  and  warning  them  against  impatience  or  insub- 
ordination. When  the  resolutions  foreshadowing  emandpation, 
passed  by  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  xatb  of  June  1833, 
reached  the  colony,  the  planters,  to  whom  the  governor's  pro- 
clamation had  been  most  distasteful,  were  thunderstruck  and 
even  the  government  was  surprised.  Naturally  the  slaves  were 
wildly  jubilant.  Emandpation  brought  troublous  limes  through 
which  the  governor  steered  the  colony  with  great  tact  and  firm- 
ness, serioiis  troubles  bdng  nipped  in  the  bud  solely  by  his  great 
perM>nality,  and  the  lubsequent  cooflicu  with  the  apprentices 


68o 


GUIANA 


might  have  been  obviated  had  he  lived  longer.  He  died  at 
Camp  House  on  the  4th  of  March  1838. 

In  the  years  following  emancipation  the  colony  was  in  a 
serious  condition.  The  report  of  a  commission  in  1850  proved 
that  it  was  virtually  ruined,  and  only  by  the  introduction  of 
immigrants  to  provide  a  reliable  labour  supply  were  the  sugar 
esUtes  saved  from  total  extinction.  By  1853  the  colony  had 
begun  to  make  headway,  and  Sir  Henry  BarUy,  the  then  gover- 
nor, was  able  to  sUte  in  his  speech  to  the  Combined  Court  in 
January  that  its  progress  was  in  every  way  satisfactory.  During 
Governor  Barkly's  administration  the  long  series  of  struggles 
between  the  legislature  and  the  executive  terminated,  and  when 
he  left  in  May  1853  he*  did  so  with  the  respect  and  good-will  of 
all  classes.  The  strengthening  of  the  labour  supply  was  not 
effected  without  troubles.  In  1847  the  negroes  in  Berbice 
attacked  the  persons  and  property  of  the  Portuguese  immigrants, 
the  riots  spreading  to  Demerara  and  Essequibo,  and  not  until 
the  military  were  called  out  were  the  disturbances  quelled. 
Similar  riots  in  1862  were  only  stopped  by  the  prompt  and 
firm  action  of  the  new  governor,  Mr  (afterwards  Sir)  Francis 
Hincks,  while  rows  between  negroes  and  Chinese  and  negroes 
and  East  Indians  were  frequent.  Gradually,  however,  things 
quieted  down,  and  until  1883  the  estates  as  a  whole  did  well. 
In  1884  the  price  of  sugar  fell  so  seriously  as  to  make  the  pro- 
spects of  the  colony  very  gloomy,  and  for  nearly  two  decades 
proprietors  had  to  be  content  with  a  price  kept  artificially  low 
by  bounty-fed  beet-sugar,  many  estates  being  ruined,  while 
those  that  survived  only  did  so  by  the  application  of  every 
economy,  and  by  their  owners  availing  themselves  of  every  new 
discovery  in  the  sciences  of  cultivation  and  manufacture. 

The  year  1889  was  marked  by  an  outbreak  on  the  part  of  a 
section  of  the  negro  population  in  Georgetown  directed  against 
the  Portuguese  residents  there.  A  Portuguese  had  murdered 
his  black  paramour  and  had  been  convicted  and  sentenced  to 
death.  The  governor  commuted  the  sentence  to  penal  servitude 
for  life.  Shortly  after  this  a  Portuguese  stall-holder  in  the 
market  assaulted  a  small  black  boy  whom  he  suspected  of 
pilfering,  (he  latter  having  to  be  taken  to  a  hospital,  while  the 
former,  after  being  taken  to  a  police  station  was,  through  some 
misunderstanding  or  informality,  at  once  released.  Almost 
immediately  exciuble  and  unreasoning  negroes  were  rushing 
about  loudly  proclaiming  that  the  boy  was  dead,  that  the 
Portuguese  were  allowed  to  kill  black  people  and  to  go  free,  and 
calling  on  one  another  to  take  their  own  revenge.  Mobs  gathered 
quickly,  attacked  individual  Portuguese  and  wrecked  their 
^ops  and  houses,  and  not  untU  the  city  had  been  given  up  for 
two  days  to  scenes  of  disgraceful  disorder  were  the  efforts  of  the 
police  and  special  consUbles  successful  in  quelling  the  disturb- 
ances. The  damage  done  amounted  to  several  thousands  of 
dollars,  the  Portuguese  owners  being  eventually  compensated 
from  general  revenue. 

In  1884  the  dispute  as  to  the  boundary  with  Venezuela 
became  acute.  It  was  reported  to  the  colonisJ  government  that 
the  government  of  Venezuela  had  granted  to  an  American 
syndicate  a  concession  which  covered  much  of  the  territory 
claimed  by  Great  Britain,  and  although  prompt  investigation 
by  an  agent  despatched  by  the  governor  did  not  then  disclose 
any  trace  of  interference  with  British  claims,  a  further  visit  in 
January  1885,  made  in  consequence  of  reports  that  servants  of 
the  Manoa  Company  had  torn  down  notices  posted  by  Mr 
McTurk  on  his  former  visit,  discovered  that  the  British  notices 
had  been  covered  over  by  Venezuelan  ones  and  resulted  in  the 
government  of  Great  Britain  declaring  that  it  would  thence- 
forward exercise  jurisdiction  up  to  and  within  a  boundary 
known  as  "the  modified  Schomburgk  line."  Outposts  were 
located  at  points  on  this  line,  and  for  some  years  Guianese  police 
and  Venezuelan  soldiers  faced  one  another  across  the  Amacura 
creek  in  the  Orinoco  mouth  and  at  Yuruan  up  the  Cuyuni  river. 
Gui&nese  officers  were,  however,  presumably  instructed  not 
actively  to  oppose  acts  of  aggression  by  the  Venezuelan  govem- 
mentj  for  in  January  1895  Venezuelan  soldiers  arrested  Messrs 
D.  D.  Barnes  and  A.  H.  Bak«r,  inspectors  of  police  in  charge  at 


Yuruan  station,  conveyed  them  through  Venezuela  to  Caracas, 
eventually  aUowing  them  to  take  steamer  to  Trinidad.  For 
this  act  compensation  was  demanded  and  was  cventoally  paid 
by  Venezuela.  The  diplomatic  question  as  to  the  boondary— 
the  results  of  which  are  stated  above — was  passed  oat  of  the 
hands  of  the  colony;  see  the  account  of  the  arbitration  under 
Venezueul 

The  last  two  months  of  1905  were  marked  by  serious  dis- 
turbances in  Georgetown,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  on  the  cast 
and  west  banks  of  the  Demerara  river.  On  the  agth  of  November 
the  dock  labourers  employed  on  the  wharves  in  Georgelova 
struck  for  higher  wages,  and  large  crowds  invaded  the  princ^ 
stores  in  the  dty,  compelling  men  willing  to  woric  to  desist  uid 
in  some  cases  assaulting  those  who  opposed  them.  By  the 
evening  of  the  30th  of  November  they  had  got  so  fair  out  of 
hand  as  to  necessitate  the  reading  of  the  Riot  Act  mod  a  pro- 
clamation by  the  governor  (Sir  F.  M.  Hodgson)  forbidding  all 
assemblies.  On  the  morning  of  the  ist  of  December  serious 
disturbances  broke  out  at  Ruimvdt,  a  sugar  estate  directly 
south  of  Georgetown,  where  the  cane-cuttoa  had  suddenly 
struck  for  higher  pay,  and  the  police  were  compelled  to  fire  on 
the  mob,  killing  some  and  wounding  others.  AH  through  that 
day  mobs  in  all  parts  of  the  dty  assaulted  any  white  znan  they 
met,  houses  were  invaded  and  windows  smashed,  and  ontKo 
further  occasions  the  police  had  to  fire.  At  night  torrential  rains 
forced  the  rioters  to  shelter,  and  enabled  the  police  to  get  rest, 
their  places  bdng.  taken  by  pickets  of  militiamen  and  special 
constables.  On  Saturday,  the  and  of  December,  the  police  had 
got  the  upper  hand,  and  the  arrival  that  ni|^t  of  H.M.S. 
"  Sappho  "  and  on  Sunday  of  H.M.S.  "  Diamond  "  gave  the 
government  complete  control  ci  the  situation.  Threatened 
troubles  on  the  sugar  estates  on  the  west  bank  were  suppressed 
by  the  prompt  action  of  the  governor,  and  the  arrest  of  large 
numbers  of  the  rioters  and  their  immediate  trial  by  ^ledal 

courts  restored  thorough  order.- 

Authorities. — Sec  Raleigh's  Vowges  for  the  Diuxnerjjf  Cwmma 
tS9$~J596,  ("  Hakluyt "  aeries) :  Laurence  Keynis'  Kdatiom  ef 
the  second  Voyage  to  Guiana  (tKpq),  ("  Hakluyt  "  aeries);  Sir  It  H. 
Schomburt:k,  Description  of  British  Guiana  (London,  i&|0):  C. 
Watcrton.  Wanderings  in  South  Awtericat  1812-1825  (London,  1828I; 
K  Rod  way,  History  of  British  Guiana  (Georgetown,  1891-1694U 
H.  G.  Dalton,  Historv  of  British  C;hm}m  (London,  1855);  J.  W. 
Boddam  Whctham,  Roraima  and  British  Guiana  (London.  1879): 
C.  P.  Lucas,  Historical  Geography  of  British  Colonies\  £.  F.  im  Thuro, 
Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana  (London.  1883);  British  Cuiaua 
Directory  (Geofi^etown,  1906) ;  G.  O.  Baylcy,  Handbook  of  Bruuk 
Guiaiia  (Georgetown.  1909).  (A.  G.  B.*) 

II.  Dutch  Guiana,  ot. Surinam^  has  an  area  of  about  57>90o 
sq.  m.  British  Guiana  bounds  it  on  the  west  and  French  00 
the  east  (the  long  unsettled  question  of  the  French 
boundary  is  dealt  with  in  section  III.,  Frencb 
Guiana).  The  various  peoples  inhabiting  Surinam  axe 
distributed  according  to  the  soil  and  the  products.  The  Indians 
(Caribs,  Arawaks,  Warrous)  live  on  the  savannahs,  or  on  the 
upper  Nickerie,  Coppename  and  Maroni,  far  from  the  plantz- 
tions,  cultivating  their  fields  of  manioc  or  cassava,  and  for  the 
rest  living  by  fishing  and  hunting.  They  number  about  aooo. 
The  bush  negroes  (Marrons)  dwell  between  3*  and  4^  N.,  near 
the  isles  and  cataracts.  They  are  estimated  at  10,000,  and  are 
employed  in  the  tran^x>rt  of  men  and  goods  to  the  gjiokifields. 
the  navigation  of  the  rivers  in  trade  with  tlie  Indians,  and  in  the 
transport  of  wood  to  Paramaribo  and  the  (dantatioos.  They 
are  the  descendants  of  rCmaway  skives,  and  before  missionaries 
had  worked  among  them  their  paganism  retained  curious  tnccs 
of  thdr  former  connexion  with  Christianity.  Their  chid  god 
was  Gran  Gado  (grand-god),  his  wife  Maria,  and  his  son  Jesi 
Kist.  Various  minor  deities  were  also  worshipi>ed.  Ampuka  the 
bush-god,  Toni  the  water-god,  &c.  Their  language  was. based 
on  a  bastard  English,  mingled  with  many  Dutch,  Portuguese 
and  native  elements.'*  Thdr  chiefs  are  called  gramman  or  grand 
man;  but  the  authority  of  these  men,  and  the  peculiariiies  of 
language  and  religion,  have. in  great  measure  died  out  owing 
to  modem  intercourse  with  the  Dutch  and  others.  The  in- 
habitants of  Paramaribo  and  the  plantations  comprise  a  variety 


GUIANA 


69i 


of  mctt,  npnttatti  by  Chinoe,  Jivu 
■ltd  tbe  Wnl  ladiu,  negroes  and  iboul 
Chriniui  immiinnu  there  ue  about  &> 
ii.aeo  Hindiu;  ud  Jem  number  about  iim.  Tbe  total 
population  wai  given  in  igo;  ai  84.1BJ.  eiduaive  at  Indjani, 
&c.,  in  the  loieati.  Neariy  one-half  of  Ibis  total  att  ia  Pin- 
maribo  and  one-half  Id  the  diatricta.  The  populatioo  haa  abown 
a  tendency  to  niovc  from  the  diatricta  to  tbe  town]  tbua  in 


II  tbe 


The  principaJ  EetllemeDla  bave  been  made  £n  the  torer  valley 

tbe  W.  and  the  Commenyiic  on  the  E.  The  Surinam  i>  tbe  duel 
ol  a  number  of  large  tivtra  •rbkh  riie  in  tbe  Tumuc  Humac 
range  or  the  km  hiUi  between  it  and  the  tea,  which  they  enter 
on  the  Dutch  leaboard,  between  tbe  Corcntyn  and  the  Maionl 
itcb  Carantijn  and  Uorffwijne)^  which  fonn  tbe  boundarKS 


with  B 


and  Frei 


ctiveEy. 
larhable  cr 


1  of  Dutch  Gi 
available  during  the  Booda  at  least, 
cates  with  the  Cottica,  which  ia  in  turn  a  tributary  of  the  Comme- 
wyne,  ■  boat  can  pau  from  the  Mvooi  to  Faiuwuibo; 
thence  by  the  Sommelsdijk  canal  It  can  reach  the  Saranucca; 
and  from  the  Sammacca  it  can  proceed  up  the  Coppenamej  and 
by  meana  of  the  Nickerie  find  iu  way  to  the  Comntyn.  The 
riven  are  not  navigable  bland  to  any  conaiderabk  extent,  aa 
their  counea  arc  Interrupted  by  rapida.  Tbe  interior  oi  tbe 
country  conssca  for  the  most  part  of  low  hills,  though  an  extreme 
heighl  of  jBoo  It.  I>  known  in  tbe  Wilhelioina  Kette,  in  the 
west  of  the  colony,  about  j*  yJ  to  4*  N.  The  hinterland  loulb 
of  thit  latitude,  and  ibat  p»rt  of  the  Tunac  Humac  range  along 
which  the  Dutch  frontier  runa,  are,  however,  practically  uqex- 
pbiied.  IJhe  the  other  tenitoria  of  Guiana  the  Dutch  colony 
t*  divided  pbyiically  into  a  low  coaat-land,  aavannaha  and 
almost  impenetrable  forest. 

itations  (Panmaribo,  Coronie,  Sommelsdijk,  Nieuw-Nickerie 
and  Groniogen).  Tbe  mean  range  of  temperature  for  tbe  day, 
moDIb  and  year  thowi  little  variation,  being  respectively 
jj-M'-M'jB°  F.,  761°- 78' 6"°  F.  and  7o>S>*- 90'i*°  F. 
TTie  Donh-eaat  trade  winds  prevail  throughout  the  yeai,  but 
the  lainlaD  variea  considerably;  for  December  and  January 
Ibe  mean  is  respectively  8-58  and  g-57  in.,  for  May  and  June 
li'ifiand  lO'ji  in.,  but  for  February  and  March  7-9  and  fiSi  in., 
bihI  for  September  3'48  and  s-o  iu.  The  seasons  comprise  a 
long  and  a  abort  dry  seawn,  and  a  period  of  heavy  and  of  slight 

Pradmlx  and  Tradt.—\i  has  been  Toiind  exceedingly  difficult  to 
eipToit  the  produce  of  the  forests.  The  most  important  crops  and 
thoK  fumlying  the  chier  enporti  are  cocoa.  coHce  and  sugar,  all 
cultivated  on  the  latger  plantatlonn.  with  rice,  malic  and  bananoj 


ColdHilds  lie  in  the  older  ncka  (especiallv  the  lUle)  1 
Surinam.  Saramaoa  and  Mannl.  The  Grit  KCIioo 
dnsned  (o  connect  the  foldfielda  with  Paranaribo  m 
1906-  The  annua]  production  of  gold  amounts  in  va 
(100,000,  but  has  showa  comodenble  fluetuatioB.  A 
the  chief  means  of  subsistence.  About  4a.oo>  acre 
cultivation.  Of  J0,ooo  persons -•-— ~™—''™  ""• 
statiitica.  cJoie  upon  at  ■**"*  — 


upon  3IJ100  are  engaged  m 


>,, ._ J ..J   I97J  to  i4J0.Soo  in 

IpW.  a^ jmp™  fmm  ^160,450  in  iSjs  to  £Slo,lSo  in  1899;  hut 


£114.000,  while  thai  of  im 


s;~£: 


the  italea.  (be  members  of  which  are  eleci 
of  iB^ioin  there  is  one  for  every  wo  holi 
colony  IB  divided  into  sixteen  dlnricla 


"hi  k^^£^  w"ii 


(I90i-i9> 

both  dud 


SI  I^ramaribo,  whose  prCHdent  1 

ninated  by  tbe  crown.    Theaveiai 
about  £176,000  and  tbe  expenditure 


annual  avenzEia  about  t!7,ooo).  There  are  a  civic  guard  of  about 
iSoo  men  and  a  militia  of  joo.  with  a  small  gairixin. 

B'iiUry.— Tbe  history  of  the  Dutch  fn  Guiana,  and  tbi 
oompreasion  of  tbeii  infiuence  within  its  present  limits,  belong 
to  the  general  history  of  GtiiaoB  (above).  Surinam  and  the 
Dutch  islands  of  tbe  West  India  were  placed  under  a  common 
government  in  rSig,  the  govemot  tesiding  at  Paramaribo,  but 
in  1B4S  they  were  separated.  Slavety  «aa  abolished  in  iSdj. 
Labour  then  became  tlifficult  to  obtain,  and  lo  1870  a  convention 
wit  signed  between  HiJland  and  En^and  for  the  regulation  ol 
the  coolie  traffic,  and  a  Dutcb  government  agent  for  Surinam 
was  appointed  at  Calcutta.  The  problem  was  never  satisfactorily 
solved,  but  the  inlctttt  of  the  mother-counliy  bi  tbe  colony 
greatly  increased  during  Ibe  last  twenty  yean  ol  tbe  19th 
century,  aa  shown  by  the  establithmenl  of  the  Surinam  Auocia- 

and  by  the  lomution  of  a  botanical  garden  for  experimental 
culture  at  that  town,  as  also  by  geohigical  and  other  scientific 
expeditions,  and  tbe  exhibition  at  "Tii^*n^  in    ~  ~ 


k  is  held  li_Ian  locoh  Honiinck 
nw.  a^  d^  WiUt  Xuf,  u  Ziad  At 

Jul  boundary  ouesIlonB,  were  In 
I.  J.  de  VUUeri  (London.  1897)- 


naitffly  Btuirywint  ton 


art,  isa"?: 

ant  1884) ! 


,_n  Meetn....  _ 


.    Vcrschuui 


Bi  dinjmnfwan  Stirinome  (Amsterdam, 

".'ViiTiil  «nW>ik"'U  Colodi  deSuSnun,"  Lci  ^«i-Sli 
(1S98);  1-  TbompHn,  CMfkiU  iir  CniMadini  wui  .Sun'iunt 
(The  Hague.  lOOl);  Calalopu  itr  KalrH.  W.  I.  In  rosiulEUinf  li 
aaarUm  {lSg9):  CnUU  i  Inmn  la  ttcliim  ici  Indri  xttrbiiulaliti, 
p.  J33  (Amnerdam.  TB99):  SuHluumukt  AlmiMaJl  iPa^raaribo, 
annually).  For  the  language  of  the  bush-negroes  ire  WullKhlaege], 
JTunti/aiilocitT-nrtJiscAjCraiiiHMl  (Bautieo,  1814)- and  Cmlscji 
mtftmtladia  Werutlmdi  (Lohau,  1865). 

DX  FiENiiH  GuuNil  (Caya«)-— His  colony  la  stuated 
between  Dutch  Guiana  and  BraiiL  A  delimitation  of  the 
territory  belonging  to  France  and  the  Netberianda  . 

wna  arrived  at  m  1891,  by  dedaion  ol  the  emperor  of  ^J^ 
Russia.  This  Question  originated  in  tbe  arrangement 
of  i8jj.  that  the  river  Uorooi  should  form  tbe  frontier-  II 
lumed  on  the  claim  of  tbe  Awa  or  tbe  Tapaiuboni  to  be  rccog- 
niied  aa  the  main  bead-stream  of  tbe  Maroni,  and  the  final 
decision,  in  indicating  the  Awa,  favoured  the  Dutcb-  In  r^os 
certain  territory  lying  between  tbe  upper  Moroni  and  the  Itany, 
the  DotKSsion  of  which  had  not  then  ben  tetlled,  was  acquited 
t  betwees  tbe  French  and  Dutch  govern- 
of  tbe  exploitation  of  gold  in  the  MaronJ 


by  Fiance  by  j 


and  Holland;  while  France  obtained  the  principal  islands  in 
tbe  lower  Maionl.  The  additional  territory  thus  atticbedto 
the  French  colony  amounted  to  q6$  aq.  m-  In  December  1900 
the  Swiss  government  at  arbltraton  fixed  tbe  boundary  between 
French  Guiaiu  and  Braiil  as  the  river  Oyapock  and  the  water- 
shed on  Ibe  Tumuc  Humac  mountabit,  thus  awarding  lo  Franco 
about  3000  of  tbe  100,000  sq-  m.  which  she  *-liim^  Thia 
dispute  was  of  earlier  origiu  than  thai  with  the  Dutch;  dit- 
sensions  between  the  French  and  ibe  Portuguese  relative  to 
territory  north  of  tbe  Amazon  occorred  in  the  i7tfa  ccntury- 
In  170a  the  Treaty  of  Lisbon  made  ihe  contested  area  (known 
at  the  Terres  du  Cap  du  Notd)  neutral  ground.  Tbe  treaty  of 
Utrecht  En  171J  indicated  ai  Ihe  French  bonndaiy  a  river 
■Ucb  tbe  French  ofttrwordi  claimed  to  be  the  Anguaty,'  but 
tbe  Portuguete  luerttd  tbit  tbe  Oyapock  wai  inteaded.     After 


682 


GUIANA 


Brazil  had  become  independent  Uie  question  dragged  on  until 
in  1890-1895  there  were  collisions  in  the  contested  territory 
between  French  and  Brazilian  adventurers.  This  compelled 
serious  action,  and  a  treaty  of  arbitration,  preliminary  to  the 
settlement,  was  signed  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  1897.  French  Guiana, 
according  to  official  estimate,  has  an  area  of  about  51,000  sq.  m. 
The  population  is  estimated  at  about  30,000;  its  movement  is 
not  rapid.  Of  this  total  12,350  live  at  Cayenne,  xo,ioo  were 
in  the  communes,  5700  formed  the  penal  population,  1500  were 
native  Indians  (Galibi,  Emerillon,  Oyampi)  and  500  near 
Maroni  were  negroes.  Apart  from  Ca3renne,  which  was  rebuilt 
after  the  great  fire  of  1888,  the  centres  of  population  are  un- 
important: Sinnamaiie  with  X500  inhabitants,  Mana  with  1750, 
Roura  with  1200  and  Approuague  with  X150.  In  189a  French 
Guiana  was  divided  into  fourteen  communes,  exclusive  of  the 
Maroni  district.  Belonging  to  the  colony  are  also  the  three 
Safety  Islands  (Royale,  Joseph  and  Du  Diable — the  last  notable 
as  the  island  where  Captain  Dreyfus  was  imprisoned),  the  Enfant 
Perdu  Island  and  the  five  Remire  Islands. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  low  coast  land  is  occupied  by 
marshes,  with  a  dense  growth  of  mangroves  or,  in  the  drier  parts, 
with  the  pinot  or  wasaay  palm  (Euterfe  oUracea).  Settlements  are 
confined  almost  entirely  to  the  littoral  and  alluvial  districts.  The 
forest-clad  hills  of  the  hinterland  do  not  generally  exceed  1500  ft. 
in  election:  that  put  of  the  Tumuc  Humac  rang;e  which  forms 
the  southern  frontier  may  reach  an  extreme  elevation  of  2600  ft. 
But  the  dense  tropical  forests  attract  so  much  moisture  from  the 
ocean  winds  that  the  highlands  are  the  birthplace  of  a  large  number 
of  rivers  which  in  the  ramy  season  especially  pour  down  vast  volumes 
of  water.  Not  less  than  15  are  counted  between  the  Maroni  and  the 
Oyapock.  South-eastward  from  the  Maroni  the  first  of  importance 
is  the  Mana,  which  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  10  m*.  from  its  mouth, 
and  for  smaller  vessels  27  m.  farther.  Passing  the  Sinnaroary  ana 
the  Kourou,  the  Oyock  ts  next  reached,  near  the  mouth  of  which 
is  Cayenne^  the  capital  of  the  colony,  and  thereafter  the  Approuage. 
All  these  nvers  taxe  their  rise  in  a  somewhat  elevated  area  about 
the  middle  of  the  colony;  those  streams  which  rise  farther  south, 
in  the  Tuiquc  Humac  hills,  are  tributaries  of  the  two  frontier  rivers, 
the  Maroni  on  the  one  hand  or  the  Oyapock  on  the  other. 

Qimate  and  ProducU. — ^The  rainy  season  beeins  in  November  or 
December,  and  lasts  till  the  latter  port  of  June;  but  there  are 
usually  three  or  four  weeks  of  good  weather  in  March.  During  the 
rest  of  the  year  there  is  often  hardly  a  drop  of  rain  for  months,  but 
the  air  is  always  very  moist.  At  Cayenne  the  average  annual  rainfall 
amounts  to  fully  130  in.,  and  it  is  naturally  heavier  in  the  interim. 
During  the  hotter  part  of  the  year— August,  September,  October — 
the  temperature  usually  rises  to  about  86*  F.,  but  it  hardly  ever 
exceeds  88*;  in  the  colder  season  the  mean  is  79*  and  it  seldom 
sinks  so  low  as  70*.  Between  day  and  night  there  is  very  little 
thermometric  difference.  The  prevailing  winds  are  the  N.N.E.  and 
the  S.^. ;  and  the  most  violent  are  those  of  the  N.E.  During  the 
rainy  season  the  winds  keep  between  N.  and  E.,  and  during  the 
dry  season  between  S.  and  Jb.  Hurricanes  are  unknown.  In  Bora 
and  fauna  French  Guiana  resembles  the  rest  of  the  Guianese  region. 
Vegetation  is  excessively  rich.  Amoi^  leguminous  trees,  which  are 
abundantly  represented,  the  wacappu  is  the  finest  of  many  hard- 
wood trees.  Caoutchouc  and  various  {xdms  are  also  common. 
The  manioc  is  a  principal  source  of  food ;  rice  is  an  important  object 
of  cultivation;  and  maixe,  yams,  arrowroot,  bananas  and  the 
bread-fruit  are  also  to  be  mentioned.  Vanilla  is  one  of  the  common 
wild  plants  of  the  country.  The  clove  tree  has  been  acclimatized, 
and  m  the  latter  years  at  the  empire  it  formed  a  good  source  of 
wealth;  the  cinnamon  tree  was  also  successfully  introduced  in 
1772,  but  like  that  of  the  pepper-tree  and  the  nutmeg  its  cultivation 
is  nc«:Iectcd.  A  very  small  portion  of  the  territory  indeed  is  de- 
voted to  agriculture,  although  France  has  paid  some  attention  to 
the  development  of  this  branch  of  activity.  In  1880  a  colonial 
garden  was  created  near  Cayenne;  since  1894  an  experimental 
garden  has  been  laid  out  at  Baduel.  About 8200  acres  arecultivated, 
of  which  5400  acres  are  under  cereals  and  rice,  the  remaining  being 
under  coffee  (introduced  in  1716),  cacao,,  cane  and  other  cultures. 
The  low  lands  between  Cayenne  and  OyajMck  are  capable  of  bearing 
colonial  produce,  and  the  savannahs  might  support  large  herds; 
cereals,  root-crops  and  vegetables  might  easily  be  grown  on  the 
high  grounds,  and  timber  working  in  the  interior  should  be  pro- 
fitable. 

Gold-mining  is  the  most  important  industry  in  the  ctAovy. 
Placers  tA  great  wealth  have  been  discovered  on  the  Awa,  on  the 
Dutch  frontier  and  at  Carsevenne  in  the  territory  which  formed  the 
subject  oi  the  Franco-Brazilian  dispute.  But  wages  are  high  and 
transport  is  costly,  and  the  amount  of  gold  declared  at  Cayenne  did 
not  average  more  than  130^550  os.  annually  in  1900-1^5.  Silver 
and  iron  nave  been  found  m  various  districts;  kaolin  is  extracted 
in  the  plains  of  Montsindry;  and  pho4>hates  have  been  discovered 


at  several  placeSb  Besides  goM-workings,  the  industrial  *«*»>«fc'k- 
ments  comprise  saw-mills,  distQIeriea,  brick-works  and  sngar- 
works. 

Tradg  and  Commmiiicaiicns,-^Th€  commeroe  in  i88j(  aaMMmtcd 
to  £336,000  for  imports  and  to  £144.000  for  exports;  m  1897  the 
values  were  respectively  £373>350  and  £286.400,  but  in  1903.  vfaik 
imports  had  increased  m  value  only  to  £418,720,  exports  had  rura 
to  £493>3I3«  The  imports  consist  of  wines,  flour,  dotbes.  &c: 
the  cmef  are  gold,  phosphates,  timber,  cocoa  and  roGewood  essence. 
Cayenne  is  the  only  considerable  port.  One  of  the  drawbacks  to  tbc 
development  of  the  colony  is  the  lack  of  labour.  Native  labour  b 
most  difficult  to  obtain,  and  attempts  to  utilize  convict  labour  ha\e 
not  proved  very  suocessf  uL  Efforts  to  supply  the  need  by  inunigrk- 
tion have  not  done  so  completely.  The  land  routesare  not  nniiKrotis. 
The  most  important  are  that  from  Cayenne  to  Mana  by  way  of 
Kourou,  Sinnamarie  and  Iraooubo.  and  that  from  Cayenne  along 
the  coast  to  Kaw  and  the  mouth  of  the  Approuague.  Towanls  the 
interior  there  are  only  foot-paths,  badly  made.  By  water,  Cayenne 
is  in  regular  communication  with  the  Safety  Idands  (^  m.),  aad  the 
mouth  of  the  Maroni  (80  m.),  with  Fort  de  France  m  the  island  of 
Martinique,  where  travellers  meet  the  mail  packet  for  France,  aod 
with  Boston  (U.SA.).  There  is  a  French  cable  between  Caycfioe 
and  Brest. 

AdministnUUm, — The  cotony  is  administered  by  a  commisooaer- 
general  assisted  by  a  privy  council,  including  the  secretary  gentnl 
and  chief  of  the  judicial  service,  the  military,  penitentiary  and 
administrative  departments.  In  1879  an  ekmvc  general  council 
of  sixteen  members  was  constituted.  There  are  a  trtblmal  of  first 
instance  and  a  higher  tribunal  at  Cayenne,  besklea  four  instkes  of 
peace,  one  of  whom  has  extensive  jurisdiction  in  odier  places.  Of 
the  £256,000  demanded  for  the  colony  in  the  c»loma]  bucket  for 
1906,  £235,000  represented  the  estimated  expenditure  on  the  pesai 
settlement,  so  that  the  cost  of  the  colony  was  only  about  £2i.ooa 
The  local  budget  for  I jK>x  balancedat  £99;000  aad  in  1905  at  41  i6^5a 


Instruction  is  given  m  the  college  <n  Cayenne  and  in  six  primary 
schools.  At  the  head  of  the  deigy  is  an  apostoUc  prefect.  The 
armed  force  consists  of  two  companies  of  marine  infantry,  half  a 


battery  of  artillery,  and  a  detachment  of  gendarmerie,  aJod  cos- 
prises  about  380  men.  The  penal  set^^enient  was  establiahed  bv  a 
decree  of  1852.  From  that  year  until  1867,  18,000  enks  had  been 
sent  to  Guiana,  bVt  for  the  next  twenty  years  New  Caledonia  became 
the  chief  penal  settlement  in  the  French  colonies^  But  in  tSSs- 
1887  French  Guiana  was  appointed  as  a  place  of  baaiahncnt  fur 
confirmed  criminals  and  for  convicts  sentenced  to  more  than  eight 
years'  hard  labour.  A  large  proportion  of  these  men  have  been 
found  unfit  for  employment  upon  public  worka^ 

History, — ^The  Sieur  La  Revardiere,  sent  out  in  1604  by 
Henry  IV.  to  reconnoitre  the  country,  brought  ba;^  a  favour- 
able report;  but  the  death  of  the  king  put  a  stop  to  the  i^ojects 
of  forxnal  coloni^tion.  In  1626  a  small  body  of  traders  from 
Rouen  settled  on  the  Sinnamary,  and  in  1635  a  similar  band 
foimded  Casrenne.  The  Compagnie  du  Cap  Nord,  foimdcd  by 
the  people  of  Roueni  in  1643  and  conducted  by  Poncet  de  Br^gny, 
the  Compagnie  de  la  France  £quinoziale,  established  in  1645, 
and  the  second  Compagnie  de  la  France  Equinoxiale,  or  Com- 
pagnie dcs  Douze  Seigneurs,  established  in  1652,  weie  failures, 
the  result  of  incompetence,  mismanagement  and  misfortune. 
From  1654  the  Dutch  held  the  colony  for  a  few  years.  The 
French  Compagnie  des  Indes  Ocddentales,  chartered  in  1664 
with  a  monopoly  of  Guiana  commerce  for  forty  years,  proved 
hardly  more  successful  than  its  predecessors;  but  in  1674  the 
colony  passed  under  the  direct  control  <^  the  crown,  and  the 
able  administration  of  Colbert  began  to  tell  favourably  on  its 
progress,  although  in  x686  an  unsuccessful  ei^edition  against 
the  Dutch  in  Surinam  set  back  the  advance  of  the  French 
colony  until  the  close  of  the  century. 

The  year  1^63  was  marked  by  a  terrible  disaster.  Choxseu!, 
the  prime  minister,  having  obtained  for  himadf  and  his  couaa 
Pra^  a  concession  of  the  country  between  the  Kourou  and 
the  Maroni,  sent  out  alx^ut  12,000  volunteer  cokmists,  mainly 
from  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  They  were  landed  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Kourou,  where  no  preparation  had  been  made  for  their 
reception,  and  where  even  water  was  not  to  be  obtained.  Mis- 
management was  complete;  there  was  (for  example)  a  shop  for 
skates,  whereas  the  necessary  tools  for  tillage  were  wanting. 
By  X765  no  more  than  918  colonists  remained  alive,  and  these 
were  a  famished  fever-stricken  band.  A  long  investigation  io 
Paris  resulted  in  the  imprisonment  of  the  incompetent  leaders  fA 
the  expedition.  Several  minor  attempts  at  colonization  in 
Guiana  were  made  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century;  but  they 


GUIART— GUIBERT,  COMTE  DE 


683 


aU  teemed  to  sufTer  from  the  same  fatal  prestige  of  failure. 
During  the  revolution  band  after  band  of  political  prisoners 
were  uansported  to  Guiana.  The  fate  of  the  royalists,  nearly 
600  in  number,  who  were  exiled  on  the  i8th  Fructidor  (i797)> 
was  especially  sad.  Landed  on  the  Sinnamaiy  without  shelter 
or  food,  two'thirds  of  them  perished  miserably.  In  x8oo  Victor 
Hugues  was  appointed  governor,  and  he  managed  to  put  the 
colony  in  a  better  state;  but  in  1809  his  work  was  brought  to 
a  close  by  the  invasion  of  the  Portuguese  and  British. 

Thouj^  French  Guiana  was  nominally  restored  to  the  French 
in  x8z4,  it  was  not  really  surrendered  by  the  Portuguese  till 
X817.  Numerous  efforts  were  now  made  to  establish  the  colony 
firmly,  although  its  past  misfortunes  had  prejudiced  the  public 
mind  in  France  against  it.  In  1822  the  first  steam  sugar  milb 
were  introduced;  in  X824  an  agricultural  colony  (Nouvelle 
Angoulteie)  was  attempted  in  the  Mana  district,  which,  after 
failure  at  first,  became  comparatively  successful.  The  emanci- 
pation of  slaves  and  the  consequent  dearth  of  labour  almost 
ruined  the  development  of  agricultural  lesourccs  about  the 
middle  of  the  century,  but  in  1853  a  large  body  of  African 
immigrants  was  introduced.  The  discovery  of  gold  on  the 
Approuague  in  X855  caused  feverish  ezdtement,  and  seriously 
disturbed  the  economic  condition  of  the  country. 

Authorities. — A  detailed  biblioenphy  of  French  Guiana  will  be 
found  in  Temaux-Compans,  NoHctltUtonque  4*  la  Cuyatu  franatiu 
(Paris,  1843).  Kmoog  more  recent  works,  tee  E.  BaasiAres,  NoHa 
sur  la  Guyaru,  iisued  on  the  occasion  of  the  Paris  Exhibition  (1900) ; 
Publications  de  la  sodiU  d'itvdts  tour  la  colonisalum  do  la  Gmyant 


franfaise  (Paris,  1843-1844) ;  H.  A.  Coudreau,  La  Franu  tguintanaU 
(1887}.  Dtalecies  indtetu  de  Cuyano  (iBgi),  Dix  ansdo  Guyano{i9i92)» 
and  Ckn  nos  Indiens  (1893},  ^*  *'  niris;  G.  BrousHau,  lis 
Rickessos  de  la  Guyane  franfoiu  (Puis,  1901);  L.  F.  Viala,  Lts 
Trois  Cuyanes  (Moatpelner,  1893). 

GUIART  (or  Guxaid),  OUILLAUMB  (d.  c.  X3x6),  French 
chronicler  azul  poet,  was  probably  bom  at  Orleans,  and  served 
in  the  French  army  in  Flainders  in  1304.  Having  been  disabled 
by  a  wound  he  began  to  write,  lived  at  Arras  and  then  in  Paris, 
thus  being  able  to  consult  the  large  store  of  manuscripts  in  the 
abbey  of  St  Denis,  including  the  Grandes  chromques  do  Franco, 
Afterwards  he  appeals  as  a  minostrd  do  boucke,  Gulart's  poem 
Brancke  dos  royaubt  lignageSf  was  written  and  then  rewritten 
between  1304  and  X307,  in  honour  of  the  French  king  Philip  IV., 
and  in  answer  to  the  aspersions  of  a  Flemish  poet.  Comprising 
over  a  1, 000  verses  it  deals  with  the  history  of  the  French  kings 
from  the  time  of  Louis  VIII.;  but  it  is  only  really  important 
for  the  period  after  1296  and  for  the  war  in  Flanders  from  1301 
to  1304,  of  which  it  gives  a  graphic  account,  and  for  which  it  is 
a  high  authority.  It  was  first  published  by  J.  A.  Buchon 
(Paru,  X828),  and  again  in  tome  xxii.  of  the  XocuoU  dot  hisiorient 
dos  Gatdos  a  da  la  Franco  (Paris,  1865). 

See  A.  Molinier,  Les  Sources  do  rkistoir§  do  FrancOt  tome  ilL  (Paris, 
X903). 

GUIBBRT,  or  Wibext  (c.  1030-1  zoo),  of  Ravenna,  antipope 
under  the  title  of  Clement  III.  from  the  asth  of  June  zo8o  until 
September  iioo,  was  bom  at  Parma  between  X020  and  X030  of 
the  noble  imperialist  family,  Corregio.  He  entered  the  priest- 
hood and  was  appointed  by  the  empress  Agnes,  chancellor  and, 
after  the  death  of  Pope  Victor  II.  (1057),  imperial  vicar  in  Italy. 
He  strove  to  uphold  the  imperial  authority  during  Henry  IV.'s 
minority,  and  presided  over  the  synod  at  Basel  (zo6i)  which 
annulled  the  election  of  Alexander  II.  and  created  in  the  person 
of  Cadalous,  bishop  of  Parma,  the  antipope  Honorius  II. 
Guibert  lost  the  chancellorship  in  X062.  In  X073,  through  the 
influence  <rf  Empress  Agnes  and  the  support  of  Cardinal  Hilde- 
brand,  he  obtained  the  archbishopric  of  Ravenna  and  swore 
fealty  tp  Alexander  II.  and  his  successors.  He  seems  to  have 
been  at  first  on  friendly  terms  with  Gregory  VU.,  but  soon 
quarrelled  with  him  over  the  possession  of  the  dty  of  Imola, 
and  henceforth  was  recognized  as  the  soul  of  the  imperial  faction 
in  the  investiture  contest.  He  allied  himself  with  Cencius, 
Cardinal  Candidus  and  other  opponents  of  Gregory  at  Rome, 
and,  on  ha  refusal  to  furnish  troops  or  to  attend  the  Lenten 
synod  of  X075,  he  was  ecclesiastically  suspended  by  the  pope. 
He  was  probably  excommunicated  at  the  synod  of  Worms 


(1076)  with  other  Lombard  bishops  who  sided  with  Hemy  IV., 
and  at  the  Lenten  synod  of  Z078  he  was  banned  by  name.  .  The 
emperor,  having  been  excommunicated  for  the  second  time  in 
March  xo8o,  convened  nineteen  bishops  of  his  party  at  Mainz 
on  the  3xst  of  May,  who  pronounced  the  deposition  of  Gregory; 
and  on  the  asth  of  June  he  caused  Guibert  to  be  elected  pope 
by  thirty  bishops  assembled  at  Brixen.  Guibert,  whilst  retain- 
ing possession  of  his  archbishopric,  accompanied  his  imperial 
master  on  most  of  the  latter's  military  e3q)editions.  Having 
gained  Rome,  he  was  instaUed  in  the  Lateran  and  consecrated 
as  Clement  III.  on  the  24th  of  March  1084.  One  week  later, 
on  Easter  Sunday,  he  crowned  Henzy  IV.  and  Bertha  in  St 
Peter's.  Clement  survived  not  only  Gregory  VIL  but  also 
Victor  m.  and  Urban  IL,  maintaining  his  title  to  the  end  and 
in  great  measure  his  power  over  Rome  and  the  adjoining  regions. 
Excommunication  was  pronounced  against  him  by  all  his  rivals. 
He  was  driven  out  of  Rome  finally  by  crusaders  in  X097,  and 
sought  refuge  in  various  fortresses  on  his  own  estates.  St 
Angelo,  the  last  Guibertist  stronghold  in  Rome,  fell  to  Urban  II. 
on  the  24th  of  August  X098.  Qement,  on  the  accession  of 
Paschal  II.  in  X099,  prepared  to  renew  his  struggle  but  was 
driven  from  Albano  by  Norman  troops  and  died  at  Civita 
Castellana  in  September  xioo.  His  ashes,  which  were  said  by 
his  followers  to  have  worked  miracles,  were  thrown  into  the 
water  by  Paschal  U. 

See  J.  Langen,  Gesehiekte  dor  rdmischon  Kirlcke  von  Gregor  VII. 
bis  Innoeotu  III.  (Bonn,  1893);  Jaff^Wattenbach,  Refestapemtif. 
Roman,  (and  ed.,  1885-1888);  K.  Tvon  Hefele.  ConciiieneesckickUt 
voL  v.  (and  ed.) ;  F.  Cregorovius,  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages,  vol.  iv., 
trans,  by  Mrs  G.  W.  Hamilton  fl^ondon,  1900-1902);  and  O. 
KOhncke.  Wibort  von  Raoenna  (Leipzig,  1888).  (C.  H.  Ha.). 

GUIBBRT  (zo53-zza4),  of  Nogent,  historian  and  theologian, 
was  bom  of  noble  parents  at  Qermont-cn-Beauvoisis,  and 
dedicated  from  infancy  to  the  church.  He  received  his  early 
education  at  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Flavigny  (Flaviacum) 
or  St  Germer,  where  he  studied  with  great  zeal,  devoting  himself 
at  fizst  to  the  secular  poets,  an  experience  which  left  its  imprint 
on  his  worics;  later  changing  to  theology,  through  the  influence 
of  Anselm  of  Bee,  afterwards  of  Canterbuzy.  In  Z104,  he  was 
chosen  to  be  head  of  the  abbey  of  Notre  Dame  de  Nogent  and 
henceforth  took  a  prominent  part  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  His 
autobiography  (De  vita  sna,  sivo  monodiarum)^  written  towards 
the  dose  of  his  life,  gives  many  picturesque  glimpses  of  his  time 
and  the  customs  of  his  country.  The  description  of  the  com- 
mune of  Laon  is  an  historical  document  of  the  first  order.  The 
same  local  colour  lends  charm  to  his  history  of  the  first  crusade 
{Gesta  Dei  per  Francos)  written  about  zzio.  But  the  history 
iB  largely  a  paraphrase,  in  ornate  style,  of  the  Gesta  Francorum 
of  an  anonymous  Norman  author  (see  Crusades);  azid  when 
he  comes  to  the  end  of  his  authority,  he  allows  his  book  to 
degenerate  into  an  undigested  heap  of  notes  and  anecdotes. 
At  the  same  time  his  hi^  birth  and  his  position  in  the  church 
gjve  his  work  an  occasional  value. 

BiBUOGEAPRY. — Guibert's  works,  edited  by  d'Achery,  werefirst 
published  in  l6$i,  in  I  voL  folio,  at  Paris  {Vomoratnlis  GuiberH 
abbaHs  B.  liartao  do  Novigento  ^Pera  omnia)^  and  republished 
in  Migne's  Patrolopa  Laiima,  vols.  clvi.  and  clxxxiv.  They  include, 
besides  minor  works,  a  treatise  on  homilettcs  ("  Liber  quo  ordtne 
sermo  fieri  debeat ");  ten  books  of  Moralia  on  Genesis,  begun  in 
lo84^but  not  completed  until  iii6,composed  on  the  model  of  Gregory 
the  Great's  Moralia  t»  Jobum\  five  books  of  Tropolopae  on  Hosea, 
Amos  and  the  Lamentations;  a  treatise  on  the  Incarnation,  against 
the  Jews;  four  books  De  tignoribus  sanctorum,  a  remarkably  free 
critkism  on  the  abuses  ot  saint  and  relic  worship;  three  books  of 
autobiography,  Do  vita  sua,  sioe  monodiarum;nnd  eight  books  of 
the  Historta  quae  dicitur  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos,  sioe  SutoriaHiero' 
Mfymitana  (the  ninth  book  is  by  another  author).  Separate  editions 
exist  of  the  last  named,  in  f .  Bongars,  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos,  i., 
and  Rocueil  dos  kistorions  aes  crotsades,  kisL  Occtd.,  tv.  z  13-263. 
It  has  been  translated  into  French  in  Cuixoi'sColteclion,  ix.  1-338. 
See  H.  von  Sybel,  Gesekickto  dos  orsten  JCrrasnifet  (Leipzig,  1881); 
B.  Monod,  Le  Maine  Guibert  et  son  temfs  CPanB^  ^^S)  :and  Guibert 
do  Nogent;  kistoire  do  sa  vie,  edited  by  G.  Bourgm  (Paris,  1907). 

GUIBBRT,  JACQUES  AHTOINB  HIPPOLTTB,   Coiite  db 

(z  743-1 790),  French  general  and  military  writer,  was  bom  at 
Montauban,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen  accompanied  his  father, 
Charics  Btooit,  comte  de  Guibert  (1715-Z786),  chief  of  sUff  to 


684 


GUICCIARDINI 


Marahnl  de  BrogUe,  throughoat  the  war  in  Gennany,  and  won 
the  croaa  of  St  Louis  and  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  expedition 
to  Corsica  (1767).  In  1770  he  published  his  Essai  ginSral  ie 
iactique  in  London,  and  this  celebrated  work  appeared  in  numer- 
ous subsequent  editions  and  in  English,  German  and  even 
Penian  translations  (extracts  also  in  Liskenne  and  Sauvan, 
Bin.  kistorique  et  militairet  Paris,  1845).  Of  this  work  (for  a 
detailed  critique  of  which  see  Max  jUhns,  Cesch.  d.  Kriegswissen- 
sckaflen,  voL  iiL  pp.  3058-2070  and  references  therein)  it  may  be 
said  that  it  was  the  best  essay  on  war  produced  by  a  soldier 
during  a  period  in  which  tactics  were  discussed  even  in  the  salon 
and  iidlitary  literature  was  more  abundant  than  at  any  time  up 
to  1871.  Apart  from  technical  questions,  in  which  Guibert's 
enlightened  conservatism  stands  in  marked  contrast  to  the 
doctrinaire  progresaiveness  of  Menil  Durand,  Folard  and  others, 
the  book  is  chiefly  valued  for  its  broad  outlook  on  the  state  of 
Europe,  especially  of  military  Europe  in  the  period  x  762-1 792. 
One  quotation  may  be  given  as  being  a  most  remarkable  prophecy 
of  the  inq)ending  revolution  in  the  art  of  war,  a  revolution  which 
the  "  advanced  "  tacticians  themselves  scarcely  foresaw.  "  The 
standing  armies,  while  a  burden  on  the  people,  are  inadequate 
for  the  achievement  of  great  and  decisive  results  in  war,  and 
meanwhile  the  mass  of  the  people,  untrained  in  arms,  de- 
generates. .  .  .  The  hegemony  over  Europe  will  fall  to  that 
nation  which  .  .  '.  becomes  possessed  of  manly  virtues  and 
creates  a  national  army  " — a  prediction  fulfilled  almost  to  the 
letter  within  twenty  years  of  Guibert's  death.  In  1773  he 
visited  Germany  and  was  present  at  the  Prussian  regimental 
drills  and  army  manoeuvres;  Frederick  the  Great,  recognizing 
Guibert's  ability,  showed  great  favour  to  the  young  colonel  and 
freely  discussed  military  questions  with  him.  Guibert's  Journal 
ffuH  voyage  en  AUemagne  was  published,  with  a  memoir,  by 
Toulongeon  (Paris^  1803).  His  Difetue  du  sysUme  de  guerre 
modam€f  a  reply  to  his  many  critics  (Neuchfttd,  1779)  is  a 
reasoned  and  scientific  defence  of  the  Prussian  method  of 
tactics,  which  formed  the  basis  of  his  work  when  in  x  7 75  he  began 
to  co-operate  with  the  count  de  St  Germain  in  a  series  of  much- 
needed  and  successful  reforms  in  the  French  army.  In  1777, 
however,  St  Germain  fell  into  disgrace,  and  his  fall  involved  that 
of  Guibert  who  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  martchal  de'camp 
and  relegated  to  a  provincial  staff  appointment  In  his  semi- 
retirement  he  vigorously  defended  his  old  chief  St  Germain 
against  his  detractors.  On  the  eve  of  the  Revolution  he  was 
tecalled  to  the  War  Office,  but  in  his  turn  he  became  the  object 
of  attack  and  he  died,  practically  of  disappointment,  on  the 
6th  of  May  1790.  Other  works  of  Guibert,  besides  those  men- 
tioned, are:  Observations  sur  la  constitution  politique  et  militaire 
des  armies  de  S,  M.  Prussiennc  (Amsterdam,  1778),  £loges  of 
Marshal  Catinat  (1775),  of  Michel  de  I'Hdpital  (1778),  and  of 
Frederick  the  Great  (1787).  Guibert  was  a  member  of  the 
Academy  from  1786,  and  he  also  wrote  a  tragedy,  Le  ConnitabU 
de  Bourbon  (1775)  and  a  journal  of  travels  in  France  and  Switzer- 
land. 

See  Toulongeon,  £hge  vMdimu  de  Guibert  (Paris;  1790);  Madame 
de  Stftel,  £lote  de  Guibert;  Bardin,  Notice  kistorique  du  gMral 
Guibert  (Paris,  1836);  Flavian  d'Aldeguier,  Discourt  sur  la  vie  et 
les  icrits  du  comU  de  Guibert  (Toulouse,  1855);  Count  Forestie, 
Bioerapkie  du  eomte  de  Guibert  (Montauban,  1855);  Count  zur 
Lippe.^'  Friedr.  der  Grosae  und  Obem  Guibert"  (MUttOr-WockenblaU, 
1873. 9  and  10}. 

GUICCIARDINI.  FRANCESCO  (1483-1540),  the  celebrated 
Italian  historian  and  statesman,  was  bom  at  Florence  in  the 
year  X483,  when  Marsilio  Fidno  held  him  at  the  font  of  baptism. 
His  family  was  illustrious  and  noble;  and  his  ancestors  for 
many  generations  had  held  the  highest  posts  of  honour  in  the 
state,  as  may  be  seen  in  his  own  genealogical  Ricordi  auiobuh 
grafid  e  difamiglia  (Op.  ined.  vol.  x.).  After  the  usual  educa- 
tion of  a  boy  in  grammar  and  elementary  clasncal  studies,  his 
father,  Piero,  sent  him  to  the  universities  of  Ferrara  and  Padua, 
where  he  sUyed  until  the  year  1505.  The  death  of  an  uncle, 
who  had  occupied  the  see  of  Cortona  with  great  pomp,  induced 
the  young  Guicdardini  to  hanker  after  an  ecdesiastical  career. 
He  already  saw  the  scarlet  of  a  cardinal  awaiting  him,  and  to 


this  eminence  he  would  assuredly  have  liaen.  Ks  father,  how- 
ever, checked  this  ambition,  Hfflaring  that,  thoui^  he  had  five 
sons,  he  would  not  suffer  one  of  them  to  ester  the  church  in  its 
then  state  of  corruption  and  debasement.  Guicdardini,  y^bast 
motives  were  confessedly  ambitious  (see  JRicordi,  Op.  ined. 
z.  68),  turned  his  attention  to  law,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-three 
was  appointed  by  the  Signoxia  of  Florence  to  read  the  InsOtuta 
in  public  Shoxtly  afterwards  he  engaged  himself  in  maniagr 
to  Maria,  daughter  of  Alamanno  Salviati,  prompted,  as  he 
frankly  tdls  us,  by  the  political  support  which  an  aOiance  with 
that  great  family  would  bring  him  (ib.  z.  71).  He  was  then 
practising  at  the  bar,  where  he  won  so  much  distiixtlon  that  tbe 
Signoria,  in  x  51 3,  entrusted  him  with  an  embassy  to  the  cocit 
of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  Thus  he  entered  on  the  real  work 
of  his  life  as  a  diplomatist  and  statesmaiL  Hisoondoct  upon  that 
legation  was  afterwards  severely  criticized;  for  his  political 
antagonists  accused  him  of  betraying  the  true  interests  of  the 
commonwealth,  and  using  his  influence  for  the  restoratj<»  of 
the  exiled  house  of  Medid  to  power.  His  Spanish  conespuud- 
ence  with  the  Signoria  (Qp.  ined.  voL  vL)  reveals  the  extra- 
ordinary power  of  observation  and  analyns  which  was  a  chief 
quality  of  his  mind;  and  in  Ferdinand,  hypocritical  and-pro- 
foundly  dissimulative,  he  found  a  proper  object  for  his  "nmiifir 
study.  To  suppose  that  the  young  statesman  learned  his  tnpd 
statecraft  in  Spain  would  be  perhaps  too  simple  a  sofaiUoa  of 
the  problem  offered  by  his  character,  and  scarcely  fair  to  the 
Italian  profidents  in  perfidy.  It  is  dear  from  Gixiodardini's 
autobiographical  memoirs  that  he  was  ambitious^  falmUting^ 
avaricious  and  power-loving  from  his  earliest  yeaxs;  and  in 
Spain  he  had  no  more  than  an  opportunity  of  studying  on  a 
large  scale  those  political  vices  which  already  ruled  the  mioor 
potentates  of  Italy.  Still  the  school  was  pregnant  with  in- 
structions for  so  apt  a  pupil.  Guicriarrfint  issued  from  this  first 
trial  of  his  skill  with  an  assured  reputation  for  dipkHonatlc  ability, 
as  that  was  understood  in  Italy.  To  unravel  plots  and  weave 
counterplots;  to  meet  treachery  Vith  fraud;  to  pany  force 
with  sleights  of  hand;  to  credit  human  nature  with  the  basest 
motives,  while  the  blackest  crimes  were  contemplated  with  cold 
enthusiasm  for  their  devemess,  was  reckoned  then  the  height 
of  political  sagadty.  Guicdardini  couM  i^y  the  game  to  per- 
fection. In  X5X5  Leo  X.  took  him  into  aorvicc^  and  made  hla 
governor  of  Reggio  and  Modena^  Jn  1521  Parma  'was  added  to 
his  rule,  and  in  1523  he  was  appointed  viceregent  of  Romagna 
by  Qement  VH.  These  high  offices  rendered  Gnicciardini  tbe 
virtual  xnaster  of  the  papal  states  beyond  the  Apennines,  dmiEg 
a  period  of  great  bewilderment  and  diflkulty.  The  copious 
correspondence  relating  to  his  administration  has  recently  been 
published  {Op.  ined.  vols,  vii.,  viii.).  In  1526  Clement  gave  him 
still  higher  rank  as  lieutenant-general  of  the  papal  army.  \K1iik 
holding  this  conmiission,  he  had  the  humiliation  of  witnessing 
from  a  distance  the  sack  of  Rome  axid  the  imprxsomneDt  of 
Clement,  without  being  able  to  kouse  the  perfidious  duke  of 
Urbino  into  activity.  The  blame  of  Cement's  downfall  did  not 
rest  with  him;  for  it  was  merdy  his  duty  to  attend  the  camp, 
and  keep  his  master  informed  of  the  proceedings  of  the  generals 
(see  the  Correspondence,  Op.  insd.  vols,  iv.,  v.).  Yet  Guicdar- 
dini's  consdence  accused  him,  for  he  had  previously  oouBsellod 
the  pope  to  declare  war,  as  he  notes  in  a  curious  letter  to  himself 
written  in  1527  {Op.  ined.fX.  X04).  Qement  did  iK>t,  howev-er, 
withdraw  his  confidence,  and  ini53x  Guicdardini  was  advanced 
to  the  governorship  of  Bologna,  the  most  important  of  all  the 
papallord-licutenandes(CorTespondence,0/l»»ei.voLxz.).  TUs 
post  he  resigned  in  1534  on  the  dection  of  Paul  HI.,  |neferring 
to  foUow  the  fortunes  of  the  Mediccan  princes.  It  may  here  be 
noticed  that  though  Guicdardini  served  three  popes  throu|^  a 
period  of  twenty  years,  or  perhaps  because  of  this,  he  haled  the 
papacy  with  a  deep  and  frozen  bitterness,  attributing  the  woes 
of  Italy  to  the  ambition  of  the  church,  and  dedaxing  he  had 
seen  enough  of  sacerdotal  abominations  to  make  him  a  Lntheaa 
(see  Op.  ined.  i.  27,  X04,  96,  and  /jf.  i*  //.,  ed.  Ros.,  fi.  218). 
The  same  discord  between  his  private  o|nnioBS  and  his  pohCc 
actioxM  may  be  traced  in  his  conduct  subsetjuoit  to  x$34.    As  a 


GUICCIARDINI 


685 


political  theorist.  Cuicdardini  believed  that  the  best  form  of 
government  was  a  commonwealth  administered  upon  the  type 
of  the  Venetian  constitution  (Op.  ined.  x  6;  ii.  130  sq.);  and 
we  have  ample  evidence  to  prove  that  he  had  judged  the  tyranny 
of  the  Medici  at  its  true  worth  {Op.  ined.  \.  171,  on  the  tyrant; 
the  whole  Stpria  Fiorentina  and  Reggimento  di  Firenze,  ib.  i. 
and  ill.,  on  the  Medici).  Yet  he  did  not  hesitate  to  place  his 
powers  at  the  disposal  of  the  most  vicious  members  of  that 
house  for  the  enslavement  of  Florence.  In  1527  he  had  been 
declared  a  rebel  by  the  Signoria  on  account  of  his  well-known 
Medicean  prejudices;  and  in  1530,  deputed  by  Clement  to 
punish  the  citizens  after  their  revolt,  he  revenged  himself  with  a 
cruelty  and  an  avarice  that  were  long  and  bitterly  remembered. 
When,  therefore,  he  returned  to  inhabit  Florence  in  1534,  he 
dfd  so  as  the  creature  of  the  dissolute  Alessandro  de'  Medici. 
GuicciardinI  pushed  his  servility  so  far  as  to  defend  this  in- 
famous despot  at  Naples  in  1535.  before  the  bar  of  Charles  V., 
from  the  accusations  brought  against  him  by  the  Florentine 
exiles  (Op.  ined.  vol.  ix.).  He  won  his  cause;  but  in  the  eyes 
of  all  posterity  he  justified  the  reproaches  of  his  contemporaries, 
who  describe  him  as  a  cruel,  venal,  grasping  seeker  after  power, 
eager  to  support  a  despotism  for  the  sake  of  honours,  ofl'ices 
and  emoluments  secured  for  himself  by  a  bargam  with  the 
oppressors  of  his  country.  Varchi,  Nardi,  Jacopo  Pilti  and 
Bernardo  Segni  are  unanimous  upon  this  point,  but  it  is  only 
the  recent  publication  of  Guicciardini's  private  MSS.  that  has 
made  us  understand  the  force  of  their  invectives.  To  plead 
loyalty  or  honest  political  conviction  in  defence  of  his  Medicean 
partianship  is  now  impossible,  face  to  face  with  the  opinions 
expressed  in  the  Ricordi  politici  and  the  Sloria  Fiorentina. 
Like  Machiavelli,  but  on  a  lower  level,  Guicciardini  was  willing 
to  "  roll  stones,"  or  to  do  any  dirty  work  for  masters  whom, 
in  the  depth  of  his  soul,  he  detested  and  despised.  After  the 
murder  of  Duke  Alessandro  in  1537,  Guicciardini  espoused  the 
cause  of  Cosimo  de'  Medici,  a  boy  addicted  to  field  sports,  and 
unused  to  the  game  of  statecraft.  The  wily  old  diplomatist 
hoped  to  rule  Florence  as  grand  vizier  under  this  inexperienced 
princeling.  He  was  mistaken,  however,  in  his  schemes,  for 
Cosimo  displayed  the  genius  of  his  family  for  politics,  and  coldly 
dismissed  his  would-be  lord-protector.  Guicciardini  retired  in 
disgrace  to  his  villa,  where  he  spent  his  last  years  in  the  com- 
position of  the  Sloria  d' Italia.  He  died  in  1540  without  male 
heirs. 

Guicciardini  was  the  product  of  a  cynical  and  selfish  age, 
and  his  life  illustrated  its  sordid  influences.  Of  a  cold  and 
worldly  temperament,  devoid  of  passion,  blameless  in  his 
conduct  as  the  father  of  a  family,  faithful  as  the  servant  of  his 
papal  patrons,  severe  in  the  administration  of  the  provinces 
committed  to  his  charge,  and  indisputably  able  in  his  conduct 
of  affairs,  he  was  at  the  same  time,  and  in  spite  of  these  qualities, 
a  man  whose  moral  nature  inspires  a  sentiment  of  liveliest  re- 
pugnance. It  is  not  merely  that  he  was  ambitious,  cruel, 
revengeful  and  avaricious,  for  these  vices  have  existed  in  men 
far  less  antipathetic  than  Guicciardini.  Over  and  above  those 
faults,  which  made  him  odious  to  his  fellow-citizens,  we  trace  in 
him  a  meanness  that  our  century  is  less  willing  to  condone. 
His  phlegmatic  and  persistent  egotism,  his  sacrifice  of  truth  and 
honour  to  self-interest,  his  acquiescence  in  the  worst  conditions 
of  the  world,  if  only  he  could  use  them  for  his  own  advantage, 
combined  with  the  glaring  discord  between  his  opinions  and  his 
practice,  form  a  character  which  would  be  contemptible  in  our 
eyes  were  it  not  so  sim'stcr.  The  social  and  political  decrepitude 
of  Italy,  where  patriotism  was  unknown,  and  only  selfishness 
survived  of  all  the  motives  that  rouse  men  to  action,  found  its 
representative  and  exponent  in  Guicciardini.  When  we  turn 
from  the  man  to  the  author,  the  decadence  of  the  age  and  race 
that  could  develop  a  political  philosophy  so  arid  in  its  cynical 
despair  of  any  good  in  human  nature  forces  itself  vividly  upon 
our  notice.  Guicciardini  seems  to  glory  in  his  disillusionment, 
and  uses  his  vast  intellectual  ability  for  the  analysis  of  the 
corruption  he  had  helped  to  make  incurable.  If  one  single 
treatise  of  that  century  should  be  chosen  to  represent  the  spirit 


of  the  Italian  people  in  the  last  phase  of  the  Renaissance,  the 
historian  might  hesitate  between  the  Principe  of  Machiavelli 
and  the  Ricordi  politici  of  Guicciardini.  The  latter  is  perhapa 
preferable  to  the  former  on  the  score  of  comprehensiveness. 
It  is,  moreover,  more  exactly  adequate  to  the  actual  situation, 
for  the  Principe  has  a  divine  spark  of  patriotism  yet  lingering 
in  the  cinders  of  its  frigid  science,  an  idealistic  enthusiasm  sur- 
viving in  its  moral  aberrations,  whereas  a  great  Italian  critic 
of  this  decade  has  justly  described  the  Ricordi  as  *'  Italian 
corruption  codified  and  elevated  to  a  rule  of  life."  Guicciardini 
is,  however,  better  known  as  the  author  of  the  Storia  d' Italia, 
that  vast  and  detailed  picture  of  his  country's  sufferings  between 
the  years  1494  and  1533.  Judging  him  by  this  masterpiece  of 
scientific  history,  he  deserves  less  commendation  as  a  writer 
than  as  a  thinker  and  an  analyst.  The  style  is  wearisome  and 
prolix,  attaining  to  precision  at  the  expense  of  circumlocution, 
and  setting  forth  the  smallest  particulars  with  the  same  dis- 
tinctness as  the  main  features  of  the  narrative.  The  whole 
tangled  skein  of  Italian  politics,  in  that  involved  and  stormy 
period,  is  unravelled  with  a  patience  and  an  insight  that  are 
above  praise.  It  is  the  crowning  merit  of  the  author  that  he 
never  ceases  to  be  an  impartial  spectator — a  cold  and  curious 
critic.  We  might  compare  him  to  an  anatomist,  with  knife  and 
scalpel  dissecting  the  dead  body  of  Italy,  and  pointing  out  the 
symptoms  of  her  manifold  diseases  with  the  indifferent  analysis 
of  one  who  has  no  Aioral  sensibility.  This  want  of  feeling,  while 
it  renders  Guicciardini  a  model  for  the  scientific  student,  has 
impaired  the  interest  of  his  history.  Tliough  he  lived  through 
that  agony  of  the  Italian  people,  he  does  not  seem  to  be  aware 
that  he  is  writing  a  great  historical  tragedy.  He  takes  as  much 
pains  in  laying  bare  the  trifling  causes  of  a  petty  war  with  Pisa 
as  in  probing  the  deep-seated  ulcer  of  the  papacy.  Nor  is  he 
capable  of  painting  the  events  in  which  he  took  a  part,  in  their 
totality  as  a  drama.  Whatever  he  touches,  lies  already  dead 
on  the  dissecting  tabic,  and  his  skill  is  that  of  the  analytical . 
pathologist.  Consequently,  he  fails  to  understand  the  essential 
magnitude  of  the  task,  or  to  appreciate  the  vital  vigour  of  the 
forces  contending  in  Europe  for  mastery.  This  is  very  notice- 
able in  what  he  writes  about  the  Reformation.  Notwitlutanding 
these  defects,  inevitable  in  a  writer  of  Guicciardini's  tempera- 
ment, the  Storia  d*  Italia  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest  historical 
work  that  had  appeared  .since  the  beginning  of  the  modern  era. 
It  remains  the  most  solid  monument  of  the  Italian  reason  in 
the  16th  century,  the  final  triumph  of  that  Florentine  school 
of  philosophical  historians  which  included  Machiavelli,  Segni, 
Pitti,  Nardi,  Varchi,  Francesco  Vettori  and  Donato  Giannotti. 
Up  to  the  year  1857  the  fame  of  Guicciardini  as  a  writer,  and  the 
estimation  of  him  as  a  man,  depended  almost  entirely  upon  the 
History  of  Italy,  and  on  a  few  ill-edited  extracts  from  his  aphor- 
isms. At  that  date  his  representatives,  the  counts  Piero  and 
Luigi  Guicciardini,  opened  their  family  archives,  and  com- 
mitted to  Signor  Giuseppe  Canestrini  the  publication  of  his 
hitherto  inedited  MSS.  in  ten  important  volumes.  The  vast 
mass  of  documents  and  finished  literary  work  thus  given  to 
the  world  has  thrown  a  flood  of  light  upon  Guicciardini,  whether 
we  consider  him  as  author  or  as  citizen.  It  has  raised  his  re- 
putation as  a  political  philosopher  into  the  first  rank,  where  he 
now  disputes  the  place  of  intellectual  supremacy  with  his  friend 
Machiavelli;  but  it  has  coloured  our  moral  judgment  of  his 
character  and  conduct  with  darker  dyes.  From  the  stores  of 
valuable  materials  contained  in  those  ten  volumes,  it  will  be 
enough  here  to  cite  (i)  the  Ricordi  politici,  already  noticed, 
consisting  cf  about  400  aphorisms  on  political  and  social  topics; 
(2)  the  observations  on  Machiavelli's  Discorsi,  which  bring  into 
remarkable  relief  the  views  of  Italy's  two  great  theorists  on 
statecraft  in  the  i6th  century,  and  show  that  Guicciardini 
regarded  Machiavelli  somewhat  as  an  amiable  visionary  or 
political  enthusiast;  (3)  the  Storia  Fiorentina,  an  early  work 
of  the  author,  distinguished  by  its  animation  of  style,  brilliancy 
of  portraiture,  and  liberality  of  judgment;  and  (4)  the  Dialogo 
del  reggimento  di  Firenze,  also  in  all  probability  an  early  work, 
in  which  the  various  forms  of  government  suited  to  an  Italian 


686 


GUICHARD— GUICHEN 


commonwealth  are  discussed  with  infinite  subtlety,  contrasted, 
and  illustrated  from  the  vicissitudes  of  Florence  up  to  the  year 
1494.  To  these  may  be  added  a  series  of  short  essays,  entitled 
Discern  poliiki,  composed  during  Guicciardini's  Spanish  lega- 
tion. It  is  only  after  a  careful  perusal  of  these  minor  works 
that  the  student  of  history  may  claim  to  have  comprehended 
Gulcciardini,  and  may  feel  that  he  brings  with  him  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  Sloria  d*  Italia  the  requisite  Icnowledge  of  the 
author's  private  thoughts  and  jealously  guarded  opinions. 
Indeed,  it  may  be  confidently  affirmed  that  those  who  desire 
to  gain  an  insight  into  the  true  principles  and  feelings  of  the 
men  who  made  and  wrote  history  in  the  i6th  century  will  find 
it  here  far  more  than  in  the  work  designed  for  publication  by  the 
writer.  Taken  in  combination  with  Machiavelli's  treatises,  the 
Opere  inediU  furnish  a  comprehensive  body  of  Italian  political 
philosophy  anterior  to  the  date  of  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi.  (J.  A.  S.) 

Sec  Kosini's  edition  of  the  Storia  J'  Italia  (10  vols.,  Pisa,  1819). 
and  the  Opcre  inedite,  in  10  vols.,  published  at  Florence,  185^. 
A  complete  and  initial  edition  of  Guicciardini's  works  is  now  in 
preparation  in  the  hands  of  Alessandro  Ghciardi  of  the  Florence 
archives.  Among  the  inany  studies  on  Guicciardini  we  may  mention 
Agostino  Rossi's  Francesco  Guicciardini  e  it  governo  Fiorentino 
(3  vols..  Bologna,  1806),  based  on  many  new  documents;  F.  de 
Sanctis's  essay  "  L'Uomo  del  Guicciardmi,"  in  his  Nuam  Sagri 
criiici  (Naples,  1879),  and  many  passages  in  Professor  P.  Vtllan  s 
Machiavellt  (Eng.  trans.,  1802);  E.  Bcnoist's  Cuichardin^  hiitorien 
et  komme  d'ital  Ualien  an  XVI*  iikcle  (Paris,  1862),  and  C.Gioda's 
Francesco  Guicciardini  e  It  sue  opere  inedite  (Bologna,  1880)  are  not 
without  value,  but  the  authors  had  not  had  access  to  many  im- 
portant documents  since  published.    See  also  Gcoflfroy's  article 

Unc  Autobiographic  de  Ouichardin  d'apr^  scs  aruvres  in£dites," 
in  the  Revue  des  deux  mondes  (ist  of  February  1874). 

GUICHARD.  KARL  GOTTLIEB  (i734>i775),  soldier  and 
military  writer,  known  as  Quintus  lauos,  was  bom  at  Magde- 
burg in  1724,  of  a  family  of  French  refugees.  He  was  educated 
for  the  Church,  and  at  Leiden  actually  preached  a  sermon  as  a 
candidate  for  the  pastorale.  But  he  abandoned  theology  for 
-  more  secular  studies,  especially  that  of  ancient  history,  in  which 
his  learning  attracted  the  notice  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  who 
promised  him  a  vacant  professorship  at  Utrecht.  On  his  arrival, 
however,  he  found  that  another  scholar  had  been  elected  by  the 
local  authorities,  and  he  thereupon  sought  and  obtained  a 
commission  in  the  Dutch  army.  He  made  the  campaigns  of 
1747-48  in  the  Low  Countries.  In  the  peace  which  followed, 
his  combined  military  and  classical  tiaining  turned  his  thoughts 
in  the  direction  of  ancient  military  history.  His  notes  on  this 
subject  grew  into  a  treatise,  and  in  1754  he  went  over  to  England 
in  order  to  consult  various  libraries.  In  1757  his  Affaires 
mUitaires  sur  Ics  Grccs  et  les  Romains  appeared  at  the  Hague,  and 
when  Carlyle  wrote  his  Frederick  Ike  Great  it  had  reached  its 
fifth  edition.  Coming  back,  with  English  introductions,  to  the 
Continent,  he  sought  service  with  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  who 
sent  him  on  to  Frederick  the  Great,  whom  he  joined  in  January 
1 758  at  Breslau.  The  king  was  very  favourably  impressed  with 
Guichard  and  his  works,  and  he  remained  for  nearly  18  months 
in  the  royal  suite.  His  Prussian  official  name  of  Quintus  Icilius 
was  the  outcome  of  a  friendly  dispute  with  the  king  (see  Nikolai, 
Anekdoten,  vi.  129-145;  Cariyle,  Frederick  Ike  Great,  viii. 
1 13-1 14).  Frederick  in  discussing  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  spoke 
of  a  centurion  Quintus  Caccilius  as  Q.  Icilius.  Guichard  ventured 
to  correct  him,  whereupon  the  king  said,  "  You  shall  be  Quintus 
Icilius,"  and  as  Major  Quintus  Icilius  he  was  forthwith  gazetted 
to  the  command  of  a  free  battalion.  This  corps  he  commanded 
throughout  the  later  stages  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  his  battalion, 
as  time  went  on,  becoming  a  regiment  of  three  battaUons,  and 
Quintus  himself  recruited  seven  more  battalions  of  the  same 
kind  of  troops.  His  command  was  almost  always  with  the 
king's  own  army  in  these  campaigns,  but  for  a  short  time  it 
fought  in  the  western  theatre  under  Prince  Henry.  When  not 
on  the  march  he  was  always  at  the  royal  headquarters,  and  it 
was  he  who  brought  about  the  famous  interview  between  .the 
king  and  Gcllert  (see  Carlyle,  Frederick  tke  Great,  ix.  109; 
Gellert,  Briefwecksel  mil  Demoiselle  Lucius,  ed.  Ebert,  Leipzig, 
1823,  pp  629-631)  on  the  subject  of  national  German  literature 
On  22nd  January  1761  Quintus  was  ordered  to  sack  the  castle 


of  Hubertusburg  (a  task  which  Major-General  Saldera  had  point- 
blank  refused  to  undertake,  from  motives  of  cons^nce),  aod 
carried  out  his  task,  it  is  said,  to  his  own  very  considerable 
profit.  The  place  cannot  have  been  seriously  injured,  as  it  was 
soon  afterwards  the  meeting-place  of  the  diplomatists  wbfi«e 
work  ended  in  the  peace  of  Hubertusburg,  but  the  king  sever 
ceased  to  banter  Quintus  on  his  supposed  depredations.  The 
very  day  of  Frederick's  triumphant  return  from  the  war  saw  the 
disbanding  of  most  of  the  free  battalions,  including  that  ol 
Quintus,  but  the  major  to  the  end  of  his  life  remained  with  the 
king.  He  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  in  1765,  and  in  1773. 
in  recognition  of  his  work  Mintoires  critiques  et  kisicriques  sur 
plusieurs  points  d'antiquilis  miiitaires,  dealing  mainly  «iib 
Caesar's  campaigns  in  Spain  (Berlin,  17  73), was  promoted  colonel 
He  died  at  Potsdam,  1775. 

GUICHEN,  LUC  URBAIN  DB  BOUfiXIC,  CoifTC  DE  (171^ 
1790),  French  admiral, entered  the  navy  in  1730  as  "  garde  de  U 
Marine,"  the  first  rank  in  the  corps  of  royal  officen.  His  pro- 
motion was  not  rapid.  It  was  not  till  1748  that  he  became 
"lieutenant  de  vaisseau,"  which  was,  however,  a  somewhat 
higher  rank  than  the  lieutenant  in  the  British  navy,  since  it 
carried  with  it  the  right  to  command  a  frigate.  He  was  "  capi- 
tainede  vaisseau,"  or  post  captain,  in  1756.  But  his  reputation 
must  have  been  good,  for  he  was  made  chevalier  de  Saint  Louis 
in  1748.  In  1 775'he  was  appointed  to  the  frigate  "Terpsichore,'* 
attached  to  the  training  squadron,  in  which  the  due  de  Chartres, 
afterwards  notorious  as  the  due  d'Orl^ans  and  as  Philippe 
£galit6,  was  entered  as  volunteer^  In  the  next  year  he  was 
promoted  chef  d'escadre,  or  rear-admiraL  When  France  had 
become  the  ally  of  the  Americans  in  the  War  of  Independence,  he 
hoisted  his  flag  in  the  Channel  fleet,  and  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Ushant  on  the  27th  of  July  1779.  In  March  of  the  foUoving 
year  he  was  sent  to  the  West  Indies  with  a  strong  squadron 
and  was  there  opposed  to  Sir  George  Rodney.  In  the  first  meeting 
between  them  on  the  17th  of  April  to  leeward  of  Martinique, 
Guichen  escaped  disaster  only  through  the  clumsy  manner  in 
which  Sir  George's  orders  were  executed  by  hb  captains.  Seeing 
that  he  had  to  deal  with  a  formidable  opponent,  Guichen  acted 
with  extreme  caution,  and  by  keeping  the  weather  gauge  afforded 
the  British  admiral  no  chance  of  bringing  him  to  dose  aciioo. 
When  the  hurricane  months  approached  (July  to  September) 
he  left  the  West  Indies,  and  his  squadron,  being  in  a  bad  state 
from  want  of  repairs,  returned  home,  reaching  Brest  in  September 
Throughout  all  this  campaign  Guichen  had  shown  himself  very 
skilful  in  handling  a  fleet,  and  if  be  had  not  gained  any  marked 
success,  he  had  prevented  the  British  admiral  from  doing  any 
harm  to  the  French  islands  in  the  Antilles.  In  December  1781 
the  comte  de  Guichen  was  chosen  to  command  the  force  which 
was  entrusted  with  the  duty  of  carrying  stores  and  reinforce- 
ments to  the  West  Indies.  On  the  12th  Admiral  Kempenfelt, 
who  had  been  sent  out  by  the  British  Govemmenl  with  an 
unduly  weak  force  to  intercept  him,  sighted  the  French  admiral 
in  the  Bay  of  Biscay  through  a  temporary  clearance  in  a  fog, 
at  a  moment  when  Guichen 's  warships  were  to  leeward  of  the 
convoy,  and  attacked  the  transports  at  once.  The  French 
admiral  could  not  prevent  his  enemy  from  capturing  twenty  of 
the  transports,  and  driving  the  others  into  a  panic-stricken 
flight.  They  returned  to  port,  and  the  miaston  entrusted  to 
Guichen  was  entirely  defeated.  He  therefore  returned  to  port 
also.  He  had  no  opportunity  to  gain  any  counterbalaodsg 
success  during  the  short  remainder  of  the  war,  but  he  was  presmt 
at  the  final  relief  of  Gibraltar  by  Lord  Howe.  His  death  occuned 
on  the  13th  of  January  1790.  The  comte  de  Guichen  was.  by 
the  testimony  of  his  contemporaries,  a  most  accomplished 
and  high-minded  gentleman.  It  t»^ probable  that  he  had  more 
scientific  knowledge  than  any  of  his  English  contemporaries 
and  opponents.  But  as  a  commander  in  war  he  was  notable 
chiefly  for  his  skill  in  directing  the  orderly  raovemcots  of  a 
fleet,  and  seems  to  have  been  satisfied  with  formal  operations, 
which  were  possibly  elegant  but  could  lead  to  no  substantial 
result.  He  had  none  of  the  combative  instincts  of  his  ooopiry- 
I  man  Suffren,  or  of  the  average  British  admiraL 


GUIDE— GUIDO  OF  AREZZO 


687 


See  vicomte  de  Noailles,  Marins  ei  scidats  franatis  en  Amhiqut 
(1903):  and  E.  Chevalier,  Histoire  dt  la  marine  franfaistpentunl 
la  guerre  de  Vindipendence  amiricaine  (1877).  (D.  H.) 

GUIDE  (in  Mid.  £ng.  gyde^  from  the  Fr.  luidt;  the  earlier 
French  form  was  ; utV,  Englbb  "  guy,"  the  d  was  due  to  ttie 
Italian  form  guida\    the  ultimate  origin  is  probably  Teutonic, 
the  word  being  connected  with   the   base  seen  in  O.   Eng. 
witan^  to  know),  an  agency  for  directing  or  showing  the  way, 
specifically  a  person  who  leads  or  directs  a  stranger  over  unknown 
or  unmapped  country,   or  conducts  travellers  and   tourists 
through  a  town,  or  over  buildings  of  interest.    In  European 
wars  up  to  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution,  the  absence  of 
large  scale  detailed  maps  made  local  guides  almost  essential  to 
the  direction  of  military  operations,  and  in  the  i8th  century  the 
general  tendency  to  the  stricter  organization  of  military  re- 
sources led  in  various  countries  to  the  special  training  of  guide 
officers  (called  Feldjager,  and  considered  as  general  staff  officers 
in  the  Prussian  army),  whose  chief  duty  it  was  to  find,  and  if 
necessary  establish,  routes  across  country  for  those  parts  of 
the  army  that  had  to  move  parallel  to  the  main  road  and  as 
nearly  as  pbssible  at  deploying  interval  from  each  other,  for  in 
those  days  armies  were  rarely  spread  out  so  far  as  to  have  the 
use  of  two  or  more  made  roads.    But  the  necessity  for  such 
precautions  died  away  when  adequate  surveys  (in  which  guide 
officers  were,  at  any  rate  in  Prussia,  freely  employed)  were 
carried  out ,  and,  as  a  definite  term  of  military  organization  to-day, 
"guide"  possesses  no  more  essential  peculiarity  than  fusilier, 
grenadier  or  rifleman.    The  genesis  of  the  modern  "  Guide  " 
regiments  b  perhaps  to  be  found  in  a  short-lived  Corps  of  Guides 
formed  by  Napoleon  in  Italy  in  1796,  which  appears  to  have 
•been  a  personal  escort  or  body  guard  composed  of  men  who 
knew  the  country.    In  the  Belgian  army  of  to-day  the  Guide 
regiments  correspond  almost  to  the  Guard  cavalry  of  other 
nations;  in  the  Svtiss  army  the  squadrons  of  "Guides"  act  as 
divisional  cavalry,  and  in  this  r61e  doubtless  are  called  upon 
on  occasion  to  lead  columns.    The  "  Queen's  own  Corps  of 
Guides"  of  the  Indian  army  consbts  of  infantry  companies 
and  cavalry  squadrons.    In  drill,  a  "  guide  "  is  an  officer  or 
non-commissioned  officer  told  off  to  regulate  the  direction  and 
pace  of  movements,  the  remainder  of  the  unit  maintaining 
their  alignment  and  distances  by  him. 

A  particular  class  of  guides  are  those  employed  in  mountain- 
eering; these  are  not  merely  to  show  the  way  but  stand  in  the 
position  of  professional  climbers  with  an  expert  knowledge  of 
rock  and  snowcraft,  which  they  impart  to  the  amateur,  at  the 
same  time  assuring  the  safety  of  the  climbing  party  in  dangerous 
expeditions.  This  professional  class  of  guides  arose  in  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century  when  Alpine  climbing  became  re- 
cognized as  a  sport  (see  Mountaineering).  It  is  thus  natural 
to  find  that  the  Alpine  guides  have  been  requisitioned  for 
mountaineering  expeditions  all  over  the  world.  In  climbing 
in  Switzerland,  the  central  committee  of  the  Swiss  Alpine  Club 
issues  a  guides'  tariff  which  fixes  the  charges  for  guides  and 
porters;  there  are  three  sections,  for  the  Valais  and  Vaudois 
Alps,  for  the  Bernese  Oberland,  and  for  central  and  eastern 
Switzerland.  The  names  of  many  of  the  great  guides  have 
become  historical.  In  Chamonix  a  statue  has  been  raised  to 
Jacques  Balmat,  who  was  the  first  to  climb  Mont  Blanc  in  1 786. 
Of  the  more  famous  guides  since  the  beginning  of  Alpine  climbing 
may  be  mentioned  Auguste  Balmat,  Michel  Cros,  Maquignay, 
J.  A.  C.«rrel,  who  went  with  E.  Whymper  to  the  Andes,  the 
brothers  Lauener,  Christian  Aimer  and  Jakob  and  Melchior 
Anderegg. 

"  Guide  "  ts  also  applied  to  a  book,  in  the  sense  of  an  ele- 
mentary primer  on  some  subject,  or  of  one  giving  full  informa- 
tion for  travellers  of  a  country,  district  or  town.  In  mechanical 
usage,  the  term  "  guide  "  is  of  wide  application,  being  used  of 
anything  which  steadies  or  directs  the  motion  of  an  object,  as 
of  the  "leading"  screw  of  a  screw-cutting  lathe,  of  a  loose 
pulley  used  to  steady  a  driving-belt,  or  of  the  bars  or  rods  in  a 
iteam-engine  which  keep  the  sliding  blocks  moving  in  a  straight 
Uae.    The  doublet  "  guy  "  is  thus  used  of  a  rope  which  steadies 


a  sail  when  it  is  being  raised  or  lowered,  or  of  a  rope,  chain  or 
stay  supporting  a  funnel,  mast,  derrick,  &c. 

GUIDI.  CARLO  ALESSANDRO  (1650-1712),  Italian  lyric 
poet,  was  born  at  Pa  via  in  1650.  As  chief  founder  of  the  well- 
known  Roman  academy  called  "  L'Arcadia,"  he  had  a  con- 
siderable share  in  the  reform  of  Italian  poetry,  corrupted  at 
that  time  by  the  extravagance  and  bad  taste  of  the  poets  Marini 
and  Achillini  and  their  school.  The  poet  Guidi  and  the  critic 
and  jurisconsult  Gravina  checked  this  evil  by  their  influence 
and  example.  The  genius  of  Guidi  was  lyric  in  the  highest 
degree;  his  songs  are  written  with  singular  force,  and  charm 
the  reader,  in  spite  of  touches  of  bombast.  His  most  celebrated 
song  is  that  entitled  Alia  Forluna  (To  Fortune),  which  certainly 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  pieces  of  poetry  of  the  17th  century. 
Guidi  was  squint-eyed,  humpbacked,  and  of  a  delicate  constitu- 
tion, but  possessed  undoubted  literary  ability.  His  poems  were 
printed  at  Parma  in  167 1,  and  at  Rome  in  1704.  In  1681  he 
published  at  Parma  his  lyric  tragedy  Amalasunta  in  Jlaly,  and 
two  pastoral  dramas  Daphne  and  Endymion.  The  last  had  the 
honour  of  being  mentioned  as  a  model  by  the  critic  Gravina,  in 
his  treatise  on  poetry.  Less  fortunate  was  Guidi's  poetical 
version  of  the  six  homilies  of  Pope  Clement  XI.,  first  as  having 
been  severely  criticized  by  the  satirist  Settano,  and  next  as 
having  proved  to  be  the  indirect  cause  of  the  author 's  death. 
A  splendid  edition  of  this  version  had  been  printed  in  171 3. 
and,  the  pope  being  then  in  San  Gandolfo,  Guidi  went  there  to 
present  him  with  a  copy.  On  the  way  be  found  out  a  serious 
typographical  error,  which  he  took  so  much  to  heart  that  he 
was  seized  with  an  apoplectic  fit  at  Frascati  and  died  on  the 
spot.  Guidi  was  honoured  with  the  special  protection  of 
Ranuccio  II.,  duke  of  Parma,  and  of  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden. 

GUIDICCIONI.  GIOVANNI  (148&-1541),  Italian  poet,  was  born 
at  Lucca  in  1480,  and  died  at  Macerata  in  1541.  He  occupied  a 
high  position,  being  bishop  of  Fossombrone  and  president  of 
Romagna.  The  latter  office  nearly  cost  him  his  life;  a  murderer 
attempted  to  kill  him,  and  had  already  touched  his  breast  with 
his  dagger  when,  conquered  by  the  resolute  calmness  of  the 
prelate,  he  threw  away  the  weapon  and  fell  at  his  feet,  asking 
forgiveness.  The  Rime  and  Letters  of  Guidiccioni  are  models  of 
elegant  and  natural  Italian  style.  The  best  editions  are  those 
of  Genoa  (1749),  Bergamo  (1753)  and  Florence  (1878). 

GUIDO  OF  AREZZO  (possibly  to  be  identified  with  Guido 
de  St  Maur  des  Fosses),  a  musician  who  lived  in  the  nth  century. 
He  has  by  many  been  called  the  father  of  modern  music,  and  a 
portrait  of  him  in  the  refectory  of  the  monastery  of  Avellana 
bears  the  inscription  Beaius  Cuido,  inventor  musicae.  Of  his 
life  little  is  known,  and  that  little  is  chiefly  derived  from  the 
dedicatory  letters  prefixed  to  two  of  his  treatises  and  addressed 
respectively  to  Bishop  Theodald  (not  Theobald,  as  Burney  writes 
the  name)  of  Arezzo,  and  Michael,  a  monk  of  Pomposa  <nd 
Guido's  pupil  and  friend.  Occasional  references  to  the  cele- 
brated musician  in  the  works  of  his  contemporaries  are,  however, 
by  no  means  rare,  and  from  these  it  may  be  conjectured  with  all 
but  absolute  certainty  that  Guido  was  born  in  the  last  decade 
of  the  loth  century.  The  place  of  his  birth  is  uncertain  in 
spite  of  some  evidence  pointing  to  Arezzo;  on  the  title-page  of 
all  his  works  he  is  styled  Cuido  Arctinus,  or  simply  Aretinus. 
At  his  first  appearance  in  history  Guido  was  a  monk  in  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  Pomposa,  and  it  was  there  that  he 
taught  singing  and  invented  his  educational  method,  by  means 
of  which,  according  to  his  own  statement,  a  pupil  might  learn 
within  five  months  what  formerly  it  would  have  taken  him  ten 
years  to  acquire.  Envy  and  jealousy,  however,  were  his  only 
reward,  and  by  these  he  was  compelled  to  leave  his  monastery — 
*'  inde  est,  quod  me  vides  prolixis  finibus  exulatum,"  as  he  says 
himself  in  the  second  of  the  letters  above  referred  to.  According 
to  one  account,  he  travelled  as  far  as  Bremen,  called  there  by 
Archbishop  Hermann  in  order  to  reform  the  musical  service. 
But  this  statement  has  been  doubted.  Certain  it  is  that  not 
long  after  his  flight  from  Pomposa  Guido  was  living  at  Arezzo, 
and  it  was  here  that,  about  1030,  he  received  an  invitation  to 
Rome  from  Pope  John  XIV.    He  obeyed  the  summons,  and  the 


m 


GUIDO  OF  SIENA— GUIDO  RENI 


pope  himself  became  his  first  and  apparently  one  of  his  most 
proficient  pupils.  But  in  spite  of  his  success  Guido  could  not  be 
induced  to  remain  in  Rome,  the  insalubrious  air  of  which  seems 
to  have  affected  his  health.  In  Rome  he  met  again  his  former 
superior,  the  abbot  of  Pomposa,  who  seems  to  have  repented 
of  his  conduct,  and  to  have  induced  Guido  to  return  to  Pomposa; 
and  here  all  authentic  records  of  Guido's  life  cease.  We  only 
know  that  he  died,  on  the  17th  of  May  loso.aspriorof  Avellana, 
a  monastery  of  the  Camaldulians;  such  at  least  is  the  statement 
of  the  chroniclers  of  that  order.  It  ought,  however,  to  be  added 
that  the  Camaldulians  claim  the  celebrated  musician  as  wholly 
their  own,  and  altogether  deny  his  connexion  with  the  Bene- 
dictines. 

The  documents  discovered  by  Dom  Germain  Morin,  the 
Belgian  Benedictine,  about  1888,  point  to  the  conclusion  that 
Guido  was  a  Frenchman  and  lived  from  his  youth  upwards  in 
the  BenedfcTlne  monastery  of  St  Maur  des  Fosses  where  he 
invented  his  novel  system  of  notation  and  taught  the  brothers 
to  sing  by  it.  In  codex  763  of  the  British  Mtiseum  the  com- 
poser of  the  "  Micrologus  "  and  other  works  by  Guido  of  Arezzo 
is  always  described  as  Guido  de  Sancto  Mauro. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  Guido's  method  shows  considerable 

progress  in  the  evolution  of  modem  notation.    It  was  he  who 

for  the  first  time  systematically  used  the  lines  of  the  staff,  and 

the  intervals  or  spatia  between  them.    There  is  also  little  doubt 

that  the  names  of  the  first  six  notes  of  the  scale,  «/,  re,  mi,  fa, 

sol,  la,  still  in  use  among  Romance  nations,  were  introduced  by 

Guido,  although  he  seems  to  have  used  them  in  a  relative  rather 

than  in  an  absolute  sense.    It  is  well  known  that  these  words 

are  the  first  syllables  of  six  lines  of  a  hymn  addressed  to  St  John 

the  Baptist,  which  may  be  given  here: — 

Ui  queant  laxis       resonare  fibris 
Aff'ra  gestorum        famuli  tuorum. 
Solve  polluti  labii  reatum, 

Sancte  Joannes. 

In  addition  to  this  Guido  is  generally  credited  inth  the  intro- 
duction of  the  F  clef.  But  more  important  than  all  this,  perhaps, 
is  the  thoroughly  practical  tone  which  Guido  assumes  in  his 
theoretical  writings,  and  which  differs  greatly  from  the  clumsy 
scholasticism  of  his  contemporaries  and  predecessors. 

The  most  important  of  Guido's  treatises,  and  those  which  are 

Senerally  acknowledged  to  be  authentic,  are  Microlorus  Cuidonis  de 
iuiplina  ariis  mustaxe,  dedicated  to  Bishop  Thcodald  of  Arezzo, 
and  comprising  a  complete  theory  of  music,  in  20  chapters;  Musicae 
Cuidonis  reguhe  rhytkmicae  in  antiphonani  iut  proioium  prolatae, 
written  in  trochaic  decasyllabics  of  anything  but  classical  structure; 
Alia*  Cuidonis  regulae  de  ignoto  caniu,  tdenttdem  in  antipkomarii  sui 
priUogum  prc4atae;  and  the  Epistola  Cuidonts  Atuhadi  monacko  de 
ignoto  cantu,  already  referred  to.  These  are  published  in  the  second 
volume  of  Gerbert's  Scriptores  ecclesiailut  de  musita  sacra.  A  very 
important  manuscript  unknown  to  Gcrbert  (the  Codex  Mliothecae 
Utuensis,  in  the  Paris  library)  contains,  besides  minor  treatises,  an 
antiphonarium  and  gradual  undoubtedly  belonging  to  Guido. 

See  also  L.  Aneeloni,  C.  d'Arexxo  (181 1):  Kiesewctter,  Cuido  von 
Arezso  (1840);  Kornmbller,  "  Leben  und  Wcrken  Guidos  von 
Arezzo,"  in  Habert's  Jahrb.  (1876):  Antonio  Brandi,  C.  Aretino 
(1882):  G.  B.  Ristori,  Btografia  d%  Cutdo  monaco  d'Areuo  (1868). 

GUIDO  OF  SIENA.  The  name  of  this  Italian  painter  is  of 
considerable  interest  in  the  history  of  art,  on  the  ground  that, 
if  certain  assumptions  regarding  him  could  be  accepted  as  true, 
he  would  be  entitled  to  share  with  Cimabue,  or  rather  indeed 
to  supersede  him  in,  the  honour  of  having  given  the  first  onward 
impulse  to  the  art  of  painting.  The  case  stands  thus.  In  the 
church  of  S.  Domenico  in  Siena  is  a  large  painting  of  the  "  Virgin 
and  Child  Enthroned,"  with  six  angels  above,  and  in  the  Bene- 
dictine convent  of  the  same  city  is  a  triangular  pinnacle,  once 
a  portion  of  the  same  composition,  representing  the  Saviour  in 
benediction,  with  two  angels;  the  entire  work  was  originally 
a  triptych,  but  is  not  so  now.  The  principal  section  of  this 
picture  has  a  rhymed  Latin  inscription,  giving  the  painter's 
name  as  Gu  .  .  .  o  de  Senis,  with  the  date  1221:  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  inscription  is  not,  however,  free  from  doubt,  and 
especially  it  is  maintained  that  the  date  really  reads  as  1281. 
In  the  general  treatment  of  the  picture  there  is  nothing  to 
distinguish  it  particularly  from  other  work  of  the  same  eariy 


period;  but  the  heads  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  are  indisputabbr 
very  superior,  in  natural  character  and  graceful  dignity,  to 
anything  to  be  found  anterior  to  Cimabue.  The  question  there- 
fore arises.  Are  these  heads  really  the  work  of  a  man  who  painted 
in* 1 22 1  ?  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  pronounce  in  the  negative, 
concluding  that  the  heads  are  repainted,  and  arc,  as  they  bov 
stand,  due  to  some  artist  of  the  14th  century,  perhaps  Ugoiino 
da  Siena;  thus  the  claims  of  Cimabue  would  remain  undisturbed 
and  in  their  pristine  vigour.  Beyond  this,  little  is  known  of 
Guido  da  Siena.  There  is  in  the  Academy  of  Siena  a  picture 
assigned  to  him,  a  half-figure  of  the  "  Virgin  and  Child/'  wiik 
two  angels,  dating  probably  between  1250  and  1300;  also  in 
the  church  of  S.  Bernardino  in  the  same  dty  a  Madonna  dated 
1262.  Milanesi  thinks  that  the  work  in  S.  Domenico  is  doe  to 
Guido  Graziani,  of  whom  no  other  record  remains  earlier  thaa 
1278,  when  he  is  mentioned  as  the  painter  of  a  banner.  Guido 
da  Siena  appears  always  to  have  painted  on  panel,  not  in  fresco 
on  the  wall.  He  has  been  termed,  very  dubiously,  a  pupil  of 
Pietrolino,  and  the  master  of  "  Diotisalvi,"  Mino  da  Turrita  and 
Berlinghieri  da  Lucca. 

GUIDO  RBNI  (1575-1643),  a  prime  master  in  the  Bolognese 
school  of  painting,  and  one  of  the  most  admired  artists  of  the 
period  of  incipient  decadence  in  Italy,  was  bom  at  Calvenzano 
near  Bologna  on  the  4ih  of  November  1575.  His  father  was  a 
musician  of  repute,  a  player  on  the  flageolet;  he  wished  to  bring 
the  lad  up  to  peHorm  on  the  harpsichord.  At  a  very  chiHHii 
age,  however,  Guido  displayed  a  determined  bent  towards  the 
art  of  form,  scribbling  some  attempt  at  a  drawing  here,  there 
and  everywhere.  He  was  only  nine  yeairs  of  age  when  Denis 
Calvart  took  notice  of  him,  received  him  into  his  academy  of 
design  by  the  father's  permission,  and  rapidly  brought  him 
forward,  so  that  by  the  age  of  thirteen  Guido  bad  already  at- 
tained marked  proficiency.  Albani  and  Domenichino  became 
soon  afterwards  pupils  in  the  same  academy.  With  Albani 
Guido  was  very  intimate  up  to  the  eariier  period  of  manhood, 
but  they  afterwards  became  rivals,  both  as  painters  and  ss 
heads  of  ateliers,  with  a  good  deal  of  a^erity  on  Albani*s  part; 
Domenichino  was  also  pitted  against  Reni  by  the  policy  of 
Annibale  Caracd.  Guido  was  still  in  the  academy  of  Calvart 
when  he  began  frequenting  the  opposition  school  kept  by 
Lodovico  Caracci,  whose  style,  far  in  advance  of  that  of  the 
Flemish  painter,  he  dallied  with.  This  exasperated  Calvart. 
Him  Guido,  not  yet  twenty  years  of  age,  cheerfully  quitted, 
transferring  himself  openly  to  die  Caracci  academy,  in  which  he 
soon  became  prominent,  being  equally  skilful  and  ambitious. 
He  had  not  been  a  year  with  the  Caracd  when  a  worii  of  his 
excited  the  wonder  of  Agostino  and  the  jealousy  of  Annibale, 
Lodovico  cherished  him,  and  frequently  painted  hhn  as  an  angd^ 
for  the  youthful  Reni  was  extremdy  handsome.  After  a  while, 
however,  Lodovico  also  felt  himself  nettled,  and  he  patronised 
the  competing  talents  of  Giovanni  Barbiere.  On  one  occasion 
Guido  had  made  a  copy  of  Annibale's  "  Descent  from  the 
Cross";  Annibale  was  asked  to  retouch  it,  and  finding  nothing 
to  do,  exclaimed  pettishly,  "  He  knows  more  than  enough  " 
("  Cestui  ne  sa  troppo  ").  On  another  occasion  Lodovico,  con- 
sulted as  umpire,  lowered  a  price  which  Reni  asked  for  an  eariy 
picture.  This  slight  determined  the  young  man  to  be  a  pupd 
no  more.  He  left  the  Caracd,  and  started  on  his  own  account 
as  a  competitor  in  the  race  for  patronage  and  fame.  A  renowned 
work,  the  story  of  **  CaJlisto  and  Diana,*'  had  been  oomplcicd 
before  he  left 

Guido  was  faithful  to  the  eclectic  principle  ol  the  Boksgncse 
school  of  painting.  He  had  apprc^riated  something  Irooi 
Calvart,  much  more  from  Lodovico  Caracd;  he  studied  with 
much  zest  after  Albert  DOrer;  he  adopted  the  nussivt,  sombre 
and  partly  uncouth  manner  of  Caravaggio.  One  day  Annibale 
Caracci  made  the  remark  that  a  style  might  be  formed  reversing 
that  of  Caravaggio  in  such  matters  as  the  ponderous  shadows 
and  the  gross  common  forms;  this  observation  germinated  in 
Guido's  mind,  and  he  endeavoured  after  some  such  style,  aiming 
constantly  at  suavity.  Towards  1602  he  went  to  Rome  with 
Albani.  and  Rome  remained  his  headquarters  iot  twenty  ythn. 


GUIENNE 


689 


Here,  in  the  pontificate  of  PftuI  V.  (Boishese),  he  was  greatly 
noted  and  distinguished.  In  the  garden-house  of  the  Rospigliosi 
Palace  he  painted  the  vast  fresco  which  is  justly  regarded  as  his 
masterpiece—"  Phoebus  and  the  Hours  preceded  by  Aurora." 
This  exhibits  his  second  manner,  in  which  he  had  deviated  far 
indeed  from  the  promptings  of  Caravaggio.  He  founded  now 
chiefly  upon  the  antique,  more  e^>edally  the  Niobe  group  and 
the  "  Venus  de'  Medici, "  modified  by  suggestions  from  Raphael, 
Correggio,  Parmigiano  and  Paul  Veronese.  Of  this  Ust  painter, 
although  on  the  whole  he  did  not  get  much  from  him,  Guido 
was  a  particular  admirer;  he  used  to  say  that  he  would  rather 
have  been  Paul  Veronese  than  any  other  master — Paul  was 
more  nature  than  art.  The  "  Aurora  "  is  beyond  doubt  a  work 
of  pre-eminent  beauty  and  attainment;  it  is  stamped  with 
pleasurable  dignity,  and,  without  being  effeminate,  has  a  more 
uniform  aim  after  graceful  selectness  than  can  readily  be  traced 
in  previous  painters,  greatly  superior  though  some  of  them  had 
been  in  impulse  and  personal  fervour  of  genius.  The  pontifical 
chapel  of  Montecavallo  was  assigned  to  Reni  to  paint;  but, 
being  straitened  in  payments  by  the  ministers,  the  artist  made 
oS  to  Bologna.  He  was  fetched  back  by  Paul  V.  with  cere- 
monious 6dat,  and  lodging,  living  and  equipage  were  supplied 
to  him.  At  another  time  he  migrated  from  Rome  to  Naples, 
having  received  a  commission  to  paint  the  chapel  of  S.  Gennaro 
The  notorious  cabal  of  three  painters  resident  in  Naples — 
Corcnzio,  Caracciolo  and  Ribera — offered,  however,  as  stiff  an 
opposition  to  Guido  as  to  some  other  interlopers  who  preceded 
and  succeeded  him.  They  gave  his  ser\*ant  a  beating  by  the 
hands  of  two  unknown  bullies,  and  sent  by  him  a  message  to 
his  master  to  depart  or  prepare  for  death;  Guido  waited  for  no 
second  warning,  and  departed.  He  now  returned  to  Rome; 
but  he  finally  left  that  city  abruptly,  in  the  pontificate  of  Urban 
VIII.,  in  consequence  of  an  offensive  reprimand  administered  to 
him  by  Cardinal  Spinola.  He  had  received  an  advance  of  400 
scudi  on  account  of  an  altarpiece  for  St  Peter's,  but  after  some 
lapse  of  years  had  made  no  beginning  with  the  work.  A  broad 
reminder  from  the  cardinal  put  Reni  on  his  mettle;  he  returned 
the  400  scudi,  quitted  Rome  within  a  few  days,  and  steadily 
resisted  all  attempts  at  recall.  He  now  resettled  in  Bologna. 
He  had  taught  as  well  as  painted  in  Rome,  and  he  left  pupils 
behind  him;  but  on  the  whole  he  did  not  stamp  any  great 
mark  upon  the  Roman  school  of  painting,  apart  from  his  own 
numerous  works  in  the  papal  city. 

In  Bologna  Guido  lived  in  great  ^lendour,  and  established  a 
celebrated  school,  numbering  more  than  two  hundred^scholars. 
He  himself  drew  in  it,  even  down  to  his  latest  years.  On  first 
returning  to  this  city,  he  charged  about  £21  for  a  fuU-length 
figure  (mere  portraits  are  not  here  in  question),  half  this  sum 
for  a  half-length,  and  £5  for  a  head.  These  prices  must  be 
regarded  as  handsome,  when  we  consider  that  Domenichino 
about  the  same  time  received  only  £xo,  los.  for  his  very  large  and 
celebrated  picture,  the  "  Last  Communion  of  St  Jerome." 
But  Guido's  reputation  was  still  on  the  increase,  and  in  process 
of  time  he  quintupled  his  prices.  He  now  left  Bologna  hardly 
at  all;  in  one  instance,  however,  he  went  off  to  Ravenna,  and, 
along  with  three  pupils,  he  painted  the  chapel  in  the  cathedral 
with  his  admired  picture  of  the  "  Israelites  gathering  Manna." 
His  shining  pro^erity  was  not  to  last  till  the  end.  Guido  was 
dissipated,  generously  but  indiscriminatdy  profuse,  and  an 
inveterate  gambler.  The  gambling  propensity  had  been  his 
from  youth,  but  until  he  became  elderly  it  did  not  noticeably 
damage  his  fortunes.  It  grew  upon  him,  and  in  a  couple  of 
evenings  he  lost  the  enormous  sum  of  14^400  scudL  The  vice 
told  still  more  ruinously  on  his  art  than  on  his  character.  In 
his  decline  he  sold  his  time  at  so  much  per  hour  to  certain  picture 
dealers;  one  of  them,  the  Shylock  of  his  craft,  would  stand  by, 
watch  in  hand,  and  see  him  work.  Half-heartedness,  half-per- 
formance, blighted  his  product:  self-repetition  and  mere 
mannerism,  with  affectation  for  sentiment  and  vapidity  for 
beauty,  became  the  art  of  Guido.  Some  of  these  trade-works, 
heads  or  half-figures,  were  turned  out  in  three  hours  or  even 
leas.    It  is  said  that,  tardily  wise,  Reni  left  off  gambling  for 

xn  19 


nearly  two  years;  at  last  he  relapsed,  and  his  relapse  was 
followed  not  long  afterwards  by  his  death,  caused  by  malignant 
fever.  This  event  took  place  in  Bologna  on  the  x8th  of  August 
1643;  he  died  in  debt,  but  was  buried  with  great  pomp  in  the 
church  of  S.  Domenioo. 

Guide  was  pemnally  modest,  although  he  valued  himself  on  his 
poation  m  the  art,  and  would  tolerate  no  di^ht  in  that  relation ; 
he  was  extremely  upright,  temperate  in  diet^  nice  in  his  person  and 
his  dreas.  He  was  fond  of  autely  houses,  but  could  feel  also  the 
charm  of  solitude.  In  his  temper  there  was  a  large  amount  of 
suspidousness;  and  the  jealousy  which  hb  abilities  and  his  suc- 
cesses exdted.  now  from  the  Caracct,  now  from  Albani,  now  from 
the  monopoliang  league  of  Neapolitan  painters,  may  naturally 
have  kept  thb  feeling  m  active  exercise.  Of  his  numerous  scholars, 
Siroone  Cantarini,  named  II  Pcaarese,  counts  as  the  roost  distin- 
guished; hepainted  an  admirable  head  of  Reni,  now  in  the  Bolqgnesc 
Galk^ry.  The  portrait  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery  of  Florence  is  from  Keni'a 
own  hand.  Two  other  good  scholars  were  Giacomo  Semenza  and 
Francesco  Geast. 

The  character  of  Guido's  art  b  so  well  known  as  hardly  to  call 
for  detailed  analysis,  beyond  what  we  have  already  intimated.  His 
most  characteristic  styfe  exhibits  a  prepense  ideal,  of  form  rather 


far  from  always  goins  to  choice  nature  for  his  model;  he  trans- 
muted ad  libitum,  and  painted,  it  is  averred,  a  Magdalene  of  de- 
monstrative charms  from  a  vulgar-looking  colour-grinder.  His 
best  works  have  beauty,  great  amenity,  artistic  fechng  and  high 
accomfUishment  of  manner,  all  alloyed  by  a  certain  core  of  common- 
place; in  the  worst  pictures  the  commonplace  swamps  everything, 
and  Guido  has  flooded  European  galleries  with  trasny  and  empty 
pretentiousness,  all  the  more  noxious  in  that  its  apparent  grace  of 
sentiment  and  form  misleads  the  unwary  into  approval,  and  the 
dilettante  dabbler  into  cheap  raptures.  Both  in  Rome  and  wherever 
else  he  worked  he  introduced  increased  softness  of  style,  which 
was  then  designated  as  the  modern  method.  His  pictures  are 
mostly  Scriptural  or  mythologic  in  subject,  and  between  two  and 
three  hundred  of  them  are  to  be  found  in  various  European  col- 
lections— more  than  a  hundred  of  these  containing  life-siaed  figures. 
The  portraits  which  he  executed  are  few — those  of  Sixtus  V., 
Cardinal  Spada  and  the  so-called  Beatrice  Cenci  bdng  among  the 
most  noticeable.  The  identity  of  the  last-named  portrait  is  very 
dubious;  it  certainly  cannot  have  been  painted  direct  from  Beatrice, 
who  had  been  executed  in  Rome  before  Guido  ever  resided  there. 
Many  etchings  are  attributed  to  him — some  from  his  own  works, 
and  some  after  other  mastera;  they  are  spirited,  but  rather  negligent. 
Of  other  works  not  already  noticed,  the  following  diould  be 
named:— in  Rome  (the  Vatican),  the  "Crucifixion  of  St  Peter,"  an 


and  the  "  Pieti.  or  Lament  over  the  Body  of  Christ  "  (in  the  church 
of  the  Mendicanti).  which  is  by  many  regarded  as  Guido's  prime 
executive  work;  in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  an  "  Ecce  Homo  ;  in 
Milan  fBrera  Gallerv),  "  SainU  Ptoter  and  Paul ":  in  Genoa  (church 
of  S.  Ambrogio),  the  "Assumption  of  the  Virgin";  in  Berlin. 
"  St  Paul  the  Hermit  and  St  Anthony  in  the  Wilderness."  The 
celebrated  picture  of  "  Fortune  "  (in  tne  Capitol)  a  one  of  Reni's 
finest  treatments  of  female  form;  as  a  spedmen  of  male  form,  the 
"  Samson  Drinking  from  the  Jawbone  01  an  Ass  "  might  be  named 
beside  it.  One  of  nis  latest  works  of  mark  is  the  "  Anadnc,"  which 
used  to  be  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Capitol.  The  Louvre  contains 
twenty  of  his  pictures,  the  National  Gallery  of  London  seveii,  and 
othen  were  once  there,  now  removed  to  other  public  collections. 
The  most  interesting  of  the  seven  is  the  small  "  Cororution  of  the 
Virgin."  painted  on  copper,  an  elegantly  finished  work,  more  pretty 
than  beautiful.  It  was  probably  painted  before  the  master  quitted 
Bologna  for  Rome. 

For  the  life  and  works  of  Guido  Reni,  see  Bolognini,  V^  di 
Guido  Reni  (1839);  Passeri,  ViU  d*'  piUori;  and  Malvasia.  FeUina 
Pittrice:  also  Land,  Storia  pittorica.  (W.  M.  R.) 

OUIENKE^  an  old  French  province  which  corresponded 
roughly  to  the  Aquilania  Secunda  of  the  Romans  and  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Bordeaux.  In  the  12th  century  it  formed  with 
Gascony  the  duchy  of  Aquitaine,  which  passed  under  the 
dominion  ol  the  kings  of  England  by  the  marriage  of  Eleanor 
of  Aquitaine  to  Henry  II.;  but  in  the  13th,  through  the  con- 
quests of  Philip  Augustus,  Louis  VIII.  and  Louis  IX.,  it  was 
confined  within  the  narrower  limits  fixed  by  the  treaty  of  Paris 
(1259).  It  is  at  this  point  that  Guienne  becomes  distinct  from 
Aquitaine.  It  then  comprised  the  Bordelais  (the  old  countship 
of  Bordeaux),  the  Bazadab,  part  of  P£rigord,  Limousin,  Qaexcy 
and  Rouergue,  the  Agenais  ceded  by  Philip  III.  (the  Bold)  to 
Edward  I.  (x279)«  and  (still  united  with  Gascony)  formed  a 


690 


GUIGNES— GUILDHALL 


ducfay  eitending  from  the  Qiarente  to  the  Pyrenees.  This 
duchy  was  held  on  the  terms  of  homage  to  the  French  kings, 
an  onerous  obligation;  and  both  in  1396  and  1334  it  was  con- 
fiscated by  the  kings  of  France  on  the  ground  that  there  had 
been  a  failure  in  the  feudal  duties.  At  the  treaty  of  Br6tigny 
(1360)  Edward  III.  acquired  the  fuD  sovereignty  of  the  duchy 
of  Guienne,  together  with  Aunis,  Saintonge,  Angoumois  and 
Poitou.  The  victoria  of  dn  Cuesdin  and  Gaston  Phod>u8, 
count  of  Foix,  restored  the  duchy  soon  after  to  its  X3th<entury 
limits.  In  1451  it  was  conquered  and  finally  united  to  the 
French  crown  by  Charles  VII.  In  1469  Louis  XI.  gave  it  in 
exchange  for  Champagne  and  Brio  to  his  brother  Charles,  duke 
of  Berry,  after  whose  death  in  14^3  it  was  again  united  to  the 
royal  dominion.  Guienne  then  formed  a  government  which 
from  the  17th  century  onwards  was  united  with  Gascony.  The 
government  of  Guienne  and  Gascony,  with  its  capital  at  Bor- 
deaux, lasted  till  the  end  of  the  ancien  rigime.  Under  the 
Revolution  the  departments  formed  from  Guienne  proper  were 
those  of  Gironde,  Lot-et-Garonne,  Dordogne,  Lot,  Aveyron  and. 
the  chief  part  of  Tam-et-Garonne.  * 

OUIONES,  JOSEPH  DB  (i 721-1800),  French  orientalist,  was 
bom  at  Pontoise  on  the  19th  of  October  1721.  He  succeeded 
Fourmont  at  the  Royal  Library  as  secretary  interpreter  of  the 
Eastern  languages.  A  Mimoire  hislorique  sur  I'origine  des 
Huns  et  dcs  Tura,  published  by  de  Guignes  in  1748,  obtained  his 
admission  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1753,  and  he 
became  an  associate  of  the  French  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in 
1754.  Two  years  later  he  began  to  publish  his  learned  and 
laborious  Histoire  giniraU  des  UunSf  des  McngoleSt  des  Tuns 
et  des  autres  Tarlares  occidentaux  (1756-1758);  and  in  1757  he 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Syriac  at  the  College  de  France. 
He  maintained  that  the  Chinese  nation  had  originated  in 
Egyptian  colonization,  an  opinion  to  which,  in  spite  of  every 
argument,  he  obstinately  clung.  He  died  in  Paris  in  1800. 
The  Histoire  had  been  translated  into  German  by  D&hnert 
(i 768-1 771).  De  Guignes  left  a  son.  Christian  Louis  Joseph 
(1759-1845),  who,  after  learning  Chinese  from  his  father,  went 
as  consul  to  Canton,  where  he  spent  seventeen  years.  On  his 
return  to  France  he  was  charged  by  the  government  with  the 
work  of  preparing  a  Chinese-French-Latin  dictionary  (1813). 
He  was  also  the  author  of  a  work  of  travels  {Voyages  d  Pikin, 
Manille,  et  I'tie  de  France,  x8o8). 

See  Qu^rard,  La  France  liuiraire,  where  a  list  of  the  memoirs 
contributed  by  de  Guignes  to  the  Journal  des  savants  u  given. 

QUILBERT,  T VETTE  ( 1 869-  ) ,  French  diseuse,  was  bom  in 
Paris.  She  served  for  two  years  until  1885  in  the  Magasin  du 
Printemps,  when,  on  the  advice  of  the  journalist,  Edmond 
Stoullig,  she  trained  for  the  stage  under  LandroL  She  made 
her  d6but  at  the  Bouffcs  du  Nord,  then  played  at  the  Vari6t6s, 
and  in  1890  she  received  a  regular  engagement  at  the  Eldorado 
to  sing  a  couple  of  songs  at  the  beginning  of  the  performance. 
She  also  sang  at  the  Ambassadeurs.  She  soon  won  an  immense 
vogue  by  her  rendering  of  songs  dravin  from  Parisian  lower-class 
life,  or  from  the  humours  of  the  Latin  Quarter,  "  Quatre  z^itudi- 
cnts  "  and  the  "  Hdld  du  numiro  trois  "  being  among  her  early 
triumphs.  Her  adoption  of  an  habitual  yellow  dress  and  long 
black  gloves,  her  studied  simplicity  of  diction,  and  her  ingenuous 
delivery  oif  songs  charged  with  risqui  meaning,  made  her  famous. 
She  owed  something  to  M.  Xanrof,  who  for  a  long  time  composed 
songs  especially  for  her,  and  perhaps  still  more  to  Aristide  Bruant, 
who  wrote  many  of  her  argot  songs.  She  made  successful  tours 
in  England,  Germany  and  America,  and  was  in  great  request  as 
an  entertainer  in  private  houses.  In  1895  she  married  Dr  M. 
Schiller.  In  later  years  she  discarded  something  of  her  earlier 
manner,  and  sang  songs  of  the  "  pompadour  "  and  the  "  crino- 
line "  period  in  costume.  She  published  the  novels  La  Vedette 
and  Les  Demi-vieilles,  both  in  1903. 

GUILDFORD,  a  market  town  and  municipal  borough,  and 
the  county  town  of  Surrey,  England,  in  the  Guildford  parlia- 
mentary division,  39  m.  S.W.  of  London  by  the  London  and 
South  Westem  railway;  served  also  by  the  Loiyion,  Brighton, 
and  South  Coast  and  the  South  Eastern  and  Chatham  railways. 


Pop.  (1901)  15,938.  It  is  beaotifnUy  situated  on  aa  acdivity 
of  the  northern  chalk  Downs  and  on  the  river  Wey.  lu  older 
streets  contain  a  number  of  picturesque  gabled  houses,  with 
quaint  lattices  and  curious  doorways.  The  ruins  of  a  Nonnaa 
castle  stand  finely  above  the  town  and  are  well  preserved; 
while  the  ground  about  them  is  laid  out  as  a  public  garden. 
Beneath  the  Angel  Inn  and  a  house  in  the  vicinity  are  extensive 
vaidts,  apparently  of  Early  English  date,  and  traditionally 
connected  with  the  castle.  The  church  of  St  Mary  b  Norman 
and  Early  English,  with  later  additions  and  considerably  re- 
stored; its  aisles  retain  their  eastward  apses  and  it  contains 
many  interesting  details.  The  church  of  St  Nicholas  is  a  modem 
building  on  an  ancient  site,  and  that  of  Holy  Trinity  is  a  brick 
stracture  of  1763,  with  later  additions,  also  on  the  site  of  an 
earlier  church,  from  which  some  of  the  monuments  are  preserved, 
including  that  of  Archbishop  Abbot  (1640).  The  town  bill 
dates  from  1683  and  contains  a  number  of  interesting  pictures. 
Other  public  buildings  are  the  county  hall,  com-market  and 
institute  with  museum  and  library.  Abbot'a  Hospital,  founded 
by  Archbishop  Abbot  in  1619,  is  a  beautiful  Tudor  brick  butMing. 
llie  county  hospital  (1866)  was  erected  as  a  memorial  to  Albeit, 
Prince  Consort.  The  Royal  Free  Grammar  School,  founded  in 
1509,  and  incorporated  by  Edward  VL,  is  an  important  s<^oal 
for  boys.  At  Cranleigh,  6  m.  S.E.,  is  a  large  middle-class  county 
school  The  town  has  flour  mills,  iron  foundries  and  breweries, 
and  a  large  trade  in  grain;  while  fairs  are  held  for  live  stock. 
There  is  a  manufacture  of  gunpowder  in  the  ndghbouring  village 
of  Chil worth.  Guildford  is  a  su£fragan  l^shopric  in  the  dio(xse 
of  Winchester.  The  borough  is  under  a  mayc^,  4  aldermen 
and  13  councillors.    Area,  360Z  acres. 

Guildford  (Gyldeford,  Geldeford),  occitrs  among  the  posses- 
sions of  King  Mfred,  and  was  a  royal  borough  throughout  the 
middle  ages.  It  probably  owed  its  rise  to  its  position  at  the 
junction  of  trade  routes.  It  is  first  mentioned  as  a  borough  in 
1 13 1.  Henry  III.  granted  a  charter  to  the  men  of  Guildford  in 
13  56,  by  which  they  obtained  freedom  from  toll  throughout 
the  kingdom,  and  the  privilege  of  having  the  county  court 
held  always  in  their  town.  Edward  III.  granted  charters  to 
Guildford  in  1340,  1346  and  1367;  Henry  VI.  in  1423;  Henry 
VIL  in  1488.  Elizabeth  in  1580  confirmed  earlier  charters,  and 
other  charters  were  granted  in  1603,  1626  and  1686.  Hie 
borough  was  incorporated  in  i486  under  the  title  of  the  mayor 
and  good  men  of  Guildford.  During  the  middle  ages  the  govern- 
ment of  the  town  rested  with  a  powerful  merchant  gild.  Tro 
members  for  Guildford  sat  in  the  parliament  of  1295,  and  the 
borough  continued  to  return  two  representatives  until  1867 
when  the  number  was  reduced  to  one.  By  the  Redistribution 
Act  of  1885  Guildford  became  merged  in  the  county  for  electoral 
purposes.  Edward  II.  granted  to  the  town  the  right  of  hav'iiig 
two  fairs,  at  the  feast  of  St  Matthew  (31st  of  September)  and 
at  Trinity  respectively.  Henry  VII.  granted  fairs  on  the  feast 
of  St  Martin  (nth  of  November)  and  St  George  (33rd  of  April). 
Fairs  in  May  for  the  sale  of  sheep  and  in  November  for  the  sale 
of  cattle  are  still  held.  The  market  rights  date  at  least  from 
1376,  and  three  weekly  markets  are  still  hdd  for  the  sale 
of  com,  cattle  and  vegetables  respectively.  The  cloth  trade 
which  formed  the  staple  industry  at  Guildford  in  the  middle 
ages  is  now  extinct. 

GUILDHALL,  the  hall  of  the  corporation  of  the  city  of  Loodoo, 
England.  It  faces  a  courtyard  opening  out  of  Gresham  Street. 
The  date  of  its  original  foundation  is  not  known.  An  ancknt 
crypt  remains,  but  the  hall  has  otherwise  undergone  much 
alteration.  It  was  rebuilt  in  14x1,  beautified  by  the  mum- 
ficence  of  successive  officials,  damaged  in  the  Great  Fire  of  1666, 
and  restored  in  1789  by  George  Dance;  while  the  hall  vas 
again  restored,  with  a  new  roof,  in  1870.  This  fine  chamber, 
153  ft.  in  len^h,  is  the  scene  of  the  state  banquets  and  enler- 
tainments  of  the  corporation,  and  of  the  municipal  meetia^ 
"in  common  hail."  The  building  also  contains  a  council 
chamber  and  various  court  room^  with  a  splendid  library,  cpea 
to  the  public,  a  museum  and  art  gallery  adjoining.  The  hsU 
contains  several  monuments  and  two  giant  figures  of  wood. 


GUILFORD  (TITLE)— GUILFORD 


691 


known  as  Gog  and  Magog.  These  were  set  up  in  1708,  but  the 
appearance  of  giants  in  dty  pageants  is  of  much  earlier  date. 

GUILFORD,  BARONS  AND  EARLS  OF.  Fkanqs  Noam, 
I8t  Baron  Guilford  (1637-1685),  was  the  third  son  of  the  4th 
Baron  North  (see  Nosth,  Basons),  and  wras  created  Baron 
Guilford  in  1683,  after  becoming  lord  keeper  in  succession  to 
Lord  Nottingham.  He  had  been  an  eminent  kwyer,  solidtor- 
general  (1671),  attoroey-general  (1673),  and  chief-justice  of  the 
common  pleas  (1675),  and  in  1679  was  made  a  member  of  the 
coundl  of  thirty  and  on  its  dissolution  of  the  cabinet.  He  was 
a  man  of  wide  culture  and  a  stanch  royalist.  Ifo  1672  he  married 
Lady  Franns  Pope,  daughter  and  co-heiress  of  the  earl  of 
Downe,  who  inherited  the  Wroxton  estate;  and  he  was  suc- 
ceeded as  2nd  baron  by  his  son  Francis  (1673-1729),  whose  eldest 
son  Francis  (1704-2790),  after  inheriting  first  his  father's  title 
as  3rd  baron,  and  then  (in  1734)  the  barony  of  North  Irom  his 
kinsman  the  6th  Baron  North,  was  in  1752  created  ist  earl  of 
Guilford.  His  first  wife  was  a  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Halifax, 
and  his  son  ahd  successor  Frederick  was  the  English  prime 
minister,  commonly  known  as  Lord  North,  his  courtesy  title 
while  the  ist  earl  was  alive. 

FsEOEUCK  NoRTB,  2nd  eari  of  Guilford,  but  better  known 
by  his  courtesy  title  of  Lord  North  (1732-1792),  prime  minister 
of  England  during  the  important  years  of  the  American  War, 
was  bom  on  the  Z3th  of  April.  1732,  and  after  being  educated  at 
Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  was  sent  to  make  the  grand 
tour  ot  the  continent.  On  his  return  he  was,  though  only 
twenty-two  years  of  age,  at  once  elected  M.P.  for  Banbury,  of 
which  town  his  father  was  high  steward,  aiid  he  sat  for  the 
same  town  in  parliament  for  nearly  forty  years.  In  1759  he 
was  chosen  by  the  duke  of  Newcastle  to  be  a  lord  of  the  treasury, 
and  continued  in  the  same  office  under  Lord  Bute  and  George 
Grcnvillc  till  1765.  He  had  shown  himself  such  a  ready  debater 
that  on  the  fall  of  the  first  Rockingham  m'inbtry  in  1 766  he  was 
sworn  of  the  privy  council,  and  made  paymaster-general  by  the 
duke  ol  Grafton.  His  reputation  for  ability  grew  so  high  that 
in  December  1767,  on  the  death  of  the  brilliant  Charles  Towns- 
bend,  be  was  made  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  His  popularity 
with  bbth  the  House  of  Conunons  and  the  people  continued  to 
increase,  for  his  temper  was  never  rufiled,  and  his  quiet  humour 
perpetually  displayed;  and,  when  the  retirement  of  the  duke 
of  Grafton  was  necessitated  by  the  hatred  he  in^ired  and  the 
attacks  of  Junius,  no  better  successor  could  be  found  for  the 
premiership  than  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  Lord  North 
succeeded  the  duke  in  March  1770,  and  continued  in  office  for 
twelve  of  the  most  eventful  years  in  English  history.  George 
III.  had  at  last  overthrown  the  ascendancy  of  the  great  Whig 
families,  under  which  he  had  so  long  groaned,  and  determined  to 
govern  as  well  as  rule.  He  knew  that  he  could  only  govern  by 
obtaining  a  majority  in  parliament  to  carry  out  his  wishes,  and 
this  he  had  at  last  obtained  by  a  great  expenditure  of  money 
in  buying  seats  and  by  a  careful  exercise  of  his  patronage. 
But  in  addition  to  a  majority  he  must  have  a  minister  who  would 
consent  to  act  as  his  lieutenant,  and  such  a  minbter  he  found 
in  Lord  North.  How  a  man  of  undoubted  ability  such  as  Lord 
North  was  could  allow  himself  to  be  thus  used  as  a  mere  in- 
strument cannot  be  explained;  but  the  confidential  tone  of  the 
king's  letters  seems  to  show  that  there  was  an  unusual  intimacy 
between  them,  which  may  account  for  North's  compliance. 
The  path  of  the  minister  in  parliament  was  a  hard  one;  he  had 
to  defend  measures  which  he  had  not  designed,  and  of  which 
he  had  not  approved,  and  this  too  in  a  House  of  Commons  in 
which  all  the  oratorical  ability  of  Burice  and  Fox  was  against 
him,  and  when  he  had  only  the  purchased  help  of  Thurlow  and 
Wedderbume  to  aid  him.  The  most  important  events  of  his 
ministry  were  those  of  the  American  War  of  Independence. 
He  cannot  be  accused  of  causing  it,  but  one  of  his  first  acts  was 
the  retention  <rf  the  tea-duty,  and  he  it  was  also  who  introduced 
the  Boston  Port  Bill  in  1774.  When  the  war  had  broken  out  he 
earnestly  counselled  peace,  and  it  was  only  the  earnest  sdid- 
tations  of  the  king  not  to  leave  his  sovereign  again  at  the  mercy 
of  the  Whigs  that  induced  him  to  defend  a  war  which  from  1779 


he  knew  to  be  both  hopeless  and  impolitic.  At  last,  in  March 
1782,  he  insisted  on  resigning  after  the  news  of  Comwallis's 
surrender  at  Yorktown,  and  notoian  left  office  more  blithdy. 
He  had  been  well  rewarded  for  his  assistance  to  the  king:  his 
children  had  good  sinecures;  his  half-brother,  Brownlow  North 
(i  741-1820),  was  bishop  of  Winchester;  he  himself  was  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  of  Oxford,  lord-lieutenant  of  the  county 
ol  Somerset,  and  had  finally  been  made  a  knight  of  the  Garter, 
an  honour  which  has  only  been  conferred  on  three  other  members 
oi  the  House  of  Commons,  Sir  R.  Walpole,  Lord  Castlereagh 
and  Lord  Palmerston.  Lord  North  did  not  remain  long  out  of 
office,  but  in  April  1783  formed  his  famous  coalition  with  his  old 
subordinate,  C.  J.  Fox  (q.v.),  and  became  secretary  of  state 
with  him  under  the  nominal  premiership  of  the  duke  of  Portland. 
He  was  probably  urged  to  this  coalition  with  his  old  opponent 
by  a  desire  to  show  that  he  could  act  independently  of  the  king, 
and  was  not  a  mere  royal  mouthpiece.  The  coalition  ministry 
went  out  of  office  on  Fox's  India  Bill  in  December  1783,  and 
Lord  North,  who  was  losiitg  his  sight,  then  finally  gave  up 
political  ambition.  He  played,  when  quite  blind,  a  somewhat 
important  part  in  the  debates  on  the  Regency  Bill  in  1789,  and 
in  the  next  year  succeeded  his  father  as  eari  of  Guilford.  He 
did  not  loitg  survive  his  elevation,  and  died  peacefully  on  the 
5th  of  August  1792.  It  is  impossible  to  consider  Lord  North  a 
great  statesman,  but  he  ¥ras  a  most  good-tempered  and  humorous 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons.  In  a  time  of  unexampled 
party  feeling  he  won  the  esteem  and  almost  the  love  of  his  most 
bitter  opponents  Burke  finely  sums  up  his  character  in  his 
letter  to  a  Noble  Lord:  "  He  was  a  man  ct  admirable  parts,  of 
general  knowledge,  of  a  versatile  understanding,  fitted  for  every 
sort  of  business;  of  infinite  wit  and  pleasantry,  of  a  delightful 
temper,  and  wiUi  a  mind  most  disinterested.  But  it  would  be 
only  to  degrade  myself,"  he  continues,  "  by  a  weak  adulation, 
and  not  to  honour  the  memory  of  a  great  man,  to  deny  that  he 
wanted  something  of  the  vigilance  and  q>irit  of  command  which 
the  limes  required." 

By  his  wife  Anne  (d.  X797)»  daughter  of  George  Speke  of  White 
Lackington,  Somerset,  Guilford  had  four  sons,  the  eldest  (d 
whom,  George  Augustus  (1757-1802),  became  3rd  earl  on  his 
father's  death.  This  eari  was  a  member  of  pariiament  from 
1778  to  1792  and  was  a  member  of  his  father's  ministry  and 
also  ol  the  royal  household;  he  left  no  sons  when  he  died  on 
the  20th  of  April  2802  and  was  succeeded  in  the  earldom  by  his 
brother  Francis  (1761-1817),  who  also  left  no  sons.  The  youngest 
brother,  Frederick  (i  766-1827),  who  now  became  5tb  earl  oi 
Guilford,  was  remarkable  for  his  great  knowledge  and  love  of 
Greece  and  of  the  Greek  language.  He  had  a  good  deal  to  do 
with  the  foundation  of  the  Ionian  university  at  Corfu,  of  which 
he  was  the  first  chancellor  and  to  which  he  was  very  liberal. 
Guilford,  who  was  governor  of  Ceylon  from  1798  to  1805,  died 
uiunarried  on  the  X4th  of  Octobo*  1827.  His  cousin,  Francis 
(i 772-1861),  a  son  of  Brownlow  North,  bishop  of  Winchester 
from  1781  to'x820,  was  the  6th  eari,  and  the  laiter's  descendant, 
Frederick  George  (b.  1876),  became  8th  earl  in  1886. 

On  the  death  of  the  3rd  earl  of  Guilford  in  1802  the  barony  of 
North  fell  into  abeyance  between  his  three  daughters,  the 
survivor  of  whom,  Susan  (1797-1884),  wife  of  John  Sidney  Doyle, 
who  took  the  name  of  North,  was  declared  by  the  House  of 
Lords  in  1841  to  be  Baroness  North,  and  the  title  passed  to  her 
son,  William  Henry  John  North,  the  xxth  baron  (b.  X836) 

(see  NosTH,  Bakons). 

For  the  Lord  Keeper  Guilfocd  see  the  LtMi  by  the  Hon.  R.  North, 
edited  by  A.  Jessopp  (1890) :  and  E.  Fots^  Tk*  Judges  of  England, 
vol.  vii.  (1848-1864).  For  the  prime  mmitter,  Lord  North,  tee 
Correspondence  of  Ueorge  III.  with  Lord  North,  edited  by  W.  B. 
Donne  (1867) :  Horue  Walpole,  Journal  of  the  Reign  of  George  III. 
(1859).  and  Memoirs  ofthe  JKeign  of  Ceor^  III.,  edited  by  G.  F.  R. 
Barker  (1894);  Lord  Brougham,  Historical  Shetches  of  Statesmen, 
vol.  i.  (1839):  Eari  Stanhope.  History  of  Engfand  (1856):  Sir  T.  E. 
May.  ConsHtniional  History  of  England  (1863-186^);  and  W.  E.  H. 
Lecky,  History  of  England  in  the  iSth  century  (1878-1890). 

GUILFORD,  a  township,  including  a  borough  of  the  same 
name,  in  New  Haven  county,  Connecticut,  U.S.A.,  on  Long 
Island  Sound  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Menunkatuck  or  West 


692         GUILLAUME,  J.  B.  C.  E.— GUILLAUME  D'ORANGE 


river,  about  x6  m.  E.  by  S.  of  New  Haven.  Pop.  of  the  township, 
including  the  borough  (1900),  2785,  of  whom  38^  were  foreign- 
born;  (1910)  3001;  ppp.  of  the  borough  (1910),  160S.  The 
borough  is  served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford 
railroad.  On  a  plain  is  the  borough  green  of  neaiiy  la  acres, 
which  b  shaded  by  some  fine  old  elms  and  other  trees,  and  in 
which  there  is  a  soldiers'  monument.  About  the  green  are 
several  churches  and  some  of  the  better  residences.  On  an 
eminence  commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  Sound  is  an  old  stone 
house,  erected  in  1639  for  a  parsonage,  meeting-house  and 
fortification;  it  was  made  a  state  museum  in  1898,  when 
extensive  alterations  were  made  to  restore  the  interior  to  its 
original  appearance.  The  Point  of  Rocks,  in  the  harbour,  is 
an  attractive  resort  during  the  summer  season.  There  are 
about  12  ft.  of  water  on  the  harbour  bar  at  hi^  tide.  The 
principal  industries  of  Guilford  are  coastwise  trade,  the 
manufacture  of  iron  castings,  brass  castings,  wagon  wheels 
and  school  furniture,  dnd  the  canning  of  vegetables.  Near  the 
coast  are  quarries  of  fine  granite;  the  stone  for  the  pedestal  of 
the  Statue  of  Liberty  on  Bedloe's  Island,  in  New  York  Harbour, 
was  taken  from  them. 

Guilford  was  founded  in  1639  as  an  independent  colony  by  a 
company  of  twenty-five  or  more  families  from  Kent,  Surrey 
and  Sussex,  England,  under  the  leadership  of  Rev.  Henry  Whit- 
field (i  597-1657).  While  still  on  shipboard  twenty-five  members 
of  the  company  signed  a  plantation  covenant  whereby  they 
agreed  not  to  desert  the  plantation  which  they  were  about  to 
establish.  Arriving  at  New  Haven  early  in  July  1639,  they 
soon  began  negotiations  with  the  Indians  for  the  purchase  of 
land,  and  on  the  29th  of  September  a  deed  was  signed  by  which 
the  Indians  conveyed  to  them  the  territory  between  East 
River  and  Stony  Creek  for  "  xa  coates,  12  Fathoms  of  Waropam, 
1 2  glasses  (mirrors),  x  2  payer  of  shooes,  1 2  Hatchrtts,  x  2  paire  of 
Stockings,  X2  Hooes,  4  kettles,  X2  knives,  12  Hatts,  X2  Por- 
ringers, X2  spoones,  and  2  English  coates."  Other  purchases  of 
land  from  the  Indians  were  made  later.  Before  the  close  of  the 
year  the  company  removed  from  New  Haven  and  established  the 
new  colony;  it  was  known  by  the  Indian  name  Menuncatuck 
for  about  four  years  and  the  name  Guilford  (from  Guildford, 
England)  was  then  substituted.  As  a  provisional  arrangement, 
dvil  power  for  the  administration  of  justice  and  the  preservation 
of  the  [)eace  was  vested  in  four  persons  until  such  time  as  a 
church  should  be  organized.  This  was  postponed  until  1643 
when  considerations  of  safety  demanded  that  the  colony  should 
become  a  member  of  the  New  Haven  Jurisdiction,  and  then 
only  to  meet  the  requirements  for  admission  to  this  union  were 
the  church  and  church  state  modelled  after  those  of  New  Haven. 
Even  then,  though  suffrage  was  restricted  to  church  members, 
Guilford  planters  who  were  not  church  members  were  required 
to  attend  town  meetings  and  were  allowed  to  offer  objections 
to  any  proposed  order  or  law.  From  x66x  until  the  absorption 
of  the  members  of  the  New  Haven  Jurisdiction  by  Connecticut, 
in  X664,  William  Leete  (161X-X683),  one  of  the  founders  of 
Guilford,  was  governor  of  the  Jurisdiction,  and  under  his  leader- 
ship Guilford  took  a  prominent  part  in  furthering  the  sub-> 
mission  to  Connecticut,  which  did  away  with  the  church  state 
and  the  restriction  of  suffrage  to  freemen.  Guilford  was  the 
birthplace  of  Fitz-Greene  Halleck  (i 790-1867),  the  poet;  of 
Samuel  Johnson  (1696-X77X),  the  first  president  of  King's 
College  (now  Colimibia  University);  of  Abraham  Baldwin 
(1754-1807),  prominent  as  a  statesman  and  the  founder  of  the 
University  of  Georgia;  and  of  Thomas  Chittenden,  the  first 
governor  of  Vermont.    The  borough  was  incorporated  in  x8i  5. 

See  B.  C.  Steiner.  A  History  of  the  PlanUOion  cf  Menunca^Twk 


and  of  the  Original  Town  of  Guilford,  Connectiad  (Baltimore.  i8q7)> 
and  Proceedings  at  the  Celebration  of  the  2SOth  Anntversary  vf  the 
Settlement  of  Guilford,  Connecticut  (New  Haven,  1889). 


QUILLAUMB,  JBAN  BAPHSTB  CLAUDE  EDOftNB  (x82»- 
X905),  French  sculptor,  was  bom  at  Montbard  on  the  4th  of 
July  X822,  and  studied  under  Cavelier,  Millet,  and  Barrias,  at 
the  £coIe  des  Beaux- Arts,  which  he  entered  in  X84X,  and  where 
he  gained  the  frix  de  Rome  in  X84S  ^^  "  Theseus  finding  on  a 


rock  bis  Father's  Sword."  He  became  director  of  Che  Scale  des 
Beaux-Arts  in  1864,  and  director-general  of  Fine  Arts  from 
X878  to  X879,  when  the  office  was  suppressed.  Many  of  his 
works  have  been  bought  for  public  galleries,  and  his  ntonuments 
are  to  be  found  in  the  public  squares  of  the  chief  cities  of  France. 
At  Rhdms  there  is  his  bronze  statue  of  "  Colbert,"  at  Dijoo  Us 
"  Rameau  "  monument.  The  Luxembourg  Museum  has  his 
"Anacreon"  (1852),  "  Les  Gracques"  (x8s3),  "Faucheur" 
(1855),  and  the  marble  bust  of  "  Mgr  Darboy  ";  the  VecsaiDa 
Museum  the  portrait  of  "  Thiers  ";  the  Sorboimc  library  the 
marble  bust  of  "  Victor  le  Qerc,  doyen  de  b  faculty  des  lettrcs." 
Other  works  of  his  are  at  Trinity  Church,  St  Germain  rAuzerrois, 
and  the  church  of  St  Gotilde,  Paris.  Guillaume  was  a  prolific 
writer,  principally  on  sculpture  and  architecture  ol  tbe  Classic 
[)eriod  and  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  He  was  dected  member 
of  the  Acad£mie  Fran^aise  in  X862,  and  in  X89X  was  sent  to 
Rome  as  director  of  the  Acad£mie  de  France  in  that  dty.  Be 
was  also  elected  an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
London,  1869,  on  the  institution  of  that  class. 

GUIIXAUMB  DE  LORRIS  (fl.  X230),  the  author  of  the  earlier 
section  of  the  Roman  dc  la  rose^  derives  his  surname  from  a  snuO 
town  about  equidistant  from  Montargis  and  Gien,  in  the  present 
department  of  Loiret.  This  and  the  fact  of  his  authorship  may 
be  said  to  be  the  only  things  positively  known  about  him.  Tbe 
rubric  of  the  poem,  where  hh  own  part  finishes,  attributes  Jean  de 
Meun's  continuation  to  a  period  forty  years  later  than  MTilliam's 
death  and  the  consequent  interruption  of  the  romance.  Aiguing 
backwards,  this  death  used  to  be  put  at  about  1260;  but  Jean 
de  Meun's  own  work  has  recently  been  dated  earlier,  and  so  the 
composition  of  the  first  part  has  been  thrown  back  to  a  period 
before  1 240.  The  author  represents  himself  as  having  dxcamed 
the  dream  which  furnished  the  substance  of  the  poem  in  his 
twentieth  year,  and  as  having  set  to  work  to  "  rhyme  it  "  five 
years  later.  The  later  and  longer  part  of  the  Roman  shorn 
signs  of  greater  Intellectual  vigour  and  wider  knowledge  than  tbe 
earlier  and  shorter,  but  Guillaume  de  Lorrn  is  to  all  appearance 
more  original.  The  great  features  of  his  four  or  five  thousand 
lines  are,  in  the  first  place,  the  extraordinary  vividness  and 
beauty  of  his  word-pictures,  in  which  for  colour,  freshxKss 
and  individuality  he  has  not  many  rivals  except  in  the  greatest 
masters,  and,  secondly,  the  fashion  of  allegorical  presentation, 
which,  hackneyed  and  wearisome  as  it  afterwards  became, 
was  evidently  in  his  time  new  and  striking.  There  are  of  course 
traces  of  it  before,  as  in  some  romances,  such  as  those  of  Raoul 
de  Houdenc,  in  the  troubadours,  and  in  other  writers;  but  it 
was  unquestionably  Guillaume  de  Lorris  who  fixed  the  styk. 

For  an  attempt  to  identify  Guillaame  de  Lorris  aee  L.  Jarrv, 
Guillaume  de  Lorris  et  le  Ustament  d'AlJkonse  de  Poitiers  (x88i). 
Alao  Paulin  Paris  in  the  Hist.  lift,  de  la  rranut  \dL  xxuL 

GUILLAUME  DE  PALBRMB  (WnxiAM  or  Paizuie),  hero  of 
romance.  The  French  verse  romance  was  written  at  the  desire 
of  a  Countess  Yohinde,  generally  identified  >»-ith  Yolande, 
daughter  of  Baldwin  IV.,  count  of  Flanders.  The  En^^Ush  poem 
in  alliterative  verse  was  written  about  X350  by  a  po^  called 
William,  at  the  desire  of  Humphrey  Bohun,  earl  of  Hereford, 
(d.  X361).  Guillaume,  a  foimdling  supposed  to  be  of  low  d^rce, 
is  brought  up  at  the  court  of  the  emperor  bf  Ronae,  and  loves 
his  daughter  Melior  who  is  destined  for  a  Greek  fmxKC.  The 
lovers  flee  into  the  woods  disguised  in  bear-duns.  Alfonso, 
who  is  Guillaume's  cousin  and  a  Spanish  prince,  las  been 
changed  into  a  wolf  by  his  stq>-mother's  enchantments.  He 
provides  food  and  protection  for  the  fugitives,  and  Guillaume 
eventually  triumphs  over  Alfonso's  father,  and  wins  back  from 
him  his  kingdom.  The  benevolent  werwolf  is  disenchaided, 
and  loaxries  Guillanme's  sister. 

See  GmUaume  de  Paleme,  ed.  H.  Michelant  (Soc.  d.  anc  testes  fr^ 
X876);  HisL  litt,  de  la  France,  xxii.  829;  Wiiliam  of  Polerme.  ed. 
Sir  F.  Madden  (Roxbunhe  Club.  X833),  and  W.  W.  Skeat  (E.  ^ 
Text  Soc..  extra  aeries  No.  1.  x867)(  M.  Kaluxa.  in  Eng.  Stwiten 
(Heilbronn,  iv.  196).  The  prose  version  of  the  French  romaTC, 
printed  by  N.  Bonfons,  pasied  through  Kvcral  editions. 

GUILLAUME  D'ORAHGE  (d.  8x2),  also  known  as  GmHaamr 

Fierabrace,  St  Guillanme  de  GeUone,  and  the  Maiquis  au  couit 


GUILLAUME  D'ORANGE 


693 


nez,  wu  the  central  figure  of  the  southern  cyde  of  French 
romance,  called  by  the  trauvires  the  gesU  of  Garin  de  Monglane. 
The  cyde  of  GuUlaume  has  more  unity  t\^  the  other  great 
cydes  of  Charlemagne  or  of  Dodh  de  Mayence,  the  various 
poems  which  compose  it  forming  branches  of  the  main  story 
rather  than  independent  epic  poems.  There  exist  numerous 
cydic  MSS.  in  which  there  is  an  attempt  at  presenting  a  con» 
tinuous  kisioire  foitique  of  Guillaume  and  his  family.  MS.  Royal 
20  D  xi.  in  the  British  Museum  contains  eighteen  chansons 
of  the  cyde.  Guillaume,  son  of  Thierry  or  Theodoric  and  of  Aide, 
daughter  of  Charles  Martd,  was  bom  in  the  north  of  France 
about  the  middle  of  the  8th  century.  He  became  one  of  the  best 
soldiers  and  trusted  counsellors  of  Charlemagne,  and  in  790  was 
made  count  of  Toulouse,  when  Charles's  son  Louis  the  Pious 
was  put  under  his  charge.  He  subdued  the  Gascons,  and 
defended  Narbonne  against  the  infidels.  In  793  Hescham,  the 
successor  of  Abd-al-Rahman  II.,  proclaimed  a  holy  war  against 
the  Christians,  and  collected  an  army  of  xoo,ooo  men,  half  of 
which  was  directed  against  the  kingdom  of  the  Asturias,  while 
the  second  invaded  France^  penetrating  as  far  as  Narbonne. 
Guillaume  met  the  invaders  near  the  river Orbieux,  at  VUledaignc, 
where  he  was  defeated,  but  only  after  an  obstinate  resistance 
which  so  far  exhausted  the  Saracens  that  they  were  compelled  to 
retreat  to  Spain.  He  took  Barcdona  from  the  Saracens  in  803, 
and  in  the  next  year  founded  the  monastery  of  Gellone  (now  Saint 
Guilhem-le  Desert),  of  which  he  became  a  member  in  806.  He 
died  there  in  the  odour  of  sanctity  on  the  28th  of  May  812. 

No  less  than  thirteen  historical  personages  bearing  the  name 
of  William  (Guillaume)  have  been  thou^t  by  various  critics 
to  have  their  share  in  the  formation  of  the  legend.  William, 
count  of  Provence,  son  of  Boso  II.,  again  delivered  southern 
France  from  a  Saracen  invasion  by  his  victory  at  Fnudnet  in 
973,  and  ended  his  life  in  a  doister.  William  Tow-head  {THe 
d*iUm^),  duke  of  Aquitaine  (d.  983),  showed  a  fidelity  to  Louis 
IV.  parallded  by  Guillaume  d'Onnge's  service  to  Louis  the 
Pious.  The  cyde  of  twenty  or  more  chansons  which  form  the 
gcsle  of  Guillaume  reposes  on  the  traditions  of  the  Arab  invasions 
of  the  south  of  France,  from  the  battle  of  Poitiers  (732)  under 
Charles  Martd  onwards,  and  on  the  French  conquest  of  Catalonia 
from  the  Saracens.  In  the  Norse  version  of  the  Carolingian  epic 
Guillaume  appears  in  his  proper  historical  environment,  as  a 
chief  under  Chariemagne;  but  he  plays  a  leading  part  in  the 
Conronnemenl  Looys^  describing  the  formal  assodations  of 
Louis  the  Pious  in  the  empire  at  Aix  (813,  the  year  after  Guil- 
laume's  death),  and  after  the  battle  of  Aliscans  it  is  from  the 
emperor  Louis  that  he  seeks  reinforcements.  This  anachronism 
arises  from  the  fusion  of  the  epic  Guillaume  with  the  champion 
of  Louis  IV.,  and  from  the  fact  that  he  was  the  military  and  dvil 
chief  of  Louis  the  Pious,  who  was  titular  king  of  Aquitaine 
tinder  his  father  from  the  time  when  he  was  three  years  old. 
The  inconsistendes  between  the  real  and  the  epic  Guillaume 
are  often  left  standing  in  the  poems.  The  personages  assodatcd 
with  Guillaume  in  his  Spanish  wars  belong  to  Provence,  and 
have  names  common  in  the  south.  The  most  famous  of  these 
are  Beuves  de  Comarchis,  Emaud  de  Girone,  Garin  d'Ans£un, 
Aimer  le  ch^tif ,  so  called  from  his  long  captivity  with  the  Saracens. 
The  separate  existence  of  A&ner,  who  refused  to  sleep  under  a 
roof,  and  spent  his  whole  life  in  warring  against  the  infidel,  is 
proved.  He  was  Hadhemar,  count  of  Narbonne,  who  in  809 
and  810  was  one  of  the  leaders  sent  by  Louis  against  Tortosa. 
No  doubt  the  others  had  historical  prototypes.  In  the  hands 
of  the  trowtbrts  they  became  all  brothers  of  Guillaume,  and 
sons  of  Aymeri  de  Narbonne,*  the  grandson  of  Garin  de  Monglane, 
and  his  wife  Ermenjart.  Neverthdeas  when  Guillaume  seeks 
help  from  Louis  the  emperor  he  finds  all  his  relations  in  Laon, 
in  accordance  with  his  historic  Prankish  origin. 

*  The  fioem  of  Aymeri  de  Narbonne  contains  the  account  of  the 
young  Aymeri's  brilliant  capture  of  Narbonne,  which  he  then 
recdves  as  a  fief  from  Chariemagne,  of  hia  marriage  with  Ermenjart, 
siiter  of  Boniface,  kine  of  the  Lombards,  and  of  their  children.  The 
fifth  daughter.  Blancneflcur,  is  represented  as  the  wife  of  Louis  the 
Pious.  The  opening  of  this  poem  furnished,  though  indirectly,  the 
matter  of  the  AymeriUol  of  Victor  Hugo's  Ligende  des  siicles. 


The  central  fact  of  the  geste  of  Guillaume  Is  the  battle  of  the 
Archamp  or  Aliscans,  in  which  perished  Guillaume's  heroic 
nephew,  Vezian  or  Vivien,  a  second  Roland.  At  the  eleventh 
hour  he  summoned  Guillaume  to  his  hdp  against  the  overwhelm* 
ing  forces  of  the  Saracens.  Guillaume  arrived  too  late  to  hdp 
Vivien,  was  himself  defeated,  and  returned  alone  to  his  wife 
Guibourc,  leaving  his  knights  all  dead  or  prisoners.  This  event 
is  related  in  a  Norman-French  transcript  of  an  old  French 
chanson  de  geste,  the  Chan^un  de  WiUame — ^which  only  was 
brought  to  light  in  1901  at  the  sale  of  the  books  of  Sir  Henry 
Hope  Edwardes — ^in  the  Cosenani  Knt'en,  a  recension  of  an  oldo* 
French  chanson  and  in  Aliscans.  Aliscans  continues  the  stoiy, 
telling  how  Guillaume  obtained  reinforcements  from  Laon,  and 
how,  with  the  hdp  of  the  comic  hero,  the  scullion  Rainouart 
or  Renncwart,  he  avenged  the  defeat  of  Aliscans  and  his  nephew's 
death.  Rainouart  turns  out  to  be  the  brother  of  Guillaume's 
wife  Guibourc,  who  was  before  her  marriage  the  Saracen  princess 
and  enchantress  Orable.  Two  other  poems  are  consecrated  to 
his  later  exploits.  La  BalaiUe  Loquifer,  the  work  of  a  French 
Sicilian  poet,  Jendeu  de  Brie  (fl.  x  1 70),  and  Le  Homage  Rainouart. 
The  staring-point  of  Herbert  le  due  of  Dammartin  (fl.  1x70) 
in  Pottcon  de  Candie  (Candie  «  Gandia  in  Spain  ?)  is  the  return 
of  Guillaume  from  the  battle;  and  the  Italian-  compilation 
/  Nerbonesif  based  on  these  and  other  chansons,  seems  in  some 
cases  to  represent  an  earlier  tradition  than  the  later  of  the  French 
chansons,  although  its  author  Andrea  di  Barberino  wrote  towards 
the  end  of  the  14th  century.  The  minnesinger  Wolfram  von 
Eschenbach  based  his  Willehalm  on  a  French  original  which 
must  have  di£fered  from  the  versions  we  have.  The  variations 
in  the  story  of  the  defeat  of  Aliscans  or  the  Archant,  and  the 
numerous  inconsistendes  of  the  narratives  even  when  considered 
separatdy  have  occupied  many  critics.  Aliscans  (Aleschans, 
Alyscamps,  Elysii  Campi)  was,  however,  generally  taken  to 
represent  the  battle  of  Villedaigne,  and  to  take  its  name  from 
the  famous  cemetery  outside  Aries.  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach 
even  mentions  the  tombs  which  studded  the  field  of  battle. 
Indications  that  this  tradition  was  not  unassailable  were  not 
lacking  before  the  discovery  of  the  Chanqunde  H^iUame,  which, 
although  preserved  in  a  very  corrupt  form,  represents  the  earliest 
recension  we  have  of  the  story,  dating  at  least  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  1 2th  century.  It  seems  probable  that  the  Archant 
was  situated  in  Spain  near  Vivien's  headquarters  at  Tortosa,  and 
that  Guillaume  started  from  Barcdona,  not  from  Orange,  to 
his  nephew's  hdp.  The  accoxmt  of  the  disaster  was  modified  by 
successive  trouvires,  and  the  uncertainty  of  their  methods  may 
be  judged  by  the  fact  that  in  the  Chan^n  de  WiUame  two  con- 
secutive accounts  (11.  450-1326  and  11.  1326-2420)  of  the  fight 
appear  to  be  set  side  by  side  as  if  they  were  separate  episodes. 
Le  CowonnemerU  Looys,  already  mentioned,  Le  Charroi  de  Nfmes 
(i2th  century)  in  which  Guillaume,  who  had  been  forgotten  in 
the  distribution  of  fiefs,  enumerates  his  services  to  the  terrified 
Louis,  and  Aliscans  (x2th  century),  with  the  earlier  ChanQun,  are 
among  the  finest  of  the  French  tjAc  poems.  The  figure  of 
Vivien  is  among  the  most  heroic  daborated  by  the  trouvires, 
and  the  giant  Rainouart  has  more  than  a  touch  of  Rabelaisian 
humour. 

The  chansons  de  geste  of  the  cyde  of  Guillaume  are:  Enfances 
Garin  de  Monglane  (15th  century)  and  Garin  de  Monglane  (X3th 
century),  on  which  is  founded  tne  (HPOse  romance  of  Cutrin  de 
Monglane,  printed  in  the  X5th  century  by  Tehan  Trepperel  and 
often  later;  Girars  de  Viane  (13th  century,  by  Bertrand  de  Bar- 
sur-Aube),  ed.  P.  Tarb^  (Reims,  18;^):  Hemaut  de  Beantande 
(fragment  14th  century);  Renier  de  Cennes,  which  only  survives 
in  its  prose  form;  Aymeri  de  Narbonne  (e.  1210)  by  Bertrand  de 
Bar-sur-Aube,  ed.  L.  Demaison  (Socdesanc.  textes  fr.,  Paris,  2  vols., 
1887):  Les  Enfances  Guillaume  (13th  century);  Les  Narbonnais, 
ed.  H.  Suchicr  (See.  des  anc.  textes  fr.  a  vols.,  1898),  with  a  Latin 
fragment  dating  from  the  nth  century,  preserved  at  the  Hague; 
Le  CouronnementLooys  (ed.  E.  Langlois,  1888),  Le  Charroi  de  Nfmes. 
La  Prise  d'Orante,  Le  Cooenani  Vivien^  Aliscans^  which  were  edited 
-      - "  (The 


by  £■  Wienbeck.  W.  Hartnacke  and  P.  ^xhrLoquifer  and 

Le  Montage  Rainouart  (lath  century):  Boeon  de  Commarchu  (13th 
century),  recension  of  the  earlier  Si^  de  Barbastre,  by  Adente  U 


69+ 


GUILLEMOT— GUILLOTINE 


Rois,  ed.  A.  Sclieler  (BraaRlt,  1874);  Gmbeti' d^Andrtnas  (13th 
century);  La  Prise  de  Cofdrts  (13th  oentuiy);  La  Mart  Aimeri  de 
Narbonne^  ed.  J.  Couraye  de  Pare  (Soc.  des  Andens  Textes  fran^is, 
Par'u,  i8&i):  Ponlque  de  Caudie  (ed.  P.  TarM,  Reims,  i860):  Le 
MotnagB  CitiUaume  (i3th  century):  Les  Bn^amceM  Vnien  (ed.  C. 
Wahlund  and  H.  v.  Feilitxen,  Upaab  and  Paris,  1895);  Ckantun 
de  Wiilame  (Chiswick  Press.  1903). described  by  P.  Meyer  in  Romania 
(nadiL  597-618).  The  ninth  branch  of  the  Kofiamagiuu  Sapi  (ed. 
C.  R.  linger,  Christiania,  i860)  deals  with  the  f»te  of  Guiliaunie. 
/  Nerhomui  is  edited  by  J.  G.  Isola  (Bologna.  1877,  &c). 

See  C.  Rdvillout,  Elude  kisL  §t  UlL  sur  la  vita  samcH  WHUlmi 
(Montpellier.   1876);  W.  J.  A.  Jonclcbloet.  Guitlamme  d^Orang^ 
(a  vols.,  1854, 
Wilhelm  von  A 

la  FroMce  (vol.  ^vmc,  >vr^/,  ^^  <w....««^t  -»^»^y^-»w  ..w..,-~—  y''—  -»•• 
and  ed.,  i88a) ;  R.  Weeks,  Tka  mewly  discovered  Ckantun  de  WiUame 
(Chicago,  IQ04):  A.  Thomas,  £it$des  romanes  (Paris,  1891),  on 
Vivien:  L  SaJtet,  " S.  Vidian  de  Martres-Tolosanes  "  in  BtJL  de 
Utt.  eccUs.  (Toulouse,  190a);  P.  Becker,  Die  oMrt.  Wilhelmsat^  u. 
ikre  Beaiekung  za  WUhdm  dem  HeUifon  (Halle,  1896),  and  Der 
tlldfranadsiscke  Sat/tnkreit  mnd  seine  ProbUme  (Halle,  1898):  A. 


conclusions  arrived  at  by  eariier  writers  are  combated  by  Joseph 
BMier  in  the  first  volume,  "  Le  Cycle  de  Guillaume  d'Onnge  " 
(1908).  of  his  Litendes  ifutmeSt  in  which  he  construct*  1^  theory  that 
the  cycle  of  Guiflaume  a'CJrange  grew  up  round  the  various  shrines 
on  the  (Mlgrim  route  to  Saint  C^IIm  of  Provence  and  Saint  James  of 
Composteila — that  the  chansons  de  geste  were,  in  fact,  the  |>roduct 
of  nth  and  lath  century  trouvfires,  exploiting  local  ecclesiastical 
traditions,  and  were  not  develofjed  from  eariier  poems  dating  back 

erhaps  to  the  lifetime  of  Guillauine  of  Toulouse,  the  saint  of 
dione. 

OUILLEIIOT  (Fr.  gtuOemot  0>  the  name  accepted  by  nearly 
all  modem  authors  for  a  sea-bird,  the  Colymbus  troile  of 
Linnaeus  and  the  Uria  troUe  of  Latham,  which  nowadays  it 
seems  seldom  if  ever  to  bear  among  those  who,  from  their  voca- 
tion, are  most  conversant  with  it,  though,  according  to  Willughby 
and  Ray  his  translator,  it  was  in  their  time  so  called  "  by  those 
of  Northumberland  and  Durham."  Around  the  coasts  of  Britain 
it  is  variously  known  as  the  frowl,  kiddaw  or  skiddaw,  langy 
(of.  Ice.  Langvia),  lavy,  marrock,  murre,  scout  (cf.  Coot), 
scuttock,  strany,  tinker  or  tinkershire  and  willock.  In  former 
days  the  guillemot  yearly  frequented  the  cliffs  on  many  parts 
of  the  British  coasts  in  countless  multitudes,  and  this  is  still 
the  case  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom;  but 
more  to  the  southward  nearly  all  its  smaller  settlements  have 
been  rendered  utterly  desolate  by  the  wanton  and  cruel  destruc- 
tioQ  of  their  tenants  during  the  breeding  season,  and  even  the 
inhabitants  of  those  which  were  more  crowded  had  become  so 
thinned  that,  but  for  the  intervention  of  the  Sea  Birds  Preserva- 
tion Act  (32  &  33  Vict.  cap.  17),  which  provided  under  penalty 
lor  the  safety  of  this  and  certain  other  species  at  the  time  of 
year  when  they  were  most  exposed  to  danger,  they  would  un- 
questionably by  this  time  have  been  exterminated  so  far  as 
England  is  concerned. 

Part  of  the  guillemot's  history  is  still  little  understood.  We 
know  that  it  arrives  at  its  wonted  breeding  stations  on  its 
accttstomml  day  in  spring,  that  it  remains  there  till,  towards  the 
end  of  the  summer,  its  young  are  hatched  and  able,  as  they  soon 
are,  to  encounter  the  perils  of  a  seafaring  life,  when  away  go  all, 
parents  and  progeny.  After  that  time  it  commonly  happens 
that  a  few  examples  are  occasionally  met  with  in  bays  and  shaJlow 
waters.  Tempestuous  weather  will  drive  ashore  a  large  number 
in  a  state  of  utter  destitution — many  of  them  indeed  are  not 
unfrequently  washed  up  dead — ^but  what  becomes  of  the  bulk 
of  the  birds,  not  merely  the  comparatively  few  thousands  that 
are  natives  of  Britain,  but  the  tens  and  hundreds  of  thousands, 
not  to  say  millions,  that  are  in  summer  denizens  of  mqfe  northern 
latitudes,  no  one  can  say.  This  mystery  is  not  peculiar  to  the 
guillemot,  but  is  shared  by  all  the  Alcidae  that  inhabit  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.    Examples  stray  every  season  across  the  Bay  of 

'The  word,  however,  seems  to  be  cognate  with  or  derived  from 
the  Welsh  and  Manx  CuiUem,  or  Cvrilym  as  Pennant  spells  it.  The 
association  may  have  no  real  meaning,  but  one  cannot  help  com- 
paring the  resemblance  between  the  French  ritiUemoi  and  Gutttaume 
with  that  between  the  English  wiUock  (another  name  for  the  bird) 
and  William. 


Biscay,  are  found  off  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  enta 
the  Mediterranean  and  reach  Italian  waters,  or,  keeping  farther 
south,  may  even  touch  the  Madeiras,  Canaries' or  Azores;  but 
these  bear  no  proportion  whatever  to  the  migjity  hosts  of  whom 
they  are  literally  the  **  scouts,"  and  whose  position  and  move- 
ments they  no  mote  reveal  than  do  the  vedettes  of  a  wdl- 
appointed  army.  The  common  guiUcmot  of  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic  is  replaced  farther  northward  by  a  species  with  a  stouter 
bill,  the  U,  arra  or  U,  bruennicki  of  ornithologists,  and  on  the 
west  coast  of  North  America  by  the  U.  calif  ormoL  The  habits 
of  all  these  are  essentially  the  same,  and  the  stnictural  resem- 
blance between  all  of  them  and  the  Auks  is  so  great  that  several 
systematists  have  relegated  them  to  the  genus  ilka,  confining 
the  genus  Uria  to  the  guillemots  of  another  group,  of  which 
the  type  is  the  U.  gryttat  the  black  guillemot  of  Briti^  authors, 
the  dovekey  or  Greenland  dove  of  sailors,  the  tsrsty  of  Shetlanders. 
This  bird  assumes  in  summer  an  entirely  blade  plumage  with 
the  exception  of  a  white  patch  on  each  wing,  while  in  winter 
it  is  beautifully  marbled  with  white  and  black.  Allied  to  it 
as  spedes  or  geographical  races  are  the  C/.  wumdU,  U.  cohmia 
and  U,  carbo.  All  these  differ  from  the  larger  gufllemots  by 
laying  two  or  three  eggs,  which  are  generally  placed  in  uxmt 
secure  niche,  while  the  members  of  the  other  group  lay  bat  a 
single  egg,  which  is  invariably  exposed  on  a  bare  ledge.     (A.  N.) 

QUILUICHB,  a  French  word  for  an  ornament,  dthcr  painted 
or  carved,  which  was  one  of  the  principal  decorative  bands 
employed  by  the  Greeks  in  their  temples  or  on  their  vases. 
Guilloches  are  single,  double  or  triple;  they  consist  ai  a  series 
of  circles  equidistant  one  from  the  other  and  endoaed  in  a  band 
which  winds  round  them  and  interlaces.  This  guiOoche  is 
of  Asiatic  origin  and  was  largdy  employed  in  the  decoration  of  the 
Assyrian  palaces,  where  it  wss  probably  o^ed  from  Chaldaean 
work,  as  there  is  an  early  example  at  Erech  which  dates  from  the 
time  of  Gttdea  (2294  B.C.).  The  ornament  as  painted  by  the 
Greeks  has  almost  entirdy  disappeared,  but  traces  arc  found  in 
the  temple  of  Nemesis  at  Rhamnus;  and  on  the  terra-cotta  slabs 
by  which  the  timber  roo&  of  Greek  temples  wne  protected,  it  is 
painted  in  colours  which  are  almost  as  brilliant  as  vAkta  first 
produced,  thoseof  the  Treasury  of  Gela  at  Olympiabeingof  great 
beauty.  These  examples  are  double  guilloches,  with  two  rows  of 
drdes,  each  with  an  independent  interlacing  band  and  united 
by  a  small  arc  with  palmette  inside;  in  both  the  singjb  and  doobk 
guilloches  of  Greek  work  there  is  a  flower  in  the  centre  of  the 
drdes.  In  the  triple  guilloche,  the  centre  row  <rf  cirdes  comes 
half-way  between  the  others,  and  the  enclosing  band  crosses 
diagonally  both  Ways,  interlacing  altematdy.  The  best  exan^ 
of  the  triple  guilloche  is  that  which  is  carved  on  the  torus  mould- 
ing of  the  base  and  on  the  small  convex  moulding  above  the 
echinus  of  the  capitals  of  the  columns  of  the  Erechtheum  at 
Athens.  It  was  lugdy  employed  in  Roman  work,  and  the  sioj^ 
guilloche  is  found  almost  universally  as  a  border  in  mosaic 
pavements,  not  only  in  Italy  but  throughout  Europe.  In  the 
Renaissance  in  Italy  it  was  also  a  favourite  airichment  ftf 
borders  and  occasiodally  in  France  and  England. 

QUILLON,  MARIS  NICOLAS  8TLVESTRB  (X760-X847). 
French  ecdesiastic,  was  bom  in  Paris  on  the  ist  of  January  1760. 
He  was  librarian  and  almoner  in  the  household  of  the  princess  de 
Lamballe,  and  when  in  1793  she  was  executed,  he  fled  to  the 
provinces,  where  under  the  name  of  Pastd  he  practised  medidDe. 
A  man  of  fadle  consdence,  he  afterwards  served  in  torn  vadcr 
Napoleon,  the  Bourbons  and  the  Orleanists,  and  became  canon  of 
St  Denis,  bishop  of  Morocco  and  dean  of  the  Sorboane. 

Among  his  many  literary  works  are  a  CeBeOiom  des  hrefs  dm  pept 
Pie  K/ (1798),  Bib^oMque  ckoisie  des  phes  gtecs  H  laUms  (1822. 
a6  vols.)  and  a  French  translatioo  of  Cyprian  with  notes  (t837>  * 
vols.). 

OUILLOTINB,  the  instrument  for  Inflicting  capital  ponisb- 
ment  by  decapitation,  introduced  into  France  at  the  period  of  the 
Revolution.  It  consists  of  two  upri^t  posts  surmounted  by  a 
cross  beam,  and  grooved  so  as  to  guide  an  oblique-edged  knife, 
the  back  of  which  is  heavily  wdghted  to  make  it  fall  swiftly  and 
I  with  force  when  the  cord  by  which  it  is  bdd  aloft  is  let  go.  Sons 


GUILT— GUIMARD 


695 


Mcxibe  the  invention  of  the  machine  to  the  Persians;  and 
previous  to  the  period  when  it  obtained  notoriety  under  its 
present  name  it  had  been  in  use  in  Scotland,  England  and  various 
parts  of  the  continent.    There  is  still  preserved  in  the  antiquarian 
museum  of  Edinburgh  the  rude  guillotine  called  the  "  maiden  *' 
by  which  the  regent  Morton  was  decapitated  in  1581.    The  last 
persons  decapitated  by  the  Scottish  "  maiden  "  were  the  marquis 
of  Argyll  in  i66x  and  his  son  the  carl  of  Argyll  in  1685. 
It  would  appear  that  no  similar  machine  was  ever  in  funeral 
use  in  England;  but  until  1650  there  existed  in  the  forest 
of   Hardwick,    which    was   coextensive   with    the  parish   of 
Halifax,  West  Riding,  Yorkshire,  a  mode  of  trial  and  execution 
called  the  gibbet  law,  by  which  a  felon  convicted  of  theft  within 
the  liberty  was  sentenced  to  be  decapitated  by  a  machine  called 
the  Halifax  gibbet.    A  print  of  it  is  contained  in  a  small  book 
called  Halifax  and  Us  Gibbd  Law  (1708),  and  in  Gibson's  edition 
of  Camden's  Briiamna  (1723).    In  Germany  the  machine  was  in 
general  use  during  the  middle  ages,  under  the  name  of  the  DieU, 
the  Hobd  or  the  Dotabra.    Two  old  German  engravings,  the  one 
by  George  Penes,  who  died  in  1550,  and  the  other  by  Heinrich 
Aldegrever,  with  the  date  1553,  represent  the  death  of  a  son  of 
Titus  Manlius  by  a  similar  instrument,  and  its  employment  for 
the  execution  of  a  Spartan  is  the  subject  of  the  engraving  of  the 
eighteenth  symbol  in  the  volume  entitled  SymMicae  quaestiones 
de  unherso  gentre,  by  Achilles  Bocchi  (1555).    From  the  xjth 
century  it  was  used  in  Italy  under  the  name  of  Mannaia  for  the 
execution  of  criminals  of  noble  birth.    The  Chronique  de  Jean 
d^ Anton,  first  published  in  1835,  gives  minute  details  of  an  execu- 
tion in  which  it  was  emplojred  at  Genoa  in  1507;  and  it  is 
elaborately  described  by  P^  Jean  Baptiste  Labat  in  his  Voyage 
en  Espagne  ei  en  Jtalie  en  i/jo.    It  is  mentioned  by  Jacques, 
viscorate  de  Puys6gur,  in  his  Mimoires  as  in  use  in  the  south  of 
France,  and  he  describes  the  execution  by  it  of  Marshal  Mont- 
morency at  Toulouse  in  1633.    For  about  a  century  it  had,  how- 
ever, fallen  into  general  disuse  on  the  continent;  and  Dr 
Guillotine,  who  first  suggested  its  use  in  modem  times,  is  said 
to  have  obtained  his  information  regarding  it  from  the  description 
of  an  execution  that  took  place  at  Milan  in  1702,  contained  in 
an  anonsrmous  work  entitled  Voyage  kistorique  ei  poliiique  de 
Snisse,  d'ltalie,  et  d'AUemagne. 

Guillotine,  who  was  bom  at  Saintes,  May  a8, 1738,  and  elected 
to  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1789,  brought  forward  on  Ihe 
1st  December  of  that  year  two  propositions  repirding  capital 
punishment,  the  second  of  which  was  that,  "  in  all  cases  of 
capital  punishment  it  shall  be  of  the  same  kind — that  is,  decapita- 
tion— and  it  shall  be  executed  by  means  of  a  machine."  Tlie 
reasons  urged  in  support  of  this  proposition  were  that  in  cases 
of  capital  punishment  the  privilege  of  execution  by  decapitation 
should  no  longer  be  con&ied  to  the  nobles,  and  that  it  was 
desirable  to  render  the  process  of  execution  as  swift  and  painless 
as  possible.  The  debate  was  brought  to  a  sudden  termination 
in  peab  of  laughter  caused  by  an  indiscreet  reference  of  Dr 
Guillotine  to  his  machine,  but  his  ideas  seem  gradually  to  have 
leavened  the  minds  of  the  Assembly,  and  after  various  debates 
decapitation  was  adopted  as  the  method  of  execution  in  the 
penal  code  which  became  law  on  the  6th  October  1791.  At  first 
it  was  intended  that  decapitation  should  be  by  the  sword,  but 
on  account  of  a  memorandum  by  M.  Sanson,  the  executioner, 
pointing  out  the  expense  and  certain  other  inconveniences 
attending  that  method,  the  Assembly  referred  the  question  to  a 
committee,  at  whose  request  Dr  Antoine  Louis,  secretary  to  the 
Academy  of  Surgeons,  prepared  a  memorandum  on  the  subject. 
Without  mentioning  the  name  of  Guillotine,  it  recommended  the 
adoption  of  an  instrument  similar  to  that  which  was  formerly 
suggested  by  him.  The  Assembly  decided  in  favour  of  the  report, 
and  the  contract  was  offered  to  the  [)er8on  who  usually  provided 
the  instraments  of  justice;  but,  as  bis  terms  were  considered 
exorbitant,  an  agreement  was  ultimately  come  to  with  a  German 
of  the  name  of  Schmidt,  who,  under  the  direction  of  M.  Louis, 
furnished  a  machine  for  each  of  the  French  departments.  After 
satisfactory  experiments  had  been  made  with  the  machine  on 
several  dead  bodies  in  the  hospital  of  Bicfttre,  it  was  erected  on 


the  Place  de  Gr^  for  the  execution  of  the  highwayman  PeUetier 
on  the  25th  April  {792.  While  the  experiments  regarding  the 
machine  were  being  carried  on,  it  received  the  name  Louisette 
or  La  Petite  Louison,  but  the  mind  of  the  nation  seems  soon  to 
have  reverted  to  Guillotine,  who  first  suggested  its  use;  and  in 
the  Jonmal  des  rtvolutions  de  Paris  for  a8th  April  1792  it  is 
mentioned  as  la  guiUotine,  a  name  which  it  thenceforth  bore 
both  popularly  and  officially.  In  1795  the  question  was  much 
debated  as  to  •whether  or  not  death  by  the  guillotine  was  in- 
stantaneous, and  in  support  of  the  negative  side  the  case  of 
Charlotte  Corday  was  adduced  whose  countenance,  it  is  said, 
blushed  as  if  with  indignation  when  the  executioner,  holding  up 
the  head  to  the  public  gase,  strack  it  with  his  fist  The  connexion 
of  the  instrument  with  the  horrors  of  the  Revolution  has  hindered 
its  introduction  into  other  countries,  but  in  1853  it  was  adopted 
under  the  name  of  PaUsekwert  or  Pallbeil  by  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony;  and  it  is  used  for  the  execution  of  sentences  of  death 
in  France,  Belgium  and  some  parts  of  Germany.  It  has  often 
been  stated  that  Dr  Guillotine  perished  by  the  instrument  which 
bears  his  name,  but  it  is  beyond  question  that  he  survived  the 
Revolution  and  died  a  natural  death  in  18x4. 

See  SMillot,  Rifiexions  kistoriques  et  pkysiotcgiqMes  sur  le  suppKce 
de  la  P'i^^J^'QS) :  Sue,  Ojnnion  sur  le  suppdce  de  la  guiUotine, 


^  ,,  kistorique  ei  pkysiologiqne  smr  le  tupplice  de  la  guil- 

hHne  (Paris,  1830):  Louis  Dubois,  Secherckes  kistoriques  ei  physio- 


1 8^1);  NeOee 

lottne  (Paris,  i_^_,, ^^  — ^-.^...^  ....^. ......  ^  r-.^-~~ 

logiques  sur  la  gusttotsne  et  ditails  sur  Samson  (Paris.  1843);  and  a 
paper  by  J.  W.  Croker  in  the  Quarterly  Rtoiew  for  December  1843. 
reprinted  separately  in  1850  under  the  title  The  CsuUeUne,  a  kistoriiai 
Essay. 

GUILT,  a  lapse  from  duty,  a  crime,  now  usiially  the  fact  of 
wilful  wrong-doing,  the  condition  of  being  guilty  of  a  crime, 
hence  conduct  deserving  of  punishment  'Hie  O.  Eng.  form 
of  the  word  is  gylt.  The  New  Bnglisk  Dictionary  rejecU  for 
phonetic  reasons  the  usually  accepted  connexion  with  the 
Teutonic  root  gold-,  to  pay,  seen  in  (kr.  gelten,  to  be  of  value, 
Gdtf,  money,  payment,  English  "  yield." 

GUIMARABS  (sometimes  written  Guimaraens),  a  town  of 
northern  Portugal,  in  the  district  of  Braga,  formerly  included  in 
the  province  of  £ntre-Minho-e-Douro;  36  m.  N.E.  of  Oporto 
by  the  Trofa-Guimarftes  branch  of  the  Oporto-Corunna  railway. 
Pop.  (1900)  9x04.  Guimarftes  is  a  very  ancient  town  with 
Moorish  fortifications;  and  even  the  quarters  which  are  locally 
described  as  "  new  "  date  partly  from  the  xsth  century.  It 
occupies  a  low  hill,  skirted  on  the  north-west  by  a  small  tributary 
of  the  river  Ave.  The  dtadel,  founded  in  the  ixth  century  by 
Count  Henry  of  Burgundy,  was  in  1094  the  birthplace  of  his 
son  Alphonso,  the  first  king  of  Portugal  The  font  in  which 
Alphonso  was  baptized  is  preserved,  among  other  interesting 
relics,  in  the  collegiate  church  of  Santa  Maria  da  Olivcira,  "  St 
Mary  of  the  Olive,"  a  Romanesque  buOding  of  the  X4th  century, 
whidi  occupies  the  site  of  an  older  foundation.  This  church 
owes  its  name  to  the  legend  that  the  Visigothic  king  Wamba 
(672-680)  here  declined  the  crown  of  Spain,  until  his  olive  wood 
spear-shaft  blossomed  as  a  sign  that  he  should  consent.  The 
convent  of  SAo  Domingos,  now  a  museum  of  antiquities,  has  a 
fine  X2th-X3th  century  cloister;  the  town  hall  is  built  in  the  blend 
of  Moorish  and  Gothic  architecture  known  as  Manoelline. 
Guimaxies  has  a  flourishing  trade  in  wine  and  farm  produce; 
it  also  ixumufactures  cutlery,  linen,  leather  and  preserved  fruits. 
Near  the  town  are  Citania,  the  ruins  of  a  prehistoric  Ibeiiaa 
dty,  and  the  hot  sulphurous  brings  of  Taipas,  frequented  since 
the  4th  century,  when  Guimaraes  itself  was  founded. 

GUIMARD.  MARIS  MADBLBIIIB  (1743-1816),  French  dancer, 
was  bom  in  Paris  on  the  xotb  of  October  1743.  For  twenty-five 
years  she  was  the  star  of  the  Paris  Op6ra.  She  made  herself 
even  more  famous  by  her  love  affairs,  especially  by  her  long 
h'aison  with  the  prince  de  Soubise.  She  bought  a  magnificent 
house  at  Pantin,  and  built  a  private  theatre  connected  with  it, 
where  ColU's  Partie  de  ckasse  de  Henri  I V  which  was  prohibited 
in  public,  and -most  of  the  Proeerhes  of  Carmontelle  (Louis 
(^arrogis,  17 17-1806),  and  similar  licentious  performances  were 
given  to  the  delist  of  high  sodety.    In  X772,  in  defiance  of  the 


696 


GUIMET— GUINEA 


archbishop  of  Paris,  9he  opened  a  gorgeous  house  with  a  theatre 
seating  five  hundred  spectators  in  the  Chauss^e  d'Antin.  In  this 
Temple  of  Terpsichore,  as  she  named,  it,  the  wildest  orgies  took 
place.  In  1786  she  was  compelled  to  get  rid  of  the  property, 
and  it  was  disposed  of  by  lottery  for  her  benefit  for  the  stmi  of 
300,000  francs.  Soon  after  her  retirement  in  1789  she  married 
Jean  Etienne  Despr^ux  (1748-1820),  dancer,  song-writer  and 
playwrighL 

I  GUIMET,  JEAN  BAPTISTB  (x795'-x87x),  Freqch  industrial 
chemist,  was  bom  at  Voiron  on  the  aoth  of  July  x  795.  He  studied 
at  the  £cole  Poly  technique  in  Paris,  and  in  18x7  entered  the 
Administration  des  Poudres  et  Salpfitres.  In  1828  he  was 
iiwarded  the  prize  offered  by  the  Soci6t6  d'Encouragement  pour 
rindustrie  Nationale  for  a  process  of  making  artificial  ultramarine 
with  all  the  properties  of  the  substance  prepared  from  bpis 
lazuli;  and  six  years  later  he  resigned  his  official  position  in 
order  to  devote  himself  to  the  commercial  production  of  that 
material,  a  factory  for  which  he  established  at  Fleurieux  sur 
Sa6ne.  He  died  on  the  8th  of  April  187 1. 
His  son  £mil£  £tienne  Gutmet,  bom  at  Lyons  on  the  26th 
of  June  X836,  succeeded  him  in  the  direction  of  the  factory, 
and  founded  the  Mus6c  Guimet,  which  was  first  located  at  Lyons 
in  1879  and  was  handed  over  to  the  state  and  transferred  to 
Paris  in  X885.  Devoted  to  travel,  he  was  in  1876  commissioned 
by  the  minister  of  public  instruction  to  study  the  religions  of 
the  Far  East,  and  the  museum  contains  many  of  the  fruits  of 
this  expedition,  including  a  fine  collection  of  Japanese  and 
Chinese  porcelain  and  many  objects  relating  not  merely  to  the 
religions  of  the  East  but  also  to  those  of  Ancient  Egypt,  Greece 
and  Rome.  He  yrroie  Lettres  sttr  VAlgirie  (X877)  and  Promenades 
japonaises  (1880),  and  also  some  musical  compositions,  including 
a  grand  opera,  Tal-Tsoung  (1894). 

GUINEA,  the  general  name  applied  by  Europeans  to  part  of 
the  westem  coast  region  of  equatorial  Africa,  and  also  to  the 
gulf  formed  by  the  great  bend  of  the  coast  line  eastward  and  then 
southward.  Like  many  other  geographical  designations  the 
use  of  which  is  controlled  neither  by  natural  nor  political 
boundaries,  the  name  has  been  very  differently  employed  by 
different  writers  and  at  different  periods.  In  the  widest  accepta- 
tion of  the  term,  the  Guinea  coast  may  be  said  to  extend  from 
X3^  N.  to  16"  S.,  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Gambia  to  Cape 
Negro.  Southern  or  Lower  Guinea  comprises  the  coasts  of 
Gabun  and  Loango  (known  also  as  French  Congo)  and  the  Portu- 
guese possessions  on  the  south-west  coast,  and  Northern  or 
Upper  Guinea  stretches  from  the  river  Casamancc  to  and  inclusive 
of  the  Niger  delta,  Cameroon  occupjring  a  middle  position.  In 
a  narrower  use  of  the  name,  Guinea  is  the  coast  only  from  Cape 
Palmas  to  the  Gabim  estuary.  Originally,  on  the  other  hand, 
Guinea  was  supposed  to  begin  as  far  north  as  Cape  Nun,  opposite 
the  Canary  Islands,  and  Gomes  Azurara,  a  Porttigucse  historian 
of  the  X5th  century,  is  said  to  be  the  first  authority  who  brings 
the  boundary  south  to  the  Senegal.  The  derivation  of  the  name 
is  uncertain,  but  is  probably  taken  from  Ghinea,  Ginnie,  Genni 
or  Jenn€,  a  town  and  kingdom  in  the  basin  of  the  Niger,  famed 
for  the  enterprise  of  its  merchants  and  dating  from  the  8th 
tentury  a.d.  The  name  Guinea  is  found  on  maps  of  the  middle 
of  the  i4tli  century,  but  it  did  not  come  into  general  use  in 
Europe  till  towards  the  dose  of  the  X5th  century .* 

*  Guinea  may,  however,  be  derived  from  Ghana  (or  Ghanata)  the 
name  of  the  oldest  known  state  in  the  western  Sudan.  Ghana  dates, 
according  to  some  authorities,  from  the  Ard  century  A.D.  From 
the  7th  to  the  12th  century  it  was  a  powcnul  empire,  its  dominions 
extending,  apparently,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Niger  bend.  At 
one  time  Jcnn6  was  included  within  its  borders.  Ghana  was  finally 
cOn(]uered  by  the  Mandingo  kings  of  Melle  in  the  13th  century.  Its 
capital,  also  called  Ghana,  was  west  of  the  Niger^  and  is  generally 
placed  some  200  m.  west  of  Jenn6.  In  this  district  L.  Desplagncs 
discovered  in  1007  numerous  remains  of  a  once  extensive  city, 
which  he  identincd  as  those  of  Ghana.  The  ruins  lie  25  m.  W.  of 
the  Niger,  on  both  banks  of  a  marigot,  and  are  about  40  m.  N.  by  E. 
of  Kulikoro  (sec  La  Giof^abkie,  xvi.  329).  By  some  wnters 
Ghaoa  city  is,  however,  identined  with  Walata,  which  town  is  men- 
tioni.*d  by  Arab  historians  as  the  capital  of  Ghanata.  '  The  identifica- 
tion of  Ghana  city  with  Jenn6  is  not  justified,  though  Idrisi  nems 
to  be  describing  Jenn^  when  writing  01  "  Ghana  the  Great." 


Although  the  term  Gulf  of  Guinea  is  api^ied  generaUy  to  thst 
part  of  the  coast  south  of  Cape  Palmas  and  ix>rth  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Congo,  particular  indentations  have  their  peculiar  dcsignt- 
tions.  The  bay  formed  by  the  configuration  of  the  land  between 
Cape  St  Paul  and  the  Nun  mouth  of  the  Niger  b  kxiown  as  the 
Bight  of  Benin,  the  name  being  that  of  the  once  powerful  native 
state  whose  territory  formerly  extended  over  the  whole  district 
The  Bight  of  Biafra,  or  Mafra  (named  after  the  town  of  Mafra  in 
sonthem  Portugal),  between  Capes  Formosa  and  Lopez,  is  tl^ 
most  eastem  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea;  it  contains  the  islands 
Fernando  Po,  Prince's  and  St  Thomas's.  The  name  Biafra-^ 
as  indicating  the  country — fell  into  disuse  in  the  later  part  of 
the  X9th  century. 

The  coast  is  generally  so  low  as  to  be  visible  to  navigators  only 
within  a  very  short  distance,  the  mangrove  trees  being  their 
only  sailing  marks.  In  the  Big^t  of  Biafra  the  coast  forms  an 
exception,  being  hi^  and  bold,  with  the  Cameroon  JMountaios 
for  background.  At  Sierra  Leone  also  there  is  high  land.  The 
coast  in  many  places  maintains  a  dead  level  for  30  to  50  m. 
inland.  Vegetation  is  exceedingly  luxuriant  and  varied.  The 
palm-oil  tree  is  indigenous  and  abundant  from  the  river  Gambia 
to  the  Congo.  The  fatua  comprises  neariy  all  the  more  remark- 
able of  African  animals.  The  inhabitants  are  the  true  Negro 
stock. 

By  the  early  traders  the  coast  of  Upper  Guinea  was  pven 
names  founded  on  the  productions  characteristic  of  the  different 
parts.  The  Grain  coast,  that  part  of  the  Guinea  coast  extending 
for  500  m.  from  Sierra  Leone  eastward  to  Cape  Palmas  received 
its  name  from  the  export  of  the  seeds  of  several  plants  of  a 
peppery  character,  called  variously  grains  of  paradise,  Guinea 
pepper  and  melegueta.  The  name  Grain  coast  was  first  applied 
to  this  r^on  in  X455.  It  was  occasionally  styled  the  Wii^  w 
Windward  coast,  from  the  frequency  of  short  but  furious 
tornadoes  throughout  the  year.  Towards  the  end  of  the  x8th 
century,  Guinea  pepper  was  supplanted  in  Europe  by  peppers 
from  the  East  Indies.  The  name  now  is  sddom  used,  the  Grain 
coast  being  divided  between  the  British  colony  of  Sierra  Leooe 
and  the  republic  of  Liberia.  The  Ivor>-  coast  exteitds  from  Cape 
Palmas  to  3°  W.,  and  obtained  its  name  from  the  quantity  of 
ivory  exported  therefrom.  It  is  now  a  French  possession.  East- 
wards of  the  Ivory  coast  are  the  Gold  and  Slave  coasts.  The 
Niger  delta  was  for  long  known  as  the  Oil  rivers.  To  two 
regions  only  of  the  coast  is  the  name  Guinea  officially  applied, 
the  French  and  Portuguese  colonies  north  of  Sierra  Leone  being 
so  styled. 

Of  the  various  names  by  which  the  divisions  of  Lower  Guioca 
were  known,  Loango  was  applied  to  the  country  south  of  the 
Gabun  and  north  of  the  Congo  river.  It  is  now  diieffy  included 
in  French  Congo.  Congo  was  used  to  designate  the  country 
immediately  south  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  usuaDy  spdten 
of  until  the  last  half  of  the  X9th  century  as  the  Zaire.  Congo  b 
now  one  of  the  subdivisions  of  Portuguese  West  Africa  (see 
Angola).  It  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Belgian 
Congo. 

Few  questions  in  historical  geography  have  been  raxxt  keenly 
discussed  than  that  of  the  first  discovery  of  Guinea  by  the 
navigators  of  modem  Europe.  Lancelot  Malocdlo,  a  Genoese, 
in  1270  reached  at  least  as  far  as  the  Canaries.  The  first  direct 
attempt  to  find  a  sea  route  to  India  was,  it  is  said,  also  made  by 
Genoese,  Ugolino  and  Guido  de  Vivaldo,  TedisioDoria  and  othm 
who  equipped  two  galleys  and  sailed  south  along  the  African 
coast  in  L29X.  Beyond  the  fact  that  they  passed  Cape  Nua 
there  is  no  trustworthy  record  of  their  voyage.  In  1346  a  Catalao 
expedition  started  for  "  the  river  of  gold  "  on  the  Guinea  coa^; 
its  fate  is  unknown.  The  French  claim  that  between  1364  sad 
X4 10  the  people  of  Diq)pe  sent  out  several  expeditions  to  Guinea; 
and  Jean  de  B6thencourt,  who  settled  in  the  Canaries  about 
X402,  made  expirations  towards  the  south.  At  length  the 
consecutive  efforts  of  the  navigators  employed  by  Prince  Henry 
of  Portugal— Gil  Eannes,  Diniz  Diaz,  Nuno  Tristam,  Aharo 
Fernandez,  Cadamosto,  Usodimare  and  Diego  Gomea— made 
known  the  coast  as  far  as  the  Gambia,  and  by  the  cod 


GUINEA— GUINGAMP 


697 


of  the  15th  centuiy    the    whole    region    was    familiar    to 
Europeans. 

For  further  infomution  see  Senegal,  Gold  Coast,  Ivory  Coast, 
French  Guinea,  Portuguese  Guinea,  Liberia,  &c.  For.  the 
history  of  European  diacoveries,  consult  G.  E.  de  Azuraia,  Chronica 
de  dtKobrimenio  e  conauisla  de  Guini,  published,  with  an  intro- 
duction, by  Barros  de  aantarem  (Paris,  1841),  English  transbtion. 
The  Diseoierf  and  Conquest  of  Guinea,  by  C.  R.  Beaaley  and  E. 
Prestage  (Hakluyt  Society  publications,  a  vols.,  Lx>ndon,  1896-1899), 
vol.  ii.  nas  an  introduction  on  the  early  history  of  African  explora- 
tion, &r.  with  full  bibliographical  notes).  L.  Estancelin,  Rtcherches 
sur  les  voyaeex  et  dicoutertes  des  namgatenrs  nonnands  en  Afrique 
(Paris.  1833);  Villault  de  Bellefond,  RdaHoH  des  cosies  d* Afrique 
appdUes  Cuinie  (Paris,  1669):  Pdre  Labat,  NomeUe  RtUUton  de 
I  Afrique  occidenUue  (Paris,  1728);  Desmarquets,  Mtm.  chron,  pour 
servir  A  I'hist.  de  Dieppe  (187^) ;  Santarem,  PrioriU  de  la  dicouoerle 
des  pays  sitmis  sur  la  cUe  ocadentale  d* Afrique  (Paris,  18^) ;  R.  H. 
Major,  Life  of  Prince  Henry  the  Naoitator  (London,  1868) ;  and  the 
elaborate  review  of  Major's  work  by  M.  Codine  in  the  Bulletin  de  la 
Soc.  de  Giog.  (1873);  A.  E.  NordenskiOld.  Penplus  (Stockholm. 
1897):  The  Story  of  Africa,  vol.  L  (London,  1892),  edited  by  Dr 
Robert  Brown. 

QUINBA,  a  gold  coin  at  one  time  cuxrent  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  It  was  first  coined  in  1 663,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. , 
from  gold  imported  from  the  Guinea  coast  of  West  Africa  by  a 
company  of  merchants  trading  under  charter  from  the  British 
crown — hence  the  name.  Many  of  the  first  guineas  bore  an 
elephant  on  one  side,  this  being  the  stamp  of  the  company; 
in  1675  a  castle  was  added.  Issued  at  the  same  time  as  the 
guinea  were  five-guinea,  two-guinea  and  half-guinea  pieces. 
The  current  value  of  the  guinea  on  its  first  issue  was  twenty 
shillings.  It  was  subsidiary  to  the  silver  coinage,  but  this  latter 
was  in  such  an  unsatbfactory  state  that  the  guinea  in  course  of 
time  became  over-valued  in  relation  to  silver,  so  much  so  that 
in  1694  it  had  risen  in  value  to  thirty  shillings.  The  rehabilita- 
tion of  the  silver  coinage  in  William  III.'s  reign  brought  down 
the  value  of  the  guinea  to  a  is.  6d.  in  1698,  at  which  it  stood  until 
1 7 17,  when  its  value  was  fixed  at  twenty-one  shillings.  This 
value  the  guinea  retained  until  its  disappearance  from  the 
coinage.  It  was  last  coined  in  1813,  and  was  superseded  in  181 7 
by  the  present  principal  gold  coin,  the  sovereign.  In  17 18  the 
quarter-guinea  was  first  coined.  The  third-guinea  was  first 
struck  in  George  III.'s  reign  (1787).  To  George  III.'s  reign  also 
belongs  the  "  spade-guinea,"  a  guinea  having  the  shield  on  the 
tcverse  pointed  at  the  base  or  spade-shaped.  It  is  still  customary 
to  pay  subscriptions,  professional  fees  and  honoraria  of  all  kinds, 
in  terms  of  "  guineas,"  a  guinea  being  twenty-one  shillings. 

GUINEA  FOWL,  a  well-known  domestic  gallinaceous  bird, 
so  called  from  the  country  whence  in  modern  times  it  was 
brought  to  Europe,  the  Mekagris  and  Avis  or  CaUina  Numidica 
of  andent  authors.*  Little  is  positively  known  of  the  wild  stock 
to  which  we  owe  our  tame  birds,  nor  can  the  period  of  its  re- 
introduction  (for  there  is  apparently  no  evidence  of  its  domestica- 
tion being  continuous  from  the  time  of  the  Romans)  be  assigned 
more  than  roughly  to  that  of  the  African  discoveries  of  the 
Portuguese.  It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  commonly  known 
till  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  when  John  Caius  sent  a 
description  and  figure,  with  the  name  Callus  liauritanus,  to 
Gcsner,  who  published  both  in  his  Paralipomena  in  1555,  and 
in  the  same  year  Belon  also  gave  a  notice  and  woodcut  under 
the  name  of  PouUe  de  la  Guinie;  but  while  the  former  authors 
properly  referred  their  bird  to  the  ancient  MeleagriSf  the  latter 
confounded  the  lideagris  and  the  turkey. 

The  ordinary  guinea  fowl  of  the  poultry-yard  (see  also  Poultry 
and  PouLTRy-FASiaNG)  is  the  Numido  meUagris  of  ornitho- 
logists. The  chief  or  only  changes  which  domestication  seems 
to  have  induced  in  its  appearance  are  a  tendency  to  albinism 
generally  shown  id  the.plumage  of  its  lower  parts,  and  frequently, 
though  not  always,  the  conversion  of  the  colour  of  its  legs  i^nd 

■  Columella  (De  re  rustica,  viii.  cap.  a)  distinguishes  the  Afelea- 
gris  from  the  Gallina  Africana  or  Numidica,  the  latter  having,  he 
says,  a  red  wattle  ipalea,  a  reading  obviously  preferable  to  galea), 
while  it  was  blue  in  the  former.  This  would  look  as  if  the  MeUagris 
had  sprung  from  what  is  now  called  Numida  piihrhyncha,  while  the 
CaUina  Alfricana  originated  in  the  N.  maeagris,  species  which 
have  a  different  ranKe.  and  if  so  the  fact  would  point  to  two  distinct 
introductions— one  by  Greeks,  the  other  by  Latins. 


feet  from  dark  greyish-brown  to  bright  orange.  That  the  home 
of  this  species  is  West  Africa  from  the  Gambia  *  to  the  Gaboon 
is  certain,  but  its  range  in  the  interior  is  quite  unknown.  It 
appean  to  have  been  imported  early  into  the  Ca[)e  Verd  Islands, 
where,  as  also  in  some  of  the  Greater  Antilles  and  in  Ascension, 
it  has  run  wild.  Representing  the  species  in  South  Africa  we 
have  the  N.  coronata,  which  is  very  numerous  from  the  Cape 
Colony  to  Ovampoland,  and  the  N.  cornula  of  Drs  Finsch  and 
Hartlaub,  which  replaces  it  b\  the  west  as  far  as  the  Zambesi. 
Madagascar  also  has  its  peculiar  spedes,  distinguishable  by  its 
red  crown,  the  N,  mitrata  of  Pallas,  a  name  which  has  often  been 
misapplied  to  the  last.  This  bird  has  been  introduced  to 
Rodriguez,  "where  it  is  now  found  wild.  Abyssinia  is  inhabited 
by  another  spedes,  the  N.  ptilorkyncha,'  which  differs  from  all 
the  foregoing  by  the  absence  of  any  red  colouring  about  the  head. 
Very  different  from  all  of  them,  and  the  finest  spedes  known,  is 
the  N.  vulturina  of  Zanzibar,  conspicuous  by  the  bright  blue  in 
its  plumage,  the  hackles  that  adorn  the  lower  part  of  its  neck, 
and  its  long  talK  By  some  writers  it  b  though  t  to  form  a  separate 
genus,  AcrylliuM.  All  these  guinea  fowls  except  the  last  are 
characterized  by  having  the  crown  bare  of  feathers  and  elevated 
into  a  bony  "  helmet,"  but  there  is  another  group  (to  which 
the  name  GuUcra  has  been  given)  in  which  a  thick  tuft  of  feathers 
ornaments  the  top  of  the  head.  This  contains  four  or  five 
spedes,  all  inhabiting  some  partor  other  of  Africa,  the  best  known 
being  the  N.  cristata  from  Sierra  Leone  and  other  places  on  the 
western  coast.  This  bird,  apparently  mentioned  by  Marcgrave 
more  than  200  years  ago,  but  first  described  by  Pallas,  is  remark- 
able for  the  struaurc — unique,  if  not  possessed  by  its  represen- 
tative forms — of  its  furcula,  where  the  head,  instead  of  bdng 
the  thin  plate  found  in  all  other  GaUinaef  is  a  hollow  cup  opening 
upwards,  into  which  the  trachea  dips,  and  then  emerges  on  its 
way  to  the  lungs.  Allied  to  the  genus  Numida,  but  readily 
distinguished  thercform  among  other  characters  by  the  possession 
of  spurs  and  the  absence  of  a  helmet,  are  two  very  rare  forms, 
AgelasUs  and  Phasidtts,.  both  from  western  Africa.  Of  their 
halMts  nothing  is  known.  AU  these  birds  are  beautifully  figured 
in  Elliot's  Monagrapk  of  the  Pliasiattidae,  from  drawings  by 
Wolf.  (A.  N.) 

GUINEA-WORM  {Draconliasis),  a  disease  due  to  the  Filaria 
medinensiSyOT  Dracunculus,  or  Guinea- worm, a  filarious  nematode 
like  a  horse-hair,  whose  most  frequent  habitat  is  the  subcutaneous 
and  intramuscular  tissues  of  the  legs  and  feet.  It  is  common  on 
the  Guinea  coast,  and  in  many  other  tropical  and  subtropical 
regions  and  has  been  familiarly  known  since  ancient  times. 
The  condition  of  dracontiasis  due  to  it  is  a  very  common  one, 
and  sometimes  amounts  to  an  epidemic.  The  black  races  are 
most  liable,  but  Europeans  of  almost  any  sodal  rank  and  of 
either  sex  arc  not  altogether  exempt.  The  worm  lives  in  water, 
and,  like  the  Pilcria  sanguinis  hominis,  appears  to  have  an 
intermediate  host  for  its  larval  stage.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  worm  penetrates  the  skin  of  the  legs  directly;  it  is  not 
impossible  that  the  intermediate  host  (a  cyclops)  which  contains 
the  larvae  may  be  swallowed  with  the  water,  and  that  the  larvae 
of  the  Dracunculus  may  be  set  free  in  the  course  of  digestion. 

OtilNES,  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Havana  province,  Cuba, 
about  30  m.  S.E.  of  Havana.  Pop.  (1Q07)  8053.  It  is  situated 
on  a  plain,  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  plantation  district,  chiefly 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  tobacco.  The  first  railway  in  Cuba 
was  built  from  Havana  to  Guines  between  1835  and  1838.  One 
of  the  very  few  good  highways  of  the  island  also  connects  GUines 
with  the  capital.  The  pueblo  of  GUines,  which  was  built  on  a 
great  private  estate  of  the  same  name,  dates  back  to  about  1735. 
The  church  dates  from  1850.  Gilines  became  a  "  villa  "  in  18 14, 
and  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1817. 

GUINQAMP,  a  town  of  north-western  France,  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  C6tes-du-Nord,  on  the 

'  Specimenii  from  the  Gambia  arc  said  to  be  smaller,  and  have  been 
dcvnbcd  as  distinct  under  the  name  of  N.  rendalli. 

*  Darwin  {Anim.  and  PI.  under  Domestication,  \.  294).  givcA  this 
as  the  original  stock  of  the  modern  domestic  birds,  but  obviouslv  by 
an  accidental  error.  As  before  observed,  it  may  possibly  have  been 
the  true  jMAcaYpft  of  the  Greeks. 


698 


GUINNESS— GUIRAUD 


right  bank  of  the  Trieux,  20  m.  W.N.W  of  St  Brieuc  on  the 
railway  to  Brest  Pop.  (1906),  town  6937,  commune  9212. 
Its  chief  church,  Notre-Dame  de  Bon-Secours,  dates  from  the 
14th  to  the  i6th  centuries^  two  towers  rise  on  each  side  of  the 
richly  sculptured  western  portal  and  a  third  surmounts  the 
crossing.  A  famous  statue  of  the  Virgin,  the  object  of  one  of 
the  most  important  "pardons"  or  religious  pilgrimages  in 
Brittany,  stands  in  one  of  the  two  northern'  porches.  The 
central  square  b  decorated  by  a  graceful  fountain  in  the  Renais- 
sance style,  restored  in  1743.  Remains  of  the  ramparts  and  of 
the  ch&teau  of  the  dukes  of  Penthidvre,  which  belong  to  the 
xsth  century,  still  survive  Guingamp  is  the  scat  of  a  sub- 
prefect  and  of  a  tribunal  of  first  instance.  It  is  an  important 
market  for  dairy-cattle,  and  its  industries  include  flour-milling, 
tanning  and  leather-dressing  Guingamp  was  the  chief  town  of 
the  countship  (subsequently  the  duchy)  of  Penthidvre.  The 
Gothic  chapel  of  Gr&ces,  near  Guingamp,  contains  fine 
sculptures 

GUINNESS,  the  name  of  a  family  of  Irish  brewers.  The 
firm  was  founded  by  Arthur  Guinness,  who  about  the  middle 
of  the  1 8th  century  owned  a  modest  brewing-plant  at  Leixlip, 
a  village  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  river  Liffey.  In  or  about 
1759  Arthur  Guinness,  seeking  tp  extend  his  trade,  purchased 
a  small  porter  brewery  belonging  to  a  Mr  Rainsford  at  St  James's 
Gate,  Dublin.  By  careful  attention  to  the  purity  of  his  product, 
coupled  with  a  shrewd  perception  of  the  public  taste,  he  built 
op  a  considerable  business.  But  his  third  son,  Benjamin  Lee 
Guinness  (179S-1868),  may  be  regarded  as  the  real  maker  of 
the  firm,  into  which  he  was  taken  at  an  early  age,  and  of  which 
about  1825  he  was  given  sole  control.  Prior,  to  that  date  the 
trade  in  Guinness's  porter  and  stout  had  been  confined  to  Ireland, 
but  Benjamin  Lee  Guinness  at  once  established  agencite  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  on  the  continent,  in  the  British  colonies  and 
in  America.  The  export  trade  soon  assumed  huge  proportions; 
the  brewery  was  continually  enlarged,  and  when  in  1855  his 
father  died,  Benjamin  Lee  Guinness,  who  in  1851  was  elected 
first  lord  mayor  of  Dublin,  found  himself  sole  proprietor  of  the 
business  and  the  richest  man  in  Ireland.  Between  i860  and 
i86s  he  devoted  a  portion  of  this  wealth  to  the  restoration 
of  St  Patrick's  cathedral,  Dublin.  The  work,  the  progress 
of  which  he  regularly  superintended  himself,  cost  £160,000. 
Benjamin  Lee  Guinness  represented  the  city  of  Dublin  in  parlia- 
ment as  a  Conservative  from  1865  till  his  death,  and  in  1867 
was  created  a  baronet  He  died  in  1868,  and  was  succeeded  in 
the  control  of  the  business  by  Sir  Arthur  Edward  Guinness  (b. 
1840),  his  eldest,  and  Edward  Cecil  Guinness  (b.  1847),  his  third, 
son.  Sir  Arthur  Edward  Guinness,  who  for  some  time  repre- 
sented Dublin  in  parliament,  was  in  1880  raised  to  the  peerage 
as  Baron  Ardilaun,  and  about  the  same  lime  disposed  of  his 
share  in  the  brewery  to  his  brother  Edward  Cecil  Guinness. 
In  1886  Edward  Cecil  Guinness  disposed  of  the  brewery, 
the  products  of  which  were  then  being  sent  all  over  the  world, 
to  a  limited  company,  in  which  he  remained  the  largest  share- 
holder. Edward  Cecil  Guinness  was  created  a  baronet  in  1885, 
and  in  189 1  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Ivcagh. 

The  Guinness  family  have  been  distinguished  for  their  philan- 
thropy and  public  munificence.  Lord  Ardilaun  gave  a  recreation 
ground  to  Dublin,  and  the  famous  Muckross  estate  at  Killamey 
to  the  nation.  Lord  Iveagh  set  aside  £250,000  for  the  creation 
of  the  Guinness  trust  (1889)  for  the  erection  and  maintenance 
of  buildings  for  the  labouring  poor  in  London  and  Dublin,  and 
was  a  liberal  benefactor  to  the  funds  of  Dublin  university. 

GUINOBATAN,  a  town  of  the  province  of  Albay.  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands,  on  the  Inaya  river,  9  m.  W.  by  N.  of  the  town 
of  Albay.  Pop.  (1903),  20.027.  Its  chief  interest  is  in  hemp, 
which  is  grown  in  large  quantities  in  the  neighbouring  country. 

GUIPuZCOA,  a  maritime  province  of  northern  Spain,  included 
among  the  Basque  provinces,  and  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
Bay  of  Biscay;  W  by  the  province  of  Biscay  iViuaya);  S.  and 
S.E.  by  Alava  and  Navarre:  and  N.E.  by  the  river  Bidassoa,* 

*  A  small  island  it  the  Bidassoa,  called  La  Isla  de  los  Faisanes,  or 
IJale  de  la  Coaf^nce,  b  celebrated  as  the  place  where  the  marriage 


which  sq>arates  it  from  France.  Pop.  (1900),  195.850;  area, 
728  sq.  m.  Situated  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  great  Caa- 
tabrian  chain  at  its  junction  with  the  Pyrenees,  the  province  has 
a  great  variety  of  surface  in  mountain,  hill  and  vaUey;  and  its 
scenery  is  highly  picturesque.  The  coast  is  much  indented, 
and  has  numerous  harbours,  but  none  of  very  great  importance; 
the  chief  are  those  of  San  Sebastian,  Pasajes,  Guetaria,  Deva 
and  Fuenterrabia.  The  rivers  (Deva,  Urola,  Oiia,  Unimea, 
Bidassoa)  are  all  short,  rapid  and  unnavigable.  The  mountains 
are  for  the  most  part  covered  with  forests  of  oak,  chestnut  or 
pine;  holly  and  arbutus  are  also  common,  with  furxe  and  heath 
in  the  poorer  parts.  The  soil  in  the  lower  valleys  is  generally 
of  hard  clay  and  unfertile;  it  is  cultivated  with  great  care, 
but  the  grain  raised  falls  considerably  short  of  what  is  required 
for  home  consumption.  The  climate,  thou^  moist,  b  mfld, 
pleasant  and  healthy;  fruit  is  produced  in  considerable 
quantities,  especially  apples  for  manufacture  into  taraiua  or 
cider.  The  chief  mineral  products  are  iron,  lignite,  lead,  copper, 
zinc  and  cement.  Ferruginous  and  sulphurous  qmngs  axe  voy 
comnlon,  and  are  much  frequented  every  summer  by  visitvs 
from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  There  are  excellent  fisheries, 
which  supply  the  neighbouring  provinces  with  cod,  tunny, 
sardines  and  oysters;  and  the  average  yeariy  value  of  the  coast- 
ing trade  exceeds  £400,000.  By  Irun,  Pasajes  and  the  frontier 
roads  £4,000,000  of  imports  and  £3,000,000  of  exports  pass  to 
and  from  France,  partly  in  transit  for  the  rest  of  Europe.  Apart 
from  the  four  Catalan  provinces,  no  province  has  witnessed  «ich 
a  development  of  local  industries  as  Guipiizcoa.  The  principal 
industrial  centres  are  Irun,  Renteria,  Villabona,  Vexgara  and 
Azp^itia  for  cotton  and  linen  stuffs;  Zumarraga  for  osies; 
Eibar,  Plasenda  and  Elgoibar  for  arms  and  cannon  and  gold 
incrustations;  Irun  for  soap  and  carriages;  San  Sebastian, 
Irun  and  Onate  for  paper,  glass,  chemicals  and  saw-milb; 
Tolosa  for  paper,  timber,  cloths  and  furniture;  and  the  banks 
of  the  bay  of  Pasajes  for  the  manufacture  of  liqueurs  of  every 
kind,  and  the  preparation  of  wines  for  export  jmd  for  consumption 
in  the  ihterior  of  Spain.  This  last  industry  occupies  several 
thousand  French  and  Spanish  workmen.  An  arsenal  was 
established  at  Azpiitia  during  the  Carlist  rising  of  1870-1874; 
but  the  manufacture  of  ordnance  and  gunpowder  was  subse- 
quently discontinued.  The  main  line  of  the  northern  railway 
from  Madrid  to  France  runs  through  the  province,  giving  access, 
by  a  loop  line,  to  the  chief  industrial  centres.  The  costom-house 
through  which  it  passes  on  the  frontier  is  one  of  the  most 
important  in  Spain.  Despite  the  steep  gradients,  where  trafic 
is  hardly  possible  except  by  ox-carts,  there  are  over  350  m.  of 
admirably  engineered  roads,  maintained  solely  by  the  local 
tax-payers.  After  San  Sebastian,  the  capital  (pop.  1900, 37,81 2), 
the  chief  towns  are  Fuenterrabia  (4345)  and  Irun  (991 2).  Other 
towns  with  more  than  6000  inhabitants  are  Azpciilz  (6066). 
Eibar  (6583),  Tolosa  (81 11)  and  Vergara  (6196).  Guip&zcoa 
is  the  smallest  and  one  of  the  most  densely  peopled  provinces  of 
Spain,  for  its  constant  losses  by  emigration  are  counterbalanced 
by  a  high  birth-rate  and  the  influx  of  settlers  from  other  districts 
who  are  attracted  b^  its  industrial  prosperity. 

For  an  account  of  its  inhabitants  and  their  customs,  language  aad 
history,  sec  Basques  and  Basque  Provinces. 

GUIRAUD,  ERNEST  (1837-1892),  French  composer,  was 
born  at  New  Orieans  on  the  26th  of  June  1837.  He  studied  at 
the  Paris  Conservatoire,  where  he  won  the  grattd  prix  dt  Rem. 
His  father  had  gained  the  same  distinction  many  years  previously, 
this  being  the  only  instance  of  both  father  and  son  obtaining 
this  prize.  Ernest  Guiraud  composed  the  following  ojpexas. 
Sylvie  (1864),  Le  Kohold  (1870),  Madame  Turimpim  (1872). 
Piccotino  (1876),  Galante  Aventure  (1882).  and  also  the  baJIn 
Gretna  Green,  given  at  the  Op€ra  in  1873.  His  opera  Fridip^ 
was  left  in  an  unfinished  condition  and  was  completed  by  CamiSe 
Saint-SaHns.    Guiraud,  who  was  a  fellow-studtent  and  intimate 

of  the  duke  of  Guicnnc  was  arranged  between  Louis  XI.  and  H^ry 
IV.  in  1463.  where  Francis  I.,  the  prisoner  of  Charles  V.,  «a« 
exchanged  lor  his  two  sons  in  1526,  ana  where  in  1659  "  the  IVace  of 
the  Pyrenees  "  was  concluded  between  D.  Luisde  Haroand  Caidiaal 
Mazarin. 


GUISBOROUGH— GUISE 


699 


friend  of  Georges  Bizet,  was  for  some  years  professor  of  composi- 
tion at  the  Conservatdre.  He  was  the  author  of  an  excellent 
treatise  on  instrumentation.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of 
May  1893. 

GUISBOROUGH,  or  Guisbkough,  a  market  town  in  the 
Cleveland  parliamentary  division  of  the  North  Riding  of  York- 
shire, England,  xo  m.  E.S.E.  of  Middlesbrough  by  a  branch  of 
the  North-Eastem  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (igox),  5645. 
It  is  well  situated  in  a  narrow,  fertile  valley  at  the  N.  foot  of 
the  Cleveland  Hills.  The  church  of  St  Nicholas  is  Perpendicular, 
greatly  restored.  Other  buildings  are  the  town  hiidl,  and  the 
modem  buildings  of  the  grammar  school  founded  in  x  561.  Ruins 
of  an  Augustinian  priory,  founded  in  1x39,  are  beautifully 
situated  near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  town.  The  church 
contains  some  fine  Decorated  work,  and  the  chapter  bouse  and 
parts  of  the  conventual  buildings  may  be  traced.  Considerable 
fragments  of  Norman  and  transitional  work  remaiiL  Among 
the  historic  personages  who  were  buried  within  its  walls  was 
Robert  Bruce,  lord  of  Annandale,  the  coinpetitor  for  the  throne 
of  Scotland  with  John  Baliol,  and  the  grandfather  of  King 
Robert  the  Bruce.  About  x  m.  S.E.  of  the  town  there  is  a 
sulphurous  spring  discovered  in  1 8a  2.  The  district  neighbouring 
to  Guisborough  is  rich  in  iron-stone.  Its  working  forms  the 
chief  industry  of  the  town,  and  there  are  also  tanneries  and 
breweries. 

guise;  a  town  of  northern  France,  in  the  department  of 
Aisne,  on  the  Oise,  31  m.  N.  of  Laon  by  rail  Pop.  (1906),  7562. 
The  town  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  district  of  Thi^rache 
and  afterwards  of  a  countship  (see  below).  There  is  a  chiteau 
dating  in  part  from  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century.  Camllle 
Deslnoulins  was  in  1762  bom  in  the  town,  which  has  erected  a 
statue  to  him.  The  chief  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  iron 
stoves  and  heating  apparatus,  carried  on  on  the  co-operative 
system  in  works  founded  by  J.  B.  A.  Godin,  who  built  for  his 
workpeople  the  huge  buildings  known  as  the  familisUre,  in  front 
of  which  stands  U»  statue.  A  board  of  trade-arbitration  b 
aiiiong  the  public  institutions. 

GUISB,  HOI^SB  OF,  a  cadet  branch  of  the  house  of  Lorraine 
(9.V.).  Ren£  II.,  duke  of  Lorraine  (d.  1508),  united  the  two 
branches  of  the  house  of  Lorraine.  From  h^  paternal  grand- 
mother, Marie  d'Harcourt,  Ren£  inherited  the  countships  of 
Aumale,  Mayenne,  Elbeuf,  Lillebonne,  Brionne  and  other 
French  fiefs,  in  addition  to  the  honours  of  the  elder  branch, 
which  included  the  countship  of  Guise,  the  dowry -of  Marie  of. 
Bk>is  on  her  marriage  in  1333  with  Rudolph  or  Raoul  of  Lorraine. 
Rent's  eldest  surviving  son  by  his  marriage  with  Philippa, 
daughter  of  Adolphus  of  Egmont,  duke  of  Gelderland,  was 
Anthony, who  succeeded  his  father  as  diike  of  Lorraine  (d.  x  544), 
while  the  second,  Claude,  count  and  afterwards  duke  of  Guise, 
received  the  French  fiefs.  The  Gtiises,  though  naturalized  in 
France,  continued  to  interest  themselves  in  the  fortunes  of 
Lorraine,  and  their  enemies  were  always  ready  to  designate 
them  as  foreigners.  The  partition  between  the  brothers  Anthony 
and  Claude  was  ratified  by  a  further  agreement  in  x  530,  reserving 
the  lapsed  honours  of  the  kingdoms  of  Jerusalem,  Sidly,  Aragon, 
the  duchy  of  Anjou  and  the  countships  of  Provence  and  Maine 
to  the  duke  of  Lorraine.  Of  the  other  sons  of  Ren£  II.,  John 
(149S-1550)  became  the  first  cardinal  of  Lorraine^  while  Ferri, 
Louis  and  Francis  fell  fighting  in  the  French  armies  at  Marignano 
(i5i5)>  Naiples  (1528)  a'ndPavia  (1525)  respectively. 

Claude  of  Lorkaine,  count  and  afterwards  ist  duke  of 
Guise  (1496-1550},  was  born  on  the  20th  of  October  X496.  He 
was  educated  at  the  French  court,  and  at  seventeen  allied 
himself  to  the  royal  house  of  France  by  a  marriage  with 
Antofnette  de  Bourbon  (1493-1583)  daughter  of  Francois,  Count 
of  Venddme.  Guise  distinguished  himself  at  Marignano  (1515), 
and  was  long  in  recovering  from  the  twenty-two  wounds  he 
received  in  the  battle;  in  152X  he  fought  at  Fuenterrabia,  when 
Louise  of  Savoy  ascribed  the  capture  of  the  place  to  his  efforts;  in 
X  522  he  defended  northern  France,  and  forced  the  English  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Hesdin ;  and  in  1 525  he  obtained  the  govemment 
of  Champagne  and  Burgundy,  defeating  at  Neufchiteau  the 


imperial  troops  who  had  ihvaded  his  province.  In  xsas  he 
destroyed  the  Anabaptist  peasant  army,  which  was  overrunning 
Lorraine,  at  Lupstein,  near  Savcrne  (Zabcm).  On  the  return 
of  Francis  I.  from  captivity,  Guise  was  erected  into  a  duchy 
in  the  peerage  of  France,  though  up  to  this  time  only  princes  of 
the  royal  house  had  held  the  title  of  duke  and  peer  of  France. 
The  Guises,  as  cadets  of  the  sovereign  house  of  Lorraine  and 
descendants  of  the  house  of  Anjou,  claimed  precedence  of  the 
Bourbon  princes.  Their  pretensions  and  ambitions  inspired 
distrust  in  Francis  I.,  although  he  rewarded  Guise's  services  by 
substantial  gifts  in  land  and  money.  The  duke  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Luxemburg  campaign  in  1542,  but  for  some  years 
before  his  death  he  effaced  himself  before  the  growing  fortunes 
of  his  sons.    He  died  on  the  x  2th  of  April  x  550. 

He  had  been  supported  in  all  his  undertakings  and  intrigues 
by  his  brother  John,  cardinal  of  Lorraine  (1498-X550),  who 
had  been  made  coadjutor  of  Metz  at  the  age  of  three.  The 
cardinal  was  archbishop  oi  Reims,  Lyons  and  Narbonnc,  bishop 
of  Metz,  Toul,  Verdun,  Th£rouannc,  "^^ugon,  Albi,  Valence, 
Nantes  and  Agen,  and  before  he  died  had  squandered  most  of 
the  wealth  which  be  had^dcrived  from  these  and  other  benefices. 
Part  of  his  ecdesiasticat  preferments  he  gave  up  in  favour  of 
his  nephews.  He  became  a  member  of  the  royal  council  in  1530, 
and  in  1^6  was  entrusted  with  an  embassy  to  Charles  V. 
Although  a  complaisant  helper  in  Francis  I.'s  pleasures,  he  was 
disgraced  in  1542,  and  retired  to  Rome.  He  died  at  Nogent- 
sur-Yonne  on  the  x8th  of  May  X550.  He  was  extremely  dis- 
solute, but  as  an  open-handed  patron  of  art  and  learning,  as 
the  protector  and  friend  of  Erasmus,  Marot  and  Rabelais  he 
did  something  to  counter-balance  the  general  impopularity  oi 
his  calculating  and  avaricious  brother. 

Cbude  of  Guise  had  twelve  children,  among  them  Francis,  2ad 
duke  of  Guise;  Charles,  2nd  cardinal  of  Lorraine  (1524-1574).  who 
"  *      ■         ~       ;  CI 


Burgundy, 

Poitiers,  thus  aecCiring  a  powerful  ally  for  the  family;  Louis  (1527- 
1578),  bishop  of  Troves,  archbishop  of  Sens  and  cardinal  of  Uuise; 
Rene,  marauis  (rf  Elbeuf  (1536-1566),  from  whom  descended  the 
families  of  Harcourt,  Annagnac,  Marsan  and  Lillebonne;  Mary  of 
Lorraine  (q.v.),  generally  known  as  Mary  of  Guise,  who  after  the 
death  (rf  her  second  husband,  James  V.  ot  Scotland,  acted  as  regent, 
of  Scotland  for  her  daughter  Mary,  queen  of  Scots;  and  Francis 
(i  <^-i  563),  grand  prior  of  the  order  of  the  Knights  of  Malta.  The 
solidarity  of  this  family,  all  the  members  of  which  through  three 

EeneratiOns  cheerfully  submitted  to  the  authority  of  the  head  of  the 
Quse,  made  it  a  formidable  factor  in  French  politics. 

Francis  orXoutAiNE,  2nd  duke  of  Guise  (i 519-1563),  "le 
grand  Guise,"  was  bom  at  Bar  on  the  X7th  of  JFebruary  1519. 
As  count  of  Aumale  he  served  in  the  French  army,  and  was 
nfeariy  killed  at  the  siege  of  Boulogne  in  X545  by  a  wound  which 
brou^t  him  the  name  of  "  Balafr6."  AumaJe  was  made  (1547) 
a  peerage^luchy  in  his  favour,  and  on  the  accession  of  Henry  II. 
the  young  duke,  who  had  paid  assidtious  court  to  Diane  de 
Poitiers,  shared  the  chid  honours  of  the  kingdom  with  the 
constable  Anne  de  Montmorency.  Both  cherished  ambitions 
for  their  families,  (ut  the  Guises  were  more  unscrupuTous  hi 
subordinating  the  interests  of  France  to  their  own.  Mont- 
morency's brutal  manners,  however,  made  enemies  wlicte  Guise's 
grace  and  courtesy  won  him  friends.  Guise  was  a  suitor  for 
the  hand  of  Jeannb  d'AIbret,  princess  of  Navarre,  who  refused, 
however,  to  become  a  sister-in-law  of  a  daughter  of  Diane  de 
Poitiers  and  remained  one  of  the  most  dangerous  and  penistent 
enemies  of  the  Guises.  He  married  in -December  x  548- Anne  of 
Este,  daughter  of  Ercole  II.,  duke  of  Ferrara^  and  through  her 
mother  Renfe,  a  granddaughter  of  Loub  Xn.  of  France.  In 
the  same  year  he  had  put  down  a. peasant  rising  in  Saintonge 
with  a  humanity  that  compared  very  favourably  with  the 
cruelty  shown  by  Montmorency  to  the  town  of  Bordeaux.  He 
made  preparations  in  Lorraine  for  the  king's  Geriftan  campaign 
of  X55X-52.  He  was  already  governor  of  Dauphin^,  and  now 
becatne  grand  chamberlain,  prince  of  Joinville,  and  hereditary 
seneschal  of  Champagne,  with  large  additions  to  his  already 
considerable  revenues.  He  was  charged  with  the  defence  of 
Meta,  which  Henry  XL  had  entered  in  tssx.    He  reached  Che 


700 


GUISE 


dty  in  August  issa,  and  rapidly  gave  proof  of  his  great  powers 
as  a  soldier  and  organizer  by  the  skill  with  which  the  place,  badly 
fortified  and  unprovided  with  artillery,  was  put  in  a  state  of 
defence.  Metz  was  invested  by  the  duke  of  Alva  in  October 
with  an  army  of  60,000  men,  and  the  emperor  joined  his 
forces  in  November.  An  army  of  brigands  commanded  by  Albert 
of  Brandenburg  had  also  to  be  reckoned  with.  Charles  was 
Obh'ged  to  raise  the  siege  on  the  2nd  of  January  1553,  having 
lost,  it  is  said,  30,000  men  before  the  walls.  Guise  used  his 
victory  with  rare  moderation  and  humanity,  providing  medical 
care  for  the  sick  and  wounded  left  behind  in  the  besiegers'  camp. 
The  subsequent  operations  were  paralysed  by  the  king's  suspicion 
and  carelessness,  and  the  constable's  inactivity,  and  a  year  later 
Guise  was  removed  from  the  command.  He  followed  the  con- 
stable's army  as  a  volunteer,  and  routed  the  army  of  Charles  V. 
at  the  siege  of  Renty  on  the  xath  of  August  1554.  Mont- 
morency's inaction  rendered  the  victory  fruitless,  and  a  bitter 
controversy  followed  between  Guise  and  the  constable's  nephew 
Coligny,  admiral  of  France,  which  widened  a  breach  already 
existing. 

The  conclusion  of  a  six  years'  truce  at  Vaucelles  (1556)  dis- 
appointed Guise's  ambitions,  and  he  was  the  main  mover  in  the 
breach  of  the  treaty  in  1558,  when  he  was  sent  at  the  head  of  a 
French  army  to  Italy  to  the  assistance  of  Pope  Paul  IV.  against 
Spain.  Guise,  who  perhaps  had  in  view  the  restoration  to  his 
family  of  the  Angevin  dominion  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  crossed  the 
Alps  early  in  1557  and  after  a  month's  delay  in  Rome,  where  he 
failed  to  receive  the  promised  support,  marched  on  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  then  occupied  by  the  Spanish  troops  under  Alva. 
He  seized  and  sacked  Campli  (April  17th),  but  was  compelled 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Civitclla.  Meanwhile  the  pope  had  veered 
round  to  a  Spanish  alliance,  and  Guise,  seeing  that  no  honour 
was  to  be  gained  in  the  campaign,  wisely  spared  his  troops,  so 
that  his  army  was  almost  intact  when,  in  August,  he  was  hastily 
summoned  home  to  repel  the  Spanish  army  which  had  invaded 
France  from  the  north,  and  had  taken  St  Quentin.  On  reaching 
Paris  in  October  Guise  was  made  lieutenant-general  of  the 
kingdom,  and  proceeded  to  prepare  for  the  siege  of  Calais.  The 
town  was  taken,  after  six  days'  fighting,  on  the  6th  of  January 
1558,  and  this  success  was  followed  up  by  the  capture  of  Gulnes, 
Thionville  and  Arlon,  when  the  war  was  ended  by  the  treaty 
of  C&teau  Cambr6sis  ( 1 5  59) .  Although  his  brother,  the  cardinal 
of  Lorraine,  was  one  of  the  negotiators,  this  peace  was  concluded 
against  the  wishes  of  Guise,  and  was  regarded  as  a  triumph  of  the 
constable's  party.  The  Guises  were  provided  with  a  weapon 
against  Montmorency  by  the  bishop  of  Arras  (afterwards  Cardinal 
Granvclla),  who  gave  to  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine  at  an  interview 
at  P6ronne  in  1558  an  intercepted  letter  proving  the  Huguenot 
leanings  of  the  constable's  nephews. 

On  the  accession  in  1559  of  Francis  II.,  their  nephew  by 
marriage  with  Mary  Stuart,  the  royal  authority  was  practically 
delegated  to  Guise  and  the  cardinal,  who  found  themselves 
beyond  rivalry  for  the  lime  being.  They  had,  however,  to  cope 
with  a  new  and  dangerous  force  in  Catherine  de'  Medici,  who 
was  now  for  the  first  time  free  to  use  her  political  ability.  The 
incapacity,  suspicion  and  cruelty  of  the  cardinal,  who  controlled 
the  internal  administration,  roused  the  smaller  nobility 
against  the' Lorraine  princes.-  A  conspiracy  to  overturn  their 
government  was  formed  at  Nantes,  with  a  needy  P£rigord 
nobleman  named  La  Renaudie  as  its  nominal  head,  though  the 
agitation  had  in  thfe  first  instance  been  fostered  by  the  agents 
of  Louis  I.,  prince  of  Cond6.  The  Guises  were  warned  of  the 
conspiracy  while  the  court  was  at  Blois,  and  for  greater  security 
removed  the  king  to  Amboise.  La  Renaudie,  nothing  daunted, 
merely  postponed  his  plans;  and  the  conspirators  assembled 
in  small  parties  in  the  woods  round  Amboise.  They  had,  how- 
ever, been  again  betrayed  and  many  of  them  were  surrounded 
and  taken  before  the  c(ntp  could  be  delivered;  one  party,  which 
had  seized  the  ch&teau  of  Noizay,  surrendered  on  a  promise 
of  amnesty  given  "  on  his  faith  as  a  prince  "  by  James  of  Savoy, 
duke  of  Nemours,  a  promise  which,  in  spite  of  the  duke's  protest, 
was  disregarded.    On  the  19th  of  March  1560,  La  Renaudie  and 


the  rest  of  the  coospiratofs  <^>enly  attacked  the  ch&teao  of 
Amboise.  They  were  repelled;  their  leader  was  killed;  and 
a  large  number  were  taken  prisoners.  The  merciless  vengeance 
of  the  Guises  was  the  measurt  of  their  previous  fears.  For  a 
whole  week  the  torturings,  quarterings  and  hangings  went  on, 
the  bodies  being  cast  into  the  Loire,  the  young  king  and  queen 
witnessing  the  bloody  spectacle  day  by  day  from  a  balcony  ot  the 
ch4teau. 

The  cruel  repression  of  this  "  conspiracy  of  AmboiseL "  inspired 
bitter  hatred  of  the  Guises,  since  they  were  Avcngwg  a  rising 
rather  against  their  own  than  the  royal  authority.  They  now 
entrenched  themselves  with  the  king  at  Orleans,  and  the  Booxbon 
princes,  Anthony,  king  of  Navarre,  and  his  brother  Cood^,  were 
summoned  to  court.  The  Guises  convened  a  special  commisskm 
to  try  Cond£,  who  was  condenmed  to  death;  but  the  affair  was 
postponed  by  the  chancellor,  and  the  death  of  Frauds  II.  in 
December  saved  Cond6.  Guise  then  made  common  cause  with 
his  old  rival  Montmorency  and  with  the  Marshal  de  Saint  Andre 
against  Catherine,  the  Bourbons  and  CoUgny.  This  alliance, 
constituted  on  the  6th  of  April  1561,  and  known  as  the  trium- 
virate, aimed  at  the  annulment  of  the  conce^ons  made  by 
Catherine  to  the  Huguenots.  The  cardinal  of  Lorraine  fomented 
the  discord  which  appeared  between  the  clergy  of  the  two 
religions  when  they  met  at  the  colloquy  of  Foissy  in  1561,  but 
in  spite  of  the  extreme  Catholic  views  he  there  professed,  he  was 
at  the  time  in  communication  with  the  Lutheran  princes  of 
Germany,  and  in  February  1562  met  the  duke  of  WCrttemberg 
at  Zabem  to  discuss  the  possibility  of  a  religious  con^romise. 

The  signal  for  dvil  war  was  given  by  an  attack  of  Guise's 
escort  on  a  Huguenot  congregation  at  Vassy  (xst  of  March  1562). 
Although  Guise  did  not  initiate  the  massacre,  and  althou^, 
when  he  learned  what  was  going  on,  he  even  tried  to  restrain 
his  soldiers,  he  did  not  disavow  their  action.  When  Catherinede* 
Medici  forbade  his  entry  into  Paris,  he  accepted  the  challenge, 
and  on  the  i6th  of  March  he  entered  the  dty,  where  he  was  a 
popular  hero,  at  the  head  of  2000  armed  nobles.  Tite  provost  of 
the  merchants  offered  to  put  ao,ooo  men  and  two  minion  livres 
at  his  disposal.  In  September  he  joined  Montmorency  in 
besieging  Rouen,  which  was  sacked  as  if  it  had  been  a  foreign 
dty,  in  spite  of  Guise's  efforts  to  save  it  from  the  worst  horrors. 
At  the  battle  of  Dreux  (19th  of  December  1562)  he  commanded 
a  reserve  army,  with  which  he  saved  Montmorency's  forces  from 
destruction  and  inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  on  the  Huguenots. 
The  prince  of  Cond6  was  his  prisoner,  while  the  capture  oi 
Montmorency  by  the  Huguenots  and  the  assassination  of  the 
Marshal  de  Saint- Andr£  after  the  battle  left  Guise  the  undiluted 
head  of  the  Catholic  party.  He  was  appointed  Iieutenant-^:ne{^ 
of  the  kingdom,  and  on  the  5th  of  February  1563  he  appeared 
with  hb  army  before  Orleans.  On  the  19th,  however,  be  was 
shot  by  the  Huguenot  Jean  Poltrot  de  MM  as  he  was  returning 
to  his  quarters,  and  died  on  the  24th  of  the  effects  of  the  wound. 
Guise's  splendid  presence,  his  generosity  and  humanity  and  his 
almost  unvarying  success  on  the  battlefidd  made  him  the  idol 
of  his  soldiers.  He  attended  personally  to  the  minutest  detaih, 
and  Monluc  cx>mplains  that  he  even  wrote  out  his  own  c»dcrs, 
The  mistakes  and  cruelties  assodated  with  his  name  were  partly 
due  to  the  evil  counsek  of  his  brother  Charles,  the  cardinal, 
whose  cowardice  and  insincerity  were  the  scorn  of  his  contem- 
poraries. The  negotiations  of  the  Guises  with  Spain  dated  from 
the  interview  with  Granvella  at  P£ronne,  in  1558,  and  after  the 
death  of  his  brother  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine  was  constantly  in 
communication  with  the  Spanish  court,  offering,  in  the  c^'cot 
of  the  failure  of  direct  heirs  to  the  Valob  kings,  to  deliver  up  the 
frontier  fortresses  and  to  acknowledge  Philip  II.  as  king  of  France. 
His  death  in  157^  temporarily  weakened  the  extreme  Catholic 
party. 

Of  the  children  of  Frands  "  le  Balafr6  "  five  survived  him :  Heory. 
3rd  duke  of  Guise;  Charles,  duke  of  Mayennc  (1554-161 1)  (^.v.),  vbo 
consolidated  the  League ;  Catherine  (1553-iSS^}.  who  marncd  Louis 
of  Bourbon,  duke  of  Montpenaier,  and  encourajg;ed  the  fanaticiMD  of 
the  Parisian  leaguers;  Louis,  second  cardinal  oTGuiae,  a/tcncaids  of 
Lorraine  (1555- 1588).  who  wasaMaasinated  with  hii  brother  Hcary; 
and  Francis  (1558-1573). 


GUISE 


701 


Hensy  of  Lorxaine,  31x1  duke  of  Guiae  (i  550-1588),  born 
on  the  If  St  of  December  1550,  was  thirteen  years  old  at  the 
time  of  his  father's  death,  and  grew  up  under  the  domination 
of  a  passionate  desire  for  revenge.  Catherine  de'  Medici  refused 
to  take  steps  against  Coligny,  who  was  formally  accused  by  the 
duchess  of  Guise  and  her  brothers-in-law  of  having  incited  the 
murder.  In  1566  she  insisted  on  a  formal  reconciliation  at 
Moulins  between  the  Guises  and  G>ligny,  at  which,  however,  none 
of  the  sons  of  the  murdered  man  was  present.  Henry, and  his 
brothers  were,  however,  compelled  in  1572  to  sign  an  ambiguous 
assent  to  this  agreement.  Guise's  widow  married  James  of 
Savoy,  duke  of  Nemours,  and  the  young  duke  at  sixteen  went 
to  fight  against  the  Turks  in  Hungary.  On  the  fresh  outbreak 
of  civil  war  in  1567  he  returned  to  France  hnd  served  under  his 
uncle  Aumale.  In  the  autumn  of  1 568  he  received  a  considerable 
•command,  and  speedily  came  into  rivalry  with  Henry  of  Valois, 
duke  of  AJijou.  He  had  not  inherited  his  father's  generalship, 
and  his  rashness  and  headstrong  valour  more  than  once  brought 
disaster  on  his  troops,  but  the  showy  quality  of  his  fighting 
brought  him  great  popularity  in  the  army.  In  the  defence  of 
Poitiers  in  1 569  with  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Mayenne,  he  showed 
more  solid  abilities  as  a  soldier.  On  the  conclusion  of  peace  in 
1 570  he  returned  to  court,  where  he  made  no  secret  of  his.attach- 
ment  to  Margaret  of  Valois.  His  pretensioia  were  violently 
resented  by  her  brothers,  who  threatened  his  life,  and  he  saved 
himself  by  a  precipitate  marriage  with  *  Catherine  of  Cleves 
(daughter  of  Francis  of  Cleves,  duke  of  Neversy  and  Margaret 
of  Bourbon),  the  widow  of  a  Huguenot  nobleman,  Antoine  de 
Crog,  prince  of  Porcicn.  Presently  he  ended  his  disgrace  by  an 
apparent  reconciliation  with  Heniy  of  Valois  and  an  alliance 
with  Catherine  de'  Medici.  He  was  an  accomplice  in  the  first 
attack  on  CoHgny's  life,  and  when  permission  for  the  massacre 
of  Saint  Bartholomew  bad  been  extorted  from  Charles  IX.  he 
roused  Paris  against  the  Hugiienots,  and  satisfied  his  personal 
vengeance  by  superintending  the  murder  of  Coligny.  He  was 
now  the  acknowledged  chief  of  the  Catholic  party,  and  the 
power  of  his  family  was  further  increased  by  the  marriage  (1575) 
of  Henry  III.  with  Louise  of  Vaudimont,  who  belongeid  to  the 
elder  branch  of  the  house  of  Lorraine.  In  a  fight  at  Dormans 
(loth  of  October  1575),  the  only  Catholic  victory  in  a  disastrous 
campaign,  Guise  received  a  face  wound  which  won  for  him  his 
father's  name  of  Balafr£  and  helped  to  secure  the  passionate 
attachment  of  the  Parisians.  He  refused  to  acquiesce  in  the 
treaty  of  Beaulieu  (5th  of  May  1576),  and  with  the  support  of 
the  Jesuits  proceeded  to  form  a  "  holy  league  "  for  the  defence 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  terms  of  enrolment  enjoined 
offensive  action  against  all  who  refused  to  join.  This  association 
had  been  preceded  by  various  provincial  leagues  among  the 
Catholics,  notably  one  at  Pdronne.  Cond£  had  been  imposed 
on  this  town  as  governor  by  the  terms  of  the  peace,  and  the 
local  nobility  banded  together  to  resist  him.  This,  like  the  Hply 
League  itself,  was  political  as  well  as  religious  in  its  aims,  and 
was  partly  inspired  by  revolt  against  the  royal  authority.  In 
the  direction  of  the  League  Gujse  was  hampered  by  Philip 
of  Spain,  who  subsidized  the  movement,  while  he  also  had  to 
submit  to  the  dictation  of  the  Parisian  democracy.  Ulterior 
ambitions  were  freely  ascribed  to  him.  It  was  asserted  that 
papers  seized  from  his  envoy  to  Rome,  Jean  David,  revealed  a 
definite  design  of  substituting  the  Lorraincs,  who  represented 
themselves  as  the  successors  of  Charlemagne,  for  the  Valois; 
but  these  papcn  were  probably  a  Huguenot  forgery.  Henry  III. 
eventually  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  League,  and  resumed 
the  war  against  the  Huguenots;  but  on  the  conclusion  of  peace 
(September  1577)  he  seized  the  opportunity  of  disbanding  the 
Catholic  associations.  The  king's  jealousy  of  Guise  increased 
with  the  duke's  popularity,  but  he  did  not  venture  on  an  open 
attack,  nor  did  he  dare  to  avenge  the  murder  by  Guise's  partisans 
of  one  of  his  personal  favourites,  Saint-M£grin,  who  had  been 
set  on  by  the  court  to  compromise  the  reputation  of  the  duchess 
of  Guise.' 

t  This  incident  supplied  Alexandre  Dumas  pin  with  the  subject 
of  his  Henri  HI  et  sa  cow  (1829). 


Meanwhile  the  duke  had  entered  on  an  equivocal  alliance  with 

Don  John  of  Austria.    He  was  alsp.in  constant  correspondence 

.with  Mary  of  Lorraine,  and  meditated  a  descent  on  Scotland 

in  support  of*  the  Catholic  cause.    But  the  great  riches  of  the 

Guises  were  being  rapidly  dissipated,  and  in  1578  the  duke 

became  a  pensioner  of  Philip  II.    When  in  x  584  the  death  of  the 

duke  of  Anjou  nude  Henry  of  Navarre  the  next  heir  to  the 

throne,  the  prospect  of  a  Huguenot  dynasty  roused  the  Catholics 

to  forget  their  differences,  and  led  to  the  formation  of  a  new 

league  of  the  Catholic  nobles.    At  the  ^d  of  the  same  year  Guise 

and  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Mayenne,  with  the  assent  of  other 

Catholic  nobles,  signed  a  treaty  at  Joinville  with  Philip  II., 

fixing  the  succession  to  the  crown  on  Charies,  cardinal  of  Bourbon, 

to  the  exclusion  of  the  ProtestaAt  princes  of  his  house.    In  March 

1585  the  chiefs  of  the  League  issued  the  Declaration  of  P6ronne, 

exposing  their  grievances  against  the  government  and  announcing 

their  intention  to  restore  the  dignity  of  religion  by  force  of  arms. 

On  the  refusal  of  Henry  III.  to  accept  Spanish  help  against 

his  Huguenot  subjects,  war  broke  out.    The  chief  cities  of  France 

declared  for  the  League,  and  Guise,  who  had  recruited  his  forces 

in  Ciermany  and  Switzerland,  took  up  his  headquarters  at 

Ch&lons,  while  Mayenne  occupied  Dijon,  and  his  relatives,  the 

dukes  of  Elbeuf,  Aumale  and  Mercceur,*  roused  Normandy 

and  Brittany.    Henry  III.  accepted,  or  feigned  to  accept,  the 

terms  imposed  by  the  Guises  at  Nemours  (7th  of  July  1585). 

The  edicts  in  favour  of  the  Huguenots  were  immediately  revoked. 

Guise  added  to  his  reputation  as  the  Catholic  champion  by 

defeating  the  German  auxiliaries  of  the  Huguenots  at  Vimoiy 

(October  1587)  and  Auneau  (November  1587).  The  protestations 

of  loyalty  to  Henry  III.  which  had  marked  the  earlier  manifestoes 

of  the  League  were  modified.    Obedience  to  the  king  was  now 

stated  to  depend  on  his  giving  proof  of  Catholic  Zealand  showing 

no  favour  to  heresy.    In  April  1588  Guise  arrived  in  Paris, 

where  he  put  himself  at  the  bead  of  the  Parisian  mob,  and  on 

the  1 3th  of  May,  known  as  the  Day  of  the  Barricades,  he  actually 

had  the  crown  within  his  grasp.    He  refused  to  treat  with 

Catherine  de'  Medici,  who  was  prepared  to  make  peace  at  any 

cost,  but  restrained  the  popubce  from  revolution  and  permitted 

Henry  to  escape  from  Paris.    Henry  came  to  terms  with  the 

League  in  May,  and  made  Guise  lieutenant-general  of  the  royal 

armies.    The  estates-general,  which  were  assembled  at  Blois, 

were  devoted  to  the  Guise  interest,  and  alarmed  the  king  by 

giving  voice  to  the  political  as  well  as  the  religious  aspirations 

of  the  League.    Guise  remained  at  the  court  of  Blois  after 

receiving  repteted  warnings  that  Henry  meditated  treason. 

On  the  25th  of  December  he  was  summoned  to  the  king's  chamber 

during  a  sitting  of  the  royal  council,  and  was  murdered  by 

assassins  carefully  posted  by  Henry  HI.  himself.    The  cardbaJ 

of  Lorraine  was  murdered  in  prison  on  the  next  day.    The 

history  of  the  Guises  thenceforward  centres  in  the  duke  of 

Mayenne  (a.v.). 
By  hb  wife,  Catherine  of  Cleves,  the  third  duke  had  fourteen 


1621),  3rd  cardinal  01  Guise,  archbishop  of  Reims,  remembered  lor 
his  liaison  with  Charlotte  des  Essarts,  mistress  of  Henry  IV. 

Charles,  4th  duke  of  Guise  (1571-1640),  was  imprisoned 
for  three  years  after  his  father's  death.  He  married  Henriette 
Catherine  de  Joyeuse.  widow  of  the  duke  of  Montpensier.  His 
eldest  son  predeceased  him,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  hts  second 
son  Hekbv  (X614-X664),  who  had  been  archbishop  of  Reims, 
but  renounced  the  ecclesiastical  estate  and  became  5th  duke. 
He  made  an  attempt  (X647)  on  the  crown  of  Naples,  and  was  a 
prisoner  in  Spain  from  X648  to  1652.  A  second  expedition  to 
Naples  in  1654  was  a  fiasco.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
Louis  Joseph  (X650-X67X),  as  6th  duke.  With  his  son,  Franqs 
Joseph  (i67a-x675),  the  line  failed;  and  the  title  and  estates 
passed  to  his  great-aunt,  Marie  of  Lorraine,  duchess  of  Guise 

>  Philippe-Emmanuel  of  Lorraine,  duke  of  Mercoeur.  a  cadet  <A 
Lorraine  and  brother  of  Louise  de  Vaud^mont.  Henry  III.'s  queen. 
His  wife.  Mary  of  Luxemburg,  descended  from  the  dukes  of  Bnttany, 
and  he  was  made  governor  of  the  province  in  1582.  He  aspired  to 
separate  sovereignty,  and  called  his  son  prince  and  duke  of  Bnttany. 


702 


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(1615-1688]',  daugbttr  of  the  4th  duki,  ud  with  htr  the  title 
beaiiK  eiiincl.  The  title  is  now  vested  in  the  fuoily  of  the 
BoutboD-OilciDs  ptiata. 

AotHOiITiD.— A  inimberirf  ccmcmpotarv  documc-iu  ivhlluc  M 
tbeCuitnuTindudcdbyL.aiiilM'randF.DiiiijiHiiiillH'Ir^'i'^i.ri 
nriaiitiitrliubniiiiFmtaleini.  1814. Ac).  VDLln.cnni..i<i- 1 
•oldier'i  di«ry  dT  the  m«  a(K  ti  &rtt  puUuhed  In  Italian  {U  n, 
IS»).  Ktounu  ofthe  £ga  of  <  >L.b  CToim,  ISS«),  ol  Tl.l...i-.ir. 
iKm.  ISj8):voL.  IV.MiKOUB  rf  thi-lnTrukofAmbnsr(f.m  I'lt 
UimtimolOmM.uidfauT^  jn  9  ti^fla  (Va^^^v-i'. 
(our  uxiKinii  of  Ihe  battk  of  ...  1 

rtvolution  rf  isS;  ind  vij   i  .  1 

dsliiw  wilh  the  muidcr  of  H  1 

auaiiHolthemurdcrofCuuei.  r,    ..„.,  ,1 

by   Mjyerme,   wtikh   ura)  tiipplwi  by  the  \me(ian  BrabMMdor, 

ffiM-a^^pHI  1S9S).  FortlierorfBnp3icj'orilK!GdM..iui 
cipeciiUy  tnnr  rclatioiu  with  Scotland,  there  a  ibundant  nutenal 
in  the  Engluh  CalaJar  i/f  Slali  Paptri  ol  Queen  Elizabeth  (Fomin 

JJJ  ^',^'; 

«  evpeciaUy  tluHB 


CW. 


prince  o(  Condi,  of  Bliiin  de  Moni 
ravini».  See  il»  ''  Vic  ^  F.  <1>  /. 
iMO.by  J.  B.  H.  d 


lie  h«w:  R.  de  Bauill£. 


'me  ii  CaciH  (Pute, 

, A.  de  Ruble,  LTAt- 

ie  F,dt  Ltmiiit.dMi  it  CaiuliS^),  what  then  iMi  '^  '    ' 
Ihe  MH.  loiircei  avgilible  (or  s  hntory  of  the  home:  R.  de  ' 
»iif.  ilii  inci  iff  Cui'ii  {4  vob.,  lamJ-.H.Fomcrva,  la  Cm 
Ipaqm  (1  vob.,  1«87). 

QUITAH  (Fr.  iiiitarrt,  Ger.  GnUartt,  IttJ.  dalarra,  Span. 

by  the  finge",  hiving  1  body  with  s  flat  back  and  grateful 
incurvstkin*  in  complete  conliul  to  the  memben  of  the  family 
of  lule  (g.t.),  whoK  bick  it  vaulted.  The  cDiutniciiDO  of  the 
inslniinent  is  of  paramount  importance  in  usgning  to  the 
guitar  iU  true  poiitian  in  the  history  of  musical  instnunenu. 
Diidway  between  the  cithara  (f.r.)  and  the  violin.  The  medieval 
■tringed  instruments  with  neck  fall  into  two  classes,  chancteriied 
mainly  by  the  conitraction  of  the  body:  (1)  Tho«  which, 
like  their  archetype  the  cithaia,  had  a  body  composed  ol  a  flat 
ot  delicately  arched  back  and  soundboard  Jtnoed  by  ribs.  (>) 
Tbote  which,  like  the  lyre,  had  a  body  con^tiiig  of  a  vaulted 
back  over  which  was  glued  ■  flat  toutidbaard  without  the  inter- 
Biediary  of  ribs;  this  method  of  construction  piedoRiinates 
among  Oriental  Inslrumeoit  and  i>  greatly  inferior  to  the  first. 
A  striking  proof  of  this  inferiority  is  afforded  by  the  fact 
instruments  wilh  vaulted  backs,  such  as  tl 
althou^  Hlensively  represented  during  the 
ports  of  Europe  by  numerous  types,  have  ahowo  But  uttte  or  no 
development  during  the  course  of  some  twelve  centuries,  and 
have  dropped  out  one  by  one  from  the  realm  of  practical  music 
without  leaviog  a  Bngle  aurvivoi.  Tbe  gultai  must  be  referred 
to  tbe  first  of  these  daasea. 

The  back  and  ribs  of  the  guitai  an  of  maple,  ash  or  cbcriy- 
wood,'  frequently  Inlaid  with  lose-wood,  motheriliiearl, 
lortoise-tbell,  &c.,  while  tbe  sauodboard  is  of  pine  lad  has  one 
large  ornamental  rose  sound  hole.  The  bridge,  to  which  the 
strings  are  fastened,  is  of  ebony  with  an  Ivoty  nut  which  detet- 
mines  the  one  end  of  tbe  vibrating  tilings,  while  tbe  nut  at  the 
end  of  the  fingerboard  dcteimines  the  otbei.  Tlie  iMck  lod 
fingerboard  aie  made  of  hard  wood,  such  as  ebony,  beech  or  pear. 
The  head,  beat  back  (rom  the  neck  at  aa  obtuse  angle  contains 
"el  barrels  or  long  holes  tbrough 


rebab  or  i 


wat  the  first  in  Germany 


1  August  Otto  of  Jena,  who 
a  lake  up  the  csuttvctioa  of  guitan 


lAK  703 

after  their  introduction  tion  Italy  in  1788  by  the  duchess  Amalie 
of  Wdour.  Otto '  Mates  that  it  was  Capellmeister  Naumann  of 
Drodeo  who  requested  him  to  make  Urn  a  guitai  with  tii 
strings  by  adding  the  low  E,  a  qnia  wire  itring.  The  cuigina] 
guitar  brought  from  Italy  by  the  ducbesa  Amafie  had  five 
ilrings,'  tbe  lowest  A  being  the  only  one  <overcd  with  win.  Otto 
alsn  covered  the  D  in  order  to  increaie  the  fulness  of  the 
lone.  In  Spain  sii4tringed  guitan  and  vihuelas  were  known 
in  the  i6lh  century;  they  are  described  by  Juan  Bcrmudo  ■  and 
Dthen.*  The  lowest  string  wat  tuned  to  G. 
Other  Spanish  guitan  of  the  same  period 

slrtngsinpairsof  unisnna.  They  were  always 
inged  by  the  fingers. 


Thegii 


although  a  guitar  (lig.  a)  with  ^ht  incurva- 

There  is  alio  extant  a  hoe  example  otthe  guitar, 

provided  with   nimierDUB  frets,  on  a   nittile 
bas-nliefon  the  dniiDDa  al  Euyuk  (<.  1000  a.c.) 

fdurm   with    n1m.  we  'ij^    be  ^li^'m 
'■     Egypt  and  Jn 


^^tS; 


barbitoolroi 

to  have  taken  [dace. 


T,  the  Arabs  of  the 


called  ihoM  (whichinN.Africairauldbeiuiihin) 
but  it  hat  a  vaulted  b«k,  the  body  being  like  half  a  pear  with  a  long 
neck:  tbe  strings  ar>  twanged  by  neana  ot  a  quill.  Tlie  Arab 
inttnimeot  tbenfoR  behugs  to  a  different  clais,  and  to  admit 
IheinttrunientaatheBDcettoraf  tbe  Spaniih  guitar  would  be  tanta- 
mount to  deriviag  tbe  guitar  Inm  the  1ut«.> 

By  piecing  together  varwua  Indicatloas  given  by  Spaniih  writers. 
we  oblain  a  clue  to  the  identity  of  tbe  medieval  intlrumentt, 
which,  in  the  abeeoce  of  abiolule  proof,  it  entitled  to  serious  con- 
kideiation.  From  Benoudo'i  work,  quoted  above,  we  learn  that 
the  guitar  end  tbe  viJimU  da  ma»e  wttK  practiolly  idcaticBl.  differ- 
ing only  ID  ocnrdance  and  Dccaiionally  in  the  number  of  strings.* 
Thin  kinds  of  vihueluweie  known  in  Spain  during  the  middle  an, 

hand),  ila  ^m^  (with  quill).     Spanish  icholano  wlio  have  inquind 


<  Ottr  itn  Ban  ier  B^iniiutnmaUi  (Jena.  igiS),  pp.  94  and  9$. 

<  See  Pietm  MiUioni,  Vtrt  <  fadt  mado  i  imparaii  a  umari  tt 
oiorian  da  St  mtditimfi  ia  ckiOrra  tpafnila,  with  Uluttraiion 
(Rome,  t6};). 

'  Declonaim  dl  iufraKaLii  mmiaila  (Owina,  ISSS),  fot.  xciiL  b 

■  See' also  G.G.  Kapqierger.  Lihn  fn'iu  d<  FiltsuUr  en  T  n- 
fatatnlim  dd  tkiUrent  it  tlfatM  fir  la  (Ulorra  ifafiiilaithne 


't  Vpyup  inEijtpl  (Lo^mi.  1807,  pi 


by  Pmf.  John  t^amang.  in  Kathleen 
'SeeBwintth.  SiiCailirM  I19DS). 
>S«  alto  Liryi  MiUn,  Liln  dt 


Ust  to  treble. 

■Mariano   Sor 
(Madrid,  115s).  i. 


ce  is  D,  G,  C,  E,  A, 

I   Biaaria  it  It   mtit*  i 


A>  Ibe  Anb  kniln  «» I 


GUITAR 


'^  Ok  pluc-tnx  liid  hannt  miiiy  iirjnn. 
I  ibe  duun  o(  EdcntiAution  li  affDnkd  by  St 


dtharH,  "  Vcten  ^ut  dihuu  fidicuU  vel 
Mbx  DOnduvtnial."  •  The  Sdiculi  then- 
lOR  ■«  llie  cithut.  either  in  Iti  oHfinal 
ilaiMUl  toca  or  In  one  of  Ihe  tnoiltTou  wbich 
trandoctaed  it  into  the  niur.  The  oiiitence 
al  ■  BupaSfir  rHfarni  /aJuu  sde  by  ode  vilh 
the  faoom  merixa  a  thui  upUinoL  It  wu 
derived  dlnct  ly  (ram  t 
-       -'      'leRomiai 


of  Ibe  URictunl  bcaul) 


at  ■  iinrie  MS..  I 

many  ^Kuxiann.  The  Uinchi  PhIiet  < 
at  Rrinn  in  the  91  h  cenlury.  and  the  mini 
Sucin  tnitt  iiucbed  u>  the  Rami  idBol 


___ ,....,      .  and  ddicale 

■tructure  of  the  vvolin.  Id  ap  inveniofy  >  mode 
by  PhUip  vin  Wider  of  the  muiiaUiiKniiaHiu 
«1ikh,h*d  bdofiged  10  Henry  VIII.  ia  Ibe 


Vial  otvitl  «•  thcEniHdi  equivileni 

T, >.: — „iK„bytbeciIbua 

(l«,n.inijicar«(ag.3) 


ofHtucIa;  Tbetniuiti 


■SKfitrnKitiituIrilin,  lib.  iti.,  cap.  21. 

'  S«  Bntiih  MuKiun,  HuleUi  TiSS.  1410.  foL  too. 

'  The  Litctature  of  the  Uliccht  haher  embnoe  ■  large  number  of 
boola  and  pamphleta  in  many  lantuaca  of  which  (he  prindpal  are 
here  given:  Meoor  I.  O.  WeaEM^  Ficiimibi  ft  Uu  Umialura 
and  Onmuiia ^  An^tSaiim  aad  Iri^  MSS.  ILmioB.  1868):  Sit 
Thoi.  DofiiB-IUnly.  Ktttrl  m  Iki  AUuuuuiim  Cmf  n  ciiiiii«riaii 
■ia  IW  I'nciU  Aadff  JLonloa,  1S71);  Aurt  at  On  VIrtcU 
PulUr,  iddresaed  to  the  IVwteei  of  the  BcitiBE  Miueum  (London, 

187*);  Sr  TKoBat  Duffiit-Haidy,  ftirt*D-  F ■  —  "--  "---'- 

PiMb  (LondoD.  1874):  Walter  de  C«.  Kn^h 
PalaitrntlV  <tf  Oi  MS.  HyU 
AntonSiiriiHer. "  Die  tWletiU 

beHmdeicr  ROckiicht  Buf  den _ 

t^.  Udu.  Ga.  i.  Viiitmdiafitm,  ftUL-Md.  Klam,  Bd. 
996,  with  10  faoinule  platei  In  aulolype  from  the  ms,:  naui 
doldaebmidt,  "  Dei  Ulrechl  Pultet,"  la  SiptrUriim  Jit  JCxu/- 
vuHUKl^n.  Bd.  XV.  (Stungan,  iBm),  pp.  ij6-iMi  Fraiu  Friediich 
LeitKhuh.  CutkidiU  itt  Jkrofitiructin  Ifalcm,  iMr  BiUirtnii  and 
itiiH  gmOa  (B«Un,iB9#),pp..3ii-^o:  Adolf  GoMjchmai,  Der 


I,"  paper  rqd  before  the 
,  1897.  See  aiao  Rtptr- 
198),  Bd.  pi.  cy,  »»;35; 


Gneven, "  Die  Vorian  dei  Ulm: 
XI.  Inlereatioiial  Oriental  Conr 
lorium  fit  JCinutMjjnueAdn  (5t 

J.  J.  Iilckaiien,  AbtniiiJuiii  ,  __ 

pan  iii.  ■•  Det  Ulierhi  PjuUer  "  (Heliingfora.  1900),  330  pp.  and 

Silla.  (PnifBHr  Tikkanen  now  aceepti  ilie  Creeli  or  ^rian  oriEia 
Ihe  VtiKfat  PHlier):  Geoii  Swanentid,  "Die  lianlintiKlie 
Malenri  und  PlaKili  in  Reimi,''  in  Jatrhitk  i.  k^  fmuucJkffl 
XiiiiiiuiiiiiiJh>!|cii.  Dd.  xilii.  (Berlin,  i»i»),  pp.  Si-ioo:  Ormonde 
M.Dalun."TheCfyttalofLethait,''in^rcUtii(u,vaL  Li.  (1904)1 


FIDDLE 

Royal  Libncy  al  * 


...  havini  no  neck.    MeneoDe' wciti 
deacritiet  and  ^urei  two 


_  Jitem  bead,  tbe  latter 
the  _^  untight    bead    bent 


Ita?  lhe_£"nltll 


Fio,  4.-Repi 


be  leivth  of  the  body  fnna  the  eentre  ot 

tiiur  eojoyed  grt*t  popularity  on  the  eon 
he  faahionahle  initnincnt  in  England  after 
oainly  IhrDuoh  the  virtuuily  uf  FenSin 
mite  eompotttiona   lor   iL    Thu  populaiily 


..  't?e  E~l'.h  € 


^'rt; 


(K-S) 


lisB>  how  to  play  the  guilar  and  read  the  tablaliu 

QDITAH  PIDDLE  {.Ttoubaiao  FuUU).  a  D»daD  ume 
bcitowed  telroapectively  upon  certain  precursors  of  the  violia 
poneasiag  dunctcKstici  of  boch  guitar  and  GdJIe.  The  nime 
"  guitar  fiddle "  ia  ialended  to  emphasiic  the  Fact  that  the 
instruroent  in  tbe  thape  of  the  guitaj,  rhicb  during  the  middle 
ages  repreaented  the  most  perfect  principle  of  coiBlznctiarL  for 
atringed  instttimenta  wiLh  necks,  adopted  at  a  canaia  period  the 
luc  of  thcbawfromiDstrumealsola  less  perfect  lypc.  Iheiebib 
and  Lta  bybrida.  The  use  of  the  bow  with  the  guitar  entaikd 
certain  conatniclive  changes  in  the  Insliument:  the  large  cenltil 
rose  sound-bole  iras  replaced  by  tateial  holes  of  various  ihapo; 
tbe  Bat  bridge,  auitable  For  inslrumcntt  whose  string  wtn 

■     ^ked,   ga> 


auujuuuuia  nager-ooHTc^  of  suitable  sbapcauddinKosionsFltK.  t] 
At  this  stage  the  fuiui  fiddle  possesses  the  esseniial  fealius  of 

Kathleen  Schlcsngei,  Tli/iufniinealiqflbOrciiilni,  pan  ii.  "Ttj 
Pzecunon  of  the  violin  Family,"  chap.  viit.  "  The  QueuioD  ni  Jt-r 
Orisin  ol  lheUlrechlPialter."pp.^53.^82(vithiUiBtTacniH).TtrrT 
•11  The  foregoiiw  an  rummariiea. 

'R*;»odlH»r  In  Hubert  JaaitKbek'i  CtttUi:»U  ia  A/^itn 
Malmi.  Bd.  iiL  of  Cue*,  liar  dnUictn  Xaiul  (Bnlin.  1890).  p.  lit. 

•  Hanumil  unamiUt  (Paris,  1616),  livre  ii-  prop.  lir. 

'SeeC,  F.  Becker.  Darildlaat  <'<""■"<*- I.ilcn>'"<I.e>P'it.  18)5' ■ 
andWllhelmTappen,  "ZurGevhichiederGuitatic."injrwCiit''' 
/ar  Uimktttckkil,  (Berlin,  1881),  No.  J.  pp.  77.SS). 


GUITRY— GUIZOT 


the  violin,  and  nuy  justly  dolm  tobeilsimmedialeprcdeccsor  < 

MiiuuaiiigtT  fiddle  with  sloping  shoiddcn,  u  thnugh  Ihc  LDter- 
mediiry  of  Ihc  llBJUa  lyra,  a  ^tar-alupai  bowed  uulrument 

From  ucK  evidfnce  IB  we  now  poif  m,  it  would  teem  that  the 
evolulionof  Ihe  early  piifar  with  ■  reck  from  the  Greek  cicham  took 
place  jAder  Greek  influencf  in  the  Chriitian  Eait.  The  varioui 
Kaiei  <A  thi>  traauiion  have  been  dehnitcly  euahllihed  tiy  the  re- 
markaUe  ninialurea  d  the  Utrecht  FhIict,'  Two  kindi  ofcithjini 

■re  iIiowb;  the  antique  n '"'  —■ '  ■■-  ' ■*— ■ -■■■ 

nuKled  body  having  at  the 

Spaiiiik  laitac.'    The  iim 


he  body  11 


Ibeae  iouniiiwati  are  twaneed  by  the  fingera.  Ohc  may  conck 
(he  UK  of  the  bow  waa  eitbcr  unknown  al  thii  time  (c.  6lh  i 
A.D.),  or  that  It  wa>  atill  conAned  to  initnimcnli  of  the  rebi 


The  earUeu  km .., . 

bo*'  (h|,  1}  occurs  in  a  Creek  Ptaltcr  writtfli 
Caoaica  by  the  arcbprieit  Tbeodoi 


jl'leir'^n  ?lorl 


^  ■  lujtarjiddle  rao^e  wiHl 
■93}>)'    InauncHorperfect  luiiar  Mdlei 

■Bled  in  (leat  ™"ety  in  Europe.     The  dii 

iMVall^'Miueum!  Berii^?  a^  "ihe   inili^ 
mentt   played   by   Kine   David   in   two   caKv 
:=-^l  Anglo-Siitdn  illumiiut^  MS5..  one  a  PbIici 

^~^  (Cotton  MS.  Vop.  A.   i.   British   Mukuio) 

maiBTBiiliHUI.   nnilhed  in  A.D.  TOO.  ihc  other  "  A  Commentaiy 
laiki  tuau-HU-.      on  the  PBlmi  by  Ca»iodocui  nunu  Briat  "  ol 

FIC.  J.-Earliat  ybra^  K^Sit^arm  eiTm^  of'lhr  li"l 

^''?"^';..^'   ""  Man  of  imniilioii.     From  .uch  »pe.  ai  Iheu 

r,l!!i"  *''^  '*"  leciangular  ««*  or  cro«d  wai  evol.cd  by 

'™^'  the  addition  of  a  finBer-btrard  and  the  irduc- 

am  a  natural  conaequencc  a«  lOon  aa  an  enienibjd  compafa  an  b< 
obtained  by  atoppina  the  nrinea.  By  the  addition  of  a  neck  wf 
obtain  the  clue  to  the  origin  of  pciianBUlar  ciilemi  with  rounded 


'See  ■'The  Precurtora  ol  the  VioUn  Family,"  by  Katbleec 
chlesncei,  part  ii.  of  Xii  lUmOaUi  Uaaibeek  «i  Oh  ImlruminU  dj 
U  Onkiura  (London.  I90S).  ch).  ii.  and  i. 

'See  Kathleen  Schktinier,  gp.  til.  pan  ii.,  the"  Utrecht  Puitcr.' 
p.  117-115.  and  the  "QueHioa  of  the  Oiinn  of  the  Utmhl 
'■Iter,"  pp.  116- iM,  where  Ihc  tubjecl  iidiacutied  and  illuHrated. 

•H™,  lee  ^.  vi.  (»)  to  Ihcrijht  centre. 

'  IiUm,  lee  pL  iii,  centre  and  Iu4,  1 1 B  and  1 19- 

*Idem,  act  hg.  117,  p,  ^1.  antTAB'.  '7»  and  116- 

*  Idtm,  K?e  1^.  lit,  p.  346,  hEi.  13 J,  113.  J 35  and  t34  pi.  iii.  vi 

'  Idem,  fee  hfl-  la^,  p.  350,  and  pL  Iii.  (ifthi  centra. 

•  Hoi.  lee  Bi,  1 71.  p.  448.  •  tirm.  lee  fig,  joj,  p.  4Ba 
-See  Mum  Pie  Onimiw,  by  VinHiti  [Milan.  1S18). 

"See  for  oample  Geerpn.  iv.  47'-47J  in  the  Vatican  Virgi 
[Tod. 31lj),in[aciimile(It«ne.l899HBrili>)iMuieunipR»- marks 


lerllachl  in 
jfunde  am  Berfte  Lup 


Alamannic  tomb  of  ibe  4th  to  ih< 
""kForeU.    AfacHmileiiprcH 


in  of  the  K^.  H«l 

:  LupTen  bel  Obcrnactil.  IB46."  Jaltrriiinililc 

Kathleciii  SchkidnBer.  «p.  m.  pan  ii.  Bg.  168  Mrairing  from  the 


W.  WerUnnt.  Alltram 


^'  Reproductioni  of  both  mintalu 
J.  O.  We«wood'a  FviimJt,  0/  iL 
An^Saxni  anJ  Irilk  USS.  (Land 

'^An  iUuuraiion  occur,  in  the  Ii 


ntminHcr   Abbey   (I 


lamplea 


n  MS.  11 


70s 

"■">  in  the 
>  (fiibl. 


It  hat  ah 


:,'^ 

□r  Bona  of  Savoy, 
•  teen  painted  by 


Stuttgart  Ijn 
Imp.TarU)  Tr 
nreterved  in 

wife  of  Calun  Mali 

century  In  l&e  Cathedral  of  Amien 

GOiTsr,  Luan  obkiiaiii  (tUo- 

bom  in  Parlfl.  He  became  prominent  on  tl 
Focie  Saini-Manin  iheatn  in  190a.  and  the  Vaneiei  in  1^1. 
and  then  became  a  member  ol  the  Comfdie  Francaiac,  but  be 
reaigaed  vei>  uoa  in  order  to  become  direclor  ol  the  Renaiaaance, 
where  be  was  principally  associated  with  the  actress  Marlbe 
Brgnd^a,  who  bad  also  lell  the  ComMie.  Hen  he  otabliibed 
his  repuUtion,  in  a  number  of  playa,  as  the  grealeat  conlcmporaiy 
Fiencfa  actor  in  the  drama  ol  modem  reality. 

atnzoT,  ntAHCOis  pierke  ouiLunin  (1)87-1874), 

hiitoiian,  oruor  and  slalaman,  *ai  bom  u  Nlmei  on  the  4th  of 
October  1 787. of  id  bonouiable  Piotstant  famQy  belonging  10  the 
bMir jeautc  ol  that  dty.  It  ischaractcrislicof  thecrueldiaabiliticA 
which  tlill  weighed  upon  the  ProIeaUnU  ol  France  befoie  the 
Revolution,  that  bis  paienta.  il  the  lime  of  their  union,  could 
not  be  publicly  or  legally  married  by  their  own  pastort,  and  that 
the  ceremony  was  dandraline.  The  liberal  opinions  of  his 
family  did  not,  however,  save  It  from  the  aanguinary  intolerance 
of  the  Reign  of  Terror,  and  on  tbe  8tli  April  1794  bis  father 
perished  at  Nlmea  upon  the  scaffttliL  Thenceforth  the  education 
of  (he  future  minister  devolved  entirely  upon  his  mother,  a 
woman  of  slight  appearance  and  ol  homely  manDcrs,  but  endowed 
with  great  strength  of  cbaiacter  and  clearness  ol  judgment- 
Madame  Guizol  was  a  living  type  of  the  Huguenoti  of  Ihc  ifilh 
century,  stem  in  ber  principles  and  her  lailh,  immovable  in  her 
convicliona  and  her  sense  of  duly.  She  formed  tbe  character  of 
het  illustrious  son  and  shared  every  vicissilude  of  his  life.  In  the 
daysof  his  power  her  simple  Bgure,  alwayi  cbd  in  deep  mourning 
for  her  martyred  husband,  was  iu>t  absent  from  the  iplendid 
circle  of  his  polilical  fiienda.  In  the  days  of  his  eiile  in  1S4S 
'      '     ,  and  there  al  a  very  advanced  age 


'  life  I 


N 

mesbylhe 

Revol 

ulioD,  Mailam 

GuiuK 

ndheraontepa. 

here 

e  received  his 

n.    In  apile  of 

di 

-ided  Cilv 

nislic 

opinions,  the 

ch  in  fash 

te  pol  wiibou 

their  io 

fluence  on  Mada 

G 

H.I.    She 

«rnng  Libera 
the  £milt  tha 

,  and  ah 

e  even  adopted 

ion  incula 

ted  in 

lan  ought  to  lear 

nual  irade 

or  crall.    Young  Cu 

tau^l  to  be  a 

ter.  lod  h 
h  his  own 

hands. 

succeeded  in 
which  is  stUl 

is  work 

bat  he  made  iL 

Of  the  progrev 

his 

udies 

tile  is  known 

lor  in 

he  work  which 

red 


,      .  Cuiiot  omilted  al  . 

details  of  his  earlier  life.  But  hit  literary  attainments  must 
have  been  precocious  and  couiderable,  for  when  he  arrived  in 
Paris  In  iSes  lo  punue  his  studies  in  the  laculty  of  U*t,  he 
entered  at  eighteen  u  tutor  into  (be  family  of  M.  Stapler, 
formerly  Swiss  minister  in  France,  and  he  soon  began  lo  write 
in  •  joumil  edited  by  M.  Suard,  the  PMUiiU,  This  connciion 
introduced  him  to  the  literary  society  of  Paris,  In  October  i8og, 
being  then  twenty-two,  be  wrote  a  review  of  M.  de  Chateau- 
briand's ITdrfyri,  which  procured  lor  turn  Ibe  apprabatlaa  and 
cordial  thanks  of  that  eminent  pcison,  and  he  continued  10 
contribute  largely  to  the  periodii^  ptru.  At  Suard'i  be  had 
made  the  acquaintance  ol  Pauline  Meulan,  an  accomplished  lady 
older  than  himself,  who 


had  been  I 


Jbyih 


>hipa  of ih 


2;7.21i,S 


tuminlacobandH.  von 
I  UtIUtalUrl  ItlarmiUrit. 
Jlwrrtt  usJ  CerdUcMln 
.  lS79-Te90).  „ 

A  il  lol,  8j.  161.  vol.  111. 


7o6 


GUIZOT 


interrupted  by  her  illness,  but  immediately  resumed  and  con- 
tinued by  an  unknown  hand.  It  was  discovered  that  Francois 
Guizot  had  quietly  supplied  the  deficiency  on  her  behalf.  The 
acquaintance  thus  begun  ripened  into  friendship  and  love,  and 
in  x8i  2  Mademoiselle  de  Meulan  consented  to  many  her  youthful 
ally.  She  died  in  1827;  she  was  the  author  of  many  esteemed 
"works  on  female  education.  An  only  son,  bom  in  18x9,  died 
in  i8j7  of  consumption.  In  1828  Guizot  married  Elisa  Dillon, 
niece  of  his  first  wife,  and  also  an  author.  She  died  in  1833, 
leaving  a  son,  Maurice  Guillaume  (1833-1892),  who  attained 
some  reputation  as  a  scholar  and  writer. 

During  the  empire,  Guizot,  entirely  devoted  to  litoary 
pursuits,  published  a  collection  of  French  sjmonyms  (1809), 
an  essay  on  the  fine  arts  (181 1),  and  a  translation  of  Gibbon 
with  additional  notes  in  181 2.  These  works  recommended  him 
to  the  notice  of  M.  de  Fontanes,  then  grand-master  of  the 
imiversity  of  France,  who  selected  Guizot  for  the  chair  of  modem 
history  at  the  Sorbonne  in  18x2.  His  first  lecture  (which  is 
reprinted  in  his  Memoirs)  was  delivered  on  the  xxth  of  December 
of  that  year.  The  customary  compliment  to  the  all-powerful 
emperor  he  declined  to  insert  in  it,  in  spite  of  the  hints  given  liim 
by  his  patron,  but  the  course  which  followed  marks  the  beginning 
of  the  great  revival  of  historical  research  in  France  in  the  19th 
century.  He  had  now  acquired  a  considerable  position  in  the 
society  of  Paris,  and  the  friendship  of  Royer-Collard  and  the 
leading  members  of  the  liberal  party,  including  the  young  due 
de  Broglie.  Absent  from  Paris  at  the  moment  of  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  in  1814,  he  was  at  once  selected,  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  Royer-Collard,  to  serve  the  government  of  Louis  XVIII. 
in  the  capacity  of  secretary-general  of  the  ministry  of  the 
interior,  under  the  abb6  de  Montesquiou.  Upon  the  retum 
of  Napoleon  from  Elba  he  immediately  resigned,  on  the  25th  of 
March  181 5  (the  statement  that  he  retained  office  under  General 
Carnot  is  incorrect),  and  returned  to  his  litwary  purstiits.  After 
the  Hundred  Days,  he  repaired  to  Ghent,  where  he  saw  Louis 
XVIII.,  and  in  the  name  of  the  liberal  party  pointed  out  to  his 
majesty  that  a  frank  adoption  of  a  liberal  policy  could  alone 
secure  the  duration  of  the  restored  monarchy — advice  which 
was  ill-received  by  M.  de  Blacas  and  the  king's  confidential 
advisers.  This  visit  to  Ghent,  at  the  time  when  France  was  a 
prey  to  a  second  invasion,  was  made  a  subject  of  bitter  reproach 
to  Guizot  in  after  life  by  his  political  opponents,  as  an  unpatriotic 
action.  "  The  Man  of  Ghent  "  was  one  of  the  terms  of  insult 
frequently  hurled  against  him  in  the  days  of  his  power.  But  the 
reproach  appears  to  be  wholly  unfounded.  The  true  interests 
of  France  were  not  in  the  defence  of  the  falling  empire,  but  in 
establishing  a  liberal  policy  on  a  monarchical  basis  and  in 
combating  the  reactionary  tendencies  of  the  ultra-royalists.  It 
is  at  any  rate  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  a  young  professor 
of  twenty-seven,  with  none  of  the  advantages  of  birth  or  political 
experience,  should  have  been  selected  to  convey  so  important 
a  message  to  the  ears  of  the  king  of  France,  and  a  proof,  if  any 
were  wanting,  that  the  Revolution  hjid,  as  Guizot  said,  "  done 
its  work." 

On  the  second  restoration,  Guizot  was  appointed  secretary- 
general  of  the  ministry  of  justice  under  M.  de  Barb^-Marbois, 
but  resigned  with  his  chief  in  1816.  Again  in  1819  he  was 
appointed  general  director  of  communes  and  departments  in 
the  ministry  of  the  interior,  but  lost  his  office  with  fbe  fall  of 
Decazes  in  February  1820.  During  these  years  Guizot  was  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Doctrinaires,  a  small  party  strongly  attached 
to  the  charter  and  the  crown,  and  advocating  a  policy 
which  has  become  associated  (especially  by  Faguet)  with  the 
name  of  Guizot,  that  of  the  juste  milieu,  a  via  media  between 
absolutism  and  popular  government.  Their  opinions  had  more  of 
the  rigour  of  a  sect  than  the  elasticity  of  a  political  party.  Ad- 
hering to  the  great  principles  of  liberty  and  toleration,  they  were 
sternly  opposed  to  the  anarchical  traditions  of  the  Revolution. 
They  knew  that  the  elements  of  anarchy  were  still  fermenting 
in  the  country;  these  they  hoped  to  subdue,  not  by  reactionary 
measures,  but  by  the  firm  application  of  the  power  of  a  limited 
coast itution,  based  on  the  suffrages  of  the  middle  class  and 


defended  by  the  highest  literary  talent  of  the  times.  Thdr 
motives  were  honourable.  Their  views  were  phiknoplucBL 
But  they  were  opposed  alike  to  the  democratical  spirit  of  the 
age,  to  the  military  traditions  of  the  empire,  and  to  the  bigotry 
and  absolutism  of  the  court.  The  fate  of  such  a  party  might 
be  foreseen.  They  lived  by  a  policy  of  reaistancc;  they  perished 
by  another  revolution  (1830).  They  are  remembered  moire  for 
their  constant  opposition  to  popular  demands  than  by  the 
services  they  undoubtedly  rendered  to  the  cause  of  temperate 
freedom. 

In  X820,  when  the  reaction  was  at  its  hei^t  after  the  murder 
of  the  due  de  Berri,  and  the  fall  of  the  ministry  of  the  due 
Decazes,  Guizot  was  deprived  of  hb  offices,  and  in  1822  even 
his  course  of  lectures  were  interdicted.  During  the  succeeding 
years  he  played  an  important  part  among  the  leaders  of  the 
liberal  opposition  to  the  government  of  Charles  X.,  altbou^ 
he  had  not  yet  entered  parliament,  and  this  was  also  the  time 
of  his  greatest  literary  activity.  In  .1822  he  had  puUisfacd  his 
lectures  on  representative  government  {Hisioire  des  oripnes  dn 
gomemement  reprisentalif,  X82X-X822,  2  vols.;  Eng.  trans. 
X852)',  also  a  work  on  capital  punbhment  for  pc^tical  offences 
and  several  important  political  pamphlets.  From  X822  to  xSjo 
he  published  two  important  collections  of  historical  soums,  the 
memoirs  of  the  history  of  England  in  26  volumes,  and  the 
memoirs  of  the  history  of  France  in  31  volumes,  and  a  revised 
translation  of  Shakespeare,  and  a  volume  of  essays  on  the 
history  of  France.  The  most  remarkable  work  from  his  own 
pen  was  the  first  part  of  his  HistoU'e  de  la  revolution  d*Ang^defre 
depuis  Charles  I"  d  Charles  IL  (2  vols.,  1826-1827;  £«€• 
trans.,  2  vols.,  Oxford,  1838),  a  book  of  great  merit  and  im- 
partiality, which  he  resumed  and  completed  during  his  exile 
in  England  after  1848.  The  Martignac  administration  restored 
Guizot  in  1828  to  his  professor's  chair  and  to  the  coundl  of 
state.  Then  it  was  that  he  delivered  the  cclcbrat«!d  courses 
of  lectures  which  raised  his  reputation  as  an  historian  to  the 
highest  point  of  fame,  and  placed  him  amongst  the  best  writers  of 
France  and  of  Europe.  These  lectures  formed  the  basb  of 
his  general  Histoire  de  la  civilisation  en  Europe  (1828*  Eng. 
trans,  by  W.  Hazlitt,  3  vols.,  1846),  and  of  his  Histoire  de  U 
civilisation  en  France  (4  vols.,  1830),  works  which  must  ever  be 
regarded  as  classics  of  modern  historical  research. 

Hitherto  Guizot's  fame  rested  on  his  merits  as  a  writer  on 
public  affairs  and  as  a  lecturer  on  modem  history.  He  had 
attained  the  age  of  forty-three  before  he  entered  upon  the  full 
display  of  his  oratorical  strength.  In  January  1830  he  was 
elected  for  the  first  time  by  the  town  of  Lisieuz  to  the  chamber 
of  deputies,  and  he  retained  that  seat  during  the  whole  of  his 
political  life.  Guizot  immediately  assumed  an  important 
position  in  the  representative  assembly,  and  the  first  speech  be 
delivered  was  in  defence  of  the  celebrated  address  of  the  321, 
in  answer  to  the  menacing  speech  from  the  throne,  which  was 
followed  by  the  dissolution  of  the  chamber,  and  was  the  precursor 
of  another  revolution.  On  his  returning  to  Paris  from  NImcs 
on  the  27th  of  July,  the  fall  of  Charles  X.  was  already  ImmixteaL 
Guizot  was  called  upon  by  his  friends  Casimir-P^rier,  Laffitie, 
Villemain  and  Dupin  to  draw  up  the  piotest  of  the  liberal 
deputies  against  the  royal  ordinances  of  July,  whilst  he  apfdied 
himself  with  them  to  control  the  revolutionary  charter  d  the 
late  contest.  Personally,  Guizot  was  always  of  c^nion  that  it 
was  a  great  misfortune  for  the  cause  of  parliamentary  govenunrct 
in  France  that  the  ixifatuation  and  ineptitude  of  Charles  X. 
and  Prince  Polignac  rendered  a  change  in  the  hereditary  line  of 
succession  inevitable.  But,  though  convinced  that  it  was 
inevitable,  he  became  one  of  the  most  ardent  sappomtnoi  Louis- 
Philippe.  In  August  1830  Guizot  was  made  minister  oi  the 
interior,  but  resigned  in  November.  He  had  now  passed  into 
the  ranks  of  the  conservatives,  and  for  the  next  eighteen  years 
was  the  most  determined  foe  of  democracy,  the  unyiddiog 
champion  of  "  a  monarchy  limited  by  a  limited  number  of 
bourgeois." 

In  1 83 1  Casimir-Plrier  formed  a  more  vigorous  and  compact 
administration,  which  was  terminated  in  May  X832  by  his  death; 


GUIZOT 


707 


the  summer  of  that  year  was  marked  by  a  formidable  republican 
rising  in  Paris,  and  it  was  not  till  the  nth  of  October  183a  that 
a  stable  government  was  formed,  in  which  Marshal  Soult  was 
first  minister,  the  due  de  Broglie  took  the  foreign  office,  Thiers 
the  home  department,  and  Guizot  the  department  of  public 
instruction.    This  ministry,  which  lasted  for  nearly  four  years, 
was   by   far   the   ablest   that   ever  served   Louis   Philippe. 
Guicot,  however,  was  already  marked  with  the  stigma  of  un- 
popularity by  the  more  advanced  liberal  party.    He  remained 
unpopular  all  his  life, "  not,"  said  he, "  that  I  court  unpopularity, 
but  that  I  think  nothing  about  it."    Yet  never  were  his  great 
abilities  more  useful  to  his  country  than  whilst  he  filled  this 
office  of  secondary  rank  but  of  primary  importance  in  the 
department  of  pubh'c  instruction.    The  duties  it  imposed  on  him 
were  entirely  congenial  to  his  literary  tastes,  and  he  was  master 
of  the  subjects  they  concerned.    He  applied  himself  in  the  first 
instance  to  carry  the  law  of  the  28th  of  June  1833,  and  then  for 
the  next  three  years  to  put  it  into  execution.    In  establishing 
and  organizing  primary  education  in  France,  this  law  marked 
a  distinct  epoch  in  French  history.    In  fifteen  years,  under  its 
influence,  the  number  of  primary  schools  rose  from  ten  to 
twenty-three  thousand;  normal  schools  for  teachers,  and  a 
general  system  of  inspection,  were  introduced;  and  boards  of 
education,  under  mixed  lay  and  clerical  authority,  were  created. 
The  secondary  class  of  schools  and  the  university  of  France  were 
equally  the  subject  of  his  enlightened  protection  and  care, 
and  a  prodigioiis  impulse  was  given  to  philosophical  study  and 
historical  research.    The  branch  of  the  Institute  of  France 
known  as  the  "  Acad6mie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiqucs," 
which  had  been  suppressed  by  Napoleon,  was  revived  by  Guizot. 
Some  of  the  old  members  of  tlUs  learned  body — Talleyrand, 
St6yes,  Roederer  and  Lakanal — again  took  their  seats  there, 
and  a  host  of  more  recent  celebrities  were  added  by  election  for 
the  free  discussion  of  the  great  problems  of  political  and  social 
science.    The  "  Soci£t£  de  I'Histoire  de  France  "  was  founded 
for  the  publication  of  historical  works;  and  a  vast  publication 
of  medieval  chronicles  and  diplomatic  papers  was  undertaken 
at  the  expense  of  the  state  (see  Histoky;  and  Fbance,  History, 
section  Sources). 

The  object  of  the  cabinet  of  October  1832  was  to  organize 
a  conservative  party,  and  to  carry  on  a  policy  of  resistance  to  the 
republicanfaction  which  threatened  the  existence  of  the  monarchy. 
It  was  their  pride  and  their  boast  that  their  measures  never 
exceeded  the  limits  of  the  law,  and  by  the  exercise  of  legal  power 
alone  they  put  down  an  insurrection  amounting  to  civil  war  in 
Lyons  and  a  sanguinary  revolt  in  Paris.  The  real  strength  of 
the  ministry  lay  not  in  its  nominal  heads,  but  in  the  fact  that  in 
this  government  and  this  alone  Guizot  and  Thiers  acted  in  cordial 
co-operation.  The  two  great  rivals  in  French  parliamentary 
eloquence  followed  for  a  time  the  same  path;  but  neither  of 
them  could  submit  to  the  supremacy  of  the  other,  and  circum- 
stances threw  Thiers  almost  continuously  on  a  course  of 
opposition,  whilst  Guizot  bore  the  graver  responsibilities  of 
power. 

Once  again  indeed,  in  1839,  they  were  united,  but  it  was  in 
opposition  to  M.  MoI£,  who  had  formed  an  intermediate  govern- 
ment, and  this  coalition  between  Guizot  and  the  leaders  of  the 
left  centre  and  the  left,  Thiers  and  Odilon  Barrot,  due  to  his 
ambition  and  jealousy  of  M0I6,  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the 
chief  inconsistencies  of  his  life.  Victory  was  secured  at  the 
expense  of  principle,  and  Guizot's  attack  upon  the  government 
gave  rise  to  a  crisis  and  a  republican  insurrection.  None  of 
the  three  chiefs  of  that  alliance  took  ministerial  office,  however, 
and  Guizot  was  not  sorry  to  accept  the  post  of  ambassador  in 
London,  which  withdrew  him  for  a  time  from  parliamentary 
contests.  This  was  in  the  spring  of  1840,  and  Thiers  succeeded 
shortly  afterwards  to  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs. 

Guizot  was  received  with  marked  distinction  by  the  queen 
and  by  the  society  of  London.  His  literary  works  were  highly 
esteemed,  his  character  was  respected,  and  France  was  never 
more  worthily  represented  abroad  than  by  one  of  her  greatest 
orators.    He  was  known  to  be  well  versed  in  the  history  and  the 


literature  of  England,  and  sincerely  attached  to  the  alh'ance  of 
the  two  nations  and  the  cause  of  peace.    But,  as  he  himself 
remarked,  he  was  a  stranger  to  EngUind  and  a  novice  in  diplom- 
acy; and  unhappily  the  embroiled  state  of  the  Syrian  question, 
on  which  the  French  government  had  separated  itself  from  the 
joint  policy  of  Europe,  and  possibly  the  absence  of  entire  con* 
fidence  between  the  ambassador  and  the  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  placed  him  in  an  embarrassing  and  even  false  position. 
The  warnings  he  transmitted  to  Thiers  were  not  believed.  The 
warlike  policy  of  Thiers  was  opposed  to  his  own  convictions. 
The  treaty  of  the  isth  of  July  was  signed  without  his  knowledge 
and  executed  in  the  teeth  of  his  remonstrances.    For  some  weeks 
Europe  seemed  to  be  on  the  brink  of  war,  until  the  king  put  an 
end  to  the  crisis  by  refusing  his  assent  to  the  military  preparations 
of  Tliiers,  and  by  summoning  Guizot  from  London  to  form  a 
ministry  and  to  aid  his  Majesty  in  what  he  termed  "  ma  lutte 
tenace  contre  I'anarchie."    Thus  began,  imder  dark  and  adverse 
circumstances,  on  the  29th  of  October  1840,  the  important 
administration  in  which  Guizot  remained  the  master-spirit  for 
nearly  eight  years.    He  himself  took  the  office  of  minister  for 
foreign  affairs,  to  which  he  added  some  years  later,  on  the 
retirement  of  Marshal  SotUt,  the.  ostensible  rank  of  prime 
minister.    His  first  care  was  the  maintenance  of  peace  and  the 
restoration  of  amicable  relations  with  the  other  powers  of  Europe. 
If  he  succeeded,  as  he  did  succeed,  in  calming  the  troubled 
elements  and  healing  the  wounded  pride  of  France,  the  result 
was  due  mainly  to  the  indomitable  courage  and   splendid 
eloquence  with  which  he  faced  a  raging  opposition,  gave  unity 
and  strength  to  the  conservative  party,  who  now  felt  that  they 
had  a  great  leader  at  their  head,  and  appealed  to  the  thrift  and 
prudence  of  the  nation  rather  than  to  their  vanity  and  their 
ambition.    In  his  pacific  task  he  was  fortunately  seconded  by 
the  formation  of  Sir  Robert  Peel's  administration  in  England, 
in  the  autumn  of  1841.    Between  Lord  Palmerston  and  Guizot 
there   existed    an   incompatibiUty   of   character   exceedingly 
dangerous  in  the  foreign  ministers  of  two  great  and  in  some 
respects  rival  countries.    With  Lord  Palmerston  in  office,  Guizot 
felt  that  he  had  a  bitter  and  active  antagonist  in  every  British 
agent  throughout  the  world;  the  combative  element  was  strong 
in  his  own  disposition;  and  the  result  was  a  system  of  perpetual 
conflict  and  counter-intrigues.    Lord  Palmerston  held  (as  it 
appears  from  his  own  letters)  that  war  between  England  and 
France  was,  sooner  or  later,  inevitable.    Guizot  held  that  such 
a  war  would  be  '.he  greatest  of  aU  calamities,  and  certainly  never 
contemplated  it.    In  Lord  Aberdeen,  the  foreign  secretary  of 
Sir  Robert  Peel,  Guizot  found  a  friend  and  an  ally  perfectly 
congenial  to  himself.    Their  acquaintance  in  London  had  been 
slight,  but  it  soon  ripened  into  mutual  regard  and  confidence. 
They  were  both  men  of  high  principles  and  honour;  the  Scotch 
Presbyterianism  which  had  moulded  the  faith  of  Lord  Aberdeen 
wa^reflected  in  the  Huguenot  minister  of  France;  both  were 
men  of  extreme  simplicity  of  taste,  joined  to  the  refinement  of 
scholarship  and  culture;  both  had  an  intense  aversion  to  war 
and  felt  themselves  ill-qualified  to  carry  on  those  adventurous 
operations  which  inflamed  the  imagination  of  their  respective 
opponents.    In  the  eyes  of  Lord  Palmerston  and  Thiers  their 
policy  was  mean  and  pitiful;  but  it  was  a  policy  which  secured 
peace  to  the  world,  and  united  the  two  great  and  free  nations  of 
the  West  in  what  was  termed  the  entente  cordialt.    Neither  of 
them  would  have  stooped  to  snatch  an  advantage  at  the  expense 
of  the  other;  they  held  the  common  interest  of  peace  and 
friendship  to  be  paramount;  and  when  differences  arose,  as  they 
did  arise,  io  remote  parts  of  the  world, — in  Tahiti,  in  Morocco, 
on  the  Gold  Coast, — they  were  reduced  by  this  principle  to  their 
proper  insignificance.    The  opposition  in   France  denounced 
Guizot's  foreign  policy  as  basely  subservient  to  England.    He 
replied  in  terms  of  unmeasured  contempt, — "  You  may  raise 
the  pile  of  calumny  as  high  as  you  will;  vous  n'arrivcrez  jamais 
i  la  hauteur  de  mon  dfdaini"    The  opposition  in  England 
attacked  Lord  Aberdeen  with  the  same  reproaches,  but  in  vain. 
King  Louis  Philippe  visited  Windsor.    The  queen  of  England 
(in  1843)  stayed  at  the  ChAteau  d'Eu.    In  1845  British  and 


7o8 


GUIZOT 


French  troops  fought  side  by  side  for  the  first  time  in  an  expedi- 
tion to  the  River  Plate. 

The  fall  of  Sir  Robert  Peel's  government  in  1846  changed 
these  intimate  relations;  and  the  return  of  Lord  Palmerston  to 
the  foreign  office  led  Guizot  to  believe  that  he  was  again  exposed 
to  the  passionate  rivalry  of  the  British  cabinet.  A  friendly 
understanding  had  been  established  at  £u  between  the  two 
courts  with  reference  to  the  future  marriage  of  the  young  queen 
of  Spain.  The  language  of  Lord  Palmerston  and  the  conduct 
of  Sir  Henry  Bulwer  (afterwards  Lord  Dalling)  at  Madrid  led 
Guizot  to  believe  that  this  understanding  was  broken,  and  that 
it  was  intended  to  place  a  Coburg  on  the  throne  of  Spain. 
Determined  to  resist  any  such  intrigue,  Guizot  and  the  king 
plunged  headlong  into  a  counter-intrigue,  wholly  inconsistent 
with  their  previous  engagements  to  England^  and  fatal  to  the 
happiness  of  the  queen  of  Spain.  By  their  influence  she  was 
urged  into  a  marriage  with  a  despicable  offset  of  the  house  of 
Bourbon,  and  her  sister  was  at  the  same  time  married  to  the 
youngest  son  of  the  French  king,  in  direct  violation  of  Louis 
Philippe's  promises.  This  transaction,  although  it  was  hailed 
at  the  time  as  a  triumph  of  the  policy  of  France,  was  in  truth 
as  fatal  to  the  monardi  as  it  was  discreditable  to  the  minister. 
It  was  accomplished  by  a  mixture  of  secrecy  and  violence.  It 
was  defended  by  subterfuges.  By  the  dispassionate  judgment 
of  history  it  has  been  universally  condemned.  Its  immediate 
effect  was  to  destroy  the  Anglo-French  alliance,  and  to  throw 
Guizot  into  closer  relations  with  the  reactionary  policy  of 
Mettemich  and  the  Northern  courts. 

The  history  of  Guizot 's  administration,  the  longest  and  the 
last  which  existed  under  the  constitutional  monarchy  of  France, 
bears  the  stamp  of  the  great  qualities  and  the  great  defects  of  his 
political  character,  for  he  was  throughout  the  master-spirit  of 
that  government.  His  first  object  Was  to  unite  and  discipline 
the  conservative  party,  which  had  been  broken  up  by  previous 
dissensions  and  ministerial  changes.  In  this  he  entirely  succeeded 
by  his  courage  and  eloquence  as  a  parliamentary  leader,  and  by 
the  use  of  all  those  means  of  influence  which  France  too  liberally 
supplies  to  a  dominant  minister.  No  one  ever  doubted  the 
purity  and  disinterestedness  of  Guizot 's  own  conduct.  He 
despised  money;  he  lived  and  died  poor;  and  though  he 
encouraged  the  fever  of  money-getting  in  the  French  nation,  his 
own  habits  retained  their  primitive  simplicity.  But  he  did  not 
disdain  to  use  in  others  the  baser  passions  from  which  he  was 
himself  free.  Some  of  his  instruments  were  mean;  he  employed 
them  to  deal  with  meanness  after  its  kind.  Gross  abuses  and 
breaches  of  trust  came  to  light  even  in  the  ranks  of  the  govern- 
ment, 'and  under  an  incorruptible  minister  the  administration 
was  denounced  as  corrupt.  Licet  uU  alieno  vUio  is  a  proposition 
as  false  in  politics  as  it  is  in  divinity. 

Of  his  parliamentary  eloquence  it  is  impossible  to  speak  too 
highly.  It  was  terse,  austere,  demonstrative  and  commanding, 
— not  persuasive,  not  humorous,  seldom  adorned,  but  condensed 
with  the  force  of  a  supreme  authority  in  the  fewest  words.  He 
was  essentially  a  ministerial  speaker,  far  more  powerful  in 
defence  than  in  opposition.  Like  Pitt  he  was  the  type  of 
authority  and  resistance,  unmoved  by  the  brilliant  charges, 
the  wit,  the  gaiety,  the  irony  and  the  discursive  power  of  his 
great  rival.  Nor  was  he  less  a  master  of  parliamentary  tactics 
and  of  those  sudden  changes  and  movements  in  debate  which, 
as  in  a  battle,  sometimes  change  the  fortune  of  the  day.  His 
confidence  in  himself,  and  in  the  majority  of  the  chamber  which 
he  had  moulded  to  bis  will,  was  unbounded;  and  long  success 
and  the  habit  of  authority  led  him  to  forget  that  in  a  country 
like  France  there  was  a  people  outside  the  chamber  elected  by 
a  small  constituency,  to  which  the  minister  and  the  king  himself 
were  held  responsible. 

A  government  based  on  the  principle  of  resistance  and  re> 
pression  and  marked  by  dread  and  distrust  of  popular  power, 
a  system  of  diplomacy  which  sought  to  revive  the  traditions  of 
the  old  French  monarchy,  a  sovereign  who  largely  exceeded  the 
bounds  of  constitutional  power  and  whose  obstinacy  augmented 
with  years,  a  minister  who,  though  far  removed  from  the  servility 


of  the  courtier,  was  too  obsequious  to  the  personal  influence  of 
the  king,  were  all  singularly  at  variance  with  the  promises  of  the 
Revolution  of  July,  and  they  narrowed  the  policy  of  the  adminis- 
tration. Guizot's  view  of  politics  was  essentially  historical 
and  philosophical.  His  tastes  and  hb  acquirements  gave  him 
little  insight  into  the  practical  business  of  administrative  govern- 
ment. Oi  finance  he  knew  nothing;  trade  and  commerce  were 
strange  to  him;  military  and  naval  affairs  were  unfamiliar  to 
him;  all  these  subjects  he  dealt  with  by  second  hand  through 
his  friends,  P.  S.  Dumon  (i  797-1870),  Charles  Marie  Tanneguy, 
Comte  Duch&tel  (1803-1867),  or  Marshal  Bugeaud.  The  con- 
sequence was  that  few  measures  of  practical  improvement  were 
carried  by  his  administration.  Still  less  did  the  government 
lend  an  ear  to  the  cry  for  parliamentary  reform.  On  this  subject 
the  king's  prejudices  were  insurmountable,  and  his  ministers 
had  the  weakness  to  give  way  to  them.  It  was  impossible  to 
defend  a  system  which  confined  the  suffrage  to  360,000  citizens, 
and  returned  a  chamber  of  whom  half  were  placemen.  Nothing 
would  have  been  easier  than  to  strengthen  the  conservativ'e 
party  by  attaching  the  suffrage  to  the  possession  of  land  io 
France,  but  blank  resistance  was  the  sole  answer  of  the  govern- 
ment to  the  just  and  moderate  demands  of  the  opposition. 
Warning  after  warning  was  addressed  to  them  in  vain  by  friends 
and  by  foes  alike;  and  they  remained  profoundly  onconscioas 
of  their  danger  till  the  moment  when  it  overwhelmed  them. 
Strange  to  say,  Guizot  never  acknowledged  either  at  the  time 
or  to  his  dying  day  the  nature  of  this  error;  and  he  speaks  of 
himself  in  his  memoirs  as  the  much-enduring  champion  of  liberal 
government  and  constitutional  law.  He  utteriy  fails  to  perceive 
that  a  more  enlarged  view  of  the  liberal  destinies  of  France  and 
a  less  intense  confidence  in  hb  own  specific  theory  might  have 
preserved  the  constitutional  monarchy  and  averted  a  vast  series 
of  calamities,  which  were  in  the  end  fatal  to  every  principle 
he  most  cherished.  But  with  the  stubborn  conviction  of 
absolute  truth  he  dauntlessly  adhered  to  hb  own  doctrines  to 
the  end. 

The  last  scene  of  hb  political  life  was  singularly  characteristic 
of  hb  inflexible  adherence  to  a  lost  cause.  In  the  afternoon  of 
the  25rd  of  February  1848  the  king  summoned  fab  minister 
from  the  chamber,  which  was  then  sitting,  and  informed  him 
that  the  aspect  of  Paris  and  the  country  during  the  banquet 
agitation  for  reform,  and  the  alarm  and  division  of  opinion  in 
the  royal  family,  led  him  to  doubt  whether  he  could  retain  hb 
ministry.  That  doubt,  replied  Guizot,  b  decisive  of  the  question, 
and  instantly  resigned,  returning  to  the  chamber  only  to  announce 
that  the  administration  was  at  an  end  and  that  M0I6  had  been 
sent  for  by  the  king.  Mol£  failed  in  the  attempt  to  form  a  govern- 
ment, and  between  midnight  and  one  in  the  morning  Guizot, 
who  had  according  to  hb  custom  retired  early  to  rest,  was  again 
sent  for  to  the  Tuileries.  The  king  asked  hb  advice.  "  We  are 
no  longer  the  minbters  of  your  Majesty,"  replied  Guizot;  "  it 
rests  with  others  to  decide  on  the  course  to  be  pursued.  But 
one  thing  appears  to  be  evident:  this  street  riot  must  be  put 
down;  these  barricades  must  be  taken;  and  for  thb  purpose 
my  opinion  b  that  Marshal  Bugeaud  should  be  invested  with  full 
power,  and  ordered  to  take  the  necessary  military  measures,  and 
as  your  Majesty  has  at  this  moment  no  minister,  I  am  ready  to 
draw  up  and  countersign  such  an  order."  The  marshal,  who 
was  present,  undertook  the  task,  saying,  *'  I  have  never  beeo 
beaten  yet,  and  I  shall  not  begin  to-morrow.  The  barricades 
shall  be  carried  before  dawn."  After  thb  display  of  energy  the 
king  hesitated,  and  soon  added:  **  I  ought  to  tdl  you  that  M. 
Thiers  and  hb  friends  are  in  the  next  room  forming  a  govern- 
ment!" Upon  thb  Guizot  rejoined,  "  Then  it  rests  with  them 
to  do  what  they  think  fit,"  and  left  the  palace.  Thiers  and 
Barrot  decided  to  withdraw  the  troops.  The  king  and  Gdzot 
next  met  at  Claremont.  Thb  was  the  most  perilous  conjuncture 
of  Guizot's  life,  but  fortunately  he  found  a  safe  refuge  in  Paris 
for  some  days  in  the  lodging  of  a  humble  miniature  paiotcr 
whom  he  had  befriended,  and  shortly  afterwards  effected  his 
escape  across  the  Belgian  frontier  and  thence  to  London,  wbetr 
he  arrived  on  the  3rd  of  March.    Hb  mother  and  daughten 


GUJARAT— GUJARATI  AND  RAJASTHANI 


bid  prended  him.  ind  be  -u  ipwdUy  iuUllcd  id  a  modeit 

wen:  u  Umiliw  ud  u  dear  to  him  u  ihuc  of  hii  own  pcnauioB, 

habilittoD  in  Pelhim  Croccnt,  Bnnspton. 

and  wen  commotjy  umnI  by  him  in  the  daily  eietciie.  ol  lunily 

of  much  of  fail  rmnl  policy,  recdvtd  ibc  (dim  .I.lHoi.n  wilh 

In  thoeliieniy  punuiLs  and  in  therRiieraent  of  Val  Richer 

yein  piued  imoothly  and  rapidiy  awayi  and  u  hia  pand- 

childnn  (rtw  up  around  him,  he  hegas  to  direct  their  iLtentiOD 

to  the  hiiloiy  of  their  country.     From  lh«e  Inuns  sprang  bit 

wu  ipokca  of,  which  he  *m  un»bk  to  icapl.    He  iliyed  in 

lail  and  not  hii  leut  work,  the  BiHaitt  di  Fraiuc  riumUc  i  mej 

EoiJind  about  x  y»i,  dtvoling  himidC  •<>iii  to  biitoiy.     He 

publiihHl  two  moR  volLma  oo  the  English  revolution,  and  in 

loim,  il  ii  not  Icn  complete  ud  profound  than  il  ii  limple  and 

alliadive.    The  hiitory  cime  down  lo  1780,  and  was  continued 

(>  vob.,  i8s4).  then  bii  HisUirc  .Jii    pnuaival  it  CrMucfl  « 

10  ig;o  by  hb  daughlet  Maduoe  Gwiot  de  Will  fnun  her 

n  PM,  ■ 


a  yean  iBsS-iMB,  appean 
included  in 


many  s 


c  Utma 


ring  the 


r4  fatUmentaiit  dt  la  From 
(S  voU.  o(  pariiamenniy  ipcechs,  1M3). 

Cuiiol  aurvivedlhe  fallol  the  monarchy  and  the  governmcn 
be  had  served  twenty-iii  yean.     He  puaed  abruptly  ticm  Ih 
condition  ol  one  of  the  most  poweiful  and  active  ttalfunen  i 
Dihecandilianof  aphJosophicaland  patiioiic  apeciaic 

of  no  political  body;  no  murmur  of  diaappointed  ambilian,  a 
language  of  aspeniy.  ever  pasted  his  lipa;  it  seemed  as  if  Ih 
fever  of  oraloricd  debate  and  ministerial  power  bad  paued  fioi 
■  m  he  had  been  btfoi     '      ■ 


iotheco 


1  of  hii  fnc 


'  ibe  patriarchal  dicle  of  those  he  li 
le  year  be  spent  al  his  residence  at  Val  Richer,  an  Augustin 
lonaslery  near  Lisieui  in  Sormandy,  which  had  been  lold  a 
lelimeoFlhefilllRevoluliDII.  Hii  two  daughlen,  who  mania 
>o  descendinll  oi  Ibe  iiluilHous  Dutch  family  of  De  Witt 


here  Gvi^ol  devoted  hia  later  years  with  undiminished  energy 

Proud,  independent,  simple  and  contented  he  remained  lo  the 
lul;  and  these  yean  of  retirement  were  perhaps  the  happiest 

Two  inslilulioni  may  be  said  even  under  the  second  empire 
to  have  retained  their  freedom— the  Institute  of  France  and  the 
Ptoieslani  Consisioiy.  In  both  of  these  Cuiiol  continued  to  the 
list  lotakean  active  pari.  He  wit  a  membcrcf  Ibieeof  tbeBve 
academies  into  which  thelnslilute  of  Ftance  is  divided.  The 
Academy  of  Moral  and  Pobtical  Sdencc  owed  ill  testoniian 
to  him.  and  be  became  in  iSii  one  of  its  first  aaaociateL  The 
Academy  of  Insciiptisiu  and  Belle*  Lettres  elected  him  in  iSjj 
ta  the  succestor  lo  M.  Dader;  and  in  iSj6  he  was  chosen  t 
member  of  the  French  Academy,  the  highest  liienry  distinction 
of  the  country.  In  these  leariied  boitiea  Guiaot  conlinued  for 
neatly  forty  years  to  take  a  lively  inteiat  and  to  eictcise  a 
powerful  influence.  He  wu  the  jealou)  champion  of  their 
independence.  His  voice  had  the  greateat  weight  in  the  choice 
■  cindidattt:  the  younger  generation  of  French  wjiiets 


er  looked  in 


mfor 


id  combated 
10  threaten 

rity  of  the  Calvinislic  creed.  He  respected  in  the  Church  of 
le  the  faith  of  the  majority  of  his  couDlrymeni  and  the 
lUfi  of  the  great  Catholic  prelalea,  Bosiuet  arid  " 


aim  wu 

the  dignity  and  pi 

rity  of  the 

ol  let  ten. 

IB  the 

(onsiatoty 

of  the  Pro  estant  c 

urch  in  Pa 

.  ahniUr 

influeoce. 

Hi.  early  education 

tipetienc 

ol  life  CO 

nspired  to  s 

rengthe 

religion. 

t.     Heren. 

ioedlhrt 

ugh  life  a  fir 

in  the  tru 

lbs  of  rev 

Ill  ion.  and 

a  volnn. 

ol  UBliulu 

CiriHian 

Rdiiin  wa»  one  of 

is  latest 

works.    B 

fae  adhered  inAeiihly 

to  the  chu 

ch  of  his 

fathers  and 

the  rationalist  ttndendet  of  the 

age.  wh 

h  seemed  t 

own  to  the  lummei  of  1874  Guitol's  mental  vigour  an< 
^ity  were  unimpaired.  Hia  frame,  tempeialt  in  all  thingi 
blessed  with  a  aingular  immunity  from  infirmity  and  disease 
the  vital  power  ebbed  away,  and  he  paoed  (ently  away  or 
12th  of  September  1874.  rtdting  now  and  then  a  verse  o: 

''-  •-■ ■" — ra  («■'  m™'  i  /■*"!««  A 


iu(l«t 


:;•£;?» 


«»  Lam 


Grands  Ecrivains  fnnfii. 
ic  il.  CtuaHlfaif.  am 

l%&p.  aad'ch.  de  RtiluiHt,  C 

SnJASAT  or  CuiEiAT,  a 
Presidency.     In  the  widest  si 


11  and  SI 


s  of  tl 


more  properly  confined  1t>  the  country  north  of  the  Nerbudda 
and  eau  of  the  Rann  of  Cutch  and  Kalhiawir.  In  this  tens« 
it  has  an  area  of  94,071  sq.  m.,  with  a  population  id  iqot  o( 
41798,504.  It  Includes  the  states  distributed  among  the  agendei 
of  Patanpur,  Mabi  Kanlha.  Re-a  Kaniha  and  Cambiy.  with 
most  of  Barixla  and  the  British  districts  of  Ahmedabad,  Klitl. 
Panch  Mahals  and  Broach.  Less  than  one-founb  ii  British 
tetiilary.  The  region  lakes  its  name  from  the  Gujan,  a  tribe 
who  paued  into  India  from  the  north -west,  establisheda  kingdom 
in  Rajputana,  and  spread  south  in  a.n.  4(10-600.  The  ancient 
Hindu  capital  was  Anhilvada;  the  Mahommedan  dynasty, 
which  tuM  from  i]o6  to  IS71.  founded  Ahmediliad,  which  il 
still  the  largest  city;  but  Gujarat  owed  much  of  its  historical 
importance  to  the  seaports  of  Broach,  Cambay  and  Sunt. 
Its  fertile  plain,  with  a  tegular  rainfall  and  numerous  riven. 
has  caused  it  to  be  styled  the  "  tardea  of  India."  It  suffered, 
however,  severely  from  the  famine  of  iSgo-rgoi.  For  an 
account  of  the  hislDty.  feography.  &c.,  of  Guiant  seethe 

ntme  10  the  vernacular  of  northern  Bombay,  via.  Gujarali. 
Presidency,  spoken  by 


til  litcrat 


Bombay  pt 
Bayky. 


in  the 


commerdal   langultt  ■>( 

impbell,  HiiUfy  •!  Ctjcral  (Bombay,  lajfi);  Sir  E.  C. 
ic    Mtkomml^aii  kiH^om    of  Cxjaiat    (iSU);    A.    K. 
Unla  (I9s6) 
GUJABATI  and  RAJAimAMI.  Ibe  name*  of  two  mcnbtn 


Aryan 


e.  («.».] 


Therei 


r  of  this  9 


of  those  now  dealt  with  numbered:  Cujinti.  9.4J9,9iS.  and 
Rajastbani.  10.917.711.  The twolinguagesaredosely connected 
and  might  almost  be  termed  co-dialects  of  the  same  form  ol 
speech.    Tofethertheyoccupyanalmoit  square  blockof  country, 


710 

some  400  m.  broad,  reaching  from  near  Agra  and  Delhi  on  the 
river  Jumna  to  the  Arabian  Sea.  Gujarati  (properly  Gujardii)  is 
spoken  in  Gujarat,  the  northern  maritime  province  of  the  Bombay 
Presidency,  and  also  in  Baroda  and  the  native  states  adjoining. 
Rajasthani  (properly  Rdjcstkdnl^  from  "  Rdjastkdn"  the  native 
name  for  Rajputana)  is  spoken  in  Rajputana  and  the  adjoining 
parts  of  Central  India. 

In  the  articles  Indo-Asyai^  Languages  and  Piakeit  the 
history  of  the  earlier  stages  of  the  Indo-Aryan  vernaculars  is 
given  at  some  length.  It  is  there  shown  that,  from  the  most 
ancient  times>  there  were  two  main  groups  of  these  forms  of 
speech— one,  the  language  of  the  Midland,  spoken  in  the  country 
near  the  Gangetic  Doab,  and  the  other,  the  so^alled  *'  Outer 
Band,"  containing  the  Midland  on  three  sides,  west,  north  and 
south.  The  coimtry  to  the  west  and  south-west  of  the  Midland, 
in  which  this  outer  group  of  languages  was  ^Mken,  included 
the  modem  Punjab,  Rajputana  and  Gujarat.  In  process  of 
time  the  population  of  the  Midland  expanded  and  carried  its 
language  to  its  new  homes.  It  occupied  the  eastern  and  central 
Punjab,  and  the  mixed  (or  "  intermediate  ")  language  which 
there  grew  up  became  the  modem  Panjabi.  To  the  west  it 
spread  into  Rajputana,  till  its  progress  was  stopped  by  the 
Indian  desert,  and  in  Rajputana  another  intermediate  language 
took  rise  and  became  Rajasthani.  As  elsewhere  explained,  the 
language-wave  of  the  Midland  exercised  less  and  less  influence 
as  it  travelled  farther  from  its  home,  so  that,  while  in  eastern 
Rajputana  the  local  dialect  is  now  almost  a  pure  midland  speech, 
in  the  west  there  are  many  evident  traces  of  the  old  outer 
language  still  surviving.  To  the  south-west  of  Rajputana  there 
was  no  desert  to  stop  the  wave  of  Midland  expansion,  which 
therefore  rolled  on  unobstructed  into  Gujarat,  where  it  reached 
the  sea.  Here  the  survivals  of  the  old  outer  language  are 
stronger  still.  The  old  outer  Prakrit  of  north  Gujarat  was  known 
as  "  Saurfl^trl,"  while  the  Prakrit  of  the  Midland  invaders  was 
called  "  SaurasCnl,"  and  we  may  therefore  describe  Gujarati 
as  being  an  intermediate  language  derived  (as  explained  in  the 
articles  Prakrit)  from  a  mixture  of  the  Apabhramia  forms  of 
Saur&^trl  and  SaurasCnl,  in  which  the  latter  predominated. 

It  will  be  observed  that,  at  the  present  day,  Gujarati  breaks 
the  continuity  of  the  outer  band  of  Indo-Aryan  languages. 
To  its  north  it  has  Sindhi  and  to  its  south  Marathi,  both  outer 
languages  with  which  it  has  only  a  slight  connexion.  On  the 
other  hand,  on  the  east  and  north-east  it  has  Rajasthani,  into 
which  it  merges  so  gradually  and  imperceptibly  that  at  the 
conventional  border-line,  in  the  state  of  Palanpur,  the  inhabitants 
of  Rajputana  say  that  the  local  dialect  is  a  form  of  Gujarati, 
while  the  inhabitants  of  Gujarat  say  that  it  is  Rajasthani. 

Gujarati  h^s  no  important  local  dialects,  but  there  is  consider- 
able  variation  in  the  speeches  of  difTerent  classes  of  the  com- 
'"•uMMB.  ™"^^y-  Pars*^  ai*d  Mussulmans  (when  the  latter 
^^'"^'^  use  the  language— as  a  rule  the  Gujarat  Mussulmans 
speak  Hindostani)  have  some  striking  peculiarities  of  pronuncia- 
tion, the  most  noticeable  of  which  is  the  disregard  by  the  latter 
of  the  distinction  between  cerebral  and  dental  letters.  The 
uneducated  Hindus  do  not  pronounce  the  language  in  the  same 
way  as  their  betters,  and  this  difference  is  accentuated  in  northern 
Gujarat,  where  the  lower  classes  substitute  ^  for  i,  c  for  k,  ch  for 
kh,  s  for  c  and  ck,  k  for  j,  and  drop  h  as  readily  as  any  cockney. 
There  is  also  (as  in  the  case  of  the  Mussulmans)  a  tendency  to 
confuse  cerebral  and  dental  consonants,  to  substitute  r  for  4  ^nd 
/,  to  double  medial  consonants,  and  to  pronounce  the  letter 
d  as  i,  something  like  the  a  in  "  all."  The  Bhils  of  the  hills 
east  of  Gujarat  also  speak  a  rude  Gujarati,  with  special  dialectic 
peculiarities  of  their  own,  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
tribes  are  of  Dravidian  origin.  These  Bhil  peculiarities  are 
further  mixed  with  corruptions  of  Marathi  idioms  in  Nimar 
and  Khandesh,  where  we  have  almost  a  new  language. 

Rajasthani  has  numerous  dialects,  each  state  claiming  one 
or  more  of  its  own.  Thus,  in  the  state  of  Jaipur  there  have  been 
catalogued  no  less  than  ten  dialects  among  about  1,688,000 
people.  All  Rajasthani  dialects  can,  however,  be  easily  classed 
in  four  well-defined  groups,  a  north-eastetn,  a  southern,  a 


GUJARATI  AND  RAJASTHANI 


western  and  an  east-central.  The  noith-eastem  (MCwttl)  11 
that  form  of  Rajasthani  which  is  merging  into  the  Western 
Hindi  of  the  Midland.  It  is  a  mixed  form  of  qieech,  and  need 
not  detain  us  further.  Similarly,  the  southern  (Milvl)  is  mncb 
mixed  with  the  neighbouring  Bund€ll  form  of  Western  Hindi. 
The  western  (Mirwi|1)  spoken  in  Marwar  and  its  neighboorhood, 
and  the  east-central  (Jaipurl)  spoken  in  Jaipur  and  its  neighbour- 
hood, may  be  taken  as  the  typical  Rajasthani  dialects.  In  the 
following  paragraphs  we  shall  therefore  confine  oorsdvcs  to 
Gujarati,  Marwari  and  Jaipuri. 

We  know  more  about  the  ancient  history  of  Gujarati  than  we 
do  about  that  of  any  other  Indo-Aryan  language.  The  one 
native  grammar  of  Apabhram£a  Prakrit  which  we  possess  in  a 
printed  edition,  was  written  by  HCmacandra  (i  ath  century  aj>.>, 
who  lived  in  what  is  now  north  Gujarat,  and  who  naturally 
described  most  fully  the  particular  vernacular  with  which  be  was 
personally  familiar.  It  was  known  as  the  NSgara  Apabhramia, 
closely  connected  (as  above  explained)  with  Sauras£nl,  and  was 
so  named  after  the  Nigara  Brahmans  of  the  locality.  These 
men  carried  on  the  tradition  of  learning  inherited  from  Hteia- 
candra,  and  we  see  Gujarati  almost  in  the  act  of  taking  birth 
in  a  work  called  the  Mug4kdvabddkamaukiika,  written  by  one 
of  them  only  two  hundred  years  after  his  death.  Formal 
Gujarati  literature  is  said  to  commence  with  the  poet  Narsingh 
Meti  in  the  15th  century.  Rajasthani  literature  has  received 
but  small  attention  from  European  or  native  scholars,  and  we 
are  as  yet  unable  to  say  how  far  back  the  language  goes. 

Both  Gujarati  and  Rajasthani  are  usually  written  in  current 
scripts  related  to  the  well-known  Nftgail  alphabet  (sec  Sanskrit). 
The  form  employed  in  Rajputana  is  known  all  over  northern 
India  as  the  "  MahftjanI "  alphabet,  being  used  by  bankers  or 
MakdjanSt  most  of  whom  are  Marwaris.  It  is  notewmthy  as 
possessing  two  distinct  characters  for  d  and  f.  The  Gujarati 
character  closely  resembles  the  KaithX  character  of  northern 
India  (see  Bihari).  The  Nftgarl  character  is  aJso  freely  used  in 
Rajputana,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  Gujarat,  where  it  is  employed 
by  the  Nigara  Brahmans,  who  claim  that  their  tribe  has  given 
the  alphabet  its  name. 

In  the  following  description  of  the  main  features  of  our  two 
languages,  the  reader  is  presumed  to  be  familiar  with  the  leading 
facts  stated  in  the  articles  Indo-Aryan  Languages  and 
Prakrit.  The  article  Hindostani  may  also  be  perused  with 
advantage. 

(Abbreviationf.  Skr.«  Sanskrit.  Pr.>"  Prakrit.  Ap.«>Apabb- 
raih&a.    G.-Gujar&ti:    R.-IUjasthaiiL    H.-HindflsUnL) 

Vocabulary. — ^The  vocabulary  of  both  Gujarat  and  Rajasthani  b 
very  free  from  talsama  words.  The  great  mass  oi  both  vocabularies 
is  tadbkava  (tee  Indo-Aryan  Lancuacrs).  Raipatana  was  from 
an  early  period  brought  into  close  contact  with  the  Mcml  court  at 
Agra  and  Delhi,  and  even  in  the  13th  century  A.D.  official  documents 
oithe  Rajput  princes  contained  many  borrowed  Persian  and  Arabic 
words.  Gujarati,  under  the  influence  of  the  learned  Nijgara  Brah- 
mans, has  perhaps  more  UUsama  words  than  Rajasthani.  but  their 
employment  is  not  excessive.  On  the  other  hand.  I^raees  and 
Mussulmans  employ  Persian  and  Arabic  words  with  great  freedom; 
while,  owing  to  its  maritime  connexions,  the  language  has  also 
borrowed  occasional  words  from  other  parts  of  Asia  and  from  Europe. 
This  is  specially  marked  in  the  strange  dialect  otf  the  Kathiawar 
boatmen  who  travel  all  over  the  world  as  laacars  on  the  great  steam- 
ships. Their  language  is  a  mixture  of  Hindostani  and  Gajarati 
with  a  heterogeneous  vocabulary. 

Phonetics. — With  a  few  exceptions  to  be  mentioned  bdow.  the 
sound-system  of  the  two  languages  is  the  same  as  that  of  Sanskrit, 
and  is  represented  in  the  same  manner  in  the  Roman  chanctrr 
(see  Sanskrit).  The  simplest  method  for  constdering  the  subject 
in  regard  to  Gujarati  is  to  compare  it  with  the  phonetical  vy^tm  of 
Hindostani  iq.v.).  As  a  rule,  Rajasthani  closely  follows  Gujarati 
and  need  not  be  referred  to  except  in  special  case*.  G.  invariably 
simplifies  a  medial  Pr.  double  consonant,  lengthening  the  pnsrediiig 
vowel  in  compensation.  Thus  Skr.  ntfakfa^am^  Ap.  iKokkkawm, 
H.  makkkan^  but  G.  mdkka^,  butter.  In  H.  this  rule  b  grneraUy 
observed,  but  in  G.  it  is  universal,  while,  on  the  other  naod,  in 
Panjabi  the  double  consonant  is  never  simplified,  but  is  retained  as 
in  Ap.  In  G.  (and  sometimes  in  R.)  when  a  is  followed  by  k  it  is 
changed  to  e,  as  in  H.  skakr,  G.  ieker,  a  city.  As  in  other  outer 
languages  H.  ai  and  au  are  usually  represented  by  a  short  r  and  hv 
A  (sounded  like  the  a  in  "  all  ")  respectively.  Thus  H.  haifhd.  G. 
beik6,  seated:  H.  cauthA,  G.  cAtkd  (written  c6tk»),  fourth.  In  R. 
this  e  is  often  further  weakened  to  the  sound  of  « in  "  i san«**  a  change 


GUJARATI  AND  RAJASTHANI 


711 


which  u  also  common  in  Beneali.  Many  words  which  have  t  in  H. 
have  o  in  G.  and  R.,  thus,  H.  likhi,  G.  lakhi,  he  writes;  H.  din, 
G.  and  R.  dan,  a  day.  Similarlv  we  have  a  for  u,  as  in  H.  latin.  G.,  R. 
Uumi,  vou.  In  colloquial  G.  d  often  becomes  d,  and  I  becomes  I ;  thus, 
pdnl  for  pdfii,  water;  mdrls  for  mdrts,  I  shall  strike.  As  in  roost 
Inoo-Aryan  vernaculars  an  a  after  an  accented  syllable  is  very  lightly 
pronounced,  and  is  here  reptesented  bv  a  small  *  above  the  line. 

The  Vedic  cerebral  /  and  the  cerebral  (i  are  very  common  as  medial 
letters  in  both  G.  and  R.  (both  being  unknown  to  Uterary  U.). 
The  rule  is,  as  elsewhere  in  western  and  southern  intermediate 
and  outer  huiguages,  that  when  *  and  /  represent 
a  double  99  (or  nn)  or  a  double  U  in  Pr.  they  are  dental, 
but  when  they  represent  single  medial  letters  they  are 
cerebraltzed.    Thus  Ap.  iO(i{M8,  G.  sdnU,  gold;  Ap. 

JAatuifl,  CtkdfiU,  dense;  Ap.  caUai,  G.  cdU^  he  goes; 
Lp.  calai,  G.  cati^  he  moves.  In  northern  G.  and  in 
•ome  caste  dialects  dental  and  cerebral  letters  are 
absolutely  interchangeable,  as  in  4dk*dd  or  dahddd,  a 
day;  Ifl  or  (&,  thou ;  didhd  or  tR4kd,  given.  In  G.  and  R. 
medial  d  ■■  pronounced  as  a  rough  cerebral  r,  and  is 
then  so  transcribed.  We  have  seen  that  in  the  Marwari 
alphabet  there  are  actually  distinct  letters  for  these  two 
•ounds.  In  colloquial  G.  e  and  ch  are  pronounced  s, 
especially  in  the  north,  as  in  pds  for  pac,  five;  pusyd 
for  puehyd,  he  asked.  Similarly,  in  the  north,  /  and  Jh 
become  s,  as  in  zd4  for  jhdd,  a  tree.  In  some  localities 
(as  in  Marathi)  we  have  ts  and  ds  for  these  sounds,  as 
in  Tsar6lar  (name  of  a  tract  of  country)  for  Cardtar.  On 
the  other  hand,  k,  kk  and  g,  especially  when  preceded  or 
followed  by  i.  *  or  y,  become  in  the  north  c,  ck  and  j 
respectively;  thus,  dic*rd  for  dik*r6,  a  son;  ckitar  for 
kkitar,  a  field ;  Idjyd  for  Idgyd,  begun.  A  similar  change 
is  found  in  dialectic  Marathi,  and  is,  of  course,  one  of 
the  commonplaces  of  the  philology  of  the  Romance 
languages.  The  sibilants  s  and  i  are  colloquially  pro- 
nounced A  (as  in  several  outer  languages),  especially  in  the 
north.  Thus  dik  for  dii,  a  countrv ;  kU  for iS.  what ;  kam'- 
idryd  (or  sam'jdtryd,  he  explained.  An  original  aspirate 
IS,  however,  often  dropped,  as  in  'fi  for  ki,  I ;  'dti  for 
kdtkif  on  the  hand.  Standard  G.  is  at  the  same  time 
fond  of  pronouncing  an  k  where  it  is  not  written,  as  in 
ami,  we,  pronouncra  akmi.  In  other  respiccts  both  G. 
and  R.  closely  agree  in  their  phonetical  systems  with 
the  itoabhraihia  form  of  bauras£nt  Prakrit  from  which 
the  Midland  laiij^age  Is  derived.  _ 

Deeknsion. — (Tujarati  agrees  with  Marathi  (an  outer 
language)  as  against  Hindostani  in  retaining  the 
neuter  gender  of  Sanskrit  and  Prakrit.  Moreover, 
the  neuter  sender  is  often  employed  to  indicate  living 
beings  of  which  the  sex  is  uncertain,  as  in  the  case  of 
dik^rU,  a  child,  compared  with  dik'rd,  a  son.  and  dik*ri,  a  daughter. 
In  R.  there  are  only  sporadic  instances  of  the  neuter,  which  grow 
more  and  more  rare  as  we  approach  the  Midland.  Nouns  in  both  G. 
and  R.  may  be  weak  or  strong  as  is  fully  explained  in  the  article 
Hindostani.  We  have  there  seen  that  the  strong  form  of  masculine 
nouns  in  Western  Hindi  generally  ends  in  au,  the  d  of  words  like 
the  Hindostani  gkdi^d,  a  horse,  being  an  accident  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  Hindostani  dialect  of  Western  Hindi  borrows  this  termination 
from  Panjabi.  G.  and  R.  follow  Western  Hindi,  for  their  masculine 
strong  forms  end  in  6.  Feminine  strong  forms  end  in  las  elsewhere. 
Neuter  strong  forms  In  G.  end  in  fl,  derived  as  follows :  Skr,  star- 
9akam,  Ap.  soft^U,  G.  sSnU,  gold.  As  an  example  of  the  three 
genders  of  the  same  word  we  may  take  G.  ckdk^rd  (masc.),  a  boy ; 
ck&k^ri  (fem.),  a  girl ;  ckik'rQ  (neut.),  a  child.  Long  forms  corre- 
sponding to  the  Eastern  Hindi  gko^'wd,  a  horse,  are  not  much  used, 
but  wC  not  infrequently  meet  another  Ions  form  made  by  suffixing 
the  pleonastic  termination  d^  or  fJ  (fem.  ^or  t^:  G.  neut.  dA  or  rfi) 
which  b  directly  descended  from  the  Ap.  pleonastic  termination 
iaH,  d<A,'daU.  We  come  across  this  most  often  in  R.,  where  it  is  used 
contemptuously,  as  in  Turuk-KO,  a  Turk. 

In  the  article  Hindostani  it  is  shown,  that  all  the  oblique  cases  of 
each  number  in  Sanskrit  and  Prakrit  became  melted  down  in  the 
modem  language  into  one  general  oblique  case,  which,  in  the  Mid- 
land,  b  derived  in  the  singular  from  the  Ap.  termination  -kiot'kl,  and 
that  even  this  has  survived  only  in  the  case  of  strong  masculine 
nouns;  thus,  f,k6rd,  obi.  ghSri.  In  G.  and  R.  thb  same  termination 
has  also  survived,  but  for  all  nouns  as  the  case  sign  of  the  agent  and 
locative  cases.  The  general  oblique  case  is  the  same  as  the  nomina- 
tive, except  in  the  case  of  strong  masculine  and  neuter  nouns  in  6 
and  fi  respectively,  where  it  ends  in  d,  not  i.  Thb  d-termination  b 
characteristic  of  the  outer  band  of  lang;uages,  and  is  one  of  the  sur- 
vivals already  referred  to.  It  is  derived  from  the  Apabhraihia. 
Kitive  form  in  -aka,  corresponding  to  the  MigadhI  Pr.  (an  outer 
krit)  termination  -dka.  Thus,  .G,  ekdk'rd,  a  son ;  cAJA*ffl,  a 
child :  o4>l.  sing,  ckdfrd. 

In  G.  the  nominative  and  oblique  pluraf  for  all  nouns  are  formed 
by  adding  6  to  the  oblique  form  singular  but  in  the  neuter  strong 
forms  the  oblique  singular  is  nasaltzra.  The  real  plural  is  the  same 
in  form  as  the  oblique  singular  in  the  case  of  masculines,  and  as  a 
nualised  obUque  wagtilar  in  the  cue  of  neuter  strong  forms,  as  to 


other  modem  Indo-Aryan  vernaculars,  and  the  added  d  is  a  further 
plural  termination  (making  a  double  plural,  exactly  as  it  does  in  the 
Ardhamftgadhi  Prakrit  puUd-d,  sons)  which  b  often  dropped.  The 
nasalization  of  the  strons  neuter  plurab  b  inherited  from  Ap.,  in 
which  the  neuter  nom.  plural  of  such  nouns  ended  in  -odl  In  R. 
the  nominative  ptiural  of^  masculine  nouns  is  the  same  in  form  as  the 
oblioue  case  singular,  and  the  oblique  plural  ends  in  d.  The  feminine 
has  a  both  in  the  nominative  and  in  the  oblique  plural.  These  are 
all  explained  in  the  article  Hindostani.  We  thus  get  the  following 
paradigms  oi  the  declension  of  nouns. 


\ 

Apabhrariifia. 

Gujarati. 

Rajastbani. 

Strong  Noun  Masc. — 

"  A  korse."     Sing.  Nom. 

gkddaa 

gkSdd 

gkdid 

Obi. 

gk^soka 

gkdifd 
gkddi,ikd<fdi 
gk&dd-d 

gkddd 

Ag.-Loc. 

gkdiaahi 

gkddai 

Plur.  Nom. 

gkfidad 

gkddd 

Obi. 

gkddadkd 

gk&dd-d 

gkM 

Ag.-Loc. 

gkddaakf 

gkdid-d-i 

gkdid 

Strong  Noun  Neut. — 
"Ckd."          Sing.  Nom. 

SOVfMtt 

sdna 

•  • 

Obi. 

sdnd 

••  • 

Ag.-Loc. 

s6ni,  sdndl 

•  • 

Plur.  Nom. 

sofi^adf 

sini 

•  ■ 

Obi. 

so^ifadkA 

sind-d 

•  • 

Ag.-Loc. 

sovi^aahX 

sdnd-d-i 

•  • 

Strong  Noun  Fem. — 

"  A  mare"      Sing.  Nora. 

gkidid 

gkdifi 

gkdifi 

Obi. 

gkddiaki 

gkdifi 

gkddi 

Ag.-Loc. 

gkddiae 

gk^dU 

gkddi^ 

Plur.  Nom. 

gkididd 

gkddi^ 

gkddyi 

Obi. 

gkddiaku 

gkddi-6 

gk^yd 

A|.-Loc. 
Weak  Noun  Masc.  or  Neut.— 

gkddiaia  . 

gkddi-d-i 

gkSdyd 

"  A  kouse."     Sing.  Nom. 

gkaru  (neut.) 

gkar 

gkar 

Obi. 

gkaraka 

gkar 

gkar 

Ag.-Loc. 

gkaraki 

gkari 

gkarai 

Plur.  Nom. 

gkardf 

gkar'6 

gkar 

Obi. 

gkardkd 

gkar-d 

gkard 

Ag.-Loc. 

gkaraki 

gkar-d-d 

gkari 

Weak  Noun  Fem.— 

"  A  word."      Sing.  Nom. 

vattd 

wdt 

bdt 

Obi. 

vaUaki 

wdt 

bdt 

Ag.-Loc. 

VOttOf 

vda 

bdt 

Plur.  Nom. 

vattd'd 

wdt-d 

bdii 

Obi. 

vaUaku 

wdt-6 

bdsd 

Ag.-Loc. 

vaitakf 

wdi-6-i 

bdii 

The  general  oblique  case  can  be  employed  for  any  case  except  the 
nominative,  but,  in  order  to  define  the  meaning,  it  b  customary  to 
add  postpositions  as  in  Hindostani.    These  are: 


Genitive. 

Dative. 

AbUtive. 

Locative. 

Gujarati  .     . 
Rajasthani 

nd 
rd.kd 

ni 

nai,  rat,  kai 

mi 
mat 

The  suffix  nd  of  the  genitive  is  believed  to  be  a  contraction  of 
tatfd,  which  is  found  in  old  Gujarati  poetry,  and  which,  under  the 
form  lanas  in  Sanskrit  and  tafiaU  in  Apabhramia,  mean  "  belonging 
to."  It  b  an  adjective,  and  agrees  in  gender,  number  and  case  with 
the  thing  possessed.  Thus,  rdjjd-nd  aik^d,  the  king's  son;  rdjd-nl 
dik^,  the  king's  daughter;  rdjd^uU  gkar,  the  king's  house;  rAjd-nd 
dik*rd-ni,  to  tne  king  s  son  (nd  b  in  the  oblique  case  masculine  to 
agree  with  dik'rd) ;  rdjd-ni  gkari,  in  the  king's  house.  The  r6  and 
Ad  of  R.  are  simiUriy  treated,  but,  of  course,  have  no  neuter.  The 
dative  postpositions  are  simply  locatives  of  the  genitive  ones,  as  in 
all  modem  Indo-Aryan  languages  (see  Hindostani).  Tki,  the  post- 
position of  the  G.  ablative,  is  connected  with  IkamU,  to  be.  one  of  the 
verbs  substantive  in  that  language.  The  ablative  suffix  is  made  in 
thb  way  in  many  modem  Indo-Ai^n  languages  (e.f,  Bengali,  q.9.). 
It  means  literally  "  having  been  *  and  b  to  Be  ultimately  rdTerred 
to  the  Sanskrit  root,  stkd,  sund.  The  derivation  of  the  other 
postpositions  b  discussed  in  the  article  Hindostani. 

Strong  adjectives  agree  with  the  nouns  they  qualify  in  gender, 
number  and  case,  as  in  the  examples  of  the  genitive  above.  Weak 
adicctives  are  immutable. 

Pronouns  closely  agree  with  those  found  in  Hindostani  In  the 
table  on  following  page  we  give  the  first  two  personal  pronouns, 
and  the  demonstrative  pronoun  "  this." 

Similaily  are  formed  the  remaining  pronouns,  vu.  G.  d,  R.  tf,  he, 
that:  G.  ti,  R.  sd  (obi.  sing,  if),  that;  G.  ii,  K.  j9,  who:  G.  Ad(i 
(pbl.  kdn,  kd,  or  ki),  K.  ku9  (obi.  kuv),  who?:  G.  U,  R.  JkJI,  what  ?; 
G..R.  kdi,  anyone,  someone,  AdI  anything,  something.  G.  has  two 
other  demonstratives,  pUd  and  diyd,  both  meaning  "  that."  The 
derivation  of  thoe  and  of  ifl  has  been  discussed  without  any  decbivc 
result.    The  rest  are  explained  in  the  article  Hindostani.     The 


GUJARATI  AND  RAJASTHANI 


lUjuthui. 

HI 

ISiT' 

,Hr 

It,'* 

"S 

m  a^-ta.  imOa 

; 

■- 

Obi. 

lammi.  lUpa 

'A 

The  dcriviiurn  o<  the  G.  i  pluni  ii  uakiKmn.  Thii  ol  thr  aihcr 
C  and  K,  tana  ii  nuniCnl.  Ttit  impcraiivc  cUKly  FoIIdwi  ihii. 

In  R.  (he  luluit  owy  be  [omed  by  idding  tl  |d.  Hiixbua^  rd), 
U.  or  M  Id  the  old  prevnt.  Thu>,  ci/il-ri,  airi-J<  «  osll-U  I  ihill 
■o.  The  10  and  JA  um  in  aroder  and  nninber  wilh  Ihc  aubicct. 
Gul  U  ii  iRimiiuUc.   Tbe  nnmnitian  with/ ualHfonnd  in  Bhoipuri 

S«  BiHAU).  in  Minihi  and  in  Nepali.  For  ft  h  HtHDonAn. 
noilier  lonn  of  the  futun  bu  j  or  A  for  Ita  cbaracieriatk  fetivr, 
and  ii  the  only  one  nDploytd  in  C.  Thui,  Ap.  all4ias  or  calliliaB, 
C.  lont.  R.  {Jaipuri)  caPi^.  (Marwiri)  af-U.  The  olher  pmonal 
ttnBiiutioiK  difiR-  coiuidcnbl)'  Irom  (hoie  of  Ihe  okt  pteaenl.  and 
dotely  Mlov  Ap.  Thu.  Ap.  ]  mg.  allim  a  altiki.  C.  idf'U, 
Mirwari  £,^M. 


G^,i. 

Rajauhani. 

m^. 

s. 

<d^Vf 

i 

participle.  The  paniciplea  are  employed  to  Form  initc  trnaca: 
thin  &  U  tVli.  I  uted  to  io;  tl  cUyl.  1  went.  U  ibc  verb  ia 
traoBIive  (we  HlNIXMTAHl)  tbepoaaive  meanliit  of  the  put  participle 
conin  into  force.  The  lubjecl  u  put  into  the  caie  of  ihe  agent,  and 
the  participle  inflecta  to  acree  with  the  object,  or,  if  Ibeic  it  no  object, 
ia  employed  LmpervHiaLly  in  the  neuter  (in  G.)  or  in  tba  maacuUne 
pa  R.).  tnHindoauni,  if  the  object  iiexprcaaed  in  Iha  dative,  the 
pinicipic  ia  ain  employed  impenoDally,  in  the  maacidinc!  thui 
rdi'l-Mi  iMnl-U  mM  {mate,  not  nM.  (fem.),  by-tbe-Unf,  with 
reIerence-to-lhe'ti(teit,iI.(inipenana])-«a(-iQll«i,ii.thekinc1diled 
the  tigreta.  Bui  in  G.  and  R.,  even  if  the  object  it  in  the  dative. 
the  pa«  particicde  agrcei  wilh  il;  Ihua,  C.  rMi  wbtipiit  Mdrl. 
by-lBc-kini,  wilh-r^erencHo-the-iicnii,  abe-wit^lled.  Other 
caanplea  from  G.  of  thia  puiive  conitructioa  are  ml  ka\yt,  by 
neil  wusid,  I  taid :  l»^  iiflM  (a*U.  by  him  a  letterwaa  wnllen. 
be  iimte  a  letter !  i  Ml  lorilcl.iiil.  dilid^a  Utf>d.  by  Ihiilady.  in  the 
•ildcmeB.  daya  were  puieil.  <  j.  she  puaed  ber  dayi  in  the  wilder- 
■>w;ra7«i>ic<ry«,lhekingainiidered.  The  idiamaf  R.iieiacily 
the  aame  in  these  «>ei,  enxpt  that  ibc  maaculine  muu  be  uicd 
where  G.  baa  the  neuter;  thui.  rSjiai  ndrje.  The  future  paHivc 
participle  ii  conitrued  in  much  the  aame  way,  but  (ai  in  Laiin)  ibe 
•object  nay  be  put  into  the  dative.  Tbua,  mttt  i  dp'fi  tlL*ti.  wiiki 
m  littr  (al)  Jifnrdw,  I  muu  read  thai  book,  bui  ain  UM  (agent 
atcj  i  Urn  iar^rO.  by  bin  IhitbuaineublabedanF. 

C.  alto  forma  a  patt  participle  in  US  ItgtBi).  which  it  one  of  the 
maoyjorvivaltof  Ihe  outer  language.  TbftJ-  participle  it  typical 
of  moat  of  the  languaietof  Ihe  outer  band,  including  Maraihi,  Oriy*. 
Bengali.  Bihari  and  Aaaamese.    It  ii  formed  by  tbc  addition  d  dot 


USiMMwae'r™"-^"'"'^-""^      "■  ■'■' 

oidpceaent  te 

ployi  the  proen  pirtici'^:'^uh~«f>i  U.  f^  c7~aKt  R-.  l>o>em. 
the  imperfect  it  formed  with  tlw  pcvaent  partidpie  at  in  H.  Thu*. 
G.  ka  ai'ie  Imu.  t  wit  going.  So,  at  in  H.,  we  have  a  prrftci 
jtB  idlyt  (or  cdllU}  c*I,  I  have  gone,  and  a  pfuptrfed  ki  <JU>i  (m 
laUU)  kaU,  I  htdpne.     The  R.  peripbrauic  tenia  are  made  on  ibe 

edJ-pd')t0.  we  have  a  kind  ol  Eerundive.  at  in  jU  £df*adit0  eki.  1  ua 
to  be  Gone.  i.<.  I  amabout  tozD;Ucd>idi*0]haW.  1  waa  tbonl  la  r^ 

Tbe  tame  aerieiof  derivative  vrrlit  ocxun  in  G.  and  R.  at  inU. 
T1iui.webavea  potential  pawve  (a  limple  paaiin  in  C)  formed  bv 
adding  d  ID  Ihe  baae,  at  in  GTfoitWa.  10  wiiie.  IdMMve.  IO  he  wriiut; 
and  acautalbyaddintdeor  W,  at  iaJotUr^f.  tocauieiD  wriie; 
•ttn».  to  til.  ht<i4tll,  IO  teat,  A  new  panive  may  be  famed  in 
G.  fram  Ihe  cauitl,  aa  in  lip-n),  to  be  hot;  lafdraB.  to  came  to  be 
hot;  in  heat;  lapbttt.  to  be  heated. 

Several  verba  have  irregular  paat  parriciplea.  Tbeae  muil  be 
leainl  from  Ihe  grammari.     5o  aTto  the  numeroui  compound  vrrbl. 

pined  gnng;  iBiyS  lur-rt.  to  be  In  Ibc  habit  of  goini.  and  >o  on 

Very  little  is  known  about  the  UlcraJure  of  Rajputana,  except 
that  ill!  of  large  eitenl.  It  iDcludeaanunberof  bArdiccbromdes 
a[  which  only  one  bas  been  partially  edited,  but  the 
coDlenla  of  which  have  been  described  by  Tod  in  his 
admired  Kajoilka*.  It  aha  includes  a  considerable  nlipoia 
literature,  but  the  whole  niasa  of  this  it  ilill  is  MS.  From  iho* 
apeciment  which  the  present  wtiiec  haa  eiamioed.  St  would 
appear  that  most  of  the  authors  wrote  in  Braj  Bhasha,  Ihe 
Hindu  lltciaiy  dlal«t  of  Hindoiuni  (;.>.)  In  Muwai  it  iiaa 
acknowledged  fact  that  the  literature  falli  into  two  biuiJwi, 
one  called  n<ifaJ  and  couched  in  Bnj  Bhaiha,  and  Ihe  other 
called  (>iiiia'  and  couched  in  Rajailhaoi.  Tbe  noat  admired 
work  in  pingil  is  the  RatkioMli  Rapai  written  by  UuslRlm 
in  the  begilininf  of  tbe  i^lh  century.  It  is  nominally  ■  treatise 
on  prosody,  but,  like  many  other  uroikt  ol  the  same  kind,  it 
CDDirivei  to  pay  a  double  debt,  [or  the  eiamplea  of  iIk  metnt 
are  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  complete  l^c  poem  "■'■*"  I  i-g  tbt 
deeds  of  the  hero  RIma. 


century  a.D.  Before  him  tii^iewervwriters 
liieloric  and  the  like,  who  employed  an  old  form  of  Gujaiati 
for  their  eiplanalloni.  Nanin^  dots  not  appear  to  have 
written  any  considerable  work,  his  repuutioD  dependiDf  on  bis 

He  bad  several  successors,  all  admittedly  hts  inferioiv  Perhaps 
the  most  noteworthy  of  these  was  K£wi  ^ankar.  Ibc  Iruslalcir 
of  tbe  UoUbkimta  (see  Sanskui:  LiUralart).  A  mon 
impattanl  aide  of  Gujtntl  literature  ii  its  bardic  chrDoldes. 
tbe  contents  of  which  have  been  utilised  by  Forbet  in  bis  Rii 
MdlS.  ModcmGujaratilileraluremosttyconaistaof  tmnalaliooi 
or  imitations  ol  English  works. 

^'  '  ^  the  Lu^niific  Siirtrr  if  li^tt 

cc  ouoi  (4  Gujaraii  and  Rajaichaei. 

fg.Gnmmartflkl  Hindi  Umt*^ 

Sit  are  described  icvml  ditlecit  cf 
<    >'    '  .    k  iro  iarmt,   iVdrMri    V^dtanu 

at  '  '  '  I  '  ..  r  ,  ,-.K  Ii,  DialiiU  ipoitn  in  tkr  Slau  ii 
J,    ■  r    .    ..    ...     I      ...    ,..!..    iljularieiandp.niniara)(Alljh*bli 

I  ...  i_iujjrjli.  ILl...  .-re  numcFDUt  grammart,  amonglf  which  ■• 
may  note  W.  St  C.  Titdall.  Simpl$^  Cnmmmr  tflb  Ctimi 
U'fOf  (London,  1S41)  and  (ihe  moH  complete)  G.  P.  T.ykr, 
Tl.  ....J — - '--  irth- CmmBKir  (Jnd  ed..  Bombay.  I90I).  Ai  f « 
iBU  autlwriutive  ii  the  H^ma-Ultt  Narmadi 


GUJRANWALA— GULBARGA 


Sankar  (Bhaunagar  and  Surat,  1873),  in  Gujarat!  throughout.  For 
English  readers  we  may  mention  Shahpurji  Edalji's  (2nd  ed., 
Bomba)r,  i£68),  the  introduction  to  which  contains  an  account  of 
Gujarat!  literature  by  J.  Glasgow,  Belsare's  (Ahmedabad,  1895),  and 
Karbhari's  (Ahmedabad.  1899)-  (G.  A.  Gr.) 

GUJRANWALA,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the 
Lahore  division  of  the  Punjab.  The  town  is  situated  40  m.  N. 
of  Lahore  by  rail.  It  is  of  modern  growth,  and  owes  its  import- 
ance to  the  father  and  grandfather  of  Maharaja  Ranjit  Singh, 
whose  capital  it  formed  during  the  early  period  of  the  Sikh 
power.  Pop.  (1901)  29,224.  There  are  manufactures  of  brass- 
ware,  jewellery,  and  silk  and  cotton  scarves. 

The  DiSTUCT  comprises  an  area  of  3198  sq.  m.  In  1901  the 
population  was  75<>i797,  showing  an  increase  of  29%  in  the 
decade.  The  district  is  divided  between  a  low  alluvial  tract 
along  the  rivers  Chenab  and  Degh  and  the  upland  between  them, 
which  forms  the  central  portion  of  the  Rechna  Doab,  inter- 
mediate between  the  fertile  submontane  plains  of  Sialkot  and 
the  desert  expanses  of  Jhang.  Part  of  the  upland  tract  has  been 
brought  under  ctiltivation  by  the  Chenab  canal.  The  country 
is  very  bare  of  trees,  and  the  scenery  throughout  is  tame  and  in 
the  central  plateau  becomes  monotonous.  It  seems  likely  that 
the  district  once  contained  the  capital  of  the  Punjab,  at  an  epoch 
when  Lahore  had  not  begun  to  exist.  We  learn  from  the  Chinese 
Buddhist  pilgrim,  Hsuan  Tsang,  that  about  the  year  630  he 
visited  a  town  known  as  Tse-kia  (or  Taki),  the  metropolis  of  the 
whole  country  of  the  five  rivers.  A  mound  near  the  modem 
village  of  Asarur  has  been  identified  as  the  site  of  the  ancient 
capital.  Until  the  Mahommedan  invasions  little  is  known  of 
Gujranwala,  except  that  Taki  had  fallen  into  oblivion  and  Lahore 
had  become  the  chief  dty.  Under  Mahommedan  rule  the  district 
flourished  for  a  time;  but  a  mysterious  depopulation  fell  upon 
the  tract,  and  the  whole  region  seems  to  have  been  almost 
entirely  abandoned.  On  the  rise  of  Sikh  power,  the  waste  plains 
of  Gujranwala  were  seiased  by  various  military  adventurers. 
Charat  Singh  took  possession  of  the  village  of  Gujranwala,  and 
here  his  grandson  the  great  Maharaja  Ranjit  Singh  was  bom. 
The  Sikh  rule,  which  was  elsewhere  so  disastrous,  appears  to 
have  been  an  unmitigated  benefit  to  this  district.  Ranjit  Singh 
settled  large  colonies  in  the  various  villages,  and  encouraged 
cultivation  throughout  the  depopulated  plain.  In  1847  the 
district  came  under  British  influence  in  confiexion  with  the 
regency  at  Lahore;  and  in  1849  it  was  included  in  the  territory 
annexed  after  the  second  Sikh  war.  A  large  export  trade  is 
carried  on  in  cotton,  wheat  and  other  grains.  The  district  is 
served  by  the  main  line  and  branches  of  the  North- Western 
railway. 

OUJRAT,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Rawal- 
pindi divbion  of  the  Punjab,  lying  on  the  south-western  border 
of  Kashmir.  The  town  stands  about  5  m.  from  the  right  bank 
of  the  river  Chenab,  70  m.  N.  of  Lahore  by  rail.  Pop.  (1901) 
19,410.  It  is  built  upon  an  ancient  site,  formerly  occupied, 
according  to  tradition,  by  two  successive  cities,  the  second  of 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  destroyed  in  1303,  the  year  of 
a  Mongol  invasion.  More  than  200  years  later  either  Sher  Shah 
or  Akbar  founded  the  existing  town.  Though  standing  in  the 
midst  of  a  Jat  neighbourhood,  the  fort  was  first  garrisoned  by 
Gujars,  and  took  the  name  of  Gujrat.  Akbar's  fort,  largely 
improved  by  Gujar  Singh,  stands  in  the  centre  of  the  town. 
The  neighbouring  shrine  of  the  saint  Shah  Daula  serves 
as  a  kind  of  native  asylum  for  lunatics.  The  town  has  nuinu- 
factures  of  furniture,  inlaid  work  in  gold  and  iron,  brass-ware, 
boots,  cotton  goods  and  shawls. 

The  DiSTUCT  op  Gujsat  comprises  a  narrow  wedge  of  sub- 
Himalayan  plain  country,  possessing  few  natural  advantages. 
From  the  basin  of  the  Chenab  on  the  south  the  general  level 
ri^es  rapidly  towards  the  interior,  which,  owing  to  the  great 
distance  of  the  water  beneath  the  surface,  assumes  a  dreary 
and  desert  aspect.  A  range  of  low  hills,  known  as  the  Pabbi, 
traverses  the  northem  angle  of  Gujrat.  They  are  composed 
of  a  friable  Tertiary  sandstone  and  conglomerate,  destitute  of 
vegetation,  and  presenting  a  mere  barren  chaos  of  naked  rock, 
deeply  scored  with  precipitous  ravines.    Immediately  below  the 


713 

Pabbi  stretches  a  high  plateau,  terminating  abraptly  In  a  pre- 
cipitous bluff  some  200  ft.  in  height.  At  the  foot  of  this  plateau 
is  a  plain,  which  forms  the  actual  valley  of  the  Chenab  and 
participates  in  the  irrigation  from  the  river  bed. 

Numerous  relics  of  antiquity  stud  the  surface  of  the  district. 
Mounds  of  andent  constmction  yidd  early  coins,  and  bricks  are 
found  whose  size  and  type  prove  them  to  bdong  to  the  pre- 
historic period.  A  mound  now  occupied  by  the  village  of  Moga 
or  Mong  has  been  identified  as  the  site  of  Nicaea,  the  city  buUt 
by  Alexander  the  Great  on  the  field  of  his  victory  over  Poms, 
llie  Delhi  empire  established  its  authority  in  this  district  under 
Bahlol  Lodx  (1451-1489).  A  century  later  it  was  visited  by 
Akbar,  who  founded  Gujrat  as  the  seat  of  government.  During 
the  decay  of  the  Mogul  power,  the  Ghakkars  of  Rawalpindi 
overran  this  portion  of  the  Punjab  and  established  themselves  in 
Gujrat  about  1 741.  Meanwhile  the  Sikh  power  had  been  avert- 
ing itself  in  the  eastern  Punjab,  and  in  1765  the  Ghakkar  chief 
was  defeated  by  Sirdar  Gujar  Singh,  chief  of  the  Bhangi  con- 
federacy. On  his  death,  Us  son  succeeded  him,  but  after  a 
few  months'  warfare,  in  1798,  he  submitted  himself  as  vassal 
to  the  Maharaja  Ranjit  Singh.  In  1846  Gujrat  first  came  under 
the  supervision  of  British  officials.  Two  years  later  the  district 
became  the  theatre  for  the  important  engagements  which  decided 
the  event  of  the  second  Sikh  war.  After  several  bloody  battles 
in  which  the  British  were  unsuccessful,  the  Sikh  power  was 
irretrievably  broken  at  the  engagement  which  took  place  at 
Gujrat  on  the  22nd  of  February  1849.  The  Punjab  then  passed 
by  annexation  under  British  rule. 

The  district  comprises  an  area  of  2051  sq.  m.  In  1901  the 
population  was  750,548,  showing  a  decrease  of  i  %,  compared 
with  an  increase  of  xo%  in  the  previous  decade.  The  district 
has  a  lar^  export  trade  in  wheat  and  other  grains,  oil,  wool, 
cotton  and  hides.  The  main  line  and  the  Sind-Sagar  branch 
of  the  North-Wcstem  railway  traverse  it. 

GULA,  a  Babylonian  goddess,  the  consort  of  Ninib.  She  is 
identical  with  another  goddess,  known  as  Bau,  though  it  would 
seem  that  the  two  were  originally  independent.  The  name  Bau 
is  more  common  in  the  oldest  period  and  gives  way  in  the  post- 
Khammurebic  age  to  Gula.  Since  it  is  probable  that  Ninib  (9.0.) 
has  absorbed  the  cults  of  minor  sun-deities,  the  two  names  may 
represent  consorts  of  different  gods.  However  this  may  be,  the 
qualities  of  both  are  alike,  and  the  two  occur  as  synonymous 
designations  of  Ninib*s  female  consort.  Other  names  borne  by 
this  goddess  are  Nin-Karrak,  Ga-timi-dug  and  Nin-din-dug, 
the  latter  signifying  "  the  huiy  who  restores  to  life."  The 
designation  well  emphasises  the  chief  trait  of  Bau-Gula  which  is 
that  of  healer.  She  is  often  qx>ken  of  as  "  the  great  physician," 
and  accordingly  plays  a  specially  prominent  r61e  in  incantations 
and  incantation  rituals  intended  to  relieve  those  suffering  from 
disease.  She  is,  however,  also  invoked  to  curse  those  who 
trample  upon  the  rights  of  rulers  or  those  who  do  wrong  with 
poisonous  potions.  As  in  the  case  of  Ninib,  the  cult  of  Bau-Gula 
is  prominent  in  ShirguUa  and  in  Nippur.  While  generally  in 
dose  association  with  her  consort,  she  is  also  invoked  by  herself, 
and  thus  retains  a  larger  measure  of  independence  than  most 
of  the  goddesses  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  She  appears  in  a 
prominent  position  on  the  designs  accompanying  the  Kudumxs 
boundary-stone  monuments  of  Babylonia,  being  represented 
by  a  statue,  when  other  gods  and  goddesses  are  merely  pictured 
by  their  shrines,  by  samd  animals  or  by  weapons.  In  neo- 
Babylonian  days  her  cult  continues  to  occupy  a  prominent 
position,  and  Nebuchadreszar  II.  speaks  of  no  less  than 
three  chapeb  or  shrines  within  the  sacred  precincts  of  £-Zida 
in  the  dty  of  Bonippa,  besides  a  temple  in  her  honour  at 
Babylon.  (M.  Ja.) 

QULBARGA,  an  andent  dty  of  India,  situated  in  the  Nizam's 
dominions,  70  m.  S.E.  of  Sholapur.  Pop.  (1901)  29,228.  Origin- 
ally a  Hindu  dty,  it  was  made  the  capital  of  the  Bahmani  kings 
when  that  dynasty  established  their  independence  in  the  Deccan 
in  X347,  and  it  remained  such  until  1422.  The  palaces,  mosques 
and  tombs  of  these  kings  still  stand  half-ruined.  The  most 
nouble  building  is  a  mosque  modelled  after  that  of  Cordova 


7H 


GULF  STREAM— GULL 


in  Spain,  covering  an  area  of  38,000  sq.  ft.,  which  is  almost 
unique  in  India  as  being  entirely  covered  in.  Since  the  opening 
of  a  station  on  the  Great  India  Peninsula  railway,  GtUbarga 
has  become  a  centre  of  trade,  with  cotton-spinning  and  weaving 
mills.  It  is  also  the  headquarters  of  a  district  and  division  of  the 
same  name.  The  district,  as  recently  reconstituted,  has  an  area 
of  6004  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901),  1,041,067. 

OULF  STREAM,*  the  name  properly  applied  to  the  stream 
current  which  issues  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  flows  north- 
eastward, following  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America,  and 
separated  from  it  by  a  narrow  strip  of  cold  water  (the  CM  Waif), 
to  a  point  east  of  the  Grand  Banks  off  Newfoundland.  The 
Gulf  Stream  is  a  narrow,  deep  current,  and  its  velocity  is  esti- 
mated at  about  80  m.  a  day.  It  is  joined  by,  and  often  indis- 
tinguishable from,  a  large  body  of  water  which  comes  from 
outside  the  West  Indies  and  follows  the  same  course.  The  term 
was  formerly  applied  to  the  drift  current  which  carries  the  mixed 
waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  and  the  Labrador  current  eastwards 
across  the  Atlantic.  This  is  now  usually  known  as  the  "  Gulf 
Stream  drift,"  although  the  name  is  not  altogether  appropriate. 
Sec  Atlantic. 

OULFWEED,  in  botany,  a  popular  name  for  the  seaweed 
Sargassum  bacci/erum,  one  of  the  brown  seaweeds  (Phaeophyceae)t 
large  quantities  of  which  are  found  floating  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
whence  it  is  carried  northwards  by  the  Gulf  Stream,  small 
portions  sometimes  being  borne  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  the  British 
Isles.  It  was  observed  by  Columbus,  and  is  remarkable  among 
seaweeds  for  its  form,  which  resembles  branches  bearing  leaves  and 
berries;  the  latter,  to  which  the  species-name  bacci/erum  refers, 
are  hollow  floats  answering  the  same  purpose  as  the  bladders 
in  another  brown  seaweed,  Fucus  vesktdosus,  which  is  common 
round  the  British  Isles  between  high  and  low  water. 

GULL,  SIR  WILUAH  WITHEY,  xst  Bart.  (i8i6-i8go), 
English  physician,  was  the  youngest  son  of  John  Gull,  a  barge- 
owner  and  wharfinger  of  Thorpe-le-Soken,  Essex,  and  was  born 
on  the  31st  of  December  1816  at  Colchester.  He  began  life 
as  a  schoolmaster,  but  in  1837  Benjamin  Harrison,  the  treasurer 
of  Guy's  Hospital,  who  had  noticed  his  ability,  brought  him  up 
to  London  from  the  school  at  Lewes  where  he  was  usher,  and 
gave  him  employment  at  the  hospital,  where  he  also  gained 
permission  to  attend  theMectures.  In  1843  he  was  made  a 
lecturer  in  the  medical  school  of  the  hospital,  in  x8sx  he  was 
chosen  an  assistant  physician,  and  in  1856  he  became  full 
physician.  In  i347  he  was  elected  Fullerian  professor  of 
physiology  in  the  Royal  Institution,  retaining  the  post  for  the 
usual  three  years,  and  in  1848  he  delivered  the  Gulstonian 
Lectures  at  the  College  of  Physicians,  where  he  filled  every  office 
of  honour  but  that  of  president.  He  died  in  London  on  the  agth 
of  January  1890  after  a  series  of  paralytic  strokes,  the  first  of 
which  had  occurred  nearly  three  years  previously.  He  was 
created  a  baronet  in  1872,  in  recognition  of  the  skill  and  care  he 
had  shown  in  attending  the  prince  of  Wales  during  his  attack 
of  typhoid  in  1871.  Sir  William  Gull's  fame  rested  mainly  on 
his  success  as  a  clinical  practitioner;  as  he  said  himself,  he  was 
"  a  clinical  physician  or  nothing."  This  success  must  be  largely 
ascribed  to  his  remarkable  powers  of  observation,  and  to  the 
great  opportunities  he  enjoyed  for  gaining  experience  of  disease. 
He  was  sometimes  accused  of  being  a  disbeliever  in  drugs. 
That  was  not  the  case,  for  he  prescribed  drugs  like  other 
physicians  when  he  considered  them  likely  to  be  beneficial. 
He  felt,  however,  that  their  administration  was  only  a  part  of 
the  physician's  duties,  and  his  mental  honesty  and  outspokenness 
prevented  him  from  deluding  either  himself  or  his  patients  with 
imwarranted  notions  of  what  they  can  do.  But  though  he 
regarded  medicine  as  primarily  an  art  for  the  relief  of  physical 
suffering,  he  wa&  far  from  disregarding  the  scientific  side  of  bis 

*  The  word  "  gulf,"  a  portion  of  the  sea  partially  enclosed  by  the 
coast-line,  and  usually  taken  as  referring  to  a  tract  of  water  laner 
than  a  bay  and  smaller  than  a  sea,  is  derived  through  the  Fr.  fW«, 
from  Late  Gr.  n6>4ot,  class.  Gr.  xdXnt,  bosom,  hence  bay,  cf.Xat. 
sinus.  In  University  slang,  the  term  is  used  of  the  pomtionof  those 
who  fail  to  obtain  a  place  in  the  honours  list  at  a  public  examination, 
but  are  allowed  a  "pass." 


profession,  and  he  made  some  real  contributions  to  medical 
science.  His  papers  were  printed  chiefly  in  Guys  Hospiid 
Reports  and  in  the  proceedings  of  learned  societies:  among  the 
subjects  he  wrote  about  were  cholera,  rheumatic  fever,  taenia, 
paraplegia  and  abscess  of  the  brain,  while  he  distinguisbed  for 
the  first  time  (1873)  the  disease  now  known  as  myxocdema, 
describing  it  as  a  "  cretinoid  state  in  adults." 

GULL  (Welsh  gwylan,  Breton,  goeUtnn,  whence  Fr.  fsfknf), 
the  name  commonly  adopted,  to  the  almost  entire  cxchaskn 
of  the  O.  Eng.  Mew  (Icel.  mdfur,  Dan.  maage,  Swedish 
mAse,  Ger.  lieve,  Dutch  meeuw,  Fr.  mouette),  for  a  group 
of  sea-birds  widely  and  commonly  known,  all  belonging  to  the 
genus  Lotus  of  Unnaeus,  which  subsequent  systematists  haiw 
broken  up  in  a  very  arbitrary  and  often  absurd  fashion.  The 
family  Laridae  is  composed  of  two  chief  groups,  Larmae  and 
Slerninae — ^the  gulls  and  the  terns,  though  two  other  suUamilics 
are  frequently  counted,  the  skuas  (StercorartiMoe),  and  that 
formed  by  the  single  genus  Rkynckops,  the  skimmers;  bat 
there  seems  no  strong  reason  why  the  former  sbcnild  not  be 
referred  to  the  Larinae  and  the  latter  to  the  Stenunae. 

Taking  the  gulls  in  their  restricted  sense,  Howard  Saimdeis, 
who  has  subjected  the  group  to  a  rigorous  revision  {Prec.  ZoaL 
Society,  1878,  pp.  155-211),  admits  forty-nine  qxdes  o£  tbem, 
which  he  places  in  five  genera  instead  of  the  many  which  some 
prior  investigators  had  sought  to  establish.  Of  the  genera 
recognized  by  him,  Pagopkila  and  Rkodostetkia  have  but  one 
sp>ecies  each,  Rissa  and  Xema  two,  while  the  rest  belong  to  Lams. 
The  Pagopkila  is  the  so-called  ivory-gull,  P.  Auniea,  names 
which  hardly  do  justice  to  the  extreme  whiteness  of  its  p4umage, 
to  which  its  jet-black  legs  offer  a  strong  contrast.  The  yming, 
however,  are  spotted  with  black.  An  inhabitant  of  the  most 
northern  seas,  examples,  most  commonly  young  birds  of  the 
year,  find  their  way  in  winter  to  more  temperate  sbcvrea.  Its 
breeding-place  has  seldom  been  discovered,  and  the  first  of  its 
eggs  ever  seen  by  ornithologists  was  brought  home  by  Sir  L. 
M'Clintock  in  1853  from  Cape  Krabbe  {Joum,  R.  Dubi.  Socittj, 
i.  60,  pi.  i) ;  others  were  subsequently  obtained  by  Dr  Malmgren 
in  Spitsbergen.  Of  the  species  of  Rissa,  one  is  the  abundant 
and  well-known  kittiwake,  R.  tridaciyla,  of  circumpolar  range, 
breeding,  however,  also  in  comparatively  low  latitudes,  as  on 
the  coasts  of  Brifain,  and  in  winter  frequenting  southern  waters. 
The  other  is  R.  brevirostris,  limited  to  the  North  Pacific,  between 
Alaska  and  Kamchatka.  The  singular  fact  requires  to  be  noticed 
that  in  both  these  spedes  the  hind  toe  is  generally  dcfideni, 
but  that  examples  of  each  are  occasionally  found  in  which  this 
functionless  member  has  not  wholly  disappeared.  We  have 
then  the  genus  Lotus,  which  ornithologists  have  attempted  most 
unsuccessfully  to  subdivide.  It  contains  the  largest  as  well  as 
the  smallest  of  gulls.  In  some  species  the  adults  assume  a  dari^- 
coloured  head  every  breeding-season,  in  others  any  trace  of  dark 
colour  is  the  mark  of  immaturity.  The  larger  spedes  prey  fiercely 
on  other  kinds  of  birds,  while  the  smaller  content  themsdves 
with  a  diet  of  small  animals,  often  insects  and  worms.  But 
however  diverse  be  the  appearance,  structure  or  habits  of  the 
extremities  of  the  series  of  spedes,  they  are  so  closdy  connected 
by  intermediate  forms  that  it  is  hard  to  find  a  gap  between  tbem 
that  would  justify  a  generic  division.  Forty-three  spedaci 
this  genus  are  recognized  by  Saunders.  About  fifteoi  bdong  to 
Europe  and  fourteen  to  North  America,  of  which  (excluding 
stragglers)  some  five  only  are  common  to  both  coontries.  Our 
knowledge  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  several  of  them 
is  still  incomplete.  Some  have  a  very  wide  range,  others  very 
much  the  reverse,  as  witness  L.  fuliginosus,  bdicved  to  be 
confined  to  the  Galapagos,  and  L.  sccfulinus  and  L,  buUeri  to 
New  Zealand, — ^the  last  indeed  perhaps  only  to  the  South  Island- 
The  largest  spedes  of  the  group  are  the  glaucous  gull  and  greater 
black-backed  gull,  L.  Caucus  and  L.  marinus,  of  which  the  former 
is  ciromipolar,  and  the  latter  nearly  so — not  bdng  hitherto  fovnd 
between  Labrador  and  Japan.  The  smallest  spedes  b  the 
European  L.  minuius,  though  the  North  American  L.  pkiladHpkia 
does  not  much  exceed  it  in  size.  Many  of  the  gulls  congregate 
in  vast  numbers  to  breed,  whether  on  rocky  cliffs  of  the  sea-ooaat 


GULLY— GUM 


715 


or  on  healthy  islands  in  inland  waters.  Some  of  the  settlements 
of  the  bUurk -headed  or  "  peewit "  guU,  L.  ridibunduSf  are  a 
source  of  no  small  profit  to  their  proprietors, — the  eggs,  which 
are  rightly  accounteid  a  great  delicacy,  being  taken  on  an  orderly 
system  up  to  a  certain  day,  and  the  birds  carefully  protected. 
Ross's  or  the  roseate  gull,  Rkodostetkia  rosea,  forms  a  well-marked 
genus,  distinguished  not  so  much  by  the  pink  tint  of  its  plumage 
(for  that  is  found  in  other  q>ecics)  but  by  its  small  dove-like  bill 
and  wedge-shaped  tail.  It  is  an  exceedingly  scarce  bird,  and 
bejTond  its  having  an  Arctic  habitat,  little  has  yet  been  ascertained 
about  it.  More  rare  still  is  one  of  the  ^)ecies  of  Xema,  X. 
fuFcatuM,  of  which  only  two  q>ecimens,  both  believed  to  have 
come  from  the  Galapagos,  have  been  seen.  Its  smaller  congener 
Sabine's  gull,  X.  sabinii,  is  more  common,  and  has  been  found 
breeding  both  in  Arctic  America  and  in  Siberia,  and  several 
ccamples,  chiefly  immature  birds,  have  been  obtained  in  the 
British  islands.  Both  spedes  of  Xema  are  readily  distinguished 
from  all  other  gulls  by  their  forked  tails.  (A.  N.) 

OUU.T,  JOHN  (1783-X863),  English  sportsman  and  poUtidan, 
was  bom  at  Wick,  near  Bath,  on  the  3ist  of  August  1783,  the  son 
of  an  innkeeper.  He  came  into  prominence  as  a  boxer,  and  in 
1805  he  was  matched  against  Henry  Pearce,  the  "  Game  Chicken,'* 
before  the  duke  of  Clarence  (afterwards  William  IV.)  and 
numerous  other  spectators,  and  after  fighting  sixty-four  rounds, 
which  occupied  an  hour  and  seventeen  minutes,  was  beaten. 
In  1807  he  twice  fought  Bob  Gregson,  the  Lancashire  giant,  for 
two  hundred  guineas  a  side,  winning  on  both  occasions.  As  the 
landlord  of  the  "  Plough "  tavern  in  Carey  Street,  London,  he 
retired  from  the  ring  in  1808,  and  took  to  horse-radng.  In 
1827  he  lost  £40,000  by  backing  his  horse  **  Mameluke  "  (for 
which  he  had  paid  four  thousand'  guineas)  for  the  St  Leger. 
In  partnership  with  Robert  Ridskale,  in  1832,  he  made  £85,000 
by  winning  the  Derby  and  St  Leger  with  "  St  Giles  "  and 
"  Margrave.  "  In  partnership  with  John  Day  he  won  the  Two 
Thousand  Guineas  with  "  Ugly  Buck  "  in  1844,  and  two  years 
later  he  took  the  Derby  and  the  Oaks  with  "  Pyrrhus  the  First " 
and  "  Mendicant,"  in  1854  the  Two  Thousand  Guineas  with 
*' Hermit,"  and  in  the  same  year,  in  partnership  with  Henry 
Padwick,  the  Derby  with  "  Andover."  Having  bought  Ack- 
worth  Pa^  near  Pontefract  he  was  M.P.  from  December  183a 
to  July  1837.  In  i86a  he  purchased  the  Wingate  Grange  estate 
and  collieries.  Gully  was  twice  married  and  had  twelve  children 
by  ttch  wife.  He  died  at  Durham  on  the  9th  of  March  1863. 
He  appears  to  have  been  no  relation  of  the  subsequent  Speaker, 
Lord  Selbv. 

OULPAIoAn  (Jerbddegdn  of  the  Arab  geographers),  a  district 
and  dty  in  Central  Persia,  situated  N.W.  of  Isfahin  and  S.E. 
of  Ir&k.  T(^ther  with  Khuns&r  it  forms  a  small  province, 
paying  a  yearly  revenue  of  about  £6000.  The  dty  of  Gulp&Igin 
is  situated  87  m.  N.W.  of  Isfah&n,  at  an  elevation  of  5875  ft. 
in  33*  34'  N.  and  50*  ao'  E.,  and  has  a  population  of  about  5000. 
The  district  u  fertile  and  produces  much  grain  and  some  opiimi. 
Sometimes  it  is  under  the  governor-general  of  the  Isfahin 
province,  at  others  it  forms  part  of  the  province  of  Ir&k,  and  at 
times,  as  in  1906,  is  under  a  governor  appointed  from  Teheran. 

GUM  (Fr.  gomme,  Lat.  gommi^  Gr.  xAfipi,  possibly  a  Coptic 
word;  dbtinguish  "  gum,*'  the  fleshy  covering  of  the  base  of 
a  tooth,  in  O.  Eng.  gfima,  palate,  cf.  CSer.  Gaumen,  roof  of  the 
mouth;  the  ultimate  origin  is  probably  the  root  ghOf  to  open 
wide,  seen  in  Gr.  xa^<c'>  to  gspct  cf.  "yawn"),  the  generic 
name  given  to  a  group  of  amorphous  carbo-hydrates  of  the 
general  formula  (CtHioO»)«,  which  exist  in  the  juices  of  almost 
all  plants,  and  also  occur  as  exudations  from  stems,  branches 
and  fruits  of  plants.  They  are  entirely  soluble  or  soften  in  water, 
and  form  with  it  a  thick  glutinous  liquid  or  mudhige.  They 
yield  mudc  and  oxalic  acids  when  treated  with  nitric  add. 
In  structure  the  gums  are  quite  amorphous,  being  neither  organ- 
ized like  starch  nor  crystallized  like  sugar.  They  are  odourless 
and  tasteless,  and  some  yidd  clear  aqueous  solutions—the  real 
gums— while  others  swell  up  and  will  not  percolate  filter  paper— 
the  vegetable  mucilages.  The  acadas  and  the  Rosaceae  yield 
thdr  gums  most  abundantly  when  sickly  and  in  an  abnormal 


state,  caused  by  a  fulness  of  sap  in  the  young  tissues,  whereby 
the  new  cells  are  softened  and  finally  disorganized;  the  cavities 
thus  formed  fill  with  liquid,  which  exudes,  dries  and  constitutes 
the  gum. 

Gum  arobk  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the  gums  entirely 
soluble  in  water.  Another  variety,  obtained  from  the  Proso^ 
dulciSf  a  leguminous  plant,  is  called  gum  mesquite  or  mezqulte; 
it  comes  from  western  Texas  and  Mexico,  and  is  yellowish  in 
colour,  very  brittle  and  quite  soluble  in  water. 

Gum  arabic  occurs  in  pieces  of  varying  nxc.  and  some  kinds 
are  full  of  minute  cracks.  The  apedfic  gravity  of  Turkey  picked  gum 
(the  purest  variety)  ts  1  -487,  or,  when  dried  at  loo*  C.  i  -525.  It  is 
soluble  in  water  to  an  indefinite  extent;  boiled  with  dilute  sulphuric 
add  it  is  converted  into  the  sugar  galactose.  Moderately  strong 
nitric  add  changes  it  into  mucic,  saccharic,  tartaric  and  oxaitc  acids. 
Under  the  influence  of  yeast  it  does  not  enter  into  the  alcoholic 
fermentation,  but  M.  P.  E.  Berthdot.  by  digesting  with  chalk  and 
cheese,  obtained  from  it  ia%  of  its  weight  of  alcohol,  along  with 
caldum  lactate,  but  no  appreciable  quantity  of  sugar.  Gum  arabic 
may  be  regarded  as  a  potassium  and  calcium  salt  01  gummic  or  arabic 
add.  ^  T.  Graham  (Chemical  and  Physical  Researches)  recommended 
dialysis  as  the  best  mode  of  preparing  gummic  acid,  and  stated  that 
the  power  of  gum  to  penetrate  the  parchment  septum  is  400  times 
less  than  that  of  sodium  chloride,  and.  further,  that  by  mixing  the  gum 
with  substances  of  the  crystalloid  class  the  diffudDility  is  lowered, 
and  may  be  even  reduced  to  nothing.  The  mudlage  must  be  addu- 
lated  with  hydrochloric  add  before  dialysing,  to  set  free  the  gummic 
acid.  By  adding  alcohol  to  the  solution,  the  acid  is  precipitated  as 
a  white  amoiphous  mass,  which  becomes  glassy  at  100  .  Its  formula 
is  (CftH|iOc)tHtO.  and  it  formscompouods  with  nearly  all  bases  which 
are  easd)r  soluble  in  water.  Gummic  add  reddens  litmus,  its  re> 
action  being  about  equal  to  carbonic  acid.  When  solutions  of  gum 
arabic  and  gelatin  are  mixed,  oily  drops  of  a  compound  of  the  two 
are  precipitated,  which  on  standing  form  a  neariy  colourless  jelly, 
meltmg  at  35*  C.,  or  by  the  heat  of  the  hand.  Tnis  substance  can 
be  washed  without  decomposition.  Gummic  add  is  soluble  in 
water;  when  well  dried  at  100*  C,  it  becomes  tranrformed  into 
mctagummic  add,  which  is  insoluble,  but  swells  up  in  water  Ul^ 
gum  tragacanth. 

Gum  arabic,  when  heated  to  150*  C.  with  two  parts  of  acetic 
anhydride,  swells  up  to  a  mass  which,  when  washol  with  boiling 
water,  and  then  with  akx>hol,  gives  a  white  amorphous  insoluble 
powder  called  acetyl  arabin  Cjla(CtHaO)iO».  It  is  saponified  by 
alkalicsi,  with  reproduction  of  soluble  gum.  Gum  arabic  is  not 
precipitated  from  solution  by  alum,  stannous  chloride,  sulphate  or 
nitrate  of  copper,  or  neutral  lead  acetate;  with  basic  lead  acetate 
it  forms  a  white  jelly,  with  ferric  chbride  it  yields  a  stiff  dear 
gelatindd  mass,  and  its  solutions  are  also  precipitated  by  borax. 

Hie  finer  varieties  are  used  as  an  emollient  and  demulcent 
in  medicine,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  confectionery;  the 
commoner  qualities  are  used  as  an  adhesive  paste,  for  giving 
lustre  to  crape,  silk,  &c.,  in  doth  finishing  to  stiffen  the  fibres, 
and  in  calico-printing.  For  labels,  &c.,  it  is  usual  to  mix  sugar 
or  glycerin  with  it  to  prevent  it  from  cracking. 

Gum  senega],  a  variety  of  gum  arabic  produced  by  Acacia 
Verek,  occurs  in  pieces  generally  rounded,  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's 
egg,  and  of  a  reddish  or  yellow  colour,  and  spedfic  gravity  x.436. 
It  gives  with  water  a  somewhat  stronger  mudlage  than  gum 
arabic,  from  which  it  is  distinguished  by  its  dear  interior,  fewer 
cracks  and  greater  toughness.  It  is  imported  from  the  river 
Gambia,  and  from  Senegal  and  Bathurst. 

Chagual  gum,  a  variety  brought  from  Santiago,  Chile,  resembles 
gum  Senegal.  About  75%  is  soluble  in  water.  Its  solution  is 
not  thickened  by  borax,  and  is  predpitated  by  neutral  lead 
acetate;  and  dilute  sulphuric  add  converts  it  into  (^-glucose. 

Cum  tragacanthf  familiarly  called  gum  dragon,  exudes  from 
the  stem,  the  lower  part  e^)ecially,  of  the  various  species  of 
Astragalus^  espedally  A.  gummifer,  and  is  collected  in  Asia 
Minor,  the  chief  port  of  shipment  bdng  Smyrna.  Formerly  only 
what  exuded  spontaneously  was  gathered;  this  was  often  of 
a  brownish  colour;  but  now  the  flow  of  the  gum  is  aided  by 
incisions  cut  near  the  root,  and  the  product  is  the  fine,  white, 
flaky  variety  so  much  valued  In  commerce.  The  chief  flow  of 
gum  takes  place  during  the  night,  and  hot  and  dry  weather  is 
the  most  favourable  for  its  production. 

In  colour  gum  trapcanth  is  of  a  dull  white:  it  occurs  in  horny, 
flexible  and  tough,  thin,  twisted  flakes,  translucent,  and  with  peculiar 
wavy  lines  on  the  surface.  When  dried  at  temperatures  under 
100*  C.  it  loses  about  14%  of  water,  and  is  then  easily  powdered. 
Its  spedfic  gravity  is  1  -384.    With  water  it  swells  by  at>sorption,  and 


7i6 


GUMBEL— GUMBO 


with  even  fifty  times  its  wdght  of  that  liquid  forms  a  thick  mucilsue. 
Part  of  it  only  is  soluble  in  water,  and  that  resembles  gummic  acia  in 
being  precipitated  by  alcohol  and  ammonium  oxalate,  but  differs 
from  it  in  giving  a  precipitate  with  neutral  lead  acetate  and  none 
with  borax.  The  inioluble  part  of  the  gum  is  a  calcium  salt  of 
basaorin  (CuHi^it),  which  is  devoid  of  taste  and  smell,  forms  a 
gelatinoid  mass  with  water,  but  by  continued  boiling  m  rendered 
soluble. 

Gum  tragacanth  is  used  in  calico-printing  as  a  thickener  of 
colouxs  and  mordants;  in  medicine  as  a  demulcent  and  vehicle 
for  insoluble  powdexs,  and  as  an  excipient  in  pills;  and  for 
setting  and  mending  beetles  and  other  insect  specimens.  It  is 
medicinally  superior  to  gum  acada,  as  it  does  not  undergo 
acetous  fermentation.  The  best  pharmacopeial  preparation 
is  the  UucUago  Tragacanthae.  The  compound  powder  is  a 
useless  preparation,  as  the  starch  it  contains  is  very  liable  to 
ferment. 

Gum  kuteera  resembles  in  appearance  gum  tragacanth,  for 
which  the  attempt  has  occasionally  been  made  to  substitute  it. 
It  is  said  to  be  the  product  of  Sterculia  urens,  a  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Sterculiaceae. 

Cherry  tree  gum  is  an  exudation  from  trees  of  the  genera 
Prunus  and  Cerasus.  It  occurs  in  shiny  reddish  lumps,  resem- 
bling the  commoner  kinds  of  gum  arabic.  With  water,  in  which 
it  is  only  partially  soluble,  it  forms  a  thick  mucilage.  Sulphuric 
acid  converts  it  into  /-arabinose;  and  nitric  acid  oxidizes  it  to 
oxalic  add  (without  the  intermediate  formation  of  mudc  add 
as  in  the  case  of  gum  arabic). 

Cum  of  Bassora,  from  Bassora  or  Bussorah  in  Asia,  is  some- 
times imported  into  the  London  market  under  the  name  of  the 
bog  tragacanth.  It  is  insipid,  crackles  between  the  teeth,  ocxurs 
in  variable-sized  pieces,  is  tough,  of  a  yellowish-white  colour, 
and  <^aque,  and  has  properties  similar  to  gum  tragacanth. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  1*36.  It  contains  only  x%  of  soluble 
gum  or  arabin.  Under  the  name  of  Caramam'a  gum  it  is  mixed 
with  inferior  kinds  of  gum  tragacanth  before  exportation. 

AfucUage. — ^Very  many  seeds,  roots,  &c,  when  infused  in 

boiling  water,  yield  mucilages  which,  for  the  most  part,  consist 

of  bassorin.    Linseed,  quince  seed  and  marshmallow  root  yidd 

it  in  large  quantity.    In  their  reactions  the  different  kinds  of 

mucilage  present   differences;  e.g.   quince  seed    yields  only 

oxalic  add  when  treated  with  nitric  add,  and  with  a  solution  of 

iodine  in  zinc  iodide  it  gives,  after  some  time,  a  beautiful  red 

tint.    Linseed  does  not  give  the  latter  reaction;  by  treatment 

with  boiling  nitric  add  it  yidds  mudc  and  oxalic  adds. 

Cum  Resins. — ^This  term  is  applied  to  the  inspissated  milky  juices 
of  certain  plants,  which  consist  of  gum  soluble  in  water,  resin  and 
essential  oil  soluble  in  alcohol,  other  vegetable  matter  and  a  small 
amou  nt  of  mineral  matter.  They  are  generallv  opaque  and  solid,  and 
often  brittle.  When  finely  powdered  and  rubbed  down  with  water 
they  form  emulsions,  the  undissolved  resin  bdng  suapended  in  the 
gum  solution.  Thdr  chief  uses  are  in  medidne.  Examples  are 
ammontacum,  asafetida,  bddlium,  euphorbium,  gamboge,  myrrh, 
sagapanum  and  scammony. 

GOMBEU  KARL  WILHBLM  VOV,  Baxon  (1823-1898), 
German  geolc^ist,  was  bom  at  Dannoifds,  in  the  Palatinate 
of  the  Rhine,  on  the  izth  of  February  1833,  and  is  known  chiefly 
by  his  researches  on  the  geology  of  Bavaria.  He  received  a 
practical  and  sdentific  education  in  mining  at  Munich  and 
Heidelberg,  taking  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  at  Munich  in  1862; 
and  he  was  engaged  for  a  time  at  the  colliery  of  St  Ingbert  and 
as  a  surveyor  in  that  district.  In  1851,  when  the  Geological 
Survey  of  Bavaria  was  instituted,  GQmbel  was  appointed  chief 
geologist;  in  1863  he  was  made  honorary  professor  of  geognosy 
and  surveying  at  the  university  of  Munich,  and  in  1879,  Oberberg 
director  of  the  Bavarian  mining  department  with  which  the 
Geological  Survey  was  incorporated.  His  geological  map  of 
Bavaria  appeared  in  1858,  and  the  oflidal  memoir  descriptive 
of  the  detailed  work,  entitled  Ceagno^ische  Besckreibung  des 
Kdnigreichs  Bayern  was  issued  in  three  parts  (1861,  1868  and 
1879).  He  subsequently  published  his  Geologie  tMm  Bayern  in 
2  vols.  (1884- 1 894),  an  elaborate  treatise  on  geology,  with  special 
reference  to  the  geology  of  Bavaria.  In  the  course  of  his  long 
and  active  career  he  engaged  in  much  palaeontological  work: 
he  studied  the  fauna  of  the  Trias,  and  in  x86z  introduced  the 


term  Rhaetic  for  the  uppermost  division  of  that  system;  he 
supported  at  first  the  view  of  the  organic  nature  of  Etwtm  (1666 
and  1876),  he  devoted  q^edal  attention  to  Foraminifcra,  asd 
described  those  of  the  Eocene  strata  of  the  northern  Alps  (i  86&;  -. 
he  dealt  also  with  Receptaculites  (1875)  which  he  regarded  as  a 
genus  bdonging  to  the  Foraminifera.  He  died  on  the  1 8th  of 
June  1898. 

GUHBINIIEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  East  Prussia,  on  the  Pissa,  an  aflluent  of  the  Pregel,  22  ra.  by 
rail  S.  W.  of  Eydtkuhnen  on  the  line  to  K5nigsberg.  P^.  ( 1905). 
14,194.  The  surrounding  country  is  pleasant  and  fruitful,  asd 
the  town  has  ^>adouB  and  regular  streets  shaded  by  Undts 
trees.  It  has  a  Roman  Cathdic  and  three  Evangelical  churches, 
a  synagogue,  a  gymnasium,  two  public  schods,  a  public  Kbrai)-, 
a  ho^itid  and  an  infinpaiy.  In  the  market  square  there  is  a 
statue  of  the  king  of  Prussia  Frederick  WiUiam  I.,  who  in  1734 
raised  Gumbinnen  to  the  rank  of  a  town,  and  in  1732  brought 
to  it  a  number  of  persons  who  had  been  driven  from  Salzburg  by 
religious  persecution.  On  the  bridge  over  the  Pissa  a  monummt 
has  been  erected  to  the  soldiers  from  the  neighbourhood  mho 
fell  in  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-71.  Iron  founding  and 
the  manufacture  of  machinery,  wool,  cottcm,  and  linen  weaving, 
stocking-making,  tanning,  brewing  and  distilling  are  the  prindpal 
industries.  There  are  horse  and  cattle  markets,  and  some  trade 
in  com  and  Unseed. 

See  J.  Schneider,  Aus  Cumbinnens  VergoM^atkeit  (GumtMnacn. 
1904)- 

GUMBO*  or  Okka,  termed  also  Ohro,  Ockrc,  Kumu, 
Cubbo  and  Syrian  mallow  (Sans.  Tindisa,  Bengali  Dkeres, 
Pen.  Bdmiyah — the  Bammia  of  Prosper  Alpinus;  Fr. 
Combttui,  or  better  Combo,'  and  Kdmie  comestibU),  IJibis(%i 
esculenius,  a  herbacxous  hairy  annual  plant  <rf  the  natural  order 
Malvaceae,  probably  of  African  origin,  and  now  naturalized  or 
cultivated  in  all  tropical  countries.  The  leaves  are  cordate, 
and  3  to  s-Iobed,  and  the  flowers  yellow,  with  a  cximson  cenin, 
the  fruit  or  pod,  the  Bendi-Kai  of  the  Europeans  of  southon 
India,  is  a  tapering,  lo-angled  capsule,  4  to  xo  in.  in  length, 
except  in  the  dwarf  varieties  of  the  plant,  and  contains  numerous 
oval  dark-coloured  seeds,  hairy  at  the  base.  Three  distinct 
varieties  of  the  gumbo  {Quiabo  and  Quimgnnbo)  in  Brazil  have 
been  described  by  Pacheco.  The  unripe  fruit  »  eaten  dther 
pickled  or  prqiared  like  asparagus.  It  is  also  an  ingrediiDt 
in  various  dishes,  e.g.  the  gumbo  of  the  Southern  United  States 
and  the  calalou  of  Jamaica;  and  on  account  of  the  large  amount 
of  mudlage  it  contains,  it  is  extensivdy  consumed,  both  fresh 
and  in  the  form  of  the  prepared  powder,  for  the  thickening  of 
broths  and  soups.  For  winter  use  it  is  salted  or  sliced  and  dried. 
Hie  fruit  is  grown  on  a  veiy  large  scale  in  the  vidnity  of  Con- 
stantin<^Ie.  It  was  one  of  the  escidents  of  Egypt  in  the  tiise 
of  Abul-Abbas  d-Nebftti,  who  journeyed  to  Alexandria  in  i;i6 
(WOstenfdd,  Cesck.  d.  arab,  Ar%U,  p.  xi8,  G6tt.,  1840),  and  is 
still  cultivated  by  the  Egyptians,  who  called  it  Bcmmgl. 

The  seeds  of  the  gumbo  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 
From  thdr  demulcent  and  emollient  prc^rties,  the  leaves  and 
immature  fruit  have  long  been  in  repute  in  the  East  for  the 
preparation  of  poultices  and  fomentations.  Alpinus  (1502) 
mentions  the  employment  of  thdr  decoction  in  ^gypt  in  oph- 
thalmia and  in  uterine  and  other  complaints. 

The  musk  okra  (Sans.,  Latdkasiurikd,  cf.  the  Gr.  m^rntp:  Bcitpiii, 
Latdkasturi;  Ger.  Bisamk1imerstraMch\  Jet.  Ketmie  muwuf^). 
Hibiscus  Abdmosckus  (Abettnosckus  mosckatus),  indi^nous  to  ind:4, 
and  cultivated  in  most  warm  regions  of  the  globe,  is  a  suffruti.  -•^ 
plant,  bearing  a  conical  5-ridged  pod  about  3  in.  in  length.  viihiA 
which  are  numerous  brown  reniform  seeds,  smaller  than  those  ot  //. 
esculenius.  The  seeds  possess  a  musky  odour,  due  to  an  oko-n-ua 
present  in  the  integument,  and  are  known  to  perfumers  under  thr 
name  of  ambrette  as  a  substitute  for  musk.  They  arc  said  to  be  u»d 
by  the  Ara^bs  for  scenting  coffee.  The  seeds  Hn  the  Fantee  lanyuaiic. 
Incromakom)  are  used  in  Africa  as  beads:  and  powdered  and  kterfvd 
in  rum  they  are  valued  in  the  West  Indies  as  a  remedy  for  soakr- 
bites.  The  plant  yields  anexccllent  fibrejand,  being  rich  in  muciUge. 
is  employed  in  Upper  India  for  the  clarifying  of  sugar.  The  bnc- 
perfumed  seeds  are  reported  to  come  from  Martinkiue. 

See  P.  Alpinus.  De  UanHs  Aeeypti.  cap.  xxviL  p.  38  (Venice.  1592) : 
J.  Sontheimer's  Abd  AUak  tbn  Akmad,  &c.  L   118  (Scottgan. 


La  Bfiitqiit  liorliCoU,  iy,  63  (1^3^):  Del  _ ^._. 

Mgrn..  luuuv   1S60.    p.  119-.  E.  J.  WjiinE.  PImrm.  el  Indl-    - 
^  <I.«6S)|  O.  Popp^  -;^Obcr  die  AicKinbnundtale  drr  ^mcn 

— ,.  .  JC  fuTn/RiHli 
I.  TluUn.ltiiLtif 
Hi.  3»i  <i»77);  Lmmao.  Hut  ibt  lirapiti,  i.  i 
3.  W'll.  Du^imarf  sj  IJU  Bcantmic  Pradwtu  if  Im^ 


GUMTI— GDN 

led  form,  | 


(1S71);  Diuiy.  nc  fiifn/n^niiV/i^w.  PF 
is.  C.  Dun.  r*<  J/af.  Itid.  <rf  uhi  ^mdu,  pp. 


ol  eutun  Bengal  and  Auam. 

OtJNDLIlHA,  or  GmnjKDnNA,  ■  lomi 
in  Ihe  viiiyet  of  Adrianople.  P<^.  (1903), 
thrce-Founhs  ire  Turks  ani  the  remain 


itury  bridge  o[  li 
7  IDiu  burden.  ' 
in  Ihe  Tippen  di 


Dutboflbee 


Greeks,  Jc 
1   on   [he  river   Kjusji-Su, 
TUtodDpctugeol  mour" 


taUiRiy  bel  wecn  Salonif 
vhcat,  [oaLie,  barley  and  lobacco;  lericullure  and  vitioil 
arc  both  practised  on  a  limiled  Kale.  A  cattle  lair  is 
aruiually  on  Gretk  Palm  Sunday.  Copper  and  utiDumy 
found  in  liie  neigbbourbood. 

ODIint.  or  Gdhi,  Negroes  of  Ibc  Shangllla  group  o[  tr 
dwelling  in  the  mountainous  district  of  Fuogti  on  the  Su 
Abyssinian   froi  ~ 


:    Blue    Nile. 


while 


1    the   r 


Httled  0 


id  Ihe  sub-tribes  have  distinctive  names.  The  Gumu 

On  cenmonial  occauons  they  cury  pansols  ol  hoDour  (le 
Seancilu). 

eOllOlH-KHAllEH.  the  chief  town  of  a  suijak  of  Ibciam 
name  in  the  Trebuoad  vilaycl  ol  Asiatic  Turkey)  situated  o: 
high  ground  (44™  ft.)  in  Ihe  valley  of  the  Khanbut  Su,  *bou 
'    'le  Trebimnd-Enerum  cluMiite.    The  vivt 


noted  is 


larco  Polo.  Pop. 
chiefly  Greeks,  who  are  in  the  habit  ol  emigrating  to  great 
distances  to  work  in  mineA.  Tbey  prmctiCAlly  aup^y  the  whole 
lead-  and  silver-mining  Ubour  in  Asiatic  Tuikey,  and  is  ooiisc' 
quence  the  Creek  bishop  of  CUmUih-Khaneh  has  under  his 
jurisdiction  all  the  communitia  engaged  in  this  panlculat  das 

Otm,  a  genera]  tern  lor  a  weapon,  tubular  in  lorm,  from 
which  a  projectile  is  discharged  by  means  of  an  eiphvive. 
When  applied  10  aitiUeiy  the  word  is  confined  to  those  jueces 
of  ordnance  which  have  a  direct  as  oppncd  to  a  high-an^e  fire, 

(sec  OiDNANCT  and  Micbine-Giin).  "Gun"  aa  applied  to 
firvarms  which  are  carried  in  the  hand  and  fired  from  the  shoulder, 
ibeold"  handgun,"isbow'chiefly  used  of  the  sponing  shot-gun, 
with  which  this  article  mainly  deals^  in  Tnilitajy  usage  this  type 
of  weapon,  vrhelher  rifle,  carbine.  Arc,  is  ktwwn  coUecIivdy  as 
"  small  arms  "  |sec  KirLS  and  Pistol).  The  oti^  ol  the  woid, 
vhich  in  Mid.  Eng.  is  g^aw  or  gtmne^  is  obsaire,  but  il  has 
been  suggested  by  Piolcssor  W.  W.  Skeat  that  it  conceals  a 
lemnle  name,  CuniiUi  or  CtnikiUt.  The  names.  (.(.  Mons  Meg 
at  Ei^nbutgh  Castle  and  /na/c  Crile  (heavy  Peg),  known  10 
readers  of  Carlyle's  Frcdrriik  lit  Greal.  will  be  familiar  panllel- 
isms.  "  Gunne  "  would  be  a  shortened  "  prt  name  "  ol  Cunn- 
faild*.    The  JVcB  Engliik  DiniimaTy  £nds  support  for  the  sugges- 


a  Old  Nor 


Windsor  Castle  in  ijio-ijji. 

balista  de  camu  c|uae  vocatur  Domin 

•UdoUon  lor  the  origin  of  the  word  is  tl 


f  of  war  material  1 

I  Cunilda."    Anolbi 
u  ibe  woidn 


7<7 

supposed  French  naa^sane,  ■ 
le  French  word  is  mongenneaH. 
aid  10  have  been  fiisi  used  in  European  warfare 
The  hind  gun  (see  Bg.  i)  came  inlo 


— Hand  Gun. 


fired, 
weapon  (see  fig.  i)  was  Fic.  1 

also  used  by  the  bone-soldier,  with  a 
slock,  by  which  il  was  suspended  by  a  cord  ro 
>  forked  rest,  filled  by  a  ring  (o  the  saddlebow,  sc 
Ihe  gun.  Tlds  rest,  when  not  in  use,  hung  down 
right  leg.  A  match  was  made  of  cotton  or  hemp  spun  tiadl, 
and  boiled  in  a  strong  solution  of  saltpetre  or  in  Ihe  leet  of 
wine.  The  touch-bole  wai  first  placed  on  the  top  of  the  biml, 
but  afterwards  at  the  side,  with  a 
small  pan  underneath  to  bold  the 
priming,  and  guarded  by  a  cover 
moving  on  a  pivot 

An  improvement  In  fircanns  look 
place  in  Ihe  £nt  year  ol  Ihe  togn 
of  Henry  VU.,  or  at  the  dote  ol 
Edward  IV.,  by  filing  a  cock  <Fr. 
serfntirit)  on  the  hand  gun  to  bold 
the  match,  which  wia  brought 
down  to  the  priming  by  a  trigger, 

whence  the  term  matchlock.    This  

weapon  il  atill  in  use  among  the  "'*'  *'"''  '^''"■ 

Chinese,  Tatars,  Sikhs,  Peiiians  and  Turks.    An  improve 
"     "    ing  this  period  by  Ion 


with  a  wide  butt  end  lo 
Subsequently  the  stock  wai 
arm  was  called  a  hackbult 
a  demihague.  The  arqueb 
in  length,  induding  barrel 
about     half     tho ' 


be  placid  against  the  right  breasL 
I  bent,  a  German  invention,  and  the 
or  hagbul,  and  Ihe  9 


■Muiketeer,  16^ 


Nuremberg  lo  1517;  was  £rs(  tised  a 
ol  Parma  in  ijii;  wa»  brought  to  England  in  15;  . 
inucd  in  partial  use  Ibcre  until  the  time  of  Charles  IL  This 
rbeel-lock  consisted  ol  a  Suled  or  grooved  steel  *rhed  which 
iroliudcd  iota  the  priming  pan,  and  was  connected  with  a 
Inmg  spring.  Tlte  cock,  also  regidated  by  a  qiriig.  was  Cited 
with  a  piece  ol  iron  pyrites.    In  Dtdcf  to  discharge  the  gun  the 


7i8 


lock  »»  wound  up  by  k  kty,  the  cock  was  let  down  on  ihc 
pricuiig  pan,  tfae  pyrius  reitu;^  UB  tie  tibetl-,  an  the  triggei 
btias  pnaard  the  wheel  was  Rle*Kd  >nd  tapidly  revolved, 
emilling  aparks,  which  i^Ied  the  powder  In  the  pan.  The 
complicatol  and  expensive  natuie  of  thia  lode,  with  iti  liabiiit> 
to  injuiy,  no  doubt  prevented  it*  general  adoption. 

Aiiout  1540  tbe  Spaniardi  cuoiliucted  a  larger  and  heaviei 
fireanq  (matchlock),  cairyiag  a  ball  of  10  to  the  pound,  failed 
■  muiket  This  neapoo  «u  iDInxluced  into  Eii^aiid  before  the 
middle  of  the  16th  ccafary,  and  soon  came  Into  general  uh 
throughout  Euiope.  The  aniphaoce  was  invented  about  this 
period  in  Germany,  and  from  iu  comparative  cheapness  was 


Figs.  4 1 


dj. — .Muiketcen,  1675. 


n  England,  France  aJ 
insleaa  01  me  pyritea  of  tbe  nhetl 
powder  in  the  pan  hy  striking  on  a  piece  of  luirowed  ateel,  when 
teteased  by  Ibe  trigger,  and  emitting  ipaiks. 

As  a  sportiiig  weapon  the  gun  may  be  said  to  date  from  the 
invention  of  the  wheel-lock  in  the  b^imungof  the  16th  century, 
though  firearms  were  used  (or  (porting  purposes  in  Italy,  Spain, 
Germany,  and  to  some  extent  in  France,  in  the  isth  century. 
Before  that  period  the  longbow  In  England  ^nd  the  crossbow  on 
the  Continent  were  the  usual  weapons  of  the  chase.  In  Gnat 
Britain  little  use  appeari  to  have  been  made  of  firearms  for  game 
ahooting  unitl  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  century,  and  the  atmi 
then  used  for  the  purpose  were  entirely  of  foreign  make. 

The  French  gunmakera  of  St-£tiemu  claim  for  thdr  town 
that  it  is  the  oldest  centre  of  the  firearms  industry.  They  do 
not  appear  to  have  made  more  than  the  barrels  of  the  finest 
sporting  arms,  and  these  even  were  sometimes  made  in  Paris. 
The  pioductioti  of  Greanns  hy  the  anista  of  Paris  readied  its 
zenith  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  The  Italian, 
German,  Spanish  and  Russian  gunsmiths  also  showed  great 
skill  in  the  elegance  and  deugn  of  their  firearma,  the  Spaniards 
in  particular  being  oaken  of  fine  barrels.  The  pistol  (;.i.)  is 
understood  to  have  been  made  for  the  first  time  about  1540  at 
Pistoia  in  Italy.  About  163s  the  modem  Erelodt  or  flint-lock 
wasinvcnted,  which  only  dificred  from  the  snaphance  by  the  cover 
of  the  pan  forming  part  of  the  futiowcd  steel  struck  by  the  flint. 
Originally  the  priming  was  put  into  the  pan  from  a  flask  contain- 
ing a  fine-grained  powder  called  serpentine  powder.  Later  the 
top  of  the  cartridge  was  bitten  ofl  and  tbe  pan  fitted  therefrom 
before  loading.  The  mechanism  of  the  fllnt-tock  musket  rendered 
sU  thb  unnecessary,  as,  in  loading,  a  portion  ol  the  charge  passed 
through  the  vent  into  the  pan,  where  it  was  held  by  the  cover  or 
hammer.  The  matchlock,  as  a  miliiary  weapon,  gradually  gave 
way  to  the  firelock,  which  come  into  general  use  in  the  last  half 
ol  the  17th  century,  and  was  the  weapon  ol  Marlborough's  and 
Wellington's  armies.  This  was  the  famous  "  Brown  Bc5s  "  ol  the 
British  army.  The  highest  development  of  the  flint-lock  is  found 
io  the  fowling-pieces  of  the  end  of  the  iSth  and  beginning  of  the 
igtb  centuries,  particularly  those  made  by  Joseph  Manton,  the 
celebrated  Englisii  gunsmith  and  inventor.  The  Napoleonic  wan 
afforded  EnglUh  


supremacy  over  their  forngn  cc 
;.  English  gunmakera  reduced  t: 


mpetiton 


improved  the  sbootinc  powen,  and  perfected  tbi 
if  tbe  sporting  gun,  and  increased  the  range 
uid  effidency  of  the  riBe.  This  translerence 
'  from  the  Continent 
isted  by  the  tyranny 
gilds.  In  i6j7  the 
med  their  charter  of 
iportant  gunmaking 
industry  of  Birmin^iam  dates  from  i6oj,aiid 
soon  rivalled  that  of  London.  Donble  shot- 
guns do  not  appear  to  have  been  generally 
used  uutH  the  igth  centtiry. 
The  fint  successful  double 


ented   1 


S   by 


Rome.  In  17S4  double 
shot  guns  were  deicrfbed  as 
a  novelty.  Joseph  Manton 

which  rested  on  the  barrels. 
The  general  success  of  the 


beat  gunmaken  made  pos- 
sible, and  to  the  quickness 
and  certainty  of  ignition  of 
the  modern  cartridge. 

The  objections  to  the 
flint-lock  were  that  it  did 
not  entirely,  preserve  the 
priming  from  wel,  and  that 
the  flint  sfiarks  sometimes 
failed  to  ignite  the  charge. 
In  tSo?  the  Sev.  Alexander 
John  Fonyth  obtained  ■ 
patent  for  priming  with  a 
fulminating  powder  made 
of  chlorate  of  potash,  sul< 
phur  and  charcoal,  which 


I    by    I 


□ized  and  adopted  by 
military  authorities 
than    thirty 


.    Intl 


gradually  de- 
veloped, and  the  copper 
percussion  cap  invented, 
by  various  gunmakets  and 
private  individuals. 
Thomas  Shaw  of  PhiU- 
delphia  flnt  used  f ulmina 

he  changed  to  a  copperc 


igj4,io  tbe  reign  oIWi 
IV.,  Fonyth's  inve 
was  tested  at  Woolwii 


I  petcusskin  mosketa,  in  all  wcatJii 


GUN 


719 


Fig.  14. 


m 
L 


This  trial  established  the  percussion  priodple.  The  shooting 
was  found  to  be  more  accurate,  the  recoil  less,  the  charge 
of  powder  having  been  reduced  from  6  to  4^  dn.,  the 
rapidity  of  firing  greater  and  the  number  of  miss-fires  much 
reduced,  being  as  i  to  a6  nearly  in  favour  of  the  percussion 


system.  In  consequence  of  this  successful  trial  the  military 
fhnt-lock  in  1839  was  altered  to  suit  the  percussion  principle. 
This  was  easily  accomplished  by  replacing  the  hammer  and  pan 
by  a  nipple  with  a  hole  through  its  centre  to  the  vent  or  touch- 
hole,  and  by  replacing  the  cock  which  held  the  flint  by  a  smaller 
cock  or  hammer  with  a  hollow  to  fit  on  the  nipple  when  released 
by  the  trigger.  On  the  nipple  was  placed  the  copper  cap  contain- 
ing  the  detonating  composition,  now  made  of  three  parts  of 
chlorate  of  potash,  two  of  fulminate  of  mercury  and  one  of 
powdered  glass. 

In  1840  the  Austrian  army  was  supplied  with  the  percussion 
musket,  and  in  1842  a  new  model  percussion  musket  with  a  block 
or  back-sight  for  150  yds.  was  issued  to  the  British  army,  11  lb 
6  OS.  in  weight,  4  ft.  6f  in.  in  length  without  bayonet,  6  ft. 
with  bayonet  and  with  a  barrel  3  ft.  3  in.  in  length,  firing  a 
bullet  of  14}  to  the  lb  with  4^  dri.  of  powder.  This  musket 
was  larger  in  bore  than  that  of  France,  Belgium,  Russia  and 
Austria,  and  thus  had  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  fire  their 
balls,  while  the  English  balls  could  not  be  fired  from  their  barrels. 
But  the  greater  weight  and  momentum  of  the  English  ball  was 
counteracted  by  the  excess  of  windage.  This  percussion  musket 
of  1842,  the  latest  development  of  the  renowned  Brown  Bess, 
continued  in  use  in  the  British  army  until  partially  superseded 
in  1851  by  the  Minii  rifle,  and  altogether  by  the  Enfield  rifle 


720 


GUN 


in  1855.    For  further  infonnatJon  as  to  the  history  and  develop- 
ment  of  military,  target  and  sporting  rifles  see  Rifle. 

lUustrations  are  given  herewith  of  a  Gennan  carUne  of  the  i6th 
centufv,  with  double  wfaed-lock  (fig.  8);  a  onaphanoe  (fig*  .9); 
wveraf  forms  of  the  Brown  Beasor  flint-lock  military  musket(£nglish, 
William  III.,  fig.  10;  Ckorge  II.,  fig.  11;  Gecnge  III.,  fig.  la; 
French,  Napoleon,  fi^.  13) ;  and  of  the  percussion  musket  adopted  in 
the  British  service  in  1839  (fig.  14).  Examples  of  non-European 
firearms  are  shown  in  figs.  6  and  7,  representing  a  Moorish  flint-lock 
and  an  Indian  matchlock  reapectivdy.  Figs.  i;s-i8  represent 
various  carbines,  musketoons  and  Uunderfottsaes,  fig.  15  snowing 
a  small  blunderbuss  or  musketoon  of  the  early  i8th  century,  fig.  16 
a  large  blunderbuss  of  1750,  fig.  17  a  flint-lock  cavalry  carbine  of 
about  1825  and  fig.  18  a  percussion  carbine  of  1830.  All  these  are 
drawn  from  arms  in  the  museum- of  the  Royal  United  Service 
•Institution,  London. 

Modem  Skoi  Cmiu. — ^The  modem  qx>rting  breech-Ioadets 
inay  be  said  to  have  originated  with  the  invention  of  the  cartridge- 
case  containing  its  own  means  of  ignition.  The  breech-loading 
mechanism  antedated  the  cartridge  by  many  years,  the  earliest 
breech-loading  hand  guns  dating  back  to  1 537.  Another  distinct 
type  of  breech-loader  was  invented  in  France  about  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century.  During  the  17th  and  iSth  centuries  breech- 
loading  arms  were  very  numerous  and  of  considerable  variety. 
The  original  cartridge,  a  charge  of  powder  and  bullet  in  a  paper 
envelope,  dates  from  x  586.  These  were  used  with  muzzle-loaders, 
the  base  of  the  cartridge  being  ripped  or  bitten  off  by  the  soldier 
before  placing  in  the  barrel  It  was  only  when  the  detonating 
cap  came  into  use  that  the  paper  cartridge  answered  well  in 
breech-loaders.  The  modem  breech-loader  has  resulted  from  a 
gradual  series  of  improvements,  and  not  from  any  one  great 
invention.  Its  essential  feature  is  the  prevention  of  all  escape 
of  gas  at  the  breech  when  the  gun  is  fired  by  means  of  an  expan- 
sive cartridge-case  containing  its  own  means  of  ignition.  The 
earlier  breech-loaders  were  not  gas-tight,  because  the  cartridge- 
cases  were  either  consumable  or  the  load  was  placed  in  a  strong 
non-expansive  breech-plug.  The  earliest  efficient  modem 
cartridge-case  was  the  pin-fire,  pi^ented  by  HouiUer,  a  Paris 
gunsmith,  in  1847,  with  a  thin  weak  shell  which  expanded  by 
the  force  of  the  explosion,  fitted  perfectly  in  the  barrel,  and  thus 
formed  an  efficient  gas  check.  Probably  no  invention  connected 
with  firearms  has  wrought  such  changes  in  the  principle  of  gun- 
construction  as  those  effected  by  the  expansive  cartridge-case. 
This  invention  has  completely  revolutionized  the  art  of  gun- 
making,  has  been  successfully  applied  to  all  descriptions  of 
firearms,  and  has  produced  a  new  and  important  industry — 
that  of  cartridge  manufacture. 

About  1836,  C.  Lefaucheux,  a  Paris  gunsmith,  improved 
the  old  Pauly  system  of  breech-loading,  but  its  breech  action 
was  a  cmde  mechanism,  with  single  grip  worked  by  a 
bottom  lever.  The  double  grip  for  the  barrels  was  the  subsequent 
invention  of  a  Birmingham  gunmaker.  The  central-fire  cartridge, 
practically  as  now  in  use.  was  introduced  into  England  in  186 1 
by  Daw.  It  is  said  to  have  been  the  invention  of  Pottet,  of 
Paris,  improved  upon  by  Schneider,  and  gave  rise  to  considerable 
litigation  in  respect  of  its  patent  rights-  Daw,  who  controlled 
the  English  patents,  was  the  only  exhibitor  of  central-fire  guns 
and  cartridges  at  the  International  Exhibition  of  1862.  In 
his  system  the  barrds  work  on  a  hinge  joint,  the  bottom  lever 
withdraws  the  holding-down  bolt;  the  cartridge  is  of  the  modem 
type,  the  cap  being  detonated  by  a  striker  passing  through  the 
standing  breech  to  the  inner  face.  The  cartridge-case  is  with- 
drawn by  a  sliding  extractor  fitted  to  the  breech  ends  of  the 
barrels.  Daw  was  subsequently  defeated  in  his  control  of  the 
patents  by  Eley  Bros.,  owing  to  the  patent  not  having  been  kept 
in  force  in  France.  The  modem  breech-loading  gun  has  been 
gradually  and  steadily  improved  since  i860.  Westley  Richards 
adopted  and  improved  Matthews'  top-lever  mechanism.  About 
1866  the  rebounding  lock  was  introduced,  and  improved  in  1869. 
The  treble  wedge-fast  mechanism  for  holding  down  the  barrek 
was  originated  by  W.  W.  Greener  in  1865,  and  perfected  in  1873. 
A  very  important  improvement  was  the  introduction  of  the 
bammerless  gun,  in  which  the  mechanism  for  firing  is  placed 
entirely  within  the  gun.    This  was  made  possible  by  the  introduc- 


tion of  the  central-fire  cartridge.  In  1862  Daw,  and  in  1866 
Green,  introduced  hammerless  guns  in  which  the  cocking  was 
effected  by  the  under  lever.  These  guns  did  not  attain  pofMlarity 
In  1871  T.  Murcott  patented  ahammfrlcasgnn,  the  first  to  otezis 
distinct  success.  This  also  was  a  lever-oocking  gmi.  Aboat  the 
same  time  Needham  introduced  the  prindple  <^  ntiliring  the 
weight  of  the  barreb  to  assist  in  coddn^  In  1875  Anson  and 
Deeley  utilized  the  f oce-end  attached  to  the  barrels  to  oock  the 
locks.  From  this  date  hammerless  guns  became  reaBy  popdar. 
Subsequently  minor  improvements  were  made  by  many  other 
gun-makers,  including  alternative  movements  introdooed  by 
Purdey  and  Rogers.  Improvements  were  also  iatrodnctd 
by  Westley  Richards,  Purdey  and  others,  indnding  cockxag  hw 
means  of  the  mainspring.  In  1874  J.  Needham  iatrodacei 
the  ejector  mechanism,  by  whidi  each  empty  cartridge^asr  is 
separately  and  automatically  thrown  out  c^  the  gun  when  the 
breech  is  opened,  the  necessary  force  bang  provided  by  the 
mainspring  of  the  lock.  W.  W.  Greener  axid  some  otha  gsn- 
makers  have  since  introduced  minor  modififations  and  iisprotv> 
ments  of  this  mechanism.  Next  in  turn  came  Perks  and  <sia 
inventors,  who  sq>arated  the  ejector  mechanism  from  the  kxk 
work.  This  very  decided  in^yrovement  is  univcrsa]  to-day. 
A  later  innovation  in  the  modem  breech-loader  b  the  am^ 
trigger  mechanism  introduced  by  some  of  the  leading  Eag!i^ 
gun-makers,  by  which  both  barrels  can  be  fired  in  saccesaoa 
by  a  single  trigger.  This  improvement  enables  both  bancb 
to  be  rapidly  fired  without  altering  the  grip  of  the  ri^  hiad, 
but  deprives  the  shooter  of  the  power  of  sriffrting  his  baocL 

Repeating  or  magazine  shot-guns  on  the  prindple  of  the 
repeating  rifle,  with  a  magazine  bebw  the  sinfl^  firing  hand, 
are  also  made  by  some  American  and  oontinc^al  ga^-makxa, 
but  as  yet  have  not  come  into  general  use,  being  coapuMtJxdtj 
cumbersome  and  not  well  balanced.  The  difficulty  of  a  s^ftiag 
balance  as  each  cartridge  is  fired  has  also  yet  to  be  uftemme- 
Several  varieties  of  a  combinaticin  rifle  aiKi  shot-gun  axe  also 
made,  for  a  description  of  which  sec  Rmx. 

The  chief  purposes  for  which  modem  shot-guns  are  reqsced 
are  game-shooting,  trap-shooting  at  pigeons  and  wild-lowiiac 
The  game  gun  may  be  any  bore  from  33  to  xo  saiige.    The  enal 
standard  bore  is  la  gauge  unless  it  be  for  a  boy,  when  it  is  so 
gauge.    The  usual  weight  of  the  X3-bore  double^amiled  gaase 
gun  is  from  6  to  7  lb  with  barrds  30  in.  kmg,  thetc,  howrvcr. 
being  a  present  tendency  to  barreb  <tf  a  shorter  length.    These 
bands  are  made  of  sted,  as  being  a  stronger  and  more 
geneous  material  than  the  barrds  f  mmerly  ptodnced,  which 
mostly  of  Damascus  pattem,  a  mixture  of  iron  and  stecL    Steel 
barrels,  drilled  from  the  solid  block,  were  originally  prodoced 
by  Whitworth.    To-day  the  makers  of  sted  for  this  porpoie 
are  many.    The  standsord  duuge  for  the  12-bore  is  42  gnos  of 
smokeleai  powder  and  i  os.  to  x|th  oc.  of  shot.    Powder  of  a 
lighter  gravimetric  density  is  occasionally  employed,  when  the 
wdght  of  the  charge  is  reduced  to  33  grains.    This  charge  of 
powder  correqx>nds  to  the  3  drams  oi  Uacfc  powder  foniiedT 
used.    The  ordinary  game  gun  should  have  a  kilfiagdrdeoc 
30  in.  at  30  yds.  with  the  first  barrd  and  at  40  y«b.  with  the 
second.    Improved  materials  and  methods  of  mannfactiire,  and 
what  is  known  as  "  choke  "  boring  of  the  barrds,  have  esablBd 
modem  gun-makers  to  regulate  the  shooting  of  guns  to  a  oiaety. 
Choke-boring  is  the  constriction  of  the  «<«^iw*>*«-  of  the  band 
near  the  muzzle,  and  was  known  in  America  in  the  eszly  part 
of  the  19th  century.    In  1875  Pape  et  Newcastle  was  cvaried 
a  prize  for  the  invention  of  choke-boring,  there  being  no  other 
claimant.    The  methods  oi  choke-boring  have  since  been  vazse^ 
and  improved  by  the  leading  F*ng1ish  gun-makers.    The  pigeon 
gun  is  usually  heavier  than  the  game  gun  and  more  choked.    It 
generally  weighs  from  7  to  8  lb.    Its  weight,  by  chtb  rafes.  -> 
frequently  restricted  to  7^  fb  and  its  bore  to  12  gauge.    The 
standard  wild-fowling  gun  is  a  double  &-bore  with  jo-in.  faartds 
weighing  15  lb.  and  firing  a  charge  of  7  drams  of  powder  asi 
2}  to  3  oz.  of  shot.    These  guns  are  also  made  in  both  saafltf  ar.d 
larger  varieties,  induding  a  single  barrd  4-bore,  whk^  is  the 
krgest  gun  that  can  be- used  from  the  ahoalder,  and 


GUNA-^GUNCOTTON 


721 


band  punt  guns  of  i|-iiL  bore,  weighing  100  lb.  While  no 
conspicuous  advance  in  improved  gun-mechanism  and  invention 
has  been  made  during  the  last  few  years/ the  materials  and 
methods  of  manufacture,  and  the  quality  and  exactitude  of  the 
gun-maker's  work,  have  continued  grviuaUy  and  steadily  to 
improve.  English,  and  particularly  London-made,  guns  stand 
pre-eminent  all  over  the -world.  (H.  S.-K.) 

OUNA«  a  town  and  militsx^^iation  in  Central  India,  in  the 
state  of  Gwalior.  Pop.  (1901)  11,^^53.  After  the  Mutiny,  it 
became  the  headquarters  of  the  Central  India  Horse,  whose 
commanding  officer  acts  a&.ez-officio  assistant  to  the  resident  of 
Gwalior;  and  its  trade  has  devebped  rapidly  since  the  opening 
of  a  station  on  a  branch  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsula  railway 
in  iSgg.  

QUNOOTTON,  an  explosive  substance  prodticed  by  the  action 
of  strong  nitric  acid  on  cellulose  at  the  ordinary  temperature; 
chemically  it  is  a  nitrate  of  cellulose,  or  a  mixture  of  nitrates, 
according  to  some  authorities.  The  first  step  in  the  history  of 
guncotton  was  made  by  T.  J.  Pelouze  in  1838,  who  observed  that 
when  paper  or  cotton  was  immersed  in  cold  concentrated  nitric 
add  the  materiab,  though  not  alter^  in  physical  appearance, 
became  heavier,  and  after  washing  and  drying  were  possessed 
of  self -explosive  properties.  At  the  time  these  products  were 
thought  to  be  related  to  the  nitrated  stardi  obtained  a  little 
previously  by  Henri  Braconnot  and  called  xyioidin;  they  are 
only  related  in  so  far  as  they  are  nitrates.  C.  F.  Schdnbein  of 
Basel  published  his  discovery  of  guncotton  in  1846  {PkiL  Mag, 
bif  3if  P-  7)1  Aiid  tills  w^  shortly  after  foUowed  by  investigations 
by  R.  R.  B(ittger  of  Frankfort  and  Otto  and  Knop,  all  of  whom 
added  to  our  knowledge  of  the  subject,  the  last-named  introducing 
the  use  of  sulphuric  along  with  nitric  add  in  the  nitration  process. 
The  chemical  composition  and  constitution  of  guncotton  has 
been  studied  by  a  considerable  number  of  chemists  and  many 
divergent  views  have  been  put  forward  on  the  subject.  W.  Crum 
was  probably  the  first  to  recognize  that  some  hydrogen  atoms 
of  the  cellulose  had  been  replaced  by  an  oxide  of  nitrogen,  and 
this  view  was-supported  more  or  less  by  other  workers,  especially 
Hadow,  who-appears  to  have  distinctly  recognized  that  at  least 
three  compoundi  were  present,  the  most  violently  explosive  of 
whidi  constituted  the  main  bulk  of  the  product  commonly 
obtained  and  known  as  guncotton.  This  particular  product  was 
insoluble  in  a  mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol,  and  its  composition 
could  be  expressed  by  the  term  tri-nitrocellulose.  Other  products 
were  soluble  in  the  ether-alcohol  mixture:  they  were  less 
highly  nitrated,  and  constituted  the  so-called  collodion  gun- 
cotton. 

The  smallest  empirical  formula  for  cellulose  (q.v.)  may  certainly 
be  written  C«Hi«Os.  How  much  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
are  in  the  hydroxylic  (OH)  form  cannot  be  absolutely  stated, 
but  from  the  study  of  the  acetates  at  least  three  hydroxyl  groups 
may  be  assumed.  The  oldest  and  perhaps  most  reasonable  idea 
represents  guncotton  as  cellulose  trinitrate,  but  this  has  been 
much  disputed,  and  various  formulae,  some  based  on  cellulose 
as  CtsHmOa*  others  on  a  still  more  complex  molecule,  have  been 
proposed.  The  constitution  of  guncotton  is  a  difficult  matter  to 
investigate,,  primarily  on  account  of  the  very  insoluble  nature 
of  cellulose  itself,  and  also  from  the  fact  that  comparatively 
slight  variations  in  the  concentration  and  temperature  of  the 
adds  used  produce  considerable  differences  in  the  products. 
The  nitrates  are  also  very  insoluble  substances,  all  the  so-called 
solvents  merely  converting  them  into  jelly.  No  method  has  yet 
been  devised  by  which  the  molecular  weight  can  be  ascertained.* 
The  products  of  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  cellulose  are  not 
nitro  compounds  in  the  sense  that  picric  add  is,  but  are  nitrates 
or  nitric  esters. 

Guncotton  is  made  by  immersing  deaned  and  dried  cotton 
waste  in  a  mixture  of  strong  nitric  and  sulphuric  adds.    The 

*Thc  composition  of  the  cellulose  nitrates  was  reviewed  by  G. 
Lunge  (Jour.  Anur.  Cktm.  Soc.,  1901, 23,  p.  527),  who,  asBuming  the 
fotmula  CmHaOm  for  cellulose,  thowisa  how  the  nitrocelluloses 
described  by  different  chemists  may  be  expressed  by  the  formula 
CtMrnJOmCSOOa*  where  x  has  the  values  4,  5. 6, . . .  I3. 


relative  amounts  of  the  adds  in  the  mixture  and  the  time  of 
duration  of  treatment  of  the  cotton  varies  somewhat  in  different 
works,  but  the  underlying  idea  is  the  same,  viz.  employing  such 
an  excess  of  sulphuric  over  nitric  that  the  latter  will  be  rendered 
anhydrous  or  concentrated  and  maintained  as  such  in  solution  in 
the  sulphuric  acid,  and  that  the  sulphuric  acid  shall  still  be  suffi- 
dently  strong  to  absorb  and  combine  with  the  water  produced 
during  the  actual  formation  of  the  guncotton.  In  the  recent 
methods  the  cotton  remains  in  contact  with  the  acids  for  two  to 
four  hours  at  the  ordinary  air  temperature  (15°  C),  in  which  time 
it  is  almost  fully  nitrated,  the  main  portion,  say  90%,  having 
a  composition  represented  by  the  formula*  C<H70i(N0i)a,  the 
remainder  consisting  of  lower  nitrated  products,  some  oxidation 
products  and  traces  of  unchanged  cellulose  and  cellulose 
sulphates.  The  add  is  then  slowly  run  out  by  an  opening  in  the 
bottom  of  the  pan  in  which  the  operation  is  conducted,  and  water 
distributed  carefully  over  its  surface  displaces  it  in  the  interstices 
of  the  cotton,  which  is  finally  subjected  to  a  course  of  boiling 
and  washing  with  water.  This  Washing  is  a  most  important  part 
of  the  process.  On  its  thoroughness  depends  the  removal  of 
small  quantities  of  products  other  than  the  nitrates,  for  instance, 
some  sulphates  and  products  from  impurities  contained  in  the 
original  cellulose.  Cellulose  sulphates  are  one,  and  possibly  the 
main,  cause  of  instability  in  guncotton,  and  it  is  highly  desirable 
that  th^  should  be  completely  hydrolysed  and  removed  in 
the  washing  process.  The  nitrated  product  retains  the  outward 
form  of  the  origin&l  cellulose.  In  the  course  of  the  washing, 
according  to  a  method  introduced  by  Sir  F.  Abel,  the  cotton  is 
ground  into  a  pulp,  a  process  which  greatly  facilitates  the 
complete  removal  of  adds,  &c.  This  pulp  is  finally  drained,  and 
is  then  either  compressed,  while  still  moist,  into  slabs  or  blocks 
when  required  for  blasting  purposes,  or  it  is  dried  when  required 
for  the  manufacture  of  propellants.  Sometimes  a  small  quantity 
of  an  alkali  {e.g.  sodium  carbonate)  is  added  to  the  final  washing 
water,  so  that  quantities  of  this  alkaline  substance  ranging  from 
o*5%  to  a  little  over  1%  are  retained  by  the  guncotton.  The 
idea  is  that  any  traces  of  add  not  washed  away  by  the  washing 
process  or  produced  later  by  a  slow  decomposition  of  the  sub- 
stance will  be  thereby  neutralized  and  rendered  harmless. 
Guncotton  in  an  air-dry  state,  whether  in  the  original  form  or 
after  grinding  to  pulp  and  compressing,  burns  with  very  great 
rapidity  but  does  not  detonate  unless  confined. 

Immediatdy  after  the  discovery  of  guncotton  Sch6nbein 
proposed  its  employment  as  a  sulMtitute  for  gunpowder,  and 
General  von  Lenk  carried  out  a  lengthy  and  laborious  series  of 
experiments  intending  to  adapt  it  especially  for  artillery  use. 
All  these  and  many  subsequent  attempts  to  utilize  it,  dther  loose 
or  mechanically  compressed  in  any  way,  signally  failed.  How- 
ever much  compressed  by  mechanical  means  it  is  still  a  porous 
mass,  and  when  it  is  confined  as  in  a  gun  the  flame  and  hot  gases 
from  the  portion  first  ignited  permeate  the  remkinder,  generally 
causing  it  actually  to  detonate,  or  to  bum  so  rapidly  that  its 
action  approaches  detonation.  The  more  dosdy  it  is  confined 
the  greater  is  the  pressure  set  up  by  a  small  part  of  the  charge 
burning,  and  the  more  completely  will  the  explosion  of  the 
remainder  assume  the  detonating  form.  The  employment  of 
guncotton  as  a  propellant  was  possible  only  after  the  discovery 
that  it  could  be  gelatinized  or  made  into  a  colloid  by  the  action 
of  so-called  solvents,  e.g.  ethylacetate  and  other  esters,  acetone 
and  a  number  of  like  substance^  (see  Cobdite). 

When  quite  dry  guncotton  is  easily  detonated  by  a  blow  on  an 
anvil  or  hard  surface.  If  dry  and  warm  it  is  much  more  sensitive  to 
percussion  or  friction,  and  also  becomes  electrified  by  friction  under 
those  conditions.  The  amount  of  contained  moisture  exerts  a  con- 
siderable effect  on  its  sensitiveness.  With  about  3  %  of  moisture  it 
can  still  be  detonated  on  an  anvil,  but  the  action  is  generally  confined 
to  the  piece  struck.  As  the  quantity  of  contained  water  increases  it 
becomes  difficult  or  even  impossible  to  detonate  by  an  ordinary 
blow.  Compressed  dry  guncotton  is  easily  detonated  by  an  initiative 
detonator  such  as  mercuric  fulminate.  Cuncotton  containing  more 
than  15  %  of  water  is  uninflammable,  may  be  compressed  or  worked 
without  danger  and  is  much  more  difficult  to  detonate  by  a  fulminate 

'This  formula  b  retained  mainly  on  account  of  its  simplidty. 
It  also  expresses  all  that  is  necessary  in  this  connexion. 

la 


722 


GUNDULICH— GUNNING 


detonator  than  when  dry.'  A  nnaU  cliaf:Ke  of  dry  euncotton  wtllp 
however,  detonate  the  wet  material,  and  this  peculiarity  ia  made 
use  of  in  the  employment  of  guncotton  for  bbutins  purposes.  A 
charge  of  compreMed  wet  guncotton  may  be  explooea,  even  under 
water,  by  the  detonation  of  a  small  primer  of  the  dry  and  water- 
proofed material,  which  in  turn  can  be  started  by  a  small  fulminate 
detonator.  The  explosive  wave  from  the  dry  guncotton  primer  is 
in  fact  better  responded  to  by  the  wet  compressed  material  than  the 
dry,  and  its  detonation  is  somewhat  sharper  than  that  of  the  dry. 
It  is  not  necessary  for  the  blocks  of  wet  guncotton  to  be  actually  m 
contact  if  they  be  under  water,  and  the  peculiar  explosive  wave 
can  also  be  conveyed  a  little  distance  by  a  piece  of  metal  such  as  a 
railway  mil.  The  more  nearly  the  compodtioo  of  guncotton 
approaches  that  represented  by  CtHiOi(NOi)i,  the  more  suble  is 
it  as  regards  storing  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  the  higher  the 
igniting  temperature.  Carefully  prepared  guncotton  after  washing 
with  akohot-ether  until  nothins  more  dissolves  may  require  to  be 
heated  to  180-185*  C.  before  inflaming.  Ordinary  commercial  gun- 
cottons,  containing  from  10  to  15%  of  lower  nitrated  products,  will 
^nite  as  a  rule  some  20-35*  lower. 

Assuming  the  above  formula  to  represent  guncotton,  there  ia 
suflBdent  oxygen  for  internal  combustion  without  any  carbon  being 
left.  The  gaseous  mixture  obtained  by  burning  guncotton  in  a 
vacuum  vessel  contains  steam,  carbon  monoxide,  carbon  dioxide, 
nitrogen,  nitric  oxide,  and  methane.  When  slowly  heated  In  a 
vacuum  vessel  until  ignition  takes  place,  soAie  nitrogen  dioxide,  NOh 
b  also  produced.  When  kept  for  some  weeks  at  a  temperature  of 
100*  in  steam,  a  considerable  number  of  fatty'acids,  some  bases,  and 
glucose-like  substances  result.  Under  different  pressures  the  relative 
amounts  o(  the  combustion  products  vary  considerably.  Under  very 
great  pressures  carbon  monoxide,  steam  and  nitrogen  are  the  main 
products,  but  nitric  oxide  never  quite  disappears. 

Dilute  mineral  acids  have  little  or  no  action  on  guncotton.  Strong 
sulphuric  add  in  contact  with  it  liberates  first  nitric  acid  and  later 
oxides  of  nitn^n,  leaving  a  charred  residue  or  a  brown  solution 
according  to  the  quantity  of  acid.  It  sometimes  fires  on  contact  with 
strong  sulphuric  acid,  especially  when  slightly  warmed.  The  alkali 
hydroxides  {e.g.  sodium  hydroxide)  will  in  a  solid  state  fire  it  on 
contact.  Strong  or  weak  solutions  of  these  substances  also  decom- 
pose it,  produang  some  alkali  nitrate  and  nitrite,  the  cellulose 
molecule  oeing  omy^  partially  restored,  some  quantity  undergoing 
oxidation.  Ammonia  is  also  active,  but  not  quite  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  alkali  hydroxides.  Dry  guncotton  nested  in  ammonia 
gas  detonates  at  about  70*,  and  ammomum  hydroxide  solutions  of  all 
strengths  slowly  decompose  it,  yielding  somewhat  complex  products. 
/Jkau  sulphohydrates  reduce  guncotton,  or  other  nitrated  celluloses, 
completely  to  cellulose.  The  production  of  the  so-called  "  artificial 
silk    depends  on  this  action. 

A  characteristic  difference  between  guncotton  and  collodion 
cotton  is  the  insolubility  of  the  former  in  ether  or  alcohol  or  a  mucture 
of  these  liquids.  The  so-called  collodion  cottons  are  nitrated 
celluloses,  but  of  a  lower  degree  of  nitration  (as  a  rule)  than  guncotton. 
They  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "  lower  or  "  s<4uble  "  cottons  or 
nitrates.  The  solubility  in  ether-alcohol  may  be  owing  to  a  lower 
degree  of  nitration,  or  to  the  temperature  conaitions  under  which  the 
process  of  manufacture  has  been  carried  on.  If  guncotton  be  correctly 
represented  by  the  formula  C«HrOt(NOi)i,  it  should  contain  a  little 
more  than  14%  of  nitrogen.  Guncottons  are  examined  for  degree 
of  nitration  bv  the  nitrometer,  in  which  apparatus  they  are  decom- 
posed by  sulpnuric  add  in  contact  with  mercury,  and  all  the  nitrogen 
IS  evolved  as  nitric  oxide,  NO,  which  is  measur<xi  and  the  wdght  oifts 
contained  nitrogen  calculated.  Ordinary  guncottons  seldom  contain 
more  than  13%  of  nitrc»en,  and  in  most  cases  the  amount  does  not 
exceed  i  a^s  %.  Generally  speaking,  the  lower  the  nitrogen  content  of 
a  guncotton,  as  found  by  the  nitrometer,  the  higher  the  percentage  of 
matters  soluble  in  a  mixture  of  ether-alcohol.  These  soluble  matters 
are  usually  considered  as  "  lower  "  nitrates. 

Guncottons  are  usually  tested  by  the  Abel  heat  test  for  stability 
(see  Cordite).  Another  heat  test,  that  of  Will,  consists  in  heating 
a  wdghed  quantity  of  the  guncotton  in  a  stream  of  carbon  dioxide 
to  130*  C,  passing  the  evolved  pases  over  some  red-hot  copper,  and 
finally  collecting  tnero  over  a  solution  of  potassium  hydroxide  which 
retains  the  carbon  dioxide  and  allows  the  nitrogen,  arising  from  the 
guncotton  decomposition,  to  be  measured.  This  is  done  at  definite 
time  intervals  so  that  the  rate  of  decomposition  can  be  followed. 
The  relative  stability  is  then  Judged  by  the  amount  of  nitrogen  gas 
collected  in  a  certain  time.  Several  modifications  of  this  and  of  th^ 
iU>el  heat  test  are  also  in  use.    (See  Ex  plosives.)    (W.  R.  E.  H.) 

QUNDULICH,  IVAN  (1588-1638).  known  also  as  Giovanni 
Gondola,  Servian  poet,  was  bom  at  Ragusa  on  the  8th  of  January 
1588.  His  father,  Franco  Gundulich,  once  the  Ragusan  envoy 
ta  Constantinople  and  councillor  of  the  republic,  gave  him  an 
excellent  education.  He  studied  the  "  humanities  "  with  the 
Jesuit,  Father  Muzzi,  and  philosophy  with  Father  RicaaoIL 
After  that  he  studied  Roman. law  and  jurisprudence  in  general. 
He  was  member  of  the  Lower  Council  and  once  served  as  the 

>  Air-dried  guncotton  will  conuin  a  *^  or  leas  of  rooisttire. 


chief  magistrate  of  the  republic  He  died  on  the  8th  of  December 
S638.  A  bom  poet,  he  admired  much  the  Italian  poets  of  his 
time,  from  whom  he  made  many  translations  into  Servian.  It 
is  believed  that  he  so  translated  Tasao's  Genaalemime  liberate. 
He  is  known  to  have  written  eighteen  works,  of  whiich  devcn 
were  dramas,  but  of  these  only  three  haVe  been  fully  preaenred. 
others  having  perished  during  the  great  earthquake  and  fire  in 
1667.  Most  of  thoae  dramas  were  translations  from  the  Italian, 
and  were  played,  seemingly  with  great  success,  by  the  amateurs 
furnished  by  the  noble  families  of  Ragusa.  But  his  greatest 
and  justly  celebrated  work  is  an  epic,  entitled  Osmam,  in  twenty 
cantos.  It  is  the  first  political  epic  on  the  Eastern  Question, 
glorifying  the  victory  of  the  Poles  over  TUrks  and  Tatars  in  the 
campaign  of  162 1,  and  encouraging  a  league  of  the  Christian 
nations,  under  the  guidance  of  Vladislaus,  the  king  of  Pioland, 
for  the  purpose  of  driving  away  the  Turks  from  Europe.  The 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cantos  are  lost.  It  is  generally  bdieved 
that  the  Ragusan  government  suppressed  them  from  considera- 
tion for  the  Sultan,  the  protebtor  of  the  republic,  those  two 
cantos  having  been  violently  anti-Turkish. 

Osman  was  printed  for  the  first  time  in  Ragusa  in  i8j6,  the  two 
missing  cantos  being  "replaced  b}r  soncs  written  by  Pietro  Sorgo  (or 
Sorkochevich).  From  this  edition  the  learned  Italian,  Francesco 
Appendint,  made  an  Italian  translation  published  in  1827.  Since 
that  time  several  other  editions  have  been  made.  The  best  are  000- 
sidered  to  be  the  edition  ol  the  South  Slavonic  Academy  in  Agram 
(1877)  and  the  edition  published  in  Semlin  (1889)  by  Prateasoc 
Yovan  Bodikovich.  In  the  edition  of  1844  (Agram)  the  last  cantos, 
fourteen  and  fifteen,  were  replaced  by  very  nne  oompoaitioiis  of  the 
Serbo-Croatian  poet,  Mazhuranich  (MaSuiam^).  The  oonpkte 
works  of  Gundulich  have  been  published  in  Agram,  1847,  by  V. 
Babukich  and  by  the  South  Slavonic  Academy  of  Agram  in  1880. 

(C.  Ml.) 

OUMO'U  J08BF  (18x0-1889),  Hungarian  composer  and 
conductor,  was  born  on  the  ist  of  December  x8xo,  at  Zs&mb^k, 
in  Hungary.  After  starting  life  as  a  schodi-teacher,  and  learning 
the  elements  of  music  from  Ofen,  the  schocd-cboirmastcr,  he 
became  first  oboist  at  Graz,  and,  at  twenty-five,  bandmaster  of 
the  4th  regiment  of  Austrian  artillery.  His  first  composition, 
a  Hungarian  march,  written  in  1836,  attracted  some  notice, 
and  in  1843  he  was  able  to  establish  an  orchestra  in  Berlin. 
With  this  band  he  travelled  far,  even  (in  1849)  to  America.  It  is 
worth  recording  that  Mendelssohn's  complete  Midsmmtmer 
Night* s  Dream  music  is  said  to  have  been  first  played  by  GungTs 
band.  In  1853  he  became  bandmaster  to  the  93rd  Infantry 
Regiment  at  Briinn,  but  in  X864  he  lived  at  Mimich,  and  in  1876 
at  Frankfort,  after  (in  1873)  having  conducted  with  great  success 
a  series  of  promenade  concerts  at  (^vcnt  Garden,  London.  From* 
Frankfort  Gung'l  went  to  Weimar  to  live  with  his  daughter, 
a  well-known  German  opera  singer  and  local  prima  donna. 
There  he  died,  on  the  3xst  of  January  1889.  Gungl's  dances 
number  over  300,  perhaps  the  most  popular  being  the  **  Amor- 
etten,"  "Hydropaten,"  "Casino,"  "Dreams  on  the  Ocean'* 
waltzes;  "In  Stiller  Mittemacht  "  polka,  and  "  Blue  Violets  " 
mazurka.  His  Hungarian  march  was  transcribed  by  Liszt. 
His  music  is  characterized  by  the  same  easy  flowing  melodies 
and  well-marked  rhythm  that  distinguish  the  dances  of  Strauss, 
to  whom  alone  he  can  .be  ranked  second  in  this  kind  of  cmn- 
position. 

QUNMBR,  or  Mastek  Gonnkr,  in  the  navy,  the  warrant 
officer  who  has  charge  of  the  ordnance  and  ammunition,  and 
of  the  training  of  the  men  at  gun  drill.  His  functiotts  in  this 
respect  are  of  less  relative  importance  than  they  were  in  former 
times,  when  specially  trained  corps  of  seamen  gunnecs  had  not 
been  formed.    

GUMNINO,  PBTBR  (16x4-1684),  English  divine,  was  bora  at 
Hoo,  in  Kent,  and  educated  at  the  King's  School,  Canterbuxy, 
and  CTlare  College,  C^ambridge,  where  he  became  a  fellow  in  1633. 
Having  taken  orflers,  he  advocated  the  royalist  cause  from  the 
pulpit  with  much  eloquence.  In  X644  he  retired  to  Oxford, 
and  held  a  chaplaincy  at  New  CcU^e  until  the  city  smxciMkred 
^o  the  parliamentary  forces  in  X646.  Subae<iuently  he  was 
chaplain,  first  to  the  royalist  Sir  Robert  Shirley  of  Eatington 
(x629-i6s6),  and  then  at  the  Exeter  House  chapd.  After  the 


GUNNY— GUNPOWDER 


723 


Restoiation  in  z66o  he  returned  to  dare  Colkge  as  master,  and 

was  appointed  Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity.    He  also 

received  the  livings  of  Cottesmore,  Rutlandshire,  and  Stoke 

Bmeme,  Northamptonshire.    In  x66i  he  became  head  of  St 

John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  elected  Regius  professor 

of  divinity.    He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Chichester  in  1669, 

and  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Ely  in  1674-1675.    Holding 

moderate  religious  views,  he  deprecated  alike  the  extremes 

represented  by  Puritanism  and  Roman  Catholicism. 

His  works  are  chiefly  reports  of  his  disputations,  such  as*that 
which  appears  in  the  Seitme  Unmask't  (Paris,  16^),  in  which  the 
definition  of  a  schism  b  discussed  with  two  Romanist  opponents. 

OmmY,  a  sort  of  doth,  the  name  of  which  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  ganga  or  gania  of  Rumphius,.  or  from  gorna,  a 
vernacular  name  of  the  Crotohria  juiuear-^  plant  common  in 
Madras.  One  of  the  fitst  notices  of  the  term  itself  is  to  be  found 
in  Knox's  Ceylon^  in  which  he  says: "  The  filaments  at  the  bottom 
of  the  stem  (coir  from  the  coco-nut  husk,  Cocos  nucifera)  may 
be  made  into  a  coarse  cloth  called  gunny,  which  is  used  for  bags 
and  similar  purposes." 

Warden,  in  The  lAnm  Trade,  says: 

"  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  iute  grown  in  Ben||^I  is  made  into 
cloth  in  the  dmncts  where  it  is  cultivated,  and  this  mdustry  forms 
the  grand  domestic  manufacture  of  all  the  populous  eastern  districts 
of  ^nsaL  It  pervades  all  classes,  and  penetrates  into  every  house- 
hold, almost  eveiy  one,  man,  woman  and  child,  being  in  some  way 
engaged  in  it.  Boatmen,  husbandmen,  palankeen  carriers,  domestic 
servants,  every  one,  in  fact,  being  Hindu— -for  Mussulmans  ^n  cotton 
only — pass  tMir  leisure  moments,  distaff  in  hand,  sptnmng  ^unny 
twist.  It  is  spun  by  the  takur  and  dhara,  the  former  being  a  land  of 
spindle,  which  is  turned  upon  the  thigh  or  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and 
tne  latter  a  reel,  on  which  the  thread,  when  sufficiently  twisted,  is 
wound  up.  Another  kind  of  spinning  machine,  called  a  gnurghurea.  is 
occasionally  used.  A  bunch  of  the  raw  material  is  hung  up  in  every 
farmer's  house,  or  on  the  protruding  stick  of  a  thatched  roof,  and 
every  one  who  has  leisure  forms  with  these  spindles  some  coarse 
pack-thread,  of  which  ropes  are  twisted  for  the  use  of  the  farm. 
Tlie  bwer  Hindu  castes,  from  this  pack-thread,  spin  a  finer  thread 
for  being  pade  into  ck>th,  and.  there  being  a  loom  in  nearly  every 
house,  very  much  of  it  is  woven  by  the  women  of  the  lower  class  of 
people.  It  is  especially  the  employment  of  the  Hindu  widow,  as  it 
enables  her  to  earn  her  bread  without  being  a  burden  on  her  family. 
The  cloth  thus  made  is  of  various  qualities,  such  as  clothing  for  the 
family  (.tapedaWy  the  women,  a  great  proportion  of  whom  on  all  the 
eastern  frontier  wear  almost  nothing  else),  coarse  fabrics,  bedding, 
rice  and  sugar  bs^.  sacking,  pack-sheet,  Ac  Much  of  it  is  woveninto 
short  lei^hs  ana  very  narrow  widths,  two  or  three  of  which  are  some- 
times sewed  into  one  piece  before  they  are  sold.  That  intended  for 
rice  and  sugar  bags  is  made  about  6  feet  long,  and  from  34  to  27  inches 
wide,  and  doubled.  A  considerable  quantity  of  jute  jrarn  is  dyed  and 
woven  into  cloth  for  various  local  purposes,  and  some  of  it  is  also 
sent  out  of  the  district.  The  prinapal  places  where.chotee,  or  jute 
doth  for  gunny  bags  is  made  are  within  a  radius  of  perhaps  150  to 
300  miles  around  Ebicca,  and  there  both  labour  and  land  are  remark- 
ably cheap.  The  short,  staple,  common  jute  is  generally  consumed  in 
the  local  manufacture,  the  finer  and  long  stapled  being  reserved  for 
the  export  trade.  These  causes  enable  gunny  doth  and  bags  to  be 
sold  almost  as  cheaply  as  the  raw  material,  which  creates  an 
immense  demand  for  them  in  nearly  eveiy  market  of  the  world." 

Such  appeared  to  be  the  definition  of  gunny  doth  at  the  time 
the  above  was  written — ^between  1850  and  x86a  Most  of  the 
Indian  doth  for  gunny  bags  Is  now  made  by  power,  and  within 
about  30  m.  of  Calcutta.  In  many  respects  the  term  gunny  doth 
is  still  apph'ed  to  all  and  sundry,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
original  name  was  intended  for  doth  which  was  similar  to  what 
is  now  known  as  "  cotton  bagging."  This  particular  type  of 
cloth  is  still  largely  made  in  the  hand  loom,  even  in  Dundee, 
this  method  of  manufacture  being  considered,  for  certain  reasons, 
more  satisfactory  than  the  power  loom  method  (see  Jute  and 
Bagging). 

QUMPOWDBR,  an  explosive  composed  of  saltpetre,  charcoal 
and  sulphur.  Very  few  substances  have  had  a  greater  effect 
on  dviUsation  than  gunpowder.  Its  employment  altered  the 
whole  art  of  war,  and  its  influence  graduaily  and  indirectly 
permeated  and  affected  the  whole  fabric  of  sodety.  Its  direct 
effect  on  the  arts  of  peace  was  but  slight,  and  had  but  a  limited 
range,  which  could  not  be  compared  to  the  modem  extended 
employment  of  high  txpUmve*  for  blasting  in  mining  and 
engineering  work* 


It  is  probably  quite  incorrect  to  speak  of  the  dUecttry  of 
gunpowder.  From  modem  researches  it  seems  more  likdy  and 
more  Just  to  think  of  it  as  a  thing  that  has  devdoped,  passing 
through  many  stages — ^mainly  of  improvement,  but  some 
undoubtedly  retrograde.  There  really  is  not  suffident  solid 
evidence  on  which  to  pin  down  its  invention  to  one  man.  As 
Lieutenant-Colbnd  H.  W.  L.  Wmt{GunpcioderandAmmwnU4m, 
1904)  says,  the  invention  of  gunpowder  was  impossible  unt3 
the  ph>perties  of  nearly  pure  saltpetre  had  become  known.  The 
honour,  however,  has  been  associated  with  two  names  in  par- 
ticular, Berthold  Schwartz,  a  (jerman  monk,  and  Friar  Roger 
Bacon.  Of  the  former  Oscar  Guttmann  writes  {Monumenta 
ptdveris  fyrii,  1904,  p.  6):  "  Berthold  Schwartz  was  generally 
considered  to  be  the  inventor  of  gunpowder,  and  only  in  EngUnd 
has  Roger  Bacon's  daim  been  upheld,  though  there  are  English 
writers  who  have  pleaded  in  favour  of  Schwartz.  Most  writers 
are  agreed  that  Schwartz  invented  the  first  fire-arms,  and  as 
nothing  was  known  of  an  inventor  of  gunpowder,  it  was  perhaps 
considered  justifiable  to  give  Schwartz  the  credit  thereof. 
There  is  some  ambiguity  as  to  when  Schwartz  lived.  The  year 
1354  is  sometimes  mentioned  as  the  date  of  his  inveiition  of 
powder,  and  this  is  also  to  be  inferred  from  an  inscription  on 
the  monument  to  him  in  Frdburg.  But  considering  there  can 
be  no  doubt  as  to  the  manufacture  in  EngUnd  of  gunpowder 
and  cannon  in  1344,  that  we  have  authentic  information  of 
guns  in  France  in  1338  and  in  Florence  in  1336,  and  that  the 
Oxford  MS.  De  officiis  regum  of  1335  gives  an  illustration  of  a 
gun,  Berthold  Schwartz  must  have  Ijved  long  before  1354  to 
have  been  the  inventor  of  gunpowder  or  guns."  In  Germany 
also  there  were  powder-works  at  Augsburg  in  1340,  in  Spandau 
in  X344,  and  Liegnitz  in  1348. 

Roger  Bacon,  in  his  i>e  mirabUi  pcUsMe  artis  d  naturat 
(1343),  makes  the  most  important  communication  on  the  histo^ 
of  gunpowder.  Reference  is  made  to  an  explosive  mixture  as 
known  before  his  time  and  empk>yed  for  "  diversion,  produdng 
a  noise  like  thunder  and  flashes  like  lightning."  In  one  passage 
Bacon  speaks  of  saltpetre  as  a  violent  explosive,  but  there  is 
no  doubt  that  he  knew  it  was  not  a  self-esqilosive  substance, 
but  only  so  when  mixed  with  other  substances,  as  appears  from 
the  statement  in  De  sccretis  operihus  artis  et  nakirae,  printed 
at  Hamburg  in  1618,  that  "  from  saltpetre  and  other  ingxedients 
we  are  able  to  make  a  fire  that  shall  bum  at  any  distance  we 
please."  A  great  part  of  his  three  chapters,  9,  xo,  xx,  long 
appeared  without  meaning  until  the  anagrammatic  nature  (^ 
the  sentences  was  realized.  The  words  of  this  anagram  are 
(chap,  xi): "  Item  ponderis  totum  30  sed  tamen  salis  petrae  Ittru 
90 po  vir  can  uiri^  et  sulphuris;  et  sic  fades  tonitraum  et  corasca- 
tionem,  si  sdas  artifidum.  Videas  tamen  utrum  loquar  aenig- 
mate  aut  secundum  veritatem."  Hime,  in  his  chapter  on  the 
origin  of  gunpowder,  discunes  these  chapters  at  length,  and  gives, 
omitting  the  anagram,  the  translation:  "  Let  the  total  weight 
of  the  ingredients  be  30,  however,  of  saltpetre  ...  of  sulphur; 
and  with  such  a  mixture  you  will  produce  a  bright  flash  and  a 
thundering  jioise,  if  you  know  the  trick.  You  may  find  (by 
actual  experiment)  whether  I  am  writing  riddles  to  you  or  the 
plain  troth."  The  anagram  reads,  according  to  Hime,  "  salis 
petrae  r(edpe)  vii  part(es),  v  iK>v(eIlae)  corul(i),  v  et  sulphuris  " 
(take  seven  parts  of  saltpetre,  five  of  young  hazel-wood,  and  five 
of  sulphur).  Hime  thc»  goes  on  to  show  that  Bacon  was  in 
possession  of  an  explosive  which  was  a  oonsideTable  advance  on 
mere  incendiary  compositions.  Bacon  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  aware  of  the  projecting  power  of  gunpowder.  He  knew 
that  it  exploded  and  that  perhaps  people  nught  be  blown  up  or 
frightened  by  it;  more  cannot  be  said.  The  behaviour  of  small 
quantities  of  any  explosive  is  hardly  ever  indicative  of  its 
behaviour  in  Urge  quantities  and  espedally  when  under  con- 
finement. Hime  is  of  opinion  that  Bacon  blundered  upon 
gunpowder  whilst  pUying  with  some  incendiary  composition, 
such  as  those  mentioned  by  Marcus  Graecus  and  others,  in  which 

*  These  woids  were  eincitdcd  by  some  authors  to  read  Inru  mope 
can  «frre,  the  letters  of  which  can  be  arranged  to  give  pnkere  car* 
eenwnm 


72+ 


GUNPOWDER 


he  employed  his  comparatively  pure  saltpetre  instead  of  crude 
nltrum.  It  has  been  suggested  that  Bacon  derived  his  knowledge 
of  these  fiery  miitures  from  the  MS.  Uber  ignium,  ascribed  to 
Marcus  Graecus,  in  the  National  Library  in  Paris  (Dutens, 
Enquiry  into  Origin  of  Discoveries  aUributei  to  Modems). 
Certainly  this  Marcus  Graecus  appears  to  have  knovn  of  some 
incendiary  composition  containing  the  gunpowder  ingredients, 
but  it  was  not  gunpowder.  Hime  seems  to  doubt  the  existence 
of  any  such  person  as  Marcus  Graecus,  as  he  says:  "  The  Liber 
tgnium  was  written  from  first  to  last  in  the  period  of  literary 
forgeries  and  pseudographs  .  .  .  and  we  nuiy  reasonably 
oondude  that  Marcus  Graecus  is  as  unreal  as  the  imaginary 
Greek  original  of  the  tract  which  bears  his  name."  Albertus 
Magnus  in  the  De  mirabilibus  mundi  repeats  some  of  the  receipts 
given  in  Marcus  Graecus,  and  several  other  writers  give  receipts 
for  Greek  fire,  rockets,  &c.  Dutens  gives  many  passages  in  his 
work,  above-named,  from  old  authors  in  support  of  his  view 
that  a  composition  of  the  nature  of  gunpowder  was  not  unknown 
to  the  ancients.  Hime's  elaborate  arguments  go  to  show  that 
these  compositions  could  only  have  been  of  the  incendiary  type 
and  not  real  explosives.  His  arguments  seem  to  hold  good  as 
regards  not  only  the  Greeks  but  also  the  Arabs,  Hindus  and 
Chinese  (see  alM  Fireworks). 

There  seems  no  doubt  that  incendiary  compositions,  some 
perhaps  containing  nitre,  mostly,  however,  simply  combustible 
substances  as  sulphur,  naphtha,  resins,  &c.,  were  employed  and 
projected  both  for  defence  and  offence,  but  they  were  projected 
or  blown  by  engines  and  not  by  themselves.  It  is  quite  incon- 
ceivable that  a  real  propelling  explosive  should  have  been 
known  in  the  time  of  Alexander  or  much  later,  and  not  have 
immediately  taken  its  proper  place.  In  a  chapter  discussing 
this  question  of  explosives  amongst  the  Hindus,  Hime  says; 
"  It  is  needless  to  enlarge  the  list  of  quotations:  incendiaries 
ptirsued  much  the  same  course  in  Upper  India  as  in  Greece  and 
Arabia."  No  trustworthy  evidence  of  an  explosive  in  India  is 
to  be  found  until  the  axst  of  April  1526,  the  date  of  the  decisive 
battle  of  Panipat,  in  which  Ibrahim,  sultan  of  Delhi,  was  killed 
and  his  army  routed  by  Baber  the  Mogxil,  who  possessed  both 
great  and  small  fire-arms. 

As  regards  also  the  crusader  period  (1097-1291),  so  strange 
and  deadly  an  agent  of  destruction  as  gunpowder  could  not 
possibly  have  been  employed  in  the  field  without  the  full  know- 
ledge of  both  parties,  yet  no  historian.  Christian  or  Moslem, 
alludes  to  an  explosive  of  any  kind,  while  all  of  them  carefully 
record  the  use  of  incendiaries.  The  employment  of  rockets 
and  "  wildfire  "  incendiary  composition  seems  undoubtedly  of 
very  old  date  in  India,  but  the  names  given  to  pieces  of  artillery 
under  the  Mogul  conqueror  of  Hindustan  point  to  a  European, 
or  at  least  to  a  Turkish  origin,  and  it  is  quite  certain  that 
Europeans  were  retained  in  the  service  of  Akbar  and  Aurangzeb. 
The  composition  of  present  day  Chinese  gunpowder  is  almost 
identical  with  Uiat  employed  in  Europe,  so  that  in  all  probability 
the  knowledge  of  it  was  obtained  from  Western  sources. 

In  the  writings  of  Bacon  there  is  no  mention  of,  guns  or  the 
use  of  powder  as  a  propellant,  but  merely  as  an  explosive  and 
destructive  power.  Owing  perhaps  to  this  obscurity  hanging 
over  the  early  history  of  gunpowder,  its  employment  as  a 
propelling  agent  has  been  ascribed  to  the  Moors  or  Saracens. 
J.  A.  Conde  {Historia  de  la  dominacion  de  los  Arabes  en  BspaOa) 
states  that  Ismail  Ben  Firaz,  king  of  Granada,  who  in  1325 
besieged  Boza,  had  among  his  machines  "  some  that  cast  globes 
of  fire,"  but  there  is  not  the  least  evidence  that  these  were  guns. 
The  first  trustworthy  document  relative  to  the  use  of  gun- 
powder in  Europe,  a  document  still  in  existence,  and  bearing  date 
February  xi,  1326,  gives  authority  to  the  coimcil  of  twelve  of 
Florence  and  others  to  appoint  persons  to  superintend  the 
manufacture  of  cannons  of  brass  and  iron  balls,  for  the  defence 
of  the  territory,  &c.,  of  the  republic.  John  Barbour,  arch- 
deacon of  Aberdeen,  writing  in  1375,  states  that  cannons  (crakys 
of  war)  were  employed  in  Edward  III.'s  invasion  of  Scotland 
in  1327.  An  indenture  first  published  by  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas 
in  his  History  of  the  Royal  Navy  (London,  1846),  and  again  by 


Lieutenant-Colonel  H.  Brackenbury  {Froc,  R.A.  insL,  1865), 
stated  to  be  1338,  contains  references  to  smaD  caimon  as  vuoag 
the  stores  of  the  Tower,  and  also  menti<ms  "  un  petit  baneil  de 
gonpoudre  le  quart'  plein."  If  authentic,  this  iB  possibly  the 
first  mention  of  gunpowder  as  such  in  Eng^d,  but  some  doubts 
-have  been  thrown  upon  the  date  of  this  MS.  From  a  contem- 
porary document  in  the  National  Library  in  Paru  it  seems  that 
in  the  same  year  (1338)  there  existed  in  the  marine  arsenal  at 
Rouen  an  iron  weapon  called  ^  de  feu,  for  propelling  bolls, 
together  with  some  saltpetre  and  sulphtir  to  make  powder  for 
the  same.  Preserved  in  the  Record  Office  in  London  are  trust- 
worthy accoxm.ts  from  the  year  1345  of  the  purchase  (rf  ingredients 
for  making  powder,  and  of  the  shipping  of  cannon  to  France. 
In  1346  Edward  III.  ai^>ears  to  have  ordered  all  availafak 
saltpetre  and  sulphur  to  be  bou^t  up  for  htm.  In  the  first 
year  of  Richard  II.  (ir377)  Thontas  Norbuxy  was  ordered  to  bar, 
amongst  other  munitions,  sulphur,  saltpetre  and  charcoal,  to 
be  sent  to  the  castle  of  Brest.  In  14x4  Henry  V.  wdercd 
that  no  gunpowder  should  be  taken  out  of  the  kingdom 
without  special  licence,  and  in  the  same  year  ordettd  twenty 
pipes  of  willow  charcoal  and  other  aiticU^  for  the  use  of  the 
gxms. 

The  manufacture  of  gunpowder  seems  to  have  been  carrwd 
on  as  a  crown  monopoly  about  the  time  of  EliaUbeth,  and 
regulations  respecting  gunpowder  and  nitre  weere  made  about 
X623  (James  I.).  Powder-mills  were  probably  in  ezisteDce  at 
Waltham  Abbey  about  the  middle  or  towards  the  end  of  the 
x6th  century. 

Ingredients  and  tkeir  Action. — Ronger  Bacon  in  his  anagrara  givct 
the  first  real  recipe  for  eunpowder.  vu.  (according  to  Hime,  di.  ziL) 
saltpetre  41*2,  cnarcofll  29-4,  sulphur  a9'4.  Dr  John  Ardeme  o£ 
Newark,  who  began  to  practise  about  1350  and  was  later  surseoo  to 
Henry  IV.,  gives  a  reape  (Sloane  MSS.  3^5.  79s).  aaltpetre  66^ 
charcoal  a2-2,  sulphur  ii'i,  "  which  are  to  be  thoroi^Iy  mised  tw 
a  marble  and  then  sifted  through  a  doth."  This  powder  b  nominaOy 
of  the  same  composition  as  one  given  in  a  MS.  of  Marcus  Grsectts, 
but  the  saltpetre  of  this  formula  by  Marcus  Graecas  was  undoubtedly 
answerable  for  the  difference  in  behaviour  of  the  two  composttiofl& 
Roger  Bacon  had  not  only  refined  and  obtained  pure  nitre,  but  had 
appreciated  the  importance  of  thoiXMigbly  mixing  the  ctunponents  of 
the  powder.  ^  Most  if  not  all  the  early  powder  was  a  "  loose  "  mixture 
of  tne  three  ingredients,  and  the  most  important  step  in  coonrxioa 
with  the  development  of  gunpowder  was  undoubtedly  tbe  introduc- 
tion oi  wet  mixing  or  "  incorporating."  Whenever  this  was  done,  the 
improvement  in  the  product  must  nave  been  immediateiy  evident. 
In  the  damp  or  wetted  state  pressure  could  be  applied  with  ccmipara- 
tive  safety  during  the  mixing.  The  loose  powder  mixture  cane  to  be 
called  "  serpentine  " ;  after  wet  mixing  it  was  more  or  less  granu- 
lated or  corned  and  was  known  as  "  corned  "  powdo*.  Corned  powder 
seems  to  have  been  gradually  introduced.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
Fire  Book  of  Conrad  von  Schdngau  (in  1420),  and  was  used  for  hand- 
guns in  England  long  before  156a  It  would  seem  that  corned  powder 
was  used  for  hand-guns  or  small  arms  in  the  15th  century,  but  ranaoo 
were  not  made  strong  enough  to  withstand  its  explosiott  for  quite 
another  century  (Hime).  According  to  the  same  writer,  in  tbe  period 
1 250-1450.  when  serpentine  only  was  used,  one  powder  could  differ 
f  rom  another  in  the  proportions  of  the  ingredients:  in  the  modon 
period — say  i70O-i886--the  powders  in  use  (in  each  8tate)dtfered 
only  as  a  general  rule  in  the.sixe  of  the  crain.  whilst  during  the  trmnsi- 
tion  period — M50-1 700— they  generally  differed  both  m  mmposK 
tion  and  uze  of  grain. 

Corned  or  grained  powder  was  adopted  in  France  in  xsas,  and  in 
1540  the  French  utilised  an  observation  that  laige-grained  powder 
was  the  best  for  cannon,  and  restricted  the  manofactare  to  three  son 
of  grain  or  corn,  possibly  of  the  same  composition.  Early  in  the  i8th 
century  two  or  three  sizes  of  grain  and  powder  of  one  conpostioo 
appear  to  have  become  common.  The  composition  of  luigli^ 
powder  seems  to  have  settled  down  to  75  nitre.  15  diancaa],  maA  zo 
sulphur,  somewhere  about  tbe  middle  of  the  18th  century. 

The  composition  of  gunpowders  used  in  different  coantii»  at 
different  times  is  illustrated  in  the  flawing  tables: — 


Entjlish  Powders  {Bime). 

1250. 

1350. 

1560. 

1647. 

1670. 

1742. 

1781. 

Saltpetre    . 
Charcoal    . 
Sulphur 

41-2 

294 
29-4 

66-6 

22*2 

50-0 

66-6 
i6-6 
166 

714 
14-3 
14-3 

750 
ia*5 

12-5 

7$-o 
X5-0 
xo^» 

>  Thb  represents  the  composition  of  English  powder  at  nresrat, 
and  no  doubt  it  has  remained  the  same  for  a  longer  tune  than  tbe 
above  date  indicates. 


GUNPOWDER. 


725 


Fortigm  Powders  (Hme). 


France. 

Sweden. 

Germany. 

Denmark. 

France. 

Sweden. 

Germany. 

1338. 

iS6a 

1595. 

I606. 

1650. 

1697. 

1883. 

Saltpetre    . 
Charcnal    . 
Salphur 

«5 

66^6 
i6-6 
16-6 

M-a 

ad-i 
ai'7 

68-3 
23-2 

8-5 

75-6 
13*6 
IO-8 

73 
X7 
10 

7« 
1' 

*  Brown  or  coco-powder  for  large  chari^  in  nna.    The  charcoal  k  not  bnmt  black  but  roasted 
until  brown,  and  is  made  from  tome  variety  01  straw,  not  wood. 

When  reasonably  pure,  none  of  the  ingredients  of  gunpowder 
absorbs  any  matenai  quantity  of  moisture  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  the  mtre  <mly  b  a  soluble  substance.  It  seems  extremely 
probable  that  for  a.  long  period  the  three  substances  were  simply 
mixed  dry,  indeed  sometimes  kept  sepantte  and  mixed  just  before 
being  required;  the  consequence  must  have  been  that,  with  every 
care  as  to  weiighing  out,  the  proportions  of  any  given  9uantity 
would  akcr  on  carriage.  Saltpetre  is  considerably  heavier  than 
sulphur  or  charcoal,  aund  would  tend  to  separate  out  towards  the 
bottom  of  the  containing  vessel  if  subjected  to  jolting  or  vibration. 
When  pure  there  can  only  tw  one  kind  of  saltpetre  or  sulphur, 
because  they  are  chemical  mdividuals,  but  charcou  is  not.  Its  com- 
position,  rate  of  burning,  &c.,  depend  not  only  on  the  nature  of  the 
woody  material  from  which  it  is  made,  but  quite  as  much  on  the 
temperature  and  time  of  heating  employed  in  the  making.  The  woods 
from  which  it  is  made  contain  cartMn,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and 
the  two  latter  ace  never  thoroughly  expelled  in  charcoal'making. 
If  they  were,  the  resulting  substance  would  be  of  no  use  for  gun- 
powder. 1-3%  of  hydrogen  and  8-15%  of  oxygen  generally 
remain  in  cnarcoab  suitable  for  gunpowder.  A  good  deal  of  tM 
fieriness  and  violence  of  explosion  of  a  gunpowder  depends  on  the 
mode  of  burning  of  the  charcoal  as  well  as  on  the  wood  from  whidi 
it  is  made. 

Properties  of  It^edieiUs. — Charcoal  b  the  chief  combustible  in 
powder.  It  must  Dum  freely,  leaving  as  little  ash  or  residue  as 
possible;  it  must  be  friable,  and  grind  into  a  non-gritty  powder. 
The  sources  from  which  powder  charcoal  is  made  are  dogwood 
(FJumnMS  fraMpda)^  willow  {Salix  alba),  and  alder  (Betula  almu). 
Dogwood  b  mainly  used  for  small-arm  powders.  Powden  made  from 
dogwood  charcoal  bum  more  rapidly  than  those  from  willow,  Ac 
The  wood  after  cutting  is  stripped  of  bark  and  allowed  to  season  for 
two  or  three  years.  It  b  then  picked  to  uniform  sise  and  charred  in 
cylindrical  iron  cases  or  slips,  which  can  be  introduced  into  slightly 
larger  cylindera  set  in  a  lumaoe.  The  slips  are  provided  with 
openings  for  the  escape  of  jsases.  The  rate  oi  heating  as  wdl  as  the 
amolute  temperature  attauied  have  an  e£Fect  on  the  product,  a  slow 
rate  of  heating  yidding  more  charcoal,  and  a  high  temperature 
reducing  the  hydrogen  and  oi^jjen  in  the  final  product.  When  heated 
for  seven  houn  to  about  800  C.  to  900"  C.  the  remaining  hydro^n 
and  oxyjien  amount  to  about  2  %  and  la  %  respectively.  The  time 
of  charring  b  as  a  rule  from  5  to  7  hours.  The  slips  are  then  removed 
from  the  furnace  and  placed  in  a  lar]^  iron  vessel,  where  they  are 
kept  comparatively  air-tight  until  quite  cold.  The  charcoal  b  then 
sorted,  and  stored  for  some  time  before  ^nding.  The  charcoal  b 
ground,  and  the  powder  sifted  on  a  rotating  reel  or  cylinder  of  fine 
mesh  copper-wire  gauze.  The  sifted  powder  b  again  stored  for 
some  time  before  use  in  closed  iron  vesseb. 

Sicilian  sulphur  b  most  generally  employed  for  gunpowder,  and 
for  complete  purification  b  first  distilled  and  then  melted  and  cast 
into  moulds.  It  b  afterwards  ground  into  a  fine  powder  and  sifted 
as  in  the  case  of  the  charcoal. 

Potassium  nitrate  b  eminently  suitable  as  an  oxygen-provider, 
not  being  ddkiuesoent.  Nitrates  are  c«mtinually  being  produced  in 
surface  soils,  ftc,  by  the  oxidation  of  nitrogenous^  substanna. 
Nitric  and  nitrous  aods  arc  also  produced  by  electric  discharges 
through  the  atmos|>here,  and  these  are  found  eventually  as  nitrates 
in  soils,  Ac  Nitre  b  soluble  in  water,  and  much  more  so  in  hot  thui 
in  cold.  Crude  nitre,  obtained  from  scnb  or  other  sources,  b  purified 
by  recrystallixation.  The  crude  material  b  dissolved  almost  to 
saturation  in  bmling  water:  on  filtering  and  then  cooling  thb  liquor 
to  about  30"  C.  almost  pure  nitre  crystallizes  out,  most  of  the  usual 
im purities  still  remaining  in  solution.  By  rapidly  cooling  and  agitat- 
ing the  nitre  solution  crystab  are  obtained  01  sufficient  fineness  for  the 
manufacture  of  powder  without  spedal  grinding.  Nitre  contains 
nearly  48  %  of  oxygen  by  weiKht,  five<<ixths  of  friuch  b  available  for 


The  mechanical  actbn  of  rollen  00 
the  powder  paste  b  a  double  one: 
QOt  only  crushing  but  mixing  by 
pushing  forwards  and  twisting  side- 
waysu  The  pasty  mass  b  deflected  so 
that  it  repeatedly  comes  under  first  one 
roller  and  then  the  next  by  scrapen, 
set  at  an  angle  to  the  bed,  which  fdlow 
each  wheel 

Although  the  charge  b  wet  it  b 

possible  for  it  to  be  fired  either  by  the 

neat  developed  by  the  roller  friction,  by 

narks  from  foreign  matters^  as  tuts  of 

Ac,  or  poanbly  by  neat  generated  by  oxidation  of  the 

materials.    The  miUs  are  providra  with  a  drenching  apparatus 

so  arranged  that  in  case  of  one  mill  firing  it  and  its  neigh- 

boun  will  be  drowned  by  water  from  a  cistern  or  tank  immedbtely 

above  the  mill.    The  product  from  the  incorporation  b  termed 

"null-cake."  * 

After  thb  incorporation  in  the  damp  state  the  ingredients  never 
completely  separate  on  drying,  however  much  shaken,  because  each 
particle  of  mtre  b  surroundra  by  a  thin  byer  of  water  containing 
nitre  in  solution  in  which  the  particles  of  charcoal  and  sulphur  are' 
entangled  and  retained.  After  due  incorporation,  powden  are 
pressed  to  a  certain  extent  whilst  still  moist.  ^  The  density  to  which 
a  powder  ispressed  b  an  important  matter  in  regard  to  the  rate  of 
burning.  The  e£Fect  of  high  density  b  to  slow  down  the  initbl  rate 
of  burning.  Less  dena^  powdere  burn  more  rapidly  from  the  first' 
and  tend  to  put  a  great  strain  on  the  gun.  Fouling  b  usually  less 
with  denser  powden:  and,  as  would  be  expected,  such  powden  bear 
transport  better  and  give  less  dust  than  light  powders.  Up  to  a 
certain  pressure,  hardness,  density,  and  size  of  grain  of  a  powder 
have  an  e£Fect  on  the  rate  of  burning  and  therefore  on  pressure. 
GLuing  or  polbhing  powder  grains,  also  exerts  a  slight  retarding 
action  on  burning  and  enable  the  powden  to  resist  atmospheric 
moisture  better.  Excess  of  moisture  in  gunpowder  has  a  marked 
effect  in  reducing  the  ei^oaiveness.  All  powden  are  Ibble  to 
absorb  moisture,  the  quality  and  kind  of  charcoal  being  the  main 
determinant  in  thb  respect;  hard  burnt  black  charcoal  b  least 
absorbent.  The  material  employed  in  brown  powden  absorbs 
moisture  somewhat  readily.  Powder  kept  in  a  very  damp  atmo- 
sphere, and  especially  in  a  changeable  one,  spoils  rapidly,  the  salt- 
Ktre  coining  to  the  surface  in  smution  and  then  crystallising  out. 
The  pieces  also  breaJc  up  owing  to  the  formation  01  Urge  crystab 
of  nitre  in  the  mass.  Alter  the  pressing  of  the  incorporated  powder 
into  a  "  press-cake,"  it  b  broken  up  6r  granubted  by  suitable 
machines,^  and  the  resulting  grains  separated  and  sorted  by  sifting 
through  sieves  of  determined  sizes  of  mesh.  Some  dust  b  formed 
in  thb  operation,  which  b  sifted  away  and  again  worked  up  under 
the  rollen  (for  sizes  of  grains  see  fi|[.  l).  These  grainsj  cubes,  Ac, 
are  then  either  polished  oy  rotating  in  drums  alone  or  with  graphite, 
which  adheres  to  and  coats  the  surfaces  of  the  grains.  This  process 
!. ijy  followed  with  powden  intended  for  small-arms  or 


combustion  purposes,  rf  early  all  the  gases  of  the  powder  explooon 
are  derived  from  the  nitre.  The  specific  gravity  ol  nitre  b  3*2 :  aoo 
eraras  will  therefore  occupy  about  100  cubic  centimetres  volume. 
Thb  quantity  on  its  decomposition  by  heat  alone  yickls  38  grams  or 
33,400  c.c.  ofnitrogen,  and  do  grains  or  56,000  cc.  of  oxygen  as  gases, 
and  94  grams  of  potassium  oxide,  a  fusible  solid  whicn  vaporizes 
at  a  very  high  temoerature. 

Inccf^artUion. — The  materiab  are  weighed  out  separately,  mixed 
by  passing  through  a  sieve,  and  then  uniformly  moistened  with  a 
certain  Quantity  of  water,  whilst  on  the  bed  of  the  incorporating 
mtlL  Thb  consists  of  two  heavy  iron  wheeb  inounted  so  as  to 
run  in  a  circular  bed.    The  incorporation  requires  about  four  hours. 


IS  get 

moderately  small  ordnance. 

Shaped  Powders. — Prisms  or  prismatic  powder  are  made  by 
breaking  up  the  press<atc  into  a  moderately  fine  sUte,  whilst  stiu 
moist,  and  pressing  a  certain  quantity  in  a  mould.  The  moulds 
generdly  employed  consist  of  a  thick  pbte  of  bronze  in  which  are 
a  number  oc  hexagonal  perforations.  Accurately  fitting  plungen 
are  so  applied  to  thcae  that  one  can  enter  at  the  top  and  tne  other 
at  the  bottom.  The  lower  plunger  being  withdrawn  to  the  bottom 
of  the  plate  the  hexagonal  hole  is  charged  with  the  powder  and  the 
two  plungjere  set  in  motion,  thus  compressing  the  powder  between 
them.  After  the  desired  pressure  has  been  applied  the  top  |>lun|;er 
b  withdrawn,  and  the  bwer  one  pushed  upward  to  eject  the  pnsm 
of  powder.  The  axial  perforations  in  prism  powdere  are  made  by 
small  bronze  rods  which  pass  through  the  lower  plunger  and  fit 
into  corresponding  holes  in  the  upper  one.  If  these  prisms  are 
made  by  a  steadily  applied  pressure  a  iiensity  throughout  of  about 
1*78  may  be  obtained.  Further  to  regubte  the  rate  of  burning  so 
that  it  shall  be  slow  at  fint  and  more  rapid  as  the  powder  b  con- 
sumed, another  form  of  machine  was  devised,  the  cam  press,  in  which 
the  pressure  b  applied  very  rapidly  to  the  powder.  It  receives  in 
fact  one  blow,  which  compresses  the  powder  to  the  same  dimensions, 
but  the  density  of  the  outer  Uyere  of  substamx  of  the  prism  b  much 
grester  than  in  the  interior. 

The  leading  idea  in  connexion  with  all  shaped  powder  grains, 
and  with  the  very  Uiige  sizes,  was  to  regubte  the  rate  of  burning  so 
as  to  avoid  extreme  pressure  when  first  ignited  and  to  keep  up  the 
pressure  in  the  gun  as  more  space  was  provided  in  the  chamber  or 
tube  by  the  movement  of  the  shot  towards  the  muzzle.  In  the 
perforated  prismatic  powder  the  ignition  is  intended  to  proceed 
through  the  perforations;  since  in  a  charge  the  faces  of  the  prisms 
fit  pretty  closely  together,  it  was  thousnt  that  thb  arrangement 
would  orevcnt  unbumt  cores  or  pieces  of  powder  from  being  blown 
out.  These  larger  grain  powden  necessitated  a  lengthened  Dore  to 
take  advantage  of  the  slower  production  of  gases  and  complete 
combustion  of  the  powder.  General  T.  J.  Rodman  first  suggested 
and  employed  the  perforated  cake  cartridge  in  i860,  the  cake  Mvlng 
riy  the  dbmeter  of  the  bore  and  a  thickness  oif  i  to  a  in. 


i(  pmllcl  with  ihc 


726 

'^^^^ 

1^^,  «„  ^i„-c«,™i«  »  ..iii  .h.n  W  di.li  -^ 

ni  obtainrd.  Tliu  cflict  cl  Aeduniul  deuiiy  as  ntc  oi  burning 
H  niod  only  up  10  *  «nain  pniHiR.  ibow  >hicli  iIk  ojo  an: 
dnvtn  thrwih  ihe  dcninl  rorm  o(  tniiulu  nilerUl  Mtrr 
mnuUling  or  frnvng  imo  tbapH.  airpcwdert  inijH  be  dricfj^ 
ThH  u  done  by  hcaliog  in  tpccully  vcnIiUled  roonu  huinl  by 
Atom  pipn.  Ai  A  rule  tbu  ciryjnft  u  (ollowcd  by  ihe  AnikhLnB  or 
polish Ini  pnxm.     Pawdtn  arc  firully  h^ixM,  m.^iku  iToni 


GUNPOWDER 


hydroscopic  tcit  con4i^r»  in  *ci|{hiu  a  Mmple,  dryiag 
for  A  c?ruin  time,  w<-i);hing  a^iio,  Ac,  unliJ  contlanl- 
veiftlbed  umple  can  tIkCQ  be  capoKd  to  an  anifkia]  arr 
limnarlyTj    "" '        emom  ur».  a  niB  in  w.e 


le'lnd  Atid.  ia>e  'hen  find  in  a  [k»d  irsri  thTun:^ 
n  of  pioducu  calculated  Irom  oaefj ' '— - 


"powderv  mtMy 

vhich  aUhough  Ibiy  may 


GUNPOWDER  PLOT 


727 


certainly  ejected  as  solids  or  become  solids  at  the  moment  of  contact 
with  air. 

Brown  Powders. — About  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  guns  and 
projectiles  were  made  much  larger  and  heavier  than  previously, 
and  it  was  soon  found  that  the  ordinary  black  powders  of  the  most 
dense  form  burnt  much  too  rapidly,  straining  or  bursting  the  pieces. 
Powders  were  introduced  containing  about  3%  sulphur  and  17-19% 
of  a  special  form  of  charcoal  made  from  slightly  charred  straw, 
or  similar  material.  This  "  brown  charcoal  "  contams  a  considerable 
amount  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  6f  the  original  plant  substance. 
The  mechanical  processes  <^  manufacture  of  these  brown  powders 
is  the  same  as  for  Slack.  They,  however,  differ  from  black  byl>uming 
very  slowly,  even  under  considerable  pressure.  This  comparative 
slowness  is  caused  by  (i)  the  presence  of  a  small  amount  of  water 
even  when  air-dry;  (a)  the  fact  that  the  brown  charcoal  is  practi- 
cally very  slightly  altered  cellulosic  material,  which  before  it  can 
bum  completely  must  undersoa  little  further  resolution  or  charring 
at  the  expense  of  some  beat  from  the  portion  of  charge  first  ignited ; 
and  (3)  the  lower  content  of  sulphun  An  increase  oia  few  per  cent 
in  the  sulphur  of  black  powder  accelerates  its  rate  of  burning,  and 
it  may  become  almost  a  blasting  powder.  A  decrease  in  sulphur  has 
the  reverse  effect.  It  is  really  tne  sulphur  vapour  that  in  the  early 
period  of  combustion  spreads  the  flame  through  the  charj^. 

Many  other  powders  nave  been  made  or  proposed  in  which  nitrates 
or  chlorates  of  the  alkalis  or  of  barium,  &c.,  are  the  oxygen  providers 
and  substamxs  as  sugar,  starch,  and  many  other  or^nic  compounds 
as  the  combustible  elements.  Some  <^  these  compositions  have  found 
employment  for  blasting  or  even  as  sporting  powders,  but  in  most 
cases  their  objectionable  properties  of  fouling,  smoke  and  mode  of 
exidoding  have  prevented  their  use  for  mUitary  purposes.  The 
adoption  by  the  French  government  of  the  comparatively  smokeless 
nitrocellulose  explosive  of  Paul  Vieille  in  1887  practically  put  an 
end  to  the  old  forms  of  gunpowders.  The  first  smokeless  powder 
was  made  in  1865  bv  Colonel  E.  Schultze  {Ding.  Pol.  Jour.  174, 
P-  333:  I75t  P-  453)  oy  nitrating  wood  meal  and  adding  potassium 
and  barium  nitrates.  It  is  somewhat  similar  in  composition  to  the 
E.  C.  sporting  powder.  F.  Uchatius,  in  Austria,  proposed  a  smoke- 
less powder  made  from  nitrated  starch,  but  it  was  not  adopted 
owing  to  its  hygroscopic 'nature  and  also  its  tendency  to  detonate. 

BIBLIOCKAPHV. — Vanucchio  Biringuccio.I>e/a)^i>olecAiiM  (Venice, 
1540) ;  Tartaglia,  QuesUi  «  invetuioni  diversi  Gib.  lii.)  (Venice,  1546) ; 
Peter  Whitehome,  How  to  make  Saltpetre,  Gunpowder,  6rc.  (London, 
1573):  Nic.  Macchiavelli,  The  Arte  of  Warre,  trans,  by  White- 
home  (London,  1588) ;  Hanzelet,  Recueil  de  plusiers  machines  mili- 
taires  (Paris,  1630);  Boillet  Lan^rois,  Moddks  artifxes  de  feu 
(1630);  Kruger,  Chemical  Meditations  on  the  Explosion  of  Gun- 
powder (in  Latin)  (1636) :  Collado,  On  the  Invention  of  Gunpowder 
(Spanish)  (1641):  The  True  Way  to  make  all  Sorts  of  Gunpowder 
and  Matches  (i6f7);  Hawksbce,  On  Gunpowder  (1686);  \Vintcr, 
On  Gunpowder  (in  Latin);  Robins,  New  Principles  of  Gunnery 
(London,  1743)  (new  ed.  by  Hutton,  1805);  D'Antoni.  Essame  deUa 
pohere  (Turin,  1765)  (trans,  by  Captain  Thomson,  R.A.,  London, 
1787) ;  Count  Rumford,  "  Experiments  on  Fired  Gunpowder," 
Phu.  Trans.  Roy,  Soc.  (1797):  Charles  Huttop.  Mathematical  Tracts, 
vol.  iii.  (1812);  Sir  W.  Congreve,  A  Short  Account  of  IidprovemerUs 
in  Gunpowder  made  by  (tendon,  1818);  Bunsen  and  Schisikoff, 
"On  the  Chemical  Theory  of  Gunpowder,"  Poeg.  Ann.,  1857, 
voL  cii. ;  General  Rodman,  Experiments  on  Metal  Tor  Cannon,  and 
Qualities  ef  Cannon  Powder  (Boston,  1861);  Napoleon  III.,  ^udes 
sur  le  passe et Pavenir  de  Vartillerie,  vol.  iii.  (Paris,  1862) ;  Von  Karoiyi, 
"  On  the  Products  of  the  Combustion  of  Gun  Cotton  and  Gun- 
powder," Phil.  Mag.  (October  1863):  Captain  F.  M.  Smith,  Hand- 
book of  the  Manufacture  and  Proof  of  Gunpowder  at  IValtham  Abbey 
(London,  1870);  Noble  and  Abel,  Fired  Gunpowder  (London,  1875. 
1880):  Noble,  Artillery  and  Explosives  (1906):  H.  W.  L.  Hime, 
Gunpowder  and  Ammunition,  their  Origin  and  Progress  (1904); 
O.  Cuttmann,  The  Manufacture  of  Exptosives  (1895),  Monumenta 
bulveris  pyrii  (1906) ;  Notes  on  Gunpowder  and  Gun  Cotton,  published 
by  order  of  .the  secretary  of  state  for  war  (London,  1907).  (See  also 
Explosives.)  (W.  R.  E.  H.) 

GUNPOWDBR  PLOT,  the  name  given  to  a  conspiracy  for 
blowing  up  King  James  I.  and  the  parliament  on  the  sth  of 
November  1605. 

To  understand  clearly  the  nature  and  origin  of  the  famous 
conspiracy,  it  is  necessary  to  recall  the  political*  situation  and 
the  attitude  of  the  Roman  Catholics  towards  the  government 
at  the  accession  of  James  1.  The  Elizabethan  administration 
had  successfully  defended  its  own  existence  and  the  Protestant 
faith  against  able  and  powerful  antagonists,  but  this  had  not 
been  accomplished  without  enforcing  severe  measures  of  re- 
pression and  punishment  upon  those  of  the  opposite  faith. 
The  beginning  of  a  happier  era,  however,  was  expected  with 
the  opening  of  the  new  reign.  The  right  of  James  to  the  crown 
could  be  more  readily  acknowledged  by  the  Romanists  than 
that  of  Elizabeth:    Pope  Clement  VIII.  appeared  willing  to 


meet  the  king  half-way.  James  himself  was  by  nature  favour- 
able to  the  Roman  Catholics  and  had  treated  the  Roman 
Catholic  lords  in  Scotland  with  great  leniency,  in  spite  of  their 
constant  plots  and  rebellions.  Writing  to  Cecil  before  his 
accession  he  maintained,  "  I  am  so  far  from  any  intention  of 
persecution  as  I  protest  to  God  I  reverence  their  church  as  our 
mother  church,  although  clogged  with  many  infirmities  and 
corruptions/ besides  that  I  did  ever  hold  persecution  as  one  of 
the  infallible  notes  of  a  false  church."  He  declared  to  North- 
umberland, the  kinsman  and  master  of  Thomas  Percy,  the 
conspirator,  "  as  for  the  Catholics,  I  will  neither  persecute  any 
that  will  be  quiet  and  give  but  an  outward  obedience  to  the 
law,  neither  will  I  spare  to  advance  any  of  them  that  will  be  of 
good  service  and  worthily  deserved."  It  is  probable  that  these 
small  but  practical  concessions  would  have  satisfied  the  lay 
Roman  Catholics  and  the  secular  priests,  but  they  were  very 
far  from  contenting  the  Jesuits,  by  whom  the  results  of  such 
leniency  were  especially  feared:  "  What  rigour  of  laws  would 
not  compass  in  so  many  years,"  wrote  Henry  Tichbome,  the 
Jesuit,  in  1598, "  this  liberty  and  lenity  will  effectuate  in  30  days, 
to  wit  the  disfurnishing  of  the  seminaries,  the  disanimating  of 
men  to  come  and  others  to  return,  the  expulsion  of  the  society 
and  confusion  as  in  Germany,  extinction  of  zeal  and  favour, 
disanimation  of  princes  from  the  hot  pursuit  of  the  enterprise. 
.  .  .  We  shall  be  left  as  a  prey  to  the  wolves  that  will  besides 
drive  our  greatest  patron  [the  king  of  Spain]  to  stoop  to  a  peace 
which  will  be  the  utter  ruin  of  our  edifice,  this  many  years  in 
building."  Unfortunately,  about  this  time  the  Jesuits,  who 
thus  thrived  on  political  intrigue,  and  who  were  deeply  impli- 
cated in  treasonable  correspondence  with  Spain,  had  obtained 
a  complete  ascendancy  over  the  secular  priests,  who  were  for 
obeying  the  civil  government  as  far  as  possible  and  keeping  free 
from  politics.  The  time,  therefore,  as  far  as  the  Roman  Catholics 
themselves  were  concerned,  was  not  a  propitious  one  for  intro- 
ducing the  moderate  concessions  which  alone  James  had 
promised:  James,  too,  on  his  side,  found  that  religious  tolera- 
tion, though  clearly  sound  in  principle,  was  difficult  in  practice. 
During  the  first  few  months  of  the  reign  all  went  well.  In  July 
1603  the  fines  for  recusancy  were  remitted.  In  January  1604 
peaceable  Roman  Catholics  could  live  unmolested  and  "  serve 
God  according  to  their  consciences  without  any  danger."  But 
James!s  expectations  that  the  pope  would  prevent  dangerous 
and  seditious  persons  from  entering  the  country  were  unful- 
filled and  the  numbers  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  Roman  Catholics 
greatly  increased.  Rumours  of  plots  came  to  hand.  Cecil, 
though  like  his  master  naturally  in  favour  of  toleration,  with 
his  experience  gained  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  was  alarmed 
at  the  policy  pursued  and  its  results,  and  great  anxiety  was 
aroused  in  the  government  and  nation,  which  was  in  the  end 
shared  by  the  king.  It  was  determined  finally  to  return  to  the 
earlier  policy  of  repression.  On  the  32nd  of  February  1604  a 
proclamation  was  issued  banishing  priests;  on  the  38th  of 
November  1604,  recusancy  fines  were  demanded  from  13  wealthy 
persons,  and  on  the  loth  of  February  160$  the  penal  laws  were 
ordered  to  be  executed.  The  plot,  however,  could  not  have 
been  occasioned  by  these  measures,  for  it  bad  been  already 
conceived  in  the  mind  of  Robert  Catesby.  It  was  aimed  at  the 
repeal  of  the  whole  Elizabethan  legislation  against  the  Roman 
Catholics  and  perhaps  derived  some  impulse  at  first  from  the 
leniency  lately  shown  by  the  administration,  afterwards  gaining 
support  from  the  opposite  cause,  the  return  of  the  government 
to  the  policy  of  repression. 

It  was  in  May  1603  that  Catesby  told  Percy,  in  reply  to  the 
tatter's  declaration  of  his  intention  to  kill  the  king,  that  he  was 
"  thinking  of  a  most  sure  way."  Subsequently,  about  the  ist  of 
November  1603,  Catesby  sent  a  message  to  his  ^usin  Robert 
Winter  at  Huddington,  near  Worcester,  to  come  to  London, 
whidi  the  latter  refused.  On  the  arrival  of  a  second  urgent 
summons  shortly  afterwards  he  obeyed,  and  was  then  at  a  house 
at  Lambeth,  probably  in  January  1604,  initiated  by  Catesby 
together  with  John  Wright  into  the  plot  to  blow  up  the  parlia- 
ment house.    Before  putting  this  plan  into  execution,  however, 


728 


GUNPOWDER  PLOT 


it  was  dedded  to  try  a  "  quiet  way  ";  and  Winter  was  sent  over 
to  Flanders  to  obtain  the  good  offices  of  Juan  de  Velasco,  duke  of 
Frias  and  constable  of  Castile,  who  had  arrived  there  to  conduct 
the  negotiations  for  a  peace  between  England  and  Spain,  in  order 
to  obtain  the  repeal  of  the  penal  laws.  Winter,  having  secured 
nothing  but  vain  promises  from  the  constable,  returned  to 
England  about  the'  end  of  April,  bringing  with  him  Guy  Fawkes, 
a  man  devoted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  cause  and  recommended 
for  undertaking  perilous  adventures.  Subsequently  the  three 
and  Thomas  Percy,  who  joined  the  conspiracy  in  May,  met  in  a 
house  behind  St  Clement's  and,  having  taken  an  oath  of  secrecy 
together,  heard  Mass  and  received  the  Sacrament  in  an  adjoining 
apartment  from  a  priest  stated  by  Fawkes  to  have  been  Father 
Gerard.  Later  several  other  persons  were  included  in  the  plot, 
viz.  Winter's  brother  Thomas,  John  Grant,  Ambrose  Rokewood, 
Robert  Keyes,  Sir  Everard  Digby,  Francis  Trcsham,  a  cousin  of 
Catesby  and  Thomas  Bates  Catesby's  servant,  all,  with  the 
exception  of  the  last,  being  men  of  good  family  and  all  Roman 
Catholics.  Father  Greenway  and  Father  Garnet,  the  Jesuits, 
were  both  cognisant  of  the  plot  (see  Garnet,  Henry).  On  the 
34th  of  May  1604  a  house  was  hired  in  Percy's  name  adjoining 
the  House  of  Lords,  from  the  cellar  of  which  they  proposed  to 
work  a  mine.  They  began  on  the  1 1  th  of  December  1604,  and  by 
about  March  had  got  half-way  through  the  wall.  They  then 
discovered  that  a  vault  immediately  under  the  House  of  Lords 
was  available.  This  was  at  once  hired  by  Percy,  and  36  barrels  of 
gunpowder,  amounting  to  about  i  ton  and  xa  cwt.,  were  brought 
in  and  concealed  under  coal  and  faggots.  The  preparations 
being  completed  in  May  the  conspirators  separated.  Fawkes 
was  despatched  to  Flanders,  where  he  imparted  the  plot  to  Hugh 
Owen,  a  realous  Romanist  intriguer.  Sir  Edmund  Baynham 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Rome  to  be  at  hand  when  the  news  came 
to  gain  over  the  pope  to  the  cause  of  the  successful  conspirators. 
An  understanding  was  arrived  at  with  several  officers  levied  for 
the  service  of  the  archduke,  that  they  should  return  at  once  to 
England  when  occasion  arose  of  defending  the  Roman  Catholic 
cause.  A  great  hunting  match  was  organized  at  Danchurch  in 
Warwickshire  by  Digby,  to  which  large  numbers  of  the. Roman 
Catholic  gentry  were  invited,  who  were  to  join  the  plot  after 
the  successful  accomplishment  of  the  explosion  of  the  5th  of 
November,  the  day  fixed  for  the  opening  of  parliament,  and 
get  possession  of  the  princess  Elizabeth,  then  residing  in  the 
neighbourhood;  while  Percy  was  to  seize  the 'infant  prince 
Charles  and  bring  him  on  horseback  to  their  meeting-place.  Guy 
Fawkes  himself  was  to  take  ship  immediately  for  Flanders,  spread 
the  news  on  the  continent  and  get  supporters.  The  conspirators 
imagined  that  a  terrorized  and  helpless  government  would 
readily  agree  to  all  their  demands.  Hitherto  the  secret  had  been 
well  kept  and  the  preparations  had  been  completed  with  extra- 
ordinary success  and  without  a  single  drawback;  but  a  very 
serious  difficulty  now  confronted  the  conspirators  as  the  time  for 
action  arrived,  and  disturbed  their  consciences.  The  feelings  of 
ordinary  humanity  shrunk  from  the  destruction  of  so  many 
persons  guiltless  of  any  offence.  But  in  addition,  among  the 
peers  to  be  a^ossinaled  were  included  many  Roman  Catholics 
and  some  lords  nearly  connected  in  kinship  or  friendship  with  the 
plotters  themselves.  Several  appeals,  however,  made  to  Catesby 
to  allow  warning  to  be  given  to  certain  individuals  were  firmly 
rejected. 

On  the  36th  of  October  Lord  Monteagle,  a  brother-in-law  of 
Francis  Tresham,  who  had  formerly  been  closely  connected  with 
some  of  the  other  conspirators  and  had  engaged  in  Romanist 
plots  against  the  government,  but  who  had  given  his  support  to 
the  new  king,  unexpectedly  ordered  supper  to  be  prepared  at  his 
house  at  Haxton,  from  which  he  had  been  absent  for  more  than  a 
year.  While  at  supper  about  6  o'clock  an  anonymous  letter  was 
brought  by  an  unknown  messenger  which,  having  glanced  at,  he 
handed  to  Ward,  a  gentleman  of  his  service  and  an  intimate 
friend  of  Winter,  the  conspirator,  to  be  read  aloud.  The  cele- 
brated letter  ran  as  follows: — 

*'  My  lord,  out  of  the  love  I  bear  to  some  of  your  friends,  I  have 
a  care  lor  your  preservation.    Therefore  I  would  advise  you,  as  you 


tender  your  life,  to  devise  ■ome  excuse  to  shift  of  your  attendaxee- 
of  this  Parliament,  for  God  and  man  hath  concurred  to  punish  th« 
wickedness  of  this  time.  And  think  not  slightly  of  this  adv«rti3<-~ 
mcnt,  but  retire  yourself  into  your  country,  where  you  may  expert 
the  event  in  safety,  for  though  there  be  no  appearance  of  an>  a'v, 
yet  I  say  they  shall  receive  a  terrible  blow  the  Parliament,  zod 
yet  they  shall  not  sec  who  hurts  them.  This  counsel  is  not  to  L« 
contemned,  because  it  may  do  you  good  and  can  do  you  no  harm 
for  the  danger  is  past  as  soon  as  you  have  burnt  the  letter :  aoti  I 
hope  God  will  give  you  the  grace  to  make  good  use  of  it,  to  wboac 
holy  protection  I  commend  you." 

The  authorship  of  the  letter  has  never  been  disclosed  or  provtd, 
but  all  evidence  seems  to  point  to  Trcsham,  and  to  the  prolx^- 
bility  that  he  had  some  days  before  warned  Montea^  and  agrctd 
with  him  as  to  the  best  means  of  making  known  the  plot  and 
preventing  its  execution,  and  at  the  same  time  of  giving  the 
conspirators  time  to  escape  (see  Tresuam,  Francis). 

Monteagle  at  once  started  for  Whitehall,  found  Salisbury  acu 
other  ministers  about  to  sit  down  to  supper,  and  showed  the 
letter,  whereupon  it  was  decided  to  search  the  cellar  under  the 
House  of  Lords  before  the  meeting  of  parliament,  but  not  toe 
soon,  80  that  the  plot  might  be  ripe,  and  be  fully  disclosed 
Meanwhile  Ward,  on  the  27th  of  October,  as  had  evidently  beea 
intended,  informed  Winter  that  the  plot  was  known,  and  on  the 
28th  Winter  informed  Catesby  and  begged  him  to  give  up  the 
whole  project.  Catesby,  however,  after  some  hesitation,  finding 
from  Fawkes  that  nothing  had  been  touched  in  the  cellar,  and 
prevailed  upon  by  Percy,  determined  to  stand  firm,  hoping  thai 
the  government  had  put  no  credence  in  Monteagle's  letter,  ar.d 
Fawkes  returned  to  the  cellar  to  keep  guard  as  before.  On  the 
4th  the  king,  having  been  shown  the  letter,  ordered  the  eari  of 
Suffolk,  as  lord  chamberlain,  to  examine  the  buildings.  He  was 
accompanied  by  Monteagle.  On  arriving  at  the  cellar,  the  door 
was  opened  to  him  by  Fawkes.  Seeing  the  enormous  piles  <A 
faggots  he  asked  the  name  of  their  owner,  to  which  Fawkes 
replied  that  they  belonged  to  Percy.  His  name  immcdiaidy 
aroused  suspicions,  and  accordingly  it  was  ordered  that  a  further 
search  should  be  made  by  Thomas  Knyvett,  a  Westminster 
magistrate  who,  coming  with  his  men  at  night,  discovered  the 
gunpowder  and  arrested  Fawkes  on  the  threshold. 

The  opinion  that  the  whole  plot  was  the  work  of  Salisbury,  that 
he  acted  as  an  agent  protocaleur  and  lured  on  his  victims  to 
destruction,  repeated  by  some  contemporary  and  later  writers  and 
recently  formulated  and  urged  with  great  ability,  has  no  solid 
foundation.  Nor  is  it  even  probable  that  he  was  aware  <^  its 
existence  till  he  received  Monteagle's  letter.  Even  after  its 
reception  complete  belief  was  not  placed  in  the  warning.  A* 
search  was  made  only  to  make  sure  that  nothing  ^as  wrong  and 
guided  only  by  Monteagle's  letter,  while  no  attempt  was  made  to 
seize  the  conspirators.  The  steps  taken  by  Salisbury  after  the 
discovery  of  the  gunpowder  do  not  show  the  possession  of  any 
information  of  the  plot  or  of  the  persons  who  were  its  chief  agents 
outside  Fawkes's  first  statement,  and  his  knowledge  is  seen  to 
develop  according  to  the  successive  disclosures  and  confessions  of 
the  latter.  Thus  on  the  7th  of  November  he  had  no  knowledge 
of  the  mine,  and  it  is  only  after  Fawkes's  examination  by  torture 
on  the  9th,  when  the  names  of  the  conspirators  were  drawn  from 
him,  that  the  government  was  able  to  classify  them  according 
to  their  guilt  and  extent  of  their  participation  The  inquiry  «as 
not  conducted  by  Salisbury  alone,  but  by  several  commi^oners, 
some  of  whom  were  Roman  Catholics,  and  many  rivals  and 
secret  enemies.  To  conceal  his  intrigue  from  all  these  w(Miki 
have  been  impossible,  and  that  he  should  have  put  himsdf  in  their 
power  to  such  an  extent  is  highly  improbable.  Again,  the  pUn 
agreed  upon  for  disclosing  the  plot  was  especially  dcugned  to 
allow  the  conspirators  to  escape,  and  therefore  scarcdy  a  method 
which  would  have  been  arranged  with  Salisbury.  Not  one  of  iht 
conspirators,  even  when  all  hope  of  saving  life  was  gone,  made  any 
accusation  against  Salisbury  or  the  government  and  all  died 
expressing  contrition  for  their  crime.  Lastly  Safisbury  bad  no 
conceivable  motive  in  concocting  a  plot  of  thh  description.  H^ 
political  power  and  position  in  the  new  reign  had  been  already 
secured  and  by  very  different  methods.  He  was  now  at  the 
height  of  his  influence,  having  been  created  Viscount  Cranbome 


GUN-ROOM— GUNTER 


729 


in  August  1604  and  earl  of  Salisbury  in  May  1605;  and  James 
had  already,  more  than  16  months  before  the  discovery  of  the 
plot,  consented  to  return  to  the  repressive  measures  against  the 
Romanists.  The  success  with  which  the  conspirators  concealed 
their  plot  from.  SalisbQry's  spies  is  indeed  astonishing,  but  is 
probably  explained  by  its  very  audacity  and  by  the  absence  of 
incriminating  correspondence,  the  me^tun  throu^  which  the 
minuter  chiefly  obtained  his  knowledge  of  the  pUns  of  his 
enemies. 

On  the  arrest  of  Fawkes  the  other  conspirators,  except  Tresham, 
fled  in  parties  by  different  ways,  rejoining  each  other  in  Warwick- 
shire, as  had  been  agreed  in  case  the  plot  had  been' successful 
Catesby,  who  with  some  others  had  covered  the  distance  of 
80  m.  between  London  and  his  mother's  house  at  Ashby  St 
Legers  in  eight  hours,  informed  his  friends  in  Warwickshire,  who 
had  been  awaiting  the  issue  of  the  plot,  of  its  failure,  but  suc- 
ceeded in  persuading  Sir  Everard  Dtgby,  by  an  unscrupulous 
falsehood,  to  further  implicate  himself  in  hb  hopeless  cause  by 
assuring  him  that  both  James  and  Salisbury  were  dead;  and, 
according  to  Father  Garnet,  this  was  not  the  first  time  that 
Catesby  had  been  guilty  of  lies  in  order  to  draw  men  into  the  plot. 
He  pudied  on  the  same  day  with  his  companions  in  the  direction 
of  Wales,  where,  it  was  hoped,  they  would  be  joined  by  bands  of 
insurgents.  They  arrived  at  Huddington  at  3  in  the  afternoon. 
On  the  morning  of  the  7th  the  band,  numbering  about  36  persons, 
confessed  and  heard  Mass,-  and  then  rode  away  to  Holbeche, 
3  m.  from  Stourbridge,  in  Staffordshire,  the  house  of  Stephen 
Littleton,  who  had  been  present  at  the  hunting  at  Danchurch 
(see  DiCBY,  Everabd),  where  they  arrived  at  xo  o'clock  at  night, 
having  on  their  way  broken  into  Lord  Windsor's  house  at  Hewell 
Grange  and  taken  all  the  armour  they  fotmd  there.  Their  case 
was  now  desperate.  None  had  joined  them :  "  Not  one  came  to 
take  our  part,"  said  Sir  Everard  Digby, "  though  we  had  expected 
so  many."  They  were  being  followed  by  the  sheriff  and  all  the 
forces  of  the  county.  All  spumed  them  from  their  doors  when 
they  applied  for  succour.  One  by  one  their  followers  fledjrom 
the  house  in  which  the  last  scene  was  to  be  played  out.  They 
now  began  to  feel  themselves  abandoned  not  only  by  man  but 
by  God;  for  an  explosion  of  some  of  their  gunpowder,  on  the 
morning  of  the  8th,  by  which  Catesby  and  some  others  were 
scorched,  struck  terror  into  their  hearts  as  a  judgment  from 
heaven.  The  assurance  of  innocence  and  of  a  just  cause  which 
till  now  had  alone  supported  them  was  taken  away.  The  great- 
ness of  their  crime,  its  true  nature,  now  struck  home  to  them,  and 
the  few  moments  which  remained  to  them  of  life  were  spent  in 
prayer  and  in  repentance.  The  supreme  hour  had  now  arrived. 
About  X  X  o'clock  the  sheriff  and  his  men  came  up  and  immediately 
began  firing  into  the  house.  Catesby,  Percy  and  the  two  Wrights 
were  killed,  Winter  and  Rokewood  wounded  and  taken  prisoners 
with  the  men  who  still  adhered  to  them.  In  all  eight  of  the  con- 
spirators, including  the  two  Winters,  Dtgby,  Fawkes,  Rokewood, 
Ke^s  and  Bates,  were  executed,  while  Tresham  died  in  the 
Tower.  Of  the  priests  involved.  Garnet  was  tried  and  executed, 
while  Greenway  and  Gerard  succeeded  in  escaping. 

So  ended  the  strange  and  famous  Gunpowder  Plot.  However 
atrocious  its  conception  and  its  aims,  it  is  impossible  not  to  feel, 
together  with  horror  for  the  deed,  some  pity  and  admiration  for 
the  guilty  persons  who  took  part  in  it.  "  Theirs  was  a  crime 
which  it  would  never  have  entered  into  the  heart  of  any  man  to 
commit  who  was  not  raised  above  the  lowness  of  the  ordinary 
criminal."  They  sinned  not  against  the  light  but  in  the  dark. 
They  erred  from  ignorance,  from  a  perverted  moral  sense  rather 
than  from  any  mean  or  selfish  motive,  and  exhibited  extraordinary 
courage  and  self-sacrifice  in  the  pursuit  of  what  seemed  to  them 
the  cause  of  God  and  of  their  country.  Their  punishment  was 
terrible.  Not  only  had  they  risked  and  lost  all  in  the  attempt ' 
and  drawn  upon  themselves  the  frightful  vengeance  of  the  state, 
but  they  saw  themselves  the  means  of  injuring  irretrievably  the 
cause  for  which  they  felt  such  devotion.  Nothing  co\ild  have 
been  more  disastrous  to  the  cause  of  the  Roman  Catholics  than 
their  crime.  The  laws  against  them  were  immediately  increased 
in  severity,  and  the  gradual  advance  towards  religious  toleration 


was  put  back  for  centuries.  In  addition  a  new,  increased  and 
long-enduring  hostility  was  aroused  in  the  country  against  the 
adherents  of  the  old  faith,  not  imnatural  in  the  circumstances, 
but  unjust  and  undiscriminating,  because  while  some  of  the 
Jesuits  were  no  doubt  implicated,  the  secular  priests  and  Roman 
Catholic  laity  as.a  whole  had  taken  no  part  in  the  conspiracy. 

Bibliography. — The  recent  controversy  concerning  the  nature 
and  origin  of  the  plot  can  be  followed  in  wkai  was  tk*  Gunpowder 


and  xii.  791;  Edinburik  Kenew^  dxxxv.  183;  Aihenaeum 
1897.  ii.  149,  785,  895;  1898,  i.  33,  ii.  353,  ^20;  Academy,  vol.  u 
p.  84;  The  Nation,  vol.  65  p.  400.  A  conttdcrable  portion  of  the 
controversy  centres  round  the  question  of  the  authenticity  of 
Thomas  Winter's  confession,  the  MS.  of  which  is  at  Hatfield,  sup- 
ported by  ProfesMT  Gardiner,  but  denied  by  Father  Gerard  princi- 
pally on  account  of  the  document  having  been  signed  "  Winter  " 
instead  of "  VA^ntour,"  the  latter  apparently  being  the  conspirator's 
usual  style  of  signature.  The  document  was  deposited  by  the  3rd 
Marquess  of  Sfldisbury  for  inspection  at  the  Re^rd  Omce,  and 
was  pronounced  by  two  experts,  one  from  the  British  Museum  and 
another  from  the  Record  Office,  to  be  undoubtedly  genuine.  The 
cause  of  the  variation  in  the  signature  still  remains  unexplained,  but 
ceases  to  have  therefore  any  great  historical  importance.  The 
bibliography  of  the  contemporary  controversy  is  given  in  the  article 
on  Henry  Garnet  in  the  Dictionary  of  Nattonal  Biography  and  in 
The  Gunpowder  Plot  by  David  Jardine  (1857).  the  latter  work  still 
remaining  the  principal  authority  on  the  subject;  add  to  these 
Gardiner  s  HisL  of  Engiand,  i.,  where  an  excellent  account  b  given; 
History  of  the  Jesuits  in  England,  by  Father  Ethelred  Taunton 
(1901);  Father  Gerard's  Narrative  in  CondiUcn  of  the  Catholics 
under  James  I.  (1872),  and  Father  Greenway 's  Narrative  in  Troubles 
of  our  Catholic  Forefathers,  1st  series  (1873),  interesting  fis  coo- 
temporary  accounts,  but  not  to  be  taken  as  complete  or  iiifalia>le 
authorities,  of  the  same  nature  being  Hutorta  Prooinciae  An^icanaa 
Societatis  Jesu,  by  Henry  More,  S.T.  (1660),  pp.  309  et  scq.;  also 
History  of  Great  Britain,  by  John  Speed  (161  x),  pp.  830  et  seq.; 
Archaeologia,  xii.  300,  xxvtii.  423,  xxix.  80;  Harleian  Miscellany 
(1809).  iii.  119-135.  or  Somers  Tracts  (1809),  ii.  97-117;  M.  A. 
Tiemey's  ed.  of  Dodd's  Chunk  History,  vol.  iv.  (1841):  Treason 
and  Plot,  by  Martin  Hume  (tool);  Noles  and  Queries,  7  aer.  vi., 
8  aer.  iv.  408,  497,  v.  M,  xii.  505,  9  ser.  xi.  1x5;  Add.  MSS. 
Brit.  Mus.  6178;  State  Trials,  ii.;  Calendar  of  Stale  Pap.  Dom. 
(160^-1610),  and  the  official  account.  A  True  and  Perfect  Jtelation  of 
the  whole  Proceedings  against  the  late  most  Barbarous  Traitors  (1606), 
a  neither  true  nor  complete  narrative  however,  now  aopersedcd  as 
an  authority,  reprinted  as  The  Gunpowder  Treason  .  .  .  with  ad- 
ditions in  1679  oy  Thomas  Barlow,  bishop  of  Lincoln.  A  large 
number  of  letters  and  papers  in  the  State  raper  Office  relating  to 
the  plot  were  collected  in  one  volume  in  1819,  called  the  Gunpowder 
Plot  Booh;  these  are  noted  in  their  proper  place  in  the  printed 
calendars  of^State  Papers,  Domestic  Series;  see  also  articles  on 
Fawkes,  Guv;  TaESUAM,  Francis;  Montbaglb,  William 
Pabkbb,  ath  Baron;  Pbrcv,  Thomas;  Catbsby,  Robbrt; 
Garnet,  Henry;  Digby,  Sir  Everard.  (P.  C.  Y.) 

QUM-ROOM,  a  ship  cabin  occupied  by  the  officers  below  the 
rank  of  lieutenant,  but  who  are  not  warrant  officers  of  the  class  of 
the  boatswain,  gunner  or  carpenter.  In  the  wooden  sailing  ships 
it  was  on  the  lower  deck,  and  was  originally  the  quarters  of  the 
gunner^ 

OUMTBR,  EDMUND  (i 581-1626),  English  mathematician,  of 
Welsh  extraction,  was  born  in  Hertfordshire  in  is8x.  He  was 
educated  at  Westminster  school,  and  in  1 599  was  elected  a  student 
of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  took  orders,  became  a  preacher 
in  x6i4,  and  in  161 5  proceeded  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  in 
divinity.  Mathematics,  however,  which  had  been  his  favourite 
study  in  youth,  continued  to  engross  his  attention,  and  on  the 
6th  of  March  16x9  he  was  appointed  professor  of  astronomy  in 
Gresham  College,  London.  This  post  he  held  till  his  death  on  the 
xoth  of  December  1626.  With  Gunter's  name  are  associated 
several  useful  inventions,  descriptions  of  which  are  given  in  his 
treatises  on  the  5ee/«r,  Cross-staff,  Bow,  Quadrant  and  t^her 
Instruments.  He  contrived  his  sector  about  the  year  1606,  and 
wrote  a  description  of  it  in  Latin,  but  it  was  more  than  sixteen 
years  afterwards  before  he  allowed  the  book  to  appear  in  English. 
In  1620  he  published  his  Canon  trianguhrum  (see  Logautrms). 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  Gunter  was  the  first  to  discover 
(in  1622  or  1625)  that  the  magnetic  needle  does  not  retain  the 
same  declination  in  the  same  place  at  all  times.    By  desire  of 


730 

James  L  he  published  In  1624  Tbe  Descnption  and  Use  of  His 
'Majestie's  Dials  in  WkiUhaU  Garden,  the  only  one  of  his  worlu 
which  has  not  been  reprinted.  He  introduced  the  words  cosine 
and  cotangent,  and  he  suggested  to  Henry  Briggs,  his  friend  and 
colleague,  the  use  of  the  arithmetical  complement  (see  Brigg's 
A rithmetica  Logarithmica,  cap.  xv.).  His  practical  inventions  are 
briefly  noticed  below: 

CuHter's  Chain,  the  chain  in  common  use  for  surveying,  is  3a  yds. 
tons  and  u  divided  into  100  links.  *  Its  usefulness  arises  froin  its 
decimal  or  centesimal  division,  and  the  fact  that  10  square  chains 
make  an  acre. 

Cunter's  Line,  a  logarithmic  line,  usually  laid  down  upon  scales, 
Kctors.  dx.  It  is  also  called  the  line  of  lines  and  the  line  of  numbers, 
being  only  the  logarithms  ^raduatea  upon  a  ruler,  which  therefore 
serves  to  solve  problems  instrumentally  in  the  same  manner  as 
logarithms  do  anthmetically. 

Cunter's  Quadrant,  an  instrument  made  of  wood^  brass  or  other 
substance,  containing  a  kind  of  stereographic  projection  of  the  sphere 
on  the  plane  of  the  equinoctial,  the  eye  beinjE  supposed  to  be  placed 
in  one  of  the  poles,  so  that  the  tropic,  ecliptic,  and  horizon  form  the 
arcs  <^  circles,  but  the  hour  circles  are  other  curves,  drawn  by 
means  of  several  altitudes  of  the  sun  for  some  particular  btitude 
every  year.  This  instrument  is  used  to  find  the  hour  of  the  day, 
the  sun's  azimuth,  &c.,  and  other  common  problems  of  the  sphere 
or  globe,  and  also  to  take  the  altitude  of  an  object  in  degrees. 

Cunter's  Scale  (generally  called  by  seamen  the  Cunter)  is  a  large 
plane  scale,  usually  2  ft.  long  by  about  i  \  in.  broad,  and  engraved 
with  various  lines  of  numbers.  On  one  side  are  placed  the  natural 
lines  (as  the  line  of  chords,  the  line  of  sines,-  tangents,  rhumbs,  &c.}, 
and  on  the  other  side  the  corresponding  artificial  or  logarithmic 
ones.  By  means  of  this  instrument  questions  in  navigation,  trigono- 
metry, &c.,  are  solved  with  the  aid  of  a  pair  of  compasses. 

OOMTHIBR.  JOHANN  christian  (1695-1723),  German  poet, 
was  bom  at  Striegau  in  Lower  Silesia  on  tbe  8th  of  April  1695. 
After  attending  the  gymnasium  at  Schweidnitz,  he  was  sent  in 
17x5  by  his  father,  a  country  doctor,  to  study  medicine  at 
Wittenberg;  but  he  was  idle  and  dissipated,  had  no  taste  for  the 
profession  chosen  for  him,  and  came  to  a  complete  rupture  with 
his  family.  In  17 17  he  went  to  Leipzig,  where  he  was  befriended 
by  J.  B.  Mencke  (1674-173 2),  who  recognized  his  genius;  and 
there  he  published  a  poem  on  the  peace  of  Passarowitz  (concluded 
between  the  German  em]>eror  and  the  Porte  in  17 18)  which 
acquired  him  reputation.  A  recommendation  from  Mencke  to 
Frederick  Augustus  II.  of  Saxony,  king  of  Poland,  proved  worse 
than  useless,  as  Gtinther  appeared  at  the  audience  drunk.  From 
that  time  be  led  an  unsettled  and  dissipated  life,  sinking  ever 
deeper  into  the  slough  of  misery,  until  he  died  at  Jena  on  the 
iStb  of  March  1723,  when  only  in  his  28th  year.  Goethe  pro- 
nounces  Giinther  to  have  been  a  poet  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the 
term.  His  lyric  poems  as  a  whole  give  evidence  of  deep  and 
lively  sensibility,  fine  imagination,  clever  wit,  and  a  true  ear  for 
melody  and  rhythm;  but  an  air  of  cynicism  is  more  or  less 
present  in  most  of  them,  and  dull  or  vulgar  witticisms  are  not 
infrequently  found  side  by  side  with  the  purest  inspirations  of 
his  genius. 

Gilnther's  collected  poems  were  published  in  four  volumes  (Breslau, 
1 723-1 735).  They  are  also  included  in  vol.  vi.  of  Tittmann's  Deutsche 
Dichter  aes  ijten  Jahrh.  (Leipzig,  1874),  and  vol.  xxxviii.  of 
KQrschner's  Deutsche  Nalionalltteratur  (1883).  A  pretended  auto- 
biography of  GUnther  appeared  at  Schweidnitz  in  1732,  and  a  life 
of  him  by  Sicbrand  at  Leipzig  in  1738.  See  Hoffmann  von  Falters- 
tcben,  /.  Ch.  GUnther  (Breslau,  1833) ;  O.  Roquctte.  Leben  und  Dichten 
J.  Ch.  GUnther s  (Stuttgart,  i860);  M.  Kalbeck,  Neue  Beitrdge  tur 
Biographie  des  DichUrs  C.  GUnther  (Breslau,  1879). 

GONTHER  of  SCHWARZBURO  ( 1304-1349) ,  German  king,  was 
a  descendant  of  the  counts  of  Scbwarzburg  and  the  yotmger  son 
of  Henry  VII.,  count  of  Blankenburg.  He  distinguished  himself 
as  a  soldier,  and  rendered  good  service  to  the  emperor  Louis  IV., 
on  whose  death  in  1347  he  was  offered  the  German  throne,  after 
it  had  been  refused  by  Edward  III.,  king  of  England.  He  was 
elected  German  king  at  Frankfort  on  the  30th  of  January  1349 
by  four  of  the  electors,  who  were  partisans  of  the  house  of  V^ittels- 
bach  and  opponents  of  Charles  of  Luxemburg,  afterwards  the 
emperor  Charles  IV.  Charles,  however,  won  over  many  of 
Gttnther's  adherents,  defeated  him  at  Eltville,  and  Gilnther,  who 
was  now  seriously  ill,  renounced  bis  claims  for  the  sum  of  20,000 
marks  of  silver.    He  died  three  weeks  afterwards  at  Frankfort, 


GUNTHER,  J.  C— GUPTA 


and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of  that  dty,  wliere  a  statue 

erected  to  his  memory  in  1352. 

See  Graf  L.  Otterodt  zu  SchadTenberg,  GUntkert  Crafvm  Sckwor> 
burg,  erw&Uter  deiUscker  K&nig  (Leipzig,  1862);  and  K.  Jaasw. 
Das  Kdnigtum  CUntkers  von  Sckwanburg  (Leipaig.  1880). 

OUNTRAM,  or  GoNTRAN  (561-592),  king  of  Bttigundy,  was  one 
of  the  sons  of  Clotaire  I.  On  the  death  of  his  father  (561)  he 
and  his  three  brothers  divided  the  Frankish  realm  between  them. 
Guntram  receiving  as  his  share  the  vaUejrs  of  the  SaAne  and 
Rhone,  together  with  Berry  and  the  town  of  Orleans,  which  he 
made  his  capital.  On  the  death  of  Charibert  (567),  be  further 
obtained  the  ciniaies  of  Saintes,  AngouUme  and  P£rigara&. 
During  the  civil  war  which  broke  out  between  the  kings  of 
Neustria  and  Austrasia,  his  policy  was  to  try  to  matnrain  a  state  of 
equilibrium.  After  the  assassination  of  Sigebert  (575),  he  took 
the  youthful  Childebert  II.  under  his  protection,  and,  thanks  to 
his  assistance  against  the  intrigues  of  the  great  lords,  the  Utter 
was^ble  to  maintain  his  position  in  Austrasia.  After  tbe  death 
of  Chilperic  (584)  he  protected  the  young  Clotaire  II.  in  tlm  same 
way,  and  prevented  Childebert  from  seizing  his  dominions.  Hb 
course  was  rendered  easier  by  the  fact  that  his  own  sons  had 
died;  consequently,  having  an  inheritance  at  his  di^rasaL  he 
was  able  to  offer  it  to  whidiever  of  his  nephews  he  wished.  The 
danger  to  the  Frankish  realm  caused  by  the  ezpeditioD  of 
Gundobald  (585),  and  the  anxiety  which  was  caused  him  by  the 
revolts  of  the  great  k>rda  in  Austrasia  finally  decided  him  in  favour 
of  Childebart.  He  adopted  him  as  his  son,  and  recognized  him  as 
his  heir  at  the  treaty  of  Andelot  (5S7);  he  also  helped  him  to 
crush  the  great  lords,  especially  Ursion  and  Berthefried,  who  were 
conquered  in  la  WoCvre.  From  this  time  on  he  erased  to  play  a 
prominent  part  in  the  affairs  of  Austrasia.  He  died  in  592,  and 
Childebert  received  his  inheritance  without  q>po6itioa.  Gregory 
of  Tours  is  very  indulgent  to  Guntram,  who  showed  hiimelf  on 
occasions  generous  towards  the  church;  he  almost  always  calb 
him  "  good  king  Guntram/'  and  in  his  writings  are  to  be  found 
such  phrases  as  "good  king  Guntram  toGk  as  his  savant  a  coocu- 
bine  Veneranda"  (iv.  25);  but  Guntram  was  really  do  better 
than  the  other  kings  of  his  age;  .he  was  cruel  and  lioeniiocs, 
putting  his  cubicularius  Condo  to  death,  for  instance,  because  he 
was  suspected  of  having  killed  a  buffalo  in  the  Vosges.  He  was 
moreover  a  coward,  and  went  in  such  constant  terror  of  aasassim- 
tion  that  he  always  surroimded  himself  with  a  regular  body* 
guard. 

See  Krusch,  "  Zur  Chronologie  der  roerowingiacben  Kdoise,"  ta 
the  Forschungen  W  deutsehen  Cesckiehte,  xxii.  451-490;  11\-sk 
Chevalier,  Bio-bibliographie  (2nd  cd.),  s:o.  "  Guntram.**    (C.  Pf.) 

OUMTUR,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Madras 
presidency.  The  town  (pop.  in  1901 ,  30,833)  has  a  station  on  the 
Bellary-Bezwada  branch  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  railway.  It 
is  situated  east  of  the  Kondavid  hills,  and  b  very  holthy. 
It  appears  to  have  been  founded  in  the  i8th  century  by  the 
French.  At  the  time  of  the  cession  of  the  Circars  to  tbe  Eagtisb 
in  1765,  Guntur  was  specially  exempted  during  the  life  ol  Basakt 
Jang,  whose  personal  jagtV  it  was.  In  1788  it  came  into  Britii^ 
possession,  the  cession  being  finally  confirmed  in  1823.  It  hu 
an  important  trade  in  cotton,  with  presses  and  ginning  factorie& 
There  is  a  second-grade  college  5U{^x>rted  by  the  Aroetkaa 
Lutheran  Mission.  Until  1859,  Guntur  was  the  headquarters  c4 
a  district  of  the  same  name,  and  in  1904  a  new  Disnicr  or 
GuNTini  was  constituted,  covering  territory  which  till  then  has! 
been  divided  between  Kistna  and  Nellore.  Area,  5733  sq.  m- 
The  population  on  this  area  in  1901  was  1,490,635.  Tbe  distrkt 
is  bounded  on  the  £.  and  N.  by  the  nvet  Kistna;  in  tbe  W.  1 
considerable  part  of  the  boundary  b  formed  by  the  Gundlakamisi 
river.  The  greater  part  consists  of  a  fertile  plain  irrigated  bjf 
canals  from  the  Kistna,  and  producing  cotton,  rice  and  othe: 
crops. 

GUPTA,  an  empire  and  dynasty  of  northern  India,  whid 
lasted  from  about  a.d.  320  to  480.  The  dynasty  was  founded  by 
Chandragupta  I.,  who  must  not  be  confounded  with  hia  faraotB 
predecessor  Chandragupta  Maurya.  He  gave  his  name  to  the 
Gupta  era,  which  continued  in  use  for  several  centuries,  dating 


GURA— GURKHA 


731 


from  the  36th  of  February,  a.d.  320.  ChandragupU  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Samudragupta  (c.  a.d.  336-375),  one  of  the  greatest 
of  Indian  kings,  who  conquered  nearly  the  whole  of  India,  and 
whose  alliances  extended  from  the  Oxus  to  Ceylon;  but  his 
name  was  at  one  time  entirely  lost  to  history,  and  has  only 
been  recovered  of  recent  yean  from  coins  and  inscriptions.  His 
empire  rivalled  that  of  Asoka,  extending  from  the  Hugli  on  the 
east  to  the  Jumna  and  Chambal  on  the  west,  and  from  the  foot  of 
the  Himalayas  on  the  north  to  the  Nerbudds  on  the  south.  His 
son  Chandragupta  II.  (c.  a.d.  375-413)  was  also  known  as  Vikra- 
Maditya  (^.v.),  and  seems  to  hsve  been  theoriginalof  the  mythical 
Hindu  king  of  that  name.  About  388  he  conquered  the  Saka 
satrap  of  Surashtra  (Kathiawar)  and  penetrated  to  the  Arabian 
Sea.  His  administration  is  described  in  the  work  of  Fa-hien, 
the  earliest  Chinese  pilgrim,  who  visited  India  in  a.d.  405-411. 
Pataliputra  was  the  capital  of  the  dynasty,  but  Ajodhya  seems  to 
have  been  sometimes  used  by  both  Samudragupta  and  Chandra- 
gupta II.  as  the  headquarters  of  government.  The  Gupta 
dynasty  appears  to  have  fostered  a  revival  of  Brahmanism  at  the 
expense  of  Buddhism,  and  to  have  given  an  impulse  to  art  and 
literature.  The  golden  age  of  the  empire  lasted  from  a.d.  330  to 
455,  beginning  to  decline  alter  thelatterdate.  WhenSkandagupta 
came  to  the  throne  in  455,  India  was  threatened  with  an  irruption 
of  the  White  Huns,  on  whom  he  inflicted  a  severe  defeat,  thus 
saving  his  kingdom  for  a  time;  but  about  470  the  White  Huns 
(sec  EraTHAUTES)  returned  to  the  atuck,  and  the  empire  was 
gradually  destroyed  by  their  repeated  inroads.  When  Skanda- 
gupta  died  about  480,  the  Gupta  empire  came  to  an  end,  bat  the 
dynasty  continued  to  rule  in  the  eastern  provinces  for  several 
generations.  The  last  known  prince  of  the  imperial  line  of 
Guptas  was  Kamaragupta  II.  {c.  535)^  after  whom  it  passed  "  by 
an  obscure  transition  "  into  a  dynasty  of  eleven  Gupta  princes, 
known  as  "  the  later  Guptas  of  Magadha,"  who  seem  for  the 
most  part  to  have  been  merely  local  rulers  of  Magadha.  One  of 
them,  however,  Adityasena,  after  the  death  of  the  paramount 
sovereign  in  648,  asserted  his  independence.  The  last  known 
Gupta  king  was  Jivitagupta  II.,  who  reigned  early  in  the  8th 
century.  About  the  middle  of  thecentury  Magadhapassed  under 
the  sway  of  the  Pal  kings  of  BengaL 

See  J.  F.  Fleet.  CuMa  Inscriptimu  (1888):  and  Vincent  A.  Smith, 
The  Early  History  0/  India  (and  cd.,  Oxford*  1908),  pp.  a64'a95. 

OURA,  B0QBN  (1842-1906),  German  singer,  was  bom  near 
Saatz  in  Bohemia,  and  educated  at  first  for  the  career  of  a  painter 
at  Vienna  and  Munich;  but  later,  developing  a  fine  baritone 
voice,  he  took  up  singing  and  studied  it  at  the  Munich  Conserva- 
torium.  In  1865  he  made  his  d^but  at  the  Munidi  opera,  and  in 
the  following  years  he  gained  the  highest  reputation  in  Germany, 
being  engaged  principally  at  Leipzig  till  1876  and  then  at  Ham- 
burg till  1883.  He  sang  in  1876  in  the  Rmg  at  Bayr^ith,  and  was 
famous  for  his  Wagnerian  r61es;  and  his  Hans  Sachs  in  Meister' 
singer,  as  performed  in  London  in  i88a,  was  magnificent.  In 
later  years  he  showed  the  perfection  of  art  in  his  singing  of  Gciman 
Litder.    He  died  in  Bavarf  a  on  the  26th  of  August  1906. 

OURDASPUR,  a  town  and  distria  of  British  India,  in  the 
lAhore  division  of  the  Punjab.  The  town,  had  a  population 
in  1901  of  5764.  It  has  a  fort  (now  containing  a  Brahman 
monastery)  which  was  famous  for  the  siege  it  sustained  in  1712 
from  the  Moguls.  The  Sikh  leader.  Banda,  was  only  reduced  by 
starvation,  when  he  and  bis  men  were  tortured  to  death  after 
capitulating. 

The  Disrucr  comprises  an  area  of  1889  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  native  states  of  Kashmir  and  Chamba,  on  the  £. 
by  Kangra  district  and  the  river  Beas,  on  the  S.W.  by  Amritsar 
district,  and  on  the  W.  by  Sialkot,  and  occupies  the  submontane 
portion  of  the  Bari  Doab,  or  tract  between  the  Beas  and  the 
Ravi.  An  intrusive  spur  of  the  British  dominions  runs  north- 
ward into  the  lower  Himalayan  ranges,  to  include  the  mountain 
sanatorium  of  Dalhousie,  7687  ft.  above  sea-levd.  This  station, 
which  has  a  large  fluctuating  population  during  the  warmer 
months,  crowns  the  most  westeriy  shoulder  of  a  magnificent 
snowy  range,  the  Dhaoladhar,  between  which  and  the  plain  two 
miBor  ranges  intervene.    Below  the  hills  stretches  a  picturesque 


and  undulating  plateau  covered  with  abundant  timber,  made 
green  by  a  copious  rainfall,  and  watered  by  the  streams  of  the 
Bari  Doab,  which,  diverted  by  dams  and  embankments,  now 
empty  their  waters  into  the  Beas  directly,  in  order  that  thdr 
channels  may  not  interfere  with  the  Bari  Doab  canal.  The 
district  contains  several  large  jhUs  or  swampy  lakes,  and  is. 
famous  for  its  snipe-shooting.  It  is  historically  important  in 
connexion  with  the  rise  of  the  Sikh  confederacy.  The  whde  of 
the  Punjab  was  then  distributed  among  the  Sikh  chiefs  who 
triumphed  over  the  imperial  governors.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  however,  the  maharaja  Ranjit  Singh  acquired  all  the 
territory  which  those  chiefs  had  held.  Pathankot  and  the 
neighbouring  villages  in  the  plain,  together  with  the  whole  hill 
portion  of  the  district,  formed  part  of  the  area  ceded  by  the 
Sikhs  to  the  British  after  the  first  Sikh  war  in  1846.  In 
186),  after  receiving  one  w  two  additions,  the  district  was 
brought  into  its  present  shape.  In  1901  the  population  was 
940*334,  showing  a  slif^t  decrease,  compared  with  an  increase  of 
15%  m  the  previous  decade.  A  branch  of  the  North- Western 
railway  runs  through  the  district.  The  largest  town  and  chief 
commercial  centra  is  Batala.  There  are  important  woollen  mills 
at  Dhariwal,  and  besides  their  products  the  district  exports 
cotton,  sugar,  grain  and  oil-seeds. 

GUROAON,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Delhi 
division  of  the  Punjab.  The  town  (pop.  in  1901,  4765)  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  district,  but  is  otherwise  unimportant.  The 
district  has  an  area  of  1984  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Rohtak,  on  the  W.  and  S.W.  by  portions  of  the  Alwar,  Nabha 
and  Jind  native  states,  on  the  S.  by  the  Muttra  district  of  the 
United  Provinces,  on  the  E.  l^y  the  river  Jumna  and  on  the  N.E. 
by  Delhi.  It  comprises  the  southernmost  corner  of  the  Punjab 
province,  stretching  away  from  the  level  plain  towards  the  hills 
of  Rajputana.  Two  low  rocky  ranges  enter  its  borders  from  tho 
south  and  run  northward  in  a  bare  and  unshaded  mass  toward 
the  plain  country.  East  of  the  western  ridge  the  vsUey  is  wide 
and  open,  extending  to  the  banks  of  the  Jumna.  To  the  west 
lies  the  subdivision  of  Rewari,  consisting  of  a  sandy  plain  dotted 
with  isolated  hills.  Numerous  torrents  cany  off  the  drainage 
from  the  upland  ranges,  and  the  most  important  among  them 
empty  themselves  at  last  into  the  Nsjafgarh  jAt/.  This  swampy 
lake  lies  to  the  east  of  the  civil  station  of  Gurgaon,  and  stretches 
long  arms  into  the  neighbouring  districts  of  Delhi  and  Rohtak. 
Salt  is  manufactured  in  wells  at  several  villages.  The  mineral 
products  are  iron  ore,  copper  ore,  plumbago  and  ochre. 

In  1803  Gurgaon  district  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  British 
after  Lord  Lake's  conquests.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny  in 
May  1857,  the  nawab  of  Farukhnagar,  the  principal  feudatory  of 
the  district,  rose  in  rebellion.  The  Meos  and  many  Rajput 
families  followed  his  example.  A  faithful  native  officer  preserved 
the  public  buildings  and  records  at  Rewari  from  destruction; 
but  with  this  exception,  British  authority  became  extinguished 
for  a  time  throuj^out  Gurgaon.  After  the  faU  of  the  rebd 
capital,  a  force  marched  into  the  district  and  either  captured  or 
diH)eraed  the  leaders  of  rebellion.  The  territory  of  the  nawab  was 
confiscated  on  account  of  his  participation  in  the  Mutiny.  Civil 
administration  was  resumed  under  orders  from  the  Punjab 
government,  to  which  province  the  district  was  formally  annexed 
on  the  final  pacification  of  the  country.  The  population  in  1901 
was  746,208,  showing  an  increase  of  11%  in  the  decade.  The 
largest  town  and  chief  trade  centre  is  Rewari.  The  district  is 
now  traversed  by  several  lines  of  railway,  and  irrigation  is 
provided  by  the  Agra  canal.  The  chief  trade  is  in  cereals,  but 
hardware  is  also  exported. 

GURKHA  (pronounced  gtorka;  from  Sans,  gdu,  a  cow,  and 
raks,  to  protect),  the  ruling  Hindu  race  in  Nepal  {q.v.).  The 
Gurkhas,  or  Gurkhalis,  claim  descent  from  the  rajas  of  Chitor  in 
Rajputana.  When  driven  out  of  their  own  country  by  the 
Mahommedan  invasion,  they  took  refuge  in  the  hilly  districts 
about  Kumaon,  whence  they  gradually  inVaded  the  country  to 
the  eastward  as  far  as  Gurkha,  Noakote  and  ultimately  to  the 
valley  of  Nepal  and  even  Sikkim.  They  were  stopped  by  the 
English  in  an  attempt  to  push  south,  and  the  Ueaty  of  Segauli, 


GURNALL— GURNEY,  E. 


which  ended  the  GuriJu  Wu  of  1814,  definilely  Umiied  ibeii 
teniloriil  gnivUi.  The  Guriiliu  of  the  preHnt  day  remain 
Hindia  by  leligien,  but  ihow  in  thai  appearance  a  strong 
adnuture  of  Uongolian  blood.    Tbcy  make  iplendid  inlanlry 


-e  bold,  e 


he  GurkI 


laithlul, 


be  iDdian 


and  icli-TelJant.  They  desjKK  other  Orientab,  but  admire  and 
fratenu«  iiilh  Europeans,  whose  Uslei  in  sport  and  nar  ihey 
share.  They  strongly  resemble  the  Jspanese,  hut  are  ol  a 
sturdier  biLild.  Their  national  weapon  ia  the  kukri,  a  heavy 
curved  knife^  which  they  use  for  every  pouihle  purpoae. 

See  (jpt.  Eden  Vjniiturt.  NMi  oirUi  G»Woj  (1898);  and  P. 
D.  Bonanee,  UK  Fitkli*t  Ann  nf  India  (ift99], 

amtHAU.  WILUAM  U6n-i6j9),  Engfiib  author,  was  born 
in  l6t7  at  King's  Lynn,  Norfolk.  He  wu  educated  at  the  free 
gram  mar  school  ol  his  nsllve  town,  and  in  163  r  was  rtominaled 
to  Ibe  Lynn  scbolanbip  in  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge.  R  here 
he  giaduated  B,A.  in  1615  and  M.A.  ia  iSig.  He  was  made 
tectoi  of  Lavenh»ni  in  Suffolk  in  i6m;  snd  before  he  received 
thai  appointment  he  teeoii  to  have  officiated,  perhaps  aa  curate, 
at  Sudbury.  At  the  Restoralion  he  signed  the  declaration 
required  hy  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  and  on  this  aeoiunt  he  was 
the  subject  ol  a  libellous  attack,  published  in  1665,  entitled 
CoKHoni-KcBimtKtrs  Dapcrati  Apoilaia.  He  died  on  the  nth 
of  October  ifi;g.  Gumall  is  knownbyhisCMifioN  in  CtmpliU 
AnKBtr,  published  in  three  volumes,  dated  lAjSi  1658  and  iMi. 
It  consists  ol  a  series  ol  sermons  on  the  latter  portion  of  the  6th 
chapter  ol  Ephesisns,  and  is  described  as  a  "  mlguine  from 
whence  the  Chriilian  is  furnished  with  spiritual  arms  for  the 
battle,  helped  on  with  his  annour,  and  taught  the  use  of  his 
weapon^  together  with  the  happy  issue  of  the  whole  war," 
The  work  is  more  practical  than  theological^  and  its  quaint 
fancy,  graphic  and  pointed  style,  and  its  fervent  religioua  tone 
render  it  still  popular  with  some  readers. 

Srt  alio  An  tnjulry  mla  Iki  Lift  nj  Iht  Kit.  W.  Gxrrull,  by 
R  WKeon  {iSjol,  and  >  biocraphical  introduction  by  Biihop  Ryle 
to  the  Ckritliom  in  CompUU  Amuna  (186;). 

OURHAHD  (Tritlaj,  a  genus  of  fishes  formmg  a  group  of  the 
family  of  "  mailed  cheeks  "  (Tri^idae).  and  easily  lecogniied  by 
three  detached  £nger-lilce  appendages  in  front  of  the  pectond  6119. 
and  by  their  large,  angular,  bony  head,  the  aides  of  which  ate 
protected  by  strong,  hard  and  rough   bones.    The  pectonl 

as  organs  of  locomotion  when  the  fish  move*  on  the  bottom,  but 
also  as  organs  of  touch,  by  which  it  delecta  small  animab  on 
which  it  feeda.  Gurnards  are  coast-Gshes,  generally  distributed 
le  tropical  and  tern  ... 


gurnard  (r.^inO,  the  streaked  gurnard  (r.Iinaifti),  the sapphirine 
gurnard  (7".  *i«Ki(i>),  the  grey  gurnard  [T.  jumorJail,  the  pipe 
(r.;yrj)  and  the  long-finned  gurnard  ( T.  oiifm-a  or  T.  lucma) 
Although  never  found  very  far  from  the  coast,  gurnards  desceni 
to  depths  of  several  hundred  fathoms;  and  as  they  are  bottom 
fish  they  are  caught  chiefly  by  means  of  the  IniwL  Not  tnrelj 
however,  they  may  be  seen  floating  on  the  jurface  of  the  watei 
with  their  broad,  finely  coloured  pectoml  Gns  spread  out  lik 
fans.  In  very  young  fishes.  Khich.abound  in  tenain  locolitic 
ontbecoailiDthemoiithsof  AufuMiodSc^uinbei,  the  pectonli 


are  comparatively  much  longer  than  in  tbe  adult,  eitendio|  Id 
the  end  of  (he  body;  they  are  beautifully  colonrcd  and  tepi 
expanded,  the  little  fishes  looking  like  butteifliet.  When  oughi 
and  taken  out  of  the  water,  gurnards  emit  a  grunting  nobf, 
which  is  produced  by  the  vibrations  of  a  di^ihiagra  btuitHl 
transversely  across  the  oivity  of  the  bladder  and  perfoi»ird  ii 
the  centre.  This  grunting  noise  gave  rise  to  (be  name  "  gia- 
nard,'^  which  ia  probably  an  adaptation  or  variation  of  (he  Fr. 
tngnard,  grumbler,  cf.  the  Fr.  pondiii.  gurnard,  from  pwio. 
and  Ger,  Kniarjuch.    Their  Sesb  a  very  white,  firm  and  wholi- 

ODRinr,  the  name  of  a  philanthnfitc  English  family  li 
bankers  and  metdunls,  direct  descendants  of  Uugb  de  Gsnnu). 
lord  ol  Goutnay.  one  of  the  Norman  rubleratn  who  aceampaDiid 
William  the  Conqueror  to  England.  Large  grants  of  land  ane 
made  to  Hu^  de  Gountay  in  Norfolk  and  Suffi^  and  Normift] 
has  since  that  time  been  the  headquarters  of  the  family,  [ht 
raafority  of  whom  were  Quaken.  Here  in  1770  tbe  btolbeTj 
John  and  Henry  Gumey  founded  a  banking-house,  tbe  busincij 
passing  in  1 7  7g  to  Henry's  son.  Bart  tett  Gumey.  On  the  desrh  tj 
Bartlelt  Gumey  in  1801  tbe  bank  became  the  property  ol  hit 
three  cousins,  of  whom  John  Guinev  (1750-1809)  wts  the  dou 
T^aVkable.  One  of  hia  daughters  was  Elizabeth  Fry;  angthn 
married  Sir  Thomas  Fowell  Buiton.  Of  his  sons  one  vai  Josm 
John  Gdinei  (i;BS-iE47),  a  well-known  philanthiopisl  ol  tk 
day;  another,  SuitJEL  Gramy  (1786-1856)  assumed  on  bit 
father's  death  the  control  of  the  Norwich  bank.     Samuel  CuitKr 

broking  business  of  Richardson.  Overend  tt  Company,  in  which 
he  waa  already  a  partner.  This  business  had  been  founded  in 
iSoo  by  Thomas  Richintton,  clerk  10  a  London  biU-diKoumn, 
and  John  Overend,  chief  clerk  in  the  bank  of  Smith,  I>ay«  k 
Company  at  Nottingham,  tbe  Gumeys  supplying  tbe  capital 
At  that  time  bill-discounting  waa  carried  on  in  a  apumnk 
fashion  by  the  ordinary  merchant  in  addition  to  his  rrguUr 


London  hou! 
bills.    This, 


which  sh 


Id  devote  itself  entirely  to 


ibsequently  changed  b 
Gumey  &  Company,  and  for  for(y  yean  it  was  thcgnsm 

1815  Ovelend,  Guiney  A  Company  were  able  to  msfct  ihon 
loans  to  many  other  bankets.  The  bouse  indeed  becancknomn  » 
"  tbe  bankers'  banker,"  and  secured  many  of  the  previous  dienii 
ol  the  Bank  of  England.  Samuel  Gumey  died  in  1S5&  Ht  vn 
a  man  of  very  charitable  dispoution,  and  during  the  latter  ynri 
of  his  life  diarilable  and  philanthropic  undertaking!  elniBi 
monopolized  his  allentiorL  In  1865  (he  buiiness  of  Overmd, 
Gumey  &  Company,  which  had  come  under  less  comptiail 
control,  was  convened  in(o  a  joint  stock  company,  but  in  >M 
(he  Erm  suspended  payment  with  Italulities  amoiuuing  loelrtni 
miUions  sterling. 

GURNET,  BDXnHD  (1S47-18S8).  En^ish  psvcholo^,  nl 
bom  at  Hersham,  near  Walton-on-Thamcs,  on  (be  ijrd  of  TAuA 
1S47.  He  was  educated  a(  Blackbeatb  and  at  Trinity  CoUtp, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  a  high  place  in  the  classical  tnpcamJ 

piano."  Dissatisfied  with  his  own  executive  skill  aa  a  msiidu. 
hewmte  ^e  i'lmcrg/Simnd  [1880),  an  essay  on  tbe  philosopbr 
of  music.  He  then  studied  medicine  with  tw  intention  o[  pnclir- 
ing,  devoting  himself  to  physics,  chemistry  and  physulogy.  1^ 
iSSo  be  paucd  the  second  M.B.  Cambridge  eiaminatioc  a  Ihi 
science  of  the  healing  profession.  Thcw  studira,  and  his  peil 
logical  powers  and  patience  in  the  invesiigatioo  of  evideoct.  I" 
devoted  to  that  outlying  held  of  psychology  which  a  o^ 
'■  Psychical  Research,"  Heuked  whether,  as  universal  indii no 
declares,  there  is  an  uneiplored  re^on  of  human  faculty  Vfo- 
cending  the  normal  limitations  of  lemible  hoowledge.  Thit 
there  is  such  a  region  it  wu  pan  of  the  system  of  Kegel  to  dcdaie. 
and  tbe  subject  bad  been  metapbysiaUy  treated  by  Hattmaga. 
Schopenhauer,  Du  Pid,  Uamihon  and  olbett,  aa  the  phikBC|>(j 


GURWOOD— GUSTAVUS  I.  ERIKSSON 


733 


of  the  Unconscious  or  Subconscious.  But  Gurney's  purpose  was 
to  approach  the  subject  by  observation  and  experiment,  especially 
in  the  hypnotic  field,  whereas  vague  and  iU-attcsted  anecdotes 
had  hitherto  been  the  staple  of  the  evidence  of  metaphysicians. 
The  tendency  of  his  mind  was  to  investigate  whatever  facts  may 
give  a  colour  of  truth  to  the  ancient  belief  in  the  persistence  of  the 
conscious  human  personality  after  the  death  of  the  body.  Like 
Joseph  Glan  viU's,  the  natural  bent  of  Gumey's  mind  wassceptical. 
Both  thought  the  current  and  traditional  reports  of  supernormal 
occurrences  suggestive  and  worth  investigating  by  the  ordinary 
methods  of  scientific  observation,  and  inquisition  into  evidence 
at  first  hand.  But  the  method  of  Gurney  was,  of  course,  much 
more  strict  than  that  of  the  author  of  Sadducismus  Triumpkatus, 
and  it  included  hypnotic  and  other  experiments  unknown  to 
Glanvtll.  Gurney  began  at  what  he  later  saw  was  the  wrong  end 
by  studying,  with  Myers,  the  "s^nces'^of  profestedspiritualistic 
'*  mediums  "  (1874-1878).  Little  but  detection  of  imposture 
came  of  this,  but  an  impression  was  left  that  the  subject  ought 
not  to  be  abandoned.  In  1882  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research 
was  founded.  (See  Psychical  Research.)  Paid  mediums  were 
discarded,  at  least  for  the  time,  and  experiments  were  made  in 
'*  thought-transference  "  and  hypnotism.  Personal  evidence  as 
to  uninduced  hallucinations  was  also  collected.  The  first  results 
are  embodied  in  the  volumes  of  Phantasms  of  ike  Living,  a  vast 
collection  (Podmore,  Myers  and  Gurney),  and  in  Gumey's 
remarkable  essay,  Halluciuations.  The  chief  consequence  was 
to  furnish  evidence  for  the  process  called  "  telepathy,"  involving 
the  provisional  hypothesis  that  one  human  mind  can  affect 
another  through  no  recognized  channel  of  sense.  The  fact  was 
supposed  to  be  established  by  the  experiments  chronicled  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research,  and  it  was 
argued  that  similar  experiences  occurred  spontaneously,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  many  recorded  instances  of "  deathbed  wraiths  " 
among  civilized  and  savage  races.  (Tylor,  Primitive  Culture,  i. 
chapter  xi.,  especially  pp.  449-450,  1873.  Lang,  Making  of 
Religion,  pp.  130-134,  1898.)  The  dying  man  is  supposed 
to  convey  the  hallucination  of  his  presence  as  one  living 
person  experimentally  conveys  his  thought  to  another,  by 
"  thought  -  transference."  Gumey's  hypnotic  experiments, 
marked  by  grqat  exactness,  patience  and  ingenuity,  were  under- 
Uken  in  1885-1888.  Their  tendency  was,  in  Myers's  words, 
"  to  prove — so  far  as  any  one  operator's  experience  in  this  protean 
subject  can  be  held  to  prove  anything — that  there  is  sometimes, 
in  the  induction  of  hypnotic  phenomena,  some  agency  at  work 
which  is  neither  ordinary  nervous  stimulation  (monotonous  or 
sudden)  nor  suggestion  conveyed  by  any  ordinary  channel  to  the 
subject's  mind."  These  results,  if  accepted,  of  course  corroborate 
the  idea  of  telepathy.  (See  Gurney,  "Hypnotism  and  Telepathy," 
Proceedings  S.P.R.  vol.  iv.)  Experiments  by  MM.  Gibert,  Janet, 
Richet,  HMcourt  and  others  are  cited  as  tending  in  the  same 
direction.  Other  experiments  dealt  with  "  the  relation  of  the 
memory  in  the  hypnotic  state  to  the  memory  in  another  hypnotic 
state,  and  of  both  to  the  normal  or  waking  memory."  The  result 
of  Gurney's  labours,  cut  short  by  his  early  death,  was  to  raise  and 
strengthen  the  presumption  that  there  exists  an  unexplored 
region  of  human  faculty  which  ought  not  to  be  neglected  by 
science  as  if  the  belief  in  it  were  a  mere  survival  of  savage  super- 
stition. Rather,  it  appears  to  have  furnished  the  exr>eriences 
which,  misinterpreted,  are  expressed  in  traditional  beliefs. 
That  Gurney  was  credulous  and  easily  imposed  upon  those  who 
knew  him,  and  knew  his  i>enetrating  humour,  cannot  admit; 
nor  is  the  theory  likely  to  be  maintained  by  those  whom  bias 
does  not  prevent  from  studying  with  care  his  writings.  In  con- 
troversy "  he  delighted  in  replying  with  easy  courtesy  to  attacks 
envenomed  with  that  odium  plus  quam  theohgicum  which  the 
very  allusion  to  a  ghost  or  the  human  soul  seems  in  some  philo- 
sophers to  inspire."  In  discussion  of  themes  unpopular  and 
obscure  Gurney  displayed  the  highest  tact,  patience,  good 
temper,  humour  and  acuteness.  There  never  was  a  more  dis- 
interested student.  In  addition  to  his  work  on  music  and  his 
psychological  writings,  he  was  the  author  o£  Tertium  Quid 
(1887),  a  collection  of  essays,  on  the  whole  a  protest  against  one- 


sided ideas  and  methods  of  discussion.  He  died  at  Brighton  on 
23rd  June  x888,  from  the  effects  of  an  overdose  of  narcotic 
medicine.  (A.  L.) 

GURWOOD,  JOHN  (X790-XS45),  British  soldier,  hepm  his 
career  in  a  merchant's  office,  but  soon  obtained  an  ensigncy  in 
the  52nd  (1808).  With  his  regiment  he  served  in  the  "  Light 
Division  "  of  Wellington's  army  throughout  the  earlier  Penin- 
sular  campaigns,  and  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo  (x9th  Jan.  18x2)  he 
led  one  of  the  forlorn  hopes  and  was  severely  wounded.  For  his 
gallant  conduct  on  this  occasion  Wellington  presented  Gurwood 
with  the  sword  of  the  French  governor  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo.  A 
little  later,  transferring  to  the  9th  Light  Dragoons,  he  was  made 
brigade-major  to  the  Guards'  cavalry  which  had  just  arrived  in 
the  Peninsula.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  war  he  served  as  brigade- 
major  to  Lambert's  brigade  of  the  sixth  infantry  division,  and 
was  present  at  the  various  actions  in  which  that  division  played 
a  conspicuous  part — the  Nivelle,  the  Nive,  Orthes  and  Toulouse. 
At  Waterloo  Captain  Gurwood  was  for  the  third  time  severely 
wounded.  In  the  first  twelve  years  of  the  peace  he  was  pro- 
moted up  to  the  grade  of  lieut.-colonel,  and  in  X84X  became 
brevet-colonel.  He  was  for  many  years  the  duke  of  Wellington 's 
private  secretary,  and  was  entmsted  by  him  with  the  collection 
and  editing  of  the  Wellington  Despatches,  which  occupied  Gur- 
wood from  X83 7  to  the  end  of  his  life.  This  work  is  a  monument 
of  industrious  skill,  and  earned  its  author  a  Civil  List  Pension  of 
£200.  But  overwork  and  the  effects  of  his  wounds  had  broken 
his  health,  and  he  committed  suicide  on  Christmas  day  1845. 
He  was  a  C.B.  and  deputy-lieutenant  of  the  Tower. 

GUSLA*  or  Gusli,  an  ancient  stringed  instrument  still  in  use 
among  the  Slavonic  races.  The  modem  Servian  gusla  is  a  kind 
of  tanbur  (see  Pandu&a),  consisting  of  a  round,  concave  body 
covered  with  a  parchment  soundboard;  there  is  but  one  horse- 
hair string,  and  the  peg  for  tuning  it  is  inserted  in  oriental  fashion 
in  the  back  of  the  head.  The  gusla  is  played  with  a  primitive 
bow  called  goudalo.  The  gouslars  or  blind  bards  of  Servia  and 
Croatia  use  it  to  accompany  their  chants.  C.  G.  Anton*  men- 
tions an  instrument  of  that  name  in  the  shape  of  a  half-moon 
strung  with  eighteen  strings  in  use  among  the  Tatars.  Prosper 
Mcrim6e*  has  taken  the  gusla  as  the  title  for  a  book  of  Servian 
poems,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been  collected  by  him  among 
the  peasants,  but  which  are  thought  to  have  been  inspired  by  the 
Viaggio  in  Dalmazia  of  Albarto  Fortis. 

Among  the  Russians,  the  gusli  is  an  instrument  of  a  different 
type,  a  kind  of  psaltery  having  five  or  more  strings  stretched 
across  a  flat,  shallow  sound*chest  in  the  shape  of  a  wing.  In  the 
gusli  the  strings,  of  graduated  length,  are  attached  to  little  nails 
or  pins  at  one  end,  and  at  the  other  they  arc  wound  over  a  rod 
having  screw  attachments  for  increasing  and  slackening  the 
tension.  There  is  no  bridge  to  determine  the  vibraiing  length  of 
the  strings.  The  body  of  the  instrument  is  shaped  roughly  like 
the  tail  of  the  grand  piano,  following  the  line  of  the  strings;  the 
longest  being  at  the  left  of  the  instrument.  Matthew  Guthrie 
gives  an  illustration  of  the  gusli.*  (K.  S.) 

OUSTAVUS  L  ERIKSSON  (X496-X560),  king  of  Sweden,  was 
born  at  his  mother's  estate  at  Lindholm  on  Ascension  Day  X496. 
He  came  of  a  family  which  had  shone  conspicuously  in  X5th- 
century  politics,  though  it  generally  took  the  anti-national  side. 
His  father,  Erik  Johansson  of  Rydboholm,  "  a  merry  and  jocose 
gentleman,"  but,  like  all  the  Swedish  Vasas,  liable  to  sudden 
fierce  gusts  of  temper,  was  one  of  the  senators  who  voted  for  the 
deposition  of  Archbishop  Trolle,  at  the  riksdag  of  15x7  (see 
Sweden,  History),  for  which  act  of  patriotism  he  lost  his  head. 
Gustavus's  mother>  Cecilia  M&nsditter,  was  closely  connected 
by  marriage  with  the  great  Sture  family.  Gustavus's  youthful 
experiences  impressed  him  with  a  life-long  distrust  of  everything 
Danish.  In  his  eighteenth  year  he  was  sent  to  the  court  of  his 
cousin  Sten  Sture.    At  the  battle  of  Brftnnkyrka,  when  Sture 

*  Erste  Linien  eines  Versuchs  iiber  den  Ursprung  der  alten  Slopen 
(Leipng.  1 783-1 789),  p.  145. 

'  La  Cuua,  ou  ckoix  de  pitisies  lyriques  reeueiilies  dans  la  Dalmatie, 
la  Bcsnie,  la  Croatie,  Sfc.  (Paris,  1827). 

*  Dissertations  sur  Us  aniiquitis  d$  Russie  (St  Peterrt>ufg,  1795). 
pi.  ii.  No.  9.  p.  31. 


734 


GUSTAVUS  I.  ERIKSSON 


defeated  Christian  II.  of  Denmark, the  young  Gustavus  bore  the 
governor's  standard,  and  in  the  same  year  (1518)  he  was  delivered 
with  five  other  noble  youths  as  a  hostage  to  King  Christian,  who 
treacherously  carried  him  prisoner  to  Denmark.  He  was 
detained  for  twelve  months  In  the  island  fortress  of  Kald,  on  the 
east  coast  of  Jutland, -but  contrived  to  escape  to  LQbeck  in 
September  1 5 19.  There  he  found  an  asylum  till  the  20th  of  May 
X520,  when  he  chartered  a  ship  to  Kalmar,  one  of  the  few  Swedish 
fortresses  which  held  out  against  Christian  II. 

It  was  while  hunting  near  Lake  M2Llar  that  the  news  of  the 
Stockholm  massacre  was  brought  to  him  by  a  peasant  fresh  from 
the  capital,  who  told  him,  at  the  same  time,  that  a  price  had  been 
set  upon  his  head.  In  his  extremity,  Gustavus  saw  only  one 
way  of  deliverance,  an  appeal  for  help  to  the  sturdy  yeomen  of  the 
dales.  How  the  dalesmen  set  Gustavus  on  the  throne  and  how 
he  and  they  finally  drove  the  Danes  out  of  Sweden  (xs2x>x533) 
is  elsewhere  recorded  (see  Sweden:  History).  But  his  worst 
troubles  only  began  after  his  coronation  on  the  6th  of  June  1523. 
The  financial  position  of  the  crown  was  the  most  important  of  all 
the  problems  demanding  solution,  for  upon  that  everything  else 
depended.  By  releasing  his  country  from  the  tyranny  of 
Denmark,  Gustavus  had  made  the  free  independent  development 
of  Sweden  a  possibility.  It  was  for  him  to  realize  that  possibility. 
First  of  all,  order  had  to  be  evolved  from  the  Chaos  in  which 
Sweden  had  been  plunged  by  the  disruption  of  the  Union;  and 
the  shortest,  perhaps  the  only,  way  thereto  was  to  restore  the 
royal  authority,  which  had  been  in  abeyance  during  ninety  years. 
But  an  effective  reforming  monarchy  must  stand  upon  a  sound 
financial  basis;  and  the  usual  revenues  of  the  crown,  always 
Inadequate,  were  so  diminished  that  they  did  not  cover  half  the 
daily  expenses  of  government.  New  taxes  could  only  be  imposed 
with  extreme  caution,  while  the  country  was  still  bleeding  from 
the  wounds  of  a  long  war.  And  men  were  wanted  even  more 
than  money.  The  lack  of  capable,  trustworthy  administrators 
in  Sweden  was  grievous.  The  whole  burden  of  government 
weighed  exclusively  on  the  shoulders  of  the  new  king,  a  young 
man  of  seven  and  twenty.  Half  his  time  was  taken  up  in 
travelling  from  one  end  of  the  kingdom  to  the  other,  and  doing 
purely  clerical  work  for  want  of  competent  assistance.  We  can 
form  some  idea  of  hb  difficulties  when  we  learn  that,  in  1533,  he 
could  not  send  an  ambassador  to  LObeck  because  not  a  single 
man  in  his  council,  except  himself,  knew  German.  It  was  this 
lack  of  native  talent  which  compelled  Gustavus  frequently  to 
employ  the  services  of  foreign  adventurers  like  Berent  von 
Mehlen,  John  von  Hoja,  Konrad  von  Pyhy  and  others. 

It  was  not  the  least  of  Gustavus's  many  anxieties  that  he  had 
constantly  to  be  on  the  watch  lest  a  formidable  democratic  rival 
should  encroach  on  his  prerogative.  That  rival  was  the  Swedish 
peasantry.  He  succeeded  indeed  in  putting  down  the  four 
formidable  rebellions  which  convulsed  the  reahn  from  1525  to 
1542,  but  the  consequent  strain  upon  his  resources  was  very 
damaging,  and  more  than  once  he  was  on  the  point  of  abdicating 
and  emigrating,  out  of  sheer  weariness.  Moreover  he  was  in  con- 
stant fear  of  the  Danes.  Necessity  compelled  him  indeed  (1534- 
X536)  to  take  part  in  Grevensfejde  (Counts'  War)  (see  Denmark, 
History),  as  the  ally  of  Christian  III.,  but  his  exaggerated 
distrust  of  the  Danes  was  invincible.  "  We  advise  and  exhort 
you,"  he  wrote  to  the  governor  of  Kalmar,  "  to  put  no  hope  or 
trust  in  the  Danes,  or  in  their  sweet  scribbling,  inasmuch  as  they 
mean  nothing  at  all  by  it  except  how  best  they  may  deceive  and 
betray  us  Swedes."  Such  instructions  were  not  calculated  to 
promote  confidence  between  Swedish  and  Danish  negotiators. 
A  fresh  cause  of  dispute  was  generated  in  1548,  when  Christian 
III.'s  daughter  was  wedded  to  Duke  Augustus  of  Saxony.  On 
that  occasion,  apparently  by  way  of  protest  against  the  decree  of 
the  diet  of  Vesteras  (isth  of  January  1544),  declaring  the 
Swedish  drown  hereditary  in  Gustavus's  family,  the  Danish  king 
caused  to  be  quartered  on  his  daughter's  shield  not  only  the  three 
Danish  lions  and  the  Norwegian  lion  with  the  axe  of  St  Olaf,  but 
also  "  the  three  crowns "  of  Sweden.  Gustavus,  naturally 
suspicious,  was  much  perturbed  by  the  Innovation,  and  warned 
all  his  border  officials  to  be  watchful  and  prepare  for  the  worst. 


In  XS57  he  even  wrote  to  the  Danish  king  protesting  against  the 
placing  of  "  the  three  crowns  "  in  the  royal  Danish  seal  beneath 
the  arms  of  Denmark.  Christian  HI.  replied  that  "  the  three 
crowns  "  signified  not  Sweden  in  especial,  but  the  three  Scan- 
dinavian kingdoms,  and  that  their  insertion  in  the  Danish  shidd 
was  only  a  reminiscence  of  the  union.of  Kalmar.  But  Gustavus 
was  not  satisfied,  and  this  was  the  beginning  of  '*  ihe  three 
crowns  "  dispute  which  did  so  much  damage  to  both  kingdoms. 

The  events  which  led  to  the  rupture  of  Gustavus  with  the  Hdy 
See  are  set  forth  in  the  proper  place  (see  Sweden:  History). 
Here  it  need  only  be  added  that  it  was  a  purely  political  act,  as 
Gustavus,  personally,  had  no  strong  dogmatic  leanings  dtbn 
way.  He  not  unnat'Urally  expressed  his  amazement  when  ihai 
very  juvenile  reformer  Olavtis  Petri  confidently  informed  him 
that  the  pope  was  antichrist.  He  consulted  the  older  and  graver 
Laurentius  Andreae,  who  told  him  how  *'  Doctor  Martinus  had 
clipped  the  wings  of  the  pope,  the  cardinals  and  the  big  bishops," 
which  could  not  fail  to  be  pleasing  intelligence  to  a  monarch  vho 
was  )iever  an  admirer  of  episcopacy,  while  the  rich  revenues  of  the 
church,  accumulated  in  the  course  of  centuries,  were  a  tempting 
object  to  the  impecunious  ruler  of  an  impoverished  people. 
Subsequently,  when  the  Protestant  hierarchy  was  fordbly 
established  in  Sweden,  matters  were  much  complicated  by  Ox 
absolutist  tendencies  of  Gustavus.  Jlie  incessant  labour,  the 
constant  anxiety,  which  were  the  daily  porticm  otGtntaws  Vasa 
during  the  seven  and  thirty  years  of  his  reign,  told  at  last  even 
upon  his  magnificent  constitution.  In  the  spring  of  X560, 
conscious  of  an  ominous  decline  of  his  powers,  Gustavus  sum- 
moned his  last  diet,  to  give  an  account  of  liis  stewardship.  On 
the  i6th  of  June  1 560  the  assembly  met  at  Stockholm.  Ten  da>-s 
bter,  supported  by  his  sons,  Gustavus  grated  the  estates  in  the 
great  hall  of  the  palace,  when  he  took  a  retrospect  of  hb  reign, 
reminding  them  of  the  misery  of  the  kingdom  during  the  union 
and  its  deliverance  from  "  that  unkind  tyrant,  King  Christian." 
Four  days  later  the  diet  passed  a  resolution  confirming  the 
hereditary  right  of  Gustavus's  son,  Prince  Eric,  to  the  throne. 
The  old  king's  last  anxieties  were  now  over  and  he  oould  die  in 
peace.    He  expired  on  the  29th  of  September  1560. 

Gustavus  was  thrice  married.  Hb  first  wife,  Catherine, 
daughter  of  Magnus  I.,  duke  of  Saxe-Laucnburg,  bore  him  in 
1 533  hb  eldest  son  Eric.  Thb  union  was  neither  long  nor  happy, 
but  the  blame,  for  its  infelicity  b  generally  attributed  to  the  lady, 
whose  abnormal  character  was  reflected  and  accentuated  in  her 
unhappy  son.  Much  more  fortunate  was  Gustavxis's  second 
marriage,  a  year  after  the  death  of  hb  first  consort,  with  hb  own 
countrywoman,  Margaret  Lejonhufvud,  who  bore  him  five  sons 
and  five  daughters,  of  whom. three  sons,  Johri,  Magnus  and 
Charles,  and  one  daughter,  Cecilia,  survived  their  childhood 
Queen  Margaret  died  in  X55X;  and  a  twelvemonth  later 
Gustavus  wedded  her  niece,  Catharine  Stenbock,  a  handvmte 
girl  of  sixteen,  who  survived  him  more  than  sixty  years. 

Gustavus's  outward  appearance  in  the  prime  of  life  b  thus 
described  by  a  contemporary:  "  He  was  of  the  middle 
height,  with  a  round  head,  light  yellow  hair,  a  fine  loitg  beard, 
sharp  eyes,  a  ruddy  countenance . . .  and  a  body  as  fitly  and 
well  proportioned  as  any  painter  could  have  painted  it.  He  was 
of  a  sanguine-choleric  temperament,  and  when  untroubled  and 
unvexed  a  bright  and  cheerful  gentleman,  easy  to  get  on  «ith« 
and  however  many  people  happened  to  be  in  the  same  room  with 
him,  he  was  never  at  a  loss  for  an  answer  to  every  one  of  them." 
Learned  he  was  not,  but  he  had  naturally  bright  and  dear  under- 
standing, an  unusually  good  memory,  and  a  marvdlous  capacity 
for  taking  pains.  He  was  also  very  devout,  and  hb  morab  vtrt 
irreproachable.  On  the  other  hand,  Gustavtis  had  his  full  share 
of  the  family  failings  of  irritability  and  suspiciousness,  the  latter 
quality  becoming  almost  morbid  under  the  pressure  of  adverse 
circumstances.  Hb  energy  too  not  infrequently  degenerated 
into  violence,  and  when  crossed  he  was  apt  to  be  tyrannical. 

See  A.  Alberg,  Gustavus  Vasa  and  his  Times  (London,  1682): 
R.  N.  Bain,  Scandinavia,  chaps,  iti.  and  v.  (Cambridge,  I9<>5): 
P.  B.  Watson.  Th$  Svfedisk  Revolution  under  Gustavus  Vasa  (London, 
X889):  O.  Sjogren,  Gustaf  Vasa  (Stockhohn,  1896);  C.  M.  Butkr. 


GUSTAVUS  II.  ADOLPHUS 


735 


Tkt  Reformation  in  Sweden  (New  York.  1883);  Sperif,es  Histona 
(Stockholm,  1877-1881);  J.  Weidling.  &ftuiedi 
ZeUatUr  der  Rejormation  (Gotha,  1882). 


iwke  Citsckickte  im 
(R.  N.  B.) 


OUSTAVUS  II.  ADOLPHUS  (x594-x$33),  king  of  Sweden, 
the  eldest  son  of  Charles  IX.  and  of  Christina,  daughter  of 
Adolphus,  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  was  born  at  Stockholm 
castle  on  the  9th  of  December  1594.  From  the  first  he  was 
carefully  nurtured  to  be  the  future  prop  of  Protestantism  by  his 
austere  parents.  Gustavus  was  well  grounded  in  the  classics, 
and  his  linguistic  aca>mplisbments  were  extraordinary.  He  may 
be  said  to  have  grown  tip  with  two  mother-tongues,  Swedish  and 
German;  at  twelve  he  had  mastered  Latin,  Italian  and  Dutch; 
and  he  learnt  subsequently  to  express  himself  in  Spanish,  Russian 
and  Polish.  But  his  practical  father  took  care  that  he  should 
grow  up  a  prince,  not  a  pedant.  So  early  as  his  ninth  year  he  was 
introduced  to  public  life;  at  thirteen  he  received  petitions  and 
conversed  officially  with  the  foreign  ministers;  at  fifteen  he 
administered  his  duchy  of  Vcstmanland  and  opened  the  Orebro 
diet  with  a  speech  from  the  throne;  indeed  from  1610  he  may  be 
regarded  as  his  father's  co-regent.  In  all  martial  and  chivalrous 
accomplishments  he  was  already  an  adept;  and  when,  a  year 
later,  he  succeeded  to  supreme  power,  his  superior  ability  was  as 
uncontested  as  it  was  bcontestable. 

The  first  act  of  the  young  king  was  to  terminate  the  frat- 
ricidal struggle  with  Denmark  by  the  peace  of  KnMred  (28th 
of  January  16 13).    Simultaneously,  another  war,  also  an  heritage 
from  Charles  IX.,  had  been  proceeding  in  the  far  distant  regions 
round  lakes  Ilmen,  Peipus  and  Ladoga,  with  Great  Novgorod  as 
its  centre.    It  was  not,  however,  like  the  Danish  War,  a  national 
danger,  but  a  political  speculation  meant  to  be  remunerative  and 
compensatory,  and  was  concluded  very  advantageously  for  Sweden 
by  'the  peace  of  Stolbova  on  the  ayth  of  February  16x7  (sec 
Sweden  :  History) .    By  this  peace  Gustavus  succeeded  in  exclud- 
ing Muscovy  from  the  Baltic.    "  I  hope  to  God,"  he  declared  to 
the  Stockholm  diet  in  16x7,  when  he  announced  the  conclusion  of 
peace,  "  that  the  Russians  will  feel  it  a  bit  difficult  to  skip  over 
that  little  brook."    The  war  with  Poland  which  Gustavus  re- 
sumed in  162 1  was  a  much  more  difficult  affair.    It  began  with  an 
attack  upon  Riga  as  the  first  step  towards  conquering  Livonia. 
Riga  was  invested  on  the  rjth  of  August  and  surrendered  on  the 
15th  of  September;  on  the  3rd  of  October  Mitau  was  occupied; 
but  so  great  were  the  ravages  of  sickness  during  the  campaign 
that  the  Swedish  army  had  to  be  reinforced  by  no  fewer  than 
10,000  men.    A  truce  was  thereupon  concluded  and  hostilities 
were  suspended  till'the  summer  of  1635,  in  the  course  of  which 
Gustavus  took  Kokenhusen  and  invaded  Lithuania.    In  January 
X636  he  attacked  the  Poles  at  Walhof  and  scattered  the  whole  of 
their  army  after  slaying  a  fifth  part  of  it.    This  victory,  remark- 
able besides  as  Gustavus's  first  pitched  battle,  completed  the 
conquest  of  Livonia.    As,  however,  it  became  every  year  more 
difficult  to  support  an  army  in  the  Dvina  district,  Gustavus  ncrw 
resolved  to  transfer  the  war  to  the  Prussian  provinces  of  Poland 
with  a  view  to  securing  the  control  of  the  Vbtula,as  he  had  already 
secured  the  control  of  the  Dvina.    At  the  end  of  1626,  the 
Swedish  fleet,  with  14,000  men  on  board,  anchored  in  front  of  the 
chain  of  sand-dunes  which  separates  the  Frische-Haff  from  the 
Baltic.    Pillau,  the  only  Baltic  port  then  acce^ible  to  ships  of 
war,  was  at  once  occupied,  and  Ktaigsberg  shortly  afterwards 
was  scared  into  an  unconditional  neutrality.    July  was  passed  in 
conquering  the  bishopric  of  Ermeland.    The  surrender  of  Elbing 
and  Marienburg  placed  Gustavus  in  possession  of  the  fertile  and 
easily  defensible  delta  of  the  Vistula,  which  he  treated  as  a 
permanent  conquest,  making  Axel  Oxenst  jerna  its  first  governor- 
general.    Communications  between  Danzig  and  the  sea  were  cut 
off  by  the  erection  of  the  first  of  Gustavus's  famous  entrenched 
camps  at  Dirschau.    From  the  end  of  August  1626  the  city  was 
blockaded,  and  in  the  meantime  Polish  irregulars,  under  the 
capable  Stanislaus  Koniecpolski,  began  to  harass  the  Swedes. 
But  the  objedt  of  the  campaign,  a  convenient  basis  of  operations, 
was  won;  ahd  in  October  the  king  departed  to  Sweden  to  get 
reinforcements.    He  returned  in  May  1627  with  7000  men, 
which  raised  his  forces  to  14,000,  against  which  Koniecpolski 


could  only  oppose  9000.  But  his  superior  strategy  frustrated  all 
the  efforts  of  the  Swedish  king,  who  in  the  course  of  the  year  was 
twice  dangerously  wounded  and  so  disabled  that  he  cotdd  never 
wear  armour  again.  Gustavus  had  made  extensive  preparations 
for  the  ensuing  campaign  and  took  the  field  with  33,000  men. 
But  once  again,  though  far  outnumbered,  and  unsupported  by 
his  own  government,  the  Polish  grand-helman  proved  more  than 
a  match  for  Gustavus,  who,  on  the  loth  of  September,  broke  up 
his  camp  and  returned  to  Prussia;  the  whole  autumn  campaign 
had  proved  a  failure  and  cost  him  5000  men.  During  the  ensuing 
campaign  of  X639  Gustavus  had  to  contend  against  the  combined 
forces  of  Koniecpolski  and  10,000  of  Wallenstein's  mercenaries. 
The  Polish  commander  now  d>owed  the  Swedes  what  he  could  do 
with  adequate  forces.  At  Stuhm,  on  the  39th  of  Jime,  he 
defeated  Gustavus,  who  lost  most  of  his  artillery  and  narrowly 
escaped  capture.  The  result  of  the  campaign  was  the  conclusion 
of  the  six  years'  truce  of  Altmark,  which  was  very  advantageous 
to  Sweden. 

And  now  Gustavus  turned  his  attention  to  Germany.  The 
motives  which  induced  the  Swedish  king  to  intervene  directly  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  arc  told  us  by  himself  in  his  correspondence 
with  Oxenst  jerna.  Here  he  says  plainly  that  it  was  the  fear  lest 
the  emperor  should  acquire  the  Baltic  ports  and  proceed  to  build 
up  a  sea-power  dangerous  to  Scandinavia.  For  the  same  reason, 
the  king  rejected  the  chancellor's  alternative  of  waging  a  simply 
defensive  war  against  the  emperor  by  means  of  the  fleet,  with 
Stralsund  as  hisr  base.  He  was  convinced  by  the  experience  of 
Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  that  the  enemies'  harbours  could  be 
wrested  from  them  only  by  a  successful  offensive  war  on  land; 
and,  while  quite  alive  to  the  risks  of  such  an  enterprise  in  the 
face  of  two  large  armies,  Tilly's  and  Wallenstein's,  each  of  them 
larger  than  his  OTtp-n,  he  argued  that  the  vast  extent  of  territory 
and  the  numerous  garrisons  which  the  enemy  was  obligefl  to 
maintain,  more  than  neutralized  his  numerical  superiority. 
Merely  to  blockade  all  the  German  ports  with  the  Swedish  fleet 
was  equally  impossible.  The  Swedish  fleet  was  too  weak  for 
that;  it  would  be  safer  to  take  and  fortify  the  pick  of  theuL  In 
Germany  itself,  if  he  once  got  the  upper  hand,  he  would  not  find 
himself  without  resources.  It  is  no  enthusiastic  crusador,  but  an 
anxious  and  farsecing  if  somewhat  speculative  statesman  who 
thus  opens  his  mind  to  us.  No  doubt  religious  considerations 
largely  influenced  Gustavus.  He  had  the  deepest  sympathy  for 
his  fellow-Protestants  in  Germany;  he  regarded  them  as  God's 
peculiar  people,  himself  as  their  divinely  appointed  deliverer. 
But  his  first  duty  was  to  Sweden;  and,  naturally  and  rightly, 
he  viewed  the  whole  business  from  a  predominantly  Swedish 
point  of  view.  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  were  to  be  delivered 
from  a  "  soul-crushing  tyranny  ";  but  they  were  to  be  delivered 
by  a  foreign  if  friendly  power;  and  that  power  claimed  as  her 
reward  the  hegemony  of  Protestant  Europe  and  all  the  political 
privileges  belonging  to  that  exalted  position. 

On  the  19th  of  May  1630  Gustavus  solemnly  took  karve  of  the 
estates  of  the  realm  assembled  at  Stockholm.  He  appeared 
before  them  holding  in  his  arms  his  only  child  and  heiress,  the 
little  princess  Christina,  then  in  her  fourth  year,  and  tenderly 
commit  ted  her  to  the  care  of  his  loyal  and  devoted  people.  Then 
he  solemnly  took  the  estates  to  witness,  as  he  stood  there  "  in  the 
sight  of  the  Almighty,"  that  he  had  begun  hostilities"  out  of  no 
lust  for  *war,  as  many  will  certainly  devise  and  imagine,"  but  in 
self-defence  and  to  deliver  his  fellow-Christians  from  oppression. 
On  the  7th  of  June  1630  the  Swedish  fleet  set  sail,  and  two  days 
after  midsummer  day,  the  whole  army,  z6,ooo  strong,  was 
disembarked  at  Pcencmdnde.  Gustavus's  plan  was  to  take 
possession  of  the  mouths  of  the  Oder  Haff,  and,  resting  upon 
Stralsund  in  the  west  and  Prussia  in  the  east,  penetrate  into 
Germany.  In  those  days  rivers  were  what  railways  now  are,  the 
great  military  routes;  and  Gustavus's  German  war  was  a  war 
waged  along  river  lines.  The  opening  campaign  was  tcrbe  fought 
along  the  line  of  the  Oder.  Stettin,  the  capital  of  Pomerania, 
and  the  key  of  the  Oder  line,  was  occupied  and  converted  into  a 
first-class  fortress.  He  then  proceeded  to  clear  Pomerania  of  the 
piebald  imperial  host  composed  of  every  nationality  under 


736 


GUSTAVUS  III. 


heaven,  and  officered  by  Italians,  Irishmen,  Czechs,  Croats, 
Danes,  Spaniards  and  Walloons.  Gustavus's  army  has  often 
been  described  by  German  historians  as  an  army  of  foreign 
invaders;  in  reab'ty  it  was  far  more  truly  Teutonic  than  the 
official  defenders  of  Germany  at  that  period.  Gustavus's 
political  difficulties  (see  Sweden:  History)  chained  him  to  his 
camp  for  the  remainder  of  the  year.  But  the  dismissal  of 
Walienstcin  and  the  declaration  in  Gustavus's  favour  of  Magde- 
burg, the  greatest  dty  in  the  Lower  Saxon  Circle,  and  strate> 
gically  the  strongest  fortress  of  North  Germany,  encouraged  him 
to  advance  boldly.  But  first,  honour  as  well  as  expediency 
moved  him  to  attempt  to  relieve  Magdeburg,  now  closely  invested 
by  the  imperialists,  especially  as  his  hands  had  now  been  con- 
siderably strengthened  by  a  definite  alliance  with  France  (treaty 
of  BiLrwalde,  13th  of  January  16 ji).  Magdeburg,  therefore, 
became  the  focus  of  the  whole  campaign  of  163 1;  but  the 
obstructive  timidity  of  the  electors  of  Brandenburg  and  Saxony 
threw  insuperable  obstacles  in  his  way,  and,  on  the  very  day 
when  John  George  I.  of  Saxony  closed  his  gates  against  Gustavus 
the  most  populous  and  prosperous  city  in  North  Germany 
became  a  heap  of  smoking  ruins  (20th  of  May).  Gustavus,  still 
too  weak  to  meet  the  foe,  entrenched  himself  at  Werben,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Havel  and  Elbe.  Only  on  the  1 2th  of  September 
did  the  elector  of  Saxony,  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  his  own 
states,  now  invaded  by  the  emperor,  place  himself  absolutely  at 
the  disposal  oif  Gustavus;  and,  five  days  later,  at  the  head  of  the 
combined  Swedbh-Saxon  army,  though  the  Swedes  did  all  the 
fighting,  Gustavus  routed  Tilly  at  the  famous  battle  of  Breiten- 
feld,  north  of  Leipzig. 

The  question  now  waS:  In  what  way  should  Gustavus  utilize: 
his  advantage?  Should  he  invade  the  Austrian  crown  lands, 
and  dictate  peace  to  Ferdinand. II.  at  the  gates  of  Vienna?  Or 
should  he  pursue  Tilly  westwards  and  crush  the  league  at  its  own 
hearth  and  home?  Oxenstjerna  was  the  first  alternative, 
but  Gustavus  decided  in  favour  of  the  second.  His  decision  has 
been  greatly  blamed.  More  than  one  modem  historian  has 
argued  that  if  Gustavus  had  done  in  1631  what  Napoleon  did  in 
Z805  and  1809,  there  would  have  been  a  fifteen  instead  of  a  thirty 
years'  war.  But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that, -in  the  days  of 
Gustavus,  Vienna  was  by  no  means  so  essential  to  the  existence 
of  the  Habsburg  monarchy  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  Napoleon; 
and  even  Gustavus  could  not  allow  so  dangerous  an  opponent  as 
Tilly  time  to  recover  himself.  Accordingly,  he  set  out  for  the 
Rhine,  taking  Maricnbcrg  and  Frankfort  on  his  way,  and  on  the 
20th  of  December  entered  Mainz,  where  he  remained  throughout 
the  winter  of  1631-1632.  At  the  l>eginning  of  1632,  in  order  to 
bring  about  the  general  peace  he  so  earnestly  desired,  he  proposed 
to  take  the  field  with  an  overwhelming  numerical  majority.  The' 
signal  for  Gustavus  to  break  up  from  the  Rhine  was  the  sudden 
advance  of  Tilly  from  behind  the  Danube.  Gustavus  pursued 
Tilly  into  Bavaria,  forced  the  passage  of  the  Danube  at  Donau- 
wSrth  and  the  passage  of  the  Lech,  in.  the  face  of  Tilly's  strongly 
entrenched  camp  at  Rain,  and  pursued  the  flying  foe  to  the 
fortress  of  Ingolstadt  where  Tilly  died  of  his  wounds  a  fortnight 
later.  Gustavus  then  liberated  and  garrisoned  the  long-oppressed 
Protestant  cities  of  Augsburg  and  Ulm,  and  in  May  occupied 
Munich.  The  same  week  Wallcnstein  chased  John  George  from 
Prague  and  manoeuvred  the,  Saxons  out  of  Bohemia.  Then, 
armed  as  he  was  with  plenipotentiary  power,  he  offered  the 
elector  of  Saxony  peace  on  his  own  terms.  Gustavus  suddenly 
saw  himself  exposed  to  extreme  peril.  If  Tilly  >ad  made  John 
George  such  an  offer  as  Wallenstein  was  now  empowered  to 
make,  the  elector  would  never  have  become  Gustavus's  ally; 
would  he  remain  Gustavus's  ally  now?  Hastily  quitting  his 
quarters  in  Upper  Swabia,  Gustavus  hastened  towards  Nurem- 
berg on  his  way  to  Saxony,  but  finding  that  Wallenstein  and 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria  bad  united  their  forces,  he  abandoned  the 
attempt  to  reach  Saxony,  and  both  armies  confronted  each 
other  at  Nuremberg  which  furnished  Gustavus  with  a  point  of 
support  of  the  first  order.  He  quickly  converted  the  town  into 
an  entrenched  and  fortified  camp.  Wallenstein  followed  the 
king's  example,  and  entrenched  himself  on  the  western  bank  of 


the  Regnitz  in  a  camp  twelve  English  miles,  in  droimference. 
His  object  was  to  pin  Gustavus  fast  to  Nuremberg  and  cut  off  bis 
retreat  northwards.  Throughout  July  and  August  the  two 
armies  faced  each  other  immovably.  On  th^  34th  of  August, 
after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  storm  Alte  Vcste,  the  key  ci 
WaMenstein's  position,  the  Swedish  host  retired  southwards. 

Towards  the  end  of  October,  Wallenstein,  after  devastating 
Saxony,  was  preparing  to  go  into  winter  quarters  at  Ltitzcn, 
when  the  king  surprised  him  as  he  was  crossing  the  Rippach 
(ist  of  November)  and  a  rearguard  action  favourable  to  the 
Swedes  ensued.  Indeed,  but  for  nightfall,  Wallenstein's  scattered 
forces  might  have  been  routed.  During  the  nigEt,  however, 
Wallenstein  re-collected  his  host  for  a  decisive  action,  and  at  day> 
break  on  the  6th  of  November,  while  an  autumn  mist  still  lay 
over  the  field,  the  battle  began.  It  was  obviously  Gustavus's  plan 
to  drive  Wallenstein  away  from  the  Leipzig  road,  north  of  which 
he  had  posted  himself,  and  thus,  in  case  of  success,  to  isolate,  and 
subsequently,  with  the  aid  of  the  Saxons  in  the  Elbe  fortresses, 
annihilate  him.  The  king,  on  the  Swedish  right  wing,  succeeded 
in  driving  the  enemy  from  the  trenches  and  capturing  his  cannon. 
What  happened  after  that  is  mere  conjecture,  for  a  thick  mist 
now  obscured  the  autumn  sun,  and  the  battle  became  a  colossal 
m£l£e  the  details  of  which  are  indistinguishable.  It  was  in  the 
midst  of  that  awful  obscurity  that  Gustavus  met  his  death — bow 
or  where  is  not  absolutely  certain;  but  it  would  seem  that  he 
lost  his  way  in  the  darkness  while  leading  the  Smiland  hone  to 
the  assistance  of  his  infantry,  and  was  despatched  as  be  lay 
severely  wounded  on  the  ground  by  a  hostile  horseman. 

By  his  wife,  Marie  Eleonora,  a  sister  of  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, whom  he  married  in  1620,  Gustavus  Adolf^us  had  one 
daughter,  Christina,  who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  of  Sweden. 

See  Sveri^s  JJistoria  (Stockholm,  1877.  81),  vol.  iv.;  A.  Oxen- 
stjerna, Sknfler  och  Brefveiding  (Stockholm,  1900,  &c.) :  G.  Bj&rien, 
Cttslaf  Adolf  (Stockholm,  1890);  R.  N.  Bain.  Scandimatia  (Caro- 
bridec,  IQ05):  C.  R.  L.  Fletcher,  Gustama  AddtAms  (London. 
1892I ;  J.  L.  Stevens,  History  of  Custanu  Adelphms  (London.  1865): 
J.  Mankell,  Om  Custaf  II.  Adolf s  folilik  (Stockholm.  1881):  E. 
Bluemel,  Custav  Adolf,  K6nig  von  Sckweden  (Eislcben.  1894):  A. 
Rydfors,  De  diplomatiska  f6rbinddsema  mdian  Swerige  och  EmtUni 
1624-1630  (Upsala,  1890).  (R.  N.  B.) 

GUSTAVUS  in.  (i 746-1 792),  king<of  Sweden,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Adolphus  Frederick,  king  of  Sweden,  and  Louisa  Ulrica  of 
Prussia,  sister  of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  was  bom  on  the  J4th 
of  January  1 746.  Gustavus  was  educated  under  the  care  ci  two 
governors  who  were  amongst  the  most  eminent  Swedish  states- 
men of  the  day,  Carl  Gustaf  Tessin  and  Carl  Scheffer;  bat  he 
owed  most  perhaps  to  the  poet  and  historian  Olof  von  Dalin. 
The  interference  of  the  state  with  his  education,  when  he  was 
quite  a  child,  was,  however,  doubly  harmful,  as  his  parents 
taught  him  to  despise  the  preceptors  imposed  upon  him  by  \ht 
diet,  and  the  atmosphere  of  intrigue  and  duplicity  in  which  be 
grew  up  made  him  precociously  experienced  in  the  art  of  dissimu- 
lation. But  even  his  most  hostile  teachers  were  amazed  by  the 
brilliance  of  his  natural  gifts,  and,  while  still  a  boy,  he  possessed 
that  charm  of  manner  which  was  to  make  him  so  fascinating  and 
so  dangerous  in  later  life,  coupled  with  the  strong  dramatic 
instinct  which  won  for  him  his  honourable  place  in  Swedish 
literature.  On  the  whole,  Gustavus  cannot  be  said  to  have  been 
well  educated,  but  he  read  veiy  widely;  there  was  scarce  a 
French  author  of  his  day  with  whose  works  he  was  not  intimately 
acquainted;  while  his  enthusiasm  for  the  new  French  ideas  M 
enlightenment  was  as  sincere  as,  if  more  critical  than,  his 
mother's.  On  the  4th  of  November  1766,  Gustavus  married 
Sophia  Magdalena,  daughter  of  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark.  The 
match  was  an  unhappy  one,  owing  partly  to  incompatibility  ol 
temper,  but  still  more  to  the  misdhievous  interference  of  the 
jealous  queen-mother. 

Gustavus  first  intervened  actively  in  politics  in  1768,  at  the 
time  of  his  father's  interregnum,  when  he  compelled  the  dominaol 
Cap  faction  to  summon  an  extraordinary  diet  from  which  he 
hoped  for  the  reform  of  the  constitution  in  a  monarchical  directioa. 
But  the  victorious  Hats  refused  to  redeem  the  pledges  which  they 
had  given  before  the  elections.    "  That  we  should  ha^  kst  the 


GUSTAVUS  III. 


737 


oomtitutional  battle  does  not  distress  us  so  much,"  wrote 
Gustavus,  in  the  bitterness  of  his  heart;  "but  what  does  dismay 
me  is  to  see  my  poor  nation  so  sunk  in  corruption  as  to  place  its 
own  felicity  in  absolute  anarchy."  From  the  4th  of  February  to 
the  asth  of  March  1771,  Gustavus  was  at  Paris,  where  he  carried 
both  the  court  and  the  city  by  storm.  The  poets  and  the  philo- 
sophers paid  him  enthusiastic  homage,  and  all  the  distinguished 
women  of  the  day  testified  to  his  superlative  merits.  With  many 
of  them  he  maintained  a  lifelong  correspondence.  But  his  visit 
to  the  French  capital  was  no  mere  pleasure  trip;  it  was  also  a 
political  mission.  Confidential  agents  from  the  Swedish  court 
bad  already  prepared  the  way  for  him,  and  the  due  de  Choiseul, 
weary  of  Swedish  anarchy,  had  resolved  to  discuss  with  him  the 
best  method  of  bringing  about  a  revolution  in  Sweden.  Before 
he  departed,  the  French  government  undertook  to  pay  the  out- 
standing subsidies  to  Sweden  unconditionally,  at  the  rate  of  one 
and  a  half  million  livres  annually;  and  the  comte  de  Vcrgennes, 
one  of  the  great  names  of  French  diplomacy,  was  transferred 
from  Constantinople  to  Stockholm.  On  his  way  home  Gustavus 
paid  a  short  visit  to  his  uncle,  Frederick  the  Great,  at  Potsdam. 
Frederick  bluntly  informed  his  nephew  that,  in  concert  with 
Russia  and  Denmark,  he  had  guaranteed  the  integrity  of  the 
existing  Swedish  constitution,  and  significantly  advised  the 
young  monarch  to  play  the  part  of  mediator  and  abstain  from 
violence. 

On  his  return  to  Sweden  Gustavus  made  a  sincere  and  earnest 
attempt  to  mediate  between  the  Hats  and  Caps  who  were  ruining 
the  country  between  them  (see  Sweden:  History),  On  the  aist 
of  June  1 77 1  he  opened  his  first  parliament  in  a  speech  which 
awakened  strange  and  deep  emotions  in  all  who  heard  it.  It  was 
the  first  time  for  more  than  a  century  that  a  Swedish  king  had 
addressed  a  Swedish  diet  from  the  throne  in  its  native  tongue. 
The  orator  laid  especial  stress  on  the  necessity  of  the  sacrifice  of 
all  party  animosities  to  the  common  weal,  and  volunteered,  as 
"  the  first  citizen  of  a  free  people,"  to  be  the  mediator  between 
the  contending  factions.  A  composition  committee  was  actually 
formed,  but  it  proved  illusory  from  the  first,  the  patriotism  of 
neither  of  the  factions  being  equal  to  the  puniest  act  of  self- 
denial.  The  subsequent  attempts  of  the  dominant  Caps  still 
further  to  limit  the  prerogative,  and  reduce  Gustavus  to  the 
condition  of  a  rat  fainiani,  induced  him  at  last  to  consider  the 
possibility  of  a  revolution.  Of  its  necessity  there  could  be  no 
doubt.  Under  the  sway  of  the  Cap  faction,  Sweden,  already  the 
vassal,  could  not  fail  to  become  the  prey  of  Russia.  She  was 
on  the  point  of  being  absorbed  in  that  northern  system,  the 
invention  of  the  Russian  vice-chancellor,  Count  Nikita  Panin, 
which  that  patient  statesman  had  made  it  the  ambition  of  his 
life  to  realize.  Only  a  swift  and  sudden  amp  d*ilat  could  save  the 
independence  of  a  country  isolated  from  the  rest  of  Europe  by  a 
hostile  league.  At  this  juncture  Gustavus  was  approached  by 
Jakob  Magnus  Sprengtporten,  a  Finnish  nobleman  of  determined 
character,  who  had  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  Caps,  with  the 
project  of  a  revolution.  He  undertook  to  seize  the  fortress  of 
Sveaborg  by  a  coup  de  main^  and,  Finland  once  secured,  Sprengt- 
porten proposed  to  embark  for  Sweden,  meet  the  king  and  his 
friends  near  Stockholm,  and  surprise  the  capital  by  a  night 
attack,  when  the  estates  were  to  be  forced,  at  the  point  of  the 
bayonet,  to  accept  a  new  constitution  from  the  untrammelled 
king.  The  plotters  were  at  this  juncture  reinforced  by  an  ex- 
ranger  from  Scania  (Sk&ne),  Johan  Kristoffer  Toll,  also  a  victim 
of  Cap  oppression.  Toll  proposed  that  a  second  revolt  should 
break  out  in  the  province  of  Scania,  to  confuse  the  government 
still  more,  and  undertook  personally  to  secure  the  southern  fortress 
of  Kristianstad.  After  some  debate,  it  was  finally  arranged 
that,  a  few  days  after  the  Finnish  revolt  had  begun,  Kristianstad 
should  openly  declare  against  the  government.  Prince  Charles, 
the  eldest  of  the  king's  brothers,  was  thereupon  hastily  to  mobilize 
the  garrisons  of  all  the  southern  fortresses,  for  the  ostensible 
purpose  of  crushing  the  revolt  at  Kristianstad;  but  on  arriving 
before  the  fortress  he  was  to  make  common  cause  with  the  rebels, 
and  march  upon  the  capital  from  the  south,  while  Sprengtporten 
attacked  it  simultaneously  from  the  east.   On  the  6th  of  August 


1772  Toll  succeeded,  by  sheer  bluff,  in  winning  the  fortress  of 
Kristianstad.  On  the  x6th  Sprengtporten  succeeded  in  surprising 
Sveaborg.  But  contrary  winds  prevented  him  from  crossing  to 
Stockholm, and  in  the  meanwhile  events  had  occurred  which  made 
his  presence  there  unnecessary. 

On  the  i6th  of  August  the  Cap  leader,  Ture  Rudbeck,  arrived 
at  Stockholm  vrith  the  news  of  the  insurrection  in  the  south, 
and  Gustavus  found  himself  isolated  in  the  midst  of  enemies. 
Sprengtporten  lay  weather-bound  in  Finland,  Toll  was  five 
hundred  miles  away,  the  Hat  leaders  were  in  hiding.  Gustavus 
thereupon  resolved  to  strike  the  decisive  blow  without  waiting 
for  the  arrival  of  Sprengtporten.  He  acted  with  military 
promptitude.  On  thfc  evening  of  the  i8th  all  the  officers  whom 
he  thought  he  could  trust  received  secret  instructions  to  assemble 
in  the  great  square  facing  the  arsenal  on  the  following  morning. 
At  ten  o'clock  on  the  xpth  Gustavus  mounted  his  horse  and  rode 
straight  to  the  arsenaL  On  the  way  his  adherents  joined  him  in 
little  groups,  as  if  by  accident,  so  that  by  the  time  he  reached  his 
destination  he  had  about  two  hundred  officers  in  his  suite.  After 
parade  he  reconducted  them  to  the  guard-room  of  the  palace 
and  unfolded  his  plans  to  them.  He  then  dictated  a  new  oath  of 
allegiance,  and  every  one  signed  it  without  hesitation.  It  absolved 
them  from  their  allegiance  to  the  estates,  and  bound  them  soldy 
to  obey  their  lawful  king,  Gustavus  III.  Meanwhile  the  senate 
and  the  governor-general,  Rudbeck,  had  been  arrested  and  the 
fleet  secured.  Then  Gustavus  made  a  tour  of  the  city  and  was 
everywhere  received  by  enthusiastic  crowds,  who  hailed  him  as  a 
deliverer.  On  the  evening  of  the  20th  heralds  perambulated  the 
streets  proclaiming  that  the  estates  were  to  meet  in  the  Rikssaal 
on  the  following  day;  every  deputy  absenting  himself  would  be 
regarded  as  the  enemy  of  his  country  and  his  king.  On  the  21st, 
a  few  moments  after  the  estates  had  assembled,  the  king  in  full 
regalia  appeared,  and  taking  his  seat  on  the  throne,  delivered  that 
famous  philippic,  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  Swedish  oratory,  in 
which  he  reproached  the  estates  for  their  unpatriotic  venality 
and  licence  in  the  past.  A  new  constitution  was  recited  by  the 
estates  and  accepted  by  them  unanimously.  The  diet  was  then 
dissolved. 

Gustavus  was  inspired  by  a  burning  enthusiasm  for  the  great- 
ness and  welfare  of  Sweden,  and  worked  in  the  same  reformatory 
direction  as  the  other  contemporary  sovereigns  of  the  "  age  of 
enlightenment."  He  took  an  active  part  in  every  department  of 
business,  but  relied  far  more  on  extra-official  counsellors  of  his 
own  choosing  than  upon  the  senate.  The  effort  to  remedy  the 
frightful  corruption  which  had  been  fostered  by  the  Hats  and 
Caps  engaged  a  considerable  share  of  his  time  and  he  even  found 
it  necessary  to  put  the  whole  of  a  supreme  court  of  justice  {Cota 
HofriU)  on  its  trial.  Measures  were  also  taken  to  reform  the 
administration  and  the  whole  course  of  judicial  procedure,  and 
torture  as  an  instrument  of  legal  investigation  was  abolished. 
In  1774  an  ordinance  providing  for  the  liberty  of  the  press  was 
even  issued.  The  national  defences  were  at  the  same  time 
developed  on  a  "  Great  Power  "  scale,  and  the  navy  was  so 
enlarged  as  to  become  one  of  the  most  formidable  in  Europe. 
The  dilapidated  finances  were  set  in  good  order  by  the  "  currency 
realization  ordinance  "  of  1777.  Gustavus  also  introduced  new 
national  economic  principles.  In  1775  free  trade  in  com  was 
promoted  and  a  number  of  oppressive  export-tolls  were  abolished. 
The  poor  law  was  also  amended,  absolute  religious  h'berty  was 
proclaimed,  and  he  even  succeeded  in  inventing  and  popularizing 
a  national  costume  which  was  in  general  use  from  1778  till  his 
death.  His  one  great  economic  bltmder  was  the  attempt  to  make 
the  sale  of  ^irits  a  government  monopoly,  which  was  an  obvious 
infringement  upon  the  privileges  of  the  estates.  His  foreign 
policy,  on  the  other  hand,  was  at  first  both  wise  and  wary. 
Thus,  when  the  king  summoned  the  estates  to  assemble  at 
Stockholm  on  the  3rd  of  September  1778,  he  could  give  a 
brilliant  accoimt  of  his  six  years'  stewardship.  Never  was  a 
parliament  more  obsequious  or  a  king  more  gracious.  "  Tliere 
was  no  room  for  a  single  No  during  the  whole  session."  Yet, 
short  as  the  session  was,  it  was  quite  long  enough  to  open  the 
eyes  of  the  deputies  to  the  fact  that  their  political  supremacy  had 


738 


GUSTAVUS  IV.— GUSTAVUS  V. 


departed.  They  had  changed  places  with  the  king.  He  was  now 
indeed  their  sovereign  lord;  and,  for  all  his  gentleness,  the 
jealousy  with  which  he  guarded,  the  vigour  with  which  he 
enforced  the  prerogative,  plainly  showed  that  he  meant  to  remain 
so.  Even  the  few  who  were  patriotic  enough  to  acquiesce  in  the 
change  by  no  means  liked  it.  The  diet  of  1778  had  been 
obsequious;  the  diet  of  1786  was  mutinous.  The  consequence 
was  that  nearly  all  the  royal  propositions  were  either  rejected 
outright  or  so  modified  that  Gustavus  himself  withdrew 
them. 

The  diet  of  1786  marks  a  turning-point  in  Gustavus's  history. 
Henceforth  we  observe  a  determination  on  his  part  to  rule  with- 
out a  parliament;  a  passage,  cautious  And  gradual,  yet  un- 
flinching, from  semi-constitutionalism  to  semi-absolutism.  His 
opportunity  came  in  1788,  when  the  political  complications 
arising  out  of  his  war  with  Catherine  II.  of  Russia  enabled  him 
by  the  Act  of  Unity  and  Security  (on  the  17th  of  February  1789) 
to  override  the  opposition  of  the  rebellious  and  grossly  unpatriotic 
gentry,  and,  with  the  approbation  of  the  three  lower  estates, 
establish  a  new  and  revolutionary  constitution,  in  which,  though 
the  estates  still  held  the  power  of  the  purse,  the  royal  authority 
largely  predominated.  Throughout  1789  and  1790  Gustavus,  in 
the  national  interests,  gallantly  conducted  the  unequal  struggle 
with  Russia,  finally  winning  in  the  Svensksund  (glh-ioth  July) 
the  most  glorious  naval  victory  ever  gained  by  the  Swedish  arms, 
the  Russians  losing  one-thurd  of  their  fleet  and  7000  men.  A 
month  later,  on  the  X4th  of  August  1790,  peace  was  signed 
between  Russia  and  Sweden  at  VtriUL  Only  eight  months 
before,  Catherine  had  haughtily  declared  that  "  the  odious  and 
revolting  aggression  "  of  the  king  of  Sweden  would  be  "  for- 
given "  only  if  he  "  testified  his  repentance  "  by  agreeing  to  a 
peace  granting  a  general  and  unlimited  amnesty  to  all  his  rebels, 
and  consenting  to  a  guarantee  by  the  Swedish  diet  ("  as  it  would 
be  imprudent  to  confide  in  his  good  faith  alone  ")  for  the  obser- 
vance of  peace  in  the  future.  The  peace  of  Vftrilli  saved  Sweden 
from  any  such  humiliating  concession,  and  in  October  1791 
Gustavus  took  the  bold  but  by  no  means  imprudent  step  of  con- 
duding  an  eig^t  years'  defensive  alliance  with  the  empress,  who 
thereby  bound  herself  to  pay  her  new  ally  annual  subsidies 
amounting  to  300,000  roubles. 

Gustavus  now  aimed  at  forming  a  league  of  princes  against  the 
Jacobins,  and  every  other  consideration  was  subordinated 
thereto.  His  profound  knowledge  of  popular  assemblies  enabled 
him,  alone  among  contemporary  sovereigns,  accurately  to  gauge 
from  the  first  the  scope  and  bearing  of  the  French  Revolution. 
But  he  was  hampered  by  poverty  and  the  jealousy  of  the  other 
European  Powers,  and,  after  showing  once  more  bis  unrivalled 
mastery  over  masses  of  men  at  the  brief  Gefle  diet  (22nd  of 
January-24th  of  February  1792),  he  fell  a  victim  to  a  widespread 
aristocratic  conspiracy.  Shot  in  the  back  by  Anckarstr6m  at  a 
midnight  masquerade  at  the  Stockholm  opera-house,  on  the  x6th 
of  March  1792,  he  expired  on  the  29th. 

Although  he  may  be  charged  with  many  foibles  and  extrava- 
gances, Gustavus  III.  was  indisputably  one  of  the  greatest 
sovereigns  of  the  i8th  century.  Unfortimately  his  genius  never 
had  full  scope,  and  his  opportunity  came  too  late.  Gustavus  was, 
moreover,  a  most  distinguished  author.  He  may  be  said  to  have 
created  the  Swedish  theatre,  and  some  of  the  best  acting  dramas 
in  the  literature  are  by  his  hand.  His  historical  essays,  notably 
the  famous  anonymous  eulogy  on  Torstenson  crowned  by  the 
Academy,  are  full  of  feeling  and  exquisite  in  style, — his  letters  to 
his  friends  are  delightful.  Every  branch  of  literature  and  art 
interested  him,  every  poet  and  artist  of  his  day  found  in  him  a 
most  liberal  and  sympathetic  protector. 

See  R.  N.  Bain,  Gustavus  TIL  and  his  Contemporaries  (London, 


IQ04);  E.  G.  Geijer,  Konung  Cuslaf  III.'s  eftertemnade  popper 
(Upsala,  1843-1845);  C.  T.  Odhner,  Sveriges  pohtiska  hisloria  under 
Konung  Cust<^  IJl.'s  regering  (Stockholm,   1885-1896);   B.  von 


Beskow,  Om  Gustaf  III.  sAsom  Konunt  och  mdnniska  (Stockholm, 
l86o-l86t):  O.  bevcrtin,  Gustaf  III.  som  dramalisk  fdrfatlare 
(Stockholm,  1804),  Gustaf  III.'s  breftiU  G.  Ai.  Armfelt  (Fr.)  (Stock- 
holm,  1883);  Y.  K.  Grot,  Catharine  II.  and  Gustavus  III.  (Russ.) 


(St  Petenbujg.  .1884). 


(R.  N.  B.) 


GUSTAVUS  IV.  (1778-1837),  king  of  Sweden,  the  son  ol 
Gustavus  III.  and  Queen  Sophia  Magdalena,  was  bom  at  Stwk- 
holm  on  the  xst  of  November  1778.    Carefully  educated  under 
the  direction  of  Nils  von  Rosenstein,  he  grew  up  serious  and 
conscientious.   In  August  1 796  his  uncle  the  regent  Charies,  duke 
of  Sudermania,  visited  St  Petersburg  for  the  purpose  of  ananginf 
a  marriage  between  the  young  king  and  Catherine  II. 's  grand- 
daughter, the  grand-duchcss  Alexandra.    The  betrothal  was 
actually  fixed  for  the  22nd  of  September,  when  the  whole 
arrangement  foundered  on  the  obstinate  refusal  of  Gustavus  to 
allow  his  destined  bride  liberty  of  worship  according  to  the  rites 
of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church — a  rebuff  which  undoubtedly 
accelerated  the  death  of  the  Russian  empress.   Nobody  seems  to 
have  even  suspected  at  the  time  that  serious  mental  derangement 
lay  at  the  root  of  Gustavus's  abnormal  piety.    On  the  contraiyi 
there  were  many  who  prematurely  congratulated  themselves  00 
the  fact  that  Sweden  had  now  no  disturbing  genius,  but  an 
economical,  God-fearing,  commonplace  monarch  to  deal  with. 
Gustavus's  prompt  dismissal  of  the  generally  detested  Gustaf 
Reuterholm  added  still  further  to  his  popularity.   On  the  3tst  of 
October  1797  Gustavus  married  Frederica  Dorothea,  daughter  of 
Charles  Frederick,  grand-duke  of  Baden,  a  marriage  which  might 
have  led  to  a  war  with  Russia  but  for  the  fanatical  hatred  of  the 
French  republic  shared  by  the  emperor  Paul  and  Gustavus  IV., 
which  served  as  a  bond  of  union  between  them.    Indeed  the 
king's  horror  of  Jacobinism  was  morbid  in  its  intensity,  and  drove 
him  to  adopt  all  sorts  of  reactionaiy  measures  and  to  poexptmt 
his  coronation  for  some  years,  so  as  to  avoid  calling  together  a 
diet;  but  the  disorder  of  the  finances,  caused  partly  by  the 
a>ntinental  war  and  partly  by  the  almost  total  failure  of  the  crq>s 
in  1798  and  1799,  compelled  him  to  summcm  the  estates  to 
NorrkOping  in  March  x8oo,  and  on  the  3rd  of  April  Gustavus  was 
crowned.   The  notable  change  which  now  took  place  in  Sweden's 
foreign  policy  and  its  fatal  consequences  to  the  country  are  else- 
where set  forth  (see  Sweden,  History),  By  the  end  of  1 808  it  was 
obvious  to  every  thinking  Swede  that  the  king  was  ixisane.   Bis 
violence  had  alienated  his  most  faithful  supporters,  whDe  his 
obstinate  incompetence  paralysed  the  natioiul  efforts.      To 
remove  a  madman  by  force  was  the  one  remaining  expedient; 
and  this  was  successfully  accomplished  by  a  con^iracy  of  officers 
of  the  western  army,  headed  by  Adlersparre.  tl^  Anckaisvirds, 
and  Adlercreutx,  who  marched  rapidly  from  Skine  to  Stockholm. 
On  the  13th  of  March  X809  seven  of  the  conspirators  broke  into 
the  royal  apartments  in  the  palacx  unannouncxd,  seized  the  king, 
and  conducted  him  to  the  ch&teau  of  Gripsholm;  Duke  Charles 
was  easily  persuaded  to  accept  the  leadership  of  a  provisional 
government,  which  was  proclaimed  the  same  day;  and  a  diet, 
hastil>  summoned,  solemnly  approved  of  the  revolution.   On  the 
29th  of  March  Gustavus,  in  order  to  save  the  crown  for  his  son, 
voluntarily  abdicated;  but  on  the  xoth  of  May  the  estates, 
dominated  by  the  army,  declared  that  not  merely  Gustavus  but 
his  whole  family  had  forfeited  the  throne.    On  the  5th  of  June 
the  duke  regent  was  proclaimed  king  under  the  title  of  Charles 
XIII.,  after  accepting  the  new  liberal  constitution,  which  was 
ratified  by  the  diet  the  same  day.    In  December  Gustavus  and 
his  family  were  transported  to  Germany.   Gustavus  now  assumed 
the  title  of  count  of  Gottorp,  but  subsequently  called  himself 
Colonel  Gustafsson,  under  which  pseudonym  he  wrote  most  <^  his 
works.    He  led,  separated  from  his  family,  an  «Tatic  life  for 
some  years;  was  divorced  from  his  consort  in  18x2;  and  finaDy 
settled  at  St  Gall  in  Switzerland  in  great  loneliness  and  indigence. 
He  died  on  the  7th  of  February  1837,  and,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Ring  Oscar  II.  his  body  was  brought  to  Sweden  and  interred  ia 
the  Riddarhohnskyrka.    From  him  descend  both  the  Baden  aad 

the  Oldenburg  princely  houses  on  the  female  side. 

See  H.  G.  TroUe-Wachtmcistcr,  Anteckntngar  och  miuaem  (Stock- 
holm, 1889);  B.  von  Beskow,  Lefnadsminncn  (Stockholra.  1870); 
K.  V.  Key- Aberg,  De  diphmatiska  fdrbinddsema  meUan  Seerige  mk 
Storbrittannien  under  Gustaf  IV.' sKrig  emot  NapoUon  OJpala.  i8go). 
Colonel  Gustafsson,  La  Joumie  du  treite  mars,  &c.  (St  Gall,  1635}- 
Memorial  des  Obersten  Gustafsson  (Ldpxig.  1829).  (R.  N.  B.) 

GUSTAVUS  V.  (1858-  ),  king  of  Sweden,  son  of  Oscar  U.. 
king  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  Queen  Sophia  Wilfadmiua,  wi& 


GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS  UNION— GUTENBERG 


739 


boro  at  Drottmngholm  on  the  i6th  of  June  1858.  He  entered  the 
army,  and  was,  like  his  father,  a  great  traveller.  As  crown  prince 
he  held  the  title  of  duke  of  W&rmland.  He  married  in  1881 
Victoria  (b.  1862),  daughter  of  Frederick  William  Louis,  grand 
duke  of  Baden,  and  of  Louise,  princess  of  Prussia.  Hie  duchess 
of  Baden  was  the  granddaughter  of  Sophia,  princess  of  Sweden, 
and  the  marriage  of  the  crown  prince  thus  effected  a  union 
between  the  Bemadotte  dynasty  and  the  ancient  Swedish  royal 
bouse  of  Vasa.  During  the  absence  or  illness  of  his  father 
Gustavua  repeatedly  acted  as  regent,  and  was  therefore  already 
thoroughly  versed  in  public  affairs  when  he  succeeded  to  the 
Swedish  throne  on  the  8th  of  December  1907,  the  crown  of 
Norway  having  been  separated  from  that  of  Sweden  in  1905. 
He  took  as  his  motto  "  With  the  people  for  the  Fatherland." 

The  crown  prince,  Oscar  Frederick  William  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
duke  of  Scania  (b.  1882),  married  in  1905  Princess  Margaret  of 
Connaught  (b.  1882),  niece  of  King  Edward  VII.  A  son  was 
bom  to  them  at  Stockholm  on  the  22nd  of  April  1906,  and  another 
son  in  the  following  year.  The  king's  two  younger  sons  were 
William,  duke  of  Sudermania  (b.  1884),  and  Eric,  duke  of 
Westmanland  (b.  1889). 

GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS  UNION  (GusTAV-AooLr-STinuNC, 
Gustav-Aoolf-Verexn,  Evanceusches  Vesein  der  Gustav- 
Aoolf-Stiftung),  a  society  formed  of  members  of  the  Evangelical 
Protestant  churches  of  Germany,  which  has  for  its  object  the  aid 
of  feeble  sister  churches,  especially  in  Roman  Catholic  countries. 
The  project  of  forming  such  a  society  was  first  broached  in  con- 
nexion with  the  bicentennial  celebration  of  the  battle  of  LUtzen 
on  the  6th  of  Novemlxr  1832;  a  proposal  to  collect  funds  for  a 
monument  to  Gustavus  Adolphus  having  been  agreed  to,  it  was 
suggested  by  Superintendent  Grossmann  that  the  best  memorial 
to  the  great  champion  of  Protestantism  would  be  the  formation 
of  a  union  for  propagating  his  ideas.  For  some  years  the  society 
was  limited  in  its  area  and  its  operations,  being  practicilly 
confined  to  Leipzig  and  Dresden,  but  at  the  Reformation  festival 
in  1 841  it  received  a  new  impulse  through  the  energy  and  elo- 
quence of  Karl  Zimmermann  (1803-1877),  court  preacher  at 
Darmstadt,  and  in  1843  a  general  meeting  was  held  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  where  no  fewer  than  twenty-nine  branch  associations 
belonging  to  all  parts  of  Germany  except  Bavaria  and  Austria 
were  represented.  The  want  of  a  positive  creed  tended  to  make 
many  of  the  stricter  Protestant  churchmen  doubtful  of  the 
usefulness  of  the  union,  and  the  stricter  Lutherans  have  always 
held  akwf  from  it.  On  the  other  hand,  its  negative  attitude  in 
relation  to  Roman  Catholicism  secured  for  it  the  sympathy  of 
the  masses.  At  a  general  convention  held  in  Berlin  in  September 
1846  a  keen  dispute  arose  about  the  admission  of  the  K5nigsberg 
delegate,  Julius  Rupp  (i  809-1 884),  who  in  1845  had  been 
deprived  for  publicly  repudiating  the  Athanasian  Creed  and 
became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Free  Congregations  ";  and 
at  one  time  it  seemed  likely  that  the  society  would  be  completely 
broken  up.  Amid  the  political  revolutions  of  the  year  1848  the 
whole  movement  fell  into  stagnation;  but  in  1849  another 
general  convention  (the  seventh),  held  at  Breslau,  showed  that, 
although  the  society  had  k>st  both  in  membership  and  income, 
it  was  still  possessed  of  considerable  vitality.  From  that  date 
the  Gustav-Adolf-Vcrcin  has  been  more  definitely  "  evangelical " 
in  its  tone  than  formerly;  and  under  the  direction  of  Karl 
Zimmermann  it  gr^tly  increased  both  in  numbers  and  in  wealth. 
It  has  built  over  2000  churches  and  assisted  with  some  two 
million  pounds  over  5000  different  communities.  Apart  from  its 
influence  in  maintaining  Protestantism  in  hostile  areas,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  union  has  had  a  great  effect  in  helping  the 
various  Protestant  churches  of  Germany  to  realize  the  number 
and  importance  of  their  common  interests. 

See  K.  Zimmermann.  Cesckicku  des  CuslmhAddJ-Vereins  (Darm- 
sUdt.  1877). 

OOSTROW,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grand  duchy  of 
Xlccklenburg-Schwerin,  on  the  Nebel  and  the  railway  from 
Lubeck  to  Stettin.  20  m.  S.  of  Rostock.  Pop.  (1875),  10.923; 
(1905)  17,163.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  castle,  erected  in 
the  middle  of  the  x6th  century  and  now  used  as  a  workhouse: 


the  cathedral,  dating  from  the  xjth  century  and  restored  in 
x868,  cotitaining  many  fine  monuments  and  possessing  a  square 
tower  xoo  ft.  high;  the  Pfarrkirche,  with  fine  altar-paintings; 
the  town  hall  (Rathaus),  dating  from  the  x6th  century;  the 
music  hall,  and  the  theatre.  Among  the  educational  establish- 
ments  are  the  ducal  gymnasium,  which  possesses  a  library  of 
15,000  volumes,  a  modem  and  a  commercial  school.  The  town 
is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  ixx  the  duchy,  and  has  machine 
works,  foundries,  tanneries,  sawmills,  breweries,  distilleries,  and 
manufactories  of  tobacco,  glue,  candles  and  soap.  There  is  also 
a  considerable  trade  in  wool,  com,  wood,  butter  and  cattle,  and 
an  annual  cattle  show  and  hone  races  are  held. 

GOstrow,  capital  of  the  Mecklenburg  duchy  of  that  name,  or  of 
the  Wend  district,  was  a  place  of  some  importance  as  eariy  as  the 
X2th  century,  and  in  12x9  it  became  the  residence  of  Henry 
Borwin  II.,  prince  of  Mecklenburg,  from  whom  it  received 
Schwerin  privileges*  From  1316  to  1436  the  town  was  the 
residence  of  the  princes  of  the  Wends,  and  from  x  556  to  1695  of  the 
dukes  of  Mecklenburg'Gilstrow.  In  X628  it  was  occupied  by  the 
imperial  troops,  and  Wallenstein  resided  in  it  durixig  part  of  the 
years  X628  and  x629. 

GUTBNBBRO,  JOHANN  (c.  1398-X468),  German  printer,  is 

supposed  to  have  been  born  c.  1398-1399  at  Mainz  of  well-to^o 

parents,  his  father  being  Fride  sum  Gensfleisch  and  his  mother 

Elsgen  Wyrich  (or,  from  her  birthplace,  zu  Gutenberg,  the  name 

he  adopted).   He  is  assumed  to  be  mentioned  under  the  name  of 

"  Henchen  "  in  a  copy  of  a  document  of  1420,  and  again  in  a 

document  of  c.  X427-X428,  but  it  is  not  stated  where  he  then 

resided.    On  January  x6,  X430,  his  mother  arranged  with  the 

city  of  Mainz  about  an  annuity  belonging  to  him;  but  when,  in 

the  same  year,  some  families  who  had  been  expelled  a  few  years 

before  were  permitted  to  return  to  Mainz,  Gutenberg  appears  not 

to  have  availed  himself  of  the  privilege,  as  he  is  described  in  the 

act  of  reconciliation  (dated  March  28)  as  "  not  being  in  Mainz." 

It  is  therefore  assumed  that  the  family  had  taken  refuge  in 

Strassburg,  where  Gutenberg  was  residing  bter.    There  he  is 

said  to  have  been  in  1434,  and  to  have  seized  and  imprisoned  the 

town  clerk  of  Mainz  for  a  debt  due  to  him  by  the  corporation  of 

that  city,  releasing  him,  however,  at  the  representations  of  the 

mayor  and  councillors  of  Strassburg,  and  relinquishing  at  the 

same  time  all  claims  to  the  money  (310  Rhenish  guilders  "about 

2400  mark).*     Between   1436  and   X439  certain  documents 

Mt  if  difficult  to  know  which  of  the  Gutenberg  documeiltt  can 
be  trusted  and  which  not.  Sci>orfaach.  in  his  recent  biography  of 
Cutenbcfg.  accepts  and  describes  27  of  them  {Feslsckrifi,  1900.  p. 
163  sqq.),  17  of  which  are  known  only  from  (not  always  accurate) 
copies  or  transcripts.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  history  might 
be  based  on  them.  But  it  is  certain  that  some  so<alM  Gutenb«rg 
documents,  not  included  in  the  above  27.  are  forgeries.  Fr.  J. 
Bodmann  (1754-1820),  for  many  years  professor  and  librarian  at 
Mainz,  forced  at  least  two;  one  (dated  July  20,  1459)  he  even 
provided  with  four  forged  seals;  the  other  (dated  Strassburg.  March 
24,  1424)  purported  to  be  an  autograph  letter  of  Gutenberg  to  a 
fictitious  sister  of  his  named  Bertha.  Of  these  two  documents 
French  and  German  texts  were  published  about  1800-1802;  the 
forger  lived  for  twenty  years  afterwards  but  never  undeceived  the 
public.  He  enriched  the  Gutenberg  literature  with  other  fabrications. 
In  fact  Bodmann  had  trained  himself  for  counterfeiting  MSS.  and 
documents;  he  openly  boasted  of  his  abilities  in  this  respect,  and 
used  them,  sometimes  to  amuse  his  friends  who  were  searching  for 
Gutenberg  documents,  sometimes  for  himself  to  fill  up  gaps  in 
Gutenberg's  life.  (For  two  or  three  more  specimens  of  his  capacities 
see  A.  Wvss  in  Zeitukr.  fur  AlUrt.  u.  Gesck.  SckUsitns,  xv.  9  sq9.) 
To  one  of  his  friends  (Professor  Cotthelf  Fischer,  who  preceded  him 
as  librarian  of  Mainz)  one  or  two  other  fabrications  may  be  ascribed. 
There  arc,  moreover,  serious  misgivings  as  to  documents  said  to  have 
been  disccvtred  about  1740  (when  the  citizens  of  Strassburg  claimed 
the  honour  of  the  invention  for  their  city)  by  Jacob  Wencker  (the 
then  archivist  of  Strassburg)  and  J.  D.  Schoepflin  (professor  and 
canon  of  St  Thomas's  at  Strassburg).  For  instance,  of  the  above 
document  of  14A4  no  original  has  ever  tome  to  light;  while  the  draft 
of  the  transaction,  alleffcd  to  have  been  written  at  the  time  in  a 
register  of  com  racts.  and  to  have  been  found  about  1 740  by  Wencker, 
has  also  disappeared  with  the  register  itself.  The  document  (now 
only  known  from  a  copy  said  to  ha\-v  been  taken  by  Wencker  from 
the  draft)  is  upheld  as  genuine  by  Schorbach.  who  favours  an  in- 
vention of  printing  at  Strassburg.  but  Bockenheimer,  though 
supporting  Gutenberg  and  Mainz,  declares  it  to  be  a  fiction  (Cnten* 
berg'Ftier,  Mainz,  1900.  pp.  24-33).     Again,  suspicions  are  justified 


GUTENBERG 


repreicnt  Ura  u  having  been  engaged  Ihen  In  nme 
requiring  money,  nith  Andreai  Driliehn,  I  fdlow 
became  not  only  security  loc  him  but  hii  partnec 
Gutenbeig'i  plan  (or  polishing  llanei  and  the  nunuft 
looking-glluee,  for  which  h  lucrative  sale  wai  eipecled  at  the 
approaching  pIlgrunBge  of  1440  (subMquently  poalponed,  icmnl- 
ing  to  the  documents,  allhou^  tiseie  a  no  evidence  for  thii 
postponement)  to  Aix-la-ChapeUe.  Money  was  lent  for  this 
puIpOK  by  tno  other  friends.  la  1438  another  pannenhip  was 
■Hanged  between  Gutenberg,  Andrea)  Driliehn,  and  Andreas 
and  Anton  Heilmana,  and  that  thii  had  in  view  the  art  of 
printing  has  been  inferred  from  the  word ''drudien  "used  by  one 
of  the  witnesses  in  the  law  proceeding  which  soon  after  followed, 

brothen  to  force  Gutenberg  to  accqil  them  as  partners  In  Ibeir 
brother's  place,  but  the  decision  was  in  favour  of  the  letter.  In 
1441  Gutenberg  became  surety  to  the  St  Thomas  Chapter  at 


jrjoh 


=  guilden 


fi6)[i  

borrowed  So  livres  through  Martin  Brechtcr  (or  Brehtti)  from 
■he  lame  chapter.  Of  his  whereabouts  fcotn  the  nth  of  March 
1444  (when  he  paid  a  lai  at  Sinusbuig)  to  the  r^th  of  October 
1448  nothing  certain  is  hoown.  But  on  the  latter  dale  we  And 
him  at  Maim,  boimwing  150  gold  guilder)  0!  his  kinsman,  Arnold 
Gdthus,  against  an  annual  interest  of  7)  gold  guHden.  We  do 
not  liiww  whether  the  intemt  on  this  debt  has  ever  been  paid,  but 
the  debt  ilsell  appears  never  10  have  been  paid  off,  as  the  contract 
ol  this  loan  was  renewed  (tuHmmBl)  on  August  ij,  1503,  for 
other  patties.  It  is  supposed  that  soon  afterwards  Gutenberg 
must  have  been  able  to  show  some  convincing  results  of  his  work, 
for  it  appears  that  about  1450  Johann  Fust  (q.v.)  advanced  him 

"  tools  "siill  to  be  made.  Fustseemsalsatobave  undertaken  la 
advance  him  joogulldcra  a  year  lor  eipensts,  wages,  house-ient, 
parchmeDt,  paper,  ink,  &c.,  but  he  does  not  appear  ID  hive  ever 
time  they  disagreed,  Gutenberg  was  10  return 


and  Ihc  "  tools  " 


n  the  1 


puTpose  Gutenberg  devoted  the  m 
,  of  the  I  ■      ■ 


'  MSS  li 


himself  says  that  he  had 
is  proamed  to  have  begun  a  large  folio  Latin  Bible,  and  to  have 
printed  during  itt  progress  sonte  smaller  books '  and  likewise  ihe 
Letter  of  Indulgence  (granted  on  the  nth  of  April  1451  by  Pope 
Nicholas  V.  in  aid  of  John  II.,  king  of  Cyprus,  against  the  Turks), 
o(  ]l  lines,  having  the  earliest  printed  dale  1454.  of  which 
several  copies  arc  preserved  in  various  European  libraries.  A 
copy  of  the  14JS  issue  of  the  same  Indulgence  is  in  the  Rylands 
Library  »t  Manchester  (from  the  Alihoip  Library). 

It  is  not  known  whether  any  books  were  printed  while  this 
partnership  between  Gutenberg  and  Fust  lasted  Tntbemius 
(.Ihh.  Hinaut-  ii.  411}  say*  (bey  first  pnnted   from  wooden 

with  respect  to  the  documents  record  ng  G  v       "ioil  of  1430 


14  0    (j)  ■  hMgrd 


in  144t,  and  to  have  been  d  scovercd  ( ) 

(orged  imprint  with  the  date  I4J8  in  a 

Dialatua,  really  printed  at  Straisburg  i*-- 

nbnc  in  a  copy  of  the  Troclalu  it  <Wk ..'«......  ..,,.„--.-   --~-. 

which  it  would  appear  that  Johann  Gutenbcn  and  Johann  Nuns 
meislerhad  presented  it  on  June  19  l463,totheCarthuHaninonaMery 
near  Maioi:  (1)  four  forged  coino  of  the  Indulgence  of  145}  in  the 
Culenunn  Collcctian  in  the  Kfsinet  Muicum  at  Hanover,  &c.  (see 
further,  Hcucis,  "The  wcailed  Gutenberg  Etocumentg."  in  Tla 

'  Among  liw«  were  perhaps  (l)  one  or  two  editions  of  the  worJi  ol 
Doiului,Oi«(Bf«r/i  •     '        "  

hut'?n  a  bter 'hand. 
I4SS  (preserved  in  ih 
(preserved  in  the  Cai 


t  Paris  National  Library,  were  discovered 


,  and  pcrh^  others  ih 


bh>cks,a 

CatkUiien  of  Jabannes  de  Janua,  •  folio  of  74S  pages  in  i» 
coliUBBS  of  M  lioei  each,  printed  In  1460,  but  wa>  perhaps  ■ 
lall  gktssaiy  uw  kul.*    The  Latin  " 


3  left  lo 


called  because  1 
II  lines,  and  alio  known  as  the  ilaar«,  Biblr,  because  the 
irst  ropy  described  was  found  in  the  library  of  Cardinal  Maxirin), 
vaa  finished  before  the  15th  of  August  1456;'  GeeDiaD  bibJio- 
^phers  now  claim  this  Bible  for  Gutenberg,  but,  acconiiiig 
o  bibUognphical  rules,  it  must  be  ascribed  to  Peter  Schiifia. 
>erhaps  in  partnership  with  Fust.  It  is  in  smaller  type  thia 
he  Bibie  1/  36  Una,  which  latter  is  called  either  (i)  the  BtwAat 
Bibli,  because  nearly  all  the  known  copies  were  found  in  the 
leighbourhoDd  of  Bamberg,  or  (i)  Sdiditn's  BiHt,  because 
J.  G.  Schelhom  was  the  first  who  described  it  m  176a,  or  |i) 
Ffiila't  Bihlt,  because  lis  printing  is  ascribed  10  ARveck 
PGslEr  of  Bamberg,  who  used  the  same  type  for  seven]  smal 
German  books,  the  chief  of  which  is  Boner's  EidiUin  (1461, 4i<'>. 
&&  leaves,  with  85  woodcuts,  a  book  of  fablQ  in  German  rhyme. 
Some  bibliographen  believe  this  ^fi-Iine  Bible  to  have  bca 
begun,if  not  entirely  printed,  by  Gutenberg  during  his  panncfship 
with  Fust,  as  its  lype  occurs  in  the  ji-line  Letters  of  Indulgence 
of  I4S4,  was  used  for  the  i7-linc  Donatus  (of  14S1'),  ind, 
fioally,  when  found  in  Pfister's  possession  in  1461,  appears  to 
old  ami  worn,  except  the  additional  letteta  k,  it,  1  requited 
'  German,  which  are  dear  and  sharp  like  the  types  used  ia 
:  Bible.  Again,  others  profess  toprove(Duatiko,CiUei(hri'l 
:«)  that  B»  was  a  reprint  of  B". 


14SI  Fust  had  tr 


with  another  goo  guilders 
before  November  1455  the  latter  demanded  rrpaymeot  oi  his 
advances(see  the Helmasperger  Notarial  Document  of  Novonbcr 
6.  t4S5,  in  Dzialiko's  Beilriti  tur  CiUndxrtSrate,  Berlin,  \SM. 
and  took  legal  proceedings  against  Gutenberg.  We  do  not  knew 
the  end  of  tliese  proceedings,  but  if  Gutenberg  had  prepared  tny 
printing  materials  it  would  seem  that  he  was  compelled  to  yidd 
up  Ihe  whole  of  them  to  Fusli  that  the  latter  removed  theni  id 

SchelTer,  issued  varlous'books  unlil  the  sack  of  the  dly  in  ut,i 
by  Adolphus  It.  caused  a  suspension  of  printing  for  three  yaa, 
to  be  resumed  again  in  1465. 
We  have  no  inlormallon  as  to  Gutenberg's  activity,  and  very 

document  dated  June  11,  1457,  he  appears  as  witness  00  behalf 
of  one  of  his  relatives,  which  shows  that  he  was  (ben  still  at 
Mainz.  Entries  in  the  reglslen  of  the  St  Thomas  Cbnidi  at 
Sinssbuig  make  it  clear  that  the  tnnual  interest  on  the  imdit 
which  Gutenberg  on  the  17th  of  November  1441  (see  above)  had 
borrowed  from  the  dupter  of  that  church  was  rtgulatly  puJ 
till  (he  nth  ol  Novendier  1457,  either  by  himself  or  by  hs 


■UlricZcllnj 


in  theCologne  (nirenic)cori4W-tha( 
Bible  in  large  lype  like  chat  used  in  1 
hisde>:ripiron  arqilics  to  Ihe  al-line 
lai  of  moB  miniis  printed  before  ijl 
nissal  type  (double  inca)  was  not  use 
h  century.    This  is  no  doubt  Inic  of 


than  the  41-lme  Bible.    But  many 
printed  at  Mainz  1^  Peter  Schcllei  „.  .,.„.  .„ 
prinledat  Spires  by  Peter  Drach  about  I4Q0, 
miual  printed  by  Andrea  de  Torrcsanis  at  VenL. 
brge  type  as  the  Jfrline  Bible.    PHer  SchiiAt 


of  thc'ian^J^Jpniiiakati^ 
Ihe  Dcnuiun" 


ihom,  bctwn 

whence  Lambirtet 
punch.    SchbRcrl 

by  Gutenberg,  clai 

"f  The  Leipzig  co| 
Klemm  of  DiesdcT 


iKDVrrrd  an  easier  way  of  foundiiwcharsctcrv 
i  Dihcfi  concluded  that  Sch6<fer  invtnlnl  i^ 
liclf.  in  the  colophon  of  the  Psalter  o(  t4K. ' 
ipoie  ID  have  been  planned  and  partly  pnud 
only  Ihe  mode  of  priming  rubrics  and  rc4w^ 

of  this  Bible  (uhich  (oraicily  bchnigid  to  H«r 


GUTERSLOH— GUTHRIE 


741 


iurety,  Martin  Brechter.  But  the  payment  due  on  the  latter 
date  appears  to  have  been  delayed,  as  an  entry  in  the  register 
of  that  year  shows  tliat  the  chapter  had  incurred  expenses  in 
taking  steps  to  have  both  Gutenberg  and  Brechter  arrested. 
This  time  the  difficulties  seem  to  have  been  removed,  but  on  and 
after  the  xxth  of  November  1458  Gutenberg  and  Brechter 
remained  in  default.  The  chapter  made  various  efforts,  all 
recorded  in  their  registers,  to  get  their  money,  but  in  vain. 
Every  year  they  recorded  the  arrears  with  the  expenses  to  which 
they  were  put  in  their  efforts  to  arrest  the  defaulters,  till  at  last 
in  1474  (six  years  after  Gutenberg's  death)  their  names  are  no 
longer  mcnticmed. 

Meantime  Gutenberg  appears  to  have  been  printingj  as  we 
learn  from  a  document  dated  February  26,  1468,  that  a  syndic 
of  Mainz,  Dr  Conrad  Homery  (who  had-  formerly  been  in  the 
service  of  the  elector  Count  Diether  of  Ysenburg),  had  at  one 
time  supplied  him,  not  with  money,  but  with  some  formes,  types, 
tools,  implements  and  other  things  belonging  to  printing,  which 
Gutenberg  had  left  after  his  death,  and  which  had,  and  still, 
belonged  to  him  (Homery);  this  material  had  come  into  the 
hands  of  Adolf,  the  archbishop  of  Mainz,  who  handed  or  sent 
it  back  to  Homery,  the  latter  undertaking  to  use  it  in  no  other 
town  but  Mainz,  nor  to  sell  it  to  any  person  except  a  citizen  of 
Mainz,  even  if  a  stranger  should  offer  him  a  higher  price  for  the 
things.  This  material  has  never  yet  been  identified,  so  that  we 
do  not  know  what  types  Gutenberg  may  have  had  at  his  disposal; 
they  could  hardly  have  included  the  types  of  the  Catkoiicon  of 
X460,  as  is  suggested,  this  work  being  probably  executed  by 
Hcinrich  Bechtermilnzc  (d.  1467),  who  aflcrwaixls  removed  to 
Eltville,  or  perhaps  by  Peter  Schdffer,  who,  about  1470,  advertises 
the  book  as  his  property  (see  K.  Burger,  Bttckkdndler-Anuigcn). 
It  is  uncertain  whether  Gutenberg  remained  in  Mainz  or  removed 
to  the  neighbouring  town  of  Eltville,  where  he  may  have  been 
engaged  for  a  while  with  the  brothers  Bechtermiinze,  who 
printed  there  for  some  time  with  the  types  of  the  1460  Catkoiicon, 
On  the  17th  of  January  1465  he  accepted  the  post  of  salaried 
courtier  from  the  archbishop  Adolf,  and  in  this  capacity  received 
annually  a  suit  of  livery  together  with  a  fixed  allowance  of  com 
and  wine.  Gutenberg  seems  to  have  died  at  Mainz  at  the 
beginning  of  1468,  and  was,  according  to  tradition,  buried  in 
the  Franciscan  church  in  that  city.  His  relative  Arnold  Gelthus 
erected  a  monument  to  his  memory  near  his  supposed  grave, 
and  forty  years  afterwards  Ivo  Wit  tig  set  up  a  memorial  tablet 
at  the  legal  college  at  Mainz.  No  books  bearing  the  name  of 
Gutenberg  as  printer  are  known,  nor  is  any  genuine  portrait 
of  him  known,  those  appearing  upon  medals,  statues  or  engraved 
plates  being  all  fictitious. 

In  1898  the  firm  of  L.  Rosenthal,  at  Munich,  acquired  a 
Missale  speciale  on  paper,  which  Otto  Hupp,  in  two  treatises 
published  in  1898  and  1902,  asserts  to  have  been  printed  by 
'Gutenberg  about  1450,  seven  years  before  the  1457  Psalter. 
Various  CSerman  bibb'ographers,  however,  think  that  it  could 
not  have  been  printed  before  1480,  and,  judging  from  the  fac- 
similes published  by  Hupp,  this  date  seems  to  be  approximately 
correct. 

On  the  34th  of  June  1900  the  five-hundredth  anniversary  of 
Gutenberg's  birth  was  celebrated  in  several  German  cities, 
notably  in  Mainz  and  Leipzig,  and  most  of  the  recent  literature 
on  the  invention  of  printing  dates  from  that  time. 

So  we  may  note  that  in  1902  a  vellum  fragment  of  an  Astro- 
nomical Kalendar  was  discovered  by  the  librarian  of  Wiesbaden, 
Dr  G.  Zedler  (Die  dUeste  Gutenbcrgtypc^  Mainz,  1902),  apparently 
printed  in  the  36-line  Bible  type,  and  as  the  position  of  the  sun, 
moon  and  other  planets  described  in  this  document  suits  the 
years  1429,  1448  and  1467,  he  ascribes  the  printing  of  this 
Kalendar  to  the  year  1447.  A  paper  fragment  of  a  poem  in 
German,  entitled  Weltierichi,  said  to  be  printed  in  the  36-line 
Bible  type,  appears  to  have  come  into  the  possession  of  Herr 
Eduard  Beck  at  Mainz  in  1892,  and  was  presented  by  him  in 
1903  to  the  Gutenberg  Museum  in  that  city.  Zedler  published 
a  facsimile  of  it  in  1904  (for  the  GuUnberg  Cesdlsckajt),  with  a 
description,  in  which  he  places  it  before  the  1447  Kalendar , 


c.  1444-1447  Moreover,  fragments  of  two  editions  of  Donatus 
different  from  that  of  1451  (?)  have  recently  been  found;  see 
Schwenke  in  Centraibl.  fiir  BibUotkekwesen  (1908). 

The  recent  literature  upon  Gutenberg's  life  and  work  and  early 
printing  in  general  includes  the  following:  A.  von  der  Linde. 
CestkukU  und  Erdichtung  (Stuttgart,  1878):  id.  Cesckickte  der 
Buckdruckerkunst  (Berlin.  1886) ;  J.  H.  Hesscls.  Gutenberg,  Was  ke 
tke  Inventor  of  Printing  f  (London,  1882) ;  id.  Haartem,  Ike  Birlkplau 
of  Printing,  not  Mentz  (London.  1886) ;  O.  Hartwig,  Festsekrift  turn 
funfkundertjikngen  Ceburlstag  von  JokannCutenbere(Lciptit,  1900), 
which  includes  various  treatiaes  by  Schcnk  zu  Schwcinsberg,  K. 
Schorbach,  &c.:  P.  Schwenke,  Untersuckungen  tttr  Cesckickte  des 
»sten  Buckdrucks  (BeHin.  1900);  A.  Bdrckcl,  Gutenberg,  sein  Leben, 


Forsckungen  (Leipzig,  1901);  I.  H.  Hessels,  Tke  so-called  Gutenberg 
Documents  (London,  1910).  Tor  other  works  on  the  subject  see 
TvrocaAPHY,  (j.  H.  H.) 

OOTERSLOH,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Westphalia,  11  m.  S.W.  from  Bielefeld  by  the  railway  to  Dort- 
mund. Pop.  (1905),  7375-  It  is  a  seat  of  silk  and  cotton  in- 
dustries, and  has  a  large  trade  in  Westphalian  hams  and  sausages. 
Printing,  brewing  and  distilling  are  also  carried  on,  and  the 
town  is  famous  for  its  rye-bread  {Pumpernickef).  Gtttersloh  has 
two  Evangelical  churches,  a  Roman  Cath<^c  chturch,  a  synagogue, 
a  school  and  other  educational  establishments. 

Sec  Eickhoff,  Cesckickte  der  Stadl  und  Cemeinde  Guierslok 
(GUtersloh,  1904). 

GUTHRIE.  SIR  JAMES  (1859-  ),  Scottish  painter,  and  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  so-called  Glasgow  school  of  painters,  was 
born  at  Greenock.  Though  in  his  youth  he  was  influenced  by 
John  Pettie  in  London,  and  subsequently  studied  in  Paris,  his 
style,  which  is  remarkable  for  grasp  of  character,  breadth  and 
spontaneity,  is  due  to  the  lessons  taught  him  by  observation  of 
nature,  and  to  the  example  of  Crawhall,  by  which  he  benefited  in 
Lincolnshire  in  the  early  'eighties  of  the  last  century.  In  his 
eariy  works,  such  as  "  The  Gipsy  Fires  are  Burning,  for  Daylight 
is  Past  and  Gone  "  (1882),  and  the  "  Funeral  Service  in  the 
Highlands,"  he  favoured  a  thick  impasto,  but  with  growing 
experience  he  used  his  colour  with  greater  economy  and  reti- 
cence. Subsequently  he  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to 
portraiture.  Sir  James  Guthrie,  like  so  many  of  the  Glasgow 
artists,  achieved  his  first  successes  on  the  Continent,  but  soon 
found  recognition  in  his  native  country.  He  was  elected 
associate  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy  in  1888,  and  full 
member  in  1892,  succeeded  Sir  George  Reid  as  president  of  the 
Royal  Scottuh  Academy  in  19012,  and  was  knighted  in  1903 
His  painting  "  Schoolmates  "  is  at  the  Ghent  Gallery.  Among 
his  most  successful  portraits  are  those  of  his  mother,  Mr  R. 
Garroway,  Major  Hotchkiss,  Mrs  Fergus,  Professor  Jack,  and 
Mrs  Watson. 

OUTHRIE,  THOMAS  (i8o3-x8>3),  Scottish  divine,  was  bom 
at  Brechin,  Forfarshire,  on  the  X2th  of  July  1803.  He  entered 
the  university  of  Edinburgh  at  the  early  age  of  twelve,  and 
continued  to  attend  classes  there  for  more  than  ten  years.  On 
the  2nd  of  February  1825  the  presbytery  of  Brechin  licensed  him 
as  a  preacher  in  connexion  with  the  Church  of  Scolhind,  and  in 
X  826  he  was  in  Paris  studying  natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  and 
comparative  anatomy.  For  two  years  he  acted  as  manager  of 
his  father's  bank,  and  in  X830  was  inducted  to  his  first  charge, 
Arbirlot,  in  Forfarshire,  where  he  adopted  a  vivid  dramatic  style 
of  preaching  adapted  to  his  congregation  of  peasants,  farmers 
and  weavers.  In  X837  he  became  the  colleague  of  John  Sym  in 
the  pastorate  of  Old  Greyfriais,  Edinburgh,  and  at  once 
attracted  notice  as  a  great  pulpit  orator.  Towards  the  close  of 
1840  he  became  minister  of  St  John's  church,  Victoria  Street, 
Edinburgh.  He  declined  invitations  both  from  London  and 
from  India.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  supporter  of  the  move- 
ment which  led  to  the  Disruption  of  1843;  and  his  name  is 
thenceforth  associated  with  the  Free  Church,  for  which  he 
collected  £1x6,000  from  July  1845  to  June  1846  to  provide 
manses  for  the  seceding  ministers.  In  1844  he  became  a 
teetotaller.  In  1847  he  began  the  greatest  work  of  his  life  by  the 
publication  of  his  first  "Plea  for  Ragged  Schools."    Hits 


742 


GUTHRIE— GUTS-MUTHS 


pamphlet  elicited  a  beautiful  and  sympathetic  letter  from  Lord 
Jeffrey.  A  Ragged  School  was  opened  on  the  Castle  Hill,  which 
has  been  the  parent  of  many  similar  institutions  elsewhere, 
though  Guthrie's  relation  to  the  movement  is  best  described  as 
that  of  an  apostle  rather  than  a  foimder.  He  insisted  on  bringing 
up  all  the  children  in  his  school  as  Protestants;  and  he  thus 
made  his  schools  proselyti2ing  as  well  as  educational  institutions. 
This  interference  with  religious  liberty  led  to  some  controversy; 
and  ultimately  those  whd  differed  from  Guthrie  founded  the 
United  Industrial  School,  giving  combined  secular  and  separate 
religious  instruction.  In  April  1847  the  degree  of  D.D.  was 
conferred  on  Guthrie  by  the  university  of  Edinburgh;  and  in 
1850  William  Hanna  (i8o8-x88a),  the  biographer  and  son-in-law 
of  Thomas  Chalmers,  was  inducted  as  his  colleague  in  Free  St 
John's  Church. 

In  1850  Guthrie  published  A  Plea  on  behalf  of  Dmnkardsand 
Qgaiiut  Drunkenness,  which  was  foUowed  by  The  Gospel  in 
Etekid  (1855);  The  City:  its  Sins  and  Sorrows  (1857);  Christ 
and  the  Inheritance  of  the  Saints  (1858) ;  Seedtime  and  Harvest  of 
Ragged  Schot^s  (1860),  consisting  of  his  three  Fleas  for  Raggal 
Schools.  These  worlu  had  an  enormous  sale,  and  portions  of 
them  were  translated  into  French  and  Dutch.  His  advocacy  of 
temperance  had  much  to  do  with  securing  the  passing  of  the 
Forbes  Mackenzie  Act,  which  secured  Sunday  closing  and 
shortened  hours  of  sale  for  Scotland.  Mr  GUdstone  specially 
quoted  him  in  support  of  the  Light  Wines  Bill  (x86o).  In  z86a 
he  was  moderator  of  the  Free  Church  General  Assembly;  but  he 
seldom  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  business  of  the  church 
courts.  His  remarkable  oratorical  talents,  rich  humour,  genuine 
pathos  and  inimitable  power  of  story-telling,  enabled  him  to  do 
good  service  to  the  total  abstinence  movement.  He  was  one  of 
the  vice-presidents  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance.  In  1864,  his 
health  being  seriously  impaired,  he  resigned  public  work  as 
pastor  of  Free  St  John's  (May  17),  although  his  nominal 
connexion  with  the  congregation  ceased  only  with  his  death. 
Guthrie  had  occasionally  contributed  papers  to  Good  Words, 
and,  about  the  time  of  his  retirement  from  the  ministry,  he 
became  first  editor  of  the  Sunday  Magaxine,  himself  contribut- 
ing several  series  of  papers  which  were  afterwards  published 
separately.  In  1865  he  was  presented  with  £5000  as  a  mark  of 
appreciation  from  the  public.  His  closing  years  were  spent 
mostly  in  retirement ;  and  after  an  illness  of  several  months'  dura- 
tion he  died  at  St  Leonards-on-Sea  on  the  a4th  of  February  1873. 

In  addition  to  the  books  mentioned  above  he  publidled  a  number 
of  book?  which  had  a  remarkable  circulation  in  Englandand  America, 
such  as  Speaking  to  the  Heart  (1863);  Tke  Way  to  Life  (x86a}:  Man 
and  tke  Gospd  (1865) ;  Tke  Ang/tTs  Song  (1865) ;  Tke  Parables  (1866) ; 
Our  Faikers  Business  (1867):  Out  of  Harness  (1867);  Early  Piety 
(1868);  Studies  of  Ckaraeter  from  tke  Old  Testament  (1868-1870); 
Sundays  Abroad  (1871). 

See  Autobiography  of  Tkomas  Guikrie,  DJD.,  and  Memoir,  by  his 
sons  (a  vols.,  London,  1874-1875). 

GUTHRIE,  THOMAS  AN8TEY  (iSslT-  ).  known  by  the 
pseudonym  of  F.  Anstey,  English  novelist,  was  ix>m  in  Kensing- 
ton, London,  on  the  8th  of  August  1856.  He  was  educated  at 
King's  College,  London,  and  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1880.  But  the  popular  success  of  his  story 
Vice-Versa  (1882)  with  its  topsy-turvy  substitution  of  a  father 
for  his  schoolboy  son,  at  once  made  his  reputation  as  a  humorist 
of  an  original  type.  He  published  in  1883  a  serious  novel,  The 
Giant'j  Robe;  but,  in  q>ite  of  its  excellence,  he  discovered  (and 
again  in  1889  with  The  Pariak)  that  It  was  not  as  a  serious  novelist 
but  as  a  humorist  that  the  public  insisted  on  regarding  him.  As 
such  his  reputation  was  further  a>nfirmed  by  Tke  Black  Poodle 
(1884),  Tke  Tinted  Venus  (1885),  A  Pollen  Idol  (x886),  and  other 
works.  He  became  an  important  member  of  the  staff  of  Punck, 
in  which  his  "  Voces  populi "  and  his  humorous  parodies  of  a 
reciter's  stock-piece  ("  Burglar  Bill,"  &c.)  represent  his  best 
work.  In  xgoz  his  successful  farce  Tke  Man  from  Blankley*s, 
based  on  a  story  which  originally  appeared  in  Punck,  was  first 
produced  at  the  Prince  of  Wales's  Theati;e,  in  London. 

GUTHRIE,  the  capital  of  Oklahoma,  U.S.A.,  and  the  county- 
wat  of  Logan  county,  extending  on  both  sides  of  Cottonwood 


cxeek,  and  lying  one  mile  aonth  of  the  Cimantm  river.  Popu 
(zSgo)  5333,  (zQOo)  xo,oo6,  (1907)  11,652  (2871  negroes);  (xqzo) 
11,654.  It  is  served  by  the  Atchison.  Topeka  &  Saau  Ff, 
the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific,  the  Missouri,  Kansas  Ac 
Texas,  the  Fort  Smith  &  Western,  and  the  St  Louis,  £1  Reno 
&  Western  railways.  Tlie  dty  is  situated  about  940  ft.  above 
the  sea,  in  a  prairie  region  devoted  largely  to  stock-talsiiig  and 
the  cultivation  of  Indiiun  com,  wheat,  cotton  and  various  fruits, 
particularly  peaches.  Guthrie  is  one  of  the  headquarters  of  tlie 
Federal  courts  in  the  state,  the  other  being  Muskogee.  The 
principal  public  buildings  at  Guthrie  are  the  state  Capitol, 
the  Federal  building,  the  City  hall,  the  Carnegie  library,  the 
Methodist  hoqutal  and  a  large  MaBonic  temple.  Among  tbe 
schools  are  St  Joseph's  Academy  and  a  state  school  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb.  Guthxie  has  a  considerable  trade  with  the  surroand* 
ing  country  anid  has  cotton  gins,  a  cotton  compress,  and  foundries 
and  machine  shops;  among  its  manufactures  are  cotton-seed 
oil,  cotton  goods,  flour,  cereals,  lumber,  cigars,  brooms  and 
furniture.  The  total  value  of  the  factory  product  in  1905  was 
$x, 200,66a.  The  municipality  owns  and  operates  the  water* 
works.  The  dty  was  founded  in  X889,  when  Oklahoma  was 
opened  for  settlement;  in  X890  it  was  made  the  capital  ol  the 
Territory,  and  in  1907  when  Oklahoma  was  naade  a  state,  it 
became  the  state  capitaL 

OUTHRUM  (Gookum)  (d.  890),  king  4f  East  An^ia,  first 
appears  in  the  English  Annals  in  the  year  875,  when  he  is 
mentioned  as  one  of  three  Danish  kings  who  went  with  the  host 
to  Cambridge.  He  was  probably  engaged  in  the  rampaigns  of 
the  next  three  years,  and  after  Alfred's  victory  at  Edlngtoa  in 
878,  Guthrum  met  the  king  at  Aller  in  Somersetshire  and  was 
baptized  there  under  the  name  of  iEthelstan.  He  stayed  there 
for  twelve  days  and  was  greatly  honoured  by  his  godfather 
Alfred.  In  890  Guthrum-^Ethelstan  died:  he  is  then  ^mken 
of  as  "  se  nofOema  cyning"  (probably)  "the  Norwegian  kinc,** 
referring  to  the  ultiinate  origin  of  his  family,  and  we  are  t<^ 
that  he  was  the  first  (Scandinavian)  to  settle  East  AngMa. 
Guthrum  is  perhaps  to  be  identified  with  Gormr  (^Cjuthnxm) 
hinn  heunski  or  hizm  riki  of  the  Scandinavian  sagas,  the  foster- 
father  of  HdrOaknutr,  the  father  of  (jorm  the  old.  Time  is  a 
treaty  known  as  the  peace  of  Alfred  and  Guthrum.  ■ 

GUT8CHMI0,  ALFRBD,  Bakon  von  (r835-x887),  German 

historian  and  Ghrientalist,  was  bom  on  the  xst  of  July  at  Losch- 

wiu  (Dresden).    After  holding  chairs  at  Kiel  (x866),  KOnigsberg 

(1873),  and  Jena  (1876),  he  was  finally  appointed  piofesscv 

of  history  at  Tttbingen,  where  he  died  on  the  2nd  of  March  X887. 

He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  Eastern  language  azid  histmy 

in  its  pre-Greek  and  Hellenistic  periods  and  contributed  lazge^ 

to  the  literature  of  the  subject. 

Works. — Ober  die  Fragments  des  Pompnus  Tragjos  (snpplc* 
mentary  vol.  of  Jakrbticker  fir  Idass.  PkiL,  Z857) ;  Die  makedomiscke 
Anagrapke  (1864);  Beitr&te  wnr  Gesck,  des  alten  Orients  (Leipn^ 
1858)  ^JVeM  Beiirdge  tur  Gesck.  des  alt.  Or.,  vol.  i..  Die  Assyriotogm 
inDeutsckland  (Leipzig,  1876) ;  Die  GtanbwSrdigkeit  der  armemisckem 
Gesck.   des   Mosis  von   Kkwen  (1877);  Untersucknmgen  &er  die 

r'seke  Epitome  des  eusebisckon  Canones  (1886);  Untersuek.  «Atr 
Gexk.  des  KOnitreichs  Osraime  (1887);  Gesck.  Irons  (Alexuidcr 
the  Great  to  the  fall  of  the  Anaddae)  ci  Qbingen,  1887).  He  wrote 
on  Persia  and  Phoenicia  in  the  9th  edition  of  the  Emcy.  BriL  A 
collection  ai  minor  works  entitled  Kleine  Sekriften  was  pubGshed  by 
F.  ROhl  at  Leiprig  (1889-1804,  5  vols.),  with  complete  list  of  lus 
writings.  See  artude  by  RQhl  m  Allg^meine  dentsche  Bietg^pkit, 
xlix  (1904). 

GUTS-MUTHS,  JOHARN  CHRI8T0PR  FRIBDRICH  (Z759- 
1839)1  German  teacher  and  the  prindpal  founder  of  the  German 
school  system  of  gymnastics,  was  bom  at  Quedlinburg  on  the  9th 
of  August  1759.  He  waseducated  at  thegymnasium  <rf  hisnative 
town  and  at  Halle  University;  and  in  1785  he  went  to  Sdmcp* 
f  enthal,  where  he  taught  geography  and  gymnastics.  His  method 
of  teaching  gyxnnastics  was  expounded  by  him  in  various 
handbooks;  and  it  visa  chiefly  throu^  them  that  gsrmnastics 
very  soon  came  to  occupy  such  an  important  position  in  the 
school  system  of  (jermany.  He  also  did  much  to  introduce  a 
better  method  of  instruction  in  geography.  He  died  oo  tke 
I  2  xst  of  May  Z839. 


GUTTA— GUTTA  PERCHA 


7+3 


Hb  principal  works  are  Gymnaslik  fAr  die  Jugend  (1793);  Spide 
mr  Obunt  und  Erkdung  des  KOrpers  und  GeisUs  fAr  die  Jugend 
(1796);  TunUmch  (1817):  Handbtuh  der  Ceotrathie  (1810):  and  a 
number  of  books  constituting  a  Bibliotkekfur  Fddagogik,  Sckulweseu, 
und  die  gesammle  pddagogiscne  LUeratur  DetUuUands.  He  also  con- 
tributed to  the  VoUst&ndtges  Handbtuh  der  neuesten  Erdbesckreibung, 
and  along  with  Jacobi  puoHshed  Deutsckes  Land  und  Putsches  Voli, 
the  first  part,  Deutsckes  Land^  being  written  by  him. 

<  GUTTA  (Latin  for  "  drop  ")»  ftn  architectural  term  given  to 
the  small  (nista  of  conical  or  cylindrical  form  carved  below 
the  triglyph  and  under  the  regula  of  the  entablature  of  the  Doric 
Order.  They  are  aomctimes  known  as  "{runnels,"  a  corruption  of 
'*tree>nail/'  and  resemble  the  wooden  pins  which  in  framed  timber 
work  or  in  joinery  are  employed  to  fasten  together  the  pieces 
of  wood;  these  are  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  original 
timber  construction  of  the  Doric  temple,  in  which  the  pins, 
driven  through  the  regula,  secured  the  latter  to  the  taenia,  and, 
according  to  C.  Chipiez  and  F.  A.  Choisy,  passed  through  the 
taenia  to  hold  the  triglyphs  in  place.  In  the  earliest  examples 
of  the  Doric  Order  at  Corinth  and  Sclinus,  the  gutlae  are  com- 
pletely isolated  from  the  architrave,  and  in  Temple  C  at  Sclinus 
the  guttac  are  3  or  4  in.  in  front  of  it,  as  if  to  enable  the  pin  to 
be  driven  in  more  easily.  In  later  examples  they  arc  partly 
attached  to  the  architrave.  Similar  guttae  are  carved  under  the 
mutuics  of  the  Doric  cornice,  representing  the  pins  driven 
through  the  mutules  to  secure  the  rafters.  In^  the  temples  at 
Bassae,  Paestum  and  Selinus,  instances  have  been  found  where 
the  gUttae  had  been  carved  separately  and  sunk  into  holes  cut 
in  the  soffit  of  the  mutules  and  the  regula.  Their  constant 
employment  in  the  Doric  temples  suggests  that,  although 
originally  of  constructive  origin,  they  were  subsequently 
employed  as  decorative  features. 

GUTTA  PERCHA,  the  name  applied  to  the  evaporated  milky 
fluid  or  latex  furnished  by  several  trees  chiefly  found  in  the 
islands  of  the  Malay  Archipebgo.  The  name  is  derived  from 
two  Malay  words,  getah  meaning  gum,  and  pcftja  being  the  name 
of  the  tree — probably  a  Bassia — from  which  the  gum  was  (errone- 
ously) supposed  to  be  obtained. 

Botanical  Origin  and  Distribution. — The  actual  tree  is  known 
to  the  Malays  as  laban,  and  the  product  as  getah  taban.  The  best 
gutta  percha  of  Malaya  is  chiefly  derived  from  two  trees,  and  is 
known  as  getah  taban  merah  (red)  or  getah  taban  sulra  (silky).  The 
trees  in  question,  which  belong  to  the  natural  order  Sapotaceae, 
have  now  been  definitely  identified,  the  first  as  Dickopsis  gutta 
(Bentham  and  Hooker),  otherwise  isonatuira  gutta  (Hooker)  or 
Palaquium  gutta  (Burck),  and  the  second  as  Dichopsis  obtongifolia 
(Burck).  Allied  trees  of  the  same  genus  and  of  the  same  natural 
order  yield  similar  but  usually  inferior  products.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned  species  of  Paycna  {getah  soondie). 

Gutta  percha  trees  often  attain  a  height  of  70  to  100  ft.  and 
the  trunk  has  a  diameter  of  from  s  to  3  ft.  They  are  stated  4o 
be  mature  when  About  thirty  years  old.  The  leaves  of  Dichopsis, 
which  are  obovate-lanccolate,  with  a  distinct  pointed  apex, 
occur  in  clusters  at  the  end  of  the  branches,  and  are  bright  green 
and  smooth  on  the  upper  surface  but  on  the  lower  surface  arc 
yellowish-brown  and  covered  with  silky  hairs  The  leaves  are 
usually  about  6  in.  long  and  about  2  in.  wide  at  the  centre.  The 
flowers  are  white,  and  the  seeds  are  contained  in  an  ovoid  berry 
about  I  in.  long. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  gutta  percha  tree  is 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  itstmmcdiate 
neighbourhood.  It  includes  a  region  within  6  degrees  north  and 
south  of  the  equator  and  Q3*-ii9*  longitude,  where  the  tem- 
perature ranges  from  66*  to  90*  F.  and  the  atmosphere  is  exceed- 
ingly moist.  The  trees  may  be  grown  from  seeds  or  from  cuttings. 
Some  pUnting  has  taken  place  in  Malaya,  but  little  has  so  far 
been  done  to  acclimatize  the  plant  in  other  regions.  Recent 
information  seems  to  point  to  the  possibility  of  growing  the  tree 
in  Ceylon  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 

Preparation  of  Gutta  Percha.— The  gutta  is  furnished  by  the 
greyish  milky  fluid  known  as  the  latex,  which  is  chiefly  secreted 
in  cylindrical  vessels  or  cells  situated  in  the  cortex,  that  is, 
between  the  bark  and  the  wood  (of'  cambium).    Latex-  also 


occurs  in  the  leaves  of  the  tree  to  the  extent  of  about  9%  of  the 
dried  leaves,  and  this  may  be  removed  from  the  powdered  leaves 
by  the  use  of  appropriate  solvents,  but  the  process  is  not  practic- 
able commerdally.  The  latex  flows  slowly  where  an  incision  is 
made  through  the  bark,  but  not  nearly  so  freely,  even  in  the 
rainy  season,  as  the  india-rubber  Utex.  On  this  account  the 
Malays  usually  fell  the  tree  in  order  to  collect  the  latex,  which 
is  done  by  chopping  off  the  branches  and  removing  drdes  of  the 
bark,  forming  cylindrical  channels  about  an  inch  wide  at  various 
points  about  a  foot  apart  down  the  trunk.  The  latex  exudes  and 
fills  these  channels,  from  which  it  is  removed  and  converted  into 
gutta  by  boiling  in  open  vessels  over  wood  fires.  The  work  is 
usually  carried  on  in  the  wet  season  when  the  latex  is  more 
fluid  and  more  abundant.  Sometimes  when  the  latex  is  thick 
water  is  added  to  it  before  boiling. 

The  best  results  are  said  to  be  obtained  from  mature  trees 
about  thirty  yeara  old,  which  furnish  about  2  to  3  lb  of  gutta. 
Older  trees  do  not  appear  to  yield  hiiger  amounts  of  gutta, 
whilst  younger  trees  are  said  to  furnish  less  and  of  inferior 
quality.  The  trees  have  been  so  extensively  feUed  for  the  gutta 
that  there  has  been  a  great  diminution  in  the  total  number 
during  recent  years,  which  has  not  been  compensated  for  by  the 
new  plantations  which  have  been  establish^l. 

Uses  of  Gutta  Percha. — The  Chinese  and  Malays  appear  to  have 
been  acquainted  with  the  characteristic  property  of  gutta  percha 
of  softening  in  warm  water  and  of  regaining  its  hardness  when 
cold,  but  this  plastic  property  seems  to  have  been  only  utilized 
for  ornamental  purposes,  the  construction  of  walking-sticks  and 
of  knife  handles  and  whips,  &c. 

The  brothers  Tradescant  brought  samples  of  the  curious 
material  to  Europe  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  It 
was  then  regarded  as  a  form  of  wood,  to  which-  the  name  of 
**  mazer  "  wood  was  given  on  account  of  Its  employment  in 
making  mazers  or  goblets.  A  description  of  it  is  given  in  a  book 
published  by  John  Tradescant  in  1656  entitled  Mttsaeum  Trades- 
cantianum  or  a  Collection  of  Rarities  Reserved  at  South  Lambeth 
near  London.  Many  of  the  curiosities  collected  from  all  parts  of 
the  world  by  the  Tradescants  subsequently  formed  the  nucleus  of 
the  Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford  which  was  opened  in  1683, 
but  the  specimen  of  "  mater  wood  "  no  longer  exists. 

In  1843  samples  of  the  material  were  sent  to  London  by  Dr 
William  Montgomerie  of  Singapore,  and  were  exhibited  at  the 
Society  of  Arts,  and  in  the  same  year  Dr  Jos6  d'Alroeida  sent 
samples  to  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  Gutta  percha  was  also 
exhibited  at  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851. 

Dr  Montgomerie's  communication  to  the  Society  of  Arts  led 
to  many  experiments  being  made  with  the  material.  Casts  of 
medals  were  successfully  produced,  and  Sir  William  Siemens,  in 
conjunction  with  Werner  von  Siemens,  then  made  the  first 
experiments  with  the  material  as  an  insulating  covering  for  cable 
and  telegraph  wires,  which  led  td  the  discovery  of  its  important 
applications  in  this  connexion  and  to  a  considerable  commercial 
demand  for  the  substance. 

The  value  of  gutta  percha  depends  chiefly  on  its  quality,  that 
is  its  richness  in  true  gutta  and  freedom  from  resin  and  other 
impurities  which  interfere  with  its  physical  characters,  and 
especially  its  insulating  power  or  inability  to  conduct  electricity 

The  chief  use  of  gutta  percha  is  now  for  electrical  purposes. 
Other  minor  uses  are  in  dentistry  and  as  a  means  of  taking 
impressions  of  medals,  &c.  It  has  also  found  application  in 
the  preparation  of  belting  for  machinery,  as  well  as  for  the 
construction  of  the  handles  of  knives  and  surgical  instruments, 
whilst  the  inferior  qualities  are  used  for  waterproofing. 

Commercial  Production. — The  amount  of  gutta  percha  exported 
through  Singapore  from  British  and  Dutch  possessions  in  the 
East  is  subject  to  considerable  fluctuation,  depending  chiefly  on 
the  demand  for  cable  and  telegraph  construction.  In  1886  the 
total  export  from  Singapore  was  4041 1  «wt.,  of  which  Great 
Britain  took  31,666  cwt.;  in  1896  the  export  was  51,98a  cwt. 
of  which  29,723  cwt.  came  to  Great  Britain;  while  in  1905, 
42,088  cwt.  were  exported  (19,5x7  cwt.  to  Great  Britain).  It 
has  to  be  remembered  that  the  official  returns  include  not  only 


744 


GUTTER— GlITZKOW 


fulu  perdu  of  vationi  gnda  of  qiuUty  but  alw  other  inlerior 

producis  uld  under  th«  niow  o(  gulU  perchi,  kiik  o[  which 
relemd  to  below  under  ihe  head  of  (ubstilulti.    The  vnlue 
gullB  perehs  cmboI  therefore  he  correctly  gauged  (nun  i 
vdue  of  Ihe  impoiU.     In  the  ten  yeui  iao6-iflo«  Ibe  but 
qunlilies  of  gutti  pcniha  fetched  from  41.  to  tbouc  y%.  per  lb. 
GuttL  percha,  bowever,  ia  ujed  for  few  and  ipedal  purpota, 
and  there  is  no  [ret  market,  the  price  being  chiefly 
of  arrangement  belweea  the  diief  producen  and  coniui 


(tBft 


«™lf^h»JTJ 


.    The  Blid.  whkh  a  fibroui 


'  Malay*  toi  mprove  it*  appear' 
uture,  hud  and  iocUatic  but 

nperw  iireij(4boul6s*-66*C 
,  rbfl  temperature  of  aof  teninf 

itabardnCHivitliaut  becoming  bfiltlb 


in  hot  wiKt  or  iiotberwiaeraiied  1 
in  the  caae  of  gutti  ol  the  Enn  q 
beios  _depeiKient  on  tb*  niulii^ 

cootingagainthegultai -,,..„.  _^ 

Id  thiimpoctguttaperdiadiffenfnnindiaHtibber  L, , 

which  dm  nut  beoHiR  plaitic  and  unlilie  gniu  percha  i>  elaitic. 
TMi  pcDpefty  of  lufteBing  on  headuf  and  joUdifyiog  w^^^  c^nlcd 
again,  irilhoul  change  in  iu  orional  propettiea,  endile*  gu!i  j  jh  r  ha 
..  . ,.^. -^-11,  (om^jr---  ' 


ropea.    The  •ped&c  gravity  (^  the  beat  guttn 
0-96  and  1.    Giitla  pcreha  u  not  diiBOlvKf by  mc 

^andcl 


adution  or  by 


IphUc  an 

rben  hoc    GulU  percha  i>  no 


rand  light,  g 


pldlyd, 


owmn  bcingabaorbed,  producii^  a  brittle  mlnouir 

CiiBmtal  (jimpoiHion. — Chenucally,  gutu  percha  ._ ^._ 

eubsum  hut  a  mixture  of  KveraicooKiIuentt.  Aa  Ihe  proporttona 
of  IhcK  coiuliuenti  in  the  crude  material  are  not  conuint,  the 
pcDpertiee  of  guiu  peirhs  are  lubject  In  variation.  For  clecttial 
purpotea  it  should  havea  hlghinsubling  power  and  dltkf:tric  ■trength 

The  principal  conatiuicnl  ol  the  crude  nuterial  ia  the  pure  gntta. 
n  hydrocarbon  of  the  eou^rical  formula  Ci«H|(.  It  9  rhniore 
Isomeric  with  the  hydrocarbon  of  caourchouc  and  with  that  of  oil  of 
turpentine.  AcconipanyioglhiiarcBt  ieaat  twooxygenatedminous 
cooKituentr-albane  CUM  and  fluirU  C_H„d^hich  can  be 
separated  from  the  pure  gutla  by  Ihe  use  of  Bdventa.  Purtguttali 
ntri  diinlved  by  ether  and  Ughl  petroleum  in  the  cold,  whenu  the 
nsiiuHii  constituents  are  removed  by  Iboe  liquids  The  inie  gulla 
eshibits  in  an  enhanced  degree  the  valuable  pro^enin  of  gulta 
pni:ba._  and  the  commercial  valiie  of  the  raw  material  is  frequently 

higlirribe  prDpoctioaof  this  the  more  valuable  la  the  EUIU  percha. 
The  foflowiof  an  the  results  of  analyies  of  gutta  percha  from  trees 
J  •■■-  —MS  Oiclufm  or  Paia^mum:— 


Guiu 

^tl,. 

Blaioiayi:      •. 

i?:i 

s 

«^th 


^Hl^.  i'uprene  *C.  ™aod  caouuhoucirKor  diuntm  lCi,H^, 
and  Ihe  latter  by  further  heating  can  be  resolveci  Inlo  isoprene,  a 
hydrocarbon  of  known  constitution  which  haa  been  iKvdEiad 
syalhelicallyaad  qnntueously  reverts  to  caoutchouc  The  precise 
RlatioBihip  id  isoprene  to  pitu  has  not  t 
nccBtly  Hanies  has  further  ducldaled  the  con 
and  eaoulchouc  by  showing  that  under  the 
break  up  into  laevulinic  aldehyde  and  hydnxen  penouoe,  out  oincr 
in  Ihe  pcDponiona  of  these  producta  Ihry  tumiih.  The  two  nutetiali 
muil  IhefefoiB  be  reganled  aa  very  closely  related  in  chemical 

au1pliur,_  aud  this  vulcanized  product  haa  found  aome  commercial 

Wsiiit/icMr*  ef  CiHa  Percbi.— Among  Ihe  HrllcM  patents  uken ' 

Hancock.  Ihe  Hist  of  which  Is  dated  184}. 
Before  being  used  for  technical  purposes  Ihe  raw  rutta  percha  is 
'toned  by  ouichuiery  whilat  in  iht  plastic  stale.    The  chopped  or  , 


It  is  then  kpfaded  or  "  masticated  "  by  macJuEiny  to  rcmovg  the 
enclosed  water,  and  is  6nally  Iraoiferred  whilst  sliU  hoi  aad  pLaatic 
to  the  rDllinB-machine,  from  which  it  emerges  in  dieeu  of  difrawwt 
thichness.    Someiimeschemical  treatment  of  tbecmde  gutta ^crcb* 

by  the  action  of  alkabnc  selutlona  «  of  light  petrdaufla. 

SmtuOMlit  /pr  GUU  Ptrtln.~For  aoBC  purpoaen  natmal  a^ 
artifidaf  substitutes  for  gutu  perdu  have  been  ceaplowd-  Thr 
aimilar  products  fumishrd  by  other  plant*  than  those  wlur^  yield 
futlapBchsarramoDff  the  more  important  d  the  Rat  uralaDbaiiiuin. 

percha."  is  the  mosi  valuable.  Tbisisderivcd  from  a  tree,  ifnaaisMa 
Mala  (bullet  tie^.  belonguig  Id  the  same  nstunl  Oder  as  gotla 
percha  trees,  vis.  Sapotaccac  Ills  a  laige  tree,  grosriiw  10  a  bright 
of  to  to  too  ft.  or  more,  which  occun  in  the  West  li^K*.  in  South 
Amerioi,  and  is  especially  abundant  in  Dutch  and  British  Guiaiu. 
The  lates  which  fumitfie*  balata  i*  aecfeted  in  the  conea  bftwefB  the 
hark  and  wood  of  tbe  tree.  Aa  Ihe  latex  flows  [redy  tlv  tree*  are 
tapped  by  makinr  incisions  {n  th*  ■*,«*  r>ai,{nn  >•  ,n  in#i».TTiUiM 
trees,  and  the  halau  ia 


ia  obtained  by  evaponting  ihe  mil^  Quid 
of  guttapercha.     Tfac  pntpntir 


1  as  an  inkioc  gutta  pochaT    Balata  fetches 

Among  the  Inferioc  aubslitulFs  for  gutta  penh*  ma 

,. ..  ...,___  -.--i,^  [„^  BMyruftrmiuik  Pakii  {.J 

T  karile  of  the  Sudan),  CalnOmfii  fit'- 
I  D-jtra  aulmlab  of  Malaya  and  Bori 


the  evaporatrd  la 


lixium  rJ  tuiumen  with  linseed  and  other  oils,  reviu,  ftc,  in  smne 
isea  incorporated  with  inferior  grades  of  gutta  percha. 
For  f  unber  information  TeH>*ciing  gutta  percha.  and  for  brum  ol 
IE  teres,  tbe  following  works  may  be  consulted:  JumcUe.  Lrs 
ItHla  i  cainklumi  ^  i  (sBa  (Paris,  Cballamel,  1903);  Obach, 
Cantor  Lectures  on  Culu  IVrcba."  Jimrmal  at  Iki  Strtin  e!  A  rfs, 
I9B.  (W.  K.  D.J 

eUnSR  (O.  Fr.  tfHiTi,  mod.  gMHslrt,  from  Lat.  fuM, 
rop),  in  architecture,  a  horiaontal  chajuet  or  trtiQgh  contri^Td 
I  cany  away  tbe  water  from  a  flat  or  ilopiog  roof  to  its  dochajge 
down  ■  vertical  pipe  «  tbiuu^  a  ipout  or  gargoyle;  more 
■prcifLcally,  but  kK«t1y,  Ibe  similar  chasoel  at  tbe  tide  ti  a 
street,  below  tbe  pavement.  In  Greek  and  Rinnan  templa  the 
Hum  of  the  comict  wai  tbe  gutter,  and  Ihe  water  was 
discharged  throu^  Ihe  moutba  of  liou,  wbsae  beads  were 
carved  rm  the  same.  Sotnetlmea  the  cyraatium  waa  not  carried 
along  (he  flanks  ol  a  temple,  in  which  case  the  nin  fell  ofl  tbe 
lower  edge  of  the  roof  tijea.  In  medieval  work  the  gutter  reited 
partly  on  the  top  of  tbe  wall  and  partly  on  corbel  tables,  and  tbe 
water  was  discharged  Ihrou^  gargoyles.  Somelimea,  howevn. 
a  parapet  or  pierced  balustrade  was  carried  on  Ibe  corbel  table 
eocbsiog  the  gulter.  In  building  of  a  more  onfinaty  claia  the 
parapet  is  only  a  coniinuaiian  of  the  wall  below,  and  the  gnticr 
is  set  back  and  carried  In  (trough  reiiingon  the  lower  end  of  the 
roof  timbers.  Tbe  safest  course  ia  to  have  an  eavcx  gultef 
which  projecta  more  or  leia  in  front  of  tbe  wall  and  is  secured  Ift 
and  carried  by  Ibe  rafien  of  the  loof.  In  Renaissance  ircbi- 
tecture  generally  tbe  pieicrd  balustrade  of  the  Cotbk  and  tnmi- 
tion  wDik  waa  replaced  by  a  balustndc  with  vertical  balusten. 
In  France  a  compnEiiM  was  eSectcd,  whereby  ioalcad  of  tbe 
faoriiontal  coinng  of  tbe  ordinaiy  balistrade  a  rtchly  carved 
cnMing  ni  employed,  of  which  (be  earliest  example  is  in 
the  Gist  court  of  the  Louvre. by  Piene  Lescot.  Thia  costs 
throughout  Ihe  French  Renaissance,  and  it  is  one  of  its  chief 
duracteriilic  features. 
GinZKOV,  KARL  FERDINAKD  (1811-1878),  German  novdlsl 
id  drematist,  was  bom  on  the  i;lh  of  Klatdi  1811  al  Bcilts. 
here  his  father  held  a  clerkship  in  Ihe  war  olBce.  After  baving 
ihool  he  studied  ibeolagy  and  pbikeophy  at  (be  univcniiy  of 
s  native  town,  and  while  still  a  tindenl,  began  his  fiteniy 
ireer  by  ihe  publicalion  in  iSji  of  a  petioiIicU  entitled  fonos 
itr  Jawnollilaattir,    Thii  biou(bIbim  to  the  notice  of  Wolipni 


GUTZLAFF— GUY  OF  WARWICK 


745 


Meozcl,  who  invited  him  to  Stuttgart  to  assist  in  the  editorship 
of  the  lAUralwhlaU.  At  the  same  time  he  continued  his  uni- 
versity studies  at  Jena,  Heidelberg  and  Munich.  In  183a  he 
published  anonymously  at  Hamburg  Brieje  eines  Narrcn  an 
cine  Ndni»t  and  in  1833  appeared  at  Stuttgart  Maka-GurUt 
CeschichU  eines  GeUtSt  &  fantastic  and  satirical  romance.  In 
1835  he  went  to  Frankfort,  where  he  founded  the  DetUscke 
Revue.  In  the  same  year  appeared  Wally,  die  Zweificrin,  from 
the  publication  of  which  may  be  said  to  date  the  school  of  writers 
who,  from  their  opposition  to  the  literary,  social  and  religious 
traditions  of  romanticism,  received  the  Aame  of  "Young 
Germany."  The  work  was  directed  specially  against  the 
institution  of  marriage  and  the  belief  in  revelation;  and  what- 
ever interest  it  might  have  attracted  from  its  own  merits  was 
enhanced  by  the  action  of  the  German  federal  diet,  which 
condemned  Gutzkow  to  three  months'  imprisonment,  decreed 
the  suppression  of  all  he  had  written  or  might  yet  write,  and 
prohibited  him  from  exercising  the  functions  of  editor  within 
the  German  confederation.  During  his  term  of  imprisonment 
at  Mannheim,  Gutzkow  employed  himself  in  the  composition 
of  his  treatise  Zw  J*kUosopkie  der  CesckickU  (1836).  On 
obtaim'ng  his  freedom  he  returned  to  Frankfort,  whence  he 
went  in  1837  to  Hamburg.  Here  he  inaugurated  a  new  epoch 
of  his  literary  activity  by  bringing  out  his  tragedy  Richard 
Savage  (1839),  which  immediately  made  the  round  of  all  the 
German  theatres.  Of  his  numerous  other  plays  the  majority 
are  now  neglected;  but  a  few  have  obtained  an  established 
place  in  the  repertory  of  the  German  theatre — especially  the 
comedies  Zopfund  Sc/nuert  (i844),Dax  Urbild  des  TartUfe  (1847), 
Der  KdnigsletUitant  (1849)  and  the  blank  verse  tragedy,  Uriel 
Acosta  (1847).  In  1847  Gutzkow  went  to  Dresden,  where  he 
succeeded  Ticck  as  literary  adviser  to  the  cOurt  theatre.  Mean- 
while he  had  not  neglected  the  novel.  Seraphine  (1838)  was 
followed  by  Blasedow  und  seine  Sskne,  a  satire  on  the  educational 
theories  of  the  time.  Between  1850  and  1853  appeared  Die 
RiUer  vom  Geisle,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  starting-point 
for  the  modem  German  social  novel.  Der  Zauberer  von  Rom  is 
a  powerful  study  of  Roman  Catholic  life  in  southern  Germany. 
The  success  of  Die  RiUer  vom  Ceiste  suggested  to  Gutzkow  the 
establishment  of  a  journal  on  the  model  of  Dicken*s  HousekM 
Wordsy  entitled  UnUrhaltungen  am  kdudichen  Herd^  which  fiist 
appeared  in  1852  and  was  continued  till  1862.  In  1864  he  had  an 
epileptic  fit,  and  his  productions  show  henceforth  decided  traces 
of  failing  powers.  To  this  period  belong  the  historical  novels 
Hohensckwangau  (1868)  and  Fritz  Elirodt  (1872),  Lebensbiider 
(1870-187 2),  consisting  of  autobiographic  sketches,  and  Die 
Sdhne  Pestaloatis  (1870),  the  plot  of  which  is  founded  on  the 
story  of  Kaspar  Hauser.  On  account  of  a  return  of  bis  nervous 
malady,  Gutzkow  in  1873  made  a  journey  to  Italy,  and  on  his 
return  took  up  his  residence  in  the  country  near  Heidelberg, 
whence  he  removed  to  Frankfort-on-Main,  dying  there  on  the 
z6th  of  December  1878.  With  the  exception  of  one  or  two  of  his 
comedies,  Gutzkow's  writings  have  fallen  into  neglect.  ^But  he 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  the  opinions  of  modem  Germany ; 
and  his  works  will  always  be  of  interest  as  the  mirror  in  which 
the  intellectual  and  social  struggles  of  his  time  are  best  reflected. 

An  edition  of  Gutzkow's  collected  works  appeared  at  Jena  (1873- 
1876,  new  ed.,  1870).  E.  Wolff  ha»  publisncd  critical  editions  of 
Gxitzkcm'i  Meister^amen  (1892)  and  Watty  die  Zweifierin  (190^). 
His  more  important  novels  Have  been  frequently  rc|)rintcd.  ^or 
Gutzkow's  Uie  see  his  various  autobiographical  writinvs  such  as 
Aus  der  Knabenuit  (1852).  Ruekblicke  auf  mein  Lebtn  (1876).  &c. 
For  an  estimate  of  his  life  and  work  sec  J .  Proeiss,  Dasjunge  Deutseh- 
land  (1892);  also  H.  H.  Houben,  Studien  uber  die  Dramen  Cutxkows 
(1898)  and  Cultkow-Funde  (1901). 

OOTZLAFF,  KARL  FRIEDRICH  AUGUST  (i8o3-z85i)« 
German  missionary  to  China,  was  born  at  Pyritz  in  Pomerania 
on  the  8lh  of  July  1803.  When  still  apprenticed  to  a  saddler 
in  Stettin,  he  made  known  bis  missionary  inclinations  to  the 
king  of  Prussia,  through  n^iiom  he  went  to  the  P&dagogium  at 
Halle,  and  afterwards  to  the  mission  institute  of  Jinikc  in  Berlin. 
In  1826,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Netherlands  Missionary 
Society,  he  went  to  Java,  whrre  he  was  able  to  learn  Chinese. 


Leaving  the  society  in  1828,  he  went  to  Singapore,  and  in  August 
of  the  same  year  removed  to  Bangkok,  where  he  translated  the 
Bible  into  Siamese.  In  1829  he  married  an  English  lady,  who 
aided  him  in  the  preparation  of  a  dictionary  of  Cochin  Chinese, 
but  she  died  in  August  183 1  before  its  completion.  Shortly 
after  her  death  he  sailed  to  Macao  in  China,  where,  and  subse- 
quently at  Hong  Kong,  he  worked  at  a  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  Chinese,  published  a  Chinese  monthly  magazine,  and  wrote 
in  Chinese  various  books  on  subjects  of  useful  knowledge.  In 
1834  he  published  at  London  a  Journal  of  Three  Voyages  along 
the  Coast  of  China  in  18 ji^  1832  and  j8jj.  He  was  appointed 
in  1835  joint  Chinese  secretary  to  the  English  commission,  and 
during  the  opium  war  of  1840-42  and  the  negotiations  connected 
with  the  peace  that  followed  he  rendered  valuable  service  by 
his  knowledge  of  the  country  and  people.  The  Chinese  author- 
ities refusing  to  permit  foreigners  to  penetrate  into  the  interior, 
GUtzlaff  in  1844  founded  an  institute  for  training  native  mis- 
sionaries, which  was  so  successful  that  during  the  first  four  years 
as  many  as  forty-eight  Chinese  were  sent  out  from  it  to  work 
among  their  fellow-countrymen.  He  died  at  Hong  Kong  on 
the  9th  of  August  1851. 

GQtzbff  also  wrote  A  Skekk  of  Chinese  History,  Ancient  and 
Modern  (London,  1834),  and^  similar  work  published  in  German  at 
Stuttgart  in  18^7;  China  Opened  (1838);  and  the  Life  of  Taovh 
Kwang  (1851;  Cerroan  edition  published  at  Leipzig  tn  1852).  A 
complete  collection  of  his  Chinese  writings  is  contained  in  the  library 
at  Munich. 

OUY  OF  WARWICK.  English  hero  of  romance.  Guy,  son  of 
Siward  or  Seguard  of  Wallingford,  by  his  prowess  in  foreign 
wars  wins  in  marriage  F£licc  (the  Phyllis  of  the  well-known 
ballad),  daughter  and  heiress  of  Roalt,  carl  of  Warwick.  Soon 
after  his  marriage  he  Is  seized  with  remorse  for  the  violence  of 
hb  past  life,  and,  by  way  of  penance,  leaves  his  wife  and  fortune 
to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Laiid.  After  years  of  absence 
he  returns  in  time  to  deliver  Winchester  for  King  iEthelstan 
from  the  invading  northern  kings,  Anelaph  (Anlaf  or  OUQ  and 
Gonclaph,  by  slaying  in  single  fight  their  champion  the  ^ant 
Colbrand.  Local  tradition  fixes  the  duel  at  Hyde  Meacf  near 
Winchester.  Making  his  way  to  Warwick  he  becomes  one  of  his 
wife's  bedesmen,  and  presently  retires  to  a  hermitage  in  Ardcn, 
only  revealing  his  identity  at  the  approach  of  death.  The 
versions  of  the  Middle  English  romance  of  Guy  which  we  possess 
are  adaptations  from  the  French,  and  are  cast  in  the  form  of  a 
roman  d'avcniurcs,  opening  with  a  long  recital  of  Guy's  wars  in 
Lombardy,  Germany  and  Constantinople,  and  embellished  with 
fights  with  dragons  and  surprising  feats  of  arms.  The  kernel 
of  the  tradition  evidently  lies  in  the  fight  with  Colbrand,  which 
represents,  or  at  least  is  symbolic*  of  an  historical  fact.  The 
religiotis  side  of  the  legend  finds  parallels  in  the  stories  of  St 
Eustachius  and  St  Alexius,'  and  makes  it  probable  that  the 
Guy-legend,  as  we  have  it,  has  passed  through  monastic  hands. 
Tradition  seems  to  be  at  fault  in  putting  Guy's  adventures 
under  i£thcls(an.  The  Anlaf  of  the  story  is  probably  Olaf 
Tryggvason,  who,  with  Sweyn  of  Denmark,  harried  the  southern 
counties  of  England  in  993  and  pitched  bis  winter  quarters  in 
Southampton.  Winchester  was  saved,  however,  not  by  the 
valour  of  an  English  champion,  but  by  the  payment  of  money. 
This  Olaf  was  not  unnaturally  confused  with  Anlaf  Cuaran  or 
Havelok  (g.v.). 

The  name  Guy  (perhaps  a  Norman  form  of  A.S.  wt;-war) 
may  be  fairly  connected  with  the  family  of  Wigod,  lord  of 
Wallingford  under  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  a  Filicia,  who 
belongs  to  the  12th  century  and  was  perhaps  the  Norman  poet's 
patroness,  occurs  in  the  pedigree  of  the  Ardens,  descended  from 
Thurkill  of  Warwick  and  his  son  Siward.  Guy's  Clifle,  near 
Warwick,  where  in  the  i4ih  century  Richard  de  Bcauchamp,  earl 
of  Warwick,  erected  a  chantry,  with  a  statue  of  the  hero,  does  not 
correspond  with  the  site  of  the  hermitage  as  described  in  the 

*Some  writers  have  supposed  that  the  fight  with  Colbrand 
symbolizes  the  victory  of  Bninanburh.  Ancuph  and  Goncbph 
would  then  rcpmcnt  the  cousins  Anlaf  Sihcricson  and  Anbf 
(Jodfrcyson  (sec  Havelok). 

'Sec  the  En^liah  legends  in  C.  Horstmann,  AUengliuhe  Legenden, 
Neue  Folge  (Hciibronn,  18S1). 


746 


GUY— GUYON 


ibough  it 


.  The  bott  of  llic  hfmd  b  obvlouily  ficiion,  even 
vaguely  connected  w[th  the  funily  huLory  of 
ine  ArocQi  aEU  inc  WALLJngTord  finiLly,  but  it  wa3  uccpLed  u 
authentic  fact  in  the  chronicle  of  Pierre  de  Luigtofi  (Peier  of 
Lingtali)*riltcn>ttheeiulo(lh(i]lh(«otury.  Tlitidveoiuia 
of  Reynbrun,  urn  of  Coy,  and  liii  tutor  Huaud  of  Ardfn,  who 
had  itio  educated  Guy.  hive  miub  in  comtBon  wilb  bis  laiher'i 
luitory.aDd  twin  in  inlerpolalion  KmelinM  treated  a>  *  tepara  tt 
romance.  There  ii  a  certain  connexion  between  Guy  and  Count 
Guido  of  Toun  {t.  Soo),  and  Alcuin's  advice  to  the  cninl  i> 
Iranifcrred  to  ibe  Englilb  hero  in  the  SfttulHm  Cy  tf  Warnyki 
(c.  ui7)i  ediled  for  the  Early  En^iib  Teit  Sockty  by  G.  L. 
Monill,  i8«S. 

The  Freneli  romance  (Bril.  Mm  HarC.  MS.  377s)  ha.  iwi  been 
arinud,  but  i>  dncribrd  by  tmic  Utfii  in  Ilnl.  lUI.  it  la  Frami 
Uxii.,  841JSI.  iBjl),  A  Flrnth  proK  venion  wu  prinlrd  in 
Parli,  IJIJ.  and  lUtiTi '-■  '-.-t  r,   » x,  MnT^itf  in  libnin, 

four  verwini,  da'in  ["th^tFu'lai 

edittdbyj.  Zupitia     :  ,    .   .        ,  :im  Cam  bridge 


,.._..  Gay  of 

_ u.Co«^a>*eBH,  (S.  i^^, ^.,. 

between  rui  and  ijfipT  Cw  rf  ifnrn,!:,  ,1  i 
and  JKemcdt  but  not  ihrim^rij  tiv  John  Lani'.  r 


//iibri.  Admi'atU  A  UUcprmrali  o.J  Cufifiu  Ennli  sfG^).  Earl  c 
WarwUll.  a  IraBtdy  <l66l)  which  nily  poMiblylie  identical  with  1 
pby  on  the  ■uGjnt  written  by  John  Day  and  Thomii  Dekber,  an< 
.A  1..  "-•HandTurmvall  in  tU 


™tlw^!wc 


ire,  printed  bv  Halei 
oexnoea  oy  j.  n.  nerixn  M*  £lir(7  if^.  t]  Cti  dt  Warvui. 

S«  alio  it.  Weynuch  Die  miiminjl.  Faimntn  dirSaiiKm  Guy 

ii  pu..  Brcilau,  iSoo  and  1901)!  I.  ZutHiai  in  Silvtnitbrr.  d.  ekil,- 
ia.  KL  d.  M.  Atai.  i.  Win.  (vol.  Ixuv.,  Vienna,  1374),  and  Zor 
LiloMirtatUtiU  ia  Cuy  ta  Wataiili  (Vienna.  1S7J);  a  learned 
diicitw'on  of  the  whole  nibiecl  by  H.  L  W;ird.  CauloiMt  af 
Romama  (i.  ITI-SOI.  iSSj)!  and  an  article  by  S.  L.  Lee  in  the 
Dictionary  ^  tloJifiai  Biography. 

OUT,  THOMM  (ifi44-i7i4).  fouitdei  of  Guy'a  Hoapilal, 
London,  was  ihc  son  ol  a  li^tetman  and  coal-deater  at  Soutb- 
wark.  After  Mtving  an  apprenticeship  of  eight  yean  with  a 
boaksellet,  be  in  ib6S  began  busincji  on  hit  own  account.  He 
dealt  largely  in  Bibles,  which  had  for  many  years  been  poorly 
and  incorrectly  printed  in  England.     These  he  at  Bnt  imported 


of  Oaford  the  privilege  of 

jrinling 

Thus 

andbyaneitre 

mely 

thrifty  mode  of  life,  and 

aiticula 

ty  by  investme 

OUlh 

Se»  Company. 

and  the 

ubicque 

nt  >ale 

Of  hi)  Mock  in 

on  (he  17th  of  Decembe 

In  170 

he  built  three  1. 

of  Si  Thomas's 

Hospital, 

which! 

n  he  otherwise  s 

quenlly  benefit 

d;«i>da 

t  a  cos 

Olfl 

79J.  161.  he  er< 

■cted 

Guy'a  Hospital 

leaving 

or  its  endownu 

endowed  Christ 

Hospita 

Wilhf, 

cayear 

andini6;8"endowed 

hismc 

ther's 

irthplace,  which 

him  in  parliame 

i6gs  to  1707. 

The 

residue  of  his  es 

ate,  which  went 

fl  dislaol  relatives,  amo 

to  about  £80,00. 

S«,4rr«C. 

yo/lluLj 

iWiSon 

dr«u- 

ifWo/Dto-HuCiiy 

•S: 

'Sr^r^'A'.'*,'. 

L"^^. 

„irV..^ 

Ne,l 

II.  if  i™fc.,  h' 

vh.  1.  p.  6*4  (1773)^  Nichols,  LtUrary  Aiutilaui.  lii.  jM  (i8n); 
Charles  Knight,  iAaJrj..  oj  lii  Old  BMtulliri.  pp.  .-ij  iiS6ji ; 
and  .4  Bicf'pl""^  ll'iMyetCi-y-i  Hoipual.byl.  mkr^tad^. 
T.  Sctuny  (1H91). 

QOYDH,  JEANHB  MARIE  BODVIER  DB  U  MOTHB 
(1548-1717),  French  quietiit  writer,  wa*  bom  at  Montargis, 
where  her  family  were  persons  of  consequence,  on  Ibe  i]lh  of 
April  1648.    If  her  somewhal  hysterical  autobiography  may  he 


nt  the  wu  much  Mglected  in  her  y 


u  of  hen 


oung 

women; 

hese  were 

turned  in  a  definitely    myMJcil 

mtie 

n  by  the  i 

Bf  thune.  daughter  of  tbe  disraced 

whospen 

some  years  at  Montargis  al 

tether 

ther' 

fall.     In 

664  Jeanne 

Marie  wa.  married  to  a  rich 

invalid 

uyon,  nun 

y  yean  her  senior.     Twefw 

lerh 

died,  lea 

inghiaw 

dow  with  three  small  childr 

en  and 

edUfe 

be  mysiicl  »1 

action  had  grown  steadily   in  vMe 

■d  Itself  to  a  certain  Father  Lacombc,  

left  her  fimily  and  Joined  bim;  for  live  years  the  two  ranUed 
about  together  in  Savoy  and  the  south-east  of  Fiaoce,  ^treading 
their  mystical  ideas.  At  last  they  excited  the  siupidon  ol  the 
authorities;  in  16S6  Lacombe  was  recalled  to  Paris,  put  under 

1687,  He  was  presently  Iransfened  In  the  castle  of  Louido. 
where  he  developed  lullening  of  the  brain  and  died  in  1715. 
Meanwhile  Madame  Cuyon  had  been  aimted  in  January  16&S. 
and  been  shut  up  in  a  convent  as  a  suspected  hereticL  Thence 
ahe  was  delivered  in  the  following  year  by  her  old  frieDd,  the 
ducheasc  de  Bfthune,  who  had  returned  fiDm  exile  to  beconK  a 
power  in  the  devout  courl-drcle  presided  over  by  Madame  de 
Miinlenon.  Before  long  Madame  Guyon  herself  was  introduced 
to  this  pious  aasemblage.    Its  mcmben  were  far  from  critical^ 


rested  in  religion 
3  bear  witness  10  b 


rr  charm  of  a 


which  she  eiplained  her  mystical  Ideas.  So  much  was  Madame 
de  Mabitenon  impressed,  that  she  often  Invited  Madame  Cuyon 
to  give  lectures  at  her  girls'  school  of  St  Cyr.  But  by  [ar  the 
greatest  of  her  conquests  was  Ffnelon,  luw  a  rising  young 

Diuatisfied  with  the  focmalitm  of  avenge  Caihotic  piety,  be 
was  already  thinking  out  a  mystical  theory  of  hit  owd;  and 
between  i6Sg  and  169]  they  corresponded  regularly.  But  as 
soon  as  ugly  reports  about  Lacombe  began  to  spread,  he  broke 
oR  all  connexion  with  her.  Meanwhile  the  reports  had  revhed 
the  piudenl  ears  of  Madame  de  Mainteoon.  In  Hay  i6«j  the 
asked  Madame  Cuyon  to  go  do  mot*  to  St  Cyr,  In  the  hope  of 
clearing  her  orthodoxy,  Madame  Cuyon  appealed  to  Bouuet, 
who  decided  that  her  books  contained  "  much  that  was  inioler- 
able.  alike  in  form  and  matter,"  To  this  judgment  Madame 
Guyon  submitted,  promised  to  "  degmatiie  no  more,"  and 
disappeared  into  the  country  (i6<l]}.  In  the  neil  year  she  again 
petitioned  for  an  inquiry,  and  was  eventually  sent,  half  as  a 
prisoner,  half  as  a  penitent,  to  Btusuel'i  cathedral  town  of 
Meaux,  If  ere  she  spent  the  Erst  half  of  1605;  but  in  the  summer 
the  escaped  without  his  leave,  bearing  with  her  a  certificate  of 
Ihodoiy  ijgned  by  him,     Bossuet  regarded  this  flight  as  a 


rested  ai 


of  d 


n  the  w. 


pin 

■he  remained 

iU 

Ac 

>as  liberated,  oa  coi 

dition  shf  went 

rBlois,  under  the eyi 

of  a  stern  bishop. 

of  het  life  was  spent  is  ch 

ritable  and  pk 

died 

the  vth  of  June  1 

■  7.     During  th 

at  Bloii  became 

regular  place 

of 

ad 

niren 

foreign  quite  as 

often   as   Freo. 

one 

of  th 

e  many  prophetesses  whose  fame 

" 

AuiHOMIits.— Vu  it  Mttami  Cuytn.  tatu  far  lOr-mtmt 

(really  a  eompitation  made  from  various  fragnieiita)  u  vols..  Pans. 
i;9i)-  Tbcrc^  a  life  in  English  by  T.C.  Upham  (NewYoch,  i«mI; 
and  an  elaborate  study  by  C  Guertirr  (Fans.  tUi).  Foraieinark- 
able  review  of  this  htier  work  ■»  Bninrii^.  NnaMrs  £/•*■> 


iplete  edition  of  Madame  Guyon'*  voi^l^ 

C. volumes  of  kifen.  nin.-_/io 

■portant  weeks a/epubl'^jrd 
L,  Paris.  1790).    The  / 


:-^r. 


GUYON— GUZMICS 


747 


i 


been  levcrel  times  translated  into  Enriith.  See  alio  the  literature 
of  the  article  on  Quietism;  and  H.  Delacroix,  Etudes  sur  It 
tnysUcisiiu  (Paris,  1908).  (St  C.) 

OUYON.  RICHABO  DBBAUFRB  (1803-1856),  British  soldiefp 
general  in  the  Hungarian  revolutionary  army  and  Turkish  pasha, 
was  bom  at  Walcot,  near  Bath,  in  1803.  After  receiving  a 
military  education  in  England  and  in  Austria  he  entered  the 
Hungarian  hussars  in  1823,  in  which  he  served  until  after  his 
marriage  with  a  daughter  of  Baron  Splcny,  a  general  officer  in 
the  imperial  service.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Hungarian  War  in 
1848,  he  re-entered  active  service  as  an  officer  of  the  Hungarian 
HonvMs,  and  he  won  great  distinction  in  the  action  of  Sukoro 
(September  29,  1848)  and  the  battle  of  Schwechat  ((ktobcr 
30).  He  added  to  his  reputation  as  a  leader  in  various  actions 
in  the  winter  of  1848-1849,  and  after  the  battle  of  Kapolna  was 
made  a  general  officer.  He  served  in  important  and  sometimes 
independent  commands  to  the  end  of  the  war,  after  which  he 
escaped  to  Turkey.  In  1852  he  entered  the  service  of  the  sultan. 
He  was  made  a  pasha  and  lieutenant-general  without  being 
required  to  change  his  faith,  and  rendered  distinguished  service 
in  thft  campaign  against  the  Russians  in  Asia  Minor  (1854-55). 
General  Guyon  died  of  cbolera  at  Scutari  on  the  12th  of 
Oaober  1856. 

Sec  A.  W.  Kinglake,  The  Patriot  and  iJu  Htro  General  Guyon  (1856). 

GUTOT,  ARNOLD  HENRT  (1807-1884),  Swiss-American 
geologist  and  geographer,  was  bom  at  Boudevilliers,  near 
Neuchitel,  Switzerland,  on  the  28th  of  September  1807.  He 
studied  at  the  college  of  Neuch&tel  and  in  Germany,  where 
he  began  a  lifelong  friendship  with  Louis  Agassia.  He  was 
professor  of  history  and  physical  geography  at  the  short-lived 
Neuchitel  ''  Academy  "  from  1839  to  1848,  when  he  removed, 
at  Agassiz's  instance,  to  the  Um'ted  States,  settling  in  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts.  For  several  years  he  was  a  lecturer  for  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education,  and  he  was  professor 
of  geology  and  physical  geography  at  Princeton  from  1854  until 
fats  death  there  on  the  8th  of  Febmary  1884.  He  ranked  high 
as  a  geologist  and  meteorologist.  As  eariy  as  1 838,  he  undertook, 
at  Agassiz's  suggestion,  the  study  of  glaciers,  and  was  the  first 
to  announce,  in  a  paper  submitted  to  the  Geological  Society  of 
France,  certain  important  observations  relating  to  glacial  motion 
and  structure.  Among  other  things  he  noted  the  more  rapid 
flow  of  the  centre  than  of  the  sides,  and  the  more  rapid  flow  of 
the  top  than  of  the  bottom  of  glaciers;  described  the  laminated 
or  "  ribboned  "  structure  of  the  glacial  ice,  and  ascribed  the 
movement  of  glaciers  to  a  gradual  molecular  displacement 
rather  than  to  a  sliding  of  the  ice  mass  as  held  by  de  Saussure. 
He  subsequently  collected  important  data  concerning  erratic 
boulders.  His  extensive  meteorological  observations  in  America 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau, 
and  his  Meteorological  and  Physical  Tables  (1852,  revised  ed. 
1884)  were  long  standard.  His  graded  series  of  text-books  and 
wall-maps  were  important  aids  in  the  extension  and  populariza- 
tion of  geological  study  in  America.  In  addition  to  text-books, 
his  principal  pubUcations  were:  Earth  and  JUan^  Lectures  on 
Comparative  Physical  Geography  in  its  Relation  to  the  History 
of  Mankind  (translated  by  Professor  C.  C.  Felton,  1849):  A 
Memoir  of  Louis  Agassix  (1883);  and  Creation^  or  the  Biblical 
Cosmogony  in  the  Light  of  Modern  Science  (1884). 

See  James  D.  Dana*s  "  Memoir  "  in  the  Biographical  Memoirs  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Science,  vol.  ii.  (Washington,  1886). 

GUYOT,  TVBS  (1843-  ),  French  politician  and  economist, 
was  bom  at  Dinan  on  the  6th  of  September  1843.  Educated  at 
Rennes,  he  took  up  the  profession  of  journalism,  coming  to 
Paris  in  1867.  He  was  for  a  short  period  editor-in-chief  of 
VIndipendant  du  midi  of  NImcs,  but  joined  the  staff  of  La 
Rappel  on  its  foundation,  and  worked  subsequently  on  other 
journals.  He  took  an  active  part  In  municipal  life,  and  waged  a 
keen  campaign  against  the  prefecture  of  police,  for  which  he 
suffered  six  months'  imprisonment.  He  entered  the  chamber  of 
deputies  in  1885  as  representative  of  the  first  arrondissement  of 
Paris  and  was  rapp&rteur  giniral  of  the  budget  of  1888.  He 
became  minister  of  pubhc  works  under  the  premiership  of  P.  £. 


TIrard  in  1889,  retaining  hu  portfolio  in  the  cabinet  of  C.  L.  de 
Frcycinet  until  1892.  Although  of  strong  liberal  views,  he  lost 
hb  scat  in  the  election  of  1893  owing  to  his  militant  attitude 
against  socialism.  An  uncompromising  free-trader,  he  published 
La  Comidie  protectionniste  (1905;  Eng.  trans.  The  Comedy  of 
Protection);  La  Science  iconomique  (ist  ed.  1881;  3rd  ed.  1907); 
La  Prostitution  (1882);  La  Tyrannic  socialiste  (1893),  all  three 
translated  into  English;  Les  Conflits  du  travail  et  lew  solution 
'(1903);  La  Dimocratie  itidividualisie  (1907). 

GUYTON  DB  MORVBAU,  LOUIS  BERNARD,  Bason  (1737- 
1816),  French  chemist,  was  bom  on  the  4th  of  January  1737,  at 
Dijon,  where  hiA  father  was  professor  of  civil  law  at  the  univer- 
sity. As  a  boy  he  showed  remarkable  aptitude  for  practical 
mechanics,  but  on  leaving  school  he  studied  law  in  the  university 
of  Dijon,  and  in  his  twenty-fourth  year  became  advocate-general 
in  the  parlcmcnt  of  Dijon.  This  office  he  held  till  1 782.  Devot- 
ing his  leisure  to  the  study  of  chemistry,  he  published  in  1772  his 
Digressions  acadimiques,  in  which  he  set  forth  his  views  on 
phlogbton,  crystallization,  &c.,  and  two  years  later  he  established 
in  his  native  town  courses  of  lectures  on  materia  medica, 
mineralogy  and  chemistry.  An  essay  on  chemical  nomenclature, 
which  he  published  in  the  Journal  de  physique  for  May  1782,  was 
ultimately  developed  with  the  aid  of  A.  L.  Lavoisier,  C.  L. 
BcrthoUct  and  A.  F.  Fourcroy,  into  the  Milhode  d'une  nomen- 
clature ehimique,  published  in  1787,  the  principles  of  which  were 
speedily  adopted  by  chemists  throughout  Europe.  Constantly  in 
communication  with  the  leaders  of  the  Lavoisicrian  school,  he 
soon  became  a  convert  to  the  anti-phlogistic  doctrine;  and  he 
published  his  reasons  in  the  first  volume  of  the  section  "  Chymie, 
Pharmacie  et  Metallurgie"  of  the  Eitcychpfdie  milhodique 
(1786),  the  chemical  articles  in  which  were  written  by  him,  as 
well  as  some  of  those  in  the  second  volume  (1792).  In  1794  he 
was  appointed  to  superintend  the  construction  of  balloons  for 
military  purposes,  being  known  as  the  author  of  some  aeronautical 
experiments  carried  out  at  Dijon  some  ten  years  previously. 
In  1791  he  became  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  and  in 
the  following  year  of  the  National  Convention,  to  which  he  was 
re-elected  in  1795,  but  he  retired  from  political  life  in  1797.  In 
1 798  he  acted  as  provisional  director  of  the  Polytechnic  School, 
in  the  foundation  of  which  he  took  an  active  part,  and  from  1800 
to  1814  he  held  the  appointment  of  master  of  the  mint.  In  181 1 
he  was  made  a  baron  of  the  French  Empire.    He  died  in  Paris  on 

the  2nd  of  January  1816. 

Besides  being  a  diligent  contributor  to  the  scientific  periodicals 
of  the  day,  Guyton  wrote  Mimoire  smr  I'fducotion  publique  (1762): 
a  satirical  poem  entitled  Le  Rat  iconoclaste,  ou  te  Jisuite  crogui 


and  of  hydrochkxic  acid  gas  which  he  had  successfully  used  at  Dijon 
in  177A.  With  Hugucs  Marct  (1726-1785)  and  lean  Francois 
J>urande  (d.  1794)  he  alio  published  the  Eumens  de  chymie  Ihiortque 
el  pratique  (1776-1777). 

GUZMICS,  IZIDOR  (i 786-1839),  Hungarian  theologian,  was 
bom  on  the  7th  of  April  1786  at  V&mos-Csal&d,  in  the  county  of 
Sopron.  At  Sopron  (Oedenburg)  he  was  instructed  in  the  art 
of  poetry  by  Paul  Horvith.  In  October  1805  he  entered  the 
Benedictine  order,  but  left  it  in  August  of  the  following  year, 
only  again  to  assume  the  monastic  garb  on  the  loth  of  November 
z8o6.  At  the  monastery  of  Pannonhegy  he  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  Greek  under  Farkas  T6th  and  in  181 2  he  was  sent  to 
Pesth  to  study  theology.  Here  he  read  the  best  German  and 
Hungarian  authors,  and  took  part  in  the  editorship  of  the 
Nenacti  (National)  Plutarkus,  and  in  the  translation  of  Johanh 
HUbner's  Lexicon.  On  obtaining  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity 
in  1816,  he  returned  to  Pannonhegy,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
dogmatic  theology  and  literature,  and  contributed  largely  to 
Hungarian  periodicab.  The  most  important  of  his  theological 
works  are:  A  hath,  anyasxentegyhdznak  hitbeli  tanit&sa  (The 
Doctrinal  Teaching  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church),  and  A  kereatin- 
yehneh  valldshcli  egyesUlisdkrdl  (On  Religious  Unity  among 
Christians),  both  published  at  Pesth  in  1822;  also  a  Latin 
treatise  entitled  Theologia  Christiana  fundamaitalis  et  theologia 
dogmatica   (4  vols.,    GyOr,    1828-1829).     His  translation    of 


748 


GWADAR— GWALIOR 


Theocritus  in  hexameters  was  published  in  1824.  His  versions  of 
the  Oedipus  of  Sophocles  and  of  the  Ipkigenia  of  Euripides 
were  rewarded  by  the  Hungarian  Academy,  of  which  in  1838  he 
was  elected  honorary  member.  In  1832  he  was  appointed  abbot 
of  the  wealthy  Benedictine  house  at  Bakonyb61,  a  village  in  the 
county  of  Veszpr6m.  There  he  built  an  asylum  for  150  children, 
and  founded  a  school  of  harmony  and  singing.  He  died  on  the 
xst  of  September  1839. 

GWADAR.  a  port  on  the  Makran  coast  of  Baluchistan,  about 
290  m.  W.  of  Karachi.  Pop.  (1903),  4350.  In  the  last  half  of  the 
1 8th  century  it  was  handed  over  by  the  khan  of  Kalat  to  the 
sultan  of  Muscat,  who  still  exercises  sovereignty  over  the  port, 
together  with  about  300  sq.  m.  of  the  adjoining  country.  It  is 
a  place  of  call  for  the  steamers  of  the  British  India  Navigation 
Company. 

GWALIOR,  a  native  state  of  India,  in  the  Central  India 
agency,  by  far  the  largest  of  the  numerous  principalities  com- 
prised in  that  area.  It  is  the  dominion  of  the  Sindhia  family. 
The  state  consists  of  two  well-defined  parts  which  may  roughly 
be  called  the  northern  and  the  southern.  The  former  is  a  compact 
mass  of  territory,  bounded  N.  and  N.W.  by  the  Chambal  river, 
which  separates  it  from  the  British  districts  of  Agra  and 
Etawah,  and  the  native  states  of  Dholpur,  Karauli  and  Jaipur 
of  Rajputana;  E.  by  the  Britbh  districts  of  Jalaun,  Jhansi, 
Lalitpur  and  Saugor;  S.  by  the  states  of  Bhopal,  Tonk,  Khil- 
chipur  and  Rajgarh;  and  W.  by  those  of  Jhalawar,  Tonk  and 
Kotah  of  Rajputana.  The  southern,  or  Malwa,  portion  is  made 
up  of  detached  or  semi-detached  districts,  between  which  are 
interposed  parts  of  other  states,  which  again  are  mixed  up  with 
each  other  in  bewildering  intricacy.  The  two  portions  together 
have  a  total  area  of  35,041  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1901),  2,933,001,  showing 
a  decrease  of  13%  in  the  decade. 

The  state  may  be  naturally  divided  into  plain,  plateau  and 
hilly  country.  The  plain  country  extends  from  the  Chambal 
river  in  the  extreme  southwards  for  about  80  m.,  with  a  maximum 
width  from  east  to  west  of  about  120  m.  This  plain,  though 
broken  in  its  southern  portion  by  low  hills,  has  generally  an 
elevation  of  only  a  few  hundred  feet  above  sea-level.  In  the 
summer  season  the  climate  is  very  hot,  the  shade  temperature 
rising  frequently  to  112**  F.,  but  in  the  winter  months  (from 
November  to  February  inclusive)  it  is  usually  temperate  and 
for  short  periods  extremely  cold.  The  average  rainfail  is  30  in., 
but  the  period  1891-igoi  was  a  decade  of  low  rainfall,  and 
distress  was  caused  by  famine.  South  of  this  tract  there  is  a 
gradual  ascent  to  the  Central  India  plateau,  and  at  Sipri  the 
general  level  is  1 500  ft.  above  the  sea.  On  this  plateau  lies  the 
remainder  of  the  slate,  with  the  exception  of  the  small  district 
of  Amjhcra  in  the  extreme  south.  The  elevation  of  this  region 
gives  it  a  moderate  climate  during  the  summer  as  compared 
with  the  plain  country,  while  the  winter  is  warmer  and  more 
equable.  The  average  rainfall  is  28  in.  The  remaining  portion 
of  the  state,  classed  as  hilly,  comprises  only  the  small  district 
of  Amjhera.  This  is  known  as  the  Bhil  country,  and  lies  among 
the  Vindhya  mountains  with  a  mean  elevation  of  about  1800  ft. 
The  rainfall  averages  33  in.  In  the  two  years  1899  and  1900  the 
monsoon  was  very  weak,  the  result  being  a  severe  famine  which 
caused  great  mortality  among  the  Bhil  population.  Of  these 
three  natural  divisions  the  plateau  possesses  the  most  fertile 
soil,  generally  of  the  kind  known  as  "  black  cotton,"  but  the 
low-lying  plain  has  the  densest  population.  The  state  is  watered 
by  numerous  rivers.  The  Nerbudda,  flowing  west,  forms  the 
southern  boundary.  The  greater  part  of  the  drainage  is  dis- 
charged into  the  Chambal,  which  forms  the  north-western  and 
northern  and  eastern  boundary.  The  Sind,  with  its  tributaries 
the  Kuwari,  Asar  and  Sankh,  flows  through  the  northern  division. 
The  chief  products  are  wheat,  millets,  pulses  of  various  kinds, 
matize,  rice,  linseed  and  other  oil-seeds;  poppy,  yielding  the 
Malwa  opium;  sugar-cane,  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  garlic,  tur- 
meric and  ginger.  About  60%  of  the  population  are  employed 
in  agricultural  and  only  15%  in  industrial  occupations,  the 
great  majority  of  the  latter  being  home  workers.  There  is  a 
leather  factory  at  Morar;  cotton-presses  at  Morena,  Baghana 


and  Ujjain;  ginning  factories  at  Agar,  Nalkhera,  Shajapur  and 
Sonkach;  and  a  cotton-mill  at  Ujjain.  The  cotton  industry 
alone  shows  possibilities  of  considerable  development,  there  being 
55,000  persons  engaged  in  it  at  the  time  of  the  census  of  1901. 

The  population  is  composed  of  many  elements,  among  which 
Brahmans  and  Rajputs  are  specially  numerous.  The  prevailing 
religion  is  Hinduism,  84%  of  the  pe<^le  being  Hindus  and  cmly 
6%  Mahommedans.  The  revenue  of  the  state  is  about  one 
million  sterling;  and  large  reserves  have  been  accumulated, 
from  which  two  milUons  were  lent  to  the  government  of  India 
in  1887,  and  later  on  another  million  for  the  constnictkm  of  the 
Gwalior-Agra  and  Indore-Neemuch  railways.  The  railways 
undertaken  by  the  state  are:  (i)  from  Bina  00  the  Indian 
Midland  to  Goona;  (3)  an  extension  of  this  line  to  Baran, 
opened  in  1899;  (3)  from  Bhopal  to  Ujjain;  (4)  two  light 
railways,  from  Gwalior  to  Sipri  and  GwaUor  to  Bhind,  which 
were  opened  by  the  viceroy  in  November  1899.  On  the  same 
occasion  the  viceroy  opened  the  Victoria  College,  founded  to 
commemorate  the  Diamond  Jubilee;  and  the  Memorial  Hospital, 
built  in  memory  of  the  maharaja's  father.  British  currency 
has  been  introduced  instead  of  Chandori  rupees,  which  were 
much  depreciated.  The  state  maintains  three  regiments  of 
Imperial  Service  cavalry,  two  battalions  of  infantry  and  a 
transport  corps. 

History. — The  Sindhia  family,  the  rulers  of  the  Gwalior  state, 
belong  to  the  Mahratta  nation  and  originally  came  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  Poona«  Their  first  appearance  in  Central 
India  was  early  in  the  x8th  century  in  the  person  of  Ranoji 
(d.  1745),  a  scion  of  an  impoverished  branch  of  the  family,  who 
began  his  career  as  the  peshwa's  slipper-carrier  and  rose  by  his 
military  abilities  to  be  commander  of  his  bodyguard.  In  1726, 
together  with  Malhar  Rao  Holkar,  the  founder  of  the  house  of 
Indore,  he  was  authorized  by  the  peshwa  to  collect  tribute 
{ckaulh)  in  the  Malwa  districts.  He  established  his  headquarters 
at  Ujjain,  which  thus  became  the  first  capital  of  Sindhia *s 
dominions. 

Ranoji 's  son  and  successor,  Jayapa  Sindhia,  was  killed  at 
Nagaur  in  1 759,  and  was  in  his  turn  succeeded  by  his  son  Jankoji 
Sindhia.  But  the  real  founder  of  the  state  of  Gwalior  was 
Mahadji  Sindhia,  a  natural  son  of  Ranoji,  who,  after  narrowly 
escaping  with  his  life  from  the  terrible  slaughter  of  Panlpat  in 
1 761  (when  Jankoji  was  killed),  obtained  with  some  difficulty 
from  the  p^hwa  a  re-grant  of  his  father's  possessions  in  Central 
India  (1769).  During  the  struggle  which  followed  the  death 
of  Madhu  Rao  Peshwa  in  1772  Mahadji  seixed  every  occasion 
for  extending  his  power  and  possesions.  In  1775,  however, 
when  Raghuba  Peshwa  threw  himself  on  the  protection  of  the 
British,  the  reverses  which  Mahadji  encountered  at  their  hands — 
Gwalior  being  taken  by  Major  Popham  in  1780 — opened  hb 
eyes  to  their  power.  By  the  treaty  of  Salbai  (1782)  it  was 
agreed  that  Mahadji  should  withdraw  to  Ujjain,  and  the  British 
retire  north  of  the  Jumna.  Mahadji,  who  undertook  to  open 
negotiations  with  the  other  belligerents,  was  recognized  as  an 
independent  ruler,  and  a  British  resident  was  established  at  his 
court.  Mahadji,  aided  by  the  British  policy  of  neutrality,  now 
set  to  work  to  establish  his  supremacy  over  Hindustan  proper. 
Realizing  the  superiority  of  European  methods  of  warfare,  he 
availed  himself  of  the  services  of  a  Savoyard  soldier  of  fortune. 
Benoit  de  Boigne,  whose  genius  for  military  organization  and 
command  in  the  field  was  mainly  instrumental  in  establishing 
the  Mahratta  power.  Mahadji's  disciplined  troops  made  him 
invincible.  In  1785  he  re-established  Shah  Alam  on  the  imperial 
throne  at  Delhi,  and  as  his  reward  obtained  for  the  peshwa  the 
.title  of  vakU-ul-mulhk  or  vicegerent  of  the  empire,  contenting 
himself  with  that  of  his  deputy.  In  1788  he  took  advantage  of 
the  cruelties  practised  by  Ghulam  Kadir  on  Shah  Alam,  to 
occupy  Delhi,  where  he  established  himself  as  the  protector  of 
the  aged  emperor.  Though  nominally  a  deputy  of  the  peshwa  he 
was  now  ruler  of  a  vast  territory,  including  the  greater  part  (4 
Central  India  and  Hindustan  proper,  while  his  lieutenants 
exacted  tribute  from  the  chiefs  of  Rajputana.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  he  looked  with  apprehension  on  the  growing  power  of 


GWEEDORE 


749 


the  British;  but  he  wisely  avoided  any  serious  collision  with 
them. 

Mahadji  died  in  1794,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  adopted  son, 
Daulat  Rao  Sindhia,  a  grandson  of  his  brother  Tukoji.  When, 
during  the  period  of  unrest  that  followed  the  deaths  of  the 
peshwa,  Madhu  Rao  II.,  in  1795  and  of  Tukoji  HoUcar  in  X797, 
the  Mahratta  leaders  fought  over  the  question  of  supremacy, 
the  peshwa,  Baji  Rao  II.,  the  titular  head  of  the  Mahratu 
confederation,  fled  from  his  capital  and  placed  himself  under 
British  protection  by  the  treaty  of  Bassein  (December  31, 1802). 
This  interposition  of  the  British  government  was  itsented  by 
the  confederacy,  and  it  brought  on  the  Mahratta  War  of  1803. 
In  the  campaign  that  followed  a  combined  Mahratta  army,  in 
which  Daulat  Rao's  troops  furnished  the  largest  contingent,  was 
defeated  by  General  Arthur  Wellesley  at  Assaye  and  Axgaum 
in  Central  India;  and  Lord  Lake  routed  Daulat  Rao's  European- 
trained  battalions  in  Northern  India  at  Agra,  AUgarh  and 
Laswari.  Daulat  Rao  was  then  compelled  to  sign  the  treaty 
of  Sarji  Anjangaon  (December  30, 1803),  whidi  stripped  him  of 
his  territories  between  the  Jumna,  and  Ganges,  the  district  of 
Broach  in  Gujarat  and  other  lands  in  the  south.  By  the  same 
treaty  he  was  deprived  of  the  forts  of  Gwalior  and  Gohad;  but 
these  were  restored  by  Lord  Comwallts  in  1805,  when  the 
Chambal  river  was  made  the  northern  boundary  of  the  state. 
By  a  treaty  signed  at  Buriianpur  in  1803  Daulat  Rao  further 
a^eed  to  maintain  a  substdiaiy  force,  to  be  paid  out  of  the 
revenues  of  the  territories  ceded  under  the  treaty  of  Sarji 
Anjangaon.  When,  however,  in  x8i6  he  was  called  upon  to 
assist  in  the  suppte^on  of  the  Pindaris,  thou^  by  the  treaty  of 
Gwalior  (18x7)  he  promised  his  oo-operation,  his  conduct  was  so 
equivocal  that  in  x8i8  he  was  forced  to  sign  a  fresh  treaty  by 
which  he  ceded  Ajmere  and  other  lands. 

Daulat  Raodied  without  issue  in  1827, and  his  widow,Baiza  Bai 
(d.  X862),  adopted  Mukut  Rao,  a  boy  of  eleven  belonging  to  a  dis- 
tant brandi  of  the  family,  who  succeeded  as'Jankoji  Rao  Sindhia. 
His  rule  was  weak;  the  state  was  distracted  by  interminable 
palace  intrigues  and  militoiy  mutinies,  and  affaixs  went  from 
bad  to  wone  when,  in  1843,  Jankoji  Rao,  who  left  no  heir, 
was  succeeded  by  another  boy,  adopted  by  his  widow,  Tara  Bai, 
under  the  name  of  Jayaji  Rao  Sindhia.  The  growth  of  turbulent 
and  misrule  now  induced  Lord  Ellenborou^  to  interpose,  and 
a  British  force  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough  advanced  upon  Gwalior 
(December  X843).  The  Mahratta  troops  were  defeated  simul- 
taneously at  Maharajpur  and  Punniar  (December  29),  with  the 
result  that  the  Gwalior  government  signed  a  treaty  ceding 
territory  with  revenue  sufficient  for  the  maintenance  of  a  con- 
tingent force  to  be  stationed  at  the  capital,  and  limiting  the 
future  strength  of  the  Gwalior  army,  while  a  council  of  regency 
was  appointed  during  the  minority  to  act  under  the  resident's 
advice.  In  X857  the  Gwalior  contingent  joined  the  mntineers; 
but  the  maharaja  himself  remained  loyal  to  the  British,  and  fled 
from  his  capital  until  the  place  was  retaken  and  his  authority 
restored  by  Sir  Hugh  Rose  (Lord  Strathnaim)  on  the  X9th  of 
June  1858. .  He  was  rewarded  with  the  districts  of  Neemuch 
and  Amjhera,  but  Gwalior  fort  was  occupied  by  British  troops 
and  was  only  restored  to  his  son  in  x886  by  Lord  Dufi^erin. 
Jayaji  Rao,  who  died  in  x886,  did  much  for  the  development  of 
hb  state.  He  was  created  a  G.C.S.L  in  x86x,  and  subsequently 
became  a  counsellor  of  the  empress,  a  G.C.B.  and  CLE. 

His  son,  the  maharaja,  Madhava  Rao  Sindhia,  G.C.S.L,  was 
bom  in  1877.  During  his  minority  the  state  was  administered 
for  eight  yean  by  a  council  of  regency.  He  was  entrusted  with 
ruling  powers  in  1894,  and  in  all  respects  continued  the  reforming 
policy  of  the  coundl,  while  paying  personal  attention  to  every 
department,  being  a  keen  soldier,  an  energetic  administrator,  and 
fully  alive  to  the  responsibilities  attaching  to  his  position.  He 
was  created  an  honorary  aide-de-camp  to  the  king-emperor  and 
an  honorary  colonel  in  the  British  army.  He  went  to  China  as 
orderiy  officer  to  General  (laselee  in  X90X,  and  provided  the 
expedition  with  a  hospital  ship  at  his  own  expense,  while  his 
Imperial  Service  Transport  Corps  proved  a  useful  auxiliary  to  the 
British  army  in  the  Chitral  and  llrah  expeditions. 


The  City  or  Gwaxjos  is  76  m.  by  raO  S.  of  Agra,  and  had  a 
population  in  X90X  of  1x9,433.  Thislotal  includes  the  new  town 
of  Lashkar  or  "  the  Camp  "  which  Is  the  modem  capital  of  the 
state  and  old  Gwalior.  The  old  town  has  a  threefold  interest: 
first  as  a  very  ancient  seat  of  Jain  worship;  secondly  for  its 
example  of  palace  architecture  of  the  best  Hindu  period  (X486* 
15x6);  and  thirdly  as  an  historic  fortress.  There  are  several 
remarkable  Hindu  temples  within  the  fort.  One,  known  as  the 
Sas  Baku,  is  beautifully  adorned  with  bas-ieliefs.  It  was 
finished  in  aj).  X093,  and,  though  much  dilapidated,  still  forms  a 
most  picturesque  fragment.  An  older  Jain  temple  has  been  used 
as  a  mosque.  Another  temple  in  the  fortress  of  Gwalior  is  called 
XhtrTdi-Mandifi  or  "  Oihnan's  Temple.'?  This  building  was 
originally  dedicated  to  Vishnu,  but  afterwards  converted  to  the 
Worship  of  Siva.  The  most  striking  part  of  the  Jain  remains  at 
Gwalior  is  a  series  of  caves  or  rock-cut  sculptures,  excavated  in 
the  rock  on  all  sides,  and  numbering  nearly  a  hundred,  great  and 
smalL  Most  of  them  are  mere  niches  to  contain  statues,  though 
some  are  cells  that  may  have  been  originally  intended  for 
residences.  One  curious  fact  regarding  them  is  that,  according  to 
inscriptions,  they  were  all  excavated  within  the  short  period  of 
about  thirty-thiee  years,  between  X44X  and  1474.  Some  of  the 
figures  are  of  colossal  size;  one,  for  iiistance,  is  57  ft.  high,  which 
is  taller  than  any  other  in  northern  India. 

The  palace  buOt  by  Man  Singh  (X486-Z5X6)  forms  the  most 
interesting  example  of  early  Hindu  work  of  its  class  in  India. 
Another  palace  of  even  greater  extent  was  added  to  this  in  X516; 
both  Jehangir  and  Shah  Jahan  added  palaces  to  these  two — the 
whole  making  a  group  of  edifices  unequalled  for  picturesqueness 
and  interest  by  anything  of  their  class  in  Central  India.  Among 
the  apartments  in  the  palaix  was  the  celebrated  chamber,  named 
the  Baradcait  supported  on  X2  columns,  and  45  ft.  square,  with  a 
stone  roof,  forming  one  of  the  most  beautiful  palace-halls  in  the 
world.  It  was,  besides,  singularly  interesting  from  the  expedients 
to  which  the  Hindu  architect  was  forced  to  resort  to  imitate  the 
vaults  of  the  Moslems.  Of  the  buildings,  however,  which  so 
excited  the  admiration  of  the  emperor  Baber,  probably  little  now 
remains.  The  fort  of  Gwalior,  within  which  the  above  buildings 
are  situated,  stands  on  an  isolated  rock.  The  face  is  perpendicular 
and  where  the  rock  is  naturally  less  precipitous  it  has  been 
scarped.  Its  greatest  length  from  north-east  to  south-west  is  a 
mile  and  a  hsdf,  and  the  greatest  breadth  900  yds.  The  rock 
attains  its  maximum  height  of  342  ft.  at  the  northern  end.  A 
rampart,  accessible  by  a  steep  road,  and  farther  up  by  huge  steps 
cut  outof  the  xock, surrounds  thefort.  The  dtadel  stands  at  the 
north-eastem  comer  of  the  enclosure,  and  presents  a  very 
picturesque  appearance.  The  old  town  of  Gwalior,  which  is  of 
considerable  siae,  but  irr^;ulariy  built,  and  extremdy  dirty,  lies 
at  the  eastern  base  of  the  rock.  It  contains  the  tomb  of  Mahom- 
med  Ghaus,  erected  during  the  early  part  of  Akbar's  reign.  The 
fort  of  Gwalior  was  traditionally  built  by  one  Surya  Sen,  the  raja 
of  the  neighbouring  country.  In  XX96  Gwalior  was  captured  by 
Mahommed  Ghori;  it  then  passed  into  the  hands  of  several 
chiefo  until  in  1559  Akbar  gained  possession  of  it,  and  made  it  a 
state  prison  for  captives  of  rank.  On  the  dismemberment  of  the 
Delhi  empire,  Gwalior  was  seised  by  the  Jat  rana  of  Gohad. 
Subsequently  it  was  garrisoned  by  Sindhia,  from  whom  it  was 
wrested  in  1780  by  the  forces  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  to 
whom  it  was  fiiully  restored  by  the  British  in  1886.  The  modem 
town  contains  the  palace  of  the  chief,  a  allege,  a  high  school,  a 
girls'  school,  a  service  sduxd  to  train  offidals,  a  law  school, 
hospitals  for  men  and  for  women,  a  museum,  paper-mills,  and  a 
printing-press  issuing  a  state  gazette. 

GwAUOK  RzsDENCT,  an  administntive  unit  in  the  Central 
India  agency,  comprises  Gwalior  state  and  eleven  smaller  states 
and  estates.  Its  total  area  is  X7,825  sq.  m.,  and  its  population 
in  Z90X  was  2,187,6x2.  Of  the  area,  x  7,020  sq.  m.  belong  to 
Gwalior  State,  and  the  agency  also  includes  the  small  states  of 
Raghugarh,  Khaniadhana,  Paron,  Garha,  Umri  and  Bhadaura, 
with  the  Cbhabra  pargana  of  Tonk. 

GWBBOORB;  a  hamlet  and  tourist  resort  of  Co.  Donegal, 
Ireland,  on  the  Londonderry  Ml  Lough  Swilly  &  Letterkenny 


750 


GWILT— GYANTSE 


nOwmy.  The  river  Qady,  running  put  the  village  from  the 
Nacong  Loughs,  affords  sahnon  and  trout  fishing.  The  fine 
surrounding  aoeneiy  culminates  to  the  east  in  the  wOd  mountain 
Errigal  (3466  ft.)  at  the  u[q)er  end  of  the  loughs.  The  pUce  owes 
its  popularity  as  a  resort  to  Lord  George  Hill  (d.  1879),  who  also 
laboured  for  the  amelioration  of  the  conditions  of  the  peasantry 
on  his  estate,  and  combated  the  Rundale  system  of  minute 
repartition  of  property.  In  1889,  during  the  troubles  which 
arose  out  of  evictions,  Gweedore  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
Irish  constabulary,  when  District  Inqiector  Martin  was  openly 
murdered  on  attempting  to  arrest  a  priest  on  his  way  to  Mass. 

GWILT,  iOSSra  (1784-1863),  English  architect  and  writer, 
was  the  younger  son  of  George  Gwilt,  architect  surveyor  to  the 
county  of  Surrey,  and  was  bom  at  South wark  on  the  nth  of 
January  1784.  He  was  educated  at  St  Paul's  school,  and  after  a 
short  course  of  instruction  in  his  father's  office  was  in  x8oi 
admitted  a  student  of  the  Royal  Academy,  where  in  the  same 
year  he  gained  the  silver  medal  for  his  drawing  of  the  tower  and 
steeple  of  St  Dunstan-in-the-East.  In  181 1  he  published  a 
Treatise  on  the  Eqialibnum  of  Arckes,  and  in  18x5  he  was  elected 
F.S.A.  After  a  visit  to  Italy  in  x8x6,  he  published  in  x8x8 
NoHHa  arckUecUmica  iiaHanat  or  Concise  Notices  of  the  BuiUings 
and  Architects  of  Italy.  In  1825  he  published  an  edition  of  Sir 
Willuun  Chambers's  Treatise  on  Ciril  Arckitectnre;  and  among 
his  other  principal  contributions  to  the  literature  of  his  profession 
are  a  traxislation  of  the  Architecture  of  Vitntvius  (1826),  a  Treatise 
on  the  Rudiments  of  Architecture,  Practical  and  Theoretical  (1826), 
and  his  valuable  Encyclopaedia  of  Architecture  (1842),  which  was 
published  with  additions  by  Wyatt  Papworth  in  1867.  In 
recognition  of  Gwilt's  advocacy  of  the  importance  to  architects  of 
a  knowledge  of  mathematics,  he  was  in  1833  elected  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Agronomical  Sodety.  He  took  a  special  interest  in 
phik>lQgy  and  music,  and  was  the  author  of  Rudiments  of  the 
Anijio^axon  Tongue  (1829),  and  of  the  article  "  Music  "  in  the 
Encyclopaedia  mdropolitana.  His  principal  works  as  a  practical 
architect  were  Markree  Castle  near  Sligo  in  Ireland,  and  St 
Hiomas's  church  at  Charlton  in  Kent.  He  died  on  the  14th  of 
Sq)tember  1863. 

OWTN,  NBLL  [Elbanoi]  (1650-1687),  English  actress,  and 
mistress  of  Charles  II.,  was  bom  on  the  2nd  of  February 
X650/X,  probably  in  an  alley  off  Drury  Lane,  London,  although 
Hereford  also  claims  to  have  been  her  birthplace.  Her  father, 
Thomas  Gwyn,  appears  to  have  been  a  broken-down  soldier  of  a 
family  of  Welsh  origin.  Of  her  mother  little  is  known  save  that 
she  lived  for  some  time  with  her  daughter,  and  that  in  1679  she 
was  drowned,  apparently  when  intoxicated,  in  a  pond  at  Chelsea. 
Nell  Gwyn,  who  sold  oranges  in  the  precincts  of  Drury  Lane 
Theatre,  pained,  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  to  the  boards,  through  the 
influence  of  the  actor  Charles  Hart  and  of  Robert  Dunou  or 
Dungan,  an  oflicer  of  the  guards  who  had  interest  with  the 
management.  Her  first  recorded  appearance  on  the  stage  was  in 
1665  as  Cydaria,  Montezuma's  daughter,  in  Diyden's  Indian 
Emperor,  a  serious  part  ill-suited  to  her.  In  the  foUowing  year 
ahe  was  Lady  Wealthy  in  the  Hon.  James  Howard's  comedy  The 
English  Monsieur,  Pepys  was  delighted  with  the  playing  of 
"  pretty,  witty  Nell,"  but  when  hesawherasFlorimdinDryden's 
Secret  Love,  or  the  Maiden  Queen,  he  wrote  "  so  great  a  per- 
formance of  a  comical  part  was  nevo",  I  believe,  in  the  world 
before  "  and,  "  so  done  by  Nell  her  merry  part  as  cannot  be 
better  done  in  nature  "  {Diary,  March  25,  1667).  Her  success 
brought  her  other  leading  r6iea— BeOario,  in  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  Philaster;  Flora,  in  Rhodes's  Flora's  Vagaries; 
Samira,  in  Sir  Robert  Howard's  Surprisal;  and  she  reinained 
a  member  of  the  Drury  Lane  company  until  1669,  playing  con- 
tinuously save  for  a  brief  absence  in  the  summer  of  1667  when  she 
lived  at  Epsom  as  the  mistress  of  Lord  Buckhurst,  afterwards 
6th  earl  of  Dorset  (q.v.).  Her  last  appearance  was  as  Almahide 
to  the  Aknanror  of  Hart,  in  Dryden's  The  Conquest  of  Granada 
(1670),  the  production  of  which  had  been  postponed  some 
months  for  her  return  to  the  stage  after  the  birth  of  her  first 
•on  by  the  king. 

As  an  actress  Nell  Gwyn  was  largely  indebted  to  Dxyden,  who 


seems  to  have  made  a  speda!  study  of  her  airy,  irrespooBble 
personality,  and  who  kept  her  supplied  with  parts  which  suited 
her.  She  excelled  in  the  delivery  of  the  risky  prolagaes  and 
epilogues  which  were  the  fashion,  and  the  poet  wrote  for  her 
some  specially  daring  examples.  It  was,  however,  as  the 
mistress  of  Charles  II.  that  she  endeared  herself  to  the  pubfic 
Partly,  no  doubt,  her  popularity  was  due  to  the  disgust  injured 
by  her  rival,  Louise  de  K^roualle,  duchess  of  Portsmouth,  and  to 
the  fact  that,  while  the  Frenchwoman  was  a  Cathdic,  she  was  a 
ProtestanL  But  very  largely  it  was  the  result  of  exactly  tboae 
personal  qualities  that  i4>pealed  to  the  monarch  himself.  Sie 
was  piquante  rather  than  pretty,  short  of  stature,  and  her  chief 
beauty  was  her  reddish-brown  hair.  She  was  iUiterate,  and  with 
difficulty  scrawled  an  awkward  E.  G.  at  the  bottom  of  her  Ictten, 
written  for  her  by  others.  But  her  frank  reckleasnesa,  her 
generosity,  her  invariable  good  temp^,  her  ready  wit,  her 
infectious  high  spirits  and  amazing  indiscretions  af^ealcd 
irresistibly  to  a  generation  which  welcomed  in  her  the  living 
antithesis  of  Puritanism.  "  A  trae  child  of  the  London  streets,** 
she  never  pretended  to  be  superior  to  what  she  was,  nor  to  inter- 
fere in  matters  outside  the  q>ecial  sphere  assigned  her;  she 
made  no  ministers,  she  appointed  to  no  bishoprics,  and  for  the 
high  issues  of  international  politics  she  had  no  oonoera.  She 
never  forgot  her  old  friends,  and,  as  far  as  is  known,  remained 
faithful  to  her  royal  lover  from  the  beginninyof  their  intimacy 
to  his  death,  and,  after  his  death,  to  his  memory. 

Of  her  two  sons  by  the  king,  the  elder  was  created  Baron 
Hedlngton  and  eari  of  Burford  and  subsequently  duke  of  St 
Albans;  the  younger,  James,  Lord  Beaudok,  died  in  z68oi, 
while  still  a  boy.  The  king's  death-bed  request  to  his  brother, 
"  Let  not  poor  Nelly  starve,"  was  faithfully  carried  oat  fay 
James  II.,  who  paid  her  debts  from  the  Secret  Service  fond, 
provided  her  with  other  mon^s,  and  settled  on  her  an  estate 
with  reversion  to  the  duke  of  St  Albans.  But  she  did  not  long 
survive  her  lover's  death.  She  died  in  November  1687,  and  was 
buried  on  the  Z7th,  according  to  her  own  request,  in  the  ch.iirch 
of  St  Martin-in-the-Fields,  her  funeral  sermon  being  preached  by 
the  vicar,  Tliomas  Tenison,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
who  said  "  much  to  her  praise."  Tradition  credits  the  founda- 
tion of  Chelsea  Ho^tal  to  her  inflnrnre  over  the  king. 

SBtTtttrCnTathiA;am,Tke  Stonof  NeaGwyn^tdkxdhyGot&on 
Goodwin  (1903):  Waldnm's  cdinon  of  John  Downes'a  Rndus 
An^ieamus  (1789):  Osmund  Airy,  Charles  II.  (1904):  Pepys,  i>Mfy; 
Evdyn,  Diary  wid  Correspondence;  OrMn  amd  Early  Btiory  tf  &e 
Royal  Hospital  at  Chelsea,  edited  by  Major-General  G.  Hntt  (1872); 
Memoirs  of  A*  life  ef  Eleanor  Gieinn  (1752):  Burnet,  History  ef 
My  Own  Time,  part  L.  edited  by  Osmund  Airy  (Odbrd,  1897); 
Louise  de  KirouaUe.  Duchess  ef  Portsmouth^  by  H.  Fomeroo,  cnnt- 
lated  by  Mrs  Crawford  (1887). 

OWTNIAD,  the  name  given  to  a  fish  of  the  genus  Congomsu  ot 
White  fish  (C.  dupeoides),  inhabiting  the  large  lakes  of  North 
Wales  and  the  north  of  England.  AtUUswateritisknownbythe 
name  of  "  schelly,^  at  Loch  Lomond  by  that  of  "  powen."  It  is 
tolerably  abundant  in  Lake  Bala,  keeping  to  the  deqiest  portion 
of  the  lake  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  but  appearing  in 
shoals  near  the  shores  at  certain  seasons.  It  is  weQ  flavMucd, 
like  all  the  spedes  of  Coregomu,  but  acaicdy  attains  to  the 
weight  of  a  pound.  The  name  gwyniad  is  a  Welsh  word,  and 
sigiHfies  "  shming  ";  and  it  is  singular  that  a  simiUr  fish  in 
British  Columbia,  also  belonging  to  the  family  of  Safanoooids,  is 
called  by  the  natives  "quinnat,"  from  the  silvciy  hotre  off  its 
sttles,  the  word  having  in  their  language  the  same  "»**""^  as 
the  Welsh  "gwyniad." 

OTAMTUI,  one  of  the  large  towns  of  Tibet.  It  lies  S.B.  of 
Shigatse,  130  m.  from  the  Indian  frontier  and  145  m.  from  Lhasa. 
Its  central  position  at  the  junction  of  the  roads  from  India  and 
Bhutan  wiUi  those  from  Ladakh  and  Central  Asia  leading  to 
Lhasa  makes  it  a  considerable  distributing  trade  centre.  Its 
market  is  the  third  largest  in  Tibet,  coming  after  Lhasa  and 
Shigatse,  and  is  especially  cdebrated  for  its  wooUea  doth  and 
caipet  manufactures.  Here  caravans  omne  from  Iiadakh, 
Nepal  and  upper  Tibet,  bringing  gold,  borax,  salt,  wool,  musk 
and  furs,  to  exchange  for  tea,  tobacco,  sugar,  cotton  goods. 


GYGES— GYLLENSTJERNA 


bfotddoth  and  hardware.  Tlie  town  is  compactly  built  of  stone 
liouBcs,  with  wooden  balconies  facing  the  main  stzeet,  whence 
narrow  lanes  strike  off  into  uninviting  slums,  and  contains  a  fort 
and  monastery.  In  the  British  e:q)edition  of  1904  Gyantse 
formed  the  first  objective  of  the  advance,  and  the  toltce  was 
besieged  here  in  the  mission  post  of  Changlo  for  some  time.  The 
Tibetans  made  a  night  attack  on  the  post,  and  were  beaten  off 
with  some  difficulty,  but  subsequently  the  British  attacked  and 
stonned  the  fort  or  jong.  Under  the  treaty  of  Z904  a  British 
trade  agent  is  stationed  at  Gyantse. 

GTOBi,  founder  of  the  third  or  Mermnad  dynasty  of  Lydian 
kings,  he  reigned  687^52  B.C.  according  to  H.  Gelaer,  690-^57 
B.C.  according  to  H.  Winckler.  The  chronology  of  the  Lydian 
kings  given  by  Herodotus  has  been  shown  by  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions  to  be  about  twenty  years  in  excess.  Gyges  was  the 
son  of  Dascylus,  who,  when  recalled  from  banishment  in  Cam>a- 
doda  by  the  Lydian  king  Sadyattesr— called  Candaules  "  the 
Dog-stranger  "  (a  title  of  the  Lydian  Hermes)  by  the  Greeks — 
sent  his  son  back  to  Lydia  instead  of  himself.  Gyges  soon  became 
a  favourite  of  Sadyattes  and  was  despatched  by  him  to  fetch 
Tudo,  the  daughter  of  Araossus  of  Mysia,  whom  the  Lydian  king 
wished  to  make  his  queen.  On  the  way  Gyges  feU  in  love  with 
Tudo,  who  complained  to  Sadyattes  of  his  conduct.  Forewarned 
that  the  king  intended  to  punish  him  with  death,  Gyges  assas- 
sinated Sadyattes  in  the  night  and  seired  the  throne  with  the 
help  of  Arsdis  of  Mylasa,  the  captain  of  the  Carian  bodyguard, 
whom  he  had  won  over  to  his  cause.  Civil  war  ensued,  which 
was  finally  ended  by  an  appeal  to  the  oracle  of  Delphi  and  the 
confirmation  of  the  right  of  Gyges  to  the  crown  by  the  Delphian 
god.  Further  to  secure  his  title  he  married  Tudo.  Many  legends 
were  told  among  the  Greeks  about  his  rise  to  power.  That 
found  in  Herodotus,  which  may  be  traced  to  the  poet  Archilochus 
of  Paros,  described  how  "  Candaules  "  insisted  upon  showing 
Gyges  his  wife  when  unrobed,  which  so  enraged  her  that  she  gave 
Gyges  the  choice  of  murdering  her  husband  and  making  himself 
king,  or  of  being  put  to  death  himself.  Plato  made  Gyges  a 
shepherd,  who  discovered  a  magic  ring  by  means  of  which  he 
murdered  his  master  and  won  the  affection  of  his  wife  (Hdt.  L 
8-14;  Pkto,  Rep.  359;  Justin  i.  7;  Cicero,  De  off.  iii.  9). 
Once  established  on  the  throne  Gyges  devoted  himself  to  con- 
solidating his  kingdom  and  making  it  a  military  power.  The 
Troad  was  conquered.  Colophon  captured  from  the  Greeks, 
Smyrna  besieged  and  alliances  entered  into  with  Ephesus  and 
Miletus.  The  Cimmerii,  who  had  ravaged  Asia  Minor,  were 
beaten  back,  and  an  embassy  was  sent  to  Assur-bani-pal  at 
Nineveh  (about  650  b.c.)  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  his  help  against 
the  barbarians.  The  Assyrians,  however,  were  otherwise 
engaged,  and  Gyges  turned  to  Egypt,  sending  his  faithful  Carian 
troops  along  with  Ionian  mercenaries  to  assist  Psammetichus  in 
shaldng  off  the  Assyrian  yoke  (660  B.C.).  A  few  years  later  he 
fell  in  battle  against  the  Cimmerii  under  DugdammC  (called 
Lygdamis  by  Strabo  i.  3.  21),  who  took  the  lower  town  of  Sardis. 
Gyges  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ardys. 

See  Nkolaus  Damaacenus,  quoting  from  the  Lydian  historian 
Xanthut.  in  C.  MQIIcr,  fragmentc  historicontm  Griucontm,  iiL; 
R.  Schubert.  GtsckUkte  der  Kdrng*  wm  Lydien  (1884);  M.  G. 
Radet,  La  LydU  et  le  monde  grec  au  temps  de  Mennnades  (189a- 
1893):  H.  Gei2rr,  "  Dat  Zritalter  des  Gyges  "  (Rkein.  Mus.,  187^); 
H.  Winckler,  AUorientaliuke  Porukuntjen,  i.  (1893):  Macan's  edition 
of  Herodotus.  (A.  H.  S.) 

OYUPPUS,  a  Spartan  general  of  the  5th  century  B.C.;  he 
was  the  son  of  Cleandridas,  who  had  been  expelled  from  Sparta 
for  accepting  Athenian  bribes  (446  B.C.)  and  had  settled  at  Thurii. 
His  mother  was  probably  a  helot,  for  Gylippus  is  said  to  have 
been,  like  Lysander  and  Callicratidas,  a  molkax  (see  Helot). 
When  Aldbiades  urged  the  Spartans  to  send  a  general  to  lead  the 
Syracusan  resistance  against  the  Athenian  expedition,  Gylippus 
was  appointed,  and  his  arrival  was  undoubtedly  the  turning  point 
of  the  struggle(4 14-4 1 3) .  Though  at  first  his  long  hair,  his  thread- 
bare cloak  and  his  staff  furnished  the  subject  of  many  a  jest,  and 
his  harsh  and  overbearing  manner  caused  grave  discontent, 
yet  the  rapidity  and  decisiveness  of  his  movements,  won  the 
sympathy  and  respect  of  the  Syracusans.  Diodorus  (xiii.  28-33), 


7SI 

probably  following  Timaeoi,  represents  him  as  iAdudng  the 
Syracusans  to  pass  sentence  of  death  on.  the  captive  Athenian 
generals,  but  we  need  have  no  hesitation  in  accepting  the  state- 
ment of  Philistus  (Phitarch,  NiciaSy  28),  a  Syracusan  who 
himself  took  part  in  the  defence,  and  Thucydides  (viL  86),  that 
he  tried,  though  without  success,  to  save  their  lives,  wishing  to 
take  them  to  Sparta  as  a  signal  proof  of  his  success  Gylippus 
fell,  as  his  father  had  done,  through  avarice;  entrusted  by 
Ljrsander  with  an  immense  sum  which  he  was  to  deliver  to  the 
ephors  at  Sparta,  he  could  not  resist  the  temptation  to  enrich 

himself  and,  on  the  discovery  of  his  guilt,  went  into  exile. 

Thucydides  vL  03.  104,  vil;  Plutarch,  Nicies,  19,  si,  97.  28, 
Lysander,  16,  17;  Diodorus  xitL  7,  8,  28-32;  pol)«enut  i.  39.  ^). 
See  Syracusb  (tor  the  siege  operations),  commentaries onThucydides 
and  the  Greek  histories. 

OTLLBMBOURO-BHRXinVlRD.  IHOMAflNB  CHRUnMi; 

Basoness  (1773-1856),  Danish  author,  was  bom  on  the  9th  of 
November  1 7  73,  at  (Copenhagen.  Her  maiden  name  was  Buntxen. 
Her  great  beauty  early  attracted  notice,  and  before  she  was 
seventeen  she  married  the  famous  writer  Peter  Andreas  Heiberg. 
To  him  she  bore  in  the  following  year  a  son,  afterwards  illustrioua 
as  the  poet  and  critic  Johan  Ludvig  Heiberg.  In  x8oo  her 
husband  was  exiled,  and  she  obtained  a  divorce,  naarrying  in 
December  1801  the  Swedish  Baron  K.  F.  Ehrensvird,  himself 
«a  political  fugitive.  Her  second  husband,  who  presently  adopted 
the  name  of  Gyllembourg,  died  in  18x5.  In  1822  she  followed 
her  son  to  Kiel,  where  he  was  appointed  professor,  and  in  1825 
she  returned  with  him  to  (Copenhagen.  In  1827  she  first  appeared 
as  an  author  by  publishing  her  romance  of  The  Folonius  Family 
in  her  son's  newspaper  Flyvende  Fast.  In  1828  the  same  journal 
xontained  The  Magic  Ring,  which  was  immediately  followed 
\>y  En  Hverdags  kislarie  (An  Everyday  Story).  The  success  of 
this  anonymous  work  was  so  great  that  the  author  adopted 
unto  the  end  of  her  career  the  name  of  "  The  Author  qI  An 
Everyday  Story**  In  X833-X834  she  published  three  volumes 
of  Old  and  New  Novels.  New  Stories  followed  in  1835  and  X836. 
In  X839  appeared  two  novels,  Montanus  the  Younger  and  Ricida; 
in  1840,  One  in  AU;  in  X84X,  Near  and  Far;  in  1843,  A  Corrt" 
spondence;  in  1844,  The  Cross  Ways;  in  1845,  ^w^  Generations. 
From  1849  to  1851  the  Baroness  Ehrensvird-Gyllembouzg  wu 
engaged  in  bringing  out  a  library  edition  of  her  collected  works 
in  twelve  volumes.  On  the  2nd  of  July  1856  she  died  in  her  son's 
house  at  Copenhagen.  Not  until  then  did  the  secret  of  her 
authorship  transpire;  for  throughout  her  life  she  had  preserved 
the  closest  reticence  on  the  subjea  even  with  her  nearest  friends. 
The  style  of  Madame  Ehrensvird-Gyllembouzg  b  dear  and 
sparkling;  for  English  readers  no  closer  analogy  can  be  found 
than  between  her  and  Mrs  (Saskdl,  and  Cranford  mi^t  well 

have  been  written  by  the  witty  Danish  authoress. 

See  J.  L.  Heiberg,  Peter  Andreas  Heibert  og  Tkomasin*  GyUeMotirg 
(Copenhagen,  1882),  and  L.  KomeUu»>Hybel,  Nogfe  Bemaerkninier 
om  P.  A.  Heiberg  og  Fru  CyUembonrg  (Copenhagen,  1883). 

OTLLKNSTJKKNi,  JOHAN,  Comn  (1635-X680),  Swedish 
statesman,  completeid  his  studies  at  Upsala  and  then  visited 
most  of  the  European  states  and  laid  the  foundations  of  that  deep 
insight  into  international  politics  which  afterwards  distinguished 
him.  On  his  return  home  he  met  King  Charles  X.  in  the  Danish 
islands  and  was  in  dose  attendance  upon  him  till  the  monarch's 
death  in  x66a  He  began  his  political  career  at  the  diet  which 
assembled  in  the  autunm  of  the  same  year.  An  aristocrat  by 
birth  and  inclination,  he  was  neverthdesa  a  true  patriot  and 
demanded  the  greatest  sacrifices  from  his  own  order  in  the 
national  interests.  He  was  therefore  one  of  those  who  laboured 
most  zealously  for  the  recovery  of  the  crown  lands.  In  the 
Upper  House  he  was  the  spokesman  of  the  gentry  against  the 
magnates,  whose  inordinate  privileges  he  would  have  curtailed 
or  abolished.  His  adversaries  vainly  endeavoured  to  gain  him 
by  favour,  for  as  court-marshal  and  senator  he  was  still  more 
hostile  to  the  dominant  patricians  who  followed  the  adventurous 
policy  of  Magnus  de  la  (vardie.  Tlius  he  opposed  the  French 
alliance  which  de  U  Gardie  carried  through  in  1672,  and  con- 
sistently advocated  economy  In  domestic  and  neutrality  in 
foreign  affairs.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  1675  he  was  the 


752 


GYMKHANA— GYMNASTICS  AND  GYMNASIUM 


most  loyal  and  energetic  supporter  of  the  young  Oiariea  XI., 
and  findly  his  indi^wnsable  counseOor.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said, 
that  the  political  principles  which  he  in>»nifrf  into  the  youthful 
monarch  were  faithfully  followed  by  Charles  during  the  whole 
of  his  reign.  In  1679  Gyllenstjema  was  i4>pointed  the  Swedish 
plenipotentiary  at  the-  peace  congress  of  Lund.  Hie  alliance 
which  he  then  concluded  with  Denmark  bound  the  two  northern 
lealffls  together  in  a  common  foreign  policy,  and  he  sought 
besides  to  fadlitate  their  harmonious  co-operation  by  every 
means  in  his  power.  In  x63o,  after  bringing  home  Charles  XI. 's 
Danish  biide  from  Copenhagen,  he  was  appointed  governor* 
gennal  of  Scania  (Skine),  but  expired  a  few  weeks  later. 

See  M.  H6jcr.  Cfbersig^  of  Sveriges  yttn  poliHk  under  Arem  i6?6- 
j68o  (Upsala,  1875).  (R.  N.  B.) 

OTMKHAHA,  a  display  of  miscellaneous  sports,  origiiaally  at 
the  military  stations  of  India.  The  word  would  seem  to  be 
a -colloquial  remodelling  of  the  Hindustani  gend-kkana,  ball- 
house  or  racquet-court,  by  substituting  for  gend  the  first  syllable 
of  the  English  word  "gymnastics."  The  definition  given  in 
Yule's  Glossary  is  as  follows:  "  A  place  of  public  resort  at  a 
station,  where  the  needful  facilities  for  atUetics  and  games 
...  are  provided."  The  name  of  the  place  was  afterwards 
^plied  to  the  games  themselves,  and  the  word  is  now  used  ahnost 
exclusively  in  this  sense.  According  to  Yule  the  fint  use  of  it 
that  can  be  traced  was,  on  the  authority  of  Major  John  Trotter, 
at  Rurki  in  the  year  x86x,  when  a  gymkhana  was  instituted 
there.  Gymkhana  sports  were  invented  to  relieve  the  monotony 
of  Indian  station  life,  and  both  officers  and  men  from  the  ranks 
took  part  in  them.  The  first  meetings  consbted  of  promiscuous 
horse  and  pony  races  at  catch  weights.  To  these  were  soon 
added  a  second  variety,  orif^nally  called  the  pdgdl  (funny  races), 
the  one  generally  known  Outside  India,  which  consisted  of 
miscellaneous  races  and  competitions  of  all  kinds,  some  serious 
and  some  amusing,  on  horseback,  on  foot  and  on  bicycles. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  usual  military  aports;  such 
AS  tent-pegging,  lemon-cutting  and  obstacle  racing;  rickshaw 
racing;  tilting  at  the  ring,  sack,  pillion,  hurdle,  egg-and-spoon, 
blindfold,  threading-the-needle  and  many  other  kinds  of  races 
depending  upon  the  inventive  powers  of  the  committees  in  charge. 

OYMNASnCS  AMD  OTMNASIUM.  terms  signifying  respec- 
tively a  system  of  physical  exercises  practised  either  for  recrea- 
tion or  for  the  purpose  of  proinoting  the  health  and  development 
of  the  body,  and  the  building  where  such  exercises  are  carried 
on.  The  gymnasium  of  the  Greeks  was  originally  the  school 
where  competitors  in  the  public  games  received  .their  training, 
and  was  so  named  from  the  circumstance  that  these  competitors 
exercised  naked  (yviivis).  The  gymnasium  was  a  public  in- 
stitution as  distinguished  .from  the  palaestra,  which  was  a 
private  school  where  boys  were  trained  in  physical  exercises, 
thou|^  the  term  palaestra  is  also  often  used  for  the  part  of  a 
gymnasium  specially  devoted  to  wrestling  and  boxing.  The 
athletic  contests  for  which  the  gymnasium  suj^lied  the  means 
of  training  and  practice  formed  part  of  the  social  life  of  the 
Greeks  from  the  earliest  times.  They  were  held  in  honour  of 
heroes  and  gods;  sometimes  forming  part  of  a  periodic  festival, 
sometimes  of  the  funeral  rites  of  a  deceased  chief.  In  course  of 
time  the  Greeks  grew  more  attached,  to  such  sports;  their  free 
active  life,  spent  to  a  great  extent  in  the  open  air,  fostered  the 
liking  almost  into  a  passion.  The  victor  in  any  athletic  contest, 
though  be  gained  no  money  prize,  was  rewarded  with  the  honour 
and  respect  of  his  fellow  citizens;  and  a  victory  in  the  great 
religious  festivals  was  counted  an  honour  for  the  whole  state. 
In  these  circumstances  the  training  of  competitors  for  the 
greater  contests  became  a  matter  of  public  concern;  and 
accordingly  special  buildings  were  provided  by  the  state,  and 
their  management  entnistcd  to  public  officials.  The  reguladon 
of  the  gymnasium  at  Athens  is  attributed  by  Pausam'as  (i.  39. 3) 
to  Theseus.  Solon  rhade  several  laws  on  the  subject;  but 
according  to  Galen  it  was  reduced  to  a  system  in  the  time  of 
CIcisthenes.  Ten  gymnasiarckSf  one  from  each  tribe,  were 
appointed  annually.  These  performed  in  rotation  the  duties 
of  their  office,  which  were  to  maintain  and  pay  the  persons  who 


were  tnuning  for  public  contests,  to  conduct  the  ganes  at  the 
great  Athenian  festivals,  to  exercise  general  supenrisioo  over 
the  morals  of  the  youths,  and  to  adorn  and  keq>  up  the  gym- 
nasium. This  office  was  one  of  the  ordinary  Xttrovpyln  (puhlk 
services),  and  great  expense  was  entailed  on  the  holden.  Under 
them  were  ten  sopkronislaef  whose  duty  was  to  watch  the  conduct 
of  the  youths  at  all  times,  and  especially  to  be  preeeat  at  all 

their  games.   TV  prartiral  t^i^rhing  iiH  «#>l«Nrtif^g  nf  f  f^T  ffUitaWf 

exercises  for  each  youth  were  in  the  hands  of  the  paed^triboe  and 
gymnaaaef  the  latter  of  whom  also  superintended  the  effect  on  the 
constitution  of  the  pupils,  and  prescribed  forthem  when  theywere 
unwell.  The  aleipttu  oOed  and  rubbed  dust  on  the  bodies  of  the 
youths,  acted  as  surgeons,  and  administered  the  drugs  prescribed. 
According  to  Galen  there  was  also  a  teacher  of  the  varxMis 
games  of  ball  The  gynmasia  built  to  suit  these  various  purposes 
were  large  buildings,  which  contained  not  merely  places  for  ea^ 
kind  of  exercise,  but  also  a  stadium,  baths,  covered  portioos  for 
practice  in  bad  weather,  and  outer  portioos  whoe  tbephHoaaphcn 
and  men  of  letters  read  public  lecttses  and  held  d^MitaUoos. 

The  gymnasium  of  the  Greeks  did  not  long  remain  an  instito- 
tion  exclusively  devoted  to  athletic  exercisea.  It  soon  began 
to  be  i4>plied  to  other  uses  even  more  in^Mrtaat.  The  devdop- 
ment  arose  naturally  through  the  recognition  by  the  Grttks  at 
the  important  place  in  education  occupied  by  physical  culture, 
and  of  the  relation  between  exerdae  and  health.  Thegsnmusium 
accordingly  became  coimected  with  education  on  the  one  hand 
and  with  medicine  on  the  other.  Due  training  of  the  body  and 
maintenance  of  the  health  and  strength  of  children  were  the 
chief  part  of  eariier  Greek  education.  Except  the  time  devoted 
•to  letters  and  music,  the  education  of  boys  was,  conducted  in 
the  gymnasia,  where  provision  was  made,  as  already  mentiooed, 
for  their  moral  as  well  as  their  physical  training.  As  they  grew 
<^er,  conversation  and  sodiU  intercourse  took  the  place  of  the 
more  systematic  discipline.  Philosophers  and  sophists  assembled 
to  talk  and  to  lecture  in  the  gynmasia,  which  thus  became  places 
of  general  resort  for  the  purpose  of  all  less  systematic  intdlectual 
pursuits,  as  well  as  for  physical  exercises.  In  Athens  there  were 
three  great  public  gymnasia — ^Academy,  Lyceum  and  CVnoaarges 
— each  of  which  was  consecrated  to  a  H)edal  deity  with  whose 
statue  it  was  adorned;  and  each  was  xenctored  famous*  by 
association  with  a  celebrated  school  of  philosophy.  Plato's 
teaching  in  the  Academy  has  given  inmMMtaiity  to  that  gym- 
nasium; Aristotle  conferred  lustre  on  the  Lyceum;  and  the 
Cynosarges  was  the  resort  of  the  Cynics.  Plato  "when  treating 
of  education  devotes  much  consideration  to  gymnastics  (see 
especially  Rep.  iii.  and  various  parts  of  Laws);  and  according 
to  Plato  it  was  the  sophist  Prodicus  who  first  pointed  out  the 
connexion  between  gymnastics  and  health.  Having  found  such 
exercises  beneficial  to  his  own  weak  health,  he  formulated  a 
method  which  was  adopted  generally,  and  which  was  improved  by 
Hippocrates.  Galen  lays  the  greatest  stress  on  the  (Hiipcr  use  of 
gymnastics,  and  throu^out  ancient  medical  writers  we  find  that 
q>edal  exercises  are  prescribed  as  the  cure  for  q)edal  diseavs 

The  Greek  institution  of  the  gymnasium  never  becamepc^dar 
with  the  Romans,  who  regarded  the  training  of  boys  in  gynuiastics 
with  contempt  as  conducive  to  idleness  and  immorality,  and  of 
little  use  from  a  military  point  of  view;  though  at  ^Mrta 
gymnastic  training  had  been  chiefly  valued  as  encouraging 
warlike  tastes  and  promoting  the  bodily  strength  needed  for  the 
use  of  weapons  and  the  endurance  of  hsrdirfitp.  Among  the 
Romans  of  the  republic,  the  games  in  the  Campus  Martins,  the 
duties  of  camp  liife,  and  the  enforced  marches  and  other  hard- 
ships of  actual  warfare,  served  to  take  the  place  of  the  gynmastic 
exercises  required  by  the  Greeks.  The  first  public  gyixuiasium 
at  Rome  was  built  by  Nero  and  another  by  Commodua.  In  the 
middle  ages,  though  jousts  and  feats  of  horsemanship  and  fidd 
sports  of  various  kinds  were  popular,  the  more  systematic  training 
of  the  body  which  the  Greeks  had  associated  with  the  gymnasium 
fell  into  neglect;  while  the  therapeutic  value  of  qiedal  cxciuses 
as  understood  by  Hippocrates  and  Galen  appears  to  have  been 
lost  sight  of.  Rousseau,  in  his  £mil€t  was  the  first  in  modcn 
times  to  call  attention  to  the  injurious  consequences  td  such 


GYMNOSOPHISTS 


7S3 


ibdiSerenct,  isi)  he  inilitcd  on  Ihe  imponince  of  pfayiicil 
culluie  u  ao  (ucniiil  part  of  cducilion.  It  wu  probably  duo 

lishcd  Ihc  TumtUSIa,  or  gymnastic  tdiools,  which  played  to 
imporliDt  part  durinj  the  Wai  of  Libeistion,  and  in  the  polilical 

conledeiilioo  by  the  Congress  ol  Vienna.  The  educitianal 
rcformcn  FcAialoan  and  Fioebel  emphasized  the  need  for 
sytleoiatic  physical  training  in  any  campleteidiemeoleducilion. 
The  Utet  developmenl  of  thedsuiul  gy  mnaiium  (vhea  it  had 
become  Ihe  school  of  iotellectual  culture  rather  than  of  ci- 
clutively  physical  exercise),  and  not  Ihe  original  idea,  has  been 
perpetuated  in  the  modem  ute  of  the  word  in  Germany,  where 
"gymnaiium  "ii  given  lo  the  highest  grade  of ■" 


■choo!,  a: 


in  of  the  1 


rnlirely  abandoned.     On  Ibe  oih< 
'   elsewhere  in  Europe,  u  we 
e  word  has  been  precisely 


1  athleticism  baa 
id,  in  EngUnd, 


»r  the  practice  of  physical  exercises 
reived  training  in  Ibe  gymnasium  1 
Hignaled  as  alUtlic  iferli  (q.t.),  | 

idoon,  with  or  without  the  aid  of 


ymnaslics  In  the  modern 
ses  as  ate  usually  praciiied 
nechinicil  appliaocei,  as 
ictiledintbeDpeoait. 


nislics  were  recognized  in  England  as  anything  more  than  a 
recrealioni  Ibeir  value  u  >  specifically  therapeutic  agent,  or  as 
■n  article  In  the  curriculum  of  elementary  schools,  was  not 
realiied.  More  recently,  however,  educationists  have  urged  with 
increuing  itisisunce  the  need  for  systematic  physical  training, 

deterioration  in  the  physique  of  Ibe  people  began  to  accumulate. 
During  the  £ist  decade  of  tbe  aolh  century  moie  than  one  com- 
mission reported  to  parliament  in- England  in  favour  of  more 
systematic  and  general  phyiiral  training  being  encouraged  or 
even  made  compulsory  by  public  authority.  Voluotaty  associa- 
tions were  fanned  for  encoura^g  such  training  and  providing 
facilities  for  it.  Gymnialics  had  already  for  several  years  been 
■n  essential  part  of  the  training  of  a 


tmpulsory,  obi; 
■   ry  school    ■ 


.    Physical  ei 


blished  at  Alder. 


taken  10  provide  a  syllabus  of  exercises  adapted  foi 
meni  of  tbe  physique  of  the  children.  Tbese  exercises  are  pg 
gymnastic  and  partly  of  the  nature  of  drillitheydo  not  in  i 
cases  require  the  use  of  appLances,  and  ate  on  that  icci 
known  as  "free  movements,"  which  numbers  of  childcei 
through  together,  accompanied  whenever  possible  by  mi 
On  the  other  hand  at  the  larger  public  schools  and  univers 
there  are  elaborate  gymnasia  equipped  with  a  great  variet 


>f  tbe  more  ct 
able.   But 


in  the  e 


:  negligible 


sped&cally  medical 
mrposei.  ine  sunpicsl,  ana  m  many  respects  the  moil  gecenlly 
iseful,  of  all  gymnastic  (pparatus  is  the  dumb-bell.  It  was  in 
lie  in  England  as  early  as  the  lime  ol  Eliiabeth,  and  it  hai  the 
dvantage  that  it  admits  of  being  exactly  proponioned  to  the 
ndivldual  strength  ol  each  learner,  and  can  be  adjusted  in 


performed  witb  the  dumb-bell,  Combil 
drill-like  movements,  give  employment  i 
■od  te  botb  sides  equally.  Dumb-bell  ea 


airanged  judiciously  and  mth  knowledge,  sr*  admirably  suited 
[or  devehiping  the  physique,  and  are  eitcnsivdy  employed  in 
schools  both  for  boys  and  giria.  The  bar-bell  is  merely  a  two- 
hantled  dumb-bell,  and  its  use  is  similar  in  principle-  The 
Indian  club  ia  also  in  use  in  most  gymnasia;  but  the  risk  of 
overaltaining  tbe  body  by  its  unskilful  handling  makes  it  teM 
generally  popular  than  the  dumb-bell.  All  these  appliances 
may  be,  and  often  aie,  used  either  in  ordinary  schoolrooms  or 
elsewhere  outside  the  gymnasium:  The  usual  hied  sorts  of 
appaiatus,  tbe  presence of,wliich  <or  of  someof  them]  in  a  building 

leainng-rope;  a  leeping-pole^  a  vaulting-horse;  a  horizonlal 
bar,  so  mounted  between  two  uptight  posts  that  its  height  from 
the  ground  may  be  adjusted  as  desired;  parallel  ban,  used  for 
eiercises  to  develop  the  muscles  of  the  trunk  and  arms;  the 
trapeze  cooaistiog  of  a  horizontal  bar  suspended  by  ropes  al  a 

plank;  the  inclined  plane;  the  meat;  swinging  tinp;  the 
prepared  wall;  the  boiiionial  beam. 

Before  the  end  of  the  iQth  century  the  therapeutic  value  of 
gyranaaiict  was  fully  ttaliied  by  the  medical  piofesiioa;  and  a 
number  of  medical  or  surgical  gymnasia  came  into  eiiBtence, 
provided  wiLb  specially  de^'isFd  apparatus  for  the  treatment  ol 
different  physical  delects  or  weaknesses.  The  exercises  practised 
in  them  are  arranged  upon  scientific  principles  based  on 
anatomical  and  physiological  knowledge;  imd  these  principles 
have  spread  thence  to  influence  largely  the  practice  of  gym- 
nastics in  schools  and  in  the  army.  A  Frendi  medical  writer 
enumerates  seven  distinct  groups  of  maladies,  each  including  a 
number  ol  different  complaints,  for  which  gymnastic  eiercises 
are  a  recognized  form  of  treatment;  and  there  are  many  mal- 
formations ol  the  human  body,  formerly  believed  lo  be  incurable, 
which  are  capable  of  being  greatly  remedied  if  not  entirely 
corrected  by  regular  gymnastic  eiercisea  practised  under  medical 

The  value  of  gymnastics  both  for  curing  dcfecta,  and  stilt  more 
fof  promoting  health  and  the  development  ol  normal  physique, 
ii  recognized  even  more  clearly  on  the  continent  ol  Europe  than 
in  Great  Britain.  In  Germany  the  government  not  only  controla 
the  practice  of  gymnastics  but  makes  it  compulsory  for  oveiy 
child  and  adult  to  undergo  a  prescribed  amount  of  such 
physical  training.  In  France  also,  physical  training  by  gym- 
nastics is  under  state  control;  in  Sweden,  Denmark,  Swilier- 
land,  Italy,  Rusaia,  systems  more  or  less  distinct  enjoy 
a  wide  popularity;  and  in  Finland  gymnaatici  are  practised 
that  exhibit  natioDal  peculiaritiei.    The  ,"' 


the  most  beneficial  resul 
Olympic  Games  (see  A 


variety  I 


0  their  ti 


I  men  in  tbe  peifonnance  of  them;  and 
^icb  the  system  b  supported  produces 
ts  in  tbe  physique  of  the  people.  Inter- 


_  _  lu.n  ia  Crccic  tiS7t);  E.  i'jl.  Uiiliiirr  di  la  (ynnmlija 
(r8S'j);VVickciiha|en.Awa>»KdHii^iIiGyiiiiHLili'i(lt9l);  Becker 
GOll,  Cliarida  U. ;  Brupma.  CmBSIum  apMil  Cratua  dtLcnpH 
jl8^);  PnciKK.  Zlai  Cynwivai  itir  Crtidint  (iSjg).  See  alK 
N.    Lil.nd.    CviriiKuti»»?    pralfjw    (IVii.     I6;g):    ColHneau,    i. 


enmOSOPHISn  Oat.  lymnoKpHibu,  from  Gr.  -moil, 
o*ifff^,  "  naked  philosophers "),  the  name  given  by  the 
Wrecks  lo  certain  ancient  Hindu  philosophers  who  pursued 
sceticism  to  the  point  of  regarding  food  and  clothing  as  detri- 
aentai  to  purity  ol  Ibought.    From  Ibe  fact  that  they  ofloi 


754 


GYMNOSPERMS 


lived  as  hermits  in  forests,  the  Gie^  also  called  them  HyMnci 
(d.  the  Vdna-pastkis  in  Sanskrit  writings).  Diogenes  Lafirtius 
(is.  6i  and  63)  lefexs  to  them,  and  asserts  that  Pyrrho  of  Elis, 
the  founder  of  pure  scepticism,  came  under  their  influence,  and 
on  his  return  to  Elis  imitated  their  habits  of  life,  to  what  extent 
jdoes  not  appear.  Strabo  (zv.  7x1,  714)  divides  them  mto 
Brahmans  and  Sarmans  (or  Shamans).    See  Jains. 

OYMNOSPBRMS,  in  BoUny.  The  Gymnosperms,  with  the 
Angtosperms,  constitute  the  existing  groups  of  seed-bearing 
plants  or  Phanerogams:  the  impoftance  of  the  seed  as  a  dis- 
tinguishing feature  in  the  plant  kingdom  may  be  emphasized 
by  the  use  of  the  designation  Spermophyta  for  these  two  groups, 
in  contrast  to  the  Pteridophyta  and  Bryopbyta  in  whidi  true 
seeds  are  unknown.  Recent  discoveries  have,  however,  estab- 
lished the  fact  that  there  existed  in  the  Palaeozoic  era  fern- 
like  plants  which  produced  true  seeds  of  a  highly  specialized 
type;  this  group,  for  which  Oliver  and  Scott  propped  the  term 
Pteridospermae  in  1904,  must  also  be  included  in  the  Sper- 
mophyta. Another  instance  of. the  production  of  seeds  in  an 
extinct  plant  which  further  reduces  the  importance  of  this 
character  as  a  distinguishing  feature  is  afforded  by  the  Palaeozoic 
genus  LepidocttrpoH  described  by  Scott  in  1 901;  this  Ijroopodia- 
ceous  type  possessed  an  integumented  megaspore,  to  which 
the  designation  seed  may  be  Intimately  applied  (see  Palaeo^ 
botany:  PaiaeotoU). 

.  As  the  name  Gynmosperm  (Gr.  yviufit,  naked,  cirifiiia,  seed) 
Imi^es,  one  characteristic  of  thiM  group  is  the  absence  of  an  ovary 
or  dosed  chamber  containing  the  ovules.  It  was  the  English 
botanist  Robert  Brown,  who  first  recognized  this  important 
distinguishing  feature  in  conifers  and  cycads  in  1825;  he  estab- 
lished the  gymnospermy  of  these  seed-bearing  dasaes  as  distinct 
from  the  angiospermy  of  the  monocotyledons  and  dicotyledons. 
As  Sachs  says  in  his  history  of  botany,  "  no  more  important 
discovery  was  ever  made  in  the  domain  of  comparative  mor- 
phology and  systematic  botany."  As  Coulter  and  Chamberlain 
express  it,  "  the  habitats  of  the  Gynmosperms  to-day  indicate 
that  they  other  are  not  at  home  in  the  more  genial  conditions 
affected  by  Angiosperms,  or  have  not  been  able  to  maintain 
themselves  in  competition  with  this  group  of  plants."  . 

These  naked-seeded  plants  are  of  special  interest  on  account 
of  their  great  antiquity,  which  far  exceeds  that  of  the  Angio- 
sperms, and  as  comprising  different  types  which  carry  us  back 
to  the  Palaeozoic  era  and  to  the  forests  of  the  coal  period.  The 
best  known  and  by  far  the  largest  division  of  the  Gymnosperms 
is  that  of  the  cone-bearing  trees  (pines,  fin,  cedars,  larches, 
&c.),  which  play  a  prominent  part  in  the  vegetation  of  the  present 
day,  especially  in  the  higher  latitudes  of  the  northern  hemisphere; 
certain  members  of  this  class  are  of  considerable  antiquity,  but 
the  conifers  as  a  whole  are  still  vigorous  and  show  but  little 
sign  of  decadence.  The  division  known  as  the  Cycadc^hyta 
b  represented  by  a  few  living  genera  of  limited  geographical 
range  and  by  a  large  number  of  extinct  types  which  in  the 
Mesozoic  era  (see  Palaeobotany:  Mesoaoic)  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  vegetation  of  the  world.  Among  existing  Cycado- 
phyta  we  find  surviving  types  which,  in  their  present  isolation, 
their  close  resemblance  to  fonil  forms,  and  in  certain  morpho- 
logical features,  constitute  links  with  the  past  that  not  only 
connect  the  present  with  former  periods  in  the  earth's  history, 
but  serve  as  sign-posts  pointing  the  Way  back  along  one  of  the 
many  lines  which  evolution  has  followed.  _ 

It  is  needless  to  discuss  at  length  the  origin  l>f  the  Gymno- 
sperms. The  two  views  which  find  most  favour  in  regard  to 
the  Conifcrales  and  'Cy<»dophyta  are:  (i)  that  both  have  been 
derived  from  remote  filicincan  ancestors;  (2)  that  the  cycads 
are  the  descendants  of  a  fern-like  stock,  while  conifers  have  been 
evolved  from  lycopodiaceous  ancestors.  The  line  of  descent 
of  recent  cycads  is  comparatively  dear  in  so  far  as  they  have 
undoubted  affinity  with  Palaeozoic  plants  which  combined 
cycadean  and  fiUdnean  features;  but  opinion  is  much  more 
divided  as  to  the  nature  of  the  phylum  from  which  the  conifers 
are  derived.  The  Cordaitales  (see  Palaeobotany:  Palaeozoic) 
are  represented  by  extinct  forms  only,  which  occupied  a  prominent 


II. 


III. 

IV. 

V. 


position  in  the  Palaeozoic  period;  these  plants  exhibit  certain 
features  in  common  with  the  living  Araucarias,  and  others  which 
invite  a  comparison  with  the  maidenhair  tree  {Ginkgo  biloba), 
the  solitary  survivor  of  another  class  of  GymnoqMsms,  the 
Ginkgoales  (see  Palaeobotany:  Mesounc).  The  Gnetaks  are 
a  dan  apart,  induding  three  living  genera,  of  which  we  know 
next  to  nothing  as  regards  their  past  history  or  line  of  descent 
Although  there  are  several  morphological  features  in  the  three 
genera  of  Gnetales  which  might  seem  to  bring  them  into  line 
with  the  Angiosperms,  it  is  usual  to  regard  these  resemblances 
as  paralld  developments  along  distinct  lines  rather  than  to 
interpret  them  as  evidence  of  direct  relationship. 

Cymnospermae. — ^Trees  or  shrubs;  leaves  vary  considerably  in 
»K  and  form.  Flowers  unisexual,  except  in  a  few  cases  (Gneuln) 
without  a  perianth.  Monoedous  or  dioecious.  Ovules  naked, 
rardy  without  carpdiary  leaves,  usually  borne  on  carpophylls, 
whicn  assume  various  forms.  The  siinle  megaspore  cndosed  in  the 
nucellus  is  filled  with  tissue  (prothaUus)  bdore  fcrtilixatioa.  and 
contains  two  or  more  acdiegonia,  consisting  usually  of  a  large  cn-crO 
and  a  small  neck,  racdy  of  an  e^-cell  only  and  no  neck  (GncteM  and 
Wdwitsekia).  Microspore  spherical  or  oval,  with  or  witboot  a 
bladder-like  extension  of  the  exine,  containing  a  proChallns  of  two 
or  more  cdls,  one  of  which  produces  two  non-motue  or  naodle  mak 
cells.  Cotyledons  two  or  several.  Secondary  xylem  and  phkxin 
produced  by  a  single  cambium,  or  by  succes«ve  cambial  aones:  no 
true  vessds  (except  in  the  Gnetales)  m  the  wood,  and  no  conpanioB- 
ceUs  in  the  phloem. 

I.  Pteridospermae  (see  Palabobotany,  Palaeozoic). 
CyeadoMyta, 

A.  Cycadales  (recent  and  extinct). 

B.  Bennettitales  (see  Palabobotany  :  Uaoaok). 
Cordaitales  (see  Palaeobotany:  Pdaeozoie), 
GinktoaUs  (recent  and  extinct). 
Cemiferales. 

A.  1 sxateae. 

B.  Pinaceae. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  result  of  recent  research  and  of  work 
now  in  proeress  will  be  to  modify  considerably  the  grouping  of  the 
conifers.  The  family  ilfaaeancac,  represented  by  Aramearia  and 
AiotkiSt  should  perhaps  be  separated  as  a  special  class  and  a  re- 
arransement  of  other  genera  more  in  accord  with  a  natural  systcn  of 
classification  will  soon  be  possible;  but  for  the  present  its  twofold 
subdivision  may  be  retained. 
VI.  Gnetales. 

A.  Ephedroideae. 

B.  Gnetoideae. 

C.  Wdwitschioideae  (Tumboideae). 
Cycadopryta. — ^A.  Cycadales.—Stem%  tuberous  or  columnar,  not 

infrequently  branched,  rarely  ^phytic  (Peruvian  species  of  Zomia); 
fronds  pinnate,  bi-pinnate  in  the  Australian  genus  iewemia.  Dioeci- 
ous; flowers  in  the  form  of  cones,  except  the  leoiaic  flowers  of  Cycas, 
which  con^st  of  a  rosette  of  leaf -like  carpds  at  the  apex  of  the  stem. 
Seeds  albuminous,  with  one  intmiment;  the  single  embryo,  usiuUy 
bearing  two  partially  fused  ootjrledons,  is  attachra  to  a  long  unclrd 
suspensor.  Stems  and  roots  increase  in  diameter  by  secooaary 
thickening,  the  secondary  wood  being  produced  by  one  cambium  or 
devek^ped  from  successive  cambtum-rings. 

The  cycads  constitute  a  homogeneous  group  of  a  few  li^nf 
members  confined  to  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions.  As  a  (airly 
typical  and  well-known  example  of  the  Cycs- 
daceae.  a  q>ecies  of  the  pnus  Cycas  (e.g.  C. 
circinaiis,  C.  reoolula,  &c.)  is  .briefly  de- 
scribed. The  stout  columnar  stem  may 
reach  a  hdght  of  so  metresj,  and  a  diameter 
of  half  a  metre ;  it  remains  other  unbianched  ^^^^^i— ™ 
or  divides  near  the  summit  into  several  short  fl^^^B^H  5 
and  thick  branches,  each  branch  temunating  ^^^^^— -c— 
in  a  crown  of  long  pinnate  leaves.  The  sur-  ^^^^BBKB  f 
face  of  the  stem  »  covered  with  rhomboidal 
areas,  which  represent  the  persistent  bases  ^^^^^^^ 
of  fdiage- and  scale- leaves.  In  some  species  ^^^^^^^  S 
of  Cycas  there  is  a  well-defined  alternation  of 
transverse  zones  on  the  stem,  consisting  of 
larger  a^eas  representing  foliage-leaf  bases, 
and  similar  but  smaller  areas  formed  by  the 
bases  of  scale-leaves  (F  and  S,  fig.  l).  The 
scale-leaves  dothtng  the  terminal  bud  are 
linear-lanceolate  in  form,  and  of  a  brown  or  Fic.  i. — Stem  of 
yellow  colour;  they  are  pushed  aside  as  the  Cycas.  Ft  foliage- 
stem-axb  dongates  and  becomes  shrivelled,  leaf  bases;  5,  scak- 
finally  falling  off.  leaving  projecting  bases  leaf  bases, 
which  are  eventually  cut  off  at  a  still  lower 
level.  SimilaHy ,  the  dead  fronds  fall  off,leaviQg  a  ntged  petiole,  whkh 
is  afterwards  separated  from  the  stem  by  an  absctss-Uyer  a  shot 
disUnce  above  the  base.  In  some  species  of  Cycas  the  leaf-bases 
do  not  per^  as  a  permanent  covering  to  the  stem,  iMt  the  surface 


GYMNOSPERMS 


CBVHvd  iritli  ■  wrinlikd  buk,  u  in  Cyai  hsMouii,  vlikh  hai  i 

laiteauli  with  Ibe  biiibiCi  Hi  Ljapiidium  Sdate.  trc  Dcciiionilly 
'odiKcdindwauliDtKintollbcpcnincnt  leaF-bun;  IhBFin 
,  uid  itTve  u  ■  mam  ot  ntctitivc 
Cym  the  f«nu&e  Bower  b  prcuLiu 
.  .  . .  ■  tRmiml  cnwn  of  lepam*  IbT-UIh 
^hn  in  leiifth;  (he  apical  ponioii  of  «rh  arpcllary 


fcpnilsctieii. 
ajDoucycadB 


ratio  wtBB  thnHoh  tb 

nl  alntle  vija  In  Ue  lir 

cructurc  of  tbe  fouk  flo —  ■ 
DC  havfu  the  brm  of  ■ 


M   at    ■    iride    angle    ilinple 


occaiiaBallr  auitonwiini  latenl  veuu.  A  Biiile 
nnui,  Slai^rit.  coil6iied  to  South  AfrVa.  [bl 
Eutamitct. —'TbK  pianae  ire  travened  by  levcn] 


K 


intDi-pinB.«[™(U(S.^!Tta 
are  diMiBBuiihcd  from  '"  ----*  - 


•lupc  and  minDFT  of  attachi 
carpelivy 


9(  the  taipdUiy 
latiai  (Snith  and  Trvpksl  Airica). 


»I  o(  the 


a«ifl?l!Cicfc 


la  lEvecal  columoar  brancheL 
in  ^iiH  'to  VumaMS. 


fiS"., 


I.  (pinDui  pnmwi  on  the  apei  of  tht  can>Hi. 

UUhKycai  (Cubi).— Like  Zamla.  except  that  the 
imciii  »rc  flat,  while  the  apieea  of  the  arpela  are 
(MexIco)(f>|.4)— Cjunnnindbylhewoanynle- 
lar  fona,  bearing  two  pUcental  cuihioiu.  on  which 

■ulea  are  liliiated.    Sownria  (AuicraUa). — Bi-pinnate  tnjodt; 

hort  and  tubemui  (fif.  j). 

■temi  of  cycadt  are  often  de«CTibc<f  ai 


rhe  (ubeiout  or  columnar  ftem 
tilum   a   striking   dittinguii 

ucea  irveral  cudclabn-Uke  an 


__.  ..,  ,, lof'ZJicvfi  (fig. 

illy piod need.  TheSouih Mricani 
levrnl  bnnchot     Probably  the 

Ganied  o(  AinstcTdim, 


Bbtbtbenk 

many    cycada    grow    veiv 

■lowfy  and  af«  remarkalile 

for  loogevity.     The  Ihkk 

our  of  pedole^buea  en- 

EhancteriMle  Cyeidean 
leatarei  in  (>w  the  allcc 
naikw  of  Kik-leava  and 


Fio  i.~Bimaia  tpeaoMu    find. 
npleiely,laviBgac<Hn|>ii>iin1yinK»ihMe>n.  The  C^t  type  <( 
lad.  except  ai  tegudi  the  pmence  of  a  midrib  in  eich  nnna. 
aracteri»  the  cycadi  jmciilly,  eictpt  flna 

.-  the  nonocypic  genui  Bimnu  the  bi — 

froada,  borne  ungly  on  the  r 

""""L*2e"iS!id1y™; 

lUe  the  lane  puiaulei  id'nm 
_.  ..iiaiaum,  fn  SaiMru.  alio 
repmentcd  try  one  incia  (5.  Par 
South  Africa),  the  lOBg  ■«]  toopi 

euniuiKe^ich^l^Baetodeacilbelhe  I    W     * 

planl  in  iSu  aa  a  apedea  of  the  fern      v         I    \f 

are  kibed  II  blanched:    (a  Di<iim  itam-  ^     ^^1X^7* 
h,n,m  (Cental  America)  ih.  margin  if  ih. ^^^ 


uf  &ici«t>Iin». 
■  ii  deeply  I-'-"' - 


,-'-.-,-  T    — . — frond;  A  aiagle  piana. 

Uaaaamia,   U.  lalrFnuro.  the  narrow 

"  :hManouily  biuched  almoat  to  the  hue  (fig.  «),aiid  re- 
ind  ofionic  ipedciof  tlie  fem  Srhnw.  ortbtfowfl  genin 
t«Ib).  AnlntennirMipccieiorOBi.CJflcWlafi.haB 
de*3lbed  by  Sir  WifKam  Thlaehon-Dyer  fna  Anaaa, 

—  coOeeted  by  one  o(  Me^i  Sanden  ft  '--' " 

in  irtiicb  the  piAoae  iMead  of  being  of  the  w 


Bairn  (dlnhgnaln).  h 


756 


GYMNOSPERMS 


dichotomotisly  branched  as  in  Maerotamia  kder&mera.  In  Cerato- 
aamia  the  broad  petiolc-baae  is  characterized  by  the  presence  of  two 
lateral  spinous  proecsses,  suggesting  stipulax  appendages,  com- 
parable, on  a  reduced  scale,  withthe  lar^  stipules  ofthe  Marattiaocae 
among  Ferns.  The  vernation  varies  in  different  genera;  in  Cycas 
the  rachis  is  straight  and  the  pinnae  circinately  coiled  (fig.  3);  in 
EncepkalartoSt  Dioon,  &c.,  both  lachis  and  segments  are^  strai^t ;  in 
Zamta  the  rachis  is  bent  or  slightly  coiled,  bearing  straight  pinnae. 
The  young  leaves  arise  on  the  stem-apex  as  coniod  protuberances 
with  winged  borders  on  which  the  pinnae  appear  as  rounded  humps, 
usually  in  basipetal  order;  the  scale-leaves  in  their  young  condition 
resemble  fronds,  but  the  lamina  remains  undeveloped.  A  feature  of 
interest  in  connexion  with  the  phylogcny  of  c^rcads  is  the  presence  of 
long  hairs  clothing  the  scale-leaves,  and  forming  a  cap  on  the  summit 
of  the  stem-apex  or  attached  to  the  bases  of  petioles;  on  some  fossil 
cycadean  plants  these  outgrowths  have  the  form  of  scales,  and  are 
identical  in  structure  with  the  ramenta  (paleae)of  the  majority  of  ferns. 
Tlie  male  flowers  of  cycads  are  constructed  on  a  uniform  plan, 
and  in  all  cases  consist  of  an  axis  bearing  crowded,  spirally  dis- 
PlQ^fff,  posed  sporop^ylls.  These  are  often  wedge-Miaped  and 
angular;  in  some  cases  they  consist  of  a  short,  thick 
ttalk,  terminating  in  a  peltate  escpannon,  or  prolonged  upwards  in 
the  form  of  a  triangular  lamina.  The  sporangia  (polien-sacs),  which 
occur  on  the  under-side  of  the  stamens,  are  often  arranged  in  more  or 
less  definite  croups  or  sori,  interspersed  with  hairs  (paraphyses): 
dehiscence  taxes  place  along  a  line  marked  out  by  the  occurrence  ot 
smaller  and  thinner-walled  cells  bounded  by  laiger  and  thicker- 
walled  elements,  which  form  a  fairly  prominent  cap-like  "  annulus  " 
near  the  af)ex  of  the  sporangium,  not  unlike  the  annulus  characteristic 
of  the  Schizaeaceae  among  ferns.  The  sporanpial  wall,  consisting 
of  several  layers  of  cells,  encloses  a  cavity  containing  numerous  oval 
spores  (polten-giains).  In  structure  a  cycadean  sporangium  recalls 
those  of  certainlems  (Marattiaceae,  Osmundaceae  and  Schizaeaceae), 
but  in  the  development  of  the  spores  there  are  certain  peculiarities 
not  met  with  among  the  Vascular  Crypto^ms.  With  tne  exception 
of  Cycas,  the  female  flowers  are  also  in  tne  form  of  cones,  bearing 
numerous  carpellary  scales.  In  Cycas  revoluta  and  C  circinalis  each 
leaf-like  carpel  may  produce  several  laterally  attached  ovules,  but 
in  C.  Narmanbyana  tne  carpel  is  shorter  and  the  ovules  are  reduced 
to  two;  this  latter  type  brings  us  nearer  to  the  carpels  of  Dioon,  in 
which  the  flower  has  the  form  of  a  cone,  and  the  distal  end  of  the 
carpeb  is  longer  and  more  leaf-like  than  in  the  other  genera  of  the 
Zamieae.  which  are  characterized  by  shcMrter  carpels  with  thick 
peltate  heads  bearing  two  ovules  on  the  roorpholM;icallv  lower 
surface.  The  cones  of  cycads  attain  in  some  cases  (e.g.  tMcepmtarlos) 
a  considerable  size,  reaching  a  length  ol  more  than  a  toot.  Cases  have 
been  recorded  (by  Thiselton-Dyer  in  Eneephalartos  and  by  Wieland 
in  Zamia)  in  which  the  short  carpellary  cone-scales  exhibit  a  foliacc- 
ous  form.  It  u  interesting  that  no  monstrous  cycadean  cone  has 
been  described  in  which  ovulifcrous  and  staminate  appendages  are 
borne  on  the  same  axis:  in  the  Benncttitales  (see  Palabobotany : 
Mesotoic)  flowers  were  produced  bearing  on  tbe  same  axis  both 
androedum  and  ^noedum. 

The  pollen-grains  when  mature  consist  of  three  cells,  two  small 
and  one  laree  cell;  the  latter  grows  into  the  pollen-tube,  as  in  the 
(Joniferales,  and  from  one  of  the  small  cells  two  laiige 
ciliated  spermatozoids  are  eventually  produced.  A 
remarkable  ex^ption  to  this  rule  has  recently  been 
recorded  by  Cafdwell,  who  found  that  in  Microcycas 
Calocoma  tne  body-cells  may  be  eight  or  even  ten  in 
number  and  the  sperm-cells  twice  as  numerous.  One  of 
the  most  important  discoveries  made  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
19th  century  was  that  by  Ikeno,  a  Japanese  botanist,  who  first 
demonstrated  the  existence  of  motile  male  cells  in  the  genus  Cycas. 
Similar  spermatozoids  were  observed  in  some  species  of  Zamia  by 
H.  J.  Webber,  and  more  recent  work  enables  us  to  assume  that  all 
cycads  produce  ciliated  male  gametes.  Before  following  the  growth 
of  the  pollen-grain  aftfer  pollination,  we  will  briefly  describe  the 
structure  of  a  cycadean  ovule.  An  ovule  consists  of  a  conical-  nuccllus 
surrounded  by  a  single  integument.  At  an  early  stage  of  develop- 
ment a  large  cell  msdces  its  appearance  in  the  central  region  of  tne 
nucellus;  this  increases  in  size  and  eventually  forms  three  cells;  the 
lowest  of  these  grows  vigorously  and  constitutes  the  megaspore 
(embryo-sac)  .which  ultimately  absorbs  the  greater  part  of  the  nuccllus. 
The  mcgaspore-nuclcus  divides  repeatedly,  and  cells  are  produced 
from  the  peripheral  region  inwards,  which  eventually  fill  tne  spore- 
cavity  with  a  homogeneous  tissue  (prothallus) ;  some  of  the  super- 
ficial cells  at  the  micropylar  end  of  the  megaspore  increase  in  size  and 
divide  by  a  tangential  wall  into  two,  an  upper  cell  which  gives  rise 
to  the  short  two-celled  neck  of  the  archegonium,  and  a  lower  cell 
which  develops  into  a  large  egg-cell.  Each  megaspore  may  contain 
3  to  6  archcgonia.  During  the  growth  of  the  ovum  nourishment  b 
supplied  from  the  contents  of  the  cells  immediately  surrounding  the 
egg-cell,  as  in  the  development^  of  the  ovum  of  Pinus  and  other 
conifers.  Meanwhile  the  tissue  in  the  apical  region  of  the  nucellus 
has  been  undergoing  disorganization,  which  results  in  the  ionoAtioa 
of  a  pollen<hamber  (fig.  7,  C)  immediately  above  the  fnega- 
spore.  Pollination  in  cycads  has  always  been  described  as 
inemophilous,  but  according  to  recent  observations  by  Pearson 
on  South  African  species  it  seems  probable  that,  at  least  in  some 


mad 


Fig.  7.— Zamia.  Part  ofOviihfin  longi- 
tudinal section.    (After  Webber.) 
P,    Prothallus.     Pt,  PoUen-tube. 
A,    Archegonia.    Pg,  Pcden-grain. 
Nt    Nucellus.        G,    Generative    orB 
C,    Pollen-chamber.        (second  odl  ol 

poUea-tube). 


cases,  the  pollen  is  conveyed  to  the  ovules  by  aidmal  asency. 
The  pollen-grains  find  their  way  between  the  carpophylb,  wbach  at 
the  time  oi  pollination  are  slightly  apart  owing  to  toe  ckHKatkm  of 
the  internodes  of  the  flower-axis,  and  pass  into  the  poUen-ciiamber; 
the  large  cell  of  the  pollen-grain  grows  out  into  a  tube  (Pf),  which 
penetrates  the  nucdlar  tissue  and  often  branches  repeatedly;  the 
pollen-grain  itself,  with  the  prothallus<eils,  projects  fredy  into  the 
pollen-chamber  (fig.  7).     The  nucleus  of  the  outermost  (second 
small  cell  (fig.  7,  C)  divides,  and  one  of  the  daugfater-nudei  passes 
out  of  the  oell,  and  may  enter  the  lowest  (firrt)  small  oelL    The 
outermost  cell,  by  the  divisk>n  of  the  remaining  niKJais»  produces 
two    large    spermatozoids 
(fig.  8,  a,  a).     In  Micro* 
cycas    16   sperm-cells  are 
produced.     In  the  course 
of  division  two  bodies  ap- 
pear   in    the    cytoplasm, 
and    behave    as    centro- 
somes  during  the  karyo- 
kinc«s;      they    gradually 
become     thr»dlike     and 
coil  round  each  daughter 
nudeus.        This      thread 
gives  rise  to  a  spiral  cili- 
ated band  lying  in  a  de- 
presuon  on  the  body  of 
each    spermatoaoid;    the 
large  spermatozoids 
eventually    escape     from 
the   pollen-tube,  and  are 
able    to    poform    dliary 
movements  in  the  watery 
liquid    which    occurs    b^• 
twcen    the    thin    papery 
remnant  of  nucellar  tissue 
and  the  aichegonial  necks.    Before  fertilization  a  neck-canal  odl  is 
formed  by  the  division  of  the  ovum-nudeus.    After  the  body  of  a 
sperroatozoid  has  coalesced  with  the  egg-nudeus  the  lattec  divides 
repeatedly  and  forms  a  mass  of  tissue  which  grows  more  vigorou>]y 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  fertilized  ovum,  and  extends  upwards 
towards  the  apex  of  the  ovum  as  a  peripheral  layer  of  paren- 
chyma surrounding  a  central  space.     By   further  gnywth   ths 
tissue  gives  rise  to  a  proembryo,  which  consists,  at  the  micro- 
pylar end,  of  a  sac;  the  tissue  at  the  chalazal  end  grows  into  a  kmg 
and  tangled  suspensor,  terminating  in  a  mass  ol  cdls,  which  is 
eventually  differentiated  into  a  radicle,  plumule  and  two  cotyledons. 
In  the  ripe  seed  the  integument  assumes  the  form  of  a  fleshy  envelope, 
succeeded  internally  by  a  hard  woody  shdl,  internal  to  which  is 
a  thin  papery  membrane — the  apical  portion  of  the  nucellus— 'wfaich 
is  easily  dissected  out  as  a  conical  cap  covering  the  apex  of  the 
endosperm.     A  thorough  examination  of  cyca- 
dean seeds  has  recently  been  made  by  Miss  Stopes, 
more  particularly  with  a  view  to  a  comparison  of 
their  vascular  supply  with  that  in  Palaeotoic 
gymnospermous  seeds  {Flora,  1904)*    The  first 
leaves  borne  on  the  seedling  axis  are  oftoi  scale- 
like, and  these  are  followed  by  two  or  more  larger 
laminae,  which  foreshadow  the  pinnae  of  the  adult 
frond. 

The  anatomical  structure  of  the  vegetative 
organs  of  recent  cycads  is  of  raedal  interest  aa 
affording  important  evidence  of  rela-    .  ^ 
tionship  with  extinct  types,  and  with  ^^   ^'' 
other  groups  of  recent  plants.    Brongntart,  who 
was  the  first  to  investigate  in  detail  the  anatomy 
of  a  cycadean  stem,  recognized  an  agreement,  as 
regards  the  secomlary  wood,  with  Dicotyledons 
and  Gymnosperros,  rather  than  with  Monoco- 
tyledons    Ha  drew  attention  also  to  certain 
structural  similarities  between  Cyaxs  and  Ginkgo, 
The  main  anatomical  features  of  a  cycad.stcra 
may  be  summarized  as  follows:  the  centre  is 
occupied  by  a  large  parenchymatous  pith  traversed   ^^^^MaLmin  - 
by  numerous  secretory  canals,  and  in  some  genera   ^   »^v^|^i  c^ 
by  cauline  vascular  bundle*  (e.£.  Encephalarfcs   (fi^^D.^After 
and  UacTotamta).    In  addition  to  these  caubne   tv^ker ) 
strands  (confined  to  the  stem  and  not  connected    ''**~^-'^ 
.with  the  leaves),  collateral  bundles  are  often  met  with  ia  tJbe 
pith,  which  form  the  vascular  supply  of  terminal  flowers  borne  at 
intervals  on  the  apex  of  the  stem.   These  latter  bundles  may  be  scea 
in  sections  of  old  stems  to  pursue  a  more  or  less  horizontal  course, 
pasnng  outwards  through  the  main  woody  cylinder.    Thb  htentl 
course  is  due  to  the  more  vigorous  growth  ol  the  axillary  bnnch 
formed  near  the  base  of  each  flower,  which  b  a  terminal  stnictirre« 
and,  except  in  the  female  flower  of  Cycas,  puts  a  limit  to  Ibe 
apical  growth  of  the  stem.    The  vigotXMis  bteral  branch  therefore 
continues  the  line  of  the  main  axis.    The  pith  b  encircled  by  a 
cylinder  of  secondary  wood,  consisting  of  ungle  or  multipie  radial 
rows  of  tracheids  separated  by  broad  medullary  rays  ooaposed  of 
large  parenchymatous  ceUs;  the  tracheids  bear  Bumerous  bwUtiwJ 


FigA— Zowiia. 
Proximal  end  of 
Pollen-tube.  a. 
e,^)ennatoso«ds 
from  (7  of  fig-  7; 


GYMNOSPERMS 


757 


Fic.  9. — Macrozamia. 
Diagrammatic  tran& verse 
section  of  part  of  Stem. 
(After  Worsdcll.) 

Periderm  in  leaf-bases. 

Leaf -traces  in  cortex. 
ph.  Phloem. 
X,  ^  Xylem. 

m/  Medullary  bundles. 
c.    Cortical  bundles. 


pits  on  the  radial  walls.  The  targe  medullary  rays  give  to  the  wood 
a  characteristic  parenchymatous  or  lax  appearance,  which  is  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  more  compact  wood  of  a  conifer.  The 
protoxylcm-elcments  are  situated  at  the  extreme  inner  edge  of  the 
secondary  wood,  and  may  occur  as  small  groups  of  narrow,  spirally- 
pitted  elements  scattered  among  the  parenchyma  which  abuts  on  the 
main  mass  of  wood.  Short  and  rcticubtcly-pittcd  tracheal  cells, 
similar  to  tracheids,  often  occur  in  the  circummcdullary  region  of 
cycadeaQ  stems.    In  an  old  stem  of  Cycas,  Encephalartos  or  Atacro- 

tamia  the  secondary  wood  consists  of 
several  rather  unevenly  concentric 
zones,  while  in  some  other  genera  it 
forms  a  continuous  mass  as  in  coni- 
fers and  normal  dicotyledons.  These 
concentric  rings  of  secondary  xylem 
and  phloem  (fig.  9)  afford  a  character- 
istic cycadean-  feature.  After  the 
cambium  has  been  active  for  some 
time  producing  secondarjr  xylem  and 
phloem,  the  latter  consisting  of  sieve- 
tubes,  phloem-parenchvma  and  fre- 
quently thick-wallcd  fibres,  a  second 
cambium  is  developed  in  the  peri- 
cycle;  thb  produces  a  second  vascular 
zone,  which  is  in  turn  followed  by  a 
third  cambium,  and  soon,  until  several 
hollow  cylinders  are  developed.  It 
has  been  recently  shown  that  several 
cambium-zones  may  remain  in  a  state 
of  activity,  so  that  the  formation  of  a 
new  cambium  does  not  necessarily 
mark  a  cessation  of  growth  in  the 
more  internal  meristematic  rings.  It 
occasionally  happens  that  groups  of 
xylem  ana  phloem  are  developed 
td^  Periderm  in  leaf-bases.  internally  to  somtf  of  the  vascular 
lit    Leaf-traces  in  cortex.  rings;   tnese  are  characterized  by  an 

inverse  orientation  of  the  tissues, 
the  xylem  being  centrifugal  and  the 
phloem  centripetal  in  its  development. 
The  broad  cortical  region,  which  con- 
tains many  secretory  canals,  is  tra- 
versed by  numerous  vascular  bundles  (fig.  9.  c)  some  of  which  pursue 
a  more  or  less  vertical  course,  and  by  frequent  anastomoses  with  one 
another  form  a  loose  reticulum  oi  vascular  strands;  others  are  leaf- 
traces  on  their  way  from  the  stele  of  the  stem  to  the  kaves.  Most  of 
these  cortical  bundles  are  collateral  in  structure,  but  in  some  the  xylem 
and  phloem  are  concentrically  arranged;  the  secondary  origin  of 
these  bundles  from  procambium-strands  was  described  by  Metteniiis 
in  his  classical  paper  of  186a  During  the  increase  in  thickness  of  a 
cycadean  stem  successive  layers  of  cork-tissue  are  formed  by  phello- 
gens  in  the  persistent  bases  of  leaves  (fig.  9,  pd),  which  increase  in  size 
to  adapt  themselves  to  the  growth  of  the  vascular  zones.  The  leaf- 
traces  of  cycads  are  remarkable  both  on  account  of  their  course  and 
their  anatomy.  In  a  transverse  section  of  a  stem  (fig.  9)  one  sees 
tome  vascular  bundles  following  a  horizontal  or  slightly  oblique 

course  in  the  cortex,  stretch- 
ing for  a  longer  or  shorter 
distance  in  a  direction  con- 
centric with  the  woody 
cylinder.  From  each  leaf- 
base  two  main  bundles 
spread  right  and  left 
through  the  cortex  of  the 
stem  (fig.  9,  U),  and  as  they 
curve  gradually  towards  the 
vascular  ring  they  present 
the  appearance  01  two 
rather  flat  ogee  curves, 
usually  spoken  of  as  the 
leaf -trace  girdles  (fig.  9,  //). 
The  distal   ends   oL   these 

Sirdles  give  off  several 
ranches,  which  traverse 
the  petiole  and  rachis  as 
numerous  collateral  bundles.  The  complicated  girdle-like  course  is 
characteristic  of  the  leaf-traces  of  most  recent  cycads,  but  in  some 
cases,  e.f .  in  Zamia  ftoridana,  the  traces  are  described  by  Wieland 
in  his  recent  monograph  on  American  fossil  cycads  (Carnegie  Jnstitu- 
lion  Publications,  1906)  as  possessing  a  more  direct  course  similar  to 
that  in  Mesozoic  genera.  A  leaf-trace,  as  it  passes  through  the  cortex, 
has  a  collateral  structure,  the  protoxylem  being  situated  at  the  inner 
edge  of  the  xylem;  when  it  reaches  the  leaf-base  the  position  of  the 
spiral  tracheids  is  gradually  altered,  and  the  endarcn  arrangement 
(protoxylem  internal)  gives  place  to  a  mesarch  structure  (protoxylem 
more  or  less  central  and  not  on  the  edge  of  the  xykrm  strand).  In  a 
bundle  examined  in  the  basal  (wrtion  of  a  leaf  the  bulk  of  the  xylem 
M  found  to  be  centrifugal  in  position,  but  internally  to  the  protoxylem 
there  is  a  group  of  centripetal  tracheids;  higher  up  in  the  petiole  the 
xylem  is  mainly  centripetal,  the  centrifugal  wood  being  represented 


lo.^finkio  biloba. 


Fic.  1 1 . — Ginkgo  adiantoides. 
Fossil  (Eocene)  leaf  from  the 
Island  of  MuU. 


by  a  small  arc  of  tracheids  external  to  the  protoxylem  and  separated 
from  it  by  a  few  parenchymatous  elements.  Finally,  in  the  pinnae  of 
the  frond  the  centrifugal  xylem  may  disappear,  the  protoxylem  being 
now  exarch  in  position  and  abutting  on  the  phloem.  Similarly  in 
the  sporophylls  of  some  cycads  the  bundles  are  endarch  near  the  base 
and  mesarch  near  the  distal  end  of  the  stamen  or  carpel.  The 
vascular  system  of  cycadean  seedlings  presents  some  features  worthy 
of  note;  centripetal  xylem  occurs  tn  the  cotylcdonary  bundles 
associated  with  transfusion-tracheids.  The  oundlcs  from  the 
cotyledons  pursue  a  direct  course  to  the  stele  of  the  main  axis,  and 
do  not  assume  the  girdle-form  char- 
acteristic of  the  adult  plant.  This 
is  of  interest  (torn  the  point  of  view 
of  the  comparison  of  recent  cycads 
with  extinct  species  {Bennettttes),  in 
which  the  leat-traccs  follow  a  much 
more  direct  course  than  in  modern 
cycads.  The  mesarch  structure  of 
tne  leaf -bundles  is  met  with  in  a  less 
prpnounced  form  in  the  flower  ped- 
uncles of  some  cycads.  This  fact  is 
of  importance  as  showing  that  the 
type  of  vascular  structure,  which 
characterized  the  stems  of  many 
Palaeozoic  genera,  has  not  entirely 
disappeared  from  the  stems  of  modem  cycads;  but  the  mesarch  bundle 
is  now  confined  to  the  leaves  and  peduncles.  The  roots  of  some  cycads 
resemble  the  stems  in  producing  several  cambium-  j^,^, 
rings;  they  possess  2  to  8  protoxylem-groups,  and  are  *•""• 
characterized  oy  a  broad  pericyclic  zone.  A  common  phenomenon  in 
cycads  is  the  production  of  roots  which  grow  upwards  (apogeotropic), 
and  appear  as  coralline  branched  structures  above  the  level  of  the 
ground ;  some  of  the  cortical  cells  of  these  roots  are  hypertrophied, 
and  contain  numerous  filaments  of  blue-green  Algae  (Nostocaceae), 
which  live  as  endoparasites  in  the  cell-cavities. 

GiNKCOALES. — ^This  class-designation  has  been  recently  proposed 
to  give  emphasis  to  the  isolated  position  of  the  genus  Ginkgo 
iSatisbvria)  among  the  Gymnosperms.  Ginkgo  biloba,  the  maiden- 
hair tree,  has  usually  been  placed  by  botanists  in  the  Taxeae  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  yew  {Taxus),  but  the  proposal  by  Eichler  in 
1852  to  institute  a  special  family,  the  Salisimrieae,  'indicated  a 
recognition  of  the  existence  of  special  characteristics  which  dis- 
tinguish the  genus  from  other  members  of  the  Coniferae.  The 
discovery  by  the  Japanese  botanist  Hirase  of  the  development  of 
ciliated  spermatozoids  in  the  pollen-tube  of  Ginkgo^  in  place  of  the 
non-motile  male  cells  of  typical  conifers,  served  as  a  cogent  argument 
in  favour  of  separating  the  genus  from  the  Coniferales  and  placing  it 
in  a  class  of  its  own.  In  1712  Kaempfcr  published  a  drawing  <^  a 
Japanese  tree,  which  he  described  under  the  name  Ginkgo;  this  term 
was  adopted  in  1771  by  Linnaeus,  who  spoke  of  Kacmpfer's  plant  as 
Ginkgo  biloba.  In  1707 
Smith  proposed  to  use  the 
name  Salisburia  adiantifolia 
in  preference  to  the  un- 
couth "  genus  Ginkgo  and 
"  incorrect  "  specific  term 
biloba.  Both  names  are  still 
in  common  use.  On  account 
of  the  resemblance  of  the 
leaves  to  those  of  some 
species  of  Adiantum,  the 
appellation  maiden-hair  tree 
has  long  been  given  to 
Ginkgo  biloba.  Ginkgo  is  of 
special  interest  on  account 
of  its  isolated  position  ainong 
existing  plants,  its  restricted 
geographical  distribution, 
an<r its  great  antiouity  (see 
Palaeobotany  :  Mesotoic). 
This  solitary  survivor  of  an 
ancient  stock  is  almost  ex- 
tinct, but  a  few  old  and  pre- 
sumably wild  trees  are  re- 
corded by  travellers  in  parts 
of  China.  Ginkgo 'u  common 
as  a  sacred  tree  in  the  gardens 
of  temples  in  the  Far  East ,  and  often  cultivated  in  North  America  and 
Europe.  Ginkgo  biloba,  which  may  reach  a  height  of  over  30  metres, 
forms  a  tree  of  pyramidal  shape  with  a  smooth  grey  bark.  The  leaves 
(figs.  10  and  II)  have  a  long,  slender  petiole  terminating  in  a  fan- 
shaped  lamina,  which  may  be  entire,  divided  by  a  median  induon  into 
two  wedge-shaped  lobes,  or  subdivided  into  several  narrow  segments. 
The  venation  is  like  that  of  many  ferns,  e.g.  Adiantum;  the  lowest 
vein  in  each  half  of  the  lamina  follows  a  course  parallel  to  the  edge, 
and  gives  off  numerous  branches,  which  fork  rep«atedlv  as  they 
spread  in  a  palmate  manner  towards  the  leaf  marfjin.  The  foliage- 
leaves  occur  either  scattered  on  long  shoots  of  unlimited  growth,  or  at 
the  apex  of  short  ihoots  (spurs),  which  may  eventually  elongate  into 
long  shoots. 


FiG.  12.— Cinkfio  biloba.  A,  Male 
flower;,  B,  C,  single  stamens;  D, 
female  flower. 


758 


GYMNOSPERMS 


Flc.  i%.—Cinkio.    Apex  of  Ovule,  and 
Pollcn-Krain.    (After  Hiraae.) 
Poilen-tube  (proximal  end). 
Pollen-chamber. 

Upward  i>rolongation  of  roegaspore. 
Archegonia. 
Pollen -grain. 


P. 
c, 

e, 
a. 

Pi, 


Ex,  Exine. 


The  flowers  are  dioecious.  Tlie  male  flowers  (fig.  12),  IxMtie  in  the 
axil  <^  scale-leaves,  consist  of  a  stalked  central  axis  bearing  loosely 
c-  disposed  stamens;     each  stamen  consists  of  a   slender 

'  filament  terminatine  in  a  small  apical  scale,  which  bears 
usually  two,  but  not  infrcquentlv  three  or  four  pollen-sacs  (fig.  12,  C). 
The  axis  of  the  flower  is  a  shoot  bearing  leaves  m  the  form  of  stamens. 
A  mature  pollen-grain  contains  a  prothallus  of  3  to  5  cells  (Fig.  13, 
Pg) ;  the  cxjne  extends  over  two-thirds  of  the  circumlcrcncc,  leaving 

a  thin  portion  of  the  wall, 
which  on  collapsing  pro- 
duces a  longitudinal 
groove  similar  to  the 
median  depression  on  the 
pollcn-grain  of  a  cycad. 
The  ordmary  type  of 
female  flower  has  the  form 
of  a  long,  naked  peduncle 
bearing  a  single  ovule  on 
cither  side  of  the  apex 
(fi^.  12),  the  base  of  each 
bcmg  enclosed  bv  a  small, 
collar-like  rim.  the  nature 
of  which  has  been  vari- 
ously interpreted.  A 
young  ovule  consists  of  a 
conical  nucellus  sur- 
rounded by  a  single  in- 
tegument terminating  as  a 
two-lipped  micropyle.  A 
large  poUen-cnamber 
occupies  the  apex  of  the 
nucellus;  immediately 
below  this,  two  or  more 
archegonia  ^fig.  13,  a)  arc 
developed  m  the  upper 
region  of  the  megaspore, 
each  conaistine  of^a  lari^e 
cgg<cll  surmounted  by  two  neck-cells  and  a  canal-ccll  which  is 
cut  off  shortly  before  fertilization.  After  the  entrance  of  the  pollen- 
grain  the  pollen-chamber  becomes  roofed  over  by  a  blunt  pro- 
tuberance of  nucellar  tissue.  The  megaspore  (embryo-sac)  con- 
tinues to  grow  after  pollination  until  the  greater  part  of  the  nucellus 
is  gradually  destroyed;  it  also  gives  rise  to  a  vertical  outgrowth, 
which  projects  from  the  apex  of  the  megaspore  as  a  short,  thick 
column  (fig.  13,  e)  supporting  the  remains  of  the  nucellar  tissue 
which  forms  the  roof  of  the  pollen<hamber  (fig.  13,  c).  Surround- 
ing the  pitted  wall  of  the  ovum  there  is  a  definite  layer  of  large 
cells,  no  doubt  representing  a  tapetum.  which,  as  in  cycads  and 
conifers,  plays  an  important  part  in  nourishing  the  growing  egg-cell. 
The  endosperm  detached  from  a  large  Ginkgo  ovule  after  fertilization 
bears  a  close  resemblance  to  that  of  a  cycad ;  the  apex  is  occupied  by 
a  depression,  on  the  floor  of  which  two  small  holes  mark  the  position 
of  tne  archegonia,  and  the  outgrowth  from  the  megaspore  apex 
projects  from  the  centre  as  a  short  p(%.  After  pollination  the  pollen- 
tube  grows  into  the  nucellar  tissue,  as  in  cycads,  and  the  pollen-grain 
itself  (fig.  13,  Pg)  hangs  down  into  the  pollen-chamber;  two  large 
spirally  ciliated  spermatozoids  are  proauced,  their  manner  of  oe- 
vclopment  agreeing^  very  closely  with  that  of  the  corresponding  cells 
in  Cycas  and  Zamta,  After  fertilization  the  ovum-nucleus  cnvides 
and  cell-formation  proceeds  rapidly,  especially  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  ovum,  in  which  the  cotyledon  and  axis  of  the  embryo  are  differ- 
entiated; the  long,  tangled  suspensor  of  the  cycadean  embryo  is  not 
found  in  Ginkgo.  It  is  often  stated  that  fertilization  occurs  after  the 
ovules  have  fallen,  but  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  Hirase  that  this 
occurs  while  the  ovules  arc  still  attached  to  the  tree.  The  ripe  seed, 
which  grows  as  large  as  a  rather  small  plum,  is  enclosed  by  a  thick, 
fleshy  envelope  covering  a  hard  woody  shell  with  two  or  rarely  three 
longitudinal  Kcels.  A  papery  remnant  of  nucellus  lines  the  inner  face 
of  the  woody  shell,  and,  as  in  cycadean  seeds,  the  apical  portion  is 
readily  separated  as  a  cap  covenng  the  summit  of  the  endosperm. 

The  morpholo^  of  the  female  flowers  has  been  variously  inter- 
preted bv  botanists;  the  peduncle  bearing  the  ovules  has  been 
describ<fa  as  homologous  with  the  petiole  of  a  foliagc-lcaf  and  as  a 
shoot-structure,  the  collar-like  envelope  at  the  base  of  the  ovules 
being  referred  to  as  a  second  integument  or  arillus,  or  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  a  carpel.  The  evidence  afl^orded  by  normal  and  abnormal 
flowers  appears  to  be  in  favour  of  the  following  interpretation:  The 
peduncle  is  a  shoot  bearing  two  or  more  carpels.  Each  ovule  is 
enclosed  at  the  base  by  an  envelope  or  collar  nomologous  with  the 
lamina  of  a  leaf;  the  fleshy  and  hard  coats  of  the  nucellus  constitute 
a  single  integument.  The  stalk  of  an  ovule,  considerably  reduced  in 
normal  flowers  and  much  larger  in  some  abnormal  flowers,  is  homo- 
logous with  a  leaf-stalk,  with  which  it  agrees  in  the  structure  and 
number  of  vascular  bundles.  The  facts  on  which  this  description  is 
based  are  derived  partly  from  anatomical  evidence,  and  in  part  from 
an  account  given  by  a  Japanese  botanist,  Fujii.  of  several  abnormal 
female  flowers;  in  some  cases  the  collar  at  the  base  of  an  ovule, 
often  described  as  an  arillus.  is  found  to  pass  gradually  into  the 
lamina  of  a  leaf  bearincr  marginal  ovules  (fig.  Id,  B).  The  occurrence 
of  more  than  two  oviUe9  qii  one  peduncle  is  by  no  me^tos  rare;   a 


Fig.  l^^Cinkgo.  Abnonnal  female 
Flowers.  A^  Peduncle:  b,  scaly  bud; 
B,  leaf  bearing  mazginai  ovule.  (After 
FujiL) 


particulariy  striking  example  is  described  by  Fujii,  in  which  aa 
unusually  thick  peduncle  bearing  several  stalked  ovules  terminates 
in  a  scaly  bud  (fig.  14,  A,  b).  The  frequent  occurrence  of  more  than 
two  pollen-sacs  and  the  caualiy  common  occurrence  kA  additional 
ovules  have  been  regarded  by  some  authors  as  evidence  in  favour  of 
the  view  that  ancestral  types  normally  possessed  a  greater  numbrr 
of  these  organs  than  are  usually  found  in  the  recent  species.  This 
view  receives  support  from  fossil  evidence.  CUmc  to  the 
apex  of  a  shoot  the  vascular  bundles  of  a  leaf  make  their  •""**'' 
appearance  as  double  strands,  and  the  leaf-traces  in  (he  upper  fart 
of  a  shoot  have  the  form  of  distinct  bundles,  which  in  the  oUJcr  part  of 
the  shoot  form  a  continuous  ring.  Each  double  leaX-traoe  passes 
through  four  intcmodes 
before  becoming  a  part  of 
the  stele;  the  double 
nature  of  the  trace  is  a 
characteristic  feature. 
Secretory  sacs  occur 
abundantly  in  the  leaf- 
lamina,  where  they  appear 
as  short  lines  between  the 
veins;  they  are  abundant 
also  in  the  cortex  and  pith 
of  the  dioot,  in  the  fleshy 
integument  of  the  ovule, 
and  elsewhere.  The 
secondary  wood  of  the 
shoot  and^  root  conforms 
in  the  main  to  the  coni- 
ferous type;  in  the  short 
shoots  the  greater  breadth 
of  the  mcoullary  rays  in 
the  more  internal  part  of 
the  xylem  recalls  the 
cycadean  type.  The 
secondary  phloem  contains  numerous  thick-walled  fibres,  parenchy- 
matous cells,  and  large  sieve-tubes  with  plates  on  tbtt  radial 
walls;  swollen  parenchymatous  cells  containing  crystals  are 
commonly  met  with  in  the  cortex,  pith  and  modullary-ray  tissues. 
The  wood  consists  of  trachdds,  with  circular  bordcnxl  pits  on 
their  radial  walls,  and  in  the  late  summer  wood  pits  axe  un- 
usually abundant  on  the  tangential  walls.  A  point  oil  anatomical 
interest  is  the  occurrence  in  the  vascular  bundles  of  the  cotybdoD«. 
scale-leaves,  and  elsewhere  of  a  few  ccntripetally  developed  tcadieids 
which  give  to  the  xylem-strands  a  mesarch  structure  such  as  char- 
acterizes the  foliar  bundles  of  cycads.  Tht  root  is  diarch  in  structuir. 
but  additional  protoxylem-strands  may  be  present  at  the  base  of  the 
main  root ;  the  pcricyde  consists  of  several  layers  of  cells^ 

This  b  not  the  place  to  discuss  in  detail  the  past  history  of  Cinkfi 
(see  Palaeobotanv  :  Mesozoic).  Among  Palaeozoic  genera  there  are 
some  which  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  recent  type  in 
the  form,  of  the  kaves;  and  petrified  Palaeozoic  secda. 
almost  identical  with  those  of  the  maidenhair  tree,  have 
been  described  from  French  and  English  localitiea.  During  the 
Triassic  and  Jurassic  periods  the  genus  Baiera — no  doubt  .a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Ginkgoalea— was  widely  spread  througfacnt  Europe 
and  in  other  regions;  Ginkgo  itself  occura  abundantly  in  Mewzoic 
and  Tertiary  rocks,  and  was  a  common  i^nt  in  the  Airtk  regioosas 
elsewhere  during  the  Jurassic  and  Lower  Cretaceous  periods.  Some 
unusually  perfect  Ginkgp  leaves  have  been  found  in  tne  Eocene  leaf- 
beds  between  the  lava-flows  exposed  in  the  cliffs  of  MuU  (fig.  11). 
From  an  evolutionary  point  of  view,  it  is  of  interest^  to  note  the 
occurrence  of  filicinean  and  cycadean  characters  in  the  maidenhair  tree. 
The  leaves  at  once  invite  a  comparison  with  ferns;  the  nunKioos 
long  hairs  which  form  a  delicate  woolly  covering  on  young  leaves  recall 
the  hairs  of  certain  ferns,  but  agree  more  closely  with  the  kmg 
flUmentous  hairs  of  recent  cycads.  The  spermatonids  coostitute 
the  most  striking  link  with  both  cycads  and  ferns.  The  stnictme  of 
the  seed,  the  presence  of  two  necK<clls  in  the  archcgoaia^  the  late 
development  of  the  embryo,  the  partially-fused  cotyledons  and 
certain  anatomical  characters,  are  features  common  to  Cimkgp  and 
the  cycads.  The  maidenhair  tree  is  one  of  the  most  intctestiiy 
survivals  from  the  past ;  it  represents  a  type  whkh.  in  the  Palaeozoac 
era,  may  have  been  merged  into  the.  extinct  class  Cocdaitaka. 
Through  the  succeeding  ages  the  Ginkgoales  were  represented  by 
numerous  forms,  which  gradually  became  toote  restricted  in  thevr 
distribution  and  fewer  in  number  during  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary 
periods,  terminating  at  the  present  day  in  one  solitary  survivor. 

CoNiFE RALES. — Tnccs  and  shrubs  characterized  by  a  conoas 
branchinjs  of  the  stem  and  frequently  by  a  regular  pyramkial  tonn. 
Leaves  simple,  small,  linear  or  short  and  scaksuke,  usually  pcrsutini; 
for  more  than  one  year.  Flowers  monoecious  or  dioecious,  uniscxial. 
without  a  perianth,  often  in  the  form  of  cones*  but  never  tenniial 
on  the  main  stem. 

The  plants  usually  included  in  the  Coniferac  constitute  a  less 
homogeneous  class  than  the  Cycadaceae.    Some  autbon  use  the 
term  Coniferae  in  a  restricted  sense  as  including  those 
genera  which  have  the  female  flowers  in  the  form  of  oonesi, 
the  other  genera,  characterized  by  flowers  of  a  different 
type,  being  placed  in  the  Taxaceae,  and  often  sfokatn  of  as  Taxads. 


/ 


GYMNOSPERMS 


759 


In  order  to  avoid  conf usion  in  the  use  of  the  term  Coniferae,  we  may 
adopt  as  a  clasft-designation  the  name  Coniferales,  including  both  the 
Coniferae — using  the  term  in  a  restricted  tense — and  the  Taxaccae. 
The  most  striking  characteristic  of  the  majority  of  the  Coniferales  is 
the  regular  manner  of  the  monopodial  branching  and  the  pyramidal 
shape.  A  raucaria  imbricala,  the  Monkcy*puzzle  tree,  A .  exeelsa,  the 
Norfolk  Island  pine,  many  pines  and  firs,  cedars  and  other  genera 
illustrate  the  pyramidal  form.  The  mammoth  redwood  tree  of 
CaIifornia.5e9ii«M  (WeUingUmia)  gtganUa,  which  represents  the  tallest 
Gymnosperm,  is  a  good  example  of  the  regular  tapering  main  stem 
and  narrow  pyramidal  form.  The  cypresses  afford  instances  of  tall 
and  narrow  trees  similar  in  habit  to  Lombardy  poplars.  The  common 
cypress  {Cu^essui  sempernrens),  as  found  wild  m  the  mountains  of 
Crete  and  Cyprus,  is  characterized  by  lone  and  spreading  branches, 
which  give  it  a  cedar-like  habit.  A  pendulous  or  weepmg  habit  is 
assumra  by  some  conifers,  e.g.  Picea  exeelsa  var.  virgala  represents 
a  form  in  which  the  main  branches  attain  a  condderable  horizontal 
extension,  and  trail  themselves  like  snakes  along  the  ground.  Certain, 
species  of  Pintu,  the  yews  {Taxus)  and  some  other  genera  grow  as 
bushes,  which  in  place  of  a  main  mast-like  stem  possess  several 
repeatedly*branch«l  leading  shoots.  The  unfavourable  conditions 
in  Arctic  regions  have  produced  a  dwarf  form,  in  which  the  main 
shoots  grow  close  to  the  ground.  Artificially  induced  dwarfed  plants 
of  Pinus,  Cupressus,  Sciadopitys  (umbrella  pine)  and  other  eenera 
are  commonly  cultivated  by  the  Japanese.  The  dying  off  of  older 
branches  and  the  vigorous  growth  of  shoots  nearer  the  apex  of  the 
stem  produce  a  form  of  tree  illustrated  by  the  stone  pme  of  the 
Mediterranean  region  (Pinus  Pinea),  which  Turner  has  rendered 
familiar  in  his  "  Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage  "  and  other  pictures  of 
1  talian  scenery.  Conifers  are  not  infrcqucntlv  seen  in  which  a  lateral 
branch  has  bent  sharply  upwards  to  take  the  place  of  the  injured 
main  trunk.  An  upward  tendency  of  all  the  main  lateral  branches, 
known  as  fasttgiation,  is  common  in  some  species,  producing  well- 
marked  varieties,  e.g.  Cephalotaxus  peduncukUa  var.  fastigiaia;  this 
fastigiate  habit  may  arise  as  a  sport  on  a  tree  with  spreading  branches. 
Another  departure  from  the  normal  is  that  in  which  the  juvenile  or 
seedling  form  of  shoot  persists  in  the  adult  tree;  the  numerous 
coniferous  plants  known  as  species  of  Retinospora  are  examples  of 
this.  The  name  Rettnospora,  therefore,  does  not  stand  for  a  true 
genus,  but  denotes  persistent  vouns  forms  of  Juniperus,  Thuja, 
Cupressus,  &c..  in  which  the  small  scaly  leaves  of  ordinary  species  are 
replaced  by  the  slender,  ncedle-like  leaves,,  which  staivd  out  more  or 
less  at  right  angles  from  the  branches.  The  Hat  branchlets  of 
Cupressus,  Thuja  (arbor  vitae),  Thujopsis  dolabrata  (Japanese  arbor 
vitae)  are  characteristic  of  certain  types  of  conifers;  in  some  cases 
the  horizontal  extension  of  the  branches  induces  a  dorsiventral 
structure.^  A  characteristic  feature  of  the  genus  Agatkis  (Damnura) 
the  Kauri  pine  of  New  Zealand,  is  the  deciduous  habit  of  the 
branches;  these  become  detached  from  the  main  trunk  leaving  a 
well-defined  absciss-surface,  which  appears  as  a  depressed  circular 
scar  on  the  stem.  A  new  genus  of  conifers,  Taiwania,  has  recently 
Ix-cn  described  from  the  island  of  Formosa;  it  is  said  to  agree  in 
habit  with  the  Japanese  Cryptotneria,  but  the  cones  appear  to  nave  a 
structure  which  distinguishes  them  from  those  of  anv  other  genus. 

With  a  few  exceptions  conifers  are  evergreen,  ana  retain  the  leaves 
for  several  years  (lo  years  in  Arauearia  tmbricata,  8  to  lO  in  Pieea 
,-_^.        exeelsa,  s  in  Taxus  baccata;  in  Pmus  the  needles  usually 
*^'^*'       fall  in  Ortober  of  their  third  year).    The  larch  (Larix) 
sheds  its  leaves  in  the  autumn,  in  the  Chinese  larch  (Pseudo' 
larix  Katmpferi)  the  leaves  turn  a  bright  yellow  colour  before 
falling.     In   the  swamp  cypress   (Taxodtum  distickum)   the  tree 
assumes  a  rich  brown  colour  in  the  autumn,  and  sheds  its  leaves 
together  with  the  branchlets  which  bear  them;  deciduous  branches 
occur  also  in  some  other  species,  e.g.  Sequoia  sempenwens  (redwood), 
Thuja  ouidentalis,  &c.    The  leaves  of  conifers  are  characterized  by 
their  small  size,  e.g.  the  needle-form  represented  bv  Pinus,  Cedrus, 
larix,  &c.,  the  linear  fiat  or  angular  leaves,  appressea  to  the  branches, 
of  Thuja,  Cupressus,  Libocedrus,  Stc    The  nat  and  comparatively 
broad  leaves  of  Arauearia  imbricala,  A.  Bidwillii,  and  some  species 
of  the  southern  genus  Podocarpus  are  traversed  by  several  parallel 
veins,  as  are  also  the  still  larger  leaves  of  Agathis,  which  may  reach  a 
length  of  several  inches.     In  addition  to  the  foliage-leaves  several 
genera  also  possess  scale-leaves  of  various  kinds,  represented  by  bud- 
scales  in  Pinus,  Pteea,  &c.,  which  frequently  persbt  for  a  time  at  the 
base  of  a  young  shoot  which  has  pushed  its  way  through  the  yielding 
cap  of  protecting  scales,  while  in  some  conifers  the  bud-scales  adhere 
together,  and  alter  being  torn  near  the  base  are  carried  up  by  the 
growing  axis  as  a  thin  brown  cap.    The  cypresses,  araucarias  and 
some  other  genera  have  no  true  bud-scales;  in  some  species,  e.g. 
A  raucaria  Btdwdlii,  the  occurrence  of  small  foliage-leaves,  which  have 
functioned  as  bud-scales,  at  intervals  on  the  shoots  affords  a  measure 
of  seasonal  growtlr.    The  occurrence  of  long  and  short  shoots  is  a 
characteristic  feature  of  many  conifers.     In  Pinus  the  needles  occur 
in  pairs,  or  in  clusters  of  3  or  5  at  the  apex  of  a  small  and  incon- 
spicuous short  shoot  of  limited  growth  (spftir),  which  is  enclosed  at 
its  base  by  a  few  scale-leaves,  and  lx)rne  on  a  branch  of  unlimited 
growth  in  the  axil  of  a  scale-leaf.     In  the  Californian  Pinus  mono- 
pkylla  each  spur  bears  usually  one  needle,  but  two  are  not  un- 
common; it  would  seem  that  rudiments  of  two  needles  arc  alwavs 
produced,  but,  as  a  rule,  only  one  develops  into  a  needle.     In 


Sciadopitys  similar  spurs  occur,  each  bearing  a  single  needle,  which 
in  its  grooved  surface  and  in  the  possession  of  a  double  vascular 
bundle  Dears  traces  of  an  origin  from  two  needle-leaves.  A  peculiarity 
of  these  leaves  is  the  inverse  orientation  of  the  vascular  tissue ;  eacn 
of  the  two  veins  has  its  phloem  next  the  upper  and  the  xylem  towards 
the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf;  this  unusual  position  of  the  xylem  and 
phloem  may  be  explained  by  regarding  the  needle  of  Sciaiopitys  as 
being  composed  of  a  pair  of  leaves  borne  on  a  short  axillary  shoot  and 
fused  by  their  margins  (fig.  15,  A).  .  Long  and  short  shoots  occur  also 
in  Cedrus  and  Larix,  but  in  these  genera  the  spurs  are  longer  and 
stouter,  and  are  not  shed  with  the  leaves;  this  kind  of  short  shoot,  by 
accelerated  apical  growth,  often  passes  into  the  condition  of  a  long 
shoot  on  which  the  leaves  are  scattered  and  separated  by  com- 
paratively long  intemodes,  instead  of  being  crowded  into  tufts  such  as 
are  borne  on  the  ends  of  the  spurs.  In  the  genus  Pkyllocladus  (New 
Zealand,  &c.)  there  are  qo  green  foliage-leaves,  but  in  their  place 
flattened  branches  (phylloclades)  borne  in  the  axib  of  small  scale- 
leaves.  The  cotyledons  arc  often  two  in  number,  but  sometimes  (e.g. 
Pinus)  as  many  as  fifteen;  these  leaves  are  usually  succeeded  by 
foliage-leaves  in  the  form  of  delicate  spreading  needles,  and  these 
primordial  leaves  are  followed,  sooner  or  later,  by  the  adult  type 
of  leaf,  except  in  Retinosporas,  which  retain  the  juvenile  foliage. 
In  addition  to  the  first  foliage-leaves  and  the  adult  type  of  leaf, 
there  are  often  produced  leaves  which  are  intermediate  both  in  shape 
and  structure  between  the  seedling  and  adult  foliage. .  Dimorphism 
or  heterophylljr  is  fairly  common.  One  of  the  best  known  examples 
is  the  Chmese  juniper  (Juniperus  chinensis),  in  which  branches  with 
spinous  leaves,  longer  and  more  spreading  than  the  ordinary  adult 
leaf,  are  often  found  associated  with  the  normal  type  of  branch.  In 
some  cases,  e.g.  Sequoia  semperoirens,  the  fertile  branches  bear  leaves 
which  are  less  spreading  than  those  on  the  vegetative  shoots.  Certain 
species  of  the  southern  hemisphere  genus  Daerydium  afford  particu- 
larly striking  instances  of  heterophyily,  e.g.  D.  Kirkii  of  New  Itealand, 
in  which  some  branches  bear  small  ana  appressed  leaves,  while  in 
others  the  leaves  are  much  longer  and  more  spreading.  A  well- 
known  fossil  conifer  from  Triassic  strata — VoUaia  heterophylla — also 
illustrates  a  marked  di»imilarity  in  the  leaves  of  the  same  shoot. 
The  variation  in  leaf-form  and  the  tendency  of  leaves  to  arrange 
themselves  in  various  ways  on  different  branches  of  the  same  plant 
are  features  which  it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  in  the  identifica- 
tion of  fossil  conifers.  In  this  connexion  we  may  note  the  striking 
resemblance  between  some  of  the  New  Zealand  Alpine  Veronicas, 
e.g.  Veronica  Hectori,  V.cupressoides,&c.(alsoPolycladuscupressinus, 
a  Composite),  and  some  of  the  cypresses  and  other  conifers  with 
small  appressed  leaves.  The  long  linear  leaves  of  some  species  of 
Podocarpus,  in  which  the  lamina  is  traversed  by  a  nngle  vein,  recall 
the  pinnae  of  Cycas;  the  branches  of  some  Dacrydiums  and  other 
forms  closely  resemble  those  of  lycopods;  these  superficial  re- 
semblances, both  between  different  genera  of  conifers  and  between 
conifers  and  other  plants,  coupled  with  the  usual  occurrence  of  fossil 
coniferous  twigs  without  cones  attached  to  them,  render  the  deter- 
mination of  extinct  types  a  very  unsatisfactory  and  frequently  an 
impossible  task. 

A  typical  male  flower  consists  of  a  central  axis  bearing  numerous 
spiralfv-arranged  sporophylls  (stamens),  each  of  which  consists  of 
a  slenaer  stalk  (filament)  terminating  distally  in  a  more  riawwn. 
or  less  prominent  knob  or  triangular  scale,  and  bearing 
two  or  more  pollen-sacs  (microsporangia)  on  its  lower  surface.  The 
poUen-grains  of  some  genera  (e.g.  Pinus)  are  furnished  with  bladder- 
like extensions  of  the  outer  wall,  which  serve  as  aids  to  wind-dispersal. 
The  stamens  of  Arauearia  and  Agqikis  are  peculiar  in  bearing  several 
long  and  narrow  free  pollen-sacs;  these  may  be  compared  with  the 
sporangiophores  of  the  horsetails  (Equisetum) ;  in  Taxus  (yew)  the 
filament  is  attached  to  the  centre  of  a  large  circular  distal  expansion, 
which  bears  several  pollen-sacs  on  its  under  surface.  In  the  conifers 
proper  th^  female  reproductive  organs  have  the  form  of  cones,  which 
may  be  styled  flowen  or  inflorescences  according  to  different  inter- 
pretations of  their  morphology.  In  the  Taxaceae  the  flowers  have 
a  simpler  structure.  The  female  flowers  of  the  Abictineae  may  be 
taken  as  representing  a  common  type.  A  pine  cone  reaches  maturity 
in  two  years;  a  single  year  suflices  for  the  full  development  in  Lanx 
and  several  other  genera.  The  axis  of  the  cone  bears  nunwroas 
spirally  disposed  flat  scales  (cone-scales),  each  of  which,  if  examined 
in  a  young  cone,  is  found  to  be  double,  and  to  consist  of  a  lower  aiid 
^n  upper  portion.  The  latter  is  a  thin  flat  scale  bearing  a^  median 
ridge  or  keel  (e.g.  Abies),  on  each  side  of  which  is  situated  an  inverted 
ovule,  consisting  of  a  nucellus  surrounded  by  a  single  integument. 
As  the  cone  grows  in  size  and  becomes  woody  the  lower  half  of  the 
cone-scale,  which  we  may  call  the  carp>ellary  scale,  may  remain  small, 
and  is  so  far  outgrown  by  the  upper  half  (seminiferous  scale)  that  it  is 
hardly  recognizable  in  the  mature  cone.  In  many  species  of  Abies 
(e.g.  Abies  peciinata,  &c.)  the  ripe  cone  differs  from  those  of  Pinus, 
Pieea  and  Cedrus  in  the  large  size  of  the  carpcllary  scales,  which 
project  as  conspicuous  thin  appendages  beyond  the  distal  margins  of 
the  broader  and  more  woody  seminiferous  scaks:  the  long  carpellary 
scale  is  a  prominent  feature  also  in  the  cone  of  the  Douglas  pine 
(Pseudotsuga  Douglasii).  The  female  flower»  (cones)  vary  consider- 
ably in  size;  the  brgcst  are  the  more  or  less  spherical  cones  of 
Arauearia — ^a  single  cone  of  A.  tmbricata.  may  produce  as  many  as 
300  seeds,  one  se«i  to  each  fertile  cone-scale — and  the  long  pendent 


760 


GYMNOSPERMS 


cones,  I  to  2  It.  in  lengfth,  of  the  sugar  pine  of  California  (Pinus 
JLambertiana)  and  other  species.  Smaller  cones,  less  than  an  inch 
lone,  occur  in  the  larch,  Atkrotaxis  (Tasmania),  Fiitroya  (Patagonia 
and  Tasmania),  &c.  in  the  Taxodieae  and  Araucarieae  the  cones  are 
similar  in  appearance  to  those  of  the  Abietineae,  but  they  differ  in 
the  fact  that  the  scales  appear  to  be  single,  even  in  the  young  con- 
dition ;  each  cone-scale  in  a  genus  of  the  Taxodiinae  (Sequoia,  &c.) 
bain  several  seeds,  while  in  the  Araucariinae  (Araucaria  and  Agathis) 
each  scale  has  one  seed.  The  Cupressineae  have  cones  compmed  oi 
a  few  scales  arranged  in  alternate  whorls;  each  scale  bears  two  or 
more  seeds,  and  shows  no  external  sign  of  being  composed  of  two 
distinct  portions.  In  the  junipers  the  scales  tx^ome  fleshy  as  the 
seeds  ripen,  and  the  individual  scales  fuse  together  in  the  form  of 
a  berry.  The  female  flowers  of  the  Taxaceae  assume  another  form ; 
in  Microcachrys  (Tasmania)  the  reproductive  structures  are  spirally 
disposed,  and  form  small  globular  cones  made  up  of  red  fleshy  scales, 
to  each  of  which  is  attached  a  sinele  ovule  enclosed  by  an  integument 
and  partially  invested  by  an  arulus;  in  Dacrydium  the  carpellary 
leaves  are  very  similar  to  the  foliage  leaves— «ach  bears  one  ovule 
with  two  integuments,  the  outer  of  which  constitutes  an  arillus. 
Finally  in  the  yew,  as  a  type  of  the  family  Taxeae,  the  ovules  occur 
singly  at  the  apex  of  a  lateral  branch,  enclosed  when  ripe  by  a  con* 
spicuouB  red  or  yellow  fleshy  arillus,  which  serves  as  an  attraction  to 
animals,  and  thus  aids  in  the  dispersal  of  the  seeds. 

It  is  important  to  draw  attention  to  some  structural  features 
exhibited  by  certain  cone-scales,  in  which  there  is  no  external  sign 
.  indicative  of  the  presence  of  a  carpellary  and  a  seminiferous 
)^!^^  scale.  In  Araucaria  Cookii  and  some  allied  species  each 
]SS!Iu  scale  has  a  small  pointed  projection  from  its  upper  face 
m^^  near  the  distal  end ;  the  scales  of  Cunninghamia  (China) 
are  characterixed  by  a  somewhat  ragged  membranous 
projection  extending  across  the  upper  face  between  the  seeds  and  the 
distal  end  of  the  scale;  in  the  scales  of  Atkrotaxis  (Tasmania)  a 
prominent  rounded  ridge  occupies  a  corresponding  position.  These 
projections  and  ridges  may  be  homolc^ous  with  the  seminiferous 
scafe  of  the  pines,  firs,  cedars,  &c.  The  simplest  interpretation  of  the 
cone  of  the  Abietineae  is  that  which  regards  it  as  a  flower  consisting 
of  an  axis  bearing  several  open  carpels,  which  in  the  adult  cone  may 
be  very  small  or  large  and  prominent,  the  scale  bearing  the  ovules 
being  regarded  as  a  placental  outgrowth  from  the  flat  and  open  carpel. 
In  Araucaria  the  cone-scale  is  regarded  as  consisting  of  a  flat  carpel, 
of  which  the  placenta  has  not  grown  out  into  the  scale-like  structure. 
The  seminiferous  scale  of  Pinus,  &c.,  is  also  spoken  of  sometimes  as  a 
ligular  outgrowth  from  the  carpellary  leaf.  Robert  Brown  was  the 
first  to  give  a  clear  description  of  the  morphology  of  the  Abietineous 
cone  in  which  carpels  bear  naked  ovules;  he  rccognind  gymnospermy 
as  an  important  distin^ishing  feature  in  conifers  as  well  as  in 
cycads.  Another  view  ts  to  regard  the  cone  as  an  inflorescence, 
each  carpellary  scale  being  a  bract  bearing  in  its  axil  a  shoot  the 
axis  of  which  has  not  been  developed:  the  seminiferous  scale  is 
believed  to  represent  either  a  single  leaf  or  a  fused  pair  of  leaves 
belonging  to  the  partially  suppressed  axillary  shoot.  In  1869  van 
Tieghem  laid  stress  on  anatomical  evidence  as  a  key  to  the  morphology 
of  the  cone-scales;  he  drew  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  collateral 
vascular  bundles  of  the  seminiferous  scale  are  inversely  orientated  as 
compared  with  those  of  the  carpellary  scale;  in  the  latter  the  xylem 
of  each  bundle  is  next  the  upper  surface,  while  in  the  seminiferous 
scale  the  phloem  occupies  that  position.  The  conclusion  drawn  from 
this  was  that  the  seminiferous  scale  (fig.  1 5.  B,  &)  is  the  first  and  only 
leaf  of  an  axillary  shoot  (&)  borne  on  that  ude  of  the  shoot,  the  axis 
of  which  is  suppressed,  opposite  the  subtending  bract  (fig.  15.  A,  B,  C, 
Br).  Another  view  is  to  apply  to  the  seminiferous  scale  an  explana- 
tion umilar  to  that  suggested  by  von  Mohl  in  the  case  of  the  aouble 
needle  of  Sciadofntys,  and  to  consider  the  seed-bearing  scale  as  being 
made  up  of  a  pair  of  leaves  (fig.  15,  A,  a,  a)  of  an  axillarv  shoot  (b) 
fused  into  one  by  their  posterior  margins  (fig.  ij.  A).  The  latter  view 
receives  support  from  abnormal  cones  in  which  carpellary  scales 
subtend  axillary  shoots,  of  which  the  first  two  leaves  (fig.  15,  C,  t^,  t^) 
are  often  harder  and  browner  than  the  others;  forms  have  been 
described  transitional  between  axillary  shoots,  in  which  the  leaves  are 
seixirate,  and  others  in  which  two  of  the  leaves  are  more  or  less 
completely  fused.  In  a  young  cone  the  seminiferous  scale  appears  as 
a  hump  of  tissue  at  the  base  or  in  the  axil  of  the  carpellary  scale,  but 
Cclakovsk^,  a  strong  supporter  of  the  axillary-bud  theory,  attaches 
little  or  no  importance  to  this  kind  of  evidence,  regarding  the  present 
manner  of  development  as  being  merely  an  example  of  a-  short  cut 
adopted  in  the  course  of  evolution,  and  replacing  the  original  pro- 
duction of  a  branch  in  the  axil  of  each  carpellary  scale.  Eichler,  one 
of  the  chief  supporters  of  the  simpler  view,  does  not  recognize  in  the 
inverse  orientation  of  the  vascular  bundles  an  argument  in  support 
of  the  axillary-bud  theory,  but  points  out  that  the  seminiferous  scale, 
being  an  outgrowth  from  the  surface  of  the  carpellary  scale,  would, 
like  outgrowths  from  an  ordinary  leaf,  naturally  have  its  bundles 
inversely  orientated.  In  such  cone-scales  as  show  little  or  no 
external  indication  of  being  double  in  origin,  e.g.  Araucaria  (fig.  15,  D) 
Sequoia,  &c.,  there  are  always  two  sets  of  bundles;  the  upper  set, 
having  the  phloem  uppermost,  as  in  the  seminiferous  scale  of  Abies 
or  Pinus,  are  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  outgrowth  from  the 
carpellary  scale  and  specially  developed  to  supply  the  ovules. 
Monstrous  cones  arc  fairly  common ;   these  in  some  instances  lend 


tupport  to  the  ax31ary-bud  theory,  and  it  has  been  said  that  dut 
theory  owes  its  existence  to  evidence  furnished  by  abnoniial  cooes. 
It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  value  of  aboormalities  as  evidesoe 
bearing  on  nnorpbolc^cal  interpretation;  the  chief  danger  lies 
perhaiM  in  attaching  undue  weight  to  them,  but  there  is  also  a  risk 
of  minimizing  their  unportance.  Monstrosities  at  lout  demonstrate 
possible  lines  of  development,  but  when  the  abnormal  forms  of  growth 
m  various  directions  are  fairiy  evenly  balaiKed,  trustworthy  de- 
ductiorw  become  difficult.  The  occurrence  of  buds  ia  the  axils  of 
carpellary  scales  may,  however,  simply  mean  that  bods,  which  are 


(C  and  D  after  WonddL) 

Fig.  15. — IKagiammatic  treatment  of: 

A,  Double  needle  of  Sciadopitys  (a.  a,  leaves;  h.  choot ;  Br,  fanctl 

B,  seminiferous  scale  as  leaf  of  axillary  shoot  {h,  shoot ;  Sc^  aefoi- 

niferous  scale;  Br,  bract). 

C,  seminiferous  scale  as  fused  pair  of  leaves  (P.  P,  P.  firat,  second 

and  third  leaves;  6,  shoot;  Br,  bract), 

D,  cooe-scale   of   Araucaria    (»,   noccUus;   ii   integament;  x, 

xylem). 

usually  undeveloped  in  the  axils  of  sporophyUs,  occasioaaOy  afTord 
evidence  of  their  existence.  Some  monstrous  cones  lend  no  suppcvt 
to  the  axillary-bud  theory.  In  Larix  the  axis  of  the  oiee  often 
continues  its  growth;  nmilarly  in  CethaUAaxus  the  cooes  are  oftca 

groliferous.  (In  rare  cases  the  proliferated  portion  oRiduoes  male 
owcrs  in  the  leaf-axils.)  In  Larix  the  carpellary  scale  may  become 
leafy,  and  the  seminiferous  scale  may  disappear.  AodrogyDoas 
cones  may  be  produced,  as  in  the  cone  of  Pinus  rigida  (fig.  16).  ia 
which  the  bwer  part  bears  stamens  and  the  upper  pwtion  carpeBaiy 
and  seminiferous  scales.  An  interesting  case  has  been  ^und  by 
Masters,  in  which  scales  of  a  cone  of  Cupresstu  Lamsamwema  bear 
ovules  on  the  upper  surface  and  stameiu  on  the  lower  face.  Oae 
argument  that  has  been  adduced  in  support  of  the  axfflary  bud  tbe«y 
is  derived  from  the  Palaeozoic  type  Cordaites,  in 
which  each  ovule  occurs  on  an  axis  borne  in  the 
axil  of  a  bract.  The  whole  question  is  still  un- 
solved, and  perhaps  insoluble.  It  may  be  that 
the  interpretation  of  the  female  cone  of  the 
Abietineae  as  an  inflorescence,  which  finds  favour 
with  many  botanists,  cannot  be  applied  to  the 
cones  of  Agaikis  and  Araucaria.     Without  ex- 

Eresang  any  decided  opinion  as  to  the  morpbo- 
>gy  of  the  double  cone-scale  of  the  AHetituae, 
preference  may  be  felt  in  favour  of  reg^ard- 
mg  the  cone-scale  of  the  Araucarieae  as  a 
simple  carpellary  leaf  bearing  a  single  ovule.  A 
discusuon  of  this  question  may  be  found  in  a 
paper  on  the  Araucarieae  by  Seward  and  Ford,     _.  .. 

published  in  the  Transaaions  of  the  Royal  Society  *''<'•  Jr~~  , 
of  London  (1906).  Cordaites  u  an  extinct  type  ^*™**  ^^ .°' 
which  in  certam  respects  resembles  Cinkgfi,  cycads  7/|?**«/*'*  *i 
and  the  Araucarieae,  but  its  agreement  with  tree  CAlier  Ma^erv) 
conifers  is  probably  too  remote  to  justify  our  attri- 
buting much  weight  to  the  bcarine  of  the  vaonh6k>gy  of  its 
female  flowers  on  the  interpretation  of  that  of  the  Coniferae.  The 
greater  simplicity  of  the  Eichler  theory  may  prejudice  us  ia  its 
favour;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  arguments  advaiHced  in  favour 
of  the  axilbr^-bud  theories  are  perhaps  not  sufficiently  cogent  to 
lead  us  to  accept  an  explanation  baaed  chiefly  on  the  uncertaia 
evidence  of  monstrosities. 

A  pollen-grain  when  first  formed  from  its  mothcr-cdl  consists  of 
a  single  cell ;  in  this  condition  it  may  be  carried  to  the  nucelltts  of 
the  ovule  (e.g.  Taxus,  Cupressus,  &c),  or  more  usually 
{Pinus,  Larix,  &c.)  it  reaches  maturity  bef<m!  the  dehis- 
cence of  the  microsporangium.  The  nucleus  of  the 
microspore  divides  and  gives  rise  to  a  small  cell  within 
the  large  cell,  a  second  small  cell  is  then  produced;  this 
is  the  structure  of  the  ripe  pollen-grain  in  some  conifers  {Taxits,  &c.). 
The  large  cell  grows  out  as  a  p«icn-tube;  the  second  of  the  r«o 
small  cells  (body-cell)  wanders  into  the  tube,  followed  by  the  nucleus 
of  the  first  small  cell  (stalk-cell).  In  Taxia  the  body-oeD  eventually 
divides  into  two,  in  which  the  products  of  division  are  of  unequal  sue, 
the  larger  constituting  the  male  generative  cell,  which  fuses  with  the 
nucleus  of  the  egg-ccU.    In  Juniperus  the  products  of  division  of  the 


/^.- 


'-^) 


GYMNOSPERMS 


761 


body-cell  are  eqnal.  and  both  function  as  malejgenerattve  celb.  In 
the  Abietineat  cell-formation  in  the  pollen-gram  is  carried  farther. 
Three  small  cells  occur  inside  the  cavity  of  the  microspore;  two  of 
them  collapse  and  the  third  divides  into  two.  forming  a  sUlk-cell  and 
a  larger  body-cell.  The  latter  ultimately  divides  in  the  apex  of  the 
pollen-tube  mto  two  non-motile  senerative  cells.  Evidence  has  lately 
been  adduced  of  the  existence  of  numerous  nuclei  in  the  pollen-tubei 
of  the  Araucarieae,  and  it  seems  probable  that  in  this  as  in  several 
other  respects  this  family  is  distinguished  from  other  members  of  the 
Conifcraka.  The  precise  method  of  fertilization  in  the  Scots  Pine 
was  followed  by  V.  H.  Blackman,  who  also  succeeded  in  showing  that 
the  nuclei  of  the  sporophjrte  eeneration  contain  twice  as  many 
chromosomes  as  the  nuaei  of  the  gamctophyte.  Other  observers 
have  in  recent  years  demonstrated  a  similar  relation  in  other  genera 
between  the  number  of  chromosomes  in  the  nuclei  of  the  two  genera- 
tions. The  ovule  is  usually  surrounded  by  one  integument,  which 
projects  beyond  the  tip  of  the  nucellus  as  a  wide-open  lobed  funnel, 
which  at  the  time  of  pollination  folds  inwards,  and  so  assists  in  bring- 
ing the  pollen-grains  on  to  the  nucellus.  In  some  conifers  (e.f . 
Taxus,  Cepkalotaxus,  Dacrydium^  &c.)  the  ordinary  integument  is 
partially  enclosed  by  an  arulus  or  second  interment.  It  is  held  by 
some  botanists  (Celakovsk^)  that  the  semmiferous  scale  of  the 
Alfietineae  is  homologous  with  the  arillus  or  second  integument  of  the 
Taxaceae,  but  this  view  is  too  strained  to  gain  general  acceptance. 
In  Arauearia  and  Saxegotkaea  the  nucellus  itself  projects  beyond  the 
open  micropyle  and  receives  the  pollen-grains  direct.  During  the 
growth  of  the  cell  which  fomu  the  megaspore  the  greater  part  of  the 
nucellus  is  absorbed,  except  the  apical  jwrtion,  which  persists  as  a 
cone  above  the  megaspore ;  the  partial  disorganization  of  some  of  the 
cells  in  die  centre  of  the  nucellar  cone  forms  an  irregular  cavity,  which 
may  be  compared  with  the  larger  pollen-chamber  of  Ginkgo  and  the 
cycads.  In  each  ovule  one  megaspore  comes  to  maturity,  but, 
exceptk>nally,  two  may  be  present  («.<.  Pinus  syhutris).  It  has  been 
shown  by  Lawson  that  in  Sequoia  sempervirens  (Atmah  of  Botany, 
1904)  and  by  other  workers  in  the  genera  that  several  megaspores 
may  attain  a  fairly  large  size  in  one  prothallus.  The  megaspore 
becomes  filled  with  tissue  (prothallus),  and  from  some  of  the  super- 
ficial cells  archegonia  are  produced,  usually  three  to  five  in  numoer, 
but  in  rare  cases  ten  to  twenty  or  even  sixty  may  be  present.  In  the 
genus  Sepioia  there  may  be  as  many  as  sixty  archegonia  (Amoldi  and 
Lawson)  in  one  mesaspore;  these  occur  either  separately  or  in  some 
parts  of  the  prothallus  they  may  form  groups  as  m  the  Cupressineae; 
they  are  scattered  through  the  prothallus  instead  of  being  confined 
to  the  apical  regicm  as  in  the  majority  of  conifeis.  Similarly  in  the 
Araucarua*  and  in  IViddringtonia  the  archegonia  are  numerous  and 
scattered  and  often  sunk  in  the  prothallus  tissue.  In  JJboudnu 
decurrens  (Cupresnneae)  Lawson  describes  the  archen>nia  as  var^^ing 
in  number  from  6  to  2±{A  nnals  of  Bolany  xxi.,1907).  An  archegonium 
consists  of  a  laige  oval  egg-cell  surmounted  by  a  uiort  neck  composed 
of  one  or  more  tiers  of  cells,  six  to  eight  cells  in  each  tier.  Before 
fertilization  the  nucleus  of  the  egg-celfdivides  and  cuts  off  a  ventral 
canal-cell;  this  cell  may  represent  a  second  egg-cell.  The  egg-cells 
of  the  archegonia  may  be  in  lateral  contact  {e.g.  Cupressineae)  or 


ment  of  the  egg-cell,  food  material  u  transferred  from  these  cells 
through  the  pitted  wall  of  the  ovum.    The  tissue  at  the  apex  of  the 
megaspore  grows  slishtly  above  the  level  of  the  archegonia,  so  that 
the  latter  come  to  fie  in  a  shallow  depression.    In  the  process  of 
fertilization  the  two  male  generative  nuclei,  accompanied  by  the 
pollon-tube  nucleus  and  that  of  the  stalk-cell,  pass  through  an  open 
pit  at  the  apox  of  the  pollen-tube  into  the  protoplasm  of  the  ovum. 
After  fertilizatbn  the  nucleus  of  the  egg  divides,  the  first  stages  of 
karyokinesis  being  apparent  even  before  complete  fusion  of  the  male 
ana  female  nuclei  nas  occurred.    The  result  of  this  is  the  production 
of  four  nuclei,  which  eventually  take  up  a  position  at  the  bottom  of 
the  ovum  and  become  separated  from  one  another  by  vertical  cell- 
walls;  these  nuclei  divide  again,  and  finally  three  tiers  of  cells  are 
produced,  four  in  each  tier.     In  the  Abietineae  the  cells  of  the  middle 
tier  elongate  and  pOsh  the  lowest  tier  deeper  into  the  endosperm ; 
the  cells  of  the  bottom  tier  may  remain  in  lateral  contact  and  produce 
together  one  embryo,  or  they  may  separate  (Pintu,  Juniperus,  &c.) 
and  form  four  potential  embryos.    The  ripe  albuminous  seed  contains 
a  single  embryo  with  two  or  more  cotyledons.  ^  The  seeds  of  many 
conifers  are  provided  with  laive  thin  wings,  consisting  in  some  genera 
(e.g.  Pinui)  of  the  upper  cell-layers  of  tne  seminiferous  scale,  which 
have  become  detached  and,  in  some  cases,  adhere  loosely  to  tne  seed 
MS  a  thin  membrane;  the  loose  attachment  maybe  of  use  to  the  seeds 
when  they  are  blown  against  the  branches  of  trees,  in  enabling  them  to 
fall  away  from  the  wing  and  drop  to  the  ground.    Th^  seeds  of  some 
genera  depend  on  animals  for  dispersal,  the  carpellary  scale  (Micro- 
eackrys)  or  the  outer  integument  being  briehtly  coloured  and 
attractive.  In  some  AbiHinea*  {e.g.  Pinus  and  Picea) — in  which  the 
cone-scales  persist  for  some  time  after  the  seeds  are  ripe-^the  cones 
hang  down  and  so  facilitate  the  fall  of  the  seeds;  in  Calms,  Arau- 
earia and  Abies  the  scales  become  detached  and  fall  with  the  seeds, 
leaving  the  bare  vertical  axis  of  the  cone  on  the  tree.    In  all  cases, 
except  some  species  of  Arauearia  (sect.  ColynAea)  the  germination  is 
epigesn.    The  seedling  plants  of  some  Conifers  («.g.  Arauearia 


imbricata)  are  characterized  by  a  carrot-shaped  hypocotyl,  whfch 
doubtless  serves  as  a  food-reservoir. 

The  roots  of  many  conifers  possess  a  narrow  band  of  primary 
xylem-tracheids  with  a  group  of  narrow  spiral  protoxylem-elements 
at  each  end  (diarch).  A  striking  feature  in  the  roots  of 
several  genera,  excluding  the  Abietineae,  is  the  occur-  Aasiamy^ 
rence  of  thick  and  somewhat  irregular  bands  of  thickening  on  the 
cell-walls  of  the  cortical  layer  next  to  the  endodermis.  These  bands, 
which  may  serve  to  strengthen  the  central  cylinder,  have  been  com- 

ered  with  the* netting  surrounding  the  delicate  wall  of  an  inflated 
lloon.  It  b  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  a  root  from  a  stem; 
in  some  cases  (e.g.  Sequoia)  the  primary  tetrarch  structure  b  easily 
identified  in  the  centre  of  an  old  root,  but  in  other  cases  the  primary 
elements  are  very  difficult  to  recognize.  The  sudden  termination  of 
the  secondary  tracheids  against  the  pith-cells  may  afford  evidence 
of  root-structure  as  dbtinct  from  stem-structure,  in  which  the  radial 
rows  of  secondary  tracheids  pass  into  the  irrcguLarly-arranged 

Erimary  elentients  next  the  pith.  The  annual  rings  in  a  root  arc  often 
ss  clearly  marked  than  in  the  stem,  and  the  xylem-clements  are 
frequently  larger  and  thinner.  The  primary  vascular  bundles  in  a 
young  conifer  stem  are  collateral,  and,  like  those  of  a  Dicotyledon, 
they  are  arranged  in  a  circle  round  a  central  pith  and  enclosed  by  a 
common  endodermis.  It  is  in  the  nature  of  the  secondary  xylcm  that 
the  Coniferales  are  most  readily  distingubhed  from  the  Dicotyledons 
and  Cycadaoeae;  the  wood  b  homogeneous  in  structure,  consbting 
almost  entirely  of  tracheids  with  circular  or  polygonal  bordered 

flits  on  the  radial  walls,  more  particulariy  in  the  late  summer  wood, 
n  many  genera  xylem-parenchyma  is  present,  but  never  in  great 
abundance.  A  few  Dicotyledons,  e.g.  Drimys  (Magnoliaccae)  closely 
resemble  conifers  in  the  homogeneous  character  of  the  wood,  but  in 
most  cases  the  presence  of  large  spring  vessels,  wood-fibres  and 
abundant  parenchyma  affords  an  obvious  distinguishing  feature. 

The  abundance  of  petrified  coniferous  wooain  rocks  of  various 
ages  has  led  nuny  botanists  to  investigate  the  structure  of  modem 
genera  with  a  view  to  determining  how  far  anatomical  characters 
may  be  used  as  evidence  of  generic  distinctions.  There  are  a  few 
well-marked  types  of  wood  which  serve  as  convenient  standards  of 
comi»uison,^  but  these  cannot  be  used  except  in  a  few  cases  to  dis- 
tinguish individual  genera.  The  gtnus  Pinus  serves  as  an  illustration 
of  wood  of  a  distinct  type  characterized  by  the  absence  of  xylem- 
parenchyma,  except  such  as  is  associated  with  the  numerous  resin- 
canab  that  occur  abundantly  in  the  wood,  cortex  and  medulbry 
rays;  the  medullary  rays  are  composed  of  parenchyma  and  of 
horizontal  tracheids  with  irregular  ingrowths  from  their  walls.  In 
a  radial  section  of  a  pine  stem  each  ray  b  seen  to  consist  in  the 
median  part  of  a  few  rows  of  parenchymatous  cells  with  lar^  oval 
simple  pits  in  their  walb,  accompanied  above  and  below  by  horizontal 
tracheids  with  bordered  pits.  The  pits  in  the  radial  walb  of  the 
ordinary  ]^lem-tracheids  occur  in  a  single  row  or  in  a  double  row, 
of  whkh  tne  pits  are  not  in  contact,  and  those  of  the  two  rows  are 
j>laced  on  the  same  level.  The  medullary  rays  usually  consist  of  a 
single  tier  of  cells,  but  in  the  Pinus  type  of  wood  broader  medullary 
rays  also  occur  and  are  traversed  by  horizontal  resin-canals.  In  the 
wood  of  Cypressus,  Cedrus,  Abies  and  several  other  genera,  parenchy- 
matous celts  occur  in  association  with  the  xylem-traclu;ias  and  take 
the  pUce  of  the  resin-canals  of  other  types.  In  the  Araucarian  type 
of  wood  {Arauearia  and  Agatkis)  the  bordered  pits,  which  occur  in 
two  or  three  rows  on  the  radbl  walls  of  the  tracheids,  are  in  mutual 
contact  and  polygonal  in  shape,  the  pits  of  the  different  rows  are 
alternate  and  not  on  the  same  level;  in  this  type  of  wood  the  annual 
rings  are  often  much  less  distinct  than  in  Cupressus,  Pinus  and  other 
genera.  In  Taxus,  Torreya  (Califomiaand  the  Far  East)  and  Cephalo' 
taxus  the  absence  of  resin-canab  and  the  presence  of  spiral  thickening- 
bands  on  the  tracheids  constitute  well-marked  characteristics.  An 
examination  of  the  wood  of  branches,  stems  and  roots  of  the 
same  species  or  individual  usually  reveals  a  fairly  wide  variation  in 
some  of  the  characters,  such  as  the  abundance  and  size  of  the 
medullary  rays,  the  size  and  arrangement  of  pits,  the  presence  of 
wood-parencb^rma— characters  to  which  undue  importance  has  often 
been  attached  in  systematic  anatomical  work.  Tne  phloem  consists 
of  sieve-tubes,  with  pitted  areas  on  the  lateral  as  well  as  on  the 
inclined  terminal  walls,  phloem-parenchyma  and,  in  some  genera, 
fibres.  In  the  Abietineae  the  phloem  consists  of  parenchyma  and 
sieve-tubes  only,  but  in  most  other  forms  tangential  rows  of  fibres 
occur  in  reguUr  alternation  with  the  parenchyma  and  sieve-tubes. 
The  characteristic  companion<ells  of  Angiosperms  are  represented  by 
phloem-parenchyma  cells  with  albuminous  contents;  other  paren- 
chymatous elements  of  the  bast  contain  starch  or  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate.  When  tracheids  occur  in  the  medullary  rays  of  the  xylem 
these  are  replaced  in  the  phloem-region  by  imguMr  parenchymatous 
cells  known  as  albuminous  cells.  Resin<aiiais,  which  occur  abund- 
antly in  the  xylem,  phloem  or  cortex,  are  not  found  in  the  wood 
of  tne  yew.  Cepkalotaxus  {Taxeae)  is  also  peculiar  in  having  resin- 
canals  in  the  pith  (cf.  Cinkto).  One  form  of  Cepkalotaxus  b 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  riiort  tracheids  in  the  pith,  in  shape 
like  ordinary  parenchyma,  but  in  the  possession  of  bordered  pits  and 
Itgnified  walls  agreeing  with  ordinary  xylem-trachdds;  it  b  probable 
that  these  short  tracheids  serve  as  reservoirs  iar  storing  rather  than 
for  conducting  water.  The  vascular  bundle  entering  the  stem  from  a 
leaf  with  a  single  vein  passes  by  a  mora  or  less  direct  course  into  the 


762 


GYMNOSPERMS 


central  cylinder  of  the  stem,  and  does  not  assume  the  girdle-like  form 
characteristic  of  the  cycadcan  Icaf-trace.  In  species  of  which  the 
leaves  have  more  than  one  vein  (e.g.  Araucaria  imbrictUa,  &c.)  the 
Icaf-tracc  leaves  the  stele  of  the  stem  as  a  single  bundle  which  splits 
up  into  several  strands  in  its  course  through  the  cortex.  In  the  wood 
of  some  conifers,  e.g.  Araucaria.  the  leaf -traces  persist  for  a  consider- 
able time,  perhaps  indefinitely,  and  may  be  seen  in  tangential 
sections  of  the  wood  of  old  stems.  The  leaf-trace  in  the  Conuerales 
is  simple  in  its  course  through  the  stem,  differing  in  this  respect  from' 
the  double  leaf-trace  of  Ginkgo.  A  detailed  account  of  the  ana- 
tomical characters  of  conifers  has  been  publi^ed  by  Professor 
D.  P.  Penhailow  of  Montreal  and  Dr.  Gothan  of  Berlin  which 
will  be  found  useful  for  diagnostic  purposes.  The  characters  of 
leaves  most  useful  for  diagnostic  purposes  are  the  position  of  the 
stomata,  the  presence  and  arrangement  of  resin-canals,  the  structure 
of  the  mesophyll  and  vascular  bundles.  The  presence  of  hypodermal 
fibres  is  another  feature  worthy  of  note,  but  the  occurrence  of  these 
elements  is  too  closely  connected  with  external  conditions  to  be  of 
much  systematic  value.  A  pine  needle  grown  in  continuous  light 
differs  from  one  grown  under  ordinary  conditions  in  the  absence  of 
hypodermal  fibres,  in  the  absence  of  the  characteristic  infoldings  of 
the  mesophyll  cell-walls,  in  the  smaller  size  of  the  resin-canals,  &c. 
The  endodcrmis  in  Pinus,  Piua  and  many  other  genera  u  usually 
a  well-defined  layer  of  cells  enclosing  the  vascular  bundles,  and 
separated  from  them  by  a  tissue  consisting  in  part  of  ordinary  par- 
enchyma and  to  some  extent  of  isodiainetric  tracheids;  but  this 
tissue,  usually  spoken  of  as  the  pericycle,  is  in  direct  continuity  with 
other  stem-tissues  as  well  as  the  pencycle.  The  occurrence  01  short 
tracheids  in  close  proximity  to  the  veins  is  a  characteristic  of  conifer- 
ous leaves;- these  elements  assume  two  distinct  forms — (i)  the  short 
isodiametric  tracheids  (transfusion-tracheids)  closely  associated  with 
the  veins;  (3)  longer  tracheids  extending  across  the  mesophyll  at 
right  angles  to  the  veins,  and  no  doubt  functioning  as  representatives 
of  lateral  veins.  It  has  been  suggested  that  transfusion-tracheids 
represent,  in  part  at  least,  the  centripetal  xylem,  which  forms  a 
distinctive  feature  of  cycadean  leaf-bundles;  these  short  tracheids 
form  conspicuous  groups  laterally  attached  to  the  veins  in  Cunning- 
kamia.  abundantly  represented  in  a  similar  position  in  the  leaves  of 
Sequoia,  and  scattered  through  the  so-called  pericycle  in  Pinus^ 
Picea,  &C.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  the  occurrence  of  precisely  similar 
elements  in  the  mesophyll  of  Lepidodendron  leaves.  An  anatomical 
peculiarity  in  the  veins  of  Pinus  and  several  other  genera  is  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  medullary  rays,  which  extend  as  continuous  plates  from 
one  end  of  the  leaf  to  the  other.  The  mesophyll  of  Pinus  and  Cedrus 
is  characterised  by  its  homogeneous  character  and  by  the  presence 
of  infoldings  of  the  cell-walls.  In  many  leaves,  e.;.  Abits,  Tsuga, 
Larix,  &c.,  the  mesophyll  is  heterogeneous,  consisting  of  palisade  and 
spongy  parenchyma.  In  the  leaves  of  Araucaria  imhricata,  in  which 
palisade-tissue  oa:urs  in  both  the  upper  and  lower  pait^  of  the 
mesophyU*,  the  resin-canals  are  placed  between  the  veins;  in  some 
species  of  Podocarpus  (sect.  Nageia)  a  canal  occurs  below  each  vein ; 
in  Tsuga,  Torreya,  Cephalotaxus,  Seauoia,  &c.,  a  single  canal  occurs 
below  the  midrib;  in  Larix,  Abies,  occ,  two  canals  run  through  the 
leaf  parallel  to  the  margins.  The  stomata  are  frequently  arranged  in 
rows,  their  position  being  marked  by  two  white  bands  of  wax  on  the 
leaf-surface. 

The  chief  home  of  the  Conifcralcs  is  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
where  certain  species  occasionallv  extend  into  the  Arctic  circle 
and  penetrate  beyond  tne  northern  limit  of  dicotyledon- 
ous trees.  Wide  areas  are  often  exclusively  occupied  by 
conifers,  which  give  the  landscape  a  sombre  aspect, 
suggesting  a  comparison  with  the  forest  vegetation  of  the  Coal 
period.  South  of  the  tree-limit  a  belt  of  conifers  stretches  across 
north  Europe,  Siberia  and  Canada.  In  northern  Europe  this  belt 
is  characterized  by  such  species  as  Picea  excelsa  (spruce),  which 
extends  south  to  tfie  mountains  of  the  Mediterranean  region ;  Pinus 
sylvestris  (Scottish  fir),  reaching  from  the  far  north  to  western  Spain. 
Persia  and  Asia  Minor;  Juniperus  communis,  &c.  In  north  Siberia 
Pinus  Cembra  (Cembra  or  AroUa  Pine)  has  a  wide  range;  also  Abies 
jt&tnca  (Siberian  silver  ia), Larix  sibirica  and  Juniperus  oa6ina (savin). 
In  the  North  American  area  Picea  alba,  P.  nig^a,  Larix  americana, 
Abies  balsamea  (balsam  fir),  Tsuga  canadensis  (hemlock  spruce), 
Pinus  Strobus  (\Veymouth  pine),  Thuja  ouidentalis  (white  cedar), 
Taxus  canadensis  are  characteristic  species.  In  the  Mediterranean 
region  occur  Cupressus  sempcrvirens,  Pinus  Pinea  (stone  pine), 
species  of  juniper,  Cedrus  ailantica,  C.  Libani,  CaUitris  quadrioalvis, 
Pinus  mcntana,  &c.  Several  conifers  of  economic  importance  are 
abundant  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  North  America — Juniperus  virginiO' 
na  (red  cedar,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  lead  pencils,  and  extending 
as  far  south  as  Florida),  Taxodium  dislichum  (swamp  cypress), 
Pinus  rigida  (pitch  pine),  P.  mitis  (yellow  pine),  P.  laeda,P.  fiUustris. 
&c.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Amencan  continent  conifers  piay  a  still 
more  strikins^  rdje;  among  them  are  Chamaecyparis  nulkaensis, 
Picea  sitchcnsts,  Libocedrus  aecurrens,  Pseudotsuga  Douglasii  (Douglas 
fir).  Sequoia  sempcrvirens,  S.  gigantea  (the  only  two  surviving  species 
of  this  generic  type  are  now  confined  to  a  few  localities  in  California, 
but  were  formerly  widely  spread  in  Europe  and  elsewhere),  Pinus 
Coulteri,  P.  Lambertiana,  &c.  Farther  south,  a  few  representatives 
of  such  genera  as  Abies,  Cupressus,  Pinus  and  juniper  are  found  in 
the  Mexican  Highlands,  tropical  America  and  the  West  Indies.    In 


Distrtbo' 
Uoa. 


the  far  East  conifers  are  richly  represented;  zmoag  them  occnr 
Pinus  den5ifhra,CrypUmeruijap<mica,  Cephalotaxus,  sp«ciesof  Xfriei, 
Larix,  Thujopsis,  Sciadopiiys  verticiUala,  Pseudetarix  Kaempfen, 
&c.  In  the  Himalaya  occur  Cedrus  deodarOt  Taxus,  qxcics  oC 
Cupressus,  Pinus  ejccelsa,  Abies  WMnana,  &c.  The  oMicinetit  oi 
Africa  is  singularly  poor  in  conifers.  Cedrus  aUantica,  a  variety  oi 
Abies  Pinsapo,  Juniperus  titurifera,  CaUitris  fuadrtaakis,  occur  ia 
the  north-west  region,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  southern  limit 
ci  the  Mediterranean  region.  The  greater  part  of  Africa  north  of  the 
equator  is  without  any  representatives  of  the  conifers;  Juniper  a 
procera  flourishes  in  Somaluand  and  on  the  mountains  of  Abyssinu: 
a  species  of  Podocarpus  occurs  on  the  Cameroon  mountains,  and 
P.  milanjiasui  is  widely  distributed  in  east  tropical  Africa.  Widdnii^~ 
Ionia  Whytei,  a  species  closely  allied  to  W.  justipenides  of  the  Ccdar- 
beiv  mountains  of  Cape  Colony  ,is  recorded  from  Nyassalandand  frcni 
N.E.  Rhodesia;  while  a  third  species,  W.  eupressoides,  occurs  in 
Cape  Colony.  Podocarpus  ehngala  and  P.  Thunbergii  (ydkrar  «ood} 
form  the  pnncipal  timber  trees  in  the  belt  oi  forest  which  stnetches 
from  the  coast  mountains  of  Cape  Colony  to  the  north-east  of  ths 
Transvaal.  Libocedrus  tetragona,  FUsroya  pctag/vnica,  Araucaria 
brasiltensis,  A.  imbricala,  Saxegothaea  and  others  are  met  with  10 
the  Andes  and  other  regions  m  South  America.  Alkroiezis  and 
Microcachrys  are  characteristic  Australian  types.  PkyUodadu 
occurs  also  in  New  Zealand,  and  species  of  Dacrydium,  Arauca^n. 
Agaihis  and  Podocarpus  are  represented  in  Austrafia,  New  Zcihod 
and  the  Malay  regions. 

Gnetales. — ^These  are  trees  or  shrubs  with  ample  leaves.  Tbe 
flowers  are  dioecious,  rarely  monoecious,  provided  with  one  or  t«o 
perianths.  The  wood  is  characterized  by  the  presence  of  ve&seU  la 
addition  to  tracheids.  There  are  no  resin-canals.  The  threeexiftisg 
genera,  usually  spoken  of  as  members  of  the  Gnetales,  diStrfmrnGm 
another  more  than  is  consistent  with  their  indusitMi  in  a  sbgk 
family;  we  may  therefore  better  express  their  divers  characters  by 
regarding  them  as  types  of  three  separate  families— (1 )  Epk^cidece. 
genus  Ephedra',  (i)  WdwUscksoideae,  genus  WdvgUsckia;  U- 
Gnetoideae,  genus  Cnetum.  Our  knowledge  of  the  Gnetales  Icavn 
much  to  be  desired,  but  such  facts  as  we  possess  would  secin  to 
indicate  that  this  group  ts  of  ^lecial  importance  as  fwedudwia^. 
more  than  any  other  Gymnosperms,  the  Angiosptfmous  type.  I  a 
the  more  heterogeneous  structure  of  the  wood  and  in  the  pos^essi-^n 
of  true  vessels  tne  Gnetales  agree  cl<Mely  with  the  hisher  flowering 
plants.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  leaves  of  Cwtesi.  «'hr.e 
typically  Dicotyledonous  in  appearance,  possess  a  GymnaqKnroui 
cnaracter  in  the  continuous  and  plate-Uke  medullary  rays  <rf  thvir 
vascular  bundles.  The  presence  of  a  perianth  is  a  feature  suggestive 
of  an  approach  to  the  floral  structure  of  Angiosperms;  the  proicnga- 
tion  of  the  integument  furnishes  the  flowers  with  a  substitute  for  a 
stigma  and  style.  The  genus  Ephedra,  with  its  prothallus and  arcbe- 
gonia,  which  are  similar  to  those  of  other  Gymno^Knns,  may  be 
safely  regarded  as  the  most  primitive  of  theGnetales.  In  Wdtciisih-s 
also  the  megaspore  is  filled  with  prothallus-tissue,  but  single  egg-cells 
take  the  place  of  archegonia.  In  certain  spedes  of  Gnettm  described 
by  Karsten  the  m«aspore  contains  a  peripheral  layer  of  proto{dd»n. 
in  which  scattcrea  nuclei  represent  the  female  reproductive  cells; 
in  Cnetum  Cnemon  a  similar  state  of  things  exists  m  the  upper  half 
of  the  megaspore.  while  the  lower  half  agrees  with  the  megaH»re  of 
Wdwitschta  in  being  full  of  prothallus-tissue,  which  serves  merely  a« 
a  reservoir  of  food.  Lotsy  has  described  the  occurrence  of  spcdil 
cells  at  the  apex  of  the  prothallus  of  GnHum  Gnemon,mhk:h  he  n^rcj 
as  imperfect  archegonia  (fig.  1 7.  C,  a) ;  he  suggests  they  may  reprr^cnc 
vestigial  structures  pointing  back  to  some  ancestral  form  De>or.d  the 
limits  of  the  present  group.  The  Gnetales  pra^Uy  had  a  separate 
origin  from  the  other  Gymnosperms;  they  carry  us  nearer  to  the 
Angiosperms,  but  we  have  as  yet  no  satisfactory  evidence  that  tha' 
represent  a  stage  in  the  direct  line  of  Angiospermk:  evolutk>a.  it  a 
not  improbable  that  the  three  genera  of  this  ancient  phylum  sur>Hvv 
as  types  of  a  blindly-endin|{  branch  of  the  Gymnoiq^erms:  hot  \.< 
that  as  it  may,  it  is  m  the  Gnetales  more  than  m  any  other  G>-mn-> 
sperms  that  we  find  features  whkh  help  us  to  obtain  a  dim  prosKct 
of  the  lines  along  which  the  Angiosperms  may  have  been  evolved. 

Ephedra. — ^This  genus  is  the  only  membo-  dT  the  Gnetales  rvfB> 
sented  in  Europe.  Its  q>ecies,  which  are  characteristic  of  warn 
temperate  latitudes,  are  usually  much-branched  shrubs.  The  fi'-'*^ 
branches  are  green,  and  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  stems  of 
Equisetum  and  to  the  slender  twigs  of  Casuar\na\  the  surface  of  i^< 
long  intemodes  is  marked  by  fine  lonntudinal  ribs,  and  at  the  nc-i^ 
are  Dome  pairs  of  inconspicuous  scale-leaves.  The  flowers  are  ssu. !. 
and  borne  on  axillary  shoots.  A  single  male  flower  consists  oi  i=: 
axis  enclosed  at  the  b^  by  an  inconspicuous  perianth  formed  of  t  •> >> 
concrescent  leaves  and  terminating  in  two,  or  as  many  as  eg;-''- 
shortly  stalked  or  sessile  anthers.  The  female  flower  is  «tvek>ped  >i 
a  closely  fitting  sac-like  investment,  which  must  be  regan^  a«  -i 
perianth ;  within  this  is  an  orthotropous  ovule  Burroanded  by  a  strx!: 
mtegument  prolonged  upwards  as  a  beak-like  micropyle.  Ine  do-a\  r 
may  be  described  as  a  bud  bearing  a  pair  of  leaves  which  bcccst 
fused  and  constitute  a  perianth,  the  apex  of  the  ^Kwt  fonnti^  ^ti 
ovule.  In  function  the  perianth  may  be  compared  with  a  umloculir 
ovary  containing  a  single  ovule;  the  projectinf^  integument,  vhkh 
at  the  time  of  pollination  secretes  a  drop  of  liquid,  serves  the  sanf 
purpose  as  the  style  and  stigma  of  an  axigiosperm.    The  meg^iv^ 


GYMNOSPERMS 


inlyt^calGvniiioiperniiiUut  fioimonKof  iKe 
'  '"' — ;Doa  are  developed,  charuteriied  by 

.,., , _..e  ArchcgOflia  in  mAnted  tram  ane 

■notlier.  u  hi  PiHui',  by  iDme  of  the  proch«lli)t-t 


BecU.    Tbe  irc) 


itioUp  •one  of  the  upoennoit  br 
■ad  deiby:  the  periutb  devdope  I 

the  [eitOiicd  «■  (row  L 

si&:. 


a  wDoay  eneu,  wnue  un  um 

■pKk*  tl  Epluin,  t^  B, ,— , 

lubuEar  proembryoi,  from  the  tip  of  each  of  which 

be  developed,  but  oae  only  cofDei  to  futurity.   Ib_   _. 

Am  deicribed  by  Jeccud»  bo  pnenbryo  or  Hupeaior  H  formed ;  but 
(he  miMt  vigoroui  fertlliied  es|»  after  undeiyMg  levenl  diviBDna. 
becoms  iluched  to  >  littue,  teniied  the  cohineDi.  which  lervei  tbe 

Kfpoaeofa  priituryuipeiuori  the  cofumeBa  appean  to  be  formrd 
(be  ligni&alLOD  of  certain  cedi  ia  the  ceitcra]  reiian  of  the  em- 
bryo-HC.  At  a  later  itaEe  ■oneof  tbeceMa  in  the  upper  ImlcropylarJ 
end  of  the  embryo  divide  and  uiider|o  coiuidaable  elonicatLon. 
— J —  -I f  -  -Tcondary  Hipenaor.   The  Kcondary  ivood 


■erviacUiepQ 


which  are  cllml 


cd  pita  OB  their  oblique  end'WallL 

feoui  ia  lepreamted  by  leveral  ipeciea,  mokl 

jbitia  ptanta.  both  ia  tropical  America  and  in  v. 
njim  a  inc  Old  WorM.  The  kavca.  whlcli  are  borne  in  pair 
■be  tumid  Bodea.  are  oval  io  fatm  and  have  a  DicHykdonoui  I 

iio|^  or  pai^culate  iplkea.  The  apilce  of  an  iniliKtacence  bi 
whoda  <d  Bowera  at  each  node  ia  the  axila  of  concreacent  bn 
umenMi  aterile  liaira  (paraphyiei) ;  in  a  n 
'out  floweta  occur  at  each  node,  while  in  a  fen 
umber  of  flowen  at  each  node  ia  much  imal 
Amaienowerconiiataof  a  tingle  anftular  perianth.  Ihrou^  theo 
apea  of  which  the  flower-aicla  prqjeclaaaa  tlender  colu —  — — ' — ' 
in  two  anthera.    The  female  Bowen.  whicb  ate  ra 


p-,  Inner  Feriaplh. 

r .Outer  Ferianib. 
C.  Mejaipore. 


«  with  male  flowen 

A'andp>  Thewiioie'flc    .  _ 
twd  beanoE  two  pain  of  leavei 


■  Omuii.    (After  Lotey.) 
o.    Imperfect  ArchWorua. 
(.    Partially  developed  " 
F,  Fcni:e  half. 
S,  Sleiilehalf. 
t4.  Pollen-tube. 

i.   I^WilailuL 

Hnplete  and  incomplMe; 


c'nuce^c 
T  and  partially 

. iQiiy^Town"me»itport*  In 

-jmmam  Cutmrn^  aa  dncribed  1^  Lo1fy»  ■  mature  enbryMac  con- 
tain* in  tbe  upper  part  a  larfe  central  vacuole  and  a  peripheni  layer 
of  nvtoplaim.  including  teveral  nucleii  which  lake  the  place  of  the 
■rcheffonia  of  Efktdm  the  lower  pott  of  the  enbryo-AC  vpanlnl 
from  tbe  upper  by  a  comtrictioni  ia  full  of  parenchyma.  Tbe  upper 
pnrt  of  the  nKgaifiore  may  be  quhen  of  ai  the  fertile  half  (£f.  17.  B 
and  C,  Fl,  asd  the  lower  pan.  whieb  HTTei  only  ■■  rood-mrrvDir 

C.  S}.  TCouher.  BM.  Ciacllt.  xlvi..  igog.  renrdi  thii  tiuut  at  brlong- 
ing  to  tbe  auccUui.)    At  the  time  of  poUination  tbe  ioog  tubular 


763 

a  drop  of  fluid  at  ita  apei.  which  holdi  the 

pt'"The  poK'n-tu™ 
dII™  (Rg.  ir  b"^  C, 


iniect  aaency.  and  by  cvapontion  ihne  arc 
(he  nucdiua.  whece  paitiafdiiorgaaiBt^  of 
to  an  irregular  paUed.cbamber  (fig.  17.  A. 
containing  two  generative  and  one  vegetal' 
wall  of  the  megatpore  and  then  becomes  n 
pfti  finally  the  two  generative  nucld  pan  I 
u^tii  two  of  the  nuclei  in  tbe  fertile  hall  of 
lewU  of  fertlliation.  the  feniliied  nuclei  a 

p^n-iube(fi«.  i7,C,a  andO;  they  then  (rnw  into  long  lubei  or 
pnembcyoi.  which  malie  (heir  wav  lowanti  the  pnKhallut  (C,  i'), 
— -■  -— -" *- — —-—*-— -J  r -L-  -idaflj  rbeproembrva 


One  embrya  only  ei 


feeder  and  dr 


Tlie  embryo  ol 


I  the  hypocotyi,  *— —  —  - 

n  the  prothallui.    Tbe  flohy  ou 


ai  in'  Cymj  and  WscriiiiiHU,    Tirie 

ii  by  far  tbe  moot  rcmarluble 
■  iTgardi  habit  and  the  Torm  of  ilt 

lie  lysematic  work  of  Engler  and 

ntt  [he  well-linowa  name  Wtiwilidiia,  inrtiiu"--"  ■---  ■■--*--- 
4  ia  honour  of  Welwltich,  (he  diacoverer  of  t... 
nl  by  that  ol  Tumbtt,  otiginaUy  tag|ei(ed  by  Wi 
ui  ia  confined  to  certain  localitka  InDamaraland  anu  0u;rjinmB 
at  coafl  of  tropical  South  Africa.   A  well-frown 
.1. I ■._„  i^j  Birface  of  (be  gnxuKl;  the 


vilKkut  ITHnftcM).— Thi 
er  of  Ihe  Cnelalea.  both  . 
Hipplemeat  ' 


theplani. 


plant  prt^ecta  Icaa  tiui 


_  foot  above  t_- 
L  drcunlercnce  of  I 
aemblingarii    ' 


nglh,  becomea 


bnad  ridgea  concentric  with  ihe 
n  becnnea  rapidly  narrower,  and 

, ,  ataift^aot.   A  pair  of  email  tfnp- 

thapedleavea  iucceed  the  twocotytedona  of  the  Kcdliag.  and  perwct 

a>  the  only  leaveaduring  theNCeof  thepbnt;  they  retain  1*- 

of  growth  IB  tbeir  basal  portion,  which  is  aunh  In  a  Barrow  gti 

the  edge  of  the  tnwn,  and  the  tougb  lamina,  6  It.  in  length,  becc 
tpUt  into  narrow  atrap-ihaped  or  tbong-llke  ttfipa  which  trail  ot 

Sound,  Numcroui  cirrular  pitA  occur  on  the  concentric  rideet  ot  the 
preaed  and  wrinUcd  crown,  markiiw  the  pofition  ol  former 
innoreiceacea  borne  in  (be  Isii-aiil  at  dlficrent  ftagei  in  the  growth 
of  (he  plant.  An  Inflorewtnce  baa  the  form  of  a  dichotomouily- 
branciied  cyme  bearing  unall  erect  conca;  thote  conlainini  the 
female  flowen  attain  the  ni^  of  a  fir-cone,  und  are  icartel  in  colour. 
Each  cone  ccuiita  of  an  uif,  on  winch  oumcroui  broad  and  (bin 
bracta  are  arranged  in  regular  nswa;  in  (he  aid]  of  each  bract  occun 
a  ilnfle  flower;  a  male  Bower  it  cnclovrd  by  two  oppotite  pain  of 
leavea,  fotmiiig  a  pcrian(h  ■umnindrng  a  ccolnl  ttcrile  ovule  en- 
circled by  a  ring  of  itamena  uiuted  below,  but  free  dittaliy  aa  thoci 
filamentt,  each  ot  which  tenninitei  in  a  irilocular  anther.  The 
integument  of  the  aterile  ovule  ia  prolonged  above  the  nucdlut  at  a 
apirally-twiited  tube  cMpaaded  at  in  arm  into  ■  flat  Hiima-likc 
organ,  A  complete  and  lunctioiu]  femaCe  Hower  contint  oTa  tint'e 
ovule  with  two  intcgumcott.  the  inner  of  irhich  it  prolonged  into  a 
oatTow  tubular  micnipyk,  UVe  thai  in  (be  flgw '  '■—■ —     •"■- 


and  iome  of  tl 


with  (  protbal 
laUuKxIlituDci 


After  tbe  esg<ellt  have  be 
(bey  grow  in(o  tubular  pi 


.  -  _.. region  ot  the 

with  Ihe  pollen-tBbea. 
iSe  male  cellt 
nal  embryoa. 


ertifiied  by  the  l... 

ibtyoa,  producing  t 

, 90ue  collateral  biuKl..-. _. 

limited  growth,  and  are  coaitanlty  replaced  by  new  bundlei 
veloped  from  ttnnda  of  lecondcry  meriMem.  One  of  ihe  b 
known  anatomical  chancteriatica  of  the  genua  it  the  occuneon 
numeitKit  qnndle-thaped  or  branched  fibret  wiih  enormou 
thickened  wtlliRirdded  with  cryitalt  of  calcium  oiala(f.  AcMitic 
infmmation  hat  been  publithed  by  Protenor  Pearaan  ol  Cape  Ti 
bated  on  material  collected  in  Damaraland  in  1904  and  lOw-iS 
In  1906  he  ifave  an  account  of  the  early  ttaget  of  development  ol 


owlSl^tb 


?K 


1  tbe  FcpTDdnction  and  gamctophytc  r 

.-lEs.— Oootral;     Bcntham  and  HooL...  _ 

lanw  (London.  lW>-lB«])i  Engler  and  Pnntl.  Pie  mUilrJictni 
Mmm/amfin  (Leipni.  1M9  and  1S97):  S(niliurger,  Oir 
tni/tm  Mitd  Cnttaam  (Jena.  1S72);  Dit  Anti<"pi'rmt»  tmi  in 
CymiiespmiKn  Uena.  1879)  ;  HiilaUfiztlu  Bnlrdtf.  iv.  (Jena.  1S91I ; 
Coulter  and  Chamberlain,  ilarpkiiUitj  cf  SptrmalabkyUs  (New  York, 
I9ar);  Rendle,  TU  Qain/uUwa^nDBrnai  nsili,  vol.  i.  (Cam- 
bridne.  1904);  "  The  Onrin  of  Clymootpermt "  (A  ditcuHion  at 
(he  linncan  Socic(y:  Nn  PliyUlatiu.  vol.  v  ,  t<(0>».  Cytadalet'. 
Meneniui.  "  Bei(rtge  lur  Anatomie  der  Cycadeen,"  ANi.  t.  aitki. 


76+ 


GYMNOSTOMACEAE— GYNAECOLOGY 


:^hf 


.k-^fCyc. 


1897):  ^"■ 


bilota."  Ji_    .. 
"  GiDkBO  biloba ' 


BM.ii,(i89;J;Lan|;,"Sii 

of  Cycxdean  Sporaniia,  Nu.  j,,   ajta.  c«, 

AM.  idv.  (1900):  WtWwT,  "  Devcliimeni 

Zimii,"  BbL  Cu,    (1^7):    Ikeno,    "  UniFruiiznuiiutii  < 

Enlwkkdune.  &c,  bd  Cycai  rrvoluu,"  /onni.  tWf  .■.. 

m  (1B9W1  Wjcland.  ■'  AnjErican  Fonil  Cynids,"  Carn.ti 

Fortpflltl^Dfurnne  Jer  Cycadwn,"  fja^d  fl9"4l- 
"MfcnicycM  Cincoma."  SM.  Col.  xlLv..  I9CP7  tat^  ,. 
tliin  itnri  Dthrr  Cycada  in  the  BoL  Cot.,  igo7-tV^);  ^' 
■r  rappami  liWro-licuuI  il(l  Cycujo:^]  {C.u 
:■;  Hiraic.  "Etudci  >uc  la  f&Dndalion,  &<.,  <l 
CM.  Sit.  Japan,  nit  (1898);  Stward  an. I 
.,"  .(bw.  Sal.  BV.  (1900)  (with  bihUDSra[,li; 

__ k  liludc  dt  Is  ffcondation  dici  Ic  Cinl;,  , 

An.  So.  Nat.  liiL  llgpi);  SpreebH,  i*  Ginho  tniol'.j 

K7).  ContfOrulM: ''Report  o(  tl»  Conilrr  ConfcTrnn 
m.  J!.  HurL  Sue.  llv,  (l8J}):  Briniitr.  HimibMk  it:  .' 
twu'l  (Berlin,  1891);  Mjse™,  "Comparalivi  Morphiilii, 
ConiCeru."  Jinim.  Z.iini.  &>c,  nvii.  (iBgi):  OiiS.  (<•■ 
PtakiXaw. "  IbeGcvmCURnuicrtBl  Ihe  Miinh  Amcrlr.^  n 
and  Coniferae,"  i*™.  and  TViuu.  Ji.  .Six.  Ciiuda.  il  li)"/ 
Dan,  "  Fertiliiation  in  Piaui  >ylvcitrii."  Pkil.  7>jni,  (1- 
biblioErapiiy) ;  WdtNtell,  "  Slnujtuit  cl  Ihc  Female  i  I 
Conileri,'^  An«.  Bol.  nv.  <19™)  (mih  bibliography  1 ;  ih,  l 
Veitch,  Utmiial  nf  Ikt  Omijerat  (London,  \<)ix):  I'. 
"AnalDiny  of  Nonh  American  Cotiireralci,  Amenccn  ' 
(1904I!  Eneln'  anil  Pilger,  Dai  Ffiaaamiek,  Taiaier.^ 
Sewanl  aiuTFord.  "The  AraiKarkse,  recent  and  eviln. 
7>av.  JL  Soc.  (1906}  (wilb  bibliogiapby) ;  Liwson,  ' 
•emporvireos."  ^minJi  if  Bulany  (I9a|);  RDbenson,  " 
Californica,"  Nra  PkyloCai^  {Jt/o^];  Co\irT.  "Ganiciiinl 
Erabijo  or  Taiodium,"  «o(.  OaMcOi  (1901);  E.  C.  JiJin 
Compiralive  Anatomy  and  PliyloCTny  of  the  Conifir.ili 
Thr  Genui  Sequoia,"  farm.  BoKiW  7fo(,  Hijf,  5«.  V,  N'..  :■ 


Bd.  Jari.  BMiUiuoTi.  nvi.  (1899);  Land.  "  Eptedi-a  liiU] 
CnisUf  {looa);  Pearion,  "Some  otuirvaliana  on  WrUiii 
bilii/'PW.rrani.  je.5K,  (1906);  Pearson,"  Further  IJh 
OBVieiiiltKba."Plal.Traiii.lLSiK.vdl.iooiigo9).    (A. 


OTHHOSTOKACeAB,  an  ord 

r  of 

Ciliale  Infusoria 

characlerited  by  a  closed  moulh 

which  only  opens  10  sw 

food  actively,  and  body  cilia  form 

general  or  pirlial  in 

dteo 

Willi  He  AsDirolroch, 

(q.c.)  il  formed  Ihe  Holotticha  ot 

Siei] 

OTHPIE,  a    miniog  town  of 

Mp 

eh  coun       Qn    ni 

and 

m  S       fcarybo 

byrad,    Pop,(i90i)  .1,919.    N 

g      mi  es  re 

in  Ihe  districl.  which  ako  aboundj  in 

pc    sd  er 

dnnabar.  bisraulh  and  nickf  L    E 

Ue  40  ni.  N,  at  Mivi.    Cympie  beam- 

GYKAECEUM  (Gt.  yi^mxtj^. 

rom 

W7       m 

in  a  Gr«t  hoaw  which  wis  spedaUy 

in  contradisUnctioa  W  Uw   "a 

adro 

in  the  larger  houses  there  waa 

jiope        ort 

round,  and  as  1  rule  all  [he  rooo 

pla 

and  this  s«ms  lo  have  been  the 

Homeric  house  0!  Ihi^  Odyssey. 

jiven  by  Ptocopius  10  the  siiac 

resi 

In  the  early  Christian  churches  vh 
being  placed  in  Ihc  trilorium  gallery. 


Wyoi,  discourse),  the  name  given 
w1:uch  concerns-  the  patliology  a 
peculiar  10  the  female  sex. 

Gynaecology  may  be  said  to  be  one  of  the  nuBt  anc 
branches  of  medicme.    The  papyrus  of  Ebers,  which  b  on 
1  medidne  and  diUta  fnun  isso  I 


refcR 


specialism  in 


pracutionera.  The  Veda*  contain  a  list  ol  therapeulk  agots 
used  in  Ihe  treatmeat  of  gynaecolo^cal  diseases.  The  tiotiKs 
on  gynaecology  formeriy  attributed  to  Uij^wcTstes  (460  a.c} 
are  now  said  to  be  spurious,  but  the  wortling  of  the  fainnis 
oath  shows  that  he  was  at  least  familiar  with  the  use  of  gynaeo}- 
logical  instrumenta.  Diodes  Carystius,  of  the  Aloandriia 
school  C^th  century  B.C.).  practised  this  hnniJi,  and  Praasgoral 
of  Cos,  who  lived  shortly  iflec,  opened  the  abdomen  by. 
laparotomy.  While  the  Aloandrine  school  repcesented  Gieek 
medicine.  Creeks  begin  to  practise  in  Rome,  lad  in  the  ini 
years  of  the  Christian  era  gynaecologists  were  much  in  detesod 
(HAser).  A  speculum  for  gynaecologica]  purposes  has  been 
found  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  ami  votive  offerings  of  ■n»>rtwiir>t 


malformations  were  known  to  the  andents. 
treated  of  this  branch  arc  Celsus  (jo  B.C-*Ji.  ;)  and  Soruus 
of  Ephesus  (aji.  9S-i]S),  who  refers  in  bis  works  to  the  fict 
that  the  Roman  midwivei  frequently  called  lo  their  aid  pricii- 
[ionen  who  made  a  special  study  of  diseasa  of  women.  These 
midwives  attended  the  umpler  gynaectilo^cal  ailments.  This 
was  no  innovation,  as  in  Athens,  as  mentioned  by  Hyginus, 
we  6nd  one  Agnodice,  a  midwife,  disguising  herself  in  man's 
attire  so  that  she  might  attend  lectures  on  medicine  and  dtsevcs 
of  women.  After  instruction  she  practised  as  a  gynaecolocBt. 
This  being  cuntrary  to  Athenian  law  ahe  was  pnoeculed.  tnn 
was  saved  by  the  wives  of  some  of  the  chief  men  testifying  on 
her  behalf.  Beudes  Agnodice  we  have  Sotlm,  w4io  wiote  a 
woric  on  menstruation  which  is  preserved  in  the  labrary  at 
Florence,  while  Aspasia  is  mentioned  by  Aetiui  as  the  author 
of  leveral  chapters  of  bis  work.  It  is  evident  that  dnring  the 
~  Luch  of  the  gynaecological  work  was  in  the 


lof  w 


"/e- 


.  _         HiLeda.    These  wi 

"  obstet  rices."  Galen  devotes  the  sixth  cfaapler  of  Us  wifffc 
Dc  Ixii  affcdit  to  gynaecologial  ailiitents.  Doling  the 
Bysantuie  period  may  be  menlioned  the  work  of  OiilHnB 
(a.d.  J15)  and  Moschion  (>nd  cenlury  aji.)  who  wrote  a  book 
in  Latin  for  Ihe  use  of  mauons  and  midwives  igDOraat  of  Greek. 

Eitnchut  tyneiapallalscicits  tl  cbslilrsciiriKi,  and  in  175]  ChiHcs 
P  rry  published  Us  UaJuHiial  aamiil  tad  txpUctlian  i)  ib 
k    tertcai  passion  and  of  oU  eiktr  nenous  disorders  inddml  it 

b  century  fresh  interest  in  ^l*""^  of  women  awakened. 
J  se  h  Rfcamier  (i774-ifi5i)  by  his  writings  aibd  teachings 

ocated  the  use  of  the  speculum  and  sound.    This  was  foOoird 

84  by  the  writings  of  Simpson  In  En^aod  and  Hugnier  in 
France     In  184;  John  Hughes  Bennett  pubti:Jied  his  gnat  nik 

inflsmmalioa  of  the  uterus,  and  In  1S50  Tdt  pi^lished  hii 
book  novBriioinSammalion.  The  credit  of  being  the  first  to 
pe     no  Ihe  operaiioB  of  ovariotomy  II  now  credited  to  McDowtJ 

R  lucky  m  1S09,  and  to  Robert  Lawson  Tail  (iS4S-<^' 
10    SS    the  first  operation  for  ruptured  ectc^c  gestation. 

of  we  ty.elghl  days  (nioie  or  leis).  The  flow  Iwiiu  Mtbcitid 
pubert      the  average  age  of  which  lo  England  Isbelween  fDoiTno 


irdiniiaknl 
K  rrrbai'trl 


GYNAECOLOGY 


765 


disofden  of  menstruation  are:  (i)  ameiurrhoea  (absence  of  flow), 
fa)  dysnuitorrkoea  (painful  flow),  (3)  menorrhagia  (exceaaive  flow), 
(4)  metrorrhagia  (excessive  and  irregular  flow).  Amenorrhoea  may 
arise  from  physiological  causes,  such  as  pregnancy,  lactation,  the 
menopause;  constitutional  causes,  such  as  phthisis,  anaemia  and 
chlorosis,  febrile  disorders,  some  chronic  mtoxications,  such  as 
morphinomania,  and  some  forma  of  cerebral  disease;  local  causes, 
which  include  malformations  or  absence  of  one  or  more  of  the  genital 
parts,  such  as  absence  of  ovaries,  uterus  or  vagina,  atresia  of  vagina, 
imperforate  cervix,  disease  of  the  ovaries,  or  sometimes  imperforate 
hymen.  The  treatment  of  amenorrhoea  must  be  directed  towards  the 
cause.  In  anaemia  and  phthisis  menstruation  often  returns  after 
iin(}rovement  in  the  general  condition,  with  good  food  and  good 
sanitary  conditions,  an  outdoor  life  and  the  administration  of  iron 
or  ot  her  tonics.  I  n  local  conditions  of  imperforate  hymen,  imperfor- 
ate cervix  or  ovarian  disease,  surgical  interference  is  necessary. 
Amenorrhoea  is  permanent  when  due  to  absence  of  the  genital  parts. 
The  causes  of  dysmcnorrhoea  are  classified  as  follows:  (i)  ovarian, 
due  to  disease  of  the  ovaries  or  Fallopian  tubes;  (a)  obstructive, 
due  to  some  obstacle  to  the  flow,  as  stenosis,  flexions  and  mal- 
positions of  the  uterus,  or  malformations;  (3)  congestive,  due  to 
subinvolution,  chronic  inflammation  of  the  uterus  or  its  lining 
membrane,  fibroid  growths  and  polypi  of  the  uterus,  cardiac  or 
hepatic  disease;  (4}  neuralgic;  (5)  membranous.  The  forem<»t 
place  in  the  treatment  of  dysmenorrhoea  must  be  given  to  aperients 
and  purgatives  administered  a  day  or  two  before  the  period  b  ex- 
pected. By  this  means  congestion  is  reduced.  Hot  batns  are  useful, 
and  various  drugs  such  as  hvoscyanus,  cannabis  indica,  phcnalgin, 
ammonol  or  phenacetin  have  been  prescribed.  Medicinal  treatment 
is,  however,  only  palliative,  and  flexions  and  malpositions  of  the 
uterus  must  be  corrected,  stenosis  treated  by  dilatation,  fibroid 

growths  if  present  removed,  and  endometritis  when  present  treated 
y  local  applications  or  curetting  according  to  its  severity.  Menor- 
rhagia signifies  excessive  bleeding  at  the  menstrual  periods.  Consti- 
tutional pauses  are  purpura,  haemophilia,  excessive  food  and  alcoholic 
drinks  and  warm  climates;  while  local  causes  are  congestion  and 
displacements  of  the  uterus,  endometritis,  subinvolution,  retention 
of  the  products  of  conception,  new  growths  in  the  uterus  such  as 
mucous  and  fibroid  polypi,  malignant  growths,  tutxM)varian  inflam- 
mation and  some  ovarian  tumours.  Metrorrhagia  is  a  discharge  of 
blood  from  the  uterus,  independent  of  menstruation.  It  always 
arises  from  disease  of  the  uterus  or  its  appendages.  Local  causes  are 
polypi,  retention  of  the  products  of  conception,  extra  uterine  gesta- 
tion, haemorrhaees  in  connexion  with  pregnancy,  and  new  growths 
in  the  uterus.  In  the  treatment  of  both  menorrhagia  and  metror- 
rhagia the  local  condition  must  be  carefully  ascertained.  When 
pregnancy  has  been  excluded,  and  constitutional  causes  treated, 
efforts  should  be  made  to  relieve  congestion.  Uterine  haemostatics, 
as  ersot,  crgotin,  tincture  of  hydrastis  or  haroamelis,  arc  ofuse, 
together  with  rest  in  bed.  Fibroid  polypi  and  other  new  growths 
must  be  removed.  Irr^ular  bleeding  in  women  over  forty  vears  of 
age  is  frequently  a  sign  m  early  malignant  disease,  and  should  on  no 
account  be  neglected. 

Diuases  of  tke  External  Genital  Orgfins. — ^The  vulva  comprises 
several  organs  and  structures  grouped  together  for  convenience  of 
description  (see  Reproductive  System).  The  affections  to  which 
these  structures  are  liable  may  be  classified  as  follows:  (i)  Injuries 
to  the  vulva,  either  accidental  or  occurring  during  parturition; 
thesearegenerally  rupture  of  the  perinacum.  {2)  Vtuoitis.  Simple 
vulvitis  is  due  to  want  of  cleanliness,  or  irritating  discharges,  and  in 
children  may  result  from  threadworms.  The  symptoms  are  heat, 
itching  and  throbbing,  and  the  parts  are  red  and  swollen.  The 
treatment  consists  of  rest,  thorough  cleanliness  and  fomentations. 
Infective  vulvitis  is  nearly  always  due  to  gonorrhoea.  Thesymptoma 
arc  the  same  as  in  simple  vulvitis,  with  the  addition  of  mucopurulent 
yellow  discharge  ana  scalding  pain  on  micturition;  if  neglected, 
extension  of  the  disease  maty  result.  The  treatment  consists  of  rest 
in  bed,  warm  medicated  baths  several  times  a  day  or  fomentations 
of  boracic  acid.  The  parts  must  be  kept  thoroughly  dean  and 
discharges  swabbed  away.  Diphtheritic  vulvitis  occasionally  occurs, 
and  erysipelas  of  the  vulva  may  follow  wounds,  but  since  the  use  of 
antiseptics  b  rarely  seen.  (3)  Vascular  dbturbances  may  occur  in 
the  vulva,  including  varix,  haematoma,  oedema  and  gangrene;  the 
treatment  b  the  same  as  for  the  same  disease  in  other  parts.  (4)  The 
vulva  is  likely  to  be  affected  by  a  number  of  cutaneous  affections, 
the  roost  important  being  erythema,  eczema,  herpes,  lichen,  tubercle, 
elephantiasb,  vulvitis  prunginosa,  syphilis  and  kraurosis.  These 
affections  present  the  same  characters  as  in  other  parts  of  the  body. 
Kraurosis  vub)ae,^nx.  described  by  LawsonTait  in  1875,  is  an  atrophic 
cjunge  accompanied  by  pain  and  a  yellowish  discharge:  the  cause 
is  unknown.  Pruritis  vulvae  is  due  to  parasites,  or  to  irritating 
discharges,  as  leucorrhoea,  and  is  frequent  in  dubetic  subjects.  The 
hymen  may  be  occasionally  imperforate  and  require  incision.  Cysts 
and  painful  carunculae  may  occur  on  the  clitoris.  Any  part  of  the 
vulva  may  be  the  seat  of  new  growths,  Mmple  or  malignant. 

Diseases  of  the  Vafina. — (1)  Malformation.^.  The  vagina  may  be 
absent  in  whole  or  in  part  or  may  present  a  septum.  Stenosb  of 
the  vagina  may  be  a  barrier  to  menstruation.  (2)  Displacements  of 
the  vagina;  (a)  cystocele,  which  b  a  hernia  of  the  bladder  into  the 
vagina;  (6)  rectoode,  a  beroia  of  the  rectum  into  the  vagina.    The 


cause  of  these  conditions  is  relaxation  of  the  tbsues  due  to  parturition. 
The  palliative  treatment  consbts  in  keeping  up  the  parts  by  the 
insertion  of  a  pessary;  when  thb  fails  operative  interference  ia 
called  for.  (3)  r  btulae  may  form  between  the  vasina  and  bladder  or 
vagina  and  rectum;  they  are  generally  caused  by  injuries  during 
parturition  or  the  late  stages  of  carcinoma.  Persbtent  fistulae 
require  operative  treatment.  The  vagina  normally  secretes  a  thin 
opalescent  acid  fluid  derived  from  the  lymph  serum  and  the  shedding 
o(  squamous  epithelium.  This  fluid  normally  contains  the  vagina 
bacillus.  In  pathological  conditions  of  the  vagina  thb  secretion 
undeigoes  changes.  For  practical  purposes  three  varieties  of 
vaginitis  may  be  described:  (a)  simple  catarrhal  vaginitis  is  due  to 
the  same  causes  as  simple  vulvitb,  and  occasionally  in  children  b 
important  from  a  meclico-legal  aspect  when  it  b  complicated  by 
vulvitis.  The  symptoms  are  heat  and  discomfort  with  copioua 
mucopurulent  discharge.  The  only  treatment  required  is  rest,  with 
vaginal  douches  of  warm  unirritating  lotions  such  aa  boracic  acid  or 
subacetate  4^  lead.  (6)  Gonorrhocal  vaginitis  is  most  common  in 
adults.  The  patient  comptains  of  pain  and  burning,  pain  on  passing 
water  and  discharge  which  b  generally  green  or  yellow.  The  results 
of  untreated  gonorrhoea!  vaginitb  are  serious  and  far-reaching. 
The  disease  may  spread  up  the  ^nital  passages,  causing  endometritis, 
salpingitis  and  septic  peritonitis,  or  may  extend  into  the  bladder, 
causing  cystitis.  Strict  rest  should  be  enjoined,  douches  of  carbolic 
acid  (i  in  40)  or  of  perchloride  of  mercury  (i  in  aooo)  shoukl  be 
ordered  morning  and  evening,  the  vagina  being  pacloed  with  tam- 
pons  of  iodoform  gauze.  Saline  purgatives  and  alkaline  diuretics 
should  be  given,  (c)  Chronic  vaginitis  (leucorrhoea  or  "  the  whites  ") 
may  follow  acute  conditions  and  persist  indefinitely.  The  vagina  is 
rarely  the  seat  of  tumours,  but  cysts  are  common. 

Diseases  of  tke  Uterus. — ^The  uterus  undergoes  important  changes 
during  life,  chiefly  at  puberty  and  at  the  menopause.  At  puberty  it 
assumes  the  pear  shape  characteristic  of  the  mature  uterus.  At  the 
menopause  it  shares  in  the  general  atrophy  of  the  reproductive 
organs.  It  b  subject  to  various  disoracn  ahd  misplacements, 
(a)  Displacements  of  tke  Uterus. — ^The  normal  position  of  the  uterus, 
when  tiie  bladder  b  empty,  b  that  of  antevcrsion.  We  have  there- 
fore to  consider  the  following  conditions  as  pathological:  ante- 
flexion, retroflexion,  retroversion,  inversion,  prolapse  and  pro- 
cidentb.  Slight  anteflexion  or  bending  forwaras  b  normal;  when 
exaggerated  it  gives  rise^  to  dv^menorrhoea,  sterility  and  reflex 
nervous  phenomena.  Thb  condition  is  usually  congenital  and  is 
often  assocbted  w^ith  undcr-devclopment  of  the  uterus,  from  which 
the  sterility  results.  The  treatment  is  by  dilatation  of  the  canal  or 
by  a  plastic  operation.  Retroflexion  is  a  bending  over  of  the  uterus 
backwards,  and  occun  as  a  complication  of  vetroverston  (or  dis- 
placement backwards).  The  causes  are  (1)  any  cause  tending  to 
make  the  fundus  or  upper  part  of  the  uterus  extra  heavy,  such  aa 
tumours  or  congestion,  (2)  loss  of  tone  of  the  uterine  waifs,  (3)  ad- 
hesions formed  after  cellulitis,  (3)  violent  muscular  efforts,  (4) 
weakening  of  the  uterine  supports  from  parturition.  The  symptoms 
are  dysmenorrhoea,  pain  on  defaccation  and  constipation  from  the 

Treasure  of  the  fundus  on  the  rectum;  the  patient  is  often  sterile, 
'he  treatment  is  the  replacing  of  the  uterus  in  position,  where  it  can 
be  kept  by  the  insertion  of  a  pessary;  failing  thb,  operative  treat- 
ment may  be  required.  Retroversion  when  pathological  b  rarer 
than  retroflexion.  It  may  be  the  result  of  injury  m-  b associated  with 
pregnancy  or  a  fibroid.  The  symptoms  are  those  of  retroflexion  with 
lechng  of  pain  and  weight  in  tne  pelvb  and  desire  to  micturate 
followied  by  retention  of  urine  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  cervix 
against  the  base  of  the  bbdder.  The  uterus  must  be  skilfully  re- 
placed in  position;  when  pessaries  fail  to  keep  it  there  the  operation 
of  hysteropexy  gives  excellent  results. 

Inversion  occurs  when  the  uterus  b  turned  inside  out.  '  It  b  only 
possible  when  the  cavity  b  dilated,  either  after  pregnancy  or  by  a 
polypus.  The  greater  number  of  cases  follow  delivery  and  are 
acute.  Chronic  inversions  are  generally  due  to  the  weight  of  a 
polypus.  The  symptoms  are  menorrhagia,  metrorrha|;b  and  bladder 
troubles;  on  examination  a  tumour-liln  mass  occupies  the  vagina. 
Reduction  of  the  condition  b  often  difficult,  particularly  when  the 
condition  has  lasted  for  a  long  time.  The  tumour  which  has  caused 
the  inversion  must  be  excised.  Prolapse  and  procidentb  are  different 
degrees  of  the  same  variety  of  displacement.  When  the  uterus  lies 
in  the  vagina  it  is  spoken  of  as  probpse,  when  it  protrudes  through 
the  vulva  it  is  procidentia.  The  causes  are  directfy  due  to  increased 
intra-abdominal  pressure,  increased  weight  of  the  uterus  by  fibroids, 
violent  straining,  chronic  cough  and  weakening  of  the  supportina 
structures  of  the  pelvic  floor,  such  as  laceration  of  the  vagina  ana 
perinaeum.  Traction  on  the  uterus  from  below  (as  a  cervical  tumour) 
may  be  a  cause ;  advanced  age,  bborious  occupations  and  frequent 
pregnancies  are  indirect  causes.  The  symptoms  are  a  "  bouing 
down  "  feeling,  pain  and  fatigue  in  walking,  trouble  with  micturition 
and  defaecation.  The  condition  is  eencraily  obviouson  examination. 
As  a  rule  the  uterus  is  easy  to  replace  in  position.  A  rubber  ring 
pessary  will  often  serve  to  Veep  it  there.  If  the  perinaeum  is  very 
much  torn  it  may  be  necessary  to  repair  it.  Various  operations  foe 
retaining  the  uterus  in  position  are  described.  (6)  Enlargements  of 
the  Uterus  (hypertrophy  or  hyperplasb).  Thb  condition  mav  some- 
times involve  the  uterus  as  a  whole  or  may  be  most  marked  in  the 
body  or  in  the  cervix.    It  follows  chronic  congestion  or  inflammatocy 


766 


GYNAECOLOGY 


prolapse,  or  any  condition  interfering  with  the  drculatioo.  The 
symptoms  comprise  local  discomfort  and  sometimes  dysmenorrhoea, 
leucorriioea  or  menorrhagia.  When  the  cton|;ation  occurs  in  the 
cervical  portion  the  only  posuble  treatment  is  amputation  of  the 
cervix.  Atrophy  of  the  uterus  is  normal  after  the  menopause.  It 
may  follow  tne  removal  oi  the  tubes  and  ovaries.  Some  consti' 
tutional  diseases  produce  the  same  result,  as  tuberculosis,  chlorosis, 
chronic  morphinism  and  certain  diseases  of  the  central  nervous 
system. 

(e)  Injuries  and  Diseases  resultant  from  Pregnancy. — The  most 
frequent  of  these  injuries  is  laceration  of  the  cervix  uteri,  which  is 
frequent  in  precipitate  labour.  Once  the  cervix  is  torn  the  raw 
sunaces  bwome  covered  by  granulations  and  later  by  dcatrictal 
tissue,  but  as  a  rule  they  do  not  unite.  The  torn  lips  may  become 
unhealthy,  and  the  congestion  and  oedema  spread  to  the  body  of  the 
uterus.  A  lacerated  cervix  does  not  usually  give  rise  to  symptoms; 
these  depend  on  the  accompanying  endometritis,  and  include 
leucorrhoea,  aching  and  a  feeling  of  weight.  Lacerations  are  to  be 
felt  digitally.  As  ucerations  predispose  to  abortion  the  operation  of 
trachelonaphy  or  repair  of  the  cervix  is  indicated.  Perforation  of 
the  uterus  may  occur  from  the  use  of  the  sound  in  diseased  conditions 
ol  the  uterine  walla.  Superinvolution  means  premature  atrophy 
following  parturition.  Subinvolution  is  a  condition  in  which  the 
uterus  ^Is  to  return  to  its  normal  size  and  remains  enlarged. 
Retention  of  the  products  of  conception  may  cause  irregular 
haemorrhages  and  may  lead  to  a  diagnosis  of  tumour.  The  uterus 
should  be  carefully  explored. 

{d)  Infiammations  Acute  and  Chronic. — ^The  mucous  membrane 
lining  the  cervical  canal  and  body  of  the  uterus  is  called  the  en- 
dometrium. Acute  inflammation  or  endometritis  may  attack  it. 
The  chief  causes  are  sepsis  following  labour  or  abortion,  extension  of 
a  gonorrhoeal  vaginitis,  or  ganerene  or  infection  of  a  uterine  myoma. 
The  puerperal  endometritis  following  labour  is  an  avoidable  ouease 
due  to  lack  of  scrupulous  aseptic  precautions. 

Gonorrhoeal  endometritis  ts  an  acute  form  associated  with  copious 
purulent  discharge  and  well-marked  constitutional  disturbance. 
The  temperature  ranges  from  99*  to  105"  F.,  associated  with  pelvic 
pain,  and  rigors  are  not  uncommon.  The  tendency  is  to  recovery 
with  more  or  less  protracted  convalescence.  The  most  serious  com- 
plications are  extension  of  the  disease  and  later  sterility.  Rest  in 
Bed  and  intrauterine  irrigation,  followed  by  the  introduction  of 
iodoform  pencils  into  the  uterine  cavity,  should  be  resorted  to, 
while  pain  is  rclievcd  by  hot  fomentations  and  sitx  baths.  Chronic 
cndometritb  may  be  the  seoucla  of  the  acute  form,  or  may  be  septic 
in  origin,  or  the  result  of  cnronic  congestion,  acute  retroflcction  or 
subinvolution  following  delivery  or  abortion.    The  varieties  are 

Standular,  interstitial,  haemorrhagic  and  senile.  The  symptoms  are 
isturbance  of  the  menstrual  function,  headache,  pain  and  pelvic 
discomfort,  and  more  or  less  profuse  thick  Icucorrnoeal  discnar^. 
The  treatment  consists  in  attention  to  the  general  health,  with  suit- 
able laxatives  and  local  injections,  and  in  obstinate  cases  curettage 
u  the  most  effectual  measure.  The  disease  is  frequentiv  associated 
with  adenomatous  disease  of  the  cervix,  formerly  called  erosion. 
In  this  disease  there  is  a  new  formation  of  glandular  elements,  which 
enlaiige  and  multiplv,  forming  a  soft  velvety  areola  dotted  with  pink 
spots.  This  was  formerly  erroneously  termed  ulceration.  The 
cause  IS  unknown.  It  occun  in  virgins  as  well  as  in  mothers,  but 
it  often  accompanies  lacerations  of  tne  cervix.  The  symptoms  are 
indefinite  pain  and  leucorrhoea.  The  condition  is  visible  on  inspec- 
tion with  a  speculum.  The  treatment  is  swabbing  with  iodited 
phenol  or  curettage.  The  body  of  tjie  uterus  may  also  be  the  seat  of 
adenomatous  disease.  Tuberculosis  may  attack  the  uterus;  this 
usually  forms  part  of  a  general  tuberculosis. 

(e)  New  Growths  in  Me  Uterus, — ^The  uterus  is  the  most  common 
seat  of  new  growths.  From  the  researches  of  von  Gurit,  compiled 
from  the  Vienna  Hospital  Reports,  embracing  f  5,880  cases  of  tumour, 
females  exceed  males  in  the  proportion  of  seven  to  three,  and  of  this 
large  majority  uterine  growths  account  for  25  % .  When  we  consider 
its  periodic  monthly  engorgements  and  the  alternate  hypertrophy 
and  involution  it  undergoes  in  connexion  with  pregnancy,  we  can 
anticipate  the  special  proneness  of  the  uterus  to  new  growths. 
Tumoure  of  the  uterus  are  divided  into  benign  and  malignant. 
The  benign  tumours  known  as  fibroids  or  myomata  are  very  common. 
They  are  stated  by  Bayle  to  occur  in  20  %  of  women  over  35  years  of 
a^,  but  happily  in  a  great  number  of  cases  they  are  small  and  give 
nse  to  no  symptoms.  They  are  definitely  associated  with  the  period 
of  sexual  activity  and  occur  more  frequently  in  married  women  than 
in  single,  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one  (Winckel).^  It  is  doubtful  if 
they  ever  originate  after  the  menopause.  Indeed  if  uncomplicated 
by  changes  in  them  they  share  in  tne  general  atrophy  of^  the  sexual 
organs  which  then  takes  place.  They  are  divided  according  to  their 
position  in  the  tissues  into  intramural,  subserous  and  submucous 
(the  last  when  it  has  a  pedicle  forms  a  polvpus),  or  as  to  the  part  of 
the  uterus  in  which  they  develop  into  fibroids  of  the  cervix  and 
fibroids  of  the  body.  Intramural  and  submucous  fibroids  give 
rise  to  haemorrhage.  The  menses  may  be  so  increased  that  the 
patient  is  scarcely  ever  free  from  haemorrhage.  The  pressure  of  the 
growth  may  cause  dysmenorrhoea,  or  pressure  on  the  bladder  and 
rectum  may  cause  dysuria,  retention  or  rectal  tenesmus.  The 
uterus  may  be  displaced  by  the  weight  of  the  tumour.    Secondary 


changes  take  place  in  fibroids,  such  as  mucous  degeneration.  Catty 
metamorphosis,  calcification,  septic  infection  (slou^ng  fibroid)  and 
malignant  (sarcomatous),  degeneration. 

The  modes  in  which  fibroids  imperil  life  are  haemorrhage  (the 
commonest  of  all),  septic  infection,  which  b  one  of  the  mostdanger- 
ous,  impaction  when  it  fits  the  true  pelvis  so  tightly  that  the  tumour 
cannot  rise,  twisting  of  the  pedicle  by  rotation,  leading  to  sloiq^^ii^ 
and  intestinal  and  urinary  obstruction.  When  fibroias  are  compl»- 
cated  by  pregnancy,  impaction  and  consequent  abortion  nay  tahae 
place,  or  a  cervical  myoma  nuy  offer  a  mechanical  obstacle  to 
delivery  or  lead  to  serious  post  partem  haemorrhage.  In  the  treat- 
ment CM  fibroids  various  drugs  (ergot,  hamametis.  hydrastis  cana- 
densis) may  be  tried  to  contixu  the  haemorrhage,  and  repose  and  the 
injection  of  hot  water  (130*  F.)  are  sometimes  successful,  together 
with  electrical  treatment.  Sut|jical  measures  are  needed,  however,  in 
severe  recurrent  haemorrhage,  intestinal  obstruction,  slou^ing  and 
theco-existenoe  of  pregnancy.  An  endeavour  must  be  made  if 
passible  to  enucleate  the  fibroid,  or  hysterectomy  fremoval  of  the 
uterus)  may  be  required.  The  operation  of  removal  of  the  ovaries 
to  precipitate  the  menopause  has  fallen  into  disuse. 

(/)  Malignant  Disease  of  the  Uterus. — ^The  varieties  of  ma&goant 
disease  met  with  in  the  uterus  are  sarcoma,  cardnoraa  and  cAorioo- 
epithelioma  malignum.  Sarcomata  may  occur  in  the  body  and  in  the 
neck.  They  occur  at  an  earlier  age  than  caidnomata.  Marked 
enlargement  and  haemorrhage  are  the  symptoms.  The  differential 
diagnosis  is  microscopic  Extirpation  of  the  utenia  »  tfae  only 
chance  of  prolonging  life.  The  age  at  which  women  are  most  subject 
to  careinoma  (cancer)  of  the  uterus  b  towards  the  dediae  of  sexual 
life.  Of  3385  collected  cases  of  cancer  of  the  uterus  1169  occurred 
between  40  and  50,  and  856  between  50  and  60.  In  cootradistinction 
to  fibroid  tumours  it  freouently  arises  after  the  menopause,  it  may 
be  divided  into  cancer  01  the  body  and  cancer  of  the  aieck  (cervix^ 
Cancer  of  the  neck  of  the  uterus  b  almost  exclusively  confined  to 
women  who  have  been  pregnant  (Bland-Sutton).  Predispostng  causes 
may  be  injuries  during  delivery.  The  symptoms  which  induce  women 
to  seek  medical  aid  are  haemorrhage,  foetid  discharge,  and  later  pain 
and  cachexia.  An  unfortunate  belief  amongst  the  public  that  the 
menopause  b  associated  with  irregular  bleedins^  and  offensive  dis- 
charges has  prevented  many  women  from  seeking  medical  advice 
until  too  late.  It  cannot  be  too  widely  understood  that  cancer  of 
the  cervix  is  in  its  early  stages  a  purely  local  dbease,  and  if  removed 
in  this  stage  usually  results  in  cure.  So  important  w  the  recognition  - 
of  this  fact  in  the  saving  of  human  life  that  at  the  meeting  of  the 
British  Medical  Association  in  April  X909  the  council  issued  for 
publication  a  special  appeal  to  meaical  practitioners,  midwivcs  and 
nurses,  and  directed  it  to  be  published  in  British  and  colonial  medical 
and  nursing  journals.  It  will  be  useful  to  au<^  here  a  part  of  the 
appeal  directed  to  midwives  and  nurses:  Gtnoer  may  ooonr.at 
any  age  and  in  a  woman  who  looks  quite  well,  and  who  may  have'no 
pain,  no  wasting,  no  foul  discharge  and  no  profuse  bleeoing.  To 
wait  for  pain,  wasting,  foul  discharge  or  profuse  bleeding  b  to  throw 
away  the  chance  of  successful  treatment.  The  early  sympcoms  of 
cancer  of  the  womb  are : — (t )  bleeding  which  occurs  alter  the  change 
of  life,  (2)  bleeding  after  sexual  intercourse  or  after  a  vaginal  dooclw. 
(3)  bleeding,  slight  or  abundant,  even  in  youmr  women,  if  oocurring 
between  the  usual  monthly  periods,  and  especially  when  accompaniea 
by  a  bad-smelling  or  watery  blood-tinged  discharge,  (4)  thin  watery 
discharge  occumng  at  any  a^."  On  examination  the  cervix 
presents  certain  characteristic  signs,  though  these  may  be  modified 
according  to  the  variety  of  cancer  present.  Hard  nodules  or  definiu 
loss  of  suDstance,  extreme  friability  and  bleeding  after  slight  manipu- 
lation, are  suspicious.  Epithelial  cancer  of  the  cervix  may  assume 
a  proliferating  ulcerative  type,  forming  the  wdl-known  "  cauiifiowtr'* 
excrescence.  The  treatment  of  cancer  of  the  cervix  b  free  remoral 
at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  Cancer  of  the  body  of  the  uterus 
is  rare  before  the  4Sth  year.  It  b  most  frequent  at  or  subsequent  to 
the  menopause.  The  majority  of  the  patients  are  nulliparae  (Bland- 
Sutton).  The  signs  are  fitful  haemorrhages  after  the  menopause, 
followed  by  profuse  and  offensive  discharges.  The  uterus  00  ex- 
amination often  feels  enlarged.  The  diagnosb  being  made,  hyster- 
ectomy (removal  of  the  uterus)  is  the  only  treatment.  Cancer  of  the 
body  of  the  uterus  may  complicate  fibroids.  Chorion-epithriioma 
malignum  (dcciduoma)  was  first  described  in  1889  by  Saiqper  and 
Pfciner.  It  is  a  malignant  disease  presenting  microscopic  characters 
resembling  decidual  tissue.     It  occurs  in  connexion  with  recent 

Q nancy,  and  particulariy  with  the  variety  of  abortion  termed 
itid  mole.  In  many  cases  it  destroys  life  with  a  rapidity  un- 
equalled by  amy  other  kind  of  growth.  It  quickly  ulcerates  and 
infiltrates  the  uterine  tissues,  forming  metastatK  growths  in  the  lung 
and  vagina.  Clinically  it  is  recognixed  by  the  occurrence  after 
pregnancy  of  violent  haemorrhages,  progressive  cachexia  and  fever 
with  rigors.  Recent  suggestions  have  been  made  as  to  chorion- 
epithelioma  being  the  result  of  pathological  changes  in  the  lutein 
tissue  of  the  ovary.  The  ^wtfi  b  usually  primary  in  the  uterus, 
but  may  be  so  in  the  Fallopian  tubes  and  in  the  vagina.  A  few  cases 
have  been  recorded  unconnected  with  pregnancy.  The  viruleore  of 
chorion-epithelioma  varies,  but  in  the  present  state  of  our  koovledfe 
immediate  removal  of  the  primary  growth  along  with  the  affected 
organ  is  the  only  treatment. 
Diseases  of  the  Fallopian  ruAef.— >The  Fallopian  tubes  or  oviducts 


GYONGYOSI— gyOr 


767 


•re  Ikble  to  inflaminatory  affections,-  tubereulons,  sarcomata, 
cancer,  chorion-epithelioma  and  tubal  pregnancy.  Salpingitis 
(inflammation  of  tne  oviducts)  is  nearly  always  secondaiy  to  septic 
infection  of  the  genital  tract.  The  chief  causes  are  septic  endome- 
tritis following  labour  or  abortion,  gangrene  of  a  myoma,  gonorriioca, 
tuberculosis  and  cancer  of  the  uterus;  it  sometimes  follows  the 
specific  fevers.  When  the  pus  escapes  from  the  tubes  into  the  coelom 
it  sets  up  pelvic  peritonitis.  When  the  inflammation  is  adjacent  to 
the  ostium  it  leads  to  the  matting  together  of  the  tubal  fimbriae  and 
glues  them  to  an  adjacent  ofgan.  This  scab  the  ostium.  The 
occluded  tube  may  now  have  an  accumulation  of  pus  in  it  fpyosal" 

E).  When  in  conseouence  of  the  scaling  of  the  ostium  the  tube 
mcs  distended  witn  serous  fluid  it  is  termed  hydrosalpinx 
natosalpinx  Is  a  term  applied  to  the  non*gravid  tuoe  distended 
with  blood;  lattr  the  tubes  may  become  sclerosed.  Acute  septic 
•alpinntis  is  ushered  in  by  a  rigor,  the  tempersture  rising  to  10^*, 
104*  F.,  with  severe  pain  and  constitutional  disturbance.  The 
symptoms  may  become  vaerfgfd  in  those  of  generst  peritonitisi  In 
chronic  disease  there  is  a  history  of  puerperal  trouole  followed  by 
sterility,  with  excessive  and  painful  menstruation.  Acute  salpingitis 
requires  absolute  rest,  opium  suppositories  and  hot  fomentations. 
With  uligent  symptoms  removal  of  the  inflamed  adnexa  must  be 
resorted  to.  Chronic  salpingitis  often  renders  a  woman  an  invalid. 
Permanent  relief  can  only  oe  afforded  by  surgical  intervention. 
Tuberculous  salpingitis  is  usually  secondary  to  other  tuberculous 
infections.  The  Fallopian  tubes  may  be  the  seat  of  malignant 
disease.  This  is  rarely  primary.  By  tar  the  most  important  of  the 
conditions  of  the  Faflopian  tubes  is  tubal  pregnancy  (or  ectopic 

etstation).  It  is  now  known  that  fertilization  of  the  numan  ovum 
y  the  spermatosoon  may  take  place  even  when  the  ovum  is  in  its 
follkle  in  the  ovary,  for  oosperms  have  been  found  in  the  ovary  and 
Fallopian  tubes  as  well  as  in  the  uterus.  Belief  in  ovarian  pregnancy 
is  of  old  standing,  and  had  been  regarded  as  |x>88ible  but  unproved, 
no  case  of  an  eany  embiyo  in  its  membranes  in  the  sac  of  an  ovary 
being  forthcoming,  untfl  the  remarkable  case  published  by  Dr 
Catherine  van  Tussenboek  of  Amsterdam  in  1899  (Bland-Sutton). 
Tubal  pregnancy  is  most  frequent  in  the  left  tube;  It  sometimes 
complicates  uterine  pregnancy:  rarely  both  tubes- are  pregnant. 
When  the  ooaptrm  lodges  in  the  ampulla  or  isthmus  it  is  called  tubal 
gestation ;  when  it  is  retained  in  the  portion  traversing  the  uterine 
wall  it  is  called  tubo-uterine  gestation.  Wherever  the  fertiliaed  ovum 
remains  and  im(>lants  its  villi  the  tube  becomes  turgid  and  swollen, 
and  the  abdominal  ostium  gradually  doses.  The  ovum  in  this 
situation  Is  liable  to  apoplexy^  forming  tubal  mole.  When  the 
abdominal  ostium  remains  pervious  the  ovum  may  escape  into  the 
ccKlomic  cavity  (tubal  abortion);  death  from  shock  and  hacmorr- 
hage  into  the  abdominal  cavity  may  result.  When  neither  of  these 
occurrences  has  taken  place  the  ovum  continues  to  grow  inside  the 
tube,  the  rupture  of  the  distended  tube  usually  taking  place  between 
the  sixth  and  the  tenth  week.  The  rupture  of  the  tube  may  be 
intraperitoneal  or  extraperitoneal.  The  danger  b  death  from 
haemorrhage  occurring  during  the  rupture,  or  adhesions  may  form, 
the  retained  blood  forming  a  haematocele.  The  ovum  may  be  de- 
stroyed or  may  continue  to  develop.  In  rare  cases  rupture  may  not 
occur,  the  tube  bulging  into  the  peritoneal  mvity;  and  the  foetus 
may  break  through  the  membranes  and  lie  free  among  the  intestines, 
where  it  may  die,  becoming  encysted  or  cakificd.  The  tubal  placenta 
possesses  foetal  structures,  the  true  decidua  forming  in  the  uterus. 
The  signs  suggestive  of  tubal  pregnancy  before  rupture  are  missed 
periods,  pelvic  pains  and  the  presence  of  an  enlarged  tube.  When 
rupture  takes  place  it  is  attended  in  both  varieties  with  sudden  and 
severe  pain  and  more  or  less  marked  collapse,  and  a  tumour  may  or 
may  not  be  felt  according  to  the  situation  01  the  rupture.  There  is  a 
genera)  "  feeling  of  something  having  given  way."  If  diagnosed 
before  rupture,  the  sac  must  be  removra  by  abdominal  section.  In 
intraperitoneal  rupture  immediate  operation  affords  the  only  chance 
of  saving  life.  In  extraperitoneal  rupture  the  foetus  may  occasion- 
ally remain  alive  until  full  term  and  be  rescued  by  abdominal  section, 
if  the  condition  is  recognised,  or  a  false  labour  may  take  place, 
accompanied  by  death  of  the  foetus. 

Diteases  of  Ike  Ovaries  and  Parovarium. — The  ovaries  undergo 
striking  changes  at  puberty,  and  again  at  the  menopause,  after  which 
there  is  a  gradual  shrinkage.  One  or  both  may  be  absent  or  mal- 
formed, or  they  are  subject  to  displacements,  being  either  un- 
descended, contaim^l  in  a  hernia  or  probpsed.  Either  of  these 
conditions,  if  a  source  of  pain,  may  necessitate  their  removal.  The 
ovary  is  also  subject  to  haemorrhage  or  apoplexy.  Acute  inflam- 
mations (oophorites)  are  constantly  associated  with  salpingitis  or 
other  septic  conditions  of  the  genital  tract  or  with  an  atUck  of 
mumpsw  The  rebtion  of  oOphontis  to  mumps  is  at  present  unknown. 
Acute  oophoritis  may  culminate  in  abscess  but  nwre  usually 
adhesions  are  formed.  The  surgical  treatment  b  that  of  pyosalpinx. 
Chronic  inflammation  may  follow  acute- or  be  conseouent  on  pelvic 
cellulitis.  Its  constant  features  are  more  or  less  pain  followed  by 
sterility.  The  ovary  may  be  the  seat  of  tuberculosis,  which  is 
generally  secondary  to  other  lesions.  Suppuration  and  abscess  of 
the  ovary  also  occur.  Perioophoritis,  or  chronic  inflammation  in 
the  neighbourhood,  may  also  involve  the  gbnd.  The  cause  of 
cirrhosis  of  the  ovaries  is  unknown,  though  it  may  be  asaocbted  with 
cirrhotic  liver.    The  change  b  met  with  in  women  between  20  and 


30  yeara  of  age,  the  ovaries  being  in  a  shrunken,  hard,  wrinkled  con- 
ition.  Under  ovarian  neuralgb  are  grouped  indefinite  painful 
symptoms  occurring  frequently  in  neurotic  and  alcoholic  subjects, 
and  often  worse  during  menstruation.  The  titatment,  whether  local 
or  operative,  is  usually  unsatisfactory.  The  ovary  is  frequently  the 
seat  of  tumours,  dermoids  and  cysts.  Cysts  may  be  siinple,  unilocular 
or  multik)cubr,  and  tanay  attain  an  enormous  size.  The  brgcst  on 
record  was  removed  by  Dr  Elizabeth  Reifsnydcr  of  Shanghai,  and 
contained  100  litres  of  fluid,  and  the  patient  recovered.  Tne  opera- 
tion b  termed  ovariotomy.  Dermoid  cysts  containing  skin,  bones, 
teeth  and  hair,  are  of  frequent  growth  in  the  ovary,  and  nave  attained 
the  weight  of  from  20  to  40  kilogrammes.  In  One  case  a  girl  weighed 
37  kilogrammes  and  her  tumour  44  kiloerammes  (l^n).  Papillo- 
matous cysts  also  occur  in  the  ovary.  Parovarian  and  Gftrtnerian 
cysts  are  found,  and  adenomata  form  20%  of  all  ovarian  cysts, 
(occasionally  the  tunic  ofperitoneum  surrbunding  the  ovary  becomes 
distended  with  serous  fluid.  Thb  is  termed  ovarian  hydrocele. 
Ovarian  fibroids  occur,  and  malignant  disease  (sarcoma  and  carcin- 
oma) b  fairiy  frequent,  sarcoma  being  the  most  usual  ovarian  tumour 
occurring  bdTore  puberty.  Carcinoma  of  the  ovary  is  rarely  primary, 
but  it  b  a  common  situation  for  secondary  cancer  to  that  of  the 
breast,  gall-bbdder  or  gastro-intestinal  tract.  The  treatment  of  all 
rapidly-growing  tumoure  of  the  ovary  is  removal. 

Viseases  of  the  PeMc  Peritoneum  and  CohnecUee  runte.— Women 
are  excessively  Uabb  to  peritoneal  infections^  (i)  Septic  infection 
often  follows  acute  salpingitis  and  may  give  rise  to  pelvic  peritonitis 
(perimetritis),  which  may  be  adhesive,  serous  or  purulent.  It  may 
follow  the  rupture  of  ovarian  or  dermoid  cysts,  rupture  of  the 
uterus,  extra  uterine  pregtuincy  or  extension  from  pyosalpinx.  The 
symptoms  are  severe  pain,  fever,  103"  F.  and  higher,  marlced  consti- 
tutbnal  disturbances,  vomiting,  restlessness,  even  delirium.  The 
abdomen  b  fixed  and  tympanitic.^  Its  results  are  the  formation  of 
adhesions  causing  abnormal  positions  of  the  ormns,  or  chronic 
peritonitb  may  follow.  The  treatment  is  rest  in  Ded,  opium,  hot 
stupes  to  the  abdomen  and  quinine.    (3)  Epithelbl  infections  take 

gsce  in  the  peritoneum  in  connexion  with  other  malignant  growths^ 
)  Hydroperitoneum,  a  collection  of  free  fluid  In  the  abdominal 
cavity,  may  be  due  to  tumoura  of  the  abdominal  viscera  or  to 
tuberculosb  of  the  peritoneum.  (4)  Pelvic  cellulitb  (parametritis) 
signifies  the  inflammation  of  the  connective  tissue  between  the  folds 
01  the  broad  ligament  (mesometrium).  The  general  causes  are  septic 
changes  following  abortion,  delivery  at  term  (especblly  instrumental 


delivery),  following  operations  on  the  uterus  or  salpingitis.  The 
symptoms  are  chilffoiiowed  by  severe  intrapelvic  pain  and  tension, 
fever  100*  to  I03*  F.  There  may  be  nausea  and  vomiting,  dbrrhoea» 
rectal  tenseness  and  dysuria.  If  consequent  00  parturition  the 
lochb  cease  or  become  offensive.  On  examination  there  b  tender- 
ness and  swelling  in  one  flank  and  the  uterus  becomes  fixed  and 
immovable  in  the  exudate  as  if  embedded  in  phster  of  Paris.  The 
illness  may  go  to  resolution  if  treated  by  rest,  opium,  hot  stupes  or 
tcebags  and  glycerine  tantpons,  or  may ^o  on  to  suppuration  forming 
pelvic  abscess,  which  signifies  a  collection  of  pus  between  the  layere 
of  the  broad  ligament.  The  pus  in  a  pelvic  abscess  may  point  and 
escape  through  the  walls  of  the  vagina,  rectum -or  bladder.  It 
occasionally  points  in  the  groin.  If  the  pus  can  be  localized  an 
incision  should  be  made  and  the  abscess  drained.  The  tumoure 
which  arise  in  the  broad  ligament  are  haematocele,  wsAid  tumoure  (as 
myomata,  lipomata  and  sarcomata),  and  echinnococcus  colonies 
(hydatids). 

Bibliography. — ^Albutt,  Playfair  and  Eden,  System  of  Gvuae^ 
cology  (1906);  McNaughton  Jones,  Manual  of  Diinses  of  Women 
(1904);  Bbnd-S>utton  and  Giles,  Diseases  oj  Women  (1906);  C. 
Lockyer,  "  Lutein  Cysts  in  assocbtion  with  Chorio-Epitlielioma," 
Journal  of  Obstetrics  and  Gynaecology  (January,  I9<>S):  W.  Stewart 
McKay,  History  of  Ancient  Gynaecology;  Hart  and  Baitiour,  Diseases 
of  Women;  Howard  Kelly,  OperaHoe  Gynaecology.        (H.  L.  H.)    ■ 

OTONOYOSI.  ISTVAN  [Stepben]  (1620-1704),  Huo^rian 

poet,  was  bom  of  poor  but  noble  parents  in  1620.    Hb  abilities 

early  attracted  the  notice  of  Count  Fercncs  Wes8el6nyi,  who  in 

1640  appointed  him  to  a  post  of  confidence  in  FQlck  castle.    Here 

be  remained  till  1653,  when  he  married  and  became  an  assessor 

of  the  judicial  board.    In  1681  he  was  elected  as  a  representative 

of  his  county  at  the  diet  held  at  Soprony  (Oedenburg).    From 

x686  to  1693,  and  again  from  1700  to  hb  death  in  1704,  he  was 

deputy  lord-lieutenant  of  the  county  of  GOroOr.    Of  hb  literary 

works  the  most  famous  is  the  epic  poem  Murdnyi  Venus  (Caschau, 

1664),  in  honour  of  hb  benefactor's  wife  Maria  Sx^csi,  the  heroine 

of  Muriny.    Among  his  later  productions  the  best  known  are 

RStsa-Kos*or4,  or  Rose-Wreath  (1690),  Keminy-Jdnot  (1693), 

Cupids  (1695),  Palinodia  (1605)  and  Chariklia  (1700). 

The  earliest  edition  of  his  collected  poetical  works  is  by  Dugonics 
(Prcssburg  and  Pest,  1796):  the  best  modem  selection  is  that  of 
Toldy,  entitled  Gy&ngy6si  Istedn  vdlogatoU  poUai  munkdi  (Select 
poetical  works  of  Stephen  GyOngyOsi,  a  vols.,  1864-1865). 

OTOR  (Ger.  Raah),  a  town  of  Hungary,  capital  of  a  county  of 
the  same  name.  88  m.  W.  of  Budapest  by  rail.    Pop.  (iqoo) 


768 


GYP— GYPSUM 


37,758.  It  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Raab  with  the 
Danube,  and  is  composed  of  the  inner  town  and  three  suburbs. 
Gydr  is  a  well-built  town,  imd  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop.  Amongst  its  principal  buildings  are  the  cathedral, 
dating  from  the  i3th  century,  and  rebuilt  in  1639-1654;  the 
bishop's  palace;  the  town  hall;  the  Roman  Catholic  seminary 
for  priests  and  several  churches.  There  are  manufactures  of 
doth,  machinery  and  tobacco,  and  an  active  trade  in  grain  and 
horses.  Twenty  miles  by  rail  W.S.W.  of  the  town  is  situated 
Csoma,  a  village  with  a  Premonstratensian  abbey,  whose  archives 
contain  numerous  valuable  historical  documents. 

Gydr  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Hungary  and  occupies  the 
site  of  the  Roman  Arabona.  It  was  already  a  place  of  some 
importance  in  the  loth  century,  and  its  bishopric  was  created 
in  the  ixth  century.  It  was  a  strongly  fortified  town  which 
resisted  successfully  the  attacks  of  the  Turks,  into  whose  hands 
it  fell  by  treachery  in  1594,  but  they  retained  possession  of  it 
only  for  four  years.  Montecucculi  made  Gy6r  a  first-class 
fortress,  and  it  remained  so  until  1783,  when  it  was  abandoned. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  the  fortifications  were 
re-erected,  but  were  easily  taken  by  the  French  in  1809,  and 
were  again  stormed  by  the  Austrians  on  the  28th  of  June  1849. 

About  IX  m.  S.E.  of  GySr  on  a  spur  of  the  Bakony  Forest 
lies  the  famous  Benedictine  abbey  of  Pannonhalma  (Ger.  Si 
Mariinsberg;  Lat.  Mons  Sancti  Martini)^  one  of  the  oldest  and 
wealthiest  abbeys  of  Hungaty.  It  was  founded  by  King  St 
Stephen,  and  the  original  deed  from  xooi  is  preserved  in  the 
archives  of  the  abbey.  The  present  building  is  a  block  of 
palaces,  containing  a  beautiful  church,  some  of  its  parts  dating 
from  the  12th  century,  and  lies  on  a  hill  1200  ft.  high.  The 
church  has  a  tower  130  ft.  high.  In  the  convent  there  are  a 
seminary  for  priests,  a  normal  school,  a  gymnasium  and  a 
library  of  120,000  vols.  The  chief  abbot  has  the  rank  of  a 
bishop,  and  is  a  member  of  the  Upper  House  of  the  Hungarian 
parliament,  while  in  spiritual  matters  he  is  subordinate  immedi- 
ately to  the  Roman  curia. 

OTP.  the  pen  name  of  Sibylle  Gabrielle  Marie  Antoinette 
RiQUETi  de  Mirabeau,  Comtesse  de  Martel  de  Janvillc  (1850- 
)  French  writer,  who  was  bom  at  the  ch&tcau  of  Koctsal  in 
the  Morbihan.  Her  father,  who  was  the  grandson  of  the  vicomtc 
de  Mirabeau  and  great-nephew  of  the  orator,  served  in  the  Papwl 
Zouaves,  and  died  during  the  campaign  of  i860.  Her  mother, 
the  comtesse  de  Mirabeau,  in  addition  to  some  graver  composi- 
tions, contributed  to  the  Figaro  and  the  Vic  parisienne^  under 
various  pseudonjrms,  pxapers  in  the  manner  successfully  developed 
by  her  daughter.  Under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Gyp  "  Madame 
de  Martel,  who  was  married  in  1869,  sent  to  the  Vie  parisicnne^ 
and  later  to  the  Revue  des  deux  numdes,  a  large  number  of  social 
sketches  and  dialogues,  afterwards  reprinted  in  volumes.  Her 
later  work  includes  stories  of  a  more  formal  sort,  essentially 
differing  but  little  from  the  shorter  studies.  The  following  list 
includes  some  of  the  best  known  of  Madame  de  Martel's  publica- 
tions, nearly  seventy  in  number:  P^U  Boh  (1882);  Autour  du 
mariage  (1883);  Ce  que  femtne  veut  (1883);  Le  Monde  d 
cdU  (1884),  Sans  voiles  (1885);  AuUntr  du  divorce  (1886); 
Dans  le  train  (1886);  Mademoiselle  Loulou  (1888);  Bob  au  salon 
( 1 888-1 889);  L' Education  d'un  prince  (1890);  Passionette 
(1891);  Ohil  la  grande  vie  (1891);  One  £lection  d  Tigre-sur-mer 
(1890),  an  account  of  "  Gyp's  "  experiences  in  support  of  a 
Boulangist  candidate;  Mariage  civil  (1892);  Ces  bons  docteurs 
(1892);  Du  haul  en  bas  (1893);  Mariage  de  chiffon  (1894); 
Leurs  dmes  (1895);  Le  Comr  dAriane  (1895);  Le  Bonkeur  de 
Cinette  (1896);  Tolote  (1897);  Lune  de  mid  (1S98);  Israel 
(1898);  VEntrevue  (1899);  Le  Pays  des  champs  (1900);  Trap  de 
chic  (1900);  Le  Friquel  (1901);  La  FSe  (1903);  Un  Mariage  chic 
(1903);  Un  Manage  dernier  cri  (1903);  Maman  (1904);  Le 
Cxur  de  Pierrette  (1905).  From  the  first  "  Gyp,"  writing  of  a 
society  to  which  she  belonged,  displayed  all  the  qualities  which 
have  given  her  a  distinct,  if  not  pre-eminent,  position  among 
writers  of  her  class.  Those  qualities  included  an  intense  faculty 
of  observation,  much  skill  in  innuendo,  a  mordant  wit  combined 
with  some  breadth  of  humour,  and  a  singular  power  of  animating 


ordinary  dialogues  without  destroying  the  appearance  of  reality. 
Her  Parisian  types  of  the  spoiled  child,  of  the  precodoua  school- 
girl, of  the  young  bride,  and  of  various  masculine  figures  in  the 
gay  world,  have  become  almost  classical,  and  may  probably 
survive  as  faithful  pictures  of  luxurious  manners  in  the  19th 
century.  Some  later  productions,  inspired  by  a  violent  anti- 
Semitic  and  Nationalist  bias,  deserve  little  consideration.  An 
earlier  attempt  to  dramatize  Autour  du  mariage  was  a  failure, 
not  owing  to  the  audacities  which  it  shares  with  most  of  iu 
author's  works,  but  from  lack  of  cohesion  and  inddtmt.  M<»e 
successful  was  Mademoiselle  ^ve  (1895),  but  indeed  "  Gyp's  '* 
successes  are  all  achieved  without  a  trace  of  dramatic  faculty. 
In  190^  Madame  de  Martel  furnished  a  sensationa]  incident  in  the 
Nationalist  campaign  during  the  munidpal  dections  in  Paris. 
She  was  said  to  have  been  the  victim  of  a  kidnapping  outrage 
or  piece  of  horseplay  provoked  by  her  political  attitude,  bat 
though  a  roost  circumstantial  acomnt  of  the  outrages  oommitted 
on  her  and  of  her  adventurous  escape  was  published,  the  affair 
was  never  dearly  explained  or  verified. 

OYPSUMf  a  common  mineral  consisting  of  hydrous  calduin 
sulphate,  named  from  the  Gr.  76^,  a  word  used  by  Theo- 
phrastus  to  denote  not  only  the  raw  mineral  but  also  the  pco- 
duct  of  its  calcination,  which  was  employed  in  andent  times,  as 
it  still  is,  as  a  plaster.  When  crystallized,  gypsum  is  often  caOed 
selenite,  the  cthivlnit  of  Dioscorides,  so  named  fromocX^, 
"  the  moon,"  probably  in  allusion  to  the  soft  moon-like  reflccUoa 
of  light  from  some  of  its  faces,  or,  according  to  a  legend,  because 
it  is  found  at  night  when  the  moon  is  on  the  increase.  TIk 
granular,  marble-like  gypsum  is  termed  alabaster  (q.v.). 

Gypsum  crystallizes  in  the  monodinic  system,  the  habit  of  the 
crystals  being  usually  either  prismatic  or  tabular;  in  the  latter 
case  the  broad  planes  are  paralld  to  the  faces  of  the  dinopinacoid. 
The  crystals  may  become  lenticular  by  curvature  of  certaia 
faces.  In  the  characteristic  type  represented  in  fig.  1,  /  lepre- 
scnts  the  prism,  /  the  hemi-pyramid  and  P  the  dinopinacoid. 
Twins  are  common,  as  in 
fig.  2,  forming  in  some  cases 
arrow-headed  and  swallow- 
tailed  crystals.  Cleavage  Is 
perfect  parallel  to  the  dino- 
pinacoid, jriclding  thin  plates, 
often  diamond-shaped,  with 
pearly  lustre;  these  flakes 
are  usually  flexible,  but  may 
be  brittle,  as  in  the  gypsum 
of  Montmartre.  Two  other 
cleavages  are  recognized,  but 
they  are  imperfect.  Crystals 
of  gypsum,   when   occurring 

in  clay,  may  endose  much  muddy  matter;  in  other 
large  proportion  of  sand  may  be  mechanically  entan^ed  in 
the  crystals  without  serious  disturbance  of  form;  whilst 
certain  crystals  occasionally  endose  cavities  with  liquid  and 
an  air-bubble.  Gypsum  not  infrequently  becomes  fibrous. 
This  variety  occurs  in  veins,  often  running  through  gypseous 
marls,  with  the  fibres  disposed  at  right  angles  to  the  direction 
of  the  vein.  Such  gypsum  when  cut  and  polished  has  a  pearly 
opalescence,  or  satiny  sheen,  whence  it  b  called  satro-spar  (y.r). 

Gypsum  is  so  soft  as  to  be  scratched  even  by  the  fingcr-naO 
(H  =  I •  5  to  2).  Its  spedfic  gravity  is  about  2-3.  The  mineral  is 
slightly  soluble  in  water,  one  part  of  gypsum  bang  soluble, 
according  to  G.  K.  Cameron,  in  372  parts  of  pure  water  at  26'  C 
Waters  percolating  through  gypseous  straU,  like  the  Keoper 
marls,  dissolve  the  calcium  sulphate  and  thus  become  per- 
manently hard  or  "  sdenitic."  Such  water  has,  spedal  value  for 
brewing  pale  ale,  an<J  the  water  used  by  the  Burton  breweries  is 
of  this  character;  hence  the  artifidal  dissolving  of  gypsum  in 
water  for  brewing  purposes  is  known  as  "  burtonization.'' 
Deposits  of  gypsum  are  formed  in  boilers  using  selenitic  water. 

Pure  gypsum  is  colourless  or  white,  but  it  is  often  tinted, 
especially  in  the  alabaster  variety,  grey,  yellow  or  pink.  Gypsum 
crystallizes  with  two  molecules  of  water, equal  to  about  ax  %  by 


Fig.  I. 


Fic.  2. 


GYROSC»PE  AND  GYROSTAT 


769 


wdgbl,  ai  mucqncntlr  hu  tbe  Foimuli  CiS0,'2H,0.  B; 
eipouR  to  Mnnc  bed  lU  Ihc  witei  miy  be  cip^led,  ud  tbe 
lubuuu  ibcn  hu  the  cgmpnulion  o(  ubydritc  (f.>.}.  Wbca 
ibe  cilciutioD,  howeva,  ii  CDOduclcd  II  luch  ■  temperuure 
thai  only  about  75%  of  the  waiei  ii  bM,  it  yietdi  a  while 
pulverulent  subitascc,  ItDOWD  as  "  pLuler  of  Paris,"  which  may 
readUy  be  cauied  to  lecombine  with  waur,  fonninti  a  hard 
cxmeaU  The  cpnim  quuriet  ol  Maotmutn,  in  the  nonh  o( 
Paris,  •ere  work«l  in  Tertiary  iliau,  lici  in  iosiiij.  Gypiuni  i> 
largely  ipiamed  in  Englaod  for  conveiaioB  into  plaster 


much  h  tent  to  the  Slafiordshite  potteries  for  rnaki 
is  also  tentKd  "  potter's  stone."  The  chief  workinei  are  in  the 
Keuper  mails  near  Nevark  in  Noltinfhamshirt,  Fauld  in 
SlaSordshire  and  CbeUuloo  in  Derbyihire.  It  is  also  worked  in 
Permiaa  beds  in  Cumberland  and  Wcstmodaod,  and  in  Purbeck 
strata  near  Battle  in  Suuei. 

Gypsum  Irequenlly  occun  In  araodatioo  with  rack-salt,  having 
been  deposited  in  shallow  basins  ol  salt  walei.  Much  of  Ibe 
c^dcium  in  sea-waler  eiiils  as  sulphate^  and  on  evapontidu  of  a 
drop  of  sea-water  under  the  microscope  this  sulphate  is  deposited 
as  acicular  crystal*  ol  gypsum.  In  salt-lagoons  the  deposition 
d[  the  gypsum  is  probably  effected  in  most  cases  by  means  of 
micro^rganisnis.  Waten  containing  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  on 
eiposure  to  the  air  in  the  presence  n(  limestone,  may  yield  gypsum 
by  the  formation  of  suIphuKc  acid  and  its  interaction  with  the 

(he  action  of  sulphuric  acid,  resulting  from  the  aiidalion  of 
sulphurous  vapours,  on  Ume-bearing  minerals,  like  labradorite 
and  augite,  in  the  volcaJiic  rocks:  hence  gypsum  is  common 
Agiin.  fay   tbe 


I  of  tbe  I 


on  shells,  gypsum 

clays.     Cypsum  is  also  formed  ii 

anhydrite,  tbe  change  being  a 


ome  cues  fay  the  hydration  of 
^mpanied  by  an  increase  of 
volume  lo  toe  eiieni  01  aooui  00-/^  Conversely  gypsum  may, 
under  certain  condilions,  be  dehydrated  or  reduced  to  anbydrite. 
Some  of  Ibe  laTgcsI  known  crystals  of  selenite  have  been  found 
in  southern  Utah,  where  they  occur  m  huge  gcodes,  or  ciyslal- 
lined  cavities.  In  deposits  from  the  old  sall-lakes.  Fine  crystals, 
soioetinus  curiously  bent,  occur  in  the  Permian  rocks  of  Fiied- 
richroda,  Dc*r  Golba,  wfacre  there  i>  a  grotto  called  Ibe  Marie □- 
giashOhle,  dose  lo  Rheinhardshrunn.  Many  of  the  best  localities 
lor  selenile  are  in  the  Xew  Red  Sandstone  Formation  (Trias  and 
Permian],  notably  the  salt-mines  of  Hall  and  Hallcin,  near 
Salibuig,  and  oi  Bei  in  Switzerland.  Eicellenl  crystals,  usually 
of  a  brownish  colour  arranged  in  groups,  arc  olten  found  in  tbe 
brine-chamben  and  the  launders  used  in  salt-works.  Sclenite 
also  occun  In  Bne  cryitala  In  tbe  sulphur-bearing  marls  ol 
Cirgenti  and  oiber  Sicilian  localilies;  whilst  in  Brilun  very  bold 
crystals  are  yielded  by  (he  Kimeridge  clay  of  Shoiover  Hill  nciir 
Oxford.  Twisted  crystals  and  roselles  of  gypsum  found  in  the 
Mammoth  Cave,  Kentucky,  have  been  called  "  oulopholiles  " 
(ofXm,  "  woolly  ";  ^\iM,  "  cave  "). 

mineTil  finds  applicatioa  *•  an  agricultural  agent  in  dressing 
land,  and  it  has  also  been  used  in  tbe  minnfacluTe  ol  porcelain 
BOd  glass.  Formerly  it  was  employed,  in  tbe  form  ol  thin 
cleavage-plates,  for  Rasing  «indo«s,  and  seems  10  have  been, 
with  mica,  called  lofii  ipeciiAiru.  JtissliU  known  [n  Gerrauiy 
a*  Ifarieaffu  and  Fraaeaas.  Delicate  cleavage-plates  ol 
gypsum  arc  used  id  microscopic  petrography  for  the  dcler- 

mioermls.  (F.  W.  R.*) 

ATROSCOPB  AMD  OVKOtTAT.    These  are  ideDlific 


bicycle,  and  also  the  j 

Tbe  gyroscope  {Ci 
ilngnisbed  from  I  he 


I  body  such  as  the  >p 


enlally    tbe 
ip,  boop  and 


K  rolaliog  wheel  or  disk  i>  mounted 


in  i^btb  M>  that  the  principal  Bifa  of  mtalion  ilwayi  puMt 

through  ■  Gied  point  (&g.  1).  It  can  be  made  to  Imitate  the 
motion  of  a  tpioning-top  of  which  tbe  point  is  placed  iu  a  smooth 
agate  cup  as  in  HaiwdTi  dynamical  lop  (fip.  1,  j).  iCelUtird 
Warit.  i.  S4S.]  A  bicycle  wheel,  with  a  prolongation  of  tbe 
aile  placed  In  a  cup,  can  alio  be  made  to  serve  (fig.  4), 

The  gymtat  Is  an  Ins^ment  designed  by  Lord  Eelvio 
iSatml    PUhiefliy,   |    MS)    to   illostrate    the    e 


1  Thomson  and  Tait.  f/alaril  Pkilesopky,  s> 

fcrsal  of  Ibe  ordinary  laws  of  statical  equilibrium 
ol  Ibe   interior  Invisible  fiy- 


Fie.  J.  Rg.  4. 

Ihen  be  used  to  Dlustrale  Poinsot's  (hcaty  of  the  motioB  of  a 
body  under  no  force,  tbe  gyroscope  being  made  kinetically 
uiuymmetrical  by  a  setting  ol  (be  screws.    The  discussion  of 

motion  of  a  top  and  of  a  body  under  no  force  (Foinsot,  TUtrU 
nayrdlt  it  la  rtbUioH  its  coifs,  Paris,  18J7;  Jacob!,  VaU,  iL 
Note  B,  p.  476). 

To  imitate  the  movement  of  the  top  the  ceMte  of  gravity  I> 
displaced  from  tbe  point  of  supf»rt  so  as  to  ^ve  a  preponderance. 
niKn  the  moLlon  lakes  place  in  the  neighbourhood  ol  the  down- 
ward vertical,  tbe  bicycle  wheel  can  be  made  to  serve  a|aiB 


770 


GYROSCOPE  AND  GYROSTAT 


mounted  as  in  fig.  8  by  a  stalk  in  tbe  prolongation  of  tbe  axle, 
suspended  from  a  universal  joint  at  O;  it  can  then  be  spun  by 
band  and  projected  In  aqy  manner. 

The  first  practical  application  of  the  gyrosco{uc  principle  was 
invented  and  carried  out  (1744)  by  Sexson,  with  a  spinning  top 


AM 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  7. 


with  a  polished  upper  plane  surface  for  giving  an  artificial 
horizon  at  sea,  undisturbed  by  th«  motion  of  the  ship,  when  the 
real  hori2on  was  obscured.  The  instrument  has  been  perfected 
by  Admiral  Georges  Ernest  Fleuriaia  (fig.  9),  and  is  interesting 

theoretically  as 
showing  the  cor- 
rection required 
practically  for  the 
rotation  of  the 
earth.  Gilbert's 
barogyroscope  is 
devised  for  the 
same  purpose  of 
showing  the  earth's 
rotation;  a  de- 
scription of  it,  and 
of  the  latest  form 
employed  by  F3ppl, 
is  pven  in  the 
Ency.  d.  maik. 
Wiss.,  1904,  with 
bibliographical 
references  in  the 
article  "Mechanics 
of  Physical  Appar- 
atus.'* The  rota- 
tion of  the  fly-wheel  is  maintained  here  by  an  electric  motor,  as 
devised  by  G.M.  Hopkins,  and  described  in  thtScietUific  American, 
1878.  To  demonstrate  the  rotation  of  the  earth  by  the  constancy 
in  direction  of  tbe  axis  of  a  gyroscope  is  a  suggestion  that  has  often 

been  made;  by  E.  Sang  in  1836,  and 
others.  The  experiment  was  first 
carried  out  with  success  by  Foucault  in 
1851,  by  a  simple  pendulum  swung  in 
the  dome  of  the  Pantheon,  Paris,  and 
lit  has  been  repeated  frequently 
{Mimoires  sur  le  pendtde,  1889). 

A  g3rroscopic  fly-wheel  will  pre- 
serve its  original  direction  in  space 
only  when  left  absolutely  free  in  all  directions,  as  required 
in  tbe  experiments  above.  If  employed  in  steering,  as  of  a 
torpedo,  the  gyroscope  must  act  through  the  intermediary  of  a 
light  relay;  but  if  direct-acting,  the  reaction  will  cause  pre- 
cession of  the  axis,  a&d  the  original  direction  is  lost. 

The  gyrostatic  principle,  in  which  one  degree  of  freedom  is 
suppressed  in  the  axis,  is  useful  for  imparting  steadiness  and 


Fio.  9. 


stability  in  a  moving  body;  it  is  employed  by  SchBck  to  mitiflitt 
the  rolling  of  a  ship  and  to  maintain  the  upright  podtioa  of 
Brennan's  monorail  car. 

Lastly,  as  an  application  of  gyroscopic  theoiy,  ft  ttntdied 
chain  of  fly-wheeb  in  rotation  was  employed  fay  Kdvin  as  a 
mechanical  model  of  the  rotary  polarisation  of  li^t  in  an  electro^ 
magnetic  field;  the  apparatus  9kay  be  coastnicted  of  biqrdi 
wheeb  connected  by  short  linli;s>  and  suspended  vertically. 

Tfuory  ef  tkt  Symmetric^  Top. 

I.  The  physical  constants  of  a  given  cymmetrical  top,  cxyccjwd 
in  C.G.S.  units,  which  are  employed  in  the  mib9C<)twiit  foniniIae» 
are  denoted  by  M,  ik.  C  and  A.  M  is  the  weight  m  gnmiiieB  (c) 
as  given  by  the  number  of  gramme  wdghts  wUch  etiiulibrate  the 
top  when  weighed  in  a  balance;  k  is  the  distance  OG  in  ceacinetcea 
(cm.)  between  G  the  centre  of  gravity  and  0  the  point  of  wpport. 
and  Mk  may  be  called  the  ptraondoaoce  in  g.-cm.;  Mk  and  M 
can  be  measured  by  a  spring  balance  holdinKop  in  a  boriaontaJ 
position  the  axb  OC  in  fig.  8  suspended  at  O.  Then  f MJk  (dyiw-aB. 
or  erg")  >>  the  moment  of  gravity  about  O  when  the  axb  OG  b 
horizontal,  gMk  sin  0  being  the  moment  when  the  axb  OG  makes 
an  angle  9  with  the  vertical,  and  g-981  (cm./i^)  on  the  avenge; 
C  b  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  top  about  OG,  and  A  about  any 
axb  through  O  at  right  angles  to  OG,  both  meaaured  in  g-an.'. 

To  measure  A  experimentally,  swing  tbe  top  fredy  about  O  b 
small  pbne  oscilbtion,  and  determine  the  Idigth,  I  an^  of  the 
equivaknt  rimi^e  pendulum;  then 

(I)  i-A/MA,A-MAI. 

Next  make  the  top.  or  thb  rfmple  pendolumt  pcxform  saafi 
conical  revolutions,  neariy  coincident  with  the  downward  vcrticsl 
position  of  eouUibrium,  and  measure  n,  the  mean  aj^ular  velocity 
of  tbe  conicu  pendulum  in  radbns  /  second;  and  T  its  period  a 
seconds;  then 


(«) 


4.»A'-««-t/l-gM*/Ai 


and  />Bff/3r  b  the  number  of  revolutions  per  second,  called  the 
frequ€ncy,'r ^2Tfn  is  the  period  of  a  revolution,  in  seconds. 

3.  In  the  popular  explanation  of  the  steady  movement  of  the 
top  at  a  constant  inclination  to  the  vertical,  depending  oa  the  cook 
position  of  angular  velocity,  such  as  given  in  Perry's   j^^ 
Spinning  Tops,  or  Worthington's  Dynamics  of  RoktHtn,        ^'  ^ 
it  b  asserted  that  the  moment  01  gravity  b  always    g^gg^ 
generating  an  angular  velocity  about  ,an  axb  OB  ptX'         ^ 
pendiculsT  to  the  vertical  plane  COC'  through  the  axb  of  the  top 
OC';    and  this  angular  velocity,  compounded  with  tbe  nesultsot 
angular  velocity  about  an  axb  01,  neariy  coincident  with  OC, 
causes  the  axes  01  and  OC'  to  keeptaking  up  a  new  position  by 


cessional  velocity,  the  top  at  once  falb  down;  thence  all  tbe  in* 
gentous  attempts — for  instance,  in  the  swineing  cabin  of  tbe  Besaeacr 
ship — to  utilise  the  gyroscope  as  a  mechanical  directive  agepcy 
hav;  always  resulteom  failure  (Engfneer,  October  1874),  ustas 
restricted  to  actuate  a  light  rday,  which  guides  the  mechamsm,  as 
in  steering  a  torpedo. 

An  experimental  verification  can  be  carried  oat  with,  the  gyro- 
scope in  fig.  I ;  so  long  as  the  vertical  spindle  b  free  to  rotate  m 
its  socket,  the  rapidly  rotating  wheel  will  resist  the  iapolse  of 
tapping  on  the  gimbal  bjr  movins  to  one  side;  but  when  tne  ptach 
screw  prevents  the  rotation  of  the  vertical  spindle  ia  tbe  massave 
pedestal,  thb  resbtance  to  the  tai>ping  at  once  disappears,  provkkd 
the  friction  of  the  table  prevents  the  movement  of  the  pedestal; 
and  if  the  wheel  has  any  preponderance,  it  falb  down. 

Familbr  instances  of  the  same  principles  are  observable  in  the 
movement  of  a  hoop,  or  in  the  steering  of  a  tncyde;  it  b  essential 
that  the  handle  of  the  bicycle  should  be  free  to  rotate  to  aecwe 
the  stability  of  the  movement. 

The  bicycle  wheel,  employed  as  a  spinning  top,  in  fi^^.  4,  can  abo 
be  held  by  the  stalk,  and  will  thus,  when  rotated  rapsdiy.  convey 
a  distinct  muscular  impression  of  resistance  to  change  of  dimtinB, 
if  brandished. 

3   A  demonstration,  depending  00  the  elementary  princqdes  of 
dynamics,   of   the  exact   conditions   required   for   theo^^^^^ 
axis  OC  of  a  spinning  top  to  spin  steadily  at  a  constant  ^j^jj^^^ 
inclination  $  to  the  vertical  OC,  b  given  here  before  P>^  otearuv 
ceeding  to  the  more  complicated  question  of  the  general, 
motion,  when  0,  the  inclination  01  the  axis,  b  varying « 
by  nutation.  ^  ^ 

It  is  a  fundamental  princiole  in  dynamics  that  if  OH  b 
a  vector  representing  to  scale  the  angular  momentum  of  a  system, 
and  if  Ok  is  the  vector  representing  the  axis  of  the  impressed  ooopb 
or  torque,  then  OH  will  vary  so  that  the  velocity  of  H  b  ie|auemed 
to  scale  by  the  impressed  couple  OA,  and  if  the  top  b  moving  freriy 
about  O,  Oh  b  at  ru(ht  angles  to  the  vertical  plane  COO,  and 


(X) 


Oh 'gMk  un  9, 


GYROSCOPE  AND  GYROSTAT 


771 


In  the  case  of  the  steady  motion  of  the  top,  the  vector  OH  lies 
in  the  vertical  plane  COC',  in  OK  suppose  (fig.  4),  and  has  a  com- 
ponent OC'G  about  the  vertical  and  a  component  OC'»G',  sup- 
pose, about  the  axis  OC;  and  G'»CR.  if  R  denotes  the  angular 
velocity  of  the  top  with  which  it  is  spun  about  OC'. 

If  M  denotes  the  constant  prccessional  angular  velocity  of  the 
vertical  plane  COC'.  the  components  of  angular  velocity  and  momen- 
tum about  OA  are  /•  sin  9  and  Am  un  0,  OA  being  perpendicular 
to  OC!  in  the  plane  COC';  so  that  the  vector  OK  has  the  com* 
ponent* 

U)  OC'-G'.  and  C'K-Am  sin  9, 

and  the  horizontal  component  - 

(3)  CK  -  OC'  sin  «  -C'K  cos  $ 

■•G' sin  9 —A|t  sin  9  cos  9. 

The  velocity  of  K  being  equal  to  the  impressed  couple  OA, 

(4)  -  \£Mibsin9-M.CK-stn9(G'M~AM*cos9). 
and  dropping  tne  factor  sin  B,  .. 

(5)  -  A^cos9-G'M+cM*-6.orAM*ccs9-CRM+A«^-o, 
the  condition  for  steady  motion. 

Solving  thu  as  a  quadratic  in  m»  the  roots  mi.  m  are  given  by 

(6)  m.  m'^»tc  •[iWd  -^'cos  »)] : 

and  the  minimum  value  of  G'  "CR  for  real  values  of  m  b  given  by 

^7)  vPS?  ■"**  ••TG?  "^^  ("»  '^  • 

for  a  smaller  value  of  R  the  top  cannot  spin  steadily  at  the  inclina- 
tion 9  to  the  upward  vertical. 

Interpreted  geometrically  in  fig.  4  ^ 

(8)    |i-gMlstn9/CK-AfiVKN.andM-C'K/Astn9-KM/A, 

(o)   •  KM.KN-AV, 

tnat  K  lies  on  a  hyperbola  with  OC.  OC'  as  asymptotes. 

4.  Suppose  the  top  or  f^yrosco^,  instead  of  moving  freely  about 
the  point  O,  is  held  in  a  ring  or  frame  which  is  com- 
pellra  to  rotate  about  the  vertical  axis  OC  with  con- 
stant angular  velocity  n;  then  if  N  denotes  the  couple 
of  reaction  of  the  frame  keeping  the  top  from  falling, 
acting  in  the  plane  COC',  equation  (4)  (  3  becomes  modified 
into 


10 


a) 


|M/k8tn9-N-M.CK< 

N -sin 0  (Am*  cos  0-G'M+cM/b) 


■sin  9  (G'm— Am*  cos  0), 
'm+«M*J 
w  A  sin  0  cos  0(m  —mi)  (m  ~ms)  * 

and  hence,  as  m  increases  through  mi  and  mii  the  mgn  of  N  can  be 
determined,  positive  or  negative,  according  aa  the  tendency  of  the 
axis  is  to  fall  or  rise. 

When  G'«CR  is  large,  mi  i*  large,  and 

(3)  Mi^<MA/G'-Aji«/CR. 

the  same  for  all  inclinations,  and  this  is  the  precession  observed  in 
the  spinning  top  and  centrifugal  machine  of  fig.  10.    This  is  true 

accurately  when  the  axis  OC'  is 
horizontal,  and  then  it  agrees  with 
the  result  of  the  popular  explanation 
of  I  a. 

If  the  axis  of  the  top  OC'  is  point- 
ing upward,  the  precession  is  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  rotation,  and 
an  increase  of  m  from  mi  makes  N 
negative,  and  the  top  rises;  con- 
versely a  decrease  of  the  procc&S4on  m 
causes  the  axis  to  fall  (Perry,  S^nntng 
Tops,  p.  48). 

ff  the  axis  points  downward,  as  in 
the  centrifugal  machine  with  upper 
support,  the  precession  is  in  the  oppo- 
site direction  to  the  rotation,  and  to 
make  the  axis  approach  the  vertical 
position  the  precnsion  must  be  re- 
duced. 

This  is  effeaed  automatically  in  the 
Weston  centrifugal  machine  (fig  10) 
used  for  the  separation  of  water  and 
by  the  friction  of  the  indiarubbcr  cushions  above  the 
support;  or  else  the  spindle  is  produced  downwards  below  the 
drum  a  short  disunce,  and  turns  in  a  hole  in  a  weight 
testing  on  the  bottom  of  the  case,  which  weight  is  dragged 
roond  until  the  spindle  is  upright ;  this  second  arrangement 
b  more  effective  when  a  liquid  is  treated  in  the  drum,  and 
wave  action  b  set  up  {The  Cenirifugal  Mackitu,  C.  A.  Matthey). 

Similar  considerations  apply  to  the  subility  of  the  whirling 
bowl  in  a  cream-separating  machine. 
We  can  write  equation  (1) 

(4)    N-fA*»sin0-M.CK-(A«f<«-KM.KN)8in0/A, 
•o  that  N  b  negative  or  positive,  and  the  axis  tends  to  rise  or  fall 
according  aa  K  moves  to  the  inside  or  outside  of  the  hyperbola  of  free 
cnouon,.  Thits  a  up  on  the  axb  tending  to  hurry  the  precession  b 


gl 


equivalent  to  an  impulse  couple  giving  an  increase  to  CK,  and  will 
make  K  move  to  the  interior  of  the  hyperbola  and  cause  the  ans  to 
rise:  the  steering  of  a  bicycle  may  be  explained  in  this  way;  but  K| 
will  move  to  the  exterior  of  the  (lyperbola,  and  so  the  axis  will  fall 
in  this  second  more  violent  motion. 

Friction  on  the  point  of  the  top  may  be  supposed  to  act  like  a  tap 
in  the  direction  opposite  to  the  precession;  and  so  the  axb  of  a  top 
spun  violently  rises  at  first  and  up  to  the  vertical  position,  but  falls 
away  a^:ain  as  the  motion  dies  out.  Friction  considered  as  acting  in 
retarding  the  rotation  may  be  comoarcd  to  an  impulse  couple  tending 
to  reduce  OC',  and  so  make  K  and  Ki  both  move  to  the  exterior  of  the 
hyperbola,  and  the  axb  falb  in  both  cases.  The  ans  may  rise  or  fall 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  frictional  couple,  depending  on  the 
shape  of  the  point ;  an  analytical  treatment  of  the  varying  motion  b 
very  intractable;  a  memoir  by  E.  G.  Gallop  may  be  consulted  in  the 
Trans.  Camb.  Phil.  Soc.,  1903. 

The  earth  behaves  in  precesnon  like  a  large  tpiamng  top,  of  which 
the  axis  describes  a  circle  round  the  pole  of  the  e(£ptic  of  mean 
angular  radius  0,  about  33 1*.  in  a  period  of  36,000  years,  so  that 
R/m  -  26000 X365 ;  and  the  mean  couple  producing  precession  b 

(5)  *  CRm  ain 0 -CR«  sin  231736000 X365. 

one  12  millionth  part  of  iCR*.  the  rotation  energy  of  the  earth. 

5.  If  the  preponderance  is  absent,  by  makmg  the  C.G  coincide 
with  O,  and  if  Am  b  insenable  compared  with  G'» 

(1)  N--G'Msin0. 

the  formula  which  suffices  to  explain  most  gyroscopic  action. 

Thus  a  carriage  runnii^  round  a  curve  experiences,  in  consequence 
of  the  rotation  of  the  wheels,  an  increase  of  pressure  Z  on  the  outer 
track,  and  a  diminution  Z  on  the  inner,  givii^  a  couple, 
if  a  is  the  gauge, 

(2)  Za-G'M. 
tending  to  help  the  centrifugal  force  to  upset  the  tnin; 
and  if  e  is  the  radius  of  the  curve,  b  of  the  wheeb,  C  their 
moment  of  inertb,  and  v  the  velocity  of  the  train, 

M-Wc,  G'-C»/6, 
Z<-(:«>/al>c(dynes), 

so  that  Z  IS  the  fraction  CfMab  of  the  centrifu^  foroe  Mt^/c,  or  the 
fraction  CfMk  of  its  traniierence  of  weight,  with  k  the  height  ol  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  carriage  above  the  road.  A  Brennan  carriage 
on  a  monorail  would  lean  over  to  the  inside  of  the  curve  at  an  angle  «, 
given  by 

(6)  Un  a-G'M/gM/k-G'v/cMAe. 

The  gyroscopic  action  of  a  dynamo,  turbine,  and  other  rotating 
machinery  on  a  steamer,  paddle  or  screw,  due  to  its  rolling  and  pitch- 
ing, can  be  c\'aluated  in  a  simibr  elementary  manner  (V\^>rthiagton, 
Dynamics  of  Rotation),  and  Schlick's  gyroscopic  apparatus  b  intended 
to  mitigate  the  oscillation. 

6.  If  the  axis  OC  in  fig.  4  is  inclined  at  an  angle  •  to  the  vertical, 
the  equation  (2)  (  4  becomes 

(I)  N-sin0(AMVos0-G'M)+gMAsin(«-0). 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  OC  is  parallel  to  the  earth's  axis, 
and  ttiJat  the  frame  is  fixed  in  the  meridun;  then  « is  the  co-latitude, 
and  M  b  the  angular  velocity  of  the  earth,  the  square  of  which  may 
be  neglected ;  so  that,  putting  N  "O, «  — 0  >E, 

(3)  gMA  sin  E-G'm  sin  («-E)  -0^ 

This  b  the  theory  of  Gilben's  barogyroscope,  described  in  Appell's 
Micani^ue  raiionntiU,  ii.  387:  it  consisu  essentially  of  a  rapidly 
routed  fly-wheel,  mounted  on  knife-edges  by  an  axis 
perpendicular  to  iu  axis  of  roution  and  pointing  east  and 
west;  spun  with  considerable  angubr  momentum  G', 
and  provided  with  a  slight  preponderance  MA,  it  should  tilt  to  an 
angle  E  with  the  vertical,  and  thus  demonstrate  experimenully  the 
rotation  of  the  earth. 

In  Fqucault's  gyroscope  (CompUs  rtndus,  1853:   Perry,  p.  105) 
the  preponderance  is  made  zero,  and  the  axb  poinU  to 
the  pole,  when  free  to  move  in  the  meridian. 

Generally,  if  constrained  to  move  in  any  other  plane, 
the  axb  seeks  the  position  nearest  to  the  polar  axis,  like  a  dipping 
needle  with  respect  to  the  magnetic  pole.  (A  gyrostaUe  working 
modd  of  tke  magnetic  compass,  by  Sir  W.  Thomson.  British  Associa- 
tion  Report,  Montreal,  1884.  A.  S.  Chessin,  St  Louis  Academy 
of  Science,  January  1903.) 

A  spinning  top  with  a  polished  upper  plane  surface  will  provide 
an  artificbl  horizon  at  sea,  when  the  real  horizon  is  obscured. 
The  first  instrument  of  this  kind  was  construaed  by 


Serson.  and  is  described  in  the  Gentleman's  iiatatine.  yyiP** 
vol.  xxiv.,  I7M;  also  by  Segner  in  his  SpeeimM  uuvriae  »•»*•* 
turbinum  (Halae.  1755).  The  inventor  was  sent  to  sea  by  the  Ad- 
miralty to  test  hb  instrument,  but  he  wa«  lost  in  the  wreck  of  the 
"  Victory."  1 74a.  A  copy  of  t he  Serson  top.  from  the  royal  cdlection, 
19  now  in  the  Museum  of  King's  College*  London.  Troughton's 
Nautical  Top  (1819)  is  intended  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  instrument  b  in  favour  with  French  navigators,  perfeacd  by 


773 


GYROSCOPE  AND  GYROSTAT 


Admiral  Fleuriais  (fig.  p);  but  it  must  be  noticed  that  the  horizoa 
given  by  the  top  is  inclined  to  the  true  horizon  at  the  angle  E  given 
by  equation  (%)  above;  and  if  mi  is  the  preceasional  anguur  velocity 
aa  given  by  (3;  S  4,  and  T<^2r//t,  its  period  in  seconds. 


(4) 


if 


tanE-*i 

Ml 


laf 


Tcoslat 


,orE' 


Tcoslat 


fid40o  •*"*^-      8s- 

E  is  expressed  in  minutes,  taking  m^3s'/8640o:  thus  making 
the  true  latitude  E  nautical  miles  to  the  south  of  that  given  by 
the  top  (Rgoue  maritime,  1890;   Comptes  rendus,  1896). 

This  can  be  seen  by  elementaiy  conndcration  of  the  theory  above, 
for  the  velocity  of  the  vector  OC  of  the  top  due  to  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  is 

(5)  ii.OC'  cos  Ut-fMA  sin  E-miOC'  sin  E, 

•    C7     M       I  ^  i:>    Tcoslat 
sm  E  «"^cos  lat,  E  - — 5- — , 
Ml  »» 

in  which  8s-  can  be  replaced  by  25,  in  practice;  so  that  the  Fleuriais 
gyroscopic  horizon  is  an  illustration  of  the  influence  of  the  rotation  of 

the  earth  and  of  the  need  for  its 
allowance. 

7.  In  the  ordinary  treatment  of 
the  general  theory  of  the  gyro- 
scope,  the  motion   is 
referred  to  two  sets  of 
rectangular  axes;    the 
one  (m,  Oy,  Os  fixed 
in  space,  with  Os  vertically  up- 
ward:   and  the  other  OX,  OY. 
OZ  fixed  in  the  rotating  wheel 
with  OZ  in  the  axis  of  figure 
OC. 

The  rdative  position  of  the  two 
sets  df  axes  is  pvcn  bv  means  of 
Euler's  unsymmetricai  angles  $, 
turning  of  the  axes  Ox,  Oy.  Os 
through  the.  angles  (i.)  ^  about  0«,  (ii.)  9  about  OE,  (iii.)  ^  about 
OZ,  brings  them  into  coincidence  with  OX,  OY,  OZ,  as  shown  in 
fig.  II,  representing  the  concave  side  of  a  spherical  surface. 
The  component  angular  velocities  about  OD,  OE,  OZ  are 
(i)  4'^9,4,^+4'COs$; 

so  that,  denoting  the  components  about  OX,  OY,  OZ  by  P,  Q,  R, 

(2)  P  •  0  cos  ^+1^  sin  9  sin  ^, 
Q  •  -^  un  ^-j-V^  sin  9  cos  ^, 
R-  ^+^cos9. 

Consider,  for  instance,  the  motion  of  a  fly-wheel  of  preponderance 
MA,  and  equatoreal  moment  of  inertia  A,  of  which  the  axis  OC  is 
held  in  a  Ught  ring  ZCX  at  a  constant  an^le  y  with  OZ,  while  OZ  is 
held  by  another  ring  sZ,  which  constrains  it  to  move  round  the 
vertical  Os  at  a  constant  inclinatbn  9  with  constant  angular  velocity 
M,  so  that 

(3)  *-o,  1^-m;  , 

(4)  P"M  tin  9  nn  ^,  Q-'m  sin  9  cos  ^,  R«^  +m  cos 9. 

With  CXF  a  quadrant,  the  components  of  angular  velocity  and 
momentum  about  OF,  OY,  are 

(5)  P  cos  r-R  sm  y,  Q,  and  A(P  cos  t— R  sin  y),  AQ, 

so  that,  denoting  the  components  of  angular  momentum  of  the 
fly-whed  about  OC,  OX.  OY,  OZ  by  K  or  C,  hi.  As,  k,, 

i6)  A|  -     A(P  cos  7— R  sin  7)  cos  7HrK  sin  7* 

7)  A.-     AQ. 

8)  Ai-~A(Pcos7— Rsin7)  »in7+Kco8  7; 

and  the  dynamical  equation 


Fig.  II. 
^,  such  that  the  successive 


(9) 


^'-A.Q4.A,P. 


■N, 


'O. 


with  K  constant,  and  with  preponderance  downward 

(10)  N  B^MA  cos  sY  sm  7  "gMA  sin  7  sin  9  cos  ^, 
reduces  to 

(11)  A^^  sin  7+ Am' sin  7  sin*  9  sin  ^  cos  ^ 

+Am'  cos  7  sin  9  cos  9  cos  *— (Km+^MA)  sin  9  cos  ^^ 
The  position  of  relative  equilibrium  is  given  by 

,    »  ^    ^      J   •    ^    Km  -f  gM  A — Am*  cos  7  cos  9 

(12)  cos  ♦-o.  and  sin  « ^V  sin  7  sin  9 ' 

For  small  values  of  m  the  equation  becomes 

(>3)  A^  sin  7~(Km+£MA)  sin  9  cos  ^«o, 

so  that  ^  ■-  ir  givek  the  position  of  stable  equilibrium,  and  the  period 
of  a  small  oscillation  is  arV  (A  sin  7/(Km+cMA)  sin  9). 

In  the  general  case,  denoting  the  periods  of  vibration  about 
^•}«-,— ^.and  the  sidelong  position  of  equilibrium  by  3r/(iii,  fit,  or 
na),  we  shall  find 

^'4^        "»'";re^^  «ma-i-k^am»  cos  (7-9)1, 

(15)  ftf -j^^{-gM^KM+AM«  cos  (7+9)1. 

(16)  nielli  hs/m  sin  9. 


The  first  integral  of  (11)  gives 


(17) 


|A 


sin  7+iAf^  nn  7  sia"  9  sin"  4 


~-Am*  cos  7  nn  9  cos  9  sin  ^+(Km+cMA)  sn  9  sin  ^— H«"€^ 
and  putting  tan  (ir+i^)'*,  this  reduces  to 

(18)  ^-»vz 

where  Z  is  a  quadratic  b  ^,  so  that  s  is  a  JaodHan  dfiptic  fmKtkm 
of  /,  and  we  have 

(19)  ton  (Js'+I*)  -C(ta.  dn,  nc.  or  ak)nt, 
according  as  the  ring  ZC  performs  complete  revolutioBa,  or  wriB*»«^ 
about  a  sidelone  position  of  equilibnum,  or  oscDlates  about  the 
stable  position  01  equilibrium  ^«  ^fs-. 

Suppose  Os  is  parallel  to  tae  earth's  axis,  and  ji  w  the  diomal 
rotation,  the  square  of  which  may  be  neglected,  then  if  Galfaert's 
barogyroacope  of  ft  6  has  the  knife-edges  turned  in  azimuth  to  make 
an  angle  0  with  £.  and  W.,  so  that  OZ  lies  in  the  horizon  at  an 
angle  E./9.N.,  we  must  put  yir,  cos  9 « sin  a  sin  ^;  and  puttios 
^  >  i«—< +E,  where  i  denotes  the  angle  between  Zs  and  the  voticai 
plane  Zf  through  the  zenith  f, 

(20)  sin9cosl>coe«,  nn9un9»nn  acos^; 

so  that  equations  (9)  and  (10)  for  relative  equililHium  rednoe  to 

(21)  cMAsinE-KQ-KMsin9coef-KMsin9sia(l-E). 
and  will  change  (3)  1 6  mto 

a  multiplication  of  (3)^  1 6  by  cos  ^  (Gilbert,  Comptes  mdms,  1882). 
Changing  the  sign  of  K  or  A  and  E  and  denotii^  the  revolu- 
tions/second of  the  gyroecofje  wheel  by  F,  then  in  the  pmxdios 
nototion,  T  denoting  the  period  of  vibration  as  a  simpk  penduhw*, 

/-*\  ' «=■  -  Km  sin  o  cos  g  Fsinacosjl 

(23)  tan  E-^^j^.|^  ^  >*ad40o  A/PC~F  cos  a' 

so  that  the  gyroscope  would  reverse  if  it  were  poanhk  to  make 


g 


w, 


itioB  to  it  of  a  fly* 
iMrocrnMoope,  ia  a 

ring  movable  about  an  axis  fixed  in  the  pendulum,  m  the  vertical 

plane  of  motion. 
As  the  pendulum  falls  away  to  an  angle  9  with  the  upward  vertical. 

and  the  axis  of  the  fly-wheel  makes  an  angle  ^  with  the  vertical  plane 

of  motion,  the  three  components  of  auiguiar  momentum  are 

(24)  A»-Kco6*,A,-A*-»-K8in*,A,-A^ 

where  At  M  the  component  about  the  axis  of  the  ring  and  K  oC  the 
fly-wheel  about  its  axis;  and  if  L,  M',  N  denote  the  compooenxs  of 
the  couple  of  reaction  of  the  ring,  L  may  be  ignored,  whOe  N  is  aero, 
with  P-o,  0-9,^-0,  so  that 

;25)  M'-A.  ^    -A^-f-K^coif, 

!26)  o-*A.~Aitf-A4(-K»cos^ 

For  the  motion  of  the  pendulum,  including  the  fly-wheel, 
(27)  MK«-gMH  sin  9-M' 

-cMHsin9-Ay-K^coa^ 
If  9  and  ^  remain  small, 

^    ,     A^-K#.A4-K(9-«). 

(Mk«-»-A)l+(K«/A)  (9-«)-fMH9-0; 
so  that  the  upright  pontion  will  be  stoble  if  K*>fMHA,  or  te 
rotation  energy  of  the  wheel  greater  than  )A/C  times  the  energy 
acquired  by  the  pendulum  in  falling  between  the  vertical  and 
horizontal  position ;  and  the  vibration  will  synchronize  with  a  simple 
pendulum  of  length 
(30)  (MK«-»-A)/l(KVgA)  -MHl. 

This  gyroscopic  pendulum  may  be  supposed  to  represent  a  1^ 
among  waves,  or  a  carriage  on  a  monorail,  and  so  affords  an  explana- 
tion of  the  gyroscopic  action  essential  in  the  apparatus  of  ^li^ 
and  Brennan. 

8.^  Careful  scrutiny  shows  that  the  steady  roodoo  of  a 
top  is  not  steady  absolutely;  it  reveals  a  small  nototion  Aawnr 
superposed,  so  that  a  complete  investigation  requires  muifcBrf 
a  return  to  the  equations  of  unsteady  motion,  and  for  the  tktta^ 
small  oscillation  to  consider  them  in  a  penultimate  fonn. 

In  the  general  motion  of  the  top  the  vcctw  OH  of  resultant  aittokr 
momentum  is  no  longer  compelled  to  lie  in  the  vertical  plane  &X^ 
(fig.  a),  but  nnce  the  axis  OA  of  the  gravity  couple  is  always  hori- 
zontol,  H  will  describe  a  curve  in  a  fixied  honzontal  plane  through  C 
The  vector  OC'  of  angular  momentum  about  the  axis  will  be  constant 
in  length,  but  vary  m  direction;  and  OK  wiU  be  the  4x»ipoaent 
angular  momentum  in  the  vertical  plane  COC.  if  the  planes  thrMigili 
C  and  C  perpendicular  to  the  lines  OC  and  OC'  tntenect  in  the  has 
KH ;  and  if  KH  is  the  component  angular  momentum  perpendicnhr 
to  the  plane  COC,  the  resultant  angular  momentum  OH  has  the 
three  componenu  OC',  C'K,  KH,  represented  in  Eukr's  aagks  by 

(1)  KH-Ai9/<«.  CK-A  sin  $d^lit,  OC'«G'. 
Drawing  KM  vertical  and  KN  parallel  to  OC,  then 

(2)  KM  ^Admt,  KN  -CR-A  cos «i*/rf<- (C-A)R-I-Arf^ 
so  that  in  the  spherical  top,  with  C  -  A,  KN  ^Ad^dL 


GYROSCOPE  AND  GYROSTAT 


773 


C3) 


The  velocity  of  H  is  in  the  direction  KH  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
COC',  and  equal  to  fMA  sin '9  or  An'  sin  $,  so  that  if  a  point  in  the 
axis  OC'  at  a  distance  Aji'  from  O  is  projected  on  the  horizontal  plane 
through  C  in  the  point  P  on  CK,  the  curve  described  bv  F,  turned 
forwards  through  a  right  angle,  will  be  the  hodograph  of  H ;  thw  is 

'^  d 

Afi*sin  ••^♦+»'''-«Aji«Bin  ««♦•'  -  J(p«") 

where  pe^  is  the  vector  CH ;  and  so  the  curve  described  by  P  and 
the  motion  of  the  axis  of  the.  top  is  derived  from  the  curve  described 
by  H  by  a  differentiation. 
Resolving  the  velocity  of  H  in  the  direction  CH, 

(4)  d.CWdt'An*  sin  9  sin  KCH-Aii'aiatf  KH/CH. 

(5)  d.kCWIdt^AHihia9d9/dL 
and  integrating 

(6)  ICH«  -  A%*(E-cos0), 
W  fOH«  -AV(F-cos»). 
(8)                   }C'H*  «  AVCD-costf). 

where  D,  E,  F  are  constants,  connected  by 


Then 

(10) 

(II) 

(12) 


F-E+<3«/2AV. 


D+C'/aAV. 

KH«-OH*-OK«, 

OK>sin>  •-CC'«-C«raCG'  cos  e+G* 

A>sin«#(<l|/ak)*-aA*i»*(F-coe0)  stn>0-G>+aGG'cM0-G'*; 
and  putting  coa  9  »s, 

(13)  (^)  '-2««(F-«)  (1-^  -  (G»-aGG'«+G'«)/A» 

-  aii«(E>-t)  f  m")  -  f G'  -  G«)VA« 
-2iH(D-s)  (i-^)  -  (G  -  G'«)VA«, 
•  2*'  Z  suppose. 
Denoting  the  roots  of  Z  <-o  by  «. «,  ti.  we  shall  have  them  arranged 
in  the  order 

«i>i>*>«>»«>-l. 
(i«/A)«-a««(..-t)  (sr«)  (a-.,). 


(14) 
(IS) 
(16) 


nt»f]dzl^{aZ), 


an  elliptic  integral  of  the  first  kind,  which  with 


(17) 


can  be  expressed,  when  normaliaed  by  the  factor  yOk<-aO/>i  by  the 
inverse  elliptic  function  in  the  form 

J  »iV  U  («i-«)  (*-«)  (sr*)! 

-«n-»A/£:i*l-cn-t  A/bZl^^dtr*  \/^^^^ 
vsr-ii  V  si-«,  V»i-«« 

(19)  s-ga»(«-sa)sn*ml,  ci-s>>(si-C|)cn*ifi/, 

Si'-s>(si-sa)dn*m< 

(20)  s  BSfSn'mi  +s«cn'mf. 

Interpreted  dynamically,  the  axis  of  the  top  keeps  time  with  the 
beats  ol  a  simple  pendulum  of  length 

(21)  L-//J6,-*,}. 

suspended  from  a  point  at  a  height  t(*i+*»)l  above  O.  in  such  a 
manner  that  a  point  on  the  pcdulum  at  a  distance 

(22)  i(».-«i)/-l»/L 

from  the  point  of  suspension  moves  so  as  to  be  always  at  the  same 
level  as  the  centre  ol  oscillation  of  the  top. 

The  polar  co-ordinates  of  H  are  denoted  by  p,  w  in  the  horizontal 
plane  tmtMigh  C;  and,  resolving  the  velocity  of  H  perpendicular  to 

(23)  pdw/dt   «Aii^sin0cosKCH. 
pUv/<il-AM>8in».CK 

-A»«(G'-Gcos«) 
-Gs  di_  C    (G'~Gf)/aA«     d» 

x"J./    E-i — v(5Zr 

an  elliptic  integral,  of  the  third  kind,  with  pole  at  >■>£:  and  then 

(26)  — f-KCH-Un-*KH/CH 

,      .jArinMf/d/  V(2Z) 

^  C'-Gcoa#"*"    (G'-Gt)yAi»' 
which  determines  ^. 
Otherwise,  from  the  geometry  of  fig.  4, 

(27)  •  C'K  sin  9  -OC-OC'  cos  9, 

(28)  A  sin>  9dHdi^C-C'  cos  0, 

f^\        ,^fG--G'«<ft.i  rO-G'dt .  .  fG-hC'di 

(a9)     '^-J-rr?-y-iJ-Trrx+U"THFrA' 

the  sum  of  two  elliptic  integrals  of  the  third  kind,  with  pole  at  s  -  *  i ; 
and  the  relation  In  (25)  (26)  shows  the  addition  of  these  two  integrals 
into  a  single  integral,  with  pole  at  <•-£. 
The  motion  of  a  q>here.  rolling  and  spinning  in  the  interior  of  a 

Sherical  bowl,  or  on  the  top  of  a  sphere,  is  found  to  be  of  the  same 
aracter  as  the  motion  of  the  axis  of  a  i*Titn'nt  top  about  a  fixed 


iM) 
(25) 


,rG'-Gs«ft     c 


The  curve  described  by  H  can  be  identified  as  a  Poinsot  herpolhode, 
that  is,  the  curve  traced  out  by  rolling  a  quadric  surface  with  centre 
fixed  at  O  on  the  horizontal  plane  through  C;  and  Dartx>ux  has 
shown  also  that  a  deformable  hyperboloid  made  of  the  generating 
lines,  with  O  and  H  at  opposite  ends  of  a  diameter  and  one  generator 
fixed  in  OC,  can  be  moved  so  as  to  describe  the  curve  H ;  the  tangent 
plane  of  the  hyperboloid  at  H  being  normal  to  the  curve  of  H ;  and 
then  the  other  generator  through  O  will  coincide  in  the  movement  with 
OC',  the  axis  m  the  top ;  thus  the  Poinsot  herpolhode  curve  H  is  also 
the  trace  made  by  rolling  a  line  of  curvature  on  an  ellipsoid  confocal 
to  the  hyperboloid  of  one  sheet,  on  the  plane  through  C. 

KirchnoflF's  Kinetic  Analogue  asserts  also  that  the  curve  of  H  is 
the  projection  of  a  tortuous  elastica,  and  that  the  spherical  curve  of 
C  is  a  nodograph  of  the  elastica  described  with  constant  velocity. 

Writing  the  equation  of  the  focal  ellipse  of  the  Darboux  hyper- 
boloid through  H,  enlai^  to  double  scale  so  that  O  is  the  centre, 

(30)  ««/o«+y/^+s«/o-i, 

with  s'+X,  f^-^X,  X  denoting  the  squares  of  the  semiaxes  of  a  con- 
focal  ellipsoid,  and  X  changed  into  m  and  v  for  a  confocal  hyper- 
boloid of  one  sheet  and  of  two  sheets. 

(31)  X>o>M> -/»•>»>-«■, 

then  in  the  deformation  of  the  hyperboloid^  X  and  9  remain  constant 
at  H ;  and  utilizing  the  theorems  of  solid  geometry  on  confocal 
quadncs,  the  magnitude*  may  be  chosen  so  tl»t 

(32)  a«+X+^+M+»-OH«-|*«(F-s)-|i»-KX?, 

(33)  ««+M-|ik'(«i-«)-|i»-p.". 

(34)  /J«+M-iik»(»i-«)-p^-i^. 

(35)  M-iA'(«i-«)-p^-Pi". 

(36)  pi«<o<p,«<p»<p,», 

(37)  F-«i+«i+st, 

(38)  X-a/»  +  »-*»s.X-»-|«, 

(39)  |=^-l±i,  J^'-l^ 

X-p        2        X-9       2 

with  s>cos  9,  9  denoting  the  angle  between  the  generating  lines 
through  H ;  and  with  OC-I.  OC'  -l',  the  length  Jk\as  been  chosen 
so  that  in  the  preceding  equations 

(40)  i/*-G/2A«.  «'/*-G72A«; 
and  A,  8*,  k  may  replace  G,  G',  2 An;  then 

while  from  (33-39) 
(42)  aZ      4f««-l-M)f^-l-M)i« 

whkh  verifies  that  KH  is  the  perpendicular  from  0  on  the  tangent 
plane  of  the  hyperboloid  at  H.  and  so  proves  E^rboux's  theorem. 

Planes  through  O  perpendicular  to  the  generating  lines  cut  off  a 
Mnstant  length  HQ-«,  HQ'-r-  so  the  line  of  curvature  described 
by  H  in  the  deformation  of  the  hyperboloid.  the' intersection  of  the 
fixed  confocal  ellipsoid  X  and  hyperboloid  of  two  sheets  v,  rolls  on  a 
horizontal  plane  throuirh  C  and  at  the  same  time  on  a  plane  throueh 
C  perpendicular  to  OC'. 

Produce  the  generatins  line  HQ  to  meet  the  principal  planes  of  the 
confocal  system  in  V,  T.  P;  these  will  also  be  fixed  poinU  on  the 
generator;  and  putting 

^  (43)  (HV.  HT.  HP.)/HQ  -  D/(A.  B.  C.) 

then  ' 

(44)  Ax"+B>»+Ci^-Da^ 

fetf  i9!Jf*fefe  Sjf*^«*1'A  the. «!"•«*•  of  the  semiaxes  given  by 
HV.  HQ.  HT.  HQ  HP.  HQ,  and  with  HQ  the  normal  line  at  H,  and 
so  touching  the  horizontal  plane  through  C;  and  the  direction 
cosines  01  the  normal  being 

(45)  x/HV,  y/HT,  s/HP, 

(46)  AV-t-B^y+CV-DV, 

the  line  of  curvature,  called  the  polhode  curve  by  Poinsot,  being  the 
intersection  of  the  quadric  surface  (44)  with  the  cllipM>id  (46). 

There  is  a  second  surface  associated  with  (44),  which  rolls  on  the 
plane  through  C,  corresponding  to  the  other  generating  line  HQ* 
through  H,  so  that  the  same  line  of  curvature  nSls  on  two  planes  at  a 
consunt  disunce  from  O,  <  and  r;  and  the  motion  of  the  top  is 
?***?.."P/"  ****  combination.  This  completes  the  sutement  of 
JacoM  8  theorem  iWerke,  ii.  480)  that  the  motion  of  a  top  can  be 
resolved  into  two  movements  of  a  body  under  no  force. 
.  9*"0T^'^'  •**rting  with  Poinsot's  polhode  and  herpolhode  given 
m  (44)  (46),  the  normal  plane  b  drawn  at  H,  cutting  the  principal 
axesof  the  rolling  quadric  in  X.Y,Z;  and  then  •  r-  r^ 
^.(47)  .  «»+»«-x.OX.  ^-l-M-y.OY.  M-s.OZ. 
this  determines  the  deformable  hyperboktid  of  whkh  one  generator 
through  H  is  a  normal  to  the  plane  through  C;  and  the  other 
generator  is  inclined  at  an  angled,  the  inclination  of  the  axis  of  the 
top.  while  the  normal  plane  or  the  parallel  plane  through  O  revolves 
with  angular  velocity  diff/dt. 

The  curvature  is  useful  in  drawing  a  curve  of  H;  the  diameter  of 
curvature  D  is  given  by 


774 


GYROSCOPE  AND  GYROSTAT 


The  curvature  U  zero  and  H  passes  through  a  pmnt  of  inflexion  whtfn 
C'  conies  into  the  horizontal  plane  throusn  C;  4^  will  then  be 
stationary  and  the  curve  described  by  C  will  be  looped. 

In  a  state  of  steady  motion,  s  oscillates  between  two  limits  sii  and  si 
which  are  close  together  i  so  putting  sk  ~Sa  the  coefficient  of  s  in  Z  u 

fA^\  ,*.  4-1^  m  -i4.<^^'-  -•  .  (OMcosg-|-ON)(QM+ONcos». 

OM«-|-ON«. 
'  OM.ON  ^ 


(50) 


3fiSa' 


^••'  *"20M  ON' 


/..A       n/._\    OM*-aOM . ON  cos g-f-ON*        MN« 
(SI)       a(«i-«.)- OM.ON "CMUR- 

With  «i>ss«  CO,  K«|s-;  and  the  number  oC  beats  per  second  of 
the  aids  is 


(52) 


m    *i       fe-«»_        MN       « 
T   »    Va"v(0M.0N)2l^ 


beating  time  with  a  pendulum  of  length 
r«^  I-      -i      -40M.ON, 

The  wheel  making  R/3y  revolutions  per  second, 
f    .  beats/second  MN        n     C    MN 

^5*'        revolutionsysecond  "V  (OM  .ON)  R"X'  OC*' 
from  (8)  (9)  I  3;  *od  the  apsidal  angle  is 
/,.%    1»    Amu.i  on        ay  (OM.ON)  t-    ON 

and  the  hdght  of  the  equivalent  conical  pendulum  X  is  given  by 
...  X     c     ««    OM    KC     OL 

(56)  r  ■/&";?  ON"  "Kr"oc" 

if  OR  drawn  at  right  angles  to  OK  cuts  KC  in  R,  and  RL  u  drawn 
horizontal  to  cut  the  vertical  CO  in  L;  thus  if  OC'  represents  /  to 
scale,  then  OL  will  represent  X. 

9.  The  gyroscope  motion  in  6g.  4  comes  to  a  stop  when  the  rim  of 
the  wheel  touches  the  ground ;  and  to  realize  the  motion  when  the 
axis  is  inclined  at  a  greater  angle  with  the  upward  vertical,  the  stalk 
is  pivoted  in  fig.  8  m  a  lug  screwed  to  the  axle  of  a  bicycle  hub, 
fastened  vertically  in  a  bracket  bolted  to  a  beam.  The  wheel  can 
now  be  spun  by  hand,  and  projected  in  any  manner  so  as  to  produce 
a  deurcd  gyroscopic  motion,  undulating,  looped,  or  with^cusps  if  the 


a 


stalk  of  the  wheel  is  dropped  from  rest. 

As  the  principal  part  01  the  motion  takes  place  now  in.  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  lowest  position,  it  is  convenient  to  measure  the  angle 
$  from  the  downward  vertical,  and  to  change  the  sign  oS  s.»nd  G. 

Equation  (18)  {8  must  be  changed  to 


(I) 
(a) 


Z-(s-F)  (i-^)-(G«-2GG'«+G'")/aAV 
-(s-D)  (i-z»)-(G-G'8)V2A»i«« 
-  (s-E)  ( i-*«)-(G'-G«)V3AV 


-(«r-«)  (s-Si)  (s-*i), 

(3)  i>Z|>f>S|>-i,D,E>Si, 

(4)  «i+s,+«,  -  F  -  IJ-C/aA'a'  -  E-G«/2AW, 
and  expressed  by  the  inverse  elliptic  function 

(6)  i  ■»  «tsn«fii/+sicn»w/, ««  =  (zi-ri)/(f  r-»i). 
Equation  (25)  and  (29)  I  8  is  changed  to 

-    iCG'-Ctdt    1  fG'-GE  dt    Gt 

(7)  ^'^j-T^A^J-iirA'IA' 

/ax  /      fG's-G  dt,  fG'+G  dt     .  fG'-G  dl 

while  ^  and  C  change  places  in  (26). 

The  Jacobian  elliptic  parameter  of  the  third  elliptic  integral  in  (7) 
can  be  given  by  v,  where 

where  /  is  a  real  fraction, 
(10)  (,.;)K-.J*i|!t^&. 

with  respect  to  the  comodulus  «'. 

Then,  with  >■>£.  and 

(12)  2Ze— {(G'-GE)/A«}«,  .     ' 

if  II  denotes  the  apsidal  angle  of  o,  and  T  the  time  of  a  stngle  beat 
of  the  axle,  up  or  down, 


(13) 


IH 


GT 


lA 


.j.vi^ 


-i»/+K«n/K'. 

in  aocordanoe  with  the  theory  of  the  complete  elliptic  integral  of  the 
third  kind. 

Interpreted  eeometrically  on  the  deformable  hypcrtnloia.  flattened 
in  the  plane  oithe  focal  ellipse,  if  OQ  is  the  perpendicular  from  the 
centre  on  the  tangent  HP,  AOQ  'am/K'.  and  the  eccentric  aof k  of 
P,  measured  from  the  minor  axis,  is  am(i-/)K',  the  eccentricity  of 
the  focal  ellipse  being  the  comodulus  s'. 

A  point  L  is  taken  in  QP  such  that 


(14) 

(15) 
and  with 

(16) 
(17) 


QLA)A-zn/K', 
QV,  QT,  QP-OA(zs.  ic.  ad)/K'; 

mT-K.  m/M-  V(ss-Si)/2-OA//k, 


GT 
IS 


G     k 


K- 


^^- 


TKnUK 

(18)  II-Hf+QL+pHR-M+oxK. 

By  choosing  lot  f  ^  simple  rational  fraction,  such  as  },  ),  I,  ), 
.  .  .  an  algebraical  case  of  motion  can  be  constructed  (Aiaus  if 
Mathematics,  1904). 

Thus,  with  G'-GE>o,  we  have  E"j|  or  sii,  never  ii;  /^o  or  i; 
and  P  is  at  A  or  B  on  thot  focal  ellipse;  and  thot 

(19)  »-- ^,p-G/aA, 

(20)  ^+p,-tan-«i^, 

(21)  sln»e«p  (f+A<)i-tVl(-%-s,)(w,)l-|-V[(«i-t)  (r^L 

...  '-^^^»»       fca:2»»  G   _p_    G'     _ 

(22)  sin  e  exp(,^+A<)i-Wl(-«i-«»)(»-*)l+VK«*-«)(t-«i)J. 

-_,i+«i«»       /-»i-»i-  9  -^.    G* 
*     sTTzT*   \    2        iAn    n    2Kiui 

Thus  ^•o  in  (22)  makes  G'>o;  so  that  if  the  stalk  »  held  oat 
horizontally  and  projected  with  angular  velocity  xp  about  the  vertical 
axis  OC  without  giving  any  spin  to  the  wheel,  the  resulting  niocioB 
of  the  stalk  is  like  that  of  a  spherical  pendulum,  and  given  oy 

(23)  sin  •cxp(^-|-^0»-«  J(^cos»)+  J(sin»tf-2gcos»). 

» t  sin  « V  (mc  a  cos9)  +  V  [(sec  a  -|-cos  f)  (cos  •  -cos0)l. 

if  the  axu  falls  in  the  k>west  positbn  to  an  angle  a  with  the  down- 
ward vertical. 

With  sa'-o  in  (21)  and  Si«>-  cos  /f,  and  changing  to  the  upward 
wtical  measurement,  the  motbn  is  given  by 

(24)  sin9s^-'<**'Vl«^V(i-cos  ficM9)+i^  (cosiScos«-co^9)l. 

and  the  ans  rises  from  the  horizontal  pontion  to  a  series  of  cusps; 
and  the  mean  precessional  motion  is  tne  same  as  itt  steady  motioa 
with  the  same  rotation  and  the  axis  horizontid. 
The  special  case  of />  |  may  be  stated  here;  it  is  found  that 

^exp(D-A/).-.^li±£n-£l  +.•  ^'--M-n 

p»-d«(«-z«). 
lX«8in»cxp(^-^i-(L- 1 +«-x)  Jli-5^±2? 

+i(L-i+«+x)Jti±i^k:£l. 

L-|(i-«)+X/>/ii, 

so  that  p  ""O  and  the  motion  if  made  algebraical  by  taking  L  <■  !(!-«)• 
The  stereoscopk  diagram  of  fig.  12  drawn  by  T.  I.  Dewar  Aom 
these  curves  for  k  -  f  f ,  t.  and  |  (cu^m). 

10.  So  far  the  motion  of  the  axis  (X^  of  the  top  has  ah»e  been 
considered:  for  the  specification  of  any  pcnnt  of  tne  body.  Eukr's 
third  angle  ^  must  be  introduced,  representimrtlie  angular  diq)boe> 
ment  of  the  wheel  with  respect  to  the  stalk.  This  is  given  by 

(i)  ^+co.^.R. 

It  will  simplify  the  formulas  by  cancdUng  a  secular  tens  if  «e 
make  C  ■-  A,  and  the  top  b  then  called  a  sphmcai  top\  OH  becoooes 
the  axu  of  instanuncous  angular  velocity,  as  well  as  of  lecubaflt 
angular  momentum. 

When  this  secular  term  b  restored  in  the  general  case,  the  u 
01  of  angular  vebdty  is  obtained  by  producing  Q'H  to  !•  making 

,,v  HI     A-C    HI_A-C 


(25) 
(26) 
(27) 

(28) 


GYROSCOPE  AND  GYROSTAT 


775 


and  then  the  four  vector  component*  OC\  C'K,  KH,  HI  give  a  re- 
sultant vector  01,  rcpTMcnting  the  nngular  velodty  m,  aucn  thar 

(4)  OWl  —Al 

The  point  I  b  theh  fixed  on  the  generating  line  QTH  of  the  de* 
formabie  hypcrboloid,  and  the  other  generator  through  I  will  cut 
the  fixed  generator  OC  of  the  opposite  system  in  a  fixed  point  O', 


p— — »- 

y\ 

*"*<^  \ 

7 

V\ 

1 

-V- 

-f 

-A  y^ 

U 

1} 

r/ 

n 

;^- 

i"^ 

y 

^ 

Fig.  I  a. 

such  that  10'  is  of  constant  length,  and  may  be  joined  up  by  a  link, 
which  constrains  I  to  move  on  a  sphere. 
In  the  spherical  top  then, 

depending  on  the  two  elliptic  integrals  of  the  third  kind,  with  pole 
at  s  •  9  I :    nnd   measuring  9  from  the  downward  vertical,  tneir 


elliptic  parameters  are: — 

^^^  ""  J.    vuz) — ^'^'' 


(7) 


V#-K+(«-/.)K'i 


(9)  («-/.)K'-/:^^^^^ 


tunc 

1 


Then  if  »'-K+(i-/)K't'  is  the  parameter  oorrespondug  to 
s  o  D.  we  find 

(lo)  /-/t-/i.  jr-/t+/.. 

(II)  »-»!+**.      »'-S|-l»». 

The  most  sjnrnmetrical  treatment  of  the  motion  of  any  pdnt  fixed 
in  the  top  will  be  found  in  Klein  and  Sommerfcld,  Tkwrie  des 
Kreiseh,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  (or  details;  four  new 
functions,  «,  0,  7,  5,  are  introduced,  defined  in  terms  of  Euler's 

^les.  9.  ^.  ^  by 

,ia)  a  -  cos  M  exp  If    ♦+!^)«. 

,13)  tf-«  sin    $  exp    (-^+i^)«. 

,14)  7-«  sin    9  exp    (    ♦--^^)i, 

.15)  «-   cos|«cxp4(-*-i^)«. 

Next  Klein  takes  two  functions  or  co-«rdinates  X  and  A.  defined  by 

(,6)  x-i±2-^ 

and  A  the  same  function  of  X,  Y,  Z,  so  that  X..  A  play  the  part  of 
stereographic  representations  of  the  same  point  (z,  y,  s)  or  (X,  Y,  Z) 
on  a  sphere  of  radius  r,  with  respect  to  poles  in  which  the  sphere 
b  intersected  by  Os  and  OZ. 

These  new  functions  are  shown  to  be  connected  by  the  bilinear 
rdation 

(17)  ^"?I$f'  •»-^-»' 

in  acoordanoe  with  the  annexed  scheme  of  transformation  of  co> 
ordinate*— 


where 
(i«) 


z 

H 

z 

{ 

«* 

^ 

2«/l 

n 

y 

1* 

27* 

r 

•7 

fis 

•i+fly 

X+Yf.   H--X+Yf,  Z--Z; 


and  thus  the  motion  in  space  of  any  point  fixed  in  the  body  defined 
by  A  is  determined  completely  by  means  of  «.  fi,  y,  i;  and  in  the 
caseof  the  symmetrical  top  these  functions  are  elliptic  transcendants, 
to  which  KKin  has  given  the  name  of  muUiplicaUoe  elliptic  functions; 
and 


(19) 


•»-cos«l«,  tf7--sin"R 


itpsc. 


we  have  for  the 


•S-^-l,(i8+^-cos», 
V(-4«itf7«)-sin«; 

while,  for  the  motion  of  a  point  on  t6c  axis,  putting  A  ■-  o.  or  «e , 

(ao)  X  'fifi  -t  tan  i«rM,  or  X  -  a/7  -  -t  cot  ^9rH, 

and 

(ai)  90" \i  sin  Be*i,  ay » {t  sin  $€**, 

giving  orthogonal  projections  on  the  planes  GKH,  CHK;  and 

the  vectorial  equation  in  the  plane  GKH  of  the  herpolhode  of  H 
for  a  spherical  top- 
When  /i  and  ft  in  (9)  are  rational  fractions,  these  multiplicative 
elliptic  functions  can  be  replaced  by  al^braical  functions,  qualified 
bv  factora  which  are  exponential  functums  of  the  time  1;  a  aeries 
01  quasi-algebraical  cases  of  motion  can  thus  be  constructed,  which 
become  purely  algebraical  when  the  exponential  facton  are  can- 
celled by  a  suitable  arrangement  of  the  constants. 

Thus,  for  example,  with  /-o,  y-i,/!-!, /«-J,  as  in  (a4)  I9. 
where  P  and  P  are  at  A  and  B  on  the  focal  eflii 
spherical  top 

(35)    (i+cos»)exp(*-|-^-5/H* 

•  V  (sec^-cos»)  V  (cos/l-coa»)+t(V8rc  ^+Vcos/l)  Vcos9, 

(84)    (I  -COB  $)  exp  (♦-^-9'l)« 

>  V  (sec^-cos  •)V  (cos  ^— cos9) -|-t(V  sec /I- Vcos/I)  Vcos9, 

(»5)    ff,  »'-»iV(asec0J*«V(2costf); 
and  thence  «,  0,  y,  6  can  be  infcrird. 

The  physical  constants  of  a  given  symmetrical  top  have  been 
denotea  in  1 1  by  M,  A,  A.  C.  and /,  n,  T;  to  specify  a  given  state  of 
general  motion  we  have  G,  G^  or  CR,  D.  E,  or  F.  which  may  be 
called  the  dynamical  consunts;  or  c.  r,  w.  si,  «i,  or/,  f,  ft,  ft,  the 
analytical  constants;  or  the  geometrical  constants,  such  as  «,  0, 
i,  I',  ik  of  a  given  articulated  hypcrboloid. 

There  is  Uius  a  triply  infinite  series  of  a  state  of  motion;  the 
choice  of  a  typical  state  can  be  made  geometrically  on  the  hyper- 
boloid.  flattened  in  the  plane  of  the  k)ail  ellipse,  of  which  c  is  the 
ratio  6f  the  semiaxea  a  and  0,  and  am(l  "f)  Kr  is  the  eccentric  angle 
from  the  minor  axis  of  the  point  of  contact  P  of  the  generator  HQ, 
so  that  two  analytical  constants  are  settled  thereby';  and  the  point 
H  may  be  taken  arbitrarily  on  the  tangent  line  PQ,  and  HQ'  is  then 
the  other  tangent  of  the  focal  dlipse;  in  which  case  9t  and  $t  are 
the  angles  between  the  tangents  HO,  HQ',  and  between  the  focal 
distaoccfl  HS,  HS'.  and  Al*  will  be  HS.HSV  while  HQ.  HQ"  are  S.  l\ 


776 


II.  Eqiuiun  (i)  I  3  "iih  tiight  mi 

*  to  Ibe  votical  of  ■  body  ot  revolutiot^.  >uuii » 
tfiki  wiDe-glaH,  pblcduhp  bowL  Hpinniiis  Ufp. ; 
on  a  hori&Hual  pUine,  or  ■  uirlicv  ol  nvofuii 
Hutfal  luBp4lude' 

The  pdnt  O  it  now  r'     '  - 
vertical  througli  the  ccn    . 
the  ccntn  ol  guvily.  and  Ihrojgh  ihr  centre 
cirdc  dcKribed  by  P,  iIk  paim  <3  conian  (Eg. 


GYROSCOPE  AND  GYROSTAT 

In  the  necUl  tMwt  d  the  ryrtKiAi  wtiere  the  tatlMa 
on  round  Ct,  lod  the  body  [■  Idnrlkally  lynmiefrla 


vertiOLl  by  '  (fis-  i. 


A,t"S?.  »."/U 


ia  about  Gji,  C>,  and  K  ii 


(.4)    ^-,™.^— »™»,  5— ,™.S-,ri..; 
(■5)  ^--S'-S''""*' 

The  dynamical  equation!  {4I  ■  -  ■  (9)  can  iwv  be  rcdnced.te 

(IS)    ^ ^-tH<MI+ti.'~»uat]+frxat»-t^ 

(■9)    ^-^-^-«(i+«cM»-p^n»)+r#ai.». 

(la)  -iX-iZ-A^+AfiVott^fit,, 

(13)  *'^-jr"'^'-^«jr 

Enmiulini  y  between  (19)  and  (13), 

"Si  (n+')^-»a-nM""+^ 

-  ^{i+.cot »  -f  miiO-H™.  CO 

+(«(ii-i™i#-pBin«-n,TO 
In  the  epecUl  aac  of  a  cvrovtat  rolling  on  iIk  ihtrp  n^ 
circle  puiiog  throufh  G,  loo,  p-o,  (AJ  and  (Jl)  reduce  to 

(19)  i.(i.+T)-CM«'/A(M^+C). 

The  eliminalion  sTX  and  Z  between  (iH)  (w)  (it),  exc 
tymbolically  ai 
,{]0>  (22)-t(l»)+«<20»-0. 

(C)     (A+..+..)g_p*f+{*+,.)p.c««+^ 

+5'p(ia»»-uine)-/»'i(i+<coc»)-t{icoe»-i.in 
and  thl>  combined  with  (A)  and  (B)  wiD  lead  to  an  equui 
inlecral  of  which  it  the  equation  of  encrry. 

13.  Thecq,uationa(A)(B)(CJarei«»acuUeInIhuKpenl 

steady  motion  at  a  conttaoi  Lnclinaiioa  ■  tn  tibe  venkal;   a 
■labLUiy  ii  KCurvd  if  a  mull  nutation  of  the  ajds  can  be  lupei 


.  vejocity  li  six  piuie  Cai  aboat  the  vt 


Ji(AJtBJ(C)bc 


GYROSCOPE  AND  GYROSTAT 


777 


<^->  (MS-»-»^ 


IB*) 


(ۥ) 


dr 


-ae(x  sin  f ->  as  cos  9  - />  sin' 9) + 'X^  CM  f  «  o, 

+Qi  sin  f(»-p  sin  «)  -  rs^  cot  f  "O, 
(h+*'+')  §+«'^C«  CO.  ^  sin  •)  -  Q^'sin  • 

+fi*(^+i^)  tfnfcoflf+fltosii^f 

-i2rx(s  sin  f +•  cos  f>-f  (s  cos  ^-f  sin  9y^.o. 
The  steady  motion  and  nutation  superposed  may  be  expressec!  by 

(1)  f-s+L.  sin  •"sin  a+L  cos  «>  cos  f  «cos  «-L  sin  a, 
Q-M+N.  r-R+Q, 

where  L,  N,  Q  are  smalt  terms,  Involving  a  (actor  <^,  to  express 
the  periodic  nature  of  the  nutation;  and  then  if  o*  c  denote  the 
mean  value  of  x,  s,  at  the  point  of  contact 

(2)  x*a+L.^cosa,s*c^L^sina« 

(3)  xsintf+scostf*asina+«cos  a+MaoossnCsin  a). 

(4)  X  cob  9-s  sin  f  *a  cos  s-c  sin  «-L(a  sin  a+e  cos  «-/>). 
Substituttns  these  values  in   (C*)   with  d9/i<«-dV/^-»*U 

and  ignoring  products  of  the  small  termi,  such  as  L',  LN,  .  .  . 

(C**)     (^+«Hc')  U«-Oi+N)  (^TJ^^^+T?)  (-in  •+L  cos  «) 

+0<^+^N)  (^  +^-3L^  nn  a)  (sin  a  cos  «+L  cos  ^ 

+(^+3/iN)  [ac-L^(a  sin  «-«  sin  «)]  (sin*  a+L  sin  3a) 
-0»+N)(R+Q}(a+ L^cos  a)  [a  sin  a+c  cosa+L(acostt-C8ioa)] 

-t(a  cos  «•<  nn  «)+xL(a  sin  a+c  cos  «-p)"0^ 
which  is  equivalent  to 

(5)  T.^f^«+,i«(^+c«)sia«cos« 

^m'  oc  sin*  s-iiRaCa  nn  «+c  cos  a)-|(a  cos  mrc  sin  «)  ■■Oi 
the  condition  of  steady  motion ;  and 

(6)  DL+EQ+FN-0, 
where 

'A  .  ^  .  ^\  ^    CK+K 


(7)    D 


cos  a-a^V  un'  a  cos  « 


(S) 
(9) 


P       CR+K    . 


-^tf  (iff+c*)  COS  a-MV(^  sin  c-c  cos  a)  sin'a 

+lt*M  nn  3«-|iRp  cos  «((k  sin  a+c  cos  «) 
-fiRaia  cos  mrt  sin  a)+c(a  sin  a+e  cos  o-p)* 

C 
E«  -/i|^  sin  mr/iaia  sin  a+c  cos  a), 

i+a;^  f  l^+c*)  sin  a  cos  a 

+2Mac  sin*  a-Ra(a  tin  a+c  cos  a). 
With  the  same  approximation  (A*)  and  (B*)  lare  equivalent  to 

(C        \  Q  N 

n+aMr~^fi&«T'^(^  nn  a+ac  cos  a-p  sin*  a) 

+Rapcosa«o, 

<«••)  •«B+(H+«')'»»*r-^+«'(M+'')"" 

+lic  sin  a(a-p  sin  a)'R£p  cos  a  ""O. 
The  elimination  of  L,  Q,  N  will  lead  to  an  equation  for  the  deter- 
mination  of  n*.  and  «'  must  be  positive  for  the  motion  to  be  stable. 
'■    If  &  is  the  radius  of  the  horizontal  circle  described  by  G  in  steady 
motion  round  the  centre  B,  . 

(10)  6  -  s/m  -  (cP-flR)/M  -  c  sin  a  -  «R/Mt 

and  drawing  GL  vertically  upward  of  length  X  *c/m*,  the  height  of  the 
equivalent  conical  p<;ndulum»  the  steady  motion  condition  may  be 
written 

(1 1)  (CR+K)m ;in  a-|t*  sin  a  cos  a »»~t^(m  om  a-c  sin  a) 

+M(fi'c  sin  a-|iRn)  (a  sin  a+c  cos  a) 
MkM(frX<->(a  sin  a+c  cos  a)  -a  cos  a+c  sin  a] 
-fM.  PT, 

LG  produced  cuts  the  plane  in  T. 

Interpreted  dynamically,  the  left-hand  dde  of  this  equation 
represents  the  velocity  of  the  vector  of  angular  momentum  about 
<j.  so  that  the  right-hand  nde  represents  the  moment  of  the  applied 
force  about  G,  in  this  case  the  reaction  of  the  plane,  which  is  parallel 
to  GA,  and  equal  to  eM.GA/GL;  and  so  the  angle  AGL  must  be 
less  than  the  angle  of  friction,  or  slipping  will  take  place. 

Spinning  upright,  with  a*o,  a«o,  we  find  F"0r  Q"0,  and 


(la) 
(13) 
04) 


(A+'r-'-»(^^+H-KM+^)<-')- 


Thus  for  a  top  spinning  upright  OB  a  roanded  poi(tt*  with  K^O, 
the  stability  requires  that 

(15)  R>a*'VU(fr^)|/(4^+cp), 

where  lb,  i^  are  the  radii  of  gyration  about  the  ans  Gt,  and  a  per^ 
pendicular  axis  at  a  distance  c  from  G ;  this  reduces  to  the  preceding 
case  of  f  ^  (7)  when  p-o. 
Generally,  with  a "O,  but  a  ^o,  the  condition  (A)  and  (B)  becomes 

(16)  (§+V)g-aM«c-Ri^p, 

so  that,  eliminating  Q/Li 

<")    '[(H+'')(H+«')H''-(H+'')(^Tf^+W 

the  condition  when  a  coin  or  platter  is  rolling  neariy  flat  on  the  Ubte. 
Rolling  along  in  a  straight  path,  with  a««ir,  c«o.  |i"*o.  E«o; 
and 


(18) 
(19) 


N/L-(CR+K)/A, 
D-(^+a')K«+|(o^), 

F— £5^-Ra«. 


Thus  with  K-o,  and  rolling  with  vdodty  V«Ra,  sUbility 
requires 


""^m^"*^^ 


or  the  body  must  have  acquired  velocity  greater  than  attained  by 
rolling  down  a  plane  through  a  vertical  height  i(a-p)A/C. 

On  a  sharp  edge,  with  p"0,  a  thin  uniform  disk  or  a  thin  ring 
requires 

(a3)  V»/af>o/6orfl;8. 

The  gyrosut  can  hold  itself  upright  on  the  plane  without  advance 
when  R*o,  provided 

(34)  K*fAM-gia-p)  U  positive. 

For  the  stability  of  the  monorail  carriage  of  |  5  (6),  ignoring  the 
rotary  inertia  of  the  wheels  by  putting  C  *o,  and  replacing  K  bx  G' 
the  theory  above  would  require 

^'(.v+^)>,». 


(as) 


For  further  theory  and  experiments  consult  Routh,  Aivaneed 

ana  Thomson  and  Tait,  Natural  PkiUh 
TraiU  du  hic^des  (analysed  in  Appell, 


Rigid  Dynamics^  ch^ 
I  345;  .also 


tM».  v.,  a 
Bourlet. 


rcQv 

1 


14.  Lord  Kelvin  has  studied  thcoretiotlly  and  experi- 
mentally the  vibration  of  a  chain  of  stretcned  gyrostats 


iiy  tne  vibration  ot  a  cnain  01  stretched  gyrostats 
iProc,  txmdon  Math,  Soc,  1875;  J.  Perry,  S^nntng  Tops. 
for  a  diagram).  Suppose  eacn  gyrostat  to  be  eouivmlent/lynamically 
to  a  fly-wheel  of  axial  lensth  2a,  and  that  each  connectlnglink  is  a 
light  cord  or  steel  wire  of  length  a/,  stretched  to  a  tennon  t. 

Denote  by  x,  y  the  components  of  the  slight  displacement  from  the 
central  straight  line  of  the  centre  of  a  fly-wbed ;  and  let  ^,  f ,  i  denote 
the  direction  cosines  of  the  axis  of  a  fly-wheel,  and  r, «,  i  the  direction 
cosines  of  a  link,  distinguishing  the  oifTercnt  bodies  by  a  sufiix. 
Then  with  the  previous  notation  and  to  the  order  of  approximation 
luired, 
I)  9im^fdi,9t'dpfdt, 

(2)  fti-A«i,A,-iA»i,*i-iC. 
to  be  employed  in  the  dynamical  equations 

(3)  ^-•i*t+li*»-L, . . . 

in  which  $Jki  and  Bjkt  can  be  omitted. 
For  the  Mh  fly-wheel 

(4)  -Atf»+K>-T«(ff»     ^jO+T4(7«-ft»,), 

(5)  AS+M*— To(>«-fO-To(^»-rA«,): 
and  for  the  notion  of  translation 

(6)  Mf A  -T(fwi-f»).  M^-T(i»^i-iO ; 
#hile  the  geometrical  relations  are 

(7)  aM-^c»-tf(Asfi+Pft)+a'»^i. 
<8)  yM-y*  -  •Whi +«*) +a/*»*«. 
Putting 

(9)  »+y»-w,  p+fl»-Hf+«-^, 


778 


GYROSCOPE  AND  GYROSTAT 


these  three  pftin  of  eqiiatkMu  may  be  lepboed  by  the  three  equations 
(10)  Aii^l0lfct+2Taafc-Ta('*«.i  +•»)  -Ob 

(ii)  MSV-T(»»«.i-»*)-o, 

(13)  Wfcfr«»-«(«Wi+«fc)-a^»*i-o. 

For  a  vibration  of  circular  polarization  assume  a  solutioo 

(13)  »•,  *./»-(L.  P.  Q)exp.(»' +*«)•.,  ^  ^  , 
so  that  e/ff  is  the  ume-lag  between  the  vibration  oi  one  fly-wheel 
and  the  next;  and  the  wave  velocity  is 

(14)  U-a(c+i)«/c 

Then 

P(-Aii«+Kii+2To)-QT«(«-+l)-0,   , 
-LM«H2T(«*«-i)-o, 
(17)  L(«^i)-Pa(««'  +  i)-«(2^-o, 

leadi^t.  on  elimination  of  L,  P,  Q.  to 

h  To+  Kii-A»«)  (i-MK'f/T)-MiK^ 

C«8)         cosc-i aTa-i-KW^An«4-M»»a* * 

.  ,1      Mil*  2Ta(a+/)ff  KiO-Ait'f 

With  K-o,  A-o,  this  reduces  to  Lagrange's  condition  in  the 
vibration  of  a  string  of  beads. 


U 


Putting 
(20) 

(21) 

(22) 

(23) 


p-M/2(a+/), 
.-Ky2(«+/). 
a-A/2(a+/). 

equation  (19)  can  be  written 
(24    Isin  (a+/)»AJ|" 


the  mass  per  unit  length  of  the 

chain, 
the  gyrostatic  ai^ular  momentum 

per  unit  length, 
the  transverse  moment  of  inertia 

per  unit  length, 


Ta+KtU-ta&l 


(25)    j 


sin  (a+/)ii/y  \  . 


/    •  f\«_«^ la-^nm-ttitv 


T    T+(«ii-af»«)  (i+/Ai)+pn\i(a-fO 
7  T+(«it-a»i»)//a 

"  '      :n 


gyrostatic  links,  with  a  and  /  in- 


In  a  continuous  chain  of  sue! 
finitesimal. 

(26)  U*-7J«+' 

for  the  vibration  of  helical  nature  like  circular  polarization. 

Changing  the  sign  of  n  for  circular  polarization  in  the  opposite 
direction 


liar 


(27) 


-(<»-fall*)i/a 

In  this  way  a  mechanical  model  is  obtained  of  the  action  of  a  mag- 
netised medium  on  polarized  light,  «  representing  the  equivalent  of 
the  magnetic  field,  while  a  may  be  ignored  as  insensible  (J.  Larmor, 
Proc.  Cand.  Math.  Soc.,  1890:  Aether  and  UaUer,  Appendix  E). 

We  notice  that  U*  in  (26)  can  be  positive,  and  the  gyrostatic 
chain  stable,  even  when  T  u  negative,  and  the  chain  is  supporting 
a  thrust,  provided  tn  ia  large  enough,  and  the  thrust  does  not 
exceed 

(28)  («»i-ftii«)(i+//o); 

while  U**  in  (27)  will  not  be  positive  and  the  straight  chain  will  be 
unstable  unleu  the  tension  exceeds 

(29)  («ii+aii>)(i-H//c). 

15.  Gyrostat  suspended  by  a  Thread. — In  the  discussion  of  the 
small  vibration  of  a  single  gyrmtat  fly-wheel  about  the  vertical 
position  when  suspended  by  a  single  thread  of  length  2/ -ft.  the 
sufHx  h  can  be  omitted  in  the  preceding  equations  of  |  14,  and  we 
can  write 

(1)  At»-Kdk+TaaHTa*-o, 

(2)  M*-|-T,-o,  withT-gM, 

(3)  w-a»-fc»— o. 

Assuming  a  periodic  solution  of  these  equations 

(4)  ».».•-  (L,  P.  Q)  cxp  nti, 
and  eliminating  L,  P.  Q,  we  obtain 

(5)  (-An«+Kn+gMo)(e-ii«fr)-fMHV-o, 

and  the  frequency  of  a  vibration  in  double  beats  per  second  b 
ii/2r,  where  H  is  a  root  of  this  quartic  eciuation. 

For  upright  spinning  on  a  smooth  horizonul  plane,  take  A-oo  and 
change  the  sign  of  a,  then 

(6)  Afi*-Kii+cMaao, 
so  that  the  stability  requires 

(7)  K»>4fAMa. 

Here  A  denotes  the  moment  of  inertia  about  a  diametral  axis 
through  the  centre  of  gravity;  when  the  point  of  the  fly-wheel  b 
held  in  a  small  smooth  cup.  6«>*o,  and  the  condition  becomes 

(8)  (A+Ma«)ii*-Kn+4Mfl-o. 
requiring  for  stability,  as  before  in  |  3, 

(9)  K»>4t(A+Mo«)Ma. 

For  upright  spinning  inode  a  spherical  surface  of  radius  6.  the 


sign  of  a  must  be  changed  to  obtain  the  condition  at  the  kwest 
point,  as  in  the  gyroocopic  horizon  of  Fleuriaia. 

For  a  gyrostat  spinning  upright  on  the  summit  of  a  sphere  of 
radius  fr,  toe  signs  of  a  and  o  must  be  changed  in  (^,  or  dbe  tiK 
sign  of  It  which  amounts  to  the  same  thii^. 

Denoting  the  components  of  horizontal  diq>laoeoieat  of  the  poinl 
of  the  fly-wheel  by  (,  «,  then 

(10)  6r-(.fr«-«.&,-(-Hri«X  (suppose), 

(11)  v»4ia+X. 

If  the  point  is  forced  to  take  the  motion  (f,  «.  t)  by  f*w^r^ft*^t* 
of  force  X,  Y,  Z,  the  equations  of  motion  become 

(12)  -AJ-I-IG)-  Ya-Za«, 

(14)  M«-X  +Y.-.  M(f-f)-f: 
so  that 

(15)  Att-iOM+gM<0-fMa«-Maaf, 

^(16)  (A+Ma'X^Kdi'+gMaS-l-MaX-Maaf. 

Thus  if  the  point  of  the  gyrostat  b  made  to  taioe  the  pfripdic 
motion  given  by  X<"R  exp  tUs.  ('•o,  the  forced  vibratioa  of  the  r  ' 
is  given  oy  V"  P  exp  nli,  where 

(17)  P|-(A-}-Ma*)ii'-fKfi-|-gMahRMii^-o: 

and  so  the  effect  may  be  investigated  on  the  Fleoriab 
horizon  of  the  motion  of  the  ship. 

Suppose  the  motion  X  b  due  to  the  suspenaon  of  the  gyrostat  fraa 
a  point  on  the  axb  of  a  second  gyrostat  suspended  from  a  fiaed  poiat 

Distinguishing  the  second  gyrostat  by  a  suffix,  then  X»tat,  if  k 
denotes  the  dbtance  between  the  points  of  suspennon  of  the  two 
gyrostats:  and  the  motion  of  the  second  gyrostat  influenced  by  l;^ 
reaction  of  the  first,  b  given  by 

(18)  (A,-|-M,A,«)«i-KA« 

-  -g(M,ik.+M6)«i-^(XtY0, 
-  -:|(M,ikt+M6)tt,-M6CoM-|-V); 
so  that,  in  the  small  vibration, 

(19)  5 }  -(A,+Miik,«)ii«-f  K,i.-|-«(Mi*t-hM6)  {  -MA(aP-FR). 

(20)  Rh(Ai-|-M,lk>*-}-Mi>)ii<+Kiii+g(MtA.+Mfr)hPMsM'-a 
Eliminating  the  ratio  of  P  to  R,  we  obtain 

(21)  HA-|-Mo«)ii«4-K»i+£Mol 

X  I  -(A.+Miik,«+M6»)»«+K,ii+c(M,*.-f-M6)I -M%%*S>.o, 
a  quartk  for  n,  giving  the  frequeticy  11/2  r  of  a  fundamnital  vibratiDa. 

Change  the  sign  of  i  for  the  case  of  the  n^rostats  spinning  upright, 
one  on  the  top  of  the  other,  and  so  realize  the  gyrostat  oa  the  top  cf  a 
gyrostat  described  by  Maxwell. 

In  the  gyrostatic  chain  of  |  14,  the  tension  T  may  change  to  a 
limited  pressure,  and  U'  may  still  be  positive,  and  the  notion 
stable:  and  so  a  motion  b  realized  of  a  number  of  spinaiay  tops, 
superposed  in  a  column. 

16.  The  Flexure  Joint. — In  Lord  Kelvin's  experiment  the  gyrostats 
are  joined  up  by  equal  light  rods  and  short  lengths  of  elastic  wire 
with  rigid  attachment  to  the  rod  and  case  of  a  gyrostat,  so  as  to  keep 
the  system  still,  and  free  from  entai^lement  and  twisting  doe  to 
pivot  friction  of  the  fly-wheels. 

When  thb  gyrostatic  chain  b  made  to  revolve  witli  angular 
velocity  n  in  relative  equilibrium  as  a  plane  pdygoa  passim  through 
Os  the  axb  of  rotation,  each  gyrostatic  case  moves  as  tt  its  axb 
produced  was  attached  to  Os  by  a  flexure  joint.  The  instanteneous 
axb  of  resuluat  angular  velocity  bisects  the  angle  9-4,  if  the  axb 
of  the  case  makes  an  angle  9  with  Os.  and,  the  components  of 
angular  velocity  being  fi  about  Os,  and  -n  about  the  axis,  the  re> 
suitant  angular  velocity  is  211  cos  \(r-4)^2H  sin  )#;  and  the  com- 
ponenu  ofthb  angular  velocity  are 

(1)  -2n  sin  10  sin  |9*  -n(i-cos  9). -along  the  axis,  and 

(2)  -211  sin  |tf  cos  M»  -^  sin  9.  perpendicular  to  the  axb  of  the 
case.  The  flexure  jomt  behaves  like  a  pair  of  equal  bevel  wbeeb 
engaging. 

The  component  angular  momentum  in  the  direction  Ox  b  therefore 

(3)  L -  -An  sin  •  cos  •  -  Cii(i-cos  9)  sin  «-hK  sin  #, 
and  Ln  b  therefore  the  couple  aaing  on  the  gyrostat. 

If  s  denotes  the  angle  which  a  connecting  link  makes  with  Os.  and 
T  denotes  the  constant  component  of  the  tension  of  a  link  panBei  fa 

Of,  the  couple  acting  is 

(4)  Ta  cos  9h(tAn  0^4.1 +tan  aft>-2Ta  nn  ih, 
which  b  to  be  equated  to  Ln,  so  that 

(5)  -  Aii*sin  Bu  cos  9k-Cfi(i-cos  9k)  sin  f  >-t-K»  sin  9h 

-To  cos  f*(un  s^ti+tan  m)  +2T0  sin  0*<"a 

In  addition 

(6)  Mi^Xk+T(tan  s*»i-ian  a*)  «o. 
with  the  geometrical  reUtion 

(7)  x*«.|-x*-^(sin  9^^  4*  sin  9^)-^  rin  as^i  -a 

When  the  polygon  b  neariy  coincident  with  Os,  these  «quatiost 
caa  be  replaced  By 


GYTHIUM— GYULA-FEHERVAR 


779 


(81  (-Aji»+Kii+iTfl)«i-T<»(«*M+«*)  -o.^ 

(9)  M«Vf»+T(«*^  -  «*)  -  o, 

(10)  AH-*»-«(*»«+**)-a^A-o, 

and  the  rest  of  the  aolutioD  proceeds  as  before  in  (  14;  putting 

(11)  A.««.  •*  -  (L.  P.  Q)  exp  ckL 

A  half  t»ve  length  of  the  curve  of  gyrostats  b  covered  when 
ck^T,m>  that  wfc  is  the  number  of  gyrostats  in  a  half  mve,  which  is 
therefore  of  wave  length  9w{a-^l)lc. 

A  plane  polarised  wave  is  given  when  exp  cki  is  replaced  by 
exp  («<+cil)«,  and  a  wave  drciuarly  polarised  wheh  «,  »,  #  of  |  14 
replace  this  x,  §,  a. 

Gyrauopic  Pendulum, — The  elastic  Jexure  joint  is  useful  for 
supporting  a  rod,  carrying  a  fly-wheel,  like  a  gyroscopic  pendulum. 

Expressed  by.  Euler's  angles,  $,  ^.  ^,  the.kinetic  energy  is 

(i2y.T-§A&«+slnW«)+§C(i  -cos^)'^^4C(^+^  cm9)\ 
where  A  refcn  to  rod  ami  gyroscope  about  the  transverse  axis  at  the 
point  of  support,  C  refera  to  rod  about  its  axis  of  length,  and  C  refers 
to  the  revolviiq[  fly-whed. 

The  eliminatton  of  if  between  the  equation  of  conservation  of 
angular  momentum  about  the  vertkal,  via.   , 

(13}  A  sin*«^-C'(i  -cos9)  cos^+C(^+^cos«)  coe«-G.  a  con- 
stant, and  the  equation  of  energy,  vis. 

(14}  T— fMAcostf'H,  a  constant,  with  $  measured  from  the 
downward  vertical,  and 

(is)  ^+f  cos^-R.  a  constant,  will  lead  to  an  equation  for 
d$ldi,  or  dMidt,  in  terms  of  cos  •  or  s,  the  integral  of  which  is  of  hyper- 
elliptic  character,  except  when  A"C'. 

In  the  suspension  of  fig.  8,  the.  motion  given  by  ^  is  suppressed  in 
the  stalk,  and  for  the  fly-wheel  ^  gives  the  rubbing  angular  velocity 
of  the  wheel  on  the  stalk;  the  equations  are  now 

(16)  T-|A(^+sin*«/«)+iCcoB>tf^+iCR>-H+<Mikcos«. 

(17)  A  sinW+C  cosF  9^+CR  cos  «-G. 

and  the  motion  is  again  of  hyperelliptic  character,  except  when 
A  "  C,  or  C  *  o.  To  realize  a  motion  given  completely  by  the  elliptic 
function,  the  suspension  of  the  stalk  must  be' made  by  a  snuwth  ball 
and  socket,  or  else  a  Hooke  univenal  joint. 

Finally,  there  is  the  case  of  the  general  motion  of  a  top  with  a 
^herical  rounded  point  on  a  smooth  plane,  in  which  the  centre  of 
gravity  may  be  supposed  to  rise  and  fall  in  a  vertical  line.    Here 

(18)  T-§(A-|-M*«sin«#)*«-»-JAsin«#^-l-JCR«-H-fMA cos#. 
with  #  measured  from  the  upward  vertical,  and 

(19)  Asin*#/+CRcos«-G. 

where  A  now  refers  to  a  transverse  axis  through  the  centre  of  gravity. 
The  etimanation  of  pleads  to  an  equation  for  s.  »  cosf.of  the  form 


(w) 


/is\  « _ ^g         Z  _  ^(s,  ~s)  (s, -s)  (t, -«) 


with  the  arrangement 

(21)  St.  S4>/>si>s>«j>-/>si; 

to  that  the  motion  u  hyperelliptic. 

AtJTHOUTiKS. — In  addition  to  the  references  in  the  text  the  follow- 
ing will  be  found  u»d\x\:—AsL  Notices,  y/xA.  I:  Cem^reudus, 
Sept.  18^;  Paper  by  Professor  Magnus  tran^ted  in  Taylor's 
Fareipt  SctenHfic  Memoirs,  n.s.,  pt.  3,  p.  210;  Asl.  Notices,  xiiL 
231-348:  Theory  of  Foiuault's  Gyroscope  ExperimeiUs,  by  the 
Rev.  Baden  Powell,  F.R.S.;  AsL  Notices,  vol.  xv.;  artictes  by 
Major  J.  G.  Barnard  in  SUhman's  Journal,  2nd  ser.,  vols.  xxiv. 
and  XXV.  :E.  Hunt  on  "  Routory  Motion,'  Proc.  Phil.  Soc.  Glasgow, 
vol.  iv.:  J.  Clerk  Maxwell,  "  On  a  DynamKal  Top,"  Traiu.  R.S.B, 
vol.  XXI.:  PkiL  Mat.  4th  ser.  vols.  7.  13,  14:  Proc,  Royal  Irish 
Academy,  vol.  viii.;  Sir  William  Thomson  on  ''  Gyrostat,'^  Nature, 
XV.  297;  G.  T.  Walker.  "The  Motion  of  a  Celt."  Quar.  Jour, 
Math.,  1896:  G.  T.  Walker,  Math,  Ency.  iv.  1,  xi.  i ;  Gallop.  Proc. 
Camb.  PkU.  Soc.  xii.  82,  pt.  2.  1903.  "  Rise  of  a  Top";  Price's 
Infinitesimal  Calculus,  voL  iv. ;  Worms.  The  Earth  and  its  Mechanism ; 
Routh,  Rigid  Dynamics;  A.  G.  Webster,  Dynamics  (1904):  H. 
Crabtree.  Spinning  Tops  and  Gyroscopic  Motion  (1900).  For  a  com- 
plete list  of  the  mathematical  works  on  the  subject  of  the  Gyroscope 
and  Gyrostat  from  the  outset.  Professor  Cayley's  Report  to  the 
British  Association  ( 1 862)  on  (he  Progress  of  Dynamics  should  be  con- 
sulted. Modem  authors  will  be  found  cited  inKlein  and  Sommerfeld, 
Theorie  des  Kreisds  (1897),  and  in  the  Eneyclopddie  der  mathe- 
miatischen  Wisunschajlen.  (G.  G.) 

GYTHIUM,  the  harbour  and  arsenal  of  Sparta,  from  which  it 
was  some  30  m.  distant.  The  town  lay  at  the  N.W.  extremity  of 
the  Laconian  Gulf,  in  a  small  but  fertile  plain  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Gythius.  Its  reputed  founders  were  Heracles  and  Apollo,  who 
frequently  appear  on  its  coins:  the  former  of  these  names  may 


point  to  the  influence  of  Phoenician  traders,  who,  we  know, 
visited  the  Laconian  shores  at  a  very  early  period.  In  classical 
times  it  was  a  community  of  perioeci,  politically  dependent  on 
Sparta,  though  doubtless  with  a  municipal  life  of  its  own.  In 
455  B.C.,  during  the  first  Peloponnesian  War,  it  was  burned 
by  the  Athenian  admiral  Tolmides.  In  370  B.C.  Epaminondas 
besiq^ed  it  unsuccessfully  for  three  days.  Its  fortifications  were 
strengthened  by  the  tyrant  Nabis,  but  in  195  B.C.  it  was  invested 
and  taken  by  Htus  and  Ludus  (^uintius  Flamininus,  and, 
though  recovered  by  Nabis  two  or  three  years  later,  was  re- 
captured immediately  after  his  murder  (193  B.C.)  by  Philopoemen 
and  Aulus  Atilius  and  remained  in  the  Achaean  League  until  its 
dissolution  in  146  B.C.  Subsequently  it  formed  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  Eleutherolaconian  towns,  a  group  of  twenty-four, 
later  eighteen,  communities  leagued  together  to  maintain  their 
autonomy  against  Sparta  and  declared  free  by  Augustus.  The 
highest  officer  of  the  confederacy  was  the  general  (orpannr^), 
who  was  assisted  by  a  treasurer  (ra/tfos),  while  the  chief 
magistrates  of  the  several  communities  bore  the  title  of  ephors 
(»0opoi). 

Pausanias(iii.  21  f.)  has  left  us  a  description  of  the  town  as  it 
existed  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  the  agora,  the  Acropolis, 
the  island  of  Cranae  (Marathonisi)  where  Paris  celebrated  his 
nuptials  with  Helen,  the  Migonium  or  precinct  of  Aphrodite 
Migonitis  (occupied  by  the  modem  town  of  Marathonisi  or 
G3rthium),  and  the  hiU  Larysium  (Koumaro)  rising  above  it. 
The  numerous  remains  extant,  of  which  the  theatre  and  the 
buildings  partially  submerged  by  the  sea  are  the  most  note- 
worthy, all  belong  to  the  Roman  period. 

The  modem  town  is  a  busy  and  flourishing  port  with  a  good 

harbour  protected  by  Cranae,  now  connected  by  a  mole  with  the 

mainland;  it  is  the  capital  of  the  prefecture  (voiiM)  of  Aaxupuc^ 

with  a  population  in  1907  of  61,522. 

See  G.  Weber,  De  Cytheo  ei  Lacedaemoniorum  rebus  naoalibus 
(Heidelberg,  1833):  W.  M.  Leake,  Traads  in  the  Morea,  i,  244  foil.; 
E.  Curtius,  Pdoponnesos,  it  267  foil.  Inscriptions:  Le  Bas-Foucart, 
Voya^  archiologique,  W.  Nos.  238-248  f. ;  Colliu-Bcchtel.  Sammlung 
d.  grtech,  Dialekt'Inschriften,  lii.  Nos.  4562-4573;  British  School 
Annual,  x.  179  foil.  Excavations:  'A.  Zaifit,  fXpoKncd  rjft  'Apx* 
*Kr«<ptU»,  1891.  69  foil.  (M.  N.  T.) 

QTULA-FBHfovAR  (Ger.  Karlsburg),  a  town  of  Hungary,  in 
Transylvania,  in  the  county  of  Als6-Feh6r,  73  m.  S.  of  Kolozsv&r 
by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  i  x  ,507.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Maros,  on  the  outskirts  of  the  Transylvanian  Erzgebirge  or 
Ore  Mountains,  and  consists  of  the  upper  town,  or  citadel,  and 
the  lower  town.  Gyula-Feh^rvir  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  and  has  a  fine  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  built  in  the 
nth  century  in  Romanesque  style,  and  rebuilt  in  1443  by 
John  Hunyady  in  Gothic  style.  It  contains  among  other  tombs 
that  of  John  Huoyady.  Near  the  cathedral  is  the  episcopal 
palace,  and  in  the  same  part  of  the  town  is  the  Batthyaneum, 
founded  by  Bishop  Count  Batthy&ny  in  1794.  It  contains  a 
valuable  library  with  many  incunabula  and  old  manuscripts, 
amongst  which  is  one  of  the  Nibdungenlied,  an  astronomical 
observatory,  a  collection  of  antiquities,  and  a  mineral  collection. 
Gyula-Feh6rv&r  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  cereals,  wine  and 
cattle. 

Gyula-Feh6rv&r  occupies  the  site  of  the  Roman  colony  A  pulum. 
Many  Roman  relics  found  here,  and  in  the  vicinity,  are  preserved 
in  the  museum  of  the  town.  The  bishopric  was  founded  in  the 
nth  century  by  King  Ladislaus  I.  (1078-X095).  In  the  i6th 
century,  when  Transylvania  separated  from  Hungary,  the  town 
became  the  residence  of  the  Transylvanian  princes.  From  this 
period  dates  the  castle,  and  also  the  buildings  of  the  university, 
founded  by  Gabriel  Bethlen,  and  now  used  as  barracks.  After 
the  reversion  of  Transylvania  in  x  713  to  the  Habsburg  monarchy 
the  actual  strong  fortress  was  built  in  1 7 16-1 73s  by  the  emperor 
Charles  VI.,  whence  the  German  name  of  the  town. 


78o 


H— HAAKON 


HTbe  eighth  symbol  in  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  aa  In  its 
descendants,  has  altered  less  in  the  coarse  of  ages  than 
most  alphabetic  symbols.  From  the  beginning  of 
Phoenician  records  it  has  consbted  of  two  uprights 
connected  by  transverse  bars,  at  first  either  two  or  three  in 
number.  The  uprights  afe  rarely  perpendicular  and  the  cross 
bars  are  not  so  precisely  arranged  as  they  are  in  early  Greek  and 
Latin  inscriptions.  In  these  the  qrmbol  takes  the  form  of  two 
rectangles  B  out  of  which  the  ordinary  H  develofM  by  the 
omission  of  the  cross  bars  at  top  and  bottom.  It  is  very  excep- 
tional for  this  letter  to  have  more  than  three  cross  bars,  though 
as  many  as  five  are  occasionally  found  in  N.W.  Greece.  Within 
the  same  inscription  the  appearance  of  the  letter  often  varies 
considerably  as  regards  the  space  between  and  the  length  of 
the  uprights.  When  only  one  bar  is  found  it  regularly  crosses 
the  uprights  about  the  middle.  In  a  few  cases  the  rectangle 
is  closed  at  top  and  bottom  but  has  no  middle  cross  bar  □. 
The  Phoenician  name  for  the  letter  was  Heth  (Htt).  According 
to  Semitic  scholars  it  had  two  values,  (i)  a  glottal  spirant,  a  very 
strong  A,  (a)  an  unvoiced  velar  spirant  like  the  German  ck  in  aek. 
The  Greeks  borrowed  it  with  the  value  of  the  ordinary  aspirate 
and  with  the  name  ^a.  Very  early  in  their  history,  however, 
most  of  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  lost  the  aspirate  tdtogether, 
and  having  then  no  further  use  for  the  symbol  with  this  value 
they  adopted  it  to  represent  the  long  e-sound,  which  was  not 
originally  distinguished  by  a  different  symbol  from  the  short 
soimd  (see  E).  With  this  value  its  name  has  always  been  ^a 
in  Greek.  The  alphabet  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks  was  gradually 
adopted  elsewhere.  In  official  docimients  at  Athens  H  repre- 
sented the  rough  breathing  or  aspirate '  till  403  B.C.;  henceforth 
it  was  used  for  17.  The  Western  Greeks,  however,  from  whom  the 
Romans  obtained  their  alphabet,  retained  their  aspirate  longer 
than  those  of  Asia  Minor,  and  hence  the  symbol  came  to  the 
Romans  with  the  value  not  of  a  long  vowel  but  of  the  aspirate, 
which  it  still  preserves.  The  Greek  aspirate  was  itself  the  first 
or  left-hand  half  of  this  letter  H ,  while  the  smooth  breathing  ' 
was  the  right-hand  portion  H.  At  Tarentura  H  is  found  for 
H  in  inscriptions.  The  Roman  aspirate  was,  however,  a  very 
slight  sound  which  in  some  words  where  it  was  etymologically 
correct  disappeared  at  an  early  date.  Thus  the  cognate  words 
of  kindred  languages  show  that  the  Lat.  anser  "  goose  "  ought 
to  begin  with  k,  but  nowhere  is  it  so  found.  In  none  of  the 
Romance  languages  b  there  any  trace  of  initial  or  medial  h, 
which  shows  that  vulgar  Latin  had  ceased  to  have  the  aq>irate 
by  340  B.C.  The  Roman  grammarians  were  guided  to  its 
presence  by  the  Sabine  forms  where  /  occurred;  as  the  Sabines 
said  fasena  (sand),  it  was  recognised  that  the  Roman  form  ought 
to  be  harena^  and  so  for  kaedus  (goat),  hordeum  (barley),  &c. 
Between  vowek  h  was  lost  very  early,  for  ne-hemo  (no  man)  is 
throughout  the  literature  nimo^  bi-kimus  (two  winters  old) 
bimus.  In  the  Ciceronian  age  greater  attention  was  paid  to 
reproducing  the  Greek  aspirates  in  borrowed  words,  aiiad  this 
led  to  absurd  mistakes  in  Latin  words,  mistakes  which  were 
satirized  by  Catullus  in  his  epigram  (84)  upon  Arrius,  who  said 
chommoda  for  commoda  and  kinsidias  for  insidias.  In  Umbrian 
k  was  often  lost,  and  also  used  without  etymological  value  to 
mark  length,  as  in  comokota  (  —  Lat.  commota),  a  practice  to 
which  there  are  some  doubtful  parallels  in  Latin. 

In  English  the  history  of  A  is  very  similar  to  that  in  Latin. 
While  the  parts  above  the  glottis  are  in  position  to  produce  a 
vowel,  an  aspirate  is  produced  without  vibration  of  the  vocal 
chords,  sometimes,  h1ce  the  pronunciation  of  Arrius,  with  con- 
siderable effort  as  a  reaction  against  the  tendency  to  "  drop  the 
h's."  Though  k  survives  in  Scotland,  Ireland  and  America  as 
well  as  in  the  speech  of  cultivated  persons,  the  sound  in  most  of 
the  vulgar  dialects  is  entirely  lost  Where  it  is  not  ordinarily 
lost,  it  disappears  in  unaccented  syllables,  as  "Give  it  *im  '*  and 
the  like.    Where  it  is  lost,  conscious  attempts  to  restore  it  on 


the  part  of  uneducated  speakers  lead  to  absnid  mtq)lacenients 
of  k  and  to  its  restoration  in  Romance  words  when  it  never  wu 
pronounced,  as  kumble  (now  recognised  as  standard  Eni^ish), 
kumour  and  even  konour,  (P.  Gx.) 

HAAO.  CARL  (i8ao-       ),  a  naturalized  BritJsh  painter. 

court  painter  to  the  duke  of  Saxe-Cobuzg  and  Gotha,  was  bom 

in  Bavaria,  and  was  trained  in  the  academies  at  Nuxcmbuxg 

and  Munich.    He  practised  first  as  an  illustrator  and  as  a  painter, 

in  oil,  of  portraits  and  ardxitectural  subjects;  but  ^ter  he 

settled  in  England,  in  1847,  he  devoted  himself  to  water  coloars, 

and  was  elected  associate  of  the  Royal  Sodety  of  Painters  in 

Water  Ck>lottrB  in  1850  and  member  in  1853.    He  txaveUed 

much,  especially  in  the  East,  and  made  a  considetable  reputation 

by  his  firmly  drawn  and  carefully  daboxated  p»i«tmj»  of 

Eastern  subjects.    Towards  the  end  •of  his  professional  career 

Carl  Haag  quitted  England  and  returned  to  Germany. 

Set  A  History  rf  tke  "  Old  Waler-Cohur"  Society,  nam  Ae  K^ 
Society  of  Painters  in  Water  Colours,  by  John  Lewis  Roget  (a  vols., 
London,  1891). 

HAAKON  (Old  None  HdAm),  the  name  of  several  kings  of 
Norway,  of  whom  the  most  important  are  the  foIkmiBg: — 

Haakon  I.,  sumamed  "  the  Good  "  (d.  961),  was  the  youngest 
son  of  Harald  Haarfager.  He  was  fostered  by  King  Aethdstan 
of  England,  who  broti^t  him  up  in  the  Christian  religion,  and  on 
the  news  of  his  father's  death  in  933  provided  him  with  ships  and 
men  for  an  expedition  against  his  half-brother  Erik,  ^iHw  had 
been  proclaimed  king.  On  his  arrival  in  Norway  Haakon  gained 
the  support  of  the  landowners  by  promiang  to  give  up  tbe  rights 
of  taxation  claimed  by  his  father  over  inherited  real  pmpeny. 
Erik  fled,  and  was  killed  a  few  years  later  in  England.  His  sons 
allied  themselves  with  the  Danes,  but  were  invariably  defeated 
by  Haakon,  who  was  successful  in  everything  he  undertook 
except  in  his  attempt  to  introduce  Christianity,  which  aroused 
an  opposition  he  did  not  feel  strong  enough  to  lace.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Fitje  in  961,  after  a  final  victmy  over 
Erik's  sons.  So  entirely  did  even  his  immediate  drde  ignore  his 
religion  that  a  court  skald  composed  a  poem  on  bis  death  repre- 
senting his  welcome  by  the  heathen  gods  into  Valhalla. 

Haakon  IV.,  sumamed  "  the  Old  "  (r  204-1 963),  was  dedared 
to  be  the  son  of  Haakon  in.,^ho  died  shortly  before  the  fonner's 
birth  in  1204.  A  year  later  the  child  was  placed  vader  the 
protection  of  King  Inge,  after  whose  death  in  1 217  he  was  chosen 
king;  though  until  1223  the  church  refused  to  recognize  him, 
on  the  ground  of  illegitimacy,  and  the  Pope's  diq)CttsatioQ  for 
his  coronation  was  not  gained  until  much  later.  In  tbe  earlier 
part  of  his  reign  much  of  the  royal  power  was  in  the  hands  of 
Eari  Skule,  who  intrigued  against  the  king  until  1239,  whw  he 
proceeded  to  open  hostility  and  was  put  to  death.  From  this 
time  onward  Haakon's  reign  was  marked  by  mon  peace  and 
pro^)erity  than  Norway  had  known  for  many  years,  nntil  in 
X263  a  dispute  with  the  Scottish  king  concerning  the  Hdkrides, 
a  Norwegian  possession,  induced  Haakon  to  undertake  an 
expedition  to  the  west  of  Scotland.  A  division  of  ha  army 
seems  to  have  repulsed  a  large  Scottish  force  at  Largs  (thoi^ 
the  later  Scottish  accounts  daim  this  battle  as  a  victory),  and, 
having  won  back  the  Norwegian  possessions  in  Scotland,  Haak<» 
was  wintering  in  the  Orkneys,  when  he  was  taken  ill  and  died 
on  the  1 5th  of  December!  263.  A  great  part  of  his  fleet  bad  been 
scattered  and  destroyed  by  storms.  The  most  important  event 
in  his  reign  was  the  voluntary  submission  of  the  Icelandk 
commonwealth.  Worn  out  by  internal  strife  fostered  by 
Haakon's  emissaries,  the  Icelandic  chiefs  acknowledged  tht 
Norwegian  king  as  overlord  in  1 262.  Their  example  was  followed 
by  the  colony  of  GreenUnd. 

Haakon  Vn.  (1872-  ),  the  second  son  of  Frederic  Vm., 
king  of  Denmark,  was  bom  on  the  3rd  of  August  1872,  and  was 
usually  known  as  Prince  Charles  of  Denmariu  When  in  xgos 
Norway  decided  to  separate  herself  from  Sweden  the  Norwc^aas 


HAARLEM— HAARLEM  LAKE 


^81 


offered  their  crown  to  Charles,  who  accepted  it  and  took  the  name 
of  Haakon  VII.,  being  crowned  at  Trondhjem  in  June  1906. 
The  king  married  Maud,  youngest  daughter  of  Edward  VIL, 
king  of  Great  Britain;  their  Jon,  Prince  Olav,  being  bom  in  1903. 
HAARLEM,  a  town  of  Holland  in  the  province  of  North 
Holland,  on  the  Spaame,  having  a  junction  station  x  x  m.  by 
rail  W.  of  Amsterdam.  It  is  connected  by  electric  and  steam 
tramways  with  Zandvoort,  Leiden,  Amsterdam  and  Alkmaar. 
Pop.  (19O0)  65,189.  Haarlem  is  the  seat  of  the  governor  of  the 
province  of  North  Holland,  and  of  a  Roman  Catholic  and  a 
Janscnist  bishopric.  In  appearance  it  is  a  typical  Dutch  town, 
with  numerous  narrow  canals  and  quaintly  gabled  houses.  Of 
the  ancient  city  gates  the  Spaamewouder  or  Amsterdam  gate 
alone  remains.  Gardens  and  promenades  have  taken  the  place 
of  the  old  ramparts,  and  on  the  south  the  city  is  bounded  by  the 
Frederiks  and  the  Flora  parks,  between  which  runs  the  fine 
avenue  called  the  Dreef,  leading  to  the  Haarleramer  Hout  or 
wood.  In  the  Frederiks  Park  is  a  pump-room  supplied  with 
a  powerful  chalybeate  water  from  a  spring,  the  Wilhelmina- 
bron,  in  the  Haarlemmcr  Polder  not  far  distant,  and  in  connexion 
with  this  there  is  an  orthopaedic  institution  adjoining.  In  the 
great  market  place  in  the  centre  of  the  city  are  gathered  together 
the  larger  number  of  the  most  interesting  buildings,  including 
the  quaint  old  Fleshers'  Hall,  built  by  Lieven  de  Key  in  1603, 
and  now  containing  the  archives;  the  town  hall;  the  old 
Stadsdoekn,  where  the  burgesses  met  in  arms;  the  Groote  Kerk, 
or  Great  Church;  and  the  statue  erected  in  1856  to  Laurenz 
Janszoon  Kostcr,  the  printer.  The  Great  Church,  dedicated  to 
St  Bavo,  with  a  lofty  tower  (255  ft.),  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
in  Holland,  and  dates  from  the  end  of  the  15th  and  the  beginning 
of  the  x6th  centuries.  Its  great  length  (460  ft.)  and  the  height 
and  steepness  of  its  vaulted  cedar-wood  roof  (1538)  are  very 
impressive.  The  choir-stalls  and  screen  (1510)  are  finely  carved, 
and  of  further  interest  are  the  ancient  pulpit  sounding-board 
(1432),  some  old  stained  glass,  and  the  small  modek  of  ships, 
copies  dating  from  1638  of  yet  earlier  models  originally  presented 
by  the  Dutch-Swedish  Trading  Company.  The  church  organ 
was  long  considered  the  largest  and  finest  in  existence.  It  was 
codstnicted  by  Christian  Mttller  in  1738,  and  has  4  keyboards, 
64  registers  and  5000  pipes,  the  largest  of  which,  is  X5  in.  in 
diameter  and  32  ft.  long.  Among  the  monuments  in  the  church 
are  those  of  the  poet  Willem  Bilderdyk  (d.  1831)  and  the  engineer 
Frederik  Willem  Conrad  (d.  x8o8),  who  designed  the  sea-sluices 
at  Katwyk.  In  the  belfry  are  the  damiaatjes,  small  bells  pre- 
sented to  the  town,  according  to  tradition,  by  William  I.,  count 
of  Holland  (d.  1.2  2  2) ,  the  crusader.  The  town  hall  was  originally 
a  palace  of  the  counts  of  Holland,  begun  in  the  X2th  century, 
and  some  old  X3th-century  beams  still  remain;  but  the  building 
was  remodelled  in  the  beginning  of  the  x 7th  century.  It  contains 
a  collection  of  antiquities  (including  some  beautiful  goblets) 
and  a  picture  gallery  which,  though  small,  is  celebrated  for  its 
fine  collection  of  paintings  by  Frans  Hals.  The  town  library 
contains  several  incunabula  and  an  interesting  collection  of  early 
Dutch  literature.  At  the  head  of  the  scientific  institutions  of 
Haarlem  may  be  placed  the  Dutch  Society  of  Sciences  {Hol- 
landsche  Uaalschappij  van  Wetenschappen)t  founded  in  X752, 
which  poiaesses  valuable  collections  in  botany^  natural  histoiy 
and  geology.  Teyler's  Stichting  (i.e.  foundation),  enlarged  in 
modem  times,  was  instituted  by  the  will  of  Pieter  Teyler'van 
der  Hulst  (d,  1778),  a  wealthy  merchant,  for  the  study  of  theology, 
natural  science  and  art,  and  has  lecture-theatres,  a  large  library, 
and  a  museum  containing  a  phjrsical  and  a  geological  cabinet,  as 
well  as  a  collection  of  pointings,  including  many  modem  pictures, 
and  a  valuable  collection  of  drawings  and  engravings  by  old 
masters.  The  Dutch  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industry 
{Nederlaandscke  MaatsckappiJ  ter  Brtordering  van  Nijverheid)t 
founded  in  1777,  has  its  seat  in  the  Pavilion  Welgelegen,  a  villa 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Frederiks  Park,  built  by  the  Amsterdam 
banker  John  Hope  in  1778,  and  afterwards  acquired  by  Louis 
Bonaparte,  king  of  Holland.  The  colonial  museum  and  the 
museum  of  industrial  art  nm  established  in  this  villa  by  the 
iodety  in  187 1  and  1877  respectively.    Besides  these  there 


are  a  museum  of  ecclesiastical  antiquities,  chiefly  relating  to 
the  bishopric  of  Haarlem;  the  old  weigh-house  (1598)  and  this 
orphanage  for  girls  (x6o8),  originally  an  almshouse  for  old  men, 
both  built  by  the  architect  Lieven  de  Key  of  Ghent. 

The  staple  industries  of  Haarlem  have  been  greatly  modified 
in.the  course  of  time.  Cloth  weaving  and  brewing,  which  on(x 
flourished  exceedingly,  declined  in  the  beginning  of  the  x6th 
century.  A  century  later,  silk,  lace  and  damask  weaving  were 
introduced  by  French  refugees,  and  became  very  important 
industries.  But  about  the  close  of  the  x8th  century  thb  remark- 
able prosperity  had  also  come  to  an  end,  and  it  was  not  till  after 
the  Belgian  revolution  of  X830-X83X  that  Haarlem  began  to 
develop  the  manufactures,  in  which  it  is  now  chiefly  engaged. 
Cotton  manufacture,  dyeing,-  printing,  bleaching;-  brewing, 
type-founding,  and  the  manufacture  of  tram  and  railway  carriages 
arc  among  the  more  ixnportant  of  its  industries.  One  of  the 
printing  establishments  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  oldest 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  publishes  the  oldest  Dutch  paper,  De 
OpragU  Haarlcmmer  Couranl.  Market-gardening,  especially 
horticulture,  is  extensively  practised  in  the  vicinity,  so  that 
Haarlem  is  the  seat  of,  a  large  trade  in  Dutch  bulbs,  especially 
hyacinths,  tulips,  fritillaries,  spiraeas  and  japonicas. 

Haarlem,  which  was  a  prosperous  place  in  the  middle  of  the 
X2th  century,  received  its  first  town  charter  from  William  II., 
count  of  Holland  and  king  of  the  Romans,  in  X245.  It  played 
a  considerable  part  in  the 'wars  of  Holland  with  the  Frisians. 
In  X492  it  was  captured  by  the  insurgent  peasants  of  North 
Holland,  was  re-taken  by  the  duke  ^  Saxony,  the  imperial 
stadholder,  and  deprived  of  its  privileges.  In<572  Haariem 
joined  the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  against  Spain,  but  on  the 
X3th  of  July  XS73,  after  a  seven  months'  siege,  was  forced  to 
surrender  to  Alva's  son  Frederick,  who  exacted  terrible  vengeance. 
In  1577  it  was  again  captured  by  William  of  Orange  and  perman- 
ently incorporated  in  the  United  Netherlands. 

See  Karl  He^,  StSdU  und  GOdtn  (Leipzig.  1891):  Allan.  Qtukie- 
dents  en  bescknjving  van  Haarlem  (Haariem,  1871-1888). 

HAARLBH  LAKE  (Dutch  Hor/emfiwr  Meer),  a  commune  of 
the  province  of  North  Holland,  constituted  by  the  law  of  the 
i6th  of  July  X855.  It  has  an  area  of  about  46,000  acres,  and 
its  population  increased  from  7237  in  x86o  to  x6,62x  in  1900. 
As  its  name  indicates,  the  commune  was  formeriy  a  lake,  which 
is  said  to  have  been  a  relic  of  a  northern  arm  of  the  Rhine  which 
passed  throtigh  the  district  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  In  x  531 
the  Haarlemmer  Meer  had  an  area  of  6430  acres,  and  in  its 
vicinity  were  three  smaller  sheeu  of  water-Hhe  Leidsche  Meer 
or  Leiden  Lake,  the  Spiering  Meer,  and  the  Oude  Meer  or  Old 
Lake,  with  a  united  area  of  about  7600  acres.  The  four  lakes 
were  formed  into  one  by  successive  inundations,  whole  villages 
disappearing  in  the  process,  and  by  X647  the  new  Haarlem  Lake 
had  an  area  of  about  37,000  acres,  which  a  century  later  had 
increased  to  over  42,000  acres.  As  eaxly  as  X643  Jan  Adriaans- 
soon  Leeghwater  proposed  to  endike'  and  drain  the  lake;  and 
simihir  schemes,  among  which  those  of  Nikolaas  Samuel  Cruquius 
in  1742  and  of  Baron  van  Lijnden  van  Hfinmen  in  1820  are 
worthy  of  H>edal  mention,  were  brought  forward  from  time  to 
time.  But  It  was  not  till  a  furious  hurricane  in  November  1836 
drove  the  waters  as  far  as  the  gates  of  Amsterdam,  and  another 
on  Christmas  Day  sent  them  in  the  opposite  dirtxtion  to  sub^ 
merge  the  streets  of  Leiden,  that  the  mind  of  the  nation  was 
seriously  turned  to  the  matter.  In  August  X837  the  king  ap- 
pointed a  n>3ral  commission  of  inquiry;  the  scheme  proposed 
by  the  commission  received  the  sanction  of  the  Second  Chamber 
in  March  1839,  and  in  the  following  May  the  vrork  was  begun. 
A  canal  was  first  dug  round  the  lake  for  the  reception  of  the  water 
and  the  accommodation  of  the  great  trafl&c  which  had  previously 
been  carried  on.  This  canal  was  38  m.  in  length,  I23'-X46  ft. 
wide,  and  8  ft.  deq>,  and  the  earth  which  was  taken  out  of  it 
was  used  to  build  a  dike  from  30  to  54  yds.  broad  containing 
the  lake.  The  area  enclosed  by  the  canal  was  rather  more  than 
70  sq.  m.,  and  the  average  depth  of  the  lake  13  ft.  x}  in.,  and  as 
the  water  had  no  natural  outfall  it  was  calculated  that  probably 
xooo  million  tons  would  have  to  be  raised  by  .mechanical  means. 


782 


HAASE,  F.— HABAKKUK 


This  amount  was  200  inilUpii  tons  in  excess  of  that  actually 
discharged.  Pumping  by  steam-engines  began  in  1848,  and  the 
lake  was  dry  by  the  ist  of  July  1852.  At  the  first  sale  of  the 
highest  lands  along  the  banks  on  the  i6th  of  Augxist  18^3,  about 
£28  per  acre  was  paid;  but  the  average  price  afterwards  was 
less.  The  whole  are^  of  42,096  acres  recovered  from  the  waters 
brought  in  9,400,000  Jorins,  or  about  £780,000,  exactly  covering 
the  cost  of  the  enterprise;  so  that  the  actual  cost  to  the  nation 
was  only  the  amount  of  the  interiest  on  the  capital,  or  about 
£368,000.  The  soil  is  of  various  kinds,  loam,  clay,  sand  and 
peat;  most  of  it  i^  sufficiently  fertile,  though  in  the  lower 
portions  there  are  barren  patches  where  the  scanty  vegetation 
is  covered  with  an  ochreous  deposit.  Mineral  -springs  occur 
containing  a  very  high  percentage  (3*245  grams  pet:  litre)  of 
common  salt;  and  in  1893  a  company  was  formed  for  working 
them.  Corn,  seeds,  cattle,  butter  and  cheese  are  the  principal 
produce.  The  roads  which  traverse  the  commune  are  bordered 
by  pleasant-looking  farm-houses  built  after  the  various  styles 
of  Holland,  Friesland  or  Brabant.  Hoofddorp,  Venneperdorp 
or  Nieuw  Vennep,  Abbenes  and  the  vicinities  of  the  pumping- 
stations  are  the  spots  where  the  population  has  clustered  most 
thickly.  The  first  church  was  built  in  1855;  in  1877  there  were 
seven.  In  1854  the  city  of  Leiden  laid  claim  to  the  ponession  of 
the  new  territory,  but  the  courts  decided  in  favour  of  the  nation, 
HAA8E,  FRIEDRICH  (1827-  ),  German  actor,  was  bom  on 
the  ist  of  November  1827,  in  Berlin,  the  son  of  a  valet  to  King 
Frederick  William  IV.,  who  became  his  godlatlier.  He  was 
educated  for  the  stage  under  Ludwig  Tieck  and  made  his  first 
appearance  in  1846  in  Weimar,  afterwards  acting  at  Prague 
(1849-1851)  and  Karlsruhe  (1852-1855).  From  j86o  to  1866 
he  played  in  St  Petersburg,  then  was  manager  of  the  court 
theatre  in  Coburg,  and  in  1869  (and  again  in  1882-1883)  visited 
the  United  States.  He  was  manager  of  the  Stadt  Theater  in 
Leipzig  from  1870  to  1876,  when  he  removed  to  Berlin,  where  he 
devoted  his  energies  to  the  foundation  and  management  of  the 
Deutsches  Theater.  He  finally  retired  from  the  stage  in  1898. 
Haase's  aristocratic  appearance  and  elegant  manner  fitted  him 
specially  to  play  high  comedv  parts.  His  chief  rdles  were  those 
of  Rocheferrier  in  the  Partie  Piquet;  Richelieu;  Savigny  in 
Derfeiner  Diplomat,  and  der  FQrst  in  Der  geheinu  Agent.  He 
is  the  author  of  Ungeschminkte  Briefe  and  Was  ich  erlebte  1846- 

1808  (Berlin,  1898). 

See  Simon.  Friedrich  Haase  (Berlin.  1898). 

HAASE,  FRIEDRICH  OOTTLOB  (1808-1867)^  German 
classical  scholar,  was  bom  at  Magdeburg  on  the  4th  of  January 
1808.  Having  studied  at  Halle,  Greifswald  and  Berlin,  he 
obtained  in  1834  an  appointment  at  Schulpforta,  from  which 
he  was  suspended  and  sentenced  to  six  years'  imprisonment  for 
identifying  himself  with  the  Burschensckajten  (students'  associa- 
tions). HaAong  been  released  after  serving  one  year  of  his 
sentence,  he  visited  Paris,  and  on  his  return  in  1840  he  was 
appointed  professor  at  Breslau,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death  on  the  z6th  of  August  1867.  He '  was  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  most  successful  teachers  of  his  day  in  Germany,  and 
exercised  great  influence  upon  all  his  pupils. 

.He  edited  several  classic  authors:  Aenophon  {Kuui<uiuivlb» 
voXtTila,  1831);  Thucydides  (1840):  Velleius  Paterculus  (1858}; 
Seneca  the  philosopher  (2nd  eid.,  1872,  not  yet  superseded);  and 
Tacitus  (1855),  the  mtroduction  to  which  isa  masterpiece  of  Latinity. 
His  VorUsungen  iiber  ItUeinische  Sprackwissenschajt  was  published 
after  his  death  by  F.  A.  Eckstein  and  H.  Peter  (1874-1880).  See 
C.  Bursian,  CeschichU  der  klassischen Phildonein Deutsckland  (1883) ; 
G.  Fickert,  Friderici  Ilaasii  memoria  (1868),  with  a  list  of  works; 
T.  Oelsner  in  Rubetakl  {SchUnsche  PrmntialbUUter),  viL  Heft  3 
(Breslau.  1868). 

HAAST,  SIR  JOHANN  FRANZ  JUUUS  VON  (1824-1887), 
German  and  British  geologist,  was  bom  at  Bonn  on  the  zst  of 
Aflay  1824.  He  received  his  early  education  partly  in  that  town 
and  partly  in  Cologne,  and  then  entered  the  university  at  Bonn, 
where  he  made  a  special  study  of  geology  and  mineralogy.  In 
1858  he  started  for  New  Zealand  to  report  on  the  suitability 
of  the  colony  for  German  emigrants.  He  then  became  acquaint^ 
with  Dr  von  Hochstetter,  and  rendered  assistance  to  him  in  the 
preliminary  geological  survey  which  von  Hochstetter  had  under- 


taken. Afterwards  Dr  Haast  accepted  offers  from  the  govem- 
ments  of  Nelson  and  Canterbury  to  investigate  the  gtak^y  of 
those  districts,  and  the  results  of  his  detailed  laboun  greuly 
enriched  bur  knowledge  with  regard  to  the  rocky  stricture, 
the  glacial  phenomena  and  the  economic  products.  He  dis- 
covered gold  and  coal  in  Nelson,  and  he  carried  on  important 
researches  with  reference  to  the  occurrence  of  Dinomis  and  other 
extinct  wingless  birds  (Moas).  His  Geology  of  the  ProsinceM  0/ 
Canterbury  and  WesUand,  N.Z.,  was  published  in  1879.  He 
was  the  founder  of  the  Canterbury  museum  al  Chrntchnrch, 
of  which  he  became  director,  and  which  he  endeavoured  to 
render  the  finest  collection  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  He 
was  surveyor-general  of  Canterbury  from  x86i  to  187 1.  and 
professor  of  geology  at  Canterbury  College.  He  was  elected 
F.R.S.  in  1867;  and  ht  was  knighted  for  his  services  at  the 
time  of  the  colonial  exhibition  in  London  in  1887.  He  died  at 
Wellington,  N.Z.,  on  the  X5th  of  August  1887. 

HABABS  (Az-HiBBEHs),  a  nomadic  pastoral  people  of  Hamitic 
stock,  living  in  the  coast  region  north-west  of  Massawa.  Ph>-sic- 
ally  they  are  Beja,  by  language  and  traditions  Abyssiniaas. 
They  were  Christians  until  the  19th  century,  but  are  now 
Mahommedans.    Their  sole  wealth  consists  in  cattle. 

HABAKKUK,  the  name  borne  by  the  eighth  book  of  the  Old 
Testament  "  Minor  Prophets."  It  occurs  twice  in  the  book 
itself  (i.  I,  iii.  i)  in  titles,  but  nowhere  else  in  the  Old  Testament: 
The  meaning  of  the  name  is  uncertain.  If  He£rew,  it  might  be 
derived  from  the  root  pan  (to  embrace)  as  an  intensive  term 
of  affection.  It  has  also  been  connected  more  pUusiUy  with 
an  Assyrian  plant  name;  Itambaktiku  (Delitxacfa,  Assyrisfkts 
Handwifrlerbuck,  p.  281).  The  Septuagint  has  'A^^ocsip.  Of 
the  person  designated,  no  more  is  known  than  may  be  infened 
from  the  writing  which  bears  his  name.  Various  kgeiKis  axe 
connected  with  him,  of  which  the  best  known  is  given  in  the 
Apocryphal  story  of  ''  Bel  and  the  Dragon  "  (v.  33-39);  Inil 
none  of  these  has  any  historic  value.* 

The  book  itself  falls  into  three  obvious  parts,  viz.  (i)  a  dialogue 
between  the  prophet  and  God  (i.  2-n.  4);  (2)  a  series  of  five 
woes  pronounced  on  wickedness  (ii.  s-ii.  20)1  (3)  a  poem 
describing  the  triumphant  manifestation  of  God^iii-).  Tbeie  is 
considerable  difficulty  in  regard  to  the  int^pretation  of  (i),  on 
which  that  of  (2)  will  turn;  white  (3)  forms  an  indqxodcnt 
section,  to  be  considered  separately. 

In  the  dialogue,  the  prophet  cries  to  God  against  continued 
violence  and  injustice,  though  it  is  not  dear  whether  thb  is  done 
witkin  or  to  Israel  (i.  2-4).  The  divine  answer  dedares  that  (>od 
raises  up  the  Chaldaeans,  whose  formidable  resources  are  invindbk 
(i.  s-ii).  The  prophet  thereupon  calls  God's  attention  to  the 
tyranny  which  He  apparently  allows  to  triumph,  and  declares 
his  purpose  to  wait  till  an  answer  is  given  to  his  complaint 
(i.  z2-ii.  2).  God  answers  by  demanding  patience,  and  by 
dedaring  that  the  righteous  shall  live  by  his  faithfulness  (n.  3-4)* 

The  interpretation  of  this  diidogue  which  first  suggests  itself 
is  that  the  prophet  is  referring  to  wickedness  wUkiH  the  natioa. 
which  is  to  be  punished  by  the  Chaldaeans  asadivine  instrument; 
in  the  process,  the  tyranny  of  the  instrument  itself  calk  for 
punishment,  which  the  prophet  is  bidden  to  await  in  patient 
fidelity.  On  this  view  of  the  dialogue,  the  subsequent  woes  viO 
be  pronoimced  against  the  Chalda^ns,  and  the  date  assigned  10 
the  prophecy  will  be  about  600  B.C.,  t.c.  soon  after  th^  battk  of 
Catchemish  (605  B.C.),  when  the  Chaldaean  victory  over  Egypt 
inaugurated  a  period  of  Chaldaean  supremacy  whidi  lasted  tin 
the  Chaldaeans  themselves  were  overthrown  by  Cyrus  in  $3^  >-^ 
Grave  objections,  however,  'confront  this  interpretation,  as  is 
admitted  even  by  such  recent  defenders  of  it  as  Davidson  aad 
Driver.  Is  it  likdy  that  a  prophet  would  begin  a  complaiai 
against  Chaldaean  tyranny  (admittedly  central  in  the  i»t)pfeecy) 
by  complaining  of  that  wickedness  of  his-fellow-countrymenwhkh 
seems  partly  to  justify  it  ?    Are  not  the  terms  of  reference  in 

*  These  legends  are  collected  in  Hastingrs,  D.  B,  \%A.  n.  p.  273- 
He  is  the  watchman  of  Is.  xxi.  6  (cf.  Hab.  ii.  i);  the  son  of  tbe 
Shunammite  (a  Kings  iv.  16) ;  and  is  miraculously  lifted  by  fats  hair 
to  carry  his  own  dinner  to  Daniel  in  the  lions'  den  («»pra). 


HABAKKUK 


783 


t  2  f .  ftndx.  xa  f.  too  similar  for  the  supposition  that  two 
distinct,  even  contradictory,  complaints  are  being  made  (cf.- 
"  widced"  and  "righteous"  in  L  4  and.i.  13,  interchanged 
in  regard  to  Israel,  on  above  theory)?    And  if  i.  s-x  z  is  a  genuine 
prophecy  oi  the  raising  up  of  the  Chaldaeans,  whence  comes  that 
long  experience  of  their  rule  required  to  explain  tlie  detailed 
denunciation  of  their  tyranny?    To  meet  the  last  objection, 
Davidson  supposes  i.  5-1  x  to  be  really  a  reference  to  the  past, 
prophetic  in  form  only,  and  brings  down  the  whole  section  to  ft 
later  period  of  Chaldaean  rule, ''  hardly,  one  would  think,  before 
the  deportation  of  the  people  under  Jehoiachln  in  597  "  (p.  49).. 
Driver  prefers  to  bisect  the  dialogue  by  supposing  I.  3-zx  to 
be  written  at  an  earlier  period  than  i.  xa  f.  (p.  57).    The  other 
objections,  however,  remain,  and  have  provoked  a  variety  of 
theories  from  Old  Testament  scholars,  of  which  three  call  for 
spedal  notice.    ( i  )The  first  of  these,  represented  by  Giesebrecht,' 
Nowack  and  Wellhausen,  refers  L  a-4  to  Chaldaean  Oppression  of 
Israel,  the  same  subject  beitag  continued  in  i.  xa  f.    Obviously, 
the  reference  to  the  Chaldaeans  as  a. divine  instrument  could  not 
then  stand  in  its  present  place,  and  it  is  accordingly  regarded  as 
a  misplaced  earlier  prophecy.    This  is  the  minimum  of  critical 
procedure  required  to  do  justice  to  the  facts,    (a)  Budde,  followed 
by  Comill,  aho  regards  i.  a-4  as  referring  to  the  oppression  of 
Israel  by  a  foreign  tyrant,  whom,  however,  he  holds  to  be  Assyria. 
He  also  removes  L  5-zx  from  its  present  place,  but  makes  it 
part  61  the  divine  answer,  following  ii:.4.    On  this  view,  the 
Chaldaeans  are  the  divine  instrument  for  punishing  the  tyranny 
of  the  Assyrians,  to  whom  the  following  woes  will  therefore  refer. 
The  date  would  fall  between  Josiah's  reformation  (6ai)  and  his 
death  (609).    This  is  a  plausible  and  even  attractive  theory; 
its  weakness  seems  to  lie  in  the  absence  of  any  positive  evidence 
in  the  prophecy  itself,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  even 
G.  A.  Smith,  who  follows  it,  suggests  "  Egypt  from  608-605  " 
as  an  alternative  to  Assyria  (p.  x  34).    (3)  Marti  (1904)  abandons 
the  attempt  to  explain  the  prophecy  as  a  unity,  and  analyses 
it  into  three  'elements,  viz.    (a)  The  original  prophecy  by 
Habakkuk,  consisting  of  1.  5-xo,  14  f.,  belonging  to  the  year  605, 
and  representing  the  emergent  power  of  the  Chaldaeans  as  a 
divine  scourge  of  the  faithless  people;  {h)  Woes  against  the 
Chaldaeans,  presupposing  not  only  tyrannous  rule  over  many 
peoples,  but  the  beginning  of  their  decline  and  fall,  and  therefore 
of  date  about  54a  B.C.  (ii.  5-19);  {e)  A  psalm  of  post-exilic  origin, 
whose  fragments,  i.  a-4,  xa  a,  13,  ii.  x-4,  have  been  incorporated 
into  the  present  text  from  the  margins  on  which  they  were 
written,  its  subject  being  the  suffering  of  the  righteous.     Each 
of  these  three  theories'  encounters  difficulties  of  detail;  none 
can  be  said  to  have  secured  a  dominant  position.    The  great 
variety  ofviem  amongst  competent  critics  is  significant  of  the 
difficulty  of  the  problem,  which  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  yet 
solved;  this  divergence  of  qpinion  perhaps  points  to  the  im 


possibility  of  maintaining  the  unity  of  chs.  i.  and  ii.,  and  thiQws  JThrough  the  Chaldaeans  God  worked  a  work  which  required 


the  balance  of  probability  towards  some  such  analysis  as  that 
of  Marti,  which  is  therefore  accepted  in  the  present  article. 

In  regard  to  the  poem  which  forms  the  third  and  closing 
chapter  of  the  present  book  of  Habakkuk,  there  is  much  more 
general  agreement.  Its  most  striking  characteristic  Ues  in 
the  superscription  ("  A  prayer  of  Habakkuk  the  prophet,  set 
to  Shigionoth  "),  the  subscription  ("  For  the  chief  mu.<acian,  on 
nny  stringed  instruments"),  and  the  insertion  of  the  musical 
term  "  Sebh  "  in  three  places  (v.  3,  9,  13).  Thcte  liturgical 
notes  make  extremely  probable  the  supposition  thai  the  poem 
has  been  taken  from  some  collection  like  that  of  our  present 
book  of  Psalms,  probably  on  the  ground  of  the  authorship 
asserted  by  the  superscription  there  attached  to  it.  It  cannot, 
however,  be  said  that  the  poem  itself  supports  this  assertion, 

»  Followed  by  Peake  in  The  Problem  of  Suffering,  pp.  4  f.,  151  f., 
to  whose  apfxndix  (A)  reference  may  be  made  for  further  details 
of  recent  cnticism. 

*  For  the  tew  probable  theories  of  Rothstein.  Lauterburg.  Happel 
and  Peiser  (amongst  others),  cf.  Marti's  Commentary,  pp.  328  f.  and 

J  13a.    Stevenson  {The  Expositor,  1902)  states  cleariy  the  difficulties 
or  those  who  regard  ch.  1.  as  a  unity.     He  sees  two  independent 
sections.  3-4+I3-I3,  and  5-11-1-14-17. 


which  carries  no  more  intrinsic  weight  than  the.  Davidic  titles 
of  the  Psalms.  The  poem  begins  with  a  prayer  that  God  wUl 
renew  the  historic  manifestation  of  the  exodus,  which  inaugurated 
the  national  history  and  faith;  a  thunderstorm  moving  up  from 
the  south  is  then  described,  in  which  God  is  revealed  (3-7); 
it  is  asked  whether  this  manifestation,  whose  course  is  further 
described,  is  against  nature  only  (8-1 1) ;  the  answer  is  given  that 
it  is  for  the  salvation  of  Israel  against  its  wicked  foes  (ia-15); 
thfe  poet  describes  the  effect  in  terror  upon  himself  (16)  and 
decUres  his  confidence  in  God,  even  in  utter  agricultural  adversity 
(X7-X9).  As  Wellhausen  says  (p.  17X):  '"Hie  poet  appears  to 
believe  that  in  the  very  act  of  describing  enthusiastically  the 
ancient  deed  of  deliverance,  he  brings  home  to  us  the  new;  we 
are  left  sometimes  in  doubt  whether  he  speaks  of  the  past  to 
suggest  the  new  by  analogy,  or  whether  he  is  concerned  directly 
with  the  future,  and  simply  paints  it  with  the  colours  of  the  past." 
In  any  case,  there  is  nothing  in  this  fine  poem  to  connect  it  with 
the  conception  of  the  Chaldaeans  as  a  divine  instrument.  It  is  the 
nation  that  speaks  through  the  poet  (cf.  v.  X4),  but  at  what 
period  of  its  post-exilic  history  we  have  no  means  of  inferring. 

Our  estimate  of  the  theological  teaching  of  .this  book  will 
naturally  be  influenced  by  the  particular  critical  theory,  which 
is  adopted.  The  reduction  of  the  book  to  four  originally  inde- 
pendent sections  requires  that  the  point  of  each  be  stated 
separately.  When  this  is  done,  it  will,  however,  be  foimd  that 
there  is  a  broad  unity  of  subject,  and  of  natural  development 
in  its  treatment,  such  as  to  some  extent  justifies  the  instinct  or 
the  judgment  of  those  who  were  instrumental  in  effecting  the 
combination  of  the  separate  parts,  (x)  The  poem  (iii.),  though 
possibly  latest  in  date,'  daims  first  consideraUon,  because  it 
avowedly  moves  in  the  circle  of  primitive  ideas,  and  supplicates 
a  divine  intervention,  a  direct  and  immediate  manifestation 
of  the  transcendent  God.  He  is  conceived  as  controlling  or 
overcoming  the  forces  of  nature;  and  though  an  earlier 
mythology  has  supplied  some  of  the  ideas,  yet,  as  with  the 
opening  chapters  of  Genesis,  they  are  transfigured  by  the  moral 
purpose  which  animates  them,  the  purpose  to  subdue  all  things 
that  could  frustrate  the  destiny  of  God's  anointed  (v.  13).  The 
closing  verses  strike  that  deep  note  of  absolute  dependence  on 
God,  which  is  the  glory  of  the  religion  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  iu  chief  contribution  to  the  spirit  of  the  Gospels,  (a)  The 
prophecy  of  the  Chaldaeans  as  the  instruments  of  the  divine 
purpose  involves  a  different,  yet  related,  conception  of  the  divine 
providence.  The  philosophy  of  history,  by  which  Hebrew 
prophets  could  read  a  deep  moral  significance  into  national 
disaster  Snd  turn  the  flank  of  resistless  attack,  became  one  of 
the  most  important  elements  in  the  nation's  faith.  If  the  world- 
powers  were  hard  as  flint  in  their  dealihgs  with  Israel,  the  people 
of  God  were-  steeled  to  such  moral  enduran^  that  each  clash  of 
their  successive  onsets  kindled  some  new  flame  of  devotion. 


centuries  of  life  and  literature  to  disclose  its  fulness  (i.  5)  (3) 
When  we  turn  from  this  view  of  the  Chaldaeans  to  the  denuncia- 
tion of  their  tyranny  in  "  taunt  songs  "  (ii.  s-ao),  we  have  simply 
a  practical  application  of  the  doctrine  of  divine  government. 
God  being  what  He  is,  at  once  moral  and  all-poweriul,  the 
immoral  life  is  doomed  to  overthrow,  whether  the  immorality 
consist  in  grasping  rajMcity,  proud  self-aggrandizement,  cruel 
exaction,  exulting  triumph  or  senseless  idolatry.  (4)  Yet, 
because  the  doom  so  often  tarries,  there  arises  the  problem  of 
the  suffering  of  the  innocent  and  the  upright.  How  can  God 
look  down  with  tolerance  that  seems  favour  on  so  much  that 
conflicts  with  His  declared  will  and  character  ?  This  is  the  great 
problem  of  Israel,  finding  its  supreme  expression  for  all  time  in 
the  book  of  Job  {q.v.).  In  that  book  the  solution  of  the  problem 
of  innocent  suffering  lies  hidden  from  the  sufferer,  even  to  the 
end,  for  he  is  not  admitted  with  the  reader  to  the  secret  of  the 
prologue;  it  is  the  practical  solution  of  faithfulness  resting  on 
faith  which  is  offered  to  us.  So  here,  with  the  principle  of  ii.  4, 
"  the  righteous  shall  live  by  his  faithfulness."  The  different 
application  of  these  words  in  the  New  Testament  to  "  faith  " 
*  Earlier,  however,  than  Ps.  Uxvii.  i7-ao,  which  is  drawn  from  it. 


78+ 


HABDALA— HABEAS  CX)RPUS 


ii  wcD  knowit  (Kam.  I.  17;  Cil.  til.  11;  Hib.  i.  38)  thtnigb  Um 
dJfltrencc  ii  apt  to  be  eiAggented  by  thoie  frbo  forget  how  much 
of  the  element  of  'Vl:  lis  In  Fsul's  anHxpliOB  of  ifirril. 
In  G.  A.  Smilh'i  words,  "  u  Faul'i  adaptation,  '  the  jiut  ihall 
live  by  faith,'  has  liecomc  the  motto  of  cvongcticil  Chnitiuuty, 
to  we  may  uy  that  Habakkuk'i  otigiiial  of  it  hit  ban  the  cnottD 
•nd  the  fame  of  Judaiim; '  the  rigfateoui  iholl  live  by  hii 


tem 
in 

of  tbi.  Impre- 

vtandy. 

iried  book  i.  uc 

ie  al  lean  Kvcn  other  oi 
deuU,  Ifae  Enilitb  mdcr 

and  iphanah,"  in  Camindii  BMi  [iS^];  NivjnV, 
Fnfhua  (Hdkr,}  (itoi:  Wellliaumi.  Da  Wf.Hf. 
(IM];  C  A.  SnUih,  '■  tbe  Book  o(  the  Twelve  P 
n«  Eiponlor-i  BMi,  voL  [L  (i»98>i  Driver,  ankle  - 
ia  Hattiora'  Di-:tiimary  if  tin  SiiU,  voL  ii.  pp.  j6^ 
Buddc  aiticle  "  lUbakkuk  "  Id  Eiuy.  BiVirJi,  vo).  ii . 
(1901):  StcveniiM.  "The  iBterpreution  of  Hibakki 
fxpEninr  (1901),  pp.  388-401 !  iVakCi  TKt  Problan  of 
ttt  an  Tauminl  (iwm),  pp.  i-II  and  app.  A,  "  RKcni 
Habakkuk";  MittiTb'^lapnpltclm  {£.  M.  C.)  U'l 
•' Mldnr  PrnpSct^,"  vol.  ".,  in  CrKlury  Biblr  (ItinM ; 


kBSALA  (lit.  "  separalioD ';),  X  Hebrew  term  chicSy 
Dprialed  to  ceremonies  st  tbe  conclulion  of  Sabbath  and 
lals,  marking  the  lepiralion  between  timet  lacrcd  and 
ar.    On  the  Saturday  nigbl  tbe  ceremony  conaisti  of  three 


other  Jewish  funclions);  (1)  benediction  over  a  lighted  tape 
of  which  pot^bly  the  origin  is  utilitarian,  u  do  Light  might  I 
kindled  on  the  Sabbath  day,  but  tbe  rile  may  be  symbolici 
and  (()  benediction  over  a  boi  of  iweel-imelling  ipicet.  T! 
origin  of  tbe  latter  has  been  traced  to  the  bowl  of  burning,  qjii 
which  in  Tllmudic  timet  wat  introduced  after  each  tneal.  Bi 
here  too  tynbolic  ideas  must  be  taken  into  acoiunl.  Bglh  ll 
ligbt  and  the  ipices  would  readily  fit  into  tbe  coDCeplion  dI  1) 
Sabbath  ■'  Ovcr-ioul  "  of  the  myitio.  (1.  A.) 

HABEAS  COHPDS,  in  English  law,  a  writ  issued  out  of  II 
High  Court  of  Juilice  commanding  the  person  to  whom  it 
directed  to  bring  the  body  of  a  penon  in  his  custody  before  Ibj 
■  '      1  tpedfifd  purpose. 


It  known  as 


OS  of  the  • 


.ofwl 


._ ,       id  Af^'ifUJufbiK,  the  well-estab- 

violition  ol  personal  liberty.     From  the  earliest 
records  of  the  Englbh  taw  no  free  man  could  be  detained  in 
a  criminal  cbai  ""  '  '  '* 


.    Thai  right  il 


t  Chart 


B  the 


smt  cafialvr  nj  mpriit 
iisubUlui  aut  u^tetir,  aut  imtelar  ant  atifua  moia  dtilnutlur 
ntc  luprr  enm  ibimui  na  npa  aim  miUtmia,  noi  po  Ittait- 
judkiam  fariuM  laarum,  vd  fer  Itttm  Irrrae."^  Tbe  writ  ii  a 
itmedial  mandatory  writ  of  right  eiisting  by  the  common  law, 
i.e.  it  is  one  of  the  eitraoidinary  remedies — such  as  mandamus, 
etrHotari  and  prohibitions,  which  Ifae  luperior  courts  may  grant. 
While  "of  right,"  il  is  not  "of  course,"  and  is  granted  only  on 
application  to  the  High  Court  or  t  judge  thereof,  supported  by  a 
■worn  ttatement  of  factt  setting  up  at  least  a  probable  case  ol 
illegal  confinement.  It  is  addressed  to  the  person  in  whose 
custody  another  is  detained,  and  commands  him  to  bring  bis 
prisoner  before  the  court  immediately  after  the  receipt  of 
the  writ,  together  with  tbe  day  and  cause  of  hi)  being  taken  and 
detained,  to  undergo  and  receive  (oJiuiirifiaidliiixIruipimJiin) 

concemii^g  him  in  that  behalf.** 

Il  it  often  stated  that  tbe  writ  it  founded  on  Ihe  ariide  of 

lh>  Great  Charter  already  quotcd:bulthete  are  extant  instances 

See  ttallam,  Ctiul.  BuL  vol.  I.,  e.  VS.  (iilh  ed.)  p.  1S4. 


of  tbe  issue  of  wiiii  of  lubtiu  ctrptu  before  Iht  chaitei'.  Other 
writs  having  somewhat  timilu  efiect  were  in  ue  at  ah  ear^ 
dale,  e.i.  tbe  writ  it  alia  tt  alU,  ued  u  euly  as  llie  iilh  centmy 
to  prevent  imprisonment  on  veiatiou  appeals  of  fekny,  and  the 
writ  of  mainprise  (de  mamicaflim),  long  obsolete  if  not  abolished 
in  England  but  which  it  was  attempted  to  use  in  India  so  late 

writ  isauedfiom  tbe  court  of  king's  bench  (or  from  tbe  chancer}), 
and  on  ita  return  Ihe  couit  judged  of  tbe  legality  of  the  imfHisoiL- 
ment,  and  £scharged  the  pritonEi  or  admitted  him  to  bail  or 
remanded  bim  to  his  former  custody  according  to  the  result  ci 

By  the  time  of  Chariea  I.  tbe  writ  wai  fully  ~i.t.H.K«t  as  the 
appropriate  process  for  checking  illegal  inpritoniiKlit  by  infcriv 
court*  or  by  public  ofScials.  But  it  ac4]uired  its  tuQ  and  pmeit 
constitutional  importance 'by  legislation. 

In  Darnel's  case  (1617)  the  judges  bdd  that  the.  conmul 
of  the  king  was  a  tuffideot  antwet  to-a  writ  of  totau  ttrfmt. 
The  House  of  Commons  thereupon  paaaed  loolulions  to  Ik 
contrary,  and  after  a  conference  with  the  House  of  Lords  the 
measure  known  as  the  Petition  of  Right  was  passed  (161T,  J  Car.  L 

Charter  and  tbe  good  laws  and  statutes  of  the  tEaltn.  divers  of 
the  king's  subjecta  bad  of  talc  been  imprrsorkcd  without  any 
cause  shown,  and  when  tbey  wen  brought  up  on  ka6tai  urpa  ti 
tuhjkieadurn,  and  no  ause  was  shown  other  than  the  ^leciai 
command  ol  tbe  king  tignified  by  the  privy  council,  wen  nevti- 
tfaeless  remanded  to  prison,  and  enacted  "  that  no  becnian  ia 
any  such  manner  as  is  before  mentioned  be  impiiaoDed  « 


case  (1679),  when  it  was  successfully  ntumed  to  a  ioWr  ttrftj 
that  Seldeo  and  olbeit  wen  committed  by  tbe  king's  special 
command  "  for  notable  contempig  against  tbe  king  aad  his 
government  and  for  stirring  up  sedition  against  hiin."*  This 
led  to  legislation  in  1640  by  which,  aJler  abolishing  tbe  Star 
Chamber,  the  right  to  a  Aabeat  carpmi  wat  givm  to  test  the 

the  privy  council.* 

The  reign  of  Chariea  II,  was  marked  by  foitber  pcogns 
towards  securing  the  freedom  ol  tbe  subject  fnun  wmcigfu] 
imprisonment.  Lord  Clarendon  was  impeached,  ntr  oUa, 
for  causing  many  persons  to  be  imprisoned  against  law  arid  to 
be  conveyed  in  custody  to  placet  outside  En^aod.  In  166I 
a  wtit  ol  kabm  coTfia  was  issued  to  tett  tbe  legality  of  n 
imprisonment  in  Jersey.  Thou^  the  authority  of  the  courts 
hid  been  strengthened  by  the  Petition  of  Right  and  tbe  act  <i 
1640,  it  was  still  rendered  insufficient  by  reason  of  the  insecurity 
of  judicial  tenun,  the  fad  that  only  tbe  chanceUor  (a  political 
as  well  as  a  legal  officer)  and  Ihe  court  of  king's  bench  had 
undoubted  right  to  issue  Ihe  writ,  alid  tbeinahitily  arbcsitatioa 
of  the  competent  judges  to  issue  the  writ  eitxpt  during  tbe  legal 
term,  which  did  not  cover  more  than  half  the  year.  A  series  rA 
bills  was  passed  through  tbe  Commons  between  166B  and  iG7> 
only  to  be  lejccted  by  the  otbei  House.  In  Jenks's  case  (1676) 
Lord  Chlnceilot  Notlinghim  refused  to  tstue  Ihe  writ  in  vacation 
in  a  case  in  which  a  man  bad  been  committed  by  the  king  in 
council  for  a  speech  al  Guildhall,  and  could  get  neither  liail  not 
trial.  In  1679.  hut  rather  in  consequence  of  Lord  Cfirendoli't 
arbitnry  pnKeedings'  than  of  Jenkei's  else.  1  fresh  bill  ra 
introduced  which  passed  both  Houses  [it  is  said  tbe  uppci  House 
by  Ihe  counting  of  00a  stout  peer  as  ten)  and  becune  the  lanout 
Habeas  Cotput  Act  of  li^g  (jt  Car.  II.  c.  1).  Tbe  pusing  of 
tbe  act  was  largely  due  to  the  eiperienrt  md  energy  ol  Lord 
Shiltetbuiy.  after  whom  it  was  for  tome  time  called.  The  act. 
while  a  most  important  landmark  in  the  constitutiona]  bislpiy 
of  England,  in  no  sense  creates  any  right  to  personal  fnednm. 
bul  is  essentially  a  procedure  act  lor  improving  tbe  legal  raechu- 
ism  by  means  of  which  that  acknowledged  right  may  be  entoned. ' 


•  Hallam,  CniL 


«,  voL  ii.,  t  viii.  (nth  ed.)  p.  i. 
ii"'(i«1?«l 

thHL),p,ii7. 


HABEAS  CORPUS 


785 


It  declares  no  principles  and  defines  no  rights,  but  is  for  practical 
purposes  worth  a  hundred  articles  guaranteeing  constitutional 
liberty.* 

In  the  manner  characteristic  of  English  legislation  the  act 
is  limited  to  the  particular  grievances  immediately  in  view  and 
is  limited  to  imprisonment  for  criminal  or  supposed  criminal 
matters,  leaving  untouched  imprisonment  on  civil  process  or  by 
private  persons.  It  recites  that  great  delays  have  been  used  by 
sheriffs  and  gaolers  in  making  returns  of  writs  of  habeas  corpus 
directed  to  them;  and  for  the  prevention  thereof,  and  the  more 
speedy  relief  of  all  persons  imprisoned  for  criminal  or  supposed 
criminal  matters,  it  enacts  in  substance  as  follows:  (x)  When  a 
writ  of  habeas  corpus  is  directed  to  a  sheriff  or  other  person  in 
charge  of  a  prisoner,  he  must  within  3,  10  or  20  days,  according 
to  the  distance  of  the  place  of  commitment,  bring  the  body  of  his 
prisoner  to  the  court,  with  the  true  cause  of  his  detainer  or 
imprisonment — unless  the  commitment  was  for  treason  or  felony 
plainly  expressed  in  the  warrant  of  commitment.  (3)  If  any 
person  be  committed  for  any  crime — unless  for  treason  or  felony 
plainly  expressed  in  the  warrant — it  shall  be  lawful  for  such 
person  or  persons  (other  than  persons  convicted  or  in  execution 
by  legal  process)  in  time  of  vacation,  to  appeal  to  the  lord  chan- 
cellor as  a  judge,  who  shall  issue  a  habieas  corpus  returnable 
immediately,  and  on  the  return  thereof  shall  discharge  the 
prisoner  on  giving  security  for  his  appearance  before  the  proper 
court — unless  the  party  so  committed  is  detained  upon  a  legal 
process  or  under  a  justice's  warrant  for  a  non-bailable  offence. 
Persons  neglecting  for  two  terms  to  pray  for  a  habeas  corpus 
shall  have  none  in  vacation.  (3)  Persons  set  at  large  on  habeas 
corpus  shall  not  be  recommitted  for  the  same  offence  unless  by 
the  legal  order  and  process  of  the  court  having  cognizance  of 
the  case.  (4)  A  person  committed  to  prison  for  treason  or  felony 
shall,  if  he  requires  it,  in  the  first  week  of  the  next  term  or  the 
first  day  of  the  next  session  of  oyer  and  terminer,  be  indicted 
in  that  term  or  session  or  else  admitted  to  bail,  unless  it  appears 
on  affidavit  that  the  witnesses  for  the  crown  are  not  ready; 
and  if  he  is  not  indicted  and  tried  in  the  second  term  or  session 
after  commitment,  or  if  after  trial  he  is  acquitted,  he  shall  be 
discharged  from  imprisonment.  (5)  No  inhabitant  of  England 
(except  persons  contracting,  or,  after  conviction  for  felony, 
electing  to  be  transported)  shall  he  sent  prisoner  to  Scotland, 
Ireland,  Jersey,  &c.,  or  any  place  beyond  the  seas.  Stringent 
penalties  are  provided  for  offences  against  the  act.  A  judge 
delaying  habeas  corpus  forfeits  £500  to  the  party  aggrieved. 
Illegal  imprisonment  beyond  seas  renders  the  offender  liable  in 
an  action  by  the  injured  party  to  treble  costs  and  danuiges  to 
the  extent  of  not  less  than  £500,  besides  subjecting  him  to  the 
penalties  of  praemunire  and  to  other  disabilities.  "  The  great 
rank  of  those  who  were  likely  to  offend  against  this  part  of  the 
statute  was,"  says  Hallam,  "  the  cause  of  this  unusual  severity." 
Indeed  as  early  as  1591  the  judges  had  complained  of  the 
difficulty  of  enforcing  the  writ  in  the  case  of  imprisonment  at 
the  instance  of  magnates  of  the  realm.  The  effect  of  the  act 
was  to  impose  upon  the  judges  under  severe  sanction  the  duty 
of  protecting  personal  liberty  in  the  case  of  criminal  charges 
and  of  securing  speedy  trial  upon  such  charges  when  legally 
framed;  and  the  improvement  of  their  tenure  of  office  at  the 
revolution,  coupled  with  the  veto  put  by  the  Bill  of  Rights  on 
excessive  bail,  gave  the  judicature  the  independence  and  authority 
necessary  to  enable  them  to  keep  the  executive  within  the  law 
and  to  restrain  administrative  development  of  the  scope  or 
penalties  of  the  criminal  law;  and  this  power  of  the  judiciary  to 
control  the  executive,  coupled  with  the  limitations  on  the  right 
to  set  up  "  act  of  state  "  as  an  excuse  for  infringing  individual 
liberty  is  the  special  characteristic  of  English  constitutional 
law. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  neither  at  common  law  nor  under  the 
act  of  1679  was  the  writ  the  appropriate  remedy  in  the  case  of  a 
person  convicted  either  on  indictment  or  summarily.  It  properly 
applied  to  persons  detained  before  or  without  trial  or  sentence; 
and  for  convicted  persons  the  proper  remedy  was  by  writs  of 
*  Dicey.  Law  of  the  Constitution  (6th  ed.).  p.  19s. 
AH  13* 


error  or  certiorari  to  which  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  might  be  used 
as  ancillary. 

As  regards  persons  imprisoned  for  debt  or  on  civil  process  the 
writ  was  available  at  common  law  to  test  the  legality  of  the 
detention:  but  the  practice  in  these  cases  is  unaffected  by  the 
act  of  1679,  and  is  of  no  present  interest,  since  imprisonment 
on  civil  process  is  almost  abolished.  As  regards  persons  in 
private  custody,  e.g.  persons  not  sui  juris  detained  by  those  not 
entitled  to  their  guardianship  or  lunatics,  or  persons  kidnapped,. 
habeas  corpus  ad  subjiciendum  seems  not  to  have  been  the 
ordinary  common  law  remedy.  The  appropriate  writ  for  such 
cases  was  that  known  as  de  homine  replegiawio.  The  use  of  this 
writ  in  most  if  not  all  criminal  cases  was  forbidden  in  1553;  but 
it  was  used  in  the  17th  century  in  a  case  of  kidnapping  (Designy's 
case,  1682),  and  against  Lord  Grey  for  abducting  his  wife's 
sister  (1682),  and  in  the  earl  of  Banbury's  case  to  recover  his 
wife  (1704).  The  latest  recorded  instanceof  its  use  isTrcbilcock's 
case  (1736),  in  which  a  ward  sought  to  free  himself  from  the 
custody  of  his  guardian. 

Since  that  date  the  habeas  corpus  ad  subjiciendum  has  been  used 
in  casesof  illegal  detention  in  private  custody.  In  1 758  questions 
arose  as  to  its  application  to  persons  in  naval  or  military  custody, 
including  pressed  men,  which  led  to  the  introduction  of  a  bill 
in  parliament  and  to  the  consultation  by  the  House  of  Lords  of 
the  judges  (sec  Wilmot's  Opinions^  p.  77).  In  the  same  year  the 
writ  was  used  to  release  the  wife  of  Earl  Ferrers  from  his  custody 
and  maltreatment,  and  was  unsuccessfully  applied  for  by  John 
Wilkes  to  get  back  his  wife,  who  was  separated  from  him  by 
mutual  agreement.  But  perhaps  the  most  interesting  instances 
of  that  period  are  the  case  of  the  negro  Somerset  (1771),  who  was 
released  from  a  claim  to  hold  him  as  a  slave  in  England:  and 
that  of  the  Hottentot  Venus  (i8zo),  where  an  alien  woman  on 
exhibition  in  England  was  brought  before  the  court  by  Zacbary 
Macaulay  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  she  was  detained  against 
her  will. 

The  experience  of  the  i8th  century  disclosed  defects  In  the 
procedure  for  obtaining  liberty  in  cases  not  covered  by  the  act 
of  1679.  But  it  was  not  till  1816  that  further  legislation  was 
passed  for  more  effectually  securing  the  Uberty  of  the  subject. 
The  act  of  1816  (56  Geo.  III.  c.  100),  does  not  touch  cases  covered 
by  the  act  of  1679.  It  enacts  (1)  that  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
shall  be  issued  in  vacation  time  in  favour  of  a  person  restrained 
of  his  liberty  otherwise  than  for  some  criminal  or  supposed 
criminal  matter  (except  persons  imprisoned  for  debt  or  by  civil 
process);  (2)  that  though  the  return  to  the  writ  be  good  and 
sufficient  in  law,  the  judge  shall  examine  into  the  truth  of  the 
facts  set  forth  in  such  return,  and  if  they  appear  doubtful  the 
prisoner  shall  be  bailed;  (3)  that  the  writ  shall  run  to  any  port, 
harbour,  road,  creek  or  bay  on  the  coast  of  England,  although 
not  within  the  body  of  any  county.  The  last  clause  was  intended 
to  meet  doubts  on  the  applicability  of  habeas  corpus  in  cases  of 
illegal  detention  on  board  ship,  which  had  been  raised  owing  to 
a  case  of  detention  on  a  foreign  ship  in  an  English  port. 

It  will  appear  from  the  foregoing  statement  that  the  issue 
and  enforcement  of  the  writ  rests  on  the  common  law  as 
strengthened  by  the  acts  of  1627, 1640, 1679  and  x8i6,  and  subject 
also  to  the  regulations  as  to  procedure  contained  in  the  Crown 
Ojfice  Rules,  1906.  The  effect  of  the  statutes  is  to  keep  the  courts 
always  open  for  the  issue  of  the  writ.  It  is  available  to  put  an 
end  to  all  forms  of  illegal  detention  in  public  or  private  custody. 
In  the  case  of  the  Canadian  prisoners  (1839)  it  was  used  to  obtain 
the  release  of  persons  sentenced  in  Canada  for  partidpating  in 
the  rebellion  of  1837,  who  were  being  conveyed  throughout 
England  in  ciutody  on  their  way  to  imprisonment  in  another 
part  of  the  empire,  and  it  is  matter  of  frequent  experience  for 
the  courts  to  review  the  legality  of  commitments  under  the 
Extradition  Acts  and  the  Fugitive  Offenders  Act  i88x,  of  fugitives 
from  the  justice  of  a  foreign  state  or  parts  of  the  king's  dominions 
outside  the  British  Islands. 

In  times  of  public  danger  it  has  occasionally  been  thought 
necessary  to  "  suspend  "  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  1679  by  special 
and  temporary  legislation.    This  was  done  in  1794  (by  an  act 


786 


HABERDASHER 


anifUally  renewed  until  1801)  and  again  in  1817,  as  to  persons 
arrested  and  detained  by  his  majesty  (or  conspiring  against  his 
person  and  government.  The  same  course  was  adopted  in 
Ireland  in  1866  during  a  Fenian  rising.  It  has  been  the  practice 
to  make  such  acts  annual  and  to  follow  their  expiration  by  an 
act  of  indemnity.  In  cases  where  martial  law  exists  the  use  of  the 
writ  is  ex  hypotkesi  suspended  iluring  conditions  amounting  to  a 
state  of  war  within  the  realm  or  the  British  possession  affected 
(e.g.  the  Cape  Colony  and  Natal  during  the  South  African  War), 
and  it  would  seem  that  the  acts  of  courts  martial  during  the 
period  are  not  the  subject  of  review  by  the  ordinary  courts. 
The  so-called  "  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  "  bears  a 
certain  similarity  to  what  is  called  in  Europe  "  suspending  the 
constitutional  guarantees  "  or  "  proclaiming  a*  state  of  siege," 
but  "  is  not  in  reality  more  than  suspension  of  one  particular 
remedy  for  the  protection  of  personal  freedom." 

There  are  various  other  forms  of  the  writ  according  to  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  granted.  Thus  habeas  corpus  ad  resfcindendum  is  used 
to  bring  up  a  prisoner  confined  by  the  process  of  an  inferior  court 
in  order  to  charge  him  in  another  proceeding  (civil  or  criminal)  in 
the  superior  court  or  some  other  court.  As  regards  civil  proceedings, 
this  form  of  the  writ  is  now  rarely  used,  owing  to  the  abolition  of 
arrest  on  mesne  process  and  the  restriction  of  imprisonment  for  debt, 
or  in  execution  of  a  civil  judgment.  The  rignt  to  issue  the  writ 
depends  on  the  common  law,  supplemented  by  an  act  of  1802.  It 
is  occasionally  used  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  a  person  in  custody 
for  debt  or  on  a  criminal  charge  before  a  criminal  court  to  be  chargeo 
in  respect  of  a  criminal  proceeding:  but  the  same  result  may  be 
obtained  by  means  of  an  order  of  a  secretary  of  state,  made  under 
a.  II  oi  the  Prison  Act  1898,  or  bv  the  written  order  of  a  court  of 
criminal  jurisdiction  before  which  he  is  required  to  take  his  trial  on 
indictment  (Criminal  Law  Amendment  Act  30  &  31  Vict,  c  35.  a. 
10). 

Other  forms  are  ad  satisfaciendum;  ad  faciendum  et  recipiendum, 
to  remove  intoa  superior  court  proceedingsunderwhichtheocfendant 
is  in  custody:  ad  testificandum,  where  a  prisoner  is  rec^uired  as  a 
witness,  issued  under  an  act  of  1804  (s.  Il),  which  is  m  practice 
replaced  by  orders  under  s.  It  of  the  Prison  Act  1898  {supra)  or  the 
order  of  a  judge  under  s.  9  of  the  Criminal  Procedure  Act  1853: 
and  ad  deliberandum  et  recipias,  to  authorize  the  transfer  from  one 
custody  to  another  for  purposes  of  trial,  which  is  in  practice  super- 
seded by  the  provisions  of  the  Prison  Acts  1865,  1871  and  1898, 
and  the  Criminal  Law  Amendment  Act  1867  (supra). 

The  above  forms  are  now  of  little  or  no  importance;  but  the 
procedure  for  obtaining  them  and  the  forms  of  writ  are  included  in 
the  Crown  Office  Rules  1906. 

/r</am/.— The  common  law  of  Ireland  as  to  the  writs  of  habeas 
corpus  is  the  same  as  that  in  England.  The  writ  has  in  past  times 
been  issued  from  the  English  court  of  king's  bench  into  Ireland; 
but  does  not  now  so  issue.  The  acts  of  1803  and  18 16  already 
mentioned  apply  to  Ireland.  The  Petition  of  Right  is  not  in  terms 
applicable  to  Ireland.  The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  1679  does  not  apply 
to  Ireland:  but  its  equivalent  is  supplied  by  an  act  of  1781-1782 
of  the  Irish  parliament  (31  &  23  Geo.  11  I.e.  11).  Sec.  16  contains  a 
provision  empowering  the  chief  governor  and  privy  council  of  Ireland 
By  a  proclamation  under  the  great  seal  of  Ireland  to  suspend  the  act 
during  such  time  only  as  there  shall  be  an  actual  invasion  or  rebellion 
in  Ireland ;  and  it  is  enacted  that  during  the  currency  of  the  pro- 
clamation no  judge  or  justices  shall  bail  or  try  any  person  charged 
with  being  concerned  in  the  rebellion  or  invasion  without  an  order 
from  the  lord  lieutenant  or  lord  deputy  and  senior  of  the  privy 
council.  In  Ireland  by  an  act  of  1881  the  Irish  executive  was^iven 
an  absolute  power  of  arbitrary  and  preventive  arrest  on  suspicion  of 
treason  or  of  an  act  tending  to  interfere  with  the  maintenance  of 
law  and  order:  but  the  warrant  of  arrest  was  made  conclusive. 
This  act  continued  by  annual  renewals  until  1906,  whcn.it  expired. 

Scotland. — The  wnt  of  habeas  corpus  is  unknown  to  Scots  law.  nor 
will  it  issue  from  English  courts  into  Scotland.  Under  a  Scots  act 
of  1701  (c.  6)  provision  is  made  for  preventing  wrongous  imprison- 
ment and  against  undue  delay  in  trials.  It  was  applied  to  treason 
felony  in  1848.  The  right  to  speedy  trial  is  now  regulated  by  s.  43 
of  the  Criminal  Procedure  Scotland  Act  1887.  These  enactments 
are  as  to  Scotland  equivalent  to  the  English  Act  of  1679.  Under  the 
Court  of  Exchequer  Scotland  Act  1856  (19  &  20  V.  c.  56)  provision 
is  made  for  bringing  before  the  court  of  session  persons  and  proceed- 
ings before  inferior  courts  and  public  officers — which  is  analogous 
to  the  powers  to  issue  habeas  corpus  in  such  cases  out  of  the  English 
court  of  exchequer  (now  the  revenue  side  of  the  king's  bench 
division). 

British  Possessions. — The  act  of  1679  expressly  applies  to  Wales, 
Berwick-on-Tweed.  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  and  the  act  of  18 16  also 
extends  to  the  Isle  of  Man.  The  court  of  lunK's  bench  has  also  issued 
the  writ  to  the  king's  foreign  dominions  De^'ond  seas.  e.g.  to  St 
Helena,  and  so  late  as  1861  to  Canada  (Anderson's  case  1861.  30 
LJ.Q.B.  139).    In  consequence  of  the  last  decision  it  was  provided 


by  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  1862  that  no  writ  of  habeas  corpta  should 
issue  out  of  England  by  authority  of  any  court  or  judge  *  into  2ey 
colony  or  foreign  dominion  of  the  crown  where  the  crown  has  a  law- 
fully established  court  of  justice  having  authority  to  grant  or  issw 
the  writ  and  to  ensure  its  due  execution  in  the  'colony'  or  do- 
minion "  (25  &  36  y.  c.  20).  The  expressioA  "  foreign  dMninioe  " 
is  meant  to  apply  to  places  outside  the  British  Islands,  and  don  not 
include  the  Isle  of  Man  or  the  Channel  Islands  (»wc  re  Brown  li8^]. 
33  L.J.(}.B.  193). 

In  Australasia  and  Canada  and  in  roost  if  not  all  the  British 
possessions  whose  law  is  based  on  the  common  law.  the  po»er  to 
issue  and  enforce  the  writ  is  possessed  and  is  freely  exercised  b> 
colonial  courts,  under  the  charters  or  statutes  creatine  and  re^uLatiof 
the  courts.  The  writ  is  freely  resorted  to  in  Canaan,  and  m  1905. 
1906,  two  appeals  rame  to  the  privy  council  from  the  dominion,  one 
with  reference  to  an  /extradition  case,  the  other  with  respect  to  the 
right  to  expel  aliens. 

Under  the  Roman-Dutch  law  as  applied  in  British  Guiana  the 
writ  was  unknown  and  no  similar  process  existed  (2fid  report  of 
West  Indian  law  commissioners).  But  by  the  Supreme  Court 
Ordinance  of  1893^  that  court  possesses  {inter  aiia)  all  the  authorities, 
powers  and  functions  belonging  to  or  incident  to  a  superior  court  of 
record  in  England,  which  appears  to  include  the  power  to  issw  tbe 
writ  of  habeas  corpus.  Under  the  Roman-Dutch  law  as  apfdkd  to 
South  Africa  free  persons  appear  to  have  a  riglit  to  releaae  under  a 
writ  de  libera  homtne  exhibendo,  which  closely  red«nblcs  tbe  writ  of 
habeas  corpus,  and  the  procedure  described  as  "  manifesiatioa " 
used  in  the  kingdom  of  Aragon  (Hallam,  Middle  Ages,  vol.  ii..  c  iv). 
The  writ  of  habeas  corpus  has  not  been  formally  adopted  or  the 
Habeas  Corpus  Acts  formally  extended  to  South  Africa ;  but  in  tltt 
Cape  Colony,  under  the  charter  of  justice  and  colonial  legislation, 
the  supreme  court  on  petition  grants  a  remedy  equivalent  to  that 
obtained  in  England  by  writ  of  habeas  corpus;  and  tbe  remedy  is 
sometimes  so  described  {Kohe  v.  B<Uie,  i8;r9.  9  Buchanan.  4^.  6i, 
arising  out  of  a  rising  in  Griqualand).  During  and  after  the  Soutb 
African  War  of  189^1902  many  attempts  were  made  by  this  pro- 
cedure to  challenge  or  review  the  sentences  of  courts  martial ;  tee 
re  Fourie  (1900^,  18  Cape  Rep.  8. 

The  laws  of  Ceylon  being  derived  from  the  Roman-Dutch  law.  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpus  is  not  indigenous:  but.  under  s.  49  of  the 
Supreme  Court  Ordinance  1889,  the  court  or  a  judge  has  power  to 
grant  and  issue  "  mandates  in  the  nature  of  writs  ofhabeas  corpus.*' 
The  chartered  high  courts  in  India  have  power  to  issue  and  enforce 
the  writ  of  hab^is  corpus.  The  earliest  record  of  its  use  was  in  1775. 
when  it  was  directed  to  Warren  Hastings.  It  has  been  used  to  tett 
the  question  whether  Roman  Catholic  religious  orders  could  enter 
India,  and  in  1870  an  attempt  was  nude  thereby  to  challenge  the 
validity  of  a  warrant  in  the  nature  of  a  lettre  de  cachet  issued  by  the 
viceroy  (Ind.  L.  Rep.  6  Bengal.  392,  436, 4^98),  and  it  has  also  been 
applied  to  settle  controversies  between  Hindus  and  miaskMuries  as 
to  the  custody  of  a  young  convert  {R.  v.  KaagAan.  1870.  5  Bei^aU 
418),  and  between  a  Mahommedan  husband  and  his  mother-in-law 
as  to  the  custody  of  a  giri-wife  {Khatija  Bibi,  187P,  5  Bengal.  557). 

United  States. — Before  the  Declaration  of  Indepcndoice  some 
of  the  North  American  colonies  had  adopted  the  act  of  1679; 
and  the  federal  and  the  other  state  legislatures  of  tbe  United 
States  have  founded  their  procedure  on  that  act.  The  commoo 
law  as  to  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  has  been  inherited  fron 
England,  and  has  been  generally  made  to  apply  to  commitmeots 
and  detentions  of  all  kinds.  Difficult  questions,  unknown  to 
English  law,  have  arisen  from  the  peculiar  features  of  tbe 
American  state-system.  Thus  the  constitution  provides  that 
"  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended 
unless  when,  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public  safety 
may  require  it  ";  and  it  has  been  the  subject  of  much  dispute 
whether  the  power  of  suspension  under  this  provision  is  vested 
in  the  president  or  tbe  congress.  The  weight  of  opinion  seems 
to  lean  to  the  latter  alternative.  Again,  conflicts  have  arisen 
between  tbe  courts  of  individual  stales  and  the  courts  of  the 
union.  It  seems  that  a  state  court  has  no  right  to  issue  a  hahea 
corpus  for  the  discharge  of  a  person  held  under  the  authority 
of  the  federal  government.  On  the  other  hand,  the  courts  of  the 
union  issue  the  writ  only  in  those  cases  in  which  the  power  b 
expressly  conferred  on  them  by  the  constitution. 

AUTHORITIBS.— Paterson,  Liberty  of  the  Subject  (1877):  Short 
and  Mellor.  Crown  Praaice  (1890):  American:  Church  oo  H^eu 
Corpus  (2nd  ed.  1893).  (W.  F.  C.) 

HABERDASHER,  a  name  for  a  tradesman  who  sells  by  retail 

small  articles  used  in  the  making  or  wearing  of  dress,  socb  as 

sewing  cottons  or  silks,  tapes,  buttons,  pins  and  needles  and  the 

like.    The  sale  of  such  articles  is  not  generally  carried  on  sk»e. 

I  and  a  "  haberdashery  counter  "  usually  forms  a  departacnt  of 


HABINGTON— HABSBURG,  HOUSE  OF 


787 


drapers'  shops.  The  word,  found  in  Chaucer,  and  even  earlier 
(131 1),  is  of  obscure  origin;  the  suggestion  that  it  is  connected 
with  an  Icelandic  kaprtask,  "  haversack,"  is,  according  to  the 
New  English  DUiionary,  impossible.  Hapertas  occurs  in  an  early 
Anglo-French  customs  list,  which  includes  articles  such  as  were 
sold  by  haberdashers,  but  this  word  may  itself  have  been  a 
misspelling  of  "  haberdash."  The  obseurity  of  origin  has  left 
room  for  many  conjectures  such  as  that  of  Minsheu  that "  haber- 
dasher "  was  perhaps  merely  a  corruption  of  the  German  H<M 
ikr  das?  "  Have  you  that?"  or  Habe  das,  Herr, "  Have  that,  sir," 
used  descriptively  for  a  general  dealer  in  miscellaneous  wares. 
The  Haberdashers'  Company  is  one  of  the  greater  Livery 
Companies  of  the  City  of  London.  Originally  a  branch  of  the 
mercers,  the  fraternity  took  over  the  selling  of  "  small  wares," 
which  included  not  only  articles  similar  to  those  sold  as  "  haber- 
dashery "  now,  but  such  things  as  gloves,  daggers,  glass,  pens, 
lanterns,  mousetraps  and  the  like.  They  were  thus  on  this  side 
connected  with  the  Milliners.  On  the  other  hand  there  was 
early  a  fusion  with  the  old  gild  of  the  "  Hurers,"  or  cap  makers, 
and  the  hatters,  and  by  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  the  amalgama- 
tion was  complete.  There  were  long  recognized  two  branches  of 
the  haberdashers,  the  haberdashers  of  "  small  wares,"  and  the 
haberdashers  of  hats  (see  further  Liveky  Companies).  The 
haberdashers  are  named,  side  by  side  with  the  capeUarii,  in 
the  White  Book  (Liber  Albus)  of  the  city  of  London  (see  Muni- 
menta  CUdkaUae  LondiniensiSt  ed.  H.  T.  Riley,  Rolls  Series, 
12,  1859-1862),  and  a  haberdasher  forms  one  of  the  company  of 
pilgrims  in  the  Canterbury  Tales  (Prologue,  361). 

HABINOTON,  WILLIAM  (1605-1654).  English  poet,  was  bom 
at  Hendlip  Hall,  Worcestershire,  on  the  4th  of  November  1605. 
He  belonged  to  a  well-known  Catholic  family.  His  father, 
Thomas  Habington  (1560-1647),  an  antiquary  and  historical 
scholar,  had  been  implicated  in  the  plots  on  behalf  of  Mary 
queen  of  Scots;  his  uncle,  Edward  Habington,  was  hanged  in 
1 586  on  the  charge  of  conspiring  against  Elizabeth  in  connexion 
with  Anthony  Babington;  while  to  his  mother,  Mary  Habingtpn, 
was  attributed  the  revelation  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot.  The  poet 
was  sent  to  the  college  at  St  Omer,  but,  pressure  being  brought 
to  bear  on  him  to  induce  him  to  become  a  Jesuit,  he  removed  to 
Paris.  He  married  about  163a  Lucy,  second  daughter  of  Sir 
William  Herbert ,  first  Baron  Powys.  This  lady  he  had  addressed 
in  the  volume  of  lyrical  poems  arranged  in  two  parts  and  entitled 
Castara,  published  anonymously  in  1634.  In  1635  appeared  a 
second  edition  enlarged  by  three  prose  characters,  fourteen  new 
lyrics  and  eight  touching  elegies  on  his  friend  and  kinsman, 
George  Talbot.  The  third  edition  (1640)  contains  a  third  part 
consisting  of  a  prose  character  of  "  A  Holy  Man  "  and  twenty- 
two  devotional  poems.  Habington's  lyrics  are  full  of  the  far- 
fetched "  conceits  "  which  were  fashionable  at  court,  but  his 
verse  is  quite  free  from  the  prevailing  looseness  of  moral^. 
Indeed  bis  reiterated  praises  of  Castara 's  virtue  grow  wearisome. 
He  is  at  his  best  in  his  reflective  poems  on  the  uncertainly  of 
human  life  and  kindred  topics.  He  also  wrote  a  Historie  of 
Edvard  the  Fourth  (1640),  based  on  notes  provided  by  his  father; 
a  tragi-comedy,  TheQueene  oj  Arragon  (1640),  published  without 
his  consent  by  his  kinsman,  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  and  revived 
at  the  Restoration;  and  six  essays  on  events  in  modern  history. 
Observations  upon  History  (1641).  Anthony  A  Wood  insinuated 
that  during  the  Commonwealth  the  poet  "did  run  with  the  times, 
and  was  not  unknown  to  Oliver  the  usurper."  He  died  on  the 
30th  of  November  1654. 

The  works  of  Habington  have  not  been  collected.  Tkt  Qutene  of 
>frraf0fi  was  reprinted  in  DoddeyV'Old  Plays."  vol. ix.(  1835) :  Castara 
was  edited  by  Charles  Elton  (1812),  and  by  E.  Arber  with  a  compact 
and  comprehensive  introduction  (1870)  for  his  "  English  Reprints." 

HABIT  (through  the  French  from  Lat.  habitus,  from  habere, 
to  have,  hold,  or,  in  a  reflective  sense,  to  be  in  a  certain  condition; 
in  many  of  the  English  senses  the  French  use  habitude,  not  habit), 
condition  of  body  or  mind,  especiafly  one  that  has  become 
permanent  or  settled  by  custom  or  persistent  repetition,  hence 
custom,  usage.  In  botany  and  zoolo^^y  the  term  is  used  both 
in  the  above  sense  of'lnstinctive  action  of  animals  and  tendencies 


of  plants,  and  also  of  the  maimer  of  growth  or  external  appear- 
ance of  a  plant  or  animal.  From  the  use  of  the  word  for  external 
appearances  comes  its  use  for  fashion  in  dress,  and  hence  as  a 
term  for  a  lady's  riding  dress  and  for  the  particular  form  of 
garment  adopted  by  the  members  of  a  religious  order,  like 
"  cowl "  applied  as  the  mark  of  a  monk  or  n\m. 

HABITAT  (a  French  word  derived  from  habiter,  Lat.  habilare, 
to  dwell),  in  botany  and  zoology,  the  term  for  the  locality  in 
which  a  particular  species  of  plants  or  animals  thrives. 

HABSBURG,  or  Hapsbukc,  the  name  of  the  famous  family 
from  which  have  spnlbg  the  dukes  and  archdukes  of  Austria 
from  i«83,  kings  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  from  1526,  and 
emperors  of  Austria  from  1 804.  They  were  also  Roman  emperors 
and  German  kings  from  1438  to  1806,  and  kings  of  Spain  from 
1 516  to  1700,  while  the  minor  dignities  held  by  them  at  different 
times  are  too  numerous  to  mention. 

The  name  Habsburg,  a  variant  of  an  older  form,  Habichtsburg 
(hawk's  castle),  was  taken  from  the  castle  of  Habsburg,  which 
was  situated  on  the  river  Aar  not  far  from  its  junction  with  the 
Rhine.  The  castle  was  built  about  1020  by  Werner,  bishop  of 
Strassburg,  and  his  brother,  Radbot,  the  founder  of  the  abbey 
of  Muri.  These  men  were  grandsons  of  a  certain  Guntram,  who, 
according  to  some  authorities,  is  identical  with  a  Count  Guntram 
who  flourished  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Otto  the  Great, 
and  whose  ancestry  can  be  traced  back  to  the  time  of  the  Mero- 
vingian kings.  This  conjecture,  however,  is  extremely  pro- 
blematical. Among  Radbot's  sons  was  one  Werner,  and  Werner 
and  his  son  Otto  were  called  counts  of  Habsburg,  Otto  being 
probably  made  landgrave  of  upper  Alsace  late  in  the  nth  or 
early  in  the  X2th  century.  At  all  events  Otto's  son  Werner 
(d.  1x67),  and  the  latter's  son  Albert  (d.  1 199),  held  this  dignity, 
and  both  landgraves  increased  the  area  of  the  Habsburg  lands. 
Albert  became  count  of  Zurich  and  protector  of  the  monastery 
of  S&ckingen,  and  obtained  lands  in  the  cantons  of  Unterwalden 
and  Lucerne;  his  son  Rudolph,  having  assisted  Frederick  of 
Hohenstaufcn,  afterwards  the  emperor  Frederick,  II.,  against 
the  emperor  Otto  IV.,  received  the  county  of  Aargau.  Both 
counts  largely  increased  their  possessions  in  the  districts  now 
known  as  Switzerland  and  Alsace,  and  Rudolph  held  an  influential 
place  among  the  Swabian  nobility.  After  his  death  in  1232  his 
two  sons,  Albert  and  Rudolph,  divided  his  lands  and  founded 
the  lines  of  Habsburg-Halxsburg  and  Habsburg-Laufenburg. 
Rudolph's  descendants,  counts  of  Habsburg-Laufenburg,  were 
soon  divided  into  two  branches,  one  of  which  became  extinct 
in  1408  and  the  other  seven  years  later.  Before  this  date, 
however,  Laufenburg  and  some  other  districts  had  been  sold  to 
the  senior  branch  of  the  family,  who  thus  managed  to  retain 
the  greater  part  of  the  Habsburg  lands. 

Rudolph's  brother  Albert  (d.  1239),  landgrave  of  Alsace, 
married  Hedwig  of  Kyburg  (d.  1260),  and  from  this  union  there 
was  born  in  1218  Rudolph,  the  founder  of  the  greatness  of  the 
house  of  Habsburg,  and  the  first  of  the  family  to  ascend  the 
German  throne.  Through  his  mother  he  inherited  a  large  part 
of  the  lands  of  the  extinct  family  of  Z&hringen;  he  added  in 
other  ways  to  his  possessions,  and  was  chosen  German  king  in 
September  1 273.  Acting  vigorously  in  his  new  office,  he  defeated 
and  killed  his  most  formidable  adversary,  Ottakar  II.,  king  of 
Bohemia,  in  1278,  and  in  December  128a  he  invested  his  sons, 
Albert  and  Rudolph,  with  the  duchies  of  Austria  and  Styria, 
which  with  other  lands  had  been  taken  from  Ottakar.  This 
was  an  event  of  supreme  moment  in  the  history  of  the  Habsburgs, 
and  was  the  first  and  most  important  stage  in  the  process  of 
transferring  the  centre  of  their  authority  from  western  to  eastern 
Europe,  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Danube.  On  Rudolph's  death 
in  July  1 391  the  German  crown  passed  for  a  time  away  from  the 
Habsburgs,  but  in  July  1298  it  was  secured  by  his  son,  Albert, 
whose  reign,  however,  was  short  and  uneventftU.  But  before 
1308,  the  year  of  Albert's  death,  the  long  and  troubled  connexion 
of  the  Habsburgs  with  Bohemia  had  already  begun.  In  1306 
Wenceslas  III.,  the  last  Bohemian  king  of  the  Pfemyslide 
dynasty,  was  murdered.  Seizing  the  opportunity  and  declaring 
that  the  vacant  kingdom  was  an  imperial  fid,  King  Albert 


788 


HABSBURG,  HOUSE  OF 


bestowed  it  upon  his  eldest  son,  Rudolph,  and  married  this  prince 
to  Elizabeth,  widow  of  Wenceslas  U.  and  stepmother  of 
Wenceslas  III.  But  Rudolph  died  in  1307,  and  his  f  ather'sattempt 
to  keep  the  country  in  his  own  hands  was  ended  by  his  murder 
in  1308. 

•  Albert's  successor  as  German  king  was  Henry  of  Luxemburg 
(the  emperor  Henry  VU.).  and  this  election  may  be  said  to 
initiate  the  long  rivalry  between  the  houses  of  Habsburg  and 
Luxemburg.  But  the  immediate  enemy  of  the  Habsburgs 
was  not  a  Lbxemburg  but  a  Wittelsbach.  Without  making  any 
definite  partition,  Albert's  five  remaining  sons  spent  their  time 
in  governing  their  lands  until  13x4,  when  one  of  them,  Frederick 
called  the  Fair,  forsook  this  comparatively  uneventful  occupation 
and  was  chosen  by  a  minority  of  the  electors  German  king  in 
succession  to  Henry  VII.  At  the  same  time  the  Wittelsbach 
duke  of  Bavaria,  Louis,  known  to  history  as  the  emperor  Louis 
the  Bavarian,  was  also  chosen.  War  was  inevitable,  and  the 
battle  of  Mtihldorf,  fought  in  September  1323,  sealed  the  fate 
of  Frederick.  Louis  was  victorious:  his  rival  went  into  an 
honourable  captivity,  and  the  rising  Habsburg  sun  underwent  a 
temporary  eclipse. 

For  more  than  a  century  after  Frederick's  death  in  1330  the 
Habsburgs  were  exiles  from  the  German  throne.  But  they  were 
not  inactive.  In  1335  his  two  surviving  brothers,  Albert  and 
Otto,  inherited  Carinthia  and  part  of  Carniola  by  right  of  their 
mother,  Elizabeth;  in  1363  Albert's  son  Rudolph  received 
Tirol;  and  during  the  same  century  part  of  Istria,  Trieste  and 
other  districts  were  acquired.  All  Ring  Albert's  six  sons  had 
died  without  leaving  male  issue  save  Otto,  whose  family  became 
extinct  in  1344,  and  Albert,  the  ancestor  of  all  the  later  Halra- 
burgs.  Of  Albert's  four  sons  two  also  left  no  male  heirs,  but 
the  remaining  two,  Albert  lU.  and  Leopold  III.,  were  responsible 
for  a  division  of  the  family  which  is  of  some  importance.  By 
virtue  of  a  partition  made  upon  their  brother  Rudolph's  death 
in  1365  Albert  and  his  descendants  ruled  over  Austria,  while 
Leopold  and  his  sons  took  Styria,  Carinthia  and  Tirol,  Alsace 
remaining  undivided  as  heretofore. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  15th  century  the  German  throne 
had  been  occupied  for  nearly  a  hundred  years  by  members  of 
the  Luxemburg  family.  The  reigning  emperor  Sigismund,  who 
was  also  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  was  without  sons,  and 
his  daughter  Elizabeth  was  the  wife  of  Albert  of  Habsburg,  the 
grandson  and  heir  of  Duke  Albert  III.,  who  had  died  in  1395. 
Sigismund  died  in  December  1437,  leaving  his  two  kingdoms  to 
his  son-in-law,  who  was  crowned  king  of  Hungary  in  January 
X438  and  king  of  Bohemia  in  the  following  June.  Albert  was 
also  chosen  and  crowned  German  king  in  succession  to  Sigismund, 
thus  beginning  the  long  and  uninterrupted  connexion  of  his 
family  with  the  imperial  throne,  a  connexion  which  lasted  until 
the  dissolution  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  x8o6.  He  did  not, 
however,  enjoy  his  new  dignities  for  long,  ais  he  died  in  October 
1439  while  engaged  in  a  struggle  with  the  Turks.  Albert  left 
no  sons,  but  soon  after  his  death  one  was  bom  to  him,  called 
Ladislaus,  who  became  duke  of  Austria  and  king  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia.  Under  the  guardianship  of  his  kinsman,  the  emperor 
Frederick  III.,  the  young  prince's  reign  was  a  troubled  one,  and 
when  he  died  Unmarried  in  1457  his  branch  of  the  family  became 
extinct,  and  Hungary  and  Bohemia  passed  away  from  the 
Habsburgs,  who  managed,  however,  to  retain  Austria. 

Leopold  III.,  duke  of  Carinthia  and  Styria,  who  was  killed 
in  13&6  at  the  battle  of  Sempach,  had  four  sons,  of  whom  two 
only,  Frederick  and  Ernest,  left  male  issue.  Frederick  and 
bis  only  son,  Sigismund,  confined  their  attention  mainly  to  Tirol 
and  Alsace,  leaving  the  larger  destinies  of  the  family  in  the  hands 
of  Ernest  of  Carinthia  and  Styria  (d.  1424)  and  his  sons,  Frederick 
and  Albert  and  after  the  death  of  King  Ladislaus  in  1457  these 
two  princes  and  their  cousin  Sigismund  were  the  only  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Habsburgs.  In  February  1440  Frederick  of 
Styria  was  chosen  German  king  in  succession  to  his  kinsman 
Albert.  He  was  a  weak  and  incompetent  ruler,  but  a  stronger 
and  abler  man  might  have  shrunk  from  the  task  of  administering 
his  heterogeneous  and  unruly  realm.     Although  very  important 


in  the  history  of  the  house  of  Habsburg,  Frederick's  hog  reip 
was  a  period  of  misfortune,  and  the  motto  which  he  assumed, 
A.E.I.O.U.  (Austnae  at  imperare  orbi  universo),  seemed  at  the 
time  a  particularly  foolish  boast.    He  acted  as  guardian  both 
to  Ladislaus  of  Hungary,  Bobenua  and  Austria,  and  to  Sp«mmMf 
of  Tirol,  and  in  all  these  countries  his  difficulties  were  increased 
by  the  hostility  of  his  brother  Albert.    Having  dii^nsted  \bt 
Urolese  he  gave  up  the  guardianship  of  their  prince  in  1446, 
while  in  Hungary  and  Bohemia  he  did  absolutely  nothing  to 
establish  the  authority  of  his  ward;  in  1452  the  Anstriais 
besie^  him  in  Vieima  Neustadt  and  compelled  him  to  surrender 
the  person  of  Ladislaus,  thus  ending  even  his  nominal  authority. 
When  the  young  king  died  in  1457  the  Habsburgs  lost  Hungary 
and  Bohemia,  but  they  retained  Austria,  which,  after  sone 
disputing,  Frederick  and  Albert  divided  between  themselves, 
the  former  taking  lower  and  the  latter  upper  Austria.    This 
arrangement  was  of  short  duration.    In  1461  Albert  made  wax 
upon  his  brother  and  forced  him  to  re^gn  lower  Austria,  which, 
however,  he  recovered  after  Albert's  death  in  December  1463. 
Still  more  unfortunate  was  the  German  king  in  Switzeriand.    For 
many  years  the  Swiss  had  chafed  under  the  rule  of  the  Habs- 
burgs; during  the  reign  of  Rudolph  I.  they  had  shown  signs  <A 
resentment  as  the  kingly  power  increased;  and  the  sirug^  which 
had  been  carried  on  for  nearly  two  centuries  had  been  almost 
uniformly  in  their  favour.    It  was  marked  by  the  victory  of 
Morgarten  over  Duke  Leopold  I.  in  1315,  and  by  that  of  Sempach 
over  Leopold  III.  in  X38i5,  by  the  conquest  of  Aargau  at  the 
instigation  of  the  emperor  Sigismund  early  in  the  15th  century, 
and  by  the  final  struggle  for  freedom  against  Frederick  UI.  and 
Sigismund  of  TiroL    Taking  advantage  of  some  dimensions 
among  the  Swiss,  the  king  saw  an  opportunity  to  recover  his 
lost  lands,  and  in  1443  war  broke  out.    But  his  allies,  the  men 
of  Zurich,  were  defeated,  and  when  in  August  1444  some  Frcx^h 
mercenaries,  who  had  advanced  to  his  aid,  suffered  the  same 
fate  at  St  Jakob,  he  was  compelled  to  give  up  the  struggle.    A 
few  years  later  Sigismund  became  involved  in  a  ^var  with  the 
same  formidable  foemen;  he  too  wbs  worsted,  and  the  "  Per- 
petual Peace"  of  1474  ended  the  rule  of  the  Habsburgs  in 
Switzerland.    This  humiliation  was  the  second  great  step  in 
the  process  of  removing  the  Habsburgs  from  western  to  eastern 
Europe.    In  X4S3,  just  after  his  coronation  as  emperor  at  Rome, 
Frederick  legalized  the  use  of  the  title  archduke,  which  had  been 
claimed  spasmodically  by  the  Habsburgs  since  1361.    This  title 
is  now  peculiar  to  the  house  of  Habsburg. 

The  reverses  suffered  by  the  Habsburgs  during  the  reign  <tf 
Frederick  III.  -were  many  and  serious,  but  an  improvcmect 
was  at  hand.  The  emperor  died  in  August  x  493,  and  was  followed 
on  the  imperial  throne  by  his  son  Maximilian  I.,  perhaps  the 
most  versatile  and  interesting  member  of  the  family.  Before 
his  father's  death  Maximilian  had  been  chosen  German  king, 
or  king  of  the  Romans,  and  had  begun  to  repair  the  fortunes  of 
his  house.  He  had  married  Mary,  daughter  and  heiress  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy;  he  had  driven  the  Hun- 
garians from  Vienna  and  the  Austrian  archduchies,  »hich 
Frederick  had,  perforce,  allowed  them  to  occupy;  and  he  )ud 
received  Tirol  on  the  abdication  of  Sigismund  in  X490.  True 
it  is  that  upon  Mary's  death  in  1482  part  of  her  inheritance,  the 
rich  and  prosperous  Netherlands,  held  that  her  husband's 
authority  was  at  an  end,  while  another  part,  the  two  Burgundies 
and  Artois,  had  been  sei:%d  by  the  king  of  France;  nevcrthelc^ 
after  a  protracted  struggle  the  German  king  secured  almost  the 
whole  of  Charles  the  Bold's  lands  for  his  son,  the  archduke 
Philip,  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  alone  remaining  in  the  power  of 
France  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  SenUs  in  1493. 
Maximilian  completed  his  work  by  adding  a  piece  of  Bavaria, 
Gdrz  and  then  Gradiska  ^o  the  Habsburg  lands. 

After  Sigismund's  death  in  1496  Maximilian  and  Philip  were 
the  only  living  male  members  of  the  family.  Philip  married 
Joanna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  and  died 
in  X506  leaving  two  sons,  Charles  and  Ferdinand.  Charks 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  Netherlands;  he  followed  one  grand- 
father, Ferdinand,  as  king  of  Spain  in  X516,  and  when  the  other. 


HABSBURG,  HOUSE  OF 


789 


MwdmiUan,  died  in  15x9  he  bectme  the  emperor  Charles  V., 
and  succeeded  to  all  the, hereditary  lands  of  the  Habsburgs. 
But  provision  had  to  be  made  for  Ferdinand,  and  in  1531  this 
prince  was  given  the  Austrian  archduchies,  Austria,  Styria, 
Carinihia  and  Carniola;  in  the  same  year  he  married  Anne, 
daughter  of  WladislAus,  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and 
when  his  childless  brother-in-law.  King  Louis,  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Mohacs  in  August  1526  he  claimed  the  two  kingdoms, 
both  by  right  of  his  wife  and  by  treaty.  After  a  little  trouble 
Bohemia  paucd  under  his  rule,  but  Hungary  was  more  recal- 
citrant. A  long  war  took  place  between  Ferdinand  and  John 
Zapolya,  who  was  also  crowned  king  of  Hungary,  but  in  1538  a 
treaty  was  made  and  the  country  was  divided,  the  Habsburg 
prince  receiving  the  western  and  smaller  portion.  However,  he 
was  soon  confronted  with  a  more  formidable  foe,  and  he  spent 
a  large  part  of  his  subsequent  life  in  defending  his  lands  from  the 
attacks  of  the  Turks. 

The  Habsburgs  had  now  reached  the  stmunit  of  their  power. 
The  prestige  which  belonged  to  Charles  as  head  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  was  backed  by  the  wealth  and  commerce  of  the 
Netherlands  and  of  Spain,  and  by  the  riches  of  the  Spanish 
colonies  in  America.  In  Italy  he  ruled  over  Sardinia,  Naples 
and  Sicily,  which  had  passed  to  him  with  Spain,  and  the  duchy 
of  Milan,  which  he  had  annexed  in  1535;  to  the  Netherlands 
he  had  added  Friesland,  the  bishopric  of  Utrecht,  GrOningen 
and  Gclderland,  and  he  still  possessed  Franche-Comt6  and  the 
fragments  of  the  Habsburg  lands  in  Alsace  and  the  neighbour- 
hood. Add  to  this  Ferdinand's  inheritance,  the  Austrian  arch- 
duchies and  Tirol,  Bohemia  with  her  dependent  provinces,  and 
a  strip  of  Hungary,  and  the  two  brothers  had  under  their  sway 
a  part  of  Europe  the  extent  of  whidi  was  great,  but  the  wealth 
and  importance  of  which  were  immeasurably  greater.  Able 
to  scorn  the  rivalry  of  the  other  princely  houses  of  Germany,  the 
Habsburgs  saw  in  the  kings  of  the  house  of  Valois  the  only 
foemen  worthy  of  their  regard. 

When  Charles  V.  abdicated  he  was  succeeded  as  emperor,  not 
by  his  son  Philip,  but  by  his  brother  Ferdinand.  Philip  became 
king  of  Spain,  ruling  also  the  Netherlands,  Franche-Comt6, 
Naples,  Sicily,  Milan  and  Sardinia,  and  the  family  was  definitely 
divided  into  the  Spanish  and  Austrian  branches.  For  Spain  and 
the  Spanish  Habsburgs  the  xyth  century  was  a  period  of  loss  and 
decay,  the  seeds  of  which  were  sown  during  the  reign  of  Philip  II. 
The  northern  provinces  of  the  Netherlands  were  lost  practically 
in  1609  and  definitely  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  in  1648; 
Roussillon  and  Artois  were  annexed  to  France  by  the  treaty  of 
the  Pyrenees  in  1659,  while  Franche-Comt£  and  a  number  of 
towns  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands  suffered  a  similar  fate  by 
the  treaty  of  Nijmwegen  in  1678.  Finally  Charles  II.,  the  last 
Habsburg  king  of  Spain,  died  childless  in  November  1700,  and 
his  lands  were  the  prize  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 
The  Austrian  Habsburgs  fought  long  and  valiantly  for  the 
kingdom  of  their  kinsman,  but  Louis  XIV.  was  too  strong  for 
them,  and  by  the  peace  of  Rastatt  Spain  passed  from  the 
Habsburgs  to  the  Bourbons.  However,  the  Austrian  branch  of 
the  family  received  in  17x4  the  Italian  possessions  of  Charles  II., 
except  Sicily,  which  was  given  to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  and  also 
the  southern  Netherlands,  which  are  thus  often  referred  to  as 
the  Austrian  Netherlands;  and  retained  the  duchy  of  Mantua, 
which  it  had  seized  in  1708. 

Ferdinand  I.,  the  founder  of  the  line  of  the  Austrian  Habs- 
burgs, arranged  a  division  of  his  lands  among  his  three  sons  before 
his  death  in  X564.  The  eldest,  Maximilian  II.,  received  Austria, 
Bohemia  and  Hungary,  and  succeeded  his  father  as  emperor; 
he  married  Maria,  a  daughter  of  Charles  V.,  and  though 
he  had  a  large  family  his  male  line  became  extinct  in  1619. 
The  younger  sons  were  Ferdinand,  ruler  of  Tirol,  and  Charles, 
archduke  of  Styria.  The  emperor  Maximilian  II.  left  five  sons, 
two  of  whom,  Rudolph  and  Matthias,  succeeded  in  turn  to  the 
imperial  throne,  but,  as  all  the  -brothers  were  without  male 
issue,  the  family  was  early  in  the  X7th  century  threatened  with 
a  serious  crisis.  Rudolph  died  in  161  a,  the  reigning  emperor 
Matthias  was  old  and  ill,  and  the  question  of  the  succession  to 


the  Empire,  to  the  kingdoms  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and  to 
the  hereditary  lands  of  the  Habsburgs  became  acute.  Turning 
to  the  collateral  branches  of  the  family,  the  sons  of  the  archduke 
Ferdinand  were  debarred  from  the  succession  owing  to  their 
father's  morganatic  marriage  with  Phih'ppine  Welser,  and  the 
only  hope  of  the  house  was  in  the  sons  of  Charles  of  Styria. 
To  prevent  the  Habsburg  monarchy  from  falling  to  pieces  the 
emperor's  two  surviving  brothers  renounced  their  rights,  and 
It  was  decided  that  Ferdinand,  a  son  of  Charles  of  Styria,  should 
succeed  his  cousin  Matthias.  The  difficulties  which  impeded 
the  completion  of  this  scheme  were  gradually  overcome,  and 
the  result  was  that  when  Matthias  died  in  16x9  the  whole  of 
the  lands  of  the  Austrian  Habsburgs  was  united  under  the  rule 
of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.  Tirol,  indeed,  a  few  years  later 
was  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  monarchy  and  given  to  the 
emperor's  brother,  the  archduke  Leopold,  but  this  separation 
was  ended  when  Leopold's  son  died  in  1665. 

The  arbitrary  measures  which  followed  Ferdinand's  acquisition 
of  the  Bohemian  crown  contributed  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  but  in  a  short  time  the  Bohemians  were 
subdued,  and  in  1627,  following  a  precedent  set  in  1547,  the 
emperor  declared  the  throne  hereditary  in  the  house  of  Habsburg. 
The  treaty  of  Westphalia  which  ended  this  war  took  compara- 
tively little  from  the  Habsburgs,  though  they  ceded  Alsace  to 
France;  but  the  Empire  was  greatly^  weakened,  and  its  ruler  was 
more  than  ever  compelled  to  make  his  hereditary  lands  in  the 
east  of  Europe  the  base  of  his  authority,  finding  that  he  derived 
more  strength  from  his  position  as  archduke  of  Austria  than 
from  that  of  emperor.  Ferdinand  III.  succeeded  his  father 
Ferdinand  II.,  and  during  the  long  reign  of  the  former's  son, 
Leopold  I.,  the  Austrian,  like  the  Spanish,  Habsburgs  were  on 
the  defensive  against  the  aggressive  policy  of  Louis  XIV.,  and 
in  addition  they  had  to  withstand  the  anaults  of  the  Turks. 
In  two  ways  they  sought  to  strengthen  their  position.  The 
unity  of  the  Austrian  lands  was  strictly  maintained,  and  several 
marriages  kept  up  a  close  and  friendly  coimexion  with  Spain. 
A  series  of  victories  over  the  sultan  during  the  later  part  of  the 
17th  century  rolled  back  the  tide  of  the  Turkish  advance,  and 
the  peace'of  Karlowita  made  in  1699  gave  nearly  the  whole  of 
Hungary  to  the  Habsburgs.  Against  France  Austria  was  less  suc- 
cessful, and  a  number  of  humih'ations  culminated  in  17x4  In  the 
failure  to  secure  Spain,  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made. 

The  hostility  of  Austria  and  France,  or  rather  of  Habsburg 
and  Bourbon,  outlived  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  In 
X717  Spain  conquered  Sardinia,  which  was  soon  exchanged  by 
Austria  for  Sicily;  other  struggles  and  other  groupings  of  the 
European  powers  followed,  and  in  1735,  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna, 
Austria  gave  up  Naples  and  Sicily  and  received  the  duchies  of 
Parma  and  Piacenza.  These  surrenders  were  doubtless  inevit- 
able,  but  they  shook  the  position  of  the  house  of  Habsburg  in 
Italy.  However,  a  domestic  crisis  was  approaching  which  threw 
Italian  affairs  into  the  shade.  Charles  VI.,  who  had  succeeded 
his  brother,  Joseph  I.,  as  emperor  in  x 711,  was  without  sons,  and 
his  prime  object  in  life  was  to  secure  the  succession  of  his  eider 
daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  to  the  whole  of  his  lands  and  dignities. 
But  in  X7X3,  four  years  before  the  birth  of  Maria  Theresa,  he  had 
first  issued  the  famous  Pragmatic  SanclioHf  which  declared  that 
the  Habsburg  monarchy  was  indivisible  and  that  in  default  of 
male  heirs  a  female  could  succeed  to  it.  Then  after  the  death  of 
his  only  son  and  the  birth  of  Maria  Theresa  the  emperor  bent 
all  his  energies  to  securing  the  acceptance  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction.  Promulgated  anew  in  X724,  it  was  formally  accepted 
by  the  estates  of  the  different  Habsburg  lands;  in  X73X  it  was 
guaranteed  by  the  imperial  diet.  By  subordinating  every  other 
interest  to  this,  Charles  at  length  procured  the  assent  of  the 
various  powers  of  Europe  to  the  proposed  arrangement;  he 
married  the  young  princess  to  Frauds  Stephen,  duke  of  Lorraine, 
afterwards  grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  and  when  he  died  on  the 
2oth  of  October  1740  he  appearnl  to  have  realized  his  great 
ambition.  With  the  emperor's  death  the  house  of  Habsburg, 
strictly  speaking,  became  extinct,  its  place  being  taken  by  the 
house  of  Habsburg-Lorraine,  which  sprang  from  the  union  of 


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HABSBURG,  HOUSE  OF 


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Maria  Theresa  and  Francis  Stephen;  and  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  present  Habsburgs  are  only  descended  in  the  female 
line  from  Rudolph  I.  and  Maximilian  I. 

Immediately  after  the  death  of  Charles  the  Pragmatic  Sanction 
was  forgotten.  A  crowd  of  claimants  called  for  various  parts  of 
the  Habsburg  lands;  Frederick  the  Great,  talking  less  but  acting 
more,  invaded  and  conquered  Silesia,  and  it  seemed  likely  that 
the  dissolution  of  the  Habsburg  monarchy  would  at  no  long 
interval  follow  the  extinction  of  the  Habsburg  race.  A  Wittels- 
bach  prince,  Charles  Albert,  elector  of  Bavaria,  the  emperor 
Charles  VII.,  and  not  Francis  Stephen,  was  chosen  emperor  in 
January  1742,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Breslau,  made  later  in  the 
same  year,  nearly  all  Silesia  was  formally  surrendered  to  Prussia. 
But  the  worst  was  now  over,  and  when  in  1748  the  peace  of 
Alx-la-Chapelle,  which  practically  confirmed  the  treaty  of 
Breslau,  had  cleared  away  the  dust  of  war,  Maria  Theresa  and 
her  consort  were  found  to  occupy  a  strong  position  in  Europe. 
In  the  first  place,  in  September  1745,  Frauds  had  been  chosen 
emperor;  then  the  imperial  pair  ruled  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
although  the  latter  kingdom  was  shorn  of  Silesia;  in  spite  of 
French  conquests  the  Austrian  Netherlands  remained  in  their 
hands;  and  in  Italy  Francis  had  added  Tuscany  to  his  wife's 
heritage,  although  Parma  and  Piacenza  had  been  surrendered 
to  Spain  and  part  of  Milan  to  the  king  of  Sardinia.  The  diplo- 
matic voUt'jact  and  the  futile  attempts  of  Maria  Theresa  to 
recover  Silesia  which  followed  this  treaty  belong  to  the  general 
history  of  Europe. 

The  emperor  Francis  I.  died  in  1765  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Joseph  II.,  an  ambitious  and  able  prince,  whose  aim  was 
to  restore  the  Habsburgs  and  the  Empire  to  their  former  great 
positions  in  Europe,  and  whose  pride  did  not  prevent  him  from 
learning  from  Frederick  the  Great,  the  despoiler  of  his  house. 
His  projects,  however,  including  one  of  uniting  Bavaria  with 
Austria,  which  was  especially  cherished,  failed  completely,  and 
when  he  died  in  February  1790  he  left  his  lands  in  a  state  of 
turbulence  which  reflected  the  general  condition  of  Europe. 
The  Netherlands  had  risen  against  the  Austrians,  and  in  January 
1790  had  declared  themselves  independent;  Hungary,  angered 
by  Joseph's  despotic  measures,  was  in  revolt,  and  the  other  parts 
of  the  monarchy  were  hardly  more  contented.    But  the  x8th 
century  saw  a  few  successes  for  the  Habsburgs.   In  z  718  a  success- 
ful war  with  Turkey  was  ended  by  the  peace  of  Passarowita, 
which  advanced  the  Austrian  boundary  very  considerably  to  the 
cast,  and  although  by  the  treaty  of  Belgrade,  signed  twenty-one 
years  later,  a  large  part  of  this  territory  was  surrendered,  yet  a 
residuum,  the  banate  of  Temesvar,  was  permanently  incor- 
porated with  Hungary.    The  struggle  over  the  succession  to 
Bavaria,  which  was  concluded  in  1779  by  the  treaty  of  Teschen, 
was  responsible  for  adding  Innviertel,  or  the  quarter  of  the 
Inn,  to  Austria;  the  first  partition  of  Poland  brought  eastern 
Golicia  and  Lodomeria,  and  in  1777  the  sultan  ceded  Bukovina. 
Joseph  II.  was  followed  by  his  brother,  Leopold  II.,  who  restored 
the  Austrian  authority  in  the  Netherlands,  and  the  latter  by  his 
son  Francis  II.,  who  resigned  the  crown  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  in  August  1806,  having  two  years  before  taken  the  title 
of  emperor  of  Austria  as  Francis  I. 

Before  the  abdication  of  the  emperor  Francis  in  1806  Austria 
had  met  and  suffered  from  the  fury  of  revolutionary  France, 
'but  the  cessions  of  territory  made  by  her  at  the  treaties  of 
Campo  Formio  (1797),  of  Lun^ville  (1801)  and  of  Pressburg 
(1805)  were  of  no  enduring  importance.  This,  however,  cannot 
be  said  for  the  treaties  of  Paris  and  of  Vienna,  which  in  181 4 
and  1815  arranged  the  map  of  Europe  upon  the  conclusion  of 
the  Napoleonic  wars.  These  were  highly  favourable  to  the 
Habsburgs.  In  eastern  and  central  Europe  Austria  regained 
bcr  former  position,  the  lands  ceded  to  Bavaria  and  also  eastern 
Galicia,  which  had  been  in  the  hands  of  Russia  since  1809,  being 
restored;  she  gave  up  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  soon  to  be 
known  as  Belgium,  to  the  new  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  acquiesced  in  the  arrangement  which  had  taken  from  her 
the  Breisgau  and  the  remnant  of  the  Habsburg  lands  upon  the 
Rhine.    In  return  for  these  losses  Austria  became  the  dominant 


power  in  Italy.  A  mass  of  northern  Italy,  Including  her  former 
possessions  in  Milan  and  the  neighbourhood,  and  also  the  lands 
recently  forming  the  republic  of  Venice,  was  made  into  the 
kingdom  of  Lombardy-Venetia,  and  this  owned  the  emperor  of 
Austria  as  king.  Across  the  Adriatic  Dalmatia  was  added  to 
the  Habsburg  monarchy,  the  population  of  which,  it  has  been 
estimated,  was  increased  at  th^  time  by  over  four  millions. 

The  illiberal  and  oppressive  character  of  the  Austrian  rule 
in  Italy  made  it  very  unpopular;  it  was  hardly  less  so  in  Hungary 
and  Bohemia,  and  the  advent  of  the  year  1848  found  the  subject 
kingdoms  eager  to  throw  off  the  Habsburg  yoke.  The  whole 
monarchy  was  quickly  in  a  state  of  revolution,  in  the  midst  of 
which  the  emperor  Ferdinand,  who  had  succeeded  his  father 
Francis  in  1835,  abdicated,  and  his  place  was  taken  by  his 
young  nephew  Francis  Joseph.  The  position  of  the  Habsburg 
monarchy  now  seemed  desperate.  But  it  was  strong  in  its 
immemorial  tradition,  which  was  enough  to  make  the  efforts  of 
the  Frankfort  parliainent  to  establish  German  unity  under 
Prussian  hegemony  abortive;  it  was  strong  also  in  the  general 
loyalty  to  the  throne  of  the  imperial  army;  and  its  counsels  were 
directed  by  statesmen  who  knew  well  how  to  exploit  in  the 
interests  of  the  central  power  the  national  riva^es  within  the 
monarchy.  With  the  crushing  of  the  Hungarian  revolt  by  the 
emperor  Nicholas  I.  of  Russia  in  1849  the  monarchy  was  freed 
from  the  most  formidable  of  its  internal  troubles;  in  1850'  the 
convention  of  OlmQta  restored  its  influence  in  Germany. 

Though  the  sUiius  quo  was  thus  outwardly  re-established,  the 
revolutions  of  1848  had  really  unchained  forces  which  made  its 
maintenance  impossible.  In  Germany  Prussia  was  steadily  pre- 
paring for  the  inevitable  struggle  with  Austria  for  the  mastery; 
in  France  Napoleon  III.  was  preparing  to  pose  as  the  champion 
of  the  oppressed  nationalities  which  had  once  more  settled  down 
sullenly  under  the  Habsburg  yoke.  The  alliance  of  the  French 
emperor  and  the  king  of  Sardinia,  and  the  Italian  war  of  1859 
ended  in  the  loss  of  Lombardy  to  the  Habsburgs.  Seven  years 
later  the  crushing  defeat  of  Kdniggrtta  not  only  ended  their  long 
rule  in  Italy,  based  on  the  tradition  of  the  medieval  empire,  by 
leading  to  the  cession  of  Venetia  to  the  new  Italian  kingdom, 
but  led  to  their  final  exclusion  from  the  German  confederation, 
soon  to  become,  under  the  headship  of  Prussia,  the  German 
empire. 

By  the  loss  of  the  predominance  in  Germany  conceded  to  it 
by  the  treaties  of  Vienni,  and  by  the  shifting  of  its  "  centre 
of  gravity"  eastward,  the  Habsburg  monarchy,  however, 
perhaps  gained  more  than  it  lost.  One  necessary  result,  indeed^ 
was  the  composition  (Ausglekh)  with  Hungary  in  1867,  by  which 
the  latter  became  an  independent  state  (Francis  Joseph  being 
crowned  king  at  Pest  in  June  1867)  bound  to  the  rest  of  the 
monarchy  only  by  the  machinery  necessary  for  the  carrying  out 
of  a  conunon  policy  in  matters  of  common  interest.  This  at 
least  restored  the  loyalty  of  the  Hungarians  to  the  Habsburg 
dynasty;  it  is  too  soon  yet  to  say  that  it  secured  permanently 
the  essential  unity  of  the  Habsburg  monarchy.  By  the  system 
of  the  Dual  Monarchy  the  rest  of  the  Austrian  emperor's 
dominions  (Cis-Leithan)  were  consolidated  under  a  single  central 
government,  the  history  of  which  has  been  mainly  that  of  the 
rival  races  within  the  empire  struggling  for  political  predomin- 
ance. Since  the  development  of  the  constitution  has  been 
consistently  in  a  democratic  direction  and  the  Slavs  are  in  a 
great  majority,  the  tendency  has  been  for  the  German  clement — 
strong  in  its  social  status  and  tradition  of  predominance — ^to 
be  swamped  by  what  it  regards  as  an  inferior  race;  and  a  con- 
siderable number  of  Austrian  "  Germans  "  have  learned  to  look 
not  to  their  Habsburg  rulers,  but  to  the  power  of  the  German 
empire  for  political  salvation.  The  tendency  eastwards  of  the 
monarchy  was  increased  when  in  1878  the  congress  of  Berlin 
placed  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  under  Austrian  rule.  Old 
ambitions  were  now  revived  at  the  expense  of  the  Ottoman 
empire,  the  goal  of  which  was  the  port  of  Salonica;  and  not  the 
least  menadng  aspect  of  the  question  of  the  near  East  has  been 
that  the  rivalry  of  Italy  and  the  Habsburg  monarchy  has  been 
transferred  to  the  Balkan  peninsula.    Yet,  in  spite  of  internal 


792 

dissensions  arising  out  of  questions  fundamentally  insoluble,  and 
in  spite  of  the  constant  threat  of  external  complications  that  may 
lead  to  war,  the  Habsburg  monarchy  as  the  result  of  the  changes 
in  the  19th  and  aoth  centuries  is  seemingly  strongtf  than  ever. 
The  shadow  of  universal  claims  to  empire  and  sonorous  but 
empty  titles  have  vanished,  but  so  have  the  manifold  rivalries 
and  entanglements  which  accompanied  the  Habsburg  rule  in 
Italy  and  the  Netherlands  and  Habsburg  preponderance  in 
Germany.  The  monarchy  is  stronger  because  its  sphere  is  more 
defined;  because  as  preserving  the  pax  Romana  among  the 
jostling  races  of  eastern  Europe,  it  is  more  than  ever  recognized 
as  an  essential  element  in  the  maintenance  of  European  peace, 
and  is  recognized  as  necessary  and  beneficial  even  by  the 
ambitious  and  restless  nationalities  that  chafe  under  its  rule. 

A  few  words  must  be  said  about  the  cadet  branches  of  the 
Habsburg  family.  When,  in  1 765,  Frauds  I.  died  and  Joseph  II. 
became  emperor,  the  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany  passed  by  special 
arrangement  not  to  Joseph,  but  to  his  younger  brother  Leopold. 
Then  in  1791,  after  Leopold  had  succeeded  Joseph  as  emperor, 
he  handed  over  the  grand-duchy  to  his  second  son,  Ferdinand 
(i  769-1824).  In  1801  this  prince  was  deposed  by  Napoleon  and 
Tuscany  was  seized  by  France.  Restored  to  the  Habsburgs  in 
the  person  of  Ferdinand  in  18x4,  it  remained  under  his  rule,  and 
then  under  that  of  ha  son  Leopold  (1797-1870),  until  the  rising 
of  1859,  when  the  Austrians  were  driven  out  and  the  grand-duchy 
was  added  to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia.  A  similar  fate  attended 
the  duchy  of  Modena,  which  had  passed  to  the  Habsburgs 
through  the  marriage  of  its  heiress  Mary  Beatrice  of  Este  (d.  1829) 
with  the  archduke  Ferdinand  (1754-1806),  brother  of  the 
emperor  Leopold  II.  From  18x4  to  1846  this  duchy  was  governed 
by  Ferdinand's  son,  Duke  Francis  IV.,  and  from  1846  to  1859 
by  his  grandson,  Frauds  V.  This  family  became  extinct  on  the 
death  of  Francis  V.  in  1875. 

i  In  addition  to  his  successor  Francis  H.,  and  to  Ferdinand, 
grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  the  emperor  Leopold  II.  had  eight  sons, 
five  of  whom,  induding  the  archduke  John  (x  782-1859),  who 
saw  a  good  deal  of  service  during  the  Napoleonic  Wars  and  was 
chosen  regent  {Rekhsverweser)  of  Germany  in  1848,  have  now 
no  living  male  descendants.  Thus  the  existing  branches  of  the 
family  are  descended  from  Leopold!s  five  other  sons.  The 
descendants  of  Leopold,  the  dispossessed  grand-duke  of  Tuscany, 
were  in  1909  represented  by  his  son,  Ferdinand  (b.  X835),  who 
still  claimed  the  title  of  grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  and  his  son  and 
grandsons;  by  the  numerous  descendants  of  the  archduke 
Charles  Salvator  (X839-X892);  and  by  the  archduke  Louis 
Salvator  (b.  1847),  a  great  traveller  and  a  voluminous  writer. 
The  grand-duke's  fourth  son  was  the  archduke  John  Nepomudc 
Salvator,  who,  after  serving  in  the  Austrian  army,  resigned  all 
his  rights  and  titles  and  under  the  name  of  Johann  Orth  took 
command  of  a  sailing  vessd.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
drowned  off  the  coast  of  South  America  in  1891,  but  reports  of 
his  continued  existence  were  drctilated  from  time  to  time  after 
that  date.  Of  the  emperor  Leopold's  other  sons  the  archduke 
Charles,  perhaps  the  most  distinguished  soldier  of  the  family, 
left  four  sons,  induding  Albert,  duke  of  Teschen  (X8X7-X895), 
who  inherited  some  of  his  father's  military  ability.  Charles's 
family  was  in  1909  represented  by  his  grandsons,  the  sons  of  the 
archduke  Charles  Ferdinand  (X818-X874).  The  archduke  Joseph 
(x  776-1847) ,  palatine  of  Hungary,  was  represented  by  agrandson, 
Joseph  Augustus  (b.  1872),  and  the  ajxiiduke  Rainer  (1783- 
X853),  viceroy  of  Lombardy-Venetia,  by  a  son  Rainer  (b.  1827), 
and  by  several  grandsons. 

The  eldest  and  reigning,  branch  of  the  family  was  in  1909 
represented  by  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph,  whose  father  was 
the  archduke  Francis  Charles  (1802-1878),  and  whose  grandfather 
was  the  emperor  Francis  II.  Francis  Joseph's  only  son  Rudolph 
died  in  1889;  consequently  the  heir  to  the  Habsburg  monarchy 
was*  the  emperor's  nephew  Frauds  Ferdinand  (b.  X863),  the 
eldest  of  the  three  sons  of  his  brother  Charles  Louis  (1833-1896). 
In  1875  Frauds  Ferdinand  inherited  the  wealth  of  the  Este 
family  and  took  the  title  of  archduke  of  Austria-Este;  in  X900 
he  contracted  a  morganatic  marriage  with  Sophia,  countess  of 


HACHETTE,  J.  N.  P. 


Chotek,  renouncing  for  his  sons  the  succession  to  the  monarchy. 

Thus  after  Frands  Ferdinand  this  would  pass  to  the  sons  of  his 

brother,  the  archduke  Otto  (X865-X906).    Oait  of  the  emperor's 

three  brothers  was  MsTimilisn,  emperor  (kf  Mexioo  from  1863 

to  1867. 

With  the  exception  of  Charles  V.  the  Habsburgs  have  produced 

no  statesmen  of  great  ability,  while  several  members  of  the 

family  have  di^layed  marked  traces  of  insanity.    Nemtheless 

they  secured,  and  for  over  350  years  they  kept,  the  first  place 

among  the  potentates  of  Europe;  a  dignity  in  origin  and  theory 

elective  becoming  in  practice  hereditary  in  their  honae.    This 

position  they  owe  to  some  extent  to  the  tenadty  with  which 

they  Jiave  dung  to  the  various  lands  and  dignities  which  have 

passed  into  their  possession,  but  they  owe  it  much  more  to  a 

series  of  fortunate  marriages  and  opportune  deaths.    Tbe  nnioo 

of  Maximilian  and  Mary  of  Burgundy,  of  Philip  the  Handsome 

and  Joanna  of  Spain,  of  Ferdinand  and  Aima  of  Hungary  and 

Bohemia;  the  death  of  Ottakar  of  Bohemia,  of  John,  the  only 

son  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  of  Louis  of  Hungary  and 

Bohemia — ^these  are  the  conier*stones  upon  which  the  Habsburg 

monarchy  has  been  builL 

For  the  origin  and  eariy  history  of  the  Habsburip  we  G.  de  Roo, 
Annates  rerum  ab  Austriacis  Habsburpcae  gentu  frimtipibus  a 
Rudolpho  /.  nsoue  ad  Carolum  V.  f^stantm  (Innsbnicic,  159a,  fol.): 
M.  Herrgott,  Uenealova  diplomaiica  awuia*  gemiis  HaUbmrpcce 

g Vienna,  1737-1738) :  E.  M.  FQrst  von  Lichnowaky,  Gesckkkk  du 
ousts  Habsburk  (Vienna,  18^184^):  A.  Schulte,  Gesekickte  der 
Habsburger  tn  den  ersten  dret  Jahrkunderten  (Innabnick,  1887}; 
T.  von  uebenau.  Die  Anfdngfi  des  Hauses  Habsbmn  (Vieniia,  18S3) : 
W.  Men.  Die  Habsburt  (Aarau,  1896);  W.  Gin,  Der  Urspmrngjitr 
Hduser  Zdkringen  und  Habsbnri  (1888) ;  and  F.  WcOirich,  Siammiafd 
MHT  Gesekickte  des  Houses  Habsburg  (Vienna,  1893).  For  the  history 
of  the  Habsburg  monarchy  see  Langl,  Die  HM^urtmid  die  denk- 
vfHrdigen  StdUen  ikrer  Umwbung  (Vienna,  1895) :  and^  A.  Freeman, 
Historical  Geography  of  Europe  (1881).  Two  English  books  on  the 
subject  are  J.  Gubart-Smith,  Tke  Cradle  of  the  HapAmrgs  (1907): 
and  A.  R.  and  E.  Colquhoun,  Tke  WkirlpoU  of  Europe,  Ausbia- 
Hungary  and  tke  Hapsburgs  (1906).  (A.  W.  H.  *) 

HACHBTTB,  4BAH  NICOLAS  PIBBRB  (1769-1834),  French 
mathematician,  was  bom  at  M^dres,  where  his  father  was  a 
bookseller,  on  the  6th  of  May  1769.  For  his  eariy  education 
he  proceeded  first  to  the  college  of  Charleville,  and  afterwards 
to  that  of  Rehns.  in  1788  he  returned  to  M^adres,  where  he 
was  attached  to  the  school  of  engineering  as  draughtsman  to 
the  professors  of  physics  and  chemistry.  In  1793  be  became 
professor  of  hydrography  at  CoUioure  and  Port-Vendre.  IVliile 
there  he  sent  several  papers,  in  which  some  questions  of  naviga- 
tion were  treated  geometrically,  to  Gaspard  Monge,  at  that  time 
minister  of  marine,  through  whose  influence  hie  obtained  an 
appointment  in  Paris.  Towards  the  dose  of  1794,  when  the 
Ecole  Polytechnique  was  established,  he  was  appointed  along 
with  Monge  over  the  department  of  descriptive  geometry. 
There  he  Instructed  some  of  the  ablest  Frenchmen  of  the  day, 
among  them  S.  D.  Poisson,  F.  Arago  and  A.  FresneL  Accom- 
panying Guyton  de  Morveau  in  his  expedition,  earlier  in  the 
year,  he  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  and  entered 
Brussels  with  the  French  army.  In  x8x6,  on  the  accessioD  of 
Louis  XVni.,  he  was  expelled  from  his  chair  by  gpvenment 
He  retained,  however,  till  his  death  the  office  of  professor  in  the 
faculty  of  sciences  in  the  £ooIe  Normale,  to  which  he  had  bees 
i^pointed  in  x8ia  The  necessary  royal  assent  was  in  iSrj 
refused  to  the  dection  of  Hachette  to  the  Acad^mie  des  Sdenoes, 
and  it  was  not  till  X83X,  after  the  Revolution,  that  he  obtaiced 
that  honour.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  x6th  of  January  1854- 
Hachette  was  hdd  in  high  esteem  for  his  private  worth,  as  v«0 
as  for  his  sdentific  attainments  and  great  public  services.  Hi5 
labours  were  chiefly  in  the  fidd  of  descriptive  geometry,  with  its 
application  to  the  arts  and  mechanical  engineering.  It  was  kfi 
to  him  to  devdop  the  geometry  of  Monge,  and  to  him  also  is  due 
in  great  measure  the  rapid  advancement  which  France  made  soon 
after  the  establishment  of  the  £coIe  Polytechniqoe  in  the 
construction  of  machinery . 

Hachette*8  principal  works  are  his  Deux  SupPUmesOs  i  la  Ciomitne 
descriptive  de  Menu  (181 1  and  1816);  EUmeuis  de  gfomi^u  i 
trois  dimensions  (1817):    Collection  des  ipurts  de  gjkmJtrie,  Ac. 


HACHETTE,  JEANNE— HACKETT,  H.  B. 


793 


(1295  and  1817);  Appikatums  4t  t^milne  dncritHM  (1817): 
TfOfttf  de  etomitrie  descripHte,  &c  (182a):  TniU  iUnuntain  des 
madnnes  O811);  Ccrrtspimdanct  sur  FEcoh  Polyttcknimie  (1804- 
1615).  He  also  contributed  many  valuable  papers  to'tne  leading 
■ctentific  journals  of  his  time. 

For  a  Ust  of  Hachette's  writings  see  the  CatahguA  ef  Sciei^fic 
Papers  of  Uu  Royal  SocUty  of  London ;  also  F.  Aiago.  (litres  (1855) ; 
and  SUvestre,  Noiieo  ntr  J.  N.  P.  UackeUe  (BruxeUcai.  1836). 

HACHBTTB*  JBARMB,  French  berofaie.  Jeanne  Lain6,  or 
Fourquet,  called  Jeanne  Hachette,  was  bom  about  i454>  We 
have  no  precise  ii^ormation  about  her  family  or  origin.  She  is 
known  solely  for  her  aCt  of  heroism  which  on  the  27th  of  June 
1472  saved  Beauvais  when  it  was  on  the  point  of  being  taken 
by  the  troops  of  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy.  The  town 
was  defended  by  only  300  men-at«arms,  commanded  by  Louis  de 
Balagny.  The  Burgundians  were  making  an  assault,  and  one  of 
their  number  had  actually  planted  a  flag  upon  the  battlements, 
when  Jeanne,  axe  in  hand,  flung  herself  upon  him,  hurled  him 
into  the  moat,  tore  down  the  flag,  and  revived  the  drooping 
courage  of  the  garrison.  In  gratitude  for  this  heroic  deed, 
Louis  XI.  instituted  a  procession  in  Beauvais  called  the  Proces- 
sion of  the  Assault,  and  married  Jeanne  to  her  chosen  lover 
Colin  Pilon,  loading  them  with  favours. 

See  Georges  Vallat.  Jeanne  Haclutte  (Abbeville,  1898). 

HAGHETTB.  LOUIS  CHRISTOPHB  FRANCOIS  (1800-1864), 
French  publisher,  was  born  at  Rethel  in  the  Ardennes  on  the 
5th  of  May  1800.  After  studying  three  years  at  a  normal  school 
with  the  view  of  becoming  a  teacher,  he  was  in  1822  on  political 
grounds  expelled  from  the  seminary.  He  then  studied  law,  but 
in  1826  he  established  in  Paris  a  publishing  business  for  the  issue 
of  works  adapted  to  improve  the  system  of  school  instruction, 
or  to  promote  the  general  culture  of  the  community.  He 
published  manuals  in  various  departments  of  knowledge,  dic- 
tionaries of  modem  and  ancient  languages,  educational  journals, 
and  French,  Latin  and  Greek  classics  annotated  with  great 
care  by  the  most  eminent  authorities.  Subsequently  to  1S50  he, 
in  conjunction  with  other  partners,  published  a  cheap  railway 
library,  scientific  and  miscellaneous  libraries,  an  illustrated 
library  for  the  young,  libraries  of  ancient  literature,  of  modern 
foreign  literature,  and  of  modem  foreign  romance,  a  series  of 
guide-books  and  a  series  of  dictionaries  of  universal  reference. 
In  1855  he  also  founded  Le  Journal  pour  Urns,  a  publication  with 
a  circulation  of  1 50,000  weekly.  Hachette  also  manifested  great 
interest  in  the  formation  of  mutual  friendly  societies  among  the 
working  classes,  in  the  establishment  of  benevolent  institutions, 
and  in  other  questions  relating  to  the  amelioration  of  the  poor, 
on  which  subjects  he  wrote  various  pamphlets;  and  he  lent  the 
weight  of  his  influence  towards  a  just  settlement  of  the  question 
of  international  literary  copyright.  He  died  on  the  31st  of 
July  1864. 

HACHURB  (French  for  "  hatching  '!).  the  term  for  the  con- 
ventional lines  used  in  hill  or  mountain  shading  upon  a  map 
(q.v.)  to  indicate  the  slope  of  the  surface,  the  depth  of  shading 
being  greatest  where  the  slope  is  steepest.  The  method  is  less 
accurate  than  that  of  contour  lines,  but  gives  an  indication  of 
the  trend  and  extent  of  a  range  or  mountain  system,  especially 
upon  small-scale  maps. 

HACIENDA  (O.  Span,  facienda^  from  the  Latin,  meaning 
"  things  to  be  done  "),  a  Spanish  term  for  a  landed  estate.- 
It  is  commonly  applied  in  Spanish  America  to  a  coimtry  estate, 
on  which  stock-raising,  manufacturing  or  mining  may  be  carried 
on,  usually  with  a  dwelling-house  for  the  owner's  residence  upon 
it.    It  is  thus  used  loosely  for  a  country  house. 

HACKBBRRY,  a  name  given  to  the  f rait  of  CeUis  occidentalism 
belonging  to  the  natural  botanical  order  UlwuKeae^  to  which 
also  belongs  the  elm  ( Ulmus) .  It  is  also  known  under  the  name 
of  "sugar-berry,"  " beaver- wood "  and  "nettle-tree."  The 
hackberry  tree  is  of  middle  size,  attaining  from  60  to  80  ft.  in 
height  (though  sometimes  reaching  130  ft.),  and  with  the  aspect 
of  an  elm.  The  leaves  are  ovate  in  shape,  with  a  very  long  taper 
point,  rounded  and  usually  very  oblique  at  the  base,  usually 
glabrous  above  and  soft-pubescent  beneath.  The  soft  filmy 
flowers  appear  early  in  the  spring  before  the  expansion  of  the 


leaves.  The  fruit  is  oblong,  about  half  to  three-quartertof  an 
inch  long,  of  s  reddish  or  yellowish  colour  when  young,  turning 
to  a  dark  purple  in  autumn.  This  tree  is  distributed  through 
the  deep  shady  forests  bordering  river  banks  from  Canada 
(where  it  is  very  nure)  to  the  southem  states.  The  fmit  has  a 
sweetish  and  slightly  astringent  taste,  and  is  largely  eaten  in  the 
United  States.  The  seeds  contain  an  oil  like  that  of  almonds. 
The  bark  is  tough  and  fibrous  like  hemp,  and  the  wood  is  heavy, 
soft,  fragile  and  coarse-grained,  and  is  used  for  making  fences 
and  furniture.    The  root  has  been  used  as  a  dye  for  linens! 

HACKENSACK,  a  town  and  the  county-seat  of  Bergen  county. 
New  Jersey,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Hackensack  river,  13  m.  N.  of  Jersey 
City.  Pop.  (i8qo),6oo4;(i9oo), 9443, of  whom  2oo9wereforeign- 
bom  and  515  were  negroes;  (1905)  11,098;  (1910)  14,050.  It  is 
served  by  the  New  York,  Susquehanna  8e  Western,  and  the  New 
Jersey  &  New  York  railways,  both  being  controlled  by  the  Erie 
Company;  and  indirectly  by  the  West  Shore  (at  Bogota,  \  m. 
S.E.).  Electric  lines  connect  Hackensack  with  Newark,  Passaic 
and  Paterson,  and  with  New  York  ferries.  The  town  extends 
from  the  low  bank  of  the  river  W.  to  the  top  of  a  ridge,  about 
40  ft.  higher  up,  from  which  there  are  good  views  to  the  S.  and 
E.  Hackensack  is  principally  a  residential  town,  though  there 
are  a  number  of  manufacturing  establishments  in  and  near  it. 
Silk  and  silk  goods  and  wall-paper  are  the  principal  manu- 
factures. In  Z905  the  value  of  the  town's  factory  product  was 
$1,488,358,  an  increase  of  90*3%  since  1900.  There  are  an 
historic  mansion-house  and  an  interesting  old  Dutch  church, 
both  erected  during  the  18th  century;  and  a  monument  marks 
the  grave  of  General  Enoch  Poor  (173(^780),  an  officer  in  the 
War  of  Independence,  who  was  bom  at  Andover,  Mass.,  entered 
the  Continental  Army  from  New  Hampshire,  and  took  part  in 
the  campaign  against  Burgoyne,  in  the  battle  of  Monmouth 
and  in  General  Sullivan's  expedition  against  the  Iroquois. 
Hackensack  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  about  1640,  and  was  named 
after  the  Hackensack  Indians,  a  division  of  the  Unami  Dela- 
wares,  who  lived  in  the  valleys  of  the  Hackensack  and  Passaic 
rivers,  and  whose  best -known  chief  was  Oritany,  a  friend  of  the 
whites.  Hackensack  is  coextensive  with  the  township  of  New 
Barbadocs,  first  incorporated  with  considerably  larger  territory 
in  1693. 

HACKET.  JOHN  ( 1 592-1670) ,  bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry, 
was  bom  in  London  and  educated  at  Westminster  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge..  On  taking  his  degree  he  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  his  college,  and  soon  afterwards  wrote  the  comedy  of 
Loiola  (London,  1648),  which  was  twice  performed  before  James 
I.  He  was  ordained  in  1618,  and  through  the  influence  of  John 
Williams  (i  582-1650)  became  rector  in  1621  of  Stoke  Hammond, 
Bucks,  and  Kirkby  Underwood,  Lincolnshire.  In  1623  be  was 
chaplain  to  James,  and  in  1624  Williams  presented  him  to  the 
livings  of  St  Andrew's,  Holbora,  and  Cheam,  Surrey.  When  the 
so-called  "  root-and-branch  bill "  was  before  parliament  in 
1 64 1,  Hacket  was  selected  to  plead  in  the  House  of  Commons 
for  the  continuance  of  cathedral  establishments.  In  1645  ^^ 
living  of  St  Andrew's  was  sequestered,  but  he  was  allowed  to 
retain  the  rectory  of  Cheam.  On  the  accession  of  Charles  II.  his 
fortunes  improved;  he  frequently  preached  before  the  king, 
and  in  1 66 1  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry. 
His  best-known  book  is  the  excellent  biography  of  his  patron. 
Archbishop  Williams,  entitled  Scrinia  reserata:  a  Memorial 
ofertd  to  the  great  Deservings  of  John  WilliamSt  D.D.  (London, 

"693)  • 

HACKETT.  HORATIO  BALCH  (180&-1875),  American  biblical 
scholar,  was  born  in  Salisbury,  Massachusetts,  on  the  27th  of 
December  1808.  He  waseducated  at  Phillips-Andover  Academy, 
at  Amherst  College,  where  he  graduated  as  valedictorian  in  1830, 
and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  where  he  graduated  in 
1834.  He  was  adjunct  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  Languages 
and  Literature  at  Brown  University  in  183  5-1 838  and  professor 
of  Hebrew  Literature  there  in  1838-1839,  was  ordained  to  the 
Baptist  ministry  in  1839 — he  had  become  a  Baptist  at  Andover 
as  the  result  of  preparing  a  paper  on  baptism  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  the  Fathers— and  in  1839-1868  he  was  professor  of 


79+ 


HACKETT,  J.  H.— HADAD 


Biblical  literature  and  interpretation  in  Newton  Theological 
Institution  where  his  most  important  work  was  the  introduction 
of  the  modem  German  methods  of  Biblical  criticism,  which  he  had 
learned  from  Moses  Stuart  at  Andover  and  with  which  he  made 
himself  more  familiar  in  Germany  (especially  under  Tholuck  at 
Halle)  in  1841.  He  tnvelled  in  Egypt  and  Palestine  in  1853, 
and  in  1858-1859  in  Greece,  becoming  profident  in  modem 
Greek.  From  1870  until  his  death  in  Rochester,  New  York, 
on  the  and  of  November  1875,  he  was  professor  of  Biblical 
literature  and  New  Testament  exegesis  in  the  Rochester  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  He  was  a  great  teacher  but  a  greater  critical 
and  ezegetical  scholar. 

He  wrote  Christian  Memorials  of  the  War  (1864):  an  English 
version  of  Winer's  Grammar  of  Iks  Ckaldee  Languaee  ( 1 844) ;  Exerctses 
in  Hebrew  Grammar  (1847);  and  various  articles  on  the  Semitic 
language  and  literature  in  periodicals;  but  his  best-known  work  was 
in  general  commentary  on  toe  Bible  and  translation,  and  in  the  special 
text  study  of  the  New  Testament.  Under  these  two  headir^  fall : 
lUusbrations  of  Scripture;  suggested  by  a  Tour  through  the  Holy  Land 
(1855);  the  American  revision,  with  Ezra  Abbot,  of  Smith's  Diction^ 
ary  of  the  Bible,  to  the  British  edition  of  which  be  had  contributed 
aljout  thirty  articles:  Commentary  on  the  Original  Text  of  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  (1853;  and  edition,  1858),  for  many  years  the  best 
Enelish  commentary;  Notes  on  the  Creek  Text  of  the  Epistle  of  Paul 
to  Philemon,  and  a  Reeised  Version  of  Philemon,  both  publisned  in 
i860;  the  EnKlish  versions,  in  Schaff's  edition  of  Lange's  Com- 
mentaries, of  van  Oostenee's  Philemon  and  Braune's  Philippians; 
and  for  the  American  Bible  Union  Version  of  the  Bible  he  translated 
the  books  of  Ruth  and  Judges,  and  aided  T.  J.  Conant  in  editorial 
revision;  and  he  was  one  of  the  American  translators  for  the  Englbh 
Bible  revision. 

See  Memorials  of  Horatio  Balch  HackeU  {Rochester,  N.Y.,  1876). 
edited  by  G.  H.  Whittemore. 

HAGKETT,  JAMES  HENRT  (1800-1871),  American  actor, 
was  bora  in  New  York.  After  an  unsuccessful  entry  into  busi- 
ness, in  1826  he  went  on  the  stage,  where  he  soon  established 
a  reputation  as  a  player  of  eccentric  character  parts.  As  Falstaff 
he  was  no  less  successful  in  England  than  in  America.  At  various 
times  he  went  into  management,  and  he  was  the  author  of  Notes 
and  Comments  on  Shakespeare  (1863). 

His  son,  James  Reteltas  Hackett  (1869-  ),  bora  at 
Wolfe  Island,  Ontario,  and  educated  at  the  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  also  became  an  actor.  He  came  into  prominence 
at  the  Lyceum  in  Daniel  Frohman's  company,  and  afterwards 
had  considerable  success  in  romantic  parts.  As  a  manager  he 
stood  outside  the  American  syndicate  of  theatres,  and  organized 
several  companies  to  play  throughout  the  United  States.  In 
1897  he  married  Mary  Mannering,  the  Anglo-American  actress. 

HACKL&NDER,  FRIBDRICH  WILHELM  VON  (1816-1877). 
German  novelist  and  dramatist,  was  bom  at  Burtschcid  near 
Aix-la-Chapelle  on  the  zst  of  November  1816.  Having  served 
an  apprenticeship  in  a  commercial  house,  he  entered  the  Prussian 
artillery,  but,  disappointed  at  not  finding  advancement,  returned 
to  business.  A  soldier's  life  had  a  fascination  for  him,  and  he 
made  his  d£but  as  an  author  with  Biider  aus  dem  Soldatenleben 
im  Prieden  ( 1 84 1 ).  After  a  journey  to  the  east,  he  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  crown  prince  of  WUrttemberg,  whom  he  accom- 
panied on  his  travels.  Wacktstubcnabenteuer,  a  continuation  of 
his  first  work,  appeared  in  1845,  and  it  was  followed  by  Biider 
aus  dem  Soldatenleben  im  Kriege  (1849-1850).  As  a  result  of  a 
tour  in  Spain  in  1854,  appeared  Ein  Winter  in  Spanien  (1855). 
In  1857  he  founded,  in  conjunction  with  Edmund  von  ZoIIcr,  the 
illustriited  weekly,  Vber  Land  und  Meer.  In  1859  Hackl&ndcr 
was  appointed  director  of  royal  parks  and  public  gardens  at 
Stuttgart,  and  in  this  post  did  much  towards  the  embellishment 
of  the  dty.  In  1859  be  was  attached  to  the  headquarters  stafiF 
of  the  Austrian  army  during  the  Italian  war;  in  1861  he  was 
raised  to  an  hereditary  knighthood  in  Austria;  in  1864  he  retired 
into  private  life,  and  died  on  the  6th  of  July  1877.  Hackliinder's 
literary  talent  is  confined  within  narrow  limits.  There  is  much 
in  his  works  of  lively,  adventurous  and  even  romantic  description, 
but  the  character-drawing  is  feeble  and  superficial. 

Hacki&nder  was  a  voluminous  writer;  the  most  complete  edition 
of  his  works  is  the  third,  published  at  Stuttgart  in  1876,  in  60  volumes. 
There  is  also  a  good  selection  in  20  volumes  fi  88 1 ).  Among  his  novels, 
Namenlose  GeschichUn  (1851);  Eugjtn  Stillfried  (185a):  Krieg  und 


Frieden  (1859).  and  the  comedies  Der  cdbefim  Agfut  {i9ff>)  and 
MagneUsche  Kuren  ^1851)  may  be  spedally  mentiooed.  H»  auto- 
biography appeared  m  1878  under  the  title.  Der  Reman  meimes  Lebens 
(a  voU.).  See  H.  Morning,  Erinnerungen  an  P.  W.  HacUdrnder 
(1878). 

HACKMEY,  a  north-eastern  metropolitan  borough  of  London, 
England,  bounded  W.  by  Stoke  Newington  and  Islington,  and 
S.  by  Shoreditch,  Bethnal  Green  and  Po[^ar,  and  extending  N 
azkd  E.  to  the  boundary  of  the  county  of  London.  Pop.  (1901), 
319,272.  It  is  a  poor  and  populous  district,  in  which  the  main 
thoroughfares  are  Kingsland  Road,  continued  N.  as  Stoke 
Newington  Road  and  Stamford  Hill;  Mare  Street,  continued 
N.W.  as  Clapton  Road  to  join  Stamford  Hill;  and  Lea  Brklge 
Road  running  N.E.  towards  Walthamstow  and  Low  Leyton. 
The  borough  includes  the  districts  of  Clapton  in  the  north, 
Homerton  in  the  east,  and  Dalston  and  part  of  Kingsland  in 
the  west.  On  the  east  lies  the  open  flat  valley  of  the  Lea,  which 
flo^nra  in  several  branches,  and  is  bordered,  immediately  outside 
the  confines  of  the  borough,  by  the  extensive  reservoirs  of  the 
East  London  water-works.  In  these  low  lands  lie  the  Hackney 
Marshes  (338  acres;  among  several  so-called  marshes  in  the  Lea 
valley),  and  the  borough  also  contains  part  of  Victoria  Park 
and  a  number  of  open  spaces  collectively  called  the  Hackney 
Commons,  including  Mill  Fields,  Hackney  Downs,  London  Fields, 
&c.  The  total  area  of  open  spaces  exceeds  500  acres.  The 
tower  of  the  ancient  pariah  church  of  St  Augustine,  with  the 
chapel  of  the  Rowe  family,  still  stands,  and  is  the  mily  historic 
building  of  importance.  Among  institutions  are  the  German 
hospital,  Dalston,  Metropolitan  hospital,  Kingsland  Road,  and 
Eastem  Fever  hospital,  Homerton;  and  the  Hackney  polytechnic 
institute,  with  which  is  incorporated  the  Sir  John  Cass  institute. 
Cass  (1666-17 18),  A  merchant  of  the  city  of  Lon<km,  also  a 
member  of  parliament  and  sheriff,  bequeathed  £xooo  for  the 
foundation  of  a  free  school;  in  1733  the  bequest  was  Increased 
in  accordance  with  an  unfinished  codicil  to  his  will;  and  the 
income  provided  from  it  is  now  about  £6000,  some  250  boys  and 
girls  being  educated.  The  parliamentary  borough  of  Hackney 
comprises  north,  central  and  south  divisions,  each  returning  one 
member;  and  the  northem  division  includes  the  metropditan 
borough  of  Stoke  Newington.  The  metropolitan  borough  <d 
Hackney  includes  part  of  the  Homsey  parliamentary  diviskm  of 
Middlesex.  The  borough  council  consists  of  a  mayor,  xo  alder- 
men and  60  councillors.    Area,  3288*9  acres. 

In  the  13th  century  the  name  appears  as  Hackeuaye  or 
Hacquenye,  but  no  certain  derivation  is  advanced.  Roman 
and  other  remains  have  been  found  in  Hackney  Marshes.  In 
X290  the  bishop  of  London  was  brd  of  the  manor,  which  was 
so  held  until  1550,  when  it  was  granted  to  Thomas,  Lord 
Wentworth.  In  i697itcameintothehandsoftheTyssenfamiIy.. 
Extensive  property  in  the  parish  also  belonged  to  the  priory 
of  the  Knights  Hospitallen  of  St  John  of  Jerusalem  at  Ckrken- 
well.  From  the  i6th  to  the  early  X9th  century  there  were  many 
fine  residences  in  Hackney,  lite  neighbourhood  of  Hackney 
had  at  one  time  an  evil  reputation  as  the  haunt  of  highwaymen. 

HACKNEY  (from  Fr.  kaQuente,  Lat.  equus,  an  ambling  horse 
or  mare,  especially  for  ladies  to  ride;  the  English  "  hack  '*  is 
simply  an  abbreviation),  originally  a  riding-horse.  At  the 
present  day,  however,  the  hackney  (as  oi^xised  to  a  thorou^- 
bred)  is  bred  for  driving  as  well  as  riding  (see  Hoxse:  Breeds). 
From  the  hiring-out  of  hackneys,  the  word  came  to  be  assockted 
with  employment  for  hire  (so  "  a  hack,"  as  a  general  term  for 
"  dradge "),  especially  in  combination,  e.g.  hackney-chair, 
hackney-coach,  hackney-boat.  The  hadmey-coach.  a  coach 
with  four  wheeb  and  two  horses,  was  a  form  of  hired  public 
conveyance  (see  Carriage). 

HADAD,  the  name  of  a  Syrian  deity,  is  met  with  in  the  Old 
Testament  as  the  name  of  several  human  persons;  it  also  occurs 
in  compound  forms  like  Benhadad  and  Hadadezer.  The  divinity 
primarily  denoted  by  it  is  the  storm-god  who  was  known  also 
as  Ramman,  Bir  and  Dadda.  The  Syrian  kings  of  Damascus 
seem  to  have  habitually  assumed  the  title  of  Benhadad.  or  son 
of  Hadad  (three  of  this  name  are  mentioned  in  Scripture),  jost 
as  a  series  of  Egyptian  monarchs  are  known  to  have  been 


HADDINGTON,  EARLS  OF—HADDINGTON 


795 


accustomed  to  call  themselves  sons  of  Amon-Ra.  The  word 
HadadrimmoD,  for  which  the  inferior  reading  Hadairimmon  is 
found  in  some  MSS.  in  the  phrase  "  the  mourning  of  (or  at) 
Hadadrimmon  "  (Zech.  zii.  ii),  has  been  a  subject  of  much 
discussion.  According  to  Jerome  and  all  the  older  Christian 
interpreters,  the  mourning  for  something  that  occurred  at  a 
place  called  Hadadrimmon  (Maximianopolis)  in  the  valley  of 
Mcgiddo  is  meant,  the  event  alluded  to  being  generally  held  to 
be  the  death  of  Josiah  (or,  as  in  the  Targum,  the  death  of  Ahab 
at  the  hands  of  Hadadrimmon);  but  more  recently  the  opinion 
has  been  gaining  ground  that  Hadadrimmon  is  merely  another 
name  for  Adonis  {q.v.)  or  Tammuz,  the  allusion  being  to  the 
mobmings  by  which  the  Adonis  festivals  were  usually  accom- 
panied (Hiuig  on  Zech.  lii:  ii,  Isa.  zvii.  8;  Movers,  Phdnisitr,  i. 
196).  .T.  K.  Cheyne  {Encyd.  BiU.  s.v.)  points  out  that  the 
Septuagint  reads  simply  Rimmon,  and  argues  that  this  may  be 
a  corruption  of  Migdon  (Megiddo),  in  itself  a  corruption  of 
Tammuz-Adon.  He  would  render  the  verse,  "In  that  day 
there  shall  be  a  great  mourning  in  Jerusalem,  as  the  mourning 
of  the  women  who  weep  for  Tammuz-Adon  "  (Adon  means  lord). 

HADDINGTON,  EARL  OF,  a  Scottish  title  bestowed  in  1627 
upon  Thomas  Hamilton,  earl  of  Melrose  (i  563-1637).  Thomas, 
who  was  a  member.of  the  great  family  of  Hamilton,  being  a  son 
of  Thomas  Hamilton  of  Priestfield,  was  a  lawyer  who  became  a 
lord  of  session  as  Lord  Drumcairn  in  159a.  He  was  on  very 
friendly  terms  with  James  VI.,  his  legal  talents  being  useful  to 
the  king,  and  he  was  one  of  the  eight  men  who,  called  the  Oc- 
tavians,  were  appointed  to  manage  the  finances  of  Scotland  in 
1596.  Having  also  become  king's  advocate  in  1596,  Hamilton 
was  entrusted  with  a  large  share  in  the  government  of  his  country 
when  James  went  to  London  in  1603;  in  161  a  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  state  for  Scotland,  and  in  1613  he  was  created  Lord 
Binning  and  Byres.  In  16 16  he  became  lord  president  of  the 
court  of  session,  and  three  years  later  was  created  earl.of  Melrose, 
a  title  which  he  exchanged  in  1627  for  that  of  earl  of  Haddington. 
After  the  death  of  James  I.  the  earl  resigned  his  offices  of  president 
of  the  court  of  session  and  secretary  of  state,  but  he  served 
Charles  I.  as  lord  privy  seal.  He  died  on  the  29th  of  May  1637. 
Haddington,  who  was  both  scholariy  and  wealthy,  left  a  large 
and  valuable  collection  of  papers,  which  is  now  in  the  Advocates' 
library  at  Edinburgh.  James  referred  familiarly  to  his  friend 
as  Tarn  0*  the  CowgaU,  his  Edinburgh  residence  being  in  this 
street. 

The  earl's  eldest  son  Tbomas,  the  and  earl  (1600-1640),  was 
a  covenanter  and  a  soldier,  being  killed  by  an  explosion  at  Dun- 
glass  castle  on  the  30th  of  August  1640.  His  sons,  Thoiias  (d. 
1645)  and  John  (d.  1669),  became  respeaively  the  3rd  and 
4th  earls  of  Haddington.and  John's  grandson  Thomas  (1679- 
1735)  succeeded  his,  father  CnAtLCS  (c.  1650-1685),  as  6th  earl 
m  1685,  although  he  was  not  the  eldest  but  the  second  son. 
This  curious  circumstance  arose  from  the  fact  that  when  Charles 
married  Margaret  (d.  1700),  the  heiress  of  the  earldom  of  Rothes, 
it  was  agreed  that  the  two  earldoms  should  be  left  separate; 
thus  the  eldest  son  John  became  earl  of  Rothes  while  Thomas 
became  earl  of  Haddington.  Thomas  was  a  supporter  of  George 
I.  during  the  rising  of  171 5,  and  was  a  representative  peer  for 
Scotland  from  1716  to  1 734.    He  died  on  the  28th  of  November 

1735- 
The  6th  eari  was  a  writer,  but  in  this  direction  his  elder  son, 

Crarles,  Lord  Binning  (1697-1732),  is  perhaps  more  celebrated. 

After  fighting  by  his  father's  side  at  Sheriff muir  in  17x5  and 

serving  as  member  of  parliament  for  St  Germans,  Binning  died 

at  Naples  on  the  a7th  of  December  x  73a.    His  eldest  son,  Thomas 

{c.  1720-1794),  became  the  7th  eari  in  X735,  and  the  latter's 

grandson  Thomas  (i 780-1858)  became  the  9th  eari  in  i8a8. 

The  9th  earl  had  been  a  member  of  parliament  from  x8oa  to 

i8a7,  when  he  was  made  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom  as  Baron 

Mclros  of  Tyninghame.  a  title  which  became  extinct  upon  his 

death.    In  1834  he  became  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  under 

Sir  Robert  Peel,  leaving  office  in  the  following  year,  and  in  Peel's 

second  administrarion  (i 841-1 846)  he  served  as  first  lord  of  the 

admiralty  and  then  as  lord  privy  seal.    When  be  <lied  without 


sons  on  the  ist  of  December  1858  the  earldom  passed  to  his 

kinsman,  Geoece  Bailub  (1802-1870),  a  descendant  of  the 

6th  earL    This  nobleman  took  the  name  of  Baillie-Hamilton, 

and  his  son  Geoege  (b.  1827)  became  nth  earl  of  Haddington 

in  x87a 

See  SlaU  Papers  of  Thomas,  Earl  of  Metrose,  published  by  the 
Abbotsford  Club  in  1837,  and  Sir  W.  Fraser,  Memorials  of  Ike  Earls 
efHaddiniton  (1889). 

HADDINGTON,  a  loyal,  municipal  and  police  buxgh,  and 
county  town  of  Haddingtonshire,  Scotland.  Pop.  (1901),  3993. 
It  is  situated  on  the  Tyne,  x8  m.  £.  of  Edinbur^  by  the  North 
British  railway,  being  the  terminus  of  a  branch  line  from  Long- 
niddry  Junction.  Five  bridges  cross  the  river,  on  the  right  bank 
of  which  lies  the  old  and  somewhat  decayed  suburb  of  Nungate, 
interesting  as  having  contained  the  Giffordgate,  where  John 
Knox  was  bom,  and  where  also  are  the  ruins  of  the  pre-Reforma- 
tion  chapel  of  St  Martin.  The  principal  building  in  the  town  is 
St  Mary's  church,  a  cruciform  Decorated  edifice  in  red  sandstone, 
probably  dating  from  the  13th  century.  It  is  a  10  ft.  long, 
and  is  surmounted  by  a  square  tower  90  ft.  high.  The  nave, 
restored  in  x89a,  is  used  as  the  parish  church,  but  the  choir  and 
transepts  are  roofless,  though  otherwise  kept  in  repair.  In  a 
vault  is  a  fine  monument  in  alabaster,  consisting  of  the  re- 
cumbent figures  of  John,  Lord  Maitland  of  Thirlestane  (1545'- 
i595)>  chancellor  of  Scotland,  and  his  wife.  The  laudatory 
sonnet  composed  by  James  VI.  is  inscribed  on  the  tomb.  In  the 
same  vault  John,  duke  of  Lauderdale  (1616-1682),  is  buried. 
In  the  choir  is  the  tombstone  which  Carlyle  erected  over  the  grave 
of  his  wife,  Jane  Baillie  Welsh  (180X-1866),  a  native  of  the  town. 
Other  public  edifices  include  the  county  buildings  in  the  Tudor 
style,  in  front  of  which  stands  the  monument  to  George,  8th 
marquess  of  Tweeddale  (1787-1876),  who  was  such  an  expert 
and  enthusiastic  coachman  that  he  once  drove  the  mail  from 
London  to  Haddington  without  taking  rest;  the  com  exchange, 
next  to  that  of  Edinburgh  the  largest  in  Scotland;  the  town 
house,  with  a  spire  X50  ft.  high,  in  front  of  which  isa  monument 
to  John  Home,  the  author  of  Douglas;  the  district  asylum  to 
the  north  of  the  burgh;  the  western  district  hospital;  the 
Tenterfidd  home  for  children;  the  free  libraiy  and  the  Knox 
Menoorial  Institute.  This  last-named  building  was  erected  in 
1879  to  replace  the  old  and  famous  grammar  school,  where  John 
Knox,  William  Dunbar,  John  Major  and  possibly  George 
Buchanan  and  Sir  David  Lindsay  were  educated.  John  Brown 
(i7aa-i787),  a  once  celebrated  dissenting  divine,  author  of  the 
SdJ-lnterpreiing  BibUf  ministered  in  the  burgh  for  36  years 
and  is  buried  there;  his  son  John  the  theologian  (x754-x83a), 
and  his  grandson  Samuel  (x8i 7-1856),  the  chemist,  noted 
for  his  inquiries  into  the  atomic  theory,  were  natives.  Samuel 
Smiles  (x8xa-x904),  author  of  Character^  Sdf-Hdp  and  other 
works,  was  also  bom  there,  and  Edward  Irving  was  for  years 
mathematical  master  in  the  grammar  school.  In  Hardgate 
Street  is  "  Bothwcll  Castle,"  the  town  house  of  the  earl  of  Both- 
well,  where  Mary  (^een  of  Scots  rested  on  her  way  to  Dunbar. 
The  ancient  market  cross  has  been  restored.  The  leading 
industries  are  the  making  of  agricultural  implements,  manu- 
factures of  iroollens  and  sacking,  brewing,  tanning  and  coach- 
building,  besides  com  mills  and  engineering  works. 

The  buigh  is  the  retail  centre  for  a  large  district,  and  its  grain 
iDarkets,  once  the  largest  in  Scotland,  are  still  of  considerable 
importance.  Haddington  was  created  a  royal  burgh  by  David  I. 
It  also  received  charters  from  Robert  Bruce,  Robert  II.  and 
James  VL  In  1x39  it  was  given  as  a  dowry  to  Ada,  daughter 
of  William  de  Warenne,  earl  of  Surrey,  on  her  marriage  to  Prince 
Henry,  the  only  son  of  David  I.  It  was  occasionally  the  residence 
of  royalty,  and  Alexander  II.  was  bom  there  in  X198.  Lying  in 
the  direct  road  of  the  English  invaders,  the  town  was  often 
ravaged.  It  was  burned  by  King  John  in  xax6  and  by  Henry 
III.  in  xa44.  Fortified  in  X548  by  Lord  Grey  of  Wilton,  the 
En^h  commander,  it  was  besieged  next  year  by  the  Scots  and 
French,  who  forced  the  garrison  to  withdraw.  So  much  slaughter 
had  gone  on  during  that  period  of  storm  and  stress  that  it  was 
long  impossible  to  excavate  in  any  direction  mtbout  coming 


796 


HADDINGTONSHIRE 


Iram  ficwd).     One  of  the  □ 

Ihc  41I1  ot  Octobtt  mi.  when  the  Tyne  rose  8 

bed  ipd  iDundaled  1  greiil  palt  of  the  buigh. 


I  milB'E°ji"Jiniiiiintehani(  Holk.  : 


ffered  much  periodical 


pnttv  viilan  of  Aherlwfy  on  '  bne  bay,  h 
IiR  wne  of  the  BneK  mllliaki  inScalUnd, 
Arcbcrfield  ud  HiuAdd.  Da  Goeford  L 
lUh-centuniDaniian.iheMUodbetulol'.. — ^_    .. .— . 

Sn.  W.  of  lladdirwiBd,  alleged  by  Bme  to  have  been  tbe  binhplact 
Ceuie  Heriot,  Frincipai  Rob' '-' -" ' 


of  Cewie  Henot, 
of  hb  HiHn  ' 
LdflgDiddry  Ici 


■mbe 

of  the  tJoiiihuH  a 


^  SMUad.    Of  the  old 

_       'oflhevUlaEe.JahaKitoi 

/.   AiGilIo(d,4m-toIlieS.,robi. ^ .._ 

pRiideiit<iflhEColle|e<ilNewJeneylPrii>cetoq).andCharlnl 

ilt'^'^).  pietident  ol  Dickiniin  CoHin,  Oiriiilc.  Peniuylvaiua, 
w(^bvr>7  AllttlelotbeKuthotGitlocaanYeBerHDUie.aieal 
of  the  nurqueu  of  Tweeddale.  Gaety  niuaied  in  a  park  oC  old  trcet, 
andlhecuruDfYcKerCanlF.  Thecavern'locaUy  kiuwnaa  Hob- 
EoUio  Hall  >>  dncribcd  in  Marmiim.  and  i>  awcialed  with  ill 

S.,  a  Hal  d  Lord  Biantyrei  wai  originally  called  Lelhin|ion,  and 
Ear  a  few  centuries  wu  auDciaied  with  the  Maitlandt-  Amiifietd. 
odioiniiw  Haddineton  on  the  N.E,,  ia  another  «at  of  (he  eari  of 
Wemyu. 

HADDtKOTOHSHtRI,  or  East  LoittUH.  a  »uth-eailcra 
county  of  Scotland,  bounded  N.  by  the  Filth  of  Forth.  N.E.  by 
(he  North  Sea.  E.,  S.E.  and  S.  by  Berwickshire,  and  S,W.  and 
W.  by  Edinbuighihite.    ll  coven  an  area  ol  171.011  (Ctes,  or 

Fldraiile'belong  10  theshire,  and  there  ate  numerous  tocki  and 
reels  oB  the  shore,  cspediilly  between  Dunbu  and  Cullane  Bay. 
Broadly  speaking,  the  northern  half  oi  the  shire  slopes  gently 
to  Ihe  coait,  and  the  southern  hiU  it  hilly.  Sevetal  ol  the  peika 
of  Ihe  Lamoiermuirs  eiceed  isoo  ft.,  and  Ihe  more  level  tract 
is  broken  by  Traprain  Law  1th)  in  tbe  parish  of  Frestonkirk, 
North  Berwick  Uo  (611),  and  Garleton  HiU  (500)  10  the  north 
of  Ihe  county  town.  The  only  important  riveristheTyne,  which 
lisei  to  the  soulh-eisl  ol  Bonhwick  in  Mid-Lothian,  and,  taking 

shite.     It  is  noted  for 

Unn  at  East  Linton.  The  WMleadder  risea  in  the 
Whillingehame,  but,  flowing  towards  the  south-east, 
shite  and  at  lut  joins  ihe  Tweed  neat  Berwick.  There 
Llutal  lakes,  but  in  the  paiish  of  Stenlon  ia  found 
lan  Locfa,  an  artificial  sheet  of  water  of  aomewhat 

sbipe.  about  i  m.  in  length,  with  a  width  of  tome 


^turesqui 


weHetn'tide  at  the  latter,  Ibe  strike  being  S.W.  tn  S!e.  The  piannic 
mass  of  Prieitlaw  and  other  felillic  rocks  have  been  intruded  into 
theH  Knu.    The  lower  OM  Red  Sanditone  has  not  been  obierved 


valky  of  Lauderdale. 
Cirbonilenius  niclis  lo 


in  the  lower  beds,  and  of  porpbyricic  and  ai 

These  rocks  an  well  exposed  or  -■ 

•nd  Traprain  Law;  '"" 


le  latter  aod  North  Berwick  Law  1 


M  Saadsloac  consUts  of  a  middle  gro 
coal-field  ia  lynclinal  in  iltuciute.  Port  sl 


.n  thew 


e  mUd  and  equable 


April  and  Uay, 
The  nialal]  it 
can  for  the  yeu 


far  below  the  average  of  I 

being  25  in.,  highest  in  miosutnmcr  ana  lowest  in  spring,  loe 
average  temperatuie  lot  Ihe  year  is  47°'5  F.,  for  January  jS* 
■nd  for  July  jg".  Tfaiougfaoul  neaily  the  wbote  of  tbe  iflh 
century  East  Lothian  agriculture  waa  held  lo  be  Ihe  bcu  in 
Scotland,  oot  so  much  in  consequence 


of  thee 


ie  cultivator^  several 


e  George  Hope  ol  Fenton  Stins  (i8ii-iS;6). 
brought  scientific  tatmiog  almost  lo  perfenion.  Utchiokal 
appliances  were  adopted  with  eiceptioaal  alMtily,  and  indnd 
some  that  afterwards  cime  into  genual  use  were  Lai  employid 
in  Haddingloa.  Drill  sowing  of  turnips  dates  from  17J4.  The 
ibreshjng  machine  was  introduced  by  Andrew  Meakle  (1710- 
iBiO  in  17S7,  Ihe  steam  plough  in  1661,  and  Ihe  reaping  machine 
soon  after  its  invention,  while  tile  draining  was  fij^t  eileouvcly 
used  in  the  county.  East  Lothian  Is  famous  foi  the  richnes  ol 
ils  grain  and  green  ctops.  the  size  of  its  holdings  (average  »a 
acres)  and  Che  good  hou^ng  ol  ils  labouren.  Tbe  soils  vary. 
Much  ol  the  Lammermuirs  is  necessarily  unproductive,  though 
the  towet  slopes  are  cultivated,  a  considerable  tract  oi  the  land 
being  very  good.  In  Ihe  centre  of  the  tbiir  occurs  a  bdt  of 
tenacious  yellow  clay  on  a  lilly  subsoil  whicb  is  nol  adapted  lor 
(giicultutc.  Along  Ihe  coast  Ihe  soil  is  tindy,  but  farther  iDlind 
il  is  composed  of  rich  loam  and  Is  very  fertile.  Tbe  land  about 
Dunbar  ia  the  most  productive,  yielding  a  poIato~lhe"Dunbat 
ted  "—which  Is  highly  esleemtd  in  ihe  mathelv  Of  Ihe  grain 
crops  oats  and  barley  are  Ihe  principal,  and  thdr  aciage  is 
■"■"'"  piolonged  decline,  ' 


!vival. 


Litkcd  SI 


learij 


avetage,  Lve-slocK  ai 

Oilier  /fldHifriei,— Fisheries  ate  conducted  from  Dunbar. 
North  Berwick,  Port  Seton  and  Pratonpans,  Ibecaub  consisling 
chiefiy  of  oxl,  haddock,  whiting  and  shell&slL  Fireclay  u  *cU 
as  limestone  is  worked,  and  there  are  some  stone  quarries,  but 
the  maauEactuies  ate  mainly  agricultutsl  implemcnu,  pottery, 
woollens,  anifidal  manures,  fecding-sIuSs  and  salt,  besides 
brewing.     Coal  of  a  very  fair  ciuality  Is  extensively  worked  it 


t  Maci 


ought  fo 


Irol 


erry. 


The  North  British  Company  possess  the  sole  nuuung  powers 
n  Ihe  county,  through  which  is  laid  Iheii  main  line  to  Berwick 
nd  the  south.  Branches  art  aenfoa  at  Drem  to  North  Berwick, 
I  Longniddry  to  Haddington  and  also  to  Gullane,  at  Smealon 
in  Mid-LothianJ  to  Macmerry,  and  at  Oimiston  to  GiffonL 

Puptilaliim  sad  Gimni"Kiii,— The  population  w^  ]7.)77 
□  18^1,  and  3^,665  ID  iQoi,  when  4SQ  persons  spoke  Gaelic  and 
inglish,  and  7  spoke  Gaelic  only.  The  chief  loaras  are  Dunbar 
pop.  in  i»oi,  3s8i),  Haddinglon  (j^j).  North  Benrick  [jjggl, 
'restonpans  (1614)  and  Tranent  ^s&4).  The  county,  which 
etums  one  member  lo  Pirliamenl,  formi  parn ' 
if  the  Lothians  and  Peebles,  and  there  it  a 
ubstitute  at  Haddington,  wbo  tilt  alto  at  D 


HADDOCK— HADEN,  SIR  F.  S. 


and  North  Berwick.  The  shire  is  under  school-board  jurisdiction, 
and  besides  high  schools  at  Haddington  and  North  Berwick, 
some  of  the  elementary  schools  earn  grants  for  higher  educa- 
tion. The  county  council  spends  a  proportion  of  the  "  residue  " 
grant  in  supporting  short  courses  of  instruction  in  technical 
subjects  (chiefly  agriculture),  in  experiments  in  the  feeding  of 
cattle  and  the  growing  of  crops,  and  in  defraying  the  travelling 
expenses  of  technical  students. 

History. — Of  the  Celts,  who  were  probably  the  earliest  in- 
habitants, traces  are  found  in  a  few  place  names  and  circular 
camps  (in  the  parishes  of  Garvald  and  Whittinghame)  and  hill 
forts  (in  the  parbh  of  Bolton).  After  the  Roman  occupation, 
of  which  few  traces  remain,  the  district  formed  part  of  the  Saxon 
kingdom  of  Northumbria  until  zoi8,  when  it  was  joined  to 
Scotland  by  Malcolm  II.  It  was  comparatively  prosperous  till 
the  wars  of  Bruce  and  Baliol,  but  from  that  period  down  to  the 
union  of  the  kingdoms  it  sufifered  from  its  nearness  to  the  Border 
and  from  civil  strife.  The  last  battles  fought  in  the  county 
were  those  of  Dunbar  (1650)- and  Prestonpans  (1745). 

See  J.  Miller.  History  of  Haddington  (18^):  D.  Croat.  Sketches  of 
East  Lolkian  (Haddington,  1873);  John  Martine.  Reminiscences  of 
Ike  County  of  Haddington  (Haddington.  1890,  1894);  Dr  Wallace 
James,  Writs  and  Charters  of  Haddington  (Haddington,  1898). 

HADDOCK  {Cadus  aeglefinus),  a  fish  which  differs  from  the 
cod  in  having  the  mental  barbel  very  short,  the  first  anal  fin 
with  22  to  35  rays,  instead  of  17  to  30,  and  the  lateral  line  dark 
instead  of  whitish;  it  has  a  large  blackish  spot  above  each 
pectoral  fin — associated  in  legend  with  the  marks  of  St  Peter's 
finger  and  thumb,  the  haddock  being  supposed  to  be  the  fish 
from  whose  mouth  he  took  the  tribute-money.  It  attains  to  a 
weight  of  15  lb.  and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  food  fishes  of 
Europe,  both  fresh  and  smoked,  the  "  finnan  haddie  "  of  Scotland 
being  famous.  It  is  common  round  the  British  and  Irish  coasts, 
and  generally  distributed  along  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea, 
extending  across'  the  Atlantic  to  the  coast  of  North  America. 

HADDON  HALL,  one  of  the  most  famous  ancient  mansions  in 
England.  It  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Wye,  2  m.  S.E.  of 
Bakewell  in  Derbyshire.  It  is  not  now  used  as  a  residence,  but 
the  fabric  is  maintained  in  order.  The  building  is  of  stone  and 
oblong  in  form,  and  encloses  two  quadrangles  separated  by  the 
great  banqueting-hall  and  adjoining  chambers.  The  greater  part 
is  of  two  storeys,  and  surmounted  by  battlements.  To  the  south 
and  south-east  lie  terraced  gardens,  and  the  south  front  of  the 
eastern  quadrangle  is  occupied  by  the  splendid  ball-room  or 
long  gaQery.  At  the  south-west  corner  of  the  mansion  is  the 
chapel;  at  the  north-east  the  Peveril  tower.  The  periods  of 
building  represented  are  as  follows.  Norman  work  appears  in 
the  chapel  (which  also  served  as  a  church  for  the  neighbouring 
villagers),  also  in  certain  fundamental  parts  of  the  fabric,  notably 
the  Peveril  tower.  There  are  Early  English  and  later  additions 
to  the  chapel;  the  banqueting-hall,  with  the  great  kitchen 
adjacent  to  it,  and  part  of  the  Peveril  tower  are  of  the  14th 
century.  The  eastern  range  of  rooms,  including  the  state-room, 
are  of  the  xsth  century;  the  western  and  north-western  parts 
were  built  shortly  after  1500.  The  ball-room  is  of  early  t7th- 
century  construction,  and  the  terraces  and  gardens  were  laid 
out  at  this  time.  A  large  number  of  interesting  contemporary 
fittings  are  preserved,  especially  in  the  banqueting-hall  and 
kitchen;  and  many  of  the  rooms  are  adorned  with  tapestries 
of  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries,  some  of  which  came  from  the 
famous  works  at  Mortlake  in  Surrey. 

A  Roman  altar  was  found  and  is  preserved  here,  but  no  trace 
of  Roman  inhabitants  has  been  discovered.  Haddon  was  a 
manor  which  before  the  Conquest  and  at  the  time  of  the  Domes- 
day Survey  belonged  to  the  king,  but  was  granted  by  William 
the  Conqueror  to  William  Peverel,  whose  son,  another  William 
Peverel,  forfeited  it  for  treason  on  the  accession  of  Henry  II. 
Before  that  time,  however,  the  manor  of  Haddon  had  been 
granted  to  the  family  of  Avenell,  who  continued  to  hold  it 
until  one  William  Avenell  died  without  male  issue  and  his 
property  was  divided  between  his  two  daughters  and  heirs,  one 
of  whom  married  Richard  Vernon,  whose  successors  acquired 


797 

the  other  half  of  the  manor  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  Sir 
George  Vernon,  who  died  in  1561,  was  known  as  the  "  King  of 
the  Peak  "  on  account  of  his  hospitality.  His  daughter  Dorothy 
married  John  Manners,  second  son  of  the  earl  of  Rutland,  who 
is  said  to  have  lived  for  some  time  in  the  woods  round  Haddon 
Hall,  disguised  as  a  gamekeeper,  until  he  persuaded  Dorothy 
to  elope  with  him.  On  Sir  George's  death  without  male  issue 
Haddon  passed  to  John  Manners  and  Dorothy,  who  lived  in  the 
Hall.  Their  grandson  John  Manners  succeeded  to  the  title  of 
earl  of  Rutland  in  1641,  and  the  duke  of  Rutland  is  still  lord  of 
the  manor. 

See  Victoria  County  History,  Derbyshire ;  S.  Rayncr,  History  and 
Antiquities  of  Haddon  Halt  (1836-1837):  Haddon  Hall,  History  and 
Antiquities  of  Haddon  Hall  (1867);  G.  Ic  Blanc  Smith,  Haddon,  the 
Manor,  the  Hall,  iU  Lords  and  Traditions  (London,  1906). 

HADEN.  SIR  FRANCIS  SEYMOUR  (1818-1910),  English 
surgeon  and  etcher,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  i6th  of  September 
1818,  his  father,  Charles  Thomas  Haden,  being  a  well-known 
doctor  and  amateur  of  music.  He  was  educated  at  University 
College  school  and  University  College^  London,  and  also  studied 
at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris,  where  he  took  his  degree  in  1840..  He  was 
admitted  as  a  member  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  in  London  in 
184a.  Besides  his  many-sided  activities  in  the  scientific  worid, 
during  a  busy  and  distinguished  career  as  a  surgeon,  he  followed 
the  art  of  original  etching  with  such  vigour  that  he  became  not 
only  the  foremost  British  exponent  of  that  art  but  was  the 
principal  cause  of  its  revival  in  England.  By  his  strenuous 
efforts  and  perseverance,  aided  by  the  secretarial  ability  of  Sir 
W.  R.  Drake,  he  founded  the  Royal  Society  of  Painter-Etchers 
and  Engravers.  As  president  he  ruled  the  destinies  of  that 
society  with  a  strong  band  from  its  first  beginnings  in  1880.  In 
1843-1844,  with  his  friends  Duval,  Lc  Cannes  and  Col.  Guibput, 
he  had  travelled  in  Italy  and  made  his  first  sketches  from  nature. 
Haden  attended  no  art  school  and  had  no  art  teachers,  but  in 
1845, 1846, 1847  and  1848  he  studied  portfolios  of  prints  belonging 
to  an  old  second-hand  dealer  named  Love,  who  had  a  shop  in 
Bunhill  Row,  the  old  Quaker  quarter  of  London.  These  port- 
folios he  would  carry  home,  and  arranging  the  prints  in  chrono- 
logical order,  he  studied  the  works  of  the  great  original  engravers, 
DUrer,  Lucas  van  Leydcn  and  Rembrandt.  These  studies, 
besides  influencing  his  original  work,  led  to  his  important  mono- 
graph on  the  etched  work  of  Rembrandt.  By  lecture  and  book, 
and  with  the  aid  of  the  memorable  exhibition  at  the  Burlington 
Fine  Arts  Club  in  1877,  he  endeavoured  to  give  a  just  idea  of 
Rembrandt's  work,  separating  the  true  from  the  false,  and  giving 
altogether  a  nobler  idea  of  the  master's  mind  by  taking  away  from 
the  list  of  his  works  many  dull  and  unseemly  plates  that  had  long 
been  included  in  the  lists.  His  reasons  are  founded  upon  the 
results  of  a  study  of  the  master's  works  in  chronological  order, 
and  are  clearly  expressed  in  his  monograph,  The  Etched  Work  of 
Rembrandt  critically  reconsidered,  privately  printed  in  1877, 
and  in  The  Etched  Work  of  Rembrandt  True  and  False  (189s). 
Notwithstanding  all  this  study  of  the  old  masters  of  his  art, 
Haden 's  own  plates  are  perhaps  more  individual  than  any  artist's, 
and  are  particularly  noticeable  for  a  fine  original  treatment  of 
landscape  subjects,  free  and  open  in  line,  clear  and  well  divided 
in  mass,  and  full  of  a  noble  and  dignified  style  of  his  own.  Even 
when  working  from  a  picture  his  personality  dominates  the  plate, 
as  for  example  in  the  large  plate  he  etched  after  J.  M.  W.  Turner's 
"  Calais  Pier,"  which  is  a  classical  example  of  what  interpretative 
work  can  do  in  black  and  white.  Of  his  original  plates,  more 
than  250  in  number,  one  of  the  most  notable  was  the  large 
"  Breaking  up  of  the  Agamemnon."  An  early  plate,  rare  and 
most  beautiful,  is  "  Thames  Fisherman."  "  Mytton  Hall  "  is 
broad  in  treatment,  and  a  fine  rendering  of  a  shady  avenue  of 
yew  trees  leading  to  an  old  manor-house  in  sunlight.  "  Sub 
Tegmine  "  was  etched  in  Greenwich  Park  in  1859;  and  "  Early 
Morning — Richmond,"  full  of  the  poetry  and  freshness  of  the 
hour,  was  done,  the  artist  has  said,  actually  at  sunrise.  One  of 
the  rarest  and  most  beautiful  of  his  plates  is  "  A  By-Road  in 
Tipperary  ";  "  Combe  Bottom  "  is  another;  and  "  Shcre  Mill 
Pond  "  (both  the  small  study  and  the  larger  plate),  "  Sunset  in 


798 


HADENDOA— HADLEY,  A.  T, 


Ireland,"  "Penton  Hook,"  "Grim  Spain"  and  "Evening 
Fishing,  Longparish,"  are  also  notable  examples  of  his  genius. 
A  catalogue  of  his  works  was  begun  by  Sir  William  Drake  and 
completed  by  Mr  N.  Harrington  (1880).  During  later  years 
Haden  began  to  practise  the  sister  fut  of  mezzotint  engraving, 
with  a  measure  of  the  same  success  that  he  had  already  achieved 
in  ptire  etching  and  in  dry-point.  Some  of  his  mezzotints  arc: 
"  An  Early  Riser,"  a  stag  seen  through  the  morning  mists, 
"  Grayling  Fishing  "  and  "  A  Salmon  Pool  on  the  Spey."  He 
also  produced  some  remarkable  drawings  of  trees  and  park-like 
country  in  charcoal. 

Other  books  by  Haden  not  already  mentioned  are — Etudes  A 
Veau  forte  (Paris,  1865);  About  Etching  (London,  1878^1879); 
The  Art  of  the  Painter-EUher  (London,  1890);  The  Relative 
Claims  of  Etching  and  Engraving  to  rank  as  Fine  Arts  and  to 
be  represented  in  the  Royal  Academy  (London,  1883);  Address 
to  Students  of  Winchester  School  of  Art  (Winchester,  x888); 
Cremation:  a  Pamphlet  (London,  1875);  and  The  Disposal  of 
the  Deadt  a  Plea  for  Legislation  (London,  1888).  As  the  last 
two  indicate,  he  was  an  ardent  champion  of  a  system  of  "  earth 
to  earth  "  burial. 

Among  numerous  distinctions  he  received  the  Grand  Prix, 
Paris,  in  1889  and  1900,  and  was  made  a  member  of  the  Institut 
de  France,  Acaddmie  des  Beaux-Arts  and  Soci£t£  des  Artistes 
Frangais.  He  was  knighted  in  1894,  and  died  on  the  ist  of 
June  19x0.  He  married  in  1847  a  sister  of  the  artist  J.  A.  M. 
Whistler;  and  his  elder  son,  Frahcis  Seymour  Haden  (b.  1850), 
had  a  distinguished  career  as  a  member  of  the  government  in  Natal 
from  1881  to  1893,  being  made  a  C.M.G.  in  1890.       (C.H.*) 

HADENDOA  (from  Beja  Hada,  chief,  and  endawa,  people),  a 
nomad  tribe  of  Africans  of  "  Hamitic  "  origin.  They  inhabit 
that  part  of  the  eastern  Sudan  extending  from  the  Abyssinian 
frontier  northward  nearly  to  Suakin.  They  belong  to  the  Beja 
people,  of  which,  with  the  Bisharin  and  the  Ababda,  they  are 
the  modern  representatives.  They  are  a  pastoral  people,  ruled 
by  a  hereditary  chief  who  is  directly  responsible  to  the  (Anglo- 
Egyptian)  Sudan  government.  Although  the  official  capital  of 
the  Hadendoa  country  is  Miktinab,  the  town  of  Fillik  on  an 
affluent  of  the  Atbara  is  really  their  headquarters.  A  third  of 
the  total  population  is  settled  in  the  Suakin  country.  Osman 
Digna,  one  of  the  best-known  chiefs  during  the  Madhia,  was  a 
Hadendoa,  and  the  tribe  contributed  some  of  the  fiercest  of  the 
dervish  warriors  in  the  wars  of  1883-98.  So  determined  were 
they  in  their  opposition  to  the  Anglo-Egyptian  forces  that  the 
name  Hadendoa  grew  to  be  nearly  "synonymous  with  "  rebel." 
But  this  was  the  result  of  Egyptian  misgovernment  rather  than 
religious  enthusiasm;  for  the  Hadendoa  are  true  Beja,  and 
Mahommedans  only  in  name.  Their  elaborate  hairdressing 
gained  them  the  name  of  "  Fuzzy-wuzzies  "  among  the  British 
troops.  They  earned  an  unenviable  reputation  during  the  wars 
by  their  hideous  mutilations  of  the  dead  on  the  battlefields. 
After  the  reconquest  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan  (1896-98)  the 
Hadendoa  accepted  the  nev/  order  without  demur. 

See  Angh-EgvMian  Sudan,  edited  by  Count  Gleichen  (London, 
1905) ;  Sir  F.  R.  Wingate,  Mahdism  and  the  Egyptian. Sudan  (London, 
189O;  G.  Sergi,  Africa:  Antiiropology  of  the  Hamitic  Race  (1897); 
A.  H.  Keane,  Ethnology  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan  (1884). 

HADERSLEBEN  (Dan.  Haderslev),  a  town  of  Germany,  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  31  m.  N.  from 
Flensburg.  Pop.  (1905)  9289.  It  lies  in  a  pleasant  valley  on  the 
Hadersleben  fjord,  which  is  about  9  m.  in  length,  and  com- 
municates with  the  Little  Belt,  and  at  the  junction  of  the 
main  line  of  railway  froip  Woycns  with  three  vicinal  lines.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  beautiful  church  of  St  Mary,  dating 
from  the  X3th  century,  the  theological  seminary  established  in 
X870,  the  gymnasium  and  the  hospital.  The  industries  include 
iron-foimding,  tanning,  and  the  manufactjure  of  machines, 
tobacco  and  gloves.  The  harbour  is  only  accessible  to  small 
vessels. 

Hadersleben  is  first  mentioned  in  X228,  and  received  municipal 
rights  from  Duke  Waldemar  II.  in  1 393.  It  suffered  considerably 
during  the  wars  between  Schlcswig  and  Holstein  in  the  isth 


century.    In  November  X864  it  passed  with  Schleswig  to  Prussia. 

Two  Danish  kings,  Frederick  II.  and  Frederick  III.,  were  bom 

at  Hadersleben. 

See  A.  Sach,  Der  Ursprung  der  Stadt  HadersUben  (Haderdeben, 
1892). 

HADING,  JANE  (1859-  ),  French  actress,  whose  real  name 
was  Jeanne  Alfr£dine  Trdfouret,  was  bom  on  the  35th  of 
November  1859  at  Marseilles,  where  her  father  was  an  actor  at 
the  Gymnase.  She  was  trained  at  the  local  Conservatoire  and 
was  engaged  in  X873  for  the  theatre  at  Algiers,  and  afterwards 
for  the  lUiedivial  theatre  at  Cairo,  where  she  played,  in  turn, 
coquette,  soubrctte  and  ingtnue  parts.  Expectations'  bad  been 
raised  by  her  voice,  and  when  she  returned  to  Marseilles  she  sang 
in  operetta,  besides  acting  in  Ruy  Bias.  Her  Paris  <Kbut  u-as 
in  La  Chaste  Suzanne  at  the  Palais  Rojral,  and  she  was  again 
heard  in  operetta  at  the  Renaissance.  Li  1883  she  had  a  great 
success  at  the  Gymnase  in  Le  MaUre  de  forges.  In  18S4  she 
married  Victor  Koning  (1843-1894),  the  manager  of  that  theatre, 
but  divorced  him  in  X887.  In  1888  she  toured  America  with 
Coquelin,  and  on  her  return  helped  to  give  success  to  Lavedan's 
Prince  d*AureCf  at  the  Vaudeville.  Her  reputation  as  one  of  the 
leading  actresses  of  the  day  was  now  established  not  only  in 
France  but  in  America  and  England.  Her  later  rfpertotre 
included  Le  Demi-mondet  Capus's  La  Chdldaine,  Maurice 
Donnay*s  Retour  de  Jlrusalem,  La  Princesse  Georges  by  Dunus 
fils,  and  £mile  Bergerat's  Plus  que  rcine. 

HADLEIGH,  a  market  town  in  the  Sudbury  parliamentary 
division  of  Suffolk,  England;  70  m.  N.E.  from  Londcm,  the 
terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Great  Eastern  railway.  Pop.  of 
urban  district  (1901),  3345.  It  lies  pleasantly  in  a  wdl-woodcd 
country  on  the  small  river  Brett,  a  tributary  of  the  Stour.  The 
church  of  St  Mary  is  of  good  Perpendicular  work,  with  Early 
English  tower  and  Decorated  spire.  The  Rectory  Tower,  a 
turreted  gate-house  of  brick,  dates  from  c.  X49S.  The  gild-hall 
is  a  Tudor  building,  and  there  are  other  examples  of  this  period. 
There  are  a  town-hall  and  com  exchange,  and  an  industry  in  the 
manufacture  of  matting  and  in  malting.  Hadleigh  was  one  of 
the  towns  in  which  the  woollen  industry  was  started  by  Flemings, 
and  survived  until  the  i8th  century.  Among  the  rectors  of 
Hadleigh  several  notable  names  appear,  such  as  Rowlainl  Taylor, 
the  martyr,  who  was  burned  at  the  stake  outside  the  town  in 
1 555,  and  Hugh  James  Rose,  during  whose  tenancy  of  the  rectory 
an  initiatory  meeting  of  the  leaders  of  tlw  Oxford  Movement 
took  place  here  in  1S33. 

Hadleigh,  called  by  the  Saxons  Heapde-leag,  appears  in 
Domesday  Book  as  Hetlega.  About  885  iCthelfisd,  Lady  of  the 
Mercians,  with  the  consent  of  iEthelred  her  husband,  ga\-e 
Hadleigh  to  Christ  Church,  Canterbury.  The  dean  axKl  diapter 
of  Canterbury  have  held  possession  of  it  ever  since  the  Dissolntion. 
In  the  X7th  century  Hadleigh  was  famous  for  the  manufacture 
of  cloth,  and  in  x6i8  was  sufficiently  important  to  recel%-e 
incorporation.  It  was  constituted  a  free  borough  under  the  title 
of  the  mayor,  aldermen  and  burgesses  of  Hadleigh.  In  1635,  in 
a  list  of  the  corporate  towns  of  Suffolk  to  be  assessed  for  ship 
money,  Hadleigh  is  named  as  third  in  importance.  In  1636, 
owing  to  a  serious. visitation  of  the  plague,  200  famiUeswere 
thrown  out  of  work,  and  in  1687  so  much  had  its  importance 
declined  that  it  was  deprived  of  its  charter.  An  unsaccessftil 
attempt  to  recover  it  was  made  in  X701.  There  is  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  a  market  here  as  early  as  the  X3th  century. 
James  I.,  in  his  charter  of  incorporation,  granted  fairs  on  Monday 
and  Tuesday  in  Whitsun  week,  and  confirmed  an  ancient  fair 
at  Michaelmas  and  a  market  on  Monday. 

HADLEY,  ARTHUR  TWINING  (1856-  ),  American  poli- 
tical econombt  and  educationist,  president  of  Yale  University, 
was  bom  in  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  on  the  33rd  of  April 
1856.  He  was  the  son  of  James  Hadley,  the  phildogist,  from 
whom,  as  from  his  mother — whose  brother,  Alexander  Calfia 
Twining  (1801-1884),  was  an  astronomer  and  authority  on  con- 
stitutional law— he  inherited  unusual  mathematkad  ability. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1876  as  valedictorian,  having  taken 
prizes  in  English,  classics  and  astronomy;  studied  political 


HADLEY,  J.— HADRAMUT 


sdenoe  at  Yale  (1876-1877)  and  at  Berlin  (1878-1879);  was 
a  tuUr  at  Yale  in  1879-1883,  instructor  in  political  science  in 
1883-1886,  professor  of  political  science  in  1886-1891,  professor 
of  pditical  economy  in  1891-1890,  and  dean  of  the  Graduate 
Scbo«l  in  1892-1895;  and  in  1899  became  president  of  Yale 
University — the  first  layman  to  hold  that  office.  He  was 
comnissioner  of  the  Connecticut  bureau  of  labour  statistics 
in  1885-1887.  As  an  economist  he  first  became  widely  known 
throigb  his  investigation  of  the  railway  question  and  his  study 
of  railway  rates,  which  antedated  the  popular  excitement  as  to 
rebates.  His  Railroad  TranspoHation,  Us  Hislcry  and  Laws 
(1885)  became  a  standard  work,  and  appeared  in  Russian  (1886) 
and  French  (1887);  he  testified  as  an  expert  on  transportation 
before  the  Senate  committee  which  drew  up  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Law;  and  wrote  on  railways  and  transportation  for 
the  Ninth  and  Tenth  Editions  (of  which  he  was  one  of  the 
editon)  oiiht  Eneychpaedia  Britannka,  for  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia 
of  Folitkal  Science,  Political  Economy,  and  Polilical  History  of 
the  United  Slates  (3  vols.,  1881-1884),  for  The  American  Railway 
<i888),  and  for  The  Railroad  Catetle  in  X884-1891,  and  for  other 
periodicals.  His  idea  of  the  broad  scope  of  economic  science, 
especially  of  the  place  of  ethics  in  relation  to  political  economy 
and  business,  is  expressed  in  his  writings  and  public  addresses. 
In  X  907- 1 908  he  was  Theodore  Roosevelt  professor  of  American 
History  and  Institutions  in  the  university  of  Berlin. 

Among  his  other  publications  are:  Economics:  an  Account  of  Ike 
Relaiions  between  Private  ProUrty  and  Public  Welfare  (1896);  The 
Education  of  the  American  Citisen  (1901):  The  Kelations  between 
Freedom  ana  Responsibility  in  the  Evolution  of  Democratic  Coeemment 
(1903,  in  Yale  Lectures  on  the  Responsibilities  of  Citizenihip); 
Baccalaureate  Addresus  (1907):  and  Standards  of  Public  Morality 
(1907),  being  the  Kennedy  Lectures  for  1906. 

HADLET,  JAMBS  (1821-1872),  American  scholar,  was  bom 
on  the  30th  of  March  1821  in  Fairfield,  Herkimer  county.  New 
York,  where  his  father  was  professor  of  chemistry  in  Fairfield 
Medical  College.  At  the  age  of  nine  an  accident  lamed  him  for 
life.  He  graduated  from  Yale  in  1842,  having  entered  the 
Junior  class  in  1840;  studied  in  the  Theological  Department  of 
Yale,  and  in  1844-1845  was  a  tutor  in  Middlebury  College. 
He  was  tutor  at  Yale  in  1845-1848,  assistant  professor  of  Greek 
in  1848-1851,  and  professor  of  Greek,  succeeding  President 
Woolsey,  from  1851  until  his  death  in  Hew  Haven  on  the  X4th 
of  November  1872.  As  an  undergraduate  he  showed  himself  an 
able  mathematician,  but  the  influence  of  Edward  Elbridge 
Salisbury,  under  whom  Hadlcy  and  W.  D.  Whitney  studied 
Sanskrit  together,  turned  his  attention  toward  the  study  of 
language.  He  knew  Greek,  Latin,  Sanskrit,  Hebrew,  Arabic, 
Armenian,  several  Celtic  languages  and  the  languages  of  modem 
Europe;  but  he  published  little,  and  his  scholarship  found  scant 
outlet  in  the  college  class-room.  His  most  original  written  work 
was  an  essay  on  Greek  accent,  published  in  a  German  version 
in  Curtius's  Studien  tur  g/riuhischen  und  laleinischen  Crammatih, 
Hadley's  Creeh  Grammar  (i860;  revised  by  Frederic  de  Forest 
Allen,  1884)  was  based  on  Curtius's  Schulgrammatih  (1852,  1S55, 
X 85 7, 1 859) ,  and  long  held  its  place  in  American  schools.  Hadlcy 
was  a  member  of  the  American  Committee  for  the  revision  of  the 
New  Testament,  was  president  of  the  American  Oriental  Society 
(187X-1872),  and  contributed  to  Webster's  dictionary  an  essay 
on  the  History  of  the  English  Language.  In  1873  were  published 
his  Introduction  to  Roman  Law  (edited  by  T.  D.  Woolsey)  and 
bU  Essays,  Philological  and  Critical  (edited  by  W.  D.  Whitney). 

See  the  memorial  by  Noah  Porter  in  The  New  Englander,  vol. 
xxxii.  (Jan.  1873),  pp.  15-5^:  and  the  sketch  by  his  son,  A.  T. 
Hadlcy,  in  BiographicM  Memotrs  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences, 
vol.  V.  (1905),  pp.  347-354- 

HADLBT»  a  township  of  Hampshire  county,  Massachusetts, 
U.S.A.,  on  the  Connecticut  river,  about  20  m.  N.  of  Springfield, 
served  by  the  Boston  8e  Maine  railway.  Pop.  (1900),  1789; 
(1905,  state  census),  1895 ;  (1910)  1999.  Area,  about  20  sq.  m. 
The  principal  village^  are  Hadley  (or  Hadley  Center)  and  North 
Hadley.  The  level  country  along  the  river  b  well  adapted  to 
tobacco  culture,  and  the  villages  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  tobacco  mod  brooms.    Hadley  was  settled  in  1659  by  members 


799 

of  the  churches  in  Hartford  and  Wethersfield,  Connecticut,  who 
were  styled  "  Strict  Congregationalists"  and  withdrew  from  these 
Connecticut  congregations  because  of  ecclesiastical  and  doctrinal 
laxity  there.  At  first  the  town  was  called  Norwottuck,  but  within 
a  year  or  two  it  was  named  after  Hadleigh  in  England,  and  was 
incorporated  under  this  name  in  x66i.  Hopkins  Academy  (x8i  5) 
developed  from  Hopkins  school,  founded  here  in  1664.  The 
English  regicides  Edward  Whalley  and  his  son-in-law  William 
Goffe  found  a  refuge  at  Hadley  from  1664  apparently  until 
their  deaths,  and  there  is  a  tradition  that  Goffe  or  Whalley  in 
X675  led  the  people  in  repelling  an  Indian  attack.  From  X675 
to  1 7 13  Hadley,  being  in  almost  constant  danger  of  attack  from 
the  Indians,  was  protected  by  a  palisade  enclosure  and  by 
stockades  around  the  meeting-house.  From  Hadley,  Hatfield 
was  set  apart  in  1670,  South  Hadley  in  1753,  and  Amherst  in 

1759- 

See  Alice  M.  Walker.  Historic  Hadley  (New  Yoric.  1906);  and 
Sylvester  Judd,  History  of  Hadley  (Northampton,  1863;  new  ed., 
1905). 

HADRAMUT.  a  district  on  the  south  coast  of  Arabia,  bounded 

W.  by  Yemen,  E.  by  Oman  and  N.  by  the  Dahna  desert.    The 

modem  Arabs  restrict  the  name  to  the  coast  between  Balhflf 

and  Sihut,  and  the  valley  of  the  Wadi  Hadramut  in  the  interior; 

in  its  wider  and  commonly  accepted  signification  it  includes  also 

the  Mahra  and  Gtra  coasts  extending  eastwards  to  Mirbat; 

thus  defined,  its  limits  are  between  14*  and  x8*  N.  and  47*  301^ 

to  55*  E.,  with  a  total  length  of  550  m.  and  a  breadth  of  150  m. 

rhe  coastal  plain  is  narrow,  rarely  exceeding  xo  m.  in  width, 
and  in  places  the  hills  extend  to  the  seashore.  The  principal  ports 
are  Mulcalla  and  Shihr,  both  considerable  towns,  and  Kuiair  and 
Raida,  small  fishing  villages;  inland  there  are  a  few  villages  near 
the  foot  of  the  hills,  with  a  limited  area  of  cultivation  irrigated  by 
springs  or  wells  in  the  hill  torrent  beds.  Behind  the  littoral  plain  a 
range  of  mountains,  or  rather  a  high  plateau,  falling  steeply  to  the 
south  and  more  gently  to  the  north,  extends  continuously  from  the 
Yemen  hiahlonds  on  tne  west  to  the  mouth  of  the  Hadramut  valley, 
from  whicn  a  similar  rani^e  extends  with  hardly  a  break  to  the  border 
of  Oman.  Its  crest-line  ts  generally  some  30  m.  from  the  coast,  and 
its  average  height  between  4000  and  5000  ft.  A  number  of  wadis  or 
ravines  cutting  deeply  into  the  plateau  run  northward  to  the  main 
Wadi  Hadramut,  a  broad  valley  lying  nearly  east  and  west,  with  a 
total  length  from  its  extreme  western  neads  on  the  Yemen  highlands 
to  its  mouth  near  Sihut  of  over  500  m.  Beyond  the  valley  and 
steadilv  encroaching  on  it  lies  the  great  desert  extending  for  300  m. 
to  t  he  borders  of  Nejd.  The  most  westerly  village  in  the  main  valley  ' 
is  Shabwa,  in  ancient  days  the  capital,  but  now  almost  buried  by 
the  advancing  desert.  Lower  down  t  he  first  large  villages  are  Henftn 
and  Ajlania,  near  which  the  wadis  *Amd,  Duwin  and  el  *Ain  unite, 
forming  the  W.  Kasr.  In  the  W.  Duwftn  and  its  branches  are  the 
villages  of  Haura,  el  HajrEn,  Kaidun  and  al  KhurBba.  Below  Haura 
for  some  60  ra.  there  is  a  succession  of  villages  with  fields,  gardens 
and  date  groves:  several  tributaries  join  on  either  side,  among  which 
the  W.  bm  Ali  and  W.  Adim  from  the  south  contain  numerous 
villages.  The  principal  towns  are  Shibim.  al  Ghurfa,  Saiyun, 
Tariba,  el  Ghuraf,  Tanm,  formerly  the  chief  place,  'Ainat  and  el 
Kasm.  Below  the  last-named  place  there  is  little  cultivation  or 
settled  population.  The  shrines  of  Kabr  S&lih  and  Kabr  Hud  are 
looked  on  as  specially  sacred,  and  are  visited  by  numbers  of  pilgrims. 
The  former,  which  is  in  the  Wadi  Ser  about  ao  m.  N.W.  of  Shibim, 
was  explored  by  Theodore  Bent  in  1894;  the  tomb  itielf  is  of  no 
interest,  but  in  the  neighbourhood  there  are  extensive  ruins  with 
Himyaritic  inscriptions  on  the  stones.  Kabr  Hud  is  in  the  main 
valley  some  distance  cast  of  Kasm;  not  far  from  it  is  Bir  Borhut, 
a  natural  grotto,  where  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  issue  from  a  number 
of  volcanic  vents:  al*Masudi  mentions  it  in  the  loth  century  as  an 
active  volcano.  Except  after  heavy  rain,  there  is  no  running  water 
in  the  Hadramut  valley,  the  cultivAtion  therefore  depends  on 
artificial  irrigation  from  wells.  The  principal  crops  are  wheat, 
millet,  indigo,  dates  and  tobacco;  this  latter,  known  as  Hamumi 
tobacco,  is  of  excellent  quality. 

Hadramut  has  preserved  its  name  from  the  earliest  times; 
it  occurs  in  Genesis  as  Hazarmaveth  and  Hadoram,  sons  of 
Joklan;and  the  old  Greek  geographers  mention  Adramytta  and 
Chadramotites  in  their  accounts  of  the  frankincense  country. 
The  numerous  mins  discovered  in  the  W.  Duwftn  and  Adim,  as 
well  as  in  the  main  valley,  are  evidences  of  its  former  prosperity 
and  civilization. 

The  people,  known  as  Hadrami  (plural  Hadlrim),  belong 
generally  to  the  south  Arabian  stock,  claiming  descent  from 
Ya*rab  bin  Kahtftn.    There  is,  however,  a  large  number  of 


8oo 


HADRIA— HADRIAN 


Se3ryids  or  descendants  of  the  Prophet,  and  of  townsmen  of 
northern  origin,  besides  a  considerable  class  of  African  or  mixed 
descent.  Van  den  Berg  estimates  the  total  population  of 
Hadramut  (excluding  the  Mahra  and  G&ra)  at  150,000,  of  which 
he  locates  50,000  in  the  valley  between  Shib&m  and  Tarim, 
35,000  in  the  W.  Duw&n  and  its  tributaries,  and  25,000  in 
Mukalla,  Shihr  and  the  coast  villages,  leaving  50,000  for  the  non- 
agricultural  population  scattered  over  the  rest  of  the  country, 
probably  an  excessive  estimate. 

The  Seyyids,  descendants  of  Hosain,  grandson  of  Mahomet, 
form  a  numerous  and  highly  respected  aristocracy.  They  are 
divided  into  families,  the  chiefs  of  which  are  known  as  Munsibs, 
who  are  looked  on  as  the  religious  leaders  of  the  people,  and 
are  even  in  some  cases  venerated  as  saints.  Among  the  leading 
families  are  the  Sheikh  Abu  Bakr  of  Ainftt,  the  el-Aidrus  of  Shihr 
and  the  Sakk&f  of  Saiyun.  They  do  not  bear  arms,  nor  occupy 
themselves  in  trade  or  manusd  labour  or  even  agriculture; 
though  owning  a  large  proportion  of  the  land,  they  employ 
slaves  or  hired. labourers  to  cultivate  it.  As  compared  with  the 
other  classes,  they  are  well  educated,  and  are  strict  in  their 
observance  of  religious -duties,  and  owing  to  the  respect  due  to 
their  descent,  they  exercise  H  strong  influence  both  in  temporal 
and  spiritual  affairs. 

The  tribesmen,  as  in  Arabia  generally,  are  the  predominant 
class  in  the  population;  all  the  adults  carry  arms;  some  of  the 
tribes  have  settled  towns  and  villages,  others  lead  a  nomadic  life, 
keeping,  however,  within  the  territory  which  is  recognized  as 
belonging  to  the  tribe.  They  are  divided  into  sections  or  families, 
each  headed  by  a  chief  or  abu  (lit.  father),  while  the  head  of  the 
tribe  is  called  the  mukaddam  or  sultan;  the  authority  of  the 
chief  depends  largely  on  his  personality:  he  is  the  leader  in 
peace  and  in  war,  but  the  tribesmen  are  not  his  subjects;  he 
can  only  rule  with  their  support.  The  most  powerful  tribe  at 
present  in  Hadramut  is  the  Kaiti,  a  branch  of  the  Y&fa  tribe 
whose  settlements  lie  farther  west.  Originally  invited  by  the 
Seyyids  to  protect  the  settled  districts  from  the  attacks  of 
marauding  tribes,  they  have  established  themselves  as  practically 
the  rulers  of  the  country,  and  now  possess  the  coast  district  with 
the  towns  of  Shihr  and  Mukalla,  as  well  as  Haura,  HajrCn  and 
Shibilm  in  the  interior.  The  head  of  the  family  has  accumulated 
great  wealth,  and  risen  to  the  highest  position  in  the  service  of 
the  nizam  of  Hyderabad  in  India,  as  Jamadar,  or  commander 
of  an  Arab  levy  composed  of  his  tribesmen,  numbers  of  whom  go 
abroad  to  seek  their  fortune.  The  Kathiri  tribe  was  formerly 
the  most  powerful;  they  occupy  the  towns  of  Saiyun,  Tarim 
and  el-Ghuraf  in  the  richest  part  of  the  main  Hadramut  valley. 
The  chiefs  of  both  the  Kaiti  and  Kathiri  are  in  political  relations 
with  the  British  government,  through  the  resident  at  Aden  {q.v.). 
The  *Amudi  in  the  W.  Duw&n,  and  the  Nahdi,  Awftmir  and 
Tamimi  in  the  main  valley,  are  the  principal  tribes  possessing 
permanent  villages;  the  Saibftn,  Hamumi  and  Manihil  occupy 
the  mountains  between  the  main  valley  and  coast. 

The  townsmen  are  the  free  inhabitants  of  the  towns  and 
villages  as  distinguished  from  the  Seyyids  and  the  tribesmen: 
they  do  not  carry  arms,  but  are  the  working  members  of  the 
community,  merchants,  artificers,  cultivators  and  servants, 
and  are  entirely  dependent  on  the  tribes  and  chiefs  under  whose 
protection  they  live.  The  servile  class  contains  a  large  African 
element,  brought  over  formerly  when  the  slave  trade  flourished 
on  this  coast;  as  in  all  Mahommedan  countries  they  are  well 
treated,  and  often  rise  to  p>ositions  of  trust. 

As  already  mentioned,  a  large  number  of  Arabs  from  Hadramut 
go  abroad;  the  Kaiti  tribesmen  take  service  in  India  in  the 
irregular  troops  of  Hyderabad;  emigration  on  a  large  scale  has 
also  gone  on,  to  the  Dutch  colonies  in  Java  and  Sumatra,  since 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  According  to  the  census  of 
1885,  quoted  by  Van  den  Berg  in  his  Report  published  by  the 
government  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  in  1S86,  the  number  of 
Arabs  in  those  colonics  actually  born  in  Arabia  was  2500,  while 
those  born  in  the  colonic^  exceeded  20,000;  nearly  all  of  the 
former  are  from  the  towns  in  the  Hadramut  valley  between 
Shibam  and  Tarim.    iMukalla  and  Shihr  have  a  considerable 


trade  with  the  Red  Sea  and  Persian  Gulf  ports,  as  well  as  viik 
the  ports  of  Aden,  Dbafar  and  Muscat;  a  large  share  of  this  is 
in  the  hands  of  Parsee  and  other  British  Indian  traders  vbo 
have  established  themselvn  in  the  Hadramut  ports.  The 
prindpal  imports  are  wheat,  rice,  sugar,  piece  goods  and  hard- 
ware. The  exports  are  small;  the  chief  items  are  hooey,  tobacco 
and  sharks'  fins.  In  the  towns  in  the  inteciw  the  ponqol 
industries  are  weaving  and  dyeing. 

The  Mahra  country  adjoins  the  Hadramut  proper,  and  cxtfixb 
along  the  coast  from  Sihut  eastwards  to  the  cast  of  Kanur  Bdv, 
where  the  G&ra  coast  begins  and  stretches  to  M irbat.  The  sultaa  d 
the  Mahra,  to  whom  Sokotra  also  belongs,  lives  at  Ktshin.  a  poor 
village  consisting  of  a  few  scattered  houses  about  30  m.  west  of  Kks 
Fartak.  Sihut  is  a  stmilar  village  20  m.  farther  west.  The  mountaics 
rise  to  a  height  of  ^000  ft.  within  a  short  distance  of  the  ccaa. 
covered  in  places  with  trees,  among  which  are  the  myrrb-  u^ 
frankincense-bearing  shrubs.  These  gums,  for  which  the  coast  v^s 
celebrated  in  ancient  days,  are  still  produced;  the  best  quality  is 
obtained  in  the  G&ra  country,  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  nKMuntaia^ 
Dhafar  and  the  mountains  behind  it  were  visited  and  surveyed  by 
Mr  Bent's  party  in  1804.  There  are  several  thriving  villages  on  the 
coast,  of  wnich  el*Haia  b  the  principal  port  of  export  for  ftankia- 
cense;  9000  cwt.  is  exported  annually  to  Bombay. 

Rums  of  Sabacan  buildings  were  found  by  J.  T.  Bent  in  the  nd^- 
bourhood  of  Dhafar,  and  a  remarkable  cove  or  small  hartxxir  «as 
discovered  at  Khor  Ron,  which  he  identified  with  the  andent  port 
of  Moscha. 

AuTHoaiTiES.— L.  Van  den  Berg,  Le  Hadramui  ef  Us  cehnia 
arabes  (Batavia.  1885);  L.  Hirsch,  Reise  in  Sudarabicn  (Lcidra. 
1897);  J-  T.  Bent.  Souiimn  Arabia  (London.  1895);  A.  von  Wrrdt^ 
Reiie  in  HadkramiU  (Brunswick.  1870) ;  H.  J.  Carter,  Trans.  Bembcn 
As.  Soc.  (1845),  47-51 ;  Journal  R.G^.  (1837).  (R.  A.  W.) 

HADRIA  [mod.  Atri  (q.v.)],  perhaps  the  original  terminal 
point  of  the  Via  Giecilia,  Italy.  It  belonged  to  the  Praetutii. 
It  became  a  colony  of  Rome  in  290  B.C.  and  remained  faithful 
to  Rome.  The  coins  which  it  issued  (probably  during  the  Funic 
Wars),,  are  remarkable.  The  crypt  of  the  cathedral  of  the 
modern  town  was  originally  a  large  Roman  dstem;  another 
forms  the.  foundation  of  the  ducal  palace;  and  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  town  there  is  a  complicated  system  of  ondergrouiui 
passages  for  collecting  and  storing  water. 
See  Notizie  degli  scavi  (1902),  3.  (T.  As.) 

HADRIAN  (PuBUUS  Acuus  Hadrianus),  Roman  emperor 
A.D.  II 7-138,  was  bom  on  the  24th  of  Januaiy  aj>.  76,  at 
Italica  in  Hispania  Baetica  (according  to  others,  at  Rome), 
where  his  ancestors,  originally  from  Hadria  in  Picenum,  had 
been  settled  since  the  time  of  the  Sdpios.  On  his  father's  death 
in  85  or  86  he  was  placed  under  the  guardianship  of  two  fellow- 
countrymen,  his  kinsman  Ulpius  Ttajanus  (afterwards  the 
emperor  Trajan),  and  Caclius  Attianus  (afterwards  prefect  of 
the  praetorian  guard).  He  spent  the  next  five  y^rs  at  Rome, 
but  at  the  age  of  fifteen  he  returned  to  his  native  i^ce  and 
entered  upon  a  military  career.  He  was  soon,  however,  recalled 
to  Rome  by  Trajan,  and  appointed  to  the  ofli<xs  of  dfcemvir 
stlitibus  judicandis,  praefectus  feriarum  Lalinanim,  and  smr 
twmae  equUum  Romanorum.  About  95  he  was  military  tribune 
in  lower  Moesia.  In  97  he  was  sent  to  upper  Germany  to  cod\xt 
the  congratulations  of  the  army  to  Trajan  on  his  adoption  by 
Nerva;  and,  in  January  of  the  foOowing  y^r,  he  hastened  to 
announce  the  death  of  Nerva  to  Trajan  at  Cologne.  Trajan, 
who  had  been  set  against  Hadrian  by  reports  of  his  extravagance, 
soon  took  him  into  favour  again,  chiefly  owing  to  the  goodtriU 
of  the  empress  Plotina,'  who  brought  about  the  marriage  of 
Hadrian  with  (Vibia)  Sabina,  Trajan's  grcat-nieoe.  In  loi 
Hadrian  was  quaestor,  in  105  tribune  of  the  people,  in  106 
praetor.  He  served  with  distinction  in  both  Dadan  campai^s; 
in  the  second  Trajan  presented  him  with  a  valuable  ting  which 
he  himself  had  received  from  Nerva,  a  token  of  regard  which 
seemed  to  designate  Hadrian  as  his  successor.  In  107  Hadnan 
was  kgtUus  praetorius  of  lower  Pannonia,  in  xo8  censid  sufaij^, 
in  X12  arckon  at  Athens,  legaius  in  the  Parthian  campaign  (113- 
1 17),  in  XI 7  consul designaius  for  the  following  year,  in  119  consul 
for  the  third  and  last  time  only  for  four  months.  When  Trapn, 
owing  to  a  severe  illness,  decided  to  return  home  from  the  East, 
he  left  Hadrian  in  command  of  the  army  and  governor  of  S>Tia. 
On  the  9th  of  August  117,  Hadrian,  at  Antioch,  was  infonnt  i 


HADRIAN 


8oi 


of  Ks  adoption  by  Trajan,  and,  on  the  nth,  of  the  death  of  the 
Uttsr  at  Selinus  in  Cilida,  According  to  Dio  Cassius  (Ixix.  x) 
the  adoption  was  entirely  fictitious,  the  work  of  Plotina  and 
Attianus,  by  whom  Trajan's  death  was  concealed  for  a  few  days 
in  trder  to  facilitate  the  elevation  of  Hadrian.  Whichever  may 
hate  been  the  truth,  his  succession  was  confirmed  by  the  army 
and  the  senate.  He  hastened  to  propitiate  the  former  by  a 
daiative  of  twice  the  usual  amount,  and  excused  his  hasty 
aaeptance  of  the  throne  to  the  senate  by  alleging  the  impatient 
zeil  of  the  soldiers  and  the  necessity  of  an  imperator  for  the 
welfare  of  the  state. 

Hadrian's  first  important  act  was  to  abandon  as  untenable 
the  conquests  of  Trajan  beyond  thd  Euphrates  (Assyria,  Meso- 
potamia and  Armeiua),  a  recurrence  to  the  traditional  policy 
of  Augustus.    The  provinces  were  unsettled,  the  barbarians 
oa  the  borders  restless  and  menacing,  and  Hadrian  wisely  judged 
tkat  the  dd  limits  of  Augustus  afforded  the  most  defensible 
fiontier.    Mesopotamia  and  Assyria  were  given  back  to  the 
Farthians,  and  the  Armenians  were  allowed  a  king  of  their  own. 
From  Antioch  Hadrian  set  out  for  Dacia  to  punish  the  Roxolani, 
vho,  incensed  by  a  reduction  of  the  tribute  hitherto  paid  them, 
tad  invaded  the  Danubian  provinces.    An  arrangement  was 
patched  up,  and  while  Hadrian  was  still  in  Dacia  he  received 
aews  of  a  conspiracy  against  his  life.    Four  citizens  of  consular 
rank  were  accused  of  being  concerned  in  it,  and  were  put  to  death 
by  order  of  the  senate  before  he  could  interfere.    Hurrying  back 
to  Rome,  Hadrian  endeavoured  to  remove  ^he  unfavourable 
impression  produced  by  the  whole  affair  and  to  gain  the  goodwill 
•f  senate  and  people.    He  threw  the  responsibility  for  the 
executions  upon  the  prefect  of  the  praetorian  guard,  and  swore 
that  he  would  never  punish  a  senator  without  the  assent  of  the 
entire  body,  to  which  he  expressed  the  utmost  deference  and 
consideration.    Large  sums  of  money  and  games  and  shows 
were  provided  for  the  people,  and,  in  addition,  all  the  arrears 
of  taxation  for  the  hist  fifteen  years  (about  £10,000,000)  were 
cancelled  and  the  bonds  burnt  in  the  Forum  of  Trajan.    Trajan's 
scheme  for  the  *'  alimentation  "  of  poor  children  was  carried  out 
upon  a  larger  scale  under  the  superintendence  of  a  special  official 
called  ^aefectus  alimentarum. 

The  record  of  Hadrian's  journeys'  through  all  parts  of  the 
empire  forms  the  chief  authority  for  the  events  of  his  life  down 
to  his  final  settlement  in  the  capital  during  his  last  years.  They 
can  only  be  briefly  touched  upon  here.  His  first  great  journey 
probably  lasted  from  1 2 1  to  1 36.  After  traversing  Gaul  he  visited 
the  Germanic  provinces  on  the  Rhine,  and  crossed  over  to 
Britain  (spring,  122),  where  he  built  the  great  rampart  from 
Che  Tyne  to  the  Solway,  which  bears  his  name  (see  Britain: 
Roman).  He  returned  through  Gaul  into  Spain,  and  then 
proceeded  to  Mauretania,  where  he  suppressed  an  insurrection. 
A  war  with  the  Farthians  was  averted  by  a  personal  interview 
with  their  king  (123).  From  the  Parthian  frontier  he  travelled 
through  Asia  Minor  and  the  islands  of  the  Aegean  to  Athens 
(autumn,  125),  where  he  introduced  various  political  and  com- 
mercial changes,  was  initiated  at  the  Elcusinia,  and  presided 
at  the  celebration  of  the  greater  Dionysia.  After  visiting  Central 
Greece  and  Peloponnesus,  he  returned  by  way  of  Sicily  to  Rome 
(end  of  126).  The  next  year  was  spent  at  Rome,  and,  after  a 
visit  to  Africa,  he  set  out  on  his  second  great  journey  (September 
128).  He  travelled  by  way  of  Athens,  where  he  completed  and 
dedicated  the  buildings  (sec  Athens)  begun  during  his  first 
visit,  chief  of  which  was  the  Olympieum  or  temple  of  Olympian 
Zeus,  on  which  occasion  Hadrian  himself  assumed  the  name  of 
Olympius.  In  the  spring  of  i  iq  he  visited  Asia  Minor  and  Syria, 
where  he  invited  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  East  to  a  meeting 
(probably  at  Samosata).  Having  passed  the  winter  at  Antioch, 
he  set  out  for  the  south  (spring,  130).  He  ordered  Jerusalem 
Co  be  rebuilt  (see  Jerusalem)  under  the  name  of  Aclia  Capitolina, 
and  made  his  way  through  Arabia  to  Egypt,  where  he  restored 

*The  chronology  of  Hadrian's  journeys — indeed,  of  the  whole 
reign — b  confused  and  obicure.  In  the  above  the  article  by  von 
Ronden  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  ReaUncychpddU  has  been  followed. 
Weber's  (see  Bibliog.)  is  the  most  important  discussion. 


the  tomb  of  Pompey  at  Pelusium  with  great  magnificence. 
After  a  short  stay  at  Alexandria  he  took  an  excursion  up  the 
Nile,  during  which  he  lost  his  favourite  Antinous.  On  the  aist 
of  November  130,  Hadrian  (or  at  any  rate  his  wife  Sabina) 
heard  the  music  which  issued  at  sunrise  from  the  statue  of 
Memnon  at  Thebes  (see  Memmon).  From  Egypt  Hadrian 
returned  through  Syria  to  Europie  (h^  movements  are  obscure), 
but  was  obliged  to  hurry  back  to  Palestine  (spring,  133)  to  give 
his  personal  attention  (this  is  denied  by  some  historians)  to  the 
revdt  of  the  Jews,  which  had  broken  out  (autumn,  131,  or 
spring,  13a)  after  he  had  left  Syria.  The  founding  of  a  Roman 
colony  on  the  site  of  Jerusalem  (Dio  Cass.  bdx.  xa)  and  the 
prohibition  of  circumcision  (Spartianus,  Hadrianus,  14)  are  said 
to  have  been  the  causes  of  the  war,  but  authorities  differ  con- 
siderably as  to  this  and  as  to  the  measures  which  followed  the 
revolt  (see  art.  Jews;  also  E.  SchUrer,  HisL  cftke  Jewish  People^ 
Eng.  tr.,  div.  x,  vol.  ii.  p.  288;  and  S.  Krauss  in  Jewish  Encyc. 
s.v.  "  Hadrian  "),  which  lasted  till  135.  Leaving  the  conduct 
of  affairs  in  the  hands  of  his  most  capable  general,  Julius  Severus, 
in  the  spring  of  134  Hadrian  returned  to  Rome.  The  remaining 
years  of  his  life  were  spent  partly  in  the  capital,  partly  in  his 
villa  at  Tibur.  His  health  now  began  to  fall,  and  it  became 
necessary  for  him  to  choose  a  successor,  as  he  had  no 
children  of  his  own.  Against  the  advice  of  his  rebtives  and 
friends  he  adopted  L.  Ceionius  Commodus  under  the  name  of 
L.  Aelius  Caesar,  who  was  in  a  feeble  *state  of  health  and 
died  on  the  ist  of  January  138,  before  he  had  an  opportunity 
of  proving  his  capabilities.  Hadrian  then  adopted  Arrius 
Antoninus  (see  Antoninus  Pius)  on  condition  that  he  should 
adopt  M.  Annius  Verus  (afterwards  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius) 
and  the  son  of  L.  Aelius  Caesar,  L.  Ceionius  Commodus  (after- 
wards the  emperor  Commodus).  Hadrian  died  at  Baiae  on  the 
loth  of  July  138. 

He  was  without  doubt  one  of  the  most  capable  emp<!ron 
who  ever  occupied  the  throne,  and  devoted  hb  great  and  varied 
talents  to  the  interests  of  the  state.  One  of  hb  chief  objects  was 
the  abolition  of  distinctions  between  the  provinces  and  the 
mother  country,  finally  carried  out  by  Caracalla,  while  at  the 
same  time  he  did  not  neglect  reforms  that  were  urgently  called 
for  in  Italy.  Provincial  governors  were  kept  under  strict  super- 
vision; extortion  was  practically  unheard  of;  tht  jus  Latii  was 
bestowed  upon  several  communities;  special  officiab  were 
instituted  for  the  control  of  the  finances;  and  the  emperor's 
interest  in  provincial  affairs  was  shown  by  hb  personal  assumption 
of  various  municipal  offices.  New  towns  were  founded  and  old 
ones  restored;  new  streets  were  laid  out,  and  aqueducts,  temples 
and  magnificent  buildings  constructed.  In  Italy  itself  the  ad- 
minbtration  of  justice  and  the  finances  required  special  attention. 
Four  legati  juridici  (or  simply  juridici)  of  consular  rank  were 
appointed  for  Italy,  who  took  over  certain  important  judicial 
functions  formerly  exercised  by  local  magistrates  (cases  of 
fidetcommissa,  the.  nomination  of  guardians).  The  judicial 
council  {consUicrii  Augusti,  later  called  cimststorium),  composed 
of  persons  of  the  highest  rank  (especially  jurists),  became  a 
permanent  body  of  advisers,  although  merely  consultative. 
Roman  law  owes  much  to  Hadrian,  who  instructed  Salvius 
Julianus  to  draw  up  an  tdictum  perpetuum,  to  a  great  extent  the 
basb  of  Justinian's  Corpus  juris  (see  M.  Schanx,  Cesckickte  dot 
rdmischen  Literature  iii.  p.  167).  In  the  administration  of 
finance,  in  addition  to  the  remission  of  arrears  already  mentioned, 
a  revision  of  claims  was  ordered  to  be  made  every  fifteen  yean, 
thereby  anticipating  the  **  indictions  "  (see  Calendar;  Chron- 
ology). Direct  collection  of  taxes  by  imperial  procurators  was 
substituted  for  the  system  of  farming,  and  a  special  official 
{advocatus  fisci)  was  instituted  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the 
imperial  treasury.  The  gift  of  "  coronary  gold  "  (aurum  coro- 
narium),  presented  to  the  emperor  on  certain  occasions,  was 
entirely  remitted  in  the  case  of  Italy,  and  partly  in  the  case  of  the 
provinces.  The  administration  of  the  postal  service  throughout 
the  empire  was  taken  over  by  the  state,  and  municipal  officials 
were  relieved  from  the  burden  of  maintaining  the  imperial  posts. 
Humane  regulations  as  to  the  treatment  of  slaves  were  strictly 


HADRIAN'S  WALI^HADRUMETUM 

jnuda  hb  [iwndi,  it  uotbn  be 


it  was  n  penal  ofTencc,  The  sale  ol  slavn  (male 
immoral  and  gladiatorial  puiposes  nas  [gihidctrai 
putting  all  the  houteliold  in  death  when  iheir 
idered  «u  nu>di£rd.    The  public  bathi  wecekept 


banquelB  verc  prohibited;  i 
was  a  3tHct  disci  pliruiian 


without   their   I 
Equites).    Ami 

Kpistviis,  a  rati 

now  the  moat  iir 


in  other  respects  he  does  ni 
important  military  Tcforms. 


aving  perionned  I 
ng  these  posts  wei 
as  that  of  the  tnpe. 


!  o(  the  muld,  with  . 


e  a  supreme  judge  I 

Kted  by  Hadrian  mention  i 

capital,  the  temple  dI  Venu 

he  pantheon  of  Agrippa; 

s  oi  the 


appeal    Among  th< 


n,  the  t 


lost  celehcaled  placea 
ras  the  favouiile  site  of 
the  temple  ol  Olympian 


and  a  temple  ol  Hera, 

Hadrian  was  lond  of  the  wdety  of  learned  men — poet 
icbolirt,  rhetoricians  and  philojopheta— whom  he  alternatel 
humoured  and  ridiculed.  In  painting,  sculpture  and  mu^c  t 
coniidered   himself    the   equal   of  specialists.    The   archite. 

outspoken  criticism  ot  the  einperor'a  plana.  The  sophi: 
Favorfnus  was  more  politic;  Khen  leproiched  for  yielding  it 
readily  to  the  emperor  in  some  grammBtieal  discusHon,  he  rcphi 
that  it  wa>  unwise  to  coniradici  the  master  of  thirty  le^on 
The  Athenaeum  (g-t.)  owed  its  fountlation  to  Hatlria 


[Of  b- 


itellcclual  al 


■cek,  and  wrote  prose  ai 


IS  (a  panegyric  on  his  moIhei-in-bLH 
i  the  soldiers  at  Lambaeais  in  Africa), 
us  he  wrote  a  work  called  CaUiiaaa 
eUanea.    The  Latin  and  Greek  antbi 


er  of  Had 


insul  Servianus  (in  Vopiscus,  Vila  Sninrni    .    . 
nsidtred  genuirie.    Hadrian's  celebrated  dying  address 
u  ma  loul  may  here  be  quoted: — 

*'  Animula  vagula,  blandula, 

R"rnu""abiGa  i^^'' 
allidula.  rieida.  nuduli: 
NeCi  lit  »!(&■  dabia  jocos?" 
The  character  of  Hadrian  eihibita  a  misa  at  conliadictions, 
well  summed  up  by  Spartianus  (14. 11).    He  was  grave  and  Eay, 
affable  and  digniltcd,  cruel  and  gentle,  mean  and  generous,  eager 

gathered  round  him  the 


(i«ife-  i.  01.1.1 
the  popular  Eavi 


I,  at  another  be  mistrusted  and  put  iheo  to 
le  was  only  conustent  in  his  inconsistency 
s  Hriu).  Although  he  endeavoured  to  via 
■i  be  waa  more  feared  than  loved.  A  man  o( 
L  and  groasly  fupentitioui,  he  was  an  ardent 
tover  ol  nature.  But,  with  all  hia  faults,  he  devoted  himseU  u 
indeialigably  to  the  service  of  the  slate,  that  the  period  d  his 
reign  could  be  characterized  as  a  "  golden  age." 

The  chief  ancient  authoriliea  lor  the  le^  ef  Madrian  aie:  ilic 
life  by  AHiui  SpaniaDus  io  (he  SaifUra  kiUenm  Amaiat  {« 
AUCUarAH  HISIOBT  and  tsbUogiaphy):  the  epiiocae  of  DiD  Caiaiis 
(lail.)  bv  Xiphilhiui;  Aiireliiii  Victor,  EpiL  14.  pnbalily  baaed  « 
Mariiu  Haaimi]i;  Eiilropiua  viii.  6;  Zonaraa  ai.  li^^SaJdaa,  tJr 

granhy  waa  used  by  both  DioCaioiui  and  MariuiMa^cimnt.    Modern 


KJ  >"i!vrio  orJinondo  ab  inp.  HiO^^tattis,  i.  (Badn.  )Sav: 
<  ):,(.'U»>ibrnKliaain  na  CtiMdiU  ia  Kamll„i',^^ 
I.:.  i:»D);0.  T.  £hu1i:.  ';Lebcn  da  Kai>cr«, Hadna*.- 


M.  Ramsay.  Churdi  la  lit  Rsmait  Emptrt,  m 
le.  in  HcrKig-Hauck'i  RvtkmrMvBtJir.  vii. 
lan  literal ure^  TeuRtl-Schwabe  aod  Schana. 
re  Clasi.  Quarl..  1908,  L  (T.  K.;  ;.  H. 


Aeliui  Caiiar,  1 

HADBIAH'S  WALL,  the  name  luuallv  given  to  the  remains  of 
the  Roman  (orliGcatloni  which  defended  the  oottlierD  inwiirr  of 
the  Roman  pmvince of  Britain,  between  the  Tyne and  the Solnay. 
The  works  consisted  of  (1]  a  continuous  defensive  rampatl  with  a 
ditch  in  front  and  a  road  behind;  (3)  various  forts,  bkickhoiiHS 
and  towers  along  the  rampart ;  and  Cj)  an  earthwork  to  the  south 
ofit.gencrally  called  the  Vallum  ofuncertwn  use.  Thedefensivt 
wall  was  probably  Gist  erected  by  Hadrian  about  ld.  hi  u  a 
turf  wall,  and  rebuilt  in  atone  by  Septimiui  Seveiut  about  a,ii. 
>oS.    Sec  further  Buiuh:  Kdhuh. 

HADKUNETUH,  a  town  of  ancient  Africa  00  the  SHithmi 
eilremity  of  the  itaiu  Nafeiaatiui  {mod.  GuU  of  Hamnumet) 
on  the  east  coast  of  Tunisia.  The  site  is  partly  occupieil  by  the 
modem  town  of  Susa  (j.».).  The  lomi  of  the  name  Hadru- 
metum  varied  much  in  antiquity;  the  Greeka  called  it  'iiyaii^i, 
'ASffbinfTot,  'Aipafiimp,  'AApAii^Ttn:  the  Romans  Adr^aikivm. 
AJrimaum,  tia^nmdHm,  Halrymelum,  Elc;  inscriptions  and 
coins  gave  Hadntmclun.  The  town  was  origioaQy  a  Phoenitiaa 
colony  founded  by  Tyiiana  h>ng  before  Carthage  (Sallust, 
Jul.  iq).  It  became  subject  to  Carthage,  but  lost  none  ol  its 
prosperity.  Often  mentioned  during  the  Punic  Wart,  it  was 
captured  by  Agathccles  in  3ro,  and  was  the  refuge  of  Hannibal 

the  Ramans; 

d  the  title  of  tialos  lUxra  (Appian,  Pamia,  idv.; 
C.I.L.  i.  p.  81).  Caesai  bnded  there  in  46  B.C.  on  his  way  to 
the  victory  ol  Thapaus  (Da  Mb  AJric.  iiL'  Suetonius,  Dn. 
Jul.  lii,). 

In  the  organiiatloD  of  the  African  provinces  Badrumetum 
became  a  capital  of  the  province  ol  Byiacena.  Its  harhoi^t  was 
extremely  busy  and  the  aurroundjng  country  unusually  fcntU- 
Trajan  made  it  a  Latin  colony  under  the  title  of  CtJ^iia 
CatKoriia  Ulpia  Trajana  AugxiU  Ftui^aa  Haintmtliwt,  a 
dedication  to  the  emperor  Gordian  the  Gold,  found  by  U. 
Cagnal  at  Susa  in  iSSj  gives  these  titles  10  the  town,  and  at 
[he  same  lime  identifies  it  with  Susa.  Quarrels  arose  between 
Hadrumctum  and  its  ndghbour  Tbyidrus  in  coonciion  vilh 
the  Lcmpli  of  Minerva  situated  on  the  borders  ol  ibeir  respcflrve 
territories  (Fronlinus,  CriniwIici,fd.Ladiiauisui^,  j;)  jVe3{aa>* 


HAECKEL 


803 


whec  pro-consul  of  Africa  had  to  repress  a  sedition  among  its 
inhabitants  (Suetonius,  Vesp.  iv.;  Tissot,  Pastes  de  la  prov, 
d^Afrique^  p.  66);  it  was  the  birthplace  of  the^  emperor  Albinus. 
At  Uiis  period  the  metropolis  of  Byzacena  was  after  Carthage 
the  nost  important  town  in  Roman  Africa.  It  was  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric,  and  its  bishops  are  mentioned  at  the  councils  of  258, 
34^*393  And  even  later.  Destroyed  by  the  Vandals  in  434  it  was 
rcbcilt  by  Justinian  and  renamed  Justinianopolis  (Procop.  De 
aedif.  vi.  6).  The  Arabic  invasion  at  the  end  of  the  7th  century 
destroyed  the  Byzantine  towns,  and  the  place  became  the  haunt 
of  pirates,  protected  by  the  Kasbah  (citadel);  it  was  built  on 
the  substructions  of  the  Pum'c,  Roman  and  Byzantine  acropolis, 
and  is  used  by  the  French  for  military  purposes.  The  Arabic 
geographer  Bakri  gave  a  description  of  the  chief  Roman 
buildings  which  were  standing  in  his  time  (Bakri,  Dacr.  de 
VAJriipUt  tr.  by  de  Slane,  p.  83  et  seq.).  The  modem  town  of 
Susa,  despite  its  commercial  prosperity,  occupies  only  a  third  of 
*  the  old  site. 

In  1863  the  French  engineer,  A.  Daux,  discovered  the  jetties 
and  the  moles  of  the  commerdal  harbour,  and  the  line  of  the 
military  harbour  (Cothon);  both  harbours,  which  were  mainly 
artificial,  are  entirely  silted  up.  There  remains  a  fragment  of 
the  fortificationsof  the  Punic  town,  which  had  a  total  length 
of  6410  metres,  and  remains  of  the  substructions  of  the  Byzantine 
acropolis,  of  the  circus,  the  theatre,  the  water  cisterns,  and  of 
other  buildings,  notably  the  interesting  Byzantine  basilica 
which  is  now  used  as  an  Arab  calk  (Kahwat-d-Kubba).  In  the 
ruins  there  have  been  found  numerous  columns  of  Punic  in- 
scriptions, Roman  inscriptions  and  mosaic,  among  which  is  one 
representing  Virgil  seated,  holding  the  Aeneid  in  his  hand; 
another  represents  the  Cretan  labyrinth  with  Theseus  and  the 
Minotaur  (H^ron  de  Villefosse,  Revue  de  rAfrique  franfaise, 
v.,  December  1887,  pp.  384  and  394;  Combes  rendus  de  VAcad. 
des  Inscr.  et  BdUs-LetlreSt  189a,  p.  318;  other  mosaics,  ibid.^ 
1896,  p.  578;  Revue  arckiot.,  1897).  In  1904  Dr  Carton  and  the 
abb6  Leynaud  discovered  huge  Christian  catacombs  with,  several 
miles  of  subterranean  galleries  to  which  access  is  obtained  by  a 
small  vaulted  chamber.  In  these  catacombs  we  find  numerous 
sarcophagi  and  inscriptions  painted  or  engraved  of  the  Ro*nan 
and  Byzantine  periocb  {Comptes  rendus  de  PAcad.  des  Inscr.  et 
BdltS'LettreSt  1904-1907;  Carton  and  IjeyTaLvAt  Lis  Catacombes 
d'Hadrumiie,  Susa,  1905).  We  can  recognize  also  th^  Punic  and 
Pagan-Roman  cemeteries  (C.  R.  de  I' Acad,  des  Itucr.  et  Betles- 
LeUres,  X887;  Butt,  orchiol.  du  Comiti,  1885,  p.  149;  1903, 
p.  1 57).  The  town  had  no  Punic  coins,  but  under  the  Roman 
domination  there  were  coins  from  the  time  of  the  Republic. 
These  are  of  bronze  and  bear  the  name  of  the  city  in  abbrevia- 
tions, Hads  or  Haorvm  accompanying  the  head  of  Neptune 
or  the  Sun.  We  find  also  the  names  of  local  duumvirs.  Under 
Augustus  the  coins  have  on  the  obverse  the  imperial  eiiigy,  and 
on  the  reverse  the  names  and  often  the  effigies  of  the  pro-consuls 
who  governed  the  province,  P.  Quintilius  Varus,  L.  Volusius 
Satu  minus  and  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Africanus.'  After  Augustus 
the  mint  was  finally  dosed. 

Authorities. — A.  Daux,  RecKerckes  sur  rorigine  et  Vemptacenunt 
des  emporia  pktniciens  dans  le  Zeugis  et  U  Bytaeium  (Pans,  1869); 
Ch.  Tissot,  Ciograpkie  comparle  dela  province  romaine  d'Afriaue,  ii. 
p.  149;  Caenat,  Bxphrations  arckbU.  en  Tunisie  (2nd  and  ^ra  fasc., 
1885):  Lud.  MQllcr,  NumisnuUique  de  FA/rigue  ancienne,  li.  p.  51; 
M.  Palat,  in  the  Bulletin  arch,  du  ComtU  des  travaux  hist<»iqves 
( I S85),  pp.  121  and  150;  Revue  arcMologigue  (1884  and  1807) ;  Bulletin 
des  anttquitis  africaines  (1884  and  1885):  Bulletin  de  la  Sociiti 
archiologique  de  Scusse  (first  published  in  1903);  Alias  arcMol.  de 
Tunisie  (4th  fascicule,  with  the  plan  of  Hadrumetum).    (E.  B.*) 

HAECKEL.  ERNST  HEINRICH  (1834-  ),  German  biologist, 
was  born  at  Potsdam  on  the  x6th  of  February  1834.  He  studied 
medicine  and  sdence  at  WQrzburg,  Beriin  and  Vienna,  having 
for  his  masters  such  men  as  Johannes  M  Oiler,  R.  Virchow  and. 
R.  A.  K611iker,  and  in  1857  graduated  at  Berlin  as  M.D.  and 
M.Ch.  At  the  wish  of  his  father  he  began  to  practise  as  a  doctor 
in  that  city,  but  his  patieqfs  were  few  in  number,  one  reason 
being  that  he  did  not  wish  them  to  be  many,  and  after  a  short 
time  he  turned  to  more  congenial  pursuits.    In  1861,  at  the 


instance  of  Carl  Gegenbaur,  he  became  Privatdeutit  at  Jena; 
in  the  succeeding  year  he  was  chosen  extraordinary  professor 
of  comparative  anatomy  and  director  of  the  Zoological  Institute 
in  the  same  university;  in  1865  he  was  appointed  to  a  chair 
of  zoology  which  was  specially  established  for  his  benefit.  This 
last  position  he  retained  for  43  years,  in  ^ite  of  repeated  invita- 
tions to  migrate  to  more  important  centres,  such  as  Strassburg 
or  Vienna,  and  at  Jena  he  spent  his  life,  with  the  exception  of 
the  time  he  devoted  to  travelling  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
whence  in  every  case  he  brought  back  a  rich  zoological  harvest. 
As  a  fidd  naturalist  Hacckd  displayed  extraordinary  power 
and  industry.  Among  his  monographs  may  be  mentioned  those 
on  Radiolaria  (1862),  Siphonopkora  (1869),  Monera  (1870)  and 
Calcareous  Sponges  (1872), as  well  as  several  Challenger  reports, 
viz.  Deep^ea  Medusae  (1881),  Siphonopkora  (z888),  Dcep^ea 
KeratosaiiSSg)  and  J^^ufio/arca  (x887),the  last  beingaccoropanied 
by  140  plates  and  enumerating  over  four  thousand  new  q>edes. 
lliis output  of  systematic  and  descriptive  work  would  alone  have 
constituted  a  good  life's  work,  but  Hacckd  in  addition  wrote 
copiously  on  biological  theory.  It  happened  that  just  when  he 
was  beginning  his  sdentific  career  Darwin*s  Origin  of  Species 
was  published  (1859),  and  such  was  the  influence  it  exerdsed 
over  him  that  he  became  the  apostle  of  Darwinism  in  Germany. 
He  was,  indeed,  the  first  German  biologist  to  give  a  whde- 
hearted  adherence  to  the  doctrine  of  organic  evolution  and  to 
treat  it  as  the  cardinal  conception  of  modem  biology.  It  was  he 
who  first  brought  it  prominently  before  the  notice  of  German  men 
of  sdence  in  his  first  memoir  on  the  RadiUariay  which  was  com- 
pletely pervaded  with  its  spirit,  and  later  at  the  congress  of 
naturalists  at  Stettin  in  1863.  Darwin  himself  has  placed  on 
record  the  conviction  that  Haeckd's  enthusiastic  propagandism 
of  the  doctrine  was  the  chid  factor  of  its  success  in  Germany. 
His  book  on  General  iiorphdogy  (1866),  published  when  he  was 
only  thirty-two  years  old,  was  called  by  Huxley  a  suggestive 
attempt  to  work  out  the  practical  application  of  evolution  to 
its  final  results;  and  if  it  does  not  take  rank  as  a  classic,  it  will 
at  least  stand  but  as  a  landmark  in  the  history  of  biological 
doctrine  in  the  19th  century.  Although  it  contains  a  statement 
of  most  of  the  views  with  which  Haeckd's  name  is  associated, 
it  did  not  attract  much  attention  on  its  first  appearance,  and 
accordingly  its  author  rewrote  much  of  its  substance  in  a  more 
popular  style  and  published  it  a  year  or  two  later  as  the  Natural 
History  oj  Creation  {NtUi^iche  Schlfpfungsgpschichte)^  which  was 
far  more  successful  In  it  he  divided  morphology  into  two 
sections — tectdogy,  the  sdence  of  organic  individuality;  and 
promorphology,  which  aims  at  establishing  a  crystallography  of 
organic  forms.  Among  other  matters,  be  laid  particular  stress 
on  the  "fundamental  biogenetic  law"  that  ontogeny  re- 
capitulates phylogeny,  that  the  individual  organism  in  its 
devdopment  is  to  a  great  extent  an  epitome  of  the  f  min-modifica- 
tions  undergone  by  the  successive  ancestors  of  the  q>edes  in  the 
course  of  their  historic  evolution.  His  weU-known  "  gastraea  " 
theory  is  an  outcome  of  this  generalization.  He  divided  the 
whole  animal  creation  into  two  categories — the  Protozoa  or 
unicdlular  animals,  and  the  Metazoa  or  multicellular  animals, 
and  he  pointed  out  that  while  the  former  remain  single-celled 
throughout  their  existence,  the  latter  arc  only  to  at  the  tM^inning, 
and  are  subsequently  built  up  of  innumerable  cells,  the  single 
primitive  egg-cell  (ovum)  being  transformed  by  deavage  into  a 
globular  mass  of  cells  (morula)  t  which  first  becomes  a  hollow 
vesicle  and  then  changes  into  the  gastrula.  The  simplest  multi- 
cellular animal  he  concdved  to  resemble  this  gastrula  with  its 
two  primary  layen,  ectoderm  and  endoderm,  aod  the  earliest 
hypothetical  form  of  this  kind,  from  which  the  higher  animals 
might  be  supposed  to  be  actually  descended,  he  called  the 
"  gastraea."  This  theory  was  first  put  forward  in  the  memoir 
on  the  calcareous  sponges,  which  in  its  sub^title  was  described  as 
an  attempt  at  an  analytical  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  origin 
of  spedes,  and  was  subsequently  elaborated  in  various  Studies 
on  the  Gastraea  Theory  (1873-1884).  Haeckd,  again,  was  the 
first  to  attempt  to  dnw  up  a  genealogicad  tree  (Stammbaum) 
exhibiting  the  relationship  between  the  various  orders  of  animals 


8o4 


HAEMATITE— HAEMATOCELE 


with  regard  both  to  one  another  and  their  common  origin.  His 
earliest  attempt  in  the  Genial  Morphology  was  succeeded  by 
many  others,  and  his  efforts  in  this  direction  may  perhaps  be 
held  to  culminate  in  the  paper  he  read  before  the  fourth  Inter- 
national Zoological  Congress,  held  at  Cambridge  in  1898,  when 
he  traced  the  descent  of  the  human  race  in  twenty-six  stages 
from  organisms  like  the  still-existing  Monera,  simple  structureless 
masses  of  protoplasm,  and  the  unicellular  Protista^  through  the 
chimpanzees  and  the  PitkecatUkropus  erectus,  of  which  a  few  fossil 
bones  were  discovered  in  Java  in  1894,  and  which  he  held  to  be 
undoubtedly  an  intermediate  form  connecting  primitive  man 
with  the  anthropoid  apes. 

Not  content  with  the  study  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution  in  Its 
zoological  aspects,  Haeckcl  also  applied  it  to  some  of  the  oldest 
problems  of  philosophy  and  religion.  What  he  termed  the  in- 
tegration of  his  views  on  these  subjects  he  published  under  the 
title  of  Die  Wdtrdtsd  (1899),  which  in  190X  appeared  in  English 
as  The  Riddle  of  the  Universe.  In  this  book,  adopting  an  un- 
compromising monistic  attitude,  he  asserted  the  essential  unity 
of  organic  and  inorganic  nature.  According  to  his  "  carbon- 
theory,"  which  has  been  far  from  achieving  general  acceptance, 
the  chemico-physical  properties  of  carbon  in  its  complex  albu- 
minoid compounds  are  the  sole  and  the  mechanical  cause  of  the 
specific  phenomena  of  movement  which  distinguish  organic  from 
inorganic  substances,  and  the  first  development  of  living  proto- 
plasm, as  seen  in  the  Moticra^  arises  from  such  nitrogenous 
carbon-compounds  by  a  process  of  spontaneous  generation. 
Psychology  he  regarded  as  merely  a  branch  of  physiology,  and 
psychical  activity  as  a  group  of  vital  phenomena  which  depend 
solely  on  physiological  actions  and  material  changes  taking  place 
in  the  protoplasm  of  the  organism  in  which  it  is  manifested. 
Every  living  cell  has  psychic  properties,  and  the  psychic  life 
of  multicellular  organisms  is  the  sum-total  of  the  psychic 
functions  of  the  cells  of  which  they  are  composed.  Moreover, 
just  as  the  highest  animals  have  been  evolved  from  the  simplest 
forms  of  life,  so  the  highest  faculties  of  the  human  mind  have  been 
evolved  from  the  soul  of  the  brute-beasts,  and  more  remotely 
from  the  simple  cell-soul  of  the  unicellular  Protozoa.  As  a 
consequence  of  these  views  Haeckel  was  led  to  deny  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  the  freedom  of  the  will,  and  the  existence 
of  a  personal  God. 

Haeckel's  literary  output  was  enormous,  and  at  the  time  of  the 
celebration  of  his  sixtieth  birthday  at  Jena  in  1894  he  had 
produced  42  works  with  i  j,ooo  pages,  besides  numerous  scientific 
memoirs.  In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  he 
wrote  Freie  Wissensckaft  und  freie  Lekre  (1877)  in  reply  to  a 
speech  in  which  Virchow  objected  to  the  teaching  of  the  doctrine 
of  evolution  in  schools,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  an  unproved 
hypothesis;  Die  systematische  Phyiogenie  (1894),  which  has  been 
pronounced  his  best  book;  Anthropogenie  (1874,  sth  and  enlarged 
edition  1903),  dealing  with  the  evolution  of  man;  Vher  unsere 
gegemffSrtige  Kenntnis  vom  Ursprung  des  Menschen  (1898, 
translated  into  English  as  The  Last  Link,  1898);  Der  Kampjf 
um  den  Entwickelungsgedanken  (1905,  English  version.  Last 
Words  on  Evolution,  1906);  Die  Lebenswunder  (1904),  a  supple- 
ment to  the  Riddle  of  the  Universe;  books  of  travel,  such  as 
Indische  Reisehriefc  (1882)  and  Aus  Insulinde  (1901),  the  fruits 
of  journeys  to  Ceylon  and  to  Java;  Kunsfformen  der  Nalur 
(1904),  with  plates  representing  beautiful  marine  animal  forms; 
and  Wanderbilder  (1905),  rejproductions  of  his  oil-paintings  and 

water-colour  landscapes. 

There  are  bioeraphies  by  W.  Bdlsche  (Dresden.*  T900,  translated 
into  English  by  Joseph  McCabe,  with  additions,  London,  1906)  and 
by  Breitenbach  (Odenkirchen,  1904).  See  also  Walther  May,"  Ernst 
Iiaeckel;  Versuch  einer  Chronik  seines  Lebens  und  Werkens  (Leipzig, 
1909). 

HAEMATITB,  or  Hematite,  a  mineral  consisting  of  ferric 
oxide  (FciOj),  named  from  the  Greek  word  al;ua,  "blood,"  in 
allusion  to  its  typical  colour,  whence  it  is  called  also  red  iron  ore. 
When  crystallized,  however,  haematite  often  presents  a  dark 
colour,  even  iron-black;  but  on  scratching  the  surface,  the 
powder  of  the  streak  shows  the  colour  of  dried  blood.  Haematite 
crystallizes  in  the  rhombohedral  system,  and  is  isomorphous 


Fxc.  I. 


Fig.  3. 


with  corundum  (AIsOi).    The  habit  of  the  oystab  may  be 

rhombohedral,  pyramidal  or  tabular,  rarely  prismatic.    In  fig.  i 

the  crystal,  from  Elba,  shows  a  combination  of  the  fundamental 

rhombohcdron  (R),  an  obtuse  rhom- 

bohedron  (1),  and  the  hexagonal  bi- 

pyramid  (ft).     Fig.  3  is  a  tabular 

crystal  in  which  the  basal  pinacoid 

(0)  predominates.  Haematite  has  no 

distinct  cleavage,  but  may  show,  in 

consequence  of  a  lamellar  structure, 

a  tendency  to  parting  along  certain 

planes. 

Crystallized  haematite,  such  as 
that  from  the  iron-mines  of  Elba,  presents  a  steel-grey  or  ixon* 
black  colour,  with  a  brilliant  metallic  lustre,  sometimes  beauti- 
fully iridescent.  The  splendent  surface  has  suggested  for  ths 
mineral  such  names  as  specular  iron  ore,  looking-^ass  ore,  and 
iron  glance  {fer  otigiste  of  French  writers).  The  hardness  jof  the 
crystallized  haematite  is  about  6,  and  the  specific  gravity  5-2. 
The  so-called  '^iron  roses"  {Eisenrosem)  of  Switzerland  are 
rosette-like  aggregates  of  hexagonal 
tabular  crystals,  from  fissures  in  the 
gneissose  rocks  of  the  Alps.  Specular 
iron  ore  occurs  in  the  form  of  briUiant 
metallic  scales  on  many  lavas,  as  at 
Vesuvius  and  Etna,  in  the  Auvergne  and  the  Eifd,  and  notaUy 
in  the  Island  of  Ascension,  where  the  mineral  forms  beautiful 
tabular  crystals.  It  seems  to  be  a  sublimation-product  formed 
in  volcanoes  by  the  interaction  of  the  vapour  of  feixic  chloride 
and  steam. 

Specular  haematite  forms  a  constituent  of  certain  sddstose 
rocks,  such  as  the  Brazilian  itabirite.  In  the  Marquette  district 
of  Michigan  (Lake  Superior)  schistose  specular  ore  occurs  ia 
important  deposits,  associated  with  a  jasper  rock,  in  whidi  the 
ore  alternates  with  bands  of  red  quartzite.  Micaceous  iron  ore 
consists  of  delicate  sted-grey  scales  of  specular  haematite, 
unctuous  to  the  touch,  used  as  a  lubricant  and  also  as  a  pigment. 
It  is  worked  in  Devonshire  under  the  name  of  shining  ore.  Very 
thin  laminae  of  haematite,  blood-red  by  transmitted  light, 
occur  as  microscopic  enclosures  in  certain  minerals,  such  as 
camallite  and  sun-stone,  to  which  they  impart  colour  and  lustre. 

Much  haematite  occurs  in  a  compact  or  massive  form,  oftai 
mammillary,  and  presenting  on  fracture  a  fibrous  structure. 
The  reniform  masses  are  known  as  kidney  ore.  Such  red  ore  is 
generally  neither  so  dense  nor  so  hard  as  the  crystals.  It  often 
passes  into  an  earthy  form,  termed  soft  red  ore,  and  when  mixed 
with  more  or  less  day  constitutes  red  ochre,  ruddle  or  reddle 
(Ger.  Rdtd). 

The  hard  haematite  is  occasionally  cut  and  poltsbed  as  an 
ornamental  stone,  and  certain  kinds  have  been  made  into  beads 
simulating  black  pearls.  It  was  worked  by  the  Assyrians  for 
their  engraved  cylinder-seals,  and  was  used  by  the  gnostics  for 
amulets.  Some  of  the  native  tribes  in  the  Congo  basin  employ 
it  as  a  material  for  axes.  The  hard  fibrous  ore  of  Cumberland 
is  known  as  pencil  ore,  and  is  employed  for  the  buxntsheis  used 
by  bookbinders  and  others.  Santiago  de  Compostela  in  Soain 
furnishes  a  considerable  supply  of  haematite  burnishers. 

Haematite  is  an  important  ore  of  iron  iq.v.),  and  is  extensivdy 
worked  in  Elba,  Spain  (Bilbao),  Scandinavia,  the  Lake  Superior 
region  and  elsewhere.  In  England  valuable  deposits  occur  in 
the  Carboniferous  Limestone  of  west  Cumberland  (Whitehaven 
district)  and  north  Lancashire  (Ulverston  (fistrict).  The  hard 
ore  is  siliceous,  and  fine  crystallized  spedmens  occur  in  associa- 
tion with  smoky  quartz.  The  ore  is  remarkably  free  from 
phosphorus,  and  is  consequently  valued  for  the  production  of  ^g- 
iron  to  be  converted  into  Bessemer  sted.  (F.  W.  R.*) 

HAEMATOCELB  (Gr.  aZ/io,  blood,  and  id^Xii,  tumour),  the 
medical  term  for  a  localized  collection  of  blood  in  the  tunica 
vaginalis  or  cord.  It  is  usually  the  result  of  a  sadden  Uow  or 
severe  strain,  but  may  arise  from  disease.  At  first  it  forms  a 
smooth,  fluctuating,  opaque  swelling,  but  later  becomes  hard 
and  firm.    In  chronic  cases  the  walls  of  the  tunica  vaginalis 


HAEMOPHILIA— HAEMORRHOIDS 


80s 


undergo  changes.  The  tiefttmeat  of  a  case  leen  soon  after  the 
injury  is  directed  towards  keeping  the  patient  at  rest,  elevating 
the  parts,  and  applying  an  evaporating  lotion  or  ice-bag.  In 
chronic  cases  it  may  be-  necessary  to  lay  open  the  cavity  and 
remove  the  coagulum. 

HAEMOPHILIA,  the  medical  term  for  a  condition  of  the 
vascular  system,  often  running  in  families,  the  members  of  which 
are  known  as  "  bleeders,"  characterised  by  a  disposition  towards 
bleeding,  whether  with  or  without  the  provocation  of  an  injury 
to  the  tissue.  When  this  bleeding  is  spontaneous  it  comes  from 
the  mucous  membranes,  especially  from  the  nose,  but  also  from 
the  mouth,  bowel  and  bronchial  tubes.  Slight  bruises  are  apt 
to  be  foUowed  by  extravasations  of  blood  into  the  tissues;  the 
swollen  joints  (knee  especially)  of  a  bleeder  are  probably  due, 
in  the  first  instance,  to  the  escape  of  blood  into  the  joint  cavity 
or  synovial  membrane.  It  is  always  from  the  smallest  vessels 
that  the  blood  escapes,  and  may  do  so  in  such  quantities  as  to 
cause  death  in  a  few  hours. 

HAEMORRHAQB  (Gr.  ofMa,  blood,  and  M7>^<u>  to  burst), 
a  general  term  for  any  escape  of  blood  from  a  blood-vessel  (see 
Blood).  It  commonly  results  from  injury,  as  the  tearing  or 
cutting  of  a  blood-vessel,  but  certain  forms  result  from  disease, 
as  in  Kurvy  and  purpura.  The  chief  varieties  of  haemorrhage 
are  arterial^  venous  and  capillary.  Bleeding  from  an  artery  is 
of  a  bright  red  colour,  and  escapes  from  the  end  of  the  vessel 
nearest  the  heart  in  jets  synchronous  with  the  heart's  beat. 
Bleeding  from  a  vein  is  of  a  darker  colour;  the  flow  is  steady, 
and  the  bleeding  is  from  the  distal  end  of  the  vesseL  Capillary 
bleeding  is  a  general  oozing  from  a  raw  surface.  By  extravasation 
of  blood  is  meant  the  pouring  out  of  blood  into  the  areolar  tissues, 
which  become  boggy.  Th^  is  termed  a  bruise  or  ecckymosis. 
Epislaxis  is  a  tenp  given  to  bleeding  from  the  nose.  Haemat- 
emesis  is  vomiting  of  blood,  the  colour  of  which  may  be  altered 
by  digestion,  as  is  also  the  case  in  mehena,  or  passage  of  blood 
with  the  faeces,  in  which  the  blood  becomes  dark  and  tarry- 
looking  from  the  action  of  the  intestinal  fluids.  Haemoptysis 
denotes  an  escape  of  blood  from  the  air-passages,  which  is  usually 
bright  red  and  frothy  from  admixture  with  air.  Haematuria 
means  passage  of  blood  with  the  urine. 

Cessation  of  bleeding  may  take  place  from  natural  or  from 
artificial  means.  Natural  arrest  of  haemorrhage  arises  from 
(i)  the  coagulation  of  the  blood  itself,  (a)  the  diminution  of  the 
heart's  action  as  in  faintingr  (3)  changes  taking  place  in  the  cut 
vessel  causing  its  retraction  and  contraction.  In  the  surgical 
treatment  of  haemorrhage  minor  means  of  arresting  bleeding 
are:  cold,  which  is  most  valuable  in  general  oozing  and  local 
extravasations;  very  hot  water,  130*  to  160**  F.,  a  powerful 
haemostatic;  position,  such  as  elevation  of  the  limb,  valuable 
in  bleeding  from  the  extremities;  styptics  or  astringents, 
applied  locally,  as  perchloride  of  iron,  tannic  acid  and  others, 
the  most  valuable  being  suprarenal  extract.  In  arresting 
haemorrhage  temporarily  the  chief  thing  is  to  press  directly 
on  the  bleeding  part.  The  pressure  to  be  effectual  need  not  be 
severe,  but  must  be  accurately  applied.  If  the  bleeding  point 
cannot  be  reached,  the  pressure  should  be  applied  to  the  main 
artery  between  the  bleeding  point  and  the  heart.  In  small 
blood-vessels  pressure  will  be  sufficient  to  arrest  haemorrhage 
permanently.  In  large  vessels  it  is  usual  to  pass  a  ligature^round 
the  vessel  and  tie  it  with  a  reef-knot.  Apply  the  ligature,  if 
possible,  at  the  bleeding  point,  tying  both  ends  of  the  cut  vessel. 
If  this  cannot  be  done,  the  main  artery  of  the  limb  nflist  be 
exposed  by  dissection  at  the  most  accessible  point  between  the 
wound  and  the  heart,  and  there  ligatured. 

Haemorrhage  has  been  classified  as — (i)  primary,  occurring 
at  the  time  of  the  injury;  (a)  reactionary,  or  within  twenty-four 
hours  of  the  accident,  during  the  stage  of  reaction;  (3)  secondary, 
occurring  at  a  later  period  and  caused  by  faulty  application  of  a 
ligature  or  septic  condition  of  the  wound.  In  severe  haemor- 
rhage, as  from  the  division  of  a  large  artery,  the  patient  may 
collapse  and  death  ensue  from  syncope.  In  this  case  stimulants 
and  strychnine  may  be  given,  but  they  should  be  avoided  until 
it  is  certain  the  bleeding  has  been  properly  controlled,  as  they 


tend  to  increase  it.  Transfusion  of  blood  directly  from  the  vein 
of  a  healthy  penon  to  the  blood-vessels  of  the  patient,  and 
infusion  of  saline  solution  into  a  vein,  may  be  practised  (see 
Shock).  In  a  congenital  condition  known  as  kaemopkylia  {q.v.) 
it  is  difficult  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood. 

The  surgical  procedure  for  the  treatment  of  an  open  wound 
is — (i)  arrest  of  haemorrhage;  (a)  cleansing  of  the  wound  and 
removal  of  any  foreign  bodies;  (3)  careful  apposition  of  its 
edges  and  surfaces — the  edges  being  best  brought  in  contact 
by  sutures  of  aseptic  silk  or  catgut,  the  surfaces  by  carefully 
applied  pressure;  (4)  free  drainage,  if  necessary,  to  prevent 
accumulation  either  of  blood  or  serous  effusion;  (5)  avoidance 
of  sepsis;  (6)  perfect  rest  of  the  part.  These  methods  of  treat- 
ment require  to  be  modified  for  wounds  in  spedal  situations  and 
for  those  in  which  there  is  much  contusion  and  laceration.  When 
a  special  poison  has  entered  the  wound  at  the  time  of  its  infliction 
or  at  some  subsequent  date,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  against 
septic  conditions  of  the  wound  itself  and  blood-poisoning  of  the 
general  circulation. 

HABM0RRH0ID8*  or  Hemosehoids  (from  Gr.  oZaio,  blood, 
and  IktPf  to  flow), commonly  called  piles ,  swellings  formed  by  the 
dilatation  of  veins  of  the  lowest  part  of  the  bowd,  or  of  those 
just  outside  the  margin  of  its  aperture.  The  former,  internal 
piles,  are  covered  by  mucous  membrane;  the  latter,  external  piles, 
are  just  beneath  the  skin.  As  the  veins  of  the  lining  of  the  bowel 
become  dilated  they  form  definite  bulgings  within  the  bowel, 
and,  at  last  increasing  in  size,  escape  through  the  anus  when  a 
motion  is  being  passed.  Growing  stiU  larger,  they  nuiy  come 
down  spontaneoiuly  when  the  individual  is  standing  or  walking, 
and  they  are  apt  to  be  a  grave  source  of  pain  or  annoyance. 
Eventually  they  may  remain  constantly  protruded — ^nevertheless, 
they  are  still  internal  piles  because  they  arise  from  the  interior 
of  the  bowel.  Though  a  pile  is  sometimes  solitary,  there  are 
usually  several  of  them.  They  are  apt  to  become  inflamed,  and 
the  inflammation  is  associated  with  beat,  pain,  discharge  and 
general  uneasiness;  ulceration  and  bleeding  are  also  common 
symptoms,  hence  the  term  "  bleeding  piles."  The  external  pile 
h  covered  by  the  thin  dark-coloured  skin  of  the  anal  margin. 
Severe  pressure  upon  the  large  abdominal  veins  may  retard  the 
upward  flow  of  blood  to  the  heart  and  so  give  rise  to  piles; 
this  h  apt  to  happen  in  the  case  of  disease  of  the  liver,  malignant 
and  other  tumours,  and  pregnancy.  General  weakness  of  the 
constitution  or  of  the  blood-vessels  and  habitual  constipation 
may  be  predisposing  causes  of  piles.  The  exciting  cause  may  be 
vigorous  straining  at  stool  or  exposure  to  damp,  as  from  sitting 
on  the  wet  ground.  Piles  are  often  only  a  symptom,  and  in  their 
treatment  this  fact  should  be  kept  in  view;  if  the  cause  is 
removed  the  piles  may  disappear.  But  in  some  cases  it  may 
be  impossible  to  remove  the  cause,  as  when  a  widely-spreading 
cancerous  growth  of  the  rectum,  or  of  the  interior  of  the  pelvis 
or  abdomen,  is  blocking  the  upward  flow  of  blood  in  the  veins. 
Sometimes  when  a  pile  has  been  protruded,  as  during  defaecation, 
it  is  tightly  grasped  by  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  circular 
muscular  fibres  which  guard  the  outlet  of  the  bowel,  and  it  then 
becomes  swollen,  engorged  and  extremely  painful;  the  strangu- 
lation may  be  so  severe  that  the  blood  in  the  vessels  coagulates 
and  the  pile  mortifies.  This,  indeed,  is  nature's  attempt  at 
curing  a  pile,  but  it  is  distressing,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is  not  entirely 
successful. 

The  palliative  treatment  of  piles  consists  in  obtaining  a  daily 
and  easy  action  of  the  bowels,  in  rest,  cold  bathing,  astringent 
injections,  lotions  and  ointments.  The  radical  treatment  consists 
in  their  removal  by  operation,  but  this  should  not  be  contemplated 
until  palliative  treatment  has  failed.  The  operation  consists  in 
drawing  the  pile  well  down,  and  strangling  the  vessels  entering 
and  leaving  its  base,  either  by  a  strong  ligature  tightly  applied, 
by  crushing,  or  by  cautery.  Before  dealing  with  the  pile  the  anus 
is  vigorously  dilated  in  order  that  the  pile  may  be  dealt  with  with 
greater  precision,  and  also  that  the  temporary  paralysis  of  the 
sphincter  muscle,  which  follows  the  stretching,  may  prevent  the 
occurrence  of  painful  and  spasmodic  contractions  subsequently. 
The  ligatures  by  which  the  base  of  the  piles  are  strangulated 


8o6 


HAEMOSPORIDIA 


slough  off  with  the  pfle  in  about  ten  days,  and  in  about  ten  days 
more  the  individual  is,  as  a  rule,  well  enough  to  retutn  to  his 
work.  If,  for  one  reason  or  another,  no  operation  is  to  be  under- 
taken, and  the  piles  are  troublesome,  relief  may  be  afforded  by 
warm  sponging  and  by  sitz-baths,  the  pile  being  gently  dried 
afterwards  by  a  piece  of  soft  linen,  smeared  with  vaseline, 
and  carefully  returned  into  the  boweL  Under  surgical  advice, 
cocaine  or  morphia  may  be  brought  in  contact  with  the  tender 
parts,  either  in  the  form  of  lotion,  suppositofy  or  ointment. 
In  operating  upon  internal  piles  it  is  undesirable  to  remove  all  the 
external  piles  around  the  anus,  lest  the  contraction  of  the 
circumferential  scar  should  cause  permanent  narrowing  of  the 
orifice.  If,  as  often  happens,  blood  clots  in  the  vein  of  an  external 
pile,  the  small,  hard,  tender  swelling  may  be  treated  with  anodyne 
fomentations,  or  it  may  be  rendered  insensitive  by  the  ether 
spray  and  opened  by  a  small  incision,  the  dot  being  turned 
out.  (E.  O.*) 

HABMOSPORIDIA,  in  zoology,  an  order  of  Ectospora,  which 
although  comparatively  few  in  number  and  very  inconspicuous 
in  size  and  appearance,  have  of  late  years  probably  attracted 
greater  attention  and  been  more  generally  studied  than  any 
other  Sporozoa;  the  reason  being  th^t  they  include  the  organ- 
isms well  known  as  malarial  parasites.  In  spite,  however,  of 
much  and  careful  recent  research — to  a  certain  extent,  rather, 
as  a  result  of  it—  it  remains  the  case  that  the  Haemosporidia  are, 
in  some  respects,  the  group  of  the  Ectospora  about  which  our 
knowledge  is,  for  the  time  being,  in  the  most  unsatisfactory 
condition.  Such  important  questions,  indeed,  as  the  scope  and 
boundaries  of  the  group,  its  exact  origin  and  affinities,  the  rank 
and  interdassification  of  the  forms  admittedly  included  in  it, 
are  answered  quite  differently  by  different  workers.  For  example, 
one  well-known  Sporozoan  authority  (M.  LUhe)  has  recently 
united  the  two  groups,  Haemosporidia  and  Haemoflagellates, 
bodily  into  one,  while  others  {e.g.  Novy  and  McNeal)  deny 
that  there  is  any  connexion  whatever  between  "  Cytozoa  "  and 
Trypanosomes.  Again,  the  indusion  or  exclusion  of  forms  like 
Piroplasma  and  HalteridiuM  is  also  the  subject  of  much  discus- 
sion. The  present  writer  accepts  here  the  view  that  the  Haemo- 
sporidia are  derived  from  Haemoflagellates  which  have  developed 
a  gregariniform  (Sporozoan)  phase  at  the  expense,  largely  or 
entirely,  of  the  flagelliform  one.  The  not  inconsiderable  differ- 
ences met  with  among  different  types  are  capable  of  explanation 
on  the  ground  that  certain  forms  have  advanced  farther  than 
others  along  this  particular  line  of  evolution.  In  other  words, 
it  is  most  probable  that  the  Haemosporidia  are  to  be  regarded 
as  comprising  various  parasites  which  represent  different  stages 
intermediate  between,  on  the  one  side,  a  Flagellate,  and  on  the 
other,  a  typical  chlamydosporc-forming  Ectosporan  parasite. 
While,  however,  it  is  easy  enough  sharply  to  separate  off  all 
Haemosporidia  from  other  Ectospora,  it  is  a  very  difficult  matter 
to  define  their  limits  on  the  former  side.  Two  principal  criteria 
which  a  doubtful  haemal  parasite  might  very  weH  be  required 
to  satisfy  in  order  to  be  considered  as  a  Haemosporidian  rather 
than  a  Haemoflagellate  are  (a)  the  occurrence  of  schizogony 
during  the  "  corpuscular  "  phase  in  the  Vertebrate  host,  and  (b) 
the  formation  of  many  germs  ("  sporozoites  ")  from  the  zygote; 
so  long  as  these  conditions  were  complied  with,  the  present 
writer,  at  all  events,  would  not  fed  he  was  countenancing  any 
protozoological  heresy  in  allowing  for  the  possibility  of  a  Flagel- 
late (perhaps  trypaniform)  phase  or  features  being  present  at 
some  period  or  other  in  the  life-cycle.*  To  render  this  article 
complete,  however,  one  or  two  well-known  parasites,  hitherto 
referred  to  this  order,  must  also  be  mentioned,  which,  judged 
by  the  above  (arbitrary)  standard,  are,  it  may  be,  on  the  Haemo- 
flagellate side  of  the  dividing  line  {e.g.  Halteridiumf  according  to 
Schaudinn). 

The  chief  characters  which  distinguish  the  Haemosporidia 
from  other  Ectospora  are  the  following.  They  are  invariably 
blood  parasites,  and  for  part  or  all  of  the  trophic  period  come  into 
intimate  relation  with  the  cellular  dements  in  the  blood.    There 

*  Compare,  for  example,  the  flagellated  granules  of  certain 
Coccidia,  which  point  unmistakably  to  a  Flageflate  ancestry. 


is  always  an  alternation  of  hosts  and  of  generations,  an  In^ 
vertebrate  bdng  the  definitive  host,  in  which  sexual  conjugatJM 
is  undergone  knd  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  primary  <»», 
a  Vertebrate  being  the  intermediate  or  secondary  one.  The 
zygote  or  sporont  is  at  first  c^iaUe  of  movement  and  known  as 
an  ookinete.  No  resistant  spores  (chlamydospores)  are  lopatd^ 
the  ultimate  germs  or  sporozoites  always  being  free  in  the  oocyst 
and  not  enclosed  by  sporocysts. 

To  Sir  E.  Ray  Lankester  is  due  the  honour  of  dtscovcricg 
the  first  Haemosporidian,  a  discovery  which  did  not  take  place 
until  after  most  of  the  other  kinds  of  Sporozoa  were  knova. 
In  187  X  this  author  described  the  parasite  of  the  frog,  which  ht 
later  termed  Drepanidium  ranarum.  The  next  discovery  was 
the  great  and  far-reaching  one  of  Laveran,  who  in  1883  dcscriixd 
all  tht  characteristic  phases  of  the  malarial  parasite  which  are 
met  with  in  human  blood.  While  regarding  the  organism  as  the 
cause  of  the  disease,  Laveran  did  not  at  once  recognise  its  animal 
and  Sporozoan  nature,  but  considered  it  rather  as  a  vegetable, 
and  termed  it  Osciltaria  malariae.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Trypano- 
somes, we  owe  to  Danilewsky  (1885-1889)  the  first  serioiB 
attempts  to  study  the  comparative  anatomy  and  life-history  of 
these  parasites,  from  a  zoological  point  of  view.  Danilewsky 
first  named  them  Haemosporidia,  and  distinguished  betweea 
Haemocytotoa  and  LeucocyUnoa.  To  the  brilliant  researdies  d 
R.  Ross  and  Grassi  in  the  dosing  years  of  the  19th  century  is 
due  the  realization  of  the  essential  part  played  by  the  gnat  or 
mosquito  in  the  life-cyde  and  transmission  of  the  paiasites; 
and  to  MacCallum  belongs  the  credit  of  first  observing  the  tn^ 
sexual  conjugation,  in  the  case  of  a  Halteridium,  Since  then, 
thanks  to  the  labours  of  Axgutinsky  and  Schaudinn,  our  know- 
ledge of  the  mahurial  parasites  has  steadily  incrcwd.  Until 
quite  recently,  however,  very  little  was  known  about  the  Haemo- 
sporidia of  cold-blooded  Vertebrates ;  but  in  1903  Sicgd  and 
Schaudinn  demonstrated  that  the  same  rftle  is  performed  in 
thdr  case  by  a  leech  or  a  tick,  and  since  then  many  new  Jonas 
have  been  described. 

The  Haemosporidia  are  widdy  distributed  and  of  very  general 
occurrence  among  the  chief  dasses  of  Vertebrates.  Among  In- 
vertebrates they  are  apparently  limited  to  blood-  -> 
sucking  insects,  ticks  and  leeches.*  As  already  stated,  ^,,^1 
the  imiversal  habitat  of  the  parasites  in  the  Vertebrate  aanitit 
is  the  blood;  as  a  result,  of  course,  they  are  to  be  met  Jj^*" 
with  in  the  capillaries  of  practically  all  the  important 
organs  of  the  body;  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  while  ocitaio 
phases  (e.g.  growing  trophozoites,  mature  gametocytes)  are  found 
in  the  peripheral  drculation,  others  (e.f .  schizogonoos  **  rosettes,'* 
young  gametocytes)  occur  in  the  internal  organs,  liver,  kidneys, 
&c.,  where  the  drculation  is  sluggbh.  The  relation  of  the  para- 
sites  to  the  blood-cells  varies  greatly.  Most  attack,  probably 
exclusively,  the  red  blood  corpusdes  (haematids);  a  few,  how- 
ever, sdect  the  leucocytes,  and  are  therefore  known  as  Leuco- 
cytozoa.  In  the  case  of  Mammalian  and  Avian  forms  (malarial 
parasites)  Schaudinn  and  Argutinsky  have  shown  that  the 
trophic  and  schizogonic  phases  are  not  reaUy  endog^obolar  but 
closely  attached  to  the  corpusde,  hollowing  out  a  depresixm 
or  space  into  which  they  nestle;  the  gametocytes,  om  the 
other  hand,  are  actually  intercellular.  Forms  parasitic  in  cold- 
blooded Vertebrates,  on  the  contrary,  are  always,  no  far  as  is 
known,  endoglobdar  when  in  relation  with  the  corpusdes;  and 
the  same  is  apparently  the  case  with  the  Mammalian  paraste, 
Piroplasma.  Although  in  no  instance  so  far  described  is  the 
parasite  actually  intranudear  (as  certain  Coccidia  are),  in  one  or 
two  cases  {e.g.  KaryUystu  of  lizards  and  certain  s^iccks  of 
Haemogregarina)  it  reacts  markedly  upon  the  nudeos  and  soon 
causes  its  disintegration.  While  many  Haemosporidia  (e.f. 
malarial  para^tes,  with  the  exception  of  Halteridium)  remain  in 
connexion  with  the  same  corpuscle  throughout  tl^  wiiole  period 
of  growth  and-  schizogony,  the  new  generation  of  Dxra«Htcs 
first  bdng  set  free  from  the  broken-down  cell,  others  (the  Haemo- 

*  A  posable  exception  is  a  doubtful  spedes  of  Hlaawggwfti/  iw, 
which  has  been  described  from  the  walls  of  the  Uoodrvesaeb  of  aa 
Annelid. 


HAEMOSPORIDIA 


807 


gregarines,  broadly  speaking,  and  also  HaUeriiium)  leave 
one  corpuscle  after  a  short  time,  wander  about  free  in  the 
plasma,  and  then  seek  out  another;  and  this  may  be  repeated 
until  the  parasite  is  ready  lor  schizogony,  which  generally  occurs 
in  the  corpuscle. 

As  in  the  case  of  Trypanosomes  {q.v.)^  normally — that  is  to  say, 
when  in  an  accustomed,  tolerant  host,  and  under  natural  con- 
ditions— Haemosporidia  are  non-pathogenic  and  do  not  give 
rise  to  any  ill-effects  in  the  animals  harbouring  them.  When, 
however,  the  parasites  gain  an  entry  into  the  blood  of  man  or 
other  unadapted  animals,'  they  produce,  as  is  well  known, 
harmful  and  often  very  serious  effects.  Tliere  are  three  recog- 
nized types  of  malarial  fever,  each  caused  by  a  distinct  form  and 
characterized  by  the  mode  of  manifestation.  Two,  the  so-called 
benign  fevers,  are  intermittent;  namely,  tertian  and  quartan 
fever,  in  which  the  fever  recurs  every  second  and  th^d  day 
respectively.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  schizogony  takes 
different  lengths  of  time  in  the  two  cases,  48  hours  in  the  one, 
72  in  the  other;  the  height  of  the  fever-period  coincides  with  the 
break-down  of  the  corpuscle  at  the  completion  of  the  process,  and 
the  liberation  of  great  numbers  of  merozoites  in  the  blood. 
The  third  type  is  the  dangerous  aestivo-autumnal  or  pernicious 
malaria,  in  which  the  fever  is  irregular  or  continuous  during  long 
periods. 

A  very  general  symptom  is  anaemia,  which  is  sometimes 
present  to  a  marked  extent,  when  it  may  lead  to  a  fatal  termina- 
tion. This  is  the  result  of  the  very  considerable  destruction  of 
the  blood-corpusdes  which  takes  place,  the  haemoglobin  of  which 
IS  absorbed  by  the  parasites  as  nutriment.  A  universal  feature 
connected  with  this  mode  of  nutrition  is  the  production,  in  the 
cytoplasm  of  the  parasite,  of  a  brown  pigment,  termed  melanin; 
this  does  not  represent  reserve  material,  but  is  an  excreted  bye- 
product  derived  irom  the  haemoglobin.  These  pigment-grains 
are  at  length  liberated  into  the  blood-stream  and  become  de- 
posited in  the  various  organs,  spleen,  liver,  kidneys,  brain, 
causing  pronounced  pigmentation. 

Another  type  of  fever,  more  acute  and  more  generally  fatal,  is 
that  produced  by  forms  belonging  to  the  genus  Piroptasma,  10 
cattle,  dogs,  horses  and  other  domestic  animals  in  different 
regions  of  the  globe;  and  recently  Wilson  and  Chowning  have 
stated  that  the  "  spotted  fever  of  the  Rockies  "  is  a  human 
piroplasmosis  caused  by  P.  kominis.  The  disease  of  cattle  is 
known  variously  as  Texas-fever,  Tristeza,  Red-water,  .Southern 
cattle-fever,  &c.  In  this  type  of  illness  the  endogenous  multipli- 
cation of  the  parasites  is  very  great  and  rapid,  and  brings  about 
an  enonnous  diminution  in  the  number  of  healthy  red  blood 
corpuscles.  Their  sudden  destruction  results  in  the  liberation  of 
large  quantities  of  haemoglobin  in  the  plasma,  which  turns 
deep-red  in  colour;  and  hence  haemoglobinuria,  which  occurs 
only  rarely  in  malaria,  is  a  constant  symptom  in  piroplasmosis. 

The  parasite  of  pernicious  malaria,  here  termed  La»erania 
malariae^  will  serve  very  well  as  a  type  of  the  general  life-cycle 
(fig.  I ).  Slight  differences  shown  by  the  other  malarial  parasites 
{Plasmodium)  will  be  mentioned  in  passing,  but  the 
^nS^lh'  "^"^  divergences  which  other  Haemosporidian  types 
Uatav  exhibit  are  best  considered  separately.  With  the  bite 
of  an  infected  mosquito,  the  minute  sickle-like  sporo- 
z*>itcs  are  injected  into  the  blood.  They  rapidly  penetrate  into 
the  blood  corpuscles,  in  which  they  appear  as  small  irregular, 
more  or  less  amoeboid  trophozoites.  A  vacuole  next  arises  in 
the  cytoplasm,  which  increases  greatly  in  size,  and  gives  rise  to 
the  well-known,  much  discussed  ring-form  of  the  parasite,  in 
which  it  resembles  a  signet-ring,  the  nucleus  forming  a  little 
thickening  to  one  side.  Some  authorities  (e.g.  Argutinsky)  have 
regarded  this  structure  as  being  really  a  greatly  distended 
vesicular  nucleus,  and,  to  a  large  extent,  indeed,  an  artifact, 
resulting  from  imperfect  fixation;  but  Schaudinn  considers  it  is 
a  true  vacuole,  and  explains  it  00  the  ground  of  the  rapid  nutrition 

>  For  an  interesting  account  of  the  bioloeical  relations  between 
parasites  and  their  hosts,  and  the  penalty  Man  pays  for  his  roving 
propensities,  the  reader  should  see  Lankctter's  article  in  the  Quarterly 
AvMV,  July  1904. 


and  growth.  lAter  on  this  vacuole  disappears,  and  the  grains 
of  pigment  make  their  appearance.  The  trophozoite  is  now 
large  and  full-grown,  and  has  become  rounded  and  ready  for 
schizogony.  The  nucleus  of  the  schizont  divides  several  times 
(more  or  less  directly,  by  simple  or  multiple  fission)  to  form  a 
number  of  daughter-nuclei,  which  take  up  a  regular  position 
near  the  periphery.  Around  these  the  cytoplasm  becomes  seg- 
mented, giving  rise  to  the  well-known  corps  en  rosau.  Eventu- 
ally the  merozoites,  in  the  form  of  little  round  uninuclear  bodies, 
are  liberated  from  the  now  broken-down  corpuscle,  leaving  behind 
a  certain  amount  of  residual  cytoplasm  containing  the  pi^ent 
grains.  Besides  the  difference  in  the  time  taken  by  the  complete 
process  of  schizogony  in  the  various  species  (see  above),  there  are 
distinctions  in  the  composition  of  the  rosettes.  Thus,  in  Lave- 
ranic,  the  number  of  merozoites  formed  is  very  variable;  in 
Plasmodium  vivax  (the  tertian  parasite)  there  are  only  few  (9  to  x  2) 
merozoites,  but  in  P.  malariae  (the  quartan  form)  they  are  more 
numerous,  from  z  a  to  24.  The  liberated  merozoites  proceed  to 
infect  fresh  blood  corpuscles  and  a  new  endogenous  cycle  is 
started. 

After  asexual  multiplication  has  gone  on  for  some  time,  sexual 
forms  become  developed.  According  to  Schaudinn,  the  stimulus 
which  determines  the  production  of  gametocytes  instead  of 
schizonts  is  the  reaction  of  the  host  (at  the  height  of  a 
fever  period)  upon  the  parasites.  A  young  trophozoite  which 
is  becoming  a  gametocyte  is  distinguished  from  one  which 
gives  rise  to  a  schizont  by  its  much  slower  rate  of  growth, 
and  the  absence  of  any  vacuoles  in  its  cytoplasm.  The 
gametocytes  themselves  are  characterized  by  their  peculiar 
shape,  like  that  of  a  sausage,  whence  they  are  very  generally 
known  as  "crescents."  Male  and  female  gametocytes  are 
distinguished  (roughly)  by  the  arrangement  of  the  pigment- 
grains;  in  the  former,  they  are  fairly  evenly  scattered  throughout 
the  cytoplasm,  but  jn  the  megagametocytes  the  pigment  tends 
to  be  aggregated  centrally,  around  the  nucleus.  As  they  become 
fuU-grown  and  mature,  however,  the  gametocytes  lose  their 
crescentic  form  and  assume  that  of  an  oval,  and  finally  of  a 
sphere.  At  the  same  time,  they  are  set  free  from  the  remains 
of  the  blood  corpuscle.  The  spherical  stage  is  practically  the 
limit  of  development  in  the  Vertebrate  host,  although,  sometimes, 
the  nucleus  of  the  microgametocyte  may  proceed  to  division. 
The  "  crescents "  of  the  pernicious  parasite  afford  a  very 
important  diagnostic  difference  from  the  gametocytes  of  both 
species  of  Plasmodium^  which  have  the  ordinary,  rounded  shape 
of  the  schizonts.  In  the  case  of  the  latter,  points  such  as  their 
slower  growth,  their  less  amoeboid  character,  and  their  size 
furnish  the  means  of  distinction. 

When  a  gnat  or  mosquito  sucks  blood,  all  phases  of  the  parasite 
in  the  peripheral  circulation  at  that  point  may  succeed  in  passing 
into  the  insect.  If  this  occurs  all  trophic  and  schizogonic 
phases  are  forthwith  digested,  and  the  survival  of  the  sexual 
phases  depends  entirely  upon  whether  the  insect  is  a  gnat  or 
mosquito.  Only  in  the  latter  case  can  further  development  of 
the  gametocytes  go  on;  in  other  words,  only  the  genus  Anopheles, 
and  not  the  genus  Culex,  furnishes  specific  hosts  for  the  malarial 
parasites.  This  is  a  biological  fact  of  considerable  importance 
in  connexion  with  the  prophylactic  measures  against  malaria. 
In  the  stomach  of  an  Anophda,  the  gametocytes  quickly 
proceed  to  gamete-formation.  The  nucleus  of  the  microgameto- 
cyte divides  up,  and  the  daughter-nuclei  pass  to  the  periphery, 
llie  surface  of  the  body  grows  out  into  long,  whip-like  processes, 
of  which  there  are  usually  6  to  8  (probably  the  typical  number 
is  8);  each  is  very  motile,  in  this  respect  stron^y  resembling 
a  flagellum.  This  phase  may  also  develop  in  drawn  blood, 
which  has,  of  course,  become  suddenly  cooled  by  the  exposure; 
and  it  seems  evident  that  it  is  the  change  in  temperature,  from 
the  warm  to  the  cold-blooded  host,  which  brings  about  the 
development  of  the  actual  sexual  elements.  Earlier  observers 
regarded  the  phase  just  described  as  representing  another 
parasite  altogether,  of  a  Flagellate  natur^^whence  the  well- 
known  term,  PolymUus-form;  and  even  more  recent  workers, 
such  as  Labb6  who  connected  it  with  the  malarial-  parasite^ 


HAEMOSPORIDIA 


■lie  tutnunu.  TIk  fine  dcuDs  «*  ilnicluR  el 
the  micrDcuticte  of  ft  miluu]  parMJtc  cttmol  be 
3wever»  to  be  thoougUy  known,  tod  l1  d 
by  DO  iDcuB  impoosibie  ttui  iu  ■tjuctufc  b  ir^ 
tTypuiiform,  u,  uxording  ID  Scl  "  ' 
wmk,    u    the    UK    mth    Ihe    I 


(ODiiiu  in  ibc  apulaon  of  •  anun  unouni  m 

DudeiT  luhitADce.    Tbe  uitul  omjuptioD  is  qiLU 

umOfti  lo  the  pnccn  in  Cocodlft,  ud  tbr  rtvilui^ 

perfectly  Iwmolo^iu.    In  the  pciscnl  fue, 

wAU;on  the  contrary, 
iL  duDgcs  it!  Bhipc,  And  becomo  mukedly  fn* 
guiuiform  uid  mclivr,  ud  is  known  f«  ibis 
ookinete,  Tbe  ookinde  puses  throufh 
the  epithelinl  layer  oi  the  stonucb,  tbe  thinner  ud 
more  pwnted  end  ladiiig  the  ny,  and  comes  » 
eil  in  tbe  fonnective  tluue  [onning  the  outer  li>-« 
of  tbe  itoBuch'WftU  (fig.  >).  Use  it  beavnd 
rounded  nnd  cyit-like,  nnd  grows  rorsidaKhly; 
IbroDly  A  thin,  deliate  cyst-naembmne  it  Bratted, 
■hicb  doci  not  impede  tbe  ibsorption  of  nulritDentn 
Mcanwbile,  the  cii 


«j,  Onophuuv    Mi,  M*1piehiaa 


r  life-cycle  d1  (he  panAiIe  of  prmiciau 


■uJirui. 

.fS^'^She'^ 

■nsra'. 

cdlinea 

thoK  [ooni 

llMI 

;S?. 

luth  >hil 

SS' 

er^ 

rLei^a'iV'dH.'Sj'of 

The' 

Srr 

s^: 

'ihOK 

7^™ 

(Leucku 

rt'i  ZiwfapxJki  lto>iUi/il< 

/dolhe?!! 

1.-V.  ™j 

6-10  ihi 

)w  the  Khiiogony. 

IK 

and  i,  Sphericil  gimetocyte 

Vl-Xll.. 

n»«u, 

Ji>  (IX.  i 

Dther 

lucleuibi 

X!!'-a& 

:  motile  I 

ieryto[diim  bi 


["  blutoplkofcs.' 


n  the  D^k  (X.  a)  the  •o-caJled 


6,  Mature  Kfaimnl.  XI,,     A  male  Eatnete  penetral 

7,  Schisoat,     with    nudeiu  dividieg  Icoule  nmete  at  a  cone  i 
up,                                                                        ception  lortned  near  the  nur li 

S,  YouhEnMRIeitice.  XII..  Zygoii  with  two   pmnucl 

to.     Mcroioilii  free  in  the  blocid  by  XlirT^iaK'   in     the     moiile 

breakiiu  down  of  Ihe  cihpukIe.  [vecnucule  or  ofikiiiFtel. 

VI.,  YouDf  UKJiffcTEnl  Eanieloin>te,  XIV.,  EncyURl  ry«i(e  (oCicyn). 

Vll„g.  Makcmcent.  XV.,  CommeDcing  multipUcaiioo 
\\\.,  ».  Fennle  crennt.  nuclei  in  the  DOcyH. 

Vlir.aiiidt,  Tbtgunetocytesbecom-  XVI.,     OAcyn  irith  aamenHU  i 
ing  ovil,  blaua. 


around  each  of  which  i 

mented.    Each  of  these 

"  loidophores  ")  is  entirely  co 

blast  in  the  Coccidiu  oocyst,  the  chief  diaereiKe 

segnieDls  or  sporobUits  in  the  oocyst  erf  a  maUnJ 
parasite  arc  irregular  in  shape  and  do  not  becunf 
completely  separaled  from  one  atwchcr,  bul 
remain  connected  by  tbin  cytoplasmic  strands 
Repeated  mulliplicalioD  of  the  sporoblast-nudo 
n  neit  takes  place,  with  tbe  tesoU   that  a  grsl 

°  periphery,  A  corresponding  number  of  fine  cyu>- 
I  plasmic  processes  grow  out  from  tbe  Eurfact,  each 
^  carrying  a  nui 
a  XVII.,  Comm. 

X  V  i  1 1 .,  Fu  U-grown  nocyi 

iporoioitS!     on  I 
*3de  the  cyst  has  bi 


HAEMOSPORIDIA 


809 


hu|(ie  number  of  slender,  slightly  sickle-shaped  germs  or  sporo- 
zoites  ("  blasts/'  "  zoids,"  &c.)  are  formed.  Each  oocyst  may 
contain  from  hundreds  to  thousands  of  sporozoltes. 

When  the  sporogony  (which  lasts  about  10  days)  is  completed, 
the  oocyst  ruptures  and  the  sporozoites  are  set  free  into  the 
body-cavity,  leaving  behind  a  large  quantity  of  residual  cyto- 
plasm, including  pigment  grains,  &c.  The  sporozoites  are 
carried  about  by  the  blood-stream;  ultimately,  however, 
apparently  by  virtue  of  some  chemotactic  attraction,  they 
practically  all  collect  in  the  salivary  glands,  filling  the  secretory 
cells  and  also  invading  the  ducts.  When  the  mosquito  next 
bites  a  man,  numbers  of  them  are  injected,  together  with  the 
minute  drop  of  saliva,  into  his  blood,  where  they  begin  a  fresh 
endogenous  cycle. 

There  is  only  one  other  point  with  regard  to  the  life-history 
that  need  be  mentioned.  With  the  lapse  of  time  all  trophic  and 
schizogonic  (asexual)  phases  of  the  parasite  in  the  blood  die  off. 
But  it  has  long  been  known  that  malarial  patients,  apparently 
quite  cured,  may  suddenly  exhibit  all  the  symptoms  again, 
without  having  incurred  a  fresh  infection.  Schaudinn  has 
investigated  the  cause  of  this  recurrence,  and  finds  that  it  is 
due  to  the  power  of  the  megagametocytes,  which  are  very 
resistant  and  long-lived,  to  undergo  a  kind  of  parthenogenesis 
under  favourable  conditions  and  give  rise  to  the  ordinary  asexual 
schizonts,  which  in  turn  can  repopulate  the  host  with  all  the  other 
phases.    Microgametocjrtes,  on  the  other  hand,  die  off  in  time 

if  they  cannot  pass  into  a  mosquito. 

Various  types  of  form  are  to  be  met  with  among  the  Haemo- 
sporidia.  In  one,  characteristic  of  most  (though  not  of  absolutely 
^^  all)  parasites  of  warm-blooded  Vertebrates,  the  tropho- 

T^f^"'  zoites  are  of  irregular  amoeboid  shape;  hence  this  section 
~?*r'*^  is  generally  known  as  the  Haemamoebidae.  In  another 
m^^aa  type,  characteristic  of  the  parasites  of  cold-blooded 
j^^^mlfi  Vertebrates,  the  body  possesses  a  definite,  vermiform.  t.r. 

jj,  wrfljrt  greg^riniform  shape,  which  is  retained  durini^  the  intra- 
^^l^t^  cori>uccular  as  well  as  during  the  free  condition;  this 
section  comprises  the  Haemogregarinidae.  Allied  to  this 
latter  type  of  form  arc  the  trophozoites  of  PiropUuma,  which  are 
normally  pear-shaped ;  they  diner,  however,  in  being  very  minute, 
and,  moreover,  exhibit  considerable  polymorphism,  rod-like  (so- 
called  bacillary)  and  ring-forms  being  of  common  occurrence.  It  is 
important  to  note  that  in  a  certain  species  of  Haemogregarina  (fig.  3) 


.-r.. 


bodies.  Schaudinn  was  the  first  to  notice  this  character,  in  Piro- 
Uasma  conii.  and  his  observation  has  since  been  confirmed  by  LQhe.' 
Moreover,  Drum|>C  has  also  noticed  nuclear  dimorphism  in  the 
ookinete  of  a  speae»  of  Haemogrewanna  in  a  leech  (as  the  Invertc> 
brate  host)— a  highly  important  observation. 

As  reffuds  the  life-history,  the  endogenous  (schixogonous)  cycle 
is  known  in  many^  cases.  Sometimes  schizogony  takes  the  prunitive 
form  of  simple  binary  (probably)  lonffitudinaf  fission:  this  is  the 
case  in  Piroplasma  (fig.  4)  and  also  in  Jaaemofregarina  bigemina  just 
referred  to.  From  tua  result  the  pairs  of  individuals  ("  twins  ") 
so  often  found  in  the  corpuscles.  In  addition,  however,  at  any  rate 
in  Piroplasmat  it  b  probable  that  multiple  division  (more  allied  to 
ordinary  schizosony)  also  takes  place;  such  b  the  case,  according 
to  Laveran,  in  P.  egut,  and  the  occurrence  at  times  of  four  parasites 
in  a  corpuscle,  arranged  in  a  cruciform  manner,  b  most  likely  to  be 
thus  explained.    LaDb6  has  described  schizogony  in  Haltiridium 

OO.QQ0® 


Q)@ 


J- 


g  h.  1. 

FrMB  LankeMcr's  TrmHu  tm  tatUgj. 

Fig.  4. — Development  and  schizogony  of  PiropUuma  b^eminum 
the  blood-corpuscles  (^  the  ox. 


m 


a.  Youngest    form. 

b.  Slightly  older, 
candi.  Division  of  the  nucleus. 
e  and/,  Division  of  the  body  ct 

the  parasite. 


(After  Laveran  and  Nicolle.) 
g.  Ai  •'.  / 

Aand/, 


Various  forms  of  the 

twin  parasite. 
Doubly  infected  cor- 

puacics. 


f 


a  b  c  d.  e 

From  L«akaicr'a  Trttiiu  m  ZoaUfy. 

Fig.  3. — Haemogregarina  bigemina,  Laveran,  from  the  blood  of  blennics. 


(After  Laveran,  magnified  about  1800  diameters.) 


0. 


*. 


«. 


The  form  of  the  parasite 
found  free  in  the  blood- 
pUsma. 

Parasite  within  a  blood-cor- 
puscle, preparing  for  division ; 
the  nucleus  nas  already 
divided. 

The  parasite  has  divided  into 
two   rounded    corpuscles, 


which  assume  the  form  of 
the  free  parasite,  as  seen  in 
d,  e  and  /. 

N.  Nucleus  of  the  blood  cor- 
puscle. 

fi.  Nucleus  of  the  parasite.  The 
outline  of  the  blood-corpuscle 
b  indicated  by  a  thick  black 
line. 


the  young  trophozoites  markedly  resemble  Piroplasma  in  their 
pyriform  appearance;  and  a  further  point  of  agreement  between  the 
two  forms  is  mentioned  below.  Lastly  there  b  the  Avian  genus 
Halteridium,  the  trophozoites  of  which  are  characteristically  bean- 
shaped  or  reniform.  True  Haemoeregarines  also  differ  in  other  slight 
points  from  "  Haemamoebae."  Thus  the  young  endosk>bular  tropho- 
zoite does  not  exhibit  a  ring  f vacuolar)  phase;  and  the  cytoplasm 
never  contains,  at  any  period,  the  characteristic  melanin  pigment 
above  noted.  In  some  species  of  Haemogregarina  the  parasite,  while 
intracorpuscular,  becomes  surrounded  by  a  delicate  membrane, 
the  cytocyst ;  on  entering  u()on  an  active,  "  free  "  period,  the 
cytocyst  b  ruptured  and  left  behind  with  the  remains  of  the  corpuscle. 
A  very  interesting  cytological  feature  b  the  occurrence,  in  one  or 
two  Haemosporiaia,  of  nuclear  dimorphisnn.  t.«.  of  a  larger  and 
smaller  chromatic  body,  probably  comparable  to  the  trophic  and 
kinetic  nuclei  of  a  Trypanosomc,  or  of  the  "  Lebhman-Donovan  " 


danHewskyi  as  taking  place  in  a  rather  peculiar  manner;  the  parasite 
becomes  much  drawn-out  and  halter-like.  and  the  actual  division  b 
restricted  to  its  two  ends,  two  clumps  of  roerozoites  being  formed, 
at  first  connected  by  a  narrow  strand  of  unused  cytoplasm,  which 
subsequently  disappears.  Some  doubt,  however,  attaches  to  thb 
account,  as  no  one  else  appean  to  have  seen  the  process.  For  the 
rest,  schizogony  takes  place  more  or  leas  in  the  customary  way. 
allowing  for  variations  in  the  mode  of  arrangement  oS  the  merozoites. 
It  remains  to  be  noted  that  in  Karyolysus  lacertarum,  according  to 
Labb^,  two  kinds  df  schizont  are  developed,  which  give  rise,  respec- 
tively, to  micromerozoites  and  ineEamerozoites,  in  either  case 
enclosed  in  a  delicate  cytocyst.  Thb  probably  corresponds  to 
an  eariy  sexual  differentbtion  (such  as  b  found  amons  certain 
Coccidia  iq.v.),  the  micromerozoites  producing  eventually  micro- 
gametocytes,  the  othen  megagametocytes. 

It  has  now  been  recognisra  for  some  time  that  the  sexual 
(exogenous)  part  of  the  life-cycle  oi  all  the  Haemamoebidae  takes 
place  in  an  Invertebrate  (Insectan^  host,  and  b  fundamentally 
similar  to  that  above  described  m  those  cases  where  it  has 
been  followed.  In  contradistinction  to  the  malarial  parasites, 
thb  host,  in  the  Avian  forms  {Haemoproteus  and  Halteridium),* 
b  a  species  of  CuUx  and  not  oi  Ano^ulet;    in  other  words, 

S mete-formation,  conjugation  and, subsequent  sporozoite- 
rmation  in  these  cases  will  only  go  on  in  the  former.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  case  of  the  Haemoeregarines,  it  was 
thought  until  quite  lately  that  the  entire  life^istory,  including 
conjugation  and  spo«x)gony,  went  on  in  the  Vertebrate  host; 
and  only  in  1902  Hintze  described  what  purported  to  be  the 
complete  life-history  of  Lankesterella  {Drepanidium)  ranarnm 
undergone  in  the  frog.  Thb  view  was  rendered  obsolete  by 
the  work  of  Siegel  and  Schaudinn.  who  demonstrated  the 
occurrence  of  an  alternation  of  hosts  and  of  generations 
in  the  case  of  Haemogregarina  stepanan,  parasitk:  in  a 
tortoise,  and  in  Karyolysus  lacertarum;  the  Invertebrate 
hosts,  in  which,  in  both  cases,  the  sexual  process  b  undergone, 
being  respectively  a  leech  (Placobdella)  and  a  tick  (Ixodes).  With 
this  discovery  tne  main  dbtinction  (as  supposed)  between  the 
Hacmosporidia  of  warm  and  of  cold-blooded  Vertebrates  vanished. 
It  wks  further  acknowledged  by  Schaudinn  (under  whom  Hintze 

*  This  does  away  with  one  of  the  principal  reasons  on  account  of 
which  some  authorities  consider  Piroplasma  (Leishmania)  donaoami 
as  quite  distinct  from  other  Piroplasmala  (see  TavPANOSOMES). 

>lt  must  not  be  forgotten  that  one  species  of  Halteridium  (H. 
[Trypanomcr^]  noclvae)  b  said  to  have  well-marked  trypaniform 
phases  in  its  life-cycle:  these  are  preferably  considered  under 
Trypanosonics  (9.*.;,  and  therefore,  to  avoid  repetition,  are  only 
thus  alluded  to  here.  Whether  H.  danilewskyi  also  becomes  trypani- 
form in  certain  phases,  and  how  far  it  really  agrees  with  the  criteria 
of  a  Haemosporidbn  above  postulated,  are  matten  which  are  not 
yet  definitely  known. 


_jrii«opber»   imnily   deierlliBl 
phuia  wnich  be  irnnfed 


8 10  HAEMOSPORIDIA 

lud  insrkcdj  that  the  bttcr  hul  beeo  miitcd  bv  CocddUn  cyvti  ukd    have  been  mndooeA  tbove-    Seme    uitbocitjH    vwld   ladndr 

_e  bu  i»t>b«Lb1y  _ , ._  .__ 

devckipiDFDl    of    in   ordinary    Eirnriiv    puvaH   in 

the  loiue  for  put  of  tbe  Lfe-cyclc  of  tni»  Haemo-  Fn«1 

^e  MunmiUaD  puuite  Firoflaim  It  the  ooe  about 
whoae  lile<hiatory  our  knowltdge     U     mosc     vague.  _ 

Bwdea  the  typiol  and  genmlly   occur™  locini,  "'      'i^i^Ki' "" 

ptbetihaw  aUo  been  ob«rnil  in  IhohlDod,  but  it  (  jnd  (,  Older  trophoioili 

K*.  Bortiu'%od_Leja«if1I»r"  '  "' ~  """  ' 

inccftalii  which  an  tbe  aenial  forma,  companbl 
■ametoevto.     Dodeia  n^aida  larie  pcaj^^aped 

---"  ^*^— --'  -tmi  MoUi  haw  fivured  amoduldk  innuiu  lono^ 

tui  fisiEnenied  and  poHetaiog  fUfdla^inEc  pruceHea 

a^mcat}).   Tbe  iBvendmtc  hou  <a  well  tnown  lo 

,  ,„  . c  dI  aLL  apecEca,  a  tick;    thui  bovioe  pirDpUima^ 

IP.  himuinim)^  fn  Amenca  ia  conveyed  by  lUdpitttMUi  ommiaiKS 

^SZmaHti^ii  ItaclH  U«a_  CB}»tm  pnmtiftUr  relic-'— -^ 
and  io  on.    The  budim  ia  whicli  the  infectian  u  Iniwni 
Ibe  lick  varica  freaily.    la  idiik  cajei  (c.(.  P.  tiniiii 
amit)  oaLy  the  generaiioa  aubKquc"  m  rh*«  Hrtiw-h 
infection  (by  feeAsg  on  an  infected 


f.     Camelocyr 

;    lor  iiiBaiK*.  BcriMU    and  Le  Doux  ban  d~~PRcock>iir>pDruli[laa  with  few  ■'    Nuclnic' 

d.  ia  vtriau  uieciea,  a  phaie  [■  which  a  lone.  meroiwlet  »,     Pijnicnt. 

IraeodapedlalJilB  oatgnwtli  la  pieaeM,  wah  a  ,      Sponilation    of    a    fuU^nwa  au.  Metouiu 

at  (be  dutal  end.    It  It.  Donover,  qaile  ^^  *  ,,^_  Reiidual  i 

kboksyand  modeof 

een  LatramM  and  tl 


d'r&anl" 
'  then 


Ibat  wiuch 

ocber  woidt,  true  hereditary  infection  of  the  ova 

?.T_._j -n..  -^(jyji  period  in  the  life  of 

the  infection 


-  ,-, .J  be  con^decfd  at  ditttnct  tp , . 

I  probabiy  penericaLly  diituict.   Lobe,  it  may  tie  note 
DiDprebeniive  account  o£  tbe  HaenMoaoa,  alio  ta 


:ufauiidlo< 

:her  hand,  in  the  cue  d^  ^utACi 

It  haredilary  infection  doea 


feiwfaliop  tranHnittinc  the  jnraiite  {P.  pamtm)  at  different  periods  j    ^B 
oflife.  LjttleiaceTtainly kAawArenrdintthophaaaof thepor^tel    V 
whicharenaHcdthninthinihelick.   Lipiitm  hi>  obKrvcd  a  kind 
of  multiple  fiuion  in  the  Honuch.  Beveral  very  niiauic  bodwa. 
conaittinE  mmly  of  cbromarin,  being  formed,  which  may  lerw  fnr 
eRdofBODua  repnduclion-   Kocb  hat  publiihed  an  account  of 
cuntHU  fonu  of  P.  ^cemuiiiM,  in  which  tbe  body  it  produc 
many  itifi,  ny-like 


ST:^^   fiee  under  SfDB 

"^  Wib  the  R9liu _ 

"  Haemannebic "  and    the    Hiemnti 
■dmilu  in  type,  the  chief  re 
ordcn  hat  diaappeated.    ft 

leparate,  buf  cloaely  aliicu  .- - — 

emMbidoe  ")  and  the  Hanwpriamriilae.  The  Pircptaimala,  on  me 
other  hand,  coDHituie  anoiher  family,  which  ii  bcuer  placed  in  u 
(^ioct  aection  or  aubKKdcr.     In  addition  then  are,  at  already 

iidend*«  ^ite  ^ScImS  *0™  atS^a-S^Tmluridii.^ 
Ubbt,  paraiilic  la  varioua  tHrdi;  the  lype-apeciea  ii  H.  itnilnatyi 
(Gr.  and  Fel.).  Anoiher  ii  the  mucb^debaied  parauie  of  white 
bload^corpuiclea   (leucocyccsl,   oHginaUy  deecribed 


Gtnui  LoKntnia.  dr.  and  Fel.  (syn.  Hvma- 

8k.,  praam  t.  I'miMUiilalaill.  &t.],  th '— 

CeniH  Plaimadiam.  MaR:h.  and  O 
F.  raw  and  P.  mai<^.  ihe  tcrtia 

tXiUf.  Therei«al«»form known!..-, — ,.,— 

fntaiu,  KruK  [n>B.  PnUiiuma),  (or if.  Janiltwikyi  (>yn.  PrBU: 
tmui.  ^fomodtafH  ard««,  &c-),  paraiiiic  in  numerous 

Itecenily.  anoiher  form  hu  been  dncribed,  froi ■■•'■  • 

Ca-iellani  and  Willi^y  have  termed  Haimcysliiiu< 
Simarki^ — Tlie  ditlinguiahinE  cbaraclert  of  the  i 


/-I,  TrophoKuiei.  uiU  within  (he  beaianini  to  divide  uf 

ing  the  itniciure  of  ttU  Uood-cocpuicte- 

nucleus,  the  coane  chroma-     N.  NucleiK    of    tbe    blood<ur- 
(Old  granukt  in  the  proto-  puicie. 

plaani  and  the  manoer  in     ■,  Kiicieut  of  (he  paiawte. 
Kiefly  by  (her  sice  relative  to  the  bfood-corpuKlet,  and  ihsr  dit- 


HAETZER 


8ii 


The  body  of -the  paraaite  exceeds  the  blood-corputcle  in  length, 
when  adult,  and  is  bent  upon  itself,  like  a  (J.  A  very  great  number 
of  species  are  known,  mostly  from  reptiles  and  fishes;  among  them 
may  be  mentioned  H.  sUpanovi  (fig.  6),  from  Emys  and  Cistudo, 
whose  sexual<ycle  in  a  leech  has  been  worked  out  by  Siegel  (see 
above),  H.  ddagei,  from  Raja,  H.  higemina.  from  blennies,  and  H. 
simandit  from  soles.  Recently  one  or  two  Mammalian  forms  have 
been  observed,  H.  gerbiUi,  from  an  Indian  rat  {CtrbiUus)^  and  H. 
jactdit  from  the  jerboa.. 

Gepus  LankeiOereUa,  Lahht  (syn.  Drepanidium,  Lankester).  The 
parasite  is  not  more  than  thtee-quarten  the  length  of  the  corpuscle. 
JL  rattartim  from  Rana  is  the  type-species;  anotho*.  recently  described 
l>y  Fantham,  is  L.  triUmis,  from  the  newt. 

Genus  Karyolvsus,  LabbL  The  parasite  does  not  exceed  the  cor- 
puacle  in  lei^;th;   the  forms  included  in  this  genus,  moreover. 


Froai  laakntfrt  TnoiiM  m  Ztdtgy. 

Fic.  7. — Kdryciysus  lacertarum  (Danil.),  in  the  blood-corpuscles  of 
Lactrta  muralis,  showing  the  effects  of  the  parasite  upon  the  nucleus 
of  the  corpuscle.  In  c  and  d  the  nucleus. is  broken  up.  N.  Nucleus 
of  the  corpuscle;  it.  nucleus  of  the  parasite,  seen  as  a  number  of 
masses  of  chromatin,  not  enclosed  by  a  distinct  membrane.  (After 
Maiceau.) 

although  not  actually  intranuclear,  have  a  marked  karyolvtic  and 
disiAtegrating  action  upon  the  nuclieus  of  the  corpuscle.  The  type- 
npedes  is  the  well-known  K.  lacertarum,  of  lizards;  another  is  K. 
(Hatmoiregaritia)  viperini,  from  Tropidanatus. 

In  the  section  of  the  Piroplasmata  there  is  only  the  genus  Piro- 
tlasma,  Patton  (synn.  Babisia,  Surcovici,  Pyrosoma,  Smith  and 
Kilborne),  the  principal  ^wcies  of  which  are  as  follows:  P.  M> 
gefNCiiMJfi,  the  cause  of  Texas  cattle-fever,  tick-fever  (Rinder-malaria) 
of  South  Africa,  and  P.  hovis,  causing  haemoglobinuria  oi  cattle  in 
Soothcm  Euit>pe;  there  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  whether  these  two 
are  really  distinct;  P.  eanis,  P.  avis  and  P.  eqtd  associated,  respec- 
tively, with  those  animals.  Lately,  a  very  small  form,  P.  panmm, 
has  been  described  by  Theiler  in  Rhodesia,  which  causes  East- 
African  coast-fever;  and  another,  P.  Mam,  has  been  observed  in 
white  rats  1^  Fantham. 

BiBUOCRArHY. — (The  older  literature  is  enumerated  in  most 
treatises  on  Sporowa — see  bibliography  under  Spokozoa).  P. 
Ai^utinsky,  "  Malariastudien,"  Arek,  mikr.  AaoL  59,  p.  315,  pli> 
iS-ai  (1901),  and  «p.  ciL  61,  p.  131.  pi.  18  (1902):  A.  Bufour, 
"  Haainoaregarine  of  Mammals,^'  J.  Trap.  Utd,  8,j>.  241,  8  figs. 
(1905);  C.  A.   Bentley,  "  Leucocytoioan  of  the  Uog,"  B.M.J. 

(1905).  I,  pp.  988  and  1078^  N.  Berestneff,  " '*'^  

Blutparasit 
8  (190J 


% 


,  fiy,  yuv  mMiK»  sv/vj,  *■%.  w«t««i.u«u,  «Jber  elneu  neuen 
Hten  der  indischen  FrOsche,"  Arch.  ProHstenh.  a,  p.  343, 
pL  6  (1903) ;  "  Uber  das  '  LeueocyUnoan '  danilewskyi"  op.  ciL  3, 
p.  376.  pL  IS  (IQ04);  A.  Billet,  ''^Contribution  k  I'etude  du  palu- 
disme  et  de  son  Mmatosoaire  en  Algirie,"  i4fiii.  Inst.  PasUmr,  16, 
p.  186  (19M) :  (Notes  on  various  Haemogregarines),  C.  R.  Sac.  Biol. 


Bowhill,  "  Equine  piroplasmosis,"  &c.,  /.  Hyg.  5,  p.  7,  pis.  1-3 
(1905);  BovhSll  and  C.  le  Doux,  "  Contribution  to  the  Study  of 
'  Piroplasmosis  asms,'  "  0j>.  cit,  4.  p.  217,  pi.  11  (1901);  E.  Brumpt 
and  C.  Lcbailly,  *'  Description  de  ouelques  nouvcUes  esptees  de 
trypanosomes  et  d*h&nogregarines,"  &c.,  C.  R.  Ac.  ScL  139.  Pu  613 
(1904) ;  A.  Castrllsni  and  A.  Willey,  "  Observations  on  the  Haema^ 
uwoa  of  Vertebrates  in  Ceylon,"  Spolia  Zeytam.  2,  p.  78, 1  pi.  (1004), 
and  Q.  J.  Micr,  Sd.  49,  p.  J83,  pi.  24  (19O5);  S.  R.  Christophers, 
"  Haamotrtmrina  g^i 


and  Q.  J.  Micr,  Sci.  40,  p.  383,  pi.  24  (19O5);  S.  R.  Christ< 

rbmi,  Sci.  Mtm.  Indta,  18, 15  pp.,  i  pi  (1905): 
H.  B.  Fantham.  '^LankosUrelia  trikmis,  n.  sp.,  '^  &c,  Zool.  An*. 
9t  P-  357*  17  nn.  (1905):  "  Piivplasma  muris,**  &c.,  Q.  J.  Mier. 
Sci.  so,  p.  493.  pL  28  (1906) :  C.  Craham-Smith,  *'  A  new  Fonn  of 
Parasite  found  m  the  Red  Blood-Corpuscles  of  Moles,"  /.  Hyt.  5. 

p.  4M,  pis.  13  and  14  (1905);.  "^ 

wKkdung  von  LankeslereUa 


mtntma"  Zod.  Jakrb.  Anai.  15,  p.  69A, 
On  a  Parasite  found  in  the  White  Blood- 

Mem.  India,  14.  la  pp.  i  pi.  (190s): 
R.  'Koch,  **  Vorliufige  Mitteiluneen  Qber  die  Ergebnisse  einer 
Forschungsrelse  nach  Osufrika,"  ueuUck.  med.  Wochensckr.,  1905, 
p.  i86<^  24  figs.;  A.  LAbb6.  "  Recherches  sur  les  parasites  endo- 
globulaires  du  sang  des  vert^bris,"  Arck.  tool.  exp.  (3)  ii.  p.  M. 
10  pis.  (1894);  A.  LAveran,  "Sur  quelques  h6mogT^arines  aes 

3>hidiens,"  C.  R.  Ac.  Sci.  13s,  p.  1036,  13  figs.  (1902);  "Sur  une 
aomamoeba  d'une  m^sanse  {Parus  major),"  C.  R.  Soc.  Biol.  54. 
p.  1 121.  10  figs.  (1902);  "  Sur  la  piropUsmose  bovine  bacilUforme, 
C.  R.  Ac.  Set.  138.  p.  648.  18  figs.  (1903):  "  Contribution  i  I'^tude 
de  Baamamoeba  siemaHm,"  C.  R.  Soc.  Btoi.  55.  p.  6ao,  7  figs.  (1903) ; 


pL  36  (190a);  S.  James. 
Corpuscles  of  Dogs,"  Set. 


"  Sur  une  h^mogr^arine  des  gerboises,"  C.  R.  Ae,  ScL  141,  p.  295, 
9  figs.  (190c) ;  (On  different  Haemogregarines)  C.  R.  Soc.  Bud.  59. 
pp.  175,  170,  with  figs.  (1905) ;  "  Haemocytoioa.  Essai  de  classifica- 
tion,' Btul.  InsL  Pasteur,  3,  p.  809  (1905);  Laveran  and  F.  Mcsnil, 
"  Sur  les  h^matocoaires  des  poissons  marins,"  C  R.  Ac.  Sci,  135, 
p.  567  (190a) ;  "  Sur  quelques  protoxoaires  parantes  d'une  tortue 
d'Asie,"  t.c.  p.  609,  14  fiss.  (190a) ;  Laveran  and  Ubgrc,  "  Sur  un 
protosoaire  parasite  de  Uyahmma  aegyptium"  C.  R.  Soc.  Biol.  58, 
p.  964,  6  figs.  (1005);  (for  various  earher  papers  by  these  authors, 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  C.  JS.  Ac.  Sci.  and  C.  R.  Soc.  Biol. 
for  previous  years);  C.  Lebailly  (On  Piscine  Haemogregarines) 
C.  R.  Ac.  Sci.  139.  p.  576  (i904)>  <»ad  C.  R.  Soc.  Biol.  59,  p.  304 
(1905):  J-  LigniArcs,  "Sur  la  'Tristesa/"  Ann.  Itut.  Pasteur,  15, 
p.  lai,  pL  6  (1901);  "La  Piroplasmose  bovine;  ncuvelles  re- 
cherches,'' Ac,  Arck.  parasiL  7,  p.  398,  pi.  4  (1903);  M.  LQhe.  "Die 
im  Blute  schmarotaenden  Protosoen.'  in  Mense's  Handbuck  der 
TropenkroMkkeiten  (Leipsig,  1906),  3,  I ;  F.  Marceau,  "  Note  sur  le 
Karyolysus  lacertarum,  Arck.  parasitol,  4,  p.  135,  46  figs.  (1901): 
W.  MacCallum,  "  On  the  Haematocoan  Infection  of  Birds,"  /.  Exp. 


various  Reptilian  Haemogregarines),  C.  R.  Soc.  Bid.  56.  pp.  330. 
608  and  Qia,  with  figs.  (1904);  Nicolle  and  C.  Comte,  ^'  Sur  le  rile 


.  .  .  de  ayalomma  .  .  .  dans  I'infection  h^ogr6garinienne,"  op. 
etf.  58,  p.  1045  (190S) ;  Norcard  and  Motas,  "  Contribution  k  Tdtude 
de  la  ptropUanaose  canine,"  Ann.  Inst,  Pasteur,  16,  p.  2S/S,  pis.  s 


Cejttrbl.  6,  p.  675  (1899):  "  Studien  Qber  knhkheitserregende 
Protoxoen — II.  Plasmodtum  vioax,"  Arb.  Kais.  Cesundheitsamte,  19, 
p.  169,  pis.  4-6  (1909);  E.  and  E.  Sogeat  (On  different  Haemo- 
gregarines), C.  R.  Soc.  Biol.  ^,  pp.  130,  13a  (1904).  op'  eit.  $8,  pp. 
56.  57.  670  (1909);  T.  Siegel,  "Die  geschlecbtliche  Entwickelung 
ypnHiumogremnna,"  Ac.,  Arck.Protistenk.  a,  p.  339,  7  figs.  (1901); 
P.  L.  Simond,  Contribution  a  r^ude  des  hCmatocoaires  endo- 
globuUires  des  reptiles,"  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  15,  p.  319.  ■  pi-  (1901): 
T.  Smith  and  F.  Kilborne, "  Investigations  into  the  Nature,  Causation 
and  Prevention  of  Texas  (Tattle  rever,"  Rep.  Bureau  Animal  In- 
dustry, U.SA.,  9  and  10,  p.  177,  pis.  (1893);  A.  Theiler,  "The 
Piroplasma  bigeminum  of  the  Immune  Ox,"  J.  Army  Med.  Corps,  3, 
PP- 469.  59^.  I  pL  (1904);  J-  Vassal,  "Sur  une  h^matosoaire 
endoglM>ulaire  nouveau  d'un  mammifdre,"  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  19. 
p.  aa4,  pi.  10  (190^);  L.  B.  Wilson  and  W.  Chowning,  "  Studies  in 
Piroplasmosis  komtnis"  /.  /fi/ed.  Diseases,  x,  p.  31,2  pis.  (1904). 


(H.  M.  Wo.) 

HAfilZER,  or  Heizes,  LUDWIO  (d.  1529),  Swiis  divine, 
was  bom  in  Switzerland,  at  BischofszeD,  in  Thtugau.  He 
studied  at  Freiburg-im-Breisgau,  and  began  his  career  in  a 
chaplaincy  at  Wadenswil,  on  the  Lake  of  Zurich.  At  thb  time 
his  attachment  to  the  old  faith  was  tempered  by  a  mystical  turn, 
and  by  a  devotion  to  the  prophetical  writinss  of  the  Old  TesU- 
ment,  which  he  studied  in  the  originaL  By  1523  we  find  him 
in  ZOrich,  where  he  published,  at  first  anonymously  and  in 
Latin  {Judicium  Dei),  later  with  his  name  and  in  German 
(Sept.  a4, 1  $33),  a  small  trtct  against  the  reUg^us  use  of  images, 
and  bearing  the  motto  atUched  to  all  his  subsequent  works, 
"  O  Got  crldas  die  (or  dein)  Gefangnen  "  ("  O  God,  set  the 
prisoners  free  ")•  An  attempt  to  give  effect  to  the  teaching  of 
this  (frequently  reprinted)  tract  was  followed  by  a  public  religious 
disputation,  of  which  Haetser  drew  up  the  ofiBdal  account. 
In  1524  he  brought  out  a  tract  on  the  conversion  of  the  Jews, 
and  published  a  German  version  of  Johann  Bugenhagen's 
brief  eiposition  of  the  epistles  of  St  Paul  (Ephesians  to  Hebrews) ; 
in  the  dedication  (dated  ZOrich,  June  29,  1524)  he  undertakes 
to  translate  Bugenhagen's  comment  on  the  Psalter.  He  then 
went  to  Augsburg,  bearing  Zwingli's  introduction  to  Johann 
Frocch.  Here  he  came  for  a  time  under  the  influence  of  Urbanus 
Regius,  and  was  for  a  short  time  the  guest  of  Georg  RegeL 
Returning  to  Zflrich,  he  was  in  intercourse  with  leading  Ana- 
baptists (though  his  own  position  was  simply  the  disuse  of  infant 
baptism)  till  their  eqMilston  in  January  1535.  Again  resorting 
to  Augsburg,  and  resuming  work  as  corrector  of  the  press  for 
his  printer  Silvan  Ottmar,  he  pushed  his  vie«s  to  the  extreme 
of  rejecting  all  sacraments,  reaching  something  like  the  mystical 
standpoint  of  the  early  Quakers.  He  was  expelled  from  Augs- 
burg in  the  autumn  of  1 525,  and  made  his  way  through  Constance 
to  Basel,  where  Oecolampadius  received  him  kindly.  He  trans- 
lated into  German  the  first  treatise  of  Oecolampadius  on  the 
Lord's  Supper  (in  which  the  words  of  institution  are  taken 
figuratively),  and  prxceding  to  Zdrich  in  November,  published 


8l2 


HAFIZ 


his  version  there  In  February  1526,  with  a  preface  disclaiming 
connexion  with  the  Anabaptists.  His  relations  with  Zwingli 
were  difficult;  returning  to  Basel  he  published  (July  18,  1526) 
his  translation  of  Malachi,  with  Oecolampadius's  exposition, 
and  with  a  preface  reflecting  on  Zwingli.  This  he  followed  by 
a  version  of  Isaiah  xxxvi.-xxxvii.  He  next  went  to  Strassburg, 
and  was  received  by  Wolfgang  Capito.  At  Strassburg  in  the 
late  autumn  of  1526  he  fell  in  with  Hans  Dengk.  or  Denck,  who 
collaborated  with  him  in  the  production  of  his  0^111  maitium, 
the  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Prophets,  AUe  Propketen  nach 
hdfraUcker  Sprach  tertuetsckt.  The  preface  is  dated  Worms, 
3  April  1537-,  and  there  are  editions,  Worms,  13  April  1527, 
folio;  Augsburg,  22  June  1527,  folio;  Worms,  7  Sept.  1527, 
x6*;  and  Augsburg,  1528,  folio.  It  was  the  first  Protestant 
version  of  the  prophets  in  German,  preceding  Luther's  by  five 
years,  and  highly  spoken  of  by  him.  Haetzer  and  Dendc  now 
entered  on  a  propagandist  mission  from  place  to  place,  with 
some  success,  but  of  short  duration.  Denck  died  at  Basel  in 
November  1527.  Haetzer  was  arrested  at  Constance  in  the 
summer  of  1528.  After  long  imprisonment  and  many  examina- 
tions he  was  condemned  on  the  3rd  of  February  1529  to  die  by 
the  sword,  and  the  sentence  was  executed  on  the  following  day. 
His  demeanour  on  the  scaffold  impressed  impartial  witnesses, 
Hans  Zwick  and  Thomas  Biaurer,  who  speak  warmly  of  his 
fervour  and  courage.  The  Dutch  Baptist  Martyrology  describes 
him  as  '*  a  servant  of  Jesus  Christ."  The  Moravian  Chronicle 
says  "  he  was  condemned  for  the  sake  of  divine  truth."  His 
papers  included  an  unpublished  treatise  against  the  essential 
deity  of  Christ,  which  was  suppressed  by  Zwingli;  the  only 
extant  evidence  of  his  anti-trinitarian  views  being  contained 
in  eight  quaint  lines  of  German  verse  preserved  in  Sebastian 
Frank's  Chronica.  The  discovery  of  his  heterodox  Christology 
(which  has  led  modem  Unitarians  to  regard  him  as  their  proto- 
martyr)  was  followed  by  charges  of  loose  living,  never  heard  of 
in  his  lifetime,  and  destitute  of  evidence  or  probability. 

See  Breitinger,  "  Anecdota  quaedam  dc  L.  H."  in  Museum  Hd- 
veticum  (1746),  parts  21  and  23;  Wallace,  AntUrinitarian  Biography 

ii85o):  Dutch  Martyrtdogy  (blanserd  Knoltys  Society)  (1856);  Th. 
[eim,  in  Hauck's  ReaUncyUopddie  (1899).  (A.  Go.*) 

HAFIZ.  Shams-ud-din  Mahommed,  better  known  by  his 
takhaUus  or  nom  de  plume  of  H&fiz,  was  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  writers  of  Persian  lyrical  poetry.  He  was  bom  at 
Shiraz,  the  capital  of  Fars,  in  the  early  part  of  the  8th  century 
of  the  Mahommedan  era,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  14th  of  our  own. 
The  exact  date  of  his  birth  is  uncertain,  but  he  attained  a  ripe 
old  age  and  died  in  791  a.b.  (a.d.  1388).  This  is  the  date 
given  in  the  chronogram  which  b  engraved  on  his  tomb,  although 
several  Persian  biographers  give  a  different  year.  Very  little 
is  actually  known  about  his  life,  which  appears  to  have  been 
passed  in  retirement  in  Shiraz,  of  which  he  always  speaks  in 
terms  of  affectionate  admiration.  He  was  a  subject  of  the 
Muzaffar  princes,  who  ruled  in  Shiraz,  Yazd,  Kirman  and  Ispahan, 
until  the  dynasty  was  overthrown  by  Timur  (Tamerlane).  Of 
these  princes  his  especial  patrons  were  Shah  Shujft*  and  Shah 
MansOr.  He  early  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  poetry  and 
theology,  and  also  became  learned  in  mystic  philosophy,  which 
he  studied  under  Shaik  MahmOd  *AttAr,  chief  of  an  order  of 
dervishes.  H&fiz  afterwards  enrolled  hiniself  in  the  same  order 
and  became  a  professor  of  Koranic  exegesis  in  a  college  which 
his  friend  and  patron  Haji  Kiwam^ud-dln,  the  vizier,  specially 
founded  for  him.  This  was  probably  the  reason  of  his  adopting 
the  sobriquet  of  Hftfiz  ("  one  who  rejoiembers  "),  which  is  technic- 
ally applied  10  any  person  who  has  learned  the  Koran  by  heart. 
The  restraints  of  an  ascetic  life  seem  to  have  been  very  little  to 
H&fiz's  taste,  and  his  loose  conduct  and  wine-bibbing  propensities 
drew  upon  him  the  severe  censure  of  his  monastic  colleagues. 
In  revenge  he  satirizes  them  unmercifully  in  his  verses,  and  seldom 
loses  an  opportunity  of  alluding  to  their  hypocrisy.  Hftfiz^s 
fame  as  a  poet  was  soon  rapidly  spread  throughout  the  Mahom- 
medan world,  and  several  powerful  monarchs  sent  him  presents 
and  pressing  invitations  to  visit  them.  Amongst  others  h$  was 
invited  by  MahmQd  Shah  Bahmani,  who  reigned  in  the  south 


of  India.  After  crossing  the  Indus  and  pasung  through  Lahofe 
he  reached  Hurmuz,  and  embarked  <m  board  a  vesstl  sent  for 
him  by  the  Indian  prince.  He  seems,  however,  to  have  been  a 
bad  sailor,  and,  having  invented  an  excuse  for  being  put  ashon, 
made  the  best  of  his  way  back  to  Shiraz.  Some  biographies 
narrate  a  story  <^  an  interview  between  Hlfiz  and  the  invader 
Timur.  The  latter  sent  for  him  and  asked  angrily,  '*  Art  thcu 
he  who  was  so  bold  as  to  offer  my  two  great  dties  Samarkand 
and  Bokhara  for  the  black  mole  on  thy  mistress's  cheek?" 
alluding  to  a  weU-known  verse  in  one  of  his  odes.  "  Yes,  sire,'* 
replied  H&fiz,  "  and  it  is  by  such  acts  of  generosity  that  I  have 
brought  myself  to  such  a  state  of  destitutioo  that  I  have 
now  to  solicit  your  bounty."  Timur  was  so  pleased  at  his  ready 
wit  that  he  dismissed  the  poet  with  a  handsome  present.  Un- 
fortunately for  the  tmth  of  this  story  Timur  did  not  captcre 
Shiraz  till  a.d.  1393,  while  the  latest  date  that  can  be  assigned 
to  H&fiz's  death  is  1391.  Of  his  private  life  little  or  nothing  is 
known.  One  of  his  poems  is  said  to  record  the  death  of  his  wile, 
another  that  of  a  favourite  unmarried  son,  and  several  others 
speak  of  his  love  for  a  giri  called  Shdkk  i  Nabat^  "  Sugar-cane 
branch,"  and  this  is  almost  all  of  his  personal  history  that  caa 
be  gathered  from  his  writings.  He  was,  like  most  Persians, 
a  ShiMte  by  religion,  believing  in  the  transmission  d  the  office 
of  Imim  (head  of  the  Moslem  Church)  in  the  family  of  Ali, 
cousin  of  the  prophet,  and  rejecting  the  Haditk  (traditional  say- 
ings) of  Mahomet,  which  form  the  Sunna  or  supplementary  code 
of  Mahommedan  ceremonial  law.  One  of  his  odes  which  contains 
a  verse  in  praise  of  Ali  is  engraved  on -the  poet's  tomb,  but  is 
omitted  by  Sudi,  the  Turkish  editor  and  oominentat<n',  who 
was  himself  a  rigid  Sunnlte.  Hftfiz's  heretical  opinions  and 
dissipated  life  caused  difficulties  to  be  raised  by  the  ecdeaastical 
authorities  on  his  death  as  to  his  interment  in  consecrated 
ground.  The  question  was  at  length  settled  by  Hftfiz's  own 
works,  which  had  then  already  begun  to  be  used,  as  they  are  now 
throughout  the  East,  for  the  purposes  of  divinaticm,  in  the  same 
manner  as  Virgil  was  employed  in  the  middle  ages  for  the  divina- 
tion called  Sortet  VirgUianae.  Opening  the  book  at  randcon 
after  pronouncing  the  customary  formula  a^ing  for  inspiration, 
the  objectois  hit  upon  the  following  verse — **  Tuxn  not  away 
thy  foot  from  the  bier  of  Hifiz,  for  though  immersed  in  sia,  he 
will  be  admitted  into  Paradise."  He  was  accordingly  buried 
in  the  centre  of  a  small  cemetery  at  Shiraz,  now  induded  in  an 
enclosure  called  the  H&fiziyeh. 

His  principal  work  is  the  Dlwdn,  that  is,  a  collection  of  short 
odes  or  sonnets  called  gkaaals,  and  consisting  of  from  five  to 
sixteen  baits  or  couplets  each,  all  the  couplets  in  each  ode  having 
the  same  rh3rme  in  the  last  hemistich,  and  the  last  cou|:det  alwaj'S 
intzodudng  the  poet's  own  nom  de  plume.  The  wh<^  of  these 
are  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  an  arrangement  which 
certainly  facilitates  reference  but  makes  it  abacdutely  imposafale 
to  ascertain  their  chronological  order,  and  therefore  detracts 
from  their  value  as  a  means  of  throwing  E^t  upon  the  growth 
anid  development  of  his  genius  or  the  incidents  of  his  career. 
They  are  often  held  together  by  a  very  slender  thread  of  con- 
tinuous thought,  and  few  editions  agree  exactly  in  the  order  of 
the  couplets.  Still,  a  careful  study  of  them,  eqiedaDy  from  xht 
point  of  view  indicated  by  the  Sufiistic  system  of  {dnlosophy, 
will  always  show  that  a  single  idea  does  run  throughout  the 
whole.  The  nature  of  these  poems  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
discussion  in  the  West,  some  scholars  seeing  in  their  anacreontic 
utterances  nothing  but  sensuality  and  materialism,  while  otheiSy 
following  the  Oriental  school,  maintain  that  they  are  wboQy 
and  entirely  mystic  and  philosophic  Something  between  the  two 
would  probably  be  nearer  the  truth.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  H&fiz  was  a  professed  dervish  and  SOfi,  and  that  his  gkazalx 
were  in  all  probability  published  from  a  l^kia,  and  azranged 
with  at  least  a  view  to  Sufiistic  interpretation.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  ridiculous  to  suppose  that  the  gbwing  inagexy,  the 
gorgeous  and  often  tender  descriptions  of  natural  beauties,  the 
fervent  love  passages,  and  the  roystering  drinking  sonip  were 
composed  in  cool  blood  or  with  deliberate  ascetic  purpose.  The 
beauty  of  H&^'s  poetry  is  that  it  is  natural.    It  is  the  osteoma 


HAG— HAGENAU 


of  a  ferNol  aotil  lad  >  lofty  gcuioi  dcUghtioc  Id  iittiin  tad 
enjoyiaf  liic;  uid  il  i>  tbt  poet'i  mbfortuoe  lb>t  he  Evtd  in  ui 
»tt  ud  ataontK  ■  people  when  ligitl  conwatioiuUiy  dcmuidcd 
■h«t  his  tne  mad  iponuncout  ihouthu  ihould  be  rtcut  in  u 

Bwka  the  Dtmbi,  Hffii  wrote  ■  mimber  ot  oUkt  poenu;  Ute 
L«ipzi|  edition  of  liu  workt  conui[u5f  jfiou/f  (iormiDf  tbe^wdn). 

■nml  IDrn'-tuif  or  poemi  wilh  1  irlrain.     The  w  'u 

MAilited  hua  Engliih  proK  by  K.  Wilbeifonx  <  >i, 

wiifa  iauoductioii  ftdd  ehhauujvt  commcqCBry  an  ly; 

■  few  rfavmlitf  vnvou  of  Hiwle  poemt  by  Sir  W  I. 

Noil,  J.  Hisdlty,  F>lcan«(,  Ac,  arc  lo  be  found  k  gh 

Ihc  piga  of  the  Oinl'i' Viicdliiii/ lod  other  periot  ne 

cdiliofi  anUAining  «  verte  rendcnn^  of  the  princia  H. 

Bickaelluipcmndin  iSts-    Other  leLeetiona  by  S.  F  s), 

A.IUiienJl8a<ll,J.K.M'C>nhy(ig93).iiidGe«nid  7  . 

TbeprinciialCernuii  venk>iuareb^  vonHMmmerl'..,.^£.JJ  14.^.  J  J, 
whka  pve  the  lirai  impulie  to  Goethe'i  Wntijlinker  Divan-a 


■AAn  Uakammi*  Hift.  by  C.  H.  F.  NeHelmaon  (Berlin,  i860,  in 

■he  ndet  may  miuull  d'Hetbelot.  BiUuMoMi  'triinlaU,  anicle 
"  Hiht  ";  Sir  Williain  Ouieley'i  Orinlal  CMeclimi  (I7<i7-i>98): 
A  Sfnimn  tt  Petittt  P«tlry.  ar  Odci  >/  Hoju.  by  John  AIchaMson 
(London.  1801I:  Siofaplikal  Ntliia  H  Ptriian  Pata.  by  Sir  Goie 
OuKlty  (Orieniil  TniuUiion  Fund.  184a);  lod  as  enceUeni  attKle 
by  PnCcHor  E.  B.  Cowell  in  MarmiUan-i  Wifuw  (No.  177.  July 
1674):  J.  A.  Vullen.  V«m  paUarMm  Ptr,l,mm  (I«J9,  tiaoiUltd 
> rw..i...i..i...c    1..1.; "-lian  PctUy  fiK  EMiik  Ka^i 


<.  Vullen. 
«  o<  the  Ti 


inTurkiihi 


Ihe  Ant  eighty  (i 


'i't^: 


^r^rh'S'ta 


Act  fitrtildHII  LlkraJfr  (Leipl 

Ska.    (iXFcobBblyiihoncDcdformoftheO.  Eng.Jt. 
itila,  cognate  with  Cet,  Htit,  witch,  Dutch  kccsc),  1 

or  cvU  ipirit,  and  w  particularly  applied  to  auch  aupeti 
ai  the  harpies  and  falrjeioEclaisical  mythology,  a: 


uold  * 


!  lepuliLve  ei 


pamitic  fiih.  Uyxint  fJMiat 


ir  felling,  uid  , 


il  alto  Died  of  an  eet-like 
d  10  Ihe  tunpfey. 
dDorthetnEDlllthdialccU 

"     "IIag"al»ineatit"(o 


:oCw 


-  iaabocltii 
RAODOK' 


"(£i.l/,K*ff//a/)iDHait 


nied,  and  I 
iterary  occu 


afterwards  1 

October  iJ! 

unmiuakabte  t< 
devaUalion  wrought  by  the  Thirty  Yean 
a  locial  poet-  His  light  and  Eracefu]  love 
with  their  undisguised  jait  dt  tivrt,  intt 

in  form  and  in  delicate  persiflage  10  1 
FODlaJoe,  and  his  moraliiing  poetry  n 


t  Roiace.    He  exerted  a  dominant  inHnenci 
yrjc  until  late  in  [he  iStb  centaiy. 
The  firtt  coUectioo  of  Kafedoro  a  neas  waa  puhLiahed 

/«■!*  naifiT  CtiiiUi  (reprinted  by  A.  Sauerr>lii[h'™ 

n    ITlS  inmrrd    Vrrnuk  •■  pstUUlm  foWa    lnd  _ 

~-  -nena,  under  the  title  . 
Hunlisdu  CtditIM  in 


813 

the  Cermaa 


iB.I^TnlT^i. 


Ljrilur  (Siutcgait.  I894)'    See  al 


Eiient 
■  8i4)- 


ibrodl,  i/atubra  ud  dii  EntUumi 


altahia 
(J  volt., 

,--^—^„  ,jirutiiilu 
Liter,  F.  rm  Htiftom 
T  (UipBg,  iMj);  W. 
■  XriiiiHim  (Beiliji. 


HkOBH,  PRIBDHICH  HEIHRICH  TOM  DSR  (17S0-1SJ6], 
Mennan  philologist.  chicHy  diiliuguitlicd  for  his  iciearcha  in 
Old  German  Ulerature,  was  bom  at  Schmiedeberg  In  Brandea- 
biiig  go  Ihe  igth  of  February  1760.  After  studying  lair  al 
the  university  of  Hslle,  he  obuined  a  legal  appmnlmcDl  in  the 
state  service  at  Betlio.  but  in  1806  reugned  this  office  in  order 
to  devote  himself  eiclusively  to  letters.  In  iSiohewatappoinled 
prafaiar  atraordinariMi  of  German  literature  in  the  univenily 
of  Berlin;  in  the  foUowiag  year  be  was  transferred  in  a  similar 
capacity  to  Breslau.  and  in  iSii  returned  10  Berlin  ai  prs/eiisr 
frdinariui.  He  died  at  Berlin  on  the  iitb  of  June  1S56. 
Although  von  der  Hagea's  critical  work  is  lunr  entirely  out  of 
date,  the  chief  merit  of  awakening  an  interest  in  rAi  German 
poetry  belongs  to  him. 

Hia  priKipil  pubUcsliont  an  the  NiMufnliii.  id  which  he 
iieued  Tour  editions,  the  firtt  in  1810  and  the  Ian  In  ti^j;  the 
UimuiituB  (Leipiig,  ifit^iAtA,  4  vols,  lo  5  pans):  Ludt 
itum  Bdia  ^bB^t^,  iSiiF;  GoMM  tim  SliaiAvt  (Berlin,  i 
a  colleclioa  of  Old  German  tafei  under  the  title  GtmUaitl... . 
(Stuttgart.  iSu,  i  vob.)  and  Ztu  HMtmiiiU  [Lidpiig,  IBU).  He 
also  publislicd?>t<r  du  lUUIUa  Dva^lmtn  df  /^^Juf/jgerlin, 

,».  .r,  —J  r ...  i„  j:,^  b„  „f„  Ja*r^«*  df  BBlmUi%n- 

wV  ntd  AUtrOimtlmdt.    Hia  cofrr 
■  and  C.  F.  Beaecke  waa  puhUibed  1^ 

B&QKM,  a  town  of  Germany,  fn  the  PniniaD  province  of 

Weiiphalla-  Pop,  (1905),  77, 4»B.  It  liesamld  well-wooded  hills 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Ennepe  with  the  Volme,  IS  to.  N.£. 
of  Elbeifehl,  on  the  main  line  to  Brunswick  and  Berlin,  and  at 
the  jimction  of  important  lines  of  railway,  cotmecting  it  with  tbe 
priodpaJ  towns  of  the  Westphalion  iron  district.  It  has  five 
Evangelical  churches,  a  Roman  Cslbcdic  church,  an  Old  Catholic 
church,  a  synagogue,  a  gymnaaimn,  realgymnasjum,  and  a 
lechniol  school  wiih  qiedal  cUaaei  for  macbiae-building.  There 
ale  also  >  museum,  a  theatre,  and  1  pieliily  amnged  municipal 
park.  Ragen  is  one  of  the  moat  flourishing  cammeicial  towns 
in  Westphalia,  and  possesses  extensive  iron  and  steel  works, 
large  cotton  print  works,  woollea  and  ctJttoD  factortea,  manu- 
factitres  of  leather,  paper,  tobacco,  and  iron  and  sted  wares, 
breweries  and  distilleries.  There  are  large  litncstoiu  quarries 
in  the  vicinity  and  also  an  alabalter  quarry. 

BAOEf  AO,  a  town  of  Germany,  In  the  imperial  province  of 
AIsace-Lornine,  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  Hageruiu  Forest, 
on  Ibe  UDdn,aDd  on  Ihe  railway  from  Straasburg  10  Weiisea- 
buig,tom.N.N.E.ortheformerciIy.  Fop.  (ipoj),  iS.soo.  It 
has  two  Evangelical  and  two  ancient  Catholic  churches  (on 


IlLh,    1 


ijth  c, 


■tuiy),  , 


public  library,  a  hospital,  and  a  theatre.  The 
principal  industries  are  wool  and  cotton  iplnning,  and  Ihe 
nsBufacture  of  porcelain, earthenware, boots,  soap,  oil,  sparkling 
iriaa  and  beer.  There  is  also  coniiderafale  trade  In  hopi  and 
vegetaUea.  Hagenau  is  an  Imponant  military  centre  and  has 
large  ganison,  including  three  artiUery  baltaliona. 
Hagenau  dales  from  the  beginning  of  the  1  ilh  century,  and 
wes  its  origin  to  the  erection  of  a  hunting  lodge  by  the  dukei 
I  Swabia.  The  emperor  Frederick  I,  lurrounded  il  with  valla 
nd  gave  il  town  tights  in  1 1  $4.  On  the  site  of  the  hunting  lodge 
e  founded  an  imperial  palace,  in  which  were  preserved  the 
,  -welled  imperial  crown,  sceptre,  imperial  globe,  and  sword  of 
Charlemagne.    Subacquently  it  becainc  the  acat  of  the  iMiiip 


8 14 


HAGENBACH— HAGGAI 


of  Hagcoau,  the  imperial  adtoaOiu  in  Lower  Alnce.  Richard 
of  Cornwall,  king  ol  the  Romans,  made  it  an  imperial  dty  in 
1257.  In  1648  it  came  into  the  possession  of  France,  and  in 
X673  Louis  XIV.  caused  the  fortifications  to  be  razed.  In  1675 
it  was  captured  by  imperial  troops,  but  in  1677  it  was  retaken 
by  the  French  and  nearly  all  destroyed  by  fire.  In  1871  it  fell, 
with  the  rest  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  into  the  possession  of  Germany. 

HAOBNBACH,  KARL  RUDOLF  (x8ox-x874)>  German  church 
historian,  was  bom  on  the  4th  of  March  1801  at  ^asel,  where  his 
father  was  a  practising  physician.  His  preliminary  education  was 
received  at  a  Pestaloczian  schocd,  and  afterwards  at  the  gym- 
nasium, whence  in  due  course  he  passed  to  the  newly  reorganized 
local  univeruty.  He  early  devoted  himself  £0  theological  studies 
and  the  service  of  the  church,  while  at  the  same  time  cherishing 
and  developing  broad  "humanistic"  tendencies  which  found 
expression  in  many  ways  and  especially  in  an  enthusiastic 
admiration  for  the  writings  of  Herder.  The  years  X820-X833 
were  spent  first  at  Boim,  where  G.  C.  F.  Lflcke  .(X79X-X855) 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  his  thought,  and  afterwards  at 
Berlin,  where  Schleiermacher  and  Neander  became  his  masters. 
Returning  in  X833  to  Basel,  where  W.  M.  L.  de  Wette  had  re- 
cently been  appointed  to  a  theolof^cal  chair,  he  distinguished 
himself  greatly  by  his  trial-dissertation,  Ohsenalumes  kistorico- 
kermeneuiicae  circa  Origenia  metkodum  tnterpretendce  soaro* 
Scripmrae;  in  1824  he  became  professor  eztraordinarius,  and 
in  X839  professor  ordinarius  of  theology.  Apart  from  his 
academic  labours  in  coimexion  with  the  history  of  dogma  and 
of  the  church,  he  lived  a  life  (^  great  and  varied  usefulness  as  a 
theologian,  a  preacher  and  a  citizen;  and  at  his  "  jubilee  " 
in  X873,  not  only  the  university  and  town  of  Basel  but  also  the 
various  churches  of  Switzerland  united  to  do  him  honour.  He 
died  at  Basel  cm  the  7th  of  June  X874. 

Hagenbach  was  a  voluminous  author  in  many  departments, 
but  he  is  specially  distinguished  as  a  writer  on  church  history. 
Though  neither  so  learned  and  condensed  as  the  contributions 
of  Gieseler,  nor  so  original  and  profound  as  those  of  Neander, 
his  lectures  are  clear,  attractive  and  free  from  narroF  sectarian 
prejudice.  In  dogmatics,  while  avowedly  a  champion  of  the 
"  mediation  theology  *'  {Vermittdungstkeologie),  based  upon  the 
fundamental  conceptions  of  Herder  and  Schleiermacher,  he  was 
much  less  revolutionary  than  were  many  others  of  his  schooL 
He  sought  to  maintain  the  old  confessional  documents,  and  to 
make  the  objective  prevail  over  the  purely  subjective  maimer 
of  viewing  theologicsl  questions.  But  he  himself  was  aware 
that  in  the  endeavour  to  do  so  he  was  not  always  successful, 
and  that  his  delineations  of  Chxistian  dogma  often  betrayed  a 
vacillating  and  imcertain  hand. 

His  works  include  Tahdlarische  Vberskht  der  DogmengesckkkU 
(iSaS) :  Encyclop&dU  u.  Mttkodolone der  tkeol.  Wissetuckaften  (1833) ; 
VoHtsunnn  ttiter  Wesen  u.  Ctsekicnte  der  Reformation  u.  det  ProUsian' 
Hswtus  (1834-1843);  Lekrhuek  der  Dogmenguckickle  (18^1841,  sth 
ed.,  1867;  English  tran'sl.,  1850);  Vorlentngen  aber  die  Cesckickte 
der  alien  Kirche  (1853-1855) ;  Vorlesungen  aber  die  Kirehengeschickte 
des  UittdaUers  (1860-1861);  Grundlinten  der  HomUetik  u.  LUwgik 
(1863):  biographies  of  Johannes  Oecolampadius  (i482-x^64)  and 
Otwald  Myconius  (X488-X5S3)  and  a  Cesckickte  der  tkeol.  Sckule 
Basds  (i860);  his  Prtdigten  (1858-1875),  two  volumes  <A  poems 
entitled  Lutker  u,  seine  Zeit  (1838),  and  Gedickte  (1846).  The 
lectures  on  church  history  under  the^nenl  title  Vorlesungen  Hber 
die  Kirekengesckiehte  von  der  dlUslen  Zeit  bis  Mum  iQlen  Jakrkundert 
were  reissued  in  seven  volumes  (1868-1872). 

See  especially  the  article  in  Herzog-Hauck,  RealencyUopddiej, 

HAOENBBCK,  CARL  (X844-  ),  wild-anima]  collector  and 
dealer,  was  bom  at  Hamburg  in  X844.  In  1848  his  father 
purchased  some  seals  and  a  Polar  bear  brought  to  Hamburg 
by  a  whaler,  and  subsequently  acquired  many  other  wild  animalsJ 
At  the  age  of  twenty-one  Carl  Hagenbeck  was  given  the  whole 
collection,  and  before  long  had  greatly  extended  the  business, 
so  that  in  1873  he  had  to  erect  large  buildings  in  Hamburg  to 
house  his  animals.  In  X875  he  began  to  exhibit  a  collection  of 
the  representative  animals  of  many  countries,  accompanied  by 
troupes  of  the  natives  of  the  respective  countries,  throughout 
aO  the  large  cities  of  Europe.  The  educational  value  of  these 
exhibitions  was  officially  recognized  by  the  French  government, 


which  in  xS^x  awarded  Hagenbeck  the  diploma  of  the  Academy. 
Most  of  the  wUd  animah  exhibited  in  music-halls  and  other 
popular  places  of  entertainment  throughout  the  world  have 
come  from  Hagenbeck's  collection  at  Stellingen,  near  Hambuzg. 

HAOBRSTOWN,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Wasbingtoa 
county,  Maryland,  U.Sj^.,  near  Antietam  Creek,  about  86  m. 
by  raU  W.N.W.  from  Baltimore.  Pop.  (1890),  xo.xxS;  (X900}, 
13*591  >  of  whom  1377  were  negroes;  (19x0,  ocfisos),  16,507. 
Hagerstown  is  served  by  the  Baltimore  8l  Ohio,  the  Western 
Maryland,  the  Norfolk  &  Western,  and  the  Cumberland  VaDcy 
railways,  and  by  an  interurban  electric  line.  It  lies  in  a  fertile 
valley  overlooked  by  South  Mountain  to  the  £.  and  North 
Mountain,  more  distant,  to  the  W.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  Ree 
Mar  College  (1852;  non-sectarian)  for  women.  Hai^ntowa 
is  a  business  centre  for  the  surrounding  agricultural  district, 
has  good  water  power,  and  as  a  manufacturing  centre  tanked 
third  in  the  state  in  X905,  its  factory  products  being  valued  in 
that  year  at  $3,036,90x,  an  increase  of  66-3%  over  their  vslue 
in  X900.  Ainong  the  manufaaures  are  flour,  shirts,  liosicry, 
gloves,,  bicydes,  automobiles,  agricultural  implements,  print 
paper,  fertilizers,  sash,  doors  and  blinds,  furniture,  carriages, 
spokes  and  wheels.  The  municipality  owns  and  operates  iu 
dectric  lighting  plant.  Hagerstown  was  laid  out  as  a  town  ia 
1763  by  Captain  Jonathan  Hager  (who  had  received  a  patent 
to  300  acres  here  from  Lord  Baltimore  in  X739),  and  was  incor- 
porated in  X  79X.  It  was  an  important  station  on  the  old  National 
(or  Cumberland)  Road.  General  R.  E.  Lee  concentrated  his 
forces  at  Hagerstown  before  the  battle  of  Gettysburg. 

HAO-FISH,  Glutinous  Hao,  or  Boeek  (iiyxime),  m,  marine 
fish  which  forms  with  the  lampreys  one  of  the  lowest  orders  of 
vertebrates  {Cydcstamala).  Similar  in  form  to  a  lamprey,  it  is 
usually  found  within  the  body  of  dead  cod  or  haddock,  on  the 
flesh  of  which  it  feeds  after  having  buried  itsdf  in  the  abdomen. 
When  caught,  it  secretes  a  thick  glutinous  slime  in  such  quantity 
that  it  is  commonly  believed  to  have  the  power  of  converting 
water  into  glue.  It  is  found  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  other 
temperate  seas  of  the  globe,  bdng  taken  in  some  localities  in 
large  numbers,  e.g.  off  the  east  coast  of  Scotland  and  the  west 
coast  of  California  (see  Cycxxmtoiiata). 

HAOGADA,  or  'Agaoa  Oiterally  "  narrative  '0>  indadcs  the 
more  homiletic  dements  of  rabbinic  teaching.  It  is  imh  logically 
distinguishable  from  the  halakha  (9.*.),  for  the  latter  or  forensic 
dement  makes  up  with  the  haggada  the  Midrash  (9.*.),  bat, 
being  more  popular  than  the  halakha,  is  often  itself  styled  the 
Midrash.  It  may  be  described  as  the  poetical  aixl  ethical  dement 
as  contrasted  with  the  legal  element  in  the  Talmud  (f.v.),  hut 
the  two  dements  are  always  closely  connected.  From  one  point 
of  view  the  haggada,  amplifying  and  developing  the  contents 
of  Hebrew  scripture  in  response  to  a  popular  religious  need,  may 
be  termed  a  rabbinical  commentary  on  the  Old  Testament, 
containing  traditional  stories  and  legends,  sometimes  amusing, 
sometimes  trivial,  and  often  beautiful.  The  haggada  abooods 
in  parables.  The  haggadic  passages  of  the  Talmud  were  collected 
in  the  Eye  of  Jacobs  a  very  popular  compilation  oompleted  by 
Jakob  ibn  Qabib  in  the  x6th  century. 

HAOOAI,  in  the  Bible,  the  tenth  in  order  of  the  "minor 
prophets,"  whose  writings  are  preserved  in  the  Old  Testament. 
The  name  Haggai  (*io,  Gr.  'Aryoidt,  whence  Aggeus  in  the  Eng- 
lish version  of  the  Apocrypha)  perhaps  means  "  bora  on  the 
feast  day,"  "festive."  But  Wdlhausen^  is  probably  right  in 
taking  the  word  as  a  contraaion  for  Qagariah  ('*  Yahwdi  hath 
0xdtd  "),  just  as  Zaccai  (Zacchaeus)  is  known  to  be  a  ooniraction 
of  7<yhsriah. 

The  book  of  Haggai  contains  four  short  pn^hecies  delivered 
between  the  first  day  of  the  sixth  month  and  the  twcnty-foorth 
day  of  the  ninth  month — that  is,  between  September  and 
December — of  the  second  year  of  Darius  the  king.  The  king  in 
question  must  be  Darius  Hystaspis  (53 x->485  B.C.) .  The  langoay 
of  the  prophet  in  ii.  3  suggests  tht  probability  that  he  was  faUnsdi 
one  of  those  whose  memories  reached  across  the  seventy  years 
of  the  captivity,  and  that  his  prophetic  work  began  in 
Un  Bkek's  £J«Mlimc,  4th  ed.,  p.  434. 


HAGGAI 


815 


old  age.  This  tupposition  agrees  well  with  the  shortness  of  the 
period  covert  by  his  book,  and  with  the  fact  that  Zechariah, 
who  began  to  prophesy  in  the  same  autumn  and  was  associated 
with  Haggai's  labours  (Ezra  v.  x),  afterwards  appeiRs  as  the 
leading  prophet  in  Jerusalem  (Zech.  vil.  1-4).  We  know  nothing 
further  of  the  personal  history  of  Haggai  from  the  Bible.  Later 
traditions  may  be  read  in  Carpzov's/nlrMffictt^,  parsj,  cap.  xVi. 
Epiphanius  {Viiae  prophdarum)  says  that  he  came  up  from 
Babylon  while  still  young,  prophesied  the  return,  witne»ed  the 
building  of  the  temple  and  received  an  honoured  burial  near 
the  priests.  Haggai's  name  is  mentioned  in  the  titles  of  several 
psalms  in  the  Septuagint  (Psalms  cxxzvii.,  cxlv.-czlviii.)  'and 
other  versions,  but  these  titles  are  without  value,  and  moreover 
vary  in  MSS.  Eusebius  did  not  find  them  in  the  Hexaplar 
Septuagint.' 

In  his  first  prophecy  (i.  i-ii)  Haggai  addresses  Zerubbabel 
and  Joshua,  rebuking  the  people  for  leaving  the  temple  unbuilt 
while  they  are  busy  in  providing  panelled  bouses  for  themselves. 
The  prevalent  famine  and  dbtress  are  due  to  Yahweh's  indigna- 
tion at  such  remissness.  Let  them  build  the  house,  and  Yahweh 
will  take  pleasure  in  it  and  acknowledge  the  honour  paid  to  Him. 
The  rebuke  took  effect,  and  the  people  began  to  work  at  the 
temple,  strengthened  by  the  prophet's  assurance  that  the  Lord 
was  with  them  (i.  13-15).  Ii^  ^  second  prophecy  (ii.  x-9)  delivered 
in  the  following  month,  Haggai  forbids  the  people  to  be  dis- 
heartened by  the  apparent  meanness  of  the  new  temple.  The 
silver  and  gold  are  the  Lord's.  He  will  soon  shake  all  nations 
and  their  choicest  gifts  will  be  brought  to  adorn  His  house. 
Its  glory  shall  be  greater  than  that  of  the  former  temple,  and  in 
this  place  He  will  give  peace.  A  third  prophecy  (il.  xo-xg) 
contains  a  promise,  enforced  by  a  figure  drawn  from  the  priestly 
ritual,  that  God  will  remove  famine  and  bless  the  land  from  the 
day  of  the  foundation  of  the  temple  onwards.  Finally,  in  ii. 
ao-33,  Zerubbabel  is  assured  of  God's  special  love  and  protection 
in  the  impending  catastrophe  of  kingdoms  and  nations  to  which 
the  prophet  had  formerly  pointed  as  preceding  the  glorification 
of  God's  house  on  Zion.  In  thus  looking  forward  to  a  shaking 
of  all  nations  Haggai  agrees  with  earlier  prophecies,  especially 
Isa.  xxiv.-xxvii.,  while  his  picture  of  the  glory  and  peace  of  the 
new  Zion  and  its  temple  is  drawn  from  the  great  anonymous 
prophet  who  penned  Isa.  Ix  and  Ixvi.  The  characteristic 
features  of  the  book  are  the  importance  assigned  to  the  person- 
ality of  2>n]bbabel,  who,  though  a  living  contemporary,  is 
marked  out  as  the  Messiah;  and  the  almost  sacramental 
significance  attached  to  the  temple.  The  hopes  fixed  on  Zerub- 
babel, the  chosen  of  the  Lord,  dear  to  Him  as  His  signet  ring 
(cf.  Jer.  xxii.  24),  are  a  last  echo  in  Old  Testament  prophecy 
of  the  theocratic  importance  of  the  house  of  David.  In  the  book 
of  Zechariah  Zerubbabel  has  already  fallen  into  the  background 
and  the  high  priest  \b  the  leading  figure  of  the  Judean  com- 
munity.* The  stem  of  David  is  superseded  by  the  house  of 
Zadok,  the  kingship  has  yielded  to  the  priesthood,  and  the 
extinction  of  national  hopes  gives  new  importance  to  that  strict 
organization  of  the  hierarchy  for  which  Ezekiel  had  prepared 
the  way  by  his  sentence  of  disfranchisement  against  the  non- 
Zadokite  priests. 

The  indifference  of  the  Jews  to  the  desolate  conditions  of  their 
sanctuary  opens  up  a  problem  of  some  difficulty.  It  is  strange 
that  neither  Haggai  nor  his  contemporazy  Zechariah  mentions 
or  implies  any  return  of  exiles  from  Babylon,  and  the  suggestion 
has  accordingly  been  made  that  the  return  under  Cyrus  described 
in  Ezra  i.-iv.  iB  unhistorical,  and  that  the  community  addressed 
by  Haggai  consisted  of  the  remnant  that  had  been  left  in 
Jerusalem  and  its  neighbourhood  after  the  majority  had  gone 
into  exile  or  fled  to  Egypt  (Jer.  xliii.).  Such  a  remnant, amongst 
whom  might  be  members  of  the  priestly  and  royal  families, 
would  gather  strength  and  boldness  as  the  troubles  of  Babylon 

>See  the  note  on  Ps.  cxlv.  i  in  Field's  Hexapla;  Kfihler,  Wets- 
taruHttn  Haggai's,  3a;  Wright.  Zechariah  and  his  Propheiies,  xix. 

"  Alter  the  loundation  of  the  temple  Zerubbabel  disappears  from 
history  and  lives  only  in  lennd,  which  continued  to  busy  itself  with 
bis  story,  as  we  see  irom  tne  apocryphal  book  of  Eadras  (cf.  E>eren> 
bbuig,  iltst.  de  la  PaUstine,  chap.  !.)• 


increased  and  her  vigilance  was  relaxed,  and  might  receive  from 
Babylon  and  other  lands  both  refugees  and  some  account  at 
least  of  the  writings  of  Ezekiel  and  the  Second  Isaiah.  Stimulated 
by  such  causes  and  obtaining  formal  permission  from  the  Persian 
government,  they  would  arise  as  a  new  Israel  and  enter  on  a 
new  phase  of  national  Ufe  and  divine  revelation. 

In  spite,  however,  of  the  plausibility  of  this  theory,  it  seems 
preferable  to  adhere  to  the  story  of  Ezra  i.-iv.  Apart  from  the 
weighty  objections  that  the  Edomites  would  have  frustrated  such 
a  recrudescence  of  the  remnant  Jews  as  has  been  described,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  main  stream  of  Jewish  life  and 
thought  had  been  diverted  to  Babylon.  Thence,  when  the 
opportunity  came  under  Cyrus,  some  50,000  Jews,  the  spiritual 
heirs  of  the  best  elements  of  the  old  Israel,  returned  to  found  the 
new  community.  With  them  were  all  the  resources,  and  the 
only  people  they  found  at  Jerusalem  were  hostile  gentiles  and 
Samaritans.  Full  of  enthusiasm,  they  set  about  rebuilding 
the  temple  and  realising  the  i^owing  promises  about  the 
prosperity  and  dominance  of  21ion  that  had  fallen  from  the  lips 
of  the  Second  Isaiah  (xliz.  14-26,  xlv.  X4).  Bitter  disappoint- 
ment, however,  soon  overcame  them,  the  Samaritans  were 
strong  enough  to  thwart  and  hinder  their  temple-building,  and 
it  seemed  as  though  the  divine  favour  was  withdrawn.  Apathy 
took  the  place  of  enthusiasm,  a^id  sordid  worries  succeeded  to 
high  hopes.  "  The  like  collapse  has  often  been  experienced  in 
history  when  bands  of  religious  men,  going  forth,  as  they  thought , 
to  freedom  and  the  immediate  erection  of  a  holy  commonwealth, 
have  found  their  unity  wrecked  and  their  enthusiasm  dissipated 
by  a  few  inclement  seasons  on  a  barren  and  hostile  shore."* 

From  this  torpor  they  were  roused  by  tidings  which  might  well 
be  interpreted  as  the  restoration  of  divine  favour.  Away  in  the 
East  Cyrus  bad  been  succeeded  in  529  b.c  by  Cambyses,  who  had 
aimexed  Egypt  and  on  whose  death  in  52s  a  Magian  impostor, 
Gaumata,  had  seized  the  throne.  The  fraud  was  short-lived, 
and  Darius  I.  became  king  and  the  founder  of  a  new  dynasty. 
These  events  .shook  the  whole  Persian  empire;  Babylon  and 
other  subject  states  rose  in  revolt,  and  to  the  Jews  it  seemed  that 
Persia  was  tottering  and  that  the  Messianic  era  was  nigh.  It 
was  therefore  luitund  that  Haggai  and  Zechariah  should  urge 
the  speedy  building  of  the  temple,  in  order  that  the  great  king 
might  be  fittingly  received. 

It  is  sometimes  levied  as  a  reproach  against  Haggai  that  he 
makes  no  direct  reference  to  monl  duties.  But  it  is  hardly  fait 
to  contrast  his  practical  counsel  with  the  more  ethical  and 
spiritual  teaching  of  the  earlier  Hebrew  prophets.  One  thing 
was  needful— the  temple.  "  Without  a  sanctuary  Yahweh  would 
iiave  seemed  a  foreigner  to  IsraeL  The  Jews  would  have  thought 
that  He  had  returned  to  Sinai,  the  holy  motmtain;  and  that  they 
were  deprived  of  the  temporal  blessings  which  were  the  gifts  of  a 
God  who  literally  dwelt  in  the  midst  of  his  people."  Haggai 
argued  that  material  prosperity  was  conditioned  by  zeal  in 
worship;  the  prevailing  distress  was  an  indication  of  divine  anger 
due  to  the  people's  rel^ous  apathy.  Haggai's  reproofs  touched 
the  consdence  of  the  Jews,  and  the  book  of  Zechariah  enables 
us  in  some  measure  to  follow  the  course  of  a  religious  revival 
which,  starting  with  the  zestoration  of  the  temple,  did  not  confine 
itself  to  matters  of  ceremony  and  ritual  worship.  On  the  other 
hand,  Haggai's  treatment  (rf  his  theme,  practical  and  effective 
as  it  was  for  the  purpose  in  hand,  moves  on  a  far  lower  level  than 
the  aspirations  of  the  prophet  who  wrote  the  closing  chapters 
of  Isaiah.  To  the  latter  the  materia]  temple  is  no  more  than  a 
detail  in  the  picture  of  a  work  of  restoration  eminently  ideal 
and  spiritual,  and  he  expressly  warns  his  hearers  against  attaching 
intrinsic  importance  to  it  (Isa.  Ixvi.  x).  To  Haggai  the  temple 
appears  so  essential  that  he  teaches  that  while  it  lay  waste,  the 
people  and  all  (heir  works  and  offerings  were  unclean  (Hag.  ii.  14). 
In  this  he  betrays  his  affinity  with  Ezekiel,  who  taught  that  it 
is  by  the  possession  of  the  sanctuary  that  Israel  is  sanctified 
(Ezek.  xxxvii.  28).  In  truth  the  new  movement  of  religious 
thought  and  feeling  which  started  from  the  fall  of  the  Hebrew 
state  took  two  distinct  lines,  of  which  Ezekiel  and  the  anonymous 
*  G.  A.  Smith,  Minor  Proph€ts»  ii.  23$. 


HAGGARD— HAGIOLOGY 


Butbon  of  lu.  ^AtA,  ue  the  ropcctivc  npnMDtativet. 
Wbite  (be  Ulln  developed  Uieir  gnat  pictun  of  Utul  the 
mcdiatOTial  njttian,  the  ayitenutic  and  pnatiy  miod  of  Ezekiel 
had  ibaped  a  onre  matenai  coaception  of  the  Rlig<DU)  Tocatioa 
of  Iirul  in  that  picture  of  the  new  theocracy  nhere  the  temple 
■nd  ill  ritual  occupy  the  larxeit  place,  with  a  lanctiiy  which  is 

the  dty  of  Jeniulem  tcf.  Eiek.  iliii.  7  leq.  with  Jer.  mi,  40, 
Isa.  iv.  5),  and  withatupnoieRigniGcancefoiLhereligioualife  o( 
the  people  which  ii  enpreiied  in  the  figure  of  Ihe  living  waters 
iisuing  from  under  the  threihold  of  thehouie  (Eiek.ilvii.).  It  "u 
the  conception  otEielucI  w  hich  permanently  influenced  the  dtiuns 
of  the  new  Jeruulem,  and  took  final  shape  in  the  iMlitutiona  of 
Emu  To  this  coniuramation,  with  its  neceuaryaccompaniinent 
in  lie  eilinclion  oi  prophecy,  the  booli  gl  Hnffiid  tliCiAy  points. 
AuTHOUTiBS.— The  lUIionleaui  valuable  Cermair  ci.i.meDUry 
o(  A.  Kchlw  {Eriaoges.  iBfioHmn  the  first  pan  oi  Si- "ork  on 
the  ntidKnlixluPnitkiltm.  Reinke's  Ctmmnbrj  (Mrir..<Er.  i»&B) 
is  the  w«t  ot  a  Kholariy  Roman  Cathotk.  Hs(n>  b.i- leneraUy 
ben  tmled  In  works  00  all  the  prophets,  a*  by  Ew^Iil  'sod  ed., 
lUB;  Edt.  mna,  vuL  liL,  iS/B):  or  along  with  the  ncl.er  miiuic 
Hvphets,  asby  Kitiia  tjrd  ed..  by  H.  Sieioer,  Leipnc,  i-Si),  Kdl 
UU6,  ird  ed..  I»e8,  ^e,  InRS.,  Ediaburib,  tiblii.  ^rd  Puiey 
n»7Sl,  S.  R.  Driver  1i*j6),  W.  Nowick  {ina  ed.,  190s},  <■  Marti 
(1901),  J.  WeUhauKn&rdni.,  1898);  or  with  Ilio  other  |>o«-™le 
piQ^^asbyK«Mer.PnKl(Callu,lB70).Dad>(lB;4>aiidathin. 
The  otder  Ut«nture  will  be  round  in  books  al  laliodu.  :^  or  in 

be  ■pHislly  rnfniianed.  Ob  Che  ]>laee  of  Hsgait  in  ISr  l.islory  oif 
OktTeniuneDl prophecy,  see  Duhn,  T^kHlgtuEr  J>rDpi"f.* (Boon. 
1B75);  A.  B.  lAvidHn,  Tin  nulin  tfUu  ad  TiMmfil  Uvoi): 
A.  F.  Kirkfatrlrk,  Thi  Do^lrinr  o/ftr  Fr^iilr.  C.  A.  ^nUb.  TV 
Bmicp/IH  Twrlt' Fr^H":  vul.  j  il1oi)!Tonv  Andn^.  L-PritpUU 

'''' """     "  "    "'  '  '  cw.  rTs.!  a.  J.  G.) 

HAQQARD.  HEHRT  RIDBR  (1S56- 


Whenhew 


m  Hall,  Norfolk 


adofJuneiB5«. 


ET,  governor  of  Natal.  At  the  time  of  the  fint 
annexation  of  the  Transvaal  (1877),  be  wu  on  the  %XtS  of  (he 
qjecial  commissioner,  Sir  The0[julus  Ehepstone;  and  he  lub- 
■equently  became  a  master  ol  the  high  coutt  of  the  Trantvul. 
He  married  in  1879  1  Moifolk  helrru,  Miu  Mar^Don,  hut 
returned  to  the  Transvaal  in  time  10  witneas  iit  surrender  to  ihe 
Boers  and  the  overthiow  of  the  policy  of  his  former  chief. 
He  returned  to  En^and  and  read  for  Ihe  bar,  but  loon  took  to 
literary  work;  he  published  CdyHys  OHd  kit  (CMIe  Ntitkbimrs 
(iBJOiinJIIenindefenceof  SiiT.Shepstone'spoUcy.  This  was 
followed  by  the  novels  Dinm  {1884).  r*e  Wiuk'i  Htad  (iSSs), 
which  conlaina  an  acaiunt  of  the  British  defeat  at  Isandhlwana; 
and  in  i3B6  Kim  Solamim'i  Uina,  suggested  by  the  Zimbabwe 
ruins,  which  first  made  him  popular.  5Ac  (1887),  another 
fantastic  African  story,  was  also  very  successful,  (  sequel,  Aytslu, 
er  lie  Xfliin><)/5>>e,  being  published  in  190S.  The  scene  of /eu 
(tSB7)  and  of  AIIhh  QuaUrmaiH  (1S88)  was  aUo  laid  in  Africa. 
In  iSgs  be  unsuccessfully  contested  Ihe  East  Norfolk  parlia- 
mentary division  in  the  Unionist  inleicsl;  be  showed  great 
interest  in  rural  and  agricultural  quesiiont,  bdag  a  practical 
gardener  and  firmer  on  his  estate  in  Norfolk.  In  his  Siital 
eaglsBd  (i  vols.,  1901]  be  eipoied  the  evils  of  depopulation  in 
country  districts.  In  igas  he  was  comminloned  by  the  colonial 
office  10  inquire  Into  the  Salvation  Army  settlements  at  Fort 
Romie,  S.  Cilifoinia,  and  Fort  Amity,  Colorado,  with  a  view  to 
the  eslablishment  ol  sicaiUi  colonies  Id  South  Africa.  His 
ttpott  on  the  lubject  wis  first  published  u  a  blue  book,  and 
ifterwirdi,  in  IB  enliiged  form,  as  Tie  foor  imif  1**  ZjiiJ  (1905), 
with  luggeitioni  for  *  scheaie  of  aalioml  land  Mtilement  in 
Great  Brllalo  ilscif, 
HisolberbooksincludeVaiiM'iKmnccdese;.  VrVs»>i')H'iO 

{l«9li,  TTu  HWrf-i  Deiirt  jiSoo).  a  lonijince  of  Helen  of  Troy. 
written  with  Mr  Andmr  Lnne;  NaiaOuIJly  (iBw),  Mmlruiiui 
DsufUer  (iBu),  Tki  PtepU  Si  l\i  Mia  (1B04).  /«■  Hasit  (1E9JI. 
Hmai  (tflkt  »!rU  (1896),^  thtn,  (,\%m^Fan^'t  Yar  {18991. 
Tin  Htm  SnA  Alrki  (1900).  Lyibnk,  A  TaU  c]  Uu  DuKh  l.iv.i). 
Srtta  FnaUu  (1903),  A  Gsrifcxir-i  y«)r  (190;).  A  Parma's  Via 
(I«9g,  revued  ed ,  1906),  Tkt  Way  eSlki  Spirit  (1906]. 


HAOaiS,  a  dish  consisting  of  ■  calTi,  ibecp^  or  otter  uiuil^ 
heart,  liver  and  lunp,  and  also  sometimes  of  the  vuBef 
intestines,  boiled  In  the  stomach  ^  the  animal  with  ifftr^Tig 
of  pepper,  salt,  onions,  &c.,  clioppcd  fine  with  suet  and  *^^'**nl 
It  It  CDoiideied  pecuUii^  a  Scottish  dish,  but  was  cmmHi  ia 
England  till  the  iStb  century.  The  derivation  of  tlw  word  is 
obsout.  The  Fr.  hadaj,  Ea^ish  "  bash,"  is  <A  lata  ^iptvasc* 
than  "  haggii."  It  nay  be  connected  wiih  a  verb  "  to  bag," 
meaning  to  cut  in  imiill  pieces,  and  would  then  be  csfnaM 
ultimately  with  "hash." 

HAOIOUXIT  (from  Gl.  a-yot,  salDC,  UyH,  discourK),  that 
branch  of  the  historical  sciences  which  is  coDcemed  with  the 
lives  of  Ibe  sainia  If  hagiology  be  considered  merdr  in  the 
sense  in  which  the  term  has  come  to  be  understood  in  the  lattf 
stages  of  its  development,  i.e.  the  critical  itudy  ol  hapographic 
teniains,  there  would  be  no  such  science  before  the  r7lh  oentary. 
But  Ihe  bases  of  hagiology  may  fairiy  be  uid  to  have  been  laid 
at  the  time  when  hagiographic  documenti,  hiilierto  dispersed, 
werefini  brought  together  InlocoUectiona.  TheoldeRcoOectiaa 
of  this  kind,  the  avTa7uy<)  tut  Im'Jw  iicfiraplar  of  Euwbiu, 
to  which  the  luihor  referi  in  several  passiges  in  his  writing 
(Hill.  Eat.,  V.  proem  2;  v.  30.  j),  and  which  has  left  nnn  than 
one  trace  in  Christian  literature,  ii  nnfortunatelr  lotf  in  its 
enlirely.  The  ifirlyri  g/  PalaliMi,  ai  also  (be  wiitin^  ol 
Theodoitt,  Palladius  and  others,  00  the  origini  of  the  nmastic 
life,  and,  ijDiilarly,  the  Dialofiia  of  St  Gregory  (Pope  Cregory  I.), 
belong  10  the  category  ol  sources  istbel  than  to  that  of  faaginlo^ 
collectioni.  The  /»  (loru  miirlynim  and  /■  (fsna  am/eum 
of  Gregory  of  Tours  are  valuable  for  Ibe  sources  used  in  thai 
comiHlation.  The  most  important  coUections  are  tlnae  which 
comprise  the  Acts  of  the  Martyn  andtbelives  of  saints,  airangcd 
in  the  otder  of  the  calendar.  In  the  Greek  Chnrdi  these  an 
called  meaologiet  {from  Gr.  ^,  mcmth.  Uyei,  disoooisc).  and 
their  eiiiience  can  be  ttnixd  back  with  certainty  to  the  ijth 
century  (Theodore  of  Studium.  Epiil.  i.  1).  One  nt  tbem.  the 
menology  of  Metaphrastes,  compiled  in  the  second  half  of  the 
lotb  century,  enjoyed  a  universal  vogue  (lee.SYmoH  Ueta- 
PalASTES).    The  coirespondj 


in  libra: 


>erally  di 


•  froi 


B  of  which  ue  dtlpened 
t  been  studied  collective^.    Tbey 


nnd  the  Uvea  of  the  local  uints,  ij.  tb<Me  spedaUy  boooured  is 
a  church,  1  province  or  a  country.    One  of  the  beat  b 
the  Austrian  legendary  (De  mapte  it, 
Anaitcta   Beiiandiana,    xvii.  '  * 

and  legendaries  various  compi  _.. 

Church,  the  Synaiaria  (see  SyHAXaaitm);  in  the  Wotoa 
Church,  abridgmenu  and  eittacts  such  as  the  SpaJam  UiUnalt 
ol  Vincent  de  Beauvais;  the  leieiuts  ana  of  Jacobs  de 
Voragine;  the  SantlaraU  of  Bernard  Guy  [d.  tjji  J  (see  L. 
ucrili  it  Btnuri  Guy,  Paris,  1879); 
)f  Tynemoulh  (t.  ij66),  utilized  by 
bed  in  ij]6  luder  the  name  of  iViM 
Dn  by  C.  Honlman,  Oxford,  i«di); 
m  of  Fctros  de  Natabliua  (c  tj7s). 
jl.  and  many  liraa  reprinted.  The 
Mitu  alioai  i4JIa, 


DcUe,  Ki^Hi  jv  U 
Ihe  SanaiUfiiim  oi 
John  Capgiave,  and 
liiaiia  An^iac  (nei 
and  the  CtUabfiu  ri 
published  at  Vicenta  In  1403, 
Sancluariiim  of  B.  Mombriliu 
is  particularly  valuable  becau 

most  zealous  collectors  ol  live 


published  at 


.      M87),  " 
Je  codtcibut  hapopapkici 

Iroenendad,  who  died  in  i 
Hagiology  entered  on  a 


is  of  great  value  (BoDamysu, 
aumiir  CuUuans,  Bcuasels,  i8«i). 
dated  Anton  Gecni,  or  GesliiB,  ol 
\^(.AnBitdaBcilandiana,  vi.  J 1-54). 
w  devdopmeni  with  Ihe  publicalioa 


IJi-ijio)  of  Aloyiius  Lipomanus 
MtHia.  As  a  rault  of  the  co-opera 
great  number  of  Greek  higiographlc 
ne  accessible  to  the   West   in   a 


(LJFfionuno),  bisbcfi  ol 
tioo  ol  hmnaiiisl  scholsn 
texts  becajDC  for  the  first 


HAGIOSCOPE— HAGUE,  THE 


817 


of  the  calendar  (De  probaiis  sanctorum  historiis^  Cologne,  1570- 
1575)-  What  prevents  the  work  of  Surius  from  being  regarded 
as  an  improvement  upon  Lippomano's  is  that  Surius  thought 
it  necessary  to  retouch  the  style  of  those  documents  which 
appeared  to  him  badly  written,  without  troubling  himself  about 
the  consequent  loss  of  their  documentary  value. 

The  actual  founder  of  hagidogic  criticism  was  the  Flemish 
Jesuit,  Heribcrt  Rosweyde  (d.  1629),  who,  besides  his  important 
works  on  the  martyrologies  (see  Martyrolocy),  published  the 
celebrated  collection  of  the  VUae  patrum  (Antwerp,  161 5),  a 
veritable  masterpiece  for  the  time  at  which  it  appeared.  It  was 
hei  too,  who  conceived  the  plan  of  a  great  collection  of  lives  of 
saints,  compiled  from  the  manuscripts  and  augmented  with 
nites.  from  which  resulted  the  collection  of  the  Acta  sanctorum 
(see  BoLLANDi'sTs).  This  last  enterprise  gave  rise  to  others  of 
a  similar  character  but  less'  extensive  in  sc(^. 

Dom  T.  Ruinart  collected  the  best  Acta  of  the  martyrs  ih  his 
Acta  martyrum  sincera  (Paris,  1689).  The  various  relieious  orders 
collected  the  Acta  of  their  saints,  often  increasing  the  usts  beyond 
measure.  The  best  publication  of  this  kind,  the  Acta  sanctorum 
ordinis  S.  Benedicti  (Paris,  1668-1701)  of  d'Achery  and  Mabillon. 
does  not  entirely  escape  this  reproach.  Countries,  provinces  and 
dioceses  also  had  their  special  hagtographic  collections,  conceived 
according  to  various  plans  and  executed  with  more  or  less  historical 
sense.  Of  these,  the  most  important  collections  are  those  of  O. 
Caietanus,  Vitae  sanctorum  Siculorum  (Palermo,  1657);  G.  A. 
Lobineau,  Vie  des  saints  de  Bretagne  (Rennes.  1735):  and  J.  H. 
Ghesqui^e,  Acta  sanctorum  Betgii  (Brussels  and  Toneerloo,  178^- 
1 794).  The  principal  lives  of  the  German  saints  are  published  in  tne 
Monumenia  Cermaniat,  and  a  special  section  of  the  Scriftores  rerum 
Merovingicarum  is  devoted  to  the  lives  of  the  saints.  For  Scotland 
and  Ireland  mention  must  be  made  of  T.  Messingham's  Florittgium 
insulae  sanctorum  (Paris,  1624);  I.  Colgan's  Acta  sanctorum  veteris 
et  maioris  Scotiae  sen  Hibemiat  (Louvain,  1645-1647);  John 
Pinkerton's  Vita*  antiquae  sanctorum  .  . .  (London,  1780.  of  which 
a  revised  and  enlarged  edition  was  published  by  VV.  M.Metcalfe  at 
Paisley  in  1889.  under  the  title  of  Ltves  of  the  Scottish  Saints);  W.  J. 
Rees's  Lioes  of  the  Cambro-British  Saints  CLIandovery,  185^);  Acta 
sanctorum  Hibemiae  (Edinburgh,  1888):  Whitley  Stokes  s  Lives 
of  SafHts  from  the  Booh  of  Lismore  (Oxford,  1800) ;  and  J.  O'Hanlon's 
Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints  (Dublin,  1875-190^).  Towards  the  13th 
century  vernacular  collections  of  lives  of  samts  be^n  to  increase. 
Th»  literature  is  more  interesting  from  the  linguistic  than  from 
the  hagioloffic  point  of  view,  and  comes  rather  within  the  domain 
of  the  philofogist. 

The  hagio^raphy  of  the  Eastern  and  the  Greek  church  also  has 
been  the  subject  of  important  publications.  The  Greek  texts  ane 
very  much  scattered.  Of  them,  however,  may  be  mentioned  J.  B. 
Maiou's  "  Symeonis  Metaphrastae  opera  omnia  "  (Patrologia  Graeca, 
114,  115.  116)  and  Theophilos  loannu,  Mrwiwa  Ayuikoyyti,  (Venice, 
1884).  For  Syriac,  there  are  S.  E.  Asaemani's  Acta  sanctorum 
martyrum  orientalium  (Rome,  1748)  and  P.  Bedjan's  Acta  martyrum 
et  sanctorum  (Paris,  18^0-1897);  for  Armenian,  the  acts  oi 
martyrs  and  lives  of  saints,  published  in  two  volumes  by  the 
Mechitharist  community  of  Venice  In  1874;  for  Coptic,  Hyyemat's 
Les  Actes  des  martyrs  ae  VEgybte  (Paris,  1886);  for  Ethio(>ian,  K. 
Conti  Rossini's  Scriptores  Aetkiotnci,  vitae  sanctorum  (Paris,  190a 
seq.):  and  for  Georgian,  Sabinin  s  Paradise  of  the  Georgian  Church 
(St  Petersburg,  188a). 

In  addition  to  the  pnncipal  collections  must  be  mentioned  the 
innumerable  works  in  which  the  hagiographic  texts  have  been  sub- 
jected to  detailed  critical  study. 

To  realize  the  present  state  of  hagiol<»y,  the  BMiotheea  hagio' 
graphica,  both  Latin  and  Greek,  published  by  the  Bollandists,  and 
the  BuUelin  haeiographique,  which  appears  in  each  number  of  the 
A  nalecta  BoUandiana  (see  BOLL  a  n  dists)  .  must  be  consulted.  Tha  nks 
to  the  combined  efforts  of  a  great  number  of  scholars,  the  classi' 
fication  of  the  hagiographic  texts  has  in  recent  years  nfiide  notable 
progress.  The  cnticism  of  the  sources,  the  study  of  literary  styles, 
and  the  knowledge  of  local  history  now  render  it  easier  to  discrimi- 
nate in  this  literature  between  what  is  really  historical  and  what  is 
merely  the  invention  of  the  genius  of  the  people  or  of  the  imagina- 
tion of  pious  writers  (see  H.  Delehaye,  Les  Ligendes  hagiographtques, 
and  ed..  pp.  121-141.  Brussels,  1906).  "  Though  the  lives  of  saints," 
says  a  recent  historian,  "are  filled  with  miracles  and  incredible 
stories,  they  form  a  rich  mine  of  information  coiKerning  the  life  and 
customs  of  the  people.  Some  of  them  are  *  memorials  of  the  best 
men  of  the  time  written  by  the  best  scholars  of  the  time,' "  (C  Gross, 
The  Sources  and  Literature  of  English  History,  p.  34.  London,  1900). 

(H.De.) 

HAGIOSCOPE  (from  Gr.  &710T,  holy,  and  Viiontr,  to  see), 
in  architecture,  an  opening  through  the  wall  of  a  church  in  an 
oblique  direction,  to  enable  the  worshippers  in  the  transepts  or 
other  parts  of  the  church,  from  which  the  altar  was  not  visible, 

xo  14 


to  see  the  elevation  of  the  Host.  As  a  rule  these  hagioscopes, 
or  "  squints  "  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are  found  on  one  or 
both  sides  of  the  chancel  arch.  In  some  cases  a  series  of  openings 
has  been  cut  in  the  walls  in  an  oblique  line  to  enable  a  person 
standing  in  the  porch  (as  in  Bridgewater  church,  Somerset)  to 
see  the  altar;  in  this  case  and  in  other  instances  such  openings 
were  sometimes  provided  for  an  attendant,  who  bad  to  ring  the 
Sanctus  bell  when  the  Host  was  elevated.  Though  rarely  met 
with  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  thece  Are  oqcasions  where  they 
are  found,  so  as  to  enable  a  monk  in  one  of  the  vestries  to  follow 
the  service  and  communicate  with  the  bell-ringers. 

HAGONOY,  a  town  of  the  province  of  Bulacan,  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands,  on  Manila  Bay.and  on  the  W.  branch  and  the 
delta  of  the  Pampanga  Grande  river,  about  25  m.N.W.  of  Manila. 
Pop.  (190J),  21,304.  Hagonoy  is  situated  in  a  rich  agricultural 
region,  pi^ucing  rice,  Indian  com,  sugar  and  a  little  coffee. 
Alcohol  Is  made  in  considerable  quantities  from  the  fermented 
juice  of  the  nipa  palm,  which  grows  in  the  neighbouring  swamps, 
and  from  the  leaves  of  which  the  nipa  thatch  is  manufactured. 
There  b  good  fishing.  The  women  of  the  town  are  very  skilful  in 
weaving  the  native  fabrics.  The  language  uTagalog.  Hagonoy 
was  founded  in  1581. 

HAGUE;  THE  On  Dutch, 'j  OosenAagr,  or,  abbreviated,  (few 
Haag;  in  Fr.  La  Haye;  and  in  Late  Lat.  Haga  Comitis), 
the  chief  town  of  the  province  of  South  Holland,  about  2}  m. 
from  the  sea,  with  a  junction  station  g\  m.  by  rail  S.W.  by  S. 
of  Leiden.  Steam  tramways  connect  it  with  the  seaside  villages 
of  Scheveningen,  Kykduin  and  's  Gravenzande,  as  well  as  with 
Delft,  Wassenaar  and  Leiden,  and  it  is  situated  on  a  branch  of 
the  main  canal  from  Rotterdam  to  Amsterdam.  Pop.  (1900), 
21 2,2 1 1.  The  Hague  is  the  chief  town  of  the  province,  the  usual 
residence  of  the  court  and  diplomatic  bodies,  and  the  seat  of 
the  government,  the  states-general,  the  high  council  of  the 
Netheriands,  the  council  oi  state,  this  chamber  of  accounts  and 
various  other  administrative  bodies.  The  characteristics  of  the 
town  are  quite  in  keeping  with  its  political  position;  it  is  as 
handsome  as  it  is  fashionable,  and  was  rightly  described  by  de 
Amicis  in  his  CHanda  as  half  Dutch,  half  French.  The  Hague  has 
grown  very  largely  in  modem  times,  especially  on  its  western 
side,  which  is  situated  on  the  higher  and  more  sandy  soil,  the 
south-eastem  half  of  the  town  comprising  the  poorer  and  the 
business  quarters.  The  main  features  in  a  plan  of  the  town  are 
its  fine  streets  and  houses  and  extensive  avenues  and  well- 
planted  squares;  while,  as  a  city,  the  neighbourhood  of  an 
attractive  seaside  resort,  combined  with  the  advantages  and 
importance  of  a  large  town,  and  the  possession  of  beautiful  and 
wooded  surroundings,  give  it  a  distinction  all  its  own. 

The  medieval-looking  group  of  government  buildings  situated 
in  the  Binnenhof  (or  "inner  court"),  their  backs  reflected  in  the 
pretty  sheet  of  water  called  the  Vy  ver,  represent  both  historically 
and  topographically  the  centre  of  the  Hague.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Vyver  lies  the  parallelogram  formed  by  the  fine 
houses  and  magnificent  avenue  of  trees  of  the  Lange  Voorhout, 
the  Kneuterdyk  and  the  Vyverburg,  representing  the  fashionable 
kernel  of  the  city.  Close  by  lies  the  entrance  to  the  Haagsche 
Bosch,  or  the  wood,  on  one  side  of  which  is  situated  the  deer- 
park,  and  a  little  beyond  on  the  other  the  zoological  gardens 
(1862).  Away  from  the  Lange  Voorhout  the  fine  Park  Straat 
stretches  to  the  "  1813  Plein  "  or  square,  in  the  centre  of  which 
rises  the  large  monument  (1869)  by  Jaquet  commemorating  the 
jubileeof  the  restoration  of  Dutch  independence  in  1S13.  Beyond 
this  is  the  Alexander  Veld,  used  as  a  military  drill  ground,  and 
close  by  is  the  entrance  to  the  beautiful  road  called  the  Scheven- 
ingensche  Weg,  which  leads  through  the  "  little  woods  "  to 
Scheveningen.  Parallel  to  the  Park  Straat  is  the  busy  Noord- 
einde,  in  which  is  situated  the  royal  palace.  The  palace  was 
purchased  by  the  States  in  1595,  rebuilt  by  the  stadthdder 
William  III.,  and  extended  by  King  William  I.  in  the  beginning 
of  the  19th  century.  In  front  of  the  building  is  an  equestrian 
statue  of  William  I.  of  Orange  by  Count  Nieuerkerke  (1845). 
and  behind  are  the  gardens  and  extensive  stables.  The  Binnen- 
hof, which  has  been  already  mentioned,  was  once  surrounded  by 

10 


8i8 


HAHN 


a  moat,  and  is  stQI  entered  through  ancient  gateways.  The 
oldest  portion  was  founded  in  1249  by  William  II.,  count  of 
Holland,  whose  son,  Florens  V.,  enlarged  it  and  made  it  hb 
residence.  Several  centuries  later  the  stadtholders  also  lived 
here.  The  fine  old  hall  of  the  knights,  built  by  Florens,  and  now 
containing  the  archives  of  the  home  office,  is  the  historic  chamber 
in  which  the  states  of  the  Netherlands  abjured  their  allegiance  to 
Philip  U.  of  Spain,  and  in  front  of  which  the  grey-headed  states- 
man Johan  van  Oldenbarneveldt  was  executed  in  16 19.  Close 
by  on  the  one  side  are  the  courts  of  justice,  and  on  the  other 
the  first  and  second  chambers,  of  the  states-general,  containing 
some  richly  painted  ceilings  and  the  portraits  of  various  stadt- 
holders. Government  offices  occupy  the  remainder  of  the  build- 
ings, and  in  the  middle  of  the  court  is  a  fountain  surmounted  by 
a  statuette  of  William  II.,  count  of  Holland  (i 337-1 256).  In  the 
adjoining  Buitenhof,  or  "outer  court,"  is  a  statue  of  King 
William  II.  (d.  1849),  and  the  old  GevangenPoort,  or  prison  gate 
(restored  1875),  consisting  of  a  tower  and  gateway.  It  was 
here  that  the  brothers  Cornells  and  Jan  de  Witt  were  killed  by 
the  mob  in  1672.  Qn  the  opposite  side  of  the  Binnehhof  is  the 
busy  square  called  the  Plein,  where  all  the  tram-lines  meet. 
Round  about  it  are  the  buildings  of  the  ministry  of  justice  and 
other  government  buildings,  including  one  to  contain  the  state 
archives,  the  large  dub-house  of  the  Witte  Societeit,  and  the 
MauritshuM.  The  Mauritshuis  was  built  in  x 633-1644  by  Count 
John  Maurice  of  Nassau,  governor  of  Brazil,  and  contains  the 
famous  picture  gallery  of  the  Hague.  The  nucleus  of  this  collec- 
tion was  formed  by  the  princes  of  Orange,  notably  by  the 
stadtholder  WiUlam  V.  (1749-1806).  King  WiUiam  I.  did  much 
to  restore  the  losses  caused  by  the  removal  of  many  of  the 
pictures  during  the  French  occupation.  Other  artistic  collections 
in  the  Hague  are  the  municipal  museum  (Gemjcn/e Museum), con- 
taining painting  by  both  ancient  and  modem  Dutch  artbts,  and 
some  antiquiti^;  the  fine  collection  of  pictures  in  the  Steengracht 
gallery,  belonging  to  Jonkheer  Steengracht;  the  museum 
Meermanno-Westreenianum,  named  after  Count  Meermann  and 
Baron  Westreenen  (d.  1850),  containing  some  interesting  MSS. 
and  specimens  of  early  typography  and  other  curiosities;  and 
the  Mesdag  Museum,  containing  the  collection  of  the  painter 
H.  W.  Mesdag  (b.  1831)  presented  by  him  to  the  state.  The 
royal  library  (1798)  contains  upwards  of  500,000  volumes, 
including  some  early  illuminated  MSS.,  a  valuable  collection  of 
coins  and  medab  and  some  fine  antique  gems.  In  addition 
to  the  royal  palace  already  mentioned,  there  are  the  palaces  of 
the  queen-dowager,  of  the  prince  of  Orange  (founded  about  1720 
by  Count  Unico  of  Wassenaar  Twiekeb)  and  of  the  prince  von 
Wied,  dating  from  1825,  and  containing  some  good  early  Dutch 
and  Flemish  masters.  There  are  numerous  churches  of  various 
denominations  in  the  Hague  as  well  as  an  English  church,  a 
Russian  chapel  and  two  synagogues,  one  of  which  b  Portuguese. 
The  Croote  Kerk  of  St  James  (15th  and  i6th  centuries)  has  a  fine 
vaulted  interior,  and  contains  some  old  stained  glass,  a  carved 
wooden  pulpit  (1550),  a  large  organ  and  interesting  sepulchral 
monuments,  and  some  escutcheons  of  the  knights  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  placed  here  after  the  chapter  of  1456.  The  Nieuwe  Kerk, 
or  new  church  (first  half  17th  century),-  contains  the  tombs  of 
the  brothers  De  Witt  and  of  the  philosopher  Spinoza.  Spinoza 
is  f urtlier  commemorated  by.  a  monument  in  front  of  the  house 
in  which  he  died  in  1677.  The  picturesque  town  hall  (built  in 
1565  and  restored  and  enlarged  in  1882)  contains  a  historical 
picture  gallery.  The  principal  other  buildings  are  the  provincial 
government  offices,  the  royal  school  of  music,  the  college  of  art, 
the  large  building  (1874)  of  the  society  for  arts  and  sciences,  the 
ethnographical  institute  of  the  Netherlands  Indies  with  fine 
library,  the  theatres,  civil  and  military  hospitab,  orphanage, 
lunatic  asylum  and  other  charitable  institutions;  the  fine 
modern  railway  station  (1893),  the  cavalry  and  artillery  and 
the  infantry  barracks,  and  the  cannon  foundry.  The  chief 
industries  of  the  town  are  iron  casting,  copper  and  lead  smelting, 
cannon  founding,  the  manufacture  of  furniture  and  carriages, 
liqueur  distilling,  lithographing  and  printing. 
The  Hague  wood  has  been  described  as  the  dty's  finest 


ornament.  It  b  composed  chiefly  of  oaks  and  aiders  and  magalfr- 
cent  avenues  of  gigantic  beech-trees.  Together  with  the  Haarlem 
wood  it  b  thought  to  be  a  remnant  of  the  immone  forest  whkh 
once  extended  along  the  coast.  At  the  end  of  one  <tf  the  avenues 
which  penetrates  into  it  from  the  town  b  the  large  summer  club- 
house  of  the  Witte  Societeit,  under  whose  auspices  concerts  are 
given  here  in  summer.  Farther  into  the  wood  are  some  pretty 
little  lakes,  and  the  famous  royal  viUa  called  the  Hub  ten  Bok^ 
or  "  house  in  the  wood."  This  villa  was  built  by  Pieter  Post  for 
the  Princess  Amelia  of  Solms,  in  memory  of  her  husband  the 
stadtholder,  Frederick  Henry  of  Orange  (d.  1647),  and  wings 
were  added  to  it  by  Prince  William  IV.  in  1748.  The  chief  ro(»i 
b  the  Orange  Saloon,  an  octagonal  hall  50  ft.  high,  covered  with 
paintings  by  Dutch  and  Flemish  artbts,  chiefly  of  incidents  in 
the  life  of  Prince  Frederick.  In  thb  room  the  Intematioaa] 
Peace  Conference  had  its  sittings  in  the  summer  of  1899.  The 
collections  in  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  rooms,  and  the  grisailles 
in  the  dining-room  painted  by  Jacobus  de  Wit  (1695-1754), 
are  also  noteworthy. 

The  hbtory  of  the  Hague  b  in  some  respects  singular.  la 
the  13th  century  it  was  no  more  than  ahunting-lodgeof  thecounts 
of  Holland,  and  though  Count  Florb  V.  (b.  1254-1296)  made  it 
hb  residence  and  it  thus  became  the  seat  of  the  supreine  court  of 
justice  of  Holland  and  the  centre  of  the  administraiion,  aad 
from  the  time  of  William  of  Orange  onward  the  meeting-place  of 
the  states-general,  it  only  received  the  status  of  a  town,  fzoia 
King  Loub  Bonaparte,  early  in  the  X9th  century. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  and  the  first  half  of  the  i8th 
century  the  Hague  was  the  centre  of  European  din^macy. 
Among  the  many  treaties  and  conventions  signed  here  may  be 
mentioned  the  treaty  of  the  Triple  Alliance  (January  23,  1688) 
between  England,  Sweden  and  Oie  Netheriands;  the  concert  of 
the  Hague  (March  31, 1710)  between  the  Emperor,  EngUndaad 
Holland,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  neutrality  of  the  Swcdbh 
provinces  in  Germany  during  the  war  of  the  northern  powers 
against  Sweden;  the  Triple  Alliance  (January  4,  17 17)  between 
France,  England  and  Holland  for  the  guarantee  of  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht;  the  treaty  of  peace  (Feb.  17, 1717)  between  Spain. Savoy 
and  Austria,  by  which  the  first-named  acceded  to  the  prindpfes 
of  the  Triple  Alliance;  the  treaty  of  peace  between  Holland  and 
France  (May  16, 179s);  the  first "  Hague  Convention,"  the  out- 
come of  the  "  peace  conference  "  assembled  on  the  initiative  of  tht 
emperor  Nicholas  II.  of  Russia  (July  27, 1899),  and  the  series  of 
conventions,  the  results  of  the  second  peace  conference  Gune  15- 
October  x8,  1907).  The  international  court  of  arbitration  or 
Hague  Tribunal  was  established  in  1899  (see  Europe:  Histery-^ 
Arbitration,  International).  The  Palace  of  Peace  dcsgacd 
to  be  completed  in  1913  as  the  seat  of  the  tribunal,  on  the  Sche- 
vcningen  avenue,  is  by  a  French  architect,  L.  M.  Cordonnier,  and 
A.  Carnegie  contributed  £300,000  towards  its  cost 

HAHN,  AUGUST  (179 2- 1863),  German  Protestant  theobgian, 
was  born  on  the  27th  of  March  1792  at  Grossosterhausen  near 
Eblebcn,  and  studied  theology  at  the  university  of  Leipzig. 
In  1 81 9  he  was  nominated  projesior  extratfrdinarius  of  theotagy 
and  pastor  of  AUstadt  in  Kdnigsbeig.  and  in  1820  recrivcd  a 
superintcndency  in  that  city.  In  1822  he  became  pr^fess.j' 
ordinarius.  In  1826  he  removed  as  professor  of  theobgy  to 
Leipzig,  where,  hitherto  distingubhed  only  as  editor  of  Bar- 
dcsanes,  Marcion  (Marcion^s  Evangdimn  in  seiiur  ttrspr^Mglickm 
GeslaU,  1823),  and  Ephraem  Syrus,  and  the  joint  editor  <^  a 
Syrische  ChrestomatkU  (1824),  he  came  into  great  prominence  as 
the  author  of  a  treatise,  De  raiionalismi  qui  dicUmr  sera  ittdeie  d 
qua  cum  naturaiismo  contintalur  ratume  (1827),  and  also  <A  aa 
OJfene  Erkldrung  an  die  Evangdische  Kircke  zunScksi  in  Seckun 
u.  Preussen  (1827),  in  which,  as  a  memt)er  of  the  school  of  £.  W. 
Hengstenberg,  he  endeavoured  to  convince  the  rationalists 
that  it  was  their  duty  voluntarily  and  at  once  to  withdraw  fron 
the  national  church.  In  1833  Hahn's  pamphlet  against  K.  G. 
Bretschneider  (Ober  die  Lage  des  Christenlkums  in  unsenr  ZrU, 
1832)  having  attracted  the  notice  of  Friedricfa  Wilbelm  III.,  he 
was  called  to  Breslau  as  theological  professor  and  ooosbtcri^l 
councillor,  and  in  1843  became  "  general  supennteodent  *'  of 


HAHNEMANN— HAIDA 


819 


the  province  of  Silesia.  He  died  at  Breslau  on  the  13th  of  May 
1863.  Though  uncompromising  in  hu  "  supra-naturalism,"  he 
did  not  altogether  satisfy  the  men  of  his  own  school  by  his  own 
doctrinal  system.  The  first  edition  of  his  Lekrbuck  des  ckrisi- 
Ikhen  Glaubens  (1828)  was  freely  characterized  as  lacking  in 
consistency  and  as  detracting  from  the  strength  of  the  old 
positions  in  many  important  points.  Many  of  these  defects, 
however,  he  is  considered  to  have  remedied  in  his  second  edition 
(1857).  Among  his  other  works  are  his  edition  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible  (1833),  his  Bibliothek  der  Symbole  und  GUuibensregeln 
der  apostolisck'katkoluchm  Kirche  (184a;  and  ed.  1877)  and 
PredigUn  (1852). 

His  eldest  son,  Hcineicr  August  Hahn  (i83x-x86x),  after 
studying  theology  at  Breslau  and  Berlin,  became  successively 
Pritatdotent  at  Breslau  (1845),  professor  ad  interim  (1846)  at 
Kdnigsberg  on  the  death  of  Heinrich  Httvemick,  professor 
extraordinarius  (1851)  and  professor  ordinarius  (x86o)  at  Greifs- 
wald.  Amongst  his  published  works  were  a  commentary  on 
the  Book  of  Job  (1850),  a  translation  of  the  Song  of  Songs  (1852), 
an  exposition  of  Isaiah  xl.-lxvi.  (1857)  and  a  commentary  on  the 
Book  of  Ecdesiastes  (i860). 

See  the  articles  in  Hcrsog-Hauck,  RtaUncyklopddie,  and  the 
AUiemeiiu  deuluht  Bicg^apkie, 

HAHNEMANN,  SAMUEL  CHRISTIAN  FRIBDRICH  (1755- 
1843),  German  physician  and  founder  of  "  homoeopathy,"  was 
bom  at  Meissen  in  Saxony  on  the  loth  of  April  1755.  He  was 
iKiucated  at  the  "  elector's  school "  of  Meissen,  and  studied 
medicine  at  Leipzig  and  Vienna,  taking  the  degree  of  M.D.  at 
Ertangen  in  1779.  After  practising  in  various  places,  he  settled 
in  Dresden  in  1784,  and  thence  removed  to  Leipzig  in  1789.  In 
the  following  year,  while  translating  W.  Cullen's  Materia  medica 
into  German,  he  Was  struck  by  the  fact  that  the  symptoms  pro- 
duced by  quinine  on  the  healthy  body  were  similar  to  those  of 
the  disordered  states  it  was  used  to  cure.  He  had  previously  felt 
dissatisfied  with  the  state  of  the  science  of  medicine,  and  this 
observation  led  him  to  assert  the  truth  of  the  "  law  of  similars," 
simiiia  simUibus  curantur  or  curentur — ».e.  diseases  are  cured 
(or  should  be  treated)  by  those  drugs  which  produce  symptoms 
similar  to  them  in  the  healthy.  He  promulgated  his  new 
principle  in  a  paper  published  in  1796  in  C.  W.  Huf eland's 
Journal,  and  four  years  bter,  convinced  that  drugs  in  much 
smaller  doses  than  were  generally  employed  effectually  exerted 
their  curative  powers,  he  advanced  his  doctrine  of  their  potenti- 
zation  or  dynamization.  In  x8xo  he  published  his  chief  work, 
Organon  der  rationellen  Heilkunde,  cont^ning  an  exposition  of  his 
system,  which  he  called  homoeopathy  (9.9.) »  and  in  the  following 
years  appeared  the  six  volumes  of  his  Reine  Anneimitteliehre, 
which  detailed  the  symptoms  produced  by  "proving"  a  large 
number  of  drugs,  i.e.  by  systematically  administering  them  to 
healthy  subjects.  In  1821  the  hostility  of  established  interests, 
and  especidly  of  the  apothecaries,  whose  services  were*  not 
required  under  his  system,  forced  him  to  leave  Leipzig,  and  at 
the  invitation  of  the  grand-duke  of  Anhalt-COthen  he  went 
to  live  at  Cdthen.  Fourteen  years  later  he  removed  to  Paris, 
where  he  practised  with  great  success  until  his  death  on  the 
and  of  July  1843.  Statues  were  erected  to  his  memory  at 
Leipzig  in  185 1  and  at  C6then  in  X855.  He  also  wrote,  in 
addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  Fragmenta  de  viribus 
medicamentorum  posilivis  (1805)  and  DieckronischenKrankheiten 
(1828-1830). 

See  the  article  Homobopatht  :  also  Albrectit.  HaknemantCs  Leben 
und  Werken  (Leipzig.  1875);  Bradford,  Haknemann's  Life  and 
Letters  (Philadelphia,  1895). 

HAHN-HAHN.  IDA,  Countess  von  (1805-1880),  German 
author,  was  born  at  Tressow,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  on 
the  22nd  of  June  1805,  daughter  of  Graf  (Count)  Karl  Friedrich 
von  Hahn  (1782-1857),  well  known  for  his  enthusiasm  for  the 
stage,  upon  which  he  squandered  a  large  portion  of  his  fortune. 
She  married  in  1826  her  wealthy  couun  Count  Adolf  von  Hahn- 
Hahn.  With  him  she  had  an  extremely  unhappy  life,  and  in 
1819  her  husband's  irregularities  led  to  a  divorce.  The  countess 
Ixavelled,  produced  some  volumes  of  pOetry  indicating  true 


lyrical  feeling,  and  in  1838  appeared  as  a  novelist  with  Aus  der 
CeseUsckaflf  a  title  which,  proving  equally  applicable  to  her 
subsequent  novels,  was  retained  as  that  of  a  series,  the  book 
originally  so  entitled  being  renamed  Ida  SckdrUu^m.  For 
several  years  the  countess  continued  to  produce  novels  bearing  a 
certain  subjective  resemblance  to  those  of  George  Sand,  but  less 
hostile  to  social  institutions,  and  dealing  almost  exclusively 
with  aristocratic  society.  The  author's  patrician  affectations 
at  length  drew  upon  her  the  merciless  ridicule  of  Fanny  Lewald 
in  a  pajody  of  her  style  entitled  Diogena  (1847),  and  this  and  the 
revolution  of  1848  together  seem  to  have  co-operated  in  inducing 
her  to  embrace  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  in  1850.  She 
justified  her  step  in  a  polemical  work  entitled  Von  Baboon  nack 
Jerusalem  (185X),  which  dicited  a  vigorous  reply  from  H.  Abeken. 
In  X852  she  retired  into  a  convent  at  Angers,  which  she,  however, 
soon  left,  taking  up  her  residence  at  Mainz  where  she  founded  a 
nunnery,  in  which  she  lived  without  joining  the  order,  and 
continued  her  literary  labours.  For  many  years  her  novels  were 
the  most  popular  works  of  fiction  in  aristocratic  circles;  many 
of  her  later  publications,  however,  passed  unnoticed  as  mere 
party  manifestoes.  Her  earlier  works  do  not  deserve  the  neglect 
into  which  they  have  fallen.  If  their  sentimentalism  is  some- 
times wearisome,  it  is  grounded  on  genuine  feeling  and  expressed 
with  passionate  eloquence.  Wrick  and  Crdfin  Faustine,  both 
published  in  184X,  mark  the  culmination  of '  her  power;  but 
Sigismund  Porster  (1843),  CecU  (X844).  SibyUe  (1846)  and  Maria 
Regina  (x86o)  also  obtained  considerable  popularity.  She  died 
at  Mainz  on  the  12th  of  January  x88o. 

Her  collected  works,  Gesamtmelte  Werke,  with  an  introduction  bv 
O.  von  Schaching,  were  published  in  two  series,  45  volumes  in  all 
(Regensburg*  1903-1904).  See  H.  Keiter,  GrtUin  Hakn-Hakn 
(WQrzbuig,  undated);  P.  Haffner,  Cr&fin  Ida  Hakn-Hakn,  eine 
psyckolotiscke  Studie  (Frankfort,  1880);  A.  Jacoby,  Ida  Gr^fin 
Hakn-Hakn  (Mainz.  X894). 

HAI  (939-X038),  Jewish  Talmudical  scholar,  was  bom  in  939. 
He  was  educated  by  his  father  Sherira,  gaon  of  Pombeditha 
(Pumbedita),  whom  he  afterwards  assisted  in  his  work.  They 
were  cast  into  prison  for  a  short  time  by  the  caliph  Qadir,  and 
subsequently  on  Sherira's  death  Hai  was  appointed  gaon  in 
his  place  (998).  This  office  he  held  till  his  death  on  the  28th  of 
March  X038.  He  is  famous  chiefly  for  his  answers'  to  problems 
of  ritual  and  civil  law.  He  composed  important  treatises  on 
Talmudic  law  and  the  Misknak;  many  poems  are  also  attributed 
to  him  on  doubtful  authority.  In  his  responsa  he  laid  stress  on 
custom  and  tradition  provided  no  infringement  of  the  law 
were  involved,  and  was  essentially  conservative  in  theology. 
He  had  considerable  knowledge  not  only  of  religious  movements 
within  the  Jewish  body,  but  also  of  Mahommedan  theology  and 
controversial  method,  and  frequently  consulted  theologians  of 
other  beliefs. 

See  Stcinachneider,  Hebr,  Vberutz.  p.  910,  and  article  in  Jewisk 
Efuychpediaf  vi.  153. 

HAIBAK,  a  town  and  khanate  of  Afghan  Turkestan.  The 
valley  of  Haibaky  which  is  3x00  ft.  above  sea  level,  is  fertile  and 
richly  cultivated.  The  town,  which  is  famed  in  Persian  legend, 
consists  now  of  only  a  couple  of  streets,  containing  many  Hindu 
shops  and  a  small  garrison.  The  inhabitants  call  themselves 
Jagatais,  a  Turki  race,  though  now  generally  mixed  with  Tajiks 
and  speaking  Persian.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Haibak  are 
some  very  typical  Buddhist  ruins.  Haibak  derives  its  import- 
ance from  its  position  on  the  main  line  of  communication  between 
Kabul  and  Afghan  Turkestan. 

HAIDA,  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians  of  Skittagetan 
stock.  They  still  occupy  their  original  home,  the  Queen  Char- 
lotte islands,  British  Columbia.  They  arc  skilful  seamen, 
making  long  fishing  expeditions  in  cedarwood  canoes.  They 
are  noted  for  their  carving  and  basket-work.  They  formeriy 
made  raids  on  the  coast  tribes.  Slavery  was  hereditary,  the 
slaves  being  prisoners  of  war.  The  population,  some  7000  in 
the  middle  of  the  X9th  century,  is  now  reduced  to  a  few  hundreds. 

See  Handbook  of  American  Indians  (Washington,  1907).  For 
"  Haida  Texts  and  My  ths,"see  Bafl.a9  Smitksonian  Jnstitutum  BnroM 
Amer.  Etknol.  (1905;. 


820 


HAIDINGER— HAILES 


HAIDIHOEK.  VILHEUI  XAHL,  Rittei  vun  (1795-1B71), 

an  lh«  ;ih  of  February  1791,     Hii  idhcr,  Karl  Haidinger, 
ributed  lacgcly  IQ  tbe  dcvelopratnt  of  minenJogicil  idcDce 

tended  duMi  Al  tht  umv^tfity, 
D,  joiscd  Profeuor  F,  Mohi  at 
ipaided  the  profeaoi  (o  Fieiberg 
a  the  miaiDf  academy  of  llut 


er  half  of  tbe  iSlh  a 
al  ichool  of  St  Anne,  and  al 

e  tnnafer  of  hii  laboun 


"  lackey 


onym  for 


In  iBll  Kaidinm  vUled  Fiance  and  EngUnd  with  Count 
Breunner,  aod,  journeying  nanhward.  took  up  hit  abode  in 
Edinburgh,  He  translated  into  Engliih,  with  addiiioni  ol  hit 
own,  Mohi'i  Gmndriis  ia  Minaais^t,  publiihed  at  Edinburgh 
in  three  volume*  under  the  title  TraHse  m  Uimraleiy  CiSij). 

mining  diitricts,  he  undertook  the  scientific  direction  of  the 
porcelain  worki  al  Elbogen,  belonging  to  bii  brolhera.  In  1840 
be  itai  appointed  couniellot  of  mines  (Bergral)  at  Vienna  in  the 
place  of  Profeoor  Mobs,  aposl  obich  included  the  charge  of  the 
imperial  cabinet  of  minertli.  He  devoted  biDucIf  to  the  le- 
arrangement  and  enrichment  of  the  colleclioni,  and  tbe  muieum 
became  the  brjt  in  Europe.  Shortly  (.Iter  (1S4]}  Haidinger 
commenced  a  leries  of  lectures  on  mineralogy,  which  was  given 
to  the  world  under  the  title  Haniibiuli  itr  baliKnunitn  Uiiura- 
hfit  (Vienna,  li^y,  tables.  1S46}.  On  the  establishment  of  the 
imperial  geological  institute,  be  was  chosen  director  (1849); 

He  was  elected  a  member  of  tbe  imperial  board  of  agricultllie  and 

Vienna.  He  orgaDited  the  society  ol  the  Freunde  der  Natur- 
wisscnschatten.  As  a  phyiiciit  Haidinger  ranked  high,  and  hi 
■was  one  of  the  most  active  piomolers  of  sdenlific  progress  it 
Austria.  He  was  the  discoverer  of  the  interesting  ODtica 
»pl>eanince»  which  have  been  called  after  him  "  Haidinj[er'i 


of  Ut.  Carmd.  onlhc 

ftoutbof  theBayof  Acre.  It  rqiresenls  the  classical  Sycaminum, 
hut  the  ptTsenl  town  ts  entirely  modem.  It  has  dcvek^xd  since 
about  1S90  hito  *n  imporUnl  poil,  and  is  connected  by  laflwiy 
with  Daiaascui.  The  populition  is  estimated  at  11.000  (Uos- 
lem*  600a,  Cbristiani  40011,  Jews  ijoo.  Germans  joo;  tbe  liu 
bekiiQ  for  Ibe  giciler  pan  to  tbe  Unitarian  sect  o<  the 
"Templan,"  who  have  colonia  abo  at  JaSa  and  Jcnaaltm]. 
The  eiporu  (grain  and  oil]  were  valued  at  £178.738  in  1000. 
Much  of  the  Hade  that  formerly  went  to  Acre  has  been  altncted 
to  Haifa.     This  port  ia  the  best  natural  harbou  on  tbe  PalesliM 

HAIK  (an  Anbic  word,  tiom  kai,  to  weave),  ■  luea  of  doth, 

is  generally  6  to  6)  yd*,  loag, 
ler  striped  or  plain,  and  is 
illy  as  an  outer  covering;  but 

"  is  arranged  tc 


other  Mahommedan  peoples. 
and  about  2  broad.  It  is 
wom  equally  by  both  leies. 


-  the  head  and,  in  tbe  picsem  of 
the  fac^  A  thin  "  baik  "  vlJSk, 
:e  a  veil,  is  used  by  brides  at  their  mania^e- 
HAIL(6.  Eng.  *>(/ and  ih]|iij,  ■  cf .  the  cognate  Teutonic  ibfrf, 
in  German,  Dutch,  Swedish,  &c.i  the  Gr.  eix>>«t,  pebble,  it 
obahly  aUied),  the  name  for  rounded  masses  or  single  pelleli 
of  ice  falling  from  the  clouds  in  a  shower.  True  hail  hu  a  cos. 
c  structure  caused  by  the  frozen  panicles  of  moistutr  £fst 
'     '  are  carried  upwards 


le  fresh  CO 


It  of  heal 


deposited  in  theckHidisfmi 


flier  dii  Xiunbimc  in  t/rimlni  TluiUlm  in  CkriilaUn  (Vienna, 
I8U);  {•Onlfadnlitn  om  I^ixiiKr  {Vienna,  1855):  Vrri/tuimii- 
•n  nil  Al^tU  *nd  Ampl;tcl  (Vienna.  ISSS).  He  also  eJEled  the 
S(ih™u«.SWlIi£il«  AH^niUunfcn  (Vienna,  1B47):  "he  BrrirU, 
lliir  Ml  UimUmtcn  mi  Fmndtn  lUr  Nalurmiiiniiikajltn 
M  Win  (Viciinn,  Ig47-|NSI);  and  the  Jairbmik  of  the  Vienna  K. 
K,GeolDgi»cheReirfiHniialt  (1850).  ac.  Some  of  hii  npecB  will 
be  foundTia  Ibe  Tfhixi'I^siu  dI  the  Royal  Sodelv  of  EdlnbucRb 
(vol,  a,)  and  of  Uie  «,  merUn  Society  (l8jl-lSaj>  Eiixbrnr^ 
Pkil.    Journal.    Brttrslf'i    Journal    oj   &ieiKe,    ind  PtunJarff'l 


of  the  Bafkan  Peninsula.  It  Is  probably  derived 
Turkish  'kaidOd,  "  marauder."  but  iu  origin  is  not  i 
certain.  Most  of  (he  European  races  with  which  the  Ti 
into  close  contact  during  the  1 5ih  and  i6th  cinturieiscc. 
adopted  it  a>  a  loan-word,  and  it  appears  in  Magyar 
(plural  hajdult).  in  Serbo-Croatian.  Rumanian,  Ptdish  1 

By  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  its  use  bod  spn 

was  applied  to  a  class  of  mercenary  rool-soldienaf  Mag; 
In  160s  Ihese  haiduks  were  rewarded  ftK  their  lidcli' 
Protestant  party  (see  Hunimkv:  Hiilory)  with  titles  a 
and  territorial  rights  over  a  district  situated  on  the 

This  was  enlaiged  in  1876  and  convened  inio  the  < 
Hajdii  (Ger.  HnjJiini).  Haji*  is  also  >  common 
Hungarian  pUce-namts,  e.f.  Hajdii-SioboulA,  KaJdO-Nimi*. 
In  Austria-Hungary,  Gennany,  Poland,  Sweden  and  some  other 
countiiei.  koUnk  came  to  mean  an  iiteDdaol  In  a  court  of  law. 


sofi-haU  " 
/clone,  si  no 
and  falls  ma 
a  the  o 


to  the  ground.     A 
ai  mult  be  distin) 
ent'ly  in  thi 


e  Ion 


,  and  tbe  pasa«e  of 

L  cold  upper  drif  t- 

HAILES,  DAVID  DALRTHPLE,  Loan  (tTte-iT9i),  Santoii 
lawyer  and  historian,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh  on  ibe  rS^h  of 
October  1736.  Hia  father.  Sir  James  Dalrymple,  Ban.,  cJ 
r-general  of  the 


a  grandson  of  James,  first 


:r.  Lady  Christian  Hamilton,  was  a  daughirr 

>    of  Thomas,  6th  earl  of  Haddington.     David  was  tbe  eldest  of 

!n  children.     He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  studkd  lav  it 

Utrecht,  being  Intended  for  (he  Scollisb  bar,  to  which  be  n( 

admitted  shortly  after  his  retuni  (o  Scotland  in  174S.    Ki  a 

high  distinction  nor  very  eiteotiie 

le  rapidly  established  a  well-deterved  repntalion 

ied  application  and  strict  proWiy; 

to  the  bench,  when  be  assumed  the 

title  of  Lord  Hails-    Ten  years  later  he  was  appointed  a  km!  of 

sticiaiy-    He  died  on  the  19th  of  November  1791.    Hens 

rice  married,  and  had  a  daughter  by  each  wife.     Tbe  baroneEtT 

.  which  he  had  succeeded  passed  to  the  son  of  his  brmher  John. 

.  DV«1    of    Edinburgh.     Another    brother     vis    AloaBdn 

Daily mpie  (T7j7-iBaa),  the  first  admiially  hydregiaphei,  wt-i 


ound  knowled 


le  East  India  Company 


ceiEd 


a  geographer.     Lord  Hailes's  younger  daughter  married  5ir 

^ "  Hail,"  a  call  of  greeiinv  or  ealutation,  a  ilwirr  ro  ±tincl 
'enlian,  mutt,  of  eoune,  be  dii(inEuT«hed.  Thb  word  np^F^^i 
r  OM  Norwenait  kriU.  promerily.  cDsnale  with  O.  tim-  IX 
cncc  "  hale,"  ^- whole,"  and  1^,  whence"  health.""  beaL^ 


HAILSHAM— HAINAN 


821 


James  Fergusson;  and  their  grandson,  Sir  Charles  Dalrymple, 
ist  Bart.  (cr.  1887).,  M.P.  for  Bute  from  1868  to  1S85,  afterwards 
came  into  Lord  Hailes's  estate  and  took  his  family  name. 

Lord  Hailes's  most  important  tontribution  to  literature  was 
the  AHnais  of  Scotland,  of  which  the  first  volurocj  "  From  the 
accession  of  Malcolm  IIL,  surnamed  Canmore,  to  the  accession  of 
Robert  I.,"  appeared  in  1776,  and  the  second,  "  From  the  acces- 
sion of  Robert  I.,  surnamed  Bruce,  to  the  accession  of  the  house 
of  Stewart,"  in  1779.  It  is,  as  Dr  Johnson  justly  described  this 
work  at  the  time  of  its  appearance,  a  "  Dictionary  "  of  carefully 
sifted  facts,  which  tells  all  that  is  wanted  and  all  that  is  known, 
but  without  any  laboured  splendour  of  language  or  affected 
subtlety  of  conjecture.  The  other  works  of  Lord  Hailes  include 
Historical  Memoirs  concerning  the  Provincial  Councils  of  the. 
Scottish  Clergy  (1769);  An  Examination  of  some  of  the  Arguments 
for  the  High  Antiquity  of  Regiam  Majestatem  (1769);  three 
volumes  entitled  Remains  of  Christian  Antiquity  ("  Account  of 
the  Martyrs  of  Smyrna  and  Lyons  in  the  Second  Century," 
X776;  "The  Trials  of  Justin  Martyr,  Cyprian,  &c,"  1778; 
"  The  History  of  the  Martyrs  of  Palestine,  translated  from 
Eusebius,"  1780);  Disquisitions  concerning  the  Antiquities  of  the 
Christian  Church  (1783);  and  editions  or  translations  of  portions 
of  Lactantius,  Tertullian  and  Minucius  Felix.  In  1786  he  pub- 
lished An  Inquiry  into  the  Secondary  Causes  which  Mr  Gibbon 
has  assigned  for  the  Rapid  Growth  of  Christianity  (Dutch  transla- 
tion, Utrecht,  1793),  one  of  the  most  respectable  of  the  very 
many  replies  which  were  made  to  the  famous  xsth  and  i6th 
chapters  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

A  "  Memoir  **  of  Lord  Hailes  is  prefixed  to  the  1808  reprint  of  his 
Inquiry  into  the  Secondary  Causes, 

HAIUHAM,  a  market-town  in  the  Eastbourne  parliamentary 
division  of  Sussex,  England,  54  m.  S.S.E.  from  London  by  the 
London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast  railway.  Pop.  (1901),  4197. 
The  church  of  St  Mary  is  Perpendicular.  The  picturesque 
Augustinian  priory  of  Michelham  lies  2  m.  W.  by  the  Cuckroere 
river;  it  is  altered  into  a  dwelling  house,  but  retains  a  gate- 
house, crypt  and  other  portions  of  Early  English  date.  There 
was  also  a  Premonstratensian  house  at  Otham,  3  m.  S.,  but  the 
remains  are  scanty.  Hailsham  has  a  considerable  agricultural 
trade,  and  manufactures  of  rope  and  matting  are  carried  on. 

HAINAN,  or,  as  it  is  usually  called  in  Chinese,  JCiung-chow-fu, 
a  large  island  belonging  to  the  Chinese  province  of  Kwang-tung, 
and  situated  between  the  Chinese  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Tong-king 
from  20°  8'  to  17*  52'  N.,  and  from  xo8"  32'  to  xxx*  is*  E.  It 
measures  160  m.  from  N.E.  to  S.W.,  and  the  average  breadth 
is  about  90  m.  The  area  is  estimated  at  from  1200  to  X400  sq. 
xn.,  or  two-thirds  the  size  of  Sicily.  From  the  peninsula  of  Lei- 
chow  on  the  north  it  is  separated  by  the  straits  of  Haiium, 
which  have  a  breadth  of  15  or  20  m. 

With  the  exception  of  a  considerable  area  in  the  north,  and 
broad  tracts  on  the  north-east  and  north-west  sides,  the  whole 
island  is  occupied  by  jungle-covered  mountains,  with  rich  valleys 
between.  The  central  range  bears  the  name  of  Li-mou  shan  or 
Wu-tchi  shan  (the  Five-Finger  Mountain),  and  attains  a  height 
of  6000  or  7000  ft.  Its  praises  are  celebrated  in  a  glowing  ode 
by  Ch'iu,  a  native  poet.  The  island  appears  to  be  well  watered, 
and  some  of  its  rivers  are  not  without  importance  as  possible 
highways  of  commerce;  but  the  details  of  its  hydrography  are 
very  partially  ascertained.  A  navigable  channel  extends  in  an 
irregular  curve  from  the  bay  of  Hoi-how  (Hai-K'ow)  in  the  north 
to  Tan-chow  on  the  west  coast.  Being  exposed  to  the  winter 
monsoon,  the  northern  parts  of  the  island  enjoy  much  the  same 
sort  of  temperate  climate  as  the  neighbouring  provinces  of  the 
xnainland,  but  in  the  southern  parts,  protected  from  the  monsoon 
by  the  mountain  ranges,  the  climate  is  almost  or  entirely  tropical 
Snow  falls  so  rarely  that  its  appearance  in  1684  is  reported  in 
the  native  chronicles  as  a  remarkable  event.  Earthquakes  are  a 
much  niore  familiar  phenomenon,  having  occurred,  according  to 
the  same  authority,  in  1523,  xs26,  X605,  1652, 1677, 1681,  X684, 
1702,  1704,  X725,  X742,  1816,  18x7  and  1822.  Excellent  timber 
of  various  kinds^agle-wood,  rose-wood,  Hquidambar,  &c. — 
is  one  of  the  principal  products  of  the  island,  and  has  even 


been  specially  transported  to  Peking  fbr  imperial  purposes.  The 
coco  palm  flourishes  freely  even  in  the  north,  and  is  to  be  found 
growing  in  dumps  with  the  Pinus  sinensis.  Rice,  cotton,  sugar, 
indigo,  cinnamon,  betel-nuts,  sweet  potatoes,  ground-nuts  and 
tobacco  az^  all  cultivated  in  varjring  quantities.  The  aboriginal 
inhabitants  collect  a  kind  of  tea  called  t'ien  ch'a,  or  celestial  tea, 
which  looks  like  the  leaves  of  a  wild  camellia,  and  has  an  earthy 
taste  when  infused.  Lead,  silver,  copper  and  iron  occur  in  the 
Shi-lu  shan  or  "  stone-green-hill  ";  the  silver  at  least  was  worked 
till  1850.  (jold  and  lapis  laxuli  are  found  in  other  parts  of  the 
island. 

The  ordinary  cattle  of  Hainan  are  apparently  a  cross  between 
the  little  yellow  cow  of  south  China  and  the  zebu  of  India. 
Buffaloes  are  common,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Nanlu  at 
least  they  are  frequently  albinos.  Horses  are  nimierous  but  small. 
Hogs  and  deer  are  both  common  wild  animals,  and  of  the  latter 
there  are  three  species,  Cervus  Eldi,  Cervus  hippdaphus  and 
Certus  vaginalis.  Among  the  birds,  of  which  172  species  are 
described  by  Mr  Swinhoe  in  his  paper  in  The  Ibis  (1870),  there  are 
eagles,  XK>tably  a  new  species  SpUomis  Rutherfordi,  buzzards,' 
harriers,  kites,  owls,  goatsuckers  and  woodpeckers.  The  Upupa 
uylonensis  is  familiar  to  the  natives  as  the  "  bird  of  the  Li 
matrons,"  and  the  Palaeomis  javanica  as  the  "  sugar-cane  bird." 

Hainan  forms  a  fu  or  department  of  the  province  of  Kwang- 
tung,  though  strictly  it  is  only  a  portion  of  the  island  that  is 
under  Chinese  administration,  the  remainder  being  still  occupied 
by  unsubjugated  aborigines.  The  department  contains  three 
chow  and  ten  hien  districts.  K'iung-chow-hien,  in  which  the 
capital  is  situated;  Ting-an-hien,  the  only  inland  district; 
Wen-ch'ang-hien,  in  the  north-east  of  the  island;  Hui-t'ung- 
hien,  Lo-hui-hien,  Ling-shu-hien,  VTan-chow,  Yai<how  (the 
southmost  of  all),  Kan-€n-hien  Ch'ang-hwa-hicn,  Tan-chow, 
Lin-kao-hien  and  Ch'eng-mai-hien.  The  capital  K'iung-chow-fu 
is  situated  in  the  north  about  xo  li  (or  3  m.)  from  the  coast  on 
the  river.  It  is  a  well-built  compact  city,  and  its  temples  and 
examination  haUs  are  in  good  preservation.  Carved  articles  in 
coco-nuts  and  scented  woods  are  its  principal  industrial  product. 
In  X630  it  was  made  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  mission  by 
Benoit  de  Mathos,  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  and  the  old  cemetery 
still  contains  about  1x3  Christian  graVes.  The  port  of  K'iung« 
chow-fu  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  which  is  nearly  dry  at  low 
water,  is  called  simply  Hoi-how,  or  in  the  court  dialect  Hai-K'ow, 
i.e.  seaport.  The  two  towns  are  unitecf  by  a  good  road,  along 
which  a  large  traffic  is  maintained  partly  by  coolie  porters  but 
more  frequently  by  means  of  wheel-barrows,  which  serve  the 
purpose  of  cabs  and  carts.  The  value  of  the  trade  of  the  port 
has  risen  from  £670,600  in  X899  to  £7  X9,333  in  1904.  In  the  saine 
year  424  vessels,  representing  a  tonnage  of  3x2,554,  visited  the 
port.  This  trad^  is  almost  entirely  with  the  British  cplony  of 
Hong-Kong,  with  which  the  port  is  connected  by  small  coasting 
steamers,  but  since  1893  it  has  had  regular  steamboat  com- 
munication with  Haiphong  in  Tongking.  The  population  of 
K'iunff-chow,  including  its  shipping  port  of  Hoi-how,  is  estimated 
at  52,000.  The  number  of  foreign  residents  in  X900  was  about 
30,  most  of  them  officials  or  missionaries. 

The  inhabitants  of  Hainan  may  be  divided  into  three  claues, 
the  Chinese  immigrants,  the  civilized  aborigines  or  Shu-li  and 
the  wild  aborigines  or  Sheng-li.  The  Chinese  were  for  the  most 
part  originally  from  Kwang-si  and  the  neighbouring  provinces, 
and  they  speak  a  peculiar  dialect,  of  which  a  detailed  account  by 
Mr  Swinhoe  was  given  in  The  Phoenix,  a  Monthly  Magazine  for 
China,  brc.  (1870).  The  Shu-li  as  described  by  Mr  Taintor  are 
almost  of  the  same  stature  as  the  Chinese,  but  have  a  more 
decided  copper  colour,,  higher  cheek-bones  and  more  angular 
features,  while  their  eyes  are  iK>t  oblique.  Their  hair  is  lon& 
straight  and  black,  and  their  beards,  if  they  have  any,  are  very 
scanty.  They  till  the  soil  and  bring  rice,  fuel,  timber,  grass-doth, 
&c.,  to  the  Chinese  markets.  The  Shcng-li  or  Li  proper,  called 
also  La,  Le  or  Lauy,  are  probably  connected  with  the  Laos  of 
Siam  and  the  Lolosof  China.  Though  not  gratuitously  aggres- 
sive, they  are  highly  intractable,  and  have  given  great  trouble 
to  the  Chinese  authorities.    Among  thexnselves  they  carry  on 


6 


22 


HAINAU-^HAINICHEN 


deadly  feuds,  And  revenge  is  a  duty  and  an  inheritance.  Though 
they  are  mainly  dependent  on  the  chase  for  food,  their  weapons 
are  still  the  spear  and  the  bow,  the  latter  being  made  of  wood  and 
strung  -with  bamboo.  In  marriage  no  avoidance  of  similarity 
of  name  is  required.  The  bride's  face  is  tattdocd  according  to  a 
pattern  furnished,  by  the  bridegroom.  Their  funeral  mourning 
consists  of  abstaining  from  drink  and  eating  raw  beef,  and  they 
use  a  wooden  log  for  a  coffin.  When  sick  they  sacrifice  oxen. 
In  the  spring-time  there  is  a  festival  in  which  the  men  and 
women  Inm  neighbouring  settlements  move  about  in  gay 
clothing  hand  in  hand  and  singing  songs.  The  wh(4e  population- 
of  the  island  Js  estimated  at  about  a}  millions.  At  its  first 
conquest  33,000  families  were  introduced  from  the  mainland. 
It  X300  the  Chinese  authorities  assign  266,257  inhabitants;  in 
X370,  291,000;  in  1617,  250,524;  and  in  1835,  1,350,000. 

It  was  in  III  B.C.  that  Lu-Po-Teh,  general  of  the  emperor  Wu- 
ti,  first  made  the  island  of  Hainan  subject  to  the  Chinese,  who 
divided  it  into  the  two  prefectures,  Tan-urh  or  Drooping  Ear 
in  the  south,  so-called  from  the  long  ears  of  the  native  "  king," 
and  Chu-yai  or  Pearl  Shore  in  the  north.  During  the  decadence 
of  the  elder  branch  of  the  Han  dynasty  the  Chinese  supremacy 
was  weakened,  but  in  a.d.  43  the  natives  were  led  by  the  success 
of  Ma-yuan  in Tong-king  to  make  a  new  tender  of  their  allegiance. 
About  this  time  the  whole  island  t^ok  the  name  of  Chu-yai.  In 
A.0.  627  the  name  of  K'iung-chow  came  into  use.  On  its  con- 
quest by  the  generals  of  Kublai  Khan  in  1278  the  island  was 
Incorporated  with  the  western  part  of  the  province  of  Kwang- 
tung  in  a  new  satrapy,  Hal-peh  Hai-nan  Tao,  i.e.  the  circuit  north 
of  the  sea  and  south  of  the  sea.  It  was  thus  that  Hai-nan-Tao, 
or  district  south  of  the  sea  or  strait,  came  into  use  as  the  name  of 
the  island,  which,  however,  has  borne  the  official  title  of  K'iung- 
chow-fu,  probably  derived  from  the  Kiung  shan  or  Jade  Moun- 
tains, ever  since  1370,  the  date  of  its  erection  into  a  department 
of  Kwang-tung.  For  a  long  time  Hainan  was  the  refuge  of  the 
turi>ulent  classes  of  China  and  the  place  of  deportation  for 
delinquent  officials.  It  was  there,  for  example,  that  Su-She  or 
Su-Tung-po  was  banished  in  1097.  From  the  15th  to  the  19th 
ceiftury  pirates  made  the  intercourse  with  the  mainland  danger- 
ous, and  in  the  X7th  they  were  considered  so  formidable  that 
merchants  were  allowed  to  convey  their  goods  only  across  the 
narrow  Hainan  StraiL  Since  1863  the  presence  of  English  men- 
of-war  has  put  an  eml  to  this  evil.  According  to  the  treaty  of 
Tientsin,'  the  capital  K'iung-chow  and  the  harbour  Hoi-how 
(Hai-Kow)  were  opened  to  European  commerce;  but  it  was  not 
till  1876  that  advantage  was  taken  of  the  permission. 

HAINAU  (officially  Haynau),  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Silesia,  on  the  Schnclle  Deichsa  and  the 
railway  from  Breslau  to  Dresden,  12  m.  N.  W.  of  Liegnitz.  Pop. 
10,500.  It  has  an  Evangelical  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church, 
manufactories  of  glioves,  patent  leather,  paper,  metal  ware 
and  artifidal  manures,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  cereals.  Near 
Hainau  the  Prussian  cavalry  under  BlUcher  inflicted  a  defeat  on 
the  French  rearguard  on  the  36th  of  May  1813. 

HAINAUT  (Flem.  JBenegouwen,  Ger.  Hennegau),  a  province 
of  Belgium  fonned  out  of  the  andent  county  of  Hainaut.  Modem 
Hainaut  is  famous  as  containing  the  chief  coal  and  iron  mines 
of  Belgium.  There  are  about  x  50,000  men  and  women  employed 
in  the  mines,  and  about  as  many  more  in  the  iron  and  steel  works 
of  the  province.  About  1880  these  numbers  were  not  more  than 
half  their  present  totals.  The  prindpal  towns  of  Hainaut  are 
Mons,  the  capital,  Charieroi,  Toumai,  Jumet  and  La  Louviire. 
The  province  is  watered  by  both  the  Scheldt  and  the  Sambre, 
and  is  connected  with  Flanders  by  the  Charleroi-Ghent  canal. 
The  area  of  the  province  is  computed  at  930405  acres  or 
X453  sq.  m.  In  1904  the  population  was  1,192,967,  showing  an 
average  of  82X4>er  square  mile. 

Under  the  successors  of  Clovis  Hainaut  fonned  part,  first 
of  the  kingdom  of  Metz,  and  then  of  that  of  Lotharingia.  It 
afterwards  became  part  of  the  duchy  of  Lorraine.  The  first  to* 
bear  the  title  of  count  of  Hainaut  was  Reginar  "JLong-Neck  " 
(c.  875),  who,  later  on,  made  himself  xnaster  of  the  duchy  oi 
Lorraine  and  died  in  9x6.    His  ddest  son  iF*hf«^»^  Lower 


Lorraine,  the  younger,  Reginar  II.,  the  countship  xd  Hainaat, 
which  remained  in  the  male  line  of  his  descendants,  all  named 
Reginar,  until  the  death  of  Reginar  V.  in  1036.  His  heiress, 
Richildis,  married  en  stcondes  noces  Baldwin  VL  of  Flanders, 
and,  by  him,  became  the  ancestress  of  the  Baldwin  (VL  of 
Hainaut)  who  in  1304  was  raised  by  the  Ciusadeis  to  the  empire 
of  Constantinople.  The  emperor  Baldwin's  dder  daughter 
Jeanne  brought  the  countship  of  Hainaut  to  her  husbands 
Ferdinand  of  Portugal  (d.  1233)  and  Thomas  of  Savoy  (d.  ussi)- 
On  her  death  in  1244,  however,  it  passed  to  her  sister  Margaret, 
on.  whose  death  in  1279  it  was  inherited  by  her  grandson, 
John  of  Avesnes,  count  of  Holland  (d.  1304).  The  countship  of 
Hainaut  remained  united  with  that  of  Holland  during  the  i4ih 
and  15th  centuries.  It  was  under  the  counts  WiDiam  I.  *'  the 
Good  "  (X304-1337),  whose  daughter  Philippa  married  Edward 
III.  of  En^nd,  and  WiUiam  II.  (i337-'X345)  that  the  communes 
of  Hainaut  attained  great  political  importance.  Margaret,  «ho 
succeeded  her  brother  William  II.  in  1345,  by  her  marriage 
with  the  emperor  Louis  IV.  brought  Hainaut  with  the  rest  of 
her  dominions  to  the  house  of  Wittelsbach.  Finally,  eariy  in 
the  15th  century,  the  countess  Jacqueline  was  diapouessed  by 
Philip  the  Good  oif  Burgundy,  and  Hainaut  henceforward  shared 
the  fate  of  the  rest  of  the  Netherlands: 

AuTHoarrres. — The  Cknmicon  Hanomienu  or  Cknmica  Homaoniae 
of  Gisclbert  of  Mons  (d.  1233-1335),  chancellor  of  Count  Baldwin  V., 
covering  the  period  between  1040  and  Ii95t  is  published  in  Penz. 
MoHum.  Germ.  (Hanover.  18^0,  Ac).  Tne  Ckrcmicom  Hcmonime, 
ascribed  to  Baldwin,  count  of  Avesnes  (d.  1289).  and  written  bet%T«-n 
1278  and  I38i,  was  published  under  the  title  Hist,  gtmtahtua. 
comitum  Hannoniae,  &c.,  at  Antwerp  (1691  and  1693)  and  Bcui>^U 
(1723).  The  Annals  of  Jacques  de  Guise  (b.  1334;  d.  1599)  were 
published  by  de  Fortia  d'Urban  under  the  ritle.  Histoire  ds  Hai- 
nauU  par  Jacgtus  de  Guyu,  in  19  vols.  (Paris,  1826-1838);  C. 
Delacourt.  "  mbliographie  de  I'hist.  du  Hawaut,'*  in  tiae  AniuJes 
du  cerde  archiolofique  de  Mens.  vol.  v.  fMons,  1864);  T.  Bcrnlo-, 
Diet,  glotraph.  historique,  6fc.,  de  HainauU  (Mons,  1891).  See  also 
Ulysse  Chevalier,  Riftrtoire  des  sources  b.v. 

HAINBURO,  or  HAnaxntc,  a  town  of  Austxia,  in  Lower 
Austria,  38  m.  E.S.E  of  Vienna  by  rail  Pop.  (1900),  5134- 
It  is  situated  on  the  Danube,  only  2\  m.  from  thie  Hungarian 
frontier,  and  since  the  fire  (rf  X827  Hainbuig  has  been  much 
improved,  being  now  a  handsomely  built  towiL  It  has  one  of 
the  largest  tobacco  manufactories  in  Austiia,  employing  about 
2000  hands,  and  a  large  needle  factory  It  occupies  part  of  the 
site  of  the  old  Celtic  town  Camuntum  {q.t.).  It  is  still  surrounded 
by  andent  walls,  and  has  a  gate  guarded  by  two  old  towers. 
There  are  numerous  Roman  remains,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  altar  and  tower  at  the  town-house,  on  the  latter 
of  which  Is  a  statue,  said  to  be  of  Attila.  A  Roman  aquedua 
is  still  used  to  bring  water  to  the  towxL  On  tho  neighbouiing 
Hainberg  is  an  old  castle,  built  of  Roman  remains,  which  appears 
in  German  tradition  under  the  name  of  Heimburc;  it  was  wrested 
from  the  Hungarians  in  1043  by  the  emperor  Henxy  IIL  At  the 
foot  of  the  same  hill  is  a  castle  of  the  X2th  ceatuiy,  «4iereOttakar 
of  Bohemia  was  married  to  Margaret  of  Atistxia  in  1352;  eariitf 
it  was  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Babenbexj-  Outside  the 
town,  on  an  island  in  the  Danube,  is  the  ruined  castle  of  R&thd- 
stein  or  Rothenstein,  held  by  the  Knights  Templars.  Hainbuig 
was  besieged  by  the  Hungarians  in  1477,^  was  captured  by 
Matthias  Corvinus  in  1482,  and  was  sacked  and  its  inhabitants 
massacred  by  the  Turks  in  1683. 

HAINICHEM,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony, 
on  the  Rleine  Striegis,  15  m.  N.E.  of  Chemnitz,  <m  the  rail- 
way to  Rosswein.  Pop.  (1905)1  775>«  It  has  two  Evangdical 
churdhes,  a  park,  and  commercial  and  technical  schools. 
Hainichen  is  a  place  of  considerable  industry.  Its  chief  manu- 
facture is  that  of  flannels,  baize,  and  similar  fabrics;  iiMked 
it  may  be  called  the  centre  of  this  industry  in  Germany.  The 
special  whiteness  and  ezcdlence  of  theflannelmade  in  Hainichen 
are  due  to  the  peculiar  xuituxt  of  the  water  nsed  ia  the  manu- 
facture. There  are  also  large  dye-works  and  bleacfaiog  estab* 
lishments.  Hainichen  is  the  birthplace  of  Gdlert,  to  whose 
memory  a  bronze  statue  was  erected  in  the  market-place  in  1865. 
The  GcUeit  institution  for  the  poor  was  erected  in  181  s- 


HAI-PHONG— HAIR 


823 


BAI-PHOHO,  a  seaport  of  TongUng,  Frencb  Indo-Qiiiia,  on 
the  Cua-Cam,  a  branch  of  the  Song-koi  (Red  river)  delta.  The 
population  numbers  between  a  1,000  and  aa,ooo,  of  whom  12,500 
are  Annamese,  7500  Chinese  (attracted  by  the  rice  trade  of  the 
port)  and  laoo  Europeans.  It  is  situated  about  30  m.  from  the 
Gulf  of  Tongking  and  58  m.  £.  by  S.  of  Hand,  with  ndiich  it 
communicates  by  river  and  canal  and  by  railway.  It  is  the 
second  commercial  port  of  French  Indo-China,  is  a  naval  station, 
and  has  government  and  private  jhip-building  yards.  The 
harbour  is  accessible  at  all  times  to  veaids  drawing  19  to  20  ft., 
but  is  obstructed  by  a  bar.  Hai-phong  is  the  seat  of  a  resident 
who  performs  the  functions  of  mayor,  and  the  residency  is  the 
chief  building  of  the  town.  A  civil  tribunal,  a  tribimal  of  com- 
merce and  a  branch  of  the  Bank  of  Indo-China  are  also  among 
its  institutions.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  the  river  steamboat 
service  (Messagcria  fiuoiaUt)  of  Tongking,  which  plies  as  far 
as  Lao-kay  on  the  Song-koi,  to  the  other  chief  towns  of  Tongking 
and  northern  Annam,  and  also  to  Hong-kong.  Cotton-Binning 
and  the  manufacture  of  cement  are  carried  on. 

HAIR  (a  word  common  to  Teutoiyc  languages),  the  general 
term  for  the  characteristic  outgrowth  of  the  epidermis  forming 
the  c6at  of  mammals.  The  word  is  also  applied  by  analogy  to 
the  filamentous  outgrowths  from  the  body  of  insects,  &t.,  plants, 
and  metaphorically  to  anything  of  like  appearance. 

For  anatomy,  &c.  of  animal -hair  see  Skin  and  Exosxzubion; 
Fibres  and  allied  articles;  Fua,  and  Lkathes. 

Antkropolofy. — ^The  human  hair  has  an  important  place 
among  the  physical  criteria  of  race.  While  its  general  structure 
and  quantity  vary  comparatively  little,  its  length  in  individuals 
and  relatively  in  the  two  sexes,  its  form,  its  colour,  its  general 
consistency  and  the  appearance  under  the  microscope  of  its 
transverse  section  show  persistent  differences  in  the  various  races. 
It  is  the  persistence  of  these  differences  and  ^edally  in  regard 
to  its  colour  and  texture,  which  has  given  to  hair  its  ethnological 
importance.  So  obvious  a  racial  differentiation  had  naturally 
long  ago  attracted  the  attention  of  anthropologists.  But  it  was 
not  until  the  xgth  century  that  microscopic  examination  showed 
the  profound  difference  in  structure  between  the  hair  character- 
istic oT  the  great  divisions  of  mankind.  It  was  in  1863  that  Dr 
Pruner-Bey  read  a  paper  before  the  Paris  Anthropological 
Society  entitled  "  On  the  Human  Hair  as  a  Race  Character, 
examined  by  aid  of  the  Microscope."  This  address  established 
the  importance  of  hair  as  a  radal  criterion.  He  demonstrated 
that  the  structure  of  the  hair  is  threefold: — 

(i)  Short  and  criqi,  generally  termed  "  woolly,''  elliptical  or 
kidney-shaped  in  section,  with  no  distinguishable  mniulla  or 
pith.  Its  colour  is  almost  always  jet  black,  and  it  is  character- 
istic of  all  the  black  races  except  the  Austrah'ans  and  aborigines 
of  India.  This  type  of  hair  has  two  varieties.  When  the  hairs 
are  relatively  long  and  the  spiral  of  the  curls  large,  the  head  has 
the  appearance  of  being  oompletdy  covered,  as  with  some  of 
the  Melanesian  races  and  most  of  the  negroes.  Haeckel  has 
called  this  "  erioamous  "  or  "  wooUy  "  proper.  In  some  negroid 
peoples,  however,  such  as  the  Hottentots  and  Bushmen,  the  hair 
grows  in  very  short  curls  with  narrow  spirals  and  forms  little 
tufts  separated  by  spaces  which  appear  bare.  The  head  looks  as 
if  it  were  dotted  over  with  pepper-seed,  and  thus  this  hair  has 
gained  the  name  of  **  peppercorn-growth."  Haeckel  has  called  it 
**  hpkocomous  "  or  "  crested."  Most  negroes  have  this  type  of 
hair  in  childhood  and,  even  when  fully  grown,  signs  of  it  around 
the  temples.  The  space  between  each  tuft  is  not  bald,  as  was  at 
one  time  generally  assumed.  The  hair  grows  uniformly  over 
the  head,  as  in  all  races. 

2.  Straight,  lank,  long  and  coarse,  round  or  nearly  so  in  section, 
with  the  medulla  or  pith  easily  distinguishable,  and  almost 
without  exception  black.  This  is  the  hair  of  the  yellow  races, 
the  Chinese,  Mongols  and  Indians  of  the  Americas. 

5.  Wavy  and  ciuly,  or  smooth  and  silky,  oval  in  section,  with 
medullary  tube  but  no  pith.  This  is  the  hair  of  Europeans, 
and  is  mainly  fair,  though  black,  brown,  red  or  towy  varieties 
are  found. 

There  it  a  fowth  type  of  hkir  describable  as  "  fiizsy."   It  is 


easily  distinguishable  from  the  Asiatic  and  European  types,  but 
not  from  the  negroid  wool  It  is  always  thick  and  black,  and 
is  characteristic  of  the  Australians,  Nubians,  and  certain  of  the 
Mulattos.  Generally  hair  curls  in  i»oportion  to  its  flatness. 
The  rounder  it  is  the  stiffer  and  lanker.  These  extremes  are 
re^ectivdy  represented  by  the  Papuans  and  the  Japanese. 
Of  all  hair  the  woolly  type  is  found  to  be  thtf  most  persistent,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Bradlian  Cafusos,  negro  and  native  hybrids. 
Quatrefages  quotes  the  case  of  a  triple  hybrid,  "half  negro, 
quarter  Cherokee,  quarter  English,"  who  had  short  crisp  furry- 
looking  ha^. 

Wavy  types  of  hair  vary  most  in  colour:  almost  the  deepest 
hue  of  black  being  found  side  by  side  with  the  most  flaxen  and 
towy.  Colour  varies  less  in  the  lank  type,  and  scarcely  at  all 
in  the  woolly.  The  oiily  important  exception  to  the  uniform 
blackness  of  the  negroid  wool  is  to  be  found  among  the  Wochuas, 
a  tribe  of  African  pigmies  whose  hair  is  described  by  Wilhelm 
Junker  (Travels  in  Africa,  iii,  pL  83)  as  "  of  a  dark,  rusty  brown 
hue."  Fair  hair  in  all  its  shades  is.  frequent  among  the  popula- 
tions of  northern  Europe,  but  much  rarer  in  the  south.  According 
to  Dr  John  Beddoe  there  are  sixteen  blonds  out  of  every  hundred 
Scotch,  thirteen  out  of  every  hundred  Engliish,  and  two  only  out 
of  a  hundred  Italians.  The  percentage  of  brown  hair  is  75% 
among  Spaniards,  39  among  French  and  16  only  in  Scandinavia, 
Among  the  strait-haired  races  fair  hair  is  far  rarer;  it  is, 
however,  found  among  the  western  Finns.  Among  those  races 
with  frizzy  hair,  red  is  almost  as  common  as  among  those  with 
wavy  hair.  Red  hair,  however,  is  an  individual  anomaly  assod- 
ated  ordinarily  with  freckles.  There  are  no  red-haired  races. 

A  certain  correlation  appears  to  exist  between  the  nature  of 
hair  and  its  absolute  or  relative  length  in  the  two  sexes.  Thus 
straight  hair  is  the  longest  (Chinese,  Red  Indians),  while  wooUy 
is  shortest.  Wavy  hair  holds  an  intermediate  position.  In  the 
two  extremes  the  difference  of  length  in  man  and  woman  is 
scarcely  noticeable.  In  some  lank-haired  races,  men's  tresaei 
are  as  long  as  women's,  eg.  the  Chinese  pigtail,  and  the  hair  of 
Redskins  which  grows  to  the  length  sometimes  of  upwards  of 
9  ft.  In  the  frizzy-haired  peoples,  men  and  women  have  equally 
short  growths.  Bushwomen,  the  female  Hottentot  and  negrcsses 
have  hair  no  longer  than  men's.  It  is  only  in  the  wavy,  and  now 
and  again  in  the  frizzy  types,  that  the  difference  in  the  sexes  is 
marked.  Among  European  men  the  length  rarely  eicte^  la  to 
x6  in.,  while  with  women  the  mean  length  is  between  35  and 
30  in.  and  in  some  cases  has  been  known  to  reach  6  ft.  or  more.' 

The  growth  of  hair  on  the  body  oorreqwnds  in  general  with 
that  on  the  head.  The  hairiest  races  are  the  Australians  and 
Tasmanians,  whose  heads  are  veritable  mops  in  the  thickness 
and  unkempt  luxuriance  of  the  locks.  Next  to  them  are  the 
Todas,  and  other  hill-tribesmen  of  India,  and  the  Hairy  Azna 
of  Japan.  Traces,  too,  of  the  markedly  hairy  race,  now  extinct, 
supposed  to  be  the  ancestor  of  Toda  and  Ainu  alike,  are  to  be 
found  here  and  there  in  Europe,  especially  amonf  the  Russian 
peasantry.  The  least  hairy  peoples  are  the  yellow  races,  the 
men  often  scarcely  having  rudimentary  beards,  e.g.  Indians  of 
America  and  the  Mongols.  Negroid  peoples  may  be  said  to  be 
intermediate,  but  usually  iach'ne  to  hairlessncss.  The  wavy- 
haired  populations  hold  also  an  intermediate  position,  but 
somewhat  incline  to  hairiness.  Among  negroes  especially  no 
rule  can  be  formulated.  Bare  types  such  as  the  Bushmen  and 
western  negroes  are  found  contiguous  to  hairy  types  such  as  the 
inhabitants  of  Ashantee.  Neither  is  there  any  rule  as  to  baldness. 
From  statistics  taken  in  America  it  would  seem  that  it  is  ten  times 
less  frequent  among  negroes  than  among  whites  between  the  ages 
of  thirty-three  and  forty-five  years,  and  thirty  times  less  between 
twenty-one  and  thirty-two  years.  Among  Mulattos  it  is  more 
frequent  than  among  negroes  but  leas  than  among  whites.  It 
is  rarer  among  Redskins  than  among  negroes.  The  lanugo  or 
downy  haiis,  with  which  the  human  foetus  is  covered  for  some 
time  before  birth  and  which  is  mostly  shed  in  the  womb,  and  the 
minute  hairs  which  cover  neariy  every  part  of  the  adult  human 
body,  may  be  regarded  as  rudimentary  remains  of  a  complete 
hairy  covering  in  the  ancestors  of  mankind.    The  Pliocene,  or 


82+ 


HAIR-TAIL— HAITI 


M  all  evoits  MiocoM  pnconn  at  mm,  wu  ■  funcd  aeuurc 
The  discovery  of  Egyptian  mimunia  lix  thouAuid  yeui  old  or 
DIOK  haa  proved  thai  This  physcal  critezion  lemaiu  imchuged, 
uid  Ihal  it  ia  to-day  what  it  was  so  many  icprs  of  onturies 
back.  Perhaps,  then,  the  primaiy  diviiioni  ol  mankind  were 
diitinguisbed  hy  hair  tbc  same  in  teiture  and  cokiiii  as  chat  which 
characlerizes  to-day  the  great  ethnical  groups.  Tlic  wavy  type 
bridges  the  gulf  between  the  lank  and  woolly  types,  all  In  tuin 

it  is  woitb  raeDtion,  ai  pdoled  out  by  P.  To^naid.  that  though 
the  legions  occupied  by  tbe  ncgnnd  ntcs  are  the  habitat  of  the 
ulhiopiiid  apes,  tbe  bur  of  the  latter  li  real  hair,  tut  wooL 
Funhei  in  the  easiem  wction  of  tbe  dark  danuoa,  while  the 
Papuan  is  »till  black  and  dolichocf^balic,  his  presumed  pti>- 
geoitor,  the  orang-utan,  is  brachycephalic  with  decidedly  red 
hair.  Thus  the  white  races  are  seen  to  come  oeaieat  the  bigfaei 
apes  in  this  respect,  yellow  next,  and  black  farthest  removed. 

No  test  has  proved,  on  repeated  examination,  to  be  a  safer 
one  of  radaJ  purity  than  the  quality  of  hair,  and  Pruner-Bey  goes 
lo  far  as  to  suggest  that  "  a  Kngle  luur  prcacdting  the  average 
form  characteristic  of  the  race  might  serve  to  de&ne  it."  At  any 
rate  a  hair  of  an  individual  bean  the  stamp  of  his  ori^ 

See  Dr  Pruner-Bey  ia  Utmoini  Jt  la  KcifU  J'tuOrMleru.  ii- 
P.  A.  Blown.  Claii'fiialioH  of  ManUnd  by  uU  ifoir;  P.  ToSaard, 
VHammi  daiulanaari  (1S9I),  chap  vi 
, — Hair  eaters  into 


factures.  BriHlaanlheBtauceiaitichairBobtaiBed ttomibebacks 
of  certain  breeds  of  pin.  Tbe  fisest  qualities,  and  the  grealeit 
quantities  as  wdl,  are  oMaiiied  fron  Rusua,  where  a  variety  of  pig 
ia  reared  principally  01  accouBI  of  its  briBlea.  The  best  aod  most 
coally  bnitle*  are  need  by  ihoeDiahers,  secondary  qualities  being 
emp&yed  for  toilet  aid  dothetibniibes.  while  inferior  qualiltei  are 
workedupintotbecanmanerUHlBofbni^^.  <i     .       .        „h 

lor  many  mechanical  purnoaee.    For  aniizr 
painting,  bruibes  or  pencilaof  balr  from  ^w 
polecat,  &Cm  are  prepared.    Tbe  b^  of  \.<i. 

too  short  for  s""--" — ^- - 

ftk.    For  Ibis , 

other  rodents  is  largely  employed,  .especially  in  Fiance,  in 
the  finer  quaKlie*  of  fell  bats.    Cow  liair.  abtained  from  ij 
is  used  in  the  prepaiatloa  of  roofing  felts,  and  felt  for  ■ 
boilers  or  steam-npes.  and  for  other  iliDilu  purpsaes.     !  1 
laiscly  used  by  pusterers  for  Idndiag  the  monar  of  tht  ^' 
roofs  of  houses;  and  it  is  to  some  extent  btir^  n'-^-r-i-  1^.  n' 
friezes,  borse-ctoths,  railway  ruga  and  idli^iii.r  I.:  I'l:..  ^ 
bair  of  OKen  is  also  of  value  tor  MuffinL:  < 
bolstcn  worli,  for  which  purpose,  aa  wsir. 
win  oflaw  omcera,  barriiCerB,  Ac,  tbe  taij  1:  1 
or  Tiliet  ox  is  also  sometimes  Imported  ii^r  .  1  1 

mane  hair  of  horses  is  in  great  demand  fi.r 
long  tail  hair  is  espcdally  valuablefor  weai.' 
bair  and  the  short  tail  hair  being,  on  th.  ' 
pnpared  and  curled  for  Huffing  tbe  cluir<. 
an  covered  with  the  cloth  manofacluted  1  r 


aubiuB  harr.arc  diMlnguiihRl  as  ema  col 
bioher  prices  than  the  comnigD  shades, 
chiefiy  obtained  in  Genruny  and  Austria 
ii  the  pnndpal  source  of  the  darker  shade 
tbe  cultivation  and  lale  of  head)  ol  hair  by 


by  means  of  pcfoudc  of  hydrogen  is  extensively  practised,  with  the 
view  of  oblainif^  a  supply  of  golden  locks,  or  of  preparing  white 
bair  for  mining  to  match  grey  shades;  but  in  ncilber  case  Is  tbe 
rtsull  very  wiceeHful.  Human  hair  is  worked  up  into  a  great 
variety  oT  wiga.  scalps,  anificiil  fronts,  frincts  and  curls,  all  lor 
nling  Ibe  scanty  or  tailingresouicesof  nature.  Tbeplail' 
nan  hair  into  aniclca  of  jewellery,  watch-guards,  Ax,,  totms 


KAIB-TUL  ITridaim 


fl  fiih  bdiM^ng    Id  tlie 


og  in  a  thread-like  tail, 
»th  jaws.  Several  spedi 
in  the  tropical  Atlantic,  a 


t  tardy  teaches  the  British 


HAITt  tRurr,  Hatti,  Sah  thnmoo,  or  Htspunou],  an 
land  in  the  West  Jnditt.  It  lia  almost  id  tbe  cmtre  of  tbe 
chain  and,  with  the  eic^itkm  of  Cuba,  ia  the  laigeat  of  tbe  gnnpi 
Its  gtcateit  length  between  Cape  Engano  on  the  east  aod  Cape 
del  Irtns  on  the  wcM  is  40;  m.,  and  its  greatest  breadth  betw«n 
Cape  Beau  on  tbe  south  and  Cape  Isabella  on  tbe  noitb  ite  m. 
Tbe  area  la  18,000  iq.  m.,  being  rather  loa  than  that  c4  Iidand. 
Fmm  Cuba,  70  m.  W.N.W.,  and  from  Jamaica,  130  m.  W.S.W., 
it  is  sqjajaled  by  the  Windward  Passage;  and  from  P«to  Rioo, 
6o  m.  K,  by  the  Mona  Pasage.  It  lies  between  17*  37*  aad 
»°  o'  N.and  68°  »'  and  74°  lE'  W.  Fmn  tbe  nw  coan 
project  two  peninsulas.  The  south-wciteni,  of  which  Capv 
Tiburon  forms  the  extmuty,  ia  the  tvger.  It  is  1 50  m.  ioeg 
and  its  width  varies  from  10  to  torn.  Columbus  landed  at  Mole 
St  Xicbolas  at  the  pcuni  of  the  north-weiteni  pemniula,  which 
is  50  m.  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  40  m.  Between  these 
lies  the  Gulf  oi  GonaWe,  a  triangular  bay,  at  the  apex  of  which 
■lands  the  dty  of  Port-au-Prince.  Tbe  island  oi  Gonalve, 
opposite  the  dty  at  a  distance  of  17  m.,  divides  the  ealtaoce  to 


I  fine  channels,  and  form: 
harbour,  ?oo  sq.  m.  in  extent,  tbe  anal  r^s  along  the  coASi 
being  its  only  defect.  On  the  north-cast  coast  is  the  magnibcoit 
Bay  of  Sainana,  formed  by  the  peninsula  of  that  name,  ■ 
mountain  range  projecting  into  the  sea;  its  mouth  is  protected 
by  a  coral  lecf  stretching  8)m.  from  the  south  toast.  Then  is 
however,  a  good  passage  for  ships,  and  within  lies  a  safe  and 
beautiful  eipanse  of  water  joosq.  m,  in  extent.  Beymid  ^'""'^■i 
with  the  exception  of  the  poor  harbour  of  Santo  DomiitgD.  there 

and  N'eyba  are  reached.  The  south  coast  of  tbeTiburoo  ptniBsila 
has  good  baibours  at  Jacme^  Bainei,  Aquin  and  Lea  Csyes  or 
Aax  Cayes.  The  only  inlets  of  any  importance  between  .Aul 
Cayes  and  Port-au-Prince  are  Jeremie  and  tbe  Bay  of  Baradetes. 
The  coast  line  is  estimated  at  iijom. 


to  the  shores,  Itavine  only  I 
^t£j  the'slmaS  Monii 


toCapeStNicK 


,    The 


Criiti,  enendt  (com  Cape 
.  iKcwcsC.  It  huanieaa 
Loma  DiegD  Campo  {S^SS 


m,  ibe  Sietrn  iM  Cibao,^ 
St  Man.    1^ 


rf  the  wjarm.  buc 


HAITI 


82s 


devadon  on  the  ubnd,  which  riaes  as  a  apur  N.W.  of  the  dty  of 
&into  Domingo.  In  the  Sierra  del  Cibao,  the  highest  summit  is  the 
Pico  del  Yaoui  (9700  ft.).  The  southern  range  runs  from  the  Bay  of 
Neyba  due  W.  to  Cape  Tiburon.  Its  highest  points  are  La  Selle 
(8900  ft.)  and  La  Hotte  (7400  ft.).  The  plain  of  Seybo  or  Los  Llanos 
is  the  laracst  of  the  Haitian  plains.  It  stretches  eastwards  from 
the  river  OoLtoA  for  95  m.  and  has  an  average  width  of  16  m.  It  is 
perfectly  level,  abundantly  watered,  and  admlrablv  adapted  for  the 
rearing  of  cattle.  But  perhaps  the  grandest  is  the  Vega  Real,  or 
Royal  Plain,  as  it  was  called  by  Columbus,  which  lies  between  the 
Cibao  and  Monti  Cristi  ranges.  It  stretches  from  Samana  Bay  to 
Manzanillo  Bay,  a  distance  c»  i^  m.,  but  is  interrupted  in  the  centre 
by  a  range  oif  hills  in  which  nse  the  rivers  which  drain  it.  The 
northern  part  of  this  plain,  however,  is  usually  known  aui  the  Valley 
of  Santiago.  Most  ch  the  large  valleys  are  in  a  state  of  nature,  in 
part  savanna,  in  part  wooded,  and  all  very  fertile. 

There  are  four  large  rivers.  The  Yaqui.  rising  in  the  Pico  del  Yaqui. 
falls,  after  a  tortuous  north-westeriy  course  through  the  valley  of 
Santiagjo,  into  Manzanillo  Bay;  its  mouth  is  obstructed  by  shallows, 
and  it  is  navigable  only  for  canoes.  The  Neyba,  or  South  Yaaui, 
also  rises  in  the  Pico  del  Yaqui  and  flows  S.  into  the  Bay  of  Neyba. 
In  the  mountains  within  a  few  miles  from  the  sources  of  these  rivers, 
rise  the  Yuna  and  the  Artibonite.  The  Yuna  drains  the  Vega  Real, 
flows  into  Samana  Bay,  and  is  navigable  by  light-draught  vessels 
for  some  distance  from  its  mouth.  The  Artibonite  flows  through 
the  valley  of  its  name  into  the  Gulf  of  Gonalve.  Of  the  smaller 
rivers  the  Oxama,  on  which  the  city  of  Santo  Doming  stands,  is  the 
most  important.  The  greatest  lake  is  that  of  Enriquillo  or  Xar^ua, 
at  a  height  tii  300  ft.  above  sea-level.  It  b  37  m.  long  by  8  m. 
broad  and  very  deep.  Though  25m.  from  the  sea  its  waters  are  salt, 
and  the  Haitun  negroes  call  it  Etang  Sal6.  After  heavy  rains  it 
occasionally  forms  a  continuous  sheet  of  water  with  another  lake 
called  Azuey,  or  Etang  Saum^tre,  which  is  16  m.  long  by  4  m. 
broad ;  on  these  occasions  the  united  lake  has  a  tot^  length  oif  60  m. 
and  is  larger  than  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  Farther  S  is  the  Icoten 
de  Limon,  5  m.  long  by  2  m.  broad,  a  fresh-water  lake  with  no  visible 
outlet.  Smaller  lakes  are  Rincon  and  Miragoane.  There  are  no 
active  volcanoes,  but  earthquakes  are  not  infret^uent. 

Ceahgy. — ^The  geology  01  Haiti  is  still  very  imperfectly  known, 


and  large  tracts  oT  the  island  have  never  been  examined  by  a  geolo- 
gist. It  is  pcwstble  that  the  schists  that  have  been  observed  in  some 
parts  of  the  island  may  be  of  Pre-cretaceous  age,  but  the  oldest 
rocks  in  which  foasib  have  yet  been  found  belong  to  the  Cretaceous 
System,  and  the  geological  sequence  u  very  similar  to  that  of 
Jamaica.  Excluding  tlue  schists  of  doubtful  age,  the  series  beg;ins 
with  sandstones  and  conglomerates,  containing  pebbles  of  syemte, 
granite,  diorite,  &c.;  and  these  are  overlaid  by  marls,  clays  and 
Rmcstones  containing  HippuriUs.  Then  follows  a  series  ot  sand- 
stones, clays  and  limestones  with  occasional  seams  of  liKnite, 
evidently  of  shallow- water  origin.  These  are  referred  br^  R.  T.  Hill  to 
the  Eocene,  and  they  are  succeeded  by  chalky  beds  wnich  were  laid 
down  in  a  deeper  sea  and  which  probaoly  correspond  with  the  Mont- 
pelier  beds  of  Jamaica  (Oligocene).  Finally,  there  are  limestones  and 
marls  composed  largely  of  corals  and  molluscs,  which  are  probably 
of  very  late  Tertiary  or  Post-tertiary  age.  Until,  however,  the 
island  nas  been  more  thoroughly  examin«I,  the  correlation  of  the 
various  Tertiary  and  Post-tertiary  deposits  roust  remain  doubtful. 
Some  of  the  bras  which  Hill  has  placed  in  the  Eocene  have  been 
referred  by  earlier  writers  to  the  Miocene.  Tippenhauer  describes 
extensive  eruptions  of  basalt  di  Post-pliocene  age. 

Fauna  and  Flora, — The  fauna  is  not  extensive.  The  agouti  is  thr 
largest  wild  mammal.  Birds  are  few,  excepting  water-fowi  and 
pigeons.  Snakes  abound,  though  few  are  venomous.  Lixards  are 
numerous,  and  insects  swarm  in  the  low  parts,  with  tarantulas, 
scorpions  and  centipedes.  Caymans  are  found  in  the  lakes  ana 
rivers,  and  the  waters  teem  with  fish  and  other  sea  food.  Wild  cattle, 
hogs  and  dogs,  descendants  of  those  brought  from  Europe,  roam  at 
large  on  the  plains  and  in  the  forests.  The  wild  hogs  furnish  much 
sport  to  the  natives,  who  hunt  them  with  dogs  trained  for  the 
purpose. 

In  richness  ami  variety  of  vegetable  products  Haiti  is  not  excelled 
by  an^  other  country  in  the  world.  All  tropical  plants  and  trees 
grow  in  perfectbn,  and  nearly  all  the  vegetables  and  fruits  of  tem- 
perate climates  may  be  successfully  cultivated  in  the  highlands. 
Among  indigenous  products  are  cotton,  rice,  maize,  tobacco,  cocoa, 
ginger,  native  indigo  {indigo  marron  or  Axusofs).  arrowroot,  manioc 
or  cassava,  pimento,  banana,  plantain,  pine-apple,  artichoke,  yam 
and  sweet  poiato.  Among  the  important  plants  and  fruits  are  sugar- 
cane, coffee,  indigo  (called  indigo  franc,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
native),  melons,  cabbage,  lucerne,  guinea  grass  and  the  breadfruit, 
mango,  caimite,  orange,  almond,  apple,  grape,  mulberry  and  fig. 
Most  of  the  importea  fruits  have  degenerated  from  want  of  care, 
but  the  mango,  now  spread  over  nearly  the  whole  island,  has  become 
almost  a  nccessaiy  article  of  food;  the  bread-fruit  has  likewise 
become  common,  but  is  not  so  much  esteemed.  Haiti  is  also  rich 
in  woods,  especially  in  cabinet  and  dye  woods;  among  the  former  are 
mahogany,  manchined,  satinwood,  rosewood,  cinnamon  wood 
{Caneila  alba),  yellow  acoma  (Siderexyhn  masUekodendron)  and 
gri-gn;  and  among  the  latter  are  Brazil  wood,  logwood,  fustic  and 
On  the  mouatatof  are  extensive  forests  of  pine  and  a 


species  of  oak;  and  in  various  parts  occur  the  locust,  ironwood. 
cypress  or  Bermuda  cedar,  palmetto  and  many  kinds  of  palms. 

Climate. — Owing  to  the  great  diversity  of  its  relid  Haiti  presents 
a  wider  range  of  climate  than  any  other  part  of  the  Antilles.  The 
yearly  rainfall  is  abundant,  averaging  about  lao  in.,  but  the  wet 
and  dry  seasons  are  clearly  divided.  At  Port-au-Prince  the  rainy 
season  lasts  from  April  to  October,  but  varies  in  other  parts  of  the 
island,  so  that  there  is  never  a  season  when  rain  is  general.  The 
mountain  districts  are  constantly  bathed  in  dense  mists  and  heavy 
dewsj  while  other  districts  are  almost  rainless.  Owing  to  its  sheltered 
position  the  heat  at  Port-au-Prince  is  greater  than  elsewhere.  In 
summer  the  temperature  there  ranges  between  80*  and  05*  F.  and 
in  winter  between  70"  and  80*  F.  Even  in  the  highlands  the  mercury 
never  falls  below  45"  F.  Hurricanes  are  not  so  frequent  as  in  the 
Windward  I  sles,  but  violent  gales  often  occur.  The  prevailing  winds 
are  from  the  east.  , 

Tk€  Republic  of  Haiii. — ^Haiti  is  di^ded  into  two  parts,  the 
negro  republic  of  Haiti  owning  the  western  third  of  the  island, 
while  the  remainder  belongs  to  Santo  Domingo  (q.v.)  or  the 
Dominican  Republic.  Between  these  two  governments  there 
cidsts  the  strongest  political  antipathy. 

Although  but  a  small  state,  with  an  area  of  only  10,204  sq.  m., 
the  republic  of  Haiti  is,  in  many  respects,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  communities  in  the  world,  as  it  is  the  earliest  and 
most  successful  example  of  a  state  peopled,  and  governed  on  a 
constitutional  model,  by  negroes.  At  its  head  is  a  president 
assisted  by  two  chambers,  the  members  of  which  are  elected 
and  hold  office  under  a  constitution  of  18S9.  This  constitution, 
thoroughly  republican  in  form,  is  French  in  origin,  as  are  also 
the  laws,  language,  traditions  and  customs  of  Haiti.  In  practice, 
however,  the  government  resolves  itself  into  a  military  despotism, 
the  power  bdng  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  the  president. 
The  Haitians  seem  to  possess  everything  that  a  progressive 
and  dvilixed  nation  can  desire,  but  corruption  is  spread  through 
every  portion  and  branch  of  the  government.  Justice  is  venal, 
and  the  police  are  brutal  and  inefficient.  Since  1869  the  Roman 
Catholic  has  been  the  state  religion,  but  all  classes  of  society 
seem  to  be  permeated  with  a  thinly  disguised  adherence  to  the 
horrid  rites -of  Voodoo  (g.v.),  although  this  has  been  strenuously 
denied.  The  country  is  divided  into  5  dipartcments,  23  arron- 
dissements  and  67  communes.  Each  dipartemenl  and  arrondisse- 
meni  is  governed  by  a  general  in  the  army.  The  army  numbers 
about  7000  men,  and  the  navy  consists  of  a  few  small  vessels. 
Elementary  education  is  free,  and  there  are  some  400  primary 
schools;  secondary  education  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the 
church.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  and  the  Christian  Brothers  have 
schools  at  Port-au-Prince,  where  there  is  also  a  lyceum,  a  medical 
and  a  law  school.  The  children  of  the  wealthier  classes  are 
usually  sent  to  France  for  their  education.  The  unit  of  money 
is  the  gourde,  the  nominal  value  of  which  is  the  same  as  the 
American  dollar,  but  it  is  subject  to  great  fluctuations.  The 
revenue  b  almost  entirely  derived  from  customs,  paid  both  on 
imports  and  exports.  Thne  being  a  lack  of  capital  and  enter- 
prise, the  excessive  customs  dues  produce  a  very  depressed  con- 
dition of  trade.  Imports  are  consequently  confined  to  bare 
necessaries,  the  cheapest  sorts  of  dry  and  fancy  goods,  matches, 
flour,  salt  beef  and  pork,  codfish,  lard,  butter  and  similar  pro- 
visions. The  exports  are  coffee,  cocoa,  logwood,  a>tton,  gum, 
honey,  tobacco  and  sugar.  The  island  b  one  of  the  most  fertile 
in  the  world,  and  if  it  had  an  enUghtened  and  stable  government, 
anjencrgetic  people,  and  a  little  capital,  its  agricultural  possi- 
bilities woiUd  seem  to  be  endless.  Communications  are  bad; 
the  roads  constructed  during  the  French  occupation  have 
degenerated  into  mere  bridle  tracks.  There  b  a  coast  service 
of  steamers,  maintained  since  1863,  and  36  ports  are  regularly 
visited  every  ten  days.  Foreign  communication  b  excellent, 
more  foreign  steamships  visiting  thb  bland  than  any  other  in 
the  West  Indies.  A  railway  from  Port-au-Prince  runs  through 
the  Plain  of  Cul  de  Sac  for  28  m.  to  Manneville  on  the  Etang 
Saumatre,  another  runs  from  Cap  Haitien  to  La  Grande  Rividre, 
15  m.  dbtant. 

The  people  are  almost  entirely  pure-blooded  negroes,  the 
mulattoes,  who  form  about  10%  of  the  population,  being  a 
rapidly  diminbhing  and  much-hated  class.  The  negroes  are  a 
kindly,  hospitable  people,  but  ignorant  and  lazy.    They  have 


826 


HAITI 


a  passion  for  dancing  wdrd  African  dances  to  the  accompaniment 
of  the  tom-tom.  Marriage  is  neither  frequent  nor  legally 
prescribed,  since  children  of  looser  unions  are  regarded  by  the 
state  as  legitimate.  In  the  interior  polygamy  is  frequent.  The 
people  generally  speak  a  curious  but  not  unattractive  patois 
of  French  origin,  known  as  Creole.  French  is  the  official 
language,  and  by  a  few  d  the  educated  natives  it  is  written  and 
spoken  in  its  purity.  On  the  whole  it  must  be  owned  that,  after 
a  century  of  independence  and  self-government,  the  Haitian 
people  have  made  no  progress,  if  they  have  not  actually  shown 
signs  of  retrogression.  The  chief  towns  are  Port-au-Prince 
(pop.  75,000),  Cap  Haitien  (29,000),  Les  Cayes  (25,000),  Gonalve 
(18,000),  and  Port  de  Paix  (10,000).  Jeremie  was  the  birthplace 
of  the  elder  Dumas.  The  ruins  of  the  wonderful  palace  of  Sans- 
Soud  and  of  the  fortress  of  La  Ferri^re,  built  by  King  Henri 
Christophe  (xSoT-xSas),  can  be  seen  near  Millot,  a  town  9  m. 
inland  from  Cap  Haitien.  Plaisance  (25,000),  Gros  Mome 
(22,000)  and  La  Croix  des  Bouquets  (20,000)  are  the  largest 
towns  in  the  interior.  The  entire  peculation  ci  the  republic 
is  about  1,500,000. 

History,— The  history  of  Haiti  begins  with  its  discovery  by 
Columbus,  who  landed  from  Cuba  at  Mde  St  Nicholas  on  the 
6th  of  December  1492.  The  natives  called  the  country  Haiti 
(mountainous  country) ,  and  (juisquica  (vast  country) .  Columbus 
named  it  Espagnola  (Little  Spain),  which  was  latinized  into 
Hispaniola.  At  the  time  of  its  discovery,  the  island  was  inhabited 
by  about  2,000,000  Indians,  who  are  described  by  the  Spaniards 
as  feeble  in  intellect  and  physically  defective.  They  were, 
however,  soon  exterminated,  and  their  place  was  supplied  (as 
early  as  151 2)  by  slaves  imported  from  Africa,  the  descendants 
of  whom  now  possess  the  land.  Six  years  after  its  discovery 
Columbus  had  explored  the  interior  of  the  island,  founded  the 
present  capital,  and  had  established  flourishing  settlements 
at  IsabeUa,  Santiago,  La  Vega,  Porto  Plata  and  Bonao.  Mines 
had  been  opened  up,  and  advances  made  in  agriculture.  Sugar 
was  introduced  in  1506,  and  in  a  few  years  became  the  staple 
product.  About  1630,  a  mixed  company  of  French  and  English, 
driven  by  the  Spaniards  from  St  Kitts,  settled  on  the  island  of 
Tortuga,  where  they  became  formidable  under  the  name  of 
Buccaneers.  They  soon  obtained  a  footing  on  the  mainland  of 
Haiti,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  1697,  the  part  they  occupied 
was  ceded  to  France.  This  new  colony,  named  Saint  Dominique, 
subsequently  attained  a  high  degree  of  prosperity,  and  was  in  a 
flourishing  state  when  the  French  Revolution  broke  out  in  1789. 
The  population  was  then  composed  of  whites,  free  coloured 
people  (mostly  mulattocs)  and  negro  slaves.  The  mulattoes 
demanded  dvil  rights,  up  to  that  time  enjoyed  only  by  the 
whites;  and  in  1791  the  National  Convention  conferred  on  them 
all  the  privileges  of  French  citizens.  The  whites  at  once  adopted 
the  most  violent  measures,  and  petitioned  the  home  government 
to  reverse  the  decree,  which  was  accordingly  revoked.  In 
August  1 79 1,  the  plantation  slaves  broke  out  into  insurrection, 
and  the  mulattoes  threw  in  their  lot  with  them.  A  period  of 
turmoil  followed,  lasting  for  several  years,  during  which  both 
parties  were  responsible  for  acts  of  the  most  revolting  cruelty. 
Commissioners  were  sent  out  from  France  with  full  powers  to 
settle  the  dispute,  but  although  in  1793  they  proclaimed  the 
abolition  of  slavery,  they  could  effect  nothing.  To  add  further 
to  the  troubles  of  the  colony,  it  was  invaded  by  a  British  force, 
which,  in  spite  of  the  climate  and  the  opposition  of  the  colonists, 
succeeded  in  maintaining  itself  until  driven  out  in  1798  by 
Toussaint  I'Ouverture.  By  treaty  with  Spain,  in  1795,  France 
had  acquired  the  title  to  the  entire  island. 

By  1 801,  Toussaint  I'Ouverture,  an  accomplished  negro  of 
remarkable  military  genius,  had  succeeded  in  restoring  order. 
He  then  published,  subject  to  the  approval  of  France,  a  form  of 
constitutional  government,  under  which  he  was  to  be  governor 
for  life.  This  step,  however,  roused  the  suspicions  of  Bonaparte, 
then  first  consul,  who  determined  to  reduce  the  colony  and  restore 
slavery.  He  sent  out  his  brother-in-law,  General  Lederc,  with 
25,000  troops;  but  the  colonists  offered  a  determined,  and  often 
ferodous,  resistance.   At  length,  wearied  of  the  struggle,  Lederc 


proposed  terms,  and  Toussaint,  induced  by  the  mott  solemn 
guarantees  on  the  part  of  the  French,  laid  down  his  arms.  He 
was  seized  and  sent  to  France,  where  he  died  in  prison  in  1803. 
The  blacks,  infuriated  by  this  act  of  treachery,  renewed  tl^ 
struggle,  under  Jean  Jacques  Dessalines  (1758-1806),  with  a 
barbarity  unequalled  in  previous  contests.  The  French,  further 
embarrassed  by  the  appearance  of  a  British  fleet,  were  only  too 
glad  to  evacuate  the  island  in  Novembo- 1803. 

The  opening  of  the  following  year  saw  the  declaration  of 
independence,  and  the  restoration'  of  the  aboriginal  name  of 
Haiti  Dessalines,  made  governor  for  Ufe,  inaugurated  his  rule 
with  a  bloodthirsty  massacre  of  all  the  whites.  In  October 
1804,  he  proclaimed  himself  emperor  and  was  uuwued  with 
great  pomp;  but  in  x8o6  his  subjects,  growing  tired  of  his 
tyranny,  assassinated  him.  His  position  was  now  contended  for 
by  several  diiefs,  one  of  whom,  Henri  Christc^e  (1767-1820), 
established  himself  in  the  north,  while  Alexandre  Sabes  P£iio& 
(i770-x8x8)  took  possession  of  the  southern  part.  The  Spaniards 
re-established  themselves  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island, 
retaining  the  French  name,  modified  to  Santo  Domingo.  Civil 
war  now  raged  between  the  adhoents  of  Christophe  and  P£tion, 
but  in  18x0  hostilities  were  suspended.  Christophe  declared 
himself  king  of  Haiti  under  the  title  of  Henry  I.;  but  his  crudty 
caused  an  insurrection,  and  in  X820  he  rommitted  suidde.  P£tioa 
was  succeeded  in  x8i8  by  General  Jean  Pierre  Boyer  (1776-X850). 
who,  after  Christophers  death,  made  himself  master  ol  all  the 
French  part  of  the  island.  In  x8>i  the  eastern  end  of  the  isUzkI 
proclaimed  its  independence  of  Spain,  and  Boyer,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  dissensions  there,  invaded  it,  and  in  x82a  the  dominion 
of  the  whole  island  fell  into  his  hands.  Boyer  hdd  the  ptesidency 
of  the  new  government,  which  was  called  the  republic  of  Haiti, 
until  X843,  when  he  was  driven  from  the  island  by  a  revolation. 
In  X844  the  people  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  island  again  asserted 
their  independence.  The  republic  of  Santo  Domingo  was 
established,  and  from  that  time  the  two  political  divisions  have 
been  maintained.  Meanwhile  in  Haiti  revolution  fcdiowed  re- 
volution, and  president  succeeded  president,  in  rapid  sucoesskin. 
Order,  however,  was  established  in  1849,  when  Soulouque,  iHio 
had  previously  obtained  the  presidency,  proclaimed  himself 
emperor, .  under  the  title  of  Faustin  L  After  a  reign  of  nine 
years  he  was  deposed  and  exiled,  the  rq;>ublic  beizig  restored 
under  the  mulatto  president  Fabre  Geffrard.  His  firm  and 
enlightened  rule  rendered  him  so  unpopular  that  in  r867  he  was 
forced  to  flee  to  Jamaica.  He  was  succeeded  by  Sylvestie 
Salnave,  who,  after  a  presidency  of  two  years,  was  shot.  Ntssage- 
Saget  (1870),  Dominique  (1874),  and  Boisrond-Canal  (i8?6) 
followed,  each  to  be  driven  into  odle  by  revc^uticm.  The  next 
president,  Salomon,  maintained  himself  in  office  for  ten  years, 
but  he  too  was  driven  from  the  country  and  died  in  exile.  CptI 
war  raged  in  1888-1889  between  Generals  Legitime  axKl  H^ 
polyte,  and  the  latter  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  vacant  {re- 
sidency. He  ruled  with  the  most  absolute  authority  till  his 
death  in  1896.  General  Tiresias  Simon  Sam  followed  and  ruled 
till  his  flight  to  Paris  in  1902.  The  usual  dvil  war  ensued*  ami 
after  nine  months  of  turmoil,  order  was  restmed  by  the  dectioa 
of  Nord  Alexis  in  December  1902. 

Alexis'  administration  was  unsuccessful,  and  was  marked  by 
many  disturbances,  culminating  in  his  expulsion.  In  1904  there 
was  an  attack  by  native  soldiery  on  the  Frendi  ainl  German 
representatives,  and  punishment  was  exacted  by  these  powers. 
In  December  1904  ex-president  Sam,  his  wife  and  members  of 
his  ministry  were  sentenced  to  long  terms  of  imfmsonment  for 
fraudulently  issuing  bonds.  In  December  1907  a  conqaracy 
against  the  government  was  reported  and  the  ringleaders  were 
sentenced  to  death.  But  in  January  X908  the  revolution  spread, 
and  Gonalve  and  St  Marc  and  other  places  were  reported  to  be 
in  the  hands  of  the  insurgents.  Prompt  measures  were  taken, 
the  rising  was  checked,  and  Alexis  axmounced  the  pardon  of 
the  revolutionaries.  In  March,  however,  this  padfic  policy  was 
reversed  by  a  new  ministry;  some  suspects  woe  summarily 
executed,  and  the  attitude  of  the  government  was  only  modified 
when  the  powers  sent  war-ships  to  Port-au-Prinoe.  In  September 


HAJIPUR— HAKE,  T.  G. 


827 


the  criminal  court  at  the  capital  lentenoed  to  death,  by  default, 
a  large  number  of  persons  implicated  in  the  risings  earUer  in  the 
year,  and  in  •November  revolution  broke  out  again.  General 
Antoine  Simon  raised  his  standard  at  Aux  Cayes.  Disaffection 
was  rife  among  the  government  troops,  who  deserted  to  him  in 
great  numbers.  On  the  and  of  Decembo-  Port-au-Prince  wsa 
occupied  without  bloodshed  by  the  revolutionaries,  and  Alexis 
took  to  flight,  'iiKTp'ng  violence  with  some  difBculty,  and  finding 
refuge  on  a  French  ship.  General  Simon  then  wswimrd  the 
presidency.  At  the  end  of  April  xgio  Alexis  died  in  Jamaica, 
in  circumstances  of  some  obscurity;  it  had  just  been  dkoovered 
that  a  plot  was  on  foot  to  depose  Simon,  and  further  txonUe  was 
threatened. 

AuTBoarrxBS.— B.  Edwards,  HisL  Stmn  of  At  Ishnd  of  S. 
Domingo  (London,  1801) ;  Jofdan,  (ksckickit  dtr  Itud  Haiti  (Ldpstg, 
1846} ;  Linsuat  Pradin,  Kacmeil  thUnU  da  lois  et  aUu  du  fowtnie- 
ment  JTHaiU  (Paris,  1851-1865^;  Monte  y^  Te^^da^  ^*^^.^ 

d 

Haiti^  or  Uu  Black  lUfMic  (London,  1M9) :  L.  Gentil  Tippenhauer, 
Dit  Jnsd  HaiH  (Leipcig,  189^;  Marcelin,  Haiti,  itmdes  4commiqii$$t 
$ociales,  ot  poiiticnus;  and  Hat<t,  ses  futms  cioiUs,  lews  causes 
(Paris,  1893):  Hesketh  Pritchaxd,  Wken  Black  RmUs  White 
(London,  1900).  For  geology,  see  W.  M.  (}abb,  "  On  the  Topo* 
mphv  and  Geology  olSaato  Domingo,"  Tnsts.  Amer,  PkiL  See,, 


ddphta,  new  •erics,  voL  xv.  (1881).  pp.  49-a59f  with  map: 
L.  G.  Tmpenhauer,  i>ie  Insd  Haiti  (Leipng.  1893);  see  also  several 
articles  by  L.  G.  Tippenhauer  in  Psterm,  MitL  1890  and  1901.  A 
comparison  with  the  Jamaican  succession  will  be  found  in  R.  T. 
HUl.  "The  Geology  and  Phyncal  Oonaphy  of  Jamaica,"  BmlL 
Mus,  Cemp,  Zm^,  Harvard,  voL  xxxiv.  (1899). 

HAJIPUH,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the  Muaffarpur  district 
of  Bengal,  on  the  Gandak,  just  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Ganges  opposite  Patna.  Pop.  (1901),  21,398.  Hajipur  figures 
conspicucNisly  in  the  history  of  the  stnii^es  between  Akbar 
and  his  rebellious  Afghan  governors  of  Bengal,  being  twice 
besieged  and  captured  by  the  imperial  troops,  in  1572  and  1574. 
WithLk  the  limits  of  the  old  fort  is  a  small  stone  mosque,  very 
plain,  but  of  peculiar  architecture,  and  attributed  to  Hljl  Dsris, 
its  traditional  founder  {c,  1350).  Its  command  of  water  traffic 
in  three  directions  maikes  the  town  a  place  of  considerable 
commercial  inqtortanoe.  Hajipur  has  a  station  on  the  main 
line  of  the  Bengal  and  North-western  railway. 

HAJJ  or  Hadj,  the  Arabic  word,  meaning  literally  a  "  setting 
out,"  for  the  greater  pilgrimage  of  Mahommedans  to  Mecca, 
which  takes  place  from  the  8th  to  the  xoth  of  the  twelfth  month 
of  the  Mahommedan  year;  the  lesser  pilgrimage,  called  umrah 
or  amra,  may  be  made  to  the  mosque  at  Mecca  at  any  time  other 
than  that  of  the  hajj  proper,  and  is  also  a  meritorious  act.  The 
term  ka^  or  hadji  is  given  to  those  who  have  performed  the 
greater  pilgrimage.  TbewordAoifissometimeslooselyusedofany 
Mahommedan  pilgrimage  to  a  sacred  place  or  shrine,  and  is  also 
applied  to  the  pilgrimages  of  Chrisfisns  of  the  East  to  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  (see  Mecca;  Mahommedan  Reuoion). 

HlJJl  KHAIlPA  [in  fuU  Mu«UfI  ibn  *Abdallih  KlUb 
Chelebl  Hijjl  Khalifa]  {ca,  159^1658),  Anibic  and  Turkish 
author,  was  bom  at  Constantinople.  He  became  secretary  to 
the  oommisaariat  department  of  the  Turkish  army  in  Anatolia, 
was  with  the  army  in  Bagdad  in  1625,  was  present  at  the  si^^ 
of  Erzerum,  and  returned  to  Constantinople  in  i6a8.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  again  in  Bagdad  and  Hamadln,  and  in 
1633  at  Aleppo,  whence  he  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  (hence 
his  title  HljjI).  The  following  year  he  was  in  Erivftn  and  then 
returned  to  Constantinople.  Here  he  obtained  a  post  in  the 
head  office  of  the  commissariat  department,  which  afforded 
him  time  for  study.  He  seems  to  have  attended  the  lectures  of 
great  teachers  up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  and  made  a  practice 
of  visiting  bookshops  and  noting  the  titles  and  contents  of  all 
books  he  found  there.  His  largest  work  is  the  Bibtiegrapkical 
Encyclopaedia  written  in  Arabic.  In  this  work,  after  five  diapten 
dealing  with  the  sciences  generally,  the  titles  of  Arabian,  Persian 
and  Turkish  books  written  up  to  his  own  time  are  arranged  in 
alphabetical  order.  With  the  titles  are  given,  where  possible, 
abort  notes  on  the  author,  his  date,  and  scmietimes  the  intro- 


ductory words  of  his  work.  It  was  edited  by  G.  FlOgel  with 
Latin  translation  and  a  useful  appendix  (7  vols.  Leiprig,  1835- 
2858).  The  text  alone  of  this  edition  haa  been  reproduced  at 
Constantinople  (1893). 

Htjjl  Khaltfa  alio  wrote  in  Turidih:  a  chronoloracal  ooonectus 
of  general  history'  (translated  into  Italian  by  G.  R.  Carii,  Venice, 
1697);  a  history  of  the  Turkish  emmre  from  1594  to  1655  (Con- 
stantinople, 1870);  a  history  of  tne  naval  wars  of  the  Turks 


(Constantinople,  1729;  chapters  x-4  translated  by  J.  Mitchdl, 
London,  1831};  a  general  geogrsj^y  published  at  Constantinople, 
173a  (Latin  trans,  by  M.  Nocberg,  London  and  (jotha,  1818 ;  German 


txans.  of  part  by  T.  von  Hammer,  Vieana,  i8ia;  French  trans,  of 
part  by  V.  de  St  Martin  in  his  GSsmnvpAv  ( / 
For  his  life  see  the  preface  to  Flflgel  s  edition;  list^of  his  Works 


^  Asia  Mmot,  vol.  i). 


In  C.  Brockelmann's  (keck,  d,  anbisckem  Literatur  (Beriin,  1902), 
voL  IL,  pp.  4287(29. .  (G.  W.  T.) 

HAKE,  BDWARD  (fl.  1579),  En^ish  aadrlst,  was  educated 
under  John  Hopkins,  the  part-author  of  the  metrical  version  of 
the  Psalms.  He  resided  in  Gray's  Inn  and  Barnard's  Inn, 
London.  In  the  address  "  To  the  Gentle  Reader  "  prefixed  to 
his  Hemes  eta  ef  Fewles  Ckitrckyard  .  .  .  Oikenrise  eatilled 
Syr  Hummus  (2nd  ed.,  1579)  he  mentions  the  "  first  three  yeeres 
which  I  vpait  in  the  limes  of  Channcery,  being  now  about  a 
doaen  of  yeeres  passed."  In  1585  and  1386  he  was  mayor  of 
New  Windsor,  and  in  1388  he  represented  the  borough  in  parlia- 
ment. His  last  work  was  publi^ied  in  1604.  He  was  fvotected 
by  the  earl  of  Leicester,  whose  poli^  it  was  to  support  the  Puritan 
party,  and  who  no  doubt  found  a  valuable  ally  in  so  vigorous 
a  satirist  of  error  in  clerical  pkces  as  was  Hake.  Hemes  out  ef 
Fauies  Ckurckyarde,  A  Trappe  for  Syr  Monye,  first  appeared 
in  1567,  but  no  copy  of  this  impression  is  known,  and  it  wsa 
re-issued  in  1579  with  the  title  quoted  above.  The  book  takea 
the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  Bertulph  and  Paul,  who  meet  in 
the  aisles  of  the  cathedral,  and  is  divided  into  eight  *'  satyrs," 
dealing  with  the  corruption  of  the  higher  clergy  and  of  judges, 
the  greed  of  attorneys,  the  tricks  of  physicians  and  apothecaries, 
the  sumptuary  laws,  extravagant  living,  Sunday  sports,  the 
abuse  of  St  Paul's  cathedral  as  a  meeting-place  for  business  and 
conversation,  usury,  &c.  It  is  written  in  rhsrmed  fourteen-syllaUa 
metre,  ^vriiich  b  often  more  comic  than  the  author  intended.  It 
amtabs,  amid  much  prefatory  matter,  a  note  to  the  "  carping 
and  scornefull  Sioophant,"  in  which  he  attacks  his  enemies  with 
small  courtesy  and  mudi  alliteration.  One  is  described  as  a 
''.carping  cardcss  cankerd  churle." 

He  also  wrote  a  translation  frdm  Thomas  i  Kempis,  71b«  JMtlalJM, 
or  PoUamng  0/  CkriH  (1567,  xs68);  A  Teuckslone  for  tkis  Time 
Present  (1574),  a  scurrilous  attack  on  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
followed  by  a  treatise  on  education;  A  Cemmemeratien  of  tke  .  .  , 
Raigne  of  .  .  .  Eliaabetk  (1975).  enlarged  in  1^78  to  A  Jojfnll  Cmm 
tinuance  of  tke  Cem/memeratum,  tfc. ;  and  of  CMa't  Xinidem,-and  tkis 
Unkelpimg  Am  (1604^,  a  ocJlection  of  pieces  in  prose  and  vene,  in 
which  the  author  tnveiffhssflunst  the  power  of  gcttd.  A  bibliography 
of  these  and  of  Hake  s  other  works  was  oominled  by  Mr  Charles 

(Isham  Reprints, 


Edmonds  for  his  edition  in  1872  of  the  Ht 
No.  2, 1872). 

HAKE.  THOMAS  OOROOV  (1809-1895),  Eni^  poet,  was 
bom  at  Leeds,  of  an  old  Devonshire  family,  on  the  xoth  of  March 
1809.  His  mother  was  a  Gordon  of  the  fluntly  brandi.  He 
stwUed  medicine  at  St  (}eoige's  hoq>ital  and  at  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow,  but  had  given  up  practice  for  many  years  before  his 
death,  and  had  devoted  himself  to  a  literary  lATe.  In  1839  he 
publi^ed  a  prose  epic  VateSf  republished  in  Ainsworth's  magazine 
as  Valdamo,  which  attracted  the  attention  of  D.  G.  Rossetti. 
In  after  years  he  became  an  intimate  member  of  the  circle  of 
friends  and  followers  gathered  round  Rossetti,  who  so  far 
departed  from  his  usual  custom  as  to  review  Hake's  poems  in 
the  Academy  and  in  the  Portnigktly  Reeiem.  In  1871  he  published 
Madeline;  1872,  Parables  and  Tales;  1883,  Tke  Serfsni  Play; 
Z890,  I/em  Day  Sonnets;  and  in  1892  his  Memoirs  of  Eigkty 
Years,  Dr  Hake's  works  had  much  subtlety  and  fdidty  of 
expression,  and  were  warmly  appreciated  in  a  somewhat  restricted 
literary  circle.  In  bis  last  published  verse,  the  sonnets,  he  shows 
an  advance  in  facility  on  the  occasional  hsrshnrsa  of  his  earlier 
work.  He  was  given  a  Civil  List  literary  pension  in  1^93,  and 
died  on  the  nth  of  January  1895. 


828 


HAKE— HAKLUYT 


HAKB  {Merl^Ucctus  vulgaris),  a  fish  which  dififers  from  the  cod 
in  having  only  two  dorsal  fins  and  one  anal.  It  is  very  common 
on  the  coasts  of  Europe  and  eastern  North  America,  but  its  flesh 
is  much  less  esteemed  than  that  of  the  true  Gadi.  Specimens 
4  ft.  in  length  are  not  scarce.  There  are  local  variations  in  the 
use  of  "  hake  "  as  a  name;  in  America  the  "  silver  hake  " 
(Merluccius  bilinearis),  sometimes  called  "whiting,"  and 
"  Pacific  hake  "  {Meriucdus  produdus)  are  also  food-fishes  of 
inferior  quality. 

HAKKAS  ("  Guests,"  or  "  Strangers  "),  a  people  of  S.W. 
China,  chiefly  found  in  Kwang-Tung,  Fu-Klen  and  Formosa. 
Their  origin  is  doubtful,  but  there  is  some  ground  for  believing 
that  they  may  be  a  cross  between  the  aboriginal  Mongolic 
element  of  northern  China  and  the  Chinese  proper.  Accoiding 
to  their  tradition,  they  were  in  Shantxmg  and  northern  China 
as  early  as  the  3rd  century  B.C.  In  disposition,  appearance 
and  customs  they  differ  from  the  true  Chinese.  They  speak 
a  distinct  dialect.  Their  women,  who  are  prettier  than  the  pure 
Chinese,  do  not  compress  their  feet,  and  move  freely  about  in 
public  The  Hakkas  are  a  most  industrious  people  and  furnish 
at  Canton  nearly  all  the  coolie  labour  employed  by  Europeans. 
Their  intelligence  is  great,  and  many  noted  schoUus  have  been 
of  Hakka  birth.  Himg  Sin-tsuan,  the  leader  in  the  Taiping 
rebellion,  was  a  Hakka.  In  Formosa  they  serve  as  intermediaries 
between  the  Chinese  and  European  traders  and  the  natives. 
From  time  immemorial  they  seem  to  have  been  persecuted  by 
the  Chinese,  whom  they  regard  as  "  foreigners,"  and  with  whom 
their  means  of  communication  is  usually  "pidgin  English." 
The  earliest  persecution  occurred  under  the  "  first  universal 
emperor  "  of  China,  Shi-Hwang-ti  (346-210  B.C.).  From  this 
time  the  Hakkas  appear  to  have  become  wanderers.  Sometimes 
for  generations  they  were  permitted  to  live  unmolested,  as  under 
the  Han  dynasty,  when  some  of  them  held  high  official  posts. 
During  the  Tang  dynasty  (7th,  8th,  and  gth  centuries)  they 
settled  in  the  mountains  of  Fu-kien  and  on  the  frontiers  of 
Kwang-Tung.  On  the  invasion  of  Kublai  Khan,  the  Hakkas 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  bravery  on  the  Chinese  side. 
In  the  X4th  century  further  persecutions  drove  them  into 
Kwang-Tung. 

See  "  An  Outline  History  of  the  Hakkas/*  China  Renew  (London, 
1 873-1 874),  vol.  ii.;  Pitou,  "On  the  Origin  and  History  of  the 
Hakkaa/' >fr.;  Dver  Ball.  Easy  Lessons  in  Ae  Hakka  Dialect  ii^lL)^ 


d.  anikrop.  CJatn*  snd  April,  1885) ;  G.  Tavlor,  "  The  Aborigines  of 
Formoea.  China  Review^  xiv.  p.  198  aeq.,  also  zvi.  No>  3, "  A  Ramble 
through  Southern  Formoaa.** 

HAKLUTT,  RICHARD  (c.  1553-16x6),  British  geographer, 
was  bom  of  good  family  in  or  near  London  about  1553.  The 
Hakluyts  were  of  Welsh  extraction,  not  Dutch  as  has  been 
supposed.  They  appear  to  have  settled  in  Herefordshire  as 
early  as  the  X3th  century.  The  family  seat  was  Eaton,  a  m. 
S.E.  of  Leominster.  Hugo  Hakelute  was  returned  M.P.  for 
that  borough  in  1304/5.  Richard  went  to  school  at  West- 
minster, where  he  was  a  queen's  scholar;  while  there  his  future 
bent  was  determined  by  a  visit  to  his  cousin  and  namesake, 
Richard  Hakluyt  of  the  Middle  Temple.  His  cousin's  discourse, 
illustrated  by  "  certain  bookes  of  cosmographie,  an  universal! 
mappe,  and  the  Bible,"  made  young  Hakluyt  resolve  to  "pro- 
secute that  knowledge  and  kind  of  literature."  Entering  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  in  1570, "  his  exercises  of  duty  first  performed," 
he  fell  to  his  intended  course  of  reading,  and  by  degrees  perused 
all  the  printed  or  written  voyages  and  discoveries  that  he  could 
find.  He  took  his  B.A.  in  X573/4.  It  is  probable  that, 
shortly  after  taking  his  M.A.  (1577),  he  began  at  Oxford  the  first 
public  lectures  in  geography  that  "  shewed  both  the  old  im- 
perfectly composed  and  the  new  lately  reformed  mappes,  globes, 
spheares,  and  other  instruments  of  this  art."  That  this  was  not 
in  London  is  certain,  as  we  know  that  the  first  lecture  of  the 
kind  was  delivered  in  the  metropolis  on  the  4th  of  November 
1588  by  Thomas  Hood. 

Hakluyt's  first  published  work  was  his  Divers  Voyages  Umcking 


the  Discaverie  of  America  (London,  1582,  4to.).  This  brau^ 
him  to  the  notice  of  Lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  and  so  to  that 
of  Sir  Edward  Stafford,  Lord  Howard's  brother-in-law;  accord- 
ingly at  the  age  of  thirty,  being  acquainted  with  "  the  cfaiefest 
captaines  at  sea,  the  greatest  merchants,  and  the  best  marinen 
of  our  xiation,"  he  was  selected  as  chaplain  to  accompany 
Stafford,  now  English  ambassador  at  the  French  court,  to 
Paris  (1583).  In  accordance  with  the  instnicfions  of  Secretary 
Walsingham,  he  occupied  himself  chiefly  in  collecting  inf  ormaticm 
of  the  Spanish  and  French  movements,  and  "  "'•'''"g  diUgent 
inquirie  of  such  things  as  might  yield  any  U^t  unto  our  weatcroe 
discoverie  in  America."  The  first-fruits  of  Hakluyt's  labonrs 
in  Paris  are  embodied  in  his  important  work  entitled  A  particsder 
discourse  concerning  Westeme  discoveries  written  in  the  jete  1584, 
by  Richarde  Hackluyt  of  Oxforde,  at  the  requesie  and  directien  ef 
the  righte  worshipfuU  Mr  Walter  Raghly  before  the  eomymge  home 
of  his  twoo  barhes.  This  long-lost  MS.  was  at  last  printed  in  X877. 
Its  object  was  to  recoixmiend  the  enterprise  of  planting  the 
English  race  in  the  unsettled  parts  of  North  America.  Hakluyt's 
other  works  consist  mainly  of  transitions  and  compflaticms, 
relieved  by  his  dedications  and  prefaces,  which  last,  with  a  few 
letters,  are  the  only  material  we  possess  out  of  which  a  biography 
of  him  can  be  framed.  Hakluyt  revisited  England  in  X5S4. 
laid  before  Queen  Elizabeth  a  copy  of  the  Disamrse  "  along  with 
one  in  Latin  upon  Aristotle's  Politicks"  and  obtained,  two  days 
before  his  return  to  Paris,  the  grant  of  the  next  vacant  prdiead 
at  Bristol,  to  which  he  was  admitted  in  1586  and  hdd  with  bis 
other  preferments  till  his  death. 

While  in  Paris  Hakluyt  interested  himself  in  the  publicaticn 
of  the  MS.  journal  of  Laudonni^,  the  JBistoire  notable  de  la 
Florida^  edited  by  Bassanier  (Paris,  1586,  8vo.).  This  was 
translated  by  Hakluyt  and  published  in  London  under  the  titk 
of  A  notable  historie  containing  foure  voyages  made  by  certayne 
French  captaynes  into  Florida  (London,  1587,  4t«.)*  The  same 
year  De  orie  novo  Petri  Martyris  Anglerii  decades  ode  Ulustretae 
labore  et  industria  Richards  Hachluyti  saw  the  ligjht  at  Paris. 
This  work  contains  the  exceedingly  rare  copperplate  map  dedi- 
cated to  Hakluyt  and  signed  F.  G.  (supposed  to  be  Francs 
Gualle) ;  it  is  the  fixst  on  which  the  name  of "  Virginia  '*  appeais. 

In  1588  Hakluyt  finally  returned  to  Enj^aiul  with  Lady 
Stafford,  after  a  residence  in  France  of  nearly  five  years.  In  1 5^ 
he  publ^ed  the  first  edition  of  his  chief  work.  The  Principe 
Navigations,  Voiages  and  Discoveries  of  the  En^ish  N^ion 
(fol.,  London,  x  vol.).  In  the  preface  to  this  we  have  the 
announcement  of  the  intended  publication  of  the  first  tmrefirial 
globe  made  in  England  by  Molyneux.  In  1598-1600  appeared 
the  final,  reconstructed  and  greatly  enlarged  edition  of  The 
Principal  Navigations,  Voyages,  Traffiques  and  Disesneria  ef 
the  English  Nation  (foL,  3  vols.).  Some  few  cc^ues  contain  an 
exceedingly  rare  map,  the  first  on  the  Mercator  projection  made 
in  England  according  to  the  true  principles  laid  down  by  Edward 
Wright.  Hakluyt's  great  collection,  though  but  little  read,  has 
been  truly  called  the  "  prose  epic  of  the  modem  Eni^ish  natioa.'* 
It  is  an  invaluable  treasure  of  material  for  the  history  ^ 
geographical  discovery  and  colonization,  which  has  secured  for  its 
editor  a  lasting  reputation.  In  1601  Hakluyt  edited  a  translation 
from  the  Portuguese  of  Antonio  Galvano,  The  Discaoeria  «f 
the  World  (4to.,  London).  In  the  same  year  his  name  ocean  as 
an  adviser  to  the  East  India  Company,  supplying  them  with 
maps,  and  informing  them  as  to  markets.  Meantime  in  1590 
(April  aoth)  he  had  been  instituted  to  the  rectory  <A  Wltbcriag- 
sett-cum-Brockford,  Suffolk.  In  i6o3,^on  the  4th  of  May,  be 
was  installed  prebendary  of  Westminstn*,  and  in  tltt  foQowis^ 
year  he  was  elected  archdeacon  of  Westminster.  In  the  liocace 
of  his  second  marriage  (30th  of  March  1604)  he  is  also  described 
as  one  of  the  chaplains  of  the  Savoy,  and  his  wili  ccatains  a 
reference  to  chambers  occupied  by  him  there  up  to  the  time  ci 
his  d6ath;  in  another  official  document  he  is  styled  DJ>.  In 
1605  he  secured  the  prospective  living  of  James  Town«  thr 
intended  capital  of  the  intended  colony  of  VirgixDa.  T!us 
benefice  he  supplied,  when  the  colony  was  at  last  established  xa 
X607,  by  a  curate,  one  Robert  Hunt.  In  1606  he  appears  as  odc 


HAKODATE— HALBERSTADT 


829 


of  the  chief  pnjmotcn  of  the  pelKion  10  ihe  king  for  patents 
to  coloniie  Virginia.  He  «u  alio  a  leading  adventurer  in  the 
London  01  Soulh  Vit(iiua  Company.     Hii  lait  publication  was 

entitled  Virimia  ricUy  caliud  iy  lit  iaciiptioti  of  Florida  kit 
IHXI  nnfihiaiir  (London,  1604,  4to).  ms  wmk  wai  intended 
,  to  encourage  the  young  colony  of  Virginia;  to  Hakluytt  it  hu 
been  said,  **  England  is  tnoie  indebted  for  its  American  poueuion 

Hakluyt'i  uiggotion  that  Robcn  Faike  translated  Mendoia'l 
HisUry  tl  China  (London,  isS«-iS59)  and  John  Poiy  muJe  hil 
version,  ol  Lio  AfricaHia  (A  Ctopafkiial  Hiilery  af  Africa. 
London,  1600).  Hakluyt  died  in  1616  (NovEmbet  ijrd)  and 
was  buried  in  Wcstminitei  Abbey  (November  ifilb):  by  aa  eiror 
In  tbe  abbey  registei  his  buiiil  is  recorded  undrr  the  year  1616. 
Out  of  his  vaiious  emolumenti  and  pitlennenu  (of  nhidi  the 
last  wai  Gedney  (cctory,  Lincolnihirt,  in  1611)  he  uouwd  « 
small  fortune,  vbich  vas  jquandertd  by  a  sor.  A  Dumber  of 
hii  MSS.,  luERdent  la  form  >  fourth  volume  of  hil  colleclions 
of  isoB-1600,  fell  into  the  handsel  Samuel  Purchu,  who  inserted 
them  In  an  abridged  form  in  his  Pilpima  (1(15-1616,  Col.). 
Othera  are  preserved  *t  Oiford  (Bib.  Bod.  MS.  Seld.  B.  E).  which 
coDsiil  chiefly  of  notes  gathered  from  contemporary  authors. 

Bendet  the  MSS.  or  editiont  iMiced  in  (he  ten  (DiiiTt  Vayam 
(ijSi):  PtrlitiJtr  DiHauru  (!$&<};  Liudonnitre's  Ftnndi  (ij87}i 
Peter  Manyr.DKaAidjarJiiViinfalAriiniUunudjBf  and  1398- 
1600);  Calvano'i  Diuixna  {1601):  De  Sato's  Ftwda  letDrd.  tbe 


*^i.r„ 


Vupmia  ricUy  1 

Society'i  London.  ^ 

ol  tbe  Ptnicaltr  Diiamn 

llu  MauH  UiOarical  SaciA,  , 

ductioq  by   i-eorunl  Woods);  alto,  amimf  IDD 
Prinriptl  Kirrifalioni.  Ihoie^  1S09  (i  vols.,  wi' 


foyojH  in  1650.  ibe  editioi 


t/nirUimi, '" 'W9j," 
■be  mlNaken  wKic 
Kakluyt-s  Calvnnc 


ij  (Gbifow.  11  vots.^.  The  lu 


n1wa'ne*°i((?i?tM"th"?i'''''l'^bh^n 
"^'ted  ""tbd  HaklJvt  sScil^by  Ad'mi" 
-    !.   Thii  '    - 


emainw.isinirsiC.  R.  Bdilev'sedit  1 
and  other  medieval  tens  Irom  Hakluyi  i'  .n  , 
ReckooinfintheieandaniiaiieiilPunJiai  ..'  -. 
publiiheroltbellaliluyt  of  1901-1005.  ihi  -.  .  . 
or  "  fathered  "  ISO  volt  See  also  Vayaifi  ;  ;; 
bt  ,1  Mm«.  teiiu  .MkI  JVimilwi /nmi  Zkt  J  - . ' 
E.J.  Payne  (OJord.lSSo;  1803;  ncvedili...,  I 

For  lUdiiyt'i  life  the  dedKationioK^.    1^ 
of  the  Frinaial  Nirriiiliau  ihould  be  , 
Winter  Jones's  inlroduction  to  the  Kakli.  .  ~ 
DiKT,    VtyaiH;  Fuller-.   Wi:rlkia  itf  Ei        ■ 
Osjeri  Wm.  Sit.  (Oiford  Hiil.  Soc.),  <i  . 
CnmiiliM,  «*  rf^(,  nffniix.  p.  61  ,     ■ 

wh™l&»tord',  May">"*tb  aadlluM  4tf'!^ 
HAKODATE,  a  (own  on  tb 


tA.ui.     Its  posiii 


the  Island  of  Veto. 

iScially  raised  to  that  nok.     Pop.  (igoj) 
L,  as  has  been  frequently  remarked,  ia  not 


buUtal 


western  base  of  a  rocky  promontory  (iij?  ft.  in  height)  which 
forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  a  spacious  bay,  and  is  united  to 
the  mainland  by  a  narrow  sandy  isthmus.  Tbe  aummil  of  Ihe 
rock,  called  (be  Peak,  is  crowned  by  a  fort.  Hakodate  is  one  of 
the  pons  originally  opened  ID  forrign  (ride.  The  Bay  of  Hako- 
date, an  inlet  of  Tsugaru  Sinit,  la  OHnpletely  land-locked,  easy 
ol  access  and  spacious,  with  deep  water  almost  up  to  the  shore, 
and  good  holding-ground.  The  Rusiiana  formerly  used  Hakodate 
as  a  winter  port.  Tbe  staple  eiporls  are  beant,  pulse  and  peas, 
marine  products,  sulphur,  fura  and  timber;   the  staple  importa, 

the  resources  ol  Yeio,  and  as  a  port  ol  foreign  tnde  its  out- 
look is  indiifcrcnt.  Frequent  s(eamen  connec(  Hakodate  and 
Yokohama  and  other  ports,  and  there  '     '  " 


Tokyo.  Hakodate  was  opened  to  American  commerce  in  1854. 
In  the  civil  war  ol  1S6S  the  town  was  ukcD  by  the  rebel  Beet, 
but  it  was  recovered  by  tbe  mikado  in  1864. 

HAL.  a  town  of  Brabant,  Belgium,  about  9BI.  S,W.  of  Brussels, 
situated  on  therivetSenneand  the  CharlcroicanaJ.  Pop.  (11)04) 
13,541.  The  place  is  interesting  chiefly  on  account  ol  its  Ane 
church  ol  Notre  Dame,  formerly  dedicated  10  St  Martin.  This 
church,  a  good  example  of  pure  Gothic,  vas  begun  in  1341  and 
hniihed  in  1401}.  Its  principal  ornament  is  the  alabaster  altar, 
by  J.  Mone,  completed  in  iSjj.  The  bronie  font  dates  from 
1446.  Among  tbe  moDumenls  ia  one  in  black  marble  to  tbe 
dauphin  Joachim,  son  of  Louis  XL,  who  died  in  1460,  In  the 
Iceasuiy  of  the  church  art  many  costly  objects  presented  by 
illustrious  personages,  among  others  by  Ihe  emperor  Charles  V., 
King  Heniy  VIU.  of  England,  Charles  tbe  Bold  of  Burgundy, 
and  several  popes.  The  church  is  chiefly  celebrated,  however, 
far  its  miraculous  image  lA  Ihe  Viigio.  Legend  says  that  during 
a  siege  the  bullets  fired  into  tbe  town  were  caught  by  her  in  the 
folds  of  her  dress.  Some  of  these  are  still  shown  in  a  chest  that 
■tandi  in  a  aide  chapel.  In  consequence  of  this  belief  ■  great 
pilgrimage,  attended  by  many  thousands  from  aU  parts  of 
Belgium,  is  paid  annually  to  this  church.  The  hfitel  de  ville 
dates  from  1616  and  haa  been  restored  with  more  than  ordinary 
good  taste. 

HALA,  or  Kaila  (Formetly  known  as  Murtazabid  ),  a  town  of 
British  India  in  Hyderabad  district,  Sind.  Pop.  (iqoi)  4985. 
It  has  long  been  famous  for  its  glaied  polteiy  and  tiles,  made 

m  the  Indus,  mixed  with  powdered 

L  manufacture  of  nuii  or  striped 


modem  Castel  di  Tusi 


flints.    The  town 

BALABSA,  an  ancient  town  on  the  north  coot  of  Sicily, 
■      -  "     '  Cepbaloedium  JCefalul,  to  the  east  of  the 

■  ■  in  403  B.C.  by  Archonides, 
cyrani  «  ncroiia,  wnose  name  11  sometimes  bore:  f/t  find,  t-g- 
Halaisa  Archmiida  on  a  coin  of  the  lime  of  Augustus  (Cerf. 
intcrip.  Lai.  x„  Berlin,  1BS3,  p.  76S].  It  waa  the  first  town  to 
surrender  to  the  Romans  in  the  First  Punic  War,  and  was  granted 
freedom  and  immunity  from  tithe.  It  became  a  place  of  some 
Importance  in  Roman  days,  especially  as  a  port,  and  entirely 
auuirippcd  its  mother  dty.  Halaeu  is  Ihe  only  place  in  Sicily 
whete  an  Inscription  dedicated  to  a  Roman  governor  of  Ibe 
republican  period  (perliapi  in  113  n.c.)  has  come  (0  light .  (T.  Ai.) 

HALAKBA,  or  Haucha  (literally  "rule  of  conduct"),  the 
rabbinical  development  of  the  Mosaic  law;  with  the  higgada 
it  makes  up  the  Talmud  and  Midrash  (f.t.).  As  the  haggada 
is  (he  poetic,  10  the  hallkha  is  the  legal  element  of  the  Talmud 
(f.i.),  and  arose  out  of  the  faction  between  tbe  Sadducees,  who 
disputed  tbe  tradition!,  and  Ihe  Pharisees,  who  strove  to  prove 
their  derivation  Irom  scripture.  Among  the  chief  aitempii  to 
codify  the  hahikha  were  the  Cr«f  Rula  IHalakktlk  Gcdplmk) 
of  Simon  Kayyira  (9Ih  century),  based  on  tbe  letters  written  by 
the  Gaonim,  Ihe  head*  of  Ihe  Babylonian  schools,  to  Jewish 
inquirers  in  many  lands,  the  work  of  Jacob  Alfassi  (1013-1 103I, 
the  SlrcKf  Hand  oj  Maimonldes  (i  iSo),  and  Ihe  Taife  Pitfortd 
(Skid^H  ArTuk)  of  Joseph  Qaro  (1565I.  which  from  its  practical 
scope  and  its  clarity  aa  a  work  of  general  reference  became  the 
univsrsaJ  handbook  of  Jewish  life  in  many  of  its  phases.  (I.  A.) 

BALBEXSTADT.  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Ihe  Prussian  province 
of  Saiony,  0  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  Halle,  and  14  G.W.  of  Magde- 
burg. It  lies  in  a  fertile  country  to  Ihe  north  of  Ihe  Han 
Mountain*,  on  tbe  Holiemme,  at  (he  |uaction  of  railways  to 
Halle,  Gcslar  and  Thale.     Pop.  (1905)  4S,SJ4-     The  town  has 

wood-carving  still  surviving.  The  Gothic  cathedral  (now  Pro- 
testant), dating  from  Ihe  13th  and  rath  centuries,  is  remarkable 
for  Ihe  majestic  impression  made  by  the  great  height  of  the 
interior,  with  its  slender  columtu  and  lofty,  narrow  aisles.  The 
treasure,  preserved  in  the  former  chapter-house,  is  rich  in 
leliquariea,  vetiments  and  other  object*  of  medieval  church 
an.  The  beautiful  spires,  which  bad  become  uniafe,  were 
rebuilt  in  iJoo-tSgj.  Among  the  other  churches  the  only  odS 
ol  special  interest  i*  the  Liebftauenkirche  (Church  of  Our  I«d)r), 


830 


HALBERT 


■  bisHica,  vilh  four  lowtn,  in  Ifas  later  Ronunoquc  nyle, 
dAtiog  fmm  the  ulh  Ind  ijth  ccntiuio  and  rcslored  in  1848, 
coD1un[ng  old  muni  frcKOcs  And  carved  figures.    Remarkable 


mother 


c  tlie  Ir 


Eury  and  rejloied  in  the  ijtli 
Fcienhol,  lormeily  the  episcopal  palacE,  but  now  utiliml  as 
law  couTti  and  a  prisODp  THe  pimcipaJ  educational  establisb- 
ment  11  tiie  gymnasium,  with  a  tibnuy  of  40,000  volumes.  Close 
to  tbe  cathedra]  lies  the  bouse  of  the  poet  Cldm  («,«.),  since  1899 
the  property  of  tbe  municipality  and  converted  into  a  museum. 
it  contains  a  collection  of  the  pottnits  of  tbe  friends  of  the 
poet.scho[ar  and  some  valiufale  manuscripts.     Tbe  principal 

chemical  products,  beer  Ind  machinery,   Ahout  a  mile  and  a  half 


It 


over  Uieir  «,  whU  becanK  one  of  il>.  1 
ecdbiBstkal  principdliliei  of  ibe  Empic*'- 
lauoduetion  oC  Ibe  Refomution  in  154'.  I' 
of  SJiismund  of  Biandcnburs  falto  archbl-!i' 
lui  u  15M).  ihe  Ibk  Cathdic  biihop.  lIil. 
oTaDiwiny  elected  the  infant  Heniy  Julius  d 
la  15B9  be  became  duke  of  Bnintwick,  ai 
aboilihed  the  Catholic  rites  in  HalbcntaJt. 
by  lay  bishops  until  1G48,  when  it  wis  [ori 
■ — -y  of  Westphalia  in— '■-  •^~-'-~ 


*Brrh;"t 

reatv  td  Tilsit  in  1801 

ihi  iii 

£? 

of  Weupbalii:  but  came  SEain 

down! 

poteon.^ 

The 

charter  from  Bidiop  Amull  In  </.-    1 

JililL 

a*"Dii' 

IS 

emperor  Henry  V,.  and 

"J.;.;,",;,;,!,';,';' 

by  tire 

>li.ts  and 

he  Swedes,  the  latter  of  whom  ii  <:.<]i  <j 

Bnnd 

nbufg. 

Lui-jnu 

>  H  Holbtribsil  {1S37J 

Hulbtr 

urffd 

llut^  11.    ■;-■<! 

);  StheHcr.  Inirhiirini  und  Lrreiu 

'    "thmidi,  Urt^ninUili  drr  SlaJl  llaiiitrsuili  lll.iii. 

-MSB,  a'wtapoa  consislin 
lick  and  having  an  elongated  pi 


HALBBHT,  HAtBEUi  ci 


length.    The  utiUty  of  such  a 

»eApoi>  in  the  • 

arsdtbeUter 

middle  ages  by  in  this,  that  i 

gave 

the  foot  wldier  the  means 

0(  dealing  with  an  armoured  m 

horaeback. 

The  pike  could 

do  no  more  thin  keep  the  ho» 

at  a  diiian 

-e.  ThU  ensured 

security  for  the  foot  soldier  bu 

tdid 

not  enable 

him  10  slrike  a 

monal  blow,  for  which  firstly 

g-bandlfd 

and  secondly  a 

powerful  weapon,  capable  of 

triki 

g  a  heavy 

cleaving  blow, 

was  required.     Several  differe 

to  these  requirements  are  des 

ribed 

and  illus 

wiUbenoticidthalthethn.sli 

g  pike  is  almost 

Iways  combined 

with  the  cutling-biU  hook  or 

aie-h 

ad,  so  tha 

the  iMdividuil 

le  by  a  mounted  opponent 


ts  object 


ill  be  noli 


inlly 


firearms,  the  pike  or  thrusting  element  gradually  displaces  the 

at  the  court  halberlg  and  paitiuns  of  Ihe  late  16th  and  early 
i7lh  cenluriet  and  the  so-called  "balbert"  ol  the  infantry 
officer  and  sciseant  in  the  i8th,  whicb  can  scarcity  be  classed 
even  u  partiuns. 

Fig*.  1-6  represent  types  of  these  long  cutting,  cut  and  thrust 

clearness.  Tbe  most  primitive  is  tbe  wnlgi  (fig.  i).  which  is 
simply  a  heavy  cleaver  on  a  pole,  with  a  point  added.  The  neit 
form,  the  jiioniK  or  juiiarm*  (fig.  a),  appears  in  infinite  variety 
but  is  always  distinguished  from  voulgefl,  0ic.  by  the  hook, 
whirh  was  used  to  pull  down  mounted  mei^,  and  geoerally 
Ksemblea  tbe  igricullucal  bill-hook  of  to-day.  The  flaitf 
(Gc.  i  '» lite  Gernua)  ia  s  broad,  heavy,  (lightly  cuivcd  iwocd- 


blade  on  a  stave:  it  is  ofien  combined  with  the  booko]  gjurt 
as  a  ilahe-tisarwu  (fig.  4.  Burgundiao,  about  1480).  A  fum 
miet  is  shown  in  fig.  s  (Swiss.  i4lb  ceotury). 

The  weapon  best  known  to  Englishmen  is  tbe  HO,  which  ■ 
originally  a  sort  ol  scyihe-blade,  sharp  o 
(whereas   the  glaive    has 

best-known  (orm  it  should 
be  called  a  bill-gisarme 
{6g.fi).   The^a-liio«,ron- 

deveioped  nilurally  from 
the    earlier    type*.     The 


nation    of   spear  and   aie.     In    the   halberta    the   an 

Tiinato,  as  the  examples  (fig.  10,  Swiss,  early  isth 
y;fig.  ir,  Swiss,' middle  i6tb  century;  and  fig-  11,  German 
halbert  of  the  same  period  as  fig.  11)  sbov.  Id  Ihe 
re  imponuit,  tbe  axe-beads  being 


.0  Utile 


il  feal 


German  qiccimen  (fig.  g,  161  j)  shows  how  this  wj 

by  tbe  broadening  of  the  spear-head,  the  edges  td  which  in  such 

weapons  were  sharpened-     Fig.  8,  a  service  weapon  of  simple 

developed  tbe  rawnr  (fig,  7),  a.parliian  with  a  very  long  and 
narrow  point,  like  tbe  blade  of  a  npier,  and  with  fork-like  [hd- 
iections  Intended  to  act  as  "sword-breakers,"  instead  ol  tbe 
atrophied  aie-heads  of  the  pailiian  proper. 

The  halbert  played  almost  as  conapicuout  1  part  in  the  military 
history  of  Middle  Europe  during  Ibe  ijlb  aod  early  iMb  centuiia 


ichet,  in  his  Origiiui  des  digitila^  printed  ia  1600, 
that  Louis  XI.  of  France  ordered  certain  new  weapons 
called  kalldtarda  to  be  m*de  at  Angers  and  other  pJacei  in 
The  Swiss  had  a  mined  armament  of  pikes  and  halberu 
\  battle  ol  Moral  in  1476.  In  the  ijth  and  i6th  cis- 
ihe  halberts  became  larger,  and  the  blades  wen  formed 
ny  varieties  of  shape,  often  engraved,  inlaid,  or  pierced 
^n  work,  and  exquisitely  finished  as  works  of  ait.  This 
<n  was  in  use  in  England  from  the  reign  of  Heniy  \TL 
reign  of  George  III,,  when  it  was  still  carried  (lluugfa  in 
it  had  certainly  lost  its  original  characterBtka,  and  had 
le  half  partizan  and  half  pike)  by  sergeants  in  the  guards 
iher  injarliy  regiments.  It  is  stQl  retained  as  the  symbol 
hority  borne  before  the  macerates  on  public  occasiotu 
le  of  the  burghs  of  Scotland.  The  Lochaber  axe  may  be 
called  a  species  of  halbert  furnished  with  1  book  on  the  A>d  of 
the  stafl  at  tbe  back  of  the  blade.  The  godendag  (Fr.  garfead^ 
is  the  Fleniisb  name  of  tbe  halbert  in  its  original  form. 

The  derivation  of  the  word  is  as  folkm.  Tbe  O.  Fr.  kUetvde, 
ol  which  the  En^ish  ^'  halberd,"  *'  halbert,"  b  an  adaptation, 
was  itself  adapted  from  tbe  M.H.C.  Mmbarie,  mod.  HdMoit; 
the  wcond  part  b  the  O.H.G.  haria  or  tarla.  broad-axe.  probaUy 
the  tame  word  aa  Barf,  beard,  and  so  called  from  its  shape; 
the  fint  part  ia  either  Mm.  handle,  cf.  "  helm,"  liUer  of  a  ship, 
the  word  meaning  "  hafted  axe."  or  else  kdm,  hcbnet,  an  aie 

word  >*  representing  a  Ger.  luUttxait,  half-axc;  tbe  t^ 
Getous  form  sbom  this  to  be  an  eironcsus  guess. 


HALDANE,  J,  A.— HALDEMAN 


831 


HAtDANB.  JAMES  ALEXANDER  (X768-X851),  Scottish 
divine,  the  younger  son  of  Captain  James  Haldane  of  Airthrey 
House,  Stirlingshire,  was  bom  at  Dundee  on  the  Z4th  of  July 
X768.  Educated  first  at  Dundee  and  afterwards  at  the  high 
school  and  university  of  Edinburgh,  at  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
joined  the  "  Duke  of  Montrose  "  East  Indiaman  as  a  midship- 
man. After  four  voyages  to  India  he  was  nominated  to  the 
command  of  the  "  Melville  Castle  "  in  the  summer  of  1793; 
but  having  during  a  long  and  unexpected  detention  of  his  ship 
begun  a  careful  study  of  the  Bible,  and  also  come  under  the 
evangelical  influence  of  David  Bogue  of  Gosport,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  he  abruptly  resolved 
to  quit  the  naval  profession  for  a  religious  Ufe,  and  returned  to 
Scotland  before  his  ship  had  saited.  About  the  year  1796  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  celebrated  evangelical  divine, 
Charles  Simeon  of  Cambridge,  in  whose  society  he  made  several 
tours  through  Scotland,  endeavouring  by  tract-distribution 
and  other  means  to  awaken  others  to  some  of  that  interest  in 
religious  subjects  which  he  himself  so  strongly  felt.  la  May 
1797  be  preached  his  first  sermon,  at  Gilmerton  near  Edinburgh, 
with  encouraging  success.  In  the  same  year  he  established  a 
non-sectarian  organization  for  tract  distribution  and  lay  preach- 
ing called  the  "  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  at 
Home."  During  the  next  few  years  he  made  repeated  missionary 
journeys,  preaching  wherever  he  could  obtain  hearers,  and 
generally  in  the  open  air.  Not  originally  dbloyal  to  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  he  was  gradually  driven  by  the  hostility  of  the 
Assembly  and  the  exigencies  of  his  position  into  separation. 
In  1799  he  was  ordained  as  pastor  of  a  large  Independent  con- 
gregation in  Edinburgh.  This  was  the  first  congregational  church 
known  by  that  name  in  Scotland.  In  1801  a  permanent  building 
replaced  the  circus  in  which  the  congregation  had  at  first  met. 
To  this  church  he  continued  to  minister  gratuitously  for  more 
than  fifty  years.  In  1808  he  made  public  avowal  of  his  conversion 
to  Bapt  ist  views.  As  advancing  years  compelled  him  to  withdraw 
from  the  more  exhausting  labours  of  itineracy  and  open-air 
preaching,  he  sought  more  and  more  to  influence  the  discussion 
of  current  religious  and  theological  questions  by  means  of  the 
press.   He  died  on  the  8th  of  February  1851. 

His  son,  Daniel  Rutherford  Haloanc  (1824-1887),  by  his 

second  wife,  a  daughter  of  Professor  Daniel  Rutherford,  was  a 

prominent  Scottish  physician,  who  became  president  of  the 

Edinburgh  College  of  Physicians. 

Amone  J;  A.  Haldane's  numerous  contributions  to  current  theo- 
logical discussions  were:  The  Duty  of  Christian  Forbearance  in 
Regard  to  Points  of  Church  Order  (181 1) ;  Strictures  on  a  Publication 
ufon  Primitive  Christianity  by  Mr  John  Walher  (1819);  Refutation 
of  Edward  Irving' s  Herettcaf  Doctrines  respecting  the  Person  and 
Atonement  of  Jesus  Christ.  Hii  Observations  on  universal  Pardon^ 
Ac.,  was  a  contribution  to  the  controversy  regarding  the  views  of 
Thomas  Erskine  of  Linlathen  and  Campbell  of  Row;  Man's  Re- 
sponsibility (1842)  is  a  reply  to  Howard  Hinton  on  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  Atonement.  He  also  published:  Journal  of  a  Tour 
in  the  North;  Early  Instruction  Commended  (1801);  Views  of  the 
Social  Worship  of  the  First  Churches  (1805):  The  Doctrine  and  Duty 
of  Self- Examination  (1806):  The  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement  (1845); 
Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Calattans  (1848). 

HALDANE,  RICHARD  BURDON  (1856-  ).  British  states- 
man and  philosopher,  was  the  third  son  of  Robert  Haldane  of 
Cloandcn,  Perthshire,  a  writer  to  the  signet,  and  nephew  of 
J.  S.  Burdon-Sanderson.  He  was  a  grand-nephew  of  the  Scottish 
divines  J.  A.  and  Robert  Haldane.  He  was  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh Academy  and  the  universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Gdttingen, 
where  he  studied  philosophy  under  Lotze.  He  took  first-class 
honours  in  philosophy  at  Edinburgh,  and  was  Gray  scholar  and 
Ferguson  scholar  in  philosophy  of  the  four  Scottish  Universities 
(1876).  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1879,  and  so  early  as  1890 
became  a  queen's  counsel.  In  1885  he  entered  parliament  as 
liberal  member  for  Haddingtonshire,  for  which  he  was  re-elected 
continuously  up  to  and  including  1910.  He  was  included  in 
1905  in  Sir  H.  Campbell-Bannerman's  cabinet  as  secretary  for 
war,  and  was  the  author  of  the  important  scheme  for  the  re- 
organization of  the  British  army,  by  which  the  militia  and  the 
volunteer  forces  were  replaced  by  a  single  territorial  force. 


Though  always  known  as  one  of  the  ablest  men  of  the  Liberal 
party  and  conspicuous  during  the  Boer  War  of  1899-1902^  as 
a  Liberal  Imperialist,  the  choice  of  Mr  Haldane  for  the  task  of 
thinking  out  a  new  army  organization  on  business  lines  had 
struck  many  people  as  curious.  Besides  being  a  chancery 
lawyer,  he  was  more  particularly  a  philosopher,  conspicuous  for 
his  knowledge  of  Hegelian  meUphysics.  But  with  German  philo- 
sophy he  had  also  the  German  sense  of  thoroughness  and  system, 
and  his  scheme,  while  it  was  much  criticized,  was  recognized 
as  the  best  that  could  be  done  with  a  voluntary  army.  Mr 
Haldane's  chief  literary  publicaUons  were:  Life  of  Adam  Smith 
(1887);  Education  and  Empire  (1902);  The  Pathway  to  Reality 
(1903).  He  also  transited,  jointly  with  J.  Kemp,  Schopen- 
hauer's Die  Welt  ah  WiUe  %nd  VorsteUung  (Tke  Worldas  Wilt  and 
Idea,  3  vols.,  X883-1886). 

HALDANE.  ROBERT  <x764-i842),  Scottish  divine,  elder 
brother  of  J.  A.  Haldane  (7.9.),  was  bom  in  London  on  the 
28th  of  February  X764.  After  attending  classes  in  the  Dundee 
grammar  school  and  in  the  high  school  and  university  of  Edin- 
burgh in  X780,  he  joined  H.M.S.  "  Monarch,"  of  which  his  uncle 
Lord  Duncan  was  at  that  time  in  command,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  transferred  to  the  "  Foudroyant,"  on  board  of  which, 
during  the  night  engagement  with  the  "  Pegase,"  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself.  Haldane  was  afterwards  present  at  the 
relief  of  Gibraltar,  but  at  the  peace  of  1783  he  finally  left  the 
navy,  and  soon  afterwards  settled  on  his  estate  of  Airthreyf  near 
Stirling.  He  put  himself  under  the  tuition  of  David  Bogue  of 
Gosport  and  carried  away  deep  impressions  from  his  academy. 
The  earlier  phases  of  the  French  Revolution  excited  his  deepest 
S3rmpathy,  a  sympathy  which  induced  him  to  avow  his  strong 
disapproval  of  the  war  with  France.  As  his  over-sanguine  visions 
of  a  new  order  of  things  to  be  ushered  in  by  political  change 
disappeared,  he  began  to  direct  his  thoughU  to  religious  subjects. 
Resolving  to  devote  himself  and  his  means  wholly  to  the  advance- 
ment of  Christianity,  his  first  proposal  for  that  end,  made  in 
X796,  was  to  organize  a  vast  mission  to  Bengal,  of  which  he  was 
to  provide  the  entire  expense;  with  this  view  the  greater  part 
of  his  estate  was  sold,  but  the  East  India  Company  refused  to 
sanction  the  scheme,  which  therefore  had  to  be  abandoned. 
In  December  X797  he  joined  his  brother  and  some  others  in  the 
formation  of  the  "  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  at 
Home,"  in  building  chapels  or  "  tabernacles  "  for  congregations, 
in  supporting  missionaries,  and  in  maintaining  institutions  for 
the  education  of  young  men  to  cany  on  the  work  of  evangeliza- 
tion. He  is  said  to  have  spent  more  than  £70,000  in  the  course  of 
the  following  twelve  years  (X798-1810).  He  also  initiated  a 
plan  for  evangelizing  Africa  by  bringing  over  native  children 
to  be  trained  as  Christian  teachers  to  their  own  countrymen. 
In  x8x6  he  visited  the  continent,  and  first  at  Geneva  and  after- 
wards in  Montauban  (181 7)  he  lectured  and  interviewed  large 
numbers  of  theological  students  with  remarkable  effect;  among 
them  were  Malan,  Monodand  Merle  d'Aubign^.  Returning  to 
Scotland  in  X819,  he  lived  partly  on  his  estate  of  Auchengray 
and  partly  in  Edinburgh,  and  like  his  brother  took  an  aaive  part, 
chiefly  through  the  press,  in  many  of  the  religious  controversies 
of  the  time.   He  died  on  the  xsth  of  December  X842. 

In  1816  he  published  a  work  on  the  Evidences  and  Authority  of 
Divine  Revelation,  and  in  1819  the  subsUnce  of  his  theological 

Erelcctions  in  a  Commentaire  sur  VEpUre  aux  Remains.  Among 
is  later  writings,  besides  numerous  pamphlets  on  what  was  known 
as  "  the  Apocrypha  controversy,"  arc  a  treatise  On  the  Inspiration 
of  Scripture  (1628),  which  has  passed  through  many  editions,  and 
a  bter  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (1835).  which  has  been 
frequently  reprinted,  and  has  been  translated  into  French  and 
German. 

See  Memoirs  of  R,  and  J.  A.  Haldane,  by  Alexander  Haldane 
(1852). 

HALDBMAN,  SAMUEL  STEHMAN  (181 2-1880),  American 
naturalist  and  philologist,  was  born  on  the  X2th  of  August  1812 
at  Locust  Grove,  Pa.  He  was  educated  at  Dickinson  College, 
and  in  1851  was  appointed  professor  of  the  natural  sciences  in 
the  university  of  Pennsylvania.  In  i8s5  be  went  to  Delaware 
College,  where  he  filled  the  same  position,  but  in  X869  he 
returned  to  the  university  of  Pennsylvania  as  professor  of 


Sja 


comparative  philolagy.aDd  remained  ihm  till  bii  duth.  vhich 
occuiTtd  *t  Chickin,  Pa.,  on  the  loih  of  Seplember  iSSo.  Hu 
wiilinet  Include  Fraitmirr  Unisain  UoBmto  cf  Ike  Utiiud 
Slalcs  (1840);  Zooleiital  Cmlribuiiimt  (iB<5-i8j]l;  Analytic 
Orlhapafiy  ((S6a)i  TBurt  ef  a  CAtjj  Knigkl  (1864);  Pcnn- 
lylvania  Dalch,  a  Dialat  af  Scali  Ccrnutn  *nlk  an  /H/Hiian  g/ 
£«s;jj*  (.S73);  0»l/inu  fl/  Eiymoloa  (.877);  and  ICwJ- 
£i.ttJiic{(ieei). 

HALDIXAND,  SIR  PRBDEHICK  (1718-1791).  British  Kcnenl 
and  idminislmtor,  was  bom  at  Yvcidun,  Ncuch&ld,  SwiUirbnd, 
ODlhc  I  lib  of  AuEust  171S,  of  Huguenot  dncent.  Alter  Krvin( 
in  the  armiei  of  Sardinia.  Ruuia  and  Holland,  he  entered 
British  lervice  in  1754,  and  sutnequenlly  niiuraliud  as  an 
Engiisb  dti«a.     During  the  Seven  Yean'  Wat  he  seivtd  in 

the  taking  of  Monlital  (1760).  Afl«  filling  with  ciedil  teveial 
admioisltalive  positiDns  In  Canada,  Florida  and  New  York, 
in  1778  he  lUFcrefled  Sii  Guy  Cartcton  (arierwaids  Lord  I>oi- 

Fiench  sympalhiiers  with  the  Americans  bavc  incurred 
eimvaganl  strictures  from  French-Canadian  historians,  but  he 
really  showed  moderation  as  weU  ai  energy.  In  1785  he  re- 
lumed 10  London.     He  died  at  his  binbptace  on  Ibe  jth  of 


HALE.  EDWARO  BVeSEH  (1811-1909),  American  aulbor, 
iras  born  in  Boston  on  the  3rd  ol  April  1811,  son  of  Nathan  Hale 
(i784-iS63),proprietoi  and  editor  of  the  Boston  Z>iiify^tfKrlii(r, 

nephew  of  Nathan  Hale,  the  martyr  spy.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard  in  iSjq;  was  pastoi  of  the  church  of  the  Unity, 
Worcester,  Massachusetts,  in  1846-1836,  and  of  the  South 
Congregational  {Unitarian)  church,  Boston,  in  1836-1899;  and 
le  chaplain  of  the  United  Slatea  Sei  


HALDIMAND— HALE,  J,  P. 

SytariitndOlttrHem^,  ::■ 


It  Roxb 


),  Mas 


>n  the  ic 


jfjuni 


wspapets 


magaiines.     He  nas  an  assistant  editor  ol  (he 
Adstrliitr,  and  edited  the  CMilia*  EiamineT,  Old 
(which  he  assisied  in  founding  in  18691  in  iSjS  it  was  : 
Striiner'i  Uatasint).  Lend  a  Hand  (founded  by  him  in 

merged  in  the  CAo  '  *      ~ 

Record;  and  he  w 
booVs— fiction,  Ira 
He  first  came  it 
Iributed  the  short  story  "  My  Double  and  How  H 

'     '"        He  soon  pubti^d  in   the  01 


DaUy 

d  Nn 

rgedin 

36  and 

Lend  a  Hand 

01  or  editor  of  more  than  uity 

i,  biography  and  histoiy. 


Me' 


Ihouta  Counltj!  "  (i86j),  which  d 
Union  cause  in  the  North,  and  in  wh 
ic  ules,  be  employed  a 
Ifd  hb  readets  lo  suppose  1I 


!0f  h 


I  others  as  "  The  Rag-Man 
and  the  Rag-Woman  "  and  "  The  Skeleton  in  the  Closet,'  gave 
bim  a  prominent  position  amoiig  the  shon-story  writers  of 
America.  The  story  Te*  Tima  Om  11  Ten  (1870),  with  its  hero 
Hairy  Wadswonh.  and  itt  motto,  first  enunciated  in  1869  in  bis 
Lowell  Institute  lectures,  "  Look  up  aod  not  down,  look  fotward 
and  not  back,  look  out  and  not  in,  and  lend  a  band,"  led  to  the 
formation  amotig  young  people  of  "  Lend-a-Hand  Clubs," 
"  Look-up  Legions  "  and  "  Harry  Wadswotlh  Clubs."  Out  of 
the  romantic  WiWensian  story  /■  Hii  Name  (1873)  there 
similarly  grew  several  other  oiganiiationa  foi  religious  work, 
such  as  "  King's  Daugbteis."  and  "  King's  Sons," 

tH^afcri  (1M9);  ^u1b<<°'b^''iihI  Su^  SUrui  (1870): 


.is  Narraliv 
Rn,  Edwar< 


wl  (Ifiv.  /•.'■.■  Vtari  (pociu.  1891):  fti', 
(l«99).  ;i-  ■-  '■  ^  {I'ta'^:  FrajrrtH/rrH 
t   UnUi  '),  and   Tam-ai-Ho^  Jrm 

iicd  L,  ,  a} EMfland  (i«ul.jiid  rp 


a  IviBcipal  w 


o/a  JitHiited  Yan  lijmi) 
volumes,  appojtd  in  1899-1901. 

HALS,  HORATIO  (1817-1806),  America 
bom  in  Newport,  New  Hampshire,  on  the  jrdof  Ua;  i9i7  He 
was  the  ion  of  David  Hale,  a  lawyer,  and  of  Saiali  Jcwpbi  Hi> 
( 1 790-1879].  a  popular  poet,  who,  besides  editing  GadrfiLMyi 
Uaiaiiu  for  many  years  and  publishing  some  epbenrral  bisis 
is  supposed  to  have  written  the  veraes  "  Hary  had  a  liiilelamb." 
and  to  have  been  the  fiiit  to  suggrsl  the  national  obBrrvaeiir  ei 
Thanksgiving  Day.  The  son  graduated  in  igjj  at  H^^^^^i 
and  during  18J8-184J  waa  philologisl  to  the  United  i'.ua 
Eiploring  Eipedilion,  which  under  CiplainChailBW3ksu  -i 
around  the  vrorld.  Of  the  reports  ol  that  eipediiian  Hue 
prepared  the  Hitb  volume,  Elkmiciipkj  amd  Fkiltlira  (!!«  . 
which  is  said  to  have  ''  laid  the  fouiidaiions  of  the  eikb]gTi:^-T 
of  Folynoia."  He  was  admitted  to  the  Chicago  bar  ia  j.-;;. 
and  in  the  Following  year  removed  10  Clinton,  Ontaru,  Ci:aci. 
where  he  practised  hia  profession,  and  where  oo  IW  if;h  tA 
December  1896  he  died.  He  made  many  valBablecDom'bc:;o« 
to  the  science  of  elhtialogy,  attiacling  atteutioD  particuLarl)  L  J 

his  theoiy  of  the  origjo  of  the  divenitia  of  t an  laii|:u«ei 

and  dialects— a  theory  suggested  by  hi*  study  oi  '  c^l  d- 
languages,"  or  the  languages  invented  by  liitk  dukbea.  He 
also  empbauzed  the  importance  of  languages  as  tesu  of  bh»1 
capacity  and  as  "  criteria  for  the  dassibcalioa  of  human  grjc^." 
He  was,  moreover,  the  first  to  discover  Ihi t  tlwTutelac  ct  Vaf  ^> 
belonged  to  the  Siouan  family,  and  to  identify  Ibe  Clierric? 
IS  a  member  of  the  Icoquoaan  family  of  tpivcb.  Besds  ar.  -^ 
numerous  magazine  articles,  he  read  a  nuabei  c<  vahubk  pif*" 
before  learned  sociclies.  These  include:  Imdiam  Miptij^  ;i 
Etidmied  by  Unpuft  (1881);  The  Orip*  <4  Lamtatta  ^-i  ^ 
^ii/iji.i(yo/5#eoi.iitMoii(i886);  J*eDr.rfB*m«(,/L*.^.. 
(iSSB);  and  Unciutt  aa  a  Tea  ej  MenUl  Cafantr.-  BriM,  ^t 
AllempI  u  DrmtatlraU  Ikt  Tnt  Basil  of  lafhaj<<n_i  <isi^ 
Tie  alto  edited  for  Brinltm's  "  Library  of  Aboaiginal  LiUfucre. ' 
the  /«(,«»  Bock  0/  Rile,  (iSSj). 

HALB,JOHNPARKER(iBo6-ig73),Anwricuiitalesnun  i-j 
bom  at  Rochester,  New  Hampshire,  OD  the  31st  a<  Uinh  :>.-' 
He  graduated  at  Bowddn  College  in  iS>7.  ns  admitied  Ic  •.■^ 
New  Hampsliire  bar  in  1830,  waa  a  membei  of  the  stau  Ha»  ;- 
Reptestnialives  In  1831,  and  from  1834  to  iS«i  wtt  li  .: 
Slates  district  altomey  for  New  Hampshire.  In  ig^j-iiji  v: 
was  a  Democratic  member  of  the  Bational  Haae  ei  Ri,--!- 
sentatives,  and,  though  his  eamest  co-opsalioa  with  Jci.- 
Quincy  Adams  in  securing  the  repeal  o<  the  "  gag  tuk  '  dim-rf 
against  the  piesentalion  to  Congrets  et  iiiii  ilmij  pctiTK^ 
nlrangcd  bim  from  the  leaden  of  his  parly,  be  wu  raxrmzu:t* 
without  opposition.  In  January  iSaj,  bowevee,  W  retiiwi!  .s 
a  pubUc  statement  to  obey  a  rtsolulioo  (iSth  of  IVnvber  i*-ii' 
of  the  slate  legislature  directing  him  and  Us  New  HaKpei  -■ 
associates  in  Congiss  to  support  the^aosc  of  Ihr  ■mBru;>.i 
ol  Texas,  a  Democniic  raeasore  which  Hale  regirited  »  tr.« 
distinctively  in  the  intettjt  of  slavery.  Tbe  Dcsiucraik  i:ii 
convention  was  a<  once  reanembled.  Hale  was  iamaxcrA.  t^ 
his  nomination  withdrawn.  In  the  eleclian  whicb  tnihmd  lU^ 
lan  independently,  and.  ilthou^  Ibe  Dennmic  anaii-a 
Wert  elected  in  the  other  three  fnnjrw*MH*t  districts  oi  '-^ 
slate,  his  vote  was  large  enough  to  prevent  any  cboKC  tt™  "S^'* 
a  maiorily  was  necessary)  in  his  own.  Hale  then  sel  oo<  11  -^ 
face  o[  apparently  hopeless  odds  to  win  ovei  bis  gate  10  ike  if-  - 
slavery  cause.     The  lemartlMe  canvaia  which  ha  coB^icu^ 


HALE,  SIR  M.— HALE,  NATHAN 


833 


is  known  in  the  history  of  New  Hampshire  as  the  "  Hale  Storm 
of  1845."  The  election  resulted  in  the  choice  of  a  legislature 
controlled  by  the  Whigs  and  the  independent  Democrats,  he 
himself  being  chosen  as  a  member  of  the  state  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, of  which  in  1846  he  was  speaker.  He  is  remembered, 
however,  chiefly  for  his  long  service  in  the  United  States  Senate, 
of  which  he  was  a  member  from  1847  to  1853  and  again  from 
1855  to  1865.  At  first  he  was  the  only  out-and-out  anti-slavery 
senator, — he  alone  prevented  the  vote  of  thanks  to  General  Taylor 
and  General  Scott  for  their  Mexican  war  victories  from  being  made 
unanimous  in  the  Senate  (February  1848) — but  in  1849  Salmon 
P.  Chase  and  William  H.  Seward,  aiid  in  1851  Charles  Sumner 
joined  him,  and  the  anti-slavery  cause  became  for  the  first  time 
a  force  to  be  reckoned  with  in  that  body.  In  October  1847  he  had 
been  nominated  for  president  by  the  Liberty  party,  but  he 
withdrew  in  favour  of  Martin  Van  Burcn,  the  Free  Soil  candidate, 
in  1848.  In  185 1  he  was  senior  counsel  for  the  rescuers  of  the 
slave  Shadrach  in  Boston.  In  1852  he  was  the  Free  Soil  can- 
didate for  the  presidency,  but  received  only  156,149  votes.  In 
1850  he  secured  the  abolition  of  flogging  in  the  U.S.  navy, 
and  through  his  efforts  in  1863  the  spirit  ration  in  the  navy  was 
abolished.  He  was  one  of  the  organisers  of  the  Republican 
party,  and  during  the  Civil  War  was  an  eloquent  supporter  of 
the  Union  and  chairman  of  the  Senate  naval  committee.  From 
1865  to  1869  he  was  United  States  minister  to  Spain.  He  died  at 
Dover,  New  Hampshire,  on  the  19th  of  December  1873.  A 
statue  of  Hale,  presented  by  his  son-in-law  William  Eaton 
Chandler  (b.  1835),  U.S.  senator  from  New  Hampshire  in 
X887-1901,  was  erected  in  front  of  the  Capitol  in  Concord,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1893. 

HALE,  SIR  MATTHEW  (1609-1676),'  lord  chief  justice  of 
England,  was  bom  on  the  ist  of  November  1609  at  Alderley 
in  Gloucestershu'e,  where  his  father,  a  retired  barrister,  had  a 
small  estate.  His  paternal  grandfather  was  a  rich  clothier  of 
Wotton-under-Edge;  on  his  mother's  side  he  was  connected 
with  the  noble  family  of  the  Poyntzes  of  Acton.  Left  an  orphan 
when  five  years  old,  he  was  placed  by  his  guardian  under  the 
care  of  the  Puritan  vicar  of  Wotton-under-Edge,  with  whom  he 
remained  till  he  attained  his  sixteenth  year,  when  he  entered 
Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford.  At  Oxford,  Hale  studied  for  several 
terms  with  a  view  to  holy  orders,  but  suddenly  there  came  a 
change.  The  diligent  student,  at  first  attracted  by  a  company 
of  strolling  layers,  threw  aside  his  studies,  and  plunged  care- 
lessly into  gay  society.  He  soon  decided  to  change  his  profession ; 
and  resolved  to  tr^  a  pike  as  a  soldier  under  the  prince  of 
Orange  in  the  Low  Countries.  Before  going  abroad,  however. 
Hale  found  himself  obliged  to  proceed  to  London  in  order  to  give 
instructions  for  his  defence  in  a  legal  action  which  threatened 
to  deprive  him  of  his  patrimony.  His  leading  counsel  was  the 
celebrated  Serjeant  Glanville  (1586-1661),  who,  perceiving  in  the 
acuteness  and  sagacity  of  his  youthful  dient  a  peculiar  fitness 
for  the  legal  fwofession,  succeeded,  with  much  difficulty, .in 
inducing  him  to  renounce  his  military  for  a  legal  career,  and  on 
the  8th  of  Novembo- 1639  Hale  became  a  member  of  the  honour- 
able society  of  Lincoln's  Inn. 

He  immediately  resumed  his  habits  of  intense  application. 
The  rules  which  he  laid  down  for  himself,  and  which  are  still 
extant  in  his  handwriting,  prescribe  sixteen  hours  a  day  of  close 
application,  and  prove,  not  only  the  great  mental  power,  but 
ako  the  extraordinary  physical  strength  he  niust  have  possessed, 
and  for  which  indeed,  during  his  residence  at  the  university, 
he  had  been  remarkable.  During  the  period  allotted  to  his 
pfdiminary  studies,  he  read  over  and  over  again  all  the  year- 
books, reports,  and  law  treatises  in  print,  and  at  the  Tower  of 
London  and  other  antiquarian  repositories  examined  and  care* 
fully  studied  the  records  from  the  foundation  of  the  English 
monarchy  down  to  his  own  time.  But  Hale  did  not  confine 
himself  to  law.  He  dedicated  no  small  portion  of  his  time  to 
the  study  of  pure  mathematics,  to  investigations  in  physics  and 
chemistry,  and  even  to  anatomy  and  architecture;  and  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  this  varied  learning  enhanced  considerably 
the  value  of  many  of  his  judicial  dedsiona. 

XB     15 


Hale  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1637,  and  almost  at  once  found 
himself  in  full  practice.  Though  neither  a  fluent  speaker  nor 
bold  pleader,  in  a  very  few  years  he  was  at  the  head  of  his 
profession.  He  entered  public  life  at  perhaps  the  most  critical 
period  of  English  history.  Two  parties  were  contending  in 
the  state,  and  their  ol»tinacy  could  not  fail  to  produce  a  most 
direful  collision.  But  amidst*  the  confusion  Hale  steered  a  middle 
course,  rising  in  reputation,  and  an  object  of  solicitation  from 
both  parties.  Taking  Ppmponius  Atticus  as  his  political  model, 
he  was  persuaded  that  a  man,  a  lawyer  and  a  judge  could  best 
serve  his  country  and  benefit  his  countrymen  by  holding  aloof 
from  partisanship  and  its  violent  prejudices,  which  are  so  apt 
to  distort  and  confuse  the  judgment.  But  he  is  best  vindicated 
from  the  charges  of  selfishness  and  cowardice  by  the  thoughts 
and  meditations  contained  in  his  private  diaries  and  papers, 
where  the  purity  and  honour  of  his  motives  are  clearly  seen.  It 
ha»  been  said,  but  without  certainty,  that  Hale  was  engaged  as 
coimsd  for  the  earl  of  Strafford;  be  certainly  acted  for  Arch- 
bishop Laud,  Lord  Maguire,  Christopher  Love,  the  duke  of 
Hamilton  and  others.  It  is  also  said  that  he  was  ready  to  plead 
on  the  side  of  Charles  I.  had  that  monarch  submitted  to  the 
court.  The  parliament  having  gained  the  ascendancy.  Hale 
signed  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  famous  assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster:  in  1644;  but 
although  he  would  undoubtedly  have  preferred  a  Presbyterian 
form  of  church  government,  he  had  no  serious  objection  to  the 
system  of  modified  Episcopacy  proposed  by  Usher.  Consistently 
with  his  desire  to  remain  neutral,  Hale  took  the  engagement  to 
the  Commonwealth  as  he  bad  done  to  the  king,  and  in  1653, 
already  Serjeant,  he  became  a  judge  in  the  court  of  common  pleas. 
Two  years  afterwards  he  sat  in  Cromwell's  parliament  as  one  of 
the  members  for  Gloucestershire.  After  the  death  of  the  pro^ 
tector,  however,  he  declined  to  act  as  a  judge  under  Richard 
Cromwell,  although  he  represented  Oxford  in  Richard's  parlia- 
ment. At  the  Restoration  in  1660  Hale  was  very  graciously 
received  by  Charles  II.,  and  in  the  same  year  was  appointed 
chief  baron  of  the  exchequer,  and  accepted,  with  extreme 
reluctance,  the  honour  of  knighthood.  After  holding  the  oflKce 
of  chief  baron  for  eleven  years  he  was  raised  to  the  hi^er  dignity 
of  lord  chief  justice,  which  he  held  till  February  1676,  when  his 
failing  health  compelled  him  to  resign.  He  retired  to  his  native 
Alderley,  where  he  died  on  the  35th  of  December  of  the'  same 
year.  He  was  twice  married  and  survived  all  his  ten  children 
save  two. 

As  a  judge  Sir  Matthew  Hale  discharged  his  duties  with 
resolute  independence  and  careful  diligence.  His  sincere  piety 
made  him  the  intimate  friend  of  Isaac  Barrow,  Archbishop 
Tillotson,  Bishop  Wilkins  and  Bishop  Stillingfleet,  as  well 
as  of  the  Nonconformist  leader,  Richard  Baxter.  He  is  charge- 
able, however,  with  the  condemnation  and  execution  of  two  poor 
women  tried  before  him  for  witchcraft  in  1664,  a  kind  of  ju<Ucial 
murder  then  falling  under  disuse.  He  b  also  reproached  with 
having  hastened  the  execution  of  a  soldier  for  whom  he  had 
reason  to  believe  a  pardon  was  preparing. 

Of  Hale's  legal  works  the  only  two  of  importance  are  his  JJittoria 
plaeUontm  coronate  or  History  of  Uu  Pleas  of  tk$  Crown  (1736); 
and  the  History  of  Iki  Common  Lam  of  En^ni,  with  an  Analysis 
of  tk$  Law,  Ac.  (I7I3)«  Amon^  his  numerous  religious  writings  the 
Contemplations,  Morai  and  Divtne,  occupy  the  first  place.  Others  are 
The  Primitive  Origination  of  Man  (1677);  Of  the  Nature  of  Tmo 
Religion,  Ac  (1684) ;  A  Bri^ Abstract  of  the  Cknstian  Religion  (1688). 
One  of  his  most  popular  works  is  (he  collection  of  Letters  of  Admit 
to  his  Children  and  Grandchildren.   He  also  wrote  an  Essay  touching 


the  GraoHation- or  Nongratilation  of  Fluid  Bodies  (1673);  DificHes 
Nugae,  or  Observations  touching  the  Torricellian  Experiment,  ftc. 


library 
Lincoln's  Inn.    His  life  has  been  written  by  G.  Burnet  (1683) :  by 

LB.  Williams  (1835);  by  H.  Roacoe,  in  his  Lives  of  Eminent 
wyers,  in  1838;  by  Lord  Campbell,  in  his  Lives  of  the  Chief 
Justices,  in  1849;  and  by  E.  .Foss  in  his  Lives  of  the  Judges  (184ft- 
1870). 

HALE,  NATHAN  (1756-1776),  American  hero  of  the  War  of 
Independence,  was  bom  at  Coventry,  Conn.,  and  educated 

la 


834 


HALE,  W.  G.— HALES,  STEPHEN 


at  Yale,  then  becoming  a  school  teacher.  He  joined  a  Con- 
necticut zegiment  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  war,  and  served 
in  the  siege  of  Boston,  being  commissioned  a  captain  at  the 
opei^ng  of  1776.  When  Heath's  brigade  departed  for  New  York 
he  went  with  them,  and  the  tradition  is  that  he  was  one  of 
a  small  and  daring  band  who  captured  an  Eng^Ush  provision 
sloop  from  under  the  vety  guns  of  a  man-of-war.  But  on  the 
axst  of  September,  having  volunteered  to  enter  theBritish  lines  to 
obtain  information  concerning  the  enemy,  he  was  captured  in  his 
disguise  of  a  Dutch  school-teacher  and  on  the  aand  was  hanged. 
The  penalty  was  in  accordance  with  military  law,  but  young 
Hale's  act  was  a  brave  one,  and  he  has  always  been  glorified 
as  a  martyr.  Tradition  attributes  to  him  the  saying  that  he 
only  regretted  that  he  had  but  one  life  to  lose  for  his  cotmtry; 
and  it  is  said  that  his  request  for  a  Bible  and  the  services  of  a 
minister  was  refused  by  his  captors.  There  is  a  fine  statue  of 
Hale  by  Macmonnies  in  New  York. 

See  H.  P.  Johnston,  Nathan  Hale  (1901). 

HALE,  WILUAM  GARDNER  (1849-  ),  American  daasical 
Kholar,  was  born  on  the  9th  of  February  1849  in  Savannah, 
Georgia.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1870,  and 
took  a  post-graduate  course  in  philosc^hy  there  in  X874-X876; 
studied  classical  philology  at  Leipzig  and  Gdttlngen  in  1876- 
1877;  was  tutor  in  Latin  at  Harvard  from  1877  to  x88o,  and 
professor  of  Latin  in  Cornell  University  from.x88o  to  1892, 
when  he  became  professor  of  Latin  and  head  of  the  Latin  depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Chicago.  From  1894  to  X899  he  was 
Chairman  and  in  X895-X896  first  director  of  the  American  School 
of  Classical  Studies  at  Rome.  He  is  best  known  as  an  original 
teacher  on  questions  of  ^ntax.  In  The  Cum-Cotutructiens: 
Their  JBistary  and  Punctums,  which  appeared  in  CameU  Uni- 
tersity  Studies  in  Classical  Philology  (X888-X889;  and  in 
German  version  by  Neizert  in  X89X),  he  attacked  Hoffmann's 
distinction  between  absolute  and  rdative  temporal  clauses  as 
published  in  Lateinische  Zeitpartiheln  (X874);  Hoffmann  replied 
in  1891,  and  the  best  summary  of  the  controversy  is  in  Wetzel's 
Der  Streit  swischen  Hofmann  und  Hale  (1893).  Hale'wxote  also 
The  Sequence  of  Tenses  in  Latin  (1887-1888),  The  AnHdpaiory 
Subjunctive  in  Creek  and-  Latin  (1894),  and  a  Latin  Crammar 
(1903),  to  which  the  parts  on  sounds,  inflection  and  word- 
formation  were  contributed  by  Carl  Darling  Buck. 

HALEBID,  a  village  in  Mysore  state,  southern  India;  pop. 
(x90x),  1524.  The  name  means  "  old  capital,",  being  the  site  of 
Dorasamudra,  the  capital  of  the  Hoysala  dynasty  founded  early 
in  the  nth  century.  In  1310  and  again  in  xj26  it  was  taken 
and  plundered  by  the  first  Mahommedan  invader  of  southern 
India.  Two  temples,  still  standing,  though  never  completed 
and  greatly  ruined,  are  regarded  as  the  finest  examples  of  the 
ebborately  carved  Chalukyan  style  of  architecture. 
'  HALES,  or  Hayles,  JOHN  (d  X57X),  English  writer  and 
politician,  was  a  son  of  Thomas  Haln  of  Hales  Place,  Halden, 
Kent.  He  wrote  his  Highway  to  Nobility  about  X543,  and  was 
the  founder  of  a  free  school  at  Coventry  for  which  he  wrote 
Inlroductiones  ad  grammaticam.  In  political  life  Hales,  who  was 
member  of  parliament  for  Preston,  was  q;>ecially  conctfned  with 
opposing  the  enclosure  of  land,  being  the  most  active  of  the 
commissioners  appointed  in  xs43  to  redress  this  evil;  but  he 
failed  to  cany  several  remedial  measures  through  parliament. 
When  the  protector  the  duke  of  Somerset,  was  deprived  of  his 
authority  in  xs5o,  Hales  left  England  and  lived  for  some  time 
at  Strassburg  and  Frankfort,  returning  to  his  own  country  on 
the  accession  of  Elizabeth.  However  he  soon  lost  the  royal 
favour  by  writing  a  pamphlet,  A  Declaration  of  ike  Succession  of 
the  Crowne  Imperiall  of  In^nde,  which  declared  thftt  the  recent 
marriage  between  Lady  Catherine  Grey  and  Edward  Seymour, 
earl  of  Hertford,  was  legitimate,  and  asserted  that,  failixig  direct 
heirs  to  Elizabeth,  the  English  crown  should  come  to  Lady 
Catherine  as  the  descendant  of  Mary,  daughter  of  Henry  VII. 
The  author  was  imprisoned,  but  was  quickly  released,  and  died 
on  the  38th  of  December  1571.  The  Discourse  of  the  Common 
Wealf  described  as  *'one  of  the  most  informing  documents 
of  the  age,"  and  written  about  1549,  has  been   attributed 


to  Hales.    This  has  been  edited  by  E.  Lamond  (Cambrklge, 

1893). 
Hales  is  often  confused  with  another  Jchn  Hales,  who  wis 

cleric  of  the  hanaper  under  Henry  VIII.  and  his  three  imrnrdiate 

successors. 

HALES,   JOHN    (X584-X6S6),    English   scholar,    frequently 

referred  to  as  "  the  ever  memorable,"  was  bom  at  Bath  on  the 

X9th  of  April  X584,  and  was  educated  at  Corpus  Chxistx  CoUcgc, 

Oxford.    He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Merton  in  1605,  and  ini6i  2 

he  was  appointed  public  lecturer  on  Greek.    In  16x3  he  was 

made  a  fdlow  of  Eton.    Five  years  later  he  went  to  Holland,  ss 

chapUin  to  the  English  simbassador,  Sir  Dudley  Cazleton,  who 

despatched  him  to  Dort  to  report  upon  the  proceedings  of  the 

synod  then  sitting.    In  X619  he  returned  to  Eton  and  spexA  his 

time  among  his  books  and  in  the  company  of  litexaiy  men, 

among  whom  he  was  highly  reputed  for  his  conunon  sense,  his 

erudition  and  his  genial  charity*    Andrew  Marvdl  called  htm 

"  one  of  the  clearest  heads  and  besf-prepaxed  breasts  in  Christeo- 

dom."    His  eirenical  tract  entitleid  Schism  and  Sctdsmaticks 

(1636)  fell  into  the  hands  of  Archbishop  Laud,  aiMl  Haks, 

hearing  that  he  had  disapproved  of  it,  is  said  to  have  written  to 

the  prelate  a  vindication  of  his  |)06ition.    This  led  to  a  meeting, 

and  in  X639  fiales  was  made  one  of  Laud's  fh«plain5  and  abo  a 

canon  of  Windsor.  In  1642  he  was  deprived  oi  his  canoncy  by 

the  parliamentary  committee,  and  two  years  later  was  obUgcd 

to  hide  in  Eton  with  the  college  documents  and  keys.    In  1649 

he  refused  to  take  the  "Engagement"  and  was  ejected  from  his 

f dlowship.    He  then  retired  to  Buckinghamshire,  where  he  found 

a  home  with  Mrs  Salter,  the  sister  of  the  lushop  of  Salisbury 

(Brian  Duppa),  and  acted  as  tutor  to  her  son.    11m  issue  of  the 

order  against  harbouring  malignants  led  him  to  rctaxB  to  Eton. 

Here,  having  sold  his  valuable  library  at  great  sacrifice,  he  lived 

in  poverty  until  his  death  on  the  X9th  of  May  1656^ 

His  collected  works  (3  vols.)  were  edited  by  Locd  Hailes,  and 
published  in  1765. 

HALES,  STEPHEN  (x677^x76x),  English  physiologist,  chemist 
and  inventor,  was  bom  at  Bdiesboume  in  Kent  00  the  7th  or 
X7th  of  September  X677,  the  fifth  (or  sixth)  son  of  Thomas  Haks^ 
whose  faUier,  Sir  Robert  Hales,  was  created  a  baronet  by 
Charles  n.  in  x67a  In  June  1696  he  was  entered  as  a  pemJoner 
of  Benet  (now  Corpus  Christi)  College,  Cambridge,  with  the  view 
of  taking  holy  orders,  and  in  February  1703  vwas  admitted  to  a 
fellowship.  He  received  the  degree  of  master  of  arts  in  1703 
and  of  badielorof  divinity  in  X7xx.  One  of  hs  moat  intimate 
friends  was  William  Stukdey  (X687-X765)  with  wiiom  he  studied 
anatomy,  chemistry,  &c  In  X708-X709  Hales  was  presented 
to  the  perpetual  curacy  of  Teddington  in  Middlesex,  where  he 
remained  all  his  life,  notwithstanding  that  he  was  subsequently 
appointed  rector  of  Porlock  in  Somerset,  and  later  of  Fartngdoa 
in  Hampshire.  In  X717  he  was  elected  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  which  awarded  him  the  Copley  medal  in  1739.  In  1732 
he  «ras  named  one  of  a  committee  for  estabUshing  a  ccdooy  in 
Georgia,  and  the  next  year  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
divinity  from  Oxford.  He  was  appointed  almoner  to  the  princess- 
dowager  of  Wales  in  1750.  On  the  death  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane  in 
1753,  Hales  was  chosen  foreign  assoctate^rf  the  Frendi  Academy 
of  Sciences.  He  died  at  Teddington  00  the  4th  ct  Januaiy  x  761. 

Hales  is  best  known  for  his  Statical  Essays.  The  fiist  volume. 
Vegetable  Staticks  (x7a7),  contains  an  aooount  cf  nniDeroas 
experiments  in  plant-physiology— the  loss  of  water  in  planu  by 
evaporation,  the  rate  of  growth  of  shoots  and  leaves,  vaxiatioos 
in  root-force  at  different  times  ci  the  day,  Ac  Consderiag  it 
very  probable  that  plants  draw  "  throu^  their  leaves  some 
part  of  their  nourishment  from  the  air,"  he  undextocdc  ezpcri-. 
ments  to  show  in  "how  great  a  proportiiMi  air  is  wioo^t  into 
the  composition  of  animal,  vegetable  and  mineral  sobstances  **; 
though  this  "  analysis  of  the  air  "  did  not  lead  him  to  any 
very  dear  ideas  about  the  composition  of  the  atmosphere,  in  the 
course  of  his  inquiries  he  collected  gases  over  water  in  vcsaels 
separate  from  those  in  which  they  Were  generated,  and  thus  vsed 
what  was  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a"  pneumatic  tfovgiL'*  The 
second  volume  (X733)  ^^^  HaemcsUUicks,  containing  operimeats 


HALESOWEN— HALEVY,  L. 


835 


on  the  "  force  of  the  blood  "  in  various  animals,  its  rate  of 
flow,  the  capacity  of  the  different  vesseb,  &c.,  entitles  him  to  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  originators  of  experimental  physiology. 
But  he  did  not  confine  his  attention  to  abstract  inquiries.  The 
quest  of  a  solvent  for  calculus  in  the  bladder  and  kidneys  was 
pursued  by  him  as  by  others  at  the  period,  and  he  devised  a  form 
of  forceps  which,  on  the  testimony  of  John  Ranby  (1703-1773), 
sergeant-surgeon  to  George  II.,  extracted  stones  with  **  great 
case  and  readiness."  His  observations  of  the  evil  effect  of  vitiated 
air  caused  him  to  devise  a  "  ventilator  "  (a  modified  organ- 
bellows)  by  which  fresh  air  could  be  conveyed  into  gaols, 
boqritals,  ships'-holds,  fcc.;  this  apparatus  was  successful  in 
redndngthe  mortality  in  the  Savo>  prison,  and  it  was  introduced 
into  France  by  the  aid  of  H.  L.  Duhamd  du  Monceau.  Among 
other  things  Hales  invented  a  '*  sea-gauge  "  for  sounding,  and 
processes  for  distilling  fresh  from  sea  water,  for  preserving  com 
from  weevils  by  fumigation  with  brimstone,  and  for  salting 
animals  whole  by  pas^ng  brine  into  their  arteries.  W^Admoni' 
turn  to  Ike  Drinkers  of  Gin,  Brandyt  6rf.,  published  anonymously 
in  X  734,  has  been  several  times  reprinted. 

HALDOWBN*  a  market  town  in  the  Oldbnry  parliamentary 
division  of  Worcestershire,  En^and,  on  a  branch  line  of  the 
Great  Western  and  Midland  railways,  6|  m.  W.S.W.  of  Birming- 
ham. Pop.  (1901),  4057.  It  lies  in  a  pleasant  country  among 
the  eastern  foothflls  of  the  Lickey  Hills.  There  are  extensive 
iron  and  steel  manufactures.  Tlie  church  of  SS  Mary  and  John 
the  Baptist  has  rude  Norman  portions;  and  the  poet  William 
Shenstone,  buried  in  1763  in  the  churchyard,  has  a  memorial 
in  the  church.  His  delight  in  landscape  gardening  is  exemplified 
in  the  neighbouring  estate  of  the  Lmsowcs,  which  was  his 
property.  There  is  a  grammar  school  founded  in  1653,  and  in 
the  neighbourhood  is  the  Methodist  foundation  of  Bourne 
College  (1883).  Qose  to  the  town,  on  the  river  Stour,  which 
rises  in  the  vidnity ,  are  slight  ruins  of  a  Premonstratensian  abbey 
of  Early  English  date.  Within  the  parish  and  9  m.  N.W.  of 
Halesowen  is  Cradley,  with  iron  and  steel  works,  fire-clay  works 
and  a  large  nafl  and  chain  industry. 

HAUVI,  JUDAH  BEN  8AHUBL  (c.  io8s-«.  1140),  the  greatest 
Hebrew  poet  of  the  middle  ages,  was  bom  in  Tdedo  c.  1085, 
and  died  in  Palestine  after  1 140.  In  his  youth  he  wrote  Hebrew 
love  poems  of  exquisite  fancy,  and  several  of  his  Wedding  Odes 
are  included  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Synagogue.  The  mystical 
connexion  b^ween  marital  affection  and  the  love  of  God  had, 
in  the  view  of  older  exegesis,  already  expressed  itself  in  the 
scriptural  Soni  ef  Songs  and  Judah  Halevi  used  this  book  as  his 
model.  In  th^  aq>ect  of  his  work  he  found  inspiration  also  in 
Arabic  predecessors.  The  second  period  of  hb  literary  career 
was  devoted  to  more  serious  pursuits.  He  wrote  a  philosophical 
dialogue  in  five  books,  called  the  Cutari,  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Hirschfdd.  This  book  bases  itself  on  thr 
historicalfact  that  the  Crimean  Kingdom  of  the  Khazars  adopted 
Judaism,  and  the  Hebrew  poet-philosopher  describes  what  he 
conceives  to  be  the  steps  by  which  the  Khaxar  king  satisfied 
himself  as  to  the  claims  of  Judaism.  Like  many  other  medieval 
JewUi  authors,  Judah  Halevi  was  a  physician.  His  real  fame 
depends  on  his  liturgical  hymns,  which  are  the  finest  written  in 
Hebrew  since  the  Psalter,  and  are  extensively  used  in  the 
Scptardic  rite.  A  striking  feature  of  his  thought  was  his  devotion 
to  Jerusalem.  To  the  love  of  the  Holy  City  he  devoted  his 
noblest  genius,  and  he  wrote  some  memorable  Odes  to  Zion,  which 
have  been  commeo&orated  by  Heine,  and  doubly  appreciated 
recently  under  the  impulse  of  Zionism  (7.9.).  He  started  for 
Jerusalem,  was  in  Damascus  in  1140,  and  soon  afterwards  died. 
Legend  has  it  that  he  was  slain  by  an  Arab  horseman  just  as  he 
arrived  within  sight  of  what  Heine  called  his  **  Woebegone  poor 
dariing,  Desolation's  very  image, — ^Jerusalem." 

Excellent  EngliBh  renderings  of  aome  of  Judah  Halevi's  poems 
may  be  read  in  Mrs  H.  Lucas's  The  Jewish  Year,  and  Mrs  K.  N. 
Solomon't  Somgs  ei  Exile.  (I.  A.) 

HAliVT^JAOQUBS  PRAMCOIS  PROMBNTAL  ^B  (179^ 
1862),  French  composer,,  was  born  on  the  a7th  of  May  1799,  at 
Paris,  of  a  Jewish  family.    He  studied  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire 


under  Berton  and  Cherubini,  and  in  18x9  gained  the  grand  prix 
de  Rome  with  his  cantata  Herminie.    In  accordance  with  the 
conditions  of  his  scholarship  he  Started  for  Rome,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of.  Italian  music,  and  wrote  an 
opera  and  various  minor  works.    In  1837  his  opera  L*  Artisan  was 
performed  at  the  Thtttre  Feydeau  in  Paris,  apparently  without 
much  success.    Other  works  of  minor  importance,  and  now 
forgotten,  followed,  amongst  which  Manon  LescaiU,  a  ballet, 
produced  in  1830,  deserves  mention.   In  1834  the()p6ra-Comique 
produced  Ludovic,  the-score  of  which  bad  been  begun  by  H£rold 
and  had  been  completed  by  Hal^.    In  1835  Hal6vy  composed 
the  tragic  opera  La  Jnive  and  the  comic  opera  Vidair,  and  on 
these  works  his  fame  is  mainly  founded.    The  famous  air  of 
Eliazar  and  the  anathema  of  the  cardinal  in  La  Juiee  soon  became 
popular  all  over  France.    V£cla$r  is  a  curiosity  of  musical 
literature.    It  is  written  for  two  tenors  and  two  soprani,  without 
a  chorus,  and  displays  the  composer's  mastery  over  the  most 
refined  effects  of  instrumentation  and  vocalization  in  a  favourable 
light.    After  these  two  works  he  wrote  numerous  operas  of 
various  genres,  amongst  which  only  La  Reine  4e  Ckyprey  a 
spectacuhr  piece  analyzed  by  Wagner  in  one  of  his  Paris  letters 
(x84x),  and  La  Tempesta,  in  three  acts,  written  for  Her  Majesty's 
theatre,  London  (1850),  need  be  mentioned.    In  addition  to  his 
productive  work  Hal6vy  also  rendered  valuable  services  as  a 
teacher.    He  was  professor  at  the  Conservatoire  from  1837  till 
his  death — some  of  the  most  successful  amongst  the  younger 
composers  in  France,  such  as  Gounod,  Victor  Mass6  and  Georges 
Bizet,  the  author  of  Cormeyi,  being  amongst  his  pupils.    He  was 
maestro  al  cembalo  at  the  Thtttre  Italien  from  1827  to  1829; 
then  director  of  singing  at  the  Opera  House  in  Paris  until  1845, 
and  in  1836  he  succeeded  Reicha  at  the  Institut  de  France. 
Hal£vy  also  tried  his  hand  at  literature.    In  1857  he  became 
permanent  secretary  to  the  Acadfmie  des  Beaux  Arts,  and  there 
exists  an  agreeable  volume  of  Souvenirs  et  portraits  from  his  pen. 
He  died  at  Nice,  on  the  X7th  of  March  x86s. 

HAliVT,  LUDOVIG  (1834-1908),  French  author,  was  bom 
in  Paris  on  the  ist  of  Janua^  1834.  His  father,  Lton  Hal6vy 
(1802-1883),  ^^u  &  clever  and  verutile  writer,  who  tried  almost 
every  branch  of  literature— prose  and  verse,  vaudeville,  drama, 
history— without,,  however,  achieving  decisive  success  in  any. 
His  unde,  J.  F.  Fromental  £.  Hal^vy  (7.9.) ,  was  for  many  years 
associated  with  the  op^;  hence  the  double  and  early  connexion 
of  Ludovic  Halfvy  with  the  Parbian  stage.  At  the  age  of  six 
he  might  have  been  seen  playing  in  that  Foyer  de  la  danse  with 
which  he  was  to  make  his  readers  so  familisur,  axid,  when  a  boy 
of  twelve,  he  would  often,  of  a  Sunday  night,  on  his  way  back 
to  the  College  Louis  le  Grand,  look  in  at  the  Odfon,  where  he 
had  free  adxnittance,  and  see  the  first  act  of  the  new  play.  At 
eighteen  he  joined  the  ranks  of  the  French  administration  and 
occupied  various  posts,  the  last  being  that  of  secr£taire>r6dacteur 
to.  the  Corps  L£gislatif .  In  that  capacity  he  enjoyed  the  special 
favour  and  friendship  of  the  famous  duke  of  Momy,  then  pre- 
sident of  that  assembly.  In  1865  Ludovic  Half's  increasing 
popularity  as  an  author  enabled  him  to  retire  from  the  public 
service.  Ten  years  earlier  he  had  become  acquainted  with  the 
musician  Offenbach,  who  was  about  to  start  a  small  theatre  of 
his  own  in  the  Champs  £lys£es,  and  he  wrote  a  sort  of  prologue, 
EntreZj  messieurs^  mesdames,  for  the  opening  night.  Other  little 
productions  followed,  Ba-ta<lan  being  the  most  noticeable 
among  them.  Tliey  were  produced  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Jules  Servi^res.  The  name  of  Ludovic  Halfvy  appeared  for  the 
first  time  on  the  bills  on  the  xst  of  January  1856.  Soon  after- 
wards the  unprecedented  run  of  Orpkie  aux  enfers,  a  musical 
parody,  written  in  collaboration  with  Hector  Cr^mieux,  made 
his  naftie  famous.  In  the  ^>ring  of  x86o  he  was  commissioned 
to  write  a  play  for  the  manager  of  the  Vari^€s  in  conjunction 
withanothervaudevillist, Lambert Thiboust.  Thelatter  having 
abruptly  retired  from  the  collaboration,  Hal^vy  was  at  a  loss 
how  to  cany  out  the  contract,  when  on  the  steps  of  the  theatre 
he  met  Henri  McHhac  (1831-X897),  then  comparativety  a  stranger 
to  him.  He  proposed  to  Mcilhac  the  task  rejected  by  Lambert 
Thiboust,  and  the  proposal  was  immediately  accepted.    Thus 


836 


HALFPENNY— HALFWAY  COVENANT 


began  a  cohnezion  which  was  to  last  over  twenty  yean,  and 
which  proved  moat  fruitful  both  for  the  reputation  of  the  two 
authors  and  the  prosperity  of  the  minor  Paris  theatres.  Their 
joint  works  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  the  opireUeSt 
the  farces,  the  comedies.  The  optrettes  afforded  excellent 
opportunities  to  a  gifted  musician  for  the  display  of  his  peculiar 
humour.  They  were  broad  and  livdy  libels  against  the  society 
of  the  time,  but  savoured  strongly  of  the  vices  and  follies  they 
were  supposed  to  satirize.  Amongst  the  most  celebrated  works 
of  the  joint  authors  were  La  Belle  HiUne  (1864),  Barbe  BUue 
(1866),  La  Grande  Duchesse  de  Gerolstein  (1867),  and  La  Pirickole 
(1868).  After  1870  the  vogue  of  Parody  rapidly  declined.  The 
decadence  became  still  more  apparent  when  Offenbach  was  no 
longer  at  hand  to  assist  the  two  authors  .with  his  quaint  musical 
irony,  and  when  they  had  to  deal  with  interpreters  almost 
destitute  of  singing  powers.  They  wrote  farces  of  the  old  type, 
conttsting  of  complicated  intrigues,  with  which  they  cleverly 
interwove  the  representation  of  contemporary  whims  and  social 
oddities.  They  generally  failed  when  they  attempted  comedies 
of  a  more  serious  character  and  tried  to  introduce  a  higher  sort 
of  emotion.  A  solitary  exception  must  be  made  in  the  case  of 
Frou-frou  (1869),  which,  owing  perhaps  to  the  admirable  talent 
of  Aimie  Desd£e,  remains  thdr  unique  succh  de  larmes, 

Meilhac  and  HaUvy  will  be  found  at  their  best  in  light  sketches 
of  Parisian  life,  Les  SonneUeSf  Le  Roi  Candaule,  Madame  attend 
Monsieur,  Toto  chat  Tata,  In  that  intimate  association  between 
the  two  men  who  had  met  so  opportunely  on  the  perron  des 
variiUs,  it  was  often  asked  who  was  the  leading  partner.  The 
question  was  not  answered  until  the  connexion  was  finally  severed 
and  they  stood  before  the  public,  each  to  answer  for  his  own 
work.  It  was  then  apparent  that  they  had  many  gifts  in  common. 
Both  had  wit,  humour,  observation  of  character.  Meilhac  had 
a  ready  imagination,  a  rich  and  whimsical  fancy;  Hal^vy  had 
taste,  refinement  and  pathos  of  a  certain  kind.  Not  less  clever 
than  his  brilliant  comrade,  he  was  more  human.  Of  this  he  gave 
evidence  in  two  delightful  books,  Monsieur  et  Madame  Cardinal 
(1873)  and  Les  Petites  Cardinal^  in  which  the  lowest  orders  of 
the  Parisian  middle  class  are  faithfully  described.  The  pompous, 
pedantic,  venomous  Monsieur  Cardinal  will  long  survive  as  the 
true  image  of  sententious  and  self-glorifying  immorality.  M. 
Hal£vy's  peculiar  qualities  are  even  more  visible  in  the  simple 
and  striking  scenes  of  the  Invasion,  published  soon  after  the 
conclusion  of  the  Franco-German  War,  in  Criquetie  (1883)  and 
L'Abbi  Constantin  (1883),  two  noveb,  the  latter  of  which  went 
through  innumerable  editions.  Zola  had  presented  to  the  public 
an  almost  exclusive  combination  of  bad  men  and  women;  in 
VAbhi  Constantin  all  are  kind  and  good,  and  the  change  was 
eagerly  welcomed  by  the  public.  Some  enthusiasts  still  main- 
tain that  the  A  hht  will  rank  permanently  in  literature  by  the  side 
of  the  equally  chimerical  Vicar  oj  Wakefield.  *  At  any  rate,  it 
opened  for  M.  Ludovic  Hal6vy  the  doors  of  the  French  Academy, 
to  which  he  was  elected  in  1884. 

•  Hal£vy  remained  an  assiduous  frequenter  of  the  Academy, 
the  Conservatoire,  the  ComMie  Fran^se,  and  the  Sodety  of 
Dramatic  Authors,  but>  when  he  died  in  Paris  on  the  8th  of  May 
X908,  be  had  produced  practically  nothing  new  for  many  years. 
His  last  romancej  Kari  Kari,  appeared  in  1892. 

The  ThSdtre  of  MM.  Meilhac  and  Hal^vy  was  published  in  8  vols. 
(1900-1903). 

HALFPENNT,  WILLIAII,  English  18th-century  architectural 
designer— he  described  himself  as  "  architect  and  carpenter." 
He  was  also  known  as  Michael  Hoare;  but  whether  his  real  name 
was  William  Halfpenny  or  Michael  Hoare  is  uncertain.  His  books, 
of  which  he  published  a  score,  deal  almost  entirely  with  domestic 
architecture,  and  especially  with  country  houses  in  those  Gothic 
and  Chinese  fashions  which  were  so  greatly  in  vogue  in  the  middle 
of  the  i8th  century.  His  most  important  publications,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  their  effect  upon  taste,  were  New  Designs  for 
Chinese  Temples,  in  four  parts  (1750-1752);  Rural  Architecture 
in  the  Gothic  Taste  (1752);  Chinese  and  Gothic  Architecture 
Properly  Ornamented  (1752);  and  Rural  Architecture  in  the 
Chinese  Taste  (i  750-t  752).    These  four  books  were  produced  in 


collaboration  with  John  Halfpenny,  who  is  said  to  bave  beet  his 
son.  New  Designs  for  Chinese  Temples  is  a  volume  of  wtat 
significance  in  the  history  of  furniture,  since,  having  been  pub- 
lished some  years  before  the  books  of  Thomas  Chippendale  aad 
Sir  Thomas  Chambers,  it  disproves  the  statement  so  often  made 
that  those  designers  introduced  the  Chinese  taste  into  this 
country.  Halfpenny  states  distinctly  that  "the  Chinese  maaser" 
had  been  "  already  introduced  here  with  saoceBS."  The  woxk 
of  the  Halfpennys  was  by  no  means  all  contemptible.  It  is 
sometimes  distinctly  graceful,  but  is  marked  by  little  <»iginality. 

HALF-TIMBEa  WORK,  an  architectural  term  given  to  those 
buildings  in  which  the  framework  is  of  timber  with  vertical  stwk 
and  cross  pieces  filled  in  between  with  brickwork,  rubble  mascmy 
or  plasta  work  on  oak  laths;  in  the  first  two,  brick  nogging  or 
nogging  are  the  terms  occasionally  employed  (see  CASPEJiTXY). 
Sometimes  the  timber  structure  b  raised  on  a  stone  or  Inick 
foundation,  as  at  Ledbury  town  hall  in  Herefordshire,  where  the 
lower  storey  is  open  on  all  sides;  but  more  often  it  is  raised  on 
a  ground  storey,  dther  in  brick  or  stone,  and  in  onkr  to  give 
additional  sixc  to  the  upper  rooms  projects  forward,  being  carried 
on  the  floor  joists.    Sometimes  the  masonry  or  brickwork  rbcs 
through  two  or  three  storeys  and  the  half-brick  work-is  confined 
to  the  gables.    There  seems  to  be  some  difference  of  opinion  ss 
to  whether  the  term  applies  to  the  mixture  <rf  solid  waOing  vith 
the  timber  structure  or  to  the  alternation  of  wood  posts  and  the 
filling  in,  but  the  latter  definition  is  that  which  is  generally 
understood.    The  half-timber  throughout  England  is  of  the  most 
picturesque  description,  and  the  earliest  examples  date  from 
towards  the  dose  of  the  iSth  century.    In  the  earliest  exaroF^e, 
Newgate  House,  York  {c,  1450),  the  timber  framing  a  raised 
over  the  ground  floor.    The  finest  q;>ecimen  is  perhaps  that  of 
Moreton  Old  Hall,  Cheshire  (1570),  where  there  is  only  a  stone 
foundation  about  12  in.  high,  and  the  same  apfdies  to  Bramall 
Hall,  near  Manchester,  portions  of  which  are  very  eariy.    Among 
other  examples  are  Speke  Hall,  Lancashire;  Park  Hall,  Shrop- 
shire (Z553-Z558);  Hall  i'  th'  Wood,  Lancashire  (1591);  St 
Peter's  Hospital,  Bristol  (1607);  the  Ludlow  Feather's  Inn 
(x6io);  many  of  the  streets  at  Chester  and  Shrewsbury;  the 
Sparrowe's  Home,  Ipswich;  and  Staple  Inn,  Hcdbom,  from 
which  in  recent  years  the  plaster  coat  which  was  put  on  many 
years  ago  has  been  removed,  displaying  the  andent  woodwork. 
A  similar  fate  has  overtaken  a  very  large  number  of  half-timber 
buildings  to  keep  out  the  driving  winds;  thus  in  Lewes  nearly 
all  the  half-timbered  houses  have  had  slates  hungonthetimbecs, 
others  tiles,  the  greater  number  having  been  covered  with  plaster 
or  stucco.    Although  there  are  probably  many  more  half-timber 
houses  in  England  than  on  the  continent  of  £un^>e,  in  the  north 
of  France  and  in  Germany  are  examples  in  many  of  the  principal 
towns,  and  in  some  cases  in  better  preservation  than  in  England. 
They  are  also  edriched  with  carving  of  a  purer  and  bett»  t>-pc, 
especially  in  France;  thus  at  Chartres,  Angers,  Rouen,  Caen, 
Lisieux,  Bayeux,  St  LA  and  Beauvais,  are  many  extremely  fine 
examples  of  late  Flamboyant  and  early  Transitional  ^camples. 
Again  on  the  borders  of  the  tUiine  in  all  the  small  towns  most  of 
the  houses  are  in  half-timber  work,  the  best  examples  being  at 
Bacharach,  Rhense  and  Boppart.    Far  more  elaborate  examples, 
however,  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Harz  Mountains; 
the  supply  of  timber  from  the  forests  there  being  very  abundant ; 
thus. at  Goslar,  Wemigerode  and  Quedlingburg  there  is  an 
endless  variety,  as  also  farther  on  at  Gelnhausen  and  Hamdn, 
the  finest  series  of  all  being  at  Hildesheim.    In  Bavaria  at 
Nuremberg,  Rothaibuig  and  i>inkelsbiihl»  half-timber  houses 
dating  from  the  x6th  century  are  still  weU  preserved;  and 
throughout  Switzerland  the  houses  constmct«i  in  timber  and 
plaster  are  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the  country. 

HALFWAY  COVENANT,  an  expedient  adopted  in  the  Con- 
gregational churches  of  New  En^and  between  1657  and  1662. 
Under  its  terms  baptized  persons  of  moral  life  and  orthodox 
belief  might  receive  the  privilege  of  baptism  for  their  children  and 
other  church  benefits,  without  the  full  enrolmoit  in  membership 
which  admitted  them  to  the  communion  of  the  Lord's  Si>pp9« 

See  Cokcrecatiomausm:  Ameritam* 


HALHED— HALICARNASSUS 


837 


BAIHED,   NATHANIEL    BRA8SBT    (1751-1830),    English 

OrienUliat  and  philologist,  was  born  at  Westoiihster  on  the  25th 

of  May  1751.    He  was  edacated  at  Harrow,  where  he  began  his 

intimacy   with    Richard    Brinsley    Sheridan    (see   Sheudam 

Family)  continued  after  he  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 

where,  also,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Sir  William  Jones, 

the  famous  Orientalist,  who  induced  him  to  study  Arabic. 

Accepting  a  writership  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company, 

Haihed  went  out  to  India,  and  here,  at  the  suggestion  of  Warren 

Hastings,  by  whose  orders  it  had  been  compiled,  translated  the 

Gentoo  code  from  a  Persian  version  of  the  original  Sanskrit. 

This  translation  was  published  in  1776  under  the  title  A  Code 

of  Centoo  Laws,    In  1778  he  published  a  Bengali  grammar,  to 

print  which  he  set  up,  at  Hugli,  the  first  press  in  India.    It  is 

claimed  for  him  that  he  was  the  first  writer  to  call  attention  to 

the  philological  connexion  of  Sanskrit  with  Persian,  Arabic, 

Creek  and  Latin.    In  1785  he  returned  to  England,  and  from 

1790-1795  was  M.P.  for  Lyroington,  Hants.    For  Some  time  he 

was  a  disciple  of  Richard  Brothers  (^.v),  and  his  unwise  speech 

in  parliament  in  defence  of  Brothers  made  it  impossible  for  him 

to  remain  in  the  House,  from  which  he  resigned  in  1795.    He 

subsequently  obtained  a  home  appointment  under  the  East 

India  Company.    He  died  in  London  on  the  i8th  of  February 

1830. 

His  collection  of.  Oriental  manuscripts  was  purchased  by  the 
British  Museum,  and  there  is  an  unfinished  translation  by  him  of  the 
Makdbkdrata  in  the  library  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  BengaL 

HAUBURTON,  THOMAS  CHANDLER  (17^1865),  British 
writer,  long  a  judge  of  Nova  Scotia,  was  bom  at  Windsor,  Nova 
Scotia,  in  2796,  and  received  his  education  there,  at  King's 
College.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1820,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Assembly.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  barrister, 
and  in  1828  was  promoted  to  the  bench  as  a  chief-justice  of 
the  common  pleas.  In  1829  he  published  An  Historical  and 
Statistical  Account  of  Nova  Scotia,  But  it  is  as  a  brilliant 
humourist  and  satirist  that  he  is  remembered,  in  connexion 
with  his  fictitious  character  "  Sam  Slick."  In  1835  he  con- 
tributed anonymously  to  a  local  paper  a  series  of  letters 
professedly  depicting  the  peculiarities  of  the  genuine  Yankee. 
These  sketches,  which  abounded  in  clever  picturings  of  national 
and  individual  character,  drawn  with  great  satirical  humour, 
were  collected  in  1837,  and  published  under  the  title  of  The 
Clockmaker,  or  Sayings  and  Doings  of  Samuel  Slick  of  Slickville. 
A  second  series  followed  in  1838,  and  a  third  in  1840.  The 
Attacks,  or  Sam  Slick  in  England  (1843-1844),  was  the  result 
of  a  visit  there  in  2841.  His  other  works  include:  Tke  Old 
Judge,  or  Life  in  a  Colony  (1843);  Tke  Letter  Bag  of  tke 
Great  Western  (1839);  Rule  and  Misrule  of  tke  Englisk  in  America 
(1851);  Traits  of  American  Humour  (1852);  and  Nature  and 
Human  Nature  (1855). 

Meanwhile  he  continued  to  secure  popular  esteem  in  his 
judicial  capacity.  In  1840  he  was  promoted  to  be  a  judge  of  the 
supreme  court;  but  within  two  years  he  resigned  his  scat  on 
the  bench,  removed  to  England,  and  in  1859  entered  parliament 
as  the  representative  of  Launceston,  in  the  Conservative  interest. 
But  the'tenure  of  his  seat  for  Launceston  was  brought  to  an  end 
by  the  dissolution  of  the  parliament  in  1865,  and  he  did  not  again 
offer  himself  to  the  constituency.  He  died  on  the  27th  of  August 
of  the  same  year,  at  Gordon  House,  Isleworth,  Middlesex. . 

A  memoir  of  Haliburton,  by  F.  Blake  Crofton,  appeared  in  1889. 

HAUBQT,  or  Holibitt  (Hippoglossus  vtdgaxis),  the  largest 
of  all  flat-fishes,  growing  to  a  length  of  10  ft.  or  more,  specimeits 
of  5  ft.  in  length  and  of  100  tb.  in  weight  being  frequently  exposed 
for  sale  in  the  markets.  Indeed,  specimens  under  2  ft.  in  length 
are  very  rarely  caught,  and  singularly  enough,  no  instance  is 
known  of  a  very  young  specimen  having  been  obtained.  Small 
ones  are  commonly  called  "  chicken  halibut."  The  halibut  is 
much  more  frequent*  in  the  higher  latitudes  of  the  temperate 
aone  than  in  its  southern  portion;  it  is  a  circumpolar  species, 
being  found  on  the  northern  coasts  of  America,  Europe  and 
Asia,  extending  in  the  Pacific  southwards  to  California.  On  the 
British  coasts  it  keeps  at  some  distance  from  the  shore,  and  is 


generally  caught  in  from  50  to  1 50  fathoms.  Its  flesh  is  generally 
considered  coarse,  but  it  is  white  and  firm,  and  when  properly 
served  is  excellent  for  the  table.  The  name  is  derived  from 
"holy"  (M.E.  kaly)t  and  recalls  its  use  for  food  on  hbly 
days. 

HALICARNASSUS  (mod.  Budrum),  an  ancient  Greek  city  on 
the  S.W.  coast  of  Caria,'  Asia  Minor,  on  a  picturesque  and 
advantageous  site  on  the  Ceramic  Gulf  or  Gulf  of  Cos.  It 
originally  occupied  only  the  small  island  of  Zcphyria  close  to  the 
shore,  now  occupied  by  the  great  castle  of  St  Peter,  built  by  the 
Knights  of  Rhodes  in  1404;  but  in  course  of  time  this  island 
was  united  to  the  mainland  and  the  city  extended  so  as  to 
incorporate  Salmacis,  an  older  town  of  the  Leleges  and  Carians. 

About  the  foundation  of  Halicarnassus  various  traditions  were 
current;  but  they  agree  in  the  main  point  as  to  Its  being  a 
Dorian  colony,  and  the  £gures  on  its  coins,  such  as  the  head  of 
Medusa,  Athena  and  Poseidon,  or  the  trident,  support  the 
statement  Chat  the  mother  cities  were  Troezen  and  Argos.  The 
inhabitants  appear  to  have  accepted  as  their  legendary  founder 
Anthes,  mentioned  by  Strabo,  and  were  proud  of  the  title  of 
Antheadae.  At  an  early  period  Halicarnassus  was  a  member 
of  the  Doric  Hexapolis,  which  included  Cos,  Cnidus,  Lindus, 
Camirus  and  lalysus;  but  one  of  the  citizens,  Agasicles,  having 
taken  home  the  prize  tripod  which  he  had  won  in  the  Triopian 
games '  instead  of  dedicating  it  a(xording  to  custom  to  the 
Triopian  Apollo,  the  city  was  cut  off  from  the  league.  In  the 
early  5th  century  HaL'camassus  was  under  the  sway  of  Artemisia, 
who  made  herself  famous  at  the  battle  of  Salamis.  Of  Pisindalis, 
her  son  and  successor,  little  is  known;  but  Lygdamis,  who  next 
attained  to  power,  is  notorious  for  having  put  to  death  the  poet 
Panyasis  and  caused  Herodotus,  the  greatest  of  Halicamassians, 
to  leave  his  native  dty  (c.  457  B.C.).  In  the  5th  century  b.c' 
Hah'carnassus  and  other  Dorian  cities  of  Asia  were  to  some 
extent  absorbed  by  the  Delian  League,  but  the  peace  of  Antalcidas 
in  387  made  them  subservient  to  Persia;  and  it  was  under 
Mausolus,  a  Persian  satrap  who  assumed  independent  authority, 
that  HalicamaKus  attained  its  highest  prosperity.  Struck  by 
the  natural  strength  and  beauty  of  its  position,  Mausolus  removed 
to  Halicarnassus  from  Mylasa,  increasing  the  population  of 
the  dty  by  the  inhabitants  of  six  towns  of  the  Leleges.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Artemisia,  whose  military  ability  was  shown  in 
the  stratagem  by  which  she  captured  the  Rhodian  vessels 
attacking  her  dty,  and  whose  nugnificence  and  taste  have  been 
perpetuated  by  the  "  Mausoleum,"  the  monument  she  erect<fd 
to  her  husband's  memory  (see  Mausolus).  Oneof  hersuccessors, 
Pixodarus,  tried  to  ally  himself  with  the  rising  power  of  Macedon, 
and  is  said  to  have  gained  the  momentary  consent  of  the  young 
Alexander  to  wed  his  daughter.  The  marriage,  however,  was 
forbidden  by  Philip.  Alexander,  as  soon  as  he  had  reduced  Ionia, 
summoned  Halicarnassus,  where  Memnon,  the  paramount  satrap 
of  Asia  Minor,  had  taken  refuge  with  the  Persian  fleet,  to  sur- 
render; and  on  its  refusal  took  the  dty  after  hard  fighting  and 
devastated  it,  but  not  being  able  to  reduce  the  dtadel,  was 
forced  to  leave  it  blockaded.  He  handed  the  government  of 
the  dty  back  to  the  family  of  Mausolus,  as  represented  by  Ada, 
sister  of  The  latter.  Not  long  afterwards  we  find  the  dtizens 
receiving  the  present  of  a  gymnasium  from  Ptolemy,  and  building 
in  his  honour  a  stoa  or  portico;  but  the  dty  never  recovered 
altogether  from  the  disasters  of  the  siege,  and  Cicero  describes 
it  as  almost  deserted.  The  site  is  now  occupied  in  part  by  the 
town  of  Budrum;  but  the  ancient  walls  can  still  be  traced  round 
nearly  all  their  drcuit,  and  the  position  of  several  of  the  temples, 
the  theatre,  and  other  public  buildings  can  be  fixed  with 
certainty. 

From  the  ruins  of  the  Mausoleum  suffident  has  been  recovered 
by  the  excavations  carried  out  in  1857  by  C.  T.  Newton  to 
enable  a  fairly  complete  restoration  of  its  dtsign  to  be  made. 
The  building  consisted  of  five  parts — a  basement  or  podium, 
a  pteron  or  endosure  of  columns,  a  pyramid,  a  pedestal  and  a 
chariot  group.  The  basement,  covering  an  area  of  1 14  ft.  by  92, 
was  built  of  blocks  of  greenstone  and  cased  with  marble.  Round 
the  base  of  it  were  probably  disposed  groups  of  statuary.    The 


838 


HALICZ— HALIFAX,  ist  EARL  OF 


pteron  consisted  (according  to  Pliny)  of  thirty-six  columns  of 
the  Ionic  order,  enclosing  a  square  ceiia.  Between  the  columns 
probably  stood  single  statues.  From  the  portions  that  have 
been  recovered,  it  appears  that  the  principal  frieae  of  the  pteron 
represented  combats  of  Greeks  and  Amazons.  In  addition  to 
these,  there  are  also  many  life-size  fragmentsof  animak,.horse- 
men,  &c.,  belonging  probably  to  pedimental  sculptures,  but 
formerly  suppos^  to  be  parts  of  minor  friezes.  Above  the 
pteron  rose  the  pyramid,  mounting  by  24  stefM  to  an  apex  or 
pedestal.  On  this  apex  stood  the  chariot  with  the  figure  of 
Mausolus  himself  and  an  attendant.  The  height  of  the  statue 
of  Mausolus  in  the  British  Museum  is  9  ft.  9I  in.  without  the 
plinth.  The  hair  rising  from  the  forehead  falls  in  thick  waves 
on  each  side  of  the  face  and  descends  nearly  to  the  shoulder; 
the  beard  is  short  and  close,  the  face  square  Und  massive,  the 
eyes  ^eep  set  under  overhanging  brows,  the  mouth  well  formed 
with  settled  calm  about  the  lips.  The  drapery  is  grandly  com- 
posed. All  sorts  of  restorations  of  this  famous  monument  have 
been  proposed.  The  original  one,  made  by  Newton  and  PuUan, 
is  obviously  in  error  in  many  respects;  and  that  of  Oldficld, 
though  to  be  preferred  for  its  tightness  (the  Mausoleum  was  said 
anciently  to  be  "  suspended  in  mid-air  "),  does  not  satisfy  the 
conditions  postulated  by  the  remains.  The  best  on  the  whole  is 
that  of  the  veteran  German  architect,  F.  Adler,  published  in 
1900;  but  fresh  studies  have  since  been  made  (see  below). 

See  C.  T.  Newton  and  R.  P.  Pullan.  History  of  Discoveries  at 
Ilalicamassus  (1862-1863);  J.  Fergusson,  The  Mausideum  at 
Halicamassus  restored  (1863);  E.  Oldficld.  "The  Mausoleum."  in 
Archaeotofia  (1895);  F.  Adicr.  Mausoleum  tu  Halikamass  (lyoo); 
J.  P.  Six  in  Joum.  HeU.  Studies  (1905):  W.  B.  Dinsnibor.  in  Amer. 
Joum.  of  Arch.  (1908) ;  J.  J.  Stevenson,  A  Restoration  of  the  Mauso- 
leum of  Halicamassus  (1909);  J.  B.  K.  Precdy.  "The  Chariot 
•  Group  of  the  Mausoleum,"  in  Joum.  Hell.  Stud.,  19  to.     (D.  G.  H.) 

HAUCZ*  a  town  of  Austria,  in  Galicia,  70  m.  by  rail  S.S.E. 
of  Lemberg.  Pop.  (1900),  4809.  It  is  situated  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Luckow  with  the  Dniester  and  its  principal  resources  are 
the  recovery  of  salt  from  the  neighbouring  brine  wells,  soap- 
making  and  the  trade  in  timber.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  the 
ruins  of  the  old  castle,  the  seat  of  the  rulerof  the  former  kingdom 
from  which  Galicia  derived  its  Polish  name.  Halicz,  which  is 
mentioned  in  annals  as  early  as  11 13,  was  from  1141  to  1255  the 
residence  of  the  princes  of  that  name,  one  of  the  principalities 
into  which  western  Russia  was  then  divided.  The  town  was 
then  much  larger,  as  is  shown  by  excavations  in  the  neighbour- 
hood made  during  the  X9th  century,  and  probably  met  its 
doom  during  the  Mongol  invasion  of  1240.  In  1549  it  was 
incorporated  in  the  kingdom  of  Poland. 

HAUFAX.  CHARLES  HONTAGUB.  Eau.  of  (1661-1715), 
English  statesman  and  poet,  fourth  son  of  the  Hon.  George 
Montague,  fifth  son  of  the  first  earl  of  Manchester,  was  bom  at 
Horton,  Northamptonshire,  on  the  i6th  of  April  1661.  In  his 
fourteenth  year  he  was  sent  to  Westminster  school,  where  he 
was  chosen  king's  scholar  in  1677,  and  distingubhed  himself 
in  the  composition  of  extempore  epigrams  made  according  to 
custom  upon  theses  appointed  fpr  king's  scholars  at  the  time  of 
election.  In  1679  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where 
|ie  acquired  a  solid  knowledge  of  the  classics  and  surpassed  all 
his  contemporaries  at  the  university  in  logic  and  ethics.  Latterly, 
however,  he  preferred  to  the  abstractions  of  Descartes  the 
practical  philosophy  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton;  and  he  was  one  of 
the  small  band  of  students  who  assisted  Newton  in  forming  the 
Philosophical  Society  of  Cambridge.  But  it  was  his  facility  in 
verse-writing,  and  neither  his  scholarship  nor  his  practical 
ability,  that  first  opened  up  to  him  the  way  to  fortune.  His 
clever  but  absurdly  panegyrical  poem  on  the  death  of  Charles  IL 
secured  for  him  the  notice  of  the  earl  of  Dorset,  who  invited  him 
to  town  and  introduced  him  to  the  principal  wits  of  the  time; 
and  in  1687  his  joint  authorship  with  Prior  of  the  Hind  and 
Panther  transversed  to  the  Story  of  the  Country  Mouse  and  the 
City  Mouse,  a  parody  of  Dryden'a  political  poem,  not  only 
increased  his  literary  reputation  but  directly  helped  him  to 
political  influence. - 

In  1689,  through  the  patronage  of  tbeearl  of  Dorset,  be  entered 


parliament  as  member  for  Maldon,  and  sat  in  the  oonventioD 
which  resolved  that  William  and  Mary  should  be  declared  kim 
and  queen  of  England.  About  this  time  he  married  the  countess- 
dowager  of  Manchester,  and  it  would  appear,  according  to 
Johnson,  that  it  was  still  his  intention  to  take  orders;  but  afta 
the  coronation  he  purchased  a.  clerkship  to  the  ooondl.  On 
being  introduced  by  Earl  Dorset  to  King  William,  after  the 
publication  of  his  poetical. £^utf«  occasioned  by  bis  Majesty's 
Victory  in  Irdand^  he  was  ordered  to  receive  an  immediate 
pension  of  £500  per  annum,  until  an  opportunity  should  present 
itself  of  "  making  a  man  of  him."  In  1691  he  was  dbosen 
chairman  of  the  committee  of  the  House  of  Ccmnmons  appointed 
to  confer  with  a  committee  of  the  Lords  in  regard  to  iht  bill  for 
regulating  trials  in  cases  oif  high  treason;  and  he  displayed  ia 
these  conferences  such  tact  and  debating  power  that  be  was 
made  one  of  the  commissioners  of  the  treasury  and  called  to  tin 
privy  council.  But  his  success  as  a  politician  was  kss  due  to 
his  oratorical  gifts  than  to  his  skill  in  finance,  and  in  this  respect 
he  soon  began  to  manifest  such  brilliant  talents  as  completely 
eclipsed  the  painstaking  abilities  of  Godolphin.  Indeed  it  may 
be  affirmed  that  no  other  statesman  has  initiated  schemes  which 
have  left  a  moro  permanent  mark  on  the  finandal  history  of 
England.  Although  perhaps  it  was  inevitaUe  that  Engbnd 
should  sooner  or  later  adopt  the  continental  custom  ol  lightenics 
the  annual  taxation  in  times  of  war  by  contracting  a  national 
debt,  the  actual  introduction  of  the  expedient  was  doe  t6 
Montague,  who  on'the  15th  of  December  1692  proposed  to  raise 
a  million  of  money  by  way  of  loan.  Previous  to  this  the  Scotsman 
William  Paterson  {q.v.)  had  submitted  to  the  goverzunent  his 
plan  of  a  national  bank,  and  when  in  the  spring  of  1694  the 
prolonged  contest  with  France  had  rendered  another  large 
loan  absolutely  necessary,  Montague  introduced  a  hill  for  the 
incorporation  of  the  Bank  of  England.  The  bill  aStet  some 
opposition  passed  the  House  of  Lords  in  May,  and  immediately 
after  the  prorogation  of  parliament  Montague  was  rewarded  by 
the  chancellorship  of  the  exchequer.  In  1695  he  was  trium- 
phantly returned  for  the  borough  of  Westminster  to  the  new 
parliament,  and  succeeded  in  passing  his  celebrated  measure 
to  remedy  the  depreciation  which  had  taken  place  in  the  currcocy 
on  account  of  dishonest  manipulations.  To  iM-ovtde  for  the 
expense  of  recoinage,  Montague,  instead  of  reviving  the  old  tax 
of  hearth  money,  introduced  the  window  tax,  and  the  difficuhics 
caused  by  the  temporary  absence  of  a  metallic  currency  were 
avoided  by  the  issue  for  the  first  time  of  exchequer  bOls.  His 
other  expedients  for  meeting  the  emergencies  of  the  finai}ci:d 
crisis  were  equally  successful,  and  the  rapid  restoration  of  public 
credit  secured  him  a  commanding  influence  both  in  the  House 
of  Commons  and  at  the  board  of  the  treasury;  but  although 
Godolphin  resigned  office  in  October  1696,  the  king  hesitated 
for  some  time  between  Montague  and  Sir  Stephen  Fox  as  his 
successor,  and  it  was  not  till  1697  that  the  former  was  appointed 
first  lord.  In  1697  he  was  accused  by  (Tharles  Dtmcombe,  and 
in  1698  by  a  Col.  Granville,  of  fraud,  but  both  charges  broke 
down,  and  Duncombe  was  shown  to  have  been  guilty  of  extreme 
dishonesty  himself.  In  1698  and  1699  he  acted  as  one  of  the 
council  of  regency  during  the  king's  absence  from  England. 
With  the  accumulation  of  his  political  successes  his  vanity  and 
arrogance  became,  however,  so  offensive  that  lattcriy  they 
utterly  lost  him  the  influence  he  had  acquired  by  his  adminis- 
trative ability  and  his  masterly  eloquence;  and  when  his  po«cr 
began  10  be  on  the  wane  he  set  the  seal  to  bis  political  ovcnhrow 
by  conferring  the  lucrative  sinecure  ofl&ce  of  auditor  of  the 
exchequer  on  his  brother  in  trust  for  himself  should  he  be 
compelled  to  retire  from  power.  This  action  earned  him  the 
offensive  nickname  of  "  Filcher,"  and  for  some  time  afterwards, 
in  attempting  to  lead  the  House  of  Commons,  he  had  to  submit 
to  constant  mortifications,  often  veri^ng  on  personal  insults. 
After  the  return  of  the  king  in  1699  he  resigned  his  offices  in  the 
government  and  succeeded  his  brother  in  the  auditorship. 

On  the  accession  of  the  Tories  to  power  be  was  removed  in 
1 701  to  the  House  of  Lords  by  the  title  of  Lord  Halifax.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  impeached  {or  malpractices  along  with  Lord 


HALIFAX,  2ND  EARL— HALIFAX,  ist  MARQUESS 


839 


Somen  and  the  earls  of  Portland  and  Oxford,  but  all  the  charges 
were  dismissed  by  the  Lords;  and  in  1703  a  second  attempt 
to  impeach  him  was  still  more  unsuccessful.  He  continued  out  of 
office  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  but  in  1706  he  was  named 
one  of  the  commissioners  to  negotiate  the  union  with  Scotland; 
and  after  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  Settlement  in  favour  of  the 
house  of  Hanover,  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to  the  elector's 
court  to  convty  the  insignia  of  order  of  the  garter  to  George  I. 
On  the  death  of  Anne  (1714)  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  council 
of  regency  until  the  arrival  of  the  king  from  Hanover;  and  after 
the  coronation  he  received  the  office  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury 
in  the  new  ministry,  being  at  the  same  time  created  earl,  of 
Halifax  and  Viscount  Sunbury.  He  died  on  the  19th  of  May  1 7 1 5 
and  left  no  issue.  He  was  buried  in  the  vault  of  the  Albemarle 
family  in  Westminster  Abbey.  His  nephew  George  (d.  1739) 
succeeded  to  the  barony,  and  was  created  Viscount  Sunbury 
and  earl  of  Halifax  in  1715. 

Montague's  association  with  Prior  in  the  travesty  of  Dryden's 
Hind  and  Pantiuf  has  no  doubt  largely  aided  in  preserving  his 
Uterary  reputation;  but  he  is  perhaps  indebt^ed  for  it  chiefly 
to  his  subsequent  influential  position  and  to  the  fulsome -flattery 
of  the  men  of  letters  who  enjoyed  his  friendship,  and  who,  in 
return  for  his  liberal  donations  and  the  splendid  banqueting 
which  they  occasionally  enjoyed  at  his  villa  on  the  Thames, 
"fed  him,"  as  Pope  says,  "all  day  long  with  dedications." 
Swift  says  he  gave  them  nothing  but  "  good  words,  and  good 
dinners."  That,  however,  his  beneficence  to  needy  talent,  if 
sometimes  attributable  to  an  itching  ear  for  adulation,  was  at 
others  prompted  by  a  sincere  appredation  of  intellectual  merit, 
b  sufficiently  attested  by  the  manner  in  which  he  procured  from 
Godolphin  a  commissionership  for  Addison,  and  also  by  his 
life-long  intimacy  with  Newton,  for  whom  he  obtained  the 
mastership  of  the  mint.  The  small  fragments  of  poetry  which 
he  left  behind  him,  and  wnich  were  almost  solely  the  composition 
of  his  early  years,  display  a  certain  facility  and  vigour  of  diction, 
but  their  thought  and  fancy  are  never  more  than  commonplace, 
and  not  unfrequently  in  striving  to  be  eloquent  and  impressive 
he  is  dhly  grotesquely  and  extravagantly  absurd.  In  adminis- 
trative talent  he  was  the  superior  of  all  his  contemporaries, 
and  his  only  rival  in.  parliamentary  eloquence  was  Somers; 
but  the  skill  with  which  he  manag^  measures  was  superior 
to  his  tact  in  dealing  with  men,  and  the  effect  of  his  brilliant 
fin^dal  successes  on  his  reputation  was  gradually  almost 
nullified  by  the  affected  arrogance  of  his  manner  and  by  the 
eccentricities  of  his  sensitive  vanity.  So  eager  latterly  was  his 
thirst  for  fame  and  power  that  perhaps  Mariborough  did  not 
exaggerate  when  he  said  that  "  he  had  no  other  principle  but 
his  ambition,  so  that  he  would  put  all  in  distraction  rather  than 
not  gain  his  point." 

Amon^  the  numerous  notices  of  Halifax  by  contemporaries  may 
be  mentioned  the  eulogistic  reference  which  concludes  ASdison  0 
account  of  the  "greatest  of  English  poets";  the  dedications  by 
Steel  to  the  second  volume  of  the  SptciaUn  and  to  the  fourth  of  the 
TiUUr\  ^op^*^  laudatory  mention  of  him  in  the  epilogue  to  his 
Satires  ana  in  the  preface  to  the  Iliad,  and  his  portrait  of  him  as 
"  Full-blown  Bufo  ''  in  the  EpistU  to  Arbuthnot.  Various  allusions 
to  him  are  to  be  found  in  Swift's  works  and  in  Marlborough's  LttUrs. 
See  also  Burnet's  History  of  his  Own  Tinusi  Tho  Paniamtnlary 
History;  Howell's  State  Trials',  Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets;  and 
Macautay's  History  of  En^nd,  His  MiscManeous  Works  were 
publishea  at  London  m  1704;  his  Life  and  Miscellaneous  Works  in 
1715;  and  his  Poetical  Works,  to  which  also  his  "  Life  "  is  attached, 
in  1 7 16.  His  poems  were  reprinted  in  the  9th  volume  of  Johnson's 
Enpisk  Poets. 

HAUPAX,  OBOROB  HONTAOU  DUNK,  aND  Eaxl  of  (1716- 
1 771),  son  of  George  Montagu,  xst  earl  of  Halifax  (of  the  second 
creation),  was  bom  on  the  sth  or  6th  of  October  17 16,  becoming 
earl  of  Halifax  on  his  father's  death  in  1739.  Educated  at  Eton 
and  at  Trim'ty  College,  Cambridge,  he  was  married  in  1741  to 
Anne  Richards  (d.  1753)*,  a  lady  who  had  inherited  a  great 
fortune  from  Sir  Thomas  Dunk,  whose  name  was  taken  by 
Halifax.  After  having  been  an  official  in  the  household  of 
Frederick,  prince  of  Wales,  the  earl  was  made  master  of  the  buck- 
bounds,  and  in  1 748  he  became  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 


While  filling  this  position  he  helped  to  found  Halifax,  the  capital 
of  Nova  Scotia,  which  was  named  after  him,  and  in  several 
ways  he  rendered  good  service  to  trade,  especially  with  North 
America.  About  this  time  he  sought  to  b«»me  a  secretary  of 
state,  but  in  vain,  although  he  was  allowed  to  enter  the  cabinet 
in  1757.  In  March  1761  Halifax  was  appointed  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  and  during  part  of  the  time  which  he  held  this  office 
he  was  also  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  •  He  became  secretary 
of  state  for  the  northern  department  under  the  earl  of  Bute  in 
October  176a,  retaining  this  post  under  George  Grenville  and 
being  one  of  the  three  ministers  to  whom  George  III.  entrusted 
the  direction  of  affairs.  He  signed  the  general  warrant  under 
which  Wilkes  was  arrested  in  1763,  for  which  action  he  was 
mulcted  in  damages  by  the  courts  of  law  in  1769,  and  he  was 
mainly  responsible  for  the  exclusion  of  the  name  of  the  king's 
mother,  Augusta,  princess  of  Wales,  from  the  Regency  Bill  of 
X765.  With  his  colleagues  the  earl  left  office  in  July  1765, 
returning  to  the  cabinet  as  lord  privy  seal  under  his  nephew, 
Lord  North,  in  January  1770.  He  had  just  been  transferred  to 
his  former  position  of  secretary  of  state  when  he  died  on  the  Sth 
of  June  X771.  Halifax,  who  was  lo/d-lieutenant  of  Northamp- 
tonshire and  a  lieutenant-general  in  the  army,  showed  some 
disinterestedness  in  money  matters,  but  was  vtry  extravagant. 
He  left  no  children,  and  his  titles  became  extinct  on  his  death 
Horace  Walpole  speaks  slightingly  of  the  earl,  and  says  he  and 
his  mistress,  Mary  Anne  Faulkner, "  had  sold  every  employment 
in  his  gift." 

See  the  Memoirs  of  his  secretary,  Richard  Cumberiand  (1807). 

HAUFAX.  OBOROB  SAVILB.  zsT  Makquess  op  (x633-x69$), 
English  statesman  and  writer,  great-grandson  of  Sir  George 
Savile  of  Lupset  and  Thomhill  in  Yorkshire  (created  baronet 
in  161 1),  W4S  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  William  Savile,  3rd  baronet, 
who  distinguished  himself  in  the  dvil  war  in  the  royalist  cause 
and  who  died  in  2644,  and  of  Anne,  eldest  daughter  of  Lord 
Keeper  Coventry.  He  was  thus  nephew  of  Sir  William  Coventry, 
who  is  said  to  have  influenced  his  political  opinions,  and  of 
Lord  Shaftesbury,  afterwards  his  most  bitter  opponent,  and 
great-nephew  of  the  earl  of  Strafford;  by  his  marriage  with 
the  Lady  Dorothy  Spencer,  he  was  brother-in-law  to  Lord 
Sunderland.  He  entered  public  life  with  all  the  advantages  of 
lineage,  political  connexions,  great  wealth  and  estates,  and 
imcommon  abih'ties.  He  was  elected  member  of  the  Convention 
parliament  for  Pontefract  in  1660,  and  this  was  his  only  appear- 
ance in  the  Lower  House.  A  peerage  was  sought  for  him  by  the 
duke  of  York  in  1665,  but  was  successfully  opposed  by  Clarendon, 
on  the  ground  of  his  "  ill-reputation  amongst  men  of  piety  and 
reUgion,"  the  real  motives  of  the  chancellor's  hostile  attitude 
being  probably  Savile's  connexion  with  Buckingham  and 
Coventry.  The  honours  were,  however,  only  deferred  for  a  short 
time  and  were  obtained  after  the  fall  of  Clarendon  on  the  31st 
of  December  1667,*  when  Savile  was  created  Baron  Savile  of 
Eland  and  Viscount  Halifax. 

He  supported  xealously  the  anti-French  policy  formulated  in 
the  Triple  Alliance  of  January  1668.  He  was  at  this  time  in 
favour  at  court,  was  created  a  privy  councillor  in  1672,  and, 
while  ignorant  of  the  disgraceful  secret  clauses  in  the  treaty  d 
Dover,  was  chosen  envoy  to  nq^otiate  terms  of  peace  with  Louis 
XIV.  and  the  Dutch  at  Utrecht.  His  mission  was  still  further 
deprived  of  importance  by  Arlington  and  Buckingham,  who 
were  in  the  king's  counsels,  and  who  anticipated  his  arrival  and 
took  the  negotiations  out  of  his  hands;  and  though  he  signed 
the  compact,  he  had  no  share  in  the  harsh  terms  imposed  upon 
the  Dutch,  and  henceforth  became  a  bitter  opponent  of  the 
poh'cy  of  subservience  to  French  interests  and  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  daims. 

He  took  an  active  part  In  passing  through  parliament  the 
great  Test  Act  of  1673*  and  forfeited  in  consequence  his  friend- 
ship with  James.    In  1674  he  brought  forward  a  motion  for 

<  Cat.  Slate  Papers,  Dom.  (Nov.  1667-Sep.  1668).  p.  ip6. 

'  Lords*  Journals.  la.  p.  567:  Savile  Correspondence,  ed.  by  W.  D. 
Cooper,  p.  136:  "  Character  of  a  Trimmer."  in  Life  of  Sir  C.  Savile, 
bjc  H.  C.  Foxcroft,  ii.  316. 


840 


HALIFAX,  1ST  MARQUESS 


disarming  "popish  rectjsaots/'  and  supported  one  by  Lord 
Carlisle  for  restricting  the  marriages  in  the  royal  family  to 
Protestants;  but  he  opposed  the  bill  introduced  by  Lord  Danby 
(see  Leeds,  ist  Duke  of)  in  1675,  which  imposed  a  test  oath 
on  officials  and  members  of  parliament,  speaking  "  with  that 
quickness,  learning  and  elegance  that  are  inseparable  from  all. 
his  discourses,"  and  ridiculing  the  multiplication  of  oaths,  since 
"  no  man  would  ever  sleep  with  open  doors . . .  should  all 
the  town  be  sworn  not  to  rob."  He  was  now  on  bad  terms  with 
Danby,  and  a  witty  sally  at  that  minister's  expense  caused  his 
dismi^al  from  the  council  in  January  1676.  In  1678  he  took 
an  active  part  in  the  investigation  of  the  "Popish  Plot,"  to 
which  he  appears  to  have  given  excessive  credence,  but  opposed 
the  bill  which  was  passed  on  the  30th  of  October  1678,  to  exclude 
Roman  Catholics  from  the  House  of  Lords. 

In  1679,  as  a  consequence  of  the  fall  of  Danby,  he  became  a 
member  of  the  newly  constituted  privy  counciL  With  Charles, 
who  had  at  first "  kicked  at  his  appointment,"  he  quickly  became 
a,  favourite,  his  lively  and  "  libertine  "  (t.«.  free  or  scq^tical) 
conversation  being  named  by  Bishop  Burnet  as  his  chief  attrac- 
tion for  the  king.  His  dislUce  of  the  duke  of  York  and  of  the 
Romanist  tendencies  of  the  court  did  not  induce  him  to  support 
the  rash  attempt  of  Lord  Shaftesbury  to  substitute  the  illegiti- 
mate duke  of  Monmouth  for  James  in  the  succession.  He  feared 
Shaftesbury's  ascendancy  in  the  national  councils  and  foresaw 
nothing  but  civil  war  and  confusion  as  a  result  of  his  scheme. 
He  declared  against  the  exclusion  of  James,  was  made  an  earl 
in  1679,  and  was  one  of -the  "  Triumvirate  "  which  now  directed 
public  affairs.  He  assisted  in  passing  into  law  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Bill.  According  to  Sir.  W.  Temple  he  showed  great 
severity  in  putting  into  force  the  laws  against  the  Roman 
Catholics,  but  this  statement  is  considered  a  misrepresentation.* 
In  1680  he  voted  against  the  execution  of  Lord  Stafford. 

Meanwhile  (1679)  his  whole  policy  had  been  successfully 
directed  towards  uniting  all  parties  with  the  object  of  frustrating 
Shaftesbury's  plans.  Communications  were  opened  with  the 
prince  of  Orange,  and  the  illness  of  the  king  was  made  the 
occasion  for  summoning  James  from  Brussels.  Monmouth  was 
compelled  to  retire  to  Holland,  and  Shaftesbury  was  dismissed. 
On  the  other  hand,  while  Halifax  was  so  far  successful,  James 
was  given  an  opportunity  of  establishing  a  new  influence  at  the 
court.  It  was  with  great  difficulty  that  his  retirement  to  Scotland 
was  at  last  effected;  the  ministers  lost  the  conQdcnce  and 
support  of  the  "  country  party,"  and  Halifax,  fatigued  and  ill, 
at  the  close  of  this  year,  retired  to  Rufford  Abbey,  the  country 
home  of  the  Saviles  since  the  destruction  of  Thomhill  Hall  in 
1648,  and  for  some  time  took  little  part  in  affairs.  He  returned  in 
September  1680  on  the  occasion  of  the  introduction  of  the 
Exclusion  Bill  in  the  Lords.  The  debate  which  followed,  one 
of  the  most  famous  in  the  whole  annals  of  parliament,  became  a 
duel  of  oratory  between  Halifax  and  his  uncle  Shaftesbury,  the 
finest  two  speakers  of  the  day,  watched  by  the  Lords,  the 
Commons  at  the  bar,  and  the  king,  who  was  present.  It  lasted 
seven  hours.  Halifax  spokt  sixteen  times,  and  at  last,  regardless 
of  the  menaces  of  the  more  violent  supporters  of  the  bill,  who 
closed  round  him,  vanquished  his  opponent  The  rejection  of 
the  bill  by  a  majority  of  33  was  attributed  by  all  parties  entirely 
to  the  eloquence  of  Halifax.  His  conduct  transformed  the 
allegiance  to  him  of  the  Whigs  into  bitter  hostility,  the  Commons 
immediately  petitioning  the  king  to  remove  him  from  his  councils 
for  ever,  while  any  favour  which  he  might  have  regained  with 
James  was  forfeited  by  his  subsequent  approval  of  the  regency 
scheme. 

He  retired  to  Rufford  again  in  January  1681,  but  was  present 
at  the 'Oxford  parliament,  and  in  May  returned  suddenly  to 
public  life  and  held  for  a  year  the  chief  control  of  affairs.  The 
arrest  of  Shaftesbury  on  the  2nd  of  July  was  attributed  to  his 
influence,  but  in  general,  during  the  period  of  Tory  reaction, 
he  seems  to  have  urged  a  policy  of  conciliation  and  moderation 
upon  the  king.  He  opposed  James's  return  from  Scotland  and, 
about  this  time  (Sept.),  made  a  characteristic  but  futile  attempt 

'  Foxcroft  i.  160,  where  Hallam  is  quoted  to  this  effect. 


to  persuade  the  duke  to  attend  the  services' of  the  Chuidi  of 
England  and  thus  to  end  all  difficulties.  He  renewed  xdatioDs 
with  the  prince  of  Orange,  who  in  July  paid  a  visit  to  England 
to  seek  support  against  the  French  designs  upon  Luxefflbmg. 
The  influence  of  Halifax  procured  for  the  Dutch  a  foraul 
assurance  from  Charles  of  his  suf^xtrt;  but  the  king  informed 
the  French  ambassador  that  he  had  no  intention  of  fulfilHog 
his  engagements,  and  made  another  secret  treaty  with  Louis. 
Halifax  opposed  in  1682  James's  vindictive  prosecution  of  the 
eari  of  ArgyH,  arousing  further  hostility  in  the  duke.  whOe  the 
same  year  he  was  challenged  to  a  dud  by  Monmouth,  vlio 
attributed  to  him  his  disgrace. 

ilis  short  tenure  of  power  ended  with  the  return'  of  James  in 
May.    Outwardly  he  still  retaimdd  the  king's  favour  and  was 
advanced,  to  a  marquisale  (Aug.  17)  and  to  the  office  of 
lord  privy  seal   (Oct    25).     Being  still   a  member  of  the 
administration  he  must  share  responsibility  for  the  attack  now 
made  upon  the  municipal  franchises,  a  violation  of  the  whoje 
system  of  representative  government,  especaHy  as  the  new 
diarters  passed  his  office.    In  January  1684  be  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  "  who  supervise  all  things  concerning  the  dty 
and  have  turned  out  those  persons  who  are  vduggishly  incHned  " 
(N.  Luttrell's  Diaryt  i.  395).    He  made  honourable  but  vain 
endeavours  to  save  Algernon  Sidney  and  Lord  RusselL    "  Uy 
Lord  Halifax,"  declared  Tillotson  in  his  evidence  bdon  the 
later  inquiry,  "  showed  a  very  compassionate  concern  for  my 
Lord  RusseU  and  all  the  readiness  to  serve  them  that  could  be 
wished."*    The  Rye-House  Plot,  in  which  it  was  sought  to 
implicate  them,  was  a  disastrous  blow  to  his  policy,  and  in 
order  to  counteract  its  consequences  he  entered  into  somewhat 
perilous   negotiations   with   Monmouth,  and   endeavoured  to 
effect  his  reconciliation  with  the  king.      On  the  1 2th  of  F^ruary 
1684,  he  procured  the  release  of  his  old  antagonist,  L<»d  Danby. 
Shortly  afterwards  his  influence  at  the  cotirt  revived.    Charies 
was  no  longer  in  receipt  of  his  French  pension  and  was  beginning 
to  tire  of  Jamn  and  Rochester.    The  latter,  instead  of  bt^oming 
lord  treasurer,  was,  according  to  the  epigram  of  Halifax  which 
has  become  proverbial,  "  kicked  upstairs,"  to  the  office  of  loid 
president  of  the  council.    Halifax  now  worked   to  establish 
intimate  relations  between  Charles  and  the  prince  of  Orange  and 
opposed  the  abrogation  of  the  recusancy  laws.  .  In  a  debate  in 
the  cabinet  of  November  1684,  on  the  question  of  the  grant  of 
a  fresh  constitution  to  the  New  England  colonies,  be  urged  with 
great  warmth  "  that  there  could  be  no  doubt  whatever  but  that 
the  same  laws  which  are  in  force,  in  England  should  also  be 
established  in  a  country  inhabited  by  Englishmen  and  that  an 
absolute  government  is  neither  so  happy  nor  so  safe  as  that 
which  is  tempered  by  laws  and  which  sets  bounds  to  the  authority 
of  the  prince,"  and  declared  that  he  could  not  "  live  under  a  king 
who  should  have  it  in  his  power  to  take,  whenever  be  thought 
proper,  the  money  he  has  in  his  pocket"    The  q>iiuons  thus 
expressed  were  opposed  by  all  the  other  ministers  and  highly 
censured  by  Louis  XIV.,  James  and  Judge  Jeffre}^ 

At  the  accession  of  James  he  was  immedlatdy  deprived  of  all 
power  and  relegated  to  the  presidency  of  the  coundL  He  showed 
no  compliance,  Uke  other  Lords,  with  James's  Roman  Cathc^ 
preferences.  He  was  opposed  to  the  parliamentary  grant  to  the 
king  of  a  revenue  for  life;  he  promoted  the  treaty  of  alliance 
with  the  Dutch  in  August  1685;  he  expostulated  with  the  kirtg 
on  the  subject  of  the  illegal  commissions  in  the  army  given  to 
Roman  Catholics;  and  finally,  on  his  firm  refusal  to  support  the 
repeal  of  the  Test  and  Habeas  Corpus  Acts,  he  was  dismissed, 
and  his  name  was  struck  out  of  the  list  of  the  privy  council 
(Oct.  1685).  He  corresponded  with  the  prince  of  Orange, 
conferred  with  Dykveldt,  the  latter's  envoy,  but  held  aloof 
from  plans  which  aimed  at  the  prince's  personal  interference  in 
English  affairs.  In  1687  he  published  the  fanwus  Letter  ts  a 
Dissenter^  in  which  he  warns  the  Nonconformists  against  being 
beguiled  by  the  "  Indulgence  "  into  joining  the  court  party, 
sets  in  a  clear  light  the  fatal  results  of  such  a  step,  and  reminds 
them  that  under  their  next  sovereign  their  grievances  would  in 

*  Huf.  MSS.  Comm,  House  of  Lords  I£SS.  1689-1690,  p.  sSy. 


HALIFAX,  1ST  MARQUESS 


841 


all  probabnity  be  satisfied  by  the  law.  The  tract,  which  has 
received  general  and  luquaMed  admiration,  must  be  classed 
amongst  the  few  known  writings  which  have  actually  and 
immediately  altered  the  course  of  history.  Coptn  to  the  number 
of  30,000  were  circulated  through  the  kingdom,  and  a  great  party 
was  convinced  of  the  wisdom  of  remaining  faithful  to  the  national 
traditions  and  liberties.  He  took  the  popular  side  on  the  occasion 
of  the  trial  of  the  bishops  in  June  1688,  visited  them  in  the 
Tower,  and  led  the  cheers  with  which  the  verdict  of "  not  guilty  " 
was  received  in  court;  but  the  same  month  he  refrained  from 
signing  the  invitation  to  William,  and  publidy  repudiated  any 
share  in  the  prince's  pkns.  On  the  contrary  he  attended  the 
court  and  refused  any  credence  to  the  report  that  the  prince  bom 
to  James  was  supposititious.  After  the  landing  of  William  he 
was  present  at  the  council  called  by  James  on  the  ayth  of 
November.  He  urged  the  king  to  grant  large  concessions,  but 
his  speech,  in  contrast  to  the  harsh  and  overbearing  attitude 
of  the  Hydes,  was  "  the  most  tender  and  obliging  .  .  .  that 
ever  was  heard."  He  accepted  the  mission  with  Nottingham 
and  Godolphin  to  treat  with  William  at  Hungeriord,  and 
succeeded  in  obtaining  moderate  terms  from  the  prince.  The 
negotiations,  however,  were  abortive,  for  James  had  from  the 
first  resolved  on  flight.  In  the  crisis  which  ensued,  when  the 
country  was  left  without  a  government,  Halifax  took  the  lead. 
He  presided  over  the  council  of  Lords  which  assembled  and  took 
immediate  measures  to  maintain  public  order.  On  the  return 
of  James  to  London  on  the  16th  of  November,  after  his  capture 
at  Faversham,  Halifax  repaired  to  William's  camp  and  hence- 
forth attached  himself  unremittingly  to  his  cause.  On  the 
17th  he  carried  with  Lords  Delamere  and  Shrewsbury  a  message 
from  William  to  the  king  advising  hb  departure  from  London, 
and,  after  the  king's  second  flight,  directed  the  proceedings  of 
the  executive.  On  the  meeting  of  the  convention  on  the  22nd 
of  January  1689,  he  was  formally  elected  speaker  of  the  House 
of  Lords.  He  voted  against  the  motion  for  a  regency  (Jan. 
so),  which  was  only  defeated  by  two  votes.  The  moderate 
and  comprehensive  character  of  the  settlement  at  the  revolution 
plainly  shows  his  guiding  hand,  and  it  was  finally  through  his 
persuasion  that  the  Lords  yielded  to  the  Commons  and  agreed 
to  the  compromise  whereby  William  and  Mary  were  declared 
joint  sovereigns.  On  the  13th  of  February  in  the  Banqueting 
House  at  Whitehall,  he  tendered  the  crown  to  them  in  the  name 
of  the  nation,  and  conducted  the  proclamation  of  their  accession 
in  the  dty. ' 

At  the  opening  of  the  new  reign  he  had  considerable  influence, 
was  made  lord  privy  seal,  while  Danby  his  rival  was  obUged  to 
content  himself  with  the  presidency  of  the  council,  and  con- 
trolled the  appointments  to  the  new  cabinet  which  were  made  on 
a  "  trimming  "  or  comprehensive  basis.  His  views  on  religious 
toleration  were  as  wide  as  those  of  the  new  king.  He  championed 
the  claims  of  the  Nonconformists  as  against  the  high  or  rigid 
Church  party,  and  he  was  bitterly  disappointed  at  the  miscarriage 
of  the  Comprehension  Bill.  He  thoroughly  approved  also  at 
first  of  William's  foreign  policj^;  but,  having  excited  the  hostility 
of  both  the  Whig  and  Tory  paries,  he  now  became  exposed  to 
a  series  of  attacks  in  parliament  which  finally  drove  him  from 
power.  He  was  severely  censured,  as  it  seems  quite  unjustly, 
for  the  disorder  in  Ireland,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  impeach 
him  for  his  conduct  with  regard  to  the  sentences  on  the  Whig 
leaders.  The  inquiry  resulted  in  his  favour;  but  notwithstand- 
ing, and  in  spite  of  the  king's  continued  support,  he  determined 
to  retire.  He  had  already  resigned  the  speakership  of  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  be  now  (Feb.  8,  1690)  quitted  his  place  in 
the  cabinet.  He  still  nominally  retained  his  seat  in  the  privy 
council,  but  in  parUament  he  became  a  bitter  critic  of  the 
administration;  and  the  rivalry  of  Halifax  (the  Black  Marquess) 
with  Danby,  now  marquess  of  Carmarthen  (the  White  Marquess) 
threw  the  former  at  this  time  into  determined  opposition.  He 
disapproved  of  William's  total  absorption  in  European  politics, 
and  bis  open  partiality  for  his  countrymen.  In  January  1691 
Halifax  had  an  interview  with  Henry  Bulkeley,  the  Jacobite 
agent,  and  is  said  to  have  promised  "  to  do  everything  that  lay  I 


in  his  power  to  serve  the  king."  This  was  probably  merely 
a  measure  of  precaution,  for  he  had  no  serious  Jacobite  leanings. 
He  entered  bail  for  Lord  Marlborough,  accused  wrongfully  of 
complicity  in  a  Jacobite  plot  in  May  1692,  and  in  June,  during 
the  absence  of  the  king  from  England,  his  name  was  struck  off 
the  privy  council. 

He  spoke  in  favour  of  the  Triennial  Bill  (Jan.  12, 1693)  which 
passed  the  legislature  but  was  vetoed  by  William,  suggested 
a  proviso  in  the  Licensing  Act,  which  restricted  its  operation 
to  anonymous  works,  approved  the  Place  Bill  (1694),  but 
opposed,  probably  on  account  of  the  large  sums  he  had  engaged 
in  the  traffic  of  annuities,  the  establishment  of  the  bank  of 
England  in  1694.  Early  in  1695  he  delivered  a  strong  atuck 
on  the  administration  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and,  after  a  short 
illness  arising  from  a  neglected  complaint,  he  died  on  the  sth  of 
April  at  the  age  of  sixty-one.  He  was  buried  in  Henry  VII. 's 
chapel  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

The  influence  of  Halifax,  both  as  orator  and  as  writer,  on 
the  public  opinion  of  his  day  was  probably  unrivalled.  His  in- 
tellectual powers,  his  high  character,  his  urbanity,  vivadty  and 
satirical  humour  made  a  great  impression  on  his  contemporaries, 
and  many  of  his  witty  sayings  have  been  recorded.  But  the 
superiority  of  his  statesmanship  could  not  be  appredated  till 
later  times.  Maintaining  throughout  his  career  a  complete 
detachment  from  party,  he  never  acted  permanently  or  con- 
tinuously with  either  of  the  two  great  factions,  and  exasperated 
both  in  turn  by  deserting  their  cause  at  the  moment  when  their 
hopes  seemed  on  the  point  of  realization.  To  them  he  appeared 
weak,  inconstant,  untrustworthy.  They  could  not  see  what  to 
us  now  is  plain  and  dear,  that  Halifax  was  as  consistent  in  his 
prindples  as  the  most  rabid  Whig  or  Tory.  But  the  prindple 
which  chiefly  influenced  his  poUtical  action,  that  of  compromise, 
differed  enentially  from  those  of  both  parties,  and  his  attitude 
with  regard  to  the  Whigs  or  Tories  was  thus  by  necessity  con- 
tinually changing.  Measures,  too,  which  in  certain  drcumstances 
appeared  to  him  advisable,  when  the  political  scene  had  changed 
became  unwise  or  dangerous.  Thus  the  regency  scheme,  which 
Halifax  had  supported  while  Charles  still  reigned,  was  opposed 
by  him  with  perfect  consistency  at  the  revolutioit  He  readily 
accepted  for  himself  the  character  of  a  "  trimmer,"  desiring,  he 
said,  to  keep  the  boat  steady,  while  others  attempted  to  weigh 
it  down  perilously  on  one  side  or  the  other;  and  he  concluded 
his  tract  with  these  assertions:  "  that  our  climate  is  a  Trimmer 
between  that  part  of  the  world  where  men  are  roasted  and  the 
other  Where  they  are  frozen;  that  our  Church  is  a  Trimmer 
between  the  frenzy  of  fanatic  visions  and  the  lethargic  ignorance 
of  Popish  dreams;  that  our  laws  are  Trimmers  between  the 
excesses  of  unbounded  power  and  the  extravagance  of  liberty 
not  enough  restrained;  that  true  virtue  hath  ever  been  thought 
a  Trimmer,  and  to  have  its  dwelling  in  the  middle  between  two 
extremes;  that  even  God  Almighty  Himself  is  divided  between 
His  two  great  attributes,  His  Mercy  and  His  Justice.  In  such 
company,  our  Trimmer  is  not  ashamed  of  his  name.  .  .  ."* 

His  powerful  mind  enabled  him  to  regard  the  various  political 
problems  of  his  time  from  a  height  and  from  a  point  of  view 
similar  to  that  from  which  distance  from  the  events  enables  us 
to  consider  them  at  the  present  day;  and  the  superiority  of  his 
vision  appears  suflicient^  from  the  fact  that  his  opinions  and 
judgments  on  the  political  questions  of  his  time  are  those  which 
for  the  most  part  have  ultimately  triumphed  and  found  general 
acceptance.  His  attitude  of  mind  was  curiously  modem* 
Reading,  writing  and  arithmetic,  he  thinks,  should  be  taught  to 
all  and  at  the  expense  of  the  state.  His  opinions  again  on  the 
constitutional  relations  of  the  colonies  to  the  mother  country, 
already  dted,  were  completely  opposed  to  those  of  his  own 
period.  For  that  view  of  his  character  which  while  allowing  him 
the  merit  of  a  brilliant  political  theorist  denies  him  the  qualities 
of  a  man  of  action  and  of  a  practical  politidan,  there  is  no  solid 
basis.  The  truth  is  that  while  his  political  ideas  are  founded 
upon  great  moral  or  philosophical  generalizations,  often  vividly 

*  Character  of  a  Trimmer,  conclusion. 
'Saviliana  quoted  by  Foxcroft  L  115. 


842 


HALIFAX,  1ST  MARQUESS 


recaUing  and  sometimes  anticipating  the  broad  conceptions  of 
Burke,  they  are  at  the  same  time  imbued  with  precisely  those 
practical  qualities  which  have  ever  been  characteristic  of  English 
statesmenship,  and  were  always  capable  of  application  to  actual 
conditions.  He  was  no  star-gazing  philosopher,  with  thoughts 
superior  to  the  contemplation  of  mundane  atfairs.  He  had  no 
taste  for  abstract  political  dogma.  He  seems  to  venture  no 
further  than  to  think  that  "men  should  live  in  some  competent 
state  of  freedom,"  and  that  the  limited  monarchical  and 
aristocratic  government  was  the  best  adapted  for  his  country. 
"  Circumstances,"  he  writes  in  the  Rough  Draft  of  a  New  Modd 
at  Sea^  "  must  come  in  and  are  to  be  made  a  part  of  the  matter 
of  which  we  are  to  judge;  positive  decisions  are  always  dangerous, 
more  especially  in  politics."  Nor  was  he  the  mere  literary 
student  buried  in  books  and  in  contemplative  ease.  He  had 
none  of  the  "  indedsiveness  which  commonly  renders  literary 
men  of  no  use  in  the  world  "  (Sir  John  Dalrymple).  The  incidents 
of  his  career  show  that  there  was  no  backwardness  or  hesitation 
in  acting  when  occasion  required.  The  constant  tendency  of 
his  mind  towards  antithesis  and  the  balancing  of  opinions  did 
not  lead  to  paralysis  in  time  of  action.  He  did  not  shrink  from 
responsibility,  nor  show  on  any  occasion  lack  qt  courage.  At 
various  times  of  crisis  he  proved  himself  a  great  leader.  He 
returned  to  public  life  to  defeat  the  Exclusion  Bill.  At  the 
revolution  it  was  Halifax  who  seized  the  reins  of  government, 
flimg  away  by  James,  and  maintained  public  security.  His 
subMquent  failure  in  collaborating  with  William  is,  it  is  true, 
disappointing.  But  the  cause  was  one  that  has  not  perhaps 
received  sufficient  attention.  Party  government  had  come  to 
the  birth  during  the  struggles  over  the  Exclusion  Bill,  and  there 
had  been  unconsciously  introduced  into  politics  a  novel  element 
of  which  the  nature  and  importance  were  not  understood  or 
suspected.  Halifax  had  consistently  ignored  and  neglected 
party;  and  it  now  had  its  revenge.  Detested  by  the  Whigs  and 
by  the  Tories  alike,  and  defended  by  neither,  the  favour  alone  of 
the  king  and  his  own  transcendent  abilities  proved  insufficient 
to  withstand  the  constant  and  violent  attacks  made  upon  him 
in  parliament,  and  he  yielded  to  the  superior  force.  He  seems 
indeed  himself  to  have  been  at  last  convinced  of  the  necessity 
in  English  political  life  of  party  government,  for  though  in  his 
Cautions  to  electors  he  warns  them  against  men  "  tied  to  a 
party,"  yet  in  his  last  words  he  declares  "  If  there  are  two  parties 
a  man  ought  to  adhere  to  that  which  he  disliked  least  though  in 
the  whole  he  doth  not  approve  it;  for  whilst  he  doth  not  list 
himself  in  one  or  the  other  party,  he  is  looked  upon  as  such  a 
straggler  that  he  is  fallen  upon  by  both.  .  .  .  Happy  those  that 
are  convinced  so  as  to  be  of  the  general  opinions  "  {Political 
Thoughts  and  Reflections  of  Parties), 

The  private  character  of  Lord  Halifax  was  in  harmony  with 
the  greatness  of  his  public  career.  He  was  by  no  means  the 
"  voluptuary  "  described  by  Macaulay.  He  was  on  the  contrary 
free  from  self-indulgence;  his  manner  of  life  was  decent  and 
frugal,  and  his  dress  proverbially  simple.  He  was  an  affectionate 
father  and  husband.  "  His  heart,"  says  Burnet  (i.  492-493, 
^'  x833)» "  was  much  set  on  raising  his  family  " — his  last  concern 
even  while  on  his  deathbed  was  the  remarriage  of  his  son 
Lord  Eland  to  perpetuate  his  name;  and  this  is  probably  the 
cause  of  his  acceptance  of  so  many  titles  for  which  he  himself 
affected  a  philosophical  indifference.  He  was  estimable  in  his 
social  relations  and  habits.  He  showed  throughout  his  career 
an  honourable  independence,  and  was  never  seen  to  worship  the 
rising  sun.  In  a  period  when  even  great  men  stooped  to  accept 
brib^,  Halifax  was  known  to  be  incorruptible;  at  a  time  when 
animosities  were  especially  bitter,  he  was  too  great  a  man  to 
harbour  resentments.  "  Not  only  from  policy,"  says  Reresby 
(Mem.  p.  231),  "  (which  teaches  that  we  ought  to  let  no  man 
be  our  enemy  when  we  can  help  it),  but  from  his  disposition  I 
never  saw  any  man  more  ready  to  iforgive  than  himself."  Few 
were  insensible  to  his  personal  charm  and  gaiety.  He  excelled 
especially  in  quick  repartee,  in  "exquisite  nonsense,"  and  in 
spontaneous  humour.  When  quite  a  young  man,  just  entering 
upon  political  life  he  is  described  by  Evelyn  as  "  a  witty  gentle- 


man, if  not  a  little  too  prompt  and  daring."  The  latter  cba- 
racteristic  was  not  moderated  by  time  but  remained  througji  life. 
He  was  incapable  of  controlling  his  spirit  of  raiUeiy,  from  jests 
on  Siamese  missionaries  to  sarcasms  at  the  expense  of  the  heir 
to  the  throne  and  ridicule  of  hereditary  monarchy,  and  his 
brilliant  parodoxes,  his  pungent  and  often  profane  ejugrams 
were  received  by  graver  persons  as  his  real  opimota  and  as 
evidences  of  athebm.  This  latter  charge  he  repudiated,  assuring 
Burnet  that  he  was  "  a  Christian  in  submission,"  but  that  he 
could  not  digest  iron  like  an  ostrich  nor  swallow  all  that  the 
divines  sought  to  impose  upon  the  world. 

The  speeches  of  Halifax  have  not  been  preserved,  and  his 
political  writings  on  this  account  have  all  the  greater  value. 
The  Character  of  a  Trimmer  (1684  or  1685),  the  authorship  of 
which,  long  doubtful,  is  now  established,^  was  his  most  ambitious 
production,  written  seemingly  as  advice  to  the  king  and  as  a 
manifesto  of  his  own  opinions.  In  it  he  disnisses  the  p(^tical 
problems  of  the  time  and  their  solution  on  broad  priacipks. 
He  supports  the  Test  Act  and,  while  opposing  the  Indulgaice, 
is  not  hostile  to  the  repeal  of  the  penal  laws  against  the  Roman 
Catholics  by  parliament.  Turning  to  foreign  affairs  he.cootem- 
plates  with  consternation  the  growing  power  of  Fiance  and  the 
humiliation  of  England,  exclaiming  indignantly  at  the  sght  of 
the  "  Roses  blasteid  and  discoloured  while  liUes  triumph  and 
grow  insolent  upon  the  comparison."  The  whole  is  a  masteriy 
and  comprehensive  stmimary  of  the  actual  political  atuatxm  and 
its  exigendes;  while,  when  he  treats  such  themes  as  liberty, 
or  discusses  the  balance  to  be  maintained  between  freed<Hn  and 
government  in  the  constitution,  he  rises  to  the  political  idealism 
of  Bolingbroke  and  Burke.  The  Character  of  King  CkerUs  IL 
(printed  1750),  to  be  compared  with  his  earlier  sketch  of  the  king 
in  the  Character  of  a  Trimmer ,  is  perhaps  from  the  literary  point 
of  view  the  most  admirable  of  his  writings.  The  famoos  Letter 
to  a  Dissenter  (1687)  was  thought  by  Sir  James  Mackintosh  to 
be  imrivalled  as  a  political  pamphlet.  The  Lai^t  New  Year's 
Gift:  or  Advice  to  a  Daughter,  reJFers  to  his  daughter  Elizabeth, 
afterwards  wife  of  the  3rd  and  mother  of  the  oeld>rated  4tli  eari 
of  Chesterfield  (1688).  In  The  Anatomy  of  an  Equaalent  (168S) 
he  treats  with  keen  wit  and  power  of  analysis  the  proposal  to 
grant  a  "  perpetual  edict  "  in  favour  of  the  Estahlubed  Church 
in  return  for  the  repeal  of  the  test  and  penal  laws.  Maxims  of 
Slate  appeared  about  1692.  The  Rough-  Draft  ef  a  New  Modd 
at  Sea  (c.  1694),  though  apparently  only  a  fragment,  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  characteristic  of  his  writings.  It  opens 
with  the  question:  *  'What  shall  we  do  to  be  saved  in  this  worid?* 
There  is  no  other  answer  but  this, '  Look  to  your  moat.'  The 
first  artide  of  an  Englishman's  political  creed  must  be  that  be 
bdieveth  in  the  sea."  He  discusses  the  naval  establishment, 
not  from  the  naval  point  of  view  alone,  but  from  the  general 
aspect  of  the  constitution  of  which  it  is  a  detail,  and  b  thus  led 
on  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  constitution  itself,  and  to  show 
that  it  is  not  an  artificial  structure  but  a  growth  and  product 
of  the  natural  character.  We  may  also  mention  Some  Cautions 
to  the  electors  of  the  parliament  ti694),  and  Political,  Mertd  end 
Miscellaneous  Thoughts  and  Reflections  (n.d.),  a  coOection  ot 
aphorisms  in  the  style  of  the  maxims  of  La  Rochefoucauld, 
inferior  in  style — but  greatly  excelling  the  French  author  in 
breadth  of  view  and  in  moderation.  (For  other  writings 
attributed  to  Halifax,  see  Foxcroft,  Life  of  Sir  G.  Sasile,  ii. 
529  sqq.). 

Halifax  was  twice  married,  first  in  1656  to  the  Lady  Dmotfay 
Spencer — daughter  of  the  xst  earl  of  Sunderland  and  of  DcMXMh y 
Sidney,  "  Sacharissa  " — ^who  died  in  1670^  leaving  a  family;  and 
secondly,  in  1672,  to  Gertrude,  daughter  of  William  Pierrepont 
of  Thoresby,  who  survived  him,  and  by  vriiom  he  had  one 
daughter,  Elizabeth,  Lady  Chesterfield,  who  seems  to  have  in- 
herited a  considerable  portion  of  her  father's  intellectual  abilitks. 
On  the  death  of  his  son  William,  2nd  marquess  of  Halifax,  in 
August  1700  without  male  issue,  the  peerage  became  extinct, 
and  the  baronetcy  passed  to  the  Saviles  of  Liqiset,  the  whole 

<  Foxcroft.  ii.  373  et  aeq..  and  HisL  MSS.  Comm,  MSS,  of  F.  W 
Leybome-Popham,  p.  264. 


HALIFAX 


843 


male  line  of  the  Savile  family  ending  in  the  person  of  Sir  George 
Savik,  8th  baronet,  in  1784.  Henry  Savilc,  British  envoy  at 
Versailles,  who  died  unmarried  in  1687,  was  a  younger  brother 
of  the  first  marquess.  Halifax  has  been  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  the  father  of  the  illegitimate  Henry  Carey,  the  poet, 

but  this  is  doubtful.  ^    ,,  „       .     ,  „  ., 

See  Life  and  Letters  of  Sir  CtoruB  Samie,  ist  ilarquu  of  Halt/ax 
(2  vols..  1898).  by  Miss  ti.  C.  Foxcroft,  who  has  collected  and  made 
excellent  use  of  all  the  material  available  at  that  date,  including 
hitherto  unexplored  Savile  MSS..  at  Devonshire  House,  in  the 
Spencer  Archives,  in  the  Longleat  and  other  collections,  and  who 
has  edited  the  works  of  Halifax  and  printed  a  memorandum  of 
conversations  with  King  William  of  1688-1690,  left  in  MS.  by  Halifax. 
Macaulay,  in  his  History  of  Engfand,  misjudged  Halifax  on*some 
points,  but  nevertheless  understood  and  did  justice  to  the  greatness 
of  his  statesmanship,  and  pronounced  on  him  a  well-mentcd  and 
eloquent  eulogy  (iv.  545).  Contemporary  characters  of  Halifax 
which  must  be  accepted  with  caution  are  Burnet's  in  the  flistory  of 
His  Own  Tims  (ed.  18A3,  vol.  i.  pp.  49i-49A>  *"<*  »v.  268),  that  by  the 
author  of  "  Savilianal,  identified  as  Willtam  Mompessoo.  and 
"  Sacellum  Apollinare,''  a  panegyric  in  vene  by  EUcanah  Settle 
(1695).  (P-  C.  Y.) 

HAUPAX,  a  city  and  port  of  entry,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Nova  Scotia,  Canada.  It  is  situated  in  44"*  59'  N.  and  63"*  35'  W., 
on  the  south-cast  coast  of  the  province,  on  a  fortified  hill,  225  ft. 
in  height,  which  slopes  down  to  the  waters  of  Chebucto  Bay, 
now  known  as  Halifax  Harbour.  The  harbour,  which  is  open  all 
the  year,  is  about  6  m.  long  by  x  m.  in  width,  and  has  excellent 
anchorage  in  all  parts;  to  the  north  a  narrow  passage  connects 
it  with  Bedford  Basin,  6  m.  in  length  by  4  m.,  and  deep  enough 
for  the  largest  men-of-war.  At  the  harbour  mouth  lies  McNab's 
Island,  thus  forming  two  entrances;  the  eastern  passage  is 
only  employed  by  simdl  vessels,  though  in  1862  the  Confederate 
cruiser,  "  Tallahassee,"  slipped  through  by  night,  and  escaped 
the  northern  vessels  which  were  watching  o£F  the  western 
entrance.    The  population  in  1901  was  40,832. 

The  town  was  originally  built  of  wood,  plastered  or  stuccoed, 
but  though  the  wooden  houses  largely  remain,  the  public  buildings 
are  of  stone.  Inferior  in  natural  strength  to  Quebec  alone,  the 
city  and  its  approaches  have  been  fortified  till  it  has  become 
the  strongest  position  in  Canada,  and  one  of  the  strongest  in  the 
British  Empire.  Till  1906  it  was  garrisoned  by  British  troops, 
but  in  that  year,  with  Esquimalt,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  it  was 
taken  over  by  the  Canadian  government,  an  operation  necessitat- 
ing a  large  increase  in  the  Canadian  permanent  military  force. 
At  the  same  time,  the  royal  dockyard,  containing  a  dry-dock 
610  ft.  in  length,  and  the  residences  in  connexion,  were  also  taken 
over  for  the  use  of  the  department  of  marine  and  fisheries. 
Till  1905  Halifax  was  the  summer  station  of  the  British  North 
American  squadron.  In  that  year,  in  consequence  of  a  redis- 
tribution of  the  fleet,  the  permanent  North  American  squadron 
was  withdrawn;  but  Halifax  is  still  visited  periodically  by 
powerful  squadrons  of  cruisers. 

Though,  owing  to  the  growth  of  Sydney  and  other  outports, 
it  no  longer  monopolizes  the  foreign  trade  of  the  province, 
Halifax  is  still  a  thriving  town,  and  has  the  largest  export  trade 
of  the  Dominion  in  fish  and  fish. products,  the  export  of  fish 
alone,  in  1904,  amounting  to  over  three-fifths  that  of  the  entire 
Dominion.  Lumber  (chiefly  spruce  deals)  and  agricultural  pro- 
ducts (especially  apples)  are  also  exported  in  large  quantities. 
The  chief  imports  are  manufactures  from  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  and  sugar,  molasses,  rum  and  fruit  from  the 
West  Indies.  Its  industrial  establishments  include  foundries, 
sugar  refineries,  nuinufactures  of  furniture  and  other  articles  of 
wood,  a  skate  factory  and  rope  and  cordage  works,  the  produce 
of  which  are  all  exported.  It  is  the  Atlantic  terminus  of  the 
Intercolonial,  Canadian  Pacific  and  several  provincial  railways, 
and  the  chief  winter  port  of  Canada,  numerous  steamship  lines 
connecting  it  with  Great  Britain,  Europe,  the  West  Indies  and 
the  United  States.  The  public  gardens,  covering  14  acres,  and 
Point  Pleasant  Park,  left  to  a  great  extent  in  its  natural  state, 
are  extremely  beautiful.  Behind  the  city  is  an  arm  of  the  sea 
(known  as  the  North- West  Arm).  5  m.  in  length  and  t  m  in  breadth, 
with  high,  well- wooded  shores,  and  covered  in  summer  with 
canoes  and  sailing  craft.    The  educational  institutions  include 


a  ladies'  college,  several  convents,  a  Presbyterian  theological 
college  and  Dalhousie  University,  with  faculties  of  arts,  law, 
medicine  and  science.  Established  by  charter  in  x8i8  by  the 
earl  of  Dalhousie,  then  lieutenant  governor,  and  reorganized 
in  1863,  it  has  since  become  much  the  most  important  seat  of 
learning  in  the  maritime  provinces.  Other  prominent  buildings 
are  Government  House,  the  provincial  parliament  and  library, 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  St  Paul's  church  (Anglican) 
dates  from  1750,  and  though  not  striking  architecturally,  is 
interesting  from  the  memorial  tablets  and  the  graves  of  celebrated 
Nova  Scotians  which  it  contains.  The  dty  is  the  seat  of  the 
Anglican  bishop  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island,  and 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  Halifax. 

Founded  in  1749  by  the  Hon.  Edward  Comwallis  as  a  rival 
to  the  French  town  of  Louisburg  in  Cape  Breton,  it  was  named 
after  the  2nd  earl  of  Halifax,  president  of  the  board  of  trade  and 
plantations.  In  the  following  year  it  superseded  Annapolis  as 
capital  of  the  province.  Its  privateers  played  a  prominent  part 
in  the  war  of  1812-15  with  the  United  States,  and  during  the 
American  Civil  War  it  was  a  favourite  base  of  operations  for 
Confederate  blockade-runners.  The  federation  of  the  North 
American  provinces  in  1867  lessened  its  relative  importance, 
but  its  merchants  have  gradually  adapted  themselves  to  the 
altered  conditions. 

HAUFAXv  a  municipal,  county  and  parliamentary  borough 
in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  194  m.  N.N.W.  from 
London  and  7  m.  S.W.  from  Bradford,  on  the  Great  Northern 
and  the  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  railways.  Pop.  (1891),  97,7Z4i 
(190X)  xo4,936.  It  lies  in  a  bare  hilly  district  on  and  above  the 
small  river  Hebble  near  its  junction  with  the  Calder.  Its  appear- 
ance  is  in  the  main  modem,  though  a  few  picturesque  old  houses 
remain.  The  North  Bridge,  a  fine  iron  structure,  spans  the 
valley,  giving  connexion  between  the  opposite  higher  parts  of 
the  town.  The  principal  public  building  is  the  town  hall, 
completed  in  1863  after  the  designs  of  Sir  Charles  Barry;  it  is 
a  handsome  Palladian  building  with  a  tower.  Of  churches  the 
most  noteworthy  is  that  of  St  John  the  Baptist,  the  parish  church, 
a  Perpendicular  building  with  lofty  western  tower.  Two  earlier 
churches  are  traceable  on  this  side,  the  first  perhaps  pre-Norman, 
the  second  of  the  Early  English  period.  The  old  woodwork  is 
fine,  part  being  Perpendicular,  but  the  greater  portion  dates 
from  162X.  All  Souls'  church  was  built  in  1859  from  the  designs 
of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  of  whose  work  it  is  a  good  example,  at  the 
expense  of  Mr  Edward  Akroyd.  The  style  is  early  Decorated, 
and  a  rich  ornamentation  is  carried  out  in  Italian  marble, 
serpentine  and  alabaster.  A  graceful  tower  and  spire  236  ft. 
hi{^  rise  at  the  north-west  angle.  The  Square  chapel,  erected 
by  the  Congregationalists  in  1857,  is  a  striking  cnidform  building 
with  a  tower  and  elaborate  crocketed  q>ire.  Both  the  central 
library  and  museum  and  the  Akroyd  museum  and  art  gallery 
occupy  buildings  which  were  formerly  residences,  the  one  of 
Sir  Francis  Crossley  (1817-1872)  and  the  other  of  Mr  Edward 
Akroyd.  Among  charitable  institutions  the  principal  is  the 
handsome  royal  infirmary,  a  Renaissance  building.  The  Heath 
grammar  school  was  founded  in  1585  under  royal  charter  for 
instruction  in  classical  languages.  It  possesses  close  scholarships 
at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  universities.  The  Waterhouse  charity 
school  occupies  a  handsome  set  of  buildings  forming  three  sides 
of  a  quadrangle,  erected  in  1855.  The  Crossley  alnu^ooses  were 
erected  and  endowed  by  Sir  Francis  and  Mr  Joseph  Crossley, 
who  also  endowed  the  Crossley  orphan  home  and  school. 
Technical  schools  are  maintained  by  the  corporation.  Among 
other  public  buildings  may  be  noted  the  Piece-Hall,  erected 
in  1799  for  the  lodgment  and  sale  of  piece  goods,  now  used  as  a 
market,  a  great  quadrangular  structure  occupying  more  than 
two  acres;  the  bonding  warehouse,  court-house,  and  mechanics' 
institute.  There  are  six  parks,  of  which  the  People's  Park  of 
i3|  acres,  presented  by  Sir  Francis  Crossley  in  1858,  is  laid  out 
in  ornate  style  from  designs  by  Sir  Joseph  Paxton. 

Halifax  ranks  with  Leeds,  Bradford  and  Huddersfield  as  a 
seat  of  the  woollen  and  worsted  manufacture.  The  manufacture 
of  carpets  is  a  large  industry,  one  establishment  employing  tome 


844 


HALISAH— HALKETT 


5000  hands.  The  wonted,  woollen  and  cotton  industries,  and 
the  iron,  steel  and  machinery  manufactures  v  are  very  ex- 
tensive. There  are  collieries  and  freestone  quarries  in  the 
neighbourhood. 

The  parliamentary  borough  returns  two  members.  The 
county  borough  was  created  in  x888.  The  municipal  borough 
is  under  a  mayor,  15  aldermen  and  45  coundUora.  Area, 
13,967  acres. 

At  the  time  of  the  Conquest  Halifax  formed  part  of  the 
extensive  manor  of  Wakefield,  which  belonged  to  the  king,  but 
in  the  13th  century  was  in  the  hands  of  John,  earl  Warrenne 
{c.  1 245-1305).  "Die  prosperity  of  the  town  began  with  the 
introduction  of  the  cloth  trade  in  the  15th  century,  when  there 
are  said  to  have  been  only  thirteen  houses,  which  before  the  end 
of  the  i6th  century  had  increased  to  520.  Camden,  about  the 
end  of  the  X7th  century,  wrote  that  "  the  people  are  very  in- 
dustrious, 80  that  though  the  soil  about  it  be  barren  and  improfit- 
able,  not  fit  to  live  on,  they  have  so  flourished  ...  by  the 
clothing  trade  that  they  are  very  rich  and  have  gained  a  reputa- 
tion for  it  above  their  neighbours."  The  trade  is  said  to  have 
been  increased  by  the  arrival  of  certain  merchants  driven  from 
the  Netherlands  by  the  persecution  of  the  duke  of  Alva.  Aroo:.g 
the  curious  customs  of  Halifax  was  the  Gibbet  Law,  which  was 
probably  established  by  a  prescriptive  right  to  protect  the  wool 
trade,  and  gave  the  inhabitants  the  power  of  executing  any  one 
taken  within  their  liberty,  who,  when  tried  by  a  jury  of  sixteen 
of  the  frith-burgesses,  was  found  guilty  of  the  theft  of  any  goods 
of  the  value  of  more  than  X3d.  The  executions  took  place  on 
market  days  on  a  hill  outside  the  town,  the  gibbet  somewhat 
resembling  a  guillotine.  The  first  execution  recorded  under  this 
law  took  place  in  1541,  and  the  right  was  exercised  in  Halifax 
longer  than  in  any  other  town,  the  last  execution  taking  place 
in  1650.  In  1635  the  king  granted  the  inhabitants  of  Halifax 
licence  to  found  a  workhouse  in  a  large  house  given  to  them  for 
that  purpose  by  Nathaniel  Waterhouse,  and  incorporated  them 
under  the  name  of  the  master  and  governors.  Nathaniel  Water- 
house  was  appointed  the  first  master,  his  successors  being  elected 
every  year  by  the  twelve  governors  from  among  themselves. 
Halifax  was  a  borough  by  prescription,  its  privileges  growing 
up  with  the  increased  prosperity  brought  by  the  cloth  trade, 
but  it  was  not  incorporated  until  1848.  Since  the  Reform  Act 
of  1832  the  burgesses  have  returned  two  members  to  {>arliament. 
In  1607  David  Waterhouse,  lord  of  the  manor  of  Halifax, 
obtained  a  grant  of  two  markets  there  every  week  on  Friday 
and  Saturday  and  two  fairs  every  year,  each  lasting  three  days, 
one  beginning  on  the  a4th  of  June,  the  other  on  the  nth  of 
November.  Later  these  fairs  and  markets  were  confirmed  with 
the  addition  of  an  extra  market  on  Thursday  to  Sir  William 
Ayloffe,  baronet,  who  had  succeeded  David  Waterhouse  as  lord 
of  the  manor.  The  market  rights  were  sold  to  the  Markets 
Company  in  x8xo  and  purchased  from  them  by  the  corporation 
in  1853. 

During  the  Civil  War  Halifax  was  garrisoned  by  parliament, 
and  a  field  near  it  is  still  called  the  Bloody  Field  on  account  of 
an  engagement  which  took  place  there  between  the  forces  of 
parliament  and  the  Royalists. 

See  Victoria  County  History,  "Yorkshire";  T.  Wright.  The 
AntiquUies  of  the  Town  of  Halifax  ^Leeds,  1738);  John  Watson, 
The  History  and  Anliquities  of  the  Partsh  of  Halijax  (London,  1775) ; 
John  Crabtree,  A  Concise  History  of  the  Paruh  and  Vtcaraie  of 
Halifax  (Halifax  and  London,  1836). 

9AU$AH  (Hebrew,  T^Q  "untying"),  the  ceremony  by 
which  a  Jewish  widow  releases  her  brother-in-law  from  the 
obligation  to  marry  her  in  accordance  with  Deuteronomy  xxv. 
5-10,  and  obtains  her  own  freedom  to  remarry.  By  the  law 
of  Moses  it  became  obligatory  upon  the  brother  of  a  man 
dying  childless  to  take  his  widow  as  wife.  If  he  Defused,  "  then 
shall  bis  brother's  wife  come  unto  him  in  the  presence  of  the 
elders  and  loose  his  shoe  from  of!  his  foot,  and  spit  in  his  face, 
and  shall  answer  and  say,  So  shall  it  be  done  unto  that  man  that 
will  not  build  up  his  brother's  house."  By  Rabbinical  law  the 
ceremony  was  later  made  more  complex.    The  parties  appear 


before  a  court  of  three  elders  witli  two  asscsora.  Tlie  place  k 
usually  the  synagogue  house,  or  that  of  the  Rabbi,  soxnetimes 
that  of  the  widow.  After  inquiry  as  to  the  rrlationship  of  the 
parties  and  their  status  (for  if  either  be  a  minor  or  deformn!, 
balifah  caimot  take  place),  the  shoe  is  produced.  It  is  usually 
the  property  of  the  commtmity  and  made  entirely  ci  leather 
from  the  skin  of  a  "  dean  "  aniiual.  It  is  of  two  pieces,  the  upper 
part  and  the  sole,  sewn  together  with  leathern  threads.  It  has 
three  small  straps  in  front,  and  two  white  straps  to  Uxid  it  cm 
the  leg.  After  it  is  strapped  on,  the  man  must  walk  four  cubiu 
in  the  presence  of  the  court.  The  widow  then  V'^t'k  and 
removes  the  shoe,  throwing  it  some  distance,  aiMl  spits  on  the 
ground,  repeating  thrice  the  Biblical  formula  ''  So  shall  it  be 
done,"  &c  Qali^ah,  which  is  still  common  among  orthodox 
Jews,  must  not  take  place  on  the  Sabbath,  a  holiday,  oir  the  eve 
of  either,,  or  in  the  evening.  To  prevent  brothei»-in-law  from 
extorting  money  from  a  widow  as  a  price  for  rdeasing  her  from 
perpetuid  widowhood,  Jewish  law  obliges  all  brothers  at  the  time 
of  a  marriage  to  sign  a  document  pledging  themselves  to  submit 
to  baligah  without  payment.    (Compare  Levikate). 

HALKBTT.  HUGH,  FaEXHEiK  von  (1783-1863),  British 
soldier  and  general  of  infantry  in  the  Hanoverian  sovioe,  was  the 
second  son  of  Major-General  F.  G.  Halkett,  who  had  served 
many  years  in  the  army,  and  whose  ancestors  bad  for  several 
generations  distinguished  themsdves  in  foreign  servicea.  With 
the  "  Scotch  Brigade  "  which  his  father  had  been  laigdy  Instru- 
mental in  raising,  Hugh  Halkett  served  in  India  from  1798  to 
I  Sox .  In  x8o3  his  dder  brother  Colin  was  appointed  to  ronimand 
a  battalion  of  the  newly  formed  King's  Gennan  Legion,  and  in 
this  he  became  senior  captain  and  then  nujor.  Uiider  his 
brother's  command  he  served  with  Cathcart's  expeditions  to 
Hanover,  RUgen  and  Copenhagen,  where  his  bold  initiative  on 
outpost  duty  won  commendation.  He  was  in  the  Peniioula  in 
x8o8-x8o9,  and  at  Walcheren.  At  Albuera,  Salamanca,  &c.,  he 
commanded  the  and  Light  Infantry  Battalion,  K.GX.,  in  soc- 
cession  to  his  brother,  and  at  Venta  dd  Pozo  in  the  Burgos 
retreat  he  greatly  distinguished  himself.  In  x8x3  he  kft  the 
Peninsula  and  was  subsequently  employed  in  the  organization 
of  the  new  Hanoverian  army.  He  led  a  brigade  of  these  troops 
in  Count  Wallmoden's  army,  and  bore  a  marked  part  in  the  battle 
of  G6hrde  and  the  action  of  Schestedt,  where  he  took  with  his 
own  hand  a  Danish  standard.  In  the  Waterloo  campaign  be 
commanded  two  brigades  of  Hanoverian  militia  which  were  sent 
to  the  front  with  the  regulars,  and  during  the  fight  with  the 
Old  Guard  captured  General  Cambronne.  After  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  he  elected  to  stay  in  the  Hanoverian  service,  though 
he  retained  his  half -pay  lieutenant-colonelcy  in  the  English  army. 
He  rose  to  be  general  and  inspector-general  of  infantry.  In  his 
old  age  he  led  the  Xth  Federal  Army  Corps  in  the  Danish  War 
of  1848,  and  defeated  the  danes  at  Oversee.  He  had  the  G.C  Jf., 
the  C.B.  and  many  foreign  orders,  including  the  Prussian 
order  of  the  Black  Eagle  and  pour  U  Mirite  and  the  Russian 
St  Anne. 

See  Kneaebeck,  Leiben  de$  Freikerm  Hugh  von  Halkett  (Stuttgart. 

1865) 

His  brother.  Sir  Coun  Halkett  (x 774-1856),  British  soldier, 
began  his  military  career  in  the  Dutch  Guards  and  served  in 
various  "  companies  "  for  three  years,  leaving  as  a  captain  in 
1795.  From  x8oo  to  the  peace  of  Amiens  he  served  with  the 
Dutch  troops  in  English  pay  in  Guernsey.  In  August  1803 
Halkett  was  one  of  the  first  officers  assigned  to  the  service  of 
raising  the  Kmg's  German  Legion,  and  be  became  major,  and 
later  lieutenant-colonel,  commandmg  the  snd  Light  Infantry 
Battalion.  His  battalion  was  employed  in  the  various  expedi- 
tions mentioned  above,  from  Hanover  to  Walcheren,  and  in  iSii 
Colin  Halkett  succeeded  Charles  Alten  in  the  command  of  the 
Light  Brigade,  K  G.L.,  which  he  held  throughout  the  Peninsula 
War  from  Albuera  to  Toulouse.  In  1 8x  5  Major-General  Sir  Colin 
Halkett  commanded  the  5th  British  Brigade  of  Allen's  di\'i&ion. 
and  at  Waterloo  he  received  four  wounds.  Unlike  his  brother, 
he  remained  in  the  Britbh  service,  in  which  he  rose  to 
general.    At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  governor  of  Chdsea 


HALL,  BASIL— HALL,  CARL 


Hs 


hospttiL    He  luui  honorary  generars  rank  in  the  Hanoverian 

senace,  the  G.C3.  and  G.C.H.,  as  well  as  numerous  foreign 

orders. 

For  infomiation  about  both  the  Halkctts,  see  Beamish,  History 
iff  the  King's  German  Legion  (1832). 

HAUft  BASIL  (i78fr-i844)>  British  naval  officer,  traveller  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh  on  the  jist  of 
December  1788.  His  father  was  Sir  James  Hall  of  Dunglass,  the 
geologist.  Basil  Hall  was  educated  at  the  High  School,  Edinburgh, 
and  in  1802  entered  the  navy,  where  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  post- 
captain  in  1817,  after  seeing  active  service  in  several  fields. 
By  observing  the  ethnological  as  well  as  the  physical  peculiarities 
of  the  countries  he  visited,  he  a>llected  the  materials  for  a  very 
large  number  of  scientific  papers.  In  x8x6  he  commanded  the 
sloop  **  Lyra,"  which  accompanied  Lord  Amherst's  embassy  to 
China;  and  he  described  his  cruise  ia  An  Account  of  a  Voyage  of 
Discovery  to  the  West  Coast  of  Corea  and  the  Great  Loo-ckoo  Idatid 
in  the  Japan  Sea  (London,  x8x8).  In  X820  he  held  a  command  on 
the  Pacific  coast  of  America,  amd  in  1824  published  two  volumes 
of  Exkactsfrom  a  Journal  written  on  the  Coasts  of  Chili ^  Peru  and 
Mexico  in  the  Years  1820-21-22.  Retiring  on  half-pay  in  1824, 
Hall  in  X  82  5  married  Margaret,  daughter  of  Sir  John  Hunter,  and 
in  her  company  travelled  (1827-1828)  through  the  United  States. 
In  X829  he  published  his  Traods  in  North  America  in  the  Years 
1827  and  1828,  which  was  assailed  by  the  American  press  for  its 
views  of  American  society.  Schloss  Hainfeld,  or  a  Winter  in 
Lower  Styria  (1836),  is  partly  a  romance,  partly  a  description 
of  a  visit  paid  by  the  author  to  the  castle  of  the  countess  Purg- 
suU.  Spitin  and  the  Seat  of  War  in  Spain  appeared  in  X837. 
The  Fragments  of  Voyages  and  Travels  (9  vols.)  were  issued  in 
three  deuchments  between  1831  and  1840.  Captain  HaU  was  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London  and  Edinburgh,  and 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical,  Royal  Geographical  and  Geological 
Societies.  His  last  work,  a  collection  of  sketches  and  tales  under 
the  name  of  Patchwork  (1841),  had  not  been  long  published  before 
its  author  became  insane,  and  he  died  in  Haslar  hospital,  Ports- 
mouth, on  the  xxth  of  September  X844. 

HALU  CARL  CHRISTIAN  (x8x  2-1888),  Danish  sUtesman,  son 
of  the  highly  respected  artisan  and  train-band  colonel  Mads  Hall, 
was  bom  at  Christianshavn  on  the  25th  of  February  x8i2. 
After  a  distinguished  career  at  school  and  college,  he  adopted  the 
law  as  his  profesuon,  and  in  X837  married  the  highly  gifted  but 
eccentric  AugusU  Marie,  daughter  of  the  philologist  Peter  Oluf 
Brdndsted.  A  natural  conservatism  indisposed  Hall  at  first  to 
take  any  part  in  the  popuUr  movement  of  1848,  to  which  almost 
all  his  friends  had  already  adhered;  but  the  moment  he  was  con- 
vinced of  the  inevitability  of  popular  govemment,  he  resolutely 
and  sympathetically  followed  in  the  new  paths.  Sent  to  the 
RigsforsanUing  of  1848  as  member  for  the  fixvt  district  of  Copen- 
hagen, a  constituency  he  continued  to  represent  in  the  Folketing 
till  x88i,  he  immediately  took  his  place  in  the  front  rank  of 
Danish  politicians.  From  the  first  he  displayed  rare  ability  as 
a  debater,  his  inspiring  and  yet  amiable  personality  attracted 
hosts  of  admirers,  while  his  extraordinajy  tact  and  temper 
disarmed  opposition  and  enabled  him  to  mediate  between 
extremes  without  ever  sacrificing  principles. 

HaU  was  not  altogether  satisfied  with  the  fimdamental  law  of 
June;  but  he  considered  it  expedient  to  make  the  best  use 
possible  of  the  existing  constitution  and  to  unite  the  "best  con- 
servative elements  of  the  nation  in  its  defence.  The  aloofness 
and  sulkiness  of  the  aristocrats  and  landed  proprietors  he 
deeply  deplored.  Failing  to  rally  them  to  the  good  cause  he 
determined  anyhow  to  organize  the  great  cxiltivated  middle  class 
into  a  political  party.  Hence  the  "  June  Union,"  whose  pro- 
gramme was  progress  and  reform  in  the  spirit  of  the  constitution, 
and  at  the  same  time  opposition  to  the  one-sided  democratism 
and  party-tyranny  of  the  Bondevermer  or  peasant  party.  The 
"  Union  "  exercised  an  essential  influence  on  the  dections  of 
1852,  and  was,  in  fact,  the  beginning  of  the  national  Liberal 
party,  which  found  its  natural  leader  in  HalL  During  the  years 
1852-1854  the  burning  question  of  the  day  was  the  connexion 
between  the  various  parts  of  the  monarchy.    HaU  waa  **  eider- 


dansk  "  by  conviction.  He -saw  in  the  ckwest  possible  union 
between  the  kingdom  and  a  Schleswig  freed  from  aU  risk  of 
German  interference  the  essential  condition  for  Denmark's 
independence;  but  he  did  not  think  that  Denmark  was  strong 
enough  to  carry  such  a  policy  through  unsupported,  and  he 
was  therefore  inclined  to  promote  it  by  diplomatic  means  and 
international  combinations,  and  stron^y  opposed  to  the  Con- 
ventions of  1851-1852  (See  Denhaxk:  History),  though  he  was 
among  the  first,  subsequently,  to  accept  them  as  an  established 
fact  and  the  future  basis 'for  Denmark's  poUcy. 

Hall  first  took  office  in  the  Bang  administration  (xath  of 
December  1854)  as  minister  of  public  worship.  In  May  1857 
he  became  president  of  the  coundl  after  Andxae,  Bang's  suc- 
cessor, had  retired,  and  in  July  1858  be  exchanged  the  ministry 
of  pubUc  worship  for  the  mixiistxy  of  foreign  affairs,  while  still 
retaining  the  premiership. 

^  HaU's  programme,  "  den  KonstitutioneUe  HelsUt,"  i.e.  a 
single  state  with  a  common  constitution,  was  difficult  enough 
in  a  monarchy  which  included  two  nationalities,  one  of  which, 
to  a  great  extent,  belonged  to  a  foreign  and  hostUe  jurisdiction. 
But  as  this  poUtical  monstrosity  had  already  been  guaranteed 
by  the  Conventions  of  185X-X852,  HaU  could  not  rid  himself 
of  it,  and  the  attempt  to  establish  this  "  Helstat "  was  made 
accordingly  by  the  Constitution  of  the  X3th  of  November  1863. 
The  failure  of  the  attempt  and  its  disastrous  consequences  for 
Denmark  are  described  elsewhere.  Here  it  need  only  be  said  that 
HaU  himself  soon  became  aware  of  the  impossibUity  of  the 
"  Helstat,"  and  his  whole  poUcy  aimed  at  making  its  absurdity 
patent  to  Europe,  and  substituting  for  it  a  constitutional  Den- 
mark to  the  Eider  which  would  be  in  a  position  to  come  to  terms 
with  an  independent  Holstein.  That  this  was  the  best  thing 
possible  for  Denmark  is  absolutely  indisputable,  and  "  the 
diplomatic  Seven  Years'  War"  which  HaU  in  the  meantime 
conducted  with  aU  the  powers  interested  in  the  question  is  the 
most  striking  proof  of  his  superior  statesmandiip.  HaU  knew 
that  in  the  last  resort  the  question  must  be  decided  not  by  the 
pen  but  by  the  sword.  But  he  reUed,  ultimately,  on  the  pro- 
tection of  the  powers  which  had  guaranteed  the  integrit)^  of 
Denmark  by  the  treaty  of  London,  and  if  words  have  any 
meaning  at  aU  he  had  the  right  to  expect  at  the  very  least  the 
armed  support  of  Great  Britain.^  But  the  great  German  powers 
and  the  force  of  circumstances  proved  too  strong  for  him.  On 
the  accession  of  the  new  king,  Christian  IX.,  HaU  resigned  rather 
than  repeal  the  November  Constitution,  which  gave  Denmark 
something  to  negotiate  upon  in  case  of  need.  But  he  made 
matters  as  easy  as  he  could  for  his  successors  in  the  Monrad 
administration,  and  the  ultimate  catastrophe  need  not  have 
been  as  serious  as  it  was  had  his  advice,  frankly  given,  been 
intelligently  foUowed. 

After  X864  HaU  bore  more  than  his  fair  share  of  the  odium 
and  condemnation  which  weired  so  heavUy  upon  the  national 
Liberal  party,  making  no  attempt  to  repudiate  responsibUity 
and  refraining  altogether  from  attacking  patently  unscrupulous 
opponents.  But  his  personal  popularity  suffered  not  the  sUghtest 
diminution,  whUe  his  clear,  almost  intuitive,  outlook  and  his 
unconquerable  faith  in  the  future  of  his  country  made  him,  during 
those  difficiilt  years,  a  factor  of  incalculable  importance  in  the 
pubUc  life  of  Denmark.  In  1870  he  joined  the  Holstein- 
Holsteinborg  ministry  as  minister  of  pubUc  worship,  and  in 
that  capacity  passed  many  tiseful  educational  reforms,  but  on 
the  faU  of  the  administration,  in  1873,  he  retired  altogether 
from  pubUc  life.  In  the  siunmer  of  X879  HaU  was  strack  down 
by  apoplexy,  and  for  the  remaining  nine  years  of  his  life  be 
was  practicaJIy  bedridden.  He  died  on  the  X4tb  of  August 
X 888.  In  poUtics  HaU  was  a  practical,  sagacious  "  opportunist,"- 
in  the  best  sense  of  that  much  abused  word,  with  an  eye 
rather  for  things  than  for  persons.  Moreover,  he  had  no  very 
pronounced  political  ambition,  and  was  an  utter  stranger 
to  that  longing  for  power,  which  drives  so  many  men  of  talent 
to    adopt    extreme    expedients.    His    urbanity    and    perfect 

*  On  this  head  see  the  3rd  marquess  of  Salisbury's  PoUOcol  Essays, 
I  reprinted  from  the  Quarterly  Renao, 


846 


HALL,  C.  F.— HALL,  ISAAC 


equilibrium  at  the  very  outset  incited  sympathy,  while  his  wit 

and  humour  made  him  the  centre  of  every  circle  within  which 

he  moved. 

See  Vilhelm  Christian  Siguitl  TopkSe,  Pdit.  PortnuUtudier  (Copen- 
hagen. 1878);  Scholler  Pareliua  Vilhelm  Birkedal.  Persotdi^  Ople- 
vdser  (Copenhagen,  1890-1891).  (R.  N.  B.) 

HAUk  CHARLES  FRAMCIS  (iSai-iSji),  American  Arctic 
oplorer,  was  bom  at  Rochester,  New  Hampshire.  After 
foUowing  the  trade  of  blacksmith  he  became  a  journalist  in 
Cincinnati;  but  his  enthusiasm  for  Arctic  exploration  led  him 
in  1859  to  volunteer  to  the  American  (jeographical  Society 
to  "  go  in  search  for  the  bones  of  Frai^din."  With  the  proceeds 
of  a  public  subscription  he  was  equipped  for  his  expedition 
and  sailed  in  May  x86o  on  board  a  whaling  vesseL  The  whaler 
being  ice-bound,  HaU  took  up  his  abode  in  the  regions  to  the 
north  of  Hudson  Bay,  where  he  found  relics  of  Frobisher's 
x6th-century  voyages,  and  living  with  the  Eskimo  for  two  years 
he  acquired  a  considerable  knowledge  of  their  habits  and  lan- 
guage. He  published  an  account  of  these  experiences  under  the 
title  of  Arctic  Researches,  and  Life  among  the  Es^imaux  (1864). 
Determined,  however,  to  learn  more  about  the  fate  of  the  Franklin 
expedition  he  returned  to  the  same  regions  in  1864,  and  passing 
five  years  among  the  Eskimo  was  successful  in  obtaining  a 
number  of  Franklin  relics,  as  well  as  information  pointing  to  the 
exact  fate  of  76  of  the  crew,  whilst  also  performing  some  geo- 
graphical work  of  interest.  In  1871  he  was  given  command  of 
the  North  Pdar  expedition  fitted  out  by  the  United  States 
Government  in  the  "  Polaris."  Making  a  remarkably  rapid 
passage  up  Smith  Sound  at  the  head  of  Baffin  Bay,  which  was 
found  to  be  ice-free,  the  "  Polaris  "  reached  on  the  30th  of  August 
the  lat.  of  8a°  xi',  at  that  time,  and  until  the  English  expedition 
of  1876  the  highest  northern  latitude  attained  by  vessel.  The 
expedition  went  into  winter  quarters  in  a  sheltered  cove  on  the 
Greenland  coast.  On  the  34th  of  October,  Hall  on  his  return 
from  a  successful  sledge  expedition  to  the  north  was  suddenly 
seized  by  an  illness  of  which  he  died  on  the  8th  of  November. 
Capt.  S.  O.  Buddington  (1823-1888)  assumed  command,  and 
although  the  "  Polaris  "  was  subsequently  lost  after  breaking 
out  of  the  ice,  with  only  part  of  the  crew  aboard,  the  whole  were 
ultimately  rescued,  and  the  scientific  results  of  the  expedition 
proved  to  be  of  considerable  importance. 

HALL,  CHRISTOPHER  NEWMAN  (X816-X902),  English 
Nonconformist  divine,  was  bom  at  Maidstone  on  the  22nd  of 
May  x8i6.  His  father  was  John  Vine  Hall,  proprietor  and 
printer  of  the  Maidstone  Journalf  and  the  author  of  a  popular 
evangelical  work  called  The  Sinner's  Friend.  Christopher  was 
educated  at  University  College,  London,  and  took  the  London 
B.A.  degree.  His  theological  training  was  gained  at  Highbury 
College,  whence  he  was  called  in  1842  to  his  first  pastorate  at 
the  Albion  Congregational  Church,  Hull.  During  the  twelve 
years  of  his  ministry  there  the  membership  was  greatly  increased, 
and  a  branch  chapel  and  school  were  opened.  At  Hull  Newman 
Hall  first  began  his  active  work  in  temperance  reform,  and  in 
defence  of  his  position  wrote  The  Scriptural  Claims  of  Tettotalism. 
In  1854  he  accepted  a  call  to  Surrey  chap>el,  London,  founded 
in  1783  by  the  Rev.  Rowland  Hill.  A  considerable  sum  had 
been  bequeathed  by  Hill  for  the  perpetuation  of  his  work  on 
the  expiration  of  the  lease;  but,  owing  to  some  legal  flaw  in  the 
will,  the  money  was  not  available,  and  Newman  Hall  undertook 
to  raise  the  necessary  funds  for  a  new  church.  By  weekly 
offertories  and  donations  the  money  for  the  beautiful  building 
called  Christ  Church  at  the  junction  of  the  Kennington  and 
Westminster  Bridge  Roads  was  collected,  and  within  four  years 
of  opening  (1876)  the  total  cost  (£63,000)  was  cleared.  In  1892 
Newman  Hall  resigned  his  charge  and  devoted  himself  to  general 
evangelical  work.  Most  of  his  writings  are  small  booklets  or 
tracts  of  a  distinctly  evangelical  character.  The  best  known 
of  these  is  Come  to  Jesus,  of  which  over  four  million  copies 
have  been  circulated  in  forty  different  languages.  Newman  Hall 
visited  the  United  States  during  the  Civil  War,  and  did  much 
to  promote  a  friendly  understanding  between  England  and 
America.    A  Libetal  in  politics,  and  a  keen  admirer  of  John 


Bright,  few  preachers  of  any  denomination  have  eieicaed  so 

far-reaching  an  influence  as  the  "  Dissenters'  Bidiop,"  as  he 

came  to  be  termed.    He  died  on  the  x8th  of  February  1902. 

See  his  Autobiography  (1898I;  obituary  notice  in  The  Comgrega- 
tioiuU  Year  Book  for  1903. 

BALL,  EDWARD  (c.  X49S-X547),  Enc^  duonider  and 
lawyer,  was  bom  about  the  end  of  the  xsth  centwy,  being  a 
son  of  John  Hall  of  Northall,  Shn^Mhire.  Educated  at  Etoa 
and  King's  College,  Cambrid^,  he  became  a  barrister  and  after- 
wards filled  the  offices  of  common  sergeant  of  the  dty  <rf  London 
and  judge  of  the  shexiff's  courL  He  was.  also  member  of  parlia- 
ment for  Bridgnorth.  Hall's  great  work,  The  Union  of  the  Noble 
and  lUustre  Fasndies  of  Lancastre  and  York,  oonunonly  called 
HaWs  Chronide,  was  first  published  in  1542.  Another  edition 
was  issued  by  Richard  Grafton  in  1548,  tJbe  year  after  Hall's 
death,  and  ano^er  in  1550;  these  indude  a  oontxnnatioo  from 
X532  compiled  by  Grafton  from  the  author's  notea.  In  1809 
an  edition  was  published  under  the  supervision  of  Sir  Henry 
Ellis,  and  in  X904  the  part  dealing  with  the  reign  of  Henry  MIL 
was  edited  by  C  Whibley.  The  Chronicle  begins  with  the 
accession  of  Hen^  IV.  to  the  English  throne  in  1399;  it  foUcn^ 
the  strife  between  the  houses  of  Lancaster  and  York,  and  with 
Grafton's  continuation  carries  the  story  down  to  the  death  of 
Hemy  Vm.  in  X547.  Hall  presents  the  policy  of  this  king  in  a 
very  favourable  lij^t  and  shows  his  own  empathy  with  the 
Protestants.  For  all  kinds  of  ceremonial  he  has  all  a  lawyer's 
respect,  and  his  pages  axe  often  adorned  and  enctimbered  «ith 
the  pageantry  and  material  garniture  of  the  stoxy.  The  value  oi 
the  Chronicle  in  its  early  stages  is  not  great,  but  this  ixKreases 
when  dealing  with  the  reign  of  Henry  VIL  and  is  veiy  coisidcr- 
able  for  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Moreover,  the  work  is  not  on)  y 
valuable,  it  is  attractive.  To  the  historian  it  furnishes  what  is 
evidently  the  testimony  of  an  eye-witness  00  several  matters 
of  importance  which  are  neglected  by  other  xurrators;  and  to 
the  student  of  literature  it  has  the  exceptional  interest  of  being 
one  of  the  prime  sources  of  Shakespeare's  historical  plaiys. 

See  J.  Gairdner»  Early  Chroniclers  of  Europe;  EngUmd  (1879). 

HALL,  FITZEDWARD  (x82S-X90x),  American  Orientalist, 
was  bora  in  Troy,  New  York,  on  the  2xst  of  March  1825.  He 
graduated  w^ith  the  degree  of  dvil  engineer  from  the  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  Institute  at  Troy  in  X842,  and  entered  Harvard  in 
the  class  of  X846;  just  before  his  class  graduated  he  left  college 
and  went  to  India  in  search  of  a  runaway  brother.  In  January 
1850  he  was  appointed  tutor,  and  in  X853  professor  of  S&nskrii 
and  English,  in  the  government  oc^lege  at  Benares;  and  in 
185s  was  made  inspector  of  pubUc  instmction  in  Ajmere>Merwara 
and  in  X856  in  the  Central  Provinces.  He  settled  in  England 
in  1862  and  received  the  appointment  to  the  chair  of  Sanskrit, 
Hindustani  and  Indian  jurispmdence  in  King's  College,  London, 
and  to  the  librarianship  of  the  India  Office.  He  died  at  Maries- 
ford,  Suffolk,  on  the  xst  of  February  X90X.  Hall  was  the  first 
American  to  edit  a  Sanskrit  text,  the  Visknufurdna\  his  h'braiy 
of  a  thousand  Oriental  MSS.  he  gave  to  Harvard  Univcisity. 

His  works  include:  in  SamJcrit,  AHndboihB  {t%$i\  SSxihya- 
prSvachana  (1856),  Sdryasiddhtinta  (18^).  VdsavadoM  (i8^q). 
Sdnkhyasdra  (1862)  and  DasarApa  (1865);  in  Hindi,  BaDantvres' 
Hindi  Grammar  (1868)  and  a  Reader  (1870);  on  Eoglisfa  f&iklc--^-, 


1877),  Doctor  Indoctus  (1880). 


HALL,  ISAAC  HOLUSTER  (X837-X896),  Amexican  Orientalist, 
was  bom  in  Norwalk,  Connecticut,  on  the  X2th  of  December 
X837.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  Collate  in  1859,  was  a  tutor 
there  in  X8S9-1863,  graduated  at  the  Cdumbia  Law  School  in 
X865,  practised  law  in  New  York  City  until  1875,  and  in  1875- 
1877  taught  in  the  Syrian  Protestant  College  at  Beinit.  -wha^  be 
discovered  a  valuable  Syxiac  manuscript  of  the  Philozcnian 
version  of  a  large  part  of  the  New  Testament,  whidi  he  published 
in  part  in  facsimile  in  1884.  He  worked  with  Gexieral  di  CescoU 
in  classifying  the  famous  Cypriote  coDection  in  the  Metxopolit^ 
Museum  of  New  York  City,  and  was  a  curator  of  that  museum 
from  X885  ujtil  his  death  in  Mount  Vecoon.  New  York,  on  the 


HALL,  SIR  J.— HALL,  JOSEPH 


8+7 


nd  of  July  1896.  He  was  an  efflinent  authority  on  Oriental 
inscriptions.  Following  the  scanty  clues  given  by  George  Smith 
and  Samuel  Birch,  and  working  on  the  data  furnished  by  the 
di  Ceanola  collection,  he  succeeded  about  X874  in  decipher- 
ing- an  entire  Csrpriote  inscription,  and  in  establishing  the 
Hellenic  character  of  the  dialect  and  the  syllabic  nature  of  the 
script. 

His  work  in  Cypriote  epigraphy  Is  described  in  his  articles  in 
Scribmer's  Maiosint,  vol.  30  (June,  1880),  pp.  205-211  and  in  the 
Journal  of  Iko  American  Oriental  Society,  vol.  10,  Na  a  (1880), 
pp.  201-218.  He  published  in  facsimile  the  Antilcgoroena  epistles 
(1886),  which  he  deciphered  from  the  W.  F.  Williams  manuscript, 
and  edited  A  Critical  Bibliotrapky  of  the  Creek  New  Testament  as 
Published  in  America  (1884). 

HAU»  SIR  JAMBS  (X761-X832),  Scottish  geologist  and 
physicist,  eldest  son  of  Sir  John  Hall,  Bart.,  was  bom  at  Dun- 
glast  on  the  17th  of  January  1761;  and  became  distinguished 
as  the  first  to  establish  experimental  research  as  an  aid  to  geo- 
logical investigation.  He  was  intimately  acquainted  with  James 
Hutton  and  John  Playfair,  and  having  studied  rocks  in  various 
parts  of  Europe  he  was  eventually  led  to  accept  and  to  demon- 
strate the  truth  of  Hutton's  views  with  regard  to  intrusive  rocks. 
He  commenced  a  series  of  experiments  to  illustrate  the  fusion  of 
rocks,  thdr  vitreous  and  crystalline  characters,  and  the  influence 
of  molten  rocks  in  altering  adjacent  strata.  He  thus  assisted 
in  proving  that  granitic  veins  had  been  injected  into  overlying 
deposits  ^ter  their  consolidation. '  He  studied  the  volcanic  xxxrks 
in  Italy  and  recognised  that  the  old  lava  flows  and  the  numerous 
dikes  in  Scotland  must  have  had  a  similar  origin.  He  made 
further  experiments  to  illustrate  the  contortions  of  rocks.  The 
results  were  brought  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 
He  died  at  Edinburgh  on  the  23rd  of  June  1 83  2.  He  represented 
in  parliament  (x8o7'-i8x2)  the  old  borough  of  Michael  in  Corn- 
wall; he  also  wrote  an  Essay  on  the  Origint  History  and  Principles 
of  Gothic  Archilednre  (18x3). 

ilis  eldest  son,  John  Hall  (1787-1860),  who  succeeded  him, 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society;  the  second  son,  Captain 
Basil  Hall  (9.*.),  was  the  distinguished  traveller;  the  third  son, 
James  Hall  (1800-1854),  was  a  painter,  art-patron,  and  a  friend 
of  Sir  David  Wilkie. 

HAfJ%  JAMBS  (X793-X868),  American  judge  and  man  of  letters, 

was  bom  at  Philadelphia  on  the  19th  of  August  1793.    After  for 

some  time  prosecuting  the  study  of  law,  he  in  181 2  joined  the 

army,  and  in  the  war  with  Great  Britain  distinguished  himself  in 

engagements  at  Lundy*s  Lane,  Niagara  and  Fort  Erie.    On 

the  conclusion  of  the  war  he  accompanied  an  expedition  against 

Algiers,  but  in  x8x8  he  resigned  his  commission,  and  continued 

the  study  of  law  at  Pittsburg.    In  1820  he  removed  to  Shawnee- 

town,  nUnois,  where  he  commenced  practice  at  the  bar  and  also 

edited  the  Illinois  Gaulle,    Soon  after  he  was  appointed  public 

prosecutor  of  the  circuit,  and  in  1824  state  circuit  judge.  ,  In  1827 

he  became  state  treasurer,  and  held  that  office  till  1831,  but  he 

continued  at  the  same  time  his  legal  practice  and  also  edited 

the  Illinois  Intelligencer,    Subsequently  he  became  editor  of  the 

Western  Soittenirt  an  annual  publication,*  and  of  the  lUtnois 

MonlUy  Magazine,  afterwards  the  Western  Monthly  Magazine. 

He  died  near  Cincinnati  on  the  5th  of  July  x868. 

The  following  are  his  principal  works: — Letters  from  the  West, 
originally  contributed  to  the  Portfolio,  and  collected  and  publi»hcd 
in  London  in  1828:  Legends  of  the  West  (1832):  The  Soldier's  Bride 
and  other  Tales  (1832):  The  Harpe's  Head,  a  legend  of  Kentucky 

ales  of    ' 

7  of 
>ls..  I8j 

The   Wilderness  and  the  War-Path  (1845);'   komance  of  Western 

History  (1857). 

HALIn  JAMBS  (x8i  1-1898),  American  geologist  and  palaeon- 
tologist, was  bom  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  on  the  lath  of 
September  x8ii.  In  early  life  he  became  attached  to  the  study 
of  natural  history,  and  he  completed  his  education  at  the  poly- 
technic institute  at  Troy  in  New  York,  where  he  graduated  in 
X832,  and  afterwards  became  professor  of  chemistry  and  natural 
science,  and  subsequently  of  geology.  In  1836  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  geologists  on  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  state  of 


/t833):  SheUhes  of 'the  West  (2  vols..  1835):  Tales  of  the  Border 
U835):  Nous  en  the  Western  StaUs  (1838):  History  of  the  Indian 
Trtbes.  in  conjunction  with  T.  L.  M'Kcvney  (3  vols..  1838-1844): 


New  York,  and  he  was  before  long  charged  with  the  palaeonto- 

logical  work.    Eventually  he  became  state  geologist  and  director 

of  the  museum  of  natunl  history  at  Albany.    His  published 

papers  date  from  1836,  and  include  numerous  reports  on  the 

geology  and  palaeontology  of  various  portions  of  the  United 

States  and  Canada.    He  dealt  likewise  with  physical  geology, 

and  in  1859  discussed  the  connexion  between  the  accumulation 

of  sedimentary  deposits  and  the  elevation  of  mountain-chains. 

His  chief  work  was  the  description  of  the  invertebrate  fossils  of 

New  York — in  which  he  dealt  with  the  graptolites,  brachio- 

pods,  mollusca.  trilobites,  echini  and  crinoids  of  the  Palaeozoic 

formations.    The  results  were  published  in  a  series  of  quarto 

volumes  entitled  Palaeontology  of  New  York  (1847-1894),  in 

which  he  was  assisted  in  course  of  time  by  R.  P.  Whitfield  and 

J.  M.  Clarke.   He  published  also  reports  on  the  geology  of  Oregon 

and  California  (1845),  Utah  (1852),  Iowa  (X859)  and  Wisconsin 

(1862).  'He  received  the  WoUaston  medal  from  the  Geological 

Society  of  London  in  1858*.    He  was  a  man  of  great  energy  and 

untiring  industry,  and  in  1897,  when  in  his  eighty-sixth  year,  he 

journeyed  to  St  Petersburg  to  take  part  in  the  International 

(jeological  Congress,  and  then  joined  the  excursion  to  the  Ural 

mountains.    He  died  at  Albany  on  the  7th  of  August  X898. 

See  Life  and  Work  of  James  HaU,  by  H.  C.  Hovey,  Amer,  Geol. 
xxiii.,  1899,  p.  X37  (portraits). 

HALL*  JOSEPH  (1574-X656),  English  bishop  and  satirist, 
was  bom  at  Bristow  park,  near  Ashby  de  la  Zouch,  Leicester- 
shire, on  the  ist  of  July  1574.  His  father,  John  Hall,  was  agent 
in  the  town  for  Henry,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  and  his  mother, 
Winifred  Bambridge,  was  a  pious  lady,  whom  her  son  compared 
to  St  Monica.  Joseph  Hall  received  his  early  education  at  the 
local  school,  and  was  sent  (1589)  to  Emmanuel  College,  Cam- 
bridge. Haill  was  chosen  for  two  years  in  succession  to  read  the 
public  lecture  on  rhetoric  in  the  schools,  and  in  X595  became  fellow 
of  his  college.  During  bis  residence  at  Cambridge  he  wrote  his 
Virgidemiarum  (1597),  satires  written  after  Latin  models.  The 
claim  he  put  forward  in  the  prologue  to  be  the  earliest  English 
satirist^— 

"  I  first  adventure,  follow  me  who  list 
And  be  the  second  English  satirist  " — 

gave  bitter  offence  to  John  Marston,  who  attacks  him  in  the 
satires  published  in  X598.  The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  gave 
an  order  (1599)  that  Hall's  satires  should  be  burnt  with  works 
of  John  Marston,  Marlowe,  Sir  John  Davies  and  others  on  the 
ground  of  licentiousness,  but  shortly  afterwards  Hall's  book, 
certainly  unjustly  condeinned,  was  ordered  to  be  "  staled  at  the 
press,"  whidi  may  be  interpreted  as  reprieved  (see  Notes  and 
Queries y  3rd  series,  xii.  '436).  Having  taken  holy  orders,  Hall 
was  offered  the  mastership  of  Blundell's  school,  Tiverton,  but 
he  refused  it  in  favour  of  the  living  of  Halsted,  E^sex,  to  which 
he  was  presented  (i6ot)  by  ^ir  Rbbert  Drury.  In  his  parish 
he  had  an  opponent  in  a  Mr  Lilly,  whom  he  describes  as  *'  a 
witty  and  bold  atheist."  In  X603  he  married;  and  in  1605  he 
accompanied  Sir  Edmund  Bacon  to  Spa,  with  the  special  aim, 
he  sa>'s,  of  acquainting  himself  with  the  state  and  practice  of 
the  Romish  Church.  At  Brussels  he  disputed  at  the  Jesuit 
College  on  the  authentic  character  of  modem  miracles,  and  his 
inquiring  and  argumentative  di^x»sition  more  than  once 
threatened  to  produce  serious  results,  so  that  his  patron  at 
length  requested  liim  to  abstain  from  further  discussion.  His 
devotional  writings  had  attracted  the  notice  of  Henry,  prince 
of  Wales,  who  made  him  one  of  his  chaplains  (1608).  In  x6i2 
Lord  Denny,  afterwards  earl  of  Norwich,  gave  him  the  curacy 
of  WaUham-Holy>Cross,  Essex,  and  in  the  same  year  he  received 
the  degree  of  D.D.  Later  he  received  the  prebend  of  Willenhall 
in  the  collegiate  church  of  Wolverhampton,  and  in  1616  he 
accompanied  James  Hay,  Lord  Doncaster,  afterwards  earl  of 
Carlisle,  to  France,  where  he  was  sent  to  congratulate  Louis  XIII. 
on  his  marriage,  but  Hall  was  compelled  by  illness  to  return. 
In  his  absence  the  king  nominated  him  dean  of  Worcester,  and 
in  16 1 7  he  accompanied  James  to  Scotland,  where  he  defended 
the  five  points  of  ceremonial  which  the  king  desired  to  impose 
upon  the  Scots.    In  the  next  year  he  was  one  of  the  English 


848 


HALL,  MARSHALL 


Clou 


Lt  the  tynod  of  Dort.    In  1614  he  icfuscd  the  k 


in  Ihc  / 


It  bishop 


id  Calvii 


veny  in  the  English  cbuicb. 
Tkt  Way  «/  Pent,  to  persiude  the  i»o  partici  to  accepi  11 1 
ptomiM.  In  apite  of  his  Calvinistic  i^aioDi  he  iiiunta 
thil  to  ackoawledge  the  errors  which  bad  arisen  in  the  Cat' 
Church  did  not  necessarily  imply  disbeUef  in  her  calholi 
ud  that  the  Church  ol  England  hiving  repudiated  these  c 
ahoutd  not  deny  the  claims  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Chuic 


ndes  of  the  bishop  and  his  lenienc 
burch  clergy.  Kali  saya  he  was  lb 
le  King  to  ■nswtr  Laud's  accuiatioii 


entitled  Epiiiopacy  Cy  Divine  SicU  U^io),  wai  twice 
It  Laud's  dictation.  This  was  followed  by  An  HumUt 
IraKct  la  Ihi  Hith  CokrI  0/  Purliamrl  (1640  and  ia40. 


the  Di 


pf  PurilBi 


IS  toDov 


I  by  » 


>    which    Milton   contributed   five   pampbtels, 
vliutently  attacking  Kail  and  his  early  satires. 

In  1641  Halt  wai  translated  to  the  see  of  Norwich,  and  in  the 
■ame  year  sat  on  the  Lords'  Committee  on  religion.  On  the 
30th  of  December  be  was,  with  other  bishops,  brought  before 
the  bar  of  the  House  ol  Lords  to  answer  a  charge  of  high  treason 
~        ons  had  voted  Ihem  guilty.    They  were 


nallyco 


iteof  Fiac 


d  to  forfeit  their  estates,  receiving 
tenance  from  the  patliamenl.  They  were  immured  In  the  Tower 
Irora  New  Year  to  Whitsuntide,  when  they  were  released  on 
finding  bait  for  £sooo  each.  On  bli  releaae  Hall  proceeded  to  his 
new  diocese  at  Norwich,  tbe  revenues  of  which  be  seems  for  a 
time  to  have  received,  but  in  164],  when  tbe  property  of  the 
^'  malignant!  "  was  sequeatraled,  Hall  was  mcniibped  by  name. 
Mrs  Hall  had  difliculty  In  securing  a  fifth  of  the  maintenance 
{£400)  assigned  to  the  bishop  by  the  parliament;  ihey  were 
eventually  ejected  from  tlie  palace,  and  the  cathedral  was 
dismantled.  Hall  retired  to  tbe  village  of  Higham,  near  Norwich, 
where  he  spent  Ihc  time  preaching  and  writing  until  "  he  was 
first  f  oibidden  by  man,  and  at  last  disabled  by  God. 


S  with  1' 


ice,  dying  on  the 
lys:  "  He  was  coi 
.uienesse,  plainne 


jdily 


best  of  all  in  his  Mtdilalitns." 

Bishop  Kall'i  polemical  writingi,  although  vigoroui  and  effective. 
■ere  chielly  of  ephemeral  intcmti  but  many  of  hii  drvotional 
writings  have  been  often  reprinted.  It  ii  by  hit  early  work  as  Ihe 
censor  of  morals  and  the  unsparing  critic  ol  conlempDiHry  literary 
eilravagaoce  and  affectations  that  be  is  best  known.  Virp- 
iffMiarKn.  SiiaBaeia.  Fail  lira  Bicka.  Of  TMhkiie  Salyii. 
(I)  PtilicaU,  (a)  Acadimicaa.  (i)  Umill  (1597)  was  followed  by  an 
amended  edition  in  159^.  and  in  the  same  year  by  ViriOnnarw 
Thtlkrit bulimia.  C!f  ty/fnf  SofyHi  (leprinted  ism).  Hisdai 
to  be  reckoned  Ihe  elrlictt  English  nlirut,  even  in  (he  [omul  teni 
oinnoi  be  jintiSed.  Thomas  Lodge,  In  his  Fitftr  Urn  -  '—■ 
had  written  [our  mires  in  tbe  manner  of  Honce,  and  Joli„  .     ..— 


u  by  Virtidettnar 
■■^ Hisci 

»  later  than  that  o( 
lall  «»  cert,  '  ' 

, ,  which  be  n 

In  the  Gnt  book  of  hi 


M-JlliaiBl^e 
T  DCVDna  10  ncenfiiHi  iub|ect«, 
igedies  built  on  rimilar  linn,  the 
w  jv  Unv^ralis,  Ihe  metrical 
and  Richard  Stanyhunt.  Ihe 
d  Ihe  sacred  poeu  (Southwell  is 


^wn  dncription  of  the  trencher-chaplain,  who  u  turer  and  bufei- 
inacDumry  manor.  Among  bis  other  Alirical  ponnjis  it  that  ol 
1  laniiihed  gallant,  the  gue«  of  "  Duke  HupilVay."'    Book  VI. 


Id  follKS  dcill  viih 


He  also  wrote  Tim  Kttf  Pn^acii:  ir  Wir^t  Jey  (i«oi). 

m  and  second  volumes  of  which  appeared  in  iGos  aul  a  third  in 
611^  CkaracUrl  itf  Virlna  and-  Viat  (t6oS;.  venified  by  Nahum 
'ate  (l«90:  Sclomoiu  Daiiu  Arli  .  .  .  i.iiot>):  and,  (nUldv 
ianduj  atltr  tl  idfm  ttK  Ttrra  Auitfolis  aijtkjn  Itwkftv  tmofitiii 
.  .  .  luunut  (160s?  and  1607).  by  "  MenuriUB  Britamucu!, - 
nnibted  into  Encfith  by  John  Healy  (160SJ  as  I*c  Duamrtj 
f  a  A'™  World  or  A  DaC'ipliim  o/  Mi  Simik  Iitia,  .  .  .  *y  m 
.niluk  Maitry.     iltmdui  alia  kan  eicuK  for  a  tatiiiial  demip- 


preached  at  St  Paul'i 
Cua/BiaJa.  «/  ,  .  .  (Milbm'l) 
His  dovKional  works  include : 
if  Diaii'i  Pialmis  Milupknuii  (1607  and  l6> 
ISidilalim  and  Vma.  Divine  and  UfraJI  (i6> 
3y  Charles  Sayle  (1901);  r*c  ArU  el  D  - 
flrattn  upm  EtirU.  ta  ri  Tna  Pracc  aadTrt 


''^Iitali>r 


rfattnuMiiEarllt.iir^rna  Place  and  rrm^illilir^Jiimdiicab)'. 
rcprinledwithaomcof  hisletrenin  John  Weucy'sCAmfHsLEAran. 
vol.  Iv.  (ifiig);  Oaaiional  Uedilaluns  .  .  .  (Ibjo).  edited  by  hii 
•on  Robert  Haili  Hmtckiniui  nr  a  TreaHat  ikammt  krm  la  nJl 
uilit  Ced  (I639).  tnnitaled  from  Biibop  HaU'i  Latin  by  Mdki  M^II  ; 
TAe  l^noM  Sml:  tr  Jtafn  ^  Utatxly  Daolian  (1644}.  o<ien  bike 
reprinted;  Tki Balm  t/Ciltai  .  .  .  (i&4fi.  i7Sa);  Cimt  ilfOiaill: 
dr  Ike  tliiui  KniiH  0  Oriil  and  iii  Itembtri  (1647}.  of  miiicti 
GencralCordonwasamidonltrrpriniedfromConlon'scDpy.  iSoi): 
Saiurritmium  Dea  (16k);  TSeCrtal  ItjUtritafCodlimra  (lejoj; 
Fttietmliimt  and  Deetsiani  iff  Dhert  Prnauaii  taxj  a^  Ctmiatma 
(i&49.  1650.  I6S*J. 

AutHoaiiies.— The  chief  aulhorily  for  Hall's  biogopby  is  lo  be 
fDuodinhisauIobioGraphical  tracts:  Obiertalians  of  Moate  Speciglutri 
aj  Daixe  PrarideKe  in  lie  Lift  of  Jeut*  Htll,  AdM  aftltrruj,, 
W'iaen  mill  kii  aan  kand;  anj  his  HarJU«UMr,.  a  reprini  of  itiik 
may  be  coniulled  in  IJr  ChriHopher  Wordiwonhi  EaJeuAJud 


flail,  kii  Lift  aivfh:,.. 
HaU.  by  Rev.  Geon  . 

art.  (Early  Eniiski:.' 


■      Many'o*  Haici 


Having  attended  Ihc  Rev.  J.  Bluncbud's  academy  at  Notling- 
bam,  he  entered  a  chemist's  shop  at  Newark,  and  in  iSo«  begin 
lo  study  medicine  at  Ediobui^  Uoiveraity.  In  iSii  he  wu 
elected  senior  president  o[  the  Royal  Medical  Society;  l^e 
following  year  he  took  tbe  M.D.  degree,  and  was  immediately 
appointed  resident  bouse  physician  to  tbe  Royal  fnfirmary. 
Edinburgh.  This  appointment  be  resigned  after  two  years, 
when  he  visited  Paris  and  its  medical  schools,  and,  on  a  walkiiv 
'The  tomb  of  Sir  John  Beauchamp  (d.  U58)  in  old  St  Pauii 

cesler.    "  To  dine  with  Duke  Humphrey  "  was  Id  go  buo(iy  amsc 
lhedebtonandbegtarswha[requenled''DukiHuniphRy'sWalk 


HALL,  ROBERT 


849 


torn,  those  also  of  fierlin  and  GSttingen.  In  18x7,  when  be 
settled  at  Nottingham,  he  published  his  Diagnosis,  and  in  1818 
be  wrote  the  MimoseSt  a  work  on  the  affections  denominated 
bilious,  nervous,  &c.  The  next  year  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1825  he  became  physician 
to  the  Nottingham  general  hospital  In  1826  he  removed  to 
London,  and  in  the  following  year  he  published  his  Commentaries 
on  the  more  important  diseases  of  females.  In  1830  be  issued 
his  OhseKBotions  on  Blood-letting,  founded  on  researches  on  the 
morbid  and  curative  effects  of  loss  of  blood,  which  were  acknow- 
ledged by  the  medical  profession  to  be  of  vast  practical  value, 
and  in  1831  his  ExperimenUU  Essay  on  the  Circulation  of  the 
Blood  in  the  Capillary  Vessels,  in  which  he  showed  that  the 
blood-channels  intermediate  between  arteries  and  vci^  serve 
the  office  of  bringing  the  fluid  blood  into  contact  with  the  material 
tissues  of  the  system.  In  the  following  year  he  read  before  the 
Royal  Society  a  paper  "  On  the  inverse  ratio  which  subsists 
between  Respiration  and  Irritability  in  the  Animal  Kingdom." 
His  most  important  work  in  physiology  was  concerned  with  the 
theory  of  reflex  action,  embodied  in  a  paper  "  On  the  reflex 
Function  of  the  Medulla  Oblongata  and  the  Medulla  Spinalis  " 
(1832),  which  was  supplemented  in  1837  byanothcr"On  the  True 
Spinal  Marrow,  and  the  Excito-motor  System  of  Nerves."  The 
*'  reflex  function  "  excited  great  attention  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  though  in  England  some  of  his  papers  were  refused 
publication  by  the  Royal  Society.  Hall  thus  became  the 
authority  on  the  multiform  deranged  states  of  health  referable 
to  an  abnormal  condRion  of  the  nervous  system,  and  be  gained 
a  large  practice.  His  "  ready  method  "  for  resuscitation  in 
drowning  and  other  forms  of  suspended  respiration  has  been  the 
means  of  saving  innumerable  lives.  He  died  at  Brighton  of  a 
throat  affection,  aggravated  by  lecturing,  on  the  nth  of  August 

i8s7- 

A  list  of  his  works  and  details  of  his  "  ready  method,'*  Ac,  are 
given  in  hi%*Memoirs  by  his  widow  (London,  1861). 

HALL*  ROBERT  (i  764-1831),  English  Baptbt  divine,  was  bom 
on  the  2nd  of  May  i764>  At  Amesby  near  Leicester,  where  his 
father,  Robert  Hall  (1728-1791),  a  man  whose  cast  of  mind  in 
some  respects  resembled  closely  that  of  the  son,  was  pastor  of  a 
Baptist  congregation.  Robert  was  the  youngest  of  a  family  of 
fourteen.  While  still  at  the  dame's  school  his  passion  for  books 
absorbed  the  greater  part  of  his  time,  and  in  the  summer  it  was 
his  custom  after  school  hours  to  retire  to  the  churchyard  with 
a  volume,  which  he  continued  to  peruse  there  till  nightfall, 
making  out  the  meaning  of  the  more  diflScult  words  with  the 
help  of  a  pocket  dictionary.  From  his  sixth  to  his  eleventh 
year  he  attended  the  school  of  Mr  Simmons  at  Wigston,  a  viUage 
four  miles  from  Amesby.  There  his  precocity  assumed  the 
exceptional  form  of  an  intense  interest  in  metaphysics,  partly 
perhaps  on  account  of  the  restricted  character  of  his  father's 
library;  and  before  he  was  nine  years  of  age  he  bad  read  and 
re-read  Jonathan  Edwards's  Treatise  on  the  Wiil  and  Butler's 
Analogy.  This  incessant  study  at  such  an  early  period  of  life 
seems,  however,  to  have  had  an  injurious  influence  on  his  health. 
After  he  left  Mr  Simmons's  school  his  appearance  was  so  sickly 
as  to  awaken  fears  of  the  presence  of  phthisis.  In  order,  therefore, 
to  obtain  the  benefit  of  a  change  of  air,  be  stayed  for  some  time 
in  the  house  of  a  gentleman  near  Kettering,  who  with  an  impro- 
priety which  Hall  himself  afterwards  refened  to  as  "egregious," 
prevailed  upon  the  boy  of  eleven  to  give  occasional  addresses 
at  prayer  meetings.  As  his  health  seemed  rapidly  to  recover, 
he  was  sent  to  a  school  at  Northampton  conducted  by  the  Rev. 
John  Ryland,  where  he  remained  a  year  and  a  half,  and  "  made 
great  progress  in  Latin  and  Greek."  On  leaving  school  he  for 
some  time  studied  divinity  under  the  direction  of  his  father, 
and  in  October  1778  he  entered  the  Bristol  academy  for  the  pre- 
paration  of  students  for  the  Baptist  ministry.  Here  the  self- 
possession  which  had  enabled  him  in  his  twelfth  year  to  address 
unfalteringly  various  audiences  of  grown-up  people  seems  to 
have  strangely  forsaken  him;  for  when,  in  accordance  with  the 
arrangements  of  the  academy,  his  tum  came  to  deliver  an 
addros  in  the  vestry  of  Broad  mead  chapel,  be  broke  down  on 


two  separate  occasions  and  was  unable  to  finish  his  discourse. 
On  the  13th  of  August  1780  he  was  set  apart  to  the  ministry, 
but  he  still  continued  his  studies  at  the  academy;  and  in  1781, 
in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  an  exhibition  which  he 
held,  he  entered  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  master  of  arts  in  March  x  785.  At  the  university  he  was 
without  a  rival  of  his  own  standing  in  any  of  the  da^es,  dis- 
tinguishing himself  alike  in  classics,  philosophy  and  mathematics. 
He  there  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Mackintosh  (afterwards 
Sir  James),  who,  though  a  year  his  junior  in  age,  was  a  year  his 
senior  as  a  student.  While  they  remained  at  Aberdeen  the  two 
were  inseparable,  reading  together  the  best  Greek  authors, 
especially  Flato,  and  discussing,  either  during  their  wallu  by 
the  sea-shore  and  the  banks  of  the  Don  or  in  their  rooms  until 
early  morning,  the  most  perplexed  questions  in  philosophy  and 
religion. 

During  the  vacation  between  his  last  two  sessions  at  Aberdeen, 
Hall  acted  as  assistant  pastor  to  Dr  Evans  at  Broadmead  chapel, 
Bristol,  and  three  months  after  leaving  the  university  be  was 
appointed  classical  tutor  in  the  Bristol  academy,  an  office  which 
he  held  for  more  than  five  years.  Even  at  this  period  his  extra- 
ordinary eloquence  had  excited  an  interest  beyond  the  bounds 
of  the  denomination  to  which  he  belonged,  and  when  he  preached 
the  chapel  was  generally  crowded  to  excess,  the  audience  includ- 
ing many  persons  of  intellectual  tastes.  Suspicions  in  regard 
to  his  orthodoxy  having  in  1789  led  to  a  misunderstanding  with 
his  colleague  and  a  part  of  the  congregation,  be  in  July  1790 
accepted  an  invitation  to  make  trial  of  a  congregation  at  Cam- 
bridge, of  which  he  became  pastor  in  July  of  the  folbwing  year. 
From  a  statement  of  his  opinions  contained  in  a  letter  to  the 
congregation  which  he  left,  it  would  appear  that,  while  a  firm 
believer  in  the  proper  divinity  of  Christ,  he  had  at  this  time 
disowned  the  cardinal  principles  of  Calvinism — the  federal 
headship  of  Adam,  and  the  doctrine  of  absolute  election  and 
reprobation;  and  that  he  was  so  far  a  materialist  as  to  "  hold 
that  man's  thinking  powers  and  faculties  are  the  result  of  a 
certain  organization  of  matter,  and  that  after  death  he  ceases 
to  be  conscious  till  the  resurrection."  It  was  during  his  Cam- 
bridge ministry,  which  extended  over  a  period  of  fifteen  years, 
that  his  oratory  was  most  brilUant  and  most  immediately  power- 
fid.  At  Cambridge  the  intellectual  character  of  a  large  part  of 
the  audience  supplied  a  stimulus  which  was  wanting  at  Leicester 
and  BristoL 

His  first  published  compositions  had  a  political  origin.  In 
1 791  appeared  Christianity  consistent  with  the  Love  of  Freedom, 
in  whidi  he  defended  the  political  conduct  of  dissenters  against 
the  attacks  of  the  Rev.  John  Clayton,  minister  of  Weigfahouse, 
and  gave  eloquent  expression  to  his  hopes  of  great  political  and 
social  ameliorations  as  destined  to  result  nearly  or  remotely 
from  the  subversion  of  old  ideas  and  institutions  in  the  maelstrom 
of  the  French  Revolution.  In  1793  he  expounded  his  political 
sentiments  in  a  powerful  and  more  extended  pamphlet  entitled 
an  Apology  for  the  Freedom  of  the  Press,  On  amount,  however, 
of  certain  asperities  into  which  the  warmth  of  his  feelings  had 
betrayed  him,  and  his  conviction  that  he  had  treated  his  subject 
in  too  superficial  a  manner,  he  refused  to  permit  the  publication 
of  the  pamphlet  beyond  the  third  edition,  until  the  references  of 
political  opponents  and  the  circulation  of  copies  without  his 
sanction  induced  him  in  182 1  to  prepare  a  new  edition,  from 
which  he  omitted  the  attack  on  Bishop  Horsley,  and  to  which 
he  prefixed  an  advertisement  stating  that  his  political  opinions 
had  undergone  no  substantial  change.  His  other  publications 
while  at  Cambridge  were  three  sermons— Ofi  Modam  Jnfiddity 
(i8oz),  Reflections  on  War  (1802),  and  Sentiments  proper  to  the 
present  Crisis  (X803).  He  began,  however,  to  suffer  from  mental 
derangement  in  November  18014.  He  recovered  so  speedily 
that  he  was  able  to  resume  his  duties  in  April  1805,  but  a  recur- 
rence of  the  malady  rendered  it  advisable  for  him  on  his  second 
recoveiy  to  resign  his  pastoral  office  in  March  x8o6. 

On  leaving  Cambridge  he  paid  a  visit  to  his  relatives  in 
Leicesteishire,  and  then  for  some  time  resided  at  Enderby, 
preaching  occasionally  in  tome  of  the  neighbouring  villages. 


850 


HALL,  S.  C— HALL 


Latterly  he  miiustered  to  a  small  congregation  in  Harvey  Lane, 
Leicester,  from  whom  at  the  close  of  1806  he  accepted  a  call  to 
be  their  stated  pastor.  In  the  autumn  of  1807  he  changed  his 
residence  from  Enderby  to  Leicester,  and  in  x8o8  he  married  the 
servant  of  a  brother  minister.  His  proposal  of  marriage  had 
been  made  after  an  almost  momentary  acquaintance,  and, 
according  to  the  traditionary  account,  in  very  abrupt  and 
peculiar  terms;  but,  judging  from  his  subsequent  domestic 
lif e j  his  choice  did  sufficient  credit  to  his  penetration  and  sagacity. 
His  writings  at  Leicater  embraced  various  tracts  printed  for 
private  circulation;  a  number  of  contributions  to  the  BcUctie 
Rtmev,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  his  articles  on  "  Foster's 
Essays  "  and  on  "  Zeal  without  Innovation  ";  several  sermons, 
including  those  On  the  Advantages  of  Knowledge  to  the  Lower 
Classes  <x8xo).  On  the  Death  of  the  Princess  CkarhUe  (18x7), 
and  On  the  Death  of  Dr  R^nd  (1825);  and  his  pamphlet  on 
Terms  of  Communion^  in  which  he  advocated  intercommunion 
with  all  those  who  acknowledged  the  "  essentials  "  of  Christianity. 
In  X819  he  published  an  edition  in  one  volume  of  his  sermons 
foimeriy  printed,.  On  the  death  of  Dr  Ryland,  Hall  was  invited 
to  return  to  the  pastorate  of  Broadmcad  chapel,  Bristol,  and  as 
the  peace  of  the  congregation  at  Leicester  had  been  to  "some 
degree  disturbed  by  a  controversy  regarding  several  cases  of 
discipline,  he  resolved .  to  accept  the  invitation,  and  removed 
there  in  April  1826.  The  malady  of  renal  calculus  had  for  many 
years  rendered  his  life  an  almost  continual  martyrdom,  and 
henceforth  increasing  infirmities  and  sufferings  afflicted  him. 
Gradually  the  inability  to  take  proper  exercise,  by  inducing 
a  plethoric  habit  of  body  and  impeding  the  circulation,  led  to  a 
diseased  condition  of  the  heart,  which  resulted  in  his  death  on 
the  2ist  of  February  1831.  He  is  remembered  as  a  great  pulpit 
orator,  of  a  somewhat  laboured,  rhetorical  style  in  his  written 
works,  but  of  undeniable  vigour  in  his  spoken  sermons. 

See  Works  of  Robert  HaU,  A.M.,  mth  a  Brief  Memoir  of  his  Life, 
by  (Hinthus  uregory,  LL.D.,  and  Observations  on  his  Charader  as 
Preacher  by  John  Foster,  originally  published  in  6  vols.  (London. 
x83a) ;  Reminiscenus  of  the  Rev.  Robert  HaU,  A.M.,  by  John  Greene. 
(London.  1832);  Biographicat  Readlections  of  the  Rev.  Robert  HaU, 
by  J.  W.  Morris  (iSkS);  Fifty  Sermons  of  Robert  HaU  from  Notes 
taken  at  the  time  of  thetr  Daivery,  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Grinfield. 
M.A.  (1843);  Reminiscences  of  College  Life  in  Bristol  during  the 
Ministry  of  the  Rev.  Robert  HaU,  A.M.,by  Frederick  Trestrail  (1879). 

HALL,  SAMUEL  CARTER  (i8oo>i889),  English  journalist, 
was  bom  at  Waterford  on  the  9th  of  May  1800,  the  son  of  an 
army  officer.  In  182 1  he  went  to  London,  and  in  X823  became 
a  parliamentary  reporter.  From  1826  to  1837  he  was  editor  of 
a  great  number  and  variety  of  public -prints,  and  in  1839  he 
founded  and  edited  The  Art  Journal.  His  exposure  of  the  trade 
in  bogus  *'  Old  Masters  "  earned  for  this  publication  a  consider- 
able reputation.  Hall  resigned  the  editorship  in  1880,  and  was 
granted  a  Civil  List  pension  **  for  his  long  and  valuable  services 
to  h'terature  and  art."  He  died  in  London  on  the  i6th  of  March 
1889.  His  wife,  Aima  Maria  Fielding  (1800-1881),  became 
well  known  as  Mrs  S.  C.  Hall,  for  her  numerous  novels,  sketches 
of  Irish  life,  and  plays.  Two  of  the  last,  The  Groves  of  Blarney 
and  The  French  Refugee,  were  produced  in  London  with  success. 
She  also  wrote  a  number  of  children's  books,  and  was  practically 
interested  in  various  London  charities,  several  of  which  she 
helped  to  found. 

HALU  WILLIAM  EDWARD  (X835-1894),  English  writer  on 
international  law,  was  the  only  child  of  William  Hall,  M.D., 
a  descendant  of  a  junior  branch  of  the  Halls  of  Dunglass,  and 
of  Charlotte,  daughter  of  William  Cotton,  F.S.A.  He  was  bom 
on  the  22nd  of  August  1835,  at  Leatherhead,  Surrey,  but  i)assed 
his  childhood  abroad,  Dr  Hall  having  acted  as  physician  to  the 
king  of  Hanover,  and  subsequently  to  the  British  legation  at 
Naples.  Hence,  perhaps,  the  son's  taste  in  after  life  for  art  and 
modem  languages.  He  was  educated  privately  till,  at  the  early 
age  of  seventeen,  he  matriculated  at  Oxford,  where  in  1856  he 
took  his  degree  with  a  first  class  in  the  then  recently  instituted 
school  of  law  and  history,  gaining,  three  years  afterwards,  the 
chancellor's  prize  for  an  essay  upmn  "  the  efTcct  upon  Spain  of  the 
discovery  of  the  precious  metals  in  America."    In  x86x  he  was 


called  to  the  bar  at  Linoohi's  Inn,  bat  devoted  his  time  less  to 

any  serious  attempt  to  obtain  practice  than  to  the  study  of  Italian 

art,  and  totravelling  over  a  great  part  of  Europe,  always  bringiog 

home  admirable  water-colour  drawings  of  buildings  and  scenery. 

He  was  an  early  and  enthusiastic  member  of  the  Alpine  Club, 

making  several  first  ascents,  notably  that  of  the  Lyskaxun.    He 

was  always  much  interested  in  military  matters,  and  was 

under  fire,  on  the  Danish  side,  in  the  war  of -1864.    In  X867  he 

published  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  A  Han  for  the  Reorganization 

of  the  Army,"  and,  many  years  afterwards,  he  saw  as  mocb 

as  he  was  permitted  to  see  of  the  expedition  sent  for  the  rescue 

of  Gordon.    He  would  undoubtedly  have  fnade  his  mark  in  the 

army>  but  in  later  life  his  ideal,  whidr  he  -realized,  with  much 

success,  first  at  TJanfihangd  in  Moiunouthshire,  and  thai  at 

Coker  Court  in  Somersetshire,  was,  as  has  been  said, "  the  English 

country  gentleman,  with  cosmopoUtian  experiences,  eocydopaedic 

knowledge,  and  artistic  feeling."    His  travels  took  him  to 

Lapland,  Egypt,  South  America  and  India.     He  had  daat  good 

work  for  several  government  offices,  in  187  r  as  in^>ector  of 

returns  under  the  Elementary  Education  Act,  in  1877  by  reports 

to  the  Board  of  Trade  upon  Oyster  Fisheries,  in  France  as  wcH 

a^  in  England;  and  all  the  time  was  amazing  materxab  for 

ambitious  undertakings  ujx>n  the  history  of  civilization,  and  of 

the  colonies.    His  title  to  lasting  remembrance  rests,  however, 

upon  his  labours  in  the  realm  of  international  law,  recognized 

by  his  election  as  assecii  in  x  87  5,  and  as  membra  in  z88a,  of  the 

Institut  de  DroUIntemational.    In  1874  he  published  a  thin  8vo 

upon  the  Rights  and  Duties  of  Neutrals,  aitd  followed  it  op  in 

x88o  by  his  magnum  opui,  the  Treatise  on  Jntemationel  Lew, 

unquestionably  the  best  book  upon  the  subject  in  the  Eag^ 

language.    It  is  well  planned,  free  from  the  rhetorical  vagueness 

which  has  been  the  besetting  vice  of  older  books  <A  a  axmilar 

character,  full  of  information,  and  everywhere  beating  traces 

of  the  sound  judgment  and  statesmanlike  views  of  its  author. 

In  1894  Hall  published  a  useful  monograph  upon  a  little-«xplofed 

topic,  "  the  Foreign  Jurisdictions  of  the  British  Grown,"  but 

on  the  30th  of  November  of  the  same  year,  while  anwxently 

in  the  fullest  enjoyment  of  bodily  as  wdl  as  mental  vxgour,  he 

suddenly  died.    He  married,  in  1866,  Imogen,  daughter  of 

Mr  (afterwards  Mr  Justice)  Grove,  who  died  in  x886;  and  in 

1891,  Alice,  daughter  of  Colonel  Hill  of  Court  Hill,  Suopshire, 

but  left  no  issue. 

See  T.  E.  Holland  in  Law  Quarterly  Review,v6L  xL  p.  xia:  and  ta 
Studies  in  International  Law,  p.  302.  (T.  £.  H.) 

HALL,  or  Bao-Hall,  a  market-place  and  spa  of  Austria,  in 
Upper  Austria,  25  m.  S.  of  Linz  by  raiL  Pop.  (X900)  984.  It 
is  renowned  for  its  sah'ne  springs,  strongly  impr^sn^ted  with 
iodine  and  bromine,  which  are  ponsidcred  very  efficarjoos  in 
scrofulous  affections  and  venereal  skin  diseases.  Although  the 
springs  are  known  since  the  8th  century,  HaU  attained  its  actual 
importance  only  since  1855,  when  the  springs  became  the 
property  of  the  government.  The  number  of  visitoxs  in  X90X 
was  4300. 

HALL  (generally  known  ^  SchwXbisch-Haix,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  small  town  of  Hall  in  Tirol  and  Bad-HaO,  a  health 
resort  in  Upper  Austria),  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom 
of  WQrttcmbcrg,  situated  in  a  deep  vadley  on  both  sides  of  the 
Kocher.  and  on  the  railway  from  Heilbronn  to  Krailshrim, 
35  m.  N.E.  of  Stuttgart.  Pop.  (1905)  940a  It  possesses  fonr 
Evangelical  churches  (of  which  the  Michaeli^drche  dates  from 
the  X5th  century  and  has  fine  medieval  carving),  a  Roman 
Catholic  church,  a  handsome  town  hall  and  rla.<Baral  and  modem 
schools.  A  short  distance  south  from  the  town  is  the  rc^al 
castle  of  Komburg,  formerly  a  Benedictine  abbey  and  now  osed 
as  a  garrison  for  invalid  soldiers,  with  a  church  dating  from  the 
X2th  century.  The  town  is  chiefly  known  for  its  production  of 
salt,  which  is  converted  into  brine  and  piped  from  Wtlbelmsglfick 
mine,  5  m.  distant.  Connected  with  the  salt-works  there  is  a 
salt-bath  and  whey-diet  establishment.  The  industries  of  Ute 
town  also  include  cotton-q)inning,  iron  founding,  taxuung,  and 
the  manufacture  of  soap,  starch,  brushes,  xnachinesi  caniagn 
and  metal  ware. 


HALL— HALLAM,  HENRY 


851 


HaU  was  early  of  importance  on  account  of  its  salt-mines, 
whichwereheldasafief  of  the  Empire  by  the  so-called  Salzgrafen 
(Salt-graves),  of  whom  the  earliest  known,  the  counts  of  West- 
heim,  had  their  seat  in  the  castle  of  Hall.  Later  the  town 
belonged  to  the  Knights  Templars.  It  was  made  a  free  imperial 
city  in  X  276  by  Rudolph  of  Habsburg.  In  z8o3  it  came  into  the 
possession  of  Wurttemberg. 

HALL  (O.E.  keaUf  a  common  Teutonic  word,  cf.  Ger.  HciU)^ 
a  term  which  has  two  significations  in  England  and  is  applied 
sometimes  to  the  manor  house,  the  residence  of  the  lord  of  the 
manor,  which  implied  a  territorial  possession,  but  more  often  to 
the  entrance  hall  of  a  mansion.  In  the  latter  case  it  was  the  one 
large  room  in  the  feudal  castle  up  to  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century,  when  it  served  as  audience  chamber,  dining-room,  and 
dormitory.  The  hall  was  generally  a  parallelogram  on  plan, 
with  a  raised  dab  at  the  farther  end,  a  large  bow  window  on  one 
side,  and  in  one  or  two  cases  on  both  sides.  At  the  entrance  end 
was  a  passage,  which  was  separated  from  the  hall  by  a  partition 
screen  often  elaborately  decorated,  and  over  which  was  provided 
a  minstrels'  gallery;  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  passage  were  the 
hatches  communicating  with  the  servcries.  This  arrangement 
is  still  found  in  some  of  the  colleges  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
such  as  those  of  New  College,  Christchurch,  Wadham  and 
Magdalen,  Oxford,  and  in  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  In 
private  mansions,  however,  the  kitchen  and  offices  have  been 
removed  to  a  greater  distance,  and  the  great  hall  is  only  used  for 
banquets.  Among  the  more  remarkable  examples  are  the  halls 
of  Audley  End;  Hatfield;  Brougham  Castle;  'Hard wick; 
Knole  Stanway  in  Gloucestershire;  Wollaton,  where  it  is 
situated  in  the  centre  of  the  mansion  and  lighted  by  clerestory 
windows;  Burton  Agnes  in  Yorkshire;  Canons  Ashley,  North- 
amptonshire; West  wood  Park,  Worcestershire;  Fountains, 
Yorkshire;  'Sydenham  House,  Devonshire;  Cobham,  Kent; 
Montacute,  Somersetshire;  Bolsover  Castle,  Derbyshire  (vaulted 
and  with  two  columns  In  the  centre  of  the  hall  to  carry  the 
vault);  Longford  Castle,  Wiltshire;  Barlborough,  Derbyshire; 
Rushton  Hall,  Northamptonshire,  with  a  bow  window  at  each 
end  of  the  dab  and  a  third  bow  window  at  the  other  end; 
Knole,  Kent;  and  at  Mayfield,  Sussex  (with  stone  arches  across 
to  carry  the  roof),  now  converted  into  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel. 
Many  of  these  halls  have  hammer-beam  roofs,  the  most  remark- 
able of  which  is  found  in  the  Middle  Temple  Hall,  London,  where 
both  the  tie  and  collar  beams  have  hammer-beams.  Of  other 
halls,  Westminster  is  the  largest,  being  238  ft.  long;  followed 
by  the  Banqueting  Hall,  Whitehall,  xio  ft;  Wolsey's  Hall, 
Hampton  Court,  xo6  ft;  the  Egyptian  Hall  at  the  Mansion 
House;  the  hall  at  Lambeth,  now  the  library;  Crosby  Hall; 
Gray's  Inn  Hall;  the  Guildhall;  Charterhouse;  and  the 
following  halls  of  the  London  City  Companies — Clothworkers, 
Brewers,  Goldsmiths,  Fishmongers.  The  term  hall  is  also  given 
to  the  following  English  mansions: — Haddon,  Hard  wick, 
Apethorpe,  Aston,  Blickling,  Brereton,  Burton  Agnes,  Cobham, 
Dingley,  Rushton,  Kirby,  Litford  and  Wollaton;  and  it  was 
thenaroeofsomeof  theearlicrcollegcsat  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
most  of  which  have  now  been  absorbed  in  other  colleges,  so  that 
there  remain  only  St  Edmund's  Hall,  Oxford,  and  Trinity  Hall, 
Cambridge. 

HALLAH.  HENRY  (t 777-1859),  English  historian,  was  the 
only  son  of  John  Hallam,  canon  of  Windsor  and  dean  of  Bristol, 
andwasbomontheQthof  July  1777.  He  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  x  799.  Called 
to  the  bar,  he  practised  for  some  years  on  the  Oxford  circuit; 
but  his  tastes  were  literary,  and  when,  on  the  death  of  his  father 
in  x8i2,  he  inherited  a  smadl  estate  in  Lincolnshire,  he  gave 
himself  up  wholly  to  the  studies  of  his  life.  He  had  early  become 
connected  with  the  brilliant  band  of  authors  and  politicians  who 
then  led  the  Whig  party,  a  connexion  to  which  he  owed  his 
appointment  to  the  well-paid  and  easy  post  of  commissioner  of 
stamps;  but  in  practical  politics,  for  which  he  was  by  nature 
unsuited,  he  took  no  active  share.  But  he  was  an  active  sup- 
porter of  manyipopular  movements — particularly  of  that  which 
ended  in  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade;  and  he  was  throughout 


his  entire  life  sincerely  and  profoundly  attached  to  the  political 
principles  of  the  Whigs,  both  in  their  popular  and  in  their 
aristocratic  aspect. 

Hallam's  earliest  literary  work  was  undertaken  in  connexion 
with  the  great  organ  of  the  Whig  party,  the  Edinburgh  Review^ 
where  his  review  of  Scott's  Dryden  attracted  much  notice.  His 
first  great  work,  The  View  oj  the  State  oj  Europt  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  was  produced  in  18x8,  and  was  followed  nine  years 
later  by  the  Constitutional  History  of  England,  In  X838-X839 
appeared  the  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe  in  the  isth, 
i6th  and  jjth  Centuries.  These  are  the  three  works  on  which 
the  fame  of  Hallam  rests.  They  at  once  took  a  place  in  English 
literature  which  has  never  been  seriously  challenged.  A  volume 
of  supplemental  notes  to  his  Middle  Ages  was  published  in  1848. 
These  facts  and  dates  represent  nearly  all  the  events  of  Hallam's 
career.  The  strongest  personal  interest  in  his  life  was  the 
affliction  which  befell  him  in  the  loss  of  his  children,  one  after 
another.  His  eldest  son,  Arthur  Henry  Hallam, — the  "  A.H.H." 
of  Tennyson's  In  Memoriam,  and  by  the  testimony  of  his  con- 
temporaries a  man  of  the  most  brilliant  promise,— -died  in  X835 
at  the  age  of  twenty-two.  .Seventeen  years  later,  his  second 
son,  Henry  Fitzmaurice  Hallam,  was  cut  o£F  like  his  brother 
at  the  very  threshold  of  what  might  have  been  a  great  career. 
The  premature  death  and  high  talents  of  these  young  men,  and 
the  association  of  one  of  them  with  the  most  popular  poem  of  the 
age,  have  made  Hallam's  family  afflictions  better  known  than 
any  other  incidents  of  his  life.  He  survived  wife,  daughter  and 
sons  by  many  years.  In  1834  Hallam  published  The  Remains 
in  Prose  and  Verse  of  Arthur  Henry  HaUam,  toith  a  Shetch  of  his 
Life.  In  X853  a  selection  of  Literary  Essays  and  Characters 
from  the  LUerature  of  Europe  was  published.  Hallam  was  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  trustee  of  the  British  Museum, 
and  enjoyed  many  other  appropriate  distinctions.  In  X830  he 
received  the  gold  medal  for  history,  founded  by  G«>rfe  IV. 
He  died  on  the  axst  of  January  1859. 

The  Middle  Ages  is  described  by  Hallam  himself  as  a  series 
of  historical  dissertations,  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  chief 
circumstances  that  can  interest  a  philosophical  inquirer  during 
the  period  from  the  5th  to  the  x  sth  century.  The  work  consists 
of  nine  long  chapters,  each  of  which  is  a  complete  treatise  in  itself. 
The  history  of  France,  of  Italy,  of  Spain,  of  Germany,  and  of  the 
Greek  and  Saracenic  empires,  sketched  in  rapid  and  general 
terms,  is  the  subject  of  five  separate  chapters.  Others  deal 
with  the  great  institutional  features  of  medieval  society — ^the 
development  of  the  feudal  system,  of  the  ecclesiastical  system, 
and  of  the  free  political  system  of  England.  The  last  chapter 
sketches  the  general  state  of  society,  the  growth  of  commerce, 
manners,  and  literature  in  the  faiiddle  ages.  The  book  may  be 
regarded  as  a  general  view  of  early  modem  history,  preparatoiy 
to  the  more  detailed  treatment  of  special  lines  of  inquiry  carried 
out  in  his  subsequent  works,  although  Hallam's  original  intention 
was  to  continue  the  work  on  the  scale  on  which  it  bad  been 
begun. 

The  Constitutional  History  of  England  takes  up  the  subject 
at  the  point  at  which  it  had  been  dropped  in  the  View  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  viz.  the  accesuon  of  Henry  VII.,*  and  carries  it 
down  to  the  accession  of  George  III.  Hallam  stepped  here  for 
a  characteristic  reason,  which  it  is  impossible  not  to  respect  and 
to  regret.  He  was  unwilling  to  excite  the  prejudices  of  modem 
politics  which  seemed  to  him  to  run  back  througji  the  whole 
period  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  As  a  matter  of  fact  they  ran 
back  much  farther,  as  Hallam  soon  found.  The  sensitive 
impartiality  which  withheld  him  from  touching  perhaps  the 
most  interesting  period  in  the  history  of  the  constitution  did  not 
save  him  from  the  charge  of  partisanship.  The  Quarterly  Review 
for  X828  contains  an  article  on  the  Constitutional  History,  written 
by  Southey,  full  of  railing  and  reproach.  The  work,  he  says, 
is  the  "  production  of  a  decided  partisan,"  who  "  rakes  in  the 
ashes  of  long-forgotten  and  a  thousand  times  buried  slanden, 

*  Lord  Brougham,  overlooking  the  constitutional  chapter  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  censured  Halbm  for  making  an  arbitrary  beginning  at 
this  point,  and  proposed  to  write  a  more  complete  history  *-' *' 


852 


HALLAM,  ROBERT 


for  the  means  of  heaping  obloquy  on  all  who  supported  the 
established  institutions  of  the  country."  No  accusation  made 
by  a  critic  ever  fell  so  wide  of  the  mark.  Absolute  justice  is  the 
standard  which  Hallam  set  himself  and  maintained.  His  view 
of  constitutional  history  was  that  it  should  contain  only  so  much 
of  the  political  and  general  history  of  the  time  as  bears  directly 
on  specific  changes  in  the  organization  of  the  state,  including 
therein  judicial  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  institutions.  But  while 
abstaining  from  irrelevant  historical  discussions,  Hallam  dealt 
with  statesmen  and  policies  with  the  calm  and  fearless  impartiality 
of  a  judge.  It  was  his  cool  treatment  of  such  sanctified  names 
as  Charles,  Cranmer  and  Laud  that  provoked  the  indignation  of 
Southey  and  the  Quarterly,  who  forgot  that  the  same  impartial 
measure  was  extended  to  statesmen  on  the  other  side.  If 
Hallam  can  ever  be  said  to  have  deviated  from  i>erfect  fairness, 
it  was  in  the  tacit  assumption  that  the  19th-century  theory  of 
the  constitution  was  the  right  theory  in  previous  centuries,  and 
that  those  who  departed  from  it  on  one  side  or  the  other  were 
in  the  wrong.  He  did  tmconsciously  antedate  the  constitution, 
and  it  is  clear  from  incidental  allusions  in  his  last  work  that  he 
did  not  regard  with  favour  the  democratic  changes  which  he 
thought  to  be  impending.  Hallam,  like  Macaulay,  ultimately 
referred  all  political  questions  to  the  standard  of  Whig  con- 
stitutionalism. But  though  his  work  is  thus,  like  that  of  many 
historians,  coloured  by  his  opinions,  this  was  not  the  outcome 
of  a  conscious  purpose,  and  he  was  scrupulously  conscientious 
in  a>llecting  and  weighing  his  materials.  In  this  he  was  helped 
by  his  legal  training,  and  it  was  doubtless  this  fact  which  made 
the  Constituiional  History  one  of  the  text-books  of  English 
politics,  to  which  men  of  all  parties  appealed,  and  which,  in 
spite  of  all  the  work  of  later  writers,  still  leaves  it  a  standard 
authority. 

Like  the  Constitutional  History, the  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  Europe  continues  one  of  the  branches  of  inquiry  which  had 
been  opened  in  the  View  of  the  Middle  Ages.    In  the  first  chapter 
of  the  Literature,  which  is  to  a  great  extent  supplemental  y  tu 
the  Ust  chapter  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Hallam  sketches  the  state 
of  literature  in  Europe  down  to  the  end  of  the  X4th  century: 
the  extinction  of  ancient  learning  which  followed  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  empire  and  the  rise  of  Christianity;  the  preservation 
of  the  Latin  language  in  the  services  of  the  church;  and  the  slow 
revival  of  letters,  which  began  to  show  itself  soon  after  the  7  th 
century — "  the  nadir  of  the  human  mind  " — had  been  passed. 
For  the  first  century  and  a  hdlf  of  his  special  period  he  is  mainly 
occupied  with  a  review  of  classical  learning,  and  he  adopts  the 
plan  of  taking  short  decennial  period^  and  noticing  the  most 
remarkable  works  which  they  produced.    The  rapid  growth  of 
literature  in  the  i6th  century  compels  him  to  resort  to  a  classifica- 
tion of  subjects.    Thus  in  the  period  1 520-1 550  we  have  separate 
chapters  on  ancient  literature,  theology,  speculative  philosophy 
and  jurisprudence,  the  literature  of  taste,  and  scientific  and 
miscellaneous  literature;  and  the  subdivisions  of  subjects  is 
carried  further  of  course  in  the  later  periods.    Thus  poetry,  the 
drama  and  polite  literature   form  the  subjects  of  separate 
chapters.    One  inconvenient  result  of  this  arrangement  is  that 
the  same  author  is  scattered  over  many  chapters,  according  as  his 
works  fall  within  this  category  or  that  period  of  time.    Names 
like  Shakespeare,  Grotius,  Bacon,  Hobbes  appear  in  half  a  dozen 
different  places.    The  individuality  of  great  authors  is  thus 
dissipated  except  when  it  has  been  preserved  by  an  occasional 
sacrifice  of  the  arrangement — and  this  defect,  if  it  is  to  be 
esteemed  a  defect,  is  increased  by  the  very  sparing  references 
to  personal  history  and  character  with  which  Hallam  was 
obliged  to  content  himself.    His  plan  excluded  biographical 
history,  nor  is  the  work,  he*  tells  us,  to  be  regarded  as  one  of 
reference.    It  is  rigidly  an  account  of  the  books  which  would 
make  a  complete  library  of  the  period  ,*  arranged  according  to  the 
date  of  their  publication  and  the  nature  of  their  subjects.    The 
history  of  institutions  like  universities  and  academies,  and  that 
of  great  popular  movements  like  the  Reformation,  are  of  course 

'  Technical  subjects  like  'painting  or  English  law  have  been  ex- 
cluded by  Hallam,  and  history  and  theology  only  partially  treated. 


noticed  in  their  immediate  amnezion  with  fiteraiy  lesahs; 
but  Hallam  had  little  taste  for  the  spadous  generalization  rdadk 
such  subjects  suggest.  The  great  qualities  diipUyed  in  this 
worit  have  been  universally  acknowledged — copsdentiwisnfw, 
accuracy,  judgment  and  enormous  reading.  Not  the  least 
striking  testimony  to  Hallam's  powers  »  h^  mastery  over  so 
many  diverse  forms  of  intellectual  activity.  In  sdence  and 
theology,  mathematics  and  poetry,  metaphysics  and  law,  he  is  a 
competent  and  alwa3r5  a  fair  if  not  a  profound  critic,  llie  bent 
of  his  own  mind  is  manifest  in  his  treatment  of  pore  fiteratore 
and  of  political  speculation — ^wfaich  seems  to  be  inspired  with 
stronger  personal  interest  and  a  higher  sense  of  pomr  than  other 
parts  of  his  work  display.  Not  less  worthy  of  notice  in  a  literary 
history  is  the  good  sense  by  which  both  his  learning  and  his  tastes 
have  been  held  in  controL  Probably  no  writer  ever  possessed  a 
juster  view  of  the  relative  importance  of  men  and  things  The 
labour  devoted  to  an  investigation  is  with  Hallam  no  ezoiae  for 
dwelling  on  the  result,  unless  that  is  in  itsdf  important.  He  turns 
away  contemptuously  from  the  mere  curiosities  of  literature, 
and  is  never  tempted  to  make  a  display  of  trivial  cmditkni. 
Nor  do  we  find  that  his  interest  in  special  studies  leads  him  to 
assign  them  a  disproportionate  phice  in  his  genoal  view  of  the 
literature  of  a  period. 

Hallam  is  generally  described  as  a  "  philosophical  historian.'* 
The  description  is  justified  not  so  much  by  any  philosophica] 
quality  in  his  method  as  by  the  nature  of  his  subject  and  his  own 
temper.  Hallam  is  a  philosopher  to  this  extent  that  both  in 
political  andvin  literary  history  he  fixed  his  attenticm  on  resolts 
rather  than  on  persons.  His  conception  of  history  embraced 
the  whole  movement  of  society.  Beside  that  conception  the 
issue  of  battles  and  the  fate  of  kings  fall  into  oomparativt 
insignificance.  "  We  can  trace  the  pedigree  of  princes,"  be 
reflects,  "  fill  up  the  catalogue  of  towns  besieged  and  {novinces 
desolated,  describe  even  the  whole  pageantry  of  ooronatkuis  and 
festivals,  but  we  cannot  recover  the  genuine  history  of  mankind." 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  trace  in  Hallam  of  anything 
like  a  philosophy  of  history  or  society.  .Wise  and  generally 
melancholy  reflections  on  human  nature  and  political  society 
are  not  infrequent  in  his  writings,  and  they  arise  natozally  azul 
incidentally  out  of  the  subject  he  is  disnming.  His  object  is 
the  attainment  of  truth  in  matters  of  fact.  Swelling  theories 
of  the  movement  of  society,  and  broad  dianicterizatioos  of 
particular  i>eriods  of  history  seem  to  have  no  attraction  for  him. 
The  view  of  mankind  on  which  such  generalizations  are  osuaHy 
based,  taking  little  account  of  individual  character,  was  highly 
distasteful  to  him.  Thus  he  objects  to  the  use  of  statistics 
because  they  favour  that  tendency  to  regard  all  men  as  mentally 
and  morally  equal  which  is  so  unhappily  strong  in  modem  tiuEies. 
At  the  same  time  Hallam  by  no  means  assumes  the  tone  of  the 
mere  scholar.  He  is  even  solicitous  to  show  that  his  point  of 
view  is  that  of  the  cultivated  gentleman  and  not  of  the  q>ecia]ist 
of  any  order.  Thus  he  tells  us  that  Montaigne  is  the  first  Fmdi 
author  whom  an  English  gentleman  is  ashamed  not  to  have  read. 
In  fact,  allusions  to  the  necessary  studies  of  a  gentleman  meet 
us  constantly,  reminding  us  of  the  unlikely  erudition  <d  the 
schoolboy  in  Macaiday.  Hallam's  prejudices,  so  far  as  he  had 
any,  belong  to  the  same  character.  His  critidsm  is  apt  to 
assume  a  tone  of  moral  censure  when  he  has  to  deal  with  certain 
extremes  of  human  thought — ^scepticism  in  fh^osophy,  atheism 
in  religion  and  democracy  in  politics. 

Hallam's  style  is  singularly  uniform  throughout  all  his  writings. 
It  is  sincere  and  straightforward,  and  obviously  innocent  ol  any 
motive  beyond  that  of  clearly  expressing  the  writer's  mcamng. 
In  the  Literature  of  Europe  tiiett  are  many  passages  of  great 
imaginative  beauty.  (E.  R.) 

HALLAM.  ROBERT  (d.  14x7),  bishop  of  Salisbury  and 
English  representative  at  the  couitdl  of  Constance,  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  and  was  chancellor  of  the  univosity  from  1403  to 
X405.  In  the  latter  year  the  pope  nominated  him  to  be  ajcb- 
bishop  of  York,  but  the  king  objected.  However,  in  1407  be 
was  consecrated  by  Gregory  XII.  at  Siena  as  bishq|>  oi  Salis- 
bury.   At  the  council  of  Pisa  in  1409  he  was  one  of  the  English 


HALLE,  SIR  C— HALLE 


853 


re:>resentative8.  Oii  tBe  6th  of  June  141 1  Pope  John  XXIII.  made 
HaJiam  a  cardinal,  but  there  was  some  irregularity,  and  his  title 
was  not  recognized.  At  the  council  of  Constance  (q.v.)^  which  met 
in  November  1414,  Hallam  was  the  chief  English  envoy.  There 
he  at  once  took  a  prominent  position,  as  an  advocate  of  the  cause 
of  Church  reform,  and  of  the  superiority  of  the  council  to  the 
pope.  In  the  discussions  which  led  up  to  the  deposition  of 
John  XXIII.  on  the  29th  of  May  14 15  he  had  a  leading  share. 
Wiih  the  trials  of  John  Hus  and  Jerome  of  Prague  he  had  less 
concern.  The  emperor  Sigismund,  through  whose  influence 
the  council  had  been  assembled,  was  absent  during  the  whole 
of  1416  on  a  diplomatic  mission  in  France  and  England;  but 
when  he  returned  to  Constance  in  January  141 7,  as  the  open 
ally  of  the  English  king,  Hallam  as  Henry's  trusted  representative 
obtained  increased  importance.  Hallam  contrived  skilfully 
to  emphasize  English  prestige  by  delivering  the  address  of 
welcome  to  Sigismund  on  his  formal  reception.  Afterwards, 
under  his  master's  direction,  he  gave  the  emperor  vigorous 
support  in  the  endeavour  to  secure  a  reform  of  the  Church, 
before  the  council  proceeded  to  the  election  of  a  new  pope.  This 
matter  was  still  undecided  when  Hallam  died  suddenly,  on  the 
4th  of  September  14 17.  After  his  death  the  direction  of  the 
English  nation  fell  into  less  skilful  hands,  with  the  result  that 
the  cardinals  were  able  to  secure  the  immediate  election  of  a  new 
pope  (Martin  V.felected  on  the  i  xth  of  November).  It  has  been 
Supposed  that  the  abandonment  of  the  reformers  by  the  English 
was  due  entirely  to  Hallam's  death;  but  it  is  more  likely  that 
Henry  V.,  foreseeing  the  possible  need  for  a  change  of  front, 
had  given  Hallam  discretionary  powexs  which  the  bishop's 
successors  used  with  too  little  judgment.  Hallam  himself, 
who  had  the  confidence  of  Sigismund  and  was  generally  respected 
for  his  straightforward  independence,  might  have  achieved  a 
better  result.  Hallam  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  at  Constance, 
where  his  tomb  near  the  high  altar  is  marked  by  a  brass  of 
English  workmanship. 

For  the  acts  of  the  council  of  Constance  see  H.  von  der  Hardt's 
Concilium  Comtanliense,  and  H.  Finke'si4cto  cotuUii  Consianciensis. 
For  a  modern  account  sec  Mandcll  Crcighton's  History  0/ the  Patxuy 
(6  vols.,  London,  1897).  (C.  L.  K.) 

HALli.  SIR  CHARLES  (originally  Karl  Halle)  (1819-1895), 
English  pianist  and  conductor,  German  by  nationality,  was 
born  at  Hagen,  in  Westphalia,  on  the  nth  of  April  1819.  He 
studied  under  Rink  at  Darmstadt  in  1835,  and  as  early  as  x8j6 
went  to  Paris,  where  for  twelve  years  he  lived  in  constant  inter- 
course with  Cherubini,  Chopin,  Liszt  and  other  musicians,  and 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  such  great  literary  figures  as  Alfred 
de  Mussel  and  George  Sand.  He  had  started  a  set  of  chamber 
concerts  with  Alard  and  Franchomme  with  great  success,  and 
had  completed  one  series  of  them  when  the  revolution  of  1848 
drove  him  from  Paris,  and  he  settled,  with,  his  wife  and  two 
children,  in  London.  His  pianoforte  recitals,  given  at  first  from 
1830  in  his  own  house,  and  from  1861  in  St  James's  Hall,  were  an 
important  feature  of  London  musical  Ufe,  and  it  was  due  in 
great  measure  to  them  that  a  knowledge  of  Beethoven's  piano- 
forte sonatas  became  general  in  English  society.  At  the  Musical 
Union  founded  by  John  Ella,  and  at  the  Popular  Concerts  from 
their  beginning,  Hall£  was  a  frequent  performer,  and  from  1853 
was  director  of  the  Gentlemen's  Concerts  in  Manchester,  where, 
in  1857,  he  started  a  series  of  concerts  of  his  own,  raising  the 
orchestra  to  a  pitch  of  perfection  quite  unknown  at  that  time 
in  England.  In  1S88  he  married  Madame  Norman  Neruda 
(b.  1839),  the  violinist,  widow  of  Ludwig  Norman,  and  daughter 
of  Josef  Neruda,  members  of  whose  family  had  long  been  famous 
for  musical  talent.  In  the  same  year  he  was  knighted;  and 
in  1890  and  1891  he  toured  with  his  wife  in  Australia  and  else- 
where. He  died  at  Manchester  on  the  35th  of  October  1895. 
Hall£  exercised  an  important  influence  in  the  musical  education 
of  England;  if  his  pianoforte-playing,  by  which  he  was  mainly 
known  to  the  public  in  London,  seemed  remarkable  rather  for 
precision  than  for  depth,  for  crystal  clearness  rather  than  for 
warmth,  and  for  perfect  realization  of  the  written  text  rather 
than  for  strong  individuality,  it  was  at  least  of  immense  value 


as  giving  the  composer'*  idea  with  the  utmost  fidelity.  Those 
who  were  privileged  to  hear  him  play  in  private,  like  those  who 
could  appreciate  the  power,  beauty  and  imaginative  warmth 
of  his  conducting,  would  have  given  a  very  different  verdict; 
and  they  were  not  wrong  in  judging  Hall£  to  be  a  man  of  the 
widest  and  keenest  artistic  sympathies,  with  an  extraordinary 
gift  of  insight  into  music  of  every  school,  as  well  as  a  strong  sense 
of  humour.  He  fought  a  long  and  arduous  battle  for  the  best 
music,  and  never  forgot  the  dignity  of  his  art.  In  spite  of  the 
fact  that  his  technique  was  that  of  his  youth,  of  the  period  before 
Liszt,  the  ease  and  certainty  he  attained  in  the  most  modem 
music  was  not  the  less  wonderful  because  he  concealed  the 
mechanical  means  so  completely. 

Lady  Hall6,  who  from  1864  onwards  had  been  one  of  the  leading 
solo  violinists  of  the  time,  was  constantly  associated  with  her 
husband  on  the  concert  stage  till  his  death;  and  in  1896  a  public 
subscription  was  organized  in  her  behalf,  under  royal  patronage. 
She  continued  to  ap|)ear  occasionally  in  public,  notably  as  late 
as  1907,  when  she  played  at  the  Joachim  memorial  concert.  In 
1 901  she  was  given  by  Queen  Alexandra  the  title  of  "violinist 
to  the  queen."  A  fine  classical  player  and  artist,  frequently 
associated  with  Joachim,  Lady  Hall£  was  the  first  of  the  women 
violinists  who  could  stand  comparison  with  men. 

HALLE  (known  as  Halle-an-der-Saale,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  small  town  of  Halle  in  Westphalia),  a  town  of  Germany, 
in  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  situated  in  a  sandy  plain  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Saale,  which  here  divides  into  several  arms, 
21  m.  N.W.  from  Leipzig  by  the  railway  to  Magdeburg.  Pop. 
(1875),  60,503;  (1885)  81,982;  (189s)  116,304;  (1905)  160,031. 
Owing  to  its  situation  at  the  junction  of  six  important  lines  of 
railway,  bringing  it  into  direct  communication  with  Berlin, 
Breslau,  Leipzig,  Frankfort-on-Main,  the  Harz  country  and 
Hanover,  it  has  greatly  developed  in  size  and  in  commercial 
and  industrial  importance.  It  consists  of  the  old,  or  inner,  town 
surrounded  by  promenades,  which  occupy  the  site  of  the  former 
fortifications,  and  beyond  these  of  two  small  towns,  Glaucha 
in  the  south  and  Neumarkt  in  the  north,  and  five  rapidly  in- 
creasing suburbs.  The  inner  town  is  irregulariy  built  and 
presents  a  somewhat  unattractive  appearance,  but  it  has  been 
much  improved  and  modernized  by  the  laying  out  of  new  streets. 

The  centre  of  the  town  proper  is  occupied  by  the  imposing 
market  square,  on  which  stand  the  fine  medieval  town  hall 
(restored  in  1883)  and  the  handsome  Gothic  Marienkirche, 
dating  mainly  from  the  i6th  century,  with  two  towers  connected 
by  a  bridge.  In  the  middle  of  the  square  are  a  dock-tower 
(Der  roU  Turm)  376  ft.  in  height,  and  a  bronze  statue  of  Handel, 
the  composer,  a  native  of  Halle.  West  of  the  market-square  h'es 
the  Halle,  or  the  Tal,  where  the  brine  q>rings  (see  below)  issue. 
Among  the  eleven  churches,  nine  Protestant  and  two  Roman 
Catholic,  may  also  be  mentioned  the  St  Moritzkirche,  dating 
from  the  12th  century,  with  fine  wood  carvings  and  sculptures, 
and  the  cathedral  (belonging  since  1689  to  t^e  Reformed  or 
CalvinisCic  church),  built  in  the  i6th  century  and  containing  an 
altar-piece  representing  Duke  Augustus  of  Saxony  and  his 
family.  Of  secular  buildings  the  most  noticeable  are  the  ruins 
of  the  castle  of  Moritzburg,  formerly  a  citadel  and  the  residence 
of  the  archbishops  of  Magdeburg,  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  with  the  exception  of  the  left  wing  now  used  for 
military  purposes,  the  university  buildings,  the  theatre  and  the 
new  railway  station.  The  famous  university  was  founded  by 
the  elector  Frederick  III.  of  Brandenburg  (afterwards  king  of 
Prussia),  in  1694,  on  behalf  of  the  jurist.  Christian  Thomasius 
( 1 65  s- 1 7  28) ,  whom  many  students  followed  to  Halle,  when  he  was 
expelled  from  Leipzig  through  the  enmity  <rf  his  fellow  profenors. 
It  was  closed  by  Napoleon  in  1806  and  again  in  1813,  but  in  181$ 
was  re-established  and  augmented  by  the  removal  to  it  of  the 
university  of  Wittenberg,  with  which  it  thus  became  united. 
It  has  faculties  of  theology,  law,  medicine  and  philosophy. 
From  the  first  it  has  been  recognized  as  one  of  the  principal  seats 
of  Protestant  theology,  originally  of  the  pietistic  and  latterly  of 
the  rationalistic  and  critical  scho(J.  In  connexion  with  the 
university  there  are  a  botanical  garden,  a  theological,  seminary. 


8  54 


HALLECK,  F.— HALLECK,  H.  W. 


anatomical,  pathologieal  and  physical  institutes,  hospitals,  an 
agricultural  institute — one  of  the  foremost  institutions  of  the 
kind  in  Germany— a  meteorological  institute,  an  observatory 
and  a  library  of  180,000  printed  volumes  and  800  manuscripts. 
Among  other  educational  establishments  must  be  mentioned 
the  Francke'sche  .Stif  tungen,  founded  in  1691  by  August  Hermann 
Francke  (1663-17  27),  a  bronze  statue  of  whom  by  Ranch  was 
erected  in  1 839  in  the  inner  court  of  the  building.  They  embrace 
an  orphanage,  a  laboratory  where  medicines  are  prepared  and 
distributed,  a  Bible  press  from  which  Bibles  are  issued  at  a  cheap 
rate,  and  eight  schools  of  various  grades,  attended  in  all  by  over 
3000  pupils.  The  other  -prindpal  institutions  are  the  city 
gymnasium,  the  provincial  lunatic  asylum,  the  prison,  the  town 
hospital  and  infirmary,  and  the  deaf  and  dumb  institute.  The 
salt-springs  of  Halle  have  been  known  from  a  very  early  period. 
Some  rise  within  the  town  and  others  on  an  island  in  the 
Saale;  and  together  their  annual  yield  of  salt  is  about  8500 
tons. 

The  workmen  employed  at  the  salt-works  are  of  a  peculiar  race 
and  are  known  as  the  HaUoren.  They  have  been  usually  regarded 
as  descendants  of  the  original  Wendish  inhabitants,  or  as  Celtic 
immigrants,  with  an  admixture  of  Frankish  elements.  They 
wear  a  distinct  dress,  the  ordinary  costume  of  about  1700, 
observe  several  ancient  customs,  and  enjoy  certain  exemptions 
and  privileges  derived  from  those  of  the  ancient  Pfanncrschaft 
(community  of  the  lalt-panners). 

Among  the  other  industries  of  Halle  are  sugar  refining,  machine 
building,  the  manufacture  of  spirits,  malt,  chocolate,  cocoa, 
confectionery,  cement,  paper,  chicory,  lubricating  and  illuminat- 
ing oil,  wagon  grease,  carriages  and  playing  cards,  printing, 
dyeing  and  coal  mining  (soft  brown  coal).  The  trade,  which  is 
supervised  by  a  chamber  of  commerce,  is  very  considerable,  the 
principal  exports  being  machinery,  raw  sugar  and  petroleum. 
Halle  is  also  noted  as  the  seat  of  several  important  publishing 
firms.  The  Bibelanstalt  (Bible  institution)  of  von  Castein  is  the 
central  authority  for  the  revision  of  Luther's  Bible,  of  which  it 
sells  annually  from  60,000  to  70,000  copies. 

Halle  is  first  mentioned  as  a  fortress  erected  on  the  Saale  in  806 
by  Charles,  son  of  ChaHemagne,  during  his  expedition  against  the 
Sorbs.  The  place  was,  however,  known  long  before,  and  owes  its 
origin  as  well  as  its  name  to  the  salt  springs  QjaJis).  In  968  Halle, 
witn  the  valuable  salt  works,  was  eiven  by  the  emperor  Otto  1.  to 
the  newly  founded  archdiocese  of  Magdeburg,  and  in  981  Otto  II. 
gave  it  a  charter  as  a  town.  The  interests  of  the  archbishop  were 
watched  over  by  a  Vogt  (advocatus)  and  a  burgrave.  and  from  the 
first  there  were  separate  jurisdictions  for  the  Halloren  and  the 
German  settlers  in  the  town,  the  former  being  under  that  of  the 
Salsgraf  (comes  salis),  the  latter  of  a  Schultheiss  or  bailiff,  both 
subordinate  to  the  burgrave.  The  conflict  of  interests  and  juris- 
dictions led  to  the  usual  internecine  strife  duringthe  middle  ages.  The 
Eanners  {Pfanner)  of  the  Tal,  feudatories  or  omcials,  became  a  close 
ereditavy  aristocracy  in  perpetual  rivalry  with  the  gilds  in  the  town ; 
and  both  resisted  the  pretensions  of  the  archbishops.  At  the 
b^inning  of  the  12th  century  Halle  had  attained  considerable  im- 

S>runce,  and  in 'the  13th  and  14th  centuries  as  a  member  of  the 
anscatic  League  it  carried  on  successful  wars  with  the  archbishops 
of  Magdeburg:  and  in  1435  it  resisted  an  army  of  30,000  men  under 
the  elector  of  Saxony.  Its  liberty  perished,  however,  as  a  result 
of  the  internal  feud  between  the  democratic  gilds  and  the  patrician 
panners.  On  the  20th  of  September  1478  a  demagogue  and  cobbler 
named  Jakob  Weissak,  a  member  of  the  town  council,  with  his 
confederates  opened  the  gates  to  the  soldiers  of  the  archbishop.  The 
townsmen  were  subdued,  and  to  hold  them  in  check  the  archbishop, 
Ernest  of  Saxony,  built  the  castle  of  Moriuburg.  Notwithstanding 
the  efforts  of  the  archbishops  of  Mainx  and  Magdeburg,  the  Refor- 
mation found  an  entrance  into  the  city  in  1523;  and  in  1541  a 
Lutheran  superintendent  was  appointed.  After  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia in  1648  the  city  came  into  the  possession  of  the  house  of 
Brandenburg.  In  1806  it  was  stormed  and  taken  by  the  French, 
after  which,  at  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  it  was  united  to  the  new  kingdom 
of  Westphalia.  After  the  battle  between  the  Prussians  and  French, 
in  May  1813,  it  was  taken  by  the  Prussians.  The  rise  of  Leipzig 
was  for  a  long  time  hurtful  to  the  prosperity  of  Halle,  and  its  present 
rapid  increase  in  population  and  trade  is  principally  due  to  its  position 
as  the  centre  of  a  network  of  railways. 

See  Dreyhaupt,  Ausftihrliche  Beschreibung  des  Saalkretses  (Halle, 
2  vols.,  1755;  3rd  edition,  1842-1844);  Hoffbauer,  GeschichU  <Ur 
UniversUdt  tu  HalU  (1806):  Halle  in  Vorzeit  und  Gegenwart  (1851); 
Knauth,  Kuru  GeschichU  und  Beschreibung  der  Sladt  HalU  (3rd  ed., 
1861);   vom   Hagen,   Die  Stadt    HaUc   (1866-1867):   Herubcrg, 


CesckUkU  der  Vereimigumt  der  UwmrsilOeu  worn  Witteuierg  tmd 
HalU  (1867):  Voss,  Zur  CesckickU  der  AnUnumU  der  Stadt  HalU 
(1874);  Schrader.  GesckichU  der  Fnedrkks-UiuversHdt  nt  HalU 
(Berlin,  1894);  Kari  Hegel.  Slddte  und  CildcH  der  germamisckem 
Vdlker  (Leipzig,  1891):  ii.  444''449- 

HALLECK,  FnZ-GREEHB  (i790>i867),  American  poet,  was 
born  at  Guilford,  Connecticut,  on  the  8th  of  July  1790.  By  hb 
mother  he  was  descended  from  John  Eliot,  the  "  Apostle  to  the 
Indians."  At  an  eariy  age  he  became  doit  in  a  store  at  Guil- 
ford, and  in  x8ii  he  entered  a  banking-house  in  New  York. 
Having  made  the  acquaintance  of  Joseph  Rodman  Drake,  in  i  S  i  q 
he  assisted  him  under  the  signature  of  "Croaker  junior"  in 
contributing  to  the  New.  York  Evening  P&slXht  humorous  scrie* 
of  *'  Croaker  Papers."  In  1821  he  publishied  his  longest  poem, 
Fanny,  a  satire  on  local  politics  and  fashions  in  the  measure  of 
Byron's  Don  Juan.  He  visited  Europe  in  1822-1823,  and  after 
his  return  published  anonymously  in  1827  Alnwick  CasUe,  viiA 
other  Poems.  From  1832  to  1841  be  was  confidential  agent  of 
John  Jacob  Astor,  who  named  him  one  of  the  trustees  of  the 
Astor  library.  In  1864  he  published  in  the  New  York  Ledger 
a  poem  of  300  lines  entitled  "  Young  America."  He  died  at 
Guilford,  on  the  19th  of  November  1867.  The  poems  of  Halleck 
are  written  with  great  care  and  finish,  and  manifest  the  possession 
of  a  fine  sense  of  harmony  and  of  genial  and  elevated  sentiments. 

His  Life  and  Letters,  by  James  Grant  Wilson,  appeared  in  iSM. 
His  Poetical  Writings,  together  with  extracts  from  those  of  Jo^^ph 
Rodman  Drake,  were  edited  by  Wilson  in  the  same  year.  « 

HALLECK,  HENRY  WAOER  (181 5-1872),  Amerkaa  general 
and  jurist,  was  bom  at  WestemvUlc,  Oneida  county,  N.V., 
in  181 5,  entered  the  West  Point  military  academy  at  the  age  of 
twenty,  and  on  graduating  in  1839  was  appointed  to  the  engineers, 
becoming  at  the  same  tyne  assistant  professor  of  engineering 
at  the  academy.  In  the  following  year  be  was  made  an  assistant 
to  the  Board  of  Engineers  at  Washington,  from  1S41  to  1846 
he  was  employed  on  the  defence  works  at  New  York,  and  in 
1845  be  w^  sei^t  by  the  government  to  visit  the  principal 
military  establishments  of  Europe.  After  his  return,  Halleck 
delivered  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  sdence  of  war,  published 
in  1846  under  the  title  Elements  of  Military  Art  and  Sciewe. 
A  later  edition  of  this  work  was  widely  used  as  a  text-book  by 
volunteer  ofHcers  during  the  Civil  War.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Mexican  Warin  1846,  heserved  with  the  expedition  to  California 
and  the  Pacific  coast,  in  which  he  distinguished  himself  not  only 
as  an  engineer,  but  by  his  skill  in  civil  adminbtratlon  and  by  his 
good  conduct  before  the  enemy.  He  served  for  several  years 
in  California  as  a  staff  officer,  and  as  secretary  of  state  under  the 
military  government,  and  in  1849  he  helped  to  frame  the  state 
constitution  of  California,  on  its  being  admitted  into  the  Union. 
In  1852  he  was  appointed  inspector  and  engineer  of  lighthouses, 
and  in  1853  was  employed  in  the  fortificktion  of  the  Pacidc 
coast.  In  1854  Captain  Halleck  resigned  his  commission  and 
took  up  the  practice  of  law  with  great  success.  He  was  also 
director  of  a  quicksilver  mine,  and  in  1855  he  became  president 
of  the  Pacific  &  Atlantic  railway.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Ci\  il 
War  he  returned  to  the  army  as  a  major-general,  and  in 
November  1 861  he  was  charged  with  the  supreme  command  to 
the  western  theatre  of  war.  There  can  be  no  question  that  hii 
administrative  skill  was  mainly  instrumental  in  bringing  onicr 
out  of  chaos  in  the  hurried  formation  of  large  volunteer  armies 
in  1 86 1,  but  the  strategical  and  tactical  successes  of  the  f<dk>«ing 
spring  were  due  rather  to  the  skill  and  activity  of  hb  subordinate 
generals  Grant,  Bucll  and  Pope,  than  to  the  plans  of  the  supreme 
commander,  and  when  he  assumed  command  of  the  united  forces 
of  these  three  generals  before  Corinth,  the  methodical  slowness 
of  his  advance  aroused  much  criticism.  In  July,  however,  he 
was  called  to  W^ashington  as  general-in-chief  of  the  airmies.  At 
headquarters  his  administrative  powen  were  conspicuous, 
but  he  proved  to  be  utterly  wanting  in  any  large  grasp  of  the 
military  problem;  the  successive  reverses  of  Generals  McOellon, 
Pope,  Burnside  and  Hooker  in  Virginia  were  iMt  infrequently 
t  raceable  to  the  defects  of  the  general-in-chicf .  No  co-ordinaiian 
of  the  military  efforts  of  the  Union  was  seriously  undertaken  by 
Halleck,  and  eventually  in  March  1864  Grant  was  appointed  to 


HALLEFLINTA— HALLER,  A.  VON 


855 


replace  him,  Major-Gencral  Halleck  becoming  chief  of  staff  at 
Washington.  This  post  he  occupied  with  credit  until  the 
end  of  the  war.  In  April  1865  he  held  the  command  of  the 
military  division  of  the  James  and  in  August  of  the  same  year 
of  the  military  division  of  the  Pacific,  which  he  retained  till 
June  1869,  when  he  was  transferred  to  that  of  the  South,  a 
position  he  held  till  his  death  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  on  the  9th  of 
January  187  a.  Halleck's  position  as  a  soldier  is  easily  defined 
by  his  uniform  success  as  an  administrative  official,  his  equally 
uniform  want  of  success  as  an  officer  at  the  head  of  large  armies 
in  the  field,  and  the  popularity  of  his  theoretical  writings  on 
war.  His  influence,  for  good  or  evil,  on  the  course  of  the  greatest 
war  of  modem  tiroes  was  greater  than  that  of  any  soldier  on 
either  side  save  Grant  and  Lee,  and  whilst  his  interference  with 
the  dispositions  of  the  commanders  in  the  field  was  often  dis- 
astrous, his  services  in  organizing  and  instructing  the  Union 
forces  were  always  of  the  highest  value,  and  in  this  respect  he 
was  indispensable. 

'  Besides  Military  Art  and  SInrace.  Halleck  wrote  Bitumen,  its 
Varieties,  Proper t$9s  and  Uses  (1841);  The  Minium  Laws  of  Spain 
and  Mexico  (1859);  International  Lav  (1861;  new  edition,  igbS); 
and  Treatise  on  International  Law  and  the  Laws  of  War,  prepared 


.law  mentioned  above  entitle  General  Halleck  to  be  considered  as 
one  of  the  great  jurists  of  the  19th  century. 

HALLBFUMTA  (a  Swedish  word  meaning  rock-flint),  a  white, 
grey,  yellow,  greenish  or  pink,  fine-grained  rock  consisting  of 
an  intimate  mixture  of  quarta  and  felspar.  Many  examples 
are  banded  or  striated;  others  contain  porphyritic  crystals 
of  quartz  which  resemble  those  of  the  felsitn  and  porphyrin. 
Mica,  iron  oxides,  apatite,  aircon,  epidote  and  hornblende  may 
also  be  present  in  small  amount.  The  more  micaceous  varieties 
form  transitions  to  granulite  and  gneiss.  HSlleflinta  under  the 
microscope  is  very  finely  crystalline,  or  even  cryptocrystajline, 
resembling  the  fdsitic  matrix  of  many  acid  rocks.  It  is  essentially 
metamorphic  and  occurs  with  gneisses,  schists  and  granulites, 
especially  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  where  it  is  regarded 
as  being  very  characteristic  of  certain  horizons.  •  Of  its  original 
nature  there  is  some  doubt,  but  its  chemical  composition  and 
the  occasional  presence  of  porphyritic  crystals  indicate  that  it 
has  affinities  to  the  fine-grained  add  intrusive  rocks.  In  this 
group  there  may  also  have  been  placed  metamorphosed  add 
tuffs  and  a  certain  number  of  adinoles  (shales,  contact  altered 
by  intrusions  of  diabase).  The  assemblage  is  not  a  perfectly 
homogeneous  one  but  indudes  both  igneous  and  sedimentary 
rocks,  but  the  former  preponderate.  Rocks  very  similiar  to  the 
typical  Swedish  hllleflintas  occiv  in  Tirol,  in  Galida  and  eastern 
Bohemia. 

HALLBL  (Heb.  ^Vn  a  Mishnic  derivaUve  from  ^  hiM, 
"to  praise ")f  &  term  in  synagogal  liturgy  for  (a)  Psalms 
cxiii.-cxviii.,  often  called  "  the  Egyptian  Hallel "  because  of  its 
redtation  during  the  paschal  meal  on  the  night  of  the  Passover, 
\b)  Pftalm  cxxxvi.  "the  Great  Hallel."  C.  A.  Briggs'  points  out 
that  the  term,"  Halldujah  "  (Praise  ye  Yah)  is  found  at  the 
ckMC  of  Pss.  dv.,  cv.,  cxv.,  czvi.,  cxvii.,  at  the  beginning  of 
P»s.  czi.,  cxii.  and  at  both  ends  of  Pss.  cvi.,  cxiii.,  cxxxv.,  cxlvi. 
to  d.  The  Septuagint  also  gives  it  at  the  beginning  of  Pss.  cv., 
cvii.,  cxiv.,  cxvi.  to  cxix.,  cxxxvi.  There  are  thus  four  groups 
of  Hallel  psalms: — dv.-cvii.  (a  tetndogy  on  creation,  the 
patriarchal  age,  the  Exodus,  and  the  Restoration);  cxi.-cxvii. 
which  indudes  most  of  the  "Egyptian  Halld";  cxxxv.-cxxxvi.; 
cxlvi.-d.  All  of  these  Hallels  (except  cxlvii.  and  cxlix.  which 
are  Maccabean)  belong  to  the  Greek  period,  forming  a  collection 
of  sixteen  psalms  composed  for  public  use  by  thechoiis,  especially 
at  the  great  feasts.  Their  distribution  into  four  groups  was  the 
work  of  the  final  editor  of  the  psalter.  Later  liturgical  use 
regarded  Pss.  cxviii.  and  even  cxix.  as  Hallels,  as  well  as  Pss. 
cxx.  to  cxxxiv. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  extent  of  the  official  Hallel  varied 
from  time  to  time.    It  would  appear  that  in  the  time  of  Gamalid 

*  JnSematiamal  Critical  Commentary,  "  Psalms,"  Intro.  Ixxviii. 


(Pesakim  x.  5)  the  custom  of  its  redtation  at  the  paschal  meal 
was  still  of  r^rent  innovation.  While  the  school  of  Shammai 
advised  only  Ps.  cxiii.,  the  school  of  Hilld  favoured  Pss.  cxiii. 
and  cxiv.'  The  further  extension  so  as  to  indude  Pss.  cxv.  to 
cxviii.  probably  dates  from  the  first  half  of  the  snd  century  a.d., 
and  these  four  psalms  were  redted  after  the  pouring  out  of  the 
fourth  cup,  the  two  earlier  ones  being  taken  at  the  beginning  of 
the  meal.  From  the  3rd  century  the  use  of  the  Hallel  was 
extended  to  other  occasions,  and  was  gradually  incorporated 
into  the  liturgy  of  eighteen  festal  days. 

The  "  Great  Halld  "  (P&.  cxxxvi.  and  its  later  extension  to 
dcx.-cxxxvi.)  always  served  the  wider  purpose  of  a  more  general 
thanksgiving.  According  to  Rabbi  Johanan  it  derived  its  name 
from  the  allusion  in  v.  35  to  the  Holy  One  who  sits  in  heaven  and 
thence  distributes  food  to  all  his  creatures. 

HALLER.  ALBRECHT  VON  (1708-1777)1  Swiss  anatomist 
and  physiologist,  was  bom  of  an  old  Swiss  family  at  Bern,  on  the 
i6th  of  October  1708.  Prevented  by  long-continued  ill-health 
from  taking  part  in  boyish  sports,  he  had  the  more  opportunity 
for  the  devdopment  of  his  precocious  mind.  At  the  age  of  four, 
it  is  said,  he  used  to  read  and  expound  the  Bible  to  his  father's 
servants;  before  he  was  ten  he  had  sketched  a  Chaldee  grammar, 
prepared  a  Greek  and  a  Hebrew  vocabulary,  compiled  a  collection 
of  two  thousand  biographies  of  famous  men  and  vromen  on  the 
modd  of  the  great  works  of  Bayle  and  Moreri,  and  written  in 
Latin  verse  a  satire  on  his  tutor,  who  had  warned  him  against 
a  too  great  excursiveness.  When  still  hardly  fifteen  he  was 
already  the  author  of  numerous  metrical  translations  from  Ovid, 
Horace  and  Virgil,  as  well  as  of  original  lyrics,  dramas,  and  an 
epic  of  four  thousand  lines  on  the  origin  of  the  Swiss  confedera- 
tions, writings  which  he  is  said  on  one  occasion  to  have  reKued 
from  a  fire  at  the  risk  of  his  life,  only,  however,  to  bum  them  a 
little  later  (1729)  with  his  own  hand.  Haller's  attention  had 
been  directed  to  the  profession  of  medidne  while  he  wai  residing 
in  the  house  of  a  physidan  at  Bid  after  his  father's  death  in 
1721 ;  and,  following  the  choice  then  made,  he  while  still  a 
sickly  and  excessivdy  shy  youth  went  in  his  sixteenth  year  to 
the  university  of  Tabingen  (December  1733),  where  he  studied 
under  Camerarius  and  Duverooy.  Dissatisfied  with  his  progress, 
he  in  1735  exchanged  Tubingen  for  Ldden,  where  Boerhaave 
was  in  the  zenith  of  his  fame,  and  where  Albinus  had  already 
begun  to  lecture  in  anatomy.  At  that  university  he  graduated 
in  May  1727,  undertaking  successfully  in  his  thesis  to  prove  that 
the  so-called  salivary  duct,  claimed  as  a  recent  discovery  by 
Coschwitz,  was  nothing  more  than  a  blood-vesseL  Haller  then 
visited  London,  making  the  acquaintance  of  Sir  Hans  Sk>ane, 
Cheselden,  Prinze,  Dou^as  and  other  adentific  men;  next, 
after  a  short  atay  in  Oxford,  he  visited  ^aris,  where  he  studied 
under  Ledran  and  WinslOw;  and  in  1738  he  proceeded  to  Basel, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  higher  mathematics 
under  John  Bernoulli.  It  was  during  his  stay  there  also  that 
his  first  great  interest  in  botany  was  awakened;  and,  in  the 
course  of  a  tour  (July-August,  1838),  through  Savoy,  Baden 
and  several  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  he  began  a  coUection  of  plants 
which  was  afterwards  the  basis  of  his  great  work  on  the  flora 
of  Switzerland.  From  a  literary  point  of  view  the  main  result 
of  this,  the  first  of  his  many  journeys  through  the  Alps,  was  his 
peom  entitled  Die  Alpen,  which  was  finished  in  March  1729, 
and  appeared  in  the  first  edition  (1739)  of  his  Gedickte.  This 
poem  of  490  hexameters  is  historically  important  as  one  of  the 
earliest  signs  of  the  awakening  appreciation  of  the  .mountains 
(hitherto  generally  regarded  as  horrible  monstrosities),  though 
it  is  chiefly  designed  to  contrast  the  simple  and  idyllic  life  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Alps  with  the  corrupt  and  decadent  existence 
of  the  dwellers  in  the  plains. 

In  1729  he  returned  to  Bern  and  began  to  practise  as  a 
physician;  his  best  energies,  however,  were  devoted  to  the 
botanical  and  anatomical  researches  which  rapidly  gave  him  a 
European  reputation,  and  procured  for  him  from  George  II. 

*The  reference  to  a  hymn  at  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist 
(Matt.  xxvi.  30,  Mark  xiv.  26)  must  be  interpreted  in  the  light  of  this 
inceptive  stage  of  the  HalleL 


856 


HALLER,  B.— HALLEY 


in  1736  a  call  to  the  chair  of  medicine,  anatomy,  botany  and 
surgery  in  the  newly  founded  university  of  GGttingen.  He  became 
F.R.S.  in  1743,  and  was  ennobled  in  1749.  Thciquantity  of 
work  achieved  by  Haller  in  the  seventeen  years  during  which 
he  occupied  his  G6ttingen  professorship  was  immense.  Apart 
from  the  ordinary  work  of  his  elates,  which  entailed  upon  him 
the  task  of  newly  organizing  a  botanical  garden,  an  anatomical 
theatre  and  museum,  an  obstetrical  school,  and  similar  institu- 
tions, he  carried  on  without  interruption  those  original  investiga- 
tions in  botany  and  physiology,  the  results  of  which  are  preserved 
in  the  numerous  works  associated  with  his  name;  he  continued 
also  to  persevere  in  his  youthful  habit  of  poetical  composition, 
while  at  the  same  time  he  conducted  a  monthly  journal  (the 
C&Uingiscke  geUkrU  Ataeigen),  to  which  he  is  said  to  have 
contributed  twelve  thousand  articles  relating  to  almost  every 
branch  of  human  knowledge.  He  also  warmly  interested  himself 
in  most  of  the  religious  questions,  both  ephemeral  and 
permanent,  of  his  day;  and  the  erection  of  the  Reformed  church 
in  Gdttingen  was  mainly  due  to  his  unwearied  energy.  Not- 
withstanding all  this  variety  of  absorbing  interests  he  never 
felt  at  home  in  Gdttingen;  his  untravelled  heart  kept  ever 
turning  towards  his  native  Bern  (where  he  had  been  elected  a 
member  of  the  great  council  in  1745),  and  in  1753  he  lesolved  to 
resign  his  chair  and  return  to  Switzerland. 

The  twenty-one  years  of  his  life  which  followed  were  largely 
occupied  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties  in  the  minor  political  post 
of  a  Rathhausammann  which  he  had  obtained  by  lot,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  his  Bibliotkeca  medical  the  botanical,  surgical 
and  anatomical  parts  of  which  he  lived  to  complete;  but  he 
also  found  time  to  write  the  three  philosophical  romances — 
Usong  (1771),  Aifred  (1773)  and  Fabius  and  CaSo  (1774), — in 
which  his  views  as  to  the  respective  merits  of  despotism,  of 
limited  monarchy  and  of  aristocratic  republican  government  are 
fully  set  forth.  About  1773  the  state  of  bis  health  rendered 
necessary  his  entire  withdrawal  from  public  business;  for  some 
time  he  supported  his  failing  strength  by  means  of  opium,  on  the 
use  of  which  he  communicated  a  paper  to  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Gdttingen  Royal  Society  in  1776;  the  excessive  use  of  the 
drug  is  believed,  however,  to  have  hastened  his  death,  which 
occurred  on  the  17th  of  December  1777.  Haller,  who  had  been 
three  times  married,  left  eight  children,  the  eldest  of  whom, 
Ciottlieb  Emanuel,  attained  to  some  distinction  as  a  botanist 
and  as  a  writer  on  Swi^  historical  bibliography  (1785-1788, 
7  vols.). 

Subjoined  is  a  classified  but  by  no  means  an  exhaustive  list  of  his 
very  numerous  works  in  various  branches  of  science  and  literature 
(a  complete  list,  up  to  1775,  numbering  576  items,  including  various 
editions,  was  published  by  Haller  himself,  in  1775,  at  the  end  of 
vol.  6  of  the  correspondence  addressed  to  htm  by  various  learned 
friends): — (i)  Anatomical: — Icones  anatomicae  (1743-1754)!  Dis- 
putationes  analomicae  seUctiares  (174&-1752);  ana  Opera  acad. 
minora  anatomici  argumenti  (i 762-1 768).  (a)  Physioloeical : — De 
resfnratione  experimenta  antUomica  (i  747) ;  Prvnae  lineae  pkysiotogiae 
(1747):  and  Elementa  pkysiotogiae  corporis  humani  (1757-1760). 
(3)  f'athologtcal  and  surgical: — Opusctua  patkologica  (1754):  Dis* 
^tUationum  chirurg.  coUectio  (1777);  also  careful  editions  of  Bocr- 
naave's  Praelectiones  academicae  in  suas  institutiones  ret  medicae 
(1739)1  and  of  the  Artis  medicae  principia  of  the  same  author  (1769- 
1 774)*  (4 )  Botanical : — EnumertUio  methodica  stirpium  Hehelicarum 
(1742);  Opuscula  bolanica  (1749);  Bibliotkeca  botanica  (1771).  (5) 
Theological : — Brief e  uber  die  vnchtigsten  WahrkeiUn  der  Offenbarung 
(1772):  and  Briefe  tur  Vertheidigung  der  Offenbarung  (i 775-1 777). 
(6)  ?(xt\caAv—Cedichte  (1732,  I2th  ed.,  1777).  His  three  romances 
have  been  already  mentioned.  Several  volumes  cf  lectures  and 
"Tagebiicher  "  or  journals  were  published  jposthumoudy. 

See  J.  G.  Zimmermann,  Das  Leben  des  Herrn  von  HaUer  (1755). 
and  the  articles  by  Fdrster  and  Seiler  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Encyklo- 
badie,  and  particularly  the  detailed  biography,  (over  500  pages)  bv 
L.  Hirzcl.  printed  at  the  head  of  his  elaborate  edition  (Frauenfeld, 
1882)  of  Hallcr's  Gedichie. 

HALLER,  BERTHOLD  (i49>->X536),  Swiss  reformer,  was  born 
at  Aldingen  in  Warttemberg,  and  after  studying  at  Pforzheim, 
where  he  met  Melanchthon,  and  at  Cologne,  Uught  in  the 
gymnasium  at  Bern.  He  was  appointed  assistant  preacher  at 
the  church  of  St  Vincent  in  15x5  and  people's  priest  in  1520. 
Even  before  his  acquaintance  with  ZwingU  in  1521  he  had  begun 
to  preach  the  Reformation,  his  sympathetic  character  and  his 


eloquence  making  him  a  great  force.  In  1526  he  was  at  the 
abortive  conference  of  Baden,  and  in  January  1528  drafted  and 
defended  the  ten  theses  for  the  conference  of  Bern  which 
established  the  new  religion  in  that  dty.  He  left  no  writings 
except  a  few  letters  which  are  preserved  in  ZwingU's  w(»ks. 
He  died  on  the  25th  of  February  1536* 
Life  by  Pestaloui  (Elberfcld.  1861). 

HALLEY,  EDMUND  (1656-1742),  English  astronomer,  was 
bom  at  Haggerston,  London,  on  the  29th  of  October  1656. 
His  father,  a  wealthy  soapboiler,  placed  him  at  St  Paul's  school, 
where  he  was  equally  distinguished  for  classical  and  taaxht- 
matical  ability.    Before  leaving  it  for  (^een's  0»Uege,  Oxford, 
in  1673,  he  bad  observed  the  change  in  the  variation  of  the 
compass,  and  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  he  supplied  a  new  sad 
improved  method,  of  determining  the  elements  of  the  planetary 
orbits  {Pkil,   Trans,  xi.  683).    His  detection  of -considerable 
errors  in  the  tables  then  in  use  led  him  to  the  condusion  that  a 
more  accurate  ascertainment  of  the  places  of  the  fixed  stars  was 
indispensable  to  the  progress  of  astronomy;  and,  finding  that 
Flamsteed  and  HeveUus  had  already  undertaken  to  catalogue 
those  visible  in  northern  latitudes,  he  assumed  to  himself  the 
task  of  making  observations  in  the  southern  hemisphere.    A 
recommendation  from  Charles  II.  to  the  East  India  Company 
procured  for  him  an  apparently  suitable,  though,  as  it  proved, 
ill-chosen  station,  and  in  November  1676  he  embarked  for  Si 
Helena.    On  the  voyage  he  noticed  the  retardation  of  the  peoda- 
lum  in  approaching  the  equator;  and  during  his  stay  on  the 
island  he  observed,  on  the  7th  of  November  1677,  a  transit  of 
Mercury,  which  suggested  to  him  the  important  idea  of  emptoyiDg 
similar  phenomena  for  determining  the  sun's  distance.    He 
returned  to  England  in  November  1678,  having  by  the  re^stra- 
tion  of  34X  stats  won  the  title  of  the  "  Southern  Tycbo,"  aad 
by  the  translation  to  the  heavens  of  the  "  Royal  Oak,"  earned 
a  degree  of  master  of  arts,  conferred  at  Oxford  by  the  king's 
command  on  the  3rd  of  December  1678,  almost  simultaneously 
with  his  election  as  fellow  of  the  Royal  Sodety.    Six  nxmths 
later,  the  indefatigable  astronomer  started  for  Danxig  to  set 
at  rest  a  dispute  of  long  standing  between  Hooke  and  Hcvelius 
as  to  the  respective  merits  of  plain  or  tdescopic  sights;  and 
towards  the  end  of  1680  he  proceeded  on  a  continental  tour. 
In  Paris  he  observed,  with  G.  D.  Cassini,  the  great  comet  of  x6So 
after  its  perihelion  passage;  and  having  returned  to  England, 
he  married  in  1682  Mary,  daughter  of  Mr  Tooke,  audited  of  the 
exchequer,  with  whom  he  lived  harmoniously  for  fifty-five  >xars. 
He  now  fixed  his  residence  at  Islington,  engaged  chiefly  upcn 
lunar  observations,  with  a  view  to  the  great  desideratnm  ol  a 
method  of  finding  the  longitude  at  sea.    His  mind,  however, 
was  also  busy  with  the  momentous  prdblem  of  gravity.    Having 
reached  so  far  as  to  perceive  that  the  central  force  of  the  so!ar 
system  must  decrease  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance, 
and  applied  vainly  to  Wren  and  Hooke  for  further  duddation, 
he  made  in  August  1684  that  journey  to  Cambridge  iot  the 
purpose  of  consulting  Newton,  which  resulted  in  the  publicatioa 
of  the  Principia.    Tht  labour  and  expense  of  parang  this  great 
work  through  the  press  devolved  upon  Halley,  who  also  wrote 
the  prefixed  hexameters  ending  with  the  well-known  line — 

Nee  fas  est  propius  mortal!  attingere  divos. 

• 

In  1696  he  was,  although  a  seaJous  Tory,  appointed  deputy 
comptroller  of  the  mini  at  Chester,  and  (August  19,  i6qS)  bt 
received  a  commission  as  captain  of  the  "  ParaoKiur  Pick  '* 
for  the  purpose  of  making  extensive  observations  on  the  con- 
ditions of  terrestrial  magnetism.  This  task  he  accomplished  in 
a  voyage  which  lasted  two  years,  and  extended  to  the's^i^^ 
degree  of  S.  latitude.  .The  results  were  published  in  a  CenerJ 
Chart  of  the  Variation  of  the  Compass  in  1701;  and  immediau!) 
afterwards  he  executed  by  royal  command  a  careful  survey  oi 
the  tides  and  coasts  of  the  British  Channel,  an  elaborate  map 
of  which  he  produced  in  1702.  On  his  return  from  a  jcMimey 
to  Dalmatia,  for  the  ptirpose  of  sdecting  and  fortifying  the  port 
of  Trieste,  he  was  nominated,  November  1703,  Savilian  prc^essor 
of  geometry  at  Ozford,  and  recdved  an  honorary  degree  oi 


HALLGRIMSSON— HALLOWE'EN 


857 


doctor  of  laws  in  17x0.  Between  1713  And  17^1  he  acted  as 
•ecretaiy  to  the  Royal  Society,  and  early  in  1720  he  succeeded 
FlanuHteed  as  astronomer-royaL  Although  in  his  sixty-fourth 
year,  he  undertook  to  observe  the  moon  through  an  entire 
revolution  of  her  nodes  (eighteen  years),  and  actually  carried 
out  his  purpose.  He  died  on  the  14th  of  January  1743.  His 
tomb  is  in  the  old  graveyard  of  St  Margaret 'schurch, Lee,  Kent. 
Halley's  most  notable  scientific  achievements  were — his 
detection  of  the  "  long  inequality  "  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  and 
of  the  acceleration  of  the  moon's  mean  motion  (1693),  his  dis- 
covery of  the  proper  motions  of  the  fixed  stars  (17x8),  his  theory 
of  variation  (1683),  including  the  hypothesis  of  four  magnetic 
poles,  revived  by  C.  Hansteen  in  1819,  and  his  suggestion  of  the 
magnetic  oripn  of  the  aurora  boreaUs;  his  calcxilation  of  the 
orbit  of  the  i68a  comet  (the  first  ever  attempted),  coupled  with 
a  prediction  of  its  return,  strikingly  verified  in  1759;  and  his 
indication  (first  in  1679,  and  again  in  1716,  Phil.  Trans.t  No.  348) 
of  a  method  eztensivdy  used  in  the  x8th  and  xoth  centuries  for 
determining  the  solar  parallax  by  means  of  the  transits  of  Venus. 

His  imiidpal  works  are  Catahius  stdlarum  auslraKum  (London, 
1679),  the  Mibttance  of  which  was  embodied  in  vol.  iii.  of  Flamstced's 
Htsteria  eoeUstis  (I735):  Synopsis  astronomiae  eometiau  (Oxford, 
1705);  Astronomical  TaUes  (London,  1752);  also  eighty-one  mis- 
cellaneous papers  of  considerable  interest,  scattered  through  the 
PhUosopkiaU  Transactions.  To  these  should  be  added  his  veraon 
from  the  Arabic  (which  language  he  acquired  for  the  purpG«e)  of  the 
treatise  of  Apollonlus  Dt  stctiono  raiionis,  with  a  restoration  of  his 
two  lost  books  De  sectione  spatii,  both  published  at  Oxford  in  1706; 
also  his  fine  edition  of  the  Conies  of  ApoUonius,.  with  the  treatise 
by  Serenus  D«  sectione  cytindri  et  torn  (Oxford,  1710.  folio^.  His 
edition  of  the  Spherics  of  Menelaus  was  published  by  nis  friend  Dr 
Costard  in  17^  See  also  Biopabkia  Britannica,  vol.  iv.  (1757): 
Cent.  Mat.  xvtt.  45j^.  503;  A.  Wood.  Alkemu  Oxon.  (Bliss),  iv.  536; 
f.  Aubrey,  JLtser,  u.  365;  F.  Baily,  Account  of  Ftamsteed;  Sir  D. 
Brewster,  Life  of  Newton;  R.  Grant*  History  of  Astronomy,  p.  477 
and  passim;  A.  J.  Rudolph,  BuUetin  of  Bibliography,  No.  14  (Boston. 
190^):  E.  F.  McPike.  '^Bibliography  of  Halley's  Comet '^  Smith- 
sonian Misc.  ColUctions,  vol.  xlviii.  pt.  i.  (1905) ;  Notes  and  Queries, 
9th  series,  vols.  x.  xi.  xti.,  loth  sencs,  vol.  ii.  (E.  F.  McPike).  A 
collection  of  manuscripts  regarding  Halley  is  preserved  among  the 
Rigaud  papers  in  the  Bodleian  library,  Oxford;  and  many  of  his 
unpublished  letters  exist  at  the  Record  OtEut  and  in  the  library  of 
the  Royal  Society.  (A.  M.  C.> 

HALLGRfMSSON,  j6NAS  (1807-1844),  the  chief  lyrical  poet 
of  Iceland,  was  bom  in  1807  at  Steinsstaoir  in  EyjafjarCars^sla 
in  the  north  of  that  island,  and  educated  at  the  famous  school 
of  BessastaOr.  In  1 832  he  went  to  the  university  of  Copenhagen, 
and  shortly  afterwards  turned  his  attention  to  the  natural 
sciences,  e^>ecially  geology.  Having  obtained  pecuniaiy  assist- 
ance from  the  Danish  government,  he  travelled  through  all 
Iceland  for  scientific  purposes  in  the  years  1837-1842,  and  made 
many  interesting  geological  observations.  Most  of  his  writings 
on  geology  are  in  Danish.  His  renown  was,  however,  jiot 
acquired  by  his  writings  in  that  language,  but  by  his  Icelandic 
poems  and  short  stories.  He  was  wellresdin  German  literature, 
Heine  and  Schiller  being  his  favourites,  and  the  study  of  the 
German  masters  and  the  old  classical  writers  of  Iceland  opened 
his  eyes  to  the  corrupt  state  of  Icelandic  poetiy  and  showed  him 
the  way  to  make  it  better.  The  misuse  of  the  Eddie  metaphors 
made  the  lyrical  and  epical  poetry  of  the  day  hardly  intelligible, 
and,  to  make  matters  worse,  the  language  of  the  poets  was  mixed 
up  with  words  of  German  and  Dani^  origin.  Tlie  great  Danish 
philologist  and  friend  of  Iceland,  Rasmus  Rask,  and  the  poet 
Bjami  Th6rarensen  had  done  much  to  purify  the  language, 
but  J6nas  Hallgrfmsson  completed  their  work  by  his  poems  and 
tales,  in  a  purer  language  than  ever  had  been  written  in  Iceland 
since  the  days  of  Snorri  Sturlason.  The  excesses  of  Icelandic 
poetiy  were  spedaUy  seen  in  the  so-called  rimur,  ballads  of 
heroes,  &c.,  which  were  fiercely  attacked  by  J6nas  Hallgiimsson, 
who  at  last  succeeded  in  converting  the  educated  to  his  view. 
Most  of  the  principal  poems,  talcs  and  essays  of  J6nas  Hall- 
grfmsson appeared  in  the  periodical  PjOlntr^  which  he  began 
publishing  at  Copenhagen  in  1835,  together  with  KonriiOGislason, 
a  well-known  philologist,  and  the  patrk>tic  Th6mas  Saemunds- 
son.  PjUlnir  had  in  the  beginning  a  hard  struggle  against  old 
prejudices,  but  as  the  years  went    by  its  influrnrr  became 


enormous;  and  when  it  at  last  ceased,  its  programme  and  spirit 
still  lived  in  N'$  Fila^it  and  other  patriotic  periodicals  which 
took  its  place.  J6nas  Hallgrfmsson,  who  died  in  1844,  is  the 
father  of  a  separate  school  in  Icelandic  lyric  poetiy.  He  intro- 
duced foreign  thoughts  and  metres,  but  at  the  same  time  revived 
the  metres  of  the  Icdandic  classical  poets.  Although  his  poetical 
works  are  all  comprised  in  one  small  volume,  he  strikes  every 
string  of  the  old  haq;)  of  Iceland.  (S.  Bl.) 

HALLIDAT»  ANDREW  [Andrew  Haluday  Dxm]  (1830- 
1877),  British  journalist  and  dramatist,  was  bom  at  Mamoch, 
Bai^shire,  in  1830.  He  was  educated  at  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen,  and  in  1849  he  came  to  London,  and  discarding  Uie 
name  of  Duff,  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His  first  engagement 
was  with  the  daily  papers,  and  his  work  having  attracted  the 
notice  of  Thackeray,  he  was  invited  to  write  for  the  Comkill 
Maganne.  From  x86x  he  contributed  largely  to  AU  ike  Year 
Rounds  and  many  of  his  articles  were  republished  in  collected 
form.  He  was  abo  the  author,  alone  and  with  others,  of  a  great 
number  of  farces,  burlesques  and  melodramas  and  a  peculiarly 
successful  adapter  of  popular  noveb  for  the  stage.  Of  these 
LitUe  EmHy  C1869),  his  adapUtion  of  Dawd  Coppetfidd,  was 
warmly  approved  by  Dickens  himself,  and  enjoyed  a  long  run 
at  Drury  Lsne.    Halliday  died  in  London  on  the  xoth  of  April 

1877. 

HALUWELL-FRILLIPPS,  JAMBS  ORCHARD  (1820-1889), 
English  Shakespearian  scholar,  son  of  Thomas  Halliwell,  was 
bom  in  London,  on  the  21st  of  June  x82a  He  was  educated 
privately  and  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge.  He  devoted  himself 
to  antiquarian  research,  particularly  in  early  English  literature. 
In  1839  he  edited  Sir  John  Mandeville's  Traods\  in  1842  pub- 
lished an  Account  of  the  European  MSS.  in  the  Cheiham  Library, 
besides  a  newly  discovered  metrical  romance  of  the  15th  century 
(Torrent  of  Portugal).  He  became  best  known,  however,  as  a 
Shakespearian  editor  and  collector.  In  1848  he  brought  out  his 
Life  of  Shakespeare,  which  passed  through  several  editions; 
in  1853-1865  a  sumptuous  edition,  limited  to  150  copies,  of 
Shakespeare  in  folio,  with  fuU  critical  notes;  in  1863  a  Calendar 
of  the  Records  at  Straiford-on-Avon',  in  1864  a  History  of  New 
Place.  After  1870  he  entirely  gave  up  textual  criticism,  and 
devoted  his  attention  to  elucidating  the  particulars  of  Shake- 
speare's life.  He  collated  all  the  available  facts  and  documents 
in  relation  to  it,  and  exhausted  the  information  to  be  found  in 
local  records  in  his  Outlines  of  Ike  Life  of  Skakespeare,  He  was 
mainly  instrumental  in  the  purchase  of  New  Place  for  the 
corporation  of  Stratford-on-Avon,  and  in  the  formation  there 
of  the  Shakespeare  museum.  His  publications  in  all  numbered 
more  than  sixty  volumes.  He  assumed  the  name  of  Phillipps 
in  1872,  under  the  will  of  the  grandfather  of  his  first  wife,  a 
daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Phillipps  the  antiquary.  He  took  an 
active  interest  in  the  Camden  Society,  the  Percy  Society  and  the 
Shakespeare  Society,  for  which  he  edited  many  eariy.  Eo^ish 
and  EUxabethan  works.  From  1845  Halliwell  was  excluded 
from  the  library  of  the  British  Museum  on  account  of  the 
suspicion  attaching  to  his  possession  of  some  manuscripts  which 
had  been  removed  from  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
He  published  privately  an  explanation  of  the  matter  in  1845. 
His  house,  Hgllingbury  Copse,  near  Brighton,  was  full  of  rare 
and  curious  works,  and  he  generously  gave  many  of  them  to  the 
Chetham  library,  Manchester,  to  the  town  library  of  Penxance, 
to  the  Smithsonian  Institute,  Washington,  and  to  the  libraiy  of 
Edinburgh  university.    He  died  on  the  3rd  of  January  1889. 

HALLOWB'Ellf  or  All  Hallows  Eve,  the  name  given  to  the 
31st  of  October  as  the  vigil  of  Hallowmas  or  All  Sisints'  Day, 
Thoiigh  now  known  as  little  else  but  the  eve  of  the  Christian 
festival,  Hallowe'en  and  its  formerly  attendant  ceremonies 
long  antedate  Christianity.  The  two  chief  characteristics  of 
andcnt  Hallowe'en  were  the  lighting  of  bonfires  and  the  belief 
that  of  all  nights  in  the  year  this  is  the  one  during  which  ghosts 
and  witches  are  most  likely  to  wander  abroad.  Now  on  or  about 
the  xst  of  November  the  Druids  held  their  great  autumn  festival 
and  lighted  fires  in  honour  of  the  Sun-god  in  thanksgiving  for 
the  harvest.    Further,  it  was  a  Druidic  belief  that  on  the  eve  of 


858 


HALLSTATT— HALLUCINATION 


thb'  fcstivil  Saman,  lord  of  death,  called  together  the  wicked 
BOids  that  within  the  past  twelve  months  had  been  condemned  to 
inhabit  the  bodies  of  animals.  Thus  it  is  dear  that  the  main 
celebrations  of  Hallowe'en  were  purely  Druidical,  and  this  is 
further  proved  by  the  fact  that  in  parts  of  Ireland  the  31st  of 
October  was,  and  even  still  is,  known  as  Oidhcke  Shamkna, 
"  Vigil  of  Saman."  On  the  Druidic  ceremonies  were  grafted  some 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  Roman  festival  in  honour  of  Pomona 
held  about  the  ist  of  November,  in  which  nuts  and  apples,  as 
representing  the  winter  store  of  fruits,  played  an  important 
psirt.  Thus  the  roasting  of  nuts  and  the  sport  known  as  "  apple- 
ducking  " — attempting  to  seize  with  the  teeth  an  apple  floating 
in  a  tub  of  water, — were  once  the  universal  occupation  of  the 
young  folk  in  medieval  England  on  the  31st  of  October.  The 
custom  of  lighting  Hallowe'en  fires  survived  until  recent  years 
in  the  highlands  of  Scotland  and  Wales.  In  the  dying  embers 
it  was  usual  to  place  as  many  small  stones  as  there  were  persons 
around,  and  next  morning  a  search  was  made.  If  any  of  the 
pebbles  were  displaced  it  was  regarded  as  certain  that  the  person 
represented  would  die  within  the  twelve  months. 

For  details  of  the  Hallowe'en  games  and  bonfires  see  Brand's 
Antiquities  of  Great  Britain;  Chambers's  Book  of  Days;  Grimm's 
Deutsche  M^thologie,  ch.  xx.  (Elemenle)  and  ch.  xxxiv.  (Aberglaube) ; 
and  J.  G.  Frazer  s  Golden  Bough,  voL  ilL  Compare  also  Beltane 
and  Bonfire. 

HALLSTATT,  a  market-place  of  Austria,' in  Upper  Austria, 
67  m.  S.S.W.  of  Linz  by  rail.  iPop.  (1900)  737.  It  is  situated 
on  the  shore  of  the  Hallstatter-see  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Hall- 
statter  Salzberg,  and  is  built  ,in  amphitheatre  with  its  houses 
dinging  to  the  mountain  side.  The  salt  mine  of  Hallstatt, 
which  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  existence,  was  rediscovered  in  the 
I4lh  century.  In  the  ndghbourhood  is  the  celebrated  Celtic 
burial  ground,  where  a  great  number  of  very  interesting  anti- 
quities have  been  found.  Most  of  these  have  been  removed  to 
the  museums  at  Vienna  and  Linz,  but  some  are  kept  in  the  local 
museum. 

The  excavations  (1847-1864)  revealed  a  form  oi  culture 
hitherto  unknown,  and  accordingly  the  name  Hallstatt  has 
been  applied  to  objects  of  like  form  and  decoration  since  found 
in  Styria,  Camiola,  Bosnia  (at  GLasinatz  and  Jezerin),  Epirus, 
north  Italy,  France,  Spain  and  Britain  (see  Celt).  Everywhere 
else  the  change  from  iron  weapons  to  bronze  is  immediate,  but 
at  Hallstatt  iron  is  seen  gradually  superseding  bronze,  first  for 
ornament,  then  for  edging  cutting  instruments,  then  repladng 
fully  the  old  bronze  types,  and  finally  taking  new  forms  of  its 
own.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  use  of  iron  first  developed 
in  the  Hallstatt  area,  and  that  thence  it  spread  southwards  into 
Italy,  Greece,  the  Aegean,  Egypt  and  Asia,  and  northwards 
and  westwards  in  Europe.  At  Noreia,  which  gave  its  name  to 
Noricum  (q.v.)  less  than  40  m.  from  Hallstatt,  were  the  most 
famous  iron  mines  of  antiquity,  which  produced  the  Noric  iron 
and  Noric  swords  so  prized  and  dreaded  by  the  Romans  (Pliny, 
Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv.  145;  Horace,  Epod.  17.  71).  This  iron  needed 
no  tempering,  and  the  Celts  had  probably  found  it  ready  smelted 
by  nature,  just  as  the  Eskimo  had  learned  of  themselves  to  use 
tellttric  iron  embedded  in  basalt.  .The  graves  at  Hallstatt  were 
partly  inhumation  partly  cremation;  they  contained  swords, 
daggers,  spears,  javelins,  axes,  helmets,  bosses  and  plates  of 
shields  and  hauberks,  brooches,  various  forms  of  jewelry,  ambcf 
and  glass  beads,  many  of  the  objects  being  decorated  with  animals 
and  geometrical  designs.  Silver  was  practically  unknown. 
The  weapons  and  axes  are  mostly  ironj  a  few  bdng  bronze.  -  The 
swords  are  leaf-shaped,  with  blunt  points  intended  for  cutting, 
not  for  thrusting;  the  hilts  differ  essentially  from  those  of  the 
Bronze  Age,  Being  shaped  like  a  crescent  to  grasp  the  .blade, 
with  large  pommels,  or  sometimes  with  antennae  (the  latter 
found  also  in  Bavaria,  WUrttemberg,  Baden,  Switzerland,  the 
Pyrenees,  Spain,  north  Italy):  only  six  arrowheads  (bronze) 
were  found.  Both  flanged  and  socketed  celts  occurred,  the  iron 
being  much  more  numerous  than  the  bronze.:  The  flat  axes  are 
distinguished  by  the  side  stops  and  in  so'me  cases  the  transition 
from  palstave  to  socketed  axe  can  be  seen.'  The  shields  were 


round  as  in  the  early  Iron  Age  of  north  Italy  (see  Viliakova). 

Greaves  were  found  at  Glasinatz  and  Jezerin,  thou^  not  at 

Hallsutt;  two  helmets  were  found  at  Hallstatt  and  others  in 

Bosnia;  broad  l)ron2e  belts  were  numerous,  adorned  in  repousst 

with  beast  and  geometric  ornament.    Broodies  are  found  in 

great  numbers,  both  those  derived  from  the  primitive  safety-pin 

('«  Peichiera  "  type)  and  the  "  spectade  "  or  '*  Hallsutt "  type 

found  all  down  the  Balkans  and  in  Greece.    The  latter  are  formed 

of  two  spirals  of  wire,  sometimes  four  such  spirals  being  used, 

whilst  there  were  also  brooches  in  animal  forms,  one  of  the  latter 

being  found  with  a  bronze  sword.    The  Hallstatt  culture  is  that 

of  the  Homeric  Achaeans  (see  Achaeans),  but  as  the  brooch 

(along  with  iron,  cremation  of  the  dead,  the  round  shield  and 

the  geometric  ornament)  passed  down  into  Greece  from  central 

Europe,  and  as  brooches  arc  found  in  the  lower  town  at  Mycenae, 

1350  B.C.,  they  must,  have  been  invented  long  before  that  date 

in  central  Europe.    But  as  they  are  found  in  the  late  Bronze 

Age  and  eariy  Iron  Age,  the  eariy  iron  culture  of  Hallstatt  most 

have  originated  long  before  1350  b.c,  a  condusion  In  accord 

with  the  absence  of  silver  at  HaLstatt  itself. 

See  Baron  von  Sacken.  Das  Grabfetd  wm  HtUlHaU;  Bcrtrand  and 
S.  Reinach.  Les  CeUes  dans  les  valUes  du  Pd  et du  Danuhei  W.  Ridfc- 
way.  Early  Age  of  Greece;  Aechasology  (plate).  {W.  Ri.) 

HALLUCIHATIOH  (from  Lat  clucinaH  or  dlmdman,  to 
wander  in  mind,  Gr.  dXfvffcti'  or  dXuetr,  from  4X9,  wandering}^ 
a  psychological  term  which  has  been  the  subject  of  much  con- 
troversy, and  to  which,  although  there  is  now  fair  agrecnient  as 
to  its  denotation,  it  i*  still  impossible  to  give  s  precise  and 
entirely  satisfactory  definition.  ^  Hallucinations  constitnte  one 
of  the  two  great  classes  of  all  false  sense-perceptioos,  the  other 
class  consisting  of  the  "  illusions,"  and  the  difikulty  of  definition 
is  deariy  to  mark  the  boundary  between  the  two  cla»es.~  lUmsien 
may  be  defined. as  the  misinterpretation  of  seoK-impression, 
while  hallucination,  in  its  typical  instances,  Is  the  ezpeiiendcg 
of  a  sensory  presentation,  ix,  a'presentatlon  having  the  sensory 
vividness  that  distinguishes  perceptions  from  rqncsentative 
imagery,  at  a  time  when  no  stimulus  is  acting  on  the  cxniespond- 
ing  sense-organ.  There  is,  however,  good  reason  to  think  that 
in  many  cases,  possibly  in  all  cases,  some  stimulation  of  the 
sense-organ,  coming  either  from  without  or  from  within  the 
body,  plays  a  part  in  the  genesis  6i  the  hatlnrjnat^n  Ttus 
being  so,  we  must  be  content  to  leave  the  boundary  between 
illusions  and  halludnations  ill-defined,  and  to  rq;ard  as  ithisioss 
those  false  perceptions  in  which  impressions  made  9n  Ikt  sense- 
organ  play  a  leading  part  in  dtiemdning  the  character  of  the  percept, 
and  as  halludnations  those  in  which  any  smch  impression  is 
lacking,  or  plays  hut  a  subsidiary  part  and  bears  no  ebeims  rdaHon 
to  the  character  of  the  false  perupt. 

As  in  the  case  of  illusion,  hallucination  may  or  may  not 
involve  delusion,  or  belief  in  the  reality  of  the  object  falsdy 
perceived.  Among  the  sane  the  hallucinatory  object  Is  fre- 
quently recognized  at  once  as  unreal  or  at  least  as  but  quasi-real; 
and  it  is  only  the  insane,  or  persons  in  abnormal  fftatci,  such 
as  hypnosis,  who,  when  an  hallucination  persists  or  recurs,  fail 
to  recognize  that  it  corresponds  to  no  physical  impfcssaon,from, 
or  object  in,  the  outer  worid..  Haliudnations  oL  all  the  senses 
occur,  but  the  most  commonly  reported  are  the  aoditoiy  and 
the  visual,  whilethoseof  the  other  senses  seem  to  be  comparativdy 
rare.  '  This  apparent  difference  of  frequency  is  no  doubt  laxgdy 
due  to  the  more  striking  character  of  visual  and  attdltocy  hal- 
lucinations, and  to  the  relative  difficulty  of  ascertaining.  In  the 
case  of  perceptions  of  the  lower  senses,  e.g.  of  taste  and.snicU, 
that  no  impression  adequate  to  the  genesis  of  the  percept  has 
been  made  upon  the  sense-organ;  but,  in  90  far  as  it  &  real,  it  a 
probably  due  in  part  to  the  man  constant  me  of  the  higher 
senses  and  the  greater  strain  consequently  thrown  opon  them, 
in  part  also  to  their  more. intimate  oonnexiQn  villi  the  fife  ol 
ideas. 

" .  The  halludnatory  perception  may  involve  two  or  mote  stosa, 
e.g.,  the  subject  may  seem  to  see  a  human  being,  to  hear  his  rokx 
and  to  feel  the  touch  of  his  hand.  This  is  rardy  the  case  in 
spontaneous  hallucinationf  but  in  hypnotic  halludnatioB  the 


HALLUCINATION 


859 


subject  is  apt  to  develop  the  object  suggested  to  him,  as  present 
to  one  of  his  senses,  and  to  i>eTcdve  it  also  through  other  senses. 

Among  visual  hallucinations  the  human  figtue,  and  among 
auditory  hallucinations  human  voices,  are  the  objects  most 
commonly  perceived.  The  figure  seen  always  appears  localized 
more  or  le»  definitely  in  the  outer  world.  In  many  cases  it 
appears  rdated  to  the  objects  truly  seen  in  just  the  same  way 
as  a  real  object;  e.g,  it  is  no  longer  seen  if  the  eyes  are  closed 
or  turned  away,  it  does  not  jnove  with  the  movements  of  the 
eyes,  and  it  may  hide  objects  lying  behind  it,  or  be  hidden  by 
objects  coming  between  the  place  that  it  appears  to  occupy  and 
the  eye  of  the  percipient.  Visual  hallucinations  are  most  often 
experienced  when  tlw  eyes  are  open  and  the  surrounding  space 
Is  well  or  even  brightly  illuminated.  Less  frequently  the  visual 
hallucination  takes  the  form  of  a  self-luminous  figure  in  a  dark 
place  or  appears  in  a  luminous  globe  or  mist  wtdch  shuts  out 
from  view  the  real  objects  of  the  part  of  the  field  of  view  in 
which'  it  appears. 

.-  Auditory  hallucinations,  especially  voices,  seem  to  fall  into 
two  distinct  classes — (i)  those  which  are  heard  as  coming  from 
without,  and  are  more  or  less  definitely  localized  in  outer  space, 
(3)  those,  which  seem  to  be  withia  the  head  or,  in  some  cases, 
within  the  chesty  and  to  have  less  definite  auditory  quality. 
It  seems  probable  that  the  latter  are  hallucinations  involving 
prindpally  kinaesthetic  sensations,  sensations  of  movement  of 
the  organs  of  speech. 

Hallucinations  occur  under  a  great  variety  of  bodily  and 
mental  conditions,  which  may  convem'ently  be  classified  as 
follows. 

I.  CondiHons  v^kh  imply  normal  waking  Cemcumsness  and  no 
dislinct  Departure  from  bodily  and  mental  Sanity. 

a.  It  would  seem  that  a  considerable  number  of  perfectly 
healthy  persons  occasionally  experience,  while  in  a  fully  waking 
state,  hallucinations  for  which  no  cause  can  be  assigned.  The 
census  of  haUudnations  conducted  by  the  Sodety  for  Psychical 
Research  showed  that  about  10%  of  all  sane  i>ersons  can 
remember  having  exi>erienccd  at  least  one  halludnation  while 
they  believed  themselves  to  be  fully  awake  and  in  normal  health. 
These  sporadic  haUudnations  of  waking  healthy  persons  are  far 
more  frequently  visual  than  auditory,  and  they  usually  take 
the  form  of  some  familiar  i>erson  in  ordinary  attire.  The  figure 
in  many  cases  is  seen,  on  turning  the  gaze  in  some  new  direction, 
fully  developed  and  lifelike,  and  its  halludnatory  character  may 
be  revealed  only  by  its  noiseless  movements,  or  by  its  fading  away 
in  situ.  A  special  interest  attaches  to  hallucinations  of  this 
type,  owing  to  the  occasional  coinddence  of  the  death  of  the 
person  with  his  halludnatory  appearance.  The  question  ftdsed 
by  these  coinddences  will  be  discussed  in  a  separate  paragraph 
below. 

6.  A  few  persons,  otherwise  normal  in  mind  and  body,  seem 
to' experience  repeatedly  some  particular  kind  of  halludnation. 
The  voice  {6ait»6vto¥)  so  frequently  beard  by  Socrates, 
warning  or  advising  him,  is  the  most  celebrated  example  of 
this  tjrpe. 

n.  Conditions  more  or  less  unusual  or  abnormal  but  not  implying 
'  distinct  Departure  from  Health, 

a.  A  kind  of  halludnation  to  which  perhaps  every  normal 
person  is  liable  is  that  known  technically  as  *'  recurrent  sensa- 
tion." This  kind  is  experienced  only  when  some  sense-organ 
bos  been  continuously  or  repeatedly  subjected  to  some  one  kind 
of  impression  or  stimulation  for  a  considerable  i>eriod;  e.g. 
the  microscopist,  after  examining  for  some  hours  one  particul&r 
kind  of  object. or  structure,  may  suddenly  percdve  the  object 
faithfully  reproduced  in  form  and  colour,  and  lying,  as  it  were, 
upon  any  surface  to  which  his  gaze  is  directed.  Perhaps  the 
commonest  experience  of  this  type  is  the  recurrence  of  the 
sensations  of  movement  at  intervals  in  the  period  following  a  sea 
voyage  or  long  railway  journey. 

b.  A  considerable  proportion  of  healthy  sane  persons  can 
induce  haUudnations  of  vision  by  gazing  fixedly  at  a  polished 


surface  or  into  some  dark  translucent  mass;  or  of  hearing,  by 
applying  a  large  sheU  or  similar  object  to  the  ear.  These  methods 
of  inducing  hallucinations,  especially  the  former,  have  long  been 
practised  in  many  countries  as  modes  of  divination,  various 
objects  being  used,  e.g.  a  drop  of  ink  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  or 
a  polished  finger-naiL  The  object  now  most  commonly  used  is  a 
polished  sphere  of  dear  glass  or  aystal  (see  CkystaltGazinc). 
Hence  such  haUudnations  go  by  the  name  of  crystal  tisiotu. 
The  crystal  vision  often  appears  as  a  picture  of  some  distant  or 
unknown  scene  lying,  as  it  were,  in  the  crystal;  and  in  the  picture 
figures  may  come  and  go,  and  move  to  and  fro,  in  a  poiectly 
natural  manner.  In  other  cases,  written  or  printed  words  or 
sentences  appear.  The  perdpient,  seer  or  scxyer,  commonly 
seems  to  be  in  a  fuUy  waking  state  as  he  observes  the  objects 
thus  presented.  He  is  usuaUy  able  to  describe  and  discuss  the 
appearances,  successivdy  discriminating  details  by  attentive 
observation,  just  as  when  observing  an  objective  scene;  and 
he  usuaUy  has  no  power  of  controULg  them,  and  no  sense  of 
having  produced  them  by  his  own  activity.  In  some  cases  these 
visions  have  brought  back  to  the  tm'nd  of  the  scryer  facts  or 
inddents  which  he  could  not  voluntarily  recoUect.  In  other 
cases  they  are  asserted  by  credible  witnesses  to  have  given  to 
the  scryer  information,  about  events  distant  in  time  or  plaoe, 
that  had  iMt  come  to  his  knowledge  by  normal  means.  Hiese 
cases  have  been  claimed  as  evidence  of  telepathic  communication 
or  even  of  dairvoyance.  But  at  present  the  number  of  well- 
attested  cases  of  this  sort  is  too  smaU  to  justify  acceptance  of 
this  condusion  by  those  who  have  only  secondhand  knowledge 
of  them. 

c.  Prolonged  deprivation  of  food  predisposes  to  haUudna- 
tions, and  it  would  seem  that,  under  this  condition,  a  large 
proportion  of  otherwise  healthy  persons  become  Uable  to  them, 
espedally  to  auditory  haUudnations. 

d.  Certain  drugs,  notably  c^ium,  Indian  hemp,  and  mescal 
predispose  to  hallucinations,  each  tending  to  produce  a  peculiar 
type.  Thus  Indian  hemp  and  mescal,  espedaUy  the  latter, 
produce  in  many  cases  visual  haUudnations  in  the  form  of  a 
briUiant  play  of  colours,  sometimes  a  mere  succession  of  patches 
of  brilUant  colour,  sometimes  in  architectural  or  other  definite 
spatial  arrangement. 

e.  The  states  of  transition  from  sleep  to  waking,  and  from 
waking  to  sleep,  seem  to  be  pecuUariy  favourable  to  the  appear- 
ance of  haUudnations.  The  recurrent  sensations  mentioned 
above  are  espedally  prone  to  appear  at  such  times,  and  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  sporadic  haUudnations  of  persons 
in  good  hoUth  are  reported  to  have  been  experienced  und«r  ^hese 
conditions.  The  name  "hypnagogic"  haUudnations,  first 
appUed  by  Alfred  Maury,  is  commonly  given  to  those  experienced 
in  these  transition  states. 

/.  The  presentaUons,  predominantly  visual,  that  constitute 
the  prindpal  content  of  most  dreams,  are  generaUy  described  as 
haUudnatoiy,  but  the  propriety  of  so  dassing  them  is  very 
questionable.  The  present  writer  is  confident  that  his  own 
dream-presentations  lack  the  sensory  vividness  which  is  the 
essential  mark  of  the  percept^  whether  normal  or  halludnatory, 
and  which  h  the  prindpal,  though  not  the  only,  character  in 
which  it  differs  from  the  representation  or  memory-image.  It  is 
true  that  the  dream-presentation,  like  the  percept,  differs  from 
the  representative  imagery  of  waking  Ufe  in  that  it  is  rdativdy 
independent  of  volition;  but  that  seems  to  be  merdy  because 
the  wiU  is  in  abeyance  or  very  ineffective  during  sleep.  Tlie  wide 
currency  of  the  doctrine  that  classes  dream-images  with  hal- 
lucinations seems  to  be  due  to  this  independence  of  voUtional 
control,  and  to  the  fact  that  during  sleep  the  representative 
imagery  appears  without  that  rich  setting  of  undiscriminated 
or  marginal  sensation  which  always  accompanies  waking  imagery, 
and  which  by  contrast  accentuates  for  introspective  reflection 
the  lack  of  sensory  vividness  of  such  imagery. 

g.  Many  of  the  subjects  who  pass  into  the  deeper  stages  ct 
hypnosis  (see  Hypnotism)  show  themselves,  while  in  that 
condition,  extremely  liable  to  halludnation,  perceiving  whatever 
object  is  suggested  to  them  as  present,  and  failing  to  percdve 


86o 


HALLUCINATION 


any  object  of  which  it  is  asserted  by  the  operator  that  it  is  no 
longer  present.  The  reality  of  these  positive  and  negative 
hallucinations  of  the  hypnotized  subject  has  been  recently 
questioned,  it  being  maintained  that  the  subject  merely  gives 
verbal  assent  to  the  suggestions  of  the  operator.  But  that  the 
hypnotized  subject  does  really  experience  hallucinations  seems 
to  be  proved  by  the  cases  in  which  it  is  possible  to  make  the 
hallucination,  positive  or  negative,  persist  for  some  time  after  the 
termination  of  hypnosis,  and  by  the  fact  that  in  some  of  these  cases 
the  subject,  who  in  the  post-hypnotic  state  seems  in  every  other 
respect  normal  and  wide  awake,  may  find  it  difficult  to  distinguish 
between  the  hallucinatory  and  real  objects.  Further  proof  is 
afforded  by  experiments  such  as  those  by  which  Alfred  Binet 
showed  that  a  visual  hallucination  may  behave  for  its  percipient 
in  many  respects  like  a  real  object,  e.g.  that  it  may  appear 
reflected  in  a  mirror,  displaced  by  a  prism  and  coloured  when 
a  coloured  glass  is  placed  before  the  patient's  eyes.  It  was  by 
means  of  experiments  of  this  kind  that  Binet  showed  that 
hjrpnotic  hallucinations  may  approximate  to  the  type  of  the 
illusion,  i.e.  that  some  real  object  affecting  the  sense-organ  (in 
the  case  of  a  visual  hallucination  some  detail  of  the  surface 
upon  which  it  is  projected)  may  provide  a  nucleus  of  peripherally 
excited  sensation  around  which  the  false  percept  is  built  up. 
An  object  playing  a  part  of  this  sort  in  the  genesis  of  an  hal- 
lucination is  known  as  a  "  poiiU  de  reph-e."  It  has  been  main- 
tained that  all  hallucinations  involve  some  such  point  de  rephe 
or  objective  nucleus;  but  there  are  good  reasons  for  rejecting 
this  view. 

k.  In  states  of  ecstasy,  or  intense  emotional  concentration 
of  attention  upon  some  one  ideal  object,  the  object  contemplated 
seems  at  times  to  take  on  sensory  vividness,  and  so  to  acquire 
the  character  of  an  hallucination.  Jn  these  cases  the  state  of 
blind  of  the  subject  is  probably  similar  in  many  respects  to  that 
of  the  deeply  hypnotized  subject,  and  these  two  classes  of 
hallucination  may  be  regarded  as  very  closely  allied. 

III.  Hallucinations  which  ouur  as  symptoms  of  both  J>odUy  and 

mental  diseases. 

a.  Dr  H.  Head  has  the  credit  of  having  shown  for  the  first 
time,  in  the  year  xgox,  that  many  patients,  suffering  from  more 
or  less  painful  visceral  diseases,  disorders  of  heart,  lungs, 
abdominal  viscera,  &c.,  are  liable  to  experience  hallucinations 
of  a  peculiar  kind.  These  "  visceral "  hallucinations,  which 
are  constantly  accompanied  by  headache  of  the  reflected  visceral 
type,  are  most  commonly  visual,  more  rarely  auditory.  In  all 
Dr  Head's  cases  the  visual  hallucination  took  the  form  of  a 
shrouded  human  figure,  colourless  and  vague,  often  incomplete^ 
generally  seen  by  the  patient  standing  by  his  bed  when  he 
wakes  in  a  dimly  lit  room.  The  auditory  "  visceral  "  hallucina- 
tion was  in  no  instance  vocal,  but  took  such  forms  as  sounds  of 
tapping,  scratching  or  rumbling,  and  were  heard  only  in  the 
absence  of  objective  noises.  In  a  few  cases  the  "  visceral " 
hallucination  was  bisensory,  i.e.  both  auditory  and  visuaL 

In  all  these  respects  the  "  visceral "  hallucination  differs 
markedly  from  the  commoner  types  of  the  sporadic  hallucination 
of  healthy  persons. 

b.  Hallucinations  are  constant  symptoms  of  certain  general 
disorders  in  which  the  nervous  system  is  involved,  notably 
of  the  delirium,  tremens^  which  results  from  chronic  alcohol 
poisoning,  and  of  the  delirium  of  the  acute  specific  fevers.  The 
hallucinations  of  these  states  are  generally  of  a  distressing  or 
even  terrifying  character.  Especially  is  this  the  rule  with  those 
of  delirium  tremens,  and  in. the  hallucinations  of  this  disease 
certain  kinds  of  objects,  e.g.  rats  and  snakes,  occur  with  curious 
frequency. 

.  t.  Hallucinations  occasionally  occur  as  syiiiptoms  of  certain 
nervous  diseases  that  are  not  usually  classed  with  the  insanities, 
notably  in  cases  of  epilepsy  and  severe  forms  of  hysteria.  In 
the  former  disorder,  the  sensory  aura  that  so  often  precedes 
the  q)fleptic  convulsion  may  take  the  form  of  an  hallucinatory 
object,  which  in  some  cases  is  very  constant  in  character. 
Unilateral  hallucinationSi  an  especially  interesting  class,  occur 


in  severe  cases  of  hysteria,  and  are  uanaDy  acooopaided  by 
hemi-anaesthesia  of  the  body  on  the  side  on  whidi  the  halladn- 
atory  object  is  perceived. 

d.  Hallucinations  occur  in  a  large,  but  not  aocoiatdy  defioabte, 
proportion  of  all  cases  of  mental  disease  proper.  Two  classes 
are  recognized:  (x)  those  that  are  intimate^  connected  -with 
the  dominant  emotional  state  or. with  some  dominant  dduakm; 
(2)  those  that  occur  sporadically  and  have  no  snch  obvious 
relation  to  the  other  symptoms  of-diseaser  Halludnatbos  of 
the  former  dass  tend  to  accentuate,  and  in  turn  to  be  confinsed 
by,  the  congruent  emotional  or  delusional  state;  bat  whether 
these  are  to  be  regarded  as  primary  sympton»  and  as  the  caase 
of  the  hallucinations,  or  vice  versa,  it  is  generally  impossible  to  say. 
Patients  who  suffer  delusions  of  persecution  are  very  apt  to 
dev^op  later  in  the  course  of  their  disease  haUodnations  of  the 
vmces  of  their  persecutors;  while  in  other  cases  hallucinatory 
voices,  which  are  at  first  reoc^piized  as  such,  come  to  be  j^sarded 
as  real  and  in  these  cases  seem  to  be  factors  of  primary  importance 
in  the  genesis  of  further  ddusions.,  Hallurinatioxa  oocixr  in 
almost  every  variety  of  mental  disease,  but  are  commonest  in 
the  forms  characterized  by  a  cloudy  dream-like  condition  of 
consdousness,  and  in  extreme  cases  of  this  sort  the  patient  (as 
in  the  delirium  of  chronic  alcohol-poisoning)  seons  to  move 
waking  through  a  world  consisting  largdy  of  the.  images  of  his 
own  creation,  set  upon  a  background  of  real  objects^ 

In  some  cases  hallucinations  are  frequently  experienced  far 
long  periods  in  the  absence  of  any  other  symptom  of  xoenial 
disorder,  but  these  no  doubt  usually  imply  some  morbid  condition 
of  the  brain. 

Physiology  of  HaUucinaiion. — ^There  has  been  mudi  discussion 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  neural  process  in  halludnaticHi.  It 
is  generally  and  rightly  assumed  that  the  hallucinatory  paceptic» 
of  any  object  has  for  its  immediate  neural  correlate  a  state  of 
excitement  which,  as  regards  its  characters  and  its  distribution 
in  the  dements  of  the  brain,  is  entirdy  similar  to  the  netiral 
correlate  of  the  normal  perception  of  the  same  object.  The 
hallucination  is  a  perception,  though  a  false  perception.-  In 
the  perception  of  an  object  and  in  the  representation  of  it, 
introspective  analysis  discovers  a  numb^  of  prcsentative 
dements.  In  the  case  of  the  representation  these  elements  are 
memory  images  only  (except  perhaps  in  so  far  as  actual  kin- 
acstheiic  sensations  enter  into  its  compodtion);  whereas,  in 
the  case  of  the  percept,  some  of  these  elements  are  sensations, 
sensations  which  differ  from  images  in  having  the  attribute  of 
sensory  vividness;  and  the  sensory  vividness  of  these  dements 
lends  to  the  whole  complex  the  sensory  vividness  or  reality, 
the  possession  of  which  character  by  the  percept  constitutes  its 
princtpd  difference  from  the  representation.  Normally,  scssc»y 
vividness  attaches  only  to  those  presentative  elements  which 
are  exdted  through  stimulations  of  the  sense-organs.  The 
normal  percept,  then,  owes  its  character  of  sensory  reality  to 
the  fact  that  a  certain  number  of  its  presentative  dements  are 
sensations  peripherally  excited  by  impressions  nuude  upon  a 
sense-organ.  The  problem  is,  then,  to  account  for  the  fact  that 
the  hallucination  contains  presentative  dements  that  have 
sensory  vividness,  that  are  sensations,  although  they  are  i»t 
excited  by  impressions  from  the  external  worid  falling  upon  a 
sense-organ.  Most  of  the  discussions  of  this  subject  saStr  from 
the  neglect  of  this  preliminary  definition  of  the  problem.  Many 
authors,  notably  W.  Wundt  and  his  disdples,  have  been  content 
to  assume  that  the  sensation  differs  from  tha.  memory-image 
only  in  having  a  higher  degree  of  intensity;  from  which  they 
infer  that  its  neural  corrdate  in  the  brain  cortex  also  differs 
from  that  of  the  image  only  in  having  a  higher  degree  of  intcn&ity. 
For  them  an  hallucination  is  therefore  roerdy  a  rq>resentatioa 
whose  neural  correlate  involves  an  intensity  of  exdtement  of 
certain  brain-elements  such  as  is  normally  produced  only  by 
peripheral  stimulation  of  sensory  nerves  in  the  sense-org&as. 
But  this  view,  so  attractively  simple,  ignores  an  insuperable 
objection.  Sensory  vividness  is  not  to  be  identified  with  supeior 
intensity;  for  while  the  least  intense  sensation  has  it,  the 
memory  image  of  the  most  intense  sensation  lacks  it  complctdy. 


HALLUCINATION 


86z 


And,  since  Intensity  of  sensation  is  a  function  of  the  intensity 
of  the  underlying  neural  excitement,  we  may  not  assume  that 
sensocy  vividness  is  also  the  expression  in  consciousness  of  that 
intensity  of  excitement.  If  Wundt's  view  were  true  a  progressive 
diminution  of  the  intensity  of  a  sensory  stimulus  should  bring 
the  sensation  to  n  point  in  the  scale  of  diminishing  intensity  at 
which  it  ceases  to  be  sensation,  ceases  to  have  sensory  vividness 
and  becomes  an  image  merely.  But  this  is  not  the  case;  with 
diminishing  intensity  of  stimulation,  the  sensation  declines  to 
a  minimal  intensity  and  then  disappears  from  consciousness. 
This  objection  applies  not  only  to  Wundt's  view  of  hallucinations, 
but  also  to  H.  Taine's  explanation  of  them  by  the  aid  of  his 
doctrine  of  "  reductives,"  for  this  too  identifies  sensory  vividness 
with  intensity.    (H.  Taine,  De  VinaeUigence^  tome  i.  p.  io8.) 

Another  widely  current  explanation  is  based  on  the  view  that 
the  representation  and  the  percept  have  their  anatomical  bases 
in  di£Ferent  element-groups  or  "centres"  of  the  brain,  the 
"  centre  "  of  the  representation  being  assigned  to  a  higher  level 
of  the  brain  than  that  of  the  percept  (the  latter  being  sometimes 
assigned  to  the  basal  ganglia  of  the  brain,  the  former  to  the 
cortex).  It  is  then  assumed  that  while  the  lower  perceptual 
centre  is  normally  excited  only  through  the  8enseH>rgan,  it  may 
occasionally  be  excited  by  impulses  playing  down  upon  it  from 
the  correqwnding  centre  of  representation,  when  hallucination 
results.. 

Tlib  view  also  is  far  from  satisfactory,  because  the  great 
additions  recently  made  to  our  knowledge  of  the  brain  tend 
very  strongly  to  show  that  both  sensations  and  memory- 
images  have  their  anatomical  bases  in  the  same  sensory  areas 
of  the  cerebral  cortex;  and  many  considerations  converge 
to  show  that  their  anatomical  bases  must  be,  in  part  at  least, 
identical. 

The  views  based  on  the  assumptions  of  complete  identity,  and 
of  complete  separateness,  of  the  anatomical  bases  of  the  percept 
and  of  the  representation  are  then  alike  untenable;  and  the 
alternative — ^that  their  anatomical  bases  are  in  part  identical, 
in  part  different,  which  is  indicated  by  this  conclusion — renders 
possible  a  far  more  satisfactory  doctrine.  We  have  good  reason 
to  believe  that  the  neural  correlate  of  sensation  is  the  trans- 
mission of  the  nervous  impulse  through  a  sensori-motor  arc  of 
the  cortex,  made  up  of  a  chain  of  neurones;  and  the  view  suggests 
itself  that  the  neural  correlate  of  the  corresponding  memory- 
image  is  the  transmission  of  the  impulse  through  a  part  only  of 
this  chain  of  cortical  elements,  either  the  efferent  motor  part  of 
this  chain  or  the  afferent  sensory  part  of  it.  Professor  W. 
James's  theory  of  hallucinations  is  based  on  the  latter  assump- 
tion. He  suggests  that  the  sensory  vividness  of  sensation  and 
of  the  percept  is  due  to  the  discharge  of  the  excitement  of  the 
chain  of  elements  in  the  forward  or  motor  direction;  and  that, 
in  the  case  of  the  image  and  of  the  representation,  the  discharge 
takes  place,  not  in  this  direction  through  the  efferent  channel  of 
the  centre,  but  laterally  into  other  centres  of  the  cortex.  Hal- 
lucination may  then  be  conceived  as  caused  by  obstruction,  or 
abnormally  increased  resistance,  of  the  paths  connecting  such  a 
cortical  centre  with  others,  so  that,  when  it  becomes  excited 
in  any  way,  the  tension  or  potential  of  its  charge  rises,  until 
discharge  takes  place  in  the  motor  direction  through  the 
efferent  limbs  of  the  sensori-motor  arcs  which  constitute  the 
centre. 

It  is  a  serious  objection  to  this  view  that,  as  James  himself, 
in  common  with  most  modem  authors,  maintains,  every  idea 
has  its  motor  tendency  which  commonly,  perhaps  always,  finds 
expression  in  some  change  of  tension  of  muscles,  and  in  many 
cases  issues  in  actual  movements.  Now  if  we  accept  James's 
theory  of  haUudnation,  we  should  expect  to  find  that  whenever 
a  representation  issues  in  bodily  action  it  should  assume  the 
sensory  vividness  of  an  baUudnatioar  and  this,  of  course,  is 
not  the  case. 

The  alternative  form  of  the  view  that  assumes  partial  identity 
of  the  anatomical  bases  of  the  percept  and  the  representation 
of  an  object,  would  regard  the  neural  correlate  of  the  sensation 
a*  the  transmissioD  of  the  nervous  impulse  throughout  the  length 


of  the  sensori-motor  arc  of  the  cortex,  from  sensory  inlet  to 
motor  outlet;  and  that  of  the  image  as  its  transmission  through 
the  efferent  part  of  this  arc  only;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  case 
of  the  image,  it  would  regard  the  exdtement  of  the  arc  as  being 
initiated  at  some  point  between  its  afferent  inlet  and  its  motor 
outlet,  and  as  spreading,  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  forward 
conduction,  towards  the  motor  outlet  only,  so  that  only  the  part 
of  the  arc  distal  or  efferent  to  this  point  becomes  exdted. 

This  view  of  the  neural,  ba&is  of  sensory  vividness,  which 
correlates  the  difference  between  the  sensation  and  the  image 
with  the  only  known  difference  between  their  physiological 
conditions,  namely  the  peripheral  initiation  of  the  one  and  the 
central  initiation  of  the  other,  enables  us  to  formulate  a  satis- 
factory theory  of  the  physiology  of  hallucinations. 

The  anatomical  basis  of  the  perception  and  of  the  representar 
tion  of  any  object  is  a  functional  system  of  nervous  elements, 
comprising  a  number  of  sensori-motor  arcs,  whose  exdtement  by 
impulses  ascending  to  them  by  the  sensory  paths  from  the  sense* 
organs  determines  sensations,  and  whose  exdtement  in  their 
efferent  parts  only  determines  the  corresponding  images.  In 
the  case  of  perception,  some  of  these  arcs  are  exdted  by  impulses 
ascending  from  the  sense-organs,  others  only  by  the  spread  of 
the  exdtement  through  the  system  from  these  peripherally 
exdted  arcs;  while,  in  the  case  of  the  representation,  all  alike 
are  excited  by  impulses  that  reach  the  system  from  other  parts 
of  the  cortex  and  spread  throughout  its  efferent  parts  only  to  its 
motor  outlets. 

If  then  impulses  enter  this  system  by  any  of  the  afferent  limbs 
of  its  sensori-motor  arcs,  the  presentation  that  accompanies 
its  exdtement  will  have  sensory  vividness  and  will  be  a  true 
perception,  an  illusion,  or  an  haUudnation,  according  as  these 
impulses  have  followed  the  normal  course  from  the  sense-organ, 
or  have  been  diverted,  to  a  lesser  or  greater  degree,  from  their 
normal  paths.  If  any  such  neural  system  becomes  abnormally 
exdtable,  or  becomes  excited  in  any  way  with  abnormal  intensity, 
it  is  thereby  rendered  a  path  of  exceptionally  low-resistance 
capable  of  diverting  to  itself,  from  their  normal  path,  any 
streams  of  impulses  ascending  from  the  sense-organ;  which 
ascending  impulses,  entering  the  system  by  its  afferent  inlets, 
exdte  sensations  that  impart  to  the  presentation  the  character 
of  sensory  vividness;  the  presentation  thus  acquires  the 
character  of  a  percept  in  spite  of  the  absence  of  the  appropriate 
impression  on  the  sense-organ,  and  we  call  it  an  haUudnation. 

This  view  renders  inteUigible  the  modus  operandi  of  many  of 
the  predisposing  causes  of  haUudnation;  e.g.  the  pre-occupation 
with  certain  representations  of  the  ecstatic,  or  of  the  sufferer 
from  ddiisions  of  persecution;  the  intense  expectation  of  a 
particular  sense  impression,  the  generally  increased  excitability 
of  the  cortex  in  states  of  delirium;  in  all  these  conditions  the 
abnormaUy  intense  excitement  of  the  cortical  systems  may  be 
supposed  to  give  them  an  undue  directive  and  attractive  influence 
upon  the  streams  of  impulses  ascending  from  the  sense-organs, 
so  that  sensory  impulses  may  be  diverted  from  their  normal  paths. 
Again,  it  renders  inteUigible  the  part  played  by  chronic  irritation 
of  a  sense-organ,  as  when  chronic  irritation  of  the  internal  ear 
leads  on  to  hallucinations  of  hearing;  perhaps  also  the  chronic 
irritation  of  sensory  nerves  that  must  accompany  the  states  of 
visceral  disease,  shown  by  Head  to  be  so  frequently  accompanied 
by  a  UabiUty  to  haUudnations;  for  any  such  chrpnic  irritation 
supplies  a  stream  of  disorderly  impulse  rising  constantly  from 
the  sense-organ,  for  the  reception  of  which  the  brain  has  no 
appropriate  system,  and  which,  therefore,  readUy  enters  any 
organized  cortical  system  that  at  any  moment  constitutes  a 
path  of  low-resistance.  A  similar  explanation  applies  to  the 
influence  of  fixed  gazing  upon  a  crystal,  or  the  pladng  of  a  sheU 
over  the  ear,  in  inducing  visual  and  auditory  hallucinations. 
Tlie  "  recurrent  sensations "  experienced  after  prolonged 
occupation  with  some  one  kind  of  sensory  object  may  be  regarded 
as  due  to  an  abnonnal  excitability  of  the  cortical  system  con- 
cerned, resulting  from  its  unduly  prolonged  exerdse.  The 
hypothesis  renders  inteUigible  also  the  liability  to  haUudnation 
of  persons  in  the  hysterical  and  hypnotic  states,  in  whoM  brains 


862 


HALLUCINATION 


the  cortical  neural  systems  are  in  a  state  of  partial  dissociation, 
which  renders  possible  an  unduly  intense  and  prolonged  excite- 
ment of  some  one  system  at  the  expense  of  all  other  systems 
(cf.  Hypnotism). 

Coincidental  Hattucinalums.—lt  would  seem  that,  in  well- 
ni^  all  countries  and  in  all  ages,  apparitions  of  persons  known 
to  be  in  distant  places  have  been  occasionally  observed.  Such 
appearances  have  usually  been  regarded  as  due  to  the  presence, 
before  the  bodily  eye  of  the  seer,  of  the  ghost,  wraith,  double 
or  soul  of  the  person  who  thus  appears;  and,  since  the  soul 
has  been  very  commonly  supposed  to  leave  tht  body,  permanently 
at  death  and  temporarily  during  sleq),  trance  or  any  period  of 
unconsciousness,  howeyer  induced,  it  was  natural  to  regard 
such  an  appearance  as  evidence  that  the  person  whose  wraith 
was  thus  seen  was  in  some  such  condition.  Such  apparitions 
have  probably  played  a  part,  second  only  to  that  of  dreams, 
in  generating  the  almost  universal  belief  in  the  sq>arability  of 
ioul  and  body. 

In  many  parts  of  the  world  traditional  bcb'ef  has  connoted 
such  apparitions  more  especially  with  the  death  of  the  person 
so  appearing,  the  apparition  being  regarded  as  an  indication 
that  the  person  so  appearing  has  recently  died,  is  djring  or  is 
about  to  die.  Since  death  is  so  much  less  common  an  event  than 
sleq),  trance,  or  other  form  of  temporary  unconsciousness,  the 
wide  extension  of  this  belief  suggests  that  such  apparitions  may 
coincide  in  time  with  death,  with  disproportionate  frequency. 
The  belief  in  the  significance  of  such  apparitions  still  survives 
in  dviUzed  communities,  and  stories  of  apparitions  coinciding 
with  the  death  of  the  person  appearing  are  occasionally  reported 
in  the  newspapeis,  or  related  as  having  recently  occurred.  The 
Society  for  Psychical  Research  has  sought  to  find  grounds  for 
an  answer  to  the  question  "  Is  there  any  sufficient  justification 
for  the  belief  in  a  causal  relation  between  the  apparition  of  a 
person  at  a  place  distant  from  his  body  and  his  death  or  othei 
exceptional  and  momentous  event  in  his  experience?"  The 
problem  was  attacked  in  a  thoroughly  scientific  spirit,  an 
extensive  Inquiiy  was  made,  and  the  results  were  presented  and 
fully  discussed  in  two  large  volumes.  Phantasms  of  the  Living, 
published  in  the  year  x886,  bearing  on  the  title-page  the  names 
of  Edmund  Gurney,  F.  W.  H.  Myers  and  F.  Podmore.  Of 
the  three  collaborators  Gurney  took  the  largest  share  in  the 
planning  of  the  work,  in  the  collection  of  evidence,  and  in  the 
elaboration  and  diKussion  of  it. 

Gurney  set  out  with  the  presimiption  that  apparitions,  whether 
coincidental  or  not,  are  hallucinations  in  the  sense  defined  above; 
that  they  are  false  perceptions  and  are  not  excited  by  any  object 
or  process  of  the  external  world  acting  upon  the  sense-organs 
of  the  percipient  in  normal  fashion;  that  they  do  not  imply  the 
presence,  in  the  place  apparently  occupied  by  them,  of  any  wraith 
or  any  form  of  existence  emanating  fropi,  or  specially  connected 
with,  the  person  whose  phantasm  appears.  This  initial  assump- 
tion was  abundantly  justified  by  an  examination  of  a  large 
number  of  cases  for  it,  which  showed  that,  in  all  important 
respects,  most  of  these  apparitions  of  persons  at  a  distance, 
whether  coincidental  or  not,  were  similar  to  other  forms  of 
hallucination. 

The  acceptance  of  this  conclusion  does  not,  however,  imply 
a  negative  answer  to  the  question  formulated  above.  The 
Society  for  Psychical  Research  had  accumulated  an  impressive 
and,  to  almost  all  those  who  had  first-hand  acquaintance  with 
it,  a  convincing  mass  of  experimental  evidence  of  the  reality 
of  telepathy  (g.v.),  the  influence  of  mind  on  mind  otherwise 
than  through  the  recognized  channels  of  sense.  The  succe^ul 
experiments  had  for  the  most  part  been  made  between  persons 
in  close  proximity,  in  the  same  room  or  in  adjoining  rooms; 
but  they  seemed  to  show  that  the  state  of  consciousness  of  one 
person  may  induce  directly  {i.e.  without  the  mediation  of  the 
organs  of  expression  and  sense-perception)  a  similar  state  of 
consciousness  in  another  person,  especially  if  the  former, 
usually  called  the  "agent,"  strongly  desired  or  "willed" 
that  this  effect  should  be  produced  OQ  the  other  person,  the 
"  percipient," 


The  question  formulated  above  thus  resolved  itself  for  Guroey 
into  the  more  definite  form,  "  Can  we  find  any  good  reason  for 
bch'eving  that  coincidental  halludnations  are  sometimes  veridical, 
that  the  state  of  mind  of  a  person  at  some  great  crisis  of  his 
experience  may  telepathically  induce  in  the  txAod  of  some 
distant  relative  or  friend  an  hallucinatory  perc<!ptionof  himself  ?  " 
It  was  at  once  obvious  that,  if  coinddental  apparitions  can  be 
proved  to  occur,  this  question  can  only  be  answered  by  a 
statistical  inquiry;  for  each  such  coincidental  baOudnaUon. 
considered  alone,  may  always  be  regarded  as  most  educated 
persons  of  the  present  time  have  regarded  them,  namdy,  as 
merdy  acddental  coinddences.  That  the  colnddences  are  iic« 
mcrdy  acddental  can  only  be  proved  by  showing  that  they 
occur  more  frequently  than  the  doctrine  of  chances  would  justify 
us  in  expecting.  Now,  the  death  of  any  person  is  a  unique  even;, 
and  the  probability  of  its  occurrence  upon  any  particular  day 
may  be  veiy  simply  calculated  from  the  mortality  statistics, 
if  we  assume  that  nothing  is  known  of  the  individual's  vitality. 
On  the  other  hand,  hallucinatory  perceptions  of  persons,  occuniog 
to  sane  and  healthy  individuals  in  the  fully  waking  state,  are 
comparativdy  rare  occurrences,  whose  frequency  we  may  hope 
to  determine  by  a  statistical  inquiiy.  If,  then,  we  can  obtain 
figures  expressing  the  frequency  of  such  hallucinations,  we  can 
deduce,  by  the  help  of  the  laws  of  chance,  the  proportion  of  such 
halludnations  that  may  be  esqsected  to  cotndde  with  (or,  for 
the  purposes  of  the  inquiry,  to  fall  within  twdve  hours  of)  the 
death  of  the  person  whose  apparition  appears,  if  no  causal 
relation  obtains  between  the  coindding  events.  If,  then,  it 
appears  that  the  proportion  of  such  coinddental  haUudnalioas 
is  greater  than  the  laws  of  probability  will  account  for,  a  certain 
presumption  of  a  causal  rdation  between  the  coindding  events 
is  thereby  established;  and  the  greater  the  excess  of  such 
coincidences,  the  stronger  does  this  presumption  become. 
Gurney  attempted  a  census  of  halludnations  in  order  to  obtain 
data  for  this  statistical  treatment,  and  the  results  of  it,  embodied 
in  Phantasms  of  the  Living,  were  considered  by  the  authois  of 
that  work  to  justify  the  belief  that  some  coinddental  hallucina- 
tions are  veridical.  In  the  year  1889  the  Sodety  for  F^chical 
Research  appointed  a  committee,  under  the  chairmanship  of  the 
late  Henry  Sidgwick,  to  make  a  second  census  of  halludnations 
on  a  more  extensive  and  systematic  plan  than  the  first,  in  order 
that  the  important  condusion  reached  by  the  authors  of  Pkani- 
asms  of  the  Living  might  be  put  to  the  severer  test  rendered 
possible  by  a  larger  and  more  carefully  collected  mass  of  data. 
Seventeen  thousand  adults  returned  answers  to  the  question, 
"  Have  you  ever,  when  believing  yoursdf  to  be  completdy  awake, 
had  a  vivid  impression  of  seeing  or  bdng  toudied  by  a  living 
being  or  inanimate  object,  or  of  hearing  a  voice;  which  im|»cs- 
sion,  so  far  as  you  could  discover,  was  not  due  to  any  exteroal 
physical  cause  ? "  Rather  more  than  two  thousand  persons 
answered  affirmatively,  and  to  each  of  these  were  addressed 
careful  inqturies  concerning  their  halludnatoiy  experiences. 
In  this  way  it  was  found  that  of  the  total  number,  381  aj^Mritions 
of  persons  living  at  the  moment  (or  not  more  than  twelve  hours 
dead)  had  been  recognized  by  the  perdpients,  and  that,  of  these, 
80  were  alleged  to  have  l>een '  experienced  within  twelve  hours 
of  the  death  of  the  persoii  whose  apparition  had  appeared.  A 
careful  review  of  all  the  facts,  conditions  and  probabQitics, 
led  the  committee  to  estimate  that  the  former  number  dxMild  be 
enlarged  to  1300  in  order  to  make  ample  allowance  fm-  foigetful* 
ncss  and  for  all  other  causes  that  might  have  tended  to  prevent 
the  r^istration  of  apparitions  of  this  class.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  severe  criticism  of  the  alleged  death-coinddences  led  them  to 
reduce  the  number,  admitted  by  them  for  the  purposes  of  their 
calculation,  to  30.  The  making  of  these  adjustments  gives  us 
about  I  in  43  as  the  proportion  of  coinddental  death-apparitioos 
to  the  total  number  of  recognized  apparitions  among  the  17,000 
persons  reached  by  the  census.  Now  the  death-rate  being  just 
over  19  per  thousand,  the  probability  that  any  person  taken  at 
random  wDl  die  on  a  given  day  is  about  x  in  19,000;  or,  more 
strictly  speaking,  the  average  probability  that  any  person  will 
die  within  any  given  period  of  twenty-four  boQxs  duratioa 


HALLUIN— HALMAHERA 


863 


Is  about  X  in  19,000.  Hence  the  probability  that  any  other 
particular  event,  having  no  causal  relation  to  his  death,  but 
occurring  during  his  lifetime  (or  not  later  than  twelve  hours 
after  his  death)  will  fall  within  the  same  twenty-four  hours  as  his 
death  is  x  in  19,000;  i,e.  if  an  apparition  of  any  individual  is 
seen  and  recognized  by  any  other  person,  the  probability  of  its 
being  experienced  within  twelve  hours  of  that  individual's  death 
is  I  in  19,000,  if  nd  causal  relation  obtains  between  the  two 
events.  Therefore,  of  all  recognized  apparitions  of  living  persons, 
X  only  in  19,000  may  be  expected  to  be  a  death-coincidence  of 
this  sort.  But  the  census  shows  that  of  1300  recognized  appari- 
tions  of  living  persons  30  are  death-coinddences  and  that  is 
equivalent  to  440  in  1 9,000.  Hence,  of  recognized  hallucinations, 
those  coinciding  with  death  are  440  times  more  numerous  than 
we  should  expect,  if  no  causal  relation  obtained;  therefore,  if 
neither  the  data  nor  the  reasoning  can  be  destructively  criticized, 
we  are  compelled  to  believe  that  some  causal  relation  obtains; 
and,  since  giood  evidence  of  telepathic  communication  has  been 
experimentally  obtained,  the  least  improbable  explanation  of 
these  death-apparitions  is  that  the  dying  person  exerts  upon  his 
distant  friend  some  telepathic  influence  which  generates  an 
hallucinatory  perception  of  himself. 

These  death-coincidences  constitute  the  main  feature  of  the 
argument  in  favour  of  telepathic  tommunication  between 
distant  persons,  but  the  census  of  hallucinations  afforded  other 
data  from  which  a  variety  of  arguments,  tending  to  support  this 
conclusion,  were  drawn  by  the  committee;  of  these  the  most 
important  are  the  cases  in  which  the  hallucinatory  percept 
embodied  details  that  were  connected  with  the  person  perceived 
and  which  could  not  have  become  known  to  the  percipient  by 
any  normal  means.  The  committee  could  not  find  in  the  results 
of  the  census  any  evidence  sufficient  to  justify  a  belief  that 
hallucinations  may  be  due  to  telepathic  inHuenoe  exerted  by 
personalities  surviving  the  death  of  the  body. 

The  critical  handling  of  Ihe  cases  by  the  committee  seems  to 
be  above  reproach.  Those  who  do  not  accept  their  conclusion 
based  on  the  death-coincidences  must  direct  their  criticism  to 
the  question  of  the  reliabih'ty  of  the  reports  of  these  cases.  It 
is  to  be  noted  that,  although  only  those  cases  are  reckoned  in 
which  the  perdpient  had  no  cause  to  expect  the  death  of  the 
person  whose  apparition  he  experienced,  and  although,  in  nearly 
all  the  accepted  cases,  some  record  or  communication  of  the 
hallucination  was  made  before  hearing  of  the  death,  yet  in  very 
few  cases  was  any  contemporary  written  record  of  the  event 
forthcoming  for  the  inspection  of  the  committee.     (W.  McD.) 

HALLUIN,  a  frontier  town  of  northern  France,  in  the  depm- 
ment  of  Nord,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Lys,  14  m.  N.  by  E. 
of  Lille  by  rail.  Pop.  (1906)  town,  11,670;  commune,  16,158. 
Its  church  is  of  Gothic  architecture.  The  manufactures  comprise 
linen  and  cotton  goods,  chairs  and  rubber  goods,  and  brewing 
and  tanning  are  carried  on;  there  is«  board  of  trade  arbitration. 
The  family  of  Halluin  is  mentioned  as  early  as.  the  X3th  century. 
In  X587  the  title  of  duke  and  peer  of  the  realm  was  granted  to  it, 
but  in  the  succeeding  century  it  became  extinct. 

HALM.  CARL  FEUX  (i8o<^i882),  German  dassical  Kholar 
and  critic,  was  bom  at  Munich  on  the  sth  of  April  1809.  In 
1849,  after  having  held  appointments  at  Spires  and  Hadamar, 
he  became  rector  of  the  newly  founded  Maximiliansgymnasium 
at  Munich,  and  in  1856  director  of  the  royal  library  and  professor 
in  the  university.  These  posts  he  held  till  his  death  on  the  sth 
of  October  1883.  It  is  chiefly  as  the  editor  of  Ciceio  and  other 
Latin  prose  authors  that  Halm  is  known,  although  in  eariy  years 
he  also  devoted  considerable  attention  to  Greek.  After  the 
death  of  J.  C.  Orelli,  he  joined  J.  G.  Baiter  in  the  preparation 
of  a  revised  critical  edition  of  the  rhetorical  and  philosophical 
writings  of  Cicero  (1854-1862).  His  school  editions  of  some  of 
the  speeches  of  Cicero  in  the  Haupt  and  Sauppe  series,  with 
notes  and  introductions,  were  very  successful.  He  also  edited 
a  number  of  classical  texts  for  the  Teubner  series,  the  most 
important  of  which  arc  Tadtus  (4th  cd.,  1883);  Rhetores  Latini 
ntinores  (1863);  Quintilian  (1868);  SuJpicius  Severus  (1866); 
Minudus  Felix  together  with  Firmicus  Matemus  Dc  errore 


(1867);  Salvianus  (1877)  and  Victor  Vitensis's  Historia  per- 

seeutionis    Africanae    provincias    (1878).    He    was    also    an 

enthusiastic  collector  of  autographs. 

See  articles  bv  W.  Christ  and  G.  Laubmana  in  A  Utemeint  deutscJu 
BiojrtMUe  and  by  C.  Bursian  in  Biotrapkucius  Jc^rhtuk;  and 
J.  E.  aandys,  Hist,  of  CUusicat  ScholankiPt  iii.  19s  (1908). 

HALMA  (Greek  for  "  jump  ")>  &  table  game,  a  form  of  which 
was  known  to  the  andent  Greeks,  played  on  a  board  divided 
into  356  squares  with  wooden  men,  resembling  chess  pawns. 
In  the  two-handed  game  19  men  are  employed  on  eadi  side, 
coloured  respectivdy  black  and  white;  in  the  four-handed 
each  player  has  13,  the  men  being  coloured  white,  black,  red 
and  green.  At  the  beginning  of  the  game  the  men  are  drawn  up 
in  triangular  formation  in  the  enclMures,  or  yards^  diagonally 
opposite  each  other  in  the  comen  of  the  board.  The  object  of 
each  player  is  to  get  all  his  men  into  his  enemy's  yard,  the  player 
winning  who  first  accomplishes  this.  The  moves  are  made 
alternately,  the  mode  of  progression  being  by  a  MUp,  from  one 
square  to  another  immediately  adjacent,  or  by  a  jump  (whence 
the  name),  which  is  the  jumping  of  a  man  from  a  square  in  front 
of  it  into  an  empty  square  on  the  other  side  of  it.  This  corre- 
sponds to  jumping  in  draughts,  except  that,  in  halma,  the 
hop  may  be  in  any  direction,  over  friendly  as  well  as  hostile 
men,  and  the  men  jumped  over  are  not  taJcen  but  remain  on 
the  board. 

In  the  four-handed  game  dther  each  player  plays  for  himself, 
or  two  adjacent  players  play  against  the  other  two. 

Sec  Card  and  TtMe  Games^  by  Professor  Hoffmann  (London,  1903). 

HALMAHERA  ["great  land";  also  Jibb  or  GUolo],  ah 
island  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  bdon^ng  to  the  Mdency 
of  Teraate,  lying  under  the  equator  and  about  xaS"  E.  Its 
shape  is  extremdy  irregular,  resembling  that  of  the  island 
of  Olebes.  It  consists  of  four  peninsulas  so  arranged  as  to 
endose  three  great  bays  (Kayu,  Bicholi,  Weda),  all  <^>ening 
towards  the  east,  the  northern  peninsula  being  connected  with 
the  othera  by  an  isthmus  only  $  m.  wide.  On  the  western  side 
of  the  isthmus  lies  another  bay,  that  of  Dodinga,  in  the  mouth 
of  which  are  situated  the  two  i^nds  Temate  and  Tidore,  whose 
political  importance  exceeds  that  of  the  larger  island  (see  these 
artides).  Of  the  four  peninsulas  of  Halinahen  the  northern 
and  the  southern  are  reckoned  to  the  sultanate  of  Temate,  the 
north-eastern  and  south-eastern  to  that  of  Tidore;  the  former 
having  eleven,  the  latter  three  districts.  The  distance  between 
the  extremities  of  the  northern  and  southern  peninsulas,  measured 
along  the  curve  of  the  west  coast,  is  about  340  nL;  and  the  total 
area  of  the  island  is  6700  sq.  m.  Knowledge  of  the  island  is  very 
incomplete.  It  appeara  that  the  four  peninsulas  are  traversed 
in  the  direction  of  their  longitudinal  axis  by  mountain  chains 
3000  to  4000  ft.  high,  covered  with  forest,  without  a  central 
chain  at  the  nudeus  of  the  island  whence  the  peninsulas  diverge. 
The  mountain  chains  are  frequently  interrupted  by  plains,  such 
as  those  of  Weda  and  Kobi.  The  northern  part  of  the  mountain 
chain  of  the  northern  peninsula  is  volcanic,  its  volcanoes  con- 
tinuing the  line  of  those  of  Makian,  Temate  and  Tidore.  Coral 
formations  on  heights  in  the  interior  would  indicate  oscillations 
of  the  laxul  in  several  periods,  but  «  detailed  geology  of  the 
island  is  wanting.  To  the  north-east  of  the  northern  peninsula 
is  the  considerable  island  of  Morotai  (635  sq.  m.),  and  to  the  west 
of  the  southern  peninsula  the  more  important  i^and  of  Bachian 
iq.v.)  among  others.  Galela  is  a  considerable  settlement,  situated 
on  a  bay  of  the  same  name  on  the  north-east  coast,  in  a  well 
cultivated  plain  which  extends  southward  and  inland.  V^eta- 
tion  is  prolific.  Rice  is  grown  by  the  natives,  but  the  sago  tree 
u  of  far  greater  importance  to  them.  Dammar  and  coco-nuts 
are  also  grown.  The  sea  yidds  trepang  and  peari  shells.  A 
little  trade  is  carried  on  by  the  Chinese  and  Macassars  of  Temate, 
who,  crossing  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Dodinga,  enter  the  bay  of 
Kayu  on  the  east  coast.  The  total  population  is  estimated  at 
xoo,ooo. 

The  inhabitants  are  mostly  of  immigrant  Mahyan  stock. 
In  the  northern  peninsula  are  found  peof^e  of  Papuan  type, 
probably  representing  the  aborigines,  and  a  tribe  around  Galda, 


864 


HALMSTAD— HALO 


who  are  Polynesiaii  in  physique,  possibly  remnants,  much  mixed 
by  subsequent  crossings  with  the  Papuan  indigenes,  of  the 
Caucasian  hordes  emigrating  in  prehistoric  times  across  the 
Pacific  M.  Achille  Raff  ray  gives  a  description  of  them  in  Tour 
du  numde  (1879)  where  photographs  will  be  found.  "  They  are 
as  unlike  the  Malays  as  we  are^,  excelling  them  in  tallness  of 
stature  and  elegance  of  shape,  and  being  perfectly  distinguished 
by  their  oval  face,  with  a  fairly  high  and  open  brow;,  their  aquiline 
nose  and  their  horizontally  placed  eyes.  Their  beards  are 
sometimes  thick;  their  limt»  are  muscular;  the  colour  of  their 
skins  is  cinnamon  brown.  Spears  of  iron-wood,  abundantly 
barbed,  and  small  bows  and  bamboo  arrows  free  from  poison 
are  their  principal  weapons!"  They  are  further  described  as 
having  temples  {sdbuas)  in  which  they  suspend  images  of 
serpents  and  other  monsters  as  well  as  the  trophies  procured  by 
war.  They  believe  in  a  better  life  hereafter,  but  have  no  idea 
of  a  bell  or  a  devil,  their  evil  spirits  only  tormenting  them  in 
the  present  state. 

The  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  were  better  acquainted  with 
Hahnahera  than  with  many  other  parts  of  the  archipelago; 
they  called  it  sometimes  Batu  China  and  sometimes  Moro.  It 
was  circumnavigated  by  one  of  their  vessels  in  1525,  and  the 
general  outline  of  the  coasts  is  correctly  given  in  their  maps  at 
a  time  when  separate  portions  of  Celebes,  such  as  Macassar  and 
Menado,  are  represented  as  distinct  islands.  The  name  (Jilolo) 
was  really  that  of  a  native  state,  the  sultan  of  which  had  the 
chief  rank  among  the  princes  of  the  Moluccas  before  he  was 
supplanted  by  the  sultan  of  Temate  about  1380.  His  capital, 
Jilolo,  lay  on  the  west  coast  on  the  first  bay  to  the  north  of  that 
of  Dodinj^  In  1876  Danu  Hassan,  a  descendant  of  the  sultans 
of  Jilolo,  raised  an  insurrection  in  the  island  for  the  purpose 
of  throwing  off  the  authority  of  the  sultans  of  Tidore  and  Temate; 
and  his  efforts  would  probably  have  been  successful  but  for  the 
intervention  of  the  Dutch.  In  1878  a  Dutch  expedition  was 
directed  against  the  pirates  of  TobaJai,  and  they  were  virtually 
extirpated.  Slavery  remains  in  the  interior.  Missionary  work, 
carried  on  in  the  northern  peninsula  of  Halmahera  since  1866, 
has  been  fairly  successful  among  the  heathen  natives,  but  less  so 
among  the  Mahommedans,  who  have  often  incited  the  others 
against  the  missionaries  and  their  converts. 

HALMSTAD,  a  seaport  of  Sweden,  chief  town  of  the  district 
{ULn)  of  Halland,  on  the  £.  shore  of  the  Cattcgat,  76  m.  S.S.E. 
of  Gothenburg  by  the  railway  to  Helsingborg.  Pop.  (1900), 
i5>362.  It  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Nissa,  having  an  inner 
harbour  (15  ft.  depth),  an  outer  harbour,  and  roads  giving 
anchorage  (24  to  36  ft.)  exposed  to  S.  and  N.W.  winds.  In  the 
neighbourhood  there  are  quarries  of  granite,  which  is  exported 
chiefly  to  Germany.  Other  industries  are  engineering,  ship- 
building and  brewing,  and  there  are  cloth,  jute,  hat,  wood-pulp 
and  paper  factories.  The  principal  exports  are  granite,  timber 
and  hats;  and  butter  through  Helsingborg  and  Gothenburg. 
The.  imports  are  coal,  machinery  and  grain.  Potatoes  are 
largely  grown  in  the  district,  and  the  salmon  fisheries  are  valuable. 
The  castle  is  the  residence  of  the  governor  of  the  province.  There 
are  both  mineral  and  sea-water  baths  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Mention  of  the  church  of  Halmstad  occurs  as  early  as  1462, 
and  the  fortifications  are  mentioned  first  in  1225.  The  latter 
were  demolished  in  1734.  There  were  formerly  Dominican  and 
Franciscan  monasteries  in  the  town.  The  oldest  town-privileges 
date  from  1307.  During  the  revolt  of  the  miner  Engelbrekt, 
it  twice  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  rebels — in  2434  &nd  1436. 
The  town  appears  to  have  been  frequently  chosen  as  the  meeting- 
place  of  the  rulers  and  delegates  of  the  three  northern  kingdoms; 
and  under  the  union  of  Kalmar  it  was  appointed  to  be  tne  place 
for  the  election  of  a  new  Scandinavian  monarch  whenever 
necessary.  The  lUn  of  Halland  formed  part  of  the  territory  of 
Denmark  in  Sweden,  and  accordingly,  in  1534,  during  his  war 
with  the  Danes,  Gustavus  Vasa  assaulted  and  took  its  chief  town« 
In  1 660,  by  the  treaty  of  Copenhagen,  the  whole  district  was 
ceded  to  Sweden.  In  1676  Charies  XU.  defeated  near  Halmstad 
a  Danish  army  which  was  attempting  to  retake  the  district,  and 
^iacc  that  time  Halland  has  formed  part  of  Sweden. 


HAIX),  a  word  derived  from  the  Gr.  &W,  a  threshing-floor» 
and  afterwards  applied  to  denote  the  disk  of  the  sun  or  moon, 
probably  oh  account  of  the  circular  path  traced  out  by  the  oxen 
threshing  the  com.  It  was  thence  applied  to  denote  any  luminous 
ring,  such  as  that  viewed  around  the  sun  or  moon,  or  portrayed 
about  the  heads  of  saints. 

In  phjrsical  science,  a  halo  is  a  luminous  circle,  surrounding 
the  sun  or  moon,  with  various  auxiliary  phenomena,  and  formed 
by  the  reflection  and  refraction  of  light  by  ice-crystals  suspended 
in  the  atmosphere.  The  optical  phenomena  produced  by 
atm<»pheric  water  and  ice  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
according  to  the  relative  position  of  the  luminous  ring  and  ihe 
source  of  light.  In  the  first  class  we  have  Judos^  and  cmoKaty 
or  "  glories,"  which  cncirdc  the  luminary;-  the  second  dass 
includes  rainbows,  fog-bows,  misi-fuUos,  atUhdia  and  KMM/lcxa- 
spectreSi  whose  centres  are-  at  the  anti-solar  point.  Here  it  a 
only  necessary  to  distinguish  halos  from  coronae.  Halos  are 
at  definite  distances  (22**  and  46**)  from  the  sun,  and  axe  cobured 
red  on  the  inside,  being  due  to  refraction;  coronae  ck»ely 
surround  the  sun  at  variable  distances,  and  are  coLouxed  red 
on  the  outside,  being  due  to  diffraction. 

The  phenomenon  of  a  solar  (or  lunar)  lialo  as  seen  fxxmn  the 
earth  is  represented  in  fig.  i.;  fig.  2  is  a  diagrammatic  sketch 
showing  the  appearance  as  viewed  from  the  xenith;  but  it  is 
only  in  exceptional  circumstances  that  all  the  parts  are  seen. 
Encircling  the  sun  or  moon  (S)»  there  are  two  circles,  known  as 


Fig.  I. 


Fic.  2. 


the  inner  halo  I,  and  the  outer  halo  O,  having  radii  of  about  23" 
and  46**,  and  exhibiting  the  colours  of  the  ^>ectrum  in  a  a>nf  used 
manner,  the  only  decided  tint  being  the  red  on  the  inside. 
Passing  through  the  luminary  and  parallel  to  the  borixon,  tlure 
is  i  white  luminous  circle,  the  farhdic  cirde  (P),  on  which  a 
number  of  images  of  the  Ituninary  appeir.  The  most  brilliant 
are  situated  at  the  intersections  of  the  inner  halo  and  the  parhelic 
circle;  these  are  known  as  parhdia  (denoted  by  the  letter  p  in 
the  fiigures)  (from  the  Gr.  rapd,  beside,  and  ^Uos,  the  sun) 
or  "  mock-suns,"  in  the  case  of  the  sim,  and  as  parasdeaae 
(from  rapd  and  atX^mi,  the  moon)  or  "  mock-moons,"  in  the 
case  of  the  moon.  Less  brilliant  are  the  parhelia  of  the  outer 
halo.  The  parhelia  are  most  brilliant  when  the  sun  is  near  the 
horizon.  As  the  sun  rises,  they  pass  a  little  beyond  the  halo 
and  exhibit  flaming  Uils.  The  other  images  on  the  parhelic 
circle  are  th(  paranlhdia  {q)  and  the  mUkdion  (a)  (from  the 
Greek  dirrt,  opposite,  and  IJikuH,  the  sun).  The  former  are 
situated  at  from  90**  to  140^  from  the  sun;  the  latter  is  a  white 
patch  of  light  situated  at  the  anti-solar  point  and  often  exceeding 
in  size  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  luminary.  A  vertical  ciide 
passing  through  the  sun  may  also  ht  seen.  From  the  parhdia 
of  the  inner  halo  two  oblique  curves  (L)  proceed.  These  are 
known  as  the  "  arcs  of  Lowiu,"  having  been  first  described  in 
1794  by  Johann  Tobias  Lowitz  (1757-1804).  Luminous  arcs 
(T),  tangential  to  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  each  halo,  also 
occur,  and  in.the  case  of  the  inner  halo,  the  arcs  may  be  prolonged 
to  form  a  quasi-elliptic  hdo. 

The  physical  explanation  of  halos.  originated  with  Ren^ 
Descartes,  who  ascribed  thdr  formation  to  the  presence  of  ice- 
crystals  in  the  atmosphere.  This  theory  was  adopted  by  Edixii 
Mariolte,  Sir  Isaac  Newton  and  Thomas  Young;  and^  although 


HALOGENS— HALS,  FRANS 


86s 


certain  of  their  tasumplioDS  were  lomewhat  arbitrary,  yet  the 
general  validity  of  the  theory  has  been  demonstrated  by  the 
researches. of  J.  G.  Galle  and  A.  Bravais.  The  memoir  of  the 
last-named,  published  in  the  Journal  de  l'£cole  royaU  poly- 
technique  for  1847  (xviii.,  x-370),  ranks  as  a  classic  on  the 
subject;  it  is  replete  with  examples  and  illustrations,  and  dis- 
cusses the  various  phenomena  in  minute  detail. 

The  usual  form  of  ice-crystals  in  clouds  is  a  right  hexagonal 
prism,  which  may  be  elongated  as  a  needle  or  foreshortened 
like  a  thin  plate.  There  are  three  refracting  angles  possible, 
one  of  x3o^  between  two  adjacent  prism  faces,  one  of  60°  between 
two  alternate  prism  faces,  and  one  of  90*  between  a  prism  face 
and  the  base.  If  innumerable  numbers  of  such  crystals  fall  in 
any  manner  between  the  observer  and  the  sun,  light  falling 
upon  these  crystals  will  be  refracted,  and  the  refracted  rays  will 
be  crowded  together  in  the  position  of  minimum  deviation  (see 
RjURAcnoN  OF  Licbt).  Mariotte  explained  the  inner  halo  as 
being  due  to  refraction  through  a  pair  of  alternate  faces,  since  the 
minimum  deviation  of  an  ice-prism  whose  refracting  angle  is  60" 
is  about  32^.  Since  the  minimum  deviation  is  least  for  the  least 
refrangible  rays,  it  follows  that  Che  red  rays  will  be  the  least 
refracted,  and  the  violet  the  more  refracted,  and  therefore  the 
halo  will  be  coloured  red  on  the  inside.  Similarly,  as  explained 
by  Henry  Cavendish,  the  halo  of  46"  is  du^  to  refraction  by  faces 
inclined  at  90^  The  impurity  of  the  coburs  (due  partly  to  the 
sun's  diameter,  but  still  more  to  oblique  refraction)  is  more 
marked  in  halos  than  in  rainbows;  in  fact,  only  the  red  is  at 
all  pure,  and  as  a  rule,  only  a  mere  trace  of  green  or  blue  is  seen, 
the  external  portion  of  each  halo  being  nearly  white. 

The  two  halos  are  the  only  phenomena  which  admit  of 
explanation  without  assigning  any  particular  distribution  to  the 
ice-crystals.  But  it  is  obvious  that  certain  distributions  will 
predominate,  for  the  crystals  will  tend  to  fall  so  as  to  offer  the 
least  resistance  to  their  motion;  a  needle-shaped  crystal  tending 
to  keep  its  axis  vertical,  a  plate-shaped  ciystal  to  keep  its  axis 
horizontal.  Thomas  Young  «q>]ained  the  parhelic  drde  (P) 
as  due  to  reflection  from  the  vertical  faces  of  the  long  prisms 
and  the  bases  of  the  short  ones.  If  these  vertical  faces  become 
very  numerous,  the  eye  will  perceive  a  colourless  horizontal 
circle.  Reflection  from  an  excess  of  horizontal  prisms  gives 
rise  to  a  vertical  circle  passing  through  the  sun. 

The  parhelia  (p)  were  explained  by  Mariotte  as  due  to  refrac- 
tion through  a  pair  oi  alternate  faces  of  a  vertical  prisoL  When 
the  sun  is  near  the  horizon  the  rays  fall  upon  the  principal  section 
of  the  prisms;  the  minimum  deviation  for  such  rays  is  aa",  and 
consequently  the  parhelia  are  not  only  on  the  inner  halo,  but 
also  on  the  parhelic  circle.  As  the  sun  rises,  the  rays  enter  the 
prisms  more  and  more  obliquely,  and  the  angle  of  minimtmi 
deviation  increases;  but  since  the  emergent  ray  makes  the  same 
angle  with  the  refracting  edge  as  the  incident  ray,  it  follows  that 
the  parhelia  will  remain  on  the  parhelic  drde,  while  receding 
from  the  inner  halo.  The  different  values  of  the  angle  of 
minimum  deviation  for  rays  of  different  refrangibilities  give  rise 
to  spectral  a>lours,  the  red  bdng  nearest  the  sun,  while  farther 
away  the  overlapping  of  the  q>ectra  forms  a  flaming  colourless 
tail  sometimes  extending  over  as  much  as  xo*  to  30*.  The 
"  aires  of  Lowitz  "  (L)  are  probably  due  to  small  oscillations  of 
the  vertical  prisms. 

The  "  tangential  arcs  "  (T)  were  explained  by  Young  as  bdng 
caused  by  the  thin  plates  with  their  axes  horizontal,  refraction 
taking  place  through  alternate  faces.  The  axes  will  take  up  any 
position,  and  consequently  give  rise  to  ^  continuous  series  of 
parhelia  which  touch  externally  the  inner  halo,  both  above  and 
below,  and  under  certain  conditions  (such  as  the  requisite 
altitude  of  the  sun)  form  two  dosed  elliptical  curves;  generally, 
however,  only  the  upper  and  lower  portions  are  seen.  Similariy, 
the  tangential  arcs  to  the  halo  of  46*  are  due  to  refraction  through 
faces  inclined  at  90*. 

The  paranthelia  (q)  may  be  due  to  two  internal  or  two  external 
reflections.  A  pair  of  triangular  prisms  having  a  common  face, 
or  a  stellate  crystal  formed  by  the  symmetrical  interpenetration 
of  two  triangular  prisms  admits  of  two  internal  reflections  by 

jm.  15* 


faces  inclined  at  lao^  and  lo  give  rise  to  two  colourless  images 
each  at  an  angular  distance  of  i3o"  from  the  sun^  Double 
intornal  reflection  by  a  triangular  prism  would  form  a  single 
coloured  image  on  the  parhelic  drde  at  about  98"  from  the  sun. 
These  angular  distances  are  attained  only  when  the  sun  is  on 
the- horizon,  and  they  increase  as  it  rises. 

The  anthelion  (a)  may  be  «q>lained  as  caused  by  two  internal 
reflections  of  the  solar  rays  by  a  hexagonal  lamellar  crystal, 
having  its  axis  horizontal.  »nd  one  of  the  diagonals  of  its  base 
vertical.  The  emerging  rays  are  paralld  to  their  original  direction 
and  form  a  colourless  image  on  the  parhelic  drde  opposite 
the  sun. 

Rbpbkbncss. — ^Augutte  Bravais's  celebrated  memoir,  "  Sur  let 
ImIos  et  lea  phdnomdnes  optiques  qui  les  accompagnent "  (Journ. 
Bade  poly.  vol.  xviit.,  1847),  contains  a  full  account  of  the  geometrical 
theory.  See  also  E.  Maacart,  TraiU  i'opUqiu;  J.-Pemter,  Meteoro- 
Iciiseke  Opiik  (1903-1905) :  and  R.  S.  Heath.  Geometrical  Optics. 

HALOQENB.  The  word  halogen  is  derived  from  the  Gredi 
AXt  (aea-salt)  and  Yovoy  (to  produce),  and  consequently 
means  the  sea-salt  producer.  The  term  is  applied  to  the  four 
dements  fluorine,  chlorine,  bromine  and  iodine.  On  account  of 
the  great  similarity  of  thdr  sodium  salts  to  oidinary  sea-salt. 
These  four  elements  show  a  great  resemblance  to  one  another 
in  their  general  chemical  behaviour,  and  in  that  of  their  com- 
pounds, whilst  thdr  physical  properties  show  agradual  transition. 
Thus,  as  the  atomic  wdght  increases,  the  state  of  aggregatioD 
changes  from  that  of  a  gas  in  the  case  of  fluorine  and  chlorine, 
to  that  of  a  liquid  (bromine)  and  finally  to  that  of  the  sdid 
(iodine);  at-  the  same  time  the  melting  and  boiling  points  rise 
with  increasing  atomic  weights.  The  halogen  of  lower  atomic 
weight  can  diq>Iace  one  of  higher  atomic  wdght  from  its  hydrogen 
compound,  or  from  the  salt  derived  from  such  hydrogen  com- 
pound, while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  halogen  of  higher  atomic 
weight  can  displace  that  of  lower  atomic  weight,  from  the 
halogen  oxy-adds  and  their  salts;  thus  iodine  will  liberate 
chlorine  from  potassium  chlorate  and  also  from  perchloric  add. 
All  four  of  the  halogens  unite  with  hydrogen,  but  the  affinity 
for  hydrogen  decreases  as  the  atomic  wdght  increases,  hydrogen 
and  fluorine  uniting  explosively  at  very  low  temperatures  and 
in  the  dark,  whilst  hydrogen  and  iodine  unite  only  at  high 
temperatures,  and  even  then  the  resulting  compound  is  very 
readily  decomposed  by  heat.  The  hydrides  of  the  halogens  are 
all  colourless,  strongly  fuming  gases,  readily  soluble  in  water  and 
possessing  a  strong  add  reaction;  they  react  readily  with  basic 
oxides,  forming  in  most  cases  well  defined  crystalline  salts  which 
resemble  one  another  very  strongly.  On  the  other  hand  the 
stability  of  the  known  oxygen  compounds  increases  with  the 
atomic  weight,  thus  iodine  pentoxide  is,  at(»dinary  temperatures, 
a  well-defined  crystalline  s(^d,  which  is  ooly  decomposed  on 
heating  strongly,  whilst  chlorine  monoxide,  chlorine  peroxide, 
and  chlorine  hcptoxide  are  very  unstaUe,  even  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  decomposing  at  the  slightest  shock.  Compounds 
of  fluorine  and  oxygen,  and  of  bromine  and  oxygen,  have  not 
yet  been  isolated.  In  some  req>ects  there  is  a  very  marked 
difference  between  fluorine  and  the  other  members  of  the  group, 
for,  whilst  sodium  chloride,  bromide  and  iodide  are  readily 
soluble  in  water,  sodium  fluoride  is  much  less  soluble;  again, 
silver  chloride,  bromide  and  iodide  are  practically  insoluble 
in  water,  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  silver  fluoride  is  ai^redably 
soluble  in  water.  Again,  fluorine  shows  a  great  tendency  to  form 
double  salts,  which  have  no  counterpart  among  the  compounds 
formed  by  the  other  members  of  the  family. 

HAU,  FRAMS  (is8o?-x666),  Dutch  painter,  was  bom  at 
Antwerp  according  to  the  most  recent  authorities  in  1580  or 
1581,  and  died  at  Haariem  in  x666.  As  a  portrait  painter  second 
only  to  Rembrandt  in  Holland,  he  di^Iayed  extraordinary 
talent  and  quickness  in  the  exerdse  of  his  art  coupled  with 
improvidence  in  the  use  of  the  means  which  that  art  secured  to 
him.  At  a  time  when  the  Dutch  nation  fought  for  independence 
and  won  it,  Hals  appears  in  the  ranks  of  its  military  gilds.  He 
was  also  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Rhetoric,  and  (1644)  chair- 
man of  the  Painters'  Corporation  at  Haarlem.  But  as  a  man  he 
had  failings.  He  so  ill-treated  his  first  wife,  Anncke  Hennansz, 


866 


HALS,  FRANS 


that  she  died  prematurely  in  z6i6;  and  be  barely  saved  the 
character  of  his  second,  Lysbeth  Reyniers,  by  marrying  her  in 
1617.  Another  defect  was  partiality  to  drink,  which  led  him 
into  low  company.  Still  he  brought  up  and  supported  a  family 
of  ten  children  with  success  till  1652,  when  the  forced  sale  of  his 
pictures  and  furniture,  at  the  suit  of  a  baker  to  whom  he  was 
indebted  for  bread  and  money,  brought  him  to  absolute  penury. 
The  inventory  of  the  property  seized  on  this  occasion  only 
mentions  three  mattresses  and  bolsters,  an  armoire,  a  table  and 
five  pictures.  This  humble  list  represents  all  his  worldly  posses- 
sions at  the  time  of  his  bankruptcy.  Subsequently  to  this  he 
was  reduced  to  still  greater  straits,  and  his  rent  and  firing  were 
paid  by  the  mumcipality,  which  afterwards  gave  him  (1664) 
an  annuity  of  200  florins.  We  may  admire  the  spirit  which 
enabled  him  to  produce  some  of  his  most  striking  works  in  his 
unhappy  circumstances:  we  find  his  widow  seeking  outdoor 
relief  from  the  guardians  of  the  poor,  and  dying  obscurely  in  a 
hospital. 

Hals's  pictures  illustrate  the  various  strata  of  society  into 
which  his  misfortunes  led  him.  His  banquets  or  meetings  of 
officers,  of  sharpshooters,  and  gildsmen  are  the  most  interesting 
of  his  works.  But  they  are  not  more  characteristic  than  his 
low-life  pictures  of  itinerant  players  and  singers.  His  portraits 
of  gentlefolk  are  true  and  noble^  but  hardly  so  expressive  as 
those  of  fishwives  and  tavern  heroes. 

His  first  master  at  Antwerp  was  probably  van  Noort,  as  has 
been  suggested  by  M.  G.  S.  Davies,  but  on  his  removal  toHaarlem 
Frans  Hals  entered  the  atelier  of  van  Mander,  the  paintec  and 
historian,  of  whom  he  possessed  some  pictures  which  went  to 
pay  the  debt  of  the  baker  ab-eady  alluded  to.  But  he  soon 
improved  upon  the  practice  of  the  time,  illustrated  by  J.  van 
Schoreel  and  Antonio  Moro,  and,  emancipating  himself  gradually 
from  tradition,  produced  pictures  remarkable  for  truth  and 
dexterity  of  hand.  We  prize  in  Rembrandt  the  golden  glow  of 
effects  based  upon  artificial  contrasts  of  low  light  in  immeasurable 
gloom.  Hals  was  fond  of  daylight  of  silvery  sheen.  Both  men 
were  painters  of  touch,  but  of  touch  on  different  ke3rs — Rem- 
brandt was  the  bass,  Hals  the  treble.  The  latter  is  perhaps 
more  expressive  than  the  former.  He  seizes  with  rare  intuition 
a  moment  in  the  life  of  his  sitters.  What  nature  displays  in 
that  moment  he  reproduces  thoroughly  in  a  very  delicate  scale 
of  colour,  and  with  a  perfect  mastery  over  every  form  of  expres- 
sion. He  becomes  so  clever  at  last  that  exact  tone,  light  and 
shade,  and  modelling  are  all  obtained  with  a  few  marked  and 
fluid  strokes  of  the  brush. 

In  every  form  of  his  art  we  can  distinguish  his  earlier  style 
from  that  of  later  years.  It  is  curious  that  we  have  no  record 
of  any  work  produced  by  him  in  the  first  decade  of  his 
independent  activity,  save  an  engraving  by  Jan  van  de  Velde 
after  a  lost  portrait  of  "  The  Minister  Johannes  Bogardus," 
who  died  in  1614.  The  earliest  works  by  Frans  Hals  that  have 
come  down  to  us,  "  Two  Boys  Playing  and  Singing  "  in  the 
gallery  of  Cassel,  and  a  "  Banquet  of  the  officers  of  the  'St 
Jons  Doele' "  or  Arquebusiers  of  St  George  (1616}  in  the  museum 
of  Haarlem,  exhibit  him  as  a  careful  draughtsman  capable  of 
great  finish,  yet  spirited  withal.  His  flesh,  less  clear  than  it 
afterwards  becomes,  is  pastose  and  burnished.  Later  he  becomes 
nyore  effective,  displays  more  freedom  of  hand,  and  a  greater 
command  of  effect.  At  this  period  we  note  the  beautiful  full- 
length  of  "  Madame  van  Beresteyn  "  at  the  Louvre  in  Paris, 
and  a  splendid  full-length  portrait  of "  WiUcm  van  Heythuysen  " 
leaning  on  a  sword  in  the  Liechtenstein  collection  at  Vienna. 
Both  these  pictures  are  equalled  by  the  other  "  Banquet  of  the 
officers  of  the  Arquebusiers  of  St  George "  (with  different 
portraits)  and  the  "  Banquet  of  the  ofiicers  of  the  '  Cloveniers 
Doelen ' "  or  Arquebusiers  of  St  Andrew  of  1627  and  an 
"  Assembly  of  the  officers  of  the  Arquebusiers  of  St  Andrew  " 
of  1633  in  the  Haarlem  Museum.  A  picture  of  the  same  kind 
in  the  town  hall  of  Amsterdam,  with  the  date  of  1637,  suggests 
some  study  of  the  masterpieces  of  Rembrandt,  and  a  similar 
Influence  is  apparent  in  a  picture  of  1641  at  Haarlem,  representing 
Ihe  "  Regents  of  the  Company  of  St  Elizabeth  "  and  in  the 


portrait  of  "  Maria  Voogt  "  at  Amsterdam.  But  Rembrandt's 
example  did  not  create  a  lasting  impression  on  Haht.  He  gradu- 
ally dropped  more  and  more  into  grey  and  silvery  liarmocics 
of  tone;  and  two  of  his  canvases,  executed  in  1664,  "  The 
Regents  and  Regentesses  of  the  Oudemannenhuis  "  at  Haatkm. 
are  masterpieces  of  colour,  though  in  substance  all  but  nooo- 
chromes.  In  fact,  ever  since  164 1  Hals  had  shown  a  tendency 
to  restrict  the  gamut  of  his  palette,  and  to  suggest  cdoar  rathff 
than  express  it.  This  is  particularty  noticeable  in  his  flesh  tinti 
which  from  year  to  year  became  more  grey,  untH  finally  the 
shadows  were  painted  in  almost  absolute  blac^,  as  in  the 
"  Tymane  Oosdorp,"  of  the  Berlin  Galkry.  As  this  tendeocj 
coinddes  with  the  period  of  his  poverty,  it  has  been  suggested 
that  one  of  the  reasons,  if  not  the  only  reason,  of  hb  predilectica 
for  black  and  white  pigment  was  the  cheapness  of  these  odours 
as  compared  with  .the  costly  lakes  and  carmines. 

As  a  portrait  pamter  Frans  Hak  had  scarcely  the  psycholo^cal 
insight  of  a  Rembrandt  or  Velazquez,  though  in  a  few  works, 
like  the  "Admiral  de  Ruyter,"  in  Earl  fencer's  collactios, 
the  "  Jacob  Olycan  "  at  the  Hague  Gallery,  and  the  '^  Albm 
van  der  Meer  "  at  Haarlem  town  hall,  he  reveals  a  searchiag 
analysis  of  character  which  has  little  in  common  with  itx 
instantaneous  expression  of  his  so-called  "  character  "  portraits. 
In  these  he  generally  .sets  upon  the  canvas  the  fleeing  aspect 
of  the  various  stages  of  merriment,  from  the  subtle,  half  iioaic 
smile  that  quivers  round  the  lips  of  the  curiously  misnamed 
"  Laughing  Cavalier  "  in  the  Wallace  Collection  to  the  imbeole 
grin  of  the  "  Hille  Bobbe  "  In  the  Berlin  Museuzn.  .Tb  this 
group  of  pictures  belong  Baron  Gustav  Rothschild's  "  Jester," 
the  "  Bohimienne  "  at  the  Louvre,  and  the  "Fisher  Boy'*  at 
Antwerp,  whilst  the  "  Portrait  of  the  Arti^  with  his  second 
Wife  "  at  the  Ryks  Museum  in  Amsterdam,  and  the  somevhat 
confused  group  of  the  "Beresteyn  Family'*  at  the  Louxtc 
show  a  similar  tendency.  Far  less  scattered  in  anangemest 
than  this  Beresteyn  group,  and  in  every  respect  one  of  the  m<^ 
masterly  of  Frans  Hals's  aichievensents  is  the  group  called  "  Ihe 
Painter  and  his  Family  "  in  the  possession  of  Colood  Wardc, 
which  was  almost  unknown  irntU  it  appeared  at  the  winter 
exhibition  at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1906. 

Though  a  visit  to  Haarlem  town  hall,  which  contaizis  the 
five  enormous  Doelen  groups  and  the  two  Regenten  pictures, 
is  as  necessary  for  the  student  of  Hals's  art  as  a  visit  to  the 
Prado  in  Madrid  is  for  the  student  of  Velazquez,  good  ezafflples 
of  the  Dutch  master  have  found  their  way  into  most  of  the 
leading  pubh'c  and  private  collections.  In  the  British  Isks. 
besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  portraits  from  his  bnislz 
are  to  be  found  at  the  National  Gallery,  the  Edinburgh  Gallery, 
the  Glasgow  Corporation  Gallery,  Hampton  Court,  Buckingh^ 
Palace,  Devonshire  House,  and  the  collections  of  Lord  North- 
brooke,  Lord  Ellesmere,  Lord  Iveagh  and  Lord  Spencer. 

At  Amsterdam  is  the  celebrated  "  Flute  Player,"  ooce  in  the 
Dupper  collection  at  Dort;  at  Brussels,  the  patrician  "He>t- 
huysen ";  at  the  Louvre,  "  Descartes  *';  at  Dresden,  the 
painter  "  Van  der  Vinne."  Hals's  sitters  were  taken  from 
every  class  of  society — admirals,  generals  and  burgomasteis 
pairing  with  merchants,  lawyers,  clerks.  To  register  all  thii 
we  find  in  public  galleries  woiild  involve  much  space.  There 
are  eight  portraits  at  Berlin,  six  at  Cassel,  five  at  St  Petersburf;, 
six  at  the  Louvre,  two  at  Brussels,  five  at  Dresden,  two  at  Gothx. 
In  private  collections,  chiefly  in  Paris,  Haarlem  and  Vienna, 
we  find  an  equally  important  number.  Amongst  the  painter's 
most  successful  representations  of  £shwives  and  termagants 
we  should  distinguish  the  "  Hilie  Bobbe  "  of  the  Berlin  Museun:, 
and  the  "  Hille  Bobbe  with  her  Son  "  in  the  Dresden  Galkr>' 
Itinerant  players  are  best  illustrated  in  the  Neville-G<^dsnu'.b 
collection  at  the  Hague,  and  the  Six  collection  at  Amsterdam. 
Boys  and  girls  singing,  playing  or  laughing,  or  men  drinkicg. 
are  to  be  found  in  the  gallery  of  Schwerin,  in  the  Arenbeig 
collection,  and  in  the  royal  palace  at  Brtisseb. 

For  two  centuries  after  his  death  Frans  Hals  was  held  in  stidi 
poor  esteem  that  some  of  his  paintings,  which  are  now  arooiig 
the  proudest  possessions  of  public  galleries,  wtfe  sold  at  auction 


HALSBURY— HALYBURTON,  T. 


867 


for  a  few  pounds  or  even  shillings.  The  portrait  of  "  Johannes 
Acronius,"  now  at  the  Berlin  Museum,  realized  five  shillings 
at  the  Enschede  sale  in  1786.  The  splendid  portrait  of  the  man 
with  the  sword  at  the  Liechtenstein  gallery  was  sold  in  1800  for 
£4,  5s.  With  his  rehabilitation  in  public  esteem  came  the 
enormous  rise  in  values,  and,  at  the  Secretan  sale  in  1889,  the 
portrait  of  "  Pieter  van  de  Broecke  d'Anvers  "  was  bid  up  to 
£4430,  while  in  190S  the  National  Gallery  paid  £25,000  for  the 
large  group  from  the  collection  of  Lord  Talbot  de  Malahide. 

Of  the  master's  numerous  family  none  has  left  a  name  except 
FitANS  Hals  the  Youncei,  bom  about  1622,  who  died  in  1669. 
His  pictures  represent  cottages  and  poultry;  and  the  **  Vanitas  " 
at  Berlin,  a  table  laden  with  gold  and  silver  dishes,  cups,  glasses 
and  books,  is  one  of  his  finest  works  and  deserving  of  a  passing 
glance. 

Quite  in  another  form,  and  with  much  of  the  freedom  of  the 
elder  Hals,  Dis^  Hals,  his  brother  (bom  at  Haarlem,  died  1656), 
is  a  painter  of  festivals  and  ball-rooms.  But  Dirk  had  too  much 
of  the  freedom  and  too  little  of  the  skill  in  drawing  which  cha- 
racterized his  brother.  He  remains  second  on  his  own  ground  to 
Palamedes.  A  fair  specimen  of  his  art  is  a  "  Lady  playing  a 
Harpsichord  to  a  Young  Girl  and  her  Lover  "  in  the  van  dcr 
Hoop  collection  at  Amsterdam,  now  in  the  Ryks  Museum. 
More  characteristic,  but  not  better,  is  a  large  company  of 

gentle-folk  rising  from  dinner,  in  the  Academy  at  Vienna. 

LiTBRATURE. — ^Sce  VV.  Bodc,  Frans  Hats  und  seine  SckuU  (Leipzig, 
1 871);  W.  Unger  and  W.  Vosmaer.  Etchings  after  Frans  Hats 
(Lcydcn.  187^);  Percy  Rcndell  Head,  5t>  Anthony  Van  Dvck  and 
Frans  Hals  (London,  1879);  D.  Knackfuss,  Frans  Hals  fLeipztg, 
1896) :  G.  S.  Davics,  Frans  Hals  (London,  1902).  (P.  G.  K.) 

HALSBURY,  HARDINGB  STANLEY  GIFFARD,  xST  Eakl  of 
(1825-  ),  English  lord  chancellor,  son  of  Stanley  Lees 
Giffard,  LL.D.,  was  bora  in  London  on  the  3rd  of  September 
1825.  He  was  educated  at  Mcrton  College,  Oxford,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in  1850,  joining  the  North 
Wales  and  Chester  circuit.  Afterwards  he  had  a  large  practice 
at  the  central  criminal  court  and  the  Middlesex  sessions,  and  he 
was  for  several  years  junior  prosecuting  coimsel  to  the  treasury. 
He  was  engaged  in  most  of  the  celebrated  trials  of  his  time, 
including  the  Overcnd  and  Gumey  and  the  Tichbome  cases. 
He  became  queen's  counsel  in  1865,  and  a  bencher  of  the  Inner 
Temple.  Mr  Glffard  twice  contested  Cardiff  in  the  Conservative 
interest,  in  1868  and  1874,  but  he  was  still  without  a  seat  in  the 
Hoxise  of  Commons  when  he  was  appointed  solicitor-general  by 
Disraeli  in  1875  and  received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  In  1877 
he  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  seat,  when  he  was  returned  for 
Launceston,  which  borough  he  continued  to  represent  until  his 
elevation  to  the  peerage  in  1885.  He  was  then  created  Baron 
Halsbury  and  appointed  lord  chancellor,  thus  forming  a  remark- 
able exception  to  the  rale  that  no  criminal  lawyer  ever  readies 
the  woolsack.  Lord  Halsbury  resumed  the  position  in  1886 
and  held  it  until  1892  and  again  from  1895  to  1905,  his  tenure 
of  the  office,  broken  only  by  the  brief  Liberal  ministries  of  t886 
and  1892*1895,  being  longer  than  that  of  any  lord  chancellor 
since  Lord  Eldon.  In  1898  he  was  created  earl  of  Halsbury  and 
Viscount  Tiverton.  Among  Conservative  lord  chancellors  Lord 
Halsbury  must  always  hold  a  high  place,  his  grasp  of  legal 
principles  and  mastery  in  applying  them  being  pre-eminent 
among  the  judges  of  his  day. 

HALSTBAD,  a  market-town  in  the  Maldon  parliamentary 
division  of  Essex,  England,  on  the  Colne,  17  m.  N.N.E.  from 
Chelmsford;  served  by  the  Colne  Valley  railway  from  Chappel 
Junction  on  the  Great  Eastern  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district 
(1901),  6075.  It  lies  on  a  hill  in  a  pleasant  wooded  district. 
The  church  of  St  Andrew  is  mainly  Perpendicular.  It  contains 
a  monument  supposed  to  commemorate  Sir  Robert  Bourchier 
(d.  1549),  lord  diancellor  to  Edward  III.  The  Lady  Mary 
Ramsay  grammar  school  dates  from  1 594.  There  are  large  silk 
and  crape  works.  Two  miles  N.  of  Halstead  is  Little  Maplestead, 
where  the  church  is  the  latest  in  date  of  the  four  churches  with 
round  naves  extant  in  England,  being  perhaps  of  12th-century 
foundation,  but  showing  early  Decorated  work. in  the  main. 
The  chancel,  which  is  without  aisles,  terminates  in  an  apse. 


Three  miles  N.W.  from  Halstead  are  the  large  villages  of  Sible 
Hedingham  (pop.  1701)  and  Castle  Hedingham  (pop.  1097).  At 
the  second  is  the  Norman  keep  of  the  de  Veres,  of  whom  Aubrey 
de  Vere  held  the  lordship  from  William  L  The  keep  dates  from 
the  end  of  the  nth  century,  and  exhibits  much  fine  Norman 
work.  The  church  of  St  Nicholas,  Castle  Hedingham,  has  fine 
Norman,  Transitional  and  Early  English  details,  and  there  is  a 
black  marble  tomb  of  John  de  Vere,  X5th  earl  of  Oxford  (d.  1540), 
with  his  countess. 

There  are  signs  of  settlement  at  Halstead  (HaIsteda,Halgusted, 
Halsted)  in  the  Bronze  Age;  but  there  is  no  evidence  of  the 
causes  of  its  growth  in  historic  times.  Probably  its  situation 
on  the  river  Colne  made  it  to  some  extent  a  local  centre. 
Throughout  the  middle  ages  Halstead  was  unimportant,  and 
never  rose  to  the  rank  of  a  borough. 

HALT,  (i)  An  adjective  comWn  to  Teutonic  languages  and 
still  appearing  in  Swedish  and  Danish,  meaning  lame,  crippled. 
It  is  also  used  as  a  verb,  meaning  to  limp,  and  as  a  substantive, 
especially  in  the  term  "  string-halt  "  or  "  spring-halt,"  a  nervous 
disorder  affecting  the  muscles  of  the  hind  legs  of  horses.  (2)  A 
pause  or  stoppage  made  on  a  march  or  a  journey.  The  word 
came  into  English  in  the  form  "  to  make  alto  "  or  "*  alt,"  and 
was  taken  from  the  French  faire  alte  or  Italian  far  alio.  The 
origin  is  a  German  military  term,  Halt  mackenf  Halt  meaning 
"  hold." 

HALUNnUM  (Gr.  'AX^irioy,  mod.  S.  Marco  d'Alunzio),  an 
ancient  city  of  Sidly,  6  m.  from  the  north  coast  and  25  m.  E.N.E. 
of  Halaesa.  It  was  probably  of  Sicel  origin,  though  its  foundation 
was  ascribed  to  some  of  the  companions  of  Aeneas.  It  appears 
first  in  Roman  times  as  a  place  of  some  importance,  and  stiffered 
considerably  at  the  hands  of  Verres.  The  abandoned  church  of 
S.  Mark,  just  outside  the  roodera  town,  is  built  into  the  cella 
of  an  ancient  Greek  temple,  which  measures  62  ft.  by  x8.  A 
number  of  ancient  inscriptions  have  been  found  there. 

HALYBURTON,  JAMES  (15x8-1589),  Scottish  reformer,  was 
born  in  X  5 1 8,  and  was  educated  at  St  Andrews,  where  he  graduated 
M.A.  in  1538.  From  1553  to  x  586  he  was  provMt  of  St  Andrews 
and  a  prominent  figure  in  the  national  life.  He  was  chosen  as 
one  of  the  lords  of  the  congregation  in  X557,  and  commanded 
the  contingents  sent  by  Foriar  and  Fife  against  the  queen  regent 
in  1559.  He  took  part  in  the  defence  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  the 
battles  of  Langside  (X568)  and  Restalrig  (1571).  He  had  stoutly 
opposed  the  marriage  of  Mary  ^th  Daraley,  and  when,  after 
Restalrig,  he  was  captured  by  the  queen's  troops,  he  narrowly 
escaped  execution.  He  represented  Morton  at  the  conference 
of  X  578,  and  was  one  of  the  royal  commissioners  to  the  General 
Assembly  in  1582  and  again  in  1588.  He  died  in  February  1589. 

HALYBURTON.  THOMAS  (1674-Z7X2),  Scottish  divine,  was 
bora  at  Dupplin,  near  Perth,  on  the  25th  of  December  1674. 
His  father,  one  of  the  ejected  ministers,  having  died  in  1682, 
he  was  taken  by  his  mother  in  1685  to  Rotterdam  to  escape 
persecution,  where  he  for  some  time  attended  the  school  founded 
by  Erasmus.  On  his  return  to  his  native  country  in  1687  he 
completed  his  elementary  education  at  Perth  and  Edinburgh, 
and  in  1696  graduated  at  the  tmiveraity  of  St  Andrews.  In 
X700  he  was  ordained  minister  of  the  parish  of  Ceres,  and  in  17x0 
he  was  recommended  by  the  synod  of  Fife  for  the  chair  of 
theology  in  St  Leonard's  College,  St  Andrews,  to  which  accord- 
ingly he  was  appointed  by  Queen  Anne.  After  a  brief  term  of 
active  profeascvial  life  he  died  from  the  effects  of  overwork  in 
17x1. 


The  works  by  which  he  continues  to  be  known  were  all  of  them 
published  after  his  death.  Wesley  and  Whitcfield  were  accustomed 
to  commend  them  to  their  followere.  They  were  published  as 
follows:  Natural  ReUgUm  Insufficient,  and  Reoetued  JUUgion 
Necessary,  to  Man's  Happiness  in  his  Present  State  (1714).  an  able 
statement  of  the  orthodox  Calvinistic  criticism  of  the  deism  of  Lord 
Herbert  of  Cherbuiy  and  Charles  Blount ;  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of 
Mr  Thomas  Halyburton  (1715),  three  parts  by  his  own  hand,  the 
fourth  from  his  diary  by  another  hand;  The  Great  Concern  of 
Salvation  {1721),  with  a  word  of  commendation  by  I.  Watts;  Ten 
Sermons  Preached  Before  and  After  the  Lord's  Supper  (1722);  The 
Unpardonable  Sin  Against  the  Holy  Ghost  (1784).  See  Halyburton's 
Memoirs  (1714). 


868 


HAM— HAMADHANI 


HAMf  in  the  Bible,  (i)  07,  ^iM,  in  Gen.  v.  33,  vi.  10,  vii.  13, 
ix.  18,  X.  5,  X  Chron.  i.  4,  the  second  son  of  Noi^;  in  Gen.  is.  24, 
the  youngest  son  (but  cf.  below);  and  in  Gen.  x.  6,  x  Chron.  i.  8, 
the  father  of  Cuah  (Ethiopia),  Mizraim  (Egypt),  Phut  and 
Canaan,  (jenesis  x.  exhibits  in  the  fonn  of  genealogies  the 
political,  racial  and  geographical  relations  of  the  peoples  known 
to  Israel;  as  it  was  compiled  from  various  sources  and  has  been 
more  than  once  edited,  it  does  not  exactly  represent  the  situation 
at  any  given  date,*  but  Ham  seems  to  stand  roughly  for  the 
south-western  division  of  the  world  as  known  to  Israel,  which 
division  was  regarded  as  the  natural  sphere  of  influence  of  Egypt. 
Ham  is  held  to  be  the  Egyptian  word  Kkem  (black)  which  was 
Ihe  native  name  of  Egypt;  thus  in  Pss.  Ixxviii.  5X,  cv.  33,  27, 
cvi.  S3,  Ham— Egypt.  In  Gen.  ix.  20-36  (Canaan  was  originally 
the  third  son  of  Noah  and  the  villain  of  the  story.  Ham  is  a 
later  addition  to  harmonise  widh  other  passages. 

(3)  09,  BSMf  I  Chron.  iv.  40,  apparently  the  name  of  a  place 
or  tribe.  It  can  hardly  be  identical  with  (x);  nothing  else  is 
known  of  this  second  Ham,  which  may  be  a  scribe's  error; 
the  Syriac  version  rejects  the  name. 

(3)  00,  HoMf  Gen.  xiv.  5;  the  place  where  Chedorlaomer 
defeated  the  Zuzim,  apparently  in  eastern  Palestine.  The  place 
is  unknown,  and  the  name  may  be  a  scribe's  error,  perhaps  for 
Ammon.  (W.  H.  Be.) 

HAM.  a  small  town  of  northern  France,  in  the  department  of 
Somme,  36  m.  E.S.E.  of  Amiens  on  the  Northern  railway  between 
that  city  and  Laon.  Pop.  (1906),  3957.  It  stands  on  the  Somme 
in  a  marshy  district  where  market-gardening  is  carried  on.  From 
the  9th  century  •  onwards  it  appears  as  the  seat  of  a  lordship 
which,  after  the  extinction  of  its  hereditary  line,  passed  in 
succession  to  the  houses  of  Coucy.  Enghien,  Luxemlxmrg,  Rohan, 
Vend6me  and  Navarre,  and  was  finally  united  to  the  French 
crown  on  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  Notre-Dame,  the  church 
of  an  abbey  of  canons  regular  of  St  Augustin,  dates  from  the 
X3th  and  13th  centuries,  but  in  1760  all  the  infUmmable  portions 
of  the  building  were  destroyed  by  a  confl2^sration  caused  by 
lightning,  and  a  process  of  restoration  was  subsequently  carried 
out.  Of  special  note  are  the  bas-reliefs  of  the  nave  and  choir, 
executed  in  the  X7th  and  i8th  centuries,  and  the  crypt  t)f  the 
1 3th  century,  which  contains  the  sepulchral  effigies  of  Odo  IV. 
of  Ham  and  his  wife  Isabella  of  B^thencourt.  The  castle, 
founded  before  the  xoth  century,  was  rebuilt  early  in  the  13th, 
and  extended  in  the  X4th;  its  present  appearance  is  mainly 
due  to  the  constable  Louis  of  Luxembourg,  count  of  St  Pol, 
who  between  1436  and  1470  not  only  furnished  it  with  outworks, 
but  gave  such  a  thickness  to  the  towers  and  curtains,  and  more 
eq>ecially  to  the  great  tower  or  donjon  which  still  bears  his 
motto  ifon  Myeulx,  that  the  great  engineer  and  architect 
VioUet-le-Duc  considered  them,  even  In  the  19th  century, 
capable  of  resisting  artillery.  It  forms  a  rectangle  395  ft.  long 
by  363  ft.  broad,  with  a  round  tower  at  each  angle  and  two 
square  towers  protecting  the  curtains.  The  eastern  and  western 
sides  are  each  defended  by  a  demi-Iune.  The  Constable's  Tower, 
for  so  the  great  tower  Is  usually  called  in  memory  of  St  Pol, 
has  a  height  of  about  xoo  ft.,  and  the  thickness  of  the  walls  is 
36  ft.;  the  interior  is  occupied  by  three  large  hexagonal  chambers 
in  as  many  sturies.  The  castle  of  Ham,  which  now  serves  as 
barracks,  has  frequently  been  used  as  a  state  prison  both  in 
ancient  and  modem  times,  and  the  list  of  those  who  have 
sojourned  there  is  an  interiesting  one,  including  as  it  does  Joan 
of  Arc,  Louis  of  Bourbon,  the  ministers  of  Qiarks  X.,  Louis 
Napoleon,  and  Generals  Cayaignac  and  Lamorici^.  Louis 
Napoleon  was  there  for  six  years,  and  at  last  effected  his  escape 
in  the  disguise  of  a  workman.  During  X870-187X  Ham  was 
several  times  captured  and  recaptured  by  the  belligerents.  A 
statue  commemorates  the  birth  in  the  town  of  General  Foy 
(x  775-1835). 

See  J.  G.  Cappot,  Le  CkAteau  de  Ham  (Pari*,  1843):  and  Ch. 
Gomart,  Ham,  son  cMUau  et  ses  prisonniert'{lULm,  1864). 

*  A.  Jefemias.  Das  A.T.  im  Lickte  des  alien  Orients,  p.  145,  holds 
that  it  rf^presents  the  situation  in  the  8th  century  b.c. 


HAMADAN,  a  province  and  town  of  Persia.  Tlie  province  a 
bounded  N.  by  (jerrOs  and  Khamseh,  W.  by  Kermanshah, 
S.  by  Malftyir  and  IrSk,  E.  by  Savah  and  Kazvin.  It  has  many 
well-watered,  fertile  plains  and  more  than  four  hundred  fiourxsh- 
in|^  villages  producing  much  grain,  and  its  population,  estimated 
at  350,000 — more  than  half  beDig  Turks  of  the  Karagiulu 
(black-eyed)  and  Shfimlu  (Syrian)  tribes— supplies  several 
battalions  of  infantry  to  the  army,  and  pays,  besides,  a  yeariy 
revenue  of  about  £18,000. 

Hamadin,  the  capital  of  the  province,  is  situated  188  m. 
W.S.W.  of  Teheran,  at  an  elevation  of  5930  ft.,  near  the  foot  of 
Mount  Elvend  (old  Persian  Anand,  Gr.  Oronies)^  whose  granite 
peak  rises  W.  of  it  to  an  altitude  of  xx,90o  ft.  It  is  a  busy  tra<k 
centre  with  about  40,000  inhabitants  (comprising  4000  ]em% 
and  300  Armenians)  r  has  extensive  and  well-stocked  bazaars  and 
fourteen  large  and  many  small  caravanserais.  The  principal 
industries  are  taxming  leather  and  the  manufacture  of  saddles, 
harnesses,  trunks,  and  other  leather  goods,  felts  and  copper 
utensils.  The  leather  of  Hamadfln  is  much  esteemed  throttgbout 
the  country  and  exported  to  other  provinces  in  great  quantities. 
The  streets  are  narrow,  and  by  a  system  called  KOchch-bandi 
(street-closing)  estabUshed  long  ago  for  impeding  the  dmilaiioa 
of  crowds  and  increasing  general  security,  every  quarter  of  the 
town,  or  block  of  buildings,  is  shut  off  from  its  neigfaboon  by 
gates  which  are  dosed  during  local  disorders  and  regulariy  ax 
night.  Hamadin  has  post  and  telegraph  o&cts  and  two 
churches,  one  Armenian,  the  other  Protestant  (of  the  American 
Presbyterian  Mission). 

Among  objects  of  interest  are  the  alleged  tombs  of  Esther 
and  Mordecai  in  an  insignificant  domed  building  in  the  centre 
of  the  town.  There  are  two  wooden  sarcophagi  carved  all  over 
with  Hebrew  inscriptions.  That  ascribed  to  Mordecai  has  the 
verses  Isaiah  Ux.  8;  Esther  ii,  5;  Ps.  xvi.  9,  xo,  xi,  and  the 
date  of  its  erection  A.M.  43x8  (aj>.  557).  The  inscriptions  on 
the  other  sarcophagus  consist  of  the  verses  Esther  ix.  29,  32, 
X.  i;  and  the  statement  that  it  was  placed  there  ajl  4603 
(a.d.  841)  by  "  the  pious  and  righteous  woman  Gcmal  Setan." 
A  tablet  let  into  the  wall  states  that  the  building  was  repaired 
A.M.  4474  (a.o.  7x3).  Hamadin  also  has  the  grave  of  the  cele- 
brated phsrsidan  and  philosopher  Abu  Ali  ibn  Sina,  better  knovn 
as  Avicenna  (d.  1036).  It  is  now  generally  admitted  that 
Hamadin  is  the  Hagmatana  (of  the  inscriptions),  Agbatana  or 
Ecbatana  (^.v.,  of  the  Greek  writers),  the  "  treasure  dty  "  of  the 
Achaemenian  kings  which  was  taken  and  plundered  by  Akxandrr 
the  Great,  but  very  few  ancient  remains  have  been  discovered. 
A  rudely  carved  stone  lion,  which  lies  on  the  roadside  dose  to 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  city,  and  by  some  is  supposed  to 
have  formed  part  of  a  building  of  the  andent  dty,  is  locaQy 
regarded  as  a  talisman  against  famine,  plague,  cold,  &c,  placed 
there  by  Pliny,  who  is  popularly  known  as  the  sorccxer  Balinis 
(a  corruption  of  Plinius). 

Five  miles  S.W.  from  the  city  in  a  mountain  gorge  oC  Mount 
Elvend  is  the  so-called  Ganjnima  (treasure-deed),  which  consists 
of  two  tablets  with  trilingual  cundform  inscriptions  cut  into 
the  rock  and  relating  the  names  and  titles  of  Darius  I.  (521- 
485  B.C.)  and  his  son  Xerxes  I.  (485-^465  B.C.).  (A.  H.-S.) 

HAKADHAnT,  in  full  AbO-l  Fapl  Ahmad  dn  ul-Hcsais 
ul-HamadbAnI  (967-X007),  Arabian,  writer,  known  as  Badi* 
uz-Zamin  (the  wonder  of  the  age),  was  bom  and  educated  at 
Hamadhin.  In  990  he  went  to.  Jorjin,  where  he  remained  t%o 
years;  then  pasung  to  Nbhapt&r,  where  he  rivalled  and  surpassed 
the  •  learned  Khwirizml.  After  journeying  through  Khorasan 
and  Sijistin,  he  finally  settled  in  Herit  under  the  protection  of 
the  vizir  of  MahmOd,  the  Ghazncvid  sultan.  There  he  died  at  ihe 
age  of  forty.  He  was  renowned  for  a  remarkable  memory  and 
for  fluency  of  speech,  as  well  as  for  the  purity  of  his  languai^. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  to  renew  the  use  of  rhymed  prose  both  io 
letters  and  maqfmas  (see  Arabia:  IMeralure,  section  "  Eelks 
Lettres  "). 

His  letters  were  published  at  Constanrioople  (188  r),  and  with 
commentary  at  Beirut '(1890);  his  magd$nas  at  Conslantinof^ 
(1881)^  and  with  commentary  at  Beirut  (1889).    A  good  idea  of  lU 


HAMAH— HAMAR 


869 


ktter— y  be  ohe«inwl  froinS.de  Stcy'stdition  of  M«  of  the  waff* waf 
with  French  tnnabtion  and  nocce  in  nit  CkreslomatkU  arabe,  vol.  tu. 
(and  cd«.  Pane,  i8a7).  A  epccimen  of  the  letter*  is  tFtnilated  into 
Gcmnn  in  -A.  von  Kremer't  CmUmrgisekiekU  des  Ortra/5.  ii.  470  aqq. 
(Vienna.  1877)-  (C  W.  T.) 

HAMAH,  the  Hamath  of  the  Bible,  a  HitUte  royal  dty, 
dtttated  in  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Orontes,  1 10  English  miles  N. 
(by  E.)  of  Damasciia.  It  finds  a  place  in  the  northern  boundaries 
of  Israel  under  David,  Solomon  and  Jeroboam  II.  (a  Sam.  viii.  9; 
viii.  6s;  a  Kings  nv.  15).    The  Orontes  fiovs  winding 


past  the  dty  and  is  spanned  by  four  bridges.  On  the  south-east 
the  houses  rise  150  ft.  above  the  river,  and  there  are  four  other 
hills,  that  of  the  Kalak  or  castle  being  to  the  north  100  fL  high. 
Twenty-four  minarets  rise  from  the  various  mosques,  llie 
bouses  are  prindpally  of  mud,  and  the  town  stands  amid  poplar 
gardens  with  a  fertile  plain  to  the  west.  The  castle  is  ruined, 
the  streets  are  narrow  and  dirty,  but  the  baaaars  are  good,  and 
the  trade  with  the  Bedouins  considerable.  The  numerous  water- 
wheels  {naltrakt)  of  enormous  dimension,  raising  water  from  the 
Orontes  are  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  view.  Silk, 
woollen  and  cotton  goods  are  manufactured.  The  population 
is  about  40,000. 

In  the  year  854  B.C.  Hamath  was  taken  by  Shalmaneser  II., 
king  of  Assyria,  who  defeated  a  large  army  of  allied  Hamathites, 
Syrians  and  Israelites  at  Karkor  and  slew  14,000  of  them.  In 
738  B.C  Tiglath  Pileser  III.  reduced  the  dty  to  tribute,  and 
another  rebdiion  was  crushed  by  Sargon  in  720  B.C.  The  down- 
fall of  so  andent  a  sute  made  a  great  impression  at  Jerusalem 
(Isa.  X.  9).  According  to  a  Kings  zvii.  a4, 50,  some  of  its  people 
were  transported  to  the  land  of  N.  Israel,  where  they  made 
images  of  Ashima  or  Eshmun  (probably  Ishtar).  After  the 
Macedonian  conquest  of  Syria  Hamath  was  called  Epiphania 
by  the  Greeks  in  honour  of  Antiochus  IV.,  Epiphanes,  and  in 
the  early  Byzantine  period  it  was  known  by  (wth  its  Hebrew 
and  its  Greek  name.  In  a.d.  639  the  town  surrendered  to  Abu 
'Obdda,  one  of  Omar's  generals,  and  the  church  was  turned 
into  a  mosque.  In  a.d.  1108  Tancred  captured  the  dty  and 
massacred  the  Ism'aileh  defenders.  In  1115  it  was  retaken  by 
the  MMlems,  and  in  x  178  was  occupied  by  Saladin.  Abulfeda, 
prince  of  Hamah  in  the  early  part  of  the  14th  century,  is  well 
known  as  an  authority  on  Arab  geography. 

HAHANM,  JOHANN  GEORO  (i 730-1 788),  German  writer  on 
philosophical  and  theological  subjects,  was  born  at  Kftnigsberg 
in  Prussia  on  the  a 7th  of  August  1730.  His  parents  were  of 
humble  rank  and  small  means.  The  education  he  recdved  was 
comprehensive  but  unsystematic,  and  the  want  of  definiteness 
in  this  early  training  doubtless  tended  to  aggravate  the  peculiar 
instability  of  character  which  troubled  Hamann's  after  life. 
In  1746  he  began  theological  studies,  but  speedily  deserted 
them  and  turned  his  attention  to  law.  That  too  was  taken  up 
in  a  desultory  fashion  and  quickly  relinquished.  Hamann  seems 
at  this  time  to  have  thought  that  any  strenuous  devotion  to 
'*  bread-and-butter "  studies  was  lowering,  and  accordingly 
gave  himself  entirdy  to  reading,  criticism  and  philological 
inquiries.  Such  studies,  however,  were  pursued  without  any 
d^nite  aim  or  systematic  arrangement,  and  consequently  were 
productive  of  nothing.  In  I7sa,  constrained  to  secure  some 
position  in  the  world,  he  accepted  a  tntorship  in  a  family  resident 
in  Livonia,  but  only  retained  it  a  few  months.  A  similar  situation 
in  Courland  he  also  resigned  after  about  a  year.  In  both  cases 
apparently  the  rupture  might  be  traced  to  the  curious  and 
unsatisfactory  character  of  Hamann  himself.  After  leaving  his 
second  post  he  was  received  iifto  the  house  of  a  merchant  at 
Riga  named  Johann  Christoph  Behrens,  who  contracted  a  great 
friendship  for  him  and  selected,  him  as  his  companion  for  a  tour 
through  Danzig,  Berlin,  Hamburg,  Amsterdam  and  London. 
Hamann,  however,  was  quite  unfitted  for  business,  and'  when 
left  in  London,  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  hb  fancies,  and  was 
quickly  reduced  to  a  state  of  extreme  poverty  and  want.  It  was 
at  this  period  of  his  life,  when  his  inner  troubles  of  spirit  har- 
monized with  the  unhappy  external  conditions  of  his  lot,  that 
he  began  an  earnest  and  prolonged  study  of  the  Bible;  and  from 
this  time  dates  the  tone  of  extreme  pielism  which  is  characteristic 


of  his  writings,  and  which  undoubtedly  alienated  many  of  his 
friends.  He  returned  to  Riga,  and  was  well  received  by  the 
Behrens  family,  in  whose  house  he  resided  for  some  time.  .  A 
quarrd,  the  precise  nature  of  which  is  not  very  dear  though  the 
occasion  is  evident,  led  to  an  entire  separation  from  these  friends. 
In  1759  Hamann  returned  to  Kdnigsberg,  and  lived  for  several 
years  with  his  father,  filling  occasional  posts  in  KOnigsberg  and 
Mitiiu.  In  1767  he  obtained  a  situation  as  translator  in  the 
excise  office,  and  ten  years  Uter  a  post  as  storekeeper  in  a 
mercantile  house.  During  this  period  of  comparative  rest 
Hamann  was  able  to  indulge  in  tit  long  correspondence  with 
learned  friends  which  seems  to  have  been  his  greatest  pleasure. 
In  1784  the  failure  of  some  commercial  speculations  greatly 
reduced  his  means,  and  about  the  same  time  he  was  dismissed 
with  a  small  pension  from  his  situation.  The  kindness  of  friends, 
however,  supplied  provision  for  his  children,  and  enabled  him 
to  carry  out  the  long-cherished  wish  of  visiting  some  of  his 
philosophical  allies.  He  spent  some  time  with  Jacob!  at  Pempel  - 
fort  and  with  Buchholz  at  Walbergen.  At  the  latter  place  he  was 
seized  with  illness,  and  died  on  the  aist  of  June  1788. 

Hamann's  works  resemble  his  life  and  character.  They  are  en- 
tirely unsystematic  to  far  as  matter  is  concerned,  chaotic  and  di*> 
jointed  in  style.  To  a  reader  not  acquainted  with  the  peculiar 
nature  of  the  man,  which  led  him  to  recard  what  commended 
itself  to  him  as  therefore  objectively  true,  they  murt  be,  moreover, 
entirely  unintdligible  and.  from  their  peculiar,  ^etistic  tone  and 
scriptural  jargon,  probably  offensive.  A  place  m  the  history  of 
philosophy  can  be  yielded  to  Hamann  only  because  he  exprewes  in 
uncouth,  barbarous  fashion  an  idea  to  which  other  writere  have 
given  more  effective  shape.  The  fundamental  thought  is  with  him 
the  unsatiafactoriness  of  abstraction  or  one-sidedncss.  The  AufhlA' 
rung,  with  its  rational  theology,  was  to  him  the  type  of  abstraction. 
Even  Epicureanism,  which  might' appear  concrete,  was  by  him 
rightly  designated  abstract.  Qo\Xt  naturally,  then,  Hamann  is  led 
to  object  strongly  to  much  of  the  Kantian  pniloao^hy.  The  sepa- 
ration of  sense  and  understanding  is  for  him  unjustifiable,  and  only 
paralleled  by  the  extraordinary  blunder  of  severins  matter  and 
form.  Concretencss,  therefore,  is  the  one  demand  which  Hamann 
expresses,  and  as  representing  his  own  thought  he  used  to  refer  to 
Giordano  Bruno's  conception  (nrcviously  held  by  Nicotaus  Curanus) 
of  the  idemity  of  contraries.  The  demand,  however,  remains  but  a 
demand.  Nothing  that  Hamann  has  given  can  be  regarded  as  in  the 
■lightest  degree  a  response  to  it.  His  hatred  of  system,  incapadty  for 
abstract  thinking,  and  intense  personality  rendered  it  impossible 
for  him  to  do  more  than  utter  the  disjointed,  oracular,  obscure  dicta 
which  gained  for  him  among  his  friends  the  name  of  "  Magus  of  the 
North.  Two  results  oply  appear  throughout  his  writings— first,  the 
accentuation  of  belief;  and  secondly,  the  transference  of  many 
philosophical  difficulties  to  language.  Belief  is,  according  to  Hamann, 
the  groundwork  of  knowled^,  and  he  accepts  in  all  sincerity  Hume's 
analysis  of  experience  as  being  most  helpful  in  constructing  a  theo- 
logical view.  In  bnguage,  which  he  appcare  to  regard  as  somehow 
acquired,  he  finds  a  solution  for  the  problems  of  reason  which 
Kant  had  discussed  in  the  KriUk  der  reinen  Venun^U  On  the 
application  of  these  thoughts  to  the  Christian  theology  one  need 
not  enter. 

None  of  Hamann's  writings  is  of  great  bulk;  most  are  mere 
pamphlets  of  some  thirty  or  forty  pages.  A  complete  collection 
has  been  published  by  F.  Roth  (Scknften,  8vo.  1821-1844).  and  by 
C.  H.  Gildemdster  (Uben  und  Scknfun,  6  vols.,  1851-1873).  See 
also  M.  Petri.  Hawtamns  Sckriften  «.  Brief*.  4  vols..  1872-1873): 
J.  Poel.  Hamann,  der  Magus  im  Norden,  tein  Leben  «.  ittttetltrngen 
aus  seinen  Sckrtflen  (a  vols..  187A-1876):  J.  Claassen,  Hamanns 
Leben  und  Werke  ( 1 885).  Also  H.  Weber.  Neue  Hamanmiana  ( 1905). 
A  very  comprehensive  essay  on  Hamann  b  to  be  found  in  Hegel's 
VermuckU  Sckriften,  vL  {Werke.  Bd.  xvtt.).  On  Hamann's  influence 
on  (jerman  literature,  sec  J.  Minor.  J.  C.  Hamann  in  teimer  Bedem- 
lung  fur  die  Sintm-  umd  Drang'Periode  ( 1 68 1 ). 

HAMAR,  or  Stobehaxmei  (Gieat  H amai),  a  town  of  Norway 
in  Hedemarken  amt  (county),  78  m.  by  rail  N.  of  Christiania. 
Pop.  (1900),  6003.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  between  two  bays 
of  the  great  Lake  M  jteen,  and  is  the  junction  of  the  railwajrs  to 
Trondhjem  (N.)  and  to  Otta  in  Gudbrandsdal  (N.W.).  The 
existing  town  was  laid  out  in  1849,  and  made  a  bishop's  see  in 
1864.  Near  the  same  site  there  stood  an  older  town,  which» 
together  with  a  bishop's  see,  was  founded  in  1 1  $>  by  the  Englisb- 
man  Nicholas  Breakspeare  (afterwards  Pope  Adrian  IV.);  but 
both  town  and  cathedral  were  destroyed  by  the  Swedes  in  1567. 
Remains  of  the  btter  include  a  nave-arcade  with  rounded  arches. 
The  town  is  a  centre  for  the  local  agricultural  and  timber 
trade. 


870 


HAMASA 


nkMl^k  (QamAsah),  the  name  of  a  famous  Arabian  anthology 
compiled  by  l^^blb  ibn  Aus  at-T^'I,  surnamed  AbQ  Tammim 
(see  AbO  TammAm).  The  collection  is  so  called  from  the  title  of 
its  first  book,  containing  poems  descriptive  of  constancy  and 
valour  in  battle,  patient  endurance  of  calamity,  steadfastness  in 
seeking  vengeance,  manfulness  under  reproach  and  temptation, 
all  which  qualities  make  up  the  attribute  called  by  the  Arabs 
^mdsak  (briefly  paraphrased  by  at-TibilzI  as  ash'Skiddak 
fi4-cmr).  It  consists  of  ten  books  or  parts,  containing  in  all 
884  poems  or  fragments  of  poems,  and  named  respectively — 
(i)  al'BamOsa,  261  pieces;  (a)  al-iiardiki,  "Dirges,"  169 
pieces;  (3)  al-Adab,  "  Manners,"  54  pieces;  (4)  on-Nasib, 
"  The  Beauty  and  Love  of  Women,"  139  pieces;  (5)  al-Uijd, 
"Satires,"  80  pieces;  (6)  al-Adydf  wa4-iiadUt,  "  Hospitality 
and  Panegyric,"  143  pieces;  (7)  a^-^ifdi,  "  Miscellaneous 
Descriptions,"  3  pieces;  (8)  as-Sair  v>a-n-Nu*&s^  "  Journeying 
and  Drpwsiness,"  9  pieces;  (9)  al-Mulah,  "  Pleasantries,"  38 
pieces;  and  (10)  Madhammai-an-nisd^  "  Dispraise  of  Women," 
18  pieces.  Of  these  books  the  first  is  by  far  the  longest,  both 
in  the  number  and  extent  of  its  poems,  and  the  first  two  together 
make  up  more  than  half  the  bulk  of  the  work.  The  poems  are 
for  the  most  part  fragments  selected  from  longer  compositions, 
though  a  considerable  number  are  probably  entire.  They  are 
taken  from  the  works  of  Arab  poets  of  all  periods  down  to  that 
of  Aba  Tammim  himself  (the  latest  ascertainable  date  being 
A.D.  832),  but  chiefly  of  the  poets  of  the  Ante-Islamic  time 
(Jihiliyyian),  those  of  the  early  days  of  Al-IsUm  (Mukha- 
drimUn),  and  those  who  flourished  during  the  reigns  of  the 
Omayyad  caliphs,  a.d.  660-749  (IsldmiyyUn).  Perhaps  the 
oldest  in  the  collection  are  those  relating  to  the  war  of  BasQs, 
a  famous  legendary  strife  which  arose  out  of  the  murder  of 
Kulaib,  chief  of  the  combined  clans  of  Bakr  and  Tagblib,  and 
lasted  for  forty  years,  ending  with  the  peace  of  Dhu-l-MajAa, 
about  A.D.  534.  Of  the  period  of  the  Abbasid  caliphs,  under 
whom  AbQ  Tammftm  himself  lived,  there  are  probably  not  more 
than  sixteen  fragments. 

Most  of  the  poems  belong  to  the  class  of  extempore  or 
occasional  utterances,  as  distinguished  from  qa^as,  or  elabor- 
ately finished  odes.  While  the  Tatter  abound  with  comparisons 
and  long  descriptions,  in  which  the  skill  of  the  poet  is  exhibited 
with  much  art  and  ingenuity,  the  poems  of  the  Hatndsa  are  short, 
direct  and  for  the  most  part  free  from  comparisons;  the  transi- 
tions are  easy,  the  metaphors  simple,  and  the  purpose  of  the 
poem  dearly  indicated.  It  is  due  probably  to  the  fact  that  this 
style  of  composition  was  chiefly  sought  by  AbQ  Tamm&m  in 
compiling  his  collection  that  he  has  chosen  hardly  anything  from 
the  works  of  the  most  famous  poets  of  antiquity.  Not  a  single 
piece  from  Imra  *al-Qais  (Amru-ul-Qais)  occurs  in  the  ffamdsaf 
nor  are  there  any  from  *AIqama,  Zuhair  or  A*shi;  N&bigha 
is  represented  only  by  two  pieces  (pp.  408  and  742  of  Frey tag's 
edition)  of  four  and  three  verses  respectively;  'Antara  by  two 
pieces  of  four  verses  each  {id.  pp.  206,  209) ;  Taraf a  by  one  piece 
of  five  verses  {id.  p.  632);  Labid  by  one  piece  of  three  verses 
(id.  p.  468);  and  'Amr  ibn  KulthQm  by  one  piece  of  four  verses 
{id.  p.  236).  The  compilation  is  thus  essentially  an  anthology 
of  minor  poets,  and  exhibits  (so  far  at  least  as  the  more  ancient 
poems  are  concerned)  the  general  average  of  poetic  utterance 
at  a  time  when  to  speak  in  verse  was  the  daily  habit  of  every 
Warrior  of  the  desert. 

To  this  description,  however,  there  is  an  important  exception 
in  the  book  entitled  an-Nasib,  containing  verses  relating  to 
women  and  love.  In  the  classical  age  of  Arab  poetry  it  was  the 
established  rule  that  all  qafldas,  or  finished  odes,  whatever 
their  purpose,  must  begin  with  the  mention  of  women  and  their 
charms  {tashM),  in  order,  as  the  old  critics  said,  that  the  hearts 
of  the  hearers  might  be  softened  and  inclined  to  regard  kindly 
the  theme  which  the  poet  proposed  to  unfold.  The  fragments 
included  in  this  part  of  the  work  are  therefore  generally  taken 
from  the  opening  verses  of  qa^idas;  where  this  is  not  the  case, 
they  are  chiefly  compositions  of  the  early  Islamic  period,  when 
the  school  of  exclusively  erotic  poetry  (of  which  the  greatest 
representative  was  'Omar  ibn  Abl  Rabi'a)  arose. 


The  compiler  was  himself  a  distinguished  poet  in  the  style 
of  his  day,  and  wandered  through  many  provinces  of  the  Moslem 
empire  earning  money  and  fame  by  his  skill  in  panegyric.  About 
220  A.H.  he  betook  himself  to  Khorasan,  then  ruled  by  *Abdallah 
ibn  T^if>  whom  he  praised  and  by  whom  be  was  rewarded; 
on  his  journey  home  to  'Irik  he  passed  through  Hamadhin,aad 
was  there  detained  for  many  months  a  guest  of  Abu-l-Wali.  son 
of  Salama,  the  road  onward  being  blocked  by  heavy  faDs  ci 
snow.  During  his  residence  at  Hamadh&n,  AbQ  Tammim  is 
said  to  have  compiled  or  composed,  from  the  materials  which 
he  found  in  Abu-1-Wafft's  library,  five  poetical  works,  of  which 
one  was  the  J^amdsa.  This  collection  remained  as  a  predoos 
heirloom  in  the  family  of  Abu-1-Wafft  until  their  fortunes  decayed, 
when  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  man  of  Dinawar  named  Abu-I- 
'Awftdhil,  who  carried  it  to  Isfahftn  and  aiade  it  known  to  the 
learned  of  that  city. 

The  worth  of  the  ffamdsa  as  a  store-house  of  ancient  legend, 
of  faithful  detail  regarding  the  usages  of  the  pagan  time  and 
early  simplicity  of  the  Arab  race,  can  hardly  be  ezaggoated. 
The  high  level  of  excellence  which  is  found  in  its  selectl<»s,  both 
as  to  form  and  matter,  is  remarkable,  and  caused  it  to  be  saui  that 
AbQ  Tammim  displayed  higher  qualities  as  a  poet  in  his  choke 
of  extracts  from  the  ancients  than  in  his  own  compositions. 
What  strikes  us  chiefly  in  the  class  of  poetry  of  which  the  ^amAxa 
is  a  specimen,  is  its  exceeding  truth  and  reality,  its  freed<nn 
from  artificiality  and  hearsay,  the  evident  first-hand  e^icricnce 
which  the  singers  possessed  of  all  of  which  they  san^  For 
historical  purposes  the  value  of  the  collection  is  not  small; 
but  most  of  all  there  shines  forth  from  it  a  complete  portraiture 
of  the  hardy  and  manful  nature,  the  strenuous  life  of  passoo 
and  battle,  the  lofty  contempt  of  cowardice,  niggardliness  and 
servility,  which  marked  the  valiant  stock  who  bore  Islim 
abroad  in  a  flood  of  new  life  over  the  outworn  dvilizatiocs  of 
Persia,  Egypt  and  Byzantium.  It  has  the  true  stamp  of  the 
heroic  time,  of  its  cruelty  and  wantonness  as  of  its  stieaigth  and 
beauty. 

No  fewer  than  twenty  commentaries  are  enumeiated  by  H'i)* 
Khalifa.  Of  these  the  earliest  was  by  AbQ  Riyftah  (otherwise  ar- 
Riyfishi),  who  died  in  257  A.H.;  excerpts  from  it.  chiefly  in  eluci- 
dation of  the  circumstances  in  which  the  poems  were  composed,  are 
frequently  given  by  at-Tibrix!  (Tabrixi).  He  was  followed  by  the 
famous  grammarian  Abu-l-Fath  ibn  al-finm  (d.  loa  a.r.).  and  bur 
by  Shih&b  ad-Din  Ahmad  al-MarxQqi  of  isfahin  (d.  421  a.r.).  l- poo 
af-MarzaqTs  commentary  is  chiefly  founded  that  01  Abu  2^kari>i 
Yaby&  at-Tibria  (b.  431  A.H.,  d.  502),  which  has  been  published  by 
the  late  Professor  G..W.  Freytag  of  Bonn,  together  with  a  Latia 
translation  and  notes  (1828-18^1).  This  monumental  work,  iht 
labour  of  a  life,  is  a. treasure  of  information  regarding  the  dassaral 
age  of  Arab  liteiature  which  has  not  perhaps  its  equal  for  extent* 
accuracy,  and  minuteness  of  detail  in  Europe.  No  other  cnnplrte 
edition  of  the  HamAsa  has  been  printed  in  the  West;  but  in  1855 
one  appeared  at  Calcutta  under  the  names  of  Maulavi  Ghuliia 
Rabbftni  and  Kabiru-d-din  Ahmad.  Though  no  acknowledemeot 
of  the  fact  is  contained  in  this  edition,  it  is  a  simple  reprint  ol  Pro- 
fessor Freytag's  text  (without  at-Tibrizi's  commentary),  and  foOovs 
its  original  even  in  the  misprints  (corrected  by  Freytag  at  the  etid 
of  the  second  volume,  whych  being  in  Latin  tte  Calcutta  editofs  do 
not  seeip  to  have  consulted).  It  contains  in  an  appendix  of  is  p^[cs 
a  coUertion  of  verses-  (and  some  entire  fragments)  not  found  in 
at-Tibrizi's  recension,  but  stated  to  exist  in  some  copies  coosutted 
by  the  editors;  these  are,  however,  very  carelessly  edited  and 
printed,  and  in  many  places  unintelligible.  Freytag's  text,  with 
at-Tibrizi's  commentary,  has  been  reprinted  at  BQuq  (1870).  la 
1882  an  edition  of  the  text,  with  a  marginal  comnientaiy  by  Mussbi 
'  Abdul-Qfidir  ibn  Shaikh  Luqm&n.  was  published  at  Bombay. 

The  Samdsa  has  been  rendered  with  remarkable  skill  and  spirit 
into  German  verse  by  the  illustrious  Friedrich  RQckert  (Stuttgart. 
1846).  who  has  not  only  given  translations  of  almost  all  the  poros 
proper  to  the  work,  but  has  added  numerous  fragments  drawn  frcra 
other  sources,  especially  those  occurring  in  the  scMia  of  at-Tibrizi. 
as  well  as  the  Mu*aUaqas  of  Zuhair  and  'Antara.  the  Ldmtyya  of 
Ash-Shanfar4.  and  the  Bdmai  Swrdd  of  Ka'b.  son  of  Zuhair.  A  small 
collection  of  translations,  chiefly  in  metres  imitating  those  of  the 
original,  was  published  in  London  by  Sir  Charles  Lyail  in  188$. 

when  the  liamdsa  is  spoken  of,  that  of  AbQ  Tammim.  as  the  first 
and  most  famous  of  the  name,  is  meant;  but  several  collect  ions  d 
a  similar  kind,  also  called  ^amdsa,  exist.  The  best-known  and 
earliest  of  these  is  the  Hamdsa  of  Buhturi  (d.  384  a.r.),  of  whKh  the 
unique  MS.  now  in  the  Leiden  University  Library,  has  been  repix>> 
ducvd  by  photo-lithography  (1909):    a  critical  edttioa  has  beta 


HAMBURG 


871 


prepared  by  Professor  Chlikho  at  Beyreuth.  Four  other  works  of  the 
same  name,  formed  on  the  model  oil  AbQ  Tammlm's  compilation, 
are  mentioned  by  Hajji  Khalifa.  Besides  these,  a  work  entitled 
Hamasat  ar-Rok  r'  the  M^mAsa  of  wine  ")  was  composed  of  Abu*l- 
*AU  al-Ma'arri  (d.  429  a.h.).  (C.  J.  L.) 

HAMBURG,  a  state  of  the  German  empire,  on  the  lower  Elbe, 
bounded  by  the  Prussian  provinces  of  Schleswig-Holstein  and 
Hanover.  The  whole  territory  has  an  area  of  160  sq.  m.,  and 
consists  of  the  dty  of  Hambui]^  with  its  incorporated  suburbs 
and  the  surroundinf^  district,  including  several  islands  in  the 
Elbe,  five  small  enclaves  in  Holstein;  the  communes  of  Moorburg 
in  the  LUncburg  district  of  the  Prussian  province  of  Hanover 
and  Cuzhaven-RitzebUttel  at  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  the  island 
of  Neuwerk  about  5  m.  from  the  coast,  and  the  bailiwick  {amt) 
of  Bergedorf,  which  down  to  1867  was  held  in  common  by 
Lubeck  and  Hamburg.  Administratively  the  state  is  divided 
into  the  dty,  or  metropolitan  district,  and  four  rural  domains 
(or  Landherrenschaften),  each  under  a  senator  as  praaa^  viz. 
the  domain  of  the  Geestlande,  of  the  Marschlande,  of  Bergedorf 
and  of  Ritzebtittel  with  Cuxhaven.  Cuxhaven-Riuebattcl  and 
Bergedorf  are  the  only  towns  besides  the  capital.  The  Geest- 
lande comprise  the  suburban  districts  endrcling  the  dty  on  the 
north  and  west;  the  Marschlande  includes  various  islands  in 
the  Elbe  and  the  fertile  tract  of  land  lying  between  the  northern 
and  southern  arms  of  the  Elbe,  and  with  its  pastures  and  market 
gardens  supplying  Hamburg  with  large  quantities  of  country 
produce.*  In  the  Beigedorf  district  lies  the  Vierlande,  or  Four 
Districts  (Neuengammc,  Kirchwftrder,  Altengamme  and  Curs- 
lack),  cdebrated  for  its  fruit  gardens  and  the  picturesque  dress 
of  the  inhabitants.  Ritzebattel  with  Cuxhaven,  also  a  watering- 
place,  have  mostly  a  seafaring  population.  Two  rivers,  the 
Alster  and  the  Bille,  flow  through  the  city  of  Hamburg  into  the 
Elbe,  the  mouth  of  which,  at  Cuxhaven,  is  75  m.  below  the 
dty. 

Government, — As  a  state  of  the  empire,  Hamburg  is  repre> 
sented  in  the  federal  council  (Bundesrat)  by  one  plenipotentiary, 
and  in  the  imperial  diet  (Reichstag)  by  three  deputies.  Its 
present  constitution  came  into  force  on  the  ist  of  January  1861, 
and  was  revised  in  1879  and  again  in  1906.  According  to  this 
Hamburg  is  a  republic,  the  governmeni  (Stoats gewalt)  residing 
in  two  chanibers,  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Burgesses.  The 
Senate,  which  exercises  the  greater  part  of  the  executive  power, 
is  composed  of  eighteen  members,  one  half  of  whom  must  have 
studied  law  or  finance,  while  at  least  seven  of  the  remainder 
must  belong  to  the<'daas  of  merchants.  The  members  of  the 
Senate  are  dected  for  life  by  the  House  of  Burgesses;  but  a 
senator  is  free  to  retire  from  office  at  the  expiry  of  six  years. 
A  chief  (ober-)  and  second  (gweiter-)  burgomaster,  the  first  of 
whom  bears  the  title  of  "  Magnificence,"  chosen  annually  in 
secret  ballot,  preside  over  the  meetings  of  the  Senate,  and  are 
usually  jurists.  No  burgomaster  can  be  in  office  for  longer  than 
two  years  consecutively,  and  no  member  of  the  Senate  may  hold 
any  other  public  office.  The  House  of  Burgesses  consists  of 
160  members,  of  whom  80  are  derted  in  secret  ballot  by  the 
direct  sufiragcs  of  all  tax-paying  dtizens,  40  by  the  owners  of 
house-property  within  the  dty  (also  by  ballot),  and  the  remaining 
40,  by  ballot  also,  by  the  so<alled  "  notables,"  i.e.  active  and 
former  members  of  the  law  courts  and  administrative  boards. 
They  are  dected  for  a  period  of  six  years,  but  as  half  of  each 
class  retire  at  the  end  of  three  years,  new  elections  for  one  half 
the  number  take  place  at  the  end  of  that  time.  The  House  of 
Burgesses  is  represented  by  a  BUrgeraussckuss  (committee  of  the 
bouse)  of  twenty  deputies  whose  duty  it  is  to  watch  over  the 
proceedings  of  the  Senate  and  the  constitution  generally.  The 
Senate  can  interpose  a  veto  in  all  matters  of  legislation,  saving 
taxation,  and  where  there  is  a  collision  between  the  two  bodies, 
provision  is  made  for  reference  to  a  court  of  arbitration,  consist- 
ing of  members  of  both  houses  in  equal  numbers,  and  also  to  the 
supreme  court  of  the  empire  (Reicksgerickt)  sitting  at  Ldpzig. 
The  law  administered  is  that  of  the  dvil  and  penal  codes  of  the 
German  empire,  and  the  court  of  appeal  for  all  three  Hanse  towns 
is  the  common  OberlandesgericJU,  which  has  its  scat  in  Hamburg. 


There  is  also  a  q>edal  court  of  arbitration  in  commerdal  disputes 
and  another  for  such  as  arise  under  acddent  insurance. 

Religion. — The  church  in  Hamburg  is  completely  separated 
from  the  state  and  manages  its  affairs  independently.  The 
ecdesiastical  arrangements  of  Hamburg  have  undergone  great 
modifications  since  the  general  constitution  of  1S60.  From 
the  Reformation  to  the  French  occupation  in  the  beginning  of 
the  19th  century,  Hamburg  was  a  purdy  Lutheran  state; 
according  to  the  "  Recess  "  of  1529,  re-enacted  in  1603,  non- 
Lutherans  were  subject  to  legal  punishment  and  expulsion  from 
the  country.  Exceptions  were  gradually  made  in  favour  of 
foreign  residents;  but  it  was  not  tDl  1785  that  regular  inhabitants 
were  allowed  to  exercise  the  religious  ritesof  other  denominations, 
and  it  was  not  till  after  the  war  of  freedom  that  they  were 
allowed  to  have  buildings  in  the  style  of  churches.  In  i860  full 
religious  liberty  was  guaranteed,  and  the  identification  of  church 
and  state  abolished.  By  the  new  constitution  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  published  at  first  in  1870  for  the  dty  only,  but  in  1876 
extended  to  the  rest  of  the  Hamburg  territory,  the  parishes  or 
communes  are  divided  into  three  church-districts,  and  the  general 
affairs  of  the  whole  community  are  entrusted  to  a  synod  of 
53  members  and  to  an  ecdesiastical  cotmdl  of  9  members  which 
acts  as  an  executive.  Since  1887  a  church  rate  has  been  levied 
on  the  Evangelical-Lutheran  communities,  and  since  1904  upon 
the  Roman  Catholics  also.  The  German  Rdormed  Church, 
the  French  Reformed,  the  English  Episcopal,  the  English 
Reformed,  the  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  Baptist  are  all  recognized 
by  the  state.  Civil  marriages  have  been  permissible  in  Hamburg 
since  1866,  and  since  the  introduction  of  the  imperial  law  in 
January  1876  the  number  of  such  marriages  has  greatly 
increased. 

Finance. — The  jurisdiction  of  the  Free  Port  was  on  the  isl  of 
January  1882  restricted  to  the  city  and  port  by  the  extension 
of  the  Zotlvcrein  to  the  lower  Elbe,  and  in  1 888  the  whole  of  the 
state  of  Hamburg,  with  the  exception  of  the  so-called  "  Free 
Harbour  "  (which  comprises  the  port  proper  and  some  large 
warehouses,  set  apart  for  goods  in  bond),  was  taken  into  the 
Zollverein. 

Population. — The  population  increased  from  453,000  in  1880 
to  622,530  in  1890,  and  in  1905  amounted  to  874.878.  The 
population  of  the  country  districts  (exclusive  of  the  dty  of 
Hamburg)  was  72,085  in  1905.  The  crops  raised  in  the  country 
districts  are  prindpally  vegetables  and  fruit,  potatoes,  hay,  oats, 
rye  and  wheat.  For  manufactures  and  trade  statistics  see 
Haubitkg  (dty). 

The  military  organization  of  Hamburg  was  arranged  by 
convention  with  Prussia.  The  state  furnishes  three  battalions 
of  the  2nd  Hanseatic  regiment,  under  Prussian  officers.  The 
soldiers  swear  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  senate. 

HAMBUROt  a  seaport  of  Germany,  capita]  of  the  free  state 
of  Hamburg,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  northern  arm  of  the  Elbe, 
75  m.  from  its  mouth  at  Cuxhaven  and  178  m.  N.W.  from  Berlin 
by  raiL  It  is  the  largest  and  most  important  seaport  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  and  (after  London  and  New  York)  the 
third  largest  in  the  world.  Were  it  not  for  political  and  munidpal 
boundaries  Hamburg  might  be  considered  as  forming  with  Altona 
and  Ottensen  (which  lie  within  Prussian  territory)  one  town.  The 
view  of  the  three  from  the  south,  presenting  a  continuous  river 
frontage  of  six  mUes,  the  river  crowded  with  shipping  and  the 
densely  packed  houses  surmounted  by  church  towers— of  which 
three  are  higher  than  the  dome  of  St  Paul's  in  London — ^is  one 
of  great  magnificence. 

The  dty  proper  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  little  river  Alster, 
which,  dammed  up  a  short  distance  from  its  mouth,  forms  a 
lake,  of  which  the  southern  portion  within  the  line  of  the  former 
fortifications  bears  the  name  of  the  Inner  Alster  (Binnen  Alster) ^ 
and  the  other  and  larger  portion  (2500  yards  long  and  1300  yards 
at  the  widest)  that  of  the  (Xiter  Alster  (Aussen  Alster).  The 
fortifications  as  such  were  removed  in  1815,  but  they  have  Idt 
their  trace  in  a  fine  girdle  of  green  round  the  dty,  though  too 
many  inroads  on  its  completeness  have  been  made  by  railways 
and  roadwi^ys.    The  oldest  portion  of  the  dty  is  that  which  lies 


to  tbc  cul.o(  (he  AUtei;  but,  though  it  itill  retiini  ibc  Dime  of 
AltiUdI,  oaiiy  ill  tnce  ol  iti  utiquity  hu  liiitppaicd,  u  it 
<ni  ttbuilt  i(tu  Ibc  grett  &n  ol  1841.  To  the  wot  lis  the 
aew  towti  (NeuKtdt},  incoitionlcd  In  1678;  beyond  lU*  uul 
cooUfuoiu  (0  AlIDU  i*  the  tormec  luburb  a[  St  Piuli,  iDcoi- 
ponled  la  iS)ti.  ml  (owudt  the  nonh-eut  thu  of  St  Ceorg, 


which  u 


ulell  it 


ti "  (FJofaM)— foi  the  u 


n  □ly— which  add  anuideiably  to  I  . 
of  the  meaner  quaiten,  uid  leive  u  cODVcalctit  cbimiieU  for 
tbc  truUpott  ol  gDodi.  They  geocnlly  (orb  what  may  be  called 
the  back  >tmu,  and  they  are  bordered  by  warthouiea,  cellaia 
and  (he  lawet  dan  of  dweUini-bouMs.  As  they  are  lubject  to 
the  ebb  and  Sow  o(  (be  Elbe,  at  onain  limei  they  mn  almost 
dry.  Ai  aoon  aa  Ihe  teteftraia  at  Cuahaven  anaounca  high  tide 
three  ihota  an  Gied  from  the  bubour  to  wam  the  inhabjlaou 
of  (he"  Seels  ";  and  if  (be  ptogtesBOf  the  tide  up  thenver  givev 
indication  of  danjir.  other  (bree  «hol>  follow.  The  "  fleiU  " 
frith  (heir  qualm  medieval  wareboutes,  which  come  ifaeer  down 
to  (he  water,  and  are  navigated  by  hargei,  have  giiaed  foe 
Hamburg  the  name  of "  Nanbeni  Venice."    They  are,  however. 


In  hne  contrai 


o  them  ii  (be  bright  appevanci 


Alilcr,  which  is  endoied  on  three  aida  by  hi 

in  tbe  loulh.  and  the  Never  Jungtemxieg  in  tlie  west,  wiue 
it  [a  icparalcd  from  the  Auaien  Alster  by  part  ol  the  rasfiart 
gardeiu  traverud  by  the  railway  uniting  Hamburg  with  Ahooa 
and  croadng  (he  lakci  by  a  beautiful  bridge — the  Lombards- 
BrUcke.  Aniund  the  outer  lake  an  grouped  the  aubuiba 
Harvestehude  and  Pttiieldorf  on  (be  wealem  ihore,  and  Uhkn- 

■urrounded  by  well-kept  gardens.  Along  the  aouthoB  od  of 
the  Binnen  Abler  nuu  (be  Jungfenmieg  with  fine  ihoiB,  hotcb 
and  resiauranu  fadng  the  water.    A. Beet  of  ahaUow-diaB^ 

between  the  business  centre  of  the  dtjr  ud  tbe  outlyiiig  olsBei 
olvUlas. 

The  itreets  endoiing  tbe  BiDDCD  Alittr  an  ta^onilile 
promenades,  and  leading  directly  [ran  this  quuter  ut  the  laaii 
buuneas  tbotou^arta,  tlie  Neuer-WaU,  the  Gtomc  Bkichea 
and  the  Hennannsuaaae.  The  lajgvat  of  the  public  aquaiva  ia 
Hamburg  is  (he  Hopfcnmarkt.  wbidi  contains  the  church  d 
Si  Nicholas  (Nikolaikircbe)  and  is  the  principal  auka  for 
vegetables  and  fruit.  Others  of  importance  are  the  G&iuemartl, 
(he  Zeughausraarkt  and  the  Grossneumarkt-  Of  the  thirty-five 
churches  eiisting  in  Hamburg  (the  old  cathedral  had  (0  be  taka 
down  In  iSo;),  (he  St  Petrikitche,  Nikolaikirche,  St  Kalharina- 
kiidie.  Si  JakabiUrcbe  aod  Si   " " 


HAMBURG 


873 


give  thdr  names  to  the  five  old  city  parishes,  The  Nikolaikirche 
is  especially  remarkable  for  its  spire,  which  is  473  ft.  high  and 
ranks,  after  those  of  Ulm  and  Cologne,  as  the  third  highest 
ecclesiastical  edifice  in  the  world.  The  old  church  was  destroyed 
in  the  great  fire  of  1843,  and  the  new  building,  designed  by  Sir 
George  Gilbert  Scott  in  15th  century  Gothic,  was  erected  1845- 
1874.  "fhe  eiterior  and  interior  are  elaborately  adorned  with 
sculptures.  Sandstone  from  Osterwald  near  Hildesheim  was 
used  for  the  outside,  and  for  the  inner  work  a  softer  variety  from 
Postelwitx  near  Droden.  The  Michaeliskirche,  which  is  built 
on  the  highest  point  in  the  city  and  has  a  tower  428  ft.  high, 
was  erected  (1750-1762)  by  Ernst  G.  Sonnin  on  the  site  of  the 
older  building  of  the  X7th  century  destroyed  by  lightning;  the 
interior,  which  can  contain  3000  people,  is  remarkable  for  its 
bold  construction,  there  being  no  pillan.  The  St  Petrikirche, 
originally  consecrated  in  the  lath  century  and  rebuilt  in  the 
14th,  was  the  oldest  church  in  Hamburg;  it  was  burnt  in  1842  and 
rebuilt  in  its  old  form  in  1844-1849.  It  has  a  graceful  tapering 
spire  40Z  ft.  in  height  (completed  1878);  the  granite  columns 
from  the  old  cathedral,  the  stained  glass  windows  by  Kellner 
of  Nuremberg,  and  H.  Schubert's  fine  reh'cf  of  the  entombment 
of  Christ  are  worthy  of  notice.  The  St  Kath^rinenkirche  and 
the  St  Jakobikirche  are  the  only  surviving  medieval  churches, 
but  neither  is  of  special  interest.  Of  the  numerousother churches, 
Evangelical,  Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican,  none  are  of  special 
interest.  The  new  synagogue  was  buUt  by  Rosengarten  between 
1857  and  1859,  and  to  the  same  architect  is  due  the  sepulchral 
chapel  built  for  the  Hamburg  merchant  prince  Johann  Heinrich, 
Freiherr  von  Schrfider  (i 784-1883),  in  the  churchyard  of  the 
Petrikirche.  The  beautiful  chapel  of  St  Gertrude  was  unfortu- 
nately destrojred  in  1842. 

Hamburg  h^s  comparatively  few  secular  buildings  of  great 
architectural  interest,  but  first  among  them  is  the  new  Rathaus, 
a  huge  German  Renaissance  building,  constructed  of  sandstone 
in  1886-^897,  richly  adorned  with  sculptures  and  with  a  spirt 
330  ft.  in  height.  It  is  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  municipal 
council  and  of  the  senate  and  contains  the  city  archives. 
Immediately  adjoining  it  and  connected  with  it  by  two  wings  is 
the  exchange.  It  was  erected  in  1836-1 841  on  the  site  of  the 
convent  of  St  Mary  Magdalen  and  escaped  the  conflagration  of 
1842.  It  was  restored  and  enlarged  in  1904,  and  shelters  the 
commercial  library  of  nearly  xoo,ooo  vols}  During  the  business 
hours  (1-3  p.m.)  the  exchange  is  crowded  by  some  5000  merchants 
and  brokers.  In  the  same  neighbourhood  is  the  Johanneum, 
erected  in  1834  and  in  which  are  preserved  the  town  library  of 
about  600,000  printed  books  and  5000  MSB.  and  the  collection 
of  Hamburg  antiquities.  In  the  courtyard  is  a  statue  (1885) 
of  the  reformer  Johann  Bugenhagen.  In  the  Fischmarkt, 
immediately  south  of  the  Johanneum,  a  handsome  fountain 
was.  erected  in  2890.  Directly  west  of  the  town  hall  is  the  new 
Stadthaus,  the  chief  police  station  of  the  town,  in  front  of  which 
is  a  bronze  statue  of  the  burgomaster  Karl  Friedrich  Petersen 
(1809-1892),  erected  in  2897.  A  Uttle  farther  away  are  the 
headquarters  of  the  Patriotic  Society  (Patriotiscke  CeseUschaft)^ 
founded  in  1765,  with  fine  rooms  for  the  meetings  of  artistic 
and  learned  societies.  Several  new  public  buildings  have  been 
erected  along  the  circuit  of  the  former  walls.  Near  the  west 
extremity,  tfbutting  upon  the  Elbe,  the  moat  was  filled  in  in 
1894-1897,  and  some  good  streets  were  built  along  the  site, 
while  the  Kersten  Miles-Brtlcke,  adorned  with  statues  of  four 
Hamburg  heroes,,  was  thrown  across  the  HelgoUnder  Alice. 
Farther  north,  along  the  line  of  the  former  town  wall,  are  the 
criminal  law  courts  (1879-1882,  enlarged  1893)  and  the  dvil 
law  courts  (finished  in  1901).  Close  to  the  latter  stand  the  new 
supreme  court,  the  old  age  and  accident  state  insurance  offices, 
the  chief  custom  house,  and  the  concert  hall,  founded  by  Karl 
Laeisz,  a  former  Hamburg  wharfinger.  Farther  on  are  the 
chemical  and  the  physical  laboratories  and  the  Hygienic  In- 
stitute. Fadng  the  botanical  gardens  a  new  central  post-office, 
in  the  Renaissance  style,  was  built  in  1887.  At  the  west  end  of 
the  Lombards-Brttcke  tliere  is  a  monument  by  Schilling,  com- 
memorating the  waf  of  1870-71.    A  few  streets  south  of  that  is 


a  monument  to  Lessing  (1881);  while  occupying  a  commanding 
site  on  the  promenades  towards  Altona  is  the  gigantic  statue  of 
Bismarck  which  waa  unveiled  in  June  1906.  T^^e  Kunst-Halle 
(the  picture  gallery),  containing  some  good  works  by  modern 
masters,  faces  the  east  end  of  Lombards-Brllcke.  The  new 
Natural  History  Museum,  completed  in  1892,  stands  a  little 
distance  farther  south.  To  the  east  of  it  comes  the  Museum 
for  Art  and  Industry,  founded  in  1878,  now  one  of  the  most 
important  institutions  of  the  kind  in  Germany,  with  which 
is  connected  a  trades  school.  Close  by  is  the  Hansa-fountain 
(65  ft.  high),  erected  in  1878.  On  the  north-east  side  of  the 
suburb  of  St  Georg  a  botanical  museum  and  laboratory  have 
been  established.  There  is  a  new  general  hospital  at  Eppendorf , 
outside  the  town  on  the  north,  built  on  the  pavilion  principle, 
and  one  of  the  finest  structures  of  the  Jund  in  Europe;  and  at 
Ohlsdorf,  in  the  same  direction,  a  crematorium  was  built  in  1891 
in  conjunction  with  the  town  cemeteries  (370  acres).  There 
must  also  be  mentioned  the  fine  public  xoological  gardens, 
Hagenbeck's  private  aoologics)  garaens  in  the  vidnity,  the 
schoob  of  music  and  navigation,  and  the^  school  of  commerce. 
In  1900  4  high  school  for  shipbuilding  was  founded,  and  in  190X 
an  institute  for  seamen's  and  tropical  diseases,  with  a  laboratory 
for  their  physiological  study,  was.  opened,  and  also  the  first 
public  free  library  in  the  dty.  The  river  is  spanned  just  above 
the  Frri  Hafen  by  a  triple-arched  railway  bridge,  1339  ft.  long, 
erected  in  1868-1873  &nd  doubled  in  width  in  2894.  Some  270 
yds.  higher  up  is  a  magnificent  iron  bridge  (1888)  for  vehides 
and  foot  passengers.  The  southern  arm  of  the  Elbe,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  island  of  Wilhelmsburg,  is  crossed  by  another 
railway  bridge  of  four  arches  and  2050  ft.  in  length. 

Railways. — ^The  through  railway  traffic  of  Hamburg  is  practic- 
ally confined  to  that  proceeding  northwards — to  Kid  and  Jutland 
— and  for  the  accommodatidn  of  such  trains  the  central  (terminus) 
station  at  Ajtona  is  the  chief  gathering  point.  The  Hamburg 
stations,  connected  with  the  other  by  the  Verbindungs-Bahn 
(or  metropolitan  railway)  crossing  the  Lombards-Brtlcke,  are 
those  of  the  Venloer  (or  Hanoverian,  as  it  is  often  called) 
Bahnhof  on  the  south-east,  in  close  proximity  to  the  harbour, 
into  which  converge  the  lines  from  Cologne  and  Bremen,  Hanover 
and  Frankfort-on-Main,  and  from  Berlin,  via  Ndzen;  the 
Klostertor-Bahnhof  (on  Uie  metropolitan  line)  which  temporarily 
superseded  the  old  Berlin  station,  and  the  Lobeck  station  a  little 
to  the  north-east,  during  the  erection  of  the  new  central  station, 
which  occupies  a  site  between  the  KlMtertor-Bahnhof  and  the 
Lombards-Brficke.  Between  this  central  station  and  Altona 
terminus  runs  the  metropolitan  railway,  which  has  been  raised 
several  feet  so  as  to  bridge  over  the  streets,  and  on  which  lie 
the  important  stationsDammtor and  Sternschanze.  An  excellent 
service  of  electric  trams  interconnect  the  towns  of  Hamburg, 
Altona  and  the  adjacent  suburbs,  and  steamboats  provide 
communication  on  the  Elbe  with  the  riparian  towns  and  villages; 
and  so  with  Blankenese  and  Harburg,  with  Stade,  GlticksUdt 
and  Cuxhaven. 

Trade  and  Skipping. — Probably  there  is  no  place  which  during 
the  last  thirty  years  of  the  19th  century  grew  faster  commercially 
than  Hamburg.  Its  commerce  is,  however,  almost  entirely  of 
the  nature  of  transit  trade,  for  it  is  not  only  the  chief  distributing 
centre  for  the  middle  of  Europe  of  the  products  of  all  other  parts 
o(  the  worid,  but  is  also  the  chief  outlet  for  (jerman,  Austrian, 
and  even  to  some  extent  Russian  (Polish)  raw  products  and 
manufactures.  Its  prindpal  imports  are  coffee  (of  which  it  is 
the  greatest  continental  market),  tea,  sugar,  q>ices,  ike,  wine 
(especially  from  Bordeaux),  lard  (from  Chicago),  cereals,  sag9» 
dried  fruits,  herrings,  wax  (from  Morocco  and  Mozambique), 
tobacco,  hemp,  cotton  (which  of  late  years  shows  a  large  increase), 
wool,  skins,  leather,  oils,  dyewoods,  indigo,  nitrates,  phosphates 
and  coal.  Of  the  total  importations  of  all  kinds  of  coal  to  Ham- 
burg, that  of  British  coal,  particularly  from  Northumberland 
and  Durham,  occupies  the  first  place,  and  despite  some  falling  off 
in  late  years,  owing  to  the  competition  made  by  Westphidian 
coal,  amounts  to  more  than  half  the  total  import.  The  increase 
of  the  trade  of  Hamburg  is  most  strikingly  shown  by  that  of 


874- 


HAMBURG 


the  shipping  belon^g  to  the  port.  Between  1876  and  x88o 
there  were  475  sailing  vessels  with  a  tonnage  of  350,691,  and 
no  steam-ships  with  a  tonnage  of  87,050.  In  1907  there  were 
(exclusive  of  fishing  vessels)  470  sailing  ships,  with  a  tonnage  of 
271,661,  and  610  steaniers  with  a  tonnage  of  1,256,449.  In 
1870  the  crews  nuhabered  6900  men,  in  1907  they  numbered 

39,536-  . 

Industries. — ^The  development  of  manufacturing  industries 

at  Hamburg  and  its  immediate  vicinity  since  1880,  though  not  so 
rapid  as  that  of  its  trade  and  shipping,  has  been  very  remarkable, 
and  more  especially  has  this  been  the  case  since  the  year  x888, 
when  Hamburg  joined  the  German  customs  union,  and  the 
barriers  which  prevented  goods  manufactured  at  Hamburg  from 
entering  into  other  parts  of  Germany  were  removed.  Among 
the  chief  industries  are  those  for  the  production  of  articles  of 
food  and  drink.  The  import  trade  of  various  cereals  by  sea  to 
Hamburg  is  very  large,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  this  com 
is  converted  into  flour  at  Hamburg  itself.  There  are  also,  in 
this  connexion,  numerous  bakeries  for  biscuit,  rice-peeling  mills 
and  spice  mills.  Besides  the  foregoing  there  are  cocoa,  chocolate, 
confectionery  and  baking-powder  factories,  coflec-roasting  and 
ham-curing  and  smoking  establishments,  lard  refineries,  mar- 
garine manufactories  and  fish-curing,  preserving  and  parking 
factories.  There  are  numerous  breweries,  producing  annually 
about  24,000,000  gallons  of  beer,  spirit  distilleries  and  factories 
of  artificial  waters.  Yams,  textile  goods  and  weaving  industries 
generally  have  not  attained  any  great  dimensions,  but  there  are 
large  jute-spinning  mills  and  factories  for  cot  ton- wool  and 
cotton  driving-belts.  Among  other  important  articles  of 
domestic  industry  are  tobacco  and  cigars  (manufactured  mainly 
in  bond,  within  the  free  harbour  precincts),  hydraulic  machinery, 
electro-technical  machinery,  chemical  products  (including 
artificial  manures),  oils,  soaps,  india-rubber,  ivory  and  celluloid 
articles  and  the  manufacture  of  leather. 

Shipbuilding  has  made  very  important  progress,  and  there 
are,  at  present  in  Hamburg  eleven  large  shipbuilding  yards, 
employing  nearly  xo,ooo  hands.  Of  these,  however,  only  three 
are  of  any  great  extent,  and  one,  where  the  largest  class  of 
ocean-going  steamers  and  of  war  vessels  for  the  German  navy 
are  built,  employs  about  5000  persons.  There  are  also  two  yards 
for  the  building  of  pleasure  yachts  and  rowing-boats  (in  both 
which  branches  of  sport  Hamburg  takes  a  leading  place  in 
Germany).  Art  industries,  particularly  those  which  appeal  to 
the  luxurious  taste  of  the  inhabitants  in  fitting  their  houses, 
such  as  wall-papers  and  furniture,  and  those  which  are  included 
in  the  equipment  of  ocean-going  steamers,  have  of  late  years 
made  rapid  strides  and  are  among  the  best  productions  of  this 
character  of  any  German  city. 

Harbour. — It  was  the  accession  of  Hamburg  to  the  customs  union 
in  1888  which  gave  such  a  vigorous  impulse  to  her  more  recent  com- 
mercial development.  At  the  same  time  a  portion  of  the  port  was 
set  apart  as  a  free  harbour,  altogether  an  area  of  750  acres  of  water 
and  1750  acres  of  dnf  land.  In  anticipation  of  this  event  a  gigantic 
system  of  docks,  basins  and  auays  was  constructed,  at  a  total  cost 
of  some  £7,000,000  (of  whicn  the  imperial  treasury  contributed 
£2,000,000),  between  the  confluence  of  the  Alster  and  the  railway 
bridge  (1868-1873),  an  entire  quarter  of  the  town  inhabited  by  some 
3d,ooo  people  iKing  cleared  away  to  make  room  for  these  accessories 
01  a  great  port.  On  the  north  side  of  the  Elbe  there  are  the  Sandtor 
basin  (3380  ft.  long,  295  to  427  ft.  wide),  in  which  British  and  Dutch 
steamboats  and  steamboats  of  the  Sloman^  (Mediterranean)  line 
anchor.  South  of  this  lies  the  Grasbrook  ba^n  (quayage  of  3100  ft. 
and  1693  ft.  alongside),  which  is  used  by  French,  Swedish  and  trans- 
atlantic steamers.  At  the  quay  poin{  between  these  two  basins  there 
are  vast  state  granaries.  On  the  outer  {i.e.  river)  udc  of  the  Gra»- 
brook  dock  is  the  quay  at  which  the  emigrants  tor  South  America 
embark,  and  from  which  the  mail  boats  for  East  Africa,  the  boats  of 
the  Woermann  (West  Africa)  line,  and  the  Norwegian  tourist  boats 
depart.  To  the  east  of  these  two  is  the  small  Magdeburg  basin, 
penetrating  north,  and  the  Bank-cn  basin,  penetrating  east,  i.e. 
parallel  to  the  river.  The  latter  affords  accommodation  to  the  trans- 
atlantic steamers,  including  the  emigrant  ships  of  the  Hamburg- 
America  line,  though  their  ocean  mail  boats  generally  load  and 
unload  at  Cuxhaven.  On  the  south  bank  of  the  stream  tncre  follow 
in  succession,  going  from  east  to  west ,  the  Moldau  dock  for  river  craft, 
the  sailing  vessel  dock  (SegclsrhifT  Hafen,  3937  ft.  long,  459  to  886 
ft.  wide,  36i  ft.  deep),  the  Hansa  dock,  Inida  dock,  petroleum  dock. 


■cveral  swimming  and  dry  docks;  and  in  the  west  of  the  free  port 
area  three  other  large  docks,  one  of  77  acres  for  river  cnSt,  the  atotn 
each  56  acres  in  extent,  and  one  33}  ft.  deep,  the  other  36}  fr.  deep. 
at  low  water,  constructed  in  1900-1901.  In  1897  Hamburg  «as 
provided  with  a  huge  floating  dock,  558  ft.  long  and  84  ft.  in  maxi- 
mum breadth,  capable  of  holding  a  vessel  of  17,500  toas  and  draught 
not  exceeding  39  ft.,  so  constructed  and  eouipped  that  in  time  d 
need  (war)  it  could  be  floated  down  to  Cuxhaven.  Durii%  the  Um 
35  years  of  the  19th  century  the  channel  of  the  Elbe  was  greatly 
improved  and  deepened,  ana  during  the  last  two  years  of  tlMr  i<'>tb 
century  some  £360,000  was  spent  by  Hambufg  alone  in  rcgub.t.n^ 
and  correcting  this  lower  course  of  the  river.  The  new  Kufa*jLni.-r- 
basin,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  as  well  as  two  other  laxge  d-jck 
basins  (now  leased  to  the  Hamburg- American  Company),  raise  the 
number  of  basins  to  twelve  in  all. 

EmigratioH. — Hamburg  is  one  of  the  principal  continental  ports 
for  the  embarkation  of  emigrants.  In  1 881-1890,  on  an  a\T;nir<* 
they  numbered  00,000  a  year  (of  whom  60,000  proceeded  to  tbe 
United  States).  In  1900  the  number  was  87.153  (and  to  tbe  I  t.iu-4 
States  64,137).  Th^  number  of  emigrant  Uermans  has  enormou-s'y 
decreased  01  late  years,  Russia  and  Austria^Hungary  now  bcir^ 
roost  largely  represented.  For  the  accommodation  oT such  passcr.^i  n> 
large  and  convenient  emigrant  shelters  have  been  icoenUy  erected 
close  to  the  wharf  of  embarkation. 

Health  and  PoPuUUion. — ^The  health  of  tbe  dty  of  Hamburfr  aral 
the  adjoining  district  may  be  described  as  gencially  goad,  e> 
epidemic  diseases  having  recently  appeared  to  any  scnous  dv-rrrr. 
The  malady  causing  the  greatest  number  of  deaths  is  that  ci  ;^-J- 
monary  consumption;  but  better  housing  accommodation  }*&>  cL 
late  years  reduced  the  mortality  from  this  disease  very  con^tra^ ' .-. 
The  results  of  the  census  of  1905  showed  the  peculation  of  tbr  civ 
(not  including  the  rural  districts  belonging  to  the  state  ol  Hamburg 
to  be  802,79^. 

Hamburg  is  well  supplied  with  places  of^amusemcnt,  espedslty 
of  the  more  popular  kind.  Its  Stadt-Theater,  rebuilt  in  1S74.  bis 
room  for  1750  spectators  and  is  particulariy  devoted  to  openic 
performances;  the  Thalia-Theater  dates  irom  1841,  and  ho'li 
1700  to  1800  people,  and  the  Schauspielhaus  (for  drama)  from  loco 
people,  and  there  are  some  seven  or  eight  minor  estaUi»hmcrt& 
Theatrical  performances  were  introduced  into  the  dty  in  the'  i;th 
century,  and  1678  is  the  date  of  the  first  opera,  which  was  pla>t>l 
in  a  house  in  the  G&nsemarkt.  Under  Schroder  and  Les»^tng  tbx 
Hamburg  stage  rose  into  importance.  ^  Though  contributiaj;  fev 
names  of  the  highest  rank  to  German  literature,  the  city  has  been 
intimately  associated  with  the  literary  movement.  The  historun 
Lappcnbcra;  and  Fricdrich  von  Hagedorn  were  bom  in  Hamlirf; 
and  not  only  Lessing,  but  Heine  and  Klopstock  lived  there  for  »cnvc 
time. 

History. — Hamburg  probably  had  its  origin  in  a  fortrrss 
erected  in  80S  by  Charlemagne,  on  an  elevation  between  the 
Elbe  and  Alster,  as  a  defence  against  the  Slavs,  and  called 
Hammaburg  because  of  the  surrounding  forest  {liamme).  In 
811  Charlemagne  founded  a  chtxrch  here,  perhaps  on  the  site  of 
a  Saxon  place  of  sacrifice,  and  this  bea.me  a  great  centre  for 
the  evangelization  of  the  north  of  Europe,  missionaries  fron 
Hamburg  introducing  Christianity  into  Jutland  and  the  Dariih 
islands  and  even  into  Sweden  and  Norway.  In  834  Hambur;: 
became  an  archbishopric,  St  Ansgar,  a  monk  of  Corbie  ard 
known  as  the  apostle  of  the  North,  being  the  first  metropclitr.n. 
In  845  church,  monastery  and  town  were  burnt  down  by  the 
Norsemen,  and  two  years  later  the  see  of  Hamborg  was  united 
with  that  of  Bremen  and  its  seat  transferred  to  the  latter  city. 
The  town,  rebuilt  after  this  disaster,  was  again  more  than  ocre 
devastated  by  invading  Danes  and  Slavs.  Archbi^op  UR«a*i 
of  Hamburg-Bremen  (10x3-1029)  substituted  a  chapter  ot 
canons  for  the  monastery,  and  in  1037  Archbishop  Bexclin  (cr 
Alebrand)  built  a  stone  cathedral  and  a  palace  on  tbe  Eilie. 
In  xxzo  Hamburg,  with  Holstdn,  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Adolph  I.,  count  of  Schauenbiirg,  and  it  is  with  the  bui]di:>^ 
of  the  Neustadt  (the  present  parish  of  St  Nicholas)  by  his  grand- 
son, Adolph  III.  of  Holstein,  that  the  history  of  tbe  commercial 
dty  actually  begins.  In  return  for  a  contribution  to  the  cc>'s 
of  a  crusade,  he  obtained  from  the  emperor  Frederick  I.  in  i  (^Q 
a  charter  granting  Hamburg  considerable  franchises,  iadudir^ 
exemption  from  tolls,  a  separate  court  and  jurisdiction,  and  t^c 
rights  of  fishery  on  the  Elbe  from  the  dty  to  the  sea.  The  ciiv 
coundl  {Rjath)^  first  mentioned  in  X190,  had  jurisdiction  over 
both  the  episcopal  and  the  new  town.  Craft  gilds  were  already 
in  existence,  but  these  had  no  share  in  the  govcnuncnt;  fcr, 
though  .the  Lilbeck  rule  e^duding  craftsmen  from  the  £ui' 
did  not  obtain,  they  were  ezduded  in  praaice.    Tbe  counts,  of 


HAMDANi 


87s 


course,  as  over-lords,  had  their  Vogl  (advocalus)  in  the  town, 
but  this  official,  as  the  city  grew  in  power,  became  sibordinate 
to  the  Rath,  as  at  Liibeck. 

The  wealth  of  the  town  was  increased  in  z  189  by  the  destruction 
of  the  flourishing  trading  centre  of  Bardowieck  by  Henry  the 
Lion;  from  this  time  it  began  to  be  much  frequented  by  Flemish 
merchants.  In  1 201  the  city  submitted  to  Valdemar  of  Schleswig, 
after  his  victory  over  the  count  of  Holstein,  but  in  1225,  owing 
to  the  capture  of  King  Valdemar  II.  of  Denmark  by  Henry  of 
Schwerin,  it  once  more  exchanged  the  Danish  over-lordship  for 
that  of  the  counts  of  Schauenburg,  who  established  themselves 
here  and  in  1231  built  a  strong  castle  to  hold  it  in  check.  The 
defensive  alliance  of  the  dty  with  Liibeck  in  1241,  extended 
for  other  purpose  by  the  treaty  of  X255,  practically  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  Hanscatic  League  {q.v.),  of  which  Hamburg 
continued  to  be  one  of  the  principal  members.  The  internal 
organization  of  the  city,  too,  was  rendered  more  stable  by  the 
new  constitution  of  1270,  and  the  recognition  in  1292  of  the 
complete  internal  autonomy  of  the  dty  by  the  count  of  Schauen- 
burg. The  exdusion  of  the  handicraftsmen  from  the  Rath  led, 
early  in  the  15th  century,  to  a  rising  of  the  craft  gilds  against 
the  patrician  merchants,  and  in  1410  they  forced  the  latter  to 
recognize  the  authority  of  a  committee  of  48  burghers,  which 
concluded  with  the  senate  the  so-caUed  First  Recess;  there 
were,  however,  fresh  outbursts  in  1458  and  1483,  which  were 
settled  by  further  compromises.  In  1461  Hamburg  did  homage 
to  Christian  I.  of  Denmark,  as  heir  of  the  Schauenburg  counts; 
but  the  suzerainty  of  Denmark  was  merely  nominal  and  soon 
repudiated  altogether;  in  15 10  Hamburg  was  made  a  free 
imperial  city  by  the  emperor  Maximilian  I. 

In  1529  the  Reformation  was  definitivdy  established  in 
Hamburg  by  the  Great  Recess  of  the  19th  of  February,  which 
at  the  same  time  vested  the  government  of  the  city  in  the  Rath, 
together  with  the  three  colleges  of  the  OberalteHf  the  Forty-eight 
(increased  to  60  in  1685)  and  the  Hundred  and  Forty-four 
(increased  to  180).  The  ordinary  burgesses  consisted  of  the 
freeholders  and  the  master-workmen  of  the  gilds.  In  1536 
Hamburg  joined  the  league  of  Schmalkalden,  for  which  error 
it  had  to  pay  a  heavy  .&ae  in  1547  when  the  league  had  been 
defeated.  During  the  same' period  the  Lutheran  zeal  of  the 
citizens  led  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Mennonites  and  other  Pro- 
testant sects,  who  founded  Altona.  The  loss  this  brought  to 
the  city  was,  however^  compensated  for  by  the  immigration  of 
Protestant  refugees  from  the  Low  Countries  and  Jews  from 
Spain  and  Portugal.  In  1549,  too,  the  English  merchant 
adventurers  removed  their  staple  from  Antwerp  to  Hamburg. 

The  X7th  century  saw  notable  devdopments.  Hamburg  had 
established,  so  early  as  the  i6th  century,  a  regular  postal  servi<» 
with  certain  cities  in  the  interior  of  (Germany,  e.g.  Ldpzig  and 
Breslau;  in  1615.it  was  included  in  the  postal  system  of  Turn 
and  Taxis.  In  1603  Hamburg  recdved  a  code  of  laws  regulating 
exchange,  and  in  1619  the  bank  was  established.  In  1615  the 
Ncustadt  was  included  within  the  dty  walls.  During  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  the  city  received  no  direct  harm;  but  the  ruin  of 
Germany  reacted  upon  its  prosperity,  and  the  misery  of  the  lower 
orders  led  to  an  agitation  against  the  Rath.  In  1685,  at  the 
invitation  of  the  popular  leaders,  the  Danes  appeared  before 
Hamburg  demanding  the  traditional  homage;  they  were 
repulsed,  but  the  internal  troubles  continued,  .culminating  in 
1708  in  the  victory  of  the  democratic  factions.  The  imperial 
government,  however,  intervened,  and  in  1712  the  "'Great 
Recess  "  established  durable  good  relations  between  the  Rath 
and  the  commonalty.  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark,  who  had  seized 
the  opportunity  to  threaten  the  city  (171 2),  was  bought  off  with 
a  ransom  of  246,000  Reichsthaler.  Denmark,  however,  only 
finally  renounced  her  claims  by  the  treaty  of  Gottorp  in  1768, 
and  in  1770  Hamburg  was  admitted  for  the  first  time  to  a  repre- 
sentation in  the  diet  of  the  empire. 

The  trade  of  Hamburg  received  its  first  great  impulse  in  1783, 
when  the  United  States,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  became  an  in-t 
dependent  power.  From  this  time  dates  its  first  direct  mari- 
time communication  with  America.    Its  commerce  was  further 


extended  and  developed  by  the  French  occupation  of  Holland 
in  1795,  when  the  Dutch  trade  was  largely  directed  to  its  port. 
The  French  Revolution  and  the  insecurity  of  the  political 
situation,  however,  exercised  a  depressing  and  retarding  effect. 
The  wars  which  ensued,  the  closing  of  continental  ports  against 
English  trade,  the  occupation  of  the  city  after  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Jena,  and  pestilence  within  its  walls  brought  about  a 
severe  commercial  crisis  and  caused  a  serious  decline  in  its 
prosperity.  Moreover,  the  great  contributions  levied  by 
Napoleon  on  the  dty,  the  plundering  of  its  bank  by  Davoust,  and 
the  burning  of  its  prosperous  subifrbs  inflicted  wounds  from 
which  the  city  but  slowly  recovered.  Under  the  long  peace 
which  followed  the  dose  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  its  trade  gradu- 
ally revived,  fostered  by  the  -declaration  of  independence  of 
South  and  Central  America,  with  both  of  which  it  energetically 
opened  dose  commercial  relations,  and  by  the  introduction  of 
steam  ^navigation.  The  first  steamboat  was  seen  on  the  Elbe  on 
the  17th  of  June  z8x6;  in  1826  a  regular  steam  communication 
was  opened  with  London;  and  in  1856  the  first  direct  steamship 
line  linked  the  port  with  the  Ujiited  States.  The  great  fire  of 
1842  (5th-8th  of  May)  laid  in  waste  the  greatest  part  of  the 
business  quarter  of  the  dty  and  caused  a  temporary  interruption 
of  its  commerce.  The  dty,  however,  soon  rose  from  its  ashes, 
the  churches  were  rebuilt  and  new  streets  laid  out  on  a.  scale  of 
considerable  magnificence.  In  1866  Hamburg  joined  the  North 
German  Confederation,  and  in  1871,  while  remaining  outside 
the  ZoUverein,  became  a  constituent  state  of  the  German  empire. 
In  1883-1888  the  works  for  the  Free  Harboxir  were  completed, 
and  on  the  z8th  of  October  x888  Hamburg  joined  the  Customs 
Union  (2^Uverein).  In  X892  the  cholera  raged  within  its  walls, 
carried  off  8500  of  its  inhabitants,  and  caused  considerable  losses 
to  its  commerce. and  industry;  but  the  visitation  was  not  without 
its  salutary  fruits,  for  an  improved  drainage  system,  better 
hospital  accommodation,  and  a  purer  water-supply  have  since 
combined  to  make  it  one  of  the  healthiest  commercial  dties  of 
Europe. 

Further  details  about  Hamburg;  will  be  found  in  the  followins 
works:  O.  C.  Gaedechens,  Hutonsche  Topograpkie  der  Freien  und 
Hansestadt  Hamburg  (1880) ;  £.  H.  Wichmann,  Heimatskunde  von 
Hamburg  (1863);  W.  Melhop,  Historiscke  Topotraphie  der  Freien 
und  Hanustadt  Hamburg  van  1880-1895  (1896) ;  Wtiln,  Hamburgische 
Gestae  und  Verordnungen  (1889-1896):  andfW.  von  McUe,  Das  kam- 
burguche  Staatsreckt  (X891).  There  are  many  valuable  official 
publications  which  may  be  consulted,  among  these  being:  Statistik 
d€S  kamburgucken  StaaUs  (1867-1904);  Hamburgs  Handd  und 
Sckiffakrt  (1847-IQ03);  the  yearly  Hamburgiuker  StaatskaUnder; 
and  Jakrbuck  der  Hamburger  wUsenschafUicken  AnstaUen.  See  also 
Hamburg  und  seine  Bauten  (1890);  H.  Benrath,  Lokalfukrer  durck 
Hamburg  mnd  Umgebumten  (1904);  and  the  consular  reports  by 
Sir  ^^^lam  Ward,  H.B.M.'s  consul-general  at  Hamburg,  to  whom 
the  author  u  indebted  for  great  assistance  in  compiling  this  article. 

For  the  history  of  Hambuig  see  the  Zeitscknfl  des  VereinsjUr 
hamburgiseke  Gesckickte  (1841,  fol.);  G.  Dchio.  Gesckickte  des  Eru 
bistums  Hamburg-Bremen  (Berlin,  X877);  the  Hamburgisckes 
Urkundenbuch  (iS^),  the  Hamburgiseke  Ckroniken  (i8s2-x86i), 
and  the  Ckronica  der  Stadt  Hamburg  bis  tS57  of  Adam  Tratzigcr 
'x86^).  all  three  edited  by  J.  M.  Lappenberg:  the  Briefsammlung 


^ 


iamburgiscken  Supertnlendenten  Joackim  Westpkal  ISJO-JSTS, 
edited  by  C.  H.  W.  Sillem  (1903):  Gallois,  CesckickU  der  Stadt 
Hamburg  (18^-1856) ;  K.  Koppmann,  Aus  Hamburgs  Vergangenkeit 
(188O,  and  Kammereirecknungen  der  Stadt  Hamburg  (1869-1B94); 
H.  W.  C  Hubbe.  Beitrdge  eur  GesckickU  der  Stadt  Hamburg  (1807) ; 
C.  MftnckcberK.  Gesckickte  der  Freien  und  Hanustadt  Hamburg 
(1885):  E.  H.  Wichmann.  Hamburgiseke  Gesckickte  in  Darsieilungen 
aus  alter  und  neuer  Zeit  (1889):  and  R.  BoUheimer,  ZeiUafeln  der 
kamburgiscken  Gesckickte  (1895). 

HAMDANtt  ixi  full  AbC  Ma^oioced  itvQasan  ibn  A911AD 
XBN  Ya'qOb  ul-HamdAnI  (d.  94s),  Arabian  geographer,  also 
known  as  Ibn  uI-Qi'ik.  Little  is  known  of  him  except  that 
he  bdonged  to  a  family  of  Yemen,  was  held  in  repute  as  a 
grammarian  in  his  own  country,  wrote  much  poetry,  compiled 
astronomical  tables,  devoted  most  of  his  life  to  the  study  of  the 
andent  history  and  geography  of  Arabia,  and  died  in  prison  at 
San'a  in  945.  His  Geography  tf  the  Arabian  Peninsula  (Kiidb 
Jazirat  ul-'Arab)  is  by  far  the  most  important  work  on  the 
subject.  After  bdng  used  in  manuscript  by  A.  Sprenger  in  hia 
Pos^  und  RtisarouUn  des  Orients  (Leipsig,  X864)  and  further 


876 


HAMELIN— HAMERLING 


in  his  AlU  Ceograpkie  Araiiens  (Bern,  1875),  it  was  edited  by 

D.  H.  Mailer  (Leiden,  1884;  cf.  A.  Sprenger's  criticism  in 

Zeiisckrifi  der  deuiscken  morgenldndischeH  Gesellschaft,  vol.  45, 

pp.  361-394).    Much  has  also  been  written  on  this  work  by  £. 

Glaser  in  his  various  publications  on  ancient  Arabia.   The  other 

great  work  of  Hamd&nX  is  the  JklU  (Crown)  concerning  the 

genealogies  of  the  Himyaritcs  and  the  wars  of  their  kings  in  ten 

volumes.    Of  this,  part  8,  on  the  citadels  and  castles  of  south 

Arabia,  has  been  edited  and  annotated  by  D.  H.  Mtiller  in  Die 

Burgen  und  ScUdsser  SUdarabUns  (Vienna,  X879-X88X). 

For  other  works  said  to  have  been  written  by  Hamdini  cf.  G. 
FlOgel's  Die  grammaHscheH  Schttlen  der  Araber  (Leipziff.  1863), 
pp.  320-421.  (G.  W.  T.) 

HAMBUN,  FRAHCOIS  ALPHONSB  (1796-1864),  French 
admiral,  was  bom  at  Font  r£v£que  on  the  and  of  September 
1796.  He  went  to  sea  with  his  uncle,  J.  F.  E.  Hamelin,  in  the 
"  V6nus  "  frigate  in  z8o6  as  cabin  boy.  The  "  V£nus  "  was 
part  of  the  French  squadron  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  young 
Hamelin  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  much  active  service. 
She,  in  company  with  another  and  a  smaller  vessel,  captured 
the  English  frigate  "  Ceylon  "  in  x8zo,  but  was  immediately 
afterwards  captured  herself  by  the  "  Boadicda,"  under  Com- 
modore Rowley  (1765-1842).  Young  Hamelin  was  a  prisoner  of 
war  for  a  short  time.  He  returned  to  France  in  x Six.  On  the 
fall  of  the  Empire  he  had  better  fortune  than  most  of  the 
Napoleonic  officers  who  were  turned  ashore.  In  i8ax  he  became 
lieutenant,  and  in  x8a3  took  part  in  the  French  expedition  under 
the  duke  of  Angoul^me  into  Spain.  In  1828  he  was  appointed 
captain  of  the  "  Actfon,"  and  was  engaged  till  X83X  on  the  coast 
of  Algiers  and  in  the  conquest  of  the  town  and  country.  His 
first  command  as  flag  officer  was  in  the  Pacific^  where  he  showed 
much  tact  during  the  dispute  over  the  Marquesas  Islands  with 
England  in  X844.  He  was  promoted  vice-admiral  in  1848. 
During  the  Crimean  War  he  conunanded  in  the  Black  Sea,  and 
co-operated  with  Admiral  Dundas  in  the  bombardment  of 
Sevastopol  X7th  of  October  1854.  His  relations  with  his  English 
colleague  were  not  very  cordid.  On  the  7th  of  December  1854 
he  was  promoted  admiral.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was. recalled 
to  France,  and  was  named  minister  of  marine.  His  administra- 
tion lasted  till  x86o,  and  was  i^markable  for  the  expeditions 
to  Italy  and  China  organized  under  his  directions;  but  it  was 
even  more  notable  for  the  energy  shown  in  adopting  and 
developing  the  use  of  armour.  The  launch  of  the  "  Gloire  " 
in  X859  set  the  example  of  constructing  sea-going  ironclads. 
The  first  English  ironclad^  the  "  Warrior,"  was  designed  as 
an  answer  to  the-**  Gloire."  When  Napoleon  HI.  made  his  first 
concession  to  Liberal  opposition.  Admiral  Hamelin  was  one  of 
the  ministers  sacrificed.  He  held  no  further  command;  and  died 
on  the  loth  of  January  X864. 

HAMELN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hanover,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Weser  and  Hamel,  33  m.  S.W. 
of  Hanover,  on  the  line  to  Altenbeken,  which  here  effects  a 
junction  with  railways  to  Ltthne  and  Brunswick.  Pop.  (X905) 
20,736.  It  has  a  venerable  appearance  and  has  many  interesting 
and  picturesque  houses.  The  chief  public  buildings  of  interest 
are  the  minster,  dedicated  to  St  Boniface  and  restored  in  1870- 
1875;  the  town  hall;  the  so-called  Rattenfingerhaus  (rat- 
catcher's house)  with  mural  frescoes  illustrating  the  legend  (see 
below);  and  the  Hochzeitshaus  (wedding  house)  with  beautiful 
gables.  There  are  classical,  modem  and  commercial  schools. 
The  principal  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  paper,  leather, 
chemicab  and  tobacco,  sugar  refining,  shipbuilding  and  salmon 
fishing.  By  the  steamboats  on  the  Weser  there  is-communication 
with  Karlshafen  and  Minden.  In  order  to  avoid  the  dangerous 
part  of  the  river  near  the  town  a  channel  was  cut  in  1734,  the 
repairing  and  deepening  of  which,  begun  in  x868,  was  completed 
in  x873«  T^^  Weser  is  here  crossed  by  an  iron  suspension  bridge 
830  ft.  in  length,  supported  by  a  pier  erected  on  an  island  in  the 
oiddle  of  the  river. 

The  older  name  of  Hamebi  was  Hameloa  or  Hamelowe,  and 
the  town  owes  its  origin  to  an  abbey.  It  existed  as  a  town  as 
early  as  the  xxth  century,  and  in  1259  it  was  sold  by  the  abbot 


of  Fulda  to  the  bishop  of  Minden,  afterwards  pasang  ander  the 
protection  of  the  dukes  of  Bmnswick.  About  x  546  the  Refontia- 
tion  gained  an  entrance  into  the  town,  which  was  taken  by  both 
parties  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  In  1757  it  ca4>itu]ated 
to  the  French,  who,  however,  vacated  it  in  the  following  year. 
Its  fortifications  were  strengthened  in  1766  by  the  erection  of 
Fort  George,  on  an  eminence  to  the  west  of  the  town,  across  ibe 
river.  On  the  capitulation  of  the  Hanoverian  army  in  1803 
Hameln  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French;  it  was  retaken  by 
the  Prussians  in  x8q6,  but,  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  again  passed 
to  the  French,  who  dismantled  the  fortifications  aixi  ixKorporated 
the  town  in  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia.  In  1814  it  again  became 
Hanoverian,  but  in  x866  fell  with  that  kingdom  to  Prussia. 

Legend  of  the  Pied  Piper. — Hamrin  is  famed  as  the  xeoe  of 
the  myth  of  the  piper  of  Hameln.  According  to  the  legend, 
the  town  in  the  year  xa84  was  infested  by  a  terrible  plague  of 
rats.  One  day  there  appeared  upon  the  scene  a  piper  dad  ia 
a  fantastic  suit,  who  offered  for  a  certain  sum  of  mon^  to  charm 
all  the  vermin  into  the  Weser.  His  conditions  were  agreed  to, 
but  after  he  had  fulfilled  his  promise  the  inhabitants,  on  the 
ground  that  he  was  a  sorcerer,  declined  to  fulfil  thar  part  of  the 
bargain,  whereupon  on  the  26th  of  Jvaxt  he  reappoued  in  the 
streets  of  the  town,  and  putting  his  pipe  to  his  lips  began  a  soft 
and  curious  strain.  This  drew  all  the  children  after  him  and 
he  led  them  out  of  the  town  to  the  Koppdberg  hill,  in  the  side 
of  which  a  door  suddenly  opened,  by  wldch  he  entered  and  the 
children  after  him,  all  but  one  who  was  lame  and  oonkl  not 
follow -fast  enough  to  reach  the  door  before  it  shut  again.  Some 
trace  the  origin  of  the  legend  to  the  Children's  Crusade  dim; 
others  to  an  abduction  of  children;  and  others  to  a  dandag 
mania  which  seized  upon  some  of  the  young  people  ci  Hamelji 
who  left  the  town  on  a  mad  pilgrinaage  from  which  they  never 
returned.  For  a  considerable  time  the  town  dated  its  puUk 
documents  from  the  event.  The  story  is  the  subject  of  a  poem 
by  Robert  Browning,  and  also  of  one  by  Julius  Wolff.  Cuikms 
evidence  that  the  story  rests  on  a  basis  of  trath  is  g^ven  by  the 
fact  that  the  Koppelberg  is  not  one  of  the  imposing  hLb  by  whkh 
Hameln  is  surrounded,  but  no  more  than  a  slight  elevatioa  of 
the  groimd,  barely  hi^  enough  to  hide  the  diildicn  from  view 
as  they  left  the  town. 

See  C.  Langlotz,  Cesekickte der Siadt HMMf«(Hanidn,  x888 M): 
Spren^,  Cesekickte  der  Stadt  Hamdn  (i86x);  O.  Meinanliis.  Df 
kulortsehe  Kern  der  RaUenfdngersage  (Hameln,  X882);  Joetes.  Der 
RaUen/dnur  ven  Hameln  (Bonn,  1885);  and  S.  Banng-Gould. 
Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages  (1868). 

HAMBRUNO,  ROBBRT  (X830-X889),  Austrian  poet,  was  bora 
at  Kirchenberg-am-Walde  in  Lower  Austria,  0x1  the  24th  of 
March  X830,  of  humble  parentage.  He  early  displayed  a  genius 
for  poetry  and  his  youthful  attempts  at  drama  excited  the 
interest  and  admiration  of  some  influential  persona.  Owing  to 
their  assistance  young  Hamerling  was  enabled  to  attend  the 
gymnasiunl  in  Vietma  and  subsequently  the  university.  In 
1848  he  joined  the  student's  legion,  which  played  so  oonspicuooi 
a  part  in  the  revolutions  of  the  capital,  and  in  X849  shared  in  the 
defence  of  Vienna  againat  the  imperialist  troops  of  Prince 
Windischgrfitz,  and  after  the  collapse  of  the  revolutionaiy 
movement  he  was  obliged  to  hide  for  a  long  time  to  esc^ie 
arrest.  For  the  next  few  years  he  diligently  punued  his  stndks 
in  natural  science  and  philosophy,  and  in  1855  was  appcnnted 
master  at  the  gymnasium  at  Trieste.  For  many  yean  he  battkd 
with  ill-health,  and  in  x866  retired  on  a  pension,  iHiich  in  acknow- 
ledgment of  his  literary  labours  was  increased  by  the  goverxuneat 
to  a  sum  sufficient  to  enable  him  to  live  without  care  until  his 
death  at  his  villa  in  Stiftingstal  near  Graz,  on  the  xjth  of  July 
X889.  Hamerlixxg  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  <tf  the  poets 
of  the  modem  Austrian  school;  his  imagination  was  ridi  and 
his  poems  are  full  of  life  and  a>lour.  His  most  popular  poem, 
Ahasver  in  Rom  (x866),  of  which  the  emperor  Nero  is  the  centxal 
figure,  shows  at  its  best  the  author's  brilliant  talent  for  descrip- 
tioiL  Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned  Yemu  tw 
ExU  (x8s8);  Der  Kdnig  von  Stow  (X869),  which  k  general^ 
regarded  as  his  masterpiece;  Die  siehem  TodtSmdm  (1873); 
\  BIdUer  im  Winde  (1887);  Homimaaus '  {i88&)i  Amor  wei 


HAMERTON— HAMILCAR 


«77 


Psyche  (i88a).  His  novd,  Aspasia  (1876)  gives  «  findy-drawn 
description  of  the  Peridean  age,  but  like  his  tragedy  DamUm 
und  Robespierre  (1870),  is  somewhat  stilted,  showing  that 
Hamerling's  genius,  though  rich  in  imagination,  was  ill-suited 
for  the  realistic  presentation  of  character. 

A  popular  edition  of  Hameriins's  works  in  four  volumes  was 

Eublished  by  M.  M.  Rabenlcchner  (Hamburg,  1900)..  For  the  poet's 
fe.  tee  his  autobiographical  writing.  Statumen  meiner  LebenspUger- 
sekafi  (1889)  and  Lekrjakr*  der  Lube  (1890):  also  M.  M.  Rabcn- 
lecbner,  Hamerling,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke,  L  (Hamburei  1896) ; 
a  short  biography  by  the  same  (Dresden,  1901);. R.  H.  Rletnert. 
R.  Hamerling,  ein  DickUr  der  Sckdnkeit  (Hamburg,  1889) :  A.  Poker, 
Hamerlingt  sein  Wesen  und  Wirken  (Hamburg,  1890). 

HAMERTON,  PHILIP  GILBERT  (i854-i894)r  English  artist 
and  author,  was  bom  at  Laneside,  near  Shaw,  close  to  Oldham, 
on  the  lotb  of  September  1834.  His  mother  died  at  his  birth, 
and  having  lost  his  father  ten  years  afterwards,  he  was  educated 
privatdy  under  the  direction  of  his  guardians.  His  first  literary 
attempt,  a  volume  of  poems,  proving  unsuccessful,  he  devoted 
himsdf  for  a  time  entirely  to  landscape  painting,  encamping 
out  of  doors  in  the  Highlands,  where  he  eventually  rented  the 
island  oC  Innistrynych,  upon  which  he  settled  with  his  wife,  a 
French  lady,  in  1858.  Discovering  after  a  time  that  his  qualifica- 
tions were  rather  those  of  an  art  critic  than  of  a  painter  he 
removed  to  the  neighbourhood  of  his  wife's  relatives  in  France, 
where  he  produced  his  Painter's  Camp  in  the  Highlands  (1863), 
which  obtained  a  great  success  and  prepared  the  way  for  his 
standard  work  on  Etching  and  Etchers  (1866).  In  the  following 
year  he  published  a  book,  entitled  Contemporary  French  Painters, 
and  in  1868  a  continuation,  Painting  in  Prance  after  the  Decline 
of  Classicism,  He  had  meanwhile  become  art  critic  to  the 
Saturday  Review,  a  position  which,  from  the  burden  it  laid  upon 
him  of  frequent  visits  to  England,  he  did  not  long  retain.  He 
proceeded  (1870)  to  establish  an  art  journal  of  his  own,  The 
PortfoliOf  a  monthly  periodical,  each  number  of  which  consisted 
of  a  monograph  upon  some  artbt  or  group  of  artists,  frequently 
written  and  always  edited  by  him.  The  discontinuance  of  his 
active  work  as  a  painter  gave  him  time  for  more  general  literary 
composition,  and  he  successivdy  produced  The  Intellectual  Life 
(1873),  perhaps  the  best  known  and  most  valuable  of  his  writings; 
Round  my  House  (1876),  notes  on  French  sodety  by  a  resident; 
and  Modem  Frenchmen  (1879),  admirable  short  biographies. 
He  also  wrote  two  novels,  Wender holme  (1870)  and  Marmome 
(1878).  In  1884  Human  Intercourse^  another  valuable  volume 
of  essays,  was  published,  and  shortly  afterwards  Hamerton 
began  to  write  his  autobiography,  which  he  brought  down  to 
1 858.  In  1882  he  issued  a  finely  illustrated  work  on  the  technique 
of  the  great  masters  of  various  arts,  under  the  title  of  The 
Graphic  Arts,  and  three  years  later  another  splendidly  illustrated 
volume.  Landscape,  which  traces  the  influence  of  landscape  upon 
the  mind  of  man.  His  last  books  were:  Portfolio  Papers  (1889) 
and  French  and  English  (1889).  In  1891  he  removed  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  Paris,  and  died  suddenly  on  the  4th  of 
November  1894,  occupied  to  the  last  with  his  labours  on  The 
Portfolio  and  other  writings  on  art. 

In  1896  was  published  Philip  Gilbert  Hamerton:  an  Auto- 
biography, 1834-18581  and  a  Memoir  by  his  Wife,  1858-18^ 

HAMI,  a  town  in  Chinese  Turkestan,  otherwise  called  Kamtl, 
KoMUL  or  Kahul,  situated  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Tian- 
Shan  mountains,  and  on  the  northern  verge  of  the  Great  Gobi 
desert.  In  43"*  48'  N..  93*  38'  E.,  at  a  height  above  sea>levd  of 
3150  ft.  The  town  is  first  mentioned  in  Chinese  history  in  the 
1st  century,  under  the  name  I-wu-lu,  and  said  to  be  situated 
1000  lis  north  of  the  fortress  Ytt-men-kuan,  and  to  be  the  key 
to  the  western  countries.  This  evidently  referred  to  its  advanta- 
geous position,  lying  as  it  did  in  a  fertile  tract,  at  the  point 
of  convergence  of  two  main  routes  running  north  and  south  of 
the  Tian-Shan  and  connecting  China  with  the  west.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Chinese  in  a.d.  73  from  the  Hiungnu  (the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Mongolia),  and  made  a  military  station.  It  next 
fell  inter  the*  hands  of  the  Uighurs  or  Eastern  Turks,  who  made 
it  one  of  their  chief  towns  and  held  it  for  several  centuries,  and 
whose  descendants  are  said  to  live  there  now.    From  the  7th 


to  the  nth  century  I-wu-Iu  li  said  to  have  borne  die  name  of 
Igu  or  I'Chu,  under  the  former  of  which  names  it  is  spoken  of  by 
the  Chinese  pilgrim,  HsUan  tsang,  who  passed  through  it  in  the 
7th  century,  libe  name  Hami  is  first  met  in  the  Chinese  Kflan-xiu 
or  **  History  of  the  Mongol  Dynasty,"  but  the  name  more 
generally  used  there  is  Homi-li  or  Komi-U.  Marco  Polo,  describ- 
ing it  apparently  from  hearsay,  calls  it  Camul,  and  speaks  of  it 
as  a  fruitful  place  inhabited  by  a  Buddhist  people  of  idolatrous 
and  wanton  habits.  It  was  visited  in  1341  by  Giovanni  de 
MarignoUi,  who  baptized  a  number  of  both  sexes  there,  and  by 
the  envoys  of  Shah  Rukh  (1420),  who  found  a  magnificent 
mosque  and  a  convent  of  dervishes,  In  juxtaposition  with  a  fine 
Buddhist  temple.  Hadji  Mahommcd  (Ramusio*s  friend)  speaks 
of  Kamul  as  being  in  his  time  {c.  1550)  the  first  Mahommedan 
dty  met  with  in  travelling  from  China.  When  Benedict  Goes 
travelled  through  the  country  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century,  the  power  of  the  king  Mahommed  Khan  of  Kashgar 
extended  over  nearly  the  whole  country  at  the  base  of  the  Tian- 
Shan  to  the  Chinese  frontier,  induding  Kamil.  It  fell  under  the 
sway  of  the  Chinese  in  1720,  was  lost  to  them  in  1865  during  the 
great  Mahonmiedan  rebellion,  and  the  trade  route  through  it 
was  consequently  dosed,  but  was  regained  in  1873.  Owing  to 
its  commanding  position  on  the  prindpal  route  to  the  west,  and 
its  exceptional  fertility,  it  has  very  frequently  changed  hands 
in  the  wars  between  China  and  her  western  ndghbours.  Hami 
is  now  a  small  town  of  about  6000  inhabitants,  and  is  a  busy 
trading  centre.  The  Mahommedan  population  consists  of 
immigrants  from  Kashgaria,  Bokhara  and  Samarkand,  and  of 
descendants  of  the  Uighurs. 

HAMILCAR  BARCA.  or  Baicas  (Heb.  barah  "  Ughtning"), 
Carthaginian  general  and  statesman,  father  of  Hannibal,  was 
bom  soon  after  270  B.C.  He  distinguished  himsdf  during  the 
First  Punic  War  in  247,  when  he  took  over  the  chief  command  in 
Sicily,  which  at  tKis  time  was  almost  entirdy  in  the  hands  of 
the  Romans.  Landing  suddenly  on  the  north-west  of  the  island 
with  a  smalt  mercenary  force  he  seized  a  strong  position  on  Mt. 
Ercte  (Monte  Pdlegrino,  near  Palermo),  and  not  only  maintained 
himself  against  all  attacks,  but  carried  his  raids  as  far  as  the 
coast  of  south  Italy.*  In  244  he  transferred  his  army  to  a  similar 
position  on  the.  slopes  of  Mt.  Eryz  (Monte  San  Giuliano),  from 
which  he  was  able  to  lend  support  to  the  besieged  garrison  in 
the  neighbouring  town  of  Drepanum  (Trapani).  By  a  provision 
of  the  peace  of  241  HamHcar's  unbeaten  force  was  allowed  to 
depart  from  Sicily  without  any  token  of  submission.  On  return- 
ing to  Africa  his  troops,  which  had  been  kept  together  only  by 
his  personal  authority  and  by  the  promise  of  gwxl  pay,  broke 
out  into  open  mutiny  when  their  rewards  were  withheld  by 
HamOcar's  opponents  among  the  governing  aristocracy.  The 
serious  danger  into  which  Carthage  was  brought  by  the  failure 
of  the  aristocratic  generals  was  averted  by  Hamilcar,  whom 
the  government  in  this  crisis  could  not  but  reinstate.  By  the 
power  of  his  personal  influence  among  the  mercenaries  and  the 
surrounding  African  peoples,  and  by  superior  strategy,  he  speedily 
crushed  the  revolt  (237).  After  this  success  HamUcar  enjoyed 
such  influence  among  the  popular  and  patriotic  party  that  his 
opponents  could  not  prevent  him  being  raised  to  a  virtual 
dictatorship.  After  recruiting  and  training  a  new  army  in 
some  Numidian  forays  he  l«d  on  his  own  responsibflity  an 
expedition  into  Spain,  where  he  hoped  to  gain  a  new  empire  to 
compensate  Carthage  for  the  loss  of  Sidly  and  Sardinia,  and  to 
serve  as  a  basb  for  a  campaign  of  vengeance  against  the  Romans 
(236).  In  dght  years  by  force  of  arms  and  diplomacy  he  secured 
an  extensive  territory  in  Spain,  but  his  premature  death  in  battle 
(228)  prevented  him  from  completing  the  conquest.  Hamilcar 
stood  out  far  above  the  Carthaginians  of  his  age  in  military  and 
diplomatic  skill  and  in  strength  of  patriotism;  in  these  qualities 
he  was  surpassed  only  by  his-  son  Hannibal,  whom  he  had 
imbued  with  his  own  deep  hatred  of  Rome  and  trained  to  be 
his  successor  in  the  conflict. 

This  Hamilcar  has  been  confused  with  another  general  who 
succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  Carthaginians  in  the  First  Punk 
War,  and  after  successes  at  Therma  and  uitepanum  was  ddcated  at 


878 


HAMILTON  (FAMILY) 


Ecnomus  (356  B.  c).  Subtequently.  apart  from  unskilful  opentiont 
asainsc  Regutut,  nothing  U  certainly  known  of  him.  For  others 
of  the  name  see  Carthacb.  Sicily.  Smith'*  Classical  Dictionary. 
So  far  as  the  name  itaelf  is  concerned,  Mtlcar  is  perhaps  the  same  as 
Melkartk,  the  Tyrian  god. 

See  Polybius  i.-iii. ;  Cornelius  Nepos,  Vita  BMuikaris;  Appian, 
Res  Hispanuae^  cha.  4,  S,  Diodorus,  Excerpta,  xxiv.,  xxv.;  O. 
Meltxer,  Ctsckuku  der  Kartkacer  (Berlin,  1877),  u.  also  Punic 
Wars.  (M.  O.  B.  C.) 

HAMILTON,  the  name  of  a  famous  Scottish  family.  Chief 
among  the  legends  still  clinging  to  this  important  family  is  that 
which  gives  a  descent  from  the  house  of  Beaumont,  a  branch 
<rf  which  is  stated  to  have  held  the  manor  of  Hamilton  in 
Leicestershire;  and  it  is  argued  that  the  three  dnquefoils  of 
the  Hamilton  shield  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  single  cinque- 
foil  of  the  Beaumonts.  In  face  of  this  it  has  been  recently  shown 
that  the  single  dnquefoil  was  also  borne  by  the  Umfravilles  of 
Northumberland,  who  appear  to  have  owned  a  place  called 
Hamilton  in  that  county.  It  may  be  pointed  out  that  Simon 
de  Montfort,  the  great  earl  of  Leicester,  in  whose  veins  flowed 
the  blood  of  the  Beaumonts,  obtained  about  1245  the  wardship 
of  Gilbert  de  Umfraville,  second  earl  of  Angus,  and  it  is  con- 
ceivable that  this  name  Gilbert  may  somehow  be  responsible 
for  the  legend  of  the  Beaumont  descent,  seeing  that  the  first 
authentic  ancestor  of  the  Hamiltons  is  one  Walter  FitaGilbert. 
He  first  appears  in  1294-x  295  as  one  of  the  witnesses  to  a  charter 
by  James,  the  high  steward  of  Scotland,  to  the  monks  of  Paisley; 
and  in  I2g6  his  name  appears  in  the  Homage  Roll  as  Walter 
FiuGilbert  of  "  Hameldone."  Who  this  GUbert  of  "  Hamcl- 
done  "  may  have  been  is  uncertain, "  but  the  fact  must  be  faced," 
Mr  John  Anderson  points  out  (Scots  PeeragCf  iv.  340)  "  that  in 
a  charter  of  the  12th  of  December  1272  by  Thomas  of  Cragyn 
or  Craigie  to  the  monks  of  Paisley  of  his  church  of  Craigie  in 
Kyle,  there  appears  as  witness  a  certain  '  GUbert  de  Hameldun 
cUricus^*  whose  name  occurs  along  with  the  local  clergy  of 
Inverk^,  Blackball,  Paisley  and  Dunoon.  He  was  therefore 
probably  also  a  cleric  of  the  same  neighbourhood,  and  it  is 
significant  that  '  Walter  FitzGilbert '  appears  first  in  that 
district  in  1294  and  in  129O  is  described  as  son  of  GUbert  de 
Hameldone.  .  .  ."  Walter  FitzGHbert  to%k  some  part  in  the 
affairs  of  his  time.  At  first  he  joined  the  English  party  but  after 
Bannockburn  went  over  to  Bruce,  was  knighted  and  subse- 
quently received  the  barony  of  Cadzow.  His  younger  son  John 
was  father  of  Alexander  Hamilton  who  acquired  the  lands  of 
Innerwick  by  marriage,  and  from  him  descended  a  certain 
Thomas  Hamilton,  who  acquired  the  lands  of  Priestfield  early 
in  the  i6lh  century.  Another  Thomas,  grandson  of  this  last, 
who  bad  with  others  of  his  house  foUowed  Queen  Mary  and 
with  them  had  been  restored  to  royal  favour,  became  a  lord  of 
session  as  Lord  Priestfield.  Two  of  his  younger  sons  enjoyed 
also  this  legal  distinction,  whUe  the  eldest,  Thomas,  was  made 
an  ordinary  lord  of  session  as  early  as  1592  and  was  eventually 
created  earl  of  Haddington  (q.v.).  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  5th  earl  of  Haddington  by  his  marriage  with  Lady  Margaret 
Leslie  brought  for  a  time  the  earldom  of  Rothes  to  the  Hanultons 
to  be  added  to  their  already  numerous  titles. 

Sir  "  David  FitzWalter  FitzGUbert,"  who  carried  on  the 
main  line  of  the  Hanultons,  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Neville's  Cross  (1346)  and  treated  as  of  great  importance,  being 
ransomed,  it  is  stated,  for  a  large  sum  of  money;  in  1371  and 
1373  be  was  one  of  the  barons  in  the  parliament.  Of  the  four 
sons  attributed  to  him  David  succeeded  in  the  representation 
of  the  family,  Sir  John  Hamilton  of  Fingaltoun  was  ancestor 
of  the  Hamiltons  of  Preston,  and  Walter  is  stated  to  have  been 
progenitor  of  the  Hanultons  of  Cambuskeith  and  Sanquhar  in 
Ayrshire. 

David  HamUton,  the  first  apparently  to  describe  himself  as 
lord  of  Cadzow,  died  before  1392,  leaving  four  or  five  sons,  from 
whom  descended  the  Hamiltons  of  Bathgate  and  of  Bardowie, 
and  perhaps  also  of  Udstown,  to  which  last  belong  the  lords 
Belhaven. 

Sir  John  Hamilton  of  Cadzow,  the  eldest  son,  was  twice  a 
prisoner  in  England,  but  beyond  this  little  is  known  of  him; 


even  the  date  of  his  death  is  uncertain.  His  two  yoaogcr 
are  stated  to  have  been  founders  of  the  houses  of  Dalscxf  and 
Raploch.  His  eldest  son,  James  Hamilton  of  Cadzow,  like  his 
father  and  great-grandfather,  visited  England  as  &  prisoner, 
being  one  of  the  hostages  for  the  king's  ransom.  From  him  the 
Hamiltons  of  SUvertonhiU  and  the  lords  Hamilton  of  DalzeS 
claim  descent,  among  the  more  distinguished  members  <rf  the 
former  branch  being  General  Sir  Ian  Hamilton,  K.C.B.  Jaicn 
Hamilton  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Sir  James  Hamiltac 
of  Cadzow,  who  was  created  in  1445  ^^  hereditary  lord  of  parti  j- 
ment,  and  was  thereafter  known  as  Lord  Hamilton.  He  bad 
allied  himself  some  years  before  with  the  great  house  of  DoogJcs 
by  marriage  with  Euphemia,  widow  of  the  5th  earl  of  Doughs, 
and  was  at  first  one  of  its  most  powerful  supponos  in  the 
struggle  with  James  II.  Later,  however,  he  obtained  the  nyai 
favour  and  married  about  1474  Mary,  sister  of  James  III.  aad 
widow  of  Thomas  Boyd,  earl  of  Arran.  Of  this  marriage  %-zs 
bom  James,  second  Lord  Hamilton,  who  as  a  near  relative  took 
an  active  part  in  the  arrangements  at  the  marriage  of  James  IV. 
with  Margaret  Tudor;  being  rewarded  on  the  same  day  (ibe 
8th  of  August  1503)  with  the  earldom  of  Arran.  A  cfaampios 
in  the  lists  he  was  scarcely  so  successful  as  a  leader  of  men.  Ids 
struggl<!  with  the  Douglases  being  destitute  of  any  great  mania] 
achievement.  01  his  many  iUegitimate  children  Sir  James 
Hamilton  of  Finnart,  beheaded  in  1540,  was  ancestor  of  the 
HamUtons  of  Gilkersdeugh;  and  John,  archbishop  of  St  Andrcm, 
hanged  by  his  Protestant  enemies,  was  ancestor  of  the  Hamiltora 
of  Blair,  and  is  said  also  to  have  been  ancestor  ol  Hamilton  of 
London,  baronet.  James,  second  earl  of  Arran,  son  of  the  fint 
earl  by  his  second  wife  Janet  Beaton,  was  chosen  governor  10 
the  little  Queen  Mary,  being  nearest  of  kin  to  the  throne  throafh 
his  grandmother,  though  the  question  of  the  validity  of  his 
mother's  marriage  was  by  no  means  settled.  He  l^d  the 
governorship  till  1554,  having  in  1549  been  granted  the  duchy 
of  Ch&tellerault  in  France.  Jn  his  policy  he  was  vadUaticg 
and  eventually  he  retired  to  France,  being  absent  during  tbc 
three  momentous  years  prior  to  the  deposition  of  Mary.  On  his 
return  he  headed  the  queen's  party,  his  property  suffering  ia 
consequence.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  title  in  x  579  by  his  eldest 
son  James,  whose  qualities  were  such  that  he  was  even  propoEed 
as  a  husband  for  Queen  EUizabcth,  but  unfortunately  hesoon after 
became  insane,  his  brother  John,  afterwards  first  marquess  of 
Hamilton,  administering  the  estates.  From  the  third  son.  Cbsd 
descends  the  duke  of  Abercom,  heir  male  of  the  house  d 
HamUton. 

The  first  marquess  of  HamUton  had  a  natural  son.  Sir  John 
HamUton  of  Lettrick,  who  was  legitimated  in  x6co  and  «ss 
ancestor  of  the  lords  Baigany.  His  two  legitimate  sons  »ne 
James,  3rd  marquess  and  first  duke  of  HamUton,  and  Wilhajn, 
who  succeeded  his  brother  as  2nd  duke  and  was  in  luro 
succeeded  under  the  special  remainder  contained  in  the  patent  cf 
dukedom,  by  his  niece  Anne,  duchess  of  HamUton,  who  was 
married  in  1656  to  William  Douglas,  eari  of  Selkirk.  The  history 
of  the  descendants  of  thii  marriage  belongs  to  the  great  hou^c 
of  Douglas,  the  7th  duke  of  Hamilton  becoming  the  male  lepre- 
sentative  and  chief  of  the  house  of  Dou^as,  earis  of  Angus. 

The  above  mentioned  Claud  H&mUton,  who  with  hb  bnxber, 
the  first  marquess,  had  taken  so  large  a  part  in  the  cause  cf 
Queen  Mary,  was  created  a  lord  of  parUameni  as  Lord  Paisky 
in  1587.  He  had  five  sons,  of  whom  three  settled  in  Irdicd, 
Sir  Claud  being  ancestor  of  the  HamUtons  of  Bdtrim  an>1  Sir 
Frederick,  distinguished  in  early  life  in  the  Swedish  wars,  brins 
ancestor  of  the  viscounts  Boyne. 

James,  the  eldest  son  of  Lord  Paisley,  found  favour  «i'.^ 
James  VI.  and  was  created  in  1603  htxd  of  Abercom,  and  (hne 
years  later  was  advanced  in  the  peerage  as  eari  of  Abcrccrn 
and  lord  of  Paisley,  HamUton,  MountcasteU  and  Ki^trici.  His 
eldest  son  James,  2nd  earl  of  Abercom,  eventually  heir  nule  c4 
the  house  of  Hamilton  and  successor  to  the  dukedom  of  ChJtc'- 
lerault,  was  created  in  his  father's  lifetime  lord  of  Strabanc  in 
Ireland,  but  he  resigned  this  title  in  1633  in  favour  of  his  brother 
I  Claud,  whose  grandson.  Claud,  5th  Lord  Stiabane.  saaeedcd 


HAMILTON  (TITLE) 


879 


eventually  as  4th  earl  of  Abercorn.  This  earl,  taking  the  side 
of  James  II.,  was  with  him  in  Ireland,  his  estate  and  title  being 
afterwards  forfeited,  while  his  kinsman  Gustavus  Hamilton, 
afterwards  6rst  Lord  Boyne,  raised  several  regiments  for  William 
III.,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  service  of  that 
monarch.  His  brother  Charles,  5th  earl  of  Abercorn,  who 
obtained  a  reversal  of  the  attainder,  died  without  issue  surviving 
in  1701  when  the  titles  passed  to  his  kinsman  James  Hamilton, 
grandson  of  Sir  George  Hamilton  of  Donalong  in  Ireland  and 
great-grandson  of  the  first  earl.  This  branch,  most  faithful 
to  the  house  of  Stuart,  counted  among  its  many  members 
distinguished  in  military  annals  Count  Anthony  Hamilton, 
author  of  the  Mtmoires  du  comU  de  Cramont  and  brother  of  '*  la 
belle  Hamilton."  James,  6th  earl  of  Abercorn  (whose  brother 
William  was  ancestor  of  Hamilton  of  the  Mount,  baronet),  was  a 
partisan  of  Willianf  UI.,  and  obtained  in  1701  the  additional 
Irish  titles  ol  lord  of  Mountcastle  and  viscount  of  Strabane. 

The  8th  earl  of  Abercorn,  who  was  summoned  to  the  Irish 
bouse  of  peers  in  his  father's  lifetime  as  Lord  Mountcastle,  was 
created  a  peer  of  Great  Britain  in  1786  as  Viscount  Hamilton 
of  Hamilton  in  Leicestershire,  and  renewed  the  family's  connexion 
with  Scotland  by  repurchasing  the  barony  of  Duddingston 
and  later  the  lordship  of  Paisley.  His  nephew  and  successor 
was  created  marquess  of  Abercorn  in  1790,  and  was  father  of 
James,  ist  duke  of  Abercorn. 

See  the  article  Hamilton  and  other  articles  on  the  different 
branches  of  the  family  (e.r.  Haddington  and  Bclhaven)  in  Sir  J.  B. 
Paul's  edition  of  Sir  R.  Douglas's  Peerage  of  Scotland;  and  also 
G.  Marshall,  Guide  to  Heraldry  and  Genealogy. 

HAMILTON.  MARQUESSES  AND  DUKES  OP.  The  holders 
of  these  titles  descended  from  Sir  James  Hamilton  of  Cadzow, 
who  was  made  an  hereditary  lord  of  parliament  in  1445,  his  lands 
and  baronies  at  the  same  time  being  erected  into  the  "  lordship  " 
of  Hamilton.  His  first  wife  Euphemia,  widow  of  the  sih  earl 
of  Douglas,  died  in  1468,  and  probably  early  in  1474  he  married 
Mary,  daughter  of  King  James  II.  and  widow  of  Thomas  Boyd, 
earl  of  Arran;  the  ccnsequent  nekmess  of  the  Hamiltons  to 
the  Scottish  crown  gave  them  very  great  weight  in  Scottish 
affairs.  The  first  Lord  Hamilton  has  been  frequently  confused 
with  his  father,  James  Hamilton  of  Cadxow,  who  was  one  of  the 
hostages  in  England  for  the  payment  of  James  I.'s  ransom, 
and  is  sometimes  represented  as  surviving  until  1451  or  even 
1479,  whereas  he  certainly  died,  according  to  evidence  brought 
forward  by  J.  Anderson  in  The  Scots  Peerage ,  before  May  1441. 
James,  2nd  Lord  Hamilton,  son  of  the  xst  lord  and  Princess 
Mary,  was  created  earl  of  Arran  in  xs^j;  and  his  son  James, 
who  was  regent  of  Scotland  from  1542  to  1554,  received  in 
February  X549  a  grant  of  the  duchy  of  Ch&tellerault  in 
Poitou. 

John,  xst  marquess  of  Hamilton  (c.  X542-X604),  third  son 
of  James  Hamilton,  2nd  earl  of  Arran  {q.v.)  and  duke  of  ChMel- 
lerault,  was  given  the  abbey  of  Arbroath  in  x  551.  In  politics 
he  was  largely  under  the  influence  of  his  energetic  and  un- 
scrupulous  younger  brother  Claud,  afterwards  Baron  Paisley 
(c.  1 543-1622),  ancestor  of  the  dukes  of  Abercor^i.  The  brothers 
were  the  real  heads  of  the  house  of  Hamilton,  their  elder  brother 
Arran  being  insane.  At  first  hostile  to  Mary,  they  later  became 
her  devoted  partisans.  Their  uncle,  John  Hamilton,  archbishop 
of  St  Andrews,  natural  son  of  the  xst  earl  of  Arran,  was  restored 
to  his  consistorial  jurisdiction  by  Mary  in  1566,  and  in  May  of 
Che  neat  year  he  divorced  Bothwell  from  bis  wife.  Lord  Claud 
met  Mary  on  her  escape  from  Lochleven  and  escorted  her  to 
Hamilton  palace.  John  appears  to  have  been  in  France  in 
X  568  when  the  battle  of  Langside  was  fought,  and  it  was  probably 
Claud  who  commanded  Mary's  vanguard  In  the  ba^le.  With 
others  of  the  queen's  party  they  were  forfeited  by  the  parliament 
and  sought  their  revenge  on  the  regent  Murray.  Although 
the  Hamiltons  disavowed  all  connexion  with  Murray's  murderer, 
James  Hamilton  of  Bothwellhaugh,  he  had  been. provided  with 
horse  and  weapons  by  the  abbot  of  Arbroath,  and  it  was  at  Hamil- 
ton that  he  sought  refuge  after  the  deed.  Archbishop  Hamilton 
hanged  at  Stirling  in  1571  for  alleged  complicity  in  the 


murder  of  Damley,  and  is  said  to  have  admitted  that  he  was  a 
party  to  the  murder  of  Murray.  At  the  pacification  of  Perth 
in  1573  the  Hamiltons  abandoned  Mary's  cause,  and  a  recon- 
ciliation with  the  Douglases  was  sealed  by  Lord  John's  marriage 
with  Margaret,  daughter  of  the  7th  Lord  Glamis,  a  cousin  of 
the  regent  Morton.  Sir  William  Douglas  of  Lochleven,  however, 
persistently  sought  his  life  i^  revenge  for  the  murder  of  Murray 
until,  on  his  refusal  to  keep  the  peace,  he  was  imprisoned.  On 
the  uncertain  evidence  extracted  from  the  assassin  by  torture, 
the  Hamiltons  had  been  credited  with  a  share  in  the  murder  of 
the  regent  Lennox  in  1571.  In  1579  proceedings  against  them 
for  these  two  crimes  were  resumed,  and  when  they  escaped  to 
England  their  lands  and  titles  were  seized  by  their  political 
enemies,  James  Stewart  becoming  earl  of  Arran.  John  Hamilton 
presently  dissociated  himself  from  the  policy  of  his  brother 
Claud,  who  continued  to  plot  for  Spanish  intervention  on  behalf 
of  Mary;  and  Catholic  plotters  are  even  said  to  have  suggested 
his  murder  to  procure  the  succession  of  his  brother.  Hamilton 
had  at  one  time  been  credited  with  the  hope  of  marrying 
Mary;  his  desires  now  centred  on  the  peaceful  enjoyment  of  his 
estates.  With  other  Scottish  exiles  he  crossed  the  border  in 
X585  and  marched  on  Stirling;  he  was  admitted  on  the  4th  of 
November  and  formally  reconciled  with  James  VI.,  with  whom 
he  was  thenceforward  on  the  friendliest  terms.  Claud  returned 
to  Scotland  in  1586,  and  the  abbey  of  Paisley  was  erected  into  a 
temporal  barony  in  his  favour  in  X587.  Much  of  hb  later  years 
was  spent  in  strict  retirement,  his  son  being  authorized  to  act 
for  him  in  1598.  John  was  created  marquess  of  Hamilton  and 
Lord  Evan  in  1599,  and  died  on  the  6th  of  April  1604. 

His  eldest  surviving  son  James,  and  marquess  of  Hamilton 
{c.  1 589-1625),  was  created  baron  of  Innerdale  and  carl  of 
Cambridge  in  the  peerage  of  England  in  X619,  and  these  honours 
descended  to  his  son  James,  who  in  X643  was  created  duke  of 
Hamilton  {q.v.).  William,  2nd  duke  of  Hamilton  (16x6-1651), 
succeeded  to  the  dukedom  on  his  brother's  execution  in  1649. 
He  was  created  earl  of  Lanark  in  X639,  and  in  the  next  year 
became  secretary  of  state  in  Scotland.  Arrested  at  Oxford  by 
the  king's  orders  in  1643  for  "  concurrence  "  with  Hamilton, 
he  effected  his  escape  and  was  temporarily  reconciled  with  the 
Presbyterian  party.  He  was  sent  by  the  Scottish  committee 
of  estates  to  treat  with  Charles  I.  at  Newcastle  in  X646,  when 
he  sought  in  vain  to  persuade  the  king  to  consent  to  the 
establishment  of  Presbyterianism  in  England.  On  the  26th  of 
September  X647  he  signed  on  behalf  of  the  Scots  the  treaty  with 
Charles  known  as  the  "  Engagement  "  at  Carisbrooke  Castle, 
and  helped  to  organize  the  second  Civil  War.  In  1648  he  fled 
to  Holland,  his  sucnsaion  in  the  next  year  to  his  brother's 
dukedom  makixig  him  an  important  personage  among  the 
Royalist  exiles.  He  returned  to  Scotland  with  Prince  Charles 
in  X650,  but,  finding  a  reconciliation  with  Argyll  impossible, 
he  refused  to  prejudice  Charles's  cause  by  pu^ng  his  claims, 
and  lived  in  retirement  chiefly  until  the  Scottish  invasion  of 
England,  when  he  acted  as  colonel  of  a  body  of  his  dependants. 
He  died  on  the  X2th  of  September  1651  from  the  effects  of 
wounds  received  at  Worcester.  He  left  no  male  heirs,  and  the 
title  devolved  on  the  xst  duke's  eldest  surviving  daughter  Anne, 
duchess  of  Hamilton  in  her  own  right. 

Anne  married  in  X656  William  Douglas,  earl  of  Selkirk  (X635- 
1694),  who  was  created  duke  of  Haniilton  in  x66o  on  his  wife's 
petition,  receiving  also  several  of  the  other  Hamilton  peerages, 
but  for  his  life  only.  The  Hamilton  estates  had  been  declared 
forfeit  by  Cromwell,  and  be  himself  had  been  fined  £xoco.  He 
supported  Lauderdale  in  the  early  stages  of  his  Scottish  policy, 
in  which  he  adopted  a  moderate  attitude  towards  the  Presby- 
terians, but  the  two  were  soon  alienated,  through  the  influence 
of  the  countess  of  Djrsart,  according  to  Gilbert  Bunet,  who 
spent  much  time  at  Hamilton  Palace  in  arranging  the  Hamilton 
papers.  With  other  Scottish  noblemen  who  resisted  Lauderdale's 
measures  Hamilton  was  twice  summoned  to  London  to  present 
his  case  at  court,  but  without  obtaining  any  result.  He  was 
dismissed  from  the  privy  council  in  1676,  and  on  a  subsequent 
visit  to  London  Charles  refused  to  receive  htm.  On  the  acccssioo 


88o 


HAMILTON,  ALEXANDER 


of  James  II.  he  received  numerous  honours,  but  he  was  one  of 
the  first  to  enter  into  communication  with  the  prince  of  Orange. 
He  presided  over  the  convention  of  Edinburgh,  summoned  at 
his  request,  which  offered  the  Scottish  arown  to  William  and 
Mary  in  March  1689.  His  death  took  place  at  Holyrood  on 
the  i8th  of  April  1694.    His  wife  survived  until  17x6. 

James  Douglas,  4th  duke  of  Hamilton  (1658-17x2),  eldest 
son  of  the  preceding  and  of  Duchess  Axme,  succeeded  his  mother, 
who  resigned  the  dukedom  to  him  in  1698,  and  at  the  accession 
of  Queen  Anne  he  was  regarded  as  leader  of  the  Scottish  national 
party.  He  was  an  opponent  of  the  union  with  England,  but 
his  lack  of  decision  rendered  his  political  conduct  ineffective. 
He  was  created  duke  of  Brandon  in  the  peerage  of  Great  Britain 
in  1711;  and  on  the  xsth  of  November  in  the  following  year 
be  fought  the  celebrated  duel  with  Charles  Lord  Mohun,  narrated 
in  Thackeray's  Esmond,  in  which  both  the  principals  were  killed. 
His  son-,  James  (X705-X743),  became  sth  duke,  and  his  grandson 
James,  6th  duke  of  Hamilton  and  Brandon  (X734-X7S8),  married 
the  famous  beauty,  Elizabeth  Gimning,  afterwards  duchess  of 
Argyll.  James  George,  7th  duke  (1755-X769),  became  head  of 
the  house  of  Douglas  on  the  death  in  X76X  of  Archibald,  duke 
of  Douglas,  whose  titles  but  not  his  estates  then  devolved  on 
the  duke  of  Hamilton  as  heir-male.  Archibald's  brother  Douglas 
(x 756-1 799)  was  the  8th  duke,  and  when  be  died  childless 
the  titles  passed  to  his  uncle  Archibald  (1740-18x9).  His  son 
Alexander,  loth  duke  (1767-1852),  who  as  marquess  of  Douglas 
was  a  great  collector  and  connoisseur  of  books  and  pictures  (his 
collections  realized  £397,562  in  X882),  was  ambassador  at  St 
Petersburg  in  x 806-1 807.  His  sister,  Lady  Anne  Hamilton, 
was  lady-in-waiting  and  a  faithful  friend  to  Queen  Caroline, 
wife  of  George  IV.;  she  did  not  write  the  Secret  History  of  the 
Court  of  Bn^nd  .  .  .  (x  83  2)  to  which  her  name  was  attached. 
William  Alexander,  xith  duke  of  Hamilton  (181X-1863),  married 
Princess  Marie  Arotiie,  daughter  of  Charles,  grand-duke  of  Baden, 
and,  on  her  mother's  side,  a  cousin  of  Napoleon  III.  The  title 
of  duke  of  Ch&tellerault,  granted  to  his  remote  ancestor  in  1548, 
and  claimed  at  different  tiroes  by  various  branches  of  the 
Hamilton  family,  was  conferred  on  the  xith  duke's  son,  William 
Alexander,  12th  duke  of  Hamilton  (1845-X895),  by  the  emperor 
of.  the  French  in  x 864.  His  sister,  Lady  Mary  Douglas-Hamilton, 
married  in  1869  Albert,  prince  of  Monaco,  but  their  marriage 
was  declared  invalid  in  x88o.  She  subsequently  married  Count 
Tassilo  Festetics,  a  Hungarian  noble.  The  X2th  duke  left  no 
male  issue  and  was  succeeded  in  1895  ^X  bis  kinsman,  Alfred 
Douglas,  a  descendant  of  the  4th  duke.  Claud  Hamilton,  ist 
Baron  Paisley,  brother  of  the  xst  marquess  of  Hamilton,  was, 
as  mentioned  above,  ancestor  of  the  Abercom  branch  of  the 
Hamiltons.  His  son,  who  became  earl  of  Abercom  in  x6o6, 
received  among  a  number  of  other  titles  that  of  Lord  Hamilton. 
This  title,  and  also  that  of  Viscount  Hamilton,  in  the  peerage 
of  Great  Britain,  conferred  on  the  8th  earl  of  Abercom  in  1786, 
afe  borne  by  the  dukes  of  Abercom,  whose  eldest  son  is  usually 
■styled  by  courtesy  marquess  of  Hamilton,  a  title  which  was 
added  to  the  other  family  honours  when  the  2nd  marquess  of 
Abercom  was  raised  to  the  dukedom  in  x868. 

See  John  Anderson.  The  House  of  Hamilton  (X82O;  HamSton 
Papers,  ed.  J.  Bain  (3  volt.,  Edinburvn,  1800-1892);  Gflbcrt  Burnet. 
Ltves  of  James  and  WiUiam,  dukes  ofHamuton  (1677) ;  The  Hamilton 
Papers  relatioe  to  1638-1650,  ed.  S.  R.  Gardiner  for  the  Camden 
Society  (1880};  G.  £.  C[okayncl.  Complete  Peerate  (1887-1898); 
an  article  by  the  Rev.  J.  Anderson  in  Sir  J.  B.  PauPs-edition  of  tqe 
Scots  Peerage,  vol.  iv.  (1907). 

HAMILTON,  ALEXANDER  (1757-1804),  American  statesman 
and  economist,  was  bom,  as  a  British  subject,  on  the  island  of 
Nevis  in  the  West  Indies  on  the  xith  of  January  1757.  He 
came  of  good  family  on  both  sides.  His  father,  James  Hamilton, 
a  Scottish  merchant  of  St  Christopher,  was  a  younger  son  of 
Alexander  Hamilton  of  Grange,  Lanarkshire,  by  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Sir  R.  Pollock.  His  mother,  Rachael  Fawcett 
(Faucette),  of  French  Huguenot  descent,  married  when  very 
young  a  Danish  proprietor  of  St  Croix,  John  Michael  Levine, 
with  whom  she  lived  unhappily  and  whom  she  soon  left,  sub- 
lequently  living  with  James  Hamilton;  her  husband  procured 


a  divorce  in  1759,  but  the  court  forbade  ber'remaniage.'  Secfb 
unions  as  hers  with  James  Hamilton  were  long  ncA  uncoznsua 
in  the  West  Indies.  By  her  James  Hamflton  had  two  sons, 
Alexander  and  James.  Business  mttfortunes  having  caoscd 
his  father's  bankruptcy,  and  his  mother  dying  in  1768,  young 
Hamilton  was  thrown  upon  the  care  of  maternal  nUatives  at 
St  Croix,  where,  in  hJs  twelfth  year,  he  entered  the  connting> 
house  of  Nicholas  Cruger.  Shortly  afterward  Mr  Cmger,  going 
abroad,  left  the  boy  in  charge  of  the  business.  The  extra- 
ordinary specimens  we  possess  of  his  mercantile  correqx»deBce 
and  friendly  letters,  written  at  this  time,  attest  an  astonishing 
poise  and  maturity  of  mind,  and  self-conscious  aimKifUp  hj^ 
opportunities  for  regular  schooling  must  have  been  very  scant; 
but  he  had  cultivated  friends  who  discerned  his  talents  and  en- 
couraged their  development,  and  he  early  formed  the  habils  of 
wide  reading  and  industrious  study  that  were  to  persist  through 
his  life.  An  accomplishment  later  of  great  service  to  Hamfltoo, 
common  enough  in  the  Antiltes,  but  very  rare  in  the  En^Usfa 
continental  colonies,  was  a  fanriliar  command  of  F^eodi.  In 
1772  some  friends,  impressed  by  a  da»criptKm  by  him  of  the 
terrible  West  Indian  hurricane  in  that  year,  made  it  possflde 
for  him  to  go  to  New  York  to  complete  his  education.  Arriving 
in  the  autumn  of  X773t  b®  prepared  for  college  at  EGaabetbtovn, 
N.J.,  and  in  1774  entered  King's  CoOege  (now  CoIuraUa  Uni- 
versity) in  New  York  City.  His  studies,  however,  were  inter- 
rupted by  the  War  of  American  Independent. 

A  visit  to  Boston  seems  to  have  thorou^^y  ooofiriBed  the 
conclusion,  to  which  reason  had  already  led  him,  that  be  sbmild 
cast  in  his  fortunes  with  the  colonists.  Into  their  cause  be  threw 
himself  with  ardour.  In  1774-X775  he  wrote  two  fa^HM^tal 
anonymous  pamphlets,  which  were  attributed  to  John  Jay; 
they  show  remarkable  maturity  and  controversial  ability,  and 
rank  high  among  the  political  arguments  of  the  time.*  He 
organized  an  artiUeiy  company,  was  awarded  its  captaincy 
on  examination,  won  the  interest  of  Nathanad  Greene  and 
Washington  by  the  proficiency  and  bravery  he  dlqdayed  in  the 
campaign  of  1776  around  New  York  City,  joined  Washington's 
staff  in  March  1777  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-cdooel^  and 
during  four  years  served  as  his  private  secretary  aiul  coxdSdential 
aide.  The  important  duties  with  which  be  was  entrusted  attest 
Washington's  entire  confidence  in  his  abilities  and  chaxadcr; 
then  and  afterwards,  indeed,  reciprocal  confidence  and  respect 
took  the  place,  in  their  lelations,  of  personal  attadunent.* 
But  Hamilton  was  ambitious  for  mOitary  gloiy— it  was  an 
ambition  he  never  tost;  he  became  impatient  of  detention  in 
what  he  regarded  as  a  position  of  tinpleasaiit  dependence,  and 
(Feb.  1781)  he  seized  a  slight  reprimand  admixustered  by  Wash- 
ington as  an  excuse  for  abandoning  his  staff  position.*  Later 
be  secured  k  field  command,  through  Wtehington,  aiwl  von 
laurels  at  Yorktown,  where  he  led  the  American  ccdumn  in  tbe 

*  These  facts  were  first  definitely  determined  by  Mrs  GcrrnKle 
Athcrton  from  the  Danish  Archives  in  Denmark  and  the  West 
Indies;  see  artkrie  in  North  American  Review^  Aug.  xgoa.  vol.  175, 
p.  329;  and  preface  to  her  ^4  Pew  <tf  HamHion's  Idlers  (New  Y«k, 
1903). 

'These  were  written  in  answer  to  the  widely  read  pampMets 
published  over  the  nom  de  plume  of  **  A  Westchester  Fanner." 
and  now  known  to  have  been  written  by  Samud  Seabury  (c.c.). 
Hamilton's  pamphlets  were  entitled  "A. Full  Vtndicatka  of  the 
Measures  01  the  Congress  from  tbe  Calumnies  of  their  Enemies," 
and  "The  Farmer  Refuted.'*  Concerning  them  George  Tkk»gr 
Curtis  {Constitutional  History  of  the  Umtea  States,  L  274}  has  aid. 
"  There  are  displayed  in  these  papers  a  power  .of  reasonii^  aT>d 
sarcasm,  a  knowledge  of  the  prinaplcs  of  government  and  «  tb« 
English  constitution,  and  a  grasp-of  the  merits  of  the  whole  contro- 
versy, that  would  have  done  honour  ro  any  man  at  any  a^.  To 
say  that  they  evince  precocity  of  intellect  givea  no  idea  of  thctr  nuts 
characteristics.  They  show  great  maturity — a  more  rcmarkat4e 
maturity  tifan  has  ever  been  exhibited  by  auiy  other  peraon,  at  socarljr 
an  a^e,  m  the  same  department  of  thought.** 

'  George  Bancroft  was  the  first  to  point  out  that  there  k  small 
evidence  that  Hamilton  ever  really  appreciated  Washington's  rrrat 
qualities;  but  on  the  score  of  j)ersooal  and  FedoaK^  indebtednc^i 
he  left  esrplicit  recognition. 

^For  Hamilton's  letter  to  General  Schuyler  on  thiseiKsod^' 
one  of  the  most  important  letters,  in  some  ways,  that  be  ever  wrote 
the  Works,  ix.  232  (8  :  35). 


HAMILTON,  ALEXANDER 


88i 


final  usault  on  the  British  works.  In  1 780  he  married  Elixabeth, 
daughter  of  General  Philip  Schuyler,  and  thus  became  allied 
with  one  of  the  most  distinguished  families  in  New  York.    ' 

Meanwhile,  he  had  begun  the  political  efforts  upon  which 
bis  fame  principally  rests.  In  letters  of  17  79- 1780*  he  correctly 
diagnoses  the  ills  of  the  Confederation,  and  suggests  with 
admirable  prescience  the  necessity  of  centralization  in  its 
governmental  powers;  he  was,  indeed,  one  of  the  first,  if  not 
to  conceive,  at  least  to  suggest  adequate  checks  on  the  anarchic 
tendencies  of  the  time.  After  a  year's  service  in  Congress  in 
X  782-1 783,  in  which  he  experienced  the  futility  of  endeavouring 
to  attain  through  that  decrepit  body  the  ends  he  sought,,  he 
settled  down  to  legal  practice  in  New  York.'  The  call  for  the 
Annapolis  Convention  (1786)  was  Hamilton's  opportunity. 
A  delegate  Irom  New  York,  he  supported  Madison  in  inducing 
the  Convention  to  exceed  its  delegated  powers  and  summon 
the  Federal  Convention  of  1787  at  Philadelphia  (himself  drafting 
the  call);  he  secured  a  place  on  the  New  York  delegation;  and, 
when  his  anti-Federal  colleagues  withdrew  from  the  Convention, 
he  signed  the  Constitution  for  his  state.  So  long  as  his  colleagues 
were  present  his  own  vote  was  useless,  and  he  absented  himself 
for  some  time  from  the  debates  after  making  one  remarkable 
speech  (June  z8th,  1787).  In  this  he  held  up  the  British  govern- 
ment as  the  best  model  in  the  world.'  Though  fully  conscious 
that  monarchy  in  America  was  impossible,  he  wished  to  obtain 
the  next  best  solution  in  an  aristocratic,  strongly  centralized, 
coercive,  but  representative  union,  with  devices  to  give  weight 
to  the  influence  of  class  and  property.*  His  plan  had  no  chance 
of  success;  but  though  unable  to  obtain  what  he  wished,  he 
used  his  great  (alents  to  secure  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 

To  this  struggle  was  due  the  greatest  of  his  writings,  and  the 
greatest  individual  contribution  t8  the  adoption  of  the  new 
government.  The  Pederalistt  which  remains  a  classic  a>mmentary 
on  American  constitutional  law  and  the  principles  of  government, 
and  of  which  Guizot  said  that  "  in  the  application  of  elementary 
principles  of  government  to  practical  administration  "  it  was 
the  greatest  work  known  to  him.  Its  inception,  and  much  more 
than  half  its  contents  were  Hamilton's  (the  rest  Madison's  and 
Jay's).*    Sheer  will  and  reasoning  could  hardly  be  more  bril- 

*  Especially  the  letter  of  September  1780  to  James  Duane,  Works^ 
t.  ai3  (i :  203):  also  the  "  Contincntalist  "  papers  of  I78i. 

'  '  His  most  famous  case  at  this  time  (Rutgers  v.  Waddingicn)  was 
one  that  well  illustrated  hia  moral  courage.  Under  a  "Trespass 
Law  "  d(  New  York.  Elizabeth  Rutgers,  a  widow,  brought  suit 
against  one  Joshua  Waddington.  a  Loyalist,  who  during  the  war  of 
American  Independence,  while  New  York  was  occupied  by  the 
British,  had  made  use  01  some  of  her  property.  In  face  of  popular 
clamour,  Hamilton,  who  advocated  a  conciliatory  treatment  of  the* 
Loyalists,  represented  Waddington,  who  won  the  case,  decided  in 

1704. 

*  As  Mr  Oliver  points  out  {Alexander  Hamilton,  p.  156).  Hamilton's 
idea  of  the  British  constitution  was  not  a  correct  picture  of  the 
British  constitution. in  1787, and  still  less  of  that  of  the  20thcentury. 
"  What  he  had  in  mind  was  the  British  constitution  as  George  III. 
had  tried  to  make  it."  Hamilton's  ideal  was  an  elective  monarchy, 
and  his  guiding  principle  a  proper  balance  of  authoHty. 

*  Brieny,  he  proposed  a  governor  and  two  chambers — an  Assembly 
elected  by  the  people  for  three  vcars,  and  a  Senate — the  governor 
and  senate  holding  office  for  life  or  during  good  behaviour,  and 
chosen, .  through  electors,  by  voters  qualified  by  property;  the 
governor  to  have  an  unqualified  veto  on  federal  legislation;  state 
governors  to  have  a  similar  veto  on  state  legislation,  and  to  be 
appointed  by  the  federal  government;  the  federal  government  to 
control  alt  militia.  See  Works,  \.  347  (1:331):  and  cf.  hw  corre- 
spondence, which  is  scanty,  passim  in  later  years,  notably  x.  446, 
45 1  •  3^  (8:  606,  596,  517).  and  references  below. 

*  Nearly  all  the  papers  in  The  F^leralisi  first  appeared  (between 
October  1787  and  April  1788)  in  New  Xprk  journals,  over  the  signa- 
ture "  Pubhus."  Jay  wrote  only  five.  The  authorship  of  twelve 
of  them  is  uncertain,  and  has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy 
between  partisans  of  Hamilton  and  Madison.  Concerning  7m 
Federalist  Chancellor  James  Kent  {Commentaries,  t.  241)  said: 
"  There  is  no  work  on  the  subject  of  the  Constitution,  ana  on  re- 
publican and  federal  government  generally,  that  deserves  to  be  more 
thoroughly  studied.  F  know  not  indeed  of  any  work  on  the  principles 
of  free  government  that  is  to  be  compared,  in  instruction  ana  intrinsic 
value,  to  this  small  and  unpretending  volume.  ...  It  is  equally 
admirable  in  the  depth  of  its  wisdom,  the  comprehensiveness  of  its 
views,  the  sagacity  of  its  reflections,  and  the  fearlessness,  patriotism. 


liantly  and  effectively  exhibited  than  they  were  by  Hamilton 
in  the  New  York  convention  of  1788,  whose  vote  he  won,  against 
the  greatest  odds,  for  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution.  It 
was  the  judgment  of  Chancellor  James  Kent,  the  justice  of 
which  can  hardly  be  disputed,  that  "  all  the  documentary  proof 
and  the  current  observation  of  the  time  lead  us  to  the  conclusion 
that  he  surpassed  all  hb  contemporaries  in  his  exertions  to  create, 
recommend,  adopt  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States." 

When  the  new  government  was  inaugurated,  Hamilton  became 
secretary  of  the  treasury  in  Washington's  cabinet.*  Congress 
immediately  referred  to  him  a  press  of  queries  and  problems, 
and  there  came  from  his  pen  a  succession  of  papers  that  have 
left  the  strongest  imprint  on  the  administrative  organization 
of  the  national  government — two  reports  on  pubb'c  credit, 
upholding  an  ideal  of  national  honour  higher  than  the  prevalent 
popular  principles;  a  report  on  manufactures,  advocating  their 
encouragement  {e.g.  by  bounties  paid  from  surplus  revenues 
amassed  by  tariff  duties)-— a  famous  report  that  has  served  ever 
since  as  a  storehouse  of  arguments  for  a  national  protective 
policy;'  a  report  favouring  the  establishment  of  a  national 
bank,  the  argument  being  based  on  the  doctrine  of  "  implied 
powers  "  in  the  Constitution,  and  on  the  application  that  Con- 
gress may  do  anything  that  can  be  made,  through  the  medium 
of  money,  to  subserve  the  "  general  welfare  "  of  the  United 
Statesr— doctrines  that,  through  judicial  interpretation,  have 
revolutionized  the  Constitution;  and,  finally,  a  vast  mass  of 
detailed  work  by  which  order  and  efficiency  were  given  to  the 
national  finances.  In  1793  he  put  to  confusion  his  opponents 
who  had  brought  about  a  congressional  investigation  of  his 
official  accounts.  The  success  of  his  financial  measures  was  im- 
mediate and  remarkable.  They  did  not,  as  is  often  but  loosely 
said,  create  economic  prosperity;  but  they  did  prop  it,  in 
an  all-important  field,  with  order,  hope  and  confidence.  His 
ultimate  purpose  was  always  the  strengthening  of  the  unu>n; 
but  before  particularizing  his  political  theories,  and  the  political 
import  of  his  financial  measures,  the  remaining  events  of  hia 
life  may  be  traced. 

His  activity  in  the  cabinet  was  by  no  means  confined  to 
the  finances.  He  regarded  himself,  apparently,  as  premier,  and 
sometimes  overstepped  the  limits  of  his  office  in  interfering 
with  other  departments.  The  heterogeneous  character  of  the 
duties  placed  upon  his  department  by  Congress  seemed  in  fact 
to  reflect  the  English  idea  of  its  primacy.  Hamilton's  influence 
was  in  fact  predominant  with  Washington  (so  far  as  any  man 
could  have  predominant  influence).  Thus  it  happens*  that  in 
foreign  affairs,  whatever  credit  properly  belongs  to  the  Federalists 
as  a  party  (^  also  the  article  Fedebaust  Paity)  for  the 
adoption  of  that  principle  of  neutrality  which  became  the 
traditional  policy  of  the  United  States  must  be  regarded  as 
htrgely  due  to  Hamilton.  But  altowance  must  be  made  for  the 
mere  advantage  of  initiative  which  belonged  to  any  party  that 
organized  the  government— the  differences  between  Hamilton 
and  Jefferson,  in  this  question  of  neutrality,  being  almost  purely 
factitious.*    On  domestic  policy  their  differences  were  vital, 

candour,  simplicity,  and  ele^nce,  with  which  its  truths  are  uttered 
and  recommendeo." 

*The  position  was  offered  first  to  Robert  Morris,  who  declined 
it,  expressing  the  opinion  that  Hamilton  was  the  man  best  fitted  to 
meet  its  problems. 

'  Hamilton's  Report  on  Mannfadmres  (1791)  by  itself  entitles  him 
to  the  place  of  an  epoch-maker  in  economics.  It  was  the  first  great 
revolt  from  Adam  Smith,  on  whose  Wealth  of  Nations  (1776)  ne  is 
said  to  have  already  written  a  commentary  which  is  lost.  In  his 
criticism  on  Adam  Smith,  and  his  ari^ments  for  a  system  of 
moderate  protective  duties  associated  with  the  deliberate  polky  of 
promoting  national  interests,  bis  work  was  the  inspiration  of  Fned- 
rich  List,  and  so  the  foundation  of  the  economic  system  of  Germany 
in  a  later  day,  and  again,  still  later,  of  the  polky  of  Tariff  Reform 
and  Colonial  Preference  in  England,  as  advocated  by  Mr  Chamber- 
lain and  his  supporters.  See  the  detailed  account  given  in  the 
article  Pkotbction. 

*  That  is.  while  Jefferson  hated  British  aristocracy  and  sym- 
pathized with  French  democracy.  Hamilton  hated  French  demo- 
cracy and  sympathised  with  British  aristocracy  and  order ;  but 


882 


HAMILTON,  ALEXANDER 


and  in  their  conflicts  over  Hamilton's  financial  measures  they 
organized,  on  the  basis  of  varying  tenets  and  ideals  which 
have  never  ceased  to  conflict  in  American  politics,  the  two 
great  parties  of  Federalists  and  Democrats  (or  Democratic- 
Republicans).  On  the  31st  of  January  1795  Hamilton  resigned 
his  position  as  secretary  of  the  treasury  and  returned  to  the 
practice  of  law  in  New  York,  leaving  it  for  public  service  only 
in  1 798-1800,  when  he  was  the  active  head,  under  Washington 
(who  insisted  that  Hamilton  should  be  second  only  to  himself), 
of  the  army  organized  for  war  against  France.  But  though  in 
private  life  he  remained  the  continual  and  chief  adviser  of 
Washington — notably  in  the  serious  crisis  of  the  Jay  Treaty, 
of  which  Hamilton  approved.  Washington's  Farewell  Address 
(1796)  was  written  for  him  by  Hamilton. 

After  Washington's  death  the  Federalist  leadership  was 
divided  (and  disputed)  between  John  Adams,  who  had  the 
prestige  of  a  varied  and  great  career,  and  greater  strength' than 
any  other  Federalist  with  the  people,  and  Hamilton,  who  con- 
trolled practicaUy  all  the  leaders  of  lesser  rank,  including  much 
the  greater  part  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  country, 
so  that  it  has  been  very  justly  said  that  "  jLhe  roll  of  his  followers 
is  enough  of  itself  to  establish  his  position  in  American  history  " 
(Lodge).  But  Hamilton  was  not  essentially  a  popular  leader. 
When  his  passions  were  not  involved,  or  when  they  were  repressed 
by  a  crisis,  he  was  far-sighted,  and  his  judgment  of  men  was 
excellent.^  But  as  Hamilton  himself  once  said,  his  heart  ,was 
ever  the  master  of  his  judgment.  He  was,  indeed,  not  above 
intrigue,*  but  he  was  unsuccessful  in  it.  He  was  a  fighter  through 
and  through,  and  his  courage  was  superb;  but  he  was  indiscreet 
in  utterance,  impolitic  in  management^  opinionated,  self-con- 
fident, and  uncompromising  in  nature  and  methods.  His  faults 
are  nowhere  better  shown  than  in  his  quarrel  with  John  Adams. 
Three  times,  in  order  to  accomplish  ends  deemed  by  him,  person- 
ally, to  be  desirable,  Hamilton  used  the  political  fortunes  of 
John  Adams,  in  presidential  elections,  as  a  mere  hazard  in  his 
manoeuvres;  moreover,  after  Adams-  became  president,  and 
so  the  official  head  of  the  party,  Hamilton  constantly  advised 
the  members  of  the  president's  cabinet,  and  throu^  them 
endeavoured  to  control  Adams's  policy;  and  finally,  on  the  eve 
of  the  crucial  election  of  1800,  he  wrote  a  bitter  personal  attack 
on  the  president  (containing  much  confidential  cabinet  informa- 
tion), which  was  intended  for  private  circulation,  but  which 
was  secured  and  published  by  Aaron  Burr,  his  legal  and  political 
rival. 

The  mention  of  Burr  leads  us  to  the  fatal  end  of  another  great 
political  antipathy  of  Hamilton's  life.  He  read  Burr's  character 
correctly  from  the  beginning;  deemed  it  a  patriotic  duty  to 
thwart  him  in  his  ambitions;  defeated  his  hopes  successively 
of  a  foreign  mission,  the  presidency,  and  the  governorship  of 
New  York;  and  in  his  conversations  and  letters  repeatedly 
and  unsparingly  denounced  him.  If  these  denunciations  were 
known  t6  Burr  they  were  ignored  by  him  until  his  last  defeat. 
After  that  he  forced  a  quarrel  on  a  trivial  bit  of  hearsay  (that 
Hamilton  had  said  he  had  a  "  despicable  "  opinion  of  Burr); 
and  Hamilton,  believing  as  he  explained  in  a  letter  he  left  before 
going  to  his  death — that  a  compliance  with  the  duelling  prejudices 
of  the  time  was  inseparable  from  the  ability  to  be  in  future 

neither  wanted  war;  and  indeed  Jefferson,  throughout  life,  was  the 
more  peaceful  of  the  two.  Neutrality  was  in  the  line  of  common- 
place American  thinking  of  that  time,  as  may  be  seen  In  the  writings 
of  all  the  leading  men  of  the  day.  The  cry  of  "  British  Hamilton  " 
had  no  good  excuse  whatever. 

^  e.g.  nis  prediction  in  1789  of  the  course  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion; nis  judgments  of  Burr  from  1793  onward,  and  of  Burr  and 
Jeflerson  m  1800.  « 

*  After  the  Democrats  won  New  York  in  1799,  Hamilton  proposed 
to  Governor  John  Jay  to  call  together  the  out-going  Federalist 


S7I  (8  :  549)-  Compare  also  with  later  developments  of  ward 
politics  in  New  York  City.  Hamilton's  curious  sug^e^ns  as  to 
Federalist  charities,  &c.,  in  connexion  with  the  Chnstian  Consti- 
tutional Society  proposed  by  him  in  1803  to  combat  irreligion  and 
democracy  (Works,  x  433  (8  :  596). 


useful  in  public  affairs,  accepted  a  challenge  from  him.  The  dud 
was  fought  at  Weehawken  on  the  Jersey  shore  of  the  Hudson 
opposite  the  City  of  New  York.  At  the  first  fire  Hamilton  fell, 
mortally  wounded,  and  he  died  on  the  following  day,  the  xstb 
of  July  1804.  Hamilton  himself  did  not  intend  to  fire,  tmt  his 
pistol  went  off  as  he  fell.  The  tragic  close  of  his  career  appe^vd 
for  the  moment  the  fierce  hatred  of  politics,  and  Jiis  death  was 
very  generally  deplored  as  a  national  calamity.* 

No  emphasis,  however  strong,  upmn  the  mere  consecutive 
personal  successes  of  Hamilton's  life  is  sufficient  to  show  the 
measure  of  his  importance  in  American  history.  That  import- 
ance lies,  to  a  large  extent,  in  the  political  ideas  for  whidi  Ik 
stood.  His  mind  was  eminently  "  legal."  He  was  the  unrivalled 
controversialist  of  the  time.  His  writings,  which  are  distin- 
guished by  clarity,  vigour  and  rigid  reasoning,  rather  than  by 
any  show  of  scholslrship — ^in  the  extent  of  which,  however  solid 
in  character  Hamilton's  might  have  been,  he  was  surpassed  by 
several  of  his  contemporaries — ^are  in  general  strikin^y  empirical 
in  basis.  He  drew  his  theories  from  his  experiences  of  the 
Revolutionary  period,  and  he  modified  them  hardly  at  all  throu^ 
life.  In  his  earliest  pamphlets  (i  774-1 775)  he  started  oat  «ith 
the  ordinary  pre-Revolutionary  Whig  doctrines  ot  natxtral 
rights  and  liberty;  but  the  first  experience  of  semi-aoaxchk 
states'-rights  and  individualism  ended  his  fervour  for  ideas 
so  essentially  alien  to  his  practical,  logical  mind,  and  they  have 
no  place  in  his  later  writings.  The  feeble  inadequacy  of  coocep- 
tion,  infirmity  of  power,  factional  jeaku^,  distnfcgraling 
particularism,  and  vicious  finance  of  the  Confederatioa  were 
realized  by  many  others;  but  none  other  saw  so  dearly  the 
concrete  nationalistic  remedies  for  these  concrete  iUs,  or 
pursued  remedial  ends  so  constantly,  so  ably,  and  90  con- 
sistently. An  immigrant,  "Hamilton  had  no  particularistic 
ties;  he  was  by  instinct  a  "  continentalist "  or  federa&t 
He  wanted  a  strong  tinion  and  energetic  government  that 
should  "rest  as  much  as  possible  on  the  shoulders  of  the 
people  and  as  little  as  possible  on  those  of  the  state 
legislatures";  that  should  have  the  support  of  wealth  and 
class;  and  that  should  curb  the  states  to  sud^  an  "entire 
subordination  "  as  nowise  to  be  hindered  by  those  bodies.  At 
these  ends  he  aimed  with  extraordinary  skill  in  all  his  financial 
measures.  As  early  as  1776  he  urged  the  direct  o^lectioD  oi 
federal  taxes  by  federal  agents.  From  1779  onward  we  trace  the 
idea  of  supporting  government  by  the  interest  of  the  propertied 
classes;  from  1781  onward  the  idea  that  a  not-excessive  puUic 
debt  would  be  a  blessing* in  giving  cohesiveness  to  the  union: 
hence  his  device  by  which  the  federal  government,  assnmii^ 
the  war  debts  of  the  states,  secured  greater  resources,  based 
itself  on  a  high  ideal  of  nationalism,  strengthened  its  bold  (m  the 
individual  dtizen,  and  gained  the  support  of  property.  In  his 
report  on  manufactures  his  chief  avowed  motive  was  to  stresgthoi 
the  union.  To  the  same  end  he  conceived  the  constituti(»ial 
doctrines  of  liberal  construction,  "implied  powers,**  and  the 
"  general  welfare,"  which  were  later  embodied  in  the  <kdskMis 
of  John  MarshalL  The  idea  of  nationalism  pervaded  and 
quickened  all  his  life  and  works.  With  one  great  exception,  the 
dictum  of  Guizot  is  hardly  an  exaggeration,  that "  there  is  not  in 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  an  clement  of  onkr,  of 
force,  of  duration,  which  he  did  not  powerfully  cratribute  to 
introduce  into  it  and  to  cause  to  predominate." 

*  Hamilton's  widow,  who  survived  him  for  half  a  century,  dyios: 
at  the  age  of  ninety-seven,  was  left  with  four  sons  and  four 
daughters.  He  had  been  an  affectionate  husband  and  father, 
though  his  devotion  to  his  wife  had  been  consistent  with  occasioaal 
lapses  from  strict  marital  fidelity.  One  intrigue  into  which  he 
drifted  in  1791,  with  a  Mrs  Reynolds,  led  to  the  btackmailing  of 
Hamilton  by  her  husband ;  and  when  thw  rascal,  shortly  aJtcrwanK 
got  into  double  for  fraud,  his  relations  with  Hamilton  were  un- 
scrupulously misrepresented  for  political  purposes  by  some  of 
Hamilton's  opponents.  But  Hamilton  faced  toe  necessity  of  fevralii» 
the  true  state  of  things  with  conspicuous  courage,  and  the  scaDdal 
only  reacted  on  his  accusers.  One  of  them  was  Monroe,  whose  rr- 
putation  comet  very  badly  out  of  this  unsavoury  affair. 

*  In  later  years  he  said  no  debt  should  be  incurred  without  provid- 
ing simultaneously  for  its  payment. 


HAMILTON,  ALEXANDER 


883 


The  exception,  as  American  history  showed,  was  American 
democracy.  The  loose  and  barren  rule  of  the  Confederation 
seemed  to  conservative  minds  such  as  Hamilton's  to  presage, 
in  its  strengthening  of  individualism,  a  fatal  looseness  of  sodal 
restraints,  and  led  him  on  to  a  dread  of  democracy  that  he  never 
overcame.  Liberty,  he  reminded  his  fellows,  in  the  New  York 
Convention  of  1788,  seemed  to  be  alone  considered  in  govern- 
ment, but  there  was  another  thing  equally  important:  "a 
principle  of  strength  and  stability  in  the  organization  .  .  .  and 
of  vigoiir  in  its  operation."  But  Hamilton's  -governmental 
system  was  in  fact  repre^ive.^  He  wanted  a  system  strong 
enough,  he  would  have  said,  to  overcome  the  anarchic  tendencies 
loosed  by  war,  and  represented  by  those  notions  of  natural 
rights  which  he  had  himself-  once  championed;  strong  enough 
to  overbear  all  local,  state  and  sectional  prejudices,  powers  or 
influence,  and  to  control — not,  as  Jefferson  would  have  it,  to 
be  controlled  by — the  people.  Confidence  in  the  integrity,  the 
self-control,  and  the  good  judgment  of  the  i>cople,  which  was 
the  content  of  Jefferson's  political  faith,  had  almost  no  place 
in  Hamilton's  theories.  "  Men,"  said  he,  "  are  reasoning  rather 
than  reasonable  animals."  The  charge  that  he  laboured  to 
introduce  monarchy  by  intrigue  is  an  under-cstimate  of  his  good 
sense.'  Hamilton's  thinking,  however,  <lid  -carry  him  foul  of 
current  democratic  philosophy;  as  he  said,  he*prcscnted  his 
plan  in  1787  "  not  as  attainable,  but  as  a  model  to  ivhich  we 
ought  to  approach  as  far  as  possible  ";  moreover,  he  held  through 
life  his  belief  in  its  principles,  and  in  its  superiority  over  the 
government  actually  created;  and  though  its  inconsistency 
with  American  tendencies  was  yearly  more  apparent,  he  never 
ceased  to  avow  on  all  occasions  his  aristocratic-monarchical 
partialities.  Moreover,  his  preferences  for  at  least  an  aristocratic 
republic  were  shared  by  many  other  men  of  talent.  When  it  b 
added  that  Jefferson's  assertions,  alike  as  regards  Hamilton's 
talk*  and  the  intent  and  tendency  of  his  political  measures, 
were,  to  the  extent  of  the  underlying  basic  fact — but  discounting 
Jefferson's  somewhat  intemperate  interpretations — ^unquestion- 
ably true,*  it  cannot  be  accounted  strange  that  Hamilton's 
Democratic  opponents  mistook  his  theoretic  predilections  jfor 
positive  designs.  Nor  would  it  be  a  strained  infcren<%  from 
much  that  he  said,  to  believe  that  he  hoped  and  expected  that 
in  the  "  crisis  "  he  foresaw,  when  democracy  should  have  caused 
the  ruin  of  the  country,  a  new  goverrmient  might  be  formed 
that  should  approximate  to  his  own  ideals.*  From  the  beginning 
of  the  excesses  of  the  French  Revolution  he  was  possessed  by 
the  persuasion  that  American  democracy,  likewise,  might  at 
any  moment  crush  the  restraints  of  the  Constitution  to  enter 
on  a  career  of  licence  and  anarchy.    To  this  obsession  he  sacri- 

*  He  wamfly  supported  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws  of  1798  (in 
their  final  form). 

*  The  idea,  he  wrote  to  Washington,  was  "  one  of  those  visionary 
things  none  but  madmen  could  undertake,  and  that  no  wise  man 
will  oelieve  "  (1793).  And  sec  his  comments  on  Burr's  ambitions, 
Workst  X.  417,  450  (8:585,  610).  We  may  accept  as  just,  and 
applicable  to  his  entire  career,  the  statement  made  by  himself  in 
1803  of  his  principles  in  1787:  "  (i)  That  the  political  powers  of  the 
people  of  this  continent  would  endure  nothing  but  a  representative 
form  of  government.  (2)  That,  inthc actual  situation  of  the  countrv, 
it  was  itself  right  and  proper  that  the  representative  system  should 
have  a  full  and  fair  tnal.  (3)  That  to  such  a  trial  it  was  essential 
that  the  government  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  give  it  all  the 
energy  and  thu  stability  reconcilable  with  the  principles  of  that 
theory." 

'  Ci.  Gouverneur  Morris,  Diary  and  Letter s^  ii.  455,  536,  531. 

*  Cf.  even  Mr  Lodge's  judgments,  pp.  90-92. 115-1 16, 122, 130, 140. 
When  he  says  (p.  140)  that  "  In  Hamilton's  successful  policy  there 
were  certainly  germs  of  an  aristocratic  republic,  there  were  certainly 
limitations  ana  possibly  dangers  to  pure  democracy,"  this  is  practi- 
cally Jefferson's  assertion  (1702)  that  "  His  system  flowed  from 
principles  adverse  to   liberty  ':  but  Jeffersoii  Eoes  on  to  add: 

and  was  calculated  to  undermine  and  demolish  the  republic."  As 
to  the  intent  <^  Hamilton  to  secure  through  his  financial  measures 
the  |>olitical  support  of  property,  his  own  words  are  honest  and  clear ; 
and  in  fact  he  succeeded.  Jefferson  merely  had  exaggerated  fears 
of  a  moneyed  political  engine,  and  seeing  that  Hamilton's  measures 
of  fumJing  ana  assumption  did  make  the  national  debt  politically 
useful  to  the  Federalists  in  the  beginning  he  concluded  that  they 
would  seek  to  fasten  the  debt  on  the  country  for  ever. 

'  Cf.  Gouv.  Morris,  op.  cit.  ii.  474. 


ficed  his  life.*  After  the  Democratic  victory  of  1800,  his  letters, 
full  of  retrospective  judgments  and  interesting  outlooks,  are 
but  rarely  relieved  in  their  sombre  prawmism  by  flashes  of  hope 
and  courage.  His  last  letter  on  politics,  written  two  days 
before  his  death,  illustrates  the  two  sides  of  his  thinking  already 
emphasized:  in  this  letter  he  warns  his  New  Enghind  friend 
against  dismemberment  of  the  union  as  "  a  clear  sacrifice  of 
great  positive  advantages,  without  any  counterbalancing  good; 
administering  no  relief  to  otir  real  disease,  which  is  democracy, 
the  poison  of  which,  by  a  subdivision,  will  only  be  more  con- 
centrated in  each  part,  and  consequently  the  more  virulent." 
To  the  end  he  never  lost  his  fear  of  the  states,  nor  gained  faith 
in  the  future  of  the  country.  He  laboured  still,  in  mingled  hope 
and  apprehension,  "to  prop  the  frail  and  worthless  fabric,"' 
but  for  its  spiritual  content  of  democracy  he  had  no  under- 
standing, and  even  in  its  nationalism  he  had  little  hope.  Yet 
probably  to  no  one  man,  except  perhaps  to  Washington,  does 
American  nationalism  owe  so  much  as  to  Hamilton. 

In  the  development  of  the  United  States  the  influence  of 
Hamiltonian  nationalism  and  Jeffersonian  democracy  has  been 
a  reactive  union;  but  changed  conditions  since  Hamilton's 
time,  and  particularly  since  the  Civil  War,  are  likely  to  create 
misconceptions  as  to  Hamilton's  position  in  his  own  day.  Great 
constructive  statesman  as  he  was,  he  was  also,  from  the  American 
point  of  view,  essentially  a  reactionary.  He  was  the  leader  of 
reactionary  forces — constructive  forces,  as  it  happened — in 
the  critical  period  after  the  War  of  American  Independence, 
and  in  the  period  of  Federalist  supremacy.  He  was  in  sympathy 
with  the  dominant  forces  of  public  life  only  while  they  took, 
during  the  war,  the  jpredominant  impress  of  an  imperfect  nation- 
alism.* Jeffersonian  democracy  came  into  power  in  x8oo  in 
direct  line  with  colonial  development;  Hamiltonian  Federalism 
was  a  break  in  that  development;  and  this  alone  can  explain 
how  Jefferson  could  organize  the  Democratic  Party  in  face  of 
the  brilliant  success  of  the  Federalists  in  constructing  the  govern- 
ment. Hamilton  stigmatized  his  great  of^wnent  as  a  political 
fanatic;  but  actualist  as  he  claimed  to  be,'  Hamilton  could  not 
see,  or  would  not  concede,  the  predominating  forces  in  American 
life,  and  would  uncompromisingly  have  minimized  the  two 
great  political  conquests  of  the  colonial  period — ^local  self- 
government  and  democracy. 

Few  Americans  have  received  higher  tributes  from  foreign 
authorities.  Talleyrand,  personally  impressed  when  in  America 
with  Hamilton's  brilliant  qualities,  declared  that  he  had  the 
power  of  divining  without  reasoning,  and  compared  him  to  Fox 
and  Napoleon  because  he  had  "  devin6  I'Europe."  Of  the 
judgments  rendered  by  his  countrsrmen,  Washington's  con- 
fidence in  his  ability  and  integrity  is  perhaps  the  most  significant. 
Chancellor  James  Kent,  and  others  only  less  competent,  paid 
remarkable  testimony  to  his  legal  abilities.  Chief-justice 
Marshall  ranked  him  second  to  Washington  alone.  No  judgment 

*  He  dreamed  of  saving  the  country  with  an  army  in  this  crius 
of  blood  and  iron,  and  wished  to  preserve  unweakened  the  public 
confidence  in  his  personal  bravery. 

'  His  own  words  in  1802.  In  justification  of  the  above  state- 
ments see  the  correspondence  of  1800-1804  passim — Works,  vol.  ix.- 
X.  (or  7-8) ;  especially  x.  363,  425, 434. 440»  445  (or  8:543. 59 «.  596. 
602,  605). 

*  Cf.  Anson  D.  Morse,  article  cited  below,  pp.  4,  18-21. 

*  Chancellor  Kent  tells  us  {Memoirs  and  Letters,  p.  32)  that  in 
1804  Hamilton  was  planning  a  co-operative  Federalist  work  on  the 
history  and  science  of  government  on  an  inductive  basis.  Kent 
always  speaks  of  Hamilton's  legal  thinking  as  deductive,  however 
(ibid,  p.  290, 329),  and  such  seems  to  have  been  in  fact  all  his  political 
reasoning:  (.«.  underlving  them  were  such  maxims  as  that  of  Hume, 
that  in  erecting  a  staole  government  every  citizen  must  be  assumed 
a  kna*T,  and  be  bound  by  self-interest  to  co-operation  for  the  public 
good.  Hamilton  always  seems  to  be  reasoning  deductively  from 
such  principles.  He  went  too  far  and  fast  for  even  such  a  Federalist 
disbeliever  in  democracy  as  Gouverneur  Morris;  who,  to  Hamilton's 
assertion  that  democracy  must  be  cast  out  to  save  the  country, 
replied  that  "  such  necesMty  cannot  be  shown  by  a  political  ratio- 
cination. Luckily,  or,  to  speak  with  a  reverence  proper  to  the 
occasion,  providentially,  mankind  are  not  disposed  to  embark  the 
blessing  they  enjoy  on  a  voyage  of  syllogistic  adventure  to  obtain 
somethmg  more  beautiful  in  exchange.  They  must  feel  before  they 
will  act     {op.  cit.  ii.  531). 


884         HAMILTON,  ANTHONY— HAMILTON,  ELIZABETH 


b  more  Jnitly  mcuured  than  Hadiios'i  (in  tSji):  "That  he 
poKUcd  Islelkctual  pooen  of  the  6nl  ordn,  ind  Ibe  monl 
qnalitid  of  integrity  uid  honoui  in  4  apliviting  degree,  hu 
been  iwarded  him  by  a  uiHregc  now  univeniL  Jf  hii  theory 
of  lOveramoDt  deviated  Irom  the  republicMD  itandard  be  bad 
the  candour  to  avow  it,  and  the  greater  merit  of  co-operating 
faJlbfuUy  in  maturing  and  supporting  a  lyitem  vbich  was  twt 
liii  cboice." 

In  penon  HBm3ton  wai  ratbei  shoit  and  ilender;  in  cairilgE, 
erect,  diguilied  and  gncelul.  Deep-xt,  changeable,  dtrk  eye* 
vivified  his  nwbile  features,  and  Ml  off  hi>  liglit  hair  and  fait, 
niddy  coupleiloti.  His  bead  la  tbe  famous  TrumbuU  portrait 
ia  bfjdly  poised  and  very  strilEing-  The  captivating  charm  ol 
bii  mannera  and  conversation  ia  attested  by  all  who  Jtnew  him, 
and  in  familiar  life  he  waa  artleuJy  simple.  Friends  be  won 
readily,  and  he  held  Ihem  in  devoted  attachment  by  the  solid 
worth  of  a  frank,  ardent,  generous,  warm-hearted  and  bigh- 
nlnded  character.  Volatile  as  were  bis  inteliecluil  powen.  hii 
nature  seems  compantiveiy  simple.  A  firm  will,  tireless 
energy,  aggteitivi  courage  anS  bold  Klf-confidenee  were  ita 
leading  qualities;  the  word  "  intensity  "  perhaps  best  sums  up 
his  character.  Hii  Scotch  and  Gallic  strains  of  ancestry  are 
evident;  bis  countenance  was  decidedly  Scotch;  bis  nervous 
^Kech  and  hearing  and  vehement  temperament  rather  French^ 
in  his  mind,  agility,  clarity  and  penetration  were  matched  with 
logical  soUdily.  The  remarkable  quality  of  his  mind  by  in  the 
rare  combination  of  acute  analyus  and  grasp  ol  delail  with  great 
compreheDiiveness  of  thought.  So  far  a>  bis  writings  thow,  he 
was  almost  wholly  Ucbing  io  hitmoui,  and  in  inugination  little 
less  so.  He  certainly  had  wit,  but  it  ia  hard  to  believe  he  could 
have  had  any  touch  of  fancy.  In  pubhc  speaking  he  often 
combined  a  rhetorical  effectiveness  and  emotional  intensity 
that  might  take  the  place  of  itnagination,  and  enabled  him, 
on  tbe  coldest  theme,  to  move  deeply  the  feelinp  ol  hii 


BiDLiosurnr—IIanitl  ton's  ICiirti  have  been  edited  It  II  C. 
Lodge  fNew  York,  a  volt.  iSSj-iSM.  and  Ia  vol?.,    i-r.  ■" 

Ut^'^er.  Then*revaiimuaddiiiailar^'l^oirIr/'...''iil^ 
M,  notably  thoK  of  H.B.DawMnllsejl.H.C.Lorfg.  '.i-  -  .  ..nd 
—the  most  scholarly— P.  L,  Ford  tl«9e)i  cf.  Amm.<i'<  i:-.  ■  nial 
J(«m«Wi  11.413,671.  Setiljo  Jaoiet  Bcyce,  "Prediciiiiii-.  ■!  f^-.nl- 
ton  and  do  ToojueviUe,"  ia  ^ofau  HupHm  l/»iw.>,(i  ..,,«, 
voL  s  (Bolilmoi^,  iagr)!andtlv!caploil(Miyo(A..«,„  1-   M..(« 


gnphy  of  the  period  ice  the  C 
■pp.  780.810.  The  unfinlihed  I 
^on.  }.  C.  Himillon  joing  only 


./<  .JA 


Pinl.C.  F.Diinbar.giiorlir/yJpiiriiiJar£ci>nfi>nici,iu.  (te«q),p.l3; 
E.  G.  BouiTie  in  ibid.  i.  (1^4),  p.  338;  E.  C.  LunI  in  /DunuTu/ 
PalilUat  EoMmy,  iii.  (l»OS).  p.  »89.  Among  modem  Kudin  muit 
al»  be  mentioned  J.  T.  Mone'i  able  Ii/i  (1976)1  H.  C.  Lodge's 
(In  the  American  Statesmen  series  isiSi};  and  C.  Shea's  iho 
books,  his  frutorleit£niA'(iB77)  and  lift  a>iit£p«lt(iB7a).  C.J, 
RIelhnUler's  HamOUm  and  ill  CotUmpararia  (1864).  written 
during  the  Civil  War,  is  lympathetic,  but  rather  speculative.  The 
most  vivid  aceouu  of  Hamilton  b  in  Mn  Gertrude  Athenon's 
hlstoricil  romance.  Tkc  Conqum  (New  York.  190)).  for  the  writing 
of  which  the  author  made  new  investigations  into  the  biographical 
details,  and  elucidated  some  points  previously  olacure;  see  also 
her  X  Fm  <>f  HamiUn'i  LtOm  (1903).  F.  5.  Oliver'i  brilliant 
AUxaxin  HmaiiUn:  An  Essay  m  A«uriia<i  Utim  (London.  1906). 
which  uses  its  subject  to  illuslntr  the  necessity  of  British  imperial 
federation,  is  strongly  nnli.Jtffersofliani  but  no  other  work  by 

in  Hamilton"Korom°c  pofiJy.'^   "  *°  *F.  S.  pI'i^Hrcii, J 

HAKILTOH,  AHTHOHV.  or  AMTOmE  (1646-1730),  French 
classical  author,  was  born  about  1646.  He  is  especlEilly  note- 
worthy from  the  fact  that,  though  by  birth  he  was  1  foreigner, 
hia  literary  characteriaiica  are  more  decidedly  French  than  those 
of  many  ol  the  most  indubitable  Frenchmen,  Hi>  father  was 
George   Hamiltoii,   younger  brother  of  James,    nid  eul  ol 


Abercom,  and  bead  of  the  family  of  Huniltoo  in  tbe  peenge 
of  Scotland,  and  6tb  duke  ol  Chliellenult  in  Ibe  peerage  ti 
France;  and  hb  mother  was  Mary  Butler,  sister  of  tbe  i si 
duke  of  Ormonde.  According  to  some  authorities  he  waa  boni 
at  Drogheda,  but  according  to  tbe  London  edition  of  hb  wofii 
in  iSii  hit  biitfapltce  was  Roscrea,  Tippenry.  Frras  the  ifc 
of  Com  till  be  was  foiuteea  tbe  boy  was  brought  op  in  Fnore. 
wbitbet  hit  family  had  removed  after  the  execution  of  Charles  1 
The  fact  that,  like  bb  father,  he  w«*  a  Roman  CatlioUc,pRveotrd 
hb  receiving  the  political  promotion  he  might  otbcrwue  hsvc 
expected  on  the  Restoration,  but  he  became  a  diitinguistwd 
member  of  that  brilliant  band  of  courtiers  vhote  duooKlB 
be  was  to  become.  He  look  service  in  the  Freacb  amy,  and 
the  marriage  ol  ba  sister  Eliiabeth,  "  la  belle  Haniliaii."  lo 
Pblliberl,  comte  de  Gmnont  (f.v.)  rendered  his  conneiiau  with 
France  more  intimate,  if  posKble,  than  before.  On  the  acctasioa 
of  James  II.  he  obtained  an  infantry  regiment  in  Irdand,  and 
was  appointed  governor  of  Limerick  and  a  meniber  of  the  privy 
councIL  But  the  battle  ol  the  Boyoe,  at  which  bt  was  present, 
brought  disaster  on  all  who  were  attached  to  tbe  cause  of  tbe 
Stuarts,  and  before  long  he  wai  again  m  France— an  exile,  bi,l 
at  home.  The  rest  of  hu  life  wan  spent  for  tbe  most  pan  at  tbf 
court  of  St  Germain  and  tn.the  dMtaux  of  bis  frienda.  Ujrii 
Ludoviae,  ducbcsse  du  Maine,  be  became  an  e^xoal  lavounic, 
and  it  was  at  her  seat  at  Scegiji  that  he  wrote  the  If to?irct 
that  made  hira  famous.  He  died  >t  St  Germain-cn-l^yc  on  the 
list  of  April  1710. 

It  is  mainly  by  the  JfAiuiriidiKMileifeCrainiiKllliatHamilloit 
takes  rank  with  the  most  *-N«ifi.i  writera  of  FrmHC  It  vu 
said  to  have  been  written  at  Gramont's  dictation,  but  it  b  very 
evident  that  Hamilton's  share  b  the  most  csmidmble.  Tit 
work  was  hrst  published  anonymously  in  i7i3undeT  the  rubric  el 
Cologne,  but  it  was  really  printed  in  Holland,  at  that  lime  ike 
great  patroneas  of  all  questionable  authora.  An  En^ish  lians- 
lation  by  Boyer  appeared  in  1714.  Upwards  of  ihiny  editions 
ippeared,  the  br»t  of  the  French  bi '       ~ 


(.8,3),  f, 


in  of  Hamilton 


Gusuve  Biunet's  (iBjq),  and  the  best  of  the  E^glii.'i, 
Edwardi'i  [i;tj),  with  78  cngmvbgs  fiom  portraits  in  Iherovil 
coUcctions  at  Windsor  and  ch^wheic.  A,  F.  BcHrand  de  Mole- 
ville's(ivol^.,  i8ii),wilh64portniit5  by  E.Scriven  and  others, 
and  Gordon  (Joodwin'a  (1  volt.,  igoj).  The  original  editim 
was  reprinted  by  Benjamin  Fifteau  in  tE76.  In  iraitalloa  and 
satiric  parody  of  the  romantic  tales  which  Antoine  Galtand't 
translation  of  Tlu  TlmiaaHiI  and  One  A'ifUi  had  btonght  m» 
favour  in  France,  Hamilton  wrote,  pailly  for  the  amueascnt  0! 
Henrietta  Bulkley,  dster  of  the  duchess  of  Berwick,  to  *hun 
he  was  much  attached,  four  ironical  md  eilravaginl  inla, 
Lc  Belitr,  Flair  i'tpiiu,  Xtntyde  and  Lci  Qmilrt  FaaidiMi. 
The  saying  in  Li  BUUr'  "  Bflier,  mon  ami,  tu  me  fcrats  plaisir 
si  In  voulau  commencer  par  le  commencement,"  has  pas^ 
into  a  proverb.  These  tales  were  circulated  privately  during 
Hamilton's  llfelimc,  and  the  first  three  appeared  in  Pant  in 
1730,  ten  yean  after  the  death  of  the  author;  a  coUectioa  ol  his 
(Entrei  diWKi  in  1731  contained  the  unfinbhed  ZMydt 
Hamilton  was  also  the  author  of  some  songsnseiquisiteiflthtit 
way  as  his  prose,  and  interchanged  amusing  verses  with  the  duke 
of  Berwick.  Id  the  name  of  his  niece,  the  countess  of  SuHord. 
Hamilton  maintained  a  witty  coireapondence  with  Lady  Uiry 
Woctley  Honlagu. 

See  notices  of  Hamilton  In  Lescuie's  edition  ((873)  of  the  Cmlri. 
Sainle-Beuvc't  CsniciiM  ifn  Uiidi.  tome  !..  Sayou^  Hiilnrt  it  li 
hlUnltre  /ronjoiK  d  rdrtHur  (iSsj).  an]  by  L.  5.  Auger  ui  ike 
(Eiarrl  lamfliUS  (1804). 

HAMILTOH.  ELIZABETH  (i758'iSi6),  British  author.  »> 
bom  at  Belfast,  ol  Scolli^  extraction,  on  the  list  of  July  i:i^- 
Hcr  father's  death  in  I7;9  telt  his  wile  so  embarrassed  that 
Elizabeth  wu  adopted  in  1761  by  her  paternal  aunt,  Urs 
Marshall,  who  lived  in  ScotUnd,  near  Stirling.  In  17U  Mia 
Hamilton  went  to  live  withhet  brother  Captain  Chains  Himili.iin 
<I7S]~I74>)|  who  was  engaeed  on  hb  irandation  of  theHWiM. 
Prompted   by   her  biother'i  assodalieni,  ibe  pmducad  bet 


HAMILTON,  LADY— HAMILTON,  JAMES 


88s 


tdUrs  of  a  Hindoo  Rajah  in  1796.    Soon  after,  with  her  sister 

Mrs  Blake,  she  settled  at  Bath,  where  she  published  in  x8oo  the 

Memoirs  of  Modern  Philosophers,  a  satire  on  the  admirers  of 

the  French  Revolution.    In  x8ox-i8o3  appeared  her  Letters 

on  Education.    After  travelling  through  Wales  and  Scotland  for 

nearly  two  years,  the  sisters  took  up  their  abode  in  1803  at 

Edinburgh.    In  1804  Mrs  Hamilton,  as  she  then  preferred  to  be 

called,  published  her  Life  of  Affippina,  tnfe  of  Germanuus; 

and  in  the  same  year  she  received  a  pension  from  government. 

The  Cottagers  ofCleuhurHie  (x8o8),  which  is  her  best-known  work, 

was  described  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  as  "  a  picture  of  the  rural 

habits  of  Scotland,  of  striking  and  impressive  fidelity."    She 

also  published  Popular  Essays  on  the  Elementary  Principles 

of  the  Human  Mind  (18x2),  and  HirUs  addressed  to  the  Patrons 

and  Directors  of  Public  Schools  (xSxs).    She  died  at  Harrogate 

on  the  asrd  of  July  18x6. 

Memoirs  of  Mrs  Elisabeth  HamUtoUt  by  Mias  Bengcr,  were  pub> 
lishcd  in  x8l8. 

HAMILTON,  EMMA,  Laoy  {c,  X765-X8XS),  wife  of  Sir  WUliam 
Hamilton  {q.v.),  the  British  envoy  at  Naples,  and  famous  as 
the  mistress  of  Nelson,  was  the  daughter  of  Henry  Lyon,  a 
blacksmith  of  Great  Neston  in  Cheshire.  The  date  of  her  birth 
cannot  be  fixed  with  certainty,  but  she  was  baptized  at  Great 
Neston  on  the  12th  of  May  X765,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that 
she  was  bom  in  that  year.  Her  baptismal  name  was  Emily. 
As  her  father  died  soon  after  her  birth,  the  mother,  who  was 
dependent  on  parish  relief,  had  to  remove  to  her  native  village, 
Hawardeninnintshire.  Emma'searly  life  is  very  obscure.  She 
was  certainly  illiterate,  and  it  appears  that  she  had  a  child  in 
X780,  a  fact  which  has  led  some  of  her  biographers  to  place  her 
birth  before  x  765.  It  has  been  said  that  she  was  first  the  mistress 
of  Captain  Willet  Payne,  an  ofiicer  in  the  navy,  and  that  she 
was  employed  in  some  doubtful  capacity  by  a  notorious  quack 
of  the  time,  Dr  Graham.  In  X78X  she  was  the  mistress  of  a 
country  gentleman,  Sir  Harry  Featherstonhaugh,  who  turned 
her  out  in  December  of  that  year.  She  was  then  pregnant,  and 
in  her  distress  she  applied  to  the  Hon.  Charles  Grevillc,  to  whom 
she  was  already  known.  At  this  time  she  called  herself  Emily 
Hart.  Greville,  a  gentleman  of  artistic  tastes  and  well  known 
in  society,  entertained  her  as  his  mistress,  her  mother,  known 
as  Mrs  Cadogan,  acting  as  housekeeper  and  partly  as  servant. 
Under  the  protection  of  Greville,  whose  means  were  narrowed 
by  debt,  she  acquired  some  education,  and  was  taught  to  sing, 
dance  and  act  with  professional  skill.  In  1782  he  introduced 
her  to  his  friend  Romney  the  portrait  painter,  who  had  been 
established  for  several  years  in  London,  and  who  admired  her 
beauty  with  enthusiasm.  The  numerous  famous  portraits  of 
her  from  his  brush  may  have  somewhat  idealised  her  apparently 
robust  and  brilliantly  coloured  beauty,  but  her  vivacity  and 
powers  of  fascination  cannot  be  doubted.  She  had  the  tempera- 
ment of  an  artist,  and  seems  to  have  been  sincerely  attached  to 
Greville.  In  1784  she  was  seen  by  bis  uncle,  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  who  admired  her  greatly.  Two  years  later  she  was 
sent  on  a  visit  to  him  at  Naples,  as  the  result  of  an  understanding 
between  Hamilton  and  Greville — ^the  undo  paying  his  nephew's 
debts  and  the  nephew  ceding  his  mistress.  Emma  at  first 
resented,  but  then  submitted  to  the  arrangement.  Her  beauty, 
her  artistic  capacity,  and  her  high  spirits  soon  nuide  her  a  grfot* 
favourite  in  the  easy-going  society  of  Naples,  and  Queen  Maria 
Carolina  became  dosdy  attached  to  her.  She  became  famous 
for  her  "  attitudes,"  a  series  of  poses  pUstiques  in  which  she 
represented  rlawral  and  other  figures.  On  the  6th  of  September 
X79X,  during  a  visit  to  EngUnd,  she  waS  married  to  Sir  W. 
Hamilton.  The  ceremony  was  required  in  order  to  justify  her 
public  reception  at  the  court  of  Naples,  where  Lady  Hamilton 
played  an  important  part  as  the  agent  through  whom  the  queen 
communicated  with  the  British  ministei^— sometimes  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  will  and  the  policy  oS  the  king.  The  revolutionary 
wars  aiul  disturbances  which  began  after  X793  made  the  services 
of  Lady  Hamilton  always  useful  and  sometimes  necessary  to 
the  British  government.  It  was  claimed  by  her,  and  on  her 
behalf,  that  she  secuitd  valuable  information  in  1796,  and  was 


of  essential  service  to  the  British  fleet  in  X798  during  the  Nile 
campaign,  by  enabling  it  to  obtain  stores  and  water  in  Sidly. 
Tliese  claims  have  been  denied  on  the  rather  irrdevant  ground 
that  they  are  wanting  in  offidal  confirmation,  which  was  only 
to  be  expected  since  they  were  er  Ay^o/A«n  unofiidal  and  secret, 
but  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  were  considerably  exaggerated, 
and  it  is  certain  that  her  stories  cannot  always  be  reconciled 
with  one  another  or  with  the  accepted  facts.  When  Nelson 
returned  from  the  Nile  in  September  1798  Lady  Hamilton  made 
him  her  hero,  and  he  became  entirely  devoted  to  her.  Her 
influence  over  him  indeed  became  notorious,  and  brou^t  him 
much  official  displeasure.  Lady  Hamilton  undoubtedly  used 
her  influence  to  draw  Nelson  into  a  most  unhappy  partidpation 
in  th^  domestic  troubles  of  Naples,  and  when  Sir  W.  Hamilton 
was  recalled  in  1800  she  travelled  with  him  and  Nelson  ostenta- 
tiously across  Europe.  In  England  Lady  Hamilton  insisted  on 
making  a  parade  of  her  hold  over  Nelson.  Their  child,  Horatia 
Nelson  Thompson,  was  bom  on  the  30th  of  January  i8ox.  The 
profuse  habits  which  Emma  Hamilton  had  contracted  in  Naples, 
together  with  a  passion  for  gambling  which  grew  on  her,  led  her 
into  debt,  and  also  into  extravagant  ways  of  living,  against  which 
her  husband  feebly  protested.  On  his  death  in  X803  she  received 
by  his  will  a  liferent  of  £800,  and  the  furniture  of  his  house  in 
Piccadilly.  She  then  lived  openly  with  Nelson  at  his  house  at 
Mcrton.  Nelson  tried  repeatedly  to  secure  her  a  pension  for 
the  services  rendered  ^  Naples,  but  did  not  succeed.  On  his 
death  she  recdved  Merton,  and  an  annuity  of  £500,  as  well  as 
the  control  of  the  interest  of  the  £4000  he  left  to  his  daughter. 
But  gambling  and  extravagance  kept  her  poor.  In  x8o8  her 
friends  endeavoured  to  arrange  her  affairs,  but  in  x8x3  she  was 
put  in  prison  for  debt  and  remained  there  for  a  year.  A  certain 
Alderman  Smith  having  aided  her  to  get  out,  she  went  over  to 
Calais  for  refuge  from  her  creditors,  and  she  died  there  in  distress 
if  not  in  want  on  the  xsth  of  Jantuiry  x8xs. 

Authorities. — The  Memoirs  of  Lady  Hamilton  (London,  1813) 
were  the  work  of  an  lU-dtKposea  but  wclMnformed  and  Bhrcwd 
observer  whose  name  is  not  given.  Lady  Hamilton  and  Lord  Nelson, 
by  J.  C.  JcflcfMn  (London,  1888)  is  baaed  on  authentic  papers. 
It  b  corrected  in  some  particulars  by  the  detailed  recent  life  written 
by  Walter  Sichel,  Emma,  Lady  Hamilton  (London,  1903).  See  also 
the  authorities  given  in  the  article  Nelson.  (D.  H.) 

HAMILTON,  JAMES  (1769-X831),  English  educationist,  and 
author  of  the  Hamiltonian  system  of  teaching  languages,  was 
born  in  1769.  The  first  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  mercantile 
pursuits.  Having  settled  in  Hamburg  and  become  free  of  the 
city,  he  was  anxious  to  become  acquainted  with  German  and 
accepted  the  tuition  of  a  French  emigr6.  General  d'Angelis. 
In  twelve  lessons  he  found  himself  able  to  read  an  easy  German 
book,  his  master  having  discarded  the  use  of  a  grammar  and 
translated  to  him  short  stories  word  for  word  into  French.  As 
a  dtizen  of  Hamburg  Hamilton  started  a  business  in  Paris,  and 
during  the  peace  of  Amiens  maintained  a  lucrative  trade  with 
England;  but  at  the  rupture  of  the  treaty  he  was  made  a  prisoner 
of  war,  and  though  the  protection  of  Hamburg  was  enou|^  to  get 
the  words  ejaci  de  la  lisle  des  prisonniers  de  guerre  inscribed  upon 
his  passport,  he  was  detained  in  custody  till  the  close  of  hostilities.. 
His  business  being  thus  ruined,  he  went  in  x8x4  to  America, 
intending  to  become  a  farmer  and  manufacturer  of  potash; 
but,  changing  his  plan  before  he  reached  his  "location,"  he 
started  as  a  teacher  in  New  York.  Adopting  his  old  tutor's 
method,  he  attained  remarkable  success  in  New  York,  Baltimore, 
Washington,  Boston,  Montreal  and  Quebec.  Returning  to 
England  in  July  X823,  he  was  equally  fortunate  in  Manchester 
and  elsewhere.  The  two  master  prindples  of  his  method  were 
that  the  language  should  be  presented  to  the  scholar  as  a  living 
organism,  and  that  its  laws  ^ouldbe  learned  from  observation 
and  not  by  rules,  His  system  attracted  general  attention,  and 
was  vigorously  attacked  and  defended.  In  1826  Sydney  Smith 
devoted  an  article  to  its  elucidation  in  the  Edinburgh  Review, 
As  textbooks  for  his  pupils  Hamilton  printed  interlinear  transla- 
tions  of  the  Gospd  of  John,  of  an  Epitome  historiae  sacrae,  of 
Aesop's  Fables,  Eutropius,  Aurelius  Victor,  Phaedrus,  &c.,  and 
many   books  were  issued   as   Hamiltonian   with  which  he 


886 


HAMILTON,  1ST  DUKE  OF 


had  nothing  personally  to  do.    He  died  on  the  3xst  of  October 
183 1. 

See  Hamilton's  own  account.  Tke  History,  PrincifjUs,  Practice 
and  Results  of  tke  HamHtonian  System  (Manchester,  1829;  new  ed., 
1831):  Alberte.  Vber  die  Hamilton' sche  Methode;  C.  F.  Wurm, 
Hamilton  nnd  Jacotot  (1831). 

HAMILTON.  JAMES  HAMILTON.  iST  Duke  of  (i6o6>x649), 
Scottish  nobleman,  son  of  James,  and  marquess  of  Hamilton, 
and  of  the  Lady  Anne  Cunningham,  daughter  of  the  earl  of 
Glencairn,  was  born  on  the  xgth  of  June  1606.  As  the  descendant 
and  representative  of  James  Hamilton,  ist  earl  of  Arran,  he 
was  the  heir  to  the  throne* of  Scotland  after  the  descendants  of 
James  VI.*  He  married  in  his  fourteenth  year  May  Feilding, 
aged  seven,  daughter  of  Lord  Feilding,  afterwards  ist  earl  of 
Denbigh,  and  was  educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  matriculated  on  the  14th  of  December  1621.  He  succeeded 
to  his  father's  titles  on  the  latter's  death  in  1625.  In  i6a8  he 
was  made  master  of  the  horse  and  was  also  appointed  gentleman 
of  the  bedchamber  and  a  privy  councillor.  In  1631  Hamilton 
took  over  a  force  of  6000  men  to  assist  Gustav\is  Adolphus  in 
Germany.  He  guarded  the  fortresses  on  the  Oder  while  Gustavus 
fought  Tilly  at  Brcitenfeld,  and  afterwards  occupied  Magdeburg, 
but  his  army  was  destroyed  by  disease  and  starvation,  and  after 
the  complete  failure  of  the  expedition  Hamilton  returned  to 
England  in  September  1634.  He  now  became  Charles  I.'s 
chief  adviser  in  Scottish  affairs.  In  May  1 638,  after  the  outbreak 
of  the  revolt  against  the  English  Prayer-Book,  be  was  appointed 
commissioner  for  Scotland  to  appease  the  discontents.  He 
described  the  Scots  as  being  "  possessed  by  the  devil,'*  and  instead 
of  doing  his  utmost  to  support  the  king's  interests  was  easily 
intimidated  by  the  covenanting  leaders  and  persuaded  of  the 
impossibility  of  resisting  their  demands,  finally  returning  to 
Charles  to  urge  him  to  give  way.  It  is  said  that  he  so  far  forgot 
his  trust  as  to  encourage  the  Scottish  leaders  in  their  resistance 
in  order  to  gain  their  favour.*  On  the  27th  of  July  Charles  sent 
him  back  with  new  proposals  for  the  election  of  an  assembly 
and  a  parliament,  episcopacy  being  safeguarded  but  bishops 
being  made  responsible  to  future  assemblies.  After  a  wrangle 
concerning  the  mode  of  election  he  again  returned  to  Charles. 
Having  been  sent  back  to  Edinburgh  on  the  xyth  of  September, 
he  brought  with  him  a  revocation  of  the  prayer-book  and  canons 
and  another  covenant  to  be  substituted  for  the  national  covenant. 
On  the  2  ist  of  November  Hamilton  presided  over  the  first  meeting 
of  the  assembly  in  Glasgow  cathedral,  but  dissolved  it  on  the 
28th  on  its  declaring  the  bishops  responsible  to  its  authority. 
The  assembly,  however,  continued  tp  sit  notwithstanding,  and 
Hamilton  returned  to  England  to  give^an  account  of  his  failure, 
leaving  the  enemy  triumphant  and  in  possession.  War  was  now 
decided  upon,  and  Hamilton  was  chosen  to  command  an  expedi- 
tion to  the  Forth  to  menace  the  rear  of  the  Scots.  On  arrival 
on  the  xst  of  May  1639  he  found  the  plan  impossible,  despaired  of 
success,  and  was  recalled  in  June.  On  the  8th  of  July,  after  a 
hostile  reception  at  Edinburgh,  he  resigned  his  commissionership. 
He  supported  Strafford's  proposal  to  call  the  Short  Parliament, 
but  otherwise  opposed  him  as  strongly  as  he  could,  as  the  chief 
adversary  of  the  Scots;  and  he  aided  the  elder  Vane,  it  was 
^  James,  Lord  Hamilton  "Princess  Mary  Stuart. 
(d.  I479)>  I  daughter  of  James  II. 


James,  Lord  Hamilton  aiid  xst  earl  of  Arran 
(d.  c.  1529). 

James,  duke  of  Chatelherault,  and  and  earl  of  Arran 

(d.  1575). 

James,  3rd  carl  of  Arran 
(d.  1609}. 

John,  xst  marquess  of  Hamilton 
(d.  1604). 

James,  and  marquess  of  Hamilton 
(d.  1625). 

James,  3rd  marquess  and  ist  duke  of  Hamilton. 
*  See  S.  R.  Gardiner  in  the  Diet,  of  Nat,  Biop-apky. 


believed,  in  accomplishing  Strafford's  destruction  by  >^idiB{ 
for  him  to  the  Long  Parliament.  HamiltCMi  now  sfipponed  the 
parliamentary  party,  desired  an  alliance  with  bis  natioQ.  and 
persuaded  Charles  in  February  1641  to  admit  some  of  thdi 
leaders  into  the  council.  On  the  death  of  Strafford  Hamiltca 
was  confronted  by  a  new  antagonist  in  Montrose,  who  detested 
both  his  character  and  policy  and  repudiated  bis  supremacy 
in  Scotland.  On  the  xoth  of  August  1641  he  accompanied 
Charles  on  his  last  visit  to  Scotland.  His  aim  now  was  to  effect 
an  alliance  between  the  king  and  Argyll,  the  former  accepiins 
Presbyterianism  and  receiving  the  help  of  the  Scots  against  the 
English  parliament,  and  when  this  failed  he  abandoned  Charks 
and  adhered  to  Argyll  In  consequence  he  received  a  diallcnge 
from  Lord  Kcr,  of  which  he  gave  the  king  information,  and 
obtained  from  Ker  an  apology.  Montrose  wrote  to  Charks 
declaring  he  could  prove  Hamilton  to  be  a  traitor.  The  kinf 
himself  spoke  of  him  as  being  "very  active  in  his  own  pre- 
servation." Shortly  afterwards  the  plot — ^known  as  the 
"  Incident  " — to  seize  Argyll,  Hamilton  and  the  latter's  brother, 
the  earl  of  Lanark,  was  discovered,  and  on  the  xath  of  October 
they  fled  from  Edinburgh.  Hamilton  returned  not  long  after- 
wards, and  notwithstanding  aU  that  had  occurred  still  retaiccd 
Charles's  favour  and  confidence.  He  returned  with  ,faim  to 
London  and  accompaxucd  him  on  the  5th  of  January  164a  when 
he  went  to  the  city  after  the  failure  to  secure  the  five  members. 
In  July  Hamilton  went  to  Scotland  on  a  hopeIe»  mission  to 
prevent  the  intervention  6f  the  Sco^  in  the  war,  and  a  breach 
then  took  place  between  him  and  Argyll.  When  in  Fcbniaiy 
1643  proposals  of  mediation  between  Charles  and  the  pariiamcnt 
came  from  Scotland,  Hamilton  instigated  the  "  cross  petition  ^ 
which  demanded  from  Charles  the  surrender  of  the  annuities 
of  tithes  in  order  to  embarrass  Loudoun,  the  chief  promoter  ol 
the  project,  to  whom  they  had  already  been  granted.  This 
failing,  he  promoted  a  scheme  for  overwhelming  the  inffuence 
and  votes  of  Argyll  and  his  party  by  sending  to  Scotland  all  the 
Scottish  peers  then  with  the  king,  .thereby  preventing  any 
assistance  to  the  parliament  coming  from  that  quarter,  while 
Charles  was  to  guarantee  the  establishment  of  Presbyterianisa 
in  Scotland  only.  This  foolish  intrigue  was  strongly  opposed 
by  Montrose,  who  was  eager  to  strike  a  sudden  blow  and  antki* 
pate  and  annihilate  the  plans  of  the  Covenanters.  Hamilton, 
however,  gained  over  the  queen  for  his  project,  and  in  Septemb^ 
was  made  a  duke,  while  Montrose  was  condcnmed  to  inaction. 
Hamilton's  scheme,  however,  completely  failed.  He  had  no 
control  over  the  parliament.  He  was  tmable  to  hinder  the 
meeting  of  the  convention  of  the  estates  which  assembled  witboct 
the  king's  authorily,  and  his  supporters  found  themselves  in  a 
minority.  Finally,  on  refusing  to  take  the  Covenant,  Hamilton 
and  Lanark  were  obliged  to  leave  Scotland.  They  arrived  at 
Oxford  on  the  x6th  of  December.  Hamilton's  conduct  had  at 
last  incurred  Charles's  resentment  and  he  was  sent,  in  January 
X644,  a  prisoner  to  Pendennis  Castle,  in  1645  being  removed  to 
St  Michael's  Mount,  wherehe  was  liberated  by  Fairfax's  troo{» 
on  the  23rd  of  AprU  1646.  Subsequently  he  showed  great 
activity  in  the  futile  negotiations  between  the  Scots  and  Charles 
at  Newcastle.  In  1648,  ia  consequence  of  the  seizure  of  Charies 
by  the  army  in  1647,  Hamilton  obtained  a  temporary  influence 
and  authority  in  the  Scottish  parliament  over  Argyll,  and  led 
a  large  force  into  England  in  support  of  the  king  on  the  Sth  of 
July.  He  showed  complete  incapacity  in  military  coxninaod; 
was  kept  in  check  for  some  time  by  Lambert;  and  though  out- 
numbering the  enemy  by  24,000  to  about  9000  men,  ailowcd  his 
troops  to  disperse  over  the  country  and  to  be  defeated  in  detail 
by  Cromwell  during  the  three  days  August  X7th-i9th  at  the 
so<allcd  battle  of  Preston,  being  himself  taken  prisoner  on  the 
25th. ,  He  was  tried  on  the  6th  of  February  1649,  condemned 
to  death  on  the  6th  of  March  and  executed  on  the  9th. 

Hamilton,  during  his  unfortunate  career,  had.  often  been 
suspected  of  betraying  the  king's  cause,  and,  as  an  heir  to  the 
Scottish  throne,  of  intentionally  playing  into  the  hands  of  the 
Covenanters  with  a  view  of  procuring  the  crown  for  hiroselL 
The  charge  was  brought  against  him  as  early  as  1631  wh«a  he  was 


HAMILTON,  JOHN— HAMILTON,  ROBERT 


887 


levying  men  in  Scotland  for  the  German  expedition,  but  Charles 
gave  no  credence  to  it  and  showed  his  trust  in  Hamilton  by 
causing  him  to  share  his  own  room.  The  charge,  however,  always 
clung  to  him,  and  his  intrigmng  character  and  hopeless  manage- 
ment of  the  lung's  affairs  in  Scotland  gave  colour  to  the  accusa- 
tion. There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  real  foundation  for  it. 
His  career  is  sufficiently  explained  by  his  thoroughly  weak  and 
egotistical  character.  He  took  no  interest  whatever  in  the  great 
questions  at  issue,  was  neither  loyal  nor  patriotic,  and  only 
desired  peace  and  compromise  to  avoid  personal  losses.  "  He 
was  devoid  of  intellectual  or  moral  strength,  and  was  therefore 
easily  brought  to  fancy  all  future  tasks  easy  and  all  present 
obstacles  insuperable."*  A  worse  choice  than  Hamilton  could 
not  possibly  have  been  made  in  such  a  crisis,  and  his  want  of 
'prindple,  of  firmness  and  resolution,  brought  irretrievable  ruin 
upon  the  royal  cause. 

Hamilton's  three  sons  died  young,  and  the  dukedom  passed 
by  spedal  remainder  to  his  brother  William,  earl  of  Lanark. 
On  the  latter's  death  in  165 1  the  Scottish  titles  reverted  to  the 
xst  duke's  daughter,  Anne,  whose  husband,  William  Douglas, 
was  created  (third)  duke  of  Hamilton. 

BiBUOCRAPHY.—Article  in  the  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biop  by  S.  R. 
Cardiner;  History  of  England  and  of  Ihi  Civil  War,  by  the  same 
author;  Memoirs  of  the  Dukes  of  Hamilton,  by  G.  Burnet;  lAuder- 
dale  Papers  (Camden  Society.  1884-1885);  the  Hamilton  Papers, 
ed.  by  S.  R.  Gardiner  (Camden  Society.  1880)  and  addenda  (Camden 
Miscellany,  vol.  tx.,  1895):  Thomason  Tracts  in  the  British  Museum. 
550  (6).  1948  (30)  (account  of  his  supposed  treachery),  and  546  (31) 


:h 


(speech  on  the  scaffold). 


and  546  C 

(P.  cTy, 


) 


HAMILTON,  JOHN  (c.  1511-1571),  Scottish  prelate  and 
politician,  was  a  natural  son  of  James  Hamilton,  ist  earl  of 
Arran.  At  a  very  early  age  he  became  a  monk  and  abbot  of 
Paisley,  and  after  studying  in  Paris  he  returned  to  Scotland, 
where  he  soon  rose  to  a  position  of  pmwer  and  influence  under 
his  half-brother,  the  regent  Arran.  He  was  made  keeper  of  the 
p^vy  seal  in  1543  and  bishop  of  Dunkeld  two  years  later;  in 
1546  he  followed  David  Beaton  as  archbishop  of  St  Andrews,  and 
about  the  same  time  he  became  treasurer  of  the  kingdom.  He 
made  vigorous  efforts  to  stay  the  growth  of  Protestantism,  but 
with  one  or  two  exceptions  "  persecution  was  not  the  policy  of 
Archbishop  Hamilton,"  and  in  the  interests  of  the  Roman 
CathoUc  religion  a  catechism  called  Hamilton's  Catechism 
(published  with  an  introduction  by  T.  G.  Law  in  1884)  was 
drawn  up  and  printed,  possibly  at  his  instigation.  Having 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Protestants,  now  the  dominant 
party  in  Scotland,  the  archbishop  was  imprisoned  in  1 563.  After 
his  release  he  was  an  active  partisan  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots; 
he  baptized  the  infant  James,  afterwards  King  James  VL,  and 
pronounced  the  divorce  of  the  queen  from  Bothwell.  He  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Langside,  and  some  time  later  took 
refuge  in  Dumbarton  Castle.  Here  he  was  seized,  and  on  the 
charge  of  being  concerned  in  the  murders  of  Lord  Damley  and 
the  regent  Murray  he  was  tried,  and  hanged  on  the  6th  of  April 
1 57 1.  The  archbishop  had  three  children  by  his  mistress, 
Grizzel  Sempill. 

HAMILTON,  PATRICK  (1504-152S),  Scottish  divine,  second 
son  of  Sir  Patrick  Hamilton,  well  known  in  Scottish  chivalry, 
and  of  Catherine  Stewart,  daughter  of  Alexander,  duke  of  Albany, 
second  son  of  James  II.  of  Scotland,  was  born  in  the  diocese 
of  Glasgow,  probably  at  his  father's  estate  of  StanehOuse  in 
Lanarkshire.  He  was  educated  probably  at  Linlithgow.  In  x  51 7 
he  was  appointed  titular  abbot  of  Feme,  Ross-shire;  and  it 
was  probably  about  the  same  year  that  he  went  to  study  at 
Paris,  for  his  name  is  found  in  an  ancient  list  of  those  who 
graduated  there  in  1520.  It  was  doubtless  in  Paris,  where 
Luther's  writings  were  already  exciting  much  discu^ion,  that 
he  received  the  germs  of  the  doctrines  he  was  afterwards  to 
uphold.  From  Alexander  Ales  we  learn  that  Hamilton  subse- 
quently went  to  Louvain,  attracted  probably  by  the  fame  of 
Erasmus,  who  in  1521  had  his  headquarters  there.  Returning 
to  Scotland,  the  young  scholar  naturally  selected  St  Andrews, 
the  capital  of  the  church  and  of  learning,  as  his  residence.  On 
>  See  &  R.  Gardiner  in  the  Dia.  of  Nai,  Biography. 


the  9th  of  June  1523  he  became  a  niember  of  the  university  of 
St  Andrews,  and  on  the  3rd  of  (ktober  1524  he  was  admitted 
to  its  faculty  of  arts.    There  Hamilton  attained  such  influence 
that  he  was  permitted  to  conduct  as  precentor  a  musical  mass 
of  his  own  composition  in  the  cathedral.    But  the  reformed 
doctrines  had  now  obtained  a  firm  hold  on  the  young  abbot, 
and  he  was  eager  to  communicate  them  to  his  fellow-country- 
men.   Early  in  1527  the  attention  of  James  Beaton,  archbishop 
of  St  Andrews,  was  directed  to  the  heretical  preaching  of  the 
young  priest,  whereupon  he  ordered  that  Hamilton  should  be 
formally  summoned  and  accused.    Hamilton  fled  to  Germany, 
first  visiting  Luther  at  Wittenberg,  and  afterwards  enrolling 
himself  as  a  student,  under  Franz  Lambert  of  Avignon,  in  the 
new  university  of  Marburg,  opened  on  the  30th  of  May  1527  by 
Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse.    Hermann  von  dem  Buscbe,  one  of 
the  contributors  to  the  Epistolae  obscurorum  virorum,  John 
Frith  and  Tyndale  were  among  those  whom  he  met  there.    Late 
in  the  autumn, of  1527  Hamilton  returned  to  Scotland,  bold  in 
the  conviction  of  the  truth  of  his  principles.    He  went  first  to 
bis  brother's  house  at  Kincavel,  near  Linlithgow,  in  which  town 
he  preached  frequently,  and  soon  afterwards  he  married  a  young 
lady  of  noble  rank,  whose  name  has  not  come  down  to  us. 
Beaton,  avoiding  open  violence  through  fear  of  Hamilton's  high 
connexions,  invited  him  to  a  conference  at  St  Andrews.    The 
reformer,  predicting  that  he  was  going  to  confirm  the  pious 
in  the  true  doctrine  by  his  death,  resolutely  accepted  the  invita- 
tion, and  for  nearly  a  month  was  permitted  to  preach  and  dispute, 
perhaps  in  order  to  provide  material  for  accusation.    At  length, 
however,  he  was  summoned  before  a  council  of  bishops  and 
clergy  presided  over  by  the  archbishop;  there  were  thirteen 
charges,  seven  of  which  were  based  on  the  doctrines  affirmed 
in  the  Loci  communes.    On  examination  Hamilton  maintained 
that  these  were  undoubtedly  true.    The  council  condemned 
him  as  a  heretic  on  the  whole  thirteen  charges.    Hamilton  was 
seized,  and,  it  is  said,  surrendered  to  the  soldiery  on  an  assurance 
that  he  would  be  restored  to  bis  friends  without  injury.    The 
council  convicted  him,  after  a  sham  disputation  with  Friar 
Campbell,  and  handed  him  over  to  the  secular  power.    The 
sentence  was  carried  out  on  the  same  day  (February  29,  1528) 
lest  he  should  be  rescued  by  his  friends,  and  he  was  burned  at 
the  stake  as  a  heretic.    His  courageous  bearing  attracted  more 
attention  than  ever  to  the  doctrines  for  which  he  suffered,  and 
greatly  helped  to  spread  the  Reformation  in  Scotland.    The 
"reek    of    Patrick  Hamilton  infected  all  it  blew  on."    His 
martyrdom  is  singular  in  this  respect,  that  he  represented  in 
Scotland  almost  alone  the  Lutheran  stage  of  the  Reformation. 
His  only  book  was  entitled  Lod  communes^  known  as  "  Patrick's 
Places."    It  set  forth  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  and 
the  contrast  between  the  gospel  and  the  law  in  a  series  of  clear-cut 
propositions.    It  is  to  be  found  in  Foxs's  Ads  and  Monuments. 
HAMILTON,  ROBERT  (1743-1829),  Scottish  economist  and 
mathematician,  was  bom  at  Pilrig,  Edinburgh,  on  the  nth  of 
June  X743.    His  grandfather,  William  Hamilton,  principal  of 
Edinburgh  University,  had  been  a  professor  of  divinity.  Having 
completed  his  education  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  where 
he  was  distinguished  in  mathematics,  Robert  was  induced  to 
enter  a  banking-house  in  order  to  acquire  a  practical  knowledge 
of  busineu,  but  his  ambition  was  really  academic.    In  1769  he 
gave  up  business  pursuits  and  accepted  the  rectorship  of  Perth 
academy.    In  1779  he  was  presented  to  the  chair  of  natural 
philosophy  at  Aberdeen  University.    For  many  years,  however, 
by  private  arrangement  with  his  colleague  Profe»or  Copland, 
Hamilton  taught  the  dass  of  mathematics.    In  1817  be  was 
presented  to  the  latter  chair. 

Hamilton's  most  imiportant  work  is  the  Esny  on  the  National 
Debit  which  appeared  in  181^  and  was  undoubtedly  the  first  to 
expose  the  economic  fallacies  rnvdved  in  Pitt's  policy  of  a  sinking 
fund.  It  is  still  of  value.  A  posthumous  volume  published  in 
1830,  The  Progress  of  Society,  is  alto  of  great  abili^,  and  is  a  very 
effective  treatment  <m  economical  principles  hy^  tracmg  their  natural 
origin  and  position  in  the  development  of  social  life.  Some  minor 
works  of  a  practical  character  (Introductiom  to  Merchandise,  1777: 
Essay  on  War  and  Peacot  1790)  are  now  forgotten.  ' 


888 


HAMILTON  T.— HAMILTON,  SIR  WILLIAM 


HAMILTON,  THOMAS  (i  789-1842),  Scottish  writer,  younger 
brother  of-  the  philosopher,  Sir  William  Hamilton,  Bart.,  was 
bom  in  1789.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  University,  where 
he  made  a  close  friend  of  Michael  Scott,  the  author  of  Tom 
Cringle's  Log.  He  entered  the  army  in  x8io,  and  served  through- 
out the  Peninsular  and  American  campaigns,  but  continued  to 
cultivate  his  literary  tastes.  On  the  conclusion  of  peace  he 
withdrew,  with  the  rank  of  captain,  from  active  service.  He 
contributed  both  prose  and  verse,  to  Blackwood's  Magasiney 
in  which  appeared  his  vigorous  and  pc^ular  military  novel, 
Cyril  Thornton  (1827).  His  Annals  of  the  Peninsular  Campaign, 
published  originally  in  1829,  and  republished  in  1849  with 
additions  by  Frederick  Hardman,  is  written  with  great  clearness 
and  impartiality.  His  only  other  work,  Men  and  Manners  in 
America,  published  originally  in  1833,  is  somewhat  coloiired  by 
British  prejudice,  and  by  the  author's  aristocratic  dislike  of  a 
democracy.  Hamilton  died  at  Pisa  on  the  7th  of  December 
1842. 

HAMILTON,  WILLIAM  (1704-17 54),  Scottish  poet,  the  author 
of  ''The  Braes  of  Yarrow,"  was  born  in  1 704  at  Bangour  in  Linlith- 
gowshire, the  son  of  James  Hamilton  of  Bangour,  a  member 
of  the  Scottish  bar.  As  early  as  1724  we  find  him  contributing 
to  Allan  Ramsay's  Tea  Table  Miscdlany.  In  1745  Hamilton 
joined  the  cause  of  Prince  Charles,  and  though  it  is  doubtful 
whether  he  actually  bore  arms,  he  celebrated  the  battle  of 
Prcstonpans  in  verse.  After  the  disaster  of  Culloden  he  lurked 
for  several  months  in  the  Highlands  and  escaped  to  France; 
but  in  1749  the  influence  of  his  friends  procured  him  permission 
to  return  to  Scotland,  and  in  the  following  year  he  obtained 
possession  of  the  family  estate  of  Bangour.  The  state  of  his 
health  compelled  him,  however,  to  live  abroad,  and  he  died  at 
Lyons  on  the  25th  of  March  1754.  He  was  buried  in  the  Abbey 
Church  of  Holyroodhouse,  Edinburgh.  He  was  twice  married — 
"  into  families  of  distinction  ".says  the  preface  of  the  authorized 
edition  of  his  poems. 

Hamilton  left  behind  him  a  considerable  number  ol  poems, 
none  of  them  except  "  The  Braes  of  Yarrow  "  of  striking  origin- 
ality. The  collection  is  composed  of  odes,  epitaphs,  short  pieces 
of  translation,  songs,  and  occasional  verses.  The  longest  is 
"Contemplation,  or  the  Triumph  of  Love"  (about  500  lines). 
The  first  edition  was  published  without  his  permission  by  Foulis 
(Glasgow,  1748),  and  introduced  by  a  preface  from  the  pen  of 
Adam  Smith.  Another  edition  with  corrections  by  himself  was 
brought  out  by  his  friends  in  1760,  and  to  this  was  prefixed  el 
portrait  engraved  by  Robert  Strange. 

In  1850  James  Patcrson  edited  The  Poems  and  Songs  of  William 
Hamilton.  This  volume  contains  several  poems  till  then  unpublished, 
and  gives  a  life  of  the  author. 

HAMILTON,  SIR  WILUAM  (1730-1803),  British  diplomatist 
and  archaeologist,  son  of  Lord  Archibald  Hamilton,  governor 
of  Greenwich  hospital  and  of  Jamaica,  was  bom  in  Scotland  on 
the  13th  of  December  1730,  and  served  in  the  jrd  Regiment  of 
Foot  Guards  from  1747  to  1758.  He  left  the  army  after  his 
marriage  with  Miss  Barlow,  a  Welsh  heiress  from  whom  he 
i nherited  an  estate  near  Swansea  upon  her  death  in  1 782,  Their 
only  child,  a  daughter,  died  in  1775.  From  1761  to  1764  he 
was  member  of  parliament  for  Midhurst,  but  in  the  latter  year 
he  was  appointed  envoy  to  the  court  of  Naples,  a  post  which  he 
held  for  thirty-six  years—until  his  recall  in  1800.  During  the 
greater  part  of  this  time  the  official  duties  of  the  minister  were 
of  small  importance.  It  was  enough  that  the  representative 
of  the  British  crown  should  be  a  man  of  the  world  whose  means 
enabled  him  to  entertain  on  a  handsome  scale.  Hamilton  was 
admirably  qualified  for  these,  duties,  being  an  amiable  and 
accomplished  man,  who  took  an  intelligent  interest  in  science 
and  art.  In  1766  he  became  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society, 
and  between  that  year  and  1780  he  contributed  to  its  Philo- 
sophical Transactions  a  scries  of  observations  on  the  action  of 
volcanoes,  which  he  had  made,  or  caused  to  be  made,  at  Vesuvius 
%nd  Etna.  He  employed  a  draftsman  named  Fabris  to  make 
studies  of  the  eruption  of  1775  and  1776,  and  a  Domim'can, 
Restna.  to  make  observations  at  a  later  period.    He  published 


several  treatises  on  earthquakes  and  volcanoes  between  X776 

and  1783.    He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiqovies  and 

of  the  Dilettanti,  and  a  notable  collector.    Many  of  his  treasnies 

went  to  enrich  the  British  Museum.    In  1772  he  was  made  a 

knight  of  the  Bath.    The  last  ten  years  of  his  life  presented  a 

curious  contrast,  to  the  elegant  peace  of  those  which  had  preceded 

them.    In  1791  he  married  Emma  Lyon  (see  the  separate  artick 

on  Lady  Hamilton).    The  outbreak  of  the  Frendi  lUvolntko 

and  the  rapid  extension  of  the  revdutionaiy  movement  is 

Western  Europe  soon  overwhelmed  Naples.    It  was  a  misfortune 

for  Sir  William  that  he  was  left  to  meet  the  very  trying  poiiticai 

and  diplomatic  conditions  which  arose  after  1793.    His  hoJth 

had  begun  to  break  down,  and  he  suffered  from  bJUous  fcven. 

Sir  William  was  in  fact  in  a  state~approadiing  dotage  befoie 

his  recall,  a  fact  which,  combined  with  his  senfle  devotioii  to 

Lady  HamQton,  has  to  be  considered  in  accounting  for  hs 

extraordinary  complaisance  in  her  relations  with  Nelson.    He 

died  on  the  6th  of  April  1803. 

See  E.  Edwards.  Lhes  of  Ike  Founders  of  ike  British  Musewm 
(London,  1870);  and  the  authorities  given  in  the  article  on  Emma. 
Lady  Hamilton. 

HAMILTON,  SIR  WILUAM.  Bart.  (1788-1856),  Scottish  meta- 
physician, was  bom  in  Glasgow  on  the  8th  of  March  1788.  Ha 
father,  Dr  William  Hamilton,  had  in  1 781,  on  the  strong  recom- 
mendation of  the  celebrated  William  Hunter,  been  appointed 
to  succeed  his  father,  Dr  Thomas  Hamilton,  as  professor  of 
anatomy  in  the  university  of  Glasgow;  and  when  be  died  in 
1790,  in  his  thirty-second  year,  he  had  already  gained  a  great 
reputation.  William  Hamilton  and  a  younger  brother  (after- 
wards Captain  Thomas  Hamilton,  q.v.)  were  thus  brought  up 
under  the  sde  care  of  their  mother.  William  received  h^  early 
education  in  Scotland,  except  during  two  years  which  he  spem 
in  a  private  school  near  London,  and  went  in  1807,  as  a  SoeO 
exhibitioner,  to  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  obtained  a  first- 
class  in  lU^is  humanioribus  and  took  the  degree  of  BA.  in  181 1, 
MA.  in  Z814.  He  had  been  intended  for  the  medical  prafessian, 
but  soon  after  leaving  Oxford  he  gave  up  this  idea,  and  in  i8ij 
became  a  member  of  the  Scottish  bar.  His  life,  however,  vis 
mainly  that  of  a  student;  and  the  following  years,  marked  by 
little  of  outward  incident,  were  filled  by  researches  of  all  kinds, 
through  which  he  daily  added  to  his  stores  of  learning,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  was  gradually  forming  his  phflosophic 
system.  Investigation  enabled  him  to  make  good  his  claim  to 
represent  the  ancient  family  of  Hamilton  d  Proton,  and  in  1816 
he  took  up  the  baronetcy,  which  had  been  in  abeyance  since  the 
death  of  Sir  Robert  Hamilton  of  Proton  (1650-1701),  well  known 
in  his  day  as  a  Covenanting  leader. 

Two  visits  to  Germany  in  1817  and  1820  led  to  his  takisc  up 
the  study  of  German  and  later  on  that  of  contemporary  German 
philosophy,  which  was  then  ahnost  entirely  neglected  in  the 
British  universities.  In  1820  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  chair  of 
moral  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  which  had 
fallen  vacant  on  the  death  of  Tbomas  Brown,  colteaguc  of 
Dugald  Stewart,  and  the  latter's  consequent  resignation,  but 
was  defeated  on  political  grounds  by  John  Wilson  (1785-1854^ 
the  "Christopher  North"  of  Blackwood's  Magaxine.  Soon 
afterwards  (1821)  he  was  appointed  professor  of  civil  history, 
and  as  such  delivered  several  courses  of  lectures  on  the  history 
of  modern  Europe  and  the  history  of  literature.  The  salary 
was  £100  a  year,  derived  from  a  local  beer  tax,  and  was  dis- 
continued after  a  time.  No  pupils  were  compdled  to  attend, 
the  class  dwindled,  and  Hamilton  gave  it  up  when  the  salary 
ceased.  In  January  1827  he  suffered  a  severe  loss  in  the  death 
of  his  mother,  to  whom  he  had  been  a  devoted  son.  In  March 
1828  he  married  his  cousin  Janet  MarshalL 

In  1829  his  career  of  authorship  began  with  the  i^^pearance  ol 
the  well-known  essay  on  the  "  Philosophy  of  the  Unconditioned'' 
(a  critique  of  Comte's  Cows  de  phUosophie) — the  fiurst  of  a  scries 
of  articles  contributed  by  him  to  the  Edinhmrgk  Renew.  He  was 
elected  in  1836  to  the  Edinburgh  chair  of  logic  and  ntetaphysics, 
and  from  this  time  dates  the  influence  which,  during  the  next 
twenty  years,  he.  exerted  over  the  thought  oC  tb^  youngs 


HAMILTON,  SIR  WILLIAM 


889 


generation  in  Scotland.  Much  about  the  same  time  he  began 
the  preparation  of  an  annotated  edition  of  Reid's  works^  intending 
to  annex  to  it  a  number  of  dissertations.  Before,  however,  this 
design  had  been  carried  out,  he  was  struck  (1844)  with  paralysis 
of  the  right  side,  which  seriously  crippled  his  bodily  powera, 
though  it  left  his  mind  wholly  unimpaired.  The  edition  of  Reid 
appeared  in  1846,  but  with  only  seven  of  the  intended  disserta- 
tions— ^the  last,  too,  unfinished.  It  was  his  distinct  purpose  to 
complete  the  work,  but  this  purpose  remained  at  his  death 
unfulfilled,  and  all  that  could  be  done  afterwards  was  to  print 
such  materials  for  the  renutinder,  or  such  notes  on  the  subjects 
to  be  disctissed,  as  were  found  among  his  MSS.  Considerably 
before  this  time  he  had  formed  his  theory  of  logic,  the  leading 
principles  of  which  were  indicated  in  the  prospectus  of "  an  essay 
on  a  new  analjrtic  of  logical  forms  "  prefixed  to  his  edition  of 
Reid.  But  the  elaboration  of  the  scheme  in  its  details  and 
applications  continued  during  the  next  few  yean  to  occupy 
much  of  his  leisure.  Out  of  this  arose  a  sharp  controversy  with 
Augustus  de  Morgan.  The  essay  did  not  appear,  but  the  results 
of  the  labour  gone  through  are  contained  in  the  appendices  to 
his  Lectures  en  Logic.  Another  occupation  of  these  yean  was 
the  preparation  of  extensive  materials  for  a  publication  which  he 
designed  on  the  personal  history,  influence  and  (pinions  of 
Luther.-  Here  he  advanced  so  far  as  to  have  plaxmed  and  partly 
carried  out  the  arrangement  of  the  work;  but  it  did  not  go 
further,  and  still  remains  in  MS.  In  1852-1853  appeared  the 
first  and  second  editions  of  his  IHscusHohs  in  PkUosephy^ 
Literature  and  Educatum,  a  reprint,  with  large  additions,  of  his 
contributions  to  the  Edinburgh  Review,  Soon  after,  his  general 
health  began  to  faiL  Still,  however,  aided  now  as  ever  by  his 
devoted  wife,  he  persevered  in  literary  labour;  and  during  1854- 
1855  he  brought  out  nine  volumes  of  a  new  edition  of  Stewart's 
works.  The  only  remaining  volume  was  to  have  contained  a 
memoir  of  Stewart,  but  this  he  did  not  live  to  write.  He  taught 
his  class  for  the  last  time  in  the  winter  of  1855-1856.  Shortly 
after  the  close  of  the  session  he  was  taken  ill,  and  on  the  6tfa  of 
May  1856  he  died  in  JEdinburgh. 

Hamilton's  positive  ooatribotion  to*  the  progress  of  thoaght  is 
compantively  slight,  and  his  writings,  even  where  reinfopoed  by  the 
copious  lecture  notes  taken  by  his  pupils,  cannot  be  said  to  present 
a  comprehennve  philosophic  system.  None  the  leas  he  did  ouuider^ 
able  service  by  stimulating  a  spirit  of  criticism  in  his  pupils,  bv  insist- 
ing on  the  great  importance  of  psycholo^  as  o{>pcMea  to  tne  older 
metaphysical  method,  and  not  least  by  his  recognition  of  the  import- 
ance of  German  p^kwophy,  especially  that  of  Kant.  By  far  his  most 
important  work  was  his  "Philosophy  of  the  Unconditioned,"  the 
development  of  the  principle  that  for  the  human  finite  mind  there 
can  be  no  knowledge  of  the  Infinite.  The  basts  of  his  whole  argu- 
ment is  the  thesis,  "  To  think  u  to  condition."  Deeply  impresied 
with  Kant's  antithesis  between  subject  and  object,  the  knowing  and 
the  known,  Hamilton  laid  down  the  prindpte  that  every  object  is 
known  only  in  virtue  of  its  relations  to  other  objects  (see  Relativity 
OF  Kmowlbdcb).  From  this  it  follows  limitless  time,  space,  power 
and  so  forth  are  humanly  speaking  inconceivable.  The  fact,  how- 
ever, that  all  thought  seems  to  d«nand  the  idea  of  the  infinite  or 
absolute  provides  a  sphere  for  faith,  which  is  thus  the  specific  faculty 
of  theology.  It  is  a  weakness  characteristic  of  the  human  mind  that 
it  cannot  conceive  any  phenomenon  without  a  beginning:  hence 
the  conception  of 'the  causal  relation,  according  to  which  every 
phenomenon  has  its  cause  in  preceding  phenomena,  and  its  effect  in 
subsequent  phenomena.  The  causal  concept  is,  thierefore,  only  one 
of  the  ordinary  necessary  forms  of  the  cognitive  consciousness 
limited,  as  we  have  seen,  by  being  confined  to  that  which  is  relative 
or  conditioned.  As  regards  the  problem  of  the  nature  of  objectivity, 
Hamilton  simply  accepts  the  evidence  of  consciousness  as  to  the 
separate  existence  of  the  object:  "  the  root  of  our  nature  cannot 
be  a  lie."  In  virtue  of  this  assumption  Hamilton's  philosophy 
becomes  a  "  natural  realism."  In  fact  his  whole  position  is  a  strange 
compound  of  Kant  and  Reid.  Its  chief  practical  corollary  is  the 
dental  of  phikwophy  as  a  method  of  attaining  absolute  knowledge 
and  its  rewgatkm  to  the  academic  sphere  of  menral  training.  The 
transitkm  from  philosophy  to  theology,  i^.  to  the  sphere  of  faith, 
is  presented  by  Hamilton  under  the  analogous  relatk>n  between  the 
mind  and  the  body.  As  the  mind  is  to  the  body,  so  is  the  uncon- 
ditioned Absolute  or  God  to  the  worid  of  theconditioned.  Conscious- 
ness, itself  a  conditioned  phenomenon,  must  derive  from  or  depend 
on  some  different  thing  prior  to  or  behind  material  phenoniena. 
Curioudy  enough,  however,  Hamilton  does  not  explain  how  it  comes 
about  that  GooTwho  in  the  terns  of  the  analogy  bean  to  the  con- 
ditiooed  mind  the  rdation  which  the  cooditiooed  mind  bean  to  iu 


objects,  can  Himself  be  unconditioned.  He  can  be  regarded  only 
as  related  to  consciousness,  and  in  so  far  is,  therefore,  not  absolute 
or  unconditioned.  Thus  the  veiy  principles  of  Hamilton's  philo- 
sophy are  apparently  violated  in  his  theological  argument. 

Hamilton  regarded  logic  as  a  purely  formal  suence;  it  seemed 
to  him  an  unscientific  mixing  together  of  heterogeneous  elements 
to  treat  as  parts  of  the  same  science  the  formal  and  the  material 
conditions  cm  knowledge.  He  was  quite  ready  to  allow  that  on  this 
view  logic  cannot  be  used  as  a  means  of  discovering  or  guaranteeing 
facts,  even  the  most  general,  and  expressly  asserted  that  it  has  to  do, 
not  with  the  objective  validity,  but  only  with  the  mutual  relations, 
of  judgments.  He  further  held  that  induction  and  deduction  are 
correlative  processes  of  formal  logic,  each  resting  on  the  necessities 
of  thought  and  deriving  thence  its  several  laws.  The  only  logical 
laws  which  he  recogniawd  were  the  three  axioms  of  identity,  non- 
contradiction, and  excluded  middle,  which  he  regarded  as  severally 
phase*  of  one  general  condition  of  the  possibility  of  existence  and, 
therefore,  of  thought.  The  law  of  reason  and  consequent  he  con- 
sidered not  as  dinerent,  but  merely  as  expressing  metaphysically 
what  these  express  logically.  He  added  as  a  postubtc — ^whkh  in 
his  theory  was  of  importance — "  that  logic  be  allowed  to  state 
explicitly  what  is  thought  implicitly." 

In  logic,  Hamilton  »  known  chiefly  as  the  inventor  c^  the  doctrine 
of  the  "quantification  of  the  predicate,"  i^.  that  the  judgment 
"  All  A  is  B  "  should  really  mean  "  All  A  is  otf  B."  whereas  the 
ordinary  universal  proposition  should  be  stated  "  All  A  is  some  B." 
This  view,  which  was  supported  by  Stanley  Jevons,  is  fundamentally 
at  fault  since  it  implies  that  the  predicate  is  thought  of  in  its  ex- 
tension; in  point  of  fact  when  a  judgment  is  made,  e.f.  about  men, 
that  they  are  mortal  ("  All  men  are  morul "),  the  intention  is  to 
attribute  a  quality  (t.«.  tne  prodkate  is  used  in  connotation).  In  other 
words,  we  are  not  considering  the  question  "  what  kind  are  men 
among  the  various  things  which  must  die?"  (as  is  implied  in  the 
form  ^'  all  men  are  some  mortals  ")  but  "  what  is  the  fact  about 
men?*'  We  are  not  stating  a  mere  identity  (see  further,  e.g., 
H.  W.  B.  Joseph,  Introduction  to  Logic,  1906,  pp.  198  foil.). 

The  philosopher  to  whom  above  all  others  Hamilt<Mi  pfx>fe88ed 
allegiance  was  Aristotle.  His  works  were  the  object  of  his  profouiid 
and  constant  study,  and  supplied  in  fact  the  mould  in  which  his 
whole  philosophy  was  cast.  With  the  commentaton  on  the  Aris- 
totelian writings,  ancient,  medieval  and  modern,  he  was  also 
familiar;  and  tne  scholastic  philosophy  he  studied  with  care  and 
appreciation  at  a  time  when  it  had  hardly  yet  begun  to  attract 
attention  in  his  country.  His  wide  reading  enabled  him  to  trace 
many  a  doctrine  to  the  writings  of  forgotten  thinkcn;  and  nothing 
gave  him  greater  pleasure  than  to  draw  forth  such  from  their  ol^ 
scurity,  and  to  give  due  acknowledgment,  even  if  it  ftmnr^rf  to  be 
of  the  prior  possession  of  a  view  or  argument  that  he  had  thought 
out  for  himself.  Of  modern  German  philosophy  tie  was  a  diligent, 
if  not  always  a  ssrmpathetic,  student.  How  profoundly  his  thinittng 
was  modified  by  that  of  Kant  is  evident  from  the  tenor  of  his  epecu' 
lations;  nor  was  this  less  the  case  because,  on  fundamental  points^ 
he  came  to  widely  different  Conclusions. 

Any  account  of  Hamilton  would  be  incomplete  which  regarded 
him  only  as  a  philosopher,  for  his  knowledge  and  his  interests  em- 
braced all  subjecu  related  to  that  of  the  numan  mind.  Physical 
and  mathematical  sdence  had,  indeed,  no  attraction  for  him;  but 
his  study  of  anatomy  and  physiokigy  was  minute  and  eacperimentaL 
In  literature  alike  ancient  and  modern  he  was  widely  and  deeply 
read ;  and,  from  his  unusual  powera  of  memory,  the  stores  which  he 
had  acquired  were  always  at  command.  If  there  was  one  period 
with  the  literature  of  which  he  was  more  particularly  familiar,  it 
was  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries.  Here  in  every  department  he  was 
at  home.  He  had  gathered  a  vast  amount  of  its  theological  lore,  had 
a  critical  knowledge  especially  of  its  Latin  poetry,  and  was  minutely 
acquainted  with  the  history  of  the  actore  in  its  varied  scenes,  not 
only  as  narrated  in  professed  records,  but  as  revealed  in  the  letters, 
rable-talk,  and  casual  effusions  of  themselves  or  their  contemporaries 
(cf.  his  article  on  the  Epistotae  obscurorum  virorum,  and  his  pam- 
phlet on  the  Disruption  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1843).  Among 
his  litciary  projects  were  editions  of  the  works  of  George  Buchanan 
and  Julius  GscsarScaliger.  Hbgeneral  scholarship  found  expression 
in  his  library,  which,  though  mainly,  was  far  from  being  excluMvely, 
a  philosophical  collection.  It  now  forms  a  distinct  portioo  of  the 
library  01  the  university  of  Ghtsgow. 

Hb  chief  practical  interest  was  in  education— an  interest  which  he 
manifested  alike  as  a  teacher  and  as  a  writer,  and  which  had  led  him 
k>ng  before  he  was  either  to  a  study  of  the  subject  both  theoretical 
andThistoricaL  He  thence  adopted  views  as  to  tne  ends  and  methods 
of  education  that,  when  afterwards  carried  out  or  advocated  by  him, 
met  with  geneial  recognition;  but  he  also  txprtseed  in  one  of  his 
articles  an  unfavourable  view  of  the  study  «f  mathematics  as  a 
mental  gymnastic,  which  excited  much  opposition,  but  which  he 
never  saw  reason  to  alter.  As  a  teacher,  he  was  seaknis  and 
successful,  and  his  writings  on  university  mganization  and  leforra 
had,  at  the  time  of  their  appearance,  a  decisive  practical  effect,  and 
contain  much  that  is  of  permanent  v^ue. 

His  posthumotts  works  are  his  Lectures  on  Metaphysics  and  Logic,  4 
vols.,  edited  by  H.  L.  Mansd,  Oxford,  and  John  Veitch  {Uetaphysks, 


Sgo         HAMILTON,  W.  G.— HAMILTON,  SIR  W.  ROWAN 


1858:  Lotic,  i860):  and  Additional  NaUs  to  ReidTs  Works,  from  Sir 
W.  Hamilton's  MSS.,  under  the  editorship  of  H.  L.  Mansel,  D.D. 
(1863).  A  Memoir  of  Sir  W,  Hamiltom,  by  Veitcb.  appemsd  in 
X869. 

HAMILTON,  WILUAM  GERARD  (x729-x796)»  English 
statesman,  popularly  known  as  "  Single  Speech  Haxnilton,"  was 
bom  in  London  on  the  28th  of  January  1 729,  the  son  of  a  Scottish 
bencher  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  was  educated  at  Winchester  and 
at  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  Inheriting  his  father's  fortune  he 
entered  political  life  and  became  M.P.  for  Pctersfield,  Hampshire. 
His  maiden  speech,  delivered  on  the  13th  of  November  1755, 
during  the  debate  on  the  address,  which  cxdted  Walpole's 
admiration,  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  his  only  effort 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  But  the  nickname  "  Single  Speech  " 
is  undoubtedly  misleading,  and  Hamilton  is  known  to  have 
spoken  with  success  on  other  occasions,  both  in  the  House  of 
Commons  and  in  the  Irish  parliament.  In  1756  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  commissioners  for  trade  and  plantations,  and  in  1761 
he  became  chief  secretary  to  Lord  Halifax,  the  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  as  well  as  Irish  M.  P.  for  Killebegs  and  English  M.  P. 
for  Pontefract.  He  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  Ireland 
in  X763,  and  subsequently  fiUed  various  other  administrative 
offices.  Hamilton  was  thought  very  highly  of  by  Dr  Johnson, 
and  it  is  certain  that  he  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  British 
taxation  of  America.  He  died  in  London  on  the  i6th  of  July 
X796,  and  was  buried  in  the  chancel  vault  of  St  Martin's-in-the- 
fields. 

Two  of  his  speeches  in  the  Irish  House  of  Commons,  and  some  other 
miscellaneous  works,  were  published  after  bis  death  under  the  title 
^arliamcntory  Logick. 

HAMILTON,  SIR  WILUAM  ROWAN  (x8o5-x86s),  Scottish 
mathematician,  was  bom  in  Dublin  on  the  4th  of  August  X805. 
His  father,  Archibald  Hamilton,,  who  was  a  solicitor,  and  his 
uncle,  James  Hamilton  (curate  of  Trim),  migrated  from  Scotland 
in  youth.  A  branch  of  the  Scottish  family  to  which  they  belonged 
had  settled  in  the  north  of  Ireland  in  the  time  of  James  I.,  and 
this  fact  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  the  common  impression  that 
Hamilton  was  an  Irishman. 

His  genius  first  displayed  itself  in  the  form  of  a  wonderful 
power  of  acquiring  languages.  At  the  age  of  seven  he  had 
already  made  very  considerable  progress  in  Hebrew,  and  before 
he  was  thirteen  he  had  acquired,  under  the  care  of  his  uncle, 
who  was  an  extraordinary  linguist,  ahnost  as  many  languages 
as  he  had  years  of  age.  Among  these,  besides  the  rlasslral  and 
the  modem  European  languages,  were  included  Persian,  Arabic, 
Hindustani,  Sanskrit  and  even  Malay.  But  though  to  the  very 
end  of  his  life  he  retained  much  of  the  singular  learning  of  his 
childhood  and  youth,  often  reading  Persian  and  Arabic  in  the 
intervals  of  sterner  pursuits,  he  had  long  abandoned  them  as  a 
study,  and  employed  them  merely  as  a  relaxatioxL 

His  mathematical  studies  seem  to  have  been  undertaken  and 
carried  to  their  full  development  without  any  assistance  what- 
ever, and  the  result  is  that  his  writings  belong  to  no  particular 
"  school,"  unless  indeed  we  consider  them  to  form,  as  they  are 
well  entitled  to  do,  a  school  by  themselves.  As  an  arithmetical 
calculator  he  was  not  only  wonderfully  expert,  but  he  seems  to 
have  occasionally  found  a  positive  delight  in  working  out  to  an 
enormous  number  of  places  of  decimals  the  result  of  some  irksome 
calculation.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  engaged  Zerah  Colbium, 
the  American  "  calculating  boy,"  who  was  then  being  exhibited 
as  a  curiosity  in  Dublin,  and  he  had  not  always  the  worst  of  the 
encounter.  But,  two  years  before,  he  had  accidentally  fallen 
in  with  a  Latin  copy  of  Euclid,  which  he  eagerly  devoured; 
and  at  twelve  he  attacked  Newton's  Arithntetica  universalis. 
This  was  his  introduction  to  modem  analysis.  He  soon  com- 
menced to  read  the  Principia,  and  at  sixteen  he  had  mastered 
a  great  part  of  that  work,  besides  some  more  modem  works  on 
analytical  geometry  and  the  differential  calculus. 

About  this  period  he  was  also  engaged  in  preparation  for 
entrance  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  had  therefore  to  devote 
a  portion  of  his  time  to  classics.  In  the  summer  of  1822,  in  his 
seventeenth  year,  he  began  a  systematic  study  of  Laplace's 


Micanigue  Cilesle.  Nothing  could  be  better  fitted  to  call  fcMth 
such  mathematical  powers  as  those  of  Hamilton;  for  Laplace's 
great  work,  rich  to  profusion  in  analytical  processes  aUkc  novel 
and  powerful,  demands  from  the  most  gifted  student  carelol 
and  often  lat>orious  study.  It  was  in  the  successful  effort  to 
open  this  treasure-house  that  Hamilton's  mind  received  its 
final  temper,  "  Dis-lors  il  conmien^  a  marcher  seul/'  to  c^e 
the  words  of  the  biographer  of  another  great  mathcmatidaa. 
From  that  time  he  appears  to  have  devoted  himself  alxaan 
wholly  to  original  investigation  (so  far  at  least  as  regards  mathe- 
matics), though  he  ever  kept  himself  well  acquainted  with  the 
progress  of  science  both  in  Britain  and  abroad. 

Having  detected  an  important  defect  in  one  of  La|^OE*s 
demonstrations,  he  was  induced  by  a  friend  to  write  out  his 
remarks,  that  they  might  be  ^own  to  Dr  John  Brinkley  (1763- 
X835),  afterwards  bishop  of  Cloyne,  but  who  was  then  the  first 
royal  astronomer  for  Ireland,  and  an  accomplished  mathe- 
matician. Brinkley  seems  at  once  to  have  perceived  the  vast 
talents  of  young  Hamilton,  and  to  have  encouraged  him  in  the 
kindest  manner.  He  is  said  to  have  remarked  in  1823  of  this  lad 
of  eighteen:  "  This  young  man,  I  do  not  say  vitt  be,  but  is,  the 
first  mathematician  of  his  age." 

Hamilton's  career  at  College  was  perhaps  tinezampkd. 
Amongst  a  number  of  competitors  of  more  than  ordinary  merit, 
he  was  first  in  every  subject  and  at  every  examination.  He 
achieved  the  rare  distinction  of  obtaining  an  optiwu  for  both 
Greek  and  for  physics.  How  many  more  such  honoun  he  might 
have  attained  it  is  impossible  to  say;  but  he  was  expected  to 
win  both  the  gold  medals  at  the  degree  examiiuLtion,  had  his 
career  as  a  student  not  been  cut  short  by  an  unprecedented 
event.  This  was  his  appointment  to  the  Andrews  professorship 
of  astronomy  in  the  university  of  Dublin,  vacated  by  Dr  Briokky 
in  X827.  The  chair  was  not  exactly  offered  to  him,  as  has  been 
sometimes  asserted,  but  the  electors,  having  met  and  talked  over 
the  subject,  authorized  one  of  their  number,  who  wasHamilton's 
persomd  friend,  to  urge  him  to  become  a  candidate,  a  step  which 
his  modesty  had  prevented  him  from  taking.  Thus,  when  barely 
twenty-two,  he  was  established  at  the  Observatory,  Dunsink. 
near  Dublin.  He  was  not  specially  fitted  for  the  post,  for 
although  he  had  a  profound  acquaintance  with  theor^ical 
astronomy,  he  had  paid  but  little  attention  to  the  regular  work 
of  the  practical  astronomer.  And  it  must  be  said  that  his  time 
was  better  employed  in  original  investigations  than  it  wouU 
have  been  had  he  spent  it  in  observations  made  even  with  the 
best  of  instruments, — infinitely  better  than  if  he  had  %pesA  it  oa 
those  of  the  observatory,  which,  however  good  originally,  were 
then  totally  unfit  for  the  delicate  requirements  (rf  raodon 
astronomy.  Indeed  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  Hamilton 
was  intended  by  the  university  authorities  who  elected 
him  to  the  professorship  of  astronomy  to  spend  his  time 
as  he  best  could  for  th(  advancement  of  science,  without  being 
tied  down  to  any  particular  branch.  Had  he  devoted  himsdf 
to  practical  astronomy  they  would  assuredly  have  furnished  him 
with  modem  instruments  and  an  adequate  staff  of  assistants. 

In  X835  ,  being  secretary  to  the  meeting  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion which  was  held  that  year  in  Dublin,  he  was  knighted  by  the 
lord-lieutenant.  But  far  higher  honours  rapidly  succeeded, 
among  which  we  may  merely  mention  his  election  in  XS37  10 
the  president's  chair  in  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  and  the  tare 
distinction  of  being  made  corresponding  member  of  the  academy 
of  St  Petersburg.  These  axe  the  few  salient  p<unts  (other,  of 
course,  than  the  epochs  of  his  more  important  discoveries  and 
inventions  presently  to  be  considered)  in  the  uneventful  life  di 
this  great  man.  He  retained  his  wonderful  faculties  unimpaired 
to  the  very  last,  and  steadily  continued  till  within  a  day  or  two  of 
his  death,  which  occurred  on  the  snd  of  September  1865.  the 
task  (his  Elements  0/  Quatemums)  which  had  occupied  the  Us; 

sixyears  of  his  life. 

liie  germ  of  his  first  great  dtsoovery  was  cootatned  in  one  of  thrae 
early  papers  which  in  1823  he  communicated  to  Dr  Brinkk)',  by 
whom,  under  the  title  of  "  Caustics."  it  was  presoited  in  1824  to  n& 
Royal  Irish  Academy.  It  was  referred  as  usual  to  a  committtfc 
Their  report,  while  acknowled|png  the  novelty  and  vaIuc  of  its 


J 


HAMILTON 


891 


contents,  and  the  great  mathetnatical  sldQ  of  its  author,  recommended 
that,  before  being  published,  it  should  be  still  further  developed  and 
simplified.  During  the  nesct  three  years  the  paper  grew  to  an 
immense  bulk,  pnncipallv  by  the  additional  details  which  had  been 
inserted  at  the  desire  of  the  committee.  But  it  also  assumed  a  much 
more  intelligible  form,  and  the  grand  features  of  the  new  method 
were  now  easily  to  be  seen.  Hamilton  himself  seems  not  till  this 
period  to  have  fully  understood  either  the  nature  or  the  importance 
of  his  difcovery,  for  it  is  only  now  that  we  find  him  announcing  his 
intention  of  applying  his  method  to  dynamics.  The  paper  was 
finally  entitled     Theory  of  Systems  of  Rays,"  and  the  first  part  was 

frinted  in  i8a8  in  the  Transaciiotu  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 
t  is  understood  that  the  more  important  contents  of  the  second 
and  third  parts  appeared  in  the  three  voluminous  supplements  (to 
the  first  part)  which  were  published  in  the  same  Transactions,  and  in 
the  two  papers  "  On  a  Gieneral  Method  in  Dynamics,"  which  ap- 
peared in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  in  1 834-1 835.  The  principle 
of  "  Varying  Action  is  the  great  feature  of  these  capers;  and  it  is 
strange,  indeed,  that  the  one  particular  result  of  this  theory  which, 
perhaps  more  than  anything  else  that  Hamilton  has  done,  has 
rendered  his  name  known  beyond  the  little  world  of  true  philosophersi 
should  have  been  easily  within  the  reach  of  Augustin  Fresnel  and 
others  for  many  years  before,  and  in  no  way  required  Hamilton's 
new  conceptions  or  methods,  although  it  was  bv  them  that  he  was 
led  to  its  atscovery.  This  singular  result  is  still  known  by  the  name 
"  conical  refraction,**  which  ne  proposed  for  it  when  he  first  pre- 
dicted its  existence  in  the  third  supplement  to  his  "  Systems  of 
Rays,"  read  in  1833. 

The  step  from  optics  to  dynamics  in  the  application  dt  the  method 
of  "  Varymg  Action  "  was  made  in  1827,  and  communicated  to 
the  Royal  Society,  in  whose  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1834 
■  '  '  ■         -  ■    ■    r,  like 


and  1835  there  are  two  papers  on  the  subject.  These  display l 
the  "  Systems  of  Rays,"  a  mastery  over  symbols  and  a  flow  of  mathe 
matical  language  almost  unequalled.  But  they  contain  what  is  far 
more  valuable  still,  the  greatest  addition  which  dynamical  science 
had  received  since  the  grand  strides  made  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  and 
Joseph  Louis  Lagrange.  C.  G.  J.  Jacobi  and  other  mathematicians 
nave  developed  to  a  great  extent,  and  as  a  question  of  pure  mathe- 
matics only,  Hamilton's  processes,  and  have  thus  made  extensive 
additions  to  our  Icnowledce  of  differential  equations.  But  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  we  have  as  )ret  obtained  only  a  mere  glimpse 
of  the  vast  physical  results  of  which  they  contain  the  germ.  And 
though  this  is  of  ^ourse  by  far  the  more  valuable  aspect  in  which 
any  such  contribution  to  science  can  be  looked  at,  the  other  must 
not  be  despised.  It  is  characteristic  of  most  of  Hamilton's,  as  of 
nearly  all  great  discoveries,  that  even  theic  indirect  consequences  are 
of  high  value. 

The  other  great  contribution  made  by  Hamilton  to  mathematical 
science,  the  invention  of  Quaternions,  is  treated  under  that  heading. 
The  following  characteristic  extract  from  a  letter  shows  Hamilton  s 
own  opinion  of  his  mathematical  work,  and  also  gives  a  hint  of  the 
devices  which  he  employed  to  render  written  language  as  expressive 
as  actual  weech.  His  first  great  work.  Lectures  on  Quaternions 
(Dublin,  1852),  is  almost  painful  to  read  in  consequence  of  the 
frequent  use  of  italics  and  capitals. 

"  I  hope  that  it  may  not  be  considered  as  unpardonable  vanity 
or  presumption  on  my  part,  if,  as  ray  own  taste  has  always  led  me 
to  feel  a  greater  interest  in  methods  than  in  results^  so  it  is  by 
METHODS,  rather  than  by  any  theorems,  which  can  be  separately 
quoted,  that  I  desire  and  hope  to  be  remembered.  Nevertheless  it 
IS  only  human  nature,  to  derive  some  pleasure  from  being  cited,  now 
and  then,  even  about  a  '  Theorem  ;  especially  where  . . .  the 
quoter  can  enrich  the  subject,  by  oombimng  it  with  researches  o^ 
his  own** 

The  discoveries,  papers  and  treatises  we  have  mentioned  micht 
well  have  formcfd  the  whole  work  of  a  long  and  laborious  life,  fiut 
not  to  speak  of  his  enormous  collection  01  MS.  booln,  full  to  over- 
flowing with  new  and  original  matter,  which  have  been  handed  over 
to  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  the  works  we  have  already  called  atten- 
tion to  barely  form^  the  greater  portion  of  what  he  has  published. 
His  extraordinary  investigations  connected  with  the  solution  of 
algebraic  equations  of  the  fifth  degree,  and  his  examination  of  the 
results  arrived  at  by  N.  H.  Abel.  (j*.  B.  Icrrard,  and  others  in  their 
researches  on  this  subject,  form  another  grand  contribution  to 
science.  There  is  next  his  great  paper  on  Fiuctuating  Functions, 
a  subjeci  which,  since  the  time  of  J.  Fourier,  has  been  of  immense 
and  ever  increasing  value  in  physical  applications  of  mathematkrs. 
There  is  also  the  extremely  ingenious  invention  of  the  hodogniph. 
Of  his  extensive  investigations  into  the  solution  (especiafly  by 
numerical  approximation)  of  certain  classes  of  differential  equations 
which  constantly  occur  in  the  treatment  of  physical  questions,  only 
a  few  items  have  been  published,  at  intervals,  in  the  Philosophical 
tlagatine.  Besides  all  this,  Hamilton  was  a  voluminous  corre- 
spondent. Often  a  single  letter  of  his  occupied  from  fifty  to  a 
hundred  or  more  closely  written  pages,  all  devoted  to  the  minute 
consideration  of  every  feature  of  sorae  particular  problem ;  for  it 
W.14  one  of  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  his  mind  never  to  be 
satisfied  with  a  general  understanding  of  a  question;  he  pursued  it 
until  he  knew  it  in  all  its  details.  He  was  ever  courteous  and  kind 
in  answering  applications  for  assistance  in  the  study  of  liis  works. 


even  when  his  compliance.mast  have  cost  him  much  time.  He 
was  excessively  precise  and  hard  to  please  with  reference  to  the 
final  polish  of  nis  own  works  for  publication;  and  it  was  probably 
for  thu  reason  that  be  published  so  little  compared  with  the  extent 
of  his  investigations. 

Like  most  men  of  great  originality,  Hamilton  generally  matured 
his  ideas  before  putting  pen  to  pqper.  "  He  used  to  carry  on,"  says 
his  elder  son,  William  Edwin  Hamilton,  "  long  trains  of  algebraical 
and  arithmetical  calculations  in  his  mind,  during  which  he  was 
unconscious  of  the  earthly  necessity  of  eating;  we  used  to  brin^  in  a 
'  snack  '  and  leave  it  in  nis  study,  but  a  brief  nod  of  recognition  of 
the  intrusion  of  the  chop  or  cutlet  was  often  the  only  result,  and 
his  thoughts  went  on  soaring  upwards." 

For  further  details  about  Hamilton  (his  poetry  and  his  asaociatioa 
with  poets,  for  instance)  the  reader  is  refenvd  to  the  DiMin  Unieer' 
sity  Mantine  (Jan.  1842),  the  Gentleman's  Magaune  (Ian.  1866), 
and  the  Monthly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  {!Peh.  1866) ; 
and  also  to  an  article  by  the  present  writer  in  the  North  British 
Review  (Sept.  1866),  from  which  much  of  the  above  sketch  has  been 
taken.  His  works  have  been  collected  and  published  by  R.  P. 
Graves,  Life  of  Sir  W.  R,  Hamilton  (3  vols.,  i88a,  1885. 1889). 

(P.  G.  T.) 

HAMILTON,  a  town  of  Dundas  and  Normanby  ootinties, 
Victoria,  Australia,  on  the  Grange  Bume  Creek,  197}  m.  by 
rail  W.  of  Melbourne.  Pop.  (1901)  4026.  Hamilton  has  a 
number  of  educational  institutions,  diief  among  which  ore  the 
Hamilton  and  Western  District  College,  one  of  the  finest  buildings 
of  its  kind  in  Victoria,  the  Hamilton  Academy,  and  the  Alexandra 
ladies'  college,  a  state  school,  and  a  Catholic  college.  It  has 
a  fine  racea>urse,  and  pastorsJ  and  agricultuxol  exhibitions  are 
held  annually,  as  the  surrounding  district  is  mainly  devoted  to 
sheep-farming.  Mutton  is  froxen  and  exported.  Hamilton 
became  a  borough  in  1859. 

HAMILTON  (Grand  or  Ashuaiiifi),  the  chief  river  of 
Labrador,  Canada.  It  rises  in  the  Labrador  highlands  at  an 
elevation  of  1 700  ft.,  its  chief  sources  being  Lakes  Attikonak  and 
Ashuanipi,  between  65^  and  66*  W.  and  52"  and  53"  N.  After 
a  precipitous  course  of  600  m.  it  empties  into  Melville  Lake 
(90  m.  long  and  x8  wide),  an  extension  of  HamOton  inlet,  on  the 
Atlantic  About  220  m.  from  its  mouth  occur  the  Grand  Falls 
of  Labrador.  Here  in  a  distance  of  x  2  m.  the  river  drops  760  ft., 
culminating  in  a  final  vertical  fall  of  3 16  f L  Below  the  falls  ore 
violent  rapids,  and  the  river  sweeps  throu^  a  deep  and  narrow 
canyon.  The  country  through  which  it  passes  is  for  the  most 
part  a  wilderness  of  barren  rock,  full  of  lakes  and  lacustrine 
rivers,  many  of  which  are  its  tributaries.  In  certain  portions  of 
the  valley  spruce  and  poplars  grow  to  a  moderate  size.  From 
the  head  of  Lake  Attikonak  a  steep  and  rocky  p(»tage  of  less 
than  a  mOe  leads  to  Burnt  Lake,  which  is  dxiJned  into  the 
St  Lawrence  by  the  Romoine  river. 

HAMILTON,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Canada,  capital  of 
Wentworth  county,  Ontario.  It  occupies  a  highly  picturesque 
situation  upon  the  shore  of  a  spacious  land4ocked  bay  at  the 
western  end  of  Lake  Ontario.  It  covers  the  plain  stretching 
between  the  water-front  and  the  escarpment  (called  "  The 
Mountain  ")i  this  latter  being  a  continuation  of  that  over  which 
the  Falls  of  Niagara  plunge  40  m.  to  the  west.  Founded  about 
X778  by  one  Robert  Land,  the  growth  of  Hamilton  has  been 
steady  and  substantial,  and,  owing  to  its  remarkable  industrial 
development,  it  has  come  to  be  called  "  the  Birmingham  of 
Canada."  This  development  is  largely  due  to  the  use  of  electrical 
energy  generated  by  water-power,  in  regard  to  which  Hamilton 
stands  first  among  Canadian  cities.  The  electricity  has  not, 
however,  been  obtained  from  Niagara  Falls,  but  from  De  Ccw 
Falls,  35  m.  S.E.  of  the  city.  The  entire  electrical  railway  system, 
the  lighting  of  the  dty,  and  the  majority  of  the  factories  are 
operated  by  power  obtained  from  this  source.  The  manufactur- 
ing interests  of  Hamilton  are  varied,  and  some  of  the  establish- 
ments are  of  vast  size,  employing  many  thousands  of  hands  each, 
such  as  the  International  Harvester  Co.  and  the  Canadian 
Wcstinghouse  Co.  In  addition  Hamilton  is  the  centre  of  one  of 
the  finest  fruit-growing  districts  on  the  continent,  and  its  open- 
air  market  is  a  remarkable  sight.  The  municipal  matters  are 
managed  by  a  mayor  and  board  of  aldermen.  Six  steam  rail- 
roads and  three  electric  radial  roads  afford  Hamilton  ample  facili- 
ties for  tri^port  by  land,  while  during  the  season  of  navigation 


892 


HAMILTON— HAMIRPUR 


»  number  of  steamboat  lines  supply  daily  services  to  Toronto 
and  other  lake  porta.  Entrance  into  the  broad  bay  is  obtained 
through  a  short  canal  intersecting  Burlington  Beach,  which  is 
crossed  by  two  swing  bridges,  whereof  one — ^that  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  raUway — is  among  the  largest  of  its  kind  in  the  world. 
Burlington  Beach  is  lined  with  cottages  occupied  by  the  dty 
residents  during  the  hot  stmimer  months.  Hamilton  is  rich  in 
public  institutions.  The  educational  equipment  comprises  a 
normal  college,  collegiate  institute,  model  school  and  more  than 
a  sa>re  of  public  schools,  for  the  most  part  housed  in  handsome 
stone  and  brick  buildings.  There  are  four  hospitals,  and  the 
asylum  for  the  insane  is  the  largest  in  Canada.  There  is  an 
excellent  public  library,  and  in  the  same  building  with  it  a  good 
art  schooL  Hamilton  boasts  of  a  ntmiber  of  parks,  Dundum 
Castle  Park,  containing  several  interesting  relics  of  the  war  of 
181 2,  being  the  finest,  and,  as  it  is  practically  within  the  dty 
limits,  it  is  a  great  boon  to  Uie  people.  Gore  Park,  in  the  centre 
of  the  dty,  is  used  for  concerts,  given  by  various  bands,  one  of 
which  has  gained  an  intcmationd  reputation.  Since  its  incor- 
poration in  1833  the  history  of  Hamilton  has  shown  continuous 
growth.  In  1836  the  population  was  3846;  in  1851,  10,248; 
in  1861,  19,096;  in  1871,  36,880;  in  i88x,  36,661;  in  1891, 
48,959;  and  in  1901,  53,634.  The  Anglican  bishop  of  Niagara 
has  his  seat  here,  and  also  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  Hamilton 
returns  two  members  to  the  Provincial  parliament  and  two  to 
the  Dominioli. 

HAMILTON,  a  munidpal  and  police  burgh  of  Lanarkshire, 
Scotland.  Pop.  (1891),  34,859;  (1901),  32,775.  It  is  situated 
about  X  m.  from  the  junction  of  the  Avon  with  the  Clyde,  io|  m. 
S.E.  of  Glasgow  by  road,  and  has  stations  on  the  Caledonian  and 
North  Briti^  railways.  The  town  hall  in  the  Scottish  Baronial 
style  has  a  dock-tower  130  ft.  high,  and  the  county  buildings 
are  in  the  Grecian  style.  Among  Uxe  subjects  of  antiquarian 
interest  are  Queenzie  Neuk,  the  spot  where  Queen  Maiy  rested 
on  her  journey  to  Langside,  the  old  steeple  and  pilloxy  built 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  fJie  Mote  Hill,  the  old  Rtmic  cross, 
and  the  carved  gateway  in  the  palace  park.  In  the  churchyard 
there  is  a  monument  to  four  covenanters  who  suffered  at  Edin- 
burgh, on  the  7th  of  December  x6oo,  whose  heads  were  buried 
here.  Among  the  industries  are  manufaaures  of  cotton,  lace 
and  embroidered  muslins,  and  carriage-building,  and  there  are 
also  large  market  gardens,  the  district  bdng  famed  especially 
for  its  apples,  and  some  dairy-farming;  but  the  prosperity  of 
the  town  depends  chiefly  upon  the  coal  and  ironstone  of  the 
surrounding  country,  which  is  the  richest  mineral  field  in  Scot- 
land. Hamilton  originated  in  the  15th  century  under  the 
protecting  influence  of  the  lords  of  Hamilton,  and  became  a 
burgh  of  barony  in  1456  and  a  royal  burgh  in  1548.  The  latter 
rights  were  afterwards  surrendered  and  it  was  made  the  chief 
burgh  of  the  regality  and  dukedom  of  Hamilton  in  x668,  the  third 
marquess  having  been  created  duke  in  X643.  It  imites  with 
Airdrie,  Falkirk,  Lanark  and  Linlithgow  to  form  the  Falkirk 
district  of  burgfaa,  which  returns  one  member  to  parliament'. 

Immediately^  east  of  the  town  is  Hamilton  palace,  the  seat  of  the 
duke  of  Hamilton  and  Brandon,  premier  peer  of  Scotland.  It 
occupies  most  of  the  site  of  the  origmal  burgh  of  Nethcrton.  The 
first  mansion  was  erected  at  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  and  rebuilt 
about  1 710,  to  be  succeeded  in  1822-1829  by  the  present  palace, 
a  magnificent  building  in  the  classical  style.  Its  front  is  a  specimen 
of  the  enriched  Corinthian  architecture,  with  a  projecting  pillared 
portico  after  the  stvic  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator  at  Rome, 
364  ft.  in  length  and  60  ft.  in  height.  Each  of  the  twelve  pillare  of 
the  portico  is  a  single  block  of  stone,  quarried  at  Dalscrf,  midway 
between  Hamilton  and  Lanark,  and  required  thirty  horses  to  draw 
it  to  its  site.  The  interior  is  richly  decorated  and  once  contained 
the  finest  collection  of  paintings  in  Scotland,  but  most  of  them, 
together  with  the  Hamilton  and  Beckford  libraries,  were  sold  in 
1883.  Within  the  grounds,  which  comprise  ncariy  1500  acres,  is  the 
mausoleum  erected  by  the  loth  duke,  a  structure  resembling  in 
gcnenil  design  that  of  the  emperor  Hadrian  at  Rome,  being  a  circular 
building  spnnging  from  a  square  basement,  and  endosing  a  decorated 
octagonal  chapel,  the  door  of  which  is  a  copy  in  bronze  of  Ghiberti's 
gates  at  Florence.  At  Barncluith,  i  m.  S.E.  of  the  town,  may  be 
seen  the  Dutch  gardens  which  were  laid  down  in  terraces  on  the 
steep  banks  of  the  Avon.  Their  quaint  shrubbery  and  old-fashioned 
setting  render  them  attraaive.    They  were  planned  in  1583  by 


John  Hamiltoa,  an  ancestor  of  Loid  Bdhaven,  aiid  now  beloag  to 
Lord  Ruthven.  About  a  m.  S.E.  of  Hamilton,  within  the  wtaten 
High  Park,  on  the  summit  of  a  pcedpitous  rock  300  ft.  ia  hcigiit, 
the  foot  of  which  is  washed  by  the  Avon,  rtand  the  ruins  of  Cadnw 
Castle,  the  subject  of  a  spinted  ballad  by  Sir  Walter  Scoct.  The 
castle  had  been  a  royal  residence  for  at  least  two  centoricB  bdore 
Bannockbum  (1^14),  but  immediately  after  the  battle  Robert  Brace 
granted  it  to  ^r  Walter  FitzGilbert  Hamilton,  the  son  of  the  fosader 
of  the  family,  in  return  for  the  fealty.  Near  it  is  the  aobk  diase 
with  its  anaent  oaks,  the  remains  of  the  Gakdonian  Forest,  where 
are  still  preserved  some  of  the  aboriginal  breed  of  wild  cattle. 
Opposite  Cadzow  Castle,  in  the  eastern  High  Puk,  on  the  rMit  bank 
01  the  Avon,  is  Chatdherault,  consisting  of  staMea  and  ooce^  aid 
imitating  in  outline  the  palace  of  that  name  in  France. 

HAMILTON,  a  village  of  Madison  coanty,'New  Yock;  U.SJL, 
about  39  m.  S.W.  of  Utica.  Pop.  (1890),  1744;  (1900),  X627; 
(1905)  X533;  (19x0)  1689.  It  is  served  by  the  New  York,  Ontario 
&  Western  railway.  Hamilton  is  situated  in  a  pcwtoctiwe 
agricultural  region,  and  has  a  large  trade  in  bops;  among  its 
manufactures  are  caimed  vegetables,  lumber  and  knit  goods, 
There  are  several  valuable  stone  quarries  in  the  vidnity.  The 
village  owns  and  operates  its  water-supply  and  eiectzic-fi^tiag 
system.  Hamilton  is  the  seat  of  Colgate  University,  wb&d^  was 
founded  in  18x9,  under  the  luune  of  the  Hamilton  litccsry  and 
Theological  Institution,  as  a  training  schocd  for -the  Baptist 
ministzy,  was  chartered  as  Madison  University  in  1846,  and 
was  renamed  in  1890  in  honour  of  the  Colgate  family,  several 
of  whom,  especially  William  (x 783-1857),  the  soap  manu- 
facturer, and  his  sons,  James  Boorman  (x8xa^x904),  axid  Samod 
(1833-1897),  were  its  liberal  benefactors.  In  i9oii-X909  it  had 
a  university  faculty  of  33  members,  307  students  in  the  coQcge, 
60  in  the  theological  department,  and  134  in  the  prqiaratoiy 
department,  and  a  library  of  54,000  volumes,  indnding  the 
Baptist  Historical  collection  (about  5000  vols.)  given  by  Samod 
Colgate.  The  township  in  which  the  village  is  aitnated  and 
which  bears  the  same  name  (pop.  in  1910,  3835)  waa  settled 
about  1790  and  was  separated  from  the  townshq>  of  Paris  in 
X  795.    The  village  was  incorporated  iniSx  3. 

HAMILTON,  a  dty  and  the  county-seat  of  Bntkr  oonnty, 
Ohio,  U.S.A.,  on  both  sides  of  the  Great  Miami  river,  35  m.  N. 
of  Cincizmati  Pop.  (X890),  17,565;  (1900),  33,914,  of  whom 
3949  were  foreign-bom;  (19x0  census),  35,379.  It  is  served 
by  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  &  Dayton,  and  the  Fittslrazg. 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St  Louis  railways,  and  by  interurbaa 
electric  lines  connecting  with  Cindimati,  Dayton  and  Toiedo. 
The  valley  in  which  Hamilton  is  situated  is  noted  for  its  f  ertiHty. 
The  dty  has  a  fine  public  square  and  the  Lane  free  library  (1866) ; 
the  court  house  is  its  most  prominent  puUic  buQding.  A 
hydraulic  canal  provides  the  dty  with  good  water  power,  anl 
in  1905,  in  the  value  of  its  factory  products  ($13,993,574, 
bdng  3 X '3%  more  than  in  X900),  Hamilton  ranked  tenth  among 
the  cities  of  the  state.  Its  most  distinctive  manufactures  are 
paper  and  wood  pulp;  more  valuable  are  foundry  and  machine 
shop  products;  other  mantifacture»  are  safes^  malt  liqoois, 
flour,  woollens,  Corliss  engines,  carriages  and  wagons  and 
agricultural  implements.  The  munidpality  owns  aiKl  operates 
the  water-works,  electric-lighting  i^ant  axid  gas  plant.  A 
stockade  fort  was  built  here  in  X79X  by  General  Arthur  Saint 
Clair,  but  it  was  abandoned  in  1796,  two  years  after  the  place 
had  been  laid  out  as  a  town  and  named  Fairfidd.  The  town 
was  renamed',  in  honour  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  about  1796. 
In  X803  Hamilton  was  made  the  county-seat;  in  x8xo  it  was 
incorporated  as  a  village;  in  X854  it  aimcxed  the  town  of 
Rossville  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river;  aiyi  in  1857  it  was 
made  a  city.  In  1908,  by  the  aimezation  of  suburt»,  the  area 
and  the  population  of  Hamilton  were  considenibly  increased. 
Hamilton  was  the  early  home  of  William  Dean  Howdls,  whose 
recollections  of  it  are  to  be  found  in  his  A  Bay*s  Ttwn;  his 
father's  anti-slavery  sentiments  made  it  necessary  f(«  him  to 
sell  his  printing  office,  where  the  son  had  learned  to  set  type  in 
his  teens,  and  to  remove  to  Dayton. 

HAMIRPUR,  a  town  and  dbtrict  of  British  India,  in  the 
Allahabad  division  of  the  United  Provixiccs.  The  town  stands 
on  a  tongue  of  land  near  the  confluence  of  the  tietwa  aiKl  Jumna, 


HAMITIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES 


893 


no  m.  N.W.  of  Allahabad.  Pop.  (1901),  6721.  It  was  founded, 
according  to  tradition,  in  the  xith  century  by  Hamir  Deo,  a 
Karchuli  Rajput  expelled  from  Alwar  by  the  Mahommedans. 

The  district  has  an  area  of  3289  sq.  m.,  and  encloses  the  native 
states  of  Sarila,  Jigni  and  Bihat,  besides  portions  of  Charkhari 
and  Garrauli.  Hamirpur  forms  part  of  the  great  plain  of  Bun- 
delkhand,  which  stretches  from  the  banks  of  the  Jumna  to  the 
central  Vindhyan  plateau.  The  district  is  in  shape  an  irregular 
parallelogram,  with  a  general  slope  northward  from  the  low  hills 
on  the  southern  boundary.  The  scenery  is  rendered  picturesque 
by  the  artificial  lakes  of  Mahoba.  These  magnificent  reservoirs 
were  constructed  by  the  Chandel  rajas  before  the  Mahommedan 
conquest,  for  purposes  of  irrigation  and  as  ^eets  of  ornamental 
water.  Many  of  them  enclose  craggy  islets  or  peninsulas, 
crowned  by  the  ruins  of  granite  temples,  exquisitely  carved  and 
decorated.  From  the  base  of  this  hill  and  lake  country  the 
general  plain  of  the  district  spreads  northward  in  an  arid  and 
treeless  level  towards  the  broken  banks  of  the  rivers.  Of  these 
the  principal  are  the  Bctwa  and  its  tributary  the  Dhasan,  both 
of  which  are  unnavigable.  There  is  little  waste  land,  except 
in  the  ravines  by  the  river  sides.  The  deep  black  soil  of  Bundd- 
khand,  known  as  mdr^  retains  the  moisture  under  a  dried  and 
rifted  surface,  and  renders  the  district  fertile.  The  staple  pro- 
duce is  grain  of  various  sorts,  the  most  important  being  gram. 
Cotton  is  also  a  valuable  crop.  Agriculture  suffers  much  from 
the  spread  of  the  kans  grass,  a  noxious  weed  which  overruns 
the  fields  and  is  found  to  be  almost  ineradicable  wherever  it 
has  once  obtained  a  footing.  Droughts  and  famine  are  unhappily 
common.  The  climate  is  dry  and  hot,  owing  to  the  absence  of 
shade  and  the  bareness  of  soil,  except  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Mahoba  lakes,  which  cool  and  moisten  the  atmosphere. 

In  X90X  the  pop.  was  458»543|  showing  a  decrease  of  11%  in 
the  decade,  due  to  the  famine  of  1895-1897.  Export  trade  is 
chiefly  in  agricultural  produce  and  cotton  cloth.  Rath  is  the 
principal  commercial  centre.  The  Midland  branch  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsula  railway  passes  through  the  south  of  the  district. 

From  the  9th  to  the  Z2th  century  this  district  was  the  centre 
of  the  Chandel  kingdom,  with  its  capital  at  Mahoba.  The  rajas 
adorned  the  town  with  many  splendid  edifices,  remains  of  which 
still  exist,,  besides  constructing  the  noble  artificial  lakes  already 
described.  At  the  end  of  the  12th  century  Mahoba  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Mussulmans.  In  1680  the  district  was  conquered 
by  Chhatar  Sal,  the  hero  of  the  Bimdelas,  who  assigned  at  his 
death  one-third  of  his  dominions  to  his  ally  the  peshwa  of 
the  Mahrattas.  Until  Bundelkhand  became  British  territory  in 
1803  there  was  constant  warfare  between  the  Bundela  princes 
and  the  Mahratta  chieftains.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny 
in  1857,  Hamirpur  was  the  scene  of  a  fierce  rebellion,  and  all  the 
principal  towns  were  plundered  by  the  surrounding  chiefs. 
After  a  short  period  of  desultory  guerrilla  warfare  the  rebels 
were  effectually  quelled  and  the  work  of  reorganization  began. 
The  district  has  since  been  subject  to  cycles  of  varying  agri- 
cultural   prosperity. 

HAMinC  RACES  AMD  LANGUAGES.  The  questions  in- 
volved in  a  consideration  of  Hamitic  races  and  Hamitic  languages 
are  independent  of  one  another  and  call  for  separate  treatment. 

I.  Hamiiic  Xaces.— The  term  Hamitic  as  applied  to  race  is 
not  only  extremely  vague  but  has  been  much  abused  by  anthro- 
pological writers.  Of  the  few  who  have  attempted  a  precise 
definition  the  most  prominent  is  Sergi,*  and  his  classification 
may  be  taken  as  representing  one  point  of  view  with  regard  to 
this  difficult  question. 

Sergi  considers  the  Hamites,  usine  the  term  in  the  racial  sense,  as 
a  branch  of  his  "Mediterranean  Race";  and  divides  them  as 
follows:— 

I.  Eastern  Branch — 

(a)  Ancient  and  Modem  Egyptian  (excluding  the  Arabs): 
lb)  Nubians.  Bcja. 

(c)  Abyssinians. 

(d)  Gaila.  Danaldl.  Somali. 

>  G.  Secgi.  The  Mediterranean  Race.  A  Study  of  the  Origin  of 
European  Peoples  (London.  1901):  idem,  Africa,  Antropelogia 
deila  sHrpe  camUica  (Turin,  1897). 


ie)  Masai. 

(/)  Wahuma  or  WatusL 
2,  Northern  Branch — 

la)  Berbers  of  the  Mediterranean,  Atlantic  and  Sahara. 

\b\  Tibbu. 

Ic)  Fula. 

{d)  Guanches  (extinct). 

With  regard  to  this  classification  the  following  conclusions  may 
be  regarded  as  comparativclv  certain:  that  the  members  of  groups 
d,  e  and  /  of  the  first  branch  appear  to  be  closely  inter<onnccted 
by  ties  of  blood,  and  also  the  members  of  the  second  branch.  The 
Abyssinians  in  the  south  have  absorbed  a  certain  amount  of  Galla 
blood,  but  the  majority  are  Semitic  or  Semiro-Negroid.  The 
question  of  the  racial  affinities  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  and  the 
Beja  are  still  a  matter  of  doubt,  and  the  relation  o(  the  two  groups 
to  each  other  is  still  controversial.  Sergi.  it  is  true,  arguing  from 
physical  data  believes  that  a  close  oonnexbn  exists;  but  the  data 
are  so  cxtremciv  scanty  that  the  finality  of  his  conclusion  may  well 
be  doubted.  His  "  Northern  Branch  corresponds  with  the  more 
satisfactory  term  "  Libyan  Race,"  represented  in  fair  purity  by  the 
Berbers,  and.  mixed  with  Negro  elements,  by  the  Fula  and  Tibbu. 
This  Libyan  race  is  distinctively  a  white  race,  with  dark  curiy  hair; 
the  Eastern  Hamites  are  equally  distinctively  a  brown  people  with 
frizzy  hair.  If.  as  Sergi  believes,  these  brown  people  are  themselves 
a^  race,  and  not  a  cvom  between  white  and  black  m  varying  propor- 
tions, they  are  found  in  their  greatest  purity  among  the  Somali  and 
Galla.  and  mixed  with  Bantu  blood  among  the  Ba-Hima  (Wahuma) 
and  Watussi.  The  Masai  seem  to  be  as  much  Nilotic  Negro  as 
Hamite.  This  Galla  type  docs  not  seem  to  appear  farther  north 
than  the  southern  portion  of  Abyssinia,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that 
the  Beta  are  very  early  Semitic  immigrants  with  an  aboriginal 
Negroid  admixture.  It  is  also  possible  that  they  and  the  Ancient 
Eg^tians  may  contain  a  common  element.  The  Nubians  appear 
akxn  to  the  Egyptians  but  with  a  strong  Negroid  element. 

To  return  to  Sergi's  two  branches,  besides  the  differences  in  skin 
colour  and  hair-texture  there  is  also  a  cultural  difference  of  great 
importance.  The  Eastern  Hamites  are  essentially  a  pastoral  people 
and  therefore  nomadic  or  semi-nomadic;  the  Berbcre,  who,  as  said 
above^  axe  the  purest  representatives  of  the  Libyans>,  are  agri- 
culturists. The  pastoral  habits  of  the  Eastern  Hamites  are  of 
importance,  since  they  show  the  utmost  reluctance  to  abandon 
them.  Even  the  Ba-Hima  and  Watussi,  for  long  settled  and  partly 
intermixed  with  the  agricultural  Bantu,  rc^srd  any  pursuit  but  that 
of  cattle-tending  as  absolutely  beneath  their  dignity. 

It  would  seem  therefore  that,  while  sufficient  data  have  not  bcen- 
coUected  to  decide  whether,  on  the  evidence  of  exact  anthropological 
measurements,  the  Libyans  are  connected  racially  with  the  Eastern 
Hamites,  the  testimony  derived  from  broad  "  descriptive  character- 
istics "  and  general  culture  is  against  such  a  a>nnexion.  To  regard 
the  Libyans  as  Hamites  solely  on  the  ground  that  the  languages 
spoken  by  the  two  groups  show  affinities  would  be  as  rash  and  might 
be  as  false  as  to  aver  that  the  present-day  Hungarians  are  Mon- 
golians because  Ma^ar  is  an  Asiatic  tongue.  Regarding  the  present 
state  of  knowledge  it  would  be  safer  therefore  to  restnct  the  term 
"  Hamites  "  to  Sergi's  first  group  ^  and  call  the  second  by  the  name 
"  Libyans."  The  difficult  question  of  che  origin  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  is  discussed  elsewhere. 

As  to  the  question  whether  the  Hamites  in  this  restricted  sense 
are  a  definite  race  or  a  blend,  no  discussion  can,  in  view  of  the  paucity 
of  evidence,  as  yet  lead  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion,  but  it  might 
be  suggested  very  tentatively  that  further  researches  may  possiDty 
connect  them  with  the  Dra vidian  peoples  of  India.  It  is  sufficient 
for  present  purposes  that  the  term  Hamite,  using  it  as  coextensive 
with  Sergi's  Eastern  Hamite,  has  a  definite  connotation.  By  the 
term  is  meant  a  brown  people  with  frixzy  hair,  of  lean  and  sinewy 
physique,  with  slender  but  muscular  arms  and  legs,  a  thin  straight 
or  even  aauiline  nose  with  delicate  nostrils,  thin  lips  and  no  trace 
of  prognatnism.  (T.  A.  J.) 

n.  Hamitic  Languages,'— The  whole  north  of  Africa  was  once 
inhabited  by  tribes  of  the  Caucasian  race,  speaking  languages 
which  are  now  generally  called,  after  Genesis  x.,  Hamitic,  a 
term  introduced  principally  by  Friedrich  MOllcr.  The  linguistic 
coherence  of  that  race  has  been  broken  up  especially  by  the 
intrusion  of  Arabs,  whose  language  has  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  on  all  those  nations.  This  splitting  up,  and  the  immense 
distances  over  which  those  tribes  were  qn-od,  have  made  those 
languages  diverge  more  widely  than  do  the  various  tongues  of 
the  Indo-European  stock,  but  still  their  affinity  can  easily  be 
traced  by  the  linguist,  and  is,  perhaps,  greater  than  the  corre- 
sponding anthropologic  similarity  between  the  white  Libyan, 
red  Galla  and  swarthy  Somali.  The  relationship  of  these 
languages  to  Semitic  has  long  been  noticed,  but  was  at  first 
taken  for  descent  from  Semitic  (cf.  the  name  *'  Syro-Arabian  " 
proposed  by  Prichard).    Now  linguista  are  agreed  that  the 


89+ 


Thil 


idProto-IUinitaoii 
■iginMluI. 


ifonn 


HAMLET 

.probably    »nJ  B*j»  j 


h  MUUcr  (Rcisc  da  BiOrrtUliisditn  FrigalU  Smtra, 
p.  SI,  more  fully,  Cruiidriii  da  Spradmiiunickall,  vol.  iii. 

i;e,  R.  N.  Cmt,  The  Uodtm  Lanfuatri  of  Ajrict,  i.  94,  ic. 
The  comparitlve  giunnun  of  Semitic  (W.  Wright,  1G90.  and 
BpHiilly  H.  ZimmFin,  iSqS)  deitionjlittc  (bis  now  to  everybody 
by  comparative  lablcs  ol  tbe  gtammaticil  demeiiti. 


Tlwcl: 


oF  llim 


of   orricn  U  futfc 

ntvrtd  uom   hr  Senr__  .,  ,^.- ,  _, 

perfcc    C    iKun  b     L.  F  Kflurbi!     S  7) 

(dlalfct  of   be  Auc  mimdni  Vet  bed  by  Hdi 


vuu     AntMf  dei^tluEion    barBbra 
Tbc  repreic  u  vcs  of  r^ 

(where  Iliev  are  eillc    2c    1 
idlMr'-     '  -'       ' 


wwtem  border  ol  Egypt     Coneeq  end       he«e 
mm  Rroni      ram  wrh  Mber  tlu       f  the  Sen 
bctwee     tncmie  vr*    The  purest  repteiieii      ve 
ngajlGC  of    be  Al^ru    avux  (a    een    Ka 
he  Zua  n    Zonavu         be    doenbed 
MKIiuirr  lah^ll      a-fi)    Be     Sedm 
Duhniunr   bv  01  ne    (  S  S       Th 
kaijti   by  R.B  Met      W7 


dialect     Tha       Che 


SprtOi    i»    (be 


idialec) 


■nulA    80     1C«> .,y 

r  hr     wund  caM  of  Abyim  U.  the 
otkr/  d.  ilmtKbi  iwrmteiid. 
4    IP   (trhuD,     890    cf      ■)  Re 
Iff     a  G  ,  end    he  Alar  or  Dartaki     I 
i     C  CdIui  ^     wi.1         Se?    mer 
n    be  CO  ncct    K       Ic       h    h    h 


844      K       E 


w  it  ol  Ab  ujnia  of 


Cf       Roil         A  pu  BiabJu 

90s  W  Ume  HerBFHimmlinf  » 
•u  la  lanfue  Agao  A  u  ac  plutalBi 
d    ect   are   hoK  of  the  Sid    )lm>  tnbe     —  .. 

wb      onlyKalO    (Be  niKh,  Bk  K  /  Spratie,    _ 

all  fully.  OC  the  varioiu  olber  dialecU  IKulto.  Tanbaro,  &c). 
vocibubrie*  only  are  known;  tt.  Borelli,  ElticfU  mMiumaU 
(i»^).     (On  Hausa  rx  below.) 

have  preKjved  ben  ihc  original  wealth  of  infleotionA  which  reminds 
iu  ao  Btxongly  of  ihe  formal  rkhca  of  touthcm  Semitic    Libyan 


'Only   works  of    hiaher   li 


ila°^  H^lili'cutl 


«t-prwrved  typeL  and  the  Lalier  rnecisllr 
iikrit  of  Hinuiic    TheothcrCuihlik  loncm 


itic  tongbei  (onBlnally  branched  olf  In 

original  type.     Already  the  AgAu  diikcta  are  lull  rif  very  pecul^f 
devetopmenia;  the  Hamitic  ehaiaeierof  (he  Skl(dJaiDa  lai^iia^ 

The  simple  and  pretty  (Hausfsla  lanpian,  the  coawieRial  lin- 

Dulwtur}.  1S76:  Chailei  H.  Robinion,  iS«;,  In  Rebinu  led 

so  fi^i.n  i"l'Drn"-l,"buI  co'me^"ioni  tte  (Hijh'J'cultllc 
in  this  family  [emaini  id  be  dciemaecd. 
he   Niger   regipn   ttere  once    Hamitic  lie 

.r  10  be  daasified  as  Hamitic.  e.g.  the  Uonk 
.     MUUer,  ISM),    "ne  Dflen-nued  ijatK-.-.z 
elationship  between  Hamitic  aud  the  g rjc 
B.  [cided ;  moredoubiful  is  that  with  the  le:'-- 

n  the  western  Sudan,  but  a  retatioariiip  «:'S 
rgro  langiiages  is  imposstbte  (tboucb  a  |..? 
•  borro-wefi  some  words  from  ntighbocr--'; 

t  justify  iIk  attempt  oltea  made  u 


■icb  its  enftraphical  r-^- 

lances  wi^  'ub)^<\V'if^ 
iginal  relationship  ihi^ 


— JOenion  (the  Mamito-Semi ^ ,. 

rmbig  ilie  notnbul  plural  in  iu  own  peculiar  laihion,  Ac    Tie 

d       age  of  Egyptian,  that  it  ii  lepnacnted  in  texts  ol  3000  >.c.. 

while  he  sister  tongues  eiis  only  in  forms  jooo  years  later,  alkm 

(  10  trace  the  Seniiic  ptinuple  el  iriliteial  roola  more  ckarh- 

Enpiian:  but  still  the  bller  tongue  Is  hardly  man  chataocr- 

sticall    archaic  or  nearer  Seniiic  than  Beja  or  Kabjlic. 

Al     his  is  uid  principally  of  the  grammar.    Of  the  nqcibularv 

m  B  Jiot  be  forgotten  that  ihhk  of  the  Hamitic  tonauea  Temsi^4^:f 

ou  hcd  by  Scmilic  inAiiences  after  the  separation  0)  the  Haiuii> 

nd  Semites,  say  400a  or  6000  u.c.    Repeated  Semitic  iEismieratior.f 

nd     fluences  nave  brought  lo  many  layers  of  loan^worda  ilat  it  u 

"  "^ef  Drigiul*l^miiic°Mid^Which's^itic  rBMbbi^^ 

w  h  rom  bier  inHuences.  are diSculi questiona  not  yetSod  if 
tcicnc  1  f-f.  the  half'Araluc  numerals  of  Libyan  have  often  bnn 
q  oied  as  a  proof  of  primitive  Hacniio-Semiiie  kinshiri-  tut  ft.rtf 
arc  probably  only  a  gift  of  some  Arab  invason.  prdiis 
Anb  ribes  seen  to  have  repeatedly  swept  o^fr  Ibe  wl 


hnb  ribes  seen  to  have  repeatedly  swept  o^fr  (be  wbole  a 
be  Hamites,  long  befon  the  tine  of  Hahonel.  and  to  have  k^i 

"prcssiiHU  (m  races  and  langir "— ' '  -*' — 

id  n  the  full  hght  of  hinoty 
lyssinia).  Egyptian  eihibits  ■ 
h      ighbour*:  It  is  cramnw 


ivnthatoftheGefai 

such  loon-words 
prciallyi.  1600.    ■,.... 
■light,  inlcfior  to  the  Lai 


1600.    fThe  ISii^n 


chief  authority  for  the  legend  of  Hamlet  ii  Saxa  Cram- 
cui,  who  devotes  to  it  pans  of  the  thiid  and  fourth  books  <i 
liilBria  Danita,  written  al  (he  beguming  of  the  I  Jth  aotury, 
I  supposed  that  (he  story  of  Hamlel,  Amlelli  or  Amlo^' 
conliincd  in  the  lost  SkjiUdun^  saga,  but  we  have  no  mcacs 
leienniiung  whether  Saio  derived  his  inlonnatioti  in  ihis 
from  oral  01  wrilteo  sources.  ThecloteparaUelsbetwnuthc 
rhe  word  is  used  in  modCTn  fcelarKiic  mecipborically  of  aa 
?ciIf  or  wtalc  .minded  pcnon  fiee  CIcasby  and  Vigiftsaoo.  IttJarndtC' 
(I.A  /)«<i™ry.  tivSy 


HAMLET 


895 


Ule  of  Hamlet  and  the  English  romances  of  Havelok,  Horn  and 
Bevis  of  Hampton  make  it  not  unlikely  that  Hamlet  is  of  British 
rather  than  of  Scandinavian  origin.  His  name  does  in  fact  occur 
in  the  Irish  Annais  of  the  Four  Masters  (ed.  O'Donovan,  1851) 
in  a  stanza  attributed  to  the  Irish  Queen  Gormflaith,  who  laments 
the  death  of  her  husband,  Niall  Glundubh,  at  the  hands  of 
Amhlai^e  in  919  at  the  battle  of  Ath-Cliath.  The  slayer  of  Niall 
Glundubh  is  by  other  authorities  stated  to  have  been  Sihtric. 
Now  Sihtric  was  the  father  of  that  Olaf  or  Aniaf  Cuaran  who  was 
the  prototype  of  the  English  Havek>k,  but  nowhere  else  does  he 
receive  the  nickname  of  ArohlaicTe.  If  Amhlai^  may  really  be 
identified  with  Sihtric,  who  first  went  to  Dublin  in  888,  the 
relations  between  the  tales  of  Havelok  and  Hamlet  are  readily 
explicable,  since  nothing  was  more  likely  than  that  the  exploits 
of  father  and  son  should  be  confounded  (see  Havelok).  But, 
whoever  the  historic  Hamlet  may  have  been,  it  is  quite  certain 
that  much  was  added  that  was  extraneous  to  Scandinavian 
tradition.  Later  in  the  xotb  century  there  is  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  an  Icelandic  saga  of  Aml6tS  or  Amleth  in  a  passage 
from  the  poet  Snacbjom  in  the  second  part  of  the  prose  Edda.^ 
According  to  Saxo,*  Hamlet's  history  is  briefly  as  follows.  In 
the  days  of  Rorik,  king  of  Denmark,  Gervendill  was  governor 
of  Jutland,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  sons  Horvcndill  and  Feng. 
Horvendill,  on  his  return  from  a  Viking  expedition  in  which 
he  had  slain  Koll,  king  of  Norway,  married  GeruthSi,  Rorik's 
daughter,  who  bore  him  a  son  Amleth.  But  Feng,  out  of  jealousy, 
murdered  Horvendill,  and  persuaded  Gerutha  to  become  his 
wife,  on  the  plea  that  he  had  committed  the  crime  for  no  other 
reason  than  to  avenge  her  of  a  husband  by  whom  she  had  been 
hated.  Amleth,  afraid  of  sharing  his  father's  fate,  pretended  to 
be  imbecile,  but  the  suspicion  of  Feng  put  him  to  various  tests 
which  are  related  in  detail.  Among  other  things  they  sought 
to  entangle  him  with  a  young  girl,  his  foster-sister,  but  his 
cunning  saved  him.  When,  however,  Amleth  slew  the  eaves- 
dropper hidden,  like  Polonius,  in  his  mother's  room,  and  destroyed 
all  trace  of  the  deed,  Feng  was  assured  that  the  young  man's 
madness  was  feigned.  Accordingly  he  despatched  him  to  England 
in  company  with  two  attendants,  who  bore  a  letter  enjoining 
the  king  of  the  country  to  put  him  to  death.  Amleth  surmised 
the  purport  of  their  instructions,  and  secretly  altered  the  message 
on  their  wooden  tablets  to  the  effect  that  the  king  should  put 
the  attendants  to  death  and  give  Amleth  his  daughter  in  marriage. 
After  marrying  the  princess  Amleth  returned  at  the  end  of  a  year 
to  Denmark.  Of  the  wealth  he  had  accumulated  he  took  with 
him  only  certain  hollow  sticks  filled  with  gold.  He  arrived  in 
time  for  a  funeral  feast,  held  to  celebrate  his  supposed  death. 
During  the  feast  he  plied  the  courtiers  with  wine,  and  executed 
his  vengeance  during  their  drunken  sleep  by  fastening  down  over 
them  the  woollen  hangings  of  the  hall  with  pegs  he  had  sharpened 
during  his  feigned  madness,  and  then  setting  fire  to  the  palace. 
Feng  he  slew  with  his  own  sword.  After  a  long  harangue  to  the 
people  he  was  proclaimed  king.  Returning  to  England  for  his 
wife  he  found  that  his  father-in-law  and  Feng  had  been  pledged 
each  to  avenge  the  other's  death.  The  Englbh  king,  unwilling 
personally  to  carry  out  his  pledge,  sent  Amleth  as  proxy  wooer 
for  the  hand  of  a  terrible  Scottish  queen  Hermuthruda,  who  had 
put  all  former  wooers  to  death,  but  fell  in  love  with  Amleth. 
On  his  return  to  England  his  first  wife,  whose  love  proved  stronger 
than  her  resentment,  told  him  of  her  father's  intended  revenge. 
In  the  battle  which  followed  Amleth  won  the  day  by  setting  up 

*'"  Tis  said  that  far  out,  off  yonder  ness,  the  Nine  Maids  of  the 
Island  Mill  Mir  amain  the  host — cruel  ekcrry-quem — they  who  in 
ages  past  ground  Hamlet's  meal.  The  good  Chieftain  furrows  the 
hull's  lair  with  his  ship's  beaked  prow."  Thisjpassa^  may  be  com- 
pared with  some  examples  of  Hamlet's  cryptic  sayings  quoted  by 
^xo :  "  Again,  as  he  passed  along  the  beach,  his  companions 
found  the  rudder  of  a  ship  which  had  been  wrecked,  and  said 
they  had  discovered  a  huM  knife.  '  This,'  said  he,  '  was  the 
right  thing  to  carve  such  a  nuge  ham  . . . . '  Also,  as  tbcv  passed 
the  sand-hills,  and  bade  him  look  at  the  meal,  meaning  the  sand, 
he  replied  that  it  had  been  ground. small  by  the  hoary  tempests  of 
the  ocmn." 

*  Books  iii.  and  iv., chaps.  86-106,  £ng.  tians.  by  O.  Elton  (London, 
1894). 


the  dead  men  of  the  day  before  with  stakes,  and  thus  terrifying 
the  enemy.  He  then  returned  with  his  two  wives  to  Jutland, 
where  he  had  to  encounter  the  enmity  of  Wiglek,  Rorik's  suc- 
cessor. He  was  slain  in  a  battle  against  Wiglek,  and  Hermuth- 
ruda, although  she  had  engaged  to  die  with  him,  married  the 
victor. 

The  other  Scandinavian  versions  of  the  tale  are:  the  Hrolfssaga 
Kraka*  where  the  brothers  Helgi  and  Hroar  take  the  place  of  the 
hero;  the  tale  of  Harald  and  Halfdan,  as  related  in  the  7th  book 
of  Saxo  Grammaticus;  the  modem  Icelandic  Ambaies  Saga* 
a  romantic  tale  the  earliest  MS.  of  which  dates  from  the  17  th 
century;  and  the  folk-tale  of  Brj&m*  which  was  put  in  writing 
in  1707. '  Helgi  and  Hroar,  like  Haiald  and  Halfdan,  avenge  their 
father's  death  on  their  uncle  by  burning  him  in  his  palace. 
Harald  and  Halfdan  escape  after  their  father's  death  by  being 
brought  up,  with  dogs'  names,  in  a  hollow  oak,  and  subsequently 
by  feigned  madness;  and  in  the  case  of  the  other  brothers  there 
are  traces  of  a  similar  motive,  since  the  boys  are  called  by  dogs' 
names.  The  methods  of  Hamlet's  madness,  as  related  by  Saxo, 
seem  to  point  to  cynanthropy.  In  the  Ambaies  Saga^  which 
perhaps  is  collateral  to,  rather  than  derived  from,  Saxo's  version, 
there  are,  besides  romantic  additions,  some  traits  which  point 
to  an  earlier  version  of  the  tale. 

Saxo  Grammaticus  was  certainly  familiar  with  the  Latin 
historians,  and  it  is  most  probable  that,  recognizing  the  similarity 
between  the  northern  Hamlet  legend  and  the  classical  tale  of 
Lucius  Junius  Brutus  as  told  by  Livy,  by  Valerius  Maximus, 
and  by  Dionysius  of  Halicamassus  (with  vrhxth  he  was  probably 
acquainted  through  a  Latin  epitome),  he  deliberately  added 
circumstances  from  the  classical  story.  The  incident  of  the  gold- 
filled  sticks  could  hardly  appear  fortuitously  in  both,  and  a 
comparison  of  the  harangues  of  Amleth  (Saxo,  Book  iv.)  and  of 
Brutus  (Dionysius  iv.  77)  shows  marked  similarities.  In  both 
tales  the  usurping  uncle  is  ultimately  succeeded  by  the  nephew 
who  has  escaped  notice  during  his  youth  by  a  feigned  madness. 
But  the  parts  played  by  the  personages  who  in  Shakespeare 
became  C)phelia  and  Polonius,  the  method  of  revenge,  and  the 
whole  narrative  of  Amleth's  adventure  in  England,  have  no 
parallels  in  the  Latin  story. 

Dr.  O.  L.  Jiriczek*  first  pointed  out  the  striking  similarities 
existing  between  the  story  of  Amleth  in  Saxo  and  the  other 
northern  versions,  and  that  of  Rei  Chosro  in  the  Shaknamek 
(Book  of  the  King)  of  the  Persian  poet  Firdausi.  The  comparison 
was  carried  farther  by  R.  Zenker  {Boeve  Amleikus,  pp.  207-268, 
Berlin  and  Leipzig,  1904),  who  even  concluded  that  the  northern 
saga  rested  on  an  earlier  version  of  Firdatisi's  story,  in  which 
indeed  nearly  all  the  individual  elements  of  the  various  northern 
versions  «are  to  be  found.  Further  resemblances  exist  in  the 
Ambaies  Saga  with  the  tales  of  Bellerophon,  of  Heracles,  and  of 
Servius  Tullius.  That  Oriental  tales  through  Byzantine  and 
Arabian  channels  did  find  their  way  to  the  west  is  well  known, 
and  there  is  nothing  very  surprising  in  their  being  attached  to  a 
local  hero. 

The  tale  of  Hamlet's  adventures  in  Britain  forms  an  episode 
so  distinct  that  it  was  at  one  time  referred  to  a  separate  hero. 
The  traitorous  letter,  the  purport  of  which  is  changed  by  Her- 
muthruda, occurs  in  the  popuUr  Dit  de  Vemperew  Constant,^ 
and  in  Arabian  and  Indian  talcs.  Hermuthruda's  cruelty  to  her 
wooers  is  common  in  northern  and  German  mythology,  and  close 

'  Printed  in  Fornaldar  SOgtv  Nor0trIanda  (vol.  !.  Copenhagen, 
1830),  analysed  by  F.  Dettcr  in  Zeiisckr.  fur  deuSsckes  AUertum 
(vol.  36,  Berlin,  1^3). 

*  Printed  with  English  translation  and  with  other  texts  germane 
to  the  subject  by  I.  (xillancz  (Handel  in  Iceland,  London,  1898). 

*  Professor  I.  Gollancz  points  out  (fx  Ixix.)  that  Brj&m  is  a  varia- 
tion  of  the  Irish  Brian,  that  the  relations  between  Ireland  and  the 
Norsemen  were  very  close,  and  that,  curiously  enough,  Brian 
Boroimhe  was  the  hero  of  that  very  battle  of  Clontarf  (loi^  where 
the  device  (which  occurs  in  Havelok  and  Hamlet)  of  bluffing  the 
enemy  by  tying  the  wounded  to  stakes  to  rcpreseiSt  active  sofdiefv 
was  used. 

*  "  Hamlet  in  Iran,"  in  Zeitschrift  des  Vereins  fir  VoUtskunde,  x. 
(Bcritn,  1900). 

'  See  A.  B.  Goiigh,  The  Constance  Sag^  (Bcriin,  1903}. 


896 


HAMLEY— HAMMAD  AR-RAWIYA 


The  UoTy  of  Hamlet  wtt  known  ta  tbe  EUabttbuu  in 
Fnncoii  dc  BcUetaroi'i  HUlnra  trtpqius  (1550),  uid  found 
lu  luprcme  eipmiion  in  Sbikopaie'i  lm£«ly.  Tluit  u  eaily 
M  1587  or  ij^  HiDilcl  bad  iHwaml  on  [be  Eoglisb  itige  b 
fhown  by  Nish's  prdice  lo  Cmzic'i  Uoapkon:  "  He  will 
■Bold  you  whole  Hamlets,  I  should  say,  faaodfuUs  of  Ingical 
■peechcL"  The  Shaiespeaiiaii  Hamlet  owes,  however,  little 
but  the  outline  of  bis  stoiy  to  Saio.  In  chancter  he  Is  dia- 
metrically OF^Mued  to  his  prototype.  Amletb's  mmAnn^  nu 
certainly  altogether  feignod;  he  prepared  his  vengeance  a  year 
beforehand,  and  carried  it  out  deLberately  and  ruthlessly  at 
every  paint.  His  riddling  speech  has  little  more  than  an  outward 
■jKularity  to  the  words  of  Hamlet,  who  resembles  him.  however. 
lA  his  disconcerting  penetntion  into  his  enemies'  plans.    For 

■M  SHAZEOPEUtl. 

See  an  ippcodii  lo  Elicr.'-  (r.ns.  of  Sai»  Cnmnatlnii:  I. 
GMtlKI,  Hamitl  mliAmd  I  !.'>:.<:  n.  >*9>)l  K.  L.  Warrl,  dlalafiu 
,fRi.M»«..unikr"Havtl„k.  >,il.  Lpp.*ijm.;  £>i^  %- 
UriaS  KairK.H.  U^S):    h.  I  >  ria-,  "  Die  Huil«il».''^2nlK:,kr. 


BAflLBT,  Sm  EDWARD  BBUCI  (1814-1893),  British 
general  and  militajy  writer,  youngest  ton  of  Vice- Admiral  William 
Ham1cy,wasbamoatlie3;thof  April  i(!i4(t  Bodmin,  Cornwall, 
■nd  entered  tbe  Royal  Artillery  in  1S4}.  He  was  promoted 
captain  in  1S50,  and  in  iSji  went  to  GibraJtar,  where  he  com- 
menced his  literary  career  by  contributing  article*  to  magarines. 
He  served  throughout  the  Crimesa  cwnptigo  as  aide-de-camp 
to  Sir  Richard  Dacret.  commanding  the  aitilleiy.  taking  pan 
in  all  tbe  operations  with  distinction,  and  becoming  successively 
majar  and  lieutenant-colonel  by  brevet.  He  also  received  the 
C.B.  and  French  and  Turkish  orders.  During  the  war  he  con- 
tributed to  Blatkweiid't  if  afojnc  an  adminUe  account  of  the 
progress  of  the  campaign,  which  was  alterwards  republished. 
Tbe  combination  in  Hamley  of  Ulerary  and  miliury  ability 
secured  lor  him  in  1859  the  professorship  ol  milituy  Mstory  at 
the  new  StiSCollegeat  Sandhurst, from  which  in  1866  he  went 
to  tbe  council  of  military  education,  returning  in  1870  to  the 
SttB  College  u  commandant.  From  i8)g  to  1S81  be  was  Briil^ 
commijsioner  successively  for  (be  deUmitation  ol  tbe  fronliets 
ofTurkcyaod  Bulgaria.  Turkey  in  Auaand  Russia,  and  Turkey 
and  Greece,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  K.CM.C.  Promoted 
colonel  in  iS£],  be  became  a  lieutenant-general  in  1881,  when  he 
commanded  the  7nd  diviuon  of  the  expedition  to  Egypt  under 
Lord  Wolseley,  and  led  his  troops  in  the  battle  of  Tell-el-Kebir. 
tor  which  he  received  the  K.C.B..  the  thanks  of  pirliament,  and 
ind  class  of  Osmanieh.  Hamley  considered  that  bis  services 
In  Egypt  had  been  insulEcicntIr  recogwied  In  Lord  Wolseley's 
despatches,  and  expressed  his  indignation  freely,  but  he  had  no 
miBdent  ground  Inr  supposing  that  there  was  any  intention  to 
belittle  his  services.  From  1885  until  bis  death  on  the  iiib  of 
August  i8«3  he  rcpicwnted  BiAenhead  ia  parliiment  ia  the 


Han 


Tilt  Opcralimi  cf  ICaj-tPubUiSrd  in  1S67,  beear 

which  pctbapi  the  best  known  Is  Zojy  La'i 

<)i),  vice-preudent  of  the 
United  Stales  (1861-186S))  *^  bom  tX  Paris,  Maine,  on  tbe 
97tb  of  August  1809.  Aflec  studying  in  Hebron  Academy,  be 
conducted  his  lather's  farm  for  a  tiipe,  became  schoolmaster, 
and  later  managed  a  weekly  newspaper  at  Paris.  He  then 
studied  taw,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  iS^,  and  rapidly  acquired 
1  leputalion  a*  in  able  lawyer  and  a  good  public  qicaker. 
^tering  polilki  ai  u  tnU-ilavery  Dcmocnt,  he  wu  a  member 


bcreasing, 


of  the  slate  House  of  RepreMntativct  in  1S36-1S40,  serving  as 
its  presiding  oficer  during  (he  last  four  years.  He  wu  a 
representative  ia  Congress  from  184}  to  l&«7,  and  wasa  mcmbet 
of  the  United  States  Senate  from  1S48  to  i8s6.  From  (Ik  very 
beginning  of  his  service  in  Congira  be  was  prominent  11  an 
opponent  of  the  extension  of  slavery;  he  was  a 
supporter  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  spoke  sgainsl  the  Con 
Measures  of  1S50,  and  in  1S56,  cjuefiy  because  of  the  foauge 
in  1854  of  the  Kansas- NebraskaBiU.  which  repealed  tbe  Uibouri 
Compromise,  and  his  party's  endorsement  of  tlist  repeal  al  the 
Cindimali  Convention  two  years  later,  he  withdrew  Irom  the 
Democrats  and  joined  tbe  newly  organized  R^njiblicaB  party. 
The  Repubbcans  of  Maine  nominated  him  for  govcmca  in  the 
same  year,  and  having  carried  tbe  election  by  a  Urge  majority 
be  was  inaugurated  in  this  office  on  the  Sth  of  Jannary  i£;;. 
In  the  latter  part  of  February,  however,  be  Toiciied  thcBovemor- 
ship,  and  was  again  a  member  of  tbe  Senate  from  iBjt  to  Janoaiy 
iSei.  From  1861  to  i8«5,  during  the  avil  Wat,  be  was  Vice- 
President  of  tbe  United  States.  While  in  (his  office  be  was  one 
of  tbe  chief  advisers  of  President  llnctAo,  attd  urscd  both  the 
Emancipation  Proclamation  and  tbe  acmiag  of  the  ttegrocs. 
After  tbe  war  be  again  served  In  tbe  Senate  (i369-iBSi),  «a 
mmisler  to  Spain  (1SS1-1883),  and  then  letired  from  pnbbc  hft. 
He  died  at  Bangor,  Maine,  on  the  41b  of  July  1S41. 

See  £1/1  nnd  Timt!  nf  Hannibal  Hamlia  (Cambridge.  Mast^  l»n)- 
by  C.  E.  Hamlin,  his  grandson. 

HAMH,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  tbe  Prnasian  provioa  of 
Westphalia,  on  (be  Lippe,  ig  ol  by  rail  N.EL.  from  DortmuQif 
on  (he  main  line  Cologne-Hanover.  Fop.  (igos)  38.430.  b 
by  pleasant  promenades  occupying  (he  site  of  the 
engirdling  fortifications.  Tbe  principal  buildings  are 
)man  Catholic  and  three  Evangelical  churches,  te\ml 
and  an  infirmary.  The  town  is  Oourishing  and  rapidly 
and  possesses  very  extensive  wire  factories  iLn 
connejQon  with  which  there  ar«  puddling  and  rollii^wodL^}, 
machine  works,  and  manufactories  of  gloves,  baskets,  kaibcr. 
starch,  chemicals,  varnish,  oil  and  bea.  Near  the  town  an 
some  thermal  hatha. 

Hamm,  which  became  a  towD  about  the  end  cJ  tbe  nth 
century,  was  originally  the  cat»tal  of  the  countship  of  Mark,  and 
was  fortified  in  1116.  It  became  a  member  of  (he  Hanseilic 
League.  In  1614  it  was  bweged  by  the  Dutch,  arid  it  was 
several  times  taken  and  retaken  during  the  Thirty  Vean*  Wat. 
In  i6£6  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Biandenburs.  In  i;6i 
and  1761  it  was  bombarded  by  the  FiDich,  and  ia  1763  its 
lonifications  were  dismantled. 

HAMMiD  AB-BlWIYA  [AbO-MJlsim  ^ammld  ibn  AU 
Laila  Stptlr  (or  ibn  MsisaiD)]  (Stb  century  tJ:),  Arabic  scbidsr, 
was  of  Dailamite  descent,  but  was  bom  in  Eufa.  Tbe  date  of 
his  birth  is  ^ven  by  tome  ai  694,  by  others  as  714.  He  wis 
reputed  to  be  the  most  learned  man  of  his  time  in  regard  to  the 
"days  of  tbe  Arabs"  (ij.  their  chief  battles),  (bcir  storits, 
poems,  genealogies  and  dialects.  He  is  said  (o  have  boasted 
that  be  could  redte  a  bondrcd  long  qasidoi  for  each  letter  of 
tbe  alphabet  (i.e.  rhyming  in  each  letter)  and  these  all  frocQ 
pre-Islamic  times,  apart  from  shorter  pieces  and  lata  vene& 
Hence  his  name  Hammiid  ar-Sjnriya, "  the  reciter  of  venes  fiDB 
memory."  The  Omayyad  caliph  Wsild  is  said  to  have  Isud 
him,  the  result  being  (bat  be  redted  sqoo  qasldas  of  pn- 
Islamic  date  and  WaUd  gave  him  100,000  dicbems.  He  was 
favoured  by  Vaxld  11.  and  his  successor  Hishlm,  who  brought 
him  up  from  Irak  to  Damascus.  Arabian  critics,  however,  siy 
that  in  spile  of  bis  learning  he  lacked  a  true  insist  into  the 
genius  of  the  Arabic  language,  and  that  he  made  mue  thaa 
thirt]i — some  say  tbiee  hundred — mistakes  of  pronuikdalioD  is 
reciting  the  Koran.  Tki  him  is  ascribed  tbe  collectiai  ci  the 
ilt'aUakai  {f  ,t.).  No  diwan  of  his  is  extant,  tbou^  be  compaed 
verse  of  his  own  and  probably  a  good  deal  of  wbai.  he  aacribed 
to  earlier  poets. 

BloEcipliy  in  HcG.  de  Sline's  trans,  of  Ibn  KhaDUii.  nl.  L 
pp.  470-474.  and  many  stories  an  told  of  him  in  the  ZiW  bMiUik 
VOL  V.  pp.  16417J.  (a.  W  TJ 


HAMMER— HAMMERFEST 


897 


HAMMBR,  FRIEDRICH. JULIUS  (1810-1862),  German  poet, 
was  bom  on  the  7th  of  June  1810  at  Dresden.  In  1831  he  went 
to  Leipzig  to  study  law,  but  devoted  himself  mainly  to  philosophy 
and  belles  lettres.  Returning  to  Dresden  in  x  834  a  small  comedy. 
Das  setisame  PrUkstiickt  introduced  him  to  the  literary  society 
of  the  capital,  notably  to  Ludwig  Tieck,  and  from  this  time  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  writing.  In  1837  he  returned  to 
Leipcig,  and,  coming  again  to  Dresden,  from  1851  to  1859  edited 
the  feuilleton  of  SOcksiscke  koHstUniumeUe  Zeitung,  and  took 
the  lead  in  the  foundation  in  1855  of  the  Schiller  Institute  in 
Dresden.  His  marriage  in  X85X  had  made  him  independent,  and 
he  bought  a  small  property  at  Pillnitz,  on  which,  soon  after  his 
return  from  a  residence  of  several  years  at  Nuremberg,  he  died, 
on  the  33rd  of  August  x86a. 

Hammer  wrote,  besides  several  comedies,  a  drama  Die  Brtider 
(1856),  a  number  of  uxiimportant  romances,  and  the  novel 
Einkekr  und  Umkekr  (Leipzig,  x8s6);  but  his  reputation  rests 
upon  his  epigranmiatic  and  didactic  poems.  His  Sckau*  mm 
dkht  und  sckau'  in  dick  (1851),  which  made  his  name,  has  passed 
through  more  than  thirty  editions.  It  was  followed  by  Zu  alien 
guien  Stunden  (X854),  Feskr  Crund  (1857),  Auf  siUUn  Wegen^ 
(1859),  and  lertM,  liebtt  lebe  (i86a).  Besides  these  he  wrote  a 
book  of  Turkish  songs,  Unter  dem  Halhmond  (Leipzig,  x86o), 
and  rhymed  versions  of  the  psalms  (i86x),  and  compiled  the 
popular  religious  anthology  LAen  und  Heimat  in  Gottf  of  which  a 
X4th  edition  was  publishoi  in  X900. 

Sec  C.  G.  E.  Am  Ende.  JmUus  Hammer  (Nuremberg,  1872). 

HAMMER,  an  implement  consisting  of  a  shaft  or  handle  with 
head  fixed  transversely  to  it.  The  head,  usually  of  metal,  has 
one  flat  face,  the  other  may  be  shaped  to  serve  various  purposes, 
e.g.  with  a  claw,  a  pick,  &c.  The  implement  is  used  for  breaking, 
beating,  driving  nails,  rivets,  &c.,  and  the  word  is  applied  to 
heavy  masses  of  metal  moved  by  machinery,  and  used  for  similar 
purposes.  (See  Tool.)  *'  Hammer "  is  a  word  common  to 
Teutonic  languages.  It  sppem  in  the  same  form  in  German 
and  Danish,  and  in  Dutch  as  hamer^  in  Swedish  as  kammare. 
The  ultimate  origin  is  unknown.  It  has  been  connected  with 
the  root  seen  in  the  Greek  xd/trroy,  to  bend;  the  word  would 
mean,  therefore,  something  crookedor  bent.  A  more  illuminating 
•suggestion  connects  the  word  with  the  Slavonic  kamy,  a  stone, 
cf.  Russian  kamen,  and  ultimately  with  Sanskrit  acman^  a 
pointed  stone,  a  thunderbolt.  The  legend  of  Thor's  hammer, 
the  thunderbolt,  and  the  probability  of  the  primitive  hammer 
being  a  stone,  adds  plausibility  to  this  derivation.  The  word 
b  applied  to  many  objects  resembling  a  hammer  in  shape  or 
function.  Thus  the  "  striker  "  in  a  clock,  or  in  a  bell,  when  it 
is  sounded  by  an  independent  lever  and  not  by  the  swinging  of 
the  "  tongue,"  is  called  a  "  hammer  ";  similarly,  in  the  "  action  " 
of  a  pianoforte  the  word  is  used  of  a  wooden  shank  with  felt- 
covered  head  attached  to  a  key,  the  striking  of  which  throws 
the  "hammer"  against  the  strings.  In  the  mechanism  of  a 
fire-arm,  the  "  hammer  "  is  that  part  which  by  its  impact  on 
the  cap  or  primer  e^>Iodes  the  charge.  (See  Gun.)  The  hammer, 
more  usually  known  by  its  French  name  of  martd  de  Jer^  was  a 
medieval  hand-weapon.  With  a  long  shaft  it  was  u^ed  by 
infantry,  especially  when  acting  against  mounted  troops.  With 
a  short  handle  and  usually  made  altogether  of  metal,  it  was 
abo  used  by  horse-soldiers.  The  marUi  had  one  part  of  the  head 
with  a  blunted  face,  the  other  pointed,  but  occasionally  both 
sides  were  pointed.  There  are  x6th  century  examples  in  which 
a  hand-gun  forms  the  handle.  The  name  of  "  hammer,"  in 
Latin  malleus,  has  been  frequently  applied  to  men,  and  also  to 
books,  with  reference  to  destructive  power.  Thus  on  the  tomb 
of  Edward  I.  in  Westminster  Abbey  is  inscribed  his  name  of 
Scalorum  Malleus,  the  "  Hammer  of  the  Scots."  The  title  of 
*'  Hammer  of  Heretics,"  Malleus  Haereticorum,  has  been  given 
to  St  Augustine  and  to  Johann  Faber,  whose  tract  against 
Luther  is  also  known  by  the  name.  Thomas  Cromwell  was  styled 
Malleus  Monackerum.  The  famous  text-book  of  procedure  in 
cases  of  witchcraft,  published  by  Sprenger  and  Krimer  in  1489, 
was  called  Hexenkammer  or  Malleus  MaUficarum  (see  Witch- 
ciar). 

101.  16 


The  origin  of  the  word  "hanuner-doth,"  an  ornamental  cloth 
covering  tl^  box-seat  on  a  sute-coacb,  has  been  often  e^>lained 
from  the  hammer  and  other  tools  carried  in  the  box-seat  by  the 
coachman  for  repairs,  &c.  The  New  Englisk  Dictionary  points 
out  that  while  the  word  occurs  as  early  as  1465,  the  use  of  a  box- 
seat  is  not  known  before  the  X7th  century.  Other  suggestions 
are  that  it  is  a  corruption  of  "  hamper-doth,"  or  of "  hammock- 
doth,"  which  is  used  in  this  sense,  probably  owing  to  a  mistake. 
Neither  of  these  supposed  corruptions  helps  very  much.  Skeat 
connects  the  word  wth  a  Dutch  word  kemd,  meaning  a  canopy. 
In  the  name  of  the  bird,  the  yellow-hammer,  the  latter  part 
should  be  "ammer."  This  appears  in  the  German  name, 
Emmerliug,  and  the  word  probably  means  the  "chirper,"  d. 
the  Ger.  janunem,  to  wail,  lament. 

HAMMERUAM  ROOF,  in  architecture,  the  name  given  to  a 
Gothic  open  t{mber  voof,  of  which  the  finest  example  is  that  over 
Westminster  Hall  (1^5-1399).  In  order  to  give  greater  height 
in  the  centre,  the  ordinary  tie  beam  is  cut  through,  and  the 
portions  remaining,  known  as  hammerbeams,  are  supported  by 
curved  braces  from  the  wall;  in  Westminster  Hall,  in  order  to 
give  greater  strength  to  the  framing,  a  large  arched  piece  of 
timber  is  carried  across  the  hall,  rising  from  the  bottom  of  the 
wall  piece  to  the  centre  of  the  collar  beam,  the  latter  being  also 
sui^rted  by  curved  braces  rising  from  the  end  of  the  hammer- 
beam.  The  span  of  Westminster  Hall  b  68  ft.  4  in.,  and  the 
opening  between  the  ends  of  the  hanmierbeams  25  ft.  6  in.  The 
height  from  the  paving  of  the  hall  to  the  hammerbeam  b  40  ft., 
and  to  the  underside  of  the  collar  beam  63  ft.  6  in.,  so  that  an 
additioiud  height  in  the  centre  of  33  ft.  6  in.  has  been  gained. 
Other  important  examples  of  hammerbeam  roofs  exbt  over  the 
halb  of  Hampton  Court  and  Eltham  palaces,  and  there  are 
numerous  examples  of  smaller  dimensions  in  churches  throughout 
England  and  particubrly  in  the  eastern  counties.  The  ends 
of  the  hammcrbtams  are  usually  decorated  with  winged  angeb 
holding  shields;  the  curved  braces  and  beams  are  richly  moulded, 
and  the  spandrib  in  the  larger  examples  filled  in  with  tracery, 
as  in  Westminster  Hall.  Sometimes,  but  rarely,  the  collar 
beam  is  similariy  treated,  or  cut  through  and  su]^x>rted  by 
additional  curved  braces,  as  in  the  hall  of  the  Middle  Temple, 
London. 

HAMMBRFE8T.  the  most  northern  town  in  Europe.  Pop. 
(1900)  2300.  It  b  situated  on  an  island  (Kvaltt)  off  the  N.W. 
coast  of  Norway,  in  Finmarken  ami  (county),  in  70^  40'  xi'  N., 
the  latitude  being  that  of  the  extreme  north  of  Alaska.  Its 
position  affords  the  best  illustration  of  the  warm  dimatic 
influence  of  the  north-eastward  Atlantic  drift,  the  mean  aimual 
temperature  being  36*  F.  (January  3x*,  July  57*).  Hammerfcst 
b  674  m-  by  sea  N.E.  of  Trondhjcm,  and  78  S.W.  kom  the  North 
(Upe.  The  character  of  thb  coast  differs  from  the  southern, 
the  islands  being  fewer  and  larger,  and  of  table  shape.  The 
narrow  strait  Str&mmen  separates  Kvato  from  the  hirgcr  Seiland, 
whose  snow-covered  hiUs  with  several  glaciers  rise  above  3500  ft., 
while  an  insular  rampart  of  mountains,  Sord,  protects  (he  strait 
and  harbour  from  the  open  sea.  The  town  b  timber-built  and 
modem;  and  the  Protestant  church,  to«-n-hall,  and  schoob 
were  all  rebuilt  after  fire  in  1890.  There  b  also  a  Roman  Catholic 
cluirch.  The  sun  docs  not  set  at  Hammerfcst  from  the  13th  of 
May  to  the  39th  of  July.  Thb  b  the  busy  season  of  the  towns- 
folk. Vesseb  set  out  to  the  fisheries,  as  far  as  Spitsbergen  and 
the  Kara  Sea;  and  trade  b  brisk,  not  only  Norwegian  and 
Danish  but  British,  German  and  particulariy  Russian  vesifeb 
engaging  in  it.  Cod-liver  oil  and  salted  fish  are  exported  with 
some  reindeer-skins,  fox-skins  and  eiderdown;  and  coal  and  salt 
for  curing  are  imported.  In  the  spring  the  great  herds  of  tame 
reindeer  are  driven  out  to  swim  StrOmmen  and  graze  in  the 
summer  pastures  of  Seiland;  towards  winter  they  are  called 
home  again.  From  the  x8th  of  November  to  the  33rd  of  January 
the  sun  is  not  seen,  and  the  enforced  quiet  of  winter  prevails. 
Electric  light  was  introduced  in  the  town  in  X89X.  On  the 
Fuglenaes  or  Birds*  Cape,  which  protects  the  harbour  on  the 
north,  there  stands  a  column  with  an  inscription  in  Norse  and 
Latin,  stating  that  Hammerfcst  was  one  of  the  sutions  of  the 

la 


898 


HAMMER-KOP— HAMMERSMITH 


expedition  for  the  measurement  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian  in 
i8i6-z8s3.  Nor  is  this  its  only  association  with  science;  for 
it  was  one  of  the  spots  chosen  by  Sir  Edward  Sabine  for  his 
scries  of  pendulum  experiments  in  1823.  The  ascent  of  the 
Sadlen  or  the  Tyven  in  the  neighbourhood  is  usually  undertaken 
by  travellers  for  the  view  of  the  barren,  snow-dad  Arctic  land- 
scape, the  bluff  indented  coast,  and  the  vast  expanse  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean. 

HAMMER-KOP,  or  Haicmesbead,  an  African  bird,  which  has 
been  regarded  as  a  stork  and  as  a  heron,  tht  Scopus  umbreUaof 
ornithologists,  called  the  "  Umbre- "  by  T.  Pennant,  now  placed 
in  a  separate  family  Scopidae  between  the  herons  and  storks. 
It  was  discovered  by  M.  Adanson,  the  French  traveller,  in  Senegal 
about  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  and  was  described  by 
M.  J.  Brisson  in  1760.  It  has  since  been  found  to  inhabit  nearly 
the  whole  of  Africa  and  Madagascar,  and  i^  the  *'  hammerkop  " 
(hammerhead)  of  the  Cape  colonists.  T^ugh  not  larger  than 
a  raven,  it  builds  an  enormous  nest,  some  six  feet  in  diameter, 
with  a  flat>topped  roof  and  a  small  hole  for  entrance  and  exit, 
and  i^aced  either  on  a  tree  or  a  rocky  ledge.  The  bird,  of  an 
almost  uniform  brown  colour,  slightly  glossed  with  purple  and  its 
tail  barred  with  black,  has  a  long  occipital  crest,  generally  borne 
horizontally,  so  as  to  give  rise  to  its  common  name.  It  is  some- 
what sluggish  by  day,  but  displays  much  activity  at  dusk,  when 
it  will  go  through  a  series  of  strange  performances.       (A.  N.) 

HAMMBR-PUROSTALL,  JOSEPH,  Fseiherk  von  (1774- 
1856),  Austrian  orientalist,  was  bom  at  Graz  on  the  9th  of  June 
Z774,  the  son  of  Joseph  Johann  von  Hammer,  and  received  his 
early  education  mainly  in  Vienna.  Entering  the  diplomatic 
service  in  1796,  he  was  ai^inted  in  1799  to  a  position  in  the 
Austrian  embassy  in  Constantinople,  and  in  this  capacity  he 
took  part  in  the  expedition  under  Admiral  Sir  William  Sidney 
Smith  and  General  Sir  John  Hely  Hutchinson  against  the 
French.  In  1807  he  returned  home  from  the  East,  after  which 
he  was  made  a  privy  councillor,  and,  on  inheriting  in  1835  the 
estates  of  the  countess  Purgstall  in  Styria,  was  given  the  title 
of  "  freiherr."  In  1847  he  was  elected  president  of  the  newly- 
founded  academy,  and  he  died  at  Vienna  on  the  S3rd  of  November 
1856. 

For  fifty  years  Hammcr-Purgstall  wrote  incessantly  on  the 
most  diverse  subjects  and  published  numerous  texts  and  transla- 
tions of  Arabic,  Persian  and  Turkish  authors.  It  was  natural 
that  a  scholar  who  traversed  so  large  a  field  should  lay  himself 
open  tp  the  criticism  of  specialists,  and  he  was  severely  handled 
by  Friedrich  Christian  Dies  (i 794-1876),  who,  in  his  Unjug 
vnd  Beirut  (1815),  devoted  to  him  nearly  600  pages  of  abuse. 
Von  Hammcr-Purgstall  did  for  Germany  the  same  work  that 
Sir  William  Jones  {q.v.)  did  for  England  and  Silvestre  de  Sacy 
for  France.  He  was,  Uke  his  younger  but  greater  English  con- 
temporary, Edward  William  Lane,  with  whom  he  came  into 
friendly  conflict  on  the  subject  of  the  origin  of  The  Thousand 
and  One  Nights^  an  assiduous  worker,  and  in  spite  of  many  faults 
did  more  for  oriental  studies  than  most  of  his  critics  put  together. 

Von  Hammer's  principal  work  is  his  Geschickte  des  osmanischtn 
Reuket  (10  vols..  Pesth,  1827-1835).    Another  edition  of  this  was 

Published  at  Pesth  in  1834-1835,  and  it  has  been  translated  into 
rench  by  J.  J.  Hellert  0  035-1 843).  Amone  his  other  works  are 
ConsUxntinopolis  und  der  Bosporos  (1822);  Sw  Us  origines  russes 
(St  Petersburg.  1825):  CesckichU  der  osmanischtn  Dichtkunst 
(1836):  Ceschtckte  der  Goldenen  Horde  in  Kiptsehak  (1840):  Ce- 
schtckte  der  Ckane  der  Krim  (1856);  and  an  unfinished  LOteralur- 

5tschichte  der  Araber  (1850-1856).  His  Gesckichle  der  Assassinen 
1818)  has  been  translated  into  English  by  O.  C.  Wood  (1835). 
exts  and  translations — Etk-TkaiUabi,  Arab,  and  Ger.  (1829): 
Ibn  Wahshiyah,  History  of  the  Mongols,  Arab,  and  Eng.  (1806); 
El'  Wassdf.  Pers.  and  Gcr.  (1856):  Euh - Sckelnstani's  Rosen flor 
des  Ceheimnisses,  Pers.  and  Ger.  (1838):  E»  •  Z^makhsheri,  Coldene 
Halsbdnder,  Anb,  and  Germ.  (183^);  Ei-Chaaaon,  HuJjeUl'Isldm, 
Arab,  and  Ger.  (1838);  El-Hamatot,  Das  arab.  Hoke  Lted  der  Liebe, 
Arab,  and  Ger.  (1854).  Translations  ot—El-Mutanebbi's  Poems', 
Er-Resmfs  Account  of  his  Embassy  (1800) ;  Contes  tnidUs  des  loot 
nuits  (1828).  Besides  these  and  smaller  works,  von  Hammer 
contributed  numerous  essays  and  criticisms  to  the  Fundgruben  des 
Orients,  which  he  edited:  to  the  Journal  asiatique;  and  to  many 
other  learned  journals;  above  all  to  the  Transactions  of  the  "  Aka- 
demie  der  Wisaenschaften  "  of  Vienna,  of  which  he  was  mainly  the 


founder;  and  he  translated  Evliya  Effendt's  Trawds  is  EMnfe,  (or 
the  English  Oriental  Translation  Kund.  For  a  fuller  list  of  his  vorio. 
which  amount  in  all  to  nearly  lioo  volumes,  see  Compies  reniu  d 
theAcad.desInscr.etdesBelles-Lcttres(i857).  See  also  Schlottinu, 
Joseph  90U  Hommer-PurgstaU  (Zurich,  1857). 

HAMMBR8MITH,  a  western  metropolitan  borouigfa  oi  Lood£», 
England,  bounded  £.  by  Kensington  and  S.  by  Fulham  znd  the 
river  Thames,  and  extending  N.  and  W.  to  the  boundary  d 
the  county  of  London.    Pop.  (1901)  x  12,239.    The  name  appean 
in  the  early  forms  of  Hermodewode  and  Hauursmith;  the  deiiva- 
tion  IS  probably  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  signifying  the  ptace 
with  a  haven  (hythe).    Hammersmith  is  mentioned  with  Falhia 
as  a  winter  camp  of  Danish  invaders  in  879,  when  they  occspned 
the  isUnd  of  Hame,  which  may  be  identified  with  (Thisvkt 
Eyot.    Hammersmith  consists  of  residential  streets  of  varictd 
classes.    There  are  many  good  houses  in  the  districts  of  Brook 
Green  in  the  south-east,  and  Ravenscourt  Park  and  Starch  Grc: 
in  the  west.    Shepherd's  Bush  in  the  east  is  a  popuh>us  and  poore: 
quarter.    Boat-building  yards,  lead-mills,  oil  mills,  distilkna. 
coach  factories,  motor  works,  and  other  industrial  estaUs^ 
ments  are  found  along  the  river  and  elsewhere  in  the  bntmiii 
The  main  thoroughfares  are  Uxbridge  Road  and  C>oldiu*i 
Road,  from  Acton  on  the  west,  converging  at  Shepherd's  Bsb 
and  continuing  towards  Not  ting  Hill;  King  Street  from  Clusvkt 
on  the  south-west,  continued  as  Hammersmith  Broadway  ikI 
Road  to  Kensington  feoad;  Bridge  Road  from  Hammeraeu 
Bridge  over  the  Thames,  and  Fulham  Palace  Road  from  Fulhaa, 
converging   at    the    Broadway.    Old    Hammersmith    Brii:^ 
desitpied  by  Tierney  Clark  (1824),  was  the  earliest  suspeasix 
bridge  erewted  near  London.    This  bridge  was  found  aatcsr 
and  replaced  in  1884-1887.    Until  1834  Hammersmith  iorBti 
part  of  Fulham  parish.     Its  church  of  St  Paul  was  boih  xs  i 
chapel  of  ease  to  Fulham,'  and  consecrated  by  Laud  in  163: 
The  existing  building  dates  from  1890.    Among  the  old  bks:- 


A    i 


ments  preserved  is  that  of  Sir  Nicholas  Crispe  (d.  x66: 
prominent  royalist  during  the  civil  wars  and  a  benefactor  d.  U' 
parish.    Schools  and  religious  houses  are  numeroos.     St  Piw » 
school  is  one  of  the  principal  public  schools  in  Eo^and.     U 
was  founded  in  or  about  1509  by  John  Colet,  dean  of  St  Pt&i'. 
under  the  shadow  of  the  cathedral  church.    But  it^f^ican  lKj. 
Colet  actually  refounded  and  reorganised  a  school  vhick  tss. 
been  attached  to  the  cathedral  of  St  Paul  from  very  early  ti&^ 
the  first  mention  of  such  a  school  dates  from  the  early  par  •■- 
the  lath  century  (see  an  article  in  The  Times,  Londoa,  Ju'} : 
1909,  on  the  occasion  of  the  celebration  of  the  quAtcrceotcs.' 
of  Colel's  foundation).    The  school  was  moved  to  its  preseti  "/^ 
in  Hammersmith  Road  in  1883.    The  number  of  fo«isdi  " 
scholars,  that  is,  the  number  for  which  Colet's   endotrsr: 
provided,  is  153,  according  to  the  number  of  fishes  takr: 
the  miraculous  draught.    The  total  number  of  pupils  is  2X> 
600.    The  school  governors  are  appointed    by    tbc    Mer:' 
Company  (by  which  body  the  new  site  was  acquired},  sec .  • 
universities  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  London,     dose  to ' 
school  is  St  Paul's  preparatory  school,  and  at  Brook  Greee  -^ 
girls'  school  in  connexion  with  the  main  acbocd.     Hsm  :' 
besides,  the  Edward  Latymer  foundation  school  for  boys  (:'  • 
part  of  the  income  of  which  is  devoted  to  gmeral  char:- 
purpoaes;  the  (jodolphin  school,  founded  in  the   i6th  ctf^-' 
and  remodelled  as  a  grammar  school  in  1861 ;  Nazareth  H 
of  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  the  Convent  of  the  Sacred  H" 
and  other  convents.    The  town  hall,  the  West  Loados  beer 
with  its  post-graduate  college,  and  Wormwood  Scrubs  p' 
are  noteworthy  buildings.    Other  institutions  are  the  Haz^* 
smith  school  of  art  and  a  Roman  CJitholic  training  ctu  . 
Besides  the  picturesque  Ravenscourt  Park  (31  acres)  the^  • 
extensive  recreation  grounds  in  the  north  of  the  bcc'^^^ 
Wormwood  Scrubbs  (193  acres),  and  others  of  lesser  tr 
An  important  place  of  entertainment  is  Olymfna,  near  H^'' 
smith  Road  and  the  Addison  Road  station  on  the  West  U*- 
railway,  which  includes  a  vast  arena  under  a  glass  rocr  • 
at  Shepherd's  Bush  are  the  extensive  grouiKls  and  b&- 
first  occupied  by  the  Franco-British  Exhibitioa  of  1906,  '^^- 


HAMMER-THROWING— HAMMOND 


899 


8  huge  sttdittm  for  athletic  dlq>Uys.  In  the  extreme  north  of 
the  borough  is  the  Kensal  Green  Roman  Catholic  cemetery, 
in  which  Cardinal  Manning  and  many  other  prominent  memben 
of  this  faith  are  buried.  In.  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Mali, 
bordering  the  river,  are  the  house  where  Thomson  wrote  his 
poem  *'  The  Seasons,"  and  Kelmscott  House,  the  residence  of 
William  Morris.  The  parliamentary  borough  of  Hammersmith 
returns  one  member.  The  borough  coundl  consists  of  a  mayor, 
5  aldermen,  and  30  coundllots.    Area,  3286-3  acres. 

HAMMER-THROWING,  a  branch  of  field  athletics  which 
consists  of  hurling  to  the  greatest  possible  distance  an  instrument 
with  a  heavy  head  and  lender  handle  called  the  hammer. 
Throwing  the  hammer  is  in  all  probability  of  Keltic  origin,  as 
it  has  been  popular  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  for  many  centuries. 
The  missile  was,  however,  not  a  hammer,  but  the  wheel  of  a 
chariot  atuched  to  a  fixed  axle,  by  which  it  was  whirled  round 
the  head  and  cast  for  distance.    Such  a  sport  was  undoubtedly 
cultivated  in  the  old  Irish  games,  a  large  stone  being  substituted 
for  the  wheel  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.    In  the 
Scottish  highlands  the  missile  took  the  form  of  a  smith's  sledge- 
hammer, and  in  this  form  the  sport  became  popular  in  England 
in  early  days.    Edward  II.  is  said  to  have  fostered  it,  and  Henry 
VIII.  is  known  to  have  been  proficient.    At  the  beginning  of 
the  19th  century  two  standard  hammers  weregenerally  recognized 
in  Scotland,  the  heavy  hammer,  weighing  about  ax  lb,  and  the 
light  hammer,  weighing  about  16  lb.    These  were  in  general 
tise  until  about  1885,  although  the  light  hammer  gradually 
attained  popularity  at  the  expense  of  the  heavy.    Although 
originally  an  ordinary  blacksmith's  sledge  with  a  handle  about 
3  ft.  long,  the  form  of  the  head  was  gradually  modified  until  it 
acquired  its  present  spherical  shape,  and  the  stiff  wooden  handle 
gave  place  to  one  of  flexible  whalebone  about  |  in.  in  diameter. 
The  Scottish  style  of  throwing,  which  also  obtained  in  America, 
was  to  stand  on  a  mark,  swing  the  hammer  round  the  head 
several  times  and  hurl  it  backwards  over  the  shoulder,  the 
length  being  measured  from  the  mark  made  by  the  falling  hammer 
to  the  nearest  foot  of  the  thrower,  no  run  or  follow  being  allowed. 
Such  men  as  Donald  Dinnie,  G.  Davidson  and  Kenneth  McRae 
threw  the  light  hammer  over  1x0  ft.,  and  Diimie's  record  was 
S3 3  ft.  8  in.,  made,  however,  from  a  raised  mount.    Meanwhile 
the  English  Axnateur  Athletic  Association  bad  early  fixed  the 
weight  of  the  hammer  at  x6  lb,  but  the  length  of  the  handle 
and  the  run  varied  widely,  the  restrictions  being  few.    Under 
these  conditions  S.  S.  Brown,  of  Oxford,  made  in  1873  a  throw 
of  1 30  ft.,  which  was  considered  extraordinary  at  the  time. 
In  1875  the  throw  was  made  from  a  7-ft.  drde  without  run,  head 
and  handle  of  the  missile  weighing  together  exactly  x6  lb.    In 
X887  the  circle  was  enlarged  to  9  ft.,  and  in  1896  a  handle  of 
flexible  metal  was  legalised.    The  throw  was  made  after  a  few 
rapid  revolutions  of  the  body,  which  added  an  impetus  that 
greatly  added  to  the  distance  attained.    It  thus  happened  that 
the  Scottish  competitors  at  the  English  games,  who  clung  to 
their  standing  style  of  throwing,  were,  although  athletes  of 
the  very  first  class,  repeatedly  beaten;  the  result  being  that 
the  Scottish  association  was  forced  to  introduce  the  English 
rules.    This  was  also  the  case  in  America,  where  the  throw 
Irom  the  7-ft.  circle,  any  motions  being  allowed  within  it,  was 
adopted  in  1888,  and  still  obtains.    The  Americans  still  further 
modified  the  handle,  which  now  consists  of  steel  wire  with  two 
skeleton  loops  for  the  hands,  the  wire  being  joined  to  the  head  by 
means  of  a  ball-bearing  SwiveL    Thus  the  greatest  mechanical 
advantage,  that  of  having  the  entire  weight  of  the  missile  at  the 
end,  as  well  as  the  least  friction,  is  obtained.    In  England  the 
Amateur  Athletic  Association  in  1908  enaaed  that  "  the  head 
and  handle  may  be  of  any  sixe,  shape  and  material,  provided 
that  the  Complete  implement  shall  not  be  mote  than  4  ft.  and  its 
weight  not  less  than  16  lb.    The  competitor  may  assuxne  any 
position  he  chooses,  and  use  either  one  or  both  hands.    AU 
throws  shall  be  made  from  a  drde  7  ft.  in  diameter."    The 
modem  hammer-thrower,  if  right-handed,  begins  by  placing 
the  head  on  the  ground  at  his  right  side.    He  then  lifts  and 
•wings  it  round  Us  head  with  increasing  rspidity,  his  whole 


body  finally  revolving  with  outstretched  arms  twice,  in  some 
cases  three  times,  as  rapidly  as  possible,  the  hammer  being 
released  in  the  desired  direction.  During  the  "spiiming,"  or 
revolving  of  the  body,  the  athlete  must  be  constantly,  "ahead of 
the  hammer,"  »>.  he  must  be  drawing  it  after  him  with  continu- 
ally increased  pressure  up  to  the  very  moment  of  delivery.  The 
muscles  chiefly  called  into  play  are  those  of  the  shoulders,  back 
and  loins.  The  adoption  of  the  hand-loops  has  given  the  thrower 
greater  control  over  the  hammer  and  has  thus  rendered  the 
sport  much  less  dangerous  than  it  once  was. 

With  a  wooden  handle  the  longest  throw  made  in  Great  Britain 
from  a  9-ft.  circle  was  that  of  W.  J.  M.  Barry  in  1893,  who  m*on  the 
championthip  in  that  year  .with  13^  ft.  3  in.  With  the  flexible 
handle.  **  unliraited  run  and  follow  being  permitted,  the  record 
was  held  in  1909  by  M.  f.  McGrath  with  173  ft.  8  in.,  made  in  1907; 
a  Scottish  amateur,  T.  R.  Nichobon,  held  the  British  record  of  169  ft. 
8  in.  The  worid's  record  for  throw  from  a  7-ft.  circle  was  173  ft.  1 1  in. 
by  J.  Flanagan  in  1904  in  America ;  the  British  record  from  o-ft.  circle 
being  also  held  by  Flanagan  with  a  throw  of  163  ft.  i  in.  made  in  1900. 
Flanagan's  Olympic  record  (London,  X908)  was  170  ft.  4|1  in. 

See  AMetics  in  the  Badminton  library;  AtkUUs*  Guide  in  Spald- 
ing's Athletic  library;  *'  Hamrocr-Throwing  "  in  voL  xx.  of  Omting. 

HAMMER-TOE,  a  painful  condition  in  which  a  toe  is  rigidly 
bent  and  the  salient  angle  on  its  upper  aspect  is  constantly 
irritated  by  the  boot.  It  is  treated  surgically,  not  as  formerly 
by  amputation  of  the  toe,  but  the  toe  is  made  permanently  to 
lie  flat  by  the  simple  excision  of  the  small  digital  joint.  Even 
in  extremely  bad  c^ses  of  hammer-toe  the  operation  of  resection 
of  the  head  of  the  metatarsal  phalanx  is  to  be  recommended 
rather  than  amputation. 

HAMMOCK,  a  bed  or  couch  slung  from  each  end.  The  word 
is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the  hamack  tree,  the  bark  of 
which  was  used  by  the  aboriginal  natives  of  Braxil  to  form  the 
nets,  suspended  from  trees,  in  which  they  dept.  The  hanomock 
may  be  of  matting,  skin  or  textiles,  lined  with  cushions  or  filled 
with  bedding.    It  is  much  used  in  hot  climates. 

HAMMOND,  HENRT  (X605-1660),  English  divine,  was  bom  at 
Chertsey  in  Surrey  on  the  x8th  of  Augiist  X605.  He  was  edu- 
cated  at  Eton  and  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  becoming  demy 
or  scholar  in  16x9,  and  fellow  in  1625.  He  took  orders  in  1639, 
and  in  1633  in  preaching  before  the  court  so  won  the  approval 
of  the  earl  of  Ldcester  that  he  presented  him  to  the  living  of 
Pcnshuxst  in  Kent.  In  1643  he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Chi- 
Chester.  He  was  a  member  of  the  convocation  of  1640,  and 
was  nominated  one  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  divines. 
Instead  of  sitting  at  Westminster  he  took  part  in  the  unsuccessful 
rising  at  Tunbridge  in  favour  of  King  Charles  I.,  and  was  obliged 
to  flee  in  disguise  to  Oxford,  then  the  royal  headquarteis. 
There  he  spent  much  of  his  tixne  in  writing,  though  he  accom- 
panied  the  king's  commissioners  to  London,  and  afterwards 
to  the  ineffectual  convention  at  Uxbridge  in  X645,  where  he 
disputed  with  Richard  Vines,  one  of  the  parliamentary  envoys. 
In  his  absence  he  was  appointed  canon  of  Christ  Church  and 
public  orator  of  the  university.  These  dignities  he  relinquished 
for  a  time  in  order  to  atteikd  the  king  as  chaplain  during  his 
captivity  in  the  hands  of  the  parliamenL  When  Charles  was 
deprived  of  all  his  loyal  attendants  at  Christnuui  x647«  Hammond 
returned  to  Oxford  and  was  made  subdean  of  Christ  Church, 
only,  however,  to  be  removed  Irom  all  his  offices  by  the  parlia* 
mentary  visitors,  who  imprisoned  him  for  ten  weeks.  After- 
wards be  was  permitted,  though  still  tmder  quasi-confinement, 
to  retiro  to  the  house  of  Philip  Warwick  at  Clapham  in  Bedford- 
shire. In  1650,  having  regained  his  full  liberty,  Hammoiui 
betook  himself  to  the  friendly  naaittion  of  Sir  John  Pakington, 
at  Westwood,  in  WorcestersUre,  where  he  died  on  the  25th  of 
April  x66o,  just  on  the  eve  of  his  preferment  to  the  see  of 
Worcester.  HammoiMi  was  held  in  high  esteem  even  by  his 
opponents.  He  was  handsome  in  person  and  benevolent  in 
disposition.  He  was  an  excellent  preacher;  Charies  I.  pro- 
nounced him  the  most  natural  orator  he  had  ever  hear4'  His 
range  of  reading  was  extensive,  and  Jie  was  a  most  diligent 
scholar  and  writer. 

His  writings,  puUisbed  in  4  vols.  fol.  (1674-1684).  consist  for  the 
mort  part  oloootroveraud  sermons  and  txacta  The  Angf^CatkoUe 


V^ 


goo 

Library  conuini  four  volumes  of  his  MiscdUtMeous  Tkeotogieal 
Works  (i847-i8y>).  The  beat  of  them  are  his  Practical  Catecktsm, 
first  published  In  1644:  his  Paraphrase  and  Annotations  on  the 
New  Testament;  and  an  incomplete  work  of  a  similar  nature  on  the 
Qld  Testament.  His  Life,  a  delightful  piece  of  biography,  written 
by  Bishop  Fell,  and  prefixed  to  the  collected  Works,  has  been  re- 
printed in  vol.  iv.  of  Woidsworth's  Ecclesiastical  Biopaphy.  See 
also  Life  of  Henry  Hammond,  by  G.  G.  Perry. 

HAMMOND,  a  city  of  Lake  county,  Indiana,  U.S.A.,  about 
18  Ri.  S.£.  of  the  business  centre  of  Chicago,  on  the  Grand 
Calumet  river.  Pop.  (1890),  5428;  (1900)  1 2,376,  of  whom  31 56 
were  forcign-bom;  (1910,  census)  30,925.  It  is  served  by  no 
fewer  than  eight  railways  approaching  Chicago  from  the  east, 
and  by  several  belt  lines.  As  far  as  its  industries  are  concerned, 
it  is  a  part  of  Chicago,  to  which  fact  it  owes  its  rapid  growth 
and  its  extensive  manufacturing  establishments,  which  include 
slaughtering  and  packing  houses,  iron  and  steel  works,  chemical 
works,  piano,  wagon  and  carriage  factories,  printing  establish- 
ments, flour  and  starch  mills,  glue  works,  breweries  and  dis- 
tilleries. In  1900  Hammond  was  the  principal  slaughtering  and 
meat-packing  centre  of  the  state,  but  subsequently  a  large 
establbhmcnt  removed  from  the  city,  and  Hammond's  total 
factory  product  (all  industries)  decreased  from  $2 5,070, 551  in 
X900  to  $7,671,203  in  1905;  after  1905  there  was  renewed 
growth  in  the  city's  manufacturing  interests.  It  has  a  good 
water-supply  system  which  is  owned  by  the  city.  Hammond 
was  first  settled  about  1868,  was  named  in  honour  of  Abram 
A.  Hammond  (acting  governor  of  the  state  iti  x86o-x86i)  and 
was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1S83. 

HAMON,  JEAN  LOUIS  (182X-1874).  French  painter,  was 
born  at  Plouha  on  the  5th  of  Ma^  1821.  At  an  early  age  he  was 
intended  for  the  priesthood,  and  placed  under  the  care  of  the 
brothers  Lamennais,  but  his  strong  desire  to  become  a  painter 
finally  triumphed  over  family  opposition,  and  in  X840  he  courage- 
ously left  Plouha  for  Paris — his  sole  resources  being  a  pension 
of  five  hundred  francs,  granted  him  for  one  year  only  by  the 
municipality  of  his  native  town.  At  Paris  Hamon  received  valu- 
able counsels  and  encouragement  from  Delaroche  and  Gleyre, 
and  in  X848  he  made  his  appearance  at  the  Salon  with  "  Le 
Tombeau  du  Christ ' '  (Muste  dc  Marseille) ,  and  a  decorative  work, 
"  Dcssus  de  Porte."  The  works  which  he  exhibited  in  X849 — 
"  Une  Affiche  romaine,"  "  L'£galit£  au  s^rail,"  and  "  Perroquet 
jasant  avec  deux  jeunes  filles  "—-obtained  no  marked  success. 
Hamon  was  therefore  content  to  accept  a  place  in  the  manu- 
factory of  Sevres,  but  an  enamelled  casket  by  his  hand  having 
attracted  notice  at  the  London  International  Exhibition  of  1851, 
he  received  a  medal,  and,  reinspired  by  success,  left  his  post  to 
try  his  chances  again  at  the  Salon  of  X852.  "  La  Com^die 
humaine,"  which  he  then  exhibited,  turned  the  tide  of  his 
fortune,  and  "  Ma  soeur  n'y  est  pas  "  (purchased  by  the  emperor) 
obtained  for  its  author  a  third-class  medal  in  1853.  At  the  Paris 
International  Exhibition  of  X855,  when  Hamon  re-exhibited 
the  casket  of  1851,  together  with  several  vases  and  pictures  of 
which  "  L' Amour  et  son  troupeau,"  "  Ce  n'est  pas  moi,"  and 
"  Une  Gardeuse  d'enfants"  were  the  chief,  he  received  a  medal 
of  the  second  class,  and  the  ribbon  of  the  legion  of  honour.  In 
the  following  year  he  was  absent  in  the  East,  but  in  1857  he 
reappeared  with  "  Boutique  k  quatre  sous,"  "  Papillon  en- 
chaln6,"  "  Cantharide  esclave,"  "  D6videuses,"  &c.,  in  all  ten 
pictures;  "  L' Amour  en  visite  "  was  contributed  to  the  Salon 
of  1859,  and  "  Vierge  de  Lesbos,"  "  TuteUe,"  "  U  VoUire," 
"L'Escamotettr"and  "La  Soeur  aln£e"  were  all  seen  in  x86i. 
Hamon  now  spent  some  time  in  Italy,  chiefly  at  Capri,  whence 
in  X864  he  sent  to  Paris  "  L'Aurore  "  and  "  Un  Jour  de  fiangaiUes." 
The  influence  of  Italy  was  also  evident  in  "  Les  Muses  k  Pomp^i," 
his  sole  contribution  to  the  Salon  of  x866,  a  work  which  enjoyed 
great  popularity  and  was  re-exhibited  at  the  Interxiational 
Exhibition  of  1867,  together  with  '•  La  Promenade  "  and  six 
other  pictures  of  previous  years.  His  last  work,  "  Le  Triste 
Rivage,"  appeared  at  the  Salon  of  1873.  It  was  painted  at 
St  Raphael,  where  Hamon  bad  finally  settled  in  a  little  house 
on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  dose  by  Alphonse  Karr's 
famous  garden.    In  this  house  he  died  on  the  29th  of  May  1874. 


HAMMOND— HAMPDEN,  JOHN 


HAHPDBI,  HBirRT  BOUVERIB  WILUAM   BRAKD.    isr 

Viscount^  (18x2-1892),  speaker  of  the  House  of  Common^ 
was  the  second  son  of  the  21st  Baron  Dacre,and  descended  from 
John  Hampden,  the  patriot,  in  the  female  Une;  tlie  barony 
of  Dacre  devolved  on  him  in  X890,  after  he  had  been  created 
Viscount  Hampden  in  x  884.  He  entered  pariiament  as  a  Liberal 
in  X85 2,  and  for  some  time  was  chief  whip  of  his  party.  la  1872 
he  was  elected  speaker,  and  retained  this  post  till  Frturuary 
X884.  It  fell  to  him  to  deal  with  the  systematic  obstnictioo  d 
the  Irish  Nationalist  party,  and  his  speakership  is  memorable 
for  his  action  on  the  2nd  of  February  x88x  in  refusing  fuitber 
debate  on  W.  E.  Forster's  Coercion  Bill — a  step  which  led  to  the 
formal  introduction  of  the  closure  into  parliamentary  iwoccdure. 
He  died  on  the  X4th  of  March  X892,  being  succeeded  as  sad 
viscount  by  his  son  (6.  X84X),  who  was  governor  6[  New  South 
Wales,  X  895-1 899. 

HAMPDEN,  JOHN  (c.  XS95-1643),  EngUsh  statcsmaa,  the 
eldest  son  of  William  Hampden,  of  Great  Hampdeq  in  Bucking- 
hamshire, a  descendant  of-  a  very  ancient  family  of  that  place, 
said  to  have  been  established  there  before  the  Conquest,  and  of 
Elizabeth,  second  dau^ter  of  Sir  Henry  Cromwdl,  and  annt 
of  Oliver,  the  future  protector,  was  born  about  the  yea  1593. 
By  his  father's  death,  when  he  was  but  a  child,  he  became  the 
owner  of  a  good  estate  and  a  ward  of  the  crown.  He  was 
educated  at  the  grammar  school  at  Thame,  and  on  the  30th  of 
March  x6xo  became  a  commoner  of  Magdalen  C<^ege  at  Oxford. 
In  16 1 3  he  was  admitted  a  student  of  the  Inner  Temple.  He  first 
sat  in  parliament  for  the  borough  of  Grampound  in  162 x,  rq>re- 
senting  later  Wendover  in  the  first  three  pariiaments  of  Charles  I., 
Buckinghamshire  in  the  Short  Parliament  of  1640,  and  WcxKiover 
again  in  the  Long  Parliament.  In  the  early  days  of  his  parlia- 
mentary career  he  was  content  to  be  overshadowed  by  Eliot, 
as  in  its  later  days  he  was  content  to  be  overshadowed  by  Pym 
and  to  be  coxnmanded  by  Essex.  Yet  it  is  Hampden,  and  dm 
Eliot  or  Pym,  who  lives  in  the  popular  imagixution  as  the  central 
figure  of  the  English  revolution  in  its  earlier  stages.  It  b 
Hampden  whose  statue  rather  than  that  of  Eliot  or  Pym  has 
been  selected  to  take  its  place  in  St  Stephen's  Hall  as  the  noblest 
type  of  the  parliamentary  opposition,  as  Falkland's  has  been 
selected  as  the  noblest  type  of  parliamentary  ro3ralisxiu 

Something  of  Hampden's  fame  no  doubt  is  owing  to  the 
position  which  he  took  up  as  the  opponent  of  ship-money.  But 
it  is  hardly  possible  that  even  resistance  to  ship-money  would 
have  so  distinguished  him  but  for  the  mingled  xnasaivencss  and 
modesty  of  his  character,  his  dislike  of  all  pretences  in  himself 
or  others,  his  brave  contempt  of  danger,  and  his  charitable 
readiness  to  shield  others  as  far  as  possible  from  the  evfl 
consequences  of  their  actions.  Nor  was  he  wanting  in  that  skill 
which  enabled  him  to  influence  men  towards  the  ends  at  which 
he  aimed,  and  which  was  spoken  of  as  subtlety  by  those  who 
disliked  his  ends. 

During  these  fiist  parliaments  Hampden  did  not,  so  far  as 
we  know,  open  his  Ups  in  public  debate,  but  he  was  increasin^y 
employed  in  committee  work,  for  which  he  seems  to  have  had 
a  special  aptitude.  In  x  6  26  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  |»epara- 
tion  of  the  charges  against  Buckln^am.  In  January  1627  he  was 
bound  over  to  answer  at  the  council  board  for  his  refusal  to  pay 
the  forced  loan.  Later  in  the  year  he  was  cominitted  to  the  gate- 
house, and  then  sent  into  confinement  in  Hampshire,  from  which 
he  was  liberated  just  before  the  meeting  of  the  third  parliament 
of  the  reign,  in  which  be  once  more  rendered  useful  but  on* 
obtrusive  assistance  to  his  leaders. 

When  the  breach  came  in  1629  Hampden  is  found  in  e|ns- 
tolary  correspondence  with  the  imprisoned  Eliot,  divnwsing  with 
him  the  prospects  of  the  Massachusetts  colony,*  or  rcndefing 

'  An  earlier  viscountcy  was  bestowed  in  1776  00  Robert  Hamodn- 
Trevor,  4th  Baron  Trevor  (1706-1783),  a  great-graadson  oi  the 
daughter  of  John  Hampden,  the  patriot:  it  became  exdack  ia  1824 
by  the  death  of  the  3ra  viscount. 

*  Hampden  was  one  of  the  persons  to  whom  the  earl  of  Warwick 
gianted  land  in  Connecticut,  out  for  the  anecdote  ^lich  relates  his 
attempted  emigration  with  Cromwdl  them  b  ao  fooadataoo  <■.  1 
JOHN  Pym). 


HAMPDEN,  JOHN 


901 


ho^itaBty  and  giving  counsel  to  the  patriot's  sons  now  that  they 
were  deprived  of  a  father's  personal  care.  It  was  not  till  1637, 
however,  that  his  resistance  to  the  payment  of  ship-money 
gained  for  his  name  the  lustre  which  it  has  never  since  lost. 
(See  Skxp-Money.)  Seven  out  of  the  twelve  judges  sided  against 
him»  but  the  connexion  between  the  rights  of  property  and  the 
parliamentary  system  was  firmly  established  in  the  popular 
mind..  The  tax  had  been  justified,  says  Clarendon,  who  expresses 
his  admiration  at  Hampden's  "  rare  temper  and  modesty  " 
at  this  crisis, "  upon  such  grounds  and  reasons  as  every  stander- 
by  was  able  to  swear  was  not  law  "  (HisL  L  150,  vii.  8a). 

In  the  Short  Parb'amcnt  of  1640  Hampden  stood  forth  amongst 
the  leaders.  He  guided  the  House  in  the  debate  on  the  4th  of 
May  injts  opposition  to  the  grant  of  twelve  subsidies  in  return 
for  the  surrender  of  ship-money.  Parliament  was  dissolved  the 
next  day,  and  on  the  6th  an  unsuccessful  search  was  made  among 
the  papers  of  Hampden  and  of  other  chiefs  of  the  party  to 
discover  incriminating  correspondence  with  the  Scots.  During 
the  eventful  months  which  fallowed,  when  Stra£ford  was  striv- 
ing in  vain  to  force  England,  in  spite  of  its  visible  reluctance, 
to  support  the  king  in  his  Scottish  war,  rumour  has  much  to  tell 
of  Hampden's  activity  in  rousing  opposition.  It  is  likely  enough 
that  the  runaour  is  in  (he  main  true,  but  we  are  not  possessed 
of  any  satisfactory  evidence  on  the  subject. 

In  the  Long  Parliament,  though  Hampden  was  by  no  means 
a  frequent  speaker,  it  is  p<»8ible  to  trace  his  course  with  sufficient 
distinctness.  His  power  consisted  in  his  personal  influence, 
and  as  a  debater  rather  than  as  an  orator.  "  He  was  not  a. man 
of  many  words,"  says  Clarendon,  "and  rarely  began  the  discourse 
or  made  the  first  entrance  upon  any  business  that  was  assumed, 
but  a  very  weighty  speaker,  and  after  he  had  heard  a  full  debate 
and  observed  how  the  House  was  likely  to  be  inclined,  took  up 
the  argument  and  shortly  and  clearly  and  craftily  so  stated  it 
that  be  commonly  conducted  it  to  the  conclusion  he  desired; 
and  if  he  found  he  could  not  do  that,  he  never  was  without  the 
dexterity  to  divert  the  debate  to  another  time,  and  to  prevent  the 
determining  anything  in  the  negative  which  might  prove  incon- 
venient in  the  future  "  (Hist.  iii.  31).  Unwearied  in  attendance 
upon  committees,  he  was  in  all  things  ready  to  second  Pym, 
whom  he  {dainty  regarded  as  his  leader.  Hampden  was  one  of 
the  eight  managers  of  Strafford's  prosecution.  Like  Pym,  he 
was  in  favour  of  the  more  legal  and  regular  procedure  by  im- 
peachment rather  than  by  attainder,  which  at  the  later  stage 
was  supported  by  the  majority  of  the  Commons;  and  through 
his  influence  a  compromise  was  effected  by  which,  while  an 
attainder  was  subsequently  adopted,  Strafford's  counsel  were 
heard  as  in  the  case  of  an  impeachment,  and  thus  a  serious  breach 
between  the  two  Houses,  which  threatened  to  cause  the  break- 
down of  the  whole  proceedings,  was  averted. 

There  was  another  point  on  which  there  was  no  agreement. 
A  large  minority  wished  to  retain  Episcopacy,  and  to  keep  the 
common  Prayer  Book  unaltered,  whilst  the  majority  were  at 
least  willing  to  consider  the  question  of  abolishing  the  one  and 
modifying  the  other.  On  this  subject  the  parties  which  ulti- 
mately divided  the  House  and  the  oountiy  itself  were  fully 
formed  as  early  as  the  8th  of  February  1641.  It  is  enough  to 
say  that  (v.  under  Pym)  Hampden  fully  shared  in  the  counsels  of 
the  opponents  of  Episc(^>acy.  It  is  not  that  he  was  a  theoretics! 
Presbyterian,  but  the  bishops  had  been  in  his  days  so  fully 
engaged  in  the  imposition  of  obnoxious  ceremonies  that  it  was 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  dissociate  them  frMn  the  cause  in 
which  they  were  embarked.  Closely  connected  with  Hampden's 
distrust  of  the  bishops  was  his  distrust  of  monarchy  as  it  then 
existed.  The  dbpute  about  the  church  therefore  soon  attained 
the  form  of  an  attack  upon  monarchy,  and,  when  the  majority 
of  the  House  of  Lords  arrayed  itself  on  the  side  of  Episcopacy 
and  the  Prayer  Book,  of  an  attack  upon  the  House  of  Lords  as 
well. 

No  serious  importance  therefore  can  be  attached  to  the  offers 
of  advancement  made  from  time  (o  time  to  Hampden  and  his 
friends.  Charles  would  gladly  have  given  them  office  if  they  bad 
been  ready  to  desert  their  prindplek    Every  day  Hampden's 


conviction  grew  stronger  that  Charles  would  never  abandon  the 
position  which  he  had  taken  up.  In  August  1640  Hampden 
was  one  of  the  four  commissioners  who  attended  Charles  in 
Scotland,  and  the  king's  conduct  there,  connected  with  such 
events  as  the  **  Incident,"  must  have  proved  to  a  man  far  less 
sagacious  than  Hampden  that  the  time  for  compromise  had  gone 
by.  He  was  therefore  a  warm  supftortcr  of  the  Grand  Remon- 
strance, and  was  marked  out  as  one  of  the  five  impeached 
members  whose  attempted  arrest  brought  at  last  the  opposing 
parties  into  open  collision  (see  also  Pyu,  Strode,  Holles  and 
Lentball).  In  the  angry  scene  which  arose  on  the  proposal 
to  print  the  Grand  Remonstrance,  it  Was  Hampden's  personal 
intervention  which  prevented  an  Actual  conflict,  and  it  was  after 
the  impeachment  had  been  attempted  that  Hampden  laid  down 
the  two  conditions  under  which  resistance  to  the  king  became 
the  du^  of  a  good  subject.  Those  conditions  were  an  attack 
upon  religion  and  an  attack  upon  the  fundamentid  laws.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  Hampden  fully  believed  that  both  those 
conditions  were  ftilfilled  at  the  opening  of  1643. 

When  the  Civil  War  began,  Hampden  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  conmiittee  for  safety,  levied  a  regiment  of  Buckingham- 
shire men  for  the  parliamentary  cause,  and  in  his  capacity  of 
deputy-lieutenant  carried  out  the  parliamentary  militia  ordinance 
in  the  county.  In  the  earlier  operations  of  the  war  he  bore  him- 
self gallantly  and  well.  He  took  no  actual  part  in  the  battle  of 
Edgehill.  His  troops  in  the  rear,  however,  arrested  Rupert's 
charge  at  Kineton,  and  he  urged  Essex  to  renew  the  attack  here, 
and  also  after  the  disaster  at  Brentford.  In  1643  he  was  present 
at  the  siege  and  capture  of  Reading.  But  it  is  not  oq  his  skill 
as  a  regimental  officer  that  Hampden's  fame  rests.  In  war  as 
in  peace  his  distinction  lay  in  his  power  of  disentangling  the 
essential  part  from  the  non-essential.  In  the  previous  con- 
stitutional strug^e  he  had  seen  that  the  one  thing  necessary  was 
to  establish  the  supremacy  of  the  Hoxise  of  Commons.  In  the 
military  struggle  which  followed  he  saw,  as  Cromwell  saw 
afterwards,  that  the  one  thing  necessary  was  to  beat  the  enemy. 
He  protested  at  once  against  Essex's  hesitations  and  com- 
promises. In  the  formation  of  the  confederacy  of  the  six 
associated  counties,  which  was  to  supply  a  basis  for  Cromwell's 
operations,  be  took  an  active  part.  His  influence  was  felt  alike 
in  parliament  and  in  the  field.  But  he  was  not  in  supreme 
command,  and  he  had  none  of  that  impatience  which  often 
leads  able  men  to  fail  in  the  execution  of  orders  of  which  they 
disapprove.  His  predous  life  was  a  sacrifice  to  his  unselfi^ 
devotion  to  the  call  of  discipline  and  duty.  On  the  x8th  of  June 
1643,  when  he  was  holding  out  on  Chalgrove  Field  against  the 
superior  nimibers  of  Rupert  till  reinforcements  arrived,  he 
received  two  carbine  balls  in  the  shoulder.  Leaving  the  field 
he  reached  Thame,  survived  six  days,  and  died  on  the  24th. 

Hampden  married  (i)  in  16x9  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edmund 
Symeon  of  Pyrton,  Oxfordshire,  and  (a)  Letitia,  daughter  of 
Sir  Francis  Knollys  and  widow  of  Sir  Thomas  VachcU.  By  his 
first  wife  he  had  nine  children,  one  of  whom,  Richard  (163Z-Z695) 
was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  William  III.'s  reign;  from 
two  of  his  daughters  are  descended  the  families  of  Trevor- 
Hampden  and  Hobart-Hampden,  the  descent  in.tbe  male  line 
becoming  apparently  extinct  in  1754  in  the  peisop  of  John 
Hampden. 

John  Hampden  the  younger  (c.  1656-1696),  the  second  son 
of  Richard  Hampden,  returned  to  England  sifter  residing  for 
about  two  years  in  France,  and  joined  himself  to  Lord  William 
Russell  and  Algernon  Sidney  and  the  party  opposed  to  the 
arbitrary  government  of  Charles  U.  With  Russell  and  Sidney 
he  was  arrested  in  1683  for  alleged  complicity  in  the  Rye  House 
Plot,  but  more  fortunate  than  his  colleagues  his  life  was  ^>ared, 
although  as  he  was  unable  to  pay  the  fine  of  £40,000  whidi  was 
imposed  upon  him  he  remained  in  prison.  Then  in  1685,  after 
the  failure  of  Monmouth's  rising,  Hampden  was  again  brought 
to  trial,  and  on  a  charge  of  high  treason  was  condemned  to  death. 
But  the  sentence  was  not  carried  out,  and  having  paid  £6000 
he  was  set  at  liberty..  In  the  (invention  parliament  of  1689  he 
represented  Wendover,  but  in  the  subsequent  parliaments  he 


902 


HAMPDEN,  R.  D.— HAMPSHIRE 


fafled  to  secuiCLA  seat.  He  died  by  his  own  hand  on  the  12th 
of  December  1696.  Hampden  wrote  numerous  pamphlets,  and 
Bishop  Burnet  described  hixh  as  **  one  of  theleamedest  gentlemen 

I  ever  knew." 

See  S.  R.  Gaidiner's  HitL  of  Endand  and  cfUu  Great  Cmi  War; 
the  article  on  Hampden  .in  the  Dut.  of  Nat.  Biogra^y*  by  C  H. 
Firth,  with  authorities  there  collected;  Clarendon  ■  HisL  tf  the 
RtbtUion;  Sir  Philip  Warwick's  Mtms.  p.  210;  Wood's  Atk, 
Oxon,  B.  59:  Lord  Nugent's  Memarial$  oj  Jokm  Hampden  (1831): 
Macaulav^  Essay  on  Hampden  (1851).  The  printed  pamphlet 
announcing  his  capture  of  Iteading  in  December  1642  is  shown  by 
Mr  Firth  to  be  q>urious,  and  the  account  in  Meratrius  AuUcus, 
^nuary  a7  and  39.  1643,  of  Hampden  commanding  an  attack  at 
Brill,  to  be  also  false,  while  the  published  speech  supposed  to  be 
spoken  by  Hampden  on  the  4th  of  lanuary  1643,  and  reproduced 
by  Fonter  in  the  Arrest  efl^  Five  Members  (1660),  has  been  proved 
by  Gardiner  to  be  a  foKcry  {Hist,  of  Enifand,  x.  135).  Mr  Firth 
has  also  shown  in  The  Academy  for  1839,  November  2  and»9,  that 
'*  the  belief  that  we  possess  the  words  of  Hampden's  last  prayer 
must  be  abandoned." 

HAMPDEN.  RENN  DICKSON  (1793-X868),  English  divine, 
was  bom  in  Barbados,  where  his  father  was  colonel  of  militia, 
in  1793,  and  was  educated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  Having 
taken  his  B.A.  degree  with  fint-dass  honours  in  both  classics 
and  mathematics  in  18x3,  he  next  year  obtained  the  chancellor's 
prize  for  a  Latin  essay,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  elected  to 
a  fellowship  in  his  college,  Keble,  Newman  and  Arnold  being 
among  his  contemporaries.  Having  left  the  university  in  x8i6 
he  held  successively  a  number  of  curacies,  and  in  1827  he  pub- 
lished Essays  on  the  Pkilosopkical  Evidenu  of  Ckristianity, 
followed  by  a  volume  of  Parochial  Sermons  iUustrativt  of  tite 
Importance  of  the  Revelation  of  Cod  in  Jesus  Christ  (1828).  In 
1839  he  returned  to  Oxford  and  was  Bampton  lecturer  in  1833. 
Notwithstanding  a  charge  of  Arianismnow  brought  against  him 
by  the  Tractarian  party,  he  in  1833  passed  from  a  tutorship 
at  Oriel  to  the  principalship  of  St  Mary's  Hall.  In  1834  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  moral  philosophy,  and  despite  much 
university  opposition,  Regitis  professor  of  divinity  in  X83.6. 
There  resulted  a  widespread  and  violent  though  ephemeral 
controversy,  after  the  subsidence  of  which  he  published  a  Lecture 
on  Tradition,  which  passed  through  several  editions,  and  a  voltmie 
on  The  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England.  His 
nomination  by  Lord  John  Russell  to  the  vacant  see  of  Hereford 
in  December  X847  was  again  the  signal  for  a  violent  and  organized 
opposition;  and  his  consecration  in  March  1848  took  place  in 
spite  of  a  remonstrance  by  many  of  the  bishops  and  the  resistance 
of  Dr  John  Merewether,  the  dean  of  Hereford,  who  went  so  far 
as  to  vote  against  the  election  when  the  congi  d*ilire  reached 
the  chapter.  As  bishop  o!  Hereford  Dr  Hampden  made  no 
change  in  his  long-formed  habits  of  studious  seclusion,  and 
though  he  showed  no  special  ecclesiastical  activity  or  zeal,  the 
diocese  certainly  prospered  in  his  charge.  Among  the  more 
important  of  his  later  writings  were  the  articles  on  Aristotle, 
Plato  and  Socrates,  contributed  to  the  eighth  edition  of  the 
Encychpaedia  Britannica^  and  afterwards  reprinted  with 
additions  under  the  title  of  The  Fathers  of  Creeh  Philosophy 
(Edinburgh,  1863),,  In  x866  he  had  a  paralytic  seizure,  and 
died  in  London  on  the  23rd  of  April  x  868. 

His  daughter,  Henrietta  Hampden,  published  Some  Memorials  of 
R.  D.  Hampden  in  1871. 

HAMPDEN-8IDNEY,  a  village  of  Prince  Edward  county, 
Virginia,  U.S.A.,  about  70' m.  S.W.  of  Richmond.  Pop.  about 
35a  Daily  stages  connect  the  village  with  FarmvQle  (pop.  in 
19x0,  3971),  the  county-seat,  6  m.  N.E.,  which  is  served  by  the 
Norfolk  &  Western  and  the  Tidewater  &  Western  railways^ 
Hampden-Sidney  is  the  seat  of  Hampden-Sidney  Coll^, 
founded  by  the  presbytery  of  Hanover  county  as  Hampden- 
Sidney  Academy  in  x  7  76,  and  named  in  honour  of  John  Hampden 
and  Algernon  Sidney.  It  was  incorporated  as  Hampden-Sidney 
College  in  X783.  The  incorporators  included  James  Madison, 
Patrick  Henry  (who  is  believed  to  have  drafted  the  college 
charter),  Paul  Carrington,  William  Cabell,  Sen.,  and  Nathaniel 
Venable.  The  Union  Theological  School  was  esUblished  in 
connexion  with  the  college  in  x8i3,  but  in  1898  was  removed 
to  Richmond^  VirgLoia.    In  X907-X908  the  college  had  8  in- 


structors, 135  students,  and  a  library  of  xx,o<»  voluxnes^'  The 
college  has  maintained  a  high  standard  of  instructSon,  and  many 
of  its  former  students  have  been  prominent  as  puhUc  mea, 
educationalists  and  preachers.  Ainong  them  were  PresideBX 
William  Henry  Harrison,  William  H.  CabeQ  (1772-1853), 
president  of  the  Virginia  Onirt  of  Appeals;  Geoi^  M.  BiU 
(x773-x859),  secretary  of  the  treasury  (X844-X84S)  in  pRsident 
Tyler's  cabinet;  William  B.  Preston  (X805-X863),  leaetaiy  of 
the  navy  in  x  849-1850;  WfUiam  Cabell  Rives  and  Geaetil 
Sterling  Price  (X809-X867). 

HAMPSHIRE  (or  CouNry  or  SoinHAJiPTOK,  ablweviated 
Hants),  a  southern  county  of  England,  bounded  N.  by  Beikshixe, 
E.  by  Surrey  and  Sussex,  S.  by  the  En^sh  Chaxxnel,  and  W. 
by  Dorsetshire  and  WOtshire.  The  area  is  x633*  5  sq.  m.  From 
the  coast  of  the  mainland,  which  is  for  the  most  part  low  and 
irregular,  a  strait,  kxwup  in  its  western  part  as  the  Soknt,  aiMl 
in  its  eastern  as  Spithead,  separates  the  Ide  of  Wii^L.  This 
island  is  induded  in  the  county.  The  inlet  <d  Sontbaaxpton 
Water  opens  from  this  strait,  penetrating  inland  in  a  nocth- 
wcsterly  direction  for  is  m.  Theeasterlypart  of  thecoast  focms 
a  large  shallow  bay  contfiining  Hayling  and  Fortaea  Tshndn, 
which  divide  it  into  Chichester  Harbour,  Langston  Harbour 
and  Portsmouth  Harbour.  The  westeriy  part  fonos  tbe  xoore 
regular  indentations  of  Christchurch  Bay  and  part  of  Pook  Bay. 
In  its  general  aspect  Hampshire  presents  a  beautiful  variety  d 
gently  rising  hills  and  fruitfid  valleys,  adMXted  with  nwnciQas 
mansions  and  pleasant  villagta,  and  interspersed  with  octcnsive 
tracts  of  woodland.  Low  ranges  of  hills,  included  in  the  system 
to  which  the  general  name  of  the  Western  Downs  is  given,  reach 
their  greatest  elevation  in  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  tbe 
county,  where  there  are  many  picturesque  eminences,  o{  i^ch 
Beacon,  Sidown  and  Pilot  hills  near  Highdere  in  the  Dortli-wcst, 
each  exceeding  850  ft.,  are  the  highest.  The  portion  of  tbe  county 
west  of  Southampton  Water  is  almost  ifriidly  induded  in  the 
New  Forest,  a  sequestered  district,  one  of  the  few  remainlag 
examples  of  an  andent  afforested  tract.  The  river  Av<cm  in  the 
south-west  rises  in  Wiltshire,  and  passing  Fordingbridge  and 
Ringwood  falls  into  Christchurch  Bay  bek>w  Chxistdrarch, 
being  joined  dose  to  its  mouth  by  the  Stour.  The  Lymingtoa 
or  Boldre  river  rises  in  the  New  Forest,  axMi  after  cdlecting  the 
waters  of  several  brooks  falls  into  the  Sdent  throng  Lymingtoo 
Creek.  The  Beaulieu  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  forest  also  enters 
the  Solent  by  way  of  a  long  and  picturesque  estuary.  The 
Test  rises  near  Overton  in  the  north,  and  after  its  junction  with 
the  Anton  at  Fullerton  passes  Stockbridge  and  Rouncy,  and 
enters  the  head  of  Southamptoii  Water.  The  Itchen  rises  nor 
Alresford,  and  flowing  by  Winchester  and  F«astlftgh  falls  into 
Southampton  Water  east  of  Southampton.  Tbe  HamWe  rises 
near  Bishops  Waltham,  and  soon  forms  a  narrow  estuary  opening 
into  Southampton  Water.  The  Wey,  the  Loddon  and  the  Black- 
water,  rising  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  county,  bring  that 
part  into  the  basin  of  the  Thames.  The  streams  Crmn  the  chalk 
hills  run  dear  and  swift,  and  the  trout-fishing  in  the  oounty  is 
famous.    Salmon  are  taken  in  the  Avon. 

Ceohgy. — ^Somewhat  to  the  north  of  the  centre  of  the  ooonty  b 
a  broadexpanse  of  hilly  chalk  country  about  at  m.  wide;  the  whole 
of  it  has  bc«n  bent  up  into  a  great  fold  so  that  the  strata  oa  the  north 
dip  northward  steeply  in  pbu^s,  while  thosooo  theaouch  dip  la  tbe 
opposite  direction  more  s^ntly.  In  the  north  the  chalk  disappears 
beneath  Tertiary  strata  of  the  "London  Ba«n«"  and  soiiie  linb 
distance  south  of  Winchester  it  runs  in  a  tifnOar  manner  beneftth 
the  Tertiaries  of  the  "  Hampshire  Badn."  Scattered  here  and  there 
over  the  chalk  are  small  outlying  remnants  which  reiasin  to  show 
that  the  two  Tertiary  areas  were  once  continuous,  before  ttie  agracn 
of  denudation  had  removed  them  from  the  chalk.  These  nine 
^endes  have  exposed  the  strata  beneath  the  chalk  over  a  »ian 
area  on  the  eastern  border. 

The  ddest  formation  in  Hampshire  is  the  Lower  Greenssod  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Woolmer  Forest  and  PetersfieM;  it  israfxesnted 
by  the  Hythe  beds,  sandstones  and  limestones  which  form  the 
h^h  ridge  which  runs  on  towards  Hind  Hesd,  then  by  the  sands 
Slid  days  of  the  Ssndgate  beds  which  lie  in  the  low  grovad  west 
of  the  ridge,  and  ftnally  by 'the  Folkestone  beds;  aB  these  <}ip 
westward  beneath  the  Gault.  The  last-named  fomatioa,  a  day, 
worked  here  and  there  for  bricks,  crops  out  as  a  narrow  band  fnnp 
Fareham  through  Woridham  and  Scrood  foramgn  to  Petenfieid 


HAMPSHIRE 


«03 


Betnen  the  C*uh  mi  ttw  clulk  ii  tbe  Upper  CrcRiiand  whh  j 
hud  bed  o(  c*k*mu>  BnduoH.  ihcMiW  iDck.  which  ■cand 
up  in  pUca  u  M  pnminFnl  ncarpiiKnL,     The  Upper  Creeoiuid  i 

■  sharp  uitidiH  ud  the  cbilk,  heviag  been  denuded  from  itt  crevt 
the  older  sndy  AntA  Art  brooght  to  liiht,  A  much  mon  gmtt 
Hlklinr  briiiEi  an  ibeehilk  Ihmiifh  tbe  Tertiu;  roclu  in  the  neiih 
boufiiaod  oTFiretinn.    Beddee  occupying  tbe  ^ntr*]re[iaB  nlroid; 


id  Wlacbtitef,  the  chiJE  >pp«»  ate  in  ■  uiiin  hK 

Muroe.    TbeTertiaiyrackioF  the  north  (LondmEuii 

ibout  Fimbonuch,  AldenbM  and  KinncleTe.  compriie  [be  Rekdii 
bedi,  Loodoa  clay  and  the  men  landV  BanhcH  bedi  wUeh  com 
the  latter  b  many  placea,  zivini  riie  to  nealhy  commoaa.  Tl 
nulhen  Tertiary  roclu  of  the  Hampihhf  hasd  iDclude  tite  Lawi 
Eoeeae  Readini  b«da— tianl  lot  bnck-makiaf— and  the  LsiHle_ 
day  which  eictoid  from  the  biHindary  of  Cbe  cballt  by  Romaey. 
Biilwp'i  Waitham,  la  Havanl.    TbeK  an  iueeeeded  towaidi  liie 


Oiicocene  ate  (unko_  ... _._  

vicnity  tl  Lyninpon,  Brockenhunt  and  Beauiien;  they  include 
the  KoidOB  bedi.  wilb  a  Huvio-niarioe  FauBa,  nil  einrd  at  Hard- 
well  cEfr,  and  the  marine  bcd>  of  Brockenhurw.  t4un>erai»  iniall 
outKen  o(  Tertiary  rocka  are  acattertd  over  the  chilk  am,  and 
iriaay  of  the  chalk  and  Tertiary  arat  ant  obecured  by  patches  ol 
PIciitoceae  depoalta  of  brick  cutn  and  [ravel. 

ilcrJnAwi  and  /WwBvi.— Nearly  anen-ienlha  of  the  lolai  area 
buHkreuItivatioa  (an  anHUnlbeloiithe  avenge  a(En(lidicouDtie>) 
•ndeftUaanaabnitlwo-Gfthalainperiiianenlpaiture.  Theacre^ 
sndB  oata  la  raufhly  equal  to  that  under  when  and  barley.  Small 
quaotitka  of  rye  and  lupa  are  cultivated.  Bailey  ia  inually  town 
after  lurnipt,  imI  ia  aoie  frown  In  tbe  iipiandt  than  in  the  lower 
levda.  BcBOi,  peaae  and  potatoea  are  only  grown  to  a  tmall  i 
On  accDuot  of  ine  number  of  ahcep  paitiired  on  the  upland* . 
acre^e  of  lumipa  k  grown.  Rotation  graiaei  are  grown 
:■.  ih*  nnlanila.  and  their  acreue  ia  greater  than  in  any  oi.m..  » 
Ilea  of  EnglawT  Sanfoin  ii  the  graaa  rarm  largely 
•t  adipted  to  land  with  a  okamua  auUoiL  In 
.  —'"-n  and  acafcely  any  clover  ia  grown,  the  ha> 


^t^ 


S^MHlivrtan^ 

being  auppUed  from  th 
with  gitat  akin  and  alte 
landa  IB  tbe  county.    V 


ug  ia  generally  coBducted  on  I  he  beat  nudem  principla.  but  cnring 
to  tbe  varietle*o(.aoil  tberc  ■•  perbapa  no  county  in  England  in  which 
th*  mtation  obaerved  la  Den  divenified.  o(  tbe  puceiiei  and 
■Delboda  more  varied.  Uosl  of  the  farma  are  large,  and  there  aie  a 
number  of  model  faima.  Tbe  waile  land  hia  been  moaily  broUBht 
under  tillage,  but  a  very  large  amte  of  the  ancient  foreaU  ia  iiUI 
occupied  by  wood.  IniddiSon  to  the  NewFereal  tbereare  in  the 
nal  Wooli^  Fonat  and  Alice  Holt,  in  the  aouih-aat  Ibe  Forcu  of 
Bert  and  Waltham  Chaae.  and  in  th^Iale  of  Wight  ParkhurM  Fomt. 
The  boney  of  the  couaiy  ia  eapeclally  celebrated.  Much  attention 
ia  paid  to  tbe  rearing  of  aheep  and  mtle.  Tbe  originat  breed  of 
■beep  waa  wfaWfaccd  with  borna.  but  moat  ol  the  floeki  are  now  ol 
'      ^  '  '     '      '  Id  didinct  pcculiari- 

. . _._ Hampahin  down." 

Gallic  are  of  BO  dialindive  breed,  and  an  kept  largely  for  dairy 
~be  bnding  and  I 


Sb'i;J(l? 


aa  "  ahort  wool*  " 

indive  breed,  and  i ...  _ 

Ibe  npply  of  Diilk.,  Thebi 

'"'       rifflnai  beu.  „  ^^^ 
i4cinityciC 


widely  praetiaed.  and  the  fatteoinf  of  pigi  haa  loiu 
ant  indualnr.  The  original  breed  of  piga  ii  croaaed 
Eiaeiaid  ChiKie  plga.    In  the  i4cinity_ciC  ibe  font 

ipDctant,  eiccpl  tboaa  carried  on  I 
,..  -rtth  tte  royal  nav--     "— ■' 


t  and  Geaport  la  DOflnttion  arith  ^.».  ..^,«  ...-.,.  .»..>-. 
ne  of  Ibe  principal  pone  in  the  kingdom.  In  many  of  the 
—  ' ' •  -annerlea.  and  paper  ii  manufactuiid 


aa  there  are  breweriea  and  la 


and  Iheic  are  oyiter  beda  at  Hayllng  laiand.  Cowea  in 
Wight  ia  the  aUlion  of  the  Ri^l  Yacht  Squadron,  and  1 
yard*  for  vachla  and  larte  veaaeli.  Tbe  principal  aea 
bcaidca  ihoK  in  the  lile  oTAnihl  an  BoumetnoutfTM  III. 
the-S>deni. Soulhiea and SouthHayling.    Aldenhot  ia t 


uth  Hayling. 
he  Briioh  fik 

ca  of  th*  London  A  South- Wealem  nil 


provided  mainly  ^  the 


IT  Wlnchealer.  SouthaMptoo 


Aldenhot.  Allan  and  Almford.  The  main 
a  the  Kiuth-euiem  border  by  Petentetd  u 
Ibe  Portamouth  line  af  the  London,  Brigblan 


*  South  Coau  railway.    TheS.- , 

Portimouth  and  Gcaport  with  Soulbampton.  haa  numcrnia  bninchea 
in  tbe  Southampton  and  ■outh'WeflerB  lUitricta,  and  larie  work 
■hop*  at  EaitleiA  near  Southampton.  The  Great  Weatera  company 
•ema  Baainfatoka  from  Keeling  and  Whitchurch,  Wlachnter  and 
SavthamKon  trsa  Didcst  [woriuH  tbe  Didcot,  Newbury  A  Soalk- 
ampCoa  Gneli  the  Midland  ft  SoutE-Wcatcm  Juoctkn  line  connect* 
Andovei  wub  Chelienbam:  uhI  Iba  Somcnet  ft  Doiaet  (alaD  a 
Midland  A  SoBth-Weatem  joinl  Kne)  connect)  Bouraeraoulh  with 
Bath — all  theae  aJlordiag  through  communicationa  between  South- 
' —   Boomemniilb,  and  the  midlajida  and  north  of  Fngland. 


neo/tberii 


"iS^ndTW 


e  lale  of  Wght.    -nr  popubtion 


Pi  iijmoulh  and  Sourhamplon.  cich  relurning  two  mcniU'rt. 

ol  Cririatchurch  and  Wincnealer.  each  relurningonr     ''^ 

municipal  borougha:  Andover  {pop.  6509)^  Bui 


ignDbe  (•(J93). 
i'u)','  Roauey  CutJlT^Soii'tluniploD  (104  J14)! 
.  ..  >]r>nd  In  the  iSt  of  Wight,  Nfoporl  (To^Ii) 
li  (11.04J).  BourneoHuth,  J^HtHnuulh  and  Soothamptan 
Lty  bornuglii.  The  following  an  Urban  dutficta  AldentuI 
Allan  (mh)  Eauleigb  and  Blabopaiotie  M]t7)  Farebam 
FamboCDUgh  (11  500)  Goaport  and  Alveiatoke  (i>ia4). 
<S'S  )  lichen  (13 IV)  1  PWerrfirH  (llS^)  WsAliogton 
an  r   n  the   Ulc     f  \\  i:hi    "_  j*i 'a  (*'5J)    iVal  Cowea 


...  --- , . There  are  J94  dvil 

parWhe*.  Hampahire  ia  in  the  dioeeae  of  Wincheatec,  excepting 
•malt  porta  in  tboae  of  Oiford  and  Satiibury,  %ad  conuina  411 
ccclciiaitical  pariabea  or  tliitricta  arbotly  or  in  part. 


ia  now  Han 

Himl' 


-The  eaiUeat  Engliih  Kitlen  to  tbe  dlttrict  whJcb 
pohiie  were  a  Jutiih  tribe  who  occupied  Ibe  Dorthcm 
Iilc  of  Wight  and  tbe  valley*  of  tbe  Meoa  and  the 


Tbdri 


the  leiillory  of  tbe  WeU  Saion*  wl 
ia  49J  landed  at  tbe  mouth  of  ibe  lichen  under  tbe  Icailenhip 
of  Cerdic  and  Cynric,  and  in  soS  tleii  5000  Biilona  and  their 
king.  But  li  wu  not  until  afier  anotbet  dediive  victory  al 
Chaiford  in  5ig  that  Ibe  diiirict  waa  definilely  oiiiniied  ai 
Weit  SaioD  leriilory  under  the  rule  of  Oldic  ud'Cynric,  tbui 
jKcoming  tbe  nudeui  of  tbevail  later  kingdom  of  Wtnex.  Tbe 
Ilk  of  Wight  wai  Bubjugated  In  530  and  beatowed  00  Stuf  Bad 
Vulgar,  tin  nephcwaof  Cerdic  Tbe  Northmen  made  ibeii  Gni 
Btlick  OQ  Ibe  Hampahire  tout  tn  Sjs,  and  for  Ibe  two  centuriea 
foliowins  the  diMrict  wu  tbe  acene  ef  perpetual  devaatatiou 
by  Ibe  DatdUi  pirates,  wko  Bade  tbdt  beadquaiten  in  tbe  Ue 
of  Wight,  ftoffi  which  tbeyplandettd  Ihe  oppoaite  coatt.  Hamp- 
ibire  wHend  fc«  Irom  tbe  ConqocM  (htn  alnoit  any  Eatf  iab 
(mnty,  and  waa  a  favoiufte  teiort  of  tbe  Norman  kinca.  Tbe 
alleged  deatmctioii  of  property  for  Ibe  formatioB  of  the  New 
Foreil  ia  refuted  by  (he  Doraeaday  record,  which  abowa  tbat 
tbla  diatrict  bad  never  been  under  cullivalioo. 

In  the  civil  war  of  Stephen'*  retgn  Baldwin  de  Redveri,  lord 
of  the  Iile  of  Wight,  aupportcd  the  emprcis  Malilda,  and  Win- 
cbcner  Caille  waa  lecurcd  in  bet  behalf  by  Robert  of  Gloucester, 
while  Ibe  neighbouring  fortioiof  Wolvaey  waibeld  fotSlephen 
by  Blibop  Henry  tic  Bloia.  Id  iiifi  Loula  of  France,  having 
arrived  in  the  county  by  inviuiion  of  Ibe  furona,  occupied 

Caille,  which  made  a  brave  aland  againat  him  for  fifteen  day*. 
During  the  Warl  of  tbe  Ro*e*  Anlhoay  WoodviDe,  ind  eari 
Riven,  defeated  tbe  duke  of  Clarenc«  at 
MTi.  after  the  battle  of  Baraet,  the  com 


904 


HAMPSHIRE 


sanctuary  at  BeauUeu  Abbey.  The  chief  events  connected 
with  Hampshire  in  the  Civil  War  of  the  17th  century  were  the 
gallant  resistance  of  the  cavalier  garrisons  at  Winchester  and 
Basing  House;  a  skirmish  near  Cheriton  in  1644  notable  as  the 
last  battle  fought  on  Hampshire  soil;  and  the  concealment  of 
Charles  at  Titchfield  in  1647  before  his  removal  to  Carisbrooke. 
The  duke  of  Monmouth,  whose  sebcllion  met  with  considerable 
support  io  Hampshire,  was  captured  in  1685  near  Ringwood. 

Hampshire  was  among  the  earliest  shires  to  be  created,  and 
must  have  received  its  name  before  the  revival  of  Winchester 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  7th  century.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
Saxon  chronicle  in  755,  at  which  date  the  boundaries  were 
practically  those  of  the  present  day.  The  Domesday  Survey 
mentions  44  hundreds  in  Hampshire,  but  by  the  X4th  century 
the  number  had  been  reduced  to  37.  The  hundreds  of.  East 
Medina  and  West  Medina  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  are  mentioned  in 
13 16.  Constables  of  the  hundreds  were  first  appointed  by  the 
Statute  of  Winchester  in  1285,  and  the  hundred  court  continued 
to  elect  a  high  constable  for  Fordingbridge  until  1878.  The 
chief  court  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  was  the  Kni^ten  court  held  at 
Newport  every  three  weeks.  The  sheriff's  court  and  the  assizes 
and  quarter 'sessions  for  the  county  were  formerly  held  at 
Winchester,  but  in  1831  the  county  was  divided  into  14  petty 
sessional  divisions;  the ^  quarter  sessions  for  the  county  were 
held  at  Andover;  and  'Portsmouth,  Southampton  and  Win- 
chester had  separate  jurisdiction.  Southampton  was  made  a 
county  by  itself  with  a  separate  sheriff  in  1447. 

In  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  Hami»hire  formed  part  of 
the  West  Saxon  bishopric  of  Dorchestcr-on-Thames.  On  the 
transference  of  the  episcopal  seat  to  Winchester  in  676  it  was 
included  in  that  diocese  in  which  it  has  remained  ever  since. 
In  1 291  the  archdeaconry  of  Winchester  was  coextensive  with 
the  county  and  comprised  the  ten  rural  deaneries  of  Alresford, 
Alton,  Andover,  Basingstoke,  Drokinsford,  Fordingbridge,  Isle 
of  Wight,  SomtK>ume,  Southampton  and  Winchester.  In  1850 
the  I^  of  Wight  was  subdivided  into  the  deaneries  of  East 
Medina  and  West  Medina.  In  1856  the  deaneries  were  increased 
to  34.  In  1871  the  archdeaconry  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  was 
constituted,  and  about  the  same  time  the  deaneries  were  reduced 
to  21.  In  1893  the  deaneries  were  reconstituted  and  made  x8  in 
number,  and  the  archdeaconry  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  was  divided 
into  the  deaneries  of  East  Wight  and  West  Wight. 

After  the  Conquest  the  most  powerful  Hampshire  baron  was 
William  Fitx-Osbem,  who  in  addition  to  the  lordship  of  the 
Isle  of  Wight  held  considerable  estates  on  the  mainland.  At  the 
time  of  the  Qomesday  Survey  the  chief  landholders  were  Hugh 
de  Port,  ancestor  of  the  Fitz-Johns;  Ralf  de  Mortimer;  William 
Mauduit  whote  name  is  preserved  in  Hartley  Mauditt;  and 
Waleran,  called  the  Huntsman,  ancestor  of  the .  Waleraund 
family.  Hursley  near  Winchester  was  the  scat  of  Richard 
Cromwell;  and  Gilbert  White,  the  naturalist,  was  curate'  of 
Farringdon  near  Selborne. 

Apart  from  the  valuable  foreign  and  shipbuilding  trade  which 
grew  up  with  the  development  of  its  ports,  Hampshire  has 
always  been  mainly  an  agricultural  county,  the  only  important 
manufacture  being  that  of  wool  and  cloth,  which  prospered  at 
Winchester  in  the  Z2th  century  and  survived  till  within  recent 
years.  Salt-making  and  the  manufacture  of  iron  from  native 
ironstone  also  flourished  in  Hampshire  from  pre-Norman  times 
until  within  the  1 9th  century.  In  the  14th  century  Southampton 
had  a  valuable  trade  with  Venice,  and  from  the  xsth  to  the  x8th 
century  many  famous  warships  were  constructed  ixi  its  docks. 
Silk-weaving  was  formerly  carried  on  at  Winchester,  Andover, 
Odiham,  Alton,  Whitchurch  and  Overton,  the  first  miUs  being 
set  up  in  1684  at  Southampton  by  French  refugees.  The  paper 
manufacture  at  Laverstoke  was  started  by  the  Portals,  a  family 
of  Huguenot  refugees,  in  1685,  and  a  few  years  later  Henri  de 
Portal  obtained  the  privilege  of  supplying  the  bank-note  paper 
to  the  Bank  of  England. 

Hampshire  returned  four  members  to  pariiament  in  x  295,  when 
the  boroughs  of  New  Alresford,  Alton,  Andover,  Basingstoke, 
Overton,  *  Portsmouth,  Southampton,  Winchester,  Yarmouth 


and  Newport  were  also  repxeaented.  After  this  date  the 
county  was  represented  by  two  members,  bat  most  of  the 
boroughs  ceased  to  make  returns.  Odiham  and  tlhe  Lsfe  of 
Wight  were  represehted  in  X300,  Fareham  in  1306,  and  Petexs- 
field  in  1307.  From  X3xx  to  X547  Southampton,  Poctsmoath, 
and  Winchester  were  the  only  borou^  represented.  By  the 
end  of  the  x6th  century  Petersfield,  Newport,  YamMMith, 
and  Andover  had  regained  representation,  and  Stockbcidge, 
Christchurch,  Lymingt<Mi,  Newtown  and  D^tdiuxcfa  retanied 
two  members  each,  tpving  the  county  with  its  borou^is  a  total 
representation  of  26  members.  Under  the  Reform  Act  of  X832 
the  county  returned  four  members  in  four  divisions;  Chiistdmrch 
and  Petersfield  lost  one  member  each;  and  Newtown,  Yannonth, 
Stockbridge  and  Whitchurch  were  disfranchised.  By  the  act 
of  x868  Andover,  Lymix^on  and  Newport  were  dqxived  of 
one  member  each. 

Antiquities.— HMsapAke  is  rich  in  monastic  Rmains^    Those 
considered  under  separate  headings  Include  the  monastery  cf 
Hyde  near  Winchester,  the  magnificent  churches  at  Chzistchunii 
anid  Romsey,  the  ruins  of  Netley  Abbey,  and  of  Bcaolien  Al^i^ 
in  the  New  Forest,  the  fragments  <rf  the  priory  of  St  Deays, 
Southampton,  the  church  at  Porchcstcr  and  the  sU^t  niiia  at 
Titchfield,  near  Fareham,  and  Quarr  Abbey  in  the  Isle  of  Wight 
Other  foundations,  of  which  the  remains  are  sliglit,  were  the 
Augustinian  priory  of  Southwick  near  Fareham,  fomnded  by 
William  of  Wykeham;  that  of  Breamore,  founded  by  BaMvia 
de  Redvers,  and  that  of  Mottisfont  near  Romsey,  endowed  snxi 
after  the  Conquest    There  are  many  churches  of  interest,  mpui 
from  the  cathedral  -church  of  Winchester  and  those  in  some 
of  the  towns  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  or  already  mentioDed  in  con- 
nexion with  monastic  foundations.    Pre-Ccmqaest  work  is  well 
shown  in  the  churches  of  Corhampton  and  Breamore,  and  voy 
early  masoniy  is  also  found  in  Headboume  Worthy  chstdi, 
where  b  also  a  brass  of  the  X  5th  century  to  a  sdiolar  of  Winchester 
CoUrge  in  collegiate  dress.    The  most  noteworthy  Nonnaa 
chur^es  are  at  Chilcombe  and  Kingsdere  and  (with  Eerly 
English  additions)  at  Brockenhurst,  Vfipa  Clatford,  which  has 
the  unusual  arrangement  of  a  double  cfaanod  arch,  Hamhledcn, 
Milford  and  East  Meon..   Principally  Early  Kngii^h  ^ore  the 
churches  of  Cheriton,  Grately,  which  retains  some  excellent 
contemporary  stained  glass  from  Salisbury  cathedral;  Sopiey, 
which  is  partly  Perpendicular;  and  Thruxton,  which  mntifiTM.  a 
brass  to  Sir  John  Lisle  (d.  1407),  affording  a  very  eariy  examine 
of  complete  plate  armour.    Specimens  oil  the  later  styles  are 
generally  less  remarkable.    The  frescoes  in  Branky  chnrch, 
ranging  in  date  from  the  X3th  to  the  xsth  centnry,  iadode  a 
representation  of  the  murder  of  Thomas  i  Bedtett.     A  fine 
series  of  Norman  fonts  in  black  marble  should  be  mentioned; 
they  occur  in  Winchester  cathedral  and  the  churdies  of  St 
Michael,  Southampton,  East  Meon  and  St  Mary  Bourne. 

The  most  notable  old  castles  are  Carisbrodce  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight;  Porchester,  a  fine  Norman  stronghold  embodying 
Roman  remains,  on  Portsmouth  Harbour;  and  Ilurst,  guarding 
the  mouth  of  the  Solent,  where  for  a  short  time  Charles  L  was 
imprisoned.  Henry  VIII.  built  several  forts  to  guard  the  Scdcnt. 
Spithcad  and  Southampton  Water;  Hurst  Castle  was  one, 
and  others  remaining,  but  adapted  to  various  purposes,  are  at 
Cowes,  Calshot  and  Netley.  Fine  mansions  are  ixnnsuaBy 
numerous.  That  of  Stratfieldsaye  or  Strathfieldsaye,  whkh 
belonged  to  the  Pitt  family,  was  purchased  by  parl^ment  for 
presentation  to  the  duke  of  Wellinigton  in  18x7,  his  descendants 
holding  the  estate  from  the  Crown  in  consideration  of  the  anznai 
tribute  of  a  flag  to  the  guard-room  at  Windsor.-  A  statue  <d  the 
duke  stands  in  the  grounds,  and  his  war-horse  "  Copenhagen  " 
is  buried  here.  The  name  of  Tichbome  Park,  near  Alresfofd, 
is  well  known  in  coimexion  with  the  famous  daimant  of  the 
estates  whose  case  was  heard  in  X87X.  Among  andent  mansions 
the  Jacobean  Bramshlll  is  conspicuous,  Ijring  near  Stratfieldsaye 
in  the  north  of  the  county.  It  is  buOt  of  stone  and  is  highly 
decorated,  and  though  the  complete  original  de^gn  was  not 
carried  out  the  house  h  among  the  finest  of  its  type  in  Eni^cd. 
At  Bishops  Waltham,  a  small  town  xo  m.  S.S.E.  of  Winchester. 


HAMPSTEAD— HAMPTON 


905 


Henry  de  Blois,  bishop  of  Winchester,  erected  a  palace,  which 
received  additions  from  William  of  Wykeham,  who  died  here 
in  1404,  and  from  other  bishops.  The  ruins  are  picturesque 
but  not  extensive. 

See  Victoria  CouhH  Hi$tory, "  Hampshire,"  R.  Warner.  CoOections 
fof  the  History  of  Hampshire;  Sec.  (London,  1789);  H.  Moody. 
Hampshire  in  1086  (i86a),  and  the  same  author's  AiUtquarian  and 
Topographical  SheUhes  (1846},  and  Notes  and  Essays  rOatint  to  the 
Counties  of  Hants  and  WtUr  (1851);  R.  Mudic.  Hampshire,  &c. 
(3  vols.,  Winchester.  1838):  B.  B.  Woodward,  T.  C.  Wuks  and  C. 
Lockhart,  General  Hutory  of  Hampshire  (1861-1869} ;  G.  N.  Godwin, 
The  CioU  War  in  Hampshire,  lOdi-iddK  (London,  i88a);  H.  M. 
Gilbert  and  G.  N.  Godwin,  BMiothua  Hantoniensis  (Southampton, 
1801).  See  also  various  papers  in  Hampshire  Notes  and  Queries 
(Winchester,  1883  et  seq.)* 

HAMPSTEAD,  a  north-western  metropolitan  borough  of 
London,  England,  bounded  E.  by  St  Pancras  and  S.  by  St 
Marylebone,  and  extending  N.  and  W.  to  the  boundary  of  the 
county  of  London.  Pop.  (1901),  81,942.  The  name,  Hamslede^ 
is  synonymous  with  "  homestead,"  and  the  manor  is  first  named 
in  a  charter  of  Edgar  (957-975),  and  was  granted  to  the  abbey 
of  Westminster  by  Ethelred  in  986.  It  reverted  to  the  Crown  in 
1550,  and  had  various  owners  until  the  close  of  the  i8th  century, 
when  it  came  to  Sir  Thomas  Spencer  Wilson,  whose  descendants 
retain  it.  The  borough  includes  the  sub-manor  of  Bclsize  and 
part  of  the  hamlet  of  Kilbum. 

The  surface  of  the  ground  is  sharply  undulating,  an  elevated 
spur  extending  south-west  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Highgate, 
and  turning  south  through  Hampstead.  It  reaches  a  height 
of  443  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  Thames.  The  Edgware  Road 
bounds  Hampstead  on  the  west;  and  the  borough  is  intersected, 
parallel  to  this  thoroughfare,  by  Finchley  Road,  and  by  Haver- 
stock  Hill,  which,  continued  under  the  names  of  Rosslyn  Hill, 
High  Street,  Heath  Street,  and  North  End,  crosses  the  Heath 
for  which  Hampstead  is  chiefly  celebrated.  This  is  a  fine  open 
space  of  about  340  acres,  including  in  its  bounds  the  summit  of 
Hampstead  Hill.  It  is  a  sandy  tract,  in  parts  well  wooded, 
diversified  with  several  small  sheets  of  water,  and  to  a  great 
extent  preserves  its  natural  characteristics  unaltered.  Beautiful 
views,  both  near  and  distant,  are  commanded  from  many  points. 
Of  all  the  public  grounds  within  London  this  is  the  most  valuable 
to  the  populace  at  large;  the  number  of  visitors  on  a  Bank 
holiday  in  August  is  generally,  under  favourable  conditions, 
about  zoo,ooo;  and  strenuous  efforts  are  alwa)rs  forthcoming 
from  either  public  or  private  bodies  when  the  integrity  of  the 
Heath  is  in  any  way  menaced.  As  early  as  1829  attempts  to 
save  it  from  the  builder  are  recorded.  In  1871  its  preservation 
as  an  open  space  was  insured  after  several  years'  dispute,  when 
the  lord  of  the  manor  gave  up  his  rights.  An  act  of  parliament 
transferred  the  ownership  to  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works, 
to  which  body  the  London  County  Council  succeeded.  The 
Heath  is  continued  eastward  in  Parliament  Hill  (borough  of 
St  Pancras),  acquired  for  the  public  in  1890;  and  westward 
outside  the  county  boundary  in  Goldeis  Hill,  owned  by  Sir 
Spenser  Wells,  Bart.,  until  1898.  A  Protection  Society  guards 
the  preservation  of  the  natural  beauty  and  interests  of  the  Heath. 
It  is  not  the  interests  of  visitors  alone  that  must  be  consulted, 
for  Hampstead,  adding  to  its  other  attractions  a  singularly 
healthy  climate,  has  long  been  a  favourite  residential  quarter, 
especially  for  lawyers,  artists  and  men  of  letters.  Among 
famous  residents  are  found  the  first  earl  of  Chatham,  John 
Constable,  George  Romney,  George  du  Maurier,  Joseph  Butler, 
author  of  the  Analogy,  Sir  Richard  Steele,  John  Keats,  the  sisters 
Joanna  and  Agnes  Baillie,  Leigh  Hunt  and  many  others.  The 
parish  church  of  St  John  (1747)  has  several  monuments  of 
eminent  persons.  Chatham's  residence  was  at  North  End,  a 
picturesque  quarter  yet  presetx^ig  characteristics  of  a  rural 
village;  here  also  Wilkie  Collins  was  born.  Three  old-estab- 
lished inns,  the  Bull  and  Bush,  the  Spaniards,  jmd  Jack  Straw's 
Castle  (the  name  of  which  has  no  historical  significance),  claim 
many  great  names  among  former  visitors;  while  the  Upper 
Flask  Inn,  now  a  private  house,  was  the  meeting-place  of  the 
Kit  -Cat  Club.  Chalybeate  springs  were  discovered  at  Hampstead 
in  the  X7th  century,  and  eariy  in  the  i8th  rivaUed  those  of 


Tunbridge  Wells  and  Epsom.  The  name  of  Well  Walk  recalls 
them,  but  their  fame  is  lost.    There  are  others  at  Kilbum. 

In  the  south-east  Hampstead  includes  the  greater  part  of 
Primrose  HiU^  a  public  ground  adjacent  to  the  north  side. of 
Regent's  Park.  The  borough  has  in  all  about  350  acres  of  open 
spaces.  The  name  of  the  sub-manor  of  Belsize  is  preserved  in 
several  streets  in  the  central  part.  Kilburn,  which  as  a  district 
extends  outside  the  borough,  takes  name  from  a  stream  which, 
as  the  Westboumc,  entered  the  Thamds  at  Chelsea.  Fleet  Road 
similarly  recalls  the  more  famous  stream  which  washed  the  walls 
of  the  City  of  London  on  the  west.  Hampstead  has  numerous 
charitable  institutions,  amongst  which  are  the  North  London 
consumptive  hospital,  the  Orphan  Working  School,  Haverstock 
Hill  (1758),  the  general  hospital  and  the  north-western  fever 
hospital.  In  Finchley  Road  are  the  New  and  Hackney  Colleges, 
both  CongregationaL  The  parliamentary  borough  of  Hampstead 
returns  one  member.  The  borough  coundl  consists  of  a  mayor, 
7  aldermen  and  42  councillors.    Area,  2265  acres. 

HAMPTON,  WADB  (18x8-1902),   American   cavalry  leader 

was  bom  on  the  28th  of  March  x8x8  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina, 

the  son  of  Wade  Hampton  (1791-1858),  one  of  the  wealthiest 

planters  in  the  South,  and  the  grandson  of  Wade  Hampton 

(1754-1835),  a  captain  in  the  War  of  Independence  and  a 

brigadier-general  in  the  War  of  x8xa.    He  graduated  (1836)  at 

South  Carolina  Cdlege,  and  was  trained  for  the  law.    He  devoted 

himself,  however,  to  the  management  of  his  great  plantations  in 

South  Carolina  and  in  Mississippi,  and  took  part  in  state  politics 

and  legislation.    Though  his  own  views  were  opposed  to  the 

prevailing  state-righU  tone  of  South  Carolinian  opinion,  he  threw 

himself  heartily  into  the  Southern  cause  in  x86i,  raising  a  mixed 

command  known  as  "  Hampton's  Legion,"  which  he  led  at  the 

first  battle  of  Bull  Run.    During  the  Civil  War  he  served  in  the 

main  with  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  in  Stuart's  cavalry 

corps.    After  Stuart's  death  Hampton  distinguished  himself 

greatly  in  opposing  Sheridan  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and  was 

made  lieutenant-general  to  command  Lee's  whole  force  of 

cavalry.    In  1865  he  assisted  Joseph  Johnston  in  the  attempt 

to  prevent  Sherman's  advance  through  the  Carolinas.     After  the 

war  his  attitude  was  conciliatory  and  he  recommended  a  frank 

acceptance  by  the  South  of  the  war's  political  consequences. 

He  was  governor  of  his  state  in  1 876-1 879,  being  installed  after 

a  memorable  contest;  he  served  in  the  United  States  Senate 

in  1879-X89X,  and  was  United  States  commissioner  of  Pacific 

railways  in  1893-1897.    He  died  on  the  ixth  of  April  1902. 

See  E.  L.  WeOsb  Hampton  and  Reconstruction  (Columbia,  S.  C, 
X907). 

HAMPTON,  an  urban  district  in  the  Uxbridge  parliamentary 
division  of  Middlesex,  England,  15  m.  S.W.  of  St  Paul's  cathedral, 
London,  on  the  river  Thames,  served  by  the  London  &  South 
Western  railway.  Pop.  (1901),  6813.  Close  to  the  river,  a  mile 
below  the  town,  stands  Hampton  Court  Palace,  one  of  the  finest 
extant  specimens  of  Tudor  architecture,  and  formerly  a  royal 
residence.  It  was  erected  by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  who  in  151 5 
received  a  lease  of  the  old  mansion  and  grounds  for  99  years. 
As  the  splendour  of  the  building  seemed  to  awaken  the  cupidity 
of  Henry  VIII.,  WoIscy  in  X526  thought  it  prudent  to  make  him 
a  present  of  it.  It  became  Henry's  favourite  residence,  and 
he  made  several  additions  to  the  building,  including  the  great 
hall  and  chapel  in  the  Gothic  style.  Of  the  original  five  quad- 
rangles only  two  now  remain,  but  a  third  was  erected  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren  for  William  III.  In  1649  a  great  sale  of 
the  effects  of  the  palace  took  place  by  order  of  parliament,  and 
later  the  manor  itself  was  sold  to  a  private  owner  but  immedi- 
ately after  came  into  the  hands  of  CromwcU;  and  Hampton 
Court  continued  to  be  one  of  the  principal  residences  of  the 
English  sovereigns  until  the  time  of  George  II.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Edward  VI.,  and  the  meeting-place  (1604)  of  the 
conference  held  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  to  settle  the  dispute 
between  the  Presbyterians  and  the  state  clergy.  William  III., 
riding  in  the  grounds,  met  with  the  accident  which  resulted  in 
his  death.  It  is  now  partly  occupied  by  persons  of  rank  in 
reduced  circumstances;  but  the  state  apartments  and  picture 


9o6 


HAMPTON— HAMPTON  ROADS 


galleries  are  open  to  t^e  public,  as  is  the  home  park.  The 
gardens,  with  their  ornamental  waters,  are  beautifully  laid  out 
in  the  Dutch  style  favoured  by  William  III.,  and  contain  a 
magnificent  vine  planted  in  1768.  In  the  enclosure  north  of  the 
palace^  called  the  Wilderness,  is  the  Maze,  a  favourite  resort. 
North  again  lies  Bushcy  Park,  a  royal  demesne  exceeding  1000 
acres  in  extent.  It  is  much  frequented,  especially  in  early 
summer,  when  its  triple  avenue  of  horse^Jiestnut  trees  is  in 
blossom. 

Among  several  residences  in  the  vicinity  of  Hampton  is 
Garrick  Villa,  once,  under  the  name  of  Hampton  House,  the 
residence  of  David  Garrick  the  actor.  Sir  Christopher  Wren 
and  Sir  Richard  Steele  are  among  famous  former  residents. 
Hampton  Wick,  on  the  river  E.  of  Bushey  Park,  is  an  urban 
district  with  a  population  (1901)  of  a6o6. 

See  E.  Law,  History  of  Hampton  Court  Palate  (London,  1890). 

HAMPTON,  a  city  and  the  county-scat  of  Elizabeth  City 
county,  Virginia,  U.S.A.,  at  the  mouth  of  the  James  river,  on 
Hampton  Roads,  about  15  m.  N.W.  of  Norfolk.  Pop.  (1890), 
3513;  (1900)  2764,  including  1249  negroes;  (1910)  5505.  It  is 
served  by  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohk>  railway,  and  by  trolley  lines 
to  Old  Point  Comfort  and  Newport  News.  Hampton  is  an 
agricultural  shipping  point,  ships  fish,  oysters  and  canned  crabs, 
and  manufactures  fish  oil  and  brick.  In  the  city  are  St  John's 
church,  built  in  1727;  a  national  cemetery,  a  national  soldiers' 
home  (between  Phoebus  and  Hampton),  which  in  1907-1908 
cared  for  4093  veterans  and  had  an  average  attendance  of  2261; 
and  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute  (co- 
educational), which  was  opened  by  the  American  Missionary 
Association  in  x868  for  the  education  of  negroes.  This  last  was 
chartered  and  became  independent  of  any  denominational 
control  in  1870,  and  was  superintended  by  Samuel  Chapman 
Armstrong  (q.v.)  from  1868  to  1893.  The  school  was  opened 
in  1878  to  Indians,  whose  presence  has  been  of  distinct  advantage 
to  the  negro,  showing  him,  says  Booker  T.  Washington,  the  most 
famous  graduate  of  the  school,  that  the  negro  race  is  not  alone 
in  its  struggle  for  improvement.  The  National  government 
pays  $167  a  year  for  the  support  of  each  of  the  Indian  students. 
The  underlying  idea  of  the  Institute  is  such  industrial  training 
as  ivill  make  the  pupil  a  willing  and  a  good  workman,  able  to 
teach  his  trade  to  others;  and  the  school's  graduates  include  the 
heads  of  other  successful  negro  industrial  schools,  the  organizers 
of  agricultural  and  industrial  departments  in  Southern  public 
schools  and  teachers  in  graded  negro  schools.  The  mechanism 
of  the  school  includes  three  schemes:  that  of  "  work  students," 
who  work  during  the  day  throughout  the  year  and  attend  night 
school  for  eight  months;  that  of  day  school  students,  who  attend 
school  for  four  or  five  days  and  do  manual  work  for  one  or  two 
days  each  week;  and  that  of  trade  students,  who  receive  trade 
instruction  in  their  daily  eight-hours'  work  and  study  in  night 
school  as  well.  Agriculture  in  one  or  more  of  its  branches  is 
taught  to  all,  including  the  four  or  five  hundred  children  of  the 
Whittier  school,  a  practice  school  with  kindergarten  and  primary 
classes.  Graduate  courses  are  given  in  agriculture,  business, 
domestic  art  and  science,  library  methods,  *'  matrons' "  training, 
and  public  school  teaching.  The  girl  students  are  trained  in 
every  branch  of  housekeeping,  cooking,  dairying  and  gardening. 
The  institute  publishes  The  Southern  Workman^  a  monthly 
magazine  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  Negro  and  the  Indian 
and  other  backward  races.  In  1908  the  Institute  had  more 
than  100  buildings  and  z88  acres  of  land  S.W.  of  the  national 
cemetery  and  on  Hampton  river  and-  Jones  Creek,  and  600  acres 
at  Shellbanks,  a  stock  farm  6  m.  away;  the  enrolment  was 
31  in  graduate  classes,  372  in  day  school,  489  in  night  school 
and  524  in  the  Whittier  school.    Of  the  total,  88  were  Indians. 

Hampton  was  settled  in  z6io  on  the  site  of  an  Indian  village, 
Kecouf^tan,  a  name  it  long  retained,  and  was  represented  at 
the  first  meeting  (161 9)  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses. 
It  was  fired  by  the  British  during  the  War  of  181 2  and  by  the 
Confederates  under  General  J.  B.  Magnider  in  August  i86i.- 
During  the  Civil  War  there  was  a  large  Union  hospital  here, 
the  building  of  the  Chesapeake  Female  College,  erected  in  1857, 


being  used  for  this  purpose.    Hampton  was  incorponfed  ai 
a  town  in  1887,  and  in  1908  became  a  d*y  of  the  second  dais. 

HAMPTON  ROADfi.  a  channel  through  which  .the  ynltn  of 
the  James,  Nansemond  and  Elizabeth  rivers  of  Virginia,  U.S.A., 
pass  (between  Old  Point  Comfort  to  the  N.  and  SeweU's  Point 
to  the  S.)  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  It  is  an  important  highway  of 
commerce,  especially  for  the  dties  of  Norfolk,  Portsnnouth  and 
Newport  News,  and  is  the  chid  rendezvous  of  the  United 
States  navy.  For  a  width  of  500  ft.  the  Federal  government 
during  1902-1905  increased  its  minimum  depth  at  low  water 
from  25}  ft.  to  30  ft.  The  mtrance  from  Chesapeake  Bay  b 
defended  by  Fortress  Monroe  on  Old  Point  Coxnfort  and  by 
Fort  Wood  on  a  small  island  caUed  the  Rip  Raps  near  the  middle 
of  the  channel;  and  at  Portsmouth,  a  few  miles  up  the  Flifbf*^ 
river,  is  an  important  United  States  navy-yard. 

Hampton  Roads  is  famous  in  history  as  the  scene  of  the  first 
engagement  between  iron-clad  vessels.  In  the  spring  of  iS6t 
the  Federals  set  fire  to  several  war  vcssds  in  the  Gospcnt  navy 
yard  on  the  Elizabeth  river  and  abandoned  the  place.  In 
June  the  Confederates  set  to  work  to  raise  one  of  these  abandoned 
vessels,  the  frigate  "  Merrimac  "  of  3500  tons  and  40  guns,  and 
to  rebuild  it  as  an  iron-dad.  The  vessd  (renamed  the  *'  ^^r^nia** 
though  it  is  generally  known  in  history  by  its  original  name) 
was  first  cut  down  to  the  water-line  and  upon  her  hull  was  bmh 
a  rectangular  casemate,  constructed  of  heavy  timber  (24  in.  in 
thickness),  covered  with  bar-iron  4  in.  thick,  and  rising  from  the 
water  on  each  side  at  an  angle  of  about  35*.  The  iron  plating 
extended  3  ft.  below  the  water  line;  and  beyond  the  casemate, 
toward  the  bow,  was  a  cast-iron  pilot  house,  extending  3  h. 
above  the  deck.  The  reconstruction  of  the  vessd  was  compieted 
on  the  5th  of  March  1862.  The  vessd  drew  33  ft.  of  tmter,  was 
equipped  with  poor  engines,  so  that  it  could  not  make  more 
than  s  knots,  and  was  so  unwieldy  that  it  could  not  be  turned 
in  less  than  30  minutes.  It  was  armed  with  zo  guns — a  (rifled) 
7  in.,  3  (rifled)  6  in.,  and  6  (smooth  bore  Dahlgren)  9  m.  Her 
most  powerful  equipment,  however,  was  her  x8  in.  cast-Iron  ram. 
In  October  i86z  Captain  John  Ericsson,  an  engineer,  and  a  Troy 
(N.Y.)  firm,  as  builders,  began  the  construction  of  the  iron-dad 
"  Monitor  "  for  the  Federals,  at  Greenpoint,  Long  Island.  With 
a  view  to  enable  this  vessd  to  carry  at  good  speed  the  thickest 
possible  armour  compatible  with  buoyancy,  Ecksson  reduced 
the  exposed  surface  to  the  least  possible  area.  Acoofrdingly, 
the  vessel  was  built  so  low  in  the  water  that  the  waves  ^Udcd 
easily  over  its  deck  except  at  the  middle,  where  was  oonstractcd 
a  revolving  turret'  for  the  guns,  and  though  the  vessd's  ircm 
armour  had  a  thickness  of  x  in.  on  the  deck,  5  in.  on  the  side, 
and  8  in.  on  the  turret,  its  draft  was  only  10  ft.  6  in.,  or  kss 
than  one-half  that  of  the  "  Merrimac."  Its  turret,  9  ft.  high 
and  30  ft.  in  inside  diameter,  seemed  small  for  iis  length  of 
z  7  3  ft.  and  its  breadth  of  41  ft.  6  in.,  and  this,  with  the  lovness  of 
its  freeboard,  caused  the  vessel  to  be  called  the  **  Yankee  cheese- 
box  on  a  raft."  Forward  of  the  turret  was  the  iron  jakA  house, 
square  in  shape,  and  rising  about  4  ft.  above  the  deck.  The 
"  Monitor's  "  displacement  was  about  x  200  tons  and  her  armament 
was  two  iz  in.  Dahlgren  guns;  her  crew  numbered  s^,  while 
that  of  the  "  Merrimac  "  numbered  about  300.  She  was  s^woit  hy 
in  the  shallow  waters  off  the  southern  coasts  and  steered  fairly 
well.  The  "  Monitor  "  was  launched  at  Greenpoint,  Long  Idand, 
on  the  30th  of  January,  and  was  turned  over  to  the  govemmcat 
on  the  19th  of  the  foUowing  month.  The  building  of  the  two 
vessels  was  practically  a  race  between  the  two  combatants. 

On  the  8th  of  March  about  x  p.m.,  the  '*  Merrimac,'*  com- 
manded by  Commodore  Franklin  Buchanan  (1795-1871^ 
steamed  down  the  Elizabeth  accompanied  by  two  one-gun 
gun-boats,  to  engage  the  wooden  fleet  of  the  Federals,  OMisfisticg 
of  the  frigate  "  Congress,"  50  guns,  and  the  sloop  **  Cumberland," 
30  guns,  both  saiUng  vessels,  anchored  off  Newport  News,  anJ 

*  For  the  idea  of  the  low  free-bosrd  and  the  revolvii^  turret 
Ericsson  was  indebted  to  Theodore  R.  Timby  (1819-1900),  who  id 
1843  had  filed  a  caveat  for  revolving  towers  for  oncfiavc  or 
defensive  warfare  whether  placed  on  land  or  water,  and  to  wbca 
the  company  building  the  Monitor  "  paid  $5000  royalty  for  — *' 
turret. 


HAMSTER— HANAPER 


907 


the  steam  frigates  "  Minnesota/'  and  "  Roanoke,"  the  sailing 
frigate  "St  Lawrence,"  and  several  gun-boats,  anchored  off 
Fortress  Monroe.  Actual  firing  began  about  a  o'clock,  when  the 
"  Merrimac  "  was  nearly  a  mile  from  the  "  Congress  "  and  the 
"  Cumberland."  Passing  the  first  of  these  vessels  with  terrific 
broadsides,  the  "  Merrimac  "  rammed  the  "  Cumberland  " 
and  then  turned  her  fire  again  on  the  "  Congress,"  which  in  an 
attempt  to  escape  ran  aground  and  was  there  under  fire  from 
three  other  Confederate  gun-boats  which  had  meanwhile  joined 
the  "  Merrimac."  About  3.30  p.m.  the  "  Cumberiand,"  which, 
while  it  steadily  careened,  had  been  keeping  up  a  heayy  fire  at 
the  Confederate  vessels,  sank,  with  "  her  pennant  still  flying 
from  the  topmast  above  the  waves."  Between  4  and  4*30  the 
"  Congress,"  having  been  raked  fore  and  aft  for  nearly  an  hour 
by  the  "  Merrimac,"  was  forced  to  surrender.  While  directing 
a  fire  of  hot  shot  to  bum  the  "  Congress,"  Commodore  Buchanan 
of  the  **  Merrimac  "  was  severely  wounded  and  was  succeeded 
in  the  command  by  Lieutenant  Catesby  ap  Roger  Jones.  The 
Federal  steam  frigates,  "Roanoke,"  "St  Lawrence"  and 
"  Minnesota  "  had  all  gone  aground  in  their  trip  from  Old  Point 
Comfort  toward  the  scene  of  battle,  and  only  the  "  Minnesota  " 
was  near  enough  (about  i  m.)  to  take  any  part  in  the  fight. 
She  was  in  such  shallow  water  that  the  Confederate  iron-dad 
ram  could  not  get  near  her  at  ebb  tide,  and  about  5  o'clock  the 
Confederates  postponed  her  capture  until  the  neat  day  and 
anchored  off  Seweli's  Point. 

The  "  Monitor,"  under  Lieut.  John  Lorimer  Worden  (1818- 

1897),  had  left  New  York  on  the  morning  of  the  6th  of  March; 

after  a  dangerous  passage  in  which  she  twice  narrowly  escaped 

sinking,  she  arrived  at  Hampton  Roads  during  the  night  of  the 

8th,  and  early  in  the  morning  of  the  9th  anchored  near  the 

"  Minnesota."    When  the  "  Merrimac  "  advanced  to  attack  the 

"  Minnesota,"  the  "  Monitor  "  went  out  to  meet  her,  and  the 

battle  between  the  iron-clads  began  about  9  a.m.  on  the  9th. 

Neither  vessel  was  able  seriously  to  injure  the  other,  and  not 

a  single  shot  penetrated  the  armour  of  either.    The  "  Monitor" 

had  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  out-manoeuvre  her  heavier 

and  more  unwieldy  adversary;  but  the  revolving  turret  made 

firing  difficult  and  communications  were  none  too  good  with  the 

pilot  house,  the  position  of  which  on  the  forward  deck  lessened 

the  range  of  the  two  turret-guns.    The  machinery  worked  so 

badly  that  the  revolution  of  the  turret  was  stopped.    After  two 

hours'  fighting,  t^  "  Monitor  "  was  drawn  off,  so  that  more 

ammunition  could  be  placed  in  her  turreL    When  the  battle 

was  renewed  (about  11.30)  the  "  Merrimac  "  began  firing  at 

the  "  Monitor's  "  pilot  house;   and  a  little  afUr  noon  a  shot 

struck  the  sight-bole  of  the  pilot  house  and  blinded  Lieut. 

Worden.    Tlie  "  Monitor  "  withdrew  in  the  conf  usk>n  consequent 

upon  the   wounding  of    her  commanding   officer;  and   the 

"  Merrimac  "  after  a  short  wait  for  her  adversary  steamed  back 

to  Norfolk.    There  were  virtually  no  casualties  on  either  side. 

After  the  evacuation  of  Norfolk  by  the  Confederates  on  the 

9tb  of  May  Commodore  Josiah  Tattnall,  then  in  command  of 

the  "  Merrimac,"  being  unable  to  Uke  her  up  the  James,  sank 

her.    The  "  Monitor  "  was  lost  in  a  gale  off  Cape  Hatteras  00 

the  31st  of  December  1863. 

Though  the  battle  between  the  two  vessels  was  indecisive, 
its  effect  was  to  "neutralize"  the  "Merrimac,"  which  bad 
caused  great  alarm  in  Washington,  and  to  prevent  the  breaking 
of  the  Federal  blockade  at  Hampton  Roads;  in  the  history  of 
naval  warfare  it  may  be  regarded  as  marking  the  opening  of  a 
new  era — the  era  of  the  armoured  warship.  On  the  3rd  of 
February  1865  near  Fortress  Monroe  on  board  a  steamer  occurred 
the  meeting  of  President  Lincoln  and  Secretary  Seward  with 
Confederate  commissioners  which  is  known  as  the  Hampton 
Roads  Conference  (see  Lincoln,  Abraham).  At  Seweli's  Point, 
on  Hampton  Roads,  in  Z907  was  held  the  Jamestown  Ter- 
centennial  Exposition. 

See  James  R.  Soley.  Tkg  Blockade  and  the  Cruisers  (New  York, 
1883);  BattUs  and  Leaders  of  the  CwU  War,  vol.  i.  (New  York. 
1887);  chap.  ii.  of  Frank  M.  Bennett's  The  Monitor  and  the  Nary 
under  Steam  (Boston.  1900) ;  and  William  Swinton.  Twelve  Deciswe 
BattUs  ef  the  War  (New  York«  1867). 


HAMSTER,  a  European  mammal  of  the  order  Rodentia, 
scientifically  known  as  Cricetus  frumentarius  (or  C  crkeius), 
and  belonging  to  the  mouse  tribe,  Mwidaet  in  which  it  typifies 
the  sub-family  Cricetinae.  The  essential  characteristic  of  the 
Cricetines  is  to  be  found  in  the  ui^r  cheek-teeth,  which  (as 
shown  in  the  figure  of  those  of  Cricetus  in  the  article  Rodentia) 
have  their  cusps  arranged  in  two  longitudinal  rows  separated 
by  A  groove.  The  hamsters,  of  which  there  are  several  kinds, 
are  short-tailed  rodents,  with  large  cheek-pouches,  of  which 
the  largest  is  the  common  C.  frumeiUarius.  Their  geographical 
distribution  comprises  a  large  portion  of  Europe  and  Asia  north 
of  the  Himalaya.  All  the  European  hamsters  show  more  or  less 
black  on  the  under-parts,  but  the  small  q>ecies  from  Central 
Asia,  which  constitute  distinct  subgenera,  are  uniformly  grey. 
The  common  species  is  specially  interesting  on  account  of  its 
habits.  It  constructs  elaborate  burrows  containing  several 
chambers,  one  of  which  is  employed  as  a  granary,  and  fiDed  with 
com,  frequently  of  several  kinds,  for  winter  use.  As  a  rule,  the 
males,  females,  and  young  of  the  first  year  occupy  separate 
burrows.  During  the  winter  these  animals  retire  to  their  burrows, 
sleeping  the  greater  part  of  the  time,  hut  awakening  about 
February  or  March,  when  they  feed  on  the  garnered  grain.  They 
are  very  prolific,  the  female  producing  several  litters  in  the  year, 
each  consisting  of  over  a  dozen  blind  young;  and  these,  when 
not  more  than  three  weeks  old,  are  turned  out  of  the  parental 
burrow  to  form  underground  homes  for  themselves.  The  burrow 
of  the  young  hamster  is  only  about  a  foot  in  depth,  while  that 
of  the  adult  dcscentds  4  or  5  ft.  beneath  the  surface.  On  retiring 
for  the  winter  the  hamster  closes  the  various  entrances  to  its 
burrow,  and  becomes  torpid  during  the  coldest  period.  Although 
feeding  chiefly  on  roots,  fruits  and  grain,  it  is  also  to  some  extent 
carnivorous,  attacking  and  eating  small  quadrupeds,  lixards  and 
birds.  It  is  exceedingly  fierce  and  pugnacious,  the  males  especi- 
ally fighting  with  each  other  for  possession  of  the  females. 
The  numbers  of  these  destructive  rodents  are  kept  in  check  by 
foxes,  dogs,  cats  and  pole^cats,  which  feed  upon  them.  The 
skin  of  the  hamster  is  of  some  value,  and  its  flesh  is  used  as  food. 
Its  burrows  are  sought  after  in  the  countries  where  it  abounds, 
both  for  capturing  the  animal  and  for  rifling  its  store.  America, 
especially  North  America,  is  the  home  of  by  far  the  great  majority 
of  Cricelinae,  sevcrsl  of  which  are  called  white-footed  or  deer- 
mice.  They  are  divided  into  numerous  genera  and  the  number 
of  species  is  very  large  indeed.  Both  in  sixe  and  form  consider- 
able variability  is  displayed,  the  species  of  HdockUus  being  some 
of  the  largest,  while  the  common  white-footed  mouse  {EJigmcdon 
Uucopus)  of  North  America  is  one  of  the  smaller  forms.  Some 
kinds,  such  as  Oryiomiyt  and  Peromyscus  have  long,  rat-like 
tails,  while  others,  like  AcodoHf  u€  short-tailed  ahd  more  vole- 
like  in  appearance.  In  habits  some  are  partially  arboreal,  others 
wholly  tentstrisl,  and  a  few  more  or  less  aquatic.  Among  the 
latter,  the  most  remarkable  are  the  fish-eating  rats  {ickikyomys) 
of  North-western  South  America,  which  frequent  streams  and 
feed  on  small  fish.  The  Florida  rice-rat  {Siimodan  kispidusS 
is  another  well-known  representative  of  the  group.  In  the  Old 
Worid  the  group  b  represented  by  the  Persian  Cdomyscus,  a 
near  relative  of  Peromyscus.  (R-L.*) 

HANAPER,  properly  a  case  or  basket  to  contain  a  "  hanap  " 
(O.  Eng.  knap:  cf.  Dutch  nap),  a  drinking  vessel,  a  goblet  with 
a  foot  or  stem;  the  term  which  is  still  used  by  antiquaries 
for  medieval  stemmed  cups.  The  famous  Royal  Gold  Cup  in 
the  Britbh  Museum  is  called  a  "  hanap  "  in  the  inventory  of 
Charles  VI.  of  France.  The  word  "hanaper"  (Med.  Lat. 
hanaperium)  was  used  particularly  in  the  English  chancery  of  a 
wicker  basket  in  which  were  kept  writs  and  other  documents, 
and  hence  it  became  the  name  of  a  department  of  the  chancery, 
now  abolished,  under  an  officer  known  as  the  clerk  or  warden  of 
the  hanaper,  into  which  were  paid  fees  and  other  moneys  for 
the  seaUng  of  charters,  patents,  writs,  &c.,  and  from  which  issued 
certain  writs  under  the  great  seal  (S.  R.  Scargill-Bird,  Guide 
to  the  Public  Records  (1Q08).  In  Ireland  it  still  survives  in  the 
office  of  the  clerk  of  the  crown  and  hanaper,  from  which  are 
issued  writs  for  the  return  of  members  of  parliament  for  Ireland. 


9o8 


HANAU— HANCOCK,  JOHN 


From  "  hanaper  "  is  derived  tbe  modem  "  hamper,"  a  wicker 
or  rush  basket  used  for  the  carriage  of  game,  fish,  wine,  &c.  The 
verb  "  to  hamper,"  to  entangle,  obstruct,  hinder,  especially 
used  of  disturbing  the  mechanism  of  a  lock  or  other  fastening 
so  as  to  prevent  its  proper  working,  is  of  doubtful  origin.  It  is 
probably  connected  with  a  root  seen  in  the  Icel.  hemja,  to 
restrain,  and  Ger.  kemmen^  to  dog. 

HANAUt  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Pniasian  province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Main,  14  m.  by  rail  E. 
from  Frankfort  and  at  the  junction  of  lines  to  Friedberg,  Bcbra 
and  Aschaffenburg.  Pop.  (1905)  31,637.  It  consists  of  an  old 
and  a  new  town.  The  streets  of  the  former  are  narrow  and 
irregular,  but  the  latter,  founded  at  the  end  of  the  x6th  century 
by  fugitive  Walloons  and  Nethcrlandcrs,  is  built  in  tbe  form  of  a 
pentagon  with  broad  streets  crossing  at  right  angles,  and  possesses 
several  fine  squares,  among  which  may  be  mention^  the  market- 
place, adorned  with  handsome  fountains  at  the  four  comers. 
Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  ancient  cas^e,  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  counts  of  Hanau;  the  church  of  St  John, 
dating  from  the  xyth  century,  with  a  handsome  tower;  the  old 
church  of  St  Mary,  containing  the  burial  vault  of  the  counts  of 
Hanau;  the  church  in  the  new  town,  built  by  the  Walloons  in 
the  beginning  of  the  X7th  century  in  the  form  of  two  intersecting 
circles;  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  the  synagogue,  the  theatre, 
the  barracks,  the  arsenal  and  the  hospital  Its  educational 
establishments  include  a  classical  school,  and  a  school  of  industrial 
art.  There  is  a  society  of  natural  history  and  an  historical 
society,  both  of  which  possess  considerable  libraries  and  collec- 
tions. Hanau  is  the  birthplace  of  the  brothers  Grimm,  to  whom 
a  monument  was  erected  here  in  1896.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  town  are  the  i>alace  of  Phiiippsruhe,  with  an  extensive 
park  and  large  orangeries,  and  the  spa  of  Wilhelmsbad. 

Hanau  is  the  principal  commercial  and  manufacturing  town 
in  the  province,  and  stands  next  to  Cassel  in  point  of  population. 
It  manufactures  ornaments  of  various  kinds,  dgars,  leather, 
paper,  playing  cards,  silver  and  platina  wares,  chocolate,  soap, 
woollen  doth,  hats,  silk,  gloves,  stockings,  rypes  and  matches. 
Diamond  cutting  is  carried  on  and  the  town  has  also  foundries, 
breweries,  and  in  the  neighborhood  extensive  powder-mills. 
It  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  wood,  wine  and  com,  in  addition  to 
its  artides  of  manufacture. 

f  From  the  number  of  urns,  coins  and  other  antiquities  found 
near  Hanau  it  would  appear  that  it  owes  its  origin  to  a  Roman 
settlement.  It  received  municipal  rights  in  1393,  and  in  1528 
it  was  fortified  by  Count  Philip  III.  who  rebuilt  the  castle.  At 
the  end  of  the  i6th  centuiy  its  prosperity  received  considerable 
impulse  from  the  accession  of  the  Walloons  and  Netherlanders. 
During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  it  was  in  1631  taken  by  the 
Swedes,  and  in  1636  it  was  besieged  by  the  imperial  troops, 
but  was  relieved  on  the  13th  of  June  by  Landgrave  William  V. 
of  Hesse-Cassel,  on  account  of  which  the  day  is  still  commemor- 
ated by  the  inhabitants.  Napoleon  on  his  retreat  from  Leipzig 
defeated  the  Germans  tmdcr  Marshal  Wrede  at  Hanau,  on  the 
30th  of  October  181 3;  and  on  the  following  day  the  allies 
vacated  the  town,  when  it  was  entered  by  the  French.  Early 
in  the  zsth  century  Hanau  became  the  capital  of  a  principality 
of  the  Empire,  which  on  the  death  of  Count  Rdnhard  in  1451 
was  partitioned  between  the  Hanau-MUnzenberg  and  Hanau- 
Lichtenberg  lines,  but  was  reunited  in  1642  when  the  elder  line 
became  extinct.  The  younger  line  received  princely  rank  in 
1696,  but  as  it  became  extinct  in  1736  Hanau-Mtlnzenberg  was 
joined  to  Hesse-Cassd  and  Hanau-Lichtenberg  to  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt. In  1785  the  whole  province  was  united  to  Hesse-Cassd, 
and  in  1803  it  became  an  independent  prindpality.  In  1815 
it  again  came  into  the  possession  of  Hesse-Cassel,  and  in  1866 
it  was  joined  to  Prussia. 

See  R.  Wille,  Hanau  im  dreissigjdhrigen  Krieg  (Hanau.  1886); 
and  Junghaus,  Cesckichte  der  Stadt  und  dts  Kreises  Hanau  (1887}. 

HANBURT  WILUAMS,  SIR  CHARLES  (i7o8-x759)>  EngUsh 
diplomatist  and  author,-  was  a  son  of  Major  Johxi  Hanbury 
(1664-1734),  of  Pontypool,  Monmouthshire,  and  a  sdon  of  an 
•adeat  Worcestershke  iamily.    His  grcat-great-great-grand- 


father,  Capd  Hanbury,  bought  property  at  Pontypool  and  began 
the  family  icon-works  there  in  1565.  His  father  John  Hanbury 
was  a  wealthy  iron-master  and  member  of  parliament,  who 
inherited  another  fortune  from  his  friend  Charles  Williams  of 
Cacrleon,  his  son's  godfather,  with  which  he  bought  the  Cdd- 
brook  estate,  Monmouthshire.  Charles  accordingly  took  the 
name  of  Williams  in  1739.  He  went  to  Eton,  and  there  made 
friends  with  Henry  Fielding,  the  novelist,  and,  after  marrjitig 
in  1732  th^  heiress  of  Earl  Coningsby,  was  elated  M.P.  tot 
Monmouthshire  (1734^1747)  and  subsequently  for  Leominster 
(1754-X759).  He  became  known  as  one  of  tbe  prominent 
gallants  and  wits  about  town,  and  following  Pope  be  wrote  a 
great  deal  of  satirical  light  verse^  including  IsabeOa,  «r  tkt 
Morning  (1740),  satires  on  Ruth  Darlington  and  Pulleney 
(174X-Z742),  The  Country  Girl  (X742),  Lessons  for  the  Day  (X742), 
Letter  to  Mr  Dodsky  (1743),  &C.  A  collection  of  his  poems  was 
published  in  1763  and  of  his  Works  in  1822.-  In  x.746  he  was 
sent  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Dresden,  which  led  to  further 
employment  in  this  capacity;  and  through  Henry  Fox's  infioence 
he  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Berlin  (1750),  Dresden  (1751),  \lenai 
(1753)1  Dresden  (1754)  and  St  Petersburg  (x7SS-x7S7);  in  the 
latter  case  he  was  the  instrument  for  a  plan  for  the  alliaixe 
between  En^and,  Russia  and  Austria,  which  finally  broke  down, 
to  his  embarrassment.  He  returned  to  England,  and  committed 
suicide  on  the  2nd  of  November  1759,  being  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  He  had  two  daughters,  the  dder  of  wlxna 
married  William  Capd,  4th  earl  of  Essex,  and  was  the  mother  of 
the  sth  eark  The  Coldbrook  estates  went  to  Charles's  biothcr, 
George  Hanbury- Williams,  to  whose  heirs  it  descended. 

Sec  William  Coxc't  Historical  Tour  in  MoimoutksUre  (1801).  and 
T.  Soxombc's  artide  in  the  DicL  Nat,  Biog.  with  l»btiogiaphy. 

HANCOCK,  JOHN  (x737'X793),  American  Revolutksiary 
statesman,  was  bora  in  that  part  of  Braintree,  Massachusetts, 
now  known  as  Quincy,  on  the  a3rd  of  January  X737.  After 
graduating  from  Harvard  in  1754,  he  entered  the  mcrcantDe 
house  of  his  uncle,  Thomas  Hancock  of  Boston,  who  bad  adc^ted 
him,  and  on  whose  death,  in  1764,  he  fell  heir  to  a  laT:ge  fortuse 
and  a  prosperous  business.  In  1765  he  became  a  sdectman  of 
Boston,  and  from  X766  to  X772  was  a  member  of  tlK  Massa- 
chusetts general  court.  An  event  which  is  thought  to  ha\'e 
greatly  influenced  Hancock's  subsequent  career  was  the  sdzore 
of  the  sloop  "  Liberty  "  in  1768  by  tbe  customs  ofiicers  for  dis- 
charging, without  paying  the  duties,  a  cargo  of  Madena  wine 
consigned  to  Hancock.  Many  suits  were  thereupon  entered 
against  Hancock,  which,  if  successful,  would  have  caused  tltt 
confiscation  of  his  estate,  but  which  undoubtedly  enhanced  his 
popularity  with  the  Whig  element  and  increased  his  rcsentmeci 
against  the  British  government.  He  was  a  member  of  tbe 
committee  appointed  in  a  Boston  town  meeting  immcdiaidy 
after  the  "  Boston  Massacre  "  in  1770  to  demand  the  removal 
of  British  troops  from  the  towxu  In  1774  and  1775  be  was 
president  of  the  first  and  second  Provincial  Congresses  respect- 
ively, and  he  shared  with  Samud  Adams  the  kadership  of  the 
Massachusetts  Whigs  in  all  the  irregular  measures  preccdi':^ 
the  War  of  American  Independence.  The  famous  eipediims 
sent  by  General  Thqmas  Gage  of  Massachuictta  to  Lexxiigtc4i 
and  Concord  on  the  i8th-X9th  of  April  1775  had  for  its  object, 
besides  the  destraction  of  moteriab  of  war  it  Concord,  the 
capture  of  Hancock  and  Adams,  who  were  temporarily  staying 
at  Lexington,  and  these  two  leaders  were  expressly  excepted 
in  the  proclamation  of  pardon  issued  on  the  x  2th  of  June  by 
Gage,  their  offences,  it  was  said,  bdng  "  of  too.  flagitious  a  nature 
to  admit  of  any  other  consideration  thaii  that  of  condign  punish- 
ment." Hancock  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress 
from  X775  to  1780,  was  president  of  it  from  May  1775  ^^  October 
1777,  bdng  the  first  to  sign  the  Declaration  of  Indqtmdeace, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Confederation  Congress  tn  1795-1786. 
In  1778  he  commanded,  as  major-general  of  militia,  the  Maaa- 
chusctts  troops  who  partidpated  in  tbe  Rhode  Island  ezpcitittaB. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Constitutional  ConvtnUoa 
of  1 779-1780,  became  the  first  governor  of  the  state,  Kod  served 
from  X780  to  1785  and  again  from  1787  until  bis  death.  AUhocc^ 


HANCOCK,  W.  S.— HAND,  F.  G. 


909 


At  first  unfriendly  to  the  Federal  Constitution  as  drafted  by  the 
convention  at  Philadelphia,  he  was  finally  won  over  to  its  support, 
and  in  z  788  he  presided  over  the  Massachusetts  convention  which 
ratified  the  instrument.  Hancock  was  not  by  nature  a  leader, 
but  he  wielded  great  influence  on  account  of  his  wealth  and 
social  position,  and  was  liberal,  public-spirited,  and,  as  his 
rcpcatcKi  election — the.  elections  were  annual — to  the  governor- 
ship attests,  exceedingly  popular.  He  died  at  Quincy,  Mass., 
on  the  8th  of  October  1795. 

See  Abrara  E.  Brown.  John  Hancock,  His  Book  (boston,  1898),  a 
work  coo&isttng  largely  of  extracts  from  Hancock's  ictten. 

HANCOCK.  WINPIELD  SCOTT  (1834-1886),  American  general, 
was  bom  on  the  14th  of^February  X824,  in  Montgomery  county, 
Pa.  He  graduated  in  1844  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy,  where  hb  career  was  creditable  but  not  distinguished. 
On  the  ist  of  July  1844  he  was  breveted,  and  on  the  x8th  of 
June  1846  commissioned  second  lieutenant.  He  took  part 
in  the  later  movements  under  Winfield  Scott  against  the  city 
of  Mesdco,  and  was  breveted  first  lieutenant  for  "  gallant 
and  meritorious  conduct."  After  the  Mexican  war  he  served 
in  the  West,  in  Florida  and  elsewhere;  was  married  in  1850 
to  Miss  Almira  Russell  of  St  Louis;  became  first  lieutenant 
in  1853,  and  assistant-quartermaster  with  the  rank  of  captain 
in  1855.  The  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  found  him  in  California. 
At  his  own  request  be  was  ordered  east,  and  on  the  23rd  of 
September  z86z  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  and 
assigned  to  command  a  brigade  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
He  took  part  in  the  Peninsula  campaign,  and  the  handling  of 
his  troops  in  the  engagement  at  Williamsburg  on  the  5th  of 
May  1862,  waa  so  brilliant  that  McClellan  reported  ''  Hancock 
was  superb,'*  an  epithet  always  afterwards  applied  to  him.  At 
the  battle  of  Antictam  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  first 
division  of  the  II.  corps,  and  in  November  be  was  made  major- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  about  the- same  time  was  promoted 
major  in  the  regular  army.  In  the  disastrous  battle  of  Fredericks- 
burg (9-vOf  Hancock's  division  was  on  the  right  among  the  troops 
that  were  ordered  to  storm  Marye's  Heights.  Out  of  the  5006 
men  in  his  division  20x3  fell.  Af  Chancellorsville  his  division 
received  both  on  the  2nd  and  the  3rd  of  May  ^he  brunt  of  the 
attack  of  Lee's  main  army.  Soon  after  the  battle  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  11.  corps. 

The  battle  of  Gettysburg  (q.v.)  began  on  the  zst  of  July  with 
the  defeat  of  the  left  wing  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  the 
death  of  General  Reynolds.  About  the  middle  of  the  afternoon 
Hancock  arrived  on  the  field  with  orders  from  Meade  to  assume 
command  and  to  decide  whether  to  continue  the  fight  there  or 
to  fall  back.  He  dedded  to  stay,  rallied  the  retreating  troops, 
and  held  Cemetery  Hill  and  Ridge  until  the  alrival  of  the  main 
body  of  the  Federal  army.  During  the  second  day's  battle  he 
commanded  the  left  centre  of  the  Union  army,  and  after  GeneVal 
Sickles  had  been  wounded,  the  whole  of  the  left  wing.  In  the 
third  day's  battle  he  commanded  the  left  centre,  upon  which 
fell  the  full  brunt  of  Pickett's  charge,  one  of  the  most  famous 
incidents  Of  the  war.  Hancock's  superb  presence  and  power 
over  men  never  shone  more  clearly  than  when,  as  the  150  guns 
of  the  Confederate  army  opened  the  attack  he  calmly  rode  along 
the  front  of  his  line  to  show  his  soldiers  that  he  shared  the 
dangen  of  the  cannonade  with  them.  His  corps  lost  in  the 
battle  4350  out  of  less  than  zo,ooo  fighting  men.  But  it  had 
captured  twenty-seven  Confederate  battle  flags  and  as  many 
prisoners  as  it  had  men  when  the  fighting  reased.  Just  as  the 
Confederate  troops  reached  the  Union  line  Hancock  was  struck 
in  the  groin  by  a  bullet,  but  continued  in  command  until  the 
repulse  of  the  attack,  and  as  he  was  at  last  borne  off  the  field 
earnestly  recommended  Meade  to  make  a  general  attack  on  the 
beaten  C>>nfederates.  The  wound  proved  a  severe  one,  so  that 
some  six  months  passed  before  he  resumed  command. 

In  the  battles  of  the  year  Z864  Hancock's  part  was  as  important 
and  striking  as  in  those  of  1863.  At  the  Wilderness  he  com- 
manded, during  the  second  day's  fighting,  half  of  the  Union 
army;  at  Spottsylvania  he  had  charge  of  the  fierce  and  successful 
attack  on  the  "  salient  ";  at  Cold  Harbor  his  corps  formed  the 


left  wing  in  the  unsuccessful  assault  on  the  Confederate  lines. 
In  August  he  was  promoted  to  brigadier-general  in  the  regular 
army.  In  November,  his  old  wound  troubling  hjm,  he  obtained 
a  short  leave  of  absence,  expecting  to  return  to  his  corps  in  the 
near  future.  He  was,  however,  detailed  to  raise  a  new  corps, 
and  later  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  "  M  iddle  Division. "  It  was 
expected  that  he  would  move  towards  Lynchburg,  as  part  of  a 
combined  movement  against  Lee's  communications.  But  before 
he  could  take  the  field  Richmond  had  fallen  and  Lee  had  sur- 
rendered. It  thus  happened  that  Hancock,  who  for  three  years 
had  been  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  figures  in  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  did  not  take  part  in  its  final  triumph. 

After  the  assassination  of  Lincoln,  Hancock  was  placed  in 
charge  of  Washington,  and  it  was  under  his  command  that 
Booth's  accomplices  were  tried  and  executed.  In  July  1866 
he  was  appointed  major-general  in  the  regular  army.  A  little 
later  he  Was  placed  in  command  of  the  department  of  the 
Missouri,  and  the  year  following  assumed  command  of  the  fifth 
military  division,  comprising  Louisiana  and  Texas.  His  policy, 
however,  of  discountenancing  military  trials  and  conciliating 
the  conquered  did  not  meet  with  approval  at  Washington,  and 
he  was  at  his  own  request  transferred.  Hancock  had  all  his  life 
been  a  Democrat.  His  splendid  war  record  and  his  personal 
popularity  caused  his  name  to  be  considered  as  a  candidate  for 
the  Presidency  as  early  as  z868,  and  in  z88o  he  was  nominated 
for  that  office  by  the  Democrats;  but  he  was'  defeated  by 
his  Republican  opponent,  General  Garfield,  though  by  the 
small  popular  plurality  of  seven  thousand  votes.  He  died 
at  Governor's  Island,  near  New  York,  on  the  9th  of  February 
z886.  Hancock  was  in  many  respects  the  ideal  soldier  of  the 
Northern  armies.  He  was  quick,  energetic  and  resourceful, 
reckless  of  his  own  safety,  a  strict  disciplinarian,  a  painstaking 
and  hard-working  officer.  It  was  on.  the  field  of  battle,  and 
when  the  fighting  was  fiercest,  that  his  best  quah'ties  came  to 
the  front.  He  was  a  bom  commander  of  men,  and  it  is  doubtful 
if  any  other  officer  in  the  Northern  army  could  get  more  fighting 
and  more  marching  out  of  his  men.  Grant  said  of  him,  "  Han- 
cock stands  the  most  conspicuous  figure  of  all  the  genenil  officen 
who  did  not  exercise  a  separate  command.  He  commanded 
a  corps  longer  than  any  other,  and  his  name  was  never  mentioned 
as  having  committed  in  battle  a  blunder  for  which  he  was 
responsible." 

A  btography  of  him  has  been  written  by  General  Francis  A. 
Walker  (New  York,  1 894}.  See  also  History  of  the  Second  Corps,  by 
the  lame  author  (1886).  (F.  H.  H.) 

HANCOCK,  a  city  of  Houghton  county,  Michigan,  U.S.A., 
on  Portage  Lake,  opposite  Houghton.  Pop.  (z  890)  x  7  7  a ;  ( z  900) 
4050,  of  whom  Z409  were  foreign-bora;  (1904)  6037;  (Z910) 
8981  Hancock  is  served  by  the  Mineral  Range,  the  Copper 
Range,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St  Paul,  and  the  Duluth, 
South  Shore  &  Atlantic  railways  (the  last  two  send  their  trains 
in  over  the  Mineral  Range  tracks),  and  by  steamboats  through 
the  Portage  Lake  Canal  which  connects  with  Lake  Superior. 
Hancock  is  connected  by  a  bridge  and  an  electric  line 
with  the  village  of  Houghton  (pop.  in  Z910,  5x13),  the 
county-seat  of  Houghton  county  and  the  seat  of  the  Michigan 
College  of  Minfs  (opened  in  x886).  Hancock  has  three 
parks,  and  a  marine  and  general  hospital.  The  city  is  the 
seat  of  a  Finnish  Lutheran  Seminary— there  are  many  Finns  in 
and  near  Hancock,  and  a  Finnish  newspaper  is  published  here. 
Hancock  is  in  the  Michigan  copper  region— the  C^incy,  Franklin 
and  Hancock  mines  are  in  or  near  the  city — and  the  mining, 
working  and  shipping  of  copper  are 'the  leading  industries; 
among  the  city's  manufactures  are  mining  machinery,  lumber, 
bricks  and  beer.  The  municipality  owns  and  operates  the  water- 
works. The  dectric-lighting  plant,  the  gas  plant  and  the  street 
railway  are  owned  by  private  corporations.  Hancock  was 
settled  in  1859,  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  Z875,  and  was 
chartered  as  a  dty  in  1903.     

HAND,  FERDINAND  OOTTHELF  (X786-1851),  German 
classical  scholar,  was  bom  at  Plauen  in  Saxony  on  the  zsth  of 
February  1 786.    He  studied  at  Leipzig,  in  z8zo  became  professor 


9IO 


HAND— HANDEL 


at  the  Weimar  gymnasium,  and  In  28x7  professor  of  philosophy 
and  Greek  literature  in  the  university  of  Jena,  where  he  remained 
till  hb  death  on  the  14th  of  March  1851.  The  work  by  which 
Hand  is  chiefly  known  is  bis  (unfinished)  edition  of  the  treatise 
of  Horatius  Tursellinus  (Orazio  Torsellino,  X545-XS99)  on  the 
Latin  particles  {TwseHinus,  seu  de  pariiculis  Laiinis  cam- 
mcntofir,  1829-1845).  Like  his  treatise  on  Latin  style  {Lekrhuch 
des  laUinischen  StUs,  3«i  td.  by  H.  L.  Schmitt,  1880),  it  is  too 
abstruse  and  philosophical  for  the  use  of  the  ordinaiy  student. 
Hand  was  also  an  enthusiastic  musician,  and  in  his  Astkaik  der 
Tonkunst  (1837-1841)  he  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  subject 

of  musical  aesthetics.  ...  .      ^  . 

The  first  part  of  the  last-named  work  has  been  tcandated  mto 
English  by  W.  E.  Lawwn  {Aesthelus  oj  Musical  Art,  or  Tkt  Beauttful 
in  Music,  1880),  and  B.  Scars's  Classical  Studies  (1849)  contains  a 
"  History  of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Latin  Languajsc 
abridgicd  from  Hand's  work  on  the  subject.  There  is  a  memoir  of 
bis  life  and  work  by  G.  Queck  (Jena.  1852). 

HAND  (a  wocd  common  to  Teutonic  languages;  cf.  Ger. 
Hand,  Goth,  handus),  the  terminal  part  of  the  human  arm  from 
below  the  wrist,  and  consisting  of  the  fingers  and  the  palm.  The 
word  is  also  used  of  the  prehensile  termination  of  the  limbs  in 
certain  other  animals  (see  Anatomy:  Superficial  and  artistic) 
Skeleton:  Appendicular,  and  such  articles  as  Muscular 
System  and  Nervous  System).  There  are  many  transferred 
applications  of  "hand,"  both  as  a  substantive  and  in  various 
adverbial  phrases.  The  following  may  be  mentioned:  charge 
or  authority,  agency,' source,  chiefly  in  such  expressions  as  "in 
the  hands  of,"  "  by  hand,"  "  at  first  hand."  From  the  position 
of  the  hands  at  the  side  of  the  body,  the  word  means  "direction," 
e.g.,  on  the  right,  left  hand,  cf.  "  at  hand."  The  hand  as  given 
in  betrothal  or  marriage  has  been  from  early  times  the  symbol 
of  marriage  as  it  also  is  of  oaths.  Other  applications  are  to 
labourers  engaged  in  manual  occupations,  the  members  of  the 
crew  of  a  ship,  to  a  person  who  has  some  special  skill,  as  in  the 
phrase, "  old  parliamenUry  hand,"  and  to  the  pointers  of  a  clock 
or  watch  and  to  the  number  of  cards  dealt  to  each  player  in  a 
card  game.  As  a  measure  of  length  the  term  "  hand  "  is  now 
only  used  in  the  measurement  of  horses,  it  is  equal  to  4  in. 
The  name  "  hand  of  glory,"  is  given  to  a  hand  cut  from  the 
corpse  of  a  hanged  criminal,  dried  in  smoke,  and  used  as  a 
charm  or  talisman,  for  the  finding  of  treasures,  &c.  The  expres- 
sion is  the  translation  of  the  Fr.  main  de  gloire,  a  corruption  of 
the  O.  Fr.  mandeghire,  mandegoire,  i.e.  mandragore,  mandragora, 
the  mandrake,  to  the  root  of  which  many  magical  properties  are 
attributed. 

HANDEL,  OBOROB  FREDERICK  (1685-1759),  EngUsh 
musical  composer,  German  by  origin,  was  born  at  Halle  in  Lower 
Saxony,  on  the  23rd  of  February  1685.  His  name 
was  Hjlndel,  but,  like  most  18th-century  musicians 
who  travelled,  he  compromised  with  its  pronunciation  by 
foreigners,  and  when  in  Italy  spdt  it  Hendd,  and  in  England 
(where  he  became  naturalized)  accepted  the  version  Handel, 
which  is  therefore  correct  for  English  writers,  while  HiLndel 
remains  the  cortect  version  in  Germany.  His  father  was  a 
barber-surgeon,  who  disapproved  of  music,  and  wished  George 
Frederick  to  become  a  lawyer.  A  friend  smuggled  a  clavichord 
into  the  attic,  and  on  this  instrument,  which  is  inaudible  behind 
a  closed  door,  the  little  boy  practised  secretly.  Before  he  was 
eight  his  father  went  iq  visit  a  son  by  a  former  marriage  who 
was  a  valet-de-chambre  to  the  duke  of  Saxe-Weissenfels.  The 
little  boy  begged  in  vain  to  go  also,  and  at  last  ran  after  the 
carriage  on  foot  so  far  that  he  had  to  be  taken.  He  made 
acquaintance  with  the  d)urt  musicians  and  contrived  to  practise 
on  the  organ  when  he  could  be  overheard  by  the  duke,  who, 
immediately  recognizing  his  talent,  spoke  seriously  to  the  father, 
who  had  to  yield  to  bis  arguments.  On  returning  to  Halle 
Handel  became  a  pupil  of  Zachau,  the  cathedral  organist,  who 
gave  him  a  thorough  training  as  a  composer  and  as  a  performer 
on  keyed  instruments,  the  oboe  and  the  violin.  Six  very  good 
trios  for  two  oboes  and  bass,  which  Handel  wrote  at  the  age  of 
ten,  are  extant;  and  when  he  himself  was  shown  them  by  an 
English  admirer  who  had  discovered  them,  he  was  much  amused 


and  remarked,  "  I  wrote  like  the  devO  in  those  daya»  and  ducAy 
for  the  oboe,  which  was  my  favourite  instrument.**  His  master 
also  of  course  made  him  write  an  enormous  amount  of  vocal 
music,  and  he  had  lo  produce  a  motet  every  week.  By  the  time 
he  was  twelve  Zachau  thought  he  could  teach  him  no  more,  and 
accordingly  the  boy  was  sent  to  Berlin,  where  he  made  a  great 
impression  at  the  courL 

His  father,  however,  thought  fit  to  decline  the  proposal  of 
the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  afterwards  King  Frederick  L  of 
Prussia,  to  send  the  boy  to  Italy  in  order  afterwards  to  attach 
him  to  the  court  at  Berlin.  German  court  musidans,  as  late  as 
the  time  of  Mozart,  had  hardly  enou|^  freedom  lo  satisfy  a 
man  of  independent  character,  and  the  elder  H&Ddd  had  not 
yet  given  up  hope  of  his  son's  becoming  a  lawyer.  Young 
Handel,  therefore,  returned  to  Halle  and  resumed  hb  work  with 
Zachau.  In  1697  his  fiither  died,  but  tbe  boy  showed  great 
filial  piety  in  finishing  the  ordinary  course  of  his  education,  both 
gcnenl  and  musical,  and  even  entering  the  university  of  HaOe 
in  1702  as  a  law  student.  But  in  that  year  he  succeeded  to  the 
post  of  organist  at  the  cathedral,  and  after  his  "  ptobolion  ** 
year  in  that  capacity  he  departed  to  Hamburg,  vrhtrt  the  only 
German  opera  worthy  of  the  name  was  flourishing  under  the 
direction  of  its  founder,  Reinhold  Keiser.  Here  he  became 
friends  with  Matheson,  a  prolific  composer  and  writer  on  music 
On  one  occasion  they  set  out  together  to  go  to  Lfibrrk,  where  a 
successor  was  to  be  appointed  to  the  post  left  vacant  by  the 
great  organist  Buxtehude,  who  was  retiring  on  occoimt  of  his 
extreme  age.  Handel  and  Matheson  made  much  music  on  this 
occasion,  but  did  jiot  compete,  because  they  found  that  the 
successful  candidate  was  required  to  accept  the  band  of  the 
elderly  daughter  of  the  retiring  organist. 

Another  adventure  might  have  had  still  more  setious  con- 
sequences. At  a  performance  of  MatlMson's  opera  Cleopatra 
at  Hamburg,  Handel  refused  to  give  up  the  conductor's  seat 
to  the  composer  when  the  latter  returned  to  his  usual  post  at 
the  harpsichord  after  singing  the  part  of  Antony  on  the  stage. 
The  dispute  led  to  a  duel  outside  the  theatre,  and,  bat  for  a 
large  button  on  Handel's  coat  which  interested  Mathcson's 
sword,  there  would  have  been  no  Messiah  or  I»ad  m  EgypL 
But  the  young  men  remained  friends,  and  Matheson's  writings 
are  full  of  the  vaoal  valuable  facts  for  Handd's  biography.  He 
relates  in  his  Ekrenpforte  that  his  friend  at  that  time  used  to 
compose  "  interminable  cantatas  "  of  no  great  merit;  but  of 
these  no  traces  now  remain,  unless  we  assume  that  a  Passiem 
according  to  St  John,  the  manuscript  of  which  is  in  tbe  royal 
library  at  Berlin,  is  among  the  works  alluded  to.  But  its  authen- 
ticity, while  strongly  upheld  by  Chrysander,  has  recently  been 
as  strongly  assailed  on  internal  evidence. 

On  the  8th  of  January  X705,  Handd's  first  opera,  XIava, 
wib  performed  at  Hamburg  with  great  success,  and  was  foOo^nd 
a  few  weeks  later  by  another  work,  entiUed  Nero.  Nero  is  fast, 
but  Almira,  with  its  mixture  of  Italian  and  German  language, 
and  form,  remains  as  a  valuable  example  of  the  taukncxes  ol 
the  time  and  of  Handd's  eclectic  methods.  It  contains  many 
themes  used  by  Handd  in  well-known  later  works;  bat  the 
current  statement  that  the  famous  aria  in  RinaUa,  "Lasda 
ch'io  pianga,"  comes  from  a  saraband  in  Almira,  is  based  vpoa 
nothing  more  definite  than  the  inevitable  mrmhlance  between 
the  simplest  possible  forms  of  saraband-rhythm. 

In  1706  Handd  left  Hamburg  for  Italy,  where  he  ronained 
for  three  years,  rapidly  acquiring  the  smooth  Italian  vocal 
style  which  hereafter  always  characterized  his  work.  He 
had  before  this  refused  offers  from  noble  patrons  to  send  him 
there,  but  had  now  saved  enough  money,  not  only  to  sui^wt  his 
mother  at  home,  but  to  travd  as  his  own  master.  He  divided 
his  Ume  in  Italy  between  Florence,  Rome,  Naples  and  Venice; 
and  many  anecdotes  are  preserved  of  his  meetings  with  Coidli, 
Lotti,  Alessandro  Scarlatti  and  Domenico  Scariatti,  whose 
wonderful  harpsichord  technique  still  has  a  direct  bearing  on 
%ome  of  the  most  modem  features  of  pianoforte  style.  HazKid 
soon  became  famous  as  //  Sassone  ("  the  Saxon  **),  and  it  is 
said  that  Domenico  on  first  hearing  him  play  incognito  ezcUimed, 


HANDEL- 


911 


"  It  is  either  the  devil  or  the  Saxtm  I "  Then  there  is  a  story 
of  Cordll's  coming  to  grief  over  a  passage  in  Handel's  overture 
to  //  Tricnfo  dd  tempo,  in  which  the  violins  went  up  to  A  in 
altissimo.  Handd  impatiently  snatched  the  violin  to  show 
Cordli  how  the  passage  ought  to  be  played,  and  Corelli,  who 
had  never  written  or  played  beyond  the  third  position  in  his 
life  (this  passage  being  in  the  seventh),  said  gently,  "  My  dear 
Saxon,  this  music  is  in  the  French  style,  which  I  do  not  under- 
stand." In  Italy  Handel  produced  two  operas,  Rodrigo  and 
A^PPiMCt  the  latter  a  very  important  woric,  of  which  the 
splendid  overture  was  remodelled  forty-four  years  afterwards 
as  that  of  his  last  original  oratorio,  Jepktha.  He  also  produced 
two  oratorios,  La  Resunexione,  and  //  Tricnfo  del  tempo,  iThis, 
forty-six  years  afterwards,  formed  the  basis  of  his  last  work. 
The  Triumph  of  Time  and  Truth,  which  contains  no  original 
matter.  All  Handd's  early  works  contain  material  that  he 
used  often  with  very  little  alteration  later  on,  and,  though  the 
famous  "  Lascia  ch'io  pianga  "  does  not  occur  in  Almira,  it 
occurs  note  for  note  in  Atrippi»^  and  the  two  Italian  oratorios. 
On  the  other  hand  the  cantau  Act,  Caiattea  e  Folifemo  has 
nothing  in  common  with  Acts  and  Calaiea.  Besides  these  larger 
works  there  are  several  choral  and  solo  cantatas  of  which  the 
earliest,  such  as  the  great  Dixit  Dominus^  show  in  their  extra- 
vagant vocal  difficulty  how  radical  was  the  change  which  Handel's 
Italian  experience  so  rapidly  effected  in  his  methods. 

Handel's  success  in  Italy  established  his  fame  and  led  to  his 
receiving  at  Venice  in  1709  the  offer  of  the  post  of  Kapdlmeister 
to  the  dector  of  Hanover,  transmitted  to  htpi  by  Baron  Kiel- 
mansegge,  his  patron  and  staunch  friend  of  later  years.    Handel 
at  the  time  contemplated  a  visit  to  England,  and  he  accepted 
this  offer  on  condition  of  leave  of  absence  being  granted  to  him 
for  that  purpose.    To  England  accordingly  Handel  journeyed 
after  a  short  stay  at  Hanover,  arriving  in  London  towards  the 
close  of  1710.    He  came  as  a  composer  of  Italian  opera,  and 
earned  his  first  success  at  the  Haymarket  with  Rinaldo,  com- 
posed, to  the  consternation  of  the  hurried  librettist,  in  a  fortnight, 
and  first  performed  on  the  24th  of  February  1 7 11.    In  this  opera 
the  aria  "  Lascia  ch'io  pianga  "  found  its  final  home.    The  work 
was  produced  with  the  utmost  magnificence,  and  Addison's 
delightful  reviews  of  it  in  the  Spectator  poked  fun  at  it  from  an 
unmusical  point  of  view  in  a  way  that  sometimes  curiously 
foreshadows  the  criticisms  that  Gluck  might  have  made  on  such 
things  at  a  later  period.    The  success  was  so  great,  especially 
for  Walsh  the  publisher,  that  Handel  proposed  that  Walsh  should 
compose  the  next  opera,  and  that  he  should  publish  it.  -He 
returned  to  Hanover  at  the  close  of  the  opera  season,  and  com- 
posed a  good  deal  of  vocal  chamber  music  for  the  princess 
Caroline,  the  step-daughter  of  the  elector,  besides  the  instru- 
mental works  known  to  us  as  the  oboe  concertos.    In  171  a 
Handel  returned  to  London  and  spent  a  year  with  Andrews, 
a  rich  musical  amateur,  in  Bam  Elms,  Surrey.    Three  more 
years  were  spent  in  Burlington,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London. 
He  evidently  was  but  little  inclined  to  return  to  Hanover,  in 
spite  of  his  duties  to  the  court  there.    Two  Italian  operas  and 
the  Utruht  Te  Deum  written  by  the  command  of  Queen  Aime 
are  the  principal  works  of  this  period.  It  was  somewhat  awkward 
for  the  composer  when  his  deserted  master  came  to  London 
in  1 7 14  as  George  I.  of  England.    For  some  time  Handel  did  not 
'  venture  to  appear  at  court,  and  it  was  only  at  the  intercession 
of  Baron  Kielmansegge  that  his  pardon  was  obtained.    By  his 
advice  Handel  wrote  the  Water  Music  which  was  performed  at  a 
royal  water  party  on  the  Thames,  and  it  so  pleased  the  king 
that  he  at  once  received  the  composer  into  his  good  graces  and 
granted  htm  a  salary  of  £400  a  year.    Later  Handel  became 
music  master  to  the  little  princesses  and  was  given  an  additional 
£300  by  the  princess  Caroline:    In  17 16  he  followed  the  king 
to  Germany,  where  he  wrote  a  second  German  Passion  to  the 
popular  poem  of  Brockes,  a  text  which,  divested  of  its  worst 
features,  forms  the  basis  of  several  of  the  arias  in  Bach's  Passion 
according  to  St  John.    This  was  Handel's  last  work  to  a  German 
text. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  entered  the  service  of  the  duke 


of  Chandos  as  conductor  of  his  concerts,  receiving  a  thousand 
pounds  for  his  first  oratorio  Esther.  The  music  which  Handel 
wrote  for  performance  at  **  Caimons,"  the  duke  of  Chandos's 
residence  at  Edgware,  is  comprised  in  the  first  version  of  Esther, 
Acis  and  Galatea,  and  the  twelve  Chandos  Anthems,  which  are 
compositions  i^proximately  in  the  same  form  as  Bach's  church 
cantatas  but  without  any  systematic  use  of  chorale  tunes.  The  * 
fashionable  Londoner  would  travel  9  miles  in  those  days  to 
the  little  chapel  of  Whitchurch  to  hear  Handel's  music,  and  all 
that  now  remains  of  the  magnificent  scene  of  these  visits  is  the 
church,  which  is  the  parish  church  of  Edgware.  In  1720  Handel 
appeared  again  in  a  public  capacity  as  impresario  of  the  Italian 
open  at  the  Hasrmarket  theatre,  which  he  managed  for  the 
institution  called  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music.  Senesino,  a 
famous  singer,  to  engage  whom  Handel  especially  journeyed  to 
Dresden,  was  the  mainstay  of  the  enterprise,  which  opened  with 
a  highly  successful  performance  of  Hvidel's  open  Radamisto, 
To  this  time  belongs  the  famous  rivalry  between  Handel  and 
Buonondni,  a  melodious  Italian  composer  whom  many  thotight 
to  be  the  greater  of  the  twow  The  controvert  has  been  per- 
petuated in  John  Byrom's  lines: . 

**  Some  say,  compered  to  Buononcini    ' 
That  Mynheer  Handel's  but  a  ninny; 
Others  aver  that  he  to  Handd 
Is  scarcely  fit  to  hold  a  candle. 
Stnnge^ail  this  difference  should  be 
T»ixt  tweedle-dum  and  tweedle-dee." 

It  most  be  remembered  that  at  this  time  Handel  had  not  yet 
asserted  his  greatness  as  a  choral  writer;  the  fashionable  ideas 
of  music  and  musicianship  were  based  entirely  upon  success  in 
Italian  opera,  and  the  contest  between  the  rival  composers  was 
waged  on  the  basis  of  works  which  have  fallen  into  almost  as 
complete  an  oblivion  in  Handel's  case  as  in  Buonondni's.  None 
of  Handel's  forty-odd  Italian  operas  can  be  said  to  survive, 
except  in  some  two  or  three  detached  arias  out  of  each  opera; 
arias  which  reveal  their  essential  qualities  far  better  in  isolation 
than- when  performed  in  groups  of  between  twenty  and  thirty 
on  the  stage,  as  interruptions  to  the  action  of  a  dassiml  drama 
to  which  nobody  paid  the  slightest  attention.  But  even  within 
these  limits  Handel's  artistic  resources  were  too  great  to  leave 
the  issue  in  doubt;  and  when  Handel  wrote  the  third  act  of 
an  opera  Muno  Scevola,  of  which  Buononcini  and  Ariosti' 
wrote  the  other  two,  bis  triumph  was  decisive,  especially  as 
Buononcini  soon  got  into  discredit  by  failing  to  defend  himself 
against  the  charge  of  producing  as  a  prize-madrigal  of  hb  own 
a  composition  which  proved  to  be  by  Lotti.  At  all  events 
Buonondni  left  London,  and  Handd  for  the  next  ten  years  was 
without  a  rival  in  his  ventures  as  an  operatic  composer.  He 
was  not,  however,  without  a  rival  as  an  impresario;  and  the 
hostile  competition  of  a  rival  company  which  obtained  the 
services  of  the  great  Farinelli  and  also  induced  Senesino  to 
desert  him,  led  to  his  bankruptcy  in  1737,  and  to  an  attack  of 
paralysis  caused  by  anxiety  and  overwork.  The  rival  company 
also  had  to  be  dissolved  from  want  of  support,  so  that  Handel's 
misfortunes  must  not  be  attributed  to  any  failure  to  maintain 
his  position  in  the  musical  world.  Handel's  artistic  consdence 
was  that  of  the  most  easy-going  opportunist,  oc  he  would  never 
have  continued  till  1741  to  work  in  a  field  that  gave  so  little 
scope  for  his  genius.  But  the  public  seemed  to  want  operas, 
and,  if  opera  had  no  scope  for  his  genius,  at  all  events  he  could 
supply  better  operas  with  greater  rapidity  and  ease  than  any 
three  other  living  composers  working  together.  And  this  he 
naturally  continued  to  do  so  long  as  jt  seemed  to  be  |.he  best 
way  to  keep  up  his  reputation.  But  with  all  this  artistic 
opportunism  he  was  not  a  man  of  tact,  and  there  are 
numerous  stories  of  the  type  of  his  holding  the  great  prima 
donna  Cuzzoni  at  arm's-length  out  of  a  window  and  threatening 
to  drop  her  unless  she  consented  to  sing  a  song  which  she  had 
declared  unsuitable  to  her  style. 

Already  before  his  last  opera,  Deidamia,  produced  in  I74X» 
Handd  had  been  making  a  groWing  impression  with  his  ontorioa. 

■  Chryiander  says  Mattd  instead  of  AriostL 


912 


HANDEL 


In  these,  freed  from  the  restrictions  of  the  stage,  he  was  able 
to  give  scope  to  his  genius  for  choral  writing,  and  so  to  develop, 
or  rather  revive,  that  art  of  chorus  singing  which  is  the  normal 
outlet  for  English  musical  talent.  In  1726  Handel  had  become 
a  naturalized  Englishman,  and  in  1733  he  began  his  public 
career  as  a  composer  of  English  texts  by  producing  the  second 
and  larger  versfon  of  Esther  at  the  King's  theatre.  This  was 
followed  early  in  the  same  year  by  Deborah,  in  which  the  share 
of  the  chorus  is  much  greater.  In  July  he  produced  Athalia 
at  Oxford,  the  first  work  in  which  his  characteristic  double 
choruses  appear.  The  share  of  the  chorus  increases  in  Satd 
(1738);  and  Israd  in  Egypt  (also  1738)  is  practically  entirely 
a  choral  work,  the  solo  movements,  in  spite  of  their  fame,  being 
as  perfunctory  in  character  as  they  are  few  in  number.  It  was 
not  unnatural  that  the  public,  who  still  considered  Italian  opera 
the  highest,  because  the  most  modem  form  of  musical  art, 
obliged  Handel  at  subsequent  performances  of  this  ipgantic 
work  to  insert  more  solos. 

The  Messiah  was  produced  at  Dublin  on  the  13th  of  April 
1742.  Samson  (which  Handd  preferred  to  the  Messiah)  appeared 
at  Covent  Garden  on  the  2nd  of  March  1744;  Bdshaaxar  at 
the  King's  theatre,  27th  of  March  1745;  the  Occasional  Oratorio 
(chiefly  a  compilation  of  the  earlier  oratorios,  but  with  a  few 
important  new  numbers),  on  the  Z4th  of  Febrxiary  1746  at 
Covent  Garden,  where  all  his  later  oratorios  were  produced; 
Judas  Mauabaeus  on  the  zst  of  April  1747;  Joshua  on  the  9th 
of  March  1748;  Alexander  Bolus  on  the  23rd  of  March  1748; 
Solomon  on  the  17th  of  March  1749;  Susanna,  spring  of  1749; 
Theodora,  a  great  favourite  of  Handel's,  who  was  much  dis- 
appointed by  its  cold  reception,  on  the  i6th  of  March  1750; 
Jephtha  (strictly  speaking,  his  last  work)  on  the  26th  of  February 
1752,  and  The  Triumph  of  Time  and  Truth  (transcribed  from 
//  Trionfo  del  tempo  with  the  addition  of  many  later  favourite 
numbers),  1757.  Other  important  works,  indistinguishable  in 
artistic  form  from  oratorios,  but  on  secular  subjects,  are  Alex- 
ander*s  Feast,  1736;  Ode  for  St  Cuilia's  Day  (words  by  Dryden) ; 
L* Allegro,  il  pensieroso  ed  il  moderato  (the  words  of  the  third  part 
by  Jcnncns),  1740;  Semele,  1744;  Hercules,  174s;  wad  The 
Choice  of  Hercules,  1751. 

By  degrees  the  enmity  against  Handel  died  away,  though  he 
had  many  troubles.  In  174S  he  had  again  become  bankrupt; 
for,  although  he  had  no  rival  as  a  composer  of  choral  music  it 
was  possible  for  his  enemies  to  give  balls  and  banquets  on  the 
nights  of  his  oratorio  performances.  As  with  bis  first  bank- 
ruptcy, so  in  his  later  years,  he  showed  scrupulous  sense  of  honour 
in  discharging  his  debts,  and  he  continued  to  work  hard  to  the 
end  of  his  life.  He  had  not  only  completely  recovered  his 
financial  position  by  the  year  1750,  but  he  must  have  made  a 
good  deal  of  money,  for  he  then  presented  an  organ  to  the 
Foundling  Hospital,  and  opened  it  with  a  performance  of  the 
Messiah  on  the  15th  of  May.  In  1751  his  sight  began  to  trouble 
him;  and  the  autograph  of  Jephtha,  published  in  facsimile 
by  the  Hdnddgesellschaft,  shows  pathetic  traces  of  this  in  his 
handwriting,*  and  so  affords  a  most  valuable  evidence  of  his 
methods  of  composition,  all  the  accompaniments,  recitatives, 
and  less  essential  portions  of  the  work  being  evidently  filled 
in  long  after  the  rest.  He  underwent  unsuccessful  operations, 
one  of  them  by  the  same  surgeon  who  had  operated  on  Bach's 
eyes.  There  is  evidence  that  he  was  able  to  see  at  intervals 
during  his  last  years,  but  his  sight  practically  never  returned 
after  May  1752.  He  continued  superintending  performances 
of  his  works  and  writing  new  arias  for  them,  or  inserting  revised 
old  ones,  and  he  attended  a  performance  of  the  Messiah  a  week 
before  his  death,  which  took  place,  according  to  the  PuUic 
Advertiser  of  the  i6th  of  April^  not  on  Good  Friday,  the  13th 
of  April,  according  to  his  own  pious  wish  and  according  to 
common  report,  but  on  the  14th  of  April  1759.  He  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey;  and  his  monument  is  by  L.  F.  RoubilUac, 

'  By  a  dramatic  coincidence  Handel's  blindness  interrupted  him 
during  the  writing  of  the  chorus,  "  How  dark,  oh  Lord,  arc  Thv 
decrees, .  .  .  all  our  joys  to  sorrow  turning ...  as  the  night  succeeds 
the  day." 


the  same  sculptor  who  modelled  the  marble  statue  erected  in 

Z739  in  Vauxhall  Gardens,  where  his  works  had  been  frequently 

performed. 

Handel  was  a  man  of  high  chaiacter  and  intdligenoe,  and  \m 
interest  was  not  confined  to  nis  own  art  exclusively.  He  liked  the 
society  of  politicians  and  literary  men,  and  be  was  also  a  collector 
of  pictures  and  articles  of  vertu.  His  power  of  work  was  cnormoas, 
and  the  HdndelgeseUschafl's  edition  of  his  complete  works  fills  one 
hundred  volumes,  forming  a  total  bulk  almost  equal  to  the  works  of 
Bach  and  Beethoven  together.  (F.  H. ;  D.  F.  T.) 

No  one  has  more  successfully  popularized  the  greatest  artistic 
ideals  than  Handel;  no  artist  is  more  disconcerting  to  critics 
who  imagine  that  a  great  man's  mental  development 
Is  easy  to  follow.  Not  even  Wagner  effected  a  greater 
transformation  in  the  possibilities  of  dramatic  mtzsic 
than  Handel  effected  in  oratorio,  yet  we  have  seen  that  Handd 
was  the  very  opposite  of  a  reformer.  He  was  not  even  cons»- 
vative,  and  he  hardly  took  the  pains  to  ascertain  what  an  art- 
form  was,  so  long  as  something  externally  like  it  would  convey 
his  idea.  But  he  never  failed  to  convey  his  idea,  and,  if  the 
hybrid  forms  in  which  he  conveyed  it  had  no  historic  influence 
and  no  typical  character,  they  were  none  the  less  accoiate  ia 
each  individual  case.  The  same  aptness  and  the  sante  absence 
of  method  are  conspicuous  in  his  style.  The  popular  idea  that 
Handel's  style  is  easily  recognizable  comes  from  the  fact  that 
he  overshadows  all  his  predecessors  and  contemporaries,  except 
Bach,  and  so  makes  us  regard  typical  18th-century  Italian  and 
English  style  as  Handelian,  instead  of  regarding  Handel's  style 
as  typical  Italian  18th-century.  Nothing  in  music  requires 
more  minute  expert  knowledge  than  the  sifting  of  the  real 
peculiarities  of  Handel's  style  from  the  mass  of  contemporary 
formulae  which  in  his  inspired  pages  he  absorbed,  and  which  in 
his  tminspired  pages  absorbed  him. 

His  easy  mastery  was  acquired,  like  Mozart's,  in  childhciod. 
The  lattr  sonatas  for  two  oboes  and  bass  which  he  wrote  in  his 
eleventh  year  are,  except  in  their  diffuseness  and  an  occasaonal 
slip  in  grammar,  indistinguishable  from  his  later  works,  and 
they  show  a  boyish  inventiveness  worthy  of  Mozart's  work  at 
the  same  age.    Such  early  choral  works,  as  the  Dixil  Dominus 
(1707),  show  the  ill-regulated  power  of  \as  choral  writir.g 
before  he  assimilated  Italian  influences.    Its  practical  di&i- 
culties  are  at  least  as  extravagant  as  Bach's,  while  they  are  cot 
accounted  for  by  any  corresponding  originality  and  necessity 
of  idea;  but  the  grandeur  of  the  scheme  and  nobility  of  thought 
is  already  that  for  which  Handd  so  often  in  later  years  found 
the  simplest  and  easiest  adequate  means  of  expresskm  thai 
music  has  ever  attained.    His  eminently  practical  genius  sooa 
formed  his  vocal  style,  and  long  before  the  period  of  his  great 
oratorios,  such  works  as  The  Birthday  Ode  far  Queen  Anme  (171^) 
and  the  Utrecht  Te  Dewm.show  not  a  trace  of  German  extra- 
vagance.   The  only  drawback  to  his  practical  genius  was  that 
it  led  him  to  bury  perhaps  half  of  his  finest  melodies,  and  nearly 
all  the  secular  features  of  interest  in  his  treatment  of  instramcnts 
and  of  the  aria  forms,  in.  that  deplorable  limbo  of  vanity,  th? 
18th-century  Italian  opera.    It  is  not  true,  as  has  been  alleged 
against  him,  that  his  operas  are  in  no  way  superior  to  those  cf 
his  contemporaries;  but  neither  is  it  true  that  he  stirred  a  ficger 
to  improve  the  condition  of  dramatic  musical  art.    He  was  tm 
slave  to  singers,  as  is  amply  testified  by  many  anecdotes.    Nor 
was  be  bound  by  the  operatic  conventions  of  the  time.    In  Tesci? 
he  not  only  wrote  an  opera  in  five  acts  when  custom  prescribed 
three,  but  also  broke  a  much  more  plausible  rule  in  ajranp^rg 
that  each  character  should  have  two  arias  in  succession.    Hf 
also  showed  a  feeling  for  expression  and  style  which  led  hin  t-> 
write  arias  of  types  which  singers  might  not  expect.    But  he 
never  made  any  innovation  which  had  the  slightest  bcarini;  i'(  '.'n 
the  stage-craft  of  opera,  for  he  never  concerned  himsdf  with  ^r  > 
artistic  question  beyond  the  matter  in  hand;  and  the  matter 
in  hand  was  not  to  make  dramatic  music,  or  to  make  the  story 
interesting  or  intdligible,  but  simply  to  provide  a  coBcrrt  <  i 
between  some  twenty  and  thirty  Italian  arias  and  duets,  wHerrln 
singers  could  display  thdrabilitiesand  spectators  find  dbtractk-a 
from  the  monotony  of  so  large  a  dose  of  the  aria  fonn  (wk<cb 


HANDEL 


913 


i  then  the  only  possibility  for  lolo  vocal  music)  in  the  gorgeous- 
ness  of  the  dresses  and  scenery. 

When  the  question  arose  how  a  musical  entertainment  of 
this  kind  could  be  managed  in  Lent  without  protests  from  the 
bishop  of  London,  Handellan  oratorio  came  into  being  as  a 
matter  of  course.  But  though  Handel  was  an  opportunist 
he  was  not  shallow.  His  artistic  sense  seized  upon  the  natural 
possibilities  which  arose  as  soon  as  the  music  was  transferred 
from  the  stage  to  the  concert  platform;  and  his  first  English 
oratorio,  Esther  {1720),  beautifully  shows  the  transition.  The 
subject  is  as  nearly  secular  as  any  that  can  be  extracted  from 
the  Bible,  and  the  treatment  was  based  on  Racine'a  Esther, 
which  was  much  discussed  at  the  time.  Handel's  oratorio 
was  reproduced  in  an  enlarged  version  in  1733  at  the  King's 
theatre:  the  princess  royal  wished  for  scenery  and  action,  but 
the  bishop  6f  London  protested.  And  the  choruses,  of  which 
in  the  first  version  there  are  already  no  less  than  ten,  are  on  the 
one  hand  operatic  and  unecclesiastical  in  expression,  until  the 
last,  where  polyphonic  work  on  a  large  scale  first  appears;  but 
on  the  other  hand  they  are  all  much  too  long  to  be  sung  by  heart, 
as  is  necessary  in  operas.  In  fact,  the  turning-point  in  Handel's 
development  is  the  emancipation  of  the  chorxis  from  theatrical 
limitations.  This  had  as  great  effect  upon  his  few  but  important 
secular  English  works  as  upon  his  other  oratorios.  Acis  and 
CalcteOt  Semele  and  HerculeSf  are  in  fact  secular  oratorios; 
the  choral  music  in  them  is  not  ecclesiastical,  but  it  is  large, 
independent  and  polyphonic. 

We  must  remember,  then,  that  Handel's  scheme  of  oratorio 
IS  operatic  in  its  origin  and  has  no  historic  connexion  with 
such  principles  as  might  have  been  generalized  from  the  practice 
of  the  German  Passion  music  of  the  time;  and  it  is  sufficiently 
astonishing  that  the  chorus  should  have  so  readily  assumed  its 
proper  place  in  a  scheme  which  the  public  certainly  regarded 
as  a  sort  of  Lenten  biblical  opera.  And,  although  the  chorus 
owes  its  freedom  of  development  to  the  disappearance  of 
theatrical  necessities,  it  becomes  no  less  powerful  as  a  means  of 
dramatic  expression  (as  opposed  to  dramatic  action)  than  as  a 
purely  musical  resource.  Already  in  Alkalia  the  "  Hallelujah  " 
chorus  at  the  end  of  the  first  act  is  a  marvel  of  dramatic  truth. 
It  is  sung  by  Israelites  almost  in  despair  beneath  usurping 
tyranny;  and  accordingly  it  is  a  severe  double  fugue  in  a  minor 
key,  expressive  of  devout  courage  at  a  moment  of  depression. 
On  purely  musical  grounds  it  is  no  less  powerful  in  throwing 
into  the  highest  possible  relief  the  ecstatic  solemnity  of  the  psalm 
with  which  the  second  act  opens.  Now  this  sombre  "  Hallelujah  " 
chorus  is  a  very  convenient  illustration  of  Handel's  originality, 
and^he  point  in  which  his  creative  power  really  lies.  It  was  not 
originally  written  for  its  situation  in  Alhalia,  but  it  was  chosen 
for  it.  It  was  originally  the  last  chorus  of  the  second  version 
of  the  anthem,  As  pants  the  Hart,  from  the  autograph  of  Which 
it  is  missing  because  Handel  cut  out  the  last  pages  in  order  to 
insert  them  into  the  manuscript  of  Atkalia.  The  inspiration 
in  Athalia  thus  lies  not  in  the  creation  of  the  chorus  itself,  but 
in  the  choice  of  it. 

In  choral  music  Handel  made  no  more  innovation  than  he 
made  in  arias.  His  sense  of  fitness  in  expression  was  of  little 
use  to  him  in  opera,  because  opera  could  not  become  dramatic 
until  musical  form  became  capable  of  developing  and  blending 
emotions  in  all  degrees  of  climax  in  a  way  that  may  be  described 
as  pictorial  and  not  merely  decorative  (see  Music;  Sonata- 
FoRUS;  and  iNSTRUUENTAnON).  But  in  oratorio  there  was 
not  the  least  necessity  for  reforming  any  art-forms.  The  ordinary 
choral  resources  of  the  time  had  perfect  expressive  possibilities 
where  there  were  no  actors  to  keep  waiting,  and  where  no  dresses 
and  scenery  need  distract  the  attention  of  the  listener.  When 
lastly,  ordinary  decorum  dictated  an  attitude  of  reverent 
attention  towards  the  subject  of  the  oratorio,  then  the  man  of 
genius  could  find  such  a  scope  for  his  real  sense  of  dramatic 
fitness  as  would  make  his  work  immortal. 

In  estimating  Handel's  greatness  we  must  think  away  all 
orthodox  musical  and  progressive  prejudices,  and  learn  to  apply 
the  lessons  critics  of  architecture  and  some  critics  of  literature 


seem  to  know  by  nature.  Originality,  in  music  as  in  other  arts, 
lies  in  the  whole,  and  in  a  sense  of  the  true  meaning  of  every 
part.  When  Handel  wrote  a  normal  double  fugue  in  a  minor 
key  on  the  word  "  Hallelujah "  he  showed  that  he  at  all  events 
knew  what  a  vigorous  and  dignified  thing  an  iSth-century  double 
fugue  could  be.  In  putting  it  at  the  end  of  a  melancholy  psalm 
he  showed  his  sense  of  the  value  of  the  minor  mode.  When  he 
put  it  in  its  situation  in  Atkalia  he  showed  as  perfect  a  sense  of 
dramatic  and  musical  fitness  as  could  well  be  found  in  art.  Now 
it  i^  obvious  that  in  works  like  oratorios  (which  are  dramatic 
schemes  vigorously  but  loosely  organized  by  the  putting  together 
of  some  twenty  or  thirty  complete  pieces  of  music)  the  proper 
conception  of  originality  will  be  very  different  from  that  which 
animates  the  composer  of  modern  lyric,  operatic  or  symphonic 
music  When  we  add  to  this  the  diaracteristics  of  a  method 
like  Handel's,  in  which  musical  technique  has  become  a  masterly 
automatism,  it  becomes  evident  that  our  conception  of  originality 
must  be  at  least  as  broad  as  that  which  we  would  apply  in  the 
criticism  of  architecture.  The  disadvantages  of  the  want  of 
such  a  conception  have  been  aggravated  by  the  dearth  of  general 
knowledge  of  the  structure  of  musical  art;  a  knowledge  which 
shows  that  the  parallel  we  have  suggested  between  music  and 
architecture,  as  regards  the  nature  of  originality,  is  no  mere 
figure  of  speech. 

In  every  art  there  is  an  antithesis  between  form  and  matter, 
which  becomes  reconciled  only  when  the  work  of  art  is  perfect 
in  its  execution.  And,  whatever  this  perfection,  the  antithesis 
must  always  remain  in  the  mind  of  the  artist  and  critic  to  this 
extent,  that  some  part  of  the  material  seems  to  be  the  qpecial 
subject  of  technical  rule  rather  than  another.  In  the  plastic  and 
literary  arts  one  type  of  this  antithesis  is  more  or  less  permanently 
maintained  in  the  relation  between  subject  and  treatment;  The 
mere  fact  that  these  arts  express  themselves  by  representing 
things  that  have  some  previous  independent  existence,  helps 
us  to  look  for  originality  rather  in  the  things  that  make  for 
perfection  of  treatment  than  in  novelty  of  subject.  But  in  music 
we  have  no  permanent  means  of  deciding  which  of  many  aspects 
we  shall  call  the  subject  and  which  the  treatment.  In  the  i6lh 
century  the  a  priori  form  existed  mainly  in  the  practice  of  basing 
almost  every  melodic  detail  of  the  work  on  phrases  of  Gregorian 
chant  or  popular  song,  treated  for  the  most  part  in  terms  of 
very  definitely  regulated  polyphonic  design,  and  on  harmonic 
principles  regulated  in  almost  every  detail  by  the  relation  between 
the  melodic  aspects  of  the  church  modes  and  the  necessity  for 
occasional  alterations  of  the  strict  mode  to  secure  finality  at 
the  close.  In  modem  music  such  a  relation  between  form  and 
matter,  prescribing  as  it  does  for  every  aspect  at  every  moment 
both  of  the  shape  and  the  texture  of  the  music,  would  exclude 
the  element  of  invention  altogether.  In  16th-century  music  it 
by  no  means  had  that  effect.  An  inventive  i6th<entury  com- 
poser is  as  clearly  distinguishable  from  a  dull  one  as  a  good 
architect  from  a  bad.  The  originality  of  the  composer  resides, 
in  f6th-€entury  music  as  in  all  art,  in  his  whole  work;  but 
naturally  his  conception  of  property  and  ideas  will  not  extend 
to  themes  or  isolated  passages.  That  man  is  entitled  to  an  idea 
who  can  show  what  it  means,  or  who  can  make  it  mean  what 
be  likes.  Let  him  wear  the  giant's  robe  if  it  fits  him.  And  it 
is  merely  a  local  difference  in  pmnt  of  view  which  makes  us  think 
that  there  is  property  in  themes  and  no  property  in  forms. 
Nowadays  we  happen  to  regard  the  shape  of  a  whole  composition 
as  its  form,  and  its  theme  as  its  matter.  And,  as  artistic 
organization  becomes  more  complex  and  heterogeneous,  the 
need  of  the  broadest  and  most  forcible  possible  outline  of  design 
is  more  pressingiy  felt;  so  that  in  what  we  choose  to  call  form 
we  are  willing  to  sacrifice  all  conception  of  originality  for  the 
sake  of  general  intelligibility,  while  we  insist  upon  coro|4ete 
originality  in  those  thematic  details  which  we  are  fdcased  to 
call  matter.  But,  if  this  explains,  it  does  not  excuse  our  setting 
up  a  criterion  for  musical  originality  which  can  be  accepted  by 
no  intelligent  critics  of  other  arts,  and  which  is  completdy  upset 
by  the  study  of  any  music  earlier  than  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century. 


912 

In  IlKte,  (reed  Ii 


A  Euturalized  EpgUihi 


at  Oitord, 
cboruso  & 
(I7J8); 


19  o[  the  stage,  Ij^ 

aaal  taJcntp    In  ij26  Handfl  h, 

il  English  lejrts  by  pcodudng 
il  Eilktr  »t  the  King'i  thealre. 
ytu  by  Deborak, 
In  July' 


The  Uatiak  *u  prodUMd  »t  Dublin  on  the  ijth  o(  Aj 
1J4J.  5<niu«(whichHiioddpteftmsHc.thelfeiJio*)appr^-'' 
■t  Tjivcnt  Cuden  nn  the  md  ol  Much  1144;  BiUkaaar 

,  J7lho[  Much  ij4S;theOctajHn«iiOrjro'. 
(diiefly'i  compilition  of  the  eatlici  otiiorios,  but  with  i.  (r" 
Impottint  new  numbtra).  on  tbt  14th  of  Ftbnuuy  1746 
Covenl  Garden,  wheic  »U  hia  liter  oratorioi  nn  producc.t. 
Jadai  Maccabaaa  on  the  ill  o(  April  1747;  ^mKo  on  Ihe  91I1 

1748;  Alaaiida  Baiui  00  the  jjtd  of  Much  1748.  ■ 
So^mwii  on  the  i7lh  of  Mitcli  1749;  SasanM.  spring  of 
Tktodera,  1  greal  fivouritt  of  Han.^  " 

*'''"'fai(ilrictly»pc.  -  rfilh  of  Ftbniaty 

I7SI,  «id  Tht  Ttlii 
tl  Trimfo  id  Ump, 
DUBben),  I7S7.    O 

L'Aatm,  a  tcnnaoso  rd  il  mafci-jJo  (Lhi 
by  Jeomni),  1740:  Scmclr,  i-,ii,;  He 
Ckaiu  0/  Hercala,  17JI. 

By  degree*  the  enmily  against  llandi 
bid  many  troul 
ior,  aiihough  he 

WJLS  posuble  (or  hia  enemies  lo  give 
nighu  ol  his  oratorio  perlginiantes 

inbislaler 
in  diiehirgiag  hii  de 
end  ol  bb  life.     Ki 
financial  position  by  Ehe  yi 
good  deal    ' 


914 


HANDEL 


The  difficulty  many  wriien  have  found  in  explaining  the 
subject  of  Handel's  "plagiarisms"  is  not  entirely  accounted 
for  by  mere  lack  of  these  considerations;  but  the  grossest  con- 
fusion of  ideas  as  to  the  difference  between  cases  in  point  prevails 
to  this  day,  and  many  discussions  which  have  been  raised  in 
regard  to  the  ethical  aspect  of  the  question  are  frankly  absurd.V 
It  has  been  argued,  for  instance,  that  great  injustice  was  done 
to  Buononcini  over  his  unfortunate  affair  with  the  prize  madrigal, 
while  his  great  rival  was  allowed  the  credit  of  Israd  in  Egypt, 
which  contains  a  considerable  number  of  entire  choruses  (besides 
hosts  of  themes)  by  earlier  Italian  and  German  writers.  But 
the  very  idea  of  Handelian  oratorio  is  that  of  some  three  hours 
of  music,  religious  or  secular,  arranged,  like  opera,  in  the  form  of 
a  colossal  entertainment,  and  with  high  dramatic  and  emotional 
interest  imparted  to  it,  if  not  by  the  telling  of  a  story,  at  all 
events  by  the  nature  and  development  of  the  subject.  It  seems, 
moreover,  to  be  entirely  overlooked  that  the  age  was  an  age  of 
pasticcios.  Nothing  was  more  common  than  the  organization 
of  some  such  solemn  entertainment  by  the  skilful  grouping  of 
favourite  pieces.  Handd  himself  never  revived  one  of  his 
oratorios  without  inserting  in  it  favourite  pieces  from  his  other 
works  as  well  as  several  new  numbers;  and  the  story  is  well 
known  that  the  turning  point  in  Gluck's  career  was  his  perception 
of  the  true  possibilities  of  dramatic  music  from  the  failure  of  a 
pasiiuio  in  which  he  had  reset  some  rather  definitely  expressive 
music  to  situations  for  which  it  was  not  oripnally  dc»gncd. 
The  success  of  an  oratorio  was  due  to  the  appropriateness  of  its 
contrasts,  together  oi  course  with  the  mastery  of  its  detail, 
whether  that  detail  were  new  or  old;  and  there  are  many 
gradations  between  a  r6chauff6  of  an  early  work  like  The  Triumph 
of  Time  and  Truth,  or  a  pasticcio  with  a  few  original  numbers 
like  the  Occasional  Oratorio,  and  such  works  as  Samson,  which 
was  entirely  new  except  that  the  "  Dead  March  "  first  written 
for  it  was  immediately  rcpbced  by  the  more  famous  one  imported 
from  Saul.  That  the  idea  of  the  pasticcio  was  extremely  familiar 
to  the  age  is  shown  by  the  practice  of  announcing  an  oratorio 
as  "  new  and  original,"  a  term  which  would  obviously  be  mean- 
ingless if  it  were  as  much  a  matter  of  course  as  it  is  at  the  present 
day,  and  which,  if  used  at  all,  must  obviously  so  apply  to  the 
whole  work  without  forbidding  the  composer  from  gratifying 
the  public  with  the  reproduction  of  one  or  two  favourite  arias. 
But  of  course  the  question  of  originality  becomes  more  serious 
when  the  imported  numbers  are  not  the  composer's  own.  And 
here  it  is  very  noticeable  that  Handel  derived  no  credit,  either 
with  his  own  public  or  with  us,  from  whole  movements  that  are 
not  of  his  own  designing.  In  Israel  in  Egypt,  the  choruses 
"  Egypt  was  glad  when  they  departed,"  "  And  I  will  exalt  Him," 
"  Thou  sentest  forth  Thy  Wrath  "  and  "  The  Earth  swallowed 
them,"  are  without  exception  the  most  colourless  and 
unattractive  pieces  of  severe  counterpoint  to  be  found  among 
Handel's  works;  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  fathom  his  motive  in 
copying  them  from  obscure  pieces  by  Erba  and  Kaspar  Kerl, 
unless  it  be  that  he  wished  to  train  his  audiences  to  a  better 
understanding  of  a  polyphonic  style.  He  certainly  felt  that 
the  greatest  possibilities  of  music  lay  in  the  higher  choral  poly- 
phony, and  so  in  Israel  in  Egypt  he  designed  a  work  consisting 
almost  entirely  of  choruses,  and  may  have  wished  in  these 
instances  for  severe  contrapuntal  movements  which  he  had  not 
time  to  write,  though  he  could  have  done  them  far  better  himself. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  these  choruses  have  certainly  added  nothing 

*  The  "  moral  question  has  been  raised  afresh  in  reviews  ol 
Mr  Sedley  Taylor's  admirable  volume  of  analysed  illustrations  {The 
Indebtedness  of  Handel  to  works  of  other  Composers,  Cambridge,  1906). 
The  latest  argument  is  that  Handel  shows  moral  obliquity  in  borrow- 
ing "  regrettably  "  from  sources  no  one  could  know  at  the  time. 
This  reasoning  makes  it  mysterious  that  a  man  of  such  moral 
obliauity  should  ever  have  written  a  note  of  his  own  muMC  in 
Englancl  when  he  could  have  stolen  the  complete  choral  works  of 
Bach  and  most  of  the  hundred  operas  of  Alessandro  Scarlatti  with 
the  certainty  that  the  sources  would  not  be  printed  for  a  century 
after  his  death,  even  if  his  own  name  did  not  then  check  curiosity 
among  antiquarians.  Of  course  Handel's  plagiarisms  would  have 
damaged  his  reputation  if  contemporaries  had  known  of  them.  Hb 
polyphonic  scholarship  was  more  antiquated  "  in  the  i8tb  century 
than  it  u  in  the  20th. 


to  the  popularity  of  a  work  of  which  the  public  from  die  oatsct 
complained  that  there  was  not  enou^  u^  music;  and  what 
effect  they  have  is  merely  to  throw  Handel's  own  style  into 
relief.  To  draw  any  parallel  between  the  theft  of  sach  unat- 
tractive detaib  in  the  grand  and  intensdy  HandeUan  scheme 
of  Israd  in  Egypt  and  Buononctni's  allied  theft  of  a  priae 
nukdrigal  is  merdy  ridiculous.  Haodd  himself,  if  he  bad  any 
suspicion  that  contemporaries  did  not  take  a  sane  architect's 
view  of  the  originality  of  large  musical  schemes,*  probably  gave 
himself  no  more  trouble  about  their  scruples  on  this  matter  than 
about  other  forms  of  musical  banality. 

The  Hilary  of  Music  by  Bumey,  the  cleverest  and  OMSt 
refined  musical  critic  of  the  age,  shows  in  the  very  freshness  of 
its  musical  scholarship  how  completdy  unsch<^riy  were  the 
musical  ideas  of  the  time.  Bumey  was  incapable  of  regarding 
choral  music  as  other  than  a  highly  improving  academic  exercise 
in  which  he  himself  was  proficient;  and  for  him  Handel  is  the 
great  opera-writer  whose  choral  music  will  reward  the  study 
of  the  curioos.  If  Handel  had  attempted  to  ezplaia  his 
methods  to  the  musicians  of  his  age,  he  would  probably  have 
found  himself  alone  in  his  opinions  as  to  the  property  of 
musical  ideas.  He  did  not  trouble  to  explain,  but  be  made  no 
concealment  of  his  sources.  He  left  his  whole  musical  lilvary 
to  his  copyist,  and  it  was  from  this  that  the  sources  of 
his  work  were  discovered.  And  when  the  whole  series  of 
pla^risms  is  studied,  the  fact  forces  itself  upon  us  that  nothing 
except  themes  and  forms  which  are  common  pxop^ty  in  all 
z8lh-century  music,  has  yet  been  discovered  as  the  source  of  any 
work  of  Handd's  which  is  not  fdt  as  part  of  a  larger  design. 
Operatic  arias  were  never  felt  as  parts  of  a  whole.  The  open 
was  a  concert  on  the  stage,  and  it  stood  or  fell,  not  by  a  dramatic 
propriety  which  it  notoriously  neglected  to  ocMisidcr  at  all, 
but  by  the  popubrity  of  \Xi  ariaa.  There  is  no  aria  in  Haadd's 
operas  which  is  traceable  to  another  composer.  Even  in  the 
oratorios  there  is  no  solo  number  in  which  more  than  the  themes 
are  pilfered,  for  in  oratorios  the  solo  work  still  appealed  to 
the  popular  criterion  of  novelty  and  individual  attractiveness. 
And  when  we  leave  the  question  of  copying  of  whole  loovem^ts 
and  come  to  that  of  the  adaptation  of  passages,  and  stUI  more 
of  themes,  Handel  shows  himself  to  be  simfdy  on  a  line  with 
Mozart.  Jahn  compares  the  opening  of  Mozart's  Requiem  wiih 
that  of  the  first  chorus  in  Handel's  Funeral  Anthem,  Mozart 
recreates  at  least  as  much  from  Handel's  already  perfect  frames 
work  as  Handd  ever  idealized  from  the  inorganic  fragments 
of  earlier  writers.  The  double  counterpoint  of  the  Kyrie  in 
Mozart's  Requiem  is  stiU  more  indisput^ly  identical  wiUi  that 
of  the  last  chorus  of  Handel's  Joseph,  and  if  the  themes  are 
common  property  their  combination  certainly  is  not.  But  the 
true  plagiarfot  is  the  man  who  does  not  know  the  meaning  of 
the  ideas  he  copies,  and  the  true  creator  is  he  in  whose  hands  they 
remain  or  become  true  ideas.  The  theme  "  He  led  them  fi»th 
like  sheep  "  in  the  chorus  "  But  as  for  his  people  "  is  one  oC  the 
most  beautiful  in  Handd's  works,  and  the  bare  statement  that  it 
comes  from'  a  serenata  by  Stradella  seems  at  first  rather  shocking. 
But,  to  any  one  who  knew  Straddla's  treatment  of  it  first, 
Handd's  would  come  as  a  revelation  actually  greater  than  if  he 
had  never  heard  the  theme  before.  Straddla  makes  nothing 
more  of  it,  and  therefore  presumably  sees  nothing  more  in  it 
than  an  agreeable  and  essentially  frivolous  litUe  tune  which 
lends  itself  to  comic  dramatic  purpose  by  a  wearisome  repccitioo 
throughout  eight  pages  of  patdiy  aria  and  instrumental  ritomcQo 
at  an  ever-increasing  pace.  What  Handd  sees  in  it  is  what  he 
makes  of  it,  one  of  the  most  solemn  and  poetic  things  in  musir. 
Again,  it  may  be  very  shocking  to  discover  that  the  famocs 
opening  of  the  "  Hailstone  chorus  "  comes  from  the  patchy  and 
facetious  overture  to  this  same  serenata,  with  which  it  is  identical 
for  ten  bars  all  in  the  tonic  chord  (representing,  according 
to  Straddla,  someone  knocking  at  a  door).  And  it  b  no  doubt 
yet  more  shocking  that  the  chorus  "  He  spake  the  word,  and 

*  Much  light  would  be  thrown  on  the  subject  if  some  one  ssifBcxady 
ignorant  of  architecture  were  to  make  researches  into  Sir  Chriatopfaer 
Wren's  indebtedness  to  Italian  architecu! 


HANDFASTING— HANDICAP 


915 


there  came  all  manner  of  flies  "  contains  no  idea  of  Handel's 
own  except  the  realistic  swarming  violin-passages,  the  general 
structure,  and  the  vocal  colouring;  whereas  the  rhythmic  and 
melodic  figures  of  the  voice  parts  come  from  an  equally  patchy 
sinfonia  concerUOa  in  Stradella's  work.  The  real  interest  of 
these  things  ought  not  to  be  denied  either  by  the  misstatement 
that  the  materials  adapted  are  mere  common  property,  nor  by 
the  calumny  that  Handel  was  uninventive. 

The  effects  of  Handel's  original  inspiration  upon  foreign 
material  are  really  the  best  indication  of  the  range  of  his  style. 
The  comic  meaning  of  the  broken  rhythm  of  Stradella's  overture 
becomes  indeed  Handel's  inspiration  in  the  light  of  the  gigantic 
tone-picture  of  the  "  Hailstone  (*horus."  In  the  theme  of  "  He 
led  them  forth  like  sheep  "  we  have  already  cited  a  particular 
case  where  Handel  perceived  great  solenmity  in  a  theme 
originally  intended  to  be  frivolous.  The  converse  process  is 
equally  instructive.  In  the  short  Carillon  choruses  in  Saul 
where  the  Israelitish  women  welcome  David  after  his  victory 
over  Goliath,  Handel  uses  a  delightful  instrumental  tune  which 
stands  at  the  beginning  of  a  Te  Deum  by  Urio,  from  which  he 
borrowed  an  enormous  amount  of  material  in  Saul,  VAlUgro, 
the  Dettingen  te  Deum  and  other  works.  Urio's  idea  is  first  to 
make  a  jubilant  and  melodious  noise  from  the  lower  register  of 
the  strings,  and  then  to  bring  out  a  flourish  of  high  trumpets  as 
a  contrast.*  He  has  no  other  use  for  his  beautiful  tune,  which 
indeed  would  not  bear  more  elaborate  treatment  than  he  gives  it. 
The  ritomello  falls  into  statement  and  counterstatement,  and 
the  counterstatement  secures  one  repetition  of  the  tune,  after 
which  no  more  is  heard  of  it.  It  has  none  of  the  solemnity  of 
church  music,  and  its  value  as  a  contrast  to  the  flourish  of 
trumpets  depends,  not  upon  itself,  but  upon  its  position  in  the 
orchestra.  Handel  did  not  see  in  it  a  fine  opening  for  a  great 
ecclesiastical  work,  but  he  saw  in  it  an  admirable  expression  of 
popular  jubilation,  and  he  understood  how  to  bring  out  its 
character  with  the  liveliest  sense  of  climax  and  dramatic  interest 
by  taking  it  at  its  own  value  as  a  popular  tune.  So  he  uses  it  as 
an  instrumental  interiude  accompanied  with  a  jingle  of  carillons, 
while  the  daughters  of  Israel  sing  to  a  square-cut  tune  those 
praises  of  David  which  aroused  the  jealousy  of  SauL  But  now 
turn  to  the  <q;>ening  of  the  Dettingen  Te  Deum  and  see  what 
splendid  tise  is  made  of  the  other  side  of  Urio's  idea,  the  contrast 
between  a  jubilant  noise  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  soUe  and  the 
blaze  of  trumpets  at  an  extreme  height.  In  the  fourth  bar  of 
the  Dettingen  Te  Deum  we  find  the  same  florid  trumpet  figures 
as  we  find  in  the  fifth  bar  of  Urio's,  but  at  the  first  moment  they 
are  on  oboes.  The  first  four  bars  beat  a  tattoo  on  the  tonic 
and  dominant,  with  the  whole  orchestra,  including  trumpets 
and  drums,  in  the  lowest  possible  position  and  in  a  stirring 
rhythm  with  a  boldness  and  simplicity  characteristic  only  of 
a  stroke  of  genius.  Then  the  oboes  appear  with  Urio's  trumpet 
flourishes;  the  momentary  contrast  is  at  least  as  brilliant 
as  Urio's;  and  as  the  oboes  are  immediately  followed  by  the 
same  figures  on  the  trumpets  themselves  the  contrast  gains 
incalculably  in  subtlety  and  climax.  Moreover,  these  flourishes 
are  more  mekxlious  than  the  broad  and  massive  opening,  instead 
of  being,  as  in  Urio's  scheme,  incomparably  less  so.  Lastly, 
Handel's  primitive  opening  rhythmic  figures  inevitably  underlie 
every  subsequent  inner  part  and  bass  that  occurs  at  every 
half  close  and  full  close  throughout  the  movement,  especially 
where  the  trumpets  are  used.  And  thus  every  detail  of  his 
scheme  is  rendered  alive  with  a  rhythmic  significance  which 
the  elementary  nature  of  the  theme  prevents  from  ever  becoming 
obtrusive. 

No  other  great  composer  has  ever  so  overcrowded  his  life 
with  occasional  and  mechanical  work  as  Handel,  and  in  no  other 
artist  are  the  qualities  that  make  the  difference  between  inspired 
and  uninspired  pages  more  difficult  to  analyse.  The  libretti 
of  his  oratorios  are  full  of  absurdities,  except  when  they  are 
derived  in  every  detail  from  Scripture,  as  in  the  Messiah  and 
Israel  in  Egypt,  or  from  the  classics  of  English  literature,  as  in 
Samson  and  L  Allegro.  These  absurdities,  and  the  obvious  fact 
that  in  every  oratorio  Handel  writes  many  more  numbers  than 


are  desirable  for  one  performance,  and  that  he  was  continually 

in  later  performances  adding,  transferring  and  cutting  out 

solo  numbers  and  often  choruses  as  well — ^aU  this  may  seem  at 

first  sight  to  militate  seriously  against  the  view  that  Handel's 

originality  and  greatness  consists  in  his  grasp  of  the  works  as 

wholes,  but  in  reality  it  strengthens  that  view.    These  things 

militate  against  the  perfection  of  the  whole,  but  they  would 

have  been  absolutely  fatal  to  a  work  of  which  the  whole  is  not 

(as  in  all  true  art)  greater  than  the  turn  of  its  parts.  That  they 

are  felt  as  absurdities  and  defects  already  shows  that  Handel 

created  in  English  oratorio  a  true  art-form  on  the  largest  possible 

scale. 

There  never  has  been  a  time  when  Handel  has  been  overrated, 

except  in  so  far  as  other  composers  have  been  neglected.   But 

no  composer  has  suffered  so  much  from  pious  misinterpretation 

and  the  popular  admiration  of  misleading  externals.  It  is  not  the 

place  here  to  dilate  upon  the  burial  of  Handel's  art  beneath  the 

*'  mammoth  "  performances  of  the  Handel  Festivals  at  the 

Crystal  Palace;  nor  can  we  give  more  than  a  passing  reference 

to  the  effects  of  "  additional  accompaniments  "  in  the  style  of  an 

altogether  later  age,  started  most  unfortunately  by  Mozart 

(whose  share  in  the  work  has  been  very  much  misinterpreted 

and  corrupted)  and  continued  in  the  middle  of  the  XQth  century 

by  musicians  of  every  degree  of  intelligence  and  refinement,  until 

aU  sense  of  unity  of  style  has  been  lost  and  does  not  seem  Ukely 

to  be  recovered  as  a  general  element  in  the  popular  appreciation 

of  Handel  for  some  time  to  come.   But  in  spite  of  this,  Handel 

will  never  cease  to  be  revered  and  loved  as  one  of  the  greatest 

of  composers,  if  we  value  the  criteria  of  architectonic  power, 

a  perfect  sense  of  style,  and  the  power  to  rise  to  the  most  sublime 

height  of  musical  climax  by  the  simplest  means. 

Handd's  important  works  have  all  been  mentioned  above  with 
their  dates,  and  a  separate  detailed  list  docs  not  seem  necewary. 
He  was  an  extreitiely  rapid  worker,  and  his  later  works  are  dated 
almost  day  by  day  as  tney  proceed.  From  this  we  learn  that  the 
Messiah  was  sketched  and  scored  within  twenty-one  days,  and  that 
even  Jephlha,  .with  an  interruption  of  neariy  four  months  besidM 
several  other  delays  caused  by  Handel's  failing  sight,  was  begun  and 
finished  within  icven  months,  representing  hardly  five  weeks  actual 
writing.  Handel's  exunt  works  ruty  be  roughly  summarised  from 
the  ^tion  of  the  HdnJelgesellschafi  as  41  Italian  operasf  2  Italian 
oratorios,  3  German  Passions,  18  English  oratorios,  a  English  secular 
oratorios,  4  English  secular  cantaus,  and  a  few  other  small  works, 
English  and  lulian,  of  the  type  of  oratorio  or  incidental  dramatic 
music;  3  Utin  settings  of  the  Te  Deum;  the  (English)  Dettingen 
Te  Deum  and  Utrecht  Te  Deum  and  Jubilate;  4  coronation  anthems: 

L volumes  of  English  anthems  (Chaudos  Anthems):  I  volume  of 
ktin  church  music;  3  volumes  of  Italian  vocal  chamber-music; 
1  volume  of  clavier  works;  37  instrumenul  ducts  and  trios  ^sonatas), 
and  4  volumes  of  orchestral  music  and  orpn  concertos  (about  40 
works).    Precise  figures  are  impossible  as  there  is  no  means  of  draw- 
ing the  line  between  pojltfaoi  and  original  works.    The  instrumental 
pieces  especially  ate  used  again  and  again  as  overtures  to  operas  and 
■oratorios  and  anthems.        ^    .     _  .......*• 

The  complete  edition  of  the  Gennan  Hdndelgesettschaft  tuStn 
from  being  the  work  of  one  roan  who  would  not  recognise  that  his 
task  was  beyond  any  single  roan's  power.  The  best  arrangements 
of  the  vocal  scores  are  undoubtedly  those  published  by  Novcllp 
that  ai«  not  based  on  "additional  accompaniments.  None  is 
abK>lutely  trustworthy,  and  those  of  the  editor  of  the  Gennan 
HAnddgesettsehaft  are  sad  proofs  of  the  usdessness  of  expert  libranr- 
•cholanhip  without  a  sound  musical  training.  Yet^  Chrysander  s 
services  in  the  restoration  of  Handd  are  beyond  praise.  We  need 
only  mention  hb  discovery  of  authentic  trombone  parts  in  /»wj 
til  Etipt  at  one  among  many  of  his  pricdeBS  contributions  to  miuical 
history  and  aesthetics.  (D.  F.  T.) 

HANDFASTmO  (A.S.  handfastnung,  pledging  one's  hand), 
primarily  the  O.  Eng.  synonym  for  betrothal  (q.v.),  and  later  a 
peculiar  form  of  temporary  marriage  at  one  time  common  in 
Scotbnd,  the  only  necessary  ceremony  being  the  verbal  pledge 
of  the  couple  while  holding  hands.  The  pair  thus  handfasted 
were,  in  accordance  with  Scotch  law,  entitled  to  live  together 
for  a  year  and  a  day.  If  then  they  so  wished,  the  temporary 
marriage  could  be  made  permanent;  if  not,  they  could  go  their 
several  ways  without  reproach,  the  child,  if  any,  bdng  supported 
by  the  party  who  objected  to  further  cohabitation. 

HANDICAP  (from  the  expression  hand  in  cap,  referring  to 
drawing  lou),  a  disadvantageous  conditbn  imposed  upon  the 


9i6 


HANDSEL— HANDWRITING 


tuperior  competitor  in  sports  and  games,  or  an  advantage 
allowed  the  inferior,  in  order  to  equalize  the  chances  of  both. 
The  character  of  the  handicap  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
sport.  Thus  in  horse-racing  the  better  bone  must  carry  the 
heavier  weight.  In  foot  races  the  inferior  runners  are  allowed 
to  start  at  certain  distances  in  advance  of  the  best  (or  "  scratch  ") 
man,  according  to  their  previous  records.  In  distance  competi- 
tions (weights,  fly-casting,  jumping,  &c.)  the  inferior  contestants 
add  certain  distances  to  their  scores.  In  time  contests  (yachting, 
canoe-racing,  &c.)  the  weaker  or  smaller  competitors  subtract 
certain  periods  of  time  from  that  actually  made,  reckoned  by 
the  mile.  In  stroke  contests  {e.g,  golf)  a  certain  number  of 
strokes  are  subtracted  from  or  added  to  the  scores,  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  players.'  In  chess  and  draughts  the 
stronger  competitor  may  play  without  one  or  more  pieces.  In 
court  games  (tennis,  lawn-tennis,  racquets,  &c.)  and  in  billiards 
certain  points,  or  percentage  of  points,  are  accorded  the  weaker 
players. 

Handicapping  was  applied  to  horse-racing  as  early  as  1680, 
though  the  word  was  not  used  in  this  connexion  much  before  the 
middle  of  the  i8th  century.  A  "  Post  and  Handy-Cap  Match  " 
is  described  in  Pond's  Racing  Calendar  for  1754.  A  reference 
to  something  similar  in  Germany  and  Scandinavia,  called 
Freimarkt,  may  be  found  in  Germaniaf  vol.  xiz. 

Competitions  in  which  handicaps  are  given  are  called  kandkap- 
evtnls  or  handicaps.  There  are  many  systems  which  depend 
upon  the  whim  of  the  individual  compctiton.  Thus  a  tennis 
player  may  offer  to  play  against  his  inferior  with  a  selzer-bottle 
instead  of  a  racquet;  or  a  golfer  to  play  with  only  one 
club;  or  a  chess-player  to  make  his  moves  without  seeing  the 
board. 

The  name  "  handicap  "  was  taken  from  an  ancient  English 
game,  to  which  Pepys,  in  his  Diary  under  the  date  of  the  i8th 
of  September  1660,  thus  refers:  "  Here  some  of  us  fell  to  handi- 
cap, a  sport  that  I  never  knew  before,  which  was  very  good." 
This  game,  which  became  obsolete  in  the  19th  century,  was 
described  as  early  as  the  X4th  in  Piers  the  Plowman  under  the 
name  of  "  New  Faire."  It  was  originally  played  by  three 
persons,  one  of  whom  proposed  to  "  challenge,"  or  exchange, 
some  piece  of  property  belonging  to  another  for  something  of 
his  own.  The  challenge  being  accepted  an  umpire  was  chosen, 
and  all  three  put  up  a  sum  of  money  as  a  forfeit.  The  two 
players  then  placed  their  right  hands  in  a  cap,  or  in  their  pockets, 
in  which  there  was  loose  money,  while  the  umpire  proceeded  to 
describe  the  two  objects  of  exchange,  and  to  declare  what  sum 
of  money  the  owner  of  the  inferior  article  should  pay  as  a  bonus 
to  'the  other.  This  declaration  was  made  as  rapidly  as  possible 
and  ended  with  the  invitation,  "  Draw,  gentlemen  1 "  Each 
player  then  withdrew  and  held  out  his  hand,  which  he  opened. 
If  both  hands  contained  money  the  exchange  was  effected 
according  to  the  conditions  laid  down  by  the  umpire,  who  then 
took  the  forfeit  money  for  himself.  If  neither  hand  contained 
money  the  exchange  was  declined  and  the  umpire  took  the 
forfeit  money.  If  only  one  player  signified  his  acceptance  of 
the  exchange  by  holding  money  in  his  hand,  he  was  entitled  to 
the  forfeit-money,  though  the  exchange  was  not  made. 

Handicap  was  also  the  name  of  an  old  game  at  cards,  now- 
obsolete.  It  resembled  the  game  of  Loo,  and  probably  derived 
its  name  from  the  ancient  sport  described  above. 

HANDSEL,  the  O.  Eng.  term  for  earnest  money;  especially 
in  Scotland  the  first  money  taken  at  a  market  or  fair.  The 
termination  sel  is  the  modem  "  sell."  "  Hand  "  indicates,  not 
a  bargain  by  shaking  hands,  but  the  actual  putting  of  the  money 
into  the  hand.  Handsels  were  also  presents  or  earnests  of  good- 
will in  the  North;  thus  Handsel  Monday,  the  first  Monday  in 
the  year,  an  occasion  for  universal  tipping,  is  the  equivalent  of 
the  English  Boxing  day. 

HANDSWORTH.  (i)  An  urban  district  in  the  Handsworth 
parliamentary  division  of  Staffordshire,  England,  suburban 
to  Birmingham  on  the  north-west.  Pop.  (1891),  32,756;  (1901) 
52,021.  (See  BixMiNGHAx.)  (2)  An  urban  district  in  the 
HaUamshire  parliamentary  division  of  Yorkshire,  4  m.  S.E. 


of  Sheffield.    Pop.  (1901),  13,404.    In  this  nd^iboarfaood  are 
extensive  collieries  and  quarries. 

HANDWRITING.  Under  Palaeocsaphy  and  Wkxiihc,  the 
history  of  handwriting  is  dealt  with.  Questions  of  handwriting 
come  before  legal  tribunals  mainly  in  connexion  with  the  law 
of  evidence.  In  Roman  law,  the  authenticity  of  documents 
was  proved  first  by  the  attesting  witnesses;  in  the  second  piace, 
if  they  were  dead,  by  compariscm  oi  lumdwritin^  It  was 
necessary,  however,  that  the  document  to  be  used  for  purposes 
of  comparison  either  should  have  been  executed  witli  the  for- 
malities of  a  public  document,  or  should  have  its  genuineness 
proved  by  three  attesting  witnesses.  The  determination  was 
apparently,  in  the  latter  case,  left  to  experts,  who  were  sworn 
to  give  an  impartial  opinion  (Code  4,  3X.  20).  Proof  by  com- 
parison of  handwritings,  with  a  reference  if  necessary  to  three 
experts  as  to  the  handwriting  which  is  to  be  used  lex  the  porposes 
of  comparison,  is  provided  for  in  the  French  Code  d  CvH 
Procedure  (arts.  193  et  seq.);  and  in  Quebec  (Code  Proc  Civ. 
arts.  393  et  seq.)  and  St  Luda  (Code  Civ.  Proc.  arts.  s86  et  acq.), 
the  French  system  has  been  adopted  with  modifications.  Com- 
parison by  witnesses  of  diq>uted  writings  with  any  writing 
proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  judge  to  be  genuine  is  accepted 
in  England  and  Ireland  in  all  legal  i»oceedingpi  whether  criminal 
or  dvil,  including  proceedings  before  ar^traton  (Denman 
Act,  38  &  39  Vict.  c.  18,  55.  z,  8);  and  such  writihgs  and  the 
evidence  of  witnesses  respecting  the  same  may  be  sabmittcd 
to  the  court  and  jury  as  evidence  of  the  genuineness  or  otherwise 
of  the  writing  in  dispute.  It  is  admitted  in  Scotland  (where  the 
term  comparatio  lilerantm  is  in  use)  and  in  most  of  the  Amcxkan 
states,  subject  to  the  same  conditions.  In  Engjaad,  prior  to 
the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act  of  1854  (now  superseded  fay 
the  act  of  1866),  documents  irrelevant  to  the  matter  in  issue 
were  not  admissible  for  the  sole  puxpoae  of  comparison,  and  this 
rule  has  been  adopted,  and  is  still  adhered  to,  in  aome  of  the 
states  in  America.  In  Eng^d,  as  in  the  United  States,  and  m 
most  legal  systems,  the  primary  and  best  evidenas  of  hand- 
writing is  that  of  the  writer  hixnsdf.  Witnesses  who  saw  him 
write  the  writing  in  question,  or  who  are  familiar  with  fats 
handwriting  either  from  having  seen  him  write  or  froin  having 
corresponded  with  him,  or  otherwise,  may  be  called.  In  cases 
of  disputed  handwriting  the  court  will  accept  the  evicfenoe  of 
experts  in  handwriting,  s.e.  persons  irho  have  an  adequate 
knowledge  of  handwriting,  whether  acquired  in  the  way  <rf  their 
business  or  not,  such  as  solicitors  or  bank  caahieta  (JL  v. 
SUverlocht  2894,  2  Q.B.  766).  In  such  cases  the  witness  b 
required  to  compare  the  admitted  handwriting  of  the  person 
whose  writing  is  in  question  with  the  diqntted  document,  and 
to  state  in  detail  the  similarities  or  differences  as  to  the  fonnatioB 
of  words  and  letters,  on  which  he  bases  his  <^>inion  as  to  the 
genuineness  or  otherwise  of  the  disputed  document.  By  the  use 
of  the  magnifying  glass,  or,  as  in  the  Pamell  case,  by  enlarged 
photographs  of  the  letters  alleged  to  have  been  written  byjlr 
Pamell,  the  court  and  jury  are  much  assisted  to  appireciate  the 
grounds  on  which  the  conclusions  of  the  expert  arc  founded. 
Evidence  of  this  kind,  being  based  on  opinion  and  theory, 
needs  to  be  very  carefully  weighed,  and  the  dangcn  of  impikii 
reliance  on  it  have  been  illustrated  in  many  cases  (e.f.  the 
Beck  case  in  1904;  and  see  Seaman  v.  Netherclift,  1876,  i 
C.P.D.  540).  Evidence  by  comparison  of  handwriting  couks 
in  principally  either  in  d^ault,  or  in  corroboration,  of  the  other 
modes  of  proof. 

Where  attestation  is  necessary  to  the  validity  of  a  document, 
e.g.  wills  and  bills  of  sale,  the  execution  must  be  proved  by  one 
or  more  of  the  attesting  witnesses,  unless  they  are  dead  or 
cannot  be  produced,  when  it  is  sufficient  to  prove  the  signature 
of  one  of  them  to  thie  attesting  clause  (s8  fr  39  Vict,  c  iS,  s.  7)- 
Signatures  to  certain  public  and  official  documents  need  not  in 
general  be  proved  (see  e.g.  Evidence  Act,  i^^,  ss.  x,  3). 

See  Taylor,  Law  of  Emdenee  (loth  ed..  London,  1906):  Enddw 
Principles  of  the  Law  of  Scotland  (20th  ed.,  Edinbun^fa,  looi): 
Bouvier,  Law  Diety.  (Boston  and  London,  1807):  Hams,  Jienh- 
flralion  (Albany.  1892):  Hagan.  Disputed  HanSmiUmg  (New  York. 
1894)  i  also  the  article  iDBMTincATioM.  (A.  W.  R.) 


HANG-CHOW-FU— HANGING 


917 


HANQ-GHOW-FU,  a  city  of  China,  in  the  province  of  Cheh- 
Kiang,  a  m.  N.W.  of  the  Tsien-tang-Kiang,  at  the  southern 
terminus  of  the  Grand  canal,  by  which  it  communicates  with 
Peking.  It  lies  about  xoo  m.  S.W.  of  Shanghai,  in  30^  20* 
W  N.,  X  20**  7'  37"  £.  Towards  the  west  ts  the  Si-hu  or  Western 
Lake,  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water,  with  its  banks  and  islands 
studded  with  villas,  monuments  and  gardens,  and  its  surface 
traversed  by  gaily-painted  pleasure  boats.  Exclusive  of  exten- 
sive and  flourishing  suburbs,  the  city  has  a  circuit  of  la  m.; 
its  streets  are  well  paved  and  clean;  and  it  possesses  a  large 
number  of  arches,  public  monuments,  temples,  hospitals  and 
colleges.  It  has  long  ranked  as  one  of  the  great  centres  of 
Chinese  commerce  and  Chinese  learning.  In  1869  the  silk 
manufactures  alone  were  said  to  give  employment  to  60,000 
persons  within  its  walls,  and  it  has  an  extensive  production  of 
gold  and  silver  work  and  tinsel  paper.  On  one  of  the  islands 
in  the  lake  is  the  great  W€n-lan-ko  or  pavilion  of  literary 
assemblies,  and  it  is  said  that  at  the  examinations  for  the  second 
degree,  twice  every  three  years,  from  10,000  to  15,000  candidates 
come  together.  In  the  north-east  corner  of  the  city  is  the 
Nestorian  church  which  was  noted  by  Marco  Polo,  the  facade 
being  "  ebborately  carved  and  the  gates  covered  with  elegantly 
wrought  iron."  There  is  a  Roman  Catholic  mission  in  Hang- 
chow,  and  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  the  American  Presby- 
terians, and  the  Baptists  have  stations.  The  local  dialect  differs 
from  the  Mandarin  mainly  in  pronunciation.  The  population, 
which  is  remarkable  for  gaiety  of  clothing,  was  formerly  reckoned 
at  2,000,000,  but  is  now  variously  estimated  at  300,000,  400,000 
or  &30,ooo.  Hang-chow-fu  was  declared  open  to  foreign  trade 
in  1896,  in  pursuance  of  the  Japanese  treaty  of  Shimonoseki. 
It  is  connected  with  Shanghai  by  inland  canal,  which  is  navigable 
for  boats  drawing  up  to  4  ft.  of  water,  and  which  might  be 
greatly  improved  by  dredging.  The  cities  of  Shanghai,  Hang- 
chow  and  Suchow  form  the  three  points  of  a  triangle,  each  being 
connected  with  the  other  by  canal,  and  trade  is  now  open  by 
steam  between  all  three  under  the  inUnd  navigation  rules. 
These  canals  pass  through  the  richest  and  most  populous  districts 
of  China,  and  in  particular  lead  into  the  great  silk-producing 
districts.  They  have  for  many  centuries  been  the  highway 
of  commerce,  and  afford  a  cheap  and  economical  means  of 
transport.  Hangchow  lic»  at  the  head  of  the  large  estuary 
of  that  name,  which  is,  however,  too  shallow  for  navigation  by 
steamers.  The  estuary  or  bay  is  funnel-shaped,  and  its  con- 
figuration produces  at  spring  tides  a  "  bore  "  or  Udal  wave, 
which  at  iu  maximum  reaches  a  height  of  15  to  ao  ft.  The 
value  of  trade  pacing  through  the  customs  in  1899  was 
£1,729,000;  in  1904  these  6gures  had  risen  to  £2,543,831. 

Hang-chow-fu  is  the  Kinsai  of  Marco  Polo,  who  describes  it 
as  the  finest  and  noblest  dty  in  the  worid,  and  speaks  enthusi- 
astically of  the  number  and  splendour  of  its  mansions  and  the 
wealth  and  luxuriance  of  its  inhabitants.  According  to  this 
authority  it  had  a  circuit  of  xoo  m.,  and  no  fewer  thsji  12,000 
bridges  and  3000  baths.  The  name  Kinsai,  which  appears  in 
Wassaf  as  Khanzai,  in  Ibn  Batuta  as  Khansa,  in  Odoric  of 
Pordenone  as  Camsay,  and  elsewhere  as  Campsay  and  Cassay, 
is  really  a  corruption  of  the  Chinese  King-su,  capital,  the  same 
word  which  is  still  applied  to  Peking.  From  the  loth  to  the 
13th  century' (960SX  27 2)  the  dty,  whose  real  name  was  then 
Ling-nan,  was  the  capital  of  southern  China  and  the  seat  of  the 
Sung  dynasty,  which  was  dethroned  by  the  Mongolians  shortly 
before  Marco  Polo's  visit.  Up  to  i86x ,  when  it  was  laid  in  ruins 
by  the  Taip'ings,  Hangchow  continued  to  maintain  its  position 
as  one  of  the  most  flourishing  cities  in  the  empire. 

RANGIIIO,  one  of  the  modes  of  execution  under  Roman  law 
ijad  furcam  domnatio),  and  in  England  and  some  other  countries 
the  usual  form  of  capital  punishment  It  was  derived  by  the 
Anj^o-Saxons  from  their  German  ancestors  (Tadtus,  Germ. 
12).  Under  William  the  Conqueror  this  mode  of  punishment  is 
said  to  have  been  disused  in  favour  of  mutilation:  but  Henry  I. 
decreed  that  all  thieves  taken  should  be  hanged  (t.e.  summarily 
without  trial),  and  by  the  time  of  Henry  II.  banging  was  fully 
established  as  a  punishment  for  bomidde;  the  "right  of  pit 


and  gallows  "  was  ordinarily  included  in  the  royal  grants  of 
jurisdiction  to  lords  of  manors  and  to  ecclesiastical^  and 
munidpal  corporations.  In  the  middle  ages  every  town,  abbey, 
and  nearly  aU  the  more  important  manorial  lords  bad  the  right 
of  hanging.  The  clergy  had  rights,  too,  in  respect  to  the  gallows. 
Thus  William  the  Conqueror  invested  the  abbot  of  Battle  Abbey 
with  authority  to  save  the  life  of  any  criminal.  From  the  end 
of  the  lath  century  the  jurisdiction  of  the  royal  courts  gradually 
became  exdusive;  as  early  as  1212.  the  king's  justices  sentenced 
offenders  to  be  hanged  {Sdd.  Soc.  Pubi.  vol.  i. ;  Select  Pleas 
of  the  Crown,  p.  iii),and  in  the  Gloucester  eyre  of  1221  instances 
of  this  sentence  are  numerous  (Mailland,  pi.  72,  xoi,  228).  In 
1241  a  nobleman's  son,  William  Marise,  was  hanged  for  piracy. 
In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  the  abbot  of  Peterborough  set  up  a 
gallows  at  CoUingham,  Notts,  and  hanged  a  thfbf.  In  1279 
two  hundred  and  eighty  Jews  were  hanged  for  dipping  coin. 
The  mayor  and  the  porter  of  the  South  Gate  of  Exeter  were 
hanged  for  their  neglect  in  leaving  the  city  gate  open  at  night, 
thereby  aiding  the  escape  of  a  murderer.  Hanging  in  time 
superseded  all  other  forms  of  capital  punishment  for  felony. 
It  was  substituted  in  1790  for  burning  as  a  punishment  of  female 
traitors  and  in  1814  for  beheading  as  a  punishment  for  male 
traitors.  The  older  and  more  primitive  modes  of  carrying  out 
the  sentence  were  by  hanging  from  the  bough  of  a  tree  ("the 
father  to  the  bough,  the  son  to  the  plough  ")  or  from  a  gallows. 
Formerly  in  the  worst  cases  of  murder  it  was  customary  after 
execution  to  hang  the  criminal's  body  in  chains  near  the  scene 
of  his  crime.  This  was  known  as  "  gibbeting,"  and,  though  by 
no  means  rare  in  the  earliest  times,  was,  according  to  Blackstone, 
no  part  of  the  legal  sentence.  Holinshed  is  the  authority  for 
the  statemient  that  sometimes  culprits  were  gibbeted  alive, 
but  this  b  doubtful.  It  was  not  until  1752  that  gibbeting  was 
recognized  by  statute.  The  act  (25  Geo.  II.  c.  37)  empowered 
the  judges  to  direct  that  the  dead  body  of  a  murdeter  should  be 
hung  in  chains,  in  the  manner  practised  for  the  most  atrocious 
offences,  or  given  over  to  surgeons  to  be  dissected  and  anatomized, 
and  forbade  burial  except  after  dissection  (see  Foster,  Crown 
Law,  107,  Earl  Ferrers'  case,  1760).  The  hanging  in  chains 
was  usually  on  the  spot  where  the  murder  took  place.  Pirates 
were  gibbeted  on  the  sea  shore  or  river  bank.  The  act  of  1752 
was  repealed  in  1828,  but  the  alternatives  of  dissection  or  hanging 
in  chains  were  re-enacted  and  continued  in  use  until  abolished 
as  to  dissection  by  the  Anatomy  Act  in  1832,  and  as  to  hanging 
in  chains  in  1834.  The  last  murderer  hung  in  chains  seems  to 
have  been  James  Cook,  executed  at  Leicester  on  the  loth  of 
August  183a.  The  irons  used  on  that  occasion  are  preserved  in 
Leicester  prison.  Instead  of  chains,  gibbet  irons,  a  framework 
to  hold  the  limbs  together,  were  sometimes  used.  At  the  town 
hall.  Rye,  Sussex,  are  preserved  the  irons  used  in  174a  for  one 
John  Breeds  who  murdered  the  mayor. 

The  earlier  modes  of  hanging  were  gradually  disused,  and 
the  present  system  of  hanging  by  use  of  the  drop  is  said  to  have 
been  inaugurated  at  the  execution  of  the  fourth  Earl  Ferrers 
in  176a  The  form  of  scaffold  now  in  use*  has  under  the  gallows 
a  drop  constructed  on  the  principle  of  the  trap-doors  on  a 
theatrical  stage,  upon  which  the  convict  is  placed  under  the 
gallows,  a  white  cap  is  placed  over  his  head,  and  when  the  halter 
has  been  properly  adjusted  the  drop  is  withdrawn  by  a  mechanical 
contrivance  worked  by  a  lever,  much  like  those  in  use  on  railways 
for  moving  points  and  signals.    The  convict  falls  into  a  pit, 

s  See  Pollock  and  Maitland  vol.  i.  563.  The  sole  survival  of  these 
grants  is  the  jurisdiction  of  the  justices  of  the  Soke  of  Peterborough 
to  try  for  capital  offences  at  their  quarter  sessions. 

*  In  nuMt  counties  in  Ireland  the  scaffold  used  (in  l8$a}  to  consist 
in  an  iron  balconjr  permanently  fixed  outside  the  gaol  wall.  There 
was  a  small  door  in  the  wall  commanding  the  balcony  and  opening 
out  upon  it.  The  bottom  of  the  iron  balcony  or  cage  was  so  con- 
structed that  on  the  withdrawal  of  a  pin  or  bolt  which  could  be 
managed  from  within  the  gaol,  the  trapdoor  upon  which  the  culprit 
stood  dropped  from  under  his  feet.  The  upper  end  of  the  rope  was 
fastened  to  a  strong  iron  bar.  which  projected  over  the  trap-door. 
There  were  usually  two  or  three  trap-doors  on  the  same  balcony, 
so  that,  if  required,  two  or  more  men  could  be  hanged  nmultaneously. 
(Trench,  Rtalities  of  Irish  Life  (1869),  aSo.) 


9i8 


HANGO— HANKA 


the  length  of  the  fall  being  regulated  by  his  height  and  weight. 
Death  results  not  from  real  hanging  and  strangulation,  but  from 
a  fracture  of  the  cervical  vertebrae.  Compression  of  the  windpipe 
by  the  rope  and  the  obstruction  of  the  circulation  aid  in  the 
fatal  result.  Recently  the  noose  has  had  imbedded  in  its  fibre 
a  metal  eyelet  which  is  adjusted  tightly  beneath  the  ear  and 
considerably  expedites  death.  The  convict  is  left  hanging 
until  life  is  extinct. 

It  was  long  considered  essential  that  executions,  like  trials, 
should  be  public,  and  be  carried  out  in  a  manner  calculated  to 
impress  evil-doers.  Partly  to  this  idea,  partly  to  notions  of 
revenge  and  temporal  punishment  of  sin,  is  probably  due  the 
rigour  of  the  administration  of  the  English  law.  But  the  methods 
of  execution  were  unseemly,  as  delineated  in  Hogarth's  print 
of  the  execdtion  of  the  idle  apprentice,  and  were  ineffectual  in 
reducing  the  bulk  of  crime,  which  wasi  augmented  by  the  in- 
efficiency of  the  police  and  the  uncertainty  and  severity  of  the 
law,  which  rendered  persons  tempted  to  commit  crime  either 
reckless  or  confident  of  escape.  The  scandals  attending  public 
executions  led  to  an  attempt  to  alter  the  bw  in  1841,  although 
many  protnts  had  been  made  long  before,  among  them  those  of 
the  novelist  Fielding.  But  perhaps  the  most  forcible  and 
effectual  was  that  of  Charles  Dickens  in  his  letters  to  The  Times 
written  after  mixing  in  the  crowd  gathered  to  witness  the  execu- 
tion of  the  Mannings  at  Horsemonger  Lane  gaol  in  1849.  After 
his  experiences  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  public  executions 
attracted  the  depraved  and  those  affected  by  morbid  curiosity; 
and  that  the  spectacle  had  neither  the  solenmity  nor  the  salutary 
effect  which  shotdd  attend  the  execution  of  public  justice.  His 
views  were  strongly  resisted  in  some  quarters;  and  it  was  not 
until  1868  (31  &  32  Vict.  c.  24)  that  they  were  accepted.  The 
last  public  hanging  in  England  was  that  of  Michael  Barrett  for 
murder  by  causing  an  explosion  at  Clerkenwell  prison  with  the 
object  of  releasing  persons  confined  there  for  treason  and  felony 
(Ann.  Reg.,  x868,  p.  63).  Under  the  act  of  1868  (31  &  32  Vict, 
c.  24),  which  was  adapted  from  similar  legislation  already  in 
force  in  the  Australian  colonies  convicted  murderers  are  hanged 
within  the  walls  of  a  prison.  The  sentence  of  the  court  is  that 
the  convict  "  be  hanged  by  the  neck  until  he  is  dead."  The 
execution  of  the  sentence  devolves  on  the  sheriff  of  the  county 
(Sheriffs  Act  1887,  s.  13).  As  a  general  rule  the  sentence  is 
carried  out  in  England  and  Ireland  at  8  a.k.  on  a  week-day 
(not  being  Monday),  in  the  week  following  the  third  Sunday  after 
sentence  was  passed.  In  old  times  prisoners  were  often  hanged 
on  the  day  after  sentence  was  paned;  and  under  the  act  of 
1752  this  was  made  the  rule  i^  cases  of  murder.  A  public  notice 
of  the  date  and  hour  of  execution  must  be  posted  on  the  prison 
walls  not  less  than  twelve  hours  before  the  execution  and  must 
remain  until  the  inquest  is  over.  The  persons  required  to  be 
present  are  the  sheriff,  the  gaoler,  chaplain  and  surgeon  of  the 
prison,  and  such  other  officers  of  the  prison  as  the  sheriff  requires; 
justices  of  the  peace  for  the  jurisdiction  to  which  the  prison 
belongs,  and  such  of  the  relatives,  or  such  other  persons  as  the 
sheriff  or  visiting  justices  allow,  may  also  attend.  It  is  usual 
to  allow  the  attendance  of  some  representatives  of  the  press. 
The  death  of  the  prisoner  is  certified  by  the  prison  surgeon,  and 
a  declaration  that  judgment  of  death  has  been  executed  is  signed 
by  the  sheriff.  An  Inquest  is  then  held  on  the  body  by  the 
coroner  for  the  jurisdiction  and  a  jury  from  which  prison  officers 
are  excluded.  The  certificate  and  declaration,  and  a  duplicate 
of  the  coroner's  inquiry  also,  are  sent  to  the  home  office,  or  in 
Ireland  to  the  lord-lieutenant,  and  the  body  of  the  prisoner  is 
interred  in  quicklime  within  the  prison  walls  if  space  is  available. 
It  is  also  the  practice  to  toll  the  bell  of  the  parish  or  other  neigh- 
bouring church,  for  fifteen  minutes  before  and  fifteen  minutes 
after  the  execution.  The  hoisting  of  the  black  flag  at  the  moment 
of  execution  was  abolished  in  1902.  The  regulations  as  to 
execution  are  printed  in  the  Statutory  Rules  and  Orders,  Revised 
ed.  1904,  vol.  X.  (tits.  Prison  E.  and  Prison  I).  The  act  of  1868 
applies  only  to  executions  for  murder;  but  since  the  passing  of 
the  act  there  have  been  no  executions  for  ^ny  other  crime 
within  the  United  Kingdom.  (See  further  Capital  Pumisomemt.) 


In  Scotland  execution  by  hanging  is  carried  out  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  Eng^d  and  Ireland,  but  under  the  supenresioii 
of  the  magistrates  of  the  burgh  in  which  it  b  decreed  to  take 
place,  and  in  lieu  of  the  inquest  requirMl  in  England  and  Ireland 
an  inquiry  is  held  at  the  instance  of  the  procurator-fiscal  before 
a  sheriff  or  sheriff  substitute  (act  of  1868,  s.  13).  The  procedure 
at  the  execution  is  governed  by  the  act  of  1868  and  the  Scottish 
Prison  Rules,  rr.  465-469  (Stat.  Rules  and  Ordeza,  Revised  ed. 
1904,  tit.Prison  S). 

BrUish  Dominions  beyond  the  Seas. — ^Throughout  the  King's 
dominions  hanging  is  the  regular  method  of  executing  sentence 
of  death.  In  India  the  Penal  Code  superseded  the  modes  of 
punishment  under  Mahommedan  law,  and  s.  36S  of  the  Criminal 
Procedure  Code  of  1898  provides  that  sentence  of  death  is  to  be 
executed  by  hanging  by  the  neck. 

In  Canada  the  sentence  is  executed  within  a  prison  under 
conditiotis  very  similar  to  those  in  England  (Criminal  Code,  1892; 
ss.  936-945)>  In  Australia  the  execution  takes  place  within  the 
prison  waUs,  at  a  time  and  place  appointed  by  the  governor  <tf 
the  state.  See  Queensland  Code,  x 899,  s.  664 ;  Western  Australia 
Code,  1 901 ,  s.  663 ;  In  these  states  no  inquest  is  hekL  In  Western 
Australia  the  governor  may  cause  an  aboriginal  native  to  be 
executed  outside  a  prison.  In  New  Zealand  the  only  mode  oi 
execution  is  by  hanging  within  a  prison  (Act  of  1883). 

United  StaUs.—ln  all  the  states  except  New  York,  Massa- 
chusetts, New  Jersey,  North  Carolina,  Missisnppi;  Virgm'i,  and 
Ohio  (see  Electrocution)  persons  sentenced  to  death  aie 
hanged.    In  Utah  the  criminal  may  elect  to  be  shot  »»*■»*'**< 

The  only  countries,  whoae  law  b  not  of  direct  F-nj^M^  ori^o. 
which  inflict  capital  punishment  by  hanging  are  Japan,  Aoama, 
Hungary  and  Runia.  CW.  F.  C) 

HANOO,  a  port  and  sea-bathing  resort  situated  on  the  pro- 
montory of  Hang5udd,  to  the  extreme  south-west  of  fxnland. 
HangO  owes  Its  commercial  importance  to  the  frntX  that  it  b 
practically  the  only  winter  ice-free  port  In  Finland,  and  b  thus 
of  value  both  to  the  Finnish  and  the  Russian  sea-bone  trade. 
When  incorporated  in  1874  it  had  only  a  few  hundred  inhabitants; 
in  1900  it  had  2501  and  it  has  now  over  six  thousand  (s986  in 
1904).  It  b  connected  by  railway  with  Heblngfors  and  l^m- 
meriors,  and  b  the  centre  of  the  Finnish  butter  ckport,  wludx 
now  amounts  to  over  £1 ,000,000  yeariy.  There  b  a  considcnble 
import  of  coal,  cotton,  iron  and  breadstuffs,  the  chief  exports 
being  butter,  fish,  timber  and  wood  pulp.  During  the  period 
of  emigration,  owing  to  political  troubles  with  Russia,  over 
12,000  Finns  sailed  from  Hangd  in  a  single  year  (1902),  mostly 
for  the  United  States  and  Canada.  HangO  now  takes  front  rank 
as  a  fashionable  watering-place,  eq>ecia]ly  for  wealthy  RusBans, 
having  a  dry  climate  and  a  fine  strand. 

HANKA.  WENCESLAUB  (1791-1861),  Bohemian  pfaflolopst, 
was  bom  at  Horeniowes,  a  hamlet  of  eastern  Bohemia,  on  the 
lothof  June  179X.  He  was  sent  in  1807  to  sdxM)l  at  KOoiggriLF, 
to  escape  the  conscription,  then  to  the  university  of  Prague, 
where  he  founded  a  society  for.  the  cultivation  of  the  C^ech 
language.  At  Vienna,  where  he  afterwards  studied  law,  he 
established  a  Czech  periodical;  and  in  18x3  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Joseph  Dolnowsky,  the  eminent  philplogist. 
On  the  x6th  of  September  18x7  Hanka  alleged  that  he  had 
discovered  some  ancient  Bohexnian  manuscript  poems  (the 
Kdniginhof  MS.)  of  the  X3th  and  X4th  century  in  the  church 
tower  of  the  village  of  Kralodwor,  or  K(biginhof.  These  were 
published  in  1818,  under  the  title  Kralodwersky  Xstiopis^  with 
a  German  translation  by  Swoboda.  Great  doubt,  however,  was 
felt  as  to  their  genuineness,  and  Dobrowsky,  by  praoovnc- 
ing  The  Judgment  of  LUmssa^  another  manuscript  found  by 
Hanka,  an  '*  obvious  fraud,"  confirmed  the  suspidoo.  Some 
years  afterwards  Dobro^isky  saw  fit  to  modify  hb  decision, 
but  by  modem  Cxech  sdiolars  the  MS.  b  r^arded  as  a  focgery. 
A  translation  into  English,  The  Manuscript  of  the  Qneen^s  Court, 
was  made  by  WratlsUw  in  1852.  The  originab  were  presented 
by  the  discoverer  to  the  Bc^emian  museum  at  Prague,  of  which 
he  was  appointed  librarian  in  x8i8.  In  1848  Hanka,  who  was 
an  ardent  Panslaviit,  took  part  in  the  Slavonic  congress  and 


HANKOW— HANNA 


919 


Other  peaceful  national  demomtrations,  being  the  founder  of 

the  political  aodety  Slovanaka  Lipa.    He  was  elected  to  the 

imperial  diet  at  Vienna,  but  declined  to  take  his  seat.    In  the 

winter  of  1848  he  became  lecturer  and  in  1849  professor  of 

Slavonic  languages  in  the  university  of  Prague,  where  he  died 

on  the  xath  of  January  186 1. 

His  chief  works  and  editions  arc  the  following:  Hanhewy  Pjsn§ 
(Prague,  1815),  a  vdume  of  poems:  Starobyla  SUadani  (1817-1836). 
in  s  vols.— a  collection  of  old  Bohemian  poems,  chiefly  from  un- 

fublisbed  manuscripU;  A  Short  HUtary  of  tiu  Slavonic  PtopUs 
1818):  it  Bokomian  Grammar  (183a)  amfii  Polish  Cramrnar  (1859) 
— these  grammars  were  composed  ona  plan  suggested  by  Dobrowtky ; 
Ifpr  (iSai),  an  aodent  Kusaian  epic,  with  a  translation  into 
Bohemian:  a  part  of  the  Gospels  from  the  Reims  manuscript  in 
the  Glagolitic  character  (1846);  the  old  Bohemian  Chronicles  of 
DoUmU  (1848)  and  the  Hislory  c/  Charles  IV.,  by  Procop  Lup&£ 
(1848);  EoamidiMm  Ostromis  (1853). 

HANKOW  ("  Mouth  of  the  Han  *%  the  great  commercial 
centre  of  the  middle  portion  of  the  Chinese  empire,  and  since 
1858  one  of  the  prindpal  placA  opened  to  foreign  trade.  It  is 
situated  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Yangtsze-kiang  at  its 
junction  with  the  Han  river,  about  600  m.  W.  of  Shanghai  in 
30'  33'  51*  N.,  II4''  19'  55*  E.,  at  a  height  of  150  ft.  By  the 
Chinese  it  is  not  considered  a  separate  dty,  but  as  a  suburb 
of  the  now  decadent  dty  of  Hanyang;  and  it  may  almost  be 
said  to  stand  in  a  similar  rdation  to  Wtt<hang  the  capital  of 
the  province  of  Hupeh,  which  lies  immediately  opposite  on  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Yangtsze-kiang.  Hankow  extends  for  about 
a  mile  along  the  main  river  and  about  two  and  a  half  along  the 
Han.  It  is  protected  by  a  wall  18  ft.  high,  which  was  erected 
in  1863  and  has  a  circuit  of  about  4  m.  Within  recent  years 
the  port  has  made  rapid  advance  in  wealth  and  importance. 
The  opening  up  of  the  upper  waters  of  the  Yangtsce  to  steam 
navigation  has  made  it  a  commerdal  entrepdt  second  only  to 
Shanghai.  It  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway  between  Peking 
and  the  Yangtsze,  the  northern  half  of  the  trunk  line  from 
Peking  to  Canton.  There  is  daOy  communication  by  regular 
lines  of  steamers  with  Shanghai,  and  smaller  steamers  fAy  on  the 
upper  section  of  the  river  between  Hankow  and  Ich'ang.  The 
prindpal  artide  of  export  continues  to  be  black  tea,  of  which 
staple  Hankow  has  always  been  the  central  market.  The  bulk 
of  the  leaf  tea,  however,  now  goes  to  Russia  by  direct  steamers 
to  Odessa  instead  of  to  London  as  formerly,  and  a  large  quantity 
goes  overland  via  Tientsin  and  Siberia  in  the  form  of  brick  tea. 
The  quantity  of  brick  lea  thus  exported  in  1904  was  upwards 
of  zo  nullion  lb.  The  exports  which  come  next  in  value  are 
opium,  wood-on,  hides*  bnns,  cotton  yam  and  raw  silk.  The 
population  of  Hankow,  together  with  the  city  of  Wuchang  on 
the  opposite  bank,  is  estimated  at  800,000,  and  the  number  of 
foreign  residents  is  about  500.  Large  iron-works  have  been 
erected  by  the  Chinese  authorities  at  Hanyang,  a  couple  of  miles 
higher  up  the  river,  and  at  Wuchang  there  are  two  official  cotton 
mUls.  The  British  concession,  on  which  the  business  part  of 
the  foreign  settlement  is  built,  was  obtained  in  1 861  by  a  lease 
in  perpetuity  from  the  Chinese  authorities  in  favour  of  the  crown. 
By  1863  a  great  embankment  and  a  roadway  were  completed 
along  the  river,  which  may  rise  as  much  as  50  ft.  ot  more  above 
its  ordinary  levels,  and  not  infrequently,  as  in  1849  and  1866, 
lays  a  large  part  of  the  town  under  water.  On  the  former  occasion 
little  was  left  uncovered  but  the  roofs  of  the  houses.  In  1864 
a  public  assay  office  was  established.  Sub-leases  for  a  term  of 
years  are  granted  by  the  crown  to  private  individuals;  local 
control,  including  the  polidng  of  the  settlement,  is  managed  by 
a  municipal  council  elected  under  regulations  promulgated  by 
the  British  minister  in  China,  acting  by  authority  of  the 
sovereign's  orders  in  council.  Foretgnen,  ».«.  non-British,  are 
admitted  to  become  lease-holders  on  thdr  submitting  to  be 
bound  by  the  munidpal  regulations.  The  concession,  however, 
gives  no  territorial  jurisdiction.  All  foreigners,  of  whatever 
nationality,  are  justidable  only  before  their  own  consular 
authorities  by  virtue  of  the  extra-territorial  clauses  of  their 
treaties  with  China.  In  1895  a  concession,  on  similar  terms  to 
that  under  which  the  British  b  hdd,  was  obtained  by  Germany, 
and  this  was  followed  by  concevions  to  France  and  Ruswa. 


These  three  concessions  all  lie  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river 
and  immediately  below  the  British.  An  extension  of  the  British 
concession  backwards  was  granted  in  1898.  The  Roman 
Catholics,  the  London  Missionary  Sodety  and  the  Wesleyans 
have  all  missions  in  the  town;  and  there  are  two  missionary 
hospitals.  The  total  trade  in  1904  was  valued  at  £15,401,076 
(£9,043,190  being  exports  and  £6,358,886  imports)  as  compared 
with  a  total  of  £17,183,400  in  1891  and  £11,638,000  in  x88o. 

HANLBYr  a  market  town  and  parliamentary  borough  of 
Staffordshire,  England,  in  the  Potteries  district,  148  m.  N.W. 
from  London,  on  the  North  Staffordshire  railway.  Pop.  (1891) 
54,946;  (1901)  61,599.  The  parliamentary  borough  indudes 
the  adjoining  town  of  Burslem.  The  town,  which  lies  on  high 
ground,  has  handsome  munidpal  buildings,  free  library,  technical 
and  art  museum,  dementary,  sdence  and  art  schools,  and  a 
large  park.  Its  manufacttires  indude  porcdain,  encaustic  tiles, 
and  earthenware,  and  give  employment  to  the  greater  part  of 
the  population,  women  and  children  being  employed  almost  as 
largdy  as  men.  In  the  neighbourhood  coal  and  iron  are  obtained. 
Hanley  is  of  modem  development.  Its  munidpal  constitution 
dates  from  1857,  the  parliamentary  borough  from  1885,  and 
the  county  borough  from  x888.  Shdton,  Hope,  Northwood  and 
Wellington  are  populous  ecdesiastical  parishes  induded  within 
its  boundaries.  That  of  Etraria,  adjoining  on  the  west,  originated 
in  the  Ridge  House  pottery  works  of  Josiah  Wedgwood  and 
Thomas  Bentley,  who  founded  them  in  1769,  naming  them  after 
the  country  of  the  Etruscans  in  Italy.  Etruria  Hall  was  the 
scene  of  Wedgwood's  experiments.  The  parliamentary  borough 
of  Hsnley  returns  one  member.  The  town  was  governed  by  a 
mayor,  6  aldermen,  and  z8  councillors  until  under  the  "  Potteries 
federation  "  scheme  (1908)  it  became  part  of  the  borough  of 
Stoke-on-Trent  {q.9.)  in  19x0. 

HAimA,  MARCUS  ALOMZO  (i83;^X904),  American  poUtidan, 
was  bora  at  New  Lisbon  (now  Lisbon)  Columbiana  county, 
Ohio,  on  the  34th  of  September  1837.  In  1853  he  removed 
with  his  father  to  Cleveland,  where  the  latter  established  himself 
in  the  wholesale  grocery  business,  and  the  son  recdved  his 
education  in  the  public  schools  of  that  dty,  and  at  the  Western 
Reserve  University.  Leaving  college  before  the  completion  of 
his  courM,  be  beaune  assodated  with  his  father  in  business, 
and  on  his  father's  death  (1863)  became  a  member  of  the  firm. 
In  1867  be  entered  into  partnership  with  his  father-in-law, 
Danid  P.  Rhodes,  in  the  coal  and  iron  bustneis.  It  was  largely 
due  to  Haniui's  progressive  methods  that  the  business  of  the 
firm,  which  became  M.  A.  Hanna  &  Company  in  1877,  was 
extended  to  indude  the  ownership  of  a  fleet  of  lake  steamships 
constructed  in  thdr  own  shipyards,  and  the  control  and  operation 
of  valuable  coal  and  iron  mines.  Subsequently  he  became 
largdy  interested  in  street  railway  properties  in  Cleveland  and 
elfewhere,  and  in  various  banking  institutions.  In  eariy  life  he 
had  little  time  for  politics,  but  after  1880  he  became  prominent 
in  the  affairs  of  the  Republican  party  in  Cleveland,  and  in  1884 
and  1888 -was  a  delegate  to  the  Republican  National  Convention, 
in  the  latter  year  being  associated  with  William  McKinley  in 
the  management  of  the  John  Sherman  canvass.  It  was  not, 
however,  until  1896,  when  he  personally  managed  the  canvass 
that  resulted  in  securing  the  Republican  presidential  nomination 
for  William  McKinley  at  the  St  Louis  Convention  (at  which  he 
was  a  ddegate),  that  he  beome  known  throughout  the  United 
Stated  as  a  political  manager  of  great  adroitness,  tact  and 
resourcefttlneis.  Subsequently  he  became  chairman  of  the 
Republican  National  Committee,  and  managed  with  consummate 
skill  the  campaign  of  1896  against  William  Jennings  Bryan  and 
"  free-silver."  In  March  1897  he  was  appointed,  by  Governor 
Asa  S.  Bushnell  (1834-1904)  United  States  senator  from  Ohio, 
to  succeed  John  Sherman.  In  the  senate,  to  which  in  January 
1898  he  was  dected  for  the  short  term  ending  on  the  3rd  of 
March  1899  and  for  the  succeeding  full  term,  he  took  b'ttle  part 
in  the  debates,  but  was  recognised  as  one  of  the  prindpal  advisers 
of  the  McKinley  administration,  and  his  influence  was  large 
in  consequence.  Apart  from  politics  he  took  a  deep  and  active 
intsrast  in  the  proUens  of  cental  and  labour,  was  one  of  the 


920 


HANNAY— HANNIBAL 


oi]gaiuzers  (iqoz)  and  the  first  president  of  the  National  Civic 
Federation,  whose  purpose  was  to  solve  sodal  and  industrial 
problems,  and  in  December  xqoi  became  rhairman  of  a  per- 
manent board  of  conciliation  and  arbitration  established  by 
the  Federation.  After  President  Roosevelt's  policies  became 
defined,  Senator  Hanna  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  leader  of 
the  conservative  branch  of  the  Republican  i>arty  and  a  possible 
presidential  candidate  in  1904.  He  died  at  Washington  on  the 
Z5th  of  February  1904. 

HANNAT,  JAMBS  (1827-1873),  Scottish  critic,  novelbt  and 
publicist,  was  bom  at  Dtmifries  on  the  Z7th  of  February  1827. 
He  came  of  the  Hannajrs  of  Sorbie,  an  ancient  Galloway  family. 
He  entered  the  navy  in  1840  and  served  tiU  1845,  when  be 
adopted  literature  as  his  profession.  He  acted  as  reporter  on 
the  Morning  Chronicle  and  gradually  obtained  a  connexion, 
writing  for  the  quarterly  and  monthly  journals^  In  1857  Hannay 
contested  the  Dumfries  bufghs  in  the  Conservative  interest, 
but  without  success.  He  edited  the  Edinburgh  Courani  from 
i860  till  1864,  when  he  removed  to  London.  From  1868  till  his 
death  on  the  8th  of  January  1873  he  was  British  consul  at 
Barcelona.  His  letters  to  the  Pall  Mall  GateUe  "  From  an 
Englishman  in  Spain "  were  highly  appreciated.  Hannay's 
best  books  are  his  two  naval  noveb,  Singleton  Pontenoy  (1850) 
and  Eustace  Conyers  (1855);  Satire  and  Satirisls  (1854);  and 
Essays  from  the  Quarterly  Review  (1861).  Satvre  not  only  shows 
loving  appreciation  of  the  great  satirists  of  the  past,  but  is 
itself  instinct  with  wit  and  fine  satiric  power.  The  book  sparkles 
with  epigrams  and  apposite  classical  allusions,  and  contains 
admirable  critical  estimates  of  Horace  (Hannay's  favourite 
author),  Juvenal,  Erasmus,  Sir  David  Lindsay,  George  Buchanan, 
Boileau,  Butler,  Dryden,  Swift,  Pope,  Churchill,  Bums,  Byron 
and  Moore. 

Among  his  other  works  are  fiiscmts  and  Grog,  Claret  Cup,  and 
Hearts  are  Trumps  (1848);  King  Dobbs  (1849):  Sketches  in  Ultra- 
marine  (1853) ;  an  edition  of  the  Poems  of  Edgar  Allan  Foe.  to  which 
he  prefixed  an  essay  on  the  poet's  life  and  genius  (1852):  Characters 
and  Criticisms,  consisting  mainly  of  his  contributions  to  the  Edin- 
burgh  Courant  (1865);  A  Course  of  English  Literature  (1866); 
Studies  on  Thackeray  (1869):  and  a  family  histoid  entitled  Three 
Hundred  Years  of  a  Norman  House  (the  Gumeys)  (1867). 

HANNEK.  JAMES  HANNEN,  Bason  (1821-1894),  English 
judge,  son  of  a  London  merchant,  was  bom  at  Peckham  in  1821. 
He  was  educated  at  St  Paul's  school  and  at  Heidelberg  Univer- 
sity, which  was  famous  as  a  school  of  law.  Called  to  the  bar 
at  the  Middle  Temple  in  1848,  he  joined  the  home  drcuit.  At 
this  time  he  also  wrote  for  the  press,  and  supplied  special  reports 
for  the  Morning  Chronicle.  Though  not  eloquent  in  speech,  he 
was  clear,  accurate  and  painstaking,  and  soon  advanced  in  his 
profession,  passing  many  more  brilliant  competitors.  He 
appeared  for  the  claimant  in  the  Shrewsbury  peerage  case  in  2858, 
when  the  3rd  Earl  Talbot  was  declared  to  be  entitled  to  the 
earldom  of  Shrewsbury  as  the  descendant  of  the  2nd  earl; 
was  principal  agent  for  Great  Britain  on  the  mixed  British  and 
American  commission  for  the  settlement  of  Outstanding  claims, 
1853-1855;  and  assisted  in  the  prosecution  of  the  Fenian 
prisoners  at  Manchester.  In  x868  Hannen  was  appointed  a 
judge  of  the  Court  of  (^een's  £ench.  In  many  cases  he  took  a 
strong  position  of  his  own,  notably  in  that  of  Parrot  v.  Close 
(1869),  which  materially  afifected  the  legal  statuk  of  trade  unions 
and  was  regarded  by  unionists  as  a  severe  blow  to  their  interests. 
Hannen  became  judge  of  the  Probate  and  Divorce  Court  in  ^872, 
and  in  1875  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  probate  and 
admiralty  division  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice.  Here  he 
showed  himself  a  worthy  successor  to  Cresswell  and  Penxance. 
Many  important  causes  came  before  him,  but  he  will  chiefly 
be  remembered  for  the  manner  in  which  he  presided  over  the 
Paraell  special  commission.  His  influence  pervaded  the  whole 
proceedings,  and  it  is  understood  that  be  personally  penned  a 
large  part  of  the  voluminous  report.  Hannen's  last  public 
service  was  in  connexion  with  the  Bering  Sea  inquiry  at  Paris, 
when  he  acted  as  one  of  the  British  arbitrators.  In  January 
1891  he  was  appointed  a  lord  of  appeal  in  ordinary  (with  the 
dignity  of  a  life  peeiagys),  but  in  that  capadly  he  had  few  oppor- 


tunities for  disphiying  his  powers,  and  he  retired  at  the  ciose 
of  the  session  of  1893.  He  died  in  London,  after  a  proboged 
illness,  on  the  29th  of  March  1894. 

HANNIBAL  ("  mercy  "  or  "  favour  of  Baal "),  Carthagiman 
general  and  statesman,  son  of  Hamilcar  Barca  (f.«.)i  ^ins  bora 
in  249  or  247  B.C.  Destined  by  his  father  to  succeed  him  in 
the  work  of  vengeance  against  Rome,  he  was  taken  to  Spain, 
and  while  yet  a  boy  gave  ample  evidence  of  his  military  aptitode. 
Upon  the  death  of  his  brother-in-law  Hasdrubal  (221)  he  was 
aodaimed  commander-in-chief  by  the  .soldiers  and  ooDfinned 
in  his  appointment  by  the  Carthaginian  govcmnent.  After 
two  years  spent  in  completing  the  conquest  of  Spun  south  xA 
the  Ebro,  he  set  himself  to  be^  what  he  felt  to  be  his  life's  task, 
the  conquest  and  humiliation  of  Rome.  Accordingly  in  219 
he  seized  some  pretext  for  attacking  the  town  of  Sagunlnm 
(mod.  Murviedro),  which  stood  under  the  special  protection  dl 
Rome,  and  disregjirding  the  protests  of  Roman  envoys,  stonn^ 
it  after  an  eight  months'  siege.  As  the  home  government,  in 
view  of  Hannibal's  great  pc^ukrity,  did  not  venture  to  repudiate 
this  action,  the  declaration  of  war  which  he  desired  took  place  at 
the  end  of  the  year. 

Of  the  large  army  of  Libyan  and  Spanish  mercenaries  which 
he  had  at  his  diq[>osal  Hannibal  sdectcd  the  most  trustworthy 
and  devoted  contingents,  and  with  .these  determined  to  ezecote 
the  daring  plan  of  carrying  the  war  into  the  heart  of  Italy  by 
a  rapid  march  through  Spain  and  Gaul.  Starting  in  the  spring 
of  218  he  easily  fou^t  Ids  way  through  the  northern  tribes  to 
the  Pyrenees,  and  by  conciliating  the  Gaulish  chiefs  on  his 
passage  contrived  to  reach  the  Rhont  before  the  Romans  could 
take  any  measures  to  bar  his  advance.  After  outmanceavring 
the  natives,  who  endeavoured  to  prevent  his  crossing,  Hannibal 
evaded  a  Roman  force  sent  to  operate  agiinst  him  in  Gaul;  be 
proceeded  up  the  valley  <tf  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Rhone 
(Isdre  or,  more  probably,  Durance),  and  by  autumn  arrived  at 
the  foot  of  the  Alps.  I&  passage  over  the  monntain-diain,  at 
a  point  which  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty,  thoog^  the 
balance  of  the  available  evidence  inclines  to  the  Mt  Qeatvrt 
pass,  and  fair  cases  can  .be  made  out  for  the  Col  d'Aigentiere 
and  for  Mt  Cenis,  was  one  otthe  most  memorable  achievements 
of  any  military  force  of  ancient  times.  Though  the  opposition 
of  the  natives  and  the  diflBculties  of  ground  and  dimale  cost 
Hannibal  half  his  army,  his  perilous  march  brought  him  directly 
into  Roman  territory  and  entirely  frustrated  the  attempts  ol  the 
enemy  to  fight  out  the  main  issue  on  foreign,  ground.  His 
sudden  appearance  among  the  C^auls,  moreover,  enabled  him 
to  detach  most  of  the  tribes  from  their  new  all^iancs  to  the 
Romans  before  the  hitter  could  take  steps  to  dieck  rebeUioo. 
After  allowing  his  soldiers  a  brief  rest  to  recover  from  their 
exertions  Hannibal  first  secured  his  rear  by  subduing  the  hostile 
tribe  of  the  Taurini  (mod.  Turin),  and  moving  down  the  Po 
valley  forced  the  Romans  by  virtue  of  his  superior  cavahry  to 
evacuate  the  plain  of  Lombardy.  In  December  <A  the  same  year 
he  had  an  opportunity  of  showing  his  superior  military  ^JH 
when  the  Roman  commander  attadked  him  on  the  river  Trebia 
(near  Placentia) ;  after  wearing  down  the  ezccOenf  Roman 
infantry  he  cut  it  to  pieces  by  a  surprise  attack  from  an  ambush 
in  the  flank.  Having  secured  his  position  in  north  Italy  by  this 
victory,  he  quartered  his  troops  for  the  winter  on  the  Gauls, 
whose  zeal  in  his  cause  thereupon  began  to  abate.  Aoswdingly 
in  spring  217  Hannibal  decided  to  find  a  more  trustworthy  base 
of  operations  farther  south;  he  crossed  the  Apennines  withoot 
opposition,  but  in  the  marshy  lowlands  of  the  Amo  he  lost  a 
large  part  of  his  force  through  disease  and  himsdf  became  Utnd 
in  one  eye.  Advancing  through  the  uplands  of  Etroria  be  in<o* 
voked  the  main  Roman  army  to  a  hasty  pursuit,  and  catching 
it  in  a  defile  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Trasimenus  destroyed  it  in 
the  waters  -or  on  the  adjoining  slopes  (see  Trasziiene).  He  had 
now  disposed  of  the  only  field  force  whicfa  could  check  his  advance 
upon  Rome,  but  realizing  that  without  sege  engines  he  could 
not  hope  to  take  the  ci4>ital,  he  preferred  to  utilize  his  victory 
by  passing  into  central  and  southern  Italy  and  exciting  a  genenl 
revolt  against  the  sovereign  power.    Though  ckMcly  watdvd 


HANNIBAL 


921 


by  a  force  under  Fabius  Maximus  Cunctator,  he  was  able  to 
carry  bis  ravages  Ear  and  wide  through  Italy:  on  one  occasion 
he  was  entrapped  in  the  lowlands  of  Campania,  but  set  himself 
free  by  a  stratagem  which  completely  deluded  his  opponent. 
For  the  winter  he  found  comfortable  quarters  in  the  Apulian 
plain,  into  which  the  enemy  dared  not  descend.  In  the  campaign 
of  ai7  Hannibal  had  failed  to  obtain  a  following  among  the 
Italians;  in  the  following  year  he  had  an  opportunity  of  turning 
the  tide  in  his  favour.  A  large  Roman  army  advanced  into 
Apulia  in  order  to  crush  him,  and  accepted  battle  on  the  site 
of  Cannae.  Thanks  mainly  to  brilliant  cavalry  tactics,  Hannibal, 
with  much  mferior  numbers,  managed  to  surround  and  cut  to 
pieces  the  whole  of  this  iorct;  moreover,  the  moral  effect  of 
this  victory  was  such  that  all  the  south  of  Italy  Joined  his  cause. 
Had  Hannibal  now  received  proper  material  reinforcements 
from  his  countrymen  at  Carthage  he  might  have  made  a  direct 
attack  upon  Rome;  for  the  present  he  had  to  content  himself 
with  subduing  the  fortresses  which  still  held  out  against  him, 
and  the  only  other  notable  event  of  az6  was  the  defection  of 
Capua,  the  second  largest  dty  of  Italy,  which  Hannibal  made 
bis  new  base. 

In  the  next  few  years  Hannibal  was  reduced  to  minor  opera- 
tions which  centred  mainly  round  the  cities  of  Campania.  He 
failed  to  draw  his  opponents  into  a  pitched  battle,  and  in  some 
slighter  engagements  suffered  reverses.  As  the  forces  detached 
under  his  lieutenants  were  generally  unable  to  hold  their  own, 
and  neither  his  home  government  nor  his  new  ally  Philip  V. 
of  Macxdon  helped  to  make  good  his  losses,  his  position  in  south 
Italy  became  increasingly  difficult  and  his  chance  of  ultimately 
conquering  Rome  grew  ever  more  remote.  In  312  he  gained  an 
important  success  by  capturing  Tarentum,  but  in  the  same  year 
he  lost  his  hold  upon  Campania,  where  he  failed  to  prevent  the 
concentration  of  three  Roman  armies  round  Capua.  Hannibal 
attacked  the  besieging  armies  with  his  fuU  force  in  an,  and 
attempted  to  entice  them  away  by  a  sudden  m^rch  through 
Samnium  which  brought  him  within  3  m.  of  Rome,  but  caused 
more  alarm  than  real  danger  to  the  dty.  But  the  siege  continued, 
and  the  town  fell  in  the  same  year.  In  axo  Hannibal  again 
proved  his  superiority  in  tactics  by  a  severe  defeat  inflicted  at 
Herdoniae  (mod.  Ordona)  in  Apulia  upon  a  proconsular  army, 
and  in  ao8  destroyed  a  Roman  force  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
Locri  Epizephyrii.  But  with  the  loss  of  Tarentum  in  209  and 
the  gradual  reconquest  by  the  Romans  of  Samnitmi  and  Lucania 
his  bold  on  south  Italy  was  abnost  lost.  In  ao?  he  succeeded 
in  making  his  way  again  into  Apulia,  where  he  waited  to  concert 
measures  for  a  combined  march  upon  Rome  with  bis  brother 
Hasdrubal  (q.v.).  On  bearing,  however,  of  his  brother's  defeat 
and  death  at  the  Metaurus  he  retired  into  the  mountain  fastnesses 
of  Bruttium,  where  he  maintained  himself  for  the  ensuing 
years.  With  the  failure  of  his  brother  Mago  (q.v.)  in  Liguria 
(205-203)  and  of  his  own  negotiations  with  Philip  of  Macedon, 
the  last  hope  of  recovering  his  ascendancy  in  Italy  was  lost. 
In  203,  when  Sdpio  was  carrying  all  before  him  in  Africa  and  the 
Carthaginian  peace-party  were  arranging  an  armistice,  Hannibal 
was  recalled  from  Italy  by  the  "  patriot "  party  at  Carthage. 
After  leaving  a  record  of  his  expedition,  engrav^  in  Punic  and 
Greek  upon  brazen  tablets,  in  the  temple  of  Juno  at  Crotona, 
he  sailed  back  to  Africa.  His  arrival  immediately  restored  the 
predominance  of  the  war-party,  who  placed  him  in  command  of 
a  combined  force  of  African  levies  and  of  his  mercenaries  from 
Italy.  In  202  Hannibal,  after  meeting  Sdpio  in  a  fruitless  peace 
conference,  engaged  him  in  a  decisive  battle  at  Zama.  Unable 
to  cope  with  his  indifferent  troops  against  the  well-trained  and 
confident  Roman  soldiers,  he  experienced  a  crushing  defeat 
which  put  an  end  to  all  resistance  on  the  part  of  Carthage. 

Hannibal  was  still  only  in  his  f  orty-suth  year.  He  soon  showed 
that  he  could  be  a  statesman  as  wdl  as  a  soldier.  Peace  having 
been  ocmduded,  he  was  appointed  chief  magistrate  (suffetes, 
sofet).  The  office  had  become  rather  insignificant,  but  Hannibal 
restored  iu  power  and  authority.  The  oligarchy,  always  jealous 
of  him,  had  even  charged  him  with  having  betrayed  the  interests 
of  his  country  while  in  Italy,  and  neglected  to  take  Rome  when 


he  might  have  done  so.  The  dishonesty  and  incompetence  of 
these  men  had  brought  the  finances  of  Carthage  into  grievous 
disorder.  So  effectively  did  Hannibal  reform  abuses  that  the 
heavy  tribute  imposed  by  Rome  could  be  paid  by  instalments 
without  additional  and  extraordinary  taxation. 

Seven  years  after  the  victory  of  Zama,  the  Romans,  abrmed  at 
this  new  proqierity,  demanded  Hannibal's  surrender.  Hannibal 
thereupon  went  into  voluntary  exile.  First  he  journeyed  to 
Tyre,  the  mother-dty  of  Carthage,  and  thence  to  Ephesus,  where 
he  was  honourably  received  by  Antiochus  IU.  of  Syria,  who  was 
then  preparing  for  war  with  Rome.  Hannibal  soon  saw  that  the 
king's  army  was  no  match  for  the  Romans.  He  advised  him 
to  equip  a  fleet  and  throw  a  body  of  troops  on  the  south  of 
Italy,  adding  that  he  would  himself  take  the  conmiand.  But 
he  could  not  make  much  impression  on  Antiochus,  who  Ustened 
more  willingly  to  courtiers  and  flatterers,  and  would  not 
entrust  Hannibal  with  any  important  charge.  In  190  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  a  Phoenician  fleet,  but  was  defeated  in  a 
battle  off  the  river  Eurymedon. 

From  the  court  of  Antiochus,  who  seemed  prepared  to  surrender 
him  to  the  Romans,  Hannibal  fled  to  Crete,  but  he  soon  went 
back  to  Asia,  and  sought  refuge  with  Pruaias,  king  of  Bithynia. 
(Sbce  more  the  Romans  were  determined  to  hunt  him  out,  and 
they  sent  Flaminius  to  insist  on  his  surrender.  Pruaias  agreed  to 
give  him  up,  but  Hannibal  did  not  choose  to  fall  into  his  enemies' 
hands.  At  Libyasa,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora, 
he  took  poison,  which,  it  was  said,  he  had  long  carried  about 
with  him  in  a  ring.  Tie  precise  year  of  his  death  was  a  matter 
of  controversy.  If,  as  Livy  seems  to  imply,  it  was  183,  he  died 
in  the  same  year  as  Sdpio  Af  ricanus. 

As  to  the  transcendent  military  genius  of  Hannibal  there 

cannot  be  two  opinions.    The  man  who  for  fifteen  years  could 

hold  his  ground  in  a  hostile  country  against  several  powerful 

armies  and  a  succession  of  able  generals  must  have  been  a 

commander  and  a  tactician  of  supreme  capacity.    In  the  use  of 

stratagems  and  ambuscades  he  certainly  surpassed  all  other 

generals  of  antiquity.    Wonderful  as  his  achievements  were,  we 

must  marvd  the  more  when  we  take  into  account  the  grudging 

support  he  recdved  from  Carthage.    As  his  veterans  melted 

away,  he  had  to  organize  fresh  levies  on  the  spot.    We  never 

hear  of  a  mutiny  in  his  army,  composed  though  it  was  of  Africans, 

Spaniards  and  Gauls.    Again,  all  we  know  of  him  comes  for  the 

most  part  from  hostile  sources.    The  Romans  feared  and  hated 

him  so  much  that  they  could  not  do  him  justice.    Livy  speaks 

of  his  great  qualities,  but  he  adds  that  his  vices  were  equally 

great,  among  which  he  singles  out  his  *'  more  than  Punic  perfidy  " 

and  "  an  inhuman  crudty."    For  the  first  there  would  seem  to 

be  no  further  justification  than  that  he  was  consummately 

skilful  in  the  use  of  ambuscades.    For  the  latter  there  is,  we 

believe,  no  more  ground  than  that  at  certain  crises  he  acted  in 

the  general  spirit  of  andent  warfare.    Sometimes  he  contrasts 

most  favourably  with  his  enemy.    No  such  brutality  stains  his 

name  as  that  perpetrated  by  Claudius  Nero  on  the  vanquished 

HasdrubaL    Polybius  merely  says  that  he  was  accused  of  cruelty 

by  the  Romans  and  of  avarice  by  the  Carthaginians.    He  had. 

indeed  bitter  enemies,  and  his  life  was  one  continuous  struggle 

against  destiny.    For  steadfastness  of  purpose,  for  organizing 

.  capacity  and  a  mastery  of  military  sdence  he  has  perhaps  never 

had  anequaL 

AUTHOIITIBS. — Polybius  iii.<*xv.,  xxi.-ii.,  xxiv.;  Livy  xxi.-xxx.; 
Cornelius  Nepos.  Vita  Hamnibalis;  Appian.  Bellum  Hamnibalicum; 
E.  Hennebert.  Htstoin  d'Annwbal  (Paris.  1870-1891,  3  vols.);  F.  A. 
Dodge.  Gr«U  CapUuHS^  Uonmibal  (Boston  and  New  York,  1891); 
D.  Graaai.  Annibw  gitidicalo  da  Polihio  e  Tito  Liuia  (Viccnza,  1896) ; 
W.  How.  Hannibal  and  Uu  Great  War  between  Rome  and  Carthage 


biblio^pi, 

arttcles~on  the  chief  battle  ntea.    On  Hannibal's  pataage  through 
Gaul  and  the  Alps  see  T.  Arnold,  The  Second  Pnnie  War  (ed.  W.  T. 


Hannibals  AlpenHbergani  (Vienna.  1897) ;  G.  E.  Marimun  in  Qastical 
Rnint  (189^.  pp.  a38-a49;  W.  Oiiander,  Der  Hannibalmeg  men 


922 


HANNIBAL— HANOI 


UHterxueJU  (Berlin,  t9Qo);  P.  Aan,  Anmbal  dans  Um  Alpts  (Pkria, 
iQoa) ;  J.  L.  Colin,  Anmbal  en  Gauh  (Paris,  1904);  E.'Heaaelineyer, 
HanmSals  Alpenibtrmnt  im  lAckU  der  ntuenn  KrietsiesckidUtt 
(1906) :  Kroniyer.  in  N.  Jahrb.  f.  U.  All.  (1907).      (M.  O.  B.  C.) 

HANNIBAL,  a  dty  of  Marion  county,  Missouri,  U.S^,  on 
the  Mississippi  river,  about  xao  m.  N.W.  of  Saint  Louis.  Pop. 
(1890),  12,857;  (1900),  12,780,  including  930  foreign-bom  and  1836 
negroes;  (19x0)  x8,34X.  It  is  served  by  Uw  Wabash,  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  &  Texas,  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  (^uincy,  and  the 
St  Louis  &  Hannibal  railways,  and  by  boat  lines  to  Saint  Louis, 
Saint  Paul  and  intermediate  points.  The  business  section  is 
in  the  level  bottom-lands  of  the  river,  while  the  residential 
portion  q>reads  up  the  banks,  which  afford  fine  building  sites 
with  beautiful  views.  Mark  Twain's  boyhood  was  spent  at 
Hannibal,  which  b  the  setting  of  Lift  an  the  Mississippi,  HnckU- 
berry  Finn  and  Tom  Sawyer;  Hannibal  Cave,  described  in 
Tarn  Sawyer,  extends  for  miles  beneath  the  river  and  its  bluffs. 
Hannibal  has  a  good  public  library  (1889;  the  first  in  Missouri); 
other  prominent  buiklings  are  the  Fedoal  building,  the  court 
house,  A  city  hospital  and  the  hig^  school  The  river  is  here 
spanned  by  a  long  iron  and  steel  bridge  connecting  with  East 
Hannibal,  IlL  Hannibal  is  the  trade  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural 
re^on,  and  has  an  important  lumber  trade,  nulway  shops,  and 
manufactories  of  lumber,  shoes,  stoves,  flour,  dgara,  lime, 
Portland  cement  and  pearl  buttons  (made  from  miuad  sheUs); 
the  value  of  the  city's  factory  products  increased  from  $2,698,720 
in  X900  to  $4443,099  in  1905,  or  64*6%.  In  the  vicinity  are 
valuably  deposits  of  crinoid  limestone,  a  coarse  white  buUding 
stone  which  takes  a  good  polish.  The  electric-lighting  plant  b 
owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Hannibal  was  laid  out 
as  a  town  in  18x9  (its  origin  going  back  to  Spanish  land  grants, 
which  gave  rise  to  much  litigation)  and  was  first  chartered  as  a  dty 
in  1839.    The  town  of  South  Hannibal  was  annexed  to  it  in  1843. 

HANNINQTON,  JAMBS  (184^^x885),  English  missionaxy,  was 

bom  at  Hurstpierpoint,  in  Sussex,  on  the  3rd  of  September 

1847.    From  earliest  childhood  he  displayed  a  love  of  adventure 

and  natural  history.   At  school  he  made  little  progress,  and  left 

at  the  age  of  fifteen  for  his  father's  counting-house  at  Brighton. 

He  had  no  taste  for  office  work,  and  much  of  his  time  was 

occupied  in  commanding  a  battery  of  volunteers  and  in  charge 

of  a  steam  launch.    At  twenty-one  he  dedded  on  a  derioil 

career  and  entered  St  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford,  where  he  exordsed 

a  remarkable  influence  over  his  fellow-undergraduates.    He 

was,  however,  a  desultory  student,  and  in  X870  was  advised  to 

go  to  the  little  village  of  Martinhoe,  in,  Devon,  for  quiet  reading, 

but  distinguished  himself  more  by  his  daring  climbs  aft^r  sea- 

guUs'  eggs  and  his  engineering  skill  in  cutting  a  pathway  along. 

predpitous  cliffs  to  some  caves.    In  X872  the  death  of  his  mother 

made  a  deep  impression  upon  him.    He  began  to  read  hard, 

took  his  B.A.  degree,  and  in  1873  was  ordained  deacon  and 

plated  in  charge  of  the  small  country  parish  of  Trentishoe  in 

Devon.    Whilst  curate  in  charge  at  Hurstpierpoint,  his  thoughts 

were  turned  by  the  murder  of  two  missionaries  on  the  shores 

of  Victoria  Nyanza  to  mission  work.    He  offered  himself  to 

the  Church  Missionary  Sodety  and  sailed  on  the  17th  of  May 

X882,  at  the  head  of  a  party  of  six,  for  Zanzibar,  and  thence  set 

out  for  Uganda;  but,  prostrated  by  fever  and  dysentery,  he 

was  obUged  to  return  to  England  in  1883.    On  his  recovery  he 

was  consecrated  bishop  of  Eastern  Equatorial  Africa  (June 

1884),  and  in  January  X885  started  again  for  the  scene  of  his 

mission,  and  visited  Palestine  on  the  way.    On  his  arrival  at 

Freretown,  near  Mombasa,  he  visited  many  stations  in  the 

neighbourhood.    Then,  filled  with  the  idea  of  opening  a  new 

route  to  Uganda,  he  set  out  and  reached  a  spot  near  Victoria 

Nyanza  in  safety.    His  arrival,  however,  roused  the  suspidon 

of  the  natives,  and  under  King  Mwanga's  orders  he  was  lodged 

in  a  filthy  hut  swarming  with  rats  and  vermin.    After  eight 

days  his  men  were  murdered,  and  on  the  39th  of  October  1885 

he  himself  was  ^>eared  in  both  sides,  his  last  words  to  the 

soldiers  appointed  to  kill  him  being,  "  Go,  tell  Mwanga  I  have 

purchased, the  road  to  Uganda  with  my  blood." 

His  LaU  Journals  were  edited  in  1888.  See  also  Utt  by  £.  C. 
Dawson  (1887) ;  and  W.  G.  Berry,  Bishop  Hannin^on  (1908). 


HANNINGTON.  a  lake  of  British  East  Africa  in  the  eastern 
rift-valley  just  south  of  the  ^uator  and  in  the  shadow  of  the 
Laikipia  escarpment.  It  is  7  m.  long  by  a  m.  broad.  The 
water  is  shalk>w  and  brackish.  Standing  in  the  lake  and  aloeg 
its  shores  are  numbers  of  dead  trees,  the  remains  of  an  andent 
forest,  which  serve  as  eyries  for  storks,  herons  and  eagles.  The 
banks  and  flats  at  the  north  end  of  the  lake  are  the  zewnt  of 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  flamingoes.  The  places  where  they 
duster  are  dazzling  white  with  guano  deposita.  The  lake  is 
named  after  Bishop  James  Hannington. 

HANNO,  the  name  of  a  large  number  of  ra>»fc»gs»*?««»  loidicn 
and  statesmen.  Of  the  majority  little  is  known;  the  most 
important  are  the  following': — 

I.  Hamno,  Carthsginisn  navigator,  who  probaUy  flourished 
about  500  B.a  It  has  been  conjectured  that  he  waa  the  son  of 
the  Hamilcar  who  was  killed  at  Himera  (480),  but  there  b  Bothii^ 
to  prove  this.  He  was  the  author  of  an  aoooont  of  a  *^^«*»"g 
voyage  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  undertaken  for  the  purpose 
of  exploration  and  oobnizatioiL  The  oiiguul,  inaaxbed  00  a 
tablet  in  the  Phoenician  language,  waa  hung  up  in  the  toapk 
of  Melkarth  on  hb  retum  to  Carthage.  What  b  geiMsrally  sup- 
posed to  be  a  Greek  translation  of  thb  b  still  extant,  under  the 
title  of  Periphu,  although  its  authenticity  has  been  qaestaoiied. 
Hanno  appears  to  have  advanced  beyoftd  Sierra  Leone  as  far 
as  Cape  Palmas.  On  the  island  whid>  formed  the  tcnninos  of 
hb  voysge  the  explorer  found  a  number  of  hauy  women, 
whom  the  interpreters  called  Gorillas '(ropI^Xos). 

Valuable  editions  by  T.  Falconer  O797,  with  tnndatioo  and 
defence  of  its  authenticity)  and  C.  W.  MOller  in  Ciiogrnfkii:i  Groed 
minores,  i. ;  see  also  £.  H.  Bunbury,  History  of  Ancient  Gmpapky,  L, 
and  treatise  by  C.  T.  Fischer  (1893),  with  bAdiograpliy. 


2.  Hamno  (3rd  century  b.c),  called  "  the  Great,"  Cartha^mao 

statesman  and  general,  leader  of  the  arbtocratic  party  and  the 

chief  opponent  of  HamQcar  and  Hannibal.  He  appears  to  have 

gained  hb  title  from  rnxUtaiy  successes  in  Africa,  but  of  these 

nothing  b  f  nown.    In  340  b.c  be  drove  Hamilmr'a  vetersa 

mercenaries  to  rebellion  by  withholding  their  pay,  and  when 

invested  with  the  command  against  them  was  so  uxoocccsslul 

that  (Carthage  might  have  been  lost  but  for  the  exertions  of  bis 

enemy   Hamilrar   (q.t.).    Hanno  subsequently   vemaiaed  at 

Carthage,  exerting  all  hb  influence  against  the  democratic 

party,  which,  however,  had  now  definltdy  won  the  upper  hand 

During  the  Second  Punic  War  he  advocated  peace  with  Rome. 

and  according  to  Livy  even  advised  that  Hannibal  should  he 

given  up  to  the  Romans.    After  the  battle  of  Zama  (aoa)  be 

was  one  of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  Sdpio  to  sue  for  peace. 

Remarkably  little  b  known  of  him,  considering  the  gveat  influence 

he  tmdoubtedly  exerdsed  amongst  hb  oountxymen. 

Livy  xxL  3  ff.,  xxiii.  13;  Polybios  L  67  ff.;  Appian,  Res  Hii- 
panicae,  4,  $,  Res  Punicae,  34, 49,  68. 

HANOI,  capital  of  Tongking  and  of  French  Indo-China,  oa 
the  right  bank  of  the  Song-koi  or  Red  river,  about  80  ra.  froas 
its  mouth  in  the  Gulf  of  Tongking.  Taking  in  the  suborbaa 
population  the  inhabitants  numbered  in  1905  about  110,000, 
including  103,000  Annamese,  3389  Chinese  and  1665  Freadi, 
exdusive  of  troops.  Hanoi  resembles  a  European  dty  in  the 
possession  of  wide  well-paved  streets  and  promenades,  sy^ems  of 
dectric  light  and  drainage  and  a  good  water-supply.  A  crowded 
native  quarter  built  round  a  picturesque  lake  lies  dose  to  the 
river  with  the  European  quarter  to  the  sooth  of  it.  The  publk 
buildings  indude  the  palace  of  the  govemor^eneial,  sitoated 
in  a  spadous  botanical  and  zoological  garden,  the  large  militaiy 
hospital,  the  cathedral  of  St  Joseph,  the  Paul  Bert  odlcge,  aad 
the  theatre.  The  barracks  and  other  military  buildings  ccasfny 
the  site  of  the  old  dtadd,  an  area  of  over  300  acres,  to  the  west 
of  the  native  towxL  The  so-called  pagoda  of  the  Great  Boddki 
b  the  chief  native  building.  The  river  b  rmhanknd  and  is 
crossed  by  the  Pont  Doumer,  a  fine  railway  bridge  over  i  m 
long.    Vesseb  drawing  8  or  9  ft.  can  reach  the  town.     Hanoi  is 

*For  others  of  the  name  see  CARTRacB;  HAJnOBAL;  Ptnoc 
Wass.  Smith's  CbiJwa/X>Mi!JoiMrylia8notkxs  of  aooK  thirty  olrhe 
name 


HANOTAUX— HANOVER 


923 


tbeieat  of  the  genenl  government  of  Indo-China,  of  the  resident- 
superior  of  Tongking.  and  of  a  bishop,  who  is  vicar-^xMtolic  of 
central  Tongking.  It  is  administered  by  an  elective  municipal 
council  With  a  dvfl  service  administrator  as  mayor.  It  has  a 
chamber  of  commerce,  the  president  of  which  has  a  seat  on  the 
superior  councO  of  Indo-China;  a  chamber  of  the  court  of 
appeal  of  Indo-China,  a  dvil  tribunal  of  the  first  order,  and  Is 
the  seat  of  the  chamber  of  agriculture  of  Tongking.  Its  industries 
include  cotton-spinning,  brewing,  distilling,  and  the  manufacture 
of  tobacco,  earthenware  and  matches;  native  indqstry  pro- 
duces carved  and  inhiid  furniture,  bronses  and  artistic  metal- 
work,  silk  embroidery,  &c.  Hanoi  is  the  junction  of  railways  to 
Hai-Phong,  its  seaport,  Lao-Kay,  Vinh,  and  the  Chinese  frontier 
via  Lang-Son.  It  is  in  frequent  communication  with  Hai-Phong 
by  steamboat. 
See  C  MadroUe,  Tonkin  dm  sud:  Hanoi  (Paris,  1907). 

HANOTAUX,  ALBERT  AUQUSTB  GABRIEL  (1855-  ), 
French  statesman  and  historian,  was  bom  at  Beaurevoir  in  the 
department  of  Aisne.  He  received  his  historical  training  in  the 
ficole  des  Chartes.  and  became  mattre  de  eenfirencts  in  the 
ficole  des  Hautes  Etudes.  His  political  career  was  rather  that 
of  a  civil  servant  than  of  a  party  politician.  In  1879  he  entered 
the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs  as  a  secretary,  and  rose  step  by 
step  throu^  the  diplomatic  service.  In  i8iS6  he  was  elected 
deputy  for  Aisne,  but,  defeated  in  1889,  he  returned  to  his  diplo- 
matic career,  and  on  the  31st  of  May  1894  was  chosen  by  Charles 
Dupuy  to  be  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  With  one  interruption 
(during  the  Ribot  ministry,  from  the  36th  of  January  'to  the 
2nd  of  November  1895)  he  hel4  this  portfolio  until  the  14th  of 
June  1898.  During  his  ministry  be  developed  the  rapprocke- 
ment  of  France  with  Russia— positing  St  Petersburg  with  the 
president,  Felix  Faure — and  sent  expeditions  to  delimit  the 
French  colonies  in  Africa.  The  Fashoda  incident  of  July  1898 
was  a  result  of  this'policy,  and  Hanotaux's  distrust  of  England 
is  frankly  stated  in  his  literary  works.  As  an  historian  he  pub- 
lished Origines  de  VinslUtaicn  des  intendants  de  provinces  (1884), 
which  is  the  authoritative  study  on  the  intendants;  £tudes  Ait- 
toHques  swUsXVl'aX  VII'  sUeles  en  France  (1886) ;  Hutoire 
de  Richelieu  (a  vols.,  1888);  and  Histeire  de  la  Troisiime  Ripuk- 
lique  (1904,  &c.),  the  standard  history  of  contemporary  France. 
He  also  edited  the  Instructions  des  ambassadeurs  de  France  i 
Rome,  depuis  les  traiUs  de  Westpkalie  ( 1 888).  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  on  the  ist  of  April  1897. 

HANOVER  ((3er.  Hannover),  formerly  an  independent  kingdom 
of  Ciermany,  but  since  1866  a  province  of  Prussia.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  North  Sea,  Holstdn,  Hamburg  and  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin,  E.  and  S.E.  by  Prussian  Saxony  and  the  duchy 
of  Brunswick,  S.W.  by  the  Pntssian  provinces  of  Hesse-Nassau 
and  WestphaUa,  and  W.  by  Holland.  These  boundaries  include 
the  grand-duchy  of  Oldenburg  and  the  free  state  of  Bremeiv  the 
former  stretching  southward  from  the  North  Sea  nearly  to  the 
southern  boundary  of  Hanover.  A  small  portion  of  the  province 
in  the  south  is  separated  from  Hanover  proper  by  the  inter- 
position of  part  of  Brunswick.  On  the  ayd  of  March  1873 
the  province  was  increased  by  the  addition  of  the  Jade  territory 
(purchased  by  Prussia  from  Oldenburg),  lying  south-west  of 
the  Elbe  and  containing  the  great  naval  station  and  arsenal  of 
Wilhelmshaven.    The  area  of  the  province  is  14,870  sq.  m. 

Physical  Features. — ^The  greater  part  of  Hanover  is  a  plain  with 
nndhills.  heath  and  moor.  The  most  fertile  districts  lie  on  the 
banks  of  the  bibe  and  near  the  North  Sea,  where,  as  in  Holland,  rich 
meadows  are  preserved  from  encroachment  of  the  wa  by  broad 
dikes  and  deep  ditches,  kept  in  repair  at  great  expense.  The  main 
feature  of  the  northern  puin  is  tne  wxalled  LAnAurgir  Heide,  a 
vast  expanse  of  moor  ana  fen,  mainly  covered  with  low  brushwood 
(though  here  and  there  are  oases  of  fine  beech  and  oak  woods) 
and  interMcted  by  shallow  valleys,  and  extending  almost  due  north 
from  the  dty  of  Hanover  to  the  southern  arm  of  toe  Elbe  at  Harburg. 
The  southern  portion  of  the  province  is  hilly,  and  in  the  district 
of  Klauseaburg,  cont&ining  the  Han.  mountainous.  The  higher 
dcvatioos  are  covered  by  dense  forests  of  fir  and  larch,  snd  the 
lower  shapes  with  deriduous  trees.  The  eastern  portion  of  the 
northern  plain  is  covered  with  forests  of  fir.  The  whde  of  Hanover 
dips  from  the  Harf  Mountains  to  the  north,  snd  the  rivers  conse- 
quently fiow  in  that  direction.    The  three  chief  rivers  of  the  province 


are  the  Elbe  in  the  north-cast,  where  it  nuinly  forms  the  boundary 
and  recdves  the  navigable  tributaries  Jeetse.  llmenau.  Seve.  Este, 
LOhe.  Schwinge  and  Medem;  the  Weser  in  the  centre,  with  its 
important  tributary  the  Aller  ^navisable  from  Celle  downwards); 
and  in  the  west  the  Ems,  with  its  tributaries  the  Aa  and  the  Lcda. 


Still  farther  west  is  the  Vecht.  which,  rising  in  Westphalia,  flows 
to  the  Zuider  Zee.  Canals  are  numerous  and  connect  the  various 
river  syMems. 

The  priadpal  hkes  are  the  Stdnhuder  Meer.  about  am.  long  and 
a  m.  broad,  and  20  fathoms  deep,  on  the  borders  of  Scfaaumburg- 
Lippe;  the  DQmmersee.  on  the  borders  of  Oldenburg,  about  la  m. 
in  circuit ;  the  lakes  of  Bederkesa  and  some  others  in  the  moorlands 
of  the  north:  the  Seebureer  See.  near  Duderttadt;  and  the  Oder- 
teich,  in  the  Hare,  aioo  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

CKsMls.— The  climate  in  the  knr-Iying  districts  near  the  coast  is 
moiit  and  foggy,  in  the  plains  mild,  on  the  Hsrs  mountains  severe 
and  variable.  In  spring  the  prevailing  winds  blow  from  the  N.E. 
and  E.,  in  summer  from  the  S.W.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is 
about  46*  Fahr. :  in  the  town  of  Hanover  it  is  higher.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  b  about  2y$  in. ;  but  this  varies  greatly  in  different 
diitricts.  In  the  west  the  Herauch,  a  thick  fog  arising  from  the 
burning  of  the  moors,  is  a  plague  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Population;  Dioisions. — ^The  province  contains  an  area  of  14,869 
sq.  m..  and  the  total  population,  according  to  the  census  of  1905.  was 
3t7^>699^  (1484.161  males  and  1.375.538  females).  In  this  con- 
nexion It  is  noticeable  that  in  Hanover,  almost  alone  among  German 
states  and  provinces,  there  b  a  considerable  proportion  of  male 
births  over  female.  The  density  of  the  population  U  175  to  the 
sq.  m.  (English),  and  the  proportion  of  urban  to  rural  population, 
roughly,  as  I  to  3  of  the  inhabitants.  The  province  b  divided  into 
the  six  Regierunisbetirke  (or  departments)  ol  Hanover,  Hildesheim, 
LQneburg.  Stade.  OsnabrOck  and  Aurich.  and  these  again  into 
^reiu  (circles,  or  local  government  districts) — 76  in  alL  The  chief 
towns—containing  more  than  10,000  inhabitants — are  Hanover, 
Linden,  OsnabrOck,  Hildesheim,  GeestcmQnde,  Wilhelmshaven. 
Harburg,  LQnebunr.  Celle.  G<Htingcn  and  Emden.  Religious  sutis- 
tics  show  that  84%  of  the  inhabitants  bck>ng  to  the  Evangelical- 
Lutheran  Chureh,  17  to  the  Roman  Catholic  and  less  than  1  %  to 
the  Jewish  communities.  The  Roman  Catholics  are  mostly  gathered 
around  the  episcopal  loes  of  Hildesheim  and  Osnabrikck  and  close 
to  Monster  (in  Westphalb)  on  the  western  border,  and  the  Jews  in 
the  towns.  A  court  of  appeal  for  the  whole  province  sits  at  Celle, 
and  there  are  eight  supoior  courts.  Hanover  returns  19  members 
to  the  Reichstae  (imperial  diet)  and  36  to  the  Abgeordndnihaus 
(lower  house)  of  the  Pntssian  pauribment  (Landtai), 

Education. — ^Among  the  educational  institutions  of  the  province 
the  university  of  GAttingcn  stands  first,  with  an  average  yearly 
attendance  of  1500  itudents.  There  are,  besides,  a  techni^  college 
in  Hanover,  an  academy  ol  forestry  in  MOnden,  a  mining  college  in 
Cbusthal,  a  military  school  and  a  veterinary  college  (both  in 
Hanover),  s6  gymnasia  (chsiical  schools),  18  semi'Cbssical,  and  14 
commercbl  schools.  There  are  also  two  naval  academies,  asylums 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  numerous  charitable  institutions. 

Agriculture. — Though  agriculture  constitutes  the  most  important 
braiich  of  industry  in  the  province,  it  is  itill  in  a  i^ery  backward 
sute.  The  greater  part  of  the  soil  b  of  inferior  quality,  and  much 
that  is  susceptible  01  cultivation  b  still  lying  waste.  Of  the  entire 
area  of  the  country  38-6  %  b  arable.  i6'a  in  mea<iow  or  pasture  land. 
14%  in  forests,  37*a%  in  uncultivated  moors,  heaths,  Ac;  from 
17  to  18%  b  in  pomeieion  of  the  sute.  The  best  agriculture  is  to 
o^  found  in  the  districts  of  Hildesheim,  Calenbcrg,  GAttingen  and 
Grubenhagen,  on  the  banks  of  the  Weser  and  Elbe,  and  m  East 
Friesland.  Rye  b  generally  grown  for  bread.  Flax,  for  which 
much  of  the  sml  b  admirably  aospted,  b  extenstvdy  cultivated,  and 
forms  an  important  article  of  export,  chieflv,  however,  in  the  form 
of  yarn.  Potatoes,  hemp,  turnips,  hops,  tobacco  and  beet  are  also 
extensively  grown,  the  btter,  in  oonnedon  with  the  sugar  industry, 
■bowing  each -year  a  larger  return.  Apples,  pears,  plums  and 
cherries  are  the  prindpal  kinds  of  fruit  cultivated,  while  the  wild 
red  cranberries  from  the  Hars  and  the  bbck  bilberries  from  the 
Ltkneburger  Heide  form  an  important  article  of  emort. 

Imc  Stock, — Hanover  b  renowned  for  its  cattle  and  live  stock 
generally.  Of  these  there  were  counted  in  1900  1,115,033  head  of 
homed  cattle.  8x4,000  sheep,  1 ,556,000  pigs,  and  xao.ooo  goats.  Thi> 
Lttneburger  Heide  yields  an  occellent  breed  of  sheep,  the  Heid- 
scknucken,  which  equal  the  Southdowas  of  Enghnd  in  delicacy  of 
flavour.  Horses  famous  for  their  sise  and  quality  are  reared  in  the 
marshes  of  Aurich  and  Stade.  in  Hildesheim  and  Hanciver;  and.  for 
breeding  purposes,  in  the  stud  farm  of  Celle.  Bees  are  principally 
kept  on  the  L&nd>urger  Heide.  and  the  annual  yield  of  honey  is  very 
considerable.  Larss  flocks  of  geese  are  kept  in  the  moist  lowUnds; 
their  flesh  b  saltedior  domestic  consumption  during  the  winter,  and 
their  feathers  are  prepared  for  sale.  The  rivers  yield  trout,  salmon 
(in  the  Weser)  and  crayfish.  The  sea  fisheries  are  important  and  have 
their  chief  centre  at  deestemOnde. 

Mitting. — Minersb  occur  in  great  variety  and  abundance.  Tht 
Hars  Mountains  are  rich  in  silverj  lead,  iron  and  o»per;  coal  b 
found  around  OsnabrOck,  on  the  Oeister.  at  Osterwald.  ac.  lignite  In 
various  places;  salt-springs  of  great  richness  exist  at  Egestorf shall 


924 


HANOVER 


and  Neuhall  near  Hanover,  and  at  LOneburs;  and  petroleum  may 
be  (Stained  south  of  Celle.  In  the  cold  regions  of  the  northern  low- 
lands peat  occurs  in  beds  of  immense  thicluiess. 

Manu/aaures. — Works  for  the  manufacture  of  iron,  copper,  silver, 
lead,  vitriol  and  sulphur  are  carried  on  to  a  large  extent.  The  iron 
works  are  very  important :  smelting  is  carried  on  in  the  Hars  and 
near  Osnabrttclc ;  there  are  extensive  foundries  and  machine  factories 
at  Hanover.  Linden.  Osnabrtkck.  Hameln,  GeestemOnde,  Harburgt 
Osterode,  &c.,  and  manufactories  of  arms  at  Herzbeig.  and  oi 
cutlery  in  the  towns  of  the  Hare  and  in  the  Sollinger  Forest.  The 
textile  industries  are  prosecuted  chiefly  in  the  towns.  Linen  yam 
and  ck>th  are  laigely  manufactured,  especially  in  the  south  about 
Osnabrfick  and  Hildcsbeim,  and  bleaching  is  enga^  in  extensively; 
woollen  cloths  are  made  to  a  considerable  extent  m  the  south  about 
Einbeck.  G<)ttingen  and  Hameln;  cotton-spinning  and  weaving 
have  their  principal  seats  at  Hanover  and  Linden.  Glass  houses, 
paper-mills,  potteries,  tile  works  and  tobacco-pipe  works  are  numer- 
ous. Wax  IS  bleached  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  there  are 
numerous  tobacco  factories,  unneries,  breweries,  vinegar  works 
and  brandy  distilleries.  Shipbuilding  is  an  important  industry, 
especially  at  Wilhelmshaven.  Papenburg.  Leer,  Sude  and  Harburg; 
and  at  MQnden  river-baiges  are  ouilt. 

Commerce.— Mthouzh  the  carrying  trade  of  Hanover  is  to  a  sreat 
extent  absorbed  by  Hamburg  and  Bremen,  the  shipping  of  the 
province  counted,  m  1903,  750  sailing  vessels  and  86  Reamers  of, 
together.  55.498  registered  tons,  ine  natural  p(»t  is  Bremen- 
GeestemOnde  and  to  it  is  directed  the  river  traffic  down  the  Weser, 
which  practically  forms  the  chief  commercial  artery  of  the  province. 

Communications. — The  roads  throughout  are,  on  the  whole,  well 
bid.  and  those  connecting  the  principal  towns  macadamized. 
Hanover  is  intersected  by  important  trunk  lines  of  railway;  notably 
the  lines  from  Berlin  to  Cologne,  from  Hamburg  to  Frankfort-on- 
Main,  from  Hamburg  to  Bremen  and  Cologne,  and  from  Berlin  to 
Amsterdam. 

History,— The  name  Hanover  {Hokmufer  ■>  high  bank), 
originally  confined  to  the  town  which  became  the  capital  of 
the  duchy  of  LUneburg-Calenberg,  came  gradually  into  use  to 
designate,  first,  the  duchy  itself,  and  secondly,  the  electorate 
of  Brunswick-Lttneburg;  and  it  was  oflBcially  recognized  as 
the  name  of  the  state  when  in  1814  the  electorate  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom. 

The  early  history  of  Hanover  is  merged  in  that  of  th6  duchy 
of  Brunswick  (q.v.),  from  which  the  duchy  of  Brunswick-Lttne- 
burg and  its  oGtshoots,  the  duchies  of  LUneburg-Celle  and 
LUneburg-Calenberg  have  sprung.  Ernest  I.  (1497-1546),  duke 
of  Brunswick-Lttneburg,  who  introduced  the  reformed  doctrines 
into  Lttneburg,  obtained  the  whole  of  this  duchy  in  1539;  and 
in  Z569  his  two  surviving  sons  made  an  arrangement  which 
was  afterwards  responsible  for  the  birth  of  the  kingdom  of 
Hanover.  By  this  agreement  the  greater  part  of  the  duchy, 
with  its  capital  at  Celle,  came  to  William  (x535''X593)>  ^^ 
younger  of  the  brothers,  who  gave  laws  to  his  land  and  added 
to  its  area;  and  this  duchy  of  LUneburg-Celle  was  subsequently 
ruled  in  turn  by  four  of  his  sons:  Ernest  U.  (1564-16x1), 
Christian  (1566-1633),  Augustus  (d.  1636)  and  Frederick 
(d.  1648).  In  addition  to  these  four  princes  Duke  William  left 
three  other  sons,  and  in  16 10  the  seven  brothers  entered  into  a 
compact  that  the  duchy  should  not  be  divided,  and  that  only 
one  of  them  should  marry  and  continue  the  family.  Casting 
lots  to  determine  this  question,  the  lot  fell  upon  the  sixth  brother, 
George  (1582-1641),  who  was  a  prominent  soldier  during  the 
period  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  saw  service  in  almost  all 
parts  of  Europe,  fighting  successively  for  Christian  IV.  of  Den- 
mark, the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  and  for  the  Swedes  both 
before  and  after  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  In  161 7 
he  aided  his  brother,  Duke  Christian,  to  add  Grubenhagen  to 
Lttneburg,  and  after  the  extinction  of  the  family  of  Brunswick- 
WoIfenbUttel  in  1634,  he  obtained  Calenberg  for  himself,  making 
Hanover  the  capital  of  his  small  dukedom.  In  1648,  on  Duke 
Frederick's  death,  George's  eldest  son,  Christian  Louis  (d.  1665), 
became  duke  of  LUneburg-Celle;  and  at  this  time  he  handed 
over  Calenberg,  which  he  had  ruled  since  his  father's  death, 
to  his  second  brother,  George  William  (d.  1 705) .  When  Christian 
Louis  died  George  William  succeeded  him  in  Lttneburg-Celle; 
but  the  duchy  was  also  claimed  by  a  younger  brother,  John 
Frederick,  a  cultured  and  enlightened  prince  who  had  forsaken 
the  Lutheran  faith  of  his  family  and  had  become  a  Roman 
Catholic    Soon,  however,  by  an  arrangement  J<^  Frederick 


received  Calenberg  and  GrubenhageDfivhicli  he  ruled  in  abanhite 
fashion,  creating  a  standing  army  and  fnodrlling  bis  oooit 
after  that  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  which  came  on  his  deatlt  in  1679 
to  his  youngest  brother,  Ernest  Augustus  (1630-1698),  the 
Protestant  b^hop  of  Osiuibrtlck.  During  the  French  wars  of 
aggression  the  Lttneburg  princes  were  eafnty  oowted  by  Louis 
XIV.  and  by  his  ojqponents;  and  after  some  hesitation  George 
William,  influenced  by  Ernest  Augustus,  iiouglit  among  the 
Imperialists,  while  John  Frederick  was  ranged  on  the  side  of 
France.  |n  1689  George  William  was  one  of  the  claimants  Ux 
the  duchy  of  Saze-Lauenbuxg,  which  was  left  vitliout  a  rukr 
in  that  year;  and  after  a  strnge^e  with  John  George  IIL,  elector 
of  Saxony,  and  other  rivals,  he  was  invested  with  the  duchy 
by  the  emperor  Leopold  L  It  was,  however,  his  more  ambitioas 
brother,  Ernest  Augustus,  who  did  most  for  the  picstlce  and 
advancement  of  the  house.  Having  intxoduced  Uie  pcincipk 
of  primogeniture  into  Caknbeig  in  1683,  Eincst  detcmiiittd 
to  secure  for  himself  the  position  of  an  elector,  and  the  oonditioo 
of  Europe  and  tht  exigencies  (rf  the  emperat  favoured  his  pre- 
tensions. He  made  skilful  use  of  Le<^x>ld's  difficialdea;  sad  in 
1692,  in  return  for  lavish  promises  of  assistant  to  the  Emfsre 
and  the  Habsburgi,  the  emperor  granted  him  the  tank  and  title 
of  elector  of  Brunswick-Lttneburg  with  the  office  of  standard- 
bearer  in  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Indignant  protests  f (flowed 
this  proceeding.  A  league  was  formed  to  prevent  any  md&iiaa 
to  the  electoral  college;  France  and  Sweden  were  called  opoa 
for  assistance;  and  the  constitution  of  the  Empire  was  redooed 
to  a  state  of  chaos.  This  agitation,  however,  soon  died  away; 
and  in  1708  George  Louis,  the  son  and  successor  of  Ernest 
Augustus,  was  recognised  as  an  elector  by  the  imperial  diet. 
George  Louis  married  his  cousin  Sophia  I>orot)»a,  the  only  chiki 
of  George  William  of  Lttneburg-Celle;  and  on  his  uncle's  death 
in  1705  he  united  this  duchy,  together  with  Saze-Lauenborg, 
with  his  paternal  inheritance  of  CaJenberg  or  Hanover.  His 
father,  Ernest  Augustus,  had  taken  a  step  of  great  importance 
in  the  history  of  Hanover  when  he  married  Sophia,  dangfater 
of  the  elector  palatine,  Frederick  V.,  and  i^and-dausbter  d 
James  I.  of  England,  for,  through  his  mother,  the  elector  George 
Louis  became,  by  the  terms  of  the  Act  of  Settlement  of  i?oi, 
king  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  in  1714. 

From  this  time  until  the  death  of  William  IV.  in  1837,  LnBc>- 
burg  or  Hanover,  was  ruled  by  the  same  sovereign  as  Great 
Britain,  and  this  personal  union  was  not  without  impartaat 
results  for  both  countries.  Under  George  L  Hanover  joined 
the  alliance  against  Charles  XH.  of  Sweden  in  17x5;  and  by 
the  peace  c^  Stockholm  in  November  1719  the  elector  received 
the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden.  which  formed  an  impertsat 
addition  to  the  electorate.  His  son  and  successor,  George  IL, 
who  founded  the  university  of  GCttingen  in  1737,  was  on  bad 
terms  with  his  brother-in-kw  Frederi^  WiUiam  L  of  Pnosia, 
and  his  nephew  Frederick  the  Great;  and  in  172^9  war  betweea 
Prussia  and  Hanover  was  only  just  avmded.  In  1743  George 
took  up  arms  on  behalf  of  the  empress  Maria  Theresa;  bat  in 
August  1745  the  danger  in  England  from  the  Jacobites  led  faia 
to  sign  the  convention  of  Hanover  with  Frederick  the  Great, 
although  the  struggle  with  France  raged  axovnd  his  ckctorare 
until  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748.  Induced  by  pctfttcal 
exigencies  George  allied  himself  with  Frederick  the  Great  wbea 
the  Seven  Years'  War  broke  out  in  17 56;  but  in  Septonber  1757 
his  son  William  Augustus,  duke  of  Cumberland,  was  cooipeU^d 
after  his  defeat  at  Hastenbeck  to  sign  the  convention  of  Klostcr- 
seven  and  to  abandon  Hanover  to  the  French.  F.ng!wh  mc»ey, 
however,  came  to  the  rescue;  in  1758  Fodinand,  duke  of 
Brunswick,  cleared  the  electorate  of  the  invader;  and  Haoo\Tr 
suffered  no  loss  of  territory  at  the  peace  of  x  763.  Both  George  I. 
and  George  U.  preferred  Hanover  to  England  as  a  place  of 
residence,  and  it  was  a  frequent  and  perhaps  justifiable  cause  d 
complaint  that  the  interests  of  Great  Britain  were  sacrifice! 
to  those  of  the  smaller  country.  But  George  IIL  was  ir.o^ 
British  than  either  his  grandfather  or  his  greit-grandiathrf, 
and  owing  to  a  variety  of  causes  the  foreign  policies  of  the  tvo 
countries  began  to  diyerftc  in  the  later  years  of  his  reign.    Two 


HANOVER 


925 


main  consideratioos  dominated  the  fortunes  of  Hanover  diiring 
the  period  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the  jealousy  felt  by  Prussia 
at  the  increasing  strength  and  prestige  of  the  dectorate,  and  its 
position  as  a  vulnerable  outpost  of  Great  Britain.    From  1 793  the 
Hanoverian  troops  fought  for  the  Allies  against  France,  until 
the  treaty  of  Basel  between  France  and  Prussia  in  1795  imposed 
a  forced  neutrality  upon  Hanover.    At  the  instigation  of  Bona- 
parte Hanover  was  occupied  by  the  Prussians  for  a  few  months 
in  1801,  but  at  the  settlement  which  followed  the  peace  of 
Lun^ville  the  secularized  bishopric  of  Osnabriick  was  added  to 
the  electorate.    Again  tempting  the  fortune  of  war  after  the 
rupture  of  the  peace  of  AJniens,  the  Hanoverians  found  that 
the  odds  against  them  were  too  great;  and  in  June  1803  by 
the  convention  of  Sulingen  their  territory  was  occupied  by  the 
French.    The  formation  of  the  third  OMlition  against  France 
in  2805  induced  Napoleon  to  purchase  the  support  of  Prussia 
by  allowing  her  troops  to  seise  Hanover;  but  m  1807,  after 
the  defeat  of  Prussia  at  Jena,  he  incorporated  the  southern 
part  of  the  electorate  in  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  adding  the 
northern  portion  to  France  in  x8io.    The  French  occupation 
was  costly  and  aggressive;  and  the  Hanoverians,  many  of  whom 
were  fotmd  in  the  allied  armies,  welcomed  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
and  the  return  of  the  old  order.    Represented  at  the  congress  of 
Vienna  by  Ernest,  Count  MOnster,  the  elector  was  granted  the 
title  of  king;  but  the  British  ministers  wished  to  keep  the 
interests  of  Great  Britain  distinct  from  those  of  Hanover.    The 
result  of  the  congress,  however,  was  not  unfavourable  to  the  new 
kingdom,  which  received  East  Friesland,  the  secularized  bishopric 
of  HildcjJieim,  the  city  of  Goslar,  and  some  smaller  additions  of 
territory,  in  return  for  the  surrender  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
duchy  of  Saze-Lauenburg  to  Prussia. 

Like  those  of  the  other  districts  of  Germany,  the  estates  of 
the  different  provinces  trhich  formed  the  kingdom  of  Hanover 
had  Diet  for  many  years  in  an  irregular  fashion  to  ezerdse  their 
varying  and  ill-defined  authority;  and,  although  the  elector 
Ernest  Augustus  introduced  a  system  of  administrative  councils 
into  Celle,  these  estates,  consisting  of  the  three  orders  of  prelates, 
nobles  and  towns,  together  with  a  body  somewhat  resembling 
the  English  privy  council,  were  the  only  constitution  which  the 
country  possessed,  and  the  only  dieck  upon  the  power  of  its 
ruler.  When  the  elector  George  Louis  became  king  of  Great 
Britain  in  17x4  he  appointed  a  representative,  or  statihalUft 
to  govern  the  electorate,  and  thus  the  union  of  the  two  countries 
was  attended  with  constitutional  changes  in  Hanover  as  well 
as  in  Great  Britain.    Responsible  of  course  to  the  elector,  the 
Statthalter,  aided  by  the  privy  council,  conducted  the  internal 
affairs  of  the  electorate,  generally  in  a  peaceful  and  satisfactory 
fashion,  until  the  welter  of  the  Napoleonic  wars.    On  the  con- 
clusion of  peace  in  1814  the  estates  of  the  several  provinces  of 
the  kingdom  were  fused  into  one  body,  consisting  of  eighty-five 
members,  but  the  chief  power  was  exercised  as  before  by  the 
members  of  a  few  noble  families.    In  1819,  however,  this  feudal 
relic  was  supplanted  by  a  new  constitution.    Two  chambers 
were  established,  the  one  formed  of  nobles  and  the  other  of  elected 
representatives;  but  although  they  were  authorized  to  control 
the  finances,  their  power  with  regard  to  legisUtion  was  very 
circumscribed.    This  constitution  was  sanctioned  by  the  prince 
regent,  afterwards  King  George  IV.;  but  it  was  out  of  harmony 
with  the  new  and  liberal  ideas  which  prevailed  in  Europe,  and 
it  hardly  survived  George's  decease  in  1830.    The  revolution 
of  that  year  compelled  George's  brother  and  successor,  William, 
to  dismiss  Count  MQnster,  who  had  been  the  actual  ruler  of  the 
country,  and  to  name  his  own  brother,  Adolphus  Frederick, 
duke  of  Cambridge,  a  viceroy  of  Hanover;  one  of  the  viceroy's 
earliest  duties  being  to  appoint  a  commission  to  draw  up  a  new 
constitution.  This  was  done,  and  after  William  had  insbted  UF>on 
certain  alterations,  it  was  accepted  and  promulgated  in  1833. 
Representation  was  granted  to  the  peasants;  the  two  chambers 
were  empowered  to  initiate  legislation;  ministers  were  made 
responsible  for  all  acts  of  government;  a  civil  list  was  given  to 
the  king  in  return  for  the  surrender  of  the  crown  Unds;  and, 
in  short,  the  new  constitution  was  simihtf  to  that  of  jGreat 


Britain,  These  liberal  arrangements,  however,  did  not  entirely 
allay  the  discontent.  A  strong  and  energetic  party  endeavoured 
to  thwait  the  working  of  the  new  order,  and  matters  came  to  a 
climax  on  the  death  of  William  IV.  in  1837. 

By  the  law  of  Hanover  a  woman  could  not  ascend  the  throne, 
and  accordingly  Ernest  Augustus,  duke  of  Cumberland,  the  fifth 
son  of  George  III.,  and  not  Victoria,  succeeded  William  as 
sovereign  in  1837,  thus  separating  the  crowns  of  Great  Britain 
and  Hanover  after  a  union  of  123  years.  Ernest,  a  prince  with 
very  autocratic  ideas,  had  disapproved  of  the  constitution  of 
1833,  and  his  first  important  act  as  king  was  to  declare  it  invalid. 
He  appears  to  have  been  especially  chagrined  because  the  crown 
lands  were  not  his  personal  property,  but  the  whole  of  the  new 
arrangements  were  repugnant  to  1dm.  Seven  G5ttingen  pro- 
fessors who  protested  against  this  proceeding  were  deprived  of 
their  chairs;  and  some  of  them,  including  F.  C.  Dahlmann  and 
Jakob  Grimm,  were  banished  from  the  country  for  publishing 
their  protest.  To  save  the  constitution  an  appeal  was  made  to 
the  German  Confederation,  which  Hanover  had  joined  in  1815; 
but  the  federal  diet  declined  to  interfere,  and  in  1840  Ernest 
altered  the  constitution  to  suit  his  own  illiberal  views.  Recover- 
ing the  crown  lands,  he  abolished  the  principle  of  ministerial 
responsibility,  the  legislative  power  of  the  two  chambers,  and 
other  reforms,  virtually  restoring  affairs  to  their  condition  before 
1833.  The  inevitable  crisis  was  delayed  until  the  stormy  year 
1848,  when  the  king  probably  saved  his  crown  by  hastily  giving 
back  the  constitution  of  1833.  Order,  however,  having  been 
restored,  in  1850  he  dismissed  the  Liberal  ministry  and  attempted 
to  evade  his  concessions;  a  bitter  strug^e  had  just  broken  out 
when  Ernest  Augustus  died  in  November  1851.  During  this 
reign  the  foreign  policy  of  Hanover  both  within  and  without 
Germany  had  been  coloured  by  jealousy  of  Prussia  and  by  the 
king's  autocratic  ideas.  Refusing  to  join  the  Pnissian  ZoUvereirif 
Hanover  had  become  a  member  of  the  rival  commercial  union, 
the  SteuervereiHt  three  years  before  Ernest's  accession;  but  as 
this  union  was  not  a  great  success  the  ZMverHn  was  joined  in 
1851.  In  1849,  after  the  failure  of  the  German  parliament  at 
Frankfort,  the  king  had  joined  with  the  sovereigns  of  Prussia 
and  Saxony  to  form  the  "  three  kings'  alliance ";  but  this 
union  with  Prussia  was  unreal,  and  with  the  king  of  Saxony  he 
soon  transferred  his  support  to  Austria  and  became  a  member 
of  the  "  four  kings'  alliance." 

George  V.,  the  new  king  of  Hanover,  who  was  unfortunately 
blind,  sharing  his  father's  political  ideas,  at  once  appointed 
a  ministry  whose  aim  was  to  sweep  away  the  constitution  of 
1848.  This  project^  however,  was  resisted  by  the  second 
chamber  of  the  Landtag,  or  parliament;  and  after  several 
changes  of  government  a  new  ministry  advised  the  king  in  1855 
to  appeal  to  the  diet  of  the  German  Confederation.  This  was 
done,  and  the  diet  declared  the  constitution  of  1848  to  be  invalid. 
Acting  on  this  verdict,  not  only  was  a  ministry  formed  to  restore 
the  constitution  of  1840,  but  after  some  trouble  a  body  of 
members  fully  in  sympathy  with  this  object  was  returned  to 
parliament  in  1857.  But  these  members  were  so  far  from  repre- 
senting the  opinions  of  the  people  that  popular  resentment 
compelled  George  to  dismiss  his  advisers  in  1863.  But  the  more 
liberal  government  which  succeeded  did  not  enjoy  his  complete 
confidence,  and  in  ii6s  ^  ministry  was  once  more  formed  which 
was  more  in  accord  with  his  own  ideas.  This  -contest  soon  lost 
both  interest  and  importance  owing  to  the  condition  of  affairs 
in  Germany.  Bismarck,  the  director  of  the  policy  of  Prussia, 
was  devising  methods  for  the  realization  of  his  schemes,  and  it 
became  clear  after  the  war  over  the  duchies  of  Schleswig  and 
Holstein  that  the  smaller  German  states  would  soon  be  obliged 
to  decide  definitely  between  Austria  and  I^ussia.  After  a  period 
of  vacillation  Hanover  threw  in  her  lot  with  Austria,  the  decisive 
step  being  taken  when  the  question  of  the  mobilisation  of  the 
federal  army  was  voted  upon  in  the  diet  on  the  Z4th  of  June 
z866.  At  once  Prussia  requested  Hanover  to  remain  unarmed 
and  neutral  during  the  war,  and  with  equal  promptness  King 
George  refused  to  assent  to  these  demands.  Prussian  troops 
then  crossed  his  frontier  and  took  possession  of  his  capitaL 


926 


HANOVER 


The  Hanoverians,  bovever,  were  victorious  at  the  battle  of 
Langensalza  on  the  a7th  of  June  x866,  but  the  advance  of  fresh 
bodies  of  the  enemy  compelled  them  to  capitulate  two  dky% 
later.  By  the  terms  of  this  surrender  the  king  was  not  to  reside 
in  Hanover,  his  officers  were  to  take  no  further  part  in  the  war, 
and  his  ammunition,  and  stores  became  the  property  of  Prussia. 
The  decree  of  the  aoth  of  September  x866  formally  annexed 
Hanov^  to  Prussia,  when  it  became  a  province  of  that  kingdom, 
while  King  George  from  his  retreat  at  Hietaing  appealed  in  vain 
to  the  powers  of  Europe.  Blany  of  the  Hanoverians  remained 
k>yal  to  their  sovereign;  some  of  them  serving  in  the  Guelph 
Legion,  which  was  maintained  largely  at  his  expense  in  France, 
where  a  paper.  La  Situatum,  was  founded  by  Osjcar  Meding 
(1829-1903)  and  conducted  in  his  interests.  These  and  other 
elaborate  efforts,  however,  failed  to  bring  about  the  return  of  the 
king  to  Hanover,  though  the  Gi^dph  party  continued  to  agitate 
and  to  hope  even  after  the  Franco-German  War  had  immensely 
increased  the  power  and  the  prestige  of  Prussia.  George  died 
in  June  1878.  His  son,  Ernest  Augustus,  duke  of  Cumberland, 
continued  to  maintain  his  daim  to  the  crown  of  Hanover,  and 
refused  to  be  reconciled  with  Prussia.  Owing  to  this  attitude 
the  German  imperial  government  refused  to  allow  him  to  take 
possession  of  the  duchy  of  Brunswick,  which  he  inherited  on 
the  extinction  of  the  elder  branch  of  his  family  in  1884,  and  again 
in  1906  when  the  Same  subject  came  up  for  settlexnent  on  the 
death  of  the  regent,  Prince  Albert  of  Prussia. 

In  1867  King  George  had  agreed  to  accept  Prussian  bonds  to 
the  value  of  about  £x  ,600,000  as  compensation  for  the  confiscation 
of  his  estates  in  Hanover.  In  1868,  however,  on  account  of  his 
continued  hostility  to  Prussia,  the  Prussian  government 
sequestrated  this  property;  and,  known  as  the  WdfenfondSt 
or  R$ptUienfondSt  it  was  employed  as  a  secret  service  fund  to 
combat  the  intrigues  of  the  Guelphs  in  various  parts  of  Europe; 
until  in  1893  it  was  arranged  that  the  interest  should  be  paid 
to  the  duke  of  Ctmiberland.  In  1885  measures  were  taken  to 
incorporate  the  province  of  Hanover  more  thoroughly  in  the 
kingdom  of  Prussia,  and  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  the  great 
majority  of  the  Hanoverians  have  submitted  to  the  inevitable, 
and  are  loyal  subjects  of  the  king  of  Prussia. 

AutuoaiTiBs.— A.  HQne.  CeschickU  des  K&nigvichs  Hannoper  und 
ies  Henogt$tms  Braunsckweii  (Hanover,  1824-1830):  A.  F.  H. 
Schaumann,  Handbuch  d&  CeschickU  der  Lande  Hannover  und 
BrauHsckweit  (Hanover,  i86a);  G.  A.  Grotefend,  Gesekichte  der 
aUgemeinen  landstinducken  Yerfassung  des  K&nigreickt  Hannover, 


1898-1890) :  W.  von  Hasaell,  Das  KurfHrstentum  Hannover  vom 
Basder  Frieden  bis  tur  ftreussiscken  OkiuPation  (Hanover,  1894); 
and  Gesekichte  des  K&uiffreicks  Hannover  (Ldprie,  1898-1901);  H. 
von  Treitschke,  Der  Herzog  von  Cumberland  una  das  hannoversche 
Slaatsgntndgesett  von  1833  (Leiprig.  1888);  M.  Bfir,  Obersicht  iber 
die  Bestdnde  des-  kUnigUchen  Staatsarchivs  tu  Hannover  (Leipzig, 
1900);  Hannoversckes  Portfolio  (Stuttgart,  1839-1841);  and  the 
authorities  given  for  the  history  of  Brunswick. 

HANOVER,  the  capital  of  the  Prussian  province  of  the' same 
name,  situated  in  a  sandy  but  fertile  plain  on  the  Leine,  which 
here  receives  the  Ihme,  38  m.  .N.W.  from  Brunswick,  78  S.E. 
of  Bremen,  and  at  the  crossing  of  the  main  lines  of  railway, 
Berlin  to  Cologne  and  Hamburg  to  Frankfort-on-M ain.  Pop. 
(1885)  i39>73x;  (zQpo)  235,666;  (1905)  350,032.  On  the  north 
and  east  the  town  is  half  encircled  by  the  beautiful  woods  and 
groves  of  the  Eilenriede  and  the  List  which  form  the  public 
park.  The  Leine  flows  through  the  city,  having  the  old  town 
on  its  right  and  the  quaint  Caienberger  quarter  between  its  left 
bank  and  the  Ihme.  The  old  town  is  irregularly  built,  with 
narrow  streets  and  old-fashioned  gabled  houses.  In  its  centre 
iies  the  Markt  Kirche,  a  red-brick  edifice  of  the  X4th  century, 
containing  interesting  monuments  and  some  ^e  stained-glass 
windows,  and  with  a  steeple  310  ft.  in  height  (the  highest  in 
Hanover).  Its  interior  was  restored  in  1855.  Qose  by,  on  the 
market  Square,  is  the  red-brick  medieval  town-hall  (Rathaus), 
with  an  historical  wine  cellar  beneath.  It  has  been  superseded 
for  municipal  business  by  a  new  building,  and  now  contains  the 
dvic  archives  and  museum.    The  new  town,  surrounding  the 


old  on  the  north  and  east,  and  lying  between  it  and  the  woods 
referred  to,  has  wide  streets,  handsome  buildings  and  beautiful 
squares.  Among  the  last-mentioned  are  the  square  at  the  railwaj 
station—the  Ernst  Au^gust-Plats— with  an  equestrian  statue  of 
King  Ernest  Augustus  in  bronse;  the  triangular  Theater-Plata, 
with  statues  of  the  composer  Maxschner  and  othcfa;  and  the 
Geoxgs-Platx,  with  a  statue  of  SchiDer.  To  the  south  of  the  old 
town,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ihme,  lies  the  Watedoo-Platz,  with 
a  odumn  of  victory,  154  ft.  hi|^,  having  insciibed  on  it  the 
names  of  800  Hanoverians  who  fdl  at  Waterloo.  Intheadjacent 
gardens  an  open  rotunda  encloses  a  marble  bast  of  the  philosopher 
Leibnita,  and  near  it  is  a  monument  to  General  Count  von  Alten, 
the  comfnander  of  the  Hanoverian  troops  at  Wateiioo.  Among 
the  other  churches  the  most  noticeable  are  the  Neustidteriurd^ 
with  a  graceful  shrine  rontaining  the  tomb  of  Leibnitz,  the 
Kreuakirrhr,  built  about  uoo,  with  a  curious  steeple,  and  the 
Aegidlenkirche  among  ancient  edifices,  and  among  modcni  ones 
the  Christuskirche,  a  gift  of  Kmg  George  V.,  the  Lnkaskirrhr, 
the  Lutherkirche,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  ^uich  of  &  Haiy, 
with  a  tower  300  ft.  high,  containing  the  grave  of  Ladwig 
Windthorst,  "  his  little  exc^lency,"  for  many  years  leader  of 
the  Ultramontane  (Centre>  party  in  the  imperial  diet.  Of 
secular  buildixigsthe  most  remarkable  is  the  royal  palace— Schlo» 
— built  X636-X640,  with  a  grand  portal  and  handnomc  qoadrait^ 
In  its  chapd  are  preserved  the  relics  of  saints  whidi  Hcaiy 
the  Lion  brought  from  Palestine.  The  new  provincial  museum 
built  in  X897-X90S  contains  the  Cumberland  GaUeiy  and  the 
Gudph  Museum;  and  the  Kestnrr  Museum  also  contains 
interesting  and  valuable  collections  of  works  of  art.  The  other 
prindpal  public  buildings  are  the  royal  archives  and  library, 
containing  a  library  of  aoo,ooo  volumes  and  3500  manuscripts; 
the  old  provindal  museum,  which  houses  a  variety  of  ooDections, 
such  as  natural,  historical  and  ethiiogr^>hical,  and  a  o^cc- 
tion  of  nK)dem  paintings;  the  theatre  (buflt  z84S-r853),  one 
of  the  largest  in  Germany,  the  arrharolngxcal  museum,  tlK 
railway  station,  and,  in  the  west,  dose  to  Herrenhauscn  (see 
bdow),  the  magnificent  Wdfenschlots  (Guelph-palace).  The  last, 
begun  in  X859,  was  almost  completed  in  1866,  but  was  never 
occupied  by  the  Hanoverian  royal  family.  Since  1875  it  has 
been  occup^  by  the  technical  high  school,  an  academy  with 
university  privileges.  Close  to  it  lies  the  famous  HcxTCBhansen, 
the  summer  palace  of  the  former  kings  of  Hanover,  with  fine 
gardens,  an  open-air  theatre,  a  inuseum  and  an  onngery,  and 
approached  by  a  grand  avenue  over  a  mile  in  length. 

Hanover  has  a  number  of  colleges  and  schools,  aixl  b  the  seat 
of  several  learned  societies.  It  is  largdy  frequented  by  fordgn 
students,  espedally  English,  attracted  by  the  educatioaal 
facilities  it  offers  and  by  Uie  rq>uted  purity  of  the  German 
spoken.  Hanover  is  the  headquarters  of  the  X  Prussan  amy 
corps,  has  a  large  garrison  of  nearly  aU  arms  and  a  famous  mifitaxy 
riding  schooL  It  occupiesaleadingpositionamong  the  industrial 
and  coximierdal  towns  of  the  empire,  and  of  recent  years  has 
made  rapid  progress  in  prosperity.  It  is  connected  by  zailiray 
with  Berlin,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Hamehi,  Cok^giie,  Altcnbekea 
and  Cassd,  and  the  facilities  <rf  intercourse  have,  under  the 
fostering  care  of  the  Prussian  govenunent,  enormously  <feveloped 
its  trade  and  manufactures.  Almost  aU  industries  are  repre- 
sented; chief  among  them  are  machine-building,  the  manu- 
facture of  india-rubber,  linen,  doth,  hardware,  chemicals, 
tobacco,  pianos,  furniture  and  groceries.  The  commerce  consists 
principally  in  wine,  hides,  horses,  coal,  wood  and  cereals.  There 
are  extensive  printing  establishments.  Hanover  was  the  first 
German  town  that  was  lighted  with  gas.  It  is  the  birthplace 
of  Sir  William  Herschel,  the  astronomer,  of  the  brothers  Schkgel, 
of  Iffiand  and  of  the  historian  Perts.  The  philosopher  Leibnitz 
died  there  in  17x6. 

Close  by,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Leine,  lies  the  mannfactnriM 
town  of  Linden,  which,  though  pncricallY  foroung  one  town  vita 
Hanover,  is  treated  under  a  separate  heading. 

The  town  of  Hanover  is  first  mentioned  during  the  x  2th 
century.  It  bdonged  to  the  family  of  ^Welf ,  then  to  the  bishops 
of  Hildesheim,  and  then,  in  1369,  it  came  again  into  the  possessu 


HANOVER— HANSARD 


927 


of  the  Wdfs,  now  dukes  of  Bninswick.  It  |oined  the  Hwaaeatic 
League,  and  was  Uter  the  residence  of  the  branch  of  the  ducal 
bouse,  which  received  the  title  of  elector  of  Hanover  and 
ascended  the  Britidi  throne  in  the  person  of  George  I.  One  or 
two  important  treaties  were  signed  in  Hanover,  which  from  18x0 
to  1813  was  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  and  in  x866  was 
annex«l  by  Prussia,  after  having  been  the  capital  of  the  kingdom 
of  Hanover  since  its  foundation  in  181 5. 

See  O.  Ulrich,  BikUr  aus  Hannc9tr$  VtrganunheU  (1891) ;  Hoppe, 
CesckiekU  der  Sladt  Hannover  (1845) ;  Hinchfeld,  Hannoveti  Grou- 
industru  und  Crouhandd  (Leipag,  1891):  Frenadorff,  Die  Stadt- 
verfassunt  Hanmmrs  in  alter  undntuer  Zeit  (Leipciff.  1883);  W. 
Bahrdt,  CesckickU  der  ReformaHon  der  Sladt  Hannoeer  (1891) :  Hart- 
mann,  GesckickU  von  Hannover  mit  besonderer  RSekeicktnakme  aufdie 
Entanchdunt  der  Residenuladt  Hannover  (1886):  Hannover  und 
UmMend,  Entwitkelmng  und  ZutUtnde  seiner  Industrie  und 
Gewerbe  (1874);  and  the  Urkundenbuck  der  Stadt  Hannover  (i860, 
fol.)* 

HAVOVBII,  a  town  of  Jeffenon  county,  Indiana,  U.S.A., 
on  the  Ohio  river,  about  5  m.  bebw  Madison.  Pop.  (1900) 
377;  (1910)  356.  It  is  served  by  boats  on  the  Ohio  river  and 
by  stages  to  Madison,  the  nearest  railway  station.  Along  the 
border  of  the  town  and  on  a  bluff  rising  about  500  ft.  above  the 
river  is  Hanover  College,  an  institution  under  Presbyterian 
control,  embracing  a  college  and  a  preparatory  department,  and 
offering  daaical  and  scientific  courses  and  instruction  in  music; 
there  is  no  charge  for  tuition.  In  190S-X909  there  were  six 
students,  75  being  in  the  Academy,  llie  institution  was  opened 
in  a  log  cabin  in  1827,  was  incorporated  as  Hanover  Academy  in 
1828,  was  adopted  as  a  S3rnodical  school  by  the  Presbyterian 
Synod  of  Indiana  in  1829  on  condition  that  a  Theological  depart- 
ment be  added,  and  in  X833  was  incorporated  under  its  present 
name.  In  1840,  however,  the  theological  department  became  a 
separate  institution  and  was  removed  to  New  Albany,  whence 
in  1859  it  was  removed  to  Chicago,  where  it  was  named,  first, 
the  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Nortb-west,  and, 
in  1886,  the  McCormick  Theological  Seminary.  In  the  years 
immediately  after  its  incorporation  in  1833  Hanover  College 
introduced  the  "  manual  labor  system  "  and  was  for  a  time 
very  prosperous,  but  the  system  was  not  a  success,  the  college 
ran  into  debt,  and  in  1843  the  trtwtees  attempted  to  surrender 
the  charter  and  to  acquire  the  charter  of  a  university  at  Madison. 
This  effort  was  opposed  by  a  strong  party,  which  secured  a 
more  liberal  charter  for  the  college.  In  1880  the  college  became 
coeduca'tioiud.. 

HANOVER,  a  township  of  Grafton  county.  New  Hampshire, 
U.S.A.,  on  the  Connecticut  river,  75  m.  by  nil  N.W«  of  Concord. 
Pop.  (1900)  1884;  (1910)  2075.  No  railway  enters  this  town- 
ship; the  Ledyard  Free  Bridge  (the  first  free^ bridge  across  the 
Connecticut)  connects  it  with  Norwich, Vt.,  which  is  served  by 
the  Boston  &  Maine  railway.  Ranges  of  rugged  hills,  broken 
by  deep-junrow  gorges  and  by  the  wider  valley  of  Mink  Brook, 
rise  near  the  river  and  cidminate  in  the  E.  section  in  Moose 
Mountain,  2326  ft.  above  the  sea.  Near  the  foot  of  Moose 
Mountain  is  the  birthplace  of  Laura  D.  Bridgman.  Agricidture, 
dairying  and  lumbering  are  the  chief  pursuits  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  village  of  Hanover,  the  principal  settlement  of  the  township, 
occupies  Hanover  Plain  in  the  S.W.  comer,  and  is  the  seat  of 
Dartmouth  College  (9.9.),  which  hasa  strikingly  beautiful  campus, 
and  among  its  buildings  several  excellent  examples  of  the 
colonial  style,  notably  Dartmouth  Hall.  Hie  Mary  Hitchcock 
memorial  hospital,  a  cottage  hospital  of  36  beds,  was  erected 
in  1890-1893  by  Hiram  Hitchcock  in  memory  of  his  wife.  The 
charter  of  the  township  was  granted  by  Gov.  Benning  Went- 
worth  on  the  4th  of  July  1761,  and  the  first  settlement  was  made 
in  May  176$.  The  records  of  the  town  meetings  and  selectmen, 
S76i'-i8i8,  have  been  published  by  E.  P.  Storrs  (Hanover,  XO05). 

See  Frederick  Chaw.  A  History  of  Dartmouth  CoUeti  and  Ike  Town 
pf  Hanover  (Cambridge.  1891). 

HANOVER,  a  borough  of  York  county,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A., 
36  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Harrisburg,  and  6  m.  from  the  S.  border  of 
the. state.  Pop.  (1890)  3746;  (1900)  $302,  (133  foreign-bom); 
(iQio)  7057.  It  is  served  by  the  Northem  Central  and  the 
Western  Maryland.  raOways..  The  borough  Is  built  on  nearly 


level  ground  in  the  fertile  vaUey  of  the  Conewago,  at  the  point 
of  intersection  of  the  turnpike  roads  leading  to  Baltimore,  Carlisle, 
York  and  Frederick,  from  which  places  the  prindpal  streets^ 
sections  of  these  roads — are  named.  Among  its  manufactures 
are  foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  flour,  silk,  waggpns. 
shoes,  gloves,  furniture,  wire  doth  and  cigars.  The  settlement 
of  the  place  was  b^un  mostly  by  Germans  during  the  middle 
of  the  x8th  century.  Hanover  was  laid  out  in  1763  or  1764  by 
Col.  Richard  MacAIlister;  and  in  18x5  it  was  incorporated. 
On  the  30th  of  June  1863  there  was  a  cavalry  engagement  in 
and  near  Hanover  between  the  forces  of  Generals  H.  J.  Kilpatrick 
(Union)  and  J.  E.  B.  Stuart  (Confederate)  preliminary  to  the 
battle  of  (Gettysburg.  This  engagement  is  commemorated  by 
an  equestrian  statue  erected  in  Hanover  by  the  state. 

HANRIOT.  FRANQOU  (1761-X794),  French  revolutionist, 
was  bom  at  Nanterre  (Seine)  of  poor  parentage.  Having  lost  his 
first  employment — ^with  a  frocwreut — ^throu^  dishonesty, 
he  obtained  a  clerkship  in  the  Paris  octroi  in  1789,  but  was 
dismissed  for  abandoning  hia  post  when  the  Parisians  bumed 
the  octroi  barriers  on  the  night  of  the  x>th-i3th  of  July  1789. 
After  leading  a  hand-to-nsouth  existence  for  some  time,  he  became 
one  of  the  orators  of  the  section  of  the  sans-culatleSt  and  com- 
manded the  armed  force  of  that  section  during  the  insurrection 
on  the  loth  of  August  x  792  and  the  massacresof  September.  But 
he  did  not  come  into  promin^ce  until  the  night  of  the  3oth-3ist 
of  May  1793,  when  he  was  provisionally  appointed  commandant- 
gencnd  of  the  armed  forces  of  Paris  by  the  council  general  of 
the  Commune.  On  the  3  ist  of  May  he  was  one  of  the  delegates 
f ronrthe  (Commune  to  the  Convention  demanding  the  dissolution 
of  the  Commission  of  Twelve  and  the  proscription  of  the 
Girondists  (q.v.),  and  he  was  in  command  of  the  insurrcctlonaiy 
forces  of  the  dommune  during  the  imtute  of  the  2nd  of  June 
(see  FizNCH  REVOLunoN).  On  the  xxth  of  June  he  resigned 
his  command,  declaring  that  order  had  been  restored.  On  the 
X3th  he  was  impeached  in  the  Convention;  but  the  motion  was 
not  carried,  and  on  the  ist  of  July  he  was  elected  by  the  Commune 
permanent  commander  of  the  armed  forces  of  Paris.  This 
position,  which  gave  him  enormous  power,  he  retained  until 
the  revolution  of  the  9th  Thermidor  (July  97,  X794).  His 
arrest  was  decreed;  but  he  had  the  gintrale  sounded  and  the 
tocsin  rung,  and  tried  to  rescue  Robespierre,  who  was  under 
arrest  in  the  hall  of  the  ComiU  de  SitreU  CiniraU.  Hanriot  was 
himself  arrested,  but  was  rescued  by  his  adherents,  and  hastened 
to  the  H6tel  de  ViUe.  After  a  vain  attempt  to  organise  resistance 
he  fled  and  hid  in  a  secluded  yard,  where  he  was  discovered  the 
next  day.  He  was  arrested,  sentenced  to  death,  and  guillotined 
with  Robespierre  and  his  friends  on  the  xoth  Thermidor  of  the 
year  II.  (the  28th  of  July  1794). 

HANSARD,  LUKB  (1752-1828),  English  printer,  was  bora  on 
the  5th  of  July  1752  in  St  Mary's  parish,  Norwich.  He  was 
educated  at  Boston  grammar  school,  and  was  apprenticed  to 
Stephen  White,  a  Norwich  printer.  As  soon  as  his  apprenticeship 
had  expired  Hansard  started  for  London  with,  only  a  guinea  in 
his  pocket,  and  became  a  compositor  in  the  office  of  John  Hughs 
(1703-X77X),  printer  to  the  House  of  Commons.  In  1774  be  was 
made  a  partner,  and  undertook  almost  the  entire  conduct  of  the 
business,  which  in  1800  came  completely  into  his  hands.  On  the 
admission  of  his  sons  the  firm  became  Luke  Hansard  &  Sons. 
Among  those  whose  friendship  Hansard  won  In  the  exercise 
of  his  profession  were  Robert  Orme,  Burke  and  Dr  Johnson; 
while  Porson  praised  him  as  the  most  accurate  printer  of  Greek. 
He  printed  the  JoumaU  of  Ike  House  of  Commons  from  1774  till 
his  death.  The  promptitude  and  accuracy  with  which  Hansard 
printed  parliamentary  papers  were  often  of  the  greatest  service 
to  government — ^not^lyonone  occasion  when  the  proof-sheets 
of  the  report  of  the  Secret  Committee  on  the  French  Revolution 
were  submitted  to  Pitt  twenty-four  hours  after  the  draft  had 
left  his  hands.  On  the  union  with  Ireland  in  x8oi,  the  Increase 
of  parliamentary  printing  compelled  Hansard  to  give  op  all 
private  printing  except  when  parliament  was  not  sitting.  He 
devised  numerous  expedients  for  reducing  the  expense  of  publish- 
ing the  reports;  and  in  1805,  when  hb  workmen  struck  at  a  time 


928 


HANSEATIC  LEAGUE 


of  great  pressure,  he  and  his  sons  themselves  set  to  work  as 
compositors.    Luke  Hansard  died  on  the  39th  of  October  x8a8. 

His  son,  TboiCAS  Cusson  Hansard  (1776-1833),  established 
a  press  of  his  own  in  Paternoster  Row,  and  began  in  1803  to 
print  the  Parliamentary  Debates,  which  were  not  at  first  inde- 
pendent reports,  but  were  taken  from  the  newspapers.  After 
1889  the  debates  were  published  by  the  Hansard  Publishing 
Um'on  Limited.  T.  C.  Hansard  was  the  author  of  Typograpkia, 
an  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Art  of 
Printing  (1825).  The  original  business  remained  in  the  hands 
of  his  younger  brothers,  James  and  Luke  Graves  Hansard 
(1777-1851).  The  firm  was  prosecuted  in  1837  by  John  Joseph 
Stockwell  for  printing  by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in  an 
official  report  of  the  inspector  of  prisons,  statements  regarded  by 
the  plaintiff  as  libellous.  Hansard  sheltered  himself  on  the 
ground  of  privilege,  but  it  was  not  until  after  much  litigation 
that  the  security  of  the  printers  of  government  reports  was 
guaranteed  by  statute  in  1840. 

HANSEATIC  LEAGUE.  It  is  impossible  to  assign  any 
precise  date  for  the  beginning  of  the  Hanseatic  League  or 
to  name  any  single  factor  which  explains  the  origin  of  that 
loose  but  effective  federation  of  North  German  towns.  Associ- 
ated action  and  partial  union  among  these  towns  can  be 
traced  back  to  the  13th  century.  In  1241  we  find  LUbeck  and 
Hamburg  tigreeing  to  safeguard  t)ie  important  road  connect- 
ing the  Baltic  and  the  North  Sea.  The  first  known  meeting  of 
the  "  maritime  towns,"  later  known  as  the  Wendish  group  and 
including  Ltibcck,  Hamburg,  LUneburg,  Wismar,  Rostock  and 
Stralsund,  took  place  in  1256.  The  Saxon  towns,  during  the 
following  century,  were  joining  to  protect  their  common  interests, 
and  indeed  at  this  period  town  confederacies  in  Germany,  both 
North  and  South,  were  so  considerable  as  to  call  for  the  declara- 
tion against  them  in  the  Golden  Bull  of  1356.  The  decline  of 
the  imperial  power  and  the  growing  opposition  between  the 
towns  and  the  territorial  princes  justified  these  defensive  town 
alliances,  which  in  South  Germany  took  on  a  peculiarly  political 
character.  The  rdative  weakness  of  territorial  power  in  the 
North,  after  the  fall  of  Henry  the  Lion  of  Saxony^  diminished 
without  however  removing  this  motive  for  union,  but  the 
comparative  immunity  from  princely  aggression  on  land  left 
the  towns  freer  to  combine  in  a  stronger  and  more  permanent 
union  for  the  defence  of  their  conunerce  by  sea  and  for  the 
control  of  the  Baltic. 

While  the  political  element  In  the  development  of  the  Hanseatic 
League  must  not  be  underestimated,  it  was  not  So  formative 
as  the  economic.  The  foundation  was  laid  for  the  growth  of 
German  towns  along  the  southern  shore  of  the  Baltic  by  the  great 
movement  of  German  colonization  of  Slavic  territory  east  of  the 
Elbe.  This  movement,  extending  in  time  from  about  the  middle 
of  the  nth  to  the  middle  of  the  13th  century  and  carrying  a 
stream  of  settlers  and  traders  from  the  Northwest,  resulted  not 
only  in  the  Germanization  of  a  wide  territory  but  in  the  extension 
of  German  influence  along  the  sea-coast  far  to  the  east  of  actual 
territorial  settlement,^  The  German  trading  towns,  at  the  mouths 
of  the  numerous  streams  which  drain  the  North  European  plain, 
were  stimtilated  or  created  by  the  unifying  impulse  of  a  common 
and  long-continued  advance  of  conquest  and  colonization. 

The  impetus  of  this  remarkable  movement  of  expansion  not ' 
only  carried  German  trade  to  the  East  and  North  within  the 
Baltic  basin,  but  reanimated  the  older  trade  from  the  lower  Rhine 
region  to  Flanders  and  England  in  the  West..  Cologne  and  the 
Westphalian  towns,  the  most  important  of  which  were  Dortmund, 
Soest  and  Mttnster,  had  long  controlled  this  commerce  but  now 
began  to  feel  the  competition  of  the  active  traders  of  the  Baltic, 
opening  up  that  direct  communication  by  sea  from  the  Baltic 
to  western  Europe  which  became  the  essential  feature  In  the 
history  of  the  League.  The  necesity  of  seeking  protection  from 
the  sea-rovers  and  pirates  who  infested  these  wateis  during 
the  whole  period  of  Hanseatic  supremaQr,  the  legal  customs, 
substantially  alike  in  the  towns  of  North  Germany,  Which 
governed  the  groups  of  traders  in  the  outlying  trading  posts, 
the  establishment  of  common  factories,  or  "  counters  "(Komtors) 


at  these  points,  with  aldermen  to  administer  justice  and  to 
secure  trading  privileges  for  the  community  of  German  nBcrchants 
— such  were  some  of  the  unifying  influences  which  preceded  the 
gradual  formation  of  the  League.  In  the  century  oi  energetic 
cocamerdal  development  before  1350  the  (jerman  merchants 
abroad  led  the  way. 

Germans  were  early  pushing  as  permanent  settlers  into  the 
Scandinavian  towns,  and  in  Wisby,  on  the  island  of  Gothland, 
the  Scandinavian  centre  of  Baltic  trade,  equal  rights  as  citiztens 
in  the  town  government  were  possessed  by  the  German  settkn 
as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century.  There  abo  came 
into  existence  at  Wisby  the  first  association  of  German  traders 
abroad,  which  united  the  merchants  of  over  thirty  towns, 
from  Cologne  and  Utrecht  in  the  West  to  Reval  in  the  East. 
We  find  the  Gothland  association  making  in  1329  a  treaty  with 
a  Russian  prince  and  securing  privileges  for  their  branch  trading 
station  at  Novgorod.  According  to  the  '*  Skra,"  the  by-laws 
of  the  Novgorod  branch,  the  four  aldermen  of  the  commujuty 
of  Germans,  who  among  other  duties  hdd  the  keys  of  the  commcm^ 
chest,  deposited  in  Wisby,  were  to  be  chosen  from  the  merchants* 
of  the  Gothland  association  and  of  the  towns  of  Lflbedc,  Socst 
and  Dortmund.  The  Gothland  association  received  in  1237 
trading  rights  in  England,  and  shortly  after  the  middle  of  the 
century  it  also  secur^  privileges  in  Handexs.  It  lepslated  on 
matters  relating  to  common  trade  interests,  and,  in  the  case  of 
the  regulation  of  1287  concerning  shipwrecked  goods,  ve  find 
it  imposing  this  legislation  on  the  towns  under  the  penalty  of 
exclusion  from  the  association.  But  with  the  extension  of  the 
East  and  West  trade  beyond  the  confines  of  the  Baltic,  this 
association  by  the  end  of  the  century  was  losing  its  position  of 
leadership.  Its  inheritance  passed  to  the  graduaBy  fcoming 
union  of  towns,  chiefly  those  known  as  Wendish,  which  looked  to 
LUbeck  as  their  head.  In  1 293  the  Saxon  and  Wendish  merchants 
at  Rostock  decided  that  all  appeals  from  Novgorod  be  taken  to 
Lfibeck  instead  of  to  Wisby,  and  six  years  later  the  Wendish 
and  Westphalian  towns,  meeting  at  LQbeck,  ordered  that  tltt 
Gothland  association  should  no  longer  use  a  comnKm  seaL 
Though  Ltibeck's  right  as  court  of  appeal  from  the  Hanseatic 
counter  at  Novgorod  was  not  recognized  by  the  general  a»embly 
of  the  League  imtil  1373,  the  long-existing  practice  had  simply 
accorded  with  the  actual  shifting  of  commercial  power.  The 
union  of  merchants  abroad  was  beginning  to  oonoe  under  the 
control  of  the  partial  union  of  towns  at  home. 

A  similar  and  contemporary  extension  of  the  influence  of  the 
Baltic  traders  under  Liibeck's  leadership  may  be  witnessed  in 
the  West.  As  a  consequence  of  the  close  commercial  rdatiou 
early  existing  between  England  and  the  Rhenish- WestphaEan 
towns,  the  merchants  of  (Cologne  were  the  first  to  possess  a  gild- 
hall  in  London  and  to  form  a  "  hansa  "  with  the  right  of  admitting 
other  German  merchants  on  payment  of  a  fee.  The  charter  of 
1226,  however,  by  which  Emperor  Frederick  II.  crated  L&beck 
a  free  imperial  city,  expressly  declared  that  L&bcck  dtizens 
trading  in  England  should  be  free  from  the  dues  imposed  by 
the  merchants  of  Cologne  and  should  enjoy  equal  ri^ts  and 
privileges,,  In  1266  and  1267  the  merchants  of  Hamburg  and 
Liibeck  received  from  Henry  HI.,  the  ri^t  to  establish  their 
own  hansas  in  London,  like  that  of  Cologne.  The  situation  thcs 
created  led  by  1282  k>  the  coalescence  oC  the  rival  asaodationft 
in  the  "  Gild-hall  of  the  (krmans,"but  though  the  Baltic  traders 
bad  secured  a  recognized  foothold  in  the  enlarged  and  uni&d 
organization,  Cologne  retained  the  controlling  interest  in  the 
London  settlement  until  1476.  Liibeck  and  Hamborg,  however, 
dominated  the  German  trade  in  the  ports  <tf  the  east  coast, 
notably  in  Lynn  and  Boston,  while  they  were  strong  in  the 
organized  trading  settlements  at  York,  Hull,  Ipswidi,  Nonricfa, 
Yarmouth  and  Bristol.  The  counter  at  London,  firtt  called  the 
Steelyard  in  a  parliamentary  petition  of  Z4sa,daimed  juri^iictioo 
over  the  other  factories  in  England. 

In  Flanders,  also,  the, German  merchants  from  the  West  had 
long  been  trading,  but  here  had  kter  to  endure  not  cmly  the 
rivalry  but  the  pre-eminence  of  those  from  the  East.  In  1252 
the  fint  treaty  privileges  for  Gomaa  trade  in  Flaodcrs  show 


HANSEATIC  LEAGUE 


929 


t^o  men  of  LUbeck  and  Hamburg  heading  the  *'  Merchants  of  • 
!ie  Roman  Empire,"  and  in  the  later  organization  of  the  counter 
t  Bruges  four  or  five  of  the  six  aldermen  were  chosen  from 
>wns  east  of  the  Elbe,  with  LUbeck  stieadily  predominant.  The 
*ermans  recognized  the  staple  rights  of  Bruges  for  a  number  of 
^mmodities,  such  as  wool,  wax,  furs,  copper  and  grain,  and  in 
:turn  for  this  material  contribution  t6  the  growing  commercial 
nportance  of  the  town,  they  received  in  1309  freedom  from  the 
ampulsory  brokerage  which  Bruges  imposed  on  foreign  mer- 
hants.  The  importance  and  independence  of  the  German 
riding  settlements  abroad  was  exemplified  in  the  statutes  of 
Ic  "  Company  of  German  merchants  at  Bruges,"  drawn  up 
I  1347,  where  for  the  first  time  appears  the  grouping  of  towns 
1  three  sections  (the  "Drittel"),  the  Wendish-Saxon,  the 
tussian-Westphalian,  and  those  of  Gothland  and  Livland. 
'.ven  more  important  than  the  assistance  which  the  concentra- 
on  of  the  German  trade  at  Bruges  gave  to  that  leading  mart  of 
luropean  commerce  was  the  service  rendered  by  the  German 
hunter  of  Bruges  to  the' cause  of  Hanseatic  unity.  Not  merely 
ecause  of  its  central  commercial  position,  but  because  of  its 
idth  of  view,  its  political  insight,  and  its  constant  insistence  on 
le  necessity  of  union,  this  counter  played  a  leading  part  in 
[anseatic  policy.  It  was  more  Hanse  than  the  Hanse  towns. 
The  last  of  the  chief  trading  settlements,  both  in  importance 
nd  in  date  of  organization,  was  that  at  Bergen  in  Norway, 
here  in  1343  the  Hanseatics  obtained  special  trade  privileges, 
candinavia  had  eariy  been  sought  for  its  copper  and  iron,  its 
>rest  products  and  its  valuable  fisheries,  especially  of  herring 
t  Schonen,  but  it  was  backward  in  its  industrial  development 
nd  its  own  commerce  had  seriously  declined  in  the  i'4th  century. 
L  had  come  to  depend  largely  upon  the  Germans  for  the  import- 
tion  of  all  its  luxuries  and  of  many  of  its  necessities,  as  well  as 
>r  the  exportation  of  its  products,  but  regidar  trade  with  the 
iree  kingdoms  was  confined  for  the  most  part  to  the  Wendish 
>wns,  with  Lilbeck  steadily  asserting  an  exclusive  ascendancy, 
'he  fishing  centre  at  Schonen  was  important  as  a  market,  though, 
ke  Novgorod,  its  trade  was  seasonal,  but  it  did  not  acquire  the 
osition  of  a  reguUrly  organized  counter,  reserved  alone,  in  the 
forth,  for  Bergen.  The  commercial  relations  with  the  North 
innot  be  regarded  as  an  important  element  in  the  union  of  the 
[anse  towns,  but  the  geographical  position  of  the  Scandinavian 
)untries,  especially  that  of  Denmark,  commanding  the  Sound 
hich  gives  access  to  the  Baltic,  compelled  a  close  attention  to 
candinavian  politics  on  the  part  of  LUbeck  and  the  League  and 
lus  by  necessitating  combined  political  action  in  defence  oi 
[anseatic  sea-power  exercised  a  unifying  influence. 
Energetic  and  successful  thotigh  the  scattered  trading  settle- 
icnts  had  been  in  establishing  German  trade  connexions  and 
t  securing  valuable  trade  privileges,  the  middle  of  the  14th 
intury  found  them  powerless  to  meet  difficulties  arising  from 
iternal  dissension  and  still  more  from  the  political  rivalries 
id  trade  jealousies  of  nascent  nationalities.  Flanders  became 
baltle-field  in  the  great  struggle  between  France  and  England, 
nd  the  war  of  trade  prohibitions  led  to  infractions  of  the  German 
rivileges  in  Bruges.  An  embargo  on  trade  with  Flanders,  voted 
I  1358  by  a  general  assembly,  resulted  by  1360  in  the  full 
storation  of  German  privileges  in  FUnders,  but  reduced  the 
>unler  at  Bruges  to  an  executive  organ  of  a  united  town  policy. 
:  is  worth  noting  that  in  a  document  connected  with  this  action 
le  union  of  towns,  borrowing  the  term  from  English  usage,  was 
rst  called  the  "  German  Hansa."  In  1361  representatives  from 
Ubcck  and  Wisby  visited  Novgorod  to  recodify  the  by-laws 
[  the  counter  and  to  admonish  it  that  new  statutes  required 
le  consent  of  LUbeck,  Wisby,  Riga,  Dorpat  and  Reval.  This 
:tion  was  confirmed  in  1366  by  an  assembly  of  the  Hansa  which 
I  the  same  time,  on  the  occasion  of  a  regulation  made  by  the 
ruges  counter  and  of  statutes  drawn  up  by  the  young  Bergen 
)unter,  ordered  that  in  future  the  approval  of  the  towns  must 
c  obtained  for  all  new  regulations. 

The  counter  at  London  was  soon  forced  to  follow  the  example 
I  the  other  counters  at  Bruges,  Novgorod  and  Bergen.  After 
le  failure  of  the  Italians,  the  Hanseatics  remained  the  strongest 

xu.  16  • 


group  of  alien  merchants  in  England,  and,  as  such,  'daimed  the 
exclusive  enjoyment  of  the  privileges  granted  by  the  Carta 
Mercatoria  of  1303.  Their  highly  favoured  position  in  England, 
contrasting  markedly  with  their  refusal  of  trade  facilities  to  the 
English  in  some  of  the  Baltic  towns  and  their  evident  policy  of 
monopoly  in  the  Baltic  trade,  incensed  the  English  mercantile 
classes,  and  doubtless  influenced  the  increases  in  customs-duties 
which  were  regarded  by  the  Germans  as  contrary  to  their  treaty 
rights.  Unsuccessful  in  obtaining  redress  from  the  English 
government,  the  German  merchants  finally,  in  1374,  appealed 
for  aid  to  the  home  towns,  especially  to  LUbeck.  The  result 
of  Hanseatic  representations  was  the  o>nfirmation  by  Richard  II. 
in  1377  of  all  their  privileges,  which  accorded  them  the  pre- 
ferential treatment  they  had  daimed  and  became  the  foundation 
of  the  Hanseatic  position  in  England. 

In  the  meanwhile,  the  conquest  of  Wisby  by  Waldemar  IV. 
of  Denmark  in  1361  had  disclosed  his  ambition  for  the  politicaV 
control  of  the  Baltic.  He  was  promptly  opposed  by  an  alliance 
of  Hanse  towns,  led  by  LUbeck.  The  defeat  of  the  Germans 
at  Helsingborg  only  called  into  bdng  the  stronger  town  and 
territorial  aUiance  of  1367,  known  as  the  Cologne  Confederation, 
and  its  final  victory.  With  the  peace  of  Stralsund  in  1370,  which 
gave  for  a  limited  period  the  four  chief  castles  on  the  Sound  into 
the  hands  of  the  Hanseatic  towns,  greatly  enhanced  the  prestige 
of  the  League. 

The  assertion  of  Hanseatic  influence  in  the  two  decades,  13  $6  to 
1377,  marks  the  zenith  of  the  League's  power  and  the  completion 
of  the  long  process  of  unification.  Under  the  pressure  of  com- 
merdal  and  political  necessity,  authority  was  definitely  trans- 
ferred from  the  Hansas  of  merchants  abroad  to  the  Hansa  of 
towns  at  home,  and  the  sense  of  unity  had  become  such  that  in 
1380  a  LUbeck  official  could  declare  that  "  whatever  touches 
one  town  touches  all."  But  even  at  the  time  when  union  was 
most  important,  this  statement  went  further  than  the  facts 
would  warrant,  and  in  the  course  of  the  following  century  it 
became  less  and  less  true.  Dortmund  held  aloof  from  the 
Cologne  Confederation  on  the  ground  that  it  had  no  concern  in 
Scandinavian  politics.  It  became,  indeed,  increasin^y  diflicult 
to  obtain  the  support  of  the  inland  towns  for  a  policy  of  sea- 
power  in  the  Baltic.  Cologne  sent  no  representatives  to  the 
regular  Hanseatic  assemblies  until  1383,  and  during  the  15th 
century  its  independence  was  frequently  manifested.  It  rebeUed 
at  the  authority  of  the  counter  at  Bruges,  and  at  the  time  of 
the  war  with  England  (1469-1474)  openly  defied  the  League. 
In  the  East,  the  German  Order,  while  enjoying  Hanseatic 
privileges,  frequently  opposed  the  policy  of  the  League  abroad* 
and  was  only  prevented  by  domestic  troubles  and  its  Hinterland 
enemies  from  playing  its  own  hand  in  the  Baltic.  After  the  fall 
of  the  order  in  1467,  the  towns  of  Prussia  and  Livland,  especially 
Dantzig  and  Riga,  pursued  an  exdusive  trade  policy  even  against 
their  Hanseatic  confederates.  LUbeck,  however,  supported  by 
the  Bruges  counter,  despite  the  disaffection  and  jealousy  on  all 
sides  hampering  and  sometimes  thwarting  its  efforts,  stood 
steadfastly  for  union  and  the  necessity  of  obedience  to  the  decrees 
of  the  assemblies.  Its  headship  of  the  League,  hitherto  tadtly 
accepted,  was  definitely  recognized  in  14 18. 

•The  governing  body  .of  the  Hansa  was  the  assembly  of  town 
representatives,  the  "Hansetage,"  held  inegularly  as  occasion 
required  at  the  summons  of  LUbeck,  and,  with  few  exceptions, 
attended  but  scantily.  The  delegates  were  bound  by  instruc- 
tions from  their  towns  and  had  to  report  home  the  decisions  of 
the  assembly  for  acceptance  or  rejection.  In  1469  the  League 
dccbrcd  that  the  English  use  of  the  terms  "  sodetas,"  "  col- 
legium "  and  "  univeisitas  "  was  inappropriate  to  so  loose  an 
organization.  It  preferred  to  call  itself  a  "firma  confederation 
for  trade,  purposes  only.  It  had  no  common  seal,  though  that 
of  LUbeck  was  accepted,  particularly  by  foreigners,  in  behalf 
of  the  League.  Disputes  between  the  confederate  towns  were 
brought  for  adjudication  before  the  general  assembly,  but  the 
League  had  no  recognized  federal  judiciary.  LUbeck,  with  the 
counters  abroad,  watched  over  the  execution  of  the  measures 
voted  by  the  assembly,  but  there  was  no  regular  administrative 


93© 


HANSEATIC  LEAGUE 


organization  Money  for  common  purposes  was  raised  from 
time  to  time,  as  necessity  demanded,  by  the  imposition  on  Hanse 
merchandise  of  poundage  dues,  introduced  in  2361,  while  the 
counters  relied  upon  a  small  levy  of  like  nature  and  upon  fines 
to  meet  current  needs.  Even  this  slender  financial  provision 
met  with  opposition.  The  German  Order  in  1398  converted 
the  Hanseatic  poundage  to  a  territorial  tax  for  its  own  purposes, 
and  one  of  the  chief  causes  for  Cologne's  disaffection  a  half- 
century  later  was  the  extension  from  Flanders  to  other  parts  of 
the  Netherlands  of  the  levy  made  by  thecounter  at  Bruges.  Since 
the  authority  of  the  League  rested  primarily  on  the  moral  support 
of  its  members,  allied  in  common  trade  interests  and  acquiescing 
in  the  able  leadership  of  LUbeck,  its  only  means  of  compulsion 
was  the  **  Verhansung,"  or  exclusion  of  a  recalcitrant  town  from 
the  benefits  of  the  trade  privileges  of  the  League.  A  conspicuous 
instance  was  the  exclusion  of  Cologne  from  1471  until  its 
obedience  in  1476,  but  the  penalty  had  been  earlier  imposed, 
as  in  the  case  of  Brunswick,  on  towns  which  overthrew  their 
patrician  governments.  It  was  obviously,  however,  a  measure 
to  be  used  only  in  the  last  resort  and  with  extreme  reluctance. 

The  decisive  factor  in  determining  membership  in  the  League 
was  the  historical  right  of  the  citizens  of  a  town  to  participate 
in  Hanseatic  privileges  abroad.  At  first  the  merchant  Kansas 
had  shared  these  privileges  with  almost  any  German  merchant, 
and  thus  many  littlb  villages,  notably  those  in  Westphalia, 
ultimately  claimed  mcmber^^ip.  Later,  under  the  Hansa  of  the 
towns,  the  struggle  for  the  maintenance  of  a  coveted  position 
abroad  led  to  a  more  exclusive  policy.  A  few  new  members  were 
admitted,  mainly  from  the  westernmost  sphere  of  Hanseatic 
influence,  but  membership  was  refused  to  some  important 
applicants.  In  1447  it  was  voted  that  admission  be  granted 
only  by  unanimous  consent.  No  complete  list  of  members  was 
ever  drawn  up,  despite  frequent  requests  from  foreign  powers. 
Contemporaries  usually  spoke  of  70,  7^1  73  or  77  members,  and 
perhaps  the  list  is  complete  with  Daenell's  recent  count  of  73, 
but  the  obscurity  on  so  yi^^  *  P^i^t  is  significant  of  the 
amorphous  character  of  the  organiAition. 

The  towns  of  the  Leagu9,  stretching  from  Thorn  and  Krakow 
on  the  East  to  the  towns  of  the  Zuider  Zee  on  the  West,  and  from 
Wisby  and  Reval  in  the  North  to  Gdttingcn  in  the  South,  were 
arranged  in  groups,  following  in  the  main  the  territorial  divisions. 
Separate  assemblies  were  held  in  the  groups  for  the  disctission 
both  of  local  and  Hanseatic  affairs,  and  gradually,  but  not  fully 
until  the  i6th  century,  the  groups  became  recognized  as  the  lowest 
stage  of  Hanse  organization.  The  further  grouping  into 
"  'Hiirds,"  later  "Quarters,"  under  bead-towns,  was  also  more 
emphasized  in  that  century. 

In  the  X5th  century  ^he  League,  inth  increasing  difficult^, 
held  a  defensive  position  against  the  competition  of  strong  rivals 
and  new  trade-routes.  In  England  the  inevitable  conflict  of 
interests  between  the  new  mercantile  power,  growing  conscious 
of  its  national  strength,  and  the  old,  standing  insistant  on  the 
letter  of  its  privileges,  was  postponed  by  the  factional  discord 
out  of  which  the  Hansa  in  1474  dexterously  snatched  a  renewal 
of  its  rights.  Under  Elizabeth,  however,  the  English  Merchant 
Adventurers  could  finally  rejoice  at  the  withdrawal  of  privileges 
from  the  Hanseatics  and  their  concession  to  England,  in  return 
for  the  retention  of  the  Steelyard,  of  a  factory  in  Hamburg.  In 
the  Netherlands  the  Hanseatics  clung  to  their  position  in  Bruges 
until  1540,  while  trade  was  migrating  to  the  ports  of  Antwerp 
4nd  Amsterdam.  By  the  peace  of  Copenhagen  in  1441,  after  the 
unsuccessful  war  of  the  League  with  Holland,  the  attempted 
monopoly  of  the  Baltic  was  broken,  and,  though  the  Hanseatic 
trade  regulatiofas  were  maintained  on  paper,  the  Dutch  with 
their  larger  ships  increased  their  hold  on  the  herring  fisheries, 
the  French  salt  trade,  and  the  Baltic  grain  trade.  For, the 
Russian  trade  new  competitors  were  emerging  in  southern 
Germany.  The  Hanseatic  embargo  against  Bruges  from  X45X 
to  Z457,  its  later  war  and  embargo  against  England,  the  Turkish 
advance  closing  the  Italian  Black  Sea  trade  with  southern  Russia, 
all  were  utilized  by  Nuremberg  and  its  fellows  to  secure  a  land- 
trade  outside  the  sphere  of  Hanseatic  influence.    The  fairs  of 


Leipzig  and  Frankfort-on-Main  rose  In  importance  as  Novgorod, 
the  stronghold  of  Hanse  trade  in  the  East,  was  weakened  by 
the  attacks  of  Ivan  III.  The  closing  of  the  "Sovgorod  counter 
in  Z494  was  due  not  only  to  the  development  of  the  Rusuaa  state 
but  to  the  exclusive  Hanseatic  policy  which  had  stimulated  tbe 
opening  of  competing  trade  routes. 

Within  the  League  itself  increasing  restivencss  was  sbown 
under  the  restrictions  of  its  trade  pdicy.  At  the  Hanseatic 
assembly  of  1469,  Dantzig,  Hamburg  and  Breslan  opposed  iht 
maintenance  of  a  compulsory  staple  at  Bruges  in  the  face  erf 
the  new  conditions  produced  by  a  widening  commerce  and  more 
advantageous  markets.  Complaint  was  nude  of  South  G<^ic^n 
competition  in  the  Netherlatads.  "  Those  in  the  Hansa,"  pro- 
tested Breslau, "  are  fettered  and  must  decline  and  those  outski« 
the  Hansa  arc  free  and  prosper."  By  1477  even  L&beck  had 
become  convinced  that  a  contmuance  of  the  effort  to  maictaia 
the  compulsory  staple  against  Holland  was  futile  and  should  be 
abandoned.  But  while  it  was  found  impossible  to  enfonx  the 
staple  or  to  dose  the  Sound  against  the  Dutch,  other  features 
of  the  D)onopoltstic  system  of  trade  regulations  were  still  uphekL 
It  was  forbidden  to  admit  an  outsider  to  partnership  or  to 
co-ownership  of  ships,  to  trade  in  non-Hanseatic  goods,  to  bur 
or  sell  on  credit  in  a  foreign  mart  or  to  enter  into  omtracts  for 
future  delivery.  The  trade  of  foreigners  outside  the  gates  of 
Hanse  towns  or  with  others  than  Hanseatics  was  forbidde:! 
in  14 1 7,  and  in  the  Eastern  towns  the  retail  trade  of  strangers 
was  strictly  limited.  The  whole  s>'stem  was  designed  to  suppress 
the  competition  of  outsiders,  but  the  divergent  interests  ol 
individuals  and  towns,  the  pressure  of  competition  and  changisg 
commercial  conditions,  in  part  the  reactionary  character  ot 
the  legislation,  made  enforcement  difficult.  The  measures  Tere 
those  of  the  late-mcdicval  town  economy  applied  to  the  vide 
region  of  the  German  Baltic  trade,  but  not  supported,  as  v^ 
the  analogous  mercantilist  system,  by  a  strong  central  govos- 
ment. 

Among  the  factors,  economic,  geographic,  political  and  soctil, 
which  combined  to  bring  about  the  decline  of  the  Hanseatic 
League,  none  was  probably  more  influential  than  the  atoence 
of  a  German  political  power  comparable  in  unity  and  energv'  u  hh 
those  of  France  and  England,  which  could  quell  particukran: 
at  home,  and  abroad  maintain  in  its  vigour  the  trade  which  tlK<e 
towns  had  developed  and  defended  with  their  imperfect  cci:^.. 
Nothing  was  to  be  expected  from  the  declining  Empire.  SiiH 
less  was  any  co-operation  possible  between  the  towns  and  itt 
territorial  princes.  The  fatal  reiult  of  conflict  between  to«n 
autonomy  and  territorial  power  had  been  taught  in  FlaiuleTS. 
The  Hanseatics  regarded  the  princes  with  a  growing  zod  ex- 
aggerated fear  and  found  some  relief  in  the  formation  in  141 S 
of  a  thrice-renewed  alliance,  known  as  the  *' Toh<^>esate.*' 
against  princely  aggression.  But  no  territorial  power  had  as  ytt 
arisen  in  North  Germany  capable  of  subjugating  and  utili£.rs 
the  towns,  though  it  oould  detach  the  inland  towns  froc  the 
League.  The  last  wars  of  the  League  with  the  ScajHlinaviaa 
powers  in  the  i6th  cehtury,  which  left  it  shorn  ol  many  of  its 
privileges  and  of  any  pretension  to  control  of  the  Baltic  basis 
eliminated  it  as  a  factor  in  the  later  struggle  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  for  that  control.  At  an  assembly  of  1629,  Labeck,  Bremen 
and  Hamburg  were  entrusted  with  the  task  of  safeguarding  th: 
general  welfare,  and  after  an  effort  to  revive  the  League  in  the 
last  general  assembly  of  1669,  these  three  towns  were  left  akmc 
to  preserve  the  name  and  small  inheritance  of  the  Hansa  vhi^ 
in  Germany's  disunion  had  upheld  the  hoiK>ur  of  her  c<»nmerce. 
Under  their  protection,  the  three  remaining  counters  lingered  oa 
until  their  buildings  were  sold  at  Bergen  in  1775,  at  Lo&di»  ia 
1852  and  at  Antwerp  in  1863. 

BiBLiocKAPRV. — ffansisches  Urhmdenhudk,  beaihcxtet  voo  K. 
H6hlbauin,  K.  Kunze  und  W.  Stein  (10  vols.,  Halle  und  Letp;«s. 
1876-1907);  Hansereusse,  erste  Abtheilung,  125S-14JO  (8  \*oi5^ 
Leipzig.  1870-1807)4  aweite  Abtheilung,  1431- 1476  {j  toIs.,  !$:(> 
1892):  drittc  Abtheilung.  1477-1530  (7  vols.,  1881-1905):  HtoKti^he 
Gcsckichlsquellen  (7  vols.,  187^-1894;  \  vols..  1897--1906):  /* 
ventare  kansischer  Archive  des  s*chaeknUu  Jakrkamderts  (vtds.  f  and  i, 
1896-1903);  Hansischt  CesckkkubUsUr  (14.V0I&,  1871-1908)    Afl 


HANSEN— HANSTEEN 


931 


he  above-menttQiwd  chief  sources  have  been  issued  by  the  Vcrein 
Qr  hansische  Geschichte.  Of  the  lecondary  literature,  the  following 
istories  and  monographs  should  be  named.  G.  F.  Sartorius, 
ksckiekte  des  hinseaiisateH  Bundes  (3  Vols..  Cdttinsen,  i8oa>t8o8). 
'/rkuHdlieke  GeschickU  des  Urspmngts  dtr  deutscken  Hanse,  hcrauace- 
eben  von  J.  M.  Lappenberg  (a  vols.,  Hamburg,  1830);  F.  w. 
Sarthold.  GesehicJUe  mt  diutsck^  Hansa  (3  vols.,  and  ed.,  Leipzig, 
862);  D.  Sch&fer,  DU  HansestddU  und  Kihtig  Waldemar  von 
7drumark  Gena;  1879);  W.  Stein,  Beiirdge  tur  CeschichU  der 
'eutschcH  Hanu  btsumau  MiUedesfUnftebnttn  Jahrhunderts  (Giessen, 
000);  E.  Daenell,  Die  BluUzeit  der  deutschen  Hanse.  Haiuische 
tesckichte  von  der  neeiten  H^lfle  des  XI Y.  bis  Mum  letxten  Vierlet  des 
CV.  Jahrhunderts  (a  vols.,  Berlin,  1905-1906);  J.  M.  Lappcnberg, 
'Jrkundtiche  Ceschichte  des  hansiscken  Stahlhcfes  su London  (Hamburg, 
8^1) ;  F.  Keutgen,  Die  Begtehungen  der  Hanse  mu  Engtand  im  letxten 
yritiet  des  vienehnten  Jahrhunderts  (Giesaen.  1890) ;  R.  Ehrenberg, 
iamburg  und  England  im  Zeiialter  der  Konigin  Elisabeth  (Jena, 
896);  W.  Stdn,  Die  Cenoss^schaU  der  deutschen  Kaufleute  nu 
3ragge  in  Flandem  (Berlin,  1890);  H.  Rogge,  Der  Stapdswang  des 
ionstschen  Kontors  en  BrUgge  im  fAnfseiMten  Jahrhundert  (kiel, 
903) ;  A.  Wiackler,  Die  deutsche  Hansa  «n  Russland  (Berlin,  1886). 

(E.  F.  G.) 

'  HANSEN,  PETER  ANDREAS  (1795-1874),  Danish  astronomer, 
ras  bom  on  the  8th  of  December  2795,  at  Tondem,  in  the  duchy 
»f  Schleswig.  The  son  of  a  goldsmith,  he  learned  the  trade  of  a 
vatchmakerat  Flensbuig,  and  exercised  it  at  Berlin  and  Tondem, 
:8i8-x83a  He  ||liad,  however,  long  been  a  student  of  science; 
ind  Dr  Dircks,  t  physidan  practising  at  Tondem,  prevailed 
vith  his  father  to  send  him  in  1820  to  Copenhagen,  where  he 
von  the  patronage  of  H.  C  Schumacher,  and  attracted  the 
>ersonal  notice  of  King  Frederick  VI.  The  Danish  survey  was 
hen  in  progress,  and  he  acted  as  Schumacher's  assistant  in  wori: 
»nnected  with  it,  chiefly  at  the  new  observatory  of  Altona, 
:83i~i825.  Thence  he  passed  on  to  Gotha  as  director  of  the 
>eeberg  observatory;  nor  could  he  be  tempted  to  relinquish 
he  post  by  successive  invitations  to  replace  F.  C  W.  Struve  at 
[)orpat  in  1829,  and  P.  W.  Bessd  at  Kdnigsberg  in  1847.  The 
>robIems  of  gravitational  astronomy  engaged  the  chief  part  of 
Hansen's  attention.  A  research  into  the  mutual  perturbations  of 
fupiter  and  Saturn  secured  for  him  the  prize  of  the  Berlin 
Vcademy  in  1830,  and  a  memoir  00  cometary  disturbances  was 
rrowned  by  the  Paris  Academy  in  1850.  In  1838  he  published 
I  revision  of  the  lunar  theory,  entitled  Pundamenta  nova  ittvesti' 
lalionis,  &c^,  and  the  improved  Tables  of  the  Moon  based  upon 
t  were  printed  in  i857,attheexpenseof  the  British  government, 
heir  merit  being  further  recognized  by  a  grant  of  £1000,  and  by 
heir  immediate  adoption  in  the  Nautical  AlmanaCt  and  other 
Ephemerides.  A  theoretical  discussion  of  the  d^turbances 
embodied  in  them  (still  familiarly  known  to  lunar  experts  as 
he  Darlegung)  appeared  in  the  Abkandlnngen  of  the  Saxon 
\cademyof  Sdencesin  1862-1864.  Hansen  twice  visited  England 
md  was  twice  (in  1842  and  x86o)  the  recipient  of  the  Royal 
\stronomica|  Society's  gold  medaL  He  communicated  to  that 
Kxrietyin  1847  an  able  paper  on  a  bng-period  lunar  inequality 
Memoirs  Roy.  Astr.  Society,  zvi.  465),  and  in  1854  one  on  the 
noon's  figure,  advocating  the  mistaken  hypothesis  of  its  deforma- 
ion  by  a  huge  elevation  directed  towards  the  earth  {lb.  xxiv. 
{9).  He  was  awarded  the  Copley  medal  by  tho,Royal  Society 
n  1850,  and  his  Solar  Tables,  compiled  with  the  assistance  of 
rhristian  Olufsen,  appeared  in  1854.  Hansen  gave  in  1854  the 
irst  intimation  that  the  accepted  distance  of  the  sun  was  too 
;rcat  by  some  millions  of  miles  {Month.  Notices  Roy.  Astr.  Soc. 
CV.  9),  the  error  of  J.  F.  Encke's  result  having  been  rendered 
r  ''dent  through  his  investigation  of  a  lunar  inequality.  He  died 
>n  the  28th  of  March  1874,  at  the  new  observtitory  in  the  town 
)f  Gotha,  erected  under  his  care  in  1857. 

See  Viertdtahrsschrifl  astr.  Gesdlschajl,  x.  133;  Monih,  Notices 
Roy.  Astr.  Society,  xxxv.  168:  Proc.  Roy.  Society,  xxv.  p.  v.;  R. 
WoU,  Ceschichte  der  Astrouomie,  p.  526;  Wochenschrift  JAr  Astro- 
%omie,  xvii.  207  (account  of  early  years  by  £.  Heis);  AUgemeine 
Uutsche  Biographic  (C.  Bruhns).  (A.  M.  C.) 

HAN5I,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the  Hissar  district  of  the 
Punjab,  on  a  branch  of  the  Western  Jumna  canal,  with  a  station 
3n  the  Rewari-Ferozepore  railway,  16  ro.  E.  of  Hissar.  Pop. 
(1901)  16,523.  Hansi  is  one  of  the  most  andcnt  towns  in 
northern  India,  the  former  capital  of  the  tract  called  Hariana. 


At  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  it  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
famous  Irish  adventurer  George  Thomas;  from  1803  to  1857 
it  was  a  British  cantonment,  and  it  became  the  scene  of  a 
murderous  outbreak  during  the  Mutlnv.  A  ruined  fort  overlooks 
the  town,  which  is  still  surrounded  by  a  high  brick  wall,  with 
bastions  and  loop  holes.  It  b  a  centre  of  local  trade,  with 
factories  for  ginning  and  pressing  cotton. 

HANSOM.  JOSEPH  ALOYSIUS  (1803-1882),  English  architect 
and  inventor,  was  bora  in  York  on  the  26th  of  October  2803. 
Showing  an  aptitude  for  designing  and  construction,  he  was  taken 
from  his  father's  joinery  shop  and  apprenticed  to  an  architect 
in  York,  and,  by  1831,  his  designs  for  the  Birmingham  town  hall 
were  accepted  and  followed — to  his  financial  undoing,  as  he  had 
become  bond  for  the  builders.  In  1834  he  registered  the  design 
of  a  "  Patent  Saxety  Cab,"  and  subsequently  sold  the  patent 
to  a  company  for  £10,000,  which,  however,  owing  to  the 
company's  financial  difficulties,  was  never  paid.  The  hansom 
cab  as  improved  by  subsequent  alterations,  nevertheless,  took 
and  held  the  fancy  of  the  public.  There  was  no  back  seat  for  the 
driver  in  the  original  design,  and  there  is  little  beside  the  sus- 
pended axle  and  large  whccb  in  the  modem  hansom  to  rccaU 
the  early  ones.  In  x  834  Hansom  founded  the  Builder  newspaper, 
but  was  compelled  to  retire  from  this  enterprise  owing  to  in- 
sufficient capital  Between  1854  and  1879  he  devoted  himself 
to  architecture,  designing  and  erecting  a  great « number  of 
important  buildings,  private  and  public,  including  churches, 
schools  and  convents  for  the  Roman  Catholic  church  to  which 
he  belonged.  Buildings  from  his  designs  artf  scattered  all  over 
the  United  Kingdom,  and  #ere  even  erected  in  Australia  and 
South  America.   He  died  in  London  on  the  29th  of  June  1882. 

HANSON,  SIR  RICHARD  DAVIES  (1805-1876),  chief  justice 
of  South  Australia,  was  bom  in  London  on  the  6th  of  December 
1805.  Admitted  a  solicitor  in  1828,  he  practised  for  some  time 
in  London.  In  2838  he  went  with  Lord  Durham  to  Canada  as 
assistant-commissioner  of  inquiry  into  crown  lands  and  immi- 
gration. In  1840,  on  the  death  of  Lord  Durham,  whose  private 
secretary  he  had  been,  he  settled  in  Wellington,  New  Zealand. 
He  there  acted  as  crown  prosecutor,  but  in  1846  removed  to 
South  Australia.  In-  1851  he  was  app6inted  advocate-general 
of  that  colony  and  took  an  active  share  in  the  passing  of  many 
important  measures,  such  as  the  first  Education  Act,  the  District 
Councils  Act  of  1852,  and  the  Act  of  1856  which  granted  con- 
stitutional government  to  the  colony.  In  1856  and  again  from 
2857  to  i860  he  was  attorney-general  and  leader  of  the  govern- 
ment.  In  2862  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  South  Australia  and  was  knighted  in  1869.  He  died 
in  Australia  on  the  4lh  of  March  2876. 

HANSTEEN.  CHRISTOPHER  (2  784-i87i),  Norwegian  astro- 
nomer and  physicist,  was  bora  at  Christiania,  on  the  26th  of 
September  2784.  From  the  cathedral  school  he  went  to  the 
university  at  Copenhagen,  where  first  law  and  afterwards 
mathematics  formed  his  main  study.  In  1806  he  taught  mathe- 
matics in  the  gymnasium  of  Frederiksborg,  Zeeland,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  began  the  inquiries  in  terrestrial  magnetism 
with  which  his  name  is  especially  associated.  He  took  in  1812 
the  prize  of  the  Danish  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  bis  reply 
to  a  question  on  the  magnetic  axes.  Appointed  lecturer  in  2814, 
he  was  in  28x6  raised  to  the  chair  of  astronomy  and  applied 
mathematics  in  the  university  of  Christiania.  In  2819  he  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  researches  on  terrestrial  magnetism,  which  was 
translated  into  German  by  P.  T.  Hanson,  under  the  title  of 
Untcrsuchungen  Ubcr  den  Magnclismus  der  Erde,  with  a  supple- 
ment containing  Bcobachtungcn  der  Abwcichung  und  Neigung 
der  Magnetnadd  and  an  atlas.  By  the  rules  then  framed  for 
the  observation  of  magnctical  phenomena  Hansteen  hoped  to 
accumulate  analyses  for  determining  the  number  and  position 
of  the'  magnetic  poles  of  the  earth. .  In  prosecution  of  his 
rcscarcbes  he  travelled  over  Finland  and  the  greater  part  of  his 
own  country;  and  in  2828-1830  he  undertook,  in  company 
with  G.  A.  Erman.and  with  the  co-operation  of  Russia,a  govern- 
ment mission  to  Western  Siberia.  A  narrative  of  the  cximUtioa 
soon  appeared  {Reise-Er inner ungen  dsu  Sibirien,  2854;  Seu9ann 


932 


HANTHAWADDY— HAPARANDA 


d*  un  voyage  en  Sibiriif  1857);  but  the  chief  Wbrk  was  not  issued 
till  1863  {Resultate  magndischer  BeohaclUuttgen,  &c.).  Shortly 
after  the  return  of  the  ^lission,  an  observatory  was  erected  in 
the  park  of  Christiania  (1833),  and  Hansteen  was  appointed 
director.  On  his  representation  a  magnetic  observatory  was 
added  in  1839.  In  x835->i838  he  published  text-books  on 
geometry  and  mechanics;  and  in  1842  he  wrote  his  DisquisUiones 
de  mutationibus  guas  patitur  momentum  acus  magneticae,  &c^ 
He  also  contributed  various  papers  to  different  scientific  journals, 
especially  the  Magaun  for  Naturvldenskaberne,  of  which  he 
became  joint-editor  in  1823.  He  superintended  the  trigono- 
metrical and  topographical  survey  of  Norway,  begun  in  1837. 
In  z  86 1  he  retired  from  active  Work,  but  still  pursued  his  studies^ 
his  Ohservatiom  de  tinclination  magnitique  and  Sur  Us  variations 
sfculaires  du  magnitisme  appearing  in  1865.  He  died  at 
Christiania  on  the  nth  of  April  1873. 

HANTHAWADDY.  a  district  in  the  Pegu  division  of  Lower 
Burma,  the  home  district  of  Rangoon,  from  which  the  town 
was  detached  to  make  a  separate  district  in  1880.  It  has  an  area 
of  3023  sq.  m.,  with  a  population  in  1901  of  484,811,  showing  an 
increase  of  22%  in  the  decade.  Hanthawaddy  and  Hcnzada 
are  the  two  most  densely  populated  districts  in  the  province. 
It  consists  of  a  vast  plain  stretching  up  from  the  sea  between 
the  To  or  China  Bakir  mouth  of  the  Jrrawaddy  and  the  Pegu 
Yomas.  Except  the  tract  lying  between  the  Pegu  Yomas  on 
the  east  and  the  Hlaing  river,  the  country  is  intersected  by 
numerous  tidal  creeks,  many  navigable  by  large  boats  and  some 
by  steamers.  The  headquarters  of  the  district  are  in  Rangoon, 
which  is  also  the  sub-divisional  headquarters.  The  second 
sub-division  has  its  headquarters  at  Insein,  where  there  are 
large  railway  works.  Cultivation  is  almost  wholly  confined  to 
rice,  but  there  are  many  vegetable  and  fruit  gardens. 

HAKUKKAH,  a  Jewish  festival,  the  "  Feast  of  Dedication  " 

(cf.  John  X.  22)  or  the  "  Feast  of  the  Maccabees,"  beginning 

on  the  25th  day  of  the  ninth  month  Kislev  (December),  of  the 

Hebrew  ecclesiastical  year,  and  lasting  eight  days.    It  was 

instituted  in  165  B.C.  in  commemoration  of,  and  thanksgiving 

for,  the  purification  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  on  this  day  by 

Judas  Maccabaeus  after  its  pollution  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 

king  of  Syria,  who  in  168  B.C.  set  up  a  pagan  altar  to  Zeus 

Olympius.    The  Talmudic  sources  say  that  when  the  perpetual 

lamp  of  the  temple  was  to  be  relighted  only  one  flask  of  holy  oil 

sufficient  for  the  day  remained,  but  this  miraculously  lasted 

for  the  eight. days  (cf.  the  legend  in  2  Mace.  i.  18).    In  memory. 

of  this  the  Jews  burn  both  in  synagogues  and  in  houses  on  the 

first  night  of  the  festival  one  light,  on  the  second  two,  and  so  on 

to  the  end  (so  the  Hillelites),  or  vice  versa  eight  h'ghts  on  the 

first,  and  one  less  on  each  succeeding  night  (so  the  Shammaites). 

From  the  prominence  of  the  lights  the  festival  is  also  known  as 

the  "  Festival  of  Lights  "  or  "  Illumination  "  (Talmud).    It  is 

said  that  the  day  chosen  by  Judas  for  the  setting  up  of  the  new 

altar  was  the  anniversary  of  that  on  which  Antiochus  had  set 

up  the  pagan  altar;  hence  it  is  suggested  (e.g.  \fy  Wellhausen) 

that  the  25th  of  Kislev  was  an  old  pagan  festival,  perhaps  the 

day  of  the  winter  solstice. 

For  further  details  and  illustrations  of.  Hanukkah  lamps  see 
Jaoish  Encyc.,  8.v. 

HANUMAN,  in  Hindu  mythology,  a  monkey-god,  who  forms  a 
central  figure.in  the  Ramayana.  He  was  the  child  of  a  nymph  by 
the,  god  of  the  wind.  His  exploits,  as  the  ally  of  Rama  (incarna- 
tion of  Vishnu)  in  the  latter's  recovery  of  his  wife  Sita  from  the 
clutches  of  the  demon  Ravana,  include  the  bridging  of  the 
straits  between  India  and  Ceylon  with  huge  boulders  carried 
away  from  the  Himalayas.  He  is  the  leader  of  a  host  of  monkeys 
who  aid  in  these  supernatural  deeds.  Temples  in  his  honour  are 
frequent  throughout  India. 

HANWAY,  JONAS  (1712-1786),  English  trayeUer  and  phnan- 
thropist,  was  bom  at  Portsmouth  in  17x2.  While  still  a  child, 
his  father,  a  victualler,  died,  and  the  family  moved  to  London. 
In  1729  Jonas  was  apprenticed  to  a  merchant  in  Lisbon.  In 
1743,  after  he  had  been  some  time  in  business  for  himself  in 
London,  he  became  a  partner  with  Mr  Dingley,  a  merchant  in 


St  Petersbuig,  and  in  this  way  was  led  to  tnird  in  Rossn  and 
Persia.  Leaving  St  Petersburg  on  the  xoth  of  September  1743, 
and  passing  south  by  Moscow,  Tsaritsyn  and  Astrakhan,  be 
embarked  on  the  Ca^ian  on  the  22nd  of  November,  axul  arrived 
at  Astrabad  on  the  x8th  of  December.  Here  his  goods  mn 
seized  by  Mohammed  Hassan  Beg,  and  it  was  only  after  great 
privations  that  he  reach^  the  camp  of  Nadir  Sbah,  under  whose 
protection  he  recover«l  most  (8$%)  of  his  property.  His 
return  .journey  was  embarmssod  by  sickness  (at  Resht),  by 
attacks  from  pirates,  and  by  six  weeks'  quacantxDe;  and  be 
only  reappeared  at  St  Petersburg  on  the  xst  of  January  1745. 
He  again  left  the  Russian  capital  on  the  9th  of  July  1750  and 
travelled  through  Germany  and  Hdland  to  En^and  (iSth  of 
October).  The  rest  of  his  life  was  mostly  spent  in  London, 
where  the  narrative  of  his  travels  (publish^  >&  i7S3)  *oaa  made 
him  a  man  of  note,  and  where  he  devoted  himself  to  {dulanthixfiy 
and  good  citizenship.  In  x  7  56  he  founded  the  Marine  Society, 
to  keep  up  the  supply  of  British  seamen;  in  1758  he  became  a 
governor  of  the  Foundling,  and  established  the  M«|p^fW^ 
hospital;  in  1761  he  procured  a  better  system  of  parodiBl 
birth-registration  in  London;  and  in  1762  he  was  appointed  a 
commissioner  for  victualling  the  navy  (xoth  of -July);  this  c^ce 
he  held  till  October  1783.  He  died,  unmanned,  on  tbc  5th  of 
September  1786.  He  was  the  first  Londoner,  it  is  aid,  to  cany 
an  umbrella,,  and  he  lived  to  triumph  over  all  the  hackney 
coachmen  who  tried  to  hoot  and  hustle  htm  down.  He  attacked 
"vail-giving,"  or  tipping,  with  some  temporary  soooess;  by 
his  onslaught  upon  tea-drinking  he  became  invtrfved  in  con- 
troversy with  Johnson  and  Goldsmith.  His  last  "efforts  wen  oa 
behalf  of  little  chimney-sweeps.  His  advocacy  d  solitary 
confinement  for  prisoners  and  opposition  to  Jewab  natunhza- 
tion  were  more  questionable  instances  of  hb  activity  in  social 
matters. 

Hanway  left  seventy-four  printed  woclcs,  mostly  panpldets; 
the  only  one  of  literary  ixhportance  is  the  Hitlaneal  Accauxi  sf 
British  Trade  aver  ike  Caspian  5ea,  vrith  a  Journal  of  Traods,  &£. 
(London,  I7S3)<  On  hi*  life,  see  also  Purh,  Kemarkaile  Occmrrtxcet 
tn  the  Lijfe  of  Jonas  Hanway  (London,  1 787) ;  Gentleman's  Mofosime, 
vol.  xxxii.  p.  343;  voL-lvi.  pt.  ii.  pp.  813^814,  1090,  1143-1 144: 
vol.  Ixv.  pt.  ii.  pp.  721-723,  834-835:  ^oles  and  Quertos^  lat  scries*  l 
436,  ii.  35 ;  3rd  series,  viL  311 ;  4tn  aeries,  viii.  416. 

HANWBLL,  an  urban  district  in  the  BrehtfiMd  patliamentazy 
division  of  Middlesex,  England,  xo|  m.  W.  of  St  Paol^  cathednl, 
London,  on  the  river  Brent  and  the  Gxeat  Western  railway.  Pc^ 
(1891)  6x39;  (x9ox)  10,438.  It  ranks  as  an  outer  itsidenml 
suburb  of  London.  The  Hanwell  lunatic  asylum  ci  the  county  ok 
London  has  been  greatly  extended  since  its  erectHxi  X831,  and 
can  accommodate  over  2500  inmates.  The  extensive  cemeteries 
of  St  Maxy  Abbots,  Kensington,  and  St  George,  Hanover  Sqtare, 
London,  are  here.  In  the  <%urchyard  of  3t  Mary's  cfanrcfa  was 
buried  Jonas  Hanway  (d.  X786),  traveller,  philanthropist,  and 
by  repute,  introducer  of  Uie  umbrdla  into  Engfand.  Tbe 
Roman  Catholic  Convalescent  Home  for  women  and  duklrcn 
was  erected  in  1865.  Befox^  the  Norman  period  the' manor  d 
Hanwell  belonged  to  Westminster  Abbey. 

HAPARANDA  (Finnish  Haaparania,  "Aspen  Shoie"),  s 
town  of  Sweden  in  the  district  (iSn)  oi  Noibotten,  at  tbe  bea4 
of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  Pop.  (1900)  1568.  It  lies  abont  x|  ra. 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Tome  river,  on  the  frontier  with  Russia 
(Finland),  opposite  the  town  of  Tornei  which  has  bdonced 
to  Russia  since  X809.  The  towns  are  divided  by  a  marshy 
channel,  formerly  the  bed  of  the  Torne,  but  the  main  streas 
is  now  east  of  the  Russian  town.  Haparanda  was  founded  ia 
x8x  2,  and  at  first  bore  the  name  of  Kar^cdiannstad.  It  received 
its  municipal  constitution  in  1849.  Shipbuilding  is  prosecnted 
Sea-going  vessels  load  and  unload  at  Salniio,  7  m.  froa 
Haparanda.  Since  X859  the  town  has  been  the  seat  (tf  an  im- 
portant meteorological  station.  Annual  mean  tcmpcraturt, 
32.4"  Fahr.;  February  xo-s";  July  58'8*.  Rainfall,  16-5  in. 
annually.  Up  the  Tome  valley  (54  m.)  is  the  hill  Avasaxa. 
whither  pilgrimages  were  formeriy  made  in  order  to  stai»l 
in  the  light  of  the  sun  at  midnight  on  St  Joha^s  day 
(June  24). 


HAPLODRILI 


933 


>,'  'N«ih^ln. 
"'     Ptnit' 


Uvt  in  sud,  bul  ohite  (bt  lonnct  aova  by  ntuu  ol  (fie  eoDtnc- 
(lon  of  iti  bady-i>*]|  musdt*,  FnleiriSia  can  projreu  by  Ihe 
utioD  oC  lYkC  baadi  of  dlia  lunouadini  iu  tetinciili,  ud  of  the 
longitudinal  dliiled  vtntnl  (roove.  Sauximi,  which  tito 
livo  in  land,  and  more  doiely  n*snble>  the  PalycbKU,  hi* 
tbiDUshout  the  puter  length  of  iti  body  od  cuJi  tegmenl  ■ 
pair  of  until  lUumrnous  puipodiA  bearing  i  hunch  of  ilmpie 
Mtae.  No  other  member  of  Ihe  group  ii  known  (o  have  any 
ttace  of  KtM  or  puapodia  at  anyiuge  of  development. 

Tbea*  thicc  inn  have  Ihe  lollowini  chanaen  in  common. 
The  t»dy  ii  compoaol  of  a  lane  numbn  of  ■romenu;  the  pro- 
Komium  hcan  a  pair  of  tentadeaj  (he  nervoui  ayKem  couiili 
of  a  bcain  and  longitudinal  ventral  nerve  coidB  cloedy  conrvcted 
with  the  epidermie  (without  <UMinct  ganglia],  widely  leparaied  in 
SatLoeimti.  clovely  approKimated  in  PtetcdtHv,  tuied  logelher 
in  PaiyiwAiia-,  the  coelom  it  well  developed,  the  Mpta  aiv  diuiKt, 
and  the  dona]  and  ventral  lon^tudinal  nieeenteriei  are  complete; 

.1 ..-J. ■ ._        __J -_.j    jlij    ggij^g,^         PlIyMH*! 

■a  the  ihaeocc  oC  a  dMInct 

the  afMence  of  a  peculiar 

|:ioara  cayiiy  lU  inc  nrM^  regioii.  waicn  u  especially  well  dcvvtoprd 

[he  £rK  eegmcnt.    Mhhvct,  id  Saaaciirm  the  gc 


Goodrkh.) 

pfaenl  in  the  majority  of  Ihe  tnink 

complicalcd  <Ag.  aj.  In  the  female  then  ia  in  every  Ecrtile  i^ 
ment  a  pair  oT  epermalhecae  opening  at  the  nephridiopDrea.  in 
the  male  there  are  >  right  and  a  left  protruiible  pcnii  in  every 
nniial  eegmcnt,  into  whKh  opena  the  nephridium  aM  a  aperm-Hc- 
The  wide,  lunneia  of  the  nephridia  of  thii  regjon  arc  poaaibly  of 


cilia  (hg.  I)r7iiepa 


ilhout  tenudee,  and  wiib 
aegmcnullundaof  cilia  (Hb.  Ij.  The  parautic  ifr'f'naJrifia  (Hif trio- 
fa^lla)  leeda  cm  the  egia  of  Ihe  lobater.  It  raembin  DintfUlu 
in  the  pqiifinn  of  a  ventnl  pharynnal  pouch  (which  heara  teeth 
in  Nulriodniitl  only),  the  unall  number  of  legmcnta,  and  abaeoee 
of  diuinci  lepla.  Ibr  abience  of  a  vaicular  aywem,  lbs  neience  of 
disiinci  pngiia  on  the  ventnl  nerve  conla.  and  of  amafl  nephridia 
which  da  ooc  appear  to  open  internally-    HiOtw^tiiut  memblee 

ai*d  to  aome  extern  in  the  Mmcture  ofthe  ctim^ea  genital  organs 
which,  however,  are  reitricted  to  a  tingle  eegment.  In  DiHofkitm 
'^■"-  -  "'-"  only  a  lingle  pair  of  genital  duct*  behind;   an^  ■-  '^- 


C  and  D>  n  a  typical  but  very  wecialiei.,,  .-^^  ^ , , 

provided  with  a  branching  nephridium  hearing  aoleniicylet.  The 
-runk  develope  on  the  lower  luriace  uf  the  diik-like  larva,  which 
indenoa  a  mote  or  l«a  Hidden  metannipbosia  into  the  young 

£r,  t)-  There  appears  id  be  little  either  in  the  dev^opmenl 
•tructun  of  the  Haplodrili  id  warrant  Ihe  view  held  by 
iatvhek  and  Fraipont  that  FtiytKiini  and  Prtudriliu  are  eiceed- 
.ngly  primitive  forma,  ancotral  to  the  whofe  group  of  Kta-bearinK 
Annelida  (OUgochaeu,  Polychatu,  Kirudinea  and  Echiuioidca}. 


HAPTARA 

die  bo^l^a  <<  ZMu- 


AUTHOBIII L  -i 
0881);   Ffai't'.':^ 


.  ,  iMi:  WddoB,  "DiMphil,]!  p^iM,"  OiMrt. 
.1    ixv-l',  l8a6;HarTnrr,''Dinor.!:.liifc.'   /™™- 


Cooflkl 


'■  On  Sacc 


. ■.    .,J,    v.,    ,8& 


(E.  S 


HAPTARA  (Ut.  CMtt/kjioi),  the  Hcbi 
prophetic  1(93001  wilh  whicb  the  locienl  Sjmagogue  H 
concluded.  In  the  time  o!  Christ  the»e  ptophelie  leuoni 
already  in  vogue,  ancl  Christ  himMlI  read  the  losooi  an< 
courted  on  them  in  the  lyDigogues  ol  Galilee.  Id  the  m 
lynigogue  th<«  icidin^  Irom  the  prophet!  are  ng 
included  In  the  litual  ol  Sabhaths,  festJvab  aod  lome 


le  Jiwiik  EncyctopfJia 


or  the  current  leaaoni 
pp.  136-1 37- 
HAPDR,  a  town  of  Britlib  India  in  the  Meenit  district  oi  the 
"     '  "  "  m.  S.  of  Meeruu    Pop.  (1901)  17.J96- 


Uniled  Pi 
granted  by  Si 


n  Founded  in  the  lotb  cc 


a,  timbei.  bambooi  and  bran 


HAKA-KIRI  {Japanese  kara.  belly,  and  kiri,  cutting),  self, 
disembowelmenl,  primarily  the  method  of  luidde  pennitied 
to  ofiendcn  of  the  noble  class  in  feudal  Japan,  and  later  the 
national  form  of  honourable  suicide.  Han-luri  has  been  ofter 
translated  aa  "  the  happy  dispatch  "  in  conlusion  with  a  nativi 
euphemism  lor  the  act.  More  usually  the  Japanese  themselvH 
ipeik  of  hara-kiri  by  its  Chinese  synonym,  Stfpuku. 


is  not 
medieval  re 


by  the  desi 

ciutom  hac 
established  ai 


;in.l  Japa. 
ism,  the  ac 


bably  al 


It  w 


a  growt 


in  of  falling 

By  the  end  of  the  nib  century  the 

iiucb  valued  privilege,  being  formally 

;r  the  Ashi.Kaga  dynasty.     Hsia-kiri 

. ,0  kinds,  obligatory  and  voluntary.    The  6rsl  is  the 

or  been  disloyal,  received  a  message  from  the  emperor,  couched 
always  la  sympi thetic  and  gracious  lona,  courteously  intimating 
that  he  must  die.  The  mikado  usually  sent  a  jewelled  dagger 
with  which  the  deed  might  be  done.     The  suit"    '     ' 


nbyio 


which  to 


ilake 


the  utmost  formality. 

In  his  own 

.a«nialbaUotinalemple 

a  d^  J  or  4 

he  ground  was  constructed.     Upon  this 

was  laid  a  rug 

ofredfdL     Tbetuia 

dc,  clothed  in  his  ceremonial 

dress  as  an  h 

oble.  and  ai 

-companied  by  his  second  ot 

"  Kaishaku,' 

took  bis 

place  on  th 

e  mat,  the  offidali  and  his 

friends  ranpn 

Ethemsc 

a  minute's  prayer  the 

handed  to  him  with  many 

obeisances  by 

the  mih 

do's  repr«e 

talive,  and  he  then  made  a 

public  confesi 

lion  of  hi)  fault.     He 

then  stripped  to  the  waist. 

Eveo'  move 

Kent  Id 

the   grim  c 

remony  waa  governed  by 

d  he  h>.d 

to  tuck  his 

«ide  sleeves  under  hi.  knees 

ID  prevent 

rds,  (ot  a  Japanese  noble 

must  die  lalli 

t  later  he  plunged  the  dagger 

the  waist  0 

the  left  side,  drew  it  across 

to  the  right 

nd,  turn 

slight  cut  upward.    At  the 

haku  who  c 

roucbsd  at  his  friend's  tide. 

leaping  up,  brought  h 

on  the  outstretched  neck. 

At  the  concl 

sion  of  t 

he  bloodstained  dagger  was 

taken  to  the 

ikadoas 

■  proof  of  th 

act.  The  perlotmaice  oi  haia-kiii  canied  wiib  it  csuin 
privileges.  II  it  wa*  by  ordei  ol  the  mJkado  hall  only  ol  a 
traitor'i  pnqwrty  was  forfeited  to  (he  states  If  tbe  soawis^ 
of  conadence  drove  the  disloyal  noble  to  vidttntuy  nic^c,  bis 
dishonour  vai  wiped  out,  and  his  family  inlwiteil  all  bb 
fortune. 

Voluntary  bu*-kiri  was  the  fduge  ol  msi  rendered  de^xnie 
by  private  miifonunei,  ot  was  committed  Itom  loyally  to  a  dead 
superior,  or  as  a  protest  against  what  was  deemed  >  fabc  nalianal 
policy.  This  voluntary  suicide  itDl  survives,  a  chancUiislic 
casebeingthat  of  Lieutenant  Takeyoshi  who  in  iSgi  ^v«biraiEU 
the  "  belly.cut "  in  front  ol  the  graves  of  his  anceKon  u  Takyo 
aa  a  protest  against  what  be  contend  the  criminal  lethargy 
ol  the  government  in  not  taking  precaulions  wftwi  posible 
Russian  encroachments  to  the  north  ot  Japan.  la  Ibe  RuBo- 
Japinese  Wat,  when  faced  by  defeat  at  Vlsdivostack,  tlw  offior 
in  command  nf  tbe  tivops  en  the  tranqnrt  "  Kinshn  Uam  " 
committed  faaia-kiri.  Hant-kiri  has  not  been  uncommoi  among 
HomeD,  but  in  their  case  tbe  nude  is  by  culling  the  thnnt. 
The  popularity  of  this  self-immolation  is  testified  to  by  the 
fact  that  for  centuries  no  fewer  than  150D  hara-kiris  axe  said 
place  annually,  at  least  half  being   entiidy 


:e  told  i 


with  tbe  performance  of  the  act.  One  noble,  barely  out  of  his 
teens,  not  content  with  giving  himself  the  cnstonaary  csl^ 
ilashtd  himself  thrice  horiiontally  and  twice  vertically.  Tbcn  be 
tubbed  himself  in  the  throat  until  the  dirk  pivtruded  on  ibc 
other  side  with  the  sharp  edge  10  the  front,  and  with  a  supreme 
effort  drove  the  knife  forward  with  both  hands  throu^  bis  nect. 
Obllgitoiy  hara-kiri  wai  obsolete  in  tbe  middle  of  the  i«Ih 
century,  and  wa*  actually  abolished  In  iB6g. 
See  A.  B.  Milfonl.  TaUs  ol  OU  Jafam ;  Basil  Hall  rt^~>~'~~ 

HABALO.  tbe  name  of  four  kings  of  Norway. 

Haiald  I.  (Sjo-qjj),  sumamed  Haaifager  (of  the  beialiliJ 
hair),  Gnt  king  over  Norway,  succeeded  on  tbe  death  o(  ks 
fitber  Halfdan  the  Black  in  *jx  Me  to  the  anereicDt^  ol 
several  small  and  somewhat  scattered  kingdoma,  which  had 
hands  through  omqucsl  and  inberitance 


id  by  chicHy  in 


yCseeN 


AT).     Tbeu 


goes  that  the  scorn  of  the  daughter  of  a  noghbouiing  king 
induced  Harald  to  tike  a  vow  not  to  cut  nor  comb  his  hair  until 
he  was  sole  king  of  Norway,  and  that  ten  y«ati  later  be  wis 
justified  in  trimming  it;  whereupon  he  eachanged  the  qiillKI 
"  Shockhead  "  for  the  one  by  which  he  is  usiuUy  known.  In 
866  he  made  the  first  of  a  seriea  of  conquesti  over  (he  many 
petty  kingdoms  which  then  composed  Norway;  and  in  S;i. 
after  a  great  victory  at  HafnJjord  near  Stavtnger,  be  (oviid 
himself  king  over  the  whole  country.  His  realm  was,  bewn-er, 
threatened  by  dangers  from  without,  as  large  nombers  of  his 
opponents  had  taken  refuge,  mt  only  in  Icelatut,  then  reccnLly 
discovered,  but  also  in  the  Orkneys,  Sheilandi,  Hebrides  u^ 
Faeroes,  and  in  Scotland  itself;  and  from  these  winter  quanm 
salbed  forth  to  harry  Norway  as  wcU  as  the  rest  ot  nonhcni 
Europe.  Their  numbers  were  increased  by  malcontents  (tvc 
Norway,  who  resented  Harald 's  claim  of  lights  ol  taxation  om 
lindi  which  tbe  potsesson  appear  to  have  previously  held  ii 
absolute  ownership.  Al  last  Harald  was  forced  (o  make  11 
expedition  to  the  west  to  dear  the  i^ands  and  Scottish  mainlaod 
of  Vikings.  Numbers  of  them  fled  to  Iceland,  whicb  grew  ioio 
an  independent  commonwealth,  while  the  Scottish  isles  fdl 
under  Norwegian  rule.  The  latter  past  e(  Baiald's  trign  vu 
disluibed  by  the  strife  of  his  nuny  sons.  He  gave  them  all  tl> 
loyal  title  and  assigned  lands  to  tbem  wbich  they  vtn  to  govrm 
as  bis  representatives;  but  this  arrangement  did  net  pql  an  oA 
to  the  discord,  which  continued  into  the  next  rcipi.  ttlien  he 
grew  old  he  handed  over  the  supreme  power  to  hit  favouriK 
ton  Erik  "  Bloody  Aic,"  whom  he  inlended  to  be  his  sucnssei 
Haii]ddiedln9]3,inhiseighly-fourthyeat. 

Haiald  II.,  sumamed  Graitdd,  a  grsadsOD  ol  HsiaU  I , 
became,  with  his  broihen.  nilei  of  the  western  pan  sf  Narvaj 
in  461 ;  he  was  murdered  la  Dennurit  in  96$. 


HARBIN— HARBOUR 


935 


Harald  III.  (10x5-1066),  king  of  Norway,  surnluncd  Haar- 
draade.  which  might  be  translated  "ruthless,"  was  the  son  of  King 
Sigurd  and  half-brother  of  King  Olaf  the  Saint.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  he  was  obliged  to  flee  from  Norway,  having  taken  part  in 
the  battle  of  Stiklestad  (1030),  at  which  King  Olaf  met  his  death. 
He  took  refuge  for  a  short  time  with  Prince  Yaroslav  of  Novgorod 
(a  kingdom  founded  by  Scandinavians),  and  thence  went  to 
Constantinople,  where  he  took  service  under  the  empress  Zoe, 
whose  Varangian  guard  he  led  to  frequent  victory  in  Italy, 
Sicily  and  North  Africa,  also  penetrating  to  Jerusalem.  In  the 
year  1043  he  left  Constantinople,  the  story  says  because*  he  was 
refused  the  hand  of  a  princess,  and  on  his  way  back  to  his  own 
country  he  married  Ellisif  or  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Yaroslav 
of  Novgorod.  In  Sweden  he  allied  himself  with  the  defeated 
Sven  of  Denmark  against  his  nephew  Magnus,  now  king  of 
Norway,  but  soon  broke  faith  with  Sven  and  accepted  an  offer 
from  Magnus  of  half  his  kingdom.  In  rettim  for  this  gift  Harald 
is  said  to  have  shared  with  Magnus  the  enormous  treasure  which 
he  had  amassed  in  the  EasU  Hie  death  of  Magnus  in  X047 
put  an  end  to  the  growing  jeaTousies  between  the  two  kings, 
and  Harald  turned  all  his  attention  to  the  task  of  subjugating 
Denmark,  which  he  ravaged  year  after  year;  but  he  met  with 
such  stubborn  resistance  from  Sven  that  in  X064  he  gave  up  the 
attempt  and  ixiade  peace.  Two  years  afterwards,  possibly 
instigated  by  the  banished  Earl  Tostig  of  Northumbria,  he 
attempted  the  conquest  of  England,  to  the  sovereignty  of  which 
his  predecessor  had  advanced  a  daim  as  successor  of  Harthacnut. 
In  September  xo66  he  landed  in  Yorkshire  with  a  large  army, 
reinforced  from  Scotland,  Ireland  and  the  Orkneys;  took 
Scarborough  by  casting  flaming  brands  into  the  town  from  the 
high  ground  above  it;  defeated  the  Northumbrian  forces  at 
Fulford;  and  entered  York  on  the  94th  of  September.  '  But  the 
following  day  the  English  Harold  arrived  from  the  south,  and 
the  end  of  the  long  day's  fight  at  Stamford  Bridge  saw  the  rout 
of  the  Norwegian  forces  after  the  fall  of  their  king  (35th  of 
September  xo66).  He  was  only  fifty  years  old,  but  he  was  the 
first  of  the  six  kings  who  had  niled  Norway  since  the  death  of 
Harald  Haarfager  to  reach  that  age.  As  a  king  he  was  unpopular 
on  account  of  hh  harshness  and  want  of  good  faith,  but  his  many 
victories  in  the  face  of  great  odds  prove  him  to  have  been  a 
remarkable  general,  of  never-failing  resourcefulness  and  indomit- 
able  courage. 

Haralo  IV.  (d.  X136),  king  of  Norway,  surnamed  Gylle 
(probably  from  Gylle  Krisi,  i.e.  servant  of  Christ),  was  born  in 
Ireland  about  XX05.  About  xia;  he  went  to  Norway  and 
declared  he  was  a  son  of  King  Magnus  III.  (Barefoot),  who  had 
visited  Ireland  just  before  his  death  in  X103,  and  consequently 
a  half-brother  of  the  reigning  king,  Sigurd.  He  appears  to  have 
submitted  successfully  to  the  ordeal  of  fire,  and  the  alleged 
relationship  was  acknowledged  by  Sigurd  on  condition  that 
Harald  did  not  claim  any  share  in  the  government  of  the  kingdom 
during  his  lifetime  or  that  of  his  son  Magnus.  Living  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  king,  Harald  kept  this  agreement  until  Sigurd's 
death  in  1130.  Then  war  broke  out  between  himself  and  Magnus, 
and  after  several  battles  the  latter  was  captured  in  x  134,  his  eyes 
were  put  out,  and  he  was  thrown  into  prison.  Harald  now  ruled 
the  country  until  i  X36,  when  he  was  murdered  by  Sigurd  Slembi- 
Diakn,  another  bastard  son  of  Magnus  Barefoot.  Four  of 
Harald's  sons,  Sigurd,  Ingi,  Eysteinn  and  Magnus,  were  subse- 
quently kings  of  Norway. 

HARBIN,  or  Kbakbin,  town  of  Manchuria,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  Sungari.  Pop.  about  20,000.  Till  X896  there 
was  only  a  small  village  here,  but  in  that  year  the  town  was 
founded  in  connexion  with  surveys  for  the  Chinese  Eastern 
railway  company,  at  a  point  which  subsequently  became  the 
junction  of  the  main  line  of  theManchurian  railway  with  the 
bra'Tich  line  southward  to  Port  Arthur.  Occupying  such  a 
position,  Harbin  became  an  important  Russian  military  centre 
during  the  Russo-Japanese  War.  The  portion  of  the  town 
founded  ib  1896  is  called  Old  Harbin,  but  the  centre  has  shifted 
to  New  Harbin,  where  the  chief  public  buildings  and  offices  of 
the  railway  administration  are  situated.    The  river-port  forma 


a  third  division  of  the  town,  industrially  the  most  important; 
here  are  railway  workshops,  factories  and  mercantile  establish- 
ments.   Trade  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese. 

HARBINGER,  originally  one  who  provides  a  shelter  or  lodging 
for  an  army.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  M.E.  and  O.Fr. 
herbergere,  through  the  Late  Lat.  heribergalor,  formed  from  the 
O.H.Ger.  heri,  mod.  Ger.  Heer,  an  army,  and  bergen,  shelter  or 
defence,  cf.  "  harbour."  The  meaning  was  soon  enlarged  to 
include  any  place  where  travellers  could  be  lodged  or  entertained, 
and  also  by  transference  the  person  who  provided  lodgings,  and 
so  one  who  goes  on  before  a  party  to  secure  suitable  lodgings  in 
advance.  A  herald  sent  forward  to  announce  the  coming  of  a 
king.  A  Knight  Harbinger  was  an  officer  in  the  royal  household 
till  X846.  In  these  senses  the  word  is  now  obsolete.  It  is  i»ed 
chiefly  in  poetry  and  literature  for  one  who  announces  the 
immediate  approach  of  something,  a  forerunner.  This  is  illus- 
trated in  the  "  harbinger  of  spring,"  a  name  given  to  a  small 
pUnt  belonging  to  the  Umbelliferae,  which  has  a  tuberous  root, 
and  small  white  flowers;  it  is  found  in  the  central  states  of  North 
America,  and  blossoms  in  March. 

HARBOUR  (from  M.E.  herebergef  Aere,'an  army;  cf.  Ger.  Heer 
and  -beorgf  protection  or  shelter.  Other  early  forms  in  En^ish 
were  herhem  and  harborow,  as  seen  in  various  place  names, 
such  as  Market  Harborough.  The  French  aubtrge,  an  inn, 
derived  through  keberger,  is  thus  the  same  word),  a  place  of 
refuge  or  shelter.  It  h  thus  used  for  an  asylum  for  criminals, 
and  particularly  for  a  place  of  shelter  for  ships. 

Sheltered  sites  along  exposed  sea-coasts  are  essential  for  pur- 
poses of  trade,  and  very  valuable  as  refuges  for  vessels  from 
storms.  In  a  few  places,  natural  shelter  is  found  in  combixuition 
with  ample  depth,  as  in  the  Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  New  York 
Harbour  (protected  by  Long  Island),  Portsmouth  Harbour  and 
Southampton  Water  (sheltered  by  the  Isle  of  Wight),  and  the 
land-locked  creeks  of  Milford  Haven  and  Kiel  Harbour.  At 
various  places  there  are  large  enclosed  areas  which  have  openings 
into  the  sea;  but  these  lagoons  for  the  most  part  are  very  shallow 
except  in  the  main. channels  and  at  their  outlets.  Access  to 
them  is  generally  obstructed  by  a  bar  as  at  the  lagoon  harbour 
of  Venice  (fig.  x),  and  similar  harbours,  like  those  of  Poole  and 
Wexford;  and  such  harbours  usually  require  works  to  prevent 
•  their  deterioration,  and  to  increase  the  depth  near  their  outlet. 
Generally,  however,harbours  are  formed  where  shelter  is  provided 
to  a  certain  extent  by  a  bay,  creek  or  projecting  headland,  but 
requires  to  be  rendered  complete  by  one  or  more  breakwaters 
(see  Breakwater),  or  where  the  approach  to  a  river,  a  ship- 
canal  or  a  seaport,  needs  protection.  A  refuge  harbour  is 
occasionally  constructed  where  a  long  length  of  stormy  coast, 
near  the  ordinary  track  of  VMsels,  is  entirely  devoid  of  natural 
shelter.  Naval  harbotirs  are  required  by  nuuitime  powers  as 
stations  for  their  fleets,  and  dockyards  for  construction  and 
repairs,  and  also  in  some  cases  as  places  of  shelter  from  the  night 
attacks  of  torpedoes.  Commercial  harbours  have  to  be  provided 
for  the  formation  of  ports  within  their  shelter  on  important 
trade  routes,  or  for  the  protection  of  the  approaches  from  the 
sea  of  ports  near  the  sea-coast,  or  maritime  waterways  running 
inland,  in  some  cases  at  points  on  the  coast  devoid  of  all  natural 
shelter.  A  greater  latitude  in  the  selection  of  suitable  sites  is, 
indeed,possibIe  for  refuge  and  naval  harbours  than  for  commercial 
harbouis;  but  these  three  classes  of  harbours  are  very  similar 
in  their  general  outline  and  the  works  protecting  them,  only 
differing  in  size  and  internal  arrangements  according  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  they  have  been  constructed,  the  chid  differences 
being  due  to  the  local  conditions. 

Harbours  may  be  divided  into  three  distinct  groups,  namely, 
lagoon  'iiarbours,  jetty  harbours  and  sea-coast  harbours,  pro- 
tected by  breakwaters,  including  refuge,  naval  and  commercial 
harbours. 

Lagoon  Harbours. — A  lagoon,  coniisting  ot  a  sort  of  large  shallow 
lake  fcporated  from  the  sea  by  a  narrow  belt  of  coast,  formed  of 
deposit  from  a  deltaic  river  or  of  and  dunes  heaped  up  by  on-shore 
winds  along  a  landy  shore,  possesses  good  natural  ihdter;  and, 
owing  to  the  laij^e  expanse  whKh  is  filled  and  emptied  at  each  tide, 
even  when  the  tidal  range  is  quite  small,  together  with  the  diichaigc 


936  HARBOUR 

[rofli  niy  linn  Sowing  Into  Ilic  btaon,  oik  or  nun  [liHy  cfcep  (> 

OutlcU  UE  QuiRUiBKl  Ihniuih  ihc  f  '   g     o(  caul       hiih  afford  i 

DKViciblo  uoH  to  be  k|o«]     wbiln  chaimU  Drmed  uuide  by    m  e 


FlO-  I'^Veoetum  Lagoon  Uarboui. 

uj toportaoiiilabanli*.  Lagoeu, hoi. _  _.._.. 

"    '  m  Aowiiu;  iiUo  Ihem  brin^ 
um.  vhich  ia  RAdily  dcpowird 


bccoounc  Mullowvr,  bythevca  in  Muniu 
by  brwiing  ihroufn  tbe  lumnr 
barrier  aepanliog  ihem  from  Ibt 
tea.  M«HvtT»  the  approadi  from 
Ihe  at*  to  Ihen  channiiU  Ihioug)!  tha 
fringB  ct  oiHt  ia  generally  impeded 
by  ■  bar.  owing  to  the  acour  of  the 
laaukig  euRBit  through  theae  outlet 
ehuHida  bflcomhig  gradually  loo  en- 
IteUcd.  oa  ealerlng  the  open  aea.  to 
qwreoroa  the  heaping-up  action  of 
the  aravea  along  the  fbon,   which 


d  (hul  ofi  Irom  Ihe  laDdy  beach  by  dits  or  Bad 
Tlrd  Hilh  the  aea  by  a  aoiaD  creek  or  nvcr-  ^t^b 
a  their  oHauial  mndition  a  alight  iwmbUjicc  ra 
y  null  acak.  Scvnat  eompfea  Arc  to  be  loficj 
CO  ol  the  Eniriah  Channel  and  Nonh  So,  lucli  a> 
e,  Calais.  Dunkirk,  Nieupot  and  Oncnd,  wtcn 
Dui  ol  th*  water  iTom  Ibeae  endsKd  lidc-covoid 
narrow  openiiLC.  auAced  to  maiatuq  a  ^aOnr 
zn  acTOH  the  bwb,  d«p  enouah  near  higti-HUB 
ill  draught.  When  the  increur In  dmuht  aecev 
in  improved  channd,  the  kdut  DTibe  wunf 
~»  *_j  — ilonged  by  erecting  panllti  ietin 
^tlle  above  low  water  at  [wap  lidev 

itlml  dnll 


ind  prolangrd  by  er 

d  ID  a  little  above  loi     

tvt  to  indicate  Ihe  chanad  aj 

"of  the  1^  ^ 

I  the  iettie*  haif  i  n  laiiillr 
(kcOou).   McRcner.n- 


he  low4yinq  areaa 
von      and  nluidoi  b>Miu  ■<.-■¥  cam 

B  0  which  the  tide  fr^iKd  tlirouih ,  ^— „„,,^  .»__—. 

w    cr  being  ^ut  in  at  high  tide  by  gatra  at  the  outlet  <d 
V      rtk^ivd  at  low' water,  produdnc  &  la^  OtfAA 

Th=°currenl!'''hSS™.  Tnim  ihi  Jusjing^^ 

uc^n  °he  volume  o(  HiU  water  in  tbe'^^'^'bw 
dccpcnine  prcgrcued.     Laoiy,  about  iBSo.  ifnfmnT- 

lon  dtcdgcn  (KC  DUDul  aHD  DnEDcixc)  M  to  the 
u  d-pump  dredfeing  in  the  outer  part  of  the  chanBd. 
he  orshorc  in  frooc  to  deep  water:  and  at  DuakLrk. 
Drmcd  on  the  lite  of  the  iliudnf  liaain:  vfailat  at  Cjiaia 

bandoncd  in  favour  of  dredpn^  OHcnd  h  the  tuJy 
large  il      ng  baira  ua  been  rccHKly  ivo- 

vK  rcdg  ng  n  rriied  upon  to  an  inaravag 


H  the  Stroonbou  a 


Si'i 


HARBOUR 


937 


tbff  MKout  must  depend  on  the  configumtioii  of  the  adjacent 
ooast-Une,  the  extent  and  direction  of  the  exposure,  the  amount  of 
sheltered  area  required  and  the  depth  obtainable,  the  procpect  of 
the  accumulation  of  drift  or  the  occurrence  of  icour  from  the  pro- 
posed works,  and  the  best  position  for  an  entrance  in  respect  of 
shelter  and  depth  of  approach. 

CompUHon  of  Skelter  of  Harbours  tn  Bays. — In  the  case  of  a  deep, 
fairly  landlocked  bay.  a  detached  breakwater  across  the  outlet 
completes  the  necessary  shelter,  leaving  an  entrance  between  each 
extremity  and  the  shore,  provided  there  is  deep  enough  water  near 
the  shore,  as  effected  at  Plymouth  harbour,  and  also  across  the  wider 
but  shallower  bay  forming  Cherbourg  harbour.   A  breakwater  may 


Fic.  3. — Genoa  Harbour  and  Extensions. 

instead  be  extended  across  the  outlet  from  each  shore,  lea^g  a 
iingle  central  entr|tnce  between  the  ends  of  the  breakwaters;  and 
if  one  breakwater  placed  somewhat  farther  out  is  made  to  oveilap 
tn  inner  one,  a  more  sheltered  entrance  is  obtained.  Thb  arnnge- 
mcnt  has  been  adopted  at  the  existing  Genoa  harbour  within  the 
^y  (As-  3)t  And  for  the  harbour  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nervion  (see 
RivBK  Engiwbsrinc).  The  adoption  of  a  bay  with  deep  watei^for 
I  harbour  does  not  merely  reduce  the  shelter  to  be  provided  arti- 
kially.  but  It  also  secures  a  site  not  exposed  to  silting  up,  and  where 
:he  sheltering  works  do  not  interfere  with  any  littoral  drift  along 
Jie  open  coast.    A  third  method  of  sheltering  a  deep  bay  b  that 


Fic.  4.— Ptoterhead  Harbour  of  Refuge. 

dopted  for  forming  a  refuge  harbour  at  Peterhead  (fig.  4),  where 
single  breakwater  is  extended  out  from  one  shore  for  3250  ft. 
cross  the  outlet  of  the  bay,  leaving  a  ringle  entrance  between  its 
xtremity  and  the  opoosite  shore  and  enclosing  an  area  of  about 
50  acres  at  low  tide,  naif  of  which  has  a  depth  of  over  5  fathoms. 
Harbours  possessiut  pattial  Natural  ShdUr. — ^The  most  common 
)rm  of  harbour  is  that  in  which  one  or  more  breakwaters  supple- 
tent  a  certain  amount  of  natural  shelter.  Sometimes,  where  the 
Kposure  is  from  one  direction  only,  approximatelv  parallel  with 
ic  coast-line  at  the  sice,  and  there  is  more  or  less  shelter  from  a  pro- 
xrttng  headland  or  a  curve  of  the  coast  in  the  op^omtt  direction,  a 
ngle  breakwater  extending  out  at  right  an^es  to  the  shore,  with 


a  slight  curve  or  bend  inwards  near  its  outer  end,  sufiiceato  afford 
the  necessary  shelter.  As  examples  of  this  form  of  harbour  con- 
struction may  be  mentioned  Newhaven  breakwater,  protecting  the 
approach  to  the  portflrom  the  west,  and  somewhat  sheltered  Irom 
the  moderate  easterly  storms  by  Beachy  Head,  and  Table  Bay 
breakwater,  which  sheltere  the  harbour  from  the  north-east,  and  is 
somewhat  protected  on  the  opposite  side  by  the  wide  sweep  of  the 
coast-line  known  as  Table  Bay.  Generally,  however,  some  partial 
embayment,  or  abrupt  projection  from  the  coast.,  is  utilized  as 
providing  shelter  from  one  quarter,  which  is  completed  by  break- 
waters  enclosing  the  site,  of  which  [>over  and  Cobmbo  (fig.  5) 
harbours  furnish  typical  and  s6mewhat  similar  examples. 

Harbours  formed  on  ptite  Open 
Seacoasts. — Occasionally  harboure 
have   to   be  constructed   for   some 

Secial    purpose   where    no    natural 
elter  exists,  and  where  on  an  opra, 
sandy  shore  considerable  littoral  drift 
may  occur.    Breakwaters,  carried  out 
from   the   shore   at   some   distance 
apart,  and  converging  to  a  central 
entrance  of  suitable  width,  provide 
the  requisite  shelter,  as  for  instance 
the  harbour  constructed  to  form  a 
sheltered  approach  to  the  river  Wear 
and  the  Sunderland  docks  (fig.  6). 
If  there  is  little  littoral  drift  from 
the  most  exposed  quarter,  the  amount 
of  sand  brought  in  during  storms, 
which  is  smaller  in  proportion  to  the 
depth   into   whkh   the  entrance  is 
carried,  can  be  readily  removed  by 
dredging;     whilst  the  scour  across 
the  projecting  ends  of  the  break- 
'^     waters  tends  to  keep  the  outlet  free 
from  deposit.    Where  there  is  littoral 
drift  in  both  directions  on  an  open, 
■andy  coast,  due  to  winds  bk>wing 
alternately  from  opposite  quarters, 
sand  accumulates  in  the  sheltered  angles  outside  the  harbour 
between  each  converging  breakwater  and  the  shore.     This  has 
happened  at  Ymuiden  harbour  at  the  entrance  to  the  AJnstcrdam 
ship<anal  on  the  North  Sea,  but  there  the  advance  of  the  shore 
appears  to  have  reached  its  limit  only  a  short  distance  out  from 
the  old  shore-line  on  each  side;    and  the  only  evidence  of  drift 
connsts   in   the   advance   seawards   of   the   fines   of   soundings 
ak>ngside.  and  in  the  considerable  amount  of  sand  which  entcn  the 
harbour  and  has  to  be  removed  by  dredging.    The  worst  results 
occur  where  the  littoral  drift  b  almost  wholly  in  one  direction,  so 
that  the  projection  of  a  solid  breakwater  out  from  the  shore  causes 
a  very  larse  accretion  on 
the  sKle  facing  the  ex-  f 

posed  quarter;  whilst 
owing  to  the  arrest  of  the 
travel  of  sand,  erosion  of 
the  beach  occura  beyond 
the  second  breakwater 
enclosing  the  harbour  on 
its  comparatively  shel- 
tered side.  These  effects 
have  been  produced  at 
Port  Said  harbour  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Sues 
Canal  from  the  Medi- 
terranean, formed  by  two 
converging  breakwaters, 
where,  owing  to  the 
prevalent  north-westeriy 
winds,  the  drift  b  from/ 
west  to  east,  and  is  aug- 
mented by  the  alluvium  ' 
issuing  from  the  Nile. 
Aococdingly.  the  shore 
has  advanced  consider- 
ably aninst  the  outer 
face  of  the  western  break- 
water: and  erosion  of 
the  beach  has  occurred 
at  the  shore  end  of  the 
eastern  breakwater,  cut- 
ting it  of!  from  the  bnd. 
The  advance  of  the  shore-line,  however,  has  been  much  slower 
during  recent  years;  and  though  the  piugicss  seawards  of  the 
tines  of  soundings  close  to  and  in  front  of  the  harbour  continues, 
the  advance  b  diecked  by  the  sand  and  silt  coming  from  the  west 
passing  through  some  apertures  purposely  left  in  the  western  break- 
water, and  famng  into  the  approach  channel,  from  which  it  b  readily 
dredged  and  uken  away.  Madras  harbour,  begun  in  1B75,  consists 
of  two  breakwaters.  3000  ft.  apart,  carried  straight  out  to  sea  at 
right  angles  to  the  shore  for  3000  ft.,  and  completed  by  two  return 


COkOS«AO». 


Fic.  5. — Colombo  Harbour. 


938 


HARBURG— HARCOURT 


arm*  inclined  slightly  seawards,  endoaing  an  area  of  330  acres  and 
leaving  a  central  entrance,  5^  ft.  wide,  lacing  the  Indian  Ocean  in 
a  deptn  of  about  8  fathoms.  The  great  drift,  however,  of  sand  along 
the  coast  from  south  to  north  soon  produced  an  advance  of  the  shore 
against  the  outside  of  the  south  breakwater,  and  erosion  beyond 
the  north  breakwater;  and  the  progressbn  of  the  foreshore  has 
extended  so  far  seawards  as  to  produce  shoaling  at  the  entrance. 
Acccmiingly,  the  closing  of  the  entrance,  and  the  formation  of  a  new 
entrance  through  the  outer  part  of  the  main  north  breakwater, 

facing  north  and  sheltered 
by  an  arm  starting  from  the 
angle  of  the  northern  return 
arm  and  running  north 
parallel  to  the  shore,  round 
the  end  of  which  vessels 
would  turn  to  enter,  have 
been  recommended,  to  pro- 
vide a  deep  entrance  beyond 
the  influence  of  the  ad- 
vancing foreshore. 

Proposals  have  been  made 
from  time  to  time  to  evade 
this  advance  of  the  foreshore 
against  a  solid  obsucle,  by 
extending  an  open  viaduct 
across  the  zone  of  littoral 
drift,  and  forming  a  dosed 
harbour,  or  a  sheltering 
breakwater  against  which 
vessels  can  lie,  beyond  the 
influence  of  accretion.  This 
principle  was  carried  out  on  a 
large  scale  at  the  port  of  call  and  sheltering  breakwater  constructed 
in  front  of  the  entrance  to  the  Bruges  ship<anal.  at  Zeebruggeon  the 
sandy  North  Sea  coast,  where  a  solid  breakwater,  provided  with  a 
wide  quay  furnished  with  sidings  and  sheds,  and  curving  round  so 
as  to  overlap  thoroughly  the  entrance  to  the  canal  and  shelter  a 
certain  water-area,  is  approached  by  an  open  metal  viaduct  extend- 
ing out  I0O7  ft.  from  low  water  into  a  depth  of  20  ft.  (fig.  7).  It  is 
hoped  that  by  thus  avoiding  interference  with  the  littoral  drift  close 


Fig.  6. — ^Sunderland  Harbour. 


to  the  shore,  coming  mainly  from  the  west,  the  accumulation  of  silt 
to  the  west  of  the  harbour,  and  also  in  the  harbour  itself,  will  be 
prevented ;  and  though  it  appears  probable  that  some  accretion  will 
occur  within  the  area  sheltered  by  the  breakwater,  it  will  to  some 


Fig.  7. — Zeebrugge  Harbour. 

extent  be  dbturbed  by  the  wash  of  the  steamers  apnroaching  and 
leaving  the  quays,  and  can  readily  be  removed  under  shelter  by 
dredging. 

Entrances  to  Harbours. — ^Though  captains  of  vessels  always  wish 
for  wide  entrances  to  harbours  as  affording  greater  facility  of  safe 
access,  it  is  important  to  keep  the  width  as  narrow  as  practicable, 
consistent  with  easy  access,  to  exclude  waves  and  swdl  as  much 
as  possible  and  secure  tranquillity  inside.  At  Madras,  the  width  of 
550  ft.  proved  excessive  for  the  great  exposure  of  the  entrance,  and 
moderate  size  of  the  harbour,  which  does  not  allow  of  the  adequate 
expansion  of  the  entering  swdl.  Where  an  adequately  easy  and  safe 
approach  can  be  secured,  it  is  advantageous  to  maLe  the  entxaoce 


face  a  somewhat  shdtered  quarter  by  the  overiapoing  oC  the  ead 
of  one  df  the  breakwaters,  as  accompltsbed  at  Bnoao  and  Genoa 
harbours  (fig.  3)|  and  at  the  southern  entraooe  to  Dover  haitwur. 
Occasionally,  owing  to  the  comparative  sbdter  afforded  by  a  bced 
in  the  adjacent  coast-line,  a  very  wide  eotrancx  can  be  left  betwcr-^ 
a  breakwater  and  the  shore;  typical  examples  aue  farmshed  bv  tbe 
former  open  northern  entrance  to  Portland  harbour,  now  aoacsi 
against  torpedoes,  and  the  wide  entrances  at  Holybcad  aad  Zee- 
brugge (fig.  7).  With  a  large  harbour  and  the  adoptioo  of  a  detached 
breakwater,  it  is  possible  to  gain  the  advantage  of  two  eatiancts 
facing  different  quarters,  as  effected  at  Dover  and  C^^ombo.  vfcLk 
enabfes  vessels  to  select  their  entrance  according  to  the  state  ol  ihr 
wind  and  weather;  where  there  is  a  large  tidal  rise  they  reduce  tbr 
current  through  the  entrances,  and  they  may,  under  favocrai'lf 
conditions,  create  a  circuUtion  of  the  water  in  the  harbour,  teadiag 
to  check  the  deposit  of  silt.  (L.  F.  V.-R) 

HARBURO,  a  seaport  town  of  Germany,  in  tbe  Pmasbn 
province  of  Hanover,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  southem  arm  of 
the  Elbe,  6  m.  by  fail  S.  of  Hamburg.  Pop.  (1885),  26 ^so; 
(1905) — ^the  area  of  the  town  having  been  increased  since  189  5— 
55,676.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  lofty  range  oi 
hills,  which  here  dip  down  to  the  river,  at  the  junction  of  the 
main  lines  of  railway  from  Bremen  and  Hanovtf  to  Bambvig, 
which  are  carried  to  the  latter  dty  over  two  grand  bridges 
crossing  the  southern  and  the  northon  arms  of  tbe  Elbe.  It 
po^esses  a  Roman  Catholic  and  two  Protestant  cbtirc^ 
a  palace,  which  from  1534  to  1643  was  the  residcace  of  the 
Harburg  line  of  the  house  of  Brunswid:,  a  higfa-giade  modera 
school,  a  commercial  school  and  a  theatre.  The  leading  indust  rics 
are  the  crushing  of  palm-kemeb  and  linseed  and  the  manufscture 
of  india-rubber,  pho^hates,  starch,  nitrate  and  jute.  Madiincs 
are  manufactured  here;  beer  is  brewed,  and  shif^ulidtng  » 
carried  on.  The  port  is  accessible  to  vessds  drawfatg  xS  ft.  of 
water,  and,  despite  its  proximity  to  Hamburg,  its  trade  has  of 
late  years  shown  a  remarkable  development.  It  is  the  chief 
mart  in  the  empire  for  resin  and  palm-oiL  The  Praasian  gorvern- 
ment  proposes  establishing  here  a  free  port,  on  the  lines  of  ihe 
Preihafen  in  Hamburg. 

Harburg  bdonged  oiigjnally  to  the  bishopric  of  Brem»,  asd 
recdved  munidpal  rights  in  1397.  In  1376  it  was  united  to 
the  prindpality  of  LUneburg,  along  with  which  it  fen  io  170$ 
to  Hanover,  and  in  1806  to  Prussia.  In  1S13  and  18x4  it  su^eied 
considerably  from  the  French,  who  then  hdd  Hamburg,  asd 
who  built  a  bridge  between  the  two  towns,  which  remained 
standing  till  1816. 

Sec  Ludewig,  Gesckichte  des  ScUoues  wti  der  Simit  flarlwt 
(Harburg.  1845);  and  Hoffmeyer,  Uarbttrg  und  dit  n4cksU  £.'•- 
gegend  (1885). 

HARCOURT,  a  village  in  Normandy,  now  a  oommune  in  the 
department  of  Eure,  arrondissement  of  B^nay  and  canton  of 
Brionne,  which  gives  its  name  to  a  noble  family  distinguished 
in  French  history,  a  branch  of  which  was  early  estab&hed  in 
England.  Of  the  lords  of  Harcourt,  whose  genealogy  can  be 
traced  back  to  the  xxth  century,  the  first  to  disdngdsh  himsdt 
was  Jean  II.  (d.  1303)  who  was  marshal  and  admiral  of  Fraace. 
Godefroi  d'Harcourt,  seigneur  of  Saint  Sauveur  le  Mcorsie, 
surnamed  "  Le  boiteuz  "  (the  lame),  was  a  marshal  in  tlie  English 
army  and  was  killed  near  Coutances  in  i  j  56.  The  fief  of  Harccur* 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  countship  by  Philip  of  Vakis,  in  Uvou 
of  Jean  IV.,  who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Cre^y  (X346).  His 
son,  Jean  V.  (d.  1355)  married  Blanche,  heiress  of  Jean  II., 
count  of  Aumale,  and  the  countship  of  Haroourt  passed  with 
that  of  Aumale  until,  in  1424,  Jean  VIII.,  count  of  Aumale  aad 
Mortain  and  lieutenant-general  of  Normandy,  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  VemeuU,  and  with  him  the  dder  branch  became  extinct 
in  the  male  line.  The  heiress,  Marie,  by  her  maniage  viib 
Anthony  of  Lorraine,  count  of  Vaud^mont,  brought  tbe  countship 
of  Harcourt  into  the  house  of  Lorraine.  The  title  of  count  d 
Harcourt  was  borne  by  several  princes  of  this  house.  The  mos: 
famous  instance  was  Henry  of  Lorraine,  count  of  Hamrart. 
Brionne,  and  Armagnac,  and  nicknamed  "  Cadet  la  pcxle  "  (i6ct- 
1666).  He  distinguished  himself  in  several  campaigns  against 
Spain,  and  later  played  an  active  part  in  the  dvil  wars  of  tbe 
Fronde.    He  took  the  side  of  the  princes,  and  fought  agairjt  the 


HARCOURT,  1ST  VISCOUNT 

[ovemmtnt  in  AUux;  but  was  defcit«t  by  Morshat  de  la 
F«rt^,  and  nude  his  iubmisuoD  JD  1654- 

The  most  diitinguiibcd  uiiDni  tti«  yDungrr  bnnclia  of  (be 
amily  an  these  of  Moalgomer]'  and  of  Beuvmn.  To  the  f  amct 
xlonged  Jeui  d'Hutoutt,  bllhop  of  Amieiis  ud  Tounui. 
irchhithop  of  Nar^rme  aiul  patriarch  of  Aatioch,  who  died  in 


voods  and  fomts  In  t] 


llorma 


royal  i 


t  It  ftrti  it  Frat 


m  the  bnnch  of  the  marquisei  ot  Beuvron  ipring  Hcnii 
J'Hucoun,  aanbal  of  Fruce,  and  unlMsidot  at  the  Spaniih 
:ourt,  who  wa*  made  duhe  of  Haicotiit  (1700)  aad  a  pur  of 
France  <i7a9}i  alio  Fnncoi*  EujJDe  Cabiiel,  count,  lod 
ifterwardi  duLc,  of  Harcourt,  who  was  ambassador  tnx.  in 
Spain,  and  1it«  at  Rome,  and  died  101865.     This  bnnch  ol  the 

'  Sec  G.  A.  de  la  Rotne,  BiHtiH  (Mbbi 


>•  it  Fnmt.  v 


,:>ii  ;iaj7p;-«.-;?fe; 

'     :  and  Dom  le  Noii.  Pnimi  fiMuii- 
Pfuf  fj  AiMfftffHu  «  a  mouefl  it  Htriturt  {Paris,  1907) 

HARCOUBT,  mOM  HABCOimT,  in  Viscount  Ic  iMi- 
1717),  loidchancellorof  EogiiDdiOtily  son  ol  Sir  Philip  HaicoUTt 
3f  Stanton  Harcourt,  Oxfordshire,  by  his  first  wife,  Anne, 
laughter  ol  Sir  William  Waller,  was  bora  about  1661  at  Stanton 
Hanouit,  and  wu  educilcd  st  a  Khool  al  Shilton,  Oifordihire, 
ind  at  Pembroke  Coltcge,  Oifoid.  He  wu  oiled  lo  the  bar 
^n  i68j,  lod  sooa  if lenruds  wu  appointed  lecotder  of  Abingdon, 
which  borough  he  reproenled  as  a  Toiy  in  pariiamenl  Irom 
1690  (o  1705.  In  1701  he  wu  nominated  by  the  Comnioni  10 
:onducI  the  impeachment  of  Lord  Somen;  and  in  1701  be 
became  solidtor-generat  and  was  knighted  by  Queen  Anne. 
He  was  elccled  member  for  Bosainey  in  170;,  and  ai  commis- 
uoner  for  una(Ill(  tbe  union  with  Scotland  was  [aigely  inilni- 
cnental  in  promotlos  that  measure.  Harcourt  was  appointed 
ttloracy-fcnenl  in  IJ07,  but  resigned  office  in  the  following 
veu  when  U*  friend  Robert  Hailey,  ifterwards  earl  of  OiTord, 
wasdismlued.  He  defended  Sicheveiell  at  the  barof  the  House 
if  Lords  in  171a,  being  (hen  wlihout  a  seat  in  pullunenl;  but 
n  the  lame  year  wu  returned  for  Cardigan,  and  in  September 
igain  became  itlomey-generaL  In  October  be  was  appointed 
ord  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  and  in  virtue  of  thil  office  he 
ircsided  in  the  House  of  Lords  for  some  months  without  a 
jcerage,  until,  on  the  3rd  of  September  i;ri,  he  wai  created 
Buon  Harcourt  of  Stanton  Harcourt;  but  it  wu  no(  till  April 
171]  that  he  received  the  appointment  of  lord  chancellor.  In 
1710  he  had  purchased  the  Ni 


sual  place 


ilinued  to  be  at  Coke- 

'mm  Queen  Anne.  In  tbe  negotiitiona  preceding  tbe  peace  of 
Utrecht,  Hartoutt  took  an  important  put.  There  is  no  lufficicnt 
evidence  for  tbe  lUegitiDoa  of  the  Whig*  (ba(  Harcourt  entered 
nto  ircuoiiable  relitianj  with  the  Pttteodet.  On  the  accession 
if  George  I.  he  wu  deprived  c€  office  and  retiied  10  Cokethoipe, 
*here  he  enjoyed  ihe  locieiy  of  men  of  lelten,  Swift,  Pope, 
Prior  and  other  famous  writers  bein(  among  hii  frequent  guests. 
A'ith  Swift,  however,  he  had  occuional  quinels.  during  one  of 
•'hicb  the  great  salirisi  bellowed  on  him  the  tobriqucl  of "  Trhn- 
ning  Harcourt."  He  exerted  hinucU  10  defeat  (he  impeach- 
ncnl  of  Lord  Oxford  in  1717,  and  in  ijij  he  was  active  in 
ibldining  a  pardon  for  another  old  political  friend.  Lord  Boling- 


a  the  pi 


II  Kan 


privy  councils; 
ibsencei  from  England  he  wu  on  the  council  d  regency.  He 
lied  in  London  on  (he  ijrd  of  July  1717.  Harcourt  wa»  not  a 
ireat  Uwyer,  but  he  enjoyed  (he  repuratioa  nS  being  a  brilliant 
nitor;  Speaker  Onslow  going  10  for  u  to  lay  (ha(  Hiutour( 
'  had  (he  greatest  skill  and  powet  of  ipeech  ol  any  man  I  ever 
:new  in  a  public  auembly."  He  was  1  member  of  Ihe  fatnoui 
Saturday  Club,  frequented  by  (be  chief  tUtrali  and  wilt  of  ihe 
Krisd,  Willi  several  <i  whom  be  correipoDdtd.    Some  tetteit  (o 


-HARCOURT,  SIR  WILLIAM    939 

him  from  Pope  are  preserved  in  Ihe  Haiamrl  Ptftri.    His 
portrait  by  Kneller  is  at  Nunebam. 

Harcourt  married,  first,  Rebecca,  daughter  of  Tlomu  Oirk. 
his  [ither'i  chaplain,  by  nhom  be  had  five  children;  secondly, 
Eliubclh,  daughter  of  Richard  Spencer;  and  thirdly,  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  \>Encin,  He  IcEt  issue  by  his  first  wife 
only.  His  son,  Simon  (1684-1710),  mirried  Elisabeth,  siilei  ol 
Sir  John  Evelyn  of  Wotton,  by  whom  he  had  one  son  and  tour 
daughters,  one  of  whom  married  George  VenaUes  Vernon, 
tftenards  Lord  Vernon  (see  HAtcotiKt,  Sn  WiLiuu— foot- 
note), Simon  Harcourt  predeceased  his  father,  the  lord  cban. 
ccUoi,  In  i;io,  leaving  a  ion  Siuqk  Hurointi  (1714-1777). 
1st  Earl  Harcourt,  who  succeeded  his  grandfather  In  tht  title 
of  viscount  in  1737.  He  wu  educated  at  Westminster  school. 
In  1745,  having  raised  a  regiment,  he  received  a  commisuon  u  a 
colonel  in  the  army;  Ind  in  1749  be  was  created  Earl  Harcourt 
of  S(an(oa  Hircourt.  He  was  appointed  governor  to  (he  prince 
of  Walet,  afietwird)  Geoigt  HI.,  in  wii;  and  after  the  acces- 
sion of  (he  latter  to  the  throne  be  wu  appointed,  in  1761,  ipedal 
ambassador  10  Mecklenbuig-SlielitI  to  negotiate  a  marriage 
between  King  George  and  (he  princess  Charlotte,  whom  he 
conducted  to  England.  After  holding  a  number  of  appointments 
at  court  and  in  tbe  diplomatic  service,  he  was  promoted  to  the 
tank  of  generil  in  1771;  and  in  October  of  the  same  year  be 
succeeded  Lord  Towmeod  as  lord  lieutenant  of  IreUuid,  an  office 
which  he  held  till  1777.  His  proposal  to  impose  a  tax  of  10% 
on  the  rents  of  absentee  landlords  had  (o  be  abandoned  owing 
to  opposition  In  England;  but  he  succeeded  in  concihallng  the 
leaden  of  Opposition  in  Ireland,  and  he  penuaded  Henry  Flood 
to  accept  office  in  tbe  government.  Resigning  in  January  1777, 
be  retired  to  Nunehsm,  where  he  died  in  the  following  September. 
He  married.  In  1735,  Rebecca,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles 
Samborne  Le  Bas,  of  Pipewell  Abbey,  NorthampLonshire,  by 
whom  he  had  two  daugbten  and  (wo  sons,  George  Simon  and 
William,  who  succeeded  him  u  md  and  jid  earl  respectively. 

'/  E  "    '     .       ■  m! 


In  '135'ilL 


CanllUi,  Earl  of  I 


■    ::.'.„  i>l Ok Rtipt 
:,:..:r,4lUR4, 


tn<^'..'.    -...1'    tl'   :   ''     ■<   Z'.'r'VO*'  am  Exiintt   Pftrapi    fLondofl, 
■  «-„■-  IH.J.M.J 

HARCOnRT.  BIB  VILUAH  GBORQR  flRAXVILLI 
VBHABLB3  VERHOH  (iSi7-i«a4),  English  statesman,  second 
SOD  c<  tbe  Rev.  Canon.  WiUiam  Vernon  Harcourt  (g.i.),  of 
Nunehatn  Park.  C>xford,  wu  bora  on  the  itth  of  October  1897. 
Canon  Harcourt  wu  the  fourth  son  and  eventually  heir  of 
Edward  Hareourt  {1757-1847).  archbishop  of  Vork,  who  wu 
the  ion  of  the  lit  Lord  Vernon  {d.  1780),  and  who  took  the  name 
of  Harcourt  alone  instead  of  Vernon  oh  succeeding  to  (be  pro- 
perty of  hiscousln.  tbe  lut  Earl  Harcourt.  in  1831-^  Theiubjecl 
William.  Jid  and   tiB   Earl  HaiTouR    (1743-18^).   whs  auc- 


lindcariin  1749, 


iBdioti  and  heir  id 


1  (1714-1777).  "pil 

™,"vi2<IJ"  "^Kiciurt  liWi-1717).  All  .___ 
rimming  Harcourt  "  ol  Swilt— the  puicbastr  of  th*  N__..- 
unney  estates  ii  Oilocdshire.  aiid  umtiSu  Philip  Hamurt  of 
inton  Harcourt.  The  knights  of  Stanloii  Hareourt.  from  the 
.h  century  oawardi,  traced  their  descent  10  the  Normao  de  Har- 
iTii.  a  bnnefc  of  that  family  having  come  over  with  tbe  Conquenir ; 
1  the  pedigree  cliimi  to  go  back  to  Benurd  of  Saxony,  who  in 
<  acquiiTd  Ihe  lordihlps  of  Harcoun,  CaHleville  and  Btau6ce) 

ber  ol  ibe  i«  eul.  wu  ilad  lather  ol  Martha,  who  uniad  Gtsiga 


9+0 


o£  thb  biography  was  therefore  bom  a  Y^nion,  and  by  his 
connexion  with  the  old  families  of  Vernon  and  Harcourt  was 
rdated  to  many  of  the  great  English  houses,  a  fact  which  gave 
him  no  little  pride.  Indeed,  in  later  life  hibi  descent  from  the 
Plantagenets^  was  a  subject  of  some  banter  on  the  part  of  his 
political  exponents.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  graduating  with  first-dass  honours  in  the  classical 
tripos  in  1851.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1854,  became  a 
Q.C.  in  1866,  and  was  appointed  Whewell  professor  of  inter- 
national law,  Cambridge,  1869.  He  qmckly  made  his  mark 
in  London  society  as  a  brilliant  talker;  he  contributed  largely 
to  the  Satwiay  Review,  and  wrote  some  famous  letters  (1863) 
to  The  Times  over  the  signature  of  "  Historicus,"  in  opposition 
to  the  recognition  of  the  Southern  States  as  bdOigerents  in  the 
American  Civil  War.  He  entered  parliament  as  Liberal  member 
for  Oxford,  and  sat  from  x868  to  x88o,  when,  upon  seeking 
re-election  after  acceptance  of  office,  he  was  defeated  by  Mr  Hall. 
A  seat  was,  however,  found  for  him  at  Derby,  by  the  voluntary 
retirement  of  Mr  PlUnsoll,  and  he  continued  to  represent  that 
constituency  until  1895,  when,  having  been  defeated  at  the 
general  election,  he  found  a  seat  in  West  Monmouthshire.  He 
was  appointed  solicitor-general  and  knighted  in  1873;  and, 
although  he  had  not  shown  himself  a  very  strenumts  supporter 
of  Mr  Gladstone  during  that  statesman's  exclusion  from  power, 
he  became  secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department  on  the 
return  of  the  Liberals  to  office  in  x88o.  His  name  was  connected 
at  that  time  with  the  passing  of  the  Ground  Game  Act  (1880), 
the  Arms  (Ireland)  Act  (1881),  and  the  Explosives  Act  (1883). 
As  home  secretary  at  the  time  of  the  dynamite  outrages  he  had 
to  take  up  a  firm  attitude,  and  the  £:q>lo8ives  Act  was  passed 
through  all  its  stages  in  the  shortest  time  on  record.  Moreover, 
as  champion  of  law  and  order  against  the  attacks  of  the  Famell- 
ites,  his  vigorous  ^eches  brought  him  constantly  into  conflict 
with  the  Irish  members.  In  1884  he  introduced  an  abortive 
bill  for  unifying  the  municipal  administration  of  London.  He 
was  indeed  at  that  time  recognized  as  one  of  the  ablest  and  most 
effective  leaders  of  the  Liberal  party;  and  when,  after  a  brief 
interval  in  1885,  Mr  Gladstone  returned  to  office  in  z886,  he  was 
made  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  an  office  which  he  again  filled 
from  1892  to  1895. 

Between  x88o  and  X892  Sir  William  Harcourt  acted  as  Mr 
Gladstone's  loyal  and  indefatigable  lieutenant  in  political  life. 
A  first-rate  party  fighter,  his  services  were  of  inestimable  value; 
but  in  q>ite  of  his  great  success  as  a  platform  speaker,  he  was 
generally  felt  to  be  speaking  from  an  advocate's  brief,  and  did 
not  impress  the  country  as  possessing  much  depth  of  conviction. 
It  was  he  who  coined  the  phrase  about  "  stewing  in  Famellite 
juice,"  and,  when  the  split  came  in  the  Liberal  party  on  the 
Irish  question,  even  those  who  gave  Mr  Gladstone  and  Mr  Morley 
the  credit  of  being  convinced  Home  Rulers  could  not  be  per- 
suaded that  Sir  William  had  followed  anything  but  the  line  of 
party  expediency.  In  1894  he  introduced  and  carried  a  memor- 
able budget,  which  equalized  the  death  duties  on  real  and 
personal  property.  After  Mr  Gladstone's  retirement  in  1894 
and  Lord  Rosebery's  selection  as  prime  minister  Sir  William 
became  the  leader  of  the  Liberal  party  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
but  it  was  never  probable  that  he  would  work  comfortably  in 
the  new  conditions.  His  title  to  be  regarded  as  Mr  Gladstone's 
successor  had  been  too  lightly  ignored,  and  from  the  first  it  was 
evident  that  Lord  Rosebery's  ideas  of  Liberalism  and  of  the 
policy  of  the  Liberal  party  were  not  those  of  Sir  William  Harcourt. 
Their  differences  were  patched  up  from  time  to  time,  but  the 

Venables  Vernon,  of  Sudbury,  created  ist  Baron  Vernon  in  17621 
The  latter  was  a  descendant  of  Sir  Richard  Vernon  (d.  1451 ).  speaker 
of  the  Leicester  parliament  (1425)  and  treasurer  of  Calais,  a  member 
of  a  Norman  family  which  came  over  with  the  Conaueror. 

^  The  Plantagenet  descent  (see  The  Blood  Royal  of  Britain,  by  the 
marquis  of  Ruvigny,  1903,  for  tables)  could  be  traced  through 
Lady  Anna  Leveson  Cower  (wife  of  Archbishop  Harcourt)  to  Lady 
Frances  Stanley,  the  wife  of  the  ist  earl  of  Bridgewater  (i 579-1649), 
and  so  to  Lady  Eleanor  Brandon,  wife  of  the  earl  of  Cumberland 


HARCOURT,  W.  V. 


(1517-1570).  and  daughter  of  Mary  Tudor  (wife  of  Charles  Brandon» 

duke  of  Suffolk,  1 484-' 545) 
daughter  of  Edward  IV. 


folk.  14^4-1545).  the  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  and  grand- 


combination  cotild  not  last.  At  the  general  dectioa  o(  ^s 
it  was  dear  that  there  were  divisions  as  to  what  issue  the  libera^ 
were  fighting  for,  and  the  effect  of  Sir  William  Harcourt'$ 
abortive  Local  Veto  Bill  on  the  election  was  seen  not  only  in  hs 
defeat  at  Derby,  which  gave  the  signal  for  the  Liberal  root,  but 
in  the  set-back  it  gave  to  temperance  legialatkni.  Tbo^b 
returned  for  West  Monmouthshire  (1895,  X900),  his  ^>eefhes 
in  debate  only  occasionally  showed  his  characteristic  spirit, 
and  it  was  evident  that  for  the  hard  work  of  Oppositktn  he  no 
tonger  had  the  same  motive  as  of  old.  In  December  1898  the 
crisis  arrived,  and  with  Mr  John  Moriey  he  definitdy  retired 
from  the  counsds  of  the  party  and  resigned  his  leaikrship  (rf  th« 
Opposition,  alleging  as  his  reason,  in  letters  exchaziged  betwtrc 
Mr  Morley  and  himself,  the  orofls-currents  of  opiskm  axnoDg  his 
dd  supporters  and  former  colleagues.  The  split  excited  cc»- 
siderable  comment,  and  resulted  in  much  hcart-buniing  axid  a 
more  or  less  open  division  between  the  section  of  the  Libera] 
party  following  Lord  Rosebery  {q.v.)  and  those  who  disliked 
that  statesman's  Imperialistic  views. 

Though  now  a  private  member.  Sir  WHIiam  Harcomt  still 
continued  to  vindicate  his  opinions  in  his  independent  positioa, 
and  his  attacks  on  the  government  were  no  longer  restrained 
by  even  the  semblance  of  deference  to  Liberai'  ImpcriaHsm. 
He  actively  intervened  in  1899  and  1900,  strongly  ooodemoiag 
the  government's  financial  policy  and  their  attitude  towards  the 
Transvaal;  and  throughout  the  Boer  War  he  lost  im>  opportunity 
of  criticizing  the  South  African  devdopments  in  a  pcsamisuc 
vein*  One  of  the  readiest  parliamentary  debaters,  he  savoured 
his  speeches  with  humour  of  that  broad  and  familiar  order  which 
appeals  particularly  to  political  audiences.  In  X89S-X900  he  was 
com^icuous,  both  on  the  platform  and  in  letters  written  to  Ti» 
Times,  in  demanding  active  measures  against  the  Ritualistic 
party  in  the  Church  of  England;  but  his  attitude  on  that  subjeci 
could  not  be  dissociated  from  his  political  advocacy  of  Do- 
establishment.  In  March  X904,  just  after  he  had  announce  his 
intention  not  to  seek  election  again  to  parliament,  he  succeeded, 
by  the  death  of  his  nephew,  to  the  family  estates  at  Nuneham. 
But  he  died  suddenly  there  <»  the  xst  of  October  in  tlw  same  year. 
He  married,  first,  in  x859,-  Thir^  (d.  1863),  dau|^ter  of  Mr 
T.  H.  Lister,  by  whom  he  had  one  son,  Lewis  Venion  Harooun 
(b.  X863),  afterwards  first  commissioner  of  wodcs  both  in  Su: 
Henry  Campbell-Bannerman's  1905  ministry  (included  in  rix 
cabinet  in  1907)  and  in  Mr  Asquith's  cabinet  (1908);  and 
secondly,  in  X876,  Elizabeth,  widow  of  Mr  T.  Ives  axul  dai^i^cr 
of  Mr.  J.  L.  Motley,  the  historian,  by  whom  he  had  another  sod, 
Robert  (b.  X878). 

Sir  William  Harcourt  was  one  of  the  great  paHiamentar?- 
figures  of  the  Gladstonian  Liberal  period.  He  was  essenti^y 
an  aristocratic  type  of  late  X9th  century  Whig,  with  a  remarkable 
capacity  for  popular  campaign  fighting.  He  had  been,  and 
remained,  a  brilliant  journalist  in  the  non-professional  sense. 
He  was  one  of  those  who  really  made  the  Sctwtday  Renew  in  its 
palmy  days,  and  in  the  period  of  his  own  most  ebullient  vigcor, 
while  Mr  Gladstone  was  alive,  his  sense  of  political  expesd^encf 
and  platform  effectiveness  in  controversy  was  very  acute.  Bui 
though  he  played  the  game  of  public  life  with  keen  zest,  he  never 
really  toudied  either  the  country  or  his  own  party  with  the 
faith  which  creates  a  personal  following,  and  in  later  years  he 
found  himself  somewhat  isolated  and  disappointed,  tlMugh  b.e 
was  free  to  express  his  deeper  dejections  to  the  new  devcl'>p- 
ments  in  church  and  state.  A  tidl,  fine  man,  with  the  grir.i 
manner,  he  was,  throughout  a  bng  career,  a  great  personaL'.y 
in  the  life  of  his  time.  (H.  Cr.) 

HARCOURT,  WILUAM  VERNON  (1789-1871),  founder  of 
the  British  Association,  was  bom  at  Sudbury,  I>erbyshire,  in 
1789,  a  younger  son  of  Edward  Venon  [Harcourt],  arcfabish^ 
of  York  (see  above).  Having  served  for  five  jreaxs  In  the  navy 
he  went  up  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  with  a  view  to  taking 
holy  orders.  He  began  his  clerical  duties  at  Bisbopthoipe, 
Yorkshire,  in  x8xi,  and  having  developed  a  great  interest  in 
science  while  at  the  university,  he  to(A  an  active  part  in  the 
foundation  of  the  Yorkshire  Philosoplucal  Society,  of  which  be 


HARDANGER  FJORD— HARDENBERG 


9+1 


wtH  the  fixst  president.  The  laws  and  the  plan  of  proceedings 
for  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
were  drawn  up  by  him;  and  Harcourt  was  elected  president  in 
1 839.  In  X  824  he  became  canon  of  York  and  rector  of  Whddrake 
in  Yorkshire,  and  in  1837  rector  oi  Bolton  Percy;  The  Yorkshire* 
school  for  the  bHnd  and  the  Castle  Howard  reformatory  both 
owe  thdr  existence  to  his  energies.  His  q>are  time  until  quite 
late  in  life  was  occupied  with  scientific  experiments.  Inheriting 
the  Harcourt  estates  in  Oxfordshire  from  his  brother  in  1861, 
he  removed  to  Nuneham,  where  he  died  in  April  1871. . 

HAROANOER  FJORD,  an  inlet  on  the  west  coast  of  Norway, 
penetrating  the  mainland  for  70  pi.  apart  from  the  deep  fringe 
of  islands  off  its  mouth,  the  total  distance  from  the  open  sea  to 
the  head  of  the  fjord  being  1x4  m.  Its  extreme  depth  is  about 
350  fathoms.  The  entrance  at  Tor5  is  50  m.  by  water  south  of 
Bergen,  60*  N.,  and  the  general  direction  is  N.E.  from  that  point. 
The  fjord  is  flanked  by  magnificent  xnountains,  from  which 
many  waterfalls  pour  into  it.  The  main  fjord  is  divided  into 
parts  under  different  names,  and  there  are  many  fine  branch 
fjords.  The  fjord  is  frequented  by  tourists,  and  the  principal 
St  ations  have  hotels.  The  outer  fjord  is  called  the  Kvindherreds- 
fjord,  flanked  by  the  Melderskin  (4680  ft.);  then  follow  Silde- 
f  jord  and  Bonde  Sund,  separated  by  Varalds  island.  Here 
Mauranger-fjord  opens  on  the  east;  from  Sundal  on  this  inlet  the 
great  Folgefond  snowfield  may  be  crossed,  and  a  fine  glader 
(Bondhusbrae)  visited.  Bakke  and  Vikingnaes  are  stations  on 
Hisfjord,  Nordhdmsund  and  OstensB  on  Ytre  Samlen,  which 
throws  off  a  fine  narrow  branch  northward,  the  Fiksensund. 
There  follow  Indre  Samlen  and  Utnef jord,  with  the  station  of 
Utne  opposite  Oxen  (4x20  ft.),  and  its  northward  branch, 
Gravenfjord,  with  -the  beautiftU  station  of  Eide  at  its  head, 
whence  a  road  runs  north-west  to  Voasevangen.  From  the  Utne 
terminal  branches  of  the  fjord  run  south  and  east;  the  SOrfjord, 
steeply  walled  by  the  heights  of  the  Folgefond,  with  the  fre- 
quented resort  of  Odde  at  its  head;  and  the  Eidfjord,  with  its 
branch  Osefjord,  terminating  beneath,  a  tremendous  rampart 
of  mountains,  through  which  the  sombre  Simodal  penetrates,' 
the  river  flowing  from  Daenunevand,  a  beautiful  lake  among 
the  fields,  and  forming  with  its  tributaries  the  fine  falls  of 
Skyk je  and  RembcsdaL  Vik  is  the  prindpal  station  on  Eidfjord, 
and  Ulv^  on  a  branch  of  the  Ose,  with  a  road  to  Vossevangen. 
At  Vik  is  the  mouth  of  the  Bjdreia  river,  which,  in  forming  the 
VOringfos,  plunges  530  ft.  into  a  magnificent  rock-bound  basin. 
A  small  stream  entering  Sdrfjord  forms  in  its  upper  course  the 
Skjaeggedalsfos,  of  equal  height  with  the  VSringfos,  and  hardly 
less  beautiful.  The  natives  of  Hardanger  have  an  especially 
picturesque  local  costume. 

HAROBB,  WILLIAM  J06BPH  (x8xs-x873).  American  soldier, 
was  bom  in  Savannah,  Georgia,  on  the  xoth  of  November  x8xs 
and  graduated  from  West  Point  in  X838.  As  a  subaltern  of 
cavahy  he  was  employed  on  a  special  mission  to  Europe  to 
study  the  cavalry  methods  in  vogue  (1839).  He  was  promoted 
captain  in  X844  <ind  served  under  Generals  Taybr  and  Scott  in 
the  Mexican  War,  winning  the  brevet  of  major  for  gaOantxy  in 
action  in  March  1847  and  subsequently  that  of  lieut.-colonel. 
After  the  war  he  served  as  a  substantive  major  under  Colond 
Sidney  Johnston  and  lieut.  Colond  Robert  Lee  in  the  and 
U.S.  cavalry,  and  for  some  time  before  1856  he  was  engaged  in 
compiling  the  official  manual  of  infantry  drill  and  tactics  which, 
familiariy  called  "  Hardee's  Tactics,"  afterwards  formed  the 
text-book  for  the  infantry  arm  in  both  the  Federal  and  the 
Confederate  armies.  From  X856  to  x86x  he  was  commandant 
of  West  Point,  resigning  his  commission  on  the  secession  of  his 
state  in  the  latter  year.  Entering  the  Confederate  service  as 
a  colonel,  he  was  shortly  promoted  brigadier-general.  He 
distinguished  hirosdf  very  greatly  by  his  tactical  leadership  on 
the  field  of  Shiloh,  and  was  imme<Oatdy  promoted  majof-general. 
As  a  corps  commander  he  fought  under  General  Bragg  at  Perry- 
ville  and  Stone  River,  and  for  his  distinguished  services  in  these 
battles  was  promoted  lieutenant-general.  He  served  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  campaign  of  1863  under  Bragg  and  in  that  of  1864 
under  J.  E.  Johnston.    When  the  latter  officer  was  superseded 


by  Hood,  Hardee  was  relieved  at  his  own  request,  and  for  the 
remainder  of  the  war  he  served  in  the  Carolinas.  When  the  Civil 
War  came,  to  an  end  in  X865  he  retired  to  his  plantation  near 
Selma,  Alabama.  He  died  at  Wytheville,  Virginia,  on  the  6th 
of  November  1873. 

HAROBNBERG.  RABL  AUGUST  VOM,  Punce  (x7so-x83s), 
Prussian  statesman,  was  bom  at  Essenroda  in  Hanover  on  the 
3xst  of  May  X75a  After  studying  at  Leipzig  and  Gdttingen 
he  entered  the  Hanoverian  dvU  service  in  1770  as  coundllor 
(rf  the  board  of  domaiiu  {Kommerrat);  but,  finding  his  advance- 
ment slow,  he  set  out— on  the  advice  o(  King  G«>rge  UI. — on 
a  course  of  traveb,  spending  some  time  at  Wetxlar,  Regensburg 
(where  he  studied  the  mechanism  of  the  Imperial  govemment), 
Vienna  and  Berlin.  He  also  visited  France,  Holland  and  England, 
where  he  was  kindly  recdved  by  the  king.  On  his  return  he 
married,  by  his  father's  desire,  the  countess  Reventlow.  In 
1778  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  privy  councillor  and  created  a 
couikt.  He  now  again  went  to  England,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining 
the  post  of  Hanoverian  envoy  in  London;  but,  his  wife  becoming 
entangled  in  an  amour  with  the  prince  of  Wales,  so  great,  a 
scandal  was  created  that  he  was  forced  to  leave  the  Hanoverian 
service.  In  1782  he  entered  that  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick, 
and  as  preddent  of  the  board  of  domains  displayed  a  zeal  for 
reform,  in  the  manner  approved  by  the  enlightened  despots 
of  the  century,  that  rendered  him  very  unpoptdar  with  the 
orthodox  dergy  and  the  conservative  estates.  In  Brunswick, 
too,  his  podtion  was  in  the  end  made  untenable  by  the  conduct 
of  his  wife,  whom  he  now  divorced;  he  himself,  shortly  after- 
wards, marrying  a  divorced  woman.  Fortunately  for  him,  this 
coindded  ^th  the  lapsing  of  the  prindpalities  of  Ansbach  and 
Bayreuth  to  Prussia,  owing  to  the  resignation  of  the  last  margrave, 
Charles  Alexander,  in  X79X.  Hardenberg,  who  happened  to  be 
in  Berlin  at  the  time,  was  on  the  reconunendation  of  Herzberg 
ai^inted  administrator  of  the  prindpalities  (1793).  The 
position,  owing  to  the  singular  overlapping  of  territorial  claims 
in  the  old  Empire,  was  one  of  a>ndderable  delicacy,  and  Harden- 
berg filled  it  with  great  skill,  doing  much  to  rdorm  traditional 
anomalies  and  to  devdop  the  country,  and  at  the  same  time 
labouring  to  expand  the  influence  of  Prussia  in  South  Germany. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary  wars  his  diplomatic 
ability  led  to  his  appointment  as  Prussian  envoy,  with  a  roving 
commisHon  to  visit  the  Rhenish  courts  and  win  them  over  to 
Prussia's  views;  and  ultimatdy,  when  the  neceauty  for  making 
peace  with  the  French  Republic  had  been  recognized,  he  was 
appointed  to  succeed  Count  Goltz  as  Prussian  plenipotentiary 
at  Basd  (February  a8, 1795),  where  he  signed  the  treaty  of  peace. 

In  X797,  on  the  accession  of  King  Frederick  William  III., 
Hardenbens  was  summoned  to  Berlin,  where  he  recdved  an 
important  position  in  the  cabinet  and  was  appointed  chid  of 
the  departments  of  Magdeburg  and  Halberstadt,  for  Westphalia, 
and  for  the  prindpality  of  Neuch&teL  In  X793  Hardenlx^  had 
struck  up  a  friendship  with  Count  Haugwitz,  the  influential 
minister  for  foreign  affairs,  and  when  in  1803  the  latter  went 
away  on  leave  (August-October)  he  appointed  Hardenberg  his 
locum  Unent,  It  was  a  critical  period.  Napoleon  had  just 
occupied  Hanover,  and  Haugwitz  bad  urged  upon  the  king  the 
necesdty  for  strong  measures  and  the  expediency  of  a  Russian 
alliance.  During  his  absence,  however,  the  king's  irresolution 
continued;  he  dung  to  the  policy  of  neutrality  which  had  so 
far  seemed  to  have  served  Prussia  to  well;  and  Hardenberg 
contented  himself  with  adapting  himself  to  the  royal  will  By 
the  time  Haugwiu  returned,  the  unyidding  attitude  of  Napoleon 
had  caused  Um  king  to  make  advances  to  Russia;  but  the  mutual 
dedarations  of  the  3rd  and  asth  of  May  X804  only  pledged  the 
two  powers  to  take  up  arms  in  the  event  of  a  French  attack  upon 
Prussia  or  of  further  aggressions  in  North  Germany.  Finally, 
Haugwiu,  unable  to  persuade  the  cabinet  to  a  more  vigorous 
policy,  resigned,  and  on  the  X4th  of  April  X804  Hardenberg 
succeeded  Um  as  foreign  minister. 

If  there  was  to  be  war,  Hardenberg  would  have  prderred  the 
French  alliance,  which  was  the  price  Napoleon  demanded  for  the 
cession  of  Hanover  to  Prussia;  for  the  Eastern  powen  would 


9+2 


HARDERWYK— HARDING,  C. 


scarody  have  oonotdedy  of  their  free  will,  so  great  an  augment- 
ation of  Pruauan  power.  But  he  still  hoped  to  gain  the  coveted 
prize  by  diplomacy,  backed  by  the  veiled  threat  of  an  armed 
neutrality.  Then  occurred  Napoleon's  contemptuous  violation 
of  Prussian  territory  by  marching  three  French  coips  through 
Ansbach;  King  Frederick  William's  pride  overcame  his  weakness, 
and  on  the  jid  of  November  he  signed  with  the  tsar  Alexander 
the  terms  of  an  ultimatum  to  be  laid  before  the  French  emperor. 
Haugwita  was  despatched  to  Vienna  with  the  document;  but 
before  he  arrived  Uie  battle  of  Austerlita  had  been  fought,  and 
the  Prussian  plenipotentiary  had  to  make  the  best  terms  he  could 
with  the  conqueror.  Prussia,  indeed,  by  the  treaty  signed  at 
Schtobrunn  on  the  xsth  of  December  1805,  received  Hanover, 
but  in  return  for  all  her  territories  in  South  Germany.  One 
condition  of  the  arrangement  was  the  retirement  of  Hardenberg, 
whom  Napoleon  disliked.  He  was  again  foreign  minister  for  a 
few  moDtlis  after  the  crisis  of  x8o6  (April- July  1807);  but 
Napoleon's  resentment  was  imphicable,  and  one  of  Uie  conditions 
of  the  terms  granted  to  Prussia  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  was 
Hardenberg's  dismissal. 

After  the  enforced  retirement  of  Stein  In  xSxo  and  the  unsatis- 
factory interlude  of  the  feeble  Altenstein  ministry,  Hardenbeig 
was  again  summoned  to  Berlin,  this  time  as  chancellor  (June  6, 
1 810).  The  campaign  of  Jena  and  its  consequences  had  had  a 
profound  effect  upon  him;  and  in  his  mind  the  traditions  of  the 
old  diplomacy  had  given  place  to  the  new  sentiment  of  nationality 
characteristic  of  the  coming  age,  which  in  him  found  expression 
in  a  psssionate  desire  to  restore  the  position  of  Prunia  and 
crush  her  oppressors.  During  his  retirement  at  Riga  he  had 
woriied  out  an  elaborate  plan  for  reconstructing  the  monarchy 
on  Liberal  lines;  and  when  he  canie  into  power,  though  the 
drcufflstances  of  the  time  did  not  admit  of  his  pursuing  an 
independent  foreign  policy,  he  steadily  prepared  for  the  struggle 
with  France  by  carrying  out  Stein's  far-reaching  schemes  of 
aodal  and  political  reorganization.  The  military  system  was 
completely  reformed,  serfdom  was  abolished,  municipal  institu- 
tions were  fostered,  the  dvil  service  was  thrown  open  to  all 
classes,  and  great  attention  was  devoted  to  the  educational  needs 
of  every  section  of  the  community. 

When  at  last  the  time  came  to  put  these  reforms  to  the  test, 
after  the  Moscow  campaign  of  x8xa,  it  was  Hardenberg  who, 
supported  by  the  influence  of  the  noble  Qaetn  Louise,  determined 
Frederick  William  to  take  advantage  of  C}eneral  Yorck's  loyal 
disloyalty  and  declare  against  France.  He  was  rightly  regarded 
by  German  patriots  as  the  statesman  who  had  done  most  to 
encourage  the  spirit  of  national  independence;  and  inmiediately 
«fter  he  had  signed  the  first  peace  of  Paris  he  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  prince  (Jime  3,  x8x4)  in  recognition  of  the  part  he  had 
played  in  the  War  of  liberation. 

Hardenberg  now  had  an  assured  position  in  that  dose 
corporation  of  sovereigns  and  statesmen  by  whom  Europe,  during 
the  next  few  years,  was  to  be  governed.  He  accompanied  the 
allied  sovereigns  to  England,  and  at  the  congress  of  Vienna 
(1814-181 5)  was  the  chief  plenipotentiary  of  Prussia.  But  from 
this  time  the  zenith  of  his  influence,  if  not  of  his  fame,  was  passed. 
In  diplomacy  he  was  no  match  for  Mettemich,  whose  inJQuence 
soon  overshaidowed  his  own  in  the  ooimdlsof  Europe, of  Germany, 
and  ultimately  even  of  Prussia  itself.  At  Vienna,  in  spite  of  the 
powerful  backing  of  Alexander  of  Russia,  he  failed  to  secure  the 
annexation  of  the  whole  of  Saxony  to  Prussia;  at  Paris,  after 
Waterloo,  he  failed  to  carry  through  his  views  as  to  the  further  dis- 
memberment of  France;  he  had  weakly  allowed  Mettemich  to 
forestall  him  in  making  terms  with  the  states  of  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine,  which  secured  to  Austria  the  preponderance  in  the 
German  federal  diet;  on  the  eve  of  the  conference  of  Carlsbad 
(1819)  he  signed  a  convention  with  Mettemich,  by  which — to 
quote  the  historian  Treitschke—"  like  a  penitent  sinner,  without 
any  formal  quid  pro  quo,  the  monarchy  of  Frederick  the  Great 
yidded  to  a  foreign  power  a  voice  in  her  intemal  affairs.  "  At  the 
congresses  of  Aix-la-ChapeUe,  Troppau,  Laibach  and  Verona 
the  voice  of  Hardenberg  was  but  an  echo  of  that  of  Mettenuch. 

The  cause  lay  partly  in  the  difficult  circumstances  of  die 


loosdy-knit  Prussian  monarchy,  but  partly  in  Hankobeig^ 
character,  which,  never  ^prell  balanced,  had  deteriorated  with 
age.  He  continued  amiable,  charming  and  enUghtened  as  ever; 
but  the  excesses  which  had  been  pardonable  in  a  young  diplo- 
matist were  a  scandal  in  an  elderly  chancellor,  and  couJd  not 
but  weaken  his  influence  with  so  pious  a  LoMUsvaUr  as  Frederick 
William  III.  To  overcome  the  king's  terror  of  Liberal  experi- 
ments would  have  needed  all  the  powers  of  an  adviser  at  onoe 
wise  and  in  character  wholly  trustworthy.  Hardenbeig  was 
wise  enough;  he  saw  the  necessity  for  constitutional  xef<»ra; 
but  he  dung  with  almost  senile  tenadty  to  the  sweets  of  oftice, 
and  when  the  tide  turned  strongly  against  Ltberalnaa  he  aUowed 
himself  to  drift  with  it.  In  the  privacy  of  royal  commissions 
he  continued  to  elaborate  schemes  for  constitutions  that  never 
saw  the  light;  but  Germany,  disillusioned,  saw  only  the  faithful 
henchman  of  Mettemich,  an  accomplice  in  the  policy  d  the 
Carlsbad  Decrees  and  the  Troppau  ProtocoL  Be  died,  soon 
after  the  dosing  of  the  congress  of  Verona,  at  Genoa,  on  the 
a6th  of  November  xSaa. 

See  L.  V.  Ranke,  DtnkwQrdigheitem  des  Stat^skamden  FOnlen  sm 
Hardenberi  (5  vol%,  Ldpsig,  X877);  J.  R.  Scdey,  Tht  I^fe  amd  Times 
of  Stein  (3  vols.,  Carafbiridge,  1878);  £.  Meier,  lUform  dtr  Venc^ 
tungdorganisatum  unter  Stei*  und  Hardenbert  (ib^  x88i);  Chr. 
Meyer,  Hardenberi  *^^  '"'m  yenoalhmgder  FintentOimter  Ansbatk 
una  Bayreuih  (Breslau,  1892);  Koaer,  Die  Neuorduumg  des  prtus- 
siscken  Arckivviesens  dunk  den  Staattka/uUr  Firslen  «.  Sar^t^erg 
(Leipzig,  1904). 

HARDERWYK.  a  seaport  in  the  province  of  Gddcriand, 
Holland,  on  the  shores  of  the  Zuider  Zee,  17  m.  by  rail  UJSJL 
of  Amersfoort.  Pop.  (X900)  7425.  It  is  a  quaint  old  tovn, 
approached  by  a  fine  avenue  of  trees,  and  standing  in  the  midst 
of  a  patch  of  fertile  ground.  Harderwyk  is  chiefly  important  as 
being  the  depot  for  recruits  for  the  Dutch  a^nial  army.  It 
contains  a  small  fort  and  large  barracks.  The  prindpal  boildings 
are  the  town  hall,  with  some  andent  furniture,  a  lax^e  15th 
century  church  with  a  notable  square  tower,  a  munldpal  orphan- 
sge,  and  the  Nassau-Vduwe  gymnasium.  Agriculture,  fitting, 
and  a  few  domestic  industries  form  the  only  employment  ol  the 
inhabitants.  As  a  seaport  its  trade  is  now  confined  exdusi\*dy 
to  the  Zuider  Zee. 

HAROICANUTB  [more  correctly  HASDAonrr]  (c.  xot9-i042), 
son  of  Canute,  king  of  England,  by  his  wife  ^Uf^u  or  Emma, 
was  bom  about  X0X9.  In  the  contest  for  the  FngH**«  crown 
whidi  followed  the  death  of  Canute  in  1035  the  daims  of  Hardi- 
canute  .were  supported  by  Emma  and  her  ally,  Godwine,  eari  of 
the  West  Saxons,  in  of^Msition  to  those  of  Harold,  Canute's 
illegitimate  son,  who  was  backed  by  the  Mercian  earl  Leofrie 
and  the  chief  men  of  the  north.  At  a  meeting  of  the  witan  at 
Oxford  a  compromise  was  ultimatdy  arranged  by  which  Hardd 
was  temporarily  dected  regent  of  all  England,  pending  the  final 
settlement  of  the  question  on  the  retum  of  Hardicanate  from 
Denmark.  The  compromise  was  strongly  opposed  by  Godwixse 
and  Emma,  who  for  a  time  fordbly  hdd  Wessex  in  HardScanutc'i 
behalf.  But  Harold's  party  rapidly  increased;  and  early  in 
X037  he  was  definitely  dected  king.  Emma  was  driven  out  and 
took  refuge  at  Bruges.  In  xo39'Haxdicanute  joined  her,  and 
together  they  concerted  an  attack  on  England.  But  next  yor 
Harold  died;  and  Hardicanute  peacefully  succeeded.  His  short 
reign  was  marked  by  great  oppressi<»  and  crudty.  He  caoaed 
the  dead  body  of  Harold  to  be  dug  up  and  thrown  into  a  fen; 
he  exacted  so  heavy  a  gdd  for  the  support  of  his  foreign  fleet 
that  great  discontent  was  created  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 
in  Worcestershire  a  general  uprising  took  place  against  those 
sent  to  collect  the  tax,  whereupon  he  buTx>ed  the  dty  of 
Worcester  to  the  ground  and  devastated  the  sarroonding 
coimtry;  In  X04X  he  permitted  Edwulf,  earl  of  Northumbria, 
to  be  treacherously  murdered  after  having  granted  him  a  safe- 
conduct.  While  "  he  stood  at  his  drink  "  at  the  marriage  feast 
of  one  of  his  flegns  he  was  suddenly  seized  with  a  fit,  fron  which 
he  died  a  few  days  afterwards  on  the  8th  of  June  1042. 

HARDING,  CHESTER  (x79»-x866),  American  portrait  painter, 
was  bom  at  Conway,  Massachusetts,  on  the  xst  of  September 
z  79s.    Brought  up  in  the  wilderness  of  New  York  sute,  Bardiiag, 


HARDING,  J.  D.— HARDOUIN 


9+3 


as  a  lad  of  splendid  physique,  standing  over  6  ft.  3  in.,  marched 
as  a  drummer  with  the  militia  to  the  St  Lawrence  in  1813.  He 
became  subsequently  chairmaker,  peddler,  inn-keeper,  and 
house-painter,  painting  signs  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  eventually 
going  on  the  road,  self-taught,  as  an  itinerant  portrait  painter. 
He  made  enough  money  to  take  him  to  the  schools  at  the  Phil- 
adelphia Academy  of  Design,  and  he  soon  became  proficient 
enough  to  gain  a  competency,  so  that  later  be  went  to  England 
and  set  up  a  studio  in  London.  There  he  met  with  great  success, 
painting  royalty,  and  the  nobility,  and,  despite  the  lacklngs  of 
an  early  education  and  social  experience,  he  became.a  favoorite 
in  all  circles.  Returning  to  the  United  States,  he  settled  in 
Boston  and  painted  portraits  of  many  of  the  prominent  men 
and  women  of  his  time.    He  died  on  the  ist  of  April  x866. 

HARDING,  JAMBS  DUFFIELD  (1798-1863),  English  land- 
scape painter,  was  the  son  of  an  artist,  and  took  to  the  same 
vocation  at  an  early  age,  although  he  had  originally  been  destined 
for  the  law.  He  was  in  the  main  a  water-colour  painter  and  a 
lithographer,  but  he  produced  various  oil-paintings  both  at 
the  beginning  and  towards  the  end  of  his  career.  He  frequently 
contributed  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Water-Colour  Society,  of 
which  he  became  an  associate  in  xSaz,  and  a  full  member  in  z8as. 
He  was  also  very  largely  engaged  in  teaching,  and  published 
several  books  developing  his  views  of  art — ^amongst  others. 
The  Tourist  in  Italy  (1831);  The  Tourist  in  France  (1834);  The 
Park  and  the  Forest  (1841);  The  Princi^  and  the  Practice  of 
Art  (1845) ;  Elementary  Art  (1846) ;  Scotland  Ddineated  in  a  Series 
of  Views  (1847);  Lessons  on  Art  (1849).  He  died  at  Barnes  on 
the  4th  of  December  1863.  Harding  was  noted  for  facility, 
sureness  of  hand,  nicety  of  touch,  and  the  various  qualities 
which  go  to  make  up  an  elegant,  highly  trained,  and  accomplished 
sketcher  from  nature,  and  composer  of  picturesque  landscape 
material;  he  was  particularly  skilful  in  the  treatment  of  foliage. 

HARDINOB,  HENRY  HAROINOB,  Viscount  (1785-1856), 
British  field  marshal  and  governor-general  of  India,  was  bom 
at  Wrotham  in  Kent  on  the  30th  of  March  1785.  After  being 
at  Eton,  he  entered  the  army  in  1799  as  an  ensign  in  the  Queen's 
Rangers,  a  corps  then  stationed  in  Upper  Canada.  His  first 
active  service  was  at  the  battle  of  Vimiera,  where  he  was 
wounded;  and  at  Corunna  he  was  by  the  side  of  Sir  John  Moore 
when  he  received  his  death-wound.  Subsequently  he  received 
an  appointment  as  deputy-quartermaster-general  in  the  Portu- 
guese army  from  Marshal  Beresford,  and  was  present  at  nearly 
all  the  battles  of  the  Peninsular  War,  being  wounded  again  at 
Vittoria.  At  Albuera  he  saved  the  day  for  the  British  by  taking 
the  responsibility  at  a  critical  moment  of  strongly  urging  General 
Cole's  division  to  advance.  When  peace  was  again  broken  in 
18 1 5  by  Napoleon's  escape  from  Elba,  Hardinge  hastened  into 
active  service,  and  was  appointed  to  the  important  post  of 
commissioner  at  the  Prussian  headquarters.  In  this  capacity 
he  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Ligny  on  the  i6th  of  June  ^815, 
where  he  lost  his  left  hand  by  a  shot,  and  thus  was  not  present 
at  Waterloo,  fought  two  days  later.  For  the  loss  of  his  hand  he 
received  a  pension  of  £300;  he  had  already  been  made  a  K.C.B., 
and  Wellington  presented  him  with  a  sword  that  had  belonged 
to  Napoleon.  In  1820  and  i8a6  Sir  Henry  Hardinge  was  returned 
toparh'ament  as  member  for  Durham;  and  in  1828  he  accepted 
the  office  of  secretary  at  war  in  Wellington's  ministry,  a  post 
which  he  also  filled  in  Peel's  cabinet  in  1841-1844.  In  2830  and 
1834-1835  he  was  chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  In  1844  he 
succeeded  Lord  Ellenborough  as  governor-general  of  India. 
During  his  term  of  office  the  first  Sikh  War  broke  out;  and 
Hardinge,  waiving  bis  right  to  the  supreme  command,  magnani- 
mously offered  to  serve  as  second  in  command  under  Sir  Hugh 
Gough;  but  disagreeing  with  the  latter's  plan  of  campaign  at 
Ferozcshah,  be  temporarily  reasserted  his  authority  as  governor- 
general  (see  Such  Wars).  After  the  successful  termination  of 
the  campaign  at  Sobraon  he  was  created  Viscount  Hardinge  of 
Lahore  and  of  King's  Newton  in  Derbyshire,  with  a  pension  of 
£3000  for  three  lives;  while  the  East  India  Company  voted  him 
an  annuity  of  £5000,  which  be  declined  to  accept.  Hardinge's 
term  of  office  in  India  was  marked  by  many  sodal  and  educational 


reforms.  He.  returned  to  England  in  1848,  and  in  185s  succeeded 
the  duke  of  Wellington  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  British 
army.  While  in  this  position  he  had  the  home  management 
of  the  Crimean  War,  which  he  endeavoured  to  conduct  on 
Wellington's  principles — ^a  ^stem  not  altogether  suited  to-  the 
changed  mode  of  warfare.  In  1855  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  field  marshal.  Viscount  Hardinge  resigned  his  office  of 
commander-in-chief  in  July  1856,  owing  to  failing  health,  and 
died  on  the  34th  of  September  of  the  same  year  at  South  Park 
near  Tunbridge  Wells.  His  elder  son,  Charles  Stewart  (i8aa- 
1894),  who  had  been  his  private  secretary  in  India,  was  the 
and  Viscount  Hardinge;  and  the  latter's  eldest  son  succeeded 
to  the  title.  Tlie  younger  son  of  the  and  Viscount,  Charles 
Hardinge  (b.  2858),  became  a  prominent  diplomatist  (see 
Edwaso  Vn.),  and  was  appointed,  governor-general  of  India 
in  X910,  being  created  Baron-Hardinge  of  Penshurst. 

See  C.  Hardince,  Viscount  Hardinie  (Rulers  of  India  aeries.  1891); 
and  R.  S.  Rait,  Life  and  Campaigns  of  Viscount  Cough  (1903). 

HARDOI,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Lucknow 
division  of  the  United  Provinces.  The  town  is  63  m.  N.E.  of 
Lucknow  by  rail.  Pop.  (2901)  22,274.  It  has  a  wood-carving 
industry,  sdtpetre  works,  and  an  export  trade  in  grain. 

The  District  of  Harooi  has  an  area  of  9332  sq.  m.  It  is  a 
level  district  watered  by  the  Ganges,  Ramganga,  Deoha  or  Garra, 
Sukheta,  Sai,  Baita  and  Gumti — the  three  rivers  first  named 
being  navigable  by  country  boats.  Towards  the  Ganges  the 
land  is  uneven,  and  often  rises  in  hillocks  of  sand  cultivated  at 
the  base,  and  their  slopes  covered  with  lofty  mu^f  grass.  Several 
large  jkils  or  swamps  are  scattered  throughout  the  district, 
the  largest  being  that  of  Sftndi,  which  is  3  m.  long  by  from  2  to  a 
m.  broad.  These  jkils  are  largely  used  for  irrigation.  Large 
tracts  of  forest  jungle  still  exist.  Leq>ards,  black  buck,  spotted 
deer,  and  mlgai  are  common;  the  mallard,  teal,  grey  duck, 
common  goose,  and  all  kinds  of  waterfowl  abound.  In  2902 
the  population  of  the  district  was  2,092,834,  showing  a  decrease 
of  nearly  2  %  in  the  decade.  The  district  contains  a  larger  urban 
population  than  any  other  in  Oudh,  the  largest  town  being 
Shahabad,  20,036  in  2902.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Oudh  and 
Rohilkhand  railway  from  Lucknow  to  Shahjahanpur,  and  its 
branches.  The  chief  exports  are  grain,  sugar,  hides,  tobacco  and 
saltpetre. 

Tlie  first  authentic  records  of  Hardoi  are  connected  with  the 
Mussulman  colonization.  Biwan  was  occupied  by  Sayyid 
SftUr  MasftQd  in  Z028,  but  the  permanent  Moslem  occupation  did 
not  begin  till  1227.  Owing  to  the  situation  of  the  district,  Hardoi 
formed  the  scene  of  many  sanguinary  battles  between  ibe  rival 
Afghan  and  Mogid  empires.  Between  BllgrAm  and  SAndi  was 
fought  the  great  battle  between  Humlyun  and  Sher  Shfth,  in 
which  the  former  was  utterly  defeated.  Hardoi,  along  with  the 
rest  of  Oudh,  became  Briti^  territory  under  Lord  Dalhousie's 
proclamation  of  February  2856. 

HARDOUIN,  JEAN  (2646-2739),  French  classical  scholar, 
was  born  at  Quimper  in  Brittany.  Having  acquired  a  taste 
for  literature  in  his  father's  bookrshop,  he  sought  and  obtained 
about  bis  sixteenth  year  admission  into  the  order  of  the  Jesuits. 
In  Paris,  where  he  went  to  study  theology,  he  ultimately 
became  librarian  of  the  College  Louis  le  Grand  in  2683,  and  he 
died  there  on  the  3rd  of  September  2729.  His  first  published 
work  was  an  edition  of  Themistius  (2684),  which  included  no 
fewer  than  thirteen  new  orations.  On  the  advice  of  Jean  Gamier 
(2622-2681)  he  undertook  to  edit  the  Natural  History  of  Pliny 
for  the  Delphin  series,  a  task  which  he  completed  in  five  years. 
His  attention  having  been  turned  to  numismatics  as  auxiliary  to 
his  great  editorial  labours,  he  published  several  learned  works 
in  that  department,  marred,  however,  as  almost  everything  he 
did  was  marred,  by  a  determination  to  be  at  all  hazards  different 
from  other  interpreters.  It  is  sufficient  to  mention  his  Nummi 
antiqui  populorum  d  urbium  illuslrati  (1684),  Aniirrketicus  de 
nummis  aniiquis  ccloniarum  et  municipiorum  (1689),  andCkrono- 
logic  Veteris  Testamenti  ad  vulgatam  versionem  exada  et  nummis 
illustrata  (2696).  By  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  Hardouin 
was  appointed  to  supervise  the  ConcUiorum  eoUecHo  regjia  maxima 


94+ 

(x7X5)>  ^ut  he  wu  accused  of  suppressing  imporUnt  documents 
and  foisting  in  apocryphal  matter,  and  by  the  order  of  the 
parlement  of  Paris  (then  at  war  with  the  Jesuits)  the  publication 
of  the  work  was  delayed.  It  is  really  a  valuable  collection,  much 
dted  by  scholars.  Hardouin  dedared  that  aU  the  councils 
supposed  to  have  taken  place  before  the  ooundl  of  Trent  were 
fictitious.  It  is,  however,  as  the  originator  of  a  variety  of  para- 
doxical theories  that  Hardouin  is  now  best  remembered.  The 
most  remaikable,  contained  in  his  Chronalopat  ex  nmmiiis 
antiquis  restituUte  (1696)  and  ProUgomena  ad  ceruuram  veUrum 
seriptorumt  was  to  the  effect  that,  with  the  exception  of  the 
works  of  Homer,  Herodotus  and  Cicero,  the  Natural  History  of 
Pliny,  the  Georgia  of  Virgil,  and  the  Satires  and  Epistles  of 
Horace,  all  the  andent  classics  of  Greece  and  Rome  were  spurious, 
having  been  manufactured  by  monks  of  the  13th  century,  under 
the  direction  of  a  certain  Severus  Archontius.  He  denied  the 
genuineness  of  most  andent  works  of  art,  coins  and  inscriptions, 
and  declared  that  the  New  Testament  was  originally  written  in 
Latin. 

See  A.  Debacker,  BiUioihigue  des  Scritains  de  la  CompagiUe  do 
Jisus  (1853). 

HARDT,  HBRMAMN  VON  DBR  (1660-1746),  German  historian 
and  orientalist,  was  bom  at  MeUe,  in  Westphalia,  on  the  X5th 
of  November  1660.  He  studied  oriental  languages  in  Jena  and 
in  Leipzig,  and  in  1690  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  oriental 
languages  at  Hdmstedt.  He  resigned  his  position  in  1737,  but 
liv^  at  Hdmstedt  until  his  death  on  the  28th  of  February  1746. 
Among  his  numerous  writings  the  following  deserve  mention: 
Autographa  Lutkeri  aliorumgue  cdebrium  virorum,  ab  anno  15x7 
ad  annum  1546,  Reformationis  aetatom  el  kistoriam  egregU 
iUustrantia  (1690-1691);  Magnum  oeeumenicum  Conslanlietue 
concilium  (Z697-Z700)  Hdfraeae  linguae  fundamekta  (2694); 
Syriacae  linguae  fundamenta  (1694);  Blementa  Ckaidttica  {1693); 
Hisioria  litteraria  reformationis  (17x7);  Enigmata  prisd  orbis 
(1733).  Hardt  left  in  manuscript  a  hi^ryof  the  Reformation 
which  is  preserved  in  the  Hdmstedt  Juleum. 

See  F.  Lamey ,  Hermann  von  dor  Hardt  in  seinen  Brirfen  (Karlsruhe, 
1891). 

HARDT,  THE,  a  mountainous  district  of  Germany,  in  the 
Bavarian  palatinate,  forming  the  northern  end  of  the  Vosges 
range.  It  is,  in  the  main,  an  undulating  high  plateau  of  sandstone 
formation,  of  a  mean  devatlon  of  1300  ft.,  and  reaching  its 
highest  point  in  the  Donnersberg  (2254  ft.).  The  eastern  slope, 
wUch  descends  gently  towards  the  Rhine,  is  diversified  by  deep 
and  well-wooded  valleys,  such  as  those  of  the  Lauter  and  the 
Queich,  and  by  conical  hills  surmoxmted  by  the  ruins  of  frequent 
feudal  castles  and  monasteries.  Noticeable  among  these  are  the 
Madenburg  near  Eschbach,  the  Trif els .  (long  the  dungeon  of 
Richard  I.  of  England),  and  the  Maxburg  near  Neustadt.  Three- 
fifths  of  the  whole  area  is  occupied  by  forests,  prindpally  oak, 
beech  and  fir.  The  lower  eastern  slope  is  highly  ailtivated  and 
produces  excellent  wine. 

HARDWAR,  or  Husdwas,  an  andent  town  of  British  India, 
and  Hindu  place  of  pilgrimage,  in  the  Saharanpur  district  of 
the  United  Provinces,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  17  m. 
N.E.  of  Rurkl,  with  a  railway  station.  The  Ganges  canal  here 
takes  off  from  the  river.  A  branch  railway  to  Dehra  was  opened 
in  1900.  Pop.  (1901),  35,597.  The  town  is  of  great  antiquity, 
and  has  borne  many  names.  It  was  originally  known  as  Rapila 
from  the  sage  Kapila.  HsQan  Tsang,  the  Chinese  Buddhist 
pilgrim,  in  the  7th  century  visited  a  dty  which  he  calls  Mo-3ru-lo, 
the  remains  of  which  still  exist  at  Mayapur,  a  little  to  the  south 
of  the  modern  town.  Among  the  ruins  are  a  fort  and  three 
temples,  decorated  with  broken  stone  sculptures.  The  great 
objea  of  attraction  at  present  is  the  Hari-ka-charan,  or  bathing 
gluUf  with  the  adjoining  temple  of  Gangadwara.  The  charan 
or  foot-mark  of  VishnUj  imprinted  on  a  stone  let  into  the  upper 
wall  of  the  gkat,  forms  an  object  of  special  reverence.  A  great 
assemblage  of  people  takes  place  annually,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Hindu  solar  year,  when  the  sun  enters  Aries;  and  every 
twelfth  year  a  feast  of  peculiar  sanctity  occurs,  known  as  a 
KunM-mela.  The  ordinary  number  of  pilgrims  at  the  annual  fair 


HARDT— HARDWICKE,  LORD 


amounts  to  zoo,ooo,  and  at  the  Kumbh-mcla  to  300^000;  fai 
Z903  there  were  400,000  present.  Since  189s  many  sanitary 
improvements  have  been  made  for  the  ben^t  of  the  annoal 
concourse  of  pilgrims.  In  early  days  riou  and  also  outbreaks 
of  diolera  were  of  common  occurrence.  The  Haidwar  BMeting 
also  possesses  mercantile  importance,  being  one  of  the  priprtpsl 
horse-fain  in  Upper  India.  Commodities  d  aO  kxn^  Indian 
and  European,  find  a  ready  sale,  and  the  trade  in  grain  and 
food-stuffs  forms  a  lucrative  traffic 

HARDWICKE,  PHILIP  YORKE,  iST  Eau.  or  (1690-1764), 
English  lord  chancellor,  son  of  Finiip  Yorke,  an  attorney,  was 
bom  at  Dover,  on  the  xst  of  December  1690.  Throng  his 
mother,  Elisabeth,  daughter  and  co-heiress  of  Richard  Gibbon 
of  Rolvenden,  Kent,  he  was  connected  with  the  family  of  Gibbon 
the  historian.  At  the  age  of  fourteen,  after  a  not  very  thorough 
education  at  a  private  sdiool  at  Bethnal  Green,  whoe,  bowrvcr, 
he  showed  exceptional  promise,  be  entered  an  attomey'ft  ofike 
in  London.  Here  he  gave  scmie  attention  to  literatmc  and  the 
dassics  as  well  as  to  law;  but  in  the  latter  he  made  audi  progress 
that  his  employer,  Salkdd,  impressed  by  Yoice's  powers,  ctttcred 
him  at  the  Middle  Temple  in  November  1708;  and  toon  after- 
wards recommended  him  to  Lord  Chief  Justice  Parker  (after- 
wards eari  of  Macdesfield)  as  law  tutor  to  his  sons.  In  1715  be 
was  called  to  the  bar,  where  his  progresa  was,8ays  Lord  Gampbdl, 
"  more  rapid  than  that  of  any  other  debutant  in  the  annals  of 
our  profession,"  his  advancement  being  greatly  furthered  by  the 
patronage  of  Macdesfidd,  who  became  lord  chanodkr  in  17x8, 
when  Yorke  transferred  his  practice  from  the  king's  bench  to 
the  court  of  chancery,  though  he  continued  to  go  on  the  w«atem 
circuit.  In  the  following  year  he  established  hxa  lepotaiion 
as  an  equity  lawyer  in  a  case  in  which  Sir  Robert  Walpok's 
family  was  intenested,  by  an  argument  diq>laying  profound 
learning  and  research  concerning  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
chancdlor,  on  lines  which  he  afterwards  more  fully  devidoped 
in  acdebrated  letter  to  Lord  Kames  on  the  distinction  between 
law  and  equity.  Through  Macdesfidd's  influence  with  the  duke 
of  Newcastle  Yorke  entered  pariiament  in  17x9  as  mecober  for 
Lewes,  and  was  appointed  solidtor-general,  with  a  kad^tbood, 
in  1730,  although  he  was  then  a  barrister  of  cmly  four  years' 
standing.  His  conduct  of  the  prosecution  of  ChriaAopiier  Layer 
in  that  year  for  treason  as  a  Jacobite  further  raised  Sir  Philip 
Yorke's  reputation  as  a  forensic  orator;  and  in  1733,  having 
ahready  become  attorney-general,  he  passed  throngh  the  Hook 
of  Commons  the  bill  of  pains  and  penalties  against  Bidnp 
Atterbury.  He  was  excused,  on  the  ground  of  hb  pewwal 
friendship,  from  acting  for  the  crown  in  the  impeadimcnt  ef 
Macdesfidd  in  1725,  though  he  did  not  exert  himadf  to  save 
his  patron  horn  disc^ace  largdy  brought  about  by  Marrtrsfirid's 
partiality  for  Yorke  himself.  He  aoon  found  a  new  and  stiQ 
more  influential  patron  in  the  duke  of  Newcastle,  to  wham  he 
henceforth  gave  his  political  support.  He  rendered  valuable 
service  to  Walpole's  government  by  his  support  of  the  UB  kr 
prohibiting  loans  to  foreign  powers  (1730),  of  the  increase  of 
the  army  (1732)  and  of  the  excise  bill  (1733)*  In  1733  Yorke 
was  appointed  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench,  with  the 
title  of  Lord  Hardwicke,  and  was  sworn  of  the  privy  oooncfl; 
and  in  1737  he  succeeded  Talbot  as  lord  chancellor,  thus  hfoaming 
a  membo*  of  Sir  Robert  Waste's,  cabinet.  One  of  ha  first 
official  acts  was  to  deprive  the  poet  Thomson  ol  a  smaR  office 
conferred  on  him  by  Talbot. 

Hardwicke's  political  importance  was  greatly  increased  by 
his  removal  to  the  House  of  Lords,  where  the  inoompeteocy  of 
Newcastle  threw  on  the  chancellor  tlw  duty  of  defending  the 
measures  of  the  government.  He  resisted  Cartcaret'a  motioD 
to  reduce  the  army  in  1738,  and  the  resolutions  hostile  to  Spain 
over  the  affair  of  Captain  Jenkins's  ears.  But  when  Wa^xde 
bent  before  the  storm  and  declared  war  against  ^lain,  Hardwicke 
advocated  energetic  measures  for  its  conduct;  and  be  tried 
to  keep  the  peace  between  Newcastle  and  Walpolc  Tbere  is  no 
sufficient  ground  for  Horace  Walpole's  charge  that  tbe  faB  of 
Sir  Robert  was  broui^t  about  by  HardwickeH^  treachery.  No 
one  was  more  surprised  than  himself  when  he  retained  the 


HARDWICKE,  LORD 


94S 


chancellonhip  in  the  ioUowing  administiEtion,  and  he  resisted 
the  proposal  to  indemnify  witnesses  against  Walpok  in  one  of 
his  finest  speeches  in  May  1742.  He  exercised  a  leading  influence 
in  the  Wiknington  Cabinet;  and  when  Wilmington  died  in 
August  X743,  it  was  Hardwicke  who  put  forward  Henry  Pelham 
for  the  vacant  office  against  the  claims  of  Pulteney.  For  many 
years  from  this  time  he  was  the  controlling  power  in  the  govern- 
ment. During  the  king's  absences  on  the  continent  Hardwicke 
was  left  at  the  hnd  of  the  council  of  regency;  it  thus  fell  to 
him  to  concert  measures  for  dealing  with  the  Jacobite  rising 
in  X745.  He  took  tf  just  view  of  the  crisis,  and  his  policy  for 
meeting  it  was  on  the  whole  statesmanlike.  After  Culloden  he 
presided  at  the  trial  of  the  Scottish  Jacobite  peers,  his  conduct 
of  which,  >thou^  judicially  impartial,  was  neither  dignified 
nor  generous;  and  he  must  be  held  partly  reqwnsible  for  the 
unnecessary  severity  meted  out  to  the  rebels,  and  especially 
for  the  cruel,  tbou^  not  illegal,  executions  on  olMolete  attainders 
of  Charles  Raddiffe  and  (in  1753)  of  Archibald  Cameron.  He 
carried,  however,  a  great  rfeform  in  2746,  of  incalculable  benefit 
to  Scotland,  which  swept  away  the  grave  abuses  of  feudal  power 
surviving  in  thJst  country  in  Uie  form  of  private  heritable  juris- 
dictions in  the  hands  of  the  landed  gentry.  On  the  other  hand 
his  l^islation  in  1748  for  disarming  the  Highlanders  and  pro- 
hibiting the  use  of  the  tartan  in  their  dress  was  vexatious  without 
being  effective.  Hardwicke  supported  Chesterfield's  reform  of 
the  fslmdar  in  1751;  in  1753  his  bill  for  kgalixing  the  natural- 
isation <rf  Jews  in  England  had  to  be  dropped  on  account  of  the 
popular  clamour  it  exdted;  but  he  successfully  carried  a 
salutary  reform  of  the  marriage  law,  which  became  the  baus  of 
all  subsequent  legislation  on  the  sid>ject. 

On  the  death  of  Felham  in  1754  Hardwicke  obtained  for 
Newcastle  the  post  of  prime  minister,  and  for  reward  was  created 
earl  of  Hardwicke  and  Viscount  Royston;  and  when  in 
November  1756  the  weakness  of  the  ministry  and  the  threatening 
aspect  of  foreign  affairs  compelled  Newcastle  to  resign,  Hard- 
wicke retired  with  him.  He  played  an  important  and  dis- 
interested part  in  negotiating  the  coalition  between  Newcastle 
and  Pitt  in  1757,  when  he  accepted  a  seat  in  Pitt's  cabinet 
without  returning  to  the  woolsack.  After  the  accession  of 
George  III.  Hardwicke  opposed  the  ministry  of  Lord  Bute  on 
the  peace  with  France  iia  176a,  and  on  the  cider  tax  in  the 
following  year.  In  the  Wilkes  case  Hardwicke  condemned 
general  warrants,  and  also  the  doctrine  that  seditious  libels 
published  by  members  of  parliament  were  protected  by  parlia- 
mentary privilege.  He  died  in  London  on  the  6th  of  March 
1764. 

Although  for  a  lengthy  period  Hardwicke  was  an  influential 
minister,  he  was  not  a  statesman  of  the  first  rank.  On  the  other 
hand  he  was  one  of  the  greatest  judges  who  ever  sat  on  the  Englbh 
bench.  He  did  not,  indeed,  by  his  three  years'  tenure  of  the  chief- 
justiceship  of  the  king's  bench  leave  any  impress  on  the  common 
law;  but  Lord  Campbell  pronounces  him  "  the  most  consum- 
mate judge  who  ever  sat  in  the  court  of  chancery,  being  dis- 
tinguished not  only  for  his  rapid  and  satisfactory  decision  of 
the  causes  which  came  befwe  him,  but  for  the  profound  and 
enlightened  prindpks  which  he  laid  down,  and  for  perfecting 
En^ish  equity  into  a  systematic  science."  He  held  the  office 
of  lord  chancellor  longer  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  with  a 
single  exception;  and  the  same  high  authority  quoted  above 
asserts  that  as  an  equity  judge  Lord  Hardwidce's  fame  *'  has 
not  been  exceeded  by  that  of  any  man  in  andent  or  modem  times. 
His  decisions  have  been,  and  ever  will  continue  to  be,  appealed  to 
as  fixing  the  limits  and  establishing  the  {mndples  of  the  great 
juridical  system  called  Equity,  which  now  not  only  in  this 
country  and  in  our  colonies^  but  over  the  whole  extent  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  regulates  property  and  personal 
rights  more  than  the  andent  common  law."  *  Hardwicke  had 
prepared  himself  for  this  great  and  enduring  service  to  English 
jurisprudence  by  study  of  the  historical  foundations  of  the 
chancellor's  equitable  jurisdiction,  combined  with  profound 

t  Loni  Campbell,  Lims  c/  Ike  Lord  ChanceOors,  v.  43  (London, 
1846). 


insight  into  legal  prindple,  and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
Roman  dvil  law,  the  prindples  of  which  he  sdentifically  incor- 
porated into  his  administration  of  English  equity  in  the  absence 
of  precedents  bearing  on  the  causes  submitted  to  his  judgment. 
His  decisions  on  particular  points  in  diq>ute  were  based  on 
general  prindples,  which  were  ndther  so  wide  as  to  prove  in- 
applicable to  future  circumstances,  nor  too  restricted  to  serve 
as  the  foundation  for  a  coherent  and  sdentific  system.  His 
recorded  judgments— which,  as  Lord  Campbell  observes, 
"  certainly  do  come  up  to  every  idea  we  can  form  of  judicial 
excellence  "—combine  luminous  method  of  arrangement  with 
elegance  and  luddity  of  language. 

Nor  was  the  creation  of  modem  English  equity  Lord  Hard- 
wicke's  only  service  to  the  administration  of  justice.  Bora 
within  two  years  of  th«  death  of  Judge  Jeffreys  his  influence  was 
powerful  in  obliterating  the  evil  traditions  of  the  judicial  bench 
under  the  Stuart  monarchy,  and  in  establishing  the  modem 
conception  of  the  duties  and  demeanour  of  En^Ush  judges. 
While  still  at  the  bar  Lord  Chesterfidd  praised  h&  conduct  of 
crown  prosecutions  as  a  contrast  to  the  former  "  bloodhounds  of 
the  crown  ";  and  he  described  Sir  Philip  Yorke  as  "  naturally 
humane,  moderate  and  decent."  On  the  bench  he  had  complete 
control  over  his  temper;  he  was  always  urbane  and  decorous 
and  usually  dignified.  His  exerdse  of  legal  patronage  deserves 
unmixed  praise.  As  a  public  man  he  was  upright  and,  in 
comparison  with  most  of  his  contemporaries,  consistent.  His 
domestic  life  was  happy  and  virtuous.  His  chief  fault  was 
avarice,  which  perhaps  makes  it  the  more  creditable  that, 
thou|^  a  colleague  of  Wa^mle,  he  was  never  suspected  of  corrup- 
tion. But  he  had  a  keen  and  steady  eye  to  his  own  advantage, 
and  he  was  said  to  be  jealous  of  all  who  might  become  his  rivals 
for  power.  His  manners,  too,  were  arrogant.  Lord  Waldegrave 
said  of  Hardwicke  that  "  he  mifl^t  have  been  thought  a  great 
man  had  he  been  less  avaridous,  less  proud,  less  unlike  a  gentle- 
man." Although  in  his  youth  he  contributed  to  the  Spedalor 
over  the  signature  "  Philip  Homebred,"  he  seems  eariy  to  have 
abandoned  all  care  for  literature,  and  he  has  been  reproached 
by  Lord  Campbell  and  others  with  his  neglect  ol  art  and  letters. 
He  married,  on  the  i6th  of  May  1719,  Margaret,  dau|^ter  of 
Charles  Cocks  (by  his  wife  Mary,  sister  of  Lord  ChanceUor 
Somers),  and  widow  of  John  Lygon,  by  whom  he  had  five  sons 
and  two  daughters.  His  eldest  dau^tcr,  Elisabeth,  married 
Lord  Anson;  and  the  setond,  Margaret,  married  Sir  Gilbert 
Heathcote.  Three  of  his  younger  sons  attained  some  distinction. 
Charles  Yorke  (f.v.),  the  second  son,  became  like  his  father 
lord  chancellor;  the  third,  Joseph,  was  a  diplomatist,  and  was 
created  Lord  Dover;  while  James,  tlM  fifth  son,  became  bishop 
of  Ely. 

Hsjdwicke  was  succeeded  in  the  earldom  by  hb  ddcst  son, 
Pmup  YosKC  (1720-1795),  and  earl  of  Hardwicke,  bom  on  the 
19th  of  March  1720,  and  educated  at  Cambridge.  In  1741  he 
became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  With  his  brother,  Charles 
Yorke,  ht  was  one  of  the  chief  contributors  to  Atkeniam  Letters; 
ev  Ike  Epistolary  Cerrespondence  ef  on  agetU  9/  Ike  King  ef  Persia 
residing  at  Athens  during  Ike  Pdopannesian  War  (4  vols.,  London, 
X741),  a  work  that  for  many  years  had  a  considerable  vogue 
and  went  through  several  editions.  He  sat  in  the  House  of 
Commons  as  member  for  Rcigate  (1741-1747),  and  afterwards 
^for  Cambridgeshire;  and  he  kept  notes  of  the  debates  which 
were  afterwards  embodied  in  Cobbett's  Parliamentary  History, 
He  was  styled  Viscount  Royston  from  1754  till  1764,  when  he 
succeeded  to  the  earldom.  In  politics  he  supported  the  Rodung- 
ham  Whigs.  He  held  the  office  of  teller  of  the  exchequer,  and 
was  lord-lieutenant  of  Cambridgeshire  and  high  steward  of 
Cambridge  University.  He  edited  a  quantity  of  miscellaneous 
state  papers  and  correspondence,  to  be  found  in  MSS.  collections 
in  the  British  Museum.  He  died  in  London,  on  the  z6th  of  May 
1790.  He  married  Jemima  Campbell,  only  daughter  of  John, 
3rd  eariof  Breadalbanc,  and  granddaughter  and  heiress  of  Henry 
de  Grey,  duke  of  Kent,  who  became  in  her  own  right  marchioness 
de  Grey. 

In  default  of  tons,  the  title  devolved  on  his  nephew,  Pmup 


94.6 


HARDY,  A.— HARDY,  THOMAS 


YOUE  (17S7-1S34),  srdaiiol  Hudvickc,  eldest  son  o[  Chuli 
Yorkc.  lord  chuuUar,  by  bis  Gnt  wife,  Catbcrioc  Frcmu,  wL 
wasbornoDthejDIof  MayiTj/inifnsscduatedslCiuDbridK 
He  WIS  H.F.  foe  Cunbridgohin,  loLlawing  Ibe  Wbig  trwbliai 
of  his  family;  but  alter  his  Bucceuian  to  Ihc  rvildom  in  17^ 
be  supported  Pitt,  and  look  o£u  in  iSoi  as  lord  lieuteuai 
Irelmd  (igoi-i&VS),  where  he  supported  Catholic  tx 


He  1 


d  K.G.  i 


■80J,  a 


t  fellow 


Royal   Society. 

Lindsay,  jth  earl  or  sucurs,  jn  170a,  out  lert  no  son. 
He  was  succeeded  In  the  peerage  by  bis  nephew,  ( 
Pmup  YoKKE  (1799-1873),  4th  earl  of  Hardwicke. 
admiidl,  ddeit  son  of  Admiral  Sir  Joseph  Sydney  Yorit 
iSji),  who  was  second  son  of  Cbarla  Yorke,  lord  ch. 
by  his  second  wife,  Agneta  Johnson.  Chailea  Philip  • 
at  Southampton  on  the  2Eid  of  April  1799  and  was  f 
at  KaiTDW.  He  entered  the  royal  navy  in  iSiJ.  and  9 
the  North  Amerioui  ilalion  aod  in  the  Mediterranean,  a 
the  nrik  of  captain  in  iSij.  He  represented  ReigaLi 
ud  Carabiidgshire  [iS]i-iSj4]  in  the  House  of  ConnDoni; 


lord  in  waiting  by  Sii  Robert  PkI  in  1341. 


■8J4,  wi 


wilfa  tl 


k  of  r< 


I  iSjS  hr 


rlited 


'.adnjiral,  beCDi 

He  was 


vice-admiral  in  thi 

a  member  of  Lord  Derby's  cabinet  in 

and  lord  privy  seal  in  1S58.     In  1833 

of  the  1st  Lord  Ravensworth,  by  whom  ne  naa  nve  sons  ana 

tbreediughten.     Hit  eldest  son,  Cbults  PstUPYoiKE  (i^j^ 

1B97),  sth  eail  of  Hardwicke,  was  comptrDllei  of  the  household 

ot  Quceo  Victoria  (iS66-ia6S)  and  mutei  of  the  buckhounds 

1874-1880).     He  muiicd  in  1863,  Sophia  Georgiina,  ' 


I  Eail  C 


dby  hj 


mlyst 


ALBEiKt  Edwako  Phiup  Hekxv  Yoiee  (1867-1904),  6th 
ol  Hardwicke,  who,  after  holding  the  posts  of  undersecretary 
of  slate  far  India  {1909-1901)  and  tor  war  (190J-190)),  died 
unmarried  on  the  sgib  of  November  1904;  the  title  then  went 
(a  his  uncle,  Jobh  Manneis  Yobxe  (1840-1409),  7th  earl  of 
Hardwicke,  second  ion  of  Charles  Philip,  the  4th  earl,  wbo  joined 
the  royal  navy  and  served  in  the  Baltic  and  in  the  Crimea  (1854- 
i8ss).  Tbiseail  diedon  the  ijlh  of  March  1909  aod  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Us  un  Cbulei  Alexander  (b. 
TW  coMeopoeiiy  aiKboriiies  for  thi 
Haidwida  *i*  vohiDinous,  being  conui 
^^  __.. : ,._., .  _. 

HiiL  iifisr&miiru™ 
pole,  laUeri  (ed.  Iiy  P. 

1^^^'.)!!^'  L^ild'o 

(ed.  by  C.  F.  R.  Sarbi 
awlAUibrfKttsri  '" 
S  vols.,  London, 


jf  Lord  Chancellor 


.1857-1859); 


company,  which  gave  some  represcDUIioiks  ii  Pari*  in  1549 
at  the  HAtet  de  Bourgogne.  Valleran-LecDinie  occupaed  the 
same  theatre  in  1600-1603,  "^^  again  in  r6o7,  appaieDtly  for 
some  years.  In  consequence  of  dispuLes  with  the  Coofrfrie 
delaPassion,whoowned  the  privilege  of  the  tbeatre,  they  played 
eUewheie  in  Paris  and  in  the  pmviaces  for  some  years,  bui  in 
1618,  when  they  had  long  borne  the  title  ot  "  royal,"  tbry  were 
definitely  eslablished  at  the  HAtel  de  Bouigogne.  Hardy's 
numerous  dedications  never  seem  to  have  btoughl  him  riches 
or  patrons.  His  most  poweriul  friend  was  Isaac  de  Laflcmas 
(d.  1657),  one  ol  Richelieu's  most  unscrupulous  ageals,  and  he 
was  on  friendly  lernis  with  the  poet  TUopbilc,  who  addressed 
him  in  some  verses  placed  at  the  head  of  bis  TkUOt  {i6j]), 
and  Tristan  I'Heimite  had  aiimilar  admiration  for  him.  Hardy's 
plays  were  wriLten  for  the  stage,  not  to  be  read;  and  ii  was 
in  the  inLeresL  of  the  company  that  they  should  not  be  printed 
and  thus  fall  into  the  common  stock.  But  In  1613  he  puUisbcd 
Z'v  Ckasta  ti  loyaia  awvmrs  de  Tktat^xe  tt  CviiUe,  a  tragi- 
comedy in  eight  "  days  "  or  dramatic  poems;  arid  in  1614  he 
began  a  coUected  edition  ol  his  works,  U  TkUlrt  fAlnaiirt 
Hcrdy,  pariiien,  of  which  five  volumes  (1614-1618)  were 
published,  one  at  Rouen  and  the  rest  in  Paiii.  Tbeac  comprise 
eleven  tragedies:  Diim  It  lacrifaul,  SOiliat  »  Fimpittill 
tiBlU,Pa*llib:,UiUapt,  laltort  <i-AikilU.CtruLH,.  Unriam^, 
■  Iiilagy  DTI  the  history  of  Alexander,  ^Jctn^n,  n  la  mgiiaiLt 
fimimtu;  five  mythological  pieces;  thirteen  tngi-coiiiedies. 
among  them  Gisippt,  drawn  from  Boccacdo;  Pkraarit,  taken 
from  Giraldi's  Ceifl  tiidlenla  wnadla  (Paris.  1584);  Car*4iii, 
La  Ftru  da  lam,  FHisniiiu,  la  Bdlt  SafliiMmi,  4aken  from 
Spanish  subjects;  and  five  pastorals,  of  which  the  best  is  Alfklt, 
ou  la  jitstke  d'aitumr^  Haidy^i  importance  in  tbc  history  ol 
the  French  theatre  can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  Up  to  the 
end  ol  the  i6tb  cemuiy  medievat  farce  and  spectade  kept  their 
hdd  on  the  stage  in  Paris.  The  French  classical  tn^y  ol 
£ljeniie  Jodelle  and  his  (allowen  had  been  written  for  the 
learned,  and  in  1618  when  Hardy's  work  was  neariy  ov«  and 
Rotrou  was  on  the  threshold  of  hk  career,  veiy  few  lilenry 
dramas  by  any  olha  author  are  known  to  haw  been  publtdj 
represented.  Hardy  educated  the  popular  taste,  aril  made 
possible  the  dramatic  activity  of  the  i;th  century.  He  had 
abundant  practical  eipeiicnce  ol  the  stage,  and  modifed  tragedy 
accordingly,  suppretsing  chorus  and  monologue,  and  providiog 
the  action  and  variety  which  was  denied  to  Ifae  litervy  drama- 
He  was  the  father  in  France  ol  ttagi-comedy.  but  chuidI  faiity 
be  called  a  disciple  of  the  romantic  school  of  England  and  SpaiiL 
It  isimpossible  to  know  how  much  later  dramatists  wese  indebted 


\i'/!'td°bi  lSni°Holla.^, 
IrJ  fl/  iht  Fngn  of  George  III. 
on,  1BQ4);  Calahtiu:  of  Rural 
I  ami  liUaad  (ed.  V  T.  Park, 


ifeSl.     ll.,i,  .    V,>l 

lewve.  S^  also  the  earl  W.U'  '.  .  e, 
1831);  Lord  Chnnerficld.  ;...■  i:ti 
London,    ia93);RicharJi.-.l,-^.  E 

J/.™.^,"i  .,..  k'll^^l'L'Jl^X ,       . 

AdmirislmHim  nj  Henry  PtUum  (i  vols.,  London,  is^);  Lord 
dmcbell,  Lirci  of  Uit  Leid  CiaiKeUsri,  vol.  v.  ii  vott.,  Landan, 
1845);  Edward  Foss.  Tki  Jldui  ej  EaiJanf,  vols.  vii.  and  viiL 
(q  voli..  London,  iSiS-iBb^);  George  Hinis.  Lijt  <4  Lord  Chan- 
uUar  llaTdvUtt:  will  S'kcltani  Jram  kU  Cimspei^nia.  Diaria. 


JsJiH.  Lard  Somrrl, 
791I1  WiUiam  Co>e, 

-Li 


Speiikii  aTtd  JudtmtnU  (3  n 

-id  Catiintli  d/  Gtartt  III.  (4  voii..  L 
■        ■         riarla  Pkitip  Y<,ril.  by  hi 


Ih  earl  see  Charlc, 


(R.J, 


T,' 


HARDT.  ALBXAHDBB  (15697-1631),  French  dramatist,  was 
bom  in  Paris.     He  was  one  ot  the  most  fertile  of  all  dramatic 

plays,  of  which,  however,  only  Ihiny-four  are  preserved.  He 
•eems  to  have  been  connected  all  his  life  with  a  troupe  ot  actors 
headed  by  a  clever  comedian  named  Vallenn-Lecomte,  whom 
be  provided  with  plays.     Hardy  touted  the  provinces  with  this 


is  work  is  pe^KTvvd. 


ir  general  obligation  is  amply  catablhhed.    He  died  in 

i6ji. 

ources  for  Hardy's  biorraphv  are  eattetKly  Hmitrd.     The 
'      ■■:,■  hv,---,  rtirfaln  K  ihcir  Hif.  !"-  — "- 


rbur^  and  Parim  1SB3-1SB4,  s  »oli);  E, 
jandn;  Hardy,"  in  Zt^ick^fit  m^itrt. 


,S^^ 


CantriOf  C^.falbarg.  iStiV. 


HARDY,  THOMAS  (1840-  ),  English  naveBH.  was  bora 
in  Dorsetshire  on  the  and  ol  June  1S40,  His  famUy  was  one  of 
the  bianchm  of  the  Dorset  Hardys,  formerly  of  influence  in  and 
near  the  valley  of  the  Frame,  dsimiDg  dactnt  from  John  Le 
Hardy  of  Jersey  (son  of  Qcmenl  Le  Hardy,  lieutenant-fovrmor 


3f  tbat 


01488),  w 


the  Swetman,  Chads  or  Child,  and 
kindred  families,  who  before  and  after  163J  were  small  landed 
proprietors  in  Melbury  Osmond,  Dorset,  and  adjouinx  paiiahrA. 
He  was  educated  at  local  schools,  1848-1854,  and  aherwaids 
privately,  and  in  iSjfi  wu  utickd  to  Mr  John   Hk^  an 


HARDY,  SIR  T.  D- 

ccxIoUitlci]  uctaitcct  a(  Dorchotn,  In  iSjo  be  be^n  vriling 
nnt  ud  tamyi,  but  In  iSAi  «u  compelled  Id  ai^y  hinucU 

more  ilrictly  to  ■rchitecturc,  ikdching  tad  raeuuiing  naoy  otd 
Donet  chuichci  vitb  ■  vicir  lo  tbdr  mtontioii.  In  iSAi  be 
nnt  lo  LoDdon  (wbich  be  bad  £nt  visited  kt  Ihi  age  aI  dShe) 
ukI  became  asituat  to  the  liie  Sir  Anliin  Blgmfidd,  R^. 
In  lUj  be  mn  (he  nedd  of  the  Royil  Instltnte  a(  Britith 
Anhitectt  I«  u  tmty  on  Ctlaiirid  Brict  and  Tnrra-caOa 
AtdtUatw*,  uid  in  the  lune  year  won  (he  prixe  of  the  Arcbi- 
tectilnl  Aiiodatlon  for  deupi.  In  Much  1865  ha  fint  ibort 
■(My  vu  publiibed  in  Ckambrri'j  Jtmnml,  end  during 
two  Of  tbtee  yemn  be  vrole  ■  good  doJ  oE  veni,  being  k 
uacouin  wbctba  to  taJie  to  udiiteciure  01  to  liicnK 
piola^D.  In  1E67  he  Idt  London  lor  Weymouth,  ud  during 
that  and  the  fcdkiwing  yeaJ  wrote  a  "  purpose  '*  itory,  which 
in  lUi)  wu  accepted  by  Maan  Chapman  and  HalL  The 
nuDuampt  had  been  read  by  Mr  Gah^  Meredith,  who  aaked  tbe 
vriter  (o  crnU  on  tiini,  and  adviaed  him  do(  to  prin(  i(,  but  to 
(ry  iDOtfaet,  with  mote  plot.  The  mumcHpl  wai  withdrawn 
and  TC-writtcD,  but  never  publiibed.  In  1S70  Mi  Hudy  (00k 
Mr  Meredith*!  advice  (oo  li(ecaUy,  and  coaKucted  a  novel  Chat 
wu  ill  plot,  which  wai  publlihed  in  iSj  I  under  Ihe  li tie  Du^ofi 
Rtmtiia.  In  1871  appeared  UnJir Uit Granniad  Tra.t"  run] 
painting  ol  the  Dutcb  icbool,"  in  which  Mr  Hardy  hid  already 
"found  bimseU,'*  and  which  be  hai  never  lurpaaied  in  ^ 
and  delicate  peitection  of  art.  A  Pair  tf  Blvt  Eyti,  In 
tragedy  and  irony  come  into  bii  work  (cige(hei,  wu  pubbihed 
in  iS;j.  In  i8j«  Mr  Hardy  married  Emm*  Lavinia,  ■ 
of  the  Ute  T.  At<er»ll  Gi&ord  of  Plymouth.  Hit  fin 
■uccen  wu  mide  by  Fvfrfm  Uu  Uaddint  Qtemt  <  18; 

■Itribuled  by  many  to  George  Eliot.  Then  came  T>a  Bmi  tf 
ElUbala  (1876),  deKiibed.  not  inaptly,  u  "a  comedy  ic 
chapten";  Tkt  Ram  0/  iIh  Nativi  (1S7B),  (he  moiI  lomhn 
ud.  In  wme  ways,  the  molt  powertul  aad  ehiiracleriitic  oi 
Mr  Hirdy'i  novelii  Tin  Tmmptl-Uojtr  (1880);  A  Laiidiam 
(1881);  Tm  n>  d  Tbwo  (1881).  a  long  eicuraian  Id  conitniclivt 
irony;  Tkt  Mtyer  tf  Cailabridie  (tS86);  Tit  WoaHaiUrr, 
(1B87):  Wasa  Tita  (1888);  A  Cnmf  tj  NtbU  Damt)(i»tx), 
Tm  eJIUD-Urbfrnllei  (iSqi),  Mr  Hardy'i  moit  [uwui  novel; 
Lifi-i  LiuU  Irnits  (i8<m);  Jxdt  Uu  Oiuuri  {i8«s}.  hii  raou 
Ihou^Iful  ud  tcut  popuUr  book;  Tki  Wdl-BOattd.  a  reprint, 
with  tome  revirion,  at  a  alary  otigiDaily  published  in  the  ltt<a- 
IraUd  LflKfoo  Nimi  in  iSqi  (18117);  K'eiKi  Pttmi,  written 
during  the  previous  thirty  yean,  with  illustntliou  by  the 
author  (t8q8);  and  Tlu  Dyiasli  (s  parts,  1904-1006).  In  iqoq 
appeared  riwe'i  Lnuiking-itacki  atti  tiller  Vtrttl.  In  ail 
his  work  Mr  Hardy  is  concerned  with  one  thing,  seen  tinder  («g 
upecti;  not  dviliiatioa,  nor  numnen,  bu(  the  principle  o(  lite 
itielf,  Invisibly  lealized  in  huminity  u  m.  seen  visibly  In  the 
worid  a*  what  we  call  nature.  He  is  a  fatalist,  perblp*  nth«  ■ 
delermtnial,  and  he  aludia  the  wotkiDgs  ol  file  or  law  (ndini 
through  inexorable  moods  ot  humoun),  in  the  chief  vivifying 
■nd  disturbing  influence  in  life,  women.  Hit  view  of  women  is 
more  French  than  English;  it  is  tubtle,  a  little  cruel,  not  u 

as  with  Mr  Merediib,  man's  ud  woman'i  at  once.  '  He  sees 
all  Ihil  is  irresponsible  lor  good  and  evil  in  a  wODian'i  cbuicter, 
all  that  it  untnnlwortby  in  her  hninand  will,tUlhillsilluiing 
in  her  vuimbility.  He  is  her  ^ntogist,  but  always  with  a  reserve 
of  private  judgment.     Noon    ' 


likely  t< 


over  the  tepuljii 
re  liberty,  with*  franker  tr 
ices.  Judt  lU  ObKtai  a 
nlion  in  English  fiction  < 


HARDY,  SIR  T.  M. 

Tbebeuk.  I 


ig  tbe  fidds  and  «  the  roads 

ch  he  has  made  bis  own — t 
m  (o  bim,  ji 


(be  chuge  of  every  h< 

(ha(  English  coun(iy»de  wtatcl 
Dortetthiie  and  Wittthiie  "  Wei 
■ease,  thu  even  the  gpectucle  ol  mu  ud  woman  in  (beli  bUnd 
and  [Sinful  ud  abswbing  ttruf^  (of  eiistEnce.  His  knawledfe 
of  woman  confirms  him  in  1  suspension  of  }udgmenl ;  his  know- 
ledge of  nature  brings  bim  neater  to  the  unchantf  ng  ud  contaHng 
element  in  the  worid.  All  (be  entertainment  wbich  he  gett  am 
of  life  comet  to  him  from  his  contemjdadon  of  ibe  peasant,  aa 
bimtdf  a  rooted  part  of  (be  cirth,  (lanslating  the  dumbnos  of 
the  fields  Into  huraaor.  Hi*  peaunM  have  been  comptnd  with 
Shiketpeait'a;  be  has  the  Sbakapeaieaii  tente  of  their  pladd 
vegetation  by  the  side  of  hurrying  animal  Ufe,  (o  which  they  act 
the  part  of  chorus,  with  u  unrcmsdous  wisdom  in  their  dose, 
narrow  and  undistiacted  view  of  thingi.  The  order  of  mcril 
was  conferred  upon  Mr  Hardy  in  July  1910. 

See  Annie  Macdonell,  Titwtai  Bariy  (Londoa,  1S94);  Lionel  P. 
Johuon,  ThtArltfTktwazHarij  (Loadoa.  i9mJ.  (A.  5l.) 

HAHDY.  SIR  TBOMU  DUPFIIl  (1804-1878),  En^ish  anli- 
quaiy,  waa  the  (hitd  wn  ol  llajor  lliomat  Baithdomew  Price 
Hardy,  ud  beknged  lo  a  family  ievtial  meaiben  of  which  bad 
distiaguished  ihentehret  in  tkt  Britith  navy.  Bom  at  Port 
Royal  in  Jamaica  on  the  nod  of  May  1804,  he  cnssed  over  to 
England  and  in  iSig  entered  the  Record  Office  in  the  Tower  of 
London.  Trained  under  Heniy  Fetrie  (1768-1841)  he  gained  a 
sound  knowledge  of  palaeograi^y,  and  soon  began  Co  edit 
telectioDS  ol  the  public  records.  From  1S61  until  his  death  on  the 
iSth  of  June  1878  he  wu  deputy-kctpei  ol  the  Recoid  Office, 
which  Just  before  his  appcantment  hid  been  transferred  to  its 
new  London  hcadquuters  in  Chancery  Lane.  Hardy,  who  was 
knigbled  in  187J,  had  much  to  do  wiih  the  apptrintment  of  the 
Hiilorical  ManuscripU  Commission  in  iS6a. 

Sil  T.  Hardy  at 


Cnri  if  CImttri  (llu)  1  llie  onlaec  (a  HcwT  IVtrie't  Ifmr- 
■M  MiHru  BtOaiam  (tgallT  and  DmStm  rilili|iir  < 
'rnolt  H^lfft  nyitajMFf^&ml  BtiU^nd  InUmd  U  vol>„- 


11  'v  iit>n,     "  A  DacriMloa  of  the  Pllenl 

Ri  I-. -^ly  of  King  John."    He  alsu  edited 

Ih  .  '     .   nHjjf.whiehdal  alB  with  the  hmial 

Kir.^  jr^nr,:  if,i-f(,>fa/ii>  E^'mm^iu,  fatter  j^,aodr4/7>-r4f  If  i8u>, 
o>ii.ii'i[/,^  IfCivn  aad  £r.to[k  ol  the  EngUab  Inrwi  coDccmlQi  the 
durhy  at  Nonnandy;  iha  Cbtner  RoUi,  KtliM  tlurtarmm.  Ilfe- 
ll:ii  (|<J7>,  eiving  with  ihit  work  id  tccouDl  ot  tbi  Braclure  ol 
dunenicbeLibemeRDtk,  JiitiA'^tiliralcacde  Huuil  nuMUi 
nrxwM  JttaiM  (i»u);  and  the  MiAii  M<Wi  MrMtMUn. 
with  1  Cnuluinn  {iGi).  He  wiwe  A  Cualimt  if  l^rii  ClM- 
ato'i.  Jt*^', ^IMt&tml  SmI,  itttkn  f  1*.  K^BitMi  Of 

Murtittt  r^aiit'i'  Ua  BittiiyS'tir^Br 
He  (diad  WlUu  -•  ••-■- 

velh,  1840};  beeant , .,_. 

a(  XiutkaMt  (j  vsk.,  Onfoid,  ilS4}:  and 

M^nia  he  edhed  and  tmdaled  L'Sitani  daib^a 
(kiiur  fiUS-ilSo).    HewraMAOatHtBA-"-'' 
Ay-mr'j  ^«tea  [i  vols,.  lUMnd,  and  ^t 
hf^rvAfthepuaiennHTlnin  Rj?  to  ■«• 


younger  brother.  Sn  Wclum  HjiaDY  (1807-1G87),  wu 
ji  anriquary.  He  enleied  the  Record  Office  in  iSij, 
lea^uig  it  in  1S30  to  bconme  kreper  of  the  records  of  the  duchy 
of  Lanculer.  In  iSAS,  when  these  records  were  presenled'by 
Victoria  to  the  nation,  he  returned  to  the  Record  OlSce 
assisiui  keeper,  ud  in  187!  be  succeeded  his  btoiher 
lomu  as  deputy'keq>er,  resigning  In  1886.  He  died  on 
the  I7tb  of  March  1887. 

Sir  W.  Hardy  edited  jehan  de  Waurin's  Rttxtit  da  imtt»l  It 
Kiitmies  iilaria  di  la  Graml  BrtUi/Kt  (J  vols..  1U4-1891):  and  be 
■nilaCHl  and  edited  the  dvleri  eflii  Dxtky  if  Ltnailtr  (1843). 
HARDT.  SIR  TBOMAS  MASTBRMAIf,  Bart.  (1769-1830). 
British  vice-admiral,  of  the  Portisham  (DoneCthite)  faailly  <rf 
Hardy,  wu  bom  on  the  jth  of  April  1769,  and  in  17S1  bc|>a 


9+8 


HARDYNG— HARE,  J.  C. 


his  career  as  a  sailor.  He  became  lieutenant  in  1793,  and  in 
X796,  being  then  attached  to  the  **  Minerve  "  frigate,  attracted 
the  attention  of  Ndson  by  his  gallant  a>nduct.  He  continued 
to  serve  with  distinction,  and  in  1798  was  promoted  to  be  captain 
of  the  "  Vanguaid,"  Nelson's  flagship.  In  the  *'  St  George  " 
he  did  valuaUe  work  before  the  battle  of  Copenhagen  in  ztoi, 
and  his  association  with  Nelson  was  crowned  by  his  appointment 
in  1803  to  the  "  Victory  "  as  flag<aptain,  in  which  capacity  he 
was  engaged  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  in  1 805,  witnessed  Nelson's 
will,  and  was  in  doM  attendance  on  him  at  his  death.  Hardy 
was  created  a  baronet  in  1806.  He  was  then  employed  on  the 
North  American  station,  and  later  (1819),  was  made  commodore 
and  cdmmander-in-chief  on  the  South  American  station,  where 
his  able  conduct  came  prominently  into  notice.  In  1835  he 
became  rear-admiral,  and  in  December  1836  escorted  the 
eipeditionary  force  to  Lisbon.  In  1830  he  was  made  first  sea 
lord  of  the  admiralty,  being  created  G.C.B.  in  1831.  In  1834 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  Greenwich  hospital,  where  thence- 
forward he  devoted  himself  with  conspicuous  success  to  the 
charge  of  the  naval  pensioners;  in  1837  be  became  vice-admiral. 
He  (Ued  at  Greenwich  on  the  soth  of  September  1839.  In  1807 
he  had  married  Anne  Louisa  Emily,  daughter  of  Sir  George 
Cranfield  Berkeley,  under  whom  he  had  served  on  the  North 
American  station,  and  by  her  he  had  three  daughters,  the 
baronetcy  becoming  extinct. 

See  Marshall,  Royal  Naaal  Biotraphy,  U.  and  iiL;  Nicolas.  Dt- 
snatches  of  Lord  Nason;  Broedky  and  Bartelot,  Tke  Tkrm  Dorset 
Captain*  at  Trafalgar  (1906),  and  Nelson'*  Hardy,  ki*  Life,  LeUers 
am  Friend*  (1909). 

HARDTNO  or  HARDI1I0,  JOHH  (1378-1465),  English 
chronicler,  was  bom  in  the  north,  and  as  a  boy  entered  the 
service  of  Sir  Henry  Percy  (Hotspur),  with  whom  he  was  present 
at  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury  (2403).  He  then  passed  into  the 
service  of  Sir  Robert  Umfraville,  under  whom  he  was  constable 
of  Warkworth  Castle,  and  served  in  the  campaign  of  Aginoourt 
in  14x5  and  in  the  sea-fight  before  Harfleur  in  14x6.  In  X424 
he  was  on  a  diplomatic  misaion  at  Rome,  where  at  the  instance 
of  Cardinal  Beaufort  he  consulted  the  chronicle  of  Trogus 
Pompeius.  Umfraville,  who  died  in  X436,  had  made  Hardjmg 
constable  of  Kyme  in  Lincolnshire,  where  he  probably  lived  till 
his  death  about  1465.  Hardyng  was  a  man  of  antiquarian 
knowledge,  and  under  Henry  V.  was  employed  to  investigate 
the  feudal  relations  of  Scotland  to  the  English  crown.  For  this 
purpose  he  visited  Scotland,  at  much  expense  and  hardship. 
For  his  services  he  says  that  Henry  V.  promised  him  the  manor 
of  Geddington  in  Northamptonshire.  Many  years  after,  in  1439, 
he  had  a  grant  of  £10  a  year  for  similar  services.  In  1457  there 
is  a  record  of  the  delivery  of  documents  relating  to  Scotland  by 
Hardyng  to  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  and  his  reward  by  a  further 
pension  of  £ao.  It  is  dearvthat  Hardyng  was  well  acquainted 
with  Scotland,  and  James  I.  is  said  to  have  offered  him  a  bribe 
to  surrender  his  papers.  But  the  documents,  which  are  still 
preserved  in  the  Record  Office,  have  been  shown  to  be  forgeries, 
and  were  probably  manufactured  by  Hardyng  himself.  Hard jmg 
^pent  many  years  on  the  composition  of  a  rhyming  chronicle 
of  England.  His  services  under  the  Perdes  and  Umfravilles 
gave  him  opportunity  to  obtain  much  information  of  value  for 
X5th  century  history.  As  literature  the  chronicle  has  no  merit. 
It  was  written  and  rewritten  to  suit  his  various  patrons.  The 
original  edition  ending,  in  1436  had  a  Lancastrian  bias  and  was 
dedicated  to  Henry  VI.  Afterwards  he  prepared  a  version  for 
Richard,  duke  of  York  (d.  1460),  and  the  chronide  in  its  final 
form  was  presented  to  Edward  IV.  after  his  marriage  to  Eliaabeth 
Woodville  in  .1464. 

The  version  of  1 436  is  preserved  in  Lansdowne  MS.  204,  and  the  best 
of  the  later  verrions  in  Harley  MS.  661 ,  both  in  the  British  Museum. 
Richard  Grafton  printed  two  edttioni  in  January  1543,  which  differ 
much  from  one  another  and  from  the  now  extant  manuscripts. 
Stow,  who  was  acauainted  with  a  different  version,  censured  Grafton  on 
thb  point  somewhat  unjustly.  Sir  Henry  Ellis  published  the  longer 
version  of  Grafton  with  some  additioiu  from  the  Harley  MS.  in  1812. 

Sec  Ellis'  preface  to  Hardyng's  Chronide,  and  Sir  F.  Palgrave's 
Documents  ulustrating  tke  Hittory  of  Scotland  (for  an  account  of 
Hardyng's  forgeries).  (C.  L.  K.) 


HARE.  AUOUSTDI  JOHH  COIHBBin  (x834-i90!3>.  E^Uah 
writer  and  traveller,  was  bora  at  Rome  in  X834.  Hewaseducated 
at  Harrow  school  and  at  University  College,  Oxford.  His 
name  is  familiar  as  the  author  of  a  large  numl^r  of  guide-books 
to  the  prindpal  oountiia  and  towns  of  Europe,  moat  oC  whidi 
were  written  to  order  for  John  Murray.  They  were  made  op 
partly  of  the  author's  own  notes  of  travel,  partly  of  qjootatioos 
from  others'  books  taken  with  a  frankness  of  ^ipropckitkui  that 
disarmed  criticism.  He  also  wrote  MomoriaU  of  a  Qmot  Life— 
that  of  his  aunt  by  whom  he  had  been  adopted  wtox  a  baby 
(1872),  and  a  tediously  long  autobiography  in  six  volumes, 
Tka  Story  of  My  Ufa,  He  died  at  St  LeonaidsK»-Sea  on  the 
ssnd  of  January  X903. 

HARE,  SIR  JOHH  (1844-  •  ),  English  actor  and  manager, 
was  bora  in  Yockshire  on  the  x6th  of  May  X844,  and  was  educated 
at  Gig^cswick  school,  Yorkshire.  He  made  fas  first  appearance 
on  the  stage  at  Liverpool  in  1864,  coming  to  London  m  1865, 
and  acting  for  ten  3rean  with  the  Bancrof ta.  He  soon  made  hk 
mark,  particulariy  in  T.  W.  Robertson's  comedies,  and  in  1875 
became  manager  of  the  Court  theatre.  But  it  was  in  aawciatian 
with  Mr  and  Mrs  SLendal  at  the  St  James's  theatre  from  1879 
to  x888  that  he  established  his  popularity  in  London,  in  important 
"  character  "  and  "  men  of  the  world  "  parts,  the  joint  manaps 
ment  of  Hare  and  SLendal  making  this  theatre  one  of  the  <3t^ 
centres  of  the  dramatic  world  for  a  decade.  In  1889  be  became 
lessee  and  manager  of  the  Garrick  theatre,  when  (thoo^  be 
was  often  out  of  the  cast)  he  produced  several  important  plays, 
such  as  Pinero's  Tha  ProJIigaU  and  Tke  Notorious  Mrs  Ebhsaalk, 
and  had  a  remarkable  personal  success  in  the  chid  part  in 
Sydney  Grandy's  A  Pair  of  SpeOade*.  In  1897  be  took  the 
Globe  theatre,  where  his  acting  in  Pinero's  Cay  Lord  Qoox  was 
another  personal  triumph.  He  became  almost  as  wdl  known  in 
the  United  States  as  in  England,  his  last  tour  in 
in  X900  and  X901.    He  was  knitted  in  1907. 

HARE,  JUUU8  CHARLES  (i79S-x3S5),  English 
writer,  was  bora  at  Valdagno,  near  Vicensa,  in  Italy,  on  the 
X3th  of  September  1795.  He  came  to  Fjigland  with  h^  parents 
in  1799,  but  in  X804-X805  spent  a  winter  with  them  at  Weimar, 
where  he  met  Goethe  and  Schiller,  and  received  a  bias  to  German 
litentUK  which  influenced  his  style  and  sentiments  thiomjioat 
hb  whole  career.  On  the  death  of  his  mother  in  1806,  Julias 
was  sent  home  to  the  Charterhouse  in  London,  where  he  resnained 
till  x8xs,  when  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  These 
he  becaiiM  fellow  in  x8x8,  and  after  some  time  spent  abroad  he 
began  to  read  law  in  London  in  the  following  year.  From  1822 
to  X832  he  was  assistant-tutor  at  Trinity  College.  Turning  his 
attention  from  law  to  divinity.  Hare  took  priest's  onlen  in  1826; 
and,  on  the  death  of  his  unde  in  1832,  he  succeeded  to  the  rich 
family  living  of  Hurstmonceaux  in  Sussex,  where  he  accumulated 
a  library  of  some  xa,ooo  volumes,  especially  rich  in  German 
literature.  Before  taking  up  residence  in  his  parish  be  once 
more  went  abroad,  and  made  in  Rome  the  acquaintance  of  the 
Chevalier  Bunsen,  who  afterwards  dedicated  to  him  part  of  his 
work,  Hippolylus  and  kis  Age.  In  1840  Hare  was  appointed 
archdeacon  of  Lewes,  and  in  the  same  year  preached  a  course  of 
sermons  at  Cambridge  (Tke  Vidory  of  Faith),  followed  in  1846 
by.  a  second,  Tke  Mission  of  tke  Con^orler.  Neither  scsxes  when 
published  attained  any  great  popularity.  Archdeacon  Hare 
married  In  1844  Esther,  a  sister  of  his  friend  Frederick  Maurice. 
In  X85X  he  was  collated  to  a  prebend  in  Chichester;  and  in.xSsi 
he  became  one  of  Queen  Victoria's  fhaplaint.  He  died  on  the 
23rd  of  January  1855. 

Julius  Hare  belonged  to  what  has  been  called  the  **  Brand  Chuirh 
party,"  though  some  of  his  opinions  anaroadi  veiy  closely  to  those 
of  the  Evangelical  Arminian  school,  while  others  again  aeen  vague 
and  undecided.  He  was  one  of  the  fint  of  bb  covntiyiiieo  to 
recognize  and  come  under  the  influence  of  Gemaa  thought  and 
•peculation,  and,  amidst  an  examermted  alarm  of  Gcraan  heresy, 
did  much  to  vindicate  the  authority  of  the  sounder  German  criticaL 
His  writings,  which  are  chidly  theological  and  oootrovenisl,  are 
largely  fornied  of  charges  to  his  dergy,  and  sermoos  on  different 
topics;  but,  thou^  valuaMe  and  fuU  of  thought,  they  kne  soae 
of  their  force  by  the  cumbrous  German  structure  of  the  seatcnoo, 
and  by  certain  orthograi^iical  peculiarities  In  which  the  author 


HARE— HAREBELL 

r.i:  rrrcnl  E^illi  AssadaHll  (l»M 


if  John  Si 


!  of  the  wcll-knawn  English  todtnl  now 
irnpant  (iUhough  totiMrly  Wmcd,  incor- 
enM  the  Bini«  Induda  ill  Ihe 


the  Hare  <imi1y. 

HARK,  Ihe  I 

dsigiulKl  Lrpi 

■nimenius  allied  ipcdo  wmcii  ao  not  mine  unaer  ine  aoigiui  oa 
ol  nbbill  (kv  Rabbtt).  Over  Ihe  giuter  part  of  Europe,  when 
Ihe  oidiniiy  tpccis  (Ag,  i)  does  nal  occur,  ill  place  ii  taken  by 
the  dmcly  ullicd  Alpine,  or  mountain  hare  (fig.  i),  ihe  true 
L.  limidm  of  Linnarui.  and  the  type  of  the  genui  Ltfia  and  the 
family  Lctsridac  (see  Rodehtu].  The  KCODd  a  a  iraallcr  animal 
than  Ihc  first,  with  a  more  rounded  ajul  relatively  imaUcr  head 
and  Ihe  can,  hind-lcga  and  tail  ihortcr.  Id  Ireland  and  the 
uulhem  dialricta  of  Sweden  il  is  permanently  of  a  light  lulvoua 
grey  colour,  with  black  tips  to  the  can,  hut  in  more  Dorlhe  ty 
disLricla  the  fur — except  the  black  ear-tipe — changes  to  white  in 
winter,  and  slill  lanhet  north  Ihe  animal  appein  to  be  white  M 
all  seasons  of  the  year.    The  ranee  of  the  tommon  or  brown  hate 

and  central  Europe  10  the  Caucasus;  while  that  of  Ihe  blue  or 
mountain  ipeda,  likewise  inclusive  of  local  races,  teachta 
from  Ireland,  Scotland  and  Scandinavia  through  northern 
Europe  and  Asia  to  Japan  and  Kamchatka,  and  thence  to 

The  brown  bare  ii  a  nlgfat-feeding  animal,  remaining  during 
the  day  on  its  "  form,*'  at  the  slight  depression  is  called  which 
il  makes  in  the  open  fieid,  usually  among  gtau.  This  it  leaves 
al  nightfall  lo  seek  fields  of  young  wheal  and  other  cereals 
whose  lender  herbage  forma  its  favourite  food.    It  is  also  food 


ess.    On  the  Gut  a 

larm  of  danger  it  sils  erect  to 

to  Ihe  ground 

Of  Ukei  to  Bigh 

In  the  hitter  case  Its  treat 

speed,  and  the 

cunning  endeavoun  it  makes  to  outwit  ita  canine 

the  chief  altnclion 

oIcour«ng.    The  hatr  take. 

readily  to  the 

nms  well;  an  instance  having 

in  which  one  was 

observed  cioaslng  an  arm  of 

Muliu.  Ka.e 

book  was  hi.  brother  AuriMu. 

sfe-i":. 

g.;;^V'jrj. 

^B^^'■«^.°Hrdi^ 

&Tci;,;i 

was  the  author  of  Sirmxu  U  a 
«17. 

the  tea  about  a  mile  in  widlh.  Haiti  are  remarkably  prolific, 
pairing  when  tcarccly  a  year  old,  and  the  female  bringing  forth 
several  bioodi  in  the  year,  each  contisling  ol  from  Iwo  to  five 
levenu  [from  the  Ft.  liltrc),  as  the  young  are  called.  These  ate 
haiD  coveted  with  bair  and  with  the  eyes  open,  and  after  being 
suckled  for  a  maDlh  arc  able  to  kwk  after  themselves.  In  Europe 
this  species  has  seldom  bred  in  con£nement,  although  an  instance 
has  recently  been  recorded.  It  will  interbreed  with  the  blue  bare. 
Hares  (and  rabbits)  have  a  cosmopolitan  dislribulion  with  the 
exception  ol  Madagascar  and  Australasia;  and  ate  now  divided 
into  numerous  genera  and  subgenera,  menlioned  in  the  article 


.^fe^^*^ 


Hare  Ltpni  vntdtit) 


RoDiirtlA.     Reference  may  here  be  made  to  a  few  species. 

Asia  is  the  home  of  numerout  tpecics,  of  which  tlie  common 
Indian  L.  lufiauiatui  and  the  hlack-necked  bare  L  mtnaUit, 
are  inhabitanta  of  the  plains  of  India;  the  latler  taking  its  name 
from  a  black  patch  on  the  neck.  In  Assam  there  is  a  unaU 
spiny  hare  [Caprelaiiu  kiipidus),  with  the  habits  of  a  rabbit; 
and  an  allied  spedei  (JVunbgu  xiUditni  inbabils  Sumaln, 
and  a  third  { fflUo/agu  JuriBiii)  Ihe  Uu.kiu  Islandt.  The 
plateau  of  Tibet  is  very  rich  in  tpedct,  among  which  L.  hyfiMut 

Of  African  species,  Ihc  Egyptian  Maie  (L.  aiiyfUia)  h  >  mall 
animal,  with  long  can  and  pate  fur;  and  in  the  south  there  are 
the  Cape  bare  (L-  cafitntii),  the  long-eared  rock-hare  {L.  joxdJifiJ) 
and  the  diminutive  Prtiuiapts  crtuncaudatMs,  characterised 
by  ill  ihick  ted  tail. 

Korlh  Americm  is  the  home  of  numerous  harca,  some  of  which 
an  locally  known  u  "cotton-tails"  and  Dihen  as  "  jack- 
rabhiis."  The  most  noilberD  are  the  Polar  hare  (L.  nrdicu), 
the  Greenland  han  (L.  graodaiufi'iiu)  and  the  Alaska  ban 
(L.  limidui  UduMidanm),  all  allied  to  the  blue  hare.  Of  the 
others,  two,  namely  the  large  prairie-hare  l,L.  camtatrii)  and 
the  smaller  varying  han  {L.  {Pot£ilaLit^\  amtriiomu),  turn 
while  in  winter;  the  former  having  long  ears  and  the  whole  tail 
white,  whereas  in  the  latter  the  ears  an  shorter  and  the  upper 
surface  of  the  tad  is  dark.  Of  those  which  do  not  change  colour, 
Ihe  wood-bare,  grey-rabbit  or  cotton-tail,  SyMiaptj  Jltfidanui, 
is  a  Bouthem  form,  with  numerous  allied  kinds.  Distantly  alliol 
lo  the  prairie-hare  or  white-tailed  jack-rabbit,  an  several  forms 
ditlinguithed  by  having  a  more  or  Lets  distinct  black  slripc  on 
the  upper  surface  of  tlie  tail.  These  include  a  buS-bellied  spcciei 
found  in  California,  N.  Mencs  and  S.W.  Oregon  (£.  {Uacrelf 

and  Sonon  (L.  [it]  ailen'o.  the  Teian  jack-rabbit'  (L.  [tf.l 
laoKUi)  and  the  black-eared  hare  (L  [if.]  mdamttii)  of  Ibe 
Creal  Plaint,  which  diflen  Irom  the  Ihird  only  by  its  Lionel 
earn  and  richer  coloration.  In  S.  America,  the  small  tapiti 
or  BraiiUan  bare  (SyMiaitu  triuilitntii)  ii  neaily  allied  lo  the 
wood-han,  hul  hai  a  ycUewiih  brown  under  lutfice  la  the  laiL 
See  alto  CouasiHC.  <R- L.-) 

HAREBSIL  (somelima  wtongly  written  Huxbeli.),  kDown 
also  as  Ihe  blUe-bell  ol  Scotland,  and  witches'  Ihimhlci,  a 
weU'knawa  peteDnial  wild   flower,  CsK/diw/a  rttxndi/iilit,  a 


9SO 


HAREM 


Harebell  (pimpaniUa 
rotunaifolia). 


member  of  the  natural  order  Campanulaceae.    The  harebell  has 
a  very  slender  slightly  creeping  root-stock,  and  a  wiry,  erect 

stem.    The  radical  leaves,  that  is, 

those  at  the  base  of  the  stem,  to 

which  the  specific  name  rotundifolia 

refers,   have   long  stalks,   and   arc 

roundish  or  heart-shaped  with  crenate 

or  serrate  margin,  the  lower  stem 

leaves  arc  ovate  or  lanceolate,  and 

the   upper   ones   linear,   subsessile, 

acute  and  entire,  rarely  pubescent. 

The  flowers  are  slightly  drooping, 

arranged  in  a  panicle,  or  in  small 

g^^^l.  \A^k/^^H    specimens  single,  having  a  smooth 

^^HMt^  r^   le^^V     ^y^*   ^*^^   narrow   pointed   erect 

^H  W  UJ   .  \  JuV      segments,    the   corolla   bell-shaped, 

'^Uf'^w^    ^^r^     ^^^^  slightly  recurved  segments,  and 

^B  ^1^      f9         ^^^  capsule  nodding,  and  opening  by 

■      vVv      V         pores  at  the  base.     There  arc  two 

varieties: — (a)  genuina,  with  slender 
stem  leaves,  and  (6)  montana,  in  which 
the  lower  stem-leaves,  are  broader 
and  somewhat  elliptical  in  shape. 
The  plant  is  found  on  heaths  and 
pastures  throughout  Great  Britain 
and  flowers  in  late  summer  and  in 
autumn;  it  is  widely  spread  in  the 
north  temperate  zone.  The  harebell 
has  ever  been  a  great  favourite  with  poets,  and  on  account  of 
its  delicate  blue  colour  has  been  considered  as  an  emblem  of 
purity. 

HAREM,  less  frequently  Hasam  or  Hardi  (Arab  harltn-— 
commonly  but  wrongly  pronounced  hirSm —  "that  which  is 
illegal  or  prohibited  "),  the  name  generally  applied  to  that  part 
of  a  house  in  Oriental  countries  which  is  set  apart  for  the  women; 
it  is  also  used  collectively  for  the  women  themselves.  Strictly  the 
women's  quarters  are  the  harcmlik  {lik,  belonging  to),  as  opposed 
to  sdamlik. the  men's  quarters,' from  which  they  are  in  large 
houses  separated  by  the  mabein,  the  private  apartments  of  the 
hou^holder.  The  word  harem  is  strictly  applicable  to  Mahom- 
medan  households  only,  but  the  system  is  common  in  greater  or 
less  degree  to  all  Oriental  communities,  especially  where  polygamy 
is  permitted.  Other  names  for  the  women's  quarters  are  Seraglio 
(Ital.  serragliot  literally  an  enclosure,  from  Lat.  sera,  a  bar; 
wrongly  narrowed  down  to  the  sense  of  harem  through  confusion 
with  Turkish  serdi  or  sardi,  palace  or  large  building,  cf.  caravan- 
serai); Zenana  (strialy  tananOf  from  Persian  tan,  woman, 
allied  with  Gr.  ywHi),  used  specifically  of  Hindu  harems; 
Andartln  (or  Anderoon),  the  Persian  word  for  the  "  inner  part  " 
(sc.  of  a  house).  The  Indian  harem  system  is  also  commonly 
known  as  pardah  or  purdah,  literally  the  name  of  the  thick 
curtains  or  blinds  which  are  used  instead  of  doors  to  separate 
the  women's  quarters  from  the  rest  of  the  house.  A  male  doctor 
attending  a  zenana  lady  would  put  his  hand  between  the  purdah 
to  feel  her  pulse. 

The  seclusion  of  women  in  the  household  is  fundamental  to 
the  Oriental  conception  of  the  sex  relation,  and  its  origin  must, 
therefore,  be  sought  far  earlier  than  the  precepts  of  Islam  as  set 
forth  in  the  Koran,  which  merely  regulate  a  practically  universal 
Eastern  custom.^  It  is  inferred  from  the  remains  of  many  ancient 
Oriental  palaces  (Babylonian,  Persian,  &c.)  that  kings  and  wealthy 
nobles  devoted  a  special  part  of  the  palace  to  their  womankind. 
Though  in  comparatively  early  times  there  were  not  wanting 
men  who  regarded  polygamy  as  wrong  (e.g.  the  prophets  of 
Israel),  ne<rertheless  in  the  East  generally  there  has  never  been 
any  real  movement  against  the  conception  of  woman  as  a  chattel 
of  her  male  relatives.  A  man  may  have  as  many  wives  and 
concubines  as  he  can  support,  but  each  of  these  women  must  be 

*  In  Africa  also,  among  the  non-Mahommcdan  negroes  of  the  west 
coast  and  the  Bahtma  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  the  seclusion  of 
women  of  the  upper  classes  has  been  practisnl  in  states  (r.^.  Ashanti 
and  Buganda)  possessing  a  considerable  degree  of  dvilization. 


his  exclusive  property.  The  object  of  this  tnsisteiice  upon 
female  chastity  is  partly  the  maintenance  of  the  purity  ol  tbe 
family  with  special  reference  to  property,  and  partly  to  protect 
women  from  marauders,  as  was  the  case  with  the  people  of  India 
when  the  Mahommedans  invaded  the  country  and  sought  for 
women  to  fill  their  harems.  In  Mahommedan  countries  thecM^eti- 
cally  a  woman  must  veil  her  face  to  all  men  except  her  father, 
her  brother  and  her  husband;  any  violation  of  this  rule  b  still 
regarded  by  strict  Mahommedans  as  the  gravest  possible  ofTenoe, 
though  among  certain  Moslem  communities  (e.g.  in  parts  of 
Albania)  women  of  the  poorer  classes  may  a|^>ear  in  puUic 
unveiled.  If  any  other  man  make  his  way  into  a  harem  he  ntiay 
lose  his  life;  the  attempted  escape  of  a  harem  woman  is  a  capital 
offence,  the  husband  having  absolute  power  oi  life  and  de&tb, 
to  such  an  extent  that,  especially  in  the  less  dviliaed  parts  of 
the  Moslem  world,  no  one  would  think  of  questioning  a  man's 
right  to  mutilate  or  kill  a  disobedient  wife  or  concubine. 

Turkish  Harems. — A  good  deal  of  misapprehension,  doe  to 
ignorance  combined  with  strong  prejudi<x  against  the  yKhxAe 
system,  exists  in  regard  to  the  system  in  Turkey.  It  is  often 
assumed,  for  example,  that  the  sultan's  seraglio  is  typical* 
though  on  a  uniquely  large  scale,  of  all  Turkish  households,  and 
as  a  consequence  that  every  Turk  is  a  polygamist.  This  is  far 
from  being  the  case,  for  though  the  Koran  permits  four  wives, 
and  etiquette  allows  the  sultan  seven,  the  man  of  average 
possessions  is  perforce  content  with  one,  and  a  small  number  of 
female  servants.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  take  the  imperial 
seraglio  separately. 

Though  the  sultan's  household  in  modem  times  is  by  no  means 
as  numerous  as  it  used  to  be,  it  is  said  that  the  harem  of  Abdul 
Hamid  contained  about  looo  women,  all  of  whom  were  ci  slave 
origin.  This  body  of  women  form  an  elaborately  organized 
community  with  a  complete  system  of  officers,  disdi^inary  and 
administrative,  and  strict  distinctions  of  status.  The  real  ruler 
of  this  society  is  the  sultan's  mother,  the  Sultana  Validt,  who 
exercises  her  authority  through  a  female  superintendent,  the 
Kyahya  Khatun.  She  has  also  a  large  retinue  of  subordinate 
officials  {Kalfas)  ranging  downwards  from  the  Hasnadar  pusia 
("  Lady  of  the  Treasury  ")  to  the  "  Mbtress  of  the  Sherbets  " 
and  the"  Chief  Coffee  Server."  Each  of  these  officials  has  under 
her  a  number  of  pupil-slaves  (a/ai&f), whom  she  trains  to  Mcoeed 
her  if  need  be,  and  from  whom  the  service  is  recruited.  After 
the  sultana  valide  (who  frequently  enjoys  considerable  political 
power  and  is  a  mbtress  of  intrigue)  ranks  the  mother  of  the  beir- 
apparent;  she  is  called  the  Bash  Kadin  Effendi  ("  Her  excellency 
the  Chief  Lady  "),  and  also  hasseki  or  kasseky,  and  is  distin- 
guished from  the  other  three  chief  wives  who  only  bear  the  title 
Kadin  Effendi.  Next  come  the  ladies  who  have  borne  the 
younger  children  of  the  sultan,  the  Hanum  Effendis,  and  after 
them  the  so-called  Odalisks  or  Odalisques  (a.  perversion  of  adolji, 
from  odah,  chamber).  These  are  subdivided,  according  to  the 
degree  of  favour  in  which  they  stand  with  the  sultan  or  padishah, 
into  Ikbals  ("  Favourites  ")  and  Geuzdis  (literally  the  "  Eyed  " 
ones),  those  whom  the  sultan  has  favourably  noticed  in  the 
course  of  his  visits  to  the  apartments  of  his  wives  or  his  mother. 
All  the  women  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  sultan,  though  it  is 
contrary  to  etiquette  for  him  actually  to  select  recruits  for  his 
harem.  The  numbers  are  kept  up  by  his  female  relatives  and 
state  officials,  the  latter  of  whom  present  giris  annually  <»  the 
evening  before  the  15th  of  Ramadan. 

Every  odalisk  who  has  been  promoted  to  the  royal  couch 
receives  a  daira,  consisting  of  an  allowance  of  money,  a  suite  of 
apartments,  and  a  retinue,  in  proportion  to  her  status.  It  should 
be  noted  that,  since  all  the  harem  women  are  skves,  the  sultans, 
with  practically  no  exceptions,  have  never  entered  into  legal 
marriage  contracts.  Any  slave,  in  however  menial  a  poation, 
may  be  promoted  to  the  position  of  a  kadin  effendi.  Hence  all 
the  slaves  who  have  any  pretension  to  beauty  are  carefully 
trained,  from  the  time  they  enter  the  harem,  in  deportment, 
dancing,  music  and  the  arts  of  the  toilette:  they  are  instructed 
in  the  Moslem  religion  and  learn  the  daily  prayers  (Mascas); 
a  certain  number  are  specially  trained  in  reading  ami  vxUing 


HAREM 


95* 


for  secretarial  work.  Discipline  is  strict,  and  continued  dis- 
obedience leads  to  corporal  punishment  by  the  eunuchs.  All 
the  women  of  the  harem  are  absolutely  under  the  control  of  the 
sultana  valid£  (who  alone  of  the  harem  of  her  dead  husband  is 
not  sent  away  to  an  older  palace  when  her  son  succeeds),  and 
owe  her  the  most  profound  req^ct,  even  to  the  point  of  having 
to  obtain  permission  to  leave  their  own  apartments.  Her 
financial  secretary,  the  HoMnadar  Otuta,  succeeds  to  her  power 
if  she  dies.  The  sultan's  foster-mother  also  is  a  person  of  import- 
ance, and  is  known  as  the  Tata  Kadin. 

The  security  of  the  harem  is  in  the  hands  of  a  body  of  eunuchs 
both  black  and  white.  The  white  eunuchs  have  charge  of  the 
outer  gates  of  the  seraglio,  but  they  are  not  allowed  to  approach 
the  women's  apartments,  and  obtain  no  posts  of  distinction, 
their  chief,  however,  the  kapu  aghast  ("  master  of  the  gates  ") 
has  part  control  over  the  ecclesiastical  possessions,  and  even  the 
vizier  cannot  enter  the  royal  apartments  without  his  permission. 
The  black  eunuchs  have  the  right  of  entering  the  gardens  and 
chambers  of  the  harem.  Their  chief,  usually  called  the  kidar 
agkasi  {"  master  of  the  maidens  "),  though  his  true  title  is  darus 
skada  aga  ('*  chief  of  the  abode  of  feUdty  "),  is  an  official 
of  high  importance.  His  appointment  is  for  life.  If  he  is 
deprived  of  his  post  he  receives  his  freedom;  and  if  he  resigns 
of  his  own  accord  he  is  generally  sent  to  Egypt  with  a  pension 
of  loo  francs  a  day.  His  secretary  keeps  count  of  the  revenues 
of  the  mosques  built  by  the  sultans.  He  is  usually  succeeded 
by  the  second  eunuch,  who  bears  the  title  of  treasurer,  and  has 
charge  of  the  jewels,  &c. ,  of  the  women.  The  number  of  eunuchs 
is  always  a  large  one.  The  sultana  validi  and  the  sultana 
hasseki  have  each  fifty  at  their  service,  and  others  are  assigned 
to  the  kadins  and  the  favourite  odalisks. 

The  ordinary  middle-class  household  is  naturally  on  a  very 
different  scale.  The  sdanUik  is  on  the  ground  floor  with  a  separate 
entrance,  and  there  the  master  of  the  house  receives  his  male 
guests;  the  rest  of  the  ground  floor  is  occupied  by  the  kitchen 
and  perhaps  the  stables.  The  harendik  is  generally  (in  towns  at 
least)  on  the  upper  floor  fronting  on  and  sh'ghtly  overhanging 
the  street;  it  has  a  separate  entrance,  courtyard  and  garden. 
The  windows  are  guarded  by  lattices  pierced  with  circular  holes 
through  which  the  women  may  watch  without  being  seen. 
Communication  with  the  kartnUik  is  effected  by  a  locked  door, 
of  which  the  Effendi  keeps  the  key  and  also  by  a  sort  of  revolving 
cupboard  {dutap)  for  the  conveyance  of  meals.  The  furniture, 
of  the  old-fashioned  harems  at  least,  is  confined  to  divans,  rugs, 
carpets  and  mirrors.  For  heating  purposes  the  old  brass  tray 
of  charcoal  and  wood  ash  is  giving  way  to  American  stoves,  and 
there  is  a  tendency  to  import  French  furniture  and  decoration 
without  regard  to  their  suitability. 

The  presence  of  a  second  wife  is  the  exception,  and  is  generally 
attributable  to  the  absence  of  children  by  the  first  wife.  The 
expense  of  marrying  a  free  woman  leads  many  Turks  to  prefer 
a  slave  woman  who  is  much  more  hkcly  to  be  an  amenable 
partner  If  a  slave  woman  bears  a  child  she  is  often  set  free 
and  then  the  marriage  ceremony  is  gone  through. 

The  harem  system  is,  of  course,  wholly  inconsistent  with  any 
high  ideal  of  womanhood.  Certain  misapprehensions,  however, 
should  be  noticed.  The  depravity  of  the  system  and  the  vapid 
idleness  of  harem  life  are  much  exaggerated  by  observers  whose 
sympathies  are  wholly  against  the  system.  In  point  of  fact 
much  deptends  on  the  individuals.  In  many  households  there 
exists  a  very  high  degree  of  mutual  consideration  and  the 
standard  of  conduct  is  by  no  means  degraded.  Though  a  woman 
may  not  be  seen  in  the  streets  without  the  yashmak  whSch  covers 
her  face  except  for  her  eyes,  and  does  not  leave  her  house  except 
by  her  husband's  ptermission,  none  the  less  in  ordinary  households 
the  harem  ladies  frequently  drive  into  the  country  and  visit  the 
shops  and  public  baths.  Their  seclusion  has  very  considerable 
compensations,  and  legally  they  stand  on  a  far  better  basis  in 
relation  to  their  husbands  than  do  the  women  of  monogamous 
Christian  communities.  From  the  moment  when  a  woman, 
free  or  slave,  enters  into  any  kind  of  wifely  relation  with  a  man, 
the  has  a  legally  enforceable  right  against  him  both  for  her  own 


and  for  her  children's  maintenance.  She  has  absolute  control 
over  her  personal  property  whether  in  money,  slaves  or  goods; 
and,  if  divorce  is  far  easier  in  Islam  than  in  Christendom,  still 
the  marriage  settlement  must  be  of  such  amount  as  will  provide 
suitable  maintenance  in  that  event. 

On  the  other  hand,  of  course,  the  S3rstcm  is  open  to  the  gravest 
abuse,  and  in  countries  like  Persia,  Morocco  and  India,  the  life 
of  Moslem  women  and  slaves  is  often  far  different  from  that  of 
middle  class  women  of  European  Turkey,  where  law  is  strict 
and  culture  advanced.  The  early  age  at  which  girls  are  secluded, 
the  dulness  of  their  surroundings,  and  the  low  moral  standard 
which  the  system  produces  react  unfavourably  not  only 
upon  their  moral  and  intellectual  growth  but  also  upon  their 
capacity  for  motherhood  and  their  general  physique.  A  harem 
woman  is  soon  pass£e,  and  the  lot  of  a  woman  past  her  youth. 
If  she  is  divorced  or  a  widow,  is  monotonous  and  empty.  This 
is  true  especially  of  child-widows. 

Since  the  middle  of  the  iQlh  century  familiarity  with  European 
customs  and  the  direct  influence  of  European  administrators  has 
brought  about  a  certain  change  in  the  attitude  of  Orientab  to 
the  harem  system.  This  movement  is,  however,  only  in  its 
infancy,  and  the  impression  is  still  strong  that  the  time  is  not 
ripe  for  reform.  The  Oriental  women  are  in  general  so  accus- 
tomed to  their  condition  that  few  have  any  inclination  to  change 
it,  while  men  as  a  rule  are  emphatically  opposed  to  any  alteration 
of  the  system.  The  Young  Turkish  party,  the  upper  classes  in 
Egypt,  as  also  the  Babists  in  Persia,  have  to  some  extent  pro- 
gressed beyond  the  orthodox  conception  of  the  status  of  women, 
but  no  radical  reform  has  been  set  on  foot. 

In  India  various  attempts  have  been  made  by  societies, 
missionary  and  other,  as  well  as  by  private  individuals,  to 
improve  the  lot  of  the  zenana  women.  Zenana  schools  and 
hospitals  have  been  founded,  and  a  few  women  have  been 
trained  as  doctors  and  lawyers  for  the  special  purposes  of  pro- 
tecting the  women  against  their  own  ignorance  and  inertia. 
Thus  in  1905  a  Parsee  Christian  lady,  Cornelia  Soittbjee,  was 
appointed  by  the  Bengal  government  as  legal  adviser  to  the 
court  of  wards,  so  that  she  might  give  advice  to  the  widowed 
mothers  of  minors  within  the  harem  walls.  Similarly  trained 
medical  women  are  introduced  into  zenanas  and  harems  by  the 
Lady  Dufferin  Assodation  for  medical  aid  to  Indian  women. 
Gradually  native  Christian  churches  are  making  provision  for 
the  attendance  of  women  at  their  services,  though  the  sexes  are 
rigorously  kept  apart.  In  India,  as  in  Turkey,  the  introduction 
of  Western  dress  and  education  has  begun  to  create  new  ideas 
and  ambitions,  and  not  a  few  Eastern  women  have  induced 
Englbh  women  to  enter  the  harems  as  companions,  nurses 
and  governesses.  But  training  and  environment  are  extremely 
powerful,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  Mahommedan  world,  the 
supply  of  Asiatic,  European  and  even  American  girls  is  so 
steady,  that  reform  has  touched  only  the  fringe  of  the  system. 

Among  the  principal  societies  which  have  been  formed  to 
better  the  condition  of  Indian  and  Chinese  women  in  general 
with  special  reference  to  the  zenana  system  are  the  Church  of 
England  Zenana  Missionary  Society  and  the  Zenana  Bible  and 
Medical  Mission.  Much  information  as  to  the  medical,  industrial 
and  educational  work  done  by  these  societies  will  be  found  in 
their  annual  reports  and  other  publications.  Among  these  are 
J.  K.  H.  Denny's  Toward  the  Uprising;  Irene  H.  Barnes, 
Behind  the  Pardah  (1897),  an  account  of  the  former  society's 
work;  the  general  condition  of  Indian  women  is  described  in 
Mrs  Marcus  B.  Fuller's  Wrongs  of  Indian  Womanhood  (1900), 
and  Maud  Dover's  The  Englishwoman  in  India  (1909);  see 
also  article  Missions. 

Authorities. — The  literature  of  the  subject  is  very  larve,  though 
a  great  deal  of  it  is  naturally  based  on  inwflicicnt  evidence,  and 
coloured  by  Western  preposiveasions.  Among  useful  works  are  A. 
van  Sommer  and  Zwemer,  Our  Moslem  Sisters  (1907),  a  collection 
of  essays  by  authors  acquainted  with  various  parts  of  the  Mahom- 
medan world  and  strongly  opposed  to  the  whole  harem  system: 
Mrs  W  M.  Ramsay.  Everyday  Life  in  Turkey  (1897).  cc.  iv.  and  v„ 
containing  an  account  of  a  day  in  a  harem  near  Aftum-Kara-Hissar; 
cf.  e.g.  art.  "  Harem  "  in  Hughes.  Dictionary  of  Islam;  Mrs  S. 
Harvey's    Turkish   Harems   aii3    Circassian  Homes    (1871);   for 


952 

Mnhomrl'i  nviilalioru.  m  B.  Boivorth  Snulh' 

Mutor-™(i.i.Hm(i889):(otEB'|H.U«,  »«■«.. 

Iki  Undent  Erfplui'niUbii)-,iniE.\Mt,Hvtm  Lift  in  Enfl  mi 
CaniUiaincfii  Uf^l:  lor  ihc  Kilun't  hcHiKhold  in  Ihc  IJIth  rti- 
luiy,  Lady  Wonl.-yMr.n>.i,^u'W<a<Ti.<riih  which  miytccompircd 
S.  Liot-Poolc,  Ti.itr,  (,.J  i-/!*):  G.  Doryi,  La  Femmr  liucw 
(lom):  espctinllyLury  \l.  J.  (.arBHi  (wUh  J.  S.  5(ujn-Gleiir.rc), 

t-fa  frcwxn  o/  ru^*,'v  (L.ji,.d.,i,  1901),  .dJ  r*t  ri.fKi»  p«p(f 

(London,  ivogl.  For  Th.  .,l (■■m^t which luw  bon  midt  to  modiry 
und  iiDprevc  Ihc  Indjjn  iin.inj  ■JTrtem.  h  t.(.  the  reponi  ol  the 
Ouffcrin  Asiocialiijii  inj  iirli^t  ofiidil  J)uWiation>.    Other  intor- 

fi«jttop(W»;  Flindln   in  Raul  ill  iauf  I 


HARFLEUR— HARINGTON,  SIR  J. 


k  Kuim  MJrr 


harftni:  Hintllfhc  in  2riKr/r/r(I  ftU- rlJ((B«i« 

1M4I.  U'  M.  M.) 

BARnSDR,  B  pan  of  Fraoa  is  ttae  depinmcnl  of  Srinc- 
InKiieure.abDut  A  in.  E.  of  K»ic  byiiil.  Pop.  (1906)  1S64. 
Il  Un  in  Itti  lenUe  villey  ol  Ihe  Uinidc,  tl  Itac  foot  of  wooded 
hilli  not  (i[  frotn  the  north  bank  of  the  atuary  of  the  Seine. 
The  port,  which  bad  been  rendered  almost  inaccessible  owing 

with  ihe  port  ol  Havre  ind  with  the  Seine,  Vessels  dnwing 
iS  It.  can  moot  atoDgsidc  the  quays  of  the  new  port,  which  it  on 
1  branih  of  the  canal,  hns  »me  trade  in  a»i  and  limber,  &nd 
rartirs  on  fishing.  The  chutcb  <A  St  Martin  i»  the  most  tiniaik- 
■ble  building  In  (he  town,  and  iu  lofty  sione  >i«pte  lonni  a 
landmark  (or  the  pilots  o(  Ihe  river.  It  date*  from  the  tsth 
and  i6lh  centuries,  but  Ihe  great  ponal  i>  the  work  ol  the  I71h, 
and  [he  whole  has  undergone  modern  restoration.  Of  the  old 
castle  there  are  only  insignificant  ruini,  near  which,  in  a  fine  park, 
slands  the  present  castle,  a  building  of  the  i;th  cenluT>.  The 
V  replaced  by 


oljea, 


rmedin 


Thei 


(acture  of  tdl  ai 

HarBeur  is  identified  with  Caraa 
of  Ihe  ancient  Calalts,  In  the  mit 
HerosBoth.  HaroBuct  or  HareAot,  v 

seaport  of  nonb-weiiem  France,  In 
Henry  V.  of  England,  but  when  in  14. 
of  Caui  rose  against  the  English,  104 
the  gates  ol  the  towo  to  the  insurgcr 
foreign  yoke.  The  memory  ol  ihe  i 
by  the  belU  ol  St  Martin's  toUing  n 


I,  the  principal  port 


1  I44S 


was  recovered  lot  the  French  by  Dunois,  In  the  i6lh  century 
the  port  began  to  dwindle  in  importance  owing  to  the  silling  up 
of  ibe  Seine  estuary  and  the  liie  of  Havre,  In  1561  the 
Huguenots  put  HarSeut  to  pillage,  and  its  regislen  and  chiirieis 
perished  in  (he  conlusion;  bnl  it»  privileges  were  icslored  hy 
Charles  IX.  In  t  s68,  and  il  was  not  till  i;  10  thai  il  wac  subjected 


o  Ihe  ■'  taille." 


ct  of  country  in  the  Punjab.  India,  once  Ihc 


upland  plain,  inteispersed  wi 
overgrown  with  brush  wood. 
the  lieldi  of  a  large  number  of 
Hiuar  has  be. 


e.4ihce 


e  Mogul  empire,  Hariana 
formed  the  battlefield  where  the  Mahrattas,  Bhatlis  and  Sikhs 
met  to  seiile  their  territorial  quarrels.  The  whole  country  was 
devastated  by  the  limine  of  ijSj.  In  1797-1798  Hariana  was 
overrun  by  the  famous  Irish  adventurer  George  Thomas,  who 
cslabliihed  his  capital  at  Hanu;  in  iSoI  he  was  dispossessed 
by  Sindhia's  French  general  Perron;  in  iBo]  Hariana  parsed 
under  British  rule.  On  the  conquest  ol  the  Punjab  Hariana  was 

which  last  has  in  iti  turn  been  divided  between  Hissar  and 


BAaiHGTOH,  SIR  JOHN  {1561-1611),  English  writer,  wax 
botn  at  KelstDn.neu  Bath,  in  1561,  His  father,  John  HatingKHi, 
acquired  considerable  estates  by  marrying  Elheldreda,  ■  natural 
daughter  of  Heniy  VIII.,  and  aftct  his  wife's  death  he  was 
attached  to  the  service  of  the  Princeu  Elitabeth.  He  married 
Isabella  Miikham,  one  of  her  ladies,  and  on  Mory'i  accosion 

John,  the  son  of  the  second  maniage,  was  Elizabeth^s  godaoa. 
He  studied  at  Eton  and  al  Christ's  College.  Cimhridge,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  M.A.,  his  tutor  being  John  Still,  allerwanls 
bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  formerly  reputed  to  be  the  author 
ol  Gammer  Curhm'i  Kadlt.  He  came  up  to  London  about 
i^Sj  and  waa  entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  but  his  talents  marked 

Tradition  relates  that  he  translated  the  story  ef  Giocondo  from 
Ariosto  and  was  reproved  by  the  queen  for  acquainting  her 
ladib  with  so  indiscicct  a  selection.  He  was  to  rtlire  to  his  scat 
at  Ktlslon  until  he  completed  the  translation  of  the  entire  work. 
Oileaio  Furioia  in  En^sh  beroical  verse  was  published  in  ijgi 
and  reprinted  In  1607  and  1634.  Harington  was  high  sherifl 
of  Somerset  In  1591  and  received  Eliiabeih  at  his  house  during 
her  western  progress  of  1591.  In  1J96  be  published  in  succession 
r*e  Uilamerfkoiii  af  Ajai,  An  A luUcmie  g/  Oc  iltUtmatknitd 
••      ■  ■■        ■      ■        fonning  ci^ectivdy  a 


in  this  book  ihre 


■then 


serve  in  Ireland 
der  Essex.  He  was  knighted  on  the  field,  to  the  annoyarKC  of 
Lsabeth.  Haiington  saved  tumself  from  being  Eovolvcd  in 
sei's  disgrace  by  writing  an  account  of  the  Irish  campaiga 

nong  some  papers  found  in  the  chapter  library  al  Votk  was  a 
ml  en  Ikt  Smaniafi  In  Ike  Crmm  (ifioi},  written  by  Harington 

antcm  constructed  to  cymboliie  the  waning  glory  ol  (be  laie 

een   and  James's  own   qilendour.    This  pamphlet,   which 

italns  many  details  of  great  interest  about  Eliiabethand  gives 

unprejudiced  sketch  of  the  religious  question,  was  edited 

the  Roiburghe  Club  in  iSBe  by  Sir  Clements  Markham. 

irington's  eHorts  10  win  favour  at  Ihe  new  court  were  unsucress- 

.    In  160;  he  even  asked  for  Ihe  ofiiccol  chancellor  of  Ireland 

and  proposed  himself  as  archbishop.    The  document  in  whicb 

be  preferred  this  extraordinary  request  was  published  in  1679 

with  the  title  ol  A  SkM  Vian  »]  Ike  Sieie  ?/  IrelaKl  ariOa,  u 

160S.    Harington  was  belore  his  time  in  advocating  a  policy  of 

generosity  and  conciliation  towards  that  counli?.    He  eventually 

succeeded  in  obtaining  a  position  as  one  of  the  lutora  ol  Prince 

Henry,  for  whom  he  annotated  Francis  Godwin's  Di  pna^ibta 

Angliae.    Hannglon's  grandson,  John  Chelwind,  found  in  this 

somewhat  scandalous  production  an  argument  for  the  Presby- 

lerian  side,  and  puhliihcd  it  in  16;],  under  Ihe  title  of  A  Briife 

View  Bj  Uu  Sl,iU  0/  Ike  Ckuni,  Crc. 

Harington  died  at  Kelslon  on  the  xlh  of  November  1611, 
His  Efigranii  were  printed  in  a  cdlection  entitled  AlrSia  in 
161J,  and  separately  in  1615.    The  transIatkHi  ol  the  OtJaaJo 

to  he  supposed  thai  Harington  failed  to  realise  the  ironic  quality 
ol  his  original,  but  he  treated  it  as  a  serious  allegory  (o  suit  the 
temper  of  Queen  Elizabeth^s  court.  He  was  neither  a  very  eiact 
scholar  nor  a  very  poetical  Itanslator,  and  he  onnot  he  named 
in  the  same  breath  with  Fairlat  The  OrLaJa  Fmriiat  waa 
sumptuously  lUustiated.  and  to  it  was  preEicd  an  Apalape  of 
Potlrit,  juslilying  the  subject  maltcr  of  the  poem,  and,  among 
other  technical  mallcn,  the  author's  use  ol  disyllabic  and 
trisyllabic  chymes,  also  a  life  of  Ariosto  compiled  by  Harington 
from  various  Italian  sources.  Haringlon's  Rabelaisian  pamphicU 
show  that  he  was  almost  equally  endowed  with  wit  and  inddtcacy. 


(i6o«).an 

A  biographical  aceo 
aubediticaolhistn 


\i  Entliikmaa'i  Dxlar,  Or  (4 


His 


HARlRl— HARKNESS,  R. 


9ABIbI  {Aba  Ma^onuned  ul-QisIm  ibn  'Ali  ibn  Ma^ommed 
al-Qaifif,  i^.  "  the  manufacturer  or  seller  of  silk  "]  (1054-1x22), 
AraU)ian  writer,  was  bom  at  Ba^ra.  He  owned  a  large  estate 
with  x8,ooo  date-palms  at  Mashkn,  a  village  near  Ba^ra.  He 
is  said  to  have  occupied  a  government  position,  but  devoted  his 
life  to  the  study  of  Uie  niceties  of  the  AJabic  language.  On  this 
subject  he  wrote  a  grammatical  poem  the  Mtdkat  ml-^Irdb 
(French  trans.  Les  RUriatUms  grammaticaUs  with  notes  by  L. 
Pinto,  Paris  X885-Z889;  eitracts  in  S.  de  Sacy's  Anikoloiie 
arahe,  pp.  Z45-XSX,  .Pans,  X829);  a  work  on  the  faults  of  the 
educated  called  Puirat  ul-ChatBwds  (ed.  H.  Thorbecke,  Leipzig, 
x87x),  and  some  smaller  treatises  such  as  the  twolettersonwordb 
containing  the  letters  sin  and  shin  (ed.  in  Arnold's  CkresUmuHky^ 
pp.  202-9). .  But  his  fame  rests  diiefly  on  his  fifty  maqdmas 
(see  Asabza:  Literature,  section  <' Belles  Lettres")-  These 
were  written  in  rhymed  prose  like  those  of  HamadhinI,  and  are 
full  of  allusions  to  Arabian  history,  poetry  and  tradition,  and 
discussions  of  difficult  points  of  Arabic  grammar  and  rhetoric 

The  MaqftnuM  have  been  edited  with  Arabic  commentary  by 
S.  de  Sacy  (Paris,  1822,  2nd  ed.  with  French  notes  by  Reinauo  and 
T.  Derenbourv,  Paris,  i8m);  with  English  notes  by  P.  Steingass 
(London,  x8q6).  An  English  translation  with  notes  was  made  by 
T.  Preston  (London,  1850),  and  another  by  T.  Chenery  and  F. 
Steineass  (London.  1867^  and  X898).  Many  editions  have  been 
published  in  the  East  with  commentaries,  enedally  with  that  of 
§haAhI  (d.  1222).  (G.  W.  T.) 

HARI-RUD,  a  river  of  Afghanistan.  It  rises  in  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Koh-i-Baba  to  the  west  of  Kabul,  and  finally  loses 
itself  in  the  Tejend  oasis  north  of  the  Trans-Caspian  lailway 
and  west  of  Merv.  It  runs  a  remarkably  straight  course  west- 
ward through  a  narrow  trough  from  Daolatyar  to  Obefa,  amidst 
the  bleak  wind-swept  uplands  of  the  highest  central  elevations 
in  Afghanistan.  From  Obeh  to  Kuhsan  50  m.  west  of  Herat, 
it  forms  a  valley  of  great  fertility,  densdy  populated  and  highly 
cultivated;  practically  all  its  waters  being  drawn  off  for  purposes 
of  irrigation.  It  u  the  contrast  between  the  cultivated  aspect 
of  the  valley  of  Herat  and  the  surrounding  desert  that  has  given 
Herat  its  great  reputation  (ox  fertility.  Three  miles  to  the  south 
of  Herat  the  Kandahar  road  crosses  the  river  by  a  masonry  bridge 
of  26  arches  now  in  ruins.  A  few  miles  bdow  Herat  the  river 
begins  to  turn  north-west,  and  sfter  passing  through  a  rich  country 
to  Kuhsan,  it  turns  due  north  aiid  breaks  through  the  Paro- 
pamisan  hills.  Below  Kuhsan  it  receives  fresh  tributaries  from 
the  west.  Between  Kuhsan  and  Zulfikar  it  forms  the  boundary 
between  Afghanistan  and  Peiaia,  and  from  Zulfikar  to  Sarakhs 
between  Russia  and  Persia.  North  of  Sarakhs  it  diminishes 
rapidly  in  volume  till  it  is  lost  in  the  sands  of  the  Turkman 
desert.  The  Hari-Rud  marks  the  only  important  break  existing 
in  the  continuity  of  the  great  central  water-partixag  of 
Asia.    It  is  the  ancient  Arius.  (T.  H.  H.*) 

Hj^RISCHANDRA,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the  28th  king  of  the 
Solsfr  race.  He  was  renowned  for  his  piety  and  justice.  He 
is  the  central  figure  of  legends  in  the  Aitareyabrahmana,  Maha- 
bhaiata  and  the  Markandcyapurana.  In  Uie  first  he  is  repre- 
sented as  so  desirous  of  a  son  that  he  vows  to  Varuna  that  if  his 
prajijbr  is  granted  the  boy  shall  be  eventually  sacrificed  to  the 
latt^.  The  child  is  bom,  but  Haijschandra,  alter  many  delays, 
arranges  to  purchase  another's  son  and  make  a  vicarious  sacrifice. 
Accekding  to  the  Mahabharatt  he  is  at  last  promoted  to  Paradise 
as  thfc  reward  for  his  munificent  charity. 

VArITH  1BN9ILUZA  UL-YASHKURl,  pre-lslamic  Arabun 
poet  ^f  the  tribe  of  Bakr,  famous  as  the  author  of  one  of  the 
poems^enerally  received  among  the  Mo  *aUakat  iq.v.).  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  details  of  his  life. 

..  HARUI.  JUDAH  BBN  SOLOMON  (13th  cent),  caDed  also 
al-Qaii^,  a  Spanish  Hebrew  poet  and  traveller.  He  translated 
from  the  Arabic  to  Hebrew  some  of  the  wo^  of  Maimonides 
(q.9.)  and  also  of  the  Arab  poet  Hariri.  His  own  most  consider- 
able woric  wias  the  Ta^kemonif  composed  between  X2i8  and  X220. 
This  is  written  in  Hebrew  hi  uxmietrical  rhymes,  in  what  is 
commonly  termed  "  rhymed  prose."  It  is  a  series  of  humorous 
episodes,  witty  verses,  and  quaint  applications  of  Scriptural 
tests.  .  The  episodes  are  bound  together  by  the  presence  of  the 


953 

hero  and  of  the  narrator,  who  Is  also  the  author.  Harizi  not  only 
brought  to  perfection  the  art  of  applying  Hebrew  to  secular 
satire,  but  he  was  also  a  brilliant  litenry  critic  and  his  makame 
on  the  Andalusian  Hebrew  poets  is  A  fruitful  source  of  inf or- 


See.  on  the  TaHemom^  Kaempf,  NieJU-cndalmtisdie  Poesie  amda^ 
lunscker  Dichter  (Prague,  i8s8).  In  that  work  a  conndcrable 
section  of  the  roM^aMM*  is  translated  into  German.  (LA.) 

HARKNESS.  ALBERT  (xSss-xgoy),  American  daasical  scholar, 
was  bora  at  Mendon,  Massachusetts,  on  the  6th  of  October  X822. 
He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1842,  taught  in  the  Pro- 
vidence high  school  in  X843-X8S3,  studied  in  Berlin,  Bonn 
(where  in  1854  he  was  the  first  American  to  receive  the  degree 
of  Ph.D.)  and  Gdttingen,  and  was  pntfessor  of  Greek  language 
and  literature  in  Brown  University  from  1855  to  X892,  when 
he  became  professor  emeritus.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  in 
X869  of  the  American  Philological  Association,  of  which  he  was 
president  in  t875-i876,  and  to  whose  Transodiotu  he  made 
various  contributions;  was  a  member  of  the  Archaeological 
Institute's  committee  on  founding  the  American  School  of 
Clsssical  Studies  at  Athens,  and  served  as  the  second  director 
of  that  school  in  X883-X884.  He  studied  English  and  German 
university  methods  during  trips  to  Europe  in  1870  and  1883, 
and  introduced  a  new  scholariy  spirit  into  American  teaching  of 
Latin  in  secondary  schools  with  a  series  of  Latin  text-books, 
which  began  in  x8sx  with  a  First  Latin  Book  and  continued  for 
more  than  fifty  years.  His  Latin  Grammar  (1864,  x88i)  and 
Compute  Latin  Grammar  (1898)  are  his  best-known  books.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  board  of  fellows  of  Brown  University 
from  X904  until  his  death,  and  in  X904-1905  was  president  of 
the  Rhode  Island  Historical  Society;  He  died  in  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  on  the  27th  of  May  X907. 

His  son,  AuEKT  Gbancex  ILutxiiESS  (1857-  ),  also  a 
classical  sdiolar,  was  bom  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  on  the 
X9th  of  November  1857.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University 
in  1879,  studied  in  Germany  in  1879-1883,  and  was  professor 
of  Gexman  and  Latin  at  Madison  (now  Colgate)  University 
from  X883  to  X889,  and  associate  professor  of  Latin  at  Brown 
from  1889  to  X893,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of'Roman 
literature  and  Ustory  there.  He  was  director  of  the  American 
School  of  Oaasical  Studies  in  Rome  in  1902-X903. 

HARKNESS,  ROBERT  (18X6-X878),  English  geologist,  was 
bom  at  Ormsidric,  Lancashire,  on  the  28th  of  July  x8x6.  He 
was  educated  at  the  high  school,  Dumfries,  and  afterwards 
(1833-1834)  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh  where  he  acquired 
an  interest  in  geology  from  the  teachings  of  Robert  Jameson 
and  J.  D.  Forbek  Returning  to  Ormskirk  hewo^ed  xealously 
at  the  local  geology,  especially  on  the  Coal-measures  and  New 
Red  Sandstone,  his  first  paper  (read  before  the  Mandiester 
(jeol.  Soc  in  1843)  being  on  The  Climate  of  tkt  Coal  Epoek  In 
X848  his  family  went  to  reside  in  Dumfries  and  there  he  com- 
menced to  work  on  the  Silurian  rocks  of  the  S.W.  of  Scotland, 
and  ia  X849  he  carried  his  investigations  into  Cumberiand. 
In  these  regions  during  the  next  few  jrears  he  added  much  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  strata  and  their  foaaib,  especially  grap- 
tolites,  in  PH>ers  read  before  the  Geolo^cal  Sodety  of  LondoiL 
He  wrote  also  on  the  New  Red  rocks  of  the  north  of  En^and 
and  Scotland.  In  1853  he  was  appointed  professor  of  geology 
in  Queen's  CoOege,  Cork,  and  in  x8s6  he  was  elected  F.R.S. 
During  this  period  he  wrote  some  articles  on  the  geology  of  parts 
of  Irelaxul,  and  exercised  much  influence  as  a  teacher,  but  he 
returned  to  England  during  his  vacations  and  devoted  himself 
assiduously  to  the  .geology  of  the  Lake  district.  He  was  also  a 
constant  attendant  at  the  meetings  of  the  British  Association. 
In  1876  the  syllabus  for  the  (^een's  Cdleges  in  Irdand  was 
altered,  and  Pnrfessor  Harkness  was  required  to  lecture  not  only 
on  geology,  palaeontology,  mineralogy  and  physical  geography, 
but  also  on  soology  and  botany.  The  strain  of  the  extra  work 
proved  too  much,  he  decided  to  relinquish  his  post,  and  had 
retired  but  a  short  time  when  he  died,  on  the  4th  of  October 
1878. 

"  MesBoir.**  by  J.  G.  GoodchiU.  in  Trams.  Cumberland  Assoc.  No» 


HARLAN,  J.— HARLECH 


95+ 

viii.  (with  portrait).  In  memory  of  Professor  Harkncss  his  sister 
established  two  Harkness  scholarships.  One  scholarship  (of  the 
value  of  about  iiS  a.  year,  tenable  for  three  yean)  for  women, 
tenable  at  cither  Girton  or  Newnham  College,  Cambridge,  is  awarded 
triennially  to  the  best  candidate  in  an  examination  in  geology  and 
palaeontology,  provided  that  proficiency  be  shown;  the  other, 
for  men,  is  vested  in  the  hands  of  the  umversity  of  Cambridge,  and 
is  awarded  annually,  any  member  of  the  university  being  eligible 
who  has  graduated  as  a  B  JV.,  "  provided  that  not  more  than  three 
years  have  elapsed  since  the  XQtn  day  of  December  next  following 
his  final  examination  for  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts." 

HARLAN,  JAMES  (1820-1899),  American  politician,  was  bom 
in  Clark  county,  Illinois,  on  the  26th  of  August  1820.  He 
graduated  from  Indiana  Asbury  (now  De  Pauw)  University 
in  1845,  w<u  president  (1846-1847)  of  the  newly  founded  and 
short-lived  Iowa-  City  College,  studied  law,  was  first  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  in  Iowa  in  1847-1848,  and  was 
president  of  Iowa  Wesleyan  University  in  1853-1855.  He  took 
a  prominent  part  in  organizing  the  Republican  party  in  Iowa, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  United  States  Senate  from  1855  to 
1865,  when  he  became  secretary  of  the  interior.  He  had  been 
a  delegate  to  the  peace  convention  in  x86i,  and  from  x86x  to 
1865  was  chairman  of  the  Senate  committee  on  public  lands. 
He  disi4>proved  of  President  Johnson's  conservative  reconstruc- 
tion poUcy,  retired  from  the  cabinet  in  August  z866,  and  from 
1867  to  1873  was  again  a  member  of  the  United  States  Senate. 
In  1866  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  loyalists'  convention  at  Phila- 
delphia. One  of  his  principal  speeches  in  the  Senate  was  that 
which  he  made  in  March  1871  in  reply  to  Sumner's  and  Schurz's 
attack  on  President  Grant's  Santo  Domingan  policy.  He  was 
presiding  judge  of  the  court  of  commissioners  of  Alabama 
claims  (1882-1885).  He  died  in  Mount  Pleasant,  Iowa,  on  the 
5th  of  October  1899. 

HARLAN.  JOHN  MARSHALL  (1833-  ),  American  jurist, 
was  bom  in  Boyle  coimty,  Kentucky,  on  the  ist  of  Jtme  2833. 
He  graduated  at  Centre  College,  Danville,  Ky.,  in  1850,  and  at 
the  law  department  of  Transylvania  University,  Lexington,  in 
1853.  He  was  county  judge  of  Franklin  coimty  in  1858-1859, 
was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Congress  on  the  Whig  ticket 
in  1859,  and  was  elector  on  the  Constitutional  Union  ticket  in 
i860.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  recruited  and 
organized  the  Tenth  Kentucky  United  Stated  Volunteer  Infantry, 
and  in  1861-1863  served  as  colonel.  Retiring  from  the  army 
in  1863,  he  was  elected  by  the  Union  party  attorney-general 
of  the  state,  and  was  re-elected  in  1865,  serving  from  1863  to 
1S67,  when  he  removed  to  Louisville  to  practise  law.  He  was 
the  Republican  candidate  for  governor  in  1871  and  in  1875, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  commission  which  was  appointed 
by  President  Hayes  early  in  1877  to  accomplish  the  recog- 
nition of  one  or  other  of  the  existing  state  governments 
of  Lotiisiana  (q.v.);  and  he  was  a  member  of  the  Bering  Sea 
tribunal  which  met  in  Paris  in  1893.  On  the  29th  of  November 
1877  he  became  an  associate  justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court.  In  this  position  he  showed  himself  a  liberal  constmc- 
tionist.  In  opinions  on  the  Civil  Rights  cases  and  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  X3th,  X4th  and  X5th  Amendments  to  the 
Constitution,  he  dissented  from  the  majority  of  the  court  and 
advocated  increasing  the  power  of  the  Federal  government. 
He  supported  the  constitutionality  of  the  income  tax  clause 
in  the  Wilson  Tariff  Bill  of  X894,  and  he  drafted  the  decision  of 
the  court  in  the  Northem  Securities  Company  Case,  which 
applied  to  railways  the  provisions  of  the  Sherman  Anti-Trust 
Law.  In  2889  he  became  a  professor  in  the  Law  School  of 
the  (Columbian  University  (afterwards  (korge  Washington 
University)  in  Washington,  D.C. 

HARLAND,  HENRY  (186X-190S),  American  novelist,  was 
bom  in  St  Petersburg,  Russia,  in  March  1861,  and  was  educated 
in  New  York  and  at  Harvard.  He  went  to  Europe  as  a  journalist, 
and,  after  publishing  several  novels,  mainly  of  American- Jewish 
life  (under  the  name  of  Sidney  Luska),  first  made  his  literary 
reputation  in  London  as  editor  of  the  Yellow  Book  in  1894. 
His  association  with  this  clever  publication,  and  his  own  con- 
tributions to  it,  brought  his  name  into  prominence,  but  it  was 
not  till  be  published  The  Cardinal*!  Snuf-hox  (1900),  followed 


by  The  Lady  Paramount  (1902),  that  his  lightly  huxnoroos  toodk 
and  picturesque  style  as  a  novelist  brought  him  any  real  soccess^ 
His  health  was  always  delicate,  and  he  died  at  San  Remo  oa 
the  20th  of  December  X905. 

HARLAY  0E  CHAMPVALLON,  FRANCOIS  DE  (1625-1695), 
5th  archbishop  of  Paris,  was  bom  in  that  dty  on  the  14th  of 
August  1625.  Nephew  of  Francois  de  Hariay,  archbishop  of 
Rouen,  he  was  presented  to  the  abbey  of  Jumiiges  immediatdy 
on  leaving  the  College  de  Navarre,  and  he  was  only  twenty-six 
when  he  succeeded  his  unde  in  the  archiepiscopal  see.  He  was 
transferred  to  the  see  of  Paris  in  167 x,  he  was  nominated  by  the 
king  for  the  cardinalate  in  X690,  and  the  domain  of  St  Cloud  was 
erected  into  a  duchy  in  his  favour.  He  was  coiiimander  of  the 
order  of  the  Saint  Esprit  and  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
During  the  eariy  part  of  his  political  career  he  was  a  firm  adheroit 
of  Mazarin,  and  is  said  to  have  helped  to  procure  his  return  from 
exile.  His  private  life  gave  rise  to  much  scandal,  but  be  bad 
a  great  capacity  for  business,  considerable  learning,  and  was  an 
doquent  and  persuasive  speaker.  He  definitdy  secured  the 
favour  of  Louis  XIV.  by  his  support  of  the  claims  of  the  Galliran 
Church  formulated  by  the  declaration  xnade  by  the  dergy  in 
assembly  on  the  19th  of  March  1682,  when  Bossuet  accused  kim 
of  tmckling  to  the  court  like  a  valet.  One  of  the  three  witnesses 
of  the  king's  marriage  with  Madame  de  Maintenon,  he  was  hated 
by  her  for  using  his  influence  with  the  king  to  keep  the  matter 
secret.  He  had  a  weekly  audience  of  Louis  XIV.  in  company 
with  Pdre  la  Chaise  on  the  affairs  of  the  Church  in  Paris,  bat  his 
influence  gradually  declined,  and  Saint-Simon,  who  bore  him  no 
good  will  for  his  harsh  attitude  to  the  Jansenists,  says  that  his 
friends  deserted  him  as  the  royal  favour  waned,  until  at  last 
most  of  his  time  was  spent  at  Conflans  in  company  with  the 
duchess  of  Lesdiguidres,  who  alone  was  faithful  to  him.  He 
urged  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  and  showed  great 
severity  to  the  Huguenots  at  Dieppe,  of  which  he  was  temporal 
and  spiritual  lord.  He  died  suddenly,  without  having  teodved 
the  sacraments,  on  the  6th  of  August  X695.  His  funeral  discoutae 
was  delivered  by  the  Pdre  Gaillard,  and  Mme  de  S^vignt  made 
on  the  occasion  the  severe  comment  that  there  were  only  two 
trifles  to  make  this  a  difficult  matter — his  life  and  his  death. 

See  Abb4  Legendre,  VUa  Francisci  ie  Hariay  (Paris.  1730)  and 
^ge  de  Hariay  (1695):  Saint-Simon,  Mimoires  (vol.  iL,  ed.  A.  d« 
Boislisle,  1879),  and  numerous  references  in  the  Lettrts  of  Mme  de 
S6vign6. 

HARLECH  (perhaps  for  Hardd  lech,  fair  slate,  or  HarM^,  an 
Anglicized  variant),  a  town  of  Merionethshire,  Wales,  «&  m. 
from  Aberystwyth,  and  29  from  Carnarvon  on  the  Cao^rian 
railway.  Pop.  900.  Ruins  of  a  fortress  crown  the  roc!k  of 
Harlech,  about  half  a  xnile  from  the  sea.  Discovery  of  Roiman 
coins  makes  it  probable  that  it  was  once  occupied  by  the  Roirlans. 
In  the  3rd  century  Bronwen  (white  bosom),  daughter  of  feraa 
Fendigaid  (the  blessed),  is  said  to  have  stajred  here,  periiaps 
by  force;  and  there  was  here  a  tower,  called  Twr  Broirnr'cn, 
and  replaced  about  aj>.  550  by  the  building  of  Mad|pryn 
Gwynedd,  prince  of  North  Wales.  In  the  early  xoth  cenjtuiy, 
Harlech  castle  was,  apparently,  repaired  by  Colwyn,  lord  of 
Ardudwy,  founder  of  one  of  the  fifteen  North  Wales  tribes '  and 
thence  cailed  Caer  ColwyiL  The  present  stmcture  dates,  like 
many  others  in  the  prindpality,  from  Edward  I.,  perhaps  evta 
from  the  plans  of  the  architect  of  Carnarvon  and  Conway  otsdes, 
but  with  the  retention  of  old  portions.'  It  is  thought  to  have 
been  square,  each  side  measuring  some  210  ft.,  with  towers  and 
turrets.  Glendower  held  it  for  four  years.  Here,  in  X460, 
Margaret,  wife  of  Henry  VI.,  defeated  at  Northampton,  took 
refuge.  Daf ydd  ap  letian  ap  Einion  hdd  it  for  the  Lancastrians, 
until  famine,  rather  than  Edward  IV.,  made  him  surrender. 
From  this  time  b  said  to  date  the  air  "  March  of  the  nten  of 
Harlech  "  (RhyfelgerddgwyrHaHcch).  The  castle  was  altematdy 
Roundhead  and  Cavalier  in  the  dvil  war.  Edward  I.  made 
Harlech  a  free  borough,  and  it  was  formeriy  the  county  town. 
It  is  in  the  parish  of  Llandanwg  (pop.  in  X90X,  931).  •  Though 
interesting  from  an  antiquarian  point  of  view,  the  district  around, 
especially  Dyffryn  Ardudwy  (the  vaU^),  is  dieaiy  and  dcwLoe, 


HARLEQUIN— HARMONIC 


955 


4.g.  Drws'ithe  door  oi)  Ardudwy,  Rhinog  fawr  and  Rhinog  fach 
(difts);  an  exception  is  the  verdant  Cwm  bycban  (little  combe 
or  hollow).  The  Meini  gwyr  Ardudwy  (stones  of  the  men  of 
Ardudwy)  possibly  mark  the  site  of  a  fight. 

HARUQUUf,  in  modem  pantomime,  the  posturing  and 
acrobatic  character  who  gives  his  name  to  the  "  harlequinade," 
attired  in  ma^  and  parti-coloured  and  spangled  tights,  vid 
im>vided  with  a  sword  like  a  bat,  by  which,  himself  invisible, 
he  works  wonders.  It  has  generally  been  assumed  that  Harlequin 
was  transferred  to  France  from  the  "Ariecchino"  of  Italian 
medieval  and  Renaissance  popular  comedy;  but  Dr  Driesen  in 
his  Urspntng  des  HarUkins  (BerUn,  1904)  shows  that  this  is 
incorrect.  An  old  French  "Harlekin"  (Herlekin,  HeUequin 
and  other  variants)  is  found  in  folk-literature  as  early  as  xioo; 
he  had  already  become  proverbial  as  a  ragamuffin  of  a  demoniacal 
appearance  and  character;  in  1262  a  number  of  harlekins 
ai^pear  in  a  jAay  by  Adam  de  la  Halle  as  the  intermediaries  of 
KingHellekin,  prince  of  Fairyland,  in  courting  Morgan  le  Fay; 
and  it  was  not  till  much  later  that  the  French  Harlekin  was 
transformed  into  the  Italian  Arlecchino.  In  his  typical  French 
form  down  to  the  time  of  Gottsched,  he  was  a  spirit  of  the  air, 
deriving  thence  his  invisibility  and  his  characteristically  light 
and  aery  whirlings.  Subsequently  he  returned  from  the  Italian 
to  the  French  stage,  being  imported  by  Marivauz  into  light 
comedy;  and  his  various  attributes  gradually  became  amal- 
gamated into  the  latter  form  taken  in  pantomime. 

HARLBSS    (originally    Hakles),    GOTTUBB    CHRISTOPH 

(x73S-i8z5),German  classical  scholar  and  bibliographer,  was  bom 

at  Culmbach  in  Bavaria  on  the  2  zst  of  June  x  738.    He  st  udied  at 

HaUe,  Eriangen  and  Jena.    In  x  765  he  was  appointed  professor  of 

oriental  languages  and  eloquence  at  the  GymnasiumCasimirianum 

in  Coburg,  in  x  770  professor  of  poetry  and  eloquence  at  Eriangen, 

and  in  z  776  librarian  of  the  university.    He  held  his  professorship 

for  forty-five  years  till  his  death  on  the  2nd  of  November  18x5. 

Harless  was  an  extremely  prolific  writer.    His  numerous. editions 

of  classical  authon,  defident  in  originality  and  critical  judgment, 

although  valuable  at  the  time  as  giving  the  student  the  results 

of  the  labours  of  earlier  scholars,  are  now  entirely  superseded. 

But  he  will  always  be  remembered  for  his  meritorious  work  in 

connexion  with  the  great  Biblictheca  Gracca  of  J.  A.  Fabricius, 

of  which  he  ppblished  a  new  and  revised  edition  (x2  vols.,  X790' 

1809,  not  quite  completed), — a  task  for  which  he  was  peculiarly 

qualified.    He  also  wrote  much  on  the  history  and  bibliography 

of  Creek  and  Latin  literature. 

Km  life  was  written  by  his  son,  Jobann  Christian  Friedrich  Harless 
(1818). 

HARLESS,  OOTTUEB  CHRISTOPH  ADOLF  VON  (x8o6- 
1879),  German  divine,  was  bom  at  Nuremberg  on  the  2ist  of 
November  x8o6,  and  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  .Eriangen 
and  Halle.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Eriangen 
in  X836  and  at  Ldpzig  in  X845.  He  was  a  strong  Lutheran  and 
exercised  a  powerful  influence  in  that  direction  as  court  preacher 
in  Dresden  and  as  president  of  the  Protestant  consistory  at 
Munich.  His  chief  works  were  Theciogische  EncyJUopUdU  und 
Mttkoddogie  (X837)  and  Die  cJtrisUicfu  Etkik  (X842,  Eng.  trans. 
1868).  He  died  on  the  sth  of  September  1879,  having,  a  few 
yean  earlier,  written  an  autobiography  under  the  title  Bruck' 
stuck*  aus  dem  Leben  eines  sUddeutschen  Thedcgen. 

HARUNGEN.  a  seaport  in  the  province  of  Friesland,  Holland, 
on  the  Zuider  Zee,  and  the  terminus  of  the  railway  and  canal 
from  Leeuwarden  (x  5}  m.  £.).  It  is  connected  by  steam  tramway 
by  way  of  Bolswaard  with  Sneek.  Pop.  (X900)  xo,448.  Har- 
lingen  has  become  the  most  considerable  seaport  of  Friesland 
since  the  constraction  of  the  large  outer  harbour  in  1870-1877, 
and  in  addition  to  railway  and  steamship  coimexlon  with 
Bremen,  Amsterdam,  and  the  southern  provinces  there  are 
regular  sailings  to  Hull  and  London.  Powerful  sluices  protect 
the  inner  harbour  from  the  high  tides.  The  only  noteworthy 
buildings  are  the  town  hall  (i  730-1 733),  the  West  church,  which 
consists  of  a  part  of  the  former  castle  of  HarUngen,  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  the  Jewish  synagogue  and  the  schoob  of 
navigatjoo  And  of  design.    The  chief  trade  of  HarUngen  is  the 


exportation  of  Frisian  produce,  namely,  butter  and  cheese, 
cattle,  sheep,  fish,  potatoes,  flax,  Ac.  There  is  also  a  considerable 
import  trade  in  timber,  coal,  raw  cotton,  hemp  and  jute  for  the 
Twente  factories.  The  local  industries  are  unimportant,  con- 
ttsting  of  saw-mills,  rope-yards,  salt  refineries,  and  sail<loth  and 
margarine  factories. 

H  ARHATTAN,  the  name  of  a  hot  dry  parching  wind  that  blows 
during  December,  January  and  February  on  the  coast  of  Upper 
Guinea,  bringing  a  high  dense  haxe  of  red  dust  which  darkens 
the  air.  The  natives  smear  their  bodies  with  oil  or  fat  while  this 
parching  wind  is  blowing. 

HARMODIUS,  a  handsome  Athenian  youth,  and  the  intimate 
friend  of  Aristogeiton.  Hipparchus,  the  younger  brother  of 
the  tjrrant  Hippias,  endeavoured  to  supplant  Aristogdton  in  the 
good  graces  of  Harmodius,  but,  failing  in  the  attempt,  revenged 
himself  by  putting  a  public  affront  on  Harmodius's  sister  at  a 
solemn  festivaL  Thereupon  the  two  friends  conspired  with  a  few 
others  to  murder  both  the  tyrants  during  the  armed  procession 
at  the  Panathenaic  festival  (5x4  B.C.),  when  the  people  were 
allowed  to  carry  arms  (this  licence  is  denied  by  Aristotle  in 
Aih,  Pol.),  Sedng  one  of  their  accomplices  speaking  to  Hippias, 
and  imagining  that  they  were  being  betrayed,  they  prematurely 
attacked  and  slew  Hipparchus  alone.  Harmodius  was  cut  down 
on  the  spot  by  the  guards,  and  Aristogeiton  was  soon  captured 
and  tortured  to  death.  When  Hippias  was  expelled  (510), 
Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton  became  the  most  popular  of 
Athenian  heroes;  their  descendants  were  exempted  from  public 
burdens,  and  had  the  right  of  public  entertainment  in  the 
Prytaneum,  and  thdr  names  were  celebrated  in  popular  songs  and 
scolia  (after-dinner  songs)  as  the  deliverers  of  Athens.  One  of 
these  songs,  attributed  to  a  certain  Callistratus,  is  preserved 
in  Athenaeus  (p.  695).  Their  statues  by  Antenor  in  the  agora 
were  carried  off  by  Xerxes  and  replaced  by  new  ones  by  Critius 
and  Nesiotes.  Alexander  the  Great  afterwards  sent  back  the 
originals  to  Athens.  It  is  not  agreed  which  of  these  was  the 
original  of  the  marble  tyrannicide  group  in  the  museum  at 
Naples,  for  which  see  article  Gxeek  Art,  PI.  I.  fig.  50. 

See  KOpp  in  Neiu  Jahrb.f.  klass.  AtUrt,  (1902).  p.  609. 

HARHONIA,  in  Greek  mjrthology,  according  to  one  account 

the  daughter  of  Ares  and  Aphrodite,  and  wife  of  Cadmus.    When 

the  government  of  Thebes  was  bestowed  upon  Cadmus  by  Athena, 

Zeus  gave  him  Harmonia  to  wife.    All  the  gods  honoured  the 

wedding  with  their  presence.    Cadmus  (or  one  of  the  gods) 

presented  the  bride  with  a  robe  and  necklace,  the  work  of 

Hephaestus.    This  necklace  brought  misfortune  to  all  who 

possessed  it.    With  it  Polyneices  bribed  Eriphyle  to  persuade 

her  husband  Amphiaraus  to  undertake  the  expedition  against 

Thebes.    It  led  to  the  death  of  Eriphyle,  of  Alcmaeon,  of  Phegeus 

and  his  sons.    Even  after  it  had  been  deposited  in  the  temple 

of  Athena  Pronoia  at  Delphi,  its  baleful  influence  continued. 

Phayllus,  one  of  the  Phodan  leaders  in  the  Sacred  War  (352  B.C.) 

carried  it  off  and  gave  it  to  his  mistress.    After  she  had  worn  it 

for  a  time,  her  son  was  seized  with  madness  and  set  fire  to  the 

house,  and  she  perished  in  the  flames.    According  to  another 

account,  Harmonia  bdonged  to  Samothrace  and  was  the  daughter 

of  Zeus  and  Electra,  her  brother  lasion  bdng  the  founder  of 

the  mystic  rites  cdebrated  on  the  island  (Diod.  Sic.  v.  48). 

Finally,  Harmonia  is  rationalized  as  closely  allied  to  Aphrodite 

Pandemos,  the  love  that  unites  all  people,  the  personification  of 

order  and  dvic  um'ty,  corresponding  to  the  Roman  Concordia. 

Apollodonis  lit.  4-7;  Diod.. Sic  iv.  65,  66;  Parthenius,  BroticOf 
25;  L.  Preller,  Grifch,  MytkoL;  Crusius  in  Roacher's  Ltxikan,  > 

HARMONIC.  In  acoustics,  a  harmonic  is  a  secondary  tone 
which  accompanies  the  fundamental  or  primary  tone  of  a  vibrat- 
ing string,  reed,  &c.;  the  more  important  are  the  3rd,  5th,  7th, 
and  octave  (see  Sotmo;  Haxieony).  A  harmonic  proportion 
in  arithmetic  and  algebra  is  such  that  the  ledprocals  of  the 
proportionals  are  in  arithmetical  proportion;  thus,  if  a,  &,  r 
be  in  harmonic  proportion  then  x/a,  x/6,  tfc  are  in  arithmetical 
proportion;  this  leads  to  the  relation  2Jb^acl{a-\-c).  A  har- 
mom'c  progression  or  series  consists  of  terms  whose  redprocals 
form  an  arithmetical  progression;  the  simplest  czampk  ii: 


956 


HARMONICA— HARMONIC  ANALYSIS 


x+i  +  i  +  |+...  (see  Algebra  and  AsiTHKETic).  Theoccur- 
rence  of  a  similar  proportion  between  segments  of  lines  is  the 
foundation  of  such  phrases  as  harmonic  section,  harmonic  ratio, 
harmonic  conjugates,  &c.  (see  Geometry:  U.  Projective).  The 
connexion  between  acoustical  and  mathematical  harmonicals 
is  most  probably  to  be  found  in  the  Pythagorean  discovery  that 
a  vibrating  string  when  stoi^>ed  at  ^  and  }  of  its  length  yielded 
the  octave  and  sth  of  the  original  tone,  the  numbers,  i  },  ^ 
being  said  to  be,  probably  first  by  Archytas,  in  harmonic  pro- 
portion. The  mathematical  investigation  of  the  form  of  a 
vibrating  string  led  to  such  phrases  as  harmonic  curve,  har- 
monic motion,  harmonic  function,  harmonic  analysis,  &c.  (see 
Mechanics  and  Spherical  Harmonics). 

HARMONICA,  a  generic  term  applied  to  mudcal  Instruments 
in  which  sound  is  prodqced  by  friction  upon  ^lass  bdls.  The 
word  is  also  used  to  designate  instruments  of  percussion  of  the 
Glockenspiel  type,  made  of  steel  and  struck  by  hammers  (Ger. 
Stahlharmonika) . 

The  origin  of  the  glass-harmonica  tribe  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fashionable  i8th  century  instnupent  known  as  musical  glasses 
(Fr.  verriUon),  the  principle  of  which  was  known  already  in  the 
X7th  century.*  The  invention  of  musical  glasses  is  generally 
ascribed  to  an  Irishman,  Richard  Pockrich,  who  first  played  the 
instrument  in  public  in  Dublin  in  1743  and  the  next  year  in 
England,  but  Eisel'  described  the  verriUon  and  gave  an  illustra- 
tion of  it  in  X738.  The  verriUon  or  Classspid  consisted  of  x8 
beer  glasses  arranged  on  a  board  covered  with  cloth,  water 
being  poured  in  when  necessary  to  alter  the  pitch.  The  glasses 
were  struck  on  both  sides  gently  with  two  long  wooden  sticks 
in  the  shape  of  a  spoon,  the  bowl  being  covered  with  silk  or  cloth. 
Eisel  states  that  the  instr\mient  was  used  for  church  and  other 
solemn  music.  Gluck  gave  a  concert  at  the  "  little  theatre  in 
the  Haymarket  "  (London)  in  April  1746,  at  which  he  performed 
on  musical  glasses  a  concerto  of  his  composition  with  full 
orchestral  accompaniment.  £.  H.  Dclaval  is  also  credited  with 
the  invention.  When  Benjamin  Franklin  visited  London  in 
1757,  he  was  so  much  struck  by  the  beauty  of  tone  elicited  by 
Delaval  and  Pockrich,  and  with  the  possibilities  of  the  glasses 
as  musical  instruments,  that  he  set  to  work  on  a  mechanical 
application  of  the  principle  involved,  the  eminently  successful 
result  being  the  glass  harmonica  finished  in  1 762.  In  this  the 
glass  bowls  were  mounted  on  a  rotating  spindle,  the  largest  to 
the  left,  and  their  under-edges  passed  during  each  revolution 
through  a  water-trough.  By  applying  the  fingers  to  the  moistened 
edges,  sound  was  produced  varying  in  intensity  with  the  pressure, 
so  that  a  certain  amount  of  expression  was  at  the  command  of 
a  good  player.  It  is  said  that  the  timbre  was  extremely  enervat- 
ing, and,  together  with  the  vibration  caused  by  the  friction  on 
the  finger-tips,  exercised  a  highly  deleterious  effect  on  the  nervous 
system.  The  instrument  was  for  many  years  in  great  vogue, 
not  only  in  England  but  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  and  more 
especially  in  Saxony,  where  it  was  accorded  a  place  in  the  court 
orchestra.  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Naumann  and  Hasse  composed 
music  for  it.  Marianne  Davies  and  Marianna  Kirchgessner 
were  celebrated  virtuosi  on  it.  The  curious  vogue  of  the  instru- 
ment, as  sudden  as  it  was  ephemeral,  produced  emulation  in  a 
generation  unsurpassed  for  zeal  in  the  invention  of  musical 
instruments.  The  most  notable  of  its  offspring  were  Carl 
Leopold  RoUig's  improved  harmonica  with  a  keyboard  in  1786, 
Chladni's  euphon  in  1791  and  clavicylinder  in  1799,  Ruffclsen's 
melodiconin  1800  and  1803,  Franz  Leppich'spanmelodicon  1810, 
Buschmann's  uranion  in  the  same  year,  &c.  Of  most  of  these 
nothing  now  remains  but  the  name  and  a  description  in  the 
AUgemeine  musikaliscke  Zeitung,  but  there  are  numerous 
specimens  of  the  Franklin  type  in  the  museums  for  musical 
instruments  of  Europe.  One  specimen  by  Emanuel  Pohl,  a 
Bohemian  maker,  is  preserved  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum,  London. 

For  the  steel  harmonica  see  Glockenspiel.  (K,  S.) 

»  Sec  G.  P.  HarsdSrfer,  Math,  und  phUos.  Erquickstunden  (Nurem- 
berg, 1677),  ii.  147.  ^^  , 
*  Musicus  •(noHiiuTot  (Erfurt,  1738).  p.  70* 


HARMONIC  ANALYSIS,  in  mathematics,  the  name  given  hy 
Sir  William  Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin)  and  P.  G.  Tait  in  their 
treatise  on  Natural  PkUosopky  to  a  general  method  of  investigat- 
ing physical  questions,  the  earliest  applications  of  which  seem 
to  have  been  suggested  by  the  study  of  the  vibrations  of  strings 
and  the  analysis  of  these  vibrations  into  their  iundamcntal  tone 
and  its  harmonics  or  overtones. 

The  motion  of  a  uniform  stretched  string  fixed  at  both  ends 
is  a  periodic  motion;  that  is  W  say,  after  a  certain  interval  ci 
time,  called  the  fundamental  period  of  the  motion,  the  form  (rf  the 
string  and  the  velocity  of  every  part  of  it  are  the  same  as  before, 
provided  that  the  energy  of  the  motion  has  not  been  sensibly 
dissipated  during  the  period. 

There  are  two  distinct  methods  of  investigating  the  niotioa  of  a 
uniform- stretched  string.  One  of  these  mav  be  called  tiie  wave 
method,  and  the  other  the  harmonic  method.  The  wave  method 
is  founded  on  the  theorem  that  in  a  stretched  string  of  infinite 
length  a  wave  of  any  form  may  be  propagated  in  either  directioa 
with  a  certain  velocity,  V,  whicn  we  may  define  as  the  '*  velocity  of 
propagation."  If  a  wave  of  any  form  travelling  in  the  positive 
direction  meets  another  travelling  in  the  opposite  directKm.  the 
form  of  which  is  such  that  the  lines  joining  corresponding  poiot» 
of  the  two  waves  are  all  bisected  in  a  fixed  point  in  the  line  of  the 
string,  then  the  point  of  the  string  corres^nding  to  this  point  vill 
remam  fixed,  while  the  two  waves  pass  it  m  opposite  directions.  If 
we  now  suppose  that  the  form  of  the  waves  travelling  in  the  positive 
direction  is  periodic,  that  b  to  say,  that  after  the  wave  has  trax^clicd 
forward  a  distance  /,  the  position  of  every  particle  of  the  string  is 
the  same  as  it  was  at  first,  then  /  is  called  the  wave-length,  aad  the 
time  of  travelling  a  wave-length  is  called  the  periodic  time,  whkb 
we  shall  denote  by  T,  so  that  /-VT. 

If  we  now  suppose  a  set  of  waves  MmOar  to  these,  but  revcfMcd 
in  position,  to  be  travclline  in  the  opposite  direction,  there  will  be 
a  series  of  points,  distant  i7  from  each  other,  at  which  there  will  be 
no  motion  of  the  string;  it  will  therefore  make  no  difference  to  the 
motion  of  the  string  if  we  suppose  the  string  fastened  to  fixed 
supports  at  any  two  of  these  points,  and  we  may  then  suppose 
the  parts  of  the  string  beyond  these  points  to  be  removed,  as  it 
cannot  affect  the  motion  of  the  part  which  is  between  theou  We 
have  thus  arrived  at  the  case  of  a  uniform  string  stretched  between 
two  fixed  supports,  and  we  conclude  that  the  motion  of  the  string 
may  be  completely  represented  as  the  resultant  of  two  sets  of  periodic 
waves  travelling  in  opposite  directions,  their  wave-lengths  being 
either  twice  the  distance  between  the  fixed  points  or  a  submultit^e 
of  this  wave-length,  and  the  form  of  these  waves,  subjea  to  this 
condition,  being  perfectly  arbitrary. 

To  make  the  problem  a  definite  one,  we  may  suppose  the  initial 
displacement  and  velocity  of  every  parttde  01  the  string  given  in 
terms  of  its  distance  from  one  end  of  the  string,  and  from  these  data 
it  u  easy  to  calculate  the  form  which  is  common  to  all  the  travelling 
waves.  The  form  of  the  string  at  any  subsequent  time  may  then 
be  deduced  by  calculating  the  positions  of  the  two  sets  of  waves  at 
that  time,  and  compoundinK  their  displacements. 

Thus  in  the  wave  method  the  actual  motion  of  the  string  is  icon- 
sidered  as  the  resultant  of  two  wave  motions,  neither  of  which  is  of 
itself,  and  without  the  other,  consistent  with  the  condition  that  the 
ends  of  the  string  are  fixed.  Each  of  the  wave  motions  is  periodic 
with  a  wave-length  equal  to  twice  the  distance  between  the  fixc^ 
points,  and  the  one  set  of  waves  is  the  reverse  of  the  other  in  resptrct 
of  displacement  and  velocity  and  direction  of  propagation;  but, 
subject  to  these  conditions,  the  form  of  the  wave  is  perfect  ly  arbitrary. 
The  motion  of  a  particle  of  the  string;,  being  determined  by  the  two 
waves  which  pass  over  it  in  opposite  directions,  is  of  an  equally 
arbitrary  type.  ....  .        ,   . 

In  the  harmonic  method,  on  the  other  hand,  the  motion  of  the 
string  is  regarded  as  compounded  of  a  series  of  vibratory  motions 
{normal  modes  of  vibration),  which  may  be  infinite  in  number,  but 
each  of  which  is  perfectly  definite  in  type,  and  is  in  fact  a  particular 
solution  of  the  problem  of  the  motion  of  a  string  with  its  ends  fiitcd. 

A  simple  harmonic  motion  is  thus  defined  by  Thomson  and  Tait 
(I  53) :— When  a  point  Q  moves  uniformly  in  a  circle,  the  perpen- 
dicular OP,  drawn  from  its  position  at  any  instant  to  a  fixed  diameter 
AA'  of  the  circle,  intersects  the  diameter  in  a  point  P  whose  position 
changes  by  a  simple  harmonie  motion.^ 

1h£  amplitude  of  a  nmple  harmonic  motion  is  the  range  on  one 
side  or  the  other  of  the  miodle  point  of  the  course. 

The  period  of  a  simple  harmonic  motion  is  the  time  which  dapees 
from  any  instant  until  the  moving-point  again  moves  in  the  same 
direction  through  the  same  position. 

The  phase  of  a  nmple  harmonic  motion  at  any  instant  is  the 
fraction  of  the  whole  period  which  has  elapsed  since  the  moving- 
point  last  passed  through  its  middle  position  in  the  positive  direction. 

In  the  case  of  the  stretched  string,  it  is  only  in  certain  particular 
cases  that  the  motion  of  a  particle  01  the  string  is  a  simple  narmomc 
motion.  In  these  particular  cases  the  form  of  the  string  at  anv 
instant  is  that  of  a  curve  of  sines  having  the  line  joining  the  hK^X 


HARMONIC  ANALYSIS 


957 


points  for  its  axis,  and  passing  thrtMigh  these  two  points,  and  there* 
fore  having  for  its  wave>lengtn  cither  twice  the  length  of  the  string 
or  some  submultipic  of  this  wave-length.  The  amplitude  of  the 
curve  of  sines  is  a  simple  harmonic  function  of  the  time,  the  period 
being  either  the  fundamental  period  or  some  submultiple  of  the 
fundamental  period.  Every  one  of  these  modes  of  vibration  is 
dynamically  possible  by  itself,  and  any  number  of  them  may  coexist 
independently  of  each  other. 

By  a  proper  adjustment  of  the  initial  amplitude  and  phase  of 
each  of  these  modes  of  vibration,  so  that  their  resulunt  shall  repre- 
sent the  initial  state  of  the  string,  we  obtain  a  new  representation 
of  the  whole  motion  of  the  string,  in  which  it  is  seen  to  be  the  resultant 
of  a  series  of  simple  harmonic  vibrations  whose  periods  are  the 
fundamental  period  and  its  submultiplcs.  The  determination  of 
the  amplitudes  and  phases  of  the  several  simple  harmonic  vibrations 
so  as  to  satisfy  the  initial  conditions  is  an  example  of  harmonic 
analysis. 

We  have  thus  two  methods  of  solving  the  partial  differential 
equation  of  the  motion  of  a  string.  The  first,  which  we  have  called 
the  wave  method,  exhibits  the  solution  in  the  form  containing  an 
arbitrary  function,  the  nature  of  which  must  be  determined  from 
the  initial  conditions.  The  second,  or  harmonic  method,  leads  to  a 
aeries  of  terms  involving  sines  and  cosines,  the  coefficients  of  which 
have  to  be  determined.  The  harmonic  method  may  be  defined  in  a 
more  general  manner  as  a  method  by  which  the  solution  of  any 
actual  problem  may  be  obtained  as  the  sum  or  resultant  of  a  number 
of  terms,  each  of  which  is  a  sol  ution  of  a  part  icular  case  of  the  |m>blem. 
The  nature  of  these  particular  cases  is  defined  by  the  condition  that 
any  one  of  them  must  be  conjugate  to  any  other. 

The  mathematical  test  of  conjugac^  is  that  the  energy  of  the 
system  arising  from  two  of  the  harmonics  existing  together  is  caual 
to  the  sum  «f  the  energy  arising  from  the  two  harmonics  taicen 
separately.  In  other  words,  no  part  of  the  energy  depends  on  the 
product  of  the  amplitudes  of  two  different  harmonica.  When  two 
modes  of  motion  of  the  same  system  are  conjugate  to  each  other, 
the  exbtence  of  one  of  them  does  not  affect  the  other. 

The  simplest  case  of  harmonic  analysis,  that  of  which  the  treat- 
ment of  the  vibrating  striiy  is  an  example,  is  completely  investigated 
in  what  is  known  as  Fourier's  theorem. 

Fourier's  theorem  asserts  that  any  periodic  function  of  a  single 
variable  period  p,  which  does  not  become  infinite  at  any  phase, 
can  be  expanded  in  the  form  of  a  series  consisting  of  a  constant 
term,  together  with  a  double  series  of  terms,  one  set  involving 
cottines  and  the  other  sines  of  multiples  of  the  phase. 

Thus  if  ^(t)  is  a  periodic  function  of  the  variable  (  having  a 
period  p,  then  it  may  be  expanded  as  follows: 

♦tt>-As+2;A,co^-|-2]B,stn?^.  (i) 

The  part  of  the  theorem  which  is  most  frequently  required,  and 
which  also  is  the  easiest  to  investigate,  is  the  determinatbn  of  the 
values  of  the  coefficients  A*.  A<,  B4.    These  are 

A.-ij;'«(t)<«:     A<-i/;*«)eo^i     B,-|j;'#(t).8«2^ 

This  part  of  the  theorem  may  be  verified  at  once  by  multiplying 
both  Mdea  of  (1 )  by  df ,  by  cos  (iiri/pyd^  or  by  sin  (2i«e/p))/<2|.  and 
in  each  case  integrating  from  otop. 

'  The  series  is  evidently  single-valued  for  anv  given  value  of  {. 
It  cannot  therefore  represent  a  function  of  |  which  has  more  than 
one  value,  or  which  becomes  imaginary  for  any  value  of  f .  If  is 
convergent,  approaching  to  the  true  value  of  ^(t)  for  all  values 
of  i  such  that  if  |  vanes  infinitesimally  the  function  also  varies 
infinitcsimally.  .^ .      ... 

Lord  Kelvin,  availing  himself  of  the  disk,  globe  and  cylinder 
integrating  machine  invented  by  hb  brother,  Professor  James 
Thomson,  constructed  a  machine  by  which  eight  of  the  integrals 
required  for  the  expression  of  Fourier  s  series  can  be  obtained  simul- 
uncously  from  the  recorded  trace  of  any  periodically  variable 
quantity,  such  as  the  height  of  the  tide,  the  temperature  or  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere,  or  tm  intensity  of  the  different  components  of 
terrestrial  magnetism.  If  it  were  not  on  account  of  the  waste  of 
time,  instead  of  having  a  curve  drawn  by  the  action  of  the  tide, 
and  the  curve  afterwards  acted  on  by  the  machine,  the  time  axis 
of  the  machine  itself  might  be  driven  by  a  dock,  and  the  tide  itself 
might  work  the  second  variable  of  the  machine,  but  thb  would  in* 
volve  the  consunt  presence  of  an  expensive  machine  at  every  tidal 
station.  CJ*  ^*  "•) 

For  a  discussion  of  the  restrictions  under  which  the  expansion 
of  a  periodic  function  of  {  in  the  form  (1)  U  valid,  see  Foumbr's 
Sbmes.  An  account  of  the  contrivances  for  mechanical  calcula- 
tion  of  the  coefficienu  A<,  B«  .  .  .  is  given  under  Calculating 
Macbinu. 

A  mote  general  form  of  the  prdblem  of  harmonic  analysis  presents 
itself  in  astronomy,  in  the  theory  of  the  tides,  and  in  various  magnetic 
and  meteorological  investigations.  It  may  happen,  for  instance, 
that  a  variable  quantity  fit)  is  known  theoretically  to  be  of  the  form 


where  the  periods  av/oit  ^rfth* ...  of  the  various  Mmple-harmonic 
constituents  are  alieady  known  with  sufficient  accuracy,  although 
they  may  have  no  very  simple  rebtions  to  one  another.  The 
problem  of  determining  the  most  probable  values  of  the  constants 
A*.  Ai,  Bi,  At.  Bt,  ...  by  means  of  a  series  of  recorded  values  of 
the  function  f(t)  b  then  in  principle  a  fairly  simple  one,  although 
the  actual  numerical  work  may  be  laborious  (see  Tide).  A  much 
more  difficult  and  delicate  oucsiion  arises  when,  as  in  various 
questions  of  meteorology  ana  terrestrial  maenelism,  the  periods 
3r/Ki,  2wfih, .  .  .  arc  themselves  unknown  to  Begin  with,  or  are  at 
most  conjectural.  Thus,  it  may  be  desired  to  ascertain  whether 
the  magnetic  declination  contains  a  periodic  element  synchronous 
with  the  sun's  rotation  on  its  axis,  whether  any  periodicities  can 
be  detected  in  the  records  of  the  prevalence  of  sun-spots,  and  so  on. 
From  a  strictly  mathematical  standpoint  the  problem  is.  indeed, 
indeterminate,  for  when  all  the  symbols  are  at  our  disposal,  the 
representation  of  the  observed  values  of  a  function,  over  a  finite 
range  of  time,  by  means  of  a  series  of  the  type  (2),  can  be  effected 
in  an  infinite  variety  of  ways.  Plaunble  inferences  can,  however, 
be  drawn,  provided  the  proper  precautions  are  observed.    This 

tuestion  has  been  treated  most  systematically  by  Professor  A. 
chuster,  who  has  devised  a  remarkable  mathematical  method,  in 
which  the  action  of  a  diffraction-grating  in  sorting  out  the  various 
periodic  constituents  of  a  hetenweneous  beam  of  light  is  closely 
imitated.  He  has  further  applied  the  method  to  the  study  of  the 
variations  of  the  magnetic  declination,  and  of  sun-spot  records. 

The  question  so  far  chiefly  conndered  has  been  tliat  of  the  repre- 
sentation of  an  arbitrary  function  of  the  ftiNe  in  terms  of  functions 
of  a  special  type,  viz.  tne  circular  functions  cos  nl,  sin  iil.  This  is 
important  on  dynamical  grounds;  but  when  we  proceed  to  consider 
the  problem  of  expressing  an  arbitrary  function  of  space^o-firdinatet 
in  terms  of  functions  of  specified  types,  it  appears  that  the  preceding 
b  only  one  out  of  an  infinite  variety  of  modes  of  representation 
which  are  equally  entitled  to  consideration.  Every  problem  of 
mathematical  physica  which  leads  to  a  linear  differentbl  equation 
supplies  an  instance.  For  purposes  of  illustration  we  will  here 
uke  the  simplest  of  all,  viz.  that  of  the  transversal  vibrations  of  a 
tense  string.    The  equation  of  motion  b  of  the  form 


^•■^ 


where  Tb  the  tension,  and  p  the  Une-denttty. 
of  vibration  y  will  vary  as  «^*,  so  that 


C3) 
In  a  "  normal  mode 

(S) 


If  p,  and  therefore  ft,  b  conaUnt,  the  solution  of  (4)  subject  to  the 
condition  that  y 'O  for  «-o  and  x-/  b 

y-Bsinftx  (6) 

provided  ll-«r.[««i.a,3,. . .].  (7) 

Thb  determines  the  various  nmmai  moies  of  free  vibratkMi,  the  corre> 
sponding  periods  (ar/a)  being  given  by  (s)  and  (7).  By  analogy 
with  the  theory  of  the  free  vibrationa  of  a  system  of  finite  freedom 
it  is  inferred  that  the  most  ceneral  free  motions  of  the  string  can  be 
obtained  by  superposition  of  the  various  normal  modes,  with  suitable 
amplitudes  and  phases;  and  in  particular  that  any  arbitrary  initial 
form  of  the  string,  say  y  "/(x),  can  be  reproduced  by  a  series  of  the 
type 

fix)  -  B|iin^-i-B^i^+B#in^-|p ...  (8) 

So  far,  thb  b  merely  a  resUtement.  in  mathematical  language, 
of  an  argument  given  in  the  first  part  of  thb  article.  The  series  (S) 
may,  moreover,  be  arrived  at  otherwise,  as  a  particular  case  of 
Fourier's  theorem.  But  if  we  no  loanr  assume  the  density  p  of  the 
string  to  be  uniform,  we  obuin  an  endless  variety  of  new  expansions, 
corresponding  to  the  various  bws  of  density  which  may  be  pre- 
scribed.   The  normal  modes  are  in  any  case  of  the  type 


/W  -  A,-|-A|Cosiiil-i-Bi$in  iiif -I-Aicos  nW -l*Bssin  iii«-|- 


(3) 


y-CaCx)«««»  (9) 

where  «  b  a  soliition  of  the  equation 

g+'^.o.  (10) 

The  condition  that  uOt)  b  to  vanish  for  x-o  and  x«l  leads  to  a 
transcendental  cqiiation  in  n  (corresponding  to  sin  U*-o  m  the 
previous  case).  If  the  forms  of  «(x)  whkrh  correspond  to  the  vanpus 
roots  of  thb  be  distinguished  by  suffixes,  we  infer,  00  physical 
grounds  alone,  the  possibility  of  the  expansion  of  an  arbitrary 
initial  form  of  the  stnng  in  a  series 

/(x)-Ciiii(«)+Ciiii(x)+Ci«i(«)+  .  . .  (II) 

It  may  be  shbwn  further  that  If  r  and  s  are  different  we  have  the 
€imju^ate  or  trtkoicnal  rdation 


r- 


piir(y)M.(x)dx-a 


M 


958 


HARMONICHORD— HARMONIUM 


This  enables  us  to  determine  the  ooeflficients,  thus 

Cr-j]'p/(x)«,(*)rfx+J^'p|«,(x)|-iix.  (13) 

The  extension  to  spaces  of  two  or  three  dimensions,  or  to  cases 
where  there  is  more  than  one  dependent  variable,  must  be  passed 
over.  The  mathematical  theories  of  acoustics,  heat-conduction, 
elasticity,  induction  of  electric  currents,  and  so  on,  furnish  an  in- 
definite supply  of  examples,  and  have  suggested  in  some  cases 
methods  wnicn  have  a  very  wide  application.  Thus  (he  transverse 
vibrations  of  a  circular  membrane  lead  to  the  theory  of  Bcsscl's 
Functions;  the  oscillations  of  a  spherical  sheet  of  air  suggest  the 
theory  of  expansions  in  spherical  harmonics,  and  so  forth.  The 
physical,  or  intuitional,  theory  of  such  methods  has  naturally  always 
been  in  advance  of  the  mathematical.  From  the  latter  point  of 
view  only  a  few  isolated  questions  of  the  kind  had,  until  quite 
recently,  been  treated  in  a  rigorous  and  satisfactory  manner.  A 
more  gcner^  and  comprehensive  method,  which  seems  to  derive 
some  of  its  inspiration  from  physical  considerations,  has,  however, 
at  length  been  inaugurated,  and  has  been  vigorously  cultivated  in 
recent  years  by  D.  Hilbert,  H.  Poincar6,  I.  Fredholm,  E.  Picard 
and  others. 

Rbfbrekces.— Schuster's  method  for  detecting  hidden  periodi- 
cities is  explained  in  Terrestrial  Magnetism  (Chicago,  1898),  3,  p.  13: 
Camb.  Trans.  (1900),  18,  p.  I07;  Proc.  Roy.  5o<:.  (1906),  77,  p.  i;}6. 
The  general  question  of  expanding  an  arbitrary  function  in  a  series 
of  functions  of  special  types  is  treated  most  fully  from  the  physical 
point  of  view  in  Lord  Raylcigh's  Theory  of  Sound  (2nd  ed.,  London, 
1894-1896).  An  excellent  detailed  historical  account  of  the  matter 
from  the  mathematical  side  is  given  by  H.  Burkhardt,  Entwicklungen 
nach  osciUierenden  Funktionen  (Leipzig,  1901).  A  sketch  of  the 
more  recent  mathematical  developments  is  given  by  H.  Bateman, 
Proc.  Land.  Math,  Sac,  (2),  4,  p.  90,  with  copious  references. 

(H.  Lb.) 

HARMONICHORD,  an  ingenious  kind  of  upright  piano,  in 
which  the  strings  were  set  in  vibration  not  by  the  blow  of  the 
hammer  but  by  indirectly  transmitted  friction.  The  harmoni- 
cbord,  one  of  the  many  attempts  to  fuse  piano  and  violin,  was 
invented  by  Johann  Gottfried  and  Johann  Friedrich  Kaufmann 
<  (father  and  son)  in  Saxony  at  the  bc^nning  of  the  X9th  century, 
when  the  craze  for  new  and  ingenious  musical  instruments  was 
at  its  height.  The  case  was  of  the  variety  known  as  giraffe. 
The  space  under  the  keyboard  was  enclosed,  a  knee-hold  being 
left  in  which  were  two  pedals  used  to  set  in  rotation  a  large 
wooden  cylinder  fixed  just  behind  the  keyboard  over  the  levers, 
and  covered  with  a  roll-top  similar  to  those  of  modern  office 
desks.  The  c>'linder  (in  some  specimens  covered  with  chamois 
leather)  tapered  towards  the  treble-end.  When  a  key  was 
depressed,  a  little  tongue  of  wood,  one  end  of  which  stopped  the 
string,  was  pressed  against  the  revolving  cylinder,  and  the 
vibrations  produced  by  friction  were  transmitted  to  the  string 
and  reinforced  as  in  piano  and  violin  by  the  soundboard.  The 
adjustment  of  the  parts  and  the  velocity  of  the  cylinder  required 
delicacy  and  great  nicety,  for  if  the  little  wooden  tongues  rested 
too  lightly  upon  the  cylinder  or  the  strings,  harmonics  were 
produced,  and  the  note  jumped  to  the  octave  or  twelfth.  Some- 
times when  chords  were  played  the  touch  became  so  heavy  that 
two  performers  were  required,  as  in  the  early  medieval  organ- 
istrum,  the  prototype  of  the  harmonichord.  Carl  Maria  von 
Weber  must  have  had  some  opinion  of  the  possibilities  of  the 
harmonichord,  which  in  tone  resembled  the  glass  harmonica, 
since  he  composed  for  it  &  concerto  with  orchestral  accom- 
paniment. (K.  S.) 

HARMONIUM  (Fr.  harmonium,  orgue  expressif;  Ger.  Pkys- 
harmonika,  Harmonium),  a  wind  keyboard  instrument,  a  small 
organ  without  pipes,  furnished  with  free  reeds.  Both  the 
harmonium  and  its  later  development,  the  American  organ  are 
known  as  free-reed  instruments,  the  musical  tones  being  produced 
by  tongues  of  brass,  technically  termed  "  vibrators "  (Fr. 
anche  libre;  Ger.  durckschlagende  Zunge;  Ital.  ancia  or  lingua 
libera).  The  vibrator  is  fixed  over  an  oblong,  rectangular  frame, 
through  which  it  swings  freely  backwards  and  forwards  like  a 
pendulum  while  vibrating,  whereas  the  beating  reeds  (similar  to 
those  of  the  clarinet  family),  used  in  church  organs,  cover  the 
entire  orifice,  beating  against  the  sides  at  each  vibration.  A 
reed  or  vibrator,  set  in  periodic  motion  by  impact  of  a  current 
of  air,  produces  a  corresponding  succession  of  air  puffs,  the 


complete 


:,  and  a  simple  action  controOiflg  the 


rapidity  of  which  determines  the  pitch  of  the 
There  is  an  essential  difference  between  the  harmonittm  and  the 
American  organ  in  the  direction  of  this  current;  in  the  former 
the  wind  apparatus  forces  the  current  upwards,  and  in  the  latter 
sucks  it  downwards,  whence  it  becomes  desirable  to  separate  in 
description  these  varieties  of  free-recd  instruments. 

The  harmonium  has  a  keyboard  of  five  ocuves  compass  vfaea 

valves,  ftc.  The  necessary  pressure  of  wind  is  generated  by  bellows 
worked  by  the  feet  of  the  performer  upon  foot-boards  or  treadles. 
The  air  is  thus  forced  up  the  wind-trunks  int/o  an  air-chamber 
called  the  wind-chest,  the  pressure  of  it  beic^  equalised  by  a 
reservoir,  which  receives  the  excess  of  wind  through  an  apertuie, 
and  permits  escape,  when  above  a  certain  pressure,  by  a  dtschaige 
valve  or  pallet.  The  aperture  admitting  air  to  thie  reservoir  may 
be  closed  by  a  drawstop  named  "  expression."  The  air  being  thus 
cut  off,  the  performer  depends  for  his  supply  entirely  upon  the 
management  of  the  bellows  worked  by'  the  treadles,  wfaera>y  he 
regulates  the  compression  of  the  wind.  The  character  of  the'  in- 
strument is  then  entirely  changed  from  a  mechanical  response  to 
the  player's  touch  to  an  expressive  one,  rendering  what  emotioa 
may  be  communicated  from  the  player  by  increase  or  diminution  of 
sound  through  the  greater  or  less  pressure  of  wind  to  whidt  the 
reeds  may  be  submittal.  The  drawstops  bearing  the  names  of  the 
different  registers  in  imitation  of  the  organ,  admit,  when  drawn,  the 
wind  from  the  urind-chest  to  the  corresponding  reisd  compaxtmcnta, 
shutting  them  off  when  closed.  These  com- 
partments are  of  about  two  octaves  and  a  half 
each,  there  being  a  division  in  the  middle  of 
the  keyboard  scale  dividing  the  stops  into 
bass  and  treble.  A  stop  being  drawn  and  a 
key  pressed  down,  wind  a  admitted  by  a 
corresponding  valve  to  a  reed  or  vibrator 
(fig.  i).  Above  each  reed  in  the  so-called 
sound-board  or  pan  is  a  channel,  a  small  air- 
chamber  or  cavity,  the  shape  and  capacity  of 
which  have  greatly  to  do  with  the  colour  of 
tone  of  the  note  it  reinforces.  The  air  in  this 
resonator  is  highly  compressed  at  an  even  or 
a  varying  pressure  as  the  expresaion-stop  nuy 
not  be  or  may  be  drawn.  The  wind  finally 
esca(>es  by  a  small  pallet-hole  opened  t^ 
presNng  down  the  corresponding  key.  In 
Mustel  and  other  good  harmoniums,  the  reed 
compartments  that  form  the  scheme  of  the 
instrument  are  eight  in  number,  four  bass 
and  four  treble,  of  three  different  pitches  of 
octave  and  double  octave  distance.  The  front 
bass  and  treble  rows  are  the  "  diapason  "  of 

the  pitch  known  as  8'  ft.,  and  the  bourdon      ^ 

(double  diapason),  16  ft.  These  may  be* Co. 
regarded  as  the  foundation  stops,  ana  are  Fig.i. — ^FreeReed 
technically  the  front  organ.  The  back  organ  has  Vibrator,  Alexandre 
solo  and  combination  stops,  the  princioal  of  4  Harmoniam. 
ft.  (octave  higher  than  diapason),  and  oassoon 
(bass)  and  oboe  (treble),  8  it.  These  may  be  mechanically  combiaco 
by  a  stop  called  lull  organ.  The  French  maker^  Mustel,  added  other 
registers  for  much-admired  effects  of  tone,  viz.  "  harpe  ^oliennc." 
two  bass  rows  of  3  ft.  pitch,  the  one  tuned  a  beat  too  sharp,  the 
other  a  beat  too  flat,  to  produce  a  waving  tremulous  tone  that  has 
a  certain  charm;  "musette"  and  "voix  celeste,"  16  ft:  and 
"  l»ryton,"  a  treble  stop  32  ft.,  or  two  octaves  lower  than  the 
normal  note  of  the  key.  The  "  back  organ*'  Is  usually  covered  by 
a  swell  box,  containing  k>uvres  or  shutters  similar  to  a  Venetian 
blind,  and  divided  into  fortes  corresponding  with  the  baas  and 
treble  division  of  the  registers.  The  fortes  are  governed  by  knee 
pedals  which  act  by  pneumatic  pressure.  Tuning  the  reeds  is 
effected  by  scraping  them  at  the  point  to  sharpen  them,  or  near  the 
shoulder  or  heel  to  flatten  them  in  |Mtch.     Air  pressure  affects  the 

Eitch  but  slightly,  being  noticeaUe  only  in  the  larger  reeds,  and 
armoniums  long  retain  their  tuning,  a  decided  advantage  over  the 
organ  and  the  pianoforte.  Mechanical  contrivances  in  the  har- 
monium, of  frequent  or  occasional  employment,  besides  those 
already,  referred  to,  are  the  "  percussion,"  a  small  pianoforte  action 
of  hammer  and  escapement  which,  acting  upon  the  reeds  of  the 
diapason  rows  at  the  moment  air  is  admitted  to  them,  gives  prompter 
response  to  the  depression  of  the  key,  or  qukrkcr  speech:  the 
"  double  expression,''  a  pneumatic  balance  of  jgrcat  delicacy  in  the 
wind  reservoir,  exactly  maintaining  by  gradation  equal  prosure  ctf 
the  wind;  and  the  ^'double  touch,'^  bv  whkh  the  back  organ 
registers  speak  sooner  than  those  of  the  front  that  are  called  upon 
by  deeper  pressure  of  the  tey.  thus  altowing  prominence  or  accentua- 
tion of  certain  parts  by  an  expert  performer.  **■  Ptaloflgement  '* 
permits  selected  notes  to  be  iustaaned  after  the  fagen  hKv%  qoittcd 


HARMONIL... 


959 


their  keyt.  Dawes's  "  melody  attachment  "  is  to  give  prominence 
to  an  air  or  treble  part  by  shutting' off  in  certain  r^^isters  all  notes 
below  it.  This  notion  has  been  adapted  by  inversion  to  a  "  pedal 
substitute  "  to  strengthen  the  lowest  bass  notes.  The  "  tremolo  '' 
affects  the  wind  in  the  vicinity  of  the  reeds  by  means  of  small  bellows 
which  increase  the  velocity  of  the  pulsation  according  to  pressure; 
and  the  "  sourdine  "  diminishes  the  supply  of  wind  by  controlling 
its  admission  to  the  reeds. 

The  American  Organ  acts  by  wind  exhaustion.  A  vacuum  is 
practically  created  in  the  air<hamber  by  the  cxhaurting  power  of 
the  footboards,  and  a  current  of  air  thus  drawn  downwards  passes 
through  any  reeds  that  are  left  open,  setting  them  in  vibration. 
This  instrument  has  therefore  exhaOst  instead  of  force  bellows. 
Valves  in  the  board  above  the  air-chamber  give  communication  to 
reeds  (fig.  s)  made  more  slender  than  those  of  the  harmonium  and 

more  or  less  bent,  while  the  frames  in  which 
they  are  fixed  are  also  differentljr  shaped, 
being  hollowed  rather  in  spoon  fashion.  The 
channels,  the  resonators  above  the  reeds,  are 
not  varied  in  size  or  shape  as  in  the  har- 
monium; they  exactly  correspond  with  the 
reeds,  and  are  collectively  known  as  the  "  tube- 
board."  The  swell  "  fortes  "  are  in  front  of 
the  openings  of  these  tubes,  rails  that  open 
or  close  by  the  action  of  the  knees  upon  what 
may  be  called  knee  pedals.  The  American 
organ  has  a  softer  tone  than  the  harmonium; 
thts  is  sometimes  aided  by  the  use  of  extra 
resonators,  termed  pipes  or  qualifving  tubes, 
as,  for  instance,  in  Clough  a.  Warren's  (of 
Detroit,  Michnan,  U.S.).  The  blowing  being 
also  eaner,  ladies  find  it  much  less  fatiguing. 
The  expression  stop  can  have  little  power  in 
the  American  organ,  and  is  generally  absent; 
the  "  automatic  swell "  in  the  instruments 
of  Mason  &  Hamlin  (of  Boston.  U.S.)  is  a 

_         contrivance   that   comes  the   nearest   to   it, 

BvanrtMvtf  ilctdtf  thougfh  far  inferior.  By  it  a  swell  shutter  or 
&  Cn/^^  rail  is  kept  in  constant  movement,  proportioned 

p,Q  2 ^FreeReed  ^^  ^^  ^^^'^  ^  '^  air^currcnt.    Another  very 

Vibrator,  Mason  &  clever  improvement  introduced  by  .  these 
Hamlin  Amerkan  rM^^cn,  who  were  the  ongmators  of  the  instru- 
Qrnn.  "^^^  i'*^^^>  **  ^^     ^^^  humana,"  a  smaller 

rail  or  fan,  made  to  revolve  rapidly  by 
wind  pressure;  its  rotation,  disturbing  the 
air  near  the  reeds,  causes  interferences  of  vibration  that  produce 
a  tremulous  effect,  not  unlike  the  beatings  heard  from  combined 
voices,  whence  the  name.  The  arrangement  of  reed  compartments 
in  American  organs  does  not  essentially  differ  from  that  of  har- 
moniums; but  therff  are  often  two  keyboards,  and  then  the  sok> 
and  combination  stops  are  found  on  the  upper  manual.  The 
diapason  treble  register  is  known  as  "  melodia  *';  different  makers 
occasionally  vary  the  use  of  fancy  names  for  other  stops.  The 
"  sub-bass.^'  however,  an  octave  of  i6  ft.  pitch  and  always  apart 
from  the  other  reeds,  is  used  with  great  advanUge  for  pedal  effects 
on  the  manual,  the  compass  of  American  organs  being  usually  down 
to  F  (FF,  5  octaves).  In  large  instruments  there  are  sometimes  foot 
pedals  as  in  an  organ,  with  their  own  reed  boxes  of  8  and  i6  ft., 
the  k)west  note  being  then  CC.  Blowing  for  pedal  instruments 
has  to  be  done  by  hand,  a  k>ver  being  attached  for  that  purpose. 
The  "  celeste  "  stop  u  managed  as  in  the  harmonium,  by  rows  of 
reeds  tuned  not  quite  in  unison,  or  by  a  shade  valve  that  alters  the 
air-current  and  flattens  one  row  of  reeds  thereby. 

Harmoniums  and  American  organs  are  the  result  of  many  experi- 
ments in  the  applkation  of  free  reeds  to  keyboard  instruments.  The 
principle  of  the  free  reed  became  widely  known  in  Europe  through 
the  introduction  of  the  Chinese  cheng  *  during  the  second  half  of 
the  i8th  century,  and  culminated  in  the  invention  of  the  harmonium 
and  kindred  instruments.  The  first  step  in  the  invention  of  the 
harmonium  is  due  to  Professor  Christian  Gottlieb  Kratzenstein  of 
Copenhagen,  who  had  had  the  opportunity  of  examining  a  cheng 
sent  to  nis  native  city  and  of  testing  its  merits.'  In  1779  the 
Academy  of  Science  01  St  Petersburg  had  offered  a  prize  lor  an 
essay  on  the  formation  of  the  vowel  sounds  on  an  instrument  simibr 
to  the  "  vox  humana  "  in  the  organ,  which  should  be  capable  of 
repfxxlucing  these  sounds  faithfully.  Kratzenstein  made  as  a 
demonstration  of  his  invention  a  small  pneumatic  organ  fitted  with 
free  reeds,  and  presented  it  to  the  Academy  of  St  Petersburg.*  His 
essay  was  crowned  and  was  republished  with  diagrams  in  Paris  *  in 

'See  AUg.  musik,  Ztt.  (Leipzig,  1831).  Bd.  xxiiL  pp.  369^374- 
The  cheng  was  made  known  in  France  by  P^  Amiot,  who  published 
a  careful  description  of  the  instrument  in  Mimoire  sur  la  musique 
des  Ckinois,  p.  80  seq..  with  excellent  diagrams. 

*Ib.,  Bd.  XXV.  p.  152. 

■  The  essay  was  published  in  Acta  Acad.  Petrop.  (1780). 

*  "  Esaai  sur,  la  naissance  et  sur  la  formation  des  voyelles  "  in 
Rozier's  Observaiwm  sur  la  physique  (Paris.  1782),  Suppiiment, 
xxi.  358  seq..  with  two  plates.  The  description  of  the  iostrument 
begins  00  p.  374,  f  xxii. 


1783.  Meanwhile,  in  1780,  a  cxMintryman  of  Kratseoitein's,  an 
organ-builder  named  Kirsnick.  established  In  St  Petersburg,  adapted 
these  reed  pipes  to  some  of  his  organs  and  to  an  instrument  of  his 
invention  called  organochordium,  an  organ  combined  with  piano. 
When  Abt  Vogler  visited  St  Petersburg  in  1788,  he  was  so  delighted 
with  these  reeds  that  in  1790  he  induced  Rackwitz,  an  assistant 
of  Kirsnick's,  to  come  to  him  and  adapt  some  to  an  oraan  he 
was  having  built  in  Rotterdam.  Three  years  bter  Abt  Vogler's 
orchestrion,  a  chamber  onran  containing  some  900  pipes,  was  com- 
pleted, and,  according  to  Kackwiu,*  was  fitted  with  free-reed  pipes. 
Vogler  himself,  however,  does  not  mention  the  free  reed  wnen 
describing  this  wonderful  instrument  and  his  system  of  "  simplifi- 
cation "  lor  church  organs.*  To  Abt  Voeler,  who  travelled  all  over 
Germany,  Scandinavia  and  the  Netherlands,  exhibiting  his  skill 
on  hb  orchestrion  and  reconstructing  many  organs,  as  due  the  credit 
of  making  Kratzenstein's  invention  known  and  inducing  the  musical 
world  to  appreciate  the  capabilities  of  the  free  reed.  The  intro- 
duction of  iree-reed  stops  into  the  organ,  however,  took  a  secondary 
place  in  his  scheme  for  reform.'  Fricdrich  Kaufmann  *  of  Dresden 
states  that  Vogler  told  him  he  had  imparted  to  I.  N.  Milzel  of  Vienna 

eirticulars  as  to  the  construction  of  free-reed  pipes,  and  that  the 
tter  used  them  in  his  panharmonicon,*  which  oe  exhibited  during 
his  stay  in  Paris  from  i8o|^  to  1807.  Kaufmann  sugeests  that  it  was 
through  him  that  G.  I.  Greni6  obtained  the  knowledge  whkh  led 
to  his  experiments  with  free  reeds  in  organs.  It  is  more  likely  that 
Greni6  had  read  Kratzenstein's  essay  and  had  experimented  in- 
dependently with  free  reeds.  In  181 2  Us  first  arpu  expressij  m-as 
finished.  It  was  a  small  orran  with  one  register  oL  free  reed»— the 
expresMon  stop,  in  fact,  added  to  the  pipe  organ  and  having  a 
separate  wind-chest  and  bellows.  It  would  seem  from  his  description 
of  the  orchestrion  in  Data  stir  Akustik  that  Vogler  knew  of  no  such 
device.  He  used  the  swell  shutter  borrowed  from  England  and  a 
threefold  screen  of  canvas  covered  with  a  blanket  arranged  autsida 
the  instrument,  neither  of  which  b  capable  of  increasing  the  volume 
of  sound  from  the  organ,  or  at  least  only  after  having  first  damped 
the  sound  to  a  pianissimo.  Vogler  explains  minutely  the  apparatus 
used  to  conceal  the  working  of  the  screen  from  the  eyes  of  the 
public."  The  credit  of  discovering  in  the  free  reed  the  capability 
of  dyiumic  expression  was  undoubtedly  due  to  Greni^,  although  Am 
Vogler  claims  to  have  used  compression  in  1796,"  and  Kaufmann  in 
his  choraulodion  in  1816.  A  larger  or^ut  expressij  was  begun  by 
Greni6  for  the  Conservatoire  of  Paris  in  1812,  the  constnictkm  of 
which  was  interrupted  and  then  continued  in  1816.  Descriptions 
of  Greni^'s  instrument  have  be«i  published  in  French  and  German.'* 
The  organ  of  the  Conservatoire  had  a  pedal  free-reed  stop  of  16  f t , 
with  vibrators  0*240  m.  long.  0-035  m.  wide,  and  0*003  m.  thick." 
Two  compressors,  one  for  the  treble  and  the  other  lor  the  bass, 
worked  by  treadfes,  enabled  the  performer  to  regulate  the  pressure 
of  wind  on  the  reeds  and  therefore  to  obtain  the  gradations  of  forte 
and  piano  which  gained  lor  his  instrument  the  name  of  orpu  ex- 
presstf.  Grenid's  instrument  was  a  pipe  organ,  the  pipes  terminating 
in  a  cone-  with  a  hemispherical  cap  in  the  top  of  which  was  a  small 
hole.  There  were  eight  registers  including  the  pedal,  and  the 
positive  on  the  first   keybmrd  had  reed  stops  furnished  with 

*See  "  Ober  die  Erfindung  der  Rohrwerke  mit  durehachlagenden 
2ungcn,"  by  Wilke.  in  AUg.  musik.  Zlg.  (Leipzig.  182^),  Bd.  xxv. 
pp.  1 52- 1  S3  and  Bd.  xxvii.  p.  263;  also  Thos.  Ant.  Kunz,  "  Or- 
chestrion,*^ f(f.,  Bd.  i.  p.  88  and  Bd.  ii.  pp.  514,  54^;  and  Dr 
Kari  Emil  von  SchafhJUitl.  AU  Georg  Jqsepk  VogUr  (Augsburg, 
1888).  p.  37. 

*  uaia  Eur  Akustik,  eine  AMiandlung  vorgelesen  bey  der  SilMsmg  der 
naturforsckenden  Freunde  in  Berlin,    den    tsten    Detember    tSoo 


(Offenbach,  1801);  also  published  in  AUg.  musik.  Ztg.  (1801). 
Bd.  iii.  pp.  517.  533.  565.  See  also  an  excellent  article  by  the 
Rev.  J.  FI.  Mee  on  Vogler  in  Grove's  Dieiianary  ej  Mnsic  and 
Musicians. 

'See  Data  tur  Akustik,  and  a  pamphlet  by  Vogler.  "  Uber  die 
Umschaffung  der  St  Marien  Orgel  in  Berlin  nach  dcm  Vogterschen 
Simplifikat Ions-System,  eine  Nachahmung  des  Orchestrion " 
(Berlin);  also  "  Kurze  Beschretbung  der  in  oer  Stadtpfarrkirche  zu 
St  Peter  zu  Mttnchen  nach  dem  Vo^erschen  Simf^ifikations-System 
neuerbauten  Orgel  "  (Munich,  180^. 

*See  Alli.  musik.  Ztg.  (1823),  Bd.  xxv.  pp.  153  and  154  note, 
and  1 17-118  note. 

*  A  acflcription  of  Mftlzel's  panharmonicon  before  the  addition  of 
the  clarinet  and  oboe  itops  with  free  reeds  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Allf.  musik.  Ztg.  (1800),  Bd.  ii.  pp.  4M-4'5> 

''In  the  article  in  Grove's  Dtctumary  the  screen  is  said  to  have 
been  in  the  wind-trunk. 

"  See  AU%.  musik.  Ztg.  Bd.  iii.  p.  523* 

**See  I.  B.  Biot.  Prtcis  iUmentatre  de  pkysiaue  expMmentaU 
(Paris,  1817),  tome  i.  p.  386.  and  his  Traiti  de  pkystque  (Paris.  1816). 
tome  ii.  p.  173  et  seq.,  nl.  ii.;  "  Uber  die  Crescendo  und  Diminuendo 
ZQge  an  (>rgeln."  by  Wilke  and  Kaufmann,  AUg.  musik.  Ztg-  (1823). 
Bd,  xxv.  pp.  113-122;  and  AUg.  musik.  Ztp  Bd.  xxiil.  pp.  13V 
139  and  149-154.  with  diagrams  on  p.  167  which  are  not  abalDlutely 
correct  in  small  details. 

u  J.  B.  BkM.  TrmH,  tome  ii.  p.  174- 


960 


^VJ«ARMONIUM 


beating  reeds.  Biot  insists  .on  tlie  importance  of  the  regulating 
wires  (Fr.  rasetUs:  Ger.  KriUken)  for  determining  the  vibrating 
length  of  the  reed  tongue  and  maintaining  it  invariable.  These 
are  clearly  shown  in  his  diagram  (see  article  Free  Reed  Vibrator, 
fig.  i);  tliev  do  not  essentially  differ  from  those  used  with  the 
beating-reed  stops  in  his  organ  (fig.  76,  pi.  II.),  or  tadttd  from  those 
figured  by  Praetorius. 

Isolated  specimens  of  the  cheng  must  have  found  their  way  to 
Europe  during  the  15th  and  i6th  centuries,  for  Mersenne*  depicts 
part  of  one  showing  the  free  reed.  It  would  seem  that  still  earlier 
m  the  17th  century  there  was  an  organ  in  a  monastery  in  Hesse 
with  free  reeds  for  the  Posaune  stop,  for  Praetorius  gives  a  description 
of  the  "extraordinary"  reed  (p.  169);  there  is  no  record. 01  the 
inventor  in  this  case. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century  various  tentative  efforts 
in  France  and  Germany,  and  subscquenti)r  in  England,  were  made 
to  produce  new  keyboard  instruments  with  free  reeds,  the  most 
notable  of  these  being  the  physharmonica  *  of  Anton  H&ckel, 
invented  in  Vienna  in  1818,  which,  improved  and  enlarged,  has 
retained  its  hold  on  the  German  people.  The  modem  physharmonica 
is  a  harmonium  without  stops  or  percussion  action;  it  does  not 
therefore  speak  readily  or  clearly.  It  has  a  range  of  five  to  six 
octaves.    Other  instruments  of  similar  type  are  the  French  melo- 

Ehone  and  the  English  seraphine,  a  keyboard  harmonica  with 
ellows  but  no  channels  for  the  tongues,  for  which  a  patent  was 
granted  to  Myers  and  Storer  in  1839;  the  aeoline  or  aeiodicon  '  of 
bschenbach;  the  melodicon  *  of  DieU;  the  melodica  *  of  Rieffelson; 

^  RarmamU  unitersdle  (Paris,  1636),  livre  v.,  prop.  xxxv. 

*  Wien.  musik,  Ztg.  Bd.  v.  Nos.  30  and  87. 

*  AUg.  miuik.  Zig.  Bd.  xxii.  p.  505,  and  fid.  xxxv.  p.  354. 

*  Id.  Bd.  viii.  pp.  526  and  715. 

*  Id.  Bd.  xL  p.  625. 


the  apotbnicon:*  the  new  cheng  ^  of  Reichstein;  the  terpodioe  • 
of  Buschmann,  &c    None  of  thne  has  survived  to  the  present  day. 

The  inventor  of  the  harmonium  was  indubitably  Alexandre 
Debain,  who  took  out  a  patent  for  it  in  Paris  in  1840.  He  produce*^ 
varied  timbre  roisters  by  modifying  reed  channels,  and  braoght 
these  registers  on  to  one  keyboard.  Unfortunatdy  he  patented 
too  much,  for  he  secured  even  the  name  karmeuimmt  6bligiag  coa- 
temporary  and  future  experimenters  to  shelter  their  improvements 
under  other  names,  and  the  venerable  name  of  organ  becoming 
impressed  into  connexion  with  an  inferior  instrument,  we  have  now 
to  distinguish  between  reed  and  pipe  organs.  The  oompRnniae  of 
reed  organ  for  the  harmonium  class  of  instruments  roust  therefore 
be  accepted.  Debain's  harmonium  was  at  first  quite  mechanical; 
it  gained  expression  by  the  expression-st<K>  already  described.  The 
Alexandres,  well-known  Frrach  makers,  oy  the  ingenuity  of  one  o£ 
their  workmen,  P.  A.  Martin,  aulded  the  percussion  and  the  jpn>- 
longement.  The  melody  attachment  was  the  invention  ol  an 
English  engineer;  the  introduction  of  the  double  touch,  now  used 
in  the  harmoniums  of  Mustel,  Bauer  and  othersK-also  in  American 
ornins — ^was  due  to'Tamplin,  an  English  professor. 

The  principle  of  the  American  organ  originated  with  the  Alex- 
andres, whose  earliest  experiments  are  said  to  have  been  made  with 
the^  view  of  constructing  an  instrument  to  exhaust  air.  The  reali- 
zation of  the  idea  proving  to  be  more  in  consonance  with  the  genius 
of  the  American  people,  to  whom  what  we  may  call  the  devotional 
tone  of  the  instrument  appealed,  the  introduction  of  it  by  Mcssra 
Mason  and  Hamlin  in  1801  was  followed  by  remarkable  taocna. 
They  made  it  generally  known  in  Europe  by  exhibiting  it  at  Fsria 
in  1 867,  and  from  that  time  instruments  nave  been  expcwted  in  large 
numbers  by  different  makers.  (A.  J.  H.;  K.  S.) 

•  AUg.  musik.  Ztg.  Bd.  u.  p.  767,  and  Witn,  musik.  Zig.  Bd.  L  No.  501. 

'  Id.  Bd.  xxxi.  p.  489. 

■  Id.  Bd.  xxxiv.  pp.  856  and  858;  *nd  CSciIm,  Bd.  ziv.  p.  2^ 


BND    or    TWELFTH    VOI^JMB 


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AMD  k.  %.  BONNSUBV  *   lOMt  COMPAMV.   CMICAOO. 


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